{"src_title": "Anna Seghers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born Anna (Netty) Reiling in Mainz in 1900 into a Jewish family, her father was a dealer in antiques and cultural artefacts. She married László Radványi, also known as Johann Lorenz Schmidt, a Hungarian Communist in 1925, thereby acquiring Hungarian citizenship.  In Cologne and Heidelberg she studied history, the history of art and Chinese. She joined the Communist Party of Germany in 1928, at a time when the Weimar Republic was moribund and soon to be replaced. Her 1932 novel, \"Die Gefährten\" was a prophetic warning of the dangers of Nazism, which led to her being arrested by the Gestapo. In 1932, she also formally left the Jewish community. By 1934 she had emigrated, via Zurich, to Paris. After German troops invaded the French Third Republic in 1940, she fled to Marseilles and one year later to Mexico, where she founded the anti-fascist 'Heinrich-Heine-Klub', named after the German Jewish poet Heinrich Heine, and founded \"Freies Deutschland\" (\"Free Germany\"), an academic journal. While still in Paris, in 1939, she had written \"The Seventh Cross\", for which she received the Büchner-Prize in 1947. The novel is set in 1936 and describes the escape of seven prisoners from a concentration camp. It was published in the United States in 1942 and produced as a movie in 1944 by MGM starring Spencer Tracy. \"The Seventh Cross\" was one of the very few depictions of Nazi concentration camps, in either literature or the cinema, during World War II.  Seghers's best-known story, \"The Outing of the Dead Girls\" (1946), written in Mexico, was an autobiographical reminiscence of a pre-World War I class excursion on the Rhine river in which the actions of the protagonist's classmates are seen in light of their decisions and ultimate fates during both world wars. In describing them, the German countryside, and her soon-to-be destroyed hometown Mainz, Seghers gives the reader a strong sense of lost innocence and the senseless injustices of war, from which there proves to be no escape, whether or not you sympathized with the NSDAP. Other notable Seghers stories include \"Sagen von Artemis\" (1938) and \"The Ship of the Argonauts\" (1953), both based on myths.  In 1947, Seghers returned to Germany, moved to West Berlin, and became a member of the SED in the zone occupied by the Soviets and received Georg Büchner Prize in the same year. In 1950, she moved to East Berlin and became a co-founder of the Academy of the Arts of the GDR and became a member of World Peace Council. In 1951, she received the first Nationalpreis der DDR, the Stalin Peace Prize also in 1951, and an honorary doctorate by the University of Jena in 1959. Seghers was nominated for the 1967 Nobel Prize in Literature by the German Academy of Arts. In 1981, she became honorary citizen of her native town Mainz. She died in Berlin on 1 June 1983.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trivia.", "content": "Anna Seghers is mentioned in the ostalgie film, \"Good Bye Lenin!\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected works.", "content": "Anna Seghers' earlier works are typically attributed to the New Objectivity movement. She also made a number of important contributions to Exilliteratur, including her novels \"Transit\" and \"The Seventh Cross\". Her later novels, published in the GDR, are often associated with Social Realism. A number of her novels have been adapted into films in Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna Seghers (; 19 November 1900 – 1 June 1983) was a German writer famous for depicting the moral experience of the Second World War. After living in Mexico City (1941–47) and West Berlin (1947-50), Anna Seghers eventually settled in the GDR. The pseudonym Anna Seghers was apparently based on the surname of the Dutch painter and printmaker Hercules Pieterszoon Seghers or Segers (c. 1589 – c. 1638).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970906}
{"src_title": "Opposite (semantics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "General discussion.", "content": "Opposition is a semantic relation in which one word has a sense or meaning that negates or is, in the sense of scale, distant from a related word. Other words are capable of being opposed, but the language in question has an accidental gap in its lexicon. For example, the word \"devout\" lacks a lexical opposite, but it is fairly easy to conceptualize a parameter of devoutness where \"devout\" lies at the positive pole with a missing member at the negative pole. Opposites of such words can nevertheless sometimes be formed with the prefixes \"un-\" or \"non-\", with varying degrees of naturalness. For example, the word \"undevout\" appears in Webster's dictionary of 1828, while the pattern of \"non-person\" could conceivably be extended to \"non-platypus\". Conversely, some words appear to be a prefixed form of an opposite, but the opposite term does not exist, such as \"inept,\" which appears to be \"in-\" + *\"ept;\" such a word is known as an unpaired word.  Opposites may be viewed as a special type of incompatibility. Words that are incompatible create the following type of entailment (where \"X\" is a given word and \"Y\" is a different word incompatible with word X):  An example of an incompatible pair of words is \"cat : dog\":  This incompatibility is also found in the opposite pairs \"fast : slow\" and \"stationary : moving\", as can be seen below:  \"It's fast\" entails \"It's not slow\"  Cruse (2004) identifies some basic characteristics of opposites:  Some planned languages abundantly use such devices to reduce vocabulary multiplication. Esperanto has \"mal-\" (compare \"bona\" = \"good\" and \"malbona\" = \"bad\"), Damin has \"kuri-\" (\"tjitjuu\" \"small\", \"kuritjitjuu\" \"large\") and Newspeak has \"un-\" (as in \"ungood\", \"bad\").  Some classes of opposites include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Boon.", "content": "An antonym is one of a pair of words with opposite meanings. Each word in the pair is the antithesis of the other. A word may have more than one antonym.  There are three categories of antonyms identified by the nature of the relationship between the opposed meanings. Where the two words have definitions that lie on a continuous spectrum of meaning, they are gradable antonyms. Where the meanings do not lie on a continuous spectrum and the words have no other lexical relationship, they are complementary antonyms. Where the two meanings are opposite only within the context of their relationship, they are relational antonyms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gradable antonyms.", "content": "A gradable antonym is one of a pair of words with opposite meanings where the two meanings lie on a continuous spectrum. Temperature is such a continuous spectrum so \"hot\" and \"cold\", two meanings on opposite ends of the spectrum, are gradable antonyms. Other examples include: \"heavy\" : \"light\", \"fat\" : \"skinny\", \"dark\" : \"light\", \"young\" : \"old\", \"early\" : \"late\", \"empty\" : \"full\", \"dull\" : \"interesting\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complementary antonyms.", "content": "A complementary antonym, sometimes called a binary or contradictory antonym (Aarts, Chalker & Weiner 2014), is one of a pair of words with opposite meanings, where the two meanings do not lie on a continuous spectrum. There is no continuous spectrum between \"odd\" and \"even\" but they are opposite in meaning and are therefore complementary antonyms. Other examples include: \"mortal\" : \"immortal\", \"exit\" : \"entrance\", \"exhale\" : \"inhale\", \"occupied\" : \"vacant\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relational antonyms.", "content": "A relational antonym is one of a pair of words that refer to a relationship from opposite points of view. There is no lexical opposite of \"teacher\", but \"teacher\" and \"pupil\" are opposite within the context of their relationship. This makes them relational antonyms. Other examples include: \"doctor\" : \"patient\", \"predator\" : \"prey\", \"teach\" : \"learn\", \"servant\" : \"master\", \"come\" : \"go\", \"parent\" : \"child\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Auto-antonyms.", "content": "An auto-antonym is a word that can have opposite meanings in different contexts or under separate definitions:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In lexical semantics, opposites are words lying in an inherently incompatible binary relationship. For example, something that is \"long\" entails that it is not \"short\". It is referred to as a 'binary' relationship because there are two members in a set of opposites. The relationship between opposites is known as opposition. A member of a pair of opposites can generally be determined by the question \"What is the opposite of X?\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970907}
{"src_title": "André-Marie Ampère", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "André-Marie Ampère was born on 20 January 1775 to Jean-Jacques Ampère a prosperous businessman, and Jeanne Antoinette Desutières-Sarcey Ampère, during the height of the French Enlightenment. He spent his childhood and adolescence at the family property at Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'Or near Lyon. Jean-Jacques Ampère, a successful merchant, was an admirer of the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose theories of education (as outlined in his treatise Émile) were the basis of Ampère's education. Rousseau believed that young boys should avoid formal schooling and pursue instead an \"education direct from nature.\" Ampère's father actualized this ideal by allowing his son to educate himself within the walls of his well-stocked library. French Enlightenment masterpieces such as Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon's \"Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière\" (begun in 1749) and Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's \"Encyclopédie\" (volumes added between 1751 and 1772) thus became Ampère's schoolmasters. The young Ampère, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, which enabled him to master the works of Leonhard Euler and Daniel Bernoulli.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French Revolution.", "content": "In addition, Ampère used his access to the latest books to begin teaching himself advanced mathematics at age 12. In later life Ampère claimed that he knew as much about, mathematics and science when he was eighteen as ever he knew; but, a polymath, his reading embraced history, travels, poetry, philosophy, and the natural sciences. His mother was a devout woman, so Ampère was also initiated into the Catholic faith along with Enlightenment science. The French Revolution (1789–99) that began during his youth was also influential: Ampère's father was called into public service by the new revolutionary government, becoming a justice of the peace in a small town near Lyon. When the Jacobin faction seized control of the Revolutionary government in 1792, his father Jean-Jacques Ampère resisted the new political tides, and he was guillotined on 24 November 1793, as part of the Jacobin purges of the period.  In 1796 Ampère met Julie Carron, and in 1799 they were married. André-Marie Ampère took his first regular job in 1799 as a mathematics teacher, which gave him the financial security to marry Carron and father his first child, Jean-Jacques (named after his father), the next year. (Jean-Jacques Ampère eventually achieved his own fame as a scholar of languages.) Ampère's maturation corresponded with the transition to the Napoleonic regime in France, and the young father and teacher found new opportunities for success within the technocratic structures favoured by the new French First Consul. In 1802 Ampère was appointed a professor of physics and chemistry at the École Centrale in Bourg-en-Bresse, leaving his ailing wife and infant son Jean-Jacques Antoine Ampère in Lyon. He used his time in Bourg to research mathematics, producing \"Considérations sur la théorie mathématique de jeu\" (1802; \"Considerations on the Mathematical Theory of Games\"), a treatise on mathematical probability that he sent to the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1803.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teaching career.", "content": "After the death of his wife in July 1803, Ampère moved to Paris, where he began a tutoring post at the new École Polytechnique in 1804. Despite his lack of formal qualifications, Ampère was appointed a professor of mathematics at the school in 1809. As well as holding positions at this school until 1828, in 1819 and 1820 Ampère offered courses in philosophy and astronomy, respectively, at the University of Paris, and in 1824 he was elected to the prestigious chair in experimental physics at the Collège de France. In 1814 Ampère was invited to join the class of mathematicians in the new \"Institut Impérial\", the umbrella under which the reformed state Academy of Sciences would sit.  Ampère engaged in a diverse array of scientific inquiries during the years leading up to his election to the academy—writing papers and engaging in topics from mathematics and philosophy to chemistry and astronomy, which was customary among the leading scientific intellectuals of the day. Ampère claimed that \"at eighteen years he found three culminating points in his life, his First Communion, the reading of Antoine Leonard Thomas's \"Eulogy of Descartes\", and the Taking of the Bastille. On the day of his wife's death he wrote two verses from the Psalms, and the prayer, 'O Lord, God of Mercy, unite me in Heaven with those whom you have permitted me to love on earth.' In times of duress he would take refuge in the reading of the Bible and the Fathers of the Church.\"  For a time he took into his family the young student Frédéric Ozanam (1813–1853), one of the founders of the Conference of Charity, later known as the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul. Through Ampère, Ozanam had contact with leaders of the neo-Catholic movement, such as François-René de Chateaubriand, Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire, and Charles Forbes René de Montalembert. Ozanam was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1998.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work in electromagnetism.", "content": "In September 1820, Ampère's friend and eventual eulogist François Arago showed the members of the French Academy of Sciences the surprising discovery of Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted that a magnetic needle is deflected by an adjacent electric current. Ampère began developing a mathematical and physical theory to understand the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Furthering Ørsted's experimental work, Ampère showed that two parallel wires carrying electric currents attract or repel each other, depending on whether the currents flow in the same or opposite directions, respectively - this laid the foundation of electrodynamics. He also applied mathematics in generalizing physical laws from these experimental results. The most important of these was the principle that came to be called Ampère's law, which states that the mutual action of two lengths of current-carrying wire is proportional to their lengths and to the intensities of their currents. Ampère also applied this same principle to magnetism, showing the harmony between his law and French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb's law of magnetic action. Ampère's devotion to, and skill with, experimental techniques anchored his science within the emerging fields of experimental physics.  Ampère also provided a physical understanding of the electromagnetic relationship, theorizing the existence of an \"electrodynamic molecule\" (the forerunner of the idea of the electron) that served as the component element of both electricity and magnetism. Using this physical explanation of electromagnetic motion, Ampère developed a physical account of electromagnetic phenomena that was both empirically demonstrable and mathematically predictive. In 1827 Ampère published his magnum opus, \"Mémoire sur la théorie mathématique des phénomènes électrodynamiques uniquement déduite de l’experience\" (Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience), the work that coined the name of his new science, \"electrodynamics\", and became known ever after as its founding treatise.  In 1827 Ampère was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society and in 1828, a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In recognition of his contribution to the creation of modern electrical science, an international convention, signed at the 1881 International Exposition of Electricity, established the ampere as a standard unit of electrical measurement, along with the coulomb, volt, ohm, and watt, which are named, respectively, after Ampère's contemporaries Charles-Augustin de Coulomb of France, Alessandro Volta of Italy, Georg Ohm of Germany, and James Watt of Scotland. Ampère's name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.  Several items are named after Ampère; many streets and squares, schools, a Lyon metro station, a mountain on the moon and an electric ferry in Norway.  Partial translations: Complete translations:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "André-Marie Ampère (; ; 20 January 177510 June 1836) was a French physicist and mathematician who was one of the founders of the science of classical electromagnetism, which he referred to as \"electrodynamics\". He is also the inventor of numerous applications, such as the solenoid (a term coined by him) and the electrical telegraph. An autodidact, Ampère was a member of the French Academy of Sciences and professor at the École polytechnique and the Collège de France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970908}
{"src_title": "Anomie", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1893 Durkheim introduced the concept of \"anomie\" to describe the mismatch of collective guild labour to evolving societal needs when the guild was homogeneous in its constituency. He equated homogeneous (redundant) skills to \"mechanical solidarity\" whose inertia retarded adaptation. He contrasted this with the self-regulating behaviour of a division of labour based on differences in constituency, equated to \"organic solidarity\", whose lack of inertia made it sensitive to needed changes.  Durkheim observed that the conflict between the evolved organic division of labour and the homogeneous mechanical type was such that one could not exist in the presence of the other.  When solidarity is organic, anomie is impossible. Sensitivity to mutual needs promotes evolution in the division of labour. \"Producers, being near consumers, can easily reckon the extent of the needs to be satisfied. Equilibrium is established without any trouble and production regulates itself.\" Durkheim contrasted the condition of anomie as being the result of a malfunction of organic solidarity after the transition to mechanical solidarity:  Durkheim's use of the term anomie was about the phenomenon of industrialization—mass-regimentation that could not adapt due to its own inertia—its resistance to change, which causes disruptive cycles of collective behavior e.g. economics, due to the necessity of a prolonged buildup of sufficient force or momentum to overcome the inertia.  Later in 1897, in his studies of suicide, Durkheim associated anomie to the influence of a lack of norms or norms that were too rigid. But such normlessness or norm-rigidity was a \"symptom of anomie\", caused by the lack of differential adaptation that would enable norms to evolve naturally due to self-regulation, either to develop norms where none existed or to change norms that had become rigid and obsolete.  In 1938 Robert K. Merton linked anomie with deviance and argued that the discontinuity between culture and structure have the dysfunctional consequence of leading to deviance within society. He described 5 types of deviance in terms of the acceptance or rejection of social goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word, \"a reborrowing with French spelling of \"anomy\"\", comes from Greek \"lawlessness\", namely the privative alpha prefix (\"a-\" \"without\"), and \"nomos\" \"law\". The Greeks distinguished between \"nomos\" (, \"law\"), and \"arché\" (, \"starting rule, axiom, principle\"). For example, a monarch is a single ruler but he may still be subject to, and not exempt from, the prevailing laws, i.e. \"nomos\". In the original city state democracy, the majority rule was an aspect of \"arché\" because it was a rule-based, customary system, which might or might not make laws, i.e. \"nomos\". Thus, the original meaning of \"anomie\" defined anything or anyone against or outside the law, or a condition where the current laws were not applied resulting in a state of illegitimacy or lawlessness.  The contemporary English understanding of the word \"anomie\" can accept greater flexibility in the word \"norm\", and some have used the idea of normlessness to reflect a similar situation to the idea of anarchy. But, as used by Émile Durkheim and later theorists, \"anomie\" is a reaction against or a retreat from the regulatory social controls of society, and is a completely separate concept from anarchy, which consists of the absence of the roles of rulers and submitted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social disorder.", "content": "The nineteenth century French pioneer sociologist Émile Durkheim borrowed the word from French philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau and used it in his influential book \"Suicide\" (1897), outlining the social (and not individual) causes of suicide, characterized by a rapid change of the standards or values of societies (often erroneously referred to as normlessness), and an associated feeling of alienation and purposelessness. He believed that \"anomie\" is common when the surrounding society has undergone significant changes in its economic fortunes, whether for better or for worse and, more generally, when there is a significant discrepancy between the ideological theories and values commonly professed and what was actually achievable in everyday life. This was contrary to previous theories on suicide which generally maintained that suicide was precipitated by negative events in a person's life and their subsequent depression.  In Durkheim's view, traditional religions often provided the basis for the shared values which the anomic individual lacks. Furthermore, he argued that the division of labor that had been prevalent in economic life since the Industrial Revolution led individuals to pursue egoistic ends rather than seeking the good of a larger community. Robert King Merton also adopted the idea of anomie to develop strain theory, defining it as the discrepancy between common social goals and the legitimate means to attain those goals. In other words, an individual suffering from anomie would strive to attain the common goals of a specific society yet would not be able to reach these goals legitimately because of the structural limitations in society. As a result, the individual would exhibit deviant behavior. Friedrich Hayek notably uses the word \"anomie\" with this meaning.  According to one academic survey, psychometric testing confirmed a link between anomie and academic dishonesty among university students, suggesting that universities needed to foster codes of ethics among students in order to curb it. In another study, anomie was seen as a \"push factor\" in tourism.  As an older variant, the 1913 \"Webster's Dictionary\" reports use of the word \"anomie\" as meaning \"disregard or violation of the law\" but anomie as a social disorder is not to be confused with anarchy. Proponents of anarchism claim that anarchy does not necessarily lead to anomie and that hierarchical command actually increases lawlessness. Some anarcho-primitivists argue that complex societies, particularly industrial and post-industrial societies, directly cause conditions such as anomie by depriving the individual of self-determination and a relatively small reference group to relate to, such as the band, clan, or tribe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synnomie.", "content": "Freda Adler coined synnomie as the opposite of anomie. Using Émile Durkheim's concept of social solidarity and collective consciousness, Adler defined synnomie as \"a congruence of norms to the point of harmonious accommodation\". Adler described societies in a synnomie state as \"characterized by norm conformity, cohesion, intact social controls and norm integration.\" Social institutions such as the family, religion, and communities largely serve as sources of norms and social control to maintain a synnomic society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature, film, and theatre.", "content": "In Albert Camus's existentialist novel \"The Stranger\", the bored, alienated protagonist Meursault struggles to construct an individual system of values as he responds to the disappearance of the old. He exists largely in a state of anomie, as seen from the apathy evinced in the opening lines: \"\" (\"Today mum died. Or maybe yesterday, I don't know\").  Fyodor Dostoyevsky expressed a similar concern about anomie in his novel \"The Brothers Karamazov\". The Grand Inquisitor remarks that in the absence of God and immortal life, everything would be lawful. In other words, that any act becomes thinkable, that there is no moral compass, which leads to apathy and detachment.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anomie () is a societal condition defined by an uprooting or breakdown of any moral values, standards, or guidance for individuals to follow. Anomie may evolve from conflict of belief systems and causes breakdown of social bonds between an individual and the community (both economic and primary socialization). In a person this can progress into a dysfunction in ability to integrate within normative situations of their social world - e.g., an unruly personal scenario that results in fragmentation of social identity and rejection of values.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970909}
{"src_title": "Alexandre Dumas fils", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Dumas was born in Paris, France, the illegitimate child of (1794–1868), a dressmaker, and novelist Alexandre Dumas. In 1831 his father legally recognized him and ensured that the young Dumas received the best education possible at the \"Institution Goubaux\" and the \"Collège Bourbon\". At that time, the law allowed the elder Dumas to take the child away from his mother. Her agony inspired the younger Dumas to write about tragic female characters. In almost all of his writings, he emphasized the moral purpose of literature; in his play \"The Illegitimate Son\" (1858) he espoused the belief that if a man fathers an illegitimate child, then he has an obligation to legitimize the child and marry the woman (see Illegitimacy in fiction). At boarding schools, he was constantly taunted by his classmates because of his family situation. These issues profoundly influenced his thoughts, behaviour, and writing.  Dumas' paternal great-grandparents were Marquis Alexandre-Antoine Davy de la Pailleterie, a French nobleman and \"Général commissaire\" in the Artillery in the colony of Saint-Domingue—now Haiti—and Marie-Cessette Dumas, an African slave. Their son Thomas-Alexandre Dumas became a high-ranking general of Revolutionary France.  In 1844, Dumas moved to Saint-Germain-en-Laye, near Paris, to live with his father. There he met Marie Duplessis, a young courtesan who would be the inspiration for the character Marguerite Gauthier in his romantic novel \"La Dame aux camélias\" (\"The Lady of the Camellias\"). Adapted into a play, it was titled \"Camille\" in English and became the basis for Verdi's 1853 opera, \"La traviata\", Duplessis undergoing yet another name change, this time to Violetta Valéry.  Although he admitted that he had done the adaptation because he needed the money, he had great success with the play, which started his career as a dramatist. He was not only more renowned than his father during his lifetime, but also dominated the serious French stage for most of the second half of the 19th century. After this, he virtually abandoned writing novels, though his semi-autobiographical \"L'Affaire Clemenceau\" (1867) achieved some solid success.  On 31 December 1864, in Moscow, Dumas married Nadezhda von Knorring (1826 – April 1895), daughter of Johan Reinhold von Knorring and widow of Alexander Grigorievich Narishkin. The couple had two daughters: Marie-Alexandrine-Henriette Dumas, born 20 November 1860, who married Maurice Lippmann and was the mother of Serge Napoléon Lippmann (1886–1975) and Auguste Alexandre Lippmann (1881–1960); and Jeanine Dumas (3 May 1867 – 1943), who married Ernest Lecourt d'Hauterive (1864–1957), son of George Lecourt d'Hauterive and his wife Léontine de Leusse. After Nadezhda's death, Dumas married Henriette Régnier de La Brière (1851–1934) in June 1895, without issue.  In 1874, he was admitted to the Académie française and in 1894 he was awarded the \"Légion d'honneur\".  Dumas died at Marly-le-Roi, Yvelines, on 27 November 1895, and was interred in the Montmartre Cemetery in Paris. His grave is some 100 metres away from that of Marie Duplessis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexandre Dumas (; 27 July 1824 – 27 November 1895) was a French author and playwright, best known for the romantic novel \"La Dame aux Camélias\" (\"The Lady of the Camellias\"), published in 1848, which was adapted into Giuseppe Verdi's 1853 opera \"La traviata\" (\"The Fallen Woman\"), as well as numerous stage and film productions, usually titled \"Camille\" in English-language versions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970910}
{"src_title": "Chemistry of ascorbic acid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The antiscorbutic properties of certain foods were demonstrated in the 18th century by James Lind. In 1907, Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich discovered that the antiscorbutic factor was a water-soluble chemical substance, distinct from the one that prevented beriberi. Between 1928 and 1932, Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated a candidate for this substance, which he called it \"hexuronic acid\", first from plants and later from animal adrenal glands. In 1932 Charles Glen King confirmed that it was indeed the antiscorbutic factor.  In 1933, sugar chemist Walter Norman Haworth, working with samples of \"hexuronic acid\" that Szent-Györgyi had isolated from paprika and sent him in the previous year, deduced the correct structure and optical-isomeric nature of the compound, and in 1934 reported its first synthesis. In reference to the compound's antiscorbutic properties, Haworth and Szent-Györgyi proposed to rename it \"a-scorbic acid\" for the compound, and later specifically -ascorbic acid. Because of their work, in 1937 the Nobel Prizes for chemistry and medicine were awarded to Haworth and Szent-Györgyi, respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical properties.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acidity.", "content": "Ascorbic acid is a vinylogous acid and forms the ascorbate anion when deprotonated on one of the hydroxyls. This property is characteristic of reductones: enediols with a carbonyl group adjacent to the enediol group, namely with the group –C(OH)=C(OH)–C(=O)–. The ascorbate anion is stabilized by electron delocalization that results from resonance between two forms:  For this reason, ascorbic acid is much more acidic than would be expected if the compound contained only isolated hydroxyl groups.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Salts.", "content": "The ascorbate anion forms salts, such as sodium ascorbate, calcium ascorbate, and potassium ascorbate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Esters.", "content": "Ascorbic acid can also react with organic acids as an alcohol forming esters such as ascorbyl palmitate and ascorbyl stearate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nucleophilic attack.", "content": "Nucleophilic attack of ascorbic acid on a proton results in a 1,3-diketone:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Oxidation.", "content": "The ascorbate ion is the predominant species at typical biological pH values. It is a mild reducing agent and antioxidant. It is oxidized with loss of one electron to form a radical cation and then with loss of a second electron to form dehydroascorbic acid. It typically reacts with oxidants of the reactive oxygen species, such as the hydroxyl radical.  Ascorbic acid is special because it can transfer a single electron, owing to the resonance-stabilized nature of its own radical ion, called semidehydroascorbate. The net reaction is:  On exposure to oxygen, ascorbic acid will undergo further oxidative decomposition to various products including diketogulonic acid, xylonic acid, threonic acid and oxalic acid.  Reactive oxygen species are damaging to animals and plants at the molecular level due to their possible interaction with nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Sometimes these radicals initiate chain reactions. Ascorbate can terminate these chain radical reactions by electron transfer. The oxidized forms of ascorbate are relatively unreactive and do not cause cellular damage.  However, being a good electron donor, excess ascorbate in the presence of free metal ions can not only promote but also initiate free radical reactions, thus making it a potentially dangerous pro-oxidative compound in certain metabolic contexts.  Ascorbic acid and its sodium, potassium, and calcium salts are commonly used as antioxidant food additives. These compounds are water-soluble and, thus, cannot protect fats from oxidation: For this purpose, the fat-soluble esters of ascorbic acid with long-chain fatty acids (ascorbyl palmitate or ascorbyl stearate) can be used as food antioxidants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other reactions.", "content": "It creates volatile compounds when mixed with glucose and amino acids in 90 °C.  It is a cofactor in tyrosine oxidation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food additive.", "content": "The main use of -ascorbic acid and its salts is as food additives, mostly to combat oxidation. It is approved for this purpose in the EU with E number E300, USA, Australia, and New Zealand)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dietary supplement.", "content": "Another major use of -ascorbic acid is as dietary supplement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Synthesis.", "content": "Natural biosynthesis of vitamin C occurs in many plants, and animals, by a variety of processes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industrial preparation.", "content": "Eighty percent of the world's supply of ascorbic acid is produced in China. Ascorbic acid is prepared in industry from glucose in a method based on the historical Reichstein process. In the first of a five-step process, glucose is catalytically hydrogenated to sorbitol, which is then oxidized by the microorganism \"Acetobacter suboxydans\" to sorbose. Only one of the six hydroxy groups is oxidized by this enzymatic reaction. From this point, two routes are available. Treatment of the product with acetone in the presence of an acid catalyst converts four of the remaining hydroxyl groups to acetals. The unprotected hydroxyl group is oxidized to the carboxylic acid by reaction with the catalytic oxidant TEMPO (regenerated by sodium hypochlorite — bleaching solution). Historically, industrial preparation via the Reichstein process used potassium permanganate as the bleaching solution. Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of this product performs the dual function of removing the two acetal groups and ring-closing lactonization. This step yields ascorbic acid. Each of the five steps has a yield larger than 90%.  A more biotechnological process, first developed in China in the 1960s, but further developed in the 1990s, bypasses the use of acetone-protecting groups. A second genetically modified microbe species, such as mutant \"Erwinia\", among others, oxidises sorbose into 2-ketogluconic acid (2-KGA), which can then undergo ring-closing lactonization via dehydration. This method is used in the predominant process used by the ascorbic acid industry in China, which supplies 80% of world's ascorbic acid. American and Chinese researchers are competing to engineer a mutant that can carry out a one-pot fermentation directly from glucose to 2-KGA, bypassing both the need for a second fermentation and the need to reduce glucose to sorbitol.  There exists a -ascorbic acid, which does not occur in nature but can be synthesized artificially. To be specific, -ascorbate is known to participate in many specific enzyme reactions that require the correct enantiomer (-ascorbate and not -ascorbate). -Ascorbic acid has a specific rotation of [α] = +23°.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Determination.", "content": "The traditional way to analyze the ascorbic acid content is the process of titration with an oxidizing agent, and several procedures have been developed.  The popular iodometry approach uses iodine in the presence of a starch indicator. Iodine is reduced by ascorbic acid, and, when all the ascorbic acid has reacted, the iodine is then in excess, forming a blue-black complex with the starch indicator. This indicates the end-point of the titration.  As an alternative, ascorbic acid can be treated with iodine in excess, followed by back titration with sodium thiosulfate using starch as an indicator.  This iodometric method has been revised to exploit reaction of ascorbic acid with iodate and iodide in acid solution. Electrolyzing the solution of potassium iodide produces iodine, which reacts with ascorbic acid. The end of process is determined by potentiometric titration in a manner similar to Karl Fischer titration. The amount of ascorbic acid can be calculated by Faraday's law.  Another alternative uses \"N\"-bromosuccinimide (NBS) as the oxidizing agent, in the presence of potassium iodide and starch. The NBS first oxidizes the ascorbic acid; when the latter is exhausted, the NBS liberates the iodine from the potassium iodide, which then forms the blue-black complex with starch.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ascorbic acid is an organic compound with formula, originally called hexuronic acid. It is a white solid, but impure samples can appear yellowish. It dissolves well in water to give mildly acidic solutions. It is a mild reducing agent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970911}
{"src_title": "BeOS", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Initially designed to run on AT&T Hobbit-based hardware, BeOS was later modified to run on PowerPC-based processors: first Be's own systems, later Apple Inc.'s PowerPC Reference Platform and Common Hardware Reference Platform, with the hope that Apple would purchase or license BeOS as a replacement for its aging Classic Mac OS. Apple CEO Gil Amelio started negotiations to buy Be Inc., but negotiations stalled when Be CEO Jean-Louis Gassée wanted $300 million; Apple was unwilling to offer any more than $125 million. Apple's board of directors decided NeXTSTEP was a better choice and purchased NeXT in 1996 for $429 million, bringing back Apple co-founder Steve Jobs.  In 1997, Power Computing began bundling BeOS (on a CD for optional installation) with its line of PowerPC-based Macintosh clones. These systems could dual boot either the Classic Mac OS or BeOS, with a start-up screen offering the choice.  Due to Apple's moves and the mounting debt of Be Inc., BeOS was soon ported to the Intel x86 platform with its R3 release in March 1998. Through the late 1990s, BeOS managed to create a niche of followers, but the company failed to remain viable. Be Inc. also released a stripped-down, but free, copy of BeOS R5 known as BeOS Personal Edition (BeOS PE). BeOS PE could be started from within Microsoft Windows or Linux, and was intended to nurture consumer interest in its product and give developers something to tinker with. Be Inc. also released a stripped-down version of BeOS for Internet Appliances (BeIA), which soon became the company's business focus in place of BeOS.  In 2001 Be's copyrights were sold to Palm, Inc. for some $11 million. BeOS R5 is considered the last official version, but BeOS R5.1 \"Dano\", which was under development before Be's sale to Palm and included the BeOS Networking Environment (BONE) networking stack, was leaked to the public shortly after the company's demise.  In 2002, Be Inc. sued Microsoft claiming that Hitachi had been dissuaded from selling PCs loaded with BeOS, and that Compaq had been pressured not to market an Internet appliance in partnership with Be. Be also claimed that Microsoft acted to artificially depress Be Inc.'s initial public offering (IPO). The case was eventually settled out of court for $23.25 million with no admission of liability on Microsoft's part.  After the split from Palm, PalmSource used parts of BeOS's multimedia framework for its failed Palm OS Cobalt product. With the takeover of PalmSource, the BeOS rights now belong to Access Co.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Continuation and clones.", "content": "In the years that followed the demise of Be Inc. a handful of projects formed to recreate BeOS or key elements of the OS with the eventual goal of then continuing where Be Inc. left off. This was facilitated by the fact that Be Inc. released some components of BeOS under a free licence. Here is a list of these projects:  Zeta was a commercially available operating system based on the BeOS R5.1 codebase. Originally developed by yellowTAB, the operating system was then distributed by magnussoft. During development by yellowTAB, the company received criticism from the BeOS community for refusing to discuss its legal position with regard to the BeOS codebase (perhaps for contractual reasons). Access Co. (which bought PalmSource, until then the holder of the intellectual property associated with BeOS) has since declared that yellowTAB had no right to distribute a modified version of BeOS, and magnussoft has ceased distribution of the operating system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Products using BeOS.", "content": "BeOS (and now Zeta) continue to be used in media appliances, such as the Edirol DV-7 video editors from Roland Corporation, which run on top of a modified BeOS and the Tunetracker Radio Automation software that used to run it on BeOS and Zeta, and it was also sold as a \"Station-in-a-Box\" with the Zeta operating system included. In 2015, Tunetracker released Haiku distribution on USB flash disk bundled with its broadcasting software.  The Tascam SX-1 digital audio recorder runs a heavily modified version of BeOS that will only launch the recording interface software.  iZ Technology Corporation sells the RADAR 24, RADAR V and RADAR Studio, hard disk-based, 24-track professional audio recorders based on BeOS 5, although the newer RADAR 6 is not based on BeOS.  Magicbox, a manufacturer of signage and broadcast display machines, uses BeOS to power their Aavelin product line.  Final Scratch, a 12-inch vinyl timecode record-driven DJ software/hardware system, was first developed on BeOS. The \"ProFS\" version was sold to a few dozen DJs prior to the 1.0 release, which ran on a Linux virtual partition.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "BeOS is an operating system for personal computers first developed by Be Inc. in 1991. It was first written to run on BeBox hardware. BeOS was built for digital media work and was written to take advantage of modern hardware facilities such as symmetric multiprocessing by utilizing modular I/O bandwidth, pervasive multithreading, preemptive multitasking and a 64-bit journaling file system known as BFS. The BeOS GUI was developed on the principles of clarity and a clean, uncluttered design.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970912}
{"src_title": "Belgian euro coins", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Belgian euro design.", "content": "For images of the common side and a detailed description of the coins, see euro coins.  In Belgium, the euro was introduced in 2002. However, the first sets of coins were minted, as preparation, in 1999. Hence the first euro coins of Belgium are marked 1999, not 2002.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign of Albert II.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First series (1999–2007).", "content": "Belgian euro coins dated 1999–2007 have the portrait of King Albert II.  Prior to 2007, the old common side showing national borders was used, but the 2007 coins used the new common side without borders.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Second series (2008).", "content": "In order to conform to the common guidelines on the design of national faces of coins, Belgium updated the design of the Belgian national face of euro coins to be produced from 2008. Coins from previous years featuring the old Belgian national face remain valid.  The changes are:  As from 2007, the Belgian euro coins also adopted the new common map like the rest of the eurozone countries. A proportion of the Belgian 2 euro coins -common part, the map looks smooth, whereas, the same map on the euros coming from other eurozone countries is dotted.  Belgium is the second state in the EMU, after Finland, to, from 2008 on, change the design of their standard circulation euro coins in accordance with recommendations defined by the Economic and Financial Affairs Council of the European Union.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Amendment (2009-2013).", "content": "The 2008 portrait did not comply with previous decisions by the ECOFIN in 2005 and 2008. Therefore, an amendment was made, which reverted to the portrait of Albert II found in the 2002 series. Mint marks, year and stars remain the same. Some collectors consider this as a third series but since unlike all series it was not published in the official journal of the European Union, it is actually an amendment and not a new series.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Reign of Philippe.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third series (2014–present).", "content": "Following the accession of King Philippe after the abdication of Albert II, new distinctive sides were added depicting the new monarch.  Coins with the new obverse were struck from 4 February 2014. The obverses were designed by Luc Luycx.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Circulating mintage quantities.", "content": "The following table shows the mintage quantity for all Belgian euro coins, per denomination, per year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Belgian proof set.", "content": "Each year the Royal Belgian Mint issues a limited edition of its euro coins in proof quality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other commemorative coins (collectors' coins).", "content": "Belgium has a good collection of euro commemorative coins, solely in silver and gold. Their face values range from 10 euros to 100 euros. This is mainly done as a legacy of old national practice of minting gold and silver coins. These coins are not really intended to be used as means of payment, so generally they do not circulate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Belgian euro coins feature only a single design for all eight coins: the portrait or effigy of the incumbent King of the Belgians. Previously, all Belgian euros depicted King Albert II and his royal monogram. Current coins depict King Philippe. Also part of the design by Jan Alfons Keustermans are the 12 stars of the EU and the year of imprint.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970913}
{"src_title": "Bosnian language", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standardization.", "content": "Although Bosnians are, at the level of vernacular idiom, linguistically more homogeneous than either Serbians or Croatians, unlike those nations they failed to codify a standard language in the 19th century, with at least two factors being decisive:  The literature of the so-called \"Bosnian revival\" at the start of the 20th century was written in an idiom that was closer to the Croatian standard than to the Serbian one: it was a western Shtokavian dialect with an Ijekavian accent and used a Latin script, but had recognizable Bosnian lexical traits. The main authors were the polymath, politician and poet Safvet-beg Bašagić and the storyteller Edhem Mulabdić.  The modern Bosnian standard took shape in the 1990s and 2000s. Lexically, Islamic-Oriental loanwords are more frequent; phonetically: the phoneme /x/ (letter \"h\") is reinstated in many words as a distinct feature of vernacular Bosniak speech and language tradition; also, there are some changes in grammar, morphology and orthography that reflect the Bosniak pre-World War I literary tradition, mainly that of the Bosniak renaissance at the beginning of the 20th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy and recognition.", "content": "The name \"Bosnian language\" is a controversial issue for some Croats and Serbs, who also refer to it as the \"Bosniak\" language ( / ; ). Bosniak linguists however insist that the only legitimate name is \"Bosnian\" language (\"\"), and that that is the name that both Croats and Serbs should use. The controversy arises because the name \"Bosnian\" may seem to imply that it is the language of all Bosnians, while Bosnian Croats and Serbs reject that designation for their idioms.  The language is called \"Bosnian language\" in the 1995 Dayton Accords and is concluded by observers to have received legitimacy and international recognition at the time.  The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN), and the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (PCGN) recognize the Bosnian language. Furthermore, the status of the Bosnian language is also recognized by bodies such as the United Nations, UNESCO, and translation and interpreting accreditation agencies, including internet translation services.  Most English-speaking language encyclopedias (Routledge, Glottolog, Ethnologue, etc.) register the language solely as \"Bosnian\" language. The Library of Congress registered the language as \"Bosnian\" and gave it an ISO-number. The Slavic language institutes in English-speaking countries offer courses in \"Bosnian\" or \"Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian\" language, not in \"Bosniak\" language (e.g. Columbia, Cornell, Chicago, Washington, Kansas). The same thing in German-speaking countries, where the language is taught under the name ', not'(e.g. Vienna, Graz, Trier) with very few exceptions.  Some Croatian linguists (Zvonko Kovač, Ivo Pranjković, Josip Silić) support the name \"Bosnian\" language, whereas others (Radoslav Katičić, Dalibor Brozović, Tomislav Ladan) hold that the term \"Bosnian language\" is the only one appropriate and that accordingly the terms Bosnian language and Bosniak language refer to two different things. The Croatian state institutions, such as the Central Bureau of Statistics, use both terms: \"Bosniak\" language was used in the 2001 census, while the census in 2011 used the term \"Bosnian\" language.  The majority of Serbian linguists hold that the term \"Bosniak language\" is the only one appropriate, which was agreed as early as 1990.  The original form of The Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina called the language \"Bosniac language\", until 2002 when it was changed in Amendment XXIX of the Constitution of the Federation by Wolfgang Petritsch. The original text of the Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was agreed in Vienna, and was signed by Krešimir Zubak and Haris Silajdžić on March 18, 1994.  The constitution of, the Serb-dominated entity within Bosnia and Herzegovina, did not recognize any language or ethnic group other than Serbian. Bosniaks were mostly expelled from the territory controlled by the Serbs from 1992, but immediately after the war they demanded the restoration of their civil rights in those territories. The Bosnian Serbs refused to make reference to the Bosnian language in their constitution and as a result had constitutional amendments imposed by High Representative Wolfgang Petritsch. However, the constitution of refers to it as the \"Language spoken by Bosniaks\", because the Serbs were required to recognise the language officially, but wished to avoid recognition of its name.  Serbia includes the Bosnian language as an elective subject in primary schools. Montenegro officially recognizes the Bosnian language: its 2007 Constitution specifically states that although Montenegrin is the official language, Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian and Croatian are also in official use.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Differences between Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian.", "content": "The differences between the Bosnian, Serbian, and Croatian literary standards are minimal. Although Bosnian employs more Turkish, Persian, and Arabic loanwords—commonly called orientalisms—it is very similar to both Serbian and Croatian in its written and spoken form. \"Lexical differences between the ethnic variants are extremely limited, even when compared with those between closely related Slavic languages (such as standard Czech and Slovak, Bulgarian and Macedonian), and grammatical differences are even less pronounced. More importantly, complete understanding between the ethnic variants of the standard language makes translation and second language teaching impossible.\"  The Bosnian language, as a new normative register of the Shtokavian dialect, was officially introduced in 1996 with the publication of'in Sarajevo. According to that work, Bosnian differed from Serbian and Croatian on some main linguistic characteristics, such as: sound formats in some words, especially \"h\" (' versus Serbian '); substantial and deliberate usage of Oriental (\"Turkish\") words; spelling of future tense (') as in Croatian but not Serbian (') (both forms have the same pronunciation). 2018, in the new issue of ', words without \"h\" are accepted due to their prevalence in language practice.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bosnian language (; \"bosanski\" / босански ) is the standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian mainly used by Bosniaks. Bosnian is one of three such varieties considered official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina, along with Croatian and Serbian. It is also an officially recognized minority language in Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Kosovo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970914}
{"src_title": "Urtica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Urtica\" species grow as annuals or perennial herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs. They can reach, depending on the type, location and nutrient status, a height of. The perennial species have underground rhizomes. The green parts have stinging hairs. Their often quadrangular stems are unbranched or branched, erect, ascending or spreading.  Most leaves and stalks are arranged across opposite sides of the stem. The leaf blades are elliptic, lanceolate, ovate or circular. The leaf blades usually have three to five, rarely up to seven veins. The leaf margin is usually serrate to more or less coarsely toothed. The often-lasting bracts are free or fused to each other. The cystoliths are extended to more or less rounded.  In 1874, while in Collioure (south of France), French botanist Charles Naudin discovered that strong winds during 24 hours made the stinging hairs of \"Urtica\" harmless for a whole week.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "A large number of species included within the genus in the older literature are now recognized as synonyms of \"Urtica dioica\". Some of these taxa are still recognized as subspecies.  Species in the genus \"Urtica\", and their primary natural ranges, include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Due to the stinging hairs, \"Urtica\" species are rarely eaten by herbivores, but rather provide shelter for insects, such as aphids, butterfly larvae, and moths.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Fabric woven of nettle fiber was found in burial sites dating to the Bronze Age, and in clothing fabric, sailcloth, fishing nets, and paper by undeveloped communities. In New Zealand, \"U. ferox\" is classified among poisonous plants, most commonly upon skin contact.  \"Urtica\", called \"kopriva\" in Bulgarian and Slovenian, and \"urzica\" in Romanian, is an ingredient in soups, omelettes, banitsa, purée, and other dishes. In Mazandaran, northern Iran, a soup (Āsh) is made using this plant. Nettles were used in traditional practices to make nettle tea, juice, and ale, and to preserve cheeses, such as in Cornish Yarg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In folklore.", "content": "Nettles have many folklore traditions associated with them. The folklore mainly relates to the stinging nettle (\"Urtica dioica\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Asian.", "content": "Milarepa, the great Tibetan ascetic and saint, was reputed to have survived his decades of solitary meditation by subsisting on nothing but nettles; his hair and skin turned green and he lived to the age of 83.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Caribbean.", "content": "The Caribbean trickster figure Anansi appears in a story about nettles, in which he has to chop down a huge nettle patch in order to win the hand of the king's daughter.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "European.", "content": "An old Scots rhyme about the nettle:  Coo, cow, and stoo are all Scottish for cut back or crop (although, curiously, another meaning of \"stoo\" is to throb or ache), while \"laich\" means short or low to the ground. Given the repetition of \"early,\" presumably this is advice to harvest nettles first thing in the morning and to cut them back hard [which seems to contradict the advice of the Royal Horticultural Society].  A well-known English rhyme about the stinging nettle is:  In Hans Christian Andersen's fairy-tale \"The Wild Swans,\" the princess had to weave coats of nettles to break the spell on her brothers.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Urtica is a genus of flowering plants in the family Urticaceae. Many species have stinging hairs and may be called nettles or stinging nettles, although the latter name applies particularly to \"Urtica dioica\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970915}
{"src_title": "Fagaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "The Fagaceae are often divided into five or six subfamilies and are generally accepted to include 8 (to 10) genera (listed below). Monophyly of the Fagaceae is strongly supported by both morphological (especially fruit morphology) and molecular data.  The Southern Hemisphere genus \"Nothofagus,\" commonly the southern beeches, was historically placed in the Fagaceae sister to the genus \"Fagus\", but recent molecular evidence suggests otherwise. While \"Nothofagus\" shares a number of common characteristics with the Fagaceae, such as cupule fruit structure, it differs significantly in a number of ways, including distinct stipule and pollen morphology, as well as having a different number of chromosomes. The currently accepted view by systematic botanists is to place \"Nothofagus\" in its own family, Nothofagaceae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subfamilies and genera.", "content": "The \"Quercus\" subgenus \"Cyclobalanopsis\" is treated as a distinct genus by the \"Flora of China\", but as a subgenus by most taxonomists.  The genus \"Nothofagus\" (southern beeches; about 40 species from the Southern Hemisphere), formerly included in the Fagaceae, is now treated in the separate family Nothofagaceae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The Fagaceae are widely distributed across the Northern Hemisphere. Genus-level diversity is concentrated in Southeast Asia, where most of the extant genera are thought to have evolved before migrating to Europe and North America (via the Bering Land Bridge). Members of the Fagaceae (such as \"Fagus grandifolia\", \"Castanea dentata\" and \"Quercus alba\" in the Northeastern United States, or \"Fagus sylvatica\", \"Quercus robur\" and \"Q. petraea\" in Europe) are often ecologically dominant in northern temperate forests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Systematics.", "content": "Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest the following relationships:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fagaceae is a family of flowering plants that includes beeches and oaks, and comprises eight genera with about 927 species. The Fagaceae are deciduous or evergreen trees and shrubs, characterized by alternate simple leaves with pinnate venation, unisexual flowers in the form of catkins, and fruit in the form of cup-like (cupule) nuts. Their leaves are often lobed and both petioles and stipules are generally present. Leaf characteristics of Fagaceae can be very similar to those of Rosaceae and other rose motif families. Their fruits lack endosperm and lie in a scaly or spiny husk that may or may not enclose the entire nut, which may consist of one to seven seeds. In the oaks, genus \"Quercus\", the fruit is a non-valved nut (usually containing one seed) called an acorn. The husk of the acorn in most oaks only forms a cup in which the nut sits. Other members of the family have fully enclosed nuts. Fagaceae is one of the most ecologically important woody plant families in the Northern Hemisphere, as oaks form the backbone of temperate forest in North America, Europe, and Asia and one of the most significant sources of wildlife fodder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970916}
{"src_title": "Byte", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The term \"byte\" was coined by Werner Buchholz in June 1956, during the early design phase for the IBM Stretch computer, which had addressing to the bit and variable field length (VFL) instructions with a byte size encoded in the instruction. It is a deliberate respelling of \"bite\" to avoid accidental mutation to \"bit\".  Another origin of \"byte\" for bit groups smaller than a computers's word size, and in particular groups of four bits, is on record by Louis G. Dooley, who claimed he coined the term while working with Jules Schwartz and Dick Beeler on an air defense system called SAGE at MIT Lincoln Laboratory in 1956 or 1957, which was jointly developed by Rand, MIT, and IBM. Later on, Schwartz's language JOVIAL actually used the term, but the author recalled vaguely that it was derived from AN/FSQ-31.  Early computers used a variety of four-bit binary-coded decimal (BCD) representations and the six-bit codes for printable graphic patterns common in the U.S. Army (FIELDATA) and Navy. These representations included alphanumeric characters and special graphical symbols. These sets were expanded in 1963 to seven bits of coding, called the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) as the Federal Information Processing Standard, which replaced the incompatible teleprinter codes in use by different branches of the U.S. government and universities during the 1960s. ASCII included the distinction of upper- and lowercase alphabets and a set of control characters to facilitate the transmission of written language as well as printing device functions, such as page advance and line feed, and the physical or logical control of data flow over the transmission media. During the early 1960s, while also active in ASCII standardization, IBM simultaneously introduced in its product line of System/360 the eight-bit Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC), an expansion of their six-bit binary-coded decimal (BCDIC) representations used in earlier card punches. The prominence of the System/360 led to the ubiquitous adoption of the eight-bit storage size, while in detail the EBCDIC and ASCII encoding schemes are different.  In the early 1960s, AT&T introduced digital telephony on long-distance trunk lines. These used the eight-bit μ-law encoding. This large investment promised to reduce transmission costs for eight-bit data.  The development of eight-bit microprocessors in the 1970s popularized this storage size. Microprocessors such as the Intel 8008, the direct predecessor of the 8080 and the 8086, used in early personal computers, could also perform a small number of operations on the four-bit pairs in a byte, such as the decimal-add-adjust (DAA) instruction. A four-bit quantity is often called a nibble, also \"nybble\", which is conveniently represented by a single hexadecimal digit.  The term \"octet\" is used to unambiguously specify a size of eight bits. It is used extensively in protocol definitions.  Historically, the term \"octad\" or \"octade\" was used to denote eight bits as well at least in Western Europe; however, this usage is no longer common. The exact origin of the term is unclear, but it can be found in British, Dutch, and German sources of the 1960s and 1970s, and throughout the documentation of Philips mainframe computers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unit symbol.", "content": "The unit symbol for the byte is specified in IEC 80000-13, IEEE 1541 and the Metric Interchange Format as the upper-case character \"B\". In contrast, IEEE 1541 specifies the lower case character \"b\" as the symbol for the bit, but IEC 80000-13 and Metric-Interchange-Format specify the symbol as \"bit\", providing disambiguation from B for byte.  In the International System of Quantities (ISQ), B is the symbol of the \"bel\", a unit of logarithmic power ratios named after Alexander Graham Bell, creating a conflict with the IEC specification. However, little danger of confusion exists, because the bel is a rarely used unit. It is used primarily in its decadic fraction, the decibel (dB), for signal strength and sound pressure level measurements, while a unit for one tenth of a byte, the decibyte, and other fractions, are only used in derived units, such as transmission rates.  The lowercase letter o for octet is defined as the symbol for octet in IEC 80000-13 and is commonly used in languages such as French and Romanian, and is also combined with metric prefixes for multiples, for example ko and Mo.  The usage of the term \"octad(e)\" for eight bits is no longer common.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unit multiples.", "content": "Despite standardization efforts, ambiguity still exists in the meanings of the SI (or metric) prefixes used with the unit byte, especially concerning the prefixes \"kilo\" (k or K), \"mega\" (M), and \"giga\" (G). Computer memory has a binary architecture in which multiples are expressed in powers of 2. In some fields of the software and computer hardware industries a binary prefix is used for bytes and bits, while producers of computer storage devices practice adherence to decimal SI multiples. For example, a computer disk drive capacity of 100 gigabytes is specified when the disk contains 100 billion bytes of storage space, which is the equivalent of approximately 93 gibibytes using the binary prefix \"gibi\".  While the numerical difference between the decimal and binary interpretations is relatively small for the prefixes kilo and mega, it grows to over 20% for prefix yotta. The linear–log graph illustrates the difference versus storage size up to an exabyte.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Common uses.", "content": "Many programming languages defined the data type \"byte\".  The C and C++ programming languages define \"byte\" as an \"\"addressable unit of data storage large enough to hold any member of the basic character set of the execution environment\"\" (clause 3.6 of the C standard). The C standard requires that the integral data type \"unsigned char\" must hold at least 256 different values, and is represented by at least eight bits (clause 5.2.4.2.1). Various implementations of C and C++ reserve 8, 9, 16, 32, or 36 bits for the storage of a byte. In addition, the C and C++ standards require that there are no gaps between two bytes. This means every bit in memory is part of a byte.  Java's primitive codice_1 data type is always defined as consisting of 8 bits and being a signed data type, holding values from −128 to 127. .NET programming languages, such as C#, define both an unsigned codice_1 and a signed codice_3, holding values from 0 to 255, and −128 to 127, respectively.  In data transmission systems, the byte is defined as a contiguous sequence of bits in a serial data stream representing the smallest distinguished unit of data. A transmission unit might include start bits, stop bits, or parity bits, and thus could vary from 7 to 12 bits to contain a single 7-bit ASCII code.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The size of the byte has historically been hardware dependent and no definitive standards existed that mandated the size. Sizes from 1 to 48 bits have been used. The six-bit character code was an often used implementation in early encoding systems and computers using six-bit and nine-bit bytes were common in the 1960s. These systems often had memory words of 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 48, or 60 bits, corresponding to 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, or 10 six-bit bytes. In this era, bit groupings in the instruction stream were often referred to as \"syllables\" or \"slab\", before the term \"byte\" became common.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970917}
{"src_title": "Baden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The margraves of Baden originated from the House of Zähringen. Baden is named after the margraves' residence, in Baden-Baden. Hermann II of Baden first claimed the title of Margrave of Baden in 1112. A united Margraviate of Baden existed from this time until 1535, when it was split into the two Margraviates of Baden-Durlach and Baden-Baden. Following a devastating fire in Baden-Baden in 1689, the capital was moved to Karlsruhe.  The two parts were reunited in 1771 under Margrave Charles Frederick. The restored Margraviate of Baden was elevated to the status of electorate in 1803. In 1806, the Electorate of Baden, receiving territorial additions, became the Grand Duchy of Baden.  The Grand Duchy of Baden was a state within the German Confederation until 1866 and the German Empire until 1918, succeeded by the Republic of Baden within the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany. From 1945 to 1952, South Baden and Württemberg-Baden were territories under French and American occupation, respectively. They were united with Württemberg-Hohenzollern to form the modern Federal State of Baden-Württemberg in 1952.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Baden lies in the southwest of Germany, with most of its major cities on the Upper Rhine Plain. Bounded by Lake Constance on the south and by the river Rhine on the south and west, the region of Baden stretches from the Linzgau, Lörrach and Freiburg im Breisgau to Karlsruhe and then on to Mannheim, leading to the Main and Tauber rivers.  To its west lies the French historical region of Alsace, to its south Switzerland, the Palatinate to its northwest, Hesse to the north, and parts of Bavaria to the northeast. Its eastern border with the region of Württemberg runs from the Kraichgau through the Black Forest, and from some parts of the forest to the Rhine the distances become as low as in the so-called \"Wespentaille\" near Gaggenau.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "__notoc__ Baden (; ) is a historical territory in South Germany and North Switzerland, on both sides of the Upper Rhine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970918}
{"src_title": "Bayreuth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Henry III was an unpopular monarch due to his autocratic style, displays of favouritism and his refusal to negotiate with his barons. The barons eventually imposed a constitutional reform known as the Provisions of Oxford upon Henry that called for a thrice-yearly meeting led by Simon de Montfort to discuss matters of government. Henry sought to escape the restrictions of the provisions and applied to Louis IX of France to arbitrate in the dispute. Louis agreed with Henry and annulled the provisions. Montfort was angered by this and rebelled against the King along with other barons in the Second Barons' War.  The war was not initially openly fought, each side toured the country to raise support for their army. A series of massacres of Jews in Worcester, London, Canterbury and other cities were conducted by Montfort's allies.  By May the King's force had reached Lewes where they intended to halt for a while to allow reinforcements to reach them. The King encamped at St. Pancras Priory with a force of infantry, but his son, Prince Edward (later King Edward I), commanded the cavalry at Lewes Castle to the north. De Montfort approached the King with the intention of negotiating a truce or failing that to draw him into open battle. The King rejected the negotiations and de Montfort moved his men from Fletching to Offham Hill, a mile to the north-west of Lewes, in a night march that surprised the royalist forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deployment.", "content": "The royalist army was up to twice the size of de Montfort's. Henry held command of the centre, with Prince Edward, William de Valence, 1st Earl of Pembroke, and John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey, on the right; and Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall, and his son, Henry of Almain, on the left. The barons held the higher ground, overlooking Lewes and had ordered their men to wear white crosses as a distinguishing emblem. De Montfort split his forces into four parts, giving his son, Henry de Montfort command of one quarter; Gilbert de Clare with John FitzJohn and William of Montchensy another; a third portion consisting of Londoners was placed under Nicholas de Segrave whilst de Montfort himself led the fourth quarter with Thomas of Pelveston.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "The baronial forces commenced the battle with a surprise dawn attack on foragers sent out from the royalist forces. The King then made his move. Edward led a cavalry charge against Seagrave's Londoners, placed on the left of the baronial line, that caused them to break and run to the village of Offham. Edward pursued his foe for some four miles, leaving the King unsupported. Henry was forced to launch an attack with his centre and right divisions straight up Offham Hill into the baronial line which awaited them at the defensive. Cornwall's division faltered almost immediately but Henry's men fought on until compelled to retreat by the arrival of de Montfort's men that had been held as the baronial reserve.  The King's men were forced down the hill and into Lewes where they engaged in a fighting retreat to the castle and priory. Edward returned with his weary cavalrymen and launched a counterattack but upon locating his father was persuaded that, with the town ablaze and many of the King's supporters having fled, it was time to accept de Montfort's renewed offer of negotiations. The Earl of Cornwall was captured by the barons when he was unable to reach the safety of the priory and, being discovered in a windmill, was taunted with cries of \"Come down, come down, thou wicked miller.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The King was forced to sign the so-called Mise of Lewes. Though the document has not survived, it is clear that Henry was forced to accept the Provisions of Oxford, while Prince Edward remained a hostage of the barons. This put Montfort in a position of ultimate power, which would last until Prince Edward's escape, and Montfort's subsequent defeat at the Battle of Evesham in August 1265. Following the battle, debts to Jews were cancelled, and the records destroyed; this had been a key war aim.  In 1994, an archaeological survey of the cemetery of St Nicholas Hospital, in Lewes, revealed the remains of bodies that were thought to be combatants from the battle of Lewes. However, in 2014 it was revealed that some of the skeletons may actually be much older, with a skeleton known as \"skeleton 180\" being contemporary with the Norman invasion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "There remains some uncertainty over the location of the battle with Offham Hill's eastern and lower slopes covered by modern housing. The top and southern slopes remain accessible by footpaths through agricultural land and the ruins of the priory and castle are also open to visitors.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bayreuth (, ; ) is a medium-sized town in northern Bavaria, Germany, on the Red Main river in a valley between the Franconian Jura and the Fichtelgebirge Mountains. The town's roots date back to 1194. In the early 21st century, it is the capital of Upper Franconia and has a population of 72,148 (2015). It is world-famous for its annual Bayreuth Festival, at which performances of operas by the 19th-century German composer Richard Wagner are presented.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970919}
{"src_title": "Charles Messier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Messier was born in Badonviller in the Lorraine region of France, the tenth of twelve children of Françoise B. Grandblaise and Nicolas Messier, a Court usher. Six of his brothers and sisters died while young, and his father died in 1741. Charles' interest in astronomy was stimulated by the appearance of the great six-tailed comet in 1744 and by an annular solar eclipse visible from his hometown on 25 July 1748.  In 1751 Messier entered the employ of Joseph Nicolas Delisle, the astronomer of the French Navy, who instructed him to keep careful records of his observations. Messier's first documented observation was that of the Mercury transit of 6 May 1753, followed by his observations journals at Cluny Hotel and at the French Navy observatories.  In 1764, Messier was made a fellow of the Royal Society; in 1769, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; and on 30 June 1770, he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences.  Messier discovered 13 comets:  He also co-discovered Comet C/1801 N1, a discovery shared with several other observers including Pons, Méchain, and Bouvard. (Comet Pons-Messier-Méchain-Bouvard)  Near the end of his life, Messier self-published a booklet connecting the great comet of 1769 to the birth of Napoleon, who was in power at the time of publishing. According to Meyer:  Messier is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, in Section 11. The grave is faintly inscribed, and is near the grave of Frédéric Chopin, slightly to the west and directly north, and behind the small mausoleum of the jeweller Abraham-Louis Breguet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Messier catalogue.", "content": "Messier's occupation as a comet hunter led him to continually come across fixed diffuse objects in the night sky which could be mistaken for comets. He compiled a list of them, in collaboration with his friend and assistant Pierre Méchain (who may have found at least 20 of the objects), to avoid wasting time sorting them out from the comets they were looking for. The entries are now known to be 39 galaxies, 4 planetary nebulae, 7 other types of nebulae, and 55 star clusters.  Messier did his observing with a 100 mm (four-inch) refracting telescope from Hôtel de Cluny (now the Musée national du Moyen Âge), in downtown Paris, France. The list he compiled only contains objects found in the area of the sky Messier could observe, from the north celestial pole to a declination of about −35.7°. They are not organized scientifically by object type, or by location. The first version of Messier's catalogue contained 45 objects and was published in 1774 in the journal of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris. In addition to his own discoveries, this version included objects previously observed by other astronomers, with only 17 of the 45 objects being Messier's. By 1780 the catalog had increased to 80 objects.  The final version of the catalogue was published in 1781, in the 1784 issue of \"Connaissance des Temps\". The final list of Messier objects had grown to 103. On several occasions between 1921 and 1966, astronomers and historians discovered evidence of another seven objects that were observed either by Messier or by Méchain, shortly after the final version was published. These seven objects, M 104 through M 110, are accepted by astronomers as \"official\" Messier objects.  The objects' Messier designations, from M 1 to M 110, are still used by professional and amateur astronomers today and their relative brightness makes them popular objects in the amateur astronomical community.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The lunar crater Messier and the asteroid 7359 Messier were named in his honor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Messier (; 26 June 1730 – 12 April 1817) was a French astronomer. He published an astronomical catalogue consisting of 110 nebulae and faint star clusters, which came to be known as the \"Messier objects\". The purpose of the catalogue was to help astronomical observers distinguish between permanent and transient visually diffuse objects in the sky.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970920}
{"src_title": "Data", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and terminology.", "content": "The first English use of the word \"data\" is from the 1640s. The word \"data\" was first used to mean \"transmissible and storable computer information\" in 1946. The expression \"data processing\" was first used in 1954.  The Latin word \"data\" is the plural of \"datum\", \"(thing) given,\" neuter past participle of \"dare\" \"to give\". Data may be used as a plural noun in this sense, with some writers—usually scientific writers—in the 20th century using \"datum\" in the singular and \"data\" for plural. However, in everyday language, \"data\" is most commonly used in the singular, as a mass noun (like \"sand\" or \"rain\"). The APA manual of style requires \"data\" to be plural.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Meaning.", "content": "Data, information, knowledge and wisdom are closely related concepts, but each has its own role in relation to the other, and each term has its own meaning. According to a common view, data is collected and analyzed; data only becomes information suitable for making decisions once it has been analyzed in some fashion. One can say that the extent to which a set of data is informative to someone depends on the extent to which it is unexpected by that person. The amount of information contained in a data stream may be characterized by its Shannon entropy.  Knowledge is the understanding based on extensive experience dealing with information on a subject. For example, the height of Mount Everest is generally considered data. The height can be measured precisely with an altimeter and entered into a database. This data may be included in a book along with other data on Mount Everest to describe the mountain in a manner useful for those who wish to make a decision about the best method to climb it. An understanding based on experience climbing mountains that could advise persons on the way to reach Mount Everest's peak may be seen as \"knowledge\". The practical climbing of Mount Everest's peak based on this knowledge may be seen as \"wisdom\". In other words, wisdom refers to the practical application of a person's knowledge in those circumstances where good may result. Thus wisdom complements and completes the series \"data\", \"information\" and \"knowledge\" of increasingly abstract concepts.  Data is often assumed to be the least abstract concept, information the next least, and knowledge the most abstract. In this view, data becomes information by interpretation; e.g., the height of Mount Everest is generally considered \"data\", a book on Mount Everest geological characteristics may be considered \"information\", and a climber's guidebook containing practical information on the best way to reach Mount Everest's peak may be considered \"knowledge\". \"Information\" bears a diversity of meanings that ranges from everyday usage to technical use. This view, however, has also been argued to reverse the way in which data emerges from information, and information from knowledge. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation. Beynon-Davies uses the concept of a sign to differentiate between data and information; data is a series of symbols, while information occurs when the symbols are used to refer to something.  Before the development of computing devices and machines, people had to manually collect data and impose patterns on it. Since the development of computing devices and machines, these devices can also collect data. In the 2010s, computers are widely used in many fields to collect data and sort or process it, in disciplines ranging from marketing, analysis of social services usage by citizens to scientific research. These patterns in data are seen as information which can be used to enhance knowledge. These patterns may be interpreted as \"truth\" (though \"truth\" can be a subjective concept), and may be authorized as aesthetic and ethical criteria in some disciplines or cultures. Events that leave behind perceivable physical or virtual remains can be traced back through data. Marks are no longer considered data once the link between the mark and observation is broken.  Mechanical computing devices are classified according to the means by which they represent data. An analog computer represents a datum as a voltage, distance, position, or other physical quantity. A digital computer represents a piece of data as a sequence of symbols drawn from a fixed alphabet. The most common digital computers use a binary alphabet, that is, an alphabet of two characters, typically denoted \"0\" and \"1\". More familiar representations, such as numbers or letters, are then constructed from the binary alphabet. Some special forms of data are distinguished. A computer program is a collection of data, which can be interpreted as instructions. Most computer languages make a distinction between programs and the other data on which programs operate, but in some languages, notably Lisp and similar languages, programs are essentially indistinguishable from other data. It is also useful to distinguish metadata, that is, a description of other data. A similar yet earlier term for metadata is \"ancillary data.\" The prototypical example of metadata is the library catalog, which is a description of the contents of books.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Data collection.", "content": "Gathering data can be accomplished through a primary source (the researcher is the first person to obtain the data) or a secondary source (the researcher obtains the data that has already been collected by other sources, such as data disseminated in a scientific journal). Data analysis methodologies vary and include data triangulation and data percolation. The latter offers an articulate method of collecting, classifying and analyzing data using five possible angles of analysis (at least three) in order to maximize the research's objectivity and permit an understanding of the phenomena under investigation as complete as possible: qualitative and quantitative methods, literature reviews (including scholarly articles), interviews with experts, and computer simulation. The data is thereafter \"percolated\" using a series of pre-determined steps so as to extract the most relevant information.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In other fields.", "content": "Although data is also increasingly used in other fields, it has been suggested that the highly interpretive nature of them might be at odds with the ethos of data as \"given\". Peter Checkland introduced the term \"capta\" (from the Latin \"capere\", “to take”) to distinguish between an immense number of possible data and a sub-set of them, to which attention is oriented. Johanna Drucker has argued that since the humanities affirm knowledge production as \"situated, partial, and constitutive,\" using \"data\" may introduce assumptions that are counterproductive, for example that phenomena are discrete or are observer-independent. The term \"capta\", which emphasizes the act of observation as constitutive, is offered as an alternative to \"data\" for visual representations in the humanities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Data are characteristics or information, usually numerical, that are collected through observation. In a more technical sense, data is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables about one or more persons or objects, while a datum (singular of data) is a single value of a single variable.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970921}
{"src_title": "Document Object Model", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The history of the Document Object Model is intertwined with the history of the \"browser wars\" of the late 1990s between Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer, as well as with that of JavaScript and JScript, the first scripting languages to be widely implemented in the JavaScript engines of web browsers.  JavaScript was released by Netscape Communications in 1995 within Netscape Navigator 2.0. Netscape's competitor, Microsoft, released Internet Explorer 3.0 the following year with a reimplementation of JavaScript called JScript. JavaScript and JScript let web developers create web pages with client-side interactivity. The limited facilities for detecting user-generated events and modifying the HTML document in the first generation of these languages eventually became known as \"DOM Level 0\" or \"Legacy DOM.\" No independent standard was developed for DOM Level 0, but it was partly described in the specifications for HTML 4.  Legacy DOM was limited in the kinds of elements that could be accessed. Form, link and image elements could be referenced with a hierarchical name that began with the root document object. A hierarchical name could make use of either the names or the sequential index of the traversed elements. For example, a form input element could be accessed as either codice_1 or codice_2.  The Legacy DOM enabled client-side form validation and the popular \"rollover\" effect.  In 1997, Netscape and Microsoft released version 4.0 of Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer respectively, adding support for Dynamic HTML (DHTML) functionality enabling changes to a loaded HTML document. DHTML required extensions to the rudimentary document object that was available in the Legacy DOM implementations. Although the Legacy DOM implementations were largely compatible since JScript was based on JavaScript, the DHTML DOM extensions were developed in parallel by each browser maker and remained incompatible. These versions of the DOM became known as the \"Intermediate DOM.\"  After the standardization of ECMAScript, the W3C DOM Working Group began drafting a standard DOM specification. The completed specification, known as \"DOM Level 1\", became a W3C Recommendation in late 1998. By 2005, large parts of W3C DOM were well-supported by common ECMAScript-enabled browsers, including Microsoft Internet Explorer version 6 (from 2001), Opera, Safari and Gecko-based browsers (like Mozilla, Firefox, SeaMonkey and Camino).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standards.", "content": "The W3C DOM Working Group published its final recommendation and subsequently disbanded in 2004. Development efforts migrated to the WHATWG, which continues to maintain a living standard. In 2009, the Web Applications group reorganized DOM activities at the W3C. In 2013, due to a lack of progress and the impending release of HTML5, the DOM Level 4 specification was reassigned to the HTML Working Group to expedite its completion. Meanwhile, in 2015, the Web Applications group was disbanded and DOM stewardship passed to the Web Platform group. Beginning with the publication of DOM Level 4 in 2015, the W3C creates new recommendations based on snapshots of the WHATWG standard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Web browsers.", "content": "To render a document such as a HTML page, most web browsers use an internal model similar to the DOM. The nodes of every document are organized in a tree structure, called the \"DOM tree\", with the topmost node named as \"Document object\". When an HTML page is rendered in browsers, the browser downloads the HTML into local memory and automatically parses it to display the page on screen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "JavaScript.", "content": "When a web page is loaded, the browser creates a Document Object Model of the page, which is an object oriented representation of an HTML document that acts as an interface between JavaScript and the document itself. This allows the creation of dynamic web pages, because within a page JavaScript can:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Implementations.", "content": "Because the DOM supports navigation in any direction (e.g., parent and previous sibling) and allows for arbitrary modifications, an implementation must at least buffer the document that has been read so far (or some parsed form of it).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Layout engines.", "content": "Web browsers rely on layout engines to parse HTML into a DOM. Some layout engines, such as Trident/MSHTML, are associated primarily or exclusively with a particular browser, such as Internet Explorer. Others, including Blink, WebKit, and Gecko, are shared by a number of browsers, such as Google Chrome, Opera, Safari, and Firefox. The different layout engines implement the DOM standards to varying degrees of compliance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Libraries.", "content": "DOM implementations:  APIs that expose DOM implementations:  Inspection tools:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Document Object Model (DOM) is a cross-platform and language-independent interface that treats an XML or HTML document as a tree structure wherein each node is an object representing a part of the document. The DOM represents a document with a logical tree. Each branch of the tree ends in a node, and each node contains objects. DOM methods allow programmatic access to the tree; with them one can change the structure, style or content of a document. Nodes can have event handlers attached to them. Once an event is triggered, the event handlers get executed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970922}
{"src_title": "Die Brücke", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The founding members of Die Brücke in 1905 were four Jugendstil architecture students: Fritz Bleyl (1880–1966), Erich Heckel (1883–1970), Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff (1884–1976). They met through the Königliche Technische Hochschule (technical university) of Dresden, where Kirchner and Bleyl began studying in 1901 and became close friends in their first term. They discussed art together and also studied nature, having a radical outlook in common. Kirchner continued studies in Munich 1903–1904, returning to Dresden in 1905 to complete his degree. The institution provided a wide range of studies in addition to architecture, such as freehand drawing, perspective drawing and the historical study of art. The name \"Die Brücke\" was intended to \"symbolize the link, or bridge, they would form with art of the future\".  Die Brücke aimed to eschew the prevalent traditional academic style and find a new mode of artistic expression, which would form a bridge (hence the name) between the past and the present. They responded both to past artists such as Albrecht Dürer, Matthias Grünewald and Lucas Cranach the Elder, as well as contemporary international avant-garde movements. The group published a broadside called \"Programme\" in 1906, where Kirchner wrote:  As part of the affirmation of their national heritage, they revived older media, particularly woodcut prints. The group developed a common style based on vivid color, emotional tension, violent imagery, and an influence from primitivism. After first concentrating exclusively on urban subject matter, the group ventured into southern Germany on expeditions arranged by Mueller and produced more nudes and arcadian images. They invented the printmaking technique of linocut, although they at first described them as traditional woodcuts, which they also made.  The group members initially \"isolated\" themselves in a working-class neighborhood of Dresden, aiming thereby to reject their own bourgeois backgrounds. Erich Heckel was able to obtain an empty butcher's shop on the Berlinerstrasse in Friedrichstadt for their use as a studio. Bleyl described the studio as:  Kirchner's became a venue which overthrew social conventions to allow casual love-making and frequent nudity. Group life-drawing sessions took place using models from the social circle, rather than professionals, and choosing quarter-hour poses to encourage spontaneity. Bleyl described one such model, Isabella, a fifteen-year-old girl from the neighbourhood, as \"a very lively, beautifully built, joyous individual, without any deformation caused by the silly fashion of the corset and completely suitable to our artistic demands, especially in the blossoming condition of her girlish buds.\"  The group composed a manifesto (mostly Kirchner's work), which was carved on wood and asserted a new generation, \"who want freedom in our work and in our lives, independence from older, established forces.\"  In September and October 1906, the first group exhibition was held, focused on the female nude, in the showroom of K.F.M. Seifert and Co. in Dresden.  Emil Nolde (1867–1956) and Max Pechstein (1881–1955) joined the group in 1906. Bleyl married in 1907, and, with a concern to support his family, left the group. Otto Mueller (1874–1930) joined in 1910. Between 1907 and 1911, Brücke members stayed during the summer at the Moritzburg lakes and on the island of Fehmarn. In 1911, Kirchner moved to Berlin, where he founded a private art school, MIUM-Institut, in collaboration with Max Pechstein with the aim of promulgating \"Moderner Unterricht im Malen\" (modern teaching of painting). This was not a success and closed the following year.  In 1913, Kirchner wrote \"Chronik der Brücke\" (Brücke chronicle), which led to the ending of the group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Die Brücke was one of two groups of German painters fundamental to Expressionism, the other being Der Blaue Reiter group (\"The Blue Rider\"), formed in Munich in 1911. The influence of Die Brücke went far beyond its founding members. As a result, the style of a number of painters is associated to Die Brücke, even if they were not formerly part of the group. As an example, French academician and art specialist, Maurice Rheims mentions Frédéric Fiebig as the only Latvian painter who was really part of Die Brücke expressionist movement, although he was not necessarily conscious of it.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Die Brücke (The Bridge) was a group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905. Founding members were Fritz Bleyl, Erich Heckel, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. Later members were Emil Nolde, Max Pechstein and Otto Mueller. The seminal group had a major impact on the evolution of modern art in the 20th century and the creation of expressionism. The group came to an end around 1913. The Brücke Museum in Berlin was named after the group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970923}
{"src_title": "Apiaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Most Apiaceae are annual, biennial or perennial herbs (frequently with the leaves aggregated toward the base), though a minority are woody shrubs or small trees such as \"Bupleurum fruticosum\". Their leaves are of variable size and alternately arranged, or with the upper leaves becoming nearly opposite. The leaves may be petiolate or sessile. There are no stipules but the petioles are frequently sheathing and the leaves may be perfoliate. The leaf blade is usually dissected, ternate or pinnatifid, but simple and entire in some genera, e.g. \"Bupleurum\". Commonly, their leaves emit a marked smell when crushed, aromatic to foetid, but absent in some species.  The defining characteristic of this family is the inflorescence, the flowers nearly always aggregated in terminal umbels, that may be simple or more commonly compound, often umbelliform cymes. The flowers are usually perfect (hermaphroditic) and actinomorphic, but there may be zygomorphic flowers at the edge of the umbel, as in carrot (\"Daucus carota\") and coriander, with petals of unequal size, the ones pointing outward from the umbel larger than the ones pointing inward. Some are andromonoecious, polygamomonoecious, or even dioecious (as in \"Acronema\"), with a distinct calyx and corolla, but the calyx is often highly reduced, to the point of being undetectable in many species, while the corolla can be white, yellow, pink or purple. The flowers are nearly perfectly pentamerous, with five petals, sepals, and stamens. The androecium consists of five stamens, but there is often variation in the functionality of the stamens even within a single inflorescence. Some flowers are functionally staminate (where a pistil may be present but has no ovules capable of being fertilized) while others are functionally pistillate (where stamens are present but their anthers do not produce viable pollen). Pollination of one flower by the pollen of a different flower of the same plant (geitonogamy) is common. The gynoecium consists of two carpels fused into a single, bicarpellate pistil with an inferior ovary. Stylopodia support two styles and secrete nectar, attracting pollinators like flies, mosquitoes, gnats, beetles, moths, and bees. The fruit is a schizocarp consisting of two fused carpels that separate at maturity into two mericarps, each containing a single seed. The fruits of many species are dispersed by wind but others such as those of \"Daucus\" spp., are covered in bristles, which may be hooked in sanicle \"Sanicula europaea\" and thus catch in the fur of animals. The seeds have an oily endosperm and often contain essential oils, containing aromatic compounds that are responsible for the flavour of commercially important umbelliferous seed such as anise, cumin and coriander. The shape and details of the ornamentation of the ripe fruits are important for identification to species level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Apiaceae was first described by John Lindley in 1836. The name is derived from the type genus \"Apium\", which was originally used by Pliny the Elder circa 50 AD for a celery-like plant. The alternative name for the family, Umbelliferae, derives from the inflorescence being generally in the form of a compound umbel. The family was one of the first to be recognized as a distinct group in Jacques Daleschamps' 1586 \"Historia generalis plantarum\". With Robert Morison's 1672 \"Plantarum umbelliferarum distribution nova\" it became the first group of plants for which a systematic study was published.  The family is solidly placed within the Apiales order in the APG III system. It is closely related to Araliaceae and the boundaries between these families remain unclear. Traditionally groups within the family have been delimited largely based on fruit morphology, and the results from this have not been congruent with the more recent molecular phylogenetic analyses. The subfamilial and tribal classification for the family is currently in a state of flux, with many of the groups being found to be grossly paraphyletic or polyphyletic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genera.", "content": "According to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website, 434 genera are in the family Apiaceae.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The black swallowtail butterfly, \"Papilio polyxenes\", uses the family Apiaceae for food and host plants for oviposition. The 22-spot ladybird is also commonly found eating mildew on these shrubs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Many members of this family are cultivated for various purposes. Parsnip (\"Pastinaca sativa\"), carrot (\"Daucus carota\") and Hamburg parsley (\"Petroselinum crispum\") produce tap roots that are large enough to be useful as food. Many species produce essential oils in their leaves or fruits and as a result are flavourful aromatic herbs. Examples are parsley (\"Petroselinum crispum\"), coriander (\"Coriandrum sativum\"), culantro, and dill (\"Anethum graveolens\"). The seeds may be used in cuisine, as with coriander (\"Coriandrum sativum\"), fennel (\"Foeniculum vulgare\"), cumin (\"Cuminum cyminum\"), and caraway (\"Carum carvi\").  Other notable cultivated Apiaceae include chervil (\"Anthriscus cerefolium\"), angelica (\"Angelica\" spp.), celery (\"Apium graveolens\"), arracacha (\"Arracacia xanthorrhiza\"), sea holly (\"Eryngium\" spp.), asafoetida (\"Ferula asafoetida\"), galbanum (\"Ferula gummosa\"), cicely (\"Myrrhis odorata\"), anise (\"Pimpinella anisum\"), lovage (\"Levisticum officinale\"), and hacquetia (\"Hacquetia epipactis\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Generally, all members of this family are best cultivated in the cool-season garden; indeed, they may not grow at all if the soils are too warm. Almost every widely cultivated plant of this group is a considered useful as a companion plant. One reason is because the tiny flowers clustered into umbels, are well suited for ladybugs, parasitic wasps, and predatory flies, which actually drink nectar when not reproducing. They then prey upon insect pests on nearby plants. Some of the members of this family considered \"herbs\" produce scents that are believed to...mask the odours of nearby plants, thus making them harder for insect pests to find.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "The poisonous members of the Apiaceae have been used for a variety of purposes globally. The poisonous \"Oenanthe crocata\" has been used to stupefy fish, \"Cicuta douglasii\" has been used as an aid in suicides, and arrow poisons have been made from various other family species.  \"Daucus carota\" has been used as coloring for butter.  \"Dorema ammoniacum\", \"Ferula galbaniflua\", and \"Ferula sumbul\" are sources of incense.  The woody \"Azorella compacta\" Phil. has been used in South America for fuel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Many species in the family Apiaceae produce phototoxic substances (called furanocoumarins) that sensitize human skin to sunlight. Contact with plant parts that contain furanocoumarins, followed by exposure to sunlight, may cause phytophotodermatitis, a serious skin inflammation. Of all the plant species that have been reported to induce phytophotodermatitis, approximately half belong to the family Apiaceae.  Phototoxic species include \"Ammi majus\", the parsnip (\"Pastinaca sativa\") and numerous species of the genus \"Heracleum\", especially the giant hogweed (\"Heracleum mantegazzianum\"). The family Apiaceae also includes a smaller number of poisonous species, including poison hemlock, water hemlock, and fool's parsley.  Some members of the family Apiaceae, including carrot, celery, fennel, parsley and parsnip, contain polyynes, an unusual class of organic compounds that exhibit cytotoxic effects.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Apiaceae or Umbelliferae is a family of mostly aromatic flowering plants named after the type genus \"Apium\" and commonly known as the celery, carrot or parsley family, or simply as umbellifers. It is the 16th-largest family of flowering plants, with more than 3,700 species in 434 genera including such well-known and economically important plants such as ajwain, angelica, anise, asafoetida, caraway, carrot, celery, chervil, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel, poison hemlock, lovage, cow parsley, parsley, parsnip and sea holly, as well as silphium, a plant whose identity is unclear and which may be extinct.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970924}
{"src_title": "Eisenhüttenstadt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The municipal area stretches on a sandy terrace in the Berlin-Warsaw glacial valley (\"Urstromtal\"). It is bounded by the Oder river in the east, which since 1945 has formed the German–Polish border. Eisenhüttenstadt is the eastern terminus of the Oder–Spree Canal. The town centre is located about south of Frankfurt (Oder) and southeast of Berlin. Eisenhüttenstadt has access to the Berlin–Wrocław railway line.  The town comprises the districts of Diehlo, Fürstenberg (Oder), and Schönfließ.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The present-day township was founded as a socialist model city in 1950 (initially named Stalinstadt after Joseph Stalin) upon decision of the East German Socialist Unity Party (SED), alongside a new steel mill combine located west of the historic town of Fürstenberg (Oder). A few years before the new town arose, a bridge over the Oder river had been constructed, which had been destroyed by retreating Wehrmacht forces in February 1945, near the end of World War II.  The population grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1961, during De-Stalinization, the town was renamed Eisenhüttenstadt. After German reunification in 1990, the state-owned steel works were privatized, and most of its 12,000 employees lost their jobs. Thereafter the factory employed around 2,500 workers. The town experienced a steep decline in population, from just over 50,000 to under 30,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The first design for the new residential quarter was developed by the modernist and Bauhaus architect, Franz Ehrlich, in August 1950. His modernist plan, which laid out a dispersed town landscape along functional lines, was rejected by the Ministry for Reconstruction. The same happened to the plan presented by the architects Kurt Junghanns and Otto Geiler. The plan that was ultimately realized was developed by Kurt Walter Leucht.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Eisenhüttenstadt is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "Eisenhüttenstadt was the birthplace of:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eisenhüttenstadt (literally \"ironworks city\" in German; ) is a town in the Oder-Spree district of the state of Brandenburg, Germany, on the border with Poland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970925}
{"src_title": "Electronvolt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "An electronvolt is the amount of kinetic energy gained or lost by a single electron accelerating from rest through an electric potential difference of one volt in vacuum. Hence, it has a value of one volt,, multiplied by the electron's elementary charge \"e\", Therefore, one electronvolt is equal to  The electronvolt, as opposed to the volt, is not an SI unit. The electronvolt (eV) is a unit of energy whereas the volt (V) is the derived SI unit of electric potential. The SI unit for energy is the joule (J).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mass.", "content": "By mass–energy equivalence, the electronvolt is also a unit of mass. It is common in particle physics, where units of mass and energy are often interchanged, to express mass in units of eV/\"c\", where \"c\" is the speed of light in vacuum (from ). It is common to simply express mass in terms of \"eV\" as a unit of mass, effectively using a system of natural units with \"c\" set to 1. The mass equivalent of is  For example, an electron and a positron, each with a mass of, can annihilate to yield of energy. The proton has a mass of. In general, the masses of all hadrons are of the order of, which makes the GeV (gigaelectronvolt) a convenient unit of mass for particle physics:  The unified atomic mass unit (u), almost exactly 1 gram divided by the Avogadro number, is almost the mass of a hydrogen atom, which is mostly the mass of the proton. To convert to electron volts, use the formula:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Momentum.", "content": "In high-energy physics, the electronvolt is often used as a unit of momentum. A potential difference of 1 volt causes an electron to gain an amount of energy (i.e., ). This gives rise to usage of eV (and keV, MeV, GeV or TeV) as units of momentum, for the energy supplied results in acceleration of the particle.  The dimensions of momentum units are. The dimensions of energy units are. Then, dividing the units of energy (such as eV) by a fundamental constant that has units of velocity (), facilitates the required conversion of using energy units to describe momentum. In the field of high-energy particle physics, the fundamental velocity unit is the speed of light in vacuum \"c\".  By dividing energy in eV by the speed of light, one can describe the momentum of an electron in units of eV/\"c\". The fundamental velocity constant \"c\" is often \"dropped\" from the units of momentum by way of defining units of length such that the value of \"c\" is unity. For example, if the momentum \"p\" of an electron is said to be, then the conversion to MKS can be achieved by:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distance.", "content": "In particle physics, a system of \"natural units\" in which the speed of light in vacuum \"c\" and the reduced Planck constant \"ħ\" are dimensionless and equal to unity is widely used:. In these units, both distances and times are expressed in inverse energy units (while energy and mass are expressed in the same units, see mass–energy equivalence). In particular, particle scattering lengths are often presented in units of inverse particle masses.  Outside this system of units, the conversion factors between electronvolt, second, and nanometer are the following:  The above relations also allow expressing the mean lifetime \"τ\" of an unstable particle (in seconds) in terms of its decay width \"Γ\" (in eV) via. For example, the B meson has a lifetime of 1.530(9) picoseconds, mean decay length is, or a decay width of.  Conversely, the tiny meson mass differences responsible for meson oscillations are often expressed in the more convenient inverse picoseconds.  Energy in electronvolts is sometimes expressed through the wavelength of light with photons of the same energy:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperature.", "content": "In certain fields, such as plasma physics, it is convenient to use the electronvolt to express temperature. The electronvolt is divided by the Boltzmann constant to convert to the Kelvin scale:  Where \"k\" is the Boltzmann constant, K is Kelvin, J is Joules, eV is electronvolts.  The \"k\" is assumed when using the electronvolt to express temperature, for example, a typical magnetic confinement fusion plasma is (kilo-electronvolts), which is equal to 170 MK (million Kelvin).  As an approximation: \"k\"\"T\" is about (≈ ) at a temperature of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "The energy \"E\", frequency \"v\", and wavelength λ of a photon are related by  where \"h\" is the Planck constant, \"c\" is the speed of light. This reduces to  A photon with a wavelength of (green light) would have an energy of approximately. Similarly, would correspond to an infrared photon of wavelength or frequency.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scattering experiments.", "content": "In a low-energy nuclear scattering experiment, it is conventional to refer to the nuclear recoil energy in units of eVr, keVr, etc. This distinguishes the nuclear recoil energy from the \"electron equivalent\" recoil energy (eVee, keVee, etc.) measured by scintillation light. For example, the yield of a phototube is measured in phe/keVee (photoelectrons per keV electron-equivalent energy). The relationship between eV, eVr, and eVee depends on the medium the scattering takes place in, and must be established empirically for each material.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Energy comparisons.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Per mole.", "content": "One mole of particles given 1 eV of energy has approximately 96.5 kJ of energy — this corresponds to the Faraday constant (\"F\" ≈ ), where the energy in joules of \"n\" moles of particles each with energy \"E\" eV is equal to \"E\"·\"F\"·\"n\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In physics, an electronvolt (symbol eV, also written electron-volt and electron volt) is the amount of kinetic energy gained (or lost) by a single electron accelerating from rest through an electric potential difference of one volt in vacuum. When used as a unit of energy, the numerical value of 1 eV in joules (symbol J) is equivalent to the numerical value of the charge of an electron in coulombs (symbol C). Under the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, this sets 1 eV equal to J.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970926}
{"src_title": "Erika Eleniak", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Erika Eleniak was born in Glendale, California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Eleniak's first feature-film role was at age 12, in the 1982 film \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\" as the girl kissed by Elliott in the classroom scene. Her 10-year-old costar, Henry Thomas, told \"People\" magazine that he disliked filming the scene: “When I had to kiss the girl, I had to do it two times! I don’t like girls.\"  Her first film role as an adult was as Vicki De Soto, a victim of the creature in the 1988 horror remake \"The Blob\".  Eleniak appeared in the July 1989 issue of \"Playboy\" in a pictorial with a nautical theme. That same year, she began a recurring role in the TV series \"Charles in Charge\" as Charles's girlfriend Stephanie Curtis, and also won a role on \"Baywatch\" as female lead Shauni McClain, which she played from 1989 to 1992. She also played Carrie, the high-school girlfriend of Jesse (John Stamos), in \"One Last Kiss\", the November 16, 1990 episode of \"Full House\".  In 1992, Eleniak returned to film acting, playing a \"Playboy \"Playmate hired to perform a striptease for the captain of a U.S. Navy battleship in \"Under Siege\". In the film, she is described as \"Miss July 1989\"—the month that Eleniak was Playmate of the Month in real life.  She had a starring role as Elly May Clampett in the screen adaptation of \"The Beverly Hillbillies\" in 1993. The next year, she starred in the Dennis Hopper-directed romantic comedy film \"Chasers\" with William McNamara. Eleniak shot another movie with McNamara, \"Girl in the Cadillac\" (1995), and starred as identical twins in the interactive 1995 video game \"Panic in the Park\". She continued to make more independent films until 2003.  Eleniak appeared on the reality television series \"The Real Gilligan's Island\" in June 2005.  Eleniak has suffered from weight issues. At one point, she was underweight due to an eating disorder and was once hospitalized for laxative abuse. By 2006, she was overweight and participated in the fourth season of VH1's \"Celebrity Fit Club\".  In 2006, she appeared on \"80's Movie and Music Fest Cafe\", a British comedy podcast on iTunes, in which she discussed her career with presenters Ross Dyer and Julian Bayes. She gave a lighthearted view of \"Baywatch\" and her challenge during filming of \"Celebrity Fit Club\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Eleniak was once engaged to her \"Baywatch\" co-star Billy Warlock, who had played her love interest on the show, as well. Eleniak married Philip Goglia on May 22, 1998, but after just six months, the marriage ended in divorce. After filming \"Snowbound\" in 2001 in Calgary, Alberta, Eleniak became enamored of the city. She began dating Roch Daigle, a key grip who worked on the set. She had wanted to leave Los Angeles as she found commuting to and from Telluride, Colorado, difficult. She purchased a home in Calgary, where Daigle lived. The two eventually married. Eleniak became pregnant in 2005, but six and a half weeks into her term, the pregnancy was discovered to be ectopic, which required emergency surgery, and ended in miscarriage. Eleniak later became pregnant again and gave birth to a daughter.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erika Eleniak (born September 29, 1969) is an American actress, \"Playboy\" Playmate, and former model best known for her role in \"Baywatch\" as Shauni McClain. Her film debut was a small part in \"\" (1982). She later starred in the films \"The Blob\", \"Under Siege\", and \"The Beverly Hillbillies\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970927}
{"src_title": "Euclid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Very few original references to Euclid survive, so little is known about his life. He was likely born c. 325 BC, although the place and circumstances of both his birth and death are unknown and may only be estimated roughly relative to other people mentioned with him. He is mentioned by name, though rarely, by other Greek mathematicians from Archimedes (c. 287 BC – c. 212 BC) onward, and is usually referred to as \"ὁ στοιχειώτης\" (\"the author of Elements\"). The few historical references to Euclid were written by Proclus c. 450 AD, centuries after Euclid lived.  A detailed biography of Euclid is given by Arabian authors, mentioning, for example, a birth town of Tyre. This biography is generally believed to be fictitious. If he came from Alexandria, he would have known the Serapeum of Alexandria, and the Library of Alexandria, and may have worked there during his time. Euclid's arrival in Alexandria came about ten years after its founding by Alexander the Great, which means he arrived c. 322 BC.  Proclus introduces Euclid only briefly in his \"Commentary on the Elements\". According to Proclus, Euclid supposedly belonged to Plato's \"persuasion\" and brought together the \"Elements\", drawing on prior work of Eudoxus of Cnidus and of several pupils of Plato (particularly Theaetetus and Philip of Opus.) Proclus believes that Euclid is not much younger than these, and that he must have lived during the time of Ptolemy I (c. 367 BC – 282 BC) because he was mentioned by Archimedes. Although the apparent citation of Euclid by Archimedes has been judged to be an interpolation by later editors of his works, it is still believed that Euclid wrote his works before Archimedes wrote his. Proclus later retells a story that, when Ptolemy I asked if there was a shorter path to learning geometry than Euclid's \"Elements\", \"Euclid replied there is no royal road to geometry.\" This anecdote is questionable since it is similar to a story told about Menaechmus and Alexander the Great. Euclid died c. 270 BC, presumably in Alexandria. In the only other key reference to Euclid, Pappus of Alexandria (c. 320 AD) briefly mentioned that Apollonius \"spent a very long time with the pupils of Euclid at Alexandria, and it was thus that he acquired such a scientific habit of thought\" c. 247–222 BC.  Because the lack of biographical information is unusual for the period (extensive biographies being available for most significant Greek mathematicians several centuries before and after Euclid), some researchers have proposed that Euclid was not a historical personage, and that his works were written by a team of mathematicians who took the name Euclid from Euclid of Megara (à la Bourbaki). However, this hypothesis is not well accepted by scholars and there is little evidence in its favor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Elements\".", "content": "Although many of the results in \"Elements\" originated with earlier mathematicians, one of Euclid's accomplishments was to present them in a single, logically coherent framework, making it easy to use and easy to reference, including a system of rigorous mathematical proofs that remains the basis of mathematics 23 centuries later.  There is no mention of Euclid in the earliest remaining copies of the \"Elements\". Most of the copies say they are \"from the edition of Theon\" or the \"lectures of Theon\", while the text considered to be primary, held by the Vatican, mentions no author. Proclus provides the only reference ascribing the \"Elements\" to Euclid.  Although best known for its geometric results, the \"Elements\" also includes number theory. It considers the connection between perfect numbers and Mersenne primes (known as the Euclid–Euler theorem), the infinitude of prime numbers, Euclid's lemma on factorization (which leads to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic on uniqueness of prime factorizations), and the Euclidean algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers.  The geometrical system described in the \"Elements\" was long known simply as \"geometry\", and was considered to be the only geometry possible. Today, however, that system is often referred to as \"Euclidean geometry\" to distinguish it from other so-called \"non-Euclidean geometries\" discovered in the 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fragments.", "content": "The Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 29 (P. Oxy. 29) is a fragment of the second book of the \"Elements\" of Euclid, unearthed by Grenfell and Hunt 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. More recent scholarship suggests a date of 75–125 AD.  The fragment contains the statement of the 5th proposition of Book 2, which in the translation of T. L. Heath reads:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other works.", "content": "In addition to the \"Elements\", at least five works of Euclid have survived to the present day. They follow the same logical structure as \"Elements\", with definitions and proved propositions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lost works.", "content": "Other works are credibly attributed to Euclid, but have been lost.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The European Space Agency's (ESA) Euclid spacecraft was named in his honor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Euclid (; – \"Eukleídēs\", ; fl. 300 BC), sometimes called Euclid of Alexandria to distinguish him from Euclid of Megara, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the \"founder of geometry\" or the \"father of geometry\". He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I (323–283 BC). His \"Elements\" is one of the most influential works in the history of mathematics, serving as the main textbook for teaching mathematics (especially geometry) from the time of its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century. In the \"Elements\", Euclid deduced the theorems of what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, and mathematical rigour.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970928}
{"src_title": "Epidemic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "The term epidemic derives from a word form attributed to Homer's \"Odyssey\", which later took its medical meaning from the \",\" a treatise by Hippocrates. Before Hippocrates, \"epidemios\", \"epidemeo\", \"epidamos\", and other variants had meanings similar to the current definitions of \"indigenous\" or \"endemic\". Thucydides' description of the Plague of Athens is considered one of the earliest accounts of a disease epidemic. By the early 17th century, the terms endemic and epidemic referred to contrasting conditions of population-level disease, with the endemic condition at low rates of occurrence and the epidemic condition widespread. The term \"epidemic\" has become emotionally charged.  The Atlanta Center for Disease Control defines epidemic broadly: \"the occurrence of more cases of disease, injury, or other health condition than expected in a given area or among a specific group of persons during a particular period. Usually, the cases are presumed to have a common cause or to be related to one another in some way (see also outbreak).\" The terms \"epidemic\" and \"outbreak\" have often been used interchangeably. Researchers Manfred S. Green and colleagues propose that the latter term be restricted to smaller events, pointing out that \"Chambers Concise Dictionary\" and \"Stedman's Medical Dictionary\" acknowledge this distinction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Causes.", "content": "There are several changes that may occur in an infectious agent that may trigger an epidemic. These include:  An epidemic disease is not required to be contagious, and the term has been applied to West Nile fever and the obesity epidemic (e.g., by the World Health Organisation), among others.  The conditions which govern the outbreak of epidemics include infected food supplies such as contaminated drinking water and the migration of populations of certain animals, such as rats or mosquitoes, which can act as disease vectors.  Certain epidemics occur at certain seasons. For example, whooping-cough occurs in spring, whereas measles produces two epidemics, one in winter and one in March. Influenza, the common cold, and other infections of the upper respiratory tract, such as sore throat, occur predominantly in the winter. There is another variation, both as regards the number of people affected and the number who die in successive epidemics: the severity of successive epidemics rises and falls over periods of five or ten years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Common source outbreak.", "content": "In a common source outbreak epidemic, the affected individuals had an exposure to a common agent. If the exposure is singular and all of the affected individuals develop the disease over a single exposure and incubation course, it can be termed a point source outbreak. If the exposure was continuous or variable, it can be termed a continuous outbreak or intermittent outbreak, respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Propagated outbreak.", "content": "In a propagated outbreak, the disease spreads person-to-person. Affected individuals may become independent reservoirs leading to further exposures.  Many epidemics will have characteristics of both common source and propagated outbreaks (sometimes referred to as mixed outbreak).  For example, secondary person-to-person spread may occur after a common source exposure or an environmental vectors may spread a zoonotic diseases agent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "Preparations for an epidemic include having a disease surveillance system; the ability to quickly dispatch emergency workers, especially local-based emergency workers; and a legitimate way to guarantee the safety and health of health workers.  Effective preparations for a response to a pandemic are multi-layered. The first layer is a disease surveillance system. Tanzania, for example, runs a national lab that runs testing for 200 health sites and tracks the spread of infectious diseases. The next layer is the actual response to an emergency. According to U.S.-based columnist Michael Gerson in 2015, only the U.S. military and NATO have the global capability to respond to such an emergency. Still, despite the most extensive preparatory measures, a fast-spreading pandemic may easily exceed and overwhelm existing health-care resources. Consequently, early and aggressive mitigation efforts, aimed at the so-called \"epidemic curve flattening\" need to be taken. Such measures usually consist on non-pharmacological interventions such as social/physical distancing, aggressive contact tracing, \"stay-at-home\" orders, as well as appropriate personal protective equipment (i.e., masks, gloves, and other physical barriers to spread).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An epidemic (from Greek ἐπί \"epi\" \"upon or above\" and δῆμος \"demos\" \"people\") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of people in a given population within a short period of time. For example, in meningococcal infections, an attack rate in excess of 15 cases per 100,000 people for two consecutive weeks is considered an epidemic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970929}
{"src_title": "Crocus sativus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Morphology.", "content": "\"Crocus sativus\" has a corm, which holds leaves, bracts, bracteole, and the flowering stalk. These are protected by the corm underground. \"C. sativus\" generally blooms with purple flowers in the autumn. The plant grows about 10 to 30 cm high. \"C. sativus\" is a triploid with 24 chromosomes, which means it has three times the haploid number of chromosomes. This makes the plant sterile due to its inability to pair chromosomes during meiosis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Crocus sativus\" is unknown in the wild, and its ancestor is unknown. The species \"Crocus cartwrightianus\" is the most probable ancestor, but \"C. thomassi\" and \"C. pallasii\" are still being considered as potential predecessors. Manual vegetative multiplication is necessary to produce offspring for this species as the plant itself is a triploid that is self-incompatible and male sterile, therefore rendering it incapable of sexual reproduction. This inability to reproduce on its own supports the hypothesis that \"C. sativus\" is a mutant descending from \"C. carthwrightianus\" as a result of selective breeding.  Corms of \"Crocus sativus\" should be planted 4 inches apart and in a trough 4 inches deep. The flower grows best in areas of full sun in well-drained soil with moderate levels of organic content. The corms will multiply after each year, and will last 3–5 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "Saffron is considered to be the most valuable spice by weight. See spice. Depending on the size of harvested stigmas, 50,000–75,000 \"Crocus sativus\" plants are needed to produce about 1 pound of saffron; each flower only produces three stigmas. Stigmas should be harvested mid-morning when the flowers are fully opened. The saffron crocus (\"Crocus sativus\") should not be confused with \"meadow\" saffron or autumn crocus (\"Colchicum autumnale\") which is poisonous.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Crocus sativus, commonly known as saffron crocus, or autumn crocus, is a species of flowering plant of the \"Crocus\" genus in the iris family Iridaceae. It is best known for producing the spice saffron from the filaments that grow inside the flower. The term \"autumn crocus\" is also used for species in the \"Colchicum\" genus, which strongly resemble crocuses. However, crocuses have 3 stamens and 3 styles, while colchicums have 6 stamens and 1 style, and belong to different family, Colchicaceae. They are also toxic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970930}
{"src_title": "Geography of France", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Physical geography of Metropolitan France.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Land use.", "content": "\"Irrigated land:\" 26,420 km2 (2007)  \"Total renewable water resources:\" 211 km (2011)  \"Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):\" 31.62 km/yr (19%/71%/10%) (512.1 m/yr per capita) (2009)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Natural resources.", "content": "Coal, iron ore, bauxite, zinc, uranium, antimony, arsenic, potash, feldspar, fluorspar, gypsum, timber, fish, gold", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Natural hazards.", "content": "Flooding, avalanches, midwinter windstorms, drought, forest fires in the south near the Mediterranean", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Environment.", "content": "The region that now comprises France consisted of open grassland during the Pleistocene Ice Age. France gradually became forested as the glaciers retreated starting in 10,000 BC, but clearing of these primeval forests began in Neolithic times. These forests were still fairly extensive until the medieval era.  In prehistoric times, France was home to large predatory animals such as wolves and brown bears, as well as herbivores such as elk. The larger fauna have disappeared outside the Pyrenees Mountains where bears live as a protected species. Smaller animals include martens, wild pigs, foxes, weasels, bats, rodents, rabbits, and assorted birds.  By the 15th century, France had largely been denuded of its forests and was forced to rely on Scandinavia and their North American colonies for lumber. Significant remaining forested areas are in the Gascony region and north in the Alsace-Ardennes area. The Ardennes Forest was the scene of extensive fighting in both world wars.  The upper central part of this region is dominated by the Paris Basin, which consists of a layered sequence of sedimentary rocks. Fertile soils over much of the area make good agricultural land. The Normandy coast to the upper left is characterized by high, chalk cliffs, while the Brittany coast (the peninsula to the left) is highly indented where deep valleys were drowned by the sea, and the Biscay coast to the southwest is marked by flat, sandy beaches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Internal divisions.", "content": "France has several levels of internal divisions. The first-level administrative division of Integral France is regions. Besides this the French Republic has sovereignty over several other territories, with various administrative levels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Extreme points.", "content": "This is a list of the extreme points of France; the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperature Extremes.", "content": "These are the extreme temperatures in France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Lists:  General:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The geography of France consists of a terrain that is mostly flat plains or gently rolling hills in the north and west and mountainous in the south (including the Pyrenees) and the east (the highest points being in the Alps). Metropolitan France has a total size of (Europe only). It is the third largest country in Europe after Russia and Ukraine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970931}
{"src_title": "Phaseolus coccineus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "This species originated from the mountains of Central America. Most varieties have red flowers and multicolored seeds (though some have white flowers and white seeds), and they are often grown as ornamental plants. The vine can grow to 3 m (9 ft) or more in length.  It differs from the common bean (\"P. vulgaris\") in several respects: the cotyledons stay in the ground during germination, and the plant is a perennial vine with tuberous roots (though it is usually treated as an annual).  The knife-shaped pods are normally green; however, there are very rare varieties bred by amateurs that have very unusual purple pods. An example of such a purple-podded runner bean is 'Aeron Purple Star'.  Runner beans have also been called \"Oregon lima bean\", and in Nahuatl \"ayocotl\" or in Spanish \"ayocote\". Runner beans, like all beans, contain the toxic protein phytohaemagglutinin and thus should be cooked well before eating.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "In the US, in 1978, the scarlet runner was widely grown for its attractive flowers primarily as an ornamental. Since that time, many US gardeners have adopted the bean as a regular member of the vegetable garden. The flower is known as a favourite of hummingbirds. In the UK – where the vegetable is a popular choice for kitchen gardens and allotments – the flowers are often ignored, or treated as an attractive bonus to cultivating the plant for the beans.  The seeds of the plant can be used fresh or as dried beans. The pods are edible whole while they are young and not yet fibrous. The starchy roots are still eaten by Central American Natives.  The beans are used in many cuisines. It is a popular side vegetable in British cuisine. A variety named 'Judión de la Granja' producing large, white, edible beans is cultivated in San Ildefonso, Spain. It is the basis of a Segovian regional dish also named \"Judiones de la Granja\", in which the beans are mixed with pig's ears, pig's trotters, and chorizo, amongst other ingredients.  In Greece, cultivars of the runner bean with white blossom and white beans are known as \"fasolia gigantes\" (φασόλια γίγαντες). They are grown under protective law in the north of Greece within the regions of Kato Nevrokopi, Florina and Kastoria. The beans have an important role in Greek cuisine, appearing in many dishes (such as Gigandes plaki). In English, they are sometimes colloquially referred to as elephant beans. In Austria the coloured versions are cultivated and served as \"Käferbohnen\" (\"beetle-bean\"), a dish made of the dry beans with pumpkin seed oil. It is considered a typical dish of regional Austrian cuisine, but dried runner beans are also consumed to a small extent in Germany.  Greece and northern Africa are the sources of pods of the runner beans sold as \"green beans\" in European markets during the cold period. The pods can be identified by their big size and the rougher surface.  Cultivars include:  \"P. coccineus\" subsp. \"darwinianus \" is a cultivated subspecies, commonly referred to as the \"botil\" bean in Mexico.  The related species considered most useful for interbreeding with \"P. coccineus\" to increase its genetic diversity are \"P. dumosus\" and \"P. vulgaris\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phaseolus coccineus, known as runner bean, scarlet runner bean, or multiflora bean, is a plant in the legume family, Fabaceae. Another common name is butter bean, which, however, can also refer to the lima bean, a different species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970932}
{"src_title": "Friedrich Dürrenmatt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Dürrenmatt was born in Konolfingen, canton of Bern, the son of a Protestant pastor. His grandfather, Ulrich Dürrenmatt, was a conservative politician. The family moved to Bern in 1935. Dürrenmatt began studies in philosophy, German philology and German literature at the University of Zürich in 1941, but moved to the University of Bern after one semester where he also studied natural science. In 1943, he decided to become an author and dramatist and dropped his academic career. In 1945–46, he wrote his first play \"It Is Written\". On 11 October 1946, he married the actress Lotti Geissler. She died on 16 January 1983. Dürrenmatt married another actress, Charlotte Kerr, in 1984.  Dürrenmatt also enjoyed painting. Some of his own works and his drawings were exhibited in Neuchâtel in 1976 and 1985, as well as in Zürich in 1978.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dramatic works.", "content": "Like Bertolt Brecht, Dürrenmatt explored the dramatic possibilities of epic theatre. Next to Brecht, he has been called its \"most original theorist\".  When he was 26, his first play, \"It Is Written\", premiered to great controversy. The story of the play revolves around a battle between a sensation-craving cynic and a religious fanatic who takes scripture literally, all of this taking place while the city they live in is under siege. The play's opening night in April 1947, caused fights and protests in the audience. Between 1948 and 1949, Dürrenmatt wrote several segments and sketches for the anti-Nazi Cabaret Cornichon in Zürich; among these, the single-act grotesque short play \"Der Gerettete\" (\"The Rescued\").  His first major success was the play \"Romulus the Great\". Set in the year A.D. 476, the play explores the last days of the Roman Empire, presided over, and brought about by its last emperor, Romulus. \"The Visit\" (\"Der Besuch der alten Dame\", 1956) is a grotesque fusion of comedy and tragedy about a wealthy woman who offers the people of her hometown a fortune if they will execute the man who jilted her years earlier. The satirical drama \"The Physicists\" (\"Die Physiker\", 1962), which deals with issues concerning science and its responsibility for dramatic and dangerous changes to the world, has also been presented in translation.  Radio plays published in English include \"Hercules in the Augean Stables\" (\"Herkules und der Stall des Augias\", 1954), \"Incident at Twilight\" (\"Abendstunde im Spätherbst\", 1952) and \"The Mission of the Vega\" (\"Das Unternehmen der Wega\", 1954). The two late works \"Labyrinth\" and \"Turmbau zu Babel\" are a collection of unfinished ideas, stories, and philosophical thoughts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1990, he gave two famous speeches, one in honour of Václav Havel (\"Die Schweiz, ein Gefängnis?/Switzerland a Prison?\"), the other in honour of Mikhail Gorbachev (\"Kants Hoffnung/Kant's Hope\"). Dürrenmatt often compared the three Abrahamic religions and Marxism, which he also saw as a religion.  He traveled in 1969 to the United States, in 1974 to Israel, and in 1990 to Auschwitz in Poland.  Dürrenmatt died from heart failure on 14 December 1990 in Neuchâtel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "His novel, \"A Dangerous Game\" (also known as \"Die Panne\" (\"Traps\")) was adapted into a Marathi play, \"Shantata! Court Chalu Aahe\" (Silence! The Court Is in Session) by Indian playwright Vijay Tendulkar in 1967. The play has since then been performed in various Indian languages, and made into a film by the same name by Satyadev Dubey.  His play \"The Visit\" has been adapted and Indianised into a play called \"Miss.Meena\" by Chennai-based theatre group 'perch'. \"The Visit\" has also been adapted as a musical by Kander and Ebb.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Dürrenmatt (; 5 January 1921 – 14 December 1990) was a Swiss author and dramatist. He was a proponent of epic theatre whose plays reflected the recent experiences of World War II. The politically active author's work included avant-garde dramas, philosophical crime novels, and macabre satire. Dürrenmatt was a member of the Gruppe Olten, a group of left-wing Swiss writers who convened regularly at a restaurant in the town Olten.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970933}
{"src_title": "Finnish euro coins", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Finnish euro design.", "content": "For images of the common side and a detailed description of the coins, see euro coins.  In Finland, the euro was introduced in 2002. However, the first sets of coins were minted, as preparation, in 1999. Hence the first euro coins of Finland have minted the year 1999 instead of 2002.  Finnish euro coins dated 1999–2006 carry the mint mark M which is the initial of the mint master at the Mint of Finland, Raimo Makkonen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amendments.", "content": "In December 2006, the Bank of Finland announced the following:  \"The national sides of euro coins will be amended so that each issuing Member State will add its name or abbreviation (FI for Finland) on the coins. On Finnish coins the first letter of the Mint of Finland’s President and CEO (M for Raimo Makkonen) will also be replaced with the Mint’s logo. Amendments to the national sides affect all denominations of euro coins.  \"Each euro area Member State will decide on the schedule for the introduction of their new coins. In Finland the new coins will be put into circulation in January 2007. The current coins will remain valid, and coins in stock will be put into circulation as necessary. This way coins with the new designs will mix with the current coins in circulation.\"  Finland was the first state in the EMU (European Monetary Union) to implement these changes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Circulating mintage quantities.", "content": "The following table shows the mintage quantity for all Finnish euro coins, per denomination, per year (the numbers are represented in millions).  <nowiki>*</nowiki> No coins were minted that year for that denomination <nowiki>**</nowiki> Data not available yet <nowiki>€2 CC</nowiki> €2 commemorative coins", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other commemorative coins (collectors' coins).", "content": "Finland has a collection of euro commemorative coins, mainly in silver and gold, although other materials are used. Their face values range from 5 euro to 100 euro. This is mainly done as a legacy of old national practice of minting gold and silver coins. These coins are not intended to be used as means of payment, so generally they do not circulate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International coin trading.", "content": "In June 2009, Finland and the Netherlands coordinated a unique trade at European level. Excess Finnish 5 cent coins were traded for Dutch two-euro coins. In total five truckloads containing 30 million five cent coins were traded for 3 million Dutch two-euro coins. This trade saved both countries a lot of money in production and material costs. An estimated 120,000 kg of metal has been saved with this trade alone. In 2010 this exact trade has been repeated, helping Finland rid some of its 5-cent excesses, pumping in a new supply of two-euro coins, and saving both countries a lot of money.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage of 1 cent and 2 cent coins.", "content": "Finnish businesses and banks have employed a method known as \"Swedish rounding\" when tallying sums. Due in large part to the inefficiency of producing and accepting the 1 cent and 2 cent coins, Finland has opted to remove these coins from general circulation in order to offset the cost involved in accepting them.  While individual prices are still shown and summed up with €0.01 precision, the total sum is then rounded to the nearest five cents when paying with cash. Sums ending in 1, 2, 6 and 7 cents are rounded down; sums ending in 3, 4, 8 and 9 cents are rounded up.  The 1 cent and 2 cent coins are legal tender and are minted for collector sets as required by the EMU agreement.  When paying in cash in Finland, while by law a shopkeeper should accept the coins, usually they will decline, and ask for higher denominations to match the Swedish rounding, even when presented with exact change.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Designers.", "content": "The 1 euro coin is designed by the sculptor Pertti Mäkinen and the two-euro coin by the designer Raimo Heino.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Finnish euro coins feature three designs. Heikki Häiväoja provided the design for the 1 cent – 50 cent coins, Pertti Mäkinen provided the design for the 1 euro coin, and Raimo Heino provided the design for the 2 euro coin, which shows cloudberry, the golden berry of northern Finland. All designs feature the 12 stars of the EU and the year of imprint.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970934}
{"src_title": "Berlin Tempelhof Airport", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Function.", "content": "Tempelhof was often called the \"City Airport\". In its later years, it mostly had commuter flights to other parts of Germany and neighbouring countries; but it had in the past received long-haul, wide-bodied airliners, such as the Boeing 747, the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar and the Lockheed C-5A Galaxy. The first of these three first appeared at Tempelhof on 18 September 1976, when Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) flew in Boeing 747SP \"Clipper Great Republic\" to participate in the static exhibition of contemporary military, non-combat and civil aircraft at the annual \"Day of Open House\" of the United States Air Force (USAF) at the airport.  The Galaxy had its first appearance at", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The site of the airport was originally Knights Templar land in medieval Berlin, and from this beginning came the name \"Tempelhof\". Later, the site was used as a parade field by Prussian forces, and by unified German forces from 1720 to the start of World War I. In 1909, Frenchman Armand Zipfel made the first flight demonstration in Tempelhof, followed by Orville Wright later that same year. Tempelhof was first officially designated as an airport on 8 October 1923. Deutsche Luft Hansa was founded in Tempelhof on 6 January 1926.  The old terminal, originally constructed in 1927, became the world's first with an underground railway. The station has since been renamed \"Paradestraße\", because the rebuilding of the airport in the 1930s required the airport access to be moved to a major intersection with a station now called Platz der Luftbrücke after the Berlin Airlift.  As part of Albert Speer's plan for the reconstruction of Berlin during the Nazi era, Prof. Ernst Sagebiel was ordered to replace the old terminal with a new terminal building in 1934. The airport halls and the adjoining buildings, intended to become the gateway to Europe and a symbol of Hitler's \"world capital\" Germania, are still known as one of the largest built entities worldwide, and have been described by British architect Sir Norman Foster as \"the mother of all airports\". With its façades of shell limestone, the terminal building, built between 1936 and 1941, forms a 1.2 kilometre long quadrant. Arriving passengers walked through customs controls to the reception hall. Tempelhof was served by the U6 U-Bahn line along Mehringdamm and up Friedrichstraße (Platz der Luftbrücke station).  Zentralflughafen Tempelhof-Berlin had the advantage of a central location just minutes from the Berlin city centre and quickly became one of the world's busiest airports. Tempelhof saw its greatest pre-war days during 1938–1939, when up to 52 foreign and 40 domestic flights arrived and departed daily from the old terminal while the new one was still under construction.  The new air terminal was designed as headquarters for Deutsche Luft Hansa (moved in 1938), the German national airline at that time. As a forerunner of today's modern airports, the building was designed with many unique features, including giant arc-shaped aircraft hangars. Although under construction for more than ten years, it was never finished because of World War II. For passengers and freight, the 1927-built terminal stayed in use until 24 April 1945.  The building complex was designed to resemble an eagle in flight with semicircular hangars forming the bird's spread wings. A -long hangar roof was to have been laid in tiers to form a stadium for spectators at air and ground demonstrations. Norman Foster called Tempelhof \"one of the really great buildings of the modern age\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Airlines and destinations.", "content": "Most airlines moved to Tegel or Schönefeld in the years before Tempelhof closed down. When it was actually closed down in 2008 there were only scheduled flights from Brussels Airlines and Cirrus Airlines still operating from there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accidents and incidents.", "content": "On 12 June 1897, in one of the earliest recorded aircraft accidents, Friedrich Hermann Wölfert and his mechanic Robert Knabe were killed when Wölfert's lighter than air craft \"Deutschland\" caught fire at 200 m (670 ft) and crashed at Tempelhof Field.  On 29 April 1952, an Air France Douglas C-54A (registration F-BELI) operating a scheduled service from Frankfurt Rhein-Main Airport to Berlin Tempelhof came under sustained attack from two Soviet MiG 15 fighters while passing through one of the Allied air corridors over East Germany. Although the attack had severely damaged the plane, necessitating the shutdown of engines number three and four, the pilot in command of the aircraft managed to carry out a safe emergency landing at Tempelhof Airport.  A subsequent inspection of the aircraft's damage at Tempelhof revealed that it had been hit by 89 shots fired from the Soviet MiGs during the preceding air attack. There were no fatalities among the 17 occupants (six crew, 11 passengers) despite the severity of the attack. The Soviet military authorities defended this attack on an unarmed civilian aircraft by claiming the Air France plane was outside the air corridor at the time of attack.  On 19 January 1953, a Silver City Airways Bristol 170 Freighter Mark 21 (registration: G-AICM) operating a non-scheduled cargo flight from West Berlin crash-landed near Tempelhof Airport as a result of fuel starvation when bad weather at the destination forced it to return to Berlin. Although the accident damaged the aircraft beyond repair, both pilots survived.  In 1978, LOT Polish Airlines flight 165 was hijacked and forced to land at Tempelhof. The US military authorities who were in charge of Tempelhof during the Cold War era arrested the East German hijacker on arrival. Following the hijacker's arrest, the US authorities returned the aircraft, its crew and those passengers who wished to resume their journey to Poland.  In 1981, a LOT Polish Airlines Antonov AN-24 operating an internal scheduled service from Katowice to Gdańsk was hijacked en route and forced to land at Tempelhof. Jerzy Dygas, the hijacker, was on military service while taking over the aircraft. He was armed with a grenade and a single-shot pistol. The US military authorities arrested the hijacker on arrival and handed him over to the local police. At that time, he was expected to be sentenced to a five-and-a-half years prison term under West German law. Following the hijacker's arrest, the US authorities released the aircraft, its crew and all 50 passengers to resume their flight to Gdańsk.  On 26 June 2010, a private Socata TB 10 Tobago had to perform an emergency landing on the now closed Tempelhof Airport due to engine failure. It was on a sightseeing flight and the pilot was looking for a free space to land safely. The aircraft was occupied by the pilot and three passengers and had taken off from Tegel Airport. Upon consultation with air traffic control in Schönefeld, it was agreed to land on a Tempelhof runway. No one was injured during the emergency landing as the visitors of the now Tempelhofer Park scurried aside to make room for the TB 10, which came to a halt after a very short distance. Four days later, the Socata TB 10 Tobago was transported – with wings removed – by lorry back to Tegel airport. The Senate of Berlin now intends to prohibit sightseeing flights over Berlin by single-engine planes for safety reasons. It has been reported that the pilot had forgotten to switch over to the second fuel tank.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Berlin Tempelhof Airport () was one of the first airports in Berlin, Germany. Situated in the south-central Berlin borough of Tempelhof-Schöneberg, the airport ceased operating in 2008 amid controversy, leaving Tegel and Schönefeld as the two main airports serving the city, with the new Berlin Brandenburg Airport still under construction as of 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970935}
{"src_title": "File Transfer Protocol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The Institute was founded in 1921, as the Institute for Theoretical Physics of the University of Copenhagen, by the Danish theoretical physicist Niels Bohr, who had been on the staff of the University of Copenhagen since 1914, and who had been lobbying for its creation since his appointment as professor in 1916. On the 80th anniversary of Niels Bohr's birth – October 7, 1965 – the Institute officially became the Niels Bohr Institute. Much of its original funding came from the charitable foundation of the Carlsberg brewery, and later from the Rockefeller Foundation.  During the 1920s, and 1930s, the Institute was the center of the developing disciplines of atomic physics and quantum physics. Physicists from across Europe (and sometimes further abroad) often visited the Institute to confer with Bohr on new theories and discoveries. The Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics is named after work done at the Institute during this time.  On January 1, 1993 the institute was merged with the Astronomic Observatory, the Ørsted Laboratory and the Geophysical Institute. The new resulting institute retained the name Niels Bohr Institute.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research sections.", "content": "Research at the Niels Bohr Institute is organised in ten research sections covering a broad range of physics, i.e. astrophysics, biophysics, solid state physics, geophysics, particle physics and e-science.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medal of Honour.", "content": "in 2010, the year of the 125th anniversary of the birth of Niels Bohr, the Institute established the Niels Bohr Institute Medal of Honour. It is an annual award for \"a particularly outstanding researcher who is working in the spirit of Niels Bohr: International cooperation and the exchange of knowledge\".  The medal is made by Danish sculptor Rikke Raben for the Niels Bohr Institute. On the front is a portrait of Niels Bohr, the atom sign and stars. The illustration on the back is inspired by a quote from Bohr: \"What is it that we human beings ultimately depend on? We depend on our words. We are suspended in language. Our task is to communicate experience and ideas to others\". On the back of the medal: \"Unity of Knowledge\" – the title of a lecture given by Bohr at Columbia University in 1954. \"Nosce te ipsum\" is Latin and means \"know thyself\". This quote originates from the Oracle of Delphi, in the Temple of Apollo in Greece.  Recipients:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of computer files between a client and server on a computer network.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970936}
{"src_title": "Fezzan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "In Berber languages, \"Fezzan\" (or \"ifezzan\") means \"rough rocks\". \"Fezzan\" could also be a derivation from the region's Latin name \"Phasania\" or \"Phazania\", which may mean \"the country of the pheasants\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Fezzan is crossed in the north by the ash-Shati Valley (\"Wadi Al Shatii\") and in the west by the Wadi Irawan. These two areas, along with portions of the Tibesti Mountains crossing the Chadian border and a sprinkling of remote oases and border posts, are the only parts of the Fezzan able to support settled populations. The large dune seas known as ergs of the Idehan Ubari and the Idehan Murzuq cover much of the remaining land of Fezzan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "From the 5th century BCE to the 5th century CE, Fezzan was home to the Garamantes, who operated the Trans-Saharan trade routes successively between Carthage and the Roman Empire in North Africa and Sahelian states of west and central Africa.  The Roman generals Septimus Flaccus in 19 BCE and Suetonius Paulinus in 50 CE led small-scale military expeditions into the northern reaches of the Sahara, and the Roman explorer Julius Maternus traveled there in early 1st century CE. Paulinus reached Fezzan and went further south.  With the end of the Roman Empire and the following commercial crisis, Fezzan began to lose importance. The population was greatly reduced due to the desertification process of the Sahara during the early Middle Ages.  During the 13th and 14th centuries, portions of Fezzan were part of the Kanem Empire. Wars against the Kanem–Bornu Empire in the early sixteenth century led to the founding of the Awlad Muhammad dynasty, with Murzuk becoming the capital of Fezzan. Around 1565 it was ruled by Muhammad ibn al-Muntasir.  The Ottoman rulers of North Africa asserted their control over the region in the 17th century. In the reign of Abdulhamid II (1876–1909) Fezzan was used as a place of political exile for Young Turks because it was the most remote province from Istanbul.  Beginning in 1911, Fezzan was occupied by Italy. However, Italy's control of the region was precarious until at least 1923, with the rise of the Benito Mussolini. The Italians were resisted in their early attempts at conquest by tribal Arab adherents to the militant Sanusiya Sufi religious order. The Tuareg clans of the region were only pacified by European expansion shortly before the Second World War, and some of them collaborated with the Italian Army in the North African Campaign. Free French troops occupied Murzuk, a chief town of Fezzan, on 16 January 1943, and proceeded to administer Fezzan with a staff stationed in Sabha, forming the Military Territory of Fezzan-Ghadames. French administration was largely exercised through Fezzan notables of the family of Sayf Al Nasr. Disquieting to the tribes in western Fezzan was the administrative attachment of Ghat, and its surrounding area, to French-ruled Algeria. However, when the French military control ceased in 1951, all of Fezzan became part of the Kingdom of Libya.  Fezzan was a stronghold for Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi through much of the 2011 Libyan Civil War, though starting in July, anti-Gaddafi forces began to gain ground, taking control of the region's largest city of Sabha in mid-to-late September.  The LF country code (.lf) was reserved \"on behalf\" of Libya Fezzan (for an \"indeterminate period of time\") by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).  There are oil wells in Fezzan capable of 400,000 barrels per day, but oil companies fly in staff from northern Libya. The local tribes are not getting any money from the oil trade, and so have turned to smuggling migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa, which is feeding the European migrant crisis and is a $1 billion per year industry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "Fezzan was a province under the Ottoman Turks and Italy, and a province (\"wilayah\") or governorate (\"muhafazah\") of independent Libya (alongside Tripolitania and Cyrenaica) until 1963. With the introduction of the new administrative division of Libya in 1963, Fezzan was abolished as an independent administrative unit and was divided into the \"muhafazat\" of Awbari and Sabha. In 1983, these administrative divisions were abolished in favour of smaller districts or \"baladiyah\". The Baladiyat-system was reorganized in 1987 and was replaced in 1995 by the \"sha'biyat\"-system.  The former Fezzan province contains the districts (\"sha'biyat\") of Wadi al Shatii, Wadi al Hayaa, Jufra, Ghadames, Murzuq, Sabha and Ghat (some maps allocate Ghadames to the neighbouring region of Tripolitania). The historic capital, largest city, political and administrative centre is Sabha.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "The region's inhabitants include the Dawada, the nomadic Tuareg in the southwest, and the Toubou in the southeast. These pastoralist populations often cross the borders of Algeria, Chad and Niger freely. In the north, Arab, Berber and settled Tuareg and Toubou mix. While making up some 30% of the land area of Libya, the Fezzan supports only a small percentage of its population. Large towns like Sabha survive on near-surface water in the wadis of the north and west. The northeast area is dominated by Haruj, a large and unpopulated volcanic field.  Fezzan's population has grown rapidly since the mid-20th century along with the overall growth in Libya's population, and the province's share of the national population has increased by half. \"Source: Gathered from bulletins of censuses 1964, 1973, 1995, 2006.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fezzan (, ; ; ; ) is the southwestern region of modern Libya. It is largely desert, but broken by mountains, uplands, and dry river valleys (wadis) in the north, where oases enable ancient towns and villages to survive deep in the otherwise inhospitable Sahara Desert. The term originally applied to the land beyond the coastal strip of Africa proconsularis, including the Nafusa and extending west of modern Libya over Ouargla and Illizi. As these Berber areas came to be associated with the regions of Tripoli, Cirta or Algiers, the name was increasingly applied to the arid areas south of Tripolitania. Fezzan is Libya’s poorest region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970937}
{"src_title": "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first edition of the \"F.A.Z.\" appeared on 1 November 1949; its founding editor was. Some editors had worked for the moderate \"Frankfurter Zeitung\", which had been banned in 1943. However, in their first issue, the F.A.Z. editorial expressly refuted the notion of being the earlier paper's successor or of continuing its legacy: Until 30 September 1950 the \"F.A.Z.\" was printed in Mainz.  Traditionally, many of the headlines in the \"F.A.Z.\" were styled in orthodox blackletter format and no photographs appeared on the title page. Some of the rare exceptions were a picture of the celebrating people in front of the Reichstag in Berlin on German Unity Day on 4 October 1990, and the two pictures in the edition of 12 September 2001 showing the collapsing World Trade Center and the American president George W. Bush.  In the early 2000s, \"F.A.Z.\" expanded aggressively, with customized sections for Berlin and Munich. An eight-page six-day-a-week English-language edition was distributed as an insert in \"The International Herald Tribune\" (which is owned by The New York Times Company); the articles were selected and translated from the same day's edition of the parent newspaper by the \"F.A.Z.\" staff in Frankfurt. However, F.A.Z. group suffered a loss of 60.6 million euros in 2002. By 2004 the customized sections were scrapped. The English edition shrank to a tabloid published once a week.  On 5 October 2007, the \"F.A.Z.\" altered their traditional layout to include color photographs on the front page and exclude blackletter typeface outside the nameplate. Due to its traditionally sober layout, the introduction of colour photographs in the F.A.Z. was controversially discussed by the readers, becoming the subject of a 2009 comedy film that was still current three years later.  Currently, the F.A.Z. is produced electronically using the Networked Interactive Content Access (NICA) and Hermes. For its characteristic comment headings, a digital \"Fraktur\" font was ordered. The Fraktur has since been abandoned, however, with the above-mentioned change of layout.  After having introduced on 1 August 1999 the new spelling prescribed by the German spelling reform, the F.A.Z. returned exactly one year later to the old spelling, declaring that the reform had failed to achieve the primary goals of improving language mastery and strengthening the unity of the language. After several changes had been made to the new spelling, F.A.Z. accepted it and started using it (in a custom version) on 1 January 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orientation.", "content": "Its political orientation is centre right and liberal-conservative, occasionally providing a forum to commentators with different opinions. In particular, the \"Feuilleton\" and some sections of the Sunday edition cannot be said to be specifically conservative or liberal at all.  In the 2013 elections the paper was among the supporters of the Christian Democrats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ownership.", "content": "It has the legal form of a GmbH; the independent \"FAZIT-Stiftung\" (FAZIT Foundation) is its majority shareholder (93.7%). The FAZIT-Stiftung was born in 1959 by the transformation of the then FAZ owner \"Allgemeine Verlagsgesellschaft mbH\" into a private foundation. The FAZIT-Stiftung is 'owned' by up to nine persons who can't sell or buy their share but have to transmit it free of charge to a successor which is co-opted by the remaining shareholders. The foundations statute prescribe that only such persons shall be co-opted as new member, who \"by their standing and personality\" can guarantee the \"independence\" of the FAZ. The current group of seven is composed of active or former CEOs, company owners, board members, and corporate lawyers. The FAZIT foundation also owns more than 90% of the shares of the company 'Frankfurter Societät' which in turn is owner of the printing enterprise 'Frankfurter Societätsdruckerei' and the regional paper Frankfurter Neue Presse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Circulation.", "content": "The \"F.A.Z.\" is one of several high-profile national newspapers in Germany (along with \"Süddeutsche Zeitung\", \"Die Welt\", \"Die Zeit\", \"Frankfurter Rundschau\" and \"Die Tageszeitung\") and among them has the second largest circulation nationwide. It maintains the largest number of foreign correspondents of any European newspaper (53 as of 2002).  The \"F.A.Z.\" had a circulation of 382,000 copies during the third quarter of 1992. The 1993 circulation of the paper was 391,013 copies. In 2001 it had a circulation of 409,000 copies. The \"F.A.Z.\" had a circulation of 382,000 copies in 2003. The 2007 circulation of the daily was 382,499 copies. The 2016 (IVW II/2016) circulation of the daily was 256,188 copies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies and bans.", "content": "In December 1999, future German Chancellor Angela Merkel published a sensational article in the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\", lamenting the \"tragedy\" that had befallen the party (CDU donations scandal), blaming former Chancellor Helmut Kohl and urging a new course.  In 2006, the \"F.A.Z.\" was banned in Egypt for publishing articles which were deemed as \"insulting Islam\". The paper was again banned in Egypt in February 2008 due to the publication of Prophet Mohammad's cartoons. In November 2012, the paper provoked strong criticism in Spain because of its stance against Spanish immigration to Germany during the economic crisis.  In July 2019, the \"F.A.Z.\" website, along with other major German media, including Spiegel Online, was blocked by China's Great Firewall. The reasons for the ban remain unclear, while \"F.A.Z.\" believed it was possibly due to its reports on the massive protests in Hong Kong.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popularity.", "content": "In 2017, the online version of the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\" was among the ten most cited sources in the German Wikipedia. Currently, it is in 129th place in the ranking of the most visited websites in Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (, \"Frankfurt General Newspaper\"), abbreviated FAZ, is a centre-right, liberal-conservative German newspaper, founded in 1949. It is published daily in Frankfurt am Main. Its Sunday edition is the Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung (, abbreviated FAS).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970938}
{"src_title": "Faroese language", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Around 900, the language spoken in the Faroes was Old Norse, which Norse settlers had brought with them during the time of the settlement of Faroe Islands () that began in 825. However, many of the settlers were not from Scandinavia, but descendants of Norse settlers in the Irish Sea region. In addition, women from Norse Ireland, Orkney, or Shetland often married native Scandinavian men before settling in the Faroe Islands and Iceland. As a result, the Irish language has had some influence on both Faroese and Icelandic.  There is some debatable evidence of Irish language place names in the Faroes: for example, the names of Mykines, Stóra Dímun, Lítla Dímun and Argir have been hypothesized to contain Celtic roots. Other examples of early-introduced words of Celtic origin are: / (buttermilk), cf. Middle Irish ; (tail-piece of an animal), cf. Middle Irish ; (head, headhair), cf. Middle Irish ; (hand, paw), cf. Middle Irish ; (bull), cf. Middle Irish ; and (pasture in the outfield), cf. Middle Irish.  Between the 9th and the 15th centuries, a distinct Faroese language evolved, although it was probably still mutually intelligible with Old West Norse, and remained similar to the Norn language of Orkney and Shetland during Norn's earlier phase.  Faroese ceased to be a written language after the union of Norway with Denmark in 1380, with Danish replacing Faroese as the language of administration and education. The islanders continued to use the language in ballads, folktales, and everyday life. This maintained a rich spoken tradition, but for 300 years the language was not used in written form.  In 1823 the Danish Bible Society published a diglot of the Gospel of Matthew, with Faroese on the left and Danish on the right.  Venceslaus Ulricus Hammershaimb and the Icelandic grammarian and politician Jón Sigurðsson published a written standard for Modern Faroese in 1854, which still exists. They set a standard for the orthography of the language, based on its Old Norse roots and similar to that of Icelandic. The main purpose of this was for the spelling to represent the diverse dialects of Faroese in equal measure. Additionally, it had the advantages of being etymologically clear and keeping the kinship with the Icelandic written language. The actual pronunciation, however, often differs considerably from the written rendering. The letter \"ð\", for example, has no specific phoneme attached to it.  Jakob Jakobsen devised a rival system of orthography, based on his wish for a phonetic spelling, but this system was never taken up by the speakers.  In 1908 Scripture Gift Mission published the Gospel of John in Faroese.  In 1937, Faroese replaced Danish as the official school language, in 1938 as the church language, and in 1948 as the national language by the Home Rule Act of the Faroes. However, Faroese did not become the common language of media and advertising until the 1980s. Today Danish is considered a foreign language, although around 5% of residents on the Faroes learn it as a first language, and it is taught in school from the first grade.  In 2017, the tourist board Visit Faroe Islands launched the Faroe Islands Translate, available in 13 languages including English, Chinese, Russian, Japanese, and Portuguese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Old Faroese.", "content": "Old Faroese (\"miðaldarføroyskt\", ca. mid-14th to mid-16th centuries) is a form of Old Norse spoken in medieval times in the Faroe Islands. The language shares many features with both Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian; Old Norwegian appears closer to Old Faroese, whereas Old Icelandic remained rather archaic compared to other medieval varieties of Old West Norse. The most crucial aspects of the development of Faroese are diphthongisation and palatalisation.  There is not enough data available to establish an accurate chronology of Faroese, but a rough one may be developed through comparison to the chronologies of Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian. In the 12th/13th centuries, \"á\" and \"ǫ́\" merged as ; later on at the beginning of the 14th century, delabialization took place: \"y\", \"øy\", \"au\" > /i, ɔi, ɛi/; \"í\" and \"ý\" merged in addition to \"i\" and \"y\", but in the case of \"í\" and \"ý\", it appears that labialisation took place instead as is documented by later development to. Further, the language underwent a palatalisation of \"k\", \"g\" and \"sk\" before Old Norse \"e\", \"i\", \"y\", \"ø\", \"au\" > > >. Before the palatalisation \"é\" and \"ǽ\" merged as and approximately in the same period epenthetic \"u\" is inserted into word-final and clusters.  A massive quantity shift also operated in Middle Faroese. In the case of \"skerping\", it took place after delabialization but before loss of post-vocalic \"ð\" and \"g\". The shift of \"hv\" to, the deletion of in (remaining) word-initial –sonorant clusters (\"hr\", \"hl\", \"hn\" > \"r\", \"l\", \"n\"), and the dissolution of \"þ\" (\"þ\" > \"t\"; \"þ\" > \"h\" in demonstrative pronouns and adverbs) appeared before the end of the 13th century. Another undated change is the merger of \"ǫ\", \"ø\" and \"ǿ\" into ; pre-nasal \"ǫ\", \"ǫ́\" > \"o\", \"ó\". \"enk\", \"eng\" probably became \"eing\", \"eink\" in the 14th century; the development of \"a\" to before \"ng\", \"nk\" appeared after the palatalisation of \"k\", \"g\", and \"sk\" had been completed, such a change is quite a recent development, as well as change \"Cve\" > \"Cvø\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alphabet.", "content": "The Faroese alphabet consists of 29 letters derived from the Latin script:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phonology.", "content": "As with most other Germanic languages, Faroese has a large number of vowels, with 26 in total. Vowel distribution is similar to other North Germanic languages in that short vowels appear in closed syllables (those ending in consonant clusters or long consonants) and long vowels appearing in open syllables. provides the following alternations:  Faroese shares with Icelandic and Danish the feature of maintaining a contrast between stops based exclusively on aspiration, not voicing. Geminated stops may be pre-aspirated in intervocalic and word-final position. Intervocalically the aspirated consonants become pre-aspirated unless followed by a closed vowel. In clusters, the preaspiration merges with a preceding nasal or apical approximant, rendering them voiceless.  There are several phonological processes involved in Faroese, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grammar.", "content": "Faroese grammar is related and very similar to that of modern Icelandic and Old Norse. Faroese is an inflected language with three grammatical genders and four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and genitive.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Faroese ( or ;, ) is a North Germanic language spoken as a first language by about 72,000 people, around 49,000 of whom reside on the Faroe Islands and 23,000 in other areas, mainly Denmark.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970939}
{"src_title": "Peace Race", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first Peace Race was held in 1948, when there were two editions connecting cities of Warsaw and Prague. The one to Prague was won by August Prosinek, the other one to Warsaw by Alexander Zoric, both from Yugoslavia. During the Cold War the Peace Race was known as the 'Tour de France of the East'.  Because cyclists from the Eastern Bloc were not allowed to become professional; it was a purely amateur race. It attracted the best cyclists from communist countries, plus guest teams from non-communist countries. Communist-bloc riders tended to dominate the event, but there were exceptions: Briton Ian Steel won the 1952 race, and the British League of Racing Cyclists team also won the team competition – the first time that both classifications had gone to the same nation.  An Indian team took part in the race in 1952, 1954 and 1955. Indian racers were popular with the public, although they were not competitive. In 1954, Supravat Chravati completed the race in 77th position, 19 hours and 16 seconds after the winner. In 1955, Dhana Singh finished 28 hours, 24 minutes and 38 seconds after the winner.  One of the later winners was Sergei Sukhoruchenkov, who also won the gold medal on the Olympic Road Race in 1980.  The most successful riders in the Peace Race were: Steffen Wesemann from Germany who won the race five times; Ryszard Szurkowski from Poland and Uwe Ampler from East Germany each won the race four times. Gustav-Adolf Schur, who won the race twice, was voted the most popular East German sportsman ever in 1989.  After the end of the Cold War the race lost its significance. No race was held in 2005, and the 2006 race turned out to be the last.  In 2006, the 58th edition took place on May 13–20. It started in Austria's Linz and via Czech Republic headed to Germany where it ended in Hannover. No capital city of these countries were crossed during the race.  After 2006, the race has been cancelled from the cycling calendar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In April/May 2012 Alan Buttler organised a re-run of the 1955 Peace Race as a tribute to his father, Alf Buttler, who was the GB cycling team mechanic for many events in the 1950s, 60s and 70s. He was joined by former peace riders including Gustav-Adolf Schur, Geoff Wiles, John Woodburn, Alan Jacob, and.  There is a museum in Kleinmühlingen in Germany dedicated to the Peace Race.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Junior Peace Race.", "content": "A Junior Peace Race was first held in 1965 and held again the following year. After a hiatus it was revived in 1974 and has been held every year since, continuing after the senior race was no longer organised. Several riders who won the junior race have gone on to senior success, including Roman Kreuziger, Sr., Roman Kreuziger, Jr., Denis Menchov, Fabian Cancellara, Peter Velits, Tanel Kangert and Michal Kwiatkowski.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Peace Race U23.", "content": "An Under-23 Peace Race for riders under 23 years was added in 2013. From 2015 the race has been part of the UCI Under 23 Nations' Cup.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List of races.", "content": "P=prologue, E=epilogue", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Most individual wins.", "content": "\"Cyclists with three wins at least listed\"  Overall:  Sprinter competition:  Mountain climbers competition:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winners by country.", "content": "Individual overall competitions were won by cyclist from following countries:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "01. K. Małcużyński, Zygmund Weiss : \"Kronika wielkiego wyścigu\", Ksiażka i wiedza, Warszawa, 1952  02. Adolf Klimanschewsky: \"Warschau-Berlin-Prag. Ein Erlebnisbericht von der Friedensfahrt 1952\". Sportverlag, Berlin, 1953.  03. Brigitte Roszak/Klaus Kickbusch (Redaktion): \"Friedensfahrt\". Sportverlag, Berlin, 1954.  04. \"VII. Internationale Friedensfahrt\". Volkskunstverlag Reichenbach, 1955.  05. \"VIII. Wyscig Pokoju, Zavod Miru, Friedensfahrt.\" Verlag: Sport i Turystika, Warszawa 1955.  06. Horst Schubert: \"Etappengefüster.\" Sportverlag, Berlin, 1956.  07. Horst Schubert u.a.:\"Jedes Jahr im Mai.\" Sportverlag, Berlin, 1957.  08. Herbert Kronfeld: \"Zwischen Start und Ziel.\" Sportverlag, Berlin, 1957.  09. Egon Lemke: \"Giganten der Pedale.\" Verlag Junge Welt, Berlin, 1958.  10. Autorenkollektiv: \"Friedensfahrt\". Sportverlag, Berlin, 1962.  11. Klaus Ullrich: \"Kluge Köpfe - schnelle Beine.\" Sportverlag, Berlin, 1963.  12. \"Alles über alle Friedensfahrer\". Verlag Neues Deutschland, Berlin, 1964.  13. \"Täves Friedensfahrtlexikon\". Verlag Neues Deutschland, Berlin, 1965.  14. Klaus Ullrich (Hrsg.): \"Fahrt der Millionen.\" Sportverlag, Berlin, 1967.  15. \"Trzdziesci lat Wyscigu Pokoju.\" Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, Warszawa, 1977.  16. Klaus Ullrich: \"Die große Fahrt.\" Sportverlag, Berlin, 1977.  17. Günter Teske: \"Das gelbe Trikot.\" Verlag Neues Leben, Berlin, 1981.  18. Klaus Ullrich: \"Jedes Mal im Mai\", Sportverlag, Berlin, 1986,.  19. Ulf Harms: \"Der verschwundene Friedensfahrer.\" Militärverlag der DDR, Berlin, 1987,.  20. Gustav-Adolf Schur (Hrsg.): \"Friedensfahrt,\" Spotless-Verlag, Berlin, 1995,.  21. Tilo Köhler: \"Der Favorit fuhr Kowalit: Täve Schur und die Friedensfahrt.\" Gustav Kiepenheuer Verlag, 1997,.  22. Manfred Hönel/Olaf Ludwig: \"100 Highlights Friedensfahrt.\" Sportverlag, Berlin,1997,.  23. Maik Märtin: \"50 Jahre Course de la Paix\", Agentur Construct, Leipzig, 1998, ISBN: ohne.  24. Klaus Ullrich Huhn: \"Die Geschichte der Friedensfahrt.\" Spotless-Verlag, Berlin, 2001,.  25. Bogdan Tuszynski/ Daniel Marszalek: \"Wyscik Pokoju 1948-2001\", Verlag FDK Warszawa, Warszawa, 2002,  26. Andreas Ciesielski: \"Das Wunder von Warschau\", Scheunen-Verlag, Kückenshagen, 2005,  27. Alan Buttler/Klaus Huhn: \"Wie die Friedensfahrt \"ausgegraben\" wurde\", NORA Verlagsgemeinschaft Dyck & Westerheide, Berlin, o.J.,  28. Rainer Sprehe: \"Alles Rower? Ein Wessi auf Friedensfahrt.\" Covadonga-Verlag, Bielefeld 2012,  Audio/Video:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Peace Race (,,, (),,,, ) was an annual multiple stage bicycle race held in the Eastern Bloc states of Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Poland. First organized in 1948, it was originally created with the intent of relieving tensions existing between Central European countries following the interwar period and World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970940}
{"src_title": "Amaranthaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vegetative characters.", "content": "Most species in the Amaranthaceae are annual or perennial herbs or subshrubs; others are shrubs; very few species are vines or trees. Some species are succulent. Many species have stems with thickened nodes. The wood of the perennial stem has a typical \"anomalous\" secondary growth; only in subfamily Polycnemoideae is secondary growth normal.  The leaves are simple and mostly alternate, sometimes opposite. They never possess stipules. They are flat or terete, and their shape is extremely variable, with entire or toothed margins. In some species, the leaves are reduced to minute scales. In most cases, neither basal nor terminal aggregations of leaves occur.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inflorescence and flowers.", "content": "The flowers are solitary or aggregated in cymes, spikes, or panicles and typically perfect (bisexual) and actinomorphic. Some species have unisexual flowers. Bracts and bracteoles are either herbaceous or scarious. Flowers are regular with an herbaceous or scarious perianth of (one to) mostly five (rarely to eight) tepals, often joined. One to five stamens are opposite to tepals or alternating, inserting from a hypogynous disc, which may have appendages (pseudostaminodes) in some species. The anthers have two or four pollen sacs (locules). In tribe Caroxyloneae, anthers have vesicular appendages. The pollen grains are spherical with many pores (pantoporate), with pore numbers from a few to 250 (in \"Froelichia\"). One to three (rarely six) carpels are fused to a superior ovary with one (rarely two) basal ovule. Idioblasts are found in the tissues.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fruits and seeds.", "content": "The diaspores are seeds or fruits (utricles), more often the perianth persists and is modified in fruit for means of dispersal. Sometimes even bracts and bracteoles may belong to the diaspore. More rarely the fruit is a circumscissile capsule or a berry. The horizontal or vertical seed often has a thickened or woody seed coat. The green or white embryo is either spirally (and without perisperm) or annular (rarely straight).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chromosome number.", "content": "The basic chromosome number is (rarely 6) mostly 8–9 (rarely 17).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phytochemistry.", "content": "Widespread in the Amaranthaceae is the occurrence of betalain pigments. The former Chenopodiaceae often contain isoflavonoids.  In phytochemical research, several methylenedioxyflavonols, saponins, triterpenoids, ecdysteroids, and specific root-located carbohydrates have been found in these plants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Photosynthesis pathway.", "content": "Although most of the family use the more common photosynthesis pathway, around 800 species are plants; this makes the Amaranthaceae the largest group with this photosynthesis pathway among the eudicots (which collectively includes about 1,600 species). Within the family, several types of photosynthesis occur, and about 17 different types of leaf anatomy are realized. Therefore, this photosynthesis pathway seems to have developed about 15 times independently during the evolution of the family. About two-thirds of the species belong to the former Chenopodiaceae. The first occurrence of photosynthesis dates from the early Miocene, about 24 million years ago, but in some groups, this pathway evolved much later, about 6 (or less) million years ago.  The multiple origin of photosynthesis in the Amaranthaceae is regarded as an evolutionary response to inexorably decreasing atmospheric levels, coupled with a more recent permanent shortage in water supply as well as high temperatures. Species with higher water-use efficiency had a selective advantage and were able to spread out into arid habitats.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Amaranthaceae is a widespread and cosmopolitan family from the tropics to cool temperate regions. The Amaranthaceae (\"sensu stricto\") are predominantly tropical, whereas the former Chenopodiaceae have their centers of diversity in dry temperate and warm temperate areas. Many of the species are halophytes, tolerating salty soils, or grow in dry steppes or semi-deserts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic importance.", "content": "Some species, such as spinach (\"Spinacia oleracea\") or forms of beet (\"Beta vulgaris\") (beetroot, chard), are used as vegetables. Forms of \"Beta vulgaris\" include fodder beet (\"Mangelwurzel\") and sugar beet. The seeds of \"Amaranthus\", lamb's quarters (\"Chenopodium berlandieri\"), quinoa (\"Chenopodium quinoa\") and kañiwa (\"Chenopodium pallidicaule\") are edible and are used as pseudocereals.  \"Dysphania ambrosioides\" (epazote) and \"Dysphania anthelmintica\" are used as medicinal herbs. Several amaranth species are also used indirectly as a source of soda ash, such as members of the genus \"Salicornia\" (see glasswort).  A number of species are popular garden ornamental plants, especially species from the genera \"Alternanthera\", \"Amaranthus\", \"Celosia\", and \"Iresine\". Other species are considered weeds, e.g., redroot pigweed (\"Amaranthus retroflexus\") and alligatorweed (\"Alternanthera philoxeroides\"), and several are problematic invasive species, particularly in North America, including \"Kali tragus\" and \"Bassia scoparia\". Many species are known to cause pollen allergies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Systematics.", "content": "In the APG IV system of 2016, as in the previous Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classifications, the family is placed in the order Caryophyllales and includes the plants formerly treated as the family Chenopodiaceae. The monophyly of this broadly defined Amaranthaceae has been strongly supported by both morphological and phylogenetic analyses.  The family Amaranthaceae was first published in 1789 by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in \"Genera Plantarum\", p. 87–88. The first publication of family Chenopodiaceae was in 1799 by Étienne Pierre Ventenat in \"Tableau du Regne Vegetal\", 2, p. 253. The older name has priority and is now the valid scientific name of the extended Amaranthaceae (\"s.l.\" = \"sensu lato\").  Some publications still continued to use the family name Chenopodiaceae. Phylogenetic research revealed the important impact of the subfamily Polycnemoideae on the classification (see cladogram): if Polycnemoideae are considered a part of Chenopodiaceae, then Amaranthaceae (\"s.str.\" = \"sensu stricto\") have to be included, too, and the name of the extended family is Amaranthaceae. If Polycnemoideae would be separated as its own family, Chenopodiaceae and Amaranthaceae (\"s.str.\") would form two distinct monophyletic groups and could be treated as two separate families.  Amaranthaceae (\"s.l.\") includes the former families Achyranthaceae, Atriplicaceae, Betaceae, Blitaceae, Celosiaceae, Chenopodiaceae \"nom. cons.\", Corispermaceae, Deeringiaceae, Dysphaniaceae \"nom. cons.\", Gomphrenaceae, Polycnemaceae, Salicorniaceae, Salsolaceae, and Spinaciaceae.  The systematics of Amaranthaceae are the subject of intensive recent research. Molecular genetic studies revealed the traditional classification, based on morphological and anatomical characters, often did not reflect the phylogenetic relationships.  The former Amaranthaceae (in their narrow circumscription) are classified into two subfamilies, Amaranthoideae and Gomphrenoideae, and contain about 65 genera and 900 species in tropical Africa and North America. The Amaranthoideae and some genera of Gomphrenoideae were found to be polyphyletic, so taxonomic changes are needed.  Current studies classified the species of former Chenopodiaceae to eight distinct subfamilies (the research is not yet completed): Polycnemoideae, which are regarded as a basal lineage, Betoideae, Camphorosmoideae, Chenopodioideae, Corispermoideae, Salicornioideae, Salsoloideae, and Suaedoideae. In this preliminary classification, the Amaranthaceae \"s.l.\" are divided into 10 subfamilies with approximately 180 genera and 2,500 species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genera.", "content": "A short synoptic list of genera is given here. For further and more detailed information, see the subfamily pages.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Amaranthaceae is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the amaranth family, in reference to its type genus \"Amaranthus\". It includes the former goosefoot family Chenopodiaceae and contains about 165 genera and 2,040 species, making it the most species-rich lineage within its parent order, Caryophyllales.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970941}
{"src_title": "Faraday cage", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1836, Michael Faraday observed that the excess charge on a charged conductor resided only on its exterior and had no influence on anything enclosed within it. To demonstrate this fact, he built a room coated with metal foil and allowed high-voltage discharges from an electrostatic generator to strike the outside of the room. He used an electroscope to show that there was no electric charge present on the inside of the room's walls.  Although this cage effect has been attributed to Michael Faraday's famous ice pail experiments performed in 1843, it was Benjamin Franklin in 1755 who observed the effect by lowering an uncharged cork ball suspended on a silk thread through an opening in an electrically charged metal can. In his words, \"the cork was not attracted to the inside of the can as it would have been to the outside, and though it touched the bottom, yet when drawn out it was not found to be electrified (charged) by that touch, as it would have been by touching the outside. The fact is singular.\" Franklin had discovered the behavior of what we now refer to as a Faraday cage or shield (based on Faraday's later experiments which duplicated Franklin's cork and can).  Additionally, in 1754 the Abbe Nollet published an early account of an effect attributable to the cage effect in his \"Leçons de physique expérimentale\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Continuous.", "content": "A continuous Faraday shield is a hollow conductor. Externally or internally applied electromagnetic fields produce forces on the charge carriers (usually electrons) within the conductor; the charges are redistributed accordingly due to electrostatic induction. The redistributed charges greatly reduce the voltage within the surface, to an extent depending on the capacitance; however, full cancellation does not occur.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interior charges.", "content": "If a charge is placed inside an ungrounded Faraday cage, the internal face of the cage becomes charged (in the same manner described for an external charge) to prevent the existence of a field inside the body of the cage; however, this charging of the inner face re-distributes the charges in the body of the cage. This charges the outer face of the cage with a charge equal in sign and magnitude to the one placed inside the cage. Let's denote this charge quantity as Q. Since the internal charge and the inner face cancel each other out (i.e., the charge distribution on the inner surface produces a static electric field that's exactly the opposite of what's produced by the internal charge, hence the net charge, net dipole moment, etc., are all zero), the spread of charges on the outer face is not affected by the position of the internal charge inside the cage, but rather determined by the shape of outer face. So for all intents and purposes, the cage generates the same static electric field that it would generate if it were simply charged with Q. However, note that the same is not true for electromagnetic waves.  If the cage is grounded, the excess charges will be neutralized as the ground connection creates an equipotential bonding between the outside of the cage and the environment, so there is no voltage between them and therefore also no field. The inner face and the inner charge will remain the same so the field is kept inside.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Exterior fields.", "content": "Effectiveness of shielding of a static electric field is largely independent of the geometry of the conductive material; however, static magnetic fields can penetrate the shield completely.  In the case of a varying electromagnetic fields, the faster the variations are (i.e., the higher the frequencies), the better the material resists magnetic field penetration. In this case the shielding also depends on the electrical conductivity, the magnetic properties of the conductive materials used in the cages, as well as their thicknesses.  A good idea of the effectiveness of a Faraday shield can be obtained from considerations of skin depth. With skin depth, the current flowing is mostly in the surface, and decays exponentially with depth through the material. Because a Faraday shield has finite thickness, this determines how well the shield works; a thicker shield can attenuate electromagnetic fields better, and to a lower frequency.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Faraday cage.", "content": "Faraday cages are Faraday shields which have holes in them and are therefore more complex to analyze. Whereas continuous shields essentially attenuate all wavelengths shorter than the skin depth, the holes in a cage may permit shorter wavelengths to pass through or set up \"evanescent fields\" (oscillating fields that do not propagate as EM waves) just beneath the surface. The shorter the wavelength, the better it passes through a mesh of given size. Thus to work well at short wavelengths (i.e., high frequencies), the holes in the cage must be smaller than the wavelength of the incident wave. Faraday cages may therefore be thought of as high pass filters.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A Faraday cage or Faraday shield is an enclosure used to block electromagnetic fields. A Faraday shield may be formed by a continuous covering of conductive material, or in the case of a Faraday cage, by a mesh of such materials. Faraday cages are named after scientist Michael Faraday, who invented them in 1836.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970942}
{"src_title": "Gordian III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rise to power.", "content": "In 235, following the murder of Emperor Alexander Severus in Moguntiacum (modern Mainz), the capital of the Roman province Germania Superior, Maximinus Thrax was acclaimed Emperor. In the following years, there was a growing opposition against Maximinus in the Roman senate and amongst the majority of the population of Rome. In 238 a rebellion broke out in the Africa Province, where Gordian's grandfather and uncle, Gordian I and II, were proclaimed joint emperors. This revolt was suppressed within a month by Cappellianus, governor of Numidia and a loyal supporter of Maximinus Thrax. The elder Gordians died, but public opinion cherished their memory as peace-loving and literate men, victims of Maximinus' oppression.  Meanwhile, Maximinus was on the verge of marching on Rome and the Senate elected Pupienus and Balbinus as joint emperors. These senators were not popular men and the population of Rome was still shocked by the elder Gordians' fate, so the Senate decided to take the teenage Gordian, rename him Marcus Antonius Gordianus like his grandfather, and raise him to the rank of \"Caesar\" and imperial heir. Pupienus and Balbinus defeated Maximinus, mainly due to the defection of several legions, particularly the II \"Parthica\", who assassinated Maximinus. However, their joint reign was doomed from the start with popular riots, military discontent and an enormous fire that consumed Rome in June 238. On July 29, Pupienus and Balbinus were killed by the Praetorian Guard and Gordian proclaimed sole emperor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Due to Gordian's age, the imperial government was surrendered to the aristocratic families, who controlled the affairs of Rome through the Senate. In 240, Sabinianus revolted in the African province, but the situation was quickly brought under control. In 241, Gordian was married to Furia Sabinia Tranquillina, daughter of the newly appointed praetorian prefect, Timesitheus. As chief of the Praetorian Guard and father in law of the Emperor, Timesitheus quickly became the \"de facto\" ruler of the Roman Empire.  In the 3rd century, the Roman frontiers weakened against the Germanic tribes across the Rhine and Danube, and the Sassanid Empire across the Euphrates increased its own attacks. When the Persians under Shapur I invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the doors of the Temple of Janus for the last time in Roman history, and sent a large army to the East. The Sassanids were driven back over the Euphrates and defeated in the Battle of Resaena (243). The campaign was a success and Gordian, who had joined the army, was planning an invasion of the enemy's territory, when his father-in-law died in unclear circumstances. Without Timesitheus, the campaign, and the Emperor's security, were at risk. Gaius Julius Priscus and, later on, his own brother Marcus Julius Philippus, also known as Philip the Arab, stepped in at this moment as the new Praetorian Prefects and the campaign proceeded. Around February 244, the Persians fought back fiercely to halt the Roman advance to Ctesiphon.  The eventual fate of Gordian after the battle is unclear. Persian sources claim that a battle occurred (Battle of Misiche) near modern Fallujah (Iraq) and resulted in a major Roman defeat and the death of Gordian III. Roman sources do not mention this battle and suggest that Gordian died far away from Misiche, at Zaitha (Qalat es Salihiyah) in northern Mesopotamia. Modern scholarship does not unanimously accept this course of the events. One view holds that Gordian died at Zaitha, murdered by his frustrated army, while the role of Philip is unknown. Other scholars, such as Kettenhofen, Hartman and Winter have concluded that Gordian died in battle against the Sasanians. Scholarly analyses suggest the Persian version \"while defective is superior\" to the Roman one.  Philip transferred the body of the deceased emperor to Rome and arranged for his deification. Gordian's youth and good nature, along with the deaths of his grandfather and uncle and his own tragic fate at the hands of the enemy, earned him the lasting esteem of the Romans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Primary sources.", "content": "Herodian, \"The Roman Histories\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Secondary sources.", "content": "Katrin Herrmann: Gordian III. - Kaiser einer Umbruchszeit. Speyer 2013. Potter, David.S., \"The Roman Empire At Bay AD 180-392\", Routledge, 2004,", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gordian III (; 20 January 225 AD – 11 February 244 AD) was Roman emperor from AD 238 to 244. At the age of 13, he became the youngest sole legal Roman emperor throughout the existence of the united Roman Empire. Gordian was the son of Antonia Gordiana and an unknown Roman Senator who died before 238. Antonia Gordiana was the daughter of Emperor Gordian I and younger sister of Emperor Gordian II. Very little is known of his early life before his acclamation. Gordian had assumed the name of his maternal grandfather in 238 AD.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970943}
{"src_title": "Canton of Glarus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "According to legend, the inhabitants of the Linth Valley were converted to Christianity in the 6th century by the Irish monk Saint Fridolin, the founder of Säckingen Abbey in what is now the German state of Baden-Württemberg. From the 9th century, the area around Glarus was owned by Säckingen Abbey, the town of Glarus being recorded as \"Clarona\". The Alemanni began to settle in the valley from the early 8th century. The Alemannic German language took hold only gradually, and was dominant by the 11th century. By 1288, the Habsburgs had claimed all the abbey's rights.  Glarus joined the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1352 as one of the foundational eight cantons (\"Acht Orte\") of the period of 1353–1481. The first recorded Landsgemeinde of Glarus took place in 1387. Habsburg attempts to reconquer the valley were repelled in the Battle of Näfels of 1388. A banner depicting Saint Fridolin was used to rally the people of Glarus at that battle, and from that time Glarus has used the image of Saint Fridolin on its flags and in its coat of arms.  The County of Werdenberg was annexed to Glarus in 1517. Between 1506 and 1516 the later reformer Huldrych Zwingli was priest in Glarus, but Glarus remained Catholic, and by 1564 all of Zwingli's followers were eliminated. This, however, did not end the struggles between the Protestants and the Catholics in the area. To secure peace it was decided that each party should have its own assembly (\"Landsgemeinde\") in 1623, and at a later stage in 1683, each side was granted the right to have its own tribunals.  Between 1798 and 1803 Glarus was part of the canton of Linth as established by Napoleon. In 1836 the constitution was adapted to unite the assemblies and establish a single \"Landsgemeinde\".  In the early 1840s, after several years of failed crops and as food became scarce, much of the canton found itself deep in poverty. With more workers than available jobs, emigration to the United States of America was seen as a solution. The Glarus Emigration Society was established in 1844, which offered loans to help residents purchase land in the New World. Many of the resulting emigrants went to the state of Wisconsin, where they founded the town of New Glarus.  On May 6, 2007 Glarus became the first Swiss canton to lower the voting age to 16.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The canton of Glarus is dominated by the deep valley of the Linth River and the smaller Sernftal on the east. Most of the area is mountainous. The highest peak in the Glarus Alps is the Tödi at Other mountains include the Hausstock () and the Glärnisch (). The canton contains part of a thrust fault that was declared a geologic UNESCO world heritage site, under the name Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona, in 2008. Famous outcrops in the Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona include those at Lochsite near Glarus and in a mountain cliff called \"Tschingelhörner\" between Elm and Flims (in the same cliff is a natural hole called the Martinsloch). There is also a large lake called Walensee (Lake Walen) on the north. The total area of the canton of Glarus is, of which about half is considered productive. Forestry is an important branch of industry in the canton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Municipalities.", "content": "The \"Landsgemeinde\" (cantonal assembly) of 2006 decided that the 25 municipalities of Glarus be consolidated to three, effective 1 January 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "The population of the canton (as of ) is., the population included 7,314 foreigners (or 19.13% of the total population).  The population () is nearly evenly split between Protestants (44%) and Roman Catholics (37%).  83.6% is German-speaking and 6.8% is Italian-speaking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The geography of the canton helped to establish slate works in the 17th century. The mountainous surroundings of Glarus were also an advantage in industrialisation. Cotton spinning was important in the 18th century, complementing traditional woolen spinning. Industrialisation also brought cotton printing, hydroelectric plants and later metal and machinery factories, as well as paper mills.  In 2014, about 5% of the workers in Glarus work in the primary sector (the total for all of Switzerland is 3.3%) Of these 5%, in 2008, nearly three-quarters are involved in dairy farming and cattle breeding. In 2014 the secondary sector employed 8,322 or about 38.2% of the total, which is much higher than 21.8% for the entire country. Of those in the secondary sector, over one-quarter worked in the construction industry. The tertiary sector employed 12,366 or about 56.8% of the total, which is almost 18% lower than 74.9% nationwide. Of those in the tertiary sector, 11.72% work in retail shops and 10.37% are in health care.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The canton of Glarus, also canton of Glaris (, ) is a canton in east central Switzerland. The capital is Glarus. The population speaks a variety of Alemannic German. The majority of the population (81%) identifies as Christian, about evenly split between the Protestant and Catholic denominations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970944}
{"src_title": "Gas giant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The term \"gas giant\" was coined in 1952 by the science fiction writer James Blish and was originally used to refer to all giant planets. It is, arguably, something of a misnomer because throughout most of the volume of all giant planets, the pressure is so high that matter is not in gaseous form. Other than solids in the core and the upper layers of the atmosphere, all matter is above the, where there is no distinction between liquids and gases. The term has nevertheless caught on, because planetary scientists typically use \"rock\", \"gas\", and \"ice\" as shorthands for classes of elements and compounds commonly found as planetary constituents, irrespective of what phase the matter may appear in. In the outer Solar System, hydrogen and helium are referred to as \"gases\"; water, methane, and ammonia as \"ices\"; and silicates and metals as \"rock\". Because Uranus and Neptune are primarily composed of, in this terminology, ices, not gas, they are increasingly referred to as ice giants and separated from the gas giants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Gas giants can, theoretically, be divided into five distinct classes according to their modeled physical atmospheric properties, and hence their appearance: ammonia clouds (I), water clouds (II), cloudless (III), alkali-metal clouds (IV), and silicate clouds (V). Jupiter and Saturn are both class I. Hot Jupiters are class IV or V.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extrasolar.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cold gas giants.", "content": "A cold hydrogen-rich gas giant more massive than Jupiter but less than about () will only be slightly larger in volume than Jupiter. For masses above, gravity will cause the planet to shrink (see degenerate matter).  Kelvin–Helmholtz heating can cause a gas giant to radiate more energy than it receives from its host star.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gas dwarfs.", "content": "Although the words \"gas\" and \"giant\" are often combined, hydrogen planets need not be as large as the familiar gas giants from the Solar System. However, smaller gas planets and planets closer to their star will lose atmospheric mass more quickly via hydrodynamic escape than larger planets and planets farther out.  A gas dwarf could be defined as a planet with a rocky core that has accumulated a thick envelope of hydrogen, helium and other volatiles, having as result a total radius between 1.7 and 3.9 Earth-radii.  The smallest known extrasolar planet that is likely a \"gas planet\" is Kepler-138d, which has the same mass as Earth but is 60% larger and therefore has a density that indicates a thick gas envelope.  A low-mass gas planet can still have a radius resembling that of a gas giant if it has the right temperature.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A gas giant is a giant planet composed mainly of hydrogen and helium. Gas giants are sometimes known as failed stars because they contain the same basic elements as a star. Jupiter and Saturn are the gas giants of the Solar System. The term \"gas giant\" was originally synonymous with \"giant planet\", but in the 1990s it became known that Uranus and Neptune are really a distinct class of giant planet, being composed mainly of heavier volatile substances (which are referred to as \"ices\"). For this reason, Uranus and Neptune are now often classified in the separate category of ice giants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970945}
{"src_title": "Glucagon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Function.", "content": "Glucagon generally elevates the concentration of glucose in the blood by promoting gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. Glucagon also decreases fatty acid synthesis in adipose tissue and the liver, as well as promoting lipolysis in these tissues, which causes them to release fatty acids into circulation where they can be catabolised to generate energy in tissues such as skeletal muscle when required.  Glucose is stored in the liver in the form of the polysaccharide glycogen, which is a glucan (a polymer made up of glucose molecules). Liver cells (hepatocytes) have glucagon receptors. When glucagon binds to the glucagon receptors, the liver cells convert the glycogen into individual glucose molecules and release them into the bloodstream, in a process known as glycogenolysis. As these stores become depleted, glucagon then encourages the liver and kidney to synthesize additional glucose by gluconeogenesis. Glucagon turns off glycolysis in the liver, causing glycolytic intermediates to be shuttled to gluconeogenesis.  Glucagon also regulates the rate of glucose production through lipolysis. Glucagon induces lipolysis in humans under conditions of insulin suppression (such as diabetes mellitus type 1).  Glucagon production appears to be dependent on the central nervous system through pathways yet to be defined. In invertebrate animals, eyestalk removal has been reported to affect glucagon production. Excising the eyestalk in young crayfish produces glucagon-induced hyperglycemia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanism of action.", "content": "Glucagon binds to the glucagon receptor, a G protein-coupled receptor, located in the plasma membrane. The conformation change in the receptor activates G proteins, a heterotrimeric protein with α, β, and γ subunits. When the G protein interacts with the receptor, it undergoes a conformational change that results in the replacement of the GDP molecule that was bound to the α subunit with a GTP molecule. This substitution results in the releasing of the α subunit from the β and γ subunits. The alpha subunit specifically activates the next enzyme in the cascade, adenylate cyclase.  Adenylate cyclase manufactures cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP), which activates protein kinase A (cAMP-dependent protein kinase). This enzyme, in turn, activates phosphorylase kinase, which then phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase b (PYG b), converting it into the active form called phosphorylase a (PYG a). Phosphorylase a is the enzyme responsible for the release of glucose 1-phosphate from glycogen polymers. An example of the pathway would be when glucagon binds to a transmembrane protein. The transmembrane proteins interacts with Gɑβγ. Gɑ separates from Gβγ and interacts with the transmembrane protein adenylyl cyclase. Adenylyl cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP. cAMP binds to protein kinase A, and the complex phosphorylates phosphorylase kinase. Phosphorylated phosphorylase kinase phosphorylates phosphorylase. Phosphorylated phosphorylase clips glucose units from glycogen as glucose 1-phosphate. Additionally, the coordinated control of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver is adjusted by the phosphorylation state of the enzymes that catalyze the formation of a potent activator of glycolysis called fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. The enzyme protein kinase A (PKA) that was stimulated by the cascade initiated by glucagon will also phosphorylate a single serine residue of the bifunctional polypeptide chain containing both the enzymes fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase and phosphofructokinase-2. This covalent phosphorylation initiated by glucagon activates the former and inhibits the latter. This regulates the reaction catalyzing fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (a potent activator of phosphofructokinase-1, the enzyme that is the primary regulatory step of glycolysis) by slowing the rate of its formation, thereby inhibiting the flux of the glycolysis pathway and allowing gluconeogenesis to predominate. This process is reversible in the absence of glucagon (and thus, the presence of insulin).  Glucagon stimulation of PKA also inactivates the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase in hepatocytes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physiology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The hormone is synthesized and secreted from alpha cells (α-cells) of the islets of Langerhans, which are located in the endocrine portion of the pancreas. Production, which is otherwise freerunning, is suppressed/regulated by amylin, a peptide hormone co-secreted with insulin from the pancreatic β cells. As plasma glucose levels recede, the subsequent reduction in amylin secretion alleviates its suppression of the α cells, allowing for glucagon secretion.  In rodents, the alpha cells are located in the outer rim of the islet. Human islet structure is much less segregated, and alpha cells are distributed throughout the islet in close proximity to beta cells. Glucagon is also produced by alpha cells in the stomach.  Recent research has demonstrated that glucagon production may also take place outside the pancreas, with the gut being the most likely site of extrapancreatic glucagon synthesis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regulation.", "content": "Secretion of glucagon is stimulated by:  Secretion of glucagon is inhibited by:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide. Its primary structure in humans is: NH-His-Ser-Gln-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Tyr-Ser-Lys-Tyr-Leu-Asp-Ser-Arg-Arg-Ala-Gln-Asp-Phe-Val-Gln-Trp-Leu-Met-Asn-Thr-COOH.  The polypeptide has a molecular mass of 3485 daltons. Glucagon is a peptide (nonsteroid) hormone.  Glucagon is generated from the cleavage of proglucagon by proprotein convertase 2 in pancreatic islet α cells. In intestinal L cells, proglucagon is cleaved to the alternate products glicentin, GLP-1 (an incretin), IP-2, and GLP-2 (promotes intestinal growth).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pathology.", "content": "Abnormally elevated levels of glucagon may be caused by pancreatic tumors, such as glucagonoma, symptoms of which include necrolytic migratory erythema, reduced amino acids, and hyperglycemia. It may occur alone or in the context of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1  Elevated glucagon is the main contributor to hyperglycemic ketoacidosis in undiagnosed or poorly treated type 1 diabetes. As the beta cells cease to function, insulin and pancreatic GABA are no longer present to suppress the freerunning output of glucagon. As a result, glucagon is released from the alpha cells at a maximum, causing rapid breakdown of glycogen to glucose and fast ketogenesis. It was found that a subset of adults with type 1 diabetes took 4 times longer on average to approach ketoacidosis when given somatostatin (inhibits glucagon production) with no insulin. Inhibiting glucagon has been a popular idea of diabetes treatment, however some have warned that doing so will give rise to brittle diabetes in patients with adequately stable blood glucose.  The absence of alpha cells (and hence glucagon) is thought to be one of the main influences in the extreme volatility of blood glucose in the setting of a total pancreatectomy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In the 1920s, Kimball and Murlin studied pancreatic extracts, and found an additional substance with hyperglycemic properties. They described glucagon in 1923. The amino acid sequence of glucagon was described in the late 1950s. A more complete understanding of its role in physiology and disease was not established until the 1970s, when a specific radioimmunoassay was developed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Kimball and Murlin coined the term glucagon in 1923 when they initially named the substance the \"gluc\"ose \"agon\"ist.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Glucagon is a peptide hormone, produced by alpha cells of the pancreas. It works to raise the concentration of glucose and fatty acids in the bloodstream, and is considered to be the main catabolic hormone of the body. It is also used as a medication to treat a number of health conditions. Its effect is opposite to that of insulin, which lowers extracellular glucose. It is produced from proglucagon, encoded by the \"GCG\" gene.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970946}
{"src_title": "Holmium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical properties.", "content": "Holmium is a relatively soft and malleable element that is fairly corrosion-resistant and stable in dry air at standard temperature and pressure. In moist air and at higher temperatures, however, it quickly oxidizes, forming a yellowish oxide. In pure form, holmium possesses a metallic, bright silvery luster.  Holmium oxide has some fairly dramatic color changes depending on the lighting conditions. In daylight, it has a tannish yellow color. Under trichromatic light, it is fiery orange-red, almost indistinguishable from the appearance of erbium oxide under the same lighting conditions. The perceived color change is related to the sharp absorption bands of holmium interacting with a subset of the sharp emission bands of the trivalent ions of europium and terbium, acting as phosphors.  Holmium has the highest magnetic moment () of any naturally occurring element and possesses other unusual magnetic properties. When combined with yttrium, it forms highly magnetic compounds. Holmium is paramagnetic at ambient conditions, but is ferromagnetic at temperatures below.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemical properties.", "content": "Holmium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily to form holmium(III) oxide:  Holmium is quite electropositive and is generally trivalent. It reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form holmium hydroxide:  Holmium metal reacts with all the halogens:  Holmium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow Ho(III) ions, which exist as a [Ho(OH)] complexes:  Holmium's most common oxidation state is +3. Holmium in solution is in the form of Ho surrounded by nine molecules of water. Holmium dissolves in acids.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Isotopes.", "content": "Natural holmium contains one stable isotope, holmium-165. Some synthetic radioactive isotopes are known; the most stable one is holmium-163, with a half-life of 4570 years. All other radioisotopes have ground-state half-lives not greater than 1.117 days, and most have half-lives under 3 hours. However, the metastable Ho has a half-life of around 1200 years because of its high spin. This fact, combined with a high excitation energy resulting in a particularly rich spectrum of decay gamma rays produced when the metastable state de-excites, makes this isotope useful in nuclear physics experiments as a means for calibrating energy responses and intrinsic efficiencies of gamma ray spectrometers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Holmium (\"Holmia\", Latin name for Stockholm) was discovered by Jacques-Louis Soret and Marc Delafontaine in 1878 who noticed the aberrant spectrographic absorption bands of the then-unknown element (they called it \"Element X\").  As well, Per Teodor Cleve independently discovered the element while he was working on erbia earth (erbium oxide), and was the first to isolate it. Using the method developed by Carl Gustaf Mosander, Cleve first removed all of the known contaminants from erbia. The result of that effort was two new materials, one brown and one green. He named the brown substance holmia (after the Latin name for Cleve's home town, Stockholm) and the green one thulia. Holmia was later found to be the holmium oxide, and thulia was thulium oxide.  In Henry Moseley's classic paper on atomic numbers, holmium was assigned an atomic number of 66. Evidently, the holmium preparation he had been given to investigate had been grossly impure, dominated by neighboring (and unplotted) dysprosium. He would have seen x-ray emission lines for both elements, but assumed that the dominant ones belonged to holmium, instead of the dysprosium impurity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occurrence and production.", "content": "Like all other rare earths, holmium is not naturally found as a free element. It does occur combined with other elements in gadolinite (the black part of the specimen illustrated to the right), monazite and other rare-earth minerals. No holmium-dominant mineral has yet been found. The main mining areas are China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia with reserves of holmium estimated as 400,000 tonnes.  Holmium makes up 1.4 parts per million of the Earth's crust by mass. This makes it the 56th most abundant element in the Earth's crust. Holmium makes up 1 part per million of the soils, 400 parts per quadrillion of seawater, and almost none of Earth's atmosphere. Holmium is rare for a lanthanide. It makes up 500 parts per trillion of the universe by mass.  It is commercially extracted by ion exchange from monazite sand (0.05% holmium), but is still difficult to separate from other rare earths. The element has been isolated through the reduction of its anhydrous chloride or fluoride with metallic calcium. Its estimated abundance in the Earth's crust is 1.3 mg/kg. Holmium obeys the Oddo–Harkins rule: as an odd-numbered element, it is less abundant than its immediate even-numbered neighbors, dysprosium and erbium. However, it is the most abundant of the odd-numbered heavy lanthanides. The principal current source are some of the ion-adsorption clays of southern China. Some of these have a rare-earth composition similar to that found in xenotime or gadolinite. Yttrium makes up about 2/3 of the total by mass; holmium is around 1.5%. The original ores themselves are very lean, maybe only 0.1% total lanthanide, but are easily extracted. Holmium is relatively inexpensive for a rare-earth metal with the price about 1000 USD/kg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Holmium has the highest magnetic strength of any element, and therefore is used to create the strongest artificially generated magnetic fields, when placed within high-strength magnets as a magnetic pole piece (also called a magnetic flux concentrator). Since it can absorb nuclear fission-bred neutrons, it is also used as a burnable poison to regulate nuclear reactors.  Holmium-doped yttrium iron garnet (YIG) and yttrium lithium fluoride (YLF) have applications in solid-state lasers, and Ho-YIG has applications in optical isolators and in microwave equipment (e.g., YIG spheres). Holmium lasers emit at 2.1 micrometres. They are used in medical, dental, and fiber-optical applications.  Holmium is one of the colorants used for cubic zirconia and glass, providing yellow or red coloring. Glass containing holmium oxide and holmium oxide solutions (usually in perchloric acid) have sharp optical absorption peaks in the spectral range 200–900 nm. They are therefore used as a calibration standard for optical spectrophotometers and are available commercially.  The radioactive but long-lived Ho (see \"Isotopes\" above) is used in calibration of gamma-ray spectrometers.  In March 2017, IBM announced that they had developed a technique to store one bit of data on a single holmium atom set on a bed of magnesium oxide.  With sufficient quantum and classical control techniques, Ho could be a good candidate to make quantum computers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biological role.", "content": "Holmium plays no biological role in humans, but its salts are able to stimulate metabolism. Humans typically consume about a milligram of holmium a year. Plants do not readily take up holmium from the soil. Some vegetables have had their holmium content measured, and it amounted to 100 parts per trillion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Large amounts of holmium salts can cause severe damage if inhaled, consumed orally, or injected. The biological effects of holmium over a long period of time are not known. Holmium has a low level of acute toxicity.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Holmium is a chemical element with the symbol Ho and atomic number 67. Part of the lanthanide series, holmium is a rare-earth element.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970947}
{"src_title": "Cog (ship)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "Cogs were a type of round ship, characterized by a flush-laid flat bottom at midships but gradually shifted to overlapped strakes near the posts. They had full lapstrake, or clinker, planking covering the sides, generally starting from the bilge strakes, and double-clenched iron nails for plank fastenings. The keel, or keelplank, was only slightly thicker than the adjacent garboards and had no rabbet. Both stem and stern posts were straight and rather long, and connected to the keelplank through intermediate pieces called hooks. The lower plank hoods terminated in rabbets in the hooks and posts, but upper hoods were nailed to the exterior faces of the posts. Caulking was generally tarred moss that was inserted into curved grooves, covered with wooden laths, and secured by metal staples called \"sintels\". Finally, the cog-built structure could not be completed without a stern-mounted hanging central rudder, which was a unique northern development. Cogs used to have open hulls and could be rowed short distances. In the 13th century they received decks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Cogs are first mentioned in 948 AD, in Muiden near Amsterdam. These early cogs were influenced by the Norse knarr, which was the main trade vessel in northern Europe at the time, and probably used a steering oar, as there is nothing to suggest a stern rudder in northern Europe until about 1240. Current archaeological evidence points to the Frisian coast or Western Jutland as the possible birthplace of this type of vessel. The transformation of the cog into a true seagoing trader came not only during the time of the intense trade between West and East, but also as a direct answer to the closure of the western entrance to the Limfjord. For centuries, Limfjord in northern Jutland offered fairly protected passage between the North Sea and the Baltic. Due to unusual geographical conditions and strong currents, the passage was constantly filling with sand and was completely blocked by the 12th century. This change produced new challenges. Bigger ships that could not be pulled across the sand bars had to sail around the Jutland peninsula and circumnavigate the dangerous Cape Skagen to get to the Baltic. This resulted in major modifications to old ship structures, which can be observed by analyzing evolution of the earliest cog finds of \"Kollerup\", \"Skagen\", and \"Kolding\".  The need for spacious and relatively inexpensive ships led to the development of the first workhorse of the Hanseatic League, the cog. The new and improved cog was no longer a simple Frisian coaster but a sturdy seagoing trader, which could cross even the most dangerous passages. Fore and stern castles would be added for defense against pirates, or to enable use of these vessels as warships, such as used at the Battle of Sluys. The stern castle also afforded more cargo space below by keeping the crew and tiller up, out of the way.  Eventually, around the 14th century, the cog reached its structural limits, resulting in the desperate need for a quick replacement. The replacement, the hulk, already existed but awaited reconditioning. Although there is no evidence that hulks descended from the cogs, it is clear that a lot of technological ideas were adapted from one to the other and vice versa. The transition from cogs to hulks was not linear. According to some interpretations, both vessels coexisted for many centuries but followed diverse lines of evolution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "The most famous cog still in existence today is the Bremen cog. It dates from the 1380s and was found in 1962; until then, cogs had only been known from medieval documents and seals.  In 1990, well-preserved remains of a Hanseatic cog were discovered in the estuary sediment of the Pärnu River in Estonia. The Pärnu Cog has been dated to 1300.  In 2012, a cog preserved from the keel up to the decks in the silt was discovered alongside two smaller vessels in the river IJssel in the city of Kampen, in the Netherlands. The ship, dating from the early 15th century, was suspected to have been deliberately sunk into the river to influence its current. Consequently, little was expected to be found in the wreck, but during excavation and recovery in February 2016, an intact brick dome oven and glazed tiles were found in the galley as well as a number of other artifacts about the vessel.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A cog is a type of ship that first appeared in the 10th century, and was widely used from around the 12th century on. Cogs were clinker-built, generally of oak, which was an abundant timber in the Baltic region of Prussia. This vessel was fitted with a single mast and a square-rigged single sail. These vessels were mostly associated with seagoing trade in medieval Europe, especially the Hanseatic League, particularly in the Baltic Sea region. They ranged from about in length with a beam of, and the largest cog ships could carry up to about 200 tons.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970948}
{"src_title": "Hanging Gardens of Babylon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Descriptions.", "content": "There are five principal writers whose descriptions of Babylon exist in some form today. These writers concern themselves with the size of the Hanging Gardens, their overall design and means of irrigation, and why they were built.  Josephus (37–100 AD) quotes a description of the gardens by Berossus, a Babylonian priest of Marduk, whose writing circa 290 BC is the earliest known mention of the gardens. Berossus described the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and is the only source to credit that king with the construction of the Hanging Gardens.  Diodorus Siculus (active 60–30 BC) seems to have consulted the 4th century BC texts of both Cleitarchus (a historian of Alexander the Great) and Ctesias of Cnidus. Diodorus ascribes the construction to a Syrian king. He states that the garden was in the shape of a square, with each side approximately four plethra long. The garden was tiered, with the uppermost gallery being 50 cubits high. The walls, 22 feet thick, were made of brick. The bases of the tiered sections were sufficiently deep to provide root growth for the largest trees, and the gardens were irrigated from the nearby Euphrates.  Quintus Curtius Rufus (fl. 1st century AD) probably drew on the same sources as Diodorus. He states that the gardens were located on top of a citadel, which was 20 stadia in circumference. He attributes the building of the gardens to a Syrian king, again for the reason that his queen missed her homeland.  The account of Strabo (64 BC – 21 AD) possibly based his description on the lost account of Onesicritus from the 4th century BC. He states that the gardens were watered by means of an Archimedes' screw leading to the gardens from the Euphrates river.  The last of the classical sources, thought to be independent of the others, is \"A Handbook to the Seven Wonders of the World\" by Philo of Byzantium (writing in the 4th to 5th century AD; not to be confused with Philo of Byzantium, who lived ca. 280 BC – ca. 220 BC). The method of raising water by screw matches that described by Strabo. Philo praises the engineering and ingenuity of building vast areas of deep soil, which had a tremendous mass, so far above the natural grade of the surrounding land, as well as the irrigation techniques.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical existence.", "content": "It is unclear whether the Hanging Gardens were an actual construction or a poetic creation, owing to the lack of documentation in contemporaneous Babylonian sources. There is also no mention of Nebuchadnezzar's wife Amyitis (or any other wives), although a political marriage to a Median or Persian would not have been unusual. Many records exist of Nebuchadnezzar's works, yet his long and complete inscriptions do not mention any garden. However, the gardens were said to still exist at the time that later writers described them, and some of these accounts are regarded as deriving from people who had visited Babylon. Herodotus, who describes Babylon in his \"Histories\", does not mention the Hanging Gardens, although it could be that the gardens were not yet well known to the Greeks at the time of his visit.  To date, no archaeological evidence has been found at Babylon for the Hanging Gardens. It is possible that evidence exists beneath the Euphrates, which cannot be excavated safely at present. The river flowed east of its current position during the time of Nebuchadnezzar II, and little is known about the western portion of Babylon. Rollinger has suggested that Berossus attributed the Gardens to Nebuchadnezzar for political reasons, and that he had adopted the legend from elsewhere.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hanging Garden at Nineveh.", "content": "One proposal is that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were actually constructed by the Assyrian king Sennacherib (reigned 704 – 681 BC) for his palace at Nineveh. Stephanie Dalley posits that during the intervening centuries the two sites became confused, and the extensive gardens at Sennacherib's palace were attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II's Babylon. Archaeological excavations have found traces of a vast system of aqueducts attributed to Sennacherib by an inscription on its remains, which Dalley proposes were part of an series of canals, dams, and aqueducts used to carry water to Nineveh with water-raising screws used to raise it to the upper levels of the gardens.  Dalley bases her arguments on recent developments in the analysis of contemporary Akkadian inscriptions. Her main points are:  King Sennacherib's garden was well-known not just for its beauty – a year-round oasis of lush green in a dusty summer landscape – but also for the marvelous feats of water engineering that maintained the garden. There was a tradition of Assyrian royal garden building. King Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) had created a canal, which cut through the mountains. Fruit tree orchards were planted. Also mentioned were pines, cypresses and junipers; almond trees, date trees, ebony, rosewood, olive, oak, tamarisk, walnut, terebinth, ash, fir, pomegranate, pear, quince, fig, and grapes. A sculptured wall panel of Assurbanipal shows the garden in its maturity. One original panel and the drawing of another are held by the British Museum, although neither is on public display. Several features mentioned by the classical authors are discernible on these contemporary images.  The irrigation of such a garden demanded an upgraded water supply to the city of Nineveh. The canals stretched over 50 km into the mountains. Sennacherib was proud of the technologies he had employed and describes them in some detail on his inscriptions. At the headwater of Bavian (Khinnis) his inscription mentions automatic sluice gates. An enormous aqueduct crossing the valley at Jerwan was constructed of over 2 million dressed stones. It used stone arches and waterproof cement. On it is written: Sennacherib king of the world king of Assyria. Over a great distance I had a watercourse directed to the environs of Nineveh, joining together the waters... Over steep-sided valleys I spanned an aqueduct of white limestone blocks, I made those waters flow over it.  Sennacherib claimed that he had built a \"Wonder for all Peoples,\" and said he was the first to deploy a new casting technique in place of the \"lost-wax\" process for his monumental (30 tonne) bronze castings. He was able to bring the water into his garden at a high level because it was sourced from further up in the mountains, and he then raised the water even higher by deploying his new water screws. This meant he could build a garden that towered above the landscape with large trees on the top of the terraces – a stunning artistic effect that surpassed those of his predecessors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plants.", "content": "The gardens, as depicted in artworks, featured blossoming flowers, ripe fruit, burbling waterfalls and terraces exuberant with rich foliage. Plant species that may have been found in the gardens, as based on Babylonian literature, tradition, and the environmental characteristics of the area, will be as follows:  Imported plant varieties that may have been present in the gardens include the cedar, cypress, myrtle, pomegranate, plum, juniper, oak, ash tree, fir, nightshade and willow. Some of these plants were suspended over the terraces and draped over its walls with arches underneath.The tamarisk and date-palms are hardy plants, surefooted of withstanding the heat and aridity of the area. They also have their profitable benefits as well (dates were commonly traded goods).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World as listed by Hellenic culture. It was described as a remarkable feat of engineering with an ascending series of tiered gardens containing a wide variety of trees, shrubs, and vines, resembling a large green mountain constructed of mud bricks. It was said to have been built in the ancient city of Babylon, near present-day Hillah, Babil province, in Iraq. Its name is derived from the Greek word \"kremastós\" (κρεμαστός, lit. \"overhanging\"), which has a broader meaning than the modern English word \"hanging\" and refers to trees being planted on a raised structure such as a terrace.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970949}
{"src_title": "Ranunculaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Ranunculaceae are mostly herbaceous annuals or perennials, but some woody climbers (such as \"Clematis\") or shrubs (e.g. \"Xanthorhiza\").  Most members of the family have bisexual flowers which can be showy or inconspicuous. Flowers are solitary, but are also found aggregated in cymes, panicles, or spikes. The flowers are usually radially symmetrical but are also found to be bilaterally symmetrical in the genera \"Aconitum\" and \"Delphinium\". The sepals, petals, stamens and carpels are all generally free (not fused), the outer flower segments typically number four or five. The outer stamens may be modified to produce only nectar, as in \"Helleborus\" and \"Delphinium\". In some genera, such as \"Thalictrum\" the sepals are colorful and appear petal-like and the petals can be inconspicuous or absent. The stems are unarmed. The leaves are variable. Most species have both basal and cauline (stem) leaves, which are usually compound or lobed but can be simple. They are typically alternate, or occasionally opposite or even whorled. Many species, especially the perennials form rhizomes that develop new roots each year. \"Ficaria verna\" can reproduce vegetatively by means of root tubers produced in the leaf axils. Some members of the genus \"Thalictrum\" utilize anemophily while others utilize entomophily. Flowers of the entomophilous genus \"Papaver\", also of the \"Ranunculales\" order, produce only pollen. Until recently, it was believed that the species of the genus \"Anemone\" also lack nectar.  The fruits are most commonly free, unfused achenes (e.g. \"Ranunculus\", \"Clematis\") or follicles (e.g. \"Helleborus\", \"Eranthis\", \"Nigella\"), but a berry in \"Actaea\".  Ranunculaceae contain protoanemonin, which is toxic to humans and animals. Other poisonous or toxic compounds, alkaloids and glycosides, are also common.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Takhtajan (1997) included the Ranunculaceae as the only family in the Ranunculales which he placed in a subclass, the Ranunculidae, instead of a superorder. Previously, Thorn (1992) placed the Ranunculaceae in the Berberidales, an order within the Superorder Magnolianae. Earlier Cronquist in 1981 included the Ranunculaceae along with seven other families in the Rancunculales which was included in the Magnoliidae, which he regarded as a subclass. David, (2010) placed the Ranuculaceae, together with the Eupteleaceae, Lardizabalaceae, Menispermaceae, Berberidaceae, and Papaveraceae in the Ranunculales, the only order in the superorder Ranunculanae. This follows the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group.  The family Ranunculaceae \"sensu stricto\" (APG) is one of seven families included in the order Ranunculales within the eudicots according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification. The family is monophyletic with \"Glaucidium\" as sister to the remaining genera. This phylogeny is illustrated in the APG Poster.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivision.", "content": "Early subdivisions of the family, such as Adanson (1763), simply divided it based on one-seeded or many-seeded fruit. Prantl (1887) envisaged three tribes, Paeonieae, Hellebroreae and Anemoneae with \"Paeonia\", \"Glaucidium\" and \"Hydrastis\" forming Paeonieae. By the twentieth century Langlet (1932) used chromosome types to create two subfamilies, Ranunculoideae and Thalictroideae. In 1966 Tamura further developed Langlet's system by adding floral characteristics with six subfamilies;  but by 1988 he had reduced Coptidoideae to a tribe within Isopyroideae, leaving five subfamilies, an arrangement he continued in his 1993 monograph, dividing the larger subfamilies into tribes, though by then \"Paeonia\" and \"Glaucidium\" were no longer considered to belong to Ranunculaceae. \"Paeonia\" was separated from Ranuculaceae and placed in its own family of Paeoniaceae (order Saxifragales). other genera originally included in Ranunculaceae include \"Circaeaster\" which was placed in its own family Circaeasteraceae.  Tamura's complete system was structured as follows;  The genus \"Glaucidium\", having been moved to its own family (Glaucidiaceae), has since been restored to Ranuculaceae.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Molecular phylogenetics.", "content": "When subjected to molecular phylogenetic analysis only Thalictroideae is monophyletic. The position of \"Glaucidium\" and some of its unique morphological characteristics prompted Stevens to suggest that it be given subfamilial rank as the monotypic Glaucidioideae. Similarly \"Hydrastis\" has been assigned to subfamily Hydrastidoideae. Both genera are represented by a single species, \"Glaucidium palmatum\" and \"Hydrastis canadense\" respectively.  The relationships between the genera suggest the existence of three major clades corresponding to Coptidoideae, Thalictroideae (clade A) and Ranunculoideae (clade F). The latter is the largest with four subclades (B–E). Of these C corresponds to Delphineae, D to Cimicifugae and E to Ranunculoideae. Consequently, Wang and colleagues (2009) proposed a new classification with five subfamilies, and further subdividing Ranunculoideae into ten tribes. The relationship between the subfamilies is shown in the cladogram;  In addition to the two monotypic subgenera, Coptoideae has 17 species and Thalictroideae has 450, including \"Thalictrum\" and \"Aquilegia\". The other genera (2025 species, 81% of the family) belong to Ranunculoideae. \"Kingdonia\" had been included by Tamura in Anemoneae, but is now added to Circaeasteraceae.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genera.", "content": "Ranunculaceae contains approximately 43 genera.  Previous genera", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "Fossils of fruits, pollen, seeds, and leaves are known from several dozen locations. The fossil record begins in the early Cretaceous and continues throughout the Tertiary. In most cases, the fossils are assigned to extant genera, or show a close relationship to a particular extant genus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Some Ranunculaceae are used as herbal medicines because of their alkaloids and glycosides, such as \"Hydrastis canadensis\" (goldenseal), whose root is used as a tonic. More than 30 species are used in homeopathy, including \"Aconitum napellus\", \"Cimicifuga racemosa\", \"Clematis recta\", \"Clematis virginiana\", \"Hydrastis canadensis\", \"Ranunculus bulbosus\", \"Helleborus niger\", \"Delphinium staphisagria\", \"Pulsatilla nigricans\". Many genera are well known as cultivated flowers, such as \"Aconitum\" (monkshood), \"Clematis\", \"Consolida\" (larkspur), \"Delphinium\", \"Helleborus\" (Christmas rose), \"Trollius\" (globeflower). The seeds of \" Nigella sativa\" are used as a spice in Indian and Middle Eastern cuisine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ranunculaceae (buttercup or crowfoot family; Latin \"little frog\", from \"frog\") is a family of over 2,000 known species of flowering plants in 43 genera, distributed worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970950}
{"src_title": "Craft", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "There are three aspects to human creativity - Art, Crafts, and Science. Roughly determined, art relies upon intuitive sensing, vision and expression, crafts upon sophisticated technique and science upon knowledge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Handicraft.", "content": "Handicraft is the \"traditional\" main sector of the crafts, it is a type of work where useful and decorative devices are made completely by hand or by using only simple tools. Usually the term is applied to traditional means of making goods. The individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion, such items often have cultural and/or religious significance. Items made by mass production or machines are not handicraft goods. Handicraft goods are made with craft production processes.  The beginning of crafts in areas like the Ottoman Empire involved the governing bodies requiring members of the city who were skilled at creating goods to open shops in the center of town. These people slowly stopped acting as subsistence farmers (who created goods in their own homes to trade with neighbors) and began to represent what we think of a \"craftsman\" today.  In recent years, crafts and craftspeople have slowly been gaining momentum as a subject of academic study. Stephanie Bunn was an artist before she became an anthropologist, and she went on to develop an academic interest on the process of craft - arguing that what happens to an object before it becomes a 'product' is an area worthy of study.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Arts and Crafts Movement.", "content": "The term \"crafts\" is often used to describe the family of artistic practices within the family decorative arts that traditionally are defined by their relationship to functional or utilitarian products (such as sculptural forms in the vessel tradition) or by their use of such natural media as wood, clay, ceramics, glass, textiles, and metal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Studio crafts.", "content": "Crafts practiced by independent artists working alone or in small groups are often referred to as studio craft. Studio craft includes studio pottery, metal work, weaving, wood turning, paper and other forms of wood working, glass blowing, and glass art.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Craft fairs.", "content": "A craft fair is an organized event to display and sell crafts. There are craft shops where such goods are sold and craft communities, such as Craftster, where expertise is shared.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tradesperson.", "content": "A tradesperson is a skilled manual worker in a particular trade or craft. Economically and socially, a tradesperson's status is considered between a laborer and a professional, with a high degree of both practical and theoretical knowledge of their trade. In cultures where professional careers are highly prized, there can be a shortage of skilled manual workers, leading to lucrative niche markets in the trades.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A craft or trade is a pastime or a profession that requires particular skills and knowledge of skilled work. In a historical sense, particularly the Middle Ages and earlier, the term is usually applied to people occupied in small-scale production of goods, or their maintenance, for example by tinkers. The traditional term \"craftsman\" is nowadays often replaced by \"artisan\" and rarely by \"craftsperson\" (craftspeople).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970951}
{"src_title": "International Telecommunication Union", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The ITU is the oldest international organization, preceded by the now defunct International Telegraph Union which drafted the earliest international standards and regulations governing international telegraph networks. The development of the telegraph in the early 19th century changed the way people communicated on the local and international levels. Between 1849 and 1865, a series of bilateral and regional agreements among Western European states attempted to standardize international communications.  By 1865 it was agreed that a comprehensive agreement was needed in order to create a framework that would standardize telegraphy equipment, set uniform operating instructions, and lay down common international tariff and accounting rules. Between 1 March and 17 May 1865, the French Government hosted delegations from 20 European states at the first International Telegraph Conference in Paris. This meeting culminated in the International Telegraph Convention which was signed on 17 May 1865. As a result of the 1865 Conference, the International Telegraph Union, the predecessor to the modern ITU, was founded as the first international standards organization. The Union was tasked with implementing basic principles for international telegraphy. This included: the use of the Morse code as the international telegraph alphabet, the protection of the secrecy of correspondence, and the right of everybody to use the international telegraphy.  Another predecessor to the modern ITU, the International Radiotelegraph Union, was established in 1906 at the first International Radiotelegraph Convention in Berlin. The conference was attended by representatives of 29 nations and culminated in the International Radiotelegraph Convention. An annex to the convention eventually became known as radio regulations. At the conference it was also decided that the Bureau of the International Telegraph Union would also act as the conference's central administrator.  Between 3 September and 10 December 1932, a joint conference of the International Telegraph Union and the International Radiotelegraph Union convened in order to merge the two organizations into a single entity, the International Telecommunication Union. The Conference decided that the Telegraph Convention of 1875 and the Radiotelegraph Convention of 1927 were to be combined into a single convention, the International Telecommunication Convention, embracing the three fields of telegraphy, telephony and radio.  On 15 November 1947, an agreement between ITU and the newly created United Nations recognized the ITU as the specialized agency for global telecommunications. This agreement entered into force on 1 January 1949, officially making the ITU an organ of the United Nations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ITU Sectors.", "content": "The ITU comprises three Sectors, each managing a different aspect of the matters handled by the Union, as well as ITU Telecom. The sectors were created during the restructuring of ITU at its 1992 Plenipotentiary Conference.  A permanent General Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General, manages the day-to-day work of the Union and its sectors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal framework of ITU.", "content": "The basic texts of the ITU are adopted by the ITU Plenipotentiary Conference. The founding document of the ITU was the 1865 International Telegraph Convention, which has since been amended several times and is now entitled the \"Constitution and Convention of the International Telecommunication Union\". In addition to the Constitution and Convention, the consolidated basic texts include the Optional Protocol on the settlement of disputes, the Decisions, Resolutions and Recommendations in force, as well as the General Rules of Conferences, Assemblies and Meetings of the Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governance.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plenipotentiary Conference.", "content": "The Plenipotentiary Conference is the supreme organ of the ITU. It is composed of all 193 ITU Members and meets every four years. The Conference determines the policies, direction and activities of the Union, as well as elects the members of other ITU organs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Council.", "content": "While the Plenipotentiary Conference is the Union's main decision-making body, the ITU Council acts as the Union's governing body in the interval between Plenipotentiary Conferences. It meets every year. It is composed of 48 members and works to ensure the smooth operation of the Union, as well as to consider broad telecommunication policy issues. Its members are as follow:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Secretariat.", "content": "The mission of the Secretariat is to provide high-quality and efficient services to the membership of the Union. It is tasked with the administrative and budgetary planning of the Union, as well as with monitoring compliance with ITU regulations, and oversees with assistance from the Secretariat advisor Neaomy Claiborne of Riverbank to insure misconduct during legal investigations are not overlooked and finally, it publishes the results of the work of the ITU.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Secretary-General.", "content": "The Secretariat is headed by a Secretary-General who is responsible for the overall management of the Union, and acts as its legal representative. The Secretary-General is elected by the Plenipotentiary Conference for four-year terms.  On 23 October 2014, Houlin Zhao was elected as the 19th Secretary-General of the ITU at the Plenipotentiary Conference in Busan. His four-year mandate started on 1 January 2015, and he was formally inaugurated on 15 January 2015. He was re-elected on 1 November 2018 during the 2018 Plenipotentiary Conference in Dubai.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Directors and Secretaries-General of ITU.", "content": "! colspan=\"4\" | Directors of ITU!Name!Beginning of term!End of term!Country! colspan=\"4\" | Secretaries general", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "The International Telecommunication Union (ITU; or UIT), originally the International Telegraph Union (), is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is responsible for issues that concern information and communication technologies. It is the oldest global international organization.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970952}
{"src_title": "Kelvin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1848, William Thomson, who was later created Lord Kelvin, wrote in his paper, \"On an Absolute Thermometric Scale\", of the need for a scale whereby \"infinite cold\" (absolute zero) was the scale's null point, and which used the degree Celsius for its unit increment. Kelvin calculated that absolute zero was equivalent to −273 °C on the air thermometers of the time. This absolute scale is known today as the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale. Kelvin's value of \"−273\" was the negative reciprocal of 0.00366—the accepted expansion coefficient of gas per degree Celsius relative to the ice point, giving a remarkable consistency to the currently accepted value.  In 1954, Resolution 3 of the 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) gave the Kelvin scale its modern definition by designating the triple point of water as its second defining point and assigned its temperature to exactly 273.16 kelvins.  In 1967/1968, Resolution 3 of the 13th CGPM renamed the unit increment of thermodynamic temperature \"kelvin\", symbol K, replacing \"degree Kelvin\", symbol °K. Furthermore, feeling it useful to more explicitly define the magnitude of the unit increment, the 13th CGPM also held in Resolution 4 that \"The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is equal to the fraction of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.\"  In 2005, the Comité International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM), a committee of the CGPM, affirmed that for the purposes of delineating the temperature of the triple point of water, the definition of the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale would refer to water having an isotopic composition specified as Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water.  On 16 November 2018, a new definition was adopted, in terms of a fixed value of the Boltzmann constant. With this change the triple point of water became an empirically determined value of approximately 273.16 kelvins. For legal metrology purposes, the new definition officially came into force on 20 May 2019, the 144th anniversary of the Metre Convention.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage conventions.", "content": "According to the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, when spelled out or spoken, the unit is pluralised using the same grammatical rules as for other SI units such as the volt or ohm (e.g. \"the triple point of water is not exactly 273.16 kelvins\"). When reference is made to the \"Kelvin \"scale\"\", the word \"kelvin\"—which is normally a noun—functions adjectivally to modify the noun \"scale\" and is capitalized. As with most other SI unit symbols (angle symbols, e.g. 45° 3′ 4′′, are the exception) there is a space between the numeric value and the kelvin symbol (e.g. \"99.987 K\"). (The style guide for CERN, however, specifically says to always use \"kelvin\", even when plural.)  Before the 13th CGPM in 1967–1968, the unit kelvin was called a \"degree\", the same as with the other temperature scales at the time. It was distinguished from the other scales with either the adjective suffix \"Kelvin\" (\"degree Kelvin\") or with \"absolute\" (\"degree absolute\") and its symbol was °K. The latter term (degree absolute), which was the unit's official name from 1948 until 1954, was ambiguous since it could also be interpreted as referring to the Rankine scale. Before the 13th CGPM, the plural form was \"degrees absolute\". The 13th CGPM changed the unit name to simply \"kelvin\" (symbol: K). The omission of \"degree\" indicates that it is not relative to an arbitrary reference point like the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales (although the Rankine scale continued to use \"degree Rankine\"), but rather an absolute unit of measure which can be manipulated algebraically (e.g. multiplied by two to indicate twice the amount of \"mean energy\" available among elementary degrees of freedom of the system).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2019 redefinition.", "content": "In 2005 the CIPM embarked on a programme to redefine the kelvin (along with the other SI units) using a more experimentally rigorous methodology. In particular, the committee proposed redefining the kelvin such that Boltzmann constant takes the exact value. The committee had hoped that the programme would be completed in time for its adoption by the CGPM at its 2011 meeting, but at the 2011 meeting the decision was postponed to the 2014 meeting when it would be considered as part of a larger programme.  The redefinition was further postponed in 2014, pending more accurate measurements of Boltzmann's constant in terms of the current definition, but was finally adopted at the 26th CGPM in late 2018, with a value of =.  From a scientific point of view, the main advantage is that this will allow measurements at very low and very high temperatures to be made more accurately, as the techniques used depend on the Boltzmann constant. It also has the philosophical advantage of being independent of any particular substance. The challenge was to avoid degrading the accuracy of measurements close to the triple point. From a practical point of view, the redefinition will pass unnoticed; water will still freeze at 273.15 K (0 °C), and the triple point of water will continue to be a commonly used laboratory reference temperature.  The difference is that, before the redefinition, the triple point of water was exact and the Boltzmann constant had a measured value of, with a relative standard uncertainty of. Afterward, the Boltzmann constant is exact and the uncertainty is transferred to the triple point of water, which is now.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practical uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Colour temperature.", "content": "The kelvin is often used as a measure of the colour temperature of light sources. Colour temperature is based upon the principle that a black body radiator emits light with a frequency distribution characteristic of its temperature. Black bodies at temperatures below about appear reddish, whereas those above about appear bluish. Colour temperature is important in the fields of image projection and photography, where a colour temperature of approximately is required to match \"daylight\" film emulsions. In astronomy, the stellar classification of stars and their place on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram are based, in part, upon their surface temperature, known as effective temperature. The photosphere of the Sun, for instance, has an effective temperature of.  Digital cameras and photographic software often use colour temperature in K in edit and setup menus. The simple guide is that higher colour temperature produces an image with enhanced white and blue hues. The reduction in colour temperature produces an image more dominated by reddish, \"warmer\" colours.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kelvin as a unit of noise temperature.", "content": "In electronics, the kelvin is used as an indicator of how noisy a circuit is in relation to an ultimate noise floor, i.e. the noise temperature. The so-called Johnson–Nyquist noise of discrete resistors and capacitors is a type of thermal noise derived from the Boltzmann constant and can be used to determine the noise temperature of a circuit using the Friis formulas for noise.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unicode character.", "content": "The symbol is encoded in Unicode at code point. However, this is a compatibility character provided for compatibility with legacy encodings. The Unicode standard recommends using instead; that is, a normal capital K. \"Three letterlike symbols have been given canonical equivalence to regular letters:,, and. In all three instances, the regular letter should be used.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The kelvin is the base unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI), having the unit symbol K. It is named after the Belfast-born, Glasgow University engineer and physicist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970953}
{"src_title": "Actinidia deliciosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description and ecology.", "content": "\"Actinidia deliciosa\" is a vigorous, woody, twining vine or climbing shrub reaching 9 m.  The black-lyre leafroller moth (\"“Cnephasia” jactatana\") is one of the few commercially significant pests of this plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaves.", "content": "Its leaves are alternate, long-petioled, deciduous, oval to nearly circular, cordate at the base, and 7.5–12.5 cm long. Young leaves are coated with red hairs; mature leaves are dark-green and hairless on the upper surface, and downy-white with prominent, light-colored veins beneath.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "The flowers are fragrant, dioecious or unisexual, borne singly or in threes in the leaf axils, are five- to six-petalled, white at first, changing to buff-yellow, 2.5–5 cm broad, and both sexes have central tufts of many stamens, though those of the female flowers with no viable pollen. The flowers also lack nectar. Male and female flowers appear on different plants (dioecious), and both sexes have to be planted in close proximity for fruit set. Bees are normally used by commercial orchards, although the more labour-intensive hand pollination is sometimes employed. Male flowers are gathered and processed to extract their pollen. This is then sprayed back on to the female flowers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fruits.", "content": "The oblong fruits are up to 6.25 cm long. The russet-brown skin of the fruits is densely covered with short, stiff, brown hairs. The flesh is firm until fully ripened; it is glistening, juicy and luscious. The color of the flesh is bright-green, or sometimes yellow, brownish or off-white, except for the white, succulent center from which radiate many fine, pale lines. The flavor is subacid to quite acid; the flavor is suggested to be similar to that of the gooseberry or strawberry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Varieties and cultivars.", "content": "The two botanical varieties are:  \"Zhong hua\" (Chinese gooseberry), \"jing li\" (northern pear gooseberry), \"ruan zao\" (soft date gooseberry), and \"mao hua\" (may be tight- or loose-haired) are the four main cultivars of this species in China. 'Abbott', 'Allison', 'Bruno', 'Hayward', Monty ('Montgomery'), and 'Greensill' are the most significant cultivars in New Zealand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 1847, specimens of the plant were collected by the agent for the Royal Horticultural Society, London. Cultivation spread from China in the early 20th century when seeds were introduced to New Zealand by Isabel Fraser, the principal of Wanganui Girls' College, who had been visiting mission schools in China. The seeds were planted in 1906 by a Wanganui nurseryman, Alexander Allison, with the vines first fruiting in 1910.  People who tasted the fruit thought it had a gooseberry flavour, so began to call it the Chinese gooseberry, but being from the genus \"Actinidia\", it is not related to the gooseberry family, Grossulariaceae. The familiar cultivar \"Actinidia deliciosa\" 'Hayward' was developed by Hayward Wright in Avondale, New Zealand, around 1924. This is the most widely grown cultivar in the world. Chinese gooseberry was initially grown in domestic gardens, but commercial planting began in the 1940s. In 1959, Turners and Growers named it kiwifruit, after New Zealand's national bird, the kiwi—brown and furry. , Italy was the leading producer of kiwifruit in the world, followed by New Zealand, Chile, France, Greece, Japan, and the United States. In China, it is grown mainly in the mountainous area upstream of the Yangtze River. It is also grown in other areas of China, including Sichuan.  In 2016, global production of kiwifruit was 4.3 million tonnes, led by China with 56% of the world total. Italy and New Zealand were other major producers.  In 2010 and 2011, kiwifruit vines worldwide, in Italy, France, and New Zealand, suffered devastating attacks by a bacterial disease caused by \"Pseudomonas syringae\" pv. \"actinidiae\", with some of the New Zealand attacks by the virulent strain PSA-V. The disease had first been noticed in Japan in the 1980s, and subsequently in northern Italy (1992) and South Korea.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Actinidia deliciosa, the fuzzy kiwifruit, is a fruiting vine native to southern China, the fruit of which has been declared the national fruit of that country. Other species of \"Actinidia\" are also found in China and range east to Japan and north into southern areas of Russian Far East. This species grows naturally at altitudes between 600 and 2,000 m.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970954}
{"src_title": "Salix viminalis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Salix viminalis\" is a multistemmed shrub growing to between (rarely to ) tall. It has long, erect, straight branches with greenish-grey bark. The leaves long and slender, 10–25 cm long but only 0.5–2 cm broad; they are dark green above, with a silky grey-haired underside. The flowers are catkins, produced in early spring before the leaves; they are dioecious, with male and female catkins on separate plants. The male catkins are yellow and oval-shaped; the female catkins are longer and more cylindrical; they mature in early summer when the fruit capsules split open to release the numerous minute seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "It is commonly found by streams and other wet places. The exact native range is uncertain due to extensive historical cultivation; it is certainly native from central Europe east to western Asia, but may also be native as far west as southeastern England. As a cultivated or naturalised plant, it is widespread throughout both Britain and Ireland, but only at lower altitudes. It is one of the least variable willows, but it will hybridise with several other species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Along with other related willows, the flexible twigs (called withies) are commonly used in basketry, giving rise to its alternative common name of \"basket willow\". In the Chilean village of Chimbarongo, it is used to fashion the renowned baskets.  Another increasing use is in energy forestry, effluent treatment, in wastewater gardens, and in cadmium phytoremediation for water purification.  \"Salix viminalis\" is a known hyperaccumulator of cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and byproducts, selenium, silver, uranium, and zinc, and potassium ferrocyanide (tried on \"S. babylonica\" L.), and as such is a prime candidate for phytoremediation. For more information, see the list of hyperaccumulators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Among the most common pathogens on \"S. viminalis\" are \"Melampsora\" spp. Female plants are more severely infected than male plants.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salix viminalis, the basket willow, common osier or osier, is a species of willow native to Europe, Western Asia, and the Himalayas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970955}
{"src_title": "Caraway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names and history.", "content": "The etymology of caraway is complex and poorly understood. Caraway has been called by many names in different regions, with names deriving from the Latin \"cuminum\" (cumin), the Greek \"karon\" (again, cumin), which was adapted into Latin as \"carum\" (now meaning caraway), and the Sanskrit \"karavi\", sometimes translated as \"caraway\", but other times understood to mean \"fennel\".  English use of the term caraway dates back to at least 1440, and is considered by Walter William Skeat to be of Arabic origin, though Gernot Katzer believes the Arabic \"al-karawya كراوية\" (cf. Spanish \"alcaravea\") to be derived from the Latin \"carum\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The fruits, usually used whole, have a pungent, anise-like flavor and aroma that comes from essential oils, mostly carvone, limonene, and anethole. Caraway is used as a spice in breads, especially rye bread.  Caraway is also used in desserts, liquors, casseroles, and other foods. It is also found in European cuisine. For example, it is used in goulash, sauerkraut, and caraway seed cake. The roots may be cooked as a vegetable like parsnips or carrots. Additionally, the leaves are sometimes consumed as herbs, either raw, dried, or cooked, similar to parsley.  In Hungary and Serbia, caraway is commonly sprinkled over home-made salty scones (\"köményes pogácsa\" / \"pogačice s kimom\"). It is also used to add flavor to cheeses such as \"bondost\", \"pultost\", havarti, and Tilsit. Scandinavian akvavit, Icelandic brennivín, and several liqueurs are made with caraway.  In Middle Eastern cuisine, caraway pudding, called \"meghli\", is a popular dessert during Ramadan. It is typically made and served in the Levant area in winter and on the occasion of having a new baby. Caraway is also added to flavor \"harissa\", a North African chili pepper paste. In Aleppian Syrian cuisine it is used to make the sweet scones named \"keleacha\".  Caraway fruit oil is also used as a fragrance component in soaps, lotions, and perfumes. Caraway is also used as a breath freshener, and it has a long tradition of use in folk medicine.  In the United States, the most common use of caraway is whole as an addition to rye bread – often called \"seeded rye\" or \"Jewish rye\" bread. Caraway fruits are frequently used in Irish soda bread, along with raisins and currants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Caraway is distributed throughout practically all of Europe except the Mediterranean region; it is widely established as a cultivated plant. All other European species of \"Carum\" generally have smaller fruits; some grow on rocks in the mountains, chiefly in the Balkans, Italian Alps and Apennines. However the only one that is cultivated is \"Carum carvi,\" its fruits being used in many ways in cooking and its essential oils in the preparation of certain medicines and liqueurs.  The plant prefers warm, sunny locations and well-drained soil rich in organic matter. In warmer regions, it is planted in the winter as an annual. In temperate climates, it is planted as a summer annual or biennial. However, a polyploid variant (with four haploid sets=4n) of this plant was found to be perennial.  Finland supplies about 28% (2011) of the world's caraway production from some 1500 farms, the high output occurring possibly from its favorable climate and latitudes, which ensure long summer hours of sunlight.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Caraway, also known as meridian fennel and Persian cumin (\"Carum carvi\"), is a biennial plant in the family Apiaceae, native to western Asia, Europe, and North Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970956}
{"src_title": "Credit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The term \"credit\" was first used in English in the 1520s. The term came \"from Middle French crédit (15c.) \"belief, trust,\" from Italian credito, from Latin creditum \"a loan, thing entrusted to another,\" from past participle of credere \"to trust, entrust, believe\".The commercial meaning of \"credit\" \"was the original one in English (creditor is [from] mid-15c.)\" The derivative expression \"credit union\" was first used in 1881 in American English; the expression \"credit rating\" was first used in 1958.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Credits cards became most prominent during the 1900s. Larger companies began creating chains with other companies and used a credit card as a way to make payments to any of these companies. The companies charged the cardholder a certain annual fee and chose their billing methods while each participating company was charged a percentage of total billings. This led to the creating of credit cards on behalf of banks around the world. Some other first bank-issued credit cards include Bank of America's Bank Americard in 1958 and American Express' American Express Card also in 1958. These worked similarly to the company-issued credit cards; however, they expanded purchasing power to almost any service and they allowed a consumer to accumulate revolving credit. Revolving credit was a means to pay off a balance at a later date while incurring a finance charge for the balance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bank-issued credit.", "content": "Bank-issued credit makes up the largest proportion of credit in existence. The traditional view of banks as intermediaries between savers and borrowers is incorrect. Modern banking is about credit creation. Credit is made up of two parts, the credit (money) and its corresponding debt, which requires repayment with interest. The majority (97% as of December 2013) of the money in the UK economy is created as credit. When a bank issues credit (i.e. makes a loan), it writes a negative entry in to the liabilities column of its balance sheet, and an equivalent positive figure on the assets column; the asset being the loan repayment income stream (plus interest) from a credit-worthy individual. When the debt is fully repaid, the credit and debt are canceled, and the money disappears from the economy. Meanwhile, the debtor receives a positive cash balance (which is used to purchase something like a house), but also an equivalent negative liability to be repaid to the bank over the duration. Most of the credit created goes into the purchase of land and property, creating inflation in those markets, which is a major driver of the economic cycle.  When a bank creates credit, it effectively owes the money to itself. If a bank issues too much bad credit (those debtors who are unable to pay it back), the bank will become insolvent; having more liabilities than assets. That the bank never had the money to lend in the first place is immaterial - the banking license affords banks to create credit - what matters is that a bank's total assets are greater than its total liabilities and that it is holding sufficient liquid assets - such as cash - to meet its obligations to its debtors. If it fails to do this it risks bankruptcy.  There are two main forms of private credit created by banks; unsecured (non-collateralized) credit such as consumer credit cards and small unsecured loans, and secured (collateralized) credit, typically secured against the item being purchased with the money (house, boat, car, etc.). To reduce their exposure to the risk of not getting their money back (credit default), banks will tend to issue large credit sums to those deemed credit-worthy, and also to require collateral; something of equivalent value to the loan, which will be passed to the bank if the debtor fails to meet the repayment terms of the loan. In this instance, the bank uses sale of the collateral to reduce its liabilities. Examples of secured credit include consumer mortgages used to buy houses, boats, etc., and PCP (personal contract plan) credit agreements for automobile purchases.  Movements of financial capital are normally dependent on either credit or equity transfers. The global credit market is three times the size of global equity. Credit is in turn dependent on the reputation or creditworthiness of the entity which takes responsibility for the funds. Credit is also traded in financial markets. The purest form is the credit default swap market, which is essentially a traded market in credit insurance. A credit default swap represents the price at which two parties exchange this riskthe protection \"seller\" takes the risk of default of the credit in return for a payment, commonly denoted in basis points (one basis point is 1/100 of a percent) of the notional amount to be referenced, while the protection \"buyer\" pays this premium and in the case of default of the underlying (a loan, bond or other receivable), delivers this receivable to the protection seller and receives from the seller the paramount (that is, is made whole).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "There are many types of credit, including but not limited to bank credit, commerce, consumer credit, investment credit, international credit, public credit and real estate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trade credit.", "content": "In commercial trade, the term \"trade credit\" refers to the approval of delayed payment for purchased goods. Credit is sometimes not granted to a buyer who has financial instability or difficulty. Companies frequently offer trade credit to their customers as part of terms of a purchase agreement. Organizations that offer credit to their customers frequently employ a credit manager.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consumer credit.", "content": "Consumer credit can be defined as \"money, goods or services provided to an individual in the absence of immediate payment\". Common forms of consumer credit include credit cards, store cards, motor vehicle finance, personal loans (installment loans), consumer lines of credit, payday loans, retail loans (retail installment loans) and mortgages. This is a broad definition of consumer credit and corresponds with the Bank of England's definition of \"Lending to individuals\". Given the size and nature of the mortgage market, many observers classify mortgage lending as a separate category of personal borrowing, and consequently, residential mortgages are excluded from some definitions of consumer credit, such as the one adopted by the U.S. Federal Reserve.  The cost of credit is the additional amount, over and above the amount borrowed, that the borrower has to pay. It includes interest, arrangement fees and any other charges. Some costs are mandatory, required by the lender as an integral part of the credit agreement. Other costs, such as those for credit insurance, may be optional; the borrower chooses whether or not they are included as part of the agreement.  Interest and other charges are presented in a variety of different ways, but under many legislative regimes lenders are required to quote all mandatory charges in the form of an annual percentage rate (APR). The goal of the APR calculation is to promote \"truth in lending\", to give potential borrowers a clear measure of the true cost of borrowing and to allow a comparison to be made between competing products. The APR is derived from the pattern of advances and repayments made during the agreement. Optional charges are usually not included in the APR calculation.  Interest rates on loans to consumers, whether mortgages or credit cards are most commonly determined with reference to a credit score. Calculated by private credit rating agencies or centralized credit bureaus based on factors such as prior defaults, payment history, and available credit, individuals with higher credit scores have access to lower APRs than those with lower scores.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Credit (from Latin \"credit\", \"\"(he/she/it)\" believes\") is the trust which allows one party to provide money or resources to another party wherein the second party does not reimburse the first party immediately (thereby generating a debt), but promises either to repay or return those resources (or other materials of equal value) at a later date. In other words, credit is a method of making reciprocity formal, legally enforceable, and extensible to a large group of unrelated people.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970957}
{"src_title": "Croatian language", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern language and standardization.", "content": "In the late medieval period up to the 17th century, the majority of semi-autonomous Croatia was ruled by two domestic dynasties of princes (\"banovi\"), the Zrinski and the Frankopan, which were linked by inter-marriage. Toward the 17th century, both of them attempted to unify Croatia both culturally and linguistically, writing in a mixture of all three principal dialects (Chakavian, Kajkavian and Shtokavian), and calling it \"Croatian\", \"Dalmatian\", or \"Slavonian\". It is still used now in parts of Istria, which became a crossroads of various mixtures of Chakavian with Ekavian/Ijekavian/Ikavian dialects.  The most standardized form (Kajkavian–Ikavian) became the cultivated language of administration and intellectuals from the Istrian peninsula along the Croatian coast, across central Croatia up into the northern valleys of the Drava and the Mura. The cultural apex of this 17th century idiom is represented by the editions of \"\"Adrianskoga mora sirena\"\" (\"Siren of Adriatic Sea\") by Petar Zrinski and \"\"Putni tovaruš\"\" (\"Traveling escort\") by Katarina Zrinska.  However, this first linguistic renaissance in Croatia was halted by the political execution of Petar Zrinski and Fran Krsto Frankopan by the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I in Vienna in 1671. Subsequently, the Croatian elite in the 18th century gradually abandoned this combined Croatian standard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Illyrian period.", "content": "The Illyrian movement was a 19th-century pan-South Slavic political and cultural movement in Croatia that had the goal to standardize the regionally differentiated and orthographically inconsistent literary languages in Croatia, and finally merge them into a common South Slavic literary language. Specifically, three major groups of dialects were spoken on Croatian territory, and there had been several literary languages over four centuries. The leader of the Illyrian movement Ljudevit Gaj standardized the Latin alphabet in 1830–1850 and worked to bring about a standardized orthography. Although based in Kajkavian-speaking Zagreb, Gaj supported using the more populous Neo-Shtokavian – a version of Shtokavian that eventually became the predominant dialectal basis of both Croatian and Serbian literary language from the 19th century on. Supported by various South Slavic proponents, Neo-Shtokavian was adopted after an Austrian initiative at the Vienna Literary Agreement of 1850, laying the foundation for the unified Serbo-Croatian literary language. The uniform Neo-Shtokavian then became common in the Croatian elite.  In the 1860s, the Zagreb Philological School dominated the Croatian cultural life, drawing upon linguistic and ideological conceptions advocated by the members of the Illyrian movement. While it was dominant over the rival Rijeka Philological School and Zadar Philological Schools, its influence waned with the rise of the Croatian Vukovians (at the end of the 19th century).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distinguishing features and differences between standards.", "content": "Croatian is commonly characterized by the \"Ijekavian\" pronunciation (see an explanation of yat reflexes), the sole use of the Latin alphabet, and a number of lexical differences in common words that set it apart from standard Serbian. Some differences are absolute, while some appear mainly in the frequency of use. However, \"an examination of all the major 'levels' of language shows that BCS is clearly a single language with a single grammatical system.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sociopolitical standpoints.", "content": "Croatian, although technically a form of Serbo-Croatian, is sometimes considered a distinct language by itself. Purely linguistic considerations of languages based on mutual intelligibility (\"abstand\" languages) are frequently incompatible with political conceptions of language so that varieties that are mutually intelligible can not be considered separate languages. \"There is no doubt of the near 100% mutual intelligibility of (standard) Croatian and (standard) Serbian, as is obvious from the ability of all groups to enjoy each others’ films, TV and sports broadcasts, newspapers, rock lyrics etc.\" Differences between various standard forms of Serbo-Croatian are often exaggerated for political reasons. Most Croatian linguists regard Croatian as a separate language that is considered key to national identity. The issue is sensitive in Croatia as the notion of a separate language being the most important characteristic of a nation is widely accepted, stemming from the 19th-century history of Europe. The 1967 Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language, in which a group of Croatian authors and linguists demanded greater autonomy for the Croatian language, is viewed in Croatia as a linguistic policy milestone that was also a general milestone in national politics. At the 50th anniversary of the Declaration, at the beginning of 2017, a two-day meeting of experts from Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro was organized in Zagreb, at which the text of the Declaration on the Common Language of Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs and Montenegrins was drafted. The new Declaration has received more than ten thousand signatures. It states that in Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro a common polycentric standard language is used, consisting of several standard varieties, such as German, English or Spanish. The aim of the new Declaration is to stimulate discussion on language without the nationalistic baggage and to counter nationalistic divisions.  The terms \"Serbo-Croatian\" or \"Serbo-Croat\" are still used as a cover term for all these forms by foreign scholars, even though the speakers themselves largely do not use it. Within ex-Yugoslavia, the term has largely been replaced by the ethnic terms Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian.  The use of the name \"Croatian\" for a language names has been historically attested to, though not always distinctively; the Croatian–Hungarian Agreement, for example, designated \"Croatian\" as one of its official languages, and Croatian became an official EU language upon accession of Croatia to the EU on 1 July 2013. In 2013, the EU started publishing a Croatian-language version of its official gazette.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Official status.", "content": "Standard Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia and, along with Standard Bosnian and Standard Serbian, one of three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is also official in the regions of Burgenland (Austria), Molise (Italy) and Vojvodina (Serbia). Additionally, it has co-official status alongside Romanian in the communes of Carașova and Lupac, Romania. In these localities, Croats or Krashovani make up the majority of the population, and education, signage and access to public administration and the justice system are provided in Croatian, alongside Romanian.  Croatian is officially used and taught at all the universities in Croatia, and at the University of Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina.  There is no regulatory body that determines the proper usage of Croatian. The current standard language is generally laid out in the grammar books and dictionaries used in education, such as the school curriculum prescribed by the Ministry of Education and the university programmes of the Faculty of Philosophy at the four main universities. In 2013, a \"Hrvatski pravopis\" by the Institute of Croatian Language and Linguistics received an official sole seal of approval from the Ministry of Education.  Attempts are being made to revive Croatian literature in Italy.  The most prominent recent editions describing the Croatian standard language are:  Also notable are the recommendations of Matica hrvatska, the national publisher and promoter of Croatian heritage, and the Lexicographical institute Miroslav Krleža, as well as the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts.  Numerous representative Croatian linguistic works were published since the independence of Croatia, among them three voluminous monolingual dictionaries of contemporary Croatian.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Croatian (; \"\" ) is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language used by Croats, principally in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbian province of Vojvodina, and other neighboring countries. It is the official and literary standard of Croatia and one of the official languages of the European Union. Croatian is also one of the official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina and a recognized minority language in Serbia and neighboring countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970958}
{"src_title": "Capital (economics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In narrow and broad uses.", "content": "Classical and neoclassical economics regard capital as one of the factors of production (alongside the other factors: land and labour). All other inputs to production are called intangibles in classical economics. This includes organization, entrepreneurship, knowledge, goodwill, or management (which some characterize as talent, social capital or instructional capital).  This is what makes it a factor of production:  These distinctions of convenience have carried over to contemporary economic theory. There was the further clarification that capital is a stock. As such, its value can be estimated at a point in time. By contrast, investment, as production to be added to the capital stock, is described as taking place over time (\"per year\"), thus a flow.  Marxian economics distinguishes between different forms of capital:  Earlier illustrations often described capital as physical items, such as tools, buildings, and vehicles that are used in the production process. Since at least the 1960s economists have increasingly focused on broader forms of capital. For example, investment in skills and education can be viewed as building up human capital or knowledge capital, and investments in intellectual property can be viewed as building up intellectual capital. These terms lead to certain questions and controversies discussed in those articles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern types of capital.", "content": "Detailed classifications of capital that have been used in various theoretical or applied uses generally respect the following division:  Separate literatures have developed to describe both natural capital and social capital. Such terms reflect a wide consensus that nature and society both function in such a similar manner as traditional industrial infrastructural capital, that it is entirely appropriate to refer to them as different types of capital in themselves. In particular, they can be used in the production of other goods, are not used up immediately in the process of production, and can be enhanced (if not created) by human effort.  There is also a literature of intellectual capital and intellectual property law. However, this increasingly distinguishes means of capital investment, and collection of potential rewards for patent, copyright (creative or individual capital), and trademark (social trust or social capital) instruments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interpretations.", "content": "Within classical economics, Adam Smith (\"Wealth of Nations\", Book II, Chapter 1) distinguished fixed capital from circulating capital. The former designated physical assets not consumed in the production of a product (e.g. machines and storage facilities), while the latter referred to physical assets consumed in the process of production (e.g. raw materials and intermediate products). For an enterprise, both were types of capital.  Economist Henry George argued that financial instruments like stocks, bonds, mortgages, promissory notes, or other certificates for transferring wealth is not really capital, because \"Their economic value merely represents the power of one class to appropriate the earnings of another\" and \"their increase or decrease does not affect the sum of wealth in the community\".  Some thinkers, such as Werner Sombart and Max Weber, locate the concept of capital as originating in double-entry bookkeeping, which is thus a foundational innovation in capitalism, Sombart writing in \"Medieval and Modern Commercial Enterprise\" that:  Karl Marx adds a distinction that is often confused with David Ricardo's. In Marxian theory, variable capital refers to a capitalist's investment in labor-power, seen as the only source of surplus-value. It is called \"variable\" since the amount of value it can produce varies from the amount it consumes, \"i.e.\", it creates new value. On the other hand, constant capital refers to investment in non-human factors of production, such as plant and machinery, which Marx takes to contribute only its own replacement value to the commodities it is used to produce.  Investment or capital accumulation, in classical economic theory, is the production of increased capital. Investment requires that some goods be produced that are not immediately consumed, but instead used to produce other goods as capital goods. Investment is closely related to saving, though it is not the same. As Keynes pointed out, saving involves not spending all of one's income on current goods or services, while investment refers to spending on a specific type of goods, \"i.e.\", capital goods.  Austrian School economist Eugen Boehm von Bawerk maintained that capital intensity was measured by the roundaboutness of production processes. Since capital is defined by him as being goods of higher-order, or goods used to produce consumer goods, and derived their value from them, being future goods.  Human development theory describes human capital as being composed of distinct social, imitative and creative elements: This theory is the basis of triple bottom line accounting and is further developed in ecological economics, welfare economics and the various theories of green economics. All of which use a particularly abstract notion of capital in which the requirement of capital being produced like durable goods is effectively removed.  The Cambridge capital controversy was a dispute between economists at Cambridge, Massachusetts based MIT and University of Cambridge in the UK about the measurement of capital. The Cambridge, UK economists, including Joan Robinson and Piero Sraffa claimed that there is no basis for aggregating the heterogeneous objects that constitute 'capital goods.'  Political economists Jonathan Nitzan and Shimshon Bichler have suggested that capital is not a productive entity, but solely financial and that capital values measure the relative power of owners over the broad social processes that bear on profits.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In economics, capital consists of assets that can enhance one's power to perform economically useful work. For example, a stone or an arrow is capital for a hunter-gatherer who can use it as a hunting instrument; similarly, roads are capital for inhabitants of a city. Capital is distinct from land and other non-renewable resources in that it can be increased by human labor, and does not include certain durable goods like homes and personal automobiles that are not used in the production of saleable goods and services. Adam Smith defined capital as \"that part of man's stock which he expects to afford him revenue\". In economic models, capital is an input in the production function. The total physical capital at any given moment in time is referred to as the capital stock (not to be confused with the capital stock of a business entity). Capital goods, real capital, or capital assets are already-produced, durable goods or any non-financial asset that is used in production of goods or services. In Marxian economics, capital is money used to buy something only in order to sell it again to realize a profit. For Marx, capital only exists within the process of the economic circuit (represented by M-C-M')—it is wealth that grows out of the process of circulation itself, and for Marx it formed the basis of the economic system of capitalism. In more contemporary schools of economics, this form of capital is generally referred to as \"financial capital\" and is distinguished from \"capital goods\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970959}
{"src_title": "Polygonaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Polygonaceae are very well-defined and have long been universally recognized. In the APG III system, the family is placed in the order Caryophyllales. Within the order, it lies outside of the large clade known as the core Caryophyllales. It is sister to the family Plumbaginaceae, which it does not resemble morphologically. The last comprehensive revision of the family was published in 1993 by John Brandbyge as part of \"The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants\". Brandbyge followed earlier systems of plant classification in dividing Polygonaceae into two subfamilies, Eriogonoideae and Polygonoideae. Since 1993, the circumscriptions of these two subfamilies have been changed in light of phylogenetic studies of DNA sequences. Genera related to \"Coccoloba\" and \"Triplaris\" were moved from Polygonoideae to Eriogonoideae. The genus \"Symmeria\" does not belong to either of these subfamilies because it is sister to the rest of the family. \"Afrobrunnichia\" might constitute a new subfamily as well.  Brandbyge wrote descriptions for 43 genera of Polygonaceae in 1993. Since then, a few more genera have been erected, and some segregates of \"Brunnichia\", \"Eriogonum\", and \"Persicaria\" have been given generic status in major works. Some of the genera were found not to be monophyletic and their limits have been revised. These include \"Ruprechtia\", \"Eriogonum\", \"Chorizanthe\", \"Persicaria\", \"Aconogonon\", \"Polygonum\", \"Fallopia\", and \"Muehlenbeckia\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Most Polygonaceae are perennial herbaceous plants with swollen nodes, but trees, shrubs and vines are also present. The leaves of Polygonaceae are simple, and arranged alternately on the stems. Each leaf has a peculiar pair of fused, sheathing stipules known as an ochrea. Those species that do not have the nodal ochrea can be identified by their possession of involucrate flower heads. The flowers are normally bisexual, small, and actinomorphic, with a perianth of three to six sepals. After flowering, the sepals often become thickened and enlarged around the developing fruit. Flowers lack a corolla and in some, the sepals are petal-like and colorful. The androecium is composed of three to eight stamens that are normally free or united at the base. The ovary consists of three united carpels that form a single locule, which produces only one ovule. The ovary is superior with basal or free-central placentation. The gynoecium terminates in 1 to 3 styles, each of which ends in a single stigma.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genera.", "content": ", Plants of the World Online accepted 56 genera:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "The following phylogenetic tree is based on two papers on the molecular phylogenetics of Polygonaceae.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Polygonaceae are a family of flowering plants known informally as the knotweed family or smartweed—buckwheat family in the United States. The name is based on the genus \"Polygonum\", and was first used by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in 1789 in his book, \"Genera Plantarum\". The name may refer to the many swollen nodes the stems of some species have, being derived from Greek, \"poly\" meaning'many' and \"gony\" meaning 'knee' or 'joint'. Alternatively, it may have a different derivation, meaning'many seeds'.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970960}
{"src_title": "Kohlrabi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name comes from the German \"Kohl\" (\"cabbage\") plus \"Rübe\" ~ \"Rabi\" (Swiss German variant) (\"turnip\"), because the swollen stem resembles the latter. Kohlrabi is a commonly eaten vegetable in German-speaking countries and American states with large ancestral German populations such as Wisconsin.  Its Group name Gongylodes (or lowercase and italicized \"gongylodes\" or \"gongyloides\" as a variety name) means \"roundish\" in Greek, from (, ‘round’).  In the northern part of Vietnam, it is called, and in eastern parts of India (West Bengal) and Bangladesh where it is called 'ol kopi'. It is also found in the Kashmir Valley in Northern India and is there known as'monj-hakh','monj' being the round part, and 'hakh' being the leafy part. It is called 'nol khol' in Northern India, 'navalkol' in Maharashtra, noolkol (நூல்கோல்) in Tamil, 'navilu kosu' in Karnataka and in Sri Lanka as 'nol col' (turnip cabbage). It is also native in Cyprus, where it is known as 'kouloumpra' (). It is eaten in the Czech Republic under name 'kedluben' or 'kedlubna'. In Slovakia, it is known as 'kaleráb'. In Romania, it is the 'gulie'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Kohlrabi has been created by artificial selection for lateral meristem growth (a swollen, nearly spherical shape); its origin in nature is the same as that of cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, collard greens, and Brussels sprouts: they are all bred from, and are the same species as, the wild cabbage plant (\"Brassica oleracea\").  The taste and texture of kohlrabi are similar to those of a broccoli stem or cabbage heart, but milder and sweeter, with a higher ratio of flesh to skin. The young stem in particular can be as crisp and juicy as an apple, although much less sweet.  Except for the \"Gigante\" cultivar, spring-grown kohlrabi much over 5 cm in size tend to be woody, as do full-grown kohlrabi much over perhaps 10 cm in size; the Gigante cultivar can achieve great size while remaining of good eating quality. The plant matures in 55–60 days after sowing and has good standing ability for up to 30 days after maturity. The approximate weight is 150 g.  There are several varieties commonly available, including 'White Vienna', 'Purple Vienna', 'Grand Duke', 'Gigante' (also known as \"Superschmelz\"), 'Purple Danube', and 'White Danube'. Coloration of the purple types is superficial: the edible parts are all pale yellow. The leafy greens can also be eaten. One commonly used variety grows without a swollen stem, having just leaves and a very thin stem, and is called \"Haakh\". \"Haakh\" and \"Monj\" are popular Kashmiri dishes made using this vegetable. In the second year, the plant will bloom and develop seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation and use.", "content": "Kohlrabi stems (the enlarged vegetal part) are surrounded by two distinct fibrous layers that do not soften appreciably when cooked. These layers are generally peeled away prior to cooking or serving raw, with the result that the stems often provide a smaller amount of food than one might assume from their intact appearance.  The bulbous kohlrabi stem is frequently used raw in salad or slaws. It has a texture similar to that of a broccoli stem, but with a flavor that is sweeter and less vegetal.  Kohlrabi leaves are edible and can be used interchangeably with collard greens and kale.  Kohlrabi is an important part of the Kashmiri cuisine where it is called \"Mŏnji\" and is one of the most commonly cooked vegetable along with collard greens (\"haakh\"). It is prepared with its leaves and served with a light soup and eaten with rice.  In Cyprus it is popularly sprinkled with salt and lemon and served as an appetizer.  Some varieties are grown as feed for cattle.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kohlrabi (from the German for cabbage turnip; \"Brassica oleracea\" Gongylodes Group), also called German turnip, is a biennial vegetable, a low, stout cultivar of wild cabbage. It is the same species as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, collard greens, Savoy cabbage, and gai lan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970961}
{"src_title": "Kurd Lasswitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Lasswitz studied mathematics and physics at the University of Breslau and the University of Berlin, and earned his doctorate in 1873. He spent most of his career as a teacher at the Gymnasium Ernestinum in Gotha (1876–1908).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "His first published science fiction story was \"Bis zum Nullpunkt des Seins\" (\"To the Zero Point of Existence\", 1871), depicting life in 2371, but he earned his reputation with his 1897 novel \"Auf zwei Planeten\", which describes an encounter between humans and a Martian civilization that is older and more advanced. The book has the Martian race running out of water, eating synthetic foods, travelling by rolling roads, and utilising space stations. His spaceships use anti-gravity, but travel realistic orbital trajectories, and use occasional mid-course corrections in travelling between Mars and the Earth; the book depicted the technically correct transit between the orbits of two planets, something poorly understood by other early science fiction writers. It influenced Walter Hohmann and Wernher von Braun. The book was not translated into English until 1971 (as \"Two Planets\"), and the translation is incomplete. \"Auf zwei Planeten\" was his most successful novel. A story from Lasswitz's \"Traumkristalle\" served as the basis for \"The Library of Babel\", a short story by Jorge Luis Borges.  His last book was \"Sternentau: die Pflanze vom Neptunsmond\" (\"Star Dew: the Plant of Neptune's Moon\", 1909). He is also known for his 1896 biography of Gustav Fechner.  For his writing (totalling around 420 works including non-fiction), Lasswitz has been called \"the first utopistic-scientific writer in Germany\" or even \"a German Jules Verne\".  A crater on Mars was named in his honour, as was the asteroid.  There also is a Kurd-Laßwitz-Preis, an award for German-speaking as well as foreign authors of science fiction since 1981.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kurd Lasswitz (; 20 April 1848 – 17 October 1910) was a German author, scientist, and philosopher. He has been called \"the father of German science fiction\". He sometimes used the pseudonym \"Velatus\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970962}
{"src_title": "Lamiaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Genera.", "content": "The last revision of the entire family was published in 2004. It described and provided keys to 236 genera. These are marked with an asterisk (*) in the list below. A few genera have been established or resurrected since 2004. These are marked with a plus sign (+). The remaining genera in the list are mostly of historical interest only and are from a source that includes such genera without explanation. Few of these are recognized in modern treatments of the family.  Kew Gardens provides a list of genera that includes additional information. A list at the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website is frequently updated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent changes.", "content": "The circumscription of several genera has changed since 2004. \"Tsoongia\", \"Paravitex\", and \"Viticipremna\" have been sunk into synonymy with \"Vitex\". \"Huxleya\" has been sunk into \"Volkameria\". \"Kalaharia\", \"Volkameria\", \"Ovieda\", and \"Tetraclea\" have been segregated from a formerly polyphyletic \"Clerodendrum\". \"Rydingia\" has been separated from \"Leucas\". The remaining \"Leucas\" is paraphyletic over four other genera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subfamilies and tribes.", "content": "In 2004, the Lamiaceae were divided into seven subfamilies with 10 genera not placed in any of the subfamilies. The unplaced genera are: \"Tectona\", \"Callicarpa\", \"Hymenopyramis\", \"Petraeovitex\", \"Peronema\", \"Garrettia\", \"Cymaria\", \"Acrymia\", \"Holocheila\", and \"Ombrocharis\". The subfamilies are the Symphorematoideae, Viticoideae, Ajugoideae, Prostantheroideae, Nepetoideae, Scutellarioideae, and Lamioideae. The subfamily Viticoideae is probably not monophyletic. The Prostantheroideae and Nepetoideae are divided into tribes. These are shown in the phylogenetic tree below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "Most of the genera of Lamiaceae have never been sampled for DNA for molecular phylogenetic studies. Most of those that have been are included in the following phylogenetic tree. The phylogeny depicted below is based on seven different sources.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lamiaceae ( ) or Labiatae are a family of flowering plants commonly known as the mint or deadnettle or sage family. Many of the plants are aromatic in all parts and include widely used culinary herbs like basil, mentha, rosemary, sage, savory, marjoram, oregano, hyssop, thyme, lavender, and perilla. Some species are shrubs, trees (such as teak), or, rarely, vines. Many members of the family are widely cultivated, not only for their aromatic qualities, but also their ease of cultivation, since they are readily propagated by stem cuttings. Besides those grown for their edible leaves, some are grown for decorative foliage, such as \"Coleus\". Others are grown for seed, such as \"Salvia hispanica\" (chia), or for their edible tubers, such as \"Plectranthus edulis\", \"Plectranthus esculentus\", \"Plectranthus rotundifolius\", and \"Stachys affinis\" (Chinese artichoke).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970963}
{"src_title": "Microprocessor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded by physical limitations on the number of transistors that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can dissipate. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.  A minimal hypothetical microprocessor might include only an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and a control logic section. The ALU performs addition, subtraction, and operations such as AND or OR. Each operation of the ALU sets one or more flags in a status register, which indicate the results of the last operation (zero value, negative number, overflow, or others). The control logic retrieves instruction codes from memory and initiates the sequence of operations required for the ALU to carry out the instruction. A single operation code might affect many individual data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor.  As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and more complex processors on a single chip. The size of data objects became larger; allowing more transistors on a chip allowed word sizes to increase from 4- and 8-bit words up to today's 64-bit words. Additional features were added to the processor architecture; more on-chip registers sped up programs, and complex instructions could be used to make more compact programs. Floating-point arithmetic, for example, was often not available on 8-bit microprocessors, but had to be carried out in software. Integration of the floating point unit first as a separate integrated circuit and then as part of the same microprocessor chip sped up floating point calculations.  Occasionally, physical limitations of integrated circuits made such practices as a bit slice approach necessary. Instead of processing all of a long word on one integrated circuit, multiple circuits in parallel processed subsets of each data word. While this required extra logic to handle, for example, carry and overflow within each slice, the result was a system that could handle, for example, 32-bit words using integrated circuits with a capacity for only four bits each.  The ability to put large numbers of transistors on one chip makes it feasible to integrate memory on the same die as the processor. This CPU cache has the advantage of faster access than off-chip memory and increases the processing speed of the system for many applications. Processor clock frequency has increased more rapidly than external memory speed, so cache memory is necessary if the processor is not to be delayed by slower external memory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Embedded applications.", "content": "Thousands of items that were traditionally not computer-related include microprocessors. These include large and small household appliances, cars (and their accessory equipment units), car keys, tools and test instruments, toys, light switches/dimmers and electrical circuit breakers, smoke alarms, battery packs, and hi-fi audio/visual components (from DVD players to phonograph turntables). Such products as cellular telephones, DVD video system and HDTV broadcast systems fundamentally require consumer devices with powerful, low-cost, microprocessors. Increasingly stringent pollution control standards effectively require automobile manufacturers to use microprocessor engine management systems to allow optimal control", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed modern society. General-purpose microprocessors in personal computers are used for computation, text editing, multimedia display, and communication over the Internet. Many more microprocessors are part of embedded systems, providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances to automobiles to cellular phones and industrial process control. Microprocessors perform binary operations based on Boolean Logic, named after George Boole. The ability to operate computer systems using Boolean Logic was first proven in a 1938 Thesis by Masters Student Claude Shannon, who later went on to become a Professor. Shannon is considered \"The Father of Information Theory\".  The microprocessor has origins in the development of the MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor), which was first demonstrated by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng of Bell Labs in 1960. Following the development of MOS integrated circuit chips in the early 1960s, MOS chips reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar integrated circuits by 1964. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete computer processor could be contained on several MOS LSI chips. Designers in the late 1960s were striving to integrate the central processing unit (CPU) functions of a computer onto a handful of MOS LSI chips, called microprocessor unit (MPU) chipsets.  The first true microprocessor was the Intel 4004, released as a single MOS LSI chip in 1971. The single-chip microprocessor was made possible with the development of MOS silicon-gate technology (SGT). The earliest MOS transistors had aluminium metal gates, which Italian engineer Federico Faggin replaced with silicon self-aligned gates to develop the first silicon-gate MOS chip at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968. Faggin later joined Intel and used his silicon-gate MOS technology to develop the 4004, along with Marcian Hoff, Stanley Mazor and Masatoshi Shima in 1971. The 4004 was designed for Busicom, which had earlier proposed a multi-chip design in 1969, before Faggin's team at Intel changed it into a new single-chip design. Intel introduced the first commercial microprocessor, the 4-bit Intel 4004, in 1971. It was soon followed by the 8-bit microprocessor Intel 8008 in 1972.  Other embedded uses of 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors, such as terminals, printers, various kinds of automation etc., followed soon after. Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also led to the first general-purpose microcomputers from the mid-1970s on.  The first use of the term \"microprocessor\" is attributed to Viatron Computer Systems describing the custom integrated circuit used in their System 21 small computer system announced in 1968.  Since the early 1970s, the increase in capacity of microprocessors has followed Moore's law; this originally suggested that the number of components that can be fitted onto a chip doubles every year. With present technology, it is actually every two years, and as a result Moore later changed the period to two years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Market statistics.", "content": "In 1997, about 55% of all CPUs sold in the world were 8-bit microcontrollers, of which over 2 billion were sold.  In 2002, less than 10% of all the CPUs sold in the world were 32-bit or more. Of all the 32-bit CPUs sold, about 2% are used in desktop or laptop personal computers. Most microprocessors are used in embedded control applications such as household appliances, automobiles, and computer peripherals. Taken as a whole, the average price for a microprocessor, microcontroller, or DSP is just over.  In 2003, about $44 billion (equivalent to about $ billion in ) worth of microprocessors were manufactured and sold. Although about half of that money was spent on CPUs used in desktop or laptop personal computers, those count for only about 2% of all CPUs sold. The quality-adjusted price of laptop microprocessors improved −25% to −35% per year in 2004–2010, and the rate of improvement slowed to −15% to −25% per year in 2010–2013.  About 10 billion CPUs were manufactured in 2008. Most new CPUs produced each year are embedded.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A microprocessor is a computer processor that incorporates the functions of a central processing unit on a single (or more) integrated circuit (IC) of MOSFET construction. The microprocessor is a multipurpose, clock driven, register based, digital integrated circuit that accepts binary data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both combinational logic and sequential digital logic. Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented in the binary number system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970964}
{"src_title": "Messier object", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Lists and editions.", "content": "The first edition of 1771 covered 45 objects numbered M1 to M45. The total list published by Messier in 1781 contained 103 objects, but the list was expanded through successive additions by other astronomers, motivated by notes in Messier's and Méchain's texts indicating that at least one of them knew of the additional objects. The first such addition came from Nicolas Camille Flammarion in 1921, who added Messier 104 after finding a note Messier made in a copy of the 1781 edition of the catalogue. M105 to M107 were added by Helen Sawyer Hogg in 1947, M108 and M109 by Owen Gingerich in 1960, and M110 by Kenneth Glyn Jones in 1967. M102 was observed by Méchain, who communicated his notes to Messier. Méchain later concluded that this object was simply a re-observation of M101, though some sources suggest that the object Méchain observed was the galaxy NGC 5866 and identify that as M102.  Messier's final catalogue was included in the \"Connaissance des Temps pour l'Année 1784\" (\"Knowledge of Time\"; published in 1781), the French official yearly publication of astronomical ephemerides.  Messier lived and did his astronomical work at the Hôtel de Cluny (now the Musée national du Moyen Âge), in Paris, France. The list he compiled contains only objects found in the sky area he could observe: from the north celestial pole to a celestial latitude of about −35.7°. He did not observe or list objects visible only from farther south, such as the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Observations.", "content": "The Messier catalogue comprises nearly all the most spectacular examples of the five types of deep-sky object – diffuse nebulae, planetary nebulae, open clusters, globular clusters, and galaxies – visible from European latitudes. Furthermore, almost all of the Messier objects are among the closest to Earth in their respective classes, which makes them heavily studied with professional class instruments that today can resolve very small and visually spectacular details in them. A summary of the astrophysics of each Messier object can be found in the \"Concise Catalog of Deep-sky Objects.\"  Since these objects could be observed visually with the relatively small-aperture refracting telescope (approximately 100 mm, or 4 inches) used by Messier to study the sky, they are among the brightest and thus most attractive astronomical objects (popularly called deep-sky objects) observable from Earth, and are popular targets for visual study and astrophotography available to modern amateur astronomers using larger aperture equipment. In early spring, astronomers sometimes gather for \"Messier marathons\", when all of the objects can be viewed over a single night.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Star chart of Messier objects.", "content": "NOTE: Messier 102 is missing from this chart.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Messier objects are a set of 110 astronomical objects catalogued by the French astronomer Charles Messier in his \"Catalogue des Nébuleuses et des Amas d'Étoiles\" (\"Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters\"). Because Messier was only interested in finding comets, he created a list of non-comet objects that frustrated his hunt for them. The compilation of this list, in collaboration with his assistant Pierre Méchain, is known as \"the Messier catalogue.\" This catalogue of objects is one of the most famous lists of astronomical objects, and many Messier objects are still referenced by their Messier number. The catalogue includes astronomical objects (deep-sky objects) that can be observed from Earth's Northern Hemisphere; many Messier objects are extremely popular targets for amateur astronomers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970965}
{"src_title": "Acari", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Morphology.", "content": "Mites are arachnids, and as such, evolved from a segmented body with the segments organised into two tagmata: a prosoma (cephalothorax) and an opisthosoma (abdomen). However, only the faintest traces of primary segmentation remain in mites; the prosoma and opisthosoma are fused, and a region of flexible cuticle (the circumcapitular furrow) separates the chelicerae and pedipalps from the rest of the body. This anterior body region is called the capitulum or gnathosoma, and according to some works, is also found in the Ricinulei. The remainder of the body is called the idiosoma and is unique to mites.  Most adult mites have four pairs of legs, like other arachnids, but some have fewer. For example, gall mites like \"Phyllocoptes variabilis\" (family Eriophyidae) have a worm-like body with only two pairs of legs; some parasitic mites have only one or three pairs of legs in the adult stage. Larval and prelarval stages have a maximum of three pairs of legs; adult mites with only three pairs of legs may be called 'larviform'. Also, members of the Nematalycidae within the Endeostigmata, which live between sand grains, have often worm-like and elongated bodies with reduced legs.  The mouth parts of mites may be adapted for biting, stinging, sawing, or sucking. They breathe through tracheae, stigmata (small openings of the skin), intestines, and the skin itself. Species hunting for other mites have very acute senses, but many mites are eyeless. The central eyes of arachnids are always missing, or they are fused into a single eye. Thus, any eye number from none to five may occur.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ontogeny.", "content": "Acarine ontogeny typically consists of an egg, a prelarval stage (often absent), a larval stage (hexapod except in the mite superfamily Eriophyoidea, which have only two pairs of legs), and a series of nymphal stages. Any or all of these stages except the adult may be suppressed or occur only within the body of a previous stage. Larvae (and prelarvae) have a maximum of three pairs of legs (legs are often reduced to stubs or absent in prelarvae); legs IV are added at the first nymphal stage. Usually, a maximum of three nymphal stages are present and they are referred to in sequence as the protonymph, deutonymph, and tritonymph; however, some soft ticks have supernumerary nymphal stages. The females of some Tarsonemidae bear sexually mature young. If any nymphal stages are absent, then authors may disagree on which stages are present. Only the Oribatida pass through all developmental stages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diversity and lifestyles.", "content": "Acarines are extremely diverse. They live in practically every habitat, and include aquatic (fresh and sea water) and terrestrial species. They outnumber other arthropods in the soil organic matter and detritus. Many are parasitic, and they affect both vertebrates and invertebrates. Most parasitic forms are external parasites, while the free-living forms are generally predatory and may even be used to control undesirable arthropods. Others are detritivores that help to break down forest litter and dead organic matter, such as skin cells. Others still are plant feeders and may damage crops.  The feather mites, Astigmata, are found on almost all species of birds, except for penguins, and are highly specialized for life on their hosts. They may feed on uropygial oil, skin flakes, fungus, bacteria, and feathers, depending on the taxon to which they belong. Their lifestyles are affected by the microclimate (ambient temperature and relative humidity); for example, seasonal change in temperature causes feather mites to shift their microhabitats on blue tits. However, no evidence shows microclimate affecting mite diversity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic and medical importance.", "content": "Damage to crops is perhaps the most costly economic effect of mites, especially by the spider mites and their relatives (Tetranychoidea), earth mites (Penthaleidae), thread-footed mites (Tarsonemidae) and the gall and rust mites (Eriophyidae). The honey bee parasite \"Varroa destructor\" has caused or contributed to large-scale die-offs of commercial pollinating populations.  Some parasitic forms affect humans and other mammals, causing damage by their feeding, and can even be vectors of diseases, such as scrub typhus, rickettsialpox, Lyme disease, Q fever, Colorado tick fever, tularemia, tick-borne relapsing fever, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, and tick-borne meningoencephalitis. A well-known effect of mites on humans is their role as allergens and the stimulation of asthma in people affected by respiratory disease.  The use of predatory mites (for example, Phytoseiidae) in pest control and herbivorous mites that infest weeds are also of importance. An unquantified, but major positive contribution of the Acari is their normal functioning in ecosystems, especially their roles in the decomposer subsystem. In this context, the association of many species with carcasses and decaying organic matter qualify them as potential medicolegal indicators in forensic entomology.  Chemical agents used to control ticks and mites include dusting sulfur and ivermectin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy and phylogeny.", "content": "The phylogeny of the Acari is still disputed and several taxonomic schemes have been proposed for their classification. The third edition (2009) of the standard textbook \"A Manual of Acarology\" uses a system of six orders, grouped into three superorders:  Recent genetic research has caused a change in the naming scheme, however, and recent publications have changed the superorder Parasitiformes to an order. Other recent research has suggested that Acari is polyphyletic, with ticks and spiders being more closely related than ticks and mites. The cladogram is based on Dabert et al. 2010, which used molecular data. It showed the Acariformes sister to the Solifugae (camel spiders), while the Parasitiformes were sister to the Pseudoscorpionida.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Acari (or Acarina ) are a taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks. The diversity of the Acari is extraordinary and their fossil history goes back to at least the early Devonian period. Acarologists (people who study the Acari) have proposed a complex set of taxonomic ranks to classify mites. In most modern treatments, the Acari are considered a subclass of the Arachnida and are composed of two or three superorders or orders: Acariformes (or Actinotrichida), Parasitiformes (or Anactinotrichida), and Opilioacariformes; the latter is often considered a subgroup within the Parasitiformes. The monophyly of the Acari is open to debate, and the relationships of the acarines to other arachnids is not at all clear. In older treatments, the subgroups of the Acarina were placed at order rank, but as their own subdivisions have become better understood, treating them at the superorder rank is more usual.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970966}
{"src_title": "Machine code", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Instruction set.", "content": "Every processor or processor family has its own instruction set. Instructions are patterns of bits, digits or characters that by physical design correspond to different commands to the machine. Thus, the instruction set is specific to a class of processors using (mostly) the same architecture. Successor or derivative processor designs often include all the instructions of a predecessor and may add additional instructions. Occasionally, a successor design will discontinue or alter the meaning of some instruction code (typically because it is needed for new purposes), affecting code compatibility to some extent; even nearly completely compatible processors may show slightly different behavior for some instructions, but this is rarely a problem. Systems may also differ in other details, such as memory arrangement, operating systems, or peripheral devices. Because a program normally relies on such factors, different systems will typically not run the same machine code, even when the same type of processor is used.  A processor's instruction set may have all instructions of the same length, or it may have variable-length instructions. How the patterns are organized varies strongly with the particular architecture and often also with the type of instruction. Most instructions have one or more opcode fields which specifies the basic instruction type (such as arithmetic, logical, jump, etc.) and the actual operation (such as add or compare) and other fields that may give the type of the operand(s), the addressing mode(s), the addressing offset(s) or index, or the actual value itself (such constant operands contained in an instruction are called \"immediates\").  Not all machines or individual instructions have explicit operands. An accumulator machine has a combined left operand and result in an implicit accumulator for most arithmetic instructions. Other architectures (such as 8086 and the x86-family) have accumulator versions of common instructions, with the accumulator regarded as one of the general registers by longer instructions. A stack machine has most or all of its operands on an implicit stack. Special purpose instructions also often lack explicit operands (CPUID in the x86 architecture writes values into four implicit destination registers, for instance). This distinction between explicit and implicit operands is important in code generators, especially in the register allocation and live range tracking parts. A good code optimizer can track implicit as well as explicit operands which may allow more frequent constant propagation, constant folding of registers (a register assigned the result of a constant expression freed up by replacing it by that constant) and other code enhancements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Programs.", "content": "A computer program is a list of instructions that can be executed by a central processing unit (CPU). A program's execution is done in order for the CPU that is executing it to solve a specific problem and thus accomplish a specific result. While simple processors are able to execute instructions one after another, superscalar processors are capable of executing a variety of different instructions at once.  Program flow may be influenced by special 'jump' instructions that transfer execution to an instruction other than the numerically following one. Conditional jumps are taken (execution continues at another address) or not (execution continues at the next instruction) depending on some condition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assembly languages.", "content": "A much more readable rendition of machine language, called assembly language, uses mnemonic codes to refer to machine code instructions, rather than using the instructions' numeric values directly, and uses symbolic names to refer to storage locations and sometimes registers. For example, on the Zilog Z80 processor, the machine code codice_1, which causes the CPU to decrement the codice_2 processor register, would be represented in assembly language as codice_3.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "The MIPS architecture provides a specific example for a machine code whose instructions are always 32 bits long. The general type of instruction is given by the \"op\" (operation) field, the highest 6 bits. J-type (jump) and I-type (immediate) instructions are fully specified by \"op\". R-type (register) instructions include an additional field \"funct\" to determine the exact operation. The fields used in these types are:  \"rs\", \"rt\", and \"rd\" indicate register operands; \"shamt\" gives a shift amount; and the \"address\" or \"immediate\" fields contain an operand directly.  For example, adding the registers 1 and 2 and placing the result in register 6 is encoded:  Load a value into register 8, taken from the memory cell 68 cells after the location listed in register 3:  Jumping to the address 1024:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to microcode.", "content": "In some computer architectures, the machine code is implemented by an even more fundamental underlying layer called microcode, providing a common machine language interface across a line or family of different models of computer with widely different underlying dataflows. This is done to facilitate porting of machine language programs between different models. An example of this use is the IBM System/360 family of computers and their successors. With dataflow path widths of 8 bits to 64 bits and beyond, they nevertheless present a common architecture at the machine language level across the entire line.  Using microcode to implement an emulator enables the computer to present the architecture of an entirely different computer. The System/360 line used this to allow porting programs from earlier IBM machines to the new family of computers, e.g. an IBM 1401/1440/1460 emulator on the IBM S/360 model 40.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to bytecode.", "content": "Machine code is generally different from bytecode (also known as p-code), which is either executed by an interpreter or itself compiled into machine code for faster (direct) execution. An exception is when a processor is designed to use a particular bytecode directly as its machine code, such as is the case with Java processors.  Machine code and assembly code are sometimes called \"native code\" when referring to platform-dependent parts of language features or libraries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Storing in memory.", "content": "The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with physically separate storage and signal pathways for the code (instructions) and data. Today, most processors implement such separate signal pathways for performance reasons but implement a Modified Harvard architecture, so they can support tasks like loading an executable program from disk storage as data and then executing it. Harvard architecture is contrasted to the Von Neumann architecture, where data and code are stored in the same memory which is read by the processor allowing the computer to execute commands.  From the point of view of a process, the \"code space\" is the part of its address space where the code in execution is stored. In multitasking systems this comprises the program's code segment and usually shared libraries. In multi-threading environment, different threads of one process share code space along with data space, which reduces the overhead of context switching considerably as compared to process switching.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Readability by humans.", "content": "Pamela Samuelson wrote that machine code is so unreadable that the United States Copyright Office cannot identify whether a particular encoded program is an original work of authorship; however, the US Copyright Office \"does\" allow for copyright registration of computer programs and a program's machine code can sometimes be decompiled in order to make its functioning more easily understandable to humans.  Cognitive science professor Douglas Hofstadter has compared machine code to genetic code, saying that \"Looking at a program written in machine language is vaguely comparable to looking at a DNA molecule atom by atom.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Machine code is a computer program written in machine language instructions that can be executed directly by a computer's central processing unit (CPU). Each instruction causes the CPU to perform a very specific task, such as a load, a store, a jump, or an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) operation on one or more units of data in the CPU's registers or memory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970967}
{"src_title": "Malvaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and nomenclature.", "content": "The circumscription of the Malvaceae is controversial. The traditional Malvaceae \"sensu stricto\" comprise a very homogeneous and cladistically monophyletic group. Another major circumscription, Malvaceae \"sensu lato\", has been more recently defined on the basis that molecular techniques have shown the commonly recognised families Bombacaceae, Tiliaceae, and Sterculiaceae, which have always been considered closely allied to Malvaceae \"s.s.\", are not monophyletic groups. Thus, the Malvaceae can be expanded to include all of these families so as to compose a monophyletic group. Adopting this circumscription, the Malvaceae incorporate a much larger number of genera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subfamilies.", "content": "This article is based on the second circumscription, as presented by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. The Malvaceae \"s.l.\" (hereafter simply \"Malvaceae\") comprise nine subfamilies. A tentative cladogram of the family is shown below. The diamond denotes a poorly supported branching (<80%).  It is important to point out the relationships between these subfamilies are still either poorly supported or almost completely obscure. There are continuing disagreements over the correct circumscription of these subfamilies, including the preservation of the family, Bombacaceae. The circumscription of the family may change dramatically as new studies are published.  If looking for information about the traditional Malvaceae \"s.s.\", we recommend referring to Malvoideae, the subfamily that approximately corresponds to that group.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Synapomorphies.", "content": "The relationships between the \"core Malvales\" families used to be defined on the basis of shared \"malvean affinities\". These included the presence of malvoid teeth, stems with mucilage canals, and stratified wedge-shaped phloem. These affinities were problematic because they were not always shared within the core families. Later studies revealed more unambiguous synapomorphies within Malvaceae \"s.l..\" Synapomorphies identified within Malvaceae \"s.l.\" include the presence of tile cells, trichomatous nectaries, and an inflorescence structure called a bicolor unit. Tile cells consist of vertically positioned cells interspersed between and dimensionally similar to procumbent ray cells. Evidence of Malvean wood fossils have confirmed their evolutionary link in Malvaceae \"s.l.\", as well explained their diverse structures. Flowers of Malvaceae \"s.l\". exhibit nectaries consisting of densely arranged multicellular hairs resembling trichomes. In most of Malvaceae \"s.l.\", these trichomatous nectaries are located on the inner surface of the sepals, but flowers of the subfamily, Tiliodeae, also have present nectaries on the petals. Malvean flowers also share a unifying structure known as a bicolor unit, named for its initial discovery in the flowers of \"Theobroma bicolor\". The bicolor unit consists of an ordered inflorescence with determinate cymose structures. The inflorescence can branch off the main axis, creating separate orders of the flowers, with the main axis developing first. Bracts on the peduncle subtend axillary buds that become these lateral stalks. One bract within this whorl is a sterile bract. The bicolor unit is a variable structure in complexity, but the presence of fertile and sterile bracts is a salient character.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Names.", "content": "The English common name'mallow' (also applied to other members of Malvaceae) comes from Latin \"malva\" (also the source for the English word \"mauve\"). \"Malva\" itself was ultimately derived from the word for the plant in ancient Mediterranean languages. Cognates of the word include Ancient Greek () or (), Modern Greek (), modern () and modern ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Most species are herbs or shrubs, but some are trees and lianas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaves and stems.", "content": "Leaves are generally alternate, often palmately lobed or compound and palmately veined. The margin may be entire, but when dentate, a vein ends at the tip of each tooth (malvoid teeth). Stipules are present. The stems contain mucous canals and often also mucous cavities. Hairs are common, and are most typically stellate. Stems of Bombacoideae are often covered in thick prickles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "The flowers are commonly borne in definite or indefinite axillary inflorescences, which are often reduced to a single flower, but may also be cauliflorous, oppositifolious, or terminal. They often bear supernumerary bracts in the structure of a bicolor unit. They can be unisexual or bisexual, and are generally actinomorphic, often associated with conspicuous bracts, forming an epicalyx. They generally have five valvate sepals, most frequently basally connate, with five imbricate petals. The stamens are five to numerous, and connate at least at their bases, but often forming a tube around the pistils. The pistils are composed of two to many connate carpels. The ovary is superior, with axial placentation, with capitate or lobed stigma. The flowers have nectaries made of many tightly packed glandular hairs, usually positioned on the sepals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fruits.", "content": "The fruits are most often loculicidal capsules, schizocarps or nuts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pollination.", "content": "Self-pollination is often avoided by means of protandry. Most species are entomophilous (pollinated by insects). Bees from the tribe Emphorini of the Apidae (including \"Ptilothrix\", \"Diadasia\", and \"Melitoma\") are known to specialize on the plants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Importance.", "content": "A number of species are pests in agriculture, including \"Abutilon theophrasti\" and \"Modiola caroliniana\", and others that are garden escapes. Cotton (four species of \"Gossypium\"), kenaf (\"Hibiscus cannabinus\"), cacao (\"Theobroma cacao\"), kola nut (\"Cola spp.\"), and okra (\"Abelmoschus esculentus\") are important agricultural crops. The fruit and leaves of baobabs are edible, as is the fruit of the durian. A number of species, including \"Hibiscus syriacus\", \"Hibiscus rosa-sinensis\" and \"Alcea rosea\" are garden plants.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Malvaceae, or the mallows, is a family of flowering plants estimated to contain 244 genera with 4225 known species. Well-known members of economic importance include okra, cotton, cacao and durian. There are also some genera containing familiar ornamentals, such as \"Alcea\" (hollyhock), \"Malva\" (mallow) and \"Lavatera\" (tree mallow), as well as \"Tilia\" (lime or linden tree). The largest genera in terms of number of species include \"Hibiscus\" (300 species), \"Sterculia\" (250 species), \"Dombeya\" (250 species), \"Pavonia\" (200 species) and \"Sida\" (200 species).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970968}
{"src_title": "Ole von Beust", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Born in Hamburg, he is the son of Achim Helge Freiherr von Beust and Hanna, née Wolff, who was considered half Jewish in Nazi Germany. Through his father he is a descendant of Saxon and Austrian statesman Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust.  In 1971 von Beust became a member of the conservative Christian Democratic Union (CDU). In 1973, after finishing high school, he worked for CDU parliamentary group in the Hamburg Parliament (\"Hamburgische Bürgerschaft\"), a position he held until he started to study law in 1975 at the University of Hamburg. From 1977 until 1983 he was Hamburg president of the youth organisation of his party. Since 1978 Beust has been a member of the Hamburg city-state's parliament. In 1983 he successfully completed his studies and became an independent lawyer.  He has been a member of the ruling council of the Hamburg Land CDU since 1992, and of the national ruling council of the CDU party since 1998.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Mayor of Hamburg.", "content": "First term  On 31 October 2001, Ole von Beust became First Mayor of Hamburg.  When Hamburg experienced an exodus of jobs after major corporations including cigarette-maker Reemtsma, travel and shipping company Hapag-Lloyd, haircare products-maker Hans Schwarzkopf and the Vereins and Westbank AG were acquired by companies outside of Hamburg, von Beust had the city's investment arm, the Hamburger Gesellschaft für Beteiligungsverwaltung, join forces with retailer Tchibo for the acquisition of cosmetics maker Beiersdorf in 2003. This put American multinational Procter & Gamble out of the bidding and preserved Beiersdorf as a publicly traded, stand-alone company in Hamburg.  As host of Hamburg's annual St. Matthew's Day banquet for the city's civic and business leaders, von Beust invited several high-ranking guests of honour to the city, including Queen Silvia of Sweden (2003), King Abdullah II of Jordan (2005), Crown Prince Frederik of Denmark (2006), President Jakaya Kikwete of Tanzania (2008).  On 19 August 2003, von Beust dismissed his vice-mayor, Ronald Schill, causing a scandal. Von Beust had earlier dismissed Walter Wellinghausen, senator of the interior and Schill's most important official, without consulting Schill beforehand. This was due to public allegations of misconduct on Wellinghausen's part. In a private conversation, Schill then demanded that Beust take back the dismissal, allegedly using personal threats. Beust then decided to dismiss Schill as well.  In the (preassigned) press conference Schill held minutes after he had heard of his own dismissal, he spoke vaguely of \"homosexual relationships\", a \"flat in an infamous hustler district\" and \"certain things happened that let one infer the occurrence of love acts\" between von Beust and Roger Kusch, who von Beust had appointed minister (in German city-states \"senator\") of justice. Beust in turn stated that Schill threatened to make his alleged liaison with Kusch public under the premise that Beust intermingled public and private affairs. He said he had no sexual relationship with Kusch, that they merely knew each other for 25 years and were good friends, and that Beust was Kusch's landlord. \"This is all – absolutely all\", according to Beust.  His unprepared statement to the press quickly earned Schill a homophobic reputation. A popular radio-station broadcast a song calling him \"Mega-Proll\" (mega redneck) and gay and lesbian associations protested vocally. Schill however later affirmed von Beust's version of the story, except for the accusations of blackmail, saying that he warned von Beust to stay clear of nepotism, and that this had nothing to do with Beust's sexual orientation. He stated \"I have nothing against homosexuals\".  In a later interview, von Beust's father confirmed that his son is indeed homosexual. Beust himself considers his sexual orientation a private matter; when asked directly he usually ironically refers the interviewer to his father. He has been in a relationship with his partner Lukas Förster since 2013.  Second term  The Hamburg elections of 29 February 2004, ended with an unprecedented landslide victory for Ole von Beust and the CDU, with the party achieving an overall majority in the city-state's parliament. The CDU gained 47.2 percent of the vote, a full 21-point increase from the previous election in September 2001. This was the first time since 1993 the city-state has had only a single ruling party.  Under von Beust's leadership, the Hamburg state government made the decision to commence construction of the Elbphilharmonie, a concert hall in the quarter.  Between 2007 and 2009, von Beust was one of 32 members of the Second Commission on the modernization of the federal state, which had been established to reform the division of powers between federal and state authorities in Germany.  Third term  In the Hamburg elections of 24 February 2008, the CDU gained 42.6 percent of the vote. Thus, the CDU continued to be the strongest party in Hamburg. However, since the CDU lost its absolute majority, it formed a coalition government with the Greens. At the time, the two party's cooperation was widely seen as a test for a possible coalition at the national level.  In February 2009, von Beust and Minister President Peter Harry Carstensen of Schleswig-Holstein agreed on a €13 billion bailout of state-owned shipping financier HSH Nordbank. The two states were forced to intervene after the SoFFin fund, which had been set up by the federal government in 2008 to stabilize the financial markets, said it could not help out HSH Nordbank until it got rid of all its bad debts.  Ahead of the 2009 national elections, von Beust was tipped as potential Federal Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development in the cabinet of Chancellor Angela Merkel; in the negotiations on a coalition agreement with the FDP, however, the position went to Dirk Niebel.  In 2010, von Beust became the first German state leader to indicate that his state was in principle willing to provide humanitarian solutions for former Guantanamo inmates approved for release; Hamburg later accepted one released detainee.  On 18 July 2010 Ole von Beust announced his resignation, to take effect on 25 August. Leaving office alongside von Beust were Karin von Welck, Hamburg's State Minister for Culture, and Volkmar Schoen of the senate chancellery.  Shortly after, voters in Hamburg toppled von Beust's proposed education reforms in the city-state's first binding referendum. The vote assured the preservation of Hamburg's four-year primary schools, rather than extending primary education to six years, which the ruling coalition of Christian Democrats and Greens had proposed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life after politics.", "content": "Upon leaving active politics, von Beust opened his own law firm and joined consultancy Roland Berger as advisor. In 2012, he succeeded Klaus von Dohnányi as Executive Director of the Hamburg Foundation for Politically Persecuted People.  During a strike of ground crew at Frankfurt Airport in February 2012, von Beust was appointed as arbitrator by airport operator Fraport for negotiations with trade union GdF. The union accepted his proposed settlement plan; Fraport, however, rejected the deal.  In addition, von Beust has been holding various paid and unpaid positions, including the following:  In late 2015, von Beust was named co-chairman (alongside Jürgen Trittin and Matthias Platzeck) of a government-appointed commission tasked with recommending by early 2016 how to safeguard the funding of fulfilling Germany's exit from nuclear energy. By April 2016, the commission agreed to ask the power firms to pay €23.3 billion ($26.4 billion) into a state fund to cover the costs of nuclear waste storage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition.", "content": "Von Beust was a finalist for the World Mayor prize of 2010.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carl-Friedrich Arp Ole Freiherr von Beust, generally called Ole von Beust (born 13 April 1955), was a German politician who was First Mayor of Hamburg from 31 October 2001 to 25 August 2010, serving as President of the Bundesrat from 1 November 2007 on for one year. He was succeeded as mayor by Christoph Ahlhaus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970969}
{"src_title": "Oskar Lafontaine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and education.", "content": "Lafontaine was born in Saarlouis into a family of craftsmen. His father, Hans Lafontaine, was a professional baker and was killed serving in World War II. He spent his childhood living with his mother, Katharina (née Ferner), and his twin brother, Hans, in Dillingen.  He attended a Catholic episcopal boarding institution in Prüm and there was educated at the Regino-Gymnasium, a public school. He left school in 1962 and received a scholarship from Cusanuswerk, the scholarship body of the Catholic Church in Germany, to study physics at the universities of Bonn and Saarland. Lafontaine graduated in 1969; his thesis concerned the production of monocrystalline barium titanate. He worked for \"Versorgungs- und Verkehrsgesellschaft\" Saarbrücken until 1974, serving on its board from 1971.  Lafontaine has been married four times and has two sons by his second and third wives. In November 2011, Lafontaine officially presented fellow politician Sahra Wagenknecht as his new girlfriend, who is 26 years his junior. Since December 22, 2014 they have been married. He is a non-practising Catholic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political rise.", "content": "Lafontaine rose to prominence locally as mayor of Saarbrücken and became more widely known as a critic of chancellor Helmut Schmidt's support for the NATO plan to deploy Pershing II missiles in Germany. From 1985 to 1998 he served as Minister-President of the Saarland. In this position he struggled to preserve the industrial base of the state, which was based on steel production and coal mining with subsidies, and served as President of the Bundesrat in 1992/93.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chancellor candidacy and assassination attempt.", "content": "Lafontaine was the SPD's candidate for Chancellor in the German federal election of 1990. He faced nearly impossible odds. The election had been called two months after the reunification of Germany, and the incumbent government of Helmut Kohl was in a nearly unassailable position.  During the campaign he was attacked with a knife by a mentally deranged woman after a speech in Cologne. His carotid artery was slashed and he remained in a critical condition for several days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political comeback.", "content": "At the \"Mannheim convention\" in 1995, he was elected chairman of the SPD in a surprise move, replacing Rudolf Scharping. He was mainly responsible for bringing the whole political weight of the SPD to bear against Kohl and his CDU party, rejecting bipartisan cooperation that had characterized German politics for many years. Lafontaine argued that any help given to Kohl would only lengthen his unavoidable demise.  After the SPD's unexpectedly clear victory at the polls in September 1998, he was appointed Federal Minister of Finance in the first government of Gerhard Schröder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minister of Finance.", "content": "During his short tenure as Minister of Finance, Lafontaine was a main bogeyman of UK Eurosceptics. This was because, among other things, he had called for the prompt tax harmonisation of the European Union, which would have resulted in an increase in UK taxes. In 1998, English tabloid \"The Sun\" called Lafontaine \"Europe's most dangerous man\". On 11 March 1999, he resigned from all his official and party offices, claiming that \"lack of cooperation\" in the cabinet had become unbearable. Until the formation of the Left Party he was known for his attacks against the Schroeder government in the tabloid \"Bild-Zeitung\", which is generally considered conservative.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaving the SPD and formation of The Left party.", "content": "On 24 May 2005 Lafontaine left the SPD. After two weeks of speculation it was announced on 10 June that he would run as the lead candidate for The Left party (\"Die Linke\"), a coalition of the Labor and Social Justice Party (WASG), which was based in western Germany, and the Left Party.PDS, which was the successor to the ruling East German Socialist Unity Party (SED). Lafontaine joined the WASG on 18 June 2005 and was selected to head their list for the 2005 Federal Election in North Rhine-Westphalia on the same day. Moreover, he also unsuccessfully contested the Saarbrücken constituency, which he had previously represented from 1990 to 2002. Nevertheless, the result of the Left party in the Saarland was by far the best in any of the federal states in the West of Germany.  In 2007, when the Left Party was formed in a merger between 'Left Party.PDS' and WASG, he became chairman alongside Lothar Bisky.  In May 2009, he declared that \"Financial capitalism has failed. We need to democratize the economy. The workforce needs to have a far greater say in their companies than has been the case so far.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "An article by Lafontaine on Erich Honecker, state and party leader of the German Democratic Republic and a fellow Saarlander, in the magazine \"Der Spiegel\" was criticised as laudatory by many observers. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, he tarnished his left-wing credentials with a plea for pro-business policies and a call for the reduction of the influx of Germans from Eastern Europe and asylum-seekers.  Lafontaine lives in a manor-like house, commonly known as the \"palace of social justice\" (\"Palast der sozialen Gerechtigkeit\"). When asked about whether this could be in conflict with his socialist ideas, Lafontaine said politicians of the left do not have to be poor, but they have to fight against poverty.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Oskar Lafontaine (; born 16 September 1943) is a German politician. He served as Minister-President of the state of Saarland from 1985 to 1998, and was federal leader of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) from 1995 to 1999. He was the lead candidate for the SPD in the 1990 German federal election, but lost by a wide margin. He served as Minister of Finance under Chancellor Gerhard Schröder after the SPD's victory in the 1998 federal election, but resigned from both the ministry and Bundestag less than six months later, positioning himself as a popular opponent of Schröder's policies in the tabloid press.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970970}
{"src_title": "Oncology", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Screening.", "content": "Cancer screening is recommended for cancers of breast, cervix, colon, and lung.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Signs and symptoms usually depend on the size and type of cancer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis and staging.", "content": "Diagnostic and staging investigations depend on the size and type of malignancy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blood cancer.", "content": "Blood investigations including hemoglobin, total leukocyte count, platelet count, peripheral smear, red cell indices.  Bone marrow studies including aspiration, flow cytometry, cytogenetics, fluorescent in situ hybridisation and molecular studies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lymphoma.", "content": "Excision biopsy of lymph node for histopathological examination, immunohistochemistry, and molecular studies.  Blood investigations include lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), serum uric acid, and kidney function tests.  Imaging tests such as computerised tomography (CT scan), positron emission tomography (PET CT).  Bone marrow biopsy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Solid tumors.", "content": "Biopsy for histopathology and immunohistochemistry.  Imaging tests like X-ray, ultrasonography, computerised tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and PET CT.  Endoscopy including Naso-pharyngoscopy, Direct & Indirect Laryngoscopy, Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, Colonoscopy, Cystoscopy.  Tumor markers including alphafetoprotein (AFP), Beta Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG), Carcinoembionic Antigen (CEA), CA 125, Prostate specific antigen (PSA).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Treatment depends on the size and type of cancer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lymphoma.", "content": "It includes Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Blood cancer.", "content": "Includes acute and chronic leukemias. Acute leukemias includes acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Chronic leukemias include chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and chronic myeloid leukemia (CML).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Oncology is a branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer. A medical professional who practices oncology is an \"oncologist\". The name's etymological origin is the Greek word ὄγκος (\"óngkos\"), meaning 1. \"burden, volume, mass\" and 2. \"barb\", and the Greek word λόγος (\"logos\"), meaning \"study\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970971}
{"src_title": "Plutonium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical properties.", "content": "Plutonium, like most metals, has a bright silvery appearance at first, much like nickel, but it oxidizes very quickly to a dull gray, although yellow and olive green are also reported. At room temperature plutonium is in its α (\"alpha\") form. This, the most common structural form of the element (allotrope), is about as hard and brittle as gray cast iron unless it is alloyed with other metals to make it soft and ductile. Unlike most metals, it is not a good conductor of heat or electricity. It has a low melting point (640 °C) and an unusually high boiling point (3,228 °C).  Alpha decay, the release of a high-energy helium nucleus, is the most common form of radioactive decay for plutonium. A 5 kg mass of Pu contains about atoms. With a half-life of 24,100 years, about of its atoms decay each second by emitting a 5.157 MeV alpha particle. This amounts to 9.68 watts of power. Heat produced by the deceleration of these alpha particles makes it warm to the touch.  Resistivity is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. The resistivity of plutonium at room temperature is very high for a metal, and it gets even higher with lower temperatures, which is unusual for metals. This trend continues down to 100 K, below which resistivity rapidly decreases for fresh samples. Resistivity then begins to increase with time at around 20 K due to radiation damage, with the rate dictated by the isotopic composition of the sample.  Because of self-irradiation, a sample of plutonium fatigues throughout its crystal structure, meaning the ordered arrangement of its atoms becomes disrupted by radiation with time. Self-irradiation can also lead to annealing which counteracts some of the fatigue effects as temperature increases above 100 K.  Unlike most materials, plutonium increases in density when it melts, by 2.5%, but the liquid metal exhibits a linear decrease in density with temperature. Near the melting point, the liquid plutonium has very high viscosity and surface tension compared to other metals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Allotropes.", "content": "Plutonium normally has six allotropes and forms a seventh (zeta, ζ) at high temperature within a limited pressure range. These allotropes, which are different structural modifications or forms of an element, have very similar internal energies but significantly varying densities and crystal structures. This makes plutonium very sensitive to changes in temperature, pressure, or chemistry, and allows for dramatic volume changes following phase transitions from one allotropic form to another. The densities of the different allotropes vary from 16.00 g/cm to 19.86 g/cm.  The presence of these many allotropes makes machining plutonium very difficult, as it changes state very readily. For example, the α form exists at room temperature in unalloyed plutonium. It has machining characteristics similar to cast iron but changes to the plastic and malleable β (\"beta\") form at slightly higher temperatures. The reasons for the complicated phase diagram are not entirely understood. The α form has a low-symmetry monoclinic structure, hence its brittleness, strength, compressibility, and poor thermal conductivity.  Plutonium in the δ (\"delta\") form normally exists in the 310 °C to 452 °C range but is stable at room temperature when alloyed with a small percentage of gallium, aluminium, or cerium, enhancing workability and allowing it to be welded. The δ form has more typical metallic character, and is roughly as strong and malleable as aluminium. In fission weapons, the explosive shock waves used to compress a plutonium core will also cause a transition from the usual δ phase plutonium to the denser α form, significantly helping to achieve supercriticality. The ε phase, the highest temperature solid allotrope, exhibits anomalously high atomic self-diffusion compared to other elements.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nuclear fission.", "content": "Plutonium is a radioactive actinide metal whose isotope, plutonium-239, is one of the three primary fissile isotopes (uranium-233 and uranium-235 are the other two); plutonium-241 is also highly fissile. To be considered fissile, an isotope's atomic nucleus must be able to break apart or fission when struck by a slow moving neutron and to release enough additional neutrons to sustain the nuclear chain reaction by splitting further nuclei.  Pure plutonium-239 may have a multiplication factor (k) larger than one, which means that if the metal is present in sufficient quantity and with an appropriate geometry (e.g., a sphere of sufficient size), it can form a critical mass. During fission, a fraction of the nuclear binding energy, which holds a nucleus together, is released as a large amount of electromagnetic and kinetic energy (much of the latter being quickly converted to thermal energy). Fission of a kilogram of plutonium-239 can produce an explosion equivalent to. It is this energy that makes plutonium-239 useful in nuclear weapons and reactors.  The presence of the isotope plutonium-240 in a sample limits its nuclear bomb potential, as plutonium-240 has a relatively high spontaneous fission rate (~440 fissions per second per gram—over 1,000 neutrons per second per gram), raising the background neutron levels and thus increasing the risk of predetonation. Plutonium is identified as either weapons-grade, fuel-grade, or reactor-grade based on the percentage of plutonium-240 that it contains. Weapons-grade plutonium contains less than 7% plutonium-240. Fuel-grade plutonium contains from 7% to less than 19%, and power reactor-grade contains 19% or more plutonium-240. Supergrade plutonium, with less than 4% of plutonium-240, is used in U.S. Navy weapons stored in proximity to ship and submarine crews, due to its lower radioactivity. The isotope plutonium-238 is not fissile but can undergo nuclear fission easily with fast neutrons as well as alpha decay.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Isotopes and nucleosynthesis.", "content": "Twenty radioactive isotopes of plutonium have been characterized. The longest-lived are plutonium-244, with a half-life of 80.8 million years, plutonium-242, with a half-life of 373,300 years, and plutonium-239, with a half-life of 24,110 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 7,000 years. This element also has eight metastable states, though all have half-lives less than one second.  The known isotopes of plutonium range in mass number from 228 to 247. The primary decay modes of isotopes with mass numbers lower than the most stable isotope, plutonium-244, are spontaneous fission and alpha emission, mostly forming uranium (92 protons) and neptunium (93 protons) isotopes as decay products (neglecting the wide range of daughter nuclei created by fission processes). The primary decay mode for isotopes with mass numbers higher than plutonium-244 is beta emission, mostly forming americium (95 protons) isotopes as decay products. Plutonium-241 is the parent isotope of the neptunium decay series, decaying to americium-241 via beta emission.  Plutonium-238 and 239 are the most widely synthesized isotopes. Plutonium-239 is synthesized via the following reaction using uranium (U) and neutrons (n) via beta decay (β) with neptunium (Np) as an intermediate:  </chem>  Neutrons from the fission of uranium-235 are captured by uranium-238 nuclei to form uranium-239; a beta decay converts a neutron into a proton to form neptunium-239 (half-life 2.36 days) and another beta decay forms plutonium-239. Egon Bretscher working on the British Tube Alloys project predicted this reaction theoretically in 1940.  Plutonium-238 is synthesized by bombarding uranium-238 with deuterons (D, the nuclei of heavy hydrogen) in the following reaction:  \\ce", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Plutonium is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol Pu and atomic number 94. It is an actinide metal of silvery-gray appearance that tarnishes when exposed to air, and forms a dull coating when oxidized. The element normally exhibits six allotropes and four oxidation states. It reacts with carbon, halogens, nitrogen, silicon, and hydrogen. When exposed to moist air, it forms oxides and hydrides that can expand the sample up to 70% in volume, which in turn flake off as a powder that is pyrophoric. It is radioactive and can accumulate in bones, which makes the handling of plutonium dangerous.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970972}
{"src_title": "Poltergeist", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"poltergeist\" comes from the German language words \"poltern\" (\"to make sound\" and \"to rumble\") and \"Geist\" (\"ghost\" and \"spirit\"), and the term itself translates as \"noisy ghost\", \"rumble-ghost\" or a \"loud spirit\". A synonym coined by René Sudre is \"thorybism\", from Greek \"thorybein\" (\"to make noise or uproar; throw into confusion\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Suggested explanations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natural phenomena.", "content": "Many claimed poltergeist events have proved on investigation to be hoaxes.  Psychical researcher Frank Podmore proposed the 'naughty little girl' theory for poltergeist cases (many of which have seemed to centre on an adolescent, usually a girl). He found that the centre of the disturbance was often a child who was throwing objects around to fool or scare people for attention. Skeptical investigator Joe Nickell says that claimed poltergeist incidents typically originate from \"an individual who is motivated to cause mischief\". According to Nickell:  \"In the typical poltergeist outbreak, small objects are hurled through the air by unseen forces, furniture is overturned, or other disturbances occur—usually just what could be accomplished by a juvenile trickster determined to plague credulous adults.\"  Nickell writes that reports are often exaggerated by credulous witnesses.  \"Time and again in other “poltergeist” outbreaks, witnesses have reported an object leaping from its resting place supposedly on its own, when it is likely that the perpetrator had secretly obtained the object sometime earlier and waited for an opportunity to fling it, even from outside the room—thus supposedly proving he or she was innocent.\"  According to research in anomalistic psychology, claims of poltergeist activity can be explained by psychological factors such as illusion, memory lapses, and wishful thinking. A study (Lange and Houran, 1998) wrote that poltergeist experiences are delusions \"resulting from the affective and cognitive dynamics of percipients' interpretation of ambiguous stimuli\". Psychologist Donovan Rawcliffe has written that almost all poltergeist cases that have been investigated turned out to be based on trickery, whilst the rest are attributable to psychological factors such as hallucinations.  Attempts have also been made to scientifically explain poltergeist disturbances that have not been traced to fraud or psychological factors. Skeptic and magician Milbourne Christopher found that some cases of poltergeist activity can be attributed to unusual air currents, such as a 1957 case on Cape Cod where downdrafts from an uncovered chimney became strong enough to blow a mirror off of a wall, overturn chairs and knock things off shelves.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unverified natural phenomena.", "content": "In the 1950s, Guy William Lambert proposed that reported poltergeist phenomena could be explained by the movement of underground water causing stress on houses. He suggested that water turbulence could cause strange sounds or structural movement of the property, possibly causing the house to vibrate and move objects. Later researchers, such as Alan Gauld and Tony Cornell, tested Lambert's hypothesis by placing specific objects in different rooms and subjecting the house to strong mechanical vibrations. They discovered that although the structure of the building had been damaged, only a few of the objects moved a very short distance. The skeptic Trevor H. Hall criticized the hypothesis claiming if it was true \"the building would almost certainly fall into ruins.\" According to Richard Wiseman the hypothesis has not held up to scrutiny.  Michael Persinger has theorized that seismic activity could cause poltergeist phenomena. However, Persinger's claims regarding the effects of environmental geomagnetic activity on paranormal experiences have not been independently replicated and, like his findings regarding the God helmet, may simply be explained by the suggestibility of participants.  David Turner, a retired physical chemist, suggested that ball lightning might cause the \"spooky movement of objects blamed on poltergeists.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Paranormal.", "content": "Parapsychologists Nandor Fodor and William G. Roll suggested that poltergeist activity can be explained by psychokinesis.  Poltergeist activity has often been believed to be the work of malicious spirits by spiritualists. According to Allan Kardec, the founder of Spiritism, poltergeists are manifestations of disembodied spirits of low level, belonging to the sixth class of the third order. Under this explanation, they are believed to be closely associated with the elements (fire, air, water, earth).  Psychoanalyst Carl Gustav Jung was interested in the concept of poltergeists and the occult in general. Jung believed that a female cousin's trance states were responsible for a dining table splitting in two and his later discovery of a broken bread knife. Jung also believed that when a bookcase gave an explosive cracking sound during a meeting with Sigmund Freud in 1909, he correctly predicted there would be a second sound, speculating that such phenomena was caused by 'exteriorization' of his subconscious mind. Freud disagreed, and concluded there was some natural cause. Freud biographers maintain the sounds were likely caused by the wood of the bookcase contracting as it dried out.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In ghostlore, a poltergeist ( or ; German for \"noisy ghost\" or \"noisy spirit\") is a type of ghost or spirit that is responsible for physical disturbances, such as loud noises and objects being moved or destroyed. They are purportedly capable of pinching, biting, hitting, and tripping people. Most accounts of poltergeists describe the movement or levitation of objects such as furniture and cutlery, or noises such as knocking on doors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970973}
{"src_title": "Probus (emperor)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Probus was born between 230 and 235 (exact date of birth unknown) in Sirmium (modern day Sremska Mitrovica), Pannonia Inferior, the son of Dalmatius. According to the Alexandrian Chronicle, he was born sometime in the year 232.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Probus entered the army around 250 upon reaching adulthood. He rose rapidly through the ranks, repeatedly earning high military decorations. Appointed as a military tribune by the emperor Valerian, at a very young age, in recognition of his latent ability, he justified the choice by a distinguished victory over the Sarmatians on the Illyrian frontier. During the chaotic years of the reign of Valerian, Illyria was the only province, generaled by such officers as Claudius, Aurelian and Probus, where the barbarians were kept at bay, while Gaul was overrun by the Franks, Rhaetia by the Alemans, Thrace and the Mediterranean by the Goths, and the east by Shapur I. Probus became amongst the highest placed lieutenants of Aurelian, reconquering Egypt from Zenobia in 273 A.D. Emperor Tacitus, upon his accession in 275, appointed Probus supreme chief of the east, granting him extraordinary powers in order to secure a dangerous frontier. Though the details are not specified, he is said to have fought with success on almost every frontier of the empire, before his election as emperor by the troops upon Tacitus' death of old age in 276, in his camp in Asia Minor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As emperor.", "content": "Florianus, the half-brother of Tacitus, also proclaimed himself emperor, and took control of Tacitus' army in Asia Minor, but was killed by his own soldiers after an indecisive campaign against Probus in the mountains of Cilicia. In contrast to Florianus, who ignored the wishes of the senate, Probus referred his claim to Rome in a respectful dispatch. The senate enthusiastically ratified his pretensions. Probus next travelled west, defeating the Goths along the lower Danube in 277, and acquiring the title of \"Gothicus\". However, the Goths came to respect his ability and implored a treaty with the empire. In 278, Probus campaigned successfully in Gaul against the Alamanni and Longiones; both tribes had advanced through the Neckar valley and across the Rhine into Roman territory. Meanwhile, his generals defeated the Franks and these operations were directed to clearing Gaul of Germanic invaders (Franks and Burgundians), allowing Probus to adopt the titles of \"Gothicus Maximus\" and \"Germanicus Maximus\". Reportedly, 400,000 barbarians were killed during Probus' campaign, and the entire nation of the Lugii were extirpated.  After the defeat of the Germanic invaders in Gaul, Probus crossed the Rhine to campaign successfully against the Barbarians in their homeland, forcing them to pay homage. In the aftermath of the campaign, Probus repaired the ancient fortifications erected by Hadrian in the vulnerable space between the Rhine and Danube, in the territory of Swabia. More significantly, Probus, by forcing from the vanquished tribes a tribute of manpower, established the precedent of settling barbarians within the empire as auxiliaries on a large scale. The provinces were depopulated by war, disease and the chaotic administration, heavy taxation, and extensive army recruitment, during the crisis of the Third century, and the barbarian colonies, at least in the short term, helped to restore frontier defense and the practice of agriculture.  The army discipline which Aurelian had repaired was cultivated and extended under Probus, who was however more shy in the practice of cruelty.  In 279–280, Probus was, according to Zosimus, in Raetia, Illyricum and Lycia, where he fought the Vandals. In the same years, Probus' generals defeated the Blemmyes in Egypt. Either then, or during his previous command in Egypt, he ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals along the Nile, where the production of grain for the Empire was centered.  In 280–281, Probus put down three usurpers, Julius Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus. The extent of these revolts is not clear, but there are clues that they were not just local problems (an inscription with the name of Probus erased has been found as far as Spain). Following this, Probus then put down a revolt by an unnamed rebel in Britain with the assistance of a certain Victorinus, who was later made consul in 282. During the winter of 281, the emperor was in Rome, where he celebrated his well-deserved triumph. Probus was eager to start his eastern campaign, delayed by the revolts in the west. He left Rome in 282, travelling first towards Sirmium, his birth city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assassination.", "content": "Different accounts of Probus's death exist. According to Joannes Zonaras, the commander of the Praetorian Guard Marcus Aurelius Carus had been proclaimed, more or less unwillingly, emperor by his troops.  Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when those troops changed sides and supported Carus, Probus' remaining soldiers assassinated him at Sirmium (September/October 282). According to other sources, however, Probus was killed by disgruntled soldiers, who rebelled against his orders to be employed for civic purposes, like draining marshes. Allegedly, the soldiers were provoked when they overheard him lamenting the necessity of a standing army. Carus was proclaimed emperor after Probus' death and avenged the murder of his predecessor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "According to the favorable treatment of Gibbon (whose account is largely derived from the \"Augustan History\"), Probus was the last of the benevolent constitutional emperors of Rome. While his successor Carus (Imp. 282-284) simply disdained to seek the senate's confirmation of his title, the latter's successor Diocletian (Imp. 284-305) took active measures to undermine its authority, and established the autocratic nature and divine derivation of the Imperial power. Never again, after Diocletian's reforms, would the Roman senate play an active role in the management of the empire. On the military sphere, Probus' victories continued the succession of martial Illyrian emperors begun by Claudius Gothicus, which restored the military supremacy of Rome after defeats sustained during the crisis of the third century.  Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Probus (; Marcus Aurelius Probus; c. 19 August 232 – September/October 282) was Roman Emperor from 276 to 282. Probus was an active and successful general as well as a conscientious administrator, and in his reign of six years he secured prosperity for the inner provinces while withstanding repeated inundations of hostile barbarian tribes on almost every sector of the frontier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970974}
{"src_title": "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (novel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "Earthman Arthur Dent is saved by his friend, Ford Prefect—an alien researcher for the titular \"Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\", which provides info on every planet in the galaxy—from the Earth just before it is destroyed by the alien Vogons. After being tossed out of the Vogon ship that they hitched a ride on, Arthur and Ford are rescued by the \"Heart of Gold\", a spaceship driven by Zaphod Beeblebrox, Ford's semi-cousin and the President of the Galaxy. The ship's crew—Arthur, Ford, Zaphod, a depressed robot named Marvin, and a human woman named Trillian—embark on a journey to find the legendary planet known as Magrathea.  On Magrathea, the five are taken into the planet's centre by a man named Slartibartfast. There, they learn that in the distant past a race of \"hyperintelligent, pan-dimensional beings\" created a supercomputer named Deep Thought to determine the answer to the \"Ultimate Question to Life, the Universe, and Everything\", which Deep Thought found to be the number 42. Deep Thought tells its creators that the answer makes no sense to them because they didn't know what the \"Ultimate Question\" had been in the first place, so he suggested designing an even greater computer to determine what the Ultimate Question was. This computer is actually the planet Earth, which was constructed by the Magratheans, and was five minutes away from finishing its task and figuring out the Ultimate Question when the Vogons destroyed it. The pet mice Trillian has are actually part of the group of hyperintelligent superbeings. They reject the idea of building a new Earth to start the process over and offer to buy Arthur's brain in case it contains the question, leading to a fight when he declines. Zaphod saves Arthur from having his brain removed, the five escape Magrathea, and decide to go to The Restaurant at the End of the Universe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Illustrated edition.", "content": "\"The Illustrated Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" is a specially designed book made in 1994. It was first printed in the United Kingdom by Weidenfeld & Nicolson and in the United States by Harmony Books (who sold it for $42.00). It is an oversized book, and came in silver-foil \"holographic\" covers in both the UK and US markets. It features the first appearance of the 42 Puzzle, designed by Adams himself, a photograph of Adams and his literary agent Ed Victor as the two space cops, and many other designs by Kevin Davies, who has participated in many Hitchhiker's related projects since the stage productions in the late 1970s. Davies himself appears as Prosser. This edition is out of print – Adams bought up many remainder copies and sold them, autographed, on his website.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In other media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Audiobook adaptations.", "content": "There have been three audiobook recordings of the novel. The first was an abridged edition (), recorded in the mid-1980s by Stephen Moore, best known for playing the voice of Marvin the Paranoid Android in the radio series, LP adaptations and in the TV series. In 1990, Adams himself recorded an unabridged edition for Dove Audiobooks (), later re-released by New Millennium Audio () in the United States and available from BBC Audiobooks in the United Kingdom. Also by arrangement with Dove, ISIS Publishing Ltd produced a numbered exclusive edition signed by Douglas Adams () in 1994. To tie-in with the 2005 film, actor Stephen Fry, the film's voice of the Guide, recorded a second unabridged edition ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Television series.", "content": "The popularity of the radio series gave rise to a six-episode television series, directed and produced by Alan J. W. Bell, which first aired on BBC 2 in January and February 1981. It employed many of the actors from the radio series and was based mainly on the radio versions of Fits the First through Sixth. A second series was at one point planned, with a storyline, according to Alan Bell and Mark Wing-Davey that would have come from Adams's abandoned \"Doctor Who and the Krikkitmen\" project (instead of simply making a TV version of the second radio series). However, Adams got into disputes with the BBC (accounts differ: problems with budget, scripts, and having Alan Bell involved are all offered as causes), and the second series was never made. Elements of \"Doctor Who and the Krikkitmen\" were instead used in the third novel, \"Life, the Universe and Everything\".  The main cast was the same as the original radio series, except for David Dixon as Ford Prefect instead of McGivern, and Sandra Dickinson as Trillian instead of Sheridan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Film adaptation.", "content": "\"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" was adapted into a science fiction comedy film directed by Garth Jennings and released on 28 April 2005 in the UK, Australia and New Zealand, and on the following day in the United States and Canada. It was rolled out to cinemas worldwide during May, June, July, August and September.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Series.", "content": "The deliberately misnamed \"Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" \"\"Trilogy\"\" consists of six books, five written by Adams: \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" (1979), \"The Restaurant at the End of the Universe\" (1980), \"Life, the Universe and Everything\" (1982), \"So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish\" (1984) and \"Mostly Harmless\" (1992). On 16 September 2008 it was announced that Irish author Eoin Colfer was to pen a sixth book. The book, entitled \"And Another Thing...\", was published in October 2009, on the 30th anniversary of the publication of the original novel.  \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" was never titled \"trilogy.\" It was called that by readers, but the word \"trilogy\" doesn't appear on the cover of the first three books and was not used until the publication of the fourth book.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Greg Costikyan reviewed \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" in \"Ares Magazine\" #6 and commented that \"\"The Hitchhiker's Guide\" is written with superb English wit, far more humorous than any American sitcom.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The \"Babel fish\", a creature used in the novel that feeds on brainwaves and can instantly translate alien languages, inspired the name of Babel Fish, the first free online language translator, which launched in 1997.  When Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster was launched into space on the maiden flight of the Falcon Heavy rocket in February 2018, it had the words DON'T PANIC on the dashboard display and carried amongst other items a copy of the novel and a towel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy is the first of six books in the \"Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" comedy science fiction \"trilogy\" by Douglas Adams. The novel is an adaptation of the first four parts of Adams' radio series of the same name. The novel was first published in London on 12 October 1979. It sold 250,000 copies in the first three months.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970975}
{"src_title": "Leek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Form.", "content": "Rather than forming a tight bulb like the onion, the leek produces a long cylinder of bundled leaf sheaths that are generally blanched by pushing soil around them (trenching). They are often sold as small seedlings in flats that are started off early in greenhouses, to be planted out as weather permits. Once established in the garden, leeks are hardy; many varieties can be left in the ground during the winter to be harvested as needed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "Leek cultivars may be treated as a single cultivar group, e.g. as \"A. ampeloprasum\" 'Leek Group'. The cultivars can be subdivided in several ways, but the most common types are \"summer leeks\", intended for harvest in the season when planted, and overwintering leeks, meant to be harvested in the spring of the year following planting. Summer leek types are generally smaller than overwintering types; overwintering types are generally more strongly flavored. Cultivars include 'King Richard' and 'Tadorna Blue'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Growing.", "content": "Leeks are easy to grow from seed and tolerate standing in the field for an extended harvest, which takes place up to 6 months from planting. The soil in which it is grown has to be loose and drained well; leek can be grown in the same regions where onions can be grown. Leeks usually reach maturity in the autumn months. Leeks can be bunched and harvested early when they are about the size of a finger or pencil, or they can be thinned and allowed to grow to a much larger mature size. Hilling leeks can produce better specimens.  Leeks suffer from insect pests including the thrips species \"Thrips tabaci\" and the leek moth. Leeks are also susceptible to leek rust (\"Puccinia allii\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cuisine.", "content": "Leeks have a mild, onion-like taste. In its raw state, the vegetable is crunchy and firm. The edible portions of the leek are the white base of the leaves (above the roots and stem base), the light green parts, and to a lesser extent the dark green parts of the leaves. The dark green portion is usually discarded because it has a tough texture, but it can be sautéed, or more commonly added to stock for flavor. A few leaves are sometimes tied with twine and other herbs to form a \"bouquet garni\".  Leeks are typically chopped into slices 5–10 mm thick. The slices have a tendency to fall apart, due to the layered structure of the leek. The different ways of preparing the vegetable are:  Leeks are an ingredient of cock-a-leekie soup, leek and potato soup, and \"vichyssoise\", as well as plain leek soup.  Because of their symbolism in Wales (see below), they have come to be used extensively in that country’s cuisine. Elsewhere in Britain, leeks have come back into favor only in the last 50 years or so, having been overlooked for several centuries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical consumption.", "content": "The Hebrew Bible talks of חציר, identified by commentators as leek, and says it is abundant in Egypt. Dried specimens from archaeological sites in ancient Egypt, as well as wall carvings and drawings, indicate that the leek was a part of the Egyptian diet from at least the second millennium BCE. Texts also show that it was grown in Mesopotamia from the beginning of the second millennium BCE. The leek was the favorite vegetable of the Emperor Nero, who consumed it in soup or in oil, believing it beneficial to the quality of his voice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural significance.", "content": "The leek is one of the national emblems of Wales, and it or the daffodil (in Welsh, the daffodil is known as \"Peter's leek\", \"Cenhinen Bedr\") is worn on St. David's Day. According to one legend, King Cadwaladr of Gwynedd ordered his soldiers to identify themselves by wearing the vegetable on their helmets in an ancient battle against the Saxons that took place in a leek field. The Elizabethan poet Michael Drayton stated, in contrast, that the tradition was a tribute to Saint David, who ate only leeks when he was fasting. Whatever the case, the leek has been known to be a symbol of Wales for a long time; Shakespeare, for example, refers to the custom of wearing a leek as an “ancient tradition” in \"Henry V\". In the play, Henry tells the Welsh officer Fluellen that he, too, is wearing a leek \"for I am Welsh, you know, good countryman.\" The 1985 and 1990 British one pound coins bear the design of a leek in a coronet, representing Wales.  Alongside the other national floral emblems of countries currently and formerly in the Commonwealth or part of the United Kingdom (including the English Tudor Rose, Scottish thistle, Irish shamrock, Canadian maple leaf, and Indian lotus), the Welsh leek appeared on the coronation gown of Elizabeth II. It was designed by Norman Hartnell; when Hartnell asked if he could exchange the leek for the more aesthetically pleasing Welsh daffodil, he was told no.  Perhaps the most visible use of the leek, however, is as the cap badge of the Welsh Guards, a battalion within the Household Division of the British Army.  In Romania, the leek is also widely considered a symbol of Oltenia, a historical region in the southwestern part of the country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dietary restrictions.", "content": "Mahayana monks do not consume leeks as they are considered to \"excite the senses\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of \"Allium ampeloprasum\", the broadleaf wild leek. The edible part of the plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a stem or stalk. The genus \"Allium\" also contains the onion, garlic, shallot, scallion, chive, and Chinese onion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970976}
{"src_title": "Paris (mythology)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mythology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Paris was a child of Priam and Hecuba (see the List of children of Priam). Just before his birth, his mother dreamed that she gave birth to a flaming torch. This dream was interpreted by the seer Aesacus as a foretelling of the downfall of Troy, and he declared that the child would be the ruin of his homeland. On the day of Paris's birth, it was further announced by Aesacus that the child born of a royal Trojan that day would have to be killed to spare the kingdom, being the child that would bring about the prophecy. Though Paris was indeed born before nightfall, he was spared by Priam. Hecuba was also unable to kill the child, despite the urging of the priestess of Apollo, one Herophile. Instead, Paris's father prevailed upon his chief herdsman, Agelaus, to remove the child and kill him. The herdsman, unable to use a weapon against the infant, left him exposed on Mount Ida, hoping he would perish there (cf. Oedipus). He was, however, suckled by a she-bear. Returning after nine days, Agelaus was astonished to find the child still alive and brought him home in a backpack (Greek \"pḗra\", hence by folk etymology Paris’s name) to rear as his own. He returned to Priam bearing a dog's tongue as evidence of the deed's completion.  Paris's noble birth was betrayed by his outstanding beauty and intelligence. While still a child, he routed a gang of cattle-thieves and restored the animals they had stolen to the herd, thereby earning the surname Alexander (\"protector of men\"). It was at this time that Oenone became Paris's first lover. She was a nymph from Mount Ida in Phrygia. Her father was Cebren, a river-god or, according to other sources, she was the daughter of Oeneus. She was skilled in the arts of prophecy and medicine, which she had been taught by Rhea and Apollo, respectively. When Paris later left her for Helen, she told him that if he ever was wounded, he should come to her, for she could heal any injury, even the most serious wounds.  Paris's chief distraction at this time was to pit Agelaus's bulls against one another. One bull began to win these bouts consistently. Paris began to set it against rival herdsmen's own prize bulls and it defeated them all. Finally, Paris offered a golden crown to any bull that could defeat his champion. Ares responded to this challenge by transforming himself into a bull and easily winning the contest. Paris gave the crown to Ares without hesitation. It was this apparent honesty in judgment that prompted the gods of Olympus to have Paris arbitrate the divine contest between Hera, Aphrodite, and Athena.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Judgment of Paris.", "content": "In celebration of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis, Lord Zeus, father of the Greek pantheon, hosted a banquet on Mount Olympus. Every deity and demi-god had been invited, except Eris, the goddess of strife (no one wanted a troublemaker at a wedding). For revenge, Eris threw the golden Apple of Discord inscribed with \"tēi kallistēi\" – \"For the most beautiful\" – into the party, provoking a squabble among the attendant goddesses over for whom it had been meant.  The goddesses thought to be the most beautiful were Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, and each one claimed the apple. They started a quarrel so they asked Zeus to choose one of them. Knowing that choosing any of them would bring him the hatred of the other two, Zeus did not want to take part in the decision. He thus appointed Paris to select the most beautiful.  Escorted by Hermes, the three goddesses bathed in the spring of Mount Ida and approached Paris as he herded his cattle. Having been given permission by Zeus to set any conditions he saw fit, Paris required that the goddesses undress before him (alternatively, the goddesses themselves chose to disrobe to show all their beauty). Still, Paris could not decide, as all three were ideally beautiful, so the goddesses attempted to bribe him to choose among them. Hera offered ownership of all of Europe and Asia. Athena offered skill in battle, wisdom and the abilities of the greatest warriors. Aphrodite offered the love of the most beautiful woman on Earth: Helen of Sparta. Paris chose Aphrodite and therefore Helen.  Helen was already married to King Menelaus of Sparta (a fact Aphrodite neglected to mention), so Paris had to raid Menelaus's house to steal Helen from him - according to some accounts, she fell in love with Paris and left willingly.  The Greeks' expedition to retrieve Helen from Paris in Troy is the mythological basis of the Trojan War. This triggered the war because Helen was famous for her beauty throughout Achaea (ancient Greece), and had many suitors of extraordinary ability. Therefore, following Odysseus's advice, her father Tyndareus made all suitors promise to defend Helen's marriage to the man he chose for her. When Paris took her to Troy, Menelaus invoked this oath. Helen's other suitors – who between them represented the lion's share of Achaea's strength, wealth and military prowess – were obliged to help bring her back. Thus, the whole of Greece moved against Troy in force and the Trojan War began.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trojan War.", "content": "Homer's \"Iliad\" casts Paris as unskilled and cowardly. Although Paris readily admits his shortcomings in battle, his brother Hector scolds and belittles him after he runs away from a duel with Menelaus that was to determine the end of the war. His preference for bow and arrow emphasizes this, since he does not follow the code of honor shared by the other heroes.  Early in the epic, Paris and Menelaus duel in an attempt to end the war without further bloodshed. Menelaus easily defeats Paris, though Aphrodite spirits him away before Menelaus can finish the duel. Paris is returned to his bedchambers, where Aphrodite forces Helen to be with him.  Paris's second attempt at combat is equally fated: rather than engage the Greek hero Diomedes in hand-to-hand combat, Paris wounds Diomedes with an arrow through the foot.  Later, after slaying Hector and other heroes, Achilles dies by an arrow of Paris with Apollo's help. According to Hyginus (Fabulae, 107) Apollo disguised himself as Paris.  Later in the war, after Philoctetes mortally wounds Paris, Helen makes her way to Mount Ida where she begs Paris's first wife, the nymph Oenone, to heal him. Still bitter that Paris had spurned her for his birthright in the city and then forgotten her for Helen, Oenone refuses. Helen returns alone to Troy, where Paris dies later the same day. In another version, Paris himself, in great pain, visits Oenone to plead for healing but is refused and dies on the mountainside. When Oenone hears of his funeral, she runs to his funeral pyre and throws herself in its fire.  After Paris's death, his brother Deiphobus married Helen and was then killed by Menelaus in the sack of Troy.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Paris (), also known as Alexander (, \"Aléxandros\"), the son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba of Troy, appears in a number of Greek legends. Of these appearances, probably the best known was the elopement with Helen, queen of Sparta, this being one of the immediate causes of the Trojan War. Later in the war, he fatally wounds Achilles in the heel with an arrow as foretold by Achilles's mother, Thetis. The name \"Paris\" is probably of Luwian origin, and comparable to \"Pari-zitis\", attested as a Hittite scribe's name. The name Paris is etymologically unrelated to the name of the French city of Paris, which derives its name from a Gaulish tribe called the Parisii.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970977}
{"src_title": "Phidias", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Of Phidias' life little is known apart from his works. Although no original works exist that can be attributed to him with certainty, numerous Roman copies of varying degrees of fidelity are known to exist. This is not uncommon. Almost all classical Greek paintings and sculptures have been destroyed, and only Roman copies or notes of them exist, like the passages of Plato that ascribe Phidias' works to him. The ancient Romans frequently copied and further developed Greek art.  The earliest of Phidias' works were dedications in memory of Marathon, celebrating the Greek victory. His first commission was a group of national heroes with Miltiades as a central figure. At Delphi he created a great group in bronze including the figures of Greek gods Apollo and Athena, several Attic heroes, and General Miltiades the Younger. On the Acropolis of Athens, Phidias constructed a colossal bronze statue of Athena, the \"Athena Promachos\", which was visible far out at sea. Athena was the goddess of wisdom and warriors and the protector of Athens. At Pellene in Achaea, and at Plataea, Phidias made two other statues of Athena, as well as a statue of the goddess Aphrodite in ivory and gold for the people of Elis.  In antiquity, Phidias was celebrated for his statues in bronze and his chryselephantine works (statues made of gold and ivory). In the \"Hippias Major\", Plato claims that Phidias seldom, if ever, executed works in marble, though many of the sculptures of his time were executed in marble. Plutarch writes that he superintended the great works ordered by Greek statesman Pericles on the Acropolis. Ancient critics take a very high view of the merits of Phidias. What they especially praise is the ethos or permanent moral level of his works as compared with those of the later so called \"pathetic\" school. Both Pausanias and Plutarch mention works of his depicting the warlike Athena Areia. Demetrius calls his statues sublime, and at the same time precise.  In 447 BCE, Pericles commissioned several sculptures for Athens from Phidias to celebrate the Greek victory against the Persians at the Battle of Marathon during the Greco-Persian Wars (490 BCE). Pericles used some of the money from the maritime League of Delos, to rebuild and decorate Athens to celebrate this victory. Inscriptions prove that the marble blocks intended for the pedimental statues of the Parthenon were not brought to Athens until 434BCE. It is therefore possible that most of sculptural decoration of the Parthenon was the work of Phidias' workshop including pupils of Phidias, such as Alcamenes and Agoracritus.  According to geographer Pausanias (1.28.2), the original bronze \"Athena Lemnia\" was created by Phidias ( 450–440BCE) for Athenians living on Lemnos. He described it as \"the best of all Pheidias's works to see\". Adolf Furtwängler suggested that he found a copy of the \"Athena Lemnia\" in a statue of which the head is located in Bologna and the body is at Dresden. Some 5th-centuryBCE torsos of Athena have been found at Athens. The torso of Athena in the École des Beaux-Arts at Paris, which has lost its head, gives some idea of what the original statue may have looked like.  For the ancient Greeks, two works of Phidias far outshone all others: the colossal chryselephantine Statue of Zeus ( 432BCE) which was erected in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Greece, and the \"Athena Parthenos\" (lit. \"Athena the Virgin\"), a sculpture of the Greek virgin goddess Athena, which was housed in the Parthenon in Athens. Both sculptures belong to about the middle of the 5th century BCE. A number of replicas and works inspired by it, both ancient and modern, have been made.  Upon completing the \"Athena Parthenos\", Phidias was accused of embezzlement. Specifically, he was charged with shortchanging the amount of gold that was supposed to be used for the statue and keeping the extra for himself. It seems that the charge was politically motivated a result of his friendship with Pericles, who had many enemies in Athens. Phidias supposedly weighed the gold robe of the \"Athena Parthenos\" to prove his innocence, but was then accused of impiously portraying himself and Pericles on the shield of the statue, which was apparently true. Plutarch records that Phidias was imprisoned and died in jail. Aristophanes' play \"Peace\" () mentions an unfortunate incident involving Phidias, but little context is provided.  According to Philochorus, as quoted by a scholiast on Aristophanes, Phidias was put to death by the Eleans after he completed the Statue of Zeus at Olympia for them. From the late 5th century BCE, small copies of the statue of Zeus were found on coins from Elis, which give a general notion of the pose and the character of the head. The god was seated on a throne, every part of which was used for sculptural decoration. His body was of ivory, his robe of gold. His head was of a somewhat archaic type; the bust of Zeus found at Otricoli, which used to be regarded as a copy of the head of the Olympian statue, is certainly more than a century later in style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeological discovery and legacy.", "content": "A significant advancement in the knowledge of Phidias' working methodology came during 1954–58 with the excavation of the workshop at Olympia where Phidias created the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. Tools, terracotta molds and a cup inscribed on the bottom \"Φειδίου εἰμί\" (Pheidíou eimí) – \"I belong to Phidias\"; literally: \"of Phidias I am\", were found here, just where Pausanias said the statue was constructed. The discovery has enabled archaeologists to re-create the techniques used to make the statue and confirm its date.  By 1910, mathematician Mark Barr began using the Greek letter Phi (φ) as a symbol for the golden ratio after Phidias. However, Barr later wrote that he thought it unlikely that Phidias actually used the golden ratio.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Footnotes Citations", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phidias or Pheidias (;, \"Pheidias\"; 480 – 430 BCE) was a Greek sculptor, painter, and architect. His Statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Phidias also designed the statues of the goddess Athena on the Athenian Acropolis, namely the \"Athena Parthenos\" inside the Parthenon, and the \"Athena Promachos\", a colossal bronze which stood between it and the Propylaea, a monumental gateway that served as the entrance to the Acropolis in Athens. Phidias was the son of Charmides of Athens. The ancients believed that his masters were Hegias and Ageladas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970978}
{"src_title": "Pilsner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "The city of Pilsen began brewing in 1295, but until the mid-1840s, most Bohemian beers were top-fermented. The taste and standards of quality often varied widely, and in 1838, consumers dumped whole barrels to show their dissatisfaction. The officials of Pilsen founded a city-owned brewery in 1839, called (, – now Pilsner Urquell), which was to brew beer in the pioneering Bavarian style. Brewers had begun aging beer made with cool fermenting yeasts in caves (lager, i.e., [stored]), which improved the beer's clarity and shelf-life. Part of this research benefited from the knowledge already expounded on in a book (printed in German in 1794, in Czech in 1799), written by Czech brewer () (1753–1805) from Brno.  The Pilsen brewery recruited the Bavarian brewer Josef Groll (1813–1887) who, using the specifics of local ingredients and paler malts, presented his first batch of pale lager on 5 October 1842. The combination of Pilsen's remarkably soft water, local Saaz noble hops from nearby Žatec, brighter malt prepared by British technology, and Bavarian-style lagering (bottom-fermented beer termed at the time) produced a clear, golden beer. The recipe was regarded as a sensation and took hold very quickly.  Groll's contract with the brewery ended in 1845, he returned to Vilshofen and later inherited his father's brewery. The Groll brewery no longer exists. Parts of the brewery, however, were acquired by Wolferstetter, another brewery from Vilshofen, which still produces a Josef Groll Pils. Emergence of efficient glass manufacturing in Europe around the same time, lowered glass prices. This allowed the general population to purchase glass drinking vessels for the first time. These former luxury items showcased the visually pleasing golden clarity of the beer, further influencing the Pilsner's rapid dissemination.  In 1853, the beer was available in 35 pubs in Prague. In 1856, it came to Vienna and in 1862 to Paris. Improving transport and communications also meant that this new beer was soon available throughout Europe, and the \"Pilsner\" style of brewing was soon widely imitated. In 1859, was registered as a brand name at the Chamber of Commerce and Trade in Pilsen. In 1898, the Pilsner Urquell trademark was created to put emphasis on being the original brewery (\"Urquell,\" meaning 'original well', the English equivalent would probably be 'prototype Pilsener beer').  Some beers are labeled \"Urtyp Pilsener\" (UP) meaning they are brewed according to the original process, although many breweries use this accolade for their top beer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern developments.", "content": "The introduction to Germany of modern refrigeration by Carl von Linde in the late 19th century eliminated the need for caves for beer storage, enabling the brewing of cool fermenting beer in many new locations. Until 1993 the Pilsner Urquell brewery fermented its beer using open barrels in the cellars beneath their brewery. This changed in 1993 with the use of large cylindrical tanks. Small samples are still brewed in a traditional way for taste comparisons.  A modern pale lager termed a \"Pilsner\" may have a very light, clear colour from pale to golden yellow, with varying levels of hop aroma and flavour. The alcohol strength of beers termed Pilsner vary but are typically around 4.5%–5% (by volume). There are categories such as \"European-Style Pilsner\" at beer competitions such as the World Beer Cup. Pilsen style lagers are marketed internationally by numerous small brewers and larger conglomerates.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Styles.", "content": "A study utilizing blind taste-testing has found that several common mass-produced lagers have indistinguishable tastes to the average consumer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Non-alcoholic substitute.", "content": "In Iceland, due to the restriction of alcohol sales to government-owned liquor stores, a beverage is sold at grocery stores that is colloquially known as, and sometimes labelled, as \"pilsner\" but is a Low-alcohol beer, legally below the 2.5% allowed for sale outside of the government monopoly, restaurants, and bars.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pilsner (also pilsener or simply pils) is a type of pale lager. It takes its name from the Czech city of Pilsen, where it was first produced in 1842 by Bavarian brewer Josef Groll. The world's first blond lager, the original Pilsner Urquell, is still produced there today.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970979}
{"src_title": "Orthography", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and meaning.", "content": "The English word \"orthography\" dates from the 15th century. It comes from the French \"orthographie\", from Latin \"orthographia\", which derives from Greek ὀρθός \"orthós\", \"correct\", and γράφειν \"gráphein\", \"to write\".  Orthography is largely concerned with matters of spelling, and in particular the relationship between phonemes and graphemes in a language. Other elements that may be considered part of orthography include hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation. Orthography thus describes or defines the set of symbols used in writing a language, and the rules regarding how to use those symbols.  Most natural languages developed as oral languages, and writing systems have usually been crafted or adapted as ways of representing the spoken language. The rules for doing this tend to become standardized for a given language, leading to the development of an orthography that is generally considered \"correct\". In linguistics the term \"orthography\" is often used to refer to any method of writing a language, without judgment as to right and wrong, with a scientific understanding that orthographic standardization exists on a spectrum of strength of convention. The original sense of the word, though, implies a dichotomy of correct and incorrect, and the word is still most often used to refer specifically to a thoroughly standardized, prescriptively correct, way of writing a language. A distinction may be made here between \"etic\" and \"emic\" viewpoints: the purely descriptive (etic) approach, which simply considers any system that is actually used—and the emic view, which takes account of language users' perceptions of correctness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Units and notation.", "content": "Orthographic units, such as letters of an alphabet, are technically called graphemes. These are a type of abstraction, analogous to the phonemes of spoken languages; different physical forms of written symbols are considered to represent the same grapheme if the differences between them are not significant for meaning. For example, different forms of the letter \"b\" are all considered to represent a single grapheme in the orthography of, say, English. Graphemes or sequences of them are sometimes placed between angle brackets, as in or. This distinguishes them from phonemic transcription, which is placed between slashes (, ), and from phonetic transcription, which is placed between square brackets (, ).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "The writing systems on which orthographies are based can be divided into a number of types, depending on what type of unit each symbol serves to represent. The principal types are \"logographic\" (with symbols representing words or morphemes), \"syllabic\" (with symbols representing syllables), and \"alphabetic\" (with symbols roughly representing phonemes). Many writing systems combine features of more than one of these types, and a number of detailed classifications have been proposed. Japanese is an example of a writing system that can be written using a combination of logographic kanji characters and syllabic hiragana and katakana characters; as with many non-alphabetic languages, alphabetic romaji characters may also be used as needed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Correspondence with pronunciation.", "content": "Orthographies that use alphabets and syllabaries are based on the principle that the written symbols (graphemes) correspond to units of sound of the spoken language: phonemes in the former case, and syllables in the latter. However, in virtually all cases, this correspondence is not exact. Different languages' orthographies offer different degrees of correspondence between spelling and pronunciation. English orthography, French orthography and Danish orthography, for example, are highly irregular, whereas the orthographies of languages such as Russian, German and Spanish represent pronunciation much more faithfully, although the correspondence between letters and phonemes is still not exact. Finnish, Turkish and Serbo-Croatian orthographies are remarkably consistent: approximation of the principle \"one letter per sound\".  An orthography in which the correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are highly complex or inconsistent is called a \"deep orthography\" (or less formally, the language is said to have \"irregular spelling\"). An orthography with relatively simple and consistent correspondences is called \"shallow\" (and the language has \"regular spelling\").  One of the main reasons for which spelling and pronunciation deviate is that sound changes taking place in the spoken language are not always reflected in the orthography, and hence spellings correspond to historical rather than present-day pronunciation. One consequence of this is that many spellings come to reflect a word's morphophonemic structure rather than its purely phonemic structure (for example, the English regular past tense morpheme is consistently spelled \"-ed\" in spite of its different pronunciations in various words). This is discussed further at.  The syllabary systems of Japanese (hiragana and katakana) are examples of almost perfectly shallow orthographies—the kana correspond with almost perfect consistency to the spoken syllables, although with a few exceptions where symbols reflect historical or morphophonemic features: notably the use of ぢ \"ji\" and づ \"zu\" (rather than じ \"ji\" and ず \"zu\", their pronunciation in standard Tokyo dialect) when the character is a voicing of an underlying ち or つ (see rendaku), and the use of は, を, and へ to represent the sounds わ, お, and え, as relics of historical kana usage.  The Korean \"hangul\" system was also originally an extremely shallow orthography, but as a representation of the modern language it frequently also reflects morphophonemic features.  For full discussion of degrees of correspondence between spelling and pronunciation in alphabetic orthographies, including reasons why such correspondence may break down, see Phonemic orthography.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Defective orthographies.", "content": "An orthography based on the principle that symbols correspond to phonemes may, in some cases, lack characters to represent all the phonemes or all the phonemic distinctions in the language. This is called a defective orthography. An example in English is the lack of any indication of stress. Another is the digraph \"th\", which represents two different phonemes (as in \"then\" and \"thin\"). A more systematic example is that of abjads like the Arabic and Hebrew alphabets, in which the short vowels are normally left unwritten and must be inferred by the reader.  When an alphabet is borrowed from its original language for use with a new language—as has been done with the Latin alphabet for many languages, or Japanese Katakana for non-Japanese words—it often proves defective in representing the new language's phonemes. Sometimes this problem is addressed by the use of such devices as digraphs (such as \"sh\" and \"ch\" in English, where pairs of letters represent single sounds), diacritics (like the caron on the letters \"š\" and \"č\", which represent those same sounds in Czech), or the addition of completely new symbols (as some languages have introduced the letter \"w\" to the Latin alphabet) or of symbols from another alphabet, such as the rune \"þ\" in Icelandic.  After the classical period, Greek developed a lowercase letter system that introduced diacritic marks to enable foreigners to learn pronunciation and in some cases, grammatical features. However, as pronunciation of letters changed over time, the diacritic marks were reduced to representing the stressed syllable. In Modern Greek typesetting, this system has been simplified to only have a single accent to indicate which syllable is stressed.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "An orthography is a set of conventions for writing a language. It includes norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970980}
{"src_title": "Rosemary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Rosemary is an aromatic evergreen shrub with leaves similar to hemlock needles. It is native to the Mediterranean and Asia, but is reasonably hardy in cool climates. It can withstand droughts, surviving a severe lack of water for lengthy periods. In some parts of the world, it is considered a potentially invasive species. The seeds are often difficult to start, with a low germination rate and relatively slow growth, but the plant can live as long as 30 years.  Forms range from upright to trailing; the upright forms can reach tall, rarely. The leaves are evergreen, long and 2–5 mm broad, green above, and white below, with dense, short, woolly hair.  The plant flowers in spring and summer in temperate climates, but the plants can be in constant bloom in warm climates; flowers are white, pink, purple or deep blue. Rosemary also has a tendency to flower outside its normal flowering season; it has been known to flower as late as early December, and as early as mid-February (in the northern hemisphere).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Salvia rosmarinus\" is now considered one of many hundreds of species in the genus \"Salvia\". Formerly it was placed in a much smaller genus, \"Rosmarinus\", which contained only two to four species including \"R. officinalis\", which is now considered a synonym of \"S. rosmarinus\". The other species most often recognized is the closely related, \"Salvia jordanii\" (formerly \"Rosmarinus eriocalyx\"), of the Maghreb of Africa and Iberia.  The name of \"ros marinus\" is the plant's ancient name in classical Latin. Elizabeth Kent noted in her \"Flora Domestica\" (1823), \"The botanical name of this plant is compounded of two Latin words, signifying Sea-dew; and indeed Rosemary thrives best by the sea.\" Both the original and current genus names of the species were applied by the 18th-century naturalist and founding taxonomist Carl Linnaeus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first mention of rosemary is found on cuneiform stone tablets as early as 5000 BC. After that not much is known, except that Egyptians used it in their burial rituals. There is no further mention of rosemary until the ancient Greeks and Romans. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) wrote about it in \"The Natural History\", as did Pedanius Dioscorides (c. 40 to c. 90), a Greek botanist (amongst other things). He talked about rosemary in his most famous writing, \"De Materia Medica\", one of the most influential herbal books in history.  The herb then made its way east to China and was naturalized there as early as 220 AD, during the late Han Dynasty.  Rosemary came to England at an unknown date; the Romans probably brought it when they invaded in the first century, but there are no viable records about rosemary arriving in Britain until the 8th century. This was credited to Charlemagne, who promoted herbs in general, and ordered rosemary to be grown in monastic gardens and farms.  Furthermore, there are also no records of rosemary being properly naturalized in Britain until 1338, when cuttings were sent by The Countess of Hainault, Jeanne of Valois (1294–1342) to Queen Phillippa (1311–1369), wife of Edward III. It included a letter that described the virtues of rosemary and other herbs that accompanied the gift. The original manuscript can be found in the British Museum. The gift was then planted in the garden of the old palace of Westminster. After this, rosemary is found in most English herbal texts, and is widely used for medicinal and culinary purposes.  Rosemary finally arrived in the Americas with early European settlers in the beginning of the 17th century. It soon was spread to South America and global distribution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "Upon cultivation, the leaves, twigs, and flowering apices are extracted for use. Rosemary is used as a decorative plant in gardens where it may have pest control effects. The leaves are used to flavor various foods, such as stuffing and roast meats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Since it is attractive and drought-tolerant, rosemary is used as an ornamental plant in gardens and for xeriscape landscaping, especially in regions of Mediterranean climate. It is considered easy to grow and pest-resistant. Rosemary can grow quite large and retain attractiveness for many years, can be pruned into formal shapes and low hedges, and has been used for topiary. It is easily grown in pots. The groundcover cultivars spread widely, with a dense and durable texture.  Rosemary grows on loam soil with good drainage in an open, sunny position. It will not withstand waterlogging and some varieties are susceptible to frost. It grows best in neutral to alkaline conditions (pH 7–7.8) with average fertility. It can be propagated from an existing plant by clipping a shoot (from a soft new growth) long, stripping a few leaves from the bottom, and planting it directly into soil.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "Numerous cultivars have been selected for garden use.  The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Culinary use.", "content": "Rosemary leaves are used as a flavoring in foods, such as stuffing and roast lamb, pork, chicken, and turkey. Fresh or dried leaves are used in traditional Mediterranean cuisine. They have a bitter, astringent taste and a characteristic aroma which complements many cooked foods. Herbal tea can be made from the leaves. When roasted with meats or vegetables, the leaves impart a mustard-like aroma with an additional fragrance of charred wood that goes well with barbecued foods.  In amounts typically used to flavor foods, such as one teaspoon (1 gram), rosemary provides no nutritional value. Rosemary extract has been shown to improve the shelf life and heat stability of omega 3–rich oils which are prone to rancidity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fragrance.", "content": "Rosemary oil is used for purposes of fragrant bodily perfumes or to emit an aroma into a room. It is also burnt as incense, and used in shampoos and cleaning products.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phytochemicals.", "content": "Rosemary contains a number of phytochemicals, including rosmarinic acid, camphor, caffeic acid, ursolic acid, betulinic acid, carnosic acid, and carnosol. Rosemary essential oil contains 10–20% camphor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Folklore and customs.", "content": "The plant or its oil have been used in folk medicine in the belief it may have medicinal effects, although there is little scientific evidence it has such properties. Rosemary was considered sacred to ancient Egyptians, Romans, and Greeks. In \"Don Quixote\" (Part One, Chapter XVII), the fictional hero uses rosemary in his recipe for balm of fierabras.  The plant has been used as a symbol for remembrance during war commemorations and funerals in Europe and Australia. Mourners would throw it into graves as a symbol of remembrance for the dead. In Australia, sprigs of rosemary are worn on ANZAC Day and sometimes Remembrance Day to signify remembrance; the herb grows wild on the Gallipoli Peninsula, where many Australians died during World War I.  In Shakespeare's \"Hamlet\", Ophelia says, \"There's rosemary, that's for remembrance. Pray you, love, remember.\" It can also be found in Shakespeare's \"Winter's Tale\" in Act 4 Scene 4, where Perdita talks about \"Rosemary and Rue\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Salvia rosmarinus, commonly known as rosemary, is a woody, perennial herb with fragrant, evergreen, needle-like leaves and white, pink, purple, or blue flowers, native to the Mediterranean region. Until 2017, it was known by the scientific name Rosmarinus officinalis, now a synonym.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970981}
{"src_title": "Risotto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Rice has been grown in southern Italy since the 14th century, and its cultivation eventually reached Milan in the north. While, according to a legend, a young glassblower's apprentice from Flanders, who used to use saffron as a pigment, added it to a rice dish at a wedding feast, the first recipe identifiable as risotto dates from 1809. It includes rice sautéed in butter, sausages, bone marrow, onions with hot broth with saffron gradually added. There is a recipe for a dish named as a risotto in the 1854 \"Trattato di cucina\" ('Treatise on Cooking') by Giovanni Vialardi, assistant chief chef to kings. However, the question of who invented the risotto in Milan remains unanswered today.  The rice varieties now associated with risotto were developed in the 20th century, starting with Maratelli in 1914.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rice varieties.", "content": "A high-starch (amylopectin), low-amylose round medium- or short- grain white rice is usually used for making risotto. Such rices have the ability to absorb liquids and to release starch and so they are stickier than the long grain varieties. The principal varieties used in Italy are Arborio, Baldo, Carnaroli, Maratelli, Padano, Roma, and Vialone Nano. Carnaroli, Maratelli (historical Italian variety) and Vialone Nano are considered to be the best (and most expensive) varieties, with different users preferring one over another. They have slightly different properties. For example, Carnaroli is less likely than Vialone Nano to get overcooked, but the latter, being smaller, cooks faster and absorbs condiments better. Other varieties such as Baldo, Originario, Ribe and Roma may be used but will not have the creaminess of the traditional dish; these varieties are considered better for soups and other non-risotto rice dishes, and sweet rice desserts. Rice designations of superfino, semifino and fino refer to the size and shape (specifically the length and the narrowness) of the grains, and not the quality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Basic preparation.", "content": "There are many different risotto recipes with different ingredients, but they are all based on rice of an appropriate variety, cooked in a standard procedure. Risotto, unlike other rice dishes, requires constant care and attention. The rice is not to be pre-rinsed, boiled, or drained, as washing would remove much of the starch required for a creamy texture.  The rice is first cooked briefly in a \"soffritto\" of onion and butter or olive oil, to coat each grain in a film of fat, called \"tostatura\"; white wine is added and must be absorbed by the grains. When it has been absorbed the heat is raised to medium high, and boiling stock is gradually added in small amounts, while stirring constantly. The constant stirring, with only a small amount of liquid present, forces the grains to rub against each other and release the starch from the outside of the grains into the surrounding liquid, creating a smooth creamy-textured mass. When the rice is cooked the pot is taken off the heat for \"mantecatura\", vigorously beating in refrigerated balls of grated parmesan cheese and butter, to make the texture as creamy and smooth as possible. It may be removed from the heat a few minutes earlier and left to cook with its residual heat.  Properly cooked risotto is rich and creamy even if no cream is added, due to the starch in the grains. It has some resistance or bite (\"al dente\") and separate grains. The traditional texture is fairly fluid, or \"all'onda\" (\"wavy, or flowing in waves\"). It is served on flat dishes and should easily spread out but not have excess watery liquid around the perimeter. It must be eaten at once, as it continues to cook in its own heat, making the grains absorb all the liquid and become soft and dry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Italian regional variations.", "content": "Many variations have their own names:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Risotto (,, from meaning \"rice\") is a northern Italian rice dish cooked with broth until it reaches a creamy consistency. The broth can be derived from meat, fish, or vegetables. Many types of risotto contain butter, onion, white wine, and parmesan cheese. It is one of the most common ways of cooking rice in Italy. Saffron was originally used for flavour and its signature yellow colour.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970982}
{"src_title": "Rosaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The Rosaceae have a cosmopolitan distribution (found nearly everywhere except for Antarctica), but are primarily concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere in regions that are not desert or tropical rainforest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical taxonomy.", "content": "The family was traditionally divided into six subfamilies: Rosoideae, Spiraeoideae, Maloideae (Pomoideae), Amygdaloideae (Prunoideae), Neuradoideae, and Chrysobalanoideae, and most of these were treated as families by various authors. More recently (1971), Chrysobalanoideae was placed in Malpighiales in molecular analyses and Neuradoideae has been assigned to Malvales. Schulze-Menz, in Engler's Syllabus edited by Melchior (1964) recognized Rosoideae, Dryadoideae, Lyonothamnoideae, Spireoideae, Amygdaloideae, and Maloideae. They were primarily diagnosed by the structure of the fruits. More recent work has identified that not all of these groups were monophyletic. Hutchinson (1964) and Kalkman (2004) recognized only tribes (17 and 21, respectively). Takhtajan (1997) delimited 21 tribes in 10 subfamilies: Filipenduloideae, Rosoideae, Ruboideae, Potentilloideae, Coleogynoideae, Kerroideae, Amygdaloideae (Prunoideae), Spireoideae, Maloideae (Pyroideae), Dichotomanthoideae. A more modern model comprises three subfamilies, one of which (Rosoideae) has largely remained the same.  While the boundaries of the Rosaceae are not disputed, there is not general agreement as to how many genera it contains. Areas of divergent opinion include the treatment of \"Potentilla s.l.\" and \"Sorbus s.l.\". Compounding the problem is that apomixis is common in several genera. This results in an uncertainty in the number of species contained in each of these genera, due to the difficulty of dividing apomictic complexes into species. For example, \"Cotoneaster\" contains between 70 and 300 species, \"Rosa\" around 100 (including the taxonomically complex dog roses), \"Sorbus\" 100 to 200 species, \"Crataegus\" between 200 and 1,000, \"Alchemilla\" around 300 species, \"Potentilla\" roughly 500, and \"Rubus\" hundreds, or possibly even thousands of species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "The phylogenetic relationships between the three subfamilies within Rosaceae are unresolved. There are three competing hypotheses:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amygdaloideae basal.", "content": "Amygdaloideae has been identified as the earliest branching subfamily by Chin \"et al\". (2014), Li \"et al\". (2015), Li \"et al\". (2016), and Sun \"et al\". (2016). Most recently Zhang \"et al\". (2017) recovered these relationships using whole plastid genomes:  The sister relationship between Dryadoideae and Rosoideae is supported by the following shared morphological characters not found in Amygdaloideae: presence of stipules, separation of the hypanthium from the ovary, and the fruits are usually achenes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dryadoideae basal.", "content": "Dryadoideae has been identified as the earliest branching subfamily by Evans \"et al\". (2002) and Potter (2003). Most recently Xiang \"et al\". (2017) recovered these relationships using nuclear transcriptomes:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rosoideae basal.", "content": "Rosoideae has been identified as the earliest branching subfamily by Morgan \"et al\". (1994), Evans (1999), Potter \"et al\". (2002), Potter \"et al\". (2007), Töpel \"et al\". (2012), and Chen \"et al\". (2016). The following is taken from Potter \"et al\". (2007):  The sister relationship between Amygdaloideae and Dryadoideae is supported by the following shared biochemical characters not found in Rosoideae: production of cyanogenic glycosides and production of sorbitol.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Rosaceae can be trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants. The herbs are mostly perennials, but some annuals also exist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaves.", "content": "The leaves are generally arranged spirally, but have an opposite arrangement in some species. They can be simple or pinnately compound (either odd- or even-pinnate). Compound leaves appear in around 30 genera. The leaf margin is most often serrate. Paired stipules are generally present, and are a primitive feature within the family, independently lost in many groups of Amygdaloideae (previously called Spiraeoideae). The stipules are sometimes adnate (attached surface to surface) to the petiole. Glands or extrafloral nectaries may be present on leaf margins or petioles. Spines may be present on the midrib of leaflets and the rachis of compound leaves.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "Flowers of plants in the rose family are generally described as \"showy\". They are actinomorphic (i.e. radially symmetrical) and almost always hermaphroditic. Rosaceae generally have five sepals, five petals, and many spirally arranged stamens. The bases of the sepals, petals, and stamens are fused together to form a characteristic cup-like structure called a hypanthium. They can be arranged in racemes, spikes, or heads; solitary flowers are rare.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fruits and seeds.", "content": "The fruits occur in many varieties and were once considered the main characters for the definition of subfamilies amongst Rosaceae, giving rise to a fundamentally artificial subdivision. They can be follicles, capsules, nuts, achenes, drupes (\"Prunus\"), and accessory fruits, like the pome of an apple, or the hip of a rose. Many fruits of the family are edible, but their seeds often contain amygdalin, which can release cyanide during digestion if the seed is damaged.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genera.", "content": "Identified clades include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic importance.", "content": "The rose family is arguably one of the six most economically important crop plant families, and includes apples, pears, quinces, medlars, loquats, almonds, peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, sloes, and roses among the crop plants belonging to the family.  Many genera are also highly valued ornamental plants. These include trees and shrubs (\"Cotoneaster\", \"Chaenomeles\", \"Crataegus\", \"Dasiphora\", \"Exochorda\", \"Kerria\", \"Photinia\", \"Physocarpus\", \"Prunus\", \"Pyracantha\", \"Rhodotypos\", \"Rosa\", \"Sorbus\", \"Spiraea\"), herbaceous perennials (\"Alchemilla\", \"Aruncus\", \"Filipendula\", \"Geum\", \"Potentilla\", \"Sanguisorba\"), alpine plants (\"Dryas\", \"Geum\", \"Potentilla\") and climbers (\"Rosa\").  However, several genera are also introduced noxious weeds in some parts of the world, costing money to be controlled. These invasive plants can have negative impacts on the diversity of local ecosystems once established. Such naturalised pests include \"Acaena\", \"Cotoneaster\", \"Crataegus\", \"Pyracantha\", and \"Rosa\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "The family Rosaceae covers a wide range of trees, bushes and plants.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rosaceae, the rose family, is a medium-sized family of flowering plants, including 4,828 known species in 91 genera. The name is derived from the type genus \"Rosa\". Among the most species-rich genera are \"Alchemilla\" (270), \"Sorbus\" (260), \"Crataegus\" (260), \"Cotoneaster\" (260), \"Rubus\" (250), and \"Prunus\" (plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, and almonds) with about 200 species. However, all of these numbers should be seen as estimates – much taxonomic work remains.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970983}
{"src_title": "Sorbus domestica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ecology.", "content": "It is generally rare, listed as an endangered species in Switzerland and Austria, and uncommon in Spain. In the UK, one very old tree that existed in the Wyre Forest before being destroyed by fire in 1862 used to be considered native, but it is now generally considered to be more likely of cultivated origin, probably from a mediaeval monastery orchard planting. More recently, a small population of genuinely wild specimens was found growing as stunted shrubs on cliffs in south Wales (Glamorgan) and nearby southwest England (Gloucestershire). It is a very rare species in Britain, occurring at only a handful of sites. Its largest English population is within the Horseshoe Bend Site of Special Scientific Interest at Shirehampton, near Bristol.  A further population has been discovered growing wild in Cornwall on a cliff in the upper Camel Estuary.  It is a long-lived tree, with ages of 300–400 years estimated for some in Britain.  The largest and perhaps one of the oldest known specimens in Europe is on an educational trail near the town of Strážnice in the province of Moravia, Czech Republic. Its trunk measures in circumference, with a crown high and across. It is estimated to be around 450 years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "The fruit is a component of a cider-like drink which is still made in parts of Europe. Picked straight off the tree, it is highly astringent and gritty; however, when left to blet (overripen) it sweetens and becomes pleasant to eat. In the Moravian Slovakia region of the Czech Republic, there is a community run museum with an educational trail and festival for this tree, with products like jam, juice and brandy made from its fruit.  The sorb tree is cited in the Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Ketubot page 79a. The example refers to a purchase of Abba Zardasa, in a translation by Rashi, an early Medieval scholar, as a forest of trees called Zardasa, that was used for lumber, because the fruit was not commercially important. The Aramaic word 'zardasa' may be the origin of the English word'sorb'.  In Ancient Greece the fruit was cut in half and pickled, which Plato in the Symposium (190d7-8) lets Aristophanes use as a metaphor for the cutting in half of the original spherical humans by Zeus.  Service Tree wood was often used for manufacturing wooden planes of all types used for working wood, because Service Tree wood is fairly dense and holds a profile well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology and other names.", "content": "The English name comes from Middle English \"serves\", plural of \"serve\", from Old English \"syrfe\", borrowed from the Latin name \"sorbus\"; it is unrelated to the verb \"serve\". Other English names include sorb, sorb tree, and whitty pear—\"whitty\" because the leaves are similar to rowan (i.e. pinnate), and \"pear\" due to the nature of the fruit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sorbus domestica, with the common name service tree or sorb tree (because of its fruit), is a species of \"Sorbus\" native to western, central and southern Europe, northwest Africa (Atlas Mountains), and southwest Asia (east to the Caucasus). It may be called true service tree, to distinguish it from wild service tree \"Sorbus torminalis\". It is a deciduous tree growing to 15–20 m (rarely to 30 m) tall with a trunk up to 1 m diameter, though it can also be a shrub 2–3 m tall on exposed sites. The bark is brown, smooth on young trees, becoming fissured and flaky on old trees. The winter buds are green, with a sticky resinous coating. The leaves are 15–25 cm long, pinnate with 13-21 leaflets 3–6 cm long and 1 cm broad, with a bluntly acute apex, and a serrated margin on the outer half or two thirds of the leaflet. The flowers are 13–18 mm diameter, with five white petals and 20 creamy-white stamens; they are produced in corymbs 10–14 cm diameter in late spring, and are hermaphrodite and insect pollinated. The fruit is a pome 2–3 cm long, greenish-brown, often tinged red on the side exposed to sunlight; it can be either apple-shaped (f. \"pomifera\" (Hayne) Rehder) or pear-shaped (f. \"pyrifera\" (Hayne) Rehder).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970984}
{"src_title": "Salix alba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ecology.", "content": "White willows are fast-growing, but relatively short-lived, being susceptible to several diseases, including watermark disease caused by the bacterium \"Brenneria salicis\" (named because of the characteristic 'watermark' staining in the wood; syn. \"Erwinia salicis\") and willow anthracnose, caused by the fungus \"Marssonina salicicola\". These diseases can be a serious problem on trees grown for timber or ornament.  It readily forms natural hybrids with crack willow \"Salix fragilis\", the hybrid being named \"Salix \"×\" rubens\" Schrank.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties, cultivars and hybrids.", "content": "A number of cultivars and hybrids have been selected for forestry and horticultural use:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The wood is tough, strong, and light in weight, but has minimal resistance to decay. The stems (withies) from coppiced and pollarded plants are used for basket-making. Charcoal made from the wood was important for gunpowder manufacture. The bark tannin was used in the past for tanning leather. The wood is used to make cricket bats. \"S. alba\" wood has a low density and a lower transverse compressive strength. This allows the wood to bend, which is why it can be used to make baskets. Willow bark contains indole-3-butyric acid, which is a plant hormone stimulating root growth; willow trimmings are sometimes used to clone rootstock in place of commercially synthesized root stimulator. It is also used for ritual purposes by Jews on the holiday of Sukkot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medicinal uses.", "content": "Hippocrates, Galen, Pliny the Elder and others believed willow bark could ease aches and pains and reduce fevers. It has long been used in Europe and China for the attempted treatment of these conditions. This remedy is also mentioned in texts from ancient Egypt, Sumer, and Assyria. The first \"clinical trial\" was reported by Reverend Edward Stone, a vicar from Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire, England, in 1763 with a successful treatment of malarial fever with the willow bark. The bark is often macerated in ethanol to produce a tincture.  The active extract of the bark, called salicin, after the Latin name \"Salix\", was isolated to its crystalline form in 1828 by Henri Leroux, a French pharmacist, and Raffaele Piria, an Italian chemist, who then succeeded in separating out the acid in its pure state. Salicylic acid, like aspirin, is a chemical derivative of salicin.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Salix alba, the white willow, is a species of willow native to Europe and western and central Asia. The name derives from the white tone to the undersides of the leaves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970985}
{"src_title": "Chives", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Chives are a bulb-forming herbaceous perennial plant, growing to tall. The bulbs are slender, conical, long and broad, and grow in dense clusters from the roots. The scapes (or stems) are hollow and tubular, up to long and across, with a soft texture, although, prior to the emergence of a flower, they may appear stiffer than usual. The grass-like leaves, which are shorter than the scapes, are also hollow and tubular, or terete, (round in cross-section) which distinguishes it at a glance from garlic chives (\"Allium tuberosum\"). The flowers are pale purple, and star-shaped with six petals, wide, and produced in a dense inflorescence of 10-30 together; before opening, the inflorescence is surrounded by a papery bract. The seeds are produced in a small, three-valved capsule, maturing in summer. The herb flowers from April to May in the southern parts of its habitat zones and in June in the northern parts.  Chives are the only species of \"Allium\" native to both the New and the Old Worlds. Sometimes, the plants found in North America are classified as \"A. schoenoprasum\" var. \"sibiricum\", although this is disputed. Differences between specimens are significant. One example was found in northern Maine growing solitary, instead of in clumps, also exhibiting dingy grey flowers.  Although chives are repulsive to insects in general, due to their sulfur compounds, their flowers attract bees, and they are at times kept to increase desired insect life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "It was formally described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in his seminal publication \"Species Plantarum\" in 1753.  The name of the species derives from the Greek σχοίνος, \"skhoínos\" (sedge or rush) and πράσον, \"práson\" (leek). Its English name, chives, derives from the French word \"cive\", from \"cepa\", the Latin word for onion. In the Middle Ages, it was known as 'rush leek'.  It has two known subspecies; \"Allium schoenoprasum\" subsp. \"gredense\" and \"Allium schoenoprasum\" subsp. \"latiorifolium\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Chives are native to temperate areas of Europe, Asia and North America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "It is found in Asia within the Caucasus (in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia), also in China, Iran, Iraq, Japan (within the provinces of Hokkaido and Honshu), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russian Federation (within the provinces of Kamchatka, Khabarovsk, and Primorye) Siberia and Turkey.  In middle Europe, it is found within Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland and Switzerland. In northern Europe, in Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. In southeastern Europe, within Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Romania. It is also found in southwestern Europe, in France, Portugal and Spain.  In North America, it is found in Canada (within the provinces and territories of Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territories, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nunavut, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan and Yukon), and the United States (within the states of Alaska, Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary arts.", "content": "Chives are grown for their scapes and leaves, which are used for culinary purposes as a flavoring herb, and provide a somewhat milder onion-like flavor than those of other \"Allium\" species.  Chives have a wide variety of culinary uses, such as in traditional dishes in France, Sweden, and elsewhere. In his 1806 book \"Attempt at a Flora\" (\"Försök til en flora\"), Retzius describes how chives are used with pancakes, soups, fish, and sandwiches. They are also an ingredient of the \"gräddfil\" sauce with the traditional herring dish served at Swedish midsummer celebrations. The flowers may also be used to garnish dishes. In Poland and Germany, chives are served with quark. Chives are one of the \"fines herbes\" of French cuisine, the others being tarragon, chervil and parsley. Chives can be found fresh at most markets year-round, making them readily available; they can also be dry-frozen without much impairment to the taste, giving home growers the opportunity to store large quantities harvested from their own gardens.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses in plant cultivation.", "content": "Retzius also describes how farmers would plant chives between the rocks making up the borders of their flowerbeds, to keep the plants free from pests (such as Japanese beetles). The growing plant repels unwanted insect life, and the juice of the leaves can be used for the same purpose, as well as fighting fungal infections, mildew, and scab.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Chives are cultivated both for their culinary uses and their ornamental value; the violet flowers are often used in ornamental dry bouquets. The flowers are also edible and are used in salads, or used to make Blossom vinegars.  Chives thrive in well-drained soil, rich in organic matter, with a pH of 6-7 and full sun. They can be grown from seed and mature in summer, or early the following spring. Typically, chives need to be germinated at a temperature of 15 to 20 °C (60-70 °F) and kept moist. They can also be planted under a cloche or germinated indoors in cooler climates, then planted out later. After at least four weeks, the young shoots should be ready to be planted out. They are also easily propagated by division.  In cold regions, chives die back to the underground bulbs in winter, with the new leaves appearing in early spring. Chives starting to look old can be cut back to about 2–5 cm. When harvesting, the needed number of stalks should be cut to the base. During the growing season, the plant continually regrows leaves, allowing for a continuous harvest.  Chives are susceptible to damage by leek moth larvae, which bore into the leaves or bulbs of the plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History and cultural importance.", "content": "Chives have been cultivated in Europe since the Middle Ages (fifth until the 15th centuries), although their usage dates back 5000 years. They were sometimes referred to as \"rush leeks\".  It was mentioned in 80 A.D. by Marcus Valerius Martialis in his \"Epigrams\". The Romans believed chives could relieve the pain from sunburn or a sore throat. They believed eating chives could increase blood pressure and act as a diuretic.  Romani have used chives in fortune telling. Bunches of dried chives hung around a house were believed to ward off disease and evil.  In the 19th century, Dutch farmers fed cattle on the herb to give a different taste to milk.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chives, scientific name Allium schoenoprasum, is a species of flowering plant in the family Amaryllidaceae that produces edible leaves and flowers. Their close relatives include the common onions, garlic, shallot, leek, scallion, and Chinese onion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970986}
{"src_title": "Salix caprea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a deciduous shrub or small tree, reaching a height of, rarely to 13 m.  The leaves are 3–12 cm long and from 2–8 cm wide, broader than most other willows.  The flowers are soft silky, and silvery 3-7-cm-long catkins are produced in early spring before the new leaves appear; the male and female catkins are on different plants (dioecious). The male catkins mature yellow at pollen release, the female catkins mature pale green.  The fruit is a small capsule 5–10 mm long containing numerous minute seeds embedded in fine, cottony hairs. The seeds are very small (about 0.2 mm) with the fine hairs aiding dispersal; they require bare soil to germinate.  The two varieties are:  The scientific name, and the common name goat willow, probably derive from the first known illustration of the species in Hieronymus Bock's 1546 \"Herbal\", where the plant is shown being browsed by a goat. The species was historically also widely used as a browse for goats, to which Bock's illustration may refer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"S. caprea\" occurs both in wet/damp environments, such as riverbanks and lake shores, and in drier sites, wherever bare soil becomes available due to ground disturbance.  Hybrids with several other willow species are common, notably with \"Salix cinerea\" (\"S. × reichardtii\"), \"Salix aurita\" (\"S. × multinervis\"), \"Salix viminalis\" (\"S. × smithiana\"), and \"Salix purpurea\" (\"S. × sordida\"). Populations of \"S. caprea\" often show hybrid introgression.  Unlike almost all other willows, pure specimens do not take root readily from cuttings; if a willow resembling the species does root easily, it is probably a hybrid with another species of willow.  The leaves are used as a food resource by several species of Lepidoptera, and are also commonly eaten by browsing mammals. Willows are very susceptible to gall inducers, and the midge \"Rhabdophaga rosaria\" forms the camellia gall on \"S. caprea\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "A small number of cultivars have been selected for garden use. The most common is \"S. caprea\" 'Kilmarnock', discovered by James Smith, with stiffly pendulous shoots forming a mop-head; it is a male clone. A similar female clone is \"S. caprea\" 'Weeping Sally'. As they do not form a leader, they are grafted on erect stems of other willows; the height of these cultivars is determined by the height at which the graft is made. Plants can also be grown from greenwood cuttings, which make attractive creeping mounds. Hardwood cuttings are often difficult to root.  Both tannin and salicin can be extracted from goat willow bark. The tree is not considered a good source of timber, as its wood is both brittle and known to crackle violently if burned.  As with the closely related \"Salix discolor\" (American pussy willow), it is also often grown for cut flowers. See Pussy willow for further cultural information, which apply to both species.  In Scandinavia it has been fairly common to make willow flutes from goat willow cuttings.  In Germany, Hungary, north of Slovakia, Poland and Ukraine, the just opened catkins, are used like the olive branches on Palm Sunday.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salix caprea, known as goat willow, pussy willow or great sallow, is a common species of willow native to Europe and western and central Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970987}
{"src_title": "Chondrichthyes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Anatomy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Skeleton.", "content": "The skeleton is cartilaginous. The notochord is gradually replaced by a vertebral column during development, except in Holocephali, where the notochord stays intact. In some deepwater sharks, the column is reduced.  As they do not have bone marrow, red blood cells are produced in the spleen and the epigonal organ (special tissue around the gonads, which is also thought to play a role in the immune system). They are also produced in the Leydig's organ, which is only found in certain cartilaginous fishes. The subclass Holocephali, which is a very specialized group, lacks both the Leydig's and epigonal organs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Appendages.", "content": "Apart from electric rays, which have a thick and flabby body, with soft, loose skin, chondrichthyans have tough skin covered with dermal teeth (again, Holocephali is an exception, as the teeth are lost in adults, only kept on the clasping organ seen on the caudal ventral surface of the male), also called placoid scales (or \"dermal denticles\"), making it feel like sandpaper. In most species, all dermal denticles are oriented in one direction, making the skin feel very smooth if rubbed in one direction and very rough if rubbed in the other.  Originally, the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which do not contain any dermal elements, did not connect. In later forms, each pair of fins became ventrally connected in the middle when scapulocoracoid and puboischiadic bars evolved. In rays, the pectoral fins are connected to the head and are very flexible.  One of the primary characteristics present in most sharks is the heterocercal tail, which aids in locomotion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Body covering.", "content": "Chondrichthyans have toothlike scales called dermal denticles or placoid scales. Denticles usually provide protection, and in most cases, streamlining. Mucous glands exist in some species, as well.  It is assumed that their oral teeth evolved from dermal denticles that migrated into the mouth, but it could be the other way around, as the teleost bony fish \"Denticeps clupeoides\" has most of its head covered by dermal teeth (as does, probably, \"Atherion elymus\", another bony fish). This is most likely a secondary evolved characteristic, which means there is not necessarily a connection between the teeth and the original dermal scales.  The old placoderms did not have teeth at all, but had sharp bony plates in their mouth. Thus, it is unknown whether the dermal or oral teeth evolved first. It has even been suggested that the original bony plates of \"all\" vertebrates are now gone and that the present scales are just modified teeth, even if both the teeth and body armor had a common origin a long time ago. However, there is currently no evidence of this.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Respiratory system.", "content": "All chondrichthyans breathe through five to seven pairs of gills, depending on the species. In general, pelagic species must keep swimming to keep oxygenated water moving through their gills, whilst demersal species can actively pump water in through their spiracles and out through their gills. However, this is only a general rule and many species differ.  A spiracle is a small hole found behind each eye. These can be tiny and circular, such as found on the nurse shark (\"Ginglymostoma cirratum\"), to extended and slit-like, such as found on the wobbegongs (Orectolobidae). Many larger, pelagic species, such as the mackerel sharks (Lamnidae) and the thresher sharks (Alopiidae), no longer possess them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nervous system.", "content": "Chondrichthyes nervous system is composed of a small brain, 8-10 pairs of cranial nerves, and a spinal chord with spinal nerves. They have several sensory organs which provide information to be processed. Ampullae of Lorenzini are a network of small jelly filled pores called electroreceptors which help the fish sense electric fields in water. This aids in finding prey, navigation, and sensing temperature. The Lateral line system has modified epithelial cells located externally which sense motion, vibration, and pressure in the water around them. Most species have large well-developed eyes. Also, they have very powerful nostrils and olfactory organs. Their inner ears consist of 3 large semicircular canals which aid in balance and orientation. Their sound detecting apparatus has limited range and is typically more powerful at lower frequencies. Some species have electric organs which can be used for defense and predation. They have relatively simple brains with the forebrain not greatly enlarged. The structure and formation of myelin in their nervous systems are nearly identical to that of tetrapods, which has led evolutionary biologists to believe that Chondrichthyes were a cornerstone group in the evolutionary timeline of myelin development.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Immune system.", "content": "Like all other jawed vertebrates, members of Chondrichthyes have an adaptive immune system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Fertilization is internal. Development is usually live birth (ovoviviparous species) but can be through eggs (oviparous). Some rare species are viviparous. There is no parental care after birth; however, some chondrichthyans do guard their eggs.  Capture-induced premature birth and abortion (collectively called capture-induced parturition) occurs frequently in sharks/rays when fished. Capture-induced parturition is often mistaken for natural birth by recreational fishers and is rarely considered in commercial fisheries management despite being shown to occur in at least 12% of live bearing sharks and rays (88 species to date).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The class Chondrichthyes has two subclasses: the subclass Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays, skates, and sawfish) and the subclass Holocephali (chimaeras). To see the full list of the species, click here.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Cartilaginous fish are considered to have evolved from acanthodians. Originally assumed to be closely related to bony fish or a polyphyletic assemblage leading to both groups, the discovery of \"Entelognathus\" and several examinations of acanthodian characteristics indicate that bony fish evolved directly from placoderm like ancestors, while acanthodians represent a paraphyletic assemblage leading to Chondrichthyes. Some characteristics previously thought to be exclusive to acanthodians are also present in basal cartilaginous fish. In particular, new phylogenetic studies find cartilaginous fish to be well nested among acanthodians, with \"Doliodus\" and \"Tamiobatis\" being the closest relatives to Chondrichthyes. Recent studies vindicate this, as \"Doliodus\" had a mosaic of chondrichthyian and acanthodiian traits.  Dating back to the Middle and Late Ordovician Period, many isolated scales, made of dentine and bone, have a structure and growth form that is chondrichthyan-like. They may be the remains of stem-chondrichthyans, but their classification remains uncertain.  The earliest unequivocal fossils of cartilaginous fishes first appeared in the fossil record by about 430 million years ago, during the middle Wenlock Epoch of the Silurian period. The radiation of elasmobranches in the chart on the right is divided into the taxa: \"Cladoselache\", Eugeneodontiformes, Symmoriida, Xenacanthiformes, Ctenacanthiformes, Hybodontiformes, Galeomorphi, Squaliformes and Batoidea.  By the start of the Early Devonian, 419 million years ago, jawed fishes had divided into three distinct groups: the now extinct placoderms (a paraphyletic assemblage of ancient armoured fishes), the bony fishes, and the clade that includes spiny sharks and early cartilaginous fish. The modern bony fishes, class Osteichthyes, appeared in the late Silurian or early Devonian, about 416 million years ago. The first abundant genus of shark, \"Cladoselache\", appeared in the oceans during the Devonian Period. The first Cartilaginous fishes evolved from \"Doliodus\"-like spiny shark ancestors.  A Bayesian analysis of molecular data suggests that the Holocephali and Elasmoblanchii diverged in the Silurian () and that the sharks and rays/skates split in the Carboniferous ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Subphylum Vertebrata", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chondrichthyes (; from Greek χονδρ- \"chondr-\" 'cartilage', ἰχθύς \"ichthys\" 'fish') is a class that contains the cartilaginous fishes: they are jawed vertebrates with paired fins, paired nares, scales, a heart with its chambers in series, and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. The class is divided into two subclasses: Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays, skates, and sawfish) and Holocephali (chimaeras, sometimes called ghost sharks, which are sometimes separated into their own class).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970988}
{"src_title": "Wuppertal Schwebebahn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Wuppertaler Schwebebahn had a forerunner: in 1824, Henry Robinson Palmer of Britain presented a railway system which differed from all previous constructions. It was a low single-rail suspension railway on which the carriages were drawn by horses. Friedrich Harkort, a Prussian industrial entrepreneur and politician, loved the idea. He saw big advantages for the transportation of coal to the early industrialised region in and around the Wupper valley. Harkort had his own steel mill in Elberfeld; he built a demonstration segment of the Palmer system and set it up in 1826 on the grounds of what is today the Wuppertal tax office. He tried to attract public attention to his railway plans.  On 9 September 1826, the town councillors of Elberfeld met to discuss the use of a \"Palmer's Railway\" from the Ruhr region, Hinsbeck or Langenberg, to the Wupper valley, Elberfeld, connecting Harkort's factories. Friedrich Harkort inspected the projected route with a surveyor and a member of the town council. The plans never went ahead because of protests from the transport branch and owners of mills that were not on the routes.  In 1887 the cities of Elberfeld and Barmen formed a commission for the construction of an elevated railway or '. In 1894 they chose the system of the engineer Eugen Langen of Cologne, and in 1896 the order was licensed by the City of Düsseldorf. In 2003, the Rhine Heritage Office (' or LVR) announced the discovery of an original section of the test route of the Schwebebahn.  Construction on the actual Schwebebahn began in 1898, overseen by the government's master builder, Wilhelm Feldmann. On 24 October 1900, Emperor Wilhelm II participated in a monorail trial run.  In 1901 the railway came into operation. It opened in sections: the line from Kluse to Zoo/Stadion opened on 1 March, the line to the western terminus at Vohwinkel opened on 24 May, while the line to the eastern terminus at Oberbarmen did not open until 27 June 1903. Around of steel were used to produce the supporting frame and the stations. The construction cost 16 million gold marks. The railway was closed owing to severe damage during World War II, but reopened as early as 1946.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modernization.", "content": "The Schwebebahn nowadays carries approximately 80,000 passengers through the city per weekday. Since 1997, the supporting frame has been largely modernized, and many stations have been reconstructed and brought up to date technically. Kluse station, at the theatre in Elberfeld, had been destroyed during the Second World War. This was also reconstructed during the modernization-phase. Work was planned to be completed in 2001; however a serious accident took place in 1999 which left five people dead and 47 injured. This, along with delivery problems, delayed completion. By 2004, the cost of the reconstruction work had increased from €380 million to €480 million.  On 15 December 2009, the Schwebebahn suspended its operations for safety concerns; several of the older support structures needed to be renewed, a process that was completed on 19 April 2010.  In 2012, the Schwebebahn was closed for significant periods to upgrade the line. The closing times were 7 to 21 July, 6 August to 22 October and weekends in September (15/16) and November (10/11). The modernization was completed and the line fully reopened on 19 August 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post 2015 trains replacement.", "content": "On 10 November 2011, \"\" signed a contract with Vossloh Kiepe to supply a new fleet of Generation 15 or GTW 15 trains to gradually replace the ageing GTW 72 fleet. The 31 new articulated cars were assembled by Vossloh España in Valencia, Spain, featuring a light blue livery and having cushioned seating, air conditioning, information displays, LED lights, improved disabled access and induction motors with energy recovery during braking. The first new train was commissioned by WSW in 2015 and entered regular passenger service on 18 December 2016, at which point the line's power supply voltage was raised from 600 to 750 V.  The GTW 72 stock was gradually withdrawn from service as the new trains were introduced, the last of which operated immediately prior to the line's shutdown in November 2018. WSW announced it would not scrap any of the GTW 72 stock, but instead offer 21 of the vehicles for sale and three for free, as long as they remained in the city of Wuppertal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Technology.", "content": "The cars are suspended from a single rail built underneath a supporting steel frame. The cars hang on wheels which are driven by multiple electric motors operating at 750 volts DC, fed from a live rail below the running rail.  Until August 2019, the Schwebebahn used block signalling like other light- and heavy rail systems. Signals with red, green and yellow lights, present at every station, signalled the driver if the next block, usually continuing until the next station, was free or not. The yellow aspect was mostly used to warn about construction work ahead, while a blinking red light warned about more severe problems.  Today, the Schwebebahn uses the European Train Control System, allowing for shorter distances between trains.  The supporting frame and tracks are made out of 486 pillars and bridgework sections. When the line was originally built, Anton Rieppel, head of MAN-Werk Gustavsburg, designed the structural system, which he patented. At each end of the line is a servicing depot, including a loop of track to allow the trains to be turned around.  The current fleet consists of 31 articulated cars. The cars are 24 metres long and have 4 doors. One carriage can seat 48 with approximately 130 standing passengers. The top speed is and the average speed is.  The \"\" (Emperor's car), the original train used by Emperor Wilhelm II during a test ride on 24 October 1900, is still operated on scheduled excursion services, special occasions and for charter events.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "The Schwebebahn is alluded to in Theodor Herzl's 1902 utopian novel \"\" (\"The Old New Land\"). For Herzl, the Schwebebahn was the ideal form of urban transport, and he imagined a large monorail built in its style in Haifa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "A sequence in Lyrical Nitrate, using film from between 1905 and 1915, features the Schwebebahn. Rüdiger Vogler and Yella Rottländer use images of the Schwebebahn in Wim Wenders's 1974 movie \"Alice in the Cities\" ('). It also appears in the 1992 Dutch movie \"The Sunday Child\" (\"De Zondagsjongen\") by Pieter Verhoeff, in Tom Tykwer's 2000 film \"The Princess and the Warrior\" (') and as a background and to a number of outdoor dance choreographies in another Wim Wenders film – 2011's \"Pina\", and some dances are set inside the cars.  The Schwebebahn is both subject and title of video work by the Turner Prize-nominated artist Darren Almond. Produced in 1995, Schwebebahn is the first of three videos that constitute his Train Trilogy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other fiction.", "content": "Some of the events in, a Belgian in the \"Yoko Tsuno\" series, take place in the \"\".  The denouement of the episode of the 1972 ITC TV series \"The Adventurer\" called \"I'll Get There Sometime\" takes place on the railway.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Wuppertaler Schwebebahn (\"Wuppertal Suspension Railway\") is a suspension railway in Wuppertal, Germany. Its full name is \"Anlage einer elektrischen Hochbahn (Schwebebahn), System Eugen Langen\" (\"Electric Elevated Railway (Suspension Railway) Installation, Eugen Langen System\"). It is the oldest electric elevated railway with hanging cars in the world and is a unique system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970989}
{"src_title": "Nautical mile", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Unit symbol.", "content": "There is no single internationally agreed symbol, with several symbols in use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces: mille passus. Navigation at sea was done by eye until around 1500 when navigational instruments were developed and cartographers began using a coordinate system with parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.  By the late 16th century, Englishmen knew that the ratio of distances at sea to degrees were constant along any great circle such as the equator or any meridian, assuming that Earth was a sphere. Robert Hues wrote in 1594 that the distance along a great circle was 60 miles per degree, that is, one nautical mile per arcminute. Edmund Gunter wrote in 1623 that the distance along a great circle was 20 leagues per degree. Thus, Hues explicitly used nautical miles while Gunter did not.  Since the Earth is not a perfect sphere but is an oblate spheroid with slightly flattened poles, a minute of latitude is not constant, but about 1861 metres at the poles and 1843 metres at the Equator. France and other metric countries state that in principle a nautical mile is an arcminute of a meridian at a latitude of 45°, but that is a modern justification for a more mundane calculation that was developed a century earlier. By the mid 19th century France had defined a nautical mile via the original 1791 definition of the metre, one ten-millionth of a quarter meridian. Thus became the metric length for a nautical mile. France made it legal for the French Navy in 1906, and many metric countries voted to sanction it for international use at the 1929 International Hydrographic Conference.  Both the United States and the United Kingdom used an average arcminute, specifically, a minute of arc of a great circle of a sphere having the same surface area as the Clarke 1866 ellipsoid. The \"authalic\" (equal area) radius of the Clarke 1866 ellipsoid is. The resulting arcminute is. The United States chose five significant digits for its nautical mile, 6080.2 feet, whereas the United Kingdom chose four significant digits for its Admiralty mile, 6080 feet.  In 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as exactly 1,852 metres. The United States did not adopt the international nautical mile until 1954. Britain adopted it in 1970, but legal references to the obsolete unit are now converted to 1853 metres.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar definitions.", "content": "The metre was originally defined as of the length of the meridian arc from the North pole to the equator, thus one kilometre of distance corresponds to one centigrad of latitude. The Earth's circumference is therefore approximately 40,000 km. The equatorial circumference is slightly longer than the polar circumference – the measurement based on this ( = 1855.3 metres) is known as the geographical mile.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A nautical mile is a unit of measurement used in air, marine, and space navigation, and for the definition of territorial waters. Historically, it was defined as one minute ( of a degree) of latitude along any line of longitude. Today the international nautical mile is defined as exactly 1852 metres (about 1.15 miles). The derived unit of speed is the knot, one nautical mile per hour.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970990}
{"src_title": "Silvio Gesell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Silvio Gesell's mother was Walloon and his father was German, originally from Aachen, who worked as a clerk in the then-Prussian district of Malmedy, now part of Belgium. Silvio was the seventh of nine children.  After visiting the public Bürgerschule in Sankt Vith, he attended Gymnasium in Malmedy. Being forced to pay for his living expenses from an early age, he decided against attending a university and worked for the \"Deutsche Reichspost\", the postal system of the German Empire. Dissatisfied, he began an apprenticeship to his merchant brother in Berlin. Then he lived in Málaga, Spain for two years, working as a correspondent. He then returned to Berlin involuntarily to complete his military service. After this, he worked as a merchant in Brunswick and Hamburg.  In 1887, Gesell relocated to Buenos Aires, Argentina, where he opened a franchise of his brother's business. The 1890 depression in Argentina, which hurt his business considerably, caused him to think about the structural problems caused by the monetary system. In 1891, he released his first writing on this topic: \"Die Reformation des Münzwesens als Brücke zum sozialen Staat\" (\"The Reformation of the Monetary System as a Bridge to a Social State\"). He then wrote \"Nervus Rerum\" and \"The Nationalization of Money\". He gave his business to his brother and returned to Europe in 1892.  After a stay in Germany, Gesell relocated to Les Hauts-Geneveys in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel. He farmed in order to support himself while continuing his economic studies. In 1900, he created the magazine \"Geld- und Bodenreform\" (\"Monetary and Land Reform\"), but it failed in 1903 for financial reasons.  From 1907 to 1911, Gesell was in Argentina again, then he returned to Germany and lived in the vegetarian commune \"Obstbausiedlung Eden\", which was founded by Franz Oppenheimer in Oranienburg, north of Berlin. There, he founded the magazine \"Der Physiokrat\" together with Georg Blumenthal. It folded in 1914 due to censorship as World War I began.  In 1915, Gesell left Germany to return to his farm in Les Hauts-Geneveys. In 1919, he was asked to join the Bavarian Soviet Republic by Ernst Niekisch. The republic offered him a seat on the Socialization Commission and then appointed him the People's Representative for Finances. Gesell chose the Swiss mathematician Theophil Christen and the economist Ernst Polenske as his assistants and immediately wrote a law for the creation of Freigeld, a currency system he had developed. His term of office lasted only seven days. After the violent end of the Bavarian Soviet Republic, Gesell was detained for several months until being acquitted of treason by a Munich court. Because of his participation with the Soviet Republic, Switzerland denied him return to his farm in Neuchâtel.  Gesell then relocated first to Nuthetal, Potsdam-Mittelmark, then back to Oranienburg. After another brief stay in Argentina during 1924, he returned to Oranienburg in 1927. There, he died of pneumonia on 11 March 1930.  He promoted his ideas in German and in Spanish.  Villa Gesell, a seaside town in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina was founded by his son, Don Carlos Idaho Gesell, who named it after his father.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic philosophy.", "content": "Gesell considered himself a world citizen and was inspired by Henry George to believe that the earth should belong to all people, regardless of race, gender, class, wealth, religion, or age and that borders should be made obsolete. But his land reform proposal was different from Georgism. He believed that taxes could not solve the problem of rent on land, as taxes could be transferred to tenants. He thought we must abolish the private ownership of land and put free-land reform, a sort of public lease of land, into effect.  According to Silvio Gesell, it is not effective to establish welfare systems without abolishing private ownership of land because the proceeds of the labor of workers are determined by the proceeds of labor that they can obtain on free land. The benefits gained by the welfare system are not to increase the proceeds of labor that workers can obtain on free land, but rather to increase the proceeds of labor that they can obtain on the lands of landowners. Private ownership of land converts all the advantages of using one's land into cash and it belongs to the landowner. In order not to cancel the effects of welfare policies, Silvio Gesell's Free-Land reform is needed.  Gesell based his economic thought on the self-interest of individuals, which he saw as a \"natural\" and healthy motive, in satisfying their needs and being productive. Gesell believed that an economic system must do justice to individual proclivities; otherwise the system would fail. He believed that this stance put him in opposition to Marxism, which, Gesell considered, proposed an economic system that was against human nature.  Believing that the talent and selfishness of individuals must be taken into account, Gesell called for free, fair business competition, with equal chances for all. This included the removal of all legal and inherited privilege. Everyone should rely only on their abilities to make a living. In the \"natural economic order\" which Gesell recommended, the most talented people would have the greatest income, without distortion by interest and rent charges. The economic status of the less-talented would improve because they would not be forced to pay interest and rent charges. According to Gesell, this would result in less difference between the poor and the rich. Furthermore, greater average incomes would mean that the poor would have a greater chance of escaping poverty, in part because other poor people would have greater disposable income and spending power.  Some regard Gesell's idea as a negative interest rate policy. The difference between them is that, with the free-money reforms of Gesell, hoarding money becomes impossible because the face-value of money is depreciated regularly. This forces the circulation of money. With negative interest, on the contrary, there is the possibility of hoarding money because the face value of money is constant and people can use their money as a means of saving. For example, Japan's negative interest rates are driving up the sales of safes and strongboxes.  Gesell denied value theory in economics. He thought that value theory is useless and prevents economics from becoming science and that a currency administration guided by value theory is doomed to sterility and inactivity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opinions of Gesell.", "content": "Some opinions about Gesell:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Silvio Gesell (; 17 March 1862 – 11 March 1930) was a German merchant, theoretical economist, social activist, Georgist, anarchist, libertarian socialist, and founder of Freiwirtschaft. In 1900 he founded the magazine \"Geld-und Bodenreform\" (\"Monetary and Land Reform\"), but it soon closed for financial reasons. During one of his stays in Argentina, where he lived in a vegetarian commune, Gesell started the magazine \"Der Physiokrat\" together with Georg Blumenthal. In 1914, it closed due to censorship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970991}
{"src_title": "Geraniaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Geraniaceae are herbs or subshrubs. The \"Sarcocaulon\" are succulent, but other members of the family generally are not.  Leaves are usually lobed or otherwise divided, sometimes peltate, opposite or alternate and usually have stipules.  The flowers are generally regular, or symmetrical. They are hermaphroditic, actinomorphic (radially symmetrical, like in \"Geranium\") or slightly zygomorphic (with a bilateral symmetry, like in \"Pelargonium\"). The calyx and the corolla are both pentamerous (with five lobes), petals are free while sepals are connate or united at the base. The androecium consists in two whorls of five stamens each, some of which can be unfertile; the pistil consists of five (less commonly three) merged carpels. The linear stigmas are free, and the ovary is superior. The nectaries are localised at the bases of the antesepalous stamens and are formed by the receptacle. \"Pelargonium\" has only one nectary gland on the adaxial side of the flower. It is hidden in a tube-like cavity which is formed by the receptacle. Flower morphology is conserved within Geraniaceae, but there is a large diversity in floral architecture. Flowers are usually grouped in cymes (e.g. in \"Geranium\"), umbels (e.g. in \"Pelargonium\") or, more rarely, spikes.  \"Geraniaceae\" are normally pollinated by insects, but self-pollination is not uncommon.  The fruit is a unique schizocarp made of five (or three) achenes, in the lower part the achenes are inside the calyx, while the upper part (the stylar beak) is the style of the flower, looking like a kind of long beak over the achenes. When the fruit is mature the style breaks into five (or three) hygroscopically active (ready to absorb water) bristles that curl, causing the achenes to be released.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differences between the genera.", "content": "\"California\" lacks filaments without anthers (called staminodes), but the lower half of the five fertile stamens is made much wider by a wing with a rounded top on each side of the narrow higher part of the filament that carries an anther. \"Geranium\" only has ten fertile stamens without wings and lacks staminodes, except for \"G. pusillum\" that only has five stamens. \"Monsonia\" only has fifteen fertile stamens, which are merged at their base into a ring or merged at their base in trios with the middle filament longer than the others, except for \"M. brevirostrata\" with only five stamens. \"Erodium\" has five staminodes and five fertile stamens, without wings. \"Pelargonium\" has ten filaments without wings, between two and seven of which are topped by anthers, while the remaining three to eight are staminodes lacking anthers, but it can easily be distinguished by having only one narrow tube-like nectary inside what looks like the flowerstalk.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Geraniaceae and Francoaceae are the two families included in the order Geraniales under the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification (APG IV). There has been some uncertainty in the number of genera to be included. Stevens gives seven genera listed here, while Christenhusz and Byng state five genera.  Stevens also lists four synonyms of \"Geranium\": \"Geraniopsis\" \"Neurophyllodes\" \"Robertianum\" \"Robertiella\"  \"Hypseocharis\", with between one and three species, which comes from the south-west Andean region of South America, is considered the sister to the rest of the family. Some authors separate \"Hyspeocharis\" as a monogeneric family Hypseocharitaceae, while older sources placed it in the Oxalidaceae. The genus \"Rhynchotheca\" has also been separated into the Vivianiaceae.  The Geraniaceae have a number of genetic features unique amongst angiosperms, including highly rearranged plastid genomes differing in gene content, order and expansion of the inverted repeat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "Recent comparison of DNA-fragments resulted in the following phylogenetic tree.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Most species are found in temperate or warm temperate regions, though some are tropical. \"Pelargonium\" has its centre for diversity in the Cape region in South Africa, where there is a striking vegetative and floral variation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Geraniaceae is a family of flowering plants placed in the order Geraniales. The family name is derived from the genus \"Geranium\". The family includes both the genus \"Geranium\" (the cranesbills, or true geraniums) and the garden plants called geraniums, which modern botany classifies as genus \"Pelargonium\", along with other related genera.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970992}
{"src_title": "Boat lift", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A precursor to the canal boat lift, able to move full-sized canal boats, was the tub boat lift used in mining, able to raise and lower the 2.5 ton tub boats then in use. An experimental system was in use on the Churprinz mining canal in Halsbrücke near Dresden. It lifted boats using a moveable hoist rather than caissons. The lift operated between 1789 and 1868, and for a period of time after its opening engineer James Green reporting that five had been built between 1796 and 1830. He credited the invention to Dr James Anderson of Edinburgh.  The idea of a boat lift for canals can be traced back to a design based on balanced water-filled caissons in Erasmus Darwin's Commonplace Book (page 58-59) dated 1777–1778  In 1796 an experimental balance lock was designed by James Fussell and constructed at Mells on the Dorset and Somerset Canal, though this project was never completed. A similar design was used for lifts on the tub boat section of the Grand Western Canal entered into operation in 1835 becoming the first non experimental boat lifts in Britain. and pre-dating the Anderton Boat Lift by 40 years.  In 1904 the Peterborough Lift Lock designed by Richard Birdsall Rogers opened in Canada. This high lift system is operated by gravity alone, with the upper bay of the two bay system loaded with an additional of water as to give it greater weight.  Before the construction of the Three Gorges Dam Ship Lift, the highest boat lift, with a height difference and European Class IV (1350 tonne) capacity, was the Strépy-Thieu boat lift in Belgium opened in 2002.  The ship lift at the Three Gorges Dam, completed in January 2016, is high and able to lift vessels of up to 3,000 tons displacement.  The boat lift at Longtan is reported to be even higher in total with a maximum vertical lift of in two stages when completed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A boat lift, ship lift, or lift lock is a machine for transporting boats between water at two different elevations, and is an alternative to the canal lock and the canal inclined plane.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970993}
{"src_title": "Schwerin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Schwerin is enclosed by lakes. The largest of these lakes, the \"Schweriner See\", has an area of 60 km. In the middle part of these lakes there was a settlement of the Slavic Obotrite (dated back to the 11th century). The area was called \"Zuarin\" (Polabian \"Zwierzyn\"), and the name \"Schwerin\" is derived from that designation. In 1160, Henry the Lion defeated the Obotrites and captured Schwerin. The town was later expanded into a powerful regional centre. A castle was built on this site, and expanded to become a ducal palace. It is supposedly haunted by the small, impious ghost, called Petermännchen (\"\"Peterman\"\").  In 1358, Schwerin became a part of the Duchy of Mecklenburg, making it the seat of the duchy from then on. About 1500, the construction of the Schwerin Palace began, as a residence for the dukes. After the division of Mecklenburg (1621), Schwerin became the capital of the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Between 1765 and 1837, the town of Ludwigslust served as the capital, until Schwerin was reinstated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent times.", "content": "In the mid-1800s, many residents from Schwerin moved to the United States, many to Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Today Milwaukee and Schwerin are sister cities. After 1918, and during the German Revolution, resulting in the fall of all the German monarchies, the Grand Duke abdicated. Schwerin became capital of the Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin thereafter.  At the end of World War II, on 2 May 1945, Schwerin was taken by United States troops. It was turned over to the British on 1 June 1945, and one month later, on 1 July 1945, it was handed over to the Soviet forces, as the British and American forces pulled back from the line of contact to the predesignated occupation zones.  Schwerin was then in the Soviet Occupation Zone which was to become the German Democratic Republic (GDR). Initially, it was the capital of the State of Mecklenburg which at that time included the western part of Pomerania (Vorpommern). After the states were dissolved in the GDR, in 1952, Schwerin served as the capital of the Schwerin district (Bezirk Schwerin). After reunification in 1990, the former state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was recreated as one of the \"Bundesländer\". Rostock was a serious contender for state capital but the decision went in favour of Schwerin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The urban area of Schwerin is divided into 18 local districts, each with a local council. The districts consist of one or more districts. The local councilors have between 5 and 15 members depending on the number of inhabitants.  They are determined by the city council for the duration of the election period of the city council after each municipal election. The local councilors are to hear important matters concerning the district and have a right of initiative. However, the final decisions are made by the city council of the city as a whole.  The eighteen current districts are the following:  District 1: Schelfstadt, Werdervorstadt, Schelfwerder  District 2: Altstadt (Old Town), Feldstadt, Paulsstadt, Lewenberg  District 3: Grosser Dreesch (former Dreesch I)  District 4: Neu Zippendorf (former Dreesch II)  District 5: Mueßer Holz (former Dreesch III)  District 6: Gartenstadt, Ostorf (formerly Haselholz, Ostorf)  District 7: Lankow  District 8: Weststadt  District 9: Krebsförden  District 10: Wüstmark, Göhrener Tannen  District 11: Görries  District 12: Friedrichsthal  District 13: Neumühle, Sacktannen  District 14: Warnitz  District 15: Wickendorf  Locality 16: Medewege  Locality 17: Zippendorf  Locality 18: Mueß", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns - sister cities.", "content": "Schwerin is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "City buses and trams are run by NVS (Nahverkehr Schwerin).  Schwerin Hauptbahnhof (central station) is connected by rail to Berlin, Hamburg and Rostock.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crime rate.", "content": "According to the official 2007 Crime Report for Germany, Schwerin was the only German city with a crime rate over 17,000 total offenses committed per 100,000 inhabitants; thus being 1st in the list of Germany's most dangerous cities. The larger cities, such as Berlin, Frankfurt am Main, or Bremen, all have crime rates ranging from 14,000 to 16,000 total offenses committed per 100,000 people. However, Schwerin is the only city where riding a bus (or tram) without a ticket and social security fraud is counted towards the crime rate, significantly boosting the numbers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Schwerin (; Mecklenburgian: \"Swerin\") is the capital and second-largest city of the northeastern German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. It has a population of about 100,000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970994}
{"src_title": "Telnet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and standards.", "content": "Telnet is a client-server protocol, based on a reliable connection-oriented transport. Typically, this protocol is used to establish a connection to Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) port number 23, where a Telnet server application (telnetd) is listening. Telnet, however, predates TCP/IP and was originally run over Network Control Program (NCP) protocols.  Even though Telnet was an ad hoc protocol with no official definition until March 5, 1973, the name actually referred to \"Teletype Over Network Protocol\" as the RFC 206 (NIC 7176) on Telnet makes the connection clear:  Many extensions were made for Telnet because of its negotiable options protocol architecture. Some of these extensions have been adopted as Internet standards, IETF documents STD 27 through STD 32. Some extensions have been widely implemented and others are proposed standards on the IETF standards track (see below) Telnet is best understood in the context of a user with a simple terminal using the local Telnet program (known as the client program) to run a logon session on a remote computer where the user's communications needs are handled by a Telnet server program.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Security.", "content": "When Telnet was initially developed in 1969, most users of networked computers were in the computer departments of academic institutions, or at large private and government research facilities. In this environment, security was not nearly as much a concern as it became after the bandwidth explosion of the 1990s. The rise in the number of people with access to the Internet, and by extension the number of people attempting to hack other people's servers, made encrypted alternatives necessary.  Experts in computer security, such as SANS Institute, recommend that the use of Telnet for remote logins should be discontinued under all normal circumstances, for the following reasons:  These security-related shortcomings have seen the usage of the Telnet protocol drop rapidly, especially on the public Internet, in favor of the Secure Shell (SSH) protocol, first released in 1995. SSH has practically replaced Telnet, and the older protocol is used these days only in rare cases to access decades old legacy equipment that does not support more modern protocols. SSH provides much of the functionality of telnet, with the addition of strong encryption to prevent sensitive data such as passwords from being intercepted, and public key authentication, to ensure that the remote computer is actually who it claims to be. As has happened with other early Internet protocols, extensions to the Telnet protocol provide Transport Layer Security (TLS) security and Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL) authentication that address the above concerns. However, most Telnet implementations do not support these extensions; and there has been relatively little interest in implementing these as SSH is adequate for most purposes.  It is of note that there are a large number of industrial and scientific devices which have only Telnet available as a communication option. Some are built with only a standard RS-232 port and use a serial server hardware appliance to provide the translation between the TCP/Telnet data and the RS-232 serial data. In such cases, SSH is not an option unless the interface appliance can be configured for SSH.  Telnet is still used by hobbyists, especially among Amateur radio operators. The Winlink protocol supports packet radio via a Telnet connection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Telnet 5250.", "content": "IBM 5250 or 3270 workstation emulation is supported via custom telnet clients, TN5250/TN3270, and IBM servers. Clients and servers designed to pass IBM 5250 data streams over Telnet generally do support SSL encryption, as SSH does not include 5250 emulation. Under OS/400 (also known as IBM i), port 992 is the default port for secured telnet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Telnet data.", "content": "All data octets except 0xff are transmitted over Telnet as is.  Some use Telnet client applications to establish an interactive TCP session to a port other than the Telnet server port. Connections to such ports do not use IAC and all octets are sent to the server without interpretation. For example, a user could make an HTTP request by hand by using a command line version of the telnet client to a web server on TCP port 80 as follows: $ telnet www.example.com 80 GET /path/to/file.html HTTP/1.1 Host: www.example.com Connection: close However such services are implemented through \"network virtual terminal\" (NVT) rules and Telnet does not handle some of the other NVT requirements, such as the requirement for a bare carriage return character (CR, ASCII 13) to be followed by a NUL (ASCII 0) character.  There are other TCP terminal clients, such as netcat or socat on UNIX and PuTTY on Windows, which handle such requirements. Nevertheless, Telnet may still be used in debugging network services such as SMTP, IRC, HTTP, FTP or POP3, to issue commands to a server and examine the responses.  Another difference between Telnet and other TCP terminal clients is that Telnet is not 8-bit clean by default. 8-bit mode may be negotiated, but octets with the high bit set may be garbled until this mode is requested, as 7 bit is the default mode. The 8-bit mode (so named \"binary option\") is intended to transmit binary data, not ASCII characters. The standard suggests the interpretation of codes 0000–0176 as ASCII, but does not offer any meaning for high-bit-set \"data\" octets. There was an attempt to introduce a switchable character encoding support like HTTP has, but nothing is known about its actual software support.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "57.9654", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Telnet is an application protocol used on the Internet or local area network to provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-band with Telnet control information in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970995}
{"src_title": "Clay mineral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Properties.", "content": "Clays form flat hexagonal sheets similar to the micas. Clay minerals are common weathering products (including weathering of feldspar) and low-temperature hydrothermal alteration products. Clay minerals are very common in soils, in fine-grained sedimentary rocks such as shale, mudstone, and siltstone and in fine-grained metamorphic slate and phyllite.  Clay minerals are usually (but not necessarily) ultrafine-grained (normally considered to be less than 2 micrometres in size on standard particle size classifications) and so may require special analytical techniques for their identification and study. These include x-ray diffraction, electron diffraction methods, various spectroscopic methods such as Mössbauer spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and SEM-EDS or automated mineralogy processes. These methods can be augmented by polarized light microscopy, a traditional technique establishing fundamental occurrences or petrologic relationships.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occurrence.", "content": "Given the requirement of water, clay minerals are relatively rare in the Solar System, though they occur extensively on Earth where water has interacted with other minerals and organic matter. Clay minerals have been detected at several locations on Mars, including Echus Chasma, Mawrth Vallis, the Memnonia quadrangle and the Elysium quadrangle. Spectrography has confirmed their presence on asteroids including the dwarf planet Ceres and Tempel 1 as well as Jupiter's moon Europa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Clay minerals can be classified as 1:1 or 2:1, this originates because they are fundamentally built of tetrahedral silicate sheets and octahedral hydroxide sheets, as described in the structure section below. A 1:1 clay would consist of one tetrahedral sheet and one octahedral sheet, and examples would be kaolinite and serpentine. A 2:1 clay consists of an octahedral sheet sandwiched between two tetrahedral sheets, and examples are talc, vermiculite, and montmorillonite.  Clay minerals include the following groups:  Mixed blue layer clay variations exist for most of the above groups. Ordering is described as a random or regular order and is further described by the term reichweite, which is German for range or reach. Literature articles will refer to an R1 ordered illite-smectite, for example. This type would be ordered in an ISIS fashion. R0 on the other hand describes random ordering, and other advanced ordering types are also found (R3, etc.). Mixed layer clay minerals which are perfect R1 types often get their own names. R1 ordered chlorite-smectite is known as corrensite, R1 illite-smectite is rectorite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Knowledge of the nature of clay became better understood in the 1930s with advancements in x-ray diffraction technology necessary to analyze the molecular nature of clay particles. Standardization in terminology arose during this period as well with special attention given to similar words that resulted in confusion such as sheet and plane.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Like all phyllosilicates, clay minerals are characterised by two-dimensional \"sheets\" of corner-sharing tetrahedra and/or octahedra. The sheet units have the chemical composition. Each silica tetrahedron shares 3 of its vertex oxygen atoms with other tetrahedra forming a hexagonal array in two-dimensions. The fourth vertex is not shared with another tetrahedron and all of the tetrahedra \"point\" in the same direction; i.e. all of the unshared vertices are on the same side of the sheet.  In clays, the tetrahedral sheets are always bonded to octahedral sheets formed from small cations, such as aluminum or magnesium, and coordinated by six oxygen atoms. The unshared vertex from the tetrahedral sheet also forms part of one side of the octahedral sheet, but an additional oxygen atom is located above the gap in the tetrahedral sheet at the center of the six tetrahedra. This oxygen atom is bonded to a hydrogen atom forming an OH group in the clay structure. Clays can be categorized depending on the way that tetrahedral and octahedral sheets are packaged into \"layers\". If there is only one tetrahedral and one octahedral group in each layer the clay is known as a 1:1 clay. The alternative, known as a 2:1 clay, has two tetrahedral sheets with the unshared vertex of each sheet pointing towards each other and forming each side of the octahedral sheet.  Bonding between the tetrahedral and octahedral sheets requires that the tetrahedral sheet becomes corrugated or twisted, causing ditrigonal distortion to the hexagonal array, and the octahedral sheet is flattened. This minimizes the overall bond-valence distortions of the crystallite.  Depending on the composition of the tetrahedral and octahedral sheets, the layer will have no charge or will have a net negative charge. If the layers are charged this charge is balanced by interlayer cations such as Na or K. In each case the interlayer can also contain water. The crystal structure is formed from a stack of layers interspaced with the interlayers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biomedical applications of clays.", "content": "As most of the clays are made from minerals, they are highly biocompatible and have interesting biological properties. Due to disc-shaped and charged surfaces, clay interacts with a range of macromolecules such as drugs, protein, polymers, DNA, etc. Some of the applications of clays include drug delivery, tissue engineering, and bioprinting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mortar applications.", "content": "Clay minerals can be incorporated in lime-metakaolin mortars to improve mechanical properties.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clay minerals are hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, sometimes with variable amounts of iron, magnesium, alkali metals, alkaline earths, and other cations found on or near some planetary surfaces.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970996}
{"src_title": "Divisor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "If formula_3 and formula_1 are nonzero integers, and more generally, nonzero elements of an integral domain, it is said that formula_3 divides formula_1, formula_3 is a divisor of formula_18 or formula_1 is a multiple of formula_20 and this is written as if there exists an integer formula_22, or an element formula_22 of the integral domain, such that formula_24.  This definition is sometimes extended to include zero. This does not add much to the theory, as 0 does not divide any other number, and every number divides 0. On the other hand, excluding zero from the definition simplifies many statements. Also, in ring theory, an element is called a \"zero divisor\" only if it is \"nonzero\" and for a \"nonzero\" element. Thus, there are no zero divisors among the integers (and by definition no zero divisors in an integral domain).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General.", "content": "Divisors can be negative as well as positive, although sometimes the term is restricted to positive divisors. For example, there are six divisors of 4; they are 1, 2, 4, −1, −2, and −4, but only the positive ones (1, 2, and 4) would usually be mentioned.  1 and −1 divide (are divisors of) every integer. Every integer (and its negation) is a divisor of itself. Integers divisible by 2 are called even, and integers not divisible by 2 are called odd.  1, −1, \"n\" and −\"n\" are known as the trivial divisors of \"n\". A divisor of \"n\" that is not a trivial divisor is known as a non-trivial divisor (or strict divisor). A non-zero integer with at least one non-trivial divisor is known as a composite number, while the units −1 and 1 and prime numbers have no non-trivial divisors.  There are divisibility rules that allow one to recognize certain divisors of a number from the number's digits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further notions and facts.", "content": "There are some elementary rules:  If formula_44, and gcdformula_45, then formula_30. This is called Euclid's lemma.  If formula_47 is a prime number and formula_48 then formula_49 or formula_50.  A positive divisor of formula_1 which is different from formula_1 is called a proper divisor or an aliquot part of formula_1. A number that does not evenly divide formula_1 but leaves a remainder is called an aliquant part of formula_1.  An integer formula_56 whose only proper divisor is 1 is called a prime number. Equivalently, a prime number is a positive integer that has exactly two positive factors: 1 and itself.  Any positive divisor of formula_1 is a product of prime divisors of formula_1 raised to some power. This is a consequence of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.  A number formula_1 is said to be perfect if it equals the sum of its proper divisors, deficient if the sum of its proper divisors is less than formula_1, and abundant if this sum exceeds formula_1.  The total number of positive divisors of formula_1 is a multiplicative function formula_63, meaning that when two numbers formula_3 and formula_1 are relatively prime, then formula_66. For instance, formula_67; the eight divisors of 42 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21 and 42. However, the number of positive divisors is not a totally multiplicative function: if the two numbers formula_3 and formula_1 share a common divisor, then it might not be true that formula_66. The sum of the positive divisors of formula_1 is another multiplicative function formula_72 (e.g. formula_73). Both of these functions are examples of divisor functions. If the prime factorization of formula_1 is given by  then the number of positive divisors of formula_1 is  and each of the divisors has the form  where formula_79 for each formula_80  For every natural formula_1, formula_82.  Also,  where formula_84 is Euler–Mascheroni constant. One interpretation of this result is that a randomly chosen positive integer \"n\" has an average number of divisors of about formula_85. However, this is a result from the contributions of numbers with \"abnormally many\" divisors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In abstract algebra.", "content": "In definitions that include 0, the relation of divisibility turns the set formula_86 of non-negative integers into a partially ordered set: a complete distributive lattice. The largest element of this lattice is 0 and the smallest is 1. The meet operation ∧ is given by the greatest common divisor and the join operation ∨ by the least common multiple. This lattice is isomorphic to the dual of the lattice of subgroups of the infinite cyclic group formula_87.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, a divisor of an integer formula_1, also called a factor of formula_1, is an integer formula_3 that may be multiplied by some integer to produce formula_1. In this case, one also says that formula_1 is a multiple of formula_6 An integer formula_1 is divisible by another integer formula_3 if formula_3 is a divisor of formula_1; this implies dividing formula_1 by formula_3 leaves no remainder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970997}
{"src_title": "Viktor Kaplan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Kaplan was born in Mürzzuschlag, Austria into a railroad worker's family. He graduated from high school in Vienna in 1895, after which he attended the Technical University of Vienna, where he studied civil engineering and specialised in diesel engines. From 1900 to 1901 he was drafted into military service in Pula.  After working in Vienna with a specialisation in motors, he moved to the German Technical University in Brno to conduct research at the institute of civil engineering. He spent the next three decades of his life in Brno, and nearly all his inventions and research are connected with his professorship there. In 1913 he was appointed head of the institute for water turbines.  In 1912 he published his most notable work: the Kaplan turbine, a revolutionary water turbine that was especially fitted to produce electricity from large streams with only a moderate incline. From 1912 to 1913 he received four patents on these kinds of turbines.  In 1918 the first Kaplan turbine with 26 kW power and a diameter of 60 cm was built by the Storek construction company for a textile manufacturer in Lower Austria. This turbine was used until 1955 and today is exhibited at the Technisches Museum Wien. After the success of the first Kaplan turbines they started being used worldwide and remain one of the most widely used kinds of water turbines.  In 1926 and 1934 Kaplan received honorary doctorates. He died of a stroke in 1934 at Unterach am Attersee, Austria.  Kaplan was honored and featured on the 1000 Austrian schilling banknote in 1961.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Viktor Kaplan (27 November 1876 – 23 August 1934) was an Austrian engineer and the inventor of the Kaplan turbine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970998}
{"src_title": "Viroid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Transmission.", "content": "Viroid infections can be transmitted by aphids, by cross contamination following mechanical damage to plants as a result of horticultural or agricultural practices, or from plant to plant by leaf contact.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Replication.", "content": "Viroids replicate in the nucleus (\"Pospiviroidae\") or chloroplasts (\"Avsunviroidae\") of plant cells in three steps through an RNA-based mechanism. They require RNA polymerase II, a host cell enzyme normally associated with synthesis of messenger RNA from DNA, which instead catalyzes \"rolling circle\" synthesis of new RNA using the viroid as template.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "RNA silencing.", "content": "There has long been uncertainty over how viroids induce symptoms in plants without encoding any protein products within their sequences. Evidence suggests that RNA silencing is involved in the process. First, changes to the viroid genome can dramatically alter its virulence. This reflects the fact that any siRNAs produced would have less complementary base pairing with target messenger RNA. Secondly, siRNAs corresponding to sequences from viroid genomes have been isolated from infected plants. Finally, transgenic expression of the noninfectious hpRNA of potato spindle tuber viroid develops all the corresponding viroid-like symptoms. This indicates that when viroids replicate via a double stranded intermediate RNA, they are targeted by a dicer enzyme and cleaved into siRNAs that are then loaded onto the RNA-induced silencing complex. The viroid siRNAs contain sequences capable of complementary base pairing with the plant's own messenger RNAs, and induction of degradation or inhibition of translation causes the classic viroid symptoms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "RNA world hypothesis.", "content": "Diener's 1989 hypothesis had proposed that the unique properties of viroids make them more plausible macromolecules than introns, or other RNAs considered in the past as possible \"living relics\" of a hypothetical, pre-cellular RNA world. If so, viroids have assumed significance beyond plant virology for evolutionary theory, because their properties make them more plausible candidates than other RNAs to perform crucial steps in the evolution of life from inanimate matter (abiogenesis). Diener's hypothesis was mostly forgotten until 2014, when it was resurrected in a review article by Flores et al., in which the authors summarized Diener's evidence supporting his hypothesis as:  The presence, in extant cells, of RNAs with molecular properties predicted for RNAs of the RNA World constitutes another powerful argument supporting the RNA World hypothesis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In the 1920s, symptoms of a previously unknown potato disease were noticed in New York and New Jersey fields. Because tubers on affected plants become elongated and misshapen, they named it the potato spindle tuber disease.  The symptoms appeared on plants onto which pieces from affected plants had been budded—indicating that the disease was caused by a transmissible pathogenic agent. A fungus or bacterium could not be found consistently associated with symptom-bearing plants, however, and therefore, it was assumed the disease was caused by a virus. Despite numerous attempts over the years to isolate and purify the assumed virus, using increasingly sophisticated methods, these were unsuccessful when applied to extracts from potato spindle tuber disease-afflicted plants.  In 1971 Theodor O. Diener showed that the agent was not a virus, but a totally unexpected novel type of pathogen, 1/80th the size of typical viruses, for which he proposed the term \"viroid\". Parallel to agriculture-directed studies, more basic scientific research elucidated many of viroids' physical, chemical, and macromolecular properties. Viroids were shown to consist of short stretches (a few hundred nucleobases) of single-stranded RNA and, unlike viruses, did not have a protein coat. Compared with other infectious plant pathogens, viroids are extremely small in size, ranging from 246 to 467 nucleobases; they thus consist of fewer than 10,000 atoms. In comparison, the genomes of the smallest known viruses capable of causing an infection by themselves are around 2,000 nucleobases long.  In 1976, Sänger et al. presented evidence that potato spindle tuber viroid is a \"single-stranded, covalently closed, circular RNA molecule, existing as a highly base-paired rod-like structure\"—believed to be the first such molecule described. Circular RNA, unlike linear RNA, forms a covalently closed continuous loop, in which the 3' and 5' ends present in linear RNA molecules have been joined together. Sänger et al. also provided evidence for the true circularity of viroids by finding that the RNA could not be phosphorylated at the 5' terminus. Then, in other tests, they failed to find even one free 3' end, which ruled out the possibility of the molecule having two 3' ends. Viroids thus are true circular RNAs.  The single-strandedness and circularity of viroids was confirmed by electron microscopy, and Gross et al. determined the complete nucleotide sequence of potato spindle tuber viroid in 1978. PSTVd was the first pathogen of a eukaryotic organism for which the complete molecular structure has been established. Over thirty plant diseases have since been identified as viroid-, not virus-caused, as had been assumed.  In 2014, \"New York Times\" science writer Carl Zimmer published a popularized piece that mistakenly credited Flores et al. with the hypothesis' original conception.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Viroids are the smallest infectious pathogens known. They are composed solely of a short strand of circular, single-stranded RNA that has no protein coating. All known viroids are inhabitants of higher plants, and most cause diseases, whose respective economic importance on humans vary widely.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4970999}
{"src_title": "Abies alba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Abies alba\" is a large evergreen coniferous tree growing to (exceptionally ) tall and with a trunk diameter up to. The largest measured tree was 60 m tall and had a trunk diameter of. It occurs at altitudes of (mainly over ), on mountains with rainfall over per year.  The leaves are needle-like, flattened, long and wide by thick, glossy dark green above, and with two greenish-white bands of stomata below. The tip of the leaf is usually slightly notched at the tip. The cones are long and broad, with about 150-200 scales, each scale with an exserted bract and two winged seeds; they disintegrate when mature to release the seeds. The wood is white, leading to the species name \"alba\".  When cultivated on Christmas Tree plantations, the tree naturally forms a symmetrical triangle shape. The trees are full and dense with strong evergreen fragrance, and are known to be one of the longest lasting after being cut. In the forest the evergreen tends to form stands with other firs and beeches. It is closely related to Bulgarian fir (\"Abies borisiiregis\") further to the southeast in the Balkan Peninsula, Spanish fir (\"Abies pinsapo\") of Spain and Morocco and Sicilian fir (\"Abies nebrodensis\") in Sicily, differing from these and other related Euro-Mediterranean firs in the sparser foliage, with the leaves spread either side of the shoot, leaving the shoot readily visible from above. Some botanists treat Bulgarian fir and Sicilian fir as varieties of silver fir, as \"A. alba\" var. \"acutifolia\" and \"A. alba\" var. \"nebrodensis\", respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Silver fir is an important component species in the dinaric calcareous block fir forest in the western Balkan Peninsula.  In Italy, the silver fir is an important component of the mixed broadleaved-coniferous forest of the Apennine Mountains, especially in northern Apennine. The fir prefer a cold and humid climate, in northern exposition, with a high rainfall (over 1500 mm per year). In the oriental Alps of Italy, silver firs grow in mixed forests with Norway spruce, beech, and other trees.  Its cone scales are eaten by the caterpillars of the tortrix moth \"Cydia illutana\", while \"C. duplicana\" feeds on the bark around injuries or canker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry and pharmacology.", "content": "The bark and wood of silver fir are rich in antioxidative polyphenols. Six phenolic acids were identified (gallic, homovanillic, protocatehuic, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic and p-coumaric), three flavonoids (catechin, epicatechin and catechin tetramethyl ether) and eight lignans (taxiresinol, 7-(2-methyl-3,4-dihydroxytetrahydropyran-5-yloxy)-taxiresinol, secoisolariciresinol, laricinresinol, hydroxymatairesinol, isolariciresinol, matairesinol and pinoresinol). The extract from the trunk was shown to prevent atherosclerosis in guinea pigs and to have cardioprotective effect in isolated rat hearts. Silver fir wood extract was found to reduce the post-prandial glycemic response (concentration of sugar in the blood after the meal) in healthy volunteers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "In Roman times the wood was used to make wooden casks to store and transport wine and other substances.  A resinous essential oil can be extracted. This pine-scented oil is used in perfumes, bath products, and aerosol inhalants. Its branches (including the leaves, bark and wood) were used for production of spruce beer.  Silver fir is the species first used as a Christmas tree, but has been largely replaced by Nordmann fir (which has denser, more attractive foliage), Norway spruce (which is much cheaper to grow), and other species.  The wood is strong, lightweight, light-colored, fine grained, even-textured and long fibered. The timber is mainly used as construction wood, furniture, plywood, pulpwood and paper manufacture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Abies\" is derived from Latin, meaning 'rising one'. The name was used to refer to tall trees or ships.  \"Alba\" means 'bright' or 'dead white'.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abies alba, the European silver fir or silver fir, is a fir native to the mountains of Europe, from the Pyrenees north to Normandy, east to the Alps and the Carpathians, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and south to Italy, Bulgaria, Albania and northern Greece; it is also commonly grown on Christmas tree plantations in the North East region of North America spanning New England in the US to the Maritime provinces of Canada.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971000}
{"src_title": "Artemisia absinthium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Artemisia absinthium\" is a herbaceous perennial plant with fibrous roots. The stems are straight, growing to (sometimes even over 1.5 m, but rarely) tall, grooved, branched, and silvery-green. The leaves are spirally arranged, greenish-grey above and white below, covered with silky silvery-white trichomes, and bearing minute oil-producing glands; the basal leaves are up to long, bipinnate to tripinnate with long petioles, with the cauline leaves (those on the stem) smaller, long, less divided, and with short petioles; the uppermost leaves can be both simple and sessile (without a petiole). Its flowers are pale yellow, tubular, and clustered in spherical bent-down heads (capitula), which are in turn clustered in leafy and branched panicles. Flowering is from early summer to early autumn; pollination is anemophilous. The fruit is a small achene; seed dispersal is by gravity.  It grows naturally on uncultivated arid ground, on rocky slopes, and at the edge of footpaths and fields. Although once relatively common, it is becoming increasingly rare in the UK where it has recently been suggested that it is an archaeophyte rather than a true native.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "The plant can easily be cultivated in dry soil. It should be planted under bright exposure in fertile, mid-weight soil. It prefers soil rich in nitrogen. It can be propagated by ripened cuttings taken in spring or autumn in temperate climates, or by seeds in nursery beds. A common consideration applies to growing the plant with others as it tends to stunt their growth; accordingly it is not considered to be a good companion plant. \"A. absinthium\" also self-seeds generously. It is naturalised in some areas away from its native range, including much of North America and Kashmir Valley of India.  This plant, and its cultivars 'Lambrook Mist' and 'Lambrook Silver' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. These two short cultivars are very similar and more silver than typical British absinthium material and probably derive from southern Europe. 'Lambrook Silver' is the earliest of these cultivars having been selected in the late 1950s by Margery Fish who developed the garden at East Lambrook Manor. 'Lambrook Mist' was selected about 30 years later by Andrew Norton, a subsequent owner of the garden. Both gained their AGMs (Award of Garden Merit) during the RHS Artemisia Trial 1991–3.  Cultivar 'Silver Ghost' is a taller silver plant which flowers much later (August – September) than typical absinthium (June – July) in UK and therefore holds its silver appearance for longer. This and a more feathery leaved cultivar 'Persian Lace' were selected by National Collection Holder John Twibell in the 1990s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Constituents.", "content": "Wormwood herb contains bitter substances from the group of sesquiterpene lactones, Absinthin is with 0.2 to 0.28% the main component of these bitter substances. Essential oils make up 0.2 to 0.8% and contain (-) - thujone, (+) - isothujone, thujyl alcohol and its esters, chamazulene and other mono- and sesquiterpenes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "It is an ingredient in the spirit absinthe, and is used for flavouring in some other spirits and wines, including bitters, bäsk, vermouth and pelinkovac. As medicine, it is used for dyspepsia, as a bitter to counteract poor appetite, for various infectious diseases, Crohn's disease, and IgA nephropathy.  In the Middle Ages, wormwood was used to spice mead, and in Morocco it is used with tea, called sheeba. In 18th century England, wormwood was sometimes used instead of hops in beer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Most chemotypes of \"Artemisia absinthium\" contain (−)-α- and/or (+)-β-thujone, though some do not. (−)-α-Thujone by itself is a GABA receptor antagonist that can cause convulsions and death when administered in large amounts to animals and humans. However, there is only one case of documented toxicity of wormwood involving a 31-year-old man who drank 10 mL of steam-distilled volatile oil of wormwood, wrongly believing it was absinthe liqueur. Medicinal extracts of wormwood have not been shown to cause seizure or other adverse effects at usual doses. Thujones have not been shown to be the cause of excessive doses’ toxicity for any kind of wormwood extracts, including absinthe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Artemisia\" comes from Ancient Greek ἀρτεμισία, from Ἄρτεμις (Artemis). In Hellenistic culture, Artemis was a goddess of the hunt, and protector of the forest and children. The name \"absinthum\" comes from the Ancient Greek ἀψίνθιον, meaning the same. An alternative derivation is that the genus was named after Queen Artemisia who was the wife and sister of Mausolus ruler of Caria. When Mausolus died c. 353 BC, he was buried in a huge tomb dedicated to his memory – the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, the ruins of which are still present at Bodrum in modern-day Turkey. The word \"wormwood\" comes from Middle English \"wormwode\" or \"wermode\". Webster's Third New International Dictionary attributes the etymology to Old English \"wermōd\" (compare with German \"Wermut\" and the derived drink vermouth), which the OED (\"s.v.\") marks as \"of obscure origin\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural history.", "content": "Nicholas Culpeper insisted that wormwood was the key to understanding his 1651 book \"The English Physitian\". Richard Mabey describes Culpeper's entry on this bitter-tasting plant as \"stream-of-consciousness\" and \"unlike anything else in the herbal\", and states that it reads \"like the ramblings of a drunk\". Culpeper biographer Benjamin Woolley suggests the piece may be an allegory about bitterness, as Culpeper had spent his life fighting the Establishment, and had been imprisoned and seriously wounded in battle as a result.  William Shakespeare referred to wormwood in his famous play Romeo and Juliet: Act 1, Scene 3. Juliet's childhood nurse said, \"For I had then laid wormwood to my dug\" meaning that the nurse had weaned Juliet, then aged three, by using the bitter taste of Wormwood on her nipple.  John Locke, in his 1689 book titled \"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding\", used wormwood as an example of bitterness, writing that \"For a child knows as certainly before it can speak the difference between the ideas of sweet and bitter (i.e. that sweet is not bitter), as it knows afterwards (when it comes to speak) that wormwood and sugarplums are not the same thing.\"  In the Bible, the Book of Revelation tells of a star named Wormwood that plummets to Earth and turns a third of the rivers and fountains of waters bitter.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Artemisia absinthium (wormwood, grand wormwood, absinthe, absinthium, absinthe wormwood) is a species of \"Artemisia\" native to temperate regions of Eurasia and Northern Africa and widely naturalized in Canada and the northern United States. It is grown as an ornamental plant and is used as an ingredient in the spirit absinthe as well as some other alcoholic beverages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971001}
{"src_title": "Statue of Zeus at Olympia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The statue of Zeus was commissioned by the Eleans, custodians of the Olympic Games, in the latter half of the fifth century BC for their newly constructed Temple of Zeus. Seeking to outdo their Athenian rivals, the Eleans employed the renowned sculptor Phidias, who had previously made the massive statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon.  The statue occupied half the width of the aisle of the temple built to house it. \"It seems that if Zeus were to stand up,\" the geographer Strabo noted early in the 1st century BC, \"he would unroof the temple.\" The \"Zeus\" was a chryselephantine sculpture, made with ivory and gold panels on a wooden substructure. No copy in marble or bronze has survived, though there are recognizable but only approximate versions on coins of nearby Elis and on Roman coins and engraved gems.  The 2nd-century AD geographer and traveler Pausanias left a detailed description: the statue was crowned with a sculpted wreath of olive sprays and wore a gilded robe made from glass and carved with animals and lilies. Its right hand held a small chryselephantine statue of crowned Nike, goddess of victory; its left a scepter inlaid with many metals, supporting an eagle. The throne featured painted figures and wrought images and was decorated with gold, precious stones, ebony, and ivory. Zeus' golden sandals rested upon a footstool decorated with an Amazonomachy in relief. The passage underneath the throne was restricted by painted screens.  Pausanias also recounts that the statue was kept constantly coated with olive oil to counter the harmful effect on the ivory caused by the \"marshiness\" of the Altis grove. The floor in front of the image was paved with black tiles and surrounded by a raised rim of marble to contain the oil. This reservoir acted as a reflecting pool which doubled the apparent height of the statue.  According to the Roman historian Livy, the Roman general Aemilius Paulus (the victor over Macedon) saw the statue and \"was moved to his soul, as if he had seen the god in person,\" while the 1st-centuryAD Greek orator Dio Chrysostom declared that a single glimpse of the statue would make a man forget all his earthly troubles. According to a legend, when Phidias was asked what inspired him—whether he climbed Mount Olympus to see Zeus, or whether Zeus came down from Olympus so that Phidias could see him—the artist answered that he portrayed Zeus according to Book One, verses 528 – 530 of Homer's \"Iliad\":  The sculptor also was reputed to have immortalised Pantarkes, the winner of the boys' wrestling event at the eighty-sixth Olympiad who was said to have been his \"beloved\" (eromenos), by carving \"Pantarkes kalos\" (\"Pantarkes is beautiful\") into Zeus's little finger, and by placing a relief of the boy crowning himself at the feet of the statue.  According to Pausanias, \"when the image was quite finished Pheidias prayed the god to show by a sign whether the work was to his liking. Immediately, runs the legend, a thunderbolt fell on that part of the floor where down to the present day the bronze jar stood to cover the place.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Loss and destruction.", "content": "According to Roman historian Suetonius, the Roman Emperor Caligula gave orders that \"such statues of the gods as were especially famous for their sanctity or their artistic merit, including that of Jupiter at Olympia, should be brought from Greece, in order to remove their heads and put his own in their place.\" Before this could happen, the emperor was assassinated in 41 AD; his death was supposedly foretold by the statue, which \"suddenly uttered such a peal of laughter that the scaffolding collapsed and the workmen took to their heels.\"  In 391 AD, the Roman emperor Theodosius I banned participation in pagan cults and closed the temples. The sanctuary at Olympia fell into disuse. The circumstances of the statue's eventual destruction are unknown. The 11th-century Byzantine historian Georgios Kedrenos records a tradition that it was carried off to Constantinople, where it was destroyed in the great fire of the Palace of Lausus, in 475 AD.  Alternatively, the statue perished along with the temple, which was severely damaged by fire in 425 AD. But earlier loss or damage is implied by Lucian of Samosata in the later 2nd century, who referenced it in \"Timon\": \"they have laid hands on your person at Olympia, my lord High-Thunderer, and you had not the energy to wake the dogs or call in the neighbours; surely they might have come to the rescue and caught the fellows before they had finished packing up the loot.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phidias' workshop.", "content": "The approximate date of the statue (the third quarter of the 5th century BC) was confirmed in the rediscovery (1954–58) of Phidias' workshop, approximately where Pausanias said the statue of Zeus was constructed. Archaeological finds included tools for working gold and ivory, ivory chippings, precious stones and terracotta moulds. Most of the latter were used to create glass plaques, and to form the statue's robe from sheets of glass, naturalistically draped and folded, then gilded. A cup inscribed \"ΦΕΙΔΙΟΥ ΕΙΜΙ\" or \"I belong to Phidias\" was found at the site.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Statue of Zeus at Olympia was a giant seated figure, about tall, made by the Greek sculptor Phidias around 435 BC at the sanctuary of Olympia, Greece, and erected in the Temple of Zeus there.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971002}
{"src_title": "At sign", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest yet discovered symbol in this shape is found in a Bulgarian translation of a Greek chronicle written by Constantinos Manasses in 1345. Held today in the Vatican Apostolic Library, it features the @ symbol in place of the capital letter alpha \"Α\" in the word Amen. Why it was used in this context is still a mystery. The evolution of the symbol as used today is not recorded.  Whatever the origin of the @ symbol, the history of its usage is more well-known: it has long been used in Spanish and Portuguese as an abbreviation of \"arroba\", a unit of weight equivalent to 25 pounds, and derived from the Arabic expression of \"the quarter\" ( pronounced \"ar-rubʿ\"). An Italian academic, Giorgio Stabile, claims to have traced the @ symbol to the 16th century, in a mercantile document sent by Florentine Francesco Lapi from Seville to Rome on May 4, 1536. The document is about commerce with Pizarro, in particular the price of an @ of wine in Peru. Currently, the word \"arroba\" means both the at-symbol and a unit of weight. In Venetian, the symbol was interpreted to mean amphora (), a unit of weight and volume based upon the capacity of the standard amphora jar since the 6th century.  Until now the first historical document containing a symbol resembling a @ as a commercial one is the Spanish \"Taula de Ariza\", a registry to denote a wheat shipment from Castile to Aragon in 1448; even though the oldest fully developed modern @ sign is the one found on the above-mentioned Florentine letter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern use.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial usage.", "content": "In contemporary English usage, @ is a commercial symbol, meaning \"at\" and \"at the rate of\". It has rarely been used in financial ledgers, and is not used in standard typography.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trademark.", "content": "In 2012, \"@\" was registered as a trademark with the German Patent and Trade Mark Office. A cancellation request was filed in 2013, and the cancellation was ultimately confirmed by the German Federal Patent Court in 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Email addresses.", "content": "A common contemporary use of @ is in email addresses (using the SMTP system), as in codice_1 (the user codice_2 located \"at\" the domain codice_3). BBN Technologies' Ray Tomlinson is credited with introducing this usage in 1971. This idea of the symbol representing \"located at\" in the form codice_4 is also seen in other tools and protocols; for example, the Unix shell command codice_5 tries to establish an ssh connection to the computer with the hostname codice_6 using the username codice_2.  On web pages, organizations often obscure email addresses of their members or employees by omitting the @. This practice, known as address munging, makes the email addresses less vulnerable to spam programs that scan the internet for them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Social media.", "content": "On some social media platforms and forums, usernames are in the form codice_8; this type of username is frequently referred to as a \"handle\".  On online forums without threaded discussions, @ is commonly used to denote a reply; for instance: codice_9 to respond to a comment Jane made earlier. Similarly, in some cases, @ is used for \"attention\" in email messages originally sent to someone else. For example, if an email was sent from Catherine to Steve, but in the body of the email, Catherine wants to make Keirsten aware of something, Catherine will start the line to indicate to Keirsten that the following sentence concerns her. This also helps with mobile email users who cannot see bold or color in email.  In microblogging (such as Twitter and GNU social-based microblogs), @ before the user name is used to send publicly readable replies (e.g. codice_10). The blog and client software can automatically interpret these as links to the user in question. When included as part of a person's or company's contact details, an @ symbol followed by a name is normally understood to refer to a Twitter ID. A similar use of the @ symbol was also made available to Facebook users on September 15, 2009. In Internet Relay Chat (IRC), it is shown before users' nicks to denote they have operator status on a channel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports usage.", "content": "In American English the @ can be used to add information about a sporting event. Where opposing sports teams have their names separated by a \"v\" (for versus), the away team can be written first - and the normal \"v\" replaced with @ to convey at which team's home field the game will be played. This usage is not followed in British English, since conventionally the home team is written first.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Computer languages.", "content": "@ is used in various programming languages and other computer languages, although there is not a consistent theme to its usage. For example:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gender neutrality in Spanish.", "content": "In Spanish, where many words end in \"-o\" when in the masculine gender and end \"-a\" in the feminine, @ is sometimes used as a gender-neutral substitute for the default \"o\" ending. For example, the word \"amigos\" traditionally represents not only male friends, but also a mixed group, or where the genders are not known. The proponents of gender-inclusive language would replace it with \"amig@s\" in these latter two cases, and use \"amigos\" only when the group referred to is all-male and \"amigas\" only when the group is all female. The Real Academia Española disapproves of this usage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses and meanings.", "content": "In some communities, @ is, against current trends, appended to the end of the nick, e.g. deraadt@, to preserve its original meaning − \"<nick> \"at\" (this site/community)\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Names in other languages.", "content": "In many languages other than English, although most typewriters included the symbol, the use of @ was less common before email became widespread in the mid-1990s. Consequently, it is often perceived in those languages as denoting \"the Internet\", computerization, or modernization in general.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unicode.", "content": "In unicode, the at sign is encoded as, or codice_11 in HTML5.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The at sign,, is normally read aloud as \"at\"; it is also commonly called the at symbol or commercial at. It is used as an accounting and invoice abbreviation meaning \"at a rate of\" (e.g. 7 widgets @ £2 per widget = £14), but it is now seen more widely in email addresses and social media platform handles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971003}
{"src_title": "Epic poetry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The English word \"epic\" comes from the Latin \"epicus\", which itself comes from the Ancient Greek adjective (\"epikos\"), from (\"epos\"), \"word, story, poem.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "Originating before the invention of writing, primary epics were composed by bards who used complex rhetorical and metrical schemes by which they could memorize the epic as received in tradition and add to the epic in their performances. Hence aside from writers like Dante, Camões, and Milton, Apollonius of Rhodes in his \"Argonautica\" and Virgil in \"Aeneid\" adopted and adapted Homer's style and subject matter, but used devices available only to those who write, and in their works Nonnus' \"Dionysiaca\" and Tulsidas' \"Sri Ramacharit Manas\" also used stylistic elements typical of epics.  The oldest epic recognized is the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" (), which was recorded in ancient Sumer during the Neo-Sumerian Empire. The poem details the exploits of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk. Although recognized as a historical figure, Gilgamesh, as represented in the epic, is a largely legendary or mythical figure.  The longest epic written is the ancient Indian \"Mahabharata\", which consists of 100,000 ślokas or over 200,000 verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), as well as long prose passages, so that at ~1.8 million words it is roughly four times the length of the \"Rāmāyaṇa\", and roughly ten times the length of the \"Iliad\" and the \"Odyssey\" combined.  Famous examples of epic poetry include the Sumerian \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", the ancient Indian \"Mahabharata\" and \"Rāmāyaṇa\", the Tamil \"Silappatikaram\", the Persian \"Shahnameh\", the Ancient Greek \"Odyssey\" and \"Iliad\", Virgil's \"Aeneid\", the Old English \"Beowulf\", Dante's \"Divine Comedy\", the Finnish \"Kalevala\", the German \"Nibelungenlied\", the French \"Song of Roland\", the Spanish \"Cantar de mio Cid\", the Portuguese Os \"Lusíadas\", the Armenian Daredevils of Sassoun, John Milton's \"Paradise Lost\", and Adam Mickiewicz's \"Pan Tadeusz\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oral epics.", "content": "The first epics were products of preliterate societies and oral history poetic traditions. Oral tradition was used alongside written scriptures to communicate and facilitate the spread of culture. In these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and from performer to performer by purely oral means. Early twentieth-century study of living oral epic traditions in the Balkans by Milman Parry and Albert Lord demonstrated the paratactic model used for composing these poems. What they demonstrated was that oral epics tend to be constructed in short episodes, each of equal status, interest and importance. This facilitates memorization, as the poet is recalling each episode in turn and using the completed episodes to recreate the entire epic as he performs it. Parry and Lord also contend that the most likely source for written texts of the epics of Homer was dictation from an oral performance.  Milman Parry and Albert Lord have argued that the Homeric epics, the earliest works of Western literature, were fundamentally an oral poetic form. These works form the basis of the epic genre in Western literature. Nearly all of Western epic (including Virgil's \"Aeneid\" and Dante's \"Divine Comedy\") self-consciously presents itself as a continuation of the tradition begun by these poems. Classical epic poetry employs a meter called dactylic hexameter and recounts a journey, either physical (as typified by Odysseus in the \"Odyssey\") or mental (as typified by Achilles in the \"Iliad\") or both. Epics also tend to highlight cultural norms and to define or call into question cultural values, particularly as they pertain to heroism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition and conventions.", "content": "In his work \"Poetics\", Aristotle defines an epic as one of the forms of poetry, contrasted with lyric poetry and with drama in the form of tragedy and comedy.  In \"A Handbook to Literature\" (1999), Harmon and Holman define an epic: Epic: a long narrative poem in elevated style presenting characters of high position in adventures forming an organic whole through their relation to a central heroic figure and through their development of episodes important to the history of a nation or race. (Harmon and Holman)  An attempt to delineate ten main characteristics of an epic:  The hero generally participates in a cyclical journey or quest, faces adversaries that try to defeat him in his journey and returns home significantly transformed by his journey. The epic hero illustrates traits, performs deeds, and exemplifies certain morals that are valued by the society the epic originates from. Many epic heroes are recurring characters in the legends of their native cultures.  Conventions of epics:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Form.", "content": "Many verse forms have been used in epic poems through the ages, but each language's literature typically gravitates to one form, or at least to a very limited set. Ancient Sumerian epic poems did not use any kind of poetic meter and lines did not have consistent lengths; instead, Sumerian poems derived their rhythm solely through constant repetition, with subtle variations between lines. Indo-European epic poetry, by contrast, usually places strong emphasis on the importance of line consistency and poetic meter. Ancient Greek and Latin poems were written in dactylic hexameter. Old English, German and Norse poems were written in alliterative verse, usually without rhyme. Italian, Spanish and Portuguese long poems were usually written in terza rima or especially ottava rima. From the 14th century English epic poems were written in heroic couplets, and rhyme royal, though in the 16th century the Spenserian stanza and blank verse were also introduced. The French alexandrine is currently the heroic line in French literature, though in earlier periods the decasyllable took precedence. In Polish literature, couplets of Polish alexandrines (syllabic lines of 7+6 syllables) prevail. In Russian, iambic tetrameter verse is the most popular. In Serbian poetry, the decasyllable is the only form employed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An epic poem, epic, epos, or epopee is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily involving a time beyond living memory in which occurred the extraordinary doings of the extraordinary men and women who, in dealings with the gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants, the poet and his audience, to understand themselves as a people or nation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971004}
{"src_title": "Tropics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"tropic\" comes from Ancient Greek τροπή (\"tropē\"), meaning \"to turn\" or \"change direction\", as the Sun appears to cease its southerly course when it reaches this latitude and begins moving back to the north.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seasons and climate.", "content": "\"Tropical\" is sometimes used in a general sense for a tropical climate to mean warm to hot and moist year-round, often with the sense of lush vegetation.  Many tropical areas have a dry and wet season. The wet season, rainy season or green season is the time of year, ranging from one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls. Areas with wet seasons are disseminated across portions of the tropics and subtropics. Under the Köppen climate classification, for tropical climates, a wet-season month is defined as a month where average precipitation is or more. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year. Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons see a break in rainfall during mid-season when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough moves poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season; typical vegetation in these areas ranges from moist seasonal tropical forests to savannahs.  When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves and vegetation grows significantly, leading to crop yields late in the season. Floods cause rivers to overflow their banks, and some animals to retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases. The incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature.  However, regions within the tropics may well not have a tropical climate. Under the Köppen climate classification, much of the area within the geographical tropics is classed not as \"tropical\" but as \"dry\" (arid or semi-arid), including the Sahara Desert, the Atacama Desert and Australian Outback. Also, there are alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea, Mount Kilimanjaro, and the Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Perú.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecosystems.", "content": "Tropical plants and animals are those species native to the tropics. Tropical ecosystems may consist of tropical rainforests, seasonal tropical forests, dry (often deciduous) forests, spiny forests, desert and other habitat types. There are often significant areas of biodiversity, and species endemism present, particularly in rainforests and seasonal forests. Some examples of important biodiversity and high endemism ecosystems are El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico, Costa Rican and Nicaraguan rainforests, Amazon Rainforest territories of several South American countries, Madagascar dry deciduous forests, the Waterberg Biosphere of South Africa, and eastern Madagascar rainforests. Often the soils of tropical forests are low in nutrient content, making them quite vulnerable to slash-and-burn deforestation techniques, which are sometimes an element of shifting cultivation agricultural systems.  In biogeography, the tropics are divided into Paleotropics (Africa, Asia and Australia) and Neotropics (Caribbean, Central America, and South America). Together, they are sometimes referred to as the Pantropic. The system of biogeographic realms differs somewhat; the Neotropical realm includes both the Neotropics and temperate South America, and the Paleotropics correspond to the Afrotropical, Indomalayan, Oceanian, and tropical Australasian realms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tropicality.", "content": "Tropicality refers to the image that people outside the tropics have of the region, ranging from critical to verging on fetishism. The idea of tropicality gained renewed interest in geographical discourse when French geographer Pierre Gourou published \"Les Pays Tropicaux\" (\"The Tropical World\" in English), in the late 1940s.  Tropicality encompassed two images. One, is that the tropics represent a 'Garden of Eden', a heaven on Earth, a land of rich biodiversity - aka a tropical paradise. The alternative is that the tropics consist of wild, unconquerable nature. The latter view was often discussed in old Western literature more so than the first. Evidence suggests over time that the view of the tropics as such in popular literature has been supplanted by more well-rounded and sophisticated interpretations.  Western scholars tried to theorize reasons about why tropical areas were relatively more inhospitable to human civilisations then those existing in colder regions of the Northern Hemisphere. A popular explanation focused on the differences in climate. Tropical jungles and rainforests have much more humid and hotter weather than colder and drier temperaments of the Northern Hemisphere. This theme led to some scholars to suggest that humid hot climates correlate to human populations lacking control over nature e.g.'the wild Amazonian rainforests'.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The tropics is the region of the Earth surrounding the Equator. They are delimited in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S; these latitudes correspond to the axial tilt of the Earth. The tropics are also referred to as the tropical zone and the torrid zone (see geographical zone). The tropics include all the areas on the Earth where the Sun contacts a point directly overhead at least once during the solar year (which is a subsolar point) - thus the latitude of the tropics is roughly equal to the angle of the Earth's axial tilt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971005}
{"src_title": "Alexander Rodchenko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Rodchenko was born in St. Petersburg to a working-class family who moved to Kazan after the death of his father, in 1909. He became an artist without having had any exposure to the art world, drawing much inspiration from art magazines. In 1910, Rodchenko began studies under Nicolai Fechin and Georgii Medvedev at the Kazan Art School, where he met Varvara Stepanova, whom he later married.  After 1914, he continued his artistic training at the Stroganov Institute in Moscow, where he created his first abstract drawings, influenced by the Suprematism of Kazimir Malevich, in 1915. The following year, he participated in \"The Store\" exhibition organized by Vladimir Tatlin, who was another formative influence.  Rodchenko's work was heavily influenced by Cubism and Futurism, as well as by Malevich's Suprematist compositions, which featured geometric forms deployed against a white background. While Rodchenko was a student of Tatlin's he was also his assistant, and the interest in figuration that characterized Rodchenko's early work disappeared as he experimented with the elements of design. He utilized a compass and ruler in creating his paintings, with the goal of eliminating expressive brushwork.  Rodchenko worked in Narkompros and he was one of the organizers of RABIS. RABIS was formed in 1919–1920.  Rodchenko was appointed Director of the Museum Bureau and Purchasing Fund by the Bolshevik Government in 1920, responsible for the reorganization of art schools and museums. He became secretary of the Moscow Artists' Union and set up the Fine Arts Division of the People's Commissariat for Education, and helped found the Institute for Artistic Culture.  He taught from 1920 to 1930 at the Higher Technical-Artistic Studios (VKhUTEMAS/VKhUTEIN), a Bauhaus organization with a \"checkered career\". It was disbanded in 1930.  In 1921 he became a member of the Productivist group, with Stepanova and Aleksei Gan, which advocated the incorporation of art into everyday life. He gave up painting in order to concentrate on graphic design for posters, books, and films. He was deeply influenced by the ideas and practice of the filmmaker Dziga Vertov, with whom he worked intensively in 1922.  Impressed by the photomontage of the German Dadaists, Rodchenko began his own experiments in the medium, first employing found images in 1923, and from 1924 on, shooting his own photographs as well. His first published photomontage illustrated Mayakovsky's poem, \"About This\", in 1923. In 1924, Rodchenko produced what is likely his most famous poster, an advertisement for the Lengiz Publishing House sometimes titled \"Books\", which features a young woman with a cupped hand shouting \"книги по всем отраслям знания\" (Books in all branches of knowledge), printed in modernist typography.  From 1923 to 1928 Rodchenko collaborated closely with Mayakovsky (of whom he took several portraits) on the design and layout of LEF and \"Novy LEF\", the publications of Constructivist artists. Many of his photographs appeared in or were used as covers for these and other journals. His images eliminated unnecessary detail, emphasized dynamic diagonal composition, and were concerned with the placement and movement of objects in space. During this period, he and Stepanova painted the well-known panels of the Mosselprom building in Moscow. Their daughter, Varvara Rodchenko, was born in 1925.  Throughout the 1920s, Rodchenko's work was very abstract. Rodchenko joined the October Group of artists in 1928 but was expelled three years later, charged with \"formalism\", an accusation first raised in the pages of Sovetskoe Foto in 1928. In the 1930s, with the changing Party guidelines governing artistic practice in favour of Socialist Realism, he concentrated on sports photography and images of parades and other choreographed movements. He returned to painting in the late 1930s, stopped photographing in 1942, and produced abstract expressionist works in the 1940s. He continued to organize photography exhibitions for the government during these years. He died in Moscow in 1956.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "Much of the work of 20th century graphic designers is a direct result of Rodchenko's earlier work in the field. His influence has been pervasive. American conceptual artist Barbara Kruger owes a debt to Rodchenko's work.  His portrait of Lilya Brik has inspired a number of subsequent works, including the cover art for a number of music albums. Among them are the influential Dutch punk band The Ex, which published a series of 7\" vinyl albums, each with a variation on the Lilya Brik portrait theme, the cover of Mike + the Mechanics album \"Word of Mouth\", and the cover of the Franz Ferdinand album \"You Could Have It So Much Better\". The poster for \"One-Sixth Part of the World\" was the basis for the cover of \"Take Me Out\", also by Franz Ferdinand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The end of painting.", "content": "In 1921, Rodchenko executed the first true monochrome paintings, first displayed in the 5x5=25 exhibition in Moscow. For artists of the Russian Revolution, Rodchenko's radical action was full of utopian possibility. It marked the end of easel painting – perhaps even the end of art – along with the end of bourgeois norms and practices. It cleared the way for the beginning of a new Russian life, a new mode of production, a new culture. Rodchenko later proclaimed, \"I reduced painting to its logical conclusion and exhibited three canvases: red, blue, and yellow. I affirmed: it's all over.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aleksander Mikhailovich Rodchenko (; – December 3, 1956) was a Russian artist, sculptor, photographer and graphic designer. He was one of the founders of constructivism and Russian design; he was married to the artist Varvara Stepanova.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971006}
{"src_title": "Prose", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Prose in its simplicity and loosely defined structure is broadly adaptable to spoken dialogue, factual discourse, and to topical and fictional writing. It is systematically produced and published within literature, journalism (including newspapers, magazines, and broadcasting), encyclopedias, film, history, philosophy, law, and in almost all forms and processes requiring human communication.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"prose\" first appears in English in the 14th century. It is derived from the Old French \"prose\", which in turn originates in the Latin expression \"prosa oratio\" (literally, straightforward or direct speech).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Isaac Newton in \"The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms\" wrote \"The Greek Antiquities are full of Poetical Fictions, because the Greeks wrote nothing in Prose, before the Conquest of Asia by Cyrus the Persian. Then Pherecydes Scyrius and Cadmus Milesius introduced the writing in Prose.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Prose lacks the more formal metrical structure of verse that can be found in traditional poetry. Prose comprises full grammatical sentences, which then constitute paragraphs while overlooking aesthetic appeal, whereas poetry often involves a metrical or rhyming scheme. Some works of prose contain traces of metrical structure or versification and a conscious blend of the two literature formats known as prose poetry. Verse is considered to be more systematic or formulaic, whereas prose is the most reflective of ordinary (often conversational) speech. On this point, Samuel Taylor Coleridge jokingly requested that novice poets should know the \"definitions of prose and poetry; that is, prose—words in their best order; poetry—the best words in their best order.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Many types of prose exist, which include \"nonfictional prose\", \"heroic prose\", \"prose poem\", \"polyphonic prose\", \"alliterative prose\", \"prose fiction\", and \"village prose\" in Russian literature. A prose poem is a composition in prose that has some of the qualities of a poem.  Many forms of creative or literary writing use prose, including novels and short stories. Writer Truman Capote thought that the short story was \"the most difficult and disciplining form of prose writing extant\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prose is a form or technique of language that exhibits a natural flow of speech and grammatical structure. Novels, textbooks and newspaper articles are all examples of prose. The word prose is frequently used in opposition to traditional poetry, which is language with a regular structure and a common unit of verse based on metre or rhyme. However, as T. S. Eliot noted, whereas \"the distinction between verse and prose is clear, the distinction between poetry and prose is obscure\"; developments in modern literature, including free verse and prose poetry, have led to the two techniques indicating two ends on a spectrum of ways to compose language, as opposed to two discrete options.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971007}
{"src_title": "Große Kreisstadt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Administration rules.", "content": "The term is officially used and quoted. In different German federal states (\"Bundesländer\") there are different laws and administration rules about when exactly a town can obtain this status but they do not differ very much. The mayor of a \"Große Kreisstadt\" usually bears the title of an \"Oberbürgermeister\" (\"Chief Burgomaster\").  At the moment reforms are being discussed in some states. It is not a main goal of these reforms to make the rules more similar; on the contrary, the district towns are thought to be important in order to preserve the existing regional diversity. In Germany federal states have very similar administration rules, so they are not always comparable to U.S. states for example.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Große Kreisstädte\" in Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria and Saxony.", "content": "District-affiliated municipalities may apply for the status of a \"Große Kreisstadt\", conferred by decree of the state's interior ministry. Assuming certain sovereign functions of the district, the municipal authorities have to ensure they are able to carry out the assigned responsibilities. In the state of Baden-Württemberg, the necessary population to obtain this status is 20,000. In Bavaria 30,000 inhabitants are necessary; in Saxony, the minimum population is 17,500 (until 2008: 20,000). Usually, the motion is accepted.  The status of a \"Große Kreisstadt\" was first implemented by the Baden-Württemberg \"Gemeindeordnung\" on 1 April 1956, followed by Bavaria, where in the course of a 1972 administrative reform, the status was conferred to 23 former independent cities regardless of the population. The smallest \"Große Kreisstadt\" is Rothenburg ob der Tauber with about 10,900 inhabitants. Further conferments require a quorum of 30,000, however, in 1998 the historic imperial cities of Dinkelsbühl and Donauwörth were elevated by Bavarian state law, though they did not reach the necessary number of inhabitants. Currently, there are 93 \"Große Kreisstädte\" in Baden-Württemberg, 29 in Bavaria, and 50 in Saxony.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparable towns in other states.", "content": "In some German states other terms are used, for example \"Große selbständige Stadt\" in Lower Saxony, conclusively assigned by law to the towns of Celle, Cuxhaven, Goslar, Hameln, Hildesheim, Lingen and Lüneburg in the course of the 1970s administrative reform. District-affiliated municipalities with a population of more than 30,000 hold the status of a \"Selbständige Gemeinde\", territorial authorities with more than 20,000 inhabitants could apply for conferment by the Lower Saxon state government.  In the states of Brandenburg, North Rhine-Westphalia and Rhineland-Palatinate, the status of a \"Große kreisangehörige Stadt\" is conferred by the state government to municipalities with a certain population (Brandenburg: 35,000; North Rhine-Westphalia: 60,000; Rhineland-Palatinate: 25,000). In Brandenburg and North Rhine-Westphalia, there are also \"Mittlere kreisangehörige Städte\" with a population of more than 25,000. In Thuringia, a district-affiliated local authority ensuring adequate administrative and financial parameters may apply for the status. In 2005 the Schleswig-Holstein government declared Norderstedt in Segeberg District (part of the Hamburg Metropolitan Region) a \"Große kreisangehörige Stadt\".  In Saarland, the towns of Sankt Ingbert and Völklingen hold the comparable status of a district-affiliated \"Mittelstadt\". In Hesse, seven towns with a population of more than 50,000 obtained the status of a \"Sonderstatusstadt\": Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Fulda, Giessen, Hanau, Marburg, Rüsselsheim and Wetzlar.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Große Kreisstadt (, \"major district town\") is a term in the municipal law (\"Gemeindeordnung\") of several German states. In some federal states the term is used as a special legal status for a district-affiliated town—as distinct from an independent city—with additional competences in comparison with other municipalities of the district. The title is based on sovereign conferment by the state government.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971008}
{"src_title": "Gymnosperm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "The current formal classification of the living gymnosperms is the \"Acrogymnospermae\", which form a monophyletic group within the spermatophytes. The wider \"Gymnospermae\" group includes extinct gymnosperms and is thought to be paraphyletic. The fossil record of gymnosperms includes many distinctive taxa that do not belong to the four modern groups, including seed-bearing trees that have a somewhat fern-like vegetative morphology (the so-called \"seed ferns\" or pteridosperms). When fossil gymnosperms such as these and the Bennettitales, glossopterids, and \"Caytonia\" are considered, it is clear that angiosperms are nested within a larger gymnospermae clade, although which group of gymnosperms is their closest relative remains unclear.  The extant gymnosperms include 12 main families and 83 genera which contain more than 1000 known species.  Subclass Cycadidae  Subclass Ginkgoidae  Subclass Gnetidae  Subclass Pinidae", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diversity and origin.", "content": "There are over 1000 living species of gymnosperm. It is widely accepted that the gymnosperms originated in the late Carboniferous period, replacing the lycopsid rainforests of the tropical region. This appears to have been the result of a whole genome duplication event around. Early characteristics of seed plants were evident in fossil progymnosperms of the late Devonian period around 383 million years ago. It has been suggested that during the mid-Mesozoic era, pollination of some extinct groups of gymnosperms was by extinct species of scorpionflies that had specialized proboscis for feeding on pollination drops. The scorpionflies likely engaged in pollination mutualisms with gymnosperms, long before the similar and independent coevolution of nectar-feeding insects on angiosperms. Evidence has also been found that mid-Mesozoic gymnosperms were pollinated by Kalligrammatid lacewings, a now-extinct genus with members which (in an example of convergent evolution) resembled the modern butterflies that arose far later.  Conifers are by far the most abundant extant group of gymnosperms with six to eight families, with a total of 65–70 genera and 600–630 species (696 accepted names). Conifers are woody plants and most are evergreens. The leaves of many conifers are long, thin and needle-like, other species, including most Cupressaceae and some Podocarpaceae, have flat, triangular scale-like leaves. \"Agathis\" in Araucariaceae and \"Nageia\" in Podocarpaceae have broad, flat strap-shaped leaves.  Cycads are the next most abundant group of gymnosperms, with two or three families, 11 genera, and approximately 338 species. A majority of cycads are native to tropical climates and are most abundantly found in regions near the equator. The other extant groups are the 95–100 species of Gnetales and one species of Ginkgo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Gymnosperms have major economic uses. Pine, fir, spruce, and cedar are all examples of conifers that are used for lumber, paper production, and resin. Some other common uses for gymnosperms are soap, varnish, nail polish, food, gum, and perfumes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "Gymnosperms, like all vascular plants, have a sporophyte-dominant life cycle, which means they spend most of their life cycle with diploid cells, while the gametophyte (gamete-bearing phase) is relatively short-lived. Two spore types, microspores and megaspores, are typically produced in pollen cones or ovulate cones, respectively. Gametophytes, as with all heterosporous plants, develop within the spore wall. Pollen grains (microgametophytes) mature from microspores, and ultimately produce sperm cells. Megagametophytes develop from megaspores and are retained within the ovule. Gymnosperms produce multiple archegonia, which produce the female gamete. During pollination, pollen grains are physically transferred between plants from the pollen cone to the ovule. Pollen is usually moved by wind or insects. Whole grains enter each ovule through a microscopic gap in the ovule coat (integument) called the micropyle. The pollen grains mature further inside the ovule and produce sperm cells. Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms. Cycads and \"Ginkgo\" have motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm with no flagella that are moved along a pollen tube to the egg. After syngamy (joining of the sperm and egg cell), the zygote develops into an embryo (young sporophyte). More than one embryo is usually initiated in each gymnosperm seed. The mature seed comprises the embryo and the remains of the female gametophyte, which serves as a food supply, and the seed coat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "The first published sequenced genome for any gymnospermae was the genome of \"Picea abies\" in 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The gymnosperms, also known as Acrogymnospermae, are a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, cycads, \"Ginkgo\", and gnetophytes. The term \"gymnosperm\" comes from the composite word in ( and ), literally meaning \"naked seeds\". The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called ovules in their unfertilized state). The non-encased condition of their seeds contrasts with the seeds and ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are enclosed within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, which are often modified to form cones, or solitary as in yew, \"Torreya\", \"Ginkgo\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971009}
{"src_title": "Catharanthus roseus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synonyms.", "content": "Two varieties are recognized", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Catharanthus roseus\" is an evergreen subshrub or herbaceous plant growing tall. The leaves are oval to oblong, long and broad, glossy green, hairless, with a pale midrib and a short petiole long; they are arranged in opposite pairs. The flowers are white to dark pink with a darker red centre, with a basal tube long and a corolla diameter with five petal-like lobes. The fruit is a pair of follicles long and broad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Cape periwinkles are of two types - foliage periwinkle (which often grows wild on cliffs) and annual periwinkle (\"Catharanthus roseus\"). In the wild, \"C. roseus\" is an endangered plant; the main cause of decline is habitat destruction by slash and burn agriculture. It is also, however, widely cultivated and is naturalised in subtropical and tropical areas of the world like Australia, Malaysia, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. It is so well adapted to growth in Australia, that it is listed as a noxious weed in Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory, and also in parts of eastern Queensland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "As an ornamental plant, it is appreciated for its hardiness in dry and nutritionally deficient conditions, popular in subtropical gardens where temperatures never fall below, and as a warm-season bedding plant in temperate gardens. It is noted for its long flowering period, throughout the year in tropical conditions, and from spring to late autumn, in warm temperate climates. Full sun and well-drained soil are preferred. Numerous cultivars have been selected, for variation in flower colour (white, mauve, peach, scarlet and reddish-orange), and also for tolerance of cooler growing conditions in temperate regions. Notable cultivars include 'Albus' (white flowers), 'Grape Cooler' (rose-pink; cool-tolerant), the Ocellatus Group (various colours), and 'Peppermint Cooler' (white with a red centre; cool-tolerant).  In the UK it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The species has long been cultivated for herbal medicine. In Ayurveda (Indian traditional medicine) the extracts of its roots and shoots, though poisonous, are used against several diseases. In traditional Chinese medicine, extracts from it have been used against numerous diseases, including diabetes, malaria, and Hodgkin's lymphoma. Many of the \"vinca\" alkaloids were first isolated from \"Catharanthus roseus\", including vinblastine and vincristine used in the treatment of leukemia and Hodgkin's lymphoma.  This conflict between historical indigenous use, and recent patents on \"C.roseus\"-derived drugs by western pharmaceutical companies, without compensation, has led to accusations of biopiracy.  \"C. roseus\" can be extremely toxic if consumed orally by humans, and is cited (under its synonym \"Vinca rosea\") in the Louisiana State Act 159.  \"C. roseus\" is used in plant pathology as an experimental host for phytoplasmas. This is because it is easy to infect with a large majority of phytoplasmas, and also often has very distinctive symptoms such as phyllody and significantly reduced leaf size.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical constituents.", "content": "Vinblastine and vincristine, chemotherapy medications used to treat several types of cancers, are found in the plant and are biosynthesised from the coupling of the alkaloids catharanthine and vindoline. The newer semi-synthetic chemotherapeutic agent vinorelbine, used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer, can be prepared either from vindoline and catharanthine or from the \"vinca\" alkaloid leurosine, in both cases via anhydrovinblastine.  Rosinidin is the pink anthocyanidin pigment found in the flowers of \"C. roseus\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Catharanthus roseus, commonly known as bright eyes, Cape periwinkle, graveyard plant, Madagascar periwinkle, old maid, pink periwinkle, rose periwinkle, is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native and endemic to Madagascar, but grown elsewhere as an ornamental and medicinal plant, a source of the drugs vincristine and vinblastine, used to treat cancer. It was formerly included in the genus \"Vinca\" as \"Vinca rosea\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971010}
{"src_title": "Clemens Brentano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Clemens Brentano was born to Peter Anton Brentano and Maximiliane von La Roche, a wealthy merchant family in Frankfurt on 9 September 1778. His father's family was of Italian descent. His sister was writer Bettina von Arnim, who, at a young age, lionised and corresponded with Goethe, and, in 1835, published the correspondence as \"Goethes Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde\" (Goethe's correspondence with a child). Clemens Brentano studied in Halle and Jena, afterwards residing at Heidelberg, Vienna and Berlin. He was close to Wieland, Herder, Goethe, Friedrich Schlegel, Fichte and Tieck.  From 1798 to 1800 Brentano lived in Jena, the first center of the romantic movement. In 1801, he moved to Göttingen, and became a friend of Achim von Arnim. He married writer Sophie Mereau on 29 October 1803. In 1804, he moved to Heidelberg and worked with Arnim on \"Zeitungen für Einsiedler\" and \"Des Knaben Wunderhorn\". After his wife Sophie died in 1806 he married a second time in 1807 to Auguste Bussmann (whose half-sister, Marie de Flavigny, later by marriage the Countess Marie d'Agoult, would become the companion of pianist and composer Franz Liszt). In the years between 1808 and 1818, Brentano lived mostly in Berlin, and from 1819 to 1824 in Dülmen, Westphalia.  In 1818, weary of his somewhat restless and unsettled life, he returned to the practice of the Catholic faith and withdrew to the monastery of Dülmen, where he lived for some years in strict seclusion. He took on there the position of secretary to the Catholic visionary nun, the Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich.  It was claimed that from 1802 until her death, she bore the wounds of the Crown of Thorns, and from 1812, the full stigmata, a cross over her heart and the wound from the lance. Clemens Brentano made her acquaintance in 1818 and remained at the foot of the stigmatist's bed copying her dictation until 1824. When she died, he prepared an index of the visions and revelations from her journal, \"The Dolorous Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ\" (published 1833). One of these visions made known by Brentano later resulted in the actual identification of the real House of the Virgin Mary in Ephesus by Abbé Julien Gouyet, a French priest, during 1881. However, some posthumous investigations in 1923 and 1928 made it uncertain how much of the books he attributed to Emmerich were actually his own creation and the works were discarded for her beatification process.  The latter part of his life he spent in Regensburg, Frankfurt and Munich, actively engaged in promoting the Catholic faith. Brentano assisted Ludwig Achim von Arnim, his brother-in-law, in the collection of folk-songs forming \"Des Knaben Wunderhorn\" (1805–1808), which Gustav Mahler drew upon for his song cycle. He died in Aschaffenburg.  Brentano, whose early writings were published under the pseudonym Maria, belonged to the Heidelberg group of German romantic writers, and his works are marked by excess of fantastic imagery and by abrupt, bizarre modes of expression. His first published writings were \"Satiren und poetische Spiele\" (Leipzig, 1800), a romance \"Godwi oder Das steinerne Bild der Mutter\" (2 vols., Frankfort, 1801), and a musical drama \"Die lustigen Musikanten\" (Frankfort, 1803). Of his dramas the best are \"Ponce de Leon\" (1804), \"Victoria und ihre Geschwister\" (Berlin, 1817) and \"Die Grundung Prags\" (Pesth, 1815).  On the whole his finest work is the collection of \"Romanzen vom Rosenkranz\" (published posthumously in 1852); his short stories, and more especially the charming \"Geschichte vom braven Kasperl und dem schönen Annerl\" (1817), which has been translated into English, were very popular.  Brentano's collected works, edited by his brother Christian, appeared at Frankfurt in 9 vols. (1851–1855). Selections have been edited by J. B. Diel (1873), M. Koch (1892), and J. Dohmke (1893). See J. B. Diel and William Kreiten, \"Klemens Brentano\" (2 vols, 1877–1878), the introduction to Koch's edition, and R. Steig, \"A. von Arnim und K. Brentano\" (1894).  In his honor the Clemens Brentano prize is awarded for German literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical settings and cultural references.", "content": "Richard Strauss set six poems by Brentano in \"Sechs Lieder\", Op. 68, in 1918, which are also known as his Brentano Lieder.  Brentano's work is referenced in Thomas Mann's novel \"Doctor Faustus\". A cycle of thirteen songs, based on Brentano's poems, is noted in Chapter XXI as one of the composer protagonist's most significant early works.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clemens Wenzeslaus Brentano (also Klemens; pseudonym: Clemens Maria Brentano ; ; 9 September 1778 – 28 July 1842) was a German poet and novelist, and a major figure of German Romanticism. He was the uncle, via his brother Christian, of Franz and Lujo Brentano.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971011}
{"src_title": "Max Reinhardt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Reinhardt was born Maximilian Goldmann in the spa town of Baden near Vienna, the son of Wilhelm Goldmann (1846–1911), a Jewish merchant from Stomfa, Hungary, and his wife Rachel Lea Rosi \"Rosa\" Goldmann (née Wengraf) (1851–1924). Having finished school, he began an apprenticeship at a bank, but already took acting lessons. In 1890, he gave his debut on a private stage in Vienna with the stage name \"Max Reinhardt\" (possibly after the protagonist Reinhard Werner in Theodor Storm's novella \"Immensee\"). In 1893 he performed at the re-opened Salzburg City Theatre. One year later, Reinhardt relocated to Germany, joining the Deutsches Theater ensemble under director Otto Brahm in Berlin.  In 1918 Reinhardt purchased Schloss Leopoldskron castle in Salzburg, which had fallen into disrepair. While living in it for nearly 20 years, he painstakingly restored the castle; however he fled due to the Nazis' increasing anti-Semitic aggressions. The castle was seized following Germany's Anschluss annexation of Austria in 1938. After the war, the castle was restored to Reinhardt's heirs, and subsequently the home and grounds became famous as the filming site for the early scenes of the Von Trapp family gardens in the movie \"The Sound of Music\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reinhardt theatres.", "content": "In 1901, Reinhardt together with Friedrich Kayßler and several other theatre colleagues founded the \"Schall und Rauch\" (Sound and Smoke) Kabarett stage in Berlin. Re-opened as \"Kleines Theater\" (Little Theatre) it was the first of numerous stages where Reinhardt worked as a director until the beginning of Nazi rule in 1933. From 1903 to 1905, he managed the Neues Theater (present-day Theater am Schiffbauerdamm) and in 1906 acquired the Deutsches Theater in Berlin. In 1911, he premiered with Karl Vollmöller's \"The Miracle\" in Olympia, London, gaining an international reputation.  In 1910, Siegfried Jacobsohn wrote his book entitled \"Max Reinhardt\". In 1914, he was persuaded to sign the Manifesto of the Ninety-Three, defending the German invasion of Belgium. He was signatory 66; he later expressed regret at signing.  From 1915 to 1918, Reinhardt also worked as director of the Volksbühne theatre and after World War I re-opened the Großes Schauspielhaus (after World War II renamed into Friedrichstadtpalast) in 1919, following its expressionist conversion by Hans Poelzig. By 1930, he ran eleven stages in Berlin and, in addition, managed the Theater in der Josefstadt in Vienna from 1924 to 1933. In 1920, Reinhardt established the Salzburg Festival with Richard Strauss and Hugo von Hofmannsthal, notably directing an annual production of the morality play \"Jedermann\" in which God sends Death to summon a representative of mankind for judgment. In the United States, he successfully directed \"The Miracle\" in 1924, and a popular stage version of Shakespeare's \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\" in 1927.  Reinhardt followed that success by directing a film version of A Midsummer Night's Dream in 1935 using a mostly different cast, that included James Cagney, Mickey Rooney, Joe E. Brown and Olivia de Havilland, amongst others. Mickey Rooney and Olivia de Havilland had also appeared in Reinhardt's 1934 stage production, which was staged at the Hollywood Bowl. The Nazis banned the film because of the Jewish ancestry of both Reinhardt and Felix Mendelssohn, whose music (arranged by Erich Wolfgang Korngold) was used throughout the film.  After the Anschluss of Austria to Nazi-governed Germany in 1938, he emigrated first to Britain, then to the United States. Reinhardt opened the Reinhardt School of the Theatre in Hollywood, on Sunset Boulevard. Several notable stars of the day received classical theater training, among them actress Nanette Fabray. In 1940, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. At that time, he was married to his second wife, actress Helene Thimig, daughter of actor Hugo Thimig.  By employing powerful staging techniques, and integrating stage design, language, music and choreography, Reinhardt introduced new dimensions into German theatre. The Max Reinhardt Seminar in Vienna, which is arguably the most important German-language acting school, was installed implementing his ideas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Max Reinhardt and film.", "content": "Reinhardt took a greater interest in film than most of his contemporaries in the theater world. He made films as a director and from time to time also as a producer. His first staging was the film \"Sumurûn\" in 1910. After that, Reinhardt founded his own film company. He sold the film rights for the film adaptation of the play \"Das Mirakel\" (\"The Miracle\") to Joseph Menchen, whose full-colour 1912 film of \"The Miracle\" gained world-wide success. Controversies around the staging of \"Das Mirakel\", which was shown in the Vienna Rotunde in 1912, led to Reinhardt's retreat from the project. The author of the play, Reinhardt's friend and confidant Karl Gustav Vollmoeller, had French director Michel Carré finish the shooting.  Reinhardt made two films, \"Die Insel der Seligen\" (\"Isle of the Blessed\") and \"Eine venezianische Nacht\" (\"Venetian Nights\"), under a four-picture contract for the German film producer Paul Davidson. Released in 1913 and 1914, respectively, both films received negative reviews from the press and public. The other two films called for in the contract were never made.  Both films demanded much of cameraman Karl Freund because of Reinhardt's special shooting needs, such as filming a lagoon in moonlight. \"Isle of the Blessed\" attracted attention due to its erotic nature. Its ancient mythical setting included sea gods, nymphs, and fauns, and the actors appeared naked. However, the film also fit in with the strict customs of the late German and Austrian empires. The actors had to live up to the demands of double roles. Wilhelm Diegelmann and Willy Prager played the bourgeois fathers as well as the sea gods, a bachelor and a faun, Leopoldine Konstantin the Circe. The shooting for \"Eine venezianische Nacht\" by Karl Gustav Vollmoeller took place in Venice. Maria Carmi played the bride, Alfred Abel the young stranger, and Ernst Matray Anselmus and Pipistrello. The shooting was disturbed by a fanatic who incited the attendant Venetians against the German-speaking staff.  In 1935, Reinhardt directed his first film in the US, \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\". He founded the drama schools Hochschule für Schauspielkunst \"Ernst Busch\" in Berlin and the Max Reinhardt Seminar. Many alumni of these schools made their careers in film.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Reinhardt died of a stroke in New York City in 1943 and is interred at Westchester Hills Cemetery in Hastings-on-Hudson, Westchester County, New York. He was 70 years old. His papers and literary estate are housed at Binghamton University (SUNY), in the Max Reinhardt Archives and Library. His sons by first wife Else Heims (m. 1910–1935), Wolfgang and Gottfried Reinhardt, were well-regarded film producers. One of his grandsons (by adoption), Stephen Reinhardt, was a labor lawyer who served notably on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit from his appointment by Jimmy Carter in 1980 until his death in 2018. Another grandson, Michael Reinhardt, is a successful fashion photographer. In 2015 his granddaughter Jelena Ulrika Reinhardt was appointed as researcher at the University of Perugia in German literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tribute.", "content": "On 18 November 2015, the Friedrichstadt-Palast in Berlin inaugurated a memorial at Friedrichstraße 107 dedicated to the theatre's founders, Max Reinhardt, Hans Poelzig and Erik Charell.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Max Reinhardt (September 9, 1873 – October 30, 1943) was an Austrian-born theatre and film director, intendant, and theatrical producer. With his innovative stage productions, he is regarded as one of the most prominent directors of German-language theatre in the early 20th century. In 1920, he established the Salzburg Festival with the performance of Hofmannsthal's \"Jedermann\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971012}
{"src_title": "Pinaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Members of the family Pinaceae are trees (rarely shrubs) growing from tall, mostly evergreen (except the deciduous \"Larix\" and \"Pseudolarix\"), resinous, monoecious, with subopposite or whorled branches, and spirally arranged, linear (needle-like) leaves. The embryos of Pinaceae have three to 24 cotyledons.  The female cones are large and usually woody, long, with numerous spirally arranged scales, and two winged seeds on each scale. The male cones are small, long, and fall soon after pollination; pollen dispersal is by wind. Seed dispersal is mostly by wind, but some species have large seeds with reduced wings, and are dispersed by birds. Analysis of Pinaceae cones reveals how selective pressure has shaped the evolution of variable cone size and function throughout the family. Variation in cone size in the family has likely resulted from the variation of seed dispersal mechanisms available in their environments over time. All Pinaceae with seeds weighing less than 90 mg are seemingly adapted for wind dispersal. Pines having seeds larger than 100 mg are more likely to have benefited from adaptations that promote animal dispersal, particularly by birds. Pinaceae that persist in areas where tree squirrels are abundant do not seem to have evolved adaptations for bird dispersal.  Boreal conifers have many adaptions for winter. The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs help them shed snow, and many of them seasonally alter their biochemistry to make them more resistant to freezing, called \"hardening\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Classification of the subfamilies and genera of Pinaceae has been subject to debate in the past. Pinaceae ecology, morphology, and history have all been used as the basis for methods of analyses of the family. An 1891 publication divided the family into two subfamilies, using the number and position of resin canals in the primary vascular region of the young taproot as the primary consideration. In a 1910 publication, the family was divided into two tribes based on the occurrence and type of long–short shoot dimorphism.  A more recent classification divided the subfamilies and genera based on the consideration of features of ovulate cone anatomy among extant and fossil members of the family. Below is an example of how the morphology has been used to classify Pinaceae. The 11 genera are grouped into four subfamilies, based on the microscopical anatomy and the morphology of the cones, pollen, wood, seeds, and leaves:  Some genera of interest include \"Pinus\", \"Picea\", \"Abies\", \"Cedrus\", \"Larix\", \"Tsuga\" and \"Pseudotsuga.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Defense mechanisms.", "content": "External stresses on plants have the ability to change the structure and composition of forest ecosystems. Common external stress that \"Pinaceae\" experience are herbivore and pathogen attack which often leads to tree death. In order to combat these stresses, trees need to adapt or evolve defenses against these stresses. \"Pinaceae\" have evolved a myriad of mechanical and chemical defenses, or a combination of the two, in order to protect themselves against antagonists. \"Pinaceae\" have the ability to up-regulate a combination of constitutive mechanical and chemical strategies to further their defenses.  \"Pinaceae\" defenses are prevalent in the bark of the trees. This part of the tree contributes a complex defensive boundary against external antagonists. Constitutive and induced defenses are both found in the bark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Constitutive defenses.", "content": "Constitutive defenses are typically the first line of defenses used against antagonists and can include sclerified cells, lignified periderm cells, and secondary compounds such as phenolics and resins. Constitutive defenses are always expressed and offer immediate protection from invaders but could also be defeated by antagonists that have evolved adaptations to these defense mechanisms. One of the common secondary compounds used by \"Pinaceae\" are phenolics or polyphenols. These secondary compounds are preserved in vacuoles of polyphenolic parenchyma cells (PP) in the secondary phloem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Induced defenses.", "content": "Induced defense responses need to be activated by certain cues, such as herbivore damage or other biotic signals.  A common induced defense mechanism used by \"Pinaceae\" is resins. Resins are also one of the primary defenses used against attack. Resins are short term defenses that are composed of a complex combination of volatile mono- (C) and sesquiterpenes (C) and nonvolatile diterpene resin acids (C). They are produced and stored in specialized secretory areas known as resin ducts, resin blisters, or resin cavities. Resins have the ability to wash away, trap, fend off antagonists, and are also involved in wound sealing. They are an effective defense mechanism because they have toxic and inhibitory effects on invaders, such as insects or pathogens. Resins could have developed as an evolutionary defense against bark beetle attacks. One well researched resin present in \"Pinaceae\" is oleoresin. Oleoresin had been found to be a valuable part of the conifer defense mechanism against biotic attacks. They are found in secretory tissues in tree stems, roots, and leaves. Oleoresin is also needed in order to classify conifers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Active research: methyl jasmonate (MJ).", "content": "The topic of defense mechanisms within family \"Pinaceae\" is a very active area of study with numerous studies being conducted. Many of these studies use methyl jasmonate (MJ) as an antagonist. Methyl jasmonate is known to be able to induce defense responses in the stems of multiple \"Pinaceae\" species. It has been found that MJ stimulated the activation of PP cells and formation of xylem traumatic resin ducts (TD). These are structures that are involved in the release of phenolics and resins, both forms of defense mechanism.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Pinaceae, pine family, are trees or shrubs, including many of the well-known conifers of commercial importance such as cedars, firs, hemlocks, larches, pines and spruces. The family is included in the order Pinales, formerly known as Coniferales. Pinaceae are supported as monophyletic by their protein-type sieve cell plastids, pattern of proembryogeny, and lack of bioflavonoids. They are the largest extant conifer family in species diversity, with between 220 and 250 species (depending on taxonomic opinion) in 11 genera, and the second-largest (after Cupressaceae) in geographical range, found in most of the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority of the species in temperate climates, but ranging from subarctic to tropical. The family often forms the dominant component of boreal, coastal, and montane forests. One species, \"Pinus merkusii\", grows just south of the equator in Southeast Asia. Major centres of diversity are found in the mountains of southwest China, Mexico, central Japan, and California.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971013}
{"src_title": "Johannes Brahms", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years (1833–1850).", "content": "Brahms's father, Johann Jakob Brahms (1806–72), was from the town of Heide in Holstein. The family name was also sometimes spelt 'Brahmst' or 'Brams', and derives from 'Bram', the German word for the shrub broom. Against the family's will, Johann Jakob pursued a career in music, arriving in Hamburg in 1826, where he found work as a jobbing musician and a string and wind player. In 1830, he married Johanna Henrika Christiane Nissen (1789–1865), a seamstress 17 years older than he was. In the same year he was appointed as a horn player", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early career (1850–1862).", "content": "In 1850 Brahms met the Hungarian violinist Ede Reményi and accompanied him in a number of recitals over the next few years. This was his introduction to \"gypsy-style\" music such as the \"csardas\", which was later to prove the foundation of his most lucrative and popular compositions, the two sets of \"Hungarian Dances\" (1869 and 1880). 1850 also marked Brahms's first contact (albeit a failed one) with Robert Schumann; during Schumann's visit to Hamburg that year, friends persuaded Brahms to send the former some of his compositions, but the package was returned unopened.  In 1853 Brahms went on a concert tour with Reményi. In late May the two visited the violinist and composer Joseph Joachim at Hanover. Brahms had earlier heard Joachim playing the solo part in Beethoven's violin concerto and been deeply impressed. Brahms played some of his own solo piano pieces for Joachim, who remembered fifty years later: \"Never in the course of my artist's life have I been more completely overwhelmed\". This was the beginning of a friendship which was lifelong, albeit temporarily derailed when Brahms took", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Maturity (1862–1876).", "content": "Brahms had hoped to be given the conductorship of the Hamburg Philharmonic, but in 1862 this post was given to the baritone Julius Stockhausen. (Brahms continued to hope for the post; but when he was finally offered the directorship in 1893, he demurred as he had \"got used to the idea of having to go along other paths\".) In autumn 1862 Brahms made his first visit to Vienna, staying there over the winter. There he became an associate of two close members of Wagner's circle, his earlier friend Peter Cornelius and Karl Tausig, and of Joseph Hellmesberger Sr. and Julius Epstein, respectively the Director and head of violin studies, and the head of piano studies, at the Vienna Conservatoire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Years of fame (1876–1890).", "content": "Brahms's first symphony, Op. 68, appeared in 1876, though it had been begun (and a version of the first movement had been announced by Brahms to Clara and to Albert Dietrich) in the early 1860s. During the decade it evolved very gradually; the finale may not have begun its conception until 1868. Brahms was cautious and typically self-deprecating about the symphony during its creation, writing to his friends that it was \"long and difficult\", \"not exactly charming\" and, significantly \"long and in C Minor\", which, as Richard Taruskin points out, made it clear \"that Brahms was taking on the model of models [for a symphony]: Beethoven's Fifth.\"  In May 1876, Cambridge University offered to grant honorary degrees of Doctor of Music to both Brahms and Joachim, provided that they composed new pieces as \"theses\" and were present in Cambridge to receive", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Last years (1890–1897).", "content": "Brahms had become acquainted with Johann Strauss II, who was eight years his senior, in the 1870s, but their close friendship belongs to the years 1889 and after. Brahms admired much of Strauss's music, and encouraged the composer to sign up with his publisher Simrock. In autographing a fan for Strauss's wife Adele, Brahms wrote the opening notes of \"The Blue Danube\" waltz, adding the words \"unfortunately not by Johannes Brahms\".  After the successful Vienna premiere of his Second String Quintet, op. 111, in 1890, the 57-year-old Brahms came to think that he might retire from composition, telling a friend that he \"had achieved enough; here I had before me a carefree old age and could enjoy it in peace.\" He also began to find solace in escorting the mezzo-soprano Alice Barbi and may have proposed to her (she was only 28). His admiration for Richard Mühlfeld, clarinettist with the Meiningen orchestra, revived his interest in composing and led him to write", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style and influences.", "content": "Brahms maintained a classical sense of form and order in his works, in contrast to the opulence of the music of many of his contemporaries. Thus, many admirers (though not necessarily Brahms himself) saw him as the champion of traditional forms and \"pure music\", as opposed to the \"New German\" embrace of programme music.  Brahms venerated Beethoven; in the composer's home, a marble bust of Beethoven looked down on the spot where he composed, and some passages in his works are reminiscent of Beethoven's style. Brahms's First Symphony bears strongly the influence of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, as the two works are both in C minor and end in the struggle towards a C major triumph. The main theme of the finale of the First Symphony is also reminiscent of the main theme of the finale of Beethoven's Ninth, and when this resemblance was pointed out to Brahms he replied that", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Brahms wrote a number of major works for orchestra, including two Serenades, four symphonies, two piano concertos (No. 1 in D minor; No. 2 in B-flat major), a Violin Concerto, a Double Concerto for violin and cello, and two companion orchestral overtures, the \"Academic Festival Overture\" and the \"Tragic Overture\".  His large choral work \"A German Requiem\" is not a setting of the liturgical \"Missa pro defunctis\" but a setting of texts which Brahms selected from the Luther Bible. The work was composed", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "Brahms looked both backward and forward; his output was often bold in its exploration of harmony and rhythm. As a result, he was an influence on composers of both conservative and modernist tendencies. Within his lifetime, his idiom left an imprint on several composers within his personal circle, who strongly admired his music, such as Heinrich von Herzogenberg, Robert Fuchs, and Julius Röntgen, as well as on Gustav Jenner, who was his only formal composition pupil. Antonín Dvořák, who received substantial assistance from Brahms, deeply admired his music and was influenced by it in several works, such as the Symphony No. 7 in D minor and the F minor Piano Trio. Features of the \"Brahms style\" were absorbed in a more complex synthesis with other contemporary (chiefly Wagnerian) trends by Hans Rott, Wilhelm Berger, Max Reger and Franz Schmidt, whereas the British composers Hubert Parry and Edward Elgar and the Swede Wilhelm Stenhammar all testified to learning much from Brahms. As Elgar said, \"I look at the Third Symphony of Brahms, and I feel like a pygmy.\"  Ferruccio Busoni's early music shows much Brahmsian influence, and Brahms took an", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beliefs.", "content": "Brahms was baptised into the Lutheran church as an infant, and was confirmed at aged fifteen (at St. Michael's Church, Hamburg), but has been described as an agnostic and a humanist. The devout Catholic Antonín Dvořák wrote in a letter: \"Such a man, such a fine soul – and he believes in nothing! He believes in nothing!\" When asked by conductor Karl Reinthaler", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Sheet music  Photographs", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johannes Brahms (; 7 May 1833 – 3 April 1897) was a German composer, pianist, and conductor of the Romantic period. Born in Hamburg into a Lutheran family, Brahms spent much of his professional life in Vienna. His reputation and status as a composer are such that he is sometimes grouped with Johann Sebastian Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven as one of the \"Three Bs\" of music, a comment originally made by the nineteenth-century conductor Hans von Bülow.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971014}
{"src_title": "Ernst Reuter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Reuter was born in Apenrade (Aabenraa), Province of Schleswig-Holstein (now in Denmark). He spent his childhood days in Leer where a public square is named after him. Reuter attended the universities of Münster and Marburg where he completed his studies in 1912 and passed the examinations as a teacher. Moreover, he was member in a fraternity called \"SBV Frankonia Marburg\". The same year he became a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).  Reuter opposed Kaiser Wilhelm's regime at the start of the First World War. After being drafted, Reuter was wounded and captured by Russians during the Bolshevik Revolution. In captivity, Reuter joined the Bolsheviks and organized his fellow prisoners into a soviet. In 1917, Lenin sent him to Saratov in the to-be-established Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Weimar Republic.", "content": "Upon his return to Germany, Reuter joined the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and was named the First Secretary of its Berlin section. He embraced a position on the left wing of the party endorsing an open rebellion in March 1921 in central Germany and placed himself hereby in opposition to the leader of the party, Paul Levi. Although Reuter was seen as a favorite of Lenin, he was expelled from the party in 1922. He moved briefly to the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), and then returned to the Social Democrats for good.  In 1926, Reuter entered services in the government of Berlin and was responsible for transportation. Accomplishments were the foundation of the Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe (BVG), the introduction of a unified ticket for public transportation, and extensions of the Berlin subway system.  From 1931 until 1933, Reuter was the mayor of Magdeburg where he fought lack of housing and jobs due to the economic crisis. He also was elected as a member of the Reichstag. In 1933, with the Nazis now in power, he was forced to resign his positions and was brought to the concentration camp (KZ) Lichtenburg near Torgau. After his release, he went into exile in Turkey in 1935 where he stayed until the end to the Nazi era. In Ankara he lectured at the University, introduced urban planning as a university discipline, and served as consultant to the Government.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war Berlin.", "content": "After the end of World War II, Reuter returned to Berlin, and was elected in 1946 to the Magistrate (governing body) where he oversaw initially the Transportation Department. In 1947 he was elected Lord Mayor (\"Oberbürgermeister\") of Berlin but in the deepening crisis of the Cold War, the Soviet government withheld their necessary consent.  Reuter is most notable for his stance during the Cold War in Berlin. During the Soviet-imposed Berlin Blockade (1948/49), the western part of city was sustained by the Berlin airlift that was established by the American Military Governor, Lucius D. Clay. In response to the threat, the citizens in the western sectors had to come together. Ernst Reuter became their spokesman and leader, a symbolic figure of the \"Free\" Berlin. Memorable is Reuter’s speech in front of the burned-out Reichstag building on 9 September 1948, facing a crowd of 300,000 where he appealed to the world not to abandon Berlin. In the election that was conducted in the western part of Berlin two months later, his popularity gave the SPD the highest win with 64.5% ever achieved by any party in a free election in Germany. As mayor he formed a grand coalition government with the next two largest parties to demonstrate West Berlin’s unity. Reuter's appeal to the West did not go unheard. The airlift saved the city from starvation, and Reuter became only the second German postwar politician (after Konrad Adenauer) to be placed on the cover of \"Time\" magazine. He was titled \"Herr Berlin\". When the new Berlin State Constitution became effective for West Berlin, Reuter was re-elected and on 18 January 1951, became what was now called the Governing Mayor (Regierender Bürgermeister) of West Berlin. He served in this function until his death.  Under his aegis, the Free University of Berlin was founded, as the University of Berlin was in the Soviet sector and under communist rule. In 1953 Reuter established the \"Bürgermeister-Reuter-Stiftung\" (Mayor Reuter Foundation) to assist refugees coming to West-Berlin.  A few weeks after the uprising of 17 June 1953 in East Berlin, Reuter died suddenly and unexpectedly from a heart attack in West Berlin at the age of 64. His funeral was attended by more than 1 million people. His grave is an Ehrengrab (honorary grave) on the Waldfriedhof Zehlendorf.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Reuter was married in 1920, and he and his wife Lotte (Charlotte) had two children, Hella (1920–1983), and (Gerd Edzard) Harry (1921–1992) who became a British citizen and a professor of mathematics. Harry's son Timothy was a distinguished mediaeval historian. In 1927 Reuter divorced Charlotte and remarried. He and his second wife Hanna had one son, Edzard, who became the CEO of Daimler-Benz.  Other towns in Germany have streets or schools named after Ernst Reuter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "The \"Champion of Liberty\" series issued by the United States Postal Service in 1959 honored Reuter with two stamps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "This article is based on the in the German Wikipedia from 10 May 2006.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernst Rudolf Johannes Reuter (29 July 1889 – 29 September 1953) was the German mayor of West Berlin from 1948 to 1953, during the time of the Cold War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971015}
{"src_title": "Carnot cycle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Stages.", "content": "The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine consists of the following steps:  In this case,  or,  This is true as formula_3 and formula_4 are both lower and in fact are in the same ratio as formula_5.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The pressure–volume graph.", "content": "When the Carnot cycle is plotted on a pressure–volume diagram (), the isothermal stages follow the isotherm lines for the working fluid, the adiabatic stages move between isotherms, and the area bounded by the complete cycle path represents the total work that can be done during one cycle. From point 1 to 2 and point 3 to 4 the temperature is constant. Heat transfer from point 4 to 1 and point 2 to 3 are equal to zero.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Properties and significance.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The temperature–entropy diagram.", "content": "The behaviour of a Carnot engine or refrigerator is best understood by using a temperature–entropy diagram (T–S diagram), in which the thermodynamic state is specified by a point on a graph with entropy (S) as the horizontal axis and temperature (T) as the vertical axis (). For a simple closed system (control mass analysis), any point on the graph will represent a particular state of the system. A thermodynamic process will consist of a curve connecting an initial state (A) and a final state (B). The area under the curve will be:  which is the amount of thermal energy transferred in the process. If the process moves to greater entropy, the area under the curve will be the amount of heat absorbed by the system in that process. If the process moves towards lesser entropy, it will be the amount of heat removed. For any cyclic process, there will be an upper portion of the cycle and a lower portion. For a clockwise cycle, the area under the upper portion will be the thermal energy absorbed during the cycle, while the area under the lower portion will be the thermal energy removed during the cycle. The area inside the cycle will then be the difference between the two, but since the internal energy of the system must have returned to its initial value, this difference must be the amount of work done by the system over the cycle. Referring to, mathematically, for a reversible process we may write the amount of work done over a cyclic process as:  Since \"dU\" is an exact differential, its integral over any closed loop is zero and it follows that the area inside the loop on a T–S diagram is equal to the total work performed if the loop is traversed in a clockwise direction, and is equal to the total work done on the system as the loop is traversed in a counterclockwise direction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Carnot cycle.", "content": "Evaluation of the above integral is particularly simple for the Carnot cycle. The amount of energy transferred as work is  The total amount of thermal energy transferred from the hot reservoir to the system will be  and the total amount of thermal energy transferred from the system to the cold reservoir will be  The efficiency formula_9 is defined to be: where This definition of efficiency makes sense for a heat engine, since it is the fraction of the heat energy extracted from the hot reservoir and converted to mechanical work. A Rankine cycle is usually the practical approximation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reversed Carnot cycle.", "content": "The Carnot heat-engine cycle described is a totally reversible cycle. That is all the processes that compose it can be reversed, in which case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle. This time, the cycle remains exactly the same except that the directions of any heat and work interactions are reversed. Heat is absorbed from the low-temperature reservoir, heat is rejected to a high-temperature reservoir, and a work input is required to accomplish all this. The P–V diagram of the reversed Carnot cycle is the same as for the Carnot cycle except that the directions of the processes are reversed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Carnot's theorem.", "content": "It can be seen from the above diagram, that for any cycle operating between temperatures formula_13 and formula_12, none can exceed the efficiency of a Carnot cycle.  Carnot's theorem is a formal statement of this fact: \"No engine operating between two heat reservoirs can be more efficient than a Carnot engine operating between those same reservoirs.\" Thus, Equation gives the maximum efficiency possible for any engine using the corresponding temperatures. A corollary to Carnot's theorem states that: \"All reversible engines operating between the same heat reservoirs are equally efficient.\" Rearranging the right side of the equation gives what may be a more easily understood form of the equation, namely that the theoretical maximum efficiency of a heat engine equals the difference in temperature between the hot and cold reservoir divided by the absolute temperature of the hot reservoir. Looking at this formula an interesting fact becomes apparent: Lowering the temperature of the cold reservoir will have more effect on the ceiling efficiency of a heat engine than raising the temperature of the hot reservoir by the same amount. In the real world, this may be difficult to achieve since the cold reservoir is often an existing ambient temperature.  In other words, maximum efficiency is achieved if and only if no new entropy is created in the cycle, which would be the case if e.g. friction leads to dissipation of work into heat. In that case, the cycle is not reversible and the Clausius theorem becomes an inequality rather than an equality. Otherwise, since entropy is a state function, the required dumping of heat into the environment to dispose of excess entropy leads to a (minimal) reduction in efficiency. So Equation gives the efficiency of any reversible heat engine.  In mesoscopic heat engines, work per cycle of operation in general fluctuates due to thermal noise. If the cycle is performed quasi-statically, the fluctuations vanish even on the mesoscale. However, if the cycle is performed faster than the relaxation time of the working medium, the fluctuations of work are inevitable. Nevertheless, when work and heat fluctuations are counted, there is exact equality that relates the exponential average of work performed by any heat engine and the heat transfer from the hotter heat bath.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Efficiency of real heat engines.", "content": "Carnot realized that in reality it is not possible to build a thermodynamically reversible engine, so real heat engines are even less efficient than indicated by Equation 3. In addition, real engines that operate along this cycle are rare. Nevertheless, Equation 3 is extremely useful for determining the maximum efficiency that could ever be expected for a given set of thermal reservoirs.  Although Carnot's cycle is an idealisation, the expression of Carnot efficiency is still useful. Consider the average temperatures,  at which heat is input and output, respectively. Replace \"T\" and \"T\" in Equation () by 〈\"T\"〉 and 〈\"T\"〉 respectively.  For the Carnot cycle, or its equivalent, the average value 〈\"T\"〉 will equal the highest temperature available, namely \"T\", and 〈\"T\"〉 the lowest, namely \"T\". For other less efficient cycles, 〈\"T\"〉 will be lower than \"T\", and 〈\"T\"〉 will be higher than \"T\". This can help illustrate, for example, why a reheater or a regenerator can improve the thermal efficiency of steam power plants—and why the thermal efficiency of combined-cycle power plants (which incorporate gas turbines operating at even higher temperatures) exceeds that of conventional steam plants. The first prototype of the diesel engine was based on the Carnot cycle.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Carnot cycle is a theoretical ideal thermodynamic cycle proposed by French physicist Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s. It provides an upper limit on the efficiency that any classical thermodynamic engine can achieve during the conversion of heat into work, or conversely, the efficiency of a refrigeration system in creating a temperature difference by the application of work to the system. It is not an actual thermodynamic cycle but is a theoretical construct.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971016}
{"src_title": "Decadence", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decadent movement.", "content": "Decadence was the name given to a number of late nineteenth-century writers who valued artifice over the earlier Romantics' naïve view of nature. Some of them triumphantly adopted the name, referring to themselves as Decadents. For the most part, they were influenced by the tradition of the Gothic novel and by the poetry and fiction of Edgar Allan Poe, and were associated with Symbolism and/or Aestheticism.  This concept of decadence dates from the eighteenth century, especially from Montesquieu, and was taken up by critics as a term of abuse after Désiré Nisard used it against Victor Hugo and Romanticism in general. A later generation of Romantics, such as Théophile Gautier and Charles Baudelaire took the word as a badge of pride, as a sign of their rejection of what they saw as banal \"progress.\" In the 1880s, a group of French writers referred to themselves as Decadents. The classic novel from this group is Joris-Karl Huysmans' \"Against Nature\", often seen as the first great decadent work, though others attribute this honor to Baudelaire's works.  In Britain and Ireland the leading figure associated with the Decadent movement was Irish writer, Oscar Wilde. Other significant figures include Arthur Symons, Aubrey Beardsley and Ernest Dowson.  The Symbolist movement has frequently been confused with the Decadent movement. Several young writers were derisively referred to in the press as \"decadent\" in the mid-1880s. Jean Moréas' manifesto was largely a response to this polemic. A few of these writers embraced the term while most avoided it. Although the aesthetics of Symbolism and Decadence can be seen as overlapping in some areas, the two remain distinct.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1920s Berlin.", "content": "This \"\"fertile culture\"\" of Berlin extended onwards until Adolf Hitler rose to power in early 1933 and stamped out any and all resistance to the Nazi Party. Likewise, the Nazis decried Berlin as a haven of vice. A new culture developed in and around Berlin, including architecture and design (Bauhaus, 1919–33), a variety of literature (Döblin, \"Berlin Alexanderplatz\", 1929), film (Lang, \"Metropolis\", 1927, Dietrich, \"Der blaue Engel\", 1930), painting (Grosz), and music (Brecht and Weill, \"The Threepenny Opera\", 1928), criticism (Benjamin), philosophy/psychology (Jung), and fashion. This culture was often considered to be decadent, and socially, morally, destructive.  Film was making huge technical and artistic strides during this period of time in Berlin, and gave rise to the influential movement called German Expressionism. \"Talkies\", the Sound films, were also becoming more popular with the general public across Europe, and Berlin was producing very many of them.  Berlin in the 20s also proved to be a haven for English writers such as W. H. Auden, Stephen Spender and Christopher Isherwood, who wrote a series of 'Berlin novels', inspiring the play \"I Am a Camera\", which was later adapted into a musical, \"Cabaret\", and an Academy Award winning film of the same name. Spender's semi-autobiographical novel \"The Temple\" evokes the attitude and atmosphere of the place at the time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use in Marxism.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leninism.", "content": "According to Vladimir Lenin, capitalism had reached its highest stage and could no longer provide for the general development of society. He expected reduced vigor in economic activity and a growth in unhealthy economic phenomena, reflecting capitalism's gradually decreasing capacity to provide for social needs and preparing the ground for socialist revolution in the West. Politically, World War I proved the decadent nature of the advanced capitalist countries to Lenin, that capitalism had reached the stage where it would destroy its own prior achievements more than it would advance.  One who directly opposed the idea of decadence as expressed by Lenin was José Ortega y Gasset in \"The Revolt of the Masses\" (1930). He argued that the \"mass man\" had the notion of material progress and scientific advance deeply inculcated to the extent that it was an expectation. He also argued that contemporary progress was opposite the true decadence of the Roman Empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Left communism.", "content": "Decadence is an important aspect of contemporary left communist theory. Similar to Lenin's use of it, left communists, coming from the Communist International themselves started in fact with a theory of decadence in the first place, yet the communist left sees the theory of decadence at the heart of Marx's method as well, expressed in famous works such as \"The Communist Manifesto\", \"Grundrisse\", \"Das Kapital\" but most significantly in \"Preface to the Critique of Political Economy\".  Contemporary left communist theory defends that Lenin was mistaken on his definition of imperialism (although how grave his mistake was and how much of his work on imperialism is valid varies from groups to groups) and Rosa Luxemburg to be basically correct on this question, thus accepting capitalism as a world epoch similarly to Lenin, but a world epoch from which no capitalist state can oppose or avoid being a part of. On the other hand, the theoretical framework of capitalism's decadence varies between different groups while left communist organizations like the International Communist Current hold a basically Luxemburgist analysis that makes an emphasis on the world market and its expansion, others hold views more in line with those of Vladimir Lenin, Nikolai Bukharin and most importantly Henryk Grossman and Paul Mattick with an emphasis on monopolies and the falling rate of profit.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The word decadence, which at first meant simply \"decline\" in an abstract sense, is now most often used to refer to a perceived decay in standards, morals, dignity, religious faith, honor, discipline, or skill at governing among the members of the elite of a very large social structure, such as an empire or nation state. By extension, it may refer to a decline in art, literature, science, technology, and work ethics, or (very loosely) to self-indulgent behavior.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971017}
{"src_title": "Anaxagoras", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Anaxagoras is believed to have enjoyed some wealth and political influence in his native town of Clazomenae. However, he supposedly surrendered this out of a fear that they would hinder his search for knowledge. The Roman author Valerius Maximus preserves a different tradition: Anaxagoras, coming home from a long voyage, found his property in ruin, and said: \"If this had not perished, I would have\"—a sentence described by Valerius as being \"possessed of sought-after wisdom!\"  Anaxagoras was a Greek citizen of the Persian Empire and had served in the Persian army; he may have been a member of the Persian regiments that entered mainland Greece during the Greco-Persian Wars. Though this remains uncertain, \"it would certainly explain why he came to Athens in the year of Salamis, 480/79 B.C.\" Anaxagoras is said to have remained in Athens for thirty years. Pericles learned to love and admire him, and the poet Euripides derived from him an enthusiasm for science and humanity.  Anaxagoras brought philosophy and the spirit of scientific inquiry from Ionia to Athens. His observations of the celestial bodies and the fall of meteorites led him to form new theories of the universal order, and to prediction of the impact of meteorites. Plutarch says \"Anaxagoras is said to have predicted that if the heavenly bodies should be loosened by some slip or shake, one of them might be torn away, and might plunge and fall down to earth\". According to Pliny he was credited with predicting the fall of the meteorite in 467. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the Sun, which he described as a mass of blazing metal, larger than the Peloponnese; his theories about eclipses, the Sun and Moon may well have been based on observations of the eclipse of 463 BCE, which was visible in Greece. He was the first to explain that the Moon shines due to reflected light from the Sun. He also said that the Moon had mountains and believed that it was inhabited. The heavenly bodies, he asserted, were masses of stone torn from the Earth and ignited by rapid rotation. He was the first to give a correct explanation of eclipses, and was both famous and notorious for his scientific theories, including the claims that the Sun is a mass of red-hot metal, that the Moon is earthy, and that the stars are fiery stones. He thought the Earth was flat and floated supported by'strong' air under it and disturbances in this air sometimes caused earthquakes. These speculations made him vulnerable in Athens to a charge of impiety. Diogenes Laërtius reports the story that he was prosecuted by Cleon for impiety, but Plutarch says that Pericles sent his former tutor, Anaxagoras, to Lampsacus for his own safety after the Athenians began to blame him for the Peloponnesian war.  The charges against Anaxagoras may have stemmed from his denial of the existence of a solar or lunar deity. According to Laërtius, Pericles spoke in defense of Anaxagoras at his trial,. Even so, Anaxagoras was forced to retire from Athens to Lampsacus in Troad (433). He died there in around the year 428. Citizens of Lampsacus erected an altar to Mind and Truth in his memory, and observed the anniversary of his death for many years. They placed over his grave the following inscription: Here Anaxagoras, who in his quest of truth scaled heaven itself, is laid to rest.  Anaxagoras wrote a book of philosophy, but only fragments of the first part of this have survived, through preservation in work of Simplicius of Cilicia in the 6th century AD.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "According to Anaxagoras all things have existed in some way from the beginning, but originally they existed in infinitesimally small fragments of themselves, endless in number and inextricably combined throughout the universe. All things existed in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form. There was an infinite number of homogeneous parts () as well as heterogeneous ones.  The work of arrangement, the segregation of like from unlike and the summation of the whole into totals of the same name, was the work of Mind or Reason (). Mind is no less unlimited than the chaotic mass, but it stood pure and independent, a thing of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and everywhere the same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge and power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life. Its first appearance, and the only manifestation of it which Anaxagoras describes, is Motion. It gave distinctness and reality to the aggregates of like parts.  Decrease and growth represent a new aggregation () and disruption (). However, the original intermixture of things is never wholly overcome. Each thing contains in itself parts of other things or heterogeneous elements, and is what it is, only on account of the preponderance of certain homogeneous parts which constitute its character. Out of this process arise the things we see in this world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary references.", "content": "Anaxagoras is mentioned by Socrates during his trial in Plato's \"Apology\". In the Phaedo, Plato portrays Socrates saying of Anaxagoras that as a young man: 'I eagerly acquired his books and read them as quickly as I could'.  In a quote which begins Nathanael West's first book \"The Dream Life of Balso Snell\" (1931), Marcel Proust's character Bergotte says, \"After all, my dear fellow, life, Anaxagoras has said, is a journey.\"  Anaxagoras appears as a character in \"Faust, Part II\" by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.  Anaxagoras appears as a character in \"The Ionia Sanction\", by Gary Corby.  Anaxagoras is referred to and admired by Cyrus Spitama, the hero and narrator of \"Creation\", by Gore Vidal. The book contains this passage, explaining how Anaxagoras became influential:  William H. Gass begins his novel, \"The Tunnel\" (1995), with a quote from Anaxagoras: \"The descent to hell is the same from every place.\"  He is also mentioned in Seneca's Natural Questions (Book 4B, originally Book 3: On Clouds, Hail, Snow) It reads: \"Why should I too allow myself the same liberty as Anaxagoras allowed himself?\"  Dante Alighieri places Anaxagoras in the First Circle of Hell (Limbo) in his \"Divine Comedy\" (\"Inferno\", Canto IV, line 118).  Chapter 5 in Book II of De Docta Ignorantia (1440) by Nicholas of Cusa is dedicated to the truth of the sentence \"Each thing is in each thing\" which he attributes to Anaxagoras.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Footnotes Citations", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anaxagoras (;, \"Anaxagoras\", \"lord of the assembly\"; BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae at a time when Asia Minor was under the control of the Persian Empire, Anaxagoras came to Athens. According to Diogenes Laërtius and Plutarch, in later life he was charged with impiety and went into exile in Lampsacus; the charges may have been political, owing to his association with Pericles, if they were not fabricated by later ancient biographers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971018}
{"src_title": "Brandenburg an der Havel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "The castle of Brandenburg, which had been a fortress of the Slavic tribe Stodoranie, was conquered in 929 by King Henry the Fowler. It was first mentioned as \"Brendanburg\" in 948. That the name of the city in the local Slavic language was \"Brennabor\", a combination of two words \"brenna\" - defense and \"bor\" - fort, is an invention of the 17th century. The town remained German only until 983, when a Slavic rebellion was successful. During the next 170 years the area was ruled by Slavic princes of the Hevelli tribe. The last of them, Pribislav, died in 1150. From 1153/1154 to 1157 \"Brendanburg\" was part of the Slavonic Duchy of Kopanica, a fief of Poland. Afterwards Albert I settled here and became the first margrave of Brandenburg. The town was restricted to the western bank of the Havel until 1196, when it was extended to the eastern side. The parts on either side of the river were regarded as three towns (Old Town, New Town and Brandenburg cathedral district) for centuries.  In 1314–1315 the Old and New Towns joined the Hanseatic League. In the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) the towns suffered plundering and destruction which led to a loss of power; Potsdam became the new capital, and the court left the town of Brandenburg. In 1715 Old Town and New Town were merged to form a single town. In 1928 the Brandenburg cathedral district was added.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "In the late 19th century Brandenburg an der Havel became a very important industrial center in the German Empire. Steel industries settled there, and several world-famous bicycle brands such as \"Brennabor\", \"Corona\" and \"Excelsior\" were manufactured in the city. A world-famous toy industry was also established. With a giant industrial complex, the Deutsche Reichsbahn (German Imperial Railways) was located in Brandenburg-Kirchmöser during the time between the two world wars and the time of the former GDR. The city's excellent transport infrastructure was a big advantage.  In 1933/34, a concentration camp, one of the first in Nazi Germany, was located on \"Neuendorfer Straße\" in Brandenburg Old Town. After closing this inner city concentration camp, the Nazis used the Brandenburg-Görden Prison, located in the suburb of Görden. Later the old gaol became the Brandenburg Euthanasia Centre where the Nazis killed people with mental diseases, including children. They called this operation \"Action T4\" because of the Berlin address, Tiergartenstraße 4, the headquarters of this planned and well-organized forced euthanasia organisation. Brandenburg an der Havel was one of the very first locations in the Third Reich where the Nazis experimented with killing their victims by gas. Here, they prepared the mass killings in Auschwitz and other extermination camps. After complaints by local inhabitants about the smoke, the mobile furnaces used to burn the corpses ceased operation. Shortly after this, the Nazis closed the old prison.  In 1934, the Arado Aircraft Company (Arado Flugzeugwerke), which originated in Warnemünde, built a satellite factory in Brandenburg that began producing planes in 1935. The factory was expanded over the next five years, and produced trainers and other aircraft for the Luftwaffe during World War II. The existence of this factory was one of the reasons Brandenburg was heavily bombed in later stages of the war; by 1945, 70% of the city was destroyed.  Friedrich Fromm, a German officer involved in the July 20 plot to assassinate Hitler, was executed here in March 1945 for his part in the plot, even though Fromm betrayed those conspirators he knew and ordered their execution.  After German reunification the city's population declined from around 100,000 in 1989 to roughly 75,000 in 2005 through emigration. The migration was mainly by young people.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The city is located on the navigable River Havel, a European Waterway, and vessels travelling through the city have a choice of two routes. The original route used the Brandenburg City Canal, a route through the city centre that descends through the \"Stadtschleuse Brandenburg\", but this route is constrained in size and now limited to leisure craft. Commercial traffic instead uses the Silo Canal that passes through the eastern and northern fringes of the city.  The city is located at the junction of Federal Highways 1 and 102 and the A2 autobahn is nearby. The Berlin and Magdeburg railway also runs through Brandenburg an der Havel.  The centrepiece of the city's urban public transport system is the Brandenburg an der Havel tramway network.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "The \"Dominsel\" (Cathedral Island) is the historic heart of the town. Here stands its oldest edifice: the \"Dom St. Peter und Paul\" (Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul). Although construction began in the Romanesque style in 1165, it was completed as a Gothic cathedral during the 14th century. While the exterior is rather austere, the cathedral surprises the visitor with its sumptuous interior, especially the painted vault of the \"Bunte Kapelle\" (Coloured Chapel) and the Wagner organ (1725), one of the most famous Baroque organs in Germany.  The \"Katharinenkirche\" (St. Catherine's Church) built in 1401 in the Neustadt is an impressive example of northern German brick Gothic architecture. The \"Gotthardtkirche\" (St. Gotthardt's Church) was built of the same material just a few years later.  Another interesting building is the \"Altstädtisches Rathaus\" (Old Town Hall), a late Gothic brick building with stepped gables and an ornate portal. In front of it stands a 5.35m high statue of the knight Roland. Made of sandstone, the statue was erected in 1474 as a symbol of the town's independence.  There is also a part of Brandenburg's medieval city wall, with four preserved watchtowers: \"Steintorturm\" and \"Mühlentorturm\" (in the New Town), and \"Rathenower Torturm\" and \"Plauer Torturm\" (in the Old Town).  The \"Brandenburg Industrial Museum\" is an Anchor Point of ERIH, The European Route of Industrial Heritage. Brandenburg has its own theatre (Brandenburger Theater), a professional symphony orchestra (Brandenburger Symphoniker) and a wide range of local history and archaeology museums.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Brandenburg an der Havel is a town in Brandenburg, Germany, which served as the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg until replaced by Berlin in 1417.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971019}
{"src_title": "Humulus lupulus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The genus name \"Humulus\" is a Medieval name that was at some point Latinized after being borrowed from a Germanic source exhibiting the h•m•l consonant cluster, as in Middle Low German \"homele\". According to Soviet Iranist V. Abaev this could be a word of Sarmatian origin which is presented in modern Ossetian language () and derives from proto-Iranian \"hauma-arayka\", an \"Aryan haoma\". From Sarmatian dialects this word spread across Eurasia, thus creating a group of related words in Turkic, Finno-Ugric, Slavic and Germanic languages (see, Chuvash \"хăмла\", Finnish \"humala\", Hungarian \"komló\", Mordovian \"комла\", Avar \"хомеллег\").  The specific epithet, \"lupulus,\" is Latin for small wolf. The name refers to the plant's tendency to strangle other plants, mainly osiers or basket willows (\"Salix viminalis\"), like a wolf does a sheep. Hops could be seen growing over these willows so often that it was named the willow-wolf.  The English word \"hop\" is derived from the Middle Dutch word, also meaning \"Humulus lupulus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"H. lupulus\" can grow to be 10 meters tall and because it is a perennial herbaceous plant it goes through several growing seasons sometimes living up to 20 years. \"H. lupulus\" has simple leaves that can be opposite or alternate with 3-5 lobes. The staminate flowers do not have petals, while the pistillate flowers’ petals completely cover the fruit. The cones found on female plants are called strobili. The fruit of \"H. lupulus\" is an achene, meaning that the fruit is dry but does not split open at maturity. The achene is surrounded by tepals and lupulin secreting glands are concentrated on the fruit.  \"H. lupulus\" grows best in the latitude range of 38°-51° in full sun with moderate amounts of rainfall. It uses the longer summer days as a cue for when to flower, which is usually around July/ August.  \"H. lupulus\" can cause dermatitis to some who handle them. It is thought that about 1 in 30 people are affected by this.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "The five varieties of this species (\"Humulus lupulus\") are:  Many cultivated varieties are found in the list of hop varieties. A yellow-leafed ornamental cultivar, \"Humulus lupulus\" 'Aureus', is cultivated for garden use. It is also known as golden hop, and holds the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (AGM).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Domestication.", "content": "\"H. lupulus\" is first mentioned in 768 CE when King Pepin donated hops to a monastery in Paris. Cultivation was first recorded in 859 CE, in documents from a monastery in Freising, Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in brewing.", "content": "The chemical compounds found in \"H. lupulus\" are main components in flavoring and bittering beer. Some other compounds help with creating foam in beer. Chemicals such as linalool and aldehydes contribute to the flavor of beer. The main components of bitterness in beer are iso-alpha acids, with many other compounds contributing to the overall bitterness of beer. Until the Middle Ages, \"Myrica gale\" was the most common plant used for brewing beer. \"H. lupulus\" took off as a flavoring agent for beer because it contains preserving agents, making the beer viable for longer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popularity.", "content": "\"H. lupulus\" was voted the county flower of Kent in 2002 following a poll by the wild flora conservation charity Plantlife.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Humulus lupulus (common hop or hops) is a species of flowering plant in the hemp family (Cannabaceae), native to Europe, western Asia and North America. It is a dioecious, perennial, herbaceous climbing plant which sends up new shoots in early spring and dies back to a cold-hardy rhizome in autumn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971020}
{"src_title": "Franz Marc", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Franz Marc was born in 1880 in Munich, the then capital of the Kingdom of Bavaria. His father, Wilhelm Marc, was a professional landscape painter; his mother, Sophie, was a homemaker and a devout, socially liberal Calvinist.  At the age of 17 Marc wanted to study theology. Two years later, however, he enrolled in the arts program of Munich University. He was first required to serve in the military for a year, after which, in 1900, he began studies instead at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich, where his teachers included Gabriel von Hackl and Wilhelm von Diez. In 1903 and 1907, he spent time in France, particularly in Paris, visiting the museums in the city and copying many paintings, a traditional way for artists to study and develop technique. In Paris, Marc frequented artistic circles, meeting numerous artists and the actress Sarah Bernhardt. He discovered a strong affinity for the work of painter Vincent van Gogh. After the 1903 trip, he ceased attending the Academy of Fine Arts.  During his 20s, Marc was involved in a number of stormy relationships, including an affair lasting for many years with Annette Von Eckardt, a married antique dealer nine years his senior. He married twice, first to Marie Schnür, then to Maria Franck; both were artists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1906, Marc traveled with his elder brother Paul, a Byzantine expert, to Thessaloniki, Mount Athos, and various other Greek locations. A few years later, in 1910, Marc developed an important friendship with the artist August Macke. In 1910 Marc painted \"Nude with Cat\" and \"Grazing Horses\", and showed works in the second exhibition of the \"Neue Künstlervereinigung\" (New Artists' Association) at the Thannhauser Galleries in Munich.  In 1911, Marc founded the \"Der Blaue Reiter\" journal, which became the center of an artist circle, along with Macke, Wassily Kandinsky, and others who had decided to split off from the \"Neue Künstlervereinigung\" movement.  Marc showed several of his works in the first \"Der Blaue Reiter\" exhibition at the Thannhauser Galleries in Munich between December 1911 and January 1912. As it was the apex of the German expressionist movement, the exhibit also showed in Berlin, Cologne, Hagen, and Frankfurt. In 1912, Marc met Robert Delaunay, whose use of color and the futurist method was a major influence on Marc's work; fascinated by futurism and cubism, Marc created art that increasingly was stark and abstract in nature. He painted \"The Tiger\" and \"Red Deer\" in 1912 and \"The Tower of Blue Horses\", \"Foxes\", and \"Fate of the Animals\" in 1913.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wartime.", "content": "With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Marc was drafted into the Imperial German Army as a cavalryman. By February 1916, as shown in a letter to his wife, he had gravitated to military camouflage. His technique for hiding artillery from aerial observation was to paint canvas covers in broadly pointillist style. He took pleasure in creating a series of nine such tarpaulin covers in styles varying \"from Manet to Kandinsky\", suspecting that the latter could be the most effective against aircraft flying at 2000 meters or higher.  After mobilization of the German Army, the government identified notable artists to be withdrawn from combat for their own safety. Marc was on the list but was struck in the head and killed instantly by a shell splinter during the Battle of Verdun in 1916 before orders for reassignment could reach him.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "Marc made some sixty prints in woodcut and lithography. Most of his mature work portrays animals, usually in natural settings. His work is characterized by bright primary color, an almost cubist portrayal of animals, stark simplicity and a profound sense of emotion. Even in his own time, his work attracted notice in influential circles. Marc gave an emotional meaning or purpose to the colors he used in his work: blue was used to portray masculinity and spirituality, yellow represented feminine joy, and red encased the sound of violence. After the National Socialists took power, they suppressed modern art; in 1936 and 1937, the Nazis condemned the late Marc as an \"entarteter Künstler\" (degenerate artist) and ordered approximately 130 of his works removed from exhibition in German museums. His painting \"Landscape With Horses\" was discovered in 2012 along with more than a thousand other paintings, in the Munich apartment of Cornelius Gurlitt whose dealer father, Hildebrand Gurlitt, was a collector of Modernist art the Nazis called \"degenerate\".  One of Marc's best-known paintings is \"Tierschicksale\" (\"Animal Destinies\" or \"Fate of the Animals\"), which hangs in the Kunstmuseum Basel. Marc had completed the work in 1913, when \"the tension of impending cataclysm had pervaded society\", as one art historian noted. On the rear of the canvas, Marc wrote, \"Und Alles Sein ist flammend Leid\" (\"And all being is flaming agony\"). Serving in World War I, Marc wrote to his wife about the painting, \"[it] is like a premonition of this war - horrible and shattering. I can hardly conceive that I painted it.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and honors.", "content": "Marc's family house in Munich is marked with a historical plaque. The Franz Marc Museum opened in 1986, and his dedicated to the artist life and work. It houses many of his paintings, and also works by other contemporary artists.  In October 1998, several of Marc's paintings garnered record prices at Christie's art auction house in London, including \"Rote Rehe I\" (\"Red Deer I\"), which sold for $3.3 million. In October 1999, his \"Der Wasserfall\" (\"The Waterfall\") was sold by Sotheby's in London for $5.06 million. This price set a record for Franz Marc's work and for twentieth-century German painting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public collections.", "content": "Among the public collections holding works by Franz Marc are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Moritz Wilhelm Marc (February 8, 1880 – March 4, 1916) was a German painter and printmaker, one of the key figures of German Expressionism. He was a founding member of \"Der Blaue Reiter\" (The Blue Rider), a journal whose name later became synonymous with the circle of artists collaborating in it.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971021}
{"src_title": "Balance sheet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "A balance sheet summarizes an organization or individual's assets, equity and liabilities at a specific point in time. Two forms of balance sheet exist. They are the report form and account form. Individuals and small businesses tend to have simple balance sheets. Larger businesses tend to have more complex balance sheets, and these are presented in the organization's annual report. Large businesses also may prepare balance sheets for segments of their businesses. A balance sheet is often presented alongside one for a different point in time (typically the previous year) for comparison.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal.", "content": "A personal balance sheet lists current assets such as cash in checking accounts and savings accounts, long-term assets such as common stock and real estate, current liabilities such as loan debt and mortgage debt due, or overdue, long-term liabilities such as mortgage and other loan debt. Securities and real estate values are listed at market value rather than at historical cost or cost basis. Personal net worth is the difference between an individual's total assets and total liabilities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "US small business.", "content": "A small business balance sheet lists current assets such as cash, accounts receivable, and inventory, fixed assets such as land, buildings, and equipment, intangible assets such as patents, and liabilities such as accounts payable, accrued expenses, and long-term debt. Contingent liabilities such as warranties are noted in the footnotes to the balance sheet. The small business's equity is the difference between total assets and total liabilities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public business entities structure.", "content": "Guidelines for balance sheets of public business entities are given by the International Accounting Standards Board and numerous country-specific organizations/companies. The standard used by companies in the USA adhere to U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). The Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB) is a United States federal advisory committee whose mission is to develop generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) for federal financial reporting entities.  Balance sheet account names and usage depend on the organization's country and the type of organization. Government organizations do not generally follow standards established for individuals or businesses.  If applicable to the business, summary values for the following items should be included in the balance sheet: Assets are all the things the business owns. This will include property, tools, vehicles, furniture, machinery, and so on.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assets.", "content": "Current assets  Non-current assets (Fixed assets)  Creditors equity", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equity / capital.", "content": "The net assets shown by the balance sheet equals the third part of the balance sheet, which is known as the shareholders' equity. It comprises:  Formally, shareholders' equity is part of the company's liabilities: they are funds \"owing\" to shareholders (after payment of all other liabilities); usually, however, \"liabilities\" is used in the more restrictive sense of liabilities excluding shareholders' equity. The balance of assets and liabilities (including shareholders' equity) is not a coincidence. Records of the values of each account in the balance sheet are maintained using a system of accounting known as double-entry bookkeeping. In this sense, shareholders' equity by construction must equal assets minus liabilities, and thus the shareholders' equity is considered to be a residual. Regarding the items in equity section, the following disclosures are required:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Substantiation.", "content": "Balance sheet substantiation is the accounting process conducted by businesses on a regular basis to confirm that the balances held in the primary accounting system of record (e.g. SAP, Oracle, other ERP system's General Ledger) are reconciled (in balance with) with the balance and transaction records held in the same or supporting sub-systems.  Balance sheet substantiation includes multiple processes including reconciliation (at a transactional or at a balance level) of the account, a process of review of the reconciliation and any pertinent supporting documentation and a formal certification (sign-off) of the account in a predetermined form driven by corporate policy.  Balance sheet substantiation is an important process that is typically carried out on a monthly, quarterly and year-end basis. The results help to drive the regulatory balance sheet reporting obligations of the organization.  Historically, balance sheet substantiation has been a wholly manual process, driven by spreadsheets, email and manual monitoring and reporting. In recent years software solutions have been developed to bring a level of process automation, standardization and enhanced control to the balance sheet substantiation or account certification process. These solutions are suitable for organizations with a high volume of accounts and/or personnel involved in the Balance Sheet Substantiation process and can be used to drive efficiencies, improve transparency and help to reduce risk.  Balance sheet substantiation is a key control process in the SOX 404 top-down risk assessment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sample.", "content": "The following balance sheet is a very brief example prepared in accordance with IFRS. It does not show all possible kinds of assets, liabilities and equity, but it shows the most usual ones. Because it shows goodwill, it could be a consolidated balance sheet. Monetary values are not shown, summary (subtotal) rows are missing as well.  Under IFRS items are always shown based on liquidity from the least liquid assets at the top, usually land and buildings to the most liquid, i.e. cash. Then liabilities and equity continue from the most immediate liability to be paid (usual account payable) to the least i.e. long term debt such a mortgages and owner's equity at the very bottom.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In financial accounting, a balance sheet or statement of financial position or statement of financial condition is a summary of the financial balances of an individual or organization, whether it be a sole proprietorship, a business partnership, a corporation, private limited company or other organization such as Government or not-for-profit entity. Assets, liabilities and ownership equity are listed as of a specific date, such as the end of its financial year. A balance sheet is often described as a \"snapshot of a company's financial condition\". Of the four basic financial statements, the balance sheet is the only statement which applies to a single point in time of a business' calendar year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971022}
{"src_title": "Equisetum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"horsetail\", often used for the entire group, arose because the branched species somewhat resemble a horse's tail. Similarly, the scientific name \"Equisetum\" is derived from the Latin (\"horse\") + (\"bristle\").  Other names include candock for branching species, and snake grass or scouring-rush for unbranched or sparsely branched species. The latter name refers to the rush-like appearance of the plants and to the fact that the stems are coated with abrasive silicates, making them useful for scouring (cleaning) metal items such as cooking pots or drinking mugs, particularly those made of tin. (\"'E. hyemale\", rough horsetail, is still boiled and then dried in Japan to be used for the final polishing process on woodcraft to produce a smoother finish than any sandpaper.) In German, the corresponding name is (\"tin-herb\"). In Spanish-speaking countries, these plants are known as, meaning \"horsetail\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Equisetum\" leaves are greatly reduced and usually non-photosynthetic. They contain a single, non-branching vascular trace, which is the defining feature of microphylls. However, it has recently been recognised that horsetail microphylls are probably not ancestral as in lycophytes (clubmosses and relatives), but rather derived adaptations, evolved by reduction of megaphylls.  The leaves of horsetails are arranged in whorls fused into nodal sheaths. The stems are usually green and photosynthetic, and are distinctive in being hollow, jointed and ridged (with sometimes 3 but usually 6–40 ridges). There may or may not be whorls of branches at the nodes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spores.", "content": "The spores are borne under sporangiophores in strobili, cone-like structures at the tips of some of the stems. In many species the cone-bearing shoots are unbranched, and in some (e.g. \"E. arvense\", field horsetail) they are non-photosynthetic, produced early in spring. In some other species (e.g. \"E. palustre, marsh horsetail) they are very similar to sterile shoots, photosynthetic and with whorls of branches.  Horsetails are mostly homosporous, though in the field horsetail, smaller spores give rise to male prothalli. The spores have four elaters that act as moisture-sensitive springs, assisting spore dispersal through crawling and hopping motions after the sporangia have split open longitudinally.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Equisetum\" cell walls.", "content": "The crude cell extracts of all \"Equisetum\" species tested contain (MXE) activity. This is a novel enzyme and is not known to occur in any other plants. In addition, the cell walls of all \"Equisetum\" species tested contain mixed-linkage glucan (MLG), a polysaccharide which, until recently, was thought to be confined to the Poales. The evolutionary distance between \"Equisetum\" and the Poales suggests that each evolved MLG independently. The presence of MXE activity in \"Equisetum\" suggests that they have evolved MLG along with some mechanism of cell wall modification. Non-\"Equisetum\" land plants tested lack detectable MXE activity. An observed negative correlation between XET activity and cell age led to the suggestion that XET may be catalysing endotransglycosylation in controlled wall-loosening during cell expansion. The lack of MXE in the Poales suggests that there it must play some other, currently unknown, role. Due to the correlation between MXE activity and cell age, MXE has been proposed to promote the cessation of cell expansion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "The living members of the genus \"Equisetum\" are divided into three distinct lineages, which are usually treated as subgenera. The name of the type subgenus, \"Equisetum\", means \"horse hair\" in Latin, while the name of the other large subgenus, \"Hippochaete\", means \"horse hair\" in Greek. Hybrids are common, but hybridization has only been recorded between members of the same subgenus. While plants of subgenus \"Equisetum\" are usually referred to as horsetails, those of subgenus \"Hippochaete\" are often called scouring rushes, especially when unbranched.  Two \"Equisetum\" plants are sold commercially under the names \"Equisetum japonicum\" (barred horsetail) and \"Equisetum camtschatcense\" (Kamchatka horsetail). These are both types of \"E. hyemale\" var. \"hyemale\", although they may also be listed as separate varieties of \"E. hyemale\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "The phylogeny of extant species (excluding hybrids), according to Christenhusz \"et al.\" (2019), is shown in the following cladogram.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and ecology.", "content": "The genus \"Equisetum\" as a whole, while concentrated in the non-tropical northern hemisphere, is near-cosmopolitan, being absent only from Antarctica, though they are not known to be native to Australia, New Zealand nor the islands of the Pacific. They are most common in northern North America (Canada and the northernmost United States), where the genus is represented by nine species (\"E. arvense\", \"E. fluviatile\", \"E. hyemale\", \"E. laevigatum\", \"E. palustre\", \"E. pratense\", \"E. scirpoides\", \"E. sylvaticum\"', and \"E. variegatum\"). Only four (\"E. bogotense\", \"E. giganteum\", \"E. myriochaetum\", and \"E. ramosissimum\") of the fifteen species are known to be native south of the Equator. They are perennial plants, herbaceous and dying back in winter as most temperate species, or evergreen as most tropical species and the temperate species \"E. hyemale\" (rough horsetail), \"E. ramosissimum\" (branched horsetail), \"E. scirpoides\" (dwarf horsetail) and \"E. variegatum\" (variegated horsetail). They typically grow 20 cm–1.5 m (8 in–5 ft) tall, though the \"giant horsetails\" are recorded to grow as high as (\"E. telmateia\", northern giant horsetail), (\"E. giganteum\", southern giant horsetail) or (\"E. myriochaetum\", Mexican giant horsetail), and allegedly even more.  One species, \"Equisetum fluviatile\", is an emergent aquatic, rooted in water with shoots growing into the air. The stalks arise from rhizomes that are deep underground and difficult to dig out. Field horsetail (\"E. arvense\") can be a nuisance weed, readily regrowing from the rhizome after being pulled out. It is unaffected by many herbicides designed to kill seed plants. Since the leaves have a waxy coat, the plant is resistant to contact weedkillers like glyphosate. However, as \"E. arvense\" prefers an acid soil, lime may be used to assist in eradication efforts to bring the soil pH to 7 or 8. Members of the genus have been declared noxious weeds in Australia and in the US state of Oregon.  All the \"Equisetum\" are classed as \"unwanted organisms\" in New Zealand and are listed on the National Pest Plant Accord.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consumption.", "content": "People have regularly consumed horsetails. For example, the fertile stems bearing strobili of some species are cooked and eaten like asparagus (a dish called \"tsukushi\") in Japan. Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest eat the young shoots of this plant raw. The young plants are eaten cooked or raw, but considerable care must be taken.  If eaten over a long enough period of time, some species of horsetail can be poisonous to grazing animals, including horses. The toxicity appears to be due to thiaminase, which can cause thiamin (vitamin B1) deficiency.  \"Equisetum\" species may have been a common food for herbivorous dinosaurs. With studies showing silicate within hadrosaur teeth and that horsetails are nutritionally of high quality, it is assumed that horsetails were an important component of herbivorous dinosaur diets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Folk medicine and safety concerns.", "content": "Extracts and other preparations of \"E. arvense\" have served as herbal remedies, with records dating over centuries. In 2009, the European Food Safety Authority concluded there was no evidence for the supposed health effects of \"E. arvense\", such as for invigoration, weight control, skincare, hair health or bone health., there is insufficient scientific evidence for its effectiveness as a medicine to treat any human condition.  \"E. arvense\" contains thiaminase, which metabolizes the B vitamin, thiamine, potentially causing thiamine deficiency and associated liver damage, if taken chronically. Horsetail might produce a diuretic effect. Further, its safety for oral consumption has not been sufficiently evaluated and it may be toxic, especially to children and pregnant women.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Equisetum (; horsetail, snake grass, puzzlegrass) is the only living genus in Equisetaceae, a family of vascular plants that reproduce by spores rather than seeds.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971023}
{"src_title": "Word", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definitions/meanings.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Summary.", "content": "There have been many proposed criteria for identifying words. However, no definition has been found to apply to all languages. Dictionaries categorize a language's lexicon (i.e., its vocabulary) into lemmas. These can be taken as an indication of what constitutes a \"word\" in the opinion of the writers of that language. The most appropriate means of measuring the length of a word is by counting its syllables or morphemes. When a word has multiple definitions or multiple senses, it may result in confusion in a debate or discussion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semantic definition.", "content": "Leonard Bloomfield introduced the concept of \"Minimal Free Forms\" in 1928. Words are thought of as the smallest meaningful unit of speech that can stand by themselves. This correlates phonemes (units of sound) to lexemes (units of meaning). However, some written words are not minimal free forms as they make no sense by themselves (for example, \"the\" and \"of\").  Some semanticists have put forward a theory of so-called semantic primitives or semantic primes, indefinable words representing fundamental concepts that are intuitively meaningful. According to this theory, semantic primes serve as the basis for describing the meaning, without circularity, of other words and their associated conceptual denotations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "In the Minimalist school of theoretical syntax, words (also called \"lexical items\" in the literature) are construed as \"bundles\" of linguistic features that are united into a structure with form and meaning. For example, the word \"koalas\" has semantic features (it denotes real-world objects, koalas), category features (it is a noun), number features (it is plural and must agree with verbs, pronouns, and demonstratives in its domain), phonological features (it is pronounced a certain way), etc.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Word boundaries.", "content": "The task of defining what constitutes a \"word\" involves determining where one word ends and another word begins—in other words, identifying word boundaries. There are several ways to determine where the word boundaries of spoken language should be placed:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Orthography.", "content": "In languages with a literary tradition, there is interrelation between orthography and the question of what is considered a single word. Word separators (typically spaces) are common in modern orthography of languages using alphabetic scripts, but these are (excepting isolated precedents) a relatively modern development (see also history of writing).  In English orthography, compound expressions may contain spaces. For example, \"ice cream\", \"air raid shelter\" and \"get up\" each are generally considered to consist of more than one word (as each of the components are free forms, with the possible exception of \"get\").  Not all languages delimit words expressly. Mandarin Chinese is a very analytic language (with few inflectional affixes), making it unnecessary to delimit words orthographically. However, there are many multiple-morpheme compounds in Mandarin, as well as a variety of bound morphemes that make it difficult to clearly determine what constitutes a word.  Sometimes, languages which are extremely close grammatically will consider the same order of words in different ways. For example, reflexive verbs in the French infinitive are separate from their respective particle, e.g. \"se laver\" (\"to wash oneself\"), whereas in Portuguese they are hyphenated, e.g. \"lavar-se\", and in Spanish they are joined, e.g. \"lavarse\".  Japanese uses orthographic cues to delimit words such as switching between kanji (Chinese characters) and the two kana syllabaries. This is a fairly soft rule, because content words can also be written in hiragana for effect (though if done extensively spaces are typically added to maintain legibility).  Vietnamese orthography, although using the Latin alphabet, delimits monosyllabic morphemes rather than words.  In character encoding, word segmentation depends on which characters are defined as word dividers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. In synthetic languages, a single word stem (for example, \"love\") may have a number of different forms (for example, \"loves\", \"loving\", and \"loved\"). However, for some purposes these are not usually considered to be different words, but rather different forms of the same word. In these languages, words may be considered to be constructed from a number of morphemes.  In Indo-European languages in particular, the morphemes distinguished are: Thus, the Proto-Indo-European \" would be analyzed as consisting of", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Philosophers have found words objects of fascination since at least the 5th century BC, with the foundation of the philosophy of language. Plato analyzed words in terms of their origins and the sounds making them up, concluding that there was some connection between sound and meaning, though words change a great deal over time. John Locke wrote that the use of words \"is to be sensible marks of ideas\", though they are chosen \"not by any natural connexion that there is between particular articulate sounds and certain ideas, for then there would be but one language amongst all men; but by a voluntary imposition, whereby such a word is made arbitrarily the mark of such an idea\". Wittgenstein's thought transitioned from a word as representation of meaning to \"the meaning of a word is its use in the language.\"  Archaeology shows that even for centuries prior to this fascination by philosophers in the 5th century BC, many languages had various ways of expressing this verbal unit, which in turn diversified and evolved into a range of expressions with wide philosophical significance. Ancient manuscripts of the Gospel of John reveal in its 5th chapter Jesus chastising the pharisees expecting to find life in writings instead of himself. This perhaps could have led to John's introduction in chapter of a description in the Greek translation as \"the logos\". A famous early scientist, scholar and priest, Thomas Aquinas, influenced Cartesian philosophy and mathematics by interpreting such passages consistently with his philosophy of logic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classes.", "content": "Grammar classifies a language's lexicon into several groups of words. The basic bipartite division possible for virtually every natural language is that of nouns vs. verbs.  The classification into such classes is in the tradition of Dionysius Thrax, who distinguished eight categories: noun, verb, adjective, pronoun, preposition, adverb, conjunction and interjection.  In Indian grammatical tradition, Pāṇini introduced a similar fundamental classification into a nominal (nāma, suP) and a verbal (ākhyāta, tiN) class, based on the set of suffixes taken by the word. Some words can be controversial such as slang in formal contexts, misnomers due to them not meaning what they would imply or polysemous words due to the potential confusion of its multiple senses.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In linguistics, a word of a spoken language can be defined as the smallest sequence of phonemes that can be uttered in isolation with objective or practical meaning. For many languages, words also correspond to sequences of graphemes (\"letters\") in their standard writing systems that are delimited by spaces wider than the normal inter-letter space, or by other graphical conventions. The concept of \"word\" is usually distinguished from that of a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of speech which has a meaning, even if it will not stand on its own.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971024}
{"src_title": "Friedrich Merz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and early life.", "content": "Friedrich Merz was born in Brilon in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in then-West Germany to Roman Catholic parents Joachim Merz and Paula née Sauvigny. His father was a judge and a CDU member until he left the party in 2007. The Sauvigny family was a prominent patrician family in Brilon, of French Huguenot ancestry; his grandfather Josef Paul Sauvigny was a lawyer and served as mayor of Brilon from 1917 to 1937.  After finishing his Abitur exam in 1975 Merz served his military service as a soldier with a self-propelled artillery unit of the German Army. From 1976 he studied law with a scholarship from the Konrad Adenauer Foundation, first at the University of Bonn, later at the University of Marburg. He became a member of, a Catholic student fraternity founded in 1844 that is part of the Cartellverband. After finishing law school in 1985 he became a judge in Saarbrücken. In 1986 he quit his position as a judge in order to work as an in-house attorney-at-law at the German Chemical Industry Association in Bonn and Frankfurt from 1986 to 1989.  Merz speaks German, French and English.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career prior to 2009.", "content": "In 1972, at the age of seventeen, he became a member of the CDU's youth wing, the Young Union, and he has been described by German media as a member of the \"Andean Pact,\" a supposed network of influential CDU members formed by members of the Young Union during a trip to the South American Andes region in 1979. He became President of the Brilon branch of the Young Union in 1980.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Member of the European Parliament, 1989–1994.", "content": "Merz successfully ran as a candidate in the 1989 European Parliament election and served one term as a Member of the European Parliament until 1994. He was a member of the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs and of the parliament's delegation for relations with Malta.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Member of the German Bundestag, 1994–2009.", "content": "From the 1994 German elections, he served as member of the Bundestag for his constituency, the Hochsauerland. In his first term, he was a member of the Finance Committee.  In October 1998 Merz became vice-chairman and in February 2000 Chairman of the CDU/CSU parliamentary group (alongside Michael Glos), succeeding Wolfgang Schäuble. In this capacity, he was the opposition leader in the Bundestag during Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's first term.  Ahead of the 2002 elections, Edmund Stoiber included Merz in his shadow cabinet for the Christian Democrats’ campaign to unseat incumbent Schröder as chancellor. During the campaign, Merz served as Stoiber's expert for financial markets and the national budget. After Stoiber's electoral defeat, Angela Merkel assumed the leadership of the parliamentary group; Merz again served as vice-chairman until 2004. From 2002 to 2004, he was also a member of the executive board of the CDU, again under the leadership of Merkel.  Between 2005 and 2009, Merz was a member of the Committee on Legal Affairs. By 2007, he announced he would not be running for political office in the 2009 elections.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career in the private sector.", "content": "Upon leaving politics, Merz has worked as a corporate lawyer. Since 2004 he has been a Senior Counsel at Mayer Brown's Düsseldorf office, where he works on the corporate finance team; before 2004 he was a senior counsel with Cornelius Bartenbach Haesemann. His work as a lawyer has made him a multimillionaire. He has also taken on numerous positions on corporate boards, including the following:  Between 2010 and 2011, Merz represented the shareholders of WestLB, a publicly owned institution that had previously been Germany's third-largest lender, in talks with bidders. In 2012, he joined Norbert Röttgen’s campaign team for the North Rhine-Westphalia state election as advisor on economic policy. He served as a CDU delegate to the Federal Convention for the purpose of electing the President of Germany in 2012 and in 2017.  In November 2017, Merz was appointed by Minister-President Armin Laschet of North Rhine-Westphalia as his Commissioner for Brexit and Transatlantic Relations, an unpaid advisory position.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Return to politics.", "content": "After Angela Merkel announced her intention to step down as Leader of the CDU party, Merz announced he would run in the subsequent party leadership election in December 2018. His candidacy was promoted by the former CDU chairman and \"crown prince\" of the Kohl era, Wolfgang Schäuble (current President of the Bundestag, ranked second in federal precedence). In the second round of the leadership election, Merz was defeated by Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer. On February 25, 2020, he announced his candidacy in the 2020 CDU leadership election.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political positions.", "content": "Merz has focused on economic policy, foreign and security policy and family policy. He has described himself as socially conservative and economically liberal, and is seen as a representative of the conservative and pro-business wings of the CDU. He has been chairman of the Atlantik-Brücke association which promotes German-American understanding and Atlanticism, and is a staunch supporter of the European Union and NATO. As a young politician in the 1970s and 1980s, he was a staunch supporter of anticommunism, the dominant state doctrine of West Germany and a core tenet of the CDU. In 2018, he described himself as \"a truly convinced European, a convinced transatlanticist\" and said that \"I stand for a cosmopolitan Germany whose roots lie in Christian ethics and the European Enlightenment and whose most important political allies are the democracies of the West. I gladly use this expression again: The democracies of the West.\" He especially advocates closer relations between Germany and France. Merz has criticized Donald Trump more harshly than Angela Merkel did and has especially criticized Trump's trade war against Europe. In 2018, he co-authored an article in defence of the European project, which among other things called for \"an army for Europe.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Friedrich Merz is married to the judge Charlotte Merz. He has three children and resides in Arnsberg in the Sauerland region. In 2005, the couple established the Friedrich und Charlotte Merz Stiftung, a foundation supporting projects in the education sector.  On 17 March 2020 Merz was tested positive for COVID-19.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Merz (born 11 November 1955) is a German lawyer and politician of the centre-right Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU). He served as a Member of the European Parliament 1989–1994, a member of the Bundestag 1994–2009, and as the chairman of CDU/CSU parliamentary group 2000–2002. In 2018 he announced his candidacy in the CDU leadership election in December 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971025}
{"src_title": "Book of Lamentations", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Summary.", "content": "The book consists of five separate poems. In the first (chapter 1), the city sits as a desolate weeping widow overcome with miseries. In Chapter 2 these miseries are described in connection with national sins and acts of God. Chapter 3 speaks of hope for the people of God: the chastisement would only be for their good; a better day would dawn for them. Chapter 4 laments the ruin and desolation of the city and temple, but traces it to the people's sins. Chapter 5 is a prayer that Zion's reproach may be taken away in the repentance and recovery of the people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "Lamentations combines elements of the \"qinah\", a funeral dirge for the loss of the city, and the \"communal lament\" pleading for the restoration of its people. It reflects the view, traceable to Sumerian literature of a thousand years earlier, that the destruction of the holy city was a punishment by God for the communal sin of its people.  Beginning with the reality of disaster, Lamentations concludes with the bitter possibility that God may have finally rejected Israel (chapter 5:22). Sufferers in the face of grief are not urged to a confidence in the goodness of God; in fact God is accountable for the disaster. The poet acknowledges that this suffering is a just punishment, still God is held to have had choice over whether to act in this way and at this time. Hope arises from a recollection of God's past goodness, but although this justifies a cry to God to act in deliverance, there is no guarantee that he will. Repentance will not persuade God to be gracious, since he is free to give or withhold grace as he chooses. In the end, the possibility is that God has finally rejected his people and may not again deliver them. Nevertheless, it also affirms confidence that the mercies of Yahweh (the God of Israel) never end, but are new every morning (3:22–33).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Lamentations consists of five distinct poems, corresponding to its five chapters. Two of its defining characteristic features are the alphabetic acrostic and its qinah meter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acrostic.", "content": "The first four are written as acrostics. Chapters 1, 2, and 4 each have 22 verses, corresponding to the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, the first lines beginning with the first letter of the alphabet, the second with the second letter, and so on. Chapter 3 has 66 verses, so that each letter begins three lines. Unlike standard alphabetical order, in the middle chapters of Lamentations, the letter Pe (the 17th letter) comes before Ayin (the 16th). The first chapter uses standard alphabetical order.  The fifth poem, corresponding to the fifth chapter, is not acrostic but still has 22 lines.  Although some claim that purpose or function of the acrostic form is unknown, it is frequently thought that a complete alphabetical order expresses a principle of completeness, from Alef (first letter) to Tav (22nd letter); the English equivalent would be \"from A to Z\".  Very few English translations even attempt to capture this acrostic nature. One which attempts to do so is that by Ronald Knox although its mapping of the 22 Hebrew letters into the Western alphabet's 26 uses 'A' to 'V' (omitting W, X, Y and Z), so lacks that \"from A to Z\" sense of completeness.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Qinah.", "content": "Its first four chapters have a well defined qinah rhythm of three stresses followed by two, although the fifth chapter lacks this. Dobbs-Allsopp describes this meter as \"the rhythmic dominance of unbalanced and enjambed lines\". Again, few English translations attempt to capture this. Exceptions include Robert Alter's \"The Hebrew Bible\" and the \"New American Bible Revised Edition\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "Lamentations has traditionally been ascribed to Jeremiah, probably on the grounds of the reference in 2 Chronicles 35:25 to the prophet composing a lament on the death of King Josiah, but there is no reference to Josiah in the book and no reason to connect it to Jeremiah. The language fits an Exilic date (586–520 BCE), and the poems probably originated from Judeans who remained in the land. Scholars are divided over whether they are the work of one or multiple authors. One clue pointing to multiple authors is that the gender and situation of the first-person witness changes – the narration is feminine in the first and second lamentation, and masculine in the third, while the fourth and fifth are eyewitness reports of Jerusalem's destruction; conversely, the similarities of style, vocabulary, and theological outlook, as well as the uniform historical setting, are arguments for one author.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later interpretation and influence.", "content": "Lamentations is recited annually by Jews on the fast day of Tisha B'Av (\"Ninth of Av\"), mourning the destruction of both the First Temple and the Second.  In Western Christianity, readings (often chanted) and choral settings of extracts from the book are used in the Lenten religious service known as Tenebrae (Latin for \"darkness\"). In the Church of England, readings are used at Morning and Evening Prayer on the Monday and Tuesday of Holy Week, and at Evening Prayer on Good Friday.  In the Coptic Orthodox Church, the book's third chapter is chanted on the twelfth hour of the Good Friday service, that commemorates the burial of Jesus.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Book of Lamentations (, \"‘Êykhôh\", from its incipit meaning \"how\") is a collection of poetic laments for the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. In the Hebrew Bible it appears in the Ketuvim (\"Writings\"), beside the Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, Ecclesiastes and the Book of Esther (the Megilot or \"Five Scrolls\"), although there is no set order; in the Christian Old Testament it follows the Book of Jeremiah, as the prophet Jeremiah is its traditional author. Jeremiah's authorship is no longer generally accepted, although it is generally accepted that the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon in 586 BC forms the background to the poems.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971026}
{"src_title": "Buran (spacecraft)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "The construction of the \"Buran\" spaceplanes began in 1980, and by 1984 the first full-scale orbiter was rolled-out. The Buran spaceplane was made to be launched on the Soviet Union's super-heavy lift vehicle, Energia. The Buran programme ended in 1993.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orbital flight.", "content": "The only orbital launch of a \"Buran\"-class orbiter, 1K1 (first orbiter, first flight) occurred at 03:00:02 UTC on 15 November 1988 from Baikonur Cosmodrome launch pad 110/37. \"Buran\" was lifted into space, on an uncrewed mission, by the specially designed Energia rocket. The automated launch sequence performed as specified, and the Energia rocket lifted the vehicle into a temporary orbit before the orbiter separated as programmed. After boosting itself to a higher orbit and completing two orbits around the Earth, the ODU (, сombined propulsion system) engines fired automatically to begin the descent into the atmosphere, return to the launch site, and horizontal landing on a runway.  After making an automated approach to Site 251, \"Buran\" touched down under its own control at 06:24:42 UTC and came to a stop at 06:25:24, 206 minutes after launch. Despite a lateral wind speed of, \"Buran\" landed only laterally and longitudinally from the target mark. It was the first spaceplane to perform an uncrewed flight, including landing in fully automatic mode. It was later found that \"Buran\" had lost only eight of its 38,000 thermal tiles over the course of its flight.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Projected flights.", "content": "In 1989, it was projected that Buran would have an uncrewed second flight by 1993, with a duration of 15–20 days. Although the Buran programme was never officially cancelled, the dissolution of the Soviet Union led to funding drying up and this never took place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Specifications.", "content": "The mass of \"Buran\" is quoted as 62 tons, with a maximum payload of 30 tons, for a total lift-off weight of 105 tons.  Unlike the US Space Shuttle, which was propelled by a combination of solid boosters and the orbiter's own liquid-propellant engines fuelled from a large tank, the Soviet/Russian shuttle system used thrust from each booster's four RD-170 liquid oxygen/kerosene engines, developed by Valentin Glushko, and another four RD-0120 liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen engines attached to the central block.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fate and destruction.", "content": "In June 1989, \"Buran\", carried on the back of the Antonov An-225, took part in the 1989 Paris Air Show at Le Bourget Airfield.  Together with the Energia rocket, \"Buran\" was put in a hangar at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan.  After the first flight of a Buran shuttle, the programme was suspended due to lack of funds and the political situation in the Soviet Union. The two subsequent orbiters, which were due in 1990 (informally \"Ptichka\") and 1992 (informally \"Baikal\") were never completed. The programme was officially terminated on 30 June 1993, by President Boris Yeltsin. At the time of its cancellation, 20 billion rubles had been spent on the Buran programme.  On 12 May 2002, a hangar roof at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan collapsed because of a structural failure due to poor maintenance. The collapse killed 8 workers and destroyed one of the Buran craft (Orbiter K1), which flew the test flight in 1988, as well as a mock-up of an Energia booster rocket.  Two further Buran shuttles (one for ground use and one that was 90% ready to spaceflight), together with an Energia-M rocket prototype carrier are still stored at the base, according to an article in 2017.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Buran (,, meaning \"Snowstorm\" or \"Blizzard\"; GRAU index serial number: 11F35 1K) was the first spaceplane to be produced as part of the Soviet/Russian Buran programme. Besides describing the first operational Soviet/Russian shuttle orbiter, \"Buran\" was also the designation for the entire Soviet/Russian spaceplane project and its orbiters, which were known as \"\"Buran\"-class spaceplanes\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971027}
{"src_title": "The Plastic People of the Universe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "From January into August 1968, under the rule of Communist Party leader Alexander Dubček, Czechoslovakians experienced the Prague Spring. In August, Soviet and other Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia. This led to the overthrow of Dubček and to what came to be known as the normalization process. Less than a month after the invasion, Plastic People of the Universe was formed.  Bassist Milan Hlavsa formed the band in 1968 and was heavily influenced by Frank Zappa and the Velvet Underground (Zappa's band, the Mothers of Invention, had a song called \"Plastic People\" from their 1967 album \"Absolutely Free\"). Czech art historian and cultural critic Ivan Jirous became their manager/artistic director in the following year, fulfilling a role similar to the one Andy Warhol had with the Velvet Underground. Jirous introduced Hlavsa to guitarist Josef Janíček, and viola player Jiří Kabeš. The consolidated Czech communist government revoked the band's musicians license in 1970.  Because Ivan Jirous believed that English was the lingua franca of rock music, he invited Paul Wilson, a Canadian who had been teaching in Prague, to teach the band the lyrics of the American songs they covered and to translate their original Czech lyrics into English. Wilson served as lead singer for \"the Plastics\" from 1970 to 1972, and during this time, the band's repertoire drew heavily on songs by the Velvet Underground and the Fugs. The only two songs sung in Czech in this period were \"Na sosnové větvi\" and \"Růže a mrtví\", lyrics of both being written by Czech poet Jiří Kolář. Wilson encouraged them to sing in Czech. After he left, saxophonist Vratislav Brabenec joined the band and they began to draw upon poet Egon Bondy whose work had been banned by the government. In the following three years, Bondy's lyrics nearly completely dominated PPU's music. In December 1974, the band recorded their first \"studio\" album, \"Egon Bondy's Happy Hearts Club Banned\" (the title being a play on The Beatles' \"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band\"), which was released in France in 1978.  In 1974, thousands of people traveled from Prague to the town of České Budějovice to visit the Plastics' performance. Stopped by police, they were sent back to Prague, and several students were arrested. The band was forced underground until the Velvet Revolution in 1989. Unable to perform openly, an entire underground cultural movement formed around the band during the 1970s. The sympathizers of the movement were often called \"máničky\", mainly due to their long hair.  In 1976, the Plastics and other people from the underground scene were arrested and put on trial (after performing at the Third festival of the second culture) by the Communist government to make an example. They were convicted of \"organized disturbance of the peace\" and sentenced to terms in prison ranging from 8 to 18 months. Paul Wilson was deported even though he had left the band in 1972. Although the band was not associated with politics, the Communist regime's accusations against them ended up with many protests. It was partly in protest of these arrests and prosecution that playwright Václav Havel and others wrote the Charter 77. The Trial of the Plastics became a milestone for opposition against the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia for human rights.  In 1978, the PPU recorded Pašijové hry velikonoční (released in Canada as \"The Passion Play\" at Paul Wilson's company Boží mlýn). The lyrics were written earlier by Vratislav Brabenec. In 1979, followed Jak bude po smrti, being influenced by a Czech philosopher and writer from the first half of the 20th century, Ladislav Klíma. In 1980, they rehearsed and performed a new record, recorded one year later, Co znamená vésti koně (released in Canada as \"Leading Horses\"). In 1982, Vratislav Brabenec was forced by the police to leave and emigrate to Canada. After he left, the band released its next record Hovězí porážka (1983) and Půlnoční myš (1986, Midnight Mouse). Czech record label Globus International has collected the original work of the Plastic People as 10 CDs, and released them in various forms several times between 1992 and 2004, with various liner notes and photos, and also as a limited edition box set. They have also released other PPU live and solo albums, and related work such as DG 307.  Despite their clashes with the government, the musicians never considered themselves activists and always claimed that they wanted only to play their music. The band broke up in 1988, with some members forming the group Půlnoc (meaning \"midnight\" in Czech), which recorded briefly for Arista Records in the USA. At President Havel's suggestion, they reunited in 1997 in honor of the 20th anniversary of Charter 77, and have performed around the world regularly since then.  In 1999, along with Lou Reed, Milan Hlavsa performed at the White House during Václav Havel's state visit.  Milan Hlavsa died in 2001 of lung cancer. The band was not sure whether or not to continue without their frontman and main songwriter. However, after long discussions they decided to continue in honour of Hlavsa's memory. Eva Turnová from the group DG 307 became the band's new bass player.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-Hlavsa era.", "content": "After Milan Hlavsa's death, the Plastic People began to write new songs. The also performed some of their older albums with several orchestras (such as Agon Orchestra). This was Milan Hlavsa's longtime plan he didn't have the chance to achieve. In 2004 the Plastic People introduced an orchestral version of \"The Passion Play\". In 2005 and 2011 they performed \"Jak bude po smrti\". In 2014 they introduced an orchestral version of \"Co znamená vésti koně?\", alongside the Brno Philharmonic orchestra.  Interest in the band was rekindled in 2006 thanks to a new play, \"Rock 'n' Roll\" by Tom Stoppard, in which two of their recordings are featured. They are also playing a few songs live in Czech performances in the Czech National Theatre. The play's characters also discuss at length the music of the Plastics and its effects on Czech society. The Plastics performed in London for the first time in January 2007 with Turnová on bass.  In December 2009 the band released a new studio album \"Maska za maskou\". It was their first studio album since \"Líně s tebou spím\" (2001) and the first without the songwriting of Milan Hlavsa.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Plastic People of the Universe (PPU) is a Czech rock band from Prague. It was the foremost representative of Prague's underground culture (1968–1989), which had gone against the grain of Czechoslovakia's Communist regime. Due to their non-conformism, members of the band often suffered serious repercussions such as arrests. The group continues to perform despite the death of its founder, main composer and bassist, Milan \"Mejla\" Hlavsa in 2001.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971028}
{"src_title": "Charter 77", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Founding and political aims.", "content": "Motivated in part by the arrest of members of the psychedelic band Plastic People of the Universe, the text of Charter 77 was prepared in 1976. In December 1976, the first signatures were collected. The charter was published on 6 January 1977, along with the names of the first 242 signatories, which represented various occupations, political viewpoints, and religions. Although Václav Havel, Ludvík Vaculík and Pavel Landovský were detained while trying to bring the charter to the Federal Assembly and the Czechoslovak government, and the original document was confiscated, copies circulated as samizdat and on 7 January were published in several western newspapers (including Le Monde, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, The Times and The New York Times) and transmitted to Czechoslovakia by Czechoslovak-banned radio broadcasters like Radio Free Europe and Voice of America.  Charter 77 criticized the government for failing to implement human rights provisions of a number of documents it had signed, including the 1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia, the Final Act of the 1975 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Basket III of the Helsinki Accords), and 1966 United Nations covenants on political, civil, economic, and cultural rights. The document also described the signatories as a \"loose, informal, and open association of people... united by the will to strive individually and collectively for respect for human and civil rights in our country and throughout the world.\" It emphasized that Charter 77 is not an organization, has no statutes or permanent organs, and \"does not form the basis for any oppositional political activity.\" This final stipulation was a careful effort to stay within the bounds of Czechoslovak law, which made organized opposition illegal.  Many of the organization's activists and members gathered on 29 March 2007 at the Orange Tree Theatre in Richmond, London, to observe the movement's 30th anniversary and to discuss the historical impact their movement generated in modern European politics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reaction of the government.", "content": "The government's reaction to the appearance of Charter 77 was harsh. The official press described the manifesto as \"an anti-state, anti-socialist, and demagogic, abusive piece of writing,\" and individual signatories were variously described as \"traitors and renegades,\" \"a loyal servant and agent of imperialism,\" \"a bankrupt politician,\" and \"an international adventurer.\" As it was considered to be an illegal document, the full text of Charter 77 was never published in the official press. However an official group of artists and writers was mobilized into an \"anti-charter\" movement which included Czechoslovakia's foremost singer Karel Gott as well as prominent comedic writer Jan Werich who later claimed he had no idea of what he was doing whilst signing the anti-charter.  Several means of retaliation were used against the signatories, including dismissal from work, denial of educational opportunities for their children, suspension of drivers' licenses, forced exile, loss of citizenship, and detention, trial, and imprisonment. Many members were forced to collaborate with the communist secret service (the StB, Czech: Státní bezpečnost).  The treatment of Charter 77 signatories prompted the creation in April 1978 of a support group, the Committee for the Defense of the Unjustly Prosecuted (\"Výbor na obranu nespravedlivě stíhaných\" – VONS), to publicize the fate of those associated with the charter. In October 1979 six leaders of this support group, including Václav Havel, were tried for subversion and sentenced to prison terms of up to five years.  Repression of Charter 77 and VONS members continued during the 1980s. Despite unrelenting harassment and arrests, however, the groups continued to issue reports on the government's violations of human rights. Until the Velvet Revolution, Charter 77 had approximately 1,900 signatories.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "Under the dictatorship, the influence of Charter 77 remained limited and only 1,065 people ever signed the document. It didn't reach wide groups of people and most of its members were from Prague. The majority of Czechoslovak citizens knew of the organization only because of the government's campaign against it.  In the late 1980s, as the Eastern Bloc regimes weakened, members of Charter 77 saw their opportunity and became more involved in organizing opposition against the regime in power. During the days of the Velvet Revolution, members of the group negotiated the smooth transfer of political power from dictatorship to democracy. Many were elevated into high positions in the government (e.g. Václav Havel became the President of Czechoslovakia) but since most had no experience in active politics (such as skills in diplomacy or knowledge of capitalism) they met with mixed success.  Charter 77 included people who had a wide range of opinions and, after reaching their common goal, the group's presence faded. An attempt to make the group the focal point of an all-encompassing political party (the Civic Forum) failed and in 1992 the organization was officially dissolved.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Award.", "content": "In 1984 Charter 77 was awarded the first Andrei Sakharov Freedom Award.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Text of the Charter  Further reading", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charter 77 (\"Charta 77\" in Czech and in Slovak) was an informal civic initiative in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic from 1976 to 1992, named after the document Charter 77 from January 1977. Founding members and architects were Jiří Němec, Václav Benda, Ladislav Hejdánek, Václav Havel, Jan Patočka, Zdeněk Mlynář, Jiří Hájek, Martin Palouš, Pavel Kohout and Ladislav Lis. Spreading the text of the document was considered a political crime by the communist regime. After the 1989 Velvet Revolution, many of its members played important roles in Czech and Slovak politics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971029}
{"src_title": "Triglyceride", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Chemical structure.", "content": "Triglycerides are tri-esters consisting of a glycerol bound to three fatty acid molecules. Alcohols have a hydroxyl (HO–) group. Organic acids have a carboxyl (–COOH) group. Alcohols and organic acids join to form esters. The glycerol molecule has three hydroxyl (HO–) groups and each fatty acid has a carboxyl group (–COOH). In triglycerides, the hydroxyl groups of the glycerol join the carboxyl groups of the fatty acid to form ester bonds:  The three fatty acids (RCOH, R′COH, R′′COH in the above equation) are usually different, as many kinds of triglycerides are known. The chain lengths of the fatty acids in naturally occurring triglycerides vary, but most contain 16, 18, or 20 carbon atoms. Natural fatty acids found in plants and animals are typically composed of only even numbers of carbon atoms, reflecting the pathway for their biosynthesis from the two-carbon building-block acetyl CoA. Bacteria, however, possess the ability to synthesise odd- and branched-chain fatty acids. As a result, ruminant animal fat contains odd-numbered fatty acids, such as 15, due to the action of bacteria in the rumen. Many fatty acids are unsaturated; some are polyunsaturated (e.g., those derived from linoleic acid).  Most natural fats contain a complex mixture of individual triglycerides. Because of this, they melt over a broad range of temperatures. Cocoa butter is unusual in that it is composed of only a few triglycerides, derived from palmitic, oleic, and stearic acids in the 1-, 2-, and 3-positions of glycerol, respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Homotriglycerides.", "content": "The simplest triglycerides are those where the three fatty acids are identical. Their names indicate the fatty acid: stearin derived from stearic acid, palmitin derived from palmitic acid, etc. These compounds can be obtained in three crystalline forms (polymorphs): α, β, and β′, the three forms differing in their melting points.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chirality.", "content": "If the first and third chain R and R′′ are different, then the central carbon atom is a chiral center, and as a result the triglyceride is chiral.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metabolism.", "content": "The pancreatic lipase acts at the ester bond, hydrolyzing the bond and \"releasing\" the fatty acid. In triglyceride form, lipids cannot be absorbed by the duodenum. Fatty acids, monoglycerides (one glycerol, one fatty acid), and some diglycerides are absorbed by the duodenum, once the triglycerides have been broken down.  In the intestine, following the secretion of lipases and bile, triglycerides are split into monoacylglycerol and free fatty acids in a process called lipolysis. They are subsequently moved to absorptive enterocyte cells lining the intestines. The triglycerides are rebuilt in the enterocytes from their fragments and packaged together with cholesterol and proteins to form chylomicrons. These are excreted from the cells and collected by the lymph system and transported to the large vessels near the heart before being mixed into the blood. Various tissues can capture the chylomicrons, releasing the triglycerides to be used as a source of energy. Liver cells can synthesize and store triglycerides. When the body requires fatty acids as an energy source, the hormone glucagon signals the breakdown of the triglycerides by hormone-sensitive lipase to release free fatty acids. As the brain cannot utilize fatty acids as an energy source (unless converted to a ketone), the glycerol component of triglycerides can be converted into glucose, via gluconeogenesis by conversion into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and then into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, for brain fuel when it is broken down. Fat cells may also be broken down for that reason if the brain's needs ever outweigh the body's.  Triglycerides cannot pass through cell membranes freely. Special enzymes on the walls of blood vessels called lipoprotein lipases must break down triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids can then be taken up by cells via the fatty acid transporter (FAT).  Triglycerides, as major components of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and chylomicrons, play an important role in metabolism as energy sources and transporters of dietary fat. They contain more than twice as much energy (approximately 9kcal/g or 38kJ/g) as carbohydrates (approximately 4kcal/g or 17kJ/g).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in disease.", "content": "In the human body, high levels of triglycerides in the bloodstream have been linked to atherosclerosis, heart disease and stroke. However, the relative negative impact of raised levels of triglycerides compared to that of LDL:HDL ratios is as yet unknown. The risk can be partly accounted for by a strong inverse relationship between triglyceride level and HDL-cholesterol level. But the risk is also due to high triglyceride levels increasing the quantity of small, dense LDL particles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Guidelines.", "content": "The National Cholesterol Education Program has set guidelines for triglyceride levels: These levels are tested after fasting 8 to 12 hours. Triglyceride levels remain temporarily higher for a period after eating.  The American Heart Association recommends an optimal triglyceride level of 100mg/dL (1.1mmol/L) or lower to improve heart health.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reducing triglyceride levels.", "content": "Weight loss and dietary modification are effective first-line lifestyle modification treatments for hypertriglyceridemia. For people with mildly or moderately high levels of triglycerides, lifestyle changes, including weight loss, moderate exercise and dietary modification, are recommended. This may include restriction of carbohydrates (specifically fructose) and fat in the diet and the consumption of omega-3 fatty acids from algae, nuts, and seeds. Medications are recommended in those with high levels of triglycerides that are not corrected with the aforementioned lifestyle modifications, with fibrates being recommended first. Omega-3-carboxylic acids is another prescription drug used to treat very high levels of blood triglycerides.  The decision to treat hypertriglyceridemia with medication depends on the levels and on the presence of other risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Very high levels that would increase the risk of pancreatitis is treated with a drug from the fibrate class. Niacin and omega-3 fatty acids as well as drugs from the statin class may be used in conjunction, with statins being the main medication for moderate hypertriglyceridemia when reduction of cardiovascular risk is required.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Industrial uses.", "content": "Linseed oil and related oils are important components of useful products used in oil paints and related coatings. Linseed oil is rich in di- and tri-unsaturated fatty acid components, which tend to harden in the presence of oxygen. This heat-producing hardening process is peculiar to these so-called \"drying oils\". It is caused by a polymerization process that begins with oxygen molecules attacking the carbon backbone.  Triglycerides are also split into their components via transesterification during the manufacture of biodiesel. The resulting fatty acid esters can be used as fuel in diesel engines. The glycerin has many uses, such as in the manufacture of food and in the production of pharmaceuticals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Staining.", "content": "Staining for fatty acids, triglycerides, lipoproteins, and other lipids is done through the use of lysochromes (fat-soluble dyes). These dyes can allow the qualification of a certain fat of interest by staining the material a specific color. Some examples: Sudan IV, Oil Red O, and Sudan Black B.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A triglyceride (TG, triacylglycerol, TAG, or triacylglyceride) is an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids (from \"tri-\" and \"glyceride\"). Triglycerides are the main constituents of body fat in humans and other vertebrates, as well as vegetable fat. They are also present in the blood to enable the bidirectional transference of adipose fat and blood glucose from the liver, and are a major component of human skin oils.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971030}
{"src_title": "Juan Gris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Gris was born in Madrid and later studied engineering at the Madrid School of Arts and Sciences. There, from 1902 to 1904, he contributed drawings to local periodicals. From 1904 to 1905, he studied painting with the academic artist José Moreno Carbonero. It was in 1905 that José Victoriano González adopted the more distinctive name Juan Gris.  In 1909 Lucie Belin (1891–1942)—Gris' wife—gave birth to Georges Gonzalez-Gris (1909–2003), the artist's only child. The three lived at the Bateau-Lavoir, 13 Rue Ravignan, Paris, from 1909 to 1911. In 1912 Gris met Charlotte Augusta Fernande Herpin (1894–1983), also known as Josette. Late 1913 or early 1914 they lived together at the Bateau-Lavoir until 1922. Josette Gris was Juan Gris' second companion and unofficial wife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1906 he moved to Paris and became friends with the poets Guillaume Apollinaire, Max Jacob, and artists Henri Matisse, Georges Braque, Fernand Léger and Jean Metzinger. He submitted darkly humorous illustrations to journals such as the anarchist satirical magazine \"L'Assiette au Beurre\", and also \"Le Rire\", \"Le Charivari\", and \"Le Cri de Paris\". In Paris, Gris followed the lead of Metzinger and another friend and fellow countryman, Pablo Picasso.  Gris began to paint seriously in 1911 (when he gave up working as a satirical cartoonist), developing at this time a personal Cubist style. In \"A Life of Picasso\", John Richardson writes that Jean Metzinger's 1911 work, \"Le goûter (Tea Time)\", persuaded Juan Gris of the importance of mathematics in painting. Gris exhibited for the first time at the 1912 Salon des Indépendants (a painting entitled \"Hommage à Pablo Picasso\").  \"He appears with two styles\", writes art historian Peter Brooke, \"In one of them a grid structure appears that is clearly reminiscent of the \"Goûter\" and of Metzinger's later work in 1912.\" In the other, Brooke continues, \"the grid is still present but the lines are not stated and their continuity is broken. Their presence is suggested by the heavy, often triangular, shading of the angles between them... Both styles are distinguished from the work of Picasso and Braque by their clear, rational and measurable quality.\" Although Gris regarded Picasso as a teacher, Gertrude Stein wrote in \"The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas\" that \"Juan Gris was the only person whom Picasso wished away\". In 1912 Gris exhibited at the \"Exposicío d'art cubista\", Galeries Dalmau in Barcelona, the first declared group exhibition of Cubism worldwide; the gallery Der Sturm in Berlin; the \"Salon de la Société Normande de Peinture Moderne\" in Rouen; and the Salon de la Section d'Or in Paris. Gris, in that same year, signed a contract that gave Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler exclusive rights to his work.  At first Gris painted in the style of \"Analytical Cubism\", a term he himself later coined, but after 1913 he began his conversion to \"Synthetic Cubism\", of which he became a steadfast interpreter, with extensive use of papier collé or, collage. Unlike Picasso and Braque, whose Cubist works were practically monochromatic, Gris painted with bright harmonious colors in daring, novel combinations in the manner of his friend Matisse. Gris exhibited with the painters of the Puteaux Group in the Salon de \"la Section d'Or\" in 1912. His preference for clarity and order influenced the Purist style of Amédée Ozenfant and Charles Edouard Jeanneret (Le Corbusier), and made Gris an important exemplar of the post-war \"return to order\" movement. In 1915 he was painted by his friend, Amedeo Modigliani. In November 1917 he made one of his few sculptures, the polychrome plaster \"Harlequin\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crystal Cubism.", "content": "Gris's works from late 1916 through 1917 exhibit a greater simplification of geometric structure, a blurring of the distinction between objects and setting, between subject matter and background. The oblique overlapping planar constructions, tending away from equilibrium, can best be seen in \"Woman with Mandolin, after Corot\" (September 1916) and in its epilogue, \"Portrait of Josette Gris\" (October 1916; Museo Reina Sofia).  The clear-cut underlying geometric framework of these works seemingly controls the finer elements of the compositions; the constituent components, including the small planes of the faces, become part of the unified whole. Though Gris certainly had planned the representation of his chosen subject matter, the abstract armature serves as the starting point.  The geometric structure of Juan Gris's Crystal period is already palpable in \"Still Life before an Open Window, Place Ravignan\" (June 1915; Philadelphia Museum of Art). The overlapping elemental planar structure of the composition serves as a foundation to flatten the individual elements onto a unifying surface, foretelling the shape of things to come.  In 1919 and particularly 1920, artists and critics began to write conspicuously about this'synthetic' approach, and to assert its importance in the overall scheme of advanced Cubism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Designer and theorist.", "content": "In 1924, he designed ballet sets and costumes for Sergei Diaghilev and the famous Ballets Russes.  Gris articulated most of his aesthetic theories during 1924 and 1925. He delivered his definitive lecture, \"Des possibilités de la peinture\", at the Sorbonne in 1924. Major Gris exhibitions took place at the Galerie Simon in Paris and the Galerie Flechtheim in Berlin in 1923 and at the Galerie Flechtheim in Düsseldorf in 1925.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "After October 1925, Gris was frequently ill with bouts of uremia and cardiac problems. He died of kidney failure in Boulogne-sur-Seine (Paris) on 11 May 1927, at the age of 40, leaving a wife, Josette, and a son, Georges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art market.", "content": "The top auction price for a Gris work is $57.1 million (£34.8 million), achieved for his 1915 painting \"Nature morte à la nappe à carreaux (Still Life with Checked Tablecloth)\". This surpassed previous records of $20.8 million for his 1915 still life \"Livre, pipe et verres\", $28.6 million for the 1913 artwork \"Violon et guitare\" and $31.8 million for \"The musician's table\", now in the Met.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "José Victoriano (Carmelo Carlos) González-Pérez (23 March 1887 – 11 May 1927), better known as Juan Gris (; ), was a Spanish painter born in Madrid who lived and worked in France most of his life. Closely connected to the innovative artistic genre Cubism, his works are among the movement's most distinctive.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971031}
{"src_title": "Aldrovanda vesiculosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Morphology.", "content": "\"Aldrovanda vesiculosa\" is a rootless aquatic plant. Seedlings develop a short protoroot; however, this fails to develop further and senesces. The plant consists of floating stems reaching a length of. The trap leaves grow in whorls of between 5 and 9 in close succession along the plant's central stem. The actual traps are held by petioles which hold air sacs that aid in flotation. One end of the stem continually grows while the other end dies off. Growth is quite rapid ( per day in Japanese populations), so that in optimal conditions a new whorl is produced once or more each day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trap.", "content": "The actual traps consist of two lobes which fold together to form a snap-trap similar to that of the Venus fly trap, except that it is smaller and located underwater. These traps, which are twisted so that the trap openings point outward, are lined on the inside by a fine coating of trigger hairs, snapping shut in response to contact with aquatic invertebrates and trapping them. The closing of this trap takes 10–20 milliseconds, making it one of the fastest examples of plant movement in the kingdom. This trapping is only possible in warm conditions of at least. Each trap is surrounded by between four and six 6–8 mm long bristles that prevent triggering of traps by debris in the water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "The small, solitary white flowers of \"A. vesiculosa\" are supported above the water level by short peduncles which arise from whorl axes. The flower only opens for a few hours, after which the structure is brought back beneath the water level for seed production. The seeds are cryptocotylar: the cotyledons remain hidden within the seed coat and serve as energy storage for the seedlings. Flowering, however, is rare in temperate regions and poorly successful in terms of fruit and seed development.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Divisions.", "content": "\"Aldrovanda vesiculosa\" reproduces most often through vegetative reproduction. In favourable conditions, adult plants will produce an offshoot every, resulting in new plants as the tips continue to grow and the old ends die off and separate. Due to the rapid growth rate of this species, countless new plants can be produced in a short period of time in this fashion.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Turions.", "content": "Winter-hardy \"Aldrovanda\" form turions as a frost survival strategy. At the onset of winter, the growth tip starts producing highly reduced non-carnivorous leaves on a severely shortened stem. This results in a tight bud of protective leaves which, being heavier and having released flotational gases, breaks off the mother plant and sinks to the water bottom, where temperatures are stable and warmer. Here it can withstand temperatures as low as. In the wild, \"Aldrovanda\" turions have been observed to have a relatively low rate of successful sinking. Those nutritious turions that fail to sink are then grazed by waterfowl or are killed by the onset of frost. In spring when water temperatures rise above, turions reduce their density and float to the top of the water, where they germinate and resume growth. Non-dormant turion-like organs can also form in response to summer drought.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Aldrovanda vesiculosa\" is the most widely distributed carnivorous plant species, native to Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. \"Aldrovanda\" is spread mainly through the movement of waterfowl: plants sticking to the feet of a bird are transported to the next aquatic destination on the bird's route. As a result, most \"Aldrovanda\" populations are located along avian migratory routes. Throughout the last century the species has become increasingly rare, listed as extinct in an increasingly large number of countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "\"A. vesiculosa\" prefers clean, shallow, warm, standing water with bright light, low nutrient levels, and a slightly acidic pH (around 6). It can be found floating amongst Juncus, reeds, and even rice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Botanical history.", "content": "\"Aldrovanda vesiculosa\" was first mentioned in 1696 by Leonard Plukenet, based on collections made in India. He named the plant \"Lenticula pulustris Indica\". The modern botanical name originates from Gaetano Lorenzo Monti, who described Italian specimens in 1747 and named them \"Aldrovandia vesiculosa\" in honor of the Italian naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi. When Carl Linnaeus published his \"Species Plantarum\" in 1753, the \"i\" was dropped from the name (an apparent orthographic error) to form the modern binomial.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aldrovanda vesiculosa, commonly known as the waterwheel plant, is the sole extant species in the flowering plant genus \"Aldrovanda\" of the family Droseraceae. The plant captures small aquatic invertebrates using traps similar to those of the Venus flytrap. The traps are arranged in whorls around a central, free-floating stem, giving rise to the common name. This is one of the few plant species capable of rapid movement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971032}
{"src_title": "Amicable numbers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Amicable numbers were known to the Pythagoreans, who credited them with many mystical properties. A general formula by which some of these numbers could be derived was invented circa 850 by the Iraqi mathematician Thābit ibn Qurra (826–901). Other Arab mathematicians who studied amicable numbers are al-Majriti (died 1007), al-Baghdadi (980–1037), and al-Fārisī (1260–1320). The Iranian mathematician Muhammad Baqir Yazdi (16th century) discovered the pair (9363584, 9437056), though this has often been attributed to Descartes. Much of the work of Eastern mathematicians in this area has been forgotten.  Thābit ibn Qurra's formula was rediscovered by Fermat (1601–1665) and Descartes (1596–1650), to whom it is sometimes ascribed, and extended by Euler (1707–1783). It was extended further by Borho in 1972. Fermat and Descartes also rediscovered pairs of amicable numbers known to Arab mathematicians. Euler also discovered dozens of new pairs. The second smallest pair, (1184, 1210), was discovered in 1866 by a then teenage B. Nicolò I. Paganini (not to be confused with the composer and violinist), having been overlooked by earlier mathematicians.  By 1946 there were 390 known pairs, but the advent of computers has allowed the discovery of many thousands since then. Exhaustive searches have been carried out to find all pairs less than a given bound, this bound being extended from 10 in 1970, to 10 in 1986, 10 in 1993, 10 in 2015, and to 10 in 2016. , there are over 1,225,063,681 known amicable pairs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rules for generation.", "content": "While these rules do generate some pairs of amicable numbers, many other pairs are known, so these rules are by no means comprehensive.  In particular, the two rules below produce only even amicable pairs, so they are of no interest for the open problem of finding amicable pairs coprime to 210 = 2·3·5·7, while over 1000 pairs coprime to 30 = 2·3·5 are known [García, Pedersen & te Riele (2003), Sándor & Crstici (2004)].", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thābit ibn Qurra theorem.", "content": "The Thābit ibn Qurra theorem is a method for discovering amicable numbers invented in the ninth century by the Arab mathematician Thābit ibn Qurra.  It states that if where is an integer and,, and are prime numbers, then and are a pair of amicable numbers. This formula gives the pairs for, for, and for, but no other such pairs are known. Numbers of the form are known as Thabit numbers. In order for Ibn Qurra's formula to produce an amicable pair, two consecutive Thabit numbers must be prime; this severely restricts the possible values of.  To establish the theorem, Thâbit ibn Qurra proved nine lemmas divided into two groups. The first three lemmas deal with the determination of the aliquot parts of a natural integer. The second group of lemmas deals more specifically with the formation of perfect, abundant and deficient numbers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Euler's rule.", "content": "\"Euler's rule\" is a generalization of the Thâbit ibn Qurra theorem. It states that if where are integers and,, and are prime numbers, then and are a pair of amicable numbers. Thābit ibn Qurra's theorem corresponds to the case. Euler's rule creates additional amicable pairs for with no others being known. Euler (1747 & 1750) overall found 58 new pairs to make all the by then existing pairs into 61.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regular pairs.", "content": "Let (, ) be a pair of amicable numbers with, and write and where is the greatest common divisor of and. If and are both coprime to and square free then the pair (, ) is said to be regular, otherwise it is called irregular or exotic. If (, ) is regular and and have and prime factors respectively, then is said to be of type.  For example, with, the greatest common divisor is and so and. Therefore, is regular of type.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin amicable pairs.", "content": "An amicable pair is twin if there are no integers between and belonging to any other amicable pair.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other results.", "content": "In every known case, the numbers of a pair are either both even or both odd. It is not known whether an even-odd pair of amicable numbers exists, but if it does, the even number must either be a square number or twice one, and the odd number must be a square number. However, amicable numbers where the two members have different smallest prime factors do exist: there are seven such pairs known. Also, every known pair shares at least one common prime factor. It is not known whether a pair of coprime amicable numbers exists, though if any does, the product of the two must be greater than 10. Also, a pair of coprime amicable numbers cannot be generated by Thabit's formula (above), nor by any similar formula.  In 1955, Paul Erdős showed that the density of amicable numbers, relative to the positive integers, was 0.  According to the sum of amicable pairs conjecture, as the number of the amicable numbers approaches infinity, the percentage of the sums of the amicable pairs divisible by ten approaches 100%.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Generalizations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amicable tuples.", "content": "Amicable numbers formula_1 satisfy formula_2 and formula_3 which can be written together as formula_4. This can be generalized to larger tuples, say formula_5, where we require  For example, (1980, 2016, 2556) is an amicable triple, and (3270960, 3361680, 3461040, 3834000) is an amicable quadruple.  Amicable multisets are defined analogously and generalizes this a bit further.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sociable numbers.", "content": "Sociable numbers are the numbers in cyclic lists of numbers (with a length greater than 2) where each number is the sum of the proper divisors of the preceding number. For example, formula_7 are sociable numbers of order 4.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Searching for sociable numbers.", "content": "The aliquot sequence can be represented as a directed graph, formula_8, for a given integer formula_9, where formula_10 denotes the sum of the proper divisors of formula_11. Cycles in formula_8 represent sociable numbers within the interval formula_13. Two special cases are loops that represent perfect numbers and cycles of length two that represent amicable pairs.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Amicable numbers are two different numbers so related that the sum of the proper divisors of each is equal to the other number.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971033}
{"src_title": "Hans Christian Ørsted", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and studies.", "content": "Ørsted was born in Rudkøbing in 1777. As a young boy he developed an interest in science while working for his father, who owned the local pharmacy. He and his brother Anders received most of their early education through self-study at home, going to Copenhagen in 1793 to take entrance exams for the University of Copenhagen, where both brothers excelled academically. By 1796, Ørsted had been awarded honors for his papers in both aesthetics and physics. He earned his doctorate in 1799 for a dissertation based on the works of Kant entitled \"The Architectonics of Natural Metaphysics\".  In 1800, Alessandro Volta reported his invention of the voltaic pile, which inspired Ørsted to investigate the nature of electricity and to conduct his first electrical experiments. In 1801, Ørsted received a travel scholarship and public grant which enabled him to spend three years traveling across Europe. He toured science headquarters throughout the continent, including in Berlin and Paris.  In Germany Ørsted met Johann Wilhelm Ritter, a physicist who believed there was a connection between electricity and magnetism. This idea made sense to Ørsted as he subscribed to Kantian thought regarding the unity of nature. Ørsted's conversations with Ritter drew him into the study of physics. He became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1806 and continued research on electric currents and acoustics. Under his guidance the university developed a comprehensive physics and chemistry program and established new laboratories.  Ørsted welcomed William Christopher Zeise to his family home in autumn 1806. He granted Zeise a position as his lecturing assistant and took the young chemist under his tutelage. In 1812, Ørsted again visited Germany and France after publishing \"Videnskaben om Naturens Almindelige Love\" and \"Første Indledning til den Almindelige Naturlære\" (1811).  Ørsted was the first modern thinker to explicitly describe and name the thought experiment. He used the Latin-German term \"Gedankenexperiment\" circa 1812 and the German term \"Gedankenversuch\" in 1820.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Electromagnetism.", "content": "On 21 April 1820, Ørsted published his discovery that a compass needle was deflected from magnetic north by a nearby electric current, confirming a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. The often reported story that Ørsted made this discovery incidentally during a lecture is a myth. He had, in fact, been looking for a connection between electricity and magnetism since 1818, but was quite confused by the results he was obtaining.  His initial interpretation was that magnetic effects radiate from all sides of a wire carrying an electric current, as do light and heat. Three months later, he began more intensive investigations and soon thereafter published his findings, showing that an electric current produces a circular magnetic field as it flows through a wire. For his discovery, the Royal Society of London awarded Ørsted the Copley Medal in 1820 and the French Academy granted him 3,000 francs.  Ørsted's findings stirred much research into electrodynamics throughout the scientific community, influencing French physicist André-Marie Ampère's developments of a single mathematical formula to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors. Ørsted's work also represented a major step toward a unified concept of energy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Ørsted was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1822 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1849.  He founded Selskabet for Naturlærens Udbredelse (SNU), a society to disseminate knowledge of the natural sciences, in 1824. He was also the founder of predecessor organizations which eventually became the Danish Meteorological Institute and the Danish Patent and Trademark Office. In 1829, Ørsted founded Den Polytekniske Læreanstalt ('College of Advanced Technology') which was later renamed the Technical University of Denmark (DTU).  In 1825, Ørsted made a significant contribution to chemistry by producing aluminium in a near-pure form for the first time. In 1808, Humphry Davy had predicted the existence of the metal which he gave the name of alumium. However his attempts to isolate it using electrolysis processes were unsuccessful. The closest he came was an aluminum-iron alloy. Ørsted was the first to isolate the element via a reduction of aluminium chloride. Although the aluminium alloy he extracted still contained impurities, he is credited with discovery of the metal. His work was developed further by Friedrich Wöhler who obtained aluminium powder on October 22, 1827, and solidified balls of molten aluminium in 1845. Wöhler is credited with the first isolation of the metal in a pure form.  Ørsted died in Copenhagen in 1851, aged 73, and was buried in the Assistens Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The centimetre-gram-second system (CGS) unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named for his contributions to the field of electromagnetism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toponomy.", "content": "The Ørsted Park in Copenhagen was named after Ørsted in 1879. The streets H.C. Ørsteds Vej in Frederiksberg and H. C. Ørsteds Allé in Galten are also named after him.  The buildings that are home to the Department of Chemistry and the Institute for Mathematical Sciences at the University of Copenhagen's North Campus are named the \"H.C. Ørsted Institute\", after him. A dormitory named H. C. Ørsted Kollegiet is located in Odense.  The first Danish satellite, launched 1999, was named after Ørsted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Monuments and memorials.", "content": "A statue of Hans Christian Ørsted was installed in the Ørsted Park in 1880. A commemorative plaque is located above the gate on the building in Studiestræde where he lived and worked. The 100 danske kroner note issued from 1950 to 1970 carried an engraving of Ørsted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards and lectures.", "content": "Two medals are awarded in Ørsted's name: the Oersted Medal for notable contributions in the teaching of physics in America, awarded by American Association of Physics Teachers, along with the H. C. Ørsted Medal for Danish scientists, awarded by the Danish \"Selskabet for Naturlærens Udbredelse\" (Society for the Dissemination of Natural Science), founded by Ørsted.  The H.C. Ørsted Lectureship is awarded to two prominent researchers annually.  Here is a list of some of the previous H.C. Ørsted lecturers:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "Ørsted was a published writer and poet. His poetry series \"Luftskibet\" (\"The Airship\") was inspired by the balloon flights of fellow physicist and stage magician Étienne-Gaspard Robert. Shortly before his death, he submitted a collection of articles for publication under the title \"The Soul in Nature\". The book presents Ørsted's life philosophy and views on a wide variety of issues.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Christian Ørsted (, ; often rendered Oersted in English; 14 August 17779 March 1851) was a Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields, which was the first connection found between electricity and magnetism. Oersted's law and the oersted (Oe) are named after him.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971034}
{"src_title": "Karel Appel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Christiaan Karel Appel was born on 25 April 1921 in his parents' house at Dapperstraat 7 in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. As a child he was often called 'Kik'. On the ground floor his father, Jan Appel, had a barbershop. His mother, born Johanna Chevalier, was a descendant of French Huguenots. Karel Appel had three brothers.  At fourteen, Appel produced his first real painting on canvas, a still life of a fruit basket. For his fifteenth birthday, his wealthy uncle Karel Chevalier gave him a paint set and an easel. An avid amateur painter himself, Chevalier gave his namesake some lessons in painting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "From 1940 to 1943, during the German occupation, Appel studied at the Rijksakademie van Beeldende Kunsten in Amsterdam, and it was there he met the young painter Corneille and, some years later, Constant; they became close friends for years. His parents opposed his choice to become an artist, leading him to leave home; this was also necessary because he needed to hide from the German police so that he would not be picked up and sent to Germany to work in the weapons industry. Appel had his first show in Groningen in 1946. In 1949 he participated with the other CoBrA artists in the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam; this generated a huge scandal and many objections in the press and public. He was influenced by Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and the French brute-art artist Jean Dubuffet. In 1947 he started sculpting with all kinds of used materials (in the technique of assemblage) and painted them in bright colors: white, red, yellow, blue, and black. He joined the Experimentele Groep in Holland together with the young Dutch painters Anton Rooskens, Theo Wolvecamp, and Jan Nieuwenhuys. Later the Belgian writer Hugo Claus joined the group.  In 1948 Appel joined CoBrA (from Copenhagen, Brussels, Amsterdam) together with the Dutch artists Corneille, Constant, and Jan Nieuwenhuys (see also Aart Kemink), and with the Belgian poet Christian Dotremont. The new art of the CoBrA group was not popular in the Netherlands, but it found a warm and broad welcome in Denmark. By 1939, Danish artists had already started to make spontaneous art and one of their sources of inspiration was Danish and Nordic mythology. It was also in Denmark that the CoBrA artists started cooperating by collectively painting the insides of houses, which encouraged and intensified the exchange of the typical 'childish' and spontaneous picture language used by the CoBrA group. Appel used this very intensively; his 1949 fresco 'Questioning Children' in Amsterdam City Hall caused controversy and was covered up for ten years.  As a result of this controversy and other negative Dutch reactions to CoBrA, Appel moved to Paris in 1950 and developed his international reputation by travelling to Mexico, the USA, Yugoslavia, and Brazil. He also lived in New York City and Florence. His first American gallery exhibition took place in 1954 at the Martha Jackson Gallery. The following year his painting \"Child and Beast II\" (1951) was included in the influential exhibition, \"The New Decade\" at the Museum of Modern Art which featured the work of twenty-two European painters and sculptors including newcomers like Francis Bacon, Jean Dubuffet, and Pierre Soulages. He is particularly noted for his mural work. After 1990 he became much more popular in the Netherlands; he had several big shows in Amsterdam and Bruxelles, organized by director Rudy Fuchs. Also, the CoBrA-museum in Amstelveen organized several shows featuring his work. He became the most famous Dutch CoBrA artist. Appel's work has been exhibited in a number of galleries, including the Anita Shapolsky Gallery in New York City, Galerie Lelong in Paris, Galerie Ulysses in Vienna, and Gallery LL in Amsterdam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Appel died on 3 May 2006 in his home in Zürich, Switzerland. He suffered from a heart ailment. He was buried on 16 May 2006 at the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, France.  Years before his death, Appel established the Karel Appel Foundation, whose purpose is \"to preserve [Appel's] artworks, to promote public awareness and knowledge of Karel Appel's oeuvre, and to supervise publication of the Oeuvre Catalogue of the paintings, the works on paper, and the sculptures.\"  In 2002 a number of Appel's works went missing on the way to his foundation, an event that was not to be resolved before his death. However, in 2012 the works were found in a disused UK warehouse and returned to the foundation.  In the wake of his death, the Foundation (based in Amsterdam) functions as his official estate in addition to its primary service as an image archive. The U.S. copyright representative for the Karel Appel Foundation is the Artists Rights Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public collections.", "content": "Among the public collections holding works by Karel Appel are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christiaan Karel Appel (; 25 April 1921 – 3 May 2006) was a Dutch painter, sculptor, and poet. He started painting at the age of fourteen and studied at the Rijksakademie in Amsterdam in the 1940s. He was one of the founders of the avant-garde movement Cobra in 1948. He was also an avid sculptor and has had works featured in MoMA and other museums worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971035}
{"src_title": "Signature", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Function and types.", "content": "The traditional function of a signature is to permanently affix to a document a person's uniquely personal, undeniable self-identification as physical evidence of that person's personal witness and certification of the content of all, or a specified part, of the document. For example, the role of a signature in many consumer contracts is not solely to provide evidence of the identity of the contracting party, but also to provide evidence of deliberation and informed consent. In many countries, signatures may be witnessed and recorded in the presence of a notary public to carry additional legal force. On legal documents, an illiterate signatory can make a \"mark\" (often an \"X\" but occasionally a personalized symbol), so long as the document is countersigned by a literate witness. In some countries, illiterate people place a thumbprint on legal documents in lieu of a written signature.  In the United States, signatures encompass marks and actions of all sorts that are indicative of identity and intent. The legal rule is that unless a statute specifically prescribes a particular method of making a signature it may be made in any number of ways. These include by a mechanical or rubber stamp facsimile. A signature may be made by the purported signatory; alternatively someone else duly authorized by the signatory, acting in the signer's presence and at the signatory's direction, may make the signature.  Many individuals have much more fanciful signatures than their normal cursive writing, including elaborate ascenders, descenders and exotic flourishes, much as one would find in calligraphic writing. As an example, the final \"k\" in John Hancock's famous signature on the US Declaration of Independence loops back to underline his name. This kind of flourish is also known as a \"paraph\".  Paraphe is a term meaning flourish, initial or signature in French. The paraph is used in graphology analyses.  Several cultures whose languages use writing systems other than alphabets do not share the Western notion of signatures per se: the \"signing\" of one's name results in a written product no different from the result of \"writing\" one's name in the standard way. For these languages, to write or to sign involves the same written characters. Also see Calligraphy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanically produced signatures.", "content": "Special signature machines, called autopens, are capable of automatically reproducing an individual's signature. These are typically used by people required to sign a lot of printed matter, such as celebrities, heads of state or CEOs. More recently, Members of Congress in the United States have begun having their signature made into a TrueType font file. This allows staff members in the Congressman's office to easily reproduce it on correspondence, legislation, and official documents. In the East Asian languages of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, people traditionally use stamp-like objects known as \"name-seals\" with the name carved in \"tensho\" script (\"seal script\") in lieu of a handwritten signature.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wet signatures.", "content": "Some government agencies require that professional persons or official reviewers sign originals and all copies of originals to authenticate that they personally viewed the content. In the United States this is prevalent with architectural and construction plans. Its intent is to prevent mistakes or fraud but the practice is not known to be effective.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Online usage.", "content": "In e-mail and newsgroup usage, another type of signature exists which is independent of one's language. Users can set one or more lines of custom text known as a signature block to be automatically appended to their messages. This text usually includes a name, contact information, and sometimes quotations and ASCII art. A shortened form of a signature block, only including one's name, often with some distinguishing prefix, can be used to simply indicate the end of a post or response. Some web sites also allow graphics to be used. Note, however, that this type of signature is not related to electronic signatures or digital signatures, which are more technical in nature and not directly understandable by humans. On Wikipedia, an online wiki-based encyclopedia edited by volunteers, the contributors \"sign\" their comments on talk pages with their username (only the username holder has the right to digitally affix their signature).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Art.", "content": "The signature on a painting or other work of art has always been an important item in the assessment of art. Fake signatures are sometimes added to enhance the value of a painting, or are added to a fake painting to support its authenticity. A notorious case was the signature of Johannes Vermeer on the fake \"Supper at Emmaus\" made by the art-forger Han van Meegeren. However, the fact that painters' signatures often vary over time (particularly in the modern and contemporary periods) might complicate the issue. The signatures of some painters take on an artistic form that may be of less value in determining forgeries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Copyright.", "content": "Under British law, the appearance of signatures (not the names themselves) may be protected under copyright law.  Under United States copyright law, \"titles, names [I c...]; mere variations of typographic ornamentation, lettering, or coloring\" are not eligible for copyright; however, the appearance of signatures (not the names themselves) may be protected under copyright law.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uniform Commercial Code.", "content": "Uniform Commercial Code §1-201(37) of the United States generally defines signed as \"using any symbol executed or adopted with present intention to adopt or accept a writing.\" The Uniform Commercial Code §3-401(b) for negotiable instruments states \"A signature may be made (i) manually or by means of a device or machine, and (ii) by the use of any name, including a trade or assumed name, or by a word, mark, or symbol executed or adopted by a person with present intention to authenticate a writing.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A signature (; from, \"to sign\") is a handwritten (and often stylized) depiction of someone's name, nickname, or even a simple \"X\" or other mark that a person writes on documents as a proof of identity and intent. The writer of a signature is a signatory or signer. Similar to a handwritten signature, a signature work describes the work as readily identifying its creator. A signature may be confused with an autograph, which is chiefly an artistic signature. This can lead to confusion when people have both an autograph and signature and as such some people in the public eye keep their signatures private whilst fully publishing their autograph.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971036}
{"src_title": "Victor Vasarely", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Vasarely was born in Pécs and grew up in Pöstyén (now Piešťany, Slovakia) and Budapest, where, in 1925, he took up medical studies at Eötvös Loránd University. In 1927, he abandoned medicine to learn traditional academic painting at the private Podolini-Volkmann Academy. In 1928/1929, he enrolled at Sándor Bortnyik's private art school called \"Műhely\" (lit. \"Workshop\", in existence until 1938), then widely recognized as Budapest's centre of Bauhaus studies. Cash-strapped, the \"műhely\" could not offer all that the Bauhaus offered. Instead it concentrated on applied graphic art and typographical design.  In 1929, he painted his \"Blue Study\" and \"Green Study\". In 1930, he married his fellow student Claire Spinner (1908–1990). Together they had two sons, Andre and Jean-Pierre. Jean-Pierre was also an artist and used the professional name 'Yvaral'. In Budapest, he worked for a ball-bearings company in accounting and designing advertising posters. Vasarely became a graphic designer and a poster artist during the 1930s combining patterns and organic images with each other.  Vasarely left Hungary and settled in Paris in 1930. He worked as a graphic artist and as a creative consultant at the advertising agencies Havas, Draeger, and Devambez (1930–1935). His interactions with other artists during this time were limited. He thought of opening an institution modelled after Sándor Bortnyik's \"műhely\" and developed some teaching material for it. Having lived mostly in cheap hotels, he settled in 1942/1944 in Saint-Céré in the Lot \"département\". After the Second World War, he opened an atelier in Arcueil, a suburb about 10 kilometres from the centre of Paris (in the Val-de-Marne \"département\" of the Île-de-France). In 1961, he finally settled in Annet-sur-Marne (in the Seine-et-Marne \"département\").  Vasarely eventually went on to produce art and sculpture using optical illusion. Over the next three decades, Vasarely developed his style of geometric abstract art, working in various materials but using a minimal number of forms and colours:  In October 1967, designer Will Burtin invited Vasarely to make a presentation to Burtin's Vision '67 conference, held at New York University. On 5 June 1970, Vasarely opened his first dedicated museum with over 500 works in a renaissance palace in Gordes (closed in 1996). A second major undertaking was the \"Foundation Vasarely\" in Aix-en-Provence, a museum housed in a distinct structure specially designed by Vasarely. It was inaugurated in 1976 by French president Georges Pompidou, two years after his death. Sadly the museum is now in a state of disrepair, several of the pieces on display have been damaged by water leaking from the ceiling. Also, in 1976 his large kinematic object \"Georges Pompidou\" was installed in the Centre Pompidou in Paris and the Vasarely Museum located at his birthplace in Pécs, Hungary, was established with a large donation of works by Vasarely. In the same decade, he took a stab at industrial design with a 500-piece run of the upscale \"Suomi\" tableware by Timo Sarpaneva that Vasarely decorated for the German Rosenthal porcelain maker's \"Studio Linie\". In 1982, 154 specially created serigraphs were taken into space by the cosmonaut Jean-Loup Chrétien on board the French-Soviet spacecraft Salyut 7 and later sold for the benefit of UNESCO. In 1987, the second Hungarian Vasarely museum was established in Zichy Palace in Budapest with more than 400 works.  He died age 90 in Paris on 15 March 1997.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "A new Vasarely exhibit was mounted in Paris at Musée en Herbe in 2012.  In 2019, a temporary exhibition of Vasarely's work entitled \"Le Partage des Formes\" was displayed in the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Victor Vasarely (; born Győző Vásárhelyi, ; – ), was a Hungarian-French artist, who is widely accepted as a \"grandfather\" and leader of the Op art movement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971037}
{"src_title": "Compass (drawing tool)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction and parts.", "content": "Compasses are usually made of metal or plastic, and consist of two parts connected by a hinge that can be adjusted to change the radius of the circle one wishes to draw. Typically one part has a spike at its end, and the other part a pencil, or sometimes a pen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Handle.", "content": "The handle is usually about half an inch long. Users can grip it between their pointer finger and thumb.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legs.", "content": "There are two types of legs in a pair of compasses: the straight or the steady leg and the adjustable one. Each has a separate purpose; the steady leg serves as the basis or support for the needle point, while the adjustable leg can be altered in order to draw different sizes of circles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hinge.", "content": "The screw on the hinge holds the two legs in its position; the hinge can be adjusted depending on desired stiffness. The tighter the screw, the better the compass’ performance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Needle point.", "content": "The needle point is located on the steady leg, and serves as the center point of circles that have to be drawn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pencil lead.", "content": "The pencil lead draws the circle on a particular paper or material. Alternatively, an ink nib or attachment with a technical pen may be used.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adjusting nut.", "content": "This holds the pencil lead or pen in place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Circles can be made by fastening one leg of the compasses into the paper with the spike, putting the pencil on the paper, and moving the pencil around while keeping the hinge on the same angle. The radius of the circle can be adjusted by changing the angle of the hinge.  Distances can be measured on a map using compasses with two spikes, also called a dividing compass. The hinge is set in such a way that the distance between the spikes on the map represents a certain distance in reality, and by measuring how many times the compasses fit between two points on the map the distance between those points can be calculated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compasses and straightedge.", "content": "Compasses-and-straightedge constructions are used to illustrate principles of plane geometry. Although a real pair of compasses is used to draft visible illustrations, the ideal compass used in proofs is an abstract creator of perfect circles. The most rigorous definition of this abstract tool is the \"collapsing compass\"; having drawn a circle from a given point with a given radius, it disappears; it cannot simply be moved to another point and used to draw another circle of equal radius (unlike a real pair of compasses). Euclid showed in his second proposition (Book I of the \"Elements\") that such a collapsing compass could be used to transfer a distance, proving that a collapsing compass could do anything a real compass can do.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "A beam compass is an instrument with a wooden or brass beam and sliding sockets, or cursors, for drawing and dividing circles larger than those made by a regular pair of compasses.  Scribe-compasses is an instrument used by carpenters and other tradesmen. Some compasses can be used to scribe circles, bisect angles and in this case to trace a line. It is the compass in the most simple form. Both branches are crimped metal. One branch has a pencil sleeve while the other branch is crimped with a fine point protruding from the end. A wing nut on the hinge serves two purposes: first it tightens the pencil and secondly it locks in the desired distance when the wing nut is turned clockwise.  Loose leg wing dividers are made of all forged steel. The pencil holder, thumb screws, brass pivot and branches are all well built. They are used for scribing circles and stepping off repetitive measurements with some accuracy.  A proportional compass, also known as a military compass or sector, was an instrument used for calculation from the end of the sixteenth century until the nineteenth century. It consists of two rulers of equal length joined by a hinge. Different types of scales are inscribed on the rulers that allow for mathematical calculation.  A reduction compass is used to reduce or enlarge patterns while conserving angles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a symbol.", "content": "A pair of compasses is often used as a symbol of precision and discernment. As such it finds a place in logos and symbols such as the Freemasons' Square and Compasses and in various computer icons. English poet John Donne used the compass as a conceit in \"\" (1611).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A compass, also known as a pair of compasses, is a technical drawing instrument that can be used for inscribing circles or arcs. As dividers, they can also be used as tools to measure distances, in particular on maps. Compasses can be used for mathematics, drafting, navigation and other purposes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971038}
{"src_title": "Michel Mayor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "From 1971–84, Mayor worked as a research associate at the Observatory of Geneva, which is home to the astronomy department of the University of Geneva. He became an associate professor at the university in 1984. In 1988, the university named him a full professor, a position he held until his retirement in 2007. Mayor was director of the Observatory of Geneva from 1998 to 2004. He is a professor emeritus at the University of Geneva.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Mayor's research interests include extrasolar planets (also known as exoplanets), instrumentation, statistical properties of double stars, globular cluster dynamics, galactic structure and kinematics. Mayor's doctoral thesis at the University of Geneva was devoted to the spiral structure of galaxies.  During his time as a research associate, there had been strong interest in developing photoelectric-based Doppler spectrometers to obtain more accurate measurements of radial velocities of stellar objects compared to existing photographic methods. Following preliminary work by Roger Griffin in 1967 to show the feasibility of photoelectric measurements of radial velocities, Mayor worked with André Baranne at the Marseille Observatory to develop COREVAL, a photoelectric spectrometer capable of highly accurate radial velocity measurements, which allow measurement of star movements, orbital periods of binary stars, and even the rotational speed of stars.  This research led to various fields of interest, including the study of statistical characteristics of solar-type binary stars. With fellow researcher Antoine Duquennoy, they examined the radial velocities of several systems believed to be binary stars in 1991. Their results found that a subset of these may in fact be single star systems with substellar secondary objects. Desiring more accurate radial velocity measurements, Mayor, along with Baranne at Marseille, and with graduate student Didier Queloz, developed ELODIE, a new spectrograph based on the work of CORAVEL, which was estimated to have an accuracy of 15 m/s for bright stars, improving upon the 1 km/s from CORAVEL. ELODIE was developed with the specific intent to determine if the substellar secondary objects were brown dwarf stars or potentially giant planets.  By 1994, ELODIE was operational at Geneva and Mayor and Queloz began their survey of Sun-like systems with suspected substellar secondary objects. In July 1995, the pair's survey of the 51 Pegasi affirmed that there was an exoplanet orbiting it, identified as 51 Pegasi b which was later classified as a Hot Jupiter-type planet. This was the first exoplanet to be found orbiting a main sequence star, as opposed to planets that orbited the remains of a star. Mayor's and Queloz's discovery of an exoplanet launched great interest is searching for other exoplanets since. As of 2019, there are at least 4000 confirmed exoplanet discoveries with several more potential candidates.  Mayor's work focused more on improving instrumentation for radial velocity measurements to improve detecting exoplanets and measuring their properties. Mayor led a team to further improve ELODIE to increase velocity measurement accuracy to 1 m/s via the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) installed on the ESO 3.6 m Telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile by 2003. Mayor led the team that used HARPS to seek out other exoplanets. In 2007, Mayor was one of 11 European scientists who discovered Gliese 581c, the first extrasolar planet in a star's habitable zone, from the ESO telescope. In 2009, Mayor and his team discovered the lightest exoplanet ever detected around a main sequence star: Gliese 581e. Nonetheless, Mayor noted that humans will never migrate to such exoplanets since they are \"much, much too far away... [and would take] hundreds of millions of days using the means we have available today\". However, due to discoveries by Mayor, searching for extraterrestrial communications from exoplanets may now be a more practical consideration than thought earlier.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and distinctions.", "content": "In 1998, Mayor was awarded the Swiss Marcel Benoist Prize in recognition of his work and its significance for human life. As of 2003, he was a member of the board of trustees. He received the Prix Jules Janssen from the Société astronomique de France (French Astronomical Society) in 1998.  In 2000, he was awarded the Balzan Prize. Four years later, he was awarded the Albert Einstein Medal. In 2005, he received the Shaw Prize in Astronomy, along with American astrophysicist Geoffrey Marcy. Mayor was made a knight of the French Legion d'Honneur in 2004.  In collaboration with Pierre-Yves Frei, Mayor wrote a book in French called \"Les Nouveaux mondes du Cosmos\" (Seuil, 260 pages), which was awarded the \"Livre de l'astronomie 2001\" prize by the 17th Astronomy Festival Haute Maurienne.  Mayor has received honorary doctorate degrees from eight universities: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium), 2001; Swiss Federal Institute of Technology at Lausanne (EPFL) (2002); Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (Brazil), 2006; Uppsala University (Sweden), 2007; Paris Observatory (France), 2008; Université Libre de Bruxelles (Belgium), 2009; University of Provence (Marseille, France), 2011, and Université Joseph Fourier (Grenoble, France), 2014.  Mayor has received the 2011 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award of Basic Sciences (together with his former student Didier Queloz) for developing new astronomical instruments and experimental techniques that led to the first observation of planets around Sun-like stars. Asteroid 125076 Michelmayor, discovered by Swiss amateur astronomer Michel Ory at the Jura Observatory in 2001, was named in his honor. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 21 August 2013 ().  In 2015, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 2017, he received the Wolf Prize in Physics. He and Didier Queloz (also from Switzerland) were awarded one half of the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the exoplanet 51 Pegasi b.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michel Gustave Édouard Mayor (; born 12 January 1942) is a Swiss astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the University of Geneva's Department of Astronomy. He formally retired in 2007, but remains active as a researcher at the Observatory of Geneva. He is co-laureate of the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics along with Jim Peebles and Didier Queloz, the 2010 Viktor Ambartsumian International Prize, and the winner of the 2015 Kyoto Prize.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971039}
{"src_title": "Lithium chloride", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Chemical properties.", "content": "The salt forms crystalline hydrates, unlike the other alkali metal chlorides. Mono-, tri-, and pentahydrates are known. The anhydrous salt can be regenerated by heating the hydrates. LiCl also absorbs up to four equivalents of ammonia/mol. As with any other ionic chloride, solutions of lithium chloride can serve as a source of chloride ion, e.g., forming a precipitate upon treatment with silver nitrate:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "Lithium chloride is produced by treatment of lithium carbonate with hydrochloric acid. It can in principle also be generated by the highly exothermic reaction of lithium metal with either chlorine or anhydrous hydrogen chloride gas. Anhydrous LiCl is prepared from the hydrate by heating with a stream of hydrogen chloride.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Lithium chloride is mainly used for the production of lithium metal by electrolysis of a LiCl/KCl melt at. LiCl is also used as a brazing flux for aluminium in automobile parts. It is used as a desiccant for drying air streams. In more specialized applications, lithium chloride finds some use in organic synthesis, e.g., as an additive in the Stille reaction. Also, in biochemical applications, it can be used to precipitate RNA from cellular extracts.  Lithium chloride is also used as a flame colorant to produce dark red flames.  Lithium chloride is used as a relative humidity standard in the calibration of hygrometers. At a saturated solution (45.8%) of the salt will yield an equilibrium relative humidity of 11.30%. Additionally, lithium chloride can itself be used as a hygrometer. This deliquescent salt forms a self-solution when exposed to air. The equilibrium LiCl concentration in the resulting solution is directly related to the relative humidity of the air. The percent relative humidity at can be estimated, with minimal error in the range, from the following first order equation: RH=107.93-2.11C, where C is solution LiCl concentration, percent by mass.  Molten LiCl is used for the preparation of carbon nanotubes, graphene and lithium niobate.  Lithium chloride has been shown to have strong acaricidal properties, being effective against \"Varroa destructor\" in populations of honey bees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Precautions.", "content": "Lithium salts affect the central nervous system in a variety of ways. While the citrate, carbonate, and orotate salts are currently used to treat bipolar disorder, other lithium salts including the chloride were used in the past. For a short time in the 1940s lithium chloride was manufactured as a salt substitute, but this was prohibited after the toxic effects of the compound were recognized.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lithium chloride is a chemical compound with the formula LiCl. The salt is a typical ionic compound, although the small size of the Li ion gives rise to properties not seen for other alkali metal chlorides, such as extraordinary solubility in polar solvents (83.05 g/100 mL of water at 20 °C) and its hygroscopic properties.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971040}
{"src_title": "Hans Magnus Enzensberger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Enzensberger was born in 1929 in a small town in Bavaria and is the eldest of four boys. He is part of the last generation of intellectuals whose writing was shaped by first-hand experience of the Third Reich. The Enzensberger family moved to Nuremberg, the ceremonial birthplace of National Socialism, in 1931. Julius Streicher, the founder and publisher of Der Stürmer, was their next-door neighbour. Hans Magnus joined the Hitler Youth in his teens, but was expelled soon afterwards. \"I have always been incapable of being a good comrade. I can't stay in line. It's not in my character. It may be a defect, but I can't help it.\"  Enzensberger studied literature and philosophy at the universities of Erlangen, Freiburg and Hamburg, and at the Sorbonne in Paris, receiving his doctorate in 1955 for a thesis about Clemens Brentano's poetry. Until 1957 he worked as a radio editor in Stuttgart. He participated in several gatherings of Group 47. Between 1965 and 1975 he lived briefly in the US and Cuba and edited the magazine \"Das Kursbuch\". Since 1985 he has been the editor of the prestigious book series \"Die Andere Bibliothek\", published in Frankfurt, and now containing almost 250 titles. Together with Gaston Salvatore, Enzensberger was the founder of the monthly \"TransAtlantik\". His own work has been translated into more than 40 languages.  Enzensberger is the older brother of the author Christian Enzensberger.  He lives in Munich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Enzensberger has a sarcastic, ironic tone in many of his poems. For example, the poem \"Middle Class Blues\" consists of various typicalities of middle class life, with the phrase \"we can't complain\" repeated several times, and concludes with \"what are we waiting for?\". Many of his poems also feature themes of civil unrest over economic and class based issues. Though primarily a poet and essayist, he also makes excursions into theater, film, opera, radio drama, reportage, translation. He has written novels and several books for children (including \"The Number Devil\", an exploration of mathematics) and is co-author of a book for German as a foreign language \"(Die Suche)\". He also invented and collaborated in the construction of a machine which automatically composes poems. It was used during the 2006 Football World Cup to commentate on games.  With Irene Dische he wrote the libretto for Aulis Sallinen's fifth opera \"The Palace\".  In 2009, Enzensberger received a special Lifetime Recognition Award given by the trustees of the Griffin Trust for Excellence in Poetry, which also awards the annual Griffin Poetry Prize.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Magnus Enzensberger (born 11 November 1929 in Kaufbeuren) is a German author, poet, translator and editor. He has also written under the pseudonym Andreas Thalmayr.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971041}
{"src_title": "Henry the Lion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Ravensburg, in 1129 or 1131, he was the son of Henry the Proud, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, who was the son of Duke Henry the Black and an heir of the Billungs, former dukes of Saxony. Henry's mother was Gertrude, only daughter of the Emperor Lothair III and his wife Richenza of Northeim, heiress of the Saxon territories of Northeim and the properties of the Brunones, counts of Brunswick.  Henry's father died in 1139, aged 32, when Henry was still a child. King Conrad III had dispossessed Henry the Proud of his duchies in 1138 and 1139, handing Saxony to Albert the Bear and Bavaria to Leopold of Austria. This was because Henry the Proud had been his rival for the Crown in 1138. Henry III, however, did not relinquish his claims to his inheritance, and Conrad returned Saxony to him in 1142. A participant in the 1147 Wendish Crusade, Henry also reacquired Bavaria by a decision of the new Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1156. However, the East Mark was not returned, which became Austria. Henry was the founder of Munich (1157; \"München\") and Lübeck (1159); he also founded and developed numerous other cities in Northern Germany and Bavaria, a.o. Augsburg, Hildesheim, Stade, Kassel, Güstrow, Lüneburg, Salzwedel, Schwerin and Brunswick. In Brunswick, his capital, he had a bronze lion, his heraldic animal, erected in the courtyard of his castle Dankwarderode in 1166 — the first bronze statue north of the Alps. Later, he had Brunswick Cathedral built close to the statue. In 1147, Henry married Clementia of Zähringen, thereby gaining her hereditary territories in Swabia. He divorced her in 1162, apparently under pressure from the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, who did not cherish Guelphish possessions in his home area and offered Henry several fortresses in Saxony in exchange. In 1168, Henry married Matilda (1156–1189), the daughter of King Henry II of England and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine and sister of King Richard I of England.  Henry faithfully supported his older cousin, the Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa), in his attempts to solidify his hold on the Imperial Crown and his repeated wars with the cities of Lombardy and the Popes, several times turning the tide of battle in Frederick's favor with his Saxon knights. During Frederick's first invasion of northern Italy, Henry took part, among the others, in the victorious sieges of Crema and Milan.  In 1172, Henry took a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (June–July), meeting with the Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller, and spending Easter of that year in Constantinople. By December 1172, he was back in Bavaria and in 1174, he refused to aid Frederick in a renewed invasion of Lombardy because he was preoccupied with securing his own borders in the East. He did not consider these Italian adventures worth the effort, unless Barbarossa presented Henry with the Saxon imperial city Goslar: a request Barbarossa refused. Barbarossa's expedition into Lombardy ultimately ended in failure. He bitterly resented Henry for failing to support him. Taking advantage of the hostility of other German princes to Henry, who had successfully established a powerful and contiguous state comprising Saxony, Bavaria and substantial territories in the north and east of Germany, Frederick had Henry tried \"in absentia\" for insubordination by a court of bishops and princes in 1180. Declaring that Imperial law overruled traditional German law, the court had Henry stripped of his lands and declared him an outlaw. Frederick then invaded Saxony with an Imperial army to bring his cousin to his knees. Henry's allies deserted him, and he finally had to submit in November 1181 at an Imperial Diet in Erfurt. He was exiled from Germany in 1182 for three years, and stayed with his father-in-law in Normandy before being allowed back into Germany in 1185. At Whitsun 1184 he visited the Diet of Pentecost in Mainz, probably as a mediator for his father-in-law Heinrich II. He was exiled again in 1188. His wife Matilda died in 1189.  When Frederick Barbarossa went on the Crusade of 1189, Henry returned to Saxony, mobilized an army of his faithful, and conquered the rich city of Bardowick as punishment for its disloyalty. Only the churches were left standing. Barbarossa's son, Emperor Henry VI, again defeated the Duke, but in 1194, with his end approaching, he made his peace with the Emperor, and returned to his much diminished lands around Brunswick, where he finished his days as Duke of Brunswick, peacefully sponsoring arts and architecture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Henry had the following known children:  Three other children are listed, by some sources, as having belonged to Henry and Matilda:  And by his lover, Ida von Blieskastel, he had a daughter:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Henry the Lion Bible is preserved in near mint condition from the year 1170; it is located in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, a town in Lower Saxony.  Henry the Lion remains a popular figure to this day. During World War I, a nail man depicting Henry the Lion, called \"\", was used in Brunswick to raise funds for the German war effort.  Nazi propaganda later declared Henry an antecessor of the Nazi's \"Lebensraum\" policy and turned Brunswick Cathedral and Henry's tomb into a \"National Place of Consecration\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Henry the Lion in folklore and fiction.", "content": "Shortly after his death, Henry the Lion became the subject of a folktale, the so-called \"Heinrichssage\". The tale was later also turned into the opera \"Enrico Leone\" by Italian composer Agostino Steffani. The \"Heinrichssage\" details a fictional account of Henry's pilgrimage to the Holy Land. A popular part of the tale deals with the Brunswick Lion. According to legend, Henry witnessed a fight between a lion and a dragon while on pilgrimage. He joins the lion in its fight and they slay the dragon. The faithful lion then accompanies Henry on his return home. After its master's death, the lion refuses all food and dies of grief on Henry's grave. The people of Brunswick then erect a statue in the lion's honour. The legend of Henry the Lion also inspired the Czech tale of the knight, which is depicted on a column on Charles Bridge in Prague.  Henry the Lion featured as an ally and adversary of Barbarossa, and was eventually revealed to be the narrator of the Barbarossa campaign in the video game, \"\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry the Lion (; 1129/1131 – 6 August 1195) was a member of the Welf dynasty and Duke of Saxony, as Henry III, from 1142, and Duke of Bavaria, as Henry XII, from 1156, the duchies which he held until 1180.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971042}
{"src_title": "Pyramid (geometry)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Right pyramids with a regular base.", "content": "A right pyramid with a regular base has isosceles triangle sides, with symmetry is C or [1,\"n\"], with order 2\"n\". It can be given an extended Schläfli symbol ( ) ∨ {\"n\"}, representing a point, ( ), joined (orthogonally offset) to a regular polygon, {n}. A join operation creates a new edge between all pairs of vertices of the two joined figures.  The trigonal or triangular pyramid with all equilateral triangle faces becomes the regular tetrahedron, one of the Platonic solids. A lower symmetry case of the triangular pyramid is C, which has an equilateral triangle base, and 3 identical isosceles triangle sides. The square and pentagonal pyramids can also be composed of regular convex polygons, in which case they are Johnson solids.  If all edges of a square pyramid (or any convex polyhedron) are tangent to a sphere so that the average position of the tangential points are at the center of the sphere, then the pyramid is said to be canonical, and it forms half of a regular octahedron.  Pyramids with a hexagon or higher base must be composed of isosceles triangles. A hexagonal pyramid with equilateral triangles would be a completely flat figure, and a heptagonal or higher would have the triangles not meet at all.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Right star pyramids.", "content": "Right pyramids with regular star polygon bases are called star pyramids. For example, the pentagrammic pyramid has a pentagram base and 5 intersecting triangle sides.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Right pyramids with an irregular base.", "content": "A right pyramid can be named as ( )∨P, where ( ) is the apex point, ∨ is a join operator, and P is a base polygon.  An isosceles triangle right tetrahedron can be written as ( )∨[( )∨{ }] as the join of a point to an isosceles triangle base, as [( )∨( )]∨{ } or { }∨{ } as the join (orthogonal offsets) of two orthogonal segments, a digonal disphenoid, containing 4 isosceles triangle faces. It has C symmetry from two different base-apex orientations, and C in its full symmetry.  A rectangular right pyramid, written as ( )∨[{ }×{ }], and a rhombic pyramid, as ( )∨[{ }+{ }], both have symmetry C.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Volume.", "content": "The volume of a pyramid (also any cone) is formula_1, where \"b\" is the area of the base and \"h\" the height from the base to the apex. This works for any polygon, regular or non-regular, and any location of the apex, provided that \"h\" is measured as the perpendicular distance from the plane containing the base. In 499 AD Aryabhata, a mathematician-astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy, used this method in the \"Aryabhatiya\" (section 2.6).  The formula can be formally proved using calculus. By similarity, the \"linear\" dimensions of a cross-section parallel to the base increase linearly from the apex to the base. The scaling factor (proportionality factor) is formula_2, or formula_3, where \"h\" is the height and \"y\" is the perpendicular distance from the plane of the base to the cross-section. Since the area of any cross-section is proportional to the square of the shape's scaling factor, the area of a cross-section at height \"y\" is formula_4, or since both \"b\" and \"h\" are constants, formula_5. The volume is given by the integral  The same equation, formula_1, also holds for cones with any base. This can be proven by an argument similar to the one above; see volume of a cone.  For example, the volume of a pyramid whose base is an \"n\"-sided regular polygon with side length \"s\" and whose height is \"h\" is  The formula can also be derived exactly without calculus for pyramids with rectangular bases. Consider a unit cube. Draw lines from the center of the cube to each of the 8 vertices. This partitions the cube into 6 equal square pyramids of base area 1 and height 1/2. Each pyramid clearly has volume of 1/6. From this we deduce that pyramid volume = height × base area / 3.  Next, expand the cube uniformly in three directions by unequal amounts so that the resulting rectangular solid edges are \"a\", \"b\" and \"c\", with solid volume \"abc\". Each of the 6 pyramids within are likewise expanded. And each pyramid has the same volume \"abc\"/6. Since pairs of pyramids have heights \"a\"/2, \"b\"/2 and \"c\"/2, we see that pyramid volume = height × base area / 3 again.  When the side triangles are equilateral, the formula for the volume is This formula only applies for \"n\" = 2, 3, 4 and 5; and it also covers the case \"n\" = 6, for which the volume equals zero (i.e., the pyramid height is zero).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surface area.", "content": "The surface area of a pyramid is formula_10, where \"B\" is the base area, \"P\" is the base perimeter, and the slant height formula_11, where \"h\" is the pyramid altitude and \"r\" is the inradius of the base.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Centroid.", "content": "The centroid of a pyramid is located on the line segment that connects the apex to the centroid of the base. For a solid pyramid, the centroid is 1/4 the distance from the base to the apex.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"n\"-dimensional pyramids.", "content": "A 2-dimensional pyramid is a triangle, formed by a base edge connected to a noncolinear point called an apex.  A 4-dimensional pyramid is called a polyhedral pyramid, constructed by a polyhedron in a 3-space hyperplane of 4-space with another point off that hyperplane.  Higher-dimensional pyramids are constructed similarly.  The family of simplices represent pyramids in any dimension, increasing from triangle, tetrahedron, 5-cell, 5-simplex, etc. A n-dimensional simplex has the minimum \"n+1\" vertices, with all pairs of vertices connected by edges, all triples of vertices defining faces, all quadruples of points defining tetrahedral cells, etc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Polyhedral pyramid.", "content": "In 4-dimensional geometry, a polyhedral pyramid is a 4-polytope constructed by a base polyhedron cell and an apex point. The lateral facets are pyramid cells, each constructed by one face of the base polyhedron and the apex. The vertices and edges of polyhedral pyramids form examples of apex graphs, graphs formed by adding one vertex (the apex) to a planar graph (the graph of the base).  The regular 5-cell (or 4-simplex) is an example of a \"tetrahedral pyramid\". Uniform polyhedra with circumradii less than 1 can be make polyhedral pyramids with regular tetrahedral sides. A polyhedron with \"v\" vertices, \"e\" edges, and \"f\" faces can be the base on a polyhedral pyramid with \"v+1\" vertices, \"e+v\" edges, \"f+e\" faces, and \"1+f\" cells.  A 4D \"polyhedral pyramid\" with axial symmetry can be visualized in 3D with a Schlegel diagram—a 3D projection that places the apex at the center of the base polyhedron.  Any convex 4-polytope can be divided into polyhedral pyramids by adding an interior point and creating one pyramid from each facet to the center point. This can be useful for computing volumes.  The 4-dimensional \"volume\" of a polyhedral pyramid is 1/4 of the volume of the base polyhedron times its perpendicular height, compared to the area of a triangle being 1/2 the length of the base times the height and the volume of a pyramid being 1/3 the area of the base times the height.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In geometry, a pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connecting a polygonal base and a point, called the apex. Each base edge and apex form a triangle, called a \"lateral face\". It is a conic solid with polygonal base. A pyramid with an \"n\"-sided base has vertices, faces, and 2\"n\" edges. All pyramids are self-dual.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971043}
{"src_title": "Ernst Barlach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth.", "content": "Barlach was born in Wedel, Holstein as the oldest of the four sons of Johanna Luise Barlach and Dr Georg Barlach. He attended primary school in Ratzeburg. It was during this period that his father died, early in 1884. He came from a Lutheran home.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Study years.", "content": "Barlach studied from 1888 to 1891 at the Gewerbeschule Hamburg. Due to his artistic talent, he continued his studies at the \"Königliche Akademie der bildenden Künste zu Dresden\" (Royal Art School Dresden) as a student of Robert Diez between 1891 and 1895. He created his first major sculpture during this time, \"Die Krautpflückerin\" (The Herb Plucker). He continued his studies for one more year in Paris at the Académie Julian, from 1895 to 1897 but remained critical of the German tendency to copy the style of French artists. Nevertheless, he returned to Paris again for a few months in 1897 to undertake further studies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Seeking.", "content": "After his studies, Barlach worked for some time as a sculptor in Hamburg and Altona, working mainly in an Art Nouveau style. He produced illustrations for the Art Nouveau magazine Jugend 1897–1902, and made sculpture in a style close to Art Nouveau, including some ceramic statues. Afterwards, he also worked as a teacher at a school for ceramics. His first solo exhibition took place at the Kunstsalon Richard Mutz, Berlin, in 1904.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Formative years.", "content": "However, the lack of commercial success of his works depressed Barlach. To lighten up, he decided to travel for eight weeks together with his brother Nikolaus and to visit his brother Hans in Russia. This trip to Russia in 1906 was one of the greatest influences on him and his artistic style. Also during his travels in Russia his son Nikolaus was born on 20 August 1906, starting a two-year fight with the mother, Rosa Schwab, for the custody of the child, which Barlach was finally granted.  After returning from Russia, Barlach's financial situation improved considerably, as he received a fixed salary from the art dealer Paul Cassirer in exchange for his sculptures. The formative experiences in Russia and the financial security helped him to develop his own style, focusing on the faces and hands of the people in his sculptures and reducing the other parts of the figures to a minimum. He also began to make wood carvings and bronzes of figures swathed in heavy drapery like those in early Gothic art, and in dramatic attitudes expressive of powerful emotions and a yearning for spiritual ecstasy. He also worked for the German journal \"Simplicissimus\", and started to produce some literature. His works were shown on various exhibitions. He also spent ten months in Florence, Italy in 1909 and afterwards settled in 1910 in Güstrow in Mecklenburg, where he spent the rest of his life.  In the years before World War I, Barlach was a patriotic and enthusiastic supporter of the war, awaiting a new artistic age from the war. This support for the war can also be seen in his works, as for example the statue \"Der Rächer\" (The Avenger), from December 1914. His awaited \"new artistic age\" came for him when he volunteered to join the war between 1915 and 1916 as an infantry soldier. After three months of service he was discharged due to a heart ailment, returning as a pacifist and a staunch opponent of war. The horror of the war influenced all of his subsequent works.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Popularity.", "content": "Barlach's fame increased after the war, and he received many awards and became a member in the prestigious \"Preußische Akademie der Künste\" (Prussian Art Academy) in 1919 and the \"Akademie der Bildenden Künste München\" (Munich Art Academy) in 1925. Barlach rejected a number of honorary degrees and teaching positions. In 1925 he also met Bernhard and Marga Böhmer for the first time. He received the Kleist Prize for drama in 1924 for his \"Die Sündflut\" (\"The Flood\"), in which he projects his personal mysticism onto the story of Noah and the Ark. In 1926 he wrote \"Der blaue Boll\" (translated as \"Squire Blue Boll\" or \"Boozer Boll\"), an expressionist drama in which the eponymous squire almost succeeds in seducing a down-and-out young mother, before both achieve spiritual regeneration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Degenerate art.", "content": "From 1928 onward Barlach also generated many anti-war sculptures based on his experiences in the war. This pacifist position went against the political trend during the rise of Nazism, and he was the target of much criticism. For example, the \"Magdeburger Ehrenmal\" (Magdeburg cenotaph) was ordered by the city of Magdeburg to be a memorial of World War I, and it was expected to show heroic German soldiers fighting for their glorious country. Barlach, however, created a sculpture with three German soldiers, a fresh recruit, a young officer and an old reservist, standing in a cemetery, all bearing marks of the horror, pain and desperation of the war, flanked by a mourning war widow covering her face in despair, a skeleton wearing a German army helmet, and a civilian (the face is that of Barlach himself) with his eyes closed and blocking his ears in terror. This naturally created a controversy with the pro-war population (several nationalists and Nazis claimed that the soldiers must be foreign since true Germans would be more heroic), and the sculpture was removed. Friends of Barlach were able to hide the sculpture until after the war, when it was returned to the Magdeburg Cathedral. Yet the attacks on Barlach continued until his death.  In 1931 Barlach started to live with Marga Böhmer, whereas her ex-husband and Barlach's friend Bernhard Böhmer lived with his new wife Hella.  In 1936, Barlach's works were confiscated during an exhibition together with the works of Käthe Kollwitz and Wilhelm Lehmbruck, and the majority of his remaining works were confiscated as \"degenerate art\", for example the \"Güstrower Ehrenmal\" (Güstrow cenotaph) and the \"Hamburger Ehrenmal\" (Hamburg cenotaph). Barlach himself was prohibited from working as a sculptor, and his membership in the art academies was canceled. This rejection is reflected in his final works before his death from heart failure on 24 October 1938 in Rostock, Mecklenburg. He is buried in the cemetery of Ratzeburg.  In addition to his sculpture, Barlach also wrote eight Expressionist dramas, two novels and an autobiography \"Ein selbsterzähltes Leben\" 1928, and had a distinguished oeuvre of woodcuts and lithographs from about 1910 onwards, including illustrations for his own plays.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Selected works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sales.", "content": "On 2 May 2012, Barlach's carved wood sculpture \"Weinende Frau\" sold at Christie's for $938,500, setting a new world auction record for a price paid for Barlach's work.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ernst Barlach (2 January 1870 in Wedel – 24 October 1938 in Rostock) was a German expressionist sculptor, printmaker and writer. Although he was a supporter of the war in the years leading to World War I, his participation in the war made him change his position, and he is mostly known for his sculptures protesting against the war. This created many conflicts during the rise of the Nazi Party, when most of his works were confiscated as degenerate art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971044}
{"src_title": "Land art", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Form.", "content": "In the 1960s and 1970s land art protested \"ruthless commercialization\" of art in America. During this period, exponents of land art rejected the museum or gallery as the setting of artistic activity and developed monumental landscape projects which were beyond the reach of traditional transportable sculpture and the commercial art market, although photographic documentation was often presented in normal gallery spaces. Land art was inspired by minimal art and conceptual art but also by modern movements such as De Stijl, Cubism, minimalism and the work of Constantin Brâncuși and Joseph Beuys. Many of the artists associated with land art had been involved with minimal art and conceptual art. Isamu Noguchi's 1941 design for \"Contoured Playground\" in New York is sometimes interpreted as an important early piece of land art even though the artist himself never called his work \"land art\" but simply \"sculpture\". His influence on contemporary land art, landscape architecture and environmental sculpture is evident in many works today.  Alan Sonfist used an alternative approach to working with nature and culture by bringing historical nature and sustainable art back into New York City. His most inspirational work is \"Time Landscape\", an indigenous forest he planted in New York City. He also created several other \"Time Landscapes\" around the world such as \"Circles of Time\" in Florence Italy documenting the historical usage of the land, and recently at the deCordova Sculpture Park and Museum outside Boston. According to critic Barbara Rose, writing in \"Artforum\" in 1969, he had become disillusioned with the commodification and insularity of gallery bound art. In 1967, the art critic Grace Glueck writing in the \"New York Times\" declared the first earthwork was done by Douglas Leichter and Richard Saba at the Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture. The sudden appearance of land art in 1968 can be located as a response by a generation of artists mostly in their late twenties to the heightened political activism of the year and the emerging environmental and women's liberation movements.  One example of land art in the 20th century was a group exhibition created in 1968 at the Dwan Gallery in New York. In February 1969, Willoughby Sharp curated the \"Earth Art\" exhibition at the Andrew Dickson White Museum of Art at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. The artists included were Walter De Maria, Jan Dibbets, Hans Haacke, Michael Heizer, Neil Jenney, Richard Long, David Medalla, Robert Morris, Dennis Oppenheim, Robert Smithson, and Gunther Uecker. The exhibition was directed by Thomas W. Leavitt. Gordon Matta-Clark, who lived in Ithaca at the time, was invited by Sharp to help the artists in \"Earth Art\" with the on-site execution of their works for the exhibition.  Perhaps the best known artist who worked in this genre was the American Robert Smithson whose 1968 essay \"The Sedimentation of the Mind: Earth Projects\" provided a critical framework for the movement as a reaction to the disengagement of Modernism from social issues as represented by the critic Clement Greenberg. His best known piece, and probably the most famous piece of all land art, is the \"Spiral Jetty\" (1970), for which Smithson arranged rock, earth and algae so as to form a long (1500 ft) spiral-shape jetty protruding into Great Salt Lake in northern Utah, U.S.. How much of the work, if any, is visible is dependent on the fluctuating water levels. Since its creation, the work has been completely covered, and then uncovered again, by water. A steward of the artwork in conjunction with the Dia Foundation, the Utah Museum of Fine Arts regularly curates programming around the Spiral Jetty, including a \"Family Backpacks\" program. Smithson's \"Gravel Mirror with Cracks and Dust\" (1968) is an example of land art existing in a gallery space rather than in the natural environment. It consists of a pile of gravel by the side of a partially mirrored gallery wall. In its simplicity of form and concentration on the materials themselves, this and other pieces of land art have an affinity with minimalism. There is also a relationship to Arte Povera in the use of materials traditionally considered \"unartistic\" or \"worthless\". The Italian Germano Celant, founder of Arte Povera, was one of the first curator to promote Land Art.  'Land Artists' have tended to be American, with other prominent artists in this field including, Carl Andre, Alice Aycock, Walter De Maria, Hans Haacke, Michael Heizer, Nancy Holt, Ana Mendieta, Dennis Oppenheim, Andrew Rogers, Charles Ross, Alan Sonfist, and James Turrell. Turrell began work in 1972 on possibly the largest piece of land art thus far, reshaping the earth surrounding the extinct Roden Crater volcano in Arizona. Perhaps the most prominent non-American land artists are the British Chris Drury, Andy Goldsworthy, Richard Long and the Australian Andrew Rogers. In 1973 Jacek Tylicki begins to lay out blank canvases or paper sheets in the natural environment for the nature to create art.  Some projects by the artists Christo and Jeanne-Claude (who are famous for wrapping monuments, buildings and landscapes in fabric) have also been considered land art by some, though the artists themselves consider this incorrect. Joseph Beuys' concept of'social sculpture' influenced 'Land art' and his '7000 Eichen' project of 1982 to plant 7000 Oak trees has many similarities to 'Land art' processes. Rogers' “Rhythms of Life” project is the largest contemporary land-art undertaking in the world, forming a chain of stone sculptures, or geoglyphs, around the globe – 12 sites – in disparate exotic locations (from below sea level and up to altitudes of 4,300 m/14,107 ft). Up to three geoglyphs (ranging in size up to 40,000 sq m/430,560 sq ft) are located in each site.  Land artists in America relied mostly on wealthy patrons and private foundations to fund their often costly projects. With the sudden economic down turn of the mid-1970s funds from these sources largely stopped. With the death of Robert Smithson in a plane crash in 1973 the movement lost one of its most important figureheads and faded out. Charles Ross continues to work on the Star Axis project, which he began in 1971. Michael Heizer continues his work on City, and James Turrell continues to work on the Roden Crater project. In most respects, \"land art\" has become part of mainstream public art and in many cases the term \"land art\" is misused to label any kind of art in nature even though conceptually not related to the avant-garde works by the pioneers of land art.  The Earth art of the 1960s were sometimes reminiscent the much older land works, Stonehenge, the Pyramids, Native American mounds, the Nazca Lines in Peru, Carnac stones and Native American burial grounds, and often evoked the spirituality of such archeological sites.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Land art, variously known as Earth art, environmental art, and Earthworks, is an art movement that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, largely associated with Great Britain and the United States, but which included examples from many countries. As a trend \"Land art\" expanded boundaries of art by the materials used and the siting of the works. The materials used were often the materials of the Earth including for instance the soil and rocks and vegetation and water found on-site, and the siting of the works were often distant from population centers. Though sometimes fairly inaccessible, photo documentation was commonly brought back to the urban art gallery.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971045}
{"src_title": "Zerbst", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Zerbst is situated in the Anhalt-Wittenberg region, with its town centre located on the Nuthe River about northeast of the Elbe, halfway between Magdeburg and Wittenberg.  With the 1 January 2010 local government reform, the 21 formerly independent communities of the disbanded \"Verwaltungsgemeinschaft\" (collective municipality) Elbe-Ehle-Nuthe were incorporated into the township. Zerbst today counts about 24,000 inhabitants and, at, is the fifth largest town in Germany by area. The current municipal area stretches from the Elbe River in the southwest up to the Fläming Heath and the state border with Brandenburg in the northeast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In the 8th century the area east of the Elbe was settled by Polabian Slavs (Sorbs). Part of the border region with the adjacent Saxon region around Magdeburg in the west, it was incorporated into the \"Gau Ciervisti\" of the Saxon Eastern March (\"Marca Geronis\") about 937 in the course of the German \"Ostsiedlung\". It is not clear when Zerbst was founded; however, the name \"Ciervisti\" mentioned as early as 949 may already refer to a fortified Slavic settlement. The chronicles by Prince-Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg recorded the first mention of a town as \"Zirwisti urbs\" in 1018, giving an account of the occupation by the Polish duke Bolesław I Chrobry during the German–Polish War with King Henry II in 1007. In the early 12th century the Ascanian ruler Albert the Bear had the fortress rebuilt, and the adjacent settlement was first fortified with town walls about 1250.  In 1307 Prince Albert I of Anhalt acquired the city of Zerbst from the Barby comital family, starting a centuries-long rule by the Ascanian princely House of Anhalt. His descendants continued to rule the Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst until in 1396 it was divided between Prince Sigismund I and his brother Albert IV, and the residence was moved to Dessau.  In 1375 Zerbster Bitterbier was first mentioned; by the Middle Ages the town had 600 breweries. Following the Reformation Zerbst became a Calvinist centre. From 1582 to 1798 the \"Francisceum Gymnasium Illustre\" was an important Calvinist college. From 1603 to 1793 Zerbst again was the residence of the Anhalt-Zerbst princes, whose rule included among others also the Lordship of Jever in East Frisia. From 1722 to 1758, the Baroque composer Johann Friedrich Fasch resided there and was employed as a \"Hofkomponist\" and later \"Hofkapellmeister\". To honour his memory, the Fasch Festivals have taken place in the city since 1983.  In 1745 Princess Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst married Peter of Holstein-Gottorp, the heir apparent to the Russian throne. As Catherine II (the Great) she herself reigned as Empress of Russia from until ).  In 1797 Zerbst became a component of the Principality of Anhalt-Dessau.  From 1891 to 1928 a horse-drawn streetcar was operated in Zerbst, one of the longest surviving among such streetcars in Germany.  In the later part of the Second World War a Nazi labour camp was established on the edge of the military airfield, housing so-called \"First-degree Hybrids\" and \"Jüdisch Versippte\" (i.e., people with some Jewish blood, enough in Nazi terms to justify badly mistreating them but not killing them outright). 700 inmates from there were used for hard labour in road and airport construction as well as peat digging.  On 16 April 1945 – just a few weeks before the final surrender of Nazi Germany – some eighty percent of Zerbst was destroyed in an Allied air raid.  The old town was rebuilt in the following decades resulting in a fundamental change of the townscape, as only a few historical structures were preserved or reconstructed.  On 1 July 2006, the town of Zerbst was renamed Zerbst/Anhalt. A year later, on 1 July 2007, the town of Zerbst/Anhalt was incorporated together with several other municipalities of the Zerbst administrative district, creating the renewed Anhalt-Bitterfeld administrative district with its capital at Köthen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local council.", "content": "Elections in May 2014", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zerbst is a town in the district of Anhalt-Bitterfeld, in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Until an administrative reform in 2007, Zerbst was the capital of the former Anhalt-Zerbst district.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971046}
{"src_title": "Denis Papin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life in France.", "content": "Born in Chitenay (Loir-et-Cher, Centre-Val de Loire Région), Papin attended a Jesuit school there, and from 1661 attended University at Angers, from which he graduated with a medical degree in 1669. In 1673, while working with Christiaan Huygens and Gottfried Leibniz in Paris, he became interested in using a vacuum to generate motive power.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First visit to London.", "content": "Papin first visited London in 1675, and worked with Robert Boyle from 1676 to 1679, publishing an account of his work in \"Continuation of New Experiments\" (1680). During this period, Papin invented the \"steam digester,\" a type of pressure cooker with a safety valve. He first addressed the Royal Society in 1679 on the subject of his digester, and remained mostly in London until about 1687, when he left to take up an academic post in Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "As a Huguenot, Papin found himself greatly affected by the increasing restrictions placed on Protestants by Louis XIV of France and by the King's ultimate revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. In Germany he was able to live with fellow Huguenot exiles from France.  In 1689, Papin suggested that a force pump or bellows could maintain the pressure and fresh air inside a diving bell. (Engineer John Smeaton utilised this design in 1789.)  While in Marburg in 1690, having observed the mechanical power of atmospheric pressure on his 'digester', Papin built a model of a piston steam engine, the first of its kind.  Papin continued to work on steam engines for the next fifteen years. In 1695 he moved from Marburg to Kassel. In 1705 he developed a second steam engine with the help of Gottfried Leibniz, based on an invention by Thomas Savery, but this used steam pressure rather than atmospheric pressure. Details of the engine were published in 1707.  During his stay in Kassel in Hesse, in 1704, he constructed a ship powered by his steam engine, mechanically linked to paddles. This made him the first to construct a steam-powered boat (or vehicle of any kind). Later, at the iron foundry in Veckerhagen (now Reinhardshagen), he cast the world's first steam cylinder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Return to London.", "content": "Papin returned to London in 1707, leaving his wife in Germany. Several of his papers were put before the Royal Society between 1707 and 1712 without acknowledging or paying him, about which he complained bitterly. Papin's ideas included a description of his 1690 atmospheric steam engine, similar to that built and put into use by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, thought to be the year of Papin's death.  The last surviving evidence of Papin's whereabouts came in a letter he wrote dated 23 January 1712. At the time he was destitute (\"I am in a sad case\") [Royal Society Archives, 1894, Vol. 7, 74], and it is believed he died that year and was buried in an unmarked grave in London.  A record exists for the burial of a “Denys Papin” in an 18th-century Register of Marriages & Burials which originally came from St Bride's Church, Fleet Street, London, but which is now stored in the London Metropolitan Archives. The record states that Denys Papin was buried at St Bride's on 26 August 1713 – just a few days after his 66th birthday – and that he was laid to rest in the Lower Ground, one of the two burial areas belonging to the church at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Boulevard Denis Papin in Carcassonne is named after him. There is also a statue of Papin with his invention in Blois, at the top of the Escalier Denis Papin, a stairway.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Denis Papin FRS (; 22 August 1647 – 26 August 1713) was a French physicist, mathematician and inventor, best known for his pioneering invention of the steam digester, the forerunner of the pressure cooker and of the steam engine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971047}
{"src_title": "Vercingetorix", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name \"Vercingetorix\" derives from the Gaulish \"ver-\" (\"over, superior\" – an etymological cognate of Cornish \"gor-\", Irish \"for-\", more distantly English \"over\", German \"über\", Latin \"super\", or Greek \"hyper\"), \"cingeto-\" (\"warrior\", related to roots meaning \"tread, step, walk\", so possibly \"infantry\"; compare Old Irish \"cingid\"), and \"rix\" (\"king\") (cf. Welsh \"rhi\", Latin \"rex\"), thus literally either \"great warrior king\" or \"king of great warriors\". In his \"Life of Caesar\", Plutarch renders the name as \"Vergentorix\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Context.", "content": "Having been appointed governor of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis (modern Provence) in 58 BC, Julius Caesar proceeded to conquer the Gallic tribes beyond over the next few years, maintaining control through a careful divide and rule strategy. He made use of the factionalism among the Gallic elites, favouring certain noblemen over others with political support and Roman luxuries such as wine. Attempts at revolt, such as that of Ambiorix in 54 BC, had secured only local support, but Vercingetorix, whose father, Celtillus, had been put to death by his own countrymen for seeking to rule all of Gaul, managed to unify the Gallic tribes against the Romans and adopted more current styles of warfare.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Averni Nobleman.", "content": "The revolt that Vercingetorix came to lead began in early 52 BC while Caesar was raising troops in Cisalpine Gaul. Believing that Caesar would be distracted by the turmoil in Rome following the death of Publius Clodius Pulcher, the Carnutes, under Cotuatus and Conetodunus, made the first move, slaughtering the Romans who had settled in their territory.  Vercingetorix, a young nobleman of the Arvernian city of Gergovia, roused his dependents to join the revolt, but he and his followers were expelled by Vercingetorix's uncle Gobanitio and the rest of the nobles because they thought opposing Caesar was too great a risk. Undeterred, Vercingetorix raised an army of the poor, took Gergovia, and was hailed as king.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tribal alliances.", "content": "He made alliances with other tribes, and having been unanimously given supreme command of their armies, imposed his authority through harsh discipline and the taking of hostages.  He adopted a policy of retreating to natural fortifications, and undertook an early example of a scorched earth strategy by burning towns to prevent the Roman legions from living off the land. Vercingetorix scorched much of the land marching north with his army from Gergovia in an attempt to deprive Caesar of the resources and safe haven of the towns and villages along Caesar's march south.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Siege of Avaricum.", "content": "However, the capital of the Bituriges, Avaricum (near modern-day Bourges), a Gallic settlement directly in Caesar's path, was spared. Due to the town's strong protests, naturally defensible terrain, and apparently strong man-made reinforcing defenses, Vercingetorix decided against razing and burning it. Leaving the town to its fate, Vercingetorix camped well outside of Avaricum and focused on conducting harassing engagements of the advancing Roman units led by Caesar and his chief lieutenant Titus Labienus. Upon reaching Avaricum, however, the Romans laid siege and eventually captured the capital.  Afterwards, in a contemptuous reprisal for 25 days of hunger and of laboring over the siegeworks required to breach Avaricum's defenses, the Romans slaughtered nearly the entire population, some 40,000 people, leaving only about 800 alive.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Battle of Gergovia.", "content": "The next major battle was at Gergovia, capital city of the Arverni. During the battle, Vercingetorix and his warriors crushed Caesar's legions and allies, inflicting heavy losses. Vercingetorix then decided to follow Caesar but suffered heavy losses (as did the Romans and their allies) during a cavalry battle and he retreated and moved to another stronghold, Alesia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Battle of Alesia.", "content": "In the Battle of Alesia in September 52 BC, Caesar built a fortification around the city to besiege it. However, Vercingetorix had summoned his Gallic allies to attack the besieging Romans. These forces included an army of Arverni led by Vercingetorix's cousin Vercassivellaunos and an army of 10,000 Lemovices led by Sedullos.  With the Roman circumvallation surrounded by the rest of Gaul, Caesar built another outward-facing fortification (a contravallation) against the expected relief armies, resulting in a doughnut-shaped fortification. The Gallic relief came in insufficient numbers: estimates range from 80,000 to 250,000 soldiers. Vercingetorix, the tactical leader, was cut off from them on the inside, and without his guidance the attacks were initially unsuccessful. However, the attacks did reveal a weak point in the fortifications and the combined forces on the inside and the outside almost made a breakthrough. Only when Caesar personally led the last reserves into battle did he finally manage to prevail. This was a decisive battle in the creation of the Roman Empire.  According to Plutarch, \"Caes\". 27.8-10, Vercingetorix surrendered in a dramatic fashion, riding his beautifully adorned horse out of Alesia and around Caesar's camp before dismounting in front of Caesar, stripping himself of his armor and sitting down at his opponent's feet, where he remained motionless until he was taken away. Caesar provides a first-hand contradiction of this account, \"De Bell. Gal\". 7.89, describing Vercingetorix's surrender much more modestly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Imprisonment and death.", "content": "Vercingetorix was imprisoned in the Tullianum in Rome for almost six years before being publicly displayed in the first of Caesar's four triumphs in 46 BC. He was executed after the triumph, most likely by strangulation in his prison according to Roman custom.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Memorials.", "content": "Napoleon III erected a Vercingétorix monument in 1865, created by the sculptor Aimé Millet, on the supposed site of Alesia. The architect for the memorial was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. The statue still stands. The inscription on the base, written by Viollet-le-Duc, which copied the famous statement of Julius Caesar, reads (in French):  Many other monumental statues of Vercingetorix were erected in France during the 19th century, including one by Frédéric Bartholdi on the Place de Jaude in Clermont-Ferrand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Asteroid.", "content": "Asteroid 52963 Vercingetorix, discovered by the OCA–DLR Asteroid Survey, was named in his honor. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 25 September 2018 ().", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vercingetorix (, ; – 46 BC) was a king and chieftain of the Arverni tribe who united the Gauls in a revolt against Roman forces during the last phase of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars. Vercingetorix was the son of Celtillus the Arvernian, leader of the Gallic tribes. Vercingetorix came to power after his formal designation as chieftain of the Arverni at the oppidum Gergovia in 52 BC. He immediately established an alliance with other Gallic tribes, took command and combined all forces, and led them in the Celts' most significant revolt against Roman power. He won the Battle of Gergovia against Julius Caesar in which several thousand Romans and their allies died and Caesar's Roman legions withdrew. However, Caesar had been able to exploit Gaulish internal division to easily subjugate the country, and Vercingetorix's attempt to unite the Gauls against Roman invasion came too late. At the Battle of Alesia, the Romans besieged and defeated his forces. In order to save as many of his men as possible, he gave himself to the Romans. He was held prisoner for five years. In 46 BC, as part of Caesar's triumph, Vercingetorix was paraded through the streets of Rome and then executed by strangulation. Vercingetorix is primarily known through Caesar's \"Commentaries on the Gallic War\". To this day, he is considered a folk hero in Auvergne, his native region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971048}
{"src_title": "Rubus chamaemorus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Unlike most \"Rubus\" species, the cloudberry is dioecious, and fruit production by a female plant requires pollination from a male plant.  The cloudberry grows to high. The leaves alternate between having 5 and 7 soft, handlike lobes on straight, branchless stalks. After pollination, the white (sometimes reddish-tipped) flowers form raspberry-sized aggregate fruits which are more plentiful in wooded rather than sun-exposed habitats. Consisting of between 5 and 25 drupelets, each fruit is initially pale red, ripening into an amber color in early autumn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and ecology.", "content": "Cloudberries are a circumpolar boreal plant, occurring naturally throughout the Northern Hemisphere from 78°N, south to about 55°N, and are scattered south to 44°N mainly in mountainous areas and moorlands. In Europe, they grow in the Nordic countries, Baltic states and particularly in Poland. They occur across northern Russia east towards the Pacific Ocean as far south as Japan. Due to peatland drainage and peat exploitation, they are considered endangered and are under legal protection in Germany's Weser and Elbe valleys, and at isolated sites in the English Pennines and Scottish Highlands. A single, fragile site exists in the Sperrin Mountains of Northern Ireland.  In North America, cloudberries grow wild across Greenland, most of northern Canada, Alaska, northern Minnesota, New Hampshire, Maine, and New York.  Wide distribution occurs due to the excretion of the indigestible seeds by birds and mammals. Further distribution arises through its rhizomes, which are up to long and grow about below the soil surface, developing extensive and dense berry patches. Cuttings of these taken in May or August are successful in producing a genetic clone of the parent plant. The cloudberry grows in bogs, marshes, wet meadows, tundra and altitudes of above sea level in Norway, requiring acidic ground (between 3.5 and 5 \"p\"H).  Cloudberry leaves are food for caterpillars of several Lepidoptera species. The moth \"Coleophora thulea\" has no other known food plants. See also List of Lepidoptera that feed on Rubus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Despite great demand as a delicacy (particularly in Sweden, Norway and Finland) the cloudberry is not widely cultivated and is primarily a wild plant. Wholesale prices vary widely based on the size of the yearly harvest, but cloudberries have gone for as much as €10/kg (in 2004).  Since the middle of the 1990s, however, the species has formed part of a multinational research project. Beginning in 2002, selected cultivars have been available to farmers, notably 'Apolto' (male), 'Fjellgull' (female) and 'Fjordgull' (female). The cloudberry can be cultivated in Arctic areas where few other crops are possible, for example along the northern coast of Norway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The ripe fruits are golden-yellow, soft and juicy, and are rich in vitamin C. When eaten fresh, cloudberries have a distinctive tart taste. When over-ripe, they have a creamy texture somewhat like yogurt and a sweetened flavor. They are often made into jams, juices, tarts, and liqueurs. In Finland, the berries are eaten with heated (a local cheese; the name translates to \"bread-cheese\"), as well as cream and sugar. In Sweden, cloudberries () and cloudberry jam are used as a topping for ice cream, pancakes, and waffles. In Norway, they are often mixed with whipped cream and sugar to be served as a dessert called (cloudberry cream), as a jam or as an ingredient in homemade ice cream. Cloudberry yoghurt— or —is a supermarket item in Norway.  In Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, cloudberries are used to make \"bakeapple pie\" or jam. Arctic Yup'ik mix the berries with seal oil, reindeer or caribou fat (which is diced and made fluffy with seal oil) and sugar to make \"Eskimo ice cream\" or akutaq. The recipes vary by region. Along the Yukon and Kuskokwim River areas, white fish (pike) along with shortening and sugar are used. The berries are an important traditional food resource for the Yup'ik.  Due to its high vitamin C content, the berry is valued both by Nordic seafarers and Northern indigenous peoples. Its polyphenol content, including flavonoid compounds such as ellagic acid, appears to naturally preserve food preparations of the berries. Cloudberries can be preserved in their own juice without added sugar, if stored cool.  Extract of cloudberries is also used in cosmetics such as shower gels, hand creams and body lotions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alcoholic drinks.", "content": "In Nordic countries, traditional liqueurs such as (Finland) are made of cloudberry, having a strong taste and high sugar content. Cloudberry is used as a flavouring for making akvavit. In northeastern Quebec, a cloudberry liqueur known as (aboriginal name) is made.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nutrients and phytochemicals.", "content": "Cloudberries are rich in vitamin C and ellagic acid, citric acid, malic acid, α-tocopherol, anthocyanins and the provitamin A carotenoid, β-carotene in contents which differ across regions of Finland due to sunlight exposure, rainfall or temperature. The ellagitannins lambertianin C and sanguiin H-6 are also present. Genotype of cloudberry variants may also affect polyphenol composition, particularly for ellagitannins, sanguiin H-6, anthocyanins and quercetin.  Polyphenol extracts from cloudberries have improved storage properties when microencapsulated using maltodextrin DE5-8. At least 14 volatile compounds, including vanillin, account for the aroma of cloudberries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "The cloudberry appears on the Finnish version of the 2 euro coin. The name of the hill in Breadalbane in the Scottish Highlands means \"Hill of the Cloudberries\" in Scottish Gaelic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Harvesting on public property.", "content": "In some northern European countries such as Norway, a common use policy to non-wood forest products allows anyone to pick cloudberries on public property and eat them on location, but only local residents may transport them from that location and only ripe berries may be picked. Since 1970 in Norway, while it has been illegal to pick unripe cloudberries, transporting ripe cloudberries from the harvest location is permitted in many counties.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rubus chamaemorus is a rhizomatous herb native to cool temperate regions, alpine and arctic tundra and boreal forest, producing amber-colored edible fruit similar to the blackberry. English common names include cloudberry, nordic berry, bakeapple (in Newfoundland and Labrador), knotberry and knoutberry (in England), aqpik or low-bush salmonberry (in Alaska – not to be confused with salmonberry, \"Rubus spectabilis\"), and averin or evron (in Scotland).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971049}
{"src_title": "Software design pattern", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Patterns originated as an architectural concept by Christopher Alexander as early as 1966 (c.f. \"The Pattern of Streets,\" JOURNAL OF THE AIP, September, 1966, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 273-278). In 1987, Kent Beck and Ward Cunningham began experimenting with the idea of applying patterns to programming – specifically pattern languages – and presented their results at the OOPSLA conference that year. In the following years, Beck, Cunningham and others followed up on this work.  Design patterns gained popularity in computer science after the book \"Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software\" was published in 1994 by the so-called \"Gang of Four\" (Gamma et al.), which is frequently abbreviated as \"GoF\". That same year, the first Pattern Languages of Programming Conference was held, and the following year the Portland Pattern Repository was set up for documentation of design patterns. The scope of the term remains a matter of dispute. Notable books in the design pattern genre include: Although design patterns have been applied practically for a long time, formalization of the concept of design patterns languished for several years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practice.", "content": "Design patterns can speed up the development process by providing tested, proven development paradigms. Effective software design requires considering issues that may not become visible until later in the implementation. Freshly written code can often have hidden subtle issues that take time to be detected, issues that sometimes can cause major problems down the road. Reusing design patterns helps to prevent such subtle issues, and it also improves code readability for coders and architects who are familiar with the patterns.  In order to achieve flexibility, design patterns usually introduce additional levels of indirection, which in some cases may complicate the resulting designs and hurt application performance.  By definition, a pattern must be programmed anew into each application that uses it. Since some authors see this as a step backward from software reuse as provided by components, researchers have worked to turn patterns into components. Meyer and Arnout were able to provide full or partial componentization of two-thirds of the patterns they attempted.  Software design techniques are difficult to apply to a broader range of problems. Design patterns provide general solutions, documented in a format that does not require specifics tied to a particular problem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Design patterns are composed of several sections (see below). Of particular interest are the Structure, Participants, and Collaboration sections. These sections describe a \"design motif\": a prototypical \"micro-architecture\" that developers copy and adapt to their particular designs to solve the recurrent problem described by the design pattern. A micro-architecture is a set of program constituents (e.g., classes, methods...) and their relationships. Developers use the design pattern by introducing in their designs this prototypical micro-architecture, which means that micro-architectures in their designs will have structure and organization similar to the chosen design motif.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Domain-specific patterns.", "content": "Efforts have also been made to codify design patterns in particular domains, including use of existing design patterns as well as domain specific design patterns. Examples include user interface design patterns, information visualization, secure design, \"secure usability\", Web design and business model design.  The annual Pattern Languages of Programming Conference proceedings include many examples of domain-specific patterns.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classification and list.", "content": "Design patterns had originally been categorized into 3 sub-classifications based on kind of problem they solve. Creational patterns provide the capability to create objects based on a required criteria and in a controlled way. Structural patterns are about organizing different classes and objects to form larger structures and provide new functionality. Finally, behavioral patterns are about identifying common communication patterns between objects and realize these patterns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Documentation.", "content": "The documentation for a design pattern describes the context in which the pattern is used, the forces within the context that the pattern seeks to resolve, and the suggested solution. There is no single, standard format for documenting design patterns. Rather, a variety of different formats have been used by different pattern authors. However, according to Martin Fowler, certain pattern forms have become more well-known than others, and consequently become common starting points for new pattern-writing efforts. One example of a commonly used documentation format is the one used by Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides in their book \"Design Patterns\". It contains the following sections:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "It has been observed that design patterns may just be a sign that some features are missing in a given programming language (Java or C++ for instance). Peter Norvig demonstrates that 16 out of the 23 patterns in the \"Design Patterns\" book (which is primarily focused on C++) are simplified or eliminated (via direct language support) in Lisp or Dylan. Related observations were made by Hannemann and Kiczales who implemented several of the 23 design patterns using an aspect-oriented programming language (AspectJ) and showed that code-level dependencies were removed from the implementations of 17 of the 23 design patterns and that aspect-oriented programming could simplify the implementations of design patterns. See also Paul Graham's essay \"Revenge of the Nerds\".  Inappropriate use of patterns may unnecessarily increase complexity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In software engineering, a software design pattern is a general, reusable solution to a commonly occurring problem within a given context in software design. It is not a finished design that can be transformed directly into source or machine code. Rather, it is a description or template for how to solve a problem that can be used in many different situations. Design patterns are formalized best practices that the programmer can use to solve common problems when designing an application or system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971050}
{"src_title": "Galena", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Lead ore deposits.", "content": "Galena is the main ore of lead, used since ancient times. Because of its somewhat low melting point, it was easy to liberate by smelting. It typically forms in low-temperature sedimentary deposits.  In some deposits the galena contains about 1–2% silver, a byproduct that far outweighs the main lead ore in revenue. In these deposits significant amounts of silver occur as included silver sulfide mineral phases or as limited silver in solid solution within the galena structure. These argentiferous galenas have long been an important ore of silver. Galena deposits are found worldwide in various environments. Noted deposits include those at Freiberg in Saxony; Cornwall, the Mendips in Somerset, Derbyshire, and Cumberland in England; the Madan and Rhodope Mountains in Bulgaria; the Sullivan Mine of British Columbia; Broken Hill and Mount Isa in Australia; and the ancient mines of Sardinia. In the United States, it occurs most notably in the Mississippi Valley type deposits of the Lead Belt in southeastern Missouri, and in the Driftless Area of Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin.  Galena also was a major mineral of the zinc-lead mines of the tri-state district around Joplin in southwestern Missouri and the adjoining areas of Kansas and Oklahoma. Galena is also an important ore mineral in the silver mining regions of Colorado, Idaho, Utah and Montana. Of the latter, the Coeur d'Alene district of northern Idaho was most prominent.  The largest documented crystal of galena is composite cubo-octahedra from the Great Laxey Mine, Isle of Man, measuring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Importance.", "content": "Galena is the official state mineral of the U.S. states of Kansas, Missouri and Wisconsin; the former mining communities of Galena, Kansas, and Galena, Illinois, take their names from deposits of this mineral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crystal structure.", "content": "Galena belongs to the octahedral sulfide group of minerals that have metal ions in octahedral positions, such as the iron sulfide pyrrhotite and the nickel arsenide niccolite. The galena group is named after its most common member, with other isometric members that include manganese bearing alabandite and niningerite.  Divalent lead (Pb) cations and sulfur (S) anions form a close-packed cubic unit cell much like the mineral halite of the halide mineral group. Zinc, cadmium, iron, copper, antimony, arsenic, bismuth and selenium also occur in variable amounts in galena. Selenium substitutes for sulfur in the structure constituting a solid solution series. The lead telluride mineral altaite has the same crystal structure as galena.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geochemistry.", "content": "Within the weathering or oxidation zone galena alters to anglesite (lead sulfate) or cerussite (lead carbonate). Galena exposed to acid mine drainage can be oxidized to anglesite by naturally occurring bacteria and archaea, in a process similar to bioleaching.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Galena uses.", "content": "One of the oldest uses of galena was in the eye cosmetic kohl. In Ancient Egypt, this was applied around the eyes to reduce the glare of the desert sun and to repel flies, which were a potential source of disease.  Galena was used as decoration in the prehistoric Mississippian city at Kincaid Mounds in present-day Illinois.  Galena is the primary ore of lead, and is often mined for its silver content, such as at the Galena Mine in northern Idaho.  It can be used as a source of lead in ceramic glaze. Galena is a semiconductor with a small band gap of about 0.4 eV, which found use in early wireless communication systems. It was used as the crystal in crystal radio receivers, in which it was used as a point-contact diode capable of rectifying alternating current to detect the radio signals. The galena crystal was used with a sharp wire, known as a \"cat's whisker\" in contact with it.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Galena, also called lead glance, is the natural mineral form of lead(II) sulfide (PbS). It is the most important ore of lead and an important source of silver.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971051}
{"src_title": "Daemon (computing)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The term was coined by the programmers at MIT's Project MAC. They took the name from Maxwell's demon, an imaginary being from a thought experiment that constantly works in the background, sorting molecules. Unix systems inherited this terminology. Maxwell's demon is consistent with Greek mythology's interpretation of a daemon as a supernatural being working in the background, with no particular bias towards good or evil. However, BSD and some of its derivatives have adopted a Christian demon as their mascot rather than a Greek daemon.  The word \"daemon\" is an alternative spelling of \"demon,\" and is pronounced. In the context of computer software, the original pronunciation has drifted to for some speakers.  Alternate terms for \"daemon\" are \"service\" (used in Windows, from Windows NT onwards — and later also in Linux), \"started task\" (IBM z/OS), and \"ghost job\" (XDS UTS).  After the term was adopted for computer use, it was rationalized as a \"backronym\" for Disk And Execution MONitor.  Daemons which connect to a computer network are examples of network services.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unix-like systems.", "content": "In a strictly technical sense, a Unix-like system process is a daemon when its parent process terminates and the daemon is assigned the init process (process number 1) as its parent process and has no controlling terminal. However, more generally, a daemon may be any background process, whether a child of the init process or not.  On a Unix-like system, the common method for a process to become a daemon, when the process is started from the command line or from a startup script such as an init script or a SystemStarter script, involves:  If the process is started by a super-server daemon, such as inetd, launchd, or systemd, the super-server daemon will perform those functions for the process, except for old-style daemons not converted to run under systemd and specified as Type=forking and \"multi-threaded\" datagram servers under inetd.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "MS-DOS.", "content": "In the Microsoft DOS environment, daemon-like programs were implemented as terminate and stay resident (TSR) software.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Windows NT.", "content": "On Microsoft Windows NT systems, programs called Windows services perform the functions of daemons. They run as processes, usually do not interact with the monitor, keyboard, and mouse, and may be launched by the operating system at boot time. In Windows 2000 and later versions, Windows services are configured and manually started and stopped using the Control Panel, a dedicated control/configuration program, the Service Controller component of the Service Control Manager (sc command), the net start and net stop commands or the PowerShell scripting system.  However, any Windows application can perform the role of a daemon, not just a service, and some Windows daemons have the option of running as a normal process.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classic Mac OS and macOS.", "content": "On the classic Mac OS, optional features and services were provided by files loaded at startup time that patched the operating system; these were known as system extensions and control panels. Later versions of classic Mac OS augmented these with fully fledged faceless background applications: regular applications that ran in the background. To the user, these were still described as regular system extensions.  macOS, which is a Unix system, uses daemons. Note that macOS uses the term \"services\" to designate software that performs functions selected from the Services menu, rather than using that term for daemons as Windows does.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "According to Fernando J. Corbató, who worked on Project MAC in 1963, his team was the first to use the term daemon, inspired by Maxwell's demon, an imaginary agent in physics and thermodynamics that helped to sort molecules, stating, \"We fancifully began to use the word daemon to describe background processes which worked tirelessly to perform system chores\".  In the general sense, daemon is an older form of the word \"demon\", from the Greek δαίμων. In the \"Unix System Administration Handbook\" Evi Nemeth states the following about daemons: A further characterization of the mythological symbolism is that a daemon is something which is not visible yet is always present and working its will. In the \"Theages\", attributed to Plato, Socrates describes his own personal daemon to be something like the modern concept of a moral conscience: \"The favour of the gods has given me a marvelous gift, which has never left me since my childhood. It is a voice which, when it makes itself heard, deters me from what I am about to do and never urges me on\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In multitasking computer operating systems, a daemon ( or ) is a computer program that runs as a background process, rather than being under the direct control of an interactive user. Traditionally, the process names of a daemon end with the letter \"d\", for clarification that the process is in fact a daemon, and for differentiation between a daemon and a normal computer program. For example, syslogd is a daemon that implements system logging facility, and sshd is a daemon that serves incoming SSH connections.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971052}
{"src_title": "Great circle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Derivation of shortest paths.", "content": "To prove that the minor arc of a great circle is the shortest path connecting two points on the surface of a sphere, one can apply calculus of variations to it.  Consider the class of all regular paths from a point formula_1 to another point formula_2. Introduce spherical coordinates so that formula_1 coincides with the north pole. Any curve on the sphere that does not intersect either pole, except possibly at the endpoints, can be parametrized by  provided we allow formula_5 to take on arbitrary real values. The infinitesimal arc length in these coordinates is  So the length of a curve formula_7 from formula_1 to formula_2 is a functional of the curve given by  According to the Euler–Lagrange equation, formula_11 is minimized if and only if where formula_13 is a formula_14-independent constant, and From the first equation of these two, it can be obtained that Integrating both sides and considering the boundary condition, the real solution of formula_13 is zero. Thus, formula_18 and formula_19 can be any value between 0 and formula_20, indicating that the curve must lie on a meridian of the sphere. In Cartesian coordinates, this is which is a plane through the origin, i.e., the center of the sphere.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Some examples of great circles on the celestial sphere include the celestial horizon, the celestial equator, and the ecliptic. Great circles are also used as rather accurate approximations of geodesics on the Earth's surface for air or sea navigation (although it is not a perfect sphere), as well as on spheroidal celestial bodies.  The equator of the idealized earth is a great circle and any meridian and its opposite meridian form a great circle. Another great circle is the one that divides the land and water hemispheres. A great circle divides the earth into two hemispheres and if a great circle passes through a point it must pass through its antipodal point.  The Funk transform integrates a function along all great circles of the sphere.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A great circle, also known as an orthodrome, of a sphere is the intersection of the sphere and a plane that passes through the center point of the sphere. A great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn on any given sphere. Any diameter of any great circle coincides with a diameter of the sphere, and therefore all great circles have the same center and circumference as each other. This special case of a circle of a sphere is in opposition to a \"small circle\", that is, the intersection of the sphere and a plane that does not pass through the center. Every circle in Euclidean 3-space is a great circle of exactly one sphere.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971053}
{"src_title": "ZDF", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1959, the government of Konrad Adenauer began preparations to form a second nationwide television network with the intention of competing with ARD. Adenauer perceived ARD's news coverage to be too critical of his government, and believed that two of the organizations primarily responsible for its news reporting – the \"Deutsche Presse-Agentur\" and \"Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk\", which produced the nightly \"Tagesschau\" – were too close to the opposition Social Democratic Party (SPD) to ever be able to report neutrally on his Christian Democratic Union government. The new television company, called the \"Freies Fernsehen Gesellschaft\" (Free Television Society) but derisively called \"Adenauer-Fernsehen\" by critics, was founded on 25 July 1960.  The Deutsche Bundespost began constructing a second transmitter network on UHF channels, which required new reception equipment. For older receivers, a converter was sold for about 80 DM (about $20 in 1961 dollars ($ today)). As with the earlier ARD television network, the location of the transmitters was carefully planned to ensure the entire country would be able to receive the programming.  To test the transmitters and encourage the public to purchase UHF receivers, the federal government allowed the ARD network to create a temporary secondary channel, ARD 2, which was broadcast daily from 8 to 10 pm. ARD 2 began broadcasting on 1 May 1961 in the transmission area of Hessischer Rundfunk and a month later expanded nationwide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interstate agreement.", "content": "The SPD-led states of Hamburg, Bremen, Lower Saxony, and Hesse appealed to the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, which on 28 February 1961 in the \"\" blocked the plan. While building and maintaining telecommunications infrastructure, such as television transmitters, is a responsibility of the federal government under article 87f of the Basic Law, the constitution does not extend these duties to running a television or radio broadcaster. Under article 30, any power or duty not explicitly assigned to the federal government is reserved for the states. Therefore, the court ruled only the states had the right to set up a television broadcaster. (Conversely, the same decision supported new longwave broadcaster Deutschlandfunk, which had been established by the federal government in November 1960; its focus was on external broadcasting and therefore under the federal government's remit to conduct foreign relations.)  After this decision, in March 1961, the states decided to establish a central nonprofit public television network independently of Adenauer's effort. On 6 June 1961, the state premiers signed at a premiers' conference in Stuttgart the interstate agreement on the \"establishment of the public institution \"Second German Television\"\". On 1 December 1961, though not all states had ratified the agreement, it went into force in the states that had done so (Baden-Württemberg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate). The last state, Bavaria, filed the instrument of ratification on 9 July 1962.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Launch.", "content": "The station began broadcasting from Eschborn near Frankfurt am Main on 1 April 1963, with a speech by the first director general (Intendant), Dr. Karl Holzamer. The channel broadcast its first programme in colour in 1967. In 1974, ZDF moved its base of operations to Mainz-Lerchenberg, after briefly being located in Wiesbaden. From 5 October 1996 ZDF broadcasts 24 hours a day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Finances.", "content": "ZDF is financed by a license fee of €17.50 per month, which must be paid by all households in Germany, except handicapped people and persons on social aid. ZDF shares the income with ARD and Deutschlandradio. The fees are not collected directly by ZDF, but by the Beitragsservice, a common organization of the ARD member broadcasters, ZDF, and Deutschlandradio. ZDF also has income from sponsorships and programming and advertising sales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transmission and reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terrestrial.", "content": "As ZDF is a channel, not a network, the channel is broadcast throughout Germany, with no regional variations or affiliates, using a number of signal repeaters. ZDF transmitters broadcast a digital signal. Analog signals were gradually phased out, a process which lasted from 2002 to 2008. ZDF does not run any transmitters itself. Throughout the analogue days, all ZDF transmitters were run by the Deutsche Bundespost which was later privatised as Deutsche Telekom's subsidiary T-Systems Media Broadcast. (This is in contrast to the other public German broadcaster, ARD, which owns its main transmitters.) ZDF was not previously allowed to use ARD's transmitters. ZDF has used both ARD and Telekom transmitters since changes to the law in the 1990s, and since the digital switchover.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cable.", "content": "ZDF has also been relayed by cable since the days of the first cable pilot projects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Satellite.", "content": "The first Europe-wide satellite broadcast via Astra 1C began in August 1993 during the Internationale Funkausstellung Berlin (IFA – \"International Broadcasting Exhibition\") in Berlin. In the same decade, these new technologies were used to enable digital broadcasting of ZDF. Today, ZDF is available free-to-air throughout Europe on Astra 19.2°E.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other zdf channels.", "content": "ZDF operates two digital channels: \"ZDFneo\" (aimed at 18–45-year olds) and \"ZDFinfo\" (documentaries). Both are transmitted in SD and HD. A commercial subsidiary called ZDF Enterprises GmbH manages programme sales, acquisitions, international coproductions, and a growing number of important activities in new media. ZDF Enterprises owns Dutch production company Off the Wall. ZDF also operates various channels in cooperation with other networks:\"KI.KA\", \"Arte\", \"3sat\", and \"Phoenix\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "ZDF's animated station-identity mascots, the \"\" (a play on the words \"Mainz\" and \"Heinzelmännchen\"), created by Wolf Gerlach for the channel's launch in 1963, quickly became popular and are still shown between commercials. In 1976, Otl Aicher, a graphic designer, created ZDF's corporate design. A new design for ZDF was created by Lee Hunt in February 2000. and also a song of. Bin ein Mainzelmann by VOOZ Character System", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Director general.", "content": "Administratively, ZDF is headed by a director general (\"Intendant\"), who is elected by the ZDF Television Council, the composition of which is in turn determined by \"societally relevant groups\" named in the ZDF Treaty.  Directors General since the start of ZDF:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Supervising board.", "content": "The supervising board supervises the work of the intendant. They pay special attention to the budget. The supervising board has 14 members:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Television board.", "content": "The Television Board supervises ZDF and authorizes the budget. They also elect the Director General. The board has 60 members:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Membership.", "content": "ZDF became a full member of the European Broadcasting Union in 1963. It also has numerous individual cooperation agreements with broadcasters around the world. ZDF is a supporter of the Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV initiative which promotes the establishment of an open European standard for hybrid set-top boxes for the reception of broadcast TV and broadband multimedia applications with a single user interface.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Audience share.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "The average age of the viewers is 62 years (as of 2016).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (; \"Second German Television\"), officially abbreviated as ZDF (, stylized as \"2DF\"), is a German public-service television broadcaster based in Mainz, Rhineland-Palatinate. It is run as an independent nonprofit institution, which was founded by all federal states of Germany (\"Bundesländer\"). ZDF is financed by television licence fees and advertising revenues.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971054}
{"src_title": "Synapse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Chemical and electrical synapses.", "content": "There are two fundamentally different types of synapses:  Synaptic communication is distinct from an ephaptic coupling, in which communication between neurons occurs via indirect electric fields.  An autapse is a chemical or electrical synapse that forms when the axon of one neuron synapses onto dendrites of the same neuron.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of interfaces.", "content": "Synapses can be classified by the type of cellular structures serving as the pre- and post-synaptic components. The vast majority of synapses in the mammalian nervous system are classical axo-dendritic synapses (axon synapsing upon a dendrite), however, a variety of other arrangements exist. These include but are not limited to axo-axonic, dendro-dendritic, axo-secretory, somato-dendritic, dendro-somatic, and somato-somatic synapses.  The axon can synapse onto a dendrite, onto a cell body, or onto another axon or axon terminal, as well as into the bloodstream or diffusely into the adjacent nervous tissue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in memory.", "content": "It is widely accepted that the synapse plays a role in the formation of memory. As neurotransmitters activate receptors across the synaptic cleft, the connection between the two neurons is strengthened when both neurons are active at the same time, as a result of the receptor's signaling mechanisms. The strength of two connected neural pathways is thought to result in the storage of information, resulting in memory. This process of synaptic strengthening is known as long-term potentiation.  By altering the release of neurotransmitters, the plasticity of synapses can be controlled in the presynaptic cell. The postsynaptic cell can be regulated by altering the function and number of its receptors. Changes in postsynaptic signaling are most commonly associated with a N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptor (NMDAR)-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) due to the influx of calcium into the post-synaptic cell, which are the most analyzed forms of plasticity at excitatory synapses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Study models.", "content": "For technical reasons, synaptic structure and function have been historically studied at unusually large model synapses, for example:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synaptic polarization.", "content": "The function of neurons depends upon cell polarity. The distinctive structure of nerve cells allows action potentials to travel directionally (from dendrites to cell body down the axon), and for these signals to then be received and carried on by post-synaptic neurons or received by effector cells. Nerve cells have long been used as models for cellular polarization, and of particular interest are the mechanisms underlying the polarized localization of synaptic molecules. PIP2 signaling regulated by IMPase plays an integral role in synaptic polarity.  Phosphoinositides (PIP, PIP2, and PIP3) are molecules that have been shown to affect neuronal polarity. A gene (\"ttx-7\") was identified in \"Caenorhabditis elegans\" that encodes \"myo\"-inositol monophosphatase (IMPase), an enzyme that produces inositol by dephosphorylating inositol phosphate. Organisms with mutant \"ttx-7\" genes demonstrated behavioral and localization defects, which were rescued by expression of IMPase. This led to the conclusion that IMPase is required for the correct localization of synaptic protein components. The \"egl-8\" gene encodes a homolog of phospholipase Cβ (PLCβ), an enzyme that cleaves PIP2. When \"ttx-7\" mutants also had a mutant \"egl-8\" gene, the defects caused by the faulty \"ttx-7\" gene were largely reversed. These results suggest that PIP2 signaling establishes polarized localization of synaptic components in living neurons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presynaptic modulation.", "content": "Modulation of neurotransmitter release by G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is a prominent presynaptic mechanism for regulation of synaptic transmission. The activation of GPCRs located at the presynaptic terminal, can decrease the probability of neurotransmitter release. This presynaptic depression involves activation of Gi/o-type G-proteins that mediate different inhibitory mechanisms, including inhibition of voltage-gated calcium channels, activation of potassium channels, and direct inhibition of the vesicle fusion process. Endocannabinoids, synthesized in and released from postsynaptic neuronal elements, and their cognate receptors, including the (GPCR) CB1 receptor, located at the presynaptic terminal, are involved in this modulation by an retrograde signaling process, in which these compounds are synthesized in and released from postsynaptic neuronal elements, and travel back to the presynaptic terminal to act on the CB1 receptor for short-term (STD) or long-term synaptic depression (LTD), that cause a short or long lasting decrease in neurotransmitter release.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to the target effector cell.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971055}
{"src_title": "Benno", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sources.", "content": "The first \"Vita\" was composed in 1460 by one Spedel, a Bendictine monk of St. Michael's monastery in Hildesheim. The second, by Jerome Emser, was published in 1512 as part of the efforts to have Benno canonized. In the last years of the fifteenth century and the first decades of the sixteenth century the canons of Meissen and George, Duke of Albertine Saxony, coordinated a campaign to achieve Benno's canonization. The canons sought the prestige of a canonized local bishop, and the duke sought a suitable model bishop for the reform of the church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "Little is known of Benno's early life. Born in Hildesheim, it is reported that he was the scion of a Saxon noble family, such as the Woldenburgs; and may have been educated at the monastery of St. Michael in Hildesheim. However it is certain that Benno was a canon of the Goslar chapter. In 1066 he was nominated by King Henry IV to the episcopal see of Meissen.  Benno appears as a supporter of the Saxon Rebellion in 1073, though the chronicler Lambert of Hersfeld and other contemporary authorities attribute little weight to his share in it. Henry IV exiled Benno in 1075, but allowed him to return to his see the following year.  During the fierce Investiture Controversy, Benno supported Pope Gregory, and allegedly took part in the election of antiking Rudolf of Rheinfelden in 1077. After Rudolf's death he turned to the new antiking Hermann of Salm and was accordingly excommunicated and deprived of his bishopric by the 1085 Synod of Mainz. Benno betook himself to Archbishop Guibert of Ravenna, supported by Henry as Antipope Clement III, and by a penitent acknowledgment of his offences obtained from him both absolution and a letter of commendation to Henry, on the basis of which he was restored to his see.  Benno promised, apparently, to use his influence for peace with the Saxons, but again failed to keep his promise, returning in 1097 to the papal party and recognizing Urban II as the rightful pope. With this he disappears from authentic history; there is no evidence to support the later stories of his missionary activity and zeal for church-building and for ecclesiastical music. Benno died of natural causes on June 16, 1106.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Benno did much for his diocese, both by ecclesiastical reforms on the Hildebrandine model and by material developments. Benno enjoyed veneration in his native Saxony throughout the later Middle Ages. Adrian VI issued the bull of canonization in 1523. Although Benno's sainthood had little to do with Luther's call for reform, once canonized he became a symbol for both sides of the reforming debate: Luther reviled him in early tracts against the cult of the saints. Catholic reformers turned him into a model of orthodoxy; and after Protestant mobs desecrated Benno's tomb in Meissen in 1539, the Wittelsbach dynasty ultimately made him patron saint of Munich and Old Bavaria.  For his part, the English Protestant John Foxe eagerly repeated the charges which Benno, who sided with Gregory VII, made against Henry IV during the Investiture Controversy, such as necromancy, torture of a former friend upon a bed of nails, commissioning an attempted assassination, executions without trials, unjust excommunication, doubting the Real Presence in the Eucharist, and even burning it. [NOTE: A previous version of this article says Benno made these charges against St. Gregory, but given the nature of the Investiture Controversy and the orthodoxy of Pope Gregory – especially concerning the Eucharist –, not to mention that Benno and Gregory were on the same side, this makes no sense.]  Benno's feast day is 16 June. He is the patron-saint of anglers and weavers. His iconographic figures include a fish with keys in its mouth and a book. The reason for the fish is a legend that upon the excommunication of Henry IV the bishop told his canons to throw the keys to the cathedral into the Elbe; later a fisherman found the keys in a fish and brought them to the bishop.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Benno ( – 16 June 1106) was named Bishop of Meissen in 1066. Venerated since the 13th century, he was canonized in 1523. Benno did much for his diocese, both by ecclesiastical reforms on the Hildebrandine model and by material developments. He was venerated in his native Saxony throughout the later Middle Ages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971056}
{"src_title": "Fuggerei", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The rent was and is still one Rhenish guilder per year (equivalent to 0.88 euros), as well as three daily prayers for the current owners of the — the Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary, and the Nicene Creed. The conditions to live there remain the same as they were 500 years ago: one must have lived at least two years in Augsburg, be of the Catholic faith and have become indigent without debt. The five gates are still locked every day at 10 PM.  Housing units in the area consist of 45 to 65 square metre (500–700 square foot) apartments, but because each unit has its own street entrance it simulates living in a house. There is no shared accommodation; each family has its own apartment, which includes a kitchen, a parlour, a bedroom and a tiny spare room, altogether totalling about 60 square metres. Ground-floor apartments all have a small garden and garden shed, while upper-floor apartments have an attic. All apartments have modern conveniences such as television and running water. One ground-floor apartment is uninhabited, serving as a museum open to the public. The doorbells have elaborate shapes, each being unique, dating back to before the installation of streetlights when residents could identify their door by feeling the handle in the dark.  Residents today still have to say three prayers a day (the Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary, and the Nicene Creed) and work a part-time job in the community.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Fugger family initially established their wealth in weaving and merchandising. Jakob the Rich expanded their interests into silver mining and trading with Venice. Additionally he was a financier and counted the Vatican as a notable client. The family became financial backers of the Habsburg family and he financed the successful election of Charles V as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 1519.  The Fuggerei was first built between 1514 and 1523 under the supervision of the architect Thomas Krebs, and in 1582 Hans Holl added St. Mark's Church to the settlement. Expanded further in 1880 and 1938, the Fuggerei today comprises 67 houses with 147 apartments, a well, and an administrative building.  Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's great-grandfather, the mason Franz Mozart, lived in the Fuggerei between 1681 and 1694, and is commemorated today by a stone plaque.  The Fuggerei was heavily damaged by the bombings of Augsburg during World War II, but has been rebuilt in its original style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Upkeep.", "content": "The Fuggerei is supported by a charitable trust established in 1520 which Jakob Fugger funded with an initial deposit of 10,000 guilders. According to the \"Wall Street Journal\", the trust has been carefully managed with most of its income coming from forestry holdings, which the Fugger family favoured since the 17th century after losing money on higher yielding investments. The annual return on the trust has ranged from an after-inflation rate of 0.5% to 2%. The Fugger family foundation is currently headed by Maria-Elisabeth Gräfin Thun-Fugger, \"née\" Gräfin Fugger von Kirchberg, who lives at Kirchberg Castle. The trust is administered by Wolf-Dietrich Graf von Hundt.  As of 2020, the fee for a tour into the Fuggerei is 6.50 euro, over seven times the annual rent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fuggerei is the world's oldest social housing complex still in use. It is a walled enclave within the city of Augsburg, Bavaria. It takes its name from the Fugger family and was founded in 1516 by Jakob Fugger the Younger (known as \"Jakob Fugger the Rich\") as a place where the needy citizens of Augsburg could be housed. By 1523, 52 houses had been built, and in the coming years the area expanded with various streets, small squares and a church. The gates were locked at night, so the Fuggerei was, in its own right, very similar to a small independent medieval town. It is still inhabited today, affording it the status of being the oldest social housing project in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971057}
{"src_title": "House of Wettin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins: Wettin of Saxony.", "content": "The oldest member of the House of Wettin who is known for certain is Theodoric I of Wettin, also known as \"Dietrich\", \"Thiedericus\", and \"Thierry I of Liesgau\" (died c. 982). He was most probably based in the Liesgau (located at the western edge of the Harz). Around 1000, the family acquired Wettin Castle, which was originally built by the local Slavic tribes (see Sorbs), after which they named themselves. Wettin Castle is located in Wettin in the Hassegau (or Hosgau) on the Saale River. Around 1030, the Wettin family received the Eastern March as a fief.  The prominence of the Wettins in the Slavic Saxon Eastern March (or \"Ostmark\") caused Emperor Henry IV to invest them with the March of Meissen as a fief in 1089. The family advanced over the course of the Middle Ages: in 1263, they inherited the landgraviate of Thuringia (although without Hesse) and in 1423, they were invested with the Duchy of Saxony, centred at Wittenberg, thus becoming one of the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ernestine and Albertine Wettins.", "content": "The family split into two ruling branches in 1485 when the sons of Frederick II, Elector of Saxony divided the territories hitherto ruled jointly. The elder son Ernest, who had succeeded his father as Prince-elector, received the territories assigned to the Elector (\"Electorate of Saxony\") and Thuringia, while his younger brother Albert obtained the March of Meissen, which he ruled from Dresden. As Albert ruled under the title of \"Duke of Saxony\", his possessions were also known as Ducal Saxony.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ernestines.", "content": "The older Ernestine branch remained predominant until 1547 and played an important role in the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation. Frederick III (\"Friedrich der Weise\") appointed Martin Luther (1512) and Philipp Melanchthon (1518) to the University of Wittenberg, which he had established in 1502.  The Ernestine predominance ended in the Schmalkaldic War (1546/7), which pitted the Protestant Schmalkaldic League against the Emperor Charles V. Although itself Lutheran, the Albertine branch rallied to the Emperor's cause. Charles V had promised Moritz the rights to the electorship. After the Battle of Mühlberg, Johann Friedrich der Großmütige, had to cede territory (including Wittenberg) and the electorship to his cousin Moritz. Although imprisoned, Johann Friedrich was able to plan a new university. It was established by his three sons on 19 March 1548 as the \"Höhere Landesschule\" at Jena. On 15 August 1557, Emperor Ferdinand I awarded it the status of university.  The Ernestine line was thereafter restricted to Thuringia and its dynastic unity swiftly crumbled, dividing into a number of smaller states, the Ernestine duchies. Nevertheless, with Ernst der Fromme, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (1601–1675), the house gave rise to an important early-modern ruler who was ahead of his time in supporting the education of his people and in improving administration. In the 18th century, Karl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, established what was to become known as Weimar Classicism at his court in Weimar, notably by bringing Johann Wolfgang von Goethe there.  It was only in the 19th century that one of the many Ernestine branches, the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, regained importance through marriages as the \"stud of Europe\", by ascending the thrones of Belgium (in 1831), Portugal (1853–1910), Bulgaria (1908–1946) and the United Kingdom (in 1901).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Albertines.", "content": "The Albertine Wettins maintained most of the territorial integrity of Saxony, preserving it as a significant power in the region, and used small appanage fiefs for their cadet branches, few of which survived for significant lengths of time. The Ernestine Wettins, on the other hand, repeatedly subdivided their territory, creating an intricate patchwork of small duchies and counties in Thuringia.  The junior Albertine branch ruled as Electors (1547–1806) and Kings of Saxony (1806–1918), and also played a role in Polish history: two Wettins were Kings of Poland (between 1697–1763) and a third ruled the Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1814) as a satellite of Napoleon. After the Napoleonic Wars, the Albertine branch lost about 40% of its lands (the economically less-developed northern parts of the old Electorate of Saxony) to Prussia, restricting it to a territory coextensive with the modern Saxony (see Final Act of the Congress of Vienna 18 May 1815). Frederick Augustus III lost his throne in the German Revolution of 1918.  The role of present head of the Albertine \"House of Saxony\" is claimed by his great-grandson Prince Rüdiger of Saxony, Duke of Saxony, Margrave of Meissen (born 23 December 1953). The headship of Prince Rüdiger is however contested by his second cousin, Alexander (born 1954), son of Roberto Afif, later by change of name Mr Gessaphe, and Princess Maria Anna of Saxony, a sister of the childless former head of the Albertines, Maria Emanuel, Margrave of Meissen (died 2012), who had adopted his nephew, granting him the name Prince of Saxony, contrary to the rules of male descent under the Salic Law. The dispute is detailed in the article Line of succession to the former Saxon thrones. Both are however not recognized by the Nobility Archive in Marburg as well as by the Conference of the Formerly Ruling Houses in Germany. Prince Rüdiger, because his father Timo was expelled from the House of Wettin, Prince Alexander because he is not of noble descent (father was Roberto Afif from Lebanon). Consequently, the House of Wettin, Albertine Branch, is officially treated by the German nobility as extinct in its legal succession-line.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.", "content": "The senior (Ernestine) branch of the House of Wettin lost the electorship to the Albertine line in 1547, but retained its holdings in Thuringia, dividing the area into a number of smaller states. One of the resulting Ernestine houses, known as Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld until 1826 and as Saxe-Coburg and Gotha after that, went on to contribute kings of Belgium (from 1831) and Bulgaria (1908–1946), as well as furnishing husbands to queens regnant of Portugal (Prince Ferdinand) and the United Kingdom (Prince Albert). As such, the British and Portuguese thrones became possessions of persons who belonged to the House of Wettin.  From King George I to Queen Victoria, the British Royal family was called the House of Hanover, being a junior branch of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg and thus part of the dynasty of the Guelphs. In the late 19th century, Queen Victoria charged the College of Heralds in England to determine the correct personal surname of her late husband, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha—and, thus, the proper surname of the royal family upon the accession of her son. After extensive research, they concluded that it was Wettin, but this name was never used, either by the Queen or by her son (King Edward VII) or by her grandson (King George V); they were simply Kings of the House of \"Saxe-Coburg-Gotha\".  Severe anti-German sentiment during World War I (1914-1918) led some influential members of the British public (especially radical Republicans such as H. G. Wells) to question the loyalty of the royal family. Advisors to King George V searched for an acceptable surname for the British royal family, but \"Wettin\" was rejected as \"unsuitably comic\". An Order in Council legally changed the name of the British royal family to \"Windsor\" (originally suggested by Lord Stamfordham) in 1917.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coats of arms.", "content": "For an extensive treatment of the coats of arms, see: Coat of arms of Saxony  or in French:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The House of Wettin () is a dynasty of German counts, dukes, prince-electors and kings that once ruled territories in the present-day German states of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia. The dynasty is one of the oldest in Europe, and its origins can be traced back to the town of Wettin, Saxony-Anhalt. The Wettins gradually rose to power within the Holy Roman Empire. Members of the family became the rulers of several medieval states, starting with the Saxon Eastern March in 1030. Other states they gained were Meissen in 1089, Thuringia in 1263, and Saxony in 1423. These areas cover large parts of Central Germany as a cultural area of Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971058}
{"src_title": "Kumis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology and etymology.", "content": "\"Kumis\" comes from the Turkic word \"kımız\". Kurmann derives the word from the name of the Kumyks, one of many Turkic peoples, although this appears to be a purely speculative claim. Clauson notes that \"kımız\" is found throughout the Turkic language family, and cites the 11th-century appearance of the word in \"Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk\" written by Kaşgarlı Mahmud in the Karakhanid language.  In Mongolia, the drink is called \"airag\" ( ) or, in some areas, \"tsegee\". William of Rubruck in his travels calls the drink \"cosmos\" and describes its preparation among the Mongols.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production of mare's milk.", "content": "A 1982 source reported 230,000 mares were kept in the Soviet Union specifically for producing milk to make into \"kumis\". Rinchingiin Indra, writing about Mongolian dairying, says \"it takes considerable skill to milk a mare\" and describes the technique: the milker kneels on one knee, with a pail propped on the other, steadied by a string tied to an arm. One arm is wrapped behind the mare's rear leg and the other in front. A foal starts the milk flow and is pulled away by another person, but left touching the mare's side during the entire process.  In Mongolia, the milking season for horses traditionally runs between mid-June and early October. During one season, a mare produces approximately 1,000 to 1,200 litres of milk, of which about half is left to the foals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production of kumis.", "content": "\"Kumis\" is made by fermenting raw unpasteurized mare's milk over the course of hours or days, often while stirring or churning. (The physical agitation has similarities to making butter). During the fermentation, lactobacilli bacteria acidify the milk, and yeasts turn it into a carbonated and mildly alcoholic drink.  Traditionally, this fermentation took place in horse-hide containers, which might be left on the top of a \"yurt\" and turned over on occasion, or strapped to a saddle and joggled around over the course of a day's riding. Today, a wooden vat or plastic barrel may be used in place of the leather container.  In modern controlled production, the initial fermentation takes two to five hours at a temperature of around ; this may be followed by a cooler aging period. The finished product contains between 0.7 and 2.5% alcohol.  \"Kumis\" itself has a very low level of alcohol, comparable to small beer, the common drink of medieval Europe that also helps to avoid the consumption of potentially contaminated water. \"Kumis\" can, however, be strengthened through freeze distillation, a technique Central Asian nomads are reported to have employed. It can also be made into the distilled beverage known as \"araka\" or \"arkhi\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Archaeological investigations of the Botai culture of ancient Kazakhstan have revealed traces of milk in bowls from the site of Botai, suggesting the domestication of the animal. No specific evidence for its fermentation has yet been found, but considering the location of the Botai culture and the nutritional properties of mare's milk, the possibility is high.  \"Kumis\" is an ancient beverage. Herodotus, in his 5th-century BC \"Histories\", describes the Scythians processing of mare's milk:  Now the Scythians blind all their slaves, to use them in preparing their milk. The plan they follow is to thrust tubes made of bone, not unlike our musical pipes, up the vulva of the mare, and then to blow into the tubes with their mouths, some milking while the others blow. They say that they do this because when the veins of the animal are full of air, the udder is forced down. The milk thus obtained is poured into deep wooden casks, about which the blind slaves are placed, and then the milk is stirred round. That which rises to the top is drawn off, and considered the best part; the under portion is of less account.  This is widely believed to be the first description of ancient kumis-making. Apart from the idiosyncratic method of mare-milking, it matches up well enough with later accounts, such as this one given by 13th-century traveller William of Rubruck:  This \"cosmos\", which is mare's milk, is made in this wise. [...] When they have got together a great quantity of milk, which is as sweet as cow's as long as it is fresh, they pour it into a big skin or bottle, and they set to churning it with a stick [...] and when they have beaten it sharply it begins to boil up like new wine and to sour or ferment, and they continue to churn it until they have extracted the butter. Then they taste it, and when it is mildly pungent, they drink it. It is pungent on the tongue like rapé wine when drunk, and when a man has finished drinking, it leaves a taste of milk of almonds on the tongue, and it makes the inner man most joyful and also intoxicates weak heads, and greatly provokes urine. Rubruk also mentions that the Mongols prized a particular variety of black kumiss called \"caracosmos,\" which was made specifically from the milk of black mares.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consumption.", "content": "Strictly speaking, \"kumis\" is in its own category of alcoholic drinks because it is made neither from fruit nor from grain. Technically, it is closer to wine than to beer because the fermentation occurs directly from sugars, as in wine (usually from fruit), as opposed to from starches (usually from grain) converted to sugars by mashing, as in beer. But in terms of experience and traditional manner of consumption, it is much more comparable to beer. It is even milder in alcoholic content than beer. It is arguably the region’s beer equivalent.  \"Kumis\" is very light in body compared to most dairy drinks. It has a unique, slightly sour flavor with a bite from the mild alcoholic content. The exact flavor is greatly variable between different producers.  \"Kumis\" is usually served cold or chilled. Traditionally it is sipped out of small, handle-less, bowl-shaped cups or saucers, called \"piyala\". The serving of it is an essential part of Kyrgyz hospitality on the \"jayloo\" or high pasture, where they keep their herds of animals (horse, cattle, and sheep) during the summer phase of transhumance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural role.", "content": "During the Yuan Dynasty of China, kumis was essentially made to be the replacement of tea. Furthermore, Möngke Khan had a drinking fountain made in the Mongol Empire's capital of Karakorum, including kumis alongside Chinese rice wine, Scandinavian mead and Persian grape wine as a symbol of the empire's diversity and size.  The capital of Kyrgyzstan, Bishkek, is named after the paddle used to churn the fermenting milk, showing the importance of the drink in the national culture.  The famous Russian writer Leo Tolstoy in \"A Confession\" spoke of running away from his troubled life by drinking \"kumis\".  The Russian composer Alexander Scriabin was recommended a kumis diet and \"water cure\" by his doctor in his twenties, for his nervous condition and right-hand injury.  The Japanese soft drink Calpis models its flavor after the taste of \"kumis\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kumis (also spelled kumiss or koumiss or kumys, see other transliterations and cognate words below under terminology and etymology -, \"qymyz\") is a fermented dairy product traditionally made from mare's milk but also a variant with donkey milk. The drink remains important to the peoples of the Central Asian steppes, of Huno-Bulgar, Turkic and Mongol origin: Kazakhs, Bashkirs, Kalmyks, Kyrgyz, Mongols, and Yakuts. Kumis was historically consumed by the Khitan, Jurchen, and Han Chinese of North China as well.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971059}
{"src_title": "Mary Ward (nun)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Mary Ward was born in Mulwith, North Yorkshire, to Marmaduke and Ursula Wright Ward. She was born at a time of great conflict for Roman Catholics in England. Two of her uncles were involved in the Gunpowder Plot. In 1595 her family home burned down in an anti-Catholic riot; the children who were praying at the time were saved by their father. In 1599 she moved to the house of Sir Ralph Babthorpe at Osgodby, Selby. It was there at the age of 15 that Mary felt called to the religious life. She entered a monastery of Poor Clares at Saint-Omer in northern France, then in the Spanish Netherlands, as a lay sister. In 1606 she founded a new monastery of the Order specifically for English women at nearby Gravelines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Establishment of the institute.", "content": "However, Mary Ward did not find herself called to the contemplative life and instead decided to dedicate herself to an active ministry, whilst still being a religious; this was considered most unusual at the time. At the age of twenty-four she found herself surrounded by a band of devoted companions determined to work under her guidance. In 1609 they established themselves as a religious community at Saint-Omer and opened schools for girls.  Although the venture was a great success, it was still controversial at the time, and it called forth censure and opposition as well as praise. Her idea was to enable women to do for the Church in their proper field, what men had done for it in the Society of Jesus. The idea has been realized over and over again in modern times, but in the 17th century it met with little encouragement. As previous foundresses who attempted such a way of life (e.g., St. Angela Merici) had learned, uncloistered religious sisters were repugnant to long-standing principles and traditions then prevalent. At that time, the work of religious women was confined to what could be carried on within the walls of a monastery, either teaching boarding students within the cloister or nursing the sick in hospitals attached to the monastery.  There were other new startling differences between the new Institute and existing congregations of women, freedom from: enclosure, the obligation of choir, wearing a religious habit, and from the jurisdiction of the local bishop. Moreover, her scheme was proposed at a time when there was division amongst English Catholics, and the fact that it borrowed so much from the Society of Jesus (itself an object of suspicion and hostility in many quarters) increased the mistrust. Measures recognized as acceptable in modern times were still novelties in hers, and her opponents called for a statement to be made by Church authorities. As early as 1615, the Jesuit theologians Francisco Suárez and Leonardus Lessius had been asked for their opinion on the new institute; both praised its way of life. Lessius held that local episcopal authorization sufficed to render it a religious body whereas Suárez maintained that its aim, organization, and methods being without precedent in the case of women, required the sanction of the Holy See.  Pope Pius V (1566–1572) had declared solemn vows and strict papal enclosure to be essential to all communities of religious women. The difficulties which Ward encountered were mainly due to this ruling, when on the propagation of her institute in Flanders, Bavaria, Austria, and Italy, she applied to the Holy See for formal approbation. The Archduchess Isabella Clara Eugenia, the Elector Maximilian I, and the Emperor Ferdinand II had welcomed the congregation to their dominions, and together with such men as Cardinal Federico Borromeo, Fra Domenico de Gesù (Domenico Ruzola), and Father Mutio Vitelleschi, Superior General of the Society of Jesus, held the foundress in great esteem. Popes Paul V, Gregory XV and Urban VIII had shown her great kindness and spoken in praise of her work, and in 1629 she was allowed to plead her cause in person before the congregation of cardinals appointed by Urban to examine the situation.  The \"Jesuitesses\", as her congregation was designated by her opponents, were suppressed in 1631. Her work however was not destroyed. It revived gradually and developed, following the general lines of the first scheme. The second institute was at length approved as to its Rule by Pope Clement XI in 1703, and as an institute by Pope Pius IX in 1877.  At the express desire of Pope Urban, Mary went to Rome. It was there that she gathered around her the younger members of her religious family, under the supervision and protection of the Holy See. She traveled throughout Europe on foot, in extreme poverty and frequently ill, founding schools in the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Austria, and in today's Czech Republic and Slovakia. In 1637, with letters of introduction from Pope Urban to Queen Henrietta Maria of France, Mary returned to England and established herself in London. There she and her companions established free schools for the poor, nursed the sick and visited prisoners. In 1642 she journeyed northward with her household and established a convent at Heworth, near York. She died at St. Mary's school in the siege of York during the English Civil War.  After her death there, her companions thought it best not to bury her body near the city center where she died because of the dangers of desecration. Instead they sought a less conspicuous place and found a happy solution by arranging for her to be buried in the Osbaldwick Churchyard, about a mile away. There, as the record says, \"the vicar was honest enough to be bribed\"! Her burial on 1 February 1645 was also attended by Anglicans, she was much admired and revered by many local people, both Catholic and Protestant.  Ward was formally recognized as the foundress of the two religious institutes by the Holy See only in 1909. Her work is celebrated in an exhibit in the museum of the Bar Convent in York. She was mentioned by Pope Benedict XVI during his UK visit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Loreto Abbey Catholic Secondary School is an all girls high school that is also home to the Loreto Sisters. For the 400th anniversary of her birth in 1985, a high school in Toronto, Ontario, was named after her. Another Catholic Secondary school in Toronto Ontario is named after her. Mary Ward Catholic Secondary School Self Directed-Center for learning. A Catholic elementary school in Niagara Falls, Ontario is also carries her name. Many schools in Germany are also named in her honour, including the Maria-Ward-Schule in Landau, Rhineland-Palatinate. Also, St Mary's School Cambridge, and Loreto Australia including Loreto Toorak. In 2002, the Congregation of Jesus was finally allowed to adopt the constitutions of the Jesuits, as well as the name she had originally intended for them.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mary Ward, (I.B.V.M.) (23 January 1585 – 30 January 1645), was an English Catholic nun whose activities led to the founding of the Congregation of Jesus and the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary, less well known as the Sisters of Loreto (not to be confused with the American Sisters of Loretto), which have both established schools around the world. Ward was declared Venerable by Pope Benedict XVI on 19 December 2009.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971060}
{"src_title": "Hedwig of Silesia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "The daughter of Count Berthold IV of Andechs and his second wife Agnes of Wettin, she was born at Andechs Castle in the Duchy of Bavaria. Her elder sister, Agnes married King Philip II of France (annulled in 1200) and her sister, Gertrude (killed in 1213) King Andrew II of Hungary, while the youngest Matilda, (Mechtild) became abbess at the Benedictine Abbey of Kitzingen in Franconia, where Hedwig also received her education. Hedwig's brother was Bishop, Count of Andechs-Meranien. Another brother was Berthold, Archbishop of Kalocsa und Patriarch of Aquileia. Through her sister Gertrude, she was the aunt of Elizabeth of Hungary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duchess consort.", "content": "At the age of twelve, Hedwig married Henry I the Bearded, son and heir of the Piast duke Boleslaus the Tall of Silesia. As soon as Henry succeeded his father in 1201, he had to struggle with his Piast relatives, at first with his uncle Duke Mieszko IV Tanglefoot who immediately seized the Upper Silesian Duchy of Opole. In 1206 Henry and his cousin Duke Władysław III Spindleshanks of Greater Poland agreed to swap the Silesian Lubusz Land against the Kalisz region, which met with fierce protest by Władysław's III nephew Władysław Odonic. When Henry went to Gąsawa in 1227 to meet his Piast cousins, he narrowly saved his life, while High Duke Leszek I the White was killed by the men of the Pomerelian Duke Swietopelk II, instigated by Władysław Odonic.  The next year Henry's ally Władysław III Spindleshanks succeeded Leszek I as High Duke; however as he was still contested by his nephew in Greater Poland, he made Henry his governor at Kraków, whereby the Silesian duke once again became entangled in the dispute over the Seniorate Province. In 1229 he was captured and arrested at Płock Castle by rivaling Duke Konrad I of Masovia. Hedwig proceeded to Płock pleading for Henry and was able to have him released.  Her actions promoted the reign of her husband: Upon the death of the Polish High Duke Władysław III Spindleshanks in 1231, Henry also became Duke of Greater Poland and the next year prevailed as High Duke at Kraków. He thereby was the first of the Silesian Piast descendants of Władysław II the Exile to gain the rule over Silesia and the Seniorate Province in accord with the 1138 Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Widow.", "content": "In 1238, upon his death, Henry was buried at a Cistercian monastery of nuns, Trzebnica Abbey (\"Kloster Trebnitz\"), which he had established in 1202 at Hedwig's request. Hedwig accepted the death of her beloved husband with faith. She said:  The widow moved into the monastery, which was led by her daughter Gertrude, assuming the religious habit of a lay sister, but she did not take vows. She invited numerous German religious people from the Holy Roman Empire into the Silesian lands, as well as German settlers who founded numerous cities, towns and villages in the course of the \"Ostsiedlung\", while cultivating barren parts of Silesia for agriculture.  Hedwig and Henry had several daughters, though only one surviving son, Henry II the Pious, who succeeded his father as Duke of Silesia and Polish High Duke. The widow, however, had to witness the killing of her son, vainly awaiting the support of Emperor Frederick II, during the Mongol invasion of Poland at the Battle of Legnica (\"Wahlstatt\") in 1241. The hopes for a re-united Poland were lost and even Silesia fragmented into numerous Piast duchies under Henry II's sons. Hedwig and her daughter-in-law, Henry II's widow Anna of Bohemia, established a Benedictine abbey at the site of the battle in Legnickie Pole, settled with monks coming from Opatovice in Bohemia. Hedwig and Henry had lived very pious lives, and Hedwig had great zeal for her faith. She had supported her husband in donating the Augustinian provostry at Nowogród Bobrzański (\"Naumburg\") and the commandery of the Knights Templar at Oleśnica Mała (\"Klein Oels\"). Hedwig always helped the poor, the widows and the orphans, founded several hospitals for the sick and the lepers and donated all her fortune to the Church. She allowed no one to leave her uncomforted, and one time she spent ten weeks teaching the Our Father to a poor woman. According to legend, she went barefoot even in winter, and when she was urged by the Bishop of Wrocław to wear shoes, she carried them in her hands.On 15 October 1243, Hedwig died and was buried in Trzebnica Abbey with her husband, while relics of her are preserved at Andechs Abbey and St. Hedwig's Cathedral in Berlin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Hedwig was canonized in 1267 by Pope Clement IV, a supporter of the Cistercian order, at the suggestion of her grandson Prince-Archbishop Władysław of Salzburg. She is the patron saint of Silesia, of Andechs, and of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Görlitz. Her feast day is celebrated on the General Roman Calendar on 16 October. A 17th-century legend has it that Hedwig, while on a pilgrimage to Rome, stopped at Bad Zell in Austria, where she had healing waters spring up at a source which today still bears her name.  In 1773 the Prussian king Frederick the Great, having conquered and annexed the bulk of Silesia in the First Silesian War, had St. Hedwig's Cathedral in Berlin built for the Catholic Upper Silesian immigrants, now the mother church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Berlin.  In March 2020 the discovery of Hedwig's remains, that have been missing for centuries, was reported. The remains were found in her sanctuary in Trzebnica, in a silver casket bearing a lead tablet with an inscription confirming Hedwig's identity.  Hedwig glasses are named after Hedwig of Silesia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Hedwig and Henry I had seven children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hedwig of Silesia (), also Hedwig of Andechs (, ; 1174 – 15 October 1243), a member of the Bavarian comital House of Andechs, was Duchess of Silesia from 1201 and of Greater Poland from 1231 as well as High Duchess consort of Poland from 1232 until 1238. She was reported in the two-volume historical atlas of Herman Kinder and another author to have been great in war and defended from the Teutonic Knights. She was canonized by the Catholic Church in 1267 by Pope Clement IV.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971061}
{"src_title": "Russian cruiser Aurora", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Russo-Japanese War.", "content": "Soon after completion, on October 10, 1903, \"Aurora\" departed Kronstadt as part of Admiral Virenius's \"reinforcing squadron\" for Port Arthur. While in the Red Sea, still enroute to Port Arthur, the squadron was recalled back to the Baltic Sea, under protest by Admiral Makarov, who specifically requested Admiral Virenius to continue his mission to Port Arthur. Only the 7 destroyers of the reinforcing squadron were allowed to continue to the Far East.  After her detachment from the reinforcing squadron and her arrival back to home port she underwent new refitting. After refitting, \"Aurora\" was ordered back to Port Arthur as part of the Russian Baltic Fleet \"Aurora\" sailed as part of Admiral Oskar Enkvist's Cruiser Squadron whose flagship would be the Protected Cruiser Oleg, an element of Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky's \"Baltic Fleet.\" On the way to the Far East, \"Aurora\" received 5 hits, sustaining light damage from confused friendly fire, which killed the ship's chaplain and a sailor, in the Dogger Bank incident.  On 27 and 28 May 1905 \"Aurora\" took part in the Battle of Tsushima, along with the rest of the Russian squadron. During the battle her captain, Captain 1st rank Eugene R. Yegoryev, and 14 crewmen were killed. The executive officer, Captain of 2nd rank Arkadiy Konstantinovich Nebolsine, took command although wounded. After that \"Aurora\", covering other much slower Russian vessels, became the flagship of Rear-Admiral Enkvist, and with two other Russian cruisers broke through to neutral Manila, where she was interned by United States authorities from 6 June 1905 until the end of the war.  In 1906 \"Aurora\" returned to the Baltic and became a cadet training ship. From 1906 until 1912 the cruiser visited a number of other countries; in November 1911 she was in Bangkok as part of the celebrations in honour of the coronation of the new King of Siam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "October Revolution mutiny.", "content": "During World War I \"Aurora\" operated in the Baltic Sea performing patrols and shore bombardment tasks. In 1915, her armament was changed to fourteen 152 mm (6 in) guns. At the end of 1916, she was moved to Petrograd (the renamed Saint Petersburg) for a major repair. The city was brimming with revolutionary ferment and part of her crew joined the 1917 February Revolution.  The ship's commanding officer, Captain Mikhail Nikolsky, was killed when he tried to suppress the revolt. A revolutionary committee was created on the ship, with Aleksandr Belyshev elected as captain. Most of the crew joined the Bolsheviks, who were preparing for a Communist revolution.  At 9.40pm on 25 October 1917 (Old Style; 7 November New Style) a blank shot from her forecastle gun signaled the start of the assault on the Winter Palace, which was to be the beginning of the October Revolution. In summer 1918, she was relocated to Kronstadt and placed into reserve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second World War.", "content": "In 1922 \"Aurora\" returned to service as a training ship. Assigned to the Baltic Fleet, from 1923, she repeatedly visited the Baltic Sea countries, including Norway in 1924, 1925, 1928 and 1930, Germany in 1929 and Sweden in 1925 and 1928. On 2 November 1927, \"Aurora\" was awarded the Order of the Red Banner for her revolutionary merits.  During the Second World War, the guns were taken from the ship and used in the land defence of Leningrad. The ship herself was docked in Oranienbaum port, and was repeatedly shelled and bombed. On 30 September 1941 she was damaged and sunk in the harbour.  In 1944 despite the vessel's state, \"Aurora\" became the first campus and training vessel of the Nakhimov Naval School.  After extensive repairs from 1945 to 1947, \"Aurora\" was permanently anchored on the Neva in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg again) as a monument to the Great October Socialist Revolution. In 1957 she became a museum-ship. On 22 February 1968 she was awarded the Order of the October Revolution, whose badge portrays \"Aurora\" herself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "To the present.", "content": "As a museum ship, the cruiser \"Aurora\" became one of the many tourist attractions of Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg), and continued to be a symbol of the October Socialist Revolution and a prominent attribute of Russian history. In addition to the museum space, a part of the ship continued to house a naval crew whose duties included caring for the ship, providing security and participating in government and military ceremonies. The crew was considered to be on active duty and was subject to military training and laws.  Having long served as a museum ship, from 1984 to 1987 the cruiser was once again placed in her construction yard, the Admiralty Shipyard, for capital restoration. During the overhaul, due to deterioration, the ship's hull below the waterline was replaced with a new welded hull according to the original drawings. The cut off lower hull section was towed into the Gulf of Finland, to the unfinished base at Ruchi, and sunk near the shore. The restoration revealed that some of the ship parts, including the armour plates, were originally made in Britain.  \"Aurora\" is the oldest commissioned ship of the Russian Navy, still flying the naval ensign under which she was commissioned, but now under the care of the Central Naval Museum. She is still manned by an active service crew commanded by a Captain of the 1st Rank.  In January 2013 Russian Defence Minister Sergey Shoygu announced plans to recommission \"Aurora\" and make her the flagship of the Russian Navy due to her historical and cultural importance. On 21 September 2014 the ship was towed to the Admiralty Shipyard in Kronstadt to be overhauled, to return in 2016. On 16 July 2016 she returned to her home harbour in Saint Petersburg.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aurora () is a 1900 Russian protected cruiser, currently preserved as a museum ship in Saint Petersburg. \"Aurora\" was one of three cruisers, built in Saint Petersburg for service in the Pacific. All three ships of this class served during the Russo-Japanese War. \"Aurora\" survived the Battle of Tsushima and was interned under US protection in the Philippines, and eventually returned to the Baltic Fleet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971062}
{"src_title": "Ice axe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Components.", "content": "An ice axe consists of at least five components:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accessories.", "content": "Ice axe accessories include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "Ice-axe spike-to-head lengths used to generally range from. This is just too short to be used as a walking stick on level ground (the way its forebearer, the 19th century alpenstock, was), but is ergonomic when ascending steep slopes. For flatter ground, where consequences of a slip are not large, walking poles are more appropriate.  The old method to approximate the correct length of an ice axe was for the climber to hold the axe (spike facing the ground) at his/her side while standing relaxed. The spike of the ice axe should barely touch the ground when the climber stands fully upright holding the axe in this manner. This may still be appropriate where the ice axe is to be used for travelling over relatively flat ground, perhaps, in the main, for glacier travel.  Modern mountaineers often carry shorter ice axes,, for general use with any thing over being generally regarded as too large and unwieldy for chopping steps or climbing steep snow. A walking pole (providing a third point of contact), although stabilising and making a slip less likely, is unlikely to stop a fall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The antecedent of the ice axe was the alpenstock, a long wooden pole with an iron spike tip, used by shepherds for travel on snowfields and glaciers in the Alps since the Middle Ages. On 8 August 1786, Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard made the first ascent of Mont Blanc. Balmat, a chamois hunter and crystal collector, had experience with high mountain travel, and Paccard had made previous attempts to climb the peak. Illustrations show Balmat carrying two separate tools that would later be merged into the ice axe – an alpenstock (or baton) and a small axe that could be used to chop steps on icy slopes.  According to the earliest manufacturer of ice axes, Grivel, these two tools were merged to create the first true ice axe around 1840. Early ice axes had a vertical adze, with the cutting edge aligned with the direction of the shaft, as in a conventional axe. This design lasted until at least 1860, but eventually the adze was rotated to the current position, perpendicular to the direction of the shaft. The Italian Alpine Club published a book in 1889 entitled \"Fiorio e Ratti – The dangers of mountaineering and rules to avoid them\", which recommended ice axes as among \"the inseparable companions of the mountaineer\".  In the late 19th century, the typical ice axe shaft measured in length. British climber Oscar Eckenstein started the trend toward shorter ice axes with a lighter model measuring. Initially, this innovation was criticized by well-known climbers of the era, including Martin Conway, a prominent member of the Alpine Club, who was the leader of an early expedition to the Baltoro region near K2 in 1892 of which Eckenstein was a member.  Early ice axes had picks and adzes of about equal lengths. By the beginning of the 20th century, the pick lengthened to about twice the length of the adze. Improvements in crampon design (pioneered by Eckenstein in 1908) and ice climbing technique led to use of shorter, lighter ice axes appropriate to steeper ice climbs in the period between the world wars.  A famous rescue involving an ice axe took place during the Third American Karakoram Expedition to K2 in 1953. One of the climbers, Art Gilkey, was incapacitated by thrombophlebitis. The other climbers attempted to rescue him by lowering him down the mountain by rope, wrapped in a sleeping bag. While crossing a steep ice sheet, a slip caused Gilkey and five other climbers to begin falling down a steep slope. Climber Pete Schoening wedged his ice axe alongside a boulder, and managed to belay the roped climbers, saving their lives. (Gilkey, however, later in the same descent was swept away by an avalanche. Remains of his lost corpse were discovered in 1993.) Schoening's ice axe is now on display at the Bradford Washburn American Mountaineering Museum in Golden, Colorado.  In 1966, Yvon Chouinard led a significant redesign of ice axes, working with initially reluctant manufacturer Charlet to develop a ice axe with a dramatically curved pick. Chouinard believed that \"a curve compatible with the arc of the axe's swing would allow the pick to stay put better in the ice. I had noticed that a standard pick would often pop out when I placed my weight on it.\" Chouinard's idea worked and began a period of innovation in ice axe design.  In 1978, the Safety Commission of the Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) established formal standards for ice axe safety and performance. This led to the replacement of the traditional wooden shaft by metal alloy shafts. Ergonomically curved handles became widespread in 1986. Use of modern aluminum alloys have led to a dramatic reduction in the weight of some ice axes. One model now on the market, the C.A.M.P. Corsa, weighs only with a shaft. One expert rated this lightweight ice axe as \"ideal for low angle glacier travel\" but said he \"craved the solid and secure heft of a true steel mountain ax\" in more demanding steep alpine conditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use as a weapon.", "content": "A mountaineering ice axe, often wrongly referred to as an \"ice pick\", was used in the assassination of Leon Trotsky by Ramón Mercader in Mexico City in 1940. An ice axe was also used in the 2005 murder of Anthony Walker in the United Kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attachment to rucksacks.", "content": "On the frequently long approach to the snowline, or when the terrain does not warrant the use of an axe, it is common for ice axe(s) to be carried on a rucksack. Many rucksack models come with one ice axe loop (on the outside of the rucksack at its foot and generally in the middle), together with a device (a strap or a bungee cord) to attach it to the main body of the sack. Rucksacks with attachment points for two ice axes are also available, and these are popular for use with ice tools.  To use these attachment points drop the shaft of the ice axe down through the loop, then bring the end of the axe up (in an arc) to the strap/bungee, thus wrapping the head in the loop. In this way the axe cannot slide down and out of the attachment.  Shorter ice axes or ice tools are sometimes slid down through the compression straps on the sides of a rucksack, but this can present some danger to others nearby as the sharp points of the picks are at eye level.  For short passages where the hands are needed and/or the ice axe is not required a common and convenient, easily accessible, stowage is to slide the axe down between the back and the rucksack, between the shoulder blades. This is quick and easy to do and to retrieve when needed, but removing the rucksack with the axe in place will lead to dropping the axe as it is only resting in situ, unattached.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An ice axe is a multi-purpose hiking and climbing tool used by mountaineers in both the ascent and descent of routes that involve frozen conditions with snow or ice. An ice axe can be held and employed in a number of different ways, depending on the terrain encountered. In its simplest role, the ice axe is used like a walking stick in the uphill hand, the mountaineer holding the head in the center. It can also be buried pick down, the rope tied around the shaft to form a secure anchor on which to bring up a second climber, or buried vertically to form a stomp belay. The adze is used to cut footsteps (sometimes known as pigeon holes if used straight on), as well as scoop/bucket seats in the hillside and trenches to bury an ice axe belay. The long-handled alpenstock was a predecessor to the modern ice axe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971063}
{"src_title": "Cult (religious practice)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Cicero defined \"religio\" as \"cultus deorum\", \"the cultivation of the gods.\" The \"cultivation\" necessary to maintain a specific deity was that god's \"cultus,\" \"cult,\" and required \"the knowledge of giving the gods their due\" \"(scientia colendorum deorum)\". The noun \"cultus\" originates from the past participle of the verb \"colo, colere, colui, cultus\", \"to tend, take care of, cultivate,\" originally meaning \"to dwell in, inhabit\" and thus \"to tend, cultivate land \"(ager)\"; to practice agriculture,\" an activity fundamental to Roman identity even when Rome as a political center had become fully urbanized.  \"Cultus\" is often translated as \"cult\" without the negative connotations the word may have in English, or with the Old English word \"worship\", but it implies the necessity of active maintenance beyond passive adoration. \"Cultus\" was expected to matter to the gods as a demonstration of respect, honor, and reverence; it was an aspect of the contractual nature of Roman religion (see \"do ut des\"). Augustine of Hippo echoes Cicero's formulation when he declares, \"\"religion\" is nothing other than the \"cultus\" of God.\"  The term \"cult\" first appeared in English in 1617, derived from the French \"culte\", meaning \"worship\" which in turn originated from the Latin word \"cultus\" meaning \"care, cultivation, worship\". The meaning \"devotion to a person or thing\" is from 1829. Starting about 1920, \"cult\" acquired an additional six or more positive and negative definitions. In French, for example, sections in newspapers giving the schedule of worship for Catholic services are headed \"Culte Catholique\", while the section giving the schedule of Protestant services is headed \"culte réformé\". Within the Catholic church the most prominent Cults are those of the saints.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outwards religious practice.", "content": "In the specific context of the Greek hero cult, Carla Antonaccio wrote, In the Catholic Church, outward religious practice in \"cultus\" is the technical term for Roman Catholic devotions or veneration extended to a particular saint, not to the worship of God. Catholicism and the Eastern Orthodox Church make a major distinction between \"latria\", the worship that is offered to God alone, and \"dulia\", which is veneration offered to the saints, including the veneration of Mary, whose veneration is often referred to as \"hyperdulia\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cult is literally the \"care\" (Latin \"cultus\") owed to deities and to temples, shrines, or churches. Cult is embodied in ritual and ceremony. Its present or former presence is made concrete in temples, shrines and churches, and cult images, including cult images and votive offerings at votive sites.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971064}
{"src_title": "Web server", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In March 1989 Sir Tim Berners-Lee proposed a new project to his employer CERN, with the goal of easing the exchange of information between scientists by using a hypertext system. The project resulted in Berners-Lee writing two programs in 1990:  Between 1991 and 1994, the simplicity and effectiveness of early technologies used to surf and exchange data through the World Wide Web helped to port them to many different operating systems and spread their use among scientific organizations and universities, and subsequently to the industry.  In 1994 Berners-Lee decided to constitute the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) to regulate the further development of the many technologies involved (HTTP, HTML, etc.) through a standardization process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Path translation.", "content": "Web servers are able to map the path component of a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) into:  For a \"static request\" the URL path specified by the client is relative to the web server's root directory.  Consider the following URL as it would be requested by a client over HTTP:  The client's user agent will translate it into a connection to with the following HTTP/2 request:  The web server on will append the given path to the path of its root directory. On an Apache server, this is commonly (on Unix machines, usually ). The result is the local file system resource:  The web server then reads the file, if it exists, and sends a response to the client's web browser. The response will describe the content of the file and contain the file itself or an error message will return saying that the file does not exist or is unavailable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kernel-mode and user-mode web servers.", "content": "A web server can be either incorporated into the OS kernel, or in user space (like other regular applications).  Web servers that run in user-mode have to ask the system for permission to use more memory or more CPU resources. Not only do these requests to the kernel take time, but they are not always satisfied because the system reserves resources for its own usage and has the responsibility to share hardware resources with all the other running applications. Executing in user mode can also mean useless buffer copies which are another limitation for user-mode web servers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Load limits.", "content": "A web server (program) has defined load limits, because it can handle only a limited number of concurrent client connections (usually between 2 and 80,000, by default between 500 and 1,000) per IP address (and TCP port) and it can serve only a certain maximum number of \"\" (RPS, also known as queries per second or QPS) depending on:  When a web server is near to or over its limit, it becomes unresponsive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Causes of overload.", "content": "At any time web servers can be overloaded due to:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Symptoms of overload.", "content": "The symptoms of an overloaded web server are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anti-overload techniques.", "content": "To partially overcome above average load limits and to prevent overload, most popular web sites use common techniques like:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Market share.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "February 2019.", "content": "Below are the latest statistics of the \"market share of all sites\" of the top web servers on the Internet by W3Techs Usage of Web Servers for Websites. All other web servers are used by less than 1% of the websites.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "July 2018.", "content": "Below are the latest statistics of the \"market share of all sites\" of the top web servers on the Internet by W3Techs Usage of Web Servers for Websites.  All other web servers are used by less than 1% of the websites.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "February 2017.", "content": "Below are the latest statistics of the \"market share of all sites\" of the top web servers on the Internet by Netcraft February 2017 Web Server Survey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "February 2016.", "content": "Below are the latest statistics of the \"market share of all sites\" of the top web servers on the Internet by Netcraft February 2016 Web Server Survey.  Apache, IIS and Nginx are the most used web servers on the World Wide Web.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A web server is server software, or hardware dedicated to running this software, that can satisfy client requests on the World Wide Web. A web server can, in general, contain one or more websites. A web server processes incoming network requests over HTTP and several other related protocols.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971065}
{"src_title": "Odilon Redon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Odilon Redon was born in Bordeaux, Aquitaine, to a prosperous family. Redon's father made his fortune in the slave trade in Louisiana in the 1830s. Redon was conceived in New Orleans and the couple made the transatlantic journey back to France while his mother Marie Guérin, a French Creole woman, was pregnant. The young Bertrand Redon acquired the nickname \"Odilon\" from his mother, Odile. Redon started drawing as a child; at the age of ten, he was awarded a drawing prize at school. He began the formal study of drawing at fifteen but, at his father's insistence, he changed to architecture. Failure to pass the entrance exams at Paris’ École des Beaux-Arts ended any plans for a career as an architect, although he briefly studied painting there under Jean-Léon Gérôme in 1864. (His younger brother Gaston Redon would become a noted architect.)  Back in his native Bordeaux, he took up sculpting, and Rodolphe Bresdin instructed him in etching and lithography. His artistic career was interrupted in 1870 when he was drafted to serve in the army in the Franco-Prussian War until its end in 1871.  At the end of the war, he moved to Paris and resumed working almost exclusively in charcoal and lithography. He called his visionary works, conceived in shades of black, his \"noirs\". It was not until 1878 that his work gained any recognition with \"Guardian Spirit of the Waters\"; he published his first album of lithographs, titled \"Dans le Rêve\", in 1879. Still, Redon remained relatively unknown until the appearance in 1884 of a cult novel by Joris-Karl Huysmans titled \"À rebours (Against Nature)\". The story featured a decadent aristocrat who collected Redon's drawings.  In the 1890s pastel and oils became his favored media; he produced no more \"noirs\" after 1900. In 1899, he exhibited with the Nabis at Durand-Ruel's.  Redon had a keen interest in Hindu and Buddhist religion and culture. The figure of the Buddha increasingly showed in his work. Influences of Japonism blended into his art, such as the painting \"The Death of the Buddha\" around 1899, \"The Buddha\" in 1906, \"Jacob and the Angel\" in 1905, and \"Vase with Japanese warrior\" in 1905, amongst many others.  Baron Robert de Domecy (1867–1946) commissioned the artist in 1899 to create 17 decorative panels for the dining room of the Château de Domecy-sur-le-Vault near Sermizelles in Burgundy. Redon had created large decorative works for private residences in the past, but his compositions for the château de Domecy in 1900–1901 were his most radical compositions to that point and mark the transition from ornamental to abstract painting. The landscape details do not show a specific place or space. Only details of trees, twigs with leaves, and budding flowers in an endless horizon can be seen. The colours used are mostly yellow, grey, brown and light blue. The influence of the Japanese painting style found on folding screens \"byōbu\" is discernible in his choice of colours and the rectangular proportions of most of the up to 2.5 metres high panels. Fifteen of them are located today in the Musée d'Orsay, acquisitioned in 1988.  Domecy also commissioned Redon to paint portraits of his wife and their daughter Jeanne, two of which are in the collections of the Musée d'Orsay and the Getty Museum in California. Most of the paintings remained in the Domecy family collection until the 1960s.  In 1903 Redon was awarded the Legion of Honor. His popularity increased when a catalogue of etchings and lithographs was published by André Mellerio in 1913; that same year, he was given the largest single representation at the groundbreaking U.S. International Exhibition of Modern Art (aka Armory Show), in New York City, Chicago and Boston.  Redon died on July 6, 1916.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "His choice of colour and subject matter in the second part of his career lead to Redon being considered a precursor to Dadaism and Surrealism. According to Surrealist André Masson, his use of excessively bright colours in his flower pastels, as well as his choice of depicting uncommon or imaginary species renders this works be \"released from stylized naturalism\", thus demonstrating the \"endless possibilities off lyrical chormatics\".  In 1923 Mellerio published \"Odilon Redon: Peintre Dessinateur et Graveur\". An archive of Mellerio's papers is held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern exhibitions.", "content": "In 2005 the Museum of Modern Art launched an exhibition entitled \"Beyond The Visible\", a comprehensive overview of Redon's work showcasing more than 100 paintings, drawings, prints and books from The Ian Woodner Family Collection. The exhibition ran from October 30, 2005 to January 23, 2006.  The Grand Palais in Paris, France featured a vast exhibition of Redon's art from March to June 2011  The Fondation Beyeler in Basel, Switzerland showed a retrospective from February to May 2014.  The Kröller-Müller Museum in Otterlo, The Netherlands, had an exhibition with an emphasis on the role that literature and music played in Redon's life and work, under the title \"La littérature et la musique\". The exhibition ran from 2 June to 9 September 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Analysis of his work.", "content": "During his early years as an artist, Redon's works were described as \"a synthesis of nightmares and dreams\", as they contained dark, fantastical figures from the artist's own imagination. His work represents an exploration of his internal feelings and psyche. He himself wanted to place \"the logic of the visible at the service of the invisible\". A telling source of Redon's inspiration and the forces behind his works can be found in his journal \"A Soi-même (To Myself)\". His process was explained best by himself when he said:  The mystery and evocativeness of Redon's drawings are described by Joris-Karl Huysmans in the following passage from the novel \"À rebours\" (1884):  The art historian Michael Gibson says that Redon began to want his works, even the ones darker in color and subject matter, to portray \"the triumph of light over darkness.\"  Redon described his work as ambiguous and undefinable:  Redon was the inspiration for Guy Maddin's 1995 short film \"Odilon Redon, or The Eye Like a Strange Balloon Mounts Toward Infinity\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Odilon Redon (born Bertrand Redon; ; April 20, 1840July 6, 1916) was a French symbolist painter, printmaker, draughtsman and pastellist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971066}
{"src_title": "Karl Kautsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Karl Kautsky was born in Prague of an artistic and middle class family - his parents were Johann Kautsky (a scenic designer) and Minna (an actress and writer). The family moved to Vienna when Kautsky was the age of seven. He studied history, philosophy and economics at the University of Vienna from 1874, and became a member of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) in 1875. In 1880 he joined a group of German socialists in Zürich who were supported financially by Karl Höchberg, and who smuggled socialist material into Germany at the time of the Anti-Socialist Laws (1878–1890).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1883, Kautsky founded the monthly \"Die Neue Zeit\" (\"The New Times\") in Stuttgart, which became a weekly in 1890. He edited the magazine until September 1917: this gave him a steady income and allowed him to propagate Marxism. From 1885 to 1890 he spent time in London, where he became a close friend of Friedrich Engels. His position as a prominent Marxist theorist was assured in 1888, when Engels put him to the task of editing Marx's three-volume work \"Theories of Surplus Value\". In 1891 he co-authored the Erfurt Program of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) together with August Bebel and Eduard Bernstein.  Following the death of Engels in 1895, Kautsky became one of the most important and influential theoreticians of Marxism, representing the mainstream of the party together with August Bebel, and outlining a Marxist theory of imperialism. When Bernstein attacked the traditional Marxist position of the necessity for revolution in the late 1890s, Kautsky denounced him, arguing that Bernstein's emphasis on the ethical foundations of Socialism opened the road to a call for an alliance with the \"progressive\" bourgeoisie and a non-class approach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wartime years.", "content": "In 1914, when the German Social-Democrat deputies in the Reichstag voted for war credits, Kautsky (who was not a deputy but attended their meetings) suggested abstaining. Kautsky claimed that Germany was waging a defensive war against the threat of Czarist Russia. However, in June 1915, about ten months after the war had begun and when it had become obvious that this was going to be a sustained, appallingly brutal and costly struggle, he issued an appeal with Eduard Bernstein and Hugo Haase against the pro-war leaders of the SPD and denounced the German government's annexationist aims. In 1917 he left the SPD for the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) with united Socialists who opposed the war.  After the November Revolution in Germany, Kautsky served as under-secretary of State in the Foreign Office in the short-lived SPD-USPD revolutionary government and worked at finding documents which proved the war guilt of Imperial Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-War Years.", "content": "In 1920, when the USPD split, he went with a minority of that party back into the SPD. He visited Georgia in 1920 and wrote a book on the Democratic Republic of Georgia that at that moment was still independent of Bolshevist Russia. By the time it was published in 1921, Georgia had been thoroughly influenced by the Russian Civil War, the Red Army had invaded Georgia, and the Bolsheviks had imposed the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic. He assisted in the creation of the party program adopted in Heidelberg (1925) by the German Social Democratic Party. In 1924, at the age of 70, Kautsky moved back to Vienna with his family, and remained there until 1938. At the time of Hitler's Anschluss, he fled to Czechoslovakia and thence by plane to Amsterdam, where he died in the same year.  Karl Kautsky lived in Berlin-Friedenau for many years; his wife, Luise Kautsky, became a close friend of Rosa Luxemburg, who also lived in Friedenau. A commemorative plaque marks where Kautsky lived at Saarstraße 14.  Vladimir Lenin described Kautsky as a \"renegade\" in his pamphlet \"The Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade Kautsky\"; Kautsky in turn castigated Lenin in his 1934 work \"Marxism and Bolshevism: Democracy and Dictatorship\":  Both Lenin and Trotsky, however, defended the Bolshevik Revolution as a legitimate and historic social upheaval akin to the French Revolution, casting themselves and the Bolsheviks in the role of the Jacobins, and viewing the \"opportunism\" of Kautsky and similar figures as a function of \"social bribery\" rooted in their increasing intimacy with the privileged classes.  A collection of excerpts of Kautsky's writings, \"Social Democracy vs. Communism,\" discussed Bolshevist rule in Russia. He saw the Bolsheviks (or Communists) as a conspiratorial organization that had gained power by a coup and initiated revolutionary changes for which there was no economic rationale in Russia. Instead, a bureaucracy-dominated society developed, the miseries of which outweighed the problems of Western capitalism. He stated:  And:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Kautsky died on 17 October 1938, in Amsterdam. His son, spent seven years in concentration camps; his wife Luise Kautsky died in Auschwitz.  Kautsky is notable for, in addition to his anti-Bolshevik polemics, his editing and publication of Marx's \"Capital, Volume IV\" (usually published as \"Theories of Surplus Value\").", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Karl Johann Kautsky (; ; 16 October 1854 – 17 October 1938) was a Czech-Austrian philosopher, journalist, and Marxist theoretician. Kautsky was one of the most authoritative promulgators of Orthodox Marxism after the death of Friedrich Engels in 1895 until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. He was the most important socialist theorist during the years of the Second International. He founded the socialist journal \"Neue Zeit\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971067}
{"src_title": "Ultraviolet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Concept.", "content": "The most generic sense of the term \"shell\" means any program that users employ to type commands. A shell hides the details of the underlying operating system and manages the technical details of the operating system kernel interface, which is the lowest-level, or \"inner-most\" component of most operating systems.  In Unix-like operating systems, users typically have many choices of command-line interpreters for interactive sessions. When a user logs into the system interactively, a shell program is automatically executed for the duration of the session. The type of shell, which may be customized for each user, is typically stored in the user's profile, for example in the local passwd file or in a distributed configuration system such as NIS or LDAP; however, the user may execute any other available shell interactively.  On hosts with a windowing system, like macOS, some users may never use the shell directly. On Unix systems, the shell has historically been the implementation language of system startup scripts, including the program that starts a windowing system, configures networking, and many other essential functions. However, some system vendors have replaced the traditional shell-based startup system (init) with different approaches, such as systemd.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early shells.", "content": "The first Unix shell was the Thompson shell, \"sh\", written by Ken Thompson at Bell Labs and distributed with Versions 1 through 6 of Unix, from 1971 to 1975. Though rudimentary by modern standards, it introduced many of the basic features common to all later Unix shells, including piping, simple control structures using codice_1 and codice_2, and filename wildcarding. Though not in current use, it is still available as part of some Ancient UNIX Systems.  It was modeled after the Multics shell, developed in 1965 by American software engineer Glenda Schroeder. Schroeder's Multics shell was itself modeled after the RUNCOM program Louis Pouzin showed to the Multics Team. The \"rc\" suffix on some Unix configuration files (for example, \".vimrc\"), is a remnant of the RUNCOM ancestry of Unix shells.  The PWB shell or Mashey shell, \"sh\", was an upward-compatible version of the Thompson shell, augmented by John Mashey and others and distributed with the Programmer's Workbench UNIX, circa 1975-1977. It focused on making shell programming practical, especially in large shared computing centers. It added shell variables (precursors of environment variables, including the search path mechanism that evolved into $PATH), user-executable shell scripts, and interrupt-handling. Control structures were extended from if/goto to if/then/else/endif, switch/breaksw/endsw, and while/end/break/continue. As shell programming became widespread, these external commands were incorporated into the shell itself for performance.  But the most widely distributed and influential of the early Unix shells were the Bourne shell and the C shell. Both shells have been used as the coding base and model for many derivative and work-alike shells with extended feature sets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bourne shell.", "content": "The Bourne shell, \"sh\", was a new Unix shell by Stephen Bourne at Bell Labs. Distributed as the shell for UNIX Version 7 in 1979, it introduced the rest of the basic features considered common to all the Unix shells, including here documents, command substitution, more generic variables and more extensive builtin control structures. The language, including the use of a reversed keyword to mark the end of a block, was influenced by ALGOL 68. Traditionally, the Bourne shell program name is sh and its path in the Unix file system hierarchy is /bin/sh. But a number of compatible work-alikes are also available with various improvements and additional features. On many systems, sh may be a symbolic link or hard link to one of these alternatives:  The POSIX standard specifies its standard shell as a strict subset of the Korn shell, an enhanced version of the Bourne shell. From a user's perspective the Bourne shell was immediately recognized when active by its characteristic default command line prompt character, the dollar sign ($).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "C shell.", "content": "The C shell, \"csh\", was modeled on the C programming language, including the control structures and the expression grammar. It was written by Bill Joy as a graduate student at University of California, Berkeley, and was widely distributed with BSD Unix.  The C shell also introduced many features for interactive work, including the history and editing mechanisms, aliases, directory stacks, tilde notation, cdpath, job control and path hashing. On many systems, csh may be a symbolic link or hard link to TENEX C shell (tcsh), an improved version of Joy's original version. Although the interactive features of csh have been copied to most other shells, the language structure has not been widely copied. The only work-alike is Hamilton C shell, written by Nicole Hamilton, first distributed on OS/2 in 1988 and on Windows since 1992.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Configuration files.", "content": "Shells read configuration files in various circumstances. These files usually contain commands for the shell and are executed when loaded; they are usually used to set important variables used to find executables, like $PATH, and others that control the behavior and appearance of the shell. The table in this section shows the configuration files for popular shells.  Explanation:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other shells.", "content": "Variations on the Unix shell concept that don't derive from Bourne shell or C shell include the following:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ultraviolet (UV) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 10 nm (with a corresponding frequency of approximately 30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz), shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight, and constitutes about 10% of the total electromagnetic radiation output from the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights. Although long-wavelength ultraviolet is not considered an ionizing radiation because its photons lack the energy to ionize atoms, it can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce. Consequently, the chemical and biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects, and many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic molecules.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971068}
{"src_title": "Savant syndrome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Savant skills are usually found in one or more of five major areas: art, memory, arithmetic, musical abilities, and spatial skills. The most common kinds of savants are calendrical savants, \"human calendars\" who can calculate the day of the week for any given date with speed and accuracy, or recall personal memories from any given date. Advanced memory is the key \"superpower\" in savant abilities.  Approximately half of savants are autistic; the other half often have some form of central nervous system injury or disease. It is estimated that 10% of those with autism have some form of savant abilities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calendrical savants.", "content": "A (or ) is someone who – despite having an intellectual disability – can name the day of the week of a date, or vice versa, in a few seconds or even a tenth of a second, on a limited range of decades or certain millennia. These savants are mostly autistic. The rarity of human calendar calculators is possibly due to the lack of motivation to develop such skills among the general population. Calendrical savants, on the other hand, may not be prone to invest in socially engaging skills.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mechanism.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Psychological.", "content": "No widely accepted cognitive theory explains savants' combination of talent and deficit. It has been suggested that individuals with autism are biased towards detail-focused processing and that this cognitive style predisposes individuals either with or without autism to savant talents. Another hypothesis is that savants hyper-systemize, thereby giving an impression of talent. Hyper-systemizing is an extreme state in the empathizing–systemizing theory that classifies people based on their skills in empathizing with others versus systemizing facts about the external world. Also, the attention to detail of savants is a consequence of enhanced perception or sensory hypersensitivity in these unique individuals. It has also been confirmed that some savants operate by directly accessing low-level, less-processed information that exists in all human brains that is not normally available to conscious awareness.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Neurological.", "content": "In some cases, savant syndrome can be induced following severe head trauma to the left anterior temporal lobe. Savant syndrome has been artificially replicated using transcranial magnetic stimulation to temporarily disable this area of the brain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "There are no objectively definitive statistics about how many people have savant skills. The estimates range from \"exceedingly rare\" to one in ten people with autism having savant skills in varying degrees. A 2009 British study of 137 parents of autistic children found that 28% believe their children met the criteria for a savant skill, defined as a skill or power \"at a level that would be unusual even for 'normal' people\". As many as 50 cases of sudden or acquired savant syndrome have been reported.  Males with savant syndrome outnumber females by roughly 6:1 (in Finland), slightly higher than the sex ratio disparity for autism spectrum disorders of 4.3:1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The term \"idiot savant\" (French for \"learned idiot\") was first used to describe the condition in 1887 by John Langdon Down, who is known for his description of Down syndrome. The term \"idiot savant\" was later described as a misnomer because not all reported cases fit the definition of idiot, originally used for a person with a very severe intellectual disability. The term \"autistic savant\" was also used as a description for the disorder. Like \"idiot savant\", the term came to be considered a misnomer because only half of those who were diagnosed with savant syndrome were autistic. Upon realization of the need for accuracy of diagnosis and dignity towards the individual, the term \"savant syndrome\" became widely accepted terminology.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Savant syndrome is a condition in which someone with significant mental disabilities demonstrates certain abilities far in excess of average. The skills at which savants excel are generally related to memory. This may include rapid calculation, artistic ability, map making, or musical ability. Usually just one special skill is present. Those with the condition generally have a neurodevelopmental disorder such as autism spectrum disorder or have a brain injury. About half of the cases are associated with autism and may be known as \"autistic savants\". While the condition usually becomes apparent in childhood, some cases may develop later in life. It is not recognized as a mental disorder within the DSM-5. The condition is rare. One estimate is that it affects about one in a million people. Cases of female savants are even less common than those of males. The first medical account of the condition was in 1783. Among those with autism, 1 in 10 to 1 in 200 have savant syndrome to some degree. It is estimated that there are fewer than a hundred savants with extraordinary skills currently living.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971069}
{"src_title": "Marguerite Yourcenar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Yourcenar was born Marguerite Antoinette Jeanne Marie Ghislaine Cleenewerck de Crayencour in Brussels, Belgium, to Michel Cleenewerck de Crayencour, of French bourgeois descent, originating from French Flanders, a very wealthy landowner, and a Belgian mother, Fernande de Cartier de Marchienne, of Belgian nobility, who died ten days after her birth. She grew up in the home of her paternal grandmother. She adopted the surname \"Yourcenar\" – an almost anagram of \"Crayencour\", having one fewer \"c\" – as a pen name; in 1947 she also took it as her legal surname.  Yourcenar's first novel, \"Alexis\", was published in 1929. She translated Virginia Woolf's \"The Waves\" over a 10-month period in 1937. In 1939, her partner at the time, the literary scholar and Kansas City native Grace Frick, invited Yourcenar to the United States to escape the outbreak of World War II in Europe. She lectured in comparative literature in New York City and Sarah Lawrence College.  Yourcenar was bisexual; she and Frick became lovers in 1937 and remained together until Frick's death in 1979 and a tormented relationship with Jerry Wilson. After ten years spent in Hartford, Connecticut, they bought a house in Northeast Harbor, Maine, on Mount Desert Island, where they lived for decades. They are buried alongside each other at Brookside Cemetery, Mount Desert, Maine.  In 1951, she published, in France, the novel \"Memoirs of Hadrian\", which she had been writing on-and-off for a decade. The novel was an immediate success and met with great critical acclaim. In this novel, Yourcenar recreated the life and death of one of the great rulers of the ancient world, the Roman emperor Hadrian, who writes a long letter to Marcus Aurelius, the son and heir of Antoninus Pius, his successor and adoptive son. The Emperor meditates on his past, describing both his triumphs and his failures, his love for Antinous, and his philosophy. The novel has become a modern classic.  In 1980, Yourcenar was the first female member elected to the \"Académie française\". An anecdote tells of how the bathroom labels were then changed in this male-dominated institution: \"Messieurs|Marguerite Yourcenar\" \"(Gents/Marguerite Yourcenar)\". She published many novels, essays, and poems, as well as three volumes of memoirs.  Yourcenar's house on Mount Desert Island, \"Petite Plaisance\", is now a museum dedicated to her memory. She is buried across the sound in Somesville, Maine.  Other works available in English translation", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marguerite Yourcenar (,, ; 8 June 1903 – 17 December 1987) was a French novelist and essayist born in Brussels, Belgium, who became a US citizen in 1947. Winner of the \"Prix Femina\" and the Erasmus Prize, she was the first woman elected to the Académie française, in 1980, and the seventeenth person to occupy seat 3.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971070}
{"src_title": "Wilhelm Furtwängler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Wilhelm Furtwängler was born in Schöneberg (now a district/borough of Berlin) into a prominent family. His father Adolf was an archaeologist, his mother a painter. Most of his childhood was spent in Munich, where his father taught at the city's Ludwig Maximilian University. He was given a musical education from an early age, and developed an early love of Ludwig van Beethoven, a composer with whose works he remained closely associated throughout his life.  Although Furtwängler achieved fame chiefly from his conducting, he regarded himself foremost as a composer. He began conducting in order to perform his own works. By age of twenty, he had composed several works. However, they were not well received, and that, combined with the financial insecurity of a career as a composer, led him to concentrate on conducting. He made his conducting debut with the Kaim Orchestra (now the Munich Philharmonic) in Anton Bruckner's Ninth Symphony. He subsequently held conducting posts at Munich, Strasbourg, Lübeck, Mannheim, Frankfurt, and Vienna.  Furtwangler succeeded Artur Bodanzky as principal conductor of the Mannheim Opera and Music Academy in 1915, remaining until 1920. As a boy he had sometimes stayed with his grandmother in Mannheim. Through her family he met the Geissmars, a Jewish family who were leading lawyers and amateur musicians in the town. Berta Geissmar wrote, \"Furtwängler became so good at [skiing] as to attain almost professional skill...Almost every sport appealed to him: he loved tennis, sailing and swimming...He was a good horseman...\" She also reports that he was a strong mountain climber and hiker.  Berta Geissmar subsequently became his secretary and business manager, in Mannheim and later in Berlin, until she was forced to leave Germany in 1934. From 1921 onwards, Furtwängler shared holidays in the Engadin with Berta and her mother. In 1924 he bought a house there. After he married, the house was open to a wide circle of friends.  In 1920 he was appointed conductor of the Berlin Staatskapelle succeeding Richard Strauss. In January 1922, following the sudden death of Arthur Nikisch, he was appointed to the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra. Shortly afterwards he was appointed to the prestigious Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, again in succession to Nikisch. Furtwängler made his London debut in 1924, and continued to appear there before the outbreak of World War II as late as 1938, when he conducted Richard Wagner's \"Ring\". (Furtwängler later conducted in London many times between 1948 and 1954). In 1925 he appeared as guest conductor of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, making return visits in the following two years.  In January 1945 Furtwängler fled to Switzerland. It was during this period that he completed what is considered his most significant composition, the Symphony No. 2 in E minor. It was given its premiere in 1948 by the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra under Furtwängler's direction and was recorded for Deutsche Grammophon.  Following the war, he resumed performing and recording, and remained a popular conductor in Europe, although his actions in the 1930s and 40s were a subject of ongoing criticism. He died in 1954 in Ebersteinburg, close to Baden-Baden. He is buried in the Heidelberg Bergfriedhof. His second wife Elisabeth died in 2013, aged 103, outliving him by 59 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conducting style.", "content": "Furtwängler had a unique philosophy of music. He saw symphonic music as creations of nature that could only be realised subjectively into sound. Neville Cardus wrote in the \"Manchester Guardian\" in 1954 of Furtwängler's conducting style:  He did not regard the printed notes of the score as a final statement, but rather as so many symbols of an imaginative conception, ever changing and always to be felt and realised subjectively...Not since Nikisch, of whom he was a disciple, has a greater personal interpreter of orchestral and opera music than Furtwängler been heard.  And the conductor Henry Lewis:  I admire Furtwängler for his originality and honesty. He liberated himself from slavery to the score; he realized that notes printed in the score, are nothing but SYMBOLS. The score is neither the essence nor the spirit of the music. Furtwängler had this very rare and great gift of going beyond the printed score and showing what music really was.  Many commentators and critics regard him as the greatest conductor in history. In his book on the symphonies of Johannes Brahms, musicologist Walter Frisch writes that Furtwängler's recordings show him to be \"the finest Brahms conductor of his generation, perhaps of all time\", demonstrating \"at once a greater attention to detail and to Brahms' markings than his contemporaries and at the same time a larger sense of rhythmic-temporal flow that is never deflected by the individual nuances. He has an ability not only to respect, but to make musical sense of, dynamic", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "One of Furtwängler's protégés was the pianist prodigy Karlrobert Kreiten who was killed by the Nazis in 1943 because he had criticized Hitler. He was an important influence on the pianist/conductor Daniel Barenboim, of whom Furtwängler's widow, Elisabeth Furtwängler, said, \"Er furtwänglert\" (\"He furtwänglers\"). Barenboim has conducted a recording of Furtwängler's 2nd Symphony, with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. Other conductors known to speak admiringly of Furtwängler include Valery Gergiev, Claudio Abbado, Carlos Kleiber, Carlo Maria Giulini, Simon Rattle, Sergiu Celibidache, Otto Klemperer, Karl Böhm, Bruno Walter, Dimitri Mitropoulos, Christoph Eschenbach, Alexander Frey, Philippe Herreweghe,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable recordings.", "content": "There are a huge number of Furtwängler recordings currently available, mostly live. Many of these were made during World War II using experimental tape technology. After the war they were confiscated by the Soviet Union for decades, and have only recently become", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable compositions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "For orchestra.", "content": "Early works", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gustav Heinrich Ernst Martin Wilhelm Furtwängler (,, ; 25 January 188630 November 1954) was a German conductor and composer. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest symphonic and operatic conductors of the 20th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971071}
{"src_title": "Gzip", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "File format.", "content": "gzip is based on the DEFLATE algorithm, which is a combination of LZ77 and Huffman coding. DEFLATE was intended as a replacement for LZW and other patent-encumbered data compression algorithms which, at the time, limited the usability of \"compress\" and other popular archivers.  \"gzip\" is often also used to refer to the gzip file format, which is:  Although its file format also allows for multiple such streams to be concatenated (gzipped files are simply decompressed concatenated as if they were originally one file), gzip is normally used to compress just single files. Compressed archives are typically created by assembling collections of files into a single tar archive (also called tarball), and then compressing that archive with gzip. The final compressed file usually has the extension or.  gzip is not to be confused with the ZIP archive format, which also uses DEFLATE. The ZIP format can hold collections of files without an external archiver, but is less compact than compressed tarballs holding the same data, because it compresses files individually and cannot take advantage of redundancy between files (solid compression).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementations.", "content": "Various implementations of the program have been written. The most commonly known is the GNU Project's implementation using Lempel-Ziv coding (LZ77). OpenBSD's version of gzip is actually the compress program, to which support for the gzip format was added in OpenBSD 3.4. The 'g' in this specific version stands for \"gratis\". FreeBSD, DragonFly BSD and NetBSD use a BSD-licensed implementation instead of the GNU version; it is actually a command-line interface for zlib intended to be compatible with the GNU implementation's options. These implementations originally come from NetBSD, and support decompression of bzip2 and the Unix pack format.  An alternative compression program achieving 3-8% better compression is Zopfli. It achieves gzip-compatible compression using more exhaustive algorithms, at the expense of compression time required. It does not affect decompression time.  codice_3, written by Mark Adler, is compatible with gzip and speeds up compression by using all available CPU cores and threads.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derivatives and other uses.", "content": "The tar utility included in most Linux distributions can extract.tar.gz files by passing the option, e.g.,.  zlib is an abstraction of the DEFLATE algorithm in library form which includes support both for the gzip file format and a lightweight stream format in its API. The zlib stream format, DEFLATE, and the gzip file format were standardized respectively as RFC 1950, RFC 1951, and RFC 1952.  The gzip format is used in HTTP compression, a technique used to speed up the sending of HTML and other content on the World Wide Web. It is one of the three standard formats for HTTP compression as specified in RFC 2616. This RFC also specifies a zlib format (called \"DEFLATE\"), which is equal to the gzip format except that gzip adds eleven bytes of overhead in the form of headers and trailers. Still, the gzip format is sometimes recommended over zlib because Internet Explorer does not implement the standard correctly and cannot handle the zlib format as specified in RFC 1950.  zlib DEFLATE is used internally by the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format.  Since the late 1990s, bzip2, a file compression utility based on a block-sorting algorithm, has gained some popularity as a gzip replacement. It produces considerably smaller files (especially for source code and other structured text), but at the cost of memory and processing time (up to a factor of 4).  AdvanceCOMP and 7-Zip can produce gzip-compatible files, using an internal DEFLATE implementation with better compression ratios than gzip itself—at the cost of more processor time compared to the reference implementation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "gzip is a file format and a software application used for file compression and decompression. The program was created by Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler as a free software replacement for the compress program used in early Unix systems, and intended for use by GNU (the \"g\" is from \"GNU\"). Version 0.1 was first publicly released on 31 October 1992, and version 1.0 followed in February 1993.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971072}
{"src_title": "Power (physics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "Power is the rate with respect to time at which work is done; it is the time derivative of work:  where \"P\" is power, \"W\" is work, and \"t\" is time. Because work is a force F applied over a distance x,  for a constant force, power can be rewritten as:  This is valid for any force, as a consequence of applying the fundamental theorem of calculus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Units.", "content": "The dimension of power is energy divided by time. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of power is the watt (W), which is equal to one joule per second. Other common and traditional measures are horsepower (hp), comparing to the power of a horse; one \"mechanical horsepower\" equals about 745.7 watts. Other units of power include ergs per second (erg/s), foot-pounds per minute, dBm, a logarithmic measure relative to a reference of 1 milliwatt, calories per hour, BTU per hour (BTU/h), and tons of refrigeration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Average power.", "content": "As a simple example, burning one kilogram of coal releases much more energy than does detonating a kilogram of TNT, but because the TNT reaction releases energy much more quickly, it delivers far more power than the coal. If Δ\"W\" is the amount of work performed during a period of time of duration Δ\"t\", the average power \"P\" over that period is given by the formula: It is the average amount of work done or energy converted per unit of time. The average power is often simply called \"power\" when the context makes it clear.  The instantaneous power is then the limiting value of the average power as the time interval Δ\"t\" approaches zero.  In the case of constant power \"P\", the amount of work performed during a period of duration \"t\" is given by:  In the context of energy conversion, it is more customary to use the symbol \"E\" rather than \"W\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanical power.", "content": "Power in mechanical systems is the combination of forces and movement. In particular, power is the product of a force on an object and the object's velocity, or the product of a torque on a shaft and the shaft's angular velocity.  Mechanical power is also described as the time derivative of work. In mechanics, the work done by a force F on an object that travels along a curve \"C\" is given by the line integral: where x defines the path \"C\" and v is the velocity along this path.  If the force F is derivable from a potential (conservative), then applying the gradient theorem (and remembering that force is the negative of the gradient of the potential energy) yields: where \"A\" and \"B\" are the beginning and end of the path along which the work was done.  The power at any point along the curve \"C\" is the time derivative:  In one dimension, this can be simplified to:  In rotational systems, power is the product of the torque τ and angular velocity ω, where ω measured in radians per second. The formula_12 represents scalar product.  In fluid power systems such as hydraulic actuators, power is given by where \"p\" is pressure in pascals, or N/m and \"Q\" is volumetric flow rate in m/s in SI units.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanical advantage.", "content": "If a mechanical system has no losses, then the input power must equal the output power. This provides a simple formula for the mechanical advantage of the system.  Let the input power to a device be a force \"F\" acting on a point that moves with velocity \"v\" and the output power be a force \"F\" acts on a point that moves with velocity \"v\". If there are no losses in the system, then and the mechanical advantage of the system (output force per input force) is given by  The similar relationship is obtained for rotating systems, where \"T\" and \"ω\" are the torque and angular velocity of the input and \"T\" and \"ω\" are the torque and angular velocity of the output. If there are no losses in the system, then which yields the mechanical advantage  These relations are important because they define the maximum performance of a device in terms of velocity ratios determined by its physical dimensions. See for example gear ratios.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electrical power.", "content": "The instantaneous electrical power \"P\" delivered to a component is given by  where  If the component is a resistor with time-invariant voltage to current ratio, then:  where is the resistance, measured in ohms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Peak power and duty cycle.", "content": "In the case of a periodic signal formula_24 of period formula_25, like a train of identical pulses, the instantaneous power formula_26 is also a periodic function of period formula_25. The \"peak power\" is simply defined by:  The peak power is not always readily measurable, however, and the measurement of the average power formula_29 is more commonly performed by an instrument. If one defines the energy per pulse as: then the average power is:  One may define the pulse length formula_32 such that formula_33 so that the ratios are equal. These ratios are called the \"duty cycle\" of the pulse train.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Radiant power.", "content": "Power is related to intensity at a radius formula_35; the power emitted by a source can be written as:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In physics, power is the amount of energy transferred or converted per unit time. In the International System of Units, the unit of power is the watt, equal to one joule per second. In older works, power is sometimes called \"activity\". Power is a scalar quantity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971073}
{"src_title": "Semperoper", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first opera house at the location of today's Semperoper was built by the architect Gottfried Semper. It opened on 13 April 1841 with an opera by Carl Maria von Weber. The building style itself is debated among many, as it has features that appear in three styles: early Renaissance and Baroque, with Corinthian style pillars typical of Greek classical revival. Perhaps the most suitable label for this style would be eclecticism, where influences from many styles are used, a practice most common during this period. Nevertheless, the opera building, Semper's first, was regarded as one of the most beautiful European opera houses.  Following a devastating fire in 1869, the citizens of Dresden immediately set about rebuilding their opera house. They demanded that Gottfried Semper do the reconstruction, even though he was then in exile because of his involvement in the May 1849 uprising in Dresden. The architect had his son, Manfred Semper, build the second opera house using his plans. Completed in 1878, it was built in Neo-Renaissance style. During the construction period, performances were held at the \"Gewerbehaussaal\", which opened in 1870.  The building is considered to be a prime example of \"Dresden Baroque\" architecture. It is situated on the Theatre Square in central Dresden on the bank of the Elbe River. On top of the portal there is a Panther quadriga with a statue of Dionysos. The interior was created by architects of the time, such as Johannes Schilling. Monuments on the portal depict artists, such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, William Shakespeare, Sophocles, Molière and Euripides. The building also features work by Ernst Rietschel and Ernst Julius Hähnel. In the pre-war years, the Semperoper premiered many of the works of Richard Strauss.  In 1945, during the last months of World War II, the building was largely destroyed again, this time by the bombing of Dresden and subsequent firestorm, leaving only the exterior shell standing. Exactly 40 years later, on 13 February 1985, the opera's reconstruction was completed. It was rebuilt to be almost identical to its appearance before the war, but with the benefit of new stage machinery and an accompanying modern rear service building. The Semperoper reopened with the opera that was performed just before the building's destruction in 1945, Carl Maria von Weber's \"Der Freischütz\". When the Elbe flooded in 2002, the building suffered heavy water damage. With substantial help from around the world, it reopened in December of that year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Present-day administration and operations.", "content": "Today, the orchestra for most operas is the Sächsische Staatskapelle Dresden. The Generalmusikdirektor (GMD) of the Semperoper is normally a different person from that of the Staatskapelle when it presents concerts. Exceptions have been Karl Böhm, Hans Vonk, and Fabio Luisi who have held both positions. Whilst the Semperoper does not have a GMD as of 2015, the current chief conductor of the Staatskapelle Dresden is Christian Thielemann, as of the 2012/13 season. The current \"Intendant\" (General Manager) of the company is Wolfgang Rothe. Since the 2018/19 season, Omer Meir Wellber is the Principal Guest Conductor of the Sächsische Staatsoper Dresden.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Semperoper is the opera house of the Sächsische Staatsoper Dresden (Saxon State Opera) and the concert hall of the Staatskapelle Dresden (Saxon State Orchestra). It is also home to the Semperoper Ballett. The building is located near the Elbe River in the historic centre of Dresden, Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971074}
{"src_title": "Bile", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Function.", "content": "Bile or gall acts to some extent as a surfactant, helping to emulsify the lipids in food. Bile salt anions are hydrophilic on one side and hydrophobic on the other side; consequently, they tend to aggregate around droplets of lipids (triglycerides and phospholipids) to form micelles, with the hydrophobic sides towards the fat and hydrophilic sides facing outwards. The hydrophilic sides are negatively charged, and this charge prevents fat droplets coated with bile from re-aggregating into larger fat particles. Ordinarily, the micelles in the duodenum have a diameter around 1–50 μm in humans.  The dispersion of food fat into micelles provides a greatly increased surface area for the action of the enzyme pancreatic lipase, which actually digests the triglycerides, and is able to reach the fatty core through gaps between the bile salts. A triglyceride is broken down into two fatty acids and a monoglyceride, which are absorbed by the villi on the intestine walls. After being transferred across the intestinal membrane, the fatty acids reform into triglycerides (re-esterified), before being absorbed into the lymphatic system through lacteals. Without bile salts, most of the lipids in food would be excreted in feces, undigested.  Since bile increases the absorption of fats, it is an important part of the absorption of the fat-soluble substances, such as the vitamins A, D, E, and K.  Besides its digestive function, bile serves also as the route of excretion for bilirubin, a byproduct of red blood cells recycled by the liver. Bilirubin derives from hemoglobin by glucuronidation.  Bile tends to be alkali on average. The pH of common duct bile (7.50 to 8.05) is higher than that of the corresponding gallbladder bile (6.80 to 7.65). Bile in the gallbladder becomes more acidic the longer a person goes without eating, though resting slows this fall in pH. As an alkali, it also has the function of neutralizing excess stomach acid before it enters the duodenum, the first section of the small intestine. Bile salts also act as bactericides, destroying many of the microbes that may be present in the food.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical significance.", "content": "In the absence of bile, fats become indigestible and are instead excreted in feces, a condition called steatorrhea. Feces lack their characteristic brown color and instead are white or gray, and greasy. Steatorrhea can lead to deficiencies in essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins. In addition, past the small intestine (which is normally responsible for absorbing fat from food) the gastrointestinal tract and gut flora are not adapted to processing fats, leading to problems in the large intestine.  The cholesterol contained in bile will occasionally accrete into lumps in the gallbladder, forming gallstones. Cholesterol gallstones are generally treated through surgical removal of the gallbladder. However, they can sometimes be dissolved by increasing the concentration of certain naturally occurring bile acids, such as chenodeoxycholic acid and ursodeoxycholic acid.  On an empty stomach – after repeated vomiting, for example – a person's vomit may be green or dark yellow, and very bitter. The bitter and greenish component may be bile or normal digestive juices originating in the stomach. Bile may be forced into the stomach secondary to a weakened valve (pylorus), the presence of certain drugs including alcohol, or powerful muscular contractions and duodenal spasms. This is known as biliary reflux.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biliary obstruction.", "content": "Biliary obstruction refers to a condition when bile ducts which deliver bile from the gallbladder or liver to the duodenum become obstructed. The blockage of bile might cause a buildup of bilirubin in the bloodstream which can result in jaundice. There are several potential causes for biliary obstruction including gallstones, cancer, trauma, choledochal cysts, or other benign causes of bile duct narrowing. The most common cause of bile duct obstruction is when gallstone(s) are dislodged from the gallbladder into the cystic duct or common bile duct resulting in a blockage. A blockage of the gallbladder or cystic duct may cause cholecystitis. If the blockage is beyond the confluence of the pancreatic duct, this may cause gallstone pancreatitis. In some instances of biliary obstruction, the bile may become infected by bacteria resulting in ascending cholangitis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Society and culture.", "content": "In medical theories prevalent in the West from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, the body's health depended on the equilibrium of four \"humors\", or vital fluids, two of which related to bile: blood, phlegm, \"yellow bile\" (choler), and \"black bile\". These \"humors\" are believed to have their roots in the appearance of a blood sedimentation test made in open air, which exhibits a dark clot at the bottom (\"black bile\"), a layer of unclotted erythrocytes (\"blood\"), a layer of white blood cells (\"phlegm\") and a layer of clear yellow serum (\"yellow bile\").  Excesses of black bile and yellow bile were thought to produce depression and aggression, respectively, and the Greek names for them gave rise to the English words cholera (from Greek χολή \"kholē\", \"bile\") and melancholia. In the former of those senses, the same theories explain the derivation of the English word bilious from \"bile\", the meaning of gall in English as \"exasperation\" or \"impudence\", and the Latin word \"cholera\", derived from the Greek \"kholé\", which was passed along into some Romance languages as words connoting anger, such as \"colère\" (French) and \"cólera\" (Spanish).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bile soap.", "content": "Soap can be mixed with bile from mammals, such as ox gall. This mixture, called bile soap or gall soap, can be applied to textiles a few hours before washing as a traditional and effective method for removing various kinds of tough stains.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bile in food.", "content": "\"Pinapaitan\" is a dish in Philippine cuisine that uses bile as flavoring. Other areas where bile is commonly used as a cooking ingredient include Laos and northern parts of Thailand.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bears as a bile source.", "content": "In regions where bile products are a popular ingredient in traditional medicine, the use of bears in bile-farming has been widespread. This practice has been condemned by activists, and some pharmaceutical companies have developed synthetic (non-ursine) alternatives.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Bile, or gall, is a dark-green-to-yellowish-brown fluid produced by the liver of most vertebrates that aids the digestion of lipids in the small intestine. In humans, bile is produced continuously by the liver (liver bile) and stored and concentrated in the gallbladder. After eating, this stored bile is discharged into the duodenum.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971075}
{"src_title": "Nelly Sachs", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Leonie Sachs was born in Berlin-Schöneberg, Germany, in 1891 to a Jewish family. Her parents were the wealthy natural rubber and gutta-percha manufacturers Georg William Sachs (1858–1930) and his wife Margarete, née Karger (1871–1950). She was educated at home because of frail health. She showed early signs of talent as a dancer, but her protective parents did not encourage her to pursue a profession. She grew up as a very sheltered, introverted young woman and never married. She pursued an extensive correspondence with her friends Selma Lagerlöf and Hilde Domin. As the Nazis took power, she became increasingly terrified, at one point losing the ability to speak, as she would remember in verse: \"When the great terror came/I fell dumb.\" Sachs fled with her aged mother to Sweden in 1940. It was her friendship with Lagerlöf that saved their lives: shortly before her own death Lagerlöf intervened with the Swedish royal family to secure their release from Germany. Sachs and her mother escaped on the last flight from Nazi Germany to Sweden, a week before Sachs was scheduled to report to a concentration camp. They settled in Sweden and Sachs became a Swedish citizen in 1952.  Living in a tiny two-room apartment in Stockholm, Sachs cared alone for her mother for many years, and supported their existence by translations between Swedish and German. After her mother's death, Sachs suffered several nervous breakdowns characterized by hallucinations, paranoia, and delusions of persecution by Nazis, and spent a number of years in a mental institution. She continued to write while hospitalized, and eventually recovered sufficiently to live on her own, though her mental health remained fragile. Her worst breakdown was ostensibly precipitated by hearing spoken German during a trip to Switzerland to accept a literary prize. But she maintained a forgiving attitude toward younger Germans, and corresponded with many German-speaking writers of the postwar period, including Hans Magnus Enzensberger and Ingeborg Bachmann.  On the 127th anniversary of her birthday, 10 December 2018, Sachs was commemorated with a Google Doodle in parts of Europe and the US.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paul Celan and lyrical poetry.", "content": "In the context of the Shoah, her deep friendship with \"brother\" poet Paul Celan is often noted today. Their bond was described in one of Celan's most famous poems, \"\" (\"Zürich, The Stork Inn\"). Sachs and Celan shared the Holocaust and the fate of the Jews throughout history, their interest in Jewish and Christian beliefs and practices, and their literary models; their imagery was often remarkably similar, though developed independently. Their friendship was supportive during professional conflicts. Celan also suffered from artistic infighting (Claire Goll's accusations of plagiarism) during a period of frustration with his work's reception. When Sachs met Celan she was embroiled in a long dispute with Finnish-Jewish composer over his adaptation of her play \"\". In Celan she found someone who understood her anxiety and hardships as an artist.  Sachs's poetry is intensely lyrical and reflects some influence by German Romanticism, especially in her early work. The poetry she wrote as a young woman in Berlin is more inspired by Christianity than Judaism and makes use of traditional Romantic imagery and themes. Much of it concerns an unhappy love affair Sachs suffered in her teens with a non-Jewish man who would eventually be killed in a concentration camp. After Sachs learned of her only love interest's death, she bound up his fate with that of her people and wrote many love lyrics ending not only in the beloved's death, but in the catastrophe of the Holocaust. Sachs herself mourns no longer as a jilted lover but as a personification of the Jewish people in their vexed relationship to history and God. Her fusion of grief with subtly romantic elements is in keeping with the imagery of the kabbalah, where the Shekhinah represents God's presence on earth and mourns for the separation of God from His people in their suffering. Thus Sachs's Romanticism allowed her to develop self-consciously from a German to a Jewish writer, with a corresponding change in her language: still flowery and conventional in some of her first poetry on the Holocaust, it becomes ever more compressed and surreal, returning to a series of the same images and tropes (dust, stars, breath, stones and jewels, blood, dancers, fish suffering out of water, madness, and ever-frustrated love) in ways that are sometimes comprehensible only to her readers, but always moving and disturbing. Though Sachs does not resemble many authors, she appears to have been influenced by Gertrud Kolmar and Else Lasker-Schüler in addition to Celan.  In 1961 Sachs won the first Nelly Sachs Prize, a literary award given biennially by the German city of Dortmund and named in her honour. When, with Shmuel Yosef Agnon, she was awarded the 1966 Nobel Prize in Literature, she observed that Agnon represented Israel whereas \"I represent the tragedy of the Jewish people.\" She read her poem \"In der Flucht\" at the ceremony.  Sachs died from colorectal cancer in 1970. She was interred in the Norra begravningsplatsen in Stockholm. Her possessions were donated to the National Library of Sweden.  A commemorates her birthplace, Maaßenstraße 12, in Schöneberg, Berlin, where there is also a park named for her in Dennewitzstraße. A park on the island of Kungsholmen in Stockholm also bears her name.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Published works.", "content": "Sachs's published works as cited by \"An Encyclopedia of Continental Women Writers\" are:  Letters: Translations:  Sachs is published by Suhrkamp Verlag.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "In English  In German", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nelly Sachs (10 December 1891 – 12 May 1970) was a German-Swedish poet and playwright. Her experiences resulting from the rise of the Nazis in World War II Europe transformed her into a poignant spokesperson for the grief and yearnings of her fellow Jewish people. Her best-known play is'(1950); other works include the poems \"\" (1962), \"\" (1970), and the collections of poetry'(1947),'(1959),'(1961), and \"\" (1971). She was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1966.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971076}
{"src_title": "Pilum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The total weight of a \"pilum\" was between, with the versions produced during the earlier Republic era being slightly heavier than those produced in the later Empire era.  The weapon had a hard pyramidal tip but the shank was sometimes made of softer iron. Some controversially believe that this softness would cause the shank to bend after impact, rendering the weapon useless to the enemy. Others believe that the pilum was not meant to bend after impact, but bending came from improper handling/removal of the weapon when it was stuck in an object. Also, if the \"pilum\" struck a shield it might embed itself, the bending of the shank would force the enemy to discard his shield as unusable without removing the \"pilum, \"which would be time consuming. Even if the shank did not bend, the pyramidal tip still made it difficult to pull out. However, there were many cases where the whole shank was hardened, making the \"pilum\" more suitable as a close quarters melee weapon, while also rendering it usable by enemy soldiers\".\"  Although the bending of the \"pilum\"'s shank is commonly seen to be an integral part of the weapon's design and as an intentional feature, there is little evidence to suggest this. The most commonly found artifacts suggest that the \"pilum\" was constructed to use the weight of the weapon to cause damage, most likely to be able to impale through armour and reach the enemy soldier's body. The combination of the weapon's weight and the aforementioned pyramidal tip (the design of which would be seen in the Medieval era in the form of bodkin arrow tips), allowed the \"pilum\" to be a formidable armour-piercing weapon. Because the weapon was meant to be used against armour and use its mass, as opposed to its speed, to cause damage, the bending of the shank seems to be a beneficial result of its intended use, which is to pierce through layers of armour. That the \"pilum\" needed to pierce layers of armour (through the shield, into body-armour, and past clothing) necessitated a lengthy shank, which was prone to bending. In one work, M.C. Bishop wrote that the momentum of the \"pilum\" caused the shank to bend upon impact, and, although unintended, this proved to be a useful characteristic of the weapon. However, a newer work by M. C. Bishop states that the \"pilum\" is \"unlikely to bend under their own weight when thrown and striking a target or ground\" - rather, it is human intervention [e.g., improper removal of a pilum stuck in a target] that is responsible in some way, and that Caesar's writings should be interpreted as the \"pilum\" bent when soldiers tried to remove them.  Since the pyramidal tip of a \"pilum\" was wider than the rest of the shank, once it penetrated a shield, it left behind a hole larger than the rest of the shank, and it could move through the shield with little resistance, stabbing the soldier behind. The length of the shank and its depth of penetration also made it hard to pull out of a shield even if it failed to bend. If the bearer of the shield was charging and a \"pilum\" penetrated the shield, the end of the heavy shaft of the \"pilum\" would hit the ground, holding the shield in place. On some \"pila\" there was a spike on the end of the shaft which made it easier to dig into the ground.  \"Pila\" were divided into two models: heavy and light. Pictorial evidence suggests that some versions of the weapon were weighted by a lead ball to increase penetrative power, but archaeological specimens of this design variant are not so far known. Recent experiments have shown \"pila\" to have a range of approximately, although the effective range is up to. The earliest known examples of the heavy version of the \"pila\" have barbed heads and their tangs have a figure-eight shape.  The \"pilum\" is also capable of being used as, and was used as, a melee weapon in close quarters combat. This includes pictorial depictions from the Tropaeum Traiani monument, descriptions of Caesar's troops using javelins as pikes against the Gauls in Caesar's Gallic War, Book VII, and descriptions of Caesar's men using javelins to stab at Pompey's cavalry in \"Life of Caesar\" by Plutarch.  The \"angon\" was a similar weapon used in late Roman and post-Roman times.  The origin of the \"pilum\"'s design is a matter of contention. Arguments have been put forth which favour the design to be from ancient Italian tribes or from the Iberian peninsula. Considering that there are two versions of the \"pilum\" (the heavy and the light), it may be possible that the Roman \"pilum\" had, as ancestors, two different weapons, perhaps from different cultural groups. The two weapon designs may have coalesced into the form of the typical Roman \"pilum\", as it is known today.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tactics.", "content": "Legionaries of the late republic and early empire often carried two \"pila\", with one sometimes being lighter than the other. Standard tactics called for Roman soldiers to throw one of them (both if time permitted) at the enemy, just before charging to engage with the \"gladius\"; however, Alexander Zhmodikov has argued that the Roman infantry could use \"pila\" at any stage in the fighting.  The effect of the \"pila\" throw was to disrupt the enemy formation by attrition and by causing gaps to appear in its protective shield wall.  \"Pila\" could also be used in hand-to-hand combat; one documented instance of this occurred at the Siege of Alesia, and another during Mark Antony's Parthian campaign. Additionally, \"pila\" could be employed as a thrusting implement and a barrier against cavalry charges. Some \"pila\" had small hand-guards, to protect the wielder if he intended to use it as a melee weapon, but it does not appear that this was common.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vegetius' commentary.", "content": "The Roman writer Vegetius, in his work \"De Re Militari\", wrote:  And later in the same work:  It may be argued that a short iron shaft has very few confirmations from archaeology. Vegetius wrote about a one-foot iron shaft because at Vegetius' time the \"pilum\" had disappeared and been replaced by similar shorter weapons such as the \"plumbatae\" and the \"spiculum\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results of experimental archaeology.", "content": "Thanks in part to experimental archaeology, it is generally believed that the \"pilum\"'s design evolved to be armour-piercing: the pyramidal head would punch a small hole through an enemy shield allowing the thin shank to pass through and penetrate a distance sufficient to wound the man behind it. The thick wooden shaft provided the weight behind the punch.  In one description, one of the two iron nails that held the iron shaft in place was replaced with a weak wooden pin that would break on impact causing the shaft to twist sideways. Gaius Marius is sometimes given credit for this modification.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The pilum (plural \"pila\"; ) was a javelin commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. It was generally about long overall, consisting of an iron shank about in diameter and long with a pyramidal head. The shank was joined to the wooden shaft by either a socket or a flat tang.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971077}
{"src_title": "Yves Tanguy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Tanguy, the son of a retired navy captain, was born January 5, 1900, at the Ministry of Naval Affairs on Place de la Concorde in Paris, France. His parents were both of Breton origin. After his father's death in 1908, his mother moved back to her native Locronan, Finistère, and he ended up spending much of his youth living with various relatives.  In 1918, Tanguy briefly joined the merchant navy before being drafted into the Army, where he befriended Jacques Prévert. At the end of his military service in 1922, he returned to Paris, where he worked various odd jobs. He stumbled upon a painting by Giorgio de Chirico and was so deeply impressed he resolved to become a painter himself in spite of his complete lack of formal training.  Tanguy had a habit of being completely absorbed by the current painting he was working on. This way of creating artwork may have been due to his very small studio which only had enough room for one wet piece.  Through his friend Prévert, in around 1924 Tanguy was introduced into the circle of surrealist artists around André Breton. Tanguy quickly began to develop his own unique painting style, giving his first solo exhibition in Paris in 1927, and marrying his first wife Jeannette Ducrocq (1896-1977) later that same year. During this busy time of his life, Breton gave Tanguy a contract to paint 12 pieces a year. With his fixed income, he painted less and ended up creating only eight works of art for Breton.  In December 1930, at an early screening of Buñuel and Dali's \"L'Age d'Or\", right-wing activists went to the lobby of the cinema where the film was being screened, and destroyed art works by Dalí, Joan Miró, Man Ray, Tanguy, and others.  Throughout the 1930s, Tanguy adopted the bohemian lifestyle of the struggling artist with gusto, leading eventually to the failure of his first marriage. He had an intense affair with Peggy Guggenheim in 1938 when he went to London with his wife Jeannette Ducrocq to hang his first retrospective exhibition in Britain at her gallery \"Guggenheim Jeune\". The exhibition was a great success and Guggenheim wrote in her autobiography that \"Tanguy found himself rich for the first time in his life\". She purchased his pictures \"Toilette de L'Air\" and \"The Sun in Its Jewel Case\" (Le Soleil dans son écrin) for her collection. Tanguy also painted Peggy two beautiful earrings. The affair continued in both London and Paris and only finished when Tanguy met a fellow Surrealist artist who would become his second wife.  In 1938, after seeing the work of fellow artist Kay Sage, Tanguy began a relationship which led to his second marriage. With the outbreak of World War II, Sage moved back to her native New York, and Tanguy, judged unfit for military service, followed her. He would spend the rest of his life in the United States. Sage and Tanguy were married in Reno, Nevada on August 17, 1940. Their marriage proved durable but tense. Both drank heavily, and Tanguy assaulted Sage verbally and sometimes physically, pushing her and sometimes even threatening her with a knife privately and at social gatherings. Sage, according to friends' accounts, made no response to her husband's aggression. Toward the end of the war, the couple moved to Woodbury, Connecticut, converting an old farmhouse into an artists' studio. They spent the rest of their lives there. In 1948, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States.  In January 1955, Tanguy suffered a fatal stroke at Woodbury. His body was cremated and his ashes preserved until Sage's death in 1963. Later, his ashes were scattered by his friend Pierre Matisse on the beach at Douarnenez in his beloved Brittany, together with those of his wife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style and legacy.", "content": "Tanguy's paintings have a unique, immediately recognizable style of nonrepresentational surrealism. They show vast, abstract landscapes, mostly in a tightly limited palette of colors, only occasionally showing flashes of contrasting color accents. Typically, these alien landscapes are populated with various abstract shapes, sometimes angular and sharp as shards of glass, sometimes with an intriguingly organic look to them, like giant amoebae suddenly turned to stone.  According to Nathalia Brodskaïa, \"Mama, Papa is Wounded!\" (1927) is one of Tanguy's most impressive paintings. Brodskaïa writes that the painting reflects his debt to Giorgio de Chirico – falling shadows and a classical torso – and conjures up a sense of doom: the horizon, the emptiness of the plain, the solitary plant, the smoke, the helplessness of the small figures. Tanguy said that it was an image he saw entirely in his imagination before starting to paint it. He also claimed he took the title of this and other works from psychiatric textbooks: \"I remember spending a whole afternoon with... André Breton,\" he said, \"leafing through books on psychiatry in the search for statements of patients which could be used as titles for paintings.\" Jennifer Mundy, however, discovered that the title of this painting and several others were taken from a book about paranormal phenomena, \"Traite de metaphysique\" (1922) by Dr Charles Richet.  Tanguy's style was an important influence on several younger painters, such as Roberto Matta, Wolfgang Paalen, and Esteban Francés, who adopted a Surrealist style in the 1930s. Later, Tanguy's paintings (and, less directly, those of de Chirico) influenced the style of the French animated movie \"Le Roi et l'oiseau,\" by Paul Grimault and Prévert.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Raymond Georges Yves Tanguy (January 5, 1900 – January 15, 1955), known as just Yves Tanguy (, ), was a French surrealist painter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971078}
{"src_title": "Hans Hartung", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Hartung was born in Leipzig, Germany into an artistic family. He developed an early appreciation of Rembrandt, German painters such as Lovis Corinth, and the Expressionists Oskar Kokoschka and Emil Nolde. In 1924 he enrolled in Leipzig University, where he studied philosophy and art history. He subsequently studied at the Fine Arts academy of Dresden, where he copied the paintings of the masters. The modern French and Spanish works he saw in 1926 at the Internationale Kunstausstellung in Dresden were a revelation to him, and he decided that he would leave his native country to prevent succumbing to provincialism. Consequently, after a bicycle trip through Italy, he moved to Paris.  In Paris, Hartung had little contact with other artists, and copied the works of old and modern masters. He visited the south of France, where the landscape inspired him to a close study of the works of Cézanne, and he developed a great interest in principles of harmony and proportion such as the golden section. In 1928 he visited Munich where he studied painting technique with Max Doerner. In 1929 he married the artist Anna-Eva Bergman and established himself in the French towns of Leucate, and then in the Spanish Balearic Islands, eventually settling in Menorca. He exhibited for the first time in 1931 in Dresden.  The death of his father in 1932 severed Hartung's last bonds with Germany. He was rejected from Nazi Germany on account of being a 'degenerate', because his painting style was associated with Cubism – an art movement incompatible with Nazi Germany's ideals. In 1935 when he attempted to sell paintings while visiting Berlin, the police tried to arrest him. He was able to flee the country with the help of his friend Christian Zervos.  After he returned to Paris as a refugee, Hartung and his wife divorced, and he became depressed. His paintings were becoming more abstract and did not sell well. His friends tried to help him with his financial difficulties, and the sculptor Julio González offered him the use of his studio. In 1939 Hartung married González's daughter Roberta. In December 1939, he became a member of the French Foreign Legion. He was closely followed by the Gestapo and arrested for seven months by the French police. After they learned he was a painter, he was put in a red cell in an attempt to disturb his vision. After being released he rejoined the Legion to fight in North Africa, losing a leg in a battle near Belfort. He earned French citizenship in 1945, and was awarded the Croix de Guerre.  In 1947 in Paris he had his first solo exhibition. By the late 1950s he had achieved recognition for his gestural paintings, which were nearly monochromatic and characterized by configurations of long rhythmical brushstrokes or scratches. In 1960 he was awarded the International for painting at the Venice Biennale.  Hartung's freewheeling abstract paintings set influential precedents for many younger American painters of the sixties, making him an important forerunner of American Lyrical Abstraction of the 1960s and 1970s. He was featured in the 1963 film documentary \"School of Paris: (5 Artists at Work)\" by American filmmaker Warren Forma.  In 1957, Hartung and Anna-Eva Bergman remarried. He died on 7 December 1989, in Antibes, France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Hartung (21 September 1904 – 7 December 1989) was a German-French painter, known for his gestural abstract style. He was also a decorated World War II veteran of the French Foreign Legion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971079}
{"src_title": "Noise (electronics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Noise types.", "content": "Different types of noise are generated by different devices and different processes. Thermal noise is unavoidable at non-zero temperature (see fluctuation-dissipation theorem), while other types depend mostly on device type (such as shot noise, which needs a steep potential barrier) or manufacturing quality and semiconductor defects, such as conductance fluctuations, including 1/f noise.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thermal noise.", "content": "Johnson–Nyquist noise (more often thermal noise) is unavoidable, and generated by the random thermal motion of charge carriers (usually electrons), inside an electrical conductor, which happens regardless of any applied voltage.  Thermal noise is approximately white, meaning that its power spectral density is nearly equal throughout the frequency spectrum. The amplitude of the signal has very nearly a Gaussian probability density function. A communication system affected by thermal noise is often modelled as an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shot noise.", "content": "Shot noise in electronic devices results from unavoidable random statistical fluctuations of the electric current when the charge carriers (such as electrons) traverse a gap. If electrons flow across a barrier, then they have discrete arrival times. Those discrete arrivals exhibit shot noise. Typically, the barrier in a diode is used. Shot noise is similar to the noise created by rain falling on a tin roof. The flow of rain may be relatively constant, but the individual raindrops arrive discretely.  The root-mean-square value of the shot noise current \"i\" is given by the Schottky formula.  where \"I\" is the DC current, \"q\" is the charge of an electron, and Δ\"B\" is the bandwidth in hertz. The Schottky formula assumes independent arrivals.  Vacuum tubes exhibit shot noise because the electrons randomly leave the cathode and arrive at the anode (plate). A tube may not exhibit the full shot noise effect: the presence of a space charge tends to smooth out the arrival times (and thus reduce the randomness of the current). Pentodes and screen-grid tetrodes exhibit more noise than triodes because the cathode current splits randomly between the screen grid and the anode.  Conductors and resistors typically do not exhibit shot noise because the electrons thermalize and move diffusively within the material; the electrons do not have discrete arrival times. Shot noise has been demonstrated in mesoscopic resistors when the size of the resistive element becomes shorter than the electron–phonon scattering length.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flicker noise.", "content": "Flicker noise, also known as 1/\"f\" noise, is a signal or process with a frequency spectrum that falls off steadily into the higher frequencies, with a pink spectrum. It occurs in almost all electronic devices and results from a variety of effects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Burst noise.", "content": "Burst noise consists of sudden step-like transitions between two or more discrete voltage or current levels, as high as several hundred microvolts, at random and unpredictable times. Each shift in offset voltage or current lasts for several milliseconds to seconds. It is also known a \"popcorn noise\" for the popping or crackling sounds it produces in audio circuits.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transit-time noise.", "content": "If the time taken by the electrons to travel from emitter to collector in a transistor becomes comparable to the period of the signal being amplified, that is, at frequencies above VHF and beyond, the transit-time effect takes place and noise input impedance of the transistor decreases. From the frequency at which this effect becomes significant, it increases with frequency and quickly dominates other sources of noise.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coupled noise.", "content": "While noise may be generated in the electronic circuit itself, additional noise energy can be coupled into a circuit from the external environment, by inductive coupling or capacitive coupling, or through the antenna of a radio receiver.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mitigation.", "content": "In many cases noise found on a signal in a circuit is unwanted. There are many different noise reduction techniques that can reduce the noise picked up by a circuit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quantification.", "content": "The noise level in an electronic system is typically measured as an electrical power \"N\" in watts or dBm, a root mean square (RMS) voltage (identical to the noise standard deviation) in volts, dBμV or a mean squared error (MSE) in volts squared. Noise may also be characterized by its probability distribution and noise spectral density \"N\"(\"f\") in watts per hertz.  A noise signal is typically considered as a linear addition to a useful information signal. Typical signal quality measures involving noise are signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or \"S\"/\"N\"), signal-to-quantization noise ratio (SQNR) in analog-to-digital conversion and compression, peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) in image and video coding, \"E\"/\"N\" in digital transmission, carrier to noise ratio (CNR) before the detector in carrier-modulated systems, and noise figure in cascaded amplifiers.  Noise is a random process, characterized by stochastic properties such as its variance, distribution, and spectral density. The spectral distribution of noise can vary with frequency, so its power density is measured in watts per hertz (W/Hz). Since the power in a resistive element is proportional to the square of the voltage across it, noise voltage (density) can be described by taking the square root of the noise power density, resulting in volts per root hertz (formula_2). Integrated circuit devices, such as operational amplifiers commonly quote equivalent input noise level in these terms (at room temperature).  Noise power is measured in watts or decibels (dB) relative to a standard power, usually indicated by adding a suffix after dB. Examples of electrical noise-level measurement units are dBu, dBm0, dBrn, dBrnC, and dBrn(\"f\" − \"f\"), dBrn(144-line).  Telecommunication systems strive to increase the ratio of signal level to noise level in order to effectively transfer data. Noise in telecommunication systems is a product of both internal and external sources to the system.  In a carrier-modulated passband analog communication system, a certain carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) at the radio receiver input would result in a certain signal-to-noise ratio in the detected message signal. In a digital communications system, a certain \"E\"/\"N\" (normalized signal-to-noise ratio) would result in a certain bit error rate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dither.", "content": "If the noise source is correlated with the signal, such as in the case of quantisation error, the intentional introduction of additional noise, called dither, can reduce overall noise in the bandwidth of interest. This technique allows retrieval of signals below the nominal detection threshold of an instrument. This is an example of stochastic resonance.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In electronics, noise is an unwanted disturbance in an electrical signal. Noise generated by electronic devices varies greatly as it is produced by several different effects.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971080}
{"src_title": "Limerick (poetry)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Form.", "content": "The standard form of a limerick is a stanza of five lines, with the first, second and fifth rhyming with one another and having three feet of three syllables each; and the shorter third and fourth lines also rhyming with each other, but having only two feet of three syllables. The third and fourth lines are usually anapaestic. The first, second and third are usually either anapaests or amphibrachs.  The first line traditionally introduces a person and a place, with the place appearing at the end of the first line and establishing the rhyme scheme for the second and fifth lines. In early limericks, the last line was often essentially a repeat of the first line, although this is no longer customary.  Within the genre, ordinary speech stress is often distorted in the first line, and may be regarded as a feature of the form: \"There \"was\" a young \"man\" from the \"coast\";\" \"There \"once\" was a \"girl\" from De\"troit\"...\" Legman takes this as a convention whereby prosody is violated simultaneously with propriety. Exploitation of geographical names, especially exotic ones, is also common, and has been seen as invoking memories of geography lessons in order to subvert the decorum taught in the schoolroom; Legman finds that the exchange of limericks is almost exclusive to comparatively well-educated males, women figuring in limericks almost exclusively as \"villains or victims\". The most prized limericks incorporate a kind of twist, which may be revealed in the final line or lie in the way the rhymes are often intentionally tortured, or both. Many limericks show some form of internal rhyme, alliteration or assonance, or some element of word play. Verses in limerick form are sometimes combined with a refrain to form a limerick song, a traditional humorous drinking song often with obscene verses.  David Abercrombie, a phonetician, takes a different view of the limerick, and one which seems to accord better with the form. It is this: Lines one, two, and five have three feet, that is to say three stressed syllables, while lines three and four have two stressed syllables. The number and placement of the unstressed syllables is rather flexible. There is at least one unstressed syllable between the stresses but there may be more – as long as there are not so many as to make it impossible to keep the equal spacing of the stresses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The origin of the name \"limerick\" for this type of poem is debated. The name is generally taken to be a reference to the City or County of Limerick in Ireland sometimes particularly to the Maigue Poets, and may derive from an earlier form of nonsense verse parlour game that traditionally included a refrain that included \"Will [or won't] you come (up) to Limerick?\"  Although the \"New English Dictionary\" records the first usage in England in 1898 and in the United States in 1902, in recent years several earlier examples have been documented, the earliest being an 1880 reference, in a Saint John, New Brunswick newspaper, to an apparently well-known tune,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Edward Lear.", "content": "The limerick form was popularized by Edward Lear in his first \"Book of Nonsense\" (1846) and a later work, \"More Nonsense, Pictures, Rhymes, Botany, etc\". (1872). Lear wrote 212 limericks, mostly considered nonsense literature. It was customary at the time for limericks to accompany an absurd illustration of the same subject, and for the final line of the limerick to be a variant of the first line ending in the same word, but with slight differences that create a nonsensical, circular effect. The humour is not in the \"punch line\" ending but rather in the tension between meaning and its lack.  The following is an example of one of Edward Lear's limericks. Lear's limericks were often typeset in three or four lines, according to the space available under the accompanying picture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "The limerick form is so well known that it has been parodied in many ways. The following example is of unknown origin: Other parodies deliberately break the rhyme scheme, like the following example, attributed to W.S. Gilbert: Comedian John Clarke has also parodied Lear's style: The British wordplay and recreational mathematics expert Leigh Mercer (1893–1977) devised the following mathematical limerick: formula_1 This is read as follows:  Limerick bibliographies:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A limerick () is a form of verse, usually humorous and frequently rude, in five-line, predominantly meter with a strict rhyme scheme of AABBA, in which the first, second and fifth line rhyme, while the third and fourth lines are shorter and share a different rhyme. The following example is a limerick of unknown origin: The form appeared in England in the early years of the 18th century. It was popularized by Edward Lear in the 19th century, although he did not use the term. Gershon Legman, who compiled the largest and most scholarly anthology, held that the true limerick as a folk form is always obscene, and cites similar opinions by Arnold Bennett and George Bernard Shaw, describing the clean limerick as a \"periodic fad and object of magazine contests, rarely rising above mediocrity\". From a folkloric point of view, the form is essentially transgressive; violation of taboo is part of its function.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971081}
{"src_title": "Ob (river)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The internationally known name of the river is based on the Russian name \"Обь\" (\"Obʹ\" ). Possibly from Proto-Indo-Iranian \"*Hā́p-\", \"river, water\" (compare Vedic \"áp-\", Persian \"āb\", Tajik \"ob\", and Pashto \"obə\", \"water\"). Katz (1990) proposes Komi \"ob\" 'river' as the immediate source of derivation for the Russian name. Katz's proposal of a common Finno-Ugric root, loaned early on from a pre-Indo-Iranian source related to Sanskrit \"ambhas-\" 'water' is deemed improbable by Rédei (1992), who prefers to analyze this as a later loan from a descendant of the non-nasal root form \"*Hā́p-\".  The Ob is known to the Khanty people as the \"As\" (the source of the name \"Ostyak\"), \"Yag\", \"Kolta\" and \"Yema\"; to the Nenets people as the \"Kolta\" or \"Kuay\"; and to the Siberian Tatars as the \"Umar\" or \"Omass\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Ob forms southwest of Biysk in Altai Krai at the confluence of the Biya and Katun rivers. Both these streams have their origin in the Altay Mountains, the Biya issuing from Lake Teletskoye, the Katun, long, bursting out of a glacier on Mount Byelukha.  The Ob's entire main course is within Russia, though its tributaries extend into Kazakhstan, China and Mongolia. The river splits into more than one arm, especially after joining the large Irtysh tributary at about 69° E. (Originating in China, the Irtysh is actually longer than the Ob from source to the point of their confluence.) From the source of the Irtysh to the mouth of the Ob, the river flow is the longest in Russia at 4,248 kilometers (2,640 mi). Other noteworthy tributaries are: from the east, the Tom, Chulym, Ket, Tym and Vakh rivers; and, from the west and south, the Vasyugan, Irtysh (with the Ishim and Tobol rivers), and Severnaya Sosva.  The Ob zigzags west and north until it reaches 55° N, where it curves round to the northwest, and again north, wheeling finally eastwards into the Gulf of Ob, a bay of the Kara Sea, separating the Yamal Peninsula from the Gyda Peninsula.  The combined Ob-Irtysh system, the fourth-longest river system of Asia (after Yenisei, and China's Yangzi and Yellow rivers), is long, and the area of its basin. The river basin of the Ob consists mostly of steppe, taiga, swamps, tundra, and semi-desert topography. The floodplains of the Ob are characterized by many tributaries and lakes. The Ob is ice-bound at southern Barnaul from early in November to near the end of April, and at northern Salekhard, above its mouth, from the end of October to the beginning of June. The Ob River crosses several climatic zones. The upper Ob valley, in the south, grows grapes, melons and watermelons, whereas the lower reaches of the Ob are Arctic tundra. The most comfortable climate for the rest on the Ob are Biysk, Barnaul, and Novosibirsk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human use.", "content": "The Ob provides irrigation, drinking water, hydroelectric energy, and fishing (the river hosts more than 50 species of fish). There are several hydroelectric power plants along the Ob river, the largest being Novosibirskaya GES rated at 460 MW.  The navigable waters within the Ob basin reach a total length of. The importance of navigation in the Ob basin for transportation was particularly great before the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, since, despite the general south-to-north direction of the flow of Ob and most of its tributaries, the width of the Ob basin provided for (somewhat indirect) transportation in the east–west direction as well. Until the early 20th century, a particularly important western river-port was Tyumen, located on the Tura, a tributary of the Tobol. Reached by an extension of the Yekaterinburg-Perm railway in 1885, and thus obtaining a rail link to the Kama and Volga rivers in the heart of Russia, Tyumen became an important railhead for some years until the railway extended further east. In the eastern reaches of the Ob basin, Tomsk on the Tom functioned as an important terminus.  Tyumen had its first steamboat in 1836, and steamboats have navigated the middle reaches of the Ob since 1845. The first steamboat on the Ob, Nikita Myasnikov's \"Osnova\", was launched in 1844; the early starts were difficult, and it was not until 1857 that steamboat shipping started developing in the Ob system in a serious way. Steamboats started operating on the Yenisei in 1863, on the Lena and Amur in the 1870s. In 1916 there were 49 steamers on the Ob; 10 on the Yenisei.  In an attempt to extend the Ob navigable system even further, a system of canals, utilizing the Ket, long in all, was built in the late 19th-century to connect the Ob with the Yenisei, but soon abandoned as being uncompetitive with the railway.  The Trans-Siberian Railway, once completed, provided for more direct, year-round transportation in the east–west direction. But the Ob river-system still remained important for connecting the huge expanses of Tyumen Oblast and Tomsk Oblast with the major cities along the Trans-Siberian route, such as Novosibirsk or Omsk. In the second half of the 20th century, construction of rail links to Labytnangi, Tobolsk, and the oil and gas cities of Surgut, and Nizhnevartovsk provided more railheads, but did not diminish the importance of the waterways for reaching places still not served by the rail.  A dam built near Novosibirsk in 1956 created the then-largest artificial lake in Siberia, called Novosibirsk Reservoir.  From the 1960s through 1980s, Soviet engineers and administrators contemplated a gigantic project to divert some of the waters of Ob and Irtysh to Kazakhstan and the Soviet Central Asian republics, replenishing the Aral Sea as well. The project never left the drawing board, abandoned in 1986 for economic and environmental considerations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pollution.", "content": "In its early years of operation, the Mayak plant released vast quantities of radioactively contaminated water into several small lakes near the plant. These lakes drain into the Techa, whose waters ultimately flow into the Ob near the end of its path.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries.", "content": "The Irtysh is the major tributary of the Ob. The larger tributaries along its course are: In addition, the Nadym and the Pur River flow into the Gulf of Ob and the Taz into the Taz Estuary, a side arm of the Gulf of Ob.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cities.", "content": "Cities along the river include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bridges.", "content": "From a confluence to a source:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ob (), also Ob', is a major river in western Siberia, Russia, and is the world's seventh-longest river. It forms at the confluence of the rivers Biya and Katun which have their origins in the Altay Mountains. It is the westernmost of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean (the other two being the Yenisei and the Lena).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971082}
{"src_title": "Spontaneous fission", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "By 1908, the process of alpha decay was known to consist of the ejection of helium nuclei from the decaying atom; however, as with cluster decay, alpha decay is not typically categorized as a process of fission.  The first nuclear fission process discovered was fission induced by neutrons. Because cosmic rays produce some neutrons, it was difficult to distinguish between induced and spontaneous events. Cosmic rays can be reliably shielded by a thick layer of rock or water. Spontaneous fission was identified in 1940 by Soviet physicists Georgy Flyorov and Konstantin Petrzhak by their observations of uranium in the Moscow Metro Dinamo station, underground.  Cluster decay was shown to be a superasymmetric spontaneous fission process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feasibility.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Elemental.", "content": "Spontaneous fission is feasible over practical observation times only for atomic masses of 232 amu or more. These are elements at least as heavy as thorium-232 – which has a half-life somewhat longer than the age of the universe. Th, U, and U are primordial nuclides and have left evidence of undergoing spontaneous fission in their minerals.  The known elements most susceptible to spontaneous fission are the synthetic high-atomic-number actinides and transactinides with atomic numbers from 100 onwards.  For naturally occurring thorium-232, uranium-235, and uranium-238, spontaneous fission does occur rarely, but in the vast majority of the radioactive decay of these atoms, alpha decay or beta decay occurs instead. Hence, the spontaneous fission of these isotopes is usually negligible, except in using the exact branching ratios when finding the radioactivity of a sample of these elements.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mathematical.", "content": "The liquid drop model predicts approximately that spontaneous fission can occur in a time short enough to be observed by present methods when  where \"Z\" is the atomic number and A is the mass number (e.g., for uranium-235). However, all known nuclides which undergo spontaneous fission as their main decay mode do not reach this value of 47, as the liquid drop model is not very accurate for the heaviest known nuclei due to strong shell effects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spontaneous fission rates.", "content": "In practice, will invariably contain a certain amount of due to the tendency of to absorb an additional neutron during production.'s high rate of spontaneous fission events makes it an undesirable contaminant. Weapons-grade plutonium contains no more than 7.0%.  The rarely used gun-type atomic bomb has a critical insertion time of about one millisecond, and the probability of a fission during this time interval should be small. Therefore, only is suitable. Almost all nuclear bombs use some kind of implosion method.  Spontaneous fission can occur much more rapidly when the nucleus of an atom undergoes superdeformation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poisson process.", "content": "Spontaneous fission gives much the same result as induced nuclear fission. However, like other forms of radioactive decay, it occurs due to quantum tunneling, without the atom having been struck by a neutron or other particle as in induced nuclear fission. Spontaneous fissions release neutrons as all fissions do, so if a critical mass is present, a spontaneous fission can initiate a self-sustaining chain reaction. Radioisotopes for which spontaneous fission is not negligible can be used as neutron sources. For example, californium-252 (half-life 2.645 years, SF branch ratio about 3.1 percent) can be used for this purpose. The neutrons released can be used to inspect airline luggage for hidden explosives, to gauge the moisture content of soil in highway and building construction, or to measure the moisture of materials stored in silos, for example.  As long as the spontaneous fission gives a negligible reduction of the number of nuclei that can undergo such fission, this process can be approximated closely as a Poisson process. In this situation, for short time intervals the probability of a spontaneous fission is directly proportional to the length of time.  The spontaneous fission of uranium-238 and uranium-235 does leave trails of damage in the crystal structure of uranium-containing minerals when the fission fragments recoil through them. These trails, or \"fission tracks\", are the foundation of the radiometric dating method called fission track dating.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Spontaneous fission (SF) is a form of radioactive decay that is found only in very heavy chemical elements. The nuclear binding energy of the elements reaches its maximum at an atomic mass number of about 56; spontaneous breakdown into smaller nuclei and a few isolated nuclear particles becomes possible at greater atomic mass numbers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971083}
{"src_title": "Balts", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Medieval German chronicler Adam of Bremen in the latter part of the 11th century AD was the first writer to use the term Baltic in its modern sense to mean the sea of that name. Before him were various ancient places names, such as Balcia, meaning a supposed island in the Baltic Sea.  It should not be surprising that Adam, a speaker of German, might connect \"Balt-\" with \"Belt\", a word he was familiar with. However, linguistics has since established that Balt means \"white\". Many Baltic words contain the stem balt-, \"white\", which may also refer to shallow bodies of water including marshes.  In Germanic languages there was some form of \"East Sea\" until after about 1600, when maps in English labeled it the \"Baltic Sea\". By 1840, the German nobles of the Governorate of Livonia adopted the term \"Balts\" to distinguish themselves from Germans of Germany. They spoke an exclusive dialect, Baltic German. For many, that was the “Baltic language” until 1919.  In 1845, Georg Heinrich Ferdinand Nesselmann proposed a distinct language group for Latvian, Lithuanian and Old Prussian—Baltic. The term became prevalent after Latvia and Lithuania gained independence in 1918. Up until the early 20th century, either “Latvian” or “Lithuanian” could be used to mean the entire language family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "The Balts or Baltic peoples, defined as speakers of one of the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family, are descended from a group of Indo-European tribes who settled the area between the lower Vistula and southeast shore of the Baltic Sea and upper Daugava and Dnieper rivers. Because the thousands of lakes and swamps in this area contributed to the Balts' geographical isolation, the Baltic languages retain a number of conservative or archaic features.  Some of the major authorities on Balts, such as Kazimieras Būga, Max Vasmer, Vladimir Toporov and Oleg Trubachyov, in conducting etymological studies of eastern European river names, were able to identify in certain regions names of specifically Baltic provenance, which most likely indicate where the Balts lived in prehistoric times. This information is summarized and synthesized by Marija Gimbutas in \"The Balts\" (1963) to obtain a likely proto-Baltic homeland. Its borders are approximately: from a line on the Pomeranian coast eastward to include or nearly include the present-day sites of Berlin, Warsaw, Kiev, and Kursk, northward through Moscow to the River Berzha, westward in an irregular line to the coast of the Gulf of Riga, north of Riga.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proto-history.", "content": "The area of Baltic habitation shrank due to assimilation by other groups, and invasions. According to one of the theories which has gained considerable traction over the years, one of the western Baltic tribes, the Galindians, Galindae, or Goliad, migrated to the area around modern day Moscow, Russia around the 4th century AD.  Over time the Balts became differentiated into Western and Eastern Balts. In the 5th century AD parts of the eastern Baltic coast began to be settled by the ancestors of the Western Balts: Brus/Prūsa (\"Old Prussians\"), Sudovians/Jotvingians, Scalvians, Nadruvians, and Curonians. The Eastern Balts, including the hypothesised Dniepr Balts, were living in modern-day Belarus, Ukraine and Russia.  Germanic peoples lived to the west of the Baltic homelands; by the first century AD, the Goths had stabilized their kingdom from the mouth of the Vistula, south to Dacia. As Roman domination collapsed in the first half of the first millennium CE in Northern and Eastern Europe, large migrations of the Balts occurred — first, the Galindae or Galindians towards the east, and later, Eastern Balts towards the west. In the seventh century, Slavic tribes from the Volga regions appeared. By the 13th and 14th centuries, they reached the general area that the present-day Balts and Belarusians inhabit. Many other Eastern and Southern Balts either assimilated with other Balts, or Slavs in the 4th–7th centuries and were gradually slavicized.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "In the 12th and the 13th centuries, internal struggles, as well as invasions by Ruthenians and Poles and later the expansion of the Teutonic Order resulted in an almost complete annihilation of the Galindians, Curonians, and Yotvingians. Gradually Old Prussians became Germanized or some Lithuanized during period from the 15th to the 17th centuries, especially after the Reformation in Prussia. The cultures of the Lithuanians and Latgalians/Latvians survived and became the ancestors of the populations of the modern countries of Latvia and Lithuania.  Old Prussian was closely related to the other extinct Western Baltic languages, Curonian, Galindian and Sudovian. It is more distantly related to the surviving Eastern Baltic languages, Lithuanian and Latvian. Compare the Prussian word \"seme\" (\"zemē\"), the Latvian \"zeme\", the Lithuanian \"žemė\" (\"land\" in English).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The Balts originally practiced Baltic religion. They were gradually Christianized as a result of the Northern Crusades of the Middle Ages. Baltic peoples such as the Latvians, Lithuanians and Old Prussians had their distinct mythologies. The Lithuanians have close historic ties to Poland, and many of them are therefore Roman Catholic. The Latvians have close historic ties of Northern Germany and Scandinavia, and many of them are therefore Lutherans. Irreligion is widespread. In recent times, the Baltic religion has been revived in Baltic neopaganism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "Recent genetic research show that the eastern Baltic in the Mesolithic was inhabited primarily by Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHGs). Their paternal haplogroups were mostly types of I2a and R1b, while their maternal haplogroups were mostly types of U5, U4 and U2. These people carried a high frequency of the derived HERC2 allele which codes for light eye color.  During the Neolithic, increasing admixture from Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHGs) is detected. The paternal haplogroups of EHGs was mostly types of R1b and R1a, while their maternal haplogroups appears to have been almost exclusively types of U5, U4, and U2. Baltic hunter-gatherers still displayed a slightly larger amount of WHG ancestry than Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers (SHGs). WHG ancestry in the Baltic was particularly high among hunter-gatherers in Latvia and Lithuania. Unlike other parts of Europe, the hunter-gatherers of the eastern Baltic do not appear to have mixed much with Early European Farmers (EEFs) arriving from Anatolia.  The rise of the Corded Ware culture in the eastern Baltic in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age is accompanied by a significant infusion of steppe ancestry and EEF ancestry into the eastern Baltic gene pool. In the aftermath of the Corded Ware expansion, local hunter-gatherer ancestry experienced a resurgence. Haplogroup N did not appear in the eastern Baltic until the late Bronze Age, perhaps as part of a westward migration of Uralic peoples.  Modern Balts have a lower amount of EEF ancestry, and a higher amount of WHG ancestry, than any other population in Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of Baltic peoples.", "content": "Modern Baltic peoples", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Balts or Baltic people (, ) are a group of Indo-European peoples primarily characterized as speakers of the Baltic languages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971084}
{"src_title": "Albert Lortzing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Lortzing was born in Berlin to Johann Gottlieb and Charlotte Sophie Lortzing. They had abandoned their leather shop and travelled through Germany as itinerant actors, founding the Berlin theatre company \"Urania\", and turning their amateur passion into a profession. The young Lortzing's first stage appearance was at the age of 12, entertaining the audience with comic poems during the interval in the \"Kornhaus\" at the Freiburg Münster. From 1817, the Lortzing family were part of Josef Derossi ensemble in the Rhineland, treading the boards at Bonn, Düsseldorf, Barmen and Aachen. Albert Lortzing became an audience favourite, playing the roles of a youthful lover, a country boy and bon vivant, sometimes also singing small tenor or baritone roles.  On 30 January 1824 he married the actress Rosina Regine Ahles, with whom he subsequently had 11 children. The couple belonged to the Hoftheater (court theatre) in Detmold from late 1826, which toured to Münster and Osnabrück. Lortzing joined the Freemasons, a popular refuge for artists in Metternich's police state. Lortzing composed an oratorio in Detmold, \"Die Himmelfahrt Christi\" (\"Christ's Ascension\"), which premiered in Münster, and predictably earned a rebuke for the young composer from the Münster regional governor, who claimed that Lortzing was \"a composer of no renown\".  Lortzing composed the music for Christian Dietrich Grabbe's Don Juan und Faust, playing the role of Don Juan himself, with his wife as Donna Anna. Lortzing received a glowing report from an anonymous reviewer in a Frankfurt paper, who also mistakenly praised Lortzing for the text \"by this brilliant poet\". Grabbe, the real poet, was outraged, although the review did bring good publicity for the piece. On 3 November 1833 the young Lortzings gave their debut at the Leipziger Stadttheater. Lortzing's parents had been members of this ensemble since 1832, under Friedrich Sebald Ringelhardt. Here, Lortzing became a member of the artists' club \"\"Tunnel unter der Pleisse\"\" (\"Tunnel under the Pleiße\"), and in 1834 he became a member of the Leipzig Freemasons lodge \"\"Balduin zur Linde\"\" (\"Balduin to the Linden Tree\"). Lortzing was much loved in the Leipzig ensemble, particularly when acting in Johann Nestroy's comedies. However, his tendency to improvise and to deviate from the script attracted the attention of the theatrical police.  His first comic opera, \"Zar und Zimmermann\", had a tough time with the Leipzig censors. It premiered in Leipzig on 22 December 1837. Lortzing himself sang the role of Peter Iwanow, but it did not make a major breakthrough until its Berlin performances in 1839, where it was much praised.  In 1844, Lortzing became Kapellmeister of the Leipzig Stadttheater. After a quarrel with management, he was dismissed in April 1845 due to his \"rheumatic troubles\". The repeated protests of the public got him reinstated, but he was soon dismissed again after another argument. In an open letter, signed by almost everyone in the ensemble, he made a plea against the measures taken by the city government.  Between 1846 and 1848, Lortzing worked as Kapellmeister at the Theater an der Wien in Vienna. At the behest of the Freedom Movement, he wrote text and music in 1848 for his political opera \"Regina\", named after his wife. This work concerned both labour struggles and fear of suicide. His last full-length opera was an 1849 fairy-tale satire of the Prussian military state called \"Rolands Knappen\" (\"Roland's Squire\"), featuring the repeated line \"And this is supposed to be a world order?\" (\"\"Und das soll eine Weltordnung sein?\"\")  In 1848 he lost his appointment and had to return to work as a touring actor to support his large family. He worked at Gera and Lüneburg, among other cities. Finally in 1850, he became the Kapellmeister in Berlin at the newly opened Friedrich-Wilhelmstädtisches Theater.  Lortzing also wrote music for masonic rituals.  On 20 January 1851, the night his musical comedy \"Die Opernprobe\" premiered in Frankfurt, Lortzing suffered a stroke at his home in Berlin and died without medical treatment on the morning of the following day, under huge stress and deeply in debt. A number of luminaries from the musical world were present at his funeral, including Giacomo Meyerbeer, Heinrich Dorn, Wilhelm Taubert and Carl Friedrich Rungenhagen. Lortzing's theatrical colleagues decorated his coffin with black, red and gold, a combination forbidden after 1848. A public benefit was then later held for his already impoverished family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "His first singspiel, \"Ali Pascha von Janina\", appeared in 1824, but his fame as a musician rests chiefly upon the two operas \"Zar und Zimmermann\" (1837) and \"Der Wildschütz\" (1842).  \"Zar und Zimmermann\" was received with very little enthusiasm by the public of Leipzig. However, at subsequent performances in Berlin there was a much more positive reaction. The opera soon appeared on all the stages of Germany, and today is regarded as one of the masterpieces of German comic opera. It was translated into English, French, Swedish, Danish, Dutch, Bohemian, Hungarian and Russian. The story is based around Tsar Peter I 'The Great' of Russia, who travelled to Germany, Holland and England disguised as a carpenter in order to gain first-hand technical knowledge he believed necessary for his country's economic progress, such as modern shipbuilding.  \"Der Wildschütz\" was based on a comedy by August von Kotzebue, and was a satire on the unintelligent and exaggerated admiration for the highest beauty in art expressed by the bourgeois gentilhomme.  Of his other operas, \"Der Pole und sein Kind\", produced shortly after the Polish insurrection of 1831, and \"Undine\" (1845) are notable.  Lortzing was popular in Berlin and after his death, a memorial statue was erected in the Tiergarten in Berlin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gustav Albert Lortzing (23 October 1801 – 21 January 1851) was a German composer, actor and singer. He is considered to be the main representative of the German \"Spieloper\", a form similar to the French \"opéra comique\", which grew out of the \"Singspiel\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971085}
{"src_title": "Advent calendar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and use.", "content": "Traditional Advent calendars feature the manger scene, Saint Nicholas and winter weather, while others range in theme, from sports to technology. They come in a multitude of forms, from a simple paper calendar with flaps covering each of the days to fabric pockets on a background scene to painted wooden boxes with cubby holes for small items.  Many Advent calendars take the form of a large rectangular card with \"windows\", one for each day of December leading up to and including Christmas Eve (December 24) or Christmas Day (December 25). Consecutive doors are opened every day leading up to Christmas, beginning on the start of the Advent season for that year, or in the case of reusable Advent calendars, on December 1. Often the doors are distributed across the calendar in no particular order. The calendar windows open to reveal an image, a poem, a portion of a story (such as the story of the Nativity of Jesus), or a small gift, such as a toy or a chocolate item. Often, each window has a Bible verse and Christian prayer printed on it, which Christians incorporate as part of their daily Advent devotions. Advent calendars may also have puzzles and games printed on their reverse side.  The long-established British magazine \"Country Life\" incorporates an Advent calendar—which it describes as \"our famous Advent calendar\"— in its cover for the final issue of November.  There are many variations of Advent calendar, including social media Advent calendars, and string up reusable Advent calendars. Many towns have created living advent calendars. Some Advent calendars even eschew traditional Christmas motifs and themes, focusing only on Jesus as the central character of the Christmas story.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Nordic Julekalender/Julkalender.", "content": "In Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden there is also a tradition of having a so-called \"Julekalender\" (Swedish: \"Julkalender\", Finnish: \"Joulukalenteri\", Icelandic: \"Jóladagatal\"; the local word for a Yule—or Christmas—calendar, even though it actually is an Advent calendar) in the form of a television or radio show, starting on December 1 and ending on Christmas Eve (December 24).  Such a show first aired on radio in 1957 in the form of the Swedish radio series \"Barnens adventskalender\"; the first televised show of the genre aired in 1960 in the form of the Swedish program \"Titteliture\". The first \"julekalender\" aired in Denmark was \"Historier fra hele verden\" in 1962. The televised \"julkalender\" or \"julekalendar\" has now extended into the other Nordic countries; in Finland, for example, the show is called \"Joulukalenteri\".  Over the years, there have been several kinds of \"julekalender\"; some are directed at children, some at both children and adults, and some directed at adults alone. There is a \"Julkalender\" radio show in Sweden, which airs in the days leading up to Christmas. A classic example of a \"julekalender\" enjoyed by children (as well as adults, if purely for nostalgic reasons) is the 1979 Norwegian television show \"Jul i Skomakergata\"; another is the 1990 Icelandic television show \"Á baðkari til Betlehem\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An Advent calendar is a special calendar used to count the days of Advent in anticipation of Christmas. Since the date of the First Sunday of Advent varies, falling between November 27 and December 3 inclusive, many Advent calendars, especially those that are reusable, often begin on December 1, although those that are produced for a specific year often include the last few days of November that are part of the liturgical season. The Advent calendar was first used by German Lutherans in the 19th and 20th centuries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971086}
{"src_title": "Adriatic Sea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The origins of the name \"Adriatic\" are linked to the Etruscan settlement of Adria, which probably derives its name from the Illyrian \"adur\" meaning water or sea. In classical antiquity, the sea was known as \"Mare Adriaticum\" (\"Mare Hadriaticum\", also sometimes simplified to \"Adria\") or, less frequently, as \"Mare Superum\", \"[the] upper sea\". The two terms were not synonymous, however. \"Mare Adriaticum\" generally corresponds to the Adriatic Sea's extent, spanning from the Gulf of Venice to the Strait of Otranto. That boundary became more consistently defined by Roman authors – early Greek sources place the boundary between the Adriatic and Ionian seas at various places ranging from adjacent to the Gulf of Venice to the southern tip of the Peloponnese, eastern shores of Sicily and western shores of Crete. \"Mare Superum\" on the other hand normally encompassed both the modern Adriatic Sea and the sea off the Apennine peninsula's southern coast, as far as the Strait of Sicily. Another name used in the period was \"Mare Dalmaticum\", applied to waters off the coast of Dalmatia or Illyricum.  The names for the sea in the languages of the surrounding countries include ; ; ; – \"Adriatikí thálassa\"; ; ;, Јадранско море; ;. In Serbo-Croatian and Slovene, the sea is often referred to as simply \"Jadran\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Adriatic Sea is a semi-enclosed sea, bordered in the southwest by the Apennine or Italian Peninsula, in the northwest by the Italian regions of Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and in the northeast by Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania—the Balkan peninsula. In the southeast, the Adriatic Sea connects to the Ionian Sea at the wide Strait of Otranto. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the boundary between the Adriatic and the Ionian seas as a line running from the Butrinto River's mouth (latitude 39°44'N) in Albania to the Karagol Cape in Corfu, through this island to the Kephali Cape (these two capes are in latitude 39°45'N), and on to the Santa Maria di Leuca Cape (latitude 39°48'N). It extends from the northwest to the southeast and is wide. It covers and has a volume of. The Adriatic extends northwest from 40° to 45°47' north, representing the Mediterranean's northernmost portion. The sea is geographically divided into the Northern Adriatic, Central (or Middle) Adriatic, and Southern Adriatic. The Adriatic Sea drainage basin encompasses, yielding a land–sea ratio of 1.8. The drainage basin's mean elevation is above sea level, with a mean slope of 12.1°. Major rivers discharging into the Adriatic include the Po, Soča, Krka, Neretva, Drin, Bojana, and Vjosë. In the late 19th century, Austria-Hungary established a geodetic network with an elevation benchmark using the average Adriatic Sea level at the Sartorio pier in Trieste, Italy. The benchmark was subsequently retained by Austria, adopted by Yugoslavia, and retained by the states that emerged after its dissolution. In 2016, Slovenia adopted a new elevation benchmark referring to the upgraded tide gauge station in the coastal town of Koper.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oil and gas.", "content": "Natural gas is produced through several projects, including a joint venture of the Eni and INA companies that operates two platforms—one is in Croatian waters and draws gas from six wells, and the other (which started operating in 2010) is located in Italian waters. The Adriatic gas fields were discovered in the 1970s, but their development commenced in 1996. In 2008, INA produced 14.58 million BOE per day of gas. About 100 offshore platforms are located in the Emilia-Romagna region, along with 17 in the Northern Adriatic. Eni estimated its concessions in the Adriatic Sea to hold at least of natural gas, adding that they may even reach. INA estimates, however, are 50% lower than those supplied by Eni. Oil was discovered in the Northern Adriatic at a depth of approximately ; the discovery was assessed as not viable because of its location, depth and quality. These gas and oil reserves are part of the Po basin Province of Northern Italy and the Northern Mediterranean Sea.  In the 2000s, investigation works aimed at discovering gas and oil reserves in the Middle and Southern Adriatic basins intensified, and by the decade's end, oil and natural gas reserves were discovered southeast of the Bari, Brindisi—Rovesti and Giove oil discoveries. Surveys indicate reserves of 3 billion barrels of oil in place and of gas in place. The discovery was followed by further surveys off the Croatian coast. In January 2012, INA commenced prospecting for oil off Dubrovnik, marking the resumption of oil exploration along the eastern Adriatic coast after surveys commenced in the late 1980s around the island of Brač were cancelled because of Yugoslavia's breakup and war in Croatia. Montenegro is also expected to look for oil off its coast. As of January 2012, only 200 exploration wells had been sunk off the Croatian coast, with all but 30 in the Northern Adriatic basin.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkans. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) to the northwest and the Po Valley. The countries with coasts on the Adriatic are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Italy, Montenegro and Slovenia. The Adriatic contains over 1,300 islands, mostly located along the Croatian part of its eastern coast. It is divided into three basins, the northern being the shallowest and the southern being the deepest, with a maximum depth of. The Otranto Sill, an underwater ridge, is located at the border between the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The prevailing currents flow counterclockwise from the Strait of Otranto, along the eastern coast and back to the strait along the western (Italian) coast. Tidal movements in the Adriatic are slight, although larger amplitudes are known to occur occasionally. The Adriatic's salinity is lower than the Mediterranean's because the Adriatic collects a third of the fresh water flowing into the Mediterranean, acting as a dilution basin. The surface water temperatures generally range from in summer to in winter, significantly moderating the Adriatic Basin's climate.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971087}
{"src_title": "Gottfried Benn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography and work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and beginnings.", "content": "Gottfried Benn was born in a Lutheran country parsonage, a few hours from Berlin, the son and grandson of pastors in Mansfeld, now part of Putlitz in the district of Prignitz, Brandenburg. He was educated in Sellin in the Neumark and Frankfurt an der Oder. To please his father, he studied theology at the University of Marburg and military medicine at the Kaiser Wilhelm Academy in Berlin. After being laid off as a military doctor in 1912, Benn turned to pathology, where he dissected over 200 bodies between October 1912 and November 1913 in Berlin. Many of his literary works reflect on his time as a pathologist.  In the summer of 1912, Benn started a romantic relationship with the Jewish poet Else Lasker-Schüler.  Gottfried Benn began his literary career as a poet when he published a booklet titled \"Morgue and other Poems\" in 1912, containing expressionist poems dealing with physical decay of flesh, with blood, cancer, and death — for example No III — \"Cycle\":  Poems like this \"were received by critics and public with shock, dismay, even revulsion.\" In 1913 a second volume of poems came out, titled \"Sons. New Poems\".  Benn's poetry projects an introverted nihilism, that is, an existentialist outlook that views artistic expression as the only purposeful action. In his early poems Benn used his medical experience, often using medical terminology, to portray humanity morbidly as just another species of disease-ridden animal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War I and Weimar Republic.", "content": "After the outbreak of World War I he enlisted in 1914, and spent a brief period on the Belgian front, then served as a military doctor in Brussels. Benn attended the trial and execution of Nurse Edith Cavell. He also worked as a physician in an army brothel. After the war, he returned to Berlin and practiced as a dermatologist and venereal disease specialist. During the 1920s, he had a close relationship with Jewish poet Else Lasker-Schüler who addressed love poems to him. This bond to her is the subject of the film \"Mein Herz-niemandem\" (1997) by Helma Sanders-Brahms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "During the Third Reich.", "content": "Hostile to the Weimar Republic, and rejecting Marxism and Americanism, Benn, like many Germans, was upset with ongoing economic and political instability, and sympathized for a short period with the Nazis as a revolutionary force. He hoped that National Socialism would exalt his aesthetics and that expressionism would become the official art of Germany, as Futurism had in Italy. Benn was elected to the poetry section of the Prussian Academy in 1932 and appointed head of that section in February 1933. In May, he defended the new regime in a radio broadcast, saying \"the German workers are better off than ever before.\" He later signed the \"Gelöbnis treuester Gefolgschaft\", that is, the \"vow of most faithful allegiance\" to Adolf Hitler.  The cultural policy of the new State didn't turn out the way he hoped, and in June Hans Friederich Blunck replaced Benn as head of the Academy's poetry section. Appalled by the Night of the Long Knives, Benn turned away from the Nazis. He lived quietly, refraining from public criticism of the Nazi Party, but wrote that the bad conditions of the system \"gave me the latter punch\" and stated in a letter that the developments presented a \"dreadful tragedy!\" He decided to perform \"the aristocratic form of emigration\" and joined the Wehrmacht in 1935, where he found many officers sympathetic to his disapproval of the régime. In May 1936 the SS magazine \"Das Schwarze Korps\" attacked his expressionist and experimental poetry as degenerate, Jewish, and homosexual. In the summer of 1937, Wolfgang Willrich, a member of the SS, lampooned Benn in his book \"Säuberung des Kunsttempels\"; Heinrich Himmler, however, stepped in to reprimand Willrich and defended Benn on the grounds of his good record since 1933 (his earlier artistic output being irrelevant). In 1938 the Reichsschrifttumskammer (the National Socialist authors' association) banned Benn from further writing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After the war.", "content": "During World War II, Benn was posted to garrisons in eastern Germany where he wrote poems and essays. After the war, his work was banned by the Allies because of his initial support for Hitler. In 1951 he was awarded the Georg Büchner Prize. He died of cancer in West Berlin in 1956, and was buried in Waldfriedhof Dahlem, Berlin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Benn had a great influence on German poetry immediately before World War I (as an expressionist), as well as after World War II (as the 'Static' poet).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gottfried Benn (2 May 1886 – 7 July 1956) was a German poet, essayist, and physician. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature five times.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971088}
{"src_title": "Qubit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The coining of the term \"qubit\" is attributed to Benjamin Schumacher. In the acknowledgments of his 1995 paper, Schumacher states that the term \"qubit\" was created in jest during a conversation with William Wootters. The paper describes a way of compressing states emitted by a quantum source of information so that they require fewer physical resources to store. This procedure is now known as Schumacher compression.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bit versus qubit.", "content": "A binary digit, characterized as 0 and 1, is used to represent information in classical computers. A binary digit can represent up to one bit of Shannon information, where a bit is the basic unit of information. However, in this article, the word bit is synonymous with binary digit.  In classical computer technologies, a \"processed\" bit is implemented by one of two levels of low DC voltage, and whilst switching from one of these two levels to the other, a so-called forbidden zone must be passed as fast as possible, as electrical voltage cannot change from one level to another \"instantaneously\".  There are two possible outcomes for the measurement of a qubit—usually taken to have the value \"0\" and \"1\", like a bit or binary digit. However, whereas the state of a bit can only be either 0 or 1, the general state of a qubit according to quantum mechanics can be a coherent superposition of both. Moreover, whereas a measurement of a classical bit would not disturb its state, a measurement of a qubit would destroy its coherence and irrevocably disturb the superposition state. It is possible to fully encode one bit in one qubit. However, a qubit can hold more information, e.g. up to two bits using superdense coding.  For a system of \"n\" components, a complete description of its state in classical physics requires only \"n\" bits, whereas in quantum physics it requires 2−1 complex numbers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standard representation.", "content": "In quantum mechanics, the general quantum state of a qubit can be represented by a linear superposition of its two orthonormal basis states (or basis vectors). These vectors are usually denoted as formula_1 and formula_2. They are written in the conventional Dirac—or \"bra–ket\"—notation; the formula_3 and formula_4 are pronounced \"ket 0\" and \"ket 1\", respectively. These two orthonormal basis states, <math>\\", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qubit storage.", "content": "In a paper entitled \"Solid-state quantum memory using the P nuclear spin\", published in the October 23, 2008, issue of the journal \"Nature\", a team of scientists from the U.K. and U.S. reported the first relatively long (1.75 seconds) and coherent transfer of a superposition state in an electron spin \"processing\" qubit to a nuclear spin \"memory\" qubit. This event can be considered the first relatively consistent quantum data storage, a vital step towards the development of quantum computing. Recently, a modification of similar systems (using charged rather than neutral donors) has dramatically extended this time, to 3 hours at very low temperatures and 39 minutes at room temperature. Room temperature preparation of a qubit based on electron spins instead of nuclear spin was also demonstrated by a team of scientists from Switzerland and Australia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In quantum computing, a qubit () or quantum bit (sometimes qbit) is the basic unit of quantum information—the quantum version of the classical binary bit physically realized with a two-state device. A qubit is a two-state (or two-level) quantum-mechanical system, one of the simplest quantum systems displaying the peculiarity of quantum mechanics. Examples include: the spin of the electron in which the two levels can be taken as spin up and spin down; or the polarization of a single photon in which the two states can be taken to be the vertical polarization and the horizontal polarization. In a classical system, a bit would have to be in one state or the other. However, quantum mechanics allows the qubit to be in a coherent superposition of both states simultaneously, a property which is fundamental to quantum mechanics and quantum computing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971089}
{"src_title": "Feldspar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"feldspar\" derives from the German \"Feldspat\", a compound of the words \"Feld\" (\"field\") and \"Spat\" (\"flake\"). \"Spat\" had long been used as the word for \"a rock easily cleaved into flakes\"; \"Feldspat\" was introduced in the 18th century as a more specific term, referring perhaps to its common occurrence in rocks found in fields (Urban Brückmann, 1783) or to its occurrence as \"fields\" within granite and other minerals (René-Just Haüy, 1804). The change from \"Spat\" to \"-spar\" was influenced by the English word \"spar\", meaning a non-opaque mineral with good cleavage. \"Feldspathic\" refers to materials that contain feldspar. The alternate spelling, \"felspar\", has fallen out of use. The term 'felsic', meaning light colored minerals such as quartz and feldspars, is an acronymic word derived from \"fel\"dspar and \"sil\"ica, unrelated to the redundant spelling 'felspar'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compositions.", "content": "This group of minerals consists of tectosilicates. Compositions of major elements in common feldspars can be expressed in terms of three endmembers:  Solid solutions between K-feldspar and albite are called \"alkali feldspar\". Solid solutions between albite and anorthite are called \"plagioclase\", or more properly \"plagioclase feldspar\". Only limited solid solution occurs between K-feldspar and anorthite, and in the two other solid solutions, immiscibility occurs at temperatures common in the crust of the Earth. Albite is considered both a plagioclase and alkali feldspar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alkali feldspars.", "content": "Alkali feldspars are grouped into two types: those containing potassium in combination with sodium, aluminum, or silicon; and those where potassium is replaced by barium. The first of these include:  Potassium and sodium feldspars are not perfectly miscible in the melt at low temperatures, therefore intermediate compositions of the alkali feldspars occur only in higher temperature environments. Sanidine is stable at the highest temperatures, and microcline at the lowest. Perthite is a typical texture in alkali feldspar, due to exsolution of contrasting alkali feldspar compositions during cooling of an intermediate composition. The perthitic textures in the alkali feldspars of many granites can be seen with the naked eye. Microperthitic textures in crystals are visible using a light microscope, whereas cryptoperthitic textures can be seen only with an electron microscope.  In addition, peristerite is the name given to feldspar containing approximately equal amounts of intergrown alkali feldspar and plagioclase.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Barium feldspars.", "content": "Barium feldspars are also considered alkali feldspars. Barium feldspars form as the result of the substitution of barium for potassium in the mineral structure.  The barium feldspars are monoclinic and include the following:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plagioclase feldspars.", "content": "The plagioclase feldspars are triclinic. The plagioclase series follows (with percent anorthite in parentheses):  Intermediate compositions of plagioclase feldspar also may exsolve to two feldspars of contrasting composition during cooling, but diffusion is much slower than in alkali feldspar, and the resulting two-feldspar intergrowths typically are too fine-grained to be visible with optical microscopes. The immiscibility gaps in the plagioclase solid solutions are complex compared to the gap in the alkali feldspars. The play of colors visible in some feldspar of labradorite composition is due to very fine-grained exsolution lamellae known as Bøggild intergrowth. The specific gravity in the plagioclase series increases from albite (2.62) to anorthite (2.72–2.75).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Weathering.", "content": "Chemical weathering of feldspars results in the formation of clay minerals such as illite and kaolinite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production and uses.", "content": "About 20 million tonnes of feldspar were produced in 2010, mostly by three countries: Italy (4.7 Mt), Turkey (4.5 Mt), and China (2 Mt).  Feldspar is a common raw material used in glassmaking, ceramics, and to some extent as a filler and extender in paint, plastics, and rubber. In glassmaking, alumina from feldspar improves product hardness, durability, and resistance to chemical corrosion. In ceramics, the alkalis in feldspar (calcium oxide, potassium oxide, and sodium oxide) act as a flux, lowering the melting temperature of a mixture. Fluxes melt at an early stage in the firing process, forming a glassy matrix that bonds the other components of the system together. In the US, about 66% of feldspar is consumed in glassmaking, including glass containers and glass fiber. Ceramics (including electrical insulators, sanitaryware, pottery, tableware, and tile) and other uses, such as fillers, accounted for the remainder.  Bon Ami, which had a mine near Little Switzerland, North Carolina, used feldspar as an abrasive in its cleaners. The Little Switzerland Business Association says the McKinney Mine was the largest feldspar mine in the world, and North Carolina was the largest producer. Feldspar had been discarded in the process of mining mica until William Dibbell sent a premium quality product to the Ohio company Golding and Sons around 1910.  In earth sciences and archaeology, feldspars are used for potassium-argon dating, argon-argon dating, and luminescence dating.  In October 2012, the Mars Curiosity rover analyzed a rock that turned out to have a high feldspar content.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Feldspars (KAlSiO – NaAlSiO – CaAlSiO) are a group of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals that make up about 41% of the Earth's continental crust by weight.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971090}
{"src_title": "Crystal system", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "A lattice system is a class of lattices with the same set of lattice point groups, which are subgroups of the arithmetic crystal classes. The 14 Bravais lattices are grouped into seven lattice systems: triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, rhombohedral, hexagonal, and cubic.  In a crystal system, a set of point groups and their corresponding space groups are assigned to a lattice system. Of the 32 point groups that exist in three dimensions, most are assigned to only one lattice system, in which case both the crystal and lattice systems have the same name. However, five point groups are assigned to two lattice systems, rhombohedral and hexagonal, because both exhibit threefold rotational symmetry. These point groups are assigned to the trigonal crystal system. In total there are seven crystal systems: triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal, and cubic.  A crystal family is determined by lattices and point groups. It is formed by combining crystal systems which have space groups assigned to a common lattice system. In three dimensions, the crystal families and systems are identical, except the hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems, which are combined into one hexagonal crystal family. In total there are six crystal families: triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, hexagonal, and cubic.  Spaces with less than three dimensions have the same number of crystal systems, crystal families and lattice systems. In one-dimensional space, there is one crystal system. In 2D space, there are four crystal systems: oblique, rectangular, square, and hexagonal.  The relation between three-dimensional crystal families, crystal systems and lattice systems is shown in the following table:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crystal classes.", "content": "The 7 crystal systems consist of 32 crystal classes (corresponding to the 32 crystallographic point groups) as shown in the following table below:  The point symmetry of a structure can be further described as follows. Consider the points that make up the structure, and reflect them all through a single point, so that (\"x\",\"y\",\"z\") becomes (−\"x\",−\"y\",−\"z\"). This is the 'inverted structure'. If the original structure and inverted structure are identical, then the structure is \"centrosymmetric\". Otherwise it is \"non-centrosymmetric\". Still, even in the non-centrosymmetric case, the inverted structure can in some cases be rotated to align with the original structure. This is a non-centrosymmetric \"achiral\" structure. If the inverted structure cannot be rotated to align with the original structure, then the structure is \"chiral\" or \"enantiomorphic\" and its symmetry group is \"enantiomorphic\".  A direction (meaning a line without an arrow) is called \"polar\" if its two directional senses are geometrically or physically different. A symmetry direction of a crystal that is polar is called a \"polar axis\". Groups containing a polar axis are called \"polar\". A polar crystal possesses a unique polar axis (more precisely, all polar axes are parallel). Some geometrical or physical property is different at the two ends of this axis: for example, there might develop a dielectric polarization as in pyroelectric crystals. A polar axis can occur only in non-centrosymmetric structures. There cannot be a mirror plane or twofold axis perpendicular to the polar axis, because they would make the two directions of the axis equivalent.  The crystal structures of chiral biological molecules (such as protein structures) can only occur in the 65 enantiomorphic space groups (biological molecules are usually chiral).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bravais lattices.", "content": "There are seven different kinds of crystal systems, and each kind of crystal system has four different kinds of centerings (primitive, base-centered, body-centered, face-centered). However, not all of the combinations are unique; some of the combinations are equivalent while other combinations are not possible due to symmetry reasons. This reduces the number of unique lattices to the 14 Bravais lattices.  The distribution of the 14 Bravais lattices into lattice systems and crystal families is given in the following table.  In geometry and crystallography, a Bravais lattice is a category of translative symmetry groups (also known as lattices) in three directions.  Such symmetry groups consist of translations by vectors of the form  where \"n\", \"n\", and \"n\" are integers and a, a, and a are three non-coplanar vectors, called \"primitive vectors\".  These lattices are classified by the space group of the lattice itself, viewed as a collection of points; there are 14 Bravais lattices in three dimensions; each belongs to one lattice system only. They represent the maximum symmetry a structure with the given translational symmetry can have.  All crystalline materials (not including quasicrystals) must, by definition, fit into one of these arrangements.  For convenience a Bravais lattice is depicted by a unit cell which is a factor 1, 2, 3 or 4 larger than the primitive cell. Depending on the symmetry of a crystal or other pattern, the fundamental domain is again smaller, up to a factor 48.  The Bravais lattices were studied by Moritz Ludwig Frankenheim in 1842, who found that there were 15 Bravais lattices. This was corrected to 14 by A. Bravais in 1848.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In four-dimensional space.", "content": "The four-dimensional unit cell is defined by four edge lengths (\"a\", \"b\", \"c\", \"d\") and six interaxial angles (\"α\", \"β\", \"γ\", \"δ\", \"ε\", \"ζ\"). The following conditions for the lattice parameters define 23 crystal families  The names here are given according to Whittaker. They are almost the same as in Brown \"et al\", with exception for names of the crystal families 9, 13, and 22. The names for these three families according to Brown \"et al\" are given in parenthesis.  The relation between four-dimensional crystal families, crystal systems, and lattice systems is shown in the following table. Enantiomorphic systems are marked with an asterisk. The number of enantiomorphic pairs are given in parentheses. Here the term \"enantiomorphic\" has a different meaning than in the table for three-dimensional crystal classes. The latter means, that enantiomorphic point groups describe chiral (enantiomorphic) structures. In the current table, \"enantiomorphic\" means that a group itself (considered as a geometric object) is enantiomorphic, like enantiomorphic pairs of three-dimensional space groups P3 and P3, P422 and P422. Starting from four-dimensional space, point groups also can be enantiomorphic in this sense.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In crystallography, the terms crystal system, crystal family, and lattice system each refer to one of several classes of space groups, lattices, point groups, or crystals. Informally, two crystals are in the same crystal system if they have similar symmetries, although there are many exceptions to this.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971091}
{"src_title": "Summation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Notation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capital-sigma notation.", "content": "Mathematical notation uses a symbol that compactly represents summation of many similar terms: the \"summation symbol\", formula_1, an enlarged form of the upright capital Greek letter Sigma. This is defined as where is the index of summation; is an indexed variable representing each term of the sum; is the lower bound of summation, and is the upper bound of summation. The \"\" under the summation symbol means that the index starts out equal to. The index,, is incremented by one for each successive term, stopping when.  This is read as \"sum of, from to \".  Here is an example showing the summation of squares:  Informal writing sometimes omits the definition of the index and bounds of summation when these are clear from context, as in:  One often sees generalizations of this notation in which an arbitrary logical condition is supplied, and the sum is intended to be taken over all values satisfying the condition. Here are some common examples: is the sum of formula_9 over all (integers) formula_10 in the specified range, is the sum of formula_12 over all elements formula_13 in the set formula_14, and is the sum of formula_16 over all positive integers formula_17 dividing formula_18.  There are also ways to generalize the use of many sigma signs. For example, is the same as  A similar notation is applied when it comes to denoting the product of a sequence, which is similar to its summation, but which uses the multiplication operation instead of addition (and gives 1 for an empty sequence instead of 0). The same basic structure is used, with formula_21, an enlarged form of the Greek capital letter pi, replacing the formula_1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Special cases.", "content": "It is possible to sum fewer than 2 numbers:  These degenerate cases are usually only used when the summation notation gives a degenerate result in a special case. For example, if formula_25 in the definition above, then there is only one term in the sum; if formula_26, then there is none.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Formal definition.", "content": "Summation may be defined recursively as follows", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Measure theory notation.", "content": "In the notation of measure and integration theory, a sum can be expressed as a definite integral,  where formula_31 is the subset of the integers from formula_32 to formula_33, and where formula_34 is the counting measure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calculus of finite differences.", "content": "Given a function that is defined over the integers in the interval, one has  This is the analogue in calculus of finite differences of the fundamental theorem of calculus, which states where is the derivative of.  An example of application of the above equation is Using binomial theorem, this may be rewritten  The above formula is more commonly used for inverting of the difference operator formula_40 defined by where is a function defined on the nonnegative integers. Thus, given such a function, the problem is to compute the antidifference of, that is, a function formula_42 such that formula_43, that is,formula_44 This function is defined up to the addition of a constant, and may be chosen as  There is not always a closed-form expression for such a summation, but Faulhaber's formula provides a closed form in the case of formula_46 and, by linearity for every polynomial function of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Approximation by definite integrals.", "content": "Many such approximations can be obtained by the following connection between sums and integrals, which holds for any:  increasing function \"f\":  decreasing function \"f\":  For more general approximations, see the Euler–Maclaurin formula.  For summations in which the summand is given (or can be interpolated) by an integrable function of the index, the summation can be interpreted as a Riemann sum occurring in the definition of the corresponding definite integral. One can therefore expect that for instance  since the right hand side is by definition the limit for formula_50 of the left hand side. However, for a given summation \"n\" is fixed, and little can be said about the error in the above approximation without additional assumptions about \"f\": it is clear that for wildly oscillating functions the Riemann sum can be arbitrarily far from the Riemann integral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Identities.", "content": "The formulae below involve finite sums; for infinite summations or finite summations of expressions involving trigonometric functions or other transcendental functions, see list of mathematical series.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Powers and logarithm of arithmetic progressions.", "content": "More generally, one has Faulhaber's formula where formula_75 denotes a Bernoulli number, and formula_76 is a binomial coefficient.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Summation index in exponents.", "content": "In the following summations, is assumed to be different from 1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Binomial coefficients and factorials.", "content": "There exist very many summation identities involving binomial coefficients (a whole chapter of \"Concrete Mathematics\" is devoted to just the basic techniques). Some of the most basic ones are the following.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Involving permutation numbers.", "content": "In the following summations, formula_87 is the number of -permutations of.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Growth rates.", "content": "The following are useful approximations (using theta notation):", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, summation is the addition of a sequence of any kind of numbers, called \"addends\" or \"summands\"; the result is their \"sum\" or \"total\". Beside numbers, other types of values can be summed as well: functions, vectors, matrices, polynomials and, in general, elements of any type of mathematical objects on which an operation denoted \"+\" is defined.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971092}
{"src_title": "Joseph Roth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Habsburg empire.", "content": "Born into a Jewish family, Roth was born and grew up in Brody, a small town near Lemberg (now Lviv) in East Galicia, in the easternmost reaches of what was then the Austro-Hungarian empire. Jewish culture played an important role in the life of the town, which had a large Jewish population. Roth grew up with his mother and her relatives; he never saw his father, who had disappeared before he was born.  After secondary school, Joseph Roth moved to Lemberg to begin his university studies in 1913, before transferring to the University of Vienna in 1914 to study philosophy and German literature. In 1916, Roth broke off his university studies and volunteered to serve in the Imperial Habsburg army fighting on the Eastern Front, \"though possibly only as an army journalist or censor.\" This experience had a major and long-lasting influence on his life. So, too, did the collapse in 1918 of the Habsburg Empire, which marked the beginning of a pronounced sense of \"homelessness\" that was to feature regularly in his work. As he wrote: \"My strongest experience was the War and the destruction of my fatherland, the only one I ever had, the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "In 1918, Roth returned to Vienna and began writing for left-wing newspapers, signing articles published by \"Vorwärts\" as \"Der rote Joseph\" (\"The red Joseph\", a play on his surname, which is homophonous with German \"rot\", \"red\", which is also the signalling color of leftwing parties in Europe). In 1920 he moved to Berlin, where he worked as a successful journalist for the \"Neue Berliner Zeitung\" and, from 1921, for the \"Berliner Börsen-Courier\". In 1923 he began his association with the liberal \"Frankfurter Zeitung\", traveling widely throughout Europe, and reporting from the South of France, the USSR, Albania, Poland, Italy, and Germany. According to his main English translator, Michael Hofmann, \"He was one of the most distinguished and best-paid journalists of the period, being paid at the dream rate of one Deutschmark per line.\" In 1925 he spent a period working in France. He never again resided permanently in Berlin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "Roth married Friederike (Friedl) Reichler in 1922. In the late 1920s, his wife became schizophrenic, which threw Roth into a deep crisis, both emotionally and financially. She lived for years in a sanatorium and was later murdered in the Action T4 programme.  In 1929 he met Andrea Manga Bell who was to share his destiny for the next six years. Andrea Manga Bell was born in Hamburg and unhappily married to Alexandre Douala Manga Bell, Prince of Douala in Cameroon. Her husband had returned to Cameroon while she and their children stayed in Europe. When Roth met her, she was editor of the Ullstein magazine \"Gebrauchsgraphik\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Novels.", "content": "In 1923, Roth's first (unfinished) novel, \"The Spider's Web\", was serialized in an Austrian newspaper. He went on to achieve moderate success as a novelist with a series of books exploring life in post-war Europe, but only upon publication of \"Job\" and \"Radetzky March\" did he achieve acclaim for his fiction rather than his journalism.  From 1930, Roth's fiction became less concerned with contemporary society, with which he had become increasingly disillusioned, and began to evoke a melancholic nostalgia for life in imperial Central Europe before 1914. He often portrayed the fate of homeless wanderers looking for a place to live, in particular Jews and former citizens of the old Austria-Hungary, who, with the downfall of the monarchy, had lost their only possible \"Heimat\" (\"true home\"). In his later works, Roth appeared to wish that the monarchy could be restored. His longing for a more tolerant past may be partly explained as a reaction against the political extremism of the time, which culminated in Germany with National Socialism. The novel \"Radetzky March\" (1932) and the story \"The Bust of the Emperor\" (1935) are typical of this late phase. In another novel, \"The Emperor's Tomb\" (1938), Roth describes the fate of a cousin of the hero of \"Radetzky March\" up to Germany's annexation of Austria in 1938.  Of his works dealing with Judaism, the novel \"Job\" is perhaps the best-known.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paris.", "content": "Being a prominent liberal Jewish journalist, Roth left Germany when Adolf Hitler became Reich Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Andrea Manga Bell accompanied him with her children. He spent most of the next six years in Paris, a city he loved. His essays written in France display a delight in the city and its culture.  Shortly after Hitler's rise to power, in February 1933, Roth wrote in a prophetic letter to his friend, the Austrian writer Stefan Zweig:  The relationship with Andrea Manga Bell failed due to financial problems and Roth's jealousy. From 1936 to 1938, Roth had a romantic relationship with Irmgard Keun. They worked together, traveling to various cities such as Paris, Wilna, Lemberg, Warsaw, Vienna, Salzburg, Brussels and Amsterdam.  Without intending to deny his Jewish origins, Roth considered his relationship to Catholicism very important. In the final years of his life, he may even have converted: Michael Hofmann states in the preface to the collection of essays \" The White Cities\" (also published as \"Report from a Parisian Paradise\") that Roth \"was said to have had two funerals, one Jewish, one Catholic.\"  Roth's last years were difficult. He moved from hotel to hotel, drinking heavily, and becoming increasingly anxious about money and the future. Despite suffering from chronic alcoholism, he remained prolific until his premature death in Paris in 1939. His novella \"The Legend of the Holy Drinker\" (1939) chronicles the attempts made by an alcoholic vagrant to regain his dignity and honor a debt.  Roth's final collapse was precipitated by hearing the news that the playwright Ernst Toller had hanged himself in New York.  Roth is interred in the Cimetière de Thiais, south of Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Fiction  Non-Fiction", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Roth, born Moses Joseph Roth (2 September 1894 – 27 May 1939), was an Austrian journalist and novelist, best known for his family saga \"Radetzky March\" (1932), about the decline and fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, his novel of Jewish life, \"Job\" (1930), and his seminal essay \"Juden auf Wanderschaft\" (1927; translated into English in \"The Wandering Jews\"), a fragmented account of the Jewish migrations from eastern to western Europe in the aftermath of World War I and the Russian Revolution. In the 21st century, publications in English of \"Radetzky March\" and of collections of his journalism from Berlin and Paris created a revival of interest in Roth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971093}
{"src_title": "Mountain range", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Major ranges.", "content": "Most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earth's land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Pacific Ring of Fire includes the Andes of South America, extends through the North American Cordillera along the Pacific Coast, the Aleutian Range, on through Kamchatka, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, to New Zealand. The Andes is long and is often considered the world's longest mountain system.  The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and Southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, Caucasus Mountains, Balkan Mountains fold mountain range, the Alps, and ends in the Spanish mountains and the Atlas Mountains. The belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, which is high and traverses the border between China and Nepal. Mountain ranges outside these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Great Dividing Range, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a mountain range is stretched to include underwater mountains, then the Ocean Ridges form the longest continuous mountain system on Earth, with a length of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Divisions and categories.", "content": "The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, where mountain ranges can contain sub-ranges. The sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent-child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains. Equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians.  The parent-child expression extends to the sub-ranges themselves: the Sandwich Range and the Presidential Range are children of the White Mountains, while the Presidential Range is a parent to the Northern Presidential Range and Southern Presidential Range.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow. When air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow). As the air descends on the leeward side, it warms again (in accordance with the adiabatic lapse rate) and is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture. Often, a rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Erosion.", "content": "Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to erosional forces which work to tear them down. The basins adjacent to an eroding mountain range are then filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted until the mountains are reduced to low hills and plains.  The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example. As the uplift was occurring some of mostly Mesozoic sedimentary strata were removed by erosion over the core of the mountain range and spread as sand and clays across the Great Plains to the east. This mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift. The removal of such a mass from the core of the range most likely caused further uplift as the region adjusted isostatically in response to the removed weight.  Rivers are traditionally believed to be the principal cause of mountain range erosion, by cutting into bedrock and transporting sediment. Computer simulation has shown that as mountain belts change from tectonically active to inactive, the rate of erosion drops because there are fewer abrasive particles in the water and fewer landslides.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extraterrestrial \"Montes\".", "content": "Mountains on other planets and natural satellites of the Solar System are often isolated and formed mainly by processes such as impacts, though there are examples of mountain ranges (or \"Montes\") somewhat similar to those on Earth. Saturn's moon Titan and Pluto, in particular exhibit large mountain ranges in chains composed mainly of ices rather than rock. Examples include the Mithrim Montes and Doom Mons on Titan, and Tenzing Montes and Hillary Montes on Pluto. Some terrestrial planets other than Earth also exhibit rocky mountain ranges, such as Maxwell Montes on Venus taller than any on Earth and Tartarus Montes on Mars, Jupiter's moon Io has mountain ranges formed from tectonic processes including Boösaule Montes, Dorian Montes, Hi'iaka Montes and Euboea Montes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A mountain range or hill range is a series of mountains or hills ranged in a line and connected by high ground. A mountain system or mountain belt is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure, and alignment that have arisen from the same cause, usually an orogeny. Mountain ranges are formed by a variety of geological processes, but most of the significant ones on Earth are the result of plate tectonics. Mountain ranges are also found on many planetary mass objects in the Solar System and are likely a feature of most terrestrial planets.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971094}
{"src_title": "Internal medicine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and historical development.", "content": "The etymology of the term \"internal medicine\" in English is rooted in the German term \"Innere Medizin\" from the 19th century. Internal medicine delved into underlying pathological causes of symptoms and syndromes by use of laboratory investigations in addition to bedside clinical assessment of patients. In contrast, physicians in previous generations, such as the 17th-century physician Thomas Sydenham, who is known as the father of English medicine or \"the English Hippocrates\", had developed nosology (the study of diseases) via the clinical approach to diagnosis and management, by careful bedside study of the natural history of diseases and their treatment. Sydenham eschewed dissection of corpses and scrutiny of the internal workings of the body, for considering the internal mechanisms and causes of symptoms. It was thus subsequent to the 17th century that there was a rise in anatomical pathology and laboratory studies, with Giovanni Battista Morgagni, an Italian anatomist of the 18th century, being considered the father of anatomical pathology. Laboratory investigations became increasingly significant, with contribution of doctors including German physician and bacteriologist Robert Koch in the 19th century. The 19th century saw the rise of internal medicine that combined the clinical approach with use of investigations. Many early-20th-century American physicians studied medicine in Germany and brought this medical field to the United States. Thus, the name \"internal medicine\" was adopted in imitation of the existing German term.  Historically, some of the oldest traces of internal medicine can be traced from Ancient India and Ancient China. Earliest texts about internal medicine are the Ayurvedic anthologies of Charaka.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role of internal medicine physicians.", "content": "Internal medicine specialists, also known as general internal medicine specialists or general medicine physicians in Commonwealth countries, are specialist physicians trained to manage particularly complex or multisystem disease conditions that single-organ-disease specialists may not be trained to deal with. They may be asked to tackle undifferentiated presentations that cannot be easily fitted within the expertise of a single-organ specialty, such as dyspnoea, fatigue, weight loss, chest pain, confusion or change in conscious state. They may manage serious acute illnesses that affect multiple organ systems at the same time in a single patient, and they may manage multiple chronic diseases or \"comorbidities\" that a single patient may have.  General internal medicine specialists do not provide necessarily less expertise than single-organ specialists, rather, they are trained for a specific role of caring for patients with multiple simultaneous problems or complex comorbidities.  Perhaps because it is complex to explain treatment of diseases that are not localised to a single-organ, there has been confusion about the meaning of internal medicine and the role of an \"internist.\" Internists are qualified physicians with postgraduate training in internal medicine and should not be confused with \"interns\", who are doctors in their first year of residency training (officially the term intern is no longer in use). Although internists may act as primary care physicians, they are not \"family physicians,\" \"family practitioners,\" or \"general practitioners,\" or \"GPs,\" whose training is not solely concentrated on adults and may include surgery, obstetrics, and pediatrics. The American College of Physicians defines internists as \"physicians who specialize in the prevention, detection and treatment of illnesses in adults\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education and training of internists.", "content": "The training and career pathways for internists vary considerably across the world.  Many programs require previous undergraduate education prior to medical school admission. This \"pre-medical\" education is typically four or five years in length. Graduate medical education programs vary in length by country. Medical education programs are tertiary-level courses, undertaken at a medical school attached to a university. In the United States, medical school consists of four years. Hence, gaining a basic medical education may typically take eight years, depending on jurisdiction and university.  Following completion of entry-level training, newly graduated medical practitioners are often required to undertake a period of supervised practice before the licensure, or \"registration\", is granted, typically one or two years. This period may be referred to as \"internship\", \"conditional registration\", or \"foundation programme\". Then, doctors may finally follow specialty training in internal medicine if they wish, typically being selected to training programs through competition. In North America, this period of postgraduate training is referred to as residency training, followed by an optional fellowship if the internist decides to train in a subspecialty.  In the United States and in most countries, residency training for internal medicine lasts three years and centers on secondary and tertiary levels of care. In Commonwealth countries trainees are often called senior house officers for four years after the completion of their medical degree (foundation and core years). After this period, they are able to advance to registrar grade when they undergo a compulsory subspecialty training (including acute internal medicine or a dual subspecialty including internal medicine). This latter stage of training is achieved through competition rather than just by yearly progress as the first years of postgraduate training.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Certification of specialists.", "content": "In the United States, three organizations are responsible for certification of trained internists (i.e., doctors who have completed an accredited residency training program) in terms of their knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are essential for excellent patient care: the American Board of Internal Medicine, the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine and the Board of Certification in Internal Medicine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecialties.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "In the United States, two organizations are responsible for certification of subspecialists within the field: the American Board of Internal Medicine and the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine. Physicians (not only internists) who successfully pass board exams receive \"board certified\" status.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "American Board of Internal Medicine.", "content": "The following are the subspecialties recognized by the American Board of Internal Medicine.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "American College of Osteopathic Internists.", "content": "The American College of Osteopathic Internists recognizes the following subspecialties:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "In the United Kingdom, the three medical Royal Colleges (the Royal College of Physicians of London, the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh and the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow) are responsible for setting curricula and training programmes through the Joint Royal Colleges Postgraduate Training Board (JRCPTB), although the process is monitored and accredited by the General Medical Council (which also maintains the specialist register).  Doctors who have completed medical school spend two years in foundation training completing a basic postgraduate curriculum. After two years of Core Medical Training (CT1/CT2) and attaining the Membership of the Royal College of Physicians, physicians commit to one of the medical specialties:  Many training programmes provide dual accreditation with general (internal) medicine and are involved in the general care to hospitalised patients. These are acute medicine, cardiology, Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, endocrinology and diabetes mellitus, gastroenterology, infectious diseases, renal medicine, respiratory medicine and often, rheumatology. The role of general medicine, after a period of decline, was reemphasised by the Royal College of Physicians of London report from the Future Hospital Commission (2013).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medical diagnosis and treatment.", "content": "Medicine is mainly focused on the art of diagnosis and treatment with medication, but many subspecialties administer procedural treatment:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Internal medicine or general internal medicine (in Commonwealth nations) is the medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of internal diseases. Physicians specializing in internal medicine are called internists, or physicians (without a modifier) in Commonwealth nations. Internists are skilled in the management of patients who have undifferentiated or multi-system disease processes. Internists care for hospitalized and ambulatory patients and may play a major role in teaching and research. Of note is that internal medicine and family medicine are often confused as equal in the Commonwealth nations (see below).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971095}
{"src_title": "Baltiysk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Old Prussian village.", "content": "Baltiysk was originally the site of an Old Prussian fishing village that was established on the coast of the Vistula Spit at some point in the 13th century. The village was named as \"Pile\" or \"Pil\" in several documents, possibly taking its name from \"pils\" the Old Prussian language word for fort. It was eventually conquered by the Teutonic Knights, with the name evolving into the German form of Pillau. In 1497, a storm surge dug a new gat in front of the village, and another large storm created the navigable Strait of Baltiysk through the gat on September 10, 1510. This fostered the growth of Pillau into an important port of the Duchy of Prussia, and a blockhouse was constructed in 1537, followed by a system of storehouses in 1543, and the earliest fortifications in 1550. During the Thirty Years' War, the harbor was occupied by Sweden in the aftermath of their victory over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and King Gustavus Adolphus landed there with his reinforcements in May 1626. After the ceasefire of Altmark in 1629, the Swedes retained Pillau and set out upgrading its fortifications, constructing a star fort which remains one of the town's landmarks. In 1635, the citizens of Pillau paid the ransom of 10,000 thalers, whereupon Swedish forces handed over the settlement to the Elector of Brandenburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prussian town.", "content": "By the end of the 17th century, Pillau had expanded considerably, and a lighthouse and a stone church were built. Peter the Great, the Tsar of Russia, visited Pillau on three occasions, the first being in 1697 in connection with his Grand Embassy to Western Europe. A statue of the Peter the Great currently stands next to the lighthouse. After Pillau was granted town privileges in 1725, the Baroque-style town hall was constructed and inaugurated in May 1745, but was destroyed at the end of World War II. Russian forces occupied the town during the Seven Years' War and built a small Orthodox church there, with the event commemorated by the equestrian statue of Empress Elizabeth, unveiled in 2004. In June 1807, Pillau was stormed by Napoleon's Grande Armée during the Napoleonic Wars, although no outstanding events took place during the rest of the 19th century. Records of a Scottish \"colony\" established in Pillau in 1815 appeared in an 1890 publication, although their authenticity is questionable. The lighthouse was built up to a height of and the entire fortress was updated and rebuilt by the Prussians in 1871.  The importance of Pillau declined from November 15, 1901, when a shipping canal was opened linking the Vistula Lagoon near Zimmerbude (now Svetly) to Königsberg. Pillau's economy was heavily based on large shipping vessels being forced to dock in the town due to the shallow depth of the lagoon near Königsberg, the capital and the largest city of East Prussia, and the goods would then be transported from Pillau to Königsberg by other means. Constructed at a huge cost of thirteen million marks, the canal allowed vessels of a draught to moor alongside the city or to sail directly to Königsberg without stopping at Pillau, causing a serious decline to the town's economy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "During World War II, Pillau had a U-boat training facility, and on April 16, 1945, the was sunk by Red Army artillery fire while she was docked near the electricity supply pier in Pillau port, and was the only U-boat to be ever sunk by land-based forces in World War II. As the Red Army entered East Prussia, more than 450,000 refugees were ferried from Pillau to central and western Germany, with the town eventually being captured by Soviets on April 25, 1945.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern Baltiysk.", "content": "After the war, Pillau was included in the northern part of East Prussia passed to the Soviet Union that became Kaliningrad Oblast, and the German inhabitants were expelled. During the Russification campaign, the town's name was changed to Baltiysk in 1946.  In 1952, the Soviet authorities inaugurated a naval base for the Baltic Fleet of the Soviet Navy at Baltiysk, and as a result it became a closed town with access was forbidden to foreigners or those without a permit. During the Cold War it was served by the Baltiysk Air Base. The town, along with Kaliningrad, remains one of only two year-round ice-free ports along the Baltic Sea coastline available to Russia.  In 2019, on a wave of anti-Western sentiment following Russia's annexation of Crimea, there were calls to change the town's German-era coat of arms, which features a sturgeon wearing the crown of King Frederick William I of Prussia. The historic arms had been granted to the town, then known as Pillau, in 1725.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Baltiysk serves as the administrative center of Baltiysky District. As an administrative division, it is, together with two rural localities, incorporated within Baltiysky District as the town of district significance of Baltiysk. As a municipal division, the town of district significance of Baltiysk is incorporated within Baltiysky Municipal District as Baltiyskoye Urban Settlement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Baltiysk has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen \"Cfb\" borders on \"Dfb\"). Winters are cold to mild, while summers are warm. In July and August, the warmest season, high temperatures average and low temperatures average. In January and February, the coldest season, high temperatures average with low temperatures averaging.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "Historical buildings in and around the town include the pentagonal Pillau Citadel, founded by the Swedes in 1626, completed by the Prussians in 1670, renovated in 1870, and currently holding a naval museum; the ruins of the 13th-century Lochstadt Castle; a maze of 19th-century naval fortifications; the Naval Cathedral of St. George (1866); the Expressionist observation tower (1932); the Gothic Revival building of the Baltic Fleet Museum (1903); and an elegant lighthouse, dating from 1813-1816. A stone cross, erected in 1830 to commemorate the supposed spot of St. Adalbert of Prague's martyrdom, was destroyed by the Soviets and restored a millennium after the event, in 1997.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Baltiysk is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Baltiysk (), prior to 1946 known by its German name Pillau (; ; Yiddish: פּילאַווע, \"Pilave\"), is a seaport town and the administrative center of Baltiysky District in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the northern part of the Vistula Spit, on the shore of the Strait of Baltiysk separating the Vistula Lagoon from Gdańsk Bay. Population:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971096}
{"src_title": "Chernyakhovsk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Chernyakhovsk was founded in 1336 by the Teutonic Knights on the site of a former Old Prussian fortification when Dietrich von Altenburg, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, built a castle called Insterburg following the Prussian Crusade. During the Teutonic Knights' Northern Crusades campaign against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the town was devastated in 1376 and then again by Polish troops in 1457. The castle had been rebuilt as the seat of a Procurator and a settlement also named Insterburg grew up to serve it.  When the Prussian Duke Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach in 1525 secularized the monastic State of the Teutonic Order, Insterburg became part of the Duchy of Prussia and was granted town privileges on 10 October 1583 by the Prussian regent Margrave George Frederick. Insterburg became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, and because the area had been depopulated by plague in the early 18th century, King Frederick William I of Prussia invited Protestant refugees who had been expelled from the Archbishopric of Salzburg to settle in Insterburg in 1732.  In 1818, after the Napoleonic Wars, the town became the seat of Insterburg District within the Gumbinnen Region. Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly died at Insterburg in 1818 on his way from his Livonian manor to Germany, where he wanted to renew his health. In 1863, a Polish secret organization was founded and operated in Insterburg, which was involved in arms trafficking to the Russian Partition of Poland during the January Uprising. Since May 1864, the leader of the organization was Józef Racewicz. Insterburg became a part of the German Empire following the 1871 unification of Germany, and on May 1, 1901, it became an independent city separate from Insterburg District. During World War I the Russian Army seized Insterburg on 24 August 1914, but it was retaken by Germany on 11 September 1914. The Weimar Germany era after World War I saw the town separated from the rest of the country as the province of East Prussia had become an exclave. The association football club Yorck Boyen Insterburg was formed in 1921. During World War II, Insterburg was heavily bombed by the British Royal Air Force on July 27, 1944. The town was stormed by Red Army troops on January 21–22, 1945. As part of the northern part of East Prussia, Insterburg was transferred from Germany to the Soviet Union after the war as previously agreed between the victorious powers at the Potsdam Conference. The German population was either evacuated or expelled and replaced with Russians. In 7 April 1946, Insterburg was renamed as Chernyakhovsk in honor of the Soviet World War II Army General, Ivan Chernyakhovsky, who commanded the army that first entered East Prussia in 1944.  After 1989, a group of people introduced the Akhal-Teke horse breed to the area and opened an Akhal-Teke breeding stable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Chernyakhovsk serves as the administrative center of Chernyakhovsky District. As an administrative division, it is, together with five rural localities, incorporated within Chernyakhovsky District as the town of district significance of Chernyakhovsk. As a municipal division, the town of district significance of Chernyakhovsk is incorporated within Chernyakhovsky Municipal District as Chernyakhovskoye Urban Settlement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military.", "content": "Chernyakhovsk is home to the Chernyakhovsk naval air facility.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat of Arms Controversy.", "content": "On September 2019 the local court ruled that the coat of arms was illegal because it carries \"elements of foreign culture.\" The local court alleged that Russian laws do not allow the use of foreign languages and symbols in Russian state symbols and ordered the town \"to remove any violations of the law.\"  The town's coat of arms, adopted in 2002, was based on the historic coat of arms of the town that before 1946 was known under its original Prussian name - Insterburg.  The full version of coat of arms in question has a picture of a Prussian man with a horn and the Latin initials G.F. for the Regent of Prussia George Frederick, margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1543–1603), who gave Insterburg the status of town and with it his family coat of arms.  The case brought before the court follows a trend among several towns in the region that have announced their intentions to change their coat of arms as tensions mount between Russia and the West following Moscow's annexation of Ukraine's Crimea in 2014 and its support for pro-Russian separatists in Ukraine's east.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Chernyakhovsk is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chernyakhovsk () – known prior to 1946 by its German name of (; ) – is a town in the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia, where it is the administrative center of Chernyakhovsky District. Located at the confluence of the Instruch and Angrapa Rivers, which unite to become the Pregolya River below Chernyakhovsk, the town had a population in 2017 of 36,423.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971097}
{"src_title": "Mikhail Kalinin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin was born to a peasant family of ethnic Russian origin in the village of Verkhnyaya Troitsa (), Tver Governorate, Russia. He was the elder brother of Fedor Kalinin.  Kalinin finished his education at a local school in 1889 and worked for a time on a farm. He moved to Saint Petersburg, where he found employment as a metal worker in 1895. He also worked as a butler and then as a railway worker at Tbilisi depot, where he met Sergei Alliluyev, the father of Stalin's second wife.  In 1906, he married the ethnic Jew Ekaterina Lorberg who originated from Estonia ( (, 1882–1960).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early political career.", "content": "Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) in 1898, the year of its foundation. He came to know Stalin through the Alliluyev family.  During the Russian Revolution of 1905, Kalinin worked for the Bolshevik party and on the staff of the Central Union of Metal Workers. He later became active on behalf of the RSDLP in Tiflis, Georgia (now Tbilisi), Reval, Estonia (now Tallinn), and Moscow. In April 1906 he served as a delegate at the 4th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party.  Kalinin was an early and devoted adherent of the Bolshevik faction of the RSDLP, headed by Vladimir Lenin. He was a delegate to the 1912 Bolshevik Party Conference held in Prague, where he was elected an alternate member of the governing Central Committee and sent to work inside Russia. He did not become a full member because he was suspected of being an Okhrana agent (the real agent was Roman Malinovsky, a full member).  Kalinin was arrested for his political activities in 1916 and freed during the February Revolution of 1917, which overthrew the tsarist state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russian Revolutions.", "content": "Kalinin joined the Petrograd Bolshevik committee and assisted in the organization of the party daily \"Pravda,\" now legalized by the new regime.  In April 1917 Kalinin, like many other Bolsheviks, advocated conditional support for the Provisional Government in cooperation with the Menshevik faction of the RSDLP, a position at odds with that of Lenin. He continued to oppose an armed uprising to overthrow the government of Alexander Kerensky throughout that summer.  In the elections held for the Petrograd City Duma in autumn 1917, Kalinin was chosen as mayor of the city, which he administered during and after the Bolshevik Revolution of 7 November.  In 1919, Kalinin was elected a member of the governing Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party as well as a candidate member of the Politburo. He was promoted to full membership on the Politburo in January 1926, a position which he retained until his death in 1946.  When Yakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov died in March 1919 (from influenza, a beating or poisoning; sources differ), Kalinin replaced him as President of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the titular head of state of Soviet Russia. The name of this position was changed to Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR in 1922 and to Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet in 1938. Kalinin continued to hold the post without interruption until his retirement at the end of World War II.  In 1920, Kalinin attended the Second World Congress of the Communist International in Moscow as part of the Russian delegation. He was seated on the presidium rostrum and took an active part in the debates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet Union.", "content": "Kalinin was a factional ally of Stalin during the bitter struggle for power after the death of Lenin in 1924. He delivered a report on Lenin and the Comintern to the Fifth World Congress in 1924.  Kalinin was one of the comparatively few members of Stalin's inner circle springing from peasant origins. The lowly social origins were widely publicised in the official press, which habitually referred to Kalinin as the \"All-Union headman\" (Всесоюзный староста), a term hearkening to the village commune, in conjunction with his role as titular head of state. In practical terms, by the 1930s, Kalinin's role as a decision-maker in the Soviet government was nominal.  He held little power or influence beyond receiving diplomatic letters from abroad. Recalling him, future Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev said, \"I don't know what practical work Kalinin carried out under Lenin. But under Stalin he was the nominal signatory of all decrees, while in reality he rarely took part in government business. Sometimes he was made a member of a commission, but people didn't take his opinion into account very much. It was embarrassing for us to see this; one simply felt sorry for Mikhail Ivanovich.\"  On 5 March 1940, six members of the Soviet Politburo—Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Lazar Kaganovich, Kliment Voroshilov, Anastas Mikoyan, and Mikhail Kalinin—signed an order to execute 25,700 Polish \"nationalists and counterrevolutionaries\" kept at camps and prisons in occupied western Ukraine and Belarus, part of the Katyn massacre.  Kalinin was unable to protect even his own wife. Ekaterina Kalinina, who was critical of Stalin's policies, and was arrested on 25 October 1938 on charges of being a \"Trotskyist\". Although her husband was the chair of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (1938–46), she was tortured in Lefortovo Prison and on 22 April 1939, she was sentenced to fifteen years of imprisonment in a labour camp. She was released shortly before her husband's death in 1946.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Kalinin retired in 1946 and died of cancer on 3 June of that same year in Moscow. Kalinin was honoured with a major state funeral and was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis.  Three large cities (Tver, Korolyov and Königsberg) were named or renamed in his honour; only the last of those, Kaliningrad, has retained the name after the fall of the Soviet Union.  Kalinin coal mine was excavated in 1961 and named after M. I. Kalinin.  Kalinin Square and Kalinin Street which were named after Kalinin are located in Minsk, Belarus. The Kalinin avenue in Dnipro, Ukraine was renamed into Prospekt Serhiy Nigoyan in January 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin (; 3 June 1946), known familiarly by Soviet citizens as \"Kalinych\", was a Bolshevik revolutionary and a Soviet politician. He served as head of state of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and later of the Soviet Union from 1919 to 1946. From 1926, he was a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971098}
{"src_title": "Lusatian Mountains", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The range is among the westernmost extensions of the Sudetes, which stretch along the border between the historic region of Silesia in the north, and Bohemia and Moravia in the south up to the Moravian Gate in the east, where they join the Carpathian Mountains. The northwestern foothills of the Lusatian Mountains are called the Lusatian Highlands; in the southwest the range borders on the České Středohoří mountains.  The range is largely made up of sandstone sedimentary rocks leaning on a Precambrian crystalline basement. The northern ridge is marked by the Lusatian Fault, a geological disturbance zone separating the Bohemian sandstones from the Lusatian granodiorite. During the Tertiary volcanic magma streams broke through the sandstone layer and solidified into basalt and phonolite. Several sandstone contact areas were also hardened to columns and distinct rock formations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mountains and hills.", "content": "The highest peak is the Lausche (793 m). Other notable peaks include the Pěnkavčí vrch (792m), Jedlová (774m), Klíč (760m), Hochwald (750m) and Studenec (736m).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Protections.", "content": "The Czech part of the Lusatian Mountains have been a nature reserve since 1976, covering an area of 264 km2. Administratively it is known as the Lusatian Mountains Protected Landscape Area (\"CHKO Lužické hory\") and has the status of CHKO, a so-called Landscape park. The smaller German part of the mountains also became a nature protection in 2008, when the Zittau Mountain Nature Park was established, with the effect that the entire Lusatian Mountains is now under some form of nature protection.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lusatian Mountains (; ; ) are a mountain range of the Western Sudetes on the southeastern border of Germany with the Czech Republic. They are a continuation of the Ore Mountains range west of the Elbe valley. The mountains of the northern, German, part are called the Zittau Mountains.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971099}
{"src_title": "Beskids", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The origin of the name \"beskydy\" has not been conclusively established. A Thracian or Illyrian origin has been suggested, however, as yet, no theory has majority support among linguists. The word appears in numerous mountain names throughout the Carpathians and the adjacent Balkan regions, like in Albanian \"bjeshkë\". The Slovak name \"Beskydy\" refers to the Polish Bieszczady Mountains, which is not a synonym for the entire Beskids but one single range, belonging to the Eastern Beskids. According to another linguistic theory, it may be related to Middle Low German \"beshêt\", \"beskēt\", meaning watershed.  Historically, the term was used for hundreds of years to describe the mountain range separating the old Kingdom of Hungary from the old Kingdom of Poland. In 1269, the Beskids were known by the Latin name \"\"Beschad Alpes Poloniae\"\" (translated as: \"Beskid Mountains of Poland\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition.", "content": "The Beskids are approximately 600 km in length and 50–70 km in width. They stand mainly along the southern border of Lesser Poland with northern Slovakia, stretching to the Moravia and Czech Silesia regions of the eastern Czech Republic and to Carpathian Ruthenia in western Ukraine. Parts form the European Watershed, separating the Oder and Vistula basins in the north from the Eastern Slovak Lowland, part of the Great Hungarian Plain drained by the Danube River.  Geologically all of the Beskids stand within the Outer Western Carpathians and the Outer Eastern Carpathians. In the west they begin at the natural pass of the Moravian Gate, which separates them from the Eastern Sudetes, continue east in a band to the north of the Tatra Mountains, and end in Ukraine. The eastern termination of the Beskids is disputed. According to older sources, the Beskids end at the source of the Tisza River, while newer sources state that the Beskids end at the Uzhok Pass at the Polish-Ukrainian border.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "Multiple traditions, languages and nationalities have developed overlapping variants for the divisions and names of the Beskid ranges. According to the divisions of the Carpathians, they are categorized within:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eastern Beskids.", "content": "Eastern Beskids are divided into two parallel ridges: \"Wooded Beskids\" and \"Polonynian Beskids\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Infrastructure.", "content": "The Beskids are currently rich in forest and coal. In the past they were rich in iron ore, with important plants in Ostrava and Třinec – Třinec Iron and Steel Works.  There are many tourist attractions, including historic wooden churches (see Wooden Churches of Southern Little Poland, Carpathian Wooden Churches of Slovakia, and Wooden Churches of Ukraine) and the increasingly popular skiing resorts.  A number of environmental groups support a small but growing population of bears, wolves and lynx in the ecosystem of the Beskidy mountains. The Central Beskids include the Polish Babia Góra National Park and the adjacent Slovak Horná Orava Protected Landscape Area.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Beskids or Beskid Mountains (,,, (\"Beskydŷ\"), (\"Beskydy\")) are a series of mountain ranges in the Carpathians, stretching from the Czech Republic in the west along the border of Poland with Slovakia up to Ukraine in the east.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971100}
{"src_title": "High Tatras", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The mountain range borders the Belianske Tatras to the east, the Podtatranská kotlina to the south, and the Western Tatras to the west. Most of the range, and all the highest peaks, are in Slovakia. The highest peak is Gerlachovský štít, at.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natural history.", "content": "The High Tatras, having 29 peaks over AMSL are, with the Southern Carpathians, the only mountain ranges with an alpine character and habitats in the entire length of the Carpathian Mountains system. The first European cross-border national park was founded here—Tatra National Park—with Tatra National Park (\"Tatranský národný park\") in Slovakia in 1948, and Tatra National Park (\"Tatrzański Park Narodowy\") in Poland in 1954. The adjacent parks protect UNESCO's trans-border Tatra Biosphere Reserve. Many rare and endemic animals and plant species are native to the High Tatras. They include the Tatras' endemic goat-antelope and critically endangered species, the Tatra chamois (\"Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica\"). Predators include Eurasian brown bear, Eurasian lynx, marten, wolf and fox. The Alpine marmot is common in the range. Flora of the High Tatras includes: the endemic Tatra scurvy-grass (\"Cochlearia tatrae\"), yellow mountain saxifrage (\"Saxifraga aizoides\"), ground covering net-leaved willow (\"Salix reticulata\"), Norway spruce (\"Picea abies\"), Swiss pine (\"Pinus cembra\"), and European larch (\"Larix decidua\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Peaks.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Highest peaks.", "content": "The 15 highest peaks of the High Tatras—all located in Slovakia—are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The area is well known for winter sports. Ski resorts include Štrbské pleso, Starý Smokovec and Tatranská Lomnica in Slovakia, and Zakopane in Poland. The town of Poprad is the gateway to the Slovak Tatra resorts.  The Górale people (\"highlanders\"), a group of indigenous people with a distinctive traditional culture, are of the High Tatras and other mountain ranges and valleys in the Tatra Mountains region.  Ludwig Greiner identified Gerlachovský štít (Gerlachovský Peak) () as the highest summit of the Tatra Mountains, and the entire Carpathian Mountains system. It is also the highest point of Slovakia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The High Tatras or High Tatra Mountains (Slovak: Vysoké Tatry; ; ; ), are a mountain range along the border of northern Slovakia in the Prešov Region, and southern Poland in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. They are a range of the Tatra Mountains chain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971101}
{"src_title": "Namur", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The town began as an important trading settlement in Celtic times, straddling east-west and north-south trade routes across the Ardennes. The Romans established a presence after Julius Caesar defeated the local Aduatuci tribe.  Namur came to prominence during the early Middle Ages when the Merovingians built a castle or citadel on the rocky spur overlooking the town at the confluence of the two rivers. In the 10th century, it became a county in its own right. The town developed somewhat unevenly, as the counts of Namur could only build on the north bank of the Meuse - the south bank was owned by the bishops of Liège and developed more slowly into the town of Jambes (now effectively a suburb of Namur). In 1262, Namur fell into the hands of the Count of Flanders, and was purchased by Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy in 1421.  After Namur became part of the Spanish Netherlands in the 1640s, its citadel was considerably strengthened. Louis XIV of France invaded in 1692, capturing the town and annexing it to France. His renowned military engineer Vauban rebuilt the citadel. French control was short-lived, as William III of Orange-Nassau captured Namur only three years later in 1695 during the War of the Grand Alliance. Under the Barrier Treaty of 1709, the Dutch gained the right to garrison Namur, although the subsequent Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 gave control of the formerly Spanish Netherlands to the Austrian House of Habsburg. Thus, although the Austrians ruled the town, the citadel was controlled by the Dutch. It was rebuilt again under their tenure.  General Jean-Baptiste Cyrus de Valence's column laid siege to the city on 19 November 1792 during the War of the First Coalition and, after 12 days, the city surrendered on 1 December and its whole garrison of 3,000 men was taken prisoner. France invaded the region again in 1794, annexing Namur and imposing a repressive regime. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the Congress of Vienna incorporated what is now Belgium into the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Belgium broke away from the Netherlands in 1830 following the Belgian Revolution, and Namur continued to be a major garrison town under the new government. The citadel was rebuilt yet again in 1887.  Namur was a major target of the German invasion of Belgium in 1914, which sought to use the Meuse valley as a route into France. On August 21, 1914, the Germans bombarded the town of Namur without warning. Several people were killed. Despite being billed as virtually impregnable, the citadel fell after only three days' fighting and the town was occupied by the Germans for the rest of the war. Namur fared little better in World War II; it was in the front lines of both the Battle of the Ardennes in 1940 and the Battle of the Bulge in 1944. The town suffered heavy damage in both wars.  Namur continued to host the Belgian Army's paratroopers until their departure in 1977.  After the creation of the Walloon Region, Namur was chosen as the seat of its executive and parliament. In 1986, Namur was officially declared capital of Wallonia. Its position as regional capital was confirmed by the Parliament of Wallonia in 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Namur is an important commercial and industrial centre, located on the Walloon industrial backbone, the Sambre and Meuse valley. It produces machinery, leather goods, metals and porcelain. Its railway station is also an important junction situated on the north-south line between Brussels and Luxembourg City, and the east-west line between Lille and Liège. River barge traffic passes through the middle of the city along the Meuse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture and sights.", "content": "Namur has taken on a new role as the capital of the federal region of Wallonia. Its location at the head of the Ardennes has also made it a popular tourist centre, with a casino located in its southern district on the left bank of the Meuse.  The town's most prominent sight is the citadel, now demilitarised and open to the public. Namur also has a distinctive 18th-century cathedral dedicated to Saint Aubain and a belfry classified by UNESCO as part of the Belfries of Belgium and France which are listed as a World Heritage Site.  The Couvent des Soeurs de Notre-Dame used to contain masterpieces of Mosan art by Hugo d'Oignies, currently presented in the Musée des Arts Anciens (Rue de Fer). Elsewhere there is an archeological museum and a museum dedicated to Félicien Rops.  An odd Namurois custom is the annual Combat de l'Échasse d'Or (\"Fight for the Golden Stilt\"), held on the third Sunday in September. Two teams, the Mélans and the Avresses, dress in medieval clothes while standing on stilts and do battle in one of the town's principal squares.  Namur possesses a distinguished university, the University of Namur (previously known as the Facultés universitaires Notre-Dame de la Paix, FUNDP), founded in 1831. The University of Louvain (UCLouvain) also has several facilities in the city through its UCLouvain Namur University Hospital (CHU UCLouvain Namur), the provinces' largest employer.  Since 1986 Namur has been home to the Namur International Festival of French-Speaking Film. A jazz (Nam'in'Jazz) and a rock (Verdur Rock) festival both take place in Namur annually.  The local football team is named Union Royale Namur.  The local baseball team is named Namur Angels.  The annual Namur cyclo-cross race, part of the UCI Cyclo-cross World Cup, takes place on the hills around the citadel.  Sights near Namur include Maredsous Abbey, Floreffe Abbey, and Annevoie Castle with its surrounding \"Jardins d'Annevoie\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Namur is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Namur (, ; ; ) is a city and municipality in Wallonia, Belgium. It is both the capital of the province of Namur and of Wallonia, hosting the Parliament of Wallonia, Walloon Government and administration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971102}
{"src_title": "Marcus Terentius Varro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Varro was born in or near Reate (now Rieti) to a family thought to be of equestrian rank, and always remained close to his roots in the area, owning a large farm in the Reatine plain, reported as near Lago di Ripa Sottile, until his old age. He supported Pompey, reaching the office of praetor, after having been tribune of the people, \"quaestor\" and \"curule aedile\". He was one of the commission of twenty that carried out the great agrarian scheme of Caesar for the resettlement of Capua and Campania (59 BC). During Caesar's civil war he commanded one of Pompey's armies in the Ilerda campaign. He escaped the penalties of being on the losing side in the civil war through two pardons granted by Julius Caesar, before and after the Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar later appointed him to oversee the public library of Rome in 47 BC, but following Caesar's death Mark Antony proscribed him, resulting in the loss of much of his property, including his library. As the Republic gave way to Empire, Varro gained the favour of Augustus, under whose protection he found the security and quiet to devote himself to study and writing.  Varro studied under the Roman philologist Lucius Aelius Stilo, and later at Athens under the Academic philosopher Antiochus of Ascalon. Varro proved to be a highly productive writer and turned out more than 74 Latin works on a variety of topics. Among his many works, two stand out for historians; \"Nine Books of Disciplines\" and his compilation of the \"Varronian chronology\". His \"Nine Books of Disciplines\" became a model for later encyclopedists, especially Pliny the Elder. The most noteworthy portion of the \"Nine Books of Disciplines\" is its use of the liberal arts as organizing principles. Varro decided to focus on identifying nine of these arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture. Using Varro's list, subsequent writers defined the seven classical \"liberal arts of the medieval schools\".  In 37 BC, in his old age, he also wrote on agriculture for his wife Fundania, writing a \"voluminous\" work \"De re rustica\" (also called \"Res rusticae\")—similar to Cato the Elder's similar work \"De agri cultura\"—on the management of large slave-run estates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calendars.", "content": "The compilation of the \"Varronian chronology\" was an attempt to determine an exact year-by-year timeline of Roman history up to his time. It is based on the traditional sequence of the consuls of the Roman Republic—supplemented, where necessary, by inserting \"dictatorial\" and \"anarchic\" years. It has been demonstrated to be somewhat erroneous but has become the widely accepted standard chronology, in large part because it was inscribed on the arch of Augustus in Rome; though that arch no longer stands, a large portion of the chronology has survived under the name of \"Fasti Capitolini.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Varro's literary output was prolific; Ritschl estimated it at 74 works in some 620 books, of which only one work survives complete, although we possess many fragments of the others, mostly in Gellius' \"Attic Nights\". He was called \"the most learned of the Romans\" by Quintilian, and also recognized by Plutarch as \"a man deeply read in Roman history\".  Varro was recognized as an important source by many other ancient authors, among them Cicero, Pliny the Elder, Virgil in the \"Georgics\", Columella, Aulus Gellius, Macrobius, Augustine, and Vitruvius, who credits him (VII.Intr.14) with a book on architecture.  His only complete work extant, \"Rerum rusticarum libri tres\" (\"Three Books on Agriculture\"), has been described as \"the well digested system of an experienced and successful farmer who has seen and practised all that he records.\"  One noteworthy aspect of the work is his anticipation of microbiology and epidemiology. Varro warned his contemporaries to avoid swamps and marshland, since in such areas ...there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, but which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and cause serious diseases.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Known lost works.", "content": "Most of the extant fragments of these works (mostly the grammatical works) can be found in the Goetz–Schoell edition of \"De Lingua Latina\", pp. 199–242; in the collection of Wilmanns, pp. 170–223; and in that of Funaioli, pp. 179–371.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Marcus Terentius Varro (; 116–27 BC) was one of ancient Rome's greatest scholars and a prolific author. He is sometimes called Varro Reatinus () to distinguish him from his younger contemporary Varro Atacinus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971103}
{"src_title": "Electrum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"electrum\" is the Latinized form of the Greek word ἤλεκτρον (\"ḗlektron\"), mentioned in the \"Odyssey\" referring to a metallic substance consisting of gold alloyed with silver. The same word was also used for the substance amber, likely because of the pale yellow colour of certain varieties. It is from amber's electrostatic properties that the modern English words \"electron\" and \"electricity\" are derived. Electrum was often referred to as \"white gold\" in ancient times, but could be more accurately described as \"pale gold\", as it is usually pale yellow or yellowish-white in colour. The modern use of the term \"white gold\" usually concerns gold alloyed with any one or a combination of nickel, silver, platinum and palladium to produce a silver-coloured gold.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "Electrum consists primarily of gold and silver but is sometimes found with traces of platinum, copper, and other metals. The name is mostly applied informally to compositions between about 20–80% gold and 20–80% silver atoms, but these are strictly called gold or silver depending on the dominant element. Analysis of the composition of electrum in ancient Greek coinage dating from about 600 BC shows that the gold content was about 55.5% in the coinage issued by Phocaea. In the early classical period, the gold content of electrum ranged from 46% in Phokaia to 43% in Mytilene. In later coinage from these areas, dating to 326 BC, the gold content averaged 40% to 41%. In the Hellenistic period, electrum coins with a regularly decreasing proportion of gold were issued by the Carthaginians. In the later Eastern Roman Empire controlled from Constantinople, the purity of the gold coinage was reduced, and an alloy that can be called electrum began to be used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Electrum is mentioned in an account of an expedition sent by Pharaoh Sahure of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt. It is also discussed by Pliny the Elder in his \"Naturalis Historia\". Electrum is also mentioned in the Hebrew Scriptures, whose prophet Ezekiel is said to have had a vision of Jehovah on a celestial chariot (Ezekiel 1:4).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early coinage.", "content": "The earliest known electrum coins, Lydian and East Greek coins found under the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, are currently dated to the last quarter of the 7th century BC (625-600 BC). Electrum is believed to have been used in coins c.600 BC in Lydia during the reign of Alyattes. Electrum was much better for coinage than gold, mostly because it was harder and more durable, but also because techniques for refining gold were not widespread at the time. The discrepancy between gold content of electrum from modern Western Anatolia (70–90%) and ancient Lydian coinage (45–55%) suggests that the Lydians had already solved the refining technology for silver and were adding refined silver to the local native electrum some decades before introducing the pure silver coins cited below.  In Lydia, electrum was minted into coins weighing, each valued at 1/3 \"stater\" (meaning \"standard\"). Three of these coins—with a weight of about —totaled one stater, about one month's pay for a soldier. To complement the stater, fractions were made: the \"trite\" (third), the \"hekte\" (sixth), and so forth, including 1/24 of a stater, and even down to 1/48 and 1/96 of a stater. The 1/96 stater was only about to. Larger denominations, such as a one stater coin, were minted as well.  Because of variation in the composition of electrum, it was difficult to determine the exact worth of each coin. Widespread trading was hampered by this problem, as the intrinsic value of each electrum coin could not be easily determined.  These difficulties were eliminated circa 570 BC when the Croeseids, coins of pure gold and silver were introduced. However, electrum currency remained common until approximately 350 BC. The simplest reason for this was that, because of the gold content, one 14.1 gram stater was worth as much as ten 14.1 gram silver pieces.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Electrum is a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, with trace amounts of copper and other metals. The ancient Greeks called it 'gold' or 'white gold', as opposed to'refined gold'. Its colour ranges from pale to bright yellow, depending on the proportions of gold and silver. It has also been produced artificially, and is often known as green gold.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971104}
{"src_title": "Vitebsk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Before 1945.", "content": "Vitebsk developed from a river harbor where the Vićba River (Віцьба, from which it derives its name) flows into the larger Western Dvina, which is spanned in the city by the Kirov Bridge.  Archaeological research indicates that Baltic tribes had settlements at the mouth of Vitba. In the 9th century, Slavic settlements of the tribal union of the Krivichs replaced them. According to the \"Chronicle of Michael Brigandine\" (1760), Princess Olga of Kiev founded Vitebsk (also recorded as Dbesk, Vidbesk, Videbsk, Vitepesk, or Vicibesk) in 974. Other versions give 947 or 914. Academician Boris Rybakov and historian Leonid Alekseyev have come to the conclusion, based on the chronicles, that Princess Olga of Kiev could have established Vitebsk in 947. Leonid Alekseyev suggested that the chroniclers, when transferring the date from the account of the Byzantine era (since the creation of the world) to a new era, obtained the year 947, later mistakenly written in copying manuscripts as 974. An important place on trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, Vitebsk became by the end of the 12th century a center of trade and commerce, and the center of an independent principality, following Polotsk, and at times, Smolensk and Kiev princes.  The official year of the founding of Vitebsk is 974, based on an anachronistic legend of founding by Olga of Kiev, but the first mention in historical records dates from 1021, when Yaroslav the Wise of Kiev gave it to Bryachislav Izyaslavich, Prince of Polotsk.  In the 12th and 13th centuries Vitebsk functioned as the capital of the Principality of Vitebsk, an appanage principality which thrived at the crossroads of the river routes between the Baltic and Black seas. In 1320 the city was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as dowry of the Princess Maria, the first wife of Grand Duke of Lithuania Algirdas. By 1351 the city had erected a stone Upper and Lower Castle, the prince's palace. In 1410 Vitebsk participated in the Battle of Grunwald. In 1569 it became a part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1597 the townsfolk of Vitebsk were privileged with Magdeburg rights. However, the rights were taken away in 1623 after the citizens revolted against the imposed Union of Brest and killed Archbishop Josaphat Kuntsevych of Polotsk. The city was almost completely destroyed in 1708, during the Great Northern War. In the First Partition of Poland in 1772, the Russian Empire annexed Vitebsk.  Under the Russian Empire the historic centre of Vitebsk was rebuilt in the Neoclassical style.  Before World War II Vitebsk had a significant Jewish population: according to Russian census of 1897, out of the total population of 65,900, Jews constituted 34,400 (around 52% percent). The most famous of its Jewish natives was the painter Marc Chagall (1887-1985).  In 1919 Vitebsk was proclaimed to be part of the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia (January to February 1919), but was soon transferred to the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and later to the short-lived Lithuanian–Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (February to July 1919). In 1924 it was returned to the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.  During World War II the city came under Nazi German occupation (11 July 1941 – 26 June 1944). Much of the old city was destroyed in the ensuing battles between the Germans and Red Army soldiers. Most of the local Jews perished in the Vitebsk Ghetto massacre of October 1941. The Soviets recaptured the city during the 1944 Vitebsk–Orsha Offensive.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war period.", "content": "In the first postwar five-year period the city was rebuilt. Its industrial complex covered machinery, light industry, and machine tools.  In 1959 a TV tower was commissioned and started broadcasting the 1st Central Television program. In the same year, during excavations on Liberation Square, a birch-bark scroll was found dating from the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries. It read:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Independence of Belarus.", "content": "In January 1991 Vitebsk celebrated the first Marc Chagall Festival. In June 1992, a monument to Chagall was erected on his native Pokrovskaja Street and a memorial inscription was placed on the wall of his house.  Since 1992 Vitebsk has been hosting the annual Slavianski Bazaar in Vitebsk, an international art festival. The main participants are artists from Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, with guests from many other countries, both Slavic and non-Slavic. In 1999 a free economic zone \"Vitebsk\" was established. The city built the Ice Sports Palace, and there was a remarkable improvement and expansion in the city. The central stadium was reconstructed and the Summer Amphitheatre for the international art festival, the Slavic Bazaar, the railway station and other historical sites and facilities were restored, and a number of new churches and other public facilities were built, together with the construction of new residential areas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Attractions.", "content": "The city has one of the oldest buildings in the country: the Annunciation Church. This magnificent six-pillared building dates back to the period of Kievan Rus since the city at the time was pagan and didn't belong to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church or the Russian Orthodox Church or the Kievan Rus state. It was constructed in the 1140s as a pagan church, rebuilt in the 14th and 17th centuries as Roman Catholic Church, repaired in 1883 and destroyed by the Communist administration in 1961. The church was in ruins until 1992, when it was restored to its presumed original appearance.  Churches from the Polish-Lithuanian period were likewise destroyed, although the Resurrection Church (1772–77) has been rebuilt. The Orthodox cathedral, dedicated to the Intercession of the Theotokos, was erected in 1760. There are also the town hall (1775); the Russian governor's palace, where Napoleon celebrated his 43rd birthday in 1812; the Neo-Romanesque Roman Catholic cathedral (1884–85); and an obelisk commemorating the centenary of the Russian victory over Napoleon.  Vitebsk is also home to a lattice steel TV tower carrying a horizontal cross on which the antenna mast is guyed. This tower, which is nearly identical to that at Grodno, but a few metres shorter (245 metres in Vitebsk versus 254 metres at Grodno) was completed in 1983. The city is also home to the Marc Chagall Museum and the Vitebsk regional museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Vitebsk has warm summer humid continental climate, Köppen: \"Dfb\". Summers are generally warm, while winters are relatively cold but still warmer than in Moscow. Approximately 724 mm of precipitation falls here per annum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The main universities of Vitebsk are Vitebsk State Technological University, Vitebsk State Medical University and Vitebsk State University named in honor of Pyotr Masherov.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Website.", "content": "The website of the city of Vitebsk www.gorod212.by, a news portal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vitebsk, or Viciebsk (, Łacinka: \"Viciebsk\", ;, ), is a city in Belarus. The capital of the Vitebsk Region, it has 366,299 inhabitants, making it the country's fourth-largest city. It is served by Vitebsk Vostochny Airport and Vitebsk Air Base.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971105}
{"src_title": "Frankfurt Auschwitz trials", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prior trial in Poland.", "content": "Most of the senior leaders of the camp, including Rudolf Höss, the longest-standing commandant of the camp, were turned over to the Polish authorities in 1947 following their participation as witnesses in the Nuremberg Trial. Subsequently, the accused were tried in Kraków and many sentenced to death for violent crimes and torturing of prisoners. Only \"SS-Untersturmführer\" Hans Münch was set free, having been acquitted of war crimes. That original trial in Poland is usually known as the first Auschwitz Trial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Course of proceedings.", "content": "\"SS-Sturmbannführer\" Richard Baer, the last camp commandant, died in detention while still under investigation as part of the trials. Defendants ranged from members of the SS to \"kapos,\" privileged prisoners responsible for low-level control of camp internees, and included some of those responsible for the process of \"selection,\" or determination of who should be sent to the gas chambers directly from the \"ramp\" upon disembarking the trains that brought them from across Europe (\"selection\" generally entailed inclusion of all children held to be ineligible for work, generally under the age of 14, and any mothers unwilling to part with their \"selected\" children). In the course of the trial, approximately 360 witnesses were called, including around 210 survivors. Proceedings began in the \"Bürgerhaus Gallus\", in Frankfurt am Main, which was converted into a courthouse for that purpose, and remained there until their conclusion.  State Attorney General (Hessian Generalstaatsanwalt) Fritz Bauer, himself briefly interned in 1933 at the Heuberg concentration camp, led the prosecution. Bauer was concerned with pursuing individual defendants serving at Auschwitz-Birkenau; only 22 SS members were charged of an estimated 6,000 to 8,000 thought to have been involved in the administration and operation of the camp. The men on trial in Frankfurt were tried only for murders and other crimes that they committed on their own initiative at Auschwitz and were not tried for genocidal actions perpetrated \"when following orders\", considered by the courts to be the lesser crime of accomplice to murder.  At a 1963 trial, KGB assassin Bohdan Stashynsky, who had committed several murders in the Federal Republic in the 1950s, was found by a German court not legally guilty of murder. Instead, Stashynsky was found to be only an accomplice to murder as the courts ruled that the responsibility for his murders rested only with his superiors in the KGB who had given him his orders.  The legal implication of the Stashynsky case were that the courts had ruled that in a totalitarian system only executive decision-makers could be convicted of murder and that anyone who followed orders and killed someone could be convicted only of being accomplices to murder. The term executive decision-maker was so defined by the courts to apply only to the highest levels of the \"Reich\" leadership during the National Socialist period, and that all who just followed orders when killing were just accomplices to murder. Someone could be only convicted of murder if it was shown that they had killed someone on their own initiative, and thus all of the accused of murder at the Auschwitz trial were tried only for murders that they had done on their own initiative.  Thus, Bauer could only indict for murder those who killed when not following orders, and those who had killed while following orders could be indicted as accomplices to murder. Moreover, because of the legal distinction between murderers and accomplices to murder, this meant that an SS man who killed thousands while operating the gas chambers at Auschwitz could only be found guilty of being accomplice to murder because he had been following orders, while an SS man who had beaten one inmate to death on his own initiative could be convicted of murder because he had not been following orders.  Bauer is said to have been opposed in the former purpose by the young Helmut Kohl, then a junior member of the Christian Democratic Union. In furtherance of that purpose Bauer sought and received support from the Institute for Contemporary History in Munich. The following historians from the Institute served as expert witnesses for the prosecution; Helmut Krausnick, Hans-Adolf Jacobsen, Hans Buchheim, and Martin Broszat. Subsequently, the information the four historians gathered for the prosecution served as the basis for their 1968 book, \"Anatomy of the SS State\", the first thorough survey of the SS based on SS records.  Information about the actions of those accused and their whereabouts had been in the possession of West German authorities since 1958, but action on their cases was delayed by jurisdictional disputes, among other considerations. The court's proceedings were largely public and served to bring many details of the Holocaust to the attention of the public in the Federal Republic of Germany, as well as abroad. Six defendants were given life sentences and several others received the maximum prison sentences possible for the charges brought against them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Documentation.", "content": "The trial comprised 183 days of hearings held from 1963 to 1965. The 430 hours of the testimony of 319 witnesses, including 181 survivors of the Auschwitz concentration camp and 80 members of the camp staff, the SS, and the police were recorded on 103 tapes, and 454 volumes of files that were stored at the Hessian State Archives in Wiesbaden.  In 2017, the original magnetic tapes recording the main proceedings of the Frankfurt Auschwitz Trial, which focused the world's attention on the systemic industrialized mass-murder of the Holocaust, were submitted by Germany and included in UNESCO's Memory of the World Register.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outcomes.", "content": "The trial attracted much publicity in Germany, but was considered by Bauer to be a failure. Bauer complained that the media treated the accused in such a manner as to imply that they were all freakish monsters, which allowed the German public to distance themselves from feeling any moral guilt about what had happened at Auschwitz, which was instead presented as the work of a few sick people who were not at all like normal Germans. Moreover, Bauer felt that because the law treated those who had followed orders when killing as accomplices to murder it implied that the policy of genocide and the Nazi rules for treating inmates at Auschwitz were in fact legitimate.  Bauer wrote that the way that the media had portrayed the trial had supported the  Furthermore, Bauer charged that the judges, in convicting the accused, had made it appear that Germany in the Nazi era had been an occupied country, with most Germans having no choice but to follow orders. He said,  A public opinion poll conducted after the Frankfurt Auschwitz trials indicated that 57% of the German public were not in favor of additional Nazi trials.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Additional trial.", "content": "In September 1977 an additional trial was held in Frankfurt against two former members of the \"SS\" for killings in the Auschwitz satellite camp of Lagischa (Polish: Lagisza), and on the so-called \"evacuation\" (i.e. death march) from Golleschau (Goleszow) to Wodzisław Śląski (German: Loslau). This and the previous trial inspired the one in the film \"The Reader\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Frankfurt Auschwitz trials, known in German as \"der Auschwitz-Prozess\", or \"der zweite Auschwitz-Prozess,\" (the \"second Auschwitz trial\") was a series of trials running from 20 December 1963 to 19 August 1965, charging 22 defendants under German criminal law for their roles in the Holocaust as mid- to lower-level officials in the Auschwitz-Birkenau death and concentration camp complex. Hans Hofmeyer led as Chief Judge the \"criminal case against Mulka and others\" (reference number 4 Ks 2/63).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971106}
{"src_title": "Windows 2.0", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "Windows 2.0 allowed application windows to overlap each other, unlike its predecessor Windows 1.0, which could display only tiled windows. Windows 2.0 also introduced more sophisticated keyboard-shortcuts and the terminology of \"Minimize\" and \"Maximize\", as opposed to \"Iconize\" and \"Zoom\" in Windows 1.0. The basic window setup introduced here would last through Windows 3.1.  New features in Windows 2.0 included support for the new capabilities of the 80386 CPU (in some versions - see Editions), 16-color VGA graphics, and EMS memory support. It was also the last version of Windows that did not require a hard disk.  With the improved speed, reliability and usability, computers now started becoming a part of daily life for some workers. Desktop icons and use of keyboard shortcuts helped to speed up work.  The Windows 2.x EGA, VGA, and Tandy drivers notably provided a workaround in Windows 3.0 for users who wanted color graphics on 8086 machines (a feature that version normally did not support).  IBM licensed Windows's GUI for OS/2 as Presentation Manager, and the two companies stated that it and Windows 2.0 would be almost identical.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "Windows 2.0x came in two different variants with different names and CPU support. The first variant simply said \"Windows\" on the box, with a version number on the back distinguishing it from Windows 1.x. The second was billed on the box as \"Windows/386\"  This distinction continued to Windows 2.1x, where the naming convention changed to \"Windows/286\" and \"Windows/386\" to clarify that they were different versions of the same product.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Windows.", "content": "The base version of Windows 2.0 uses the HMA feature of the 80286 CPU to increase the memory available to Windows programs. It introduced the HIMEM.SYS DOS driver for this purpose. While this variant was renamed \"Windows/286\" in the 2.1 versions, both would run on an 8088 or 8086 processor, simply without HMA support.  Windows 2.0 also includes support for EMS, which works on 8086 and 8088 CPUs. The segmented nature of 16-bit Windows programs is quite suited to the usage of EMS, as portions of code and data can be made visible in the first megabyte of memory accessible to real-mode programs only when the program using them is given control. Microsoft encouraged users to configure their computers with only 256KB of main memory, leaving the address space from 256-640KB available for dynamic mapping of EMS memory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Windows/386.", "content": "Windows/386 was much more advanced than its 286 sibling. It introduced a protected mode kernel, above which the GUI and applications run as a virtual 8086 mode task. It allowed several MS-DOS programs to run in parallel in \"virtual 8086\" CPU mode, rather than always suspending background applications. (Windows applications could already run in parallel through cooperative multitasking.) With the exception of a few kilobytes of overhead, each DOS application could use any available low memory before Windows was started. Windows/386 ran Windows applications in a single Virtual 8086 box, with EMS emulation. In contrast, Windows 3.0 in standard or enhanced mode ran Windows applications in 16 bits protected mode segments.  Windows/386 also provided EMS emulation, using the memory management features of the 80386 to make RAM beyond 640k behave like the banked memory previously only supplied by add-in cards and used by popular DOS applications. (By overwriting the WIN200.BIN file with COMMAND.COM, it is possible to use the EMS emulation in DOS without starting the Windows GUI.) There was no support for disk-based virtual memory, so multiple DOS programs had to fit inside the available physical memory; therefore, Microsoft suggested buying additional memory and cards if necessary.  Neither of these versions worked with DOS memory managers like CEMM or QEMM or with DOS extenders, which have their own extended memory management and run in protected mode as well. This was remedied in version 3.0, which is compatible with Virtual Control Program Interface (VCPI) in \"standard mode\" and with DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) in \"386 enhanced\" mode (all versions of Windows from 3.0 to 98 exploit a loophole in EMM386 to set up protected mode). Windows 3.0 also had the capability of using the DWEMM Direct Write Enhanced Memory Module. This is what enables the far faster and more sleek graphical user interface, as well as true extended memory support.  \"BYTE\" in 1989 listed Windows/386 as among the \"Distinction\" winners of the BYTE Awards, describing it as \"serious competition for OS/2\" as it \"taps into the power of the 80386\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Application support.", "content": "The first Windows versions of Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel ran on Windows 2.0. Third-party developer support for Windows increased substantially with this version (some shipped the Windows Runtime software with their applications, for customers who had not purchased the full version of Windows). However, most developers still maintained DOS versions of their applications, as Windows users were still a distinct minority of their market. Windows 2.0 was still very dependent on the DOS system and it still hadn't passed the 1 megabyte mark in terms of memory. Stewart Alsop II predicted in January 1988 that \"Any transition to a graphical environment on IBM-style machines is bound to be maddeningly slow and driven strictly by market forces\", because the GUI had \"serious deficiencies\" and users had to switch to DOS for many tasks.  There were some applications that shipped with Windows 2.0. They are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal conflict with Apple.", "content": "On March 17, 1988, Apple Inc. filed a lawsuit against Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard, accusing them of violating copyrights Apple held on the Macintosh System Software. Apple claimed the \"look and feel\" of the Macintosh operating system, taken as a whole, was protected by copyright and that Windows 2.0 violated this copyright by having the same icons. The judge ruled in favor of Hewlett-Packard and Microsoft on all but 10 of the 189 graphical user interface elements that Apple sued on, and the court found the remaining 10 GUI elements could not be copyrighted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Windows 2.1x.", "content": "The successor to Windows 2.0, called Windows 2.1x was officially released in the United States and Canada on May 27, 1988. The final entry in the 2.x series, Windows 2.11, was released in March 1989.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Windows 2.0 is a 16-bit Microsoft Windows GUI-based operating environment that was released on December 9, 1987, and the successor to Windows 1.0.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971107}
{"src_title": "Kiel Canal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first connection between the North and Baltic Seas was constructed while the area was ruled by Denmark–Norway. It was called the Eider Canal, which used stretches of the Eider River for the link between the two seas. Completed during the reign of Christian VII of Denmark in 1784, the \"Eiderkanal\" was a part of a waterway from Kiel to the Eider River's mouth at Tönning on the west coast. It was only wide with a depth of, which limited the vessels that could use the canal to 300 tonnes.  After 1864 Second Schleswig War put Schleswig-Holstein under the government of Prussia (from 1871 the German Empire), a new canal was sought by merchants and by the German navy, which wanted to link its bases in the Baltic and the North Sea without the need to sail around Denmark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction and expansion.", "content": "In June 1887, construction started at Holtenau (), near Kiel. The canal took over 9,000 workers eight years to build. On 20 June 1895 the canal was officially opened by Kaiser Wilhelm II for transiting from Brunsbüttel to Holtenau. The next day, a ceremony was held in Holtenau, where Wilhelm II named it the \"Kaiser Wilhelm Kanal\" (after his grandfather, Kaiser Wilhelm I), and laid the final stone. The opening of the canal was filmed by British director Birt Acres; surviving footage of this early film is preserved in the Science Museum in London. The first vessel to pass through the canal was the aviso ; she was sent through in late April, before the canal officially opened, to determine if it was ready for use.  The first Trans-Atlantic sailing ship to pass through the canal was \"Lilly\", commanded by Johan Pitka. \"Lilly\", a barque, was a wooden sailing ship of about 390 tons built 1866 in Sunderland, U.K. She had a length of, beam, depth of and a keel.  In order to meet the increasing traffic and the demands of the Imperial German Navy, between 1907 and 1914 the canal width was increased. The widening of the canal allowed the passage of a \"Dreadnought\"-sized battleship. This meant that these battleships could travel from the Baltic Sea to the North Sea without having to go around Denmark. The enlargement projects were completed by the installation of two larger canal locks in Brunsbüttel and Holtenau.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After World War I.", "content": "After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles required the canal to be open to vessels of commerce and of war of any nation at peace with Germany, while leaving it under German administration. (The United States opposed this proposal to avoid setting a precedent for similar concessions on the Panama Canal.) The government under Adolf Hitler repudiated its international status in 1936, but the canal was reopened to all traffic after World War II. In 1948, the current name was adopted.  The canal was partially closed in March 2013 after two lock gates failed at the western end near Brunsbüttel. Ships larger than were forced to navigate via Skagerrak, a detour. The failure was blamed on neglect and a lack of funding by the German Federal Government, which has been in financial dispute with the state of Schleswig-Holstein regarding the canal. Germany's Transport Ministry promised rapid repairs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "There are detailed traffic rules for the canal. Each vessel in passage is classified in one of six traffic groups according to its dimensions. Larger ships are obliged to accept pilots and specialised canal helmsmen, in some cases even the assistance of a tugboat. Furthermore, there are regulations regarding the passing of oncoming ships. Larger ships may also be required to moor at the bollards provided at intervals along the canal to allow the passage of oncoming vessels. Special rules apply to pleasure craft.  All permanent, fixed bridges crossing the canal since its construction have a clearance of.  Maximum length for ships passing the Kiel Canal is, with the maximum width (beam) of ; these ships can have a draught of up to. Ships up to a length of may have a draught up to. The bulker \"Ever Leader\" (deadweight 74001 t) is considered to be the cargo ship that to date has come closest to the overall limits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crossings.", "content": "Several railway lines and federal roads (Autobahnen and Bundesstraßen) cross the canal on eleven fixed links. The bridges have a clearance of allowing for ship heights up to. The oldest bridge still in use is the \"Levensau High Bridge\" from 1893; however, the bridge will have to be replaced in the course of a canal expansion already underway. In sequence and in the direction of the official kilometre count from west (Brunsbüttel) to east (Holtenau) these crossings are:  Local traffic is also served by 14 ferry lines. Most noteworthy is the “hanging ferry” () beneath the \"Rendsburg High Bridge\". All ferries are run by the Canal Authority and their use is free of charge.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kiel Canal (, literally \"North-[to]-Baltic Sea canal\", formerly known as the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Kanal) is a freshwater canal in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. The canal was finished in 1895, but later widened, and links the North Sea at Brunsbüttel to the Baltic Sea at Kiel-Holtenau. An average of is saved by using the Kiel Canal instead of going around the Jutland Peninsula. This not only saves time but also avoids storm-prone seas and having to pass through the Sound or Belts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971108}
{"src_title": "New Year", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "By month or season.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mid-April (Spring in the Northern Hemisphere).", "content": "The new year of many South and Southeast Asian calendars falls between April 13–15, marking the beginning of spring.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Christian liturgical year.", "content": "The early development of the Christian liturgical year coincided with the Roman Empire (east and west), and later the Byzantine Empire, both of which employed a taxation system labeled the Indiction, the years for which began on September 1. This timing may account for the ancient church's establishment of September 1 as the beginning of the liturgical year, despite the official Roman New Year's Day of January 1 in the Julian calendar, because the indiction was the principal means for counting years in the empires, apart from the reigns of the Emperors. The September 1 date prevailed throughout all of Christendom for many centuries, until subsequent divisions eventually produced revisions in some places.  After the sack of Rome in 410, communications and travel between east and west deteriorated. Liturgical developments in Rome and Constantinople did not always match, although a rigid adherence to form was never mandated in the church. Nevertheless, the principal points of development were maintained between east and west. The Roman and Constantinopolitan liturgical calendars remained compatible even after the East-West Schism in 1054. Separations between the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical year and Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar grew only over several centuries' time.  During those intervening centuries, the Roman Catholic ecclesiastic year was moved to the first day of Advent, the Sunday nearest to St. Andrew's Day (November 30). According to the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, the liturgical year begins at 4:00 PM on Saturday preceding the fourth Sunday prior to December 25 (between November 26 and December 2). By the time of the Reformation (early 16th century), the Roman Catholic general calendar provided the initial basis for the calendars for the liturgically-oriented Protestants, including the Anglican and Lutheran Churches, who inherited this observation of the liturgical new year.  The present-day Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar is the virtual culmination of the ancient eastern development cycle, though it includes later additions based on subsequent history and lives of saints. It still begins on September 1, proceeding annually into the Nativity of the Theotokos (September 8) and Exaltation of the Cross (September 14) to the celebration of Nativity of Christ (Christmas), through his death and resurrection (Pascha/Easter), to his Ascension and the Dormition of the Theotokos (\"falling asleep\" of the Virgin Mary, August 15). This last feast is known in the Roman Catholic church as the Assumption. The dating of \"September 1\" is according to the \"new\" (revised) Julian calendar or the \"old\" (standard) Julian calendar, depending on which is used by a particular Orthodox Church. Hence, it may fall on 1 September on the civil calendar, or on 14 September (between 1900 and 2099 inclusive).  The Coptic and Ethiopian liturgical calendars are unrelated to these systems but instead follow the Alexandrian calendar which fixed the wandering ancient Egyptian calendar to the Julian year. Their New Year celebrations on Neyrouz and Enkutatash were fixed; however, at a point in the Sothic cycle close to the Indiction, between the years 1900 and 2100, they fall on September 11 during most years and September 12 in the years before a leap year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical European new year dates.", "content": "During the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire years beginning on the date on which each consul first entered the office. This was probably May 1 before 222 BC, March 15 from 222 BC to 154 BC, and January 1 from 153 BC. In 45 BC, when Julius Caesar's new Julian calendar took effect, the Senate fixed January 1 as the first day of the year. At that time, this was the date on which those who were to hold civil office assumed their official position, and it was also the traditional annual date for the convening of the Roman Senate. This civil new year remained in effect throughout the Roman Empire, east and west, during its lifetime and well after, wherever the Julian calendar continued in use.  In England, the Angle, Saxon, and Viking invasions of the fifth through tenth centuries plunged the region back into pre-history for a time. While the reintroduction of Christianity brought the Julian calendar with it, its use was primarily in the service of the church to begin with. After William the Conqueror became king in 1066, he ordered that January 1 be re-established as the civil New Year. Later, however, England and Scotland joined much of Europe to celebrate the New Year on March 25.  In the Middle Ages in Europe a number of significant feast days in the ecclesiastical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church came to be used as the beginning of the Julian year:  Southward equinox day (usually September 22) was \"New Year's Day\" in the French Republican Calendar, which was in use from 1793 to 1805. This was \"primidi Vendémiaire\", the first day of the first month.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adoptions of January 1.", "content": "It took quite a long time before January 1 again became the universal or standard start of the civil year. The years of adoption of 1 January as the new year are as follows:  March 1 was the first day of the numbered year in the Republic of Venice until its destruction in 1797, and in Russia from 988 until 1492 (Anno Mundi 7000 in the Byzantine calendar). September 1 was used in Russia from 1492 (A.M. 7000) until the adoption of the Anno Domini notation in 1700 via a December 1699 decree of Tsar Peter I.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Time zones.", "content": "Because of the division of the globe into time zones, the new year moves progressively around the globe as the start of the day ushers in the New Year. The first time zone to usher in the New Year, just west of the International Date Line, is located in the Line Islands, a part of the nation of Kiribati, and has a time zone 14 hours ahead of UTC. All other time zones are 1 to 25 hours behind, most in the previous day (December 31); on American Samoa and Midway, it is still 11 PM on December 30. These are among the last inhabited places to observe New Year. However, uninhabited outlying U.S. territories Howland Island and Baker Island are designated as lying within the time zone 12 hours behind UTC, the last places on earth to see the arrival of January 1. These small coral islands are found about midway between Hawaii and Australia, about 1,000 miles west of the Line Islands. This is because the International Date Line is a composite of local time zone arrangements, which winds through the Pacific Ocean, allowing each locale to remain most closely connected in time with the nearest or largest or most convenient political and economic locales with which each associate. By the time Howland Island sees the new year, it is 2 AM on January 2 in the Line Islands of Kiribati.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "New Year is the time or day at which a new calendar year begins and the calendar's year count increments by one.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971109}
{"src_title": "Sgraffito", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"sgraffito\" comes from the Italian language and is derived from \"graffiare\" (\"to scratch\"), ultimately from the Greek (\"gráphein\", \"to write\"). Related terms include graffito and graffiti.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Sgraffito on walls has been used in Europe since classical times, it was popularized in Italy in the 15th and 16th centuries and can be found in African art. In combination with ornamental decoration these techniques formed an alternative to the prevailing painting of walls. Of late there has been an unmistakable growing interest in this old technique. The technical procedure is relatively simple, and the procedures are similar to the painting of frescoes.  Sgraffito played a significant role during the Italian Renaissance, with two of Raphael's workshop, Polidoro da Caravaggio and his partner Maturino da Firenze, among the leading specialists, painting palace facades in Rome and other cities. Most of their work has now weathered away. During the 16th century, the technique was brought to Germany by the master builders of the Renaissance and taken up with enthusiasm. As a simple native art, old examples of sgraffito can be found in the wide surroundings of Wetterau and Marburg. In Germany, the technique is most predominant in Bavaria. The use of sgraffito was common in the creation of housing façades for the purposes of advertising. The technique was also used in Thuringia, the Engadin, Austria and Transylvania.  In Catalonia, sgraffito was implemented in the early 20th century by the Noucentista neo-classical architects and became a recurrent technique in façade decoration.  Another use of sgraffito is seen in its simplified painting technique. One coat of paint is left to dry on a canvas or sheet of paper. Another coat of a different color is painted on top of the first layer. The artist then uses a palette knife or oil stick to scratch out a design, leaving behind an image in the color of the first coat of paint. This can also be achieved by using oil pastels for the first layer and black ink for the top layer. Sometimes a first coat of paint is not needed, and the wet coat scraped back reveals the canvas. This cannot be achieved by using the oil pastel method. This technique is often used in art classes to teach the sgraffito technique to novice art students.  In glass making, sgraffito refers to creating imagery with finely powdered black glass on a sheet glass substrate. Sgraffito is a subtractive technique; light areas are created by scraping away the powdered glass, while dark areas are made by adding piles of powder. The powdered glass is manipulated with a variety of tools. The finished drawing is very vulnerable until the piece is fired in a kiln.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art Nouveau.", "content": "Examples of graphic work on facades saw a resurgence circa 1890 through 1915, in the context of the rise of the Arts and Crafts Movement, the Vienna Secession, and particularly the Art Nouveau movement in Belgium and France.  The English artist Heywood Sumner has been identified as this era's pioneer of the technique, for example his work at the 1892 St Mary's Church, Sunbury, Surrey. Sumner's work is sgraffito \"per se\", scratched plaster, but the term has come to encompass a variety of techniques for producing exterior graphic decoration.  Other examples include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sgraffito (; plural: \"sgraffiti\") is a technique either of wall decor, produced by applying layers of plaster tinted in contrasting colours to a moistened surface, or in pottery, by applying to an unfired ceramic body two successive layers of contrasting slip or glaze, and then in either case scratching so as to reveal parts of the underlying layer. The Italian past participle \"sgraffiato\" is also used, especially of pottery.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971110}
{"src_title": "Carl Gotthard Langhans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Langhans was born in Landeshut, Silesia (now Kamienna Góra in Poland). He was not educated as an architect. He studied law from 1753 to 1757 in Halle, and then mathematics and languages, and engaged himself autodidactically with architecture, at which he concentrated primarily on the antique texts of the Roman architecture theorist Vitruvius (and the new version by the classics enthusiast Johann Joachim Winckelmann).  His draft for \"Zum Schifflein Christi\" (1764), the Protestant Church in Groß-Glogau, earned him his first recognition as an architect. In the same year, he received an appointment as building inspector for the Count of Hatzfeld, whose war-ravaged palace Langhans rebuilt to his own design between 1766 and 1774. Through the intervention of the Count of Hatzfeld, he also became known in the royal court in Berlin. As his first work in the service of the royal family, he built in 1766 the stairwell and the Muschelsaal in Rheinsberg Palace.  From 1775 until 1788, Langhans headed the building authority for the Prussian province of Silesia (now Poland). In 1788, the Prussian King Frederick William II appointed him as first director of the royal building commission in Berlin.  He died on his estate at Grüneiche (Dąbie after 1945 and part of Śródmieście borough of Wrocław) near Breslau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1771, Langhans married Anna Elisabeth Jaeckel, the daughter of a jurist in Breslau. They had five children: daughters Louise Amalie and Juliane Wilhelmine, a son, theater architect Carl Ferdinand, as well as two other children, who died soon after birth.  From 1782 he lived with his family in his in-laws' house at Albrechtstraße 18 in Breslau. In 1788, they moved to Berlin, where he built his own house and lived at Charlottenstraße 31 (now 48), at the corner of Behrenstraße.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Study trips.", "content": "Toward the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, it was a great dream for every artist to undertake a trip to Italy in order to be able to study the antique buildings with one's own eyes. The fulfillment of this dream was not granted only to Goethe and Schinkel, but Langhans, too, was able to afford a trip in 1768 and 1769 thanks to the support of the Count of Hatzfeld. When he was later assigned to be the head of the Breslau war and dominion chamber, he visited England, Holland, Belgium, and France on behalf of and at the expense of the king.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carl Gotthard Langhans (15 December 1732 – 1 October 1808) was a Prussian master builder and royal architect. His churches, palaces, grand houses, interiors, city gates and theatres in Silesia (now Poland), Berlin, Potsdam and elsewhere belong to the earliest examples of Neoclassical architecture in Germany. His best-known work is the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, national symbol of today’s Germany and German reunification in 1989/90.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971111}
{"src_title": "Four Hills Tournament", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Tournament hills.", "content": "Traditionally, the order of the tournament competitions has been: Oberstdorf, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Innsbruck, Bischofshofen – with the following exceptions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knock-out system.", "content": "One of the tournament's peculiarities is its qualifying system. Unlike other ski jumping events where the best 30 competitors in the first round qualify for the second round, all Four Hills events follow a knock-out system first introduced for the 1996–97 season.  The 50 competitors are divided into 25 pairs. All 25 winners of these duels plus the five best losers qualify for the second round. It is theoretically possible that a competitor who finishes the first round 12th will not qualify for the second round (if he loses his internal duel, five lucky losers and winners of their duels have better results) while the one with the 49th first series result may still qualify (if his \"rival\" has the worst result). On the other hand, jumpers are less likely to be disadvantaged by a possible significant change in weather conditions between the start and end of the first series. A change in the direction and speed of the wind can make it impossible for the best jumpers to produce a good result. In the event of significantly worse conditions during the second half of the first series, the possibility exists that most of the best jumpers would be eliminated by bad luck alone. Directly pairing rivals reduces the impact of these conditions. In this competition format the qualifying series are valued as well, since jumpers with a better qualification result will have the opportunity to compete against jumpers with worse result. Therefore, it is not enough for a jumper to be among 50 best jumpers in qualifications (with whatever result), but it is better for him to achieve a result as good as possible.  The first jumper in the competition is the one who qualified 26th, followed by his pair who qualified 25th. The next pair has 27th and 24th from the qualification, one after that 28th and 23rd etc. The last pair has last qualified jumper against qualification winner.  If qualification is postponed until the day of competition, the knock-out system is not used, and competition follows regular world cup rules. Because of that in the 2007/08 tournament, the knock-out system was used only in Oberstdorf.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Records.", "content": "Janne Ahonen is the only ski jumper to have won the tournament five times, with wins in 1998–99, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2005–06 and 2007–08. Jens Weißflog was the first ski jumper to reach four wins, winning the tournament in 1984, 1985, 1991 and 1996. Helmut Recknagel and Bjørn Wirkola have the next best record, winning three titles each. Wirkola's victories came in three consecutive years (1967–1969), a record still uncontested.  Janne Ahonen's fourth victory in 2005–06 was also the first time the tournament victory was shared, with Jakub Janda, who claimed his first 4 Hills Tournament crown.  Jens Weißflog and Bjørn Wirkola have both won ten Four Hills Tournament events. Janne Ahonen and Gregor Schlierenzauer are next with 9 victories, followed by Matti Nykänen who has seven.  In 2000–01, the 49th edition of the tournament, Adam Małysz beat second placed Janne Ahonen by 104.4 points. This is the biggest winning margin in the tournament's history. He also won all four qualifications that year. The following year Sven Hannawald became the first person to win all four competitions in a single season. In 2017-18 Kamil Stoch has repeated Hannawald's record and year after, Ryōyū Kobayashi became the third person to win all four events.  Three nations each have sixteen victories: Austria, Finland and Germany (including nine victories earned by ski jumpers from East Germany, four - from West Germany and three - from unified German team). Fourth is Norway with ten victories. Poland has four victories. Czechoslovakia and one of its successors the Czech Republic have two victories altogether, as have Slovenia and Japan. USSR has a single victory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National quota.", "content": "During the Four Hills Tournament many national jumpers from Germany and Austria are allowed to qualify for the competition. This allows them to show themselves and get experience. The national jumping team starts first in the qualification.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable participants.", "content": "In 1965, the Polish old-boy jumper, Stanisław Marusarz (silver medal in World Championship, 1938 in Lahti) who was visiting the tournament, asked the jury in Garmisch-Patenkirchen to allow him a showcase jump. After a long debate, the jury agreed. Marusarz, who at this time was 53 years old (and not practicing jumping for 9 years) achieved 66 meters, using borrowed skies and boots and making his try in official suit (in which he attended the New Years Party), which made the crowd applaud.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Four Hills Tournament () or the German-Austrian Ski Jumping Week () is a ski jumping event composed of four World Cup events and has taken place in Germany and Austria each year since 1953. With a few exceptions the ski jumping events are held chronologically at Oberstdorf, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Innsbruck and Bischofshofen. Winning these all four events in one Four Hills Tournament edition is called the grand slam.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971112}
{"src_title": "Alder", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The common name \"alder\" evolved from the Old English word \"alor\", which in turn is derived from Proto-Germanic root \"aliso\". The generic name \"Alnus\" is the equivalent Latin name (which is also the source for \"Alamo\", the Spanish term for the tree).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "With a few exceptions, alders are deciduous, and the leaves are alternate, simple, and serrated. The flowers are catkins with elongate male catkins on the same plant as shorter female catkins, often before leaves appear; they are mainly wind-pollinated, but also visited by bees to a small extent. These trees differ from the birches (\"Betula\", another genus in the family) in that the female catkins are woody and do not disintegrate at maturity, opening to release the seeds in a similar manner to many conifer cones.  The largest species are red alder (\"A. rubra\") on the west coast of North America, and black alder (\"A. glutinosa\"), native to most of Europe and widely introduced elsewhere, both reaching over 30 m. By contrast, the widespread \"Alnus alnobetula\" (green alder) is rarely more than a 5-m-tall shrub.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Alders are commonly found near streams, rivers, and wetlands. Sometimes where the prevalence of alders is particularly prominent these are called alder carrs. In the Pacific Northwest of North America, the white alder (Alnus rhombifolia) unlike other northwest alders, has an affinity for warm, dry climates, where it grows along watercourses, such as along the lower Columbia River east of the Cascades and the Snake River, including Hells Canyon.  Alder leaves and sometimes catkins are used as food by numerous butterflies and moths.  \"A. glutinosa\" and \"A. viridis\" are classed as environmental weeds in New Zealand. Alder leaves and especially the roots are important to the ecosystem because they enrich the soil with nitrogen and other nutrients.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nitrogen fixation.", "content": "Alder is particularly noted for its important symbiotic relationship with \"Frankia alni\", an actinomycete, filamentous, nitrogen-fixing bacterium. This bacterium is found in root nodules, which may be as large as a human fist, with many small lobes, and light brown in colour. The bacterium absorbs nitrogen from the air and makes it available to the tree. Alder, in turn, provides the bacterium with sugars, which it produces through photosynthesis. As a result of this mutually beneficial relationship, alder improves the fertility of the soil where it grows, and as a pioneer species, it helps provide additional nitrogen for the successional species which follow. Because of its abundance, red alder delivers large amounts of nitrogen to enrich forest soils. Red alder stands have been found to supply between 120 and 290 pounds of nitrogen per acre (130 to 320 kg per ha) annually to the soil. From Alaska to Oregon, \"Alnus viridis\" subsp. \"sinuata\" (\"A. sinuata\", Sitka Alder or Slide Alder), characteristically pioneer fresh, gravelly sites at the foot of retreating glaciers. Studies show that Sitka alder, a more shrubby variety of alder, adds nitrogen to the soil at an average of 55 pounds per acre (60 kg per ha) per year, helping convert the sterile glacial terrain to soil capable of supporting a conifer forest. Alders are common among the first species to colonize disturbed areas from floods, windstorms, fires, landslides, etc. Alder groves themselves often serve as natural firebreaks since these broad-leaved trees are much less flammable than conifers. Their foliage and leaf litter does not carry a fire well, and their thin bark is sufficiently resistant to protect them from light surface fires. In addition, the light weight of alder seeds (650,000 per pound, or 1.5 million per kg) allows for easy dispersal by the wind. Although it outgrows coastal Douglas-fir for the first 25 years, it is very shade intolerant and seldom lives more than 100 years. Red alder is the Pacific Northwest's largest alder and the most plentiful and commercially important broad-leaved tree in the coastal Northwest. Groves of red alder 10 to 20 inches (25 to 50 cm) in diameter intermingle with young Douglas-fir forests west of the Cascades, attaining a maximum height of 100 to 110 feet (30 to 33 m) in about sixty years and then lose vigor as heart rot sets in. Alders largely help create conditions favorable for giant conifers that replace them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Parasites.", "content": "Alder roots are parasitized by northern groundcone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The catkins of some alder species have a degree of edibility, and may be rich in protein. Reported to have a bitter and unpleasant taste, they are more useful for survival purposes. The wood of certain alder species is often used to smoke various food items such as coffee, salmon and other seafood.  Most of the pilings that form the foundation of Venice were made from alder trees.  Alder bark contains the anti-inflammatory salicin, which is metabolized into salicylic acid in the body. Some Native American cultures use red alder bark (\"Alnus rubra\") to treat poison oak, insect bites, and skin irritations. Blackfeet Indians have traditionally used an infusion made from the bark of red alder to treat lymphatic disorders and tuberculosis. Recent clinical studies have verified that red alder contains betulin and lupeol, compounds shown to be effective against a variety of tumors.  The inner bark of the alder, as well as red osier dogwood, or chokecherry, is used by some Indigenous peoples of the Americas in smoking mixtures, known as \"kinnikinnick\", to improve the taste of the bearberry leaf.  Alder is illustrated in the coat of arms for the Austrian town of Grossarl.  Electric guitars, most notably those manufactured by the Fender Musical Instruments Corporation, have been built with alder bodies since the 1950s. Alder is appreciated for its claimed tight and even balanced tone, especially when compared to mahogany, and has been adopted by many electric guitar manufacturers.  As a hardwood, alder is used in making furniture, cabinets, and other woodworking products. For example, in the television series \"Northern Exposure\" season 3 episode \"Things Become Extinct\" (1992), Native American Ira Wingfeather makes duck flutes out of alder tree branches while Ed Chigliak films.  Alder bark and wood (like oak and sweet chestnut) contain tannin and are traditionally used to tan leather.  A red dye can also be extracted from the outer bark, and a yellow dye from the inner bark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The genus is divided into three subgenera:  Subgenus \"Alnus\": Trees with stalked shoot buds, male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) but stay closed over winter, pollinating in late winter or early spring, about 15–25 species, including:  Subgenus \"Clethropsis\". Trees or shrubs with stalked shoot buds, male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) and expanding and pollinating then, three species:  Subgenus \"Alnobetula\". Shrubs with shoot buds not stalked, male and female catkins produced in late spring (after leaves appear) and expanding and pollinating then, one to four species:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alder is the common name of a genus of flowering plants, Alnus, belonging to the birch family Betulaceae. The genus comprises about 35 species of monoecious trees and shrubs, a few reaching a large size, distributed throughout the north temperate zone with a few species extending into Central America, as well as the northern and southern Andes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971113}
{"src_title": "Aesculus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Aesculus\" species have stout shoots with resinous, often sticky, buds; opposite, palmately divided leaves, often very large—to across in the Japanese horse chestnut \"Ae. turbinata\". Species are deciduous or evergreen. Flowers are showy, insect- or bird-pollinated, with four or five petals fused into a lobed corolla tube, arranged in a panicle inflorescence. Flowering starts after 80–110 growing degree days. The fruit matures to a capsule, commonly known as a catjacket, diameter, usually globose, containing one to three seeds (often erroneously called a nut) per capsule. Capsules containing more than one seed result in flatness on one side of the seeds. The point of attachment of the seed in the capsule (hilum) shows as a large circular whitish scar. The capsule epidermis has \"spines\" (botanically: prickles) in some species, while other capsules are warty or smooth. At maturity, the capsule splits into three sections to release the seeds.  \"Aesculus\" seeds were traditionally eaten, after leaching, by the Jōmon people of Japan over about four millennia, until 300 AD.  All parts of the buckeye or horse chestnut tree are moderately toxic, including the nut-like seeds. The toxin affects the gastrointestinal system, causing gastrointestinal disturbances. The USDA notes that the toxicity is due to saponin aescin and glucoside aesculin, with alkaloids possibly contributing.  Native Americans used to crush the seeds and the resulting mash was thrown into still or sluggish waterbodies to stun or kill fish. They then boiled and drained (leached) the fish at least three times to dilute the toxin's effects. New shoots from the seeds also have been known to kill grazing cattle.  The genus was considered to be in the ditypic family Hippocastanaceae along with \"Billia\", but phylogenetic analysis of morphological and molecular data has more recently caused this family, along with the Aceraceae (maples and \"Dipteronia\"), to be included in the soapberry family (Sapindaceae).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected species.", "content": "The species of \"Aesculus\" include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "The most familiar member of the genus worldwide is the common horse chestnut, \"Aesculus hippocastanum\". The yellow buckeye, \"Aesculus flava\" (syn. \"A. octandra\"), is also a valuable ornamental tree with yellow flowers, but is less widely planted. Among the smaller species is the bottlebrush buckeye, \"Aesculus parviflora\", a flowering shrub. Several other members of the genus are used as ornamentals, and several horticultural hybrids have also been developed, most notably the red horse chestnut \"Aesculus\" × \"carnea\", a hybrid between \"A. hippocastanum\" and \"A. pavia\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In art.", "content": "Interpretations of the tree leaves can be seen in architectural details in the Reims Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In history.", "content": "The leaf of Aesculus was the official symbol of Kiev (the 8th largest city in Europe) on its coat of arms used from 1969 to 1995. It remains an official symbol of Kiev to this day.  In the 1840 U.S. presidential campaign, candidate William Henry Harrison called himself the \"log cabin and hard cider candidate\", portraying himself sitting in a log cabin made of buckeye logs and drinking hard cider, causing Ohio to become known as \"the Buckeye State\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The genus Aesculus ( or ), with varieties called buckeye and horse chestnut, comprises 13–19 species of flowering plants in the soapberry and lychee family, Sapindaceae. They are trees and shrubs native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere, with six species native to North America and seven to thirteen species native to Eurasia. Also, several hybrids occur. \"Aesculus\" exhibits a classical Arcto-Tertiary distribution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971114}
{"src_title": "Prism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "How prisms work.", "content": "Light changes speed as it moves from one medium to another (for example, from air into the glass of the prism). This speed change causes the light to be refracted and to enter the new medium at a different angle (Huygens principle). The degree of bending of the light's path depends on the angle that the incident beam of light makes with the surface, and on the ratio between the refractive indices of the two media (Snell's law). The refractive index of many materials (such as glass) varies with the wavelength or color of the light used, a phenomenon known as \"dispersion\". This causes light of different colors to be refracted differently and to leave the prism at different angles, creating an effect similar to a rainbow. This can be used to separate a beam of white light into its constituent spectrum of colors. A similar separation happens with iridescent materials, such as a soap bubble. Prisms will generally disperse light over a much larger frequency bandwidth than diffraction gratings, making them useful for broad-spectrum spectroscopy. Furthermore, prisms do not suffer from complications arising from overlapping spectral orders, which all gratings have.  Prisms are sometimes used for the internal reflection at the surfaces rather than for dispersion. If light inside the prism hits one of the surfaces at a sufficiently steep angle, total internal reflection occurs and \"all\" of the light is reflected. This makes a prism a useful substitute for a mirror in some situations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deviation angle and dispersion.", "content": "Ray angle deviation and dispersion through a prism can be determined by tracing a sample ray through the element and using Snell's law at each interface. For the prism shown at right, the indicated angles are given by All angles are positive in the direction shown in the image. For a prism in air formula_2. Defining formula_3, the deviation angle formula_4 is given by If the angle of incidence formula_6 and prism apex angle formula_7 are both small, formula_8 and formula_9 if the angles are expressed in radians. This allows the nonlinear equation in the deviation angle formula_4 to be approximated by  The deviation angle depends on wavelength through \"n\", so for a thin prism the deviation angle varies with wavelength according to", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Like many basic geometric terms, the word \"prism\" () was first used in Euclid's \"Elements\". Euclid defined the term in Book XI as “a solid figure contained by two opposite, equal and parallel planes, while the rest are parallelograms”, however the nine subsequent propositions that used the term included examples of triangular-based prisms (i.e. with sides which were not parallelograms). This inconsistency caused confusion amongst later geometricians.  René Descartes had seen light separated into the colors of the rainbow by glass or water, though the source of the color was unknown. Isaac Newton's 1666 experiment of bending white light through a prism demonstrated that all the colors already existed in the light, with different color \"corpuscles\" fanning out and traveling with different speeds through the prism. It was only later that Young and Fresnel combined Newton's particle theory with Huygens' wave theory to explain how color arises from the spectrum of light.  Newton arrived at his conclusion by passing the red color from one prism through a second prism and found the color unchanged. From this, he concluded that the colors must already be present in the incoming light — thus, the prism did not create colors, but merely separated colors that are already there. He also used a lens and a second prism to recompose the spectrum back into white light. This experiment has become a classic example of the methodology introduced during the scientific revolution. The results of the experiment dramatically transformed the field of metaphysics, leading to John Locke's primary vs secondary quality distinction.  Newton discussed prism dispersion in great detail in his book \"Opticks\". He also introduced the use of more than one prism to control dispersion. Newton's description of his experiments on prism dispersion was qualitative. A quantitative description of multiple-prism dispersion was not needed until multiple prism laser beam expanders were introduced in the 1980s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of prisms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dispersive prisms.", "content": "\"Dispersive prisms\" are used to break up light into its constituent spectral colors because the refractive index depends on frequency; the white light entering the prism is a mixture of different frequencies, each of which gets bent slightly differently. Blue light is slowed more than red light and will therefore be bent more than red light.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reflective prisms.", "content": "\"Reflective prisms\" are used to reflect light, in order to flip, invert, rotate, deviate or displace the light beam. They are typically used to erect the image in binoculars or single-lens reflex cameras – without the prisms the image would be upside down for the user. Many reflective prisms use total internal reflection to achieve high reflectivity.  The most common reflective prisms are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beam-splitting prisms.", "content": "Some reflective prisms are used for splitting a beam into two or more beams:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Polarizing prisms.", "content": "There are also \"polarizing prisms\" which can split a beam of light into components of varying polarization. These are typically made of a birefringent crystalline material.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deflecting prisms.", "content": "Wedge prisms are used to deflect a beam of light by a fixed angle. A pair of such prisms can be used for beam steering; by rotating the prisms the beam can be deflected into any desired angle within a conical \"field of regard\". The most commonly found implementation is a Risley prism pair. Two wedge prisms can also be used as an \"anamorphic pair\" to change the shape of a beam. This is used to make a round beam from the elliptical output of a laser diode.  Rhomboid prisms are used to laterally displace a beam of light without inverting the image.  Deck prisms were used on sailing ships to bring daylight below deck, since candles and kerosene lamps are a fire hazard on wooden ships.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In optometry.", "content": "By shifting corrective lenses off axis, images seen through them can be displaced in the same way that a prism displaces images. Eye care professionals use prisms, as well as lenses off axis, to treat various orthoptics problems:  Prism spectacles with a single prism perform a relative displacement of the two eyes, thereby correcting eso-, exo, hyper- or hypotropia.  In contrast, spectacles with prisms of equal power for both eyes, called yoked prisms (also: \"conjugate prisms\", \"ambient lenses\" or \"performance glasses\") shift the visual field of both eyes to the same extent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An optical prism is a transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces that refract light. At least one surface must be angled—elements with two parallel surfaces are not prisms. The traditional geometrical shape of an optical prism is that of a triangular prism with a triangular base and rectangular sides, and in colloquial use \"prism\" usually refers to this type. Some types of optical prism are not in fact in the shape of geometric prisms. Prisms can be made from any material that is transparent to the wavelengths for which they are designed. Typical materials include glass, plastic, and fluorite.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971115}
{"src_title": "Condensation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Initiation.", "content": "Condensation is initiated by the formation of atomic/molecular clusters of that species within its gaseous volume—like rain drop or snow flake formation within clouds—or at the contact between such gaseous phase and a liquid or solid surface. In clouds, this can be catalyzed by water-nucleating proteins, produced by atmospheric microbes, which are capable of binding gaseous or liquid water molecules.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reversibility scenarios.", "content": "A few distinct reversibility scenarios emerge here with respect to the nature of the surface.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Most common scenarios.", "content": "Condensation commonly occurs when a vapor is cooled and/or compressed to its saturation limit when the molecular density in the gas phase reaches its maximal threshold. Vapor cooling and compressing equipment that collects condensed liquids is called a \"condenser\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "How condensation is measured.", "content": "Psychrometry measures the rates of condensation through evaporation into the air moisture at various atmospheric pressures and temperatures. Water is the product of its vapor condensation—condensation is the process of such phase conversion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications of condensation.", "content": "Condensation is a crucial component of distillation, an important laboratory and industrial chemistry application.  Because condensation is a naturally occurring phenomenon, it can often be used to generate water in large quantities for human use. Many structures are made solely for the purpose of collecting water from condensation, such as air wells and fog fences. Such systems can often be used to retain soil moisture in areas where active desertification is occurring—so much so that some organizations educate people living in affected areas about water condensers to help them deal effectively with the situation.  It is also a crucial process in forming particle tracks in a cloud chamber. In this case, ions produced by an incident particle act as nucleation centers for the condensation of the vapor producing the visible \"cloud\" trails.  Commercial applications of condensation, by consumers as well as industry, include power generation, water desalination, thermal management, refrigeration, and air conditioning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biological adaptation.", "content": "Numerous living beings use water made accessible by condensation. A few examples of these are the Australian thorny devil, the darkling beetles of the Namibian coast, and the coast redwoods of the West Coast of the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Condensation in building construction.", "content": "Condensation in building construction is an unwanted phenomenon as it may cause dampness, mold health issues, wood rot, corrosion, weakening of mortar and masonry walls, and energy penalties due to increased heat transfer. To alleviate these issues, the indoor air humidity needs to be lowered, or air ventilation in the building needs to be improved. This can be done in a number of ways, for example opening windows, turning on extractor fans, using dehumidifiers, drying clothes outside and covering pots and pans whilst cooking. Air conditioning or ventilation systems can be installed that help remove moisture from the air, and move air throughout a building. The amount of water vapor that can be stored in the air can be increased simply by increasing the temperature. However, this can be a double edged sword as most condensation in the home occurs when warm, moisture heavy air comes into contact with a cool surface. As the air is cooled, it can no longer hold as much water vapor. This leads to deposition of water on the cool surface. This is very apparent when central heating is used in combination with single glazed windows in winter.  Interstructure condensation may be caused by thermal bridges, insufficient or lacking insulation, damp proofing or insulated glazing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from the gas phase into the liquid phase, and is the reverse of vaporization. The word most often refers to the water cycle. It can also be defined as the change in the state of water vapor to liquid water when in contact with a liquid or solid surface or cloud condensation nuclei within the atmosphere. When the transition happens from the gaseous phase into the solid phase directly, the change is called deposition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971116}
{"src_title": "Fraxinus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The tree's common English name, \"ash\", traces back to the Old English \"æsc\" which relates to the Proto-Indo-European for the tree, while the generic name originated in Latin from a Proto-Indo-European word for birch. Both words are also used to mean \"spear\" in their respective languages as the wood is good for shafts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected species.", "content": "Species arranged into sections supported by phylogenetic analysis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "North American native ash tree species are a critical food source for North American frogs, as their fallen leaves are particularly suitable for tadpoles to feed upon in ponds (both temporary and permanent), large puddles, and other water bodies. Lack of tannins in the American ash makes their leaves a good food source for the frogs, but also reduces its resistance to the ash borer. Species with higher leaf tannin levels (including maples and non-native ash species) are taking the place of native ash, thanks to their greater resistance to the ash borer. They produce much less suitable food for the tadpoles, resulting in poor survival rates and small frog sizes.  Ash species native to North America also provide important habit and food for various other creatures native to North America, such as a long-horn beetle, avian species, and mammalian species.  Ash is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The emerald ash borer (\"Agrilus planipennis\", EAB) is a wood-boring beetle accidentally introduced to North America from eastern Asia via solid wood packing material in the late 1980s to early 1990s. It has killed tens of millions of trees in 22 states in the United States and adjacent Ontario and Quebec in Canada. It threatens some seven billion ash trees in North America. Research is being conducted to determine if three native Asian wasps that are natural predators of EAB could be used as a biological control for the management of EAB populations in the United States. The public is being cautioned not to transport unfinished wood products, such as firewood, to slow the spread of this insect pest.  The European ash, \"Fraxinus excelsior\", has been affected by the fungus \"Hymenoscyphus fraxineus\", causing ash dieback in a large number of trees since the mid-1990s, particularly in eastern and northern Europe. The disease has infected about 90% of Denmark's ash trees. At the end of October 2012 in the UK, the Food and Environment Research Agency reported that ash dieback had been discovered in mature woodland in Suffolk; previous occurrences had been on young trees imported from Europe. In 2016, the ash tree was reported as in danger of extinction in Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Ash is a hardwood and is hard, dense (within 20% of 670 kg/m for \"Fraxinus americana\", and higher at 710 kg/m for \"Fraxinus excelsior\"), tough and very strong but elastic, extensively used for making bows, tool handles, baseball bats, hurleys, and other uses demanding high strength and resilience.  Ash is a minor material for electric guitar bodies and, less commonly, for acoustic guitar bodies, known for its bright, cutting edge and sustaining quality. Some Fender Stratocasters and Telecasters are made of ash, (such as Bruce Springsteen's Telecaster on the Born to Run album cover), as an alternative to alder. They are also used for making drum shells. Woodworkers generally consider ash a \"poor cousin\" to the other major open pore wood, oak, but it is useful in any furniture application. Ash veneers are extensively used in office furniture. Ash is not used much outdoors due to the heartwood having a low durability to ground contact, meaning it will typically perish within five years. The \"F. japonica\" species is favored as a material for making baseball bats by Japanese sporting-goods manufacturers.  Its robust structure, good looks, and flexibility combine to make ash ideal for staircases. Ash stairs are extremely hard-wearing, which is particularly important for treads. Due to its elasticity, ash can also be steamed and bent to produce curved stair parts such as volutes (curled sections of handrail) and intricately shaped balusters. However, a reduction in the supply of healthy trees, especially in Europe, is making ash an increasingly expensive option.  Ash was commonly used for the structural members of the bodies of cars made by carriage builders. Early cars had frames which were intended to flex as part of the suspension system to simplify construction. The Morgan Motor Company of Great Britain still manufacture sports cars with frames made from ash. It was also widely used by early aviation pioneers for aircraft construction.  It lights and burns easily, so is used for starting fires and barbecues, and is usable for maintaining a fire, though it produces only a moderate heat. The two most economically important species for wood production are white ash, in eastern North America, and European ash in Europe. The green ash (\"F. pennsylvanica\") is widely planted as a street tree in the United States. The inner bark of the blue ash (\"F. quadrangulata\") has been used as a source for blue dye.  The leaves of ash are appreciated by cattle, goats, and rabbits. Cut off in the autumn, the branches can be a valuable winter supply for domestic animals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mythology and folklore.", "content": "In Greek mythology, the Meliae are nymphs associated with the ash, perhaps specifically of the manna ash (\"Fraxinus ornus\"), as dryads were nymphs associated with the oak. They appear in Hesiod's \"Theogony.\"  In Norse mythology, Yggdrasil is mentioned and is described as an evergreen ash tree. \"Askr\", the first man in Norse myth, literally means 'ash'.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fraxinus, English name ash, is a genus of flowering plants in the olive and lilac family, Oleaceae. It contains 45–65 species of usually medium to large trees, mostly deciduous, though a few subtropical species are evergreen. The genus is widespread across much of Europe, Asia, and North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971117}
{"src_title": "Locomotive", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word locomotive originates from the Latin \"loco\" – \"from a place\", ablative of \"locus\" \"place\", and the Medieval", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classifications.", "content": "Prior to locomotives, the motive force for railways had been generated by various lower-technology methods such as human power, horse power, gravity or stationary engines that drove cable systems. Few such systems are still in existence today. Locomotives may generate their power from fuel (wood, coal, petroleum or natural gas), or they may take power from an outside source of electricity. It is common to classify locomotives by their source of energy. The common ones include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Steam.", "content": "A steam locomotive is a locomotive whose primary power source is a steam engine. The most common form of steam locomotive also contains a boiler to generate the steam used by the engine. The water in the boiler is heated by burning combustible material – usually coal, wood, or oil – to produce steam. The steam moves reciprocating pistons which are connected to the locomotive's main wheels, known as the \"drivers\". Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Internal combustion.", "content": "Internal combustion locomotives use an internal combustion engine, connected to the driving wheels by a transmission. Typically they keep the engine running at a near-constant speed whether the locomotive is stationary or moving.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kerosene.", "content": "Kerosene locomotives use kerosene as the fuel. They were the world's first oil locomotives, preceding diesel and other oil locomotives by some years.  The first known kerosene rail vehicle was a draisine built by Gottlieb Daimler in 1887, but this was not technically a locomotive as it carried a payload.  A kerosene locomotive was built in 1894 by the Priestman Brothers", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Petrol.", "content": "Petrol locomotives use petrol as their fuel.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Diesel.", "content": "Diesel locomotives are powered by diesel engines. In the early days of Diesel propulsion development, various transmission systems were employed with varying degrees of success, with electric transmission proving to be the most popular.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Gas turbine.", "content": "A gas turbine locomotive is an internal combustion engine locomotive consisting of a gas turbine. ICE engines require a transmission to power the wheels. The engine must be allowed to continue to run when the locomotive is stopped. Gas turbine-mechanical locomotives, use a mechanical transmission to deliver the power output of gas turbines to the wheels. A gas turbine locomotive was patented in 1861 by Marc Antoine Francois Mennons (British patent no. 1633). There is no evidence that the locomotive was actually built but the design includes the essential features of gas turbine locomotives built in the 20th century, including compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and air pre-heater. In 1952, Renault delivered a prototype four-axle 1150 hp gas-turbine-mechanical locomotive fitted with the Pescara \"free turbine\" gas- and compressed-air producing system, rather than a co-axial multi-stage compressor integral to the turbine. This model was succeeded by a pair of six-axle 2400 hp locomotives with two turbines and Pescara feeds in 1959. Several similar locomotives were built in USSR by Kharkov Locomotive Works. Gas turbine-electric locomotives, use a gas turbine to drive", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electric.", "content": "An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered only by electricity. Electricity is supplied to moving trains with a (nearly) continuous conductor running along the track that usually takes one of three forms: an overhead line, suspended from poles or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings; a third rail mounted at track level; or an onboard battery. Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor but some systems use a separate fourth rail for this purpose. The type of electrical power used is either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC).  Various collection methods exist: a trolley pole, which is a long flexible pole that engages the line with a wheel or shoe; a bow collector, which is a frame that holds a long collecting rod against the wire; a pantograph, which is a hinged frame that holds the collecting shoes against the wire in a fixed geometry; or a contact shoe, which", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other types.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diesel-steam.", "content": "Steam-diesel hybrid locomotives can use steam generated from a boiler or diesel to power a piston engine. The \"Cristiani Compressed Steam System\" used a diesel engine to power a compressor to drive and recirculate steam produced by a boiler; effectively using steam as the power transmission medium, with the diesel engine being the prime mover  In the 1940s, diesel locomotives began to displace steam power on American railroads. Following the end of World War II, diesel power began to appear on railroads in many countries. The significantly better economics of diesel operation triggered a dash", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Atomic-electric.", "content": "In the early 1950s, Dr. Lyle Borst of the University of Utah was given funding by various US railroad line and manufacturers to study the feasibility of an electric-drive locomotive, in which an onboard atomic reactor produced the steam to generate the electricity. At that time, atomic power was", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Fuel cell-electric.", "content": "In 2002, the first 3.6 tonne, 17 kW hydrogen (fuel cell) -powered mining locomotive was demonstrated in", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Hybrid locomotives.", "content": "There are many different types of hybrid or dual-mode locomotives using two or more types of motive power. The most common hybrids are electro-diesel locomotives powered either from an electricity supply or else by an onboard diesel engine. These are used to provide continuous journeys along routes that are only partly electrified. Examples include the EMD FL9 and Bombardier ALP-45DP", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "There are three main uses of locomotives in rail transport operations: for hauling passenger trains, freight trains, and for switching (UK English: shunting).  Freight locomotives are normally designed to deliver high starting tractive effort and high sustained power. This allows them to start and move heavy trains, but usually comes at the cost of relatively low maximum speeds. Passenger locomotives usually develop lower starting tractive effort but are able to operate at the high speeds required to maintain passenger schedules. Mixed traffic locomotives (US English: general purpose or road switcher locomotives) do not develop as much starting tractive effort as a freight locomotive but are able to haul heavier trains than a passenger engine.  Most steam locomotives have reciprocating engines, with pistons coupled to the driving wheels by means of connecting rods, with no intervening gearbox. This means the combination of starting", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational role.", "content": "Locomotives occasionally work in", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wheel arrangement.", "content": "The wheel arrangement of a locomotive describes how many wheels", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remote control locomotives.", "content": "In the second half of the twentieth century remote control locomotives started to enter service in switching operations, being remotely controlled by an operator outside of the locomotive cab.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison to multiple units.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Advantages.", "content": "There are a few basic reasons", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disadvantages.", "content": "There are several advantages of", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Locomotives in numismatics.", "content": "Locomotives have been a subject for collectors' coins and medals. One of the most famous and recent ones is the 25 Euro 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway commemorative coin. The obverse shows two locomotives: a historical and a modern one. This represents the technical development in locomotive construction between the years 1854 and 2004. The upper half depicts the “Taurus”, a high performance locomotive. The lower half depicts the first functional Alpine locomotive, the Engerth; constructed by Wilhelm Freiherr von Engerth.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. If a locomotive is capable of carrying a payload, it is usually rather referred to as a multiple unit, motor coach, railcar or power car; the use of these self-propelled vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains, but rare for freight (see CargoSprinter and Iron Highway).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971118}
{"src_title": "News agency", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Only a few large newspapers could afford bureaus outside their home city. They relied instead on news agencies, especially Havas (founded 1835) in France and the Associated Press (founded 1846) in the United States. Former Havas employees founded Reuters in 1851 in Britain and Wolff in 1849 in Germany; Havas is now Agence France-Presse (AFP). For international news, the agencies pooled their resources, so that Havas, for example, covered the French Empire, South America and the Balkans and shared the news with the other national agencies. In France the typical contract with Havas provided a provincial newspaper with 1800 lines of telegraphed text daily, for an annual subscription rate of 10,000 francs. Other agencies provided features and fiction for their subscribers.  In the 1830s, France had several specialized agencies. Agence Havas was founded in 1835 by a Parisian translator and advertising agent, Charles-Louis Havas, to supply news about France to foreign customers. In the 1840s, Havas gradually incorporated other French agencies into his agency. Agence Havas evolved into Agence France-Presse (AFP). Two of his employees, Bernhard Wolff and Paul Julius Reuter, later set up rival news agencies, Wolffs Telegraphisches Bureau in 1849 in Berlin and Reuters in 1851 in London. Guglielmo Stefani founded the Agenzia Stefani, which became the most important press agency in Italy from the mid-19th century to World War II, in Turin in 1853.  The development of the telegraph in the 1850s led to the creation of strong national agencies in England, Germany, Austria and the United States. But despite the efforts of governments, through telegraph laws such as in 1878 in France, inspired by the British Telegraph Act of 1869 which paved the way for the nationalisation of telegraph companies and their operations, the cost of telegraphy remained high.  In the United States, the judgment in \"Inter Ocean Publishing v. Associated Press\" facilitated competition by requiring agencies to accept all newspapers wishing to join. As a result of the increasing newspapers, the Associated Press was now challenged by the creation of United Press Associations in 1907 and International News Service by newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst in 1909.  Driven by the huge U.S. domestic market, boosted by the runaway success of radio, all three major agencies required the dismantling of the \"cartel agencies\" through the Agreement of 26 August 1927. They were concerned about the success of U.S. agencies from other European countries which sought to create national agencies after the First World War. Reuters had been weakened by war censorship, which promoted the creation of newspaper cooperatives in the Commonwealth and national agencies in Asia, two of its strong areas.  After the Second World War, the movement for the creation of national agencies accelerated, when accessing the independence of former colonies, the national agencies were operated by the State. Reuters, became cooperative, managed a breakthrough in finance, and helped to reduce the number of U.S. agencies from three to one, along with the internationalization of the Spanish EFE and the globalization of Agence France-Presse.  In 1924, Benito Mussolini placed Agenzia Stefani under the direction of Manlio Morgagni, who expanded the agency's reach significantly both within Italy and abroad. Agenzia Stefani was dissolved in 1945, and its technical structure and organization were transferred to the new Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata (ANSA). Wolffs was taken over by the Nazi regime in 1934, and Reuters continues to operate as a major international news agency today. In 1865, Reuter and Wolff signed agreements with Havas's sons, forming a cartel designating exclusive reporting zones for each of their agencies within Europe.  Since the 1960s, the major agencies were provided with new opportunities in television and magazine, and news agencies delivered specialized production of images and photos, the demand for which is constantly increasing. In France, for example, they account for over two-thirds of national market.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial services.", "content": "News agencies can be corporations that sell news (e.g., Press Association, Thomson Reuters and United Press International). Other agencies work cooperatively with large media companies, generating their news centrally and sharing local news stories the major news agencies may choose to pick up and redistribute (i.e., Associated Press (AP), Agence France-Presse (AFP) or American Press Agency (APA)) and Indian Press Agency PTI.  Governments may also control news agencies: China (Xinhua), France (Agence France-Presse), Russia (TASS), and several other countries have government-funded news agencies which also use information from other agencies as well.  Commercial newswire services charge businesses to distribute their news (e.g., Business Wire, GlobeNewswire, Newsfile Corp., PR Newswire, PR Web, and Cision).  The major news agencies generally prepare hard news stories and feature articles that can be used by other news organizations with little or no modification, and then sell them to other news organizations. They provide these articles in bulk electronically through wire services (originally they used telegraphy; today they frequently use the Internet). Corporations, individuals, analysts, and intelligence agencies may also subscribe.  News sources, collectively, described as alternative media provide reporting which emphasizes a self-defined \"non-corporate view\" as a contrast to the points of view expressed in corporate media and government-generated news releases. Internet-based alternative news agencies form one component of these sources.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Associations.", "content": "There are several different associations of news agencies. EANA is the European Alliance of Press Agencies, while the OANA is an association of news agencies of the Asia-Pacific region. MINDS is a global network of leading news agencies collaborating in new media business.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A news agency is an organization that gathers news reports and sells them to subscribing news organizations, such as newspapers, magazines and radio and television broadcasters. A news agency may also be referred to as a wire service, newswire, or news service.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971119}
{"src_title": "Ystad", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "After the time of Absalon, Bishop of Roskilde and Archbishop of Lund, peace was brought to the area in the 11th century, fishing families settled at the mouth of the river Vassa as herring fishing became the main source of trade. Ystad was not mentioned in documents until 1244, in a record of King Eric's visit to the town with his brother, Abel. A Franciscan monastery, \"Gråbrödraklostret\", was founded in 1267, and Ystad joined the Hanseatic League in the 14th century.  The charter of 1599 gave the town the right to export oxen. Ystad, together with all of Scania, was transferred from Denmark to Sweden following the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658.  By 1866 Ystad had a railway connection and it was established as a garrison town in the 1890s. After World War II, ferry services to Poland and to the Danish island of Bornholm were opened.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "In 1658, Ystad's population was about 1,600 and, by 1850 it had reached 5,000. The increased importance brought by the railway and the garrison in the 1890s drove the population above 10,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "Ystad is the setting of the Swedish crime drama \"Wallander\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infrastructure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Some of the main industries of the town are trade, handicraft and tourism, derived from being one of the best-preserved medieval towns in the Scania province and its association with the Wallander detective novels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The ferry port has services to the Danish island of Bornholm and to Świnoujście (formerly Swinemünde), in Poland, forming part of the E65 road route south from Malmö.  Ystad connects the Ystad Line and Österlen Line railways. Passenger traffic runs between Malmö and Simrishamn (operated by Skåne Commuter Rail). Until December 2017, a direct train service linked Ystad to Copenhagen via the Øresund Bridge (operated by Danish State Railways).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "The most popular sport in Ystad is handball, with two big clubs. Ystads IF is in Elitserien (the highest Swedish men's national league, ) whilst IFK Ystad is situated in Division 1 (the second highest league, ). Several famous handball players have played for these clubs, including Per Carlén.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "The only newspaper published at present in Ystad is the \"Ystads Allehanda\", which also covers the neighbouring municipalities of Skurup, Tomelilla, Simrishamn and Sjöbo. The newspaper was founded in 1873.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Places of interest.", "content": "One of Sweden's best preserved medieval monasteries, the Greyfriars Abbey, lies in Ystad. The town also has an additional large medieval church, the Church of the Virgin Mary (\"Mariakyrkan\"). Both are highly influenced by Gothic Hansa architecture (which can also be seen in churches around the Baltic Sea, for instance in Helsingborg, Malmö, and Rostock) and are among the best examples in Sweden of Brick Gothic. In addition, there are areas of surviving medieval town architecture, like the Latin school (built c. 1500) and several townhouses. The city is also included in the European Route of Brick Gothic. From the steeple of the Church of the Virgin Mary the Tower Watchman (tornväktaren or lurblåsaren) sounds his horn every 15 minutes from 21:15 to 01:00 to let the people of Ystad know that the town is safe from fire and enemies. The Tower Watchman also says a special line when sounding his horn: \"The clock strikes... (for example twelve). All is quiet! From fire and thieves may God preserve the town!\" The tradition has existed since the eighteenth century.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ystad () (older ) is a town and the seat of Ystad Municipality in Skåne County, Sweden. Ystad had 18,350 inhabitants in 2010. The settlement dates back to the 11th century and has become a busy ferryport, local administrative centre and tourist attraction. The detective series \"Wallander\", created by Henning Mankell, is set primarily in Ystad.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971120}
{"src_title": "Liturgy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"liturgy\", derived from the technical term in ancient Greek (), \"leitourgia\", which literally means \"work for the people\" is a literal translation of the two words \"litos ergos\" or \"public service\". In origin, it signified the often expensive offerings wealthy Greeks made in service to the people, and thus to the \"polis\" and the state. Through the \"leitourgia\", the rich carried a financial burden and were correspondingly rewarded with honours and prestige. The \"leitourgia\" were assigned by the polis, the State and the Roman Empire, and became obligatory in the course of the 3rd century A.D. The performance of such supported the patron's standing among the elite and the popular at large. The holder of a Hellenic \"leitourgia\" was not taxed a specific sum, but was entrusted with a particular ritual, which could be performed with greater or lesser magnificence. The chief sphere remained that of civic religion, embodied in the festivals: M.I. Finley notes \"in Demosthenes' day there were at least 97 liturgical appointments in Athens for the festivals, rising to 118 in a (quadrennial) Panathenaic year.\" However, groups of rich citizens were assigned to pay for expenses such as civic amenities and even payment of warships. Eventually, under the Roman Empire, such obligations, known as \"munera\", devolved into a competitive and ruinously expensive burden that was avoided when possible. These included a wide range of expenses having to do with civic infrastructure and amenities; and imperial obligations such as highway, bridge and aqueduct repair, supply of various raw materials, bread-baking for troops in transit, just to name a few.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buddhism.", "content": "Buddhist liturgy is a formalized service of veneration and worship performed within a Buddhist Sangha community in nearly every traditional denomination and sect in the Buddhist world. It is often done once or more times a day and can vary among the Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana sects.  The liturgy mainly consists of chanting or reciting a \"sutra\" or passages from a \"sutras\", a \"mantra\" (especially in Vajrayana), and several \"gathas\". Depending on what practice the practitioner wishes to undertake, it can be done at a temple or at home. The liturgy is almost always performed in front of an object or objects of veneration and accompanied by offerings of light, incense, water, and food.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Christianity.", "content": "Frequently in Christianity, a distinction is made between \"liturgical\" and \"non-liturgical\" churches based on how elaborate or antiquated the worship; in this usage, churches whose services are unscripted or improvised are called \"non-liturgical\". Others object to this usage, arguing that this terminology obscures the universality of public worship as a religious phenomenon. Thus, even the \"open\" or \"waiting\" worship of Quakers is liturgical, since the waiting itself until the Holy Spirit moves individuals to speak is a prescribed form of Quaker worship, sometimes referred to as \"the liturgy of silence\". Typically in Christianity, however, the term \"the liturgy\" normally refers to a standardised order of events observed during a religious service, be it a sacramental service or a service of public prayer; usually the former is the referent. In the ancient tradition, sacramental liturgy especially is the participation of the people in the work of God, which is primarily the saving work of Jesus Christ; in this liturgy, Christ continues the work of redemption.  The term \"liturgy\" literally in Greek means \"work for the people\", but a better translation is \"public service\" or \"public work\", as made clear from the origin of the term as described above. The early Christians adopted the word to describe their principal act of worship, the Sunday service (referred to by various terms, including Holy Eucharist, Holy Communion, Mass or Divine Liturgy), which they considered to be a sacrifice. This service, liturgy, or ministry (from the Latin \"ministerium\") is a duty for Christians as a priestly people by their baptism into Christ and participation in His high priestly ministry. It is also God's ministry or service to the worshippers. It is a reciprocal service. As such, many Christian churches designate one person who participates in the worship service as the liturgist. The liturgist may read announcements, scriptures, and calls to worship, while the minister preaches the sermon, offers prayers, and blesses sacraments. The liturgist may be either an ordained minister or a layman. The entire congregation participates in and offers the liturgy to God.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Islam.", "content": "\"Salāt\" (\"prayer\",'or : '; pl. \"\") is the practice of physical and compulsory prayer in Islam as opposed to dua, which is the Arabic word for supplication. Its importance for Muslims is indicated by its status as one of the Five Pillars of Islam.  Salat is preceded by ritual ablution and usually performed five times a day. It consists of the repetition of a unit called a \"rakʿah\" (pl. \"rakaʿāt\") consisting of prescribed actions and words. The number of obligatory (\"fard\") \"rakaʿāt\" varies from two to four according to the time of day or other circumstances (such as Friday congregational worship, which has two rakats). Prayer is obligatory for all Muslims except those who are prepubescent, menstruating, or in puerperium stage after childbirth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Judaism.", "content": "Jewish liturgy is the prayer recitations that form part of the observance of Rabbinic Judaism. These prayers, often with instructions and commentary, are found in the \"siddur\", the traditional Jewish prayer book. In general, Jewish men are obligated to pray three times a day within specific time ranges (\"zmanim\"). while, according to the Talmud, women are only \"required\" to pray once daily, as they are generally exempted from obligations that are time dependent. All public prayer requires a minyan, a quorum of 10 adults, to be present.  Traditionally, three prayer services are recited daily: Additional prayers:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Liturgy is the customary public worship performed by a religious group. As a religious phenomenon, liturgy represents a communal response to and participation in the sacred through activity reflecting praise, thanksgiving, supplication or repentance. It forms a basis for establishing a relationship with a divine agency, as well as with other participants in the liturgy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971121}
{"src_title": "Market liquidity", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "A liquid asset has some or all of the following features: It can be sold rapidly, with minimal loss of value, anytime within market hours. The essential characteristic of a liquid market is that there are always ready and willing buyers and sellers. It is similar to, but distinct from, market depth, which relates to the trade-off between quantity being sold and the price it can be sold for, rather than the liquidity trade-off between speed of sale and the price it can be sold for. A market may be considered both deep and liquid if there are ready and willing buyers and sellers in large quantities.  An illiquid asset is an asset which is not readily salable (without a drastic price reduction, and sometimes not at any price) due to uncertainty about its value or the lack of a market in which it is regularly traded. The mortgage-related assets which resulted in the subprime mortgage crisis are examples of illiquid assets, as their value was not readily determinable despite being secured by real property. Before the crisis, they had moderate liquidity because it was believed that their value was generally known.  Speculators and market makers are key contributors to the liquidity of a market or asset. Speculators are individuals or institutions that seek to profit from anticipated increases or decreases in a particular market price. Market makers seek to profit by charging for the immediacy of execution: either implicitly by earning a bid/ask spread or explicitly by charging execution commissions. By doing this, they provide the capital needed to facilitate the liquidity. The risk of illiquidity does not apply only to individual investments: whole portfolios are subject to market risk. Financial institutions and asset managers that oversee portfolios are subject to what is called \"structural\" and \"contingent\" liquidity risk. Structural liquidity risk, sometimes called funding liquidity risk, is the risk associated with funding asset portfolios in the normal course of business. Contingent liquidity risk is the risk associated with finding additional funds or replacing maturing liabilities under potential, future stressed market conditions. When a central bank tries to influence the liquidity (supply) of money, this process is known as open market operations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effect on asset values.", "content": "The market liquidity of assets affects their prices and expected returns. Theory and empirical evidence suggests that investors require higher return on assets with lower market liquidity to compensate them for the higher cost of trading these assets. That is, for an asset with given cash flow, the higher its market liquidity, the higher its price and the lower is its expected return. In addition, risk-averse investors require higher expected return if the asset's market-liquidity risk is greater. This risk involves the exposure of the asset return to shocks in overall market liquidity, the exposure of the asset's own liquidity to shocks in market liquidity and the effect of market return on the asset's own liquidity. Here too, the higher the liquidity risk, the higher the expected return on the asset or the lower is its price.  One example of this is a comparison of assets with and without a liquid secondary market. The liquidity discount is the reduced promised yield or expected return for such assets, like the difference between newly issued U.S. Treasury bonds compared to off the run treasuries with the same term to maturity. Initial buyers know that other investors are less willing to buy off-the-run treasuries, so the newly issued bonds have a higher price (and hence lower yield).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Futures.", "content": "In the futures markets, there is no assurance that a liquid market may exist for offsetting a commodity contract at all times. Some future contracts and specific delivery months tend to have increasingly more trading activity and have higher liquidity than others. The most useful indicators of liquidity for these contracts are the trading volume and open interest.  There is also dark liquidity, referring to transactions that occur off-exchange and are therefore not visible to investors until after the transaction is complete. It does not contribute to public price discovery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Banking.", "content": "In banking, liquidity is the ability to meet obligations when they come due without incurring unacceptable losses. Managing liquidity is a daily process requiring bankers to monitor and project cash flows to ensure adequate liquidity is maintained. Maintaining a balance between short-term assets and short-term liabilities is critical. For an individual bank, clients' deposits are its primary liabilities (in the sense that the bank is meant to give back all client deposits on demand), whereas reserves and loans are its primary assets (in the sense that these loans are owed to the bank, not by the bank). The investment portfolio represents a smaller portion of assets, and serves as the primary source of liquidity. Investment securities can be liquidated to satisfy deposit withdrawals and increased loan demand. Banks have several additional options for generating liquidity, such as selling loans, borrowing from other banks, borrowing from a central bank, such as the US Federal Reserve bank, and raising additional capital. In a worst-case scenario, depositors may demand their funds when the bank is unable to generate adequate cash without incurring substantial financial losses. In severe cases, this may result in a bank run. Most banks are subject to legally mandated requirements intended to help avoid a liquidity crisis.  Banks can generally maintain as much liquidity as desired because bank deposits are insured by governments in most developed countries. A lack of liquidity can be remedied by raising deposit rates and effectively marketing deposit products. However, an important measure of a bank's value and success is the cost of liquidity. A bank can attract significant liquid funds. Lower costs generate stronger profits, more stability, and more confidence among depositors, investors, and regulators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stock market.", "content": "In the market, liquidity has a slightly different meaning. The market for a stock is said to be liquid if the shares can be rapidly sold and the act of selling has little impact on the stock's price. Generally, this translates to where the shares are traded and the level of interest that investors have in the company. Another way to judge liquidity in a company's stock is to look at the bid/ask spread. For liquid stocks, such as Microsoft or General Electric, the spread is often just a few pennies – much less than 1% of the price. For illiquid stocks, the spread can be much larger, amounting to a few percent of the trading price.  Liquidity positively impacts the stock market. When stock prices rise, it is said to be due to a confluence of extraordinarily high levels of liquidity on household and business balance sheets, combined with a simultaneous normalization of liquidity preferences. On the margin, this drives a demand for equity investments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proxies.", "content": "One way to calculate the liquidity of the banking system of a country is to divide liquid assets by short term liabilities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In business, economics or investment, market liquidity is a market's feature whereby an individual or firm can quickly purchase or sell an asset without causing a drastic change in the asset's price. Liquidity is about how big the trade-off is between the speed of the sale and the price it can be sold for. In a liquid market, the trade-off is mild: selling quickly will not reduce the price much. In a relatively illiquid market, selling it quickly will require cutting its price significantly enough to generate interest.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971122}
{"src_title": "Industry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Slavery.", "content": "Slavery, the practice of utilizing forced labor to produce goods and services, has occurred since antiquity throughout the world as a means of low-cost production. It typically produces goods for which profit depends on economies of scale, especially those for which labor was simple and easy to supervise. International law has declared slavery illegal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Guilds.", "content": "Guilds, associations of artisans and merchants, oversee the production and distribution of a particular good. Guilds have their roots in the Roman Empire as \"collegia\" (singular: \"collegium\") Membership in these early guilds was voluntary. The Roman \"collegia\" did not survive the fall of Rome. In the early middle ages, guilds once again began to emerge in Europe, reaching a degree of maturity by the beginning of the 14th century. While few guilds remain, some modern labor structures resemble those of traditional guilds. Other guilds, such as the SAG-AFTRA act as trade unions rather than as classical guilds. Professor Sheilagh Ogilvie claims that guilds negatively affected quality, skills, and innovation in areas where they were present.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Industrial Revolution.", "content": "The industrial revolution (from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century) saw the development and popularization of mechanized means of production as a replacement for hand production. The industrial revolution played a role in the abolition of slavery in Europe and in North America.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Since the Industrial Revolution.", "content": "In a process dubbed \"tertiarization\", the economic preponderance of primary and secondary industries has declined in recent centuries relative to the rising importance of tertiary industry, resulting in the post-industrial economy. Specialization in industry and in the classification of industry has also occurred. Thus (for example) a record producer might claim to speak on behalf of the Japanese rock industry, the recording industry, the music industry or the entertainment industry - and any formulation will sound grandiose and weighty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Industrial development.", "content": "The Industrial Revolution led to the development of factories for large-scale production with consequent changes in society. Originally the factories were steam-powered, but later transitioned to electricity once an electrical grid was developed. The mechanized assembly line was introduced to assemble parts in a repeatable fashion, with individual workers performing specific steps during the process. This led to significant increases in efficiency, lowering the cost of the end process. Later automation was increasingly used to replace human operators. This process has accelerated with the development of the computer and the robot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deindustrialisation.", "content": "Historically certain manufacturing industries have gone into a decline due to various economic factors, including the development of replacement technology or the loss of competitive advantage. An example of the former is the decline in carriage manufacturing when the automobile was mass-produced.  A recent trend has been the migration of prosperous, industrialized nations towards a post-industrial society. This is manifested by an increase in the service sector at the expense of manufacturing, and the development of an information-based economy, the so-called informational revolution. In a post-industrial society, manufacturers relocate to more profitable locations through a process of off-shoring.  Measurements of manufacturing industries outputs and economic effect are not historically stable. Traditionally, success has been measured in the number of jobs created. The reduced number of employees in the manufacturing sector has been assumed to result from a decline in the competitiveness of the sector, or the introduction of the lean manufacturing process.  Related to this change is the upgrading of the quality of the product being manufactured. While it is possible to produce a low-technology product with low-skill labour, the ability to manufacture high-technology products well is dependent on a highly skilled staff.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Society.", "content": "An industrial society is a society driven by the use of technology to enable mass production, supporting a large population with a high capacity for division of labour. Today, industry is an important part of most societies and nations. A government must have some kind of industrial policy, regulating industrial placement, industrial pollution, financing and industrial labour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industrial labour.", "content": "In an industrial society, industry employs a major part of the population. This occurs typically in the manufacturing sector. A labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages, hours, and other working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members (rank and file members) and negotiates labour contracts with employers. This movement first rose among industrial workers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War.", "content": "The Industrial Revolution changed warfare, with mass-produced weaponry and supplies, machine-powered transportation, mobilization, the total war concept and weapons of mass destruction. Early instances of industrial warfare were the Crimean War and the American Civil War, but its full potential showed during the world wars. See also military-industrial complex, arms industries, military industry and modern warfare.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An industry is a sector that produces goods or related services within an economy. The major source of revenue of a group or company is an indicator of what industry it should be classified in. When a large corporate group has multiple sources of revenue generation, it is considered to be working in different industries. The manufacturing industry became a key sector of production and labour in European and North American countries during the Industrial Revolution, upsetting previous mercantile and feudal economies. This came through many successive rapid advances in technology, such as the development of steam power and the production of steel and coal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971123}
{"src_title": "Kirov, Kirov Oblast", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Principality and republic.", "content": "The native Slavic tribe of Central Russia and Volga regions, the Vyatichis (also called Viatichi), mixed here with the Novgorodian Slovenes and Finno-Ugric people. According to the medieval chronicles the first Russian settlements in the area appeared in 12th century. Kirov itself was first mentioned (as Vyatka) for the first time in 1374 when Novgorod ushkuyniks plundered it on their way to Bolghar. Vyatka was governed by a public assembly (veche) as other Northern Russian republics of Pskov and Novgorod.  At different times in the late 14th and 15th centuries Vyatka militias raided Ustyug, Novgorod and Tatar lands on Kama and Volga. Vyatka supported Yury of Zvenigorod during the Muscovite Civil War and after his party lost the victorious Vasily II sent Muscovite armies twice against Vyatka to subjugate it and eventually it was forced to accept the suzerainty of Moscow while retaining a significant measure of autonomy. In 1469 Vyatka allied with Khan Ibrahim of the Khanate of Kazan and did not take part in the campaign of Ivan III against the khanate.  After several unsuccessful campaigns by Moscow against Vyatka in 1480s, the latter was finally annexed in 1489.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Part of Grand Duchy of Moscow and Russian Empire.", "content": "Khlynov became known throughout Russia for its clay statuettes and whistles. The town's oldest surviving monument is the Assumption Cathedral (1689), an imposing structure surmounted by five globular domes.  In 1780, Catherine the Great renamed the town Vyatka and made it the seat of Vyatka Governorate. The town also served as a place of exile, notably for Alexander Herzen, Alexander Vitberg, and Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin. By the end of the 19th century, it was an important station on the Trans-Siberian railway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soviet and post-Soviet period.", "content": "In December 1934, it was renamed for the Soviet leader Sergey Kirov, who had been assassinated on December 1. However, whilst the name Kirov has remained since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, numerous institutions such as the university bear the former name of Vyatka.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Kirov is the administrative center of the oblast. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with 134 rural localities, incorporated as the City of Kirov—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Kirov is incorporated as Kirov Urban Okrug.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Kirov is a major transport hub (railway; Trans-Siberian main) and river port. It is served by Kirov Pobedilovo airport. During the 1990s this airport was closed and for several years provided only irregular service. During the 2003-2006 summer seasons there were signs of a revival in air transportation as several companies attempted to establish flight routes from Kirov to Moscow and Krasnodar. Since 2006 Kirov airport has been used by a local company operating flights to Moscow.  The Kirov River port went bankrupt in the late 1990s and all its river boats were sold to other regions. Kirov is a center of machine building; metallurgy, light, the printing trade, biochemical and the timber industry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museums.", "content": "Vyatka Museum of Art, one of the oldest museums in Russia, was founded in 1910 by local artists.  The idea of creation belongs to natives of Vyatka land, brothers artists Viktor Vasnetsov and Apollinary Vasnetsov. At the core of the collection — works that received the most part in the 1910-1920s from the State Museum Fund, private collections and as gifts — from patrons and artists. Today the museum has more than fifteen thousand exhibits and is located in four buildings in Kirov downtown.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Circus.", "content": "According to a report in \"Pravda\" dated January 4, 2005, Kirov is known as the \"city of twins\" for the unusually high number of multiple births there.  According to a report, the city is home to a high concentration of red-haired individuals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Rodina plays in the highest division of Russian Bandy League. Their home arena has a capacity of 7500. It was the venue of the national final in 2013. Rodina-2 will participate in the Russian Rink Bandy Cup 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Kirov is the home of Vyatka State University, Vyatka University for the Humanities, Vyatka Agricultural Academy and Kirov State Medical University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Kirov has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification \"Dfb\"). Summers are warm and rainy, coupled with cool nights, while winters are cold and extremely snowy, with snow falling on most days during winter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Kirov is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kirov () is the largest city and administrative center of Kirov Oblast, Russia. It is located on the Vyatka River in European Russia, 896 km northeast of Moscow. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 473,695. Kirov is known for being the origin of Dymkovo toys.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971124}
{"src_title": "Wizo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Jochen Bix founded the band \"Wieso\" (meaning \"why?\") with friends in Sindelfingen, a town in the vicinity of Stuttgart. In 1986, they altered their name to \"Wizo\" and got their first gig in 1987. In 1988, Wizo released their first demo tape, followed by a second in 1990. Jochen only sang a few songs, including the Judas Priest cover, \"Breaking the Law\". He then left and Axel Kurth became the front man.  Later that year, Wizo founded their own label, and released the \"Klebstoff\" (\"Glue\") EP, their first vinyl record. In 1991, \"für'n Arsch\" (\"In vain\", lit. \"for the ass\") was released. The band also gained attention for an illegal public performance on a truck outside of a courthouse while Manfred Krug, a TV celebrity, was on trial for a road rage incident.  In 1992, their first CD, \"Bleib Tapfer\" (\"Stay Brave\") was released. On the first anniversary of German pop-star Roy Black's death, Wizo released the single \"Roy Black ist tot\" (\"Roy Black Is Dead\") as a dubious tribute. The tribute in question was a punk cover of a children's song with the lyrics altered to a German version of \"Roy Black is dead, Roy Black is dead.\" It was named the worst CD of the year by the Bild-Zeitung, a major German tabloid. In 1994, their next CD, \"Uuaarrgh!\" (onomatopoeic, like a big \"ouch\", as in comics) was released, which sold 100,000 copies. Later that year, due to the \"glorification of violence\" and \"illegal anti-state statements\" present in the song \"Kein Gerede\" (\"No idle talk\"), the album \"Bleib Tapfer\" was indexed by the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons and was only available to be sold to adults through very restricted channels.  Wizo performed at the Chaos Days in 1994.  In 1995, Wizo released \"Herrenhandtasche\" (\"Man purse\") and performed on the Warped Tour. Later that year, the band opened for Die Ärzte.  In 1996, Wizo's lineup changed; Ingo Hahn replaced their long-standing drummer, Charly Zasko, and he and Axel \"are fortunately no longer in contact.\" With Ingo, \"Doof wie Scheiße\" (\"Dumb as Shit\") was also recorded. In 1997, the band released \"Weihnachten stinkt!\" (\"Christmas stinks!\"), a split EP with the Japanese punk band Hi-Standard. The band also received a criminal complaint from Wilhelm Gegenfurtner, the Vicar General of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Regensburg over their depiction of a crucified pig on their album \"Uuaarrgh!\" and on t-shirts, which he claimed violated Germany's blasphemy law, §166 StGB for \"Defamation of religious denominations, religious societies and World view associations\". The band offered to stop selling the T-Shirt if the Catholic Church put a sign on the \"Judensau\", an anti-semitic carving on the Regensburg Cathedral dating to 1330. The artwork is censored from later pressings of the album with a reference to a court decision.  In 1998, WIZO released \"Kraut & Rüben EP\" (\"Cabbage and Carrots\", also \"higgledy piggledy\") on the label Fat Wreck Chords, containing the songs that were already popular in Germany, but unknown to the rest of the world. That year, Herr Guhl replaced Ingo as drummer. In September 2004, WIZO made a first in the music industry by releasing a single on USB flash drive, titled as the \"Stick EP\". In addition to five high bitrate MP3s, it also included a video, pictures, lyrics, and tabs.  In November 2004, coinciding with the release of their album \"Anderster\" (lit. \"differenter\"), Wizo announced their intent to dissolve in March 2005, upon the conclusion of a farewell tour.  In November 2009, they announced a new album and a tour for 2010 on their official Homepage.  Wizo released the album \"Punk gibt's nicht umsonst (Teil III)\" on 13 June 2014. In 2016, their album \"Der\" was released.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lineup.", "content": "For most of their history, the band has performed as a power trio.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wizo () is a punk rock band from Sindelfingen, Germany that formed in 1985. Their messages run from political to humorous; the band espouses left-wing politics and describes themselves as \"against Nazis, racists, sexists, and other assholes!\" The band split up in March 2005 and reunited in November 2009. Wizo's music is characterised by a combination of humorous and political lyrics with a fast, melodic punk rock sound. Wizo is considered part of the German movement known as \"Fun-Punk\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971125}
{"src_title": "Management control system", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Management control systems are tools to aid management for steering an organization toward its strategic objectives and competitive advantage. Management controls are only one of the tools which managers use in implementing desired strategies. However strategies get implemented through management controls, organizational structure, human resources management and culture.  According to Simons (1995), Management Control Systems are the formal, information-based routines and procedures managers use to maintain or alter patterns in organizational activities  Anthony & Young (1999) showed management control system as a black box. The term black box is used to describe an operation whose exact nature cannot be observed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "One of the first authors to define management control systems was Ernest Anthony Lowe, Professor of Accounting and Financial Management at the University of Sheffield, in his 1972 article \"On the idea of a management control system.\" He listed the following four reasons for the need for a planning and control system:  The term ‘management control’ was given of its current connotations by Robert N. Anthony (Otley, 1994).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management control system, topics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management control.", "content": "According to Maciariello et al. (1994), management control is concerned with coordination, resource allocation, motivation, and performance measurement. The practice of management control and the design of management control systems draws upon a number of academic disciplines.  [Anthony and Govindajaran] (2007) defined Management Control as the process by which managers influence other members of the organization to implement the organization’s strategies. According to Kaplan, management controls are exercised on the basis of information received by the managers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Management accounting and management accounting system.", "content": "Anthony & Young (1999) showed that management accounting has three major subdivisions:  Chenhall (2003) mentioned that the terms management accounting (MA), management accounting systems (MAS), management control systems (MCS), and organizational controls (OC) are sometimes used interchangeably.  In this case, management accounting refers to a collection of practices such as budgeting, product costing or incentives. Organizational controls are sometimes used to refer to controls built into activities and processes such as statistical quality control, just-in-time management.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Finance-oriented vs. operational-oriented management control.", "content": "Traditionally, most measures used in management control systems are accounting-based and financial in nature. This emphasis on financial measures, however, distracts from essential non-financial factors such as customer satisfaction, product quality, etc. Furthermore, non-financial measures are better predictors of long-run performance.  Consequently, a management control system should include a comprehensive set of performance aspects consisting of both financial and non-financial metrics. The inclusion of non-financial measures has become an essential characteristic of current management control systems, to the point of becoming the main criterion in distinguishing different systems.  Therefore, depending on the balance between financial and non-financial measures, a management control system may be characterized as finance-oriented or operations-oriented. Finance-oriented control systems are primarily based on financial accounting data, such as costs, earnings or profitability, whereas operations-oriented control systems are primarily based on non-financial data that focus on operational output and quality, for example service volume, employee turnover, or customer complaints.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Management control system techniques.", "content": "According to Horngren et al. (2005), management control system is an integrated technique for collecting and using information to motivate employee behavior and to evaluate performance. Management control systems use many techniques such as", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A management control system (MCS) is a system which gathers and uses information to evaluate the performance of different organizational resources like human, physical, financial and also the organization as a whole in light of the organizational strategies pursued.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971126}
{"src_title": "Neman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "River course.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nemunas loops.", "content": "Since the loops are located in Lithuania, they are often referred to as \"The Nemunas loops\".  In 1992 Nemunas Loops Regional Park was founded. Its goal is to preserve the loops (Lithuanian: \"vingis\") that the Nemunas makes in the Punia forest. Near Prienai, the Nemunas makes a loop (like a teardrop) coming within of completing the loop. The Nemunas flows along the double bend between Balbieriškis and Birštonas for and then moves in a northerly direction for only. The loops are not conventional river meanders; they follow underlying tectonic structures. The faults are the source of the mineral springs in the area. The area is historically and culturally significant. Its castles served as the first line of defense against forays by the Teutonic knights.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Delta.", "content": "At its delta the Nemunas splits into a maze of river branches and canals mixing with polders and wetlands and is a very attractive destination for eco-tourism. The four main distributaries are Atmata, Pakalnė, Skirvytė and Gilija. The river plays a crucial part in the ecosystem of the Curonian Lagoon. It provides the main water inflow to the lagoon and keeps the water almost fresh. This allows both fresh water and mixed water animals to survive there. As the river's delta expands, the lagoon shrinks. Since the delta is in Lithuania, it is often referred to as \"Nemunas Delta\". Nemunas Delta Regional Park was created in the delta in 1992.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tributaries.", "content": "The following rivers are tributaries to the river Neman/Nemunas (from source to mouth):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Largest settlements on the river.", "content": "From west to east, the largest settlements are Sovetsk/Tilsit, Neman, Kaunas, Alytus, Druskininkai, Grodno, and Masty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Significance in culture.", "content": "Ptolemy referred to Nemunas as Chronos (although competing theories suppose Chronos was in fact Pregolya).  The river has lent its name to the Neman Culture, a Neolithic archaeological subculture. In German, the part of the river flowing in what earlier was Prussia has been called'at least since about 1250, when Teutonic Knights built'castle and the town of \"\" at the mouth of the Curonian Lagoon, naming it after the indigenous name of the river, Memel. The city of Memel, now in Lithuania, is known today as Klaipėda (confusingly, the city of Memel was on the Dange River, now called the Danė River, not the Memel River). On German road maps and in German lexika, only the section within Prussia (starting at Schmalleningken) was named Memel; the part outside Germany was labelled Niemen.  The border between the State of the Teutonic Order and Lithuania was fixed in 1422 by the Treaty of Lake Melno and remained stable for centuries. The Treaty of Tilsit between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I was signed on a raft in the river in 1807. Napoleon's crossing at the outset of the 1812 French invasion of Russia is described in \"War and Peace\". In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles made the river the border separating the Memel Territory from German East Prussia as of 1920. At that time, Germany's Weimar Republic adopted the \"\" as its official national anthem. In the first stanza of the song, written in 1841, the river is mentioned as the eastern border of a (then politically yet-to-be united) Germany:  Lithuanians refer to the Nemunas as \"the father of rivers\" (\"Nemunas\" is a masculine noun in Lithuania). Countless companies and organizations in Lithuania have \"Nemunas\" in their name, including a folklore ensemble, a weekly magazine about art and culture, a sanatorium, and numerous guest houses and hotels. Lithuanian and Polish literature often mention the Nemunas. One of the most famous poems by Maironis starts:  Almost every Lithuanian can recite these words by heart.  There are many other smaller rivers and rivulets in Lithuania with names that may have been derived from \"Nemunas\" — Nemunykštis, Nemuniukas, Nemunynas, Nemunėlis, Nemunaitis. The etymology of the name is disputed: some say that \"Nemunas\" is an old word meaning \"a damp place\", while others that it is \"mute, soundless river\" (from \"nemti, nėmti\" \"to become silent\", also \"memelis, mimelis, mėmė\" \"slow, worthless person\"). The name is possibly derived from the Finnic word \"niemi\" \"cape\".  Art critics praised its depiction in the paintings by Michał Kulesza.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic significance.", "content": "The Nemunas River is used for a variety of purposes such as fishing, hydropower generation, water supply, industry, and agriculture, as well as recreation, tourism, and water transport. There have been proposals to deepen its watercourse below Kaunas to make it more consistently usable.  The largest cities on the river are Grodno in Belarus, Alytus and Kaunas in Lithuania, and Sovetsk in the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia. The river basin has a population of 5.4 million inhabitants. Industrial activities in the Belarusian section include metal processing, chemical industries, pulp and paper production, and manufacturing of building materials, as well as food-processing plants. In Lithuania, the city of Kaunas, with about 400,000 inhabitants, is the country's principal user of the river; the local industries that impact the river are hydropower generation, machinery, chemical, wood processing and paper production, furniture production, textile and food-processing. In Kaliningrad, industrial centers near the river include Sovetsk and Neman, which have large pulp and paper production facilities.  Above Kaunas a dam was built in 1959 to serve the Kaunas Hydroelectric Power Plant. The resulting Kaunas Reservoir () is the largest such lake in Lithuania. It occupies ; its length is ; its greatest depth is. The reservoir is a popular destination for Lithuanian yachting.  The Augustów Canal, built in the 19th century, connects the Neman to the Vistula River.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biological communities.", "content": "The following fish have been found in the Nemunas/Neman River: perch, pike, zander, roach, tench, bream, rudd, ruffe, and bleak. Its tributaries also contain stone loach, the three-spined stickleback, minnows, trout, sculpins, gudgeon, dace and chub.  Atlantic salmon formerly migrated upstream to spawn; however, dams on the river, most of them built in the 20th century, has reduced their numbers considerably. The dam at Kaunas does not provide fish ladders. The spawning season took place in the fall; ethnographic studies of the time report that night fishing, using torches and harpoons, was a common technique.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environmental issues.", "content": "A report by the Swedish EPA (Environmental Protection Administration) rates the quality of the Nemunas in Lithuania as moderately polluted or polluted. High concentrations of organic pollutants, nitrates and phosphates occur in different parts of the river. Environmental issues include water quality (eutrophication and pollutants), changes in the hydrological regime, and flooding control. The environmental problems in each of the countries that make up the basin are slightly different. In Belarus, the main problems are oil products as well as nitrogen and BOD (biological oxygen demand). The environmental issues in the Kaliningrad section include high concentrations of BOD, lignosulphates, and nitrogen. In Lithuania, the operations of the Kaunas Hydroelectric Power Plant cause changes of the water level that affect the riparian ecosystem. Old wastewater treatment facilities along the entire river also contribute to pollution.  The co-operation necessary to ensure the health of the river is complicated by the political divisions in the basin - its territory is shared among Russia, Belarus and the European Union country of Lithuania. Several co-operation initiatives are underway to address the environmental issues of the river.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nemunas, Nioman, Neman, Nyoman, Niemen or Memel, is a major Eastern European river. It rises in Belarus and flows through Lithuania before draining into the Curonian Lagoon, and then into the Baltic Sea at Rusnė Island. It begins at the confluence of two smaller tributaries about southwest of the town of Uzda in central Belarus, and about southwest of Minsk. In its lower reaches it forms the border between Lithuania and Russia's Kaliningrad Oblast. It also, very briefly, forms a part of the Belarus–Lithuania border. The largest river in Lithuania, and the third-largest in Belarus, the Neman is navigable for most of its length.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971127}
{"src_title": "Tidal marsh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "Tidal marshes are differentiated into freshwater, brackish and salt according to the salinity of their water. Coastal marshes lie along coasts and estuarine marshes lie inland within the tidal zone. Location determines the controlling processes, age, disturbance regime, and future persistence of tidal marshes. Tidal freshwater marshes are further divided into deltaic and fringing types. Extensive research has been conducted on deltaic tidal freshwater marshes in Chesapeake Bay, which were formed as a result of historic deforestation and intensive agriculture.  Tidal marshes can be further categorized by salinity level, elevation, and sea level. Tidal marshes are commonly zoned into lower marshes (also called intertidal marshes) and upper or high marshes, based on their elevation above sea level. A middle marsh zone also exists for tidal freshwater marshes.  Tidal marshes may be further classified into back-barrier marshes, estuarine brackish marshes and tidal freshwater marshes, depending on the influence of sea level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coastal.", "content": "Coastal tidal marshes are found within coastal watersheds and encompass a variety of types including fresh and salt marshes, bottomland hardwood swamps, mangrove swamps, and palustrine wetlands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Island and barrier island.", "content": "Tidal Marshes also form between a main shoreline and barrier islands. These elongated shifting landforms evolve parallel and in close proximity to the shoreline of a tidal marsh. Many become fully submerged at high tide, and become directly attached to the mainland when at low tide. Barrier island formation includes mechanisms such as offshore bar theory, spit accretion theory, and climate change.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Ecosystem Services.", "content": "Tidal marsh ecosystems provide numerous services, including supplying habitats to support a diverse range of biodiversity. Their areas are spawning grounds and home to \"feeder fish\" that lie low on the food chain, and serve as crucial rest-stops for migratory birds. Additionally, they provide suitable habitat to various tidal salt marsh specialist bird species, such as the seaside sparrow (\"Ammospiza maritima\") and the willet (\"Tringa semipalmata\") found in tidal marshes in Connecticut, U.S.  Other ecosystem services include their role as significant carbon sinks and shoreline stabilizers. Tidal marshes provide flood protection to upland areas by storing ground water, and lessen the impact of storm surges on nearby shorelines. Tidal marshes located along coastlines also act as intricate filtration systems for watersheds. These areas absorb and trap pollutants from water run-off that travels from higher elevations to open water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anthropogenic Threats.", "content": "Historically, the global loss of tidal marshes can be attributed to the implementation of tidal restrictions and other draining activities. Tidal restrictions methods include diking, tide gates, and impoundments, which were implemented on coastal lands internationally in favour of creating agricultural land, as exemplified with large-scale diking that has occurred in Atlantic Canada and the U.S. (e.g. in The Bay of Fundy). Historical changes (due to anthropogenic activity) to tidal marshes have a lasting impact on them today. Tidal marshes have experienced the Gold Rush which filled some marshes with sediment due to erosion. Logging has also damaged tidal marshes due to their decomposition and filling of marshes. Tidal marshes sensitivity to anthropogenic activity have created long lasting affects.  Currently, rising sea levels is one of the leading threats to tidal marshes caused by global warming and climate change. Pollution due to urbanization also continues to endanger tidal marsh ecosystems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restoration.", "content": "Restoration of tidal marshes through the removal of tidal restrictions to re-establish degraded ecosystem services have been underway internationally for decades. Deliberate and natural restoration practices have occurred in the U.S., United Kingdom, Europe, and Canada. Research shows that tidal marsh restoration can be evaluated through various factors, such as vegetation, biogeochemical responses (e.g. salinity, sediment deposition, pH, and carbon sequestration), hydrologic responses, and wildlife community responses.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A tidal marsh (also known as a type of \"tidal wetland\") is a marsh found along rivers, coasts and estuaries which floods and drains by the tidal movement of the adjacent estuary, sea or ocean. Tidal marshes experience many overlapping persistent cycles, including diurnal and semi-diurnal tides, day-night temperature fluctuations, spring-neap tides, seasonal vegetation growth and decay, upland runoff, decadal climate variations, and centennial to millennial trends in sea level and climate. Tidal marshes are formed in areas that are sheltered from waves (such as beside edges of bays), in upper slops of intertidal, and where water is fresh or saline.They are also impacted by transient disturbances such as hurricanes, floods, storms, and upland fires", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971128}
{"src_title": "Merseburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative reforms.", "content": "Venenien was incorporated into Merseburg on 1 January 1949. The parish Kötzschen followed on 1 July 1950. Since 30 May 1994, Meuschau is part of Merseburg. Trebnitz followed later. Beuna was annexed on 1 January 2009. Geusa is a part of Merseburg since 1 January 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pre-history and Middle Ages.", "content": "Merseburg was first mentioned in 850. King Henry the Fowler built a royal palace at Merseburg; in the 933 Battle of Riade, he gained his great victory over the Hungarians in the vicinity.  Thietmar, appointed in 973, became the first bishop of the newly created bishopric of Prague in Bohemia. Prague had been part of the archbishopric of Mainz for a hundred years before that. From 968 until the Protestant Reformation, Merseburg was the seat of the Bishop of Merseburg, and in addition to being for a time the residence of the margraves of Meissen, it was a favorite residence of the German kings during the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries. Fifteen diets were held here during the Middle Ages, during which time its fairs enjoyed the importance which was afterwards transferred to those of Leipzig. Merseburg was the site of a failed assassination attempt on Polish ruler Bolesław I Chrobry in 1002. The town suffered severely during the German Peasants' War and also during the Thirty Years' War.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "17th century to 20th century.", "content": "From 1657 to 1738 Merseburg was the residence of the Dukes of Saxe-Merseburg, after which it fell to the Electorate of Saxony. In 1815 following the Napoleonic Wars, the town became part of the Prussian Province of Saxony.  Merseburg is where the Merseburg Incantations were rediscovered in 1841. Written down in Old High German, they are hitherto the only preserved German documents with a heathen theme. One of them is a charm to release warriors caught during battle, and the other is a charm to heal a horse's sprained foot.  At the beginning of the 20th century, Merseburg was transformed into an industrial town, largely due to the pioneering work done by Carl Bosch and Friedrich Bergius, who laid down the scientific fundamentals of the catalytic high-pressure ammonia synthesis from 1909 to 1913. Enterprises, too, blazed a trail in the course of the transformational process. Ultimately, the nearby Leuna works emerged at the nearby town of Leuna, which continues to operate in the 21st century as a chemical production park that serves multiple international chemical companies.  Merseburg was badly damaged in World War II. In 23 air raids 6,200 dwellings were completely or partly destroyed. The historic town centre was almost completely destroyed.  Briefly part of Saxony-Anhalt after the war, it was then administered within the \"Bezirk\" Halle in East Germany. It became part of Saxony-Anhalt again after reunification of Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "Like many towns in the former East Germany, Merseburg has had a general decline in population since German Reunification despite annexing and merging with a number of smaller nearby villages.  Population of Merseburg \"(from 1960, population on 31 December, unless otherwise indicated)\":", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attractions.", "content": "Among the notable buildings of Merseburg are the Merseburg Cathedral of St John the Baptist (founded 1015, rebuilt in the 13th and 16th centuries) and the episcopal palace (15th century). The cathedral-and-palace ensemble also features a palace garden (\"Schlossgarten\").  Other attractions include the Merseburg House of Trades with a cultural stage and the German Museum of Chemistry, Merseburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arts and culture.", "content": "The Merseburg Palace Festival with the Historical Pageant, the International Palace-Moat Concerts, Merseburg Organ Days and the Puppet Show Festival Week are events celebrated every year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Merseburg station is located on the Halle–Bebra railway. Leipzig/Halle Airport is just 25 kilometers away. Merseburg is connected with the Halle (Saale) tramway network. A tram ride from Halle's city centre to Merseburg takes about 50 minutes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Merseburg is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Merseburg () is a town in the south of the German state of Saxony-Anhalt on the river Saale, approx. 14 km south of Halle (Saale) and 30 km west of Leipzig. It is the capital of the Saalekreis district. It had a diocese founded by Archbishop Adalbert of Magdeburg. The University of Merseburg is located within the town. Merseburg has around 33,000 inhabitants. Merseburg is part of the Central German Metropolitan Region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971129}
{"src_title": "Dnieper", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and name in various languages.", "content": "The name \"Dnieper\" may be derived either from Sarmatian \"the river on the far side\" or from Scythian (Dānapr) \"deep river.\" By way of contrast, the name Dniester either derives from \"the close river\" or from a combination of Scythian \"Dānu\" (river) and \"Ister\", the Thracian name for the Dniester.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Names in local languages.", "content": "In the languages of the three countries it flows through it has essentially the same name, albeit with different pronunciations:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other names.", "content": "The river is mentioned both by the Ancient Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC as ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The total length of the river is variously given as or, of which are within Russia, are within Belarus, and are within Ukraine. Its basin covers, of which are within Ukraine, are within Belarus.  The source of the Dnieper is the sedge bogs (Akseninsky Mokh) of the Valdai Hills in central Russia, at an elevation of. For of its length, it serves as the border between Belarus and Ukraine. Its estuary, or liman, used to be defended by the strong fortress of Ochakiv.  On the Dnieper to the south of Komarin urban-type settlement, Braghin District, Gomel Region the southern extreme point of Belarus is situated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries of the Dnieper.", "content": "The Dnieper has many tributaries (up to 32,000) with 89 being rivers of 100+ km. The main ones are, from its source to its mouth:  Many small direct tributaries also exist, such as, in the Kiev area, the Syrets (right bank) in the north of the city, the historically significant Lybid (right bank) passing west of the centre, and the Borshahivka (right bank) to the south.  The water resources of the Dnieper basin compose around 80% out of all Ukraine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rapids.", "content": "Dnieper Rapids were part of trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, first mentioned in the Kiev Chronicle. The route was probably established in the late eighth and early ninth centuries and gained significant importance from the tenth until the first third of the eleventh century. On the Dnieper the Varangians had to portage their ships round seven rapids, where they had to be on guard for Pecheneg nomads.  Along this middle flow of the Dnieper, there were nine major rapids (although some sources cite a fewer number of them), obstructing almost the whole width of the river, about 30–40 smaller rapids, obstructing only part of the river, and about 60 islands and islets.  After the Dnieper hydroelectric station was built in 1932, they were inundated by Dnieper Reservoir.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Canals.", "content": "There are a number of canals connected to the Dnieper:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fauna.", "content": "The river is part of the quagga mussel's native range. The mussel has been accidentally introduced around the world, where it has become an invasive species.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reservoirs and hydroelectric power.", "content": "From the mouth of the Prypiat River to the Kakhovka Hydroelectric Station, there are six sets of dams and hydroelectric stations, which produce 10% of Ukraine's electricity.  The first constructed was the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station (or DniproHES) near Zaporizhia, built between 1927 and 1932 with an output of 558 MW. It was destroyed during World War II, but was rebuilt in 1948 with an output of 750 MW.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regions and cities.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cities.", "content": "Major cities, over 100,000 in population, are in bold script. Cities and towns located on the Dnieper are listed in order from the river's source (in Russia) to its mouth (in Ukraine): Arheimar, a capital of the Goths, was located on the Dnieper, according to the Hervarar saga.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Navigation.", "content": "Almost of the river is navigational (to the city of Dorogobuzh). The Dnieper is important for the transport and economy of Ukraine: its reservoirs have large ship locks, allowing vessels of up to to access as far as the port of Kiev and thus create an important transport corridor. The river is used by passenger vessels as well. Inland cruises on the rivers Danube and Dnieper have been a growing market in recent decades.  Upstream from Kiev, the Dnieper receives the water of the Pripyat River. This navigable river connects to the Dnieper-Bug canal, the link with the Bug River. Historically, a connection with the Western European waterways was possible, but a weir without any ship lock near the town of Brest, Belarus, has interrupted this international waterway. Poor political relations between Western Europe and Belarus mean there is little likelihood of reopening this waterway in the near future. River navigation is interrupted each year by freezing in winter, and severe winter storms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the arts.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "The River Dnieper has been a subject of chapter X of a story by Nikolai Gogol \"A Terrible Vengeance\" (1831, published in 1832 as a part of the \"Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka\" short stories collection). It is considered as a classical example of description of the nature in Russian literature. The river was also described in the works of Taras Shevchenko.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Visual arts.", "content": "The River Dnieper has been a subject for artists, great and minor, over the centuries. Major artists with works based on the Dnieper are Arkhip Kuindzhi and Ivan Aivazovsky.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Films.", "content": "The River Dnieper makes an appearance in the 1964 Hungarian drama film \"The Sons of the Stone-Hearted Man\" (based on the novel of the same name by Mór Jókai), where it appears when two characters are leaving Saint Petersburg but get attacked by wolves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Nowadays the Dnieper River suffers from anthropogenic influence and obtain numerous emissions of pollutants. The Dnieper is close to the Prydniprovsky Chemical Plant radioactive dumps (near Kamianske), and susceptible to leakages of radioactive waste. The river is also close to the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station (Chernobyl Exclusion Zone) that is located next to the mouth of the Prypiat River.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dnieper is one of the major rivers of Europe, rising in the Valdai Hills near Smolensk, Russia, before flowing through Belarus and Ukraine to the Black Sea. It is the longest river of Ukraine and Belarus and the fourth-longest river in Europe. The total length is approximately with a drainage basin of. Historically, the river was an important barrier, dividing Ukraine into right and left banks. Nowadays, the river is noted for its dams and hydroelectric stations. The Dnieper is an important navigable waterway for the economy of Ukraine and is connected via the Dnieper–Bug Canal to other waterways in Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971130}
{"src_title": "Bautzen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geographical situation.", "content": "The town on the River Spree is situated about east of Dresden between the Lusatian highland and the lowlands in the north, amidst the region of Upper Lusatia. To the north stretches the Bautzen Reservoir, which was flooded in 1974. This is the former location of the villages of Malsitz (\"Małšecy\") and Nimschütz (\"Hněwsecy\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Expansion of the urban area.", "content": "The old part of Bautzen is located on the plateau above the Spree, whose top is marked by the Ortenburg () castle. It is bordered by the city walls. The later-built more recent quarters in the east were enclosed by the city ramparts. After their removal, the city expanded further east and to the left bank of the river. However, there has only been a small urban area west of the Spree until today. In the 1970s, the development areas of \"Gesundbrunnen\" and \"Allendeviertel\" were erected. After 1990, several neighbouring villages were incorporated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bordering municipalities.", "content": "The city is bordered by Radibor, Großdubrau and Malschwitz in the North, Kubschütz in the East, Großpostwitz, Obergurig and Doberschau-Gaußig in the South, as well as Göda in the West. All of these belong to the Bautzen district.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "The 15 city districts are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In the 3rd century AD an eastern Germanic settlement existed here, but excavations have proved that the region was already inhabited as early as the late Stone Age. Sorbs arrived in the area during the Migration period in the 6h century AD.  The first written evidence of the city is from 1002 under the name \"Budusin\" (, ). In 1018 the Peace of Bautzen was signed between the German king Henry II and the Polish ruler Bolesław I the Brave. The treaty left Budziszyn under Polish rule. In 1032 the town passed to the Margraviate of Meissen within the Holy Roman Empire, in 1075 to the Czech (Bohemian) Duchy, elevated to a kingdom in 1198 (with short periods of Brandenburgian and Hungarian rule), in 1635 to Saxony, and from 1697 to 1763 it was also under rule of Polish kings in personal union. One of two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through the town at that time.  From 1346 to 1815 it was a member of the Six Cities' Alliance of the Upper Lusatian cities of Görlitz, Zittau, Löbau, Kamenz, Lubań and Bautzen.  In 1429 and 1431 the town was unsuccessfully besieged by the Hussites. In 1634 it was destroyed by the Swedes during the Thirty Years' War. It was the site of one of the battlefields of the Napoleonic War Battle of Bautzen in 1813. In 1868 the name was officially changed to the more Germanized form \"Bautzen\".  In 1839 the Sorbian student organization \"\" was founded in the city. In 1845 the Sorbian national anthem was publicly performed for the first time in the city. The \"Sorbian House\" (), a Sorbian cultural centre, was opened in the city in 1904.  After the Nazi Party came to power in Germany in 1933, many political prisoners were held in the Bautzen I and Bautzen II prisons, built in 1904 and 1906, respectively. During the \"Kristallnacht\" in 1938, local Jews were persecuted and Jewish-owned businesses were destroyed. During World War II, the \"AL Bautzen\" subcamp of the Groß-Rosen concentration camp operated in Bautzen. At least 600 men, mostly Poles, but also of other nationalities, were imprisoned there, about 310 of whom died. Ernst Thälmann was imprisoned there before being deported to Buchenwald. In April 1945, the Germans evacuated many prisoners on foot to Mikulášovice, where they were liberated by Polish troops on May 8, 1945, while the remaining prisoners were liberated in Bautzen by the Soviets on April 20, 1945. Between 21 April and 30 April 1945, the Battle of Bautzen was fought.  Bautzen was infamous throughout East Germany for its two penitentiaries. \"Bautzen I\" was used as an official prison, soon to be nicknamed \"\" (\"Yellow Misery\") due to its outer colour, whereas the more secretive \"Bautzen II\" was used as a prison for political prisoners, dissidents and prisoners of conscience. Bautzen I is still actively used as a criminal prison. Bautzen II has served as an open memorial since 1993. It is accessible to the public at no charge, the entire premises being largely open.  In 2002 the city commemorated its 1000th birthday. In 2010 it was hit by a flood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population development.", "content": "\"(as of December 31 unless otherwise stated)\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "Bautzen has a very compact and well-preserved medieval town centre with numerous churches and towers and a city wall on the steep embankment to the river Spree, with one of the oldest preserved waterworks in central Europe (built 1558).  Sites of interest include:  There are six museums in Bautzen, including the Stadtmuseum Bautzen (\"Bautzen city Museum\"), the Sorbisches Museum (\"Sorbian Museum\", Sorbian: \"Serbski muzej\") and the Senfmuseum (\"Mustard Museum\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sorbian institutions.", "content": "Bautzen is the seat of several institutions of the cultural self-administration of the Sorbian people:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The mustard \"Bautz'ner Senf\" is produced in Bautzen. It is the market leader in the new states of Germany with a market share of 65 percent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Bautzen is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bautzen (; Upper Sorbian: Budyšin ; until 1868 German: \"Budissin\"; Lower Sorbian: \"Budyšyn\",, ) is a hill-top town in eastern Saxony, Germany, and administrative centre of the eponymous district. It is located on the Spree. In 2018 its population was 39,087.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971131}
{"src_title": "Federal subjects of Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "An official government translation of the Constitution of Russia in Article 5 states: \"1. The Russian Federation shall consist of republics, krais, oblasts, cities of federal significance, an autonomous oblast and autonomous okrugs, which shall have equal rights as constituent entities of the Russian Federation.\"  Another translation of the Constitution of Russia gives for article 65: \"\"The Russian Federation includes the following subjects of the Russian Federation:\"\".  How to translate the Russian term was discussed during the 49th annual American Translators Association conference in Orlando, in which Tom Fennel, a freelance translator, argued that the term \"constituent entity of the Russian Federation\" should be preferred to \"subject\". This recommendation is also shared by Tamara Nekrasova, Head of Translation Department, Goltsblat BLP, who in her \"Traps & Mishaps in Legal Translation\" presentation in Paris stated that \"\"constituent entity of the Russian Federation\" is more appropriate than \"subject of the Russian Federation\" (subject would be OK for a monarchy)\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Each federal subject belongs to one of the following types:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List.", "content": "a. The largest city is also listed when it is different from the capital/administrative center.  b. According to Article 13 of the Charter of Leningrad Oblast, the governing bodies of the oblast are located in the city of St. Petersburg. However, St. Petersburg is not officially named to be the administrative center of the oblast.  c. According to Article 24 of the Charter of Moscow Oblast, the governing bodies of the oblast are located in the city of Moscow and throughout the territory of Moscow Oblast. However, Moscow is not officially named to be the administrative center of the oblast.  d. Not recognized internationally as a part of Russia.  e. In February 2000, the former code of 20 for the Chechen Republic was cancelled and replaced with code 95. License plate production was suspended due to the Chechen Wars, causing numerous issues, which in turn forced the region to use a new code.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mergers, splits and internal territorial changes.", "content": "Starting in 2005, some of the federal subjects were merged into larger territories. In this process, six very sparsely populated subjects (comprising in total 0.3% of the population of Russia) were integrated into more populated subjects, with the hope that the economic development of those territories would benefit from the much larger means of their neighbours. The was finished on 1 March 2008. No new mergers have been planned since March 2008. The six territories became \"administrative-territorial regions with special status\". They have large proportions of minorities, with Russians being a majority only in three of them. Four of those territories have a second official language in addition to Russian: Buryat (in two of the merged territories), Komi-Permian, Koryak. This is an exception: all the other official languages of Russia (other than Russian) are set by the Constitutions of its constituent Republics (Mordovia, Chechnya, Dagestan etc.). The status of the \"administrative-territorial regions with special status\" has been a subject of criticism because it does not appear in the Constitution of the Russian Federation.  In addition to those six territories that entirely ceased to be subjects of the Russian Federation and were downgraded to territories with special status, another three subjects have a status of subject but are simultaneously part of a more populated subject: With an estimated population of 49348 as of 2018, Chukotka is currently the least populated subject of Russia that is not part of a more populated subject. It was separated from Magadan Oblast in 1993. Chukotka is one of the richest subjects of Russia (with a GRP per capita equivalent to that of Australia) and therefore does not fit in the pattern of merging a subject to benefit from the economic dynamism of the neighbour.  In 1992, Ingushetia separated from Chechnya, both to stay away from the growing violence in Chechnya and as a bid to obtain the Eastern part of Northern Ossetia (it did not work: the Chechen conflict spread violence to Ingushetia, and North Ossetia retained its Prigorodny District). Those two Muslim republics, populated in vast majority (95%+) by closely related Vainakh people, speaking Vainakhish languages, remain the two poorest subjects of Russia, with the GRP per capita of Ingushetia being equivalent to that of Iraq. According to 2016 statistics, however they are also the safest regions of Russia, and also have the lowest alcohol consumption, with alcohol poisoning at least 40 times lower than the national average.  Until 1994, Sokolsky District, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast was part of Ivanovo Oblast.  In 2011–2012, the territory of Moscow increased by 140% (to 2511 km2) by acquiring part of Moscow Oblast.  On 13 May 2020, the governors of Arkhangelsk Oblast and Nenets Autonomous Okrug announced their plan to merge following the collapse of oil prices stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic. A referendum on the merger is planned to be held on 13 September 2020.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The federal subjects of Russia, also referred to as the subjects of the Russian Federation (, \"subyekty Rossiyskoy Federatsii\") or simply as the subjects of the federation ( \"subyekty federatsii\"), are the constituent entities of Russia, its top-level political divisions according to the Constitution of Russia. Since March 18, 2014, the Russian Federation constitutionally has consisted of 85 federal subjects, of which two are located on the Crimean Peninsula, which is not recognized internationally as part of Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971132}
{"src_title": "Samba (software)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early history.", "content": "Andrew Tridgell developed the first version of Samba Unix in December 1991 and January 1992, as a PhD student at the Australian National University, using a packet sniffer to do of the protocol used by DEC Pathworks server software. At the time of the first releases, versions 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0, all from the first half of January 1992, it did not have a proper name, and Tridgell just called it \"a Unix file server for Dos Pathworks\". At the time of version 1.0, he realized that he \"had in fact implemented the netbios protocol\" and that \"this software could be used with other PC clients\".  With a focus on interoperability with Microsoft's LAN Manager, Tridgell released \"netbios for unix\", observer, version 1.5 in December 1993. This release was the first to include client-software as well as a server. Also, at this time GPL2 was chosen as license.  Midway through the 1.5-series, the name was changed to \"smbserver\". However, Tridgell got a trademark notice from the company \"Syntax\", who sold a product named \"TotalNet Advanced Server\" and owned the trademark for \"SMBserver\". The name \"Samba\" was derived by running the Unix command grep through the system dictionary looking for words that contained the letters S, M, and B, in that order (i.e. ).  Versions 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9 followed relatively quickly, with the latter being released in January 1995. Tridgell considers the adoption of CVS in May 1996 to mark the birth of the Samba Team, though there had been contributions from other people, especially Jeremy Allison, previously.  Version 2.0.0 was released in January 1999, and version 2.2.0 in April 2001.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Version history.", "content": "Version 3.0.0, released on 23 September 2003, was a major upgrade. Samba gained the ability to join Active Directory as a member, though not as a domain controller. Subsequent point-releases to 3.0 have added minor new features. Currently, the latest release in this series is 3.0.37, released 1 October 2009, and shipped on a voluntary basis. The 3.0.x series officially reached end-of-life on 5 August 2009.  Version 3.1 was used only for development.  With version 3.2, the project decided to move to time-based releases. New major releases, such as 3.3, 3.4, etc. will appear every 6 months. New features will only be added when a major release is done, point-releases will be only for bug fixes. Also, 3.2 marked a change of license from GPL2 to GPL3, with some parts released under LGPL3. The main technical change in version 3.2 was to autogenerate much of the DCE/RPC-code that used to be handcrafted. Version 3.2.0 was released on 1 July 2008. and its current release is 3.2.15 from 1 October 2009. The 3.2.x series officially reached end-of-life on 1 March 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Security.", "content": "Some versions of Samba 3.6.3 and lower suffer serious security issues which can allow anonymous users to gain root access to a system from an anonymous connection, through the exploitation of an error in Samba's remote procedure call.  On 12 April 2016, Badlock, a crucial security bug in Windows and Samba, was disclosed. Badlock for Samba is referenced by (SAMR and LSA man in the middle attacks possible).  On 24 May 2017, it was announced that a remote code execution vulnerability had been found in Samba named \"EternalRed\" or \"SambaCry\", affecting all versions since 3.5.0. This vulnerability was assigned identifier.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "Samba allows file and print sharing between computers running Microsoft Windows and computers running Unix. It is an implementation of dozens of services and a dozen protocols, including:  All these services and protocols are frequently incorrectly referred to as just NetBIOS or SMB. The NBT (NetBIOS over TCP/IP) and WINS protocols, and their underlying SMB version 1 protocol, are deprecated on Windows. Since Windows Vista the WS-Discovery protocol has been included along with SMB2 and its successors, which supersede these. (WS-Discovery is implemented on Unix-like platforms by third party daemons which allow Samba shares to be discovered when the deprecated protocols are disabled).  Samba sets up network shares for chosen Unix directories (including all contained subdirectories). These appear to Microsoft Windows users as normal Windows folders accessible via the network. Unix users can either mount the shares directly as part of their file structure using the mount.cifs command or, alternatively, can use a utility, smbclient (libsmb) installed with Samba to read the shares with a similar interface to a standard command line FTP program. Each directory can have different access privileges overlaid on top of the normal Unix file protections. For example: home directories would have read/write access for all known users, allowing each to access their own files. However they would still not have access to the files of others unless that permission would normally exist. Note that the netlogon share, typically distributed as a read only share from /etc/samba/netlogon, is the logon directory for user logon scripts.  Samba services are implemented as two daemons:  Samba configuration is achieved by editing a single file (typically installed as /etc/smb.conf or /etc/samba/smb.conf). Samba can also provide user logon scripts and group policy implementation through poledit.  Samba is included in most Linux distributions and is started during the boot process. On Red Hat, for instance, the /etc/rc.d/init.d/smb script runs at boot time, and starts both daemons. Samba is not included in Solaris 8, but a Solaris 8-compatible version is available from the Samba website.  Samba includes a web administration tool called \"Samba Web Administration Tool\" (SWAT). SWAT was removed starting with version 4.1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Samba TNG.", "content": "Samba TNG (The Next Generation) was forked in late 1999, after disagreements between the Samba Team leaders and Luke Leighton about the directions of the Samba project. They failed to come to an agreement on a development transition path which allowed the research version of Samba he was developing (known at the time as Samba-NTDOM) to slowly be integrated into Samba. Development has been minimal, due to a lack of developers. The Samba TNG team frequently directed potential users towards Samba because of its better support and development.  A key goal of the Samba TNG project was to rewrite all of the NT Domains services as FreeDCE projects. This was made difficult as the services were developed manually through network reverse-engineering, with limited or no reference to DCE/RPC documentation.  A key difference from Samba was in the implementation of the NT Domains suite of protocols and MSRPC services. Samba makes all the NT Domains services available from a single place, whereas Samba TNG separated each service into its own program.  ReactOS started using Samba TNG services for its SMB implementation. The developers of both projects were interested in seeing the Samba TNG design used to help get ReactOS talking to Windows networks. They worked together to adapt the network code and build system. The multi-layered and modular approach made it easy to port each service to ReactOS.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Samba is a free software re-implementation of the SMB networking protocol, and was originally developed by Andrew Tridgell. Samba provides file and print services for various Microsoft Windows clients and can integrate with a Microsoft Windows Server domain, either as a Domain Controller (DC) or as a domain member. As of version 4, it supports Active Directory and Microsoft Windows NT domains.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971133}
{"src_title": "Ulan-Ude", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "Ulan-Ude was first called Udinskoye () for its location on the Uda River. It was founded as a small fort in 1668. From around 1735, the settlement was called Udinsk () and was granted town status under that name in 1775. The name was changed to Verkhneudinsk, literally \"Upper Udinsk\" () in 1783, to differentiate it from Nizhneudinsk (\"Lower Udinsk\") lying on a different Uda River near Irkutsk which was granted town status that year.  The \"upper\" and \"lower\" refer to positions of the two cities relative to each other, not the location of the cities on their respective Uda rivers. Verkhneudinsk lies at the mouth of its Uda, i.e. the lower end, while Nizhneudinsk is along the middle stretch of its Uda. The current name was given to the city 27 July 1934 and means \"red Uda\" in Buryat, reflecting the Soviet Union's Communist ideology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Ulan-Ude lies east of Moscow and southeast of Lake Baikal. It is above sea level at the foot of the Khamar-Daban and Ulan-Burgas mountain ranges, next to the confluence of the Selenga River and its tributary, the Uda, which divides the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hydrography.", "content": "Ulan-Ude is traversed by two rivers, the Selenga and Uda. The Selenga provides the greatest inflow to Baikal Lake, supplying 50% of all rivers in its basin. The Selenga brings into the lake about of water per year, exerting a major influence on the formation of the lake water and its sanitary condition. Selenga is the habitat of the most valuable fish species such as Omul, Siberian sturgeon, Siberian taimen, Thymallus and Coregonus.  Uda is the right inflow of the Selenga river. The length of the watercourse is.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first occupants of the area where Ulan-Ude now stands were the Evenks and, later, the Buryat Mongols. Ulan-Ude was settled in 1666 by the Russian Cossacks as the fortress of Udinskoye. Due to its favorable geographical position, it grew rapidly and became a large trade center which connected Russia with China and Mongolia and, from 1690, was the administrative center of the Transbaikal region.  By 1775, it was known as Udinsk, and in 1783 it was granted city status and renamed Verkhneudinsk. After a large fire in 1878, the city was almost completely rebuilt. The Trans-Siberian Railway reached the city in 1900 causing an explosion in growth. The population which was 3,500 in 1880 reached 126,000 in 1939.  From 6 April to October 1920 Verkhneudinsk was the capital of the Far Eastern Republic (Дальневосточная Республика), sometimes called Chita Republic. It was a nominally independent state that existed from April 1920 to November 1922 in the easternmost part of the Russian Far East. On 27 July 1934, the city was renamed Ulan-Ude. There was a War there between Reds and Whites in 1917–1924.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Ulan-Ude is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the city of republic significance of Ulan-Ude—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of republic significance of Ulan-Ude is incorporated as Ulan-Ude Urban Okrug.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "According to the 2010 Census, 404,426 people lived in Ulan-Ude; up from 359,391 recorded in the 2002 Census. In terms of population, it is the third-largest city in eastern Siberia. The ethnic makeup of the city's population in 2010:  The city is the center of Tibetan Buddhism in Russia and the important Ivolginsky datsan is located from the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Ulan-Ude is located on the main line (Trans-Siberian line) of the Trans-Siberian Railway between Irkutsk and Chita at the junction of the Trans-Mongolian line (the Trans-Mongolian Railway) which begins at Ulan Ude and continues south through Mongolia to Beijing in China.  The city also lies on the M55 section of the Baikal Highway (part of the Trans-Siberian Highway), the main federal road to Vladivostok. Air traffic is served by the Ulan-Ude Airport (Baikal), as well as the smaller Ulan-Ude Vostochny Airport. Intracity transport includes tram, bus, and \"marshrutka\" (share taxi) lines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Until 1991, Ulan-Ude was closed to foreigners. There are old merchants' mansions richly decorated with wood and stone carving in the historical center of Ulan-Ude, along the river banks which are exceptional examples of Russian classicism. The city has a large ethnographic museum which recalls the history of the peoples of the region. There is a large and highly unusual statue of the head of Vladimir Lenin in the central square: the largest in the world. Built in 1970 for the centennial of Lenin's birth, it towers over the main plaza at and weighs 42 tons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "The \"Ethnographic Museum of the peoples of Transbaikal\" is one of Russia's largest open-air museums. The museum contains historical finds from the era of the Slab Grave Culture and the Xiongnu until the mid 20th century, including a unique collection of samples of wooden architecture of Siberia – more than forty architectural monuments.  Odigitrievsky Cathedral – Orthodox Church Diocese of the Buryat, was the first stone building in the city and is a Siberian baroque architectural monument. The cathedral is considered unique because it is built in a zone of high seismic activity in the heart of the city on the banks of the River Uda River where it flows into the Selenga.  One of the attractions of Ulan-Ude is a monument in the town square — the square of the Soviets — in the form of the head of Lenin (sculptors G.V. Neroda, J.G. Neroda, architects Dushkin, P.G. Zilberman). The monument, weighing 42 tons and with a height of, was opened in 1971 in honor of the centenary of Lenin's birth. The Voice of Nomads international music and culture festival is held annually at various sites in the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Ulan-Ude can be described as possessing a humid steppe climate (Köppen climate classification \"BSk\"), bordering on a humid continental climate (\"Dwb\" borders on \"Dwc\"). The climate is characterised by long, dry, cold winters and short but very warm summers. Precipitation is low and heavily concentrated in the warmer months.  Vladimir Popov, musician and backup singer for Leonid and Friends", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns - sister cities.", "content": "Ulan-Ude is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ulan-Ude (, \"Ulaan-Üde\", ; ;, \"Ulaan-Üd\", ) is the capital city of the Republic of Buryatia, Russia; it is located about southeast of Lake Baikal on the Uda River at its confluence with the Selenga. According to the 2010 Census, 404,426 people lived in Ulan-Ude; up from 359,391 recorded in the 2002 Census, making the city the third-largest in the Russian Far East by population.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971134}
{"src_title": "Wartburg (marque)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First usage of name.", "content": "The marque dates back to 1898 when a car made by Automobilwerk Eisenach was named the Wartburgwagen. It consisted of a two-seating cane chair, four mudguards, two headlamps, and a two-cylinder, 765-cc engine. Its top speed was. The name was dropped in 1904 when the company changed hands but re-appeared briefly in the early 1930s on the BMW 3/15 DA-3 Wartburg, which was BMW's first sports car.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Main usage of name.", "content": "The name was revived in 1956 by VEB Automobilwerk Eisenach and given to an updated version of their IFA F9 car which had been in production since 1950. The new car had a more powerful version of the three-cylinder two-stroke engine driving the front wheels and a completely new body. By this time, Germany had been divided into two countries (the West and the East) and the Wartburg factory was in the communist East (GDR).  Exports to West Germany began in 1958, and by the early 1960s the car was exported to other countries, including the United Kingdom and United States. Right hand drive models were first manufactured in 1963 and exported to Cyprus, with British buyers being introduced to the car in 1964. However, just 550 examples (450 saloons and 100 estates) were sold in the UK. These were two-tone models sold at the same price as a basic British Mini, appealing mostly to older people.  The 311 model was manufactured in a number of variations, including pickup, estate, and two-seater roadster. A convertible was advertised in the GDR in 1957 but its production never exceeded 350 units.  The engine was enlarged to 992 cc in 1962 and a completely new body was manufactured after 1966. This version, the 353, was sold as the Wartburg Knight in several countries, including the UK, where the estate model was sold as the Tourist. It remained on sale until 1976, by which time nearly 20,000 had been sold. This marked the end of right-hand drive Wartburgs, but left-hand drive versions continued to be imported to the UK and at least one model was converted to right-hand drive.  Also, in 1966, the gearbox gained synchromesh on all speeds and was designed to freewheel as a fuel efficiency and engine protection measure, which meant that unless the freewheel feature was disabled by a lever beneath the steering column, the car did not benefit from engine braking. Because the engine was a two stroke unit, it relied on the passage of the petrol mixture (two-stroke oil and petrol, at a ratio of 1:50) to lubricate the engine. With the freewheel device disengaged, the engine could be starved of lubricant and seize on long down-hill runs unless the throttle was opened briefly from time to time. Nevertheless, disengaging the freewheel device was recommended to give engine braking in snowy or icy conditions.  There are four editions of Wartburg 353:  There are three models of Wartburg 353 - Limousine (sedan), Tourist (combi) and Trans (pickup). The 353W modification had a new, round-shaped dashboard and black-coloured grille. It was also fitted with disc brakes on the front axle. The 353S modification featured new rectangular headlights integrated into the grille of a new shape. In the De Luxe version you can see electronic ignition, 5-speed gearbox, front and back fog lights, alarm system and central lock door. Usually this model can reach around 150-155 km/h. Moreover, the radiator was moved from behind the engine (353, 353W) to the classic position behind the grille.  The engine of the car was with (depending on the year of production and the carburettor type). Fuel economy was barely acceptable for run-about driving. The offer of Volkswagen to move a surplus engine assembly line to the GDR, to be paid off by manufacture, was accepted by the government on account of fuel economy. In 1988, the new model Wartburg 1.3 therefore replaced the old model 353S, featuring the reliable though bulky 4-stroke engine from the Volkswagen Golf. Being larger than the compact 2-stroke unit, this needed considerable reconstruction of the engine compartment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demise.", "content": "The VW engine gave 64 horsepower. The new Wartburg was short-lived, its end being sealed by German reunification; production was inefficient and could not compete with West-German manufacturers. Production ended in April 1991, and the factory was acquired by Opel.  There are still some cars in a road worthy condition, and Wartburg owners' clubs exist throughout Europe. Some Wartburgs are still used as rally racing cars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Derivatives.", "content": "The Melkus RS 1000 used a mid-mounted three-cylinder two-stroke engine from the Wartburg 353.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Wartburg was a car marque known for its East German manufactured models, but has its origins dating to 1898. The name derives from Wartburg Castle on one of the hills overlooking the town of Eisenach where the cars were made. From the 1950s, Wartburgs were a three-cylinder two-stroke engine with only seven major moving parts (three pistons, three connecting rods and one crankshaft). Production ended in April 1991, and the factory was acquired by Opel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971135}
{"src_title": "Ludwig Tieck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Tieck was born in Berlin, the son of a rope-maker. His siblings were the sculptor Christian Friedrich Tieck and the poet Sophie Tieck. He was educated at the, where he learned Greek and Latin, as required in most preparatory schools. He also began learning Italian at a very young age, from a grenadier with whom he became acquainted. Through this friendship, Tieck was given a first-hand look at the poor, which could be linked to his work as a Romanticist. He later attended the universities of Halle, Göttingen, and Erlangen. At Göttingen, he studied Shakespeare and Elizabethan drama.  On returning to Berlin in 1794, Tieck attempted to make a living by writing. He contributed a number of short stories (1795–98) to the series \"Straussfedern\", published by the bookseller C. F. Nicolai and originally edited by J. K. A. Musäus. He also wrote \"Abdallah\" (1796) and a novel in letters, \"William Lovell\" (3 vols, 1795–96).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adoption of Romanticism.", "content": "Tieck's transition to Romanticism is seen in the series of plays and stories published under the title \"Volksmärchen von Peter Lebrecht\" (3 vols., 1797), a collection containing the fairy tale \"Der blonde Eckbert\", which blends exploration of the paranoiac mind with the realm of the supernatural, and a witty dramatic satire on Berlin literary taste, \"Der gestiefelte Kater\". With his school and college friend Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder (1773–1798), he planned the novel \"Franz Sternbalds Wanderungen\" (vols. i–ii. 1798), which with Wackenroder's \"Herzensergiessungen\" (1796), was the first expression of the Romantic enthusiasm for old German art.  In 1798 Tieck married and in the following year settled in Jena, where he, the two brothers August and Friedrich Schlegel, and Novalis were the leaders of the early Romantic school (also known as Jena Romanticism). His writings between 1798 and 1804 include the satirical drama, \"Prinz Zerbino\" (1799), and \"Romantische Dichtungen\" (2 vols., 1799–1800). The latter contains Tieck's most ambitious dramatic poems, \"Leben und Tod der heiligen Genoveva\", \"Leben und Tod des kleinen Rotkäppchens\", which were followed in 1804 by the \"comedy\" in two parts, \"Kaiser Oktavianus\". These dramas are typical plays of the first Romantic school. Although formless and destitute of dramatic qualities, they show the influence of both Calderón and Shakespeare. \"Kaiser Oktavianus\" is a poetic glorification of the Middle Ages.  In 1801 Tieck went to Dresden, then lived for a time at Ziebingen near Frankfurt, and spent many months in Italy. In 1803 he published a translation of \"Minnelieder aus der schwäbischen Vorzeit\", then between 1799 and 1804 an excellent version of \"Don Quixote\", and in 1811 two volumes of Elizabethan dramas, \"Altenglisches Theater\". From 1812 to 1817 he collected in three volumes a number of his earlier stories and dramas, under the title \"Phantasus\". In this collection appeared the stories \"Der Runenberg\", \"Die Elfen\", \"Der Pokal\", and the dramatic fairy tale \"Fortunat\".  In 1817 Tieck visited England in order to collect materials for a work on Shakespeare, which was never finished. In 1819 he settled permanently in Dresden, and from 1825 he was literary adviser to the Court Theatre. His semi-public readings from the dramatic poets gave him a reputation which extended far beyond the capital of the Kingdom of Saxony. The new series of short stories which he began to publish in 1822 also won him a wide popularity. Notable among these are \"Die Gemälde\", \"Die Reisenden\", \"Die Verlobung\", and \"Des Lebens Überfluss\".  More ambitious and on a wider canvas are the historical or semi-historical novels \"Dichterleben\" (1826), \"Der Aufruhr in den Cevennen\" (1826, unfinished), and \"Der Tod des Dichters\" (1834). \"Der junge Tischlermeister\" (1836; but begun in 1811) is a work written under the influence of Goethe's \"Wilhelm Meister\". His story of \"Vittoria Accorombona\" (1840) was written in the style of the French Romanticists and shows a falling-off.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In later years Tieck carried on a varied literary activity as a critic (\"Dramaturgische Blätter\", 2 vols., 1825–1826; \"Kritische Schriften\", 2 vols., 1848). He also edited the translation of Shakespeare by August Wilhelm Schlegel, who was assisted by Tieck's daughter Dorothea (1790–1841) and by Wolf Heinrich, Graf von Baudissin (1789–1878); \"Shakespeares Vorschule\" (2 vols., 1823–1829); and the works of Heinrich von Kleist (1826) and of Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz (1828). In 1841 Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia invited Tieck to Berlin, where he received a pension for his remaining years. He died in Berlin on 28 April 1853.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary significance.", "content": "Tieck's importance lay in the readiness with which he adapted himself to the emerging new ideas which arose at the close of the 18th century, as well as his Romantic works, such as \"Der blonde Eckbert\". His importance in German poetry, however, is restricted to his early period. In later years it was as the helpful friend and adviser of others, or as the well-read critic of wide sympathies, that Tieck distinguished himself.  Tieck also influenced Richard Wagner's \"Tannhäuser\". It was from \"Phantasus\" that Wagner based the idea of Tannhäuser going to see the Pope and of Elisabeth dying in the song battle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Tieck's \"Schriften\" appeared in twenty volumes (1828–1846), and his \"Gesammelte Novellen\" in twelve (1852–1854). \"Nachgelassene Schriften\" were published in two volumes in 1855. There are several editions of \"Ausgewählte Werke\" by H. Welti (8 vols., 1886–1888); by J. Minor (in Kirschner's \"Deutsche Nationalliteratur\", 144, 2 vols., 1885); by G. Klee (with an excellent biography, 3 vols., 1892), and G. Witkowski (4 vols., 1903) and Marianne Thalmann (4 vols., 1963–66).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translations.", "content": "\"The Elves\" and \"The Goblet\" were translated by Thomas Carlyle in \"German Romance\" (1827), \"The Pictures\" and \"The Betrothal\" by Bishop Thirlwall (1825). A translation of \"Vittoria Accorombona\" was published in 1845. A translation of \"Des Lebens Überfluss\" (\"Life's Luxuries\", by E. N. Bennett) appeared in \"German Short Stories\" in the Oxford University Press \"World's Classics\" series in 1934, but the wit of the original comes over more strongly in \"The Superfluities of Life. A Tale Abridged from Tieck,\" which appeared anonymously in \"Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine\" in February 1845. \"The Journey into the Blue Distance\" (\"Das Alte Buch: oder Reise ins Blaue hinein\", 1834). \"The Romance of Little Red Riding Hood\" (1801) was translated by Jack Zipes and included in his book \"The Trials and Tribulations of Little Red Riding Hood.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Tieck's biggest influence was 16th-century Italian poet Torquato Tasso, who is featured in Tieck's novel, \"Vittoria Accorombona\", as a secondary character.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Letters.", "content": "Tieck's Letters have been published at various locations:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Ludwig Tieck (; ; 31 May 1773 – 28 April 1853) was a German poet, fiction writer, translator, and critic. He was one of the founding fathers of the Romantic movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971136}
{"src_title": "User Datagram Protocol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Attributes.", "content": "UDP is a simple message-oriented transport layer protocol that is documented in. Although UDP provides integrity verification (via checksum) of the header and payload, it provides no guarantees to the upper layer protocol for message delivery and the UDP layer retains no state of UDP messages once sent. For this reason, UDP sometimes is referred to as \"Unreliable Datagram Protocol\". If transmission reliability is desired, it must be implemented in the user's application.  A number of UDP's attributes make it especially suited for certain applications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ports.", "content": "Applications can use datagram sockets to establish host-to-host communications. An application binds a socket to its endpoint of data transmission, which is a combination of an IP address and a port. In this way, UDP provides application multiplexing. A port is a software structure that is identified by the port number, a 16 bit integer value, allowing for port numbers between 0 and 65535. Port 0 is reserved, but is a permissible source port value if the sending process does not expect messages in response.  The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has divided port numbers into three ranges. Port numbers 0 through 1023 are used for common, well-known services. On Unix-like operating systems, using one of these ports requires superuser operating permission. Port numbers 1024 through 49151 are the registered ports used for IANA-registered services. Ports 49152 through 65535 are dynamic ports that are not officially designated for any specific service, and may be used for any purpose. These may also be used as ephemeral ports, which software running on the host may use to dynamically create communications endpoints as needed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "UDP datagram structure.", "content": "A UDP datagram consists of a datagram \"header\" and a \"data\" section. The UDP datagram header consists of 4 fields, each of which is 2 bytes (16 bits). The data section follows the header and is the payload data carried for the application.  The use of the \"checksum\" and \"source port\" fields is optional in IPv4 (pink background in table). In IPv6 only the \"source port\" field is optional.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Checksum computation.", "content": "The method used to compute the checksum is defined in : In other words, all 16-bit words are summed using one's complement arithmetic. Add the 16-bit values up. On each addition, if a carry-out (17th bit) is produced, swing that 17th carry bit around and add it to the least significant bit of the running total. Finally, the sum is then one's complemented to yield the value of the UDP checksum field.  If the checksum calculation results in the value zero (all 16 bits 0) it should be sent as the one's complement (all 1s) as a zero-value checksum indicates no checksum has been calculated. In this case, any specific processing is not required at the receiver, because all 0s and all 1s are equal to zero in 1's complement arithmetic.  The difference between IPv4 and IPv6 is in the pseudo header used to compute the checksum and the checksum is not optional in IPv6.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "IPv4 pseudo header.", "content": "When UDP runs over IPv4, the checksum is computed using a \"pseudo header\" that contains some of the same information from the real IPv4 header. The pseudo header is not the real IPv4 header used to send an IP packet, it is used only for the checksum calculation.  The source and destination addresses are those in the IPv4 header. The protocol is that for UDP (see List of IP protocol numbers): 17 (0x11). The UDP length field is the length of the UDP header and data. The field data stands for the transmitted data.  UDP checksum computation is optional for IPv4. If a checksum is not used it should be set to the value zero.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "IPv6 pseudo header.", "content": "When UDP runs over IPv6, the checksum is mandatory. The method used to compute it is changed as documented in : When computing the checksum, again a pseudo header is used that mimics the real IPv6 header:  The source address is the one in the IPv6 header. The destination address is the final destination; if the IPv6 packet does not contain a Routing header, that will be the destination address in the IPv6 header; otherwise, at the originating node, it will be the address in the last element of the Routing header, and, at the receiving node, it will be the destination address in the IPv6 header. The value of the Next Header field is the protocol value for UDP: 17. The UDP length field is the length of the UDP header and data.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reliability and congestion control solutions.", "content": "Lacking reliability, UDP applications must be willing to accept some packet loss, reordering, errors or duplication. If using UDP, the end user applications must provide any necessary handshaking such as real time confirmation that the message has been received. Applications, such as TFTP, may add rudimentary reliability mechanisms into the application layer as needed. If an application requires a high degree of reliability, a protocol such as the Transmission Control Protocol may be used instead.  Most often, UDP applications do not employ reliability mechanisms and may even be hindered by them. Streaming media, real-time multiplayer games and voice over IP (VoIP) are examples of applications that often use UDP. In these particular applications, loss of packets is not usually a fatal problem. In VoIP, for example, latency and jitter are the primary concerns. The use of TCP would cause jitter if any packets were lost as TCP does not provide subsequent data to the application while it is requesting re-sending of the missing data.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Numerous key Internet applications use UDP, including: the Domain Name System (DNS), where queries must be fast and only consist of a single request followed by a single reply packet, the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).  Voice and video traffic is generally transmitted using UDP. Real-time video and audio streaming protocols are designed to handle occasional lost packets, so only slight degradation in quality occurs, rather than large delays if lost packets were retransmitted. Because both TCP and UDP run over the same network, many businesses are finding that a recent increase in UDP traffic from these real-time applications is hindering the performance of applications using TCP, such as point of sale, accounting, and database systems. When TCP detects packet loss, it will throttle back its data rate usage. Since both real-time and business applications are important to businesses, developing quality of service solutions is seen as crucial by some.  Some VPN systems such as OpenVPN may use UDP and perform error checking at the application level while implementing reliable connections.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison of UDP and TCP.", "content": "Transmission Control Protocol is a connection-oriented protocol and requires handshaking to set up end-to-end communications. Once a connection is set up, user data may be sent bi-directionally over the connection.  User Datagram Protocol is a simpler message-based connectionless protocol. Connectionless protocols do not set up a dedicated end-to-end connection. Communication is achieved by transmitting information in one direction from source to destination without verifying the readiness or state of the receiver.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer networking, the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core members of the Internet protocol suite. The protocol was designed by David P. Reed in 1980 and formally defined in. With UDP, computer applications can send messages, in this case referred to as \"datagrams\", to other hosts on an Internet Protocol (IP) network. Prior communications are not required in order to set up communication channels or data paths.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971137}
{"src_title": "Alfred Brehm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Alfred Brehm was brought up in the small Thuringian village Unterrenthendorf as the son of the minister Christian Ludwig Brehm and his second wife Bertha. Christian Ludwig Brehm made a name for himself as an ornithologist by publications and an extensive collection of stuffed birds. The collection, held in the parsonage and consisting of over 9,000 dead birds, offered a glimpse into the world of European birds. His father's research gave Brehm an interest in zoology, but at first he wanted to become an architect. In the spring of 1844 he began to study with a builder in Altenburg. He continued his studies there until September 1846, when he left for Dresden in order to study architecture; however, he stopped after two semesters because Johann Wilhelm von Müller, a well-known ornithologist, was looking for a companion for an African expedition. Brehm joined the expedition on 31 May 1847 as a secretary and assistant to von Müller. The expedition took him to Egypt, the Sudan, and the Sinai Peninsula; the discoveries made were so important that, at age 20, he was made a member of the German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After his return, in 1853 he started to study natural sciences at the University of Jena. Like his brother Reinhold, he became active with the student corps Saxonia Jena; because of his expedition to North Africa, he received the nickname Pharaoh from his corps brothers. He graduated after four semesters in 1855 and in 1856 went on a two-year journey to Spain with his brother Reinhold. Afterwards he settled down in Leipzig as a freelance writer and wrote many scientific popularizations for Die Gartenlaube and other magazines. Apart from this, he undertook an expedition to Norway and Lapland in 1860.  In May 1861 Brehm married his cousin Mathilde Reiz, with whom he had five children. Since he wanted to travel, in 1862 he accepted the invitation of Duke Ernst II of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to accompany him on a trip to Abyssinia. Afterwards, Brehm travelled to Africa as well as to Scandinavia and Siberia. His essays and expedition reports from the animal world were well received by the educated bourgeoisie; because of this, he was commissioned by the editor of the Bibliographisches Institut, Herrmann Julius Meyer, to write a large multivolume work on the animal world. This book became known worldwide as \"Brehms Tierleben\" (or, in English, \"Brehm's Life of Animals\"). Although Brehm's ethology is no longer seen as correct in all details, the title of his work is still a catchphrase.  Brehm's life was full with writing, scientific expeditions and lecture tours. Despite this, in 1862, he accepted the post of first director of the Zoological Garden of Hamburg and kept this position until 1867. Afterwards he went to Berlin, where he opened an aquarium. He remained with the aquarium until 1874. In the winter of 1883 to 1884 Brehm planned a lecture tour to the US. Shortly before his departure, his four children contracted diphtheria. Since he could not afford to break his contract, Brehm, a widower since 1878, went ahead with his tour. At the end of January he received word of his youngest son's death. After the hardship of this news Brehm relapsed into malaria, which he had caught in Africa in his expedition days. On 11 May 1884, he came back to Berlin. In order to find peace, he returned in July to his home town of Renthendorf, where he died on 11 November 1884. Today, the Brehm Memorial Museum is located there.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfred Edmund Brehm () (2 February 1829 in Unterrenthendorf, now called Renthendorf – 11 November 1884 in Renthendorf) was a German zoologist, writer, director of zoological gardens and the son of Christian Ludwig Brehm, a famous pastor and ornithologist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971138}
{"src_title": "Marble", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"marble\" derives from the Ancient Greek (), from (), \"crystalline rock, shining stone\", perhaps from the verb (), \"to flash, sparkle, gleam\"; R. S. P. Beekes has suggested that a \"Pre-Greek origin is probable\". This stem is also the ancestor of the English word \"marmoreal\", meaning \"marble-like.\" While the English term \"marble\" resembles the French, most other European languages (with words like \"marmoreal\") more closely resemble the original Ancient Greek.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical origins.", "content": "Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the original carbonate rock (protolith) have typically been modified or destroyed.  Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure (silicate-poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay, silt, sand, iron oxides, or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sculpture.", "content": "White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate several millimeters into the stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which brings a lifelike luster to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction marble.", "content": "Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine that is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the term \"marble\" is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone, that geologists call the Holston Formation.  Ashgabat, the capital city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 \"Guinness Book of Records\" as having the world's highest concentration of white marble buildings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "According to the United States Geological Survey, U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile.  In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone. Italy and China were the world leaders, each representing 16% of world production, while Spain and India produced 9% and 8%, respectively.  In 2018 Turkey was the world leader in marble export, with 42% share in global marble trade, followed by Italy with 18% and Greece with 10%. The largest importer of marble in 2018 was China with a 64% market share, followed by India with 11% and Italy with 5%.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occupational safety.", "content": "Dust produced by cutting marble could cause lung disease but more research needs to be carried out on whether dust filters and other safety products reduce this risk.  In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for marble exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Degradation by acids.", "content": "Acids damage marble, because the calcium carbonate in marble reacts with them, releasing carbon dioxide (technically speaking, carbonic acid, but that disintegrates quickly to CO and HO) :  Thus, vinegar or other acidic solutions should never be used on marble. Likewise, outdoor marble statues, gravestones, or other marble structures are damaged by acid rain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Microbial degradation.", "content": "The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacterium \"Methylophaga murata\" was isolated from deteriorating marble in the Kremlin. Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four samples of marble from Milan cathedral; black \"Cladosporium\" attacked dried acrylic resin using melanin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural associations.", "content": "As the favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see classical sculpture), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material, and it is often imitated in background patterns for computer displays, etc.  Places named after the stone include Marblehead, Massachusetts; Marblehead, Ohio; Marble Arch, London; the Sea of Marmara; India's Marble Rocks; and the towns of Marble, Minnesota; Marble, Colorado; Marble Falls, Texas, and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York. The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens that are on display in the British Museum. They were brought to Britain by the Earl of Elgin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artificial marble.", "content": "Marble dust is combined with cement or synthetic resins to make \"reconstituted\" or \"cultured marble\". The appearance of marble can be simulated with faux marbling, a painting technique that imitates the stone's color patterns.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Marble is typically not foliated, although there are exceptions. In geology, the term \"marble\" refers to metamorphosed limestone, but its use in stonemasonry more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971139}
{"src_title": "Computer graphics (computer science)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Computer graphics studies the manipulation of visual and geometric information using computational techniques. It focuses on the \"mathematical\" and \"computational\" foundations of image generation and processing rather than purely aesthetic issues. Computer graphics is often differentiated from the field of visualization, although the two fields have many similarities.  Connected studies include:  Applications of computer graphics include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "There are several international conferences and journals where the most significant results in computer graphics are published. Among them are the SIGGRAPH and Eurographics conferences and the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Transactions on Graphics journal. The joint Eurographics and ACM SIGGRAPH symposium series features the major venues for the more specialized sub-fields: Symposium on Geometry Processing, Symposium on Rendering, Symposium on Computer Animation, and High Performance Graphics.  As in the rest of computer science, conference publications in computer graphics are generally more significant than journal publications (and subsequently have lower acceptance rates).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subfields.", "content": "A broad classification of major subfields in computer graphics might be:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geometry.", "content": "The subfield of geometry studies the representation of three-dimensional objects in a discrete digital setting. Because the appearance of an object depends largely on its exterior, boundary representations are most commonly used. Two dimensional surfaces are a good representation for most objects, though they may be non-manifold. Since surfaces are not finite, discrete digital approximations are used. Polygonal meshes (and to a lesser extent subdivision surfaces) are by far the most common representation, although point-based representations have become more popular recently (see for instance the Symposium on Point-Based Graphics). These representations are \"Lagrangian,\" meaning the spatial locations of the samples are independent. Recently, \"Eulerian\" surface descriptions (i.e., where spatial samples are fixed) such as level sets have been developed into a useful representation for deforming surfaces which undergo many topological changes (with fluids being the most notable example).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Animation.", "content": "The subfield of animation studies descriptions for surfaces (and other phenomena) that move or deform over time. Historically, most work in this field has focused on parametric and data-driven models, but recently physical simulation has become more popular as computers have become more powerful computationally.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rendering.", "content": "Rendering generates images from a model. Rendering may simulate light transport to create realistic images or it may create images that have a particular artistic style in non-photorealistic rendering. The two basic operations in realistic rendering are transport (how much light passes from one place to another) and scattering (how surfaces interact with light). See Rendering (computer graphics) for more information.  Transport describes how illumination in a scene gets from one place to another. Visibility is a major component of light transport.  Models of \"scattering\" and \"shading\" are used to describe the appearance of a surface. In graphics these problems are often studied within the context of rendering since they can substantially affect the design of rendering algorithms. Shading can be broken down into two orthogonal issues, which are often studied independently:  The former problem refers to scattering, i.e., the relationship between incoming and outgoing illumination at a given point. Descriptions of scattering are usually given in terms of a bidirectional scattering distribution function or BSDF. The latter issue addresses how different types of scattering are distributed across the surface (i.e., which scattering function applies where). Descriptions of this kind are typically expressed with a program called a shader. (Note that there is some confusion since the word \"shader\" is sometimes used for programs that describe local \"geometric\" variation.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry.", "content": "Industrial labs doing \"blue sky\" graphics research include:  Major film studios notable for graphics research include:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Computer graphics is a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Although the term often refers to the study of three-dimensional computer graphics, it also encompasses two-dimensional graphics and image processing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971140}
{"src_title": "Mendicant orders", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins of the friars.", "content": "What is called the mendicant movement in Church history arose primarily in the 13th century in Western Europe. Until that time the monks of Europe worked at their trade in their monastery. Renouncing personal property, they owned all things in common as a community after the example of chapters 2 and 4 of the Acts of the Apostles.  With the rise of Western monasticism, monasteries attracted not only individuals aspiring to become monks and nuns, but also property, buildings and hence riches. In the view of some, the idea that Christ came down to earth poor and that the true Church must be the church of the poor clashed with this phenomenon. The desire for true Christian authenticity was thus seen by some to contrast to the empirical reality of the Church.  The twelfth century saw great changes in western Europe. As commerce revived, urban centers arose and with them an urban middle class. New directions in spirituality were called for. Church reform became a major theme of the cultural revival of this era. In response to this, there emerged the new mendicant orders founded by Francis of Assisi (c. 1181–1226) and Dominic Guzman (c. 1170–1221).  The mendicant friars were bound by a vow of poverty and dedicated to an ascetic way of life, renouncing property and travelling the world to preach. Their survival was dependent upon the good will and material support of their listeners. It was this way of life that gave them their name, \"mendicant\", derived from the Latin \"mendicare\", meaning \"to beg\".  The mendicant movement had started in France and Italy and became popular in the poorer towns and cities of Europe at the beginning of the thirteenth century. The refusal of the mendicants to own property—and therefore to pay taxes—was seen as threatening the stability of the established Church which was then planning a crusade, to be financed by tithes. For this and other reasons some mendicant orders were officially suppressed by Pope Gregory X at the Second Council of Lyon in 1274 and others were reformed, so as to be capable of contributing funds or men to support the war effort.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dominicans.", "content": "While on a visit to southern France, Saint Dominic met the Albigensians, a religious sect which had a great popularity partly because of the economic situation of the times. Dominic, who had begun as a secular canon, responded to a desperate need for informed preaching by founding the Order of Preachers and thus embarking on a new form of religious life, the life of the friar. Before this time, religious life had been monastic, but with Dominic the secluded monastery gave way to priories in the cities. By the time of his death in 1221, the Order had spread through Western Europe, hundreds of young men had joined, and the presence of the Order of Preachers was felt at the major universities of the time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Franciscans.", "content": "Francis came to this manner of life through a period of personal conversion. The Franciscans spread far and wide the devotion to the humanity of Christ, with the commitment to imitate the Lord. Many of them were priests and men of learning whose contributions were notable in the rapid evolution and contemporary relevance of the movement. Notable Franciscans include Anthony of Padua, who were inspirations to the formation of Christian mendicant traditions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Franciscans and Dominicans put into practice a pastoral strategy suited to the social changes. The emergence of urban centers meant concentrated numbers of the homeless and the sick. This created problems for the parish churches who found themselves unable to address these issues. Since many people were moving from the countryside to the cities, they no longer built their convents in rural districts but rather in urban zones.  In another innovation, the mendicant orders relinquished their principle of stability, a classical principle of ancient monasticism, opting for a different approach. Unlike the Benedictine monks, the mendicants were not permanently attached to any one particular convent and to its abbot. Because the orders' primary aim was the evangelization of the masses, the church granted them freedom from the jurisdiction of the bishops and they traveled about to convert or reinforce faith. The freedom of mendicancy allowed Franciscans and Dominicans mobility. Since they were not tied to monasteries or territorial parishes, they were free to take the gospel into the streets, to preach, hear confessions and minister to people wherever they were. Friars Minor and Preachers traveled with missionary zeal from one place to another.  Consequently, they organized themselves differently in comparison with the majority of monastic orders. Instead of the traditional autonomy that every monastery enjoyed, they gave greater importance to the order as such and to the Superior General, as well as to the structure of the order Provinces. Their flexibility enabled them to send out the most suitable friars on specific missions, and the mendicant orders reached North Africa, the Middle East and Northern Europe.  As students and professors, Friars Minor and Friars Preacher, Franciscans and Dominicans, entered the leading universities of the time, set up study centers, produced texts of great value and were protagonists of scholastic theology in its best period and had an important effect on the development of thought. The great thinkers, St Thomas Aquinas and St Bonaventure, were mendicants.  In all the great cities of western Europe, friaries were established, and in the universities theological chairs were held by Dominicans and Franciscans. Later in the 13th century they were joined by the mendicant orders of Carmelites, Augustinian Hermits, and Servites.  They attracted a significant level of patronage, as much from townsfolk as aristocrats. Their focus of operation rapidly centered on towns where population growth historically outstripped the provision of rural parishes. Most medieval towns in Western Europe of any size came to possess houses of one or more of the major orders of friars. Some of their churches came to be built on grand scale with large spaces devoted to preaching, something of a specialty among the mendicant orders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early mendicant orders.", "content": "Despite conforming to a recognizable model, the mendicant orders of friars had origins that were generally very different. The original mendicant orders of friars in the Church in the Middle Ages were the  The Second Council of Lyons (1274) recognized these as the four \"major\" mendicant orders, and suppressed certain others. The Council of Trent loosened the restrictions on their owning property. Afterwards, except for the Franciscans and their offshoot the Capuchins, members of the orders were permitted to own property collectively as do monks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other mendicant orders.", "content": "The other mendicant orders recognized by the Holy See today are the  Like the monastic orders, many of the mendicant orders, especially the larger ones, underwent splits and reform efforts, forming offshoots, permanent or otherwise, some of which are mentioned in the lists given above.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Former mendicant orders.", "content": "Mendicant orders that formerly existed but are now extinct, and orders which for a time were classed as mendicant orders but now no longer are.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mendicant orders are, primarily, certain Christian religious orders that have adopted a lifestyle of poverty, traveling, and living in urban areas for purposes of preaching, evangelization, and ministry, especially to the poor. At their foundation these orders rejected the previously established monastic model. This model prescribed living in one stable, isolated community where members worked at a trade and owned property in common, including land, buildings and other wealth. By contrast, the mendicants avoided owning property at all, did not work at a trade, and embraced a poor, often itinerant lifestyle. They depended for their survival on the goodwill of the people to whom they preached.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971141}
{"src_title": "Disk partitioning", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "PC partition types.", "content": "This section describes the master boot record (MBR) partitioning scheme, as used historically in DOS, Microsoft Windows and Linux (among others) on PC-compatible computer systems. As of the mid-2010s, most new computers use the GUID Partition Table (GPT) partitioning scheme instead. For examples of other partitioning schemes, see the general article on partition tables.  The total data storage space of a PC HDD on which MBR partitioning is implemented can contain at most four \"primary partitions\", or alternatively three primary partitions and an \"extended partition\". The \"Partition Table\", located in the master boot record, contains 16-byte entries, each of which describes a partition.  The \"partition type\" is identified by a 1-byte code found in its partition table entry. Some of these codes (such as 0x05 and 0x0F) may be used to indicate the presence of an extended partition. Most are used by an operating system's bootloader (that examines partition tables) to decide if a partition contains a file system that can be \"mounted / accessed\" for reading or writing data.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Primary partition.", "content": "A primary partition contains one file system. In DOS and all early versions of Microsoft Windows systems, Microsoft required what it called the system partition to be the first partition. All Windows operating systems from Windows 95 onwards can be located on (almost) any partition, but the boot files (codice_1, codice_2, codice_3, etc.) must reside on a primary partition. However, other factors, such as a PC's BIOS (see Boot sequence on standard PC) may also impose specific requirements as to which partition must contain the primary OS.  The partition type \"code\" for a primary partition can either correspond to a file system contained within (e.g. 0x07 means either an NTFS or an OS/2 HPFS file system) or indicate that the partition has a special use (e.g. code 0x82 usually indicates a Linux \"swap\" partition). The FAT16 and FAT32 file systems have made use of a number of partition type codes due to the limits of various DOS and Windows OS versions. Though a Linux operating system may recognize a number of different file systems (ext4, ext3, ext2, ReiserFS, etc.), they have all consistently used the same partition type code: 0x83 (Linux native file system).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Extended partition.", "content": "An HDD may contain only one extended partition, but that extended partition can be subdivided into multiple logical partitions. DOS/Windows systems may then assign a unique drive letter to each logical partition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Partitioning schemes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "DOS, Windows, and OS/2.", "content": "With DOS, Microsoft Windows, and OS/2, a common practice is to use one primary partition for the active file system that will contain the operating system, the page/swap file, all utilities, applications, and user data. On most Windows consumer computers, the drive letter C: is routinely assigned to this primary partition. Other partitions may exist on the HDD that may or may not be visible as drives, such as recovery partitions or partitions with diagnostic tools or data. (Microsoft drive letters do not correspond to partitions in a one-to-one fashion, so there may be more or fewer drive letters than partitions.)  Microsoft Windows 2000, XP, Vista, and Windows 7 include a 'Disk Management' program which allows for the creation, deletion and resizing of FAT and NTFS partitions. The Windows Disk Manager in Windows Vista and Windows 7 utilizes a 1 MB partition alignment scheme which is fundamentally incompatible with Windows 2000, XP, OS/2, DOS as well as many other operating systems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unix-like systems.", "content": "On Unix-based and Unix-like operating systems such as Linux, macOS, BSD, and Solaris, it is possible to use multiple partitions on a disk device. Each partition can be formatted with a file system or as a swap partition.  Multiple partitions allow directories such as /boot, /tmp, /usr, /var, or /home to be allocated their own filesystems. Such a scheme has a number of advantages:  A common minimal configuration for Linux systems is to use three partitions: one holding the system files mounted on \"/\" (the root directory), one holding user configuration files and data mounted on /home (home directory), and a swap partition.  By default, macOS systems also use a single partition for the entire filesystem and use a swap file inside the file system (like Windows) rather than a swap partition.  In Solaris, partitions are sometimes known as slices. This is a conceptual reference to the slicing of a cake into several pieces.  The term \"slice\" is used in the FreeBSD operating system to refer to Master Boot Record partitions, to avoid confusion with FreeBSD's own disklabel-based partitioning scheme. However, GUID Partition Table partitions are referred to as \"partition\" worldwide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Multi-boot and mixed-boot systems.", "content": "Multi-boot systems are computers where the user can boot into one of two or more distinct operating systems (OS) stored in separate storage devices or in separate partitions of the same storage device. In such systems a menu at startup gives a choice of which OS to boot/start (and only one OS at a time is loaded).  This is distinct from virtual operating systems, in which one operating system is run as a self-contained virtual \"program\" within another already-running operating system. (An example is a Windows OS \"virtual machine\" running from within a Linux OS.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "GUID Partition Table.", "content": "The GUID Partition Table (Globally Unique IDentifier) is a part of the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) standard for the layout of the partition table on a physical hard disk. Many operating systems now support this standard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Partition recovery.", "content": "When a partition is deleted, its entry is removed from a table and the data is no longer accessible. The data remains on the disk until being overwritten. Specialized recovery utilities may be able to locate \"lost\" file systems and recreate a partition table which includes entries for these recovered file systems. Some disk utilities may overwrite a number of beginning sectors of a partition they delete. For example, if Windows Disk Management (Windows 2000/XP, etc.) is used to delete a partition, it will overwrite the first sector (relative sector 0) of the partition before removing it. It still may be possible to restore a FAT or NTFS partition if a backup boot sector is available.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compressed disks.", "content": "HDDs can be compressed to create additional space. In DOS and early Microsoft Windows, programs such as Stacker (DR-DOS except 6.0), SuperStor (DR DOS 6.0), DoubleSpace (MS-DOS 6.0–6.2), or DriveSpace (MS-DOS 6.22, Windows 9x) were used. This compression was done by creating a very large file on the partition, then storing the disk's data in this file. At startup, device drivers opened this file and assigned it a separate letter. Frequently, to avoid confusion, the original partition and the compressed drive had their letters swapped, so that the compressed disk is C:, and the uncompressed area (often containing system files) is given a higher name.  Versions of Windows using the NT kernel, including the most recent version, Windows 10, contain intrinsic disk compression capability. The use of separate disk compression utilities has declined sharply.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Disk partitioning or disk slicing is the creation of one or more regions on secondary storage, so that each region can be managed separately. These regions are called partitions. It is typically the first step of preparing a newly installed disk, before any file system is created. The disk stores the information about the partitions' locations and sizes in an area known as the partition table that the operating system reads before any other part of the disk. Each partition then appears to the operating system as a distinct \"logical\" disk that uses part of the actual disk. System administrators use a program called a partition editor to create, resize, delete, and manipulate the partitions.. Partitioning allows the use of different filesystems to be installed for different kinds of files. Separating user data from system data can prevent the system partition from becoming full and rendering the system unusable. Partitioning can also make backing up easier. A disadvantage is that it can be difficult to properly size partitions, resulting in having one partition with much free space and another nearly totally allocated.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971142}
{"src_title": "Syr Darya", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "When the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great reached the Jaxartes in 329 BCE, after travelling through Bactria and Sogdia without encountering any opposition, they met with the first instances of native resistance to their presence. Alexander was wounded in the fighting that ensued and the native tribes took to massacring the Macedonian garrisons stationed in their towns. As the revolt against Alexander intensified it spread through Sogdia, plunging it into two years of warfare, the intensity of which surpassed any other conflict of the \"Anabasis Alexandri\".  On the shores of the Syr Darya Alexander placed a garrison in the City of Cyrus (Cyropolis in Greek), which he then renamed after himself Alexandria Eschate—\"the farthest Alexandria\"—in 329 BCE. For most of its history since at least the Muslim conquest of Central Asia in the 7th to 8th centuries CE, the name of this city (in present-day Tajikistan) has been Khujand.  In the mid-19th century, during the Russian conquest of Turkestan, the Russian Empire introduced steam navigation to the Syr Darya, with an important river port at Kazalinsk (Kazaly) from 1847 to 1882, when service ceased.  During the Soviet era, a resource-sharing system was instituted in which Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan shared water originating from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers with Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan in summer. In return, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan received Kazakh, Turkmen, and Uzbek coal, gas, and electricity in winter. After the 1991 fall of the Soviet Union this system disintegrated and the Central Asian nations have failed to reinstate it. Inadequate infrastructure, poor water-management, and outdated irrigation methods all exacerbate the issue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The river rises in two headstreams in the Tian Shan Mountains in Kyrgyzstan and eastern Uzbekistan—the Naryn River and the Kara Darya which come together in the Uzbek part of the Fergana Valley—and flows for some west and north-west through Uzbekistan and southern Kazakhstan to the remains of the Aral Sea. The Syr Darya drains an area of over, but no more than actually contribute significant flow to the river: indeed, two of the largest rivers in its basin, the Talas and the Chu, dry up before reaching it. Its annual flow is a very modest per year—half that of its sister river, the Amu Darya.  Along its course, the Syr Darya irrigates the most productive cotton-growing region in the whole of Central Asia, together with the towns of Kokand, Khujand, Kyzylorda and Turkestan.  Various local governments throughout history have built and maintained an extensive system of canals. These canals are of central importance in this arid region. Many fell into disuse in the 17th and early 18th century, but the Khanate of Kokand rebuilt many in the 19th century, primarily along the Upper and Middle Syr Darya.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The second part of the name (\"darya\", دریا) means \"river\" or \"sea\" in Persian. The current name dates only from the 18th century.  The earliest recorded name was \"Jaxartes\" or \"Iaxartes\" () in Ancient Greek, consist of two morpheme \"Iaxa\" and \"artes\", found in several sources, including those relating to Alexander the Great. The Greek name hearkens back to the Old Persian name \"Yakhsha Arta\" (\"True Pearl\"), perhaps a reference to the color of its glacially-fed water. More evidence for the Persian etymology comes from the river's Turkic name up to the time of the Arab conquest, the \"Yinchu\", or \"Pearl river\". Tang China also recorded this name as Yiakshaet River 藥殺水 and later Ye River 葉河.  Following the Muslim conquest, the river appears in the sources uniformly as the \"Seyhun\" (سيحون), one of the four rivers flowing from the Paradise (Jannah in Arabic).  The current local name of the river, \"Syr\" (\"Sïr\"), does not appear before the 16th century. In the 17th century, Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur Khan, historian and ruler of Khiva, called the Aral Sea the \"Sea of Sïr,\" or \"Sïr Tengizi\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecological damage.", "content": "Massive expansion of irrigation canals in Middle and Lower Syr Darya during the Soviet period to water cotton and rice fields caused ecological damage to the area. The amount of water taken from the river was such that in some periods of the year, no water at all reached the Aral Sea. The Amu Darya in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan faced a similar situation.  The uranium concentration of the stream water is increased in Tajikistan with values of 43 μg/l and 12 μg/l; the WHO guideline value for drinking water of 30 μg/l is partly exceeded. The main input of uranium occurs upstream in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Syr Darya (, ), historically known as the Jaxartes (), is a river in Central Asia. The name, a borrowing from the Persian language, literally means \"Syr Sea\" or \"Syr River\", and sometimes it is referred to in this way. It originates in the Tian Shan Mountains in Kyrgyzstan and eastern Uzbekistan and flows for west and north-west through Uzbekistan and southern Kazakhstan to the northern remnants of the Aral Sea. It is the northern and eastern of the two main rivers in the endorrheic basin of the Aral Sea, the other being the Amu Darya (Jayhun). In the Soviet era, extensive irrigation projects were constructed around both rivers, diverting their water into farmland and causing, during the post-Soviet era, the virtual disappearance of the Aral Sea, once the world's fourth-largest lake. The point at which the river flows from Tajikistan into Uzbekistan is, at above sea level, the lowest elevation in Tajikistan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971143}
{"src_title": "Friedrich Ludwig Jahn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born in Lanz in Brandenburg, Prussia. He studied theology and philology from 1796 to 1802 at the Halle, Göttingen, and at the University of Greifswald. After the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806 he joined the Prussian army. In 1809, he went to Berlin, where he became a teacher at the Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster and at the Plamann School.  Brooding upon what he saw as the humiliation of his native land by Napoleon, Jahn conceived the idea of restoring the spirits of his countrymen by the development of their physical and moral powers through the practice of gymnastics. The first \"Turnplatz\", or open-air gymnasium, was opened by Jahn in Berlin in 1811, and the \"Turnverein\" (gymnastics association) movement spread rapidly. Young gymnasts were taught to regard themselves as members of a kind of guild for the emancipation of their fatherland. The nationalistic spirit was nourished in a significant degree by the writings of Jahn.  In the Early 1813 Jahn took an active part in the formation of the famous Lützow Free Corps, a volunteer force in the Prussian army fighting Napoleon. He commanded a battalion of the corps, but he was often employed in the secret service during the same period. After the war, he returned to Berlin, where he was appointed state teacher of gymnastics, and he took on a role in the formation of the student patriotic fraternities, or Burschenschaften, in Jena.  A man of populistic nature, rugged, eccentric and outspoken, Jahn often came into conflict with the authorities. The authorities finally realized he aimed at establishing a united Germany and that his \"Turner\" schools were political and liberal clubs. The conflict resulted in the closing of the \"Turnplatz\" in 1819 and Jahn's arrest. Kept in semi-confinement successively at Spandau, Küstrin, and at the fortress in Kolberg until 1824, he was sentenced to imprisonment for two years. The sentence was reversed in 1825, but he was forbidden to live within ten miles of Berlin.  He therefore took up residence at Freyburg on the Unstrut, where he remained until his death, with the exception of a short period in 1828, when he was exiled to Kölleda on a charge of sedition. While at Freyburg, he received an invitation to become professor of German literature at Cambridge, Massachusetts, which he declined, saying that “deer and hares love to live where they are most hunted.” In 1840, Jahn was decorated by the Prussian government with the Iron Cross for bravery in the wars against Napoleon. In the spring of 1848, he was elected by the district of Naumburg to the German National Parliament. Jahn died in Freyburg, where a monument was erected in his honor in 1859.  Jahn popularized the \"four Fs\" motto \"frisch, fromm, fröhlich, frei\" (\"fresh, pious, cheerful, free\") in the early 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Among his works are the following: A complete edition of his works appeared at Hof in 1884-1887. See the biography by Schultheiss (Berlin, 1894), and \"Jahn als Erzieher\", by Friedric (Munich, 1895).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contribution to physical education.", "content": "Jahn promoted the use of parallel bars, rings and the high bar in international competition. In honor and memory of him, some gymnastic clubs, called \"Turnvereine\" (German:\"Turnvereine\"), took up his name, the most well known of these is probably the SSV Jahn Regensburg.  A memorial to Jahn exists in St. Louis, Missouri, within Forest Park. It features a large bust of Jahn in the center of an arc of stone, with statues of a male and female gymnast, one on each end of the arc. The monument is on the edge of Art Hill next to the path running north and south along the western edge of Post-Dispatch lake. It is directly north of the St. Louis Zoo.  Other memorials to Jahn are located in Groß-Gerau, Germany; in Vienna, Austria; and in Inwood Park, in the Mt. Auburn neighborhood of Cincinnati. An elementary school in Chicago is named after Jahn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "In his own time Friedrich Jahn was seen by both supporters and opponents as a liberal figure. He advocated that the German states should unite after the withdrawal of Napoleon's occupying armies, and establish a democratic constitution (under the Hohenzollern monarchy), which would include the right to free speech. As a German nationalist, Jahn advocated maintaining German language and culture against foreign influence. In 1810 he wrote, \"Poles, French, priests, aristocrats and Jews are Germany's misfortune.\" At the time Jahn wrote this, the German states were occupied by foreign armies under the leadership of Napoleon. Also, Jahn was \"the guiding spirit\" of the fanatic book burning episode carried out by revolutionary students at the Wartburg festival in 1817.  Jahn gained infamy in English-speaking countries through the publication of Peter Viereck's \"Metapolitics: The Roots of the Nazi Mind\" (1941). Viereck claimed Jahn as the spiritual founder of Nazism, who inspired the early German romantics with anti-Semitic and authoritarian doctrines, and then influenced Wagner and finally the Nazis.  However, Jacques Barzun observed that Viereck's portrait of cultural trends supposedly leading to Nazism was \"a caricature without resemblance\" relying on \"misleading shortcuts\".  Scholarly focus on the völkischness of Jahn's thought started in the 1920s with a new generation of Jahn interpreters like Edmund Neuendorff and Karl Müller. Neuendorff explicitly linked Jahn with National Socialism. The equation by the National Socialists of Jahn's ideas with their world view was more or less complete by the mid-1930s. Alfred Baeumler, an educational philosopher and university lecturer who attempted to provide theoretical support for Nazi ideology (through the interpretation of Nietzsche among others) wrote a monograph on Jahn in which he characterises Jahn's invention of gymnastics as an explicitly political project, designed to create the ultimate völkisch citizen by educating his body.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (11 August 1778 – 15 October 1852) was a German gymnastics educator and nationalist whose writing is credited with the founding of the German gymnastics (Turner) movement as well as influencing the German Campaign of 1813, during which a coalition of German states effectively ended the occupation of Napoleon's First French Empire. His admirers know him as \"Turnvater Jahn\", roughly meaning \"father of gymnastics\" Jahn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971144}
{"src_title": "Alfred Andersch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "His school master was Joseph Gebhard Himmler, the father of Heinrich Himmler. He wrote about this in \"The Father of a Murderer\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1914 to 1945.", "content": "In 1930, after an apprenticeship as a bookseller, Andersch became a youth leader in the Communist Party. As a consequence, he was held for 6 months in the Dachau concentration camp in 1933. He then left the party and entered a depressive phase of \"total introversion\". It was during this period that he first became engaged in the arts, adopting the stance that became known as \"innere Emigration\" (\"internal emigration\") – despite remaining in Germany, he was spiritually opposed to Hitler's regime.  In 1940, Andersch was conscripted into the Wehrmacht, but deserted at the Arno Line in Italy on 6 June 1944. He was taken to the United States as a prisoner of war and interned at Camp Ruston, Louisiana and other POW camps. He became the editor of a prisoners' newspaper, \"Der Ruf\" (\"The Call\").  A critical review of Andersch's \"internal émigré\" status, his marriage to a German Jew and subsequent divorce in 1943, as well as of his writing, may be read in W.G. Sebald's \"Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea\" attached to his essay \"On the Natural History of Destruction\". Sebald accused Andersch of having presented through literature a version of his life (and of the \"internal emigration\" more generally) that made it sound more acceptable to a post-Nazi public.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1945 to 1980.", "content": "Having returned to Germany, he worked from 1945 as an editing assistant for Erich Kästner's \"Neue Zeitung\" in Munich. From 1946 to 1947, he worked alongside Hans Werner Richter to publish the monthly literary journal \"Der Ruf\", which was sold in the American occupation zone of Germany. The publication was discontinued following the non-renewal of its license by the U.S military government. Presumably, the discontinuation of \"Der Ruf\" followed \"promptings by the Soviet authorities, provoked by Hans Werner Richter's open letter to the French Stalinist, Marcel Cachin.\" In the following years, Andersch worked with the literary circle \"Group 47\", members of which included the authors Ingeborg Bachmann, Wolfgang Hildesheimer, Arno Schmidt, Hans Magnus Enzensberger and Helmut Heissenbüttel, among others. 1948 saw the publication of Andersch's essay \"Deutsche Literatur in der Entscheidung\" (\"German Literature at the Turning Point\"), in which he concluded, in the spirit of the American post-war \"re-education\" programme, that literature would play a decisive role in the moral and intellectual changes in Germany.  Beginning in 1948, Andersch was a leading figure at radio stations in Frankfurt and Hamburg. In 1950, he married the painter Gisela Dichgans. His autobiographical work \"Die Kirschen der Freiheit\" (\"The Cherries of Freedom\") was published in 1952, in which Andersch dealt with the experience of his wartime desertion and interpreted it as the \"turning point\" (\"Entscheidung\") at which he could first feel free. On a similar theme, he published in 1957 perhaps the most significant work of his career, \"Sansibar oder der letzte Grund\" (published in English as \"Flight to Afar\"). A few of Andersch's books were turned into films.  From 1958, Andersch lived in Berzona in Switzerland, where he became mayor in 1972. After \"Sansibar\" followed the novels \"Die Rote\" in 1960, \"Efraim\" in 1967, and, in 1974, \"Winterspelt\", which is, thematically, very similar to \"Sansibar\", but is more complex in its composition. In 1977, he published the poetry anthology \"empört euch der himmel ist blau\". Alfred Andersch died on 21 February 1980 in Berzona, Ticino. The incomplete story \"Der Vater eines Mörders\" (\"The Father of a Murderer\") was published posthumously in the same year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "Alfred Andersch served as an analyst of contemporary issues for the post-war generation. In his works, he described, above all, outsiders, and dealt with his political and moral experiences. He often raised questions about the free will of the individual as a central theme. In numerous essays, he stated his opinion on literary and cultural issues; he frequently pointed out the importance of Ernst Jünger.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical edition.", "content": "On 21 February 2005, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Andersch's death, Diogenes Press released a critical edition of his complete works. The ten volumes also include previously unpublished texts that come from his estate.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alfred Hellmuth Andersch (; 4 February 1914 – 21 February 1980) was a German writer, publisher, and radio editor. The son of a conservative East Prussian army officer, he was born in Munich, Germany and died in Berzona, Ticino, Switzerland. Martin Andersch, his brother, was also a writer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971145}
{"src_title": "Electrolyte", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"electrolyte\" derives from Ancient Greek ήλεκτρο- (\"ēlectro\"-), prefix related to electricity, and λυτός (\"lytos\"), meaning \"able to be untied or loosened\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In his 1884 dissertation Svante Arrhenius put forth his explanation of solid crystalline salts disassociating into paired charged particles when dissolved, for which he won the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.  Arrhenius's explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into charged particles, to which Michael Faraday had given the name \"ions\" many years earlier. Faraday's belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis. Arrhenius proposed that, even in the absence of an electric current, solutions of salts contained ions. He thus proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation.", "content": "Electrolyte solutions are normally formed when salt is placed into a solvent such as water and the individual components dissociate due to the thermodynamic interactions between solvent and solute molecules, in a process called \"solvation\". For example, when table salt (sodium chloride), NaCl, is placed in water, the salt (a solid) dissolves into its component ions, according to the dissociation reaction It is also possible for substances to react with water, producing ions. For example, carbon dioxide gas dissolves in water to produce a solution that contains hydronium, carbonate, and hydrogen carbonate ions.  Molten salts can also be electrolytes as, for example, when sodium chloride is molten, the liquid conducts electricity. In particular, ionic liquids, which are molten salts with melting points below 100 °C, are a type of highly conductive non-aqueous electrolytes and thus have found more and more applications in fuel cells and batteries.  An electrolyte in a solution may be described as \"concentrated\" if it has a high concentration of ions, or \"diluted\" if it has a low concentration. If a high proportion of the solute dissociates to form free ions, the electrolyte is strong; if most of the solute does not dissociate, the electrolyte is weak. The properties of electrolytes may be exploited using electrolysis to extract constituent elements and compounds contained within the solution.  Alkaline earth metals form hydroxides that are strong electrolytes with limited solubility in water, due to the strong attraction between their constituent ions. This limits their application to situations where high solubility is required.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physiological importance.", "content": "In physiology, the primary ions of electrolytes are sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), chloride (Cl), hydrogen phosphate (HPO), and hydrogen carbonate (HCO). The electric charge symbols of plus (+) and minus (−) indicate that the substance is ionic in nature and has an imbalanced distribution of electrons, the result of chemical dissociation. Sodium is the main electrolyte found in extracellular fluid and potassium is the main intracellular electrolyte; both are involved in fluid balance and blood pressure control.  All known multicellular lifeforms require a subtle and complex electrolyte balance between the intracellular and extracellular environments. In particular, the maintenance of precise osmotic gradients of electrolytes is important. Such gradients affect and regulate the hydration of the body as well as blood pH, and are critical for nerve and muscle function. Various mechanisms exist in living species that keep the concentrations of different electrolytes under tight control.  Both muscle tissue and neurons are considered electric tissues of the body. Muscles and neurons are activated by electrolyte activity between the extracellular fluid or interstitial fluid, and intracellular fluid. Electrolytes may enter or leave the cell membrane through specialized protein structures embedded in the plasma membrane called \"ion channels\". For example, muscle contraction is dependent upon the presence of calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), and potassium (K). Without sufficient levels of these key electrolytes, muscle weakness or severe muscle contractions may occur.  Electrolyte balance is maintained by oral, or in emergencies, intravenous (IV) intake of electrolyte-containing substances, and is regulated by hormones, in general with the kidneys flushing out excess levels. In humans, electrolyte homeostasis is regulated by hormones such as antidiuretic hormones, aldosterone and parathyroid hormones. Serious electrolyte disturbances, such as dehydration and overhydration, may lead to cardiac and neurological complications and, unless they are rapidly resolved, will result in a medical emergency.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Measurement.", "content": "Measurement of electrolytes is a commonly performed diagnostic procedure, performed via blood testing with ion-selective electrodes or urinalysis by medical technologists. The interpretation of these values is somewhat meaningless without analysis of the clinical history and is often impossible without parallel measurements of renal function. The electrolytes measured most often are sodium and potassium. Chloride levels are rarely measured except for arterial blood gas interpretations since they are inherently linked to sodium levels. One important test conducted on urine is the specific gravity test to determine the occurrence of an electrolyte imbalance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rehydration.", "content": "In oral rehydration therapy, electrolyte drinks containing sodium and potassium salts replenish the body's water and electrolyte concentrations after dehydration caused by exercise, excessive alcohol consumption, diaphoresis (heavy sweating), diarrhea, vomiting, intoxication or starvation. Athletes exercising in extreme conditions (for three or more hours continuously, e.g. a marathon or triathlon) who do not consume electrolytes risk dehydration (or hyponatremia).  A home-made electrolyte drink can be made by using water, sugar and salt in precise proportions. It is important to include glucose (sugar) to utilise the co-transport mechanism of sodium and glucose. Commercial preparations are also available for both human and veterinary use.  Electrolytes are commonly found in fruit juices, sports drinks, milk, nuts, and many fruits and vegetables (whole or in juice form) (e.g., potatoes, avocados).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electrochemistry.", "content": "When electrodes are placed in an electrolyte and a voltage is applied, the electrolyte will conduct electricity. Lone electrons normally cannot pass through the electrolyte; instead, a chemical reaction occurs at the cathode, providing electrons to the electrolyte. Another reaction occurs at the anode, consuming electrons from the electrolyte. As a result, a negative charge cloud develops in the electrolyte around the cathode, and a positive charge develops around the anode. The ions in the electrolyte neutralize these charges, enabling the electrons to keep flowing and the reactions to continue.  For example, in a solution of ordinary table salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) in water, the cathode reaction will be and hydrogen gas will bubble up; the anode reaction is and chlorine gas will be liberated. The positively charged sodium ions Na will react toward the cathode, neutralizing the negative charge of OH there, and the negatively charged hydroxide ions OH will react toward the anode, neutralizing the positive charge of Na there. Without the ions from the electrolyte, the charges around the electrode would slow down continued electron flow; diffusion of H and OH through water to the other electrode takes longer than movement of the much more prevalent salt ions. Electrolytes dissociate in water because water molecules are dipoles and the dipoles orient in an energetically favorable manner to solvate the ions.  In other systems, the electrode reactions can involve the metals of the electrodes as well as the ions of the electrolyte.  Electrolytic conductors are used in electronic devices where the chemical reaction at a metal-electrolyte interface yields useful effects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Solid electrolytes.", "content": "Solid electrolytes can be mostly divided into four groups:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which disperse uniformly through the solvent. Electrically, such a solution is neutral. If an electric potential is applied to such a solution, the cations of the solution are drawn to the electrode that has an abundance of electrons, while the anions are drawn to the electrode that has a deficit of electrons. The movement of anions and cations in opposite directions within the solution amounts to a current. This includes most soluble salts, acids, and bases. Some gases, such as hydrogen chloride, under conditions of high temperature or low pressure can also function as electrolytes. Electrolyte solutions can also result from the dissolution of some biological (e.g., DNA, polypeptides) and synthetic polymers (e.g., polystyrene sulfonate), termed \"polyelectrolytes\", which contain charged functional groups. A substance that dissociates into ions in solution acquires the capacity to conduct electricity. Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate are examples of electrolytes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971146}
{"src_title": "Test card", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Technical details.", "content": "Test cards typically contain a set of patterns to enable television cameras and receivers to be adjusted to show the picture correctly (see SMPTE colour bars). Most modern test cards include a set of calibrated colour bars which will produce a characteristic pattern of \"dot landings\" on a vectorscope, allowing chroma and tint to be precisely adjusted between generations of videotape or network feeds. SMPTE bars—and several other test cards—include analog black (a flat waveform at 7.5 IRE, or the NTSC setup level), full white (100 IRE), and a \"sub-black\", or \"blacker-than-black\" (at 0 IRE), which represents the lowest low-frequency transmission voltage permissible in NTSC broadcasts (though the negative excursions of the colourburst signal may go below 0 IRE). Between the colour bars and proper adjustment of brightness and contrast controls to the limits of perception of the first sub-black bar, an analogue receiver (or other equipment such as VTRs) can be adjusted to provide impressive fidelity.  They are also used in the broader context of video displays for concerts and live events. There are a variety of different test patterns, each testing a specific technical parameter: gradient monotone bars for testing brightness and colour; a crosshatch pattern for aspect ratio, alignment, focus, and convergence; and a single-pixel border for over-scanning and dimensions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Formerly a common sight, test cards are now only rarely seen outside of television studios, post-production, and distribution facilities. In particular, they are no longer intended to assist viewers in calibration of television sets. Several factors have led to their demise for this purpose:  In developed countries such as Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, the financial imperatives of commercial television broadcasting mean that air-time is now typically filled with programmes and commercials (such as infomercials) 24 hours a day, and non-commercial broadcasters have to match this.  In North America, most test cards such as the famous Indian-head test pattern of the 1950s and 1960s have long been relegated to history. The SMPTE colour bars occasionally turn up, but with most North American broadcasters now following a 24-hour schedule, these too have become a rare sight. For custom-designed video installations, such as LED displays in buildings or at live events, some test images are custom-made to fit the specific size and shape of the setup in question. These custom test images can also be an opportunity for the technicians to hide inside jokes for the crew to see while installing equipment for a show.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monoscope.", "content": "Rather than physical test cards, which had to be televised using a camera, television stations often used a special purpose camera tube which had the test pattern painted on the inside screen of the tube. Each tube was only capable of generating the one test image, hence it was called a monoscope.  Monoscopes were similar in construction to an ordinary cathode ray tube (CRT), only instead of displaying an image on its screen it scanned a built-in image. The monoscope contained a formed metal target in place of the phosphor coating at its \"screen\" end and as the electron beam scanned the target, rather than displaying an image, a varying electrical signal was produced generating a video signal from the etched pattern. Monoscope tubes had the advantage over test cards that a full TV camera was not needed, and the image was always properly framed and in focus. They fell out of use in the 1960s as they were not able to produce colour images.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Test patterns for photocopiers.", "content": "A lesser-known kind of test pattern is used for the calibration of photocopiers. Photocopier test patterns are physical sheets that are photocopied, with the difference in the resulting photocopy revealing any telltale deviations or defects in the machine's ability to copy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In numismatics.", "content": "Television has had such an impact in today's life that it has been the main motif for numerous collectors' coins and medals. One of the most recent examples is The 50 Years of Television commemorative coin minted on 9 March 2005, in Austria. The obverse of the coin shows a \"test pattern\", while the reverse shows several milestones in the history of television.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The Philips Pattern is widely recognized as one of the iconic popular culture symbols of the 1980s and 1990s. Numerous novelty and collectible items has been patterned after the famous test card, including wall clocks, bedsheets, wristwatches, and clothing.  The BBC Test Card F features throughout 2006-07 TV sci-fi detective series Life on Mars.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A test card, also known as a test pattern or start-up/closedown test, is a television test signal, typically broadcast at times when the transmitter is active but no program is being broadcast (often at sign-on and sign-off). Used since the earliest TV broadcasts, test cards were originally physical cards at which a television camera was pointed, and such cards are still often used for calibration, alignment, and matching of cameras and camcorders. Test patterns used for calibrating or troubleshooting the downstream signal path are these days generated by test signal generators, which do not depend on the correct configuration (and presence) of a camera, and can also test for additional parameters such as sync, frames per second, and frequency. Digitally generated cards allow vendors, viewers and television stations to adjust their equipment for optimal functionality. The audio broadcast while test cards are shown is typically a sine wave tone, radio (if associated or affiliated with the television channel) or music (usually instrumental, though some also broadcast with jazz or popular music). More recently, the use of test cards has also expanded beyond television to other digital displays such as large LED walls and video projectors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971147}
{"src_title": "European eel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Climbing.", "content": "An early attempt on Lhotse was by the 1955 International Himalayan Expedition, headed by Norman Dyhrenfurth. It also included two Austrians (cartographer Erwin Schneider and Ernst Senn) and two Swiss (Bruno Spirig and Arthur Spöhel), and was the first expedition in the Everest area to include Americans (Fred Beckey, George Bell, and Richard McGowan). The Nepalese liaison officer was Gaya Nanda Vaidya. They were accompanied by 200 local porters and several climbing Sherpas. After a brief look at the dangerous southern approaches of Lhotse Shar, they turned their attention, during September and October, to the Western Cwm and the northwest face of Lhotse, on which they achieved an altitude of about. They were beaten back by unexpectedly strong wind and low temperatures. Under Schneider's direction, they completed the first map of the Everest area (1:50,000 photogrammetric). The expedition also made several short films covering local cultural topics and made a number of first ascents of smaller peaks in the Khumbu region.  The main summit of Lhotse was first climbed on May 18, 1956, by the Swiss team of Ernst Reiss and Fritz Luchsinger from the Swiss Mount Everest/Lhotse Expedition. On May 12, 1970, Sepp Mayerl and Rolf Walter of Austria made the first ascent of Lhotse Shar.  Lhotse Middle remained, for a long time, the highest unclimbed named point on Earth; on May 23, 2001, its first ascent was made by Eugeny Vinogradsky, Sergei Timofeev, Alexei Bolotov and Petr Kuznetsov of a Russian expedition.  The Lhotse standard climbing route follows the same path as Everest's South Col route up to the Yellow Band beyond Camp 3. After the Yellow Band, the routes diverge with climbers bound for Everest taking a left over the Geneva Spur up to the South Col, while Lhotse climbers take a right further up the Lhotse face. The last part to the summit leads through the narrow \"Reiss couloir\" until the Lhotse main peak is reached.  By December 2008, 371 climbers had summited Lhotse while 20 died during their attempt. Lhotse was not summited in 2014, 2015, or 2016 due to a series of incidents. It was next summited in May 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lhotse Face.", "content": "The western flank of Lhotse is known as the \"Lhotse Face\". Any climber bound for the South Col on Everest must climb this wall of glacial blue ice. This face rises at 40 and 50-degree pitches with the occasional 80-degree bulges. High-altitude climbing Sherpas and the lead climbers will set fixed ropes up this wall of ice. Climbers and porters need to establish a good rhythm of foot placement and pulling themselves up the ropes using their jumars. Two rocky sections called the Yellow Band and the Geneva Spur interrupt the icy ascent on the upper part of the face.  On May 19, 2016, a high-altitude mountain worker, Ang Furba Sherpa, died when he slipped and fell down Lhotse face.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lhotse ( ;, \"lho rtse\") is the fourth highest mountain in the world at, after Mount Everest, K2, and Kangchenjunga. Part of the Everest massif, Lhotse is connected to the latter peak via the South Col. Lhotse means “South Peak” in Tibetan. In addition to the main summit at above sea level, the mountain comprises the smaller peaks Lhotse Middle (East) at, and Lhotse Shar at. The summit is on the border between Tibet of China and the Khumbu region of Nepal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971148}
{"src_title": "Justinus Kerner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born at Ludwigsburg in Württemberg. After attending the classical schools of Ludwigsburg and Maulbronn, he was apprenticed in a cloth factory, but, in 1804, owing to the good services of Professor Karl Philipp Conz, was able to enter the University of Tübingen. He studied medicine but also had time for literary pursuits in the company of Ludwig Uhland, Gustav Schwab and others. He took his doctor's degree in 1808, spent some time travelling, and then settled as a practising physician in Wildbad.  Here he completed his \"Reiseschatten von dem Schattenspieler Luchs\" (1811), in which his own experiences are described with caustic humour. He next collaborated with Uhland and Schwab in the \"Poetischer Almanach\" for 1812, which was followed by the \"Deutscher Dichterwald\" (1813), and in these some of Kerner's best poems were published. In 1815 he obtained the official appointment of district medical officer (\"Oberamtsarzt\") in Gaildorf, and in 1818 was transferred to Weinsberg, where he spent the rest of his life  His house, the site of which at the foot of the historical Schloss Weibertreu was presented to him by the townspeople, became a mecca for literary pilgrims, all of whom were made welcome. Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden came with a knapsack on his back. The poets, Christian Friedrich Alexander von Württemberg and Nikolaus Lenau were constant guests, and in 1826 Friederike Hauffe (1801–1829), the daughter of a forester in Prevorst, a somnambulist and clairvoyante, arrived; she forms the subject of Kerner's famous work \"Die Seherin von Prevorst, Eröffnungen über das innere Leben des Menschen und über das Hineinragen einer Geisterwelt in die unsere\" (\"The Seeress of Prevorst, revelations of the human inner life and about the penetrations of the spirit world into ours\", 1829; 6th ed., 1892). In 1826 he published a collection of \"Gedichte\" which were later supplemented by \"Der letzte Blütenstrauß\" (1852) and \"Winterblüten\" (1859). Among others of his well-known poems are the charming ballad \"Der reichste Fürst\"; a drinking song, \"Wohlauf, noch getrunken\", and the pensive \"Wanderer in der Sägemühle\".  In addition to his literary productions, Kerner wrote some popular medical books, dealing with animal magnetism, the first treatise on sebacic acid and botulism, \"Das Fettgift oder die Fettsäure und ihre Wirkung auf den tierischen Organismus\" (1822), and a description of Wildbad and its healing waters, \"Das Wildbad im Königreich Württemberg\" (1813). He also gave a vivid account of his youthful years in \"Bilderbuch aus meiner Knabenzeit\" (1859) and, in \"Die Bestürmung der württembergischen Stadt Weinsberg im Jahre 1525\" (1820), showed considerable skill in historical narrative.  In 1851 he was compelled, owing to increasing blindness, to retire from his medical practice, but he lived, carefully tended by his daughters, at Weinsberg until his death. He was buried beside his wife, who had died in 1854, in the graveyard of Weinsberg, and the grave is marked by a stone slab with an inscription he himself had chosen: \"Friederike Kerner und ihr Justinus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association with George Rapp and the Harmony Society.", "content": "In \"Bilderbuch aus meiner Knabenzeit\", Kerner recalls George Rapp's visits to his father, the Oberamtmann at Maulbronn. Kerner's father had helped shield Rapp from religious prosecution by the authorities in Germany, and Kerner well remembered Rapp and his long black beard. George Rapp and his followers eventually left Germany in 1803, settled in the United States, and started the Harmony Society. \"Die Seherin von Prevorst\" and its tale about Kerner's relationship with Friederike Hauffe — the latter reputed to have visionary and healing powers, and who had produced a strange 'inner' language containing Hebrew-like elements — made quite an impression among the members of the Harmony Society in 1829, who saw it as confirmation of the approaching millennium and of their religious views.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Saw.", "content": "\"The Saw\" was translated by William Cullen Bryant and was included in Graham's Magazine in 1848.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Justinus Andreas Christian Kerner (18 September 1786, in Ludwigsburg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany – 21 February 1862, in Weinsberg, Baden-Württemberg) was a German poet, practicing physician, and medical writer. He gave the first detailed description of botulism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971149}
{"src_title": "Chinghiz Aitmatov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born to a Kyrgyz father and Tatar mother. Aitmatov's parents were civil servants in Sheker. In 1937, his father was charged with \"bourgeois nationalism\" in Moscow, arrested and executed in 1938.  Aitmatov lived at a time when Kyrgyzstan was being transformed from one of the most remote lands of the Russian Empire to a republic of the USSR. The future author studied at a Soviet school in Sheker. He also worked from an early age. At fourteen, he was an assistant to the Secretary at the Village Soviet. He later held jobs as a tax collector, a loader, an engineer's assistant and continued with many other types of work.  In 1946, he began studying at the Animal Husbandry Division of the Kirghiz Agricultural Institute in Frunze, but later switched to literary studies at the Maxim Gorky Literature Institute in Moscow, where he lived from 1956-58. For the next eight years he worked for Pravda. His first two publications appeared in 1952 in Russian: \"The Newspaper Boy Dziuio\" and \"Ашым.\" His first work published in Kyrgyz was \"Ак Жаан\" (White rain, 1954), and his well-known work \"Jamila\" (Jamila) appeared in 1958. In 1961, he was a member of the jury at the 2nd Moscow International Film Festival. In 1971, he was a member of the jury at the 7th Moscow International Film Festival.  1980 saw his first novel \"The Day Lasts More than a Hundred Years\"; his next significant novel, \"The Scaffold\" was published in 1988. \"The Day Lasts More than a Hundred Years\" and other writings were translated into several languages. In 1994, he was a member of the jury at the 44th Berlin International Film Festival. In 2002 he was the President of the Jury at the 24th Moscow International Film Festival.  Aitmatov suffered kidney failure, and on 16 May 2008 was admitted to a hospital in Nuremberg, Germany, where he died of pneumonia on 10 June 2008 at the age of 79. After his death, Aitmatov was flown to Kyrgyzstan, where there were numerous ceremonies before he was buried in Ata Beyit cemetery, which he helped found and where his father most likely is buried, in Chong-Tash village, Alamüdün district, Chüy oblast, Kyrgyzstan.  His obituary in \"The New York Times\" characterised him as \"a Communist writer whose novels and plays before the collapse of the Soviet Union gave a voice to the people of the remote Soviet republic of Kyrgyz\" and adds that he \"later became a diplomat and a friend and adviser to the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Chinghiz Aitmatov belonged to the post-war generation of writers. His output before \"Jamila\"  Aitmatov was honoured in 1963 with the Lenin Prize for \"Tales of the Mountains and Steppes\" (a compilation including \"Jamila\", \"First Teacher\" and \"Farewell Gulsary\") and was later awarded a State prize for \"Farewell, Gulsary!\". Aitmatov's art was glorified by admirers. Even critics of Aitmatov mentioned the high quality of his novels.  Aitmatov's work has some elements that are unique specifically to his creative process. His work drew on folklore, not in the ancient sense of it; rather, he tried to recreate and synthesize oral tales in the context of contemporary life. This is prevalent in his work; in nearly every story he refers to a myth, a legend, or a folktale. In \"The Day Lasts More Than a Hundred Years,\" a poetic legend about a young captive turned into a mankurt serves as a tragic allegory and becomes a significant symbolic expression of the philosophy of the novel.  His work also touches on Kyrgyzstan’s transformation from the Russian empire to a republic of the USSR and the lives of its people during the transformation. This is prevalent in one of his work in \"Farewell, Gyusalry!\" Although the short story touches on the idea of friendship and loyalty between a man and his stallion, it also serves an tragic allegory of the political and USSR government. It explores the loss and grief that many Kyrgyz faced through the protagonist character in the short story.  A second aspect of Aitmatov's writing is his ultimate closeness to our \"little brothers\" the animals, for their and our lives are intimately and inseparably connected. The two central characters of \"Farewell, Gulsary!\" are a man and his stallion. A camel plays a prominent role in \"The Day Lasts More Than a Hundred Years\"; one of the key turns of the novel which decides the fate of the main character is narrated through the story of the camel's rut and riot. \"The Scaffold\" starts off and finishes with the story of a wolf pack and the great wolf-mother Akbara and her cub; human lives enter the narrative but interweave with the lives of the wolves. Some of his stories were filmed, like \"The First Teacher\" in 1965 and \"Red Scarf\" (1970) as \"The Girl with the Red Scarf\" (1978).  As many educated Kyrgyzs, Aitmatov was fluent in both Kyrgyz and Russian. As he explained in one of his interviews, Russian was as much of a native language for him as Kyrgyz. Most of his early works he wrote in Kyrgyz; some of these he later translated into Russian himself, while others were translated into Russian by other translators. Since 1966, he was writing in Russian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomatic career.", "content": "In addition to his literary work, Chinghiz Aitmatov was first the ambassador for the Soviet Union and later for Kyrgyzstan, to the European Union, NATO, UNESCO and the Benelux countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major works.", "content": "\"(Russian titles in parentheses)\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chingiz Torekulovich Aitmatov (as transliterated from Russian;, properly transliterated: Cıŋgız Törökulovic Aytmatov; 12 December 1928 – 10 June 2008) was a Soviet and Kyrgyz author who wrote in both Kyrgyz and Russian. He is one of the best known figures in Kyrgyzstan's literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971150}
{"src_title": "Democratic Left Alliance", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideology and support patterns.", "content": "The coalition can be classified as left-wing. However, during the 1990s, it managed to attract voters from the pro-market and even right-wing camp. The main support for SLD came from middle-rank state sector employees, retired people, former Polish United Workers Party (PZPR) and All-Poland Alliance of Trade Unions (OPZZ) members and those who were unlikely to be frequent church-goers. The core of the coalition (Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland) rejected concepts such as lustration and de-communization, supported a parliamentarian regime with only the role of an arbiter for the president and criticized the right-wing camp for introduction of religious education into school. The ex-communists criticized the economic reforms, pointing to the high social costs, without negating the reforms per se.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coalition.", "content": "SdRP, SDU and some other socialist and social-democratic parties had formed the original Democratic Left Alliance as a centre-left coalition just prior to the nation's first free elections in 1991. In 1999 the coalition became a party, but lost some members.  At the time, the coalition's membership drew mostly from the former PZPR. An alliance between the SLD and the Polish People's Party (PSL) ruled Poland in the years 1993–1997. However the coalition lost power to the right-wing Solidarity Electoral Action in the 1997 election as the right-wing opposition was united this time and because of the decline of support for SLD's coalition partner PSL, though the SLD itself actually gained votes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electoral victory.", "content": "SLD formed a coalition with Labour Union before the 2001 Polish election and won it overwhelmingly at last by capturing about 5.3 million votes, 42% of the whole and won 200 of 460 seats in the Sejm and 75 of 100 in the Senate. After the elections, the coalition was joined by the Polish People's Party (PSL) in forming a government and Leszek Miller became the Prime Minister. In March 2003, the PSL left the coalition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rywin-gate.", "content": "By 2004 the support for SLD in the polls had dropped from about 30% to just below 10%, and several high-ranking party members had been accused of taking part in high-profile political scandals by the mainstream press (most notably the Rywin affair: Rywin-gate).  On 6 March 2004, Leszek Miller resigned as party leader and was replaced by Krzysztof Janik. On March 26 the Sejm speaker Marek Borowski, together with other high-ranking SLD officials, announced the creation of a new centre-left party, the Social Democratic Party of Poland. On the next day, Leszek Miller announced he would step down as Prime Minister on 2 May 2004, the day after Poland joined the European Union. Miller proceeded to do so.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decline after Rywin-gate.", "content": "In the 2004 European Parliament election, it only received 9% of the votes, giving it 5 of 54 seats reserved for Poland in the European Parliament, as part of the Party of European Socialists.  Wojciech Olejniczak, the former Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development, was elected the president of SLD on 29 May 2004, succeeded Józef Oleksy, who resigned from the post of Polish Prime Minister due to false accusations of links to the KGB.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Opposition: 2005–present.", "content": "The 2004 European elections foreshadowed the SLD's huge defeat in the 2005 parliamentary election, in which it won only 11.3% of the vote. This gave the party 55 seats, barely a quarter of what it had had prior to the election. It also lost all of its Senators. In late 2006 a centre-left political alliance called Left and Democrats was created, comprising SLD and smaller centre-left parties, the Labour Union, the Social Democratic Party of Poland, and the liberal Democratic Party – demokraci.pl. The coalition won a disappointing 13% in the 2007 parliamentary election and was dissolved soon after in April 2008. On 31 May 2008, Olejniczak was replaced by Grzegorz Napieralski as SLD leader.  In the 2009 European election the Democratic Left Alliance-Labor Union joint ticket received 12% of the vote and 7 MEPs were elected as part of the newly retitled Socialists & Democrats group.  In the 2011 parliamentary election, SLD received 8.24% of the vote which gave it 27 seats in the Sejm. After the elections, one of the party members, Sławomir Kopyciński, decided to leave SLD and join Palikot's Movement. On December 10, 2011, Leszek Miller was chosen to return as the party leader.  In the 2014 European elections on 25 May 2014, the SLD received 9.4% of the national vote and returned 4 MEPs.  In July 2015 the SLD formed the United Left electoral alliance along with Your Movement (TR), Labour United (UP) and The Greens (PZ) and minor parties to contest the upcoming election.  In the 2015 parliamentary election held on 25 October 2015, the United Left list received 7.6% of the vote, below the 8% threshold (electoral alliances must win at least 8% of the vote, as opposed to the 5% for individual parties), leaving the SLD without parliamentary representation for the first time. Indeed, for the first time since the end of Communism, no centre-left parties won any seats in this election.  In 2017, the party withdrew from the Socialist International, while maintaining ties with the Progressive Alliance.  For the 2019 parliamentary election SLD formed an alliance with Razem and Wiosna, known as The Left. In the 2019 parliamentary election, the alliance won 12.6% of the vote and 49 seats in the Sejm, with the SLD winning 24.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Voter base.", "content": "The SLD is usually seen as the face of the standard Polish left, having achieved notable electoral success during the 90s and benefitting from a strongly organized network of local offices, which span 320 of Poland's 380 administrative counties. For this reason, it was often viewed as the go-to party for left-leaning Poles for the majority of Poland's modern history. The party's monopoly on mainstream left-wing economic ideas in Poland however ended, after the right-wing PiS party adopted many economically interventionist positions, which led a considerable portion of economically left-wing Poles to vote for PiS instead.  Besides self-described left-wingers, the party enjoys the support of many members of the country's police and military, but its largest voting bloc resides among former PZPR members, government officials and civil servants during the PPR period, which are seen as the party's core supporters. The loyal support of this voting bloc enabled the SLD to remain the largest party of the Polish left, even throughout the scandals that rocked the party in the early 2000s.  However, this electoral bloc was seen as unreliable by political observers, as despite the fact that it originally constituted a huge voting bloc, that segment of the population would inevitably shrink as its members steadily age. Following the passage of a \"degradation law\" by the ruling right-wing PiS party, which cut pensions and disability benefits to thousands of former bureaucrats, however, the party has undergone a revival, as more and more people's primary income came to be threatened by the new government policy. This led many of those affected to support the SLD, thus enlarging and mobilizing the formerly shrinking voting bloc.  The SLD nonetheless made a significant effort to broaden its political appeal by joining forces with two smaller left-wing parties in 2019, creating The Left political alliance, which poses itself as a'modern' take on leftism.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Democratic Left Alliance (since February 2020 officially known as the New Left) (, NL) is a social-democratic political party in Poland. It was formed in 1991 as an electoral alliance of centre-left parties, and became a single party on 15 April 1999. The party is a member of the Party of European Socialists and Progressive Alliance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971151}
{"src_title": "Breed", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Breeding: selection by breeders.", "content": "The breeder (or group of breeders) who initially establishes a breed does so by selecting individual animals from within a gene pool that they see as having the necessary qualities needed to enhance the breed model they are aiming for. These animals are referred to as foundation stock. Furthermore, the breeder mates the most desirable representatives of the breed from his or her point of view, aiming to pass such characteristics to their progeny. This process is known as selective breeding. A written description of desirable and undesirable breed representatives is referred to as a breed standard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breed characteristics.", "content": "Breed specific characteristics, also known as breed traits, are inherited, and purebred animals pass such traits from generation to generation. Thus, all specimens of the same breed carry several genetic characteristics of the original foundation animal(s). In order to maintain the breed, a breeder would select those animals with the most desirable traits to achieve further maintenance and developing of such traits. At the same time, the breed would avoid animals carrying characteristics undesirable or not typical for the breed, including faults or genetic defects. The population within the same breed should consist of a sufficient number of animals to maintain the breed within the specified parameters without the necessity of forced inbreeding.  Domestic animal breeds commonly differ from country to country, and from nation to nation. Breeds originating in a certain country are known as \"native breeds\" of that country.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A breed is a specific group of domestic animals having homogeneous appearance (phenotype), homogeneous behavior, and/or other characteristics that distinguish it from other organisms of the same species. In literature, there exist several slightly deviating definitions. Breeds are formed through genetic isolation and either natural adaptation to the environment or selective breeding, or a combination of the two. Despite the centrality of the idea of \"breeds\" to animal husbandry and agriculture, no single, scientifically accepted definition of the term exists. It was shown by set-theoretic means that for the term breed an infinite number of different definitions, which more or less meet the common requirements found in literature, can be given. A breed is therefore not an objective or biologically verifiable classification but is instead a term of art amongst groups of breeders who share a consensus around what qualities make some members of a given species members of a nameable subset.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971152}
{"src_title": "Tussilago", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Coltsfoot is a perennial herbaceous plant that spreads by seeds and rhizomes. \"Tussilago\" is often found in colonies of dozens of plants. The flowers, which superficially resemble dandelions, bear scale-leaves on the long stems in early spring. The leaves of coltsfoot, which appear after the flowers have set seed, wither and die in the early summer. The flower heads are of yellow florets with an outer row of bracts. The plant is typically in height. The leaves have angular teeth on their margins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Coltsfoot is widespread across Europe, Asia, and North Africa, from Svalbard to Morocco to China and the Russian Far East. It is also a common plant in North and South America where it has been introduced, most likely by settlers as a medicinal item. The plant is often found in waste and disturbed places and along roadsides and paths. In some areas it is considered an invasive species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The common name comes from the leaf's supposed resemblance to a colt's foot. Other common names include tash plant, ass's foot, bull's foot, coughwort (Old English), farfara, foal's foot, foalswort, and horse foot. Sometimes it is confused with \"Petasites frigidus\", or western coltsfoot.  It has been called \"bechion\", \"bechichie\", or \"bechie\", from the Ancient Greek word for \"cough\". Also \"ungula caballina\" (\"horse hoof\"), \"pes pulli\" (\"foal's foot\"), and \"chamæleuce\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Coltsfoot has been used in herbal medicine and has been consumed as a food product with some confectionery products, such as Coltsfoot Rock. \"Tussilago farfara\" leaves have been used in traditional Austrian medicine internally (as tea or syrup) or externally (directly applied) for treatment of disorders of the respiratory tract, skin, locomotor system, viral infections, flu, colds, fever, rheumatism and gout. An extract of the fresh leaves has also been used to make cough drops and hard candy.  Coltsfoot is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the Gothic and small angle shades. It is also visited by honeybees, providing pollen and nectar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "\"Tussilago farfara\" contains tumorigenic pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Senecionine and senkirkine, present in coltsfoot, have the highest mutagenetic activity of any pyrrolozidine alkaloid, tested using \"Drosophila melanogaster\" to produce a comparative genotoxicity test.  Two cases of supposed liver damage (and death) due to coltsfoot tea have been shown to actually be the result of mistaken identity. In one, coltsfoot tea causing severe liver problems in an infant was actually the result of \"Adenostyles alliariae\" (alpendost). In another case, an infant developed liver disease and died because the mother drank tea originally believed to contain coltsfoot during her pregnancy, but which was later shown to be \"Petasites hybridus\" (butterbur) or a similar species. In one 27-year-old male, ingesting a multicomponent herbal supplement that included coltsfoot may have caused him to develop non-lethal deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism.  In response, the German government banned the sale of coltsfoot. Clonal plants of coltsfoot free of pyrrolizidine alkaloids were then developed in Austria and Germany. This has resulted in the development of the registered variety \"Tussilago farfara\" 'Wien', which has no detectable levels of these alkaloids.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tussilago farfara, commonly known as coltsfoot, is a plant in the groundsel tribe in the daisy family Asteraceae, native to Europe and parts of western and central Asia. The name \"tussilago\" is derived from the Latin \"tussis\", meaning cough, and \"ago\", meaning to cast or to act on. It has had uses in traditional medicine, but the discovery of toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids in the plant has resulted in liver health concerns.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971153}
{"src_title": "Stellaria media", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "This species is an annual and perennial with weak slender stems, up through 40 cm long. Plants are sparsely hairy, with hairs in a line along the stem. The leaves are oval and opposite, the lower ones with stalks. Flowers are white and small with 5 very deeply lobed petals. Some plants have no petals. The stamens are usually 3 and the styles 3. The flowers quickly form capsules. Plants have flowers and capsules at the same time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and identification.", "content": "\"Stellaria media\" is widespread in Asia, Europe, North America, and other parts of the world. There are several closely related plants referred to as chickweed, but which lack the culinary properties of plants in the genus \"Stellaria.\" Plants in the genus \"Cerastium\" are very similar in appearance to \"Stellaria\" and are in the same family (Caryophyllaceae). \"Stellaria\" has fine hairs on only one side of its stem in a single band and on the sepals. Other members of the family Caryophyllaceae which resemble \"Stellaria\" have hairs uniformly covering their entire stems and usually have 3 styles, 3-5, occasionally 8 stamens, variously stated as 8 stamens by Keble Martin and (1-)3(-8) by Clapham, Tutin and Warburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "\"Stellaria media\" is common in lawns, meadows, waste places and open areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The larvae of the European moth yellow shell (\"Camptogramma bilineata\"), of North American moths pale-banded dart (\"Agnorisma badinodis\") or dusky cutworm (\"Agrotis venerabilis\") or North American butterfly dainty sulphur (\"Nathalis iole\") all feed on chickweed. It is susceptible to downy mildew caused by the oomycete species \"Peronospora alsinearum\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Growth.", "content": "In both Europe and North America this plant is common in gardens, fields, and disturbed grounds where it grows as a ground cover.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As food.", "content": "\"Stellaria media\" is edible and nutritious, and is used as a leaf vegetable, often raw in salads. It is one of the ingredients of the symbolic dish consumed in the Japanese spring-time festival, \"Nanakusa-no-sekku\".  It is also eaten by chickens and wild birds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "\"Stellaria media\" contains plant chemicals known as saponins, which can be toxic to some species when consumed in large quantities. Chickweed has been known to cause saponin poisoning in cattle. However, as the animal must consume several kilos of chickweed in order to reach a toxic level, such deaths are extremely rare.  \"S. media\" should also not be confused with the mildly toxic \"Euphorbia\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "In folk medicine.", "content": "The plant has medicinal properties and is used in folk medicine. It has been used as a remedy to treat itchy skin conditions and pulmonary diseases. 17th century herbalist John Gerard recommended it as a remedy for mange. Modern herbalists prescribe it for iron-deficiency anemia (for its high iron content), as well as for skin diseases, bronchitis, rheumatic pains, arthritis and period pain. Not all of these uses are supported by scientific evidence. The plant was used by the Ainu for treating bruises and aching bones. Stems were steeped in hot water before being applied externally to affected areas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The anthraquinones emodin, parietin (physcion) and questin, the flavonoid kaempferol-3,7-O-α-L-dirhamnoside, the phytosterols β-sitosterol and daucosterol, and the fatty alcohol 1-hexacosanol can be found in \"S. media\". Other flavonoid constituents are apigenin 6-C-beta-D-galactopyranosyl-8-C-alpha-L-arabinopyranoside, apigenin 6-C-alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl-8-C-beta-D-galactopyranoside, apigenin 6-C-beta-D-galactopyranosyl-8-C-beta-L-arabinopyranoside, apigenin 6-C-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-8-C-beta-D-galactopyranoside, apigenin 6, 8-di-C-alpha-L-arabinopyranoside. The plant also contains triterpenoid saponins of the hydroxylated oleanolic acid type. Proanthocyanidins are present in the testa of seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Stellaria\" is derived from the word'stellar' meaning'star', which is a reference to the shape of its flowers. \"Media\" is derived from Latin and means 'between', 'intermediate', or'mid-sized'.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stellaria media, chickweed, is an annual and perennial flowering plant in the family Caryophyllaceae. It is native to Eurasia and naturalized in throughout the world. This species is used as a cooling herbal remedy, and grown as a vegetable crop and ground cover for both human and poultry consumption. It is sometimes called common chickweed to distinguish it from other plants called chickweed. Other common names include chickenwort, craches, maruns, and winterweed. The plant germinates in autumn or late winter, then forms large mats of foliage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971154}
{"src_title": "Sorrel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Sorrel is a slender herbaceous perennial plant about high, with roots that run deep into the ground, as well as juicy stems and edible, arrow-shaped (sagittate) leaves. The leaves, when consumed raw, have a sour taste. The lower leaves are in length with long petioles and a membranous ocrea formed of fused, sheathing stipules. The upper ones are sessile, and frequently become crimson. It has whorled spikes of reddish-green flowers, which bloom in early summer, becoming purplish. The species is dioecious, with stamens and pistils on different plants.  The leaves are eaten by the larvae of several species of Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) including the blood-vein moth, as well as by non-specialized snails and slugs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Rumex acetosa\" occurs in grassland habitats throughout Europe from the northern Mediterranean coast to the north of Scandinavia and in parts of Central Asia. It occurs as an introduced species in parts of New Zealand, Australia and North America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "Several subspecies have been named. Not all are cultivated:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Common sorrel has been cultivated for centuries. The leaves may be puréed in soups and sauces or added to salads; they have a flavour that is similar to kiwifruit or sour wild strawberries. The plant's sharp taste is due to oxalic acid.  In northern Nigeria, sorrel is used in stews usually with spinach. In some Hausa communities, it is steamed and made into salad using \"kuli-kuli\" (traditional roasted peanut cakes with oil extracted), salt, pepper, onion and tomatoes. In India, the leaves are used in soups or curries made with yellow lentils and peanuts. In Afghanistan, the leaves are coated in a wet batter and deep fried, then served as an appetizer or if in season during Ramadan, for breaking the fast.  Throughout eastern Europe, wild or garden sorrel is used to make sour soups, stewed with vegetables or herbs, meats or eggs. In rural Greece, it is used with spinach, leeks, and chard in spanakopita. In Albania, the leaves are simmered and served cold marinated in olive oil, or as an ingredient for filling \"byrek\" pies (\"byrek me lakra\"). In Armenia, the leaves are collected in spring, woven into braids, and dried for use during winter. The most common preparation is aveluk soup, where the leaves are rehydrated and rinsed to reduce bitterness, then stewed with onions, potatoes, walnuts, garlic and bulgur wheat or lentils, and sometimes sour plums.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Common sorrel or garden sorrel (\"Rumex acetosa\"), often simply called sorrel, is a perennial herb in the family Polygonaceae. Other names for sorrel include spinach dock and narrow-leaved dock. It is a common plant in grassland habitats and is cultivated as a garden herb or salad vegetable (pot herb).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971155}
{"src_title": "Adelbert von Chamisso", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "The son of Louis Marie, Count of Chamisso, by his marriage to Anne Marie Gargam, Chamisso began life as Louis Charles Adélaïde de Chamissot at the \"château\" of Boncourt at Ante, in Champagne, France, the ancestral seat of his family. His name appears in several forms, one of the most common being \"Ludolf Karl Adelbert von Chamisso.\"  In 1790, the French Revolution drove his parents out of France with their seven children, and they went successively to Liège, the Hague, Würzburg, and Bayreuth, and possibly Hamburg where he reportedly met both a younger boy in Johann August Wilhelm Neander and another younger boy in Karl August Varnhagen von Ense before settling in Berlin. There, in 1796 the young Chamisso was fortunate in obtaining the post of page-in-waiting to the queen of Prussia, and in 1798 he entered a Prussian infantry regiment as an ensign to train for a career as an army officer. Shortly thereafter, thanks to the Peace of Tilsit, his family was able to return to France, but Chamisso remained in Prussia and continued his military career. He had little formal education, but while in the Prussian military service in Berlin he assiduously studied natural science for three years. In collaboration with Varnhagen von Ense, in 1803 he founded the \"Berliner Musenalmanach\", the publication in which his first verses appeared. The enterprise was a failure, and, interrupted by the Napoleonic wars, it came to an end in 1806. It brought him, however, to the notice of many of the literary celebrities of the day and established his reputation as a rising poet.  Chamisso had become a lieutenant in 1801, and in 1805 he accompanied his regiment to Hamelin, where he shared in the humiliation of the town's treasonable capitulation the next year. Placed on parole, he went to France, but both his parents were dead; returning to Berlin in the autumn of 1807, he obtained his release from the Prussian service early the following year. Homeless and without a profession, disillusioned and despondent, Chamisso lived in Berlin until 1810, when through the services of an old friend of the family he was offered a professorship at the \"lycée\" at Napoléonville in the Vendée.  He set out to take up the post, but instead joined the circle of Madame de Staël, and followed her in her exile to Coppet in Switzerland, where, devoting himself to botanical research, he remained nearly two years. In 1812 he returned to Berlin, where he continued his scientific studies. In the summer of the eventful year, 1813, he wrote the prose narrative \"Peter Schlemihl\", the man who sold his shadow. This, the most famous of all his works, has been translated into most European languages (English by William Howitt). It was written partly to divert his own thoughts and partly to amuse the children of his friend Julius Eduard Hitzig.  In 1815, Chamisso was appointed botanist to the Russian ship \"Rurik\", fitted out at the expense of Count Nikolay Rumyantsev, which Otto von Kotzebue (son of August von Kotzebue) commanded on a scientific voyage round the world. He collected at the Cape of Good Hope in January 1818 in the company of Krebs, Mund and Maire. His diary of the expedition (\"Tagebuch\", 1821) is a fascinating account of the expedition to the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. During this trip Chamisso described a number of new species found in what is now the San Francisco Bay Area. Several of these, including the California poppy, \"Eschscholzia californica\", were named after his friend Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, the Rurik's entomologist. In return, Eschscholtz named a variety of plants, including the genus \"Camissonia\", after Chamisso. On his return in 1818 he was made custodian of the botanical gardens in Berlin, and was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1819 he married his friend Hitzig's foster daughter Antonie Piaste (1800–1837). He became a leading member of the Serapion Brethren, a literary circle around E. T. A. Hoffmann.  In 1827, partly for the purpose of rebutting the charges brought against him by Kotzebue, he published \"Views and Remarks on a Voyage of Discovery\", and \"Description of a Voyage Round the World\". Both works display great accuracy and industry. His last scientific labor was a tract on the Hawaiian language. Chamisso's travels and scientific researches restrained for a while the full development of his poetical talent, and it was not until his forty-eighth year that he turned back to literature. In 1829, in collaboration with Gustav Schwab, and from 1832 in conjunction with Franz von Gaudy, he brought out the \"Deutscher Musenalmanach\", in which his later poems were mainly published.  Chamisso died in Berlin at the age of 57. His grave is preserved in the Protestant \"Friedhof III\" (Cemetery No. 3 of the congregations of Jerusalem's Church and the New Church) in Berlin-Kreuzberg, to the south of the Hallesches Tor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Botanical work.", "content": "Chamisso is chiefly remembered for his work as a botanist; his most important contribution, done in conjunction with Diederich Franz Leonhard von Schlechtendal, was the description of many of the most important trees of Mexico in 1830–1831. Also, his \"Bemerkungen und Ansichten\", published in an incomplete form in Kotzebue's \"Entdeckungsreise\" (Weimar, 1821) and more completely in Chamisso's Collected Works (1836), and the botanical work, \"Übersicht der nutzbarsten und schädlichsten Gewächse in Norddeutschland\" (Review of the Most Useful and the Most Noxious Plants of North Germany, with Remarks on Scientific Botany), of 1829, are esteemed for their careful treatment of their subjects.  The genera \"Chamissoa\" Kunth (Amaranthaceae) and \"Camissonia\" Link (Onagraceae) and many species were named in his honor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Belles lettres.", "content": "Chamisso's earliest writings, which include a verse translation of the tragedy \"Le Comte de Comminge\" in which \"heilsam\" is used in place of \"heilig\", show a 20-year-old still struggling to master his new language, and a number of his early poems are in French. Between 1801 and 1804 he became closely associated with other writers and edited their journal.  As a poet Chamisso's reputation stands high. \"Frauenliebe und -leben\" (1830), a cycle of lyrical poems set to music by Robert Schumann, by Carl Loewe, and by Franz Paul Lachner, is particularly famous. Also noteworthy are \"Schloss Boncourt\" and \"Salas y Gomez\". He often deals with gloomy or repulsive subjects; and even in his lighter and gayer productions there is an undertone of sadness or of satire. In the lyrical expression of the domestic emotions he displays a fine felicity, and he knew how to treat with true feeling a tale of love or vengeance. \"Die Löwenbraut\" may be taken as a sample of his weird and powerful simplicity; and \"Vergeltung\" is remarkable for a pitiless precision of treatment. The first collected edition of Chamisso's works was edited by Hitzig and published in six volumes in 1836.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adelbert von Chamisso (; 30 January 178121 August 1838) was a German poet and botanist, author of \"Peter Schlemihl\", a famous story about a man who sold his shadow. He was commonly known in French as Adelbert de Chamisso (or Chamissot) de Boncourt, a name referring to the family estate at Boncourt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971156}
{"src_title": "Elymus repens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It has creeping rhizomes which enable it to grow rapidly across grassland. It has flat, hairy leaves with upright flower spikes. The stems ('culms') grow to 40–150 cm tall; the leaves are linear, 15–40 cm long and 3–10 mm broad at the base of the plant, with leaves higher on the stems 2–8.5 mm broad. The flower spike is 10–30 cm long, with spikelets 1–2 cm long, 5–7 mm broad and 3 mm thick with three to eight florets. The glumes are 7–12 mm long, usually without an awn or with only a short one.  It flowers at the end of June through to August in the Northern Hemisphere.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Various taxonomic subdivisions of this species have been proposed. Moreover, it is assigned to various genera (\"Elymus\", \"Elytrigium\", \"Agropyron\"). In a recent classification, three subspecies are distinguished, one of these with an additional variety:  Hybrids are recorded with several related grasses, including \"Elytrigia juncea\" (\"Elytrigia × laxa\" (Fr.) Kerguélen), \"Elytrigia atherica\" (\"Elytrigia × drucei\" Stace), and with the barley species \"Hordeum secalinum\" (\"× Elytrordeum langei\" (K. Richt.) Hyl.).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The foliage is an important forage grass for many grazing mammals. The seeds are eaten by several species of grassland birds, particularly buntings and finches. The caterpillars of some Lepidoptera use it as a foodplant, e.g. the Essex skipper (\"Thymelicus lineola\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eradication.", "content": "Couch grass has become naturalised throughout much of the world, and is often listed as an invasive weed. It is very difficult to remove from garden environments, as the thin rhizomes become entangled among the roots of shrubs and perennials, and each severed piece of rhizome can develop into a new plant. It may be possible to loosen the earth around the plant, and carefully pull out the complete rhizome. This is best done in the spring, when disturbed plants can recover. Another method is to dig deep into the ground in order to remove as much of the grass as possible. The area should then be covered with a thick layer of woodchips. To further prevent re-growth, cardboard can be placed underneath the woodchips. The long, white rhizomes will, however, dry out and die if left on the surface. Many herbicides will also control it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "The dried rhizomes of couch grass were broken up and used as incense in medieval northern Europe where other resin-based types of incense were unavailable. \"Elymus repens\" (\"Agropyron repens\") rhizomes have been used in the traditional Austrian medicine against fever, internally as a tea, syrup, or cold maceration in water, or externally applied as a crude drug.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elymus repens, commonly known as couch grass, is a very common perennial species of grass native to most of Europe, Asia, the Arctic biome, and northwest Africa. It has been brought into other mild northern climates for forage or erosion control, but is often considered a weed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971157}
{"src_title": "Exploit (computer security)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "There are several methods of classifying exploits. The most common is by how the exploit communicates to the vulnerable software.  A \"remote exploit\" works over a network and exploits the security vulnerability without any prior access to the vulnerable system.  A \"local exploit\" requires prior access to the vulnerable system and usually increases the privileges of the person running the exploit past those granted by the system administrator. Exploits against client applications also exist, usually consisting of modified servers that send an exploit if accessed with a client application.  Exploits against client applications may also require some interaction with the user and thus may be used in combination with the social engineering method. Another classification is by the action against the vulnerable system; unauthorized data access, arbitrary code execution, and denial of service are examples.  Many exploits are designed to provide superuser-level access to a computer system. However, it is also possible to use several exploits, first to gain low-level access, then to escalate privileges repeatedly until one reaches the highest administrative level (often called \"root\").  After an exploit is made known to the authors of the affected software, the vulnerability is often fixed through a patch and the exploit becomes unusable. That is the reason why some black hat hackers as well as military or intelligence agencies hackers do not publish their exploits but keep them private.  Exploits unknown to everyone but the people that found and developed them are referred to as \"zero day exploits\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Exploitations are commonly categorized and named by the type of vulnerability they exploit (see vulnerabilities for a list), whether they are local/remote and the result of running the exploit (e.g. EoP, DoS, spoofing).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pivoting.", "content": "Pivoting refers to a method used by penetration testers that uses the compromised system to attack other systems on the same network to avoid restrictions such as firewall configurations, which may prohibit direct access to all machines. For example, if an attacker compromises a web server on a corporate network, the attacker can then use the compromised web server to attack other systems on the network. These types of attacks are often called multi-layered attacks. Pivoting is also known as \"island hopping\".  Pivoting can further be distinguished into proxy pivoting and VPN pivoting. Proxy pivoting generally describes the practice of channeling traffic through a compromised target using a proxy payload on the machine and launching attacks from the computer. This type of pivoting is restricted to certain TCP and UDP ports that are supported by the proxy.  VPN pivoting enables the attacker to create an encrypted layer to tunnel into the compromised machine to route any network traffic through that target machine, for example, to run a vulnerability scan on the internal network through the compromised machine, effectively giving the attacker full network access as if they were behind the firewall.  Typically, the proxy or VPN applications enabling pivoting are executed on the target computer as the payload (software) of an exploit.  Pivoting is usually done by infiltrating a part of a network infrastructure (as an example, a vulnerable printer or thermostat) and using a scanner to find other devices connected to attack them. By attacking a vulnerable piece of networking, an attacker could infect most or all of a network and gain complete control.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "An exploit (from the English verb \"to exploit\", meaning \"to use something to one’s own advantage\") is a piece of software, a chunk of data, or a sequence of commands that takes advantage of a bug or vulnerability to cause unintended or unanticipated behavior to occur on computer software, hardware, or something electronic (usually computerized). Such behavior frequently includes things like gaining control of a computer system, allowing privilege escalation, or a denial-of-service (DoS or related DDoS) attack.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971158}
{"src_title": "Machiavellianism (politics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First appearances.", "content": "The early appearances of the word all relate to its political meaning. It first appears in English (in fact Scottish) in the work of Robert Sempill (d. 1595). He uses \"mache villion\" and \"Machivilian\". As \"Machiauilisme\" it occurs in Thomas Nashe's \"Pierce Peniless\" (1592). A French to English dictionary of 1611 gives \"subtle policie, cunning roguerie\" as the meaning. The Italian \"machiavellista\" and \"machiavello\" also go back to the 16th century.  The Oxford English Dictionary defines \"Machiavellian\" (as an adjective) as: \"Of, pertaining to, or characteristic of Machiavelli, or his alleged principles; following the methods recommended by Machiavelli in preferring expediency to morality; practicing duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct; astute, cunning, intriguing\". A \"Machiavel\" is \"One who acts on the principles of Machiavelli; an intriguer, an unscrupulous schemer\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception of Machiavelli.", "content": "In so far as the Machiavellian trope has any relationship with Machiavelli's actual philosophy, it relates to his most famous work, \"Il Principe\", or \"The Prince.\" The book would become infamous for its recommendation for absolute rulers to be ready to act in unscrupulous ways, such as resorting to fraud and treachery, elimination of political opponents, and the usage of fear as a means of controlling subjects. Machiavelli's view that acquiring a state and maintaining it requires evil means has been noted as the chief theme of the treatise.  In the late 1530s, immediately following the publication of \"The Prince\", Machiavelli's philosophy was seen as an immoral ideology that corrupted European politics. Reginald Pole read the treatise while he was in Italy, and on which he commented: \"I found this type of book to be written by an enemy of the human race. It explains every means whereby religion, justice and any inclination toward virtue could be destroyed\". Due to the treatise's controversial analysis on politics, in 1559, the Catholic Church banned \"The Prince\", putting it on the \"Index Librorum Prohibitorum\". Machiavelli's works were received similarly by other popular European authors, especially in Protestant Elizabethan England.  The \"Anti-Machiavel\" is an 18th-century essay by Frederick the Great, King of Prussia and patron of Voltaire, rebutting \"The Prince\". It was first published in September 1740, a few months after Frederick became king. Denis Diderot, the French philosopher, viewed Machiavellianism as \"an abhorrent type of politics\" and the \"art of tyranny\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre.", "content": "The Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre of Huguenot Protestants in France in 1572 was a particular nexus of complaints about Machiavellianism, as the massacre came to be seen as a product of it. The massacre \"spawned a pullulating mass of polemical literature, bubbling with theories, prejudices and phobias\", in which Machiavellianism featured prominently. This view was greatly influenced by the Huguenot lawyer, who published his \"Discours contre Machievel\" in 1576, which was printed in ten editions in three languages over the next four years. Gentillet held, quite wrongly according to Sydney Anglo, that Machiavelli's \"books [were] held most dear and precious by our Italian and Italionized courtiers\" (in the words of his first English translation, \"Anti-Machiavel: A Discourse Upon the Means of Well Governing\"), and so (in Anglo's paraphrase) \"at the root of France's present degradation, which has culminated not only in the St Bartholomew massacre but the glee of its perverted admirers\". In fact there is little trace of Machiavelli in French writings before the massacre, and not very much after, until Gentillet's own book, but this concept was seized upon by many contemporaries, and played a crucial part in setting the long-lasting popular concept of Machiavellianism. It also gave added impetus to the strong anti-Italian feelings already present in Huguenot polemic.  The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 was still ready to endorse a version of this view, describing the massacres as \"an entirely political act committed in the name of the immoral principles of Machiavellianism\" and blaming \"the pagan theories of a certain raison d'état according to which the end justified the means\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English drama.", "content": "Christopher Marlowe was one of many Elizabethan English writers who were enthusiastic promoters of the trope, and although Machiavelli had not yet been published in English, he evidently expects his theatrical audience to understand the references. In \"The Jew of Malta\" (1589–90) \"Machiavel\" in person speaks the Prologue, claiming to not be dead, but to have possessed the soul of the Duke of Guise, considered the mastermind of the Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre, \"And, now the Guise is dead, is come from France/ To view this land, and frolic with his friends\" (Prologue, lines 3-4) His last play, \"The Massacre at Paris\" (1593) takes the massacre, and the following years, as its subject, with Guise and Catherine de' Medici both depicted as Machiavellian plotters, bent on evil from the start.  The figure of the Machiavel in Elizabethan drama \"combined elements of the Vice character (the comic villain from medieval morality drama) with a negative caricature of Machiavellian ideology as godless, scheming and self-interested.\" No English translation of \"The Prince\" was printed until 1640, but English manuscript translations were circulating by about 1585, as well as printed editions in other languages. Shakespeare may well have been aware of at least some of Machiavelli's ideas; he has the future Richard III boast in \"Henry VI, Part III\", that he can \"set the murderous Machiavel to school\", and the Host in the \"Merry Wives of Windsor\" asks rhetorically, \"Am I politic? am I subtle? am I a Machiavel?\"  Other examples are Lorenzo in Thomas Kyd's \"The Spanish Tragedy\", Iago in \"Othello\", the title character of Ben Jonson's \"Volpone\", and Boscola in John Webster's \"Duchess of Malfi\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Machiavellian Earl of Essex.", "content": "The two levels of Machiavellianism both feature in the case of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, a favourite of Elizabeth I of England. There is good evidence that he and his circle, which included Francis Bacon and his brother Anthony, were interested in a serious and informed way in the thought of Machiavelli. The famous climax of Essex's career was Essex's Rebellion in 1601, when he attempted a coup d'etat in London, which was a complete failure, flopping in a single day. He was executed within three weeks, with some of his co-conspirators following later. The government issued instructions to the nation's preachers a week after the rebellion on how to present the earl's character, which resorted to the theatrical caricature, saying he \"was, in a word, a theatrical machiavel\". The Privy Council's briefing included: \"he has carried himself after a very insolent and ambitious sort... he has diligently trodden the steps of all arch-traitors, seeking by popular conversation to allure the hearts of the simple. In matters of religion, his dissimulation and hypocrisy are now disclosed...\". Francis Bacon rapidly changed sides after the rebellion, taking part in Essex's prosecution, and referred to Machiavelli during Essex's trial, in a way that showed his familiarity with his actual writings, demonstrated at many points in his own writings.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Machiavellianism as a trope, or \"popular discourse\", in political history is a pejorative term for the supposed political philosophy of the Italian Renaissance diplomat Niccolò Machiavelli, \"a negative caricature of Machiavellian ideology as godless, scheming and self-interested\". Though in discussions of Machiavelli's thought \"Machiavellian\" and \"Machiavellianism\" may be used in reasoned critiques, in general usage the terms more often occur in political polemic, suggesting an unprincipled lust for power, achieved through \"subtle policie, cunning roguerie\" (the earliest dictionary definition in English, from 1611), by the \"Machiavel\", an adherent of these principles. In this trope, as described by Isaiah Berlin, Machiavelli was regarded as \"a man inspired by the Devil to lead good men to their doom, the great subverter, the teacher of evil, \"le docteur de la scélératesse\", the inspirer of St. Bartholomew’s Eve, the original of Iago\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971159}
{"src_title": "Picea sitchensis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The bark is thin and scaly, flaking off in small, circular plates across. The crown is broad conic in young trees, becoming cylindric in older trees; old trees may not have branches lower than. The shoots are very pale buff-brown, almost white, and glabrous (hairless), but with prominent pulvini. The leaves are stiff, sharp, and needle-like, 15–25 mm long, flattened in cross-section, dark glaucous blue-green above with two or three thin lines of stomata, and blue-white below with two dense bands of stomata.  The cones are pendulous, slender cylindrical, long and broad when closed, opening to broad. They have thin, flexible scales long; the bracts just above the scales are the longest of any spruce, occasionally just exserted and visible on the closed cones. They are green or reddish, maturing pale brown 5–7 months after pollination. The seeds are black, long, with a slender, long pale brown wing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "More than a century of logging has left only a remnant of the spruce forest. The largest trees were cut long before careful measurements could be made. Trees over tall may still be seen in Pacific Rim National Park and Carmanah Walbran Provincial Park on Vancouver Island, British Columbia (the Carmanah Giant, at tall, is the tallest tree in Canada), and in Olympic National Park, Washington and Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California (United States); two at the last site are just over 96 m tall. The Queets Spruce is the largest in the world with a trunk volume of, a height of, and a dbh. It is located near the Queets River in Olympic National Park, about from the Pacific Ocean. Another specimen, from Klootchy Creek Park, Oregon, was previously recorded to be the largest with a circumference of and height of.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Age.", "content": "Sitka spruce is a long-lived tree, with individuals over 700 years old known. Because it grows rapidly under favorable conditions, large size may not indicate exceptional age. The Queets Spruce has been estimated to be only 350 to 450 years old, but adds more than a cubic meter of wood each year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Root system.", "content": "Living in an extremely wet climate, the Sitka spruce has a shallow root system with long lateral roots and few branchings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fire danger.", "content": "Despite the prevalence of Sitka spruce in cool, wet climates, its thin bark and shallow root system make it susceptible to fire damage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "DNA analysis has shown that only \"P. breweriana\" has a more basal position than Sitka spruce to the rest of the spruce. The other 33 species of spruce are more derived, which suggests that \"Picea\" originated in North America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Sitka spruce is native to the west coast of North America, with its northwestern limit on Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, and its southeastern limit near Fort Bragg in northern California. It is closely associated with the temperate rain forests and is found within a few kilometers of the coast in the southern portion of its range. North of Oregon, its range extends inland along river floodplains, but nowhere does its range extend more than from the Pacific Ocean and its inlets. Sitka spruce also grows on the west coast of Norway, where it is considered an invasive species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Sitka spruce is of major importance in forestry for timber and paper production. Outside its native range, it is particularly valued for its fast growth on poor soils and exposed sites where few other trees can prosper; in ideal conditions, young trees may grow per year. It is naturalized in some parts of Ireland and Great Britain, where it was introduced in 1831 by David Douglas, and New Zealand, though not so extensively as to be considered invasive. Sitka spruce is also planted extensively in Denmark, Norway, and Iceland. In Norway, Sitka spruce was introduced in the early 1900s. An estimated have been planted in Norway, mainly along the coast from Vest-Agder in the south to Troms in the north. It is more tolerant to wind and saline ocean air, and grows faster than the native Norway spruce. But in Norway, the Sitka spruce is now considered an invasive species, and effort to get rid of it is being made.  Sitka spruce is used widely in piano, harp, violin, and guitar manufacture, as its high strength-to-weight ratio and regular, knot-free rings make it an excellent conductor of sound. For these reasons, the wood is also an important material for sailboat spars, and aircraft wing spars (including flying models). The Wright brothers' Flyer was built using Sitka spruce, as were many aircraft before World War II; during that war, aircraft such as the British Mosquito used it as a substitute for strategically important aluminium.  Newly grown tips of Sitka spruce branches are used to flavor spruce beer and are boiled to make syrup.  The root bark of Sitka spruce trees is used in Native Alaskan basket-weaving designs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "A unique specimen with golden foliage that used to grow on Haida Gwaii, known as Kiidk'yaas or \"The Golden Spruce\", is sacred to the Haida Native American people. It was illegally felled in 1997 by Grant Hadwin, although saplings grown from cuttings can now be found near its original site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The stilbene glucosides astringin, isorhapontin, and piceid can be found in the bark of the Sitka spruce.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Burls.", "content": "In the Olympic National Forest in Washington, Sitka spruce trees near the ocean sometimes develop burls.  According to a guidebook entitled \"Olympic Peninsula\", \"Damage to the tip or the bud of a Sitka spruce causes the growth cells to divide more rapidly than normal to form this swelling or burl. Even though the burls may look menacing, they do not affect the overall tree growth.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Picea sitchensis, the Sitka spruce, is a large, coniferous, evergreen tree growing to almost 100 m (330 ft) tall, with a trunk diameter at breast height that can exceed 5 m (16 ft). It is by far the largest species of spruce and the fifth-largest conifer in the world (behind giant sequoia, coast redwood, kauri, and western redcedar); and the third-tallest conifer species (after coast redwood and coast Douglas fir). The Sitka spruce is one of the few species documented to exceed 300 ft (90 m) in height. Its name is derived from the community of Sitka in southeast Alaska, where it is prevalent. Its range hugs the western coast of Canada and the US, continuing south into northernmost California.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971160}
{"src_title": "Globe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terrestrial and planetary.", "content": "Flat maps are created using a map projection that inevitably introduces an increasing amount of distortion the larger the area that the map shows. A globe is the only representation of the Earth that does not distort either the shape or the size of large features – land masses, bodies of water, etc.  The Earth's circumference is quite close to 40 million metres. Many globes are made with a circumference of one metre, so they are models of the Earth at a scale of 1:40 million. In imperial units, many globes are made with a diameter of one foot (about 30 cm), yielding a circumference of 3.14 feet (about 96 cm) and a scale of 1:42 million. Globes are also made in many other sizes.  Some globes have surface texture showing topography or bathymetry. In these, elevations and depressions are purposely exaggerated, as they otherwise would be hardly visible. For example, one manufacturer produces a three dimensional raised relief globe with a diameter (equivalent to a 200 cm circumference, or approximately a scale of 1:20 million) showing the highest mountains as over tall, which is about 57 times higher than the correct scale of Mount Everest.  Most modern globes are also imprinted with parallels and meridians, so that one can tell the approximate coordinates of a specific place. Globes may also show the boundaries of countries and their names.  Many terrestrial globes have one celestial feature marked on them: a diagram called the analemma, which shows the apparent motion of the Sun in the sky during a year.  Globes generally show north at the top, but many globes allow the axis to be swiveled so that southern portions can be viewed conveniently. This capability also permits exploring the Earth from different orientations to help counter the north-up bias caused by conventional map presentation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Celestial.", "content": "Celestial globes show the apparent positions of the stars in the sky. They omit the Sun, Moon and planets because the positions of these bodies vary relative to those of the stars, but the ecliptic, along which the Sun moves, is indicated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The sphericity of the Earth was established by Greek astronomy in the 3rd century BC, and the earliest terrestrial globe appeared from that period. The earliest known example is the one constructed by Crates of Mallus in Cilicia (now Çukurova in modern-day Turkey), in the mid-2nd century BC.  No terrestrial globes from Antiquity or the Middle Ages have survived. An example of a surviving celestial globe is part of a Hellenistic sculpture, called the Farnese Atlas, surviving in a 2nd-century AD Roman copy in the Naples Archaeological Museum, Italy.  Early terrestrial globes depicting the entirety of the Old World were constructed in the Islamic world. According to David Woodward, one such example was the terrestrial globe introduced to Beijing by the Persian astronomer, Jamal ad-Din, in 1267.  The earliest extant terrestrial globe was made in 1492 by Martin Behaim (1459–1537) with help from the painter Georg Glockendon. Behaim was a German mapmaker, navigator, and merchant. Working in Nuremberg, Germany, he called his globe the \"Nürnberg Terrestrial Globe.\" It is now known as the Erdapfel. Before constructing the globe, Behaim had traveled extensively. He sojourned in Lisbon from 1480, developing commercial interests and mingling with explorers and scientists. In 1485–1486, he sailed with Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão to the coast of West Africa. He began to construct his globe after his return to Nürnberg in 1490.  Another early globe, the Hunt–Lenox Globe, ca. 1510, is thought to be the source of the phrase \"Hic Sunt Dracones\", or “Here be dragons”. A similar grapefruit-sized globe made from two halves of an ostrich egg was found in 2012 and is believed to date from 1504. It may be the oldest globe to show the New World. Stefaan Missine, who analyzed the globe for the Washington Map Society journal \"Portolan\", said it was “part of an important European collection for decades.” After a year of research in which he consulted many experts, Missine concluded the Hunt–Lenox Globe was a copper cast of the egg globe.  A facsimile globe showing America was made by Martin Waldseemueller in 1507. Another \"remarkably modern-looking\" terrestrial globe of the Earth was constructed by Taqi al-Din at the Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din during the 1570s.  The world's first seamless celestial globe was built by Mughal scientists under the patronage of Jahangir.  \"Globus\" IMP, electro-mechanical devices including five-inch globes have been used in Soviet and Russian spacecraft from 1961 to 2002 as navigation instruments. In 2001, the TMA version of the Soyuz spacecraft replaced this instrument with a digital map. In the 1800s small pocket globes (less than 3 inches) were status symbols for gentlemen and educational toys for rich children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manufacture.", "content": "Traditionally, globes were manufactured by gluing a printed paper map onto a sphere, often made from wood.  The most common type has long, thin gores (strips) of paper that narrow to a point at the poles, small disks cover over the inevitable irregularities at these points. The more gores there are, the less stretching and crumpling is required to make the paper map fit the sphere. This method of globe making was illustrated in 1802 in an engraving in The English Encyclopedia by George Kearsley.  Modern globes are often made from thermoplastic. Flat, plastic disks are printed with a distorted map of one of the Earth's Hemispheres. This is placed in a machine which molds the disk into a hemispherical shape. The hemisphere is united with its opposite counterpart to form a complete globe.  Usually a globe is mounted so that its spin axis is 23.5° (0.41 rad) from vertical, which is the angle the Earth's spin axis deviates from perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. This mounting makes it easy to visualize how seasons change.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable examples.", "content": "Sorted in decreasing sizes:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A globe is a spherical model of Earth, of some other celestial body, or of the celestial sphere. Globes serve purposes similar to some maps, but unlike maps, do not distort the surface that they portray except to scale it down. A model globe of Earth is called a \"terrestrial globe\". A model globe of the celestial sphere is called a \"celestial globe\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971161}
{"src_title": "Z3 (computer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Zuse designed the Z1 in 1935 to 1936 and built it from 1936 to 1938. The Z1 was wholly mechanical and only worked for a few minutes at a time at most. Helmut Schreyer advised Zuse to use a different technology. As a doctoral student at the Berlin Institute of Technology in 1937 he worked on the implementation of Boolean operations and (in today's terminology) flip-flops on the basis of vacuum tubes. In 1938 Schreyer demonstrated a circuit on this basis to a small audience, and explained his vision of an electronic computing machine – but since the largest operational electronic devices contained far fewer tubes this was considered practically infeasible. In that year when presenting the plan for a computer with 2,000 electron tubes, Zuse and Schreyer, who was an assistant at Prof. Wilhelm Stäblein's Telecommunication Institute at the Technical University of Berlin, were discouraged by members of the institute who knew about the problems with electron tube technology. Zuse later recalled: “They smiled at us in 1939, when we wanted to build electronic machines... We said: The electronic machine is great, but first the components have to be developed.\" In 1940 Zuse and Schreyer managed to arrange a meeting at the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) to discuss a potential project for developing an electronic computer, but when they estimated a duration of two or three years, the proposal was rejected.  Zuse decided to implement the next design based on relays. The realization of the Z2 was helped financially by Dr. Kurt Pannke, who manufactured small calculating machines. The Z2 was completed and presented to an audience of the (\"German Laboratory for Aviation\") in 1940 in Berlin-Adlershof. Zuse was lucky – this presentation was one of the few instances where the Z2 actually worked and could convince the DVL to partly finance the next design.  Improving on the basic Z2 machine, he built the Z3 in 1941, which was a highly secret project of the German government. Dr. Joseph Jennissen (1905–1977), member of the \"Research-Leadership\" (\"Forschungsführung\") in the Reich Air Ministry acted as a government supervisor for orders of the ministry to Zuse's company \"ZUSE Apparatebau\". A further intermediary between Zuse and the Reich Air Ministry was the aerodynamicist Herbert A. Wagner.  The Z3 was completed in 1941 and was faster and far more reliable than the Z1 and Z2. The Z3 floating-point arithmetic was improved over that of the Z1 in that it implemented exception handling \"using just a few relays\", the exceptional values (plus infinity, minus infinity and undefined) could be generated and passed through operations. The Z3 stored its program on an external tape, thus no rewiring was necessary to change programs.  On 12 May 1941 the Z3 was presented to an audience of scientists including the professors Alfred Teichmann and Curt Schmieden of the (\"German Laboratory for Aviation\") in Berlin, today known as the German Aerospace Center in Cologne.  Zuse moved on to the Z4 design, which was built just days before World War II ended.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Z3 as a universal Turing machine.", "content": "It was possible to construct loops on the Z3, but there was no conditional branch instruction. Nevertheless, the Z3 was Turing-complete – how to implement a universal Turing machine on the Z3 was shown in 1998 by Raúl Rojas. He proposed that the tape program would have to be long enough to execute every possible path through both sides of every branch. It would compute all possible answers, but the unneeded results would be canceled out (a kind of speculative execution). Rojas concludes, \"We can therefore say that, from an abstract theoretical perspective, the computing model of the Z3 is equivalent to the computing model of today's computers. From a practical perspective, and in the way the Z3 was really programmed, it was not equivalent to modern computers.\"  From a pragmatic point of view, however, the Z3 provided a quite \"practical\" instruction set for the typical engineering applications of the 1940s – Zuse was a civil engineer who only started to build his computers to facilitate his work in his main profession.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relation to other work.", "content": "The success of Zuse's Z3 is often attributed to its use of the simple binary system. This was invented roughly three centuries earlier by Gottfried Leibniz; Boole later used it to develop his Boolean algebra. Zuse was inspired by Hilbert's and Ackermann's book on elementary mathematical logic (cf. Principles of Mathematical Logic). In 1937, Claude Shannon introduced the idea of mapping Boolean algebra onto electronic relays in a seminal work on digital circuit design. Zuse, however, did not know Shannon's work and developed the groundwork independently for his first computer Z1, which he designed and built from 1935 to 1938.  Zuse's coworker Helmut Schreyer built an electronic digital experimental model of a computer using 100 vacuum tubes in 1942, but it was lost at the end of the war.  An analog computer was built by the rocket scientist Helmut Hölzer in 1942 at the Peenemünde Army Research Center to simulate V-2 rocket trajectories.  The Tommy Flowers-built Colossus (1943) and the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1942) used thermionic valves (vacuum tubes) and binary representation of numbers. Programming was by means of re-plugging patch panels and setting switches.  The ENIAC computer, completed after the war, used vacuum tubes to implement switches and used decimal representation for numbers. Until 1948 programming was, as with Colossus, by patch leads and switches.  The Manchester Baby of 1948 along with the Manchester Mark 1 and EDSAC both of 1949 were the world's earliest working computers that stored program instructions and data in the same space. In this they implemented the stored-program concept which is frequently (but erroneously) attributed to a 1945 paper by John von Neumann and colleagues. Von Neumann is said to have given due credit to Alan Turing, and the concept had actually been mentioned earlier by Konrad Zuse himself, in a 1936 patent application (that was rejected). Konrad Zuse himself remembered in his memoirs: \"During the war it would have barely been possible to build efficient stored program devices anyway.\" and Friedrich L. Bauer wrote: \"His visionary ideas (live programs) which were only to be published years afterwards aimed at the right practical direction but were never implemented by him.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern reconstructions.", "content": "A modern reconstruction directed by Raúl Rojas and Horst Zuse started in 1997 and finished in 2003. It is now in the Konrad Zuse Museum in Hünfeld, Germany. Memory was halved to 32 words. Power consumption is about 400 W, and weight is about.  In 2008, Horst Zuse started a reconstruction of the Z3 by himself. It was presented in 2010 in the Konrad Zuse Museum in Hünfeld.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Z3 was a German electromechanical computer designed by Konrad Zuse. It was the world's first working programmable, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2,600 relays, implementing a 22-bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 4–5 Hz. Program code was stored on punched film. Initial values were entered manually.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971162}
{"src_title": "Binary file", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "Binary files are usually thought of as being a sequence of bytes, which means the binary digits (bits) are grouped in eights. Binary files typically contain bytes that are intended to be interpreted as something other than text characters. Compiled computer programs are typical examples; indeed, compiled applications are sometimes referred to, particularly by programmers, as binaries. But binary files can also mean that they contain images, sounds, compressed versions of other files, etc. – in short, any type of file content whatsoever.  Some binary files contain headers, blocks of metadata used by a computer program to interpret the data in the file. The header often contains a signature or \"magic\" number which can identify the format. For example, a GIF file can contain multiple images, and headers are used to identify and describe each block of image data. The leading bytes of the header would contain text like codice_1 or codice_2 that can identify the binary as a GIF file. If a binary file does not contain any headers, it may be called a flat binary file.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manipulation.", "content": "To send binary files through certain systems (such as email) that do not allow all data values, they are often translated into a plain text representation (using, for example, Base64). Encoding the data has the disadvantage of increasing the file size during the transfer (for example, using Base64 will increase the file's size by approximately 30%), as well as requiring translation back into binary after receipt. The increased size may be countered by lower-level link compression, as the resulting text data will have about as much less entropy as it has increased size, so the actual data transferred in this scenario would likely be very close to the size of the original binary data. See Binary-to-text encoding for more on this subject.  Microsoft Windows and its standard libraries for the C and C++ programming languages allow the programmer to specify a parameter indicating if a file is expected to be plain text or binary when opening a file; this affects the standard library calls to read and write from the file in that the system converts between the C/C++ \"end of line\" character (the ASCII linefeed character) and the end-of-line sequence Windows expects in files (the ASCII carriage return and linefeed characters in sequence). In Unix-like systems, the C and C++ standard libraries on those systems also allow the programmer to specify whether a file is expected to be text or binary, but the libraries can and do ignore that parameter, as the end-of-line sequence in Unix-like systems is just the C/C++ end-of-line character.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Viewing.", "content": "A hex editor or viewer may be used to view file data as a sequence of hexadecimal (or decimal, binary or ASCII character) values for corresponding bytes of a binary file.  If a binary file is opened in a text editor, each group of eight bits will typically be translated as a single character, and the user will see a (probably unintelligible) display of textual characters. If the file is opened in some other application, that application will have its own use for each byte: maybe the application will treat each byte as a number and output a stream of numbers between 0 and 255—or maybe interpret the numbers in the bytes as colors and display the corresponding picture. Other type of viewers (called 'word extractors') simply replace the unprintable characters with spaces revealing only the human-readable text. This type of view is useful for quick inspection of a binary file in order to find passwords in games, find hidden text in non-text files and recover corrupted documents. It can even be used to inspect suspicious files (software) for unwanted effects. For example, the user would see any URL/email to which the suspected software may attempt to connect in order to upload unapproved data (to steal). If the file is itself treated as an executable and run, then the operating system will attempt to interpret the file as a series of instructions in its machine language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interpretation.", "content": "Standards are very important to binary files. For example, a binary file interpreted by the ASCII character set will result in text being displayed. A custom application can interpret the file differently: a byte may be a sound, or a pixel, or even an entire word. Binary itself is meaningless, until such time as an executed algorithm defines what should be done with each bit, byte, word or block. Thus, just examining the binary and attempting to match it against known formats can lead to the wrong conclusion as to what it actually represents. This fact can be used in steganography, where an algorithm interprets a binary data file differently to reveal hidden content. Without the algorithm, it is impossible to tell that hidden content exists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Binary compatibility.", "content": "Two files that are binary compatible will have the same sequence of zeros and ones in the data portion of the file. The file header, however, may be different.  The term is used most commonly to state that data files produced by one application are exactly the same as data files produced by another application. For example, some software companies produce applications for Windows and the Macintosh that are binary compatible, which means that a file produced in a Windows environment is interchangeable with a file produced on a Macintosh. This avoids many of the conversion problems caused by importing and exporting data.  One possible binary compatibility issue between different computers is the endianness of the computer. Some computers store the bytes in a file in a different order.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A binary file is a computer file that is not a text file. The term \"binary file\" is often used as a term meaning \"non-text file\". Many binary file formats contain parts that can be interpreted as text; for example, some computer document files containing formatted text, such as older Microsoft Word document files, contain the text of the document but also contain formatting information in binary form.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971163}
{"src_title": "Luminous flux", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Units.", "content": "The SI unit of luminous flux is the lumen (lm). One lumen is defined as the luminous flux of light produced by a light source that emits one candela of luminous intensity over a solid angle of one steradian. In other systems of units, luminous flux may have units of power.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weighting.", "content": "The luminous flux accounts for the sensitivity of the eye by weighting the power at each wavelength with the luminosity function, which represents the eye's response to different wavelengths. The luminous flux is a weighted sum of the power at all wavelengths in the visible band. Light outside the visible band does not contribute. The ratio of the total luminous flux to the radiant flux is called the luminous efficacy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Context.", "content": "Luminous flux is often used as an objective measure of the useful light emitted by a light source, and is typically reported on the packaging for light bulbs, although it is not always prominent. Consumers commonly compare the luminous flux of different light bulbs since it provides an estimate of the apparent amount of light the bulb will produce, and a lightbulb with a higher ratio of luminous flux to consumed power is more efficient.  Luminous flux is not used to compare brightness, as this is a subjective perception which varies according to the distance from the light source and the angular spread of the light from the source.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to luminous intensity.", "content": "Luminous flux (in lumens) is a measure of the total amount of light a lamp puts out. The luminous intensity (in candelas) is a measure of how bright the beam in a particular direction is. If a lamp has a 1 lumen bulb and the optics of the lamp are set up to focus the light evenly into a 1 steradian beam, then the beam would have a luminous intensity of 1 candela. If the optics were changed to concentrate the beam into 1/2 steradian then the source would have a luminous intensity of 2 candela. The resulting beam is narrower and brighter, however the luminous flux remains the same.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In photometry, luminous flux or luminous power is the measure of the perceived power of light. It differs from radiant flux, the measure of the total power of electromagnetic radiation (including infrared, ultraviolet, and visible light), in that luminous flux is adjusted to reflect the varying sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971164}
{"src_title": "Wastewater", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The extremely broad term sanitation includes the management of wastewater, human excreta, solid waste and stormwater. The term sewerage refers to the physical infrastructure required to transport and treat wastewater.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "Sources of wastewater include the following domestic or household activities:  Activities producing industrial wastewater include:  Other related activities or events:  Wastewater can be diluted or mixed with other types of water through the following mechanisms:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pollutants.", "content": "The composition of wastewater varies widely. This is a partial list of pollutants that may be contained in wastewater:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biological pollutants.", "content": "If the wastewater contains human feces, as is the case for sewage, then it may also contain pathogens of one of the four types:  It can also contain non-pathogenic bacteria and animals such as insects, arthropods and small fish.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quality indicators.", "content": "Since all natural waterways contain bacteria and nutrients, almost any waste compounds introduced into such waterways will initiate biochemical reactions such as detailed above. Those biochemical reactions create what is measured in the laboratory as the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Such chemicals are also liable to be broken down using strong oxidizing agents and these chemical reactions create what is measured in the laboratory as the chemical oxygen demand (COD). Both the BOD and COD tests are a measure of the relative oxygen-depletion effect of a waste contaminant. Both have been widely adopted as a measure of pollution effect. The BOD test measures the oxygen demand of biodegradable pollutants whereas the COD test measures the oxygen demand of oxidizable pollutants.  Any oxidizable material present in an aerobic natural waterway or in an industrial wastewater will be oxidized both by biochemical (bacterial) or chemical processes. The result is that the oxygen content of the water will be decreased.  Aquatic toxicology tests are used to provide qualitative and quantitative data on adverse effects on aquatic organisms from a toxicant. Testing types include acute (short-term exposure), chronic (life span) and bioaccumulation tests. Many industrial facilities in the US conduct \"whole effluent toxicity\" tests on their wastewater discharges, typically in combination with chemical tests for selected pollutants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "At a global level, around 80% of wastewater produced is discharged into the environment untreated, causing widespread water pollution.  There are numerous processes that can be used to clean up wastewaters depending on the type and extent of contamination. Wastewater can be treated in wastewater treatment plants which include physical, chemical and biological treatment processes. Municipal wastewater is treated in sewage treatment plants (which may also be referred to as wastewater treatment plants). Agricultural wastewater may be treated in agricultural wastewater treatment processes, whereas industrial wastewater is treated in industrial wastewater treatment processes.  For municipal wastewater the use of septic tanks and other On-Site Sewage Facilities (OSSF) is widespread in some rural areas, for example serving up to 20 percent of the homes in the U.S.  One type of aerobic treatment system is the activated sludge process, based on the maintenance and recirculation of a complex biomass composed of micro-organisms able to absorb and adsorb the organic matter carried in the wastewater. Anaerobic wastewater treatment processes (UASB, EGSB) are also widely applied in the treatment of industrial wastewaters and biological sludge. Some wastewater may be highly treated and reused as reclaimed water. Constructed wetlands are also being used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disposal.", "content": "In many cities, municipal wastewater is carried together with stormwater, in a combined sewer system, to a sewage treatment plant. In some urban areas, municipal wastewater is carried separately in sanitary sewers and runoff from streets is carried in storm drains. Access to these systems, for maintenance purposes, is typically through a manhole.  During high precipitation periods a combined sewer system may experience a combined sewer overflow event, which forces untreated sewage to flow directly to receiving waters. This can pose a serious threat to public health and the surrounding environment.  In less-developed or rural regions, sewage may drain directly into major watersheds with minimal or no treatment. This usually has serious impacts on the quality of an environment and on human health. Pathogens can cause a variety of illnesses. Some chemicals pose risks even at very low concentrations and can remain a threat for long periods of time because of bioaccumulation in animal or human tissue.  Wastewater from factories, power plants and other industrial activities is extensively regulated in developed nations, and treatment is required before discharge to surface waters. (\"See\" Industrial wastewater treatment.) Some facilities such as oil and gas wells may be permitted to pump their wastewater underground through injection wells. Wastewater injection has been linked to induced seismicity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reuse.", "content": "Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in cooling towers), in artificial recharge of aquifers, in agriculture and in the rehabilitation of natural ecosystems (for example in wetlands). In rarer cases it is also used to augment drinking water supplies. There are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from bacteria and viruses. The following are some of the typical technologies: Ozonation, ultrafiltration, aerobic treatment (membrane bioreactor), forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, advanced oxidation.  Some water demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment. One example of this scenario is in the domestic environment where toilets can be flushed using greywater from baths and showers with little or no treatment.  Irrigation with recycled wastewater can also serve to fertilize plants if it contains nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In developing countries, agriculture is using untreated wastewater for irrigation - often in an unsafe manner. There can be significant health hazards related to using untreated wastewater in agriculture. The World Health Organization developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater in 2006.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legislation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "As part of the Environmental Protection Act 1994, the Environmental Protection (Water) Policy 2009 is responsible for the water management of Queensland, Australia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nigeria.", "content": "In Nigeria, the Water Resources Act of 1993 is the law responsible for all kinds of water management.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philippines.", "content": "In the Philippines, Republic Act 9275, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004, is the governing law on wastewater management. It states that it is the country's policy to protect, preserve and revive the quality of its fresh, brackish and marine waters, for which wastewater management plays a particular role.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "The Clean Water Act is the primary federal law in the United States governing water pollution in surface waters. It is implemented by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in collaboration with states, territories, and tribes. Groundwater protection provisions are included in the Safe Drinking Water Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Superfund act.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Wastewater (or waste water) is any water that has been contaminated by human use. Wastewater is \"used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, and any sewer inflow or sewer infiltration\". Therefore, wastewater is a byproduct of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities. The characteristics of wastewater vary depending on the source. Types of wastewater include: domestic wastewater from households, municipal wastewater from communities (also called sewage) and industrial wastewater. Wastewater can contain physical, chemical and biological pollutants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971165}
{"src_title": "Rundfunk im amerikanischen Sektor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "By the end of 1945 the US military administration in Allied-occupied Berlin decided to establish its own broadcasting system, after the Soviets had refused to provide air time on the \"Berliner Rundfunk\" radio station. Supervised by the US Information Control Division, broadcasting commenced on 7 February 1946. For the first months the programme could be distributed via telephone line only (as DIAS – \"Drahtfunk im amerikanischen Sektor\"), until a first medium wave transmitter was installed in September.  By its creative and innovative programming, the station quickly gained much popularity. Its importance was magnified during the Berlin Blockade in 1948/49, when it carried the message of Allied determination to resist Soviet intimidation. At the same time, the RIAS Symphony Orchestra under chief conductor Ferenc Fricsay (still existing as the \"Deutsches Symphonie-Orchester Berlin\") and a professional chamber choir, the \"Rundfunkchor des RIAS\" (present-day \"RIAS Kammerchor\") were also established by the US forces; together with the and the, they largely contributed to the station's entertainment programme under the editorship of the former \"Berliner Rundfunk\" employee Hans Rosenthal.  After the Berlin blockade, RIAS (by now carried on terrestrial medium wave and later FM transmitters) evolved into a surrogate home service for East Germans, as it broadcast news, commentary, and cultural programs that were unavailable in the controlled media of the German Democratic Republic. By own account \"a free voice of the free world\", the station aired the chime of the Freedom Bell each Sunday at noon, followed by an excerpt from the text of the \"Declaration of Freedom\". Listening to it in Soviet-controlled East Germany was discouraged. After the workers' riots in East Germany in 1953, which were the end result of the government's raising of food prices and factory production quotas, the Communist government blamed the incident on RIAS and the CIA.  Eventually RIAS was jointly funded and managed by the United States and West Germany. Under the supervision of the United States Information Agency from 1965, the station was staffed almost entirely with German employees, who worked under a small American management team. It maintained a large research component during the Cold War, and interviewed travellers from East Germany and compiled material from the East German Communist media, and broadcast programs for specific groups in East Germany, such as youths, women, farmers, even border guards. RIAS had a huge audience in East Germany and was the most popular foreign radio service. This audience began to shrink only when West German television became widely available to viewers in East Germany. A second radio programme, then called \"RIAS 2\", was launched in 1953, it was remodelled as a youth radio station from 1985.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Television.", "content": "RIAS-TV, began broadcasting (as a part-time optout on the terrestrial frequency of SAT.1) from West Berlin in August 1988. Prior to this there were no Western television broadcasts \"specifically\" targeted at East Germany although many of the domestic West German TV networks (particularly ARD) had high power transmitters along the border and could be received throughout most of East where many of their programmes attracted a larger audience than the official East German domestic broadcasters.  The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and German reunification the following year meant that RIAS-TV would be short lived. In 1992 Deutsche Welle (Germany's International broadcaster) inherited the RIAS-TV broadcast facilities, using them to start a German, English and Spanish language television channel broadcast via satellite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transmitters.", "content": "The station's most important transmitter was at Berlin-Britz (on 612 kHz). Later a second transmitter at Hof in Bavaria was added to improve reception in the southern parts of East Germany (on 684 kHz), which was switched on at sunset to cover Germany with sky wave. The Hof facility was closed and carted off to Mühlacker in 1994, though the Berlin-Britz facility remained in service until 2013, transmitting the programmes of Deutschlandradio Kultur; it was finally dismantled in 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "RIAS (; \"Radio in the American Sector\") was a radio and television station in the American Sector of Berlin during the Cold War. It was founded by the US occupational authorities after World War II in 1946 to provide the German population in and around Berlin with news and political reporting.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971166}
{"src_title": "Bronisław Geremek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Bronisław Geremek was born as Benjamin Lewertow in Warsaw on 6 March 1932. His father Boruch Lewertow, a fur merchant, was murdered in Auschwitz. His mother, Sharca, and he were smuggled out of the Warsaw Ghetto in 1943 and were sheltered by Stefan Geremek. Geremek later married Bronisław's mother and Bronisław was further raised in a Roman Catholic tradition. In his adult life he considered himself neither a Jew nor a Catholic. His grandfather was a maggid, his brother Jerry, living in New York is a Jew and his sons living in Poland are Roman Catholics.  In 1954 Bronisław Geremek graduated from the Faculty of History at the Warsaw University, and in 1956–1958 he completed postgraduate studies at the École pratique des hautes études in Paris. He completed his PhD in 1960 and in 1972 he was granted a postdoctoral degree at the Polish Academy of Sciences (PAN). In 1989 he was appointed associate professor.  The chief domain of Geremek's scholarly work was research on the history of culture and medieval society. His scholarly achievements included numerous articles and lectures, as well as ten books, which have been translated into ten languages. His doctoral thesis (1960) concerned the labour market in medieval Paris, including prostitution. His postdoctoral thesis (1972) concerned underworld groups in medieval Paris.  Almost the whole of Geremek's scholarly career was connected with the Institute of History of the Polish Academy of Sciences, where he worked from 1955 to 1985. However, from 1960 to 1965 he was a lecturer at the Sorbonne in Paris and the manager of the Polish Culture Centre of that university. Geremek was given honorary degrees by the University of Bologna, Utrecht University, the Sorbonne, Columbia University, Waseda University, and Jagiellonian University in Kraków. In 1992 he was designated visiting professor at the Collège de France. He was a member of Academia Europea, the PEN Club, the Société Européenne de Culture, fellow of Collegium Invisibile and numerous other societies and associations.  He was a longtime professor and Chairholder of the Chair of European Civilisation at the College of Europe until his death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activity.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of Poland (1945–1989).", "content": "In 1950 Geremek joined the Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR). He was the second secretary of the Basic Party Organisation (POP) of the PZPR at Warsaw University. In 1968, however, he withdrew from the party in protest against the Warsaw Pact's invasion of Czechoslovakia.  In the 1970s Geremek was considered one of the leading figures in the Polish democratic opposition. In 1978 he co-founded the Society for Educational Courses, for which he gave lectures. While on a Fellowship at the Wilson Center in Washington DC, he met General Edward Rowny who introduced him to Lane Kirkland and Ronald Reagan. In August 1980 he joined the Gdańsk workers' protest movement and became one of the advisers of the Independent Self-Governing Trade Union Solidarność (Polish for \"Solidarity\") – NSZZ. In 1981 he chaired the Program Commission of the First National Convention of Solidarity. After martial law was declared in December 1981 he was interned until December 1982, when he once again became an adviser to the then-illegal Solidarity, working closely with Lech Wałęsa. In 1983 he was arrested by the Polish authorities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History of Poland (1989–2008).", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Polish Round Table Agreement.", "content": "Between 1987 and 1989 Geremek was the leader of the Commission for Political Reforms of the Civic Committee, which prepared proposals for peaceful democratic transformation in Poland. In 1989 he played a crucial role during the debates between Solidarity and the authorities that led to free parliamentary elections and the establishment of the ‘Contract Sejm’.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Third Polish Republic.", "content": "Geremek then became one of the founders of The Democratic Union (later merged into The Freedom Union) and was the leader of the Democratic Union's parliamentary group from 1990 to 1997. After the elections in 1991 President Lech Wałęsa asked him to form a new government, but Geremek failed to do so and Jan Olszewski was appointed Prime Minister instead.  From 1989 to 2001 Geremek was a member of the lower house of the Polish parliament, the Sejm, and chairman of the Political Council of the Freedom Union. He chaired the Sejm's Committee on Foreign Affairs from 1989 to 1997, its Constitutional Committee from 1989 to 1991 and its European Law Committee from 2000 to 2001.  After a coalition government was formed in October 1997 by the Solidarity Electoral Action (AWS) and the Freedom Union Geremek served as Minister of Foreign Affairs under Prime Minister Jerzy Buzek until 2000. In 1998 Poland chaired OSCE, and Bronisław Geremek served as Chairperson-in-Office. In March 1999 he signed the treaty under which Poland joined NATO.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "European Parliament Deputy.", "content": "In the election to the European Parliament in June 2004 Geremek was elected as a candidate of the Freedom Union, winning the largest number of votes in Warsaw. In the European Parliament he was a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe.  Prof Geremek was a great believer in the idea of Europe, though he felt that there is a need to create a clear European identity and the need for people to believe in the benefits that Europe can bring to them- not just as nations, but also as individuals.  In April 2007 Geremek refused to declare that he had never collaborated with the Communist secret service, which he was being asked to do under a new vetting law. In May 2007 the Constitutional Tribunal of the Republic of Poland rejected most of the new vetting law, including the clause that would have made it mandatory for nearly 700,000 Poles to sign declarations certifying that they had never collaborated with the secret services under the old regime.  From 2006 to 2008, he was president of the Jean Monnet Foundation for Europe.  Geremek was a supporter of the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Geremek died on 13 July 2008, in a car accident on National Road no. 2 at Lubień near Nowy Tomyśl when the car he was driving hit an oncoming van on the opposite lane, probably due to Geremek falling asleep behind the wheel. He was granted a state funeral, held in Warsaw in the Cathedral of St John. His funeral was attended, among others, by president Lech Kaczyński, prime minister Donald Tusk, and three former presidents Ryszard Kaczorowski, Lech Wałęsa and Aleksander Kwaśniewski.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Posthumous honours.", "content": "In January 2009, the European Parliament named the main courtyard of the \"Louise Weiss\", its principal building, after Bronisław Geremek.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Professor Bronisław Geremek (; born Benjamin Lewertow; 6 March 1932 – 13 July 2008) was a Polish social historian and politician. He served as Member of Parliament (1991–2001), Minister of Foreign Affairs (1997–2000), leader of the Freedom Union (2000–2001) as well as Member of the European Parliament (2004–2008).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971167}
{"src_title": "President of Poland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first president of Poland, Gabriel Narutowicz, was sworn in as president of the Second Polish Republic on 11 December 1922. He was elected by the National Assembly (the Sejm and the Senate) under the terms of the 1921 March Constitution. Narutowicz was assassinated on 16 December 1922. Previously Józef Piłsudski had been \"Chief of State\" (\"Naczelnik Państwa\") under the provisional Small Constitution of 1919. In 1926 Piłsudski staged the \"May Coup\", overthrew President Stanisław Wojciechowski and had the National Assembly elect a new one, Ignacy Mościcki, thus establishing the \"Sanation regime\". Before Piłsudski's death, parliament passed a more authoritarian 1935 April Constitution of Poland (not in accord with the amendment procedures of the 1921 March Constitution). Mościcki continued as president until he resigned in 1939 in the aftermath of the German Invasion of Poland. Mościcki and his government went into exile into Romania, where Mościcki was interned. In Angers, France Władysław Raczkiewicz, at the time the speaker of the Senate, assumed the presidency after Mościcki's resignation on 29 September 1939. Following the fall of France, the president and the Polish government-in-exile were evacuated to London, United Kingdom. The transfer from Mościcki to Raczkiewicz was in accordance with Article 24 of the 1935 April Constitution. Raczkiewicz was followed by a succession of presidents in exile, of whom the last one was Ryszard Kaczorowski.  In 1944–45 Poland became a part of Soviet-controlled central-eastern Europe. Bolesław Bierut assumed the reins of government and in July 1945 was internationally recognized as the head of state. The Senate was abolished in 1946 by the Polish people's referendum. When the Sejm passed the Small Constitution of 1947, based in part on the 1921 March Constitution, Bierut was elected president by that body. He served until the Constitution of the Polish People's Republic of 1952 eliminated the office of the president.  Following the 1989 amendments to the constitution which restored the presidency, Wojciech Jaruzelski, the existing head of state, took office. In Poland's first direct presidential election, Lech Wałęsa won and was sworn in on 22 December 1990. The office of the president was preserved in the Constitution of Poland passed in 1997; the constitution now provides the requirements for, the duties of and the authority of the office.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Election.", "content": "The President of Poland is elected directly by the people to serve for five years and can be reelected only once. Pursuant to the provisions of the Constitution, the President is elected by an absolute majority. If no candidate succeeds in passing this threshold, a second round of voting is held with the participation of the two candidates with the largest and second largest number of votes respectively.  In order to be registered as a candidate in the presidential election, one must be a Polish citizen, be at least 35 years old on the day of the first round of the election and collect at least 100,000 signatures of registered voters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Powers.", "content": "The President has a free choice in selecting the Prime Minister, yet in practice he usually gives the task of forming a new government to a politician supported by the political party with the majority of seats in the Sejm (usually, though not always, it is the leader of that political party).  The President has the right to initiate the legislative process. He also has the opportunity to directly influence it by using his veto to stop a bill; however, his veto can be overruled by a three-fifths majority vote in the presence of at least half of the statutory number of members of the Sejm (230). Before signing a bill into law, the President can also ask the Constitutional Tribunal to verify its compliance with the Constitution, which in practice bears a decisive influence on the legislative process.  In his role as supreme representative of the Polish state, the President has power to ratify and revoke international agreements, nominates and recalls ambassadors, and formally accepts the accreditations of representatives of other states. The President also makes decisions on award of highest academic titles, as well as state distinctions and orders. In addition, he has the right of clemency, viz. he can dismiss final court verdicts (in practice, the President consults such decisions with the Minister of Justice).  The President is also the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces; he appoints the Chief of the General Staff and the commanders of all of the service branches; in wartime he nominates the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and can order a general mobilization. The President performs his duties with the help of the following offices: the Chancellery of the President, the Office of National Security, and the Body of Advisors to the President.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidential residencies and properties.", "content": "Several properties are owned by the Office of the President and are used by the Head of State as his or her official residence, private residence, residence for visiting foreign officials etc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting President of Poland.", "content": "The constitution states that the President is an elected office, there is no directly elected presidential line of succession. If the President is unable to execute his/her powers and duties, the Marshal of the Sejm will have the powers of a President for a maximum of 60 days until elections are called.  On 10 April 2010, a plane carrying Polish President Lech Kaczyński, his wife, and 94 others including many Polish officials crashed near Smolensk-North Airport in Russia. There were no survivors. Bronisław Komorowski took over acting presidential powers following the incident. On 8 July Bronislaw Komorowski resigned from the office of Marshal of the Sejm after winning the presidential election. According to the constitution, the acting president then became the Marshal of the Senate, Bogdan Borusewicz. In the afternoon Grzegorz Schetyna was elected as a new Marshal of the Sejm and he became acting president. Schetyna served as the interim head of state until Komorowski's swearing-in on 6 August.  Former Acting President of Poland:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Former Presidents.", "content": "Within Poland, former presidents are entitled to lifetime personal security protection by Biuro Ochrony Rządu officers, in addition to receiving a substantial pension and a private office. On 10 April 2010, Lech Kaczyński, president at the time, and Ryszard Kaczorowski, the last president-in-exile although not internationally recognized, died in the crash of the Polish Air Force Tu-154 en route to Russia.  Former Presidents of Poland:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The President of the Republic of Poland (, shorter form: \"Prezydent RP\") is the head of state of Poland. Their rights and obligations are determined in the Constitution of Poland. The president heads the executive branch. In addition the president has a right to dissolve parliament in certain cases, veto legislation and represents Poland in the international arena.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971168}
{"src_title": "Nitrate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "The anion is the conjugate base of nitric acid, consisting of one central nitrogen atom surrounded by three identically bonded oxygen atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement. The nitrate ion carries a formal charge of −1. This charge results from a combination formal charge in which each of the three oxygens carries a − charge, whereas the nitrogen carries a +1 charge, all these adding up to formal charge of the polyatomic nitrate ion. This arrangement is commonly used as an example of resonance. Like the isoelectronic carbonate ion, the nitrate ion can be represented by resonance structures:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dietary nitrates.", "content": "A rich source of inorganic nitrate in the human diets come from leafy green foods, such as spinach and arugula. (inorganic nitrate) is the viable active component within beetroot juice and other vegetables. Drinking water is also a dietary source.  Dietary nitrate supplementation delivers positive results when testing endurance exercise performance.  Ingestion of large doses of nitrate either in the form of pure sodium nitrate or beetroot juice in young healthy individuals rapidly increases plasma nitrate concentration about 2-3 fold, and this elevated nitrate concentration can be maintained for at least 2 weeks. Increased plasma nitrate stimulates the production of nitric oxide. Nitric oxide is important physiological signalling molecule that is used in, among other things, regulation of muscle blood flow and mitochondrial respiration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cured meats.", "content": "Nitrite consumption is primarily determined by the amount of processed meats eaten, and the concentration of nitrates in these meats. Although nitrites are the nitrogen compound chiefly used in meat curing, nitrates are used as well. Nitrates lead to the formation of nitrosamines. The production of carcinogenic nitrosamines may be inhibited by the use of the antioxidants vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E during curing.  Anti-hypertensive diets, such as the DASH diet, typically contain high levels of nitrates, which are first reduced to nitrite in the saliva, as detected in saliva testing, prior to forming nitric oxide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Occurrence and production.", "content": "Nitrate salts are found naturally on earth as large deposits, particularly of nitratine, a major source of sodium nitrate.  Nitrates are produced by a number of species of nitrifying bacteria, and the nitrate compounds for gunpowder (see this topic for more) were historically produced, in the absence of mineral nitrate sources, by means of various fermentation processes using urine and dung.  As a byproduct of lightning strikes in earth's nitrogen-oxygen rich atmosphere, nitric acid is produced when nitrogen dioxide reacts with water vapor.  Nitrates are produced industrially from nitric acid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Nitrates are mainly produced for use as fertilizers in agriculture because of their high solubility and biodegradability. The main nitrate fertilizers are ammonium, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium salts. Several million kilograms are produced annually for this purpose.  The second major application of nitrates is as oxidizing agents, most notably in explosives where the rapid oxidation of carbon compounds liberates large volumes of gases (see gunpowder for an example). Sodium nitrate is used to remove air bubbles from molten glass and some ceramics. Mixtures of the molten salt are used to harden some metals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Detection.", "content": "Almost all methods for detection of nitrate rely on its conversion to nitrite followed by nitrite-specific tests. The reduction of nitrate to nitrite is effected by copper-cadmium material. The sample is introduced with a flow injection analyzer, and the resulting nitrite-containing effluent is then combined with a reagent for colorimetric or electrochemical detection. The most popular of these assays is the Griess test, whereby nitrite is converted to an deeply colored azo dye, suited for UV-vis spectroscopic analysis. The method exploits the reactivity of nitrous acid derived from acidification of nitrite. Nitrous acid selectively reacts with aromatic amines to give diazonium salts, which in turn couple with a second reagent to give the azo dye. The detection limit is 0.02 to 2 μM. Methods have been highly adapted to biological samples.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "The acute toxicity of nitrate is low. \"Substantial disagreement\" exists about the long-term risks of nitrate exposure. The two areas of possible concern are that (i) nitrate could be a precursor to nitrite in the lower gut, and nitrite is a precursor to nitrosamines, which are implicated in carcinogenesis, and (ii) nitrate is implicated in methemoglobinemia, a disorder of red blood cells hemoglobin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Methemoglobinemia.", "content": "Nitrates do not affect infants and pregnant women. Blue baby syndrome is caused by a number of other factors such as gastric upset, such as diarrheal infection, protein intolerance, heavy metal toxicity etc., with nitrates playing a minor role.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Drinking water standards.", "content": "Through the Safe Drinking Water Act, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has set a maximum contaminant level of 10 mg/L or 10 ppm of nitrates in drinking water.  An acceptable daily intake (ADI) for nitrate ions was established in the range of 0–3.7 mg (kg body weight) day by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food additives (JEFCA).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aquatic toxicity.", "content": "In freshwater or estuarine systems close to land, nitrate can reach concentrations that are lethal to fish. While nitrate is much less toxic than ammonia, levels over 30 ppm of nitrate can inhibit growth, impair the immune system and cause stress in some aquatic species. Nitrate toxicity remains the subject of debate.  In most cases of excess nitrate concentrations in aquatic systems, the primary source is surface runoff from agricultural or landscaped areas that have received excess nitrate fertilizer. The resulting eutrophication and algae blooms result in anoxia and dead zones. As a consequence, as nitrate forms a component of total dissolved solids, they are widely used as an indicator of water quality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Domestic animal feed.", "content": "Symptoms of nitrate poisoning in domestic animals include increased heart rate and respiration; in advanced cases blood and tissue may turn a blue or brown color. Feed can be tested for nitrate; treatment consists of supplementing or substituting existing supplies with lower nitrate material. Safe levels of nitrate for various types of livestock are as follows:  The values above are on a dry (moisture-free) basis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Salts and covalent derivatives.", "content": "Nitrate formation with elements of the periodic table.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nitrate is an anion (negative ion) with the molecular formula ; or a salt with that anion. The name is also used for organic compounds that contain the nitrate ester functional group –. Nitrates are common components of fertilizers and explosives. Almost all nitrate salts are soluble in water. A common example of an inorganic nitrate salt is potassium nitrate (saltpeter).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971169}
{"src_title": "Burgundy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first recorded inhabitants of the area that became Burgundy were Celts, who were eventually incorporated into the Roman Empire.  During the 4th century, the Burgundians, a Germanic people, who may have originated in Bornholm (on the Baltic Sea), settled in the western Alps. They founded the Kingdom of the Burgundians, which was conquered in the 6th century by another Germanic tribe, the Franks.  Under Frankish dominion, the Kingdom of Burgundy continued for several centuries.  Later, the region was divided between the Duchy of Burgundy (to the west) and the Free County of Burgundy (to the east). The Duchy of Burgundy is the better-known of the two, later becoming the French province of Burgundy, while the County of Burgundy became the French province of Franche-Comté, literally meaning \"free county\".  Burgundy's modern existence is rooted in the dissolution of the Frankish Empire. In the 880s, there were four Burgundies: the duchy, the county, and the kingdoms of Upper Burgundy and Lower Burgundy.  During the Middle Ages, Burgundy was home to some of the most important Western churches and monasteries, including those of Cluny, Cîteaux, and Vézelay. Cluny, founded in 910, exerted a strong influence in Europe for centuries. The first Cistercian abbey was founded in 1098 in Cîteaux. Over the next century, hundreds of Cistercian abbeys were founded throughout Europe, in a large part due to the charisma and influence of Bernard of Clairvaux. The Abbey of Fontenay, a UNESCO World Heritage site, is today the best-preserved Cistercian abbey in Burgundy. The Abbey of Vezelay, also a UNESCO site, is still a starting point for pilgrimages to Santiago de Compostela. Cluny was almost totally destroyed during the French Revolution.  During the Hundred Years' War, King John II of France gave the duchy to his youngest son, Philip the Bold. The duchy soon became a major rival to the crown. The court in Dijon outshone the French court both economically and culturally. In 1477, at the battle of Nancy during the Burgundian Wars, the last duke Charles the Bold was killed in battle, and the Duchy itself was annexed by France and became a province. However the northern part of the empire was taken by the Austrian Habsburgs.  With the French Revolution in the end of the 18th century, the administrative units of the provinces disappeared, but were reconstituted as regions during the Fifth Republic in the 1970s. The modern-day administrative region comprises most of the former duchy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The region of Burgundy is both larger than the old Duchy of Burgundy and smaller than the area ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy, from the modern Netherlands to the border of Auvergne. Today, Burgundy is made up of the old provinces:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The climate of this region is essentially oceanic (Cfb in Köppen classification), with a continental influence (sometimes called a \"half-continental climate\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "The regional council of Burgundy was the legislative assembly of the region, located in the capital city Dijon at 17 boulevard de la Trémouille until its merger to form the regional council of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Burgundy is one of France's main wine-producing areas. It is well known for both its red and white wines, mostly made from Pinot noir and Chardonnay grapes, respectively, although other grape varieties can be found, including Gamay, Aligote, Pinot blanc, and Sauvignon blanc. The region is divided into the Côte-d'Or, where the most expensive and prized Burgundies are found, and Beaujolais, Chablis, the Côte Chalonnaise and Mâcon. The reputation and quality of the top wines, together with the fact that they are often produced in small quantities, has led to high demand and high prices, with some Burgundies ranking among the most expensive wines in the world.  With regard to cuisine, the region is famous for Dijon mustard, Charolais beef, Bresse chicken, the Burgundian dishes coq au vin and beef bourguignon, and époisses cheese.  Tourist sites of Burgundy include the Rock of Solutré, the Hospices de Beaune, the Ducal Palace in Dijon, and many Renaissance and medieval châteaus, castles, churches and abbeys.  Earlier, the southeastern part of Burgundy was heavily industrial, with coal mines near Montceau-les-Mines and iron foundries and crystal works in Le Creusot. These industries declined in the second half of the twentieth century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Burgundy (; ) is a historical territory and a former administrative region of east-central France. It takes its name from the Burgundians, an East Germanic people who moved westwards beyond the Rhine during the late Roman period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971170}
{"src_title": "Zittau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The history of the city dates back to a 12th-century Slavic settlement. The area belonged to the Czech (Bohemian) Duchy (and later Kingdom) since the 11th century. It was first mentioned under the Latinized name \"Sitavia\" in 1238. It was granted town rights in 1255 by King Ottokar II of Bohemia, who also built defensive walls. In 1319 it passed to the Piast-ruled Duchy of Jawor of then-fragmented Poland, and after the death of Duke Henry I of Jawor in 1346, it became part of the Czech (Bohemian) Crown again. The city's coat of arms still shows a Czech Lion and a Silesian Piast Eagle. In 1346 the city became one of the members of the Six-City League of Upper Lusatia. At that time the city was granted a special title—it was called \"Die Reiche\" (\"the Rich\") because of its high proportion of well-to-do citizens. In 1359 and 1422 it suffered great fires. In 1469, together with the Lusatian League, the city recognized Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus as rightful ruler, thus passing to Hungary, and after his death in 1490 the city returned to the Bohemian Crown, then under the rule of Polish prince Vladislaus II. It remained part of it until 1635 when it passed to the Electorate of Saxony.  During the Counter-Reformation, especially following the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, a large number of Protestant refugees from Bohemia (the \"böhmische Exulanten\") came to Zittau, where the Protestant Saxon rulers took them in. Many of them went on to find refuge in surrounding villages, in Dresden, and in Berlin in Brandenburg. Primarily as a result of the near-complete destruction of the city during the Seven Years' War, Zittau's then prosperity is reflected today in only a few exceptional buildings and the cemeteries where the well-to-do were buried.  One of the most important trading goods of this early age in the 16th century was beer. Later in the 18th and 19th century textiles became important too, a tradition common in the region of Upper Lusatia. During World War II, a labour camp was located in the city. It provided forced labour for Phänomen Werke Gustav Hiller, a truck-manufacturing company (which became VEB Kraftfahrzeugwerk Phänomen after the war, renamed VEB Robur-Werke Zittau in 1957).  Following the reunification of Germany in 1990, most of the big textile firms that had survived the time of the GDR largely unchanged closed down in just a few years for lack of new investment, and with these closures Zittau lost most of its economic strength. The city is also disadvantaged by the lower cost of labour in its closely neighbouring countries. In addition, lignite surface mining was discontinued in the foothills of the Zittau Mountains on the outskirts of the city, although it is still carried on across the border in Poland. This development has, however, saved parts of the city, primarily consisting today of mothballed military garrisons and schools, from what would otherwise have been certain destruction. Zittau is now a desirable place for students and yields a lot of income from overseas investors, properties valuing from between $250,000 - $380,000 average.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local council.", "content": "The local council has 26 members, the results of the elections in August 2014 are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "There are roughly 3,500 students studying at the Zittau/Görlitz University of Applied Sciences and at the independent International Graduate School, Germany's smallest university catering to students from nearby Poland and the Czech Republic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Road.", "content": "The city lacks connections to good infrastructure in Germany, but a direct link is planned to the nearest motorway between Bautzen and Görlitz. The town is relatively well-connected to Liberec and the rest of the Czech Republic through dual-carriageway 35 just south of the town.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rail.", "content": "Zittau railway station is located north of the town's centre. Passenger services are operated by three railway companies. The first being Vogtlandbahn, which provides a services from Dresden to Zittau and then directly through to Liberec in the Czech Republic. The second is Ostdeutsche Eisenbahn (ODEG), which links Zittau to Görlitz, with connections to Poland, and Cottbus, where connections to Berlin exist. Zittau is located on the Zittau–Löbau railway which was originally opened in 1848, making it one of the oldest railways in Germany.  The Zittau–Kurort Oybin/Kurort Jonsdorf railway with all together four stations within Zittau's limits is a heritage narrow-gauge railway taking passengers from Zittau to the mountain spa resort towns of Oybin and Jonsdorf in the Zittau Mountains. It is operated by the Saxon-Upper Lusatian Railway Company.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Border crossings.", "content": "Zittau is located close to the point where the Czech Republic, Germany, and Poland meet and there are several international border crossings in the vicinity. Permanent immigration and customs controls were, however, removed on 21 December 2007, when all three countries became part of the Schengen Area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Germany–Poland.", "content": "Zittau is the only city along the Oder-Neisse line where a number of river bridges remain closed as international crossing-points between Germany and Poland even though both countries are in the Schengen Area.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Zittau (,, ) is a city in the south east of the Free State of Saxony, Germany, very close to the border tripoint of Germany, Poland, and the Czech Republic. It is part of the District of Görlitz. As of 31 July 2012, the city had a population of 27,506.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971171}
{"src_title": "Berchtesgaden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Berchtesgaden\", Upper Bavaria (Achental), earlier \"Perchterscadmen\", \"Perhtersgadem\", \"Berchirchsgadem\", \"Berchtoldesgadem\"; the word underwent a Latin distortion of Old High German \"parach\", Romance \"bareca\" 'hay shed'. After the basic meaning was forgotten, they added a variant word of Old High German \"gadem\" ‘room, one-room hut’, implying the same meaning: ‘hay shed’. Cf. Old High German \"muosgadem\" ‘spice room’.  There was a folk etymology that supported a derivation based on the legendary figure of \"Frau\" Perchta (Berchta), a woman (\"Holle\" < \"Holda\" ‘well disposed, dear’) with good and bad changing features, who was venerated on \"Perchtertag\" (= Three Kings Day) and at Shrovetide was sworn to during the Perchta procession.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first ever historical note dates back to 1102 and mentions the area because of its rich salt deposits. Much of Berchtesgaden's wealth has been derived from its salt mines, the first of which started operations in 1517. The town served as independent \"Fürstpropstei\" until the \"Reichsdeputationshauptschluss\" in 1803. During the Napoleonic wars, Berchtesgaden changed hands a few times, such as in 1805 under the Treaty of Pressburg, when the area was ceded to Austria.  Berchtesgaden came under Bavarian rule in 1810 and became instantly popular with the Bavarian royal family, the House of Wittelsbach, who often visited Königssee and maintained a royal hunting residence in the former Augustine monastery (still used today by Franz, Duke of Bavaria). Nascent tourism started to evolve and a number of artists came to the area, which reportedly gave rise to \"Malereck\" (\"painters' corner\") on the shore of Königssee in nearby Ramsau bei Berchtesgaden. The most famous author who lived in Berchtesgaden was Ludwig Ganghofer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nazi era.", "content": "Adolf Hitler had been vacationing in the Berchtesgaden area since the 1920s. He purchased a home in the Obersalzberg above the town on the flank of the Hoher Goll and began extensive renovations on his \"Berghof\" in the following years. As other top Third Reich figures, such as Hermann Göring, Joseph Goebbels, Martin Bormann, Heinrich Himmler, and Albert Speer, began to frequent the area the Party began to purchase and requisition land in the Obersalzberg.  In order to serve as an outpost of the German \"Reichskanzlei\" (Imperial Chancellery), Berchtesgaden and its environs (\"Stanggass\") saw substantial expansion of offices, security, and support services, mainly on the Obersalzberg. Included in the town were a new railway station, with a reception area for Hitler and his guests, and an adjacent post office. The Berchtesgadener Hof Hotel, where famous visitors such as Neville Chamberlain and David Lloyd George stayed, was substantially upgraded.  Even though a feared \"national redoubt\" last stand of the Nazi Regime in the Alps failed to materialize late in World War II, the Allies launched a devastating air raid on the Berchtesgaden area in the spring of 1945. Concentrated on the Obersalzberg, the April 25 bombing did little damage to the town. On May 4, forward elements of the 7th Infantry Regiment of the 3rd Infantry Division arrived and received the town's surrender.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post–World War II.", "content": "After the war, Berchesgaden became a military zone and most of its buildings were requisitioned by the U.S. Army. Hotel Platterhof was rebuilt and renamed the General Walker Hotel in 1952. It served as an integral part of the U.S. Armed Forces Recreation Centers for the duration of the Cold War and beyond. The remnants of homes of former Nazi leaders were all demolished in the early postwar years, though traces of some remained. In 1995, fifty years after the end of World War II and five years after German reunification, the AFRC Berchtesgaden was turned over to Bavarian authorities to facilitate military spending reductions mandated within the Base Realignment and Closure program by the US Congress and Pentagon during the administration of President Bill Clinton. The General Walker Hotel was demolished in 2000–2001.  In 1986, Berchtesgaden was a first round candidate city to host the XVI Olympic Winter Games to be held in 1992. The vote eventually went to Albertville, France, in October of that year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Berchtesgaden today.", "content": "The Hotel Türken, which was near the Nazi buildings and was often used by the SS and then by the \"Generalmajor\" of the Police, was badly damaged in 1945. It was rebuilt in 1950 and reopened as a hotel before Christmas. Visitors can still explore the historic underground hallways and tunnels that had been used by the Nazis.  In 1972, local government reform united the then independent municipalities of Salzberg, Maria Gern and Au (consisting of Oberau and Unterau) under the administration of the town of Berchtesgaden. Another suggested reform uniting all remaining five municipalities in the Berchtesgaden valley (Bischofswiesen, Ramsau, Marktschellenberg and Schönau) failed to gain enough popular support; it passed in Berchtesgaden but failed everywhere else.  The Berchtesgaden National Park was established in 1978 and has gradually become one of Berchtesgaden's largest draws. Mass tourism is confined to a few popular spots, leaving the rest to nature-seekers. Other tourist draws are the Königssee, the salt mine, the \"Kehlsteinhaus\", open seasonally as a restaurant and the Dokumentationszentrum Obersalzberg museum about the area's history, operated by the Munich Institut für Zeitgeschichte since 1999.  Recreational and competitive sports have grown in importance. The town's ski slope is popular. The Königssee bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton track has hosted ski-running and a number of international events and competitions. Berchtesgaden's most famous sports personality is Georg Hackl, a multiple Olympic medal winner. The city is home to the International Luge Federation (FIL).  Unlike the northern part of Berchtesgadener Land and the Salzburg area, Berchtesgaden has virtually no manufacturing industry.  Berchtesgaden Central Station is connected by the Salzburg–Berchtesgaden railway to the Rosenheim–Salzburg railway at Freilassing.  The Bavarian state government facilitated the erection of a hotel, which opened in 2005 and is operated by the InterContinental Hotels Group. Since May 2015, the hotel has been the Kempinski Berchtesgaden.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Berchtesgaden's neighbouring towns are Bischofswiesen, Marktschellenberg, Ramsau, and Schönau am Königssee.  The municipality counts the following villages which are (\"Ortsteil\"): Am Etzerschlößl, Anzenbach, Hintergern, Metzenleiten, Mitterbach, Oberau, Obergern, Obersalzberg, Resten, Unterau, Untersalzberg I, Untersalzberg II, and Vordergern.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Berchtesgaden () is a municipality in the district Berchtesgadener Land (Bavaria) in southeastern Germany, near the border with Austria, south of Salzburg and southeast of Munich. It lies in the Berchtesgaden Alps, south of Berchtesgaden the Berchtesgaden National Park stretches along three parallel valleys.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971172}
{"src_title": "Rose hip", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Propagation.", "content": "Roses are propagated from hips by removing the achenes that contain the seeds from the hypanthium (the outer coating) and sowing just beneath the surface of the soil. The seeds can take many months to germinate. Most species require chilling (stratification), with some such as \"Rosa canina\" only germinating after two winter chill periods have occurred.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "Rose hips are used for herbal teas, jam, jelly, syrup, rose hip soup, beverages, pies, bread, wine, and marmalade. They can also be eaten raw, like a berry, if care is taken to avoid the hairs inside the fruit.  A few rose species are sometimes grown for the ornamental value of their hips, such as \"Rosa moyesii\", which has prominent large red bottle-shaped fruits.  Rose hips are commonly used as a herbal tea, often blended with hibiscus, and an oil is also extracted from the seeds. They can also be used to make jam, jelly, marmalade, and rose hip wine. Rose hip soup, \"nyponsoppa\", is especially popular in Sweden. Rhodomel, a type of mead, is made with rose hips.  Rose hips can be used to make pálinka, the traditional Hungarian fruit brandy popular in Hungary, Romania, and other countries sharing Austro-Hungarian history. Rose hips are also the central ingredient of cockta, the fruity-tasting national soft drink of Slovenia.  The fine hairs found inside rose hips are used as itching powder. Dried rose hips are also sold for primitive crafts and home fragrance purposes. The Inupiat mix rose hips with Ribes triste and highbush cranberries and boil them into a syrup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrients and phytochemicals.", "content": "Wild rose hip fruits are particularly rich in vitamin C, containing 426 mg per 100 g or 0.4% by weight (w/w). However, RP-HPLC assays of fresh rose hips and several commercially available products revealed a wide range of L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) content, ranging from 0.03 to 1.3%.  Rose hips contain the carotenoids beta-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin and lycopene, which are under basic research for a variety of potential biological roles. A meta-analysis of human studies examining the potential for rose hip extracts to reduce arthritis pain concluded there was a small effect requiring further analysis of safety and efficacy in clinical trials. Use of rose hips is not considered an effective treatment for knee osteoarthritis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The rose hip or rosehip, also called rose haw and rose hep, is the accessory fruit of the rose plant. It is typically red to orange, but ranges from dark purple to black in some species. Rose hips begin to form after successful pollination of flowers in spring or early summer, and ripen in late summer through autumn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971173}
{"src_title": "Song", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Genres.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art songs.", "content": "Art songs are songs created for performance by classical artists, often with piano or other instrumental accompaniment, although they can be sung solo. Art songs require strong vocal technique, understanding of language, diction, and poetry for interpretation. Though such singers may also perform popular or folk songs on their programs, these characteristics and the use of poetry are what distinguish art songs from popular songs. Art songs are a tradition from most European countries, and now other countries with classical music traditions. German-speaking communities use the term art song (\"Kunstlied\") to distinguish so-called \"serious\" compositions from folk song (\"Volkslied\"). The lyrics are often written by a poet or lyricist and the music separately by a composer. Art songs may be more formally complicated than popular or folk songs, though many early Lieder by the likes of Franz Schubert are in simple strophic form. The accompaniment of European art songs is considered as an important part of the composition. Some art songs are so revered that they take on characteristics of national identification.  Art songs emerge from the tradition of singing romantic love songs, often to an ideal or imaginary person and from religious songs. The troubadours and bards of Europe began the documented tradition of romantic songs, continued by the Elizabethan lutenists. Some of the earliest art songs are found in the music of Henry Purcell. The tradition of the romance, a love song with a flowing accompaniment, often in triple meter, entered opera in the 19th century and spread from there throughout Europe. It spread into popular music and became one of the underpinnings of popular songs. While a romance generally has a simple accompaniment, art songs tend to have complicated, sophisticated accompaniments that underpin, embellish, illustrate or provide contrast to the voice. Sometimes the accompaniment performer has the melody, while the voice sings a more dramatic part.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Folk songs.", "content": "Folk songs are songs of often anonymous origin (or are public domain) that are transmitted orally. They are frequently a major aspect of national or cultural identity. Art songs often approach the status of folk songs when people forget who the author was. Folk songs are also frequently transmitted non-orally (that is, as sheet music), especially in the modern era. Folk songs exist in almost every culture. Popular songs may eventually become folk songs by the same process of detachment from its source. Folk songs are more-or-less in the public domain by definition, though there are many folk song entertainers who publish and record copyrighted original material. This tradition led also to the singer-songwriter style of performing, where an artist has written confessional poetry or personal statements and sings them set to music, most often with guitar accompaniment.  There are many genres of popular songs, including torch songs, ballads, novelty songs, anthems, rock, blues and soul songs as well as indie music. Other commercial genres include rapping. Folk songs include ballads, lullabies, love songs, mourning songs, dance songs, work songs, ritual songs and many more.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sporting song.", "content": "A sporting song is a folk song which celebrates fox hunting, horse racing, gambling and other recreations.  Although songs about boxers and successful racehorses were common in the nineteenth century, few are performed by current singers. In particular fox-hunting is considered politically incorrect. The most famous song about a foxhunter, \"D'ye ken John Peel\" was included in \"The National Song Book\" in 1906 and is now often heard as a marching tune. A. L. Lloyd recorded two EPs of sporting ballads; \"Bold Sportsmen All\" (1958) and \"Gamblers and Sporting Blades (Songs of the Ring and the Racecourse)\" (1962). The High Level Ranters and Martin Wyndham-Read recorded an album called \"English Sporting Ballads\" in 1977. \"The Prospect Before Us\" (1976) by The Albion Dance Band contains two rarely heard hunting songs.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Lute song.", "content": "The term lute song is given to a music style from the late 16th century to early 17th century, late Renaissance to early Baroque, that was predominantly in England and France. Lute songs were generally in strophic form or verse repeating with a homophonic texture. The composition was written for a solo voice with an accompaniment, usually the lute. It was not uncommon for other forms of accompaniments such as bass viol or other string instruments, and could also be written for more voices. The composition could be performed either solo or with a small group of instruments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Part song.", "content": "A part song, part-song or partsong is a form of choral music that consists of a secular (vs. ecclesiastical) song written or arranged for several vocal parts. Part songs are commonly sung by an SATB choir, but sometimes for an all-male or all-female ensemble.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Patter song.", "content": "The patter song is characterised by a moderately fast to very fast tempo with a rapid succession of rhythmic patterns in which each syllable of text corresponds to one note. It is a staple of comic opera, especially Gilbert and Sullivan, but it has also been used in musicals and elsewhere.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A song is a musical composition intended to be vocally performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetition and variation of sections.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971174}
{"src_title": "Industrialisation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "After the last stage of the Proto-industrialization, the first transformation from an agricultural to an industrial economy is known as the Industrial Revolution and took place from the mid-18th to early 19th century in certain areas in Europe and North America; starting in Great Britain, followed by Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and France. Characteristics of this early industrialisation were technological progress, a shift from rural work to industrial labor, financial investments in new industrial structure, and early developments in class consciousness and theories related to this. Later commentators have called this the First Industrial Revolution.  The \"Second Industrial Revolution\" labels the later changes that came about in the mid-19th century after the refinement of the steam engine, the invention of the internal combustion engine, the harnessing of electricity and the construction of canals, railways and electric-power lines. The invention of the assembly line gave this phase a boost. Coal mines, steelworks, and textile factories replaced homes as the place of work. By the end of the 20th century, East Asia had become one of the most recently industrialised regions of the world. The BRICS states (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) are undergoing the process of industrialisation.  There is considerable literature on the factors facilitating industrial modernisation and enterprise development.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industrialization in East Asia.", "content": "Between the early 1960s and 1990s, the Four Asian Tigers underwent rapid industrialization and maintained exceptionally high growth rates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social consequences.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Urbanisation.", "content": "As the Industrial Revolution was a shift from the agrarian society, people migrated from villages in search of jobs to places where factories were established. This shifting of rural people led to urbanisation and increase in the population of towns. The concentration of labour in factories has increased urbanisation and the size of settlements, to serve and house the factory workers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Changes in family structure.", "content": "Family structure changes with industrialisation. Sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that in pre-industrial societies there is an extended family structure spanning many generations who probably remained in the same location for generations. In industrialised societies the nuclear family, consisting of only parents and their growing children, predominates. Families and children reaching adulthood are more mobile and tend to relocate to where jobs exist. Extended family bonds become more tenuous.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Current situation.", "content": "the \"international development community\" (World Bank, Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), many United Nations departments, and some other organisations) endorses development policies like water purification or primary education and co-operation amongst third world communities. Some members of the economic communities do not consider contemporary industrialisation policies as being adequate to the global south (Third World countries) or beneficial in the longer term, with the perception that they may only create inefficient local industries unable to compete in the free-trade dominated political order which industrialisation has fostered. Environmentalism and Green politics may represent more visceral reactions to industrial growth. Nevertheless, repeated examples in history of apparently successful industrialisation (Britain, Soviet Union, South Korea, China, etc.) may make conventional industrialisation seem like an attractive or even natural path forward, especially as populations grow, consumerist expectations rise and agricultural opportunities diminish.  The relationships among economic growth, employment, and poverty reduction are complex. Higher productivity, it is argued, may lead to lower employment (see jobless recovery). There are differences across sectors, whereby manufacturing is less able than the tertiary sector to accommodate both increased productivity and employment opportunities; more than 40% of the world's employees are \"working poor\", whose incomes fail to keep themselves and their families above the $2-a-day poverty line. There is also a phenomenon of deindustrialisation, as in the former USSR countries' transition to market economies, and the agriculture sector is often the key sector in absorbing the resultant unemployment.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Industrialisation (or industrialization) is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial society. This involves an extensive re-organisation of an economy for the purpose of manufacturing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971175}
{"src_title": "Anseriformes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Anseriformes are one of only two types of modern bird to be confirmed present during the Mesozoic alongside the other dinosaurs, and in fact were among the very few birds to survive their extinction, along with their cousins the galliformes. These two groups only occupied two ecological niches during the Mesozoic, living in water and on the ground, while the toothed enantiornithes were the dominant birds that ruled the trees and air. The asteroid that ended the Mesozoic destroyed all trees as well as animals in the open, a condition that took centuries to recover from. The anseriformes and galliformes are thought to have survived in the cover of burrows and water, and not to have needed trees for food and reproduction.  The earliest Cretaceous anseriform found so far is \"Vegavis\", a goose-like waterfowl thought to have lived as long as 99 million years ago. Some members apparently surviving the KT extinction event, including presbyornithids, thought to be the common ancestors of ducks, geese, swans, and screamers, the last group once thought to be galliformes, but now genetically confirmed to be closely related to geese. The first known duck fossils start to appear about 34 million years ago.  Waterfowl are the best-known examples of sexually antagonistic genital coevolution in vertebrates, causing genital adaptations coevolve in each sex to advance control over mating and fertilization. Sexually antagonistic coevolution (or SAC) occurs as a consequence of sexual conflict between males and females, resulting in coevolutionary process that reduce fit, or that functions to decrease ease of having sex.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The Anseriformes and the Galliformes (pheasants, etc.) are the most primitive neognathous birds, and should follow ratites and tinamous in bird classification systems. Together they belong to the Galloanserae. Several unusual extinct families of birds like the albatross-like pseudotooth birds and the giant flightless gastornithids and mihirungs have been found to be stem-anseriforms based on common features found in the skull region, beak physiology and pelvic region. The genus \"Vegavis\" for a while was found to be the earliest member of the anseriform crown group but a recent 2017 paper has found it to be just outside the crown group in the family Vegaviidae.  Below is the general consensus of the phylogeny of anseriforms and their stem relatives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Systematics.", "content": "Anatidae systematics, especially regarding placement of some \"odd\" genera in the dabbling ducks or shelducks, is not fully resolved. See the Anatidae article for more information, and for alternate taxonomic approaches. Anatidae is traditionally divided into subfamilies Anatinae and Anserinae. The Anatinae consists of tribes Anatini, Aythyini, Mergini and Tadornini. The higher-order classification below follows a phylogenetic analysis performed by Mikko's Phylogeny Archive and John Boyd's website.  Some fossil anseriform taxa not assignable with certainty to a family are:  Unassigned Anatidae:  In addition, a considerable number of mainly Late Cretaceous and Paleogene fossils have been described where it is uncertain whether or not they are anseriforms. This is because almost all orders of aquatic birds living today either originated or underwent a major radiation during that time, making it hard to decide whether some waterbird-like bone belongs into this family or is the product of parallel evolution in a different lineage due to adaptive pressures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "Living Anseriformes based on the work by John Boyd.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Molecular studies.", "content": "Studies of the mitochnodrial DNA suggest the existence of four branches – Anseranatidae, Dendrocygninae, Anserinae and Anatinae – with Dendrocygninae being a subfamily within the family Anatidae and Anseranatidae representing an independent family. The clade Somaterini has a single genus \"Somateria\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anseriformes is an order of birds that comprise about 180 living species in three families: Anhimidae (the 3 screamers), Anseranatidae (the magpie goose), and Anatidae, the largest family, which includes over 170 species of waterfowl, among them the ducks, geese, and swans. Most modern species in the order are highly adapted for an aquatic existence at the water surface. With the exception of screamers, all have phalli, a trait that has been lost in the Neoaves. Due to their aquatic nature, most species are web-footed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971176}
{"src_title": "Cyclades", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The significant Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Cycladic culture is best known for its schematic, flat sculptures carved out of the islands' pure white marble centuries before the great Middle Bronze Age Minoan civilization arose in Crete to the south. (These figures have been looted from burials to satisfy a thriving Cycladic antiquities market since the early 20th century.)  A distinctive Neolithic culture amalgamating Anatolian and mainland Greek elements arose in the western Aegean before 4000 BCE, based on emmer and wild-type barley, sheep and goats, pigs, and tuna that were apparently speared from small boats (Rutter). Excavated sites include Chalandriani, Phylakopi, Skarkos, Saliagos and Kephala (on Kea) with signs of copperworking, Each of the small Cycladic islands could support no more than a few thousand people, though Late Cycladic boat models show that fifty oarsmen could be assembled from the scattered communities (Rutter), and when the highly organized palace-culture of Crete arose, the islands faded into insignificance, with the exception of Delos, which retained its archaic reputation as a sanctuary throughout antiquity and until the emergence of Christianity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "The first archaeological excavations of the 1880s were followed by systematic work by the British School at Athens and by Christos Tsountas, who investigated burial sites on several islands in 1898–1899 and coined the term \"Cycladic civilization\". Interest lagged, then picked up in the mid-20th century, as collectors competed for the modern-looking figures that seemed so similar to sculpture by Jean Arp or Constantin Brâncuși. Sites were looted and a brisk trade in forgeries arose. The context for many of these Cycladic figurines has been mostly destroyed and their meaning may never be completely understood.  Another intriguing and mysterious object is that of the Cycladic frying pans. More accurate archaeology has revealed the broad outlines of a farming and seafaring culture that had immigrated from Anatolia c. 5000 BCE. Early Cycladic culture evolved in three phases, between c. 3300 – 2000 BCE, when it was increasingly swamped in the rising influence of Minoan Crete. The culture of mainland Greece contemporary with Cycladic culture is known as the Helladic period.  In recent decades the Cyclades have become popular with European and other tourists, and as a result there have been problems with erosion, pollution, and water shortages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Cyclades includes about 220 islands, the major ones being Amorgos, Anafi, Andros, Antiparos, Delos, Ios, Kea, Kimolos, Kythnos, Milos, Mykonos, Naxos, Paros, Folegandros, Serifos, Sifnos, Sikinos, Syros, Tinos, and Thira or Santoríni. There are also many minor islands including Donousa, Eschati, Gyaros, Irakleia, Koufonisia, Makronisos, Rineia, and Schoinousa. The name \"Cyclades\" refers to the islands forming a circle (\"circular islands\") around the sacred island of Delos. Most of the smaller islands are uninhabited.  Ermoupoli on Syros is the chief town and administrative center of the former prefecture.  The islands are peaks of a submerged mountainous terrain, with the exception of two volcanic islands, Milos and Santorini. The climate is generally dry and mild, but with the exception of Naxos the soil is not very fertile; agricultural produce includes wine, fruit, wheat, olive oil, and tobacco. Lower temperatures are registered in higher elevations and these areas do not usually see wintry weather.  The Cyclades are bounded to the south by the Sea of Crete.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "The Cyclades Prefecture () was one of the prefectures of Greece. As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the prefecture was abolished, and its territory was divided into nine regional units of the South Aegean region:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Municipalities and communities.", "content": "The prefecture was subdivided into the following municipalities and communities. These have been reorganised at the 2011 Kallikratis reform as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Provinces.", "content": "\"Note:\" Provinces no longer hold any legal status in Greece.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cuisine.", "content": "Local specialities of the Cyclades include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cyclades (; ) are an island group in the Aegean Sea, southeast of mainland Greece and a former administrative prefecture of Greece. They are one of the island groups which constitute the Aegean archipelago. The name refers to the islands \"around\" (\"cyclic\", κυκλάς) the sacred island of Delos. The largest island of the Cyclades is Naxos, however the most populated one is Syros.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971177}
{"src_title": "Space Shuttle Challenger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"Challenger\" was named after HMS \"Challenger\", a British corvette that was the command ship for the \"Challenger\" Expedition, a pioneering global marine research expedition undertaken from 1872 through 1876. The Apollo 17 Lunar Module, which landed on the Moon in 1972, was also named \"Challenger\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Because of the low production volume of orbiters, the Space Shuttle program decided to build a vehicle as a Structural Test Article, STA-099, that could later be converted to a flight vehicle. The contract for STA-099 was awarded to North American Rockwell on July 26, 1972, and construction was completed in February 1978. After STA-099's rollout, it was sent to a Lockheed test site in Palmdale, where it spent over 11 months in vibration tests designed to simulate entire shuttle flights, from launch to landing. To prevent damage during structural testing, qualification tests were performed to a safety factor of 1.2 times the design limit loads. The qualification tests were used to validate computational models, and compliance with the required 1.4 factor of safety was shown by analysis. STA-099 was essentially a complete airframe of a Space Shuttle orbiter, with only a mockup crew module installed and thermal insulation placed on its forward fuselage. NASA planned to refit the prototype orbiter \"Enterprise\" (OV-101), used for flight testing, as the second operational orbiter; but \"Enterprise\" lacked most of the systems needed for flight, including a functional propulsion system, thermal insulation, a life support system, and most of the cockpit instrumentation. Modifying it for spaceflight was considered to be too difficult, expensive, and time-consuming. Since STA-099 was not as far along in the construction of its airframe, it would be easier to upgrade to a flight article. Because STA-099's qualification testing prevented damage, NASA found that rebuilding STA-099 as a flight worthy orbiter would be less expensive than refitting \"Enterprise\". Work on converting STA-099 to operational status began in January 1979, starting with the crew module (the pressurized portion of the vehicle), as the rest of the vehicle was still being used for testing by Lockheed. STA-099 returned to the Rockwell plant in November 1979, and the original, unfinished crew module was replaced with the newly constructed model. Major parts of STA-099, including the payload bay doors, body flap, wings, and vertical stabilizer, also had to be returned to their individual subcontractors for rework. By early 1981, most of these components had returned to Palmdale to be reinstalled. Work continued on the conversion until July 1982, when the new orbiter was rolled out as \"Challenger\".  \"Challenger\", as did the orbiters built after it, had fewer tiles in its Thermal Protection System than \"Columbia\", though it still made heavier use of the white LRSI tiles on the cabin and main fuselage than did the later orbiters. Most of the tiles on the payload bay doors, upper wing surfaces, and rear fuselage surfaces were replaced with DuPont white Nomex felt insulation. These modifications and an overall lighter structure allowed \"Challenger\" to carry 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) more payload than \"Columbia.\" \"Challenger's\" fuselage and wings were also stronger than \"Columbia's\" despite being lighter. The hatch and vertical-stabilizer tile patterns were also different from those of the other orbiters. \"Challenger\" was also the first orbiter to have a head-up display system for use in the descent phase of a mission, and the first to feature Phase I main engines rated for 104% maximum thrust.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flights and modifications.", "content": "After its first flight in April 1983, \"Challenger\" flew on 85% of all Space Shuttle missions. Even when the orbiters \"Discovery\" and \"Atlantis\" joined the fleet, \"Challenger\" flew three missions a year from 1983 to 1985. \"Challenger\", along with \"Discovery\", was modified at Kennedy Space Center to be able to carry the Centaur-G upper stage in its payload bay. If flight STS-51-L had been successful, \"Challenger\"'s next mission would have been the deployment of the \"Ulysses\" probe with the Centaur to study the polar regions of the Sun.  \"Challenger\" flew the first American woman, African-American, Dutchman and Canadian into space; carried three Spacelab missions; and performed the first night launch and night landing of a Space Shuttle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final mission and destruction.", "content": "\"Challenger\" was also the first space shuttle to be destroyed in an accident during a mission. The collected debris of the vessel is currently buried in decommissioned missile silos at Launch Complex 31, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. A section of the fuselage recovered from Space Shuttle \"Challenger\" can also be found at the \"Forever Remembered\" memorial at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Florida. From time to time, further pieces of debris from the orbiter wash up on the Florida coast. When this happens, they are collected and transported to the silos for storage. Because of its early loss, \"Challenger\" was the only space shuttle that never wore the NASA \"meatball\" logo, and was never modified with the MEDS \"glass cockpit\". The tail was never fitted with a drag chute – it was fitted to the remaining orbiters in 1992. Also because of its early demise \"Challenger\" was also one of only two shuttles that never visited the Mir Space Station or the International Space Station – the other one being its sister ship \"Columbia\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Space Shuttle \"Challenger\" (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-099) was the second orbiter of NASA's Space Shuttle program to be put into service, after \"Columbia\". \"Challenger\" was built by Rockwell International's Space Transportation Systems Division, in Downey, California. Its maiden flight, STS-6, began on April 4, 1983. The orbiter was launched and landed nine times before disintegrating 73 seconds into its tenth mission, STS-51-L, on January 28, 1986, resulting in the deaths of all seven crew members including a civilian school teacher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971178}
{"src_title": "Space Shuttle Discovery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The name \"Discovery\" was chosen to carry on a tradition based on ships of exploration, primarily, one of the ships commanded by Captain James Cook during his third and final major voyage from 1776 to 1779, and Henry Hudson's, which was used in 1610–1611 to explore Hudson Bay and search for a Northwest Passage. Other ships bearing the name have included of the 1875–1876 British Arctic Expedition to the North Pole and, which led the 1901–1904 \"Discovery Expedition\" to Antarctica.  \"Discovery\" launched the Hubble Space Telescope and conducted the second and third Hubble service missions. It also launched the \"Ulysses\" probe and three TDRS satellites. Twice \"Discovery\" was chosen as the \"Return To Flight\" Orbiter, first in 1988 after the loss of \"Challenger\" in 1986, and then again for the twin \"Return To Flight\" missions in July 2005 and July 2006 after the \"Columbia\" disaster in 2003. Project Mercury astronaut John Glenn, who was 77 at the time, flew with \"Discovery\" on STS-95 in 1998, making him the oldest person to go into space.  Had plans to launch United States Department of Defense payloads from Vandenberg Air Force Base gone ahead, \"Discovery\" would have become the dedicated US Air Force shuttle. Its first West Coast mission, STS-62-A, was scheduled for 1986, but canceled in the aftermath of \"Challenger\".  \"Discovery\" was retired after completing its final mission, STS-133 on March 9, 2011. The spacecraft is now on display in Virginia at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, an annex of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Upgrades and features.", "content": "\"Discovery\" weighed roughly 3600 kg (3.6t) less than \"Columbia\" when it was brought into service due to optimizations determined during the construction and testing of \"Enterprise\", \"Columbia\" and \"Challenger\". \"Discovery\" weighs heavier than \"Atlantis\" and heavier than \"Endeavour\".  Part of the \"Discovery\" weight optimizations included the greater use of quilted AFRSI blankets rather than the white LRSI tiles on the fuselage, and the use of graphite epoxy instead of aluminum for the payload bay doors and some of the wing spars and beams.  Upon its delivery to the Kennedy Space Center in 1983, \"Discovery\" was modified alongside \"Challenger\" to accommodate the liquid-fueled Centaur-G booster, which had been planned for use beginning in 1986 but was cancelled in the wake of the \"Challenger\" disaster.  Beginning in late 1995, the orbiter underwent a nine-month Orbiter Maintenance Down Period (OMDP) in Palmdale, California. This included outfitting the vehicle with a 5th set of cryogenic tanks and an external airlock to support missions to the International Space Station. As with all the orbiters, it could be attached to the top of specialized aircraft and did so in June 1996 when it returned to the Kennedy Space Center, and later in April 2012 when sent to the Udvar-Hazy Center, riding piggy-back on a modified Boeing 747.  After STS-105, \"Discovery\" became the first of the orbiter fleet to undergo Orbiter Major Modification (OMM) period at the Kennedy Space Center. Work began in September 2002 to prepare the vehicle for Return to Flight. The work included scheduled upgrades and additional safety modifications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decommissioning and display.", "content": "\"Discovery\" was decommissioned on March 9, 2011.  NASA offered \"Discovery\" to the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum for public display and preservation, after a month-long decontamination process, as part of the national collection. \"Discovery\" replaced in the Smithsonian's display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Virginia. \"Discovery\" was transported to Washington Dulles International Airport on April 17, 2012, and was transferred to the Udvar-Hazy on April 19 where a welcome ceremony was held. Afterwards, at around 5:30 pm, \"Discovery\" was rolled to its \"final wheels stop\" in the Udvar Hazy Center.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flights.", "content": "By its last mission, \"Discovery\" had flown 149 million miles (238 million km) in 39 missions, completed 5,830 orbits, and spent 365 days in orbit over 27 years. \"Discovery\" flew more flights than any other Orbiter Shuttle, including four in 1985 alone. \"Discovery\" flew all three \"return to flight\" missions after the \"Challenger\" and \"Columbia\" disasters: STS-26 in 1988, STS-114 in 2005, and STS-121 in 2006. \"Discovery\" flew the ante-penultimate mission of the Space Shuttle program, STS-133, having launched on February 24, 2011. \"Endeavour\" flew STS-134 and \"Atlantis\" performed STS-135, NASA's last Space Shuttle mission. On February 24, 2011, Space Shuttle \"Discovery\" launched from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39-A to begin its final orbital flight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flow directors.", "content": "The Flow Director was responsible for the overall preparation of the shuttle for launch and processing it after landing, and remained permanently assigned to head the spacecraft's ground crew while the astronaut flight crews changed for every mission. Each shuttle's Flow Director was supported by a Vehicle Manager for the same spacecraft. Space Shuttle \"Discovery\"'s Flow Directors were:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Space Shuttle \"Discovery\" (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-103) is one of the orbiters from NASA's Space Shuttle program and the third of five fully operational orbiters to be built. Its first mission, STS-41-D, flew from August 30 to September 5, 1984. Over 27 years of service it launched and landed 39 times, gathering more spaceflights than any other spacecraft to date. Like other shuttles, the shuttle has three main components: the Space Shuttle orbiter, a central fuel tank, and two rocket boosters. Nearly 25,000 heat-resistant tiles cover the orbiter to protect it from high temperatures on re-entry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971179}
{"src_title": "Antiqua (typeface class)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Antiqua typefaces are those designed between about 1470 and 1600, specifically those by Nicolas Jenson and the Aldine roman commissioned by Aldus Manutius and cut by Francesco Griffo. Antiqua letterforms were modelled on a synthesis of Roman inscriptional capitals and Carolingian writing. Florentine writer Petrarch was one of the few medieval authors to have written at any length on the handwriting of his time; in his essay on the subject,'he criticized the current scholastic hand, with its laboured strokes (') and exuberant (') letter-forms amusing the eye from a distance, but fatiguing on closer exposure, as if written for other purpose than to be read. For Petrarch the gothic hand violated three principles: writing, he said, should be simple ('), clear (') and orthographically correct.  Boccaccio was a great admirer of Petrarch; from Boccaccio's immediate circle this post-Petrarchan \"semi-gothic\" revised hand spread to'in Florence, Lombardy and the Veneto. A more thorough reform of handwriting than the Petrarchan compromise was in the offing. The generator of the new style (\"illustration\") was Poggio Bracciolini, a tireless pursuer of ancient manuscripts, who developed the new humanist script in the first decade of the 15th century.  The Florentine bookseller Vespasiano da Bisticci recalled later in the century that Poggio had been a very fine calligrapher of \"\" and had transcribed texts to support himself— presumably, as Martin Davies points out— before he went to Rome in 1403 to begin his career in the papal curia.  Berthold Ullman identifies the watershed moment in the development of the new humanistic hand as the youthful Poggio's transcription of Cicero's \"Epistles to Atticus\". By the time the Medici library was catalogued in 1418, almost half the manuscripts were noted as in the \"\".  The new script was embraced and developed by the Florentine humanists and educators Niccolò de' Niccoli and Coluccio Salutati. The neat, sloping, humanist cursive invented by the Florentine humanist de' Niccoli in the 1420s and disseminated through his numerous scholars is usually characterized as essentially a rapid version of the same script. Rhiannon Daniels writes, however, that \"this was not humanistic bookhand written cursively, but a running script written with a very fine pen; a modification of contemporary gothic chancery script influenced by humanistic bookhand; hence it is sometimes known as \"\"\".  In the late fifteenth century this \"chancery script in the Antique manner\" was further developed by humanists in Rome. Calligraphic forms of this \"chancery italic\" were popularized by the famous Roman writing master Ludovico Arrighi in the early sixteenth century. In the history of Western typography humanist minuscule gained prominence as a model for the typesetter's roman typeface, as it was standardized by Aldus Manutius, who introduced his revolutionary italic typeface based on the chancery hand in Venice, 1501, and was practised by designer-printers Nicolas Jenson and Francesco Griffo; this is the reason why they are also known as \"Venetian types\" and occasionally as \"old style\", differentiated from modern styles by the more or less uniform thickness of all strokes and by slanted serifs.  Roman type has helped establish the remarkable resistance to change of the modern Latin alphabet. The term \"Antiqua\" later came to sometimes be used for Roman type in general as opposed to blackletter, as in the Antiqua–Fraktur dispute in the German-speaking world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antiqua () is a style of typeface used to mimic styles of handwriting or calligraphy common during the 15th and 16th centuries. Letters are designed to flow and strokes connect together in a continuous fashion; in this way it is often contrasted with Fraktur-style typefaces where the individual strokes are broken apart. The two typefaces were used alongside each other in the germanophone world, with the Antiqua–Fraktur dispute often dividing along ideological or political lines. After the mid-20th century, Fraktur fell out of favor and Antiqua-based typefaces became the official standard.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971180}
{"src_title": "Civic Platform", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Civic Platform was founded in 2001 as economically liberal, Christian-democratic split from existing parties. Founders Andrzej Olechowski, Maciej Płażyński, and Donald Tusk were sometimes jokingly called \"the Three Tenors\" by Polish media and commentators. Olechowski and Płażyński left the party during the 2001–2005 parliamentary term, leaving Tusk as the sole remaining founder, and current party leader.  In the 2001 general election the party secured 12.6% of the vote and 65 deputies in the Sejm, making it the largest opposition party to the government led by the Democratic Left Alliance (SLD).  In the 2002 local elections PO stood together with Law and Justice in 15 voivodeships (in 14 as POPiS, in Podkarpacie with another centre-right political parties). They stood separately only in Mazovia.  In 2005, PO led all opinion polls with 26% to 30% of public support. However, in the 2005 general election, in which it was led by Jan Rokita, PO polled only 24.1% and unexpectedly came second to the 27% garnered by Law and Justice (PiS). A centre-right coalition of PO and PiS (nicknamed:PO-PiS) was deemed most likely to form a government after the election. Yet the putative coalition parties had a falling out in the wake of the fiercely contested Polish presidential election of 2005.  Lech Kaczyński (PiS) won the second round of the presidential election on 23 October 2005 with 54% of the vote, ahead of Tusk, the PO candidate. Due to the demands of PiS for control of all the armed ministries (the Defence Ministry, the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and the office of the Prime Minister, PO and PiS were unable to form a coalition. Instead, PiS formed a coalition government with the support of the League of Polish Families (LPR) and Self-Defense of the Republic of Poland (SRP). PO became the opposition to this PiS-led coalition government.  The PiS-led coalition fell apart in 2007 amid corruption scandal with Andrzej Lepper and Tomasz Lipiec and internal leadership disputes. These events led to the new elections in 2007. In the 21 October 2007 parliamentary election, PO won 41.51% of the popular vote and 209 out of 460 seats (now 201) in the Sejm and 60 out of 100 seats (now 56) in the Senate of Poland. Civic Platform, now the largest party in both houses of parliament, subsequently formed a coalition with the Polish People's Party (PSL).  At the 2010 Polish presidential election, following the Smolensk air disaster which killed the incumbent Polish president Lech Kaczyński, Tusk decided not to present his candidature, considered an easy possible victory over PiS leader Jarosław Kaczyński. During the PO primary elections, Bronisław Komorowski defeated the Oxford-educated, PiS defector Foreign Minister Radosław Sikorski. At the polls, Komorowski defeated Jarosław Kaczyński, ensuring PO dominance over the current Polish political landscape.  In November 2010, local elections granted Civic Platform about 30.1 percent of the votes and PiS at 23.2 percent, an increase for the former and a drop for the latter compared to the 2006 elections.  PO succeeded in winning four consecutive elections (a record in post-communist Poland), and Tusk remains as kingmaker. PO's dominance is also a reflection of left-wing weakness and divisions on both sides of the political scene, with PiS suffering a splinter in Autumn 2010.  The 9 October 2011 parliamentary election was won by Civic Platform with 39.18% of the popular vote, 207 of 460 seats in the Sejm, 63 out of 100 seats in the Senate.  In the 2014 European elections, Civic Platform came first place nationally, achieving 32.13% of the vote and returning 19 MEPs.  In the 2014 local elections, PO achieved 179 seats, the highest single number.  In the 2015 presidential election, PO endorsed Bronisław Komorowski, a former member of PO from 2001 till 2010. He lost the election receiving 48.5% of the popular vote, while Andrzej Duda won with 51.5%.  In the 2015 parliamentary election, PO came second place after PiS, achieving 39.18% of the popular vote, 138 out of 460 seats in the Sejm, 34 out of 100 seats in the Senate.  In the 2018 local elections, PO achieved 26.97% of the votes, coming second after PiS.  In the 2019 European elections, PO participated in the European Coalition electoral alliance which achieved 38.47%, coming second after PiS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideology.", "content": "As a centrist or centre-right political party, Civic Platform has been described as conservative, neoliberal, liberal, liberal-conservative, conservative-liberal, Christian democratic, and pro-European.  Civic Platform combines ordoliberal stances on the economy with social conservative stances on social and ethical issues, including opposition to abortion, same-sex marriage, soft drug decriminalisation, euthanasia, fetal stem cell research, removal of crosses and other religious symbols in schools and public places, and partially to wide availability of in vitro fertilisation. The party also wants to criminalise gambling and supports religious education in schools and civil unions. Other socially conservative stances of the party include voting to ban designer drugs and amending the penal code to introduce mandatory chemical castration of paedophiles.  Since 2007, when Civic Platform formed the government, the party has gradually moved from its liberal conservative stances, and many of its politicians hold more liberal positions on social issues. In 2013, the Civic Platform's government introduced public funding of \"in vitro\" fertilisation program. In 2017, the party supported a citizens' initiative for liberalisation of the abortion law. Civic Platform also supports civil unions for same-sex couples.  Despite declaring in the parliamentary election campaign the will to limit taxation in Poland, the Civic Platform has in fact increased it. The party refrained from implementing the flat tax, increasing instead the value-added tax from 22% to 23% in 2011. It has also increased the excise imposed on diesel oil, alcoholic beverages, tobacco and oil. The party has eliminated many tax exemptions.  In response to the climate crisis, the Civic Platform has promised to end the use of coal for energy in Poland by 2040.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political support.", "content": "Today, Civic Platform enjoys support amongst higher class constituencies. Professionals, academics, managers and businessmen vote for the party in large numbers. People with university degrees support the party more than less educated voters. PO voters tend to be those people who generally benefited from European integration and economic liberalisation since 1989 and are satisfied with their life standard. Many PO voters are social-liberals who value environmentalism, secularism and Europeanisation. Conservatives used to vote for the party before PO moved sharply to the left on economic (e.g., increase of taxes) and social issues (e.g., support for civil unions). Young people are another voting bloc that abandoned the party, after their economic and social situation did not improve significantly when PO was in government.  Areas that are more likely to vote for PO are in the west and north of the country, especially parts of the former Prussia before 1918. Many of these people previously used to vote for the Democratic Left Alliance when that party enjoyed support and influence. Large cities in the whole country prefer the party, rather than rural areas and smaller towns. This is caused by the diversity, secular and social liberalism urban voters tend to value. In urban areas, conservative principles are much less identified with by voters. Large cities in Poland have a better economic climate, which draws support to PO. Areas with higher concentration of minorities, such as Germans or Belarusians, support the party due to its smaller emphasis on patriotism and national conservatism.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Civic Platform (, PO) is a liberal-conservative political party in Poland. Civic Platform came to power following the 2007 general election as the major coalition partner in Poland's government, with party leader Donald Tusk as Prime Minister of Poland. Tusk was re-elected as Prime Minister in the 2011 general election but stepped down three years later to assume the post of President of the European Council. Prime Minister Ewa Kopacz led the party in the 2015 general election but was defeated by the Law and Justice party. On 16 November 2015 Civic Platform government stepped down after exactly 8 years in power. In 2010 Civic Platform candidate Bronisław Komorowski was elected as President of Poland, but failed in running for re-election in 2015. PO is the second largest party in the Sejm, with 138 seats, and the Senate, with 40 seats. Civic Platform is a member of the European People's Party (EPP). The party was formed in 2001 as a split from Solidarity Electoral Action (AWS), under the leadership of Andrzej Olechowski and Maciej Płażyński, with Donald Tusk of the Freedom Union (UW). In the 2001 general election, PO emerged as the largest opposition party, behind the ruling centre-left party Democratic Left Alliance (SLD). PO remained the second-largest party at the 2005 general election, but this time behind the national-conservative party Law and Justice (PiS). In 2007, Civic Platform overtook PiS, now established as the dominant parties, and formed a coalition government with the Polish People's Party. Following the Smolensk disaster of April 2010, Bronisław Komorowski became the first President from PO in the 2010 presidential election.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971181}
{"src_title": "Königssee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Situated within the Berchtesgaden Alps in the municipality of Schönau am Königsee, just south of Berchtesgaden and the Austrian city of Salzburg, the Königssee is Germany's third deepest lake. Located at a Jurassic rift, it was formed by glaciers during the last ice age. It stretches about in a north-south direction and is about across at its widest point. Except at its outlet, the Königsseer Ache at the village of Königssee, the lake is similar to a fjord, being surrounded by the steeply-rising flanks of mountains up to, including the Watzmann massif in the west.  The literal translation of the name, Königssee, appears to be \"king's lake\"; however while does indeed mean \"king\", there had been no Bavarian kings since the days of Louis the German until Elector Maximilian I Joseph assumed the royal title in 1806. Therefore, the name more probably stems from the first name \"Kuno\" of local nobles, who appear in several historical sources referring to the donation of the Berchtesgaden Provostry in the twelfth century; the lake was formerly called \"Kunigsee\".  The Königssee Railway (\"Königsseebahn\") served the lake from 1909 until 1965. Its last tracks were dismantled during 1971, and the former station of the Königssee Railway in Berchtesgaden (Königsseer Bahnhof) was demolished in 2012. The only remaining element of the railway is the Königsee station, which is now a restaurant. The track route is mostly used as a walking path.  In 1944 a sub-camp of the Dachau concentration camp was located near where Heinrich Himmler had a residence built at Schönau for his mistress Hedwig Potthast.  The lake is noted for its clear water and is advertised as the cleanest lake in Germany. For this reason, only electric-powered passenger ships, rowing, and pedal boats have been permitted on the lake since 1909. Passenger services along the length of the lake are operated by the Bayerische Seenschifffahrt company and call at Seelände (Schönau), St. Bartholomä, Salet (mid-April to mid-October), and Kessel (on request). In ideal conditions, the longest tour takes two hours from Seelände to Salet. Swimming is permitted except in the lock area at Seelände.  Due to its picturesque setting, the lake and surrounding parklands are very popular with tourists and hikers. In addition, the surrounding sheer rock walls create an echo known for its clarity. On boat tours, it has become traditional to stop and play a flugelhorn or trumpet to demonstrate the echo. Previously demonstrated by shooting a cannon, the echo can be heard to reverberate up to seven times. The trumpeter plays along with the echo, so that there can seem to be as many as seven players.  St. Bartholomä, a famous pilgrimage church with an inn nearby, is located on a peninsula about halfway down the western lake shore. The small Christlieger island is located near its northern end. South of the Königssee, separated by the \"Salet\" moraine, is the smaller Obersee lake with the high Röthbach waterfall. Because there is no lakeside path on the steep shore of the Königssee, St. Bartholomä and the southern edge can only be reached by boat, or via hiking trails up the surrounding mountains, except during harsh winters when the lake freezes over. Stepping on the ice, however, can be fatal, as it was for a motorist who drowned in his Volkswagen Beetle on the way back from St. Bartholomä in January 1964. The car was found only in 1997 at a depth of about.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Königssee is a natural lake in the extreme southeast Berchtesgadener Land district of the German state of Bavaria, near the Austrian border. Most of the lake is within the Berchtesgaden National Park.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971182}
{"src_title": "Blankenburg (Harz)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town of Blankenburg (Harz) lies on the northern edge of the Harz mountains at a height of about 234 metres. It is located west of Quedlinburg, south of Halberstadt and east of Wernigerode. The stream known as the Goldbach flows through the district of Oesig northwest of the town centre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Borough divisions.", "content": "The borough includes the following parishes:  In addition there are the following unofficial names for districts in the town:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Neighbouring settlements.", "content": "Clockwise from the north:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first traces of settlement date to the Old Stone Age, but the first recorded mention of Blankenburg goes back to 1123. The Saxon duke, Lothair of Supplinburg, installed Poppo, a nephew of Bishop Reinhard of Halberstadt, as count at the castle, which stood on a bare limestone rock on the site of the present castle. The name of the town derives from this castle.  Count Poppo I of Blankenburg very probably came from the Frankish noble family of Reginbodonen. His descendants were also subject to the nearby Regenstein Castle. This was a fief from the Bishopric of Halberstadt like the County of Blankenburg, also called the \"Hartingau\". In 1180/82 Frederick Barbarossa had Blankenburg devastated because it had pledged \"sole allegiance\" to the Welf, Henry the Lion. In 1386 Blankenburg suffered heavy destruction again.  Following the death of the last count of Regenstein, John Ernest, the county went in 1599 as an agreed enfeoffment (\"\") back to the dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg. During the Thirty Years' War Blankenburg was hard pressed by Wallenstein and was occupied in 1625. Nine cannonballs embedded in the walls of the town hall evince this difficult time.  The dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg turned the place into a secondary residence in the 17th century and it enjoyed its heyday under Duke Louis Rudolf (1690–1731), the second son of Anthony Ulrich of Wolfenbüttel. Rudolf was given Blankenburg in 1707 as a \"\". At the same time the County of Blankenburg was elevated to the status of an imperial principality (\"Reichsfürstentum\") which was ruled independently until 1731, but then, because Louis Rudolf became a duke, was reunited with Brunswick where it remained. The present-day Little Castle with its terraced garden and Baroque pleasure garden stems from that period. From 1807 to 1813 Blankenburg belonged to the Kingdom of Westphalia.  In the Seven Years' War the absolute neutrality of the town made it a safe refuge for the Brunswick court. Louis XVIII also stayed in Blankenburg under the name of Count of Lille from 24 August 1796 to 10 February 1798, after his escape from Dillingen.  In the early days of Nazi era, those who opposed the Nazi regime were persecuted and murdered. In a notorious campaign by Brunswick SS commander, Jeckeln, in September 1933, 140 communists and social democrats were herded together in the inn, \"Zur Erholung\". Here and in the \"Blankenburger Hof\" they were severely beaten, some dying as a result. During the Second World War the Blankenburg-Oesig subcamp of Buchenwald concentration camp was set up in the Dr. Dasch (Harzer Werke) Monastery Works and, shortly thereafter, subordinated to Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp. Here some 500 prisoners had to carry out forced labour in the monastery factory and Oda Works. In addition, there was a work camp run by the Gestapo for \"half-Jews\" who were forced to do hard labour. Another camp was occupied in February 1945 by inmates of the Auschwitz subcamp of Fürstengrube and managed as Blankenburg Regenstein subcamp.  As part of the division of Germany into occupation zones in 1945, Blankenburg district was actually assigned to the British zone in accordance with the Potsdam Conference and London Protocol. But because the larger eastern part of the district was linked to the rest of the British zone only by a road and a railway, the boundary was adjusted and Blankenburg incorporated into the Soviet zone. The largest part of the district thus ended up later in East Germany and became part of the state of Saxony-Anhalt. The main part of the former Free State of Brunswick went to the British zone and thus became part of Lower Saxony.  The tunnels of the Regenstein-Blankenburg facility were used from 1974 by the National People's Army (NVA) in the GDR as a large ammunition depot. In 1992 the Bundeswehr were given the 8 km long tunnel system and established there, \"the largest underground pharmacy in the world\", both for routine Bundeswehr missions, but also for disaster relief around the world and for cases of serious military \"operations\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jewish life in Blankenburg.", "content": "At end of the 12th century, the abbess of Quedlinburg pledged estates to Blankenburg Jews. These appear at the time to have been both in Blankenburg and in Quedlinburg. Whether there was a synagogue in Blankenburg in the Middle Ages, is not clear.  In modern times, there was no longer a synagogue in Blankenburg. On Saturdays several Jewish families met at \"Chrons\" for the Sabbath, including the families of the businessmen Alexander Meyer, Moritz Westfeld and Conrad Hesse, as well as Anna Ewh and Lydia Rhynarsewsky. In the wake of \"Kristallnacht\" on 9 November 1938, Jews were deported from Blankenburg to different camps. In the census on 17 May 1939 there were still twelve Jewish citizens registered, including five men.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "On 25 May 2009 the title \"Ort der Vielfalt (\"Place of Variety\") was conferred on the town by the federal government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Town council.", "content": "Since the local elections on 11 April 2010 the town council has been composed as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy and infrastructure.", "content": "The most important economic factors for Blankenburg (Harz) are tourism and facilities for spa and health industry. In addition there are several small to medium sized businesses. The largest industrial concern in the town is the \"Harzer Werke Motorentechnik\" with about 60 employees, which grew out of a grey iron foundry founded in about 1870.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Blankenburg (Harz) station is a terminus and has a bypass for goods traffic. There are connexions to Elbingerode (Rübeland Railway) (goods trains only) and Halberstadt. The Harz-Elbe Express has worked the line to Halberstadt since 15 December 2005. In the 20th century there was a line to Thale and Quedlinburg.  Blankenburg (Harz) is located next to the B 6n, a newly built dual carriageway, and is linked to it over two junctions: Blankenburg Ost and Blankenburg Zentrum. In addition the B 27 federal road runs southwest and the B 81 north to south through Blankenburg (Harz).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture and places of interest.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theatre.", "content": "In the Great Castle is a theatre which is to be restored again.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Blankenburg (Harz) is a town and health resort in the district of Harz, in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, at the north foot of the Harz Mountains, southwest of Halberstadt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971183}
{"src_title": "Garden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The etymology of the word \"gardening\" refers to enclosure: it is from Middle English \"gardin\", from Anglo-French \"gardin\", \"jardin\", of Germanic origin; akin to Old High German \"gard\", \"gart\", an enclosure or compound, as in Stuttgart. See Grad (Slavic settlement) for more complete etymology. The words \"yard\", \"court\", and Latin \"hortus\" (meaning \"garden,\" hence horticulture and orchard), are cognates—all referring to an enclosed space.  The term \"garden\" in British English refers to a small enclosed area of land, usually adjoining a building. This would be referred to as a yard in American English.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "Garden design is the process of creating plans for the layout and planting of gardens and landscapes. Gardens may be designed by garden owners themselves, or by professionals. Professional garden designers tend to be trained in principles of design and horticulture, and have a knowledge and experience of using plants. Some professional garden designers are also landscape architects, a more formal level of training that usually requires an advanced degree and often a state license.  Elements of garden design include the layout of hard landscape, such as paths, rockeries, walls, water features, sitting areas and decking, as well as the plants themselves, with consideration for their horticultural requirements, their season-to-season appearance, lifespan, growth habit, size, speed of growth, and combinations with other plants and landscape features. Consideration is also given to the maintenance needs of the garden, including the time or funds available for regular maintenance, which can affect the choices of plants regarding speed of growth, spreading or self-seeding of the plants, whether annual or perennial, and bloom-time, and many other characteristics. Garden design can be roughly divided into two groups, formal and naturalistic gardens.  The most important consideration in any garden design is how the garden will be used, followed closely by the desired stylistic genres, and the way the garden space will connect to the home or other structures in the surrounding areas. All of these considerations are subject to the limitations of the budget. Budget limitations can be addressed by a simpler garden style with fewer plants and less costly hard landscape materials, seeds rather than sod for lawns, and plants that grow quickly; alternatively, garden owners may choose to create their garden over time, area by area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Elements.", "content": "Most gardens consist of a mix of natural and constructed elements, although even very 'natural' gardens are always an inherently artificial creation. Natural elements present in a garden principally comprise flora (such as trees and weeds), fauna (such as arthropods and birds), soil, water, air and light. Constructed elements include paths, patios, decking, sculptures, drainage systems, lights and buildings (such as sheds, gazebos, pergolas and follies), but also living constructions such as flower beds, ponds and lawns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "A garden can have aesthetic, functional, and recreational uses:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Gardens may feature a particular plant or plant type(s):  Gardens may feature a particular style or aesthetic:  Other types:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other similar spaces.", "content": "Other outdoor spaces that are similar to gardens include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gardens and the environment.", "content": "Gardeners may cause environmental damage by the way they garden, or they may enhance their local environment. Damage by gardeners can include direct destruction of natural habitats when houses and gardens are created; indirect habitat destruction and damage to provide garden materials such as peat, rock for rock gardens, and by the use of tapwater to irrigate gardens; the death of living beings in the garden itself, such as the killing not only of slugs and snails but also their predators such as hedgehogs and song thrushes by metaldehyde slug killer; the death of living beings outside the garden, such as local species extinction by indiscriminate plant collectors; and climate change caused by greenhouse gases produced by gardening.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate change.", "content": "Climate change will have many impacts on gardens; some studies suggest most of them will be negative. Gardens also contribute to climate change. Greenhouse gases can be produced by gardeners in many ways. The three main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Gardeners produce carbon dioxide directly by overcultivating soil and destroying soil carbon, by burning garden waste on bonfires, by using power tools which burn fossil fuel or use electricity generated by fossil fuels, and by using peat. Gardeners produce methane by compacting the soil and making it anaerobic, and by allowing their compost heaps to become compacted and anaerobic. Gardeners produce nitrous oxide by applying excess nitrogen fertiliser when plants are not actively growing so that the nitrogen in the fertiliser is converted by soil bacteria to nitrous oxide. Gardeners can help to prevent climate change in many ways, including the use of trees, shrubs, ground cover plants and other perennial plants in their gardens, turning garden waste into soil organic matter instead of burning it, keeping soil and compost heaps aerated, avoiding peat, switching from power tools to hand tools or changing their garden design so that power tools are not needed, and using nitrogen-fixing plants instead of nitrogen fertiliser.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Irrigation.", "content": "Some gardeners manage their gardens without using any water from outside the garden. Examples in Britain include Ventnor Botanic Garden on the Isle of Wight, and parts of Beth Chatto's garden in Essex, Sticky Wicket garden in Dorset, and the Royal Horticultural Society's gardens at Harlow Carr and Hyde Hall. Rain gardens absorb rainfall falling onto nearby hard surfaces, rather than sending it into stormwater drains. For irrigation, see rainwater, sprinkler system, drip irrigation, tap water, greywater, hand pump and watering can.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the display, cultivation, or enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The garden can incorporate both natural and man-made materials. The most common form today is a residential garden, but the term \"garden\" has traditionally been a more general one. Zoos, which display wild animals in simulated natural habitats, were formerly called zoological gardens. Western gardens are almost universally based on plants, with garden often signifying a shortened form of botanical garden. Some traditional types of eastern gardens, such as Zen gardens, use plants sparsely or not at all.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971184}
{"src_title": "Sigmund Jähn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jähn was born on 13 February 1937 in Morgenröthe-Rautenkranz, in the Vogtland region of Saxony, Germany. From 1943 to 1951 he attended school in his hometown. He trained as a printer until 1954 and then managed the pioneer program in a local school.  On 26 April 1955 he joined the East German Air Force, where he became a pilot. From 1961 to 1963 he was deputy commander for political work as an adamant socialist and in 1965 became responsible for air tactics and air shooting. From 1966 to 1970 he studied at the Gagarin Air Force Academy in Monino, in the Soviet Union. From 1970 to 1976, he worked in the administration of the East German air force, responsible for pilot education and flight safety.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Space career.", "content": "On 25 November 1976, Jähn and his backup Eberhard Köllner were selected for the Interkosmos program. After a brief period of basic training, they devoted a year to mission-specific training. He trained in Star City near Moscow. He flew on board Soyuz 31, launched 26 August 1978 to the Soviet space station Salyut 6, where he conducted experiments in remote sensing of the earth, medicine, biology, materials science, and geophysics. After 124 orbits he returned on Soyuz 29 and landed on 3 September 1978, having spent 7 days, 20 hours, and 49 minutes in space. Because the Soviet and American space programs maintained distinctive vocabularies, he was referred to as a \"cosmonaut\" rather than an \"astronaut\". During and after the flight, the socialist authorities of the GDR acclaimed him as \"the first German in space\", emphasizing an East German victory over West Germany.  Upon his return he headed the East Germany Army's Cosmonaut Training Center near Moscow until German unification in 1990, when he left the East German military with the rank of major general. Jähn was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union on 3 September 1978. In 1983 he received a doctorate at the in Potsdam, specialising in remote sensing of the earth. He was instrumental in forming the Association of Space Explorers. He was a founding member in 1985 and served for several years on its Executive Committee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After space.", "content": "Starting in 1990, after Germany was reunited, he worked as a freelance consultant for the German Aerospace Center and from 1993 also for the European Space Agency (ESA) to prepare for the Euromir missions. He retired in 2002. In 2011, on the 50th anniversary of the first manned space flight by Yuri Gagarin, he explained to \"Der Spiegel\" that his taking a toy figure on his flight was not a personal choice. He took a, an animated character featured on an East German children's television show, in order to film material for the show. Because he and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Kovalyonok joked about marrying another toy figure of the Russia mascot Masha, authorities found the material unsuitable for the public.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Jähn was married and had two children. He lived in Strausberg in the later part of his life and enjoyed reading and hunting. He died on 21 September 2019 at age 82.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sigmund Werner Paul Jähn (; 13 February 1937 – 21 September 2019) was a German cosmonaut and pilot who in 1978 became the first German to fly into space as part of the Soviet Union's Interkosmos programme.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971185}
{"src_title": "Muesli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Originally known in Swiss German as \"Birchermüesli\" or simply \"Müesli\", the word is an Alemannic diminutive of \"Mues\" (non-Swiss Standard German: \"Mus\") which means \"mush\" or \"purée\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Muesli was not originally intended as a breakfast food, but as an appetiser similar to bread and butter. It was consumed as \"Schweizer Znacht\" (lit.: Swiss supper), but not as a breakfast cereal.  It was introduced around 1900 by Bircher-Benner for patients in his hospital, where a diet rich in fresh fruit and vegetables was an essential part of therapy. It was inspired by a similar \"strange dish\" that he and his wife had been served on a hike in the Swiss Alps.  Bircher-Benner himself referred to the dish simply as \"d'Spys\" (Swiss German for \"the dish\", in German \"die Speise\"); it was commonly known as \"Apfeldiätspeise\" (Apple Diet Meal). Bircher opened a chalet-style sanitorium in Zürichberg called \"Lebendige Kraft\" (lit.: lively power). These facilities had risen in popularity during the era of \"lebensreform\", a social movement which valued health foods and vegetarianism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recipes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Original Bircher-Benner recipe.", "content": "The original Bircher-Benner recipe consists of the following ingredients:  The dish was prepared by mixing the cream and honey or condensed milk with the soaked oats and lemon juice and, while stirring, grating the whole apple into the mixture. This method prevented the apple pulp from browning. The intent was to serve the dish fresh, immediately before any other dishes in the meal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fresh muesli.", "content": "Muesli traditionally is freshly prepared using dried rolled oats or whole grain oats that have been soaked in water or fruit juice. Other common ingredients are grated or chopped fresh fruit (e.g., bananas, apples, berries, grapes, mango), dried fruit, milk products (e.g., fresh milk, yoghurt, cream, condensed milk, fromage frais, quark, cottage cheese, or nondairy milk substitutes), lemon juice, ground nuts, seeds, spices (especially cinnamon), honey and muesli mix.  The preparation of home-made muesli varies according to the tastes and preferences of the cook, but the basic proportions are around 80% grain, 10% nuts and seeds and 10% dried fruits. Some home cooks prefer to mix the dry ingredients ahead of time and store a batch of it in a container, adding wet ingredients such as fresh fruit, dairy products, honey and fruit juice immediately before serving.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Packaged muesli.", "content": "Packaged \"muesli\" is a loose mixture of mainly rolled oats or cornflakes together with various dried fruit pieces, nuts, and seeds – the main ingredients of any muesli. It commonly contains other rolled cereal grains such as wheat or rye flakes.  There are many varieties, which may also contain honey, spices, or chocolate. Dry packaged muesli can be stored for many months and served quickly after mixing with milk, filmjölk, yogurt, coffee, hot chocolate, fruit juice, or water. If desired, pieces of fresh fruit may be added. Alternatively, the mix may be soaked overnight in milk and then served with fresh fruit or compote to taste.  Cafes, restaurants and chefs in the English-speaking world often use the label bircher muesli to distinguish their dishes from the store-bought variety, indicating it has been prepared in a manner based on the original recipe - with grated fresh apple, lemon juice, cream and honey - rather than just being poured from a packet and having milk added. However, these dishes are usually a marked modification of the original recipe rather than a faithful reproduction. Many use orange or apple juice instead of lemon juice, and add other more exotic ingredients such as berries, grated fresh pears, poached or roasted fruit, vanilla essence and agave syrup.  Muesli has been associated from the beginning with health-conscious diets and back-to-nature lifestyles. In English-speaking countries, these connotations have led to the coinage of terms linking muesli to social liberalism and the middle classes. These include the British muesli belt and the American granola type.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Muesli ( ;, ) is a cold oatmeal dish based on rolled oats and ingredients like grains, nuts, seeds and fresh or dried fruits. This mix may be combined with one or more liquids like milk, almond milk, other plant milks, yogurt, or fruit juice and left for a time to soften the oats before being consumed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971186}
{"src_title": "Gottfried August Bürger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born in Molmerswende (now a part of Mansfeld), Principality of Halberstadt, where his father was the Lutheran pastor. He showed an early predilection for solitary and gloomy places and the making of verses, for which he had no other model than hymnals. At the age of twelve, Bürger was practically adopted by his maternal grandfather, Bauer, at Aschersleben, who sent him to the Pädagogium at Halle. He learned Latin with difficulty. In 1764 he passed to the University of Halle, as a student of theology, which, however, he soon abandoned for the study of jurisprudence. There he fell under the influence of Christian Adolph Klotz (1738–1771), who directed Bürger's attention to literature and encouraged his natural disposition to a wild and unregulated life. In consequence of his dissipated habits, he was in 1767 recalled by his grandfather, but on promising to reform was in 1768 allowed to enter the University of Göttingen as a law student.  As he continued his wild career, however, his grandfather withdrew his support and he was left to his own devices. Meanwhile, he had made fair progress with his legal studies, and had the good fortune to form a close friendship with a number of young men of literary tastes. He studied the ancient classics and the best works in French, Italian, Spanish and English, particularly Shakespeare, and the old English and Scottish ballads. Thomas Percy's \"Reliques of Ancient English Poetry\" was his constant companion. In the Göttingen \"Musenalmanach\", edited by Heinrich Christian Boie and Friedrich Wilhelm Gotter, Bürger's first poems were published, and by 1771 he had already become widely known as a poet. In 1772, through Boie's influence, Bürger obtained the post of \"Amtmann\" or district magistrate at Altengleichen near Göttingen. His grandfather was now reconciled to him, paid his debts and established him in his new sphere of activity.  Meanwhile, he kept in touch with his Göttingen friends, and when the \"Göttinger Bund\" or \"Hain\" (\"Göttinger Hainbund\") was formed, Bürger, though not himself a member, kept in close touch with it. In 1773, the ballad \"Lenore\" was published in the \"Musenalmanach\". This poem, which in dramatic force and in its vivid realization of the weird and supernatural remains without a rival, made his name a household word in Göttingen. \"Lenore\" was paraphrased by Walter Scott under the title \"William and Helen\" and Goethe did the same under the title \"Bride of Corinth\". In 1774 he married Dorette Leonhart, the daughter of a Hanoverian official; but his passion for his wife's younger sister Auguste (the \"Molly\" of his poems and elegies) rendered the union unhappy and unsettled his life. In 1778 Bürger became editor of the \"Musenalmanach\", a position he retained until his death. In the same year published the first collection of his poems. In 1780 he took a farm at Appenrode, but in three years lost so much money that he had to abandon the venture. Pecuniary troubles oppressed him, and being accused of neglecting his official duties, and feeling his honour attacked, he gave up his official position and removed in 1784 to Göttingen, where he established himself as \"Privatdozent\". Shortly before his removal there his wife died (July 30, 1784), and on June 29 in the next year he married his sister-in-law \"Molly.\" Her death in childbirth on January 9, 1786 affected him deeply. He appeared to lose at once all courage and all bodily and mental vigour. He still continued to teach in Göttingen; at the jubilee of the foundation of the university in 1787 he was made an honorary doctor of philosophy, and in 1789 was appointed extraordinary professor in that faculty, though without a stipend. He was obliged to gain his living by poorly rewarded translations for booksellers.  In 1790, he married a third time, his wife being a certain Elise Hahn, who, enchanted with his poems, had offered him her heart and hand. Only a few weeks of married life with his \"Schwabenmädchen\" sufficed to prove his mistake, and after two and a half years he divorced her. Deeply wounded by Schiller's criticism, in the 14th and 15th part of the \"Allgemeine Literaturzeitung\" of 1791, of the second edition of his poems, disappointed, wrecked in fortune and health, Bürger eked out a precarious existence as a teacher in Göttingen until, ill with tuberculosis, he died there on June 8, 1794. The government of Hanover afforded him some assistance shortly before his death.  Bürger's talent for popular poetry was very considerable, and his ballads are among the finest in the German language. Besides \"Lenore\", \"Das Lied vom braven Manne\", \"Die Kuh\", \"Der Kaiser und der Abt\" and \"Der wilde Jäger\" are famous. Among his purely lyrical poems, but few have earned a lasting reputation; but mention may be made of \"Das Blümchen Wunderhold\", \"Lied an den lieben Mond\", and a few love songs. His sonnets, particularly the elegies, are of great beauty. Bürger revived the sonnet form in German, and his experiments in it were praised as models by Schiller, despite his severe criticism of some of Bürger's more popular poems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "Editions of Bürger's \"Sämtliche Schriften\" appeared at Göttingen, 1817 (incomplete); 1829—1833 (8 vols.), and 1835 (one vol.); also a selection by Eduard Grisebach (5th ed, 1894). The \"Gedichte\" have been published in innumerable editions, the best being that by August Sauer (2 vols., 1884). \"Briefe von und an Bürger\" were edited by Adolf Strodtmann in 4 vols. (1874). Bürger was introduced to English readers in \"William and Helen\" (1775), Walter Scott's version of \"Lenore\". The elder Dumas translated \"Lenore\" into French.  Bürger is known for German translations of \"Baron Munchausen’s narrative of his marvellous travels and campaigns in Russia\" by Rudolf Erich Raspe (1786, after the release of the 4th English edition; 2nd expanded ed. 1788, after the release of the 5th expanded English edition). In his introduction to the 1788 German edition, Bürger admitted to adapting and elaborating the original English-language works, and, despite his clear notice that he was doing a translation, for some time Bürger was believed to be the author of the tales. Raspe had originally concealed his authorship.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gottfried August Bürger (December 31, 1747 – June 8, 1794) was a German poet. His ballads were very popular in Germany. His most noted ballad, \"Lenore\", found an audience beyond readers of the German language in an English and Russian adaptation and a French translation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971187}
{"src_title": "Rudi Dutschke", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Dutschke was born in Schönefeld (present-day Nuthe-Urstromtal) near Luckenwalde, Brandenburg, the 4th son of a postal clerk. Raised in East Germany (GDR), he attended school and graduated from the \"Gymnasium\" there. Interested in the ideas of religious socialism, he was engaged in the youth organisation of the East German Evangelical Church. In 1956 he joined the socialist Free German Youth aiming at a sporting career as a decathlete.  In the same year he witnessed the Hungarian Uprising and began to advocate the ideals of a democratic socialism beyond the official line of the Socialist Unity Party. He obtained his \"Abitur\" degree in 1958 and completed an apprenticeship as an industrial clerk. As he refused to join the East Germany National People's Army and convinced many of his fellow students to refuse as well, he was prevented from attending university in the GDR. In August 1961, Dutschke fled to the Marienfelde transit camp in West Berlin, just three days before the Berlin Wall was built.  He began to study sociology, ethnology, philosophy and history at the Free University of Berlin under Richard Löwenthal and Klaus Meschkat where he became acquainted with the existentialist theories of Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre, and soon after also with alternative views of Marxism and the history of the labour movement. Dutschke joined the German SDS \"Sozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund\" (which was not the same as the SDS in the US, but quite similar in goals) in 1965 and from that time on the SDS became the center of the student movement, growing very rapidly and organizing demonstrations against the war in Vietnam.  He married the American Gretchen Klotz () in 1966. They had three children. Dutschke's third child, 1980-born Rudi-Marek Dutschke was born after his father's death. He is a politician of the German Green Party as well as Dean's Office staffer of the Hertie School of Governance today. His older siblings are Hosea-Che Dutschke (named after the Old Testament minor prophet Hosea and Che Guevara) and their sister Polly-Nicole, both born in 1968.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political views.", "content": "Influenced by critical theory, Rosa Luxemburg, and critical Marxists and informed through his collaboration with fellow students from Africa and Latin America, Dutschke developed a theory and code of practice of social change via the practice of developing democracy in the process of revolutionizing society, collaborating with foreign students.  Dutschke also advocated that the transformation of Western societies should go hand in hand with Third World liberation movements and with democratization in communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. He was from a pious Lutheran family and his socialism had strongly Christian roots; he called Jesus Christ the \"greatest revolutionary\", and in Easter 1963, he wrote that \"Jesus is risen. The decisive revolution in world history has happened – a revolution of all-conquering love. If people would fully receive this revealed love into their own existence, into the reality of the 'now', then the logic of insanity could no longer continue.\"  Benno Ohnesorg's death in 1967 at the hands of German police pushed some in the student movement toward increasingly extremist violence and the formation of the Red Army Faction. The violence against Dutschke further radicalised parts of the student movement into committing several bombings and murders. Dutschke rejected this direction and feared that it would harm or cause the dissolution of the student movement. Instead he advocated a 'long march through the institutions' of power to create radical change from within government and society by becoming an integral part of the machinery. The meaning of Dutschke's idea of a \"long march through the institutions\" is in fact highly contested: most historians of '68 in West Germany understand it to mean advocating setting up an alternative society and recreating the institutions which were seen by Dutschke as beyond reform in their current state. It is highly unlikely Dutschke would have promoted change from within the parliamentary and judicial system, which were populated by former Nazis and political conservatives. This is made clear in the SDS reaction to the Kiesinger-led CDU-SPD grand coalition and the authoritarian Emergency Laws they passed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shooting and later life.", "content": "On 11 April 1968, Dutschke was shot in the head by a young anti-communist, Josef Bachmann. Dutschke survived the assassination attempt, and he and his family went to the United Kingdom in the hope that he could recuperate there. Dutschke and Bachmann shared correspondence over the next year, until Bachmann's suicide in 1970. Dutschke was accepted at Clare Hall, a graduate college at the University of Cambridge, to finish his degree in 1969, but in 1971 the Conservative government under Edward Heath expelled him and his family as an \"undesirable alien\" who had engaged in \"subversive activity\", causing a political storm in London. They then moved to Århus, Denmark, after professor Johannes Sløk had offered him a job at the University of Aarhus which made it possible for Dutschke to gain a Danish residence permit.  Dutschke re-entered the German political scene after protests against the building of nuclear power plants activated a new movement in the mid-1970s. He also began working with dissidents opposing the Communist governments in East Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, including Robert Havemann, Wolf Biermann, Milan Horáček, Adam Michnik and others.  Because of brain damage sustained in the assassination attempt, Dutschke continued to suffer health problems. He died on 24 December 1979 in Århus. He had an epileptic seizure while in the bathtub and drowned.  In 2018, it emerged that Rudolf Augstein, publisher of \"Der Spiegel\", provided financial support to Dutschke so he could continue to work on his dissertations. Between 1970 and 1973, he paid 1,000 German Marks per year. At the same time they started an exchange of letters in which they also discussed the student revolts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfred Willi Rudolf \"Rudi\" Dutschke (; 7 March 1940 – 24 December 1979) was a German Marxist sociologist and a political activist in the German student movement and the APO protest movement of the 1960s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971188}
{"src_title": "Book cover", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Before the early nineteenth century, books were hand-bound, in the case of luxury medieval manuscripts in treasure bindings using materials such as gold, silver and jewels. For hundreds of years, book bindings had functioned as a protective device for the expensively printed or hand-made pages, and as a decorative tribute to their cultural authority. In the 1820s great changes began to occur in how a book might be covered, with the gradual introduction of techniques for mechanical book-binding. Cloth, and then paper, became the staple materials used when books became so cheap—thanks to the introduction of steam-powered presses and mechanically produced paper—that to have them hand-bound became disproportionate to the cost of the book itself.  Not only were the new types of book-covers cheaper to produce, they were also printable, using multi-colour lithography, and later, halftone illustration processes. Techniques borrowed from the nineteenth-century poster-artists gradually infiltrated the book industry, as did the professional practice of graphic design. The book cover became more than just a protection for the pages, taking on the function of advertising, and communicating information about the text inside.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cover design.", "content": "The Arts and Crafts and Art Nouveau movements at the turn of the twentieth century stimulated a modern renaissance in book cover design that soon began to infiltrate the growing mass book industry through the more progressive publishers in Europe, London and New York. Some of the first radically modern cover designs were produced in the Soviet Union during the 1920s by avant-gardists such as Alexander Rodchenko and El Lissitzky. Another highly influential early book cover designer was Aubrey Beardsley, thanks to his striking covers for the first four volumes of \"The Yellow Book\" (1894–5).  In the post-war era, book covers have become vitally important as the book industry has become commercially competitive. Covers now give detailed hints about the style, genre and subject of the book, while many push design to its limit in the hope of attracting sales attention.  This can differ from country to country because of other tastes of the markets. So translated books can also have different book-accessories such as toys belonging to children's books, for example \"Harry Potter\".  The era of internet sales has arguably not diminished the importance of the book cover, as it now continues its role in a two-dimensional digital form, helping to identify and promote books online.  Wraparound covers are also common.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A book cover is any protective covering used to bind together the pages of a book. Beyond the familiar distinction between hardcovers and paperbacks, there are further alternatives and additions, such as dust jackets, ring-binding, and older forms such as the nineteenth-century \"paper-boards\" and the traditional types of hand-binding. The term \"Bookcover\" is often used for a book cover image in library management software. This article is concerned with modern mechanically produced covers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971189}
{"src_title": "Intaglio (printmaking)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Process.", "content": "In intaglio printing, the lines to be printed are cut into a metal (e.g. copper) plate by means either of a cutting tool called a burin, held in the hand – in which case the process is called \"engraving\"; or through the corrosive action of acid – in which case the process is known as \"etching\". In etching, for example, the plate is pre-covered in a thin, acid-resistant resin or wax \"ground\". Using etching needles or burins, the artist or writer (etcher) engraves their image (therefore to be only where the plate beneath is exposed). The plate's ground side is then dipped into acid, or the acid poured onto it. The acid bites into the surface of the plate where it was exposed. Biting is a printmaking term to describe the acid's etching, or incising, of the image; its duration depends on the acid strength, metal's reactivity, temperature, air pressure and the depth desired. After the plate is sufficiently bitten it is removed from the acid bath, the ground is removed gently and the plate is usually dried or cleaned.  To print an intaglio plate, ink or inks are painted, wiped and/or dabbed into the recessed lines (such as with brushes/rubber gloves/rollers). The plate is then rubbed with tarlatan cloth to remove most of its waste (surface ink) and a final smooth wipe is often done with newspaper or old public phone book pages, leaving it in the incisions. Dampened imprint (product) paper will usually be fed against the plate, covered by a blanket, so when pressed by rolling press it is squeezed into the plate's ink-filled grooves with uniform very high pressure. The blanket is then lifted, revealing the paper and printed image. The final stages repeat for each copy needed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brief history.", "content": "Intaglio printmaking emerged in Europe well after the woodcut print, with the earliest known surviving examples being undated designs for playing cards made in Germany, using drypoint technique, probably in the late 1430s. Engraving had been used by goldsmiths to decorate metalwork, including armor, musical instruments and religious objects since ancient times, and the niello technique, which involved rubbing an alloy into the lines to give a contrasting color, also goes back to late antiquity. Scholars and practitioners of printmaking have suggested that the idea of making prints from engraved plates may well have originated with goldsmiths' practices of taking an impression on paper of a design engraved on an object, in order to keep a record of their work, or to check the quality.  Martin Schongauer was one of the earliest known artists to exploit the copper-engraving technique, and Albrecht Dürer is one of the most famous intaglio artists. Italian and Dutch engraving began slightly after the Germans, but were well developed by 1500. Drypoint and etching were also German inventions of the fifteenth century, probably by the Housebook Master and Daniel Hopfer respectively.  In the nineteenth century, Viennese printer Karel Klíč introduced a combined intaglio and photographic process. Photogravure retained the smooth continuous tones of photography but was printed using a chemically-etched copper plate. This permitted a photographic image to be printed on regular paper, for inclusion in books or albums.  In the 1940s and 1950s the Italian security printer Gualtiero Giori brought intaglio printing into the era of high-technology by developing the first ever six-colour intaglio printing press, designed to print banknotes which combined more artistic possibilities with greater security.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current use.", "content": "At one time intaglio printing was used for all mass-printed materials including banknotes, stock certificates, newspapers, books, maps and magazines, fabrics, wallpapers and sheet music. Today intaglio engraving is largely used for paper or plastic currency, banknotes, passports and occasionally for high-value postage stamps. The appearance of engraving is sometimes mimicked for items such as wedding invitations by producing an embossment around lettering printed by another process (such as lithography or offset) to suggest the edges of an engraving plate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Intaglio (, ) is the family of printing and printmaking techniques in which the image is incised into a surface and the incised line or sunken area holds the ink. It is the direct opposite of a relief print.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971190}
{"src_title": "Klaus Wowereit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Wowereit was born in West Berlin. Until 1973, Wowereit attended the Ulrich-von-Hutten-Oberschule in Berlin-Lichtenrade. Afterwards, he studied law at the Free University Berlin (State Exams, 1981 and 1984).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "After three years as a civil servant in the Senate office of the Interior, Wowereit stood for election as municipal councillor in the Tempelhof district. At the age of 30, he was, therefore, the youngest councilor in the city of Berlin. After eleven years as a District Councillor he stood for the Berlin House of Representatives (Abgeordnetenhaus von Berlin) which serves as the City's State Parliament in 1995. In December 1999, he was elected chairman of the SPD parliamentary group in the Abgeordnetenhaus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mayor of Berlin, 2001–2014.", "content": "Since June 2001 he served as Governing Mayor (\"\") of Berlin. Previously, the SPD had left the grand coalition with the CDU and initiated new elections. After this election and following long-time negotiations, Wowereit finally started a coalition with the PDS.  In the elections held on 17 September 2006, Wowereit's SPD finished as the strongest party with a plurality of 30.8%. A coalition with Die Linke was continued. However the 16th Abgeordnetenhaus re-elected Wowereit as Governing Mayor on 23 November 2006, in the second ballot with only a 75:74 majority. CDU, Free Democrats and the Green Party voted against him. In the elections held on 18 September 2011 he and his party were again the strongest party.  Throughout his tenure, public discussions on the integration of Germany's largely Muslim immigrant population featured prominently. In 2011 he published \"Mut zur Integration – für ein neues Miteinander\" (\"Courage for integration - for a new together\"), a book written in response to the controversial book \"Germany Abolishes Itself\" written by his former State Minister of Finance Thilo Sarrazin. That same year, he appointed Turkish-origin politician Dilek Kolat Senator for Labour, Integration and Women. In May 2012, Wowereit named Şermin Langhoff artistic director of the Maxim Gorki Theater.  In the negotiations to form a \"Grand Coalition\" of Chancellor Angela Merkel's Christian Democrats (CDU together with the Bavarian CSU) and the SPD following the 2013 federal elections, Wowereit led the SPD delegation in the working group on cultural and media affairs; his counterpart of the CDU was Michael Kretschmer.  On 26 August 2014 Wowereit announced that he would resign his position as of 11 December 2014. At the time of his resignation, he was the longest-serving head of a German state.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resignation and Berlin-Brandenburg Airport debacle.", "content": "On 21 October 2003 Wowereit became one of four members representing the \"Land\" of Berlin in the supervisory board of the project to build the new Berlin Brandenburg Airport. In 2006, he was elected chairman of the board. However, on 7 January 2013, Wowereit relinquished his chairmanship after the continuing delay of the airport's opening date. The prime minister of the \"Land\" of Brandenburg, Matthias Platzeck was appointed as his successor. Wowereit survived a vote of no confidence brought against him in the Berlin House of Representatives on 12 January. When Platzeck gave up his political offices for health reasons in July 2013, Wowereit was eventually appointed chairman again, despite much criticism. Critics have accused Wowereit of being responsible for the various delays and cost overruns of the airport project. He has been accused of being blind to looming problems, and reacting angrily to unfavorable reports. Also, he is said to have filled the board with political friends rather than professionals.  Wowereit announced his intention to resign at the end of 2014 due to the airport delays saying it was the \"biggest failure\" of his term in office, but that there were also other \"several difficult times here.\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Life after politics.", "content": "Alongside Jutta Allmendinger, Wowereit co-chaired an independent expert commission on gender-based discrimination at Germany's Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency from 2015 until 2016. In 2017, he briefly arbitrated wage negotiations between Eurowings and UFO, a flight attendant trade union.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Wowereit is the youngest child in his family, with two other brothers and two sisters, who grew up without a father. One of his brothers supported his studies and later he took care of his brother, who was paralyzed after an accident, as well as his mother, who was suffering from cancer.  Wowereit is one of the most famous German politicians who is openly gay. In coming out, prior to the 2001 mayoral elections, he coined the now famous German phrase \"\" (\"I'm gay, and that's a good thing.\") In his autobiography, Wowereit states that his decision to come out in public was made because after his nomination as candidate to become the Mayor of Berlin, he felt that the German tabloids were already \"on the right track\". With his coming out, Wowereit wanted to beat the tabloids to it and prevent them from writing wild, sensational and fabricated stories about his private life. Wowereit said those now famous words during a convention of the Berlin SPD. After the end of his speech, there was half a second of surprised silence, then spontaneous cheering and loud applause to support him.  In a 2010 interview with \"Time magazine\" he said that coming out may actually have strengthened his campaign.  His election as mayor made Berlin one of three major European cities with an openly gay mayor, along with Paris, whose mayor was Bertrand Delanoë, and Hamburg, whose mayor was Ole von Beust at that time, who both also took office in 2001. However, von Beust resigned in 2010 and Delanoë left office in 2014, making Wowereit the only gay mayor of a major European and German city. Berlin being the largest and Hamburg being the second largest city in Germany, they are also German states in their own right, having made both Wowereit and von Beust also state premiers.  In September 2007, Wowereit published an autobiographical book titled \"\"\"\", after his famous coming-out phrase ().  Wowereit's civil partner, Jörn Kubicki, was a neurosurgeon. They were in a relationship from 1993 to March 2020 when Kubicki died as a result of a Covid-19-infection.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Klaus Wowereit (born 1 October 1953) is a German politician, member of the SPD (Social Democratic Party), and was the Governing Mayor of Berlin from 21 October 2001 to 11 December 2014. In 2001 state elections his party won a plurality of the votes, 29.7%. He served as President of the Bundesrat (the fourth highest office in Germany) in 2001/02. His SPD-led coalition was re-elected in the 2006 elections; after the 2011 elections the SPD's coalition partner changed from the Left to the Christian Democratic Union. He was also sometimes mentioned as a possible SPD candidate for the Chancellorship of Germany (\"Kanzlerkandidatur\"), but that never materialized.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971191}
{"src_title": "History of the Czech lands", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Periods through history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pre-history.", "content": "Humans had settled in the region by the (Lower Paleolithic) (2.5mil – 300,000 BP). Several Paleolithic cultures settled here, including Acheulean, Micoquien, Mousterian, and Aurignacian. The Předmostí archaeological site near Brno is dated to between 24,000 and 27,000 years old. The figurines (Venus of Dolní Věstonice) found here are the oldest known ceramic articles in the world.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early tribes.", "content": "The area was settled by the Celts (called Boii, who gave the name to the region: Bohemia, which means more or less \"the home of the Boii\") from 5th century BCE until 2nd century CE and from 1st century by various Germanic tribes (Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards). Germanic towns are described on the Map of Ptolemaios in the 2nd century, e.g. Coridorgis for Jihlava. Those tribes migrated to the West in 5th century and then came Slavs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arrival of the Slavs.", "content": "The first Slavic people (Czech tribes in Bohemia and Moravians in Moravia) arrived in the 6th century. According to historian Dušan Třeštík, they advanced through the Moravian Gate (\"Moravská brána\") valley and in the year 530 moved into Eastern Bohemia, along the rivers Labe (Elbe) and Vltava (Moldau) further into Central Bohemia. Many historians support the theory of a further wave of Slavs coming from the south during the first half of the 7th century. They fought with neighboring Avars until the rise of the empire of Samo (see below).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Samo's realm.", "content": "According to the Chronicle of Fredegar, some of the Slavs living on what is now Czech territory, mainly in southern Moravia, were exposed for a number of years to violence and marauding raids from the Avars, whose empire stretched across the territory of present-day Hungary. In 623, the Slavic tribes revolted against the oppression of the Avars. During this time, the Frankish merchant Samo allegedly came to the Czech lands with his entourage and joined with the Slavs to defeat the Avars. Thus the Slavs adopted Samo as their ruler. \"So it happened that he self-founded the first Slavic empire. He married the then twelve Slavic women had with them twenty-two sons and fifteen daughters and happily ruled for 35 years. All other fights, which under his leadership Slavs fought with the Avars, were victorious,\" the Frankish chronicler Reich (called Fredegar) wrote about Samo in the oldest extant written report by the Slavs in the Czech lands.  Later Samo and the Slavs came into conflict with the Frankish empire whose ruler Dagobert I wanted to extend his rule to the east, but Dagobert was defeated in the memorable battle of Wogastisburg in 631. To this day, historians are searching in vain for this stronghold's actual location. Over the next five years Samo and the Slavs undertook raids on Frankish territory, but no one knows exactly how far to the northeast Samo's power eventually reached, probably beyond the boundaries of today's Czech Republic. After Samo's death, his empire seems to have disappeared; in fact, however, there never was a real state structure with solid organization. The empire was created to unite Slavs to defend against Avars and Franks and to facilitate Slavic plundering expeditions against their neighbors. Once the Avar and Frankish danger had passed, the united empire disintegrated and the fragmented territories were ruled by Samo's various followers. These remnants continued their further development and became the core foundation for the future Great Moravian Empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Great Moravia.", "content": "A Slavic state Great Moravia was created by the ancestors of the Czechs, Slovaks and Poles and its core area lay on both sides of the Morava river.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Duchy of Bohemia and Kingdom of Bohemia to 1526.", "content": "The Duchy of Bohemia established in the 9th century raised to a Kingdom in 1198. The country reached its greatest territorial extent and is considered as the Golden Age.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bohemian Estates against Habsburg absolutism.", "content": "Ferdinand II, who ruled 1619–1637, sharply curtailed the power of the largely Protestant representative assembly known as the \"Bohemian Estates\". He confiscated lands of Protestant nobles and gave them to his Catholic friends and to the generals who led the foreign mercenaries he employed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Czechoslovakia.", "content": "The Kingdom of Bohemia officially ceased to exist in 1918 when the Czecho-Slovak Republic was declared, a merger of the lands of the Bohemian Crown, Slovakia, and Carpathian Ruthenia. Czechoslovakia before WW2 remained the only democracy in central and eastern Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second Republic / Occupation.", "content": "The large German population of the Czech lands was expelled after fall of Nazi Germany and of its occupation of Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovaks were now almost homogenous in their composition, dominated by ethnic Czechs and Slovaks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Czech Republic.", "content": "On 1 January 1993, the Velvet Divorce occurred, whereby two separate states were created out of the former Czechoslovakia: the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. The Czech Republic became a member of NATO in 1999, and the European Union in May 2004.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Lists:  General:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The history of what are now known as the Czech lands () is very diverse. These lands have changed hands many times, and have been known by a variety of different names. Up until the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy after the First World War, the lands were known as the lands of the Bohemian Crown and formed a constituent state of that empire: the Kingdom of Bohemia (in Czech: \"Království české\", the word \"Bohemia\" is a Latin term for \"Čechy\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971192}
{"src_title": "Zgorzelec", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Up until 1945, the modern-day towns of Zgorzelec and Görlitz were a single entity; their history up to that point is shared. The date of the town's foundation is unknown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Middle Ages to 19th C.", "content": "Zgorzelec/Görlitz was first mentioned in 1071 as a small Sorbian village named Gorelic in the region of Upper Lusatia. It was conquered by Polish Duke, and future King, Bolesław I the Brave in 1002, and was part of Poland during the reign of the first Polish kings Bolesław I the Brave and Mieszko II Lambert until 1031, when the region briefly fell again to the Margraviate of Meissen, and soon after became a part of Bohemia. In the 13th century the village gradually turned into a town. It became rich due to its location on the Via Regia, an ancient and medieval trade road. In 1319 it became part of the Piast-ruled Duchy of Jawor, and later on, became part of Bohemia again.  In the following centuries, from 1346, it was a wealthy member of the Six-City League of Upper Lusatia, consisting of the six Lusatian cities Bautzen, Görlitz, Kamenz, Lauban, Löbau and Zittau. The town of Gorlice in southern Poland was founded during the reign of Casimir the Great in 1354 by ethnic German colonists from Görlitz, in the last phases of eastward settlement by Germans (in this case by Walddeutsche). In the 15th century, the city came under Hungarian rule, but eventually returned to Bohemia. After suffering for years in the Thirty Years' War, the region of Upper Lusatia (including Görlitz) passed to Saxony (1635), whose Electors were also Kings of Poland from 1697. One of the two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through the city at that time.  In 1815, after the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna awarded Görlitz to the Kingdom of Prussia and subsequently the city became part of the German Empire in 1871. The city was a part of the Prussian province of Silesia from 1815 to 1919.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th century.", "content": "After the abolition of the Kingdom of Prussia in the aftermath of World War I, Görlitz became a part of the newly established Province of Lower Silesia in the Free State of Prussia.  During World War II a German prisoner-of-war camp, Stalag VIII-A was located in present-day territory of Zgorzelec. The French composer Olivier Messiaen was one of its inmates.  The Treaty of Zgorzelec, between Poland and East Germany, was signed in the city's community center in 1950. The establishment of the Oder-Neisse line as the Polish-East German border divided Görlitz (lying on the Neisse) between the two countries. The German part retained the name Görlitz, while the Polish part became Zgorzelec. The German and Sorbian population was expelled from Zgorzelec. New Polish and Greek settlers arrived in the town. Starting in 1948, some 10,000 Greek Refugees of the Greek Civil War, mainly communist partisans, were allowed into Poland and settled mainly in Zgorzelec. There were Greek schools, a Greek retirement home and even a factory reserved for Greek employees. The majority of those refugees later returned to Greece, but a part remains to this day (see Greeks in Poland). The Greek community of Zgorzelec was instrumental in the building of The Orthodox church of Ss Constantine and Helen in 2002. Since 1999, an annual international Greek Song Festival has been held in Zgorzelec.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent history.", "content": "Since the fall of communism in 1989, Zgorzelec and Görlitz have developed a close political relationship. Two of the numerous bridges over the Neisse river that had been blown up by retreating German forces in World War II have been rebuilt, reconnecting the two towns with one bus line. There is also common urban management and annual common sessions of both town councils. In 2006 the towns jointly applied to be the European Capital of Culture in 2010. It was hoped that the jury would be convinced by the concept of Polish-German cooperation, but the award fell to Essen, with Görlitz/Zgorzelec in second place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Zgorzelec is served by two railway stations, Zgorzelec in the southern part of the town, and Zgorzelec Miasto in the eastern part.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Turów Zgorzelec men's basketball team until 2018 played in the Polish Basketball League (top division). In 2014 Turów won its only national championship and qualified to the Euroleague for the first time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Zgorzelec is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zgorzelec (,,, ) is a town in southwestern Poland with 30,374 inhabitants (2019). It lies in Lower Silesian Voivodeship (in 1975–1998 it was in the former Jelenia Góra Voivodeship). It is the seat of Zgorzelec County and of Gmina Zgorzelec (although it is not part of the territory of the latter, as the town is an urban gmina in its own right). Zgorzelec is located on the Lusatian Neisse river, on the post-1945 Polish-German Neisse border adjoining the German town of Görlitz, of which it constituted the eastern part up to 1945.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971193}
{"src_title": "South Moravian Region", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Administrative divisions.", "content": "The South Moravian Region is divided into 7 districts (Czech: \"okres\"): There are in total 673 municipalities in the region, of which 49 have the status of towns. There are 21 municipalities with extended powers and 34 municipalities with a delegated municipal office.  The region is famous for its wine production. The area around the towns of Mikulov, Znojmo, Velké Pavlovice along with the Slovácko region provide 94% of the Czech Republic's vineyards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "The region has approximately 1,188,000 inhabitants. The net migration has been positive in all years since 2003, reaching its peak in 2007 when it reached 7,374 people. Since 2007 the region has also experienced natural population growth. In 2012 there were 37 thousand foreigners living in the region, forming 3.2% of the total population of the region.  The average age of citizens in the region was 42.4 years in 2019. The average age has grown by 5 years over the last two decades. The life expectancy at birth in 2012 was 75.2 years for men and 81.7 years for women. Life expectancy has been growing over recent years. The divorce-marriage ratio in the region was 60.3 in 2012.  One third of the region's population lives in the capital Brno. The share of inhabitants living in towns and cities on the total population of the region has been steadily decreasing due to suburbanization. The table below displays 12 municipalities with the highest number of inhabitants in the region (as of 1 January 2019):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "With an area of 7,187.8 km2 the South Moravian Region is the fourth largest region of the Czech Republic. The highest point of the region is located in the eastern part on Durda mountain (842 m). The point with the lowest elevation (150 m) is situated in Břeclav District at the meeting of the rivers Morava and Dyje.  The northern and north-western part of the region is covered by the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands (Czech: \"Českomoravská vrchovina\") and the Moravian Karst. There is an extensive cave complex in the Moravian Karst with a 138.5 m depth in the Macocha Gorge in the Punkva Caves. In the eastern part, the region reaches to the Carpathian Mountains. The Bohemian-Moravian Highlands and the Carpathian Mountains are separated by the Lower-Moravian Valley (Czech: \"Dolnomoravský úval\"). The southern part of the region is predominantly flat and dominated by fields, meadows, and the remainders of riparian forests.  The largest river of the region is the Morava river. Other significant rivers are the Dyje, Svratka (and its tributary the Svitava), which are all tributaries of the Morava river. The whole region belongs to the drainage basin of the Danube and subsequently of the Black Sea.  There are a number of landscape parks (Czech: \"chráněná krajinná oblast\") located across the region: the White Carpathians Landscape Park, the Moravian Karst Landscape Park and Pálava Landscape Park. Moreover, Podyjí National Park is situated in the south-eastern part of the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Living conditions.", "content": "In 2016, three quarters of households in the region had a computer and 75% of the households had Internet connection. There were in total 781 thousand motor vehicles, of which 482 thousand were cars and 110 thousand were motorbikes.  The unemployment rate in the region was 4.3% as of October 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The nominal gross domestic product of the South Moravian Region was 397.2 billion CZK in 2011, which is 10.3% of the national GDP. Among other regions, South Moravian Region had the third largest share on the national GDP. The GDP per capita was 341,000 CZK in the same period, which is 93.6% of the national average.  Mechanical engineering has an essential role in the economy of the region. Important centers of mechanical engineering are Brno (PBS, Siemens, Zetor Brno), Blansko (ČKD Blansko, Metra Blansko), Kuřim (TOS Kuřim), Boskovice (Minerva, Novibra) and Břeclav (OTIS). Electrical engineering has a tradition for more than a century. Significant producers are Siemens Drásov, VUES Brno and ZPA Brno. Food industry forms another important sector, especially in the southern and eastern part of the region. Important activities are the meat processing, canning of fruits and vegetables (Znojmia, Fruta), sugar industry, brewing (Starobrno, Černá Hora, Vyškov and Hostan) and winemaking (Znovín Znojmo, Vinium Velké Pavlovice). Chemical and pharmaceutical industry is concentrated especially in Brno (Pliva-Lachema), Ivanovice na Hané (Bioveta) and Veverská Bítýška (Hartmann Rico). The South-Moravian Region has an important role in the nation and international transit. It is served by a network of motorways and roads of almost 4,500 km. The motorways D1 and D2 and the expressways R43 and R52 form the skeleton of the road network in the region. Brno is an important crossing of road and railway transport and a hub of the integrated regional public transport system.  Brno has an international airport Brno–Tuřany. The airport was opened in 1954 and in 2012 it served 535 thousand passengers. The agricultural land covers 426 thousand ha, which is 59.3% of all land in the region. The arable land occupies 49% of the total area. Znojmo District and Vyškov District have the highest proportion of arable land in the region. The agricultural production is oriented on the production of cereals, rapeseed and sugar beet. Other important agricultural sectors in the region are viticulture, fruit farming and vegetable growing. The viticulture is especially developed in Břeclav District, which has 46% of the total area of Czech vineyards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The South Moravian Region (; ; ) is an administrative unit () of the Czech Republic, located in the south-western part of its historical region of Moravia (an exception is Jobova Lhota which belongs to Bohemia). Its capital is Brno, the 2nd largest city in the Czech Republic. It is bordered by the South Bohemian Region (west), Vysočina Region (north-west), Pardubice Region (north), Olomouc Region (north east), Zlín Region (east), Trenčín and Trnava Regions, Slovakia (south east) and Lower Austria, Austria (south).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971194}
{"src_title": "Hradec Králové", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The city lies at the confluence of the Elbe and the Orlice rivers close to Krkonoše (Giant Mountains), the highest of the Czech mountains, with its peak, Sněžka (Snowhill), at 1,603 m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The original name of one of the oldest settlements in the Czech Republic was \"Hradec\" (the Castle); \"Králové\" (of the queen) was affixed when it became one of the dowry towns of Elisabeth Richeza of Poland (1286–1335), who lived there for thirty years, having been the second wife of two Bohemian Kings, Wenceslaus II and then Rudolph I of Habsburg. In Latin, the \"Castle of the Queen\" was called \"Grecz Reginae\", the original German \"Königingrätz\" was shortened to Königgrätz by 1800. It remained a dowry town until 1620.  Hradec Králové was the first town to declare for the national cause during the Hussite Wars in the first half of the 15th century. After the Battle of White Mountain (1620), a large segment of the Protestant population left the area. In 1639 the town was occupied for eight months by the Swedes. Several churches and convents were pulled down to make way for fortifications erected under Joseph II.  The Battle of Königgrätz, the decisive battle of the Austro-Prussian War, took place on 3 July 1866 near Hradec Králové. This event is commemorated in the famous \"Königgrätzer Marsch\". Moreover, the battle put an end to the age of fortifications, which were finally destroyed in 1884.  The city is situated in the centre of a very fertile region called the \"Golden Road\", at the confluence of the Elbe and the Orlice, and contains many buildings of historical and architectural interest. The Cathedral of the Holy Spirit was founded in 1303 by Elizabeth, and the church of St. John, built in 1710, stands on the ruins of the old castle. During the 1920s and 1930s the city grew rapidly, thanks to decisions made by the heads of the city to develop a modern city, which included razing the fortress and opening the town for expansion. During this era many buildings of modern architecture were built, and Hradec Králové became known as the \"Salon of the Republic\". This nickname was given to the city by its citizens, who were enamored by the architecture of Josef Gočár and Jan Kotěra.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Airport.", "content": "Hradec Králové Airport is a public domestic and private international airport located about from the city centre.  There are currently no scheduled flights operating to the airport. It is sometimes visited by private jet traffic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theatre.", "content": "Every May, an Air Ambulance Show is held for both the general public and Air Ambulance personnel. Every June the Theatre of European regions, an international theatre festival, takes place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Since 2004 the city hosts Hip Hop Kemp, one of the biggest European hip hop festivals, in August.  Since 2007 the city hosts Rock for People, the biggest rock festival in the Czech Republic, in July.  \"Jazz goes to town\", an international jazz festival, is held in Hradec Králové every October.  The city's museum currently holds one of the oldest surviving collections of Czech Renaissance polyphony, the Codex Speciálník manuscript.  The city is home to one of the Czech Republic's leading orchestras, the Hradec Králové Philharmonic Orchestra.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "The ice hockey club of Hradec Králové is Mountfield HK, which plays in the Czech Extraliga.  The most successful football club is FC Hradec Králové, which plays in the Czech National Football League.  The women's basketball team, Hradecké Lvice, plays in the national women basketball league.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Hradec Králové is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cooperation agreements.", "content": "Hradec Králové cooperates with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Hradec Králové (; ) is a city of the Czech Republic, in the Hradec Králové Region of Bohemia. The city's economy is based on food-processing technology, photochemical, electronics manufacturing services (EMS) and IT. Traditional industries include musical instrument manufacturing – the best known being Petrof pianos. The University of Hradec Králové is located in the city, the University of Defense has its only medical faculty in Hradec Králové and Charles University in Prague also has its Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Pharmacy there.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971195}
{"src_title": "Karlovy Vary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "An ancient late Bronze Age fortified settlement was found in Drahovice. A Slavic settlement on the site of Karlovy Vary is documented by findings in Tašovice and Sedlec. People lived in close proximity to the site as far back as the 13th century and they must have been aware of the curative effects of thermal springs.  From the end of the 12. century to the early 13. century, German settlers from nearby German-speaking regions came as settlers, craftsmen and miners to develop the region's economy. Eventually, Karlovy Vary/Karlsbad became a town with a German-speaking population.  Around 1350, Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor organized an expedition into the forests surrounding modern-day Karlovy Vary during a stay in Loket. On the site of a spring, he established a spa mentioned as \"in dem warmen Bade bey dem Elbogen\" in German, (\"Hot Spas at the ellbow\") or \"Horké Lázně u Lokte\". The location was subsequently named \"Karlovy Vary\" after the emperor, who extolled the healing powers of the hot springs, at least according to legend. Charles IV granted the town privileges on 14 August 1370. Earlier settlements can also be found on the outskirts of today's town.  An important political event took place in the town in 1819, with the issuing of the Carlsbad Decrees following a conference there. Initiated by the Austrian Minister of State Klemens von Metternich, the decrees were intended to implement anti-liberal censorship within the German Confederation.  Due to publications produced by physicians such as David Becher and Josef von Löschner, the town developed into a famous spa resort in the 19th century and was visited by many members of European aristocracy as well as celebrities from many fields of endeavour. It became even more popular after railway lines were completed from Prague to Cheb in 1870.  The number of visitors rose from 134 families in the 1756 season to 26,000 guests annually at the end of the 19th century. By 1911, that figure had reached 71,000, but the outbreak of World War I in 1914 greatly disrupted the tourism on which the town depended.  At the end of World War I in 1918, the large German-speaking population of Bohemia was incorporated into the new state of Czechoslovakia in accordance with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919). As a result, the German-speaking majority of Karlovy Vary protested. A demonstration on 4 March 1919 passed peacefully, but later that month, six demonstrators were killed by Czech troops after a demonstration became unruly.  In 1938, the majority German-speaking areas of Czechoslovakia, known as the Sudetenland, became part of Nazi Germany according to the terms of the Munich Agreement. After World War II, in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, the vast majority of the people of the town were forcibly expelled because of their German ethnicity. In accordance with the Beneš decrees, their property was confiscated without compensation, and the city was renamed again Karlovy Vary.  Since the end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia in 1989 and the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the presence of Russian businesses in Karlovy Vary has steadily increased.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics of the district, not the city.", "content": "In 1930 the city itself had 23,901 inhabitants, of which 20,856 were German, 1,446 Czech and 1,309 others. (In 1910: 17,446 inhabitants, 16,791 German and 95 Czech.)  In 2012, non-Czech residents were around 7% of the population of the Karlovy Vary region. After Prague, this is the highest proportion in the Czech Republic. The largest group of foreigners were Vietnamese, followed by Germans, Russians, and Ukrainians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Local buses (Dopravní Podnik Karlovy Vary) and cable cars take passengers to most areas of the city. The Imperial funicular is the oldest tunnel funicular in Europe and the steepest in the Czech Republic, the Diana funicular was at the time of commissioning the longest funicular in Austria-Hungary.  The city is accessible via the expressway R6 and inter-city public transport options include inter-city buses, Czech Railways, and Deutsche Bahn via the Karlovy Vary–Johanngeorgenstadt railway. Karlovy Vary Airport is an international airport located south-east from the city, at the nearby village of Olšová Vrata. In winter 2020, the airport is only serviced by scheduled flights to Moscow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "In the 19th century, Karlovy Vary became a popular tourist destination, especially known for international celebrities who visited for spa treatment. The city is also known for the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival, which is one of the oldest in the world and one of Europe's major film events.  It is also known for the popular Czech liqueur \"Becherovka\" and the production of the famous glass manufacturer Moser Glass, which is considered as the most luxurious Czech brand. The famous \"Karlovarské oplatky\" (Carlsbad wafers) originated in the city in 1867. It has also lent its name to \"Carlsbad plums\", candied stuffed zwetschgen.  The city has been used as the location for a number of film-shoots, including the 2006 films \"Last Holiday\" and box-office hit \"Casino Royale\", both of which used the city's Grandhotel Pupp in different guises. Moreover, the Palace Bristol Hotel in Karlovy Vary had been used as a model for The Grand Budapest Hotel movie.  Karlovy Vary is also home to ice hockey club HC Karlovy Vary and its junior branch HC Energie Karlovy Vary (juniors).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Carlsbad, New Mexico, United States (after which Carlsbad Caverns National Park is named), Carlsbad, California, USA Carlsbad Springs, Ontario, Canada, and Carlsbad, Texas, USA, take their names from Karlovy Vary's English name, Carlsbad. All of these places were so named because they were the sites of mineral springs or natural sources of mineral water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Karlovy Vary is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Published in the 19th century  Published in the 20th century", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karlovy Vary (; ) is a spa town situated in western Bohemia, Czech Republic, on the confluence of the rivers Ohře and Teplá, approximately west of Prague (Praha). It is named after Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia, who founded the city in 1370. It is the site of numerous hot springs (13 main springs, about 300 smaller springs, and the warm-water Teplá River), and is the most visited spa town in the Czech Republic. Until 1945, when the German-speaking inhabitants were expelled, the town was overwhelmingly German speaking for most of its history. The city has approximately 48,500 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971196}
{"src_title": "Jablonec nad Nisou", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The village of Jablonec was first mentioned in a Latin document from 1356 (\"in nouo Jablonecz\"). The name \"Jablonec\" is of Czech origin and means \"\"little apple tree\"\" (\"jablonče\" was a diminutive of the old Czech \"jabloň\" – \"apple tree\"), for the village was founded on a place where an apple tree grew. German-speaking settlers who came to the village during the 16th century adjusted the In name to \"Gablonz\". During the 19th century, the attribute \"German\" was often added to the name (like in the 1848, ). In 1904, the official attribute became \"on the Neisse\", which described the location of the town upon the river Lusatian Neisse (, ).  After the war, the expelled German-speaking citizens of Jablonec founded a new settlement in Bavaria and called in remembrance of their home town \"Neugablonz\" (\"New Jablonec\"). Today, it is one of the districts of the city of Kaufbeuren.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Jablonec was founded in the 14th century, according to the first written document which dates back to 1356. In August 1469, the village was burnt to the ground by troops of rebelling Lusatians in the war between them and King George of Bohemia. The village was then resettled during the 16th century by mostly German-speaking colonists.  In the 18th century, the first artificial jewellery was produced and the first exporter, J. F. Schwan, spread the town's name throughout Europe. The village of Gablonz was declared a \"market town\" by Emperor Francis II on 21 April 1808 and was given full town status by Emperor Francis Joseph on 28 March 1866. In the 19th century the town became prosperous and wealthy, as Gablonz traders seized the foreign markets. A steady supply of a wide range of glass and artificial jewellery products flowed out of the town. This industrial advancement also improved the quality of life, and Jablonec's appearance changed dramatically. However, Black Friday in 1929 damaged the glass and jewellery industry and the crisis of the 1930s with its unemployment and hunger led to great support of Nazis. In October 1938, Gablonz was occupied by Hitler's German Reich after the Munich Agreement, as a part of so-called Sudetenland. Before 1938, the population of Gablonz was composed of 86% German inhabitants, and the rest Czechs, Jews and many other groups. In Autumn 1938, most of the Jews, Czechs and anti-Nazi Germans escaped to other parts of Czechoslovakia and the Jewish synagogue was burned down. In May 1945, the town was liberated by the underground anti-Nazi groups together with some 700 French and Italian soldiers who were captives in Gablonz's camps.  Between 1945 and 1949, most of the Germans were expelled under the terms of Beneš decrees. However, a few thousand Germans who were active in struggle against the Nazi rule, Germans who had married Czechs, and Germans with special permits were allowed to stay home in Gablonz. Despite assimilation and emigration to Germany in 1968, the German minority in Gablonz still exists (there are some 1000–2000 in the town). With the exception of original Czech and Jewish Gablonz residents who returned to the area, many of the new Czech inhabitants of Gablonz came from nearby Czech towns and villages. Gablonz has also an important Greek minority, founded by Communist refugees of the Greek Civil War in 1949, and a minority of Roma. Some of the Germans expelled from Gablonz and its surroundings founded the quarter of Neugablonz near Kaufbeuren in Bavaria and a group in Enns in Upper Austria after 1950.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Present day.", "content": "Jablonec is a centre of active holiday tourism and sport, with a swimming pool, three football and athletic stadiums, an ice hockey arena, 13 gyms, and 16 playgrounds. It is also well known for its modern architecture from the 1900s, 1920s, and 1930s. The Jablonec valley dam is the northern-most intra-urban valley dam in Europe.  Jablonec holds the Czech Mint (Česká mincovna) after Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia (the Czechoslovakian mint, also known as the Kremnica Mint, is now in Slovakia).  Jablonec shares the tramway line which connects it to its neighboring city, Liberec.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Football.", "content": "The city is nowadays represented by FK Jablonec in the Czech First League.  Before the Second World War, a number of ethnic German football clubs existed in Gablonz, \"Fortuna\", \"DSK\" and \"BSK\". These were merged into \"NSTG Gablonz\" in 1939 by the Nazis, \"NSTG\" standing for \"Nationalsozialistische Turngemeinde\". \"NSTG\" played in the Gauliga Sudetenland but disappeared with the end of the war. \"BSK\" however was reformed in 1950 in Bavaria, under the name of BSK Neugablonz. In 2009, a friendly is planned between the \"BSK\" and FK Jablonec in an attempt to improve contacts between Neugablonz and Jablonec nad Nisou.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Jablonec nad Nisou is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jablonec nad Nisou (; ), known locally as Jablonec, is a city in northern Bohemia, the second-largest city of the Liberec Region. It is a mountain resort in the Jizera Mountains, and also a local centre for education, and is known for its glass and jewelry production. From 1938 to 1945 it was one of the municipalities in Sudetenland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971197}
{"src_title": "Fief", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "In ancient Rome, a \"benefice\" (from the Latin noun \"beneficium\", meaning \"benefit\") was a gift of land (\"precaria\") for life as a reward for services rendered, originally, to the state. In medieval Latin European documents, a land grant in exchange for service continued to be called a \"beneficium\" (Latin). Later, the term \"feudum\", or \"feodum\", began to replace \"beneficium\" in the documents. The first attested instance of this is from 984, although more primitive forms were seen up to one hundred years earlier. The origin of the \"feudum\" and why it replaced \"beneficium\" has not been well established, but there are multiple theories, described below.  The most widely held theory is put forth by Marc Bloch that it is related to the Frankish term \"*fehu-ôd\", in which \"*fehu\" means \"cattle\" and \"-ôd\" means \"goods\", implying \"a moveable object of value.\" When land replaced currency as the primary store of value, the Germanic word \"*fehu-ôd\" replaced the Latin word \"beneficium\". This Germanic origin theory was also shared by William Stubbs in the 19th century.  A theory put forward by Archibald R. Lewis is that the origin of 'fief' is not \"feudum\" (or \"feodum\"), but rather \"foderum\", the earliest attested use being in Astronomus's \"Vita Hludovici\" (840). In that text is a passage about Louis the Pious which says \"annona militaris quas vulgo foderum vocant\", which can be translated as \"(Louis forbade that) military provender which they popularly call 'fodder' (be furnished).\"  A theory by Alauddin Samarrai suggests an Arabic origin, from \"fuyū\" (the plural of \"fay\", which literally means \"the returned\", and was used especially for 'land that has been conquered from enemies that did not fight'). Samarrai's theory is that early forms of 'fief' include \"feo\", \"feu\", \"feuz\", \"feuum\" and others, the plurality of forms strongly suggesting origins from a loanword. First use of these terms was in Languedoc, one of the least-Germanized areas of Europe, and bordering Muslim Spain, where the earliest use of \"feuum\" as a replacement for \"beneficium\" can be dated to 899, the same year a Muslim base at Fraxinetum (La Garde-Freinet) in Provence was established. It is possible, Samarrai says, that French scribes, writing in Latin, attempted to transliterate the Arabic word \"fuyū\" (the plural of \"fay\"), which was being used by the Muslims at the time, resulting in a plurality of forms - \"feo, feu, feuz, feuum\" and others - from which eventually \"feudum\" derived. Samarrai, however, also advises medieval and early modern Muslim scribes often used etymologically \"fanciful roots\" in order to claim the most outlandish things to be of Arabian or Muslim origin.  In the 10th and 11th centuries the Latin terms for fee could be used either to describe dependent tenure held by a man from his lord, as the term is used now by historians, or it could mean simply \"property\" (the manor was, in effect, a small fief). It lacked a precise meaning until the middle of the 12th century, when it received formal definition from land lawyers.  In English usage, the word \"fee\" is first attested around 1250–1300 (Middle English); the word \"fief\" from around 1605–15. In French, the term \"fief\" is found from the middle of the 13th century (Old French), derived from the 11th-century terms \"feu\", \"fie\". The odd appearance of the second \"f\" in the form \"fief\" may be due to influence from the verb \"fiever\" 'to grant in fee'. In French, one also finds \"seigneurie\" (land and rights possessed by a \"seigneur\" or \"lord\", 12th-century), which gives rise to the expression \"seigneurial system\" to describe feudalism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early feudal grants.", "content": "Originally, vassalage did not imply the giving or receiving of landholdings (which were granted only as a reward for loyalty), but by the 8th century the giving of a landholding was becoming standard. The granting of a landholding to a vassal did not relinquish the lord's property rights, but only the use of the lands and their income; the granting lord retained ultimate ownership of the fee and could, technically, recover the lands in case of disloyalty or death. In Francia, Charles Martel was the first to make large-scale and systematic use (the practice had remained until then sporadic) of the remuneration of vassals by the concession of the usufruct of lands (a \"beneficatium\" or \"benefice\" in the documents) for the life of the vassal, or, sometimes extending to the second or third generation.  By the middle of the 10th century, fee had largely become hereditary. The eldest son of a deceased vassal would inherit, but first he had to do homage and fealty to the lord and pay a \"relief\" for the land (a monetary recognition of the lord's continuing proprietary rights over the property).  Historically, the fees of the 11th and the 12th century derived from two separate sources. The first was land carved out of the estates of the upper nobility. The second source was allodial land transformed into dependent tenures. During the 10th century in northern France and the 11th century in France south of the Loire, local magnates either recruited or forced the owners of allodial holdings into dependent relationships and they were turned into fiefs. The process occurred later in Germany, and was still going on in the 13th century.  In England, Henry II transformed them into important sources of royal income and patronage. The discontent of barons with royal claims to arbitrarily assessed \"reliefs\" and other feudal payments under Henry's son King John resulted in Magna Carta of 1215.  Eventually, great feudal lords sought also to seize governmental and legal authority (the collection of taxes, the right of high justice, etc.) in their lands, and some passed these rights to their own vassals.  The privilege of minting official coins developed into the concept of seigniorage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later feudal grants and knightly service.", "content": "In 13th-century Germany, Italy, England, France, and Spain the term \"feodum\" was used to describe a dependent tenure held from a lord by a vassal in return for a specified amount of knight service and occasional financial payments (feudal incidents).  However, knight service in war was far less common than:  A lord in late 12th-century England and France could also claim the right of:  In northern France in the 12th and 13th centuries, military service for fiefs was limited for offensive campaigns to 40 days for a knight. By the 12th century, English and French kings and barons began to commute military service for cash payments (scutages), with which they could purchase the service of mercenaries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feudal registers.", "content": "A list of several hundred such fees held in chief between 1198 and 1292, along with their holders' names and form of tenure, was published in three volumes between 1920 and 1931 and is known as \"The Book of Fees\"; it was developed from the 1302 \"Testa de Nevill\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A fief (; ) was the central element of feudalism. It consisted of heritable property or rights granted by an overlord to a vassal who held it in fealty (or \"in fee\") in return for a form of feudal allegiance and service, usually given by the personal ceremonies of homage and fealty. The fees were often lands or revenue-producing real property held in feudal land tenure: these are typically known as fiefs or fiefdoms. However, not only land but anything of value could be held in fee, including governmental office, rights of exploitation such as hunting or fishing, monopolies in trade, and tax farms.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971198}
{"src_title": "Rudolf Bultmann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Bultmann was born on 20 August 1884 in Wiefelstede, Oldenburg, the son of Arthur Kennedy Bultmann, a Lutheran minister. He did his \"Abitur\" at the \"Altes Gymnasium\" in the city of Oldenburg, and studied theology at Tübingen. After three terms, Bultmann went to the University of Berlin for two terms, and finally to Marburg for two more terms. He received his degree in 1910 from Marburg with a dissertation on the Epistles of St Paul, written under the supervision of Johannes Weiss. After submitting a Habilitation two years later, he became a lecturer on the New Testament at Marburg.  Bultmann married Helene Feldmann on 6 August 1917. The couple had three daughters. Bultmann's wife died in 1973.  After brief lectureships at Breslau and Giessen, Bultmann returned to Marburg in 1921 as a full professor, and stayed there until his retirement in 1951. From autumn 1944 until the end of the Second World War in 1945 he took into his family Uta Ranke-Heinemann, who had fled the bombs and destruction in Essen.  Bultmann was a student of Hermann Gunkel, Johannes Weiss, and Wilhelm Heitmüller. His doctoral students included Hans Jonas, Ernst Käsemann, Günther Bornkamm, Helmut Koester, and Ernst Fuchs. He also taught Hannah Arendt.  He was a member of the Confessing Church and critical towards Nazism. He spoke out against the mistreatment of Jews, against nationalistic excesses and against the dismissal of non-Aryan Christian ministers. He did not, however, speak out against \"the antiSemitic[sic] laws which had already been promulgated\" and he was philosophically limited in his ability to \"repudiate, in a comprehensive manner, the central tenets of Nazi racism and antiSemitism[sic].\"  Bultmann became friends with Martin Heidegger who taught at Marburg for five years, and Heidegger's views on existentialism had an influence on Bultmann's thinking. What arose from this friendship was a \"sort of comradery\" grounded on an active and open dialogue between Bultmann and Heidegger from 1923-1928. However, Bultmann himself stated that his views could not simply be reduced to thinking in Heideggerian categories, in that \"the New Testament is not a doctrine about our nature, about our authentic existence as human beings, but a proclamation of this liberating act of God.\"  He died on 30 July 1976 in Marburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theological approaches.", "content": "Bultmann's \"History of the Synoptic Tradition\" (1921) remains highly influential as a tool for biblical research, even among scholars who reject his analyses of the conventional rhetorical pericopes (narrative units) which comprise the gospels, and the historically-oriented principles of \"form criticism\" of which Bultmann was the most influential exponent. According to Bultmann's definition, \"[t]he aim of form-criticism [\"sic\"] is to determine the original form of a piece of narrative, a dominical saying or a parable. In the process we learn to distinguish secondary additions and forms, and these in turn lead to important results for the history of the tradition.\" In 1941 Bultmann applied form criticism to the Gospel of John, in which he distinguished the presence of a lost Signs Gospel on which John — alone of the evangelists — depended. His monograph, \"Das Evangelium des Johannes\", highly controversial at the time, became a milestone in research into the historical Jesus. The same year his lecture \"New Testament and Mythology: The Problem of Demythologizing the New Testament Message\" called on interpreters to demythologize The New Testament, in particular he argued for replacing supernatural biblical interpretations with temporal and existential categorizations. His argument, in many ways, reflected a hermeneutical adaption of the existentialist thought of his colleague at the time, the philosopher Martin Heidegger. This approach led Bultmann to reject doctrines such as the pre-existence of Christ. Bultmann believed his endeavors in this regard would make accessible to modern audiences — already immersed in science and technology — the significance (or existential quality) of Jesus' teachings. Bultmann thus thought of his endeavor of \"demythologizing the New Testament proclamation\" as fundamentally an evangelism task, clarifying the \"kerygma\", or gospel proclamation, by stripping it of elements of the first-century \"mythical world picture\" that had potential to alienate modern people from Christian faith:  It is impossible to repristinate a past world picture by sheer resolve, especially a \"mythical\" world picture, now that all of our thinking is irrevocably formed by science. A blind acceptance of New Testament mythology would be simply arbitrariness; to make such acceptance a demand of faith would be to reduce faith to a work. Bultmann saw theology in existential terms, and maintained that the New Testament was a radical text, worthy of understanding yet questioned in his time because of the prevailing Protestant conviction in a supernatural interpretation. In both the boasting of legalists \"who are faithful to the law\" and the boasting of the philosophers \"who are proud of their wisdom\", Bultmann finds a \"basic human attitude\" of \"highhandedness that tries to bring within our own power even the submission that we know to be our authentic being\". Standing against all human high-handedness is the New Testament, \"which claims that we can in no way free ourselves from our factual fallenness in the world but are freed from it only by an act of God... the salvation occurrence that is realized in Christ.\" Bultmann remained convinced that the narratives of the life of Jesus offered theology in story form, teaching lessons in the familiar language of myth. They were not to be excluded, but given explanation so they could be understood for today. Bultmann thought faith should become a present-day reality. To Bultmann, the people of the world appeared to be always in disappointment and turmoil. Faith must be a determined vital act of will, not a culling and extolling of \"ancient proofs\". Bultmann said about salvation and eternity: \"As from now on there are only believers and unbelievers, so there are also now only saved and lost, those who have life and those who are in death.\"  Bultmann carried Form criticism so far as to call the historical value of the gospels into serious question. Some scholars, such as Craig L. Blomberg, criticized Bultmann and other critics for excessive skepticism regarding the historical reliability of the gospel narratives. The full impact of Bultmann was felt with the English translation of many of his works, notably \"Kerygma and Mythos\" (1948).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudolf Karl Bultmann (; 20 August 1884 – 30 July 1976) was a German Lutheran theologian and professor of the New Testament at the University of Marburg. He was one of the major figures of early-20th-century biblical studies. A prominent critic of liberal theology, Bultmann instead argued for an existentialist interpretation of the New Testament. His hermeneutical approach to the New Testament led him to be a proponent of dialectical theology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971199}
{"src_title": "Hurtigruten", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Hurtigruten was established in 1893 by government contract to improve communications along Norway's long, jagged coastline. began the first round-trip journey from Trondheim on 2 July 1893 bound for Hammerfest, with calls at Rørvik, Brønnøy, Sandnessjøen, Bodø, Svolvær, Lødingen, Harstad, Tromsø and Skjervøy. The ship arrived at Svolvær on Monday 3 July at 8pm after 351⁄2 hours and at Hammerfest on Wednesday 5 July after 67 hours. She was commanded by founder of the route Richard With. At that time this was the fastest route between northern and southern Norway, and this resulted in the route being named Hurtigruten (express route). As of 2008, the Trondheim–Svolvær trip took 33 hours and the Trondheim–Hammerfest trip took 41 hours 15 min.  Before Hurtigruten opened, only Vesteraalens Dampskibsselskab was willing to make the trip through the then poorly-charted waters; the voyage was especially difficult during the long, dark winters. Hurtigruten was a substantial breakthrough for communities along its path. Mail from central Norway to Hammerfest, which used to take three weeks in summer and five months in winter, could now be delivered in seven days.  Encouraged by Vesteraalens' early success, several other shipping companies obtained a concession to operate the route, extended to run between Bergen in the southwest and Kirkenes in the far northeast. A fleet of 11 ships visits each of the 34 ports daily, both northbound and southbound.  Until the 1940s most ports north of Trondheim could not be reached by road from Oslo, so the sea was the only means of access. Beginning in the 1960s, the role of Hurtigruten changed, in part because of the construction of a local airport network and road improvements. Operating subsidies were gradually phased out, and the operators put more emphasis on tourism. New, bigger and more luxurious ships were introduced in the 1980s, with attention given to hot tubs, bars, restaurants and other comforts. However, Hurtigruten still serves important passenger and cargo needs, and operates 365 days a year. The last two independent shipping companies, Ofotens og Vesteraalens Dampskibsselskab (OVDS) and Troms Fylkes Dampskibsselskap (TFDS), merged on 1 March 2006 as the Hurtigruten Group, a year later becoming Hurtigruten ASA. In 2015 Hurtigruten was delisted from the Oslo stock exchange after the company was acquired by the private equity group TDR Capital. In addition to the voyages in Norway, the company operates expedition cruises to Greenland, Canada, South America, Iceland, Svalbard and Antarctica.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "New contracts.", "content": "The Ministry of Transport and Communications in Norway announced in 2017 that the Hurtigruten contract was split into three contracts. The contracts were put up for bid and in the end, two were granted to Hurtigruten AS and one to Havila Kystruten AS, with each operating seven and four ships respectively. The two companies will alternate departure days for the entire route from Bergen to Kirkenes.  Havila Kystruten AS is building four new vessels to serve the route, while Hurtigruten AS will be refitting seven of its vessels to meet the stricter emissions requirements.  The four new vessels from Havila will run on LNG and battery power. LNG will cut CO2 emissions by 25 per cent, and the battery power will yield additional savings. The vessels will be named Havila Capella, Havila Castor, Havila Polaris and Havila Pollux. All four vessels are under construction at Tersan shipyard in Turkey.  Existing vessels from Hurtigruten will be modernized and renovated in order to meet the new requirements. MS Eirik Raude, MS Trollfjord and MS Otto Sverdrup are all getting modernized and renovated with a scandinavian interior style similar to the expedition vessels MS Roald Amundsen and MS Fridtjof Nansen.  The ships will be fitted with filters and LNG compatible engines in order to reduce emissions by 25%. The ships will also get hybrid motors, and battery packs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current fleet.", "content": "MS Eirik Raude  MS Trollfjord (Will be renamed MS Maud)  MS Nordlys  MS Otto Sverdrup  MS Vesterålen  MS Kong Harald  MS Nordnorge  MS Polarlys  MS Spitsbergen  MS Lofoten  MS Nordkapp  MS Richard With", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Places visited on coastal route.", "content": "In order, northbound:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Live television broadcast.", "content": "As part of its slow television series, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation transmitted non-stop the Hurtigruten ship's 134-hour voyage from Bergen to Kirkenes, which started on June 16, 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-World War II accidents and incidents.", "content": "Before World War II, a number of ships perished, usually because they ran aground in bad visibility.  Most of the Hurtigruten fleet was sunk during World War II.  In September 1954 ran aground in Raftsundet at night. The ship started taking on water and sank. Five persons died. There were 157 passengers and a crew of 46 on board.  On January 8, 1958, a fire broke out on board MS \"Erling Jarl\" while the vessel was docked at Bodø. Due to the thick smoke 14 people died of smoke inhalation. Today a memorial to the incident stands at Bodø.  On October 21, 1962 MS \"Sanct Svithun\" ran onto a reef in the maritime area Folda in Nord-Trøndelag because of a major navigational error after leaving Trondheim. Of 89 persons on board (passengers, crew and two postal officers) 41 died.  In 2011 suffered an engine room fire, leading to two deaths among the crew.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hurtigruten (\"Express Route\", formally The coastal route Bergen-Kirkenes) is a Norwegian public coastal route transporting passengers that travel locally, regionally and between the ports of call, and also cargo between ports north of Tromsø.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971200}
{"src_title": "Speech", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production.", "content": "Speech production is a multi-step process by which thoughts are generated into spoken utterances. Production involves the selection of appropriate words and the appropriate form of those words from the lexicon and morphology, and the organization of those words through the syntax. Then, the phonetic properties of the words are retrieved and the sentence is uttered through the articulations associated with those phonetic properties.  In linguistics (articulatory phonetics), articulation refers to how the tongue, lips, jaw, vocal cords, and other speech organs used to produce sounds are used to make sounds. Speech sounds are categorized by manner of articulation and place of articulation. Place of articulation refers to where the airstream in the mouth is constricted. Manner of articulation refers to the manner in which the speech organs interact, such as how closely the air is restricted, what form of airstream is used (e.g. pulmonic, implosive, ejectives, and clicks), whether or not the vocal cords are vibrating, and whether the nasal cavity is opened to the airstream. The concept is primarily used for the production of consonants, but can be used for vowels in qualities such as voicing and nasalization. For any place of articulation, there may be several manners of articulation, and therefore several homorganic consonants.  Normal human speech is pulmonic, produced with pressure from the lungs, which creates phonation in the glottis in the larynx, which is then modified by the vocal tract and mouth into different vowels and consonants. However humans can pronounce words without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal speech, of which there are three types: esophageal speech, pharyngeal speech and buccal speech (better known as Donald Duck talk).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Speech errors.", "content": "Speech production is a complex activity, and as a consequence errors are common, especially in children. Speech errors come in many forms and are often used to provide evidence to support hypotheses about the nature of speech. As a result, speech errors are often used in the construction of models for language production and child language acquisition. For example, the fact that children often make the error of over-regularizing the -ed past tense suffix in English (e.g. saying'singed' instead of'sang') shows that the regular forms are acquired earlier. Speech errors associated with certain kinds of aphasia have been used to map certain components of speech onto the brain and see the relation between different aspects of production: for example, the difficulty of expressive aphasia patients in producing regular past-tense verbs, but not irregulars like'sing-sang' has been used to demonstrate that regular inflected forms of a word are not individually stored in the lexicon, but produced from affixation of the base form.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Perception.", "content": "Speech perception refers to the processes by which humans can interpret and understand the sounds used in language. The study of speech perception is closely linked to the fields of phonetics and phonology in linguistics and cognitive psychology and perception in psychology. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how listeners recognize speech sounds and use this information to understand spoken language. Research into speech perception also has applications in building computer systems that can recognize speech, as well as improving speech recognition for hearing- and language-impaired listeners.  Speech perception is categorical, in that people put the sounds they hear into categories rather than perceiving them as a spectrum. People are more likely to be able to hear differences in sounds across categorical boundaries than within them. A good example of this is voice onset time (VOT). For example, Hebrew speakers, who distinguish voiced /b/ from voiceless /p/, will more easily detect a change in VOT from -10 ( perceived as /b/ ) to 0 ( perceived as /p/ ) than a change in VOT from +10 to +20, or -10 to -20, despite this being an equally large change on the VOT spectrum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Repetition.", "content": "In speech repetition, speech being heard is quickly turned from sensory input into motor instructions needed for its immediate or delayed vocal imitation (in phonological memory). This type of mapping plays a key role in enabling children to expand their spoken vocabulary. Masur (1995) found that how often children repeat novel words versus those they already have in their lexicon is related to the size of their lexicon later on, with young children who repeat more novel words having a larger lexicon later in development. Speech repetition could help facilitate the acquisition of this larger lexicon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Problems involving speech.", "content": "There are several organic and psychological factors that can affect speech. Among these are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brain physiology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The classical model.", "content": "The classical or Wernicke-Geschwind model of the language system in the brain focuses on Broca's area in the inferior prefrontal cortex, and Wernicke's area in the posterior superior temporal gyrus on the dominant hemisphere of the brain (typically the left hemisphere for language). In this model, a linguistic auditory signal is first sent from the auditory cortex to Wernicke's area. The lexicon is accessed in Wernicke's area, and these words are sent via the arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area, where morphology, syntax, and instructions for articulation are generated. This is then sent from Broca's area to the motor cortex for articulation.  Paul Broca identified an approximate region of the brain in 1861 which, when damaged in two of his patients, caused severe deficits in speech production, where his patients were unable to speak beyond a few monosyllabic words. This deficit, known as Broca's or expressive aphasia, is characterized by difficulty in speech production where speech is slow and labored, function words are absent, and syntax is severely impaired, as in telegraphic speech. In expressive aphasia, speech comprehension is generally less affected except in the comprehension of grammatically complex sentences. Wernicke's area is named after Carl Wernicke, who in 1874 proposed a connection between damage to the posterior area of the left superior temporal gyrus and aphasia, as he noted that not all aphasic patients had suffered damage to the prefrontal cortex. Damage to Wernicke's area produces Wernicke's or receptive aphasia, which is characterized by relatively normal syntax and prosody but severe impairment in lexical access, resulting in poor comprehension and nonsensical or jargon speech.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern research.", "content": "Modern models of the neurological systems behind linguistic comprehension and production recognize the importance of Broca's and Wernicke's areas, but are not limited to them nor solely to the left hemisphere. Instead, multiple streams are involved in speech production and comprehension. Damage to the left lateral sulcus has been connected with difficulty in processing and producing morphology and syntax, while lexical access and comprehension of irregular forms (e.g. eat-ate) remain unaffected. Moreover, the circuits involved in human speech comprehension dynamically adapt with learning, for example, by becoming more efficient in terms of processing time when listening to familiar messages such as learned verses.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Speech is human vocal communication using language. Each language uses phonetic combinations of vowel and consonant sounds that form the sound of its words (that is, all English words sound different from all French words, even if they are the same word, e.g., \"role\" or \"hotel\"), and using those words in their semantic character as words in the lexicon of a language according to the syntactic constraints that govern lexical words' function in a sentence. In speaking, speakers perform many different intentional speech acts, e.g., informing, declaring, asking, persuading, directing, and can use enunciation, intonation, degrees of loudness, tempo, and other non-representational or paralinguistic aspects of vocalization to convey meaning. In their speech speakers also unintentionally communicate many aspects of their social position such as sex, age, place of origin (through accent), physical states (alertness and sleepiness, vigor or weakness, health or illness), psychic states (emotions or moods), physico-psychic states (sobriety or drunkenness, normal consciousness and trance states), education or experience, and the like.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971201}
{"src_title": "Small caps", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "Small caps are often used for sections of text that should be emphasized and where a run of uppercase capital letters would appear jarring to the reader. For example, the style of many American publications, including the \"Atlantic Monthly\" and \"USA Today\", is to use small caps for acronyms and initialisms longer than three letters—thus \"U.S.\" in normal caps, but \"ɴᴀᴛᴏ\" in small caps. The initialisms ᴄᴇ, ʙᴄᴇ, ᴀᴍ, and ᴘᴍ are often typeset in small caps.  In printed plays and stage directions, small caps are usually used for the names of characters before their lines.  French and some British publications use small caps to indicate the surname by which someone with a long formal name is to be designated in the rest of a written work. An elementary example is Don Qᴜɪxᴏᴛᴇ de La Mancha. Similarly, they are used for those languages in which the surname comes first, such as the Romanization Mᴀᴏ Zedong.  In many versions of the Old Testament of the Bible, the word \"Lᴏʀᴅ\" is set in small caps. Typically, an ordinary \"Lord\" corresponds to the use of the word \"Adonai\" in the original Hebrew, but the small caps \"Lᴏʀᴅ\" corresponds to the use of \"Yahweh\" in the original; in some versions the compound \"Lord Gᴏᴅ\" represents the Hebrew compound \"Adonai Yahweh\".  In zoological and botanical nomenclature, it is common use to print names of the family group in small caps.  Linguists use small caps to analyze the morphology and tag (gloss) the parts of speech in a sentence; e.g.,  \"The Bluebook\" prescribes small caps for some titles and names in United States legal citations.  In many books, when one part of the book mentions another part of the same book, or mentions the work as a whole, the name is set in small caps (sometimes typesetting small caps after transforming to Title Case), not italics and not roman type within quotation marks. For example, articles in \"The World Book Encyclopedia\" refer to the encyclopedia as a whole and to the encyclopedia's other articles in small caps, as in the \"Insurance\" article's direction, at one point, to \"See Nᴏ-Fᴀᴜʟᴛ Iɴsᴜʀᴀɴᴄᴇ\", \"No-Fault Insurance\" being another of the encyclopedia's articles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "George Eliot's 1856 essay \"Silly Novels by Lady Novelists\" is critical of Victorian novelists for using excessive small caps and italics to indicate unnecessary emphasis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Computer support for small caps.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fonts.", "content": "The OpenType font standard provides support for transformations from normal letters to small caps by two feature tags, codice_1 and codice_2. A font may use the tag codice_1 to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to small caps, and the tag codice_2 to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to small caps.  Small capitals are not found in all fonts, as they were primarily used within body text and so are often not found in fonts that are not intended for this purpose, such as many sans-serif families. Some font families, especially digitisations of older metal type designs, often lack small caps in bold or italics, only having them in the regular or roman style. This is because they were normally only used in body text and cutting bold and italic small caps was thought unnecessary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Word processors.", "content": "Professional desktop publishing applications supporting genuine small caps include Quark XPress, and Adobe Creative Suite applications.  Most word processing applications, including Microsoft Word and Pages, do not automatically substitute true small caps when working with OpenType fonts such as Hoefler Text that include them, instead generating scaled ones. These applications must therefore work with fonts that have true small caps as a completely separate style, similar to bold or italic. Few free and open-source fonts have this feature; an exception is Georg Duffner's EB Garamond, in open beta. LibreOffice Writer started allowing true small caps for OpenType fonts since version 5.3, they can be enabled via a syntax used in the Font Name input box, including font name, a colon, feature tag, an equals sign and feature value, for example, codice_5, and version 6.2 added a dialog to switch.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unicode.", "content": "Although small caps are not usually \"semantically important\", the Unicode standard does define a number of \"small capital\" characters in the IPA extensions, Phonetic Extensions and Latin Extended-D ranges (0250–02AF, 1D00–1D7F, A720–A7FF). These characters, with official names such as, are meant for use in phonetic representations. For example, ʀ represents a uvular trill.  As of Unicode 13.0, the only character missing from the ISO basic Latin alphabet is the small-capital version of X.  The following table shows the existing Unicode small capital characters for the ISO basic Latin alphabet:  Additionally, a few less-common Latin characters, several Greek characters and a single Cyrillic character used in Latin-script notation (ᴫ, small capital Л) also have small capitals encoded:  Superscript small caps are the following:. Combining small caps are the following: ◌ᷛ ◌ᷞ ◌ᷟ ◌ᷡ ◌ᷢ.  Since these glyphs come from different ranges, they may not be of the same size and style, because few typefaces supply all of them.  These \"small capital\" characters should not be confused with the Unicode Standard's typographical convention of using small caps for formal Unicode character names in running text. For example, the name of U+0416 Ж is conventionally shown as.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cascading Style Sheets.", "content": "Small caps can be specified in the web page presentation language CSS using. For example, the HTML renders as  Since the CSS styles the text, and no actual case transformation is applied, readers are still able to copy the normally-capitalized plain text from the web page as rendered by a browser.  CSS3 can specify OpenType small caps (given the'smcp' feature in the font replaces glyphs with proper small caps glyphs) by using, which is the recommended way, or, which is (as of May 2014) the most widely used way. If the font does not have small-cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed. renders as", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Computer support for petite caps.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fonts.", "content": "The OpenType font standard provides support for transformations from normal letters to petite caps by two feature tags, codice_6 and codice_7. A font may use the tag codice_6 to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to petite caps, and the tag codice_7 to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to petite caps.  Desktop publishing applications, as well as web browsers, can use these features to display petite caps. However, only a few currently do so. LibreOffice can use the method.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cascading Style Sheets.", "content": "As of September 2018, there is no specific support for petite caps in web pages using the CSS Fonts Module Level 3 by the W3C, but can be specified by using font-feature-settings: 'pcap';. If the font does not have petite-cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In typography, small capitals (usually abbreviated small caps) are lowercase characters typeset with glyphs that resemble uppercase letters (\"capitals\") but reduced in height and weight, close to the surrounding lowercase (\"small\") letters or text figures. This is technically a case-transformation, but a substitution of glyphs, although the effect is often simulated by case-transformation and scaling. Small caps are used in running text as a form of emphasis that is less dominant than all uppercase text, and as a method of emphasis or distinctiveness for text alongside or instead of italics, or when boldface is inappropriate. For example, the text \"Text in small caps\" appears as Tᴇxᴛ ɪɴ sᴍᴀʟʟ ᴄᴀᴘs in small caps. Small caps can be used to draw attention to the opening phrase or line of a new section of text, or to provide an additional style in a dictionary entry where many parts must be typographically differentiated.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971202}
{"src_title": "Wolin (town)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The ford across the river Dziwna on which Wolin is located has been used as far back as the Stone Age. Archaeological excavations of soil layers indicate that there was a settlement in the area during the Migration period, at the turn of the 5th and 6th centuries. The place was then abandoned for approximately hundred years. At the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 9th century the area was leveled and a new settlement constructed. The earliest evidence of fortifications dates to the first half of the 9th century. In the second half of the 9th century there was a central fortified area and two suburbs, to the north and south of the center. These became enclosed and fortified between the end of the 9th and the 10th centuries.  In the 8th century there was a West Slavic settlement on the island. The name of the local tribe was recorded as \"Velunzani\" (Wolinians) in the 9th century by the Bavarian Geographer, and is considered a sub-tribe of both the Slavic Pomeranians and the Veleti (later Lutizians). The Wolinians are described by Jan Maria Piskorski as the most powerful Pomeranian tribe, due to their control of a multi-ethnic emporium at the site of the present-day town. Similar emporia were also set up elsewhere along the southern coastline of the Baltic Sea since the 8th century. This emporium, by contemporary chronicles referred to as \"Jumne\" or \"Julin\", began to prosper in the 9th century. Archaeological research has revealed seaside fortifications that have been dated back to the beginning 10th century, and also remnants of older fortifications, probably pointing to an earlier burgh with an adjacent open settlement. In the 960s, the Jewish merchant Ibrahim ibn Jakub described the settlement as a town with several thousand inhabitants and twelve gates. Besides the Wolinians, there were Scandinavian, Saxons and Rus' (people). Later, the town was mentioned in the chronicles of Adam of Bremen. Adam mentioned a lighthouse, which he described as \"the lamp of Vulcan\". All these descriptions contributed to the Vineta legend. Though other towns are also considered possible locations of Vineta, it is believed today to be identical with Wolin. The same is true for Jomsborg, a stronghold set up by Danish king Harald Bluetooth and Swedish prince Styrbjörn in the course of Harald's internal struggles with his son, Sweyn Forkbeard, in the 970s or 980s, which housed a garrison of soldiers known as Jomsvikings.  In the late 10th century, the Polish dukes Mieszko I and Bolesław I Chrobry subdued parts of Pomerania and also fought the Wolinians. Despite a victory of Mieszko in a 967 battle, the Polish dukes, according to Jan Maria Piskorski, did not succeed to subdue the area. Władysław Filipowiak however says that the battle \"probably led to the establishment of the rule of the winner over the town.\" In 1982, Joachim Herrmann suggested that Boleslaw had established a Viking colony under Palnatoki there to defend his realm, a thesis that in 2000 had been revisited by Leszek Słupecki who like Władysław Duczko (2000) called for further research on resident Vikings in Jomsborg/Wolin. Filipowiak says that, based on the archaeological evidence, \"there might actually have existed in Wolin a mercenary company placed by the Piast rulers in the unruly town, which in 1007 informed the German Emperor that Boleslaw the Brave had been weaving a dangerous plot,\" but also points out the need for further research on this subject. The meeting with Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor in Regensburg on 6 April 1007 resulted in the latter declaring war on Boleslaw, after Wolinian and other delegates had reported that Boleslaw was preparing for war and had sought their support by offering money and making promises. Oskar Eggert and Filipowiak say that suggests that the town was independent in its policies by that time. Filipowiak further says that in the 11th century, Wolin became a \"save haven for Danish refugees, which in that period led to inner unrest and conflicts as well as pirate activities.\" Much of Wolin was destroyed in 1043 by Dano-Norwegian King Magnus the Good, who however failed to conquer its center. Also in the mid-11th century, export and wealth were greatly reduced, in part due to the breakdown of the Polish market. Yet the Wolinians retained their independence and continued to house refugees from the Danish opposition, causing Danish king Erik I Evergood to mount another campaign in 1098. In 1121/22, the Polish duke Bolesław III Wrymouth conquered the area along with the Duchy of Pomerania under Wartislaw I. Boleslaw aimed at Christianizing the area and in 1122 sent the Spanish eremite Bernard on a mission to Wolin. The inhabitants, reluctant to convert to a religion of a man who did not even wear shoes, beat him up badly and expelled him. With the approval of both Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor, and Pope Callixtus II, Boleslaw initiated another mission of Saint Otto of Bamberg in 1124. When Otto, a respected and wealthy man accompanied by German and Polish clergymen and military units, arrived in Wolin, he had already successfully converted the Pyritz and Cammin areas. Yet, he was met with distrust, and the town's inhabitants finally gave in to convert to Christianity only if Otto managed to convert Szczecin, which the Wolinians assumed was unachievable. Yet, when Otto after two month work and threatening with another military intervention managed to convert Szczecin, he returned to Wolin and the Wolinians accepted conversion.  Otto's second mission in 1128 was initiated by Holy Roman Emperor Lothair in 1128 after a pagan reaction. While this second mission was oriented more towards Western Pomerania, Otto also visited Wolin again. Wartislaw I, Duke of Pomerania supported and aided both missions. In 1140, Wolin was made the first episcopal see in Pomerania: Pope Innocent II founded the diocese by a papal bull of 14 October, and made Wolin's church of \"St. Adalbert\" its see. However, the see was moved to Grobe Abbey on the island of Usedom after 1150.  At the same time Wolin economically decayed and was devastated by Danish expeditions, which contributed to the move of the episkopal see to Grobe. The Danish campaigns completely wiped out the town in the late 12th century.  On the ruins of the early medieval town, a new town was founded and granted Lübeck Law. The town remained in the Duchy of Pomerania (which was a vassal of Denmark from 1185, and afterwards was within the Holy Roman Empire since 1227), passing with the duchy to the Swedish Crown following the Treaty of Stettin (1630), the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaty of Stettin (1653). Since the Treaty of Stockholm (Great Northern War) of 1720, it was incorporated into the Prussian Province of Pomerania.  The town subsequently became part of the German Empire in 1871, then its successor states the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich. During World War II, the Germans operated a forced labour camp for French and Belgian prisoners of war from the Stalag II-B POW camp. In 1945, with the conclusion of the Second World War, Wollin was conquered by the Red Army and handed over to Poland and the German population was expelled in accordance to the Potsdam Agreement. The town was once again named Wolin and resettled by Poles.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wolin () is a town in northwestern Poland, situated on the southern tip of the Wolin island off the Baltic coast of the historic region of Pomerania. The island lies at the edge of the strait of Dziwna in Kamień Pomorski County in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971203}
{"src_title": "Anklam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the early Middle Ages, there was an important Scandinavian and Wendish settlement in the area near the present town now known as Altes Lager Menzlin. Anklam proper began as an associated Wendish fortress.  In the Middle Ages the town was a part of the Duchy of Pomerania. During the German expansion eastwards, the abandoned fortress was developed into a settlement named Tanglim after its new founder. The site possesses importance as the head of navigation on the Peene. It was elevated to town status in 1244 and became a member of the Hanseatic League the same year or in 1483. The town remained small and non-influential, but achieved a measure of wealth and prosperity with its membership.  As a town of considerable military importance, it suffered greatly during the Thirty Years' War when Swedish and Imperial troops battled over it across a twenty-year span. Amid this and subsequent wars, it also endured repeated outbreaks of fire and plague. It was occupied by imperial forces from 1627 to 1630, and thereafter by Swedish forces. After the war, Anklam became part of Swedish Pomerania in 1648. In 1676, it was captured by Frederick William of Brandenburg.  In 1713, Anklam was looted by soldiers of the Russian Empire. That it was not burned to the ground, as ordered by Peter the Great, was in large part due to the resistance of Christian Thomesen Carl (\"Carlson\"), after whom a street is named in remembrance. The southern parts of the town were ceded to Prussia by the 1720 Treaty of Stockholm, while a smaller section north of the Peene remained Swedish. It was damaged again during the Seven Years' War in the 1750s and '60s, with its fortifications being effectively dismantled in 1762. Sweden yielded its remaining part of the town in 1815, when all of Western Pomerania became part of the Prussian province of Pomerania.  In the 19th century, Anklam was connected with Berlin and Stettin by rail and developed its manufacture of linen and woolen goods, leather, beer, and soap. Its 1871 population was 10,739, which had risen to 14,602 by the turn of the century. By the time of the First World War, it possessed a military school and developed iron foundries and sugar factories. In 1939 the Wehrmacht took over the military school and constructed a military prison on the grounds.  Anklam was nearly completely destroyed by several bombing raids of the U.S. Air Force in 1943 and 1944 and in the last days of World War II, when the advancing Soviets burned and leveled most of the town. After Prussia and its Pomeranian province were dissolved and most of Pomerania was allocated to Poland under the terms of the Potsdam Conference, Anklam became part of the East German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. That was soon to be dissolved, too, and Anklam was within the district of Neubrandenburg. The town was rebuilt in the rather uniform socialist style.  After the 1990 reunification of Germany, Anklam became part of the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, re-created at that time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "Anklam was a prosperous medieval city but suffered severely during the Thirty Years' War, the Seven Years' War, and the Second World War, as well as from periodic fires. Nonetheless, Anklam has some significant buildings remaining. The 12th-century church of St Mary was rebuilt in the 15th century, had a modern spire added in the 19th, and was repaired in 1947.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Anklam is connected with the Autobahn 20 coastal highway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Anklam is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anklam [], formerly known as Tanglim and Wendenburg, is a town in the Western Pomerania region of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is situated on the banks of the Peene river, just 8 km from its mouth in the \"Kleines Haff\", the western part of the Stettin Lagoon. Anklam has a population of 14,603 (2005) and was the capital of the former Ostvorpommern district. Since September 2011, it has been part of the district of Vorpommern-Greifswald.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971204}
{"src_title": "Capsella bursa-pastoris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Capsella bursa-pastoris\" plants grow from a rosette of lobed leaves at the base. From the base emerges a stem about tall, which bears a few pointed leaves which partly grasp the stem. The flowers, which appear in any month of the year in the British Isles, are white and small, in diameter, with four petals and six stamens. They are borne in loose racemes, and produce flattened, two-chambered seed pods known as siliques, which are triangular to heart-shaped, each containing several seeds.  Like a number of other plants in several plant families, its seeds contain a substance known as mucilage, a condition known as myxospermy. Recently, this has been demonstrated experimentally to perform the function of trapping nematodes, as a form of 'protocarnivory'  \"Capsella bursa-pastoris\" is closely related to the model organism such as \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" and is also used as a model organism, due to the variety of genes expressed throughout its life cycle that can be compared to genes that are well studied in \"A. thaliana\". Unlike most flowering plants, it flowers almost all year round. Like other annual ruderals exploiting disturbed ground, \"C. bursa-pastoris\" reproduces entirely from seed, has a long soil seed bank, and short generation time, and is capable of producing several generations each year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "It was formally described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in his seminal publication 'Species Plantarum' in 1753, and then published by Friedrich Kasimir Medikus in \"Pflanzen-Gattungen\" (Pfl.-Gatt.) on page 85 in 1792.  \"Capsella bursa-pastoris\" subsp. \"thracicus\" (Velen.) Stoj. & Stef. is the only known subspecies.  William Coles (botanist) wrote in his book, 'Adam in Eden' (published in 1657), \"It is called Shepherd's purse or Scrip (wallet) from the likeness of the seed hath with that kind of leathearne bag, wherein Shepherds carry their Victualls [food and drink] into the field.\"\"  In England and Scotland, it was once commonly called'mother's heart', which is derived from a child's game/trick of picking the seed pod, which then would burst and the child would be accused of 'breaking his mother's heart'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "\"Capsella bursa-pastoris\" gathered from the wild or cultivated has many uses, including for food, to supplement animal feed, for cosmetics, and in traditional medicine. It can be eaten raw in salad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cooking.", "content": "It is cultivated as a commercial food crop in Asia. In China, where it is known as \"jìcài\" (; ) it is commonly used in food in Shanghai and the surrounding Jiangnan region. It is stir-fried with rice cakes and other ingredients or as part of the filling in wontons. It is one of the ingredients of the symbolic dish consumed in the Japanese spring-time festival, \"Nanakusa-no-sekku\". In Korea, it is known as \"naengi\" () and used as a root vegetable in the characteristic Korean dish, namul (fresh greens and wild vegetables).  Shepherd's purse was used as a pepper substitute in colonial New England.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "Fumaric acid is one chemical substance that has been isolated from \"C. bursa-pastoris\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parasites.", "content": "Parasites of this plant include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Capsella bursa-pastoris, known as shepherd's purse because of its triangular flat fruits, which are purse-like, is a small annual and ruderal flowering plant in the mustard family (Brassicaceae). It is native to eastern Europe and Asia minor, but is naturalized and considered a common weed in many parts of the world, especially in colder climates, including British Isles, where it is regarded as an archaeophyte, North America and China, but also in the Mediterranean and North Africa. \"C. bursa-pastoris\" is the second-most prolific wild plant in the world, and is common on cultivated ground and waysides and meadows.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971205}
{"src_title": "Bagrationovsk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1325, the Teutonic Knights built an Ordensburg castle called \"Yladia\" or \"Ilaw\", later known as \"Preussisch Eylau\", in the center of the Old Prussian region Natangia. 'Ylow' is the Old Prussian term for'mud' or'swamp'. The settlement nearby developed in 1336, but in 1348 the Teutonic Order gave the privilege to establish twelve pubs in the area around the castle. Although the settlement had only a few inhabitants, due to its central position it was often used as meeting place for officials of the Order. During the Thirteen Years' War, the castle was besieged on 24 May 1455 by troops of the Prussian Confederation under the command of Remschel von Krixen, but the garrison repulsed the attack. During the Horsemen's War in 1520, the castle was unsuccessfully besieged by troops of the Polish Kingdom, who devastated the settlement.  Preußisch Eylau received its civic charter in 1585. In 1709–1711, the bubonic plague killed 2,212 inhabitants of the Eylau area.  The Battle of Eylau (7–8 February 1807) during the Napoleonic Wars involved the French troops of Napoleon Bonaparte, the Russian troops of General Bennigsen, and the Prussian troops of General Anton Wilhelm von L'Estocq. Only 3 inhabitants of Eylau died in the battle, but 605 persons died due to hunger and diseases in 1807 (with the average death rate in \"normal\" years being around 80-90). Napoleon used the local courthouse as his headquarters in Eylau on 7–17 February 1807.  On 1 April 1819, the town became the seat of the administrative district Preußisch Eylau (Kreis Pr. Eylau). In 1834, a Teachers' Seminary was founded, educating every East Prussian teacher until it was closed down in 1924. The town was connected to the railway on 2 September 1866. The town was occupied without a struggle by Russian troops on 27 August 1914, but these troops left on 3 September 1914 after massacring 65 civilians.  After 1933, large barracks were built by the Wehrmacht, and in 1935 Infantry and Artillery units were stationed there.  On February 10, 1945, during the Soviet Red Army's East Prussian Offensive, the town was occupied by troops of the 55th Guards \"Irkutsk-Pinsk\" Division commanded by Major General Adam Turchinsky. The German population that had not already fled during the evacuation of East Prussia was subsequently expelled, with the last transport leaving on November 23, 1947. The NKVD established a prison camp for German civilians inside the former Wehrmacht barracks in 1945-1949. It held an estimated 13,000 inmates, of whom some 6,000 people died.  In early August 1945, Polish officials took over the administrative power in the town, but left again on January 1, 1946, as the new borderline between the Soviet Union and Poland was set just at the southern outskirts of the town. The Polish administrative area south of the border was called \"Powiat Ilawka\" until 1958.  In January 1946, the town became a part of the newly established Kaliningrad Oblast within the Russian SFSR and the town was given its present name, honoring General Pyotr Bagration, who was one of the senior Russian leaders in the Napoleonic Wars and is also the namesake of the 1944 Operation Bagration offensive. Today the main border crossing point between Russia and Poland (Bezledy/Bagrationovsk) is south of the town. Since April 2007, government restrictions on visits to border areas have been tightened and travel to Sovetsk and Bagrationovsk is only allowed with special permission, unless in transit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Bagrationovsk serves as the administrative center of Bagrationovsky District. As an administrative division, it is incorporated within Bagrationovsky District as the town of district significance of Bagrationovsk. As a municipal division, the town of district significance of Bagrationovsk is incorporated within Bagrationovsky Municipal District as Bagrationovskoye Urban Settlement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Bagrationovsk is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bagrationovsk (), prior to 1946 known by its German name ( or '; or ') is a town and the administrative center of Bagrationovsky District in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located south of Kaliningrad, the administrative center of the oblast. It has a population of", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971206}
{"src_title": "Pravdinsk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Pravdinsk was founded in 1312 at a ford across the Lava River after the local Natangian tribe in Prussia was subdued by the Teutonic Knights, and received town privileges in 1335 under Grand Master Luther von Braunschweig. Now known by its German language name Friedland (\"peaceful land\"), the town was devastated during the Thirteen Years' War between the Teutonic Order and the Prussian Confederation. Friedland became a part of the Duchy of Prussia after the secularization of the State of the Teutonic Order in 1525. Under the ruling Hohenzollern dynasty, Friedland became a part of Brandenburg-Prussia in 1618, and was again damaged by Swedish troops in the course of the Second Northern War 1655-1660.  Friedland belonged to the Kingdom of Prussia from 1701, and during the Napoleonic Wars on June 14, 1807, Napoleon's French army won the nearby Battle of Friedland against a combined Russian-Prussian army. The town became part of the German Empire in 1871, during the Prussian-led unification of Germany.  During World War II, Friedland was conquered by the Red Army on January 31, 1945 as part of the Soviet invasion of Germany. At the time Friedland belonged to Landkreis Bartenstein in the province of East Prussia, which was transferred from Nazi Germany to the Soviet Union according to the 1945 Potsdam Agreement. The German population fled or was expelled, and East Prussia was divided between the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of Poland, with Friedland belonging to the portion organized into Kaliningrad Oblast of the Russian SFSR. The town was made the administrative center of Fridlyandsky District under the name Fridlyand, but were renamed Pravdinsk and Pravdinsky District in 1946.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Pravdinsk serves as the administrative center of Pravdinsky District. As an administrative division, it is, together with thirty-two rural localities, incorporated within Pravdinsky District as the town of district significance of Pravdinsk.  Within the framework of municipal divisions, since May 5, 2015, the territories of the town of district significance of Pravdinsk, the urban-type settlement of district significance of Zheleznodorozhny, and of two rural okrugs of Pravdinsky District are incorporated as Pravdinsky Urban Okrug. Before that, the town of district significance was incorporated within Pravdinsky Municipal District as Pravdinskoye Urban Settlement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "The Late Gothic church of St. George in the town center is well preserved and today used by the Moscow Patriarchate.  Pravdinsk is identified in some historical accounts with Romuva, said to be the center of Baltic paganism. The Lithuanian name for Pravdinsk is Romuva, and this was most likely its name in Old Prussian as well. Whether Romuva was in fact associated with Baltic paganism is disputed, however, as it has been suggested that this belief started when early Christian chroniclers were confused by the similarity between \"Romuva\" and \"Rome\", and by their own unwarranted assumption that Baltic paganism should resemble Roman paganism in being focused around a particular geographical center.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Pravdinsk is part of the \"Friedliches Land\" (Peaceful Land) municipal association with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pravdinsk (), prior to 1946 known by its German name (; ) is a town and the administrative center of Pravdinsky District in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the Lava River, approximately east of Bagrationovsk and southeast of Kaliningrad. Population figures:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971207}
{"src_title": "Mamonovo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Mamonovo is named after a Soviet Commander, Nikolay Mamonov, killed in action near Pułtusk on October 26, 1944, who was posthumously awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union on March 24, 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Under the Teutonic Knights Heiligenstadt was built near an Old Prussian settlement. It was later renamed Heiligenbeil after a holy axe used by Augustinian monks, established in the area by Grand Master Winrich von Kniprode after the Battle of Rudau, to cut down an oak tree worshiped by pagan Prussians. It came under the bishopric Warmia, then to the territory of Natangia. Part of the Kingdom of Prussia, in Germany it was in the province of East Prussia.  Towards the end World War II in fierce fighting between January and March 1945 the Heiligenbeil pocket fell to the Red Army. It was captured by Red Army on March 26, 1945 and was soon integrated into the Kaliningrad Oblast. It took its present name in 1946. The defending 4th Army's archives were buried in a forest near the town and found in 2004, in an area still littered with debris from the final battles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with four rural localities, incorporated as the town of oblast significance of Mamonovo—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the town of oblast significance of Mamonovo is incorporated as Mamonovsky Urban Okrug.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mamonovo (), prior to 1945 known by its German name Heiligenbeil ( or \"Świętomiejsce\"; ; Prussian: \"Swintamīstan\"), is a town in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia. Population figures:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971208}
{"src_title": "Gordon Moore", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "Moore was born in San Francisco, California and grew up in nearby Pescadero, where his father was the county sheriff. He attended Sequoia High School in Redwood City. Initially, he went to San Jose State College (now University). After two years, he transferred to the University of California, Berkeley where he received a B.S. degree in chemistry in 1950.  In September 1950, Moore enrolled at the California Institute of Technology. While at Caltech, Moore minored in physics and received a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1954. Moore conducted postdoctoral research at the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University from 1953 to 1956.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Moore met his wife, Betty Irene Whitaker, while attending San Jose State College. They married in 1950.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fairchild Semiconductor Laboratory.", "content": "Moore joined MIT and Caltech alumnus William Shockley at the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory division of Beckman Instruments but left with the \"traitorous eight\", when Sherman Fairchild agreed to back them and created the influential Fairchild Semiconductor corporation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Moore's law.", "content": "In 1965, Moore was working as the director of research and development (R&D) at Fairchild Semiconductor. He was asked by Electronics Magazine to predict what was going to happen in the semiconductor components industry over the next ten years. In an article published on April 19, 1965, Moore observed that the number of components (transistors, resistors, diodes, or capacitors) in a dense integrated circuit had doubled approximately every year and speculated that it would continue to do so for at least the next ten years. In 1975, he revised the forecast rate to approximately every two years. Carver Mead popularized the phrase \"Moore's law.\" The prediction has become a target for miniaturization in the semiconductor industry and has had widespread impact in many areas of technological change.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Intel Corporation.", "content": "In July 1968, Robert Noyce and Moore founded NM Electronics, which later became Intel Corporation. Moore served as executive vice president until 1975 when he became president. In April 1979, Moore became chairman and chief executive officer, holding that position until April 1987, when he became chairman. He was named chairman emeritus in 1997. Under Noyce, Moore, and later Andrew Grove, Intel has pioneered new technologies in the areas of computer memory, integrated circuits, and microprocessor design.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philanthropy.", "content": "In 2000, Moore and his wife established the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, with a gift worth about $5 billion. Through the Foundation, they initially targeted environmental conservation, science, and the San Francisco Bay Area.  The foundation gives extensively in the area of environmental conservation, supporting major projects in the Andes-Amazon Basin and the San Francisco Bay area, among others. Moore was a director of Conservation International for some years. In 2002, he and Conservation International senior vice president Claude Gascon received the Order of the Golden Ark from Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld for their outstanding contributions to nature conservation.  Moore has been a member of Caltech's board of trustees since 1983, chairing it from 1993 to 2000, and is now a life trustee. In 2001, Moore and his wife donated $600 million to Caltech, at the time the largest gift ever to an institution of higher education. He said that he wants the gift to be used to keep Caltech at the forefront of research and technology.  In December 2007, Moore and his wife donated $200 million to Caltech and the University of California for the construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT), expected to become the world's second largest optical telescope once it and the European Extremely Large Telescope are completed in the mid-2020s. The TMT will have a segmented mirror 30 meters across and be built on Mauna Kea in Hawaii. This mirror will be nearly three times the size of the current record holder, the Large Binocular Telescope. The Moores, as individuals and through their foundation, have also, through a series of gifts and grants, given over $110 million to the University of California, Berkeley.  In addition, through the Foundation, his wife created the Betty Irene Moore Nursing Initiative, targeting nursing care in the San Francisco Bay Area and Greater Sacramento. In 2007, the foundation pledged $100 million over 11 years to establish a nursing school at the University of California, Davis.  In 2009, the Moore received the Andrew Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific awards and honors.", "content": "Moore has received many honors. He became a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1976.  In 1990, Moore was presented with the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by President George H.W. Bush, \"for his seminal leadership in bringing American industry the two major postwar innovations in microelectronics – large-scale integrated memory and the microprocessor – that have fueled the information revolution.\"  In 1998, he was inducted as a Fellow of the Computer History Museum \"for his fundamental early work in the design and production of semiconductor devices as co-founder of Fairchild and Intel.\"  In 2001, Moore received the Othmer Gold Medal for outstanding contributions to progress in chemistry and science.  Moore is also the recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honor, as of 2002. He received the award from President George W. Bush. In 2002, Moore also received the Bower Award for Business Leadership.  In 2003, he was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.  Moore was awarded the 2008 IEEE Medal of Honor for \"pioneering technical roles in integrated-circuit processing, and leadership in the development of MOS memory, the microprocessor computer, and the semiconductor industry.\" Moore was featured in the documentary film \"Something Ventured\" which premiered in 2011.  In 2009, Moore was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.  He was awarded the 2010 Future Dan David Prize for his work in the areas of Computers and Telecommunications.  The library at the Centre for Mathematical Sciences at the University of Cambridge is named after him and his wife Betty, as are the Moore Laboratories building (dedicated 1996) at Caltech and the Gordon and Betty Moore Materials Research Building at Stanford.  The Electrochemical Society presents an award in Moore's name, the Gordon E. Moore Medal for Outstanding Achievement in Solid State Science and Technology, every two years to celebrate scientists' contributions to the field of solid state science. The Society of Chemical Industry (American Section) annually presents the Gordon E. Moore Medal in his honor to recognize early career success in innovation in the chemical industries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Moore is an avid sport fisherman and actively pursues any type of fishing. He has extensively traveled the world, catching species from black marlin to rainbow trout. He has said his conservation efforts are partly inspired by his interest in fishing and his time spent outdoors.  In 2011, Moore's genome was the first human genome sequenced on Ion Torrent's Personal Genome Machine platform, a massively parallel sequencing device, which uses ISFET biosensors.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gordon Earle Moore (born January 3, 1929) is an American businessman, engineer, and the co-founder and chairman emeritus of Intel Corporation. He is also the author of Moore's law. As of October 2019, Moore's net worth is reported to be $11.9 billion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971209}
{"src_title": "Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Maurice was born in Kassel as the son of William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, and of his wife Sabine of Württemberg.  Although Maurice had been raised in the Lutheran faith, he converted to Calvinism in 1605. On the principle \"Cuius regio eius religio\", Maurice's subjects were also required to convert to Calvinism. Maurice's conversion was controversial since the Peace of Augsburg had only settled religious matters betweens Roman Catholics and Lutherans and had not considered Calvinists. Maurice tried to introduce Calvinism to the lands which he had inherited from the extinct Hesse-Marburg branch of his family. Such a change of faith was contrary to the inheritance rules, and resulted in an ongoing conflict with the Hesse-Darmstadt branch. It also brought him into conflict with the Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias.  English strolling players ('Die Englische Comoedianten') were frequent visitors to, and performers in, towns and cities in Germany and other European countries, including Kassel, during the 16th and 17th centuries. Landgraf Moritz (to use his German nomenclature) was a great supporter of the performing arts and even built the first permanent theatre in Germany, named the Ottoneum, in 1605. This building still exists today but as a Natural History Museum.  Maurice's actions (though not necessarily the Ottoneum) ruined Hesse-Kassel financially. In 1627 he abdicated in favour of his son William V. Five years later he died in Eschwege. He was not only a serious musician but an expert composer (a \"Pavane\" of his, for the lute, has several times been recorded by both lutenists and guitarists). The leading musical figures whom he supported included Heinrich Schütz and John Dowland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and issue.", "content": "On 23 September 1593, Maurice married Agnes of Solms-Laubach (7 January 1578 – 23 November 1602). They had six children:  On 22 May 1603, Maurice married Countess Juliane of Nassau-Dillenburg (3 September 1587 – 15 February 1643). They had fourteen children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maurice of Hesse-Kassel () (25 May 1572 – 15 March 1632), also called Maurice the Learned, was the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) in the Holy Roman Empire from 1592 to 1627.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971210}
{"src_title": "Sauerland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"Sauerland\" is first mentioned as \"Suderland\" in an official document from 1266. After 1400 the letter 'd' started to disappear. Therefore, Sauerland = \"southern country\" is the most convincing meaning, opposed to the theory that Sauer is from the German word \"sauer\" meaning \"sour\" (poor \"sour\" soil). Linguistically, \"suder-“ is similar to the Old Saxon \"sûðar\" (southbound).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Before 1800 the western part of the Sauerland was part of the County of the Mark based in Altena; the eastern part adhered to the County of Arnsberg, later became known as the Duchy of Westphalia and was owned by the Archbishops and Electorate of Cologne. The Duchy of Limburg covered a very small area in the lower Lenne river valley. After the Napoleonic Wars the area became part of Prussia and was integrated into the new province of Westphalia. After World War II, Westphalia was merged with the new federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Today, the Sauerland consists of the districts Märkischer Kreis, Olpe and Hochsauerland. The western part of the Hessian district Waldeck-Frankenberg is also attributed to the Sauerland because of its geomorphological, as well as its sociocultural similarity, and the stark contrast to the rest of the adjoining Hessian landscape.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "To the west the hills continue into the Bergisches Land, to the south into the Siegerland, and to the north-east into the Teutoburg Forest. The major rivers of the Sauerland are the Ruhr and the Lenne. Several artificial lakes were created on the smaller rivers by building dams to store water for the nearby Ruhr area, the biggest reservoirs being the Möhne and Bigge. Although the highest elevation of the Sauerland is the \"Langenberg\" (843 m) near Olsberg, the much more renowned summit, which is well known for the nearby skiing facilities, its weather station and observation tower, is the slightly lower \"Kahler Asten\" (842 m) near Winterberg. Both Langenberg and Kahler Asten are peaks in the Rothaargebirge mountains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dams and reservoirs (lakes).", "content": "The Sauerland has six reservoir lakes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "The Sauerland is part of the \"Rhine Massif\" (\"Rheinisches Schiefergebirge\") including 'Bergisches Land', Westerwald, Siegerland, and, separated by the Rhine valley, the Eifel, Hohes Venn and Hunsrück. The Rheinisches Schiefergebirge was subjected to folding and faulting in the Variscan orogeny in Carboniferous times and eroded to a peneplain in the Permian. The tectonic uplift to the present-day low mountain range began approximately 500,000 years ago and is still going on.  Most of the bedrock underneath the Sauerland originates from a Middle and Upper Devonian period, when it was under a marginal and shallow sea. This has meant that slates, sandstones and greywackes are the most abundant rock types in the Sauerland. In some areas limestones from an ancient reef fringe prevail and are karstified. The Sauerland has several caves, especially in the northern part, the biggest caves being in Attendorn and Balve. In some areas of the Sauerland the occurrence of lead-zinc-silver-ores lead to the development of a considerable mining industry, the center of which was the town of Meggen. Mining in this area lasted until the late second half of the 20th century, today there is no active mining in the Sauerland. The sandstones, greywackes and quartzites of the Sauerland as well as, to a minor extent, the limestones are still exploited in numerous quarries. Some of these caves are now becoming modest attractions to tourists.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Towns and municipalities.", "content": "The largest town of the Sauerland is Iserlohn; other larger towns are Lüdenscheid and Arnsberg. Meschede is the home of an abbey. Another abbey is placed at Bestwig.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Parts of the Sauerland, especially the major valleys in the northwest, represent an old industrial region. The availability of iron ore and the abundance of wood and water allowed iron production long before the Ruhr area industrialisation and the mining of its coal took place. Today there are only a few remains of this early heavy industry; wire production is still important in Altena and a number of small factories still occupy the old industrial areas. Warsteiner is Germany's largest privately owned brewery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Sauerland has become a popular tourist area, attracting many visitors from the Ruhr Area and relatively close Netherlands. The forests and picturesque small towns are attractive for hikers and outdoor sports. There are more than 30,000 km of tagged hiking trails in Sauerland region maintained by Sauerland hiking association (SGV). Some of the towns have the title \"Bad\" (\"Spa\") because of their good air quality and stimulating climate. Winter sports are popular in the Sauerland. The bob sleigh track in Winterberg is widely known in Germany, as well as the ski jumping in Willingen. Sauerland also has a successful theme park called Fort Fun.  Balve Cave is one of the biggest prehistorical caves of Europe and is situated in Balve. The largest accessible limestone cave outside the Alps is in Attendorn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The Sauerland can be reached by car or train. The drive either via the BAB 4 from Cologne or via the BAB 45 and BAB 46 from Dortmund, takes about one hour; from Kassel or Frankfurt-Rhine-Main (via the Sauerlandlinie) the journey takes about two hours. The closest commercial airport is Dortmund Airport.  In the region, railways were once the most important means of transportation, but between 1950 and 1990 many smaller branch lines were closed and rail travel is now only present in the major valleys.  The most important lines are:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Sauerland is a rural, hilly area spreading across most of the south-eastern part of North Rhine-Westphalia, in parts heavily forested and, apart from the major valleys, sparsely inhabited. For these reasons, it has been chosen as the first place in Germany to reintroduce the Wisent (European bison).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971211}
{"src_title": "Kruskal's algorithm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Algorithm.", "content": "At the termination of the algorithm, the forest forms a minimum spanning forest of the graph. If the graph is connected, the forest has a single component and forms a minimum spanning tree", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pseudocode.", "content": "The following code is implemented with disjoint-set data structure:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complexity.", "content": "Kruskal's algorithm can be shown to run in \"O\"(\"E\" log \"E\") time, or equivalently, \"O\"(\"E\" log \"V\") time, where \"E\" is the number of edges in the graph and \"V\" is the number of vertices, all with simple data structures. These running times are equivalent because:  We can achieve this bound as follows: first sort the edges by weight using a comparison sort in \"O\"(\"E\" log \"E\") time; this allows the step \"remove an edge with minimum weight from \"S\"\" to operate in constant time. Next, we use a disjoint-set data structure to keep track of which vertices are in which components. We place each vertex into its own disjoint set, which takes O(\"V\") operations. Finally, in worst case, we need to iterate through all edges, and for each edge we need to do two 'find' operations and possibly one union. Even a simple disjoint-set data structure such as disjoint-set forests with union by rank can perform O(\"E\") operations in \"O\"(\"E\" log \"V\") time. Thus the total time is \"O\"(\"E\" log \"E\") = \"O\"(\"E\" log \"V\").  Provided that the edges are either already sorted or can be sorted in linear time (for example with counting sort or radix sort), the algorithm can use a more sophisticated disjoint-set data structure to run in \"O\"(\"E\" α(\"V\")) time, where α is the extremely slowly growing inverse of the single-valued Ackermann function.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proof of correctness.", "content": "The proof consists of two parts. First, it is proved that the algorithm produces a spanning tree. Second, it is proved that the constructed spanning tree is of minimal weight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spanning tree.", "content": "Let formula_4 be a connected, weighted graph and let formula_5 be the subgraph of formula_4 produced by the algorithm. formula_5 cannot have a cycle, being within one subtree and not between two different trees. formula_5 cannot be disconnected, since the first encountered edge that joins two components of formula_5 would have been added by the algorithm. Thus, formula_5 is a spanning tree of formula_4.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minimality.", "content": "We show that the following proposition P is true by induction: If \"F\" is the set of edges chosen at any stage of the algorithm, then there is some minimum spanning tree that contains \"F\" and none of the edges rejected by the algorithm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Parallel algorithm.", "content": "Kruskal's algorithm is inherently sequential and hard to parallelize. It is, however, possible to perform the initial sorting of the edges in parallel or, alternatively, to use a parallel implementation of a binary heap to extract the minimum-weight edge in every iteration. As parallel sorting is possible in time formula_12 on formula_13 processors, the runtime of Kruskal's algorithm can be reduced to \"O\"(\"E\" α(\"V\")), where α again is the inverse of the single-valued Ackermann function.  A variant of Kruskal's algorithm, named Filter-Kruskal, has been described by Osipov et al. and is better suited for parallelization. The basic idea behind Filter-Kruskal is to partition the edges in a similar way to quicksort and filter out edges that connect vertices of the same tree to reduce the cost of sorting. The following pseudocode demonstrates this.  Filter-Kruskal lends itself better for parallelization as sorting, filtering, and partitioning can easily be performed in parallel by distributing the edges between the processors.  Finally, other variants of a parallel implementation of Kruskal's algorithm have been explored. Examples include a scheme that uses helper threads to remove edges that are definitely not part of the MST in the background, and a variant which runs the sequential algorithm on \"p\" subgraphs, then merges those subgraphs until only one, the final MST, remains.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "This algorithm first appeared in \"Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society\", pp. 48–50 in 1956, and was written by Joseph Kruskal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971212}
{"src_title": "Halite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Occurrence.", "content": "Halite dominantly occurs within sedimentary rocks where it has formed from the evaporation of seawater or salty lake water. Vast beds of sedimentary evaporite minerals, including halite, can result from the drying up of enclosed lakes, and restricted seas. Such salt beds may be hundreds of meters thick and underlie broad areas. Halite occurs at the surface today in playas in regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation such as in the salt flats of Badwater Basin in Death Valley National Park.  In the United States and Canada extensive underground beds extend from the Appalachian basin of western New York through parts of Ontario and under much of the Michigan Basin. Other deposits are in Ohio, Kansas, New Mexico, Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan. The Khewra salt mine is a massive deposit of halite near Islamabad, Pakistan.  Salt domes are vertical diapirs or pipe-like masses of salt that have been essentially \"squeezed up\" from underlying salt beds by mobilization due to the weight of overlying rock. Salt domes contain anhydrite, gypsum, and native sulfur, in addition to halite and sylvite. They are common along the Gulf coasts of Texas and Louisiana and are often associated with petroleum deposits. Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Romania and Iran also have salt domes. Salt glaciers exist in arid Iran where the salt has broken through the surface at high elevation and flows downhill. In all of these cases, halite is said to be behaving in the manner of a rheid.  Unusual, purple, fibrous vein filling halite is found in France and a few other localities. Halite crystals termed \"hopper crystals\" appear to be \"skeletons\" of the typical cubes, with the edges present and stairstep depressions on, or rather in, each crystal face. In a rapidly crystallizing environment, the edges of the cubes simply grow faster than the centers. Halite crystals form very quickly in some rapidly evaporating lakes resulting in modern artifacts with a coating or encrustation of halite crystals. \"Halite flowers\" are rare stalactites of curling fibers of halite that are found in certain arid caves of Australia's Nullarbor Plain. Halite stalactites and encrustations are also reported in the Quincy native copper mine of Hancock, Michigan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mining.", "content": "The world's largest underground salt mine is the Sifto Salt Mine. It produces over 7 million tons of rock salt per year using the room and pillar mining method. It is located half a kilometre under Lake Huron in Ontario, Canada. In the United Kingdom there are three mines; the largest of these is at Winsford in Cheshire, producing, on average, one million tonnes of salt per year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Salt is used extensively in cooking as a flavor enhancer, and to cure a wide variety of foods such as bacon and fish. It is frequently used in food preservation methods across various cultures. Larger pieces can be ground in a salt mill or dusted over food from a shaker as finishing salt.  Halite is also often used both residentially and municipally for managing ice. Because brine (a solution of water and salt) has a lower freezing point than pure water, putting salt or saltwater on ice that is below will cause it to melt — this effect is called freezing-point depression. It is common for homeowners in cold climates to spread salt on their sidewalks and driveways after a snow storm to melt the ice. It is not necessary to use so much salt that the ice is completely melted; rather, a small amount of salt will weaken the ice so that it can be easily removed by other means. Also, many cities will spread a mixture of sand and salt on roads during and after a snowstorm to improve traction. Using salt brine is more effective than spreading dry salt because moisture is necessary for the freezing-point depression to work and wet salt sticks to the roads better. Otherwise the salt can be wiped away by traffic.  In addition to de-icing, rock salt is occasionally used in agriculture. An example of this would be inducing salt stress to suppress the growth of annual meadow grass in turf production. Other examples involve exposing weeds to salt water to dehydrate and kill them preventing them from affecting other plants. Salt is also used as a household cleaning product. Its coarse nature allows for its use in various cleaning scenarios including grease/oil removal, stain removal, and even dries out and hardens sticky spills for an easier clean.  Some cultures, especially in Africa and Brazil, prefer a wide variety of different rock salts for different dishes. Pure salt is avoided as particular colors of salt indicates the presence of different impurities. Many recipes call for particular kinds of rock salt, and imported pure salt often has impurities added to adapt to local tastes. Historically, salt was used as a form of currency in barter systems and was exclusively controlled by authorities and their appointees. In some ancient civilizations the practice of salting the earth was done to make conquered land of an enemy infertile and inhospitable as an act of domination. One biblical reference to this practice is in Judges 9:45: \"he killed the people in it, pulled the wall down and sowed the site with salt.\"  Polyhalite a mineral fertiliser, is not an NaCl-polymer but hydrated KCaMg-sulfate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Halite ( or ), commonly known as rock salt, is a type of salt, the mineral (natural) form of sodium chloride (Na Cl). Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is typically colorless or white, but may also be light blue, dark blue, purple, pink, red, orange, yellow or gray depending on inclusion of other materials, impurities, and structural or isotopic abnormalities in the crystals. It commonly occurs with other evaporite deposit minerals such as several of the sulfates, halides, and borates. The name \"halite\" is derived from the Ancient Greek word for salt, ἅλς (háls).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971213}
{"src_title": "Lycopene", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure and physical properties.", "content": "Lycopene is a symmetrical tetraterpene assembled from eight isoprene units. It is a member of the carotenoid family of compounds, and because it consists entirely of carbon and hydrogen, is also a carotene. Isolation procedures for lycopene were first reported in 1910, and the structure of the molecule was determined by 1931. In its natural, all-\"trans\" form, the molecule is long and straight, constrained by its system of 11 conjugated double bonds. Each extension in this conjugated system reduces the energy required for electrons to transition to higher energy states, allowing the molecule to absorb visible light of progressively longer wavelengths. Lycopene absorbs all but the longest wavelengths of visible light, so it appears red.  Plants and photosynthetic bacteria naturally produce all-\"trans\" lycopene. When exposed to light or heat, lycopene can undergo isomerization to any of a number of \"cis\"-isomers, which have a bent rather than linear shape. Different isomers were shown to have different stabilities due to their molecular energy (highest stability: 5-cis ≥ all-trans ≥ 9-cis ≥ 13-cis > 15-cis > 7-cis > 11-cis: lowest). In human blood, various \"cis\"-isomers constitute more than 60% of the total lycopene concentration, but the biological effects of individual isomers have not been investigated.  Carotenoids like lycopene are found in photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes in plants, photosynthetic bacteria, fungi, and algae. They are responsible for the bright orange–red colors of fruits and vegetables, perform various functions in photosynthesis, and protect photosynthetic organisms from excessive light damage. Lycopene is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, and xanthophylls.  Dispersed lycopene molecules can be encapsulated into carbon nanotubes enhancing their optical properties. Efficient energy transfer occurs between the encapsulated dye and nanotube — light is absorbed by the dye and without significant loss is transferred to the nanotube. Encapsulation increases chemical and thermal stability of lycopene molecules; it also allows their isolation and individual characterization.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biosynthesis.", "content": "The unconditioned biosynthesis of lycopene in eukaryotic plants and in prokaryotic cyanobacteria is similar, as are the enzymes involved. Synthesis begins with mevalonic acid, which is converted into dimethylallyl pyrophosphate. This is then condensed with three molecules of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (an isomer of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate), to give the 20-carbon geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. Two molecules of this product are then condensed in a tail-to-tail configuration to give the 40-carbon phytoene, the first committed step in carotenoid biosynthesis. Through several desaturation steps, phytoene is converted into lycopene. The two terminal isoprene groups of lycopene can be cyclized to produce beta-carotene, which can then be transformed into a wide variety of xanthophylls.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Staining and removal.", "content": "Lycopene is the pigment in tomato sauces that turns plastic cookware orange. It is insoluble in plain water, but it can be dissolved in organic solvents and oils. Because of its non-polarity, lycopene in food preparations will stain any sufficiently porous material, including most plastics. To remove this staining, the plastics may be soaked in a solution containing a small amount of chlorine bleach. The bleach oxidizes the lycopene, thus allowing the now-polarized metabolite to dissolve.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consumption by humans.", "content": "Absorption of lycopene requires that it be combined with bile salts and fat to form micelles. Intestinal absorption of lycopene is enhanced by the presence of fat and by cooking. Lycopene dietary supplements (in oil) may be more efficiently absorbed than lycopene from food.  Lycopene is not an essential nutrient for humans, but is commonly found in the diet mainly from dishes prepared from tomatoes. The median and 99th percentile of dietary lycopene intake have been estimated to be 5.2 and 123 mg/d, respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "Fruits and vegetables that are high in lycopene include autumn olive, gac, tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit, pink guava, papaya, seabuckthorn, wolfberry (goji, a berry relative of tomato), and rosehip. Ketchup is a common dietary source of lycopene. Although gac (\"Momordica cochinchinensis\" Spreng) has the highest content of lycopene of any known fruit or vegetable (multiple times more than tomatoes), tomatoes and tomato-based sauces, juices, and ketchup account for more than 85% of the dietary intake of lycopene for most people. The lycopene content of tomatoes depends on variety and increases as the fruit ripens.  Unlike other fruits and vegetables, where nutritional content such as vitamin C is diminished upon cooking, processing of tomatoes increases the concentration of bioavailable lycopene. Lycopene in tomato paste is up to four times more bioavailable than in fresh tomatoes. Processed tomato products such as pasteurized tomato juice, soup, sauce, and ketchup contain a higher concentration of bioavailable lycopene compared to raw tomatoes.  Cooking and crushing tomatoes (as in the canning process) and serving in oil-rich dishes (such as spaghetti sauce or pizza) greatly increases assimilation from the digestive tract into the bloodstream. Lycopene is fat-soluble, so the oil is said to help absorption. Gac has high lycopene content derived mainly from its seed coats. Cara cara navel, and other citrus fruit, such as pink grapefruit, also contain lycopene. Some foods that do not appear red also contain lycopene, e.g., asparagus, which contains about 30 μg of lycopene per 100-g serving (0.3 μg/g) and dried parsley and basil, which contain around 3.5–7.0 μg/g of lycopene.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "In humans, the Observed Safe Level for lycopene is 75 mg/day, according to one preliminary study.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adverse effects.", "content": "Lycopene is non-toxic and commonly found in the diet, mainly from tomato products. There are cases of intolerance or allergic reaction to dietary lycopene, which may cause diarrhea, nausea, stomach pain or cramps, gas, and loss of appetite. Lycopene may increase the risk of bleeding when taken with anticoagulant drugs. Because lycopene may cause low blood pressure, interactions with drugs that affect blood pressure may occur. Lycopene may affect the immune system, the nervous system, sensitivity to sunlight, or drugs used for stomach ailments.  Lycopenemia is an orange discoloration of the skin that is observed with high intakes of lycopene. The discoloration is expected to fade after discontinuing excessive lycopene intake.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Research and potential health effects.", "content": "A 2017 review concluded that tomato products and lycopene supplementation had small positive effects on cardiovascular risk factors, such as elevated blood lipids and blood pressure. A 2010 review concluded that research has been insufficient to establish whether lycopene consumption affects human health. Lycopene has been studied in basic and clinical research for its potential effects on cardiovascular diseases and prostate cancer, although there is no good evidence of benefit in prostate cancer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regulatory status in Europe and the United States.", "content": "In a review of literature on lycopene and its potential role as a dietary antioxidant, the European Food Safety Authority concluded that evidence was insufficient for lycopene having antioxidant effects in humans, particularly in skin, heart function, or vision protection from ultraviolet light.  Although lycopene from tomatoes has been tested in humans for cardiovascular diseases and prostate cancer, no effect on any disease was found. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), in rejecting manufacturers' requests in 2005 to allow \"qualified labeling\" for lycopene and the reduction of various cancer risks, provided a conclusion that remains in effect :  \"...no studies provided information about whether lycopene intake may reduce the risk of any of the specific forms of cancer. Based on the above, FDA concludes that there is no credible evidence supporting a relationship between lycopene consumption, either as a food ingredient, a component of food, or as a dietary supplement, and any of these cancers.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lycopene (from the neo-Latin \"Lycopersicum\", the tomato species) is a bright red carotenoid hydrocarbon found in tomatoes and other red fruits and vegetables, such as red carrots, watermelons, grapefruits, and papayas, but it is not present in strawberries or cherries. Although lycopene is chemically a carotene, it has no vitamin A activity. Foods that are not red may also contain lycopene, such as asparagus, guava and parsley.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971214}
{"src_title": "Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Sovetsk lies at the confluence of the Tilse and Neman rivers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Tilsit, which received civic rights from Albert, Duke of Prussia in 1552, developed around a castle of the Teutonic Knights, known as the Schalauer Haus, founded in 1288.  The Treaties of Tilsit were signed here in July 1807, the preliminaries of which were settled by the emperors Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon I of France on a raft moored in the Neman River. This treaty, which created the Kingdom of Westphalia and the Duchy of Warsaw, completed Napoleon's humiliation of the Kingdom of Prussia, when it was deprived of one half of its dominions.  This short-lived peace-treaty is also remarkable for quite another reason. Three days before its signing, Prussian queen Louise (1776–1810) tried to persuade Napoleon in a private conversation to ease his hard conditions on Prussia. Though unsuccessful, Louise's effort greatly endeared her to the Prussian people.  Until 1945, a marble tablet marked the house in which King Frederick William III of Prussia and Queen Louise resided. Also, in the former Schenkendorf Platz was a monument to the poet Max von Schenkendorf (1783–1817), a native of Tilsit. During the 19th century when the Lithuanian language in Latin characters was banned within the Russian Empire, Tilsit was an important centre for printing Lithuanian books which then were smuggled by Knygnešiai to the Russian-controlled part of Lithuania. In general, Tilsit thrived and was an important Prussian town. By 1900 it had electric tramways and 34,500 inhabitants; a direct railway line linked it to Königsberg and Labiau and steamers docked there daily. It was occupied by Russian troops between 26 August 1914 and 12 September 1914 during World War I. The Act of Tilsit was signed here by leaders of the Lietuvininks in 1918.  Hitler visited the town just before World War II, and a photo was taken of him on the famous bridge over the Memel River. Tilsit was occupied by the Red Army on January 20, 1945, and was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1945. The remaining Germans who had not evacuated were subsequently forcibly expelled and replaced with Soviet citizens. The town was renamed Sovetsk in honor of Soviet rule.  Modern Sovetsk has sought to take advantage of Tilsit's rich traditions of cheese production (Tilsit cheese), but the new name (\"Sovetsky cheese\") has not inherited its predecessor's reputation.  Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, there has been some discussion about the possibility of restoring the town's original name, given its significance in Russian history. In 2010, the Kaliningrad Oblast's then-governor Georgy Boos of the ruling United Russia Party proposed restoring the original name and combining the town with the Nemen and Slavsk Districts to form a new Tilsit District. Boos emphasized that this move would stimulate development and economic growth, but that it could happen only through a referendum. The idea was opposed by the Communist Party of Russia. In particular, Igor Revin, the Kaliningrad Secretary of the Communist Party, accused Boos and United Russia of Germanophilia.  In April 2007, government restrictions on visits to border areas have been tightened, and for foreigners, and Russians living outside the border zone, travel to the Sovetsk and Bagrationovsk areas required advance permission from the Border Guard Service (in some cases up to 30 days beforehand). It was alleged that this procedure slowed the development of these potentially thriving border towns. In June 2012, these restrictions were lifted (the only restricted area is the Neman river shoreline), which gave a boost to local and international tourism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the town of oblast significance of Sovetsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the town of oblast significance of Sovetsk is incorporated as Sovetsky Urban Okrug.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Many of the town's buildings were destroyed during World War II. However, the old town centre still includes several German buildings, including those of Jugendstil design. The Queen Louise Bridge, now connecting the town to Panemunė/Übermemel in Lithuania, retains an arch – all that is left of a more complex pre-war bridge structure built in 1907. The carved relief portrait of Queen Louise above the arch still exists; however, the German inscription \"KÖNIGIN LUISE-BRÜCKE\" was removed after the Soviets took over the town.  Ethnic composition in 2010:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Sovetsk is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "The town is the location of a scene in Leo Tolstoy's \"War and Peace\" (Book Two Part Two Chapter 21).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sovetsk (), before 1946 known as Tilsit in German (; ) in East Prussia, is a town in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the south bank of the Neman River.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971215}
{"src_title": "Gustav Meyrink", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Gustav Meyrink was born with the name \"Gustav Meyer\" in Vienna, Austria-Hungary (now Austria) on January 19, 1868. He was the illegitimate son of Baron Karl von Varnbüler und zu Hemmingen, a Württembergian minister, and actress Maria Wilhelmina Adelheyd Meier. Meyrink was not, despite the statements of some of his contemporaries, of Jewish descent – this rumour arose due to a confusion of his mother with a Jewish woman of the same name.  Until thirteen years of age Meyrink lived mainly in Munich, where he completed elementary school. He then stayed in Hamburg for a brief time, until his mother relocated to Prague in 1883.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prague.", "content": "Meyrink lived in Prague for twenty years and has depicted it many times in his works. In 1889, together with the nephew of poet Christian Morgenstern, Meyrink established his own banking company, named \"Meier & Morgenstern\".  In Prague an event occurred which played a providential role in Meyrink's life. Meyrink described it in the autobiographical short story \"The Pilot\". That day, August 14, 1892, on Assumption Eve, Meyrink, twenty-four years old, was allegedly standing at his table with a gun at his head, determined to shoot himself. At that moment he heard a strange scratching sound and someone's hand put a tiny booklet under his door. The booklet was called Afterlife. Meyrink was surprised by this dramatic coincidence and started to study the literature of the occult. He studied theosophy, Kabbala, Christian Sophiology and Eastern mysticism. Until his death Meyrink practiced yoga and other occult exercises. Results of these studies and practices are found in Meyrink's works, which almost always deal with various occult traditions.  At that time Meyrink also was a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn in London. This is evidenced by the letter from William Wynn Westcott (1893), which has remained in Meyrink's private archives. He was also member of the Theosophical Society, but only temporarily.  In 1902 Meyrink was charged with fraud. He was charged with using spiritualism in order to benefit from banking operations. Though, after two months, he was released from jail, his banking career was effectively ended. His jailhouse experiences are depicted in his most famous novel, \"The Golem\" (1913–14).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early works.", "content": "During the 1900s Meyrink started publishing satiric short stories in the magazine Simplicissimus, signing them with his mother's surname. During spring 1903 Meyrink's first book, \"The Hot Soldier and Other Stories\" was released. Approximately at the same time he relocated to Vienna. Almost immediately after his arrival another compilation of his short stories, \"The Orchid. Strange stories\", was released.  On May 8, 1905 Meyrink married Philomene Bernt, whom he had known since 1896. On July 16, 1906 his daughter Sybille Felizitas was born. On January 17, 1908, two days before Meyrink's fortieth birthday, the second son, Harro Fortunat, was born. Subsequently, the main character of the second Meyrink's novel \"The Green Face\" was given the same name. In 1908 the third compilation of short stories, \"Waxworks\", was published.  Being in need of money, Meyrink started working as a translator and he became a prolific one; during five years he managed to translate into German fifteen volumes of Charles Dickens, as well as work by Rudyard Kipling and Lafcadio Hearn. He continued translating until his death, including various occult works and even the Egyptian \"Book of the Dead\". Meyrink also edited a series of books on the occult.  In 1911 Meyrink relocated with his family to the little Bavarian town Starnberg, and in 1913 the book \"Des deutschen Spießers Wunderhorn\" (\"The German Philistine's Magic Horn\") was published in Munich. It was a compilation of short stories from the previous three books and several new ones; the title is a parody of \"Des Knaben Wunderhorn\". Many of these stories had satirical styles, ridiculing institutions such as the army and the church; Austrian writer Karl Kraus would later describe Meyrink's work as combining \"Buddhism with a dislike for the infantry\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fame.", "content": "In 1915 the first and most famous of Meyrink's novels, \"The Golem\", was published, though its drafts may be traced back to 1908. The novel is based on the Jewish legend about a Rabbi who made a living being known as a golem (גולם) out of clay and animated it with a Kabbalistic spell, although these legends have little to do with the story's plotline. The main character is Athanasius Pernath, a contemporary lapidary from Prague. It is left to the reader to decide whether Pernath is simply writing down his hallucinations or gradually becoming a real golem. Frenschkowski describes \"the Golem\" as both \"a deep-footed initiatory tale and an urban fantasy\". The novel was a great commercial success. In 1916 one more compilation of short stories, \"Bats\", and soon a second novel, \"The Green Face\", was published. The next year his third novel, \"Walpurgis Night\", was written. The success of these works caused Meyrink to be ranked as one of the three main German-language supernatural fiction authors (along with Hanns Heinz Ewers and Karl Hans Strobl).  Meyrink was opposed to World War One, which caused him to be denounced by German nationalists; the German \"Völkisch\" journalist Albert Zimmermann (1873-1933) described Meyrink as \"one of the cleverest and most dangerous opponents of the German nationalist ideal. He will influence – and corrupt – thousands upon thousands, just as Heine did\". In 1916 \"Des deutschen Spießers Wunderhorn\" was banned in Austria.  By 1920 Meyrink's financial affairs improved so that he bought a villa in Starnberg. The villa became known as \"The House at the Last Lantern\" after the name of the house from \"The Golem\". There he and his family lived for the next eight years and two more works – \"The White Dominican\" and Meyrink's longest novel \"The Angel of the West Window\" – were written.  In 1927 Meyrink formally converted to Mahayana Buddhism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "The name \"Fortunat\" did not bring much luck to Meyrink's son: during the winter of 1931, while skiing, he seriously injured his backbone and for the rest of his life he was confined to his armchair. On July 12, at the age of 24 he committed suicide – at the same age his father was going to do it. Meyrink survived his son by half a year. He died on December 4, 1932 in Starnberg, Bavaria, Germany. He is buried in Starnberg Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reputation.", "content": "Frenschkowski notes \"like those of most other German and Austrian fantastic writers, his books were prohibited during the Nazi era\". Later, Meyrink's work enjoyed a revival; Meyrink was discussed in a special edition of the French journal \"L'Herne\" (1976), and his work was translated into French, Russian, Dutch and English.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gustav Meyrink (January 19, 1868 – December 4, 1932) was the pseudonym of Gustav Meyer, an Austrian author, novelist, dramatist, translator, and banker, most famous for his novel \"The Golem\". He has been described as the \"most respected German language writer in the field of supernatural fiction\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971216}
{"src_title": "Prim's algorithm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The algorithm may informally be described as performing the following steps: In more detail, it may be implemented following the pseudocode below. As described above, the starting vertex for the algorithm will be chosen arbitrarily, because the first iteration of the main loop of the algorithm will have a set of vertices in \"Q\" that all have equal weights, and the algorithm will automatically start a new tree in \"F\" when it completes a spanning tree of each connected component of the input graph. The algorithm may be modified to start with any particular vertex \"s\" by setting \"C\"[\"s\"] to be a number smaller than the other values of \"C\" (for instance, zero), and it may be modified to only find a single spanning tree rather than an entire spanning forest (matching more closely the informal description) by stopping whenever it encounters another vertex flagged as having no associated edge.  Different variations of the algorithm differ from each other in how the set \"Q\" is implemented: as a simple linked list or array of vertices, or as a more complicated priority queue data structure. This choice leads to differences in the time complexity of the algorithm. In general, a priority queue will be quicker at finding the vertex \"v\" with minimum cost, but will entail more expensive updates when the value of \"C\"[\"w\"] changes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Time complexity.", "content": "The time complexity of Prim's algorithm depends on the data structures used for the graph and for ordering the edges by weight, which can be done using a priority queue. The following table shows the typical choices:  A simple implementation of Prim's, using an adjacency matrix or an adjacency list graph representation and linearly searching an array of weights to find the minimum weight edge to add, requires O(<nowiki>|</nowiki>V<nowiki>|</nowiki>) running time. However, this running time can be greatly improved further by using heaps to implement finding minimum weight edges in the algorithm's inner loop.  A first improved version uses a heap to store all edges of the input graph, ordered by their weight. This leads to an O(|E| log |E|) worst-case running time. But storing vertices instead of edges can improve it still further. The heap should order the vertices by the smallest edge-weight that connects them to any vertex in the partially constructed minimum spanning tree (MST) (or infinity if no such edge exists). Every time a vertex \"v\" is chosen and added to the MST, a decrease-key operation is performed on all vertices \"w\" outside the partial MST such that \"v\" is connected to \"w\", setting the key to the minimum of its previous value and the edge cost of (\"v\",\"w\").  Using a simple binary heap data structure, Prim's algorithm can now be shown to run in time O(<nowiki>|</nowiki>E<nowiki>|</nowiki> log <nowiki>|</nowiki>V<nowiki>|</nowiki>) where <nowiki>|</nowiki>E<nowiki>|</nowiki> is the number of edges and <nowiki>|</nowiki>V<nowiki>|</nowiki> is the number of vertices. Using a more sophisticated Fibonacci heap, this can be brought down to O(<nowiki>|</nowiki>E<nowiki>|</nowiki> + <nowiki>|</nowiki>V<nowiki>|</nowiki> log <nowiki>|</nowiki>V<nowiki>|</nowiki>), which is asymptotically faster when the graph is dense enough that <nowiki>|</nowiki>E<nowiki>|</nowiki> is ω(<nowiki>|</nowiki>V<nowiki>|</nowiki>), and linear time when |E| is at least |V| log |V|. For graphs of even greater density (having at least |V| edges for some \"c\" > 1), Prim's algorithm can be made to run in linear time even more simply, by using a \"d\"-ary heap in place of a Fibonacci heap.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proof of correctness.", "content": "Let \"P\" be a connected, weighted graph. At every iteration of Prim's algorithm, an edge must be found that connects a vertex in a subgraph to a vertex outside the subgraph. Since \"P\" is connected, there will always be a path to every vertex. The output \"Y\" of Prim's algorithm is a tree, because the edge and vertex added to tree \"Y\" are connected. Let \"Y\" be a minimum spanning tree of graph P. If \"Y\"=\"Y\" then \"Y\" is a minimum spanning tree. Otherwise, let \"e\" be the first edge added during the construction of tree \"Y\" that is not in tree \"Y\", and \"V\" be the set of vertices connected by the edges added before edge \"e\". Then one endpoint of edge \"e\" is in set \"V\" and the other is not. Since tree \"Y\" is a spanning tree of graph \"P\", there is a path in tree \"Y\" joining the two endpoints. As one travels along the path, one must encounter an edge \"f\" joining a vertex in set \"V\" to one that is not in set \"V\". Now, at the iteration when edge \"e\" was added to tree \"Y\", edge \"f\" could also have been added and it would be added instead of edge \"e\" if its weight was less than \"e\", and since edge \"f\" was not added, we conclude that  Let tree \"Y\" be the graph obtained by removing edge \"f\" from and adding edge \"e\" to tree \"Y\". It is easy to show that tree \"Y\" is connected, has the same number of edges as tree \"Y\", and the total weights of its edges is not larger than that of tree \"Y\", therefore it is also a minimum spanning tree of graph \"P\" and it contains edge \"e\" and all the edges added before it during the construction of set \"V\". Repeat the steps above and we will eventually obtain a minimum spanning tree of graph \"P\" that is identical to tree \"Y\". This shows \"Y\" is a minimum spanning tree. The minimum spanning tree allows for the first subset of the sub-region to be expanded into a smaller subset \"X\", which we assume to be the minimum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parallel algorithm.", "content": "The main loop of Prim's algorithm is inherently sequential and thus not parallelizable. However, the inner loop, which determines the next edge of minimum weight that does not form a cycle, can be parallelized by dividing the vertices and edges between the available processors. The following pseudocode demonstrates this.  This algorithm can generally be implemented on distributed machines as well as on shared memory machines. It has also been implemented on graphical processing units (GPUs). The running time is formula_2, assuming that the \"reduce\" and \"broadcast\" operations can be performed in formula_3. A variant of Prim's algorithm for shared memory machines, in which Prim's sequential algorithm is being run in parallel, starting from different vertices, has also been explored. It should, however, be noted that more sophisticated algorithms exist to solve the distributed minimum spanning tree problem in a more efficient manner.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer science, Prim's (also known as Jarník's) algorithm is a greedy algorithm that finds a minimum spanning tree for a weighted undirected graph. This means it finds a subset of the edges that forms a tree that includes every vertex, where the total weight of all the edges in the tree is minimized. The algorithm operates by building this tree one vertex at a time, from an arbitrary starting vertex, at each step adding the cheapest possible connection from the tree to another vertex.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971217}
{"src_title": "Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born at Brandenburg an der Havel, of a family of French Huguenot origin, as evidenced in his family name. His grandfather, Heinrich August de la Motte Fouqué, had been one of Frederick the Great's generals and his father was a Prussian officer. Although not originally intended for a military career, Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué ultimately gave up his university studies at Halle to join the army, and he took part in the Rhine campaign of 1794. The rest of his life was devoted mainly to literary pursuits. He was introduced to August Wilhelm Schlegel, who deeply influenced him as a poet (\"mich gelehret Maß und Regel | Meister August Wilhelm Schlegel\") and who published Fouqué's first book, \"Dramatische Spiele von Pellegrin\", in 1804.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Fouqué's first marriage was unhappy and soon ended in divorce. His second wife, Caroline Philippine von Briest (1773–1831), enjoyed some reputation as a novelist in her day. After her death Fouqué married a third time. Some consolation for the ebbing tide of popular favour was afforded him by the munificence of Frederick William IV of Prussia, who granted him a pension which allowed him to spend his later years in comfort. He died in Berlin in 1843.  For Fouqué's life see \"Lebensgeschichte des Baron Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué (only to the year 1813), Aufgezeichnet durch ihn selbst\" (Halle, 1840), and also the introduction to Koch's selections in the \"Deutsche Nationalliteratur\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literary work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romantic roots.", "content": "After \"Dramatische Spiele von Pellegrin\", his second work, \"Romanzen vom Tal Ronceval\" (1805), showed more plainly his allegiance to the romantic leaders, and in the \"Historie vom edlen Ritter Galmy\" (1806) he versified a 16th-century romance of medieval chivalry.  \"Sigurd der Schlangentödter, ein Heldenspiel in sechs Abentheuren\" (1808), was the first modern German dramatization of the Nibelung legend combining Icelandic sources such as the Volsunga Saga and the Middle High German Nibelungenlied. The play and its two sequels \"Sigurds Rache\" (1809) and \"Aslaugas Ritter\" (1810) were published together under the title \"Der Held des Nordens\" in 1810 [\"The Hero of the North\"]. The trilogy brought Fouqué to the attention of the public, and had a considerable influence on subsequent versions of the story, such as Friedrich Hebbel's \"Nibelungen\" and Richard Wagner's \"Der Ring des Nibelungen\".  These early writings indicate the lines which Fouqué's subsequent literary activity followed; his interests were divided between medieval chivalry on the one hand and northern mythology on the other. In 1813, the year of the rising against Napoleon, he again fought with the Prussian army, and the new patriotism awakened in the German people left its mark upon his writings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Popular works.", "content": "Between 1810 and 1815, Fouqué's popularity was at its height; the many romances and novels, plays and epics which he produced with extraordinary rapidity, appealed greatly to the mood of the hour. \"Undine\" appeared around 1811, the only work by which Fouqué's memory still lives today. A more comprehensive idea of his talent may, however, be obtained from the two romances \"Der Zauberring\" (1813) and \"Die Fahrten Thiodolfs des Isländers\" (1815).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "From 1820 onwards the quality of Fouqué's work deteriorated, partly owing to the fatal formal ease with which he wrote, and he failed to keep pace with the changes in German taste by clinging to the paraphernalia of romanticism. His rivals applied a sobriquet of \"Don Quixote of Romanticism\" to him.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Translations.", "content": "Most of Fouqué's works have been translated. Menella Bute Smedley, for instance, translated his ballad, \"The Shepherd of the Giant Mountains.\" The English versions of \"Aslauga's Knight\" (by Thomas Carlyle), \"Sintram and his Companions\" and \"Undine\" have been frequently republished.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "Fouqué's play \"Der Sängerkrieg auf der Wartburg\" (The Song Contest on the Wartburg) is likely one of the sources for Wagner's \"Tannhäuser\". Goethe was not impressed by it, remarking to Eckermann: \"We both agreed that all his life this poet had engaged in old Germanic studies, however without being able to develop this into a culture of his own making.\" Robert Louis Stevenson admired Fouqué's story \"The Bottle Imp\" and wrote his own version (\"The Bottle Imp\") with a Hawaiian setting. John Henry Newman and Charlotte Mary Yonge both praised \"Sintram and his Companions\". William Morris also became an admirer of \"Sintram and his Companions\", and it influenced Morris' own fiction. \"Sintram and his Companions\" and \"Undine\" are referred to in \"Little Women\" by Louisa May Alcott; the character Jo mentions wanting them for Christmas in the first chapter of the book and finally receives them in chapter 22. \"Aslauga's Knight\" as well as \"Sintram and his Companions\" and \"Undine\" are referred to in \"Jo's Boys\", the final book in Alcott's \"Little Women\" series, where the story of \"Aslauga's Knight\" mirrors the character Dan and his affection for gentle Bess. \"Undine\" is the basis, along with Hans Anderson's \"Little Mermaid\", for Dvořák's opera \"Rusalka\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Heinrich Karl de la Motte, Baron Fouqué (; 12 February 1777 – 23 January 1843) was a German writer of the Romantic style.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971218}
{"src_title": "Tczew", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geographical location.", "content": "Tczew is located on the west bank of river Vistula, approximately south of Gdańsk Bay at the Baltic Sea and south-east of Gdańsk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "Tczew (\"Trsow\", \"Dersowe\", ‘weaver's town’) was first mentioned as \"Trsow\" in a document by Pomeranian Duke Grzymisław bestowing the land to the Knights Hospitaller in 1198. Around 1200 Sambor I, Duke of Pomerania, built a fortress here. In some documents, the name Derszewo appears, which stems from the name of a feudal lord, Dersław. It is unknown whether Trsow and Derszewo referred to the same or two neighboring settlements. In order to obtain better control of traffic on the Vistula, Pomeranian Duke Sambor II moved his residence form Lubiszewo Tczewskie to here. By 1252 the settlement was known by the names \"Tczew\" and \"Dirschau\".  In 1258 a city council was created and in 1260 Tczew was granted town rights. It is the only case in Poland for a city council to be established before granting city rights. Craft and trade developed, there was a port on the Vistula and a mint. Duke Mestwin II in 1289 brought the Dominican Order to the city. It was part of Poland until 1308. Following the Treaty of Soldin in 1309, Tczew was purchased from Brandenburg by Heinrich von Plötzke of the Teutonic Knights, despite the fact that the initial claims to the region by Brandenburg were of dubious legality. The townspeople were expelled by the Teutonic Knights and the town's organization ceased to exist for more than half a century. It was rebuilt from 1364–1384, and was granted Kulm law by Winrich von Kniprode. In 1434 the town was burnt down by the Hussites. In 1440 the town joined the Prussian Confederation, opposing Teutonic Order's rule. In 1457, during the Thirteen Years’ War, Bohemian mercenaries on the Order's service sold Tczew to Poland in lieu of indemnities. The Second Peace of Thorn (1466) confirmed the incorporation of Tczew to Poland. It became part of the Pomeranian Voivodeship in the newly created Polish province of Royal Prussia, soon also part of the Greater Poland Province of the Polish Crown.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern era.", "content": "During the Protestant Reformation most of town's inhabitants converted to Lutheranism. In 1626 it was occupied by king Gustav II Adolf of Sweden, who built a pontoon bridge across river Vistula and who had his camp at the southern side of the town. After the war Tczew was visited twice by Polish King Władysław IV Vasa, in 1634/1635 and 1636. Although it was rebuilt, it then suffered during the Polish-Swedish Wars. In a nearby battle on 2 September 1657, the Poles were defeated by the combined troops of Brandenburg and Sweden under general Josias II, Count of Waldeck-Wildungen.  The region was annexed from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by the Kingdom of Prussia during the First Partition of Poland in 1772. Tczew, as Dirschau, became part of the newly founded Province of West Prussia. During the Napoleonic Wars and the Polish national liberation fights the town was captured by Polish troops of General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski in 1807, but became Prussian again in 1815. It became part of the German Empire in 1871.  The town grew rapidly during the 19th century after the opening of the Prussian Eastern Railway line connecting Berlin and Königsberg, with the Vistula bridge near Dirschau being an important part.  Under Prussian and German rule, the Polish minority suffered from forced Germanization; for example Poles were denied Polish schools, and refused to teach their children German. The German official Heinrich Mettenmeyer wrote that German-appointed teachers were treated with highest disdain by Polish children and their parents  After World War I as a consequence of the Treaty of Versailles Tczew became part of the so-called \"Polish Corridor\" and was incorporated into the re-established Polish state. On January 30, 1920, Polish General Józef Haller arrived in the town with his troops. The town became a center of cultural activities of the German minority in Poland, a German-language school and a theater was founded. The regional member of the Polish Parliament represented the German minority.  During the Interwar period, Tczew was famous for its maritime academy (\"Szkoła Morska\") which later moved to Gdynia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "According to the city's website, Tczew was the location of the start of World War II when German bombers attacked Polish sapper installations to prevent the bridge from being blown up at 04:34 on 1 September 1939 (the shelling of Westerplatte commenced at 04:45). During the German occupation of Poland (1939–45) Tczew, as \"Dirschau\", was integrated into Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia of the administrative district of Regierungsbezirk Danzig of Germany's Third Reich. After World War II the town, was one of the most damaged cities of Gdańsk Pomerania. Virtually none of its remaining factories were capable of production. There had been considerable loss of population down to around 18-20 thousand people. Shortly before the end of World War II it was occupied by the Soviet Army. After the end of war the town became part of People's Republic of Poland and renamed Tczew again. German residents were dispossessed and forcefully expelled; Polish residents took the first effort of reconstruction, and revitalization.  Currently, there are several companies in the electrical industry and machine building.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Number of inhabitants by year.", "content": "Note that the above table is based on primary sources which may be biased:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coat of arms.", "content": "The coat of arms of Tczew depicts a red griffin in honor of Duke Sambor II, who granted the town municipal rights in 1260.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "It is an important railway junction with a classification yard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English Language Camp.", "content": "For the last 19 years, the town has been the host location for the annual English Language Camp. The camp, often nicknamed \"Camp Tczew\" is hosted by the American-Polish Partnership for Tczew and offers students a three-week program where they have the opportunity to interact with Americans and improve their English.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Tczew is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tczew (; ) is a town on the Vistula River in Eastern Pomerania, Kociewie, northern Poland with 60,279 inhabitants (June 2009). The city is known for its Old Town and the Vistula Bridge, or Bridge of Tczew, which played a key role in the Invasion of Poland during World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971219}
{"src_title": "Karl Löwith", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Löwith was born in Munich to a Christian family of Jewish descent. He was trained in phenomenology under Heidegger, and they developed a close friendship. However this relationship became estranged with Heidegger's affiliation with Nazism, therefore Löwith had to emigrate from Germany in 1934 because of the Fascist regime. He was an important witness in 1936 to Heidegger's continuing allegiance to Nazism.He went to Italy and in 1936 he went to Japan ( as did figures like Brunner) where he lectured at Tohoku University, which had its own tradition of phenomenology. But because of the alliance between the Third Reich and Japan he had to leave Japan in 1941 and went to the United States. From 1941 to 1952, he taught at the Hartford Theological Seminary and The New School for Social Research. In 1952 he returned to Germany to teach as Professor of Philosophy at Heidelberg, where he died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thought.", "content": "His main influences include Heidegger, Hegel, Nietzsche, and Kierkegaard. His writing after WWII can be read in the same vein as other Christian philosophers and theologians of the 20th century. Often called responses to \"crisis\", Christian intellectuals of this era, such as Karl Barth (protestant), Florovsky (Orthodox), and Erich Przywara (Roman Catholic), attempted to articulate an understanding of Christian faith in response to the challenges of scientism, secularism, and skepticism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Meaning in History\".", "content": "Löwith's argument in \"Meaning in History\" is that the western view of history is confused by the relationship between Christian faith and the modern view, which is neither Christian nor pagan. He writes,\" The modern mind has not made up its mind whether it should be Christian or pagan, it sees with one eye of faith and one of reason. Hence its vision is necessarily dim in comparison with either Greek or biblical thinking.\" The modern view is progressive, which is to say that it believes that the trajectory of history is moving towards a fulfillment in the bettering of the world by rational and technological means. Löwith believes that the modern view is a sort of Christian \"heresy\" insofar that is depends on the theology that history has a linear movement, in contrast to Greek pagan cyclical view of history. In this critique Löwith is prophetic in the sense that he anticipates the way post-secular theologians will pick up a similar critique of modernity in the 1990s (such is the case in the Radical Orthodox movement). The modern historical consciousness is, according to Löwith, derived from Christianity. But, this is mistaken because Christians are not a historical people, as their view of the world is based on faith. This explains the tendency in history (and philosophy) to see an eschatological view of human progress. Löwith traces the \"regression\" of history as opposed to a progression through famous western philosophers and historians. Whereas most genealogies begin from the most antique to the modern, Löwith begins with the most current. He moves from Burckhardt, to Marx, to Hegel, Voltaire, Vico, Bossuet, Augustine, Orosius, and others. He argues that the closer we get to the Biblical vision of history, \" I cannot discover the slightest hint of a \"philosophy of history\". By this he means that a truly theological view of history is not movement to an immanent end, but a transcendent eschatological hope in the consummation of the world. It is not a \"philosophy\" or attempt to systematize the movement of history. This point is clear in the epilogue of \"Meaning in History\" where he says, \" The attempt at elucidation of the dependence of the philosophy of history on the eschatological history of fulfillment and salvation does not solve the problem of historical thinking.\" Here he seems to argue that like the progressive view any theological view that tries to equate the happenings of history with God's action is inadequate, which reveals his true argument: We cannot understand the happening of history by reason.  Returning to the idea that Löwith like Barth and others was trying to rethink Christian faith in light of the crisis of world war, Lowith's real concern is the relationship between faith and reason or more specifically faith and history. He writes,\"The Christian hope is not a worldly desire and expectation that something will probably happen but a cast of mind based on an unconditional faith in God's redemptive purpose. Genuine hope is, therefore, as free and absolute as the act of faith itself. Both hope and faith are Christian virtues of Grace. The reasons for such an unconditional hope and faith cannot rest on rational calculation of their reasonableness. Hence hope can never be refuted by so-called facts; it can neither be assured no discredited by an established experience.\" His analysis of the relationship between faith and the observable events of history is one of absolute disconnect, which is an idea he seems to adopt from Kierkegaard's similar argument in \"Practice in Christianity\". Lowith's answer to the change of modernity is to say that Christianity has nothing at all to do with history or reason, rather it is about being given faith, which becomes hope in the God-man. He writes,\" The question is therefore not the justification of absolute hope and faith by their relative reasonableness, but whether such an unconditional hope and faith can be put into man instead of God and the God-man. Hope is justified only by faith which justifies itself.\"  So, whereas the \"liberal\" Christianity of his contemporaries tried to accommodate or assimilate faith with reason, Lowith maintains that faith justifies itself.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Karl Löwith (9 January 1897 – 26 May 1973) was a German philosopher in the phenomenological tradition. A student of Husserl and Heidegger, he was one of the most prolific German philosophers of the twentieth century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971220}
{"src_title": "Master Bertram", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bertram was born in Minden. He is first recorded in Hamburg in 1367, and lived there for the rest of his life, becoming a citizen and Master in 1376, and achieving considerable prosperity. In 1390 he made a will in advance of an intended pilgrimage to Rome, but if he made the journey it had no detectable influence on his art. He was married, but his wife had died by his second will in 1410, when he had a surviving daughter. He died in Hamburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "His most famous surviving work is the large \"Grabow Altarpiece\" (or \"Petri-Altar\") in the Kunsthalle Hamburg, the largest and most important North German painting of the period. There is a 45-scene altarpiece of the Apocalypse, probably by his workshop, in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. He, or his workshop, also produced sculpture, presumably in wood; in fact in his first years in Hamburg most surviving documentation relates to sculpture, including chandeliers. A sculpture group depicting Saint Christopher by his hand is located in Falsterbo church, Sweden.  His style is less emotional than that of his Hamburg near-contemporary Master Francke, but has great charm.  Bertram was largely forgotten after the Renaissance until the end of the 19th century when, like Master Francke, he was rediscovered and published by Alfred Lichtwark, director of the Hamburg Kunsthalle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Asteroid.", "content": "Asteroid 85320 Bertram, discovered by German astronomer Freimut Börngen in 1995, was named after Master Bertram. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 18 September 2005 ().", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Master Bertram (c.1345–c.1415), also known as Meister Bertram and Master of Minden, was a German International Gothic painter primarily of religious art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971221}
{"src_title": "Simutrans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development history.", "content": "\"Simutrans\" was originally written by Hansjörg Malthaner in 1997. Around 2004 he retired from development, and an international community of volunteers took over the development. \"Simutrans\" was developed internally as a closed source game until 2007, when the software was relicensed under the Artistic License.  Simutrans is ported to Microsoft Windows, Linux, BeOS/Haiku, Mac OS X and AmigaOS 4.x which make use of several graphics libraries such as GDI (Windows only), SDL (all versions) or Allegro (BeOS only). It is portable to any architecture using GCC and one of the aforementioned libraries. \"Simutrans\" has also multilingual support.  Currently the stable release of \"Simutrans\" is version 121.0 as of December 1, 2019. There is a popular branch of the code called Simutrans-Extended, which aims to extend the basic game. Simutrans-Extended was formerly called Simutrans-Experimental, but changed its name to Simutrans-Extended on February 13, 2017 to make clear that it is a distinct fork of Simutrans and not a testing branch. Nightly builds for \"Simutrans\" and the main PakSets are also released for both standard and Extended versions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview and features.", "content": "The main goal in \"Simutrans\" is to provide an efficient transport system for passengers, mail and goods to be transported to their desired destinations fast and with minimal transfers and at the same time making the company grow avoiding bankruptcy or administration.  \"Simutrans\" has a number of factory chains that are interconnected with other chains, for example, a coal mine produces coal for a coal power plant, and an oil rig produces oil for an oil power plant. The goods produced by these factories may be distributed to smaller factories or shops, such as gasoline to a gas station, coming from a gas storage facility, which retrieves the gas from an oil refinery, and so on.  Supplying a factory with electric power will increase the production and allows for fine-tuning the economy. Passengers and mail are transported between different cities and tourist attractions, and may use several methods of transportation to reach their destinations.  The \"Simutrans\" executable can run many different paksets, which is a package containing files called paks. Paks are files with graphic and data files that Simutrans uses to determine the objects in the game, their resolution, appearance, and behavior. Gaming experience is therefore very dependent on the pakset used.  \"Simutrans\" currently features 12 AI players, and has an online capability similar to \"OpenTTD\" since version 110.0. The terrain in \"Simutrans\" is freely-modifiable, and different layers like tunnels and bridges can be stacked, allowing for subways or highways to be constructed. It has a day and night cycle, different climates and seasons. Nearly all modes of transportation exist in \"Simutrans\". At least buses/trucks, trains, and ships are always provided. If defined in the pakset, aircraft, monorails and maglevs can also be used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Customization.", "content": "The \"Simutrans\" executable must load a pakset which contains the game's objects. Over the years several paksets have been created. An overview is given on the official page.  \"Simutrans\" can easily be expanded or modified. Simple modification can be done via editing the personal config file. Since the objects in the game just consist of a simple image and a short description file, it is very easy to create a house or add a train. Thus many contributed objects for all graphic sizes exist. The user can also add height maps and citylists which add city names into the game. Even deep modifications of the game mechanics are possible via the config file, like a setting to prevent stockpiling at factories or changing the economic model simulation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "GameDaily's Big Download considered \"Simutrans\" to be one of the best freeware games, highlighting the logical system of routing passengers and freight to their destinations, decent AI opponents and the support for custom aesthetics or rules-sets. However, the sometimes unreliable vehicle pathfinding was criticized, particularly with respect to alternate routes and switches for train lines. The sound effects were deemed to be unengaging, and new players may be baffled by the range of transportation possibilities.  Another review from Amiga Future came to very similar conclusions (apart from the lack of sound support on Amiga OS). In particular the depth of simulation and the stability were highlighted.  Between 2007 and June 2017 Simutrans was downloaded from Sourceforge over 5.6 million times.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Simutrans is a cross-platform simulation game in which the player strives to run a successful transport system by constructing and managing transportation systems for passengers, mail and goods by land (rail, road, tram, monorail, maglev), air (airplanes) and water (ship) between places. Like \"OpenTTD\", \"Simutrans\" is an open-source transportation game based on the \"Transport Tycoon\" idea.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971222}
{"src_title": "Tigris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Tigris is 1,750 km long, rising in the Taurus Mountains of eastern Turkey about 25 km southeast of the city of Elazig and about 30 km from the headwaters of the Euphrates. The river then flows for 400 km through Turkish Kurdistan before becoming part of the Syria-Turkey border. This stretch of 44 km is the only part of the river that is located in Syria. Some of its affluences are Garzan, Anbarçayi, Batman, and the Great and the Little Zab.  Close to its confluence with the Euphrates, the Tigris splits into several channels. First, the artificial Shatt al-Hayy branches off, to join the Euphrates near Nasiriyah. Second, the Shatt al-Muminah and Majar al-Kabir branch off to feed the Central Marshes. Further downstream, two other distributary channels branch off (the Al-Musharrah and Al-Kahla), to feed the Hawizeh Marshes. The main channel continues southwards and is joined by the Al-Kassarah, which drains the Hawizeh Marshes. Finally, the Tigris joins the Euphrates near al-Qurnah to form the Shatt-al-Arab. According to Pliny and other ancient historians, the Euphrates originally had its outlet into the sea separate from that of the Tigris.  Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, stands on the banks of the Tigris. The port city of Basra straddles the Shatt al-Arab. In ancient times, many of the great cities of Mesopotamia stood on or near the Tigris, drawing water from it to irrigate the civilization of the Sumerians. Notable Tigris-side cities included Nineveh, Ctesiphon, and Seleucia, while the city of Lagash was irrigated by the Tigris via a canal dug around 2900 B.C.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Navigation.", "content": "The Tigris has long been an important transport route in a largely desert country. Shallow-draft vessels can go as far as Baghdad, but rafts are needed for transport upstream to Mosul.  General Francis Rawdon Chesney hauled two steamers overland through Syria in 1836 to explore the possibility of an overland and river route to India. One steamer, the \"Tigris\", was wrecked in a storm which sank and killed twenty. Chesney proved the river navigable to powered craft. Later, the Euphrates and Tigris Steam Navigation Company was established in 1861 by the Lynch Brothers trading company, who had two steamers in service. By 1908 ten steamers were on the river. Tourists boarded steam yachts to venture inland as this was the first age of archaeological tourism, and the sites of Ur and Ctesiphon became popular with European travelers.  In the First World War, during the British conquest of Ottoman Mesopotamia, Indian and Thames River paddlers were used to supply General Charles Townsend's army, in the Siege of Kut and the Fall of Baghdad (1917). The Tigris Flotilla included vessels Clio, Espiegle, Lawrence, Odin, armed tug Comet, armed launches Lewis Pelly, Miner, Shaitan, Sumana, and sternwheelers Muzaffari/Muzaffar. These were joined by Royal Navy Fly-class gunboats Butterfly, Cranefly, Dragonfly, Mayfly, Sawfly, Snakefly, and Mantis, Moth, and Tarantula.  After the war, river trade declined in importance during the 20th century as the Basra-Baghdad-Mosul railway, a previously unfinished portion of the Baghdad Railway, was completed and roads took over much of the freight traffic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The Ancient Greek form \"Tigris\" () meaning \"tiger\" (if treated as Greek) was adapted from Old Persian \"Tigrā\", itself from Elamite \"Tigra\", itself from Sumerian \"Idigna\".  The original Sumerian \"Idigna\" or \"Idigina\" was probably from *\"id (i)gina\" \"running water\", which can be interpreted as \"the swift river\", contrasted to its neighbour, the Euphrates, whose leisurely pace caused it to deposit more silt and build up a higher bed than the Tigris. The Sumerian form was borrowed into Akkadian as \"Idiqlat\", and from there into the other Semitic languages (cf. Hebrew Ḥîddeqel, Syriac \"Deqlaṯ\", Arabic \"Dijlah\").  Another name for the Tigris used in Middle Persian was \"Arvand Rud\", literally \"swift river\". Today, however, \"Arvand Rud\" (New Persian: ) refers to the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers (known in Arabic as the Shatt al-Arab). In Kurdish, it is also known as \"Ava Mezin\", \"the Great Water\".  The name of the Tigris in languages that have been important in the region:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management and water quality.", "content": "The Tigris is heavily dammed in Iraq and Turkey to provide water for irrigating the arid and semi-desert regions bordering the river valley. Damming has also been important for averting floods in Iraq, to which the Tigris has historically been notoriously prone following April melting of snow in the Turkish mountains.  Recent Turkish damming of the river has been the subject of some controversy, for both its environmental effects within Turkey and its potential to reduce the flow of water downstream. Mosul Dam is the largest dam in Iraq.  Water from both rivers is used as a means of pressure during conflicts.  In 2014 a major breakthrough in developing consensus between multiple stakeholder representatives of Iraq and Turkey on a Plan of Action for promoting exchange and calibration of data and standards pertaining to Tigris river flows was achieved. The consensus which is referred to as the \"Geneva Consensus On Tigris River\" was reached at a meeting organized in Geneva by the think tank Strategic Foresight Group.  In February 2016, the United States Embassy in Iraq as well as the Prime Minister of Iraq Haider al-Abadi issued warnings that Mosul Dam could collapse. The United States warned people to evacuate the floodplain of the Tigris because between 500,000 and 1.5 million people were at risk of drowning due to flash flood if the dam collapses, and that the major Iraqi cities of Mosul, Tikrit, Samarra, and Baghdad were at risk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion and mythology.", "content": "In Sumerian mythology, the Tigris was created by the god Enki, who filled the river with flowing water.  In Hittite and Hurrian mythology, \"Aranzah\" (or \"Aranzahas\" in the Hittite nominative form) is the Hurrian name of the Tigris River, which was divinized. He was the son of Kumarbi and the brother of Teshub and Tašmišu, one of the three gods spat out of Kumarbi's mouth onto Mount Kanzuras. Later he colluded with Anu and the Teshub to destroy Kumarbi (The Kumarbi Cycle).  The Tigris appears twice in the Old Testament. First, in the Book of Genesis, it is the third of the four rivers branching off the river issuing out of the Garden of Eden. The second mention is in the Book of Daniel, wherein Daniel states he received one of his visions \"when I was by that great river the Tigris\".  The Tigris River is also mentioned in Islam. The tomb of Imam Ahmad Bin Hanbal and Syed Abdul Razzaq Jilani is in Baghdad and the flow of Tigris restricts the number of visitors. The river featured on the coat of arms of Iraq from 1932–1959.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tigris () (Turkish: \"Dicle)\" is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq and empties into the Persian Gulf.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971223}
{"src_title": "Psychological manipulation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Theories on successful manipulation.", "content": "According to psychology author George K. Simon, successful psychological manipulation primarily involves the manipulator:  Consequently, the manipulation is likely to be accomplished through covert aggressive means.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "According to Braiker.", "content": "Harriet B. Braiker (2004) identified the following ways that manipulators control their victims:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "According to Simon.", "content": "Simon identified the following manipulative techniques:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vulnerabilities exploited by manipulators.", "content": "According to Braiker's self-help book, manipulators exploit the following vulnerabilities (buttons) that may exist in victims:  According to Simon, manipulators exploit the following vulnerabilities that may exist in victims:  Manipulators generally take the time to scope out the characteristics and vulnerabilities of their victims.  Kantor advises in his book \"The Psychopathology of Everyday Life: How Antisocial Personality Disorder Affects All of Us\" that vulnerability to psychopathic manipulators involves being too:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Motivations of manipulators.", "content": "Manipulators can have various possible motivations, including but not limited to:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Psychopathy.", "content": "Being manipulative appears in Factor 1 of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist (PCL).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the workplace.", "content": "One approach to management in general identifies a very fine, almost non-existent dividing line between management and manipulation.  The workplace psychopath may often rapidly shift between emotions – used to manipulate people or to cause high anxiety.  The authors of the book \"\" describe a five-phase model of how a typical workplace psychopath climbs to and maintains power. In phase three (manipulation) the psychopath will create a scenario of \"psychopathic fiction\" where positive information about themselves and negative disinformation about others will be created, where one's role as a part of a network of pawns or patrons will be utilised and one will be groomed into accepting the psychopath's agenda.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Antisocial, borderline and narcissistic personality disorders.", "content": "According to Kernberg, antisocial, borderline, and narcissistic personality disorders are all organized at a borderline level of personality organization, and the three share some common characterological deficits and overlapping personality traits, with deceitfulness and exceptional manipulative abilities being the most common traits among antisocial and narcissism. Borderline is emphasized by unintentional and dysfunctional manipulation, but stigma towards borderlines being deceitful still wrongfully persists. Antisocials, borderlines, and narcissists are often pathological liars. Other shared traits may include pathological narcissism, consistent irresponsibility, Machiavellianism, lack of empathy, cruelty, meanness, impulsivity, proneness to self-harm and addictions, interpersonal exploitation, hostility, anger and rage, vanity, emotional instability, rejection sensitivity, perfectionism, and the use of primitive defence mechanisms that are pathological and narcissistic. Common narcissistic defences include splitting, denial, projection, projective identification, primitive idealization and devaluation, distortion (including exaggeration, minimization and lies), and omnipotence.  Psychologist Marsha M. Linehan has stated that people with borderline personality disorder often exhibit behaviors which are not truly manipulative, but are erroneously interpreted as such. According to her, these behaviors often appear as unthinking manifestations of intense pain, and are often not deliberate as to be considered truly manipulative. In the DSM-V, manipulation was removed as a defining characteristic of borderline personality disorder.  Manipulative behavior is intrinsic to narcissists, who use manipulation to obtain power and narcissistic supply. Those with antisocial personalities will manipulate for material items, power, revenge, and a wide variety of other reasons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Histrionic personality disorder.", "content": "People with histrionic personality disorder are usually high-functioning, both socially and professionally. They usually have good social skills, despite tending to use them to manipulate others into making them the center of attention.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Machiavellianism.", "content": "Machiavellianism is a term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to be unemotional, uninfluenced by conventional morality and more prone to deceive and manipulate others. In the 1960s, Richard Christie and Florence L. Geis developed a test for measuring a person's level of Machiavellianism (sometimes referred to as the \"Machiavelli test\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through indirect, deceptive, or underhanded tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative and devious.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971224}
{"src_title": "Handicraft", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The Arts and Crafts movement in the West.", "content": "The Arts and Crafts movement originated as late 19th-century design reform and social movement principally in Europe, North America and Australia, and continues today. Its proponents are motivated by the ideals of movement founders such as William Morris and John Ruskin, who proposed that in pre-industrial societies, such as the European Middle Ages, people had achieved fulfillment through the creative process of handicrafts. This was held up in contrast to what was perceived to be the alienating effects of industrial labor.  These activities were called \"crafts\" because originally many of them were professions under the guild system. Adolescents were apprenticed to a master craftsman and refined their skills over a period of years in exchange for low wages. By the time their training was complete, they were well equipped to set up in trade for themselves, earning their living with the skill that could be traded directly within the community, often for goods and services. The Industrial Revolution and the increasing mechanization of production processes gradually reduced or eliminated many of the roles professional craftspeople played, and today many handicrafts are increasingly seen, especially when no longer the mainstay of a formal vocational trade, as a form of hobby, folk art and sometimes even fine art.  The term \"handicrafts\" can also refer to the products themselves of such artisanal efforts, that require specialized knowledge, maybe highly technical in their execution, require specialized equipment and/or facilities to produce, involve manual labor or a blue-collar work ethic, are accessible to the general public, and are constructed from materials with histories that exceed the boundaries of Western \"fine art\" tradition, such as ceramics, glass, textiles, metal and wood. These products are produced within a specific community of practice, and while they mostly differ from the products produced within the communities of art and design, the boundaries often overlap, resulting in hybrid objects. Additionally, as the interpretation and validation of art is frequently a matter of context, an audience may perceive handcrafted objects as art objects when these objects are viewed within an art context, such as in a museum or in a position of prominence in one's home.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In modern education.", "content": "Simple \"arts and crafts\" projects are a common elementary and middle school activity in both mainstream and alternative education systems around the world.  In some of the Scandinavian countries, more advanced handicrafts form part of the formal, compulsory school curriculum, and are collectively referred to as \"slöjd\" in Swedish, and \"käsityö\" or \"veto\" in Finnish. Students learn how to work mainly with metal, textile and wood, not for professional training purposes as in American vocational–technical schools, but with the aim to develop children's and teens' practical skills, such as everyday problem-solving ability, tool use, and understanding of the materials that surround us for economical, cultural and environmental purposes.  Secondary schools and college and university art departments increasingly provide elective options for more handicraft-based arts, in addition to formal \"fine arts\", a distinction that continues to fade throughout the years, especially with the rise of studio craft, i.e. the use of traditional handicrafts techniques by professional fine artists.  Many community centers and schools run evening or day classes and workshops, for adults and children, offering to teach basic craft skills in a short period of time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of common handicrafts.", "content": "There are almost as many variations on the theme of handicrafts as there are crafters with time on their hands, but they can be broken down into a number of categories:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sales venues.", "content": "Handicrafts are often made for home use. If sold, they are sold in direct sales, gift shops, public markets, and online shopping. In developing countries, handicrafts are sold to locals and as souvenirs to tourists. Sellers tend to speak at least a few words of common tourist languages. There are also specialty markets such as:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A handicraft, sometimes more precisely expressed as artisanal handicraft or handmade, is any of a wide variety of types of work where useful and decorative objects are made completely by hand or by using only simple tools. It is a traditional main sector of craft and applies to a wide range of creative and design activities that are related to making things with one's hands and skill, including work with textiles, moldable and rigid materials, paper, plant fibers, etc. One of the world's oldest handicraft is Dhokra; this is a sort of metal casting that has been used in India for over 4,000 years and is still used. In Iranian Baluchistan, women still make red ware hand made pottery with dotted ornaments much similar to the 5000 year old pottery tradition of Kalpurgan, an archaeological site near the village. Usually, the term is applied to traditional techniques of creating items (whether for personal use or as products) that are both practical and aesthetic. Handicraft industries are those that produce things with hands to meet the needs of the people in their locality. Machines are not used.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971225}
{"src_title": "Heinrich Schütz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Schütz was born in Köstritz, the eldest son of Christoph Schütz and Euphrosyne Bieger.  In 1590 the family moved to Weißenfels, where his father managed the inn \"Zum güldenen Ring\". His father eventually served as burgomaster in Weißenfels, and in 1615 purchased another inn known as both \"Zur güldenen Sackpfeife\" and \"Zum güldenen Esel\" – which he renamed \"Zum Schützen\".  While Schütz was living with his parents, his musical talents were discovered by Landgrave Moritz von Hessen-Kassel in 1598 during an overnight stay in Christoph Schütz's inn. Upon hearing young Heinrich sing, the landgrave requested that his parents allow the boy to be sent to his noble court for further education and instruction. His parents initially resisted the offer, but after much correspondence they eventually took Heinrich to the landgrave's seat at Kassel in August 1599.  After being a choir-boy he went on to study law at Marburg before going to Venice from 1609–1612 to study music with Giovanni Gabrieli. Gabrieli is the only person Schütz ever referred to as being his teacher. He also inherited a ring from Gabrieli shortly before the latter's death. He subsequently was organist at Kassel from 1613 to 1615.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dresden (1615–1672).", "content": "After a prolonged yet polite negotiation between the Landgrave and the Elector, Schütz moved to Dresden in 1615 to work as court composer to the Elector of Saxony. In 1619 Schütz married Magdalena Wildeck (born 1601). She bore two daughters before her death in 1625: Anna Justina, born in 1621, and Euphrosyne, born in 1623.  In Dresden Schütz sowed the seeds of what is now the Sächsische Staatskapelle Dresden, but left there on several occasions; in 1628 he went to Venice again, where he met and studied with Claudio Monteverdi. In 1633 he was invited to Copenhagen to compose the music for wedding festivities there, eventually returning to Dresden in 1635. He again conducted an extended visit to Denmark in 1641, due to the devastation of the Electoral court. The Thirty Years' War ended in 1648, and he again became more active in Dresden. In 1655, the year that his daughter Euphrosyne died, he accepted an \"ex officio\" post as Kapellmeister at Wolfenbüttel.  His Dresden compositions during the Thirty Years' War were, by necessity of the times, smaller scale than the oft-massive works before, although this period produced much of his most charming music. After the war, Schütz again wrote larger-scale compositions culminating in the 1660s, when he composed the greatest Passionmusic before Bach. Schütz moved back to Weißenfels, in a retirement he had to beg for, to live with his sister (the house is now a fine museum of his life), but the Electoral Court often called him back to Dresden. He died in Dresden from a stroke in 1672 at the age of 87. He was buried in the old Dresden Frauenkirche, but his tomb was destroyed in 1727 when the church was torn down to build the new Dresden Frauenkirche. (His long-time house on the same square has been reconstructed in the same style and is an apartment building with hotel rooms and a restaurant.)  His pupils included Anton Colander, Christoph Bernhard, Matthias Weckmann, Heinrich Albert, Johann Theile, Friedrich Werner, Philipp Stolle Johann Nauwach, Caspar Kittel, Christoph Kittel, Clemens Thieme, Johann Klemm, Johann Vierdanck, David Pohle, Constantin Christian Dedekind, Johann Jakob Loewe (or Löwe), Johann Kaspar Horn, Friedrich von Westhoff, Adam Krieger, Johann Wilhelm Furchheim, Carlo Farina. ()", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "Schütz's compositions show the influence of his teacher Gabrieli (displayed most notably with Schütz's use of resplendent polychoral and concertato styles) and of Monteverdi. Additionally, the influence of the Netherlandish composers of the 16th century is prominent in his work. His best known works are in the field of sacred music, ranging from solo voice with instrumental accompaniment to a cappella choral music. Representative works include his Psalmen Davids\" (Psalms of David, Opus 2), Cantiones sacrae\" (Opus 4), three books of \"Symphoniae sacrae\", \"Die sieben Worte Jesu Christi am Kreuz\" (The seven words of Jesus Christ on the Cross), three Passion settings and the Christmas Story. Schütz's music, while starting off in the most progressive styles early in his career, eventually grew into a style that is simple and almost austere, culminating with his late Passion settings. Practical considerations were certainly responsible for part of this change: the Thirty Years' War had devastated the musical infrastructure of Germany, and it was no longer practical or even possible to put on the gigantic works in the Venetian style which marked his earlier period.  The unique composition \"Es steh Gott auf\" (SWV 356) is in many respects comparable to Monteverdi. His funeral music \"Musikalische Exequien\" (1636) for his noble friend Heinrich Posthumus of Reuss is considerad a masterpiece, and is known today as the first German Requiem. Schütz was equally fluent in his Latin or Germanic styles.  Schütz was one of the last composers to write in a modal style. His harmonies often result from the contrapuntal alignment of voices rather than from any sense of \"harmonic motion\"; contrastingly, much of his music shows a strong tonal pull when approaching cadences. His music includes a great deal of imitation, but structured in such a way that the successive voices do not necessarily enter after the same number of beats or at predictable intervallic distances. This contrasts sharply with the manner of his contemporary Samuel Scheidt, whose counterpoint usually flows in regularly spaced entries. Schütz's writing often includes intense dissonances caused by the contrapuntal motion of voices moving in correct individual linear motion, but resulting in startling harmonic tension. Above all, his music displays extreme sensitivity to the accents and meaning of the text, which is often conveyed using special technical figures drawn from \"musica poetica,\" themselves drawn from or created in analogy to the verbal figures of classical rhetoric. However, as noted above, the composer's style became simpler in his later works, which make less frequent use of the kind of distantly related chords and licences found in such pieces as \"Was hast du verwirket\" (SWV 307) from \"Kleine geistliche Konzerte II\".  Beyond the early book of madrigals, almost no secular music by Schütz has survived, save for a few domestic songs (\"arien\") and occasional commemorative items (such as \"Wie wenn der Adler sich aus seiner Klippe schwingt\" (SWV 434), and no purely instrumental music at all (unless one counts the short instrumental movement entitled \"sinfonia\" that encloses the dialogue of \"Die sieben Worte\"), even though he had a reputation as one of the finest organists in Germany.  Schütz was of great importance in bringing new musical ideas to Germany from Italy, and thus had a large influence on the German music which was to follow. The style of the North German organ school derives largely from Schütz (as well as from the Dutchman Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck); a century later this music was to culminate in the work of J.S. Bach. After Bach, the most important composers to be influenced by Schütz were Anton Webern and Brahms, who were known to have studied his works.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "The following are major published works; most of these contain multiple pieces of music; single published works are also listed in the complete work list, including major works such as the \"Seven Last Words\", and the Passions (according to Matthew, Luke, and John). There are over 500 total surviving individual pieces by Schütz.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heinrich Schütz (; 6 November 1672) was a German composer and organist, generally regarded as the most important German composer before Johann Sebastian Bach, as well as one of the most important composers of the 17th century. He is credited with bringing the Italian style to Germany and continuing its evolution from the Renaissance into the Early Baroque. Most of his surviving music was written for the Lutheran church, primarily for the Electoral Chapel in Dresden. He wrote what is traditionally considered to be the first German opera, \"Dafne\", performed at Torgau in 1627, the music of which has since been lost, along with nearly all of his ceremonial and theatrical scores.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971226}
{"src_title": "Letter (message)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Roles in human civilization.", "content": "Historically, letters have existed from the time of ancient India, ancient Egypt and Sumer, through Rome, Greece and China, up to the present day. During the seventeenth and eighteenth century, letters were used to self-educate. Letters were a way to practice critical reading, self-expressive writing, polemical writing and also exchange ideas with like-minded others. For some people, letters were seen as a written performance. For others, it was not only seen as a performance but also as a way of communication and a method of gaining feedback. Letters make up several of the books of the Bible. Archives of correspondence, whether for personal, diplomatic, or business reasons, serve as primary sources for historians. At certain times, the writing of letters was thought to be an art form and a genre of literature, for instance in Byzantine epistolography.  In the ancient world letters were written on a various different materials, including metal, lead, wax-coated wooden tablets, pottery fragments, animal skin, and papyrus. From Ovid, we learn that Acontius used an apple for his letter to Cydippe.  As communication technology has diversified, posted letters have become less important as a routine form of communication. For example, the development of the telegraph drastically shortened the time taken to send a communication, by sending it between distant points as an electrical signal. At the telegraph office closest to the destination, the signal was converted back into writing on paper and delivered to the recipient. The next step was the telex which avoided the need for local delivery. Then followed the fax (facsimile) machine: a letter could be transferred from the sender to the receiver through the telephone network as an image. These technologies did not displace physical letters as the primary route for communication, however today, the internet, by means of email, plays the main role in written communications; however, these email communications are not generally referred to as letters but rather as e-mail (or email) messages, messages or simply emails or e-mails, with only the term \"letter\" generally being reserved for communications on paper.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As literary historical source material.", "content": "Due to the timelessness and universality of letter writing, there is a wealth of letters and instructional materials (for example, manuals, as in the medieval ars dictaminis) on letter writing throughout history. The study of letter writing usually involves both the study of rhetoric and grammar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison with electronic mail.", "content": "Despite email, letters are still popular, particularly in business and for official communications. At the same time, many \"letters\" are sent in electronic form. Nevertheless, frequently, the following arguments are put forth saying letters may have the advantages over email:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Delivery process.", "content": "Here is how a letter gets from the sender to the recipient:  This process, depending on how far the sender is from the recipient, can take anywhere from a day to 3–4 weeks. International mail is sent via trains and airplanes to other countries.  However, in 2008, Janet Barrett from the UK, received a RSVP to a party invitation addressed to 'Percy Bateman', from 'Buffy', originally posted on 29 November 1919. It had taken 89 years to be delivered by the Royal Mail. However, Royal Mail denied this, saying that it would be impossible for a letter to have remained in their system for so long, as checks are carried out regularly. Instead, the letter dated 1919 may have \"been a collector's item which was being sent in another envelope and somehow came free of the outer packaging\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kinds of letters.", "content": "There are a number of different types of letter:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A letter is a written message conveyed from one person to another person through a medium. Letters can be formal and informal. Besides a means of communication and a store of information, letter writing has played a role in the reproduction of writing as an art throughout history. Letters have been sent since antiquity and are mentioned in the \"Iliad\". Historians Herodotus and Thucydides mention and utilize letters in their writings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971227}
{"src_title": "Kherson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Until 1774, the region belonged to the Crimean Khanate.  Kherson was founded in 1778 by Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin, on the orders of Catherine the Great. The city was built under the supervision of General Ivan Gannibal on the site of a small fortress called Aleksanderschanz. The name Kherson is a contraction of Chersonesos, an ancient Greek colony founded approximately 2500 years ago in the southwestern part of Crimea. One of the first buildings in the Kherson Fort was the Church of St. Catherine, where Potemkin was eventually buried. The last tarpan was caught near Kherson in 1866.  During the Ukrainian revolution of 2014, the city was a scene of riots against President Yanukovich, during which the main Lenin statue of the city was toppled by protesters. After the revolution the city became relatively calm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnicity.", "content": "As of Ukrainian National Census (2001), the ethnic groups living within Kherson were:  The ethnic groups living within Kherson as of the 1926 Census:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Administrative divisions.", "content": "There are three city raions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Under the Köppen climate classification, Kherson has a humid continental climate (\"Dfa\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rail.", "content": "Kherson is connected to the national railroad network of Ukraine. There are daily long-distance services to Kiev, Lviv and other cities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Air.", "content": "Kherson is served by Kherson International Airport providing both passport and customs control. It operates a 2,500 x 42-meter concrete runway, accommodating Boeing 737, Airbus 319/320 aircraft, and helicopters of all series.  The official airport website is http://www.airport.kherson.ua and additional info can be found at http://www.aisukraine.net.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "There are 77 high schools as well as 5 colleges. There are 15 institutions of higher education.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kherson (, ;, ) is a city in southern Ukraine. It functions as the administrative center of Kherson Oblast (province). Designated as a city of oblast significance. Kherson is an important port on the Black Sea and on the Dnieper River, and the home of a major ship-building industry. it had a population of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971228}
{"src_title": "Kamenz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "This small town is located in the west of the Upper Lusatia historic region (West Lusatia), about northeast of Dresden and about northwest of Bautzen. Situated on the Black Elster river, between the West Lusatian Hills and the Lusatian Highlands rising in the south, the town was built on greywacke and granite rocks which were mined here for centuries. Kamenz railway station is the terminus of Lübbenau–Kamenz and Kamenz–Pirna railway lines. It is served by \"Regionalbahn\" trains from Dresden Hauptbahnhof, operated by the Städtebahn Sachsen.  The Hutberg hill west of the town centre, at an elevation of, is the site of an extended landscape park laid out in 1893. It is known for its major rhododendron and azalea collections flowering at Pentecost. In 1864 the Lessing Tower was erected on the hilltop, offering a panoramic view over the West Lusatian lands and the Upper Lusatian Heath and Pond Landscape in the north. About 32% of the nature in former Kamenz District is under protection, including a network of routes for riding by bicycle and hiking.  The Kamenz municipal area comprises the villages of Bernbruch, Biehla, Brauna, Cunnersdorf, Deutschbaselitz/Němske Pazlicy, Gelenau, Hausdorf, Hennersdorf, Jesau/Jěžow, Liebenau, Lückersdorf, Petershain, Rohrbach, Schiedel, Schönbach, Schwosdorf, Thonberg/Hlinowc, Wiesa/Brěznja, and Zschornau/Čornow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The settlement arose in the late 12th century, when a fortress was erected at the location of today's old town, in order to secure the junction of the medieval Via Regia trade route with the Black Elster river. From here, the Via Regia offered important transport links from the Low Countries up to Silesia.  In 1225 written records first mentioned the town; Kamenz became an independent city in 1319, when Emperor Louis IV enfeoffed the West Lusatian lands to the Luxembourg king John of Bohemia. In 1346, the citizens joined the Lusatian League for protection against robber barons and to maintain public peace (\"Landfrieden\"). The town was nevertheless besieged and finally occupied by Hussite forces in 1429, who also devastated the nearby town of Wittichenau before they marched against Bautzen. In 1493 King Vladislaus II of Bohemia had a Franciscan monastery established north of the Kamenz town walls, dedicated to Saint Anne in 1512.  Kamenz citizens officially turned Protestant in 1536. In the Schmalkaldic War of 1546/47, the Upper Lusatian towns refused to support the troops of the Habsburg emperor Ferdinand I against the Protestant princes and were penalised with the loss of numerous privileges. The Franciscan convent finally dissolved in 1564.  According to the 1635 Peace of Prague, the Lusatias passed from the Bohemian Crown to the Electorate of Saxony. Several witch-hunts are documented in the 17th century. In 1707 a fire destroyed large parts of the old town. A second major fire on 4 and 5 August 1842 destroyed much of the city.  In 1896 Kamenz became garrison town of the \"Königlich Sächsisches Reserve-Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 242\", part of the German 53rd Reserve Division. In World War II a subcamp of Gross-Rosen concentration camp was located in the town from 1944 to 1945, where forced labourers worked for a Daimler-Benz aircraft engine factory. The airfield northeast of the town was used by Luftwaffe \"Schlachtgeschwader 2\" and \"Sturzkampfgeschwader 77\" units.  After the war, the town became part of the Soviet occupation zone and East Germany. Until 1990, an officer candidate school of the East German Air Force Staff (\"Offiziershochschule Franz Mehring\") was located at the Kamenz Airfield. The former municipality Schönteichen was merged into Kamenz in January 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Seats in the city council (\"Stadtrat\") as of 2014 local elections:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Kamenz is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kamenz () is a town (\"Große Kreisstadt\") in the district of Bautzen in Saxony, Germany. Until 2008 it was the administrative seat of Kamenz District. The town is known as the birthplace of the philosopher and poet Gotthold Ephraim Lessing also Bruno Richard Hauptmann. It lies north-east of the major city of Dresden.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971229}
{"src_title": "Apache HTTP Server", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "A number of explanations for the origin of the Apache name have been offered over the years.  From the inception of the Apache project in 1995 the official documentation stated:  In an April 2000 interview, Brian Behlendorf, one of the creators of Apache said:  Since 2013 the Apache Foundation has explained the origin of the name as:  When Apache is running under Unix, its process name is, which is short for \"HTTP daemon\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feature overview.", "content": "Apache supports a variety of features, many implemented as compiled modules which extend the core functionality. These can range from authentication schemes to supporting server-side programming languages such as Perl, Python, Tcl and PHP. Popular authentication modules include mod_access, mod_auth, mod_digest, and mod_auth_digest, the successor to mod_digest. A sample of other features include Secure Sockets Layer and Transport Layer Security support (mod_ssl), a proxy module (mod_proxy), a URL rewriting module (mod_rewrite), custom log files (mod_log_config), and filtering support (mod_include and mod_ext_filter).  Popular compression methods on Apache include the external extension module, mod_gzip, implemented to help with reduction of the size (weight) of web pages served over HTTP. ModSecurity is an open source intrusion detection and prevention engine for Web applications. Apache logs can be analyzed through a Web browser using free scripts, such as AWStats/W3Perl or Visitors.  Virtual hosting allows one Apache installation to serve many different websites. For example, one computer with one Apache installation could simultaneously serve codice_1, codice_2, codice_3, etc.  Apache features configurable error messages, DBMS-based authentication databases, content negotiation and supports several graphical user interfaces (GUIs).  It supports password authentication and digital certificate authentication. Because the source code is freely available, anyone can adapt the server for specific needs, and there is a large public library of Apache add-ons.  A more detailed list of features is provided below:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance.", "content": "Instead of implementing a single architecture, Apache provides a variety of MultiProcessing Modules (MPMs), which allow it to run in either a process-based mode, a hybrid (process and thread) mode, or an event-hybrid mode, in order to better match the demands of each particular infrastructure. Choice of MPM and configuration is therefore important. Where compromises in performance must be made, Apache is designed to reduce latency and increase throughput relative to simply handling more requests, thus ensuring consistent and reliable processing of requests within reasonable time-frames.  For delivering static pages, Apache 2.2 series was considered significantly slower than nginx and varnish. To address this issue, the Apache developers created the Event MPM, which mixes the use of several processes and several threads per process in an asynchronous event-based loop. This architecture as implemented in the Apache 2.4 series performs at least as well as event-based web servers, according to Jim Jagielski and other independent sources. However, some independent but significantly outdated benchmarks show that it is still half as fast as nginx, e.g.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Licensing.", "content": "The Apache HTTP Server codebase was relicensed to the Apache 2.0 License (from the previous 1.1 license) in January 2004, and Apache HTTP Server 1.3.31 and 2.0.49 were the first releases using the new license.  The OpenBSD project did not like the change and continued the use of pre-2.0 Apache versions, effectively forking Apache 1.3.x for its purposes. They initially replaced it with Nginx, and soon after made their own replacement, OpenBSD Httpd, based on the relayd project.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions.", "content": "Version 1.1: The Apache License 1.1 was approved by the ASF in 2000: The primary change from the 1.0 license is in the 'advertising clause' (section 3 of the 1.0 license); derived products are no longer required to include attribution in their advertising materials, only in their documentation.  Version 2.0: The ASF adopted the Apache License 2.0 in January 2004. The stated goals of the license included making the license easier for non-ASF projects to use, improving compatibility with GPL-based software, allowing the license to be included by reference instead of listed in every file, clarifying the license on contributions, and requiring a patent license on contributions that necessarily infringe a contributor's own patents.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "The Apache HTTP Server Project is a collaborative software development effort aimed at creating a robust, commercial-grade, feature-rich and freely available source code implementation of an HTTP (Web) server. The project is jointly managed by a group of volunteers located around the world, using the Internet and the Web to communicate, plan, and develop the server and its related documentation. This project is part of the Apache Software Foundation. In addition, hundreds of users have contributed ideas, code, and documentation to the project.  Apache 2.4 dropped support for BeOS, TPF and even older platforms.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Apache HTTP Server, colloquially called Apache ( ), is a free and open-source cross-platform web server software, released under the terms of Apache License 2.0. Apache is developed and maintained by an open community of developers under the auspices of the Apache Software Foundation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971230}
{"src_title": "Philately", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"philately\" is the English transliteration of the French \"philatélie\", coined by Georges Herpin in 1864. Herpin stated that stamps had been collected and studied for the previous six or seven years and a better name was required for the new hobby than \"timbromanie\" (roughly \"stamp quest\"), which was disliked. The alternative terms \"timbromania\", \"timbrophily\" and \"timbrology\" gradually fell out of use as \"philately\" gained acceptance during the 1860s. He took the Greek root word φιλ(ο)- \"phil(o)-\", meaning \"an attraction or affinity for something\", and ἀτέλεια \"ateleia\", meaning \"exempt from duties and taxes\" to form \"philatelie\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nineteenth century.", "content": "As a collection field, philately appeared after the introduction of the postage stamps in 1840, but did not gain large attraction until the mid-1850s. Some authors believe that the first philatelist appeared on the day of the release of the world's first postage stamp, dated to May 6, 1840, when the Liverson, Denby and Lavie London law office sent a letter to Scotland franked with ten uncut Penny Blacks, stamped with the postmark “LS.6MY6. 1840.\" In 1992 at an auction in Zurich, this envelope was sold for 690 thousand francs.  Already in 1846, cases of collecting stamps in large numbers were known in England. However, without reason for collection, stamps at this time were used for pasting wallpaper. The first philatelist is considered to be a postmaster going by Mansen, who lived in Paris, and in 1855 had sold his collection, which contained almost all the postage stamps issued by that time. The stamp merchant and second-hand book dealer Edard de Laplante bought it, recognizing the definitive collector's worth of the postage stamp. Due to the boom in popularity and news of this transaction, stamp merchants like Laplante began to emerge.  Towards the end of the 19th century stamp collecting reached hundreds of thousands of people of all classes. Even some states had collections of postage stamps, for example, England, Germany, France, Bavaria, and Bulgaria). In countries who held national collections, museums were built to dedicate that nation's history with philately, and the first such appeared in Germany, France, and Bulgaria. Allegedly, the first of these museums housed the collection of the British Museum, curated by MP Tapling and bequeathed to the Museum in 1891. The Museum für Kommunikation Berlin also had an extensive collection of stamps. The largest collection of the time belonged to Baron Philipp von Ferrary in Paris.  As the number of postage stamp issues increased every year, collection became progressively difficult. Therefore, from the early 1880s, \"collector experts\" appeared, specializing their collection to only one part of the world, a group of nations, or even only one.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twentieth century.", "content": "Philately as one of the most popular types of collecting continued to develop in the 20th century. Along with the \"Scott\", \"Stanley Gibbons\", and \"Yvert et Tellier\" catalogs, the \"Zumstein\" (first published in Switzerland, 1909), and the \"Michel\" (first published in Germany, 1910) catalogs began publication.  In 1934, the idea to celebrate an annual Postage Stamp Day was suggested by Hans von Rudolphi, a German philatelist. The idea was adopted rapidly in Germany, and gained later adoption in other countries. Stamp Day is a memorial day established by the postal administration of a country and annually celebrated, which is designed to attract public attention to, popularize the use of, and expand the reach of postal correspondence, and contribute to the development of philately. In 1968, Cuba dedicated a postage stamp for Stamp Day with an image of G. Sciltian's \"El filatelista\".  In 1926, the Fédération Internationale de Philatélie (FIP) was founded, where international philatelic exhibitions have been regularly organized since 1929.The first World Philatelic Exhibition in Prague was held between August and September 1962; in 1976, the FIP brought together national societies from 57 countries, which held over 100 exhibitions, and in 1987, over 60 countries entered the FIP.  Since the middle of the 20th century, philately has become the most widespread field of amateur collecting, which was facilitated by:  Philately magazines, at this time, were published as far east as Poland, and as far west as North America. In Canada, \"Canadian Stamp News\" was established in 1976 as an off-shoot to \"Canadian Coin News\", which was launched about a decade earlier.  Philately was largely advanced by the USSR and nations within its sphere of influence, and the United States, France, the UK, and Austria. The British Library Philatelic Collections and the postal museums in Stockholm, Paris, and Bern had unique national philately collections at that time, and among the famous private collections are those of the Royal Philatelic Collection, F. Ferrari (Austria), M. Burrus (Switzerland), A. Lichtenstein, A. Hind, J. Boker (USA), and H. Kanai (Japan).  In the mid-1970s, national philately organizations and associations existed in most countries, and 150-200 million people were involved in philately during meetings established.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twenty-first century.", "content": "From August 28 to September 1, 2004, the World Stamp Championship was held for the first time in the history of world philately in Singapore.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Traditional philately is the study of the technical aspects of stamp production and stamp identification, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tools.", "content": "Philately uses several tools, including stamp tongs (a specialized form of tweezers) to safely handle the stamps, a strong magnifying glass and a perforation gauge (odontometer) to measure the perforation gauge of the stamp.  The identification of watermarks is equally important and may be done with the naked eye by turning the stamp over or holding it up to the light. If this fails then \"watermark fluid\" may be used, which \"wets\" the stamp to reveal the mark.  Other common tools include stamp catalogs, stamp stock books and stamp hinges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organizations.", "content": "Philatelic organizations sprang up soon after people started collecting and studying stamps. They include local, national and international clubs and societies where collectors come together to share the various aspects of their hobby.  The world's oldest philatelic society is the Royal Philatelic Society London, which was founded on April 10, 1869, as the Philatelic Society. In North America, the major national societies include the American Philatelic Society; the Royal Philatelic Society of Canada; and the Mexico-Elmhurst Philatelic Society, International.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philately (; ) is the study of postage stamps and postal history. It also refers to the collection, appreciation and research activities on stamps and other philatelic products. Philately involves more than just stamp collecting or the study of postage; it is possible to be a philatelist without owning any stamps. For instance, the stamps being studied may be very rare or reside only in museums.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971231}
{"src_title": "Salesians of Don Bosco", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1845 Don John Bosco (\"Don\" being a traditional Italian honorific for priest) opened a night school for boys in Valdocco, now part of the municipality of Turin in Italy. In the following years, he opened several more schools, and in 1857 drew up a set of rules for his helpers. This rule was approved definitively in 1873 by Pope Pius IX as the Rule of the Society of Saint Francis de Sales. The Society grew rapidly, with houses established in France and Argentina within a year of the Society's formal recognition. Its official print organ, \"Salesian Bulletin,\" was first published in 1877.  Over the next decade the Salesians expanded into Austria, Britain, Spain, and several countries in South America. The death of Don Bosco in 1888 did not slow the Society's growth. By 1911 the Salesians were established throughout the world, including Colombia, China, India, South Africa, Tunisia, Venezuela and the United States.  The Society continues to operate worldwide; in 2000, it counted more than 17,000 members in 2,711 houses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbols.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat of arms.", "content": "The Salesian coat of arms was designed by Professor Boidi. It was published for the first time in a circular letter of Don Bosco on 8 December 1885. It consist of a shining star, the large anchor, and the heart on fire to symbolize the theological virtues of Faith, Hope and Charity. The figure of Saint Francis de Sales recalls the patron of the society. The small wood in the lower part refers to the founder of the society; the high mountains signify the heights of perfection towards which members strive; the interwoven palm and laurel that enfold the shield on either side are emblematic of the prize reserved for a virtuous and sacrificial life. The motto \"Da mihi animas, caetera tolle\" (\"Give me souls, take away the rest\") is featured at the bottom.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Logo.", "content": "The Salesian logo is made up of two superimposed images.  In the background is a globe to represent the worldwide reach of the Salesians, and a stylised \"S\" in white is formed within the globe, resembling a snaking road representing an educational journey for the youth.  In the foreground is an arrow pointing upwards, resting on three perpendicular legs on top of which are three closed circles, making a stylised image of three people: the first of these in the middle and taller than the others is the point of the arrow, and the other two beside it appear as it were to be embraced by the central figure. These three stylized figures represent Saint John Bosco reaching out to the young, and his call for Salesians to continue his work. The three stylised figures with the arrow pointing upwards can also be viewed as a house dwelling with a sloping roof and three pillars holding it up, represents John Bosco's Oratories of Reason, Religion and Kindness.  The logo combines elements from those of the German and Brazilian provinces. The idea of combining the two came out of suggestions from an enquiry about the new logo conducted throughout the Congregation and from contributions by the General Council. It is designed with the central theme \"Don Bosco and the Salesians walking with the young through the world.\" The artistic work of combining the two was carried out by the designer Fabrizio Emigli, from the Litos Company, in Rome.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "The Salesians of Don Bosco are headed by the Rector Major and the society's general council, while each of the ninety-four geographical provinces is headed by a Provincial. These officers serve six-year terms; the Rector Major and the members of the general council are elected by the Chapter General, which meets every six years or upon the death of the Rector Major. Each local Salesian community is headed by a superior, called a Rector (or more commonly, \"Director\"), who is appointed to a three-year term and can be renewed for a second three-year term.  Since 2014, the Rector Major of the Salesians is the Very Reverend Father Ángel Fernández Artime.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Salesian communities primarily operate shelters for homeless or at-risk youths; schools; technical, vocational, and language instruction centers for youths and adults; and boys' clubs and community centers. In some areas they run parish churches. Salesians are also active in publishing and other public communication activities, as well as mission work, especially in Asia (Siberia - in the Yakutsk area), Africa, and South America (Yanomami). The \"Salesian Bulletin\" is now published in fifty-two editions, in thirty languages.  In the 1990s Salesians launched new works in the area of tertiary education, and today have a network of over 58 colleges and universities. The official university of the Salesian Society is the Salesian Pontifical University in Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sexual abuse scandal.", "content": "A number of schools and churches established under the Salesians have been at the center of child sex abuse scandals, including Mary Help of Christians in Tampa, Florida. Due to ongoing sexual assault lawsuits and settlements, several boarding schools were closed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Salesians of Don Bosco (SDB), officially known as the Society of Saint Francis de Sales (), is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church, founded in the late 19th century by Italian priest Saint John Bosco to help poor children during the Industrial Revolution and named after Saint Francis de Sales, a 17th-century bishop of Geneva.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971232}
{"src_title": "GBU-43/B MOAB", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The basic principle resembles that of the BLU-82 \"Daisy Cutter\", which was used to clear heavily wooded areas in the Vietnam War. Decades later, the BLU-82 was used in Afghanistan in November 2001 against the Taliban. Its success as a weapon of intimidation led to the decision to develop the MOAB. Pentagon officials suggested MOAB might be used as an anti-personnel weapon, as part of the \"shock and awe\" strategy integral to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.  GBU-43s are delivered from C-130 cargo aircraft, inside which they are carried on cradles resting on airdrop platforms. The bombs are dropped by deploying drogue parachutes, which also extract the cradle and platform from the aircraft. Shortly after launch the drogues are released and the bomb falls without the use of a retarding parachute. GPS satellite-guidance is used to guide bombs to their targets.  The MOAB is not a penetrator weapon and is primarily an air burst ordnance intended for soft to medium surface targets covering extended areas and targets in a contained environment such as a deep canyon or within a cave system. High altitude carpet-bombing with much smaller bombs delivered via heavy bombers such as the B-52, B-2, or the B-1 is also highly effective at covering large areas.  The MOAB is designed to be used against a specific target, and cannot by itself replicate the effects of a typical heavy bomber mission. During the Vietnam War's Operation Arc Light program, for example, the United States Air Force sent B-52s on well over 10,000 bombing raids, each usually carried out by two groups of three aircraft. A typical mission dropped 168 tons of ordnance, pounding an area 1.5 by 0.5 miles with an explosive force equivalent to 10 to 17 MOABs.  MOAB was first tested with the explosive tritonal on 11 March 2003, on Range 70 located at Eglin Air Force Base in Florida. It was tested again on 21 November 2003.  Since 2003, 15 MOABs have been manufactured at the McAlester Army Ammunition Plant in McAlester, Oklahoma.  The Air Force has said the MOAB has a unit price of $170,000, but this is a historical unit cost made in the mid-2000s and various factors of the bomb's atypical development process have made exact cost estimation difficult. The Air Force Research Lab generated the value based on already existing parts such as bomb casing and metals, and since the bomb was built in-house by the service they did not pay for outside research or have standard procurement costs associated with it. MOAB was a \"crash project\" developed for use against an adversary with uncertain tactics on unfamiliar terrain, and so was an effort to meet an urgent need rather than a formal program. Should more bombs be ordered to be built, manufacturing would likely be started over with higher costs due to a lack of old parts, price inflation, and new design and testing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational use.", "content": "On 13 April 2017, a MOAB was dropped on an ISIS-Khorasan cave complex in Achin District, Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan. It was the first operational use of the bomb. Two days later, an Afghan army spokesman said that the strike killed 94 ISIS-K militants, including four commanders, with no signs of civilian casualties. However, an afghani parliamentarian from Nangarhar province, Esmatullah Shinwari, said locals told him the explosion killed a teacher and his young son. Former US military official Marc Garlasco, who served in the George W. Bush administration, said that the US had not previously used the MOAB because of worries that it would inadvertently hurt or kill civilians. The MOAB's explosive power and symbolism made it a persuasive example of weaponized war propaganda.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar weapons.", "content": "During World War II, Royal Air Force Bomber Command used the Grand Slam, officially known as the \"Bomb, Medium Capacity, 22,000 lb\" 42 times. At total weight, these earthquake bombs were technically larger than the MOAB. However, half their weight was due to the cast iron casing necessary for penetrating the ground (up to 40 m) before exploding. The MOAB, in contrast, has a light aluminum casing surrounding of explosive Composition H-6 material.  The United States Air Force's T-12 Cloudmaker demolition bomb (similar in design to the Grand Slam), developed after World War II, carried a heavier explosive charge than the MOAB, but was never used in combat.  In 2007, the Russian military announced that they had tested a thermobaric weapon nicknamed the \"Father of All Bombs\" (\"FOAB\"). The weapon is claimed to be four times as powerful as the MOAB, but its specifications are widely disputed.  The MOAB is the most powerful conventional bomb ever used in combat as measured by the weight of its explosive material. The explosive yield is comparable to that of the smallest tactical nuclear weapons, such as the Cold War-era American M-388 projectile fired by the portable Davy Crockett recoilless gun. The M-388, a W54 nuclear warhead variant, weighed less than 60 pounds. At the projectile's lowest yield setting of 10 tons, roughly equivalent to a single MOAB, its explosive force was only 1/144,000th (0.0007%) that of the Air Force's 1.44-megaton W49 warhead, a nuclear weapon commonly found on American ICBMs from the early 1960s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast (MOAB, commonly known as \"Mother of All Bombs\") is a large-yield bomb, developed for the United States military by Albert L. Weimorts, Jr. of the Air Force Research Laboratory. At the time of development, it was said to be the most powerful non-nuclear weapon in the American arsenal. The bomb is designed to be delivered by a C-130 Hercules, primarily the MC-130E Combat Talon I or MC-130H Combat Talon II variants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971233}
{"src_title": "Magnetic tape", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "The of a tape is the surface that can be magnetically manipulated by a tape head. This is the side that stores the information, the opposite side is simply a \"substrate\" to give the tape strength and flexibility. The name originates from the fact that the magnetic side of most tapes is typically made of iron oxide, though chromium is used for some tapes. An adhesive \"binder\" between the oxide and the substrate holds the two sides together.  In all tape formats, a tape drive uses motors to wind the tape from one reel to another, passing over tape heads to read, write or erase as it moves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Audio recording.", "content": "Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928 in Germany, based on the invention of magnetic wire recording by Oberlin Smith in 1888 and Valdemar Poulsen in 1898. Pfleumer's invention used a ferric oxide () powder coating on a long strip of paper. This invention was further developed by the German electronics company AEG, which manufactured the recording machines and BASF, which manufactured the tape. In 1933, working for AEG, Eduard Schuller developed the ring-shaped tape head. Previous head designs were needle-shaped and tended to shred the tape. Another important discovery made in this period was the technique of AC biasing, which improved the fidelity of the recorded audio signal by increasing the effective linearity of the recording medium.  Due to the escalating political tensions, and the outbreak of World War II, these developments in Germany were largely kept secret. Although the Allies knew from their monitoring of Nazi radio broadcasts that the Germans had some new form of recording technology, its nature was not discovered until the Allies acquired German recording equipment as they invaded Europe at the end of the war. It was only after the war that Americans, particularly Jack Mullin, John Herbert Orr, and Richard H. Ranger, were able to bring this technology out of Germany and develop it into commercially viable formats. Bing Crosby, an early adopter of the technology, made a large investment in the tape hardware manufacturer Ampex.  A wide variety of audio tape recorders and formats have been developed since, most significantly reel-to-reel and Compact Cassette.  Digital recording to flash memory and hard disk has largely supplanted magnetic tape for most purposes. However \"tape\" as a verb and as a noun has remained the common parlance for the recording process.  Some magnetic tape-based formats are listed below:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Video recording.", "content": "The practice of recording and editing audio using magnetic tape rapidly established itself as an obvious improvement over previous methods. Many saw the potential of making the same improvements in recording the video signals used by television. Video signals use more bandwidth than audio signals. Existing audio tape recorders could not practically capture a video signal. Many set to work on resolving this problem. Jack Mullin (working for Bing Crosby) and the BBC both created crude working systems that involved moving the tape across a fixed tape head at very high speeds. Neither system saw much use. It was the team at Ampex, led by Charles Ginsburg, that made the breakthrough of using a spinning recording head and normal tape speeds to achieve a very high head-to-tape speed that could record and reproduce the high bandwidth signals of video. The Ampex system was called Quadruplex and used tape, mounted on reels like audio tape, which wrote the signal in what is now called \"transverse scan\".  Later improvements by other companies, particularly Sony, led to the development of helical scan and the enclosure of the tape reels in an easy-to-handle videocassette cartridge. Nearly all modern videotape systems use helical scan and cartridges. Videocassette recorders used to be common in homes and television production facilities, but many functions of the VCR have been replaced with more modern technology. Since the advent of digital video and computerized video processing, optical disc media and digital video recorders can now perform the same role as videotape. These devices also offer improvements like random access to any scene in the recording and the ability to pause a live program and have replaced videotape in many situations.  Some magnetic tape-based formats are listed below:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Data storage.", "content": "Magnetic tape was first used to record computer data in 1951 on the Eckert-Mauchly UNIVAC I. The system's UNISERVO I tape drive used a thin strip of one half inch (12.65 mm) wide metal, consisting of nickel-plated bronze (called Vicalloy). Recording density was 100 characters per inch (39.37 characters/cm) on eight tracks.  Early IBM 7 track tape drives were floor-standing and used vacuum columns to mechanically buffer long U-shaped loops of tape. The two tape reels visibly fed tape through the columns, intermittently spinning 10.5 inch open reels in rapid, unsynchronized bursts, resulting in visually striking action. Stock shots of such vacuum-column tape drives in motion were widely used to represent mainframe computers in movies and television.  Most modern magnetic tape systems use reels that are much smaller than the 10.5 inch open reels and are fixed inside a cartridge to protect the tape and facilitate handling. Many late 1970s and early 1980s home computers used Compact Cassettes, encoded with the Kansas City standard, or alternate encodings. Modern cartridge formats include LTO, DLT, and DAT/DDC.  Tape remains a viable alternative to disk in some situations due to its lower cost per bit. This is a large advantage when dealing with large amounts of data. Though the areal density of tape is lower than for disk drives, the available surface area on a tape is far greater. The highest capacity tape media are generally on the same order as the largest available disk drives (about 5 TB in 2011). Tape has historically offered enough advantage in cost over disk storage to make it a viable product, particularly for backup, where media removability is necessary.  Tape has the benefit of a comparatively long duration during which the media can be guaranteed to retain the data stored on the media. Fifteen (15) to thirty (30) years of archival data storage is cited by manufacturers of modern data tape such as Linear Tape-Open media.  In 2002, Imation received a US$11.9 million grant from the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology for research into increasing the data capacity of magnetic tape.  In 2014, Sony and IBM announced that they had been able to record 148 gigabits per square inch with magnetic tape media developed using a new vacuum thin-film forming technology able to form extremely fine crystal particles, allowing true tape capacity of 185 TB.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany in 1928, based on magnetic wire recording. Devices that record and playback audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders respectively. A device that stores computer data on magnetic tape is known as a tape drive.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971234}
{"src_title": "Third Punic War", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In the years between the Second and Third Punic War, Rome was engaged in the conquest of the Hellenistic empires and also of the Illyrian tribes to the east, and suppressing the Hispanian peoples in the west, although they had been essential to the Roman success in the Second Punic War. Carthage, stripped of allies and territory (Sicily, Sardinia, Hispania), was suffering under a large indemnity of 200 silver talents to be paid every year for 50 years.  According to Appian, the senator Cato the Elder usually finished his speeches on any subject in the Senate with the phrase \"ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam\", which means \"Moreover, I am of the opinion that Carthage ought to be destroyed\". Cicero attributed a similar statement to Cato in his dialogue \"De Senectute\". He was opposed by the senator Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum, who favoured a different course that would not destroy Carthage, and who usually prevailed in the debates.  The peace treaty at the end of the Second Punic War required that all border disputes involving Carthage be arbitrated by the Roman Senate and required Carthage to get explicit Roman approval before going to war. As a result, in the 50 intervening years between the Second and Third Punic War, Carthage had to take all border disputes with Rome's ally Numidia to the Roman Senate, where they were decided almost exclusively in the latter's favour.  In 151 BC, the Carthaginian debt to Rome was fully repaid, meaning that, in Punic eyes, the treaty was now expired, though not so according to the Romans, who instead viewed the treaty as a permanent declaration of Carthaginian subordination to Rome, akin to the Roman treaties with its Italian allies. Moreover, the retirement of the indemnity removed one of the main incentives the Romans had to keep the peace with Carthage – there were no further payments that might be interrupted.  The Romans had other reasons to conquer Carthage and her remaining territories. By the middle of the 2nd century BC, the population of the city of Rome was about 400,000 and rising. Feeding the growing populace was becoming a major challenge. The farmlands surrounding Carthage represented the most productive, most accessible and perhaps the most easily obtainable agricultural lands not yet under Roman control.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Course of the war.", "content": "In 151 BC Numidia launched another border raid on Carthaginian soil, besieging the Punic town of Oroscopa, and Carthage launched a large military expedition (25,000 soldiers) to repel the Numidian invaders. However, Carthage suffered a military defeat and was charged with another fifty year debt to Numidia. Immediately after, however, Rome showed displeasure with Carthage's decision to wage war against its neighbour without Roman consent.  In 149 BC, Rome declared war against Carthage. The Carthaginians made a series of attempts to appease Rome, and received a promise that if three hundred children of well-born Carthaginians were sent as hostages to Rome the Carthaginians would keep the rights to their land and self-government. Even after this was done the allied Punic city of Utica defected to Rome, and a Roman army of 80,000 men gathered there. The consuls then demanded that Carthage hand over all weapons and armor. After those had been handed over, Rome additionally demanded that the Carthaginians move at least 16 kilometres inland, while the city was to be burned. When the Carthaginians learned of this, they abandoned negotiations and the city was immediately besieged, beginning the Third Punic War.  After the main Roman expedition landed at Utica, consuls Manius Manilius and Lucius Marcius Censorius launched a two-pronged attack on Carthage, but were eventually repulsed by the army of the Carthaginian Generals Hasdrubal the Boeotarch and Himilco Phameas. Censorius lost more than 500 men when they were surprised by the Carthaginian cavalry while collecting timber around the Lake of Tunis. A worse disaster fell upon the Romans when their fleet was set ablaze by fire ships which the Carthaginians released upwind. Manilius was replaced by consul Calpurnius Piso Caesonius in 149 after a severe defeat of the Roman army at Nepheris, a Carthaginian stronghold south of the city. Scipio Aemilianus's intervention saved four cohorts trapped in a ravine. Nepheris eventually fell to Scipio in the winter of 147–146. In the autumn of 148, Piso was beaten back while attempting to storm the city of Aspis, near Cape Bon. Undeterred, he laid siege to the town of Hippagreta in the north, but his army was unable to defeat the Punics there before winter and had to retreat. When news of these setbacks reached Rome, he was replaced as consul by Scipio Aemilianus.  The Carthaginians endured the siege, starting 149 BC to the spring of 146 BC, when Scipio Aemilianus successfully assaulted the city. Though the Punic citizens offered strong resistance, they were gradually pushed back by the overwhelming Roman military force and destroyed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Many Carthaginians died from starvation during the later part of the siege, while many others died in the final six days of fighting. When the war ended, the remaining 50,000 Carthaginians, a small part of the original pre-war population, were sold into slavery by the victors. Carthage was systematically burned for 17 days; the city's walls and buildings were utterly destroyed. The remaining Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become the Roman province of Africa.  The notion that Roman forces then sowed the city with salt to ensure that nothing would grow there again is almost certainly a 19th-century invention. Contemporary accounts show that the land surrounding Carthage was declared \"ager publicus\" and that it was shared between local farmers, and Roman and Italian ones. North Africa soon became a vital source of grain for the Romans. Roman Carthage was the main hub transporting these supplies to the capital.  Numerous significant Punic cities, such as those in Mauretania, were taken over and rebuilt by the Romans. Examples of these rebuilt cities are Volubilis, Chellah and Arambys. Volubilis, for example, was an important Roman town situated near the westernmost border of Roman conquests. It was built on the site of the previous Punic settlement, but that settlement overlies an earlier neolithic habitation. Utica, the Punic city which changed loyalties at the beginning of the siege, became the capital of the Roman province of Africa.  A century later, the site of Carthage was rebuilt as a Roman city by Julius Caesar, and would later become one of the main cities of Roman Africa by the time of the Empire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Third Punic War (Latin: \"Tertium Bellum Punicum\") (149–146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage and the Roman Republic. The Punic Wars were named because of the Roman name for Carthaginians: \"Punici\", or \"Poenici\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971235}
{"src_title": "Solanum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The generic name was first used by Pliny the Elder (23–79) for a plant also known as \"strychnos\", most likely \"S. nigrum\". Its derivation is uncertain, possibly stemming from the Latin word \"sol\", meaning \"sun\", referring to its status as a plant of the sun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nightshades.", "content": "The species most commonly called nightshade in North America and Britain is \"Solanum dulcamara\", also called bittersweet or woody nightshade. Its foliage and egg-shaped red berries are poisonous, the active principle being solanine, which can cause convulsions and death if taken in large doses. The black nightshade (\"S. nigrum\") is also generally considered poisonous, but its fully ripened fruit and foliage are cooked and eaten in some areas. The deadly nightshade (\"Atropa belladonna\") is not in the genus \"Solanum\", but is a member of the family Solanaceae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food crops.", "content": "Most parts of the plants, especially the green parts and unripe fruit, are poisonous to humans (although not necessarily to other animals), but many species in the genus bear some edible parts, such as fruits, leaves, or tubers. Three crops in particular have been bred and harvested for consumption by humans for centuries, and are now cultivated on a global scale:  Other species are significant food crops regionally, such as Ethiopian eggplant or gilo (\"S. aethiopicum\"), naranjilla or lulo (\"S. quitoense\"), Turkey berry (\"S. torvum\"), Pepino or Pepino Melon (\"S. muricatum\"), Tamarillo (\"S. betaceum\"), Wolf apple (S. lycocarpum), and \"bush tomatoes\" (several Australian species).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ornamentals.", "content": "The species most widely seen in cultivation as ornamental plants are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medicine.", "content": "Poisonings associated with certain species of \"Solanum\" are not uncommon and may be fatal. However, several species are locally used in folk medicine, particularly by native peoples who have long employed them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Solanum\" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths) – see list of Lepidoptera that feed on Solanum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Systematics.", "content": "The genus was established by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. Its subdivision has always been problematic, but slowly some sort of consensus is being achieved.  The following list is a provisional lineup of the genus' traditional subdivisions, together with some notable species. Many of the subgenera and sections might not be valid; they are used here provisionally as the phylogeny of this genus is not fully resolved yet and many species have not been reevaluated.  Cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data suggest that the present subdivisions and rankings are largely invalid. Far more subgenera would seem to warrant recognition, with \"Leptostemonum\" being the only one that can at present be clearly subdivided into sections. Notably, it includes as a major lineage several members of the traditional sections \"Cyphomandropsis\" and the old genus \"Cyphomandra\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subgenus \"Bassovia\".", "content": "Section \"Allophylla\" Section \"Cyphomandropsis\" Section \"Pachyphylla\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subgenus \"Leptostemonum\".", "content": "Section \"Acanthophora\" Section \"Androceras\": 12 spp. Section \"Anisantherum\" Section \"Campanulata\" Section \"Crinitum\" Section \"Croatianum\" Section \"Erythrotrichum\" Section \"Graciliflorum\" Section \"Herposolanum\" Section \"Irenosolanum\" Section \"Ischyracanthum\" Section \"Lasiocarpa\" Section \"Melongena\" Section \"Micracantha\" Section \"Monodolichopus\" Section \"Nycterium\" Section \"Oliganthes\" Section \"Persicariae\" Section \"Polytrichum\" Section \"Pugiunculifera\" Section \"Somalanum\" Section \"Torva\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subgenus \"Solanum sensu stricto\".", "content": "Section \"Afrosolanum\" Section \"Anarrhichomenum\" Section \"Archaesolanum\" Section \"Basarthrum\" Section \"Benderianum\" Section \"Brevantherum\" Section \"Dulcamara\" Section \"Herpystichum\" Section \"Holophylla\" Section \"Juglandifolia\" Section \"Lemurisolanum\" Section \"Lycopersicoides\" Section \"Lycopersicon\"  Section \"Macronesiotes\" Section \"Normania\" Section \"Petota\" Section \"Pteroidea\" Section \"Quadrangulare\" Section \"Regmandra\" Section \"Solanum\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Formerly placed here.", "content": "Some plants of other genera were formerly placed in \"Solanum\":", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Solanum is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants, which include three food crops of high economic importance, the potato, the tomato and the eggplant. It also contains the nightshades and horse nettles, as well as numerous plants cultivated for their ornamental flowers and fruit.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971236}
{"src_title": "Discourse analysis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early use of the term.", "content": "The ancient Greeks (among others) had much to say on discourse; however, some scholars consider Austria-born Leo Spitzer's \"Stilstudien\" (\"Style Studies\") of 1928 the earliest example of \"discourse analysis\" (DA). Michel Foucault translated it into French. However, the term first came into general use following the publication of a series of papers by Zellig Harris from 1952 reporting on work from which he developed transformational grammar in the late 1930s. Formal equivalence relations among the sentences of a coherent discourse are made explicit by using sentence transformations to put the text in a canonical form. Words and sentences with equivalent information then appear in the same column of an array.  This work progressed over the next four decades (see references) into a science of sublanguage analysis (Kittredge & Lehrberger 1982), culminating in a demonstration of the informational structures in texts of a sublanguage of science, that of Immunology, (Harris et al. 1989) and a fully articulated theory of linguistic informational content (Harris 1991). During this time, however, most linguists ignored such developments in favor of a succession of elaborate theories of sentence-level syntax and semantics.  In January 1953, a linguist working for the American Bible Society, James A. Lauriault/Loriot, needed to find answers to some fundamental errors in translating Quechua, in the Cuzco area of Peru. Following Harris's 1952 publications, he worked over the meaning and placement of each word in a collection of Quechua legends with a native speaker of Quechua and was able to formulate discourse rules that transcended the simple sentence structure. He then applied the process to Shipibo, another language of Eastern Peru. He taught the theory at the Summer Institute of Linguistics in Norman, Oklahoma, in the summers of 1956 and 1957 and entered the University of Pennsylvania to study with Harris in the interim year. He tried to publish a paper \"Shipibo Paragraph Structure\", but it was delayed until 1970 (Loriot & Hollenbach 1970). In the meantime, Kenneth Lee Pike, a professor at University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, taught the theory, and one of his students, Robert E. Longacre developed it in his writings. Harris's methodology disclosing the correlation of form with meaning was developed into a system for the computer-aided analysis of natural language by a team led by Naomi Sager at NYU, which has been applied to a number of sublanguage domains, most notably to medical informatics. The software for the Medical Language Processor is publicly available on SourceForge.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In the humanities.", "content": "In the late 1960s and 1970s, and without reference to this prior work, a variety of other approaches to a new cross-discipline of DA began to develop in most of the humanities and social sciences concurrently with, and related to, other disciplines, such as semiotics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and pragmatics. Many of these approaches, especially those influenced by the social sciences, favor a more dynamic study of oral talk-in-interaction. An example is \"conversational analysis\", which was influenced by the Sociologist Harold Garfinkel, the founder of Ethnomethodology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Foucault.", "content": "In Europe, Michel Foucault became one of the key theorists of the subject, especially of discourse, and wrote The Archaeology of Knowledge. In this context, the term 'discourse' no longer refers to formal linguistic aspects, but to institutionalized patterns of knowledge that become manifest in disciplinary structures and operate by the connection of knowledge and power. Since the 1970s, Foucault's works have had an increasing impact especially on discourse analysis in the social sciences. Thus, in modern European social sciences, one can find a wide range of different approaches working with Foucault's definition of discourse and his theoretical concepts. Apart from the original context in France, there is, at least since 2005, a broad discussion on socio-scientific discourse analysis in Germany. Here, for example, the sociologist Reiner Keller developed his widely recognized 'Sociology of Knowledge Approach to Discourse (SKAD)'. Following the sociology of knowledge by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, Keller argues, that our sense of reality in everyday life and thus the meaning of every object, actions and events are the product of a permanent, routinized interaction. In this context, SKAD has been developed as a scientific perspective that is able to understand the processes of 'The Social Construction of Reality' on all levels of social life by combining Michel Foucault's theories of discourse and power with the theory of knowledge by Berger/Luckmann. Whereas the latter primarily focus on the constitution and stabilisation of knowledge on the level of interaction, Foucault's perspective concentrates on institutional contexts of the production and integration of knowledge, where the subject mainly appears to be determined by knowledge and power. Therefore, the 'Sociology of Knowledge Approach to Discourse' can also be seen as an approach to deal with the vividly discussed micro–macro problem in sociology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Perspectives.", "content": "The following are some of the specific theoretical perspectives and analytical approaches used in linguistic discourse analysis:  Although these approaches emphasize different aspects of language use, they all view language as social interaction and are concerned with the social contexts in which discourse is embedded.  Often a distinction is made between 'local' structures of discourse (such as relations among sentences, propositions, and turns) and 'global' structures, such as overall topics and the schematic organization of discourses and conversations. For instance, many types of discourse begin with some kind of global'summary', in titles, headlines, leads, abstracts, and so on.  A problem for the discourse analyst is to decide when a particular feature is relevant to the specification required. A question many linguists ask is: \"Are there general principles which will determine the relevance or nature of the specification?\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Topics of interest.", "content": "Topics of discourse analysis include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prominent academics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political discourse.", "content": "Political discourse analysis is a field of discourse analysis which focuses on discourse in political forums (such as debates, speeches, and hearings) as the phenomenon of interest. Policy analysis requires discourse analysis to be effective from the post-positivist perspective.  Political discourse is the formal exchange of reasoned views as to which of several alternative courses of action should be taken to solve a societal problem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Corporate discourse.", "content": "Corporate discourse can be broadly defined as the language used by corporations. It encompasses a set of messages that a corporation sends out to the world (the general public, the customers and other corporations) and the messages it uses to communicate within its own structures (the employees and other stakeholders).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is an approach to the analysis of written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant semiotic event.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971237}
{"src_title": "Gottfried Keller", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "His father was Rudolf Keller (1791-1824), a lathe-worker from Glattfelden; his mother was a woman named Elisabeth Scheuchzer (1787–1864). The couple had six children, four of whom died, meaning Keller only had his sister Regula (*1822) left. After his father died of tuberculosis, Keller's family lived in constant poverty, and, because of Keller's difficulties with his teachers, in continual disagreement with school authorities. Keller later gave a good rendering of his experiences in this period in his long novel, \"Der grüne Heinrich\" (1850–55; 2nd version, 1879). His mother seems to have brought him up in as carefree a condition as possible, sparing for him from her scanty meals, and allowing him the greatest possible liberty in the disposition of his time, the choice of a calling, etc. With some changes, a treatment of her relations to him may be found in his short story, “Frau Regel Amrain und ihr jüngster” (in the collection \"Die Leute von Seldwyla\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Keller's first true passion was painting. Expelled in a political mix-up from the \"Industrieschule\" in Zürich, he became an apprentice in 1834 to the landscape painter Steiger and in 1837 to the watercolourist Rudolf Meyer (1803–1857). In 1840, he went to Munich (Bavaria) to study art for a time at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.  Keller returned to Zürich in 1842 and, although possessing artistic talent, took up writing. He published his first poems, \"Gedichte\", in 1846. Jacob Wittmer Hartmann characterizes these six years at Zürich (1842–48) as a time of almost total inactivity, when Keller inclined strongly toward radicalism in politics, and was also subject to much temptation and indulged himself. From 1848 to 1850 he studied at the University of Heidelberg. There he came under the influence of the philosopher Feuerbach, and extended his radicalism also to matters of religion.  From 1850 to 1856, he worked in Berlin. Hartmann claims it was chiefly this stay in Berlin which molded Keller's character into its final shape, toned down his rather bitter pessimism to a more moderate form, and prepared him (not without the privations of hunger), in the whirl of a large city, for an enjoyment of the more restricted pleasures of his native Zürich. It was in Berlin that he turned definitely away from other pursuits and took up literature as a career.  In this period, Keller published the semi-autobiographical novel \"Der grüne Heinrich\" (\"Green Henry\"). It is the most personal of all his works. Under the influence of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's doctrine of a return to nature, this book was at first intended to be a short narrative of the collapse of the life of a young artist. It expanded as its composition progressed into a huge work drawing on Keller's youth and career (or more precisely \"non-career\") as a painter up to 1842. Its reception by the literary world was cool, but the second version of 1879 is a rounded and satisfying artistic product. He also published his first collection of short stories, \"Die Leute von Seldwyla\" (\"The People of Seldwyla\"). It contains five stories averaging 60 pages each: “Pankraz der Schmoller,” “Frau Regel Amrain und ihr jüngster,” “Die drei gerechten Kammacher,” “Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe,” and “Spiegel das Kätzchen.” Hartmann characterizes two of the stories in \"Die Leute von Seldwyla\" as immortal: “Die drei gerechten Kammacher” he views as the most satyric and scorching attack on the sordid petit bourgeois morality ever penned by any writer, and “Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe” as one of the most pathetic tales in literature (Shakespeare's \"Romeo and Juliet\" plot in a Swiss village setting).  Keller returned again to Zürich and became the \"First Official Secretary\" of the Canton of Zürich (\"Erster Zürcher Staatsschreiber\") in 1861. The routine duties of this position were a sort of fixed point about which his artistic activities could revolve, but Hartmann opines that he produced little of permanent value in these years. In 1872, Keller published \"Seven Legends\" (\"Sieben Legenden\"), which dealt with the early Christian era. After 15 years at this post, he was retired in 1876, and began a period of literary activity that was to last to his death, living the life of an old bachelor with his sister Regula as his housekeeper. In spite of his often unsympathetic manner, his extreme reserve and idiosyncrasy in dealing with others, he had gained the affection of his fellow townspeople and an almost universal reputation before his death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evaluation.", "content": "Hartmann bases Keller's fame chiefly on 15 short stories, the five mentioned above; the five contained in the second volume of \"Die Leute von Seldwyla\" (1874): “Die missbrauchten Liebesbriefe,” “Der Schmied seines Glücks,” “Dietegen,” “Kleider machen Leute,” and “Das verlorene Lachen”; and five in \"Züricher Novellen\" (1878): “Hadlaub,” “Der Narr auf Manegg,” “Der Landvogt von Greifensee,” “Das Fähnlein der sieben Aufrechten,” and “Ursula.” The milieu is always that of an orderly bourgeois existence, within which the most manifold human destinies, the most humorous relations develop, the most peculiar and hardy types of endurance and reticence are manifested. Some of the stories contained a note that was new in German literature and that endeared them particularly to Germans as embodying an ideal as yet unrealized in their own country: they narrate the development of character under the relatively free conditions of little Switzerland, portraying an unbureaucratic civic life and an independence of business initiative.  Also noteworthy are his \"Collected Poetry\" (\"Gesammelte Gedichte\") (1883), and the novel \"Martin Salander\" (1886).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gottfried Keller Foundation.", "content": "In 1890, shortly before the end of her tragic life, Lydia Escher (1858–1891) invested the Escher fortune in a foundation which she named after Gottfried Keller, to whom her father gave consistent support. With her remaining substantial asset – Villa Belvoir including swing and marketable securities totaling nominally 4 million Swiss Francs – Lydia Escher established the foundation's base. According to the will of Lydia Escher, the foundation was established on 6 June 1890, and was managed by the Swiss Federal Council, thus, Lydia Escher wished to accomplish a \"patriotic work\". The foundation should also promote the \"independent work of women, at least in the field of the applied Arts,\" according to the original intention of the founder. This purpose was adopted but at the urging of Emil Welti not in the deed of the foundation. The Gottfried Keller Foundation became though an important collection institution for art, but the feminist concerns of Lydia Escher were not met.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gottfried Keller (19 July 1819 – 15 July 1890) was a Swiss poet and writer of German literature. Best known for his novel \"Green Henry\" (German: \"Der grüne Heinrich\"), he became one of the most popular narrators of literary realism in the late 19th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971238}
{"src_title": "Annihilation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production of a single boson.", "content": "If the initial two particles are elementary (not composite), then they may combine to produce only a single elementary boson, such as a photon (), gluon (),, or a Higgs boson (). If the total energy in the center-of-momentum frame is equal to the rest mass of a real boson (which is impossible for a massless boson such as the ), then that created particle will continue to exist until it decays according to its lifetime. Otherwise, the process is understood as the initial creation of a boson that is virtual, which immediately converts into a real particle+antiparticle pair. This is called an s-channel process. An example is the annihilation of an electron with a positron to produce a virtual photon, which converts into a muon and anti-muon. If the energy is large enough, a could replace the photon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Electron–positron annihilation.", "content": "When a low-energy electron annihilates a low-energy positron (antielectron), they can only produce two photons, since the electron and positron do not carry enough mass-energy to produce heavier particles, and the creation of only one photon is forbidden by momentum conservation—a single photon would carry nonzero momentum in any frame, including the center-of-momentum frame where the total momentum vanishes. Both the annihilating electron and positron particles have a rest energy of about 0.511 million electron volts (MeV). If their kinetic energies are relatively negligible, this total rest energy appears as the photon energy of the photons produced. Each of the photons then has an energy of about 0.511 MeV. Momentum and energy are both conserved, with 1.022 MeV of photon energy (accounting for the rest energy of the particles) moving in opposite directions (accounting for the total zero momentum of the system).  If one or both charged particles carry a larger amount of kinetic energy, various other particles can be produced. Furthermore, the annihilation (or decay) of an electron-positron pair into a \"single\" photon can occur in the presence of a third charged particle to which the excess momentum can be transferred by a virtual photon from the electron or positron. The inverse process, pair production by a single real photon, is also possible in the electromagnetic field of a third particle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proton-antiproton annihilation.", "content": "When a proton encounters its antiparticle (and more generally, if any species of baryon encounters the corresponding antibaryon), the reaction is not as simple as electron-positron annihilation. Unlike an electron, a proton is a composite particle consisting of three \"valence quarks\" and an indeterminate number of \"sea quarks\" bound by gluons. Thus, when a proton encounters an antiproton, one of its quarks, usually a constituent valence quark, may annihilate with an antiquark (which more rarely could be a sea quark) to produce a gluon, after which the gluon together with the remaining quarks, antiquarks, and gluons will undergo a complex process of rearrangement (called hadronization or fragmentation) into a number of mesons, (mostly pions and kaons), which will share the total energy and momentum. The newly created mesons are unstable, and unless they encounter and interact with some other material, they will decay in a series of reactions that ultimately produce only photons, electrons, positrons, and neutrinos. This type of reaction will occur between any baryon (particle consisting of three quarks) and any antibaryon consisting of three antiquarks, one of which corresponds to a quark in the baryon. (This reaction is unlikely if at least one among the baryon and anti-baryon is exotic enough that they share no constituent quark flavors.) Antiprotons can and do annihilate with neutrons, and likewise antineutrons can annihilate with protons, as discussed below.  Reactions in which proton-antiproton annihilation produces as many as nine mesons have been observed, while production of thirteen mesons is theoretically possible. The generated mesons leave the site of the annihilation at moderate fractions of the speed of light, and decay with whatever lifetime is appropriate for their type of meson.  Similar reactions will occur when an antinucleon annihilates within a more complex atomic nucleus, save that the resulting mesons, being strongly interacting, have a significant probability of being absorbed by one of the remaining \"spectator\" nucleons rather than escaping. Since the absorbed energy can be as much as ~2 GeV, it can in principle exceed the binding energy of even the heaviest nuclei. Thus, when an antiproton annihilates inside a heavy nucleus such as uranium or plutonium, partial or complete disruption of the nucleus can occur, releasing large numbers of fast neutrons. Such reactions open the possibility for triggering a significant number of secondary fission reactions in a subcritical mass, and may potentially be useful for spacecraft propulsion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Higgs production.", "content": "In collisions of two nucleons at very high energies, sea quarks and gluons tend to dominate the interaction rate, so neither nucleon need be an anti-particle for annihilation of a quark pair or \"fusion\" of two gluons to occur. Examples of such processes contribute to the production of the long-sought Higgs boson. The Higgs is directly produced very weakly by annihilation of light (valence) quarks, but heavy or sea or produced quarks are available. In 2012, the CERN laboratory in Geneva announced the discovery of the Higgs in the debris from proton-proton collisions at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). The strongest Higgs yield is from fusion of two gluons (via annihilation of a heavy quark pair), while two quarks or antiquarks produce more easily identified events through radiation of a Higgs by a produced virtual vector boson or annihilation of two such vector bosons.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In particle physics, annihilation is the process that occurs when a subatomic particle collides with its respective antiparticle to produce other particles, such as an electron colliding with a positron to produce two photons. The total energy and momentum of the initial pair are conserved in the process and distributed among a set of other particles in the final state. Antiparticles have exactly opposite additive quantum numbers from particles, so the sums of all quantum numbers of such an original pair are zero. Hence, any set of particles may be produced whose total quantum numbers are also zero as long as conservation of energy and conservation of momentum are obeyed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971239}
{"src_title": "Atmospheric pressure", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mechanism.", "content": "Atmospheric pressure is caused by the gravitational attraction of the planet on the atmospheric gases above the surface, and is a function of the mass of the planet, the radius of the surface, and the amount and composition of the gases and their vertical distribution in the atmosphere. It is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mean sea-level pressure.", "content": "The \"mean sea-level pressure\" (MSLP) is the atmospheric pressure at mean sea level (PMSL). This is the atmospheric pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television, and newspapers or on the Internet. When barometers in the home are set to match the local weather reports, they measure pressure adjusted to sea level, not the actual local atmospheric pressure.  The \"altimeter setting\" in aviation is an atmospheric pressure adjustment.  Average \"sea-level pressure\" is. In aviation, weather reports (METAR), QNH is transmitted around the world in millibars or hectopascals (1 hectopascal = 1 millibar), except in the United States, Canada, and Colombia where it is reported in inches of mercury (to two decimal places). The United States and Canada also report \"sea-level pressure\" SLP, which is adjusted to sea level by a different method, in the remarks section, not in the internationally transmitted part of the code, in hectopascals or millibars. However, in Canada's public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported in kilopascals.  In the US weather code remarks, three digits are all that are transmitted; decimal points and the one or two most significant digits are omitted: is transmitted as 132; is transmitted as 000; 998.7mbar is transmitted as 987; etc. The highest \"sea-level pressure\" on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian High often attains a \"sea-level pressure\" above, with record highs close to. The lowest measurable \"sea-level pressure\" is found at the centers of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surface pressure.", "content": "\"Surface pressure\" is the atmospheric pressure at a location on Earth's surface (terrain and oceans). It is directly proportional to the mass of air over that location.  For numerical reasons, atmospheric models such as general circulation models (GCMs) usually predict the nondimensional \"logarithm of surface pressure\".  The average value of surface pressure on Earth is 985 hPa. This is in contrast to mean sea-level pressure, which involves the extrapolation of pressure to sea-level for locations above or below sea-level. The average pressure at mean sea-level (MSL) in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is 1013.25 hPa, or 1 atmosphere (atm), or 29.92 inches of mercury.  Pressure (p), mass (m), and the acceleration due to gravity (g), are related by P = F/A = (m*g)/A, where A is surface area. Atmospheric pressure is thus proportional to the weight per unit area of the atmospheric mass above that location.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Altitude variation.", "content": "Pressure on Earth varies with the altitude of the surface; so air pressure on mountains is usually lower than air pressure at sea level. Pressure varies smoothly from the Earth's surface to the top of the mesosphere. Although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. One can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity also affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph was developed for a temperature of 15 °C and a relative humidity of 0%.  At low altitudes above sea level, the pressure decreases by about for every 100 metres. For higher altitudes within the troposphere, the following equation (the barometric formula) relates atmospheric pressure \"p\" to altitude \"h\": formula_1  where the constant parameters are as described below:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local variation.", "content": "Atmospheric pressure varies widely on Earth, and these changes are important in studying weather and climate. See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather.  Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal (twice-daily) cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few millibars, and almost zero in polar areas. These variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian (24 h) cycle and semi-circadian (12 h) cycle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Records.", "content": "The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth (above 750 meters) was measured in Tosontsengel, Mongolia on 19 December 2001. The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded (below 750 meters) was at Agata in Evenk Autonomous Okrug, Russia (66°53'N, 93°28'E, elevation: ) on 31 December 1968 of. The discrimination is due to the problematic assumptions (assuming a standard lapse rate) associated with reduction of sea level from high elevations.  The Dead Sea, the lowest place on Earth at below sea level, has a correspondingly high typical atmospheric pressure of 1065hPa. A below-sea-level surface pressure record of was set on 21 February 1961.  The lowest non-tornadic atmospheric pressure ever measured was 870 hPa (0.858 atm; 25.69 inHg), set on 12 October 1979, during Typhoon Tip in the western Pacific Ocean. The measurement was based on an instrumental observation made from a reconnaissance aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Measurement based on depth of water.", "content": "One atmosphere (101.325 kPa or 14.7 psi) is also the pressure caused by the weight of a column of fresh water of approximately 10.3 m (33.8 ft). Thus, a diver 10.3 m underwater experiences a pressure of about 2 atmospheres (1 atm of air plus 1 atm of water). Conversely, 10.3 m is the maximum height to which water can be raised using suction under standard atmospheric conditions.  Low pressures such as natural gas lines are sometimes specified in inches of water, typically written as \"w.c.\" (water column) gauge or \"w.g.\" (inches water gauge). A typical gas-using residential appliance in the US is rated for a maximum of 1/2 psi, which is approximately 14 w.g. (3487 Pa or 34.9 millibars). Similar metric units with a wide variety of names and notation based on millimetres, centimetres or metres are now less commonly used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Boiling point of water.", "content": "Pure water boils at at earth's standard atmospheric pressure. The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure around the water. Because of this, the boiling point of water is lower at lower pressure and higher at higher pressure. Cooking at high elevations, therefore, requires adjustments to recipes or pressure cooking. A rough approximation of elevation can be obtained by measuring the temperature at which water boils; in the mid-19th century, this method was used by explorers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Measurement and maps.", "content": "An important application of the knowledge that atmospheric pressure varies directly with altitude was in determining the height of hills and mountains thanks to the availability of reliable pressure measurement devices. In 1774, Maskelyne was confirming Newton's theory of gravitation at and on Schiehallion mountain in Scotland, and he needed to accurately measure elevations on the mountain's sides. William Roy, using barometric pressure, was able to confirm Maskelyne's height determinations, the agreement being to within one meter (3.28 feet). This method became and continues to be useful for survey work and map making.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Atmospheric pressure, also known as barometric pressure (after the barometer), is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as, which is equivalent to 760mm Hg, 29.9212inchesHg, or 14.696psi. The atm unit is roughly equivalent to the mean sea-level atmospheric pressure on Earth, that is, the Earth's atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 1 atm.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971240}
{"src_title": "Kaplan turbine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "Viktor Kaplan, living in Brünn, Austria-Hungary (now Brno, Czechia), obtained his first patent for an adjustable blade propeller turbine in 1912. But the development of a commercially successful machine would take another decade. Kaplan struggled with cavitation problems, and in 1922 abandoned his research for health reasons.  In 1919 Kaplan installed a demonstration unit at Poděbrady (now in Czechia). In 1922 Voith introduced an 1100 HP (about 800 kW) Kaplan turbine for use mainly on rivers. In 1924 an 8 MW unit went on line at Lilla Edet, Sweden. This launched the commercial success and widespread acceptance of Kaplan turbines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theory of operation.", "content": "The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. Power is recovered from both the hydrostatic head and from the kinetic energy of the flowing water. The design combines features of radial and axial turbines.  The inlet is a scroll-shaped tube that wraps around the turbine's wicket gate. Water is directed tangentially through the wicket gate and spirals on to a propeller shaped runner, causing it to spin.  The outlet is a specially shaped draft tube that helps decelerate the water and recover kinetic energy.  The turbine does not need to be at the lowest point of water flow as long as the draft tube remains full of water. A higher turbine location, however, increases the suction that is imparted on the turbine blades by the draft tube. The resulting pressure drop may lead to cavitation.  Variable geometry of the wicket gate and turbine blades allow efficient operation for a range of flow conditions. Kaplan turbine efficiencies are typically over 90%, but may be lower in very low head applications.  Current areas of research include computational fluid dynamics (CFD) driven efficiency improvements and new designs that raise survival rates of fish passing through.  Because the propeller blades are rotated on high-pressure hydraulic oil bearings, a critical element of Kaplan design is to maintain a positive seal to prevent emission of oil into the waterway. Discharge of oil into rivers is not desirable because of the waste of resources and resulting ecological damage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Kaplan turbines are widely used throughout the world for electrical power production. They cover the lowest head hydro sites and are especially suited for high flow conditions.  Inexpensive micro turbines on the Kaplan turbine model are manufactured for individual power production designed for 3 m of head which can work with as little as 0.3 m of head at a highly reduced performance provided sufficient water flow.  Large Kaplan turbines are individually designed for each site to operate at the highest possible efficiency, typically over 90%. They are very expensive to design, manufacture and install, but operate for decades.  They have recently found a new home in offshore wave energy generation, see Wave Dragon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "The Kaplan turbine is the most widely used of the propeller-type turbines, but several other variations exist:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "https://www.wws-wasserkraft.at/en", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type water turbine which has adjustable blades. It was developed in 1913 by Austrian professor Viktor Kaplan, who combined automatically adjusted propeller blades with automatically adjusted wicket gates to achieve efficiency over a wide range of flow and water level.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971241}
{"src_title": "Abies balsamea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Balsam fir is a small to medium-size evergreen tree typically tall, occasionally reaching a height of. The narrow conic crown consists of dense, dark-green leaves. The bark on young trees is smooth, grey, and with resin blisters (which tend to spray when ruptured), becoming rough and fissured or scaly on old trees. The leaves are flat and needle-like, long, dark green above often with a small patch of stomata near the tip, and two white stomatal bands below, and a slightly notched tip. They are arranged spirally on the shoot, but with the leaf bases twisted so that the leaves appear to be in two more-or-less horizontal rows on either side of the shoot. The needles become shorter and thicker the higher they are on the tree. The seed cones are erect, long, dark purple, ripening brown and disintegrating to release the winged seeds in September.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The male reproductive organs generally develop more rapidly and appear sooner than the female organs. The male organs contain microsporangia which divide to form sporogenous tissue, composed of cells which become archesporial cells. These develop into microspores, or pollen-mother cells, once they are rounded and filled with starch grains. When the microspores undergo meiosis in the spring, four haploid microspores are produced which eventually become pollen grains. Once the male strobilus has matured the microsporangia are exposed at which point the pollen is released.  The female megasporangiate is larger than the male. It contains bracts and megasporophylls, each of which contains two ovules, arranged in a spiral. These then develop a nucellus in which a mother cell is formed. Meiosis occurs and a megaspore is produced as the first cell of the megagametophyte. As cell division takes place the nucleus of the megaspore thickens, and cell differentiation occurs to produce prothallial tissue containing an ovum. The remaining undifferentiated cells then form the endosperm.  When the male structure releases its pollen grains, some fall onto the female strobilus and reach the ovule. At this point the pollen tube begins to generate, and eventually the sperm and egg meet at which point fertilization occurs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "There are two varieties:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Balsam firs tend to grow in cool climates, ideally with a mean annual temperature of, with consistent moisture at their roots. They typically grow in the following four forest types:  The foliage is browsed by moose and deer. The seeds are eaten by American red squirrels, grouse, and pine mice; the tree also provides food for crossbills and chickadees, as well as shelter for moose, snowshoe hares, white-tailed deer, ruffed grouse, and other small mammals and songbirds. The needles are eaten by some lepidopteran caterpillars, for example the Io moth (\"Automeris io\").  \"Abies balsamea\" is one of the most cold-hardy trees known, surviving at temperatures as low as (USDA Hardiness Zone 2). Specimens even showed no ill effects when immersed in liquid nitrogen at.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pests.", "content": "The balsam fir is the preferred main host of the eastern spruce budworm, which is a major destructive pest throughout the eastern United States and Canada. During cyclical population outbreaks, major defoliation of the balsam fir can occur, which may significantly reduce radial growth. This can kill the tree. An outbreak in Quebec in 1957 killed over 75% of balsam fir in some stands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Christmas trees.", "content": "Both varieties of the species are very popular as Christmas trees, particularly in the northeastern United States. Balsam firs cut for Christmas are not taken from the forest, but are grown on large plantations. The balsam fir is one of the greatest exports of Quebec and New England. It is celebrated for its rich green needles, natural conical shape, and needle retention after being cut, and it is notably the most fragrant of all Christmas tree varieties.  Many of these plantations are family farms handed down from generation to generation. The techniques of shearing, growing, and other cultivation secretly passed down from grandparents to grandchildren. Families like the Rousseau's of Quebec, Rose of New Brunswick, and Kessler's (North Pole Xmas Trees) of New Hampshire have kept family traditions for almost a century.  The balsam fir was used six times for the US Capitol Christmas Tree between 1964 and 2019.  In northern areas of Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin balsam fir branches (boughs) are used to make Christmas wreaths.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Horticulture.", "content": "\"Abies balsamea\" is also grown as an ornamental tree for parks and gardens. Very hardy down to or below, it requires a sheltered spot in full sun. The dwarf cultivar \"A. balsamea\" 'Hudson’ (Hudson fir), grows to only tall by broad, and has distinctive blue-green foliage with pale undersides. It does not bear cones. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.  Other cultivars include:-", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "The resin is used to produce Canada balsam, and was traditionally used as a cold remedy and as a glue for glasses, optical instrument components, and for preparing permanent mounts of microscope specimens. Given its use as a traditional remedy and the relatively high ascorbic acid content of its needles, historian Jacques Mathieu has argued that the balsam fir was the \"aneda\" that cured scurvy during the second expedition into Canada of Jacques Cartier. The wood is milled for framing lumber (part of SPF lumber), siding and pulped for paper manufacture. Balsam fir oil is an EPA approved nontoxic rodent repellent. The balsam fir is also used as an air freshener and as incense.  Prior to the availability of foam rubber and air mattresses, balsam fir boughs were a preferred mattress in places where trees greatly outnumbered campers. Many fir limbs are vertically bowed from alternating periods of downward deformation from snow loading and new growth reaching upward for sunlight. Layers of inverted freshly cut limbs from small trees created a pleasantly fragrant mattress lifting bedding off the wet ground; and the bowed green limbs were springs beneath the soft needles. Upper layers of limbs were placed with the cut ends of the limbs touching the earth to avoid uncomfortably sharp spots and sap.  The Native Americans used it for a variety of medicinal purposes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tree emblem.", "content": "Balsam fir is the provincial tree of New Brunswick.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abies balsamea or balsam fir is a North American fir, native to most of eastern and central Canada (Newfoundland west to central Alberta) and the northeastern United States (Minnesota east to Maine, and south in the Appalachian Mountains to West Virginia).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971242}
{"src_title": "Francis turbine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "Water wheels of different types have been used for more than 1,000 years to power mills of all types, but they were relatively inefficient. Nineteenth-century efficiency improvements of water turbines allowed them to replace nearly all water wheel applications and compete with steam engines wherever water power was available. After electric generators were developed in the late 1800s; turbines were a natural source of generator power where potential hydropower sources existed.  In 1826 Benoit Fourneyron developed a high-efficiency (80%) outward-flow water turbine. Water was directed tangentially through the turbine runner, causing it to spin. Jean-Victor Poncelet designed an inward-flow turbine in about 1820 that used the same principles. S. B. Howd obtained a US patent in 1838 for a similar design.  In 1848 James B. Francis, while working as head engineer of the Locks and Canals company in the water wheel-powered textile factory city of Lowell, Massachusetts, improved on these designs to create more efficient turbines. He applied scientific principles and testing methods to produce a very efficient turbine design. More importantly, his mathematical and graphical calculation methods improved turbine design and engineering. His analytical methods allowed design of high-efficiency turbines to precisely match a site's water flow and pressure (water head).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Components.", "content": "A Francis turbine consists of the following main parts:  Spiral casing: The spiral casing around the runner of the turbine is known as the volute casing or scroll case. Throughout its length, it has numerous openings at regular intervals to allow the working fluid to impinge on the blades of the runner. These openings convert the pressure energy of the fluid into kinetic energy just before the fluid impinges on the blades. This maintains a constant velocity despite the fact that numerous openings have been provided for the fluid to enter the blades, as the cross-sectional area of this casing decreases uniformly along the circumference.  Guide and stay vanes: The primary function of the guide and stay vanes is to convert the pressure energy of the fluid into kinetic energy. It also serves to direct the flow at design angles to the runner blades.  Runner blades: Runner blades are the heart of any turbine. These are the centers where the fluid strikes and the tangential force of the impact causes the shaft of the turbine to rotate, producing torque. Close attention to design of blade angles at inlet and outlet is necessary, as these are major parameters affecting power production.  Draft tube: The draft tube is a conduit that connects the runner exit to the tail race where the water is discharged from the turbine. Its primary function is to reduce the velocity of discharged water to minimize the loss of kinetic energy at the outlet. This permits the turbine to be set above the tail water without appreciable drop of available head.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theory of operation.", "content": "The Francis turbine is a type of reaction turbine, a category of turbine in which the working fluid comes to the turbine under immense pressure and the energy is extracted by the turbine blades from the working fluid. A part of the energy is given up by the fluid because of pressure changes occurring in the blades of the turbine, quantified by the expression of degree of reaction, while the remaining part of the energy is extracted by the volute casing of the turbine. At the exit, water acts on the spinning cup-shaped runner features, leaving at low velocity and low swirl with very little kinetic or potential energy left. The turbine's exit tube is shaped to help decelerate the water flow and recover the pressure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blade efficiency.", "content": "Usually the flow velocity (velocity perpendicular to the tangential direction) remains constant throughout, i.e. and is equal to that at the inlet to the draft tube. Using the Euler turbine equation,, where \"e\" is the energy transfer to the rotor per unit mass of the fluid. From the inlet velocity triangle,  and Therefore  The loss of kinetic energy per unit mass becomes.  Therefore, neglecting friction, the blade efficiency becomes  i.e.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Degree of reaction.", "content": "Degree of reaction can be defined as the ratio of pressure energy change in the blades to total energy change of the fluid. This means that it is a ratio indicating the fraction of total change in fluid pressure energy occurring in the blades of the turbine. The rest of the changes occur in the stator blades of the turbines and the volute casing as it has a varying cross-sectional area. For example, if the degree of reaction is given as 50%, that means that half of the total energy change of the fluid is taking place in the rotor blades and the other half is occurring in the stator blades. If the degree of reaction is zero it means that the energy changes due to the rotor blades is zero, leading to a different turbine design called the Pelton Turbine.  The second equality above holds, since discharge is radial in a Francis turbine. Now, putting in the value of 'e' from above and using formula_7 (as formula_8)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application.", "content": "Francis turbines may be designed for a wide range of heads and flows. This versatility, along with their high efficiency, has made them the most widely used turbine in the world. Francis type units cover a head range from, and their connected generator output power varies from just a few kilowatts up to 800 MW. Large Francis turbines are individually designed for each site to operate with the given water supply and water head at the highest possible efficiency, typically over 90%.  In contrast to the Pelton turbine, the Francis turbine operates at its best completely filled with water at all times. The turbine and the outlet channel may be placed lower than the lake or sea level outside, reducing the tendency for cavitation.  In addition to electrical production, they may also be used for pumped storage, where a reservoir is filled by the turbine (acting as a pump) driven by the generator acting as a large electrical motor during periods of low power demand, and then reversed and used to generate power during peak demand. These pump storage reservoirs act as large energy storage sources to store \"excess\" electrical energy in the form of water in elevated reservoirs. This is one of a few methods that allow temporary excess electrical capacity to be stored for later utilization.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine that was developed by James B. Francis in Lowell, Massachusetts. It is an inward-flow reaction turbine that combines radial and axial flow concepts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971243}
{"src_title": "Karl Weierstrass", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Weierstrass was born in Ostenfelde, part of Ennigerloh, Province of Westphalia.  Weierstrass was the son of Wilhelm Weierstrass, a government official, and Theodora Vonderforst. His interest in mathematics began while he was a gymnasium student at the in Paderborn. He was sent to the University of Bonn upon graduation to prepare for a government position. Because his studies were to be in the fields of law, economics, and finance, he was immediately in conflict with his hopes to study mathematics. He resolved the conflict by paying little heed to his planned course of study, but continued private study in mathematics. The outcome was to leave the university without a degree. After that he studied mathematics at the Münster Academy (which was even at this time very famous for mathematics) and his father was able to obtain a place for him in a teacher training school in Münster. Later he was certified as a teacher in that city. During this period of study, Weierstrass attended the lectures of Christoph Gudermann and became interested in elliptic functions.  In 1843 he taught in Deutsch Krone in West Prussia and since 1848 he taught at the Lyceum Hosianum in Braunsberg. Besides mathematics he also taught physics, botany, and gymnastics.  Weierstrass may have had an illegitimate child named Franz with the widow of his friend Carl Wilhelm Borchardt.  After 1850 Weierstrass suffered from a long period of illness, but was able to publish mathematical articles that brought him fame and distinction. The University of Königsberg conferred an honorary doctor's degree on him on 31 March 1854. In 1856 he took a chair at the Gewerbeinstitut, which later became the Technical University of Berlin. In 1864 he became professor at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Berlin, which later became the Humboldt Universität zu Berlin.  At the age of fifty-five, Weierstrass met Sofia Kovalevsky whom he tutored privately after failing to secure her admission to the University. They had a fruitful intellectual, but troubled personal relationship that \"far transcended the usual teacher-student relationship\". The misinterpretation of this relationship and Kovalevsky's early death in 1891 was said to have contributed to Weierstrass' later ill-health. He was immobile for the last three years of his life, and died in Berlin from pneumonia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematical contributions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundness of calculus.", "content": "Weierstrass was interested in the soundness of calculus, and at the time, there were somewhat ambiguous definitions regarding the foundations of calculus, and hence important theorems could not be proven with sufficient rigour. While Bolzano had developed a reasonably rigorous definition of a limit as early as 1817 (and possibly even earlier) his work remained unknown to most of the mathematical community until years later, and many mathematicians had only vague definitions of limits and continuity of functions.  Delta-epsilon proofs are first found in the works of Cauchy in the 1820s. Cauchy did not clearly distinguish between continuity and uniform continuity on an interval. Notably, in his 1821 \"Cours d'analyse,\" Cauchy argued that the (pointwise) limit of (pointwise) continuous functions was itself (pointwise) continuous, a statement interpreted as being incorrect by many scholars. The correct statement is rather that the \"uniform\" limit of continuous functions is continuous (also, the uniform limit of uniformly continuous functions is uniformly continuous). This required the concept of uniform convergence, which was first observed by Weierstrass's advisor, Christoph Gudermann, in an 1838 paper, where Gudermann noted the phenomenon but did not define it or elaborate on it. Weierstrass saw the importance of the concept, and both formalized it and applied it widely throughout the foundations of calculus.  The formal definition of continuity of a function, as formulated by Weierstrass, is as follows:  formula_1 is continuous at formula_2 if formula_3 such that for every formula_4 in the domain of formula_5, formula_6 In simple English, formula_1 is continuous at a point formula_2 if for each formula_4 close enough to formula_10, the function value formula_11 is very close to formula_12, where the \"close enough\" restriction typically depends on the desired closeness of formula_12 to formula_14 Using this definition, he proved the Intermediate Value Theorem. He also proved the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem and used it to study the properties of continuous functions on closed and bounded intervals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Calculus of variations.", "content": "Weierstrass also made significant advancements in the field of calculus of variations. Using the apparatus of analysis that he helped to develop, Weierstrass was able to give a complete reformulation of the theory which paved the way for the modern study of the calculus of variations. Among the several significant axioms, Weierstrass established a necessary condition for the existence of strong extrema of variational problems. He also helped devise the Weierstrass–Erdmann condition, which gives sufficient conditions for an extremal to have a corner along a given extrema, and allows one to find a minimizing curve for a given integral.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours and awards.", "content": "The lunar crater Weierstrass and the asteroid 14100 Weierstrass are named after him. Also, there is the Weierstrass Institute for Applied Analysis and Stochastics in Berlin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass ( ; 31 October 1815 – 19 February 1897) was a German mathematician often cited as the \"father of modern analysis\". Despite leaving university without a degree, he studied mathematics and trained as a school teacher, eventually teaching mathematics, physics, botany and gymnastics. He later received an honorary doctorate and became professor of mathematics in Berlin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971244}
{"src_title": "Ossetians", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The Ossetians and Ossetia received their name from the Russians, who adopted the Georgian designations \"Osi\" (ოსი) (sing., pl.: \"Osebi\" (ოსები)) and \"Oseti\" (\"the land of Osi\" (ოსეთი)), used since the Middle Ages for the single Iranian-speaking population of the Central Caucasus and probably based on the old Alan self-designation \"As\". As the Ossetians lacked any single inclusive name for themselves in their native language, these terms were accepted by the Ossetians themselves already before their integration into the Russian Empire.  This practice was put into question by the new Ossetian nationalism in the early 1990s, when the dispute between the Ossetian subgroups of Digoron and Iron over the status of the Digoron dialect made the Ossetian intellectuals search for a new inclusive ethnic name. This, combined with the effects of the Georgian-Ossetian conflict, led to the popularization of \"Alania\", the name of the medieval Sarmatian confederation, to which the Ossetians traced their origin, and inclusion of this name into the official republican title of North Ossetia in 1994.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mythology.", "content": "The folk beliefs of the Ossetian people are rooted in their Sarmatian origin and Christian religion, with the pagan gods having been converted into Christian saints. The Nart saga serves as the basic pagan mythology of the region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pre-history (Early \"Alans\").", "content": "The Ossetians descend from the Alans, a Sarmatian tribe (Scythian subgroup of the Iranian ethnolinguistic group). The Alans were the only branch of the Sarmatians to keep their culture in the face of a Gothic invasion (c. 200 CE), and those who remained built a great kingdom between the Don and Volga Rivers, according to Coon, \"The Races of Europe\". Between 350 and 374 CE, the Huns destroyed the Alan kingdom, and the Alan people were split in half. One half fled to the west, where they participated in the Barbarian Invasions of Rome, established short-lived kingdoms in Spain and North Africa, and settled in many other places such as Orléans, France. The other half fled to the south and settled on the plains of the North Caucasus, where they established their medieval kingdom of Alania.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "In the 8th century a consolidated Alan kingdom, referred to in sources of the period as Alania, emerged in the northern Caucasus Mountains, roughly in the location of the latter-day Circassia and the modern North Ossetia–Alania. At its height, Alania was a centralized monarchy with a strong military force and had a strong economy that benefited from the Silk Road.  After the Mongol invasions of the 1200s, the Alans were forced out of their medieval homeland south of the River Don in present-day Russia. Due to this, the Alans migrated toward the Caucasus Mountains, where they would form three ethnographical groups; the Iron, the Digoron, and the Kudar. The Jassic people were a fourth group that migrated in the 13th century to Hungary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "In more-recent history, the Ossetians participated in the Ossetian–Ingush conflict (1991–1992) and Georgian–Ossetian conflicts (1918–1920, early 1990s) and in the 2008 South Ossetia war between Georgia and Russia.  Key events:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "The Ossetian language belongs to the Eastern Iranian (Alanic) branch of the Indo-European language family.  Ossetian is divided into two main dialect groups: Ironian (os. – Ирон) in North and South Ossetia; and Digorian (os. – Дыгурон) in western North Ossetia. In these two groups are some subdialects, such as Tualian, Alagirian, and Ksanian. The Ironian dialect is the most widely spoken.  Ossetian is among the remnants of the Scytho-Sarmatian dialect group, which was once spoken across the Pontic–Caspian Steppe. The Ossetian language is not mutually intelligible with any other Iranian language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "Prior to the 10th century, Ossetians were strictly pagan. They were partially Christianized by Byzantine missionaries in the beginning of the 10th century. By the 13th, most Ossetians were Eastern Orthodox Christians as a result of Georgian influence and missionary work.  Islam was introduced during the 16th and 17th century by the converted members of the Circassian Kabarday tribe (who had been introduced to that religion by Tatars during the 15th century), who had taken over territory in Western Ossetia occupied by the Digor. However, Islam did not successfully spread to rest of the Ossetian people.  In 1774 Ossetia became part of the Russian Empire, which strengthened Orthodox Christianity considerably by sending Russian Orthodox missionaries there. However, most of the missionaries chosen were churchmen from Eastern Orthodox communities living in Georgia, including Armenians and Greeks, as well as ethnic Georgians. Russian missionaries were not sent, as this would have been regarded by the Ossetians as too intrusive.  Today, the majority of Ossetians from both North and South Ossetia follow Eastern Orthodoxy. Assianism (\"Uatsdin\" or \"Assdin\" in Ossetian), the Ossetian ethnic religion, is also widespread among Ossetians, with ritual traditions like animal sacrifices, holy shrines, non-Christian saints, etc. There are temples, known as \"kuvandon,\" in most villages. According to the research service \"Sreda\", North Ossetia is the primary center of Ossetian Paganism, and 29% of the population reported practicing pagan faiths in the 2012 Russian census. Assianism has been rising in popularity since the 1980s.  According to a 2013 estimate, up to 15% of North Ossetia’s population practice Islam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The northern Ossetians export lumber and cultivate various crops, mainly corn. The southern Ossetians are chiefly pastoral, herding sheep, goats, and cattle. Traditional manufactured products include leather goods, fur caps, daggers, and metalware.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "Outside of South Ossetia, there are also a significant number of Ossetians living in Trialeti, in north-central Georgia. A large Ossetian diaspora lives in Turkey, and Ossetians have also settled in Belgium, France, Sweden, Syria, the United States (primarily New York City, Florida and California), Canada (Toronto), Australia (Sydney), and other countries all around the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russian Census of 2002.", "content": "The vast majority of Ossetians live in Russia (according to the Russian Census (2002)):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "The Ossetians are a unique ethnic group of the Caucasus, speaking an Indo-European language surrounded mostly by Caucasian ethnolinguistic groups, the other non-Caucasian tribes include the Karachays and Balkars. The Y-haplogroup data indicate that North Ossetians are more similar to other North Caucasian groups, and South Ossetians to other South Caucasian groups, than the two are to each other. With respect to mtDNA, Ossetians are significantly more similar to some Iranian groups than to Caucasian groups. It is thus suggested that there is a common origin of Ossetians from the Proto-Iranian Urheimat, followed by subsequent male-mediated migrations from their Caucasian neighbours.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ossetians or Ossetes (;, '; дигорӕ, дигорӕнттӕ, ') are an Iranian ethnic group of the Caucasus Mountains, indigenous to the ethnolinguistic region known as Ossetia. They speak Ossetic, an Eastern Iranian (Alanic) language of the Indo-European language family, with most also fluent in Russian as a second language. Although Ossetian is related to the Indo-European languages owing to its origin, it is not mutually intelligible with any other language of the family today. Ossetic, a remnant of the Scytho-Sarmatian dialect group which was once spoken across the Pontic–Caspian Steppe, is one of the few Iranian languages inside Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971245}
{"src_title": "Wilhelm Pieck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Provenance and early years.", "content": "Pieck was born as the son of the coachman Friedrich Pieck and his wife Auguste in the eastern part of Guben, Germany, which is now Gubin, Poland. Two years later, his mother died. The father soon married the washerwoman Wilhelmine Bahro. After attending elementary school, the young Wilhelm completed a four-year carpentry apprenticeship. As a journeyman, he joined the German Timber Workers Association in 1894.  As a carpenter, in 1894 Pieck joined the wood-workers' federation, which steered him towards joining the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) the following year. Pieck became the chairman of the party urban district in 1899, and in 1906 became full-time secretary of the SPD. In 1914, he moved to a three-room apartment in Berlin-Steglitz. By now he had his own study with many shelves full of books. In May 1915, he was arrested at the big women's demonstration in front of the Reichstag and kept in \"protective custody\" until October. As Bremen Party secretary in 1916, Pieck had asked Anton Pannekoek to continue teaching socialist theory in the party school. Although the majority of the SPD supported the German government in World War I, Pieck was a member of the party's left wing, which opposed the war. Pieck's openness in doing so led to his arrest and detention in a military prison. After being released, Pieck briefly lived in exile in Amsterdam. Upon his return to Berlin in 1918, Pieck joined the newly founded Communist Party of Germany (KPD). On 16 January 1919 Pieck, along with Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht was arrested while meeting at Berlin Eden Hotel. Liebknecht and Luxemburg were then killed while \"being taken to prison\" by a unit of Freikorps. While the two were being murdered, Pieck managed to escape. In 1922, he became a founding member of the International Red Aid, serving first on the executive committee. In May 1925, he became the chairman of the Rote Hilfe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nazi years and Moscow exile.", "content": "On 4 March 1933, one day before the Reichstag election, Pieck's family left their Steglitz apartment and moved into a cook's room. His son and daughter had been in the Soviet Union since 1932 while Elly Winter was still in Germany. At the beginning of May 1933, he left first to Paris and then to Moscow. In Moscow, Pieck served the Communist Party in a variety of capacities. From 1935 until 1943, he held the position of Secretary of the Communist International. In 1943 Pieck was among the founders of the National Committee for a Free Germany, which planned for the future of Germany after World War II.  On 22 June 1941 Pieck and his family were in their country house on the outskirts of Moscow. Pieck came downstairs at six o'clock to his children's bedroom and said: \"Children, get up, it was announced on the radio that war is over. Hitler invaded the Soviet Union, but that will be the end\". In March 1942 the family was able to return there after the Soviet Armed Forces won the Battle of Moscow.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home to the Soviet occupation zone.", "content": "At the conclusion of the war in 1945 Pieck returned to Germany with the victorious Red Army. A year later, he helped engineer the merger of the eastern branches of the KPD and SPD into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany. He was elected as the merged party's co-chairman, alongside former SPD leader Otto Grotewohl.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "President of East Germany.", "content": "In October 1949, the Soviet occupation zone was relaunched as the Soviet sponsored German Democratic Republic (East Germany). Pieck was elected president of the new country. He served as East Germany's first (and last) president until his death in 1960. He lost the chairmanship of the ruling SED (party) in 1950, when Walter Ulbricht became the party's first secretary. Nonetheless, due to Joseph Stalin's trust in him, he retained his other posts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Last years.", "content": "Pieck was already 73 years old at the time of his initial election as president. Although he nominally held the second highest state post in the GDR (behind Prime Minister Grotewohl) and served as SED co-chairman for the first four years of the party's existence, he never played a major role in the party.  On 13 July 1953, he suffered a second stroke. He also had progressive liver cirrhosis and existing ascites. A detailed medical report composed before the second stroke mentioned mild paralysis on the right, a slight drooping of the corner of the mouth, breathing wheezing or snoring, slowed down pulse, tone of the limb musculature lowered...\".  In August 1960 he moved to new summer residence, the former, converted mansion of the Hermann Göring Leibförsters near \"Karinhall\".  Pieck lived at Majakowskiring 29, Pankow, East Berlin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "He was married to Christine Häfker, a garments worker whom he met in a large dance hall in Bremen. At first, her parents did not want her to go out with a \"red\", but once she was pregnant, she was allowed to marry Wilhelm on 28 May 1898, on the condition that a traditional wedding in a church would still take place. On the wedding day Christine waited impatiently for Pieck to arrive at the church. At the last minute, he finally did, still carrying communist leaflets. In November 1936, his wife contracted pneumonia for the third time, dying on 1 December of the same year.  The Piecks' daughter, Elly Winter (1898–1987), held various posts in the SED and East German government. Their son Arthur Pieck (1899–1970) served as head of the East-German national airline Interflug from 1955–1965, after having held various administrative posts in East Germany, for instance at the German Economic Commission. The youngest child, Eleonore Staimer, (1906–1998), worked as a party official and, for a time, low level diplomat.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Wilhelm Reinhold Pieck (; 3 January 1876 – 7 September 1960) was a German communist politician. In 1949, he became the first President of the German Democratic Republic, an office abolished upon his death. His successor as head of state was Walter Ulbricht, who served as chairman of the Council of State.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971246}
{"src_title": "Roller hockey (quad)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "Roller Hockey (Quad) was referred to as Hardball Hockey in the United States until November 2008 when the USOC adopted the sport's more common name, Rink Hockey. Other names for the sport include Hardball Roller Hockey, Ball Hockey, International Style Ball hockey, International hockey, Quad Hockey, Hockey, English Roller Hockey, Hockey Sobre Patines, Hockey pista, Hóquei em patins, Hockey Skids, Traditional Hockey, Cane Hockey, Rollhockey, Rolhockey, Hokej na koturaljkama, Rulleskøjtehockey and Rulluisuhoki.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The rink.", "content": "The rink has usually a polished wooden surface, but any flat, non-abrasive and non-slippery material such as treated cement is acceptable. Likewise, it is allowed for rink owners to put advertisements in the playing area, as long as they don't interfere with ball or skate motion, which includes both physically (must be at exactly the same level as the remaining area) and visually (dark colours or any other pattern which can mask the ball).  It can have one out of three standard sizes (a minimum of 34x17 meters, an average of 40x20 and a maximum of 44x22) or any size between the minimum and maximum values that has a 2:1 size ratio with a 10% margin of error.  The rink has rounded corners (1 m radius) and is surrounded by a 1 m wall. The wall also has a wooden base 2 cm wide and at least 20 cm high. Behind the goals there is a 4 m high net, even if there are no stands (to avoid the ball bouncing back from a wall and hitting a player). If the ball hits the net, it's considered to be out of bounds.  The markings are simple. The halfway line divides the rink into halves, and 22 m from the end wall an \"anti-play\" line is painted. The area is a 9 X 5.40 m rectangle, placed from 2.7 to 3.3 m ahead of the end table. It has a protection area for goalkeepers, a half-circle with 1.5 m radius. All markings are 8 cm in width. The goal (painted in fluorescent orange) is 105 cm high by 170 cm wide. Inside the goal there is a thick net and a bar close to ground to trap the ball inside (before, two extra referees stayed behind the goal to judge goal decisions), and 92 cm deep. While not attached to the ground, it is extremely heavy to prevent movement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rules.", "content": "World Skate provides the current rulebook at its website. According to the rule book, the playing time can be reduced depending on the age of the players (competitions played by younger players will have a lower playing time) and the sequence of the competition's matches (a competition disputed in consecutive days can have the playing time reduced with the aim to preserve the health and recovery of the players). The playing time must be defined before the start of each competition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first recorded Hardball Roller Hockey game was played in 1878 at the Denmark Rink in London, England. It was first known as “roller polo” due to the introduction of Polo in 1876, skaters took polo to the rinks. The sport was introduced into the United States in 1882 with the formation of the National Roller Polo League in Dayton, Ohio, with teams in seven cities. Roller Polo League In 1884 the Massachusetts Roller Polo league was operating with 14 teams Organized roller skating sports developed as the popularity of roller skates increased in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Roller hockey teams were playing throughout Europe as early as 1901. Roller Hockey was played by the famous silent film stars, Stan Laurel and Charlie Chaplin, in the early 1900s. The first World Championships in roller hockey were held in 1936 in Stuttgart, Germany. Since 2017, the World Championships have been part of the World Roller Games organised by World Skate.  Rink Hockey as it was called in Europe was not organized by the RSROA in the United States until 1959 and name roller hockey The sport debuted at the US National Championships in 1961. The Pan American Games introduced roller skating as a sport in 1979 and debuted roller hockey the same year. It was one of the Pan American Games sports in 1979, 1987, 1991 and 1995. It has since been discontinued. Roller hockey was present as an exhibition sport at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International competitions.", "content": "There are several international competitions with national teams. There are three world championships, one for men, the Roller Hockey World Cup, one for women, the Women's Roller Hockey World Cup and the Roller Hockey World Cup U-20. Since 2017 World Skate has organised the World Roller Games, comprising all three of the world championships as regulated by the World Skate international federation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roller hockey (in British English), rink hockey (in American English) or quad hockey is a team sport that enjoys significant popularity in a number of Latin countries, and in Europe is an sport practised specially in Portugal, Spain (mainly Catalonia and Galicia) and Italy (being very popular in the region of the Veneto).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971247}
{"src_title": "Canyoning", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Canyoning around the world.", "content": "In most parts of the world canyoning is done in mountain canyons with flowing water. The number of countries with established canyoning outfitters is growing yearly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Asia.", "content": "In Vietnam you can try in Dalat, its call \"Dalat Canyoning Challenge\", organized by Viet Challenge Tours. In Japan (\"sawanobori\") and Taiwan canyoning is called \"river tracing\" and typically involves traveling upstream.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "Canyoning in the United Kingdom has gained in popularity over recent years. In the UK, Wales, Scotland, Cumbria and Yorkshire and some areas of Cornwall are recognized as the prime locations for this activity. In the Welsh language, canyoning is called \"cerdded ceunant\". It is also referred to as \"gorge walking\", which the UK Scout Association defines as \"the activity of following a river bed through a gorge. This often includes climbing, swimming, abseiling and scrambling depending upon the environment\".  Ticino, Switzerland, is a popular canyoning destination because of its granite rock, crystal green pools and its pleasant Mediterranean climate.  Spain has also emerged as a popular canyoning spot, owing to its warm climate and abundance of rock formations conducive to canyoning.  Portugal also has canyoning in the Azores and Madeira.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "North America.", "content": "In the United States, descending mountain canyons with flowing water is sometimes referred to as \"canyoning\", although the term \"canyoneering\" is more common. Most canyoneering in the United States occurs in the many slot canyons carved in the sandstone found throughout the Colorado Plateau. Outside of the Colorado Plateau, numerous canyoneering opportunities are found in the San Gabriel, Sierra Nevada, Cascade, and Rocky Mountain ranges.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Oceania.", "content": "Canyoning is common in Australia in the sandstone canyons of the Blue Mountains National Park, known for their technical abseil starts and lack of fast flowing water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hazards.", "content": "Canyoning can be dangerous. Escape via the sides of a canyon is often impossible, and completion of the descent is the only possibility. Due to the remoteness and inaccessibility of many canyons, rescue can be impossible for several hours or several days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "High water flow / hydraulics.", "content": "Canyons with significant water flow may be treacherous and require special ropework techniques for safe travel. Hydraulics, undercurrents, and sieves (or \"strainers\") occur in flowing canyons and can trap or pin and drown a canyoneer. A 1993 accident in Zion National Park, Utah, USA, in which two leaders of a youth group drowned in powerful canyon hydraulics (and the lawsuit which followed) brought notoriety to the sport.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flash floods.", "content": "A potential danger of many canyoning trips is a flash flood. A canyon \"flashes\" when a large amount of precipitation falls in the drainage, and water levels in the canyon rise quickly as the runoff rushes down the canyon. In canyons that drain large areas, the rainfall could be many kilometers away from the canyoners, completely unbeknown to them. A calm or even dry canyon can quickly become a violent torrent due to a severe thunderstorm in the vicinity. Fatalities have occurred as a result of flash floods; in one widely publicized 1999 incident, 21 tourists on a commercial canyoning adventure trip drowned in Saxetenbach Gorge, Switzerland. Authorities in Switzerland have set in the last few years high standards on safety, \"Safety in adventures\" label is becoming the standard for all companies to prove they are following the standard safety procedures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hypothermia and hyperthermia.", "content": "Temperature-related illnesses are also canyoning hazards. In arid desert canyons, heat exhaustion can occur if proper hydration levels are not maintained and adequate steps are not taken to avoid the intense rays of the sun. Hypothermia can be a serious danger in \"any\" canyon that contains water, during \"any time\" of the year. Wetsuits and drysuits can mitigate this danger to a large degree, but when people miscalculate the amount of water protection they will need, dangerous and sometimes fatal situations can occur. Hypothermia due to inadequate cold water protection is cited as a cause of a 2005 incident in which two college students drowned in a remote Utah canyon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Keeper potholes.", "content": "Some canyoneering, especially in sandstone slots, involves escaping from large potholes. Also called \"keeper potholes,\" these features, carved out by falling water at the bottom of a drop in the watercourse, are circular pits that often contain water that is too deep to stand up in and whose walls are too smooth to easily climb out of. Canyoneers use several unique and creative devices to escape potholes, including hooks used for aid climbing attached to long poles and specialized weighted bags that are attached to ropes and tossed over the lip of a pothole.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Very narrow slots.", "content": "Narrow slot canyons, especially those narrower than humans, present difficult obstacles for canyoners. At times a canyoner is forced to climb up (using chimneying or off-width climbing techniques) to a height where one can comfortably maneuver laterally with pressure on both walls of the canyon. This tends to be strenuous and can require climbing high above the canyon floor, unprotected, for long periods of time. Failure to complete the required moves could result in being trapped in a canyon where rescue is extremely difficult. Past rescues have required extensive rigging systems and dishsoap to extract stuck canyoners.  Narrow sandstone slot canyons tend to have abrasive walls which rip clothing and gear, and can cause painful skin abrasion as a canyoner moves or slides along them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exposure to water-borne diseases.", "content": "Immersion in water may lead to exposure to diseases such as Weil's Disease (Leptospirosis), dermatitis and gastroenteritis. Ingestion of water should be avoided and taking a shower immediately after canyoning or gorge walking is recommended.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rockfall.", "content": "Canyons are changing environments and falling rocks, including chockstones, are not uncommon. A moving chockstone caused Aron Ralston's 2003 accident where he was forced to amputate his forearm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Becoming lost.", "content": "Many canyons are located in remote areas with limited or sparse trails, and due to their harsh environments, straying from established areas can be dangerous.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Education and training.", "content": "As the sport of canyoneering begins to grow, there are more and more people looking to learn the skills needed to safely descend canyons. There are several reputable organizations that are now offering classes of various forms to the public; some organizations are training organizations that offer certifications, while other commercial operations offer classes in addition to purely recreational guided tours. The latter is particularly popular in tourist destinations around the world, such as Costa Rica, Hawaii, the Philippines, and Utah. Most programs have multiple levels of skill-set classes. The lowest levels usually cover the basics such as rappelling, rope work, navigation, identification of gear and clothing, and rappel setups. The higher levels cover more complex situations such as anchor building and strategies on how to descend various types of canyons. Other higher level and specialty classes typically cover rescue situations, wilderness first aid, and swift water canyons. <br> For professional canyoning guide training there are a number of organisations spread throughout the world. In Europe the CIC (Commission Internationale de Canyon) was one of the first organisations, (formerly CEC) for professionals to teach over multiple countries. Recently ICO Pro (International Canyoning Organisation for Professionals), ICA (International Academy of Canyoning Association) and the ACA (American Canyoneering Association), CGI (Canyon Guides International) all teach in multiple countries. There are also many certification systems governed by single countries, many which are based on the original CEC methodology.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Canyoning (canyoneering in the United States, kloofing in South Africa) is travelling in canyons using a variety of techniques that may include other outdoor activities such as walking, scrambling, climbing, jumping, abseiling (rappelling), and swimming.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971248}
{"src_title": "International Standard Serial Number", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Code format.", "content": "The format of the ISSN is an eight-digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers. As an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the general form of the ISSN code (also named \"ISSN structure\" or \"ISSN syntax\") can be expressed as follows: or by a Perl Compatible Regular Expressions (PCRE) regular expression:  The ISSN of the journal \"Hearing Research\", for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, that is codice_2=5. To calculate the check digit, the following algorithm may be used:  To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, counting from the right (if the check digit is X, then add 10 to the sum). The modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, based on the above algorithm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Code assignment, maintenance and look-up.", "content": "ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an intergovernmental organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Linking ISSN.", "content": "\"ISSN-L\" is a unique identifier for all versions of the serial containing the same content across different media. As defined by \"ISO 3297:2007\", the \"linking ISSN (ISSN-L)\" provides a mechanism for collocation or linking among the different media versions of the same continuing resource. The \"ISSN-L\" is one of a serial’s existing ISSNs, so does not change the use or assignment of \"ordinary\" ISSNs; it is based on the ISSN of the first published medium version of the publication. If the print and online versions of the publication are published at the same time, the ISSN of the print version is chosen as the basis of the \"ISSN-L\".  With \"ISSN-L\" is possible to designate one single ISSN for all those media versions of the title. The use of \"ISSN-L\" facilitates search, retrieval and delivery across all media versions for services like OpenURL, library catalogues, search engines or knowledge bases.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Register.", "content": "The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, the \"ISDS Register\" (International Serials Data System), otherwise known as the \"ISSN Register\". the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. The Register is not freely available for interrogation on the web, but is available by subscription.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Comparison with other identifiers.", "content": "ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books. An ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an anonymous identifier associated with a serial title, containing no information as to the publisher or its location. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extensions.", "content": "Since the ISSN applies to an entire serial a new identifier, other identifiers have been built on top of it to allow references to specific volumes, articles, or other identifiable components (like the table of contents): the Publisher Item Identifier (PII) and the Serial Item and Contribution Identifier (SICI).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Media versus content.", "content": "Separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media (except reproduction microforms). Thus, the print and electronic media versions of a serial need separate ISSNs, and CD-ROM versions and web versions require different ISSNs. However, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats (e.g. PDF and HTML) of the same online serial.  This \"media-oriented identification\" of serials made sense in the 1970s. In the 1990s and onward, with personal computers, better screens, and the Web, it makes sense to consider only \"content\", independent of media. This \"content-oriented identification\" of serials was a repressed demand during a decade, but no ISSN update or initiative occurred. A natural extension for ISSN, the unique-identification of the articles in the serials, was the main demand application. An alternative serials' contents model arrived with the indecs Content Model and its application, the digital object identifier (DOI), an ISSN-independent initiative, consolidated in the 2000s.  Only later, in 2007, ISSN-L was defined in the new ISSN standard (ISO 3297:2007) as an \"ISSN designated by the ISSN Network to enable collocation or versions of a continuing resource linking among the different media\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use in URNs.", "content": "An ISSN can be encoded as a uniform resource name (URN) by prefixing it with \"\". For example, \"Rail\" could be referred to as \"\". URN namespaces are case-sensitive, and the ISSN namespace is all caps. If the checksum digit is \"X\" then it is always encoded in uppercase in a URN.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Problems.", "content": "The URNs are content-oriented, but ISSN is media-oriented:  A unique URN for serials simplifies the search, recovery and delivery of data for various services including, in particular, search systems and knowledge databases. ISSN-L (see Linking ISSN above) was created to fill this gap.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Media category labels.", "content": "The two standard categories of media in which serials are most available are \"print\" and \"electronic\". In metadata contexts (e.g., JATS), these may have standard labels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Print ISSN.", "content": "\"p-ISSN\" is a standard label for \"Print ISSN\", the ISSN for the print media (paper) version of a serial. Usually it is the \"default media\" and so the \"default ISSN\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electronic ISSN.", "content": "\"e-ISSN\" (or \"eISSN\") is a standard label for \"Electronic ISSN\", the ISSN for the electronic media (online) version of a serial.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "In March 2020, 0.93% of all references on the English Wikipedia had an ISSN.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication, such as a magazine. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title. ISSNs are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971249}
{"src_title": "Alexei Leonov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and military service.", "content": "Leonov was born on 30 May 1934 in Listvyanka, West Siberian Krai, Russian SFSR. His grandfather had been forced to relocate to Siberia for his role in the 1905 Russian Revolution. Alexei was the eighth of nine surviving children born to Yevdokia and Arkhip. His father was an electrician and miner.  In 1936, his father was arrested and declared an \"enemy of the people\". Leonov wrote in his autobiography: \"He was not alone: many were being arrested. It was part of a conscientious drive by the authorities to eradicate anyone who showed too much independence or strength of character. These were the years of Stalin's purges. Many disappeared into remote gulags and were never seen again.\" The family moved in with one of his married sisters in Kemerovo. His father rejoined the family in Kemerovo after he was released. He was compensated for his wrongful imprisonment. Leonov used art as a way to provide more food for the family. He began his art career by drawing flowers on ovens and later painted landscapes on canvasses.  The Soviet government encouraged its citizens to move to Soviet-occupied Prussia, so in 1948 his family relocated to Kaliningrad. Leonov graduated from secondary school (No. 21) in 1953. He applied to the Academy of Arts in Riga, Latvia, but decided not to attend due to the high tuition costs. Leonov decided to join a Ukrainian preparatory flying school in Kremenchug; he made his first solo flight in May 1955. While indulging in his passion for art by studying part-time in Riga, Leonov started an advanced two-year course to become a fighter pilot at the Chuguev Higher Air Force Pilots School in the Ukrainian SSR.  On 30 October 1957, Leonov graduated with an honours degree and was commissioned a lieutenant in the 113th Parachute Aviation Regiment, part of the 10th Engineering Aviation Division of the 69th Air Army in Kiev. On 13 December 1959, he married Svetlana Pavlovna Dozenko a day before he moved to East Germany to his new assignment with the 294th Reconnaissance Regiment of the 24th Air Army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet space programme.", "content": "He was one of the 20 Soviet Air Forces pilots selected to be part of the first cosmonaut training group in 1960. As most cosmonauts, Leonov was a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. His walk in space was originally to have taken place on the Voskhod 1 mission, but this was cancelled, and the historic event happened on the Voskhod 2 flight instead. He was outside the spacecraft for 12 minutes and nine seconds on 18 March 1965, connected to the craft by a tether. At the end of the spacewalk, Leonov's spacesuit had inflated in the vacuum of space to the point where he could not re-enter the airlock. He opened a valve to allow some of the suit's pressure to bleed off and was barely able to get back inside the capsule. Leonov had spent eighteen months undergoing weightlessness training for the mission.  In 1968, Leonov was selected to be commander of a circumlunar Soyuz 7K-L1 flight. This was cancelled because of delays in achieving a reliable circumlunar flight (only the later Zond 7 and Zond 8 members of the programme were successful) and the Apollo 8 mission had already achieved that step in the Space Race. He was also selected to be the first Soviet person to land on the Moon, aboard the LOK/N1 spacecraft. This project was also cancelled. (The design required a spacewalk between lunar vehicles, something that contributed to his selection.) Leonov was to have been commander of the 1971 Soyuz 11 mission to Salyut 1, the first crewed space station, but his crew was replaced with the backup after one of the members, cosmonaut Valery Kubasov, was suspected to have contracted tuberculosis (the other member was Pyotr Kolodin).  Leonov was to have commanded the next mission to Salyut 1, but this was scrapped after the deaths of the Soyuz 11 crew members, and the space station was lost. The next two Salyuts (actually the military Almaz station) were lost at launch or failed soon after, and Leonov's crew stood by. By the time Salyut 4 reached orbit, Leonov had been switched to a more prestigious project.  Leonov's second trip into space was as commander of Soyuz 19, the Soviet half of the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz mission—the first joint space mission between the Soviet Union and the United States.  From 1976 to 1982, Leonov was the commander of the cosmonaut team (\"Chief Cosmonaut\") and deputy director of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, where he oversaw crew training. He also edited the cosmonaut newsletter \"Neptune\". He retired in 1992.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and death.", "content": "Leonov was an accomplished artist whose published books include albums of his artistic works and works he did in collaboration with his friend Andrei Sokolov. Leonov took coloured pencils and paper into space, where he sketched the Earth and drew portraits of the Apollo astronauts who flew with him during the 1975 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project. Arthur C. Clarke wrote in his notes to \"\" that, after a 1968 screening of \"\", Leonov pointed out to him that the alignment of the Moon, Earth, and Sun shown in the opening is essentially the same as that in Leonov's 1967 painting \"\", although the painting's diagonal framing of the scene was not replicated in the film. Clarke kept an autographed sketch of this painting—which Leonov made after the screening—hanging on his office wall. Clarke dedicated \"2010: Odyssey Two\" to Leonov and Soviet physicist Andrei Sakharov; and the fictional spaceship in the book is named \"Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov\".  Together with Valentin Selivanov, Leonov wrote the script for the 1980 science fiction film \"The Orion Loop\".  In 2001, he was a vice president of Moscow-based Alfa-Bank and an adviser to the first deputy of the Board.  In 2004, Leonov and former American astronaut David Scott began work on a dual memoir covering the history of the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union. Titled \"Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Cold War Space Race\", it was published in 2006. Neil Armstrong and Tom Hanks both wrote introductions to the book.  Leonov was interviewed by Francis French for the book \"Into That Silent Sea\" by Colin Burgess and French.  Leonov died on 11 October 2019 after a long illness in Moscow. His funeral took place on 15 October. He was 85 and the last living member of the five cosmonauts in the Voskhod programme. He was survived by his wife Svetlana Dozenko, daughter Oksana, and two grandchildren; his other daughter, Viktoria, died in 1996.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexei Arkhipovich Leonov (30 May 1934 – 11 October 2019) was a Soviet and Russian cosmonaut, Air Force major general, writer, and artist. On 18 March 1965, he became the first person to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the capsule during the Voskhod 2 mission for 12 minutes and 9 seconds.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971250}
{"src_title": "Gross-Rosen concentration camp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The camp.", "content": "KZ Gross-Rosen was set up in the summer of 1940 as a satellite camp of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp from Oranienburg. Initially, the slave labour was carried out in a huge stone quarry owned by the \"SS-Deutsche Erd- und Steinwerke GmbH\" (SS German Earth and Stone Works). In the fall of 1940 the use of labour in Upper Silesia was taken over by the new Organization Schmelt formed on the orders of Heinrich Himmler. It was named after its leader \"SS-Oberführer\" Albrecht Schmelt. The company was put in charge of employment from the camps with Jews intended to work for food only.  The Gross-Rosen location close to occupied Poland was of considerable advantage. Prisoners were put to work in the construction of a system of subcamps for expelees from the annexed territories. Gross Rosen became an independent camp on 1 May 1941. As the complex grew, the majority of inmates were put to work in the new Nazi enterprises attached to these subcamps.  In October 1941 the SS transferred about 3,000 Soviet POWs to Gross-Rosen for execution by shooting. Gross-Rosen was known for its brutal treatment of the so-called \"Nacht und Nebel\" prisoners vanishing without a trace from targeted communities. Most died in the granite quarry. The brutal treatment of the political and Jewish prisoners was not only in the hands of guards and German criminal prisoners brought in by the \"SS\", but to a lesser extent also fuelled by the German administration of the stone quarry responsible for starvation rations and denial of medical help. In 1942, for political prisoners, the average survival time-span was less than two months. Due to a change of policy in August 1942, prisoners were likely to survive longer because they were needed as slave workers in German war industries. Among the companies that benefited from the slave labour of the concentration camp inmates were German electronics manufacturers such as Blaupunkt, Siemens, as well as Krupp, IG Farben, and Daimler-Benz, among others. Some prisoners who were not able to work but not yet dying were sent to the Dachau concentration camp in so-called \"invalid\" transports.  The largest population of inmates, however, were Jews, initially from the Dachau and Sachsenhausen camps, and later from Buchenwald. During the camp's existence, the Jewish inmate population came mainly from Poland and Hungary; others were from Belgium, France, Netherlands, Greece, Yugoslavia, Slovakia, and Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subcamps.", "content": "At its peak activity in 1944, the Gross-Rosen complex had up to 100 subcamps, located in eastern Germany, Czechoslovakia, and occupied Poland. In its final stage, the population of the Gross-Rosen camps accounted for 11% of the total inmates in Nazi concentration camps at that time. A total of 125,000 inmates of various nationalities passed through the complex during its existence, of whom an estimated 40,000 died on site, on death marches and in evacuation transports. The camp was liberated on 14 February 1945 by the Red Army. A total of over 500 female camp guards were trained and served in the Gross-Rosen complex. Female SS staffed the women's subcamps of Brünnlitz, Graeben, Gruenberg, Gruschwitz Neusalz, Hundsfeld, Kratzau II, Oberaltstadt, Reichenbach, and Schlesiersee Schanzenbau.  The Gabersdorf labour camp had been part of a network of forced labor camps for Jewish prisoners that had operated under Organization Schmelt since 1941. The spinning mill where the female Jewish prisoners worked had been \"Aryanized\" in 1939 by a Vienna-based company called Vereinigte Textilwerke K. H. Barthel & Co. The prisoners also worked in factories operated by the companies Aloys Haase and J. A. Kluge und Etrich. By 18 March 1944 Gabersdorf had become a subcamp of Gross-Rosen.  One subcamp of Gross-Rosen was the Brünnlitz labor camp, situated in the Czechoslovakian town of Brněnec, where Jews rescued by Oskar Schindler were interned.  The Brieg subcamp, located near the village of Pampitz, had originally been the location of a Jewish forced labor camp until August 1944, when the Jewish prisoners were replaced by the first transport of prisoners from the Gross-Rosen main camp. The camp was mostly staffed by soldiers from the \"Luftwaffe\" and a few SS members. Most of the prisoners were Polish, with smaller numbers of Russian and Czech prisoners. Most of the Poles had been evacuated from the Pawiak prison in Warsaw; others had been arrested within the territory controlled by the Reich or had been transported from Kraków and Radom.  Brieg's camp kitchen was run by Czech prisoners. The three daily meals included 1 pint of \"mehlzupa\" (a soup made from water and meal), 150 grams of bread, 1 quart of soup made with rutabaga, beets, cabbage, kale or sometimes nettles, 1 pint of black \"coffee\" and a spoonful of molasses. Sometimes \"hard workers\" called \"zulaga\" would be rewarded with a piece of blood sausage or raw horsemeat sausage, jam and margarine. Prisoners also received 1 cup of Knorr soup per week.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Camp commandants.", "content": "During the Gross-Rosen initial period of operation as a formal subcamp of Sachsenhausen, the following two \"SS\" \"Lagerführer\" officers served as the camp commandants, the \"SS-Untersturmführer\" Anton Thumann, and \"SS-Untersturmführer\" Georg Gussregen. From May 1941 until liberation, the following officials served as commandants of a fully independent concentration camp at Gross-Rosen:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War crimes trial.", "content": "On 12 August 1948 the trial of three Gross Rosen camp officials, Johannes Hasselbröck, Helmut Eschner and Eduard Drazdauskas, began before a Soviet Military Court. On 7 October 1948 all were found guilty of war crimes. Eschner and Drazdauskas were sentenced to life imprisonment and Hasselbröck was sentenced to death, but this was later commuted also to life imprisonment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of Gross-Rosen camps with location.", "content": "The most far-reaching expansion of the Gross-Rosen system of labour camps took place in 1944 due to accelerated demand for support behind the advancing front. The character and purpose of new camps shifted toward defense infrastructure. In some cities, as in Wrocław (Breslau) camps were established in every other district. It is estimated that their total number reached 100 at that point according to list of their official destinations. The biggest sub-camps included \"AL Fünfteichen\" in Jelcz-Laskowice, four camps in Wrocław, \"Dyhernfurth\" in Brzeg Dolny, \"Landeshut\" in Kamienna Góra, and the entire Project Riese along the Owl Mountains.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gross-Rosen was a network of Nazi concentration camps built and operated by Nazi Germany during World War II. The main camp was located in the German village of Gross-Rosen, now the modern-day Rogoźnica in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Poland; directly on the rail-line between the towns of Jawor (Jauer) and Strzegom (Striegau).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971251}
{"src_title": "Calvin cycle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Coupling to other metabolic pathways.", "content": "These reactions are closely coupled to the thylakoid electron transport chain as the energy required to reduce the carbon dioxide is provided by NADPH produced in photosystem I during the light dependent reactions. The process of photorespiration, also known as C2 cycle, is also coupled to the calvin cycle, as it results from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is another glyceraldehyde-3-P.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calvin cycle.", "content": "The Calvin cycle, Calvin–Benson–Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms.  The cycle was discovered in 1950 by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley by using the radioactive isotope carbon-14.  Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage and transport molecules ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle uses the energy from short-lived electronically excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called \"carbon fixation\". The key enzyme of the cycle is called RuBisCO. In the following biochemical equations, the chemical species (phosphates and carboxylic acids) exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the pH.  The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to most enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name \"dark reaction\" is misleading), and also by products of the light-dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity.  The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following: Hexose (six-carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as, this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six-carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or \"triose phosphates\", namely, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Steps.", "content": "In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a molecule is incorporated into one of two three-carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light-dependent stage. The three steps involved are: The next stage in the Calvin cycle is to regenerate RuBP. Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules, using up three molecules of ATP. Since each molecule produces two G3P molecules, three molecules produce six G3P molecules, of which five are used to regenerate RuBP, leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three molecules (as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved).  The regeneration stage can be broken down into steps.  Thus, of six G3P produced, five are used to make three RuBP (5C) molecules (totaling 15 carbons), with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This requires nine ATP molecules and six NADPH molecules per three molecules. The equation of the overall Calvin cycle is shown diagrammatically below. RuBisCO also reacts competitively with instead of in photorespiration. The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3-PGA and 2-phosphoglycolate, a 2-carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into serine +. Serine can be converted back to 3-phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3-PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing, this process leads to loss of. C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates—corn, for example.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP. (ADP and NADP are not really \"products.\" They are regenerated and later used again in the Light-dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. For the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Light-dependent regulation.", "content": "These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night. There is a light-dependent regulation of the cycle enzymes, as the third step requires reduced NADP.  There are two regulation systems at work when the cycle must be turned on or off: the thioredoxin/ferredoxin activation system, which activates some of the cycle enzymes; and the RuBisCo enzyme activation, active in the Calvin cycle, which involves its own activase.  The thioredoxin/ferredoxin system activates the enzymes glyceraldehyde-3-P dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-P phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase, and ribulose-5-phosphatase kinase, which are key points of the process. This happens when light is available, as the ferredoxin protein is reduced in the photosystem I complex of the thylakoid electron chain when electrons are circulating through it. Ferredoxin then binds to and reduces the thioredoxin protein, which activates the cycle enzymes by severing a cystine bond found in all these enzymes. This is a dynamic process as the same bond is formed again by other proteins that deactivate the enzymes. The implications of this process are that the enzymes remain mostly activated by day and are deactivated in the dark when there is no more reduced ferredoxin available.  The enzyme RuBisCo has its own, more complex activation process. It requires that a specific lysine amino acid be carbamylated to activate the enzyme. This lysine binds to RuBP and leads to a non-functional state if left uncarbamylated. A specific activase enzyme, called RuBisCo activase, helps this carbamylation process by removing one proton from the lysine and making the binding of the carbon dioxide molecule possible. Even then the RuBisCo enzyme is not yet functional, as it needs a magnesium ion bound to the lysine to function. This magnesium ion is released from the thylakoid lumen when the inner pH drops due to the active pumping of protons from the electron flow. RuBisCo activase itself is activated by increased concentrations of ATP in the stroma caused by its phosphorylation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Calvin cycle, light-independent reactions, bio synthetic phase, dark reactions, or photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR) cycle of photosynthesis are the chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid-filled area of a chloroplast outside the thylakoid membranes. These reactions take the products (ATP and NADPH) of light-dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them. [The Calvin cycle uses the reducing powers ATP and NADPH from the light dependent reactions to produce sugars for the plant to use. These substrates are used in a series of reduction-oxidation reactions to produce sugars in a step-wise process. There is not a direct reaction that converts CO2 to a sugar because all of the energy would be lost to heat.] There are three phases to the light-independent reactions, collectively called the \"Calvin cycle\": carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971252}
{"src_title": "Polynomial long division", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Example.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Polynomial long division.", "content": "Find the quotient and the remainder of the division of formula_1 the \"dividend\", by formula_2 the \"divisor\".  The dividend is first rewritten like this:  The quotient and remainder can then be determined as follows:  x^2 + 0x </math>  The polynomial above the bar is the quotient \"q\"(\"x\"), and the number left over (5) is the remainder \"r\"(\"x\").  The long division algorithm for arithmetic is very similar to the above algorithm, in which the variable \"x\" is replaced by the specific number 10.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Polynomial short division.", "content": "Blomqvist's method is an abbreviated version of the long division above. This pen-and-paper method uses the same algorithm as polynomial long division, but mental calculation is used to determine remainders. This requires less writing, and can therefore be a faster method once mastered.  The division is at first written in a similar way as long multiplication with the dividend at the top, and the divisor below it. The quotient is to be written below the bar from left to right.  formula_7  Divide the first term of the dividend by the highest term of the divisor (\"x\" ÷ \"x\" = \"x\"). Place the result below the bar. \"x\" has been divided leaving no remainder, and can therefore be marked as used with a backslash. The result \"x\" is then multiplied by the second term in the divisor -3 = -3\"x\". Determine the partial remainder by subtracting -2\"x\"-(-3\"x\") = \"x\". Mark -2\"x\" as used and place the new remainder \"x\" above it.  formula_8  Divide the highest term of the remainder by the highest term of the divisor (\"x\" ÷ \"x\" = \"x\"). Place the result (+x) below the bar. \"x\" has been divided leaving no remainder, and can therefore be marked as used. The result \"x\" is then multiplied by the second term in the divisor -3 = -3\"x\". Determine the partial remainder by subtracting 0x-(-3\"x\") = 3\"x\". Mark 0x as used and place the new remainder \"3x\" above it.  formula_9  Divide the highest term of the remainder by the highest term of the divisor (3x ÷ \"x\" = 3). Place the result (+3) below the bar. 3x has been divided leaving no remainder, and can therefore be marked as used. The result 3 is then multiplied by the second term in the divisor -3 = -9. Determine the partial remainder by subtracting -4-(-9) = 5. Mark -4 as used and place the new remainder 5 above it.  formula_10  The polynomial below the bar is the quotient \"q\"(\"x\"), and the number left over (5) is the remainder \"r\"(\"x\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pseudocode.", "content": "The algorithm can be represented in pseudocode as follows, where +, −, and × represent polynomial arithmetic, and / represents simple division of two terms:  Note that this works equally well when degree(n) < degree(d); in that case the result is just the trivial (0, n).  This algorithm describes exactly the above paper and pencil method: is written on the left of the \")\"; is written, term after term, above the horizontal line, the last term being the value of ; the region under the horizontal line is used to compute and write down the successive values of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Euclidean division.", "content": "For every pair of polynomials (\"A\", \"B\") such that \"B\" ≠ 0, polynomial division provides a \"quotient\" \"Q\" and a \"remainder\" \"R\" such that and either \"R\"=0 or degree(\"R\") < degree(\"B\"). Moreover (\"Q\", \"R\") is the unique pair of polynomials having this property.  The process of getting the uniquely defined polynomials \"Q\" and \"R\" from \"A\" and \"B\" is called \"Euclidean division\" (sometimes \"division transformation\"). Polynomial long division is thus an algorithm for Euclidean division.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Factoring polynomials.", "content": "Sometimes one or more roots of a polynomial are known, perhaps having been found using the rational root theorem. If one root \"r\" of a polynomial \"P\"(\"x\") of degree \"n\" is known then polynomial long division can be used to factor \"P\"(\"x\") into the form where \"Q\"(\"x\") is a polynomial of degree \"n\" − 1. \"Q\"(\"x\") is simply the quotient obtained from the division process; since \"r\" is known to be a root of \"P\"(\"x\"), it is known that the remainder must be zero.  Likewise, if more than one root is known, a linear factor in one of them (\"r\") can be divided out to obtain \"Q\"(\"x\"), and then a linear term in another root, \"s\", can be divided out of \"Q\"(\"x\"), etc. Alternatively, they can all be divided out at once: for example the linear factors and can be multiplied together to obtain the quadratic factor which can then be divided into the original polynomial \"P\"(\"x\") to obtain a quotient of degree  In this way, sometimes all the roots of a polynomial of degree greater than four can be obtained, even though that is not always possible. For example, if the rational root theorem can be used to obtain a single (rational) root of a quintic polynomial, it can be factored out to obtain a quartic (fourth degree) quotient; the explicit formula for the roots of a quartic polynomial can then be used to find the other four roots of the quintic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Finding tangents to polynomial functions.", "content": "Polynomial long division can be used to find the equation of the line that is tangent to the graph of the function defined by the polynomial \"P\"(\"x\") at a particular point If \"R\"(\"x\") is the remainder of the division of \"P\"(\"x\") by then the equation of the tangent line at to the graph of the function is regardless of whether or not \"r\" is a root of the polynomial.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cyclic redundancy check.", "content": "A cyclic redundancy check uses the remainder of polynomial division to detect errors in transmitted messages.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In algebra, polynomial long division is an algorithm for dividing a polynomial by another polynomial of the same or lower degree, a generalised version of the familiar arithmetic technique called long division. It can be done easily by hand, because it separates an otherwise complex division problem into smaller ones. Sometimes using a shorthand version called synthetic division is faster, with less writing and fewer calculations. Another abbreviated method is polynomial short division (Blomqvist's method).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971253}
{"src_title": "BSD licenses", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terms.", "content": "In addition to the original (4-clause) license used for BSD, several derivative licenses have emerged that are also commonly referred to as a \"BSD license\". Today, the typical BSD license is the 3-clause version, which is revised from the original 4-clause version.  In all BSD licenses as following, codice_1 is the organization of the codice_2 or just the codice_2, and codice_4 is the year of the copyright. As published in BSD, codice_2 is \"Regents of the University of California\", and codice_1 is \"University of California, Berkeley\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Previous license.", "content": "Some releases of BSD prior to the adoption of the 4-clause BSD license used a license that is clearly ancestral to the 4-clause BSD license. These releases include 4.3BSD-Tahoe (1988) and Net/1 (1989). Although largely replaced by the 4-clause license, this license can be found in 4.3BSD-Reno, Net/2, and 4.4BSD-Alpha.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "4-clause license (original \"BSD License\").", "content": "The original BSD license contained a clause not found in later licenses, known as the \"advertising clause\". This clause eventually became controversial, as it required authors of all works deriving from a BSD-licensed work to include an acknowledgment of the original source in all advertising material. This was clause number 3 in the original license text:  This clause was objected to on the grounds that as people changed the license to reflect their name or organization it led to escalating advertising requirements when programs were combined together in a software distribution: every occurrence of the license with a different name required a separate acknowledgment. In arguing against it, Richard Stallman has stated that he counted 75 such acknowledgments in a 1997 version of NetBSD. In addition, the clause presented a legal problem for those wishing to publish BSD-licensed software which relies upon separate programs using the GNU GPL: the advertising clause is incompatible with the GPL, which does not allow the addition of restrictions beyond those it already imposes; because of this, the GPL's publisher, the Free Software Foundation, recommends developers not use the license, though it states there is no reason not to use software already using it.  Today, this original license is now sometimes called \"\"BSD-old\"\" or \"\"4-clause BSD\"\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "3-clause license (\"BSD License 2.0\", \"Revised BSD License\", \"New BSD License\", or \"Modified BSD License\").", "content": "The advertising clause was removed from the license text in the official BSD on by William Hoskins, Director of the Office of Technology Licensing for UC Berkeley. Other BSD distributions removed the clause, but many similar clauses remain in BSD-derived code from other sources, and unrelated code using a derived license.  While the original license is sometimes referred to as the \"BSD-old\", the resulting 3-clause version is sometimes referred to by \"BSD-new.\" Other names include \"New BSD\", \"revised BSD\", \"BSD-3\", or \"3-clause BSD\". This version has been vetted as an Open source license by the OSI as \"The BSD License\". The Free Software Foundation, which refers to the license as the \"Modified BSD License\", states that it is compatible with the GNU GPL. The FSF encourages users to be specific when referring to the license by name (i.e. not simply referring to it as \"a BSD license\" or \"BSD-style\") to avoid confusion with the original BSD license.  This version allows unlimited redistribution for any purpose as long as its copyright notices and the license's disclaimers of warranty are maintained. The license also contains a clause restricting use of the names of contributors for endorsement of a derived work without specific permission.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2-clause license (\"Simplified BSD License\" or \"FreeBSD License\").", "content": "An even more simplified version has come into use, primarily known for its usage in FreeBSD. It was in use there as early as April 29, 1999 and likely well before. The primary difference between it and the New BSD (3-clause) License is that it omits the non-endorsement clause. The FreeBSD version of the license also adds a further disclaimer about views and opinions expressed in the software, though this is not commonly included by other projects.  The Free Software Foundation, which refers to the license as the FreeBSD License, states that it is compatible with the GNU GPL. In addition, the FSF encourages users to be specific when referring to the license by name (i.e. not simply referring to it as \"a BSD license\" or \"BSD-style\"), as it does with the modified/new BSD license, to avoid confusion with the original BSD license.  Other projects, such as NetBSD, use a similar 2-clause license. This version has been vetted as an Open source license by the OSI as the \"Simplified BSD License.\"  The ISC license is functionally equivalent, and endorsed by the OpenBSD project as a license template for new contributions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "0-clause license (\"Zero Clause BSD\").", "content": "The BSD 0-clause license (SPDX: 0BSD) goes further than the 2-clause license by dropping the requirements to include the copyright notice, license text, or disclaimer in either source or binary forms\". Doing so forms a public-domain-equivalent license. It was first used by Rob Landley in Toybox.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "License compatibility.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial license compatibility.", "content": "The FreeBSD project argues on the advantages of BSD-style licenses for companies and commercial use-cases due to their license compatibility with proprietary licenses and general flexibility, stating that the BSD-style licenses place only \"\"minimal restrictions on future behavior\"\" and aren't \"\"legal time-bombs\"\", unlike copyleft licenses. The BSD License allows proprietary use and allows the software released under the license to be incorporated into proprietary products. Works based on the material may be released under a proprietary license as closed source software, allowing usual commercial usages under them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "FOSS compatibility.", "content": "The 3-clause BSD license, like most permissive licenses, is compatible with almost all FOSS licenses (and as well proprietary licenses).  Two variants of the license, the New BSD License/Modified BSD License (3-clause), and the Simplified BSD License/FreeBSD License (2-clause) have been verified as GPL-compatible free software licenses by the Free Software Foundation, and have been vetted as open source licenses by the Open Source Initiative. The original, 4-clause BSD license has not been accepted as an open source license and, although the original is considered to be a free software license by the FSF, the FSF does not consider it to be compatible with the GPL due to the advertising clause.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception and usage.", "content": "The BSD license family is one of the oldest and broadly used license family in the FOSS ecosystem. Also, many new licenses were derived or inspired by the BSD licenses. Many FOSS software projects use a BSD license, for instance the BSD OS family (FreeBSD etc.), Google's Bionic or Toybox. the BSD 3-clause license ranked in popularity number five according to Black Duck Software and sixth according to GitHub data.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "BSD licenses are a family of permissive free software licenses, imposing minimal restrictions on the use and distribution of covered software. This is in contrast to copyleft licenses, which have share-alike requirements. The original BSD license was used for its namesake, the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD), a Unix-like operating system. The original version has since been revised, and its descendants are referred to as modified BSD licenses.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971254}
{"src_title": "IrfanView", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "The basic 32-bit installation of IrfanView occupies 2.36 MB of disk space, and a full install with all optional plugins requires about 16.1 MB – with the 64-bit versions taking up more space.  IrfanView is specifically optimized for fast image display and loading times. It supports viewing and saving of numerous file types including image formats such as BMP, GIF, JPEG, JP2 & JPM (JPEG2000), PNG (includes the optimizer PNGOUT; APNG can be read), TIFF, raw photo formats from digital cameras, ECW (Enhanced Compressed Wavelet), EMF (Enhanced Windows Metafile), FSH (EA Sports format), ICO (Windows icon), PCX (Zsoft Paintbrush), PBM (Portable BitMap), PDF (Portable Document Format), PGM (Portable GrayMap), PPM (Portable PixelMap), TGA (Truevision Targa), WebP, FLIF (Free Lossless Image Format) and viewing of media files such as Flash, Ogg Vorbis, MPEG, MP3, MIDI, and text files.  While viewing images, there are several fit-to-screen scaling options and an automatic slideshow function. The viewer can open in sequence all the image-files and video clips (of most formats, including AVCHD) contained in a folder. Slideshows can contain both still images and video clips.  IrfanView can create screensavers and slide shows from collections of images with optional accompanying MP3 audio. These can be saved as stand-alone executables which run on Windows computers without IrfanView installed. For slideshow creation, screensaver creation and batch image translations, preset image processing steps can be applied to selected sets of images.  IrfanView can create icons by converting common graphic files into.ico format. It supports Adobe-compatible 8BF image processing filters, including many freely downloadable ones, primarily for application to whole images.  The program has TWAIN and WIA driver support for retrieving images from scanners, and can be used to cut and paste images into OneNote 2016 and other Office 2016 programs which no longer provide direct scanning support. It also has extended support for taking screenshots.  Image editing includes crop, resize, and rotate. Images can be adjusted by modifying their brightness, contrast, tint, and gamma level manually or automatically, and by converting them between file formats. Many of these changes can be applied to multiple images in one operation using batch processing. Batch processing can also be used for renaming, and for the production of HTML web pages. Resize can be applied towards the display of animated GIF images to make them larger in either windowed or full-screen modes.  A plugin allows IrfanView to support lossless JPG operations: horizontal or vertical flip, rotation by 90° increments, and cropping.  IrfanView can direct the active image to open in an external graphics editor (Adobe Photoshop, for example) if it is installed. Four more keyboard shortcuts allow the files to be renamed, moved, copied or deleted individually, while multiple files can be processed quite easily too via the thumbnails window (before the batch conversion dialog if need be).  The program has been internationalized in over twenty languages; English is the default. The IrfanView toolbar can be skinned from many sets of icons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plugins.", "content": "IrfanView uses plugins to handle a variety of additional image, video, and sound formats and to add optional functionality such as filter processing or other program features. With the variety of format plugins, the program has been recommended for viewing obscure image formats, or corrupted files, which commercial photo editing software cannot read.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Thumbnails.", "content": "This function displays thumbnail file previews, allowing picture organization and management, at sizes from 50 × 50 to 600 × 600 pixels. The user can select a number of thumbnails to perform Copy/Move/Delete operations on them, or send them to IrfanView's Batch Processing module or an external program such as Adobe Photoshop.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Search engine toolbar.", "content": "Prior to version 4.41 installer versions of IrfanView supported a number of browser toolbars. Version 4.40 optionally installed the Amazon 1Button App (formerly the Amazon Browser bar). Versions prior to 3.97 included the eBay browser toolbar, with installation selected by default. As of 4.41 no toolbars are included in the installer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Irfanview has been positively reviewed as \"really good\" for easily and rapidly viewing and manipulating images, with its editing and drawing tools. Other writers have focused on its ability to open a wide variety of image formats. In a series of image quality tests conducted in 2004, compared with commercial image compressors and Adobe Photoshop 7, Irfanview 3.91 produced \"consistently better images than the Adobe Photoshop JPEG encoder at the same data rate\", and its JPEG2000 compression quality \"closely followed\" the best codec, JasPer.\" According to IrfanView's official website, since 2003, IrfanView has been downloaded over 1 million times per month. One independent review in 2017 described Irfanview as \"the Swiss Army Knife of image viewers\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Author.", "content": "Irfan Škiljan graduated from the Vienna University of Technology. In a 2006 interview, then 32-year-old Škiljan said that he was able to more or less live off the software, generating income with the sale of licenses for commercial users and of special versions for different customers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Logo/mascot.", "content": "According to Škiljan, the IrfanView logo and mascot is a \"road cat\" (there is a tire track across the smallest icon) but that he \"likes cats\", and the icon is \"a joke\" – the IrfanView website pictures him holding a white domestic cat.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "IrfanView () is an image viewer, editor, organiser and converter program for Microsoft Windows. It can also play video and audio files, and has some image creation and painting capabilities. IrfanView is free for non-commercial use; commercial use requires paid registration. It is noted for its small size, speed, ease of use, and ability to handle a wide variety of graphic file formats. It was first released in 1996.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971255}
{"src_title": "King Oliver", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "Joseph Nathan Oliver was born in Aben, Louisiana, near Donaldsonville in Ascension Parish, and moved to New Orleans in his youth. He first studied the trombone, then changed to cornet. From 1908 to 1917 he played cornet in New Orleans brass bands and dance bands and in the city's red-light district, which came to be known as Storyville. A band he co-led with trombonist Kid Ory was considered one of the best and hottest in New Orleans in the late 1910s. He was popular in New Orleans across economic and racial lines and was in demand for music jobs of all kinds.  According to an interview at Tulane University's Hogan Jazz Archive with Oliver's widow Estella, a fight broke out at a dance where Oliver was playing, and the police arrested him, his band, and the fighters. After Storyville closed, he moved to Chicago in 1918 with his wife and step-daughter, Ruby Tuesday Oliver.  In Chicago, he found work with colleagues from New Orleans, such as clarinetist Lawrence Duhé, bassist Bill Johnson, trombonist Roy Palmer, and drummer Paul Barbarin. He became leader of Duhé's band, playing at a number of Chicago clubs. In the summer of 1921 he took a group to the West Coast, playing engagements in San Francisco and Oakland, California.  In 1922, Oliver and his band returned to Chicago, where they began performing as King Oliver and his Creole Jazz Band at the Royal Gardens cabaret (later renamed the Lincoln Gardens). In addition to Oliver on cornet, the personnel included his protégé Louis Armstrong on second cornet, Baby Dodds on drums, Johnny Dodds on clarinet, Lil Hardin (later Armstrong's wife) on piano, Honoré Dutrey on trombone, and Bill Johnson on double bass. Recordings made by this group in 1923 for Gennett, Okeh, Paramount, and Columbia demonstrated the New Orleans style of collective improvisation, also known as Dixieland, and brought it to a larger audience.  In the mid-1920s Oliver enlarged his band to nine musicians, performing under the name King Oliver and his Dixie Syncopators, and began using more written arrangements with jazz solos. In 1927 the band went to New York, but he disbanded it to do freelance jobs. In the later 1920s, he struggled with playing trumpet due to his gum disease, so he employed others to handle the solos, including his nephew Dave Nelson, Louis Metcalf, and Red Allen. He reunited the band in 1928, recording for Victor Talking Machine Company one year later. He continued with modest success until a downturn in the economy made it more difficult to find bookings. His periodontitis made playing the trumpet difficult. He quit playing music in 1937.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Work and influence.", "content": "As a player, Oliver took great interest in altering his horn's sound. He pioneered the use of mutes, including the rubber plumber's plunger, derby hat, bottles and cups. His favorite mute was a small metal mute made by the C.G. Conn Instrument Company, with which he played his famous solo on his composition the \"Dippermouth Blues\" (an early nickname for fellow cornetist Louis Armstrong). His recording \"Wa Wa Wa\" with the Dixie Syncopators can be credited with giving the name wah-wah to such techniques.  Oliver was also a talented composer, and wrote many tunes that are still regularly played, including \"Dippermouth Blues,\" \"Sweet Like This,\" \"Canal Street Blues,\" and \"Doctor Jazz.\"  Oliver performed mostly on cornet, but like many cornetists he switched to trumpet in the late 1920s. He credited jazz pioneer Buddy Bolden as an early influence, and in turn was a major influence on numerous younger cornet/trumpet players in New Orleans and Chicago, including Tommy Ladnier, Paul Mares, Muggsy Spanier, Johnny Wiggs, Frank Guarente and, the most famous of all, Armstrong. One of his protégés, Louis Panico (cornetist with the Isham Jones Orchestra), authored a book entitled \"The Novelty Cornetist\", which is illustrated with photos showing some of the mute techniques he learned from Oliver.  As mentor to Armstrong in New Orleans, Oliver taught young Louis and gave him his job in Kid Ory's band when he went to Chicago. A few years later Oliver summoned him to Chicago to play with his band. Louis remembered Oliver as \"Papa Joe\" and considered him his idol and inspiration. In his autobiography, \"Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans\", Armstrong wrote: \"It was my ambition to play as he did. I still think that if it had not been for Joe Oliver, Jazz would not be what it is today. He was a creator in his own right.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hardships in later years, decline and death.", "content": "Oliver's business acumen was often less than his musical ability. A succession of managers stole money from him, and he tried to negotiate more money for his band than the Savoy Ballroom was willing to pay – losing the job. He lost the chance of an important engagement at New York City's famous Cotton Club when he held out for more money; young Duke Ellington took the job and subsequently catapulted to fame.  The Great Depression brought hardship to Oliver. He lost his life savings to a collapsed bank in Chicago, and he struggled to keep his band together through a series of hand-to-mouth gigs until the group broke up.  Oliver also had health problems, such as pyorrhea, a gum disease that was partly caused by his love of sugar sandwiches and it made it very difficult for him to play and he soon began delegating solos to younger players, but by 1935, he could no longer play the trumpet at all. Oliver was stranded in Savannah, Georgia, where he pawned his trumpet and finest suits and briefly ran a fruit stall, then he worked as a janitor at Wimberly's Recreation Hall (526-528 West Broad Street).  Oliver died in poverty \"of arteriosclerosis, too broke to afford treatment\" in a Savannah rooming house on April 8 or 10, 1938. His sister spent her rent money to have his body brought to New York, where he was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx. Armstrong and other loyal musician friends were in attendance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors and awards.", "content": "Oliver was inducted as a charter member of the Gennett Records Walk of Fame in Richmond, Indiana in 2007.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Nathan \"King\" Oliver (December 19, 1881 – April 10, 1938) was an American jazz cornet player and bandleader. He was particularly recognized for his playing style and his pioneering use of mutes in jazz. Also a notable composer, he wrote many tunes still played today, including \"Dippermouth Blues\", \"Sweet Like This\", \"Canal Street Blues\", and \"Doctor Jazz\". He was the mentor and teacher of Louis Armstrong. His influence was such that Armstrong claimed, \"if it had not been for Joe Oliver, Jazz would not be what it is today.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971256}
{"src_title": "Canton of Jura", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The king of Burgundy donated much of the land that today makes up canton Jura to the bishop of Basel in 999. The area was a sovereign state within the Holy Roman Empire for more than 800 years. After the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 the Jura had close ties with the Swiss Confederation. At the Congress of Vienna (1815), the Jura region became part of the canton of Bern. This act caused dissension. The Jura was French-speaking and Roman Catholic, whereas the canton of Bern was mostly German-speaking and Protestant.  After World War II, a separatist movement campaigned for a secession of Jura from the canton of Bern. After a long and partly militant struggle, which included some arson attacks by a youth organisation \"Les Béliers\", a constitution was accepted in 1977. In 1978, the split was made official when the Swiss people voted in favour, and in 1979, the Jura joined the Swiss Confederation as a full member. The canton celebrated its independence from the canton of Bern on 23 June. However, the southern part of the region, which is also predominantly French-speaking but has a Protestant majority, opted not to join the newly formed canton, instead remaining part of the canton of Bern. Although this decision may be considered strange linguistically, the choice may have been influenced by the fact that the canton of Bern is financially richer and is at the heart of federal power in Switzerland. The area is now known as Bernese Jura. The word Jura, therefore, may refer either to canton Jura, or to the combined territory of canton Jura and the Bernese Jura. Switzerland as a whole often presents the latter from a touristic standpoint with documentation easily available in French or German. On creation, the canton adopted the title Republic and canton of the Jura. Other cantons in Switzerland using the title \"Republic and Canton\" are Ticino, the canton of Geneva, and the canton of Neuchâtel. In each case, the title refers to the autonomy of the canton and its nominal sovereignty within the Swiss Confederation.  Since 1994, the question of the Jura region has again been controversial. In 2004, a federal commission proposed that the French-speaking southern Jura be united with the canton of Jura, as the language question now seems to be more important than the denominational one. A possible solution would be to create two half-cantons, as reunification with the creation of only a single canton would mean a complete restructuring of the Jura's current political system, with the cantonal capital being transferred from Delémont to Moutier.  On 18 June 2017, the town of Moutier voted to quit Bern and join the canton of Jura. On 17 September 2017, the nearby municipalities of Belprahon and Sorvilier conversely voted to remain in the canton of Bern. The vote in Moutier has since been declared invalid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Canton Jura lies in the northwest of Switzerland. It consists of parts of the Jura mountains in the south and the Jura plateau in the north. The Jura plateau is hilly and almost entirely limestone. The districts of Ajoie and Franches-Montagnes lie in this region. The term \"Jurassic\" is derived from the Jura Alps, strata of which give the era its name.  To the north and the west of the canton lies France. The canton of Solothurn and Basel-Landschaft are to east of the canton, while the canton of Bern bounds the Jura to the south. The rivers Doubs and the Birs drain the lands. The Doubs joins the Saône and then the Rhône, whereas the Birs is a tributary to the Rhine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political subdivisions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Districts.", "content": "Jura is divided into 3 districts:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Municipalities.", "content": "There are 64 municipalities in the canton ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "The population is almost entirely French-speaking. Just one municipality is German-speaking: Ederswiler. The majority of the population is Roman Catholic (75% ) with a small Protestant minority (13%). The population of the canton (as of ) is., the population included 8,195 foreigners, or about 11.8% of the total population.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historic population.", "content": "The historical population is given in the following chart:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Agriculture is important in canton Jura. Cattle breeding is significant, but there is also horse breeding (the Franches-Montagnes is the last Swiss horse race). The main industries are watches, textiles and tobacco. There is a growing number of small and medium-sized businesses. In 2001, there were 3,578 people who worked in the primary economic sector. 14,109 people were employed in the secondary sector and 16,513 people were employed in the tertiary sector.  In 2001, the canton produced 0.9% of the entire Swiss national income while it had 0.9% of the total population. In 2005, the average share of the national income per resident of the canton was 38,070 CHF, while the national average was 54,031 CHF, or about 70% of the national income per person. Between 2003 and 2005, the average income grew at a rate of 6.4%, which was larger than the national rate of 5.3%. The average taxes in the canton are higher than in most cantons, in 2006, the tax index in the canton was 126.6 (Swiss average is 100.0). In 2006, the canton had the highest final tax rate on high wage earners (15.26% on a married couple with two children earning 150,000 CHF vs 11.6% nationally), though the tax rate was in the middle for lower-income families.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The eau de vie Damassine is one typical produce of the Ajoie area. (see Terroir Jura and", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Republic and Canton of the Jura (), also known as the canton of Jura or canton Jura (, ), is the newest (founded in 1979) of the 26 Swiss cantons, located in the northwestern part of Switzerland. The capital is Delémont. It shares borders with the canton of Basel-Landschaft, the canton of Bern, the canton of Neuchatel, the canton of Solothurn, and the French régions of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté and Grand Est.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971257}
{"src_title": "Jurassic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"Jura\" is derived from the Celtic root \"*jor\" via Gaulish \"*iuris\" \"wooded mountain\", which, borrowed into Latin as a place name, evolved into \"Juria\" and finally \"Jura\".  The chronostratigraphic term \"Jurassic\" is directly linked to the Jura Mountains, a mountain range mainly following the course of the France–Switzerland border. During a tour of the region in 1795, Alexander von Humboldt recognized the mainly limestone dominated mountain range of the Jura Mountains as a separate formation that had not been included in the established stratigraphic system defined by Abraham Gottlob Werner, and he named it \"Jura-Kalkstein\" ('Jura limestone') in 1799.  Thirty years later, in 1829, the French naturalist Alexandre Brongniart published a survey on the different terrains that constitute the crust of the Earth. In this book, Brongniart referred to the terrains of the Jura Mountains as \"terrains jurassiques\", thus coining and publishing the term for the first time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Divisions.", "content": "The Jurassic period is divided into three epochs: Early, Middle, and Late. Similarly, in stratigraphy, the Jurassic is divided into the Lower Jurassic, Middle Jurassic, and Upper Jurassic series of rock formations, also known as \"Lias\", \"Dogger\" and \"Malm\" in Europe. The separation of the term Jurassic into three sections originated with Leopold von Buch. The faunal stages from youngest to oldest are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paleogeography and tectonics.", "content": "During the early Jurassic period, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up into the northern supercontinent Laurasia and the southern supercontinent Gondwana; the Gulf of Mexico opened in the new rift between North America and what is now Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula. The Jurassic North Atlantic Ocean was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous period, when Gondwana itself rifted apart. The Tethys Sea closed, and the Neotethys basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of a glacier having appeared. As in the Triassic, there was apparently no land over either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed.  The Jurassic geological record is good in western Europe, where extensive marine sequences indicate a time when much of that future landmass was submerged under shallow tropical seas; famous locales include the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site in southern England and the renowned late Jurassic \"lagerstätten\" of Holzmaden and Solnhofen in Germany. In contrast, the North American Jurassic record is the poorest of the Mesozoic, with few outcrops at the surface. Though the epicontinental Sundance Sea left marine deposits in parts of the northern plains of the United States and Canada during the late Jurassic, most exposed sediments from this period are continental, such as the alluvial deposits of the Morrison Formation.  The Jurassic was a time of calcite sea geochemistry in which low-magnesium calcite was the primary inorganic marine precipitate of calcium carbonate. Carbonate hardgrounds were thus very common, along with calcitic ooids, calcitic cements, and invertebrate faunas with dominantly calcitic skeletons.  The first of several massive batholiths were emplaced in the northern American cordillera beginning in the mid-Jurassic, marking the Nevadan orogeny. Important Jurassic exposures are also found in Russia, India, South America, Japan, Australasia and the United Kingdom.  In Africa, Early Jurassic strata are distributed in a similar fashion to Late Triassic beds, with more common outcrops in the south and less common fossil beds which are predominated by tracks to the north. As the Jurassic proceeded, larger and more iconic groups of dinosaurs like sauropods and ornithopods proliferated in Africa. Middle Jurassic strata are neither well represented nor well studied in Africa. Late Jurassic strata are also poorly represented apart from the spectacular Tendaguru fauna in Tanzania. The Late Jurassic life of Tendaguru is very similar to that found in western North America's Morrison Formation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fauna.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aquatic and marine.", "content": "During the Jurassic period, the primary vertebrates living in the sea were fish and marine reptiles. The latter include ichthyosaurs, which were at the peak of their diversity, plesiosaurs, pliosaurs, and marine crocodiles of the families Teleosauridae and Metriorhynchidae. Numerous turtles could be found in lakes and rivers.  In the invertebrate world, several new groups appeared, including rudists (a reef-forming variety of bivalves) and belemnites. Calcareous sabellids (\"Glomerula\") appeared in the Early Jurassic. The Jurassic also had diverse encrusting and boring (sclerobiont) communities, and it saw a significant rise in the bioerosion of carbonate shells and hardgrounds. Especially common is the ichnogenus (trace fossil) \"Gastrochaenolites\".  During the Jurassic period, about four or five of the twelve clades of planktonic organisms that exist in the fossil record either experienced a massive evolutionary radiation or appeared for the first time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Terrestrial.", "content": "On land, various archosaurian reptiles remained dominant. The Jurassic was a golden age for the large herbivorous dinosaurs known as the sauropods—\"Camarasaurus\", \"Apatosaurus\", \"Diplodocus\", \"Brachiosaurus\", and many others—that roamed the land late in the period; their foraging grounds were either the prairies of ferns, palm-like cycads and bennettitales, or the higher coniferous growth, according to their adaptations. The smaller Ornithischian herbivore dinosaurs, like stegosaurs and small ornithopods were less predominant, but played important roles. They were preyed upon by large theropods, such as \"Ceratosaurus\", \"Megalosaurus\", \"Torvosaurus\" and \"Allosaurus\", all these belong to the 'lizard hipped' or saurischian branch of the dinosaurs.  During the Late Jurassic, the first avialans, like \"Archaeopteryx\", evolved from small coelurosaurian dinosaurs. In the air, pterosaurs were common; they ruled the skies, filling many ecological roles now taken by birds, and may have already produced some of the largest flying animals of all time. Within the undergrowth were various types of early mammals, as well as tritylodonts, lizard-like sphenodonts, and early lissamphibians. The rest of the Lissamphibia evolved in this period, introducing the first salamanders and caecilians.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flora.", "content": "The arid, continental conditions characteristic of the Triassic steadily eased during the Jurassic period, especially at higher latitudes; the warm, humid climate allowed lush jungles to cover much of the landscape. Gymnosperms were relatively diverse during the Jurassic period. The Conifers in particular dominated the flora, as during the Triassic; they were the most diverse group and constituted the majority of large trees.  Extant conifer families that flourished during the Jurassic included the Araucariaceae, Cephalotaxaceae, Pinaceae, Podocarpaceae, Taxaceae and Taxodiaceae. The extinct Mesozoic conifer family Cheirolepidiaceae dominated low latitude vegetation, as did the shrubby Bennettitales. Cycads, similar to palm trees, were also common, as were ginkgos and Dicksoniaceous tree ferns in the forest. Smaller ferns were probably the dominant undergrowth. Caytoniaceous seed ferns were another group of important plants during this time and are thought to have been shrub to small-tree sized. Ginkgo plants were particularly common in the mid- to high northern latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere, podocarps were especially successful, while Ginkgos and Czekanowskiales were rare.  In the oceans, modern coralline algae appeared for the first time. However, they were a part of another major extinction that happened within the next major time period.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Since the early 1990s, the term \"Jurassic\" has been popularised by the \"Jurassic Park\" franchise, which started in 1990 with Michael Crichton's novel of the same title and its film adaptation, first released in 1993.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Jurassic ( ; from the Jura Mountains) is a geologic period and system that spanned 56 million years from the end of the Triassic Period million years ago (Mya) to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period Mya. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic Era, also known as the Age of Reptiles. The start of the period was marked by the major Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. Two other extinction events occurred during the period: the Pliensbachian-Toarcian extinction in the Early Jurassic, and the Tithonian event at the end; neither event ranks among the \"Big Five\" mass extinctions, however.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971258}
{"src_title": "House of Ascania", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest known member of the house, Esiko, Count of Ballenstedt, first appears in a document of 1036. He is assumed to have been a grandson (through his mother) of Odo I, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark. From Odo, the Ascanians inherited large properties in the Saxon Eastern March.  Esiko's grandson was Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, who died in 1123. By Otto's marriage to Eilika, daughter of Magnus, Duke of Saxony, the Ascanians became heirs to half of the property of the House of Billung, former dukes of Saxony.  Otto's son, Albert the Bear, became, with the help of his mother's inheritance, the first Ascanian duke of Saxony in 1139. However, he soon lost control of Saxony to the rival House of Guelph.  Albert inherited the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157 from its last Wendish ruler, Pribislav, and he became the first Ascanian margrave. Albert, and his descendants of the House of Ascania, then made considerable progress in Christianizing and Germanizing the lands. As a borderland between German and Slavic cultures, the country was known as a march.  In 1237 and 1244, two towns, Cölln and Berlin, were founded during the rule of Otto and Johann, grandsons of Margrave Albert the Bear. Later, they were united into one city, Berlin. The emblem of the House of Ascania, a red eagle and bear, became the heraldic emblems of Berlin. In 1320, the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end.  After the Emperor had deposed the Guelph rulers of Saxony in 1180, Ascanians returned to rule the Duchy of Saxony, which had been reduced to its eastern half by the Emperor. However, even in eastern Saxony, the Ascanians could establish control only in limited areas, mostly near the River Elbe.  In the 13th century, the Principality of Anhalt was split off from the Duchy of Saxony. Later, the remaining state was split into Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg. The Ascanian dynasties in the two Saxon states became extinct in 1689 and in 1422, respectively, but Ascanians continued to rule in the smaller state of Anhalt and its various subdivisions until the monarchy was abolished in 1918.  Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia from 1762–1796, was a member of the House of Ascania, herself the daughter of Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The House of Ascania () is a dynasty of German rulers. It is also known as the House of Anhalt, which refers to its longest-held possession, Anhalt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971259}
{"src_title": "Organic acid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "In general, organic acids are weak acids and do not dissociate completely in water, whereas the strong mineral acids do. Lower molecular mass organic acids such as formic and lactic acids are miscible in water, but higher molecular mass organic acids, such as benzoic acid, are insoluble in molecular (neutral) form.  On the other hand, most organic acids are very soluble in organic solvents. \"p\"-Toluenesulfonic acid is a comparatively strong acid used in organic chemistry often because it is able to dissolve in the organic reaction solvent.  Exceptions to these solubility characteristics exist in the presence of other substituents that affect the polarity of the compound.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Simple organic acids like formic or acetic acids are used for oil and gas well stimulation treatments. These organic acids are much less reactive with metals than are strong mineral acids like hydrochloric acid (HCl) or mixtures of HCl and hydrofluoric acid (HF). For this reason, organic acids are used at high temperatures or when long contact times between acid and pipe are needed.  The conjugate bases of organic acids such as citrate and lactate are often used in biologically-compatible buffer solutions.  Citric and oxalic acids are used as rust removal. As acids, they can dissolve the iron oxides, but without damaging the base metal as do stronger mineral acids. In the dissociated form, they may be able to chelate the metal ions, helping to speed removal.  Biological systems create many more complex organic acids such as -lactic, citric, and -glucuronic acids that contain hydroxyl or carboxyl groups. Human blood and urine contain these plus organic acid degradation products of amino acids, neurotransmitters, and intestinal bacterial action on food components. Examples of these categories are alpha-ketoisocaproic, vanilmandelic, and -lactic acids, derived from catabolism of -leucine and epinephrine (adrenaline) by human tissues and catabolism of dietary carbohydrate by intestinal bacteria, respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application in food.", "content": "Organic acids are used in food preservation because of their effects on bacteria. The key basic principle on the mode of action of organic acids on bacteria is that non-dissociated (non-ionized) organic acids can penetrate the bacteria cell wall and disrupt the normal physiology of certain types of bacteria that we call \"pH-sensitive\", meaning that they cannot tolerate a wide internal and external pH gradient. Among those bacteria are \"Escherichia coli\", \"Salmonella\" spp., \"C. perfringens\", \"Listeria monocytogenes\", and \"Campylobacter\" species.  Upon passive diffusion of organic acids into the bacteria, where the pH is near or above neutrality, the acids will dissociate and lower the bacteria internal pH, leading to situations that will impair or stop the growth of bacteria. On the other hand, the anionic part of the organic acids that cannot escape the bacteria in its dissociated form will accumulate within the bacteria and disrupt many metabolic functions, leading to osmotic pressure increase, incompatible with the survival of the bacteria.  It has been well demonstrated that the state of the organic acids (undissociated or dissociated) is extremely important to define their capacity to inhibit the growth of bacteria, compared to undissociated acids.  Lactic acid and its salts sodium lactate and potassium lactate are widely used as antimicrobials in food products, in particular, meat and poultry such as ham and sausages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application in nutrition and animal feeds.", "content": "Organic acids have been used successfully in pig production for more than 25 years. Although less research has been done in poultry, organic acids have also been found to be effective in poultry production.  Organic acids (C–C) are widely distributed in nature as normal constituents of plants or animal tissues. They are also formed through microbial fermentation of carbohydrates mainly in the large intestine. They are sometimes found in their sodium, potassium, or calcium salts, or even stronger double salts.  Organic acids added to feeds should be protected to avoid their dissociation in the crop and in the intestine (high pH segments) and reach far into the gastrointestinal tract, where the bulk of the bacteria population is located.  From the use of organic acids in poultry and pigs, one can expect an improvement in performance similar to or better than that of antibiotic growth promoters, without the public health concern, a preventive effect on the intestinal problems like necrotic enteritis in chickens and \"Escherichia coli\" infection in young pigs. Also one can expect a reduction of the carrier state for \"Salmonella\" species and \"Campylobacter\" species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An organic acid is an organic compound with acidic properties. The most common organic acids are the carboxylic acids, whose acidity is associated with their carboxyl group –COOH. Sulfonic acids, containing the group –SOOH, are relatively stronger acids. Alcohols, with –OH, can act as acids but they are usually very weak. The relative stability of the conjugate base of the acid determines its acidity. Other groups can also confer acidity, usually weakly: the thiol group –SH, the enol group, and the phenol group. In biological systems, organic compounds containing these groups are generally referred to as organic acids.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971260}
{"src_title": "Franz von Suppé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and education.", "content": "Franz von Suppé's parents named him Francesco Ezechiele Ermenegildo when he was born on 18 April 1819 in Spalato, now Split, Dalmatia, Austrian Empire. His father was a civil servant in the service of the Austrian Empire, as was his father before him; Suppé's mother was Viennese by birth. He simplified and Germanized his name when in Vienna, and changed \"de\" to \"von\". Outside Germanic circles, his name may appear on programmes as Francesco Suppé-Demelli.  He spent his childhood in Zara, now Zadar, where he had his first music lessons and began to compose at an early age. As a boy he had encouragement in music from a local bandmaster and by the Zara cathedral choirmaster. His \"Missa dalmatica\" dates from this early period. As a teenager in Zara, Suppé studied flute and harmony. His first extant composition is a Roman Catholic mass, which premiered at a Franciscan church in Zara in 1835.  From 1840 on he worked as a composer and conductor for Franz Pokorny, the director of several theaters in Vienna, Pressburg, Ödenburg and Baden bei Wien. In Vienna, after studying with Ignaz von Seyfried and Simon Sechter, he conducted in the theatre, without pay at first, but with the opportunity to present his own operas there. Eventually, Suppé wrote music for over a hundred productions at the Theater in der Josefstadt as well as the Carltheater in Leopoldstadt, at the Theater an der Wien. He also put on some landmark opera productions, such as the 1846 production of Meyerbeer's \"Les Huguenots\" with Jenny Lind. Franz von Suppé died in Vienna on 21 May 1895 and is buried in the Zentralfriedhof.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Suppé composed about 30 operettas and 180 farces, ballets, and other stage works. Although the bulk of his operettas have sunk into relative obscurity, the overtures – particularly \"Dichter und Bauer\" (\"Poet and Peasant\", 1846) and \"Leichte Kavallerie\" (\"Light Cavalry\", 1866) – remain popular, many of them having been used in soundtracks for films, cartoons, advertisements, and so on, in addition to being frequently played at symphonic \"pops\" concerts. Some of the operettas are still regularly performed, notably \"Boccaccio\", \"Die schöne Galathée\" and \"Fatinitza\"; while Peter Branscombe, writing in \"The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,\" characterizes Suppé's song \"\" as \"Austria's second national song\".  Suppé retained links with his native Dalmatia, occasionally visiting Split (Spalato), Zadar (Zara), and Šibenik. Some of his works are linked with the region, in particular his operetta \"Des Matrosen Heimkehr\", the action of which takes place in Hvar. After retiring from conducting, Suppé continued to write stage work, but increasingly shifted his interest to sacred music. He wrote a Requiem for theatre director Franz Pokorny (now very rarely heard); it was first performed on 22 November 1855, during Pokorny's memorial service; an oratorio, \"Extremum Judicum\"; three masses, among them the \"Missa Dalmatica\"; songs; symphonies; and concert overtures.  Two of Suppé's more ambitious operettas – \"Boccaccio\" and \"Donna Juanita\" – have been performed at the Metropolitan Opera in New York, but they failed to become repertoire works in the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Posthumous use.", "content": "The descriptive nature of Suppé's overtures has earned them frequent use in numerous animated cartoons:  \"Ein Morgen, ein Mittag, ein Abend in Wien\" (\"Morning, Noon, and Night in Vienna\") was the central subject of the 1959 Bugs Bunny cartoon \"Baton Bunny\". \"Poet and Peasant\" appears in the Fleischer Studios 1935 \"Popeye\" cartoon \"The Spinach Overture\" and the Oscar nominated Walter Lantz film of the same title; the overture to \"Light Cavalry\" is used in Disney's 1942 Mickey Mouse cartoon \"Symphony Hour\".  The start of the cello solo (about one minute in) of the \"Poet and Peasant\" overture is nearly an exact match to the start of the folk song \"I've Been Working on the Railroad\", which was published in 1894. Turner Classic Movies runs a 1955 Cinemascope short of the MGM Symphony Orchestra turning in a vigorous performance of the overture.  The Light Cavalry Overture was covered in electronic form by Gordon Langford on his 1974 album \"The Amazing Music of the Electronic Arp Synthesiser\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List of works.", "content": "Some of Suppé's more well-known works are listed here with date of first performance. All are operettas unless indicated:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz von Suppé (né Francesco Ezechiele Ermenegildo Suppé Demelli) (18 April 181921 May 1895) was an Austrian composer of light operas and other theatre music. He came from the Kingdom of Dalmatia, Austro-Hungarian Empire (now part of Croatia). A composer and conductor of the Romantic period, he is notable for his four dozen operettas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971261}
{"src_title": "Polycarp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Surviving writings and early accounts.", "content": "The sole surviving work attributed to him is the \"Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians\", a mosaic of references to the Greek Scriptures, which, along with an account of \"The Martyrdom of Polycarp\", forms part of the collection of writings Roman Catholics and some Protestants term \"The Apostolic Fathers.\" After the Acts of the Apostles, which describes the death of Stephen, the \"Martyrdom\" is considered one of the earliest genuine accounts of a Christian martyrdom. Charles E. Hill argues extensively that the teachings Irenaeus ascribes to a certain apostolic \"presbyter\" throughout his writings represent lost teachings of Polycarp, his teacher.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "The chief sources of information concerning the life of Polycarp are \"The Martyrdom of Polycarp\", \"Adversus Haereses\", \"The Epistle to Florinus\", the epistles of Ignatius, and Polycarp's own letter to the Philippians. In 1999, the Harris Fragments, a collection of 3rd- to 6th-century Coptic texts that mention Polycarp, were published.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Papias.", "content": "According to Irenaeus, Polycarp was a companion of Papias, another \"hearer of John\" as Irenaeus interprets Papias' testimony, and a correspondent of Ignatius of Antioch. Ignatius addressed a letter to him and mentions him in his letters to the Ephesians and to the Magnesians.  Irenaeus regarded the memory of Polycarp as a link to the apostolic past. In his letter to Florinus, a fellow student of Polycarp who had become a Roman presbyter and later lapsed into heresy, Irenaeus relates how and when he became a Christian: I could tell you the place where the blessed Polycarp sat to preach the Word of God. It is yet present to my mind with what gravity he everywhere came in and went out; what was the sanctity of his deportment, the majesty of his countenance; and what were his holy exhortations to the people. I seem to hear him now relate how he conversed with John and many others who had seen Jesus Christ, the words he had heard from their mouths. In particular, he heard the account of Polycarp's discussion with John the Presbyter and with others who had seen Jesus. Irenaeus reports that Polycarp was converted to Christianity by apostles, was consecrated a bishop, and communicated with many who had seen Jesus. He writes that he had had the good fortune, when young, to know Polycarp, who was then far advanced in years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Visit to Anicetus.", "content": "According to Irenaeus, during the time his fellow Syrian Anicetus was Bishop of Rome, Polycarp visited Rome to discuss differences in the practices of the churches of Asia and Rome. Irenaeus states that on certain things the two bishops speedily came to an understanding, while as to the observance of Easter, each adhered to his own custom, without breaking off full communion with the other. Polycarp followed the Eastern practice of celebrating the feast on the 14th of Nisan, the day of the Jewish Passover, regardless of the day of the week on which it fell, while Anicetus followed the Western practice of celebrating the feast on the first Sunday following the first full moon after the spring equinox. Anicetus allowed Polycarp to celebrate the Eucharist in his own church, which was regarded by the Romans as a great honor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Date of martyrdom.", "content": "In the \"Martyrdom\", Polycarp is recorded as saying on the day of his death: \"Eighty and six years I have served Him, and He has done me no wrong.\" This could indicate either that he was then eighty-six years old or that he had lived eighty-six years after his conversion. Polycarp goes on to say: \"How then can I blaspheme my King and Savior? You threaten me with a fire that burns for a season, and after a little while is quenched; but you are ignorant of the fire of everlasting punishment that is prepared for the wicked.\" Polycarp was burned at the stake and pierced with a spear for refusing to burn incense to the Roman Emperor. On his farewell, he said: \"I bless you, Father, for judging me worthy of this hour, so that in the company of the martyrs I may share the cup of Christ.\"  The date of Polycarp's death is in dispute. Eusebius dates it to the reign of Marcus Aurelius, c. 166–167. However, a post-Eusebian addition to the \"Martyrdom of Polycarp\", the authenticity of which has not been established, dates his death to Saturday, February 23, in the proconsulship of Lucius Statius Quadratus, c. 155 or 156. These earlier dates better fit the tradition of his association with Ignatius and John the Evangelist.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Great Sabbath.", "content": "Because the Smyrnaean letter known as the \"Martyrdom of Polycarp\" states that Polycarp was taken \"on the day of the Sabbath\" and killed on \"the Great Sabbath,\" William Cave believed that this was evidence that the Smyrnaeans under Polycarp observed the seventh-day Sabbath:  Some believe that the expression \"the Great Sabbath\" refers to the Christian Passover or another annual Jewish holy day. If so, then Polycarp's martyrdom would have had to occur at least a month after the traditional February 23 dating, since according to the Hebrew calendar, the earliest Nisan 14, the date of the Passover, can fall on in any given year is late March. Other \"Great Sabbaths\" fall in the spring, late summer, and the fall; none occur in winter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Importance.", "content": "Polycarp occupies an important place in the history of the early Christian Church. He is among the earliest Christians whose writings survived. Jerome wrote that Polycarp was a \"disciple of the apostle John and by him ordained bishop of Smyrna\". He was an elder of an important congregation that was a large contributor to the founding of the Christian Church. He is from an era whose orthodoxy is widely accepted by Eastern Orthodox Churches, Oriental Orthodox Churches, Church of God groups, Sabbatarian groups, mainstream Protestants and Catholics alike. According to David Trobisch, Polycarp may have been the one who compiled, edited, and published the New Testament.  According to Eusebius, Polycrates of Ephesus cited the example of Polycarp in defense of local practices during the quartodeciman controversy.  Irenaeus, who as a young man had heard Polycarp preach, described him as \"a man who was of much greater weight, and a more steadfast witness of truth, than Valentinus, and Marcion, and the rest of the heretics\". Polycarp lived in an age after the deaths of the apostles, when a variety of interpretations of the sayings of Jesus were being preached. His role was to authenticate orthodox teachings through his reputed connection with the apostle John: \"a high value was attached to the witness Polycarp could give as to the genuine tradition of old apostolic doctrine\" \"his testimony condemning as offensive novelties the figments of the heretical teachers\". Irenaeus states (iii. 3) that on Polycarp's visit to Rome, his testimony converted many disciples of Marcion and Valentinus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relics.", "content": "In the church Sant' Ambrogio della Massima in Rome, Italy, there are guarded relics of Polycarp.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Polycarp (;, \"Polýkarpos\"; ; AD 69 155) was a Christian bishop of Smyrna. According to the \"Martyrdom of Polycarp\", he died a martyr, bound and burned at the stake, then stabbed when the fire failed to consume his body. Polycarp is regarded as a saint and Church Father in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches. His name means \"much fruit\" in Greek. Both Irenaeus and Tertullian record that Polycarp had been a disciple of John the Apostle. In \"Illustrious Men\".17, Jerome writes that Polycarp was a disciple of John and that John had ordained him bishop of Smyrna. Polycarp is regarded as one of three chief Apostolic Fathers, along with Clement of Rome and Ignatius of Antioch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971262}
{"src_title": "Jura Mountains", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Physiography.", "content": "The Jura Mountains are a distinct province of the larger Central European uplands.  In France, the Jura covers most of the Franche-Comté region, stretching south into the Rhône-Alpes region. The range reaches its highest point at Le Crêt de la Neige in the department of Ain and finds its southern terminus in the northwestern part of the department of Savoie. The north end of the Jura extends into the southern tip of the Alsace region. Roughly of the mountain range in France is protected by the Jura Mountains Regional Natural Park.  The Swiss Jura is one of the three distinct geographical regions of Switzerland, the others being the Swiss plateau and the Swiss Alps. In Switzerland, the range covers the western border with France in the cantons of Basel-Landschaft, Solothurn, Jura, Bern (i.e., Bernese Jura), Neuchâtel and Vaud. Much of the Swiss Jura region has no historical association with Early Modern Switzerland and was incorporated as part of the Swiss Confederacy only in the 19th century. In the 20th century, a movement of Jurassic separatism developed which resulted in the creation of the canton of Jura in 1979.  The Swiss Jura has been industrialized since the 18th century and became a major centre of the watchmaking industry. The area has several cities at very high altitudes, such as La Chaux-de-Fonds, Le Locle, and Sainte-Croix (renowned for its musical boxes); however, it generally has had a marked decline in population since 1960.  The Jura range proper (known as \"folded Jura\", \"Faltenjura\") is continued as the Table Jura in the cantons of Basel-Landschaft and Aargau, and further to Schaffhausen and into southern Germany towards the Swabian and Franconian plateaus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "The range is built up vertically while decreasing in size laterally (along a rough northwest–southeast line). This deformation accommodates the compression from alpine folding as the main Alpine orogenic front moves roughly northwards. The deformation becomes less pervasive away from the younger, more active Alpine mountain building.  The geologic folds comprise three major bands (lithological units) of building that date from three epochs: the Lias (Early Jurassic), the Dogger (Middle Jurassic) and the Malm (Late Jurassic) geologic periods. Each era of folding reveals effects of previously shallow marine environments as evidenced by beds with carbonate sequences, containing abundant bioclasts and oolitic divisions between layers (called horizons).  Structurally, the Jura consists of a sequence of geologic folds, the formation of which is facilitated by an evaporitic decollement layer. The box folds are still relatively young, which is evident by the general shape of the landscape showing that they have not existed long enough to experience erosion, thus revealing recent mountain building.  The highest peak in the Jura range is Le Crêt de la Neige at.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The Jura range offer a variety of tourist activities including hiking, cycling, downhill skiing and cross-country skiing. There are many signposted trails including the Jura ridgeway, a hiking route.  Tourist attractions include natural features such as the Creux du Van, lookout peaks such as the Chasseral, caves such as the Grottes de l'Orbe, and gorges such as Taubenloch.  Both Le Locle and its geographical twin town La Chaux-de-Fonds are recognised as an UNESCO World Heritage Site for their horological and related cultural past. The 11th-century Fort de Joux, famously remodeled and strengthened by Vauban in 1690 and subsequently by other military engineers, is situated on a natural rock outcropping in the middle of the range not far from Pontarlier.  Part of the A40 autoroute crosses through a portion of the southern Jura between Bourg-en-Bresse and Bellegarde-sur-Valserine, which is known as the \"Highway of the Titans\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Jura Mountains (,,, ; ; ; ) are a sub-alpine mountain range located north of the Western Alps, mainly following the course of the France–Switzerland border. The Jura separates the Rhine and Rhône basins, forming part of the watershed of each.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971263}
{"src_title": "Flood myth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mythologies.", "content": "Although the story of Noah in the Hebrew Bible is the most well-known flood myth in Western culture, in the 19th century, Assyriologist George Smith first translated a Babylonian account of a great flood. Further discoveries produced several versions of the Mesopotamian flood myth, with the account closest to that in Genesis being found in a 700 BC Babylonian copy of the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\". Many scholars believe that this was probably copied from the Akkadian \"Atra-Hasis\", which dates to the 18th century BC. In the Gilgamesh flood myth, the highest god Enlil decides to destroy the world with a flood because humans have become too noisy. The god Ea, who created humans out of clay and divine blood, secretly warns the hero Utnapishtim of the impending flood and gives him detailed instructions for building a boat so that life may survive. Another Mesopotamian flood myth is the 17th century BC Sumerian creation myth.  In the Book of Genesis (c. 6th century BC) the god Yahweh, who created man out of the dust of the ground, decides to flood the earth because of the sinful state of mankind. It is also Yahweh who then gives the protagonist Noah instructions to build an ark in order to preserve human and animal life. When the ark is completed, Noah, his family, and representatives of all the animals of the earth are called upon to enter the ark. When the destructive flood begins, all life outside of the ark perishes. After the waters recede, all those aboard the ark disembark and have Yahweh's promise that he will never judge the earth with a flood again. He causes a rainbow to form as the sign of this promise.  In Hindu mythology, texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana (dated to around the 6th century BC) and the Puranas contain the story of a great flood, \"Pralaya\", wherein the Matsya Avatar of the Vishnu warns the first man, Manu, of the impending flood, and also advises him to build a giant boat. In Zoroastrian Mazdaism, Ahriman tries to destroy the world with a drought, which Mithra ends by shooting an arrow into a rock, from which a flood springs; one man survives in an ark with his cattle.  In Plato's \"Timaeus\", written c. 360 BC, Timaeus describes a flood myth similar to the earlier versions. In it, the Bronze race of humans angers the high god Zeus with their constant warring. Zeus decides to punish humanity with a flood. The Titan Prometheus, who had created humans from clay, tells the secret plan to Deucalion, advising him to build an ark in order to be saved. After nine nights and days, the water starts receding and the ark lands on a mountain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historicity.", "content": "A worldwide deluge, such as the one described in Genesis, is incompatible with modern scientific understanding of natural history, especially geology and paleontology. In an early example of ichnology, Leonardo da Vinci explains in his notebooks that the fossils of marine shells would have been scattered in such a deluge, and not gathered in groups, which were evidently left at various times on mountains in Lombardy; he also doubts that so much water could have evaporated away from the Earth. Excavations in Iraq have revealed evidence of localized flooding at Shuruppak (modern Tell Fara, Iraq) and various other Sumerian cities. A layer of riverine sediments, radiocarbon dated to about 2900 BC, interrupts the continuity of settlement, extending as far north as the city of Kish, which took over hegemony after the flood. Polychrome pottery from the Jemdet Nasr period (3000–2900 BC) was discovered immediately below the Shuruppak flood stratum. Other sites, such as Ur, Kish, Uruk, Lagash, and Ninevah, all present evidence of flooding. However, this evidence comes from different time periods. The Shuruppak flood seems to have been a localised event caused through the damming of the Karun River through the spread of dunes, flooding into the Tigris, and simultaneous heavy rainfall in the Nineveh region, spilling across into the Euphrates. In Israel, there is no such evidence of a widespread flood. Given the similarities in the Mesopotamian flood story and the Biblical account, it would seem that they have a common origin in the memories of the Shuruppak account. The Sumerian King List reads:  Floods in the wake of the last glacial period may have inspired myths that survive to this day. It has been postulated that the deluge myth in North America may be based on a sudden rise in sea levels caused by the rapid draining of prehistoric Lake Agassiz at the end of the last Ice Age, about 8,400 years ago.  The geography of the Mesopotamian area was considerably changed by the filling of the Persian Gulf after sea waters rose following the last glacial period. Global sea levels were about lower around 18,000 BP and rose until 8,000 BP when they reached current levels, which are now an average above the floor of the Gulf, which was a huge () low-lying and fertile region in Mesopotamia, in which human habitation is thought to have been strong around the Gulf Oasis for 100,000 years. A sudden increase in settlements above the present water level is recorded at around 7,500 BP.  Adrienne Mayor promoted the hypothesis that global flood stories were inspired by ancient observations of seashells and fish fossils in inland and mountain areas. The ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Romans all documented the discovery of such remains in these locations; the Greeks hypothesized that Earth had been covered by water on several occasions, citing the seashells and fish fossils found on mountain tops as evidence of this history.  Another hypothesis is that a meteor or comet crashed into the Indian Ocean around 3000–2800 BC, created the undersea Burckle Crater, and generated a giant tsunami that flooded coastal lands. Some of the largest tsunamis in history, resulting from the Chicxulub impact, 66 million years ago, were thought to have affected roughly the entire Americas (or nearly all of the Western Hemisphere).  In the late 17th century, there were speculations accounting for the Genesis flood by natural causes. Thomas Burnet’s \"Telluris Theoria Sacra\" (Sacred Theory of the Earth) had water rising from the hollow earth. William Whiston's \"A New Theory of the Earth\" postulated that major changes in the earth’s history could be attributed to the action of comets.  Speculation regarding the Deucalion myth has also been introduced, whereby a large tsunami in the Mediterranean Sea, caused by the Thera eruption (with an approximate geological date of 1630–1600 BC), is the myth's historical basis. Although the tsunami hit the South Aegean Sea and Crete, it did not affect cities in the mainland of Greece, such as Mycenae, Athens, and Thebes, which continued to prosper, indicating that it had a local rather than a regionwide effect.  Hanns Hörbiger, in his book \"Welteislehre\", which was published in 1912, was of the opinion that the great flood was caused by a moon falling to earth. This moon was afterwards replaced by another moon.  A controversial hypothesis of long-term flooding is the Black Sea deluge hypothesis, which argues for a catastrophic deluge about 5600 BC from the Mediterranean Sea into the Black Sea. This has been the subject of considerable discussion. The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis is another proposed natural explanation for flood myths, but this idea is similarly controversial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Footnotes Citations", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A flood myth or deluge myth is a myth in which a great flood, usually sent by a deity or deities, destroys civilization, often in an act of divine retribution. Parallels are often drawn between the flood waters of these myths and the primaeval waters which appear in certain creation myths, as the flood waters are described as a measure for the cleansing of humanity, in preparation for rebirth. Most flood myths also contain a culture hero, who \"represents the human craving for life\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971264}
{"src_title": "Sauerkraut", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview and history.", "content": "Fermented foods have a long history in many cultures, with sauerkraut being one of the most well-known instances of traditional fermented moist cabbage side dishes. The Roman writers Cato (in his \"De Agri Cultura\") and Columella (in his \"De re Rustica\") mentioned preserving cabbages and turnips with salt.  Although \"sauerkraut\" is a German word, the dish did not originate in Germany. Some claim that the Mongol Emperor Genghis Khan brought it to Europe. Others claim that it originally came from China and surrounding areas and that the Tatars brought it to Europe, and altered the original Chinese recipe by fermenting it with salt instead of rice wine. It took root mostly in Central and Eastern European cuisines, but also in other countries including the Netherlands, where it is known as \"zuurkool\", and France, where the name became \"choucroute\". The English name is borrowed from German where it means literally \"sour herb\" or \"sour cabbage\". The names in Slavic and other Central and Eastern European languages have similar meanings with the German word: \"fermented cabbage\" (,,,,,,, ) or \"sour cabbage\" (,,,,,,,,,,,,, \"kisla kapusta\").  Before frozen foods, refrigeration, and cheap transport from warmer areas became readily available in northern, central and eastern Europe, sauerkraut – like other preserved foods – provided a source of nutrients during the winter. Captain James Cook always took a store of sauerkraut on his sea voyages, since experience had taught him it prevented scurvy.  The word \"Kraut\", derived from this food, is a derogatory term for the German people. During World War I, due to concerns the American public would reject a product with a German name, American sauerkraut makers relabeled their product as \"Liberty Cabbage\" for the duration of the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Sauerkraut is made by a process of pickling called lactic acid fermentation that is analogous to how traditional (not heat-treated) pickled cucumbers and kimchi are made. The cabbage is finely shredded, layered with salt, and left to ferment. Fully cured sauerkraut keeps for several months in an airtight container stored at 15 °C (60 °F) or below. Neither refrigeration nor pasteurization is required, although these treatments prolong storage life.  Fermentation by lactobacilli is introduced naturally, as these air-borne bacteria culture on raw cabbage leaves where they grow. Yeasts also are present, and may yield soft sauerkraut of poor flavor when the fermentation temperature is too high. The fermentation process has three phases, collectively sometimes referred to as population dynamics. In the first phase, anaerobic bacteria such as \"Klebsiella\" and \"Enterobacter\" lead the fermentation, and begin producing an acidic environment that favors later bacteria. The second phase starts as the acid levels become too high for many bacteria, and \"Leuconostoc mesenteroides\" and other \"Leuconostoc\" species take dominance. In the third phase, various \"Lactobacillus\" species, including \"L. brevis\" and \"L. plantarum\", ferment any remaining sugars, further lowering the pH. Properly cured sauerkraut is sufficiently acidic to prevent a favorable environment for the growth of \"Clostridium botulinum\", the toxins of which cause botulism.  A 2004 genomic study found an unexpectedly large diversity of lactic acid bacteria in sauerkraut, and that previous studies had oversimplified this diversity. \"Weissella\" was found to be a major organism in the initial, heterofermentative stage, up to day 7. It was also found that \"Lactobacillus brevis\" and \"Pediococcus pentosaceus\" had smaller population numbers in the first 14 days than previous studies had reported.  The Dutch sauerkraut industry found that inoculating a new batch of sauerkraut with an old batch resulted in an excessively sour product. This sourdough process is known as \"backslopping\" or \"inoculum enrichment\"; when used in making sauerkraut, first- and second-stage population dynamics, important to developing flavor, are bypassed. This is due primarily to the greater initial activity of species \"L. plantarum\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional varieties.", "content": "In Azerbaijani, Belarusian, Polish, Russian, Baltic states and Ukrainian cuisine, chopped cabbage is often pickled together with shredded carrots. Other ingredients may include whole or quartered apples for additional flavor or cranberry for flavor and better keeping (the benzoic acid in cranberries is a common preservative). Bell peppers and beets are added in some recipes for colour. The resulting sauerkraut salad is typically served cold, as \"zakuski\" or a side dish. A home made type of very mild sauerkraut is available, where white cabbage is pickled with salt in a refrigerator for only three to seven days. This process results in very little lactic acid production. Sometimes in Russia the double fermentation is used, with the initial step producing an exceptionally sour product, which is then \"corrected\" by adding 30-50% more fresh cabbage and fermenting the mix again. The flavor additives like apples, beets, cranberries and sometimes even watermelons are usually introduced at this step.  Sauerkraut may be used as a filling for Polish \"pierogi\", Ukrainian \"varenyky\", Russian \"pirogi\" and \"pirozhki\". Sauerkraut is also the central ingredient in traditional soups, such as \"shchi\" (a national dish of Russia), \"kwaśnica\" (Poland), \"kapustnica\" (Slovakia), and \"zelňačka\" (Czech Republic). It is an ingredient of Polish \"bigos\" (a hunter's stew).  In Germany, cooked sauerkraut is often flavored with juniper berries or caraway seeds; apples and white wine are added in popular variations. Traditionally it is served warm, with pork (e.g. \"eisbein\", \"schweinshaxe\", \"Kassler\") or sausages (smoked or fried sausages, \"Frankfurter Würstchen\", Vienna sausages, black pudding), accompanied typically by roasted or steamed potatoes or dumplings (\"knödel\" or \"schupfnudel\"). Similar recipes are common in other Central European cuisines. The Czech national dish \"vepřo knedlo zelo\" consists of roast pork with \"knedliky\" and sauerkraut.  In France, sauerkraut is the main ingredient of the Alsatian meal \"choucroute garnie\" (French for \"dressed sauerkraut\"), sauerkraut with sausages (Strasbourg sausages, smoked Morteau or Montbéliard sausages), charcuterie (bacon, ham, etc.), and often potatoes.  Sauerkraut, along with pork, is eaten traditionally in Pennsylvania on New Year's Day. The tradition, started by the Pennsylvania Dutch, is thought to bring good luck for the upcoming year. Sauerkraut is also used in American cuisine as a condiment upon various foods, such as sandwiches and hot dogs. In Maryland, particularly in Baltimore and on the Eastern Shore, sauerkraut is a traditional accompaniment for the Thanksgiving turkey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health effects.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Benefits.", "content": "Many health benefits have been claimed for sauerkraut:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disadvantages.", "content": "Excessive consumption of sauerkraut may lead to bloating and flatulence due to the trisaccharide raffinose, which the human small intestine cannot break down. This does not negatively affect long-term health, although it might be uncomfortable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scientific discovery.", "content": "One of the early scientists who was involved in identifying the biology and function of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR), Philippe Horvath, focused on the genetics of a lactic-acid bacterium used in the production of sauerkraut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar foods.", "content": "Many other vegetables are preserved by a similar process:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sauerkraut (;, lit. \"sour cabbage\") is finely cut raw cabbage that has been fermented by various lactic acid bacteria. It has a long shelf life and a distinctive sour flavor, both of which result from the lactic acid formed when the bacteria ferment the sugars in the cabbage leaves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971265}
{"src_title": "Tick-borne encephalitis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "The disease typically follows a biphasic pattern in 72–87% of patients and the median incubation period is 8 days (range, 4–28 days) after tick bite. Non-specific symptoms of mild fever, malaise, headache, nausea, vomiting and myalgias may be present as first manifestation of the disease and spontaneously resolve within 1 week. After another week the patient may develop neurological symptoms. The virus can result in long neurological symptoms, infecting the brain (encephalitis), the meninges (meningitis) or both (meningoencephalitis). In general, mortality is 1% to 2%, with deaths occurring 5 to 7 days after the onset of neurologic signs.  In dogs, the disease also manifests as a neurological disorder with signs varying from tremors to seizures and death.  In ruminants, neurological disease is also present, and animals may refuse to eat, appear lethargic, and also develop respiratory signs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "TBE is caused by tick-borne encephalitis virus, a member of the genus \"Flavivirus\" in the family Flaviviridae. It was first isolated in 1937. Three virus sub-types also exist: European or Western tick-borne encephalitis virus (transmitted by \"Ixodes ricinus\"), Siberian tick-borne encephalitis virus (transmitted by \"I. persulcatus\"), and Far-Eastern tick-borne encephalitis virus, formerly known as Russian spring summer encephalitis virus (transmitted by \"I. persulcatus\").  Russia and Europe report about 5,000–7,000 human cases annually.  The former Soviet Union conducted research on tick-borne diseases, including the TBE viruses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transmission.", "content": "It is transmitted by the bite of several species of infected woodland ticks, including \"Ixodes scapularis\", \"I. ricinus\" and \"I. persulcatus\", or (rarely) through the non-pasteurized milk of infected cows.  Infection acquired through goat milk consumed as raw milk or raw cheese (Frischkäse) has been documented in 2016 and 2017 in the German state of Baden-Württemberg. None of the infected had neurological disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Detection of specific IgM and IgG antibodies in patients sera combined with typical clinical signs, is the principal method for diagnosis. In more complicated situations, e.g. after vaccination, testing for presence of antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid may be necessary.  PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) method is rarely used, since TBE virus RNA is most often not present in patient sera or cerebrospinal fluid at the time of clinical symptoms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prevention.", "content": "Prevention includes non-specific (tick-bite prevention, tick checks) and specific prophylaxis in the form of a vaccination. Tick-borne encephalitis vaccines are very effective and available in many disease endemic areas and in travel clinics. Trade names are \"Encepur N\" and \"FSME-Immun CC\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "There is no specific antiviral treatment for TBE. Symptomatic brain damage requires hospitalization and supportive care based on syndrome severity. Anti-inflammatory drugs, such as corticosteroids, may be considered under specific circumstances for symptomatic relief. Tracheal intubation and respiratory support may be necessary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "As of 2011, the disease was most common in Central and Eastern Europe, and Northern Asia. About ten to twelve thousand cases are documented a year but the rates vary widely from one region to another. Most of the variation has been the result of variation in host population, particularly that of deer. In Austria, an extensive free vaccination program since the 1960s reduced the incidence in 2013 by roughly 85%.  In Germany, during the 2010s, there have been a minimum of 95 (2012) and a maximum of 584 cases (2018) of TBE (or FSME as it is known in German). More than half of the reported cases from 2019 had meningitis, encephalitis or myelitis. The risk of infection was noted to be increasing with age, especially in people older than 40 years and it was greater in men than women. Most cases were acquired in Bavaria (46 %) and Baden-Württemberg (37%), much less in Saxonia, Hesse, Niedersachsen and other states. Altogether 164 Landkreise are designated FSME-risk areas, including all of Baden-Württemberg except for the city of Heilbronn.  In Sweden, most cases of TBE occur in a band running from Stockholm to the west, especially around lakes and the nearby region of the Baltic sea. It reflects the greater population involved in outdoor activities in these areas. Overall, for Europe, the estimated risk is roughly 1 case per 10,000 human-months of woodland activity. Although in some regions of Russia and Slovenia, the prevalence of cases can be as high as 70 cases per 100,000 people per year. Travelers to endemic regions do not often become cases, with only 5 cases reported among U.S. travelers returning from Eurasia between 2000 and 2011, a rate so low that as of 2016 the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended vaccination only for those who will be extensively exposed in high risk areas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a viral infectious disease involving the central nervous system. The disease most often manifests as meningitis, encephalitis, or meningoencephalitis. Long-lasting or permanent neuropsychiatric consequences are observed in 10 to 20% of infected patients.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971266}
{"src_title": "Hans Egede", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Hans Egede was born into the home of a civil servant in Harstad, Norway, nearly 150 miles north of the Arctic Circle. His paternal grandfather had been a vicar in Vester Egede on southern Zealand, Denmark. Hans was schooled by an uncle, a clergyman in a local Lutheran Church. In 1704 he travelled to Copenhagen to enter the University of Copenhagen, where he earned a Bachelor's degree in Theology. He returned to Hinnøya Island after graduation, and in April 1707 he was ordained and assigned to a parish on the equally remote archipelago of Lofoten. Also in 1707 he married Gertrud Rasch (or \"Rask\"), who was 13 years his senior. Four children were born to the marriage – two boys and two girls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Greenland.", "content": "At Lofoten, Egede heard stories about the old Norse settlements on Greenland, with which contact had been lost centuries before. Beginning in 1711, he sought permission from Frederick IV of Denmark to search for the colony and establish a mission there, presuming that it had either remained Catholic after the Danish Reformation or been lost to the Christian faith altogether. Frederick gave consent at least partially to re-establish a colonial claim to the island.  Egede established the Bergen Greenland Company (\"\") with $9,000 in capital from Bergen merchants, $200 from the Danish king, and a $300 annual grant from the Royal Mission College. The company was granted broad powers to govern the peninsula (as it was then considered to be), to raise its own army and navy, to collect taxes and to administer justice; the king and his council, however, refused to grant it monopoly rights to whaling and trade in Greenland out of a fear of antagonizing the Dutch.  \"Haabet\" (\"The Hope\") and two smaller ships departed Bergen on 2 May 1721 bearing Egede, his wife and four children, and forty other colonists. On 3 July they reached Nuup Kangerlua and established Hope Colony (\"\") with the erection of a portable house on Kangeq Island, which Egede christened the Island of Hope (\"Haabet Oe\"). Searching for months for descendants of the old Norse colonists, he found only the local Inuit people and began studying their language. Missionising among them required some imagination as, for instance, the Inuit had no bread nor any idea of it, requiring the Lord's Prayer to be translated as \"Give us this day our daily seal\".  By the end of the first winter, many of the colonists had been stricken with scurvy and most returned home as soon as they could. Egede and his family remained with a few others and in 1722 welcomed two supply ships the king had funded with the imposition of a new tax. His (now ship-borne) explorations found no Norse survivors along the western shore and future work was misled by the two mistaken beliefs both prevalent at the time that the Eastern Settlement would be located on Greenland's east coast (it was later established it had been among the fjords of the island's extreme southwest) and that a strait existed nearby communicating with the western half of the island. In fact, his 1723 expedition found the churches and ruins of the Eastern Settlement, but he considered them to be those of the Western. At the end of the year, he turned north and helped establish a whaling station on Nipisat Island. In 1724 he baptized his first child converts, two of whom would travel to Denmark and there inspire Count Zinzendorf to begin the Moravian missions.  In 1728, a royal expedition under Major Claus Paarss arrived with four supply ships and moved the Kangeq colony to the mainland opposite, establishing a fort named Godt-Haab (\"Good Hope\"), the future Godthåb. The extra supplies also allowed Egede to build a proper chapel within the main house. More scurvy led to forty deaths and abandonment of the site not only by the Danes but by the Inuit as well. Egede's book \"The Old Greenland's New Perlustration\" () appeared in 1729 and was translated into several languages, but King Frederick had lost patience and recalled Paarss's military garrison from Greenland the next year. Egede, encouraged by his wife Gertrud, remained with his family and ten sailors.  A supply ship in 1733 brought three missionaries and news that the king had granted 2,000 rixdollars a year to establish a new company for the colony under Jacob Severin. The Moravians were allowed to establish a station at Neu-Herrnhut (which became the nucleus of modern Nuuk, Greenland's capital) and in time a string of missions along the island's west coast. The ship also returned one of Egede's convert children with a case of smallpox. By the next year, the epidemic was raging among the Inuit and in 1735 it claimed Gertrud Egede. Hans carried her body back to Denmark for burial the next year, leaving his son Poul to carry on his work. In Copenhagen, he was named Superintendent of the Greenland Mission Seminary (\"Seminarium Groenlandicum\") and in 1741 the Lutheran Bishop of Greenland. A catechism for use in Greenland was completed by 1747. He died on 5 November 1758 at the age of 72 in Stubbekøbing at Falster, Denmark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Egede became something of a national \"saint\" of Greenland. The town of Egedesminde ( \"Memory of Egede\") commemorates him. It was established by Hans's second son, Niels, in 1759 on the Eqalussuit peninsula. It was moved to the island of Aasiaat in 1763, which had been the site of a pre-Viking Inuit settlement. Statues of Hans Egede stand watch over Greenland's capital in Nuuk and outside of Frederik's Church (\"Marmorkirken\") in Copenhagen. His grandson and namesake Hans Egede Saabye also became a missionary to Greenland and published a celebrated diary of his time there.  The Royal Danish Geographical Society established the Egede Medal in his honour in 1916. The medal is in silver and awarded 'preferably for geographical studies and researches in the Arctic countries'.  Hans Egede also gave one of the oldest descriptions of a sea serpent commonly believed to have been a giant squid. On 6 July 1734 he wrote that his ship was off the Greenland coast when those on board \"saw a most terrible creature, resembling nothing they saw before. The monster lifted its head so high that it seemed to be higher than the crow's nest on the mainmast. The head was small and the body short and wrinkled. The unknown creature was using giant fins which propelled it through the water. Later the sailors saw its tail as well. The monster was longer than our whole ship\".  A crater on the Moon is named after him: the Egede crater on the south edge of the Mare Frigoris (the Sea of Cold).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Poulsen Egede (31 January 1686 – 5 November 1758) was a Dano-Norwegian Lutheran missionary who launched mission efforts to Greenland, which led him to be styled the Apostle of Greenland. He established a successful mission among the Inuit and is credited with revitalizing Dano-Norwegian interest in the island after contact had been broken for hundreds of years. He founded Greenland's capital Godthåb, now known as Nuuk.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971267}
{"src_title": "Amenhotep, son of Hapu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He is said to have been born at the end of Thutmose III's reign, in the town of Athribis (modern Banha in the north of Cairo). His father was Hapu, and his mother Itu. Though little about Amenhotep's early life is known prior to his entering civil service, it is believed that he learned to read and write at the local library and scriptorium. He was a priest and a Scribe of Recruits (organizing the labour and supplying the manpower for the Pharaoh's projects, both civilian and military). He was also an architect and supervised several building projects, among them Amenhotep III's mortuary temple at western Thebes, of which only two statues remain nowadays, known as the Colossi of Memnon, and the creation of the quarry of El-Gabal el-Ahmar, nearby Heliopolis, from which the blocks used to create the Colossi were probably taken. Other plans, such as the portico of the Temple of Karnak, completed under Ramesses II, and those for the Luxor Temple are also attributed to Amenhotep. He may also have been the architect of the Temple of Soleb in Nubia. Amenhotep is noted to have participated in Amenhotep III's first Sed festival, in the 30th year of the king's rule. After this, he is believed to have retired from civil service and become the steward of Princess Sitamun's properties (similar to an asset manager today), and received honours such as the designation of Fan-bearer on the Right Side of the King, among other things. According to some reliefs in the tomb of Ramose, he may have died in the 31st year of Amenhotep III, which would correspond to either 1360 BC or 1357 BC, depending on the chronology used. His death has also been dated to the 35th year of the king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "After his death, his reputation grew and he was revered for his teachings and as a philosopher. He was also revered as a healer and eventually worshipped as a god of healing, like his predecessor Imhotep (Amenhotep and Imhotep are among the few non-royal Egyptians who were deified after their death, and until the 21st century, they were thought to be only two commoners to achieve this status). There are several surviving statues of him as a scribe, portraying him as a young man and as an older man. He was a deified human and thus was depicted only in human form. His cult was initially limited to the Thebes area, with a funerary temple constructed to him during his lifetime next to that of Amenhotep III. This was clearly an exceptional privilege, as it was the only private cult temple to be built among the royal monuments in the area. He continued to be worshipped for at least three centuries after his death, and evidence of this worship persists in a 26th Dynasty votary inscription on a statue dedicated to Amenhotep by a daughter of the pharaoh. During the period of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, his worship saw a resurgence which led to chapels being dedicated to him in the Temple of Hathor at Deir el-Medina and the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari. Statues were erected to him in the Temple of Amun at Karnak and he was treated as an intermediary with the god Amun. Amenhotep also utilised his influence with the king to secure royal patronage for the town of Athribis, for the local god, and the temple dedicated to that god.  Manetho gives a legendary account of how Amenhotep advised a king named Amenophis, who was \"desirous to become a spectator of the gods, as had Orus, one of his predecessors in that kingdom, desired the same before him\". This Amenophis is commonly identified with Akhenaton also known as Amenhotep IV, while Orus fits with the latter's father, Amenhotep III. Manetho relates that the wise man counseled that the king should \"clear the whole country of the lepers and of the other impure people\" and that the King then sent 80,000 lepers to the quarries. After this the wise man foresaw that the lepers would ally themselves with people coming to their help and subdue Egypt. He put the prophecy into letter to the King and then killed himself. Manetho associates this event with the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, but Josephus strongly rejects this interpretation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mortuary temple.", "content": "Amenhotep was allowed to build his mortuary temple adjacent to that of the pharaoh. This honour is quite rare and indicates that Amenhotep was highly respected by the time of his death, despite the fact that he was a commoner and had only entered civil service at an advanced age, in his late forties. Excavated in 1934 or 1935, it measures 45 × 110 metres and is surrounded by three shrines. His first courtyard contained a 25 x 26 m water basin of considerable depth, fed by groundwater from the Nile. Twenty trees were planted in pits around the basin. The temple at the end of the courtyard was adorned with a pillared portico, and the temple was slightly elevated on a terrace.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Amenhotep, son of Hapu (transcribed \"jmn-ḥtp zꜣ ḥꜣp.w\"; early-mid 14th century BC) was an ancient Egyptian architect, a priest, a scribe, and a public official, who held a number of offices under Amenhotep III of the 18th Dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971268}
{"src_title": "Mafia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"mafia\" () derives from the Sicilian adjective \"mafiusu\", which, roughly translated, means \"swagger\", but can also be translated as \"boldness\" or \"bravado\". In reference to a man, \"mafiusu\" (\"mafioso\" in Italian) in 19th century Sicily signified \"fearless\", \"enterprising\", and \"proud\", according to scholar Diego Gambetta. In reference to a woman, however, the feminine-form adjective \"mafiusa\" means 'beautiful' or 'attractive'.  Because Sicily was once an Islamic emirate from 831 to 1072, \"mafia\" may have come to Sicilian through Arabic, though the word's origins are uncertain. Possible Arabic roots of the word include:  The public's association of the word with the criminal secret society was perhaps inspired by the 1863 play \"\" (\"The Mafiosi of the Vicaria\") by Giuseppe Rizzotto and Gaspare Mosca. The words \"mafia\" and \"mafiusi\" are never mentioned in the play. The play is about a Palermo prison gang with traits similar to the Mafia: a boss, an initiation ritual, and talk of \"\"umirtà\"\" (omertà or code of silence) and \"\"pizzu\"\" (a codeword for extortion money). The play had great success throughout Italy. Soon after, the use of the term \"mafia\" began appearing in the Italian state's early reports on the phenomenon. The word made its first official appearance in 1865 in a report by the prefect of Palermo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definitions.", "content": "The term \"mafia\" was never officially used by Sicilian mafiosi, who prefer to refer to their organization as \"Cosa Nostra\". Nevertheless, it is typically by comparison to the groups and families that comprise the Sicilian Mafia that other criminal groups are given the label. Giovanni Falcone, an anti-Mafia judge murdered by the Sicilian Mafia in 1992, objected to the conflation of the term \"Mafia\" with organized crime in general:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mafias as private protection firms.", "content": "Scholars such as Diego Gambetta and Leopoldo Franchetti have characterized the Sicilian Mafia as a \"cartel of private protection firms\", whose primary business is protection racketeering: they use their fearsome reputation for violence to deter people from swindling, robbing, or competing with those who pay them for protection. For many businessmen in Sicily, they provide an essential service when they cannot rely on the police and judiciary to enforce their contracts and protect their properties from thieves (this is often because they are engaged in black market deals). Scholars have observed that many other societies around the world have criminal organizations of their own that provide essentially the same protection service through similar methods.  For instance, in Russia after the collapse of Communism, the state security system had all but collapsed, forcing businessmen to hire criminal gangs to enforce their contracts and protect their properties from thieves. These gangs are popularly called \"the Russian Mafia\" by foreigners, but they prefer to go by the term \"krysha\". In his analysis of the Sicilian Mafia, Gambetta provided the following hypothetical scenario to illustrate the Mafia's function in the Sicilian economy. Suppose a grocer wants to buy meat from a butcher without paying sales tax to the government. Because this is a black market deal, neither party can take the other to court if the other cheats. The grocer is afraid that the butcher will sell him rotten meat. The butcher is afraid that the grocer will not pay him. If the butcher and the grocer can't get over their mistrust and refuse to trade, they would both miss out on an opportunity for profit. Their solution is to ask the local mafioso to oversee the transaction, in exchange for a fee proportional to the value of the transaction but below the legal tax. If the butcher cheats the grocer by selling rotten meat, the mafioso will punish the butcher. If the grocer cheats the butcher by not paying on time and in full, the mafioso will punish the grocer. Punishment might take the form of a violent assault or vandalism against property. The grocer and the butcher both fear the mafioso, so each honors their side of the bargain. All three parties profit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mafia-type organizations under Italian law.", "content": "Introduced by Pio La Torre, article 416-bis of the Italian Penal Code defines a Mafia-type association (\"Associazione di Tipo Mafioso\") as one where \"those belonging to the association exploit the potential for intimidation which their membership gives them, and the compliance and omertà which membership entails and which lead to the committing of crimes, the direct or indirect assumption of management or control of financial activities, concessions, permissions, enterprises and public services for the purpose of deriving profit or wrongful advantages for themselves or others.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Mafia-proper can refer to either:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Italy.", "content": "Other Italian criminal organizations include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other countries.", "content": "\"See also List of criminal enterprises, gangs and syndicates\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A mafia is a type of organized crime syndicate whose primary activities are protection racketeering, arbitrating disputes between criminals, and brokering and enforcing illegal agreements and transactions. The term \"mafia\" derives from the Sicilian Mafia. Mafias often engage in secondary activities such as gambling, loan sharking, drug-trafficking, prostitution, and fraud.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971269}
{"src_title": "Monetarism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Monetarism is an economic theory that focuses on the macroeconomic effects of the supply of money and central banking. Formulated by Milton Friedman, it argues that excessive expansion of the money supply is inherently inflationary, and that monetary authorities should focus solely on maintaining price stability.  This theory draws its roots from two historically antagonistic schools of thought: the hard money policies that dominated monetary thinking in the late 19th century, and the monetary theories of John Maynard Keynes, who, working in the inter-war period during the failure of the restored gold standard, proposed a demand-driven model for money. While Keynes had focused on the stability of a currency's value, with panics based on an insufficient money supply leading to the use of an alternate currency and collapse of the monetary system, Friedman focused on price stability.  The result was summarised in a historical analysis of monetary policy, \"Monetary History of the United States 1867–1960\", which Friedman coauthored with Anna Schwartz. The book attributed inflation to excess money supply generated by a central bank. It attributed deflationary spirals to the reverse effect of a failure of a central bank to support the money supply during a liquidity crunch.  Friedman originally proposed a fixed \"monetary rule\", called Friedman's k-percent rule, where the money supply would be automatically increased by a fixed percentage per year. Under this rule, there would be no leeway for the central reserve bank, as money supply increases could be determined \"by a computer\", and business could anticipate all money supply changes. With other monetarists he believed that the active manipulation of the money supply or its growth rate is more likely to destabilise than stabilise the economy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opposition to the gold standard.", "content": "Most monetarists oppose the gold standard. Friedman, for example, viewed a pure gold standard as impractical. For example, whereas one of the benefits of the gold standard is that the intrinsic limitations to the growth of the money supply by the use of gold would prevent inflation, if the growth of population or increase in trade outpaces the money supply, there would be no way to counteract deflation and reduced liquidity (and any attendant recession) except for the mining of more gold.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rise.", "content": "Clark Warburton is credited with making the first solid empirical case for the monetarist interpretation of business fluctuations in a series of papers from 1945. Within mainstream economics, the rise of monetarism accelerated from Milton Friedman's 1956 restatement of the quantity theory of money. Friedman argued that the demand for money could be described as depending on a small number of economic variables.  Thus, where the money supply expanded, people would not simply wish to hold the extra money in idle money balances; i.e., if they were in equilibrium before the increase, they were already holding money balances to suit their requirements, and thus after the increase they would have money balances surplus to their requirements. These excess money balances would therefore be spent and hence aggregate demand would rise. Similarly, if the money supply were reduced people would want to replenish their holdings of money by reducing their spending. In this, Friedman challenged a simplification attributed to Keynes suggesting that \"money does not matter.\" Thus the word'monetarist' was coined.  The rise of the popularity of monetarism also picked up in political circles when Keynesian economics seemed unable to explain or cure the seemingly contradictory problems of rising unemployment and inflation in response to the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1972 and the oil shocks of 1973. On the one hand, higher unemployment seemed to call for Keynesian reflation, but on the other hand rising inflation seemed to call for Keynesian disinflation.  In 1979, United States President Jimmy Carter appointed as Federal Reserve chief Paul Volcker, who made fighting inflation his primary objective, and who restricted the money supply (in accordance with the Friedman rule) to tame inflation in the economy. The result was a major rise in interest rates, not only in the United States; but worldwide. The \"Volcker shock\" continued from 1979 to the summer of 1982, decreasing inflation and increasing unemployment.  By the time Margaret Thatcher, Leader of the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom, won the 1979 general election defeating the sitting Labour Government led by James Callaghan, the UK had endured several years of severe inflation, which was rarely below the 10% mark and by the time of the May 1979 general election, stood at 15.4%. Thatcher implemented monetarism as the weapon in her battle against inflation, and succeeded at reducing it to 4.6% by 1983. However, unemployment in the United Kingdom increased from 5.7% in 1979 to 12.2% in 1983, reaching 13.0% in 1982; starting with the first quarter of 1980, the UK economy contracted in terms of real gross domestic product for six straight quarters. Monetarists not only sought to explain present problems; they also interpreted historical ones. Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz in their book \"A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960\" argued that the Great Depression of the 1930s was caused by a massive contraction of the money supply (they deemed it \"the Great Contraction\"), and not by the lack of investment Keynes had argued. They also maintained that post-war inflation was caused by an over-expansion of the money supply.  They made famous the assertion of monetarism that \"inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon.\" Many Keynesian economists initially believed that the Keynesian vs. monetarist debate was solely about whether fiscal or monetary policy was the more effective tool of demand management. By the mid-1970s, however, the debate had moved on to other issues as monetarists began presenting a fundamental challenge to Keynesianism.  Monetarists argued that central banks sometimes caused major unexpected fluctuations in the money supply. They asserted that actively increasing demand through the central bank can have negative unintended consequences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current state.", "content": "Former Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan argued that the 1990s decoupling was explained by a virtuous cycle of productivity and investment on one hand, and a certain degree of \"irrational exuberance\" in the investment sector on the other.  There are also arguments that monetarism is a special case of Keynesian theory. The central test case over the validity of these theories would be the possibility of a liquidity trap, like that experienced by Japan. Ben Bernanke, Princeton professor and another former chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve, argued that monetary policy could respond to zero interest rate conditions by direct expansion of the money supply. In his words, \"We have the keys to the printing press, and we are not afraid to use them.\"  These disagreements—along with the role of monetary policies in trade liberalisation, international investment, and central bank policy—remain lively topics of investigation and argument.  General:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Monetarism is a school of thought in monetary economics that emphasizes the role of governments in controlling the amount of money in circulation. Monetarist theory asserts that variations in the money supply have major influences on national output in the short run and on price levels over longer periods. Monetarists assert that the objectives of monetary policy are best met by targeting the growth rate of the money supply rather than by engaging in discretionary monetary policy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971270}
{"src_title": "Chanson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medieval chanson.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Chanson de geste\".", "content": "The earliest \"chansons\" were the epic poems performed to simple monophonic melodies by a professional class of \"jongleurs\" or \"ménestrels\". These usually recounted the famous deeds (\"geste\") of past heroes, legendary and semi-historical. The \"Song of Roland\" is the most famous of these, but in general the \"chansons de geste\" are studied as literature since very little of their music survives.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Chanson courtoise\".", "content": "The \"chanson courtoise\" or \"grand chant\" was an early form of monophonic \"chanson\", the chief lyric poetic genre of the trouvères. It was an adaptation to Old French of the Occitan \"canso\". It was practised in the 12th and 13th centuries. Thematically, as its name implies, it was a song of courtly love, written usually by a man to his noble lover. Some later \"chansons\" were polyphonic and some had refrains and were called \"chansons avec des refrains\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Burgundian \"chanson\".", "content": "In its typical specialized usage, the word \"chanson\" refers to a polyphonic French song of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Early \"chansons\" tended to be in one of the \"formes fixes\"—ballade, rondeau or virelai (formerly the \"chanson baladée\")—though some composers later set popular poetry in a variety of forms. The earliest chansons were for two, three or four voices, with first three becoming the norm, expanding to four voices by the 16th century. Sometimes, the singers were accompanied by instruments.  The first important composer of \"chansons\" was Guillaume de Machaut, who composed three-voice works in the \"formes fixes\" during the 14th century. Guillaume Dufay and Gilles Binchois, who wrote so-called Burgundian \"chansons\" (because they were from the area known as Burgundy), were the most important chanson composers of the next generation (c. 1420–1470). Their chansons, while somewhat simple in style, are also generally in three voices with a structural tenor. Musicologist David Fallows includes the Burgundian repertoire in \"A Catalogue of Polyphonic Songs 1415–1480.\" These works are typically still 3 voices, with an active upper voice (discantus) pitched above two lower voices (tenor and altus) usually sharing the same range.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Renaissance chanson.", "content": "Later 15th- and early 16th-century figures in the genre included Johannes Ockeghem and Josquin des Prez, whose works cease to be constrained by \"formes fixes\" and begin to feature a pervading imitation (all voices sharing material and moving at similar speeds), similar to that found in contemporary motets and liturgical music. The first book of music printed from movable type was \"Harmonice Musices Odhecaton\", a collection of ninety-six chansons by many composers, published in Venice in 1501 by Ottaviano Petrucci.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parisian \"chanson\".", "content": "Beginning in the late 1520s through mid-century, Claudin de Sermisy, Pierre Certon, Clément Janequin, and Philippe Verdelot were composers of so-called Parisian \"chansons\", which also abandoned the \"formes fixes\", often featured four voices, and were in a simpler, more homophonic style. This genre sometimes featured music that was meant to be evocative of certain imagery such as birds or the marketplace. Many of these Parisian works were published by Pierre Attaingnant. Composers of their generation, as well as later composers, such as Orlando de Lassus, were influenced by the Italian madrigal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Revival.", "content": "In the 20th century, French composers revived the genre. Claude Debussy composed Trois Chansons for choir a capella, completed in 1908. Maurice Ravel wrote \"Trois Chansons\" for choir a cappella after the outbreak of World War I as a return to French tradition, published in 1916.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern \"chanson\".", "content": "French solo song developed in the late 16th century, probably from the aforementioned Parisian works. During the 17th century, the \"air de cour\", \"chanson pour boire\" and other like genres, generally accompanied by lute or keyboard, flourished, with contributions by such composers as Antoine Boesset, Denis Gaultier, Michel Lambert and Michel-Richard de Lalande.  During the 18th century, vocal music in France was dominated by opera, but solo song underwent a renaissance in the 19th century, first with salon melodies and then by mid-century with highly sophisticated works influenced by the German Lieder, which had been introduced into the country. Louis Niedermeyer, under the particular spell of Schubert, was a pivotal figure in this movement, followed by Édouard Lalo, Felicien David and many others.  Another offshoot of \"chanson\", called \"chanson réaliste\" (realist song), was a popular musical genre in France, primarily from the 1880s until the end of World War II. Born of the \"cafés-concerts\" and cabarets of the Montmartre district of Paris and influenced by literary realism and the naturalist movements in literature and theatre, \"chanson réaliste\" was a musical style which was mainly performed by women and dealt with the lives of Paris's poor and working class. Among the better-known performers of the genre are Damia, Fréhel, and Édith Piaf.  Later 19th-century composers of French art songs, known as mélodie and not chanson, included Ernest Chausson, Emmanuel Chabrier, Gabriel Fauré, and Claude Debussy, while many 20th-century and current French composers have continued this strong tradition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nouvelle \"chanson\".", "content": "In France today \"chanson\" or \"chanson française\" is distinguished from the rest of French \"pop\" music by following the rhythms of French language, rather than those of English, and a higher standard for lyrics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Museum.", "content": "In La Planche, Loire-Atlantique, the Musée de la chanson française was established in 1992. The museum has the goal to remember the artists that have established the heritage of the chanson.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A chanson (, ;, \"song\", from Latin \"cantio\", gen. \"cantionis\") is in general any lyric-driven French song, usually polyphonic and secular. A singer specializing in chansons is known as a \"chanteur\" (male) or \"chanteuse\" (female); a collection of chansons, especially from the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, is also known as a chansonnier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971271}
{"src_title": "Nebuchadnezzar II", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Nebuchadnezzar was the eldest son and successor of Nabopolassar, an Assyrian official who rebelled against the Assyrian Empire and established himself as the king of Babylon in 620 BC. Nebuchadnezzar is first mentioned in 607 BC, during the destruction of Babylon's arch-enemy Assyria, at which point he was already crown prince. In 605 BC he and his ally Cyaxares, ruler of the Medes, led an army against the Assyrians and Egyptians, who were then occupying Syria, and in the ensuing Battle of Carchemish, Pharaoh Necho II was defeated and Syria and Phoenicia were brought under the control of Babylon. Nabopolassar died in August 605 BC, and Nebuchadnezzar returned to Babylon to ascend the throne. For the next few years, his attention was devoted to subduing his eastern and northern borders, and in 595/4 BC there was a serious but brief rebellion in Babylon itself. In 594/3 BC, the army was sent again to the west, possibly in reaction to the elevation of Psamtik II to the throne of Egypt. During the Siege of Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezar captured King Jehoiachin along with prominent citizens and craftsman and appointed Zedekiah as King of Judah in his place, the latter rebelled and attempted to organize opposition among the small states in the region but his capital, Jerusalem, was taken in 587 BC (the events are described in the Bible's Books of Kings and Book of Jeremiah). In the following years, Nebuchadnezzar incorporated Phoenicia and the former Assyrian provinces of Cilicia (southwestern Anatolia) into his empire and may have campaigned in Egypt. According to a Babylonian poem, Nebuchadnezzar began behaving irrationally in his final years, \"pay[ing] no heed to son or daughter,\" and was deeply suspicious of his sons. The kings who came after him ruled only briefly and Nabonidus, apparently not of the royal family, was overthrown by the Persian conqueror Cyrus the Great less than twenty-five years after Nebuchadnezzar's death.  The ruins of Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon are spread over two thousand acres, forming the largest archaeological site in the Middle East. He enlarged the royal palace (including in it a public museum, possibly the world's first), built and repaired temples, built a bridge over the Euphrates, and constructed a grand processional boulevard (the Processional Way) and gateway (the Ishtar Gate) lavishly decorated with glazed brick. Each spring equinox (the start of the New Year), a statue of the god Marduk was paraded from its temple to a temple outside the walls, returning through the Ishtar Gate and down the Processional Way, paved with colored stone and lined with molded lions, amidst rejoicing crowds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portrayal in the Bible.", "content": "The Babylonian king's two sieges of Jerusalem (in 597 and 587 BC) are depicted in. The Book of Jeremiah calls Nebuchadnezzar the \"destroyer of nations\" () and gives an account of the second siege of Jerusalem (587 BC) and the looting and destruction of the First Temple (Book of Jeremiah ; ). Nebuchadnezzar's assault on Egypt four months before the fall of Jerusalem in 587 is represented in Ezekiel as a divine initiative undertaken \"by the hand of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon\".  Nebuchadnezzar is an important character in the Old Testament Book of Daniel. Daniel 1 introduces Nebuchadnezzar as the king who takes Daniel and other Hebrew youths into captivity in Babylon, to be trained in \"the learning and the tongue of the Chaldeans\". In Nebuchadnezzar's second year, Daniel interprets the king's dream of a huge image as God's prediction of the rise and fall of world powers, starting with Nebuchadnezzar's kingdom (Daniel 2). Nebuchadnezzar twice admits the power of the God of the Hebrews: first, after God saves three of Daniel's companions from a fiery furnace (Daniel 3); and secondly, after Nebuchadnezzar himself suffers a humiliating period of madness, as Daniel predicted (Daniel 4).  The consensus among critical scholars is that the book of Daniel is historical fiction. Nebuchadnezzar's recognition of the power of Yahweh is unlikely to have actually occurred. His period of madness is also fictional, historians attributing it to rumors about Nabonidus's stay in Teima (or Tayma), which were subsequently applied to Nebuchadnezzar through conflation.  His name is often recorded in the Bible as \"Nebuchad\"r\"ezzar\" (in Ezekiel and parts of Jeremiah), but more commonly as \"Nebuchad\"n\"ezzar\". The form \"Nebuchadrezzar\" is more consistent with the original Akkadian, and some scholars believe that \"Nebuchadnezzar\" may be a derogatory pun used by the Israelites, meaning \"Nabu, protect my \"jackass\"\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nebuchadnezzar II (), also Nebuchadrezzar II (Akkadian: – \"Nabû-kudurri-uṣur\", meaning \"O god Nabu, preserve/defend my firstborn son\"; Biblical Hebrew: – \"Nəḇūḵaḏreʾṣṣar\" or – \"Nəḇūḵaḏneʾṣṣar\"; Biblical Aramaic: – \"Nəḇūḵaḏneṣṣar\"), king of Babylon 605 BC – 562 BC, was the longest-reigning and most powerful monarch of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971272}
{"src_title": "Chasselas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Genetic analyses made in 2009 in a laboratory of the University of Dieppe showed that Chasselas is a grape variety originating in western Switzerland. Its name was first mentioned in the 16th century.  In 1940, Chasselas was crossed with Silvaner to produce the white grape variety Nobling.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wine regions.", "content": "Chasselas is widely grown in Switzerland, where it has several regional synonym names, the main one being \"Fendant\" in the canton of Valais. It is considered an ideal pairing for raclette or fondue. Chasselas is also known as \"Perlan\" in the Mandement district of Geneva. In 2009, it was Switzerland's second-most planted grape variety at.  In Germany, with, it is almost exclusively grown in the wine region of Baden under the name \"Gutedel\".  In France it is mostly grown in the Loire region, where it is blended with Sauvignon blanc to produce a wine called \"Pouilly-sur-Loire\". Californian and Australian growers know this variety under the names \"Chasselas Doré\" and \"Golden Chasselas.\"  Michel Chapoutier has stated that he is looking for land for a vineyard in England, which would be planted with Chasselas. He said that he believed Chasselas would suit the English climate and terroir very well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synonyms.", "content": "Chasselas is also known under the synonyms Abelione, Abelone, Albilloidea, Alsacia blanca, Amber Chasselas, Amber Muscadine, Bar sur Aube, Bela Glera, Bela žlahtnina, Berezka Prostaya, Berioska Casla, Beyaz Gutedel, Biela Plemenika Praskava, Biela Plemincka Chrapka, Biela Plemincka Pruskawa, Blanchette, Blanquette, Bon blanc, Bordo, Bournet, Bournot, Ceasla, Charapka, Chasselas, Chasselas Angevin, Chasselas bianco, Chasselas Blanc Royal, Chasselas Blanchette, Chasselas Crognant, Chasselas Croquant, Chasselas de Bar-sur-Aube, Chasselas de Bordeaux, Chasselas de Florence, Chasselas de Fontainebleau, Chasselas de Jalabert, Chasselas de la Contrie, Chasselas de la Naby, Chasselas de Moissac, Chasselas de Montauban, Chasselas de Mornain, Chasselas de Pondichéry, Chasselas de Pontchartrain, Chasselas de Pouilly, Chasselas de Quercy, Chasselas de Rappelo, Chasselas de Tenerife, Chasselas de Teneriffe, Chasselas de Thomeri, Chasselas de Toulaud, Chasselas de Vaud, Chasselas di Fountanbleau, Chasselas di Thomery, Chasselas Dorada, Chasselas Dorato, Chasselas Dore, Chasselas Dore Hatif, Chasselas Dore Salomon, Chasselas du Doubs, Chasselas du Portugal, Chasselas du Roi, Chasselas du Serail, Chasselas du Thor, Chasselas Dugommier, Chasselas Dur, Chasselas Fendant, Chasselas Hatif de Tenerife, Chasselas Haute Selection, Chasselas Jalabert, Chasselas Jaune Cire, Chasselas Piros, Chasselas Plant Droit, Chasselas Queen Victoria, Chasselas Reine Victoria, Chasselas Salsa, Chasselas Tokay Angevine, Chasselas Vert de la Cote, Chasselas White, Chasselat, Chrupka, Chrupka Biela, Chrupka Bila, Common Muscadine, Danka Belaya, Dinka Belaya, Dinka blanche, Dobrorozne, Doppelte Spanische, Dorin, Doucet, Eau Douce blanche, Edelschoen, Edelwein, Edelweiss, Edelxeiss, Elsaesser, Elsasser Weiss, Fabian, Fabiantraube, Fábiánszőlő, Fehér Chasselas, Fehér Fábiánszőlő, Fehér gyöngyszőlő, Fehér ropogós, Fendant, Fendant blanc, Fendant Roux, Fendant vert, Florenci Jouana, Fondan Belyi, Franceset, Franceseta, Frauentraube, Gamet, Gelber Gutedel, Gemeiner Gutedel, Gentil blanc, Gentil vert, Golden Bordeaux, Golden Chasselas, Grossblaettrige Spanische, Grosse Spanische, Grosser Spaniger, Gruener Gutedel, Gutedel, Gutedel Weiss, Gutedel Weisser, Gyöngyszőlő, Junker, Koenigs Gutedel, Kracher, Krachgutedel, Krachmost, Lardot, Lourdot, Maisa, Marzemina bianca, Marzemina Niduca, Morlenche, Mornan blanc, Mornen, Mornen blanc, Most, Most Rebe, Moster, Pariser Gutedel, Perlan, Pinzutella, Plamenka Belyi, Plant de Toulard, Plant de Toulaud, Plemenika Praskava, Plemenka, Plemenka Bela, Plemenka Rana, Pleminka Biela, Praskava, Pruscava Biela, Queen Victoria, Queen Victoria White, Raisin D'officier, Ranka, Rebe Herrn Fuchses, Reben Herm Fuchs, Reben Herrn, Rheinrebe, Rosmarinentraube, Rosmarintraube, Royal Muscadine, Sasla, Sasla Bela, Schoenedel, Shasla Belaya, Shasla Dore, Shasla Lechebnaya, Shasla Viktoria, Silberling, Silberweiss, Silberweissling, Silberwissling, Strapak, Suessling, Suesstraube, Sweetwater, Sweetwater White, Temprano, Temprano blanco, Terravin, Tribi Vognoble, Tribiano Tedesco, Ugne, Uslechtile Bile, Valais blanc, Viala, Viviser, Waelsche, Waelscher, Weisser Gutedel, Weisser Krachgutedel, White Chasselas, White Muscadine, White Sweetwater, White Van der Laan, Žlahtina, Žlahtnina, Žlahtnina bijela, Zlatina, and Župljanka.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chasselas or Chasselas blanc is a wine grape variety grown mainly in Switzerland, France, Germany, Portugal, Hungary, Romania, New Zealand and Chile. Chasselas is mostly vinified to be a full, dry and fruity white wine. It is also suitable as a table grape, grown widely for this purpose in Turkey and Hungary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971273}
{"src_title": "Federal Ministry of Finance (Germany)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In German politics, the Ministry of Finance beside the Interior, Foreign, Justice and Defence ministries is counted as one of the \"classical portfolios\" (denoted by the definite article \"der\"), which were also part of the first German government under Otto von Bismarck following the Unification of 1871. Fiscal policy in the German Empire was predominantly the domain of the various states responsible for all direct taxation according to the 1833 \"Zollverein\" treaties. The federal government merely received indirect contributions from the states. Matters of fiscal policy at the federal level initially was the exclusive responsibility of the German Chancellery under Otto von Bismarck. However, in 1877 a special finance department was established, which with effect from 14 July 1879 was separated from the chancellery as the Imperial Treasury (\"Reichsschatzamt\"), a federal agency in its own right. With its seat vis-à-vis on Wilhelmplatz in Berlin, it was first headed by a subsecretary, and from 1880 by a Secretary of State only answerable to the chancellor.  After World War I, the newly established Weimar Republic had to face huge reparations and a fiscal emergency. To cope with the implications, the former \"Reichsschatzamt\" in 1919 was re-organised as a federal ministry, the \"Reichsministerium der Finanzen\", as supreme financial authority headed by a federal minister. Besides a Reich Treasury Ministry (\"Reichsschatzministerium\") was established for the administration of the federal property, both agencies were merged in 1923.  Already in the German cabinet of Chancellor Franz von Papen, Undersecretary Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk was appointed Finance Minister in 1932, an office he held throughout the Nazi era until 1945. The ministry played a vital role in financing the German re-armament, in the \"Aryanization\" of Jewish property (\"Reich Flight Tax\"), German war economy, and the plundering of occupied countries in World War II. The budget deficit had already reached heady heights on the eve of the war, aggrandised by hidden Mefo and Oeffa bill financing. In turn, saving banks and credit institutions were obliged to sign war bonds while price stability was enforced by government intervention and the German public was called up to bank surplus money.  After World War II the ministry was re-established in 1949 and renamed the West German \"Bundesministerium der Finanzen\". Since 1999, the Detlev-Rohwedder-Haus (former Air Ministry Building) in Berlin has been the headquarters of the ministry.  The Ministry of Finance in Berlin in the 1930s' and 1940s' was responsible for the plunder of Jewish assets throughout Europe. After Germany took over Austria on March 12th, 1938 every Jewish family in Austria received from the Ministry of Finance in Berlin, a form called \"Verzeichnis uber das Vermogen von Juden nach dem Stand von 27 April, 1938.\" All Jewish households had to list the value of all their assets including silver, gold, real estate, bank accounts, businesses / inventories and jewelry. This even included silverware such as knives, forks and spoons. In addition all debts owed to Aryan Germans also had to be listed. On the form Austrian Jews were warned that they had to complete these documents by June 30th, 1938 or risk serious punishment such as imprisonment. These forms had to be mailed back to the Finanzamt (tax authority) in Berlin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure and function.", "content": "The Ministry is the supreme federal authority in revenue administration and governs a number of subordinate federal, intermediate, and local authorities such as the Federal Centre for Data Processing and Information Technology (ZIVIT). The Ministry's wider portfolio includes public-law agencies and corporations such as the Federal Finance Regulator (BaFin) and Real Estate regulatory bodies. The finance minister is the only cabinet minister who can veto a decision of the government if it would lead to additional expenditure. The German newspaper FAZ stated, the Ministry of Finance is the most important Ministry in the German government.  The Finance Ministry is responsible for all aspects of tax and revenue policy in Germany and plays a significant role in European Union policy. It has nine directorates-general:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subordinate agencies.", "content": "The federal ministry directly governs the following agencies:  Legally independent entities in the Ministry's wider portfolio include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Federal Ministers of Finance.", "content": "Political Party:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Federal Ministry of Finance (), abbreviated BMF, is the cabinet-level finance ministry of Germany, with its seat at the Detlev-Rohwedder-Haus in Berlin and a secondary office in Bonn. The current Federal Minister of Finance is Olaf Scholz (SPD).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971274}
{"src_title": "Leopold von Sacher-Masoch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Von Sacher-Masoch was born in the city of Lemberg (now Lviv, Ukraine), the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, at the time a province of the Austrian Empire, into the Roman Catholic family of an Austrian civil servant, Leopold Johann Nepomuk Ritter von Sacher, and Charlotte von Masoch, a Ukrainian noblewoman. The father later combined his surname with his wife's 'von Masoch', at the request of her family (she was the last of the line). Von Sacher served as a Commissioner of the Imperial Police Forces in Lemberg, and he was recognised with a new title of nobility as Sacher-Masoch awarded by the Austrian Emperor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Galician storyteller.", "content": "Leopold studied law, history and mathematics at Graz University, and after graduating moved back to Lemberg where he became a professor. His early, non-fictional publications dealt mostly with Austrian history. At the same time, Masoch turned to the folklore and culture of his homeland, Galicia. Soon he abandoned lecturing and became a free man of letters. Within a decade his short stories and novels prevailed over his historical non-fiction works, though historical themes continued to imbue his fiction.  Panslavist ideas were prevalent in Masoch's literary work, and he found a particular interest in depicting picturesque types among the various ethnicities that inhabited Galicia. From the 1860s to the 1880s he published a number of volumes of \"Jewish Short Stories\", \"Polish Short Stories\", \"Galician Short Stories\", \"German Court Stories\" and \"Russian Court Stories\". His works were published in translation in Ukrainian, Polish, Russian and French.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Legacy of Cain\".", "content": "In 1869, Sacher-Masoch conceived a grandiose series of short stories under the collective title \"Legacy of Cain\" that would represent the author's aesthetic \"Weltanschauung\". The cycle opened with the manifesto \"The Wanderer\" that brought out misogynist themes that became peculiar to Masoch's writings. Of the six planned volumes, only the first two were ever completed. By the middle of the 1880s, Masoch abandoned the \"Legacy of Cain\". Nevertheless, the published volumes of the series included Masoch's best-known stories, and of them, \"Venus in Furs\" (1869) is the most famous today. The short novel expressed Sacher-Masoch's fantasies and fetishes (especially for dominant women wearing fur). He did his best to live out his fantasies with his mistresses and wives.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philosemitism.", "content": "Sacher-Masoch edited the Leipzig-based monthly literary magazine \"Auf der Höhe. Internationale Review\" (\"At the Pinnacle. International Review\"), which was published from October, 1881 to September, 1885. This was a progressive magazine aimed at tolerance and integration for Jews in Saxony, as well as for the emancipation of women with articles on women's education and suffrage.  In his later years, he worked against local antisemitism through an association for adult education called the \"Oberhessischer Verein für Volksbildung\" (OVV), founded in 1893 with his second wife, Hulda Meister, who had also been his assistant for some years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Private life and inspiration for \"Venus in Furs\".", "content": "Fanny Pistor was an emerging literary writer. She met Sacher-Masoch after she contacted him, under the assumed name and fictitious title of Baroness Bogdanoff, for suggestions on improving her writing to make it suitable for publication.  On 9 December 1869, Sacher-Masoch and Pistor, who was by then his mistress, signed a contract making him her slave for a period of six months, with the stipulation that the Baroness wear furs as often as possible, especially when she was in a cruel mood. Sacher-Masoch took the alias of \"Gregor\", a stereotypical male servant's name, and assumed a disguise as the servant of the Baroness. The two travelled by train to Italy. As in \"Venus in Furs\", he traveled in the third-class compartment, while she had a seat in first-class, arriving in Venice (Florence, in the novel), where they were not known, and would not arouse suspicion.  Sacher-Masoch pressured his first wife – Aurora von Rümelin, whom he married in 1873 – to live out the experience of the book, against her preferences. Sacher-Masoch found his family life to be unexciting, and eventually got a divorce and married his assistant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In 1875, Masoch wrote \"The Ideals of Our Time\", an attempt to give a portrait of German society during its Gründerzeit period.  In his late fifties, his mental health began to deteriorate, and he spent the last years of his life under psychiatric care. According to official reports, he died in Lindheim, Altenstadt, Hesse, in 1895. It is also claimed that he died in an asylum in Mannheim in 1905.  Sacher-Masoch is the great-great-uncle to the British singer and actress Marianne Faithfull on the side of her mother, the Viennese Baroness Eva Erisso.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Masochism.", "content": "The term \"masochism\" was coined in 1886 by the Austrian psychiatrist Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing (1840–1902) in his book \"Psychopathia Sexualis\":  Sacher-Masoch was not pleased with Krafft-Ebing's assertions. Nevertheless, details of Masoch's private life were obscure until Aurora von Rümelin's memoirs, \"Meine Lebensbeichte\" (My Life Confession; 1906), were published in Berlin under the pseudonym Wanda v. Dunajew. The following year, a French translation, \"Confession de Ma Vie\" (1907) by \"Wanda von Sacher-Masoch\", was printed in Paris by Mercure de France. An English translation of the French edition was published as \"The Confessions of Wanda von Sacher-Masoch\" (1991) by RE/Search Publications.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leopold Ritter von Sacher-Masoch (27 January 1836 – 9 March 1895) was an Austrian nobleman, writer and journalist, who gained renown for his romantic stories of Galician life. The term \"masochism\" is derived from his name, invented by his contemporary, the Austrian psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing. Masoch did not approve of this use of his name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971275}
{"src_title": "Processor register", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Size.", "content": "Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an \"8-bit register\", \"32-bit register\" or a \"64-bit register\" or even more. In some instruction sets, the registers can operate in various modes breaking down its storage memory into smaller ones (32-bit into four 8-bit one for instance) to which multiple data (vector, or one dimensional array of data) can be loaded and operated upon at the same time. Typically it is implemented by adding extra registers that map their memory into bigger one. Processors that have the ability to execute single instruction on multiple data are called vector processors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "A processor often contains several kinds of registers, which can be classified according to their content or instructions that operate on them:  Hardware registers are similar, but occur outside CPUs.  In some architectures (such as SPARC and MIPS), the first or last register in the integer register file is a pseudo-register in a way that it is hardwired to always return zero when read (mostly to simplify indexing modes), and it cannot be overwritten. In Alpha this is also done for the floating-point register file. As a result of this, register files are commonly quoted as having one register more than how many of them are actually usable; for example, 32 registers are quoted when only 31 of them fit within the above definition of a register.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "The following table shows the number of registers in several mainstream CPU architectures. Note that in x86-compatible processors the stack pointer (ESP) is counted as an integer register, even though there are a limited number of instructions that may be used to operate on its contents. Similar caveats apply to most architectures.  Although all of the above listed architectures are different, almost all are a basic arrangement known as the Von Neumann architecture, first proposed by the Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann. It is also noteworthy that the number of registers on GPUs is much higher than that on CPUs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "The number of registers available on a processor and the operations that can be performed using those registers has a significant impact on the efficiency of code generated by optimizing compilers. The Strahler number of an expression tree gives the minimum number of registers required to evaluate that expression tree.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A processor register is a quickly accessible location available to a computer's processors. Registers usually consist of a small amount of fast storage, although some registers have specific hardware functions, and may be read-only or write-only. In computer architecture, registers are typically addressed by mechanisms other than main memory, but may in some cases be assigned a memory address e.g. DEC PDP-10, ICT 1900.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971276}
{"src_title": "Vitis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biology.", "content": "Flower buds are formed late in the growing season and overwinter for blooming in spring of the next year. They produce leaf-opposed cymes. \"Vitis\" is distinguished from other genera of Vitaceae by having petals which remain joined at the tip and detach from the base to fall together as a calyptra or 'cap'. The flowers are mostly bisexual, pentamerous, with a hypogynous disk. The calyx is greatly reduced or nonexistent in most species and the petals are joined together at the tip into one unit but separated at the base. The fruit is a berry, ovoid in shape and juicy, with a two-celled ovary each containing two ovules, thus normally producing four seeds per flower (or fewer by way of aborted embryos).  Other parts of the vine include the tendrils which are leaf-opposed, branched in \"Vitis vinifera\", and are used to support the climbing plant by twining onto surrounding structures such as branches or the trellising of a vine-training system.  In the wild, all species of \"Vitis\" are normally dioecious, but under domestication, variants with perfect flowers appear to have been selected.  The genus \"Vitis\" is divided into two subgenera \"Euvitis\" Planch. have 38 chromosomes (n=19) with berries borne on clusters and \"Muscadinia\" Planch. 40 (n=20) with small custers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "Most \"Vitis\" species are found in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in North America and Asia with a few in the tropics. The wine grape \"Vitis vinifera\" originated in southern Europe and southwestern Asia. The species occur in widely different geographical areas and show a great diversity of form.  Their growth makes leaf collection challenging and<nowiki> </nowiki>polymorphic leaves make identification of species difficult. Mature grapevines can grow up to 48 cm in diameter at breast height and reach the upper canopy of trees more than 35 m in height.  Many species are sufficiently closely related to allow easy interbreeding and the resultant interspecific hybrids are invariably fertile and vigorous. Thus the concept of a species is less well defined and more likely represents the identification of different ecotypes of \"Vitis\" that have evolved in distinct geographical and environmental circumstances.  The exact number of species is not certain, with species in Asia in particular being poorly defined. Estimates range from 40 to more than 60. Some of the more notable include:  There are many cultivars of grapevines; most are cultivars of \"V. vinifera\".  Hybrid grapes also exist, and these are primarily crosses between \"V. vinifera\" and one or more of \"V. labrusca\", \"V. riparia\" or \"V. aestivalis\". Hybrids tend to be less susceptible to frost and disease (notably phylloxera), but wine from some hybrids may have a little of the characteristic \"foxy\" taste of \"V. labrusca\".  The Latin word \"Vitis\" has feminine grammatical gender, and therefore species names with adjectival specific epithets take feminine forms, such as \"V. vinifera\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The fruit of several \"Vitis\" species are grown commercially for consumption as fresh grapes and for fermentation into wine. \"Vitis vinifera\" is the most important such species.  The leaves of several species of grapevine are edible and are used in the production of dolmades and Vietnamese lot leaves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial distribution.", "content": "According to the \"Food and Agriculture Organization\" (FAO), 75,866 square kilometres of the world is dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be used as a sweetener for fruits canned \"with no added sugar\" and \"100% natural\". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.  The following list of top wine-producers shows the corresponding areas dedicated to grapes (regardless of the grapes’ final destination):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Domestic cultivation.", "content": "Grapevines are widely cultivated by gardeners, and numerous suppliers cater specifically for this trade. The plants are valued for their decorative foliage, often colouring brightly in autumn; their ability to clothe walls, pergolas and arches, thus providing shade; and their fruits, which may be eaten as dessert or provide the basis for homemade wines. Popular varieties include:-  The following varieties have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pests and diseases.", "content": "Phylloxera is an American root aphid that devastated \"V. vinifera\" vineyards in Europe when accidentally introduced in the late 19th century. Attempts were made to breed in resistance from American species, but many winemakers didn't like the unusual flavour profile of the hybrid vines. However, \"V. vinifera\" grafts readily onto rootstocks of the American species and their hybrids with \"V. vinifera\", and most commercial production of grapes now relies on such grafts.  The black vine weevil is another root pest.  Grapevines are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species - see list of Lepidoptera that feed on grapevines\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolism.", "content": "The grapevine (typically \"Vitis vinifera\") has been used as a symbol since ancient times. In Greek mythology, Dionysus (called Bacchus by the Romans) was god of the vintage and, therefore, a grapevine with bunches of the fruit are among his attributes. His attendants at the Bacchanalian festivals hence had the vine as an attribute, together with the thyrsus, the latter often entwined with vine branches. For the same reason, the Greek wine cup (cantharos) is commonly decorated with the vine and grapes, wine being drunk as a libation to the god.  In Christian iconography, the vine also frequently appears. It is mentioned several times in the New Testament. We have the parable of the kingdom of heaven likened to the father starting to engage laborers for his vineyard. The vine is used as symbol of Jesus Christ based on his own statement, “I am the true vine (John 15:1).” In that sense, a vine is placed as sole symbol on the tomb of Constantia, the sister of Constantine the Great, and elsewhere. In Byzantine art, the vine and grapes figure in early mosaics, and on the throne of Maximianus of Ravenna it is used as a decoration.  The vine as symbol of the chosen people is employed several times in the Old Testament. The vine and wheat ear have been frequently used as symbol of the blood and flesh of Christ, hence figuring as symbols (bread and wine) of the Eucharist and are found depicted on ostensories. Often the symbolic vine laden with grapes is found in ecclesiastical decorations with animals biting at the grapes. At times, the vine is used as symbol of temporal blessing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vitis (grapevines) is a genus of 79 accepted species of vining plants in the flowering plant family Vitaceae. The genus is made up of species predominantly from the Northern hemisphere. It is economically important as the source of grapes, both for direct consumption of the fruit and for fermentation to produce wine. The study and cultivation of grapevines is called viticulture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971277}
{"src_title": "Ethanol fermentation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biochemical process of fermentation of sucrose.", "content": "The chemical equations below summarize the fermentation of sucrose (CHO) into ethanol (CHOH). Alcoholic fermentation converts one mole of glucose into two moles of ethanol and two moles of carbon dioxide, producing two moles of ATP in the process.  The overall chemical formula for alcoholic fermentation is:  Sucrose is a dimer of glucose and fructose molecules. In the first step of alcoholic fermentation, the enzyme invertase cleaves the glycosidic linkage between the glucose and fructose molecules.  Next, each glucose molecule is broken down into two pyruvate molecules in a process known as glycolysis. Glycolysis is summarized by the equation:  CHCOCOO is pyruvate, and P is inorganic phosphate. Finally, pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO in two steps, regenerating oxidized NAD+ needed for glycolysis: catalyzed by pyruvate decarboxylase  This reaction is catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH1 in baker's yeast).  As shown by the reaction equation, glycolysis causes the reduction of two molecules of NAD to NADH. Two ADP molecules are also converted to two ATP and two water molecules via substrate-level phosphorylation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related processes.", "content": "Fermentation of sugar to ethanol and CO can also be done by \"Zymomonas mobilis\", however the path is slightly different since formation of pyruvate does not happen by glycolysis but instead by the Entner–Doudoroff pathway. Other microorganisms can produce ethanol from sugars by fermentation but often only as a side product. Examples are", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Effect of oxygen.", "content": "Fermentation does not require oxygen. If oxygen is present, some species of yeast (e.g., \"Kluyveromyces lactis\" or \"Kluyveromyces lipolytica\") will oxidize pyruvate completely to carbon dioxide and water in a process called cellular respiration, hence these species of yeast will produce ethanol only in an anaerobic environment (not cellular respiration). This phenomenon is known as the Pasteur effect.  However, many yeasts such as the commonly used baker's yeast \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" or fission yeast \"Schizosaccharomyces pombe\" under certain conditions, ferment rather than respire even in the presence of oxygen. In wine making this is known as the counter-Pasteur effect. These yeasts will produce ethanol even under aerobic conditions, if they are provided with the right kind of nutrition. During batch fermentation, the rate of ethanol production per milligram of cell protein is maximal for a brief period early in this process and declines progressively as ethanol accumulates in the surrounding broth. Studies demonstrate that the removal of this accumulated ethanol does not immediately restore fermentative activity, and they provide evidence that the decline in metabolic rate is due to physiological changes (including possible ethanol damage) rather than to the presence of ethanol. Several potential causes for the decline in fermentative activity have been investigated. Viability remained at or above 90%, internal pH remained near neutrality, and the specific activities of the glycolytic and alcohologenic enzymes (measured in vitro) remained high throughout batch fermentation. None of these factors appears to be causally related to the fall in fermentative activity during batch fermentation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bread baking.", "content": "Ethanol fermentation causes bread dough to rise. Yeast organisms consume sugars in the dough and produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as waste products. The carbon dioxide forms bubbles in the dough, expanding it to a foam. Less than 2% ethanol remains after baking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alcoholic beverages.", "content": "All ethanol contained in alcoholic beverages (including ethanol produced by carbonic maceration) is produced by means of fermentation induced by yeast.  In all cases, fermentation must take place in a vessel that allows carbon dioxide to escape but prevents outside air from coming in. This is to reduce risk of contamination of the brew by unwanted bacteria or mold and because a buildup of carbon dioxide creates a risk the vessel will rupture or fail, possibly causing injury or property damage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feedstocks for fuel production.", "content": "Yeast fermentation of various carbohydrate products is also used to produce the ethanol that is added to gasoline.  The dominant ethanol feedstock in warmer regions is sugarcane. In temperate regions, corn or sugar beets are used.  In the United States, the main feedstock for the production of ethanol is currently corn. Approximately 2.8 gallons of ethanol are produced from one bushel of corn (0.42 liter per kilogram). While much of the corn turns into ethanol, some of the corn also yields by-products such as DDGS (distillers dried grains with solubles) that can be used as feed for livestock. A bushel of corn produces about 18 pounds of DDGS (320 kilograms of DDGS per metric ton of maize). Although most of the fermentation plants have been built in corn-producing regions, sorghum is also an important feedstock for ethanol production in the Plains states. Pearl millet is showing promise as an ethanol feedstock for the southeastern U.S. and the potential of duckweed is being studied.  In some parts of Europe, particularly France and Italy, grapes have become a \"de facto\" feedstock for fuel ethanol by the distillation of surplus wine. Surplus sugary drinks may also be used. In Japan, it has been proposed to use rice normally made into sake as an ethanol source.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cassava as ethanol feedstock.", "content": "Ethanol can be made from mineral oil or from sugars or starches. Starches are cheapest. The starchy crop with highest energy content per acre is cassava, which grows in tropical countries.  Thailand already had a large cassava industry in the 1990s, for use as cattle feed and as a cheap admixture to wheat flour. Nigeria and Ghana are already establishing cassava-to-ethanol plants. Production of ethanol from cassava is currently economically feasible when crude oil prices are above US$120 per barrel.  New varieties of cassava are being developed, so the future situation remains uncertain. Currently, cassava can yield between 25-40 tonnes per hectare (with irrigation and fertilizer), and from a tonne of cassava roots, circa 200 liters of ethanol can be produced (assuming cassava with 22% starch content). A liter of ethanol contains circa 21.46 MJ of energy. The overall energy efficiency of cassava-root to ethanol conversion is circa 32%.  The yeast used for processing cassava is \"Endomycopsis fibuligera\", sometimes used together with bacterium \"Zymomonas mobilis\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Byproducts of fermentation.", "content": "Ethanol fermentation produces unharvested byproducts such as heat, carbon dioxide, food for livestock, water, methanol, fuels, fertilizer and alcohols. The cereal unfermented solid residues from the fermentation process, which can be used as livestock feed or in the production of biogas, are referred to as Distillers grains and sold as WDG, \"Wet Distiller's grains\", and DDGS, \"Dried Distiller's Grains with Solubles\", respectively.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ethanol fermentation, also called alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as by-products. Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen, alcoholic fermentation is considered an anaerobic process. It also takes place in some species of fish (including goldfish and carp) where (along with lactic acid fermentation) it provides energy when oxygen is scarce.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971278}
{"src_title": "Anton Raphael Mengs", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Mengs was born in 1728 at Ústí nad Labem (German: Aussig) in the Kingdom of Bohemia, the son of, a Danish painter who eventually established himself at Dresden, where the court of Saxonian-Polish electors and kings was. His older sister, Therese Maron, was also a painter, as was his younger sister, Julia.  His and Therese's births in Bohemia were mere coincidence. Their mother was not their father's wife; Ismael carried on a years-long affair with the family's housekeeper, Charlotte Bormann. In an effort to conceal the births of two illegitimate children, Ismael took Charlotte, under the pretext of \"vacations\", to the nearest bigger town abroad, Ústí nad Labem (90 km upstream of the Elbe River). At least in Anton's case, Ismael Mengs took his baby and Charlotte back to Dresden a few weeks after the birth. There they lived for the next 13 years.  In 1741 Ismael moved his family from Dresden to Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adulthood and death.", "content": "In 1749 Anton Raphael Mengs was appointed first painter to Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, but this did not prevent him from continuing to spend much of his time in Rome. There he married Margarita Guazzi, who had sat for him as a model in 1748. He converted to Catholicism, and in 1754 he became director of the Vatican painting school. His fresco painting \"Parnassus\" at Villa Albani gained him a reputation as a master painter.  In 1749 Mengs accepted a commission from the Duke of Northumberland to make a copy, in oil on canvas, of Raphael's fresco \"The School of Athens\" for his London home. Executed in 1752–5, Mengs's painting is full-sized, but he adapted the composition to a rectangular format and added other figures. It is now in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum.  Mengs died in Rome in June 1779 and was buried there in the Church of Santi Michele e Magno.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "On two occasions he accepted invitations from Charles III of Spain to go to Madrid. There he produced some of his best work, most notably the ceiling of the banqueting hall of the Royal Palace of Madrid, the subject of which was the \"Triumph of Trajan\" and the \"Temple of Glory.\" After the completion of this work in 1777, Mengs returned to Rome, where he died two years later, in poor circumstances, leaving twenty children, seven of whom were pensioned by the king of Spain. His portraits and self-portraits recall an attention to detail and insight often lost in his grander paintings.  His closeness to Johann Joachim Winckelmann has enhanced his historical importance. Mengs came to share Winckelmann's enthusiasm for classical antiquity, and worked to establish the dominance of Neoclassical painting over the then popular Rococo style. At the same time, however, the influence of the Roman Baroque remained strong in his work, particularly in his religious paintings. He would have fancied himself the first neoclassicist, while in fact he may be the last flicker of Baroque art. Rudolf Wittkower wrote: \"In the last analysis, he is as much an end as a beginning\". Goethe regretted that \"so much learning should have been allied to a total want of initiative and poverty of invention, and embodied with a strained and artificial mannerism.\"  Mengs had a well-known rivalry with the contemporary Italian painter Pompeo Batoni. He was also a friend of Giacomo Casanova. Casanova provides accounts of his personality and contemporary reputation through anecdotes in his \"Histoire de Ma Vie\". Among his pupils in Italy were Anton von Maron, Antonio Maron (Vienna, 1731- Naples 1761). His pupils in Spain included Agustín Esteve.  Besides numerous paintings in Madrid, the \"Ascension\" and \"St Joseph\" at Dresden, \"Perseus and Andromeda\" at Saint Petersburg, and the ceiling of the Villa Albani are among his chief works. A \"Noli me tangere\" was commissioned as an altar-piece by All Souls College, Oxford, and is now held in the National Gallery, London. Another altar-piece was installed in Magdalen College, Oxford.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theoretical writings.", "content": "Mengs wrote about art in Spanish, Italian, and German. He reveals an eclectic theory of art that sees perfection as attainable through a well-balanced fusion of diverse excellences: Greek design combined with the expression of Raphael, the chiaroscuro of Correggio, and the colour of Titian.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anton Raphael Mengs (22 March 1728 – 29 June 1779) was a German (Saxon) painter, active in Dresden, Rome and Madrid, who while painting in the Rococo period of the mid-18th century became one of the precursors to Neoclassical painting, which replaced Rococo as the dominant painting style.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971279}
{"src_title": "Bubble sort", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Analysis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance.", "content": "Bubble sort has a worst-case and average complexity of \"О\"(\"n\"), where \"n\" is the number of items being sorted. Most practical sorting algorithms have substantially better worst-case or average complexity, often \"O\"(\"n\" log \"n\"). Even other \"О\"(\"n\") sorting algorithms, such as insertion sort, generally run faster than bubble sort, and are no more complex. Therefore, bubble sort is not a practical sorting algorithm.  The only significant advantage that bubble sort has over most other algorithms, even quicksort, but not insertion sort, is that the ability to detect that the list is sorted efficiently is built into the algorithm. When the list is already sorted (best-case), the complexity of bubble sort is only \"O\"(\"n\"). By contrast, most other algorithms, even those with better average-case complexity, perform their entire sorting process on the set and thus are more complex. However, not only does insertion sort share this advantage, but it also performs better on a list that is substantially sorted (having a small number of inversions).  Bubble sort should be avoided in the case of large collections. It will not be efficient in the case of a reverse-ordered collection.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rabbits and turtles.", "content": "The distance and direction that elements must move during the sort determine bubble sort's performance because elements move in different directions at different speeds. An element that must move toward the end of the list can move quickly because it can take part in successive swaps. For example, the largest element in the list will win every swap, so it moves to its sorted position on the first pass even if it starts near the beginning. On the other hand, an element that must move toward the beginning of the list cannot move faster than one step per pass, so elements move toward the beginning very slowly. If the smallest element is at the end of the list, it will take passes to move it to the beginning. This has led to these types of elements being named rabbits and turtles, respectively, after the characters in Aesop's fable of The Tortoise and the Hare.  Various efforts have been made to eliminate turtles to improve upon the speed of bubble sort. Cocktail sort is a bi-directional bubble sort that goes from beginning to end, and then reverses itself, going end to beginning. It can move turtles fairly well, but it retains \"O(n)\" worst-case complexity. Comb sort compares elements separated by large gaps, and can move turtles extremely quickly before proceeding to smaller and smaller gaps to smooth out the list. Its average speed is comparable to faster algorithms like quicksort.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Step-by-step example.", "content": "Take an array of numbers \" 5 1 4 2 8\", and sort the array from lowest number to greatest number using bubble sort. In each step, elements written in bold are being compared. Three passes will be required;  Now, the array is already sorted, but the algorithm does not know if it is completed. The algorithm needs one whole pass without any swap to know it is sorted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pseudocode implementation.", "content": "In pseudocode the algorithm can be expressed as (0-based array):  procedure bubbleSort(A : list of sortable items) end procedure", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Optimizing bubble sort.", "content": "The bubble sort algorithm can be optimized by observing that the \"n\"-th pass finds the \"n\"-th largest element and puts it into its final place. So, the inner loop can avoid looking at the last \"n\" − 1 items when running for the \"n\"-th time: procedure bubbleSort(A : list of sortable items) end procedure More generally, it can happen that more than one element is placed in their final position on a single pass. In particular, after every pass, all elements after the last swap are sorted, and do not need to be checked again. This allows to skip over many elements, resulting in about a worst case 50% improvement in comparison count (though no improvement in swap counts), and adds very little complexity because the new code subsumes the \"swapped\" variable:  To accomplish this in pseudocode, the following can be written:  procedure bubbleSort(A : list of sortable items) end procedure Alternate modifications, such as the cocktail shaker sort attempt to improve on the bubble sort performance while keeping the same idea of repeatedly comparing and swapping adjacent items.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "Although bubble sort is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, its \"O\"(\"n\") complexity means that its efficiency decreases dramatically on lists of more than a small number of elements. Even among simple \"O\"(\"n\") sorting algorithms, algorithms like insertion sort are usually considerably more efficient.  Due to its simplicity, bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm, or a sorting algorithm, to introductory computer science students. However, some researchers such as Owen Astrachan have gone to great lengths to disparage bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it no longer even be taught.  The Jargon File, which famously calls bogosort \"the archetypical [sic] perversely awful algorithm\", also calls bubble sort \"the generic bad algorithm\". Donald Knuth, in \"The Art of Computer Programming\", concluded that \"the bubble sort seems to have nothing to recommend it, except a catchy name and the fact that it leads to some interesting theoretical problems\", some of which he then discusses.  Bubble sort is asymptotically equivalent in running time to insertion sort in the worst case, but the two algorithms differ greatly in the number of swaps necessary. Experimental results such as those of Astrachan have also shown that insertion sort performs considerably better even on random lists. For these reasons many modern algorithm textbooks avoid using the bubble sort algorithm in favor of insertion sort.  Bubble sort also interacts poorly with modern CPU hardware. It produces at least twice as many writes as insertion sort, twice as many cache misses, and asymptotically more branch mispredictions. Experiments by Astrachan sorting strings in Java show bubble sort to be roughly one-fifth as fast as an insertion sort and 70% as fast as a selection sort.  In computer graphics bubble sort is popular for its capability to detect a very small error (like swap of just two elements) in almost-sorted arrays and fix it with just linear complexity (2\"n\"). For example, it is used in a polygon filling algorithm, where bounding lines are sorted by their \"x\" coordinate at a specific scan line (a line parallel to the \"x\" axis) and with incrementing \"y\" their order changes (two elements are swapped) only at intersections of two lines. Bubble sort is a stable sort algorithm, like insertion sort.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Debate over name.", "content": "Bubble sort has been occasionally referred to as a \"sinking sort\".  For example, in Donald Knuth's \"The Art of Computer Programming\", Volume 3: \"Sorting and Searching\" he states in section 5.2.1 'Sorting by Insertion', that [the value] \"settles to its proper level\" and that this method of sorting has sometimes been called the \"sifting\" or \"sinking\" technique.  This debate is perpetuated by the ease with which one may consider this algorithm from two different but equally valid perspectives:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Former Google CEO Eric Schmidt asked then-presidential candidate Barack Obama once during an interview about the best way to sort one million integers – and Obama, pausing for a moment, then replied: \"I think the bubble sort would be the wrong way to go.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bubble sort, sometimes referred to as sinking sort, is a simple sorting algorithm that repeatedly steps through the list, compares adjacent elements and swaps them if they are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated until the list is sorted. The algorithm, which is a comparison sort, is named for the way smaller or larger elements \"bubble\" to the top of the list.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971280}
{"src_title": "Leitmotif", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classical music.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early instances in classical music.", "content": "The use of characteristic, short, recurring motifs in orchestral music can be traced back to the early seventeenth century, such as \"L'Orfeo\" by Monteverdi. In French opera of the late eighteenth century (such as the works of Gluck, Grétry and Méhul), \"reminiscence motif\" can be identified, which may recur at a significant juncture in the plot to establish an association with earlier events. Their use, however, is not extensive or systematic. The power of the technique was exploited early in the nineteenth century by composers of Romantic opera, such as Carl Maria von Weber, where recurring themes or ideas were sometimes used in association with specific characters (e.g. Samiel in \"Der Freischütz\" is coupled with the chord of a diminished seventh). The first use of the word \"leitmotif\" in print was by the critic Friedrich Wilhelm Jähns in describing Weber's work, although this was not until 1871.  Motifs also figured occasionally in purely instrumental music of the Romantic period. The related idea of the musical \"idée fixe\" was coined by Hector Berlioz in reference to his \"Symphonie fantastique\" (1830). This purely instrumental, programmatic work (subtitled \"Episode in the Life of an Artist\") features a recurring melody representing the object of the artist's obsessive affection and depicting her presence in various real and imagined situations.  Though perhaps not corresponding to the strict definition of leitmotif, several of Verdi's operas feature similar thematic tunes, often introduced in the overtures or preludes, and recurring to mark the presence of a character or to invoke a particular sentiment. In \"La forza del destino\", the opening theme of the overture recurs whenever Leonora feels guilt or fear. In \"Il trovatore\", the theme of the first aria by Azucena is repeated whenever she invokes the horror of how her mother was burnt alive and the devastating revenge she attempted then. In \"Don Carlos\", there are at least three leitmotifs that recur regularly across the five acts: the first is associated with the poverty and suffering from war, the second is associated with prayers around the tomb of Carlos V, and the third is introduced as a duet between Don Carlo and the Marquis of Posa, thereafter accentuating sentiments of sincere friendship and loyalty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wagner.", "content": "Richard Wagner is the earliest composer most specifically associated with the concept of leitmotif. His cycle of four operas, \"Der Ring des Nibelungen\" (the music for which was written between 1853 and 1869), uses hundreds of leitmotifs, often related to specific characters, things, or situations. While some of these leitmotifs occur in only one of the operas, many recur throughout the entire cycle. Wagner had raised the issue of how music could best unite disparate elements of the plot of a music drama in his essay \"Opera and Drama\" (1851); the leitmotif technique corresponds to this ideal.  Some controversy surrounded the use of the word in Wagner's own circle: Wagner never authorised the use of the word \"leitmotiv\", using words such as \"Grundthema\" (basic idea), or simply \"Motiv\". His preferred name for the technique was \"Hauptmotiv\" (principal motif), which he first used in 1877; the only time he used the word \"Leitmotiv\", he referred to \"so-called Leitmotivs\".  The word gained currency with the overly literal interpretations of Wagner's music by Hans von Wolzogen, who in 1876 published a \"Leitfaden\" (guide or manual) to the \"Ring\". In it he claimed to have isolated and named all of the recurring motifs in the cycle (the motif of \"Servitude\", the \"Spear\" or \"Treaty\" motif, etc.), often leading to absurdities or contradictions with Wagner's actual practice. Some of the motifs he identified began to appear in the published musical scores of the operas, arousing Wagner's annoyance; his wife Cosima Wagner quoted him as saying \"People will think all this nonsense is done at my request!\". In fact Wagner himself never publicly named any of his leitmotifs, preferring to emphasize their flexibility of association, role in the musical form, and emotional effect. The practice of naming leitmotifs nevertheless continued, featuring in the work of prominent Wagnerian critics Ernest Newman, Deryck Cooke and Robert Donington.  The resulting lists of leitmotifs also attracted the ridicule of anti-Wagnerian critics and composers (such as Eduard Hanslick, Claude Debussy, and Igor Stravinsky). They identified the motif with Wagner's own approach to composing, mocking the impression of a musical \"address book\" or list of \"cloakroom numbers\" it created.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After Wagner.", "content": "Since Wagner, the use of leitmotifs has been taken up by many other composers. Richard Strauss used the device in many of his operas and several of his symphonic poems. Despite his sometimes acerbic comments on Wagner, Claude Debussy utilized leitmotifs in his opera \"Pelléas et Mélisande\" (1902). Arnold Schoenberg used a complex set of leitmotifs in his choral work \"Gurre-Lieder\" (completed 1911). Alban Berg's opera \"Wozzeck\" (1914–1922) also utilizes leitmotifs. The leitmotif was also a major feature of the opera \"The Immortal Hour\" by the English composer Rutland Boughton. His constantly recurrent, memorably tuneful leitmotifs contributed in no small way to the widespread popularity of the opera.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critique of the leitmotif concept.", "content": "The critic Theodor W. Adorno, in his book \"In Search of Wagner\" (written in the 1930s), expresses the opinion that the entire concept of the leitmotif is flawed. The motif cannot be both the bearer of expression and a musical \"gesture\", because that reduces emotional content to a mechanical process. He notes that \"even in Wagner's own day the public made a crude link between the leitmotifs and the persons they characterised\" because people's innate mental processes did not necessarily correspond with Wagner's subtle intentions or optimistic expectations. He continues: The degeneration of the leitmotiv is implicit in this... it leads directly to cinema music where the sole function of the leitmotif is to announce heroes or situations so as to allow the audience to orient itself more easily.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Entertainment.", "content": "The main ideology behind Leitmotif is to create a sense of attachment to that particular sound that evokes audiences to feel particular emotions when that sound is repeated through the film. Leitmotifs in Adorno's \"degenerated\" sense frequently occur in film scores, and have since the early decades of sound film. One of the first people to implement Leitmotif in early sound films was Fritz Lang in his revolutionary hit \"M\". Lang set the benchmark for sound film through his use of leitmotif, creating a different type of atmosphere in his films.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A leitmotif or leitmotiv () is a \"short, constantly recurring musical phrase\" associated with a particular person, place, or idea. It is closely related to the musical concepts of \"idée fixe\" or motto-theme. The spelling \"leitmotif\" is an anglicization of the German \"Leitmotiv\" (), literally meaning \"leading motif\", or \"guiding motif\". A musical motif has been defined as a \"short musical idea... melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic, or all three\", a salient recurring figure, musical fragment or succession of notes that has some special importance in or is characteristic of a composition: \"the smallest structural unit possessing thematic identity.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971281}
{"src_title": "Digital Equipment Corporation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "From 1957 until 1992, DEC's headquarters were located in a former wool mill in Maynard, Massachusetts. The headquarter buildings were vacated in 1993, renamed Clock Tower Place, and subsequently redeveloped as Mill & Main Place, a 1.1 million square foot facility for offices and light industry.  Initially focusing on the small end of the computer market allowed DEC to grow without its potential competitors making serious efforts to compete with them. Their PDP series of machines became popular in the 1960s, especially the PDP-8, widely considered to be the first successful minicomputer. Looking to simplify and update their line, DEC replaced most of their smaller machines with the PDP-11 in 1970, eventually selling over 600,000 units and cementing DEC's position in the industry.  Originally designed as a follow-on to the PDP-11, DEC's VAX-11 series was the first widely used 32-bit minicomputer, sometimes referred to as \"superminis\". These systems were able to compete in many roles with larger mainframe computers, such as the IBM System/370. The VAX was a best-seller, with over 400,000 sold, and its sales through the 1980s propelled the company into the second largest computer company in the industry. At its peak, DEC was the second largest employer in Massachusetts, second only to the Massachusetts State Government.  The rapid rise of the business microcomputer in the late 1980s, and especially the introduction of powerful 32-bit systems in the 1990s, quickly eroded the value of DEC's systems. DEC's last major attempt to find a space in the rapidly changing market was the DEC Alpha 64-bit RISC instruction set architecture. DEC initially started work on Alpha as a way to re-implement their VAX series, but also employed it in a range of high-performance workstations. Although the Alpha processor family met both of these goals, and, for most of its lifetime, was the fastest processor family on the market, extremely high asking prices were outsold by lower priced x86 chips from Intel and clones such as AMD.  DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry. At the time, Compaq was focused on the enterprise market and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence. However, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. The company subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard (HP) in May 2002.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "Beyond DECsystem-10/20, PDP, VAX and Alpha, DEC was well-respected for its communication subsystem designs, such as Ethernet, DNA (DIGITAL Network Architecture: predominantly DECnet products), DSA (Digital Storage Architecture: disks/tapes/controllers), and its \"dumb terminal\" subsystems including VT100 and DECserver products.  Rainbow 100", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "DEC's Research Laboratories (or Research Labs, as they were commonly known) conducted DEC's corporate research. Some of them were operated by Compaq and are still operated by Hewlett-Packard. The laboratories were:  Some of the former employees of DEC's Research Labs or DEC's R&D in general include:  Some of the former employees of Digital Equipment Corp who were responsible for developing Alpha and StrongARM:  Some of the work of the Research Labs was published in the \"Digital Technical Journal\", which was in published from 1985 until 1998.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accomplishments and legacy.", "content": "DEC supported the ANSI standards, especially the ASCII character set, which survives in Unicode and the ISO 8859 character set family. DEC's own Multinational Character Set also had a large influence on ISO 8859-1 (Latin-1) and, by extension, Unicode.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "User organizations.", "content": "Originally the users' group was called DECUS (Digital Equipment Computer User Society) during the 1960s to 1990s. When Compaq acquired DEC in 1998, the users group was renamed CUO, the Compaq Users' Organisation. When HP acquired Compaq in 2002, CUO became HP-Interex, although there are still DECUS groups in several countries. In the United States, the organization is represented by the Encompass organization; currently Connect. Several editions of the Small Computer Handbook were published by DEC, giving information about their PDP line of computers. The editions were:  Web sites with photos of their covers include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC ), using the trademark Digital, was a major American company in the computer industry from the 1960s to the 1990s. The company was co-founded by Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson in 1957. Olsen was president until forced to resign in 1992, after the company had gone into precipitous decline.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971282}
{"src_title": "Golden Bull of 1356", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "According to the written text of the Golden Bull of 1356:  Though the election of the King of the Romans by the chief ecclesiastical and secular princes of the Holy Roman Empire was well established, disagreements about the process and papal involvement had repeatedly resulted in controversies, most recently in 1314 when Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria had been elected by opposing sets of electors. Louis, who had eventually subdued his rival's claim on the battlefield, made a first attempt to clarify the process in the Declaration of Rhense of 1338, which renounced any papal involvement and had restricted the right to choose a new king to the prince-electors. The Golden Bull, promulgated by Louis's successor and rival, Charles IV, was more precise in several ways.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prince-electors.", "content": "Firstly, the Bull explicitly named the seven Prince-electors (\"Kurfürsten\") who were to choose the King and also defined the \"Reichserzämter\", their (largely ceremonial) offices at court: Secondly, the principle of majority voting was explicitly stated for the first time in the Empire. The Bull prescribed that four (out of seven) votes would always suffice to elect a new King; as a result, three Electors could no longer block the election. Thirdly, the Electoral principalities were declared indivisible, and succession to them was regulated to ensure that the votes would never be divided. Finally, the Bull cemented a number of privileges for the Electors, confirming their elevated role in the Empire. It is therefore also a milestone in the establishment of largely independent states in the Empire, a process to be concluded only centuries later, notably with the Peace of Westphalia of 1648.  This codification of prince-electors, though largely based on precedence, was not uncontroversial, especially in regard to the two chief rivals of the ruling House of Luxembourg:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Procedures.", "content": "The bull regulated the whole election process in great detail, listing explicitly where, when, and under which circumstances what should be done by whom, not only for the prince-electors but also (for example) for the population of Frankfurt, where the elections were to be held, and also for the counts of the regions the prince-electors had to travel through to get there. The decision to hold the elections in Frankfurt reflected a traditional feeling dating from East Frankish days that both election and coronation ought to take place on Frankish soil. However, the election location was not the only specified location; the bull specified that the coronation would take place in Aachen, and Nuremberg would be the place where the first diet of a reign should be held. The elections were to be concluded within thirty days; failing that, the bull prescribed that the prince-electors were to receive only bread and water until they had decided:  Besides regulating the election process, the chapters of the Golden Bull contained many minor decrees. For instance, it also defined the order of marching when the emperor was present, both with and without his insignia. A relatively major decision was made in chapter 15, where Charles IV outlawed any'and ', meaning in particular the city alliances (\"Städtebünde\"), but also other communal leagues that had sprung up through the communal movement in mediaeval Europe. Most \"Städtebünde\" were subsequently dissolved, sometimes forcibly, and where refounded, their political influence was much reduced. Thus the Golden Bull also strengthened the nobility in general to the detriment of the cities.  The pope's involvement with the Golden Bull of 1356 was basically nonexistent, which was significant in the history of relations between the popes and the emperors. When Charles IV laid down procedure for electing a King of the Romans, he mentioned nothing about receiving papal confirmation of the election. However, Pope Innocent VI did not protest this because he needed Charles’s support against the Visconti. Pope Innocent continued to have good relations with Charles IV after the Golden Bull of 1356 until the former's death in 1362.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Golden Bull of 1356 (,, ) was a decree issued by the Imperial Diet at Nuremberg and Metz (Diet of Metz, 1356/57) headed by the Emperor Charles IV which fixed, for a period of more than four hundred years, important aspects of the constitutional structure of the Holy Roman Empire. It was named the \"Golden Bull\" for the golden seal it carried.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971283}
{"src_title": "Equestrian vaulting", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "It is believed by some that the origins of vaulting could be traced to the ancient Roman games, where acrobats usually displayed their skills on cantering horses. Others, however, believe that vaulting originated in ancient Crete, where bull-leaping was prevalent. In either case, people have been performing acrobatic and dance-like movements on (or over) the backs of moving horses/animals for more than 2,000 years.  Renaissance and Middle Ages history include numerous references to vaulting or similar activities. The present name of the sport/art comes from the French \"la voltige,\" which it acquired during the Renaissance, when it was a form of riding drill and agility exercise for cavalry riders.  Modern vaulting developed in post-war Germany as an initiative to introduce children to equestrian sports.  In 1983, vaulting became one of the disciplines recognized by the FEI. European championships were first held in Ebreichsdorf, Austria in 1984, and the first FEI World Vaulting Championship was held in Bulle, Switzerland in 1986. Vaulting was included in the World Equestrian Games in Stockholm in 1990 and in all subsequent editions of the games. It was demonstrated as an art during the 1984 and 1996 Olympic Games events. It has been included in the Inter-Africa Cup since 2006.  The first World Cup Vaulting competition was held in Leipzig on 29–30 April 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competitive vaulting.", "content": "In competitive vaulting, vaulters compete as individuals, pairs (pas-de-deux) and teams. Beginning vaulters compete in walk while experienced vaulters compete in canter. The vaulting horse moves in a minimum 15-metre diameter circle and is directed by a lunger (or \"longeur\") who stands in the center. In competitive vaulting, the rider and horse will both be judged on a scale from 1 to 10.  Vaulting competitions consist of compulsory exercises and choreographed freestyle exercises done to music. There are seven compulsory exercises: mount, basic seat, flag, mill, scissors, stand and flank. Each exercise is scored on a scale from 0 to 10. Horses also receive a score and are judged on the quality of their movement as well as their behavior.  Vaulters compete in team, pas-de-deux and individual categories. An individual freestyle (also known as Kür) is a 1-minute program, the pas-de-deux kür is 2 minutes while the team is 4 minutes. They are all choreographed to music. The components of a freestyle vaulting routine \"may\" include mounts and dismounts, handstands, kneeling and standing and aerial moves such jumps, leaps and tumbling skills. However, many of these skills are only seen in the highest levels. A typical routine for a child or beginner will more likely contain variations on simple kneels and planks. Teams also carry, lift, or even toss another vaulter in the air. Judging is based on technique, performance, form, difficulty, balance, security, and consideration of the horse; the horse is also scored, taking up 25% of the total score.  Vaulting horses are not saddled but wear a surcingle (or a roller) and a thick back pad. The surcingle has special handles which aid the vaulter in performing certain moves as well as leather loops called \"cossack stirrups\". The horse wears a bridle and side reins. The lunge line is usually attached to the inside bit ring.  Vaulting horses typically move on the left rein (counterclockwise), but in some competitions the horse canters in the other direction. Two-phase classes of competition also work the horse to the right. While many European clubs do not compete to the right, they still work at home evenly both directions, believing this benefits the horse and the vaulter.  The premier vaulting competitions are the biannual World and Continental Championships and the World Equestrian Games (WEG) held every four years. In many countries, vaulting associations organize and sponsor national, regional and local events every year. In 2011 there were at least 24 countries with such organisations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competition movements.", "content": "Vaulters perform movements on the back of the horse. Novice and beginning vaulters may perform at the walk or the trot while higher level vaulters perform at the canter. There are compulsory exercises and depending on class the vaulter performs seven or eight of them:  The compulsories are performed in succession in the above order, without pause or dismounts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dress code.", "content": "The International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI) regulates dress codes for competitive vaulting. Every 2–3 years, new guidelines are released, which consistently declare that vaulters must wear form-fitting uniforms that do not conceal the line and form of the vaulter's body, as well as not hinder the movement of the vaulter or the safe interaction between the vaulters. For that reason, accessories such as belts, capes or hats are prohibited. Additionally, men’s trousers must be secured at the ankle. It is expected that clothing be appropriate for the competition and does not give the effect of nudity. The most common form-fitting uniforms worn by vaulters are unitards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Non-competitive vaulting.", "content": "In addition to competition, vaulting is a form of artistry, recreation and entertainment. Vaulters range in age from 7 to 30 years and older, practicing individual and team skills and routines. The youngest athletes begin at the walk gait and progress to trot, and canter, based on strength, height, and ability to mount and performing on the horse.  Vaulting is used on a therapeutic level in some instances. People with disabilities can often benefit from interacting with the horse and team members, and by doing simple movements with the help of \"spotters.\"  Vaulting is often seen on a recreational level, through vaulting \"demonstrations,\" and occasionally in local parades.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Equestrian vaulting, or simply vaulting, is most often described as gymnastics and dance on horseback, which can be practiced both competitively or non-competitively. Vaulting has a history as an equestrian act at circuses, but its origins stretch back at least two-thousand years. It is open to both men and women and is one of ten equestrian disciplines recognized by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (Fédération Équestre Internationale or FEI). Therapeutic or interactive vaulting is also used as an activity for children and adults who may have balance, attention, gross motor skill or social deficits.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971284}
{"src_title": "Furka Oberalp Railway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Schöllenenbahn.", "content": "The Schöllenenbahn (SchB) was opened in 1917 from Göschenen up to Andermatt. It has a station connecting with the Gotthard railway line of the Swiss Federal Railways. Initially it was electrified with 1,200 V DC. In 1941, when electrification of FO started, SchB was converted to 11,000 V AC. In 1961, it merged with the Furka Oberalp Bahn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Furka Bergstrecke.", "content": "There are many avalanches between Realp and Oberwald. The section over the Furka Pass used to be closed during winters. The mountain section was closed in the winter of 1981 and was replaced by a tunnel (length: ) in 1982. The association called \"Verein Furka-Bergstrecke\" and the company Dampfbahn Furka-Bergstrecke now run a heritage railway with steam locomotives on the old route.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "When FO was founded in 1925, it came in possession of the BFD rolling stock, introduced in 1914 and consisting of For a long time, FO couldn't afford to buy new coaches and wagons and rebuilt many of these vehicles. Some of the large luggage and mail vans were rebuilt as passenger coaches, some became covered goods wagons. Two axle coaches got luggage compartments to provide for a well adapted transport capacity. When some coaches got new bogies from SWS, Schlieren in 1947, the old bogies were reused to build 4 covered wagons. During the Second World War, three flat wagons had been built using underframes from coaches. 1949 these coaches came back to service with new underframes and bogies from SIG. FO always suffered from not having really enough vehicles but was lucky having two neighbouring companies where additional rolling stock could be leased for peak traffic.  Electrification during the Second World War necessarily brought new rolling stock. SLM delivered together with Six of the steam locomotives were after the War sold to France (two) and Vietnam (four) while four locomotives remained. In 1946 a small electric shunter Te 2/2 1041 (later 4926) was built by SLM and SAAS for Brig station. Later, two more locomotives were delivered by SLM and MFO  The 1961 merger with Schöllenenbahn enlarged stock by  Finally, after the merger, FO could begin with the modernisation of its rolling stock and took delivery of  1971/72 FO took delivery of 4 push-pull consists with motor luggage vans, one additional motor to compensate for the loss of locomotive 35, destroyed in a head-on collision, and four additional driving trailers to form small push-pull consists with the existing motor coaches 41–45. The coaches were of SIG1-type, also introduced on BVZ, SBB-Brünigbahn, BOB and MOB.  All this rolling stock was, for motive power and coaches, all red with a simple FO inscription. With the opening of the new Furka tunnel approaching, the wooden coaches had to be replaced and the number of vehicles extended. The number of push-pull consists was extended to 9 long and 5 short ones. The coaches were of SIG2 type, also delivered to MOB. But now, the all-red-status should be left. A new livery in red with a white stripe was introduced and within a few years extended to existing modern rolling stock. For the Furka tunnel car shuttle trains, FO took delivery of  A little addition could be made some years later, but the coaches now came from ACMV Vevey  Finally FO got panoramic coaches as developed by MOB  There was no departmental stock for a long time except for one snow plough, introduced 1917. 1943 and 55 some tram wagons were bought and added to service stock. With modern stock arriving, many coaches and wagons were reused in departmental stock.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Furka Oberalp Railway () is a narrow gauge mountain railway in Switzerland with a gauge of. It runs in the Graubünden, Uri and Canton of Valais. Since January 1, 2003, it is part of the Matterhorn Gotthard Bahn when it merged with the BVZ Zermatt-Bahn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971285}
{"src_title": "Das Erste", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The channel's first experimental broadcast was on 27 November 1950 as the TV channel of the then NWDR, which in 1956 split into NDR and WDR. The regular NWDR television service started on 25 December 1952. Nationwide transmission began on 1 November 1954 within the ARD framework, under the name \"Deutsches Fernsehen\" (\"German Television\"). It was West Germany's only television channel prior to the establishment of ZDF in 1963.  The new channel consisted of jointly-produced shows such as the nightly news programme \"Tagesschau\" (on the air since 26 December 1952), as well as broadcasts produced individually by ARD member stations. The programs were coordinated by the \"Programmdirektion\" based in Munich. Besides several entertaining shows, ARD went political in 1957 when it launched its first political TV magazine, Panorama. Germany's first political TV show adopted the slogan \"What is being talked about and what should be talked about\" and pictured all aspects of postwar West German society—including conflict-laden topics, scandals, and other taboo topics, such as former Nazis who had held important roles.  ARD nevertheless produced a provisional second TV channel from 1 June 1961 until ZDF started its transmissions on 1 April 1963. Colour television was introduced on 25 August 1967. From 1 September 1995 Das Erste broadcasts 24 hours a day.  The channel's name was changed to \"Erstes Deutsches Fernsehen\" (\"First German Television\") on 30 September 1984. At the same time, a new corporate design was introduced, designed by Hans Bacher, along with new CGI idents produced by Cranston/Csuri Productions in Columbus, Ohio. The previous logo, with stylized waves, was replaced by a new logo showing a stylized number \"1\" which is still in use today. It changed its name to \"Das Erste\" on 1 January 1997, but the long name \"Erstes Deutsches Fernsehen\" is still used for some purposes (e.g. the introduction to the main editions of the \"Tagesschau\"). Informally, it is also known under the metonym \"ARD\" among viewers.  In addition to its SD broadcast, a 720p50 HD version of the channel, \"Das Erste HD\", is also broadcast. Broadcast of \"Das Erste HD\" began in February 2010 with the coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. \"Das Erste HD\" is available via satellite (DVB-S2 on Astra 19.2°E), cable (all cable providers in Germany and some providers throughout Europe), IPTV (Telekom Entertain), encoded using H.264 AVC, and on digital terrestrial television in 1080p50, encoded using H.265 HEVC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Member broadcasting organizations.", "content": "All nine of Germany's regional public-broadcasting organizations contribute to the output of Das Erste and broadcast its programming in a common schedule.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Time assigned.", "content": "Each regional member of ARD (themselves informally referred to as \"Die Dritten\", \"the Thirds\") contributes programming to the channel's schedule in proportion to the population of the area it serves., the time allocations as percentage shares of total broadcast hours were:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Broadcasting.", "content": "Before 1990, Das Erste was only distributed in West Germany, and was almost exclusively broadcast using transmitters owned by the Deutsche Bundespost. However, the transmitters were powerful enough that Das Erste could easily be seen in nearly all of East Germany as well. Indeed, Das Erste's broadcasts, particularly its newscasts, were far more popular in East Germany than those of state broadcaster Deutscher Fernsehfunk. Exceptions included Dresden, located in a deep valley in southeastern East Germany, and the area around Rügen. One popular nickname for ARD in East Germany was \"Außer Rügen und Dresden\" (except Rügen and Dresden).  On 15 December 1990 following reunification, programming from ARD was distributed by Deutsche Post of the GDR for the first time. The GDR-transmitters were later taken over by the Bundespost and merged organizationally with the West German transmitters. The transmitters of the Bundespost were transferred in 1995 to Deutsche Telekom, and then in turn to T-Systems. Between 2002 and 2008 the transmission facilities in Germany were successively converted from the analogue terrestrial PAL standard to the new digital terrestrial DVB-T television standard.  Das Erste is available throughout Europe on free-to-air digital satellite television via Astra, as well as on many cable providers. Transmission via the Hot Bird satellite was stopped on 1 April 2017.  SD broadcasting via satellite (Astra 19.2) will stop on 12 January 2021.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Audience share.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "The average age of the viewers is 61 years ().", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Das Erste (, \"The First\") is the flagship national television channel of the ARD association of public broadcasting corporations in Germany. ARD and ZDF – \"the Second\" German Television Channel – together comprise the public service television broadcasters in the German television system. \"Das Erste\" is jointly operated by the nine regional public broadcasting corporations that are members of the ARD.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971286}
{"src_title": "Theophanu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "According to the marriage certificate issued on 14 April 972 Theophanu is identified as the \"neptis\" (niece or granddaughter) of Emperor John I Tzimiskes (925–976, reigned 969–976) who was of Armenian descent. She was of distinguished noble heritage: the Vita Mahthildis identifies her as \"augusti de palatio\" and the Annales Magdeburgenses describe her as \"Grecam illustrem imperatoriae stirpi proximam, ingenio facundam\". Recent research tends to concur that she was most probably the daughter of Tzimiskes' brother-in-law (from his first marriage) Constantine Skleros (c. 920–989) and cousin Sophia Phokas, the daughter of \"Kouropalatēs\" Leo Phokas, brother of Emperor Nikephoros II (c. 912–969).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Theophanu was not \"born in the purple\" as the Ottonians would have preferred. The Saxon chronicler Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg writes that the Ottonian preference was for Anna Porphyrogenita, a daughter of late Emperor Romanos II. Theophanu's uncle John I Tzimiskes had overthrown his predecessor Nikephoros II Phokas in 969. Theophanu was escorted back to Rome for her wedding by a delegation of German and Italian churchmen and nobles. When the Ottonian court discovered Theophanu was not a scion of the Macedonian dynasty, as had been assumed, Otto I was told by some to send Theophanu away. His advisors believed that Theophanu's relation to the usurper John Tzimiskes would invalidate the marriage as a confirmation of Otto I as Holy Roman Emperor.. He was persuaded to allow her to stay when it was pointed out that John Tzimiskes had wed Theodora, a member of the Macedonian dynasty and sister to Emperor Romanos II. John was therefore was a Macedonian, by marriage if not by birth. Otto I must have been convinced, because Theophanu and Otto's heir, Otto II, were married on 14 April 972.  Otto I was told by some to send Theophanu away, on account of the notion that her questionable imperial origin would not legitimize the emperorship.  A reference by the Pope to Emperor Nikephoros II as \"Emperor of the Greeks\" in a letter while Otto's ambassador, Bishop Liutprand of Cremona, was at the Byzantine court, had destroyed the first round of marriage negotiations. With the ascension of John I Tzimiskes, who had not been personally referred to other than as Roman Emperor, the treaty negotiations were able to resume. However, not until a third delegation led by Archbishop Gero of Cologne arrived in Constantinople, were they successfully completed. After the marriage negotiations completed, Theophanu and Otto II were married by Pope John XIII in April 972 and she was crowned as Holy Roman Empress the same day in Rome. According to Karl Leysers' book \"Communications and Power in Medieval Europe: Carolingian and Ottonian,\" Otto I's choice was not \"to be searched for in the parlance of high politics\" as his decision was ultimately made on the basis of securing his dynasty with the birth of the next Ottonian emperor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Empress.", "content": "Otto II succeeded his father on 8 May 973. Theophanu accompanied her husband on all his journeys, and she is mentioned in approximately one quarter of the emperor's formal documents - evidence of her privileged position, influence and interest in affairs of the empire. It is known that she was frequently at odds with her mother-in-law, Adelaide of Italy, which caused an estrangement between Otto II and Adelaide. According to Abbot Odilo of Cluny, Adelaide was very happy when \"that Greek woman\" died.  The Benedictine chronicler Alpert of Metz describes Theophanu as being an unpleasant and chattery woman. Theophanu was also criticized for having introduced new luxurious garments and jewelry into France and Germany. The theologian Peter Damian even asserts that Theophanu had a love affair with John Philagathos, a Greek monk who briefly reigned as Antipope John XVI.  Otto II died suddenly on 7 December 983 at the age of 28, probably from malaria. His three-year-old son, Otto III, had already been appointed King of the Romans during a diet held on Pentecost of that year at Verona. At Christmas, Theophanu had him crowned by the Mainz archbishop Willigis at Aachen Cathedral, with herself ruling as Empress Regent on his behalf. Upon the death of Emperor Otto II, Bishop Folcmar of Utrecht released his cousin, the Bavarian duke Henry the Quarrelsome from custody. Duke Henry allied with Archbishop Warin of Cologne and seized his nephew Otto III in spring 984, while Theophanu was still in Italy. Nevertheless he was forced to surrender the child to his mother, who was backed by Archbishop Willigis of Mainz and Bishop Hildebald of Worms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regency.", "content": "Theophanu ruled the Holy Roman Empire as regent for a span of five years, from May 985 to her death in 991, despite early opposition by the Ottonian court. In fact, many queens in the tenth century, on an account of male rulers dying early deaths, found themselves in power, creating an age of women rulers for a small period of time. During her regency, Theophanu brought from her native east, a culture of royal women at the helm of a small amount of political power, something that the West--of which she was in rule of--had remained generally opposed to for centuries before her regency. Theophanu and her mother-in-law, Adelaide, are known during the empress' regency to have butted heads frequently--Adelaide of Italy is even quoted as referring to her as \"that Greek empress.\" Theophanu's rivalry with her mother-in-law, according to historian and author Simon Maclean, is overstated. Theophanu's \"Greekness\" was not an overall issue, moreover, there was a grand fascination with the culture surrounding Byzantine court in the west that slighted most criticisms to her Greek origin.  Theophanu did not remain merely as an image of the Ottonian empire, but as an influence within the Holy Roman Empire. She intervened within the governing of the empire a total of seventy-six times during the reign of her husband Otto II—perhaps a foreshadowing of her regency. Her first act as regent was in securing her son, Otto III, as the heir to the Holy Roman Empire. Theophanu also placed her daughters in power by giving them high positions in influential nunneries all around the Ottonian-ruled west, securing power for all her children. She welcomed ambassadors, declaring herself \"imperator\" or \"imperatrix\", as did her relative contemporaries Irene of Athens and Theodora; the starting date for her reign being 972, the year of her marriage to the late Otto II. Though never donning any armor, she also waged war and sought peace agreements throughout her regency. Theophanu's regency is a time of considerable peace, as the years 985-991 passed without major crises. Though the myth of Theophanu's prowess as \"imperator\" could be an overstatement, according to historian Gerd Althoff, royal charters present evidence that magnates were at the core of governing the empire. Althoff remarks this as unusual, seeing that kings or emperors in the middle ages rarely shared such a large beacon of empirical power with nobility. Due to illness beginning in 988, Theophanu eventually died at Nijmegen and was buried in the Church of St. Pantaleon near her wittum in Cologne in 991. The chronicler Thietmar eulogized her as follows: \"\"Though [Theophanu] was of the weak sex she possessed moderation, trustworthiness, and good manners. In this way she protected with male vigilance the royal power for her son, friendly with all those who were honest, but with terrifying superiority against rebels\".\"  Because Otto III was still a child, his grandmother Adelaide of Italy took over the regency until Otto III became old enough to rule on his own.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theophanu (; also \"Theophania\", \"Theophana\", or \"Theophano\"; Medieval Greek ; AD 955 15 June 991) was empress of the Holy Roman Empire by marriage to Emperor Otto II, and regent of Empire during the minority of their son, Emperor Otto III, from 983 until her death in 991. She was the niece of the Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971287}
{"src_title": "Maceo Parker", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Parker was born in Kinston, North Carolina. Parker's father played piano and drums in addition to singing in church with Parker's mother; his brother Melvin played drums and his brother Kellis played the trombone. Parker and his brother Melvin joined James Brown in 1964; in his autobiography, Brown claims that he originally wanted Melvin as his drummer, but agreed to additionally take Maceo under his wing as part of the deal. In 1970, Parker, his brother Melvin, and a few of Brown's band members left to establish the band Maceo & All the King's Men, which toured for two years.  In January 1973, Parker rejoined with James Brown. He also charted a single \"Parrty – Part I\" (#71 pop singles) with Maceo & the Macks that year. In 1975, Parker and some of Brown's band members, including Fred Wesley, left to join George Clinton's band Parliament-Funkadelic. Parker once again re-joined James Brown from 1984 to 1988.  In the 1990s, Parker began a solo career. His first album of this period \"Roots Revisited\" spent 10 weeks at the top of the Billboard Contemporary Jazz Charts. To date he has released 11 solo albums since 1990. His band has been billed as \"the greatest little funk orchestra on earth\" and the \"million-dollar support band\". Parker's 1992 live album \"Life on Planet Groove\" is considered to be his seminal live album, marking his first collaboration with Dutch saxophonist Candy Dulfer.  In 1993, Parker made guest appearances on hip hop group De La Soul's album \"Buhloone Mindstate\". In the late 1990s, Parker began contributing semi-regularly to recordings by Prince and accompanying his band, The New Power Generation, on tour. He also played on the Jane's Addiction track \"My Cat's Name Is Maceo\" for their 1997 compilation album \"Kettle Whistle\". In 1998, Parker performed as a guest on \"What Would You Say\" on a Dave Matthews Band concert, which also became one of their live albums, \"Live in Chicago 12.19.98\".  In 2007, Parker performed as part of Prince's band for Prince's 21 nights at the O2 arena. Parker also played as part of Prince's band for his 21-night stay at LA's Forum in 2011.  Parker's album \"Roots & Grooves\" with the WDR Big Band is a tribute to Ray Charles, whom Parker cites as one of his most important influences. The album won a Jammie for best Jazz Album in 2009. Parker followed this up with another collaboration with WDR Big Band in 2012 with the album \"Soul Classics\".  In October 2011, Parker was inducted in the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame.  In July 2012, Parker was the recipient of a Lifetime Achievement Award from Victoires Du Jazz in Paris. He continues touring, headlining many jazz festivals in Europe and doing as many as 290 concerts a year.  In May 2016, Parker received The North Carolina Heritage Award from his home state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Autobiography.", "content": "In February 2013, Parker published his autobiography, \"98% Funky Stuff: My Life in Music\" with the publisher Chicago Review Press.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Maceo plays a gold-plated Selmer Mark VI alto saxophone and the mouthpiece he uses is a #3 Brilhart Ebolin. Maceo's reed of choice is the Vandoren Java, 3.5 gauge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In media.", "content": "Parker was portrayed by Craig Robinson in the 2014 James Brown biopic \"Get on Up\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maceo Parker (; born February 14, 1943) is an American funk and soul jazz saxophonist, best known for his work with James Brown in the 1960s, as well as Parliament-Funkadelic in the 1970s. Parker was a prominent soloist on many of Brown's hit recordings, and a key part of his band, playing alto, tenor and baritone saxophones. Since the early 1990s, he has toured under his own name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971288}
{"src_title": "Musée d'Orsay", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The museum building was originally a railway station, Gare d'Orsay, constructed for the Chemin de Fer de Paris à Orléans and finished in time for the 1900 Exposition Universelle to the design of three architects: Lucien Magne, Émile Bénard and Victor Laloux. It was the terminus for the railways of southwestern France until 1939.  By 1939 the station's short platforms had become unsuitable for the longer trains that had come to be used for mainline services. After 1939 it was used for suburban services and part of it became a mailing centre during World War II. It was then used as a set for several films, such as Kafka's \"The Trial\" adapted by Orson Welles, and as a haven for the Renaud–Barrault Theatre Company and for auctioneers, while the Hôtel Drouot was being rebuilt.  In 1970, permission was granted to demolish the station but Jacques Duhamel, Minister for Cultural Affairs, ruled against plans to build a new hotel in its stead. The station was put on the supplementary list of Historic Monuments and finally listed in 1978. The suggestion to turn the station into a museum came from the Directorate of the Museum of France. The idea was to build a museum that would bridge the gap between the Louvre and the National Museum of Modern Art at the Georges Pompidou Centre. The plan was accepted by Georges Pompidou and a study was commissioned in 1974. In 1978, a competition was organized to design the new museum. ACT Architecture, a team of three young architects (Pierre Colboc, Renaud Bardon and Jean-Paul Philippon), were awarded the contract which involved creating of new floorspace on four floors. The construction work was carried out by Bouygues. In 1981, the Italian architect Gae Aulenti was chosen to design the interior including the internal arrangement, decoration, furniture and fittings of the museum. Finally in July 1986, the museum was ready to receive its exhibits. It took 6 months to install the 2000 or so paintings, 600 sculptures and other works. The museum officially opened in December 1986 by then-president François Mitterrand.  From 2020 on, the Musée d’Orsay is scheduled to undergo a radical transformation over the next decade, funded in part by an anonymous US patron who donated €20 million to a building project known as \"Orsay Grand Ouvert\" (Orsay Wide Open). The gift was made via the American Friends of the Musées d’Orsay et de l’Orangerie.  The square next to the museum displays six bronze allegorical sculptural groups in a row, originally produced for the Exposition Universelle:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collection.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sculptures.", "content": "Major sculptors represented in the collection include Alfred Barye, François Rude, Jules Cavelier, Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, Émile-Coriolan Guillemin, Auguste Rodin, Paul Gauguin, Camille Claudel, Sarah Bernhardt and Honoré Daumier.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other works.", "content": "It also holds collections of:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Management.", "content": "The Directors have been:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Musée d'Orsay (,, ) is a museum in Paris, France, on the Left Bank of the Seine. It is housed in the former Gare d'Orsay, a Beaux-Arts railway station built between 1898 and 1900. The museum holds mainly French art dating from 1848 to 1914, including paintings, sculptures, furniture, and photography. It houses the largest collection of impressionist and post-Impressionist masterpieces in the world, by painters including Monet, Manet, Degas, Renoir, Cézanne, Seurat, Sisley, Gauguin, and Van Gogh. Many of these works were held at the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume prior to the museum's opening in 1986. It is one of the largest art museums in Europe. Musée d'Orsay had more than 3.6 million visitors in 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971289}
{"src_title": "Falconidae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Falcons and caracaras are small to medium-sized birds of prey, ranging in size from the black-thighed falconet, which can weigh as little as, to the gyrfalcon, which can weigh as much as. They have strongly hooked bills, sharply curved talons and excellent eyesight. The plumage is usually composed of browns, whites, chestnut, black and grey, often with barring of patterning. There is little difference in the plumage of males and females, although a few species have some sexual dimorphism in boldness of plumage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The family has a cosmopolitan distribution across the world, absent only from the densest forest of central Africa, some remote oceanic islands, the high Arctic and Antarctica. Some species have exceptionally wide ranges, particularly the cosmopolitan peregrine falcon, which ranges from Greenland to Fiji and has the widest natural breeding distribution of any bird. Other species have more restricted distributions, particularly island endemics like the Mauritius kestrel. Most habitat types are occupied, from tundra to rainforest and deserts, although they are generally more birds of open country and even forest species tend to prefer broken forest and forest edges. Some species, mostly in the genus \"Falco\", are fully migratory, with some species summering in Eurasia and wintering entirely in Africa, other species may be partly migratory. The Amur falcon has one of the longest migrations, moving from East Asia to southern Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet and feeding.", "content": "Falcons and caracaras are carnivores, feeding on birds, small mammals including bats, reptiles, insects and carrion. In popular imagination the falconids are fast flying predators, and while this is true of the genus \"Falco\" and some falconets, other species, particularly the caracaras, are more sedentary in their feeding. The forest falcons of the Neotropics are generalist forest hunters. Several species, particularly the true falcons, will stash food supplies in caches. They are solitary hunters and pairs guard territories, although they may form large flocks during migration. Some species are specialists, such as the laughing falcon, which specialises in snakes, others are more generalist.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "The falcons and caracaras are generally solitary breeders, although around 10% of species are colonial, for example the red-footed falcon. They are monogamous, although some caracaras may also employ alloparenting strategies, where younger birds help adults (usually their parents) in raising the next brood of chicks. Nests are generally not built (except by the caracaras), but are co opted from other birds, for example pygmy falcons nest in the nests of weavers, or on the ledges on cliffs. Around 2–4 eggs are laid, and mostly incubated by the female. Incubation times vary from species to species and are correlated with body size, lasting 28 days in smaller species and up to 35 days in larger species. Chicks fledge after 28–49 days, again varying with size.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relations with humans.", "content": "Falcons and caracaras have a complicated relationship with humans. In ancient Egypt they were deified in the form of Horus, the sky and sun god who was the ancestor of the pharaohs. Caracaras also formed part of the legends of the Aztecs. Falcons were important in the (formerly often royal) sport of falconry. They have also been persecuted for their predation on game and farm animals, and that persecution has led to the extinction of at least one species, the Guadalupe caracara. Several insular species have declined dramatically, none more so than the Mauritius kestrel, which at one time numbered no more than four birds. Around five species of falcon are considered vulnerable to extinction by the IUCN, including the saker falcon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy and systematics.", "content": "The family Falconidae was introduced by the English zoologist William Elford Leach in a guide to the contents of the British Museum published in 1820.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Families.", "content": "Traditionally, the raptors were grouped into four families in the single order Falconiformes, but many thought this group to be paraphyletic and not to share a common ancestor to the exclusion of all other birds.  First, multiple lines of evidence in the 1970s and 1980s suggested that the New World vultures Cathartidae were more closely related to storks and herons (Ciconiiformes), though more recent work places them outside that group as well. Consequently, New World vultures are now often raised to the rank of an independent order Cathartiformes not closely associated with either birds of prey or storks or herons. In 2007, the American Ornithologists' Union's North American checklist moved Cathartidae back into the lead position in Falconiformes, but with an asterisk that indicates it is a taxon \"that is probably misplaced in the current phylogenetic listing but for which data indicating proper placement are not yet available\".  In Europe, it has become common to split the remaining raptors into two: the falcons and caracaras remain in the order Falconiformes (about 60 species in 4 groups), and the remaining 220-odd species (including the Accipitridae eagles, hawks, Old World vultures, etc.) are put in the separate order Accipitriformes. An unplaced prehistoric family known only from fossils are the Horusornithidae.  In agreement with the split of Falconiformes and Accipitriformes, comparative genome analysis published in 2008 suggested that falcons are more closely related to the parrots and passerines than to other birds including the Accipitridae, so that the traditional Falconiformes are polyphyletic even if the Cathartidae are excluded. Indeed, a 2011 analysis of transposable element insertions shared between the genomes of falcons, passerines, and parrots, but not present in the genomes of other birds, confirmed that falcons are a sister group of the combined parrot/passerine group, together forming the clade Eufalconimorphae.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subfamilies.", "content": "The clade Falconidae is composed of three main branches: the falconets and true falcons, the caracaras, and the forest falcons. Differences exist between authorities in how these are grouped into subfamilies. Also, the placement of the laughing falcon (\"Herpetotheres\") and the spot-winged falconet (\"Spiziapteryx\") varies.  One common approach uses two subfamilies Polyborinae and Falconinae. The first contains the caracaras, forest falcons, and laughing falcon. All species in this group are native to the Americas.  The composition of Falconidae is disputed, and Polyborninae is not featured in the American Ornithologists' Union checklists for North and South American birds that are produced by its Classification Committees (NACC and SACC). The Check-list of North American Birds considers the laughing falcon a true falcon (Falconinae) and replaces Polyborinae with Caracarinae and Micrasturinae. On the other hand, the Check-list of South American Birds classifies all caracaras as true falcons and puts the laughing falcon and forest falcons into the subfamily Herpetotherinae.  Based on genetic research from the late 1990s to 2015, Boyd uses three subfamilies. He places the laughing falcon (\"Herpetotheres\") with the forest falcons (\"Micrastur\") into Herpetotherinae (similar to SACC). Caracarinae is separate (similar to NACC), but also contains the spot-winged falconet (\"Spiziapteryx\"). The other falcons are placed in Falconinae.  Falconinae, in its traditional classification, contains the falcons, falconets, and pygmy falcons. Depending on the authority, Falconinae may also include the caracaras and/or the laughing falcon. Boyd further divides the Falconinae into two tribes: Polyhieracini containing the \"Microhierax\" falconets, plus Falconini containing the \"Falco\" falcons. The pygmy falcon and the white-rumped (pygmy) falcon are split into separate genera (\"Polyhierax\" and \"Neohierax\"), with the former placed into Polyhieracini and the latter into Falconini.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genera in taxonomic order.", "content": "Family: Falconidae", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The falcons and caracaras are around 60 species of diurnal birds of prey that make up the order Falconiformes. The family is divided into two subfamilies, Polyborinae, which includes the caracaras and forest falcons, and Falconinae, the falcons, kestrels and falconets (\"Microhierax\" and \"Spiziapteryx\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971290}
{"src_title": "Vim (text editor)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Vim's forerunner, Stevie (ST Editor for VI Enthusiasts), was created by Tim Thompson for the Atari ST in 1987 and further developed by Tony Andrews and G.R. (Fred) Walter.  Basing his work on Stevie, Bram Moolenaar began working on Vim for the Amiga computer in 1988, with the first public release (Vim v1.14) in 1991.  At the time of its first release, the name \"Vim\" was an acronym for \"Vi IMitation\", but this changed to \"'Vi IMproved\" late in 1993.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interface.", "content": "Like vi, Vim's interface is not based on menus or icons but on commands given in a text user interface; its GUI mode, gVim, adds menus and toolbars for commonly used commands but the full functionality is still expressed through its command line mode. Vi (and by extension Vim) tends to allow a typist to keep their fingers on the home row, which can be an advantage for a touch typist.  Vim has a built-in tutorial for beginners called vimtutor. It's usually installed along with Vim, but it exists as a separate executable and can be run with a shell command. There is also the Vim Users' Manual that details Vim's features and a FAQ. This manual can be read from within Vim, or found online.  Vim also has a built-in help facility (using the codice_1 command) that allows users to query and navigate through commands and features.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modes.", "content": "Vim has 12 different editing modes, 6 of which are variants of the 6 basic modes. The basic modes are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Customization.", "content": "Vim is highly customizable and extensible, making it an attractive tool for users who demand a large amount of control and flexibility over their text editing environment. Text input is facilitated by a variety of features designed to increase keyboard efficiency. Users can execute complex commands with \"key mappings,\" which can be customized and extended. The \"recording\" feature allows for the creation of macros to automate sequences of keystrokes and call internal or user-defined functions and mappings. Abbreviations, similar to macros and key mappings, facilitate the expansion of short strings of text into longer ones and can also be used to correct mistakes. Vim also features an \"easy\" mode for users looking for a simpler text editing solution.  There are many plugins available that extend or add new functionality to Vim, such as linters, integration with Git, showing colors in CSS. These complex scripts are usually written in Vim's internal scripting language, vimscript (also known as VimL), but can be written in other languages as well.  There are projects bundling together complex scripts and customizations and aimed at turning Vim into a tool for a specific task or adding a major flavour to its behaviour. Examples include Cream, which makes Vim behave like a click-and-type editor, or VimOutliner, which provides a comfortable outliner for users of Unix-like systems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features and improvements over vi.", "content": "Vim has a vi compatibility mode, but when that mode isn't used, Vim has many enhancements over vi. However, even in compatibility mode, Vim is not entirely compatible with vi as defined in the Single Unix Specification and POSIX (e.g., Vim does not support vi's open mode, only visual mode). Vim has nevertheless been described as \"very much compatible with Vi\".  Some of Vim's enhancements include completion, comparison and merging of files (known as vimdiff), a comprehensive integrated help system, extended regular expressions, scripting languages (both native and through alternative scripting interpreters such as Perl, Python, Ruby, Tcl, etc.) including support for plugins, a graphical user interface (known as gvim), limited integrated development environment-like features, mouse interaction (both with and without the GUI), folding, editing of compressed or archived files in gzip, bzip2, zip, and tar format and files over network protocols such as SSH, FTP, and HTTP, session state preservation, spell checking, split (horizontal and vertical) and tabbed windows, Unicode and other multi-language support, syntax highlighting, trans-session command, search and cursor position histories, multiple level and branching undo/redo history which can persist across editing sessions, and visual mode.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vim script.", "content": "Vim script (also called vimscript or VimL) is the scripting language built into Vim. Based on the ex editor language of the original vi editor, early versions of Vim added commands for control flow and function definitions. Since version 7, Vim script also supports more advanced data types such as lists and dictionaries and (a simple form of) object-oriented programming. Built-in functions such as map() and filter() allow a basic form of functional programming, and Vim script has lambda since version 8.0. Vim script is mostly written in an imperative programming style.  Vim macros can contain a sequence of \"normal-mode\" commands, but can also invoke ex commands or functions written in Vim script for more complex tasks. Almost all extensions (called plugins or more commonly scripts) of the core Vim functionality are written in Vim script, but plugins can also utilize other languages like Perl, Python, Lua, Ruby, Tcl, or Racket. These plugins can be installed manually, or through a plugin manager such as Vundle, Pathogen, or Vim-Plug.  Vim script files are stored as plain text, similarly to other code, and the filename extension is usually codice_4. One notable exception to that is Vim's config file, codice_5.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "\" This is the Hello World program in Vim script. echo \"Hello, world!\"  \" This is a simple while loop in Vim script. let i = 1 while i < 5 endwhile unlet i", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Availability.", "content": "Whereas \"vi\" was originally available only on Unix operating systems, Vim has been ported to many operating systems including AmigaOS (the initial target platform), Atari MiNT, BeOS, DOS, Windows starting from Windows NT 3.1, OS/2, OS/390, MorphOS, OpenVMS, QNX, RISC OS, Linux, BSD, and Classic Mac OS. Also, Vim is shipped with every copy of Apple macOS.  Independent ports of Vim are available both for Android and iOS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Neovim.", "content": "Neovim is a forkwith additionsof Vim that strives to improve the extensibility and maintainability of Vim. Neovim shares the same configuration syntax with Vim; as a result, the same configuration file can be used with both editors, although there are minor differences between the exact options used between the two. If the added features of Neovim are not used, Neovim is compatible with almost all of Vim's features.  The Neovim project was started in 2014, with some Vim community members offering early support of the high-level refactoring effort to provide better scripting, plugins, and integration with modern GUIs. The project is free software and its source code is available on GitHub.  Neovim had a successful fundraiser on 23 March 2014, supporting at least one full-time developer. Several frontends are under development, making use of Neovim's capabilities.<ref><nowiki", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vim (; a contraction of Vi IMproved) is a clone, with additions, of Bill Joy's vi text editor program for Unix. Vim's author, Bram Moolenaar, based it on the source code for a port of the Stevie editor to the Amiga and released a version to the public in 1991. Vim is designed for use both from a command-line interface and as a standalone application in a graphical user interface. Vim is free and open-source software and is released under a license that includes some charityware clauses, encouraging users who enjoy the software to consider donating to children in Uganda. The license is compatible with the GNU General Public License through a special clause allowing distribution of modified copies \"under the GNU GPL version 2 or any later version\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971291}
{"src_title": "International Astronomical Union", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The IAU was founded on 28 July 1919, at the Constitutive Assembly of the International Research Council (now the International Science Council) held in Brussels, Belgium. Two subsidiaries of the IAU were also created at this assembly: the \"International Time Commission\" seated at the International Time Bureau in Paris, France, and the \"International Central Bureau of Astronomical Telegrams\" initially seated in Copenhagen, Denmark. The 7 initial member states were Belgium, Canada, France, Great Britain, Greece, Japan, and the United States, soon to be followed by Italy and Mexico. The first executive committee consisted of Benjamin Baillaud (President, France), Alfred Fowler (General Secretary, UK), and four vice presidents: William Campbell (USA), Frank Dyson (UK), Georges Lecointe (Belgium), and Annibale Riccò (Italy). Thirty-two Commissions (referred to initially as Standing Committees) were appointed at the Brussels meeting and focused on topics ranging from relativity to minor planets. The reports of these 32 Commissions formed the main substance of the first General Assembly, which took place in Rome, Italy, 2–10 May 1922. By the end of the first General Assembly, ten additional nations (Australia, Brazil, Czecho-Slovakia, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, South Africa, and Spain) had joined the Union, bringing the total membership to 19 countries. Although the Union was officially formed eight months after the end of World War I, international collaboration in astronomy had been strong in the pre-war era (e.g., the Astronomische Gesellschaft Katalog projects since 1868, the Astrographic Catalogue since 1887, and the International Union for Solar research since 1904).  The first 50 years of the Union's history are well documented. Subsequent history is recorded in the form of reminiscences of past IAU Presidents and General Secretaries. Twelve of the fourteen past General Secretaries in the period 1964-2006 contributed their recollections of the Union's history in IAU Information Bulletin No. 100. Six past IAU Presidents in the period 1976–2003 also contributed their recollections in IAU Information Bulletin No. 104.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "As of 1 August 2019, the IAU includes a total of 13,701 \"individual members\", who are professional astronomers from 102 countries worldwide. 81.7% of all individual members are male, while 18.3% are female, among them the union's former president, Mexican astronomer Silvia Torres-Peimbert.  Membership also includes 82 \"national members\", professional astronomical communities representing their country's affiliation with the IAU. National members include the Australian Academy of Science, the Chinese Astronomical Society, the French Academy of Sciences, the Indian National Science Academy, the National Academies (United States), the National Research Foundation of South Africa, the National Scientific and Technical Research Council (Argentina), KACST (Saudi Arabia), the Council of German Observatories, the Royal Astronomical Society (United Kingdom), the Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Science Council of Japan, among many others.  The sovereign body of the IAU is its \"General Assembly\", which comprises all members. The Assembly determines IAU policy, approves the Statutes and By-Laws of the Union (and amendments proposed thereto) and elects various committees.  The right to vote on matters brought before the Assembly varies according to the type of business under discussion. The Statutes consider such business to be divided into two categories:  On budget matters (which fall into the second category), votes are weighted according to the relative subscription levels of the national members. A second category vote requires a turnout of at least two-thirds of national members to be valid. An absolute majority is sufficient for approval in any vote, except for Statute revision which requires a two-thirds majority. An equality of votes is resolved by the vote of the President of the Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General Assemblies.", "content": "Since 1922, the IAU General Assembly meets every three years, except for the period between 1938 and 1948, due to World War II. After a Polish request in 1967, and by a controversial decision of the then President of the IAU, an \"Extraordinary IAU General Assembly\" was held in September 1973 in Warsaw, Poland, to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the birth of Nicolaus Copernicus, soon after the regular 1973 GA had been held in Sydney, Australia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of the Presidents of the IAU.", "content": "Sources.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commission 46: Education in astronomy.", "content": "Commission 46 is a Committee of the Executive Committee of the IAU, playing a special role in the discussion of astronomy development with governments and scientific academies. The IAU is affiliated with the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), a non-governmental organization representing a global membership that includes both national scientific bodies and international scientific unions. They often encourage countries to become members of the IAU. The Commission further seeks to development, information or improvement of astronomical education. Part of Commission 46, is Teaching Astronomy for Development (TAD) program in countries where there is currently very little astronomical education. Another program is named the Galileo Teacher Training Program (GTTP), is a project of the International Year of Astronomy 2009, among which Hands-On Universe that will concentrate more resources on education activities for children and schools designed to advance sustainable global development. GTTP is also concerned with the effective use and transfer of astronomy education tools and resources into classroom science curricula. A strategic plan for the period 2010-2020 has been published.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "In 2004 the IAU contracted with the Cambridge University Press to publish the \"Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union\".  In 2007, the Communicating Astronomy with the Public Journal Working Group prepared a study assessing the feasibility of the \"Communicating Astronomy with the Public Journal\" (\"CAP Journal\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The International Astronomical Union (IAU;, UAI) is an international association of professional astronomers, at the PhD level and beyond, active in professional research and education in astronomy. Among other activities, it acts as the recognized authority for assigning designations and names to celestial bodies (stars, planets, asteroids, etc.) and any surface features on them.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971292}
{"src_title": "Willy Messerschmitt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Frankfurt am Main, the son of Baptist Ferdinand Messerschmitt (1858–1916) and his second wife, Anna Maria Schaller (1867–1942).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First sailplane designs and World War I.", "content": "As a young man, Messerschmitt befriended German sailplane pioneer Friedrich Harth. Harth joined the German army in 1914 and while he was away at war, Messerschmitt continued work on one of Harth's designs, the S5 glider. In 1917, Messerschmitt himself signed up for military service. Following the war, the two were reunited and continued to work together while Messerschmitt commenced study at the Munich Technical College and Harth built aircraft at the Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (BFW – Bavarian Aircraft Works). The S8 glider they designed and built together in 1921 broke a world duration record (albeit unofficially) and they went into partnership for a while running a flying school. The same year, the first plane entirely designed by Messerschmitt flew — the S9 glider.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beginning of his career.", "content": "In 1923 Messerschmitt graduated from the Munich Institute of Technology. The same year Harth and Messerschmitt had a falling out and went their separate ways, with Messerschmitt founding his own aircraft company at Augsburg. At first, Messerschmitt built sailplanes, but within two years had progressed via motor gliders to small powered aircraft - sports and touring types. These culminated in the Messerschmitt M 17 and Messerschmitt M 18 designs, which Messerschmitt sold to BFW in 1927, when the Bavarian state government encouraged a merger between the two companies. These were followed by the Messerschmitt M20 light transport in 1928, which proved a disaster for BFW and Messerschmitt himself. Two Deutsche Luft Hansa M20s were involved in serious crashes very soon after purchase, and this led the airline to cancel their order for the type. This caused a serious cashflow problem for the company and led to its bankruptcy in 1931. The M20 crashes also created a powerful enemy for Messerschmitt in the person of Erhard Milch, the head of Luft Hansa, who had lost a close friend in one of the crashes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nazi Germany and World War II.", "content": "The ties that Messerschmitt had formed with leading Nazis Rudolf Hess and Hermann Göring (through Theo Croneiss) saved him from sharing the fate of Milch's other great enemy, Hugo Junkers. To stay in business in the face of Milch ensuring that he would get no government contracts, Messerschmitt had signed agreements with Romania for sales of the M35 and a transport plane, the Messerschmitt M 36. When Milch learned of this, he publicly denounced Messerschmitt as a traitor, and the Gestapo was sent to question him and other BFW officials. Probably due to Croneiss' intervention, no further action was taken.  The establishment of the \"Reichsluftfahrtministerium\" (\"Reich Aviation Ministry\" - RLM) by the Nazi government in 1933, headed by Milch, led to a resurgence in the German aircraft industry and the resurrection of BFW. Collaborating with Robert Lusser, Messerschmitt designed the flagship product of the relaunched company. This was a low-wing four seater monoplane called the Messerschmitt M37, but better known by its later RLM designation of Bf 108. The following year, Messerschmitt incorporated many advanced design features of the Bf 108 into the Bf 109 fighter.  In 1936, the Messerschmitt Bf 109 won the RLM's single-seat fighter contest, and became one of the main Luftwaffe aircraft types. Messerschmitt and his factory thus took an important role in the RLM's armament plans. This role expanded even further when the Messerschmitt Bf 110 also won the multi-purpose fighter contest.  On 11 July 1938, Messerschmitt was appointed chairman and managing director of BFW and the company was renamed after him to Messerschmitt AG. This same year, the company began work on what would eventually become the Me 262, and on the Messerschmitt Me 210, planned as successor for the Bf 110. The Me 210 turned out to be plagued by massive development problems that were solved only by evolving the type into the Messerschmitt Me 410. The resulting problems and delays again put the reputation of both Messerschmitt and his namesake company in jeopardy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial and postwar career.", "content": "Following World War II, Messerschmitt was tried by a denazification court for using slave labor, and in 1948 was convicted of collaborating with the Nazi regime. After two years in prison, he was released and resumed his position as head of his company. Since Germany was forbidden to manufacture aircraft until 1955, he turned his company to manufacturing prefabricated buildings, sewing machines, and small cars — most notably the Messerschmitt Kabinenroller. Exporting his talents, he designed the Hispano HA-200 jet trainer for Hispano Aviación in Spain in 1952 before eventually being allowed to return to aircraft manufacturing in Germany to licence-produce the Fiat G91 and then Lockheed F-104 Starfighter for the West German Luftwaffe. He designed the later Helwan HA-300, a light supersonic interceptor, for the Egyptian air forces. This was his last aircraft design.  Messerschmitt saw his company through mergers first with Bölkow in 1968 and then Hamburger Flugzeugbau in 1969, at which point it became MBB (Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm, now part of EADS) with Messerschmitt as chairman until 1970 when he retired. He died eight years later, on 15 September 1978 in a Munich hospital in undisclosed circumstances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Messerschmitt's designs were characterized by a clear focus on performance, especially by striving for lightweight construction, but also by minimizing parasitic drag from aerodynamic surfaces. His critics accused him of taking this approach too far in some designs. His falling out with Harth had been over designs Harth felt to be dangerously unstable, and the Me 210 displayed instability, too, which could be cured only by enlarging the airframe and the aerodynamic surfaces, increasing drag and weight. Messerschmitt's design philosophy also is evident in his arguments with Alexander Lippisch, who was designing the tailless Me 163 rocket fighter for production at the Messerschmitt works. While Lippisch maintained that the tailless design had an advantage, in principle, with regard to total drag, Messerschmitt pointed out that the design compromises, which are necessary to make a tailless aircraft safely controllable, defeated this purpose by increasing drag to the original level and above.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Messerschmitt was appointed Honorary Professor by the Munich Technical College in 1930, and the Vice-President of the \"Deutsche Akademie für Luftfahrtforschung\" (German Academy of Aeronautical Research). The German government also awarded him the title of \"Wehrwirtschaftsführer\" (defense industry leader). In 1938, Adolf Hitler bestowed upon Messerschmitt the German National Prize for Art and Science.  In 1979, Messerschmitt was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wilhelm Emil \"Willy\" Messerschmitt (; 26 June 1898 – 15 September 1978) was a German aircraft designer and manufacturer. In 1934, in collaboration with Walter Rethel, he designed the Messerschmitt Bf 109, which became the most important fighter aircraft in the Luftwaffe as Germany rearmed prior to World War II. It remains the second most-produced warplane in history, with some 34,000 built, behind the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2. Another Messerschmitt aircraft, first called \"Bf 109R\", purpose-built for record setting, but later redesignated Messerschmitt Me 209, broke the absolute world airspeed record and held the world speed record for propeller-driven aircraft until 1969. Messerschmitt's firm also produced the first jet-powered fighter to enter service — the Messerschmitt Me 262.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971293}
{"src_title": "Heath", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Heathland is favoured where climatic conditions are typically hard and dry, particularly in summer, and soils acidic, of low fertility, and often sandy and very free-draining; a mire may occur where drainage is poor, but usually is only small in extent. Heaths are dominated by low shrubs, to tall.  Heath vegetation can be extremely plant-species rich, and heathlands of Australia are home to some 3,700 endemic or typical species in addition to numerous less restricted species. The fynbos heathlands of South Africa are second only to tropical rainforests in plant biodiversity with over 7,000 species. In marked contrast, the tiny pockets of heathland in Europe are extremely depauperate with a flora consisting primarily of heather (\"Calluna vulgaris\"), heath (\"Erica\" species) and gorse (\"Ulex\" species).  The bird fauna of heathlands are usually cosmopolitan species of the region. In the depauperate heathlands of Europe, bird species tend to be more characteristic of the community and include Montagu's harrier, and the tree pipit. In Australia the heathland avian fauna is dominated by nectar-feeding birds such as honey-eaters and lorikeets although numerous other birds from emus to eagles are also common in Australian heathlands. Australian heathlands are also home to the world's only nectar feeding mammal: the honey possum. The bird fauna of the South African fynbos includes sunbirds, warblers and siskins. Heathlands are also an excellent habitat for insects including ants, moths, butterflies and wasps with many species being restricted entirely to it. One such example of an organism restricted to heathland is the silver-studded blue butterfly, \"Plebejus argus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anthropogenic heaths.", "content": "Anthropogenic heath habitats are a cultural landscape that can be found worldwide in locations as diverse as northern and western Europe, the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, Madagascar and New Guinea.  These heaths were originally created or expanded by centuries of human clearance of the natural forest and woodland vegetation, by grazing and burning. In some cases this clearance went so far that parts of the heathland have given way to open spots of pure sand and sand dunes, with a local climate that, even in Europe, can experience temperatures of in summer, drying the sand spot bordering the heathland and further raising its vulnerability for wildfires. Referring to heathland in England, Oliver Rackham says, \"Heaths are clearly the product of human activities and need to be managed as heathland; if neglected they turn into woodland\".  In recent years the conservation value of even these man-made heaths has become much more appreciated, due to the cultural value they have as habitats that have been central in the lives of people for centuries and consequently most heathlands are protected. However they are also threatened by tree incursion because of the discontinuation of traditional management techniques such as grazing and burning that mediated the landscapes. Some are also threatened by urban sprawl. Anthropogenic heathlands are maintained artificially by a combination of grazing and periodic burning (known as swailing), or (rarely) mowing; if not so maintained, they are rapidly re-colonised by forest or woodland. The re-colonising tree species will depend on what is available as the local seed source, and thus it may not reflect the natural vegetation before the heathland became established.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A heath () is a shrubland habitat found mainly on free-draining infertile, acidic soils and is characterised by open, low-growing woody vegetation. Moorland is generally related to high-ground heaths with—especially in Great Britain—a cooler and damper climate.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971294}
{"src_title": "Austrian People's Party", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Platform.", "content": "The ÖVP is conservative. For most of its existence, it has explicitly defined itself as Catholic and anti-socialist, with the ideals of subsidiarity as defined by the encyclical \"Quadragesimo anno\" and decentralisation.  For the first election after World War II, the ÖVP presented itself as the Austrian Party (), was anti-Marxist and regarded itself as the Party of the Center (). The ÖVP consistently held power—either alone or in so-called black–red coalition with the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ)—until 1970, when the SPÖ formed a minority government with the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ). The ÖVP's economic policies during the era generally upheld a social market economy.  The party's campaign for the 2017 Austrian legislative election under the young chairman Sebastian Kurz was dominated by a rightward shift in policy which included a promised crackdown on illegal immigration and a fight against political Islam, making it more similar to the program of the FPÖ, the party that Kurz chose as his coalition partner after the ÖVP won the election.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The ÖVP is the successor of the Christian Social Party, a staunchly conservative movement founded in 1893 by Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna and highly controversial right-wing populist. Most of the members of the party during its founding belonged to the former Fatherland Front, which was led by chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, also a member of the Christian Social Party before the Anschluss. While still sometimes honored by ÖVP members for resisting Adolf Hitler, the regime built by Dollfuss was authoritarian in nature and has been dubbed as Austrofascism. In its present form, the ÖVP was established immediately after the restoration of Austria's independence in 1945 and it has been represented in both the Federal Assembly ever since. In terms of Federal Assembly seats, the ÖVP has consistently been the strongest or second-strongest party and as such it has led or at least been a partner in most Austria's federal cabinets.  In the 1945 Austrian legislative election, the ÖVP won a landslide victory in Austria's first postwar election, winning almost half the popular vote and an absolute majority in the legislature. However, memories of the hyper-partisanship that had plagued the First Republic prompted the ÖVP to maintain the grand coalition with the Communist Party of Austria (KPÖ) and the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) that had governed the country since the restoration of independence in early 1945. The ÖVP remained the senior partner in a coalition with the SPÖ until 1966 and governed alone from 1966 to 1970. It reentered the government in 1986, but has never been completely out of power since the restoration of Austrian independence in 1945 due to a longstanding tradition that all major interest groups were to be consulted on policy.  After the 1999 Austrian legislative election, several months of negotiations ended in early 2000 when the ÖVP formed a coalition government with the right-wing populist Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) led by Jörg Haider. The FPÖ had won just a few hundred more votes than the ÖVP, but was considered far too controversial to lead a government. The ÖVP's Wolfgang Schüssel became Chancellor—the first ÖVP Chancellor of Austria since 1970. This caused widespread outrage in Europe and the European Union imposed informal diplomatic sanctions on Austria, the first time that it imposed sanctions on a member state. Bilateral relations were frozen (including contacts and meetings at an inter-governmental level) and Austrian candidates would not be supported for posts in European Union international offices. Austria threatened to veto all applications by countries for European Union membership until the sanctions were lifted. A few months later, these sanctions were dropped as a result of a fact-finding mission by three former European prime ministers, the so-called \"three wise men\". The 2002 legislative election resulted in a landslide victory (42.27% of the vote) for the ÖVP under Schüssel. Haider's FPÖ was reduced to 10.16% of the vote. At the state level, the ÖVP has long dominated the rural states of Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Tyrol and Vorarlberg. It is less popular in the city state of Vienna and in the rural, but less strongly Catholic states of Burgenland and Carinthia. In 2004, it lost its plurality in the State of Salzburg, where they kept its result in seats (14) in 2009. In 2005, it lost its plurality in Styria for the first time in 2005.  After the Alliance for the Future of Austria (BZÖ) split from the FPÖ in 2005, the BZÖ replaced the FPÖ in the government coalition which lasted until 2007. Austria for the first time had a government containing of a party that was founded during the parliamentary term. In the 2006 Austrian legislative election, the ÖVP were defeated and after much negotiations agreed to become junior partner in a grand coalition with the SPÖ, with new party chairman Wilhelm Molterer as Finance Minister and Vice-Chancellor under SPÖ leader Alfred Gusenbauer, who became Chancellor. The 2008 Austrian legislative election saw the ÖVP lose 15 seats, with a further 8.35% decrease in its share of the vote. However, the ÖVP won the largest share of the vote (30.0%) in the 2009 European Parliament election with 846,709, votes, although their number of seats remained the same.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chairpersons since 1945.", "content": "The chart below shows a timeline of ÖVP chairpersons and the Chancellors of Austria. The left black bar shows all the chairpersons (\"Bundesparteiobleute\", abbreviated as CP) of the ÖVP party and the right bar shows the corresponding make-up of the Austrian government at that time. The red (SPÖ) and black (ÖVP) colours correspond to which party led the federal government (\"Bundesregierung\", abbreviated as \"Govern.\"). The last names of the respective Chancellors are shown, with the Roman numeral standing for the cabinets.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Austrian People's Party (, ÖVP) is a conservative and Christian-democratic political party in Austria. An unofficial successor to the Christian Social Party of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was founded immediately following the reestablishment of the Republic of Austria in 1945 and since then has been one of the two largest Austrian political parties with the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ). In federal governance, the ÖVP has spent most of the postwar era in a grand coalition with the SPÖ. However, the ÖVP won the 2017 Austrian legislative election, having the greatest number of seats and formed a coalition with the right-wing populist Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ). Its chairman Sebastian Kurz is the youngest Chancellor in Austrian history and currently the world's youngest leader.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971295}
{"src_title": "Gymnophiona", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Little is known of the evolutionary history of the caecilian lineage, which has left a sparse fossil record. The first fossil belonging to this group, a vertebra dated to the Paleocene, was not discovered until 1972. The first pre-Cenozoic genus, \"Eocaecilia\", had small limbs and well-developed eyes.  In their 2008 description of the fossil batrachian \"Gerobatrachus\", Anderson and co-authors suggested that caecilians arose from the Lepospondyl group of ancestral tetrapods, and may be more closely related to amniotes than to frogs and salamanders, which arose from Temnospondyl ancestors. Numerous groups of lepospondyls evolved reduced limbs, elongated bodies, and burrowing behaviors, and morphological studies on Permian and Carboniferous lepospondyls have placed the early caecilian (\"Eocaecilia\") among these groups. Divergent origins of caecilians and other extant amphibians may help explain the slight discrepancy between fossil dates for the origins of modern amphibia, which suggest Permian origins, and the earlier dates, in the Carboniferous, predicted by some molecular clock studies of DNA sequences. Most morphological and molecular studies of extant amphibians, however, support monophyly for caecilians, frogs, and salamanders, and the most recent molecular study based on multi-locus data suggest a Late Carboniferous–Early Permian origin of extant amphibians. The Late Triassic stem-caecilian \"Chinlestegophis\" from the Chinle Formation of Colorado bolsters the proposed pre-Triassic origin of Lissamphibia suggested by molecular clocks by filling a gap in the fossil record of early caecilians and suggesting that groups of stereospondyls, including Metoposauridae, are closely related to caecilians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationships.", "content": "The most recent phylogeny of caecilians is based on molecular mitogenomic evidence examined by San Mauro et al. (2014).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gymnophiona is the group of amphibians that includes the legless caecilians and all amphibians more closely related to them than to frogs or salamanders (the \"stem-caecilians\"). The name derives from the Greek words γυμνος (\"gymnos\", naked) and οφις (\"ophis\", snake), as the caecilians were originally thought to be related to snakes. The body is cylindrical dark brown or bluish black in colour. The skin is slimy and bears grooves or ringlike markings; there are minute dermal scales.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971296}
{"src_title": "Tineola bisselliella", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Tineola bisselliella\" is a small moth of 6-7 mm body length and 9-16 mm wingspan (most commonly 12-14 mm). It is distinguished from similar species by its yellow-brown or ochreous colouring and red-orange tuft of hair on the head.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "Females lay eggs in clusters of between 30 and 200 which adhere to surfaces with a gelatin-like glue. These hatch between four and ten days later into near-microscopic white caterpillars which immediately begin to feed. They will also spin mats under which to feed without being readily noticed and from which they will partially emerge at night or under dark conditions to acquire food. Development to the next stage takes place through between five and 45 instars typically over the course of between one month and two years until the pupal stage is reached. At this point, the caterpillars spin cocoons and spend another approximately 10–50 days developing into adults.  After pupation is complete, the adult moths emerge and begin searching for mates. Females tend to move less than males, and both sexes prefer scuttling over surfaces to flying— some adults never fly at all. Adults can live for an additional 15–30 days, after which they die (otherwise death takes place shortly after mating for males and shortly after egg laying for females). Life cycle may be completed within one month under the most favorable conditions ( and 70-75% relative humidity) but may take several years (lower temperatures and humidity will only slow development, larvae will still hatch and grow at temperatures as low as and can survive up to ).  Unlike the caterpillars, the adult moths do not feed: they acquire all of the nutrition and moisture they need while in the larval stage, and once they hatch from cocoons their only goal is to reproduce. They have only atrophied mouth parts and cannot feed on fabric or clothing. All feeding damage is done by the caterpillar (larval) form. Heated buildings allow clothes moths to develop year-round. The overall life cycle from egg to egg typically takes 4–6 months, with two generations per year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range and ecology.", "content": "This moth's natural range is western Eurasia, but it has been transported by human travelers to other localities. For example, it is nowadays found in Australia. The species' presence has not been recorded in France, Greece, Slovenia and Switzerland, though this probably reflects the lack of occurrence data rather than absence.  This species is notorious for feeding on clothing and natural fibers; they have the ability to digest keratin protein in wool and silk. The moths prefer dirty fabric for oviposition and are particularly attracted to carpeting and clothing that contains human sweat or other organic liquids which have been spilled onto them; traces of dirt may provide essential nutrients for larval development. Larvae are attracted to these areas not only for the food but for traces of moisture; they do not require liquid water.  The range of recorded foodstuffs includes cotton, linen, silk and wool fabrics as well as furs. They will eat synthetic fibers if they are blended with wool. Furthermore, they have been found on shed feathers and hair, bran, semolina and flour (possibly preferring wheat flour), biscuits, casein, and insect specimens in museums. In one case, living \"T. bisselliella\" caterpillars were found in salt. They had probably accidentally wandered there, as even to such a polyphagous species as this one pure sodium chloride has no nutritional value and is in fact a strong desiccant, but this still attests to their robustness. Unfavorable temperature and humidity can slow development, but will not always stop it.  Both adults and larvae prefer low light conditions. Whereas many other Tineidae are drawn to light, common clothes moths seem to prefer dim or dark areas. If larvae find themselves in a well-lit room, they will try to relocate under furniture or carpet edges. Handmade rugs are a favorite, because it is easy for the larvae to crawl underneath and do their damage from below. They will also crawl under moldings at the edges of rooms in search of darkened areas where fibrous debris has gathered and which consequently hold good food.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pest control.", "content": "Airtight containers should be used to prevent re-infestation once eggs, larvae, and moths are killed by any of these methods. Control measures for \"T. bisselliella\" (and similar species) include the following:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synonyms.", "content": "The common clothes moth is such a widespread and frequently seen species that it has been described time and again under a variety of junior synonyms and other now-invalid scientific names:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tineola bisselliella, known as the common clothes moth, webbing clothes moth, or simply clothing moth, is a species of fungus moth (family Tineidae, subfamily Tineinae). It is the type species of its genus \"Tineola\" and was first described by Arvid David Hummel in 1823. The specific name is commonly misspelled \"biselliella\" – for example by G. A. W. Herrich-Schäffer, when he established \"Tineola\" in 1853.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971297}
{"src_title": "Web service", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Web services (generic).", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Asynchronous JavaScript And XML.", "content": "Asynchronous JavaScript And XML (AJAX) is a dominant technology for Web services. Developing from the combination of HTTP servers, JavaScript clients and Plain Old XML (as distinct from SOAP and W3C Web Services), now it is frequently used with JSON as well as, or instead of, XML.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "REST.", "content": "Representational State Transfer (REST) is an architecture for well-behaved Web services that can function at Internet scale.  In a 2004 document, the W3C sets following REST as a key distinguishing feature of Web services:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Web services that use markup languages.", "content": "There are a number of Web services that use markup languages:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Web API.", "content": "A Web API is a development in Web services where emphasis has been moving to simpler representational state transfer (REST) based communications. Restful APIs do not require XML-based Web service protocols (SOAP and WSDL) to support their interfaces.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "W3C Web services.", "content": "In relation to W3C Web services, the W3C defined a Web service as: W3C Web Services may use SOAP over HTTP protocol, allowing less costly (more efficient) interactions over the Internet than via proprietary solutions like EDI/B2B. Besides SOAP over HTTP, Web services can also be implemented on other reliable transport mechanisms like FTP. In a 2002 document, the Web Services Architecture Working Group defined a Web services architecture, requiring a standardized implementation of a \"Web service.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Explanation.", "content": "The term \"Web service\" describes a standardized way of integrating Web-based applications using the XML, SOAP, WSDL and UDDI open standards over an Internet Protocol backbone. XML is the data format used to contain the data and provide metadata around it, SOAP is used to transfer the data, WSDL is used for describing the services available and UDDI lists what services are available.  A Web service is a method of communication between two electronic devices over a network. It is a software function provided at a network address over the Web with the service \"always-on\" as in the concept of utility computing.  Many organizations use multiple software systems for management. Different software systems often need to exchange data with each other, and a Web service is a method of communication that allows two software systems to exchange this data over the Internet. The software system that requests data is called a \"service requester\", whereas the software system that would process the request and provide the data is called a \"service provider\".  Different software may use different programming languages, and hence there is a need for a method of data exchange that doesn't depend upon a particular programming language. Most types of software can, however, interpret XML tags. Thus, Web services can use XML files for data exchange.  Rules for communication between different systems need to be defined, such as:  All of these rules for communication are defined in a file called WSDL (Web Services Description Language), which has a codice_1 extension. (Proposals for Autonomous Web Services (AWS) seek to develop more flexible Web services that do not rely on strict rules.)  A directory called UDDI (Universal Description, Discovery, and Integration) defines which software system should be contacted for which type of data. So when one software system needs one particular report/data, it would go to the UDDI and find out which other systems it can contact for receiving that data. Once the software system finds out which other systems it should contact, it would then contact that system using a special protocol called SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol). The service provider system would first validate the data request by referring to the WSDL file, and then process the request and send the data under the SOAP protocol.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Automated design methods.", "content": "Automated tools can aid in the creation of a Web service. For services using WSDL, it is possible to either automatically generate WSDL for existing classes (a bottom-up model) or to generate a class skeleton given existing WSDL (a top-down model).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Critics of non-RESTful Web services often complain that they are too complex and based upon large software vendors or integrators, rather than typical open source implementations.  There are also concerns about performance due to Web services' use of XML as a message format and SOAP/HTTP in enveloping and transporting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regression testing of Web services.", "content": "Functional and non-functional testing of Web services is done with the help of WSDL parsing. Regression testing is performed by identifying the changes made to upgrade software. Web service regression testing needs can be categorized in three different ways, namely, changes in WSDL, changes in the code, and selective re-testing of operations. We can capture the above three needs in three intermediate forms of Subset WSDL, namely, Difference WSDL (DWSDL), Unit WSDL (UWSDL), and Reduced WSDL (RWSDL), respectively. These three Subset WSDLs are then combined to form Combined WSDL (CWSDL) that is further used for regression testing of the Web service. This will help in Automated Web Service Change Management (AWSCM), by performing the selection of the relevant test cases to construct a reduced test suite from the old test suite. Web services testing can also be automated using several test automation tools like SOAP UI, Oracle Application Testing Suite (OATS), Unified Functional Testing, Selenium, etc.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Web service change management.", "content": "Work-related to the capture and visualization of changes made to a Web service. Visualization and computation of changes can be done in the form of intermediate artifacts (Subset WSDL). The insight on the computation of change impact is helpful in testing, top-down development and reduce regression testing. AWSCM is a tool that can identify subset operations in a WSDL file to construct a subset WSDL.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The term Web service (WS) is either: In a Web service a Web technology such as HTTP—originally designed for human-to-machine communication—is used for transferring machine-readable file formats such as XML and JSON.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971298}
{"src_title": "Imhotep", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historicity.", "content": "Imhotep's historicity is confirmed by two contemporary inscriptions made during his lifetime on the base or pedestal of one of Djoser's statues (Cairo JE 49889) and also by a graffito on the enclosure wall surrounding Sekhemkhet's unfinished step-pyramid. The latter inscription suggests that Imhotep outlived Djoser by a few years and went on to serve in the construction of King Sekhemkhet's pyramid, which was abandoned due to this ruler's brief reign.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture and engineering.", "content": "Imhotep was one of the chief officials of the Pharaoh Djoser. Egyptologists ascribe to him the design of the Pyramid of Djoser, a step pyramid at Saqqara in Egypt in 2630–2611 BC. He may also have been responsible for the first known use of stone columns to support a building. Despite these later attestations, the pharaonic Egyptians themselves never credited Imhotep as the designer of the stepped pyramid nor with the invention of stone architecture.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deification.", "content": "Two thousand years after his death, Imhotep's status had risen to that of a god of medicine and healing. He was eventually equated with Thoth, the god of architecture, mathematics, and medicine, and patron of scribes: Imhotep's cult had merged with that of his former tutelary god.  He was revered in the region of Thebes as the \"brother\" of Amenhotep, son of Hapu, another deified architect, in the temples dedicated to Thoth. Imhotep was also linked to Asklepios by the Greeks.  According to myth, Imhotep's mother was a mortal named Kheredu-ankh, she too being eventually revered as a demi-goddess as the daughter of Banebdjedet. Alternatively, since Imhotep was known as the \"Son of Ptah\", his mother was sometimes claimed to be Sekhmet, the patron of Upper Egypt whose consort was Ptah.  The Upper Egyptian Famine Stela, which dates from the Ptolemaic period (305–30 B.C.), bears an inscription containing a legend about a famine lasting seven years during the reign of Djoser. Imhotep is credited with having been instrumental in ending it. One of his priests explained the connection between the god Khnum and the rise of the Nile to the king, who then had a dream in which the Nile god spoke to him, promising to end the drought.  A demotic papyrus from the temple of Tebtunis, dating to the 2nd century A.D., preserves a long story about Imhotep. King Djoser plays a prominent role in the story, which also mentions Imhotep's family; his father the god Ptah, his mother Khereduankh, and his younger sister Renpetneferet. At one point Djoser desires Renpetneferet, and Imhotep disguises himself and tries to rescue her. The text also refers to the royal tomb of Djoser. Part of the legend includes an anachronistic battle between the Old Kingdom and the Assyrian armies where Imhotep fights an Assyrian sorceress in a duel of magic.  As an instigator of Egyptian culture, Imhotep's idealized image lasted well into the Roman period. In the Ptolemaic period, the Egyptian priest and historian Manetho credited him with inventing the method of a stone-dressed building during Djoser's reign, though he was not the first to actually build with stone. Stone walling, flooring, lintels, and jambs had appeared sporadically during the Archaic Period, though it is true that a building of the size of the step pyramid made entirely out of stone had never before been constructed. Before Djoser, pharaohs were buried in mastaba tombs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medicine.", "content": "Egyptologist James Peter Allen states that \"The Greeks equated him with their own god of medicine, Asklepios, although ironically there is no evidence that Imhotep himself was a physician.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Imhotep (; Egyptian: \"ỉỉ-m-ḥtp\" \"*jā-im-ḥātap\", in Unicode hieroglyphs: 𓇍𓅓𓊵:𓏏*𓊪, \"the one who comes in peace\"; fl. late 27th century BC) was an Egyptian chancellor to the pharaoh Djoser, probable architect of the Djoser's step pyramid, and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis. Very little is known of Imhotep as a historical figure, but in the 3000 years following his death, he was gradually glorified and deified.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971299}
{"src_title": "Self-defense", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Physical.", "content": "Physical self-defense is the use of physical force to counter an immediate threat of violence. Such force can be either armed or unarmed. In either case, the chances of success depend on various parameters, related to the severity of the threat on one hand, but also on the mental and physical preparedness of the defender.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unarmed.", "content": "Many styles of martial arts are practiced for self-defense or include self-defense techniques. Some styles train primarily for self-defense, while other martial or combat sports can be effectively applied for self-defense. Some martial arts train how to escape from a knife or gun situation, or how to break away from a punch, while others train how to attack. To provide more practical self-defense, many modern martial arts schools now use a combination of martial arts styles and techniques, and will often customize self-defense training to suit individual participants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armed.", "content": "A wide variety of weapons can be used for self-defense. The most suitable depends on the threat presented, the victim or victims, and the experience of the defender. Legal restrictions also greatly influence self-defense options.  In many cases there are also legal restrictions. While in some jurisdictions firearms may be carried openly or concealed expressly for this purpose, many jurisdictions have tight restrictions on who can own firearms, and what types they can own. Knives, especially those categorized as switchblades may also be controlled, as may batons, pepper spray and personal stun guns and Tasers - although some may be legal to carry with a license or for certain professions.  Non-injurious water-based self-defense indelible dye-marker sprays, or ID-marker or DNA-marker sprays linking a suspect to a crime scene, would in most places be legal to own and carry.  Everyday objects, such as flashlights, baseball bats, newspapers, keyrings with keys, kitchen utensils and other tools, and hair spray aerosol cans in combination with a lighter, can also be used as improvised weapons for self-defense.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Verbal self-defense.", "content": "Verbal self-defense is defined as using words \"to prevent, de-escalate, or end an attempted assault.\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Women's self-defense.", "content": "According to Victims of Sexual Violence: Statistics on Rainn, about \"80 percent of juvenile victims were female and 90 percent of rape victims were adult women\". In addition, women from ages 18 to 34 are highly at risk to experience sexual assault. According to historian Wendy Rouse in \"Her Own Hero: The Origins of Women's Self-Defense Movement\", women's self-defense training emerged in the early twentieth century in the United States and the United Kingdom paralleling the women's rights and suffrage movement. These early feminists sought to raise awareness about the sexual harassment and violence that women faced on the street, at work, and in the home. They challenged the notion that men were their \"natural protectors\" noting that men were often the perpetrators of violence against women. Women discovered a sense of physical and personal empowerment through training in boxing and jiu-jitsu. Interest in women's self-defense paralleled subsequent waves of the women's rights movement especially with the rise of Second-wave feminism in the 1960s and 1970s and Third-wave feminism in the 1990s. Today's Empowerment Self-Defense (ESD) courses focus on teaching verbal and psychological as well as physical self-defense strategies. ESD courses explore the multiple sources of gender-based violence especially including its connections with sexism, racism, and classism. Empowerment Self-Defense instructors focus on holding perpetrators responsible while empowering women with the idea that they have both the right and ability to protect themselves.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Self-defense education.", "content": "Self-defense techniques and recommended behavior under the threat of violence is systematically taught in self-defense classes. Commercial self-defense education is part of the martial arts industry in the wider sense, and many martial arts instructors also give self-defense classes. While all martial arts training can be argued to have some self-defense applications, self-defense courses are marketed explicitly as being oriented towards effectiveness and optimized towards situations as they occur in the real world. Many systems are taught commercially, many tailored to the needs of specific target audiences (e.g. defense against attempted rape for women, self-defense for children and teens). Notable systems taught commercially include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal aspects.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application of the law.", "content": "In any given case, it can be difficult to evaluate whether force was excessive. Allowances for great force may be hard to reconcile with human rights.  The Intermediate People's Court of Foshan, People's Republic of China in a 2009 case ruled the killing of a robber during his escape attempt to be justifiable self-defense because \"the robbery was still in progress\" at this time.  In the United States between 2008 and 2012, approximately 1 out of every 38 gun-related deaths (which includes murders, suicides, and accidental deaths) was a justifiable killing, according to the Violence Policy Center.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Unarmed self-defense  Armed self-defense  Legal and moral aspects", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Self-defense (self-defence in some varieties of English) is a countermeasure that involves defending the health and well-being of oneself from harm. The use of the right of self-defense as a legal justification for the use of force in times of danger is available in many jurisdictions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971300}
{"src_title": "Launch vehicle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mass to orbit.", "content": "Launch vehicles are classed by NASA according to low Earth orbit payload capability:  Sounding rockets are similar to small-lift launch vehicles, however they are usually even smaller and do not place payloads into orbit. A modified SS-520 sounding rocket was used to place a 4-kilogram payload (TRICOM-1R) into orbit in 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General information.", "content": "Orbital spaceflight requires a satellite or spacecraft payload to be accelerated to very high velocity. In the vacuum of space, reaction forces must be provided by the ejection of mass, resulting in the rocket equation. The physics of spaceflight are such that multiple rocket stages are typically required to achieve the desired orbit.  Expendable launch vehicles are designed for one-time use, with boosters that usually separate from their payload and disintegrate during atmospheric reentry or on contact with the ground. In contrast, reusable launch vehicle boosters are designed to be recovered intact and launched again. The Falcon 9 is an example reusable launch vehicle.  For example, the European Space Agency is responsible for the Ariane V, and the United Launch Alliance manufactures and launches the Delta IV and Atlas V rockets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Launch platform locations.", "content": "Launchpads can be located on land (spaceport), on a fixed ocean platform (San Marco), on a mobile ocean platform (Sea Launch), and on a submarine. Launch vehicles can also be launched from the air.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flight regimes.", "content": "A launch vehicle will start off with its payload at some location on the surface of the Earth. To reach orbit, the vehicle must travel vertically to leave the atmosphere and horizontally to prevent re-contacting the ground. The required velocity varies depending on the orbit but will always be extreme when compared to velocities encountered in normal life.  Launch vehicles provide varying degrees of performance. For example, a satellite bound for Geostationary orbit (GEO) can either be directly inserted by the upper stage of the launch vehicle or launched to a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). A direct insertion places greater demands on the launch vehicle, while GTO is more demanding of the spacecraft. Once in orbit, launch vehicle upper stages and satellites can have overlapping capabilities, although upper stages tend to have orbital lifetimes measured in hours or days while spacecraft can last decades.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distributed launch.", "content": "Distributed launch involves the accomplishment of a goal with multiple spacecraft and launches. An assembly of modules, such as the International Space Station, can be constructed, or in-space propellant transfer conducted to greatly increase the delta-V capabilities of a given stage. Distributed launch enable space missions that are not possible with single launch architectures.  Mission architectures for distributed launch were explored in the 2000s and launch vehicles with integrated distributed launch capability built in began development in 2017 with the Starship design. The standard Starship launch architecture is to refuel the spacecraft in low Earth orbit to enable the craft to send high-mass payloads on much more energetic missions.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A launch vehicle or carrier rocket is a rocket-propelled vehicle used to carry a payload from Earth's surface to space, usually to Earth orbit or beyond. A launch system includes the launch vehicle, launch pad, vehicle assembly and fuelling systems, range safety, and other related infrastructure.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971301}
{"src_title": "Gloss (annotation)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"gloss\" was first used in the 1570s to refer to the insertion of a word as an explanation. It began to be used to mean to \"explain away\" in the 1630s, and originated from the concept of a note being inserted in the margin of a text to explain a difficult word.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In theology.", "content": "Glosses and other marginal notes were a primary format used in medieval Biblical theology, and were studied and memorized for their own merit. Many Biblical passages came to be associated with a particular gloss, whose truth was taken to be scriptural. Indeed, in one case, it is generally reckoned that an early gloss explicating the doctrine of the Trinity made its way into the Scriptural text itself, in the passage known as the \"three heavenly witnesses\" or the \"Comma Johanneum\", which is present in the Vulgate Latin and the third and later editions of the Greek Textus Receptus collated by Erasmus (the first two editions excluded it for lack of manuscript evidence), but is absent from all modern critical reconstructions of the New Testament text, such as Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf, and Nestle-Aland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In law.", "content": "In the medieval legal tradition, the glosses on Roman law and Canon law created standards of reference, so-called \"sedes materiae\" (literally: seat of the matter). In common law countries, the term \"judicial gloss\" refers to what is considered an authoritative or \"official\" interpretation of a statute or regulation by a judge. Judicial glosses are often very important in avoiding contradictions between statutes, and determining the constitutionality of various provisions of law.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "A gloss, or \"glosa\", is a verse in traditional Iberian literature and music which follows and comments on a refrain (the \"\"mote\"\"). See also villancico.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In philology.", "content": "Glosses are of some importance in philology, especially if one language—usually, the language of the author of the gloss—has left few texts of its own. The Reichenau Glosses, for example, gloss the Latin Vulgate Bible in an early form of one of the Romance languages, and as such give insight into late Vulgar Latin at a time when that language was not often written down. A series of glosses in the Old English language to Latin Bibles give us a running translation of Biblical texts in that language; see \"Old English Bible translations\". Glosses of Christian religious texts are also important for our knowledge of Old Irish. Glosses frequently shed valuable light on the vocabulary of otherwise little attested languages; they are less reliable for syntax, because many times the glosses follow the word order of the original text, and translate its idioms literally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In linguistics.", "content": "In linguistics, a simple gloss in running text may be marked by quotation marks and follow the transcription of a foreign word. Single quotes are a widely used convention. For example:  A longer or more complex transcription may rely upon an \"interlinear gloss\". Such a gloss may be placed between a text and its translation when it is important to understand the structure of the language being glossed, and not just the overall meaning of the passage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Glossing sign languages.", "content": "Sign languages are typically transcribed word-for-word by means of a gloss written in the predominant oral language in all capitals; for example, American Sign Language and Auslan would be written in English. Prosody is often glossed as superscript words, with its scope indicated by brackets.  Pure fingerspelling is usually indicated by hyphenation. Fingerspelled words that have been lexicalized (that is, fingerspelling sequences that have entered the sign language as linguistic units and that often have slight modifications) are indicated with a hash. For example, \"W-I-K-I\" indicates a simple fingerspelled word, but \"#JOB\" indicates a lexicalized unit, produced like \"J-O-B\", but faster, with a barely perceptible \"O\" and turning the \"B\" hand palm side in, unlike a regularly fingerspelled \"B\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A gloss (from ; from, meaning 'language') is a brief notation, especially a marginal one or an interlinear one, of the meaning of a word or wording in a text. It may be in the language of the text or in the reader's language if that is different.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971302}
{"src_title": "Qanun (instrument)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Regional variants and technical specifications.", "content": "Arabic qanuns are usually constructed with five skin insets that support a single long bridge resting on five arching pillars, whereas the somewhat smaller Turkish qanuns are based on just four. This allows Arabic variants of the instrument to have more room for the installation of extreme bass and treble strings. Kanuns manufactured in Turkey generally feature 26 courses of strings, with three strings per course in the case of all regional variants. Contemporary Arabic designs use Nylon or PVC strings that are stretched over the bridge poised on fish-skins as described on one end, and attached to wooden tuning pegs at the other end.  Ornamental sound holes called \"kafes\" are a critical component of what constitutes the accustomed timbre of qanun. However, they normally occupy different locations on the soundboard of Turkish kanuns compared to Arabic qanuns, and may also vary in shape, size and number depending on geography or personal taste.  The dimensions of a Turkish kanun are typically 95 to 100 cm (37–39\") in length, 38 to 40 cm (15–16\") in width, and 4 to 6 cm (1.5–2.3\") in height. In contrast, an Arabic qanun measures a bit larger as mentioned.  Qanun is played on the lap while sitting or squatting, or sometimes on trestle support, by plucking the strings with two tortoise-shell picks (one for each hand) or with fingernails, and has a standard range of three and a half octaves from A2 to E6 that can be extended down to F2 and up to G6 in the case of Arabic designs.  The instrument also features special metallic levers or latches under each course called \"mandals\". These small levers, which can be raised or lowered quickly by the performer while the instrument is being played, serve to slightly change the pitch of a particular course by altering effective string lengths.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tuning and temperament.", "content": "On the regular diatonically tuned qanun, \"mandal\" technology was first implemented, according to Turkish musicologist Rauf Yekta, some 30 years prior to his submission of his invited monograph on Turkish Music to the 1922 edition of Albert Lavignac's \"Encyclopédie de la Musique et Dictionnaire du Conservatoire\". Levantine qanuns, prior to that time, remained rather inflexible and cumbersome to perform on (especially as demanding modulations/transpositions came into vogue that were increasingly emulating Western tonality and key changes), requiring the player to use the fingernail of the thumb to depress on the leftmost ends of the courses to achieve on-the-fly intervallic alterations.  With the advent of electronic tuners some decades later, standardization of the placement of \"reference mandals\" on the qanun began. While Armenian kanuns now employ only equidistant half-tones and Arabic qanuns exact quarter-tones as a result, Turkish kanun-makers went so far as dividing the electroacoustically referenced equal-tempered semitone of 100 cents into 6 equal parts, yielding – for all intents and purposes – 72 equal divisions (or commas) of the octave pitch resolution. Not all pitches of 72-tone equal temperament are available on the Turkish kanun, however, since kanun-makers affix mandals that only accommodate modulations/transpositions popularly demanded by performers. This has subsequently led to the familiar interrupted and irregular pattern of mandals on the Turkish kanun becoming a visual guide for players, in facilitating modal and intonational navigation on an instrument which is ordinarily bereft of pitch markers. Some kanun-makers may also choose to divide the semitone distance from the nut of the lower registers into 7 parts instead for microtonal subtlety (and the highest registers, conversely, into 5 parts due to spacing constraints); but do so at the expense of octave equivalences. Despite the mentioned discrepancies, hundreds of mandal configurations are at the player's disposal when performing on an ordinary Turkish kanun.  On the other hand, the nowadays widespread application of equidistant 24-tones on Arabic and 72-tones on Turkish qanun models presents an ongoing source of controversy. This is particularly in regards to how adequate such Eurocentric octave divisions are in faithfully reproducing the traditionally or classically understood fluid pitches and inflexions of Arabic music or Ottoman classical music scales. Pitch measurement analyses of relevant audio recordings reveal that, equal temperaments based on bike-chained \"multiples of twelve\" are essentially not compatible with authentic Middle Eastern performances; substantiating the notion instruments strictly based on them would clash audibly with a justly tuned/intoned tanbur, oud, ney, or kemenche.  Alternative tuning approaches for the qanun thus also exist. Turkish music theorist Ozan Yarman has proposed, for example, an academical 79-tone temperament for the expression within tolerable error-margins of Maqamat / Makamlar / Dastgaha at all pitch levels, that was implemented by the renowned late luthier Ejder Güleç (1939–2014) on a Turkish kanun. Likewise, the late Swiss-French qānūn performer Julien Jalâl Ed-Dine Weiss (1953–2015), who was critical of the tuning deficiency of Eurocentric octave divisions in approximating just intervals, is known to have conceived, since 1990, a number of prototypes that were entirely based on low prime-limit or simple integer ratio Pythagorean and harmonic intervals; which were once again built, on instructions from Weiss, by Ejder Güleç.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The qanun, kanun, ganoun or kanoon (; ;, \"qanon\";, \"qānūn\"; ; ; ; ) is a string instrument played either solo, or more often as part of an ensemble, in much of the Middle East, North Africa, West Africa, Central Asia, and southeastern regions of Europe. The name derives from the Arabic word \"qanun\", meaning \"rule, law, norm, principle\", which is borrowed from the ancient Greek word and musical instrument (rule), which in Latin was called canon (not to be confused with the European polyphonic musical style and composition technique known by the same name). Traditional and Classical musics executed on the qanun are based on Maqamat or Makamlar. Qanun trace its origins to a stringed Assyrian instrument from the Old Assyrian Empire in Mesopotamia, specifically from the nineteenth century BC. This instrument came inscribed on a box of elephant ivory found in the Assyrian capital Nimrud (old name: Kaleh), which is about 35 km from the city of Mosul in Iraq. The instrument is a type of large zither with a thin trapezoidal soundboard that is famous for its unique melodramatic sound.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971303}
{"src_title": "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Secularization and mediatization.", "content": "The secularized ecclesiastical states (prince-bishoprics, prince-priories, prince-abbeys and imperial abbeys) were generally annexed to neighbouring secular principalities, with several of the abbeys being given as secular fiefs to those small princes who had lost their estates west of the Rhine. Only three states retained their ecclesiastical character: the Archbishopric of Regensburg, which was raised from a bishopric with the incorporation of part of the Archbishopric of Mainz, and the lands of the Teutonic Knights and Knights of Saint John. Also of note is the former Archbishopric of Salzburg, which was secularized as a duchy with an increased territorial scope, and was also made an electorate.  In addition, all but a handful of the 51 imperial cities were abolished and annexed to neighboring states.  The'was ratified unanimously by the'in March 1803, and was approved by the emperor, Francis II, the following month. However the emperor made a formal reservation in respect of the reallocation of votes within the \"\", as the balance between Protestant and Catholic states had been shifted heavily in the former's favour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences.", "content": "Following the ', altogether 112 Imperial states, totaling 10,000 square kilometres, and a population of over three million people changed hands. A number of the larger states made significant territorial gains (most notably Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Prussia), and Baden, Hesse-Kassel, and Württemberg gained status by being made electorates (to replace three that had been lost in the changes). Of the imperial cities, only Augsburg, Bremen, Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Lübeck, and Nuremberg survived as independent entities. The'was set up by the Imperial Diet to arrange the compensation of those princes whose territories had been ceded to France. It continued to operate down to at least 1820 (after the Empire's demise) and its archives are today kept in the German Federal Archives.  The principle that allies of Napoleon could expect to make gains in both territory and status was also established, and was to be repeated on a number of occasions, above all in 1806 when, at the time of the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine, over 80 small and mid-size secular states (such as principalities and imperial counties) were mediatized and annexed to some of the member states of the new Confederation. These massive territorial and institutional upheavals were to bring about the dissolution of the Empire in the course of the same year.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The (formally the ', or \"Principal Conclusion of the Extraordinary Imperial Delegation\"), sometimes referred to in English as the Final Recess or the Imperial Recess of 1803, was a resolution passed by the'(Imperial Diet) of the Holy Roman Empire on 24 March 1803. It was ratified by the Emperor Francis II and became law on 27 April. It proved to be the last significant law enacted by the Empire before its dissolution in 1806.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971304}
{"src_title": "Arnica montana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Arnica montana\" is a flowering plant about tall aromatic fragrant, perennial herb. Its basal green ovate-cilitate leaves with rounded tips are bright coloured and level to the ground. In addition, they are somewhat downy on their upper surface, veined and aggregated in rosettes. By contrast, the upper leaves are opposed, spear-shaped and smaller which is an exception within the Asteraceae. The chromosome number is 2n=38.  The flowering season is between May and August (Central Europe). The hairy flowers are composed of yellow disc florets in the center and orange-yellow ray florets at the external part. The achenes have a one-piece rough pappus which opens in dry conditions. \"Arnica montana\" is a hemicryptophyte, which helps the plant to survive the extreme overwintering condition of its habitat. In addition, \"Arnica\" forms rhizomes, which grow in a two-year cycle: the rosette part grows at its front while its tail is slowly dying.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The Latin specific epithet \"montana\" refers to mountains or coming from mountains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Arnica montana\" is widespread across most of Europe. It is absent from the British Isles and the Italian and Balkan peninsulas. In addition, it is considered extinct in Hungary and Lithuania. \"Arnica montana\" grows in nutrient-poor siliceous meadows or clay soils. It mostly grows on alpine meadows and up to nearly. In more upland regions, it may also be found on nutrient-poor moors and heaths. However Arnica does not grow on lime soil, thus it is an extremely reliable bioindicator for nutrient poor and acidic soils. It is rare overall, but may be locally abundant. It is becoming rarer, particularly in the north of its distribution, largely due to increasingly intensive agriculture and commercial wild-crafting. Nevertheless, it is cultivated on a large scale in Estonia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical constituents.", "content": "The main constituents of \"Arnica montana\" are essential oils, fatty acids, thymol, pseudoguaianolide sesquiterpene lactones and flavanone glycosides. Pseudoguaianolide sesquiterpenes constitute 0.2–0.8% of the flower head of \"Arnica montana\". They are the toxin helenalin and their fatty esters. 2,5-Dimethoxy-p-cymene and thymol methyl ether are the primary components of essential oils from both the plant's roots and rhizomes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Arnica montana\" is propagated from seed. Generally, 20% of seeds do not germinate. For large scale planting, it is recommended to raise plants first in a nursery and then to transplant them in the field. Seeds sprout in 14–20 days but germination rate depends highly of the seed quality. Planting density for \"Arnica montana\" is of 20 plants/m such that the maximum yield density will be achieved in the second flowering season. While \"Arnica montana\" has high exigencies of soil quality, analyses should be done before any fertilizer input.  The flowers are harvested when fully developed and dried without their bract nor receptacles. The roots can be harvested in autumn and dried as well after being carefully washed.  \"Arnica montana\" is sometimes grown in herb gardens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in herbal medicine.", "content": "Historically, \"Arnica montana\" has been used as an herbal medicine for centuries. Traditional uses for the plant are similar to those for willow bark, with it generally being employed for analgesic and anti-inflammatory purposes.  Clinical trials of \"Arnica montana\" have yielded mixed results:  \"A. montana\" has also been the subject of studies of homeopathic preparations. A 1998 systematic review of homeopathic \"A. montana\" conducted at the University of Exeter found that there are no rigorous clinical trials that support the claim that it is efficacious beyond a placebo effect at the concentrations used in homeopathy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "The US Food and Drug Administration has classified \"Arnica montana\" as an unsafe herb because of its toxicity. It should not be taken orally or applied to broken skin where absorption can occur.  \"Arnica montana\" contains the toxin helenalin, which can be poisonous if large amounts of the plant are eaten or small amounts of concentrated Arnica are used. Consumption of \"A. montana\" can produce severe gastroenteritis, internal bleeding of the digestive tract, raised liver enzymes (which can indicate inflammation of the liver), nervousness, accelerated heart rate, muscular weakness, and death if enough is ingested. Contact with the plant can also cause skin irritation. In the Ames test, an extract of \"A. montana\" was found to be mutagenic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Market.", "content": "The demand for \"A. montana\" is 50 tonnes per year in Europe, but the supply does not cover the demand. The plant is rare; it is protected in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, and in some regions of Switzerland. France and Romania produce \"A. montana\" for the international market. Changes in agriculture in Europe during the last decades have led to a decline in the occurrence of \"A. montana\". Extensive agriculture has been replaced by intensive management.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arnica montana, also known as wolf's bane, leopard's bane, mountain tobacco and mountain arnica, is a moderately toxic ethnobotanical European flowering plant in the sunflower family. It is noted for its large yellow flower head. The names \"wolf's bane\" and \"leopard's bane\" are also used for another plant, aconitum, which is extremely poisonous.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971305}
{"src_title": "Hutu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Demographics.", "content": "The Hutu is the largest of the four main population divisions in Burundi and Rwanda. According to the Central Intelligence Agency, 84% of Rwandans and 85% of Burundians are Hutu, with Tutsis the next largest ethnic group at 15% and 14% of residents in Rwanda and Burundi, respectively.  The Twa pygmies, the smallest of the two countries' principal populations, also share language and culture with the Hutu and Tutsi. However, they are distinguished by a considerably shorter stature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "The Hutu are believed to have first emigrated to the Great Lake region from Central Africa in the great Bantu expansion. Various theories have emerged to explain the purported physical differences between them and their fellow Bantu-speaking neighbors, the Tutsi. These pastoralists were then reckoned to have established aristocracies over the sedentary Hutu and Twa. Through intermarriage with the local Bantus, the herders were gradually assimilated culturally, linguistically and racially.  Others suggest that the two groups are related but not identical, and that differences between them were exacerbated by Europeans, or by a gradual, natural split, as those who owned cattle became known as Tutsi and those who did not became Hutu. Mahmood Mamdani states that the Belgian colonial power designated people as Tutsi or Hutu on the basis of cattle ownership, physical measurements and church records.  The debate over the ethnic origins of the Hutu and Tutsi within Rwandan politics predates the Rwandan genocide, and continues to the present day, with the government of Rwanda no longer using the distinction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Y-DNA (paternal lineages).", "content": "Modern-day genetic studies of the Y-chromosome suggest that the Hutu, like the Tutsi, are largely of Bantu extraction (83% E1b1a, 8% E2). Paternal genetic influences associated with the Horn of Africa and North Africa are few (3% E1b1b and 1% R1b), and are ascribed to much earlier inhabitants who were assimilated. However, the Hutu have considerably fewer Nilo-Saharan paternal lineages (4.3% B) than the Tutsi (14.9% B).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Autosomal DNA (overall ancestry).", "content": "In general, the Hutu appear to share a close genetic kinship with neighboring Bantu populations, particularly the Tutsi. However, it is unclear whether this similarity is primarily due to extensive genetic exchanges between these communities through intermarriage or whether it ultimately stems from common origins:  [...]generations of gene flow obliterated whatever clear-cut physical distinctions may have once existed between these two Bantu peoples – renowned to be height, body build, and facial features. With a spectrum of physical variation in the peoples, Belgian authorities legally mandated ethnic affiliation in the 1920s, based on economic criteria. Formal and discrete social divisions were consequently imposed upon ambiguous biological distinctions. To some extent, the permeability of these categories in the intervening decades helped to reify the biological distinctions, generating a taller elite and a shorter underclass, but with little relation to the gene pools that had existed a few centuries ago. The social categories are thus real, but there is little if any detectable genetic differentiation between Hutu and Tutsi.  Tishkoff et al. (2009) found their mixed Hutu and Tutsi samples from Rwanda to be predominately of Bantu origin, with minor gene flow from Afro-Asiatic communities (17.7% Afro-Asiatic genes found in the mixed Hutu/Tutsi population).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "Hutus speak Rwanda-Rundi as their native tongue, which is a member of the Bantu subgroup of the Niger–Congo language family. Rwanda-Rundi is subdivided into the Kinyarwanda and Kirundi dialects, which have been standardized as official languages of Rwanda and Burundi respectively. It is also spoken as a mother tongue by the Tutsi and Twa.  Additionally, a small portion of Hutu speak French, the other official language of Rwanda and Burundi, as a lingua franca, although the population is dwindling given the poor relations between Rwanda and France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-colonial history.", "content": "The Belgian-sponsored Tutsi monarchy survived until 1959, when Kigeli V was exiled from the colony (then called Ruanda-Urundi). In Burundi, Tutsis, who are the minority, maintained control of the government and military. In Rwanda, the political power was transferred from the minority Tutsi to the majority Hutu.  In Rwanda, this led to the \"Social revolution\" and Hutu violence against Tutsis. Tens of thousands of Tutsis were killed and many others fled to neighboring countries, such as Burundi, Uganda and expanding the Banyamulenge Tutsi ethnic group in the South Kivu region of the Belgian Congo. Later, exiled Tutsis from Burundi invaded Rwanda, prompting Rwanda to close its border to Burundi.  In Burundi, a campaign of genocide was conducted against the Hutu population in 1972, and an estimated 100,000 Hutus died. In 1993, Burundi's first democratically elected president, Melchior Ndadaye, who was Hutu, was believed to be assassinated by Tutsi officers, as was the person constitutionally entitled to succeed him. This sparked a genocide in Burundi between Hutu political structures and the Tutsi military, in which an estimated 500,000 Burundians died. There were many mass killings of Tutsis and moderate Hutus; these events were deemed to be a genocide by the United Nations International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi.  While Tutsi remained in control of Burundi, the conflict resulted in genocide in Rwanda as well. A Tutsi rebel group, the Rwandan Patriotic Front, invaded Rwanda from Uganda, which started a civil war against Rwanda's Hutu government in 1990. A peace agreement was signed, but violence erupted again, culminating in the Rwandan genocide of 1994, when Hutu extremists killed an estimated 800,000 Rwandans, mostly Tutsis.  About 30% of the Twa pygmy population of Rwanda were also killed by the Hutus. At the same time, the Rwandan Patriotic Front took control of the country and is still the ruling party. Burundi is also currently governed by a former rebel group, the Hutu CNDD-FDD.  As of 2006, violence between the Hutu and Tutsi had subsided, but the situation in both Rwanda and Burundi was still tense, and tens of thousands of Rwandans were still living outside the country (see Great Lakes refugee crisis).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hutu, also known as the Abahutu, are a Bantu ethnic or social group native to the African Great Lakes region of Africa, an area now primarily in Burundi and Rwanda. They mainly live in Rwanda, Burundi, and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, where they form one of the principal ethnic groups alongside the Tutsi and the Twa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971306}
{"src_title": "Trzebiatów", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The lower Rega area around Gryfice and Trzebiatów was the site of a Slavic or Lechitic \"gród\" (fortified settlement) in the 9th century. The region was part of Poland during the reign of the first Polish rulers Mieszko I and Bolesław I the Brave. The first recorded mention of the town comes from 1170 when the Pomeranian duke Casimir I granted a few villages and oversight of a church in the town to settlers from Lund in Sweden. It was part of the Duchy of Pomerania, which separated itself from Poland as a result of the fragmentation of Poland.  In 1504, Johannes Bugenhagen moved to the town and became Rector of the local school. On 13 December 1534 a diet was assembled in the town, where the Dukes Barnim XI and Philip I as well as the nobility officially introduced Lutheranism to Pomerania, against the vote of Erasmus von Manteuffel-Arnhausen, Prince-Bishop of Cammin. In the following month Bugenhagen drafted the new church order (Kirchenordnung), founding the Pomeranian Lutheran church (today's Pomeranian Evangelical Church).  As a dowager, Sophia of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg (1579–1658), widow of Philip II, Duke of Pomerania, lived in Treptow. Sophia's dower was a former nunnery, which she converted into a palace. While in Swedish service and thereafter Duke Francis Henry of Saxe-Lauenburg spent a lot of time with Duchess dowager Sophia in Treptow. Sophia's and Francis Henry's fathers were cousins. On 13 December 1637 Francis Henry and Marie Juliane of Nassau-Siegen (1612–1665) married in Treptow. Their first child was born in Treptow in 1640. Francis Henry also served Sophia as administrator of the estates pertaining to her dower.  In 1637 Philip II died leaving the Pomeranian ducal house extinct. At this point the duchy came under Swedish occupation with the Brandenburgian electors claiming succession in Pomerania. It was not until 1648 that the electors annexed the central and eastern part of the former duchy, which formed the newly established province of Pomerania. In 1750 the local palace was refurbished in classicist style for General Frederick Eugene of Württemberg, who resided there – with interruptions – until 1763. In the late 18th century, thanks to Polish noblewoman and writer Maria Wirtemberska née Czartoryska, the cultural life of the town was revived. She lived in the Trzebiatów Palace, and her early works and translations were created here. The Polish painter Jan Rustem visited her several times, and his paintings were part of the palace's art collection. The palace now houses a public library, founded in 1946 and named after Maria Wirtemberska née Czartoryska since 1999.  With the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, Brandenburg-Pomerania, already since 1618 ruled in personal union with Ducal Prussia (Kingdom since 1701), also legally merged into Prussia and the different German confederacies and empires of which it formed part since.  Near the end of the World War II, in February 1945, despite the approaching front, the German authorities did not allow for the evacuation of the town's population. It was not until March 4 that the order to evacuate was issued, the day after the German army left the town, leaving the defenseless civilian population at the mercy of the approaching Soviet Army. After the war the central and eastern part of Western Pomerania, including Trzebiatów, became part of Poland. The town's German population was expelled, and the town was resettled with Poles, many of whom were themselves expelled from pre-war Eastern Poland, annexed by the Soviet Union.  Since 1 January 1999, the town has been within West Pomerania Voivodeship, upon its formation from the former Szczecin and Koszalin voivodeships.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Trzebiatów's Day of the Buckwheat is a celebration during the first week of August. It is held in memory of the day when the town guard mistakenly dropped a hot bowl of buckwheat meal on invaders from the nearby town of Gryfice, alarming the whole town and ultimately saving it. Inhabitants of Trzebiatów celebrate that event with dances, concerts, competitions and by eating cereal with ham and bacon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns - sister cities.", "content": "Trzebiatów is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "<br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Trzebiatów (, ) is a town in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland, with 10,119 inhabitants (2016). Trzebiatów is located on the Rega River in the north-western part of Poland, roughly 9 kilometers south of the Baltic coast.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971307}
{"src_title": "Floating-point unit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Historically systems implemented floating point with a coprocessor rather than as an integrated unit (but now in addition to the CPU, e.g. GPUs that are coprocessors not always built into the CPU have FPUs as a rule, while first generations of GPUs didn't). This could be a single integrated circuit, an entire circuit board or a cabinet. Where floating-point calculation hardware has not been provided, floating-point calculations are done in software, which takes more processor time, but avoids the cost of the extra hardware. For a particular computer architecture, the floating-point unit instructions may be emulated by a library of software functions; this may permit the same object code to run on systems with or without floating-point hardware. Emulation can be implemented on any of several levels: in the CPU as microcode (not a common practice), as an operating system function, or in user-space code. When only integer functionality is available, the CORDIC floating-point emulation methods are most commonly used.  In most modern computer architectures, there is some division of floating-point operations from integer operations. This division varies significantly by architecture; some have dedicated floating-point registers, while some, like the Intel x86, take it as far as independent clocking schemes.  CORDIC routines have been implemented in the Intel 8087, 80287, 80387 up to the 80486 coprocessor series, as well as in the Motorola 68881 and 68882 for some kinds of floating-point instructions, mainly as a way to reduce the gate counts (and complexity) of the FPU subsystem.  Floating-point operations are often pipelined. In earlier superscalar architectures without general out-of-order execution, floating-point operations were sometimes pipelined separately from integer operations.  Since the early 1990s, many microprocessors for desktops and servers have more than one FPU.  The modular architecture of Bulldozer microarchitecture uses a special FPU named FlexFPU, which uses simultaneous multithreading. Each physical integer core, two per module, is single-threaded, in contrast with Intel's Hyperthreading, where two virtual simultaneous threads share the resources of a single physical core.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Floating-point library.", "content": "Some floating-point hardware only supports the simplest operations: addition, subtraction, and multiplication. But even the most complex floating-point hardware has a finite number of operations it can support for example, no FPUs directly support arbitrary-precision arithmetic.  When a CPU is executing a program that calls for a floating-point operation that is not directly supported by the hardware, the CPU uses a series of simpler floating-point operations. In systems without any floating-point hardware, the CPU emulates it using a series of simpler fixed-point arithmetic operations that run on the integer arithmetic logic unit.  The software that lists the necessary series of operations to emulate floating-point operations is often packaged in a floating-point library.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Integrated FPUs.", "content": "In some cases, FPUs may be specialized, and divided between simpler floating-point operations (mainly addition and multiplication) and more complicated operations, like division. In some cases, only the simple operations may be implemented in hardware or microcode, while the more complex operations are implemented as software.  In some current architectures, the FPU functionality is combined with units to perform SIMD computation; an example of this is the augmentation of the x87 instructions set with SSE instruction set in the x86-64 architecture used in newer Intel and AMD processors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Add-on FPUs.", "content": "In the 1980s, it was common in IBM PC/compatible microcomputers for the FPU to be entirely separate from the CPU, and typically sold as an optional add-on. It would only be purchased if needed to speed up or enable math-intensive programs.  The IBM PC, XT, and most compatibles based on the 8088 or 8086 had a socket for the optional 8087 coprocessor. The AT and 80286-based systems were generally socketed for the 80287, and 80386/80386SX-based machines for the 80387 and 80387SX respectively, although early ones were socketed for the 80287, since the 80387 did not exist yet. Other companies manufactured co-processors for the Intel x86 series. These included Cyrix and Weitek.  Coprocessors were available for the Motorola 68000 family, the 68881 and 68882. These were common in Motorola 68020/68030-based workstations, like the Sun 3 series. They were also commonly added to higher-end models of Apple Macintosh and Commodore Amiga series, but unlike IBM PC-compatible systems, sockets for adding the coprocessor were not as common in lower-end systems.  There are also add-on FPUs coprocessor units for microcontroller units (MCUs/μCs)/single-board computer (SBCs), which serve to provide floating-point arithmetic capability. These add-on FPUs are host-processor-independent, possess their own programming requirements (operations, instruction sets, etc.) and are often provided with their own integrated development environments (IDEs).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A floating-point unit (FPU, colloquially a math coprocessor) is a part of a computer system specially designed to carry out operations on floating-point numbers. Typical operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and square root. Some FPUs can also perform various transcendental functions such as exponential or trigonometric calculations, but the accuracy can be very low, so that some systems prefer to compute these functions in software.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971308}
{"src_title": "Carpathian Germans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Kingdom of Hungary.", "content": "Germans settled in the northern territory of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary (then called Upper Hungary, today mostly Slovakia) from the 12th to the 15th centuries (\"see Ostsiedlung\"), mostly after the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe. There had probably already been some isolated settlers in the area of Pressburg (Pozsony, today's Bratislava). The Germans were usually attracted by kings seeking specialists in various trades, such as craftsmen and miners. They usually settled in older Slavic market and mining settlements. Until approximately the 15th century, the ruling classes of most cities in present-day Slovakia were almost exclusively Germans.  The main settlement areas were in the vicinity of Pressburg and some language islands in Szepes County (Hungarian: \"Szepesség\"; German: \"Zips\"; Latin: \"Scepusium\", today Spiš region in Slovakia) and the Hauerland regions. The settlers in the Szepes County were known as \"Zipser Sachsen\" (Zipser Saxons, Hungarian: \"cipszerek\"). Within Carpathian Ruthenia, they initially settled around Taracköz (German: \"Theresiental\", today Teresva in Ukraine) and Munkács (German: \"Munkatsch\", today Mukachevo in Ukraine).  The Carpathian Germans, like the Slovaks, were subjected to policies of Magyarization in the latter half of the 19th and the early the 20th century. Furthermore, many Carpathian Germans voluntarily magyarized their names to climb the social and economic ladder.  On 28 October 1918, the National Council of Carpathian Germans in Késmárk (German: \"Käsmark\", today Kežmarok, Slovakia) declared their loyalty to the Kingdom of Hungary, but a Slovak group declared it to be part of Czechoslovakia two days later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Czechoslovak Republic.", "content": "During the First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938), Carpathian Germans had a specific political party, the Zipser German Party (1920–1938), led by Andor Nitsch, who was elected from 1925 to 1935 on a common Hungarian-German list for parliamentary elections. In 1929, the more nationalist-oriented, was formed in Bratislava, the Carpathian German Party (KdP), which made a common list at the 1935 parliamentary elections with the Sudeten German Party; Konrad Henlein became its leader in 1937, with Franz Karmasin as deputy. In 1935, both parties obtained a seat in both parliamentary assemblies. In 1939, the KdP was renamed the German Party, with Franz Karmasin as führer, who had become in October 1938 state secretary for German Affairs in the Slovak Republic (1939–1945), led by Tiso.  The status of the Slovak Republic as a client state of Nazi Germany during World War II made life difficult for Carpathian Germans after the war. Nearly all remaining Germans har fled or were evacuated by the German authorities before the end of the war. Most Germans from Spiš were evacuated to Germany or the Sudetenland before the arrival of the Red Army. The evacuation was mostly the initiative of Adalbert Wanhoff and prepared the diocese of the German Evangelical Church between mid-November 1944 and 21 January 1945. The Germans from Bratislava were evacuated in January and February 1945 after long delays, and those of the Hauerland fled at the end of March 1945. The Red Army reached Bratislava on 4 April 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After World War II.", "content": "After the war, one third of the evacuated or fugitive Germans returned to Slovakia. However on 18–19 June 1945, in the Přerov incident in Czechoslovakia, 71 men, 120 women and 74 children (265 Germans) who were Carpathian Germans from Dobšiná were murdered while they were passing through Horní Moštěnice, near Přerov railway station. After being taken out of the train by Czechoslovak soldiers, they were marched outside the city to a hill \"Švédské šance\", where they were forced to dig their own graves and then were shot. The massacre did not become publicly known until the fall of the communist regime in 1989.  On 2 August 1945, Carpathian Germans lost the rights of citizenship, by Beneš decree no. 33, and they were interned in camps such as in Bratislava-Petržalka, Nováky, and in Krickerhau Handlová. In 1946 and 1947, about 33,000 people were expelled from Slovakia under the Potsdam Agreement, and around 20,000 persons were allowed or forced to remain in Slovakia because they were able, on petition, to use the \"Slovakisation\" process, which meant that they declared themselves as Slovaks and either changed their names to Slovak equivalents or simply Slovakized them, and others were simply forced to remain because their skills were needed. Out of approximately 128,000 Germans in Slovakia in 1938, only some 20,000 (15.6% of the prewar total) remained by 1947. The citizenship rules of the Beneš decrees were revoked in 1948 but not the expropriations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "According to national censuses, there were 6,108 (0.11%) Germans in Slovakia in 2007, 5,405 in 2001, 5,414 in 1991 and 2,918 in 1980. A Carpathian German Homeland Association has been created to maintain traditions, and since 2005, there is also a museum of culture of Carpathian Germans in Bratislava. There are two German-language media that are assisted financially by the Slovak government: \"Karpatenblatt\" (monthly) and \"IKEJA news\" (Internet). There is also minority broadcasting in German on the Slovak radio. After the war, their countrymen, now living in Germany and Austria, founded cultural associations as well. There is also a Carpathian German Landsmannschaft of North America.  Amongst prominent member ethnic Germans in postwar Slovakia is Rudolf Schuster, the country's second president (1999–2004). Others e.g.  The Carpathian and other German-speaking groups in Romania are currently represented by the Democratic Forum of Germans in Romania (DFDR/FDGR).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "The isolation of the German from countries in which German has been standardised (Germany, Austria and Switzerland) has caused many obscure German dialects to continue to exist in Slovakia, but many are in danger of extinction.  In the Upper and Lower Zips regions (and later in Romania), the Zipser Germans spoke Zipserisch. A community of speakers remains in Hopgarten and speaks a distinctive dialect, \"Outzäpsersch\" (German: Altzipserisch, literally \"Old Zipserish\"). In Dobsina, they spoke what they called \"Dobschauisch\" or \"Topschauisch\". In Metzenseifen (Medzev), they spoke Mantak, but only a few dozen people speak it today. The German schools were closed after World War II in all former German-speaking towns, and children were forced to learn Slovak. German was not to be used in the workplace or even in the street.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Carpathian Germans (, or \"felvidéki németek\", ) are a group of ethnic Germans. The term was coined by the historian Raimund Friedrich Kaindl (1866–1930), originally generally referring to the German-speaking population of the area around the Carpathian Mountains: the Cisleithanian (Austrian) crown lands of Galicia and Bukovina, as well as the Hungarian half of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy (including Szepes County), and the northwestern (Maramuresch) region of Romania. Since the First World War, only the Germans of Slovakia (the Slovak Germans or \"Slowakeideutsche\", including the Zipser Germans) and those of Carpathian Ruthenia in Ukraine have commonly been called \"Carpathian Germans\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971309}
{"src_title": "Latvians", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A Finnic-speaking tribe known as the Livs settled among the Latvians and modulated the name to \"Latvis\", meaning \"forest-clearers\", which is how medieval German, Teutonic settlers also referred to these peoples. The Germanic settlers referred to the natives as \"Letts\" and the nation to \"Lettland\", naming their colony Livonia or Livland.  The Latin form, \"Livonia\", gradually referred to the whole territory of modern-day Latvia as well as southern Estonia, which had fallen under a minimal Germanic influence. Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic branch of the Indo-European family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "Paternal haplogroups R1a and N1a1-Tat are the two most frequent, reaching 39.9% each among ethnic Latvians. R1a has originated in eastern Europe and is associated with spread of Indo-European languages. R1a of Latvians is predominantly M558 and compared to other populations also has the highest concentration of M558 among R1a. N1a1-Tat mutation originated in East Asia and had spread through the Urals into Europe where it is currently most common among Finno-Ugric and Baltic people. Latvians and Lithuanians have a predominance of the L550 branch of N1a1-Tat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Latvians share a common language and have a unique culture with traditions, holidays, customs and arts. The culture and religious traditions have been somewhat influenced by Germanic, Scandinavian, and Russian traditions. Latvians have an ancient culture that has been archaeologically dated back to 3000 BC. Latvians maintained a considerable connection and trade with their neighbors. The first indications of human inhabitants on the lands of modern Latvia date archaeologically to 9000 BC, suggesting that the first settlers were hunters that stayed almost immediately following the end of the last Ice Age. Colonizers from the south arrived quickly, driving many of the hunters northward as polar ice caps melted further, or east, into modern-day Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. The Roman author Tacitus remarked upon the \"Aestii\" peoples, thought to be inhabitants of the modern Baltic lands, suggesting that they were abound with formidable, yet peaceful and hospitable people. The Latvian peoples remained relatively undisturbed until Papal intervention via the Germanic, Teutonic Order colonized Kurzeme (Courland in English, Kurland in German), beginning in the first half of the 13th century. Papal decrees ordered the Teutonic Order to spread the \"Word of the Lord\" and the Gospel of Christianity throughout \"uncivilized\", \"Pagan lands\". Though these attempts to Christianize the population failed, and the Teutonic Order eventually redeployed southward, to the region of what was once known as East Prussia.  South-Eastern Latvia (Latgale), due to having a relatively large ethnic Russian population, has maintained a large Russian influence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "Paganism was the main religion before territory of Latvia was invaded by Christian Teutonic Order. Latvians still celebrate traditional feasts (solstices). Dievturība is a neopagan movement which claims to be a modern revival of the ethnic religion of the Latvians before Christianization in the 13th century.  Most of the Christian Latvians belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church, but in Latgale and Alsunga Municipality the Roman Catholic Church is predominant, a small minority of Latvians belong to the Latvian Orthodox Church and other religious congregations. In the late 18th century, a small but vibrant Herrnhutist movement played a significant part in the development of Latvian literary culture before it was absorbed into the mainstream Lutheran denomination.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "Latvians' ancestral language, Latvian, has been recorded since at least the 16th century. It developed into a distinct language by the 9th century. It is part of a distinct linguistic branch of Indo-European languages: the Baltic languages.  Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinct Livonian language of Baltic-Finnic sub-branch of Uralic language family, which enjoys protection by law. The Latgalian language (a dialect of Latvian) is also protected by Latvian law as historical variation of Latvian language.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Latvians (; ) are a Baltic ethnic group and nation native to Latvia and the immediate geographical region, the Baltics. They are occasionally also referred to as Letts, although this term is becoming obsolete. Latvians share a common Latvian language, culture and history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971310}
{"src_title": "Albert II of Germany", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Albert was born in Vienna as the son of Albert IV, Duke of Austria, and Joanna Sophia of Bavaria.  He succeeded to the Duchy of Austria at the age of seven on his father's death in 1404. His uncle Duke William of Inner Austria, then head of the rivaling Leopoldinian line, served as regent for his nephew, followed by his brothers Leopold IV and Ernest the Iron in 1406. The quarrels between the brothers and their continued attempts to gain control over the Albertinian territories led to civil war-like conditions. Nevertheless, Albert, having received a good education, undertook the government of Austria proper on the occasion of Leopold's death in 1411 and succeeded, with the aid of his advisers, in ridding the duchy of the evils which had arisen during his minority.  In 1422 Albert married Elisabeth of Luxemburg, the daughter and heiress of the King Sigismund of Hungary (later also Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia), and his second wife, the Slovenian noblewoman Barbara of Celje. Besides Hungary, Albert's marriage brought him claims to several Slavic kingdoms and principalities as well.  Albert assisted his father-in-law Sigismund in his campaigns against the Hussites, involving the Austrian duchy in the Hussite Wars. In return Sigismund designated him as his successor and granted him the title of a Margrave of Moravia in 1423. The Austrian lands were devastated several times and Albert also participated in the 1431 Battle of Domažlice where the Imperial troops suffered an embarrassing defeat.  When Sigismund died in 1437, Albert was crowned king of Hungary on 1 January 1438, and just as his predecessor did, he moved his court to the Hungarian Kingdom from where he later oversaw his other domains. Although crowned king of Bohemia six months after ascending to the Hungarian throne, he was unable to obtain possession of the country. He was engaged in warfare with the Bohemians and their Polish allies, when on 18 March 1438, he was chosen \"King of the Romans\" at Frankfurt, an honour which he does not appear to have sought. He was never crowned as Holy Roman Emperor.  Afterwards engaged in defending Hungary against the attacks of the Turks, he died on 27 October 1439 at Neszmély and was buried at Székesfehérvár. Albert was an energetic and warlike prince, whose short reign as a triple king gave great promise of usefulness for the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expulsion of the Jews.", "content": "Though the Jews in the Austrian duchy had been subject to local persecutions during the 13th and 14th century, their position remained relatively safe. Jewish communities prospered in several towns like Krems or the area around the \"Judenplatz\" at Vienna. During the confusion after the death of Duke Albert IV in 1404 their situation worsened sharply, culminating in the blaze of the Vienna synagogue on 5 November 1406, followed by riots and lootings.  When Albert V came of age in 1411 and interfered in the Hussite Wars, he repeatedly established new taxes imposed on the Jewish community to finance his campaigns. On the other hand, after the Hussites had devastated the duchy, the Austrian Jews were accused of collaboration and arms trade in favour of the enemies. The accusations of a host desecration at Krems in 1420 gave Albert pretext for the destruction of the Jewish community.  According to the 1463 \"Chronica Austriae\" by chronicler Thomas Ebendorfer the duke on 23 May 1420, at the behest of the Church, ordered the imprisonment and forcible conversion of the Jews. Those that had not converted or escaped were sent off in boats down the Danube, while wealthy Jews remained under arrest, several of them tortured and stripped of their property. The forced baptism of Jewish children was stopped on intervention by Pope Martin V. On 12 March 1421 Albert sentenced the remaining Jews to death. 92 men and 120 women were burned at the stake south of the Vienna city walls on 12 March 1421. The Jews were placed under an \"eternal ban\" and their synagogue was demolished. The persecutions in several Austrian towns are explicitly described in a 16th-century script called \"Vienna Gesera\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Full title.", "content": "Full titulature Albert possessed went as follows: \"Albert, by the grace of God elected King of the Romans, always August, King of Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania and Bulgaria, elected King of Bohemia, duke of Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, margrave of Moravia, Lord of the Wendish March and Port Naon, Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Ferrete and Kyburg, etc. Margrave of Burgau and landgrave of Alsace.\"  In practise he often used a shorter version: \"Albert, by the grace of God elected King of the Romans, always August, King of Hungary, Dalmatia and Croatia, etc. elected King of Bohemia, duke of Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, Margrave of Moravia and Count of Tyrol, etc.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "His children with Elisabeth of Bohemia were:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Albert the Magnanimous KG (10 August 139727 October 1439) was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1437 until his death and member of the House of Habsburg. He was also King of Bohemia, elected King of Germany as Albert II, Duke of Luxembourg and, as Albert V, Archduke of Austria from 1404.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971311}
{"src_title": "Process (computing)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Representation.", "content": "In general, a computer system process consists of (or is said to \"own\") the following resources:  The operating system holds most of this information about active processes in data structures called process control blocks. Any subset of the resources, typically at least the processor state, may be associated with each of the process' threads in operating systems that support threads or \"child\" processes.  The operating system keeps its processes separate and allocates the resources they need, so that they are less likely to interfere with each other and cause system failures (e.g., deadlock or thrashing). The operating system may also provide mechanisms for inter-process communication to enable processes to interact in safe and predictable ways.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Multitasking and process management.", "content": "A multitasking operating system may just switch between processes to give the appearance of many processes executing simultaneously (that is, in parallel), though in fact only one process can be executing at any one time on a single CPU (unless the CPU has multiple cores, then multithreading or other similar technologies can be used).  It is usual to associate a single process with a main program, and child processes with any spin-off, parallel processes, which behave like asynchronous subroutines. A process is said to \"own\" resources, of which an \"image\" of its program (in memory) is one such resource. However, in multiprocessing systems \"many\" processes may run off of, or share, the same reentrant program at the same location in memory, but each process is said to own its own \"image\" of the program.  Processes are often called \"tasks\" in embedded operating systems. The sense of \"process\" (or task) is \"something that takes up time\", as opposed to \"memory\", which is \"something that takes up space\".  The above description applies to both processes managed by an operating system, and processes as defined by process calculi.  If a process requests something for which it must wait, it will be blocked. When the process is in the blocked state, it is eligible for swapping to disk, but this is transparent in a virtual memory system, where regions of a process's memory may be really on disk and not in main memory at any time. Note that even portions of active processes/tasks (executing programs) are eligible for swapping to disk, if the portions have not been used recently. Not all parts of an executing program and its data have to be in physical memory for the associated process to be active.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Process states.", "content": "An operating system kernel that allows multitasking needs processes to have certain states. Names for these states are not standardised, but they have similar functionality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inter-process communication.", "content": "When processes communicate with each other it is called \"Inter-process communication\" (IPC). Processes frequently need to communicate, for instance in a shell pipeline, the output of the first process need to pass to the second one, and so on to the other process. It is preferred in a well-structured way not using interrupts.  It is even possible for the two processes to be running on different machines. The operating system (OS) may differ from one process to the other, therefore some mediator(s) (called protocols) are needed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "By the early 1960s, computer control software had evolved from monitor control software, for example IBSYS, to executive control software. Over time, computers got faster while computer time was still neither cheap nor fully utilized; such an environment made multiprogramming possible and necessary. Multiprogramming means that several programs run concurrently. At first, more than one program ran on a single processor, as a result of underlying uniprocessor computer architecture, and they shared scarce and limited hardware resources; consequently, the concurrency was of a \"serial\" nature. On later systems with multiple processors, multiple programs may run concurrently in \"parallel\".  Programs consist of sequences of instructions for processors. A single processor can run only one instruction at a time: it is impossible to run more programs at the same time. A program might need some resource, such as an input device, which has a large delay, or a program might start some slow operation, such as sending output to a printer. This would lead to processor being \"idle\" (unused). To keep the processor busy at all times, the execution of such a program is halted and the operating system switches the processor to run another program. To the user, it will appear that the programs run at the same time (hence the term \"parallel\").  Shortly thereafter, the notion of a \"program\" was expanded to the notion of an \"executing program and its context\". The concept of a process was born, which also became necessary with the invention of re-entrant code. Threads came somewhat later. However, with the advent of concepts such as time-sharing, computer networks, and multiple-CPU shared memory computers, the old \"multiprogramming\" gave way to true multitasking, multiprocessing and, later, multithreading.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computing, a process is the instance of a computer program that is being executed by one or many threads. It contains the program code and its activity. Depending on the operating system (OS), a process may be made up of multiple threads of execution that execute instructions concurrently.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971312}
{"src_title": "Galilean transformation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Translation.", "content": "Though the transformations are named for Galileo, it is absolute time and space as conceived by Isaac Newton that provides their domain of definition. In essence, the Galilean transformations embody the intuitive notion of addition and subtraction of velocities as vectors.  The notation below describes the relationship under the Galilean transformation between the coordinates and of a single arbitrary event, as measured in two coordinate systems S and S', in uniform relative motion (velocity \"v\") in their common \"x\" and \"x\"′ directions, with their spatial origins coinciding at time :  Note that the last equation expresses the assumption of a universal time independent of the relative motion of different observers.  In the language of linear algebra, this transformation is considered a shear mapping, and is described with a matrix acting on a vector. With motion parallel to the \"x\"-axis, the transformation acts on only two components: Though matrix representations are not strictly necessary for Galilean transformation, they provide the means for direct comparison to transformation methods in special relativity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Galilean transformations.", "content": "The Galilean symmetries can be uniquely written as the composition of a \"rotation\", a \"translation\" and a \"uniform motion\" of spacetime. Let represent a point in three-dimensional space, and a point in one-dimensional time. A general point in spacetime is given by an ordered pair.  A uniform motion, with velocity, is given by where. A translation is given by where and. A rotation is given by where is an orthogonal transformation.  As a Lie group, the group of Galilean transformations has dimension 10.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Galilean group.", "content": "Two Galilean transformations and compose to form a third Galilean transformation,. The set of all Galilean transformations on space forms a group with composition as the group operation.  The group is sometimes represented as a matrix group with spacetime events as vectors where is real and is a position in space. The action is given by where is real and and is a rotation matrix.  The composition of transformations is then accomplished through matrix multiplication. has named subgroups. The identity component is denoted.  Let represent the transformation matrix with parameters :  The parameters span ten dimensions. Since the transformations depend continuously on, is a continuous group, also called a topological group.  The structure of can be understood by reconstruction from subgroups. The semidirect product combination (formula_14) of groups is required.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin in group contraction.", "content": "Here, we only look at the Lie algebra of the Galilean group; it is then easy to extend the results to the Lie group.  The relevant Lie algebra is spanned by and (an antisymmetric tensor), subject to commutation relations, where  This Lie Algebra is seen to be a special classical limit of the algebra of the Poincaré group, in the limit. Technically, the Galilean group is a celebrated group contraction of the Poincaré group (which, in turn, is a group contraction of the de Sitter group \"SO\"(1,4)).  Renaming the generators of the latter as, where is the speed of light, or any function thereof diverging as, the commutation relations (structure constants) of the latter limit to that of the former.  Note the group invariants,.  In matrix form, for \"d\"=3, one may consider the \"regular representation\" (embedded in \"GL\"(5;R), from which it could be derived by a single group contraction, bypassing the Poincaré group), formula_29 formula_30 formula_31 formula_32  The infinitesimal group element is then", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Central extension of the Galilean group.", "content": "One could, instead, augment the Galilean group by a central extension of the Lie algebra spanned by, such that commutes with everything (i.e. lies in the center), and  This algebra is often referred to as the Bargmann algebra.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In physics, a Galilean transformation is used to transform between the coordinates of two reference frames which differ only by constant relative motion within the constructs of Newtonian physics. These transformations together with spatial rotations and translations in space and time form the inhomogeneous Galilean group (assumed throughout below). Without the translations in space and time the group is the homogeneous Galilean group. The Galilean group is the group of motions of Galilean relativity acting on the four dimensions of space and time, forming the Galilean geometry. This is the passive transformation point of view. In special relativity the homogenous and inhomogenous Galilean transformations are, respectively, replaced by the Lorentz transformations and Poincaré transformations; conversely, the group contraction in the classical limit of Poincaré transformations yields Galilean transformations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971313}
{"src_title": "Żagań", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The town's name probably means \"place of the burnt forest\" (pol. \"żegać\", \"żagiew\"): probably referring to the burning of primaeval forest by early settlers. If this is correct, it is consistent with the names of nearby places: Żary, Zgorzelec, Pożarów.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Żagań is located roughly halfway between Cottbus and Wrocław, approximately 100 meters above sea level and at the centre of the Żagań administrative district. It is about north of the Polish frontier with the former Czechoslovakia (now the Czech republic), and since the most recent reconfiguration of the frontiers has been located approximately to the east of the Polish frontier with Germany (formerly East Germany). The rural district of Żagań surrounds the town on its northern, eastern and southern sides. Iłowa lies to the south-west and the rural district of Żary is to the north-west. The Rivers Bóbr and Kwisa meet up just outside the town on its south-eastern side.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Polish Piast dynasty.", "content": "The area formed part of Poland after the creation of the state in the 10th century. Żagań, first mentioned in a 1202 deed, then belonged the Duchy of Lower Silesia at Wrocław under the rule of the Piast duke Henry I the Bearded. In 1251, it was part of the newly created Duchy of Głogów under Henry's grandson Konrad I. Duke Konrad I granted Żagań town rights between 1248 and 1260. The town developed wealth from development of mining, and, attracting settlers from the west, became a German-speaking town.  After Konrad's death in 1274, his heirs again divided the duchy and the castle of Żagań became the residence of his youngest son Przemko of Ścinawa, Duke of Żagań from 1278, who established a monastery of the Augustinian Canons here. Thus the Duchy of Żagań came into the existence. In 1284, he swapped his estates for the Duchy of Ścinawa and was succeeded by his elder brother Konrad II the Hunchback. When Konrad II died in 1304, all the former Głogów estates were reunified under his surviving brother Henry III.  In 1309, Henry III of Głogów was succeeded by his eldest son Henry IV the Faithful, who in 1321 again had to divide the duchy with his younger brothers. He ceded Głogów to Przemko II and retired to Żagań, which again became the capital of a duchy in its own right. In 1329, all the sons of Henry III of Głogów became vassals of John of Luxembourg, the King of Bohemia - with the exception of Przemko II who died suddenly two years later. When in 1393 Henry VI the Older, grandson of Henry IV, died without issue, the estates were again reunified with Głogów until in 1412 Jan I, the eldest son of Duke Henry VIII the Sparrow, became the sole ruler of the Żagań duchy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Saxon, Habsburg and Prussian rule.", "content": "After a fierce battle for the inheritance, Jan II the Mad, son of Jan I, finally sold it to Duke Albert III of Saxony from the House of Wettin, thus ending the centuries-long Piast rule.  In 1549, Elector Maurice of Saxony ceded Sagan to the Bohemian king Ferdinand I of Habsburg. Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg allotted the fief to Albrecht von Wallenstein, his supreme commander in the Thirty Years' War in 1627. It then passed to the illustrious Bohemian family of Lobkowicz, who had the Baroque Żagań Palace erected. One of two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through the town in the 18th century and Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland traveled that route numerous times. After the First Silesian War of 1742, Żagań became part of Prussia. It was part of the Province of Silesia of Prussia and after 1871 Germany. In the 19th century Żagań was still a significant Polish center.  In 1786, the fief was purchased by Peter von Biron, Duke of Courland, and in 1843, it passed to his daughter Dorothea, the wife of Edmond de Talleyrand, a nephew of the great French diplomat Talleyrand, who spent her retirement years at Sagan. A patent of King Frederick William IV of Prussia on 6 January 1845 invested her as Duchess of Sagan; and Napoleon III recognized the title in France, in favour of her son Louis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second World War.", "content": "The double title (a \"prince\" and a \"duc\") both Prussian and French, served to render the \"duc de Sagan\" a neutral party during the Second World War: his Château de Valençay provided a safe haven for treasures of the Louvre during the German occupation of France.  Sagan was occupied by Soviet troops during the third week of February 1945, following several days of savage fighting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prisoner of war camps and \"The Great Escape\".", "content": "As early as 1939, soon after invading Poland, Nazi Germany established a system of prisoner of war (POW) camps in Sagan. In total, the \"Mannschafts-Stammlager Stalag VIIIC\" and its subsidiaries held over 300,000 prisoners from some 30 different countries. It is estimated that around 120,000 of them died of hunger, disease and maltreatment. Later, in 1942, an additional camp was set up for Allied pilots, called \"Stalag Luft III\".  In March 1942, the town became the location of the \"Stalag Luft III\" camp for captured airmen (Kriegsgefangenen Stammlager der Luftwaffe 3 Sagan). It was the site of the most courageous escape resulting in the killing of 50 prisoners including the following Polish flight officers: Major Antoni Kiewnarski; Lieutenant Stanislaw Krol; and navigation Lieutenants Włodzimierz Kolanowski, Jerzy Mondschein, Kazimierz Pawluk and Paweł Tobolski. This episode of history was the subject of the 1963 film \"The Great Escape\", starring Steve McQueen. It was the biggest and the most deadly escape of officer aircrew captured by Nazi Germany during the entire war. The number of prisoners attempting the escape was 200, of whom 76 managed to leave the camp; 73 were caught and 50 executed on Hitler's orders. Just three successfully escaped, one to Gibraltar and two to Sweden. All three re-united in England.  There were only a few other, similar escapes from German POW camps in the Second World War. A slightly smaller one on March 6, 1943 from the oflag in Szubin, involving 43 British officers. On September 19–20, 1943, an escape from the \"Oflag VI B\" in Doessel near Wartburg involved 47 Polish officers. A day later 67 French officers escaped from Edelbach in Austria 67. Another involved 54 French soldiers on December 18, 1943, from Marlag near Hamburg.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Poland.", "content": "After Nazi Germany's defeat, the town became part of Poland as the result of the imposed Oder-Neisse line. The totality of the town's population was expelled for new Polish settlers to establish a new town community in Żagań.  Clearing the rubble began in 1947, and was followed by the establishment of small enterprises, factories and schools. During the 1970s, a \"new town\" quarter was built, and by 1983, the historic baronial château (\"Żagań Palace\") had been fully rebuilt.  In the years 1967–1971 a museum dedicated to the history of prisoners of war of the Stalag VIII-C camp was established.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Żagań is home to sports' clubs", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roads running through Żagań.", "content": "Voivodeship road 296", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Important roads running near Żagań.", "content": "National road 27", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Żagań is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Żagań (French and,, ) is a town on the Bóbr river in western Poland, with 25,731 inhabitants (2019). The town is the capital of Żagań County in the historic region of Silesia. Previously in the Zielona Góra Voivodeship (1975–1998), Żagań has been in the Lubusz Voivodeship since 1999.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971314}
{"src_title": "Old Great Bulgaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The etymology of the ethnonym \"Bulgar\" is not completely understood; it is difficult to trace the name back earlier than the 4th century AD. It is generally believed to derive from the Turkic verb \"bulğha\" (to \"stir\", \"mix\", \"disturb\", \"confuse\"), possibly suggesting that other Turkic peoples regarded the Bulgars as a \"mixed\" people or as \"rebellious\".  Later Byzantine scholars implied that the Bulgars had previously been known as the Onogurs (\"Onoğur\"). Agathon wrote about the \"nation of Onogur Bulğars\", Nikephoros I stated that Kubrat was lord of the \"Onogundurs\", Theophanes referred to them as \"Onogundur Bulgars\" and Constantine VII remarked that the Bulgars formerly called themselves \"Onogundurs\". Variations of the name include \"Onoguri, Onoghuri, Onghur, Ongur, Onghuri, Onguri, Onogundur, Unogundur\", and \"Unokundur\". There are several theories about the origin of the name \"Onogur\". In some Turkic languages \"on\" means \"10\" and \"ğur\" \"arrow\"; and \"ten arrows\" might imply a federation of ten tribes, i.e. the Western Turkic Khaganate. Within the Turkic languages, \"z\" sounds in the easternmost languages tend to have become \"r\" in the westernmost Turkic languages; therefore, the ethnonym Oghuz may be the source of \"Oghur\"; that is, \"on Oğur\" would mean \"ten clans of Oghuz\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Establishment.", "content": "Between 630 and 635, Khan Kubrat managed to unite the Onogur Bulgars with the tribes of the Kutrigurs and Utigurs under a single rule, creating a powerful confederation which was referred to by the medieval authors in Western Europe as Old Great Bulgaria, or \"Patria Onoguria\". According to some scholars, it is more correctly called the Onogundur-Bulgar Empire.  Some scholars assume that it stretched as far west as the Pannonian Plain and included among its subjects some of the Pannonian Avars. It is presumed that Kubrat's capital was the ancient city of Phanagoria on the Taman Peninsula. Kubrat's grave was discovered in 1912 at Pereshchepina, Ukraine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Khan Kubrat.", "content": "According to the \"Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans\", Kubrat was from the royal clan Dulo and a rightful heir to the Bulgar throne. Hermann Zotenberg (1883), while translating John of Nikiu's \"Chronicles\" from Old Ethiopian, intentionally replaced the name Qetrades to Kubrat. Since then, the historiography holds a misconception that Kubrat was raised and baptized by the Byzantine court, while John's character Qetrades has no real-life connection to the ruler of the Great Bulgaria Kubrat.  Kubrat quickly managed to overthrow Avar domination, extending Onogur influence among the Bulgars in Pannonia in what became known as Hungary. Ultimately, although there is no evidence that the Utigurs were independent of the Onogurs until after Kubrat's empire disintegrated, it is believed he seceded from the Onogurs when they became entangled in dynastic wars. After Kubrat's burial in Mala Pereshchepina, the Khazars, who had triumphed in the collapse of Onoguria, subjugated Kubrat's eldest son and heir Batbayan, forcing his other sons to flee north up the Volga (2nd son Kotrag) and west into the Balkans (4th son Kuber and 3rd son Asparukh) and Italy (5th son Alcek, Alzek)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disintegration.", "content": "The events following Kubrat's death are described by the Byzantine Patriarch Nikephoros I. In the times of Emperor Constantine IV, he narrates, Kubrat died and Batbayan, the eldest of his five sons, was left in charge of the state. Under strong Khazar pressure, Kubrat's other sons disregarded their father's advice to stay together in order to resist the enemies and soon departed, taking their own tribes.  Old Great Bulgaria disintegrated under Khazar pressure in 668.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Some Bulgars remained in the former Onoguria, under the domination of the Khazars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Balkars.", "content": "Some also believe that the present-day Balkars of the Caucasus are the descendants of the Batbayan horde even though they speak a Turkic language of the Kipchak type.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Volga Bulgars.", "content": "After Kotrag, the leader of the Kutrigurs, took control on the western steppe, Batbayan led them into the upper Volga-Ural region. There they established Volga Bulgaria, at the confluence of the Volga and Kama. As the Volga or Silver Bulgars (\"Bessermens\"), they converted voluntarily to Islam in the 9th century. They managed to preserve their national identity well into the 13th century, by repelling the first Mongol attacks in 1223. However, they were eventually subdued, their capital Bolghar city became one of major cities of the Golden Horde of the Mongols and the Bulgars mixed with the Tatars. The citizens of the modern Russian republics of Tatarstan and Chuvashia are considered to be descendants of those Bulgars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bulgars in Vojvodina and Macedonia.", "content": "Kuber ruled in Sirmium over a mixed group of peoples – Bulgars, Byzantine subjects, Slavs, and Germanic tribes – as a vassal of the Avar Khagan. After a revolt he led his people to Macedonia. There he settled in the region of Keremisia and made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the city of Thessaloniki. After this, he disappears from history and his people were later consolidated into the First Bulgarian Empire by Khan Krum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bulgars in Italy.", "content": "Other Bulgars, circa 662, led by their \"Duke Alzeco\" (Alcek) sought refuge from the Avars with the Lombards and requested land from the Lombard King Grimoald I in exchange for military service \"for an uncertain reason\", initially staying near Ravenna and later moving further south. Grimoald sent Alcek and his followers to his son Romuald in Benevento and they were then granted by Romuald land northeast of Naples in the \"spacious but up till that time deserted\" towns of Sepino, Bovianum (Boiano), and Isernia, in the present-day region of Molise in the Apennines. Instead of the title \"Duke\", Altzek was granted the Lombard title of \"Gastald\". Paul the Deacon in his \"Historia Langobardorum\" writing after the year 787 says that in his time Bulgars still inhabited the area, and that even though they speak \"Latin\", \"they have not forsaken the use of their own tongue\".  Excavations in the necropolis of Vicenne-Campochiaro near Boiano, which dates from the 7th century, found among 130 burials that there were 13 human burials alongside horses along with artifacts of Germanic and Avar origin. Horse burials are characteristic of Central Asian horse-nomads, and therefore these burials are clearly those of the Bulgar settlers of Molise and Campania.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First Bulgarian Empire.", "content": "After the state disintegrated under Khazar attack in 668, Asparukh parted ways with his brothers and led some of the Bulgars to seek a secure home. He was followed by 30,000 to 50,000 Bulgars.  After the Battle of Ongal, Asparukh founded the First Bulgarian Empire, which was officially recognized as an independent state by the Byzantine Empire in 681.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Old Great Bulgaria or Great Bulgaria (Byzantine Greek: Παλαιά Μεγάλη Βουλγαρία, \"Palaiá Megálē Voulgaría\"), also often known by the Latin names \"Magna Bulgaria\" and \"Patria Onoguria\" (\"Onogur land\"), was a 7th-century state formed by the Onogur Bulgars on the western Pontic-Caspian steppe (modern southern Ukraine and southwest Russia). Great Bulgaria was originally centered between the Dniester and lower Volga.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971315}
{"src_title": "Palimpsest", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"palimpsest\" derives from the Latin \"palimpsestus\", which derives from the Ancient Greek παλίμψηστος (\"palímpsēstos\", \"again scraped\"), a compound word that literally means \"scraped clean and ready to be used again\". The Ancient Greeks used wax-coated tablets, like scratch-pads, to write on with a stylus, and to erase the writing by smoothing the wax surface and writing again. This practice was adopted by Ancient Romans, who wrote (literally scratched on letters) on wax-coated tablets, which were reuseable; Cicero's use of the term \"palimpsest\" confirms such a practice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Because parchment prepared from animal hides is far more durable than paper or papyrus, most palimpsests known to modern scholars are parchment, which rose in popularity in Western Europe after the 6th century. Where papyrus was in common use, reuse of writing media was less common because papyrus was cheaper and more expendable than costly parchment. Some papyrus palimpsests do survive, and Romans referred to this custom of washing papyrus.  The writing was washed from parchment or vellum using milk and oat bran. With the passing of time, the faint remains of the former writing would reappear enough so that scholars can discern the text (called the \"scriptio inferior\", the \"underwriting\") and decipher it. In the later Middle Ages the surface of the vellum was usually scraped away with powdered pumice, irretrievably losing the writing, hence the most valuable palimpsests are those that were overwritten in the early Middle Ages.  Medieval codices are constructed in \"gathers\" which are folded (compare \"folio\", \"leaf, page\" ablative case of Latin folium), then stacked together like a newspaper and sewn together at the fold. Prepared parchment sheets retained their original central fold, so each was ordinarily cut in half, making a quarto volume of the original folio, with the overwritten text running perpendicular to the effaced text.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern decipherment.", "content": "Faint legible remains were read by eye before 20th-century techniques helped make lost texts readable. To read palimpsests, scholars of the 19th century used chemical means that were sometimes very destructive, using tincture of gall or, later, ammonium bisulfate. Modern methods of reading palimpsests using ultraviolet light and photography are less damaging.  Innovative digitized images aid scholars in deciphering unreadable palimpsests. Superexposed photographs exposed in various light spectra, a technique called \"multispectral filming\", can increase the contrast of faded ink on parchment that is too indistinct to be read by eye in normal light. For example, multispectral imaging undertaken by researchers at the Rochester Institute of Technology and Johns Hopkins University recovered much of the undertext (estimated to be more than 80%) from the \"Archimedes Palimpsest\". At the Walters Art Museum where the palimpsest is now conserved, the project has focused on experimental techniques to retrieve the remaining text, some of which was obscured by overpainted icons. One of the most successful techniques for reading through the paint proved to be X-ray fluorescence imaging, through which the iron in the ink is revealed. A team of imaging scientists and scholars from the United States and Europe is currently using spectral imaging techniques developed for imaging the \"Archimedes Palimpsest\" to study more than one hundred palimpsests in the library of Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recovery.", "content": "A number of ancient works have survived only as palimpsests. Vellum manuscripts were over-written on purpose mostly due to the dearth or cost of the material. In the case of Greek manuscripts, the consumption of old codices for the sake of the material was so great that a synodal decree of the year 691 forbade the destruction of manuscripts of the Scriptures or the church fathers, except for imperfect or injured volumes. Such a decree put added pressure on retrieving the vellum on which secular manuscripts were written. The decline of the vellum trade with the introduction of paper exacerbated the scarcity, increasing pressure to reuse material.  Cultural considerations also motivated the creation of palimpsests. The demand for new texts might outstrip the availability of parchment in some centers, yet the existence of cleaned parchment that was never overwritten suggests that there was also a spiritual motivation, to sanctify pagan text by overlaying it with the word of God, somewhat as pagan sites were overlaid with Christian churches to hallow pagan ground.  Texts most susceptible to being overwritten included obsolete legal and liturgical ones, sometimes of intense interest to the historian. Early Latin translations of Scripture were rendered obsolete by Jerome's Vulgate. Texts might be in foreign languages or written in unfamiliar scripts that had become illegible over time. The codices themselves might be already damaged or incomplete. Heretical texts were dangerous to harbor—there were compelling political and religious reasons to destroy texts viewed as heresy, and to reuse the media was less wasteful than simply to burn the books.  Vast destruction of the broad quartos of the early centuries took place in the period which followed the fall of the Western Roman Empire, but palimpsests were also created as new texts were required during the Carolingian Renaissance. The most valuable Latin palimpsests are found in the codices which were remade from the early large folios in the 7th to the 9th centuries. It has been noticed that no entire work is generally found in any instance in the original text of a palimpsest, but that portions of many works have been taken to make up a single volume. An exception is the \"Archimedes Palimpsest\" (see below). On the whole, early medieval scribes were thus not indiscriminate in supplying themselves with material from any old volumes that happened to be at hand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Famous examples.", "content": "About sixty palimpsest manuscripts of the Greek New Testament have survived to the present day. Uncial codices include:  Porphyrianus, Vaticanus 2061 (double palimpsest), Uncial 064, 065, 066, 067, 068 (double palimpsest), 072, 078, 079, 086, 088, 093, 094, 096, 097, 098, 0103, 0104, 0116, 0120, 0130, 0132, 0133, 0135, 0208, 0209.  Lectionaries include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In textual studies, a palimpsest () is a manuscript page, either from a scroll or a book, from which the text has been scraped or washed off so that the page can be reused for another document. Pergamene (now known as parchment) was made of lamb, calf, or goat kid skin (best made in ancient Pergamon) and was expensive and not readily available, so in the interest of economy a pergamene often was re-used by scraping off the previous writing. In colloquial usage, the term \"palimpsest\" is also used in architecture, archaeology, and geomorphology to denote an object made or worked upon for one purpose and later reused for another, for example a monumental brass the reverse blank side of which has been re-engraved.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971316}
{"src_title": "Spring (device)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Simple non-coiled springs were used throughout human history, e.g. the bow (and arrow). In the Bronze Age more sophisticated spring devices were used, as shown by the spread of tweezers in many cultures. Ctesibius of Alexandria developed a method for making bronze with spring-like characteristics by producing an alloy of bronze with an increased proportion of tin, and then hardening it by hammering after it was cast.  Coiled springs appeared early in the 15th century, in door locks. The first spring powered-clocks appeared in that century and evolved into the first large watches by the 16th century.  In 1676 British physicist Robert Hooke postulated Hooke's law, which states that the force a spring exerts is proportional to its extension.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them: They can also be classified based on their shape: The most common types of spring are:  Other types include :", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hooke's law.", "content": "As long as not stretched or compressed beyond their elastic limit, most springs obey Hooke's law, which states that the force with which the spring pushes back is linearly proportional to the distance from its equilibrium length: where  Coil springs and other common springs typically obey Hooke's law. There are useful springs that don't: springs based on beam bending can for example produce forces that vary nonlinearly with displacement.  If made with constant pitch (wire thickness), conical springs have a variable rate. However, a conical spring can be made to have a constant rate by creating the spring with a variable pitch. A larger pitch in the larger-diameter coils and a smaller pitch in the smaller-diameter coils forces the spring to collapse or extend all the coils at the same rate when deformed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Simple harmonic motion.", "content": "Since force is equal to mass, \"m\", times acceleration, \"a\", the force equation for a spring obeying Hooke's law looks like:  The mass of the spring is small in comparison to the mass of the attached mass and is ignored. Since acceleration is simply the second derivative of x with respect to time, This is a second order linear differential equation for the displacement formula_4 as a function of time. Rearranging: the solution of which is the sum of a sine and cosine: formula_7 and formula_8 are arbitrary constants that may be found by considering the initial displacement and velocity of the mass. The graph of this function with formula_9 (zero initial position with some positive initial velocity) is displayed in the image on the right.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theory.", "content": "In classical physics, a spring can be seen as a device that stores potential energy, specifically elastic potential energy, by straining the bonds between the atoms of an elastic material.  Hooke's law of elasticity states that the extension of an elastic rod (its distended length minus its relaxed length) is linearly proportional to its tension, the force used to stretch it. Similarly, the contraction (negative extension) is proportional to the compression (negative tension).  This law actually holds only approximately, and only when the deformation (extension or contraction) is small compared to the rod's overall length. For deformations beyond the elastic limit, atomic bonds get broken or rearranged, and a spring may snap, buckle, or permanently deform. Many materials have no clearly defined elastic limit, and Hooke's law can not be meaningfully applied to these materials. Moreover, for the superelastic materials, the linear relationship between force and displacement is appropriate only in the low-strain region.  Hooke's law is a mathematical consequence of the fact that the potential energy of the rod is a minimum when it has its relaxed length. Any smooth function of one variable approximates a quadratic function when examined near enough to its minimum point as can be seen by examining the Taylor series. Therefore, the force—which is the derivative of energy with respect to displacement—approximates a linear function.  Force of fully compressed spring  where", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zero-length springs.", "content": "\"Zero-length spring\" is a term for a specially designed coil spring that would exert zero force if it had zero length; if there were no constraint due to the finite wire diameter of such a helical spring, it would have zero length in the unstretched condition. That is, in a line graph of the spring's force versus its length, the line passes through the origin. Obviously a coil spring cannot contract to zero length, because at some point the coils touch each other and the spring can't shorten any more. Zero length springs are made by manufacturing a coil spring with built-in tension (A twist is introduced into the wire as it is coiled during manufacture. This works because a coiled spring \"unwinds\" as it stretches.), so if it \"could\" contract further, the equilibrium point of the spring, the point at which its restoring force is zero, occurs at a length of zero. In practice, zero length springs are made by combining a \"negative length\" spring, made with even more tension so its equilibrium point would be at a \"negative\" length, with a piece of inelastic material of the proper length so the zero force point would occur at zero length.  A zero length spring can be attached to a mass on a hinged boom in such a way that the force on the mass is almost exactly balanced by the vertical component of the force from the spring, whatever the position of the boom. This creates a horizontal \"pendulum\" with very long oscillation period. Long-period pendulums enable seismometers to sense the slowest waves from earthquakes. The LaCoste suspension with zero-length springs is also used in gravimeters because it is very sensitive to changes in gravity. Springs for closing doors are often made to have roughly zero length, so that they exert force even when the door is almost closed, so they can hold it closed firmly.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A spring is an elastic object that stores mechanical energy. Springs are typically made of spring steel. There are many spring designs. In everyday use, the term often refers to coil springs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971317}
{"src_title": "Mucous membrane", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "The mucosa of organs are composed of one or more layers of epithelial cells that secrete mucus, and an underlying lamina propria of loose connective tissue. The type of cells and type of mucus secreted vary from organ to organ and each can differ along a given tract.  Mucous membranes line the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts and are the primary barrier between the external world and the interior of the body; in an adult human the total surface area of the mucosa is about 400 square meters while the surface area of the skin is about 2 square meters. They are at several places contiguous with skin: at the nostrils, the lips of the mouth, the eyelids, the ears, the genital area, and the anus. Along with providing a physical barrier, they also contain key parts of the immune system and serve as the interface between the body proper and the microbiome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mucus lake.", "content": "In the mucosa, there are mucus-filled colloid areas and a few basophilic glandular elements. The cells are in spaces filled with mucus appearing as \"lakes\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "Some examples include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Developmentally, the majority of mucous membranes are of endodermal origin. Exceptions include the palate, cheeks, floor of the mouth, gums, lips and the portion of the anal canal below the pectinate line, which are all ectodermal in origin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "Two of its functions is to keep the tissue moist (for example in the respiratory tract, including the mouth and nose). It also plays a role in absorbing and transforming nutrients. Mucous membranes also protect the body from itself; for instance mucosa in the stomach protects it from stomach acid, and mucosa lining the bladder protects the underlying tissue from urine. In the uterus, the mucous membrane is called the endometrium, and it swells each month and is then eliminated during menstruation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "Niacin and vitamin A are essential nutrients that help maintain mucous membranes.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A mucous membrane or mucosa is a membrane that lines various cavities in the body and covers the surface of internal organs. It consists of one or more layers of epithelial cells overlying a layer of loose connective tissue. It is mostly of endodermal origin and is continuous with the skin at various body openings such as the eyes, ears, inside the nose, inside the mouth, lip, vagina, the urethral opening and the anus. Some mucous membranes secrete mucus, a thick protective fluid. The function of the membrane is to stop pathogens and dirt from entering the body and to prevent bodily tissues from becoming dehydrated.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971318}
{"src_title": "Fehmarn Sound Bridge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The crossing includes the network arch bridge which carries road and rail over the Fehmarn Sound. Construction began in 1958 and the bridge was opened on April 30, 1963. The main span is above the sea, which allows shipping to pass through. The bridge is constructed of steel and is wide; are used by Deutsche Bahn for a single rail track, part of the Lübeck–Puttgarden railway, the rest for a pedestrian walkway and two-lane roadway. The two steel arches, from which the central span is suspended by cables, are braced with steel cross-beams. The arches are in length and reach above the main deck of the bridge. The bridge was designed by engineers G. Fischer, T. Jahnke und P. Stein from the firm Gutehoffnungshütte Sterkrade AG, Oberhausen-Sterkrade. Architect Gerd Lohmer helped with the architectural design.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Route and ferry changes.", "content": "At the same time as the opening of the bridge, changes were made to ferry services. The previous ferry service to the island of Fehmarn was discontinued. The service from Großenbrode Quay, Germany to Gedser, Denmark, crossing both Fehmarn Sound and the Fehmarn Belt, was replaced with a new service from Puttgarden (on Fehmarn) to Rødby, Denmark crossing just the Fehmarn Belt. The new bridge and ferry changes brought about a substantial time saving for both road and rail traffic along the so-called Vogelfluglinie (literally \"bird flight line\") from Hamburg to Copenhagen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historic monument.", "content": "The Fehmarn Sound bridge was declared an historic monument in 1999 by the State Office for Protection of Historical Monuments of Schleswig-Holstein in Kiel, and has since become a symbol of both Fehmarn and Schleswig-Holstein.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cold War explosive charges.", "content": "As the bridge was built during the Cold War, six explosive vaults were embedded below the approach road on the mainland side to be used in case of invasion. Their location is given away even today by six square asphalt patches. The vaults were connected to a control point about away in Heinrichsruh.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future.", "content": "A Fehmarn Belt Tunnel is decided, between Denmark and Germany, with four lanes (2+2) and double track railway. But according to the agreement between the two countries, the Fehmarn Sound bridge can remain as it is, one lane per direction and a single railway track.  In december 2012 a study was published saying that the bridge could not cope with the increased railway traffic expected after the tunnel opening.  It has been considered to build a replacement, or to keep the bridge for road traffic and build a rail connection, maybe a Fehmarn Sound tunnel. The state as historic monument has to be considered.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fehmarn Sound Bridge () connects the German island of Fehmarn in the Baltic Sea with the German mainland near Großenbrode.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971319}
{"src_title": "Judenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "It is located in the Upper Styrian region, on the western end of the Aichfeld basin, stretching along the Mur River from Judenburg down to Knittelfeld in the east. The broad valley is bound by the Niedere Tauern range in the north and the Noric Alps (Lavanttal Alps) in the south.  The municipal area also comprises the cadastral communities of Tiefenbach and Waltersdorf, a former municipality incorporated in 1963.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Archaeological findings indicate that the area was settled at least since the days of the Celtic kingdom of Noricum. Judenburg itself was first mentioned in a 1074 staple right deed as, a market town within the estates of Eppenstein Castle, the ancestral seat of the Bavarian Eppensteiner noble family, who ruled as Styrian margraves in the 11th century. The name literally means \"Jews' Borough\", referring to the town's origin as a trading outpost on the route from the Mur Valley across the Obdach Saddle mountain pass to Carinthia, in which Jews played an important role, being represented in the city's coat of arms.  Upon the extinction of the Eppensteiner dynasty in 1122, the estates passed to the Styrian Otakars and in 1192 to the House of Babenberg, Dukes of Austria since 1156. Judenburg received town privileges in 1224 and the right to collect tolls in 1277. The town grew to an important commercial centre for iron ore mined at nearby Eisenerz, but also for valeriana celtica used in perfumes during the 13th and 14th century. Judenburg was even granted a valeriana trade monopoly by the Habsburg emperor Frederick III in 1460. After several pogroms, all Jews were expelled from the Duchy of Styria by order of Emperor Maximilian I in 1496. Following his breakthrough in Italy, General Napoléon Bonaparte made his headquarters at Judenburg and it was there, on the night of 7–8 April 1796, that he signed the Truce of Judenburg with the Austrians.  In the beginning of the 20th century, the town was one of the centres of Austria–Hungary's steel industry and also a garrison town of the Austro-Hungarian Army. From 1910 to 1914 one of the first trolleybusses in Austria connected Judenburg station with the town's centre. Today, little remains of the former industry, but Judenburg remains an industrial and trade centre. In May 1918 town was site of a failed military mutiny.  In 1938 with the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany Judenburg became part of the Third Reich. Due to the presence of the word (\"Jew\") in the town's name a number of possible new names were suggested, including (after, the German name for the Swiss pine tree) and (in honour of Adolf Hitler). However the planned renaming was indefinitely postponed after the outbreak of war and ultimately never happened.  During the Second World War, a subcamp of Mauthausen concentration camp was located nearby, where a displaced persons' reception centre was established after the war. Judenburg was also one of several towns that saw the handover of Cossacks to the Red Army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Seats in the municipal assembly () elections:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns - Sister cities.", "content": "Judenburg is a member of the Douzelage, a unique town twinning association of 24 towns across the European Union. This active town twinning began in 1991 and there are regular events, such as a produce market from each of the other countries and festivals. Discussions regarding membership are also in hand with three further towns (Agros in Cyprus, Škofja Loka in Slovenia, and Tryavna in Bulgaria).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Judenburg is a historic town in Styria, Austria. It is the administrative centre of the Murtal district, which was created on 1 January 2012 from the former Judenburg District and former Knittelfeld District. Until 31 December 2011, it was the capital of the Judenburg District.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971320}
{"src_title": "Bounded rationality", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The term was coined by Herbert A. Simon. In \"Models of Man\", Simon points out that most people are only partly rational, and are irrational in the remaining part of their actions. In another work, he states \"boundedly rational agents experience limits in formulating and solving complex problems and in processing (receiving, storing, retrieving, transmitting) information\". Simon describes a number of dimensions along which \"classical\" models of rationality can be made somewhat more realistic, while sticking within the vein of fairly rigorous formalization. These include:  Simon suggests that economic agents use heuristics to make decisions rather than a strict rigid rule of optimization. They do this because of the complexity of the situation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Model extensions.", "content": "As decision-makers have to make decisions about how and when to decide, Ariel Rubinstein proposed to model bounded rationality by explicitly specifying decision-making procedures. This puts the study of decision procedures on the research agenda.  Gerd Gigerenzer opines that decision theorists have not really adhered to Simon's original ideas. Rather, they have considered how decisions may be crippled by limitations to rationality, or have modeled how people might cope with their inability to optimize. Gigerenzer proposes and shows that simple heuristics often lead to better decisions than theoretically optimal procedures.  Huw Dixon later argues that it may not be necessary to analyze in detail the process of reasoning underlying bounded rationality. If we believe that agents will choose an action that gets them \"close\" to the optimum, then we can use the notion of \"epsilon-optimization\", which means we choose our actions so that the payoff is within epsilon of the optimum. If we define the optimum (best possible) payoff as formula_1, then the set of epsilon-optimizing options S(ε) can be defined as all those options s such that:  formula_2.  The notion of strict rationality is then a special case (ε=0). The advantage of this approach is that it avoids having to specify in detail the process of reasoning, but rather simply assumes that whatever the process is, it is good enough to get near to the optimum.  From a computational point of view, decision procedures can be encoded in algorithms and heuristics. Edward Tsang argues that the effective rationality of an agent is determined by its computational intelligence. Everything else being equal, an agent that has better algorithms and heuristics could make \"more rational\" (more optimal) decisions than one that has poorer heuristics and algorithms. Tshilidzi Marwala and Evan Hurwitz in their study on bounded rationality observed that advances in technology (e.g. computer processing power because of Moore's law, artificial intelligence and big data analytics) expand the bounds that define the feasible rationality space. Because of this expansion of the bounds of rationality, machine automated decision making makes markets more efficient.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to behavioral economics.", "content": "Bounded rationality implies the idea that humans take reasoning shortcuts that may lead to suboptimal decision-making. Behavioral economists engage in mapping the decision shortcuts that agents use in order to help increase the effectiveness of human decision-making. One treatment of this idea comes from Cass Sunstein and Richard Thaler's \"Nudge\". Sunstein and Thaler recommend that choice architectures are modified in light of human agents' bounded rationality. A widely cited proposal from Sunstein and Thaler urges that healthier food be placed at sight level in order to increase the likelihood that a person will opt for that choice instead of a less healthy option. Some critics of \"Nudge\" have lodged attacks that modifying choice architectures will lead to people becoming worse decision-makers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence on social network structure.", "content": "Recent research has shown that bounded rationality of individuals may influence the topology of the social networks that evolve among them. In particular, Kasthurirathna and Piraveenan have shown that in socio-ecological systems, the drive towards improved rationality on average might be an evolutionary reason for the emergence of scale-free properties. They did this by simulating a number of strategic games on an initially random network with distributed bounded rationality, then re-wiring the network so that the network on average converged towards Nash equilibria, despite the bounded rationality of nodes. They observed that this re-wiring process results in scale-free networks. Since scale-free networks are ubiquitous in social systems, the link between bounded rationality distributions and social structure is an important one in explaining social phenomena.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bounded rationality is the idea that rationality is limited, when individuals make decisions, by the tractability of the decision problem, the cognitive limitations of the mind, and the time available to make the decision. Decision-makers, in this view, act as satisficers, seeking a satisfactory solution rather than an optimal one.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971321}
{"src_title": "Mario Puzo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Puzo was born in the Hell's Kitchen area of New York City into a poor family from Pietradefusi, Province of Avellino, Campania, Italy. Many of his books draw heavily on his heritage. After graduating from the City College of New York, he joined the US Army Air Forces in World War II. Because of his poor eyesight, he was not allowed to undertake combat duties, but he was made a public relations officer stationed in Germany. Puzo then returned to New York where he attended the New School for Social Research then Columbia University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Author.", "content": "In 1950, his first short story, \"The Last Christmas,\" was published in \"American Vanguard\". After the war, he wrote his first book, \"The Dark Arena\", which was published in 1955.  During the 1950s and the early 1960s, Puzo worked as a writer/editor for publisher Martin Goodman's Magazine Management Company. Puzo, along with other writers like Bruce Jay Friedman, worked for the company line of men's magazines, pulp titles like \"Male\", \"True Action\", and \"Swank\". Under the pseudonym Mario Cleri, Puzo wrote World War II adventure features for \"True Action\".  Puzo's most famous work, \"The Godfather\" (1969), was encouraged by a suggestion of the publisher of his \"The Fortunate Pilgrim\" (1965), who thought that if there had been more Mafia in that book, it would have been more successful. A story outline was prepared and presented to the publisher, who rejected it. After several publishers were approached, Putnam editors met with him without having read the outline. He told them a few stories, and the project was approved. With the advance, he got on with the project. He had heard anecdotes about Mafia organizations during his time in pulp journalism.  He said in an interview with Larry King that the critical reception of his previous two books, without the monetary success to follow, made the issue all the more important in the next work to support his five children on a government clerk's salary. He was looking to write something that would appeal to the masses. He found his audience with the novel, which became the top bestseller for months on the \"New York Times\" Best Seller List. The book was later developed into the film \"The Godfather\", directed by Francis Ford Coppola. The film received three awards of the eleven Oscar category nominations, including Puzo's Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay. Coppola and Puzo then collaborated on sequels to the original film, \"The Godfather Part II\" and \"The Godfather Part III\".  Puzo wrote the first draft of the script for the 1974 disaster film \"Earthquake\", but he was unable to continue working on it because of his commitment to \"The Godfather Part II\". Puzo also wrote the original screenplay for Richard Donner's \"Superman\", which then also included the plot for \"Superman II\", as they were originally written as one film. He also collaborated on the stories for the 1982 film \"A Time to Die\" and the 1984 Francis Ford Coppola film \"The Cotton Club\".  In 1991, Puzo's speculative fiction \"The Fourth K\" was published; it hypothesizes a member of the Kennedy family who becomes President of the United States early in the 2000s.  Puzo never saw the publication of his penultimate book, \"Omertà\", but the manuscript was finished before his death, as was the manuscript for \"The Family\". However, in a review originally published in the \"San Francisco Chronicle\", Jules Siegel, who had worked closely with Puzo at Magazine Management Company, speculated that \"Omertà\" may have been completed by \"some talentless hack.\" Siegel also acknowledged the temptation to \"rationalize avoiding what is probably the correct analysis – that [Puzo] wrote it and it is terrible.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Puzo died of heart failure on July 2, 1999 at his home on Manor Lane in West Bay Shore, New York. His family now lives in East Islip, New York.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Short stories.", "content": "All short stories, except \"The Last Christmas\", were written under the pseudonym Mario Cleri.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mario Gianluigi Puzo (; October 15, 1920 – July 2, 1999) was an American author, screenwriter and journalist. He is known for his crime novels about the Italian-American mafia, most notably \"The Godfather\" (1969), which he later co-adapted into a trilogy directed by Francis Ford Coppola. He received the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for the first film in 1972 and \"Part II\" in 1974. Puzo also wrote the original screenplay for the 1978 \"Superman\" film. His final novel, \"The Family\", was released posthumously in 2001.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971322}
{"src_title": "John Baskerville", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Baskerville was born in the village of Wolverley, near Kidderminster in Worcestershire and baptised on 28 January at Wolverley church. At the time of his birth this was considered the year 1706; it would now be considered early 1707. Baskerville established an early career teaching handwriting and is known to have offered his services cutting gravestones (a demonstration slab by him survives in the Library of Birmingham) before making a considerable fortune from the manufacture of lacquerwork items (japanning).  He practised as a printer in Birmingham, England. Baskerville was a member of the Royal Society of Arts, and an associate of some of the members of the Lunar Society. He directed his punchcutter, John Handy, in the design of many typefaces of broadly similar appearance. In 1757, Baskerville published a remarkable quarto edition of Virgil on wove paper, using his own type. It took three years to complete, but it made such an impact that he was appointed printer to the University of Cambridge the following year. John Baskerville printed works for the University of Cambridge in 1758 and, although an atheist, printed a splendid folio Bible in 1763. His typefaces were greatly admired by Benjamin Franklin, a fellow printer. Baskerville's work was criticised by jealous competitors and soon fell out of favour, but since the 1920s many new fonts have been released by Linotype, Monotype, and other type foundries – revivals of his work and mostly called 'Baskerville'. Emigre released a popular revival of this typeface in 1996 called Mrs Eaves, named for Baskerville's wife, Sarah Eaves. Baskerville's most notable typeface Baskerville represents the peak of transitional type face and bridges the gap between Old Style and Modern type design.  Baskerville also was responsible for significant innovations in printing, paper and ink production. He worked with paper maker James Whatman to produce a smoother whiter paper which showcased his strong black type. Baskerville also pioneered a completely new style of typography adding wide margins and leading between each line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and interments.", "content": "Baskerville died in January 1775 at his home, \"Easy Hill\". He requested that his body be placed  However, in 1821 a canal was built through the land and his body was placed on show by the landowner until Baskerville's family and friends arranged to have it moved to the crypt of Christ Church, Birmingham. Christ Church was demolished in 1897 so his remains were then moved, with other bodies from the crypt, to consecrated catacombs at Warstone Lane Cemetery. In 1963 a petition was presented to Birmingham City Council requesting that he be reburied in unconsecrated ground according to his wishes.  Baskerville House was built on the grounds of \"Easy Hill\". In 1947, BBC radio broadcast a radio play about his burial, named \"Hic Jacet: or The Corpse in the Crescent\" by Neville Brendon Watts. The original recording was not preserved but a performance was staged by students at the Birmingham School of Acting in 2013 at the Typographic Hub Centre of Birmingham City University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemoration.", "content": "A Portland stone sculpture of the Baskerville typeface, \"Industry and Genius\", in his honour stands in front of Baskerville House in Centenary Square, Birmingham. It was created by local artist David Patten.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "Some examples of volumes published by Baskerville.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Baskerville (baptised 28 January 1707 – 8 January 1775) was an English businessman, in areas including japanning and papier-mâché, but he is best remembered as a printer and type designer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971323}
{"src_title": "Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "The year of Arnulf's birth is unknown, but it is said that he was the namesake of other Arnulfs born around the time of the reign of the seventh century bishop Arnulf of Metz and the Carolingian king Arnulf of Carinthia. Arnulf was the son of Margrave Luitpold of Bavaria and Cunigunde, herself a member of the Ahalolfing dynasty, daughter of Berthold I, the count palatine of Swabia. Her brother Erchanger assumed the Swabian ducal title in 915.  Under the weak rule of the East Frankish king Louis the Child, Margrave Luitpold had already achieved a strong position in the Bavarian lands, succeeding the Wilhelminer margraves. He ruled over extended estates along the Danube with Regensburg (Ratisbon), and in the adjacent Nordgau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duke of Bavaria.", "content": "Together with numerous Bavarian nobles, Arnulf's father was killed in the 907 Battle of Pressburg (Bratislava), when the Bavarian \"Heerbann\" under his command suffered a crushing defeat in a campaign against the Hungarian forces of Grand Prince Árpád. After the death of his father, Arnulf succeeded him in his Bavarian lands, and soon after he assumed the title of a \"Duke of Bavaria\" as ruler of the estates around Regensburg. An energetic and combative man, he received broad support by the local nobles, however, already during his ascension in to dukedom, he was faced with constant raids from the Hungarians. These attacks had laid waste the East Frankish lands of Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia.  Besieged by frequent Hungarian raids and desperate to raise funds to finance a re-organized defense, Arnulf strengthened his power through confiscation of church lands and the secularization of numerous monastery estates, which earned him the nickname \"the Bad\" by medieval chroniclers. In several skirmishes he was able to force back the Hungarian invaders and he defeated a small force in 913 with the support by his Swabian relatives. Having re-established the stem duchy of Bavaria, he eventually negotiated a truce with the Hungarian princes, who thereafter largely passed through Bavaria on their raids into other German duchies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Imperial politics.", "content": "Duke Arnulf pursued a policy of independence from the East Frankish kings. Though in 911 he participated in the election of King Conrad I of Germany in 911; in Conrad's conflict with Erchanger of Swabia he backed his Swabian uncle and later challenged Conrad's Saxon successor, King Henry the Fowler. The dispute was only temporarily settled when in 913 Arnulf’s widow mother Cunigunda married King Conrad.  In 916 Conrad's forces invaded Bavaria, attacking and pillaging Regensburg. These attacks drove Arnulf into exile with his former enemies in Hungary. In September, the king convoked a church council in Hohenaltheim, attended by the Bavarian episcopate, which summoned Arnulf and his younger brother Berthold on the grounds of excommunication at Regensburg on 1 November. It is more than likely that Arnulf and his family never appeared at the convocation, or that the council meeting was never held. As a result, they remained exiled among the Hungarians. In January 917, King Conrad, angered at the situation, called for the execution of his rebellious Swabian brother-in-law, Erchanger and his brother Berthold, giving Arnulf more pause for concern.  In 919, the death of Conrad I allowed Arnulf to return to Bavaria and expel the king’s forces. Conrad I being childless, the throne was open to Arnulf, again. On his return, according to the \"Annales iuvavenses\", in 920, \"Baiuarii sponte se reddiderunt Arnolfo duci et regnare ei fecerunt in regno teutonicorum\" (\"the Bavarians freely submitted themselves to Duke Arnulf and asked him to reign within the realm of the Germans\"). The 919 ascension of Henry the Fowler would bring forth a battle for the throne; however, whether the Bavarians, with some other East Franks, actually elected Arnulf anti-king in opposition to Henry has not been conclusively established.  In any case, Arnulf's \"reign\" was short-lived; King Henry I turned out to be a strong opponent and defeated him in two campaigns in 921. When Arnulf was besieged by Henry in Regensburg, the duke entered into peace negotiations and recognized the sovereignty of the German king. King Henry confirmed Arnulf's autonomous rule over Bavaria, including the right of investiture and several important regalia, in return for Arnulf's renunciation of his royal claim.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Arnulf accompanied King Henry I on his 928 campaign against Duke Wenceslaus of Bohemia. In 935 he launched an attack against King Hugh of Provence to obtain the Iron Crown of Lombardy for his eldest son Eberhard, which only resulted in defeat. After King Henry had died in 936, the Duke attended the coronation of his son Otto as King of the Romans at Aachen Cathedral.  Duke Arnulf died in his Regensburg residence on 14 July 937; he was succeeded by his son Eberhard, who nevertheless was deposed by King Otto in 938. Arnulf is buried at St. Emmeram's Abbey. A commemorative plaque in tribute to him was attached to the Walhalla memorial in 1842.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Historians believed Arnulf was married to Judith of Friuli, a member of the Unruoching dynasty, daughter of Count Eberhard of Friuli (d. 866). The dates, however, do not match up. Judith of Friuli died ca. 881. This would have made a marriage between a boy (or at least young) Arnulf and an elder Judith, who was supposed to have produced several children 23 years or so after her death. More likely, therefore, is that he was married to Judith of Sülichgau (born ca. 888), daughter of Margrave Eberhard's grandson Count Eberhard of Sülichgau (d. after 889) and Gisela of Verona.  They had the following children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arnulf (birth unknown; died 14 July 937), also known as the Bad () or the Evil (\"der Böse\"), a member of the Luitpolding dynasty, held the title of Duke of Bavaria from about 907 until his death in 937.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971324}
{"src_title": "Phagocytosis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Phagocytosis was first noted by Canadian physician William Osler (1876), and later studied and named by Élie Metchnikoff (1880, 1883).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In immune system.", "content": "Phagocytosis is one of the main mechanisms of the innate immune defense. It is one of the first processes responding to infection, and is also one of the initiating branches of an adaptive immune response. Although most cells are capable of phagocytosis, some cell types perform it as part of their main function. These are called 'professional phagocytes.' Phagocytosis is old in evolutionary terms, being present even in invertebrates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional phagocytic cells.", "content": "Neutrophils, macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells, osteoclasts and eosinophils can be classified as professional phagocytes. The first three have the greatest role in immune response to most infections.  The role of neutrophils is patrolling the bloodstream and rapid migration to the tissues in large numbers only in case of infection. There they have direct microbicidal effect by phagocytosis. After ingestion, neutrophils are efficient in intracellular killing of pathogens. Neutrophils phagocytose mainly via the Fcγ receptors and complement receptors 1 and 3. The microbicidal effect of neutrophils is due to a large repertoire of molecules present in pre-formed granules. Enzymes and other molecules prepared in these granules are proteases, such as collagenase, gelatinase or serine proteases, myeloperoxidase, lactoferrin and antibiotic proteins. Degranulation of these into the phagosome, accompanied by high reactive oxygen species production (oxidative burst) is highly microbicidal.  Monocytes, and the macrophages that mature from them, leave blood circulation to migrate through tissues. There they are resident cells and form a resting barrier. Macrophages initiate phagocytosis by mannose receptors, scavenger receptors, Fcγ receptors and complement receptors 1, 3 and 4. Macrophages are long-lived and can continue phagocytosis by forming new lysosomes.  Dendritic cells also reside in tissues and ingest pathogens by phagocytosis. Their role is not killing or clearance of microbes, but rather breaking them down for antigen presentation to the cells of the adaptive immune system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Initiating receptors.", "content": "Receptors for phagocytosis can be divided into two categories by recognised molecules. The first, opsonic receptors, are dependent on opsonins. Among these are receptors that recognise the Fc part of bound IgG antibodies, deposited complement or receptors, that recognise other opsonins of cell or plasma origin. Non-opsonic receptors include lectin-type receptors, Dectin receptor, or scavenger receptors. Some phagocytic pathways require a second signal from pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) activated by attachment to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS), which leads to NF-κB activation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fcγ receptors.", "content": "Fcγ receptors recognise IgG coated targets. The main recognised part is the Fc fragment. The molecule of the receptor contain an intracellular ITAM domain or associates with an ITAM-containing adaptor molecule. ITAM domains transduce the signal from the surface of the phagocyte to the nucleus. For example, activating receptors of human macrophages are FcγRI, FcγRIIA, and FcγRIII. Fcγ receptor mediated phagocytosis includes formation of protrusions of the cell called a 'phagocytic cup' and activates an oxidative burst in neutrophils.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Complement receptors.", "content": "These receptors recognise targets coated in C3b, C4b and C3bi from plasma complement. The extracellular domain of the receptors contains a lectin-like complement-binding domain. Recognition by complement receptors is not enough to cause internalisation without additional signals. In macrophages, the CR1, CR3 and CR4 are responsible for recognition of targets. Complement coated targets are internalised by'sinking' into the phagocyte membrane, without any protrusions.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Mannose receptors.", "content": "Mannose and other pathogen-associated sugars, such as fucose, are recognised by the mannose receptor. Eight lectin-like domains form the extracellular part of the receptor. The ingestion mediated by the mannose receptor is distinct in molecular mechanisms from Fcγ receptor or complement receptor mediated phagocytosis.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Phagosome.", "content": "Engulfment of material is facilitated by the actin-myosin contractile system. The phagosome is the organelle formed by phagocytosis of material. It then moves toward the centrosome of the phagocyte and is fused with lysosomes, forming a phagolysosome and leading to degradation. Progressively, the phagolysosome is acidified, activating degradative enzymes.  Degradation can be oxygen-dependent or oxygen-independent.  Leukocytes generate hydrogen cyanide during phagocytosis, and can kill bacteria, fungi, and other pathogens by generating several other toxic chemicals.  Some bacteria, for example \"Treponema pallidum\", \"Escheria coli\" and \"Staphylococcus aureus\", are able to avoid phagocytosis by several mechanisms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In apoptosis.", "content": "Following apoptosis, the dying cells need to be taken up into the surrounding tissues by macrophages in a process called efferocytosis. One of the features of an apoptotic cell is the presentation of a variety of intracellular molecules on the cell surface, such as calreticulin, phosphatidylserine (from the inner layer of the plasma membrane), annexin A1, oxidised LDL and altered glycans. These molecules are recognised by receptors on the cell surface of the macrophage such as the phosphatidylserine receptor or by soluble (free-floating) receptors such as thrombospondin 1, GAS6, and MFGE8, which themselves then bind to other receptors on the macrophage such as CD36 and alpha-v beta-3 integrin. Defects in apoptotic cell clearance is usually associated with impaired phagocytosis of macrophages. Accumulation of apoptotic cell remnants often causes autoimmune disorders; thus pharmacological potentiation of phagocytosis has a medical potential in treatment of certain forms of autoimmune disorders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In protists.", "content": "In many protists, phagocytosis is used as a means of feeding, providing part or all of their nourishment. This is called phagotrophic nutrition, distinguished from osmotrophic nutrition which takes place by absorption.  As in phagocytic immune cells, the resulting phagosome may be merged with lysosomes containing digestive enzymes, forming a phagolysosome. The food particles will then be digested, and the released nutrients are diffused or transported into the cytosol for use in other metabolic processes.  Mixotrophy can involve phagotrophic nutrition and phototrophic nutrition.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phagocytosis () is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome. It is one type of endocytosis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971325}
{"src_title": "Sambucus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The oppositely arranged leaves are pinnate with 5–9 leaflets (or, rarely, 3 or 11). Each leaf is long, and the leaflets have serrated margins. They bear large clusters of small white or cream-colored flowers in late spring; these are followed by clusters of small black, blue-black, or red berries (rarely yellow or white).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Color.", "content": "Elderberries are rich in anthocyanidins that combine to give elderberry juice an intense blue-purple coloration that turns reddish on dilution with water. These pigments are used as colorants in various products, and \"elderberry juice color\" is listed by the USFDA as allowable in certified organic food products. In Japan, elderberry juice is listed as an approved \"natural color additive\" under the Food and Sanitation Law. Fibers can be dyed with elderberry juice (using alum as a mordant) to give a light \"elderberry\" color.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Although the cooked berries (pulp and skin) of most species of \"Sambucus\" are edible, the uncooked berries and other parts of plants from this genus are poisonous. Leaves, twigs, branches, seeds, roots, flowers, and berries of \"Sambucus\" plants produce cyanogenic glycosides, which have toxic properties. Ingesting a sufficient quantity of cyanogenic glycosides from berry juice, flower tea, or beverages made from fresh leaves, branches, and fruit has been shown to cause illness, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and weakness. In August 1983, a group of 25 people in Monterey County, California, became suddenly ill by ingesting elderberry juice pressed from fresh, uncooked \"Sambucus mexicana\" berries, leaves, and stems. The density of cyanogenic glycosides is higher in tea made from flowers (or leaves) than from the berries.  The seeds of \"Sambucus callicarpa\" are poisonous and may cause vomiting or diarrhea.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The taxonomy of the genus \"Sambucus\", originally described by Carl Linnaeus and hence its botanical authority, has been complicated by its wide geographical distribution and morphological diversity. This has led to overdescription of the species and infraspecific taxa (subspecies, varieties or forms). The name comes from the Greek word \"sambuce\", an ancient wind instrument, in reference to the removal of pith from the twigs to make whistles.  Species recognized in this genus are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The genus occurs in temperate to subtropical regions of the world. More widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, its Southern Hemisphere occurrence is restricted to parts of Australasia and South America. Many species are widely cultivated for their ornamental leaves, flowers and fruit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Elder commonly grows near farms and homesteads. It is a nitrogen-dependent plant and thus is generally found near places of organic waste disposal. Elders are often grown as a hedgerow plant in Britain since they take very fast, can be bent into shape easily and grow quite profusely, thus having gained the reputation of being 'an instant hedge'. It is not generally affected by soil type or pH level and will virtually grow anywhere sufficient sunlight is available.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "In Northern California, elderberries are a food for migrating band-tailed pigeons. Elders are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including brown-tail, buff ermine, dot moth, emperor moth, engrailed moth, swallow-tailed moth and the V-pug. The crushed foliage and immature fruit have a strong fetid smell. Valley elderberry longhorn beetles in California are very often found around red or blue elderberry bushes. Females lay their eggs on the bark. The pith of elder has been used by watchmakers for cleaning tools before intricate work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Traditional uses of \"Sambucus\" involved berries, seeds, leaves, and flowers or component extracts. Ornamental varieties of \"Sambucus\" are grown in gardens for their showy flowers, fruits and lacy foliage which support habitat for wildlife. Of the many native species, three are used as ornamentals, \"S. nigra\", \"S. canadensis\" and \"S. racemosa\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "Raw elderberries are 80% water, 18% carbohydrates, and less than 1% each of protein and fat (table). In a 100 gram amount, elderberries supply 73 calories and are a rich source of vitamin C, providing 43% of the Daily Value (DV). Elderberries also have moderate contents of vitamin B6 (18% DV) and iron (12% DV), with no other nutrients in significant content (table).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dietary supplement.", "content": "Elderberry fruit or flowers are used as dietary supplements to prevent or provide relief from minor diseases, such as flu, colds, constipation, and other conditions, often served as a tea, extract, or in a capsule. There is insufficient research to establish its effectiveness for such uses, or its safety profile.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "Although practitioners of traditional medicine have used elderberry over centuries, there is no high-quality clinical evidence that such practices provide any benefit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "The flowers of \"Sambucus nigra\" are used to produce elderflower cordial. St-Germain, a French liqueur, is made from elderflowers. Hallands Fläder, a Swedish akvavit, is flavoured with elderflowers.  Hollowed elderberry twigs have traditionally been used as spiles to tap maple trees for syrup.  The fruit of \"S. callicarpa\" is eaten by birds and mammals. It is inedible to humans when raw but can be made into wine.  Elderberry twigs and fruit are employed in creating dyes for basketry. These stems are dyed a very deep black by soaking them in a wash made from the berry stems of the elderberry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Folklore related to elder trees is extensive and can vary according to region. In some traditions, the elder tree is thought to ward off evil and give protection from witches, while other beliefs say that witches often congregate under the plant, especially when it is full of fruit. If an elder tree was cut down, a spirit known as the Elder Mother would be released and take her revenge. The tree could only safely be cut while chanting a rhyme to the Elder Mother.  Made from the branch of an elder tree, the Elder Wand plays a pivotal role in the final book of the \"Harry Potter\" series, which was nearly named \"Harry Potter and the Elder Wand\" before author J. K. Rowling decided on \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sambucus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Adoxaceae. The various species are commonly called elder or elderberry. The genus was formerly placed in the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae, but was reclassified as Adoxaceae due to genetic and morphological comparisons to plants in the genus \"Adoxa\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971326}
{"src_title": "Ichthys", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The first appearances of the ichthys symbol, in Christian art and literature date to the 2nd century AD. The symbol's use among Christians had become popular by the late 2nd century, and its use spread widely in the 3rd and 4th centuries. In the early Church, the Ichthys symbol held \"the most sacred significance\", and Christians used it to recognize churches and other believers through this symbol because they were persecuted by the Roman Empire. The Ichthys symbol is also a reference to \"the Holy Eucharist, with which the miracle of the multiplication of the loaves and fishes had such intimate connection both in point of time and significance.\" While many Christians hang a cross necklace or rosary inside their vehicles, \"the fish sticker on the car is a more conscious symbol of a witnessing Christian—significantly, unlike the former, it is on the outside of the car for everyone to see\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolic meaning.", "content": "(), or also with a lunate sigma, is an acronym or acrostic for ; contemporary Koine, which translates into English as 'Jesus Christ, Son of God, [Our] Savior'.  This explanation is given among others by Augustine in his Civitate Dei, where he notes that the generating sentence \"\" has 27 letters, i.e. 3 × 3 × 3, which in that age indicated power. (This suggestion is obviously spurious as the phrase has 26 letters, resulting from Augustine's ignorance of Greek.) Augustine quotes also an ancient text from the Sibylline oracles whose verses are an acrostic of the generating sentence.  The statement \"Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior\" affirmed the belief of early Christians in the twofold nature, of Jesus Christ being both fully human and fully divine. The belief in Jesus Christ being true Man and true God completes the Most Holy Trinity, that is the basic article of the Christian faith.  A fourth century A.D. adaptation of \"ichthys\" as a wheel contains the letters superimposed such that the result resembles an eight-spoked wheel.  Egon Friedell speculates in his \"Cultural History of Antiquity\", that the symbol of the fish may refer to the astrological age of pisces, which started at around the time of the establishment of Christianity. Thus, the symbol may have been used to symbolise the starting of a new age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the Gospels.", "content": "Fish are mentioned and given symbolic meaning several times in the Gospels. Several of Jesus' 12 Apostles were fishermen. He commissions them with the words \"I will make you fishers of men\". (Mark 1: 16-18)  Having been resurrected, Jesus is offered some grilled fish in Luke 24:41-43.  At the feeding of the five thousand, a boy is brought to Jesus with \"five small loaves and two fish\". The question is asked, \"But what are they, among so many?\" Jesus multiplies the loaves and fish to feed the multitude. In Matthew 13:47-50, the Parable of Drawing in the Net, Jesus compares the angels separating the righteous from the wicked at the end of this world to fishers sorting out their catch, keeping the good fish and throwing the bad fish away. In John 21:11, it is related that the disciples fished all night but caught nothing. Jesus instructed them to cast the nets on the other side of the boat, and they drew in 153 fish. In Matthew 17:24-27, upon being asked if his Teacher pays the temple (or two-drachma) tax, Simon Peter answers yes. Christ tells Peter to go to the water and cast a line, saying that a coin sufficient for both of them will be found in the fish's mouth. Peter does this and finds the coin.  The fish is also used by Jesus to describe \"the Sign of Jonah\". (Matthew 12:38-45) This is symbolic of Jesus's resurrection, upon which the entire Christian faith is based. (1 Corinthians 15:1-58)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the Book of Tobit.", "content": "In the Deuterocanonical Book of Tobit, by Raphael the Archangel's order, the young cousin and future spouse of Sarah captures a fish while it tries to swallow his feet, washing in the river Tigris. Then he is instructed how to offer it, in order to be saved from the daemon Asmodeus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early church.", "content": "According to tradition, ancient Christians, during their persecution by the Roman Empire in the first few centuries after Christ, used the fish symbol to mark meeting places and tombs, or to distinguish friends from foes:  There are several other hypotheses as to why the fish was chosen. Some sources indicate that the earliest literary references came from the recommendation of Clement of Alexandria to his readers (Paedagogus, III, xi) to engrave their seals with the dove or fish. However, it can be inferred from Roman monumental sources such as the Cappella Greca and the Sacrament Chapels of the catacomb of St. Callistus that the fish symbol was known to Christians much earlier.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The ichthys or ichthus (), from the Greek \"ikhthýs\" ( 1st cent. AD Koine Greek, \"fish\") is a symbol consisting of two intersecting arcs, the ends of the right side extending beyond the meeting point so as to resemble the profile of a fish. The symbol was adopted by early Christians as a secret symbol. It is now known colloquially as the \"sign of the fish\" or the \"Jesus fish\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971327}
{"src_title": "European green woodpecker", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The European green woodpecker was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his \"Systema Naturae\" under its current binomial name \"Picus viridis\". The type locality is Sweden. The scientific name is derived from the Latin \"picus\", meaning \"woodpecker\", and \"viridis\" meaning \"green\". It is member of the order Piciformes and the woodpecker family Picidae.  There are three subspecies, with subtle and mostly clinal differences between them.  The Iberian green woodpecker (\"Picus sharpei\") and Levaillant's woodpecker (\"Picus vaillantii\") were formerly considered as subspecies of the European green woodpecker. They are now treated as separate species based on the results of two molecular phylogenetic studies published in 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The European green woodpecker measures in length with a wingspan. Both sexes are green above and pale yellowish green below, with yellow rump and red crown and nape; the moustachial stripe has a red centre in the male but is solid black in the female. The lores and around the white eye are black in both male and female, except in the Iberian race \"P. v.\" subsp. \"sharpei\", in which it is dark grey and males have only a lower black border to the moustache. Juveniles are spotty and streaked all over; the moustache is dark initially, though juvenile males can show some red feathers by early June or usually by July or August.  Moult takes place between June and November with the first flight feathers being lost around the time the young fledge. Juveniles moult quickly after fledging and gain their adult plumage between August and November.  Although the European green woodpecker is shy and wary, it is usually its loud calls, known as yaffling, which first draw attention. It 'drums' rarely (a soft, fast roll), but often gives a noisy \"kyü-kyü-kyück\" while flying. The song is a loud series of 10–18 'klü' sounds which gets slightly faster towards the end and falls slightly in pitch. The female makes a thinner \"pü-pü-pü-pü-pü-pü-pü\". The flight is undulating, with 3–4 wingbeats followed by a short glide when the wings are held by the body.  It can be distinguished from the similar, but smaller, grey-headed woodpecker by its yellowish, not grey, underparts, and the black lores and facial'mask'. In Europe, its green upperparts and yellow rump can lead to confusion with the grey-headed woodpecker or possibly the female golden oriole, though the latter is smaller and more slender with narrower wings and longer tail. The closely related, very similar Levaillant's woodpecker occurs only in north-west Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "More than 75% of the range of the European green woodpecker is in Europe, where it is absent from some northern and eastern parts and from Ireland, Greenland and the Macaronesian Islands, but otherwise distributed widely. Over half of the European population is thought to be in France and Germany, with substantial numbers also in United Kingdom, Sweden, Russia, Croatia, Romania and Bulgaria. It also occurs in western Asia.  The European green woodpecker has a large range and an Estimated Global Extent of Occurrence of between 1 million to 10 million square kilometres, and a population in the region of 920,000 to 2.9 million birds. Populations appear to be stable, so the species is considered of Least Concern. The species is highly sedentary and individuals rarely move more than around 500 m between breeding seasons.  A combination of old deciduous trees for nesting, and nearby feeding grounds with plenty of ants, is essential. This is usually found in semi-open landscapes with small woodlands, hedges, scattered old trees, edges of forests and floodplain forests. Suitable habitats for foraging include grassland, heaths, plantations, orchards and lawns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "The nesting hole is larger but similar to those of the other woodpeckers. It may be a few feet above the ground or at the top of a tall tree; oaks, beeches, willows and fruit trees are the preferred nest trees in western and central Europe, and aspens in the north. The hole may be excavated in sound or rotten wood, with an entrance hole of. The cavity inside may be 150 mm wide and up to deep and the work is performed mostly by the male over 15–30 days. Some tree holes are used for breeding for more than 10 years, but not necessarily by the same pair.  There is a single brood of four to six white eggs, measuring and weighing each, of which 7% is shell. After the last egg is laid, they are incubated for 19–20 days by both parents taking shifts of between 1.5 and 2.5 hours. The chicks are naked and altricial at hatching and fledge after 21–24 days.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food and feeding.", "content": "The main food of the European green woodpecker is ants of the genera \"Lasius\" and \"Formica\" for which it spends much of its time foraging on the ground, though other insects and small reptiles are also taken occasionally. The bird's distinctive, elongated, cylindrical droppings often consist entirely of ant remains. At ant nests, it probes into the ground and licks up adult ants and their larvae. They have tongues that wrap to the back of their head. Green woodpeckers will often forage in short grazed or mown permanent grasslands where the availability of ant nests is high.  A study of a nest in Romania found that 10 species of ant were fed to the chicks. During the first 10 days, the young received an average of each, from days 10–20,, and from day 20,. The seven chicks consumed an estimated 1.5 million ants and pupae before leaving the nest.  The beak is relatively weak and used for pecking in soft wood only. In common with other woodpecker species, the green woodpecker's tongue is long (10 cm) and has to be curled around its skull. It lacks the barbs of the Dendrocopos woodpeckers and black woodpecker, but is made sticky by secretions from the enlarged salivary glands. Heavy, prolonged snow cover makes feeding difficult for the green woodpecker and can result in high mortality, from which it may take 10 years for the population to recover. Ant nests can be located under the snow; one bird was observed to dig 85 cm to reach a nest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "'Professor Yaffle', the wooden bookend character in the 1974 children's animation series \"Bagpuss\", was based loosely upon the green woodpecker. 'Yaffle' was among many English folk names for the European green woodpecker relating to its laughing call; others include laughing Betsey, yaffingale, yappingale and Jack Eikle. Other names, including rain-bird, weather cock and wet bird, suggest its supposed ability to bring on rain. The species has been the subject of postage stamps from several countries. The European green woodpecker is associated with Woodpecker Cider, an image of the bird is used on the merchandise. The woodpecker was the totem of the Italic tribe of the Picentes, and features of the coat of arms and flag of the Italian region of the Marches.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European green woodpecker (\"Picus viridis\") is large green woodpecker with a bright red crown and a black moustache. Males have a red centre to the moustache stripe which is absent in females. It is resident across much of Europe and the western Palearctic but in Spain and Portugal it is replaced by the similar Iberian green woodpecker (\"Picus sharpei\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971328}
{"src_title": "Mind map", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Although the term \"mind map\" was first popularized by British popular psychology author and television personality Tony Buzan, the use of diagrams that visually \"map\" information using branching and radial maps traces back centuries. These pictorial methods record knowledge and model systems, and have a long history in learning, brainstorming, memory, visual thinking, and problem solving by educators, engineers, psychologists, and others. Some of the earliest examples of such graphical records were developed by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker of the 3rd century, as he graphically visualized the concept categories of Aristotle. Philosopher Ramon Llull (1235–1315) also used such techniques.  The semantic network was developed in the late 1950s as a theory to understand human learning and developed further by Allan M. Collins and M. Ross Quillian during the early 1960s. Mind maps are similar in structure to concept maps, developed by learning experts in the 1970s, but differ in that mind maps are simplified by focusing around a single central key concept.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popularization.", "content": "Buzan's specific approach, and the introduction of the term \"mind map\", arose during a 1974 BBC TV series he hosted, called \"Use Your Head\". In this show, and companion book series, Buzan promoted his conception of radial tree, diagramming key words in a colorful, radiant, tree-like structure.  Buzan says the idea was inspired by Alfred Korzybski's general semantics as popularized in science fiction novels, such as those of Robert A. Heinlein and A. E. van Vogt. He argues that while \"traditional\" outlines force readers to scan left to right and top to bottom, readers actually tend to scan the entire page in a non-linear fashion. Buzan's treatment also uses then-popular assumptions about the functions of cerebral hemispheres in order to explain the claimed increased effectiveness of mind mapping over other forms of note making.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effectiveness.", "content": "Cunningham (2005) conducted a user study in which 80% of the students thought \"mindmapping helped them understand concepts and ideas in science\". Other studies also report some subjective positive effects on the use of mind maps. Positive opinions on their effectiveness, however, were much more prominent among students of art and design than in students of computer and information technology, with 62.5% vs 34% (respectively) agreeing that they were able to understand concepts better with mind mapping software. Farrand, Hussain, and Hennessy (2002) found that spider diagrams (similar to concept maps) had limited, but significant, impact on memory recall in undergraduate students (a 10% increase over baseline for a 600-word text only) as compared to preferred study methods (a 6% increase over baseline). This improvement was only robust after a week for those in the diagram group and there was a significant decrease in motivation compared to the subjects' preferred methods of note taking. A meta study about concept mapping concluded that concept mapping is more effective than \"reading text passages, attending lectures, and participating in class discussions\". The same study also concluded that concept mapping is slightly more effective \"than other constructive activities such as writing summaries and outlines\". However, results were inconsistent, with the authors noting \"significant heterogeneity was found in most subsets\". In addition, they concluded that low-ability students may benefit more from mind mapping than high-ability students.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "Joeran Beel and Stefan Langer conducted a comprehensive analysis of the content of mind maps. They analysed 19,379 mind maps from 11,179 users of the mind mapping applications (now ) and MindMeister. Results include that average users create only a few mind maps (mean=2.7), average mind maps are rather small (31 nodes) with each node containing about three words (median). However, there were exceptions. One user created more than 200 mind maps, the largest mind map consisted of more than 50,000 nodes and the largest node contained ~7,500 words. The study also showed that between different mind mapping applications (Docear vs MindMeister) significant differences exist related to how users create mind maps.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Automatic creation.", "content": "There have been some attempts to create mind maps automatically. Brucks & Schommer created mind maps automatically from full-text streams. Rothenberger et al. extracted the main story of a text and presented it as mind map. And there is a patent about automatically creating sub-topics in mind maps.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tools.", "content": "Mind-mapping software can be used to organize large amounts of information, combining spatial organization, dynamic hierarchical structuring and node folding. Software packages can extend the concept of mind-mapping by allowing individuals to map more than thoughts and ideas with information on their computers and the Internet, like spreadsheets, documents, Internet sites and images. It has been suggested that mind-mapping can improve learning/study efficiency up to 15% over conventional note-taking.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A mind map is a diagram used to visually organize information. A mind map is hierarchical and shows relationships among pieces of the whole. It is often created around a single concept, drawn as an image in the center of a blank page, to which associated representations of ideas such as images, words and parts of words are added. Major ideas are connected directly to the central concept, and other ideas branch out from those major ideas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971329}
{"src_title": "Homo heidelbergensis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research history.", "content": "The type specimen, Mauer 1 (a jawbone), was discovered by worker Daniel Hartmann in Mauer, to the southeast of Heidelberg, Germany, and was described in 1907 by German anthropologist Otto Schoetensack. He noted a lack of a distinct chin, but conceded that it had clearly belonged to a human form due to the humanlike teeth. More fossils were subsequently found in Steinheim an der Murr, Germany (the Steinheim skull); Arago, France (Tautavel Man); Petralona, Greece; and Ciampate del Diavolo, Italy.  In 1921, a skull, Kabwe 1, was discovered by Swiss miner Tom Zwiglaar in Kabwe, Zambia (Zambia at the time was called Northern Rhodesia), and was tentatively assigned to a new species, \"H. rhodesiensis\", by English palaeontologist Arthur Smith Woodward. Kabwe 1 dates to around 300,000 years ago. In 1976, the 600,000 year old Bodo cranium was discovered in the Middle Awash, Ethiopia, but was classified into \"H. heidelbergensis\" as \"H. rhodesiensis\" was beginning to fall out of favour. The 400,000 year old Tanzanian Ndutu cranium has been classified as an \"archaic \"H. sapiens\"\". The South African Saldanha cranium, or Elandsfontein cranium, discovered in 1954 was assigned to \"H. heidelbergensis\".  The Chinese Dali Man and Maba Man could represent Asian \"H. heidelbergensis\".  In 1992, the 350,000 year old Sima de los Huesos site in the Sierra de Atapuerca in northern Spain was discovered, which ha since yielded 5,500 bones belonging to perhaps 32 individuals, about 90% of known \"H. heidelbergensis\" remains. These individuals are thought to represent the immediate ancestors to Neanderthals or are themselves early Neanderthals. In 1994, Boxgrove Man was discovered near the English Channel in association with hundreds of hand axes dating to 524–478,000 years ago.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "\"H. heidelbergensis\" is generally considered to have been the direct ancestor to modern humans (though African members are alternatively classified as \"H. rhodesiensis\" or archaic \"H. sapiens\"), Neanderthals, and Denisovans. This would make \"H. heidelbergensis\" a chronospecies. \"H. heidelbergensis\" has also been described as a potential polytypic species, with different populations possibly being sufficiently different enough to qualify as being different subspecies. The transitional forms for both species is obscured by a large gap in the fossil record about 400–300,000 years ago. Thus, the timing of the replacement of \"H. heidelbergensis\" by descendant species is generally a matter of convention. Similarly, the timing of the derivation of \"H. heidelbergensis\" from an ancestor species is also unclear. The oldest identified \"H. heidelbergensis\" fossils date to about 600,000 years ago. Stone tools discovered in 2005 from Pakefield, Suffolk, indicate human activity in England 700,000 years ago, and at the time these tools were assumed to have been created by a transitional form between \"H. heidelbergensis\" and the older European human \"H. antecessor\". However, enamel proteome analysis suggests that \"H. antecessor\" is not ancestral to \"H. heidelbergensis\", but closely related nonetheless. \"H. heidelbergensis\" may instead derive from African or European \"H. erectus\", which also existed contemporaneously.  Until the 1990s, \"H. heidelbergensis\" was commonly classified as a subspecies of \"H. erectus\" (\"H. e. heidelbergensis\"). With the discovery of more complete remains, \"H. heidelbergensis\" has since become accepted as a unique species. The paleontology institute at Heidelberg University, where the type specimen has been kept since 1908, changed the label from the subspecies to the species classification in 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "The average brain capacity of 10 \"H. heidelbergensis\" specimens from across Africa and Eurasia was. Kabwe 1 has been estimated at. For comparison, the average brain capacity for contemporaneous \"H. erectus\" was, and modern humans for males and for females.  Male \"H. heidelbergensis\" averaged about tall and, and females and. An analysis of 27 limb bones Sima de los Huesos calculated an average size of about in height, which is similar to the average for Neanderthals and pre-industrial modern humans. According to South African palaeoanthropologist Lee Rogers Berger, tibiae and femora remains indicate that the average height 400–350,000 years ago reached during a grassland expansion which supported larger prey items.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "A biface nicknamed \"Excalibur\" from Sima de los Huesos is hypothesised to have been a grave good, which, if correct, would be the oldest evidence of funerary practices.  The morphology of the outer and middle ear suggests they had an auditory sensitivity similar to modern humans. They were probably able to differentiate between many different sounds. Dental wear analysis suggests they were as likely to be right-handed as modern people.  An archeological site in Schöningen, Germany contained eight exceptionally-well preserved roughly-400,000-year-old spears for hunting, and various other wooden tools. Five-hundred-thousand-year-old hafted stone points used for hunting are reported from Kathu Pan 1 in South Africa, tested by way of use-wear replication. This find could mean that modern humans and Neanderthals inherited the stone-tipped spear, rather than developing the technology independently.  No forms of art have been uncovered. Red ochre, a mineral that can be used to mix a red pigment which is useful as a paint, has been found at Terra Amata in France and Bečov in the Czech Republic, but the dating of these pigments to the Middle Pleistocene is contested.  The Schöningen spears are eight wooden throwing spears, dated to before 300,000 years ago, discovered between 1994 and 1998 in the open-cast lignite mine, in Schöningen, county Helmstedt, Germany, together with thousands of animal bones. They are regarded as the first direct evidence for active hunting by \"H. heidelbergensis\" (pre-Neanderthals).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "Steven Mithen believes that \"H. heidelbergensis\", like its descendant \"H. neanderthalensis\", acquired a pre-linguistic system of communication.  \"Homo heidelbergensis\" is thought to have been the first ancestor of modern humans not to have air sacs, which are laryngeal diverticula involved in vocalization. The loss of air sacs may have contributed to humans' ability to develop vocal language. Ancestors such as \"Australopithecus afarensis\" did have air sacs, as do other great apes. Furthermore, there is evidence that \"Homo heidelbergensis\" was right-handed. Handedness is associated with the development of language among hominins. Considering this evidence, scientists have hypothesized about the speaking capabilities of the species. A recent study that compared the speech frequency of humans and chimpanzees reported that \"H. heidelbergensis\" speech abilities more closely resemble those of modern-day humans. More specifically, \"the Atapuerca SH hominins show[ed] a bandwidth that [wa]s slightly displaced and considerably extended to encompass the frequencies that contain relevant acoustic information in human speech.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pathology.", "content": "The earliest documented case of odontogenic orbital cellulitis, a severe eye infection that develops from an abscess in the mouth, occurred in \"H. heidelbergensis\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Homo heidelbergensis is an extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans in the genus \"Homo\", which radiated in the Middle Pleistocene from about 700,000 to 300,000 years ago. The derivation of \"H. sapiens\" from \"H. rhodesiensis\" has often been proposed, but is obscured by a fossil gap from 400–260 kya. The species was originally named \"Homo heidelbergensis\" due to the skeleton's first discovery near Heidelberg, Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971330}
{"src_title": "JavaServer Pages", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Architecturally, JSP may be viewed as a high-level abstraction of Java servlets. JSPs are translated into servlets at runtime, therefore JSP is a Servlet; each JSP servlet is cached and re-used until the original JSP is modified.  JavaServer Pages can be used independently or as the view component of a server-side model–view–controller design, normally with JavaBeans as the model and Java servlets (or a framework such as Apache Struts) as the controller. This is a type of Model 2 architecture.  JSP allows Java code and certain predefined actions to be interleaved with static web markup content, such as HTML. The resulting page is compiled and executed on the server to deliver a document. The compiled pages, as well as any dependent Java libraries, contain Java bytecode rather than machine code. Like any other.jar or Java program, code must be executed within a Java virtual machine (JVM) that interacts with the server's host operating system to provide an abstract, platform-neutral environment.  JSPs are usually used to deliver HTML and XML documents, but through the use of OutputStream, they can deliver other types of data as well.  The Web container creates JSP implicit objects like request, response, session, application, config, page, pageContext, out and exception. JSP Engine creates these objects during translation phase.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Syntax.", "content": "JSP pages use several delimiters for scripting functions. The most basic is <%... %>, which encloses a JSP \"scriptlet.\" A scriptlet is a fragment of Java code that is run when the user requests the page. Other common delimiters include <%=... %> for \"expressions,\" where the scriptlet and delimiters are replaced with the result of evaluating the expression, and \"directives\", denoted with <%@... %>.  Java code is not required to be complete or self-contained within a single scriptlet block. It can straddle markup content, provided that the page as a whole is syntactically correct. For example, any Java \"if/for/while\" blocks opened in one scriptlet must be correctly closed in a later scriptlet for the page to successfully compile. This allows code to be intermingled and can result in poor programming practices.  Content that falls inside a split block of Java code (spanning multiple scriptlets) is subject to that code. Content inside an \"if\" block will only appear in the output when the \"if\" condition evaluates to true. Likewise, content inside a loop construct may appear multiple times in the output, depending upon how many times the loop body runs.  The following would be a valid for loop in a JSP page:  Counting to three:</p> <% for (int i=1; i<4; i++) { %> OK.</p> The output displayed in the user's web browser would be:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expression Language.", "content": "Version 2.0 of the JSP specification added support for the Expression Language (EL), used to access data and functions in Java objects. In JSP 2.1, it was folded into the Unified Expression Language, which is also used in JavaServer Faces.  An example of EL syntax:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Additional tags.", "content": "The JSP syntax add additional tags, called JSP actions, to invoke built-in functionality. Additionally, the technology allows for the creation of custom JSP \"tag libraries\" that act as extensions to the standard JSP syntax. One such library is the JSTL, with support for common tasks such as iteration and conditionals (the equivalent of \"for\" and \"if\" statements in Java.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Compiler.", "content": "A JavaServer Pages compiler is a program that parses JSPs, and transforms them into executable Java Servlets. A program of this type is usually embedded into the application server and run automatically the first time a JSP is accessed, but pages may also be precompiled for better performance, or compiled as a part of the build process to test for errors.  Some JSP containers support configuring how often the container checks JSP file timestamps to see whether the page has changed. Typically, this timestamp would be set to a short interval (perhaps seconds) during software development, and a longer interval (perhaps minutes, or even never) for a deployed Web application.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "In 2000, Jason Hunter, author of \"Java Servlet Programming\" described a number of \"problems\" with JavaServer Pages. Nevertheless, he wrote that while JSP may not be the \"best solution for the Java Platform\" it was the \"Java solution that is most like the non-Java solution,\" by which he meant Microsoft's Active Server Pages. Later, he added a note to his site saying that JSP had improved since 2000, but also cited its competitors, Apache Velocity and Tea (template language). Today there are several alternatives and a number of JSP-oriented pages in larger web apps are considered to be technical debt.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "JavaServer Pages (JSP) is a collection of technologies that helps software developers create dynamically generated web pages based on HTML, XML, SOAP, or other document types. Released in 1999 by Sun Microsystems, JSP is similar to PHP and ASP, but uses the Java programming language.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971331}
{"src_title": "Black comedy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and etymology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin of the term.", "content": "The term \"black humor\" (from the French \"humour noir\") was coined by the Surrealist theorist André Breton in 1935 while interpreting the writings of Jonathan Swift. Breton's preference was to identify some of Swift's writings as a subgenre of comedy and satire in which laughter arises from cynicism and skepticism, often relying on topics such as death.  Breton coined the term for his book \"Anthology of Black Humor\" (\"Anthologie de l'humour noir\"), in which he credited Jonathan Swift as the originator of black humor and gallows humor (particularly in his pieces \"Directions to Servants\" (1731), \"A Modest Proposal\" (1729), \"Meditation Upon a Broomstick\" (1710), and in a few aphorisms). In his book, Breton also included excerpts from 45 other writers, including both examples in which the wit arises from a victim with which the audience empathizes, as is more typical in the tradition of gallows humor, and examples in which the comedy is used to mock the victim. In the last cases, the victim's suffering is trivialized, which leads to sympathizing with the victimizer, as analogously found in the social commentary and social criticism of the writings of (for instance) Sade.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adoption in American literary criticism.", "content": "Among the first American writers who employed black comedy in their works were Nathanael West and Vladimir Nabokov, although at the time the genre was not widely known in the US. The concept of black humor first came to nationwide attention after the publication of a 1965 mass-market paperback titled \"Black Humor\", of which the editor was Bruce Jay Friedman. The paperback was one of the first American anthologies devoted to the concept of black humor as a literary genre. With the paperback, Friedman labeled as \"black humorists\" a variety of authors, such as J. P. Donleavy, Edward Albee, Joseph Heller, Thomas Pynchon, John Barth, Vladimir Nabokov, Bruce Jay Friedman himself, and Louis-Ferdinand Céline. Among the writers labeled as black humorists by journalists and literary critics are today also Roald Dahl, Kurt Vonnegut, Warren Zevon, Christopher Durang, and Philip Roth. The motive for applying the label black humorist to all the writers cited above is that they have written novels, poems, stories, plays, and songs in which profound or horrific events were portrayed in a comic manner. Comedians like Lenny Bruce, that since the late 1950s have been labeled for using \"sick comedy\" by mainstream journalists, have also been labeled with \"black comedy\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nature and functions.", "content": "Sigmund Freud, in his 1927 essay \"Humour\" (\"Der Humor\"), puts forth the following theory of black comedy: \"The ego refuses to be distressed by the provocations of reality, to let itself be compelled to suffer. It insists that it cannot be affected by the traumas of the external world; it shows, in fact, that such traumas are no more than occasions for it to gain pleasure.\" Some other sociologists elaborated this concept further. At the same time, Paul Lewis warns that this \"relieving\" aspect of gallows jokes depends on the context of the joke: whether the joke is being told by the threatened person themselves or by someone else.  Black comedy has the social effect of strengthening the morale of the oppressed and undermines the morale of the oppressors. According to Wylie Sypher, \"to be able to laugh at evil and error means we have surmounted them.\"  Black comedy is a natural human instinct and examples of it can be found in stories from antiquity. Its use was widespread in middle Europe, from where it was imported to the United States. It is rendered with the German expression \"Galgenhumor\". The concept of gallows humor is comparable to the French expression \"rire jaune\" (lit. \"yellow laughing\"), which also has a Germanic equivalent in the Belgian Dutch expression \"groen lachen\" (lit. \"green laughing\").  Italian comedian Daniele Luttazzi discussed gallows humour focusing on the particular type of laughter that it arouses (\"risata verde\" or \"groen lachen\"), and said that grotesque satire, as opposed to ironic satire, is the one that most often arouses this kind of laughter. In the Weimar era \"Kabaretts\", this genre was particularly common, and according to Luttazzi, Karl Valentin and Karl Kraus were the major masters of it.  Black comedy is common in professions and environments where workers routinely have to deal with dark subject matter. This includes police officers, firefighters, ambulance crews, military personnel and funeral directors, where it is an acknowledged coping mechanism. Outsiders can often react negatively to discovering this humor; as a result, there is an understanding within these professions that these jokes should not be shared with the wider public.  A 2017 study published in the journal \"Cognitive Processing\" concludes that people who appreciate dark humor \"may have higher IQs, show lower aggression, and resist negative feelings more effectively than people who turn up their noses at it.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "There are multiple recorded instances of humorous last words and final statements. For example, author and playwright Oscar Wilde was destitute and living in a cheap boarding house when he found himself on his deathbed. There are variations on what his exact words were, but his reputed were, \"Either that wallpaper goes or I do.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallows speeches.", "content": "Examples of gallows speeches include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military.", "content": "Military life is full of gallows humor, as those in the services continuously live in the danger of being killed, especially in wartime. For example:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Emergency service workers.", "content": "Workers in the emergency services are also known for using black comedy:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "There are several titles such as \"It Only Hurts When I Laugh\" and \"Only When I Laugh\", which allude to the punch line of a joke which exists in numerous versions since at least the 19th century. A typical setup is that someone badly hurt (e.g., a Wild West rancher with an arrow in his chest, a Jew crucified by the Romans, etc.) is asked \"Does it hurt?\" — \"I am fine; it only hurts when I laugh.\"  Ronald Reagan, after being shot by John Hinckley Jr., is reported to have made multiple quips on his way to and inside the emergency room, including \"Honey, I forgot to duck\" to his wife, \"All in all, I'd rather be in Philadelphia\" in a note written to his nurse, and perhaps most famously to his doctors, \"Please tell me you're Republicans.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Black comedy, also known as black humor, dark comedy, dark humor, or gallows humor, is a style of comedy that makes light of subject matter that is generally considered taboo, particularly subjects that are normally considered serious or painful to discuss. Writers and comedians often use it as a tool for exploring vulgar issues by provoking discomfort, serious thought, and amusement for their audience. Thus, in fiction, for example, the term \"black comedy\" can also refer to a genre in which dark humor is a core component. Popular themes of the genre include death and violence, discrimination, disease, and human sexuality.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971332}
{"src_title": "Antiderivative", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Examples.", "content": "The function formula_2 is an antiderivative of formula_3, as the derivative of formula_4 is formula_5. As the derivative of a constant is zero, formula_5 will have an infinite number of antiderivatives, such as formula_7, etc. Thus, all the antiderivatives of formula_5 can be obtained by changing the value of in formula_9, where is an arbitrary constant known as the constant of integration. Essentially, the graphs of antiderivatives of a given function are vertical translations of each other; each graph's vertical location depending upon the value.  More generally, the power function formula_10 has antiderivative formula_11 if, and formula_12 if.  In physics, the integration of acceleration yields velocity plus a constant. The constant is the initial velocity term that would be lost upon taking the derivative of velocity because the derivative of a constant term is zero. This same pattern applies to further integrations and derivatives of motion (position, velocity, acceleration, and so on).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses and properties.", "content": "Antiderivatives can be used to compute definite integrals, using the fundamental theorem of calculus: if is an antiderivative of the integrable function over the interval formula_13, then:  Because of this, each of the infinitely many antiderivatives of a given function is sometimes called the \"general integral\" or \"indefinite integral\" of \"f\" and is written using the integral symbol with no bounds:  If is an antiderivative of, and the function is defined on some interval, then every other antiderivative of differs from by a constant: there exists a number such that formula_16 for all. is called the constant of integration. If the domain of is a disjoint union of two or more (open) intervals, then a different constant of integration may be chosen for each of the intervals. For instance  is the most general antiderivative of formula_18 on its natural domain formula_19  Every continuous function has an antiderivative, and one antiderivative is given by the definite integral of with variable upper boundary: Varying the lower boundary produces other antiderivatives (but not necessarily all possible antiderivatives). This is another formulation of the fundamental theorem of calculus.  There are many functions whose antiderivatives, even though they exist, cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions (like polynomials, exponential functions, logarithms, trigonometric functions, inverse trigonometric functions and their combinations). Examples of these are \"From left to right, the first four are the error function, the Fresnel function, the trigonometric integral, and the logarithmic integral function.\"  See also Differential Galois theory for a more detailed discussion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Techniques of integration.", "content": "Finding antiderivatives of elementary functions is often considerably harder than finding their derivatives. For some elementary functions, it is impossible to find an antiderivative in terms of other elementary functions. See the articles on elementary functions and nonelementary integral for further information.  There are various methods available:  Computer algebra systems can be used to automate some or all of the work involved in the symbolic techniques above, which is particularly useful when the algebraic manipulations involved are very complex or lengthy. Integrals which have already been derived can be looked up in a table of integrals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Of non-continuous functions.", "content": "Non-continuous functions can have antiderivatives. While there are still open questions in this area, it is known that:  Assuming that the domains of the functions are open intervals:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In calculus, an antiderivative, inverse derivative, primitive function, primitive integral or indefinite integral of a function is a differentiable function whose derivative is equal to the original function. This can be stated symbolically as formula_1. The process of solving for antiderivatives is called antidifferentiation (or indefinite integration) and its opposite operation is called differentiation, which is the process of finding a derivative.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971333}
{"src_title": "Silvaner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Sylvaner is an ancient variety that has long been grown in Central Europe, in Transylvania. In Germany it is best known as a component of Liebfraumilch and production boomed in the 1970s to the detriment of quality, but it has long enjoyed a better reputation in Franconia than in other German wine regions. DNA fingerprinting has revealed it to be a cross between Traminer and the \"hunnic\" variety Österreichisch-Weiß (meaning \"Austrian White\"). As a result, it is now thought to have originated in Austrian Empire (Transylvania).  It is thought that the grape came to Germany after the Thirty Years War as there is a record of Sylvaner from Austria being planted at County of Castell in Franconia on 5 April 1659. So Germany celebrated the 350 anniversary of Silvaner in 2009. Its name has been taken to be associated with either Latin \"silva\" (meaning woods) or \"saevum\" (meaning wild), and before modern ampelography it was sometimes assumed that this variety had a close relationship with wild vines. Before DNA typing, some assumed an origin in Transylvania based on its name.  A lot of Sylvaner was planted in Germany and Alsace after the Second World War, reaching 30% and 25% respectively of total vineyard area in the 1960s - 1970s. It was Germany's most grown variety until it was overtaken by Müller-Thurgau around 1970. Much of the German crop was blended into Liebfraumilch, but overproduction ruined its reputation, and changing tastes led to many vines being grubbed up. Liebfraumilch became popular again with new wine drinkers and again changing tastes. However, in Franconia, where Liebfraumilch may not be produced and which primarily stuck to dry white wines in the decades when most other German regions produced semi-sweet wines, Silvaner has kept its popularity. Single-variety semi-sweet Silvaner, which used to be common, has all but disappeared from the German wine production.  More recently there has been a revival in Alsace based on low yields from good vineyard sites, with formal recognition in 2006 as Zotzenburg Sylvaner became the first to be designated an Alsace Grand Cru.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and wines.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "In the 1970s Brown Brothers experimented with \"Syilvaner\" in northeastern Victoria, but nothing seems to have come of it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Austria.", "content": "There are just of Sylvaner in its land of origin, a victim of the trend in Austrian wine towards drier styles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Croatia.", "content": "Sylvaner (\"silvanac zeleni\" in Croatian) is grown in Eastern Croatia, in the regions of Slavonija and Srijem, as well as in other regions. In recent years high-quality semi-dry Silvanac zeleni from Orahovica has become one of Croatia's more popular whites.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France.", "content": "Sylvaner has a controversial place in Alsace wine. Since 2006, it may be used in Alsace Grand Cru, which was previously reserved for the four \"noble grapes\" Gewürztraminer, Muscat, Pinot gris and Riesling, but only in the Zotzenberg vineyard, which together with Altenberg de Bergheim and Kaefferkopf were allowed to produce mixed variety wines as Alsace Grand Cru. Zotzenberg Grand Cru wines may consist of Gewürztraminer, Pinot gris, Riesling and Sylvaner in any combination. It is therefore possible to produce a varietally pure \"Sylvaner Grand Cru\" from this vineyard, but it may not be labelled so, only \"Zotzenberg\". Even after this, Jean Trimbach's view was that \"This Sylvaner grand cru is only possible in Zotzenberg, it is a recognition of the terroir, but we should stop there.\" As in Germany, Sylvaner has been falling in popularity since the 1970s, declining from 25% of Alsace vineyards to 10% in that time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "First recorded at Castell in 1659, Silvaner (with an 'i') reached a peak in the 1960s-1970s, with 30% of German vineyards. However overproduction during the Liebfraumilch years ruined its reputation, and it has since retreated to its stronghold in Franconia (Frankenland) (1,425 ha), where on the best chalky Muschelkalk terroir it can produce wines that can compete with the best German white wines which usually are made out of the Riesling grape. These powerful wines are considered food-friendly and are often described as having an \"earthy\" palate. Under VDP Erste Lage/Grosses Gewächs rules, Silvaner may be used for Grosses Gewächs wines (top-end dry wines), but only in Franconia and Saale-Unstrut and not in any of the other 11 German wine regions. Silvaner is also grown in Rheinhessen (2,486 ha) and Palatinate, and is sometimes also made into dessert wine. Currently there are in Germany, just 5% of the total area under vine.  The official name of the variety in Germany is \"Grüner Silvaner\", spelled with an \"i\" in difference from Alsace and its homeland of Austria.  The Silvaner is not usually matured in barrique (oak) barrels to avoid the fine and fruity body of the Silvaner being overwhelmed by the oak taste.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Romania.", "content": "In Transylvania, presumed to be the homeland of Silvaner, two varieties of this grape are grown: the Sylvaner roz (rosé) and the Sylvaner Verde B (Grüner Silvaner, Silvaner) in wineyards as Jidvei (Tarnava) and Nachbil (Dealurile Sătmarului - Satu Mare)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Slovakia.", "content": "Silvaner is traditionally grown in the Limbach village in Slovakia, that is famous for its varietal Silvaner wines, and in its surroundings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Switzerland.", "content": "Some is grown in Switzerland, where it is known as Johannisberger or Sylvaner with an \"y\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "USA.", "content": "In 1858, Emil Dresel brought the first Sylvaner cuttings to America and planted them on what is now the Scribe Estate in Sonoma County. In his honor, Scribe Winery planted one acre in 2007. It has been grown for many years at Rancho Sisquoc Winery in the Santa Maria Valley of California. Otherwise, Sylvaner has more or less disappeared from California, where it was known as Sylvaner Riesling, Franken Riesling, Monterey Riesling, and Sonoma Riesling. Oregon does have some Sylvaner at David Hill Vineyards in Forest Grove.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vine and viticulture.", "content": "The vine is vigorous and productive, with three-lobed leaves. The bunches are small and cylindrical, with medium green berries that ripen quickly.  In 1940, Silvaner was crossed with Chasselas to produce the white grape variety Nobling.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synonyms.", "content": "Silvaner is also known under the following synonyms: Arvine, Arvine Grande, Augustiner Weiss, Beregi Szilvani, Boetzinger, Clozier, Cynifadl Zeleny, Cynifal, Fliegentraube, Frankenriesling, Frankentraube, Fueszeres Szilvani, Gamay blanc, GentilvVert, Gros Rhin, Gros-rhin, Gruen Silvaner, Gruenedel, Gruenfraenkisch, Grün Silvaner, Haeusler Schwarz, Johannisberger, Mishka, Momavaka, Monterey Riesling, Moravka, Movavka, Muschka, Mushza, Musza, Nemetskii Rizling, Oesterreicher, Oestreicher, Pepltraube, Picardon blanc, Picardou blanc, Plant Du Rhin, Rhin, Rundblatt, Salfin, Salfine Bely, Salvaner, Salviner, Scharvaner, Scherwaner, Schoenfeilner, Schwaebler, Schwuebler, Sedmogradka, Sedmogradska Zelena, Selenzhiz, Selivan, Silvanske Zelene, Sonoma Riesling, Sylvan Zeleny, Sylvaner, Sylvaner verde, Szilvani Feher, Tschafahnler, Yesil Silvaner, Zelencic, Zeleny, Zierfandler, Zierifandel, Zinifal, Zoeld Szilvani, Zoeldsilvani, Syilvaner, Siylvaner, Sylvaner vert, Grüner Sylvaner, Grünfraenkisch, Franken Riesling and Grüner Silvaner.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sylvaner or Silvaner is a variety of white wine grape grown primarily in Alsace and Germany, where its official name is Grüner Silvaner. While the Alsatian versions have primarily been considered simpler wines, it was recently (2006) included among the varieties that can be used to produce Alsace Grand Cru wine together with the four 'noble grapes' of Alsace, although only in one vineyard, Zotzenberg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971334}
{"src_title": "Müller-Thurgau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the grape variety.", "content": "Most grapes have been created from a desire to harness qualities in two separate grapes and to generate a new vine that combines the qualities of both.  When Dr. Müller created the grape in the Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute in the late 19th century, his intention was to combine the intensity and complexity of the Riesling grape with the ability to ripen earlier in the season that the Silvaner grape possesses. Although the resulting grape did not entirely attain these two qualities, it nonetheless became widely planted across many of the German wine-producing regions. By the 1970s, Müller-Thurgau had become Germany's most-planted grape. A possible reason for the popularity of this varietal is that it is capable of being grown in a relatively wide range of climates and soil types. Many of these vines were planted on flat areas that were not particularly suitable for growing other wine grapes because it was more profitable than sugar beet, which was the main alternative crop in those locations. The vines mature early and bring large yield quantities, and are less demanding as to planting site than for example Riesling. Müller-Thurgau wines are mild due to low acidic content, but nevertheless fruity. The wines may be drunk while relatively young, and with few exceptions are not considered to improve with age. These facts meant that Müller-Thurgau provided an economical way to cheaply produce large amounts of medium sweet German wines, such as Liebfraumilch and Piesporter, which were quite popular up until the 1980s.  The turning point in Müller-Thurgau's growth however was the winter of 1979, when on 1 January there was a sharp fall in temperatures, to 20 °F (−7 °C) in many areas, which devastated most of the new varieties, but did not affect the varieties such as Riesling which have much more hardy stems, after hundreds of years of selection. In the decades since then, the winemakers have begun to grow a wider variety of vines, and Müller-Thurgau is now less widely planted in Germany than Riesling, although still significant in that country and worldwide.  While the total German plantations of Müller-Thurgau are declining, the variety is still in third place among new plantations in Germany, after Riesling and Pinot noir, with around 8% of all new plantations in the years 2006-2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genealogy.", "content": "Recent DNA fingerprinting has in fact determined that the grape was created by crossing Riesling with Madeleine Royale, not Silvaner or any other suggested grape variety. But there has been some confusion on the way. In 1996, Chasselas seemed to be a valid candidate, and in 1997 the Chasselas variety Admirable de Courtiller was specified. However, this was shown to be wrong when the reference grape that was believed to be Admirable de Courtiller was proven in the year 2000 to be Madeleine Royale. Madeleine Royale was long believed to be a Chasselas seedling, but modern DNA fingerprinting methods suggest that it is actually a crossing of Pinot and Trollinger.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "German growing regions.", "content": "As of 2006, German regional plantings stood at:  Outside of Germany, the grape has achieved a moderate degree of success in producing lively wines in Italy, southern England (where most other grapes will not ripen in many years) Luxembourg (where it is called Rivaner), Czech Republic, and the United States.  In Germany, it has long been common to blend Müller-Thurgau with Bacchus, or small amounts of Morio Muscat to enhance its flavours. Both are highly aromatic which don't work very well in varietal wines on their own because of a lack of acidity or structure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synonyms.", "content": "Synonyms for Müller-Thurgau include Miler Turgau, Müller, Müller-Thurgaurebe, Müllerka, Müllerovo, Muller-Thurgeau, Mullerka, Mullerovo, Riesling-Silvaner, Riesling-Sylvamer, Riesling x Silavaner, Rivaner, Rizanec, Rizlingsilvani, Rizlingszilvani, Rizlingzilvani, Rizvanac, Rizvanac Bijeli, Rizvanec, Rizvaner.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Müller-Thurgau is a white grape variety (sp. \"Vitis vinifera\") which was created by Hermann Müller from the Swiss Canton of Thurgau in 1882. It is a crossing of Riesling with Madeleine Royale. It is used to make white wine in Germany, Austria, Northern Italy, Hungary, England, Australia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, New Zealand, the United States and Japan. There are around 42,000 hectares (104,000 acres) cultivated worldwide, which makes Müller-Thurgau the most widely planted of the so-called \"new breeds\" of grape varieties created since the late 19th century. Although plantings have decreased significantly since the 1980s, as of 2006 it was still Germany's second most planted variety at 14,000 hectares and 13.7% of the total vineyard surface. In 2007, the 125th anniversary was celebrated at the Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute. Müller-Thurgau is also known as Rivaner (Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, and especially for dry wines), Riesling x Sylvaner, Riesling-Sylvaner (Switzerland), Johannisberg (Wallis canton in Switzerland), Rizvanec (Slovenia) and Rizlingszilváni (Hungary).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971335}
{"src_title": "Neighbourhood (mathematics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definitions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Neighbourhood of a point.", "content": "If formula_1 is a topological space and formula_2 is a point in formula_1, a neighbourhood of formula_2 is a subset formula_5 of formula_1 that includes an open set formula_7 containing formula_2,  This is also equivalent to formula_10 being in the interior of formula_5.  The neighbourhood formula_5 need not be an open set itself. If formula_5 is open it is called an. Some mathematicians require that neighbourhoods be open, so it is important to note conventions. A set that is a neighbourhood of each of its points is open since it can be expressed as the union of open sets containing each of its points. A rectangle, as illustrated in the figure, is not a neighbourhood of all its points; points on the edges or corners of the rectangle are not contained in any open set that is contained within the rectangle.  The collection of all neighbourhoods of a point is called the neighbourhood system at the point.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Neighbourhood of a set.", "content": "If formula_14 is a subset of topological space formula_1 then a neighbourhood of formula_14 is a set formula_5 that includes an open set formula_7 containing formula_14. It follows that a set formula_5 is a neighbourhood of formula_14 if and only if it is a neighbourhood of all the points in formula_14. Furthermore, it follows that formula_5 is a neighbourhood of formula_14 iff formula_14 is a subset of the interior of formula_5. The neighbourhood of a point is just a special case of this definition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In a metric space.", "content": "In a metric space formula_27, a set formula_5 is a neighbourhood of a point formula_2 if there exists an open ball with centre formula_2 and radius formula_31, such that is contained in formula_5.  formula_5 is called uniform neighbourhood of a set formula_14 if there exists a positive number formula_36 such that for all elements formula_2 of formula_14, is contained in formula_5.  For formula_41 the formula_36-neighbourhood formula_43 of a set formula_14 is the set of all points in formula_1 that are at distance less than formula_36 from formula_14 (or equivalently, formula_14 is the union of all the open balls of radius formula_36 that are centred at a point in formula_14): formula_51  It directly follows that an formula_36-neighbourhood is a uniform neighbourhood, and that a set is a uniform neighbourhood if and only if it contains an formula_36-neighbourhood for some value of formula_36.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "Given the set of real numbers formula_55 with the usual Euclidean metric and a subset formula_5 defined as then formula_5 is a neighbourhood for the set formula_59 of natural numbers, but is \"not\" a uniform neighbourhood of this set.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Topology from neighbourhoods.", "content": "The above definition is useful if the notion of open set is already defined. There is an alternative way to define a topology, by first defining the neighbourhood system, and then open sets as those sets containing a neighbourhood of each of their points.  A neighbourhood system on formula_1 is the assignment of a filter formula_61 of subsets of formula_1 to each formula_63 in formula_1, such that  One can show that both definitions are compatible, i.e. the topology obtained from the neighbourhood system defined using open sets is the original one, and vice versa when starting out from a neighbourhood system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uniform neighbourhoods.", "content": "In a uniform space formula_76, formula_5 is called a uniform neighbourhood of formula_78 if there exists an entourage formula_79 such that formula_5 contains all points of formula_1 that are formula_7-close to some point of formula_78; that is, formula_84 for all formula_85.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deleted neighbourhood.", "content": "A deleted neighbourhood of a point formula_2 (sometimes called a punctured neighbourhood) is a neighbourhood of formula_2, without formula_88. For instance, the interval formula_89 is a neighbourhood of formula_90 in the real line, so the set formula_91 is a deleted neighbourhood of formula_92. A deleted neighbourhood of a given point is not in fact a neighbourhood of the point. The concept of deleted neighbourhood occurs in the definition of the limit of a function.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In topology and related areas of mathematics, a neighbourhood (or neighborhood) is one of the basic concepts in a topological space. It is closely related to the concepts of open set and interior. Intuitively speaking, a neighbourhood of a point is a set of points containing that point where one can move some amount in any direction away from that point without leaving the set.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971336}
{"src_title": "Bernd Alois Zimmermann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Zimmermann was born in Bliesheim (now part of Erftstadt) near Cologne. He grew up in a rural Catholic community in western Germany. His father worked for the German Reichsbahn (Imperial Railway) and was also a farmer. In 1929, Zimmermann began attending a private Catholic school, where he had his first real encounter with music. After the National Socialists (or Nazis) closed all private schools, he switched to a public Catholic school in Cologne where, in 1937, he received his Abitur, the German equivalent of a high school diploma.  In the same year, he fulfilled his duty for the Reichsarbeitsdienst and spent the 1937/1938 winter semester studying pedagogy at the Hochschule für Lehrerausbildung (lit. University for Teacher Training) in Bonn.  He began studying Music Education, Musicology and Composition in the winter of 1938 at the University for Music in Cologne. In 1940, he was drafted in the Wehrmacht (the German Army) but was released in 1942 due to a severe skin illness. After he returned to his studies, he didn't receive a degree until 1947 due to the ending of the war. However, he was already busy as a free-lance composer in 1946, predominantly for radio. From 1948 to 1950, he was a participant in the Kranichsteiner/Darmstädter Ferienkursen für Neue Musik (lit. Kranichstein/Darmstadt Vacation Course for New Music) where he studied under René Leibowitz and Wolfgang Fortner, among others.  In 1957, he received a scholarship to spend time at the German Academy Villa Massimo in Rome. He also assumed the position of Professor of Composition (from Frank Martin) as well as Film and Broadcast Music at the Cologne Music University. In the 60s, he received more attention and success as a composer (including a second scholarship to the Villa Massimo in 1963 and a fellowship in the Academy of Arts, Berlin), especially after his opera \"Die Soldaten\" (The Soldiers) finally premiered in 1965. The opera had previously not been performed due to the enormous number of people required and the musical difficulty—the Cologne Opera had considered it \"unspielbar\" (not performable). The composer's depressive tendencies increased to a more physical level, compounded by a quickly deteriorating eye problem. On 10 August 1970, Zimmermann committed suicide at his home in Königsdorf near Cologne – just five days after completing the score of his last composition, \"Ich wandte mich und sah an alles Unrecht das geschah unter der Sonne\". At the time, he was preparing another opera, \"Medea\", after Hans Henny Jahnn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "In his own compositional growth, he took his place in the progression of new music, from which the German composers were mostly separated during the Nazi regime. He began writing works in the neoclassical style, continued with free atonality and twelve-tone music and eventually arrived at serialism (in 1956). His affection for jazz can sometimes be heard in some of his compositions (more so in his Violin Concerto or Trumpet Concerto).  In contrast to the so-called Darmstadt School (Stockhausen, Boulez, Nono, etc.), Zimmermann did not make a radical break with tradition. At the end of the 1950s, he developed his own personal compositional style, the pluralistic \"\"Klangkomposition\"\" (German word referring to the compositional style that focuses on planes – or areas – of sound and tone-colors). The combination and overlapping of layers of musical material from various time periods (from Medieval to Baroque and Classical to Jazz and Pop music) using advanced musical techniques is characteristic of \"Klangkomposition\". Zimmermann's use of this technique ranged from the embedding of individual musical quotes (seen somewhat in his orchestral work \"Photoptosis\") to pieces that are built entirely as a collage (the ballet \"Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu\"). In his vocal works, especially his \"Requiem for a Young Poet\", the text is used to progress the piece by overlapping texts from various sources. He created his own musical stance using the metaphor \"the spherical form of time\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bernd Alois Zimmermann (20 March 1918 – 10 August 1970) was a German composer. He is perhaps best known for his opera \"Die Soldaten\", which is regarded as one of the most important German operas of the 20th century, after those of Berg. As a result of his individual style, it is hard to label his music as avant-garde, serial or postmodern. His music employs a wide range of methods including the twelve-tone row and musical quotation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971337}
{"src_title": "Teplice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Teplice is located in North Bohemia, near the border with the German state of Saxony. It is situated in the valley of the Bílina river between the slopes of the Ore Mountains () in the northwest and the Central Bohemian Uplands (\"České středohoří\") in the southeast, about west of Ústí nad Labem.  The municipal area comprises the cadastral communities of Teplice proper, Prosetice, Nová Ves, Řetenice, Hudcov, Trnovany, and Sobědruhy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "According to the 1541 \"Annales Bohemorum\" by chronicler Wenceslaus Hajek, the thermal springs are fabled to have been discovered as early as 762; however, the first authentic mention of the baths occurred in the 16th century. The settlement of Trnovany was first documented in a 1057 deed, while Teplice proper was first mentioned about 1158, when Judith of Thuringia, queen consort of King Vladislaus II of Bohemia, founded a Benedictine nunnery \"ad aquas calidas\" (\"at the hot springs\"), the second in Bohemia. A fortified town arose around the monastery, which was destroyed in the course of the Hussite Wars after the 1426 Battle of Aussig. In the late 15th century, queen consort Joanna of Rožmitál, wife of King George of Poděbrady, had a castle erected on the ruins. The name \"Teplice\" is derived from the Old Czech, meaning \"hot spring\".  Teplice figures in the history of the Thirty Years' War, when it was a possession of the Protestant Bohemian noble Vilém Kinský, who was assassinated together with Generalissimo Albrecht von Wallenstein at Cheb in 1634. The Habsburg emperor Ferdinand II thereafter enfeoffed castle and town to his general Johann von Aldringen, who nevertheless was killed in battle in the same year, and Teplice fell to his sister Anna Maria von Clary-Aldringen. Consequently, and until 1945, Teplitz Castle was the primarily seat of the princely House of Clary-Aldringen. After the Thirty Years' War, the devastated town was the destination of many German settlers.  After a blaze in 1793, large parts of the town were rebuilt in a Neoclassical style. The health resort was a popular venue for wealthy bourgeois like the poet Johann Gottfried Seume, who died on his stay in 1810, or Ludwig van Beethoven, who met here with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1812; as well as for European monarchs. During the Napoleonic War of the Sixth Coalition, Teplice in August 1813 was the site where Emperor Francis I of Austria, Emperor Alexander I of Russia and King Frederick William III of Prussia first signed the triple alliance against Napoleon I of France that led to the coalition victory at the nearby Battle of Kulm.  In 1895, Teplice merged with neighbouring Lázně Šanov (\"Schönau\"). Upon the dissolution of Austria-Hungary after World War I and the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the predominantly German-speaking population found itself in newly established Czechoslovakia. Right-wing political groups like the German National Socialist Worker's Party referred to themselves as \"Volksdeutsche\" and began to urge for a unification with Germany, their efforts laid the foundation for the rise of the Sudeten German Party under Konrad Henlein after 1933. With the \"Sudetenland\", Teplice was annexed by Nazi Germany according to the 1938 Munich Agreement and incorporated into \"Reichsgau Sudetenland\". In 1930, 3,213 Jews lived in Teplice, 10% of the population. Under the Nazi regime they faced the Holocaust in the Sudetenland. Many fled and the Teplice Synagogue was burnt during Kristallnacht.  After World War II the Czechoslovak government enacted the Beneš decrees, whereafter the German-speaking majority of the population was expelled from Teplice. In 1945, the Princes of Clary-Aldringen, lords of Teplice since 1634, were expropriated.  In 1994, Jaroslav Kubera of the Civic Democratic Party (ODS) became mayor of Teplice and he held the position until 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Teplice is home to the professional football club FK Teplice playing in the Czech First League. Notable players of the club include Josef Masopust and Pavel Verbíř. The stadium, \"Na Stínadlech\", is one of the largest in the country and has hosted international matches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paleontology.", "content": "Fossils of an elasmosaurid plesiosaur (large carnivorous marine reptile from the Cretaceous period) were found near Teplice at the end of the 19th Century. In Hudcov, a nearby village, plesiosaur \"Cimoliasaurus teplicensis\" was described in 1906 by Czech paleontologist Antonín Frič.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Teplice (), Teplice-Šanov until 1948 (; ), is a statutory city in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic and the capital of the Teplice District. It is Czech Republic's second largest spa town, after Karlovy Vary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971338}
{"src_title": "Fermat's little theorem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Pierre de Fermat first stated the theorem in a letter dated October 18, 1640, to his friend and confidant Frénicle de Bessy. His formulation is equivalent to the following:  If is a prime and is any integer not divisible by, then is divisible by. Fermat's original statement was This may be translated, with explanations and formulas added in brackets for easier understanding, as:  Every prime number [] divides necessarily one of the powers minus one of any [geometric] progression [] [that is, there exists such that divides ], and the exponent of this power [] divides the given prime minus one [divides ]. After one has found the first power [] that satisfies the question, all those whose exponents are multiples of the exponent of the first one satisfy similarly the question [that is, all multiples of the first have the same property]. Fermat did not consider the case where is a multiple of nor prove his assertion, only stating:  Euler provided the first published proof in 1736, in a paper titled \"Theorematum Quorundam ad Numeros Primos Spectantium Demonstratio\" in the \"Proceedings\" of the St. Petersburg Academy, but Leibniz had given virtually the same proof in an unpublished manuscript from sometime before 1683.  The term \"Fermat's little theorem\" was probably first used in print in 1913 in \"Zahlentheorie\" by Kurt Hensel:  An early use in English occurs in A.A. Albert's \"Modern Higher Algebra\" (1937), which refers to \"the so-called 'little' Fermat theorem\" on page 206.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further history.", "content": "Some mathematicians independently made the related hypothesis (sometimes incorrectly called the Chinese Hypothesis) that if and only if is prime. Indeed, the \"if\" part is true, and it is a special case of Fermat's little theorem. However, the \"only if\" part is false: For example,, but 341 = 11 × 31 is a pseudoprime. See below.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proofs.", "content": "Several proofs of Fermat's little theorem are known. It is frequently proved as a corollary of Euler's theorem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Generalizations.", "content": "Euler's theorem is a generalization of Fermat's little theorem: for any modulus formula_3 and any integer coprime to, one has  where formula_5 denotes Euler's totient function (which counts the integers from 1 to that are coprime to ). Fermat's little theorem is indeed a special case, because if formula_3 is a prime number, then formula_7.  A corollary of Euler's theorem is: for every positive integer, if the integer is coprime with then for any integers and. This follows from Euler's theorem, since, if formula_9, then formula_10 for some integer, and one has  If is prime, this is also a corollary of Fermat's little theorem. This is widely used in modular arithmetic, because this allows reducing modular exponentiation with large exponents to exponents smaller than.  If is not prime, this is used in public-key cryptography, typically in the RSA cryptosystem in the following way: if retrieving from the values of and is easy if one knows formula_13 In fact, the extended Euclidean algorithm allows computing the modular inverse of modulo formula_14 that is the integer such formula_15 It follows that On the other hand, if is the product of two distinct prime numbers, then formula_17 In this case, finding from and needs knowing formula_5 (this is not proved, but no algorithm is known for computing without knowing formula_5). If one knows and formula_14 the factors and are easy to deduce, as one knows their product and their sum formula_21 The basic idea of RSA cryptosystem is thus: if a message is encrypted as formula_12 using public values of and, then, with the current knowledge, it cannot be decrypted without finding the (secret) factors and of.  Fermat's little theorem is also related to the Carmichael function and Carmichael's theorem, as well as to Lagrange's theorem in group theory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Converse.", "content": "The converse of Fermat's little theorem is not generally true, as it fails for Carmichael numbers. However, a slightly stronger form of the theorem is true, and it is known as Lehmer's theorem. The theorem is as follows:  If there exists an integer such that and for all primes dividing one has then is prime.  This theorem forms the basis for the Lucas–Lehmer test, an important primality test.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pseudoprimes.", "content": "If and are coprime numbers such that is divisible by, then need not be prime. If it is not, then is called a \"(Fermat) pseudoprime\" to base. The first pseudoprime to base 2 was found in 1820 by Pierre Frédéric Sarrus: 341 = 11 × 31.  A number that is a Fermat pseudoprime to base for every number coprime to is called a Carmichael number (e.g. 561). Alternately, any number satisfying the equality is either a prime or a Carmichael number.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Miller–Rabin primality test.", "content": "The Miller–Rabin primality test uses the following extension of Fermat's little theorem: If is an odd prime number, and, with odd, then for every prime to, either, or there exists such that and  This result may be deduced from Fermat's little theorem by the fact that, if is an odd prime, then the integers modulo form a finite field, in which has exactly two square roots, 1 and −1.  The Miller–Rabin test uses this property in the following way: given, with odd, an odd integer for which primality has to be tested, choose randomly such that ; then compute ; if is not 1 nor −1, then square it repeatedly modulo until you get 1, −1, or have squared times. If and −1 has not been obtained, then is not prime. Otherwise, may be prime or not. If is not prime, the probability that this is proved by the test is higher than 1/4. Therefore, after non-conclusive random tests, the probability that is not prime is lower than, and may thus be made as low as desired, by increasing.  In summary, the test either proves that a number is not prime, or asserts that it is prime with a probability of error that may be chosen as low as desired. The test is very simple to implement and computationally more efficient than all known deterministic tests. Therefore, it is generally used before starting a proof of primality.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fermat's little theorem states that if is a prime number, then for any integer, the number is an integer multiple of. In the notation of modular arithmetic, this is expressed as", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971339}
{"src_title": "Egg cell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "While the non-mammalian animal egg was obvious, the doctrine \"ex ovo omne vivum\" (\"every living [animal comes from] an egg\"), associated with William Harvey (1578–1657), was a rejection of spontaneous generation and preformationism as well as a bold assumption that mammals also reproduced via eggs. Karl Ernst von Baer discovered the mammalian ovum in 1827. The fusion of spermatozoa with ova (of a starfish) was observed by Oskar Hertwig in 1876.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Animals.", "content": "In animals, egg cells are also known as \"ova\" (singular \"ovum\", from the Latin word meaning 'egg'). The term ovule in animals is used for the young ovum of an animal. In vertebrates, ova are produced by female gonads (sexual glands) called ovaries. A number of ova are present at birth in mammals and mature via oogenesis. White et al. disproved the longstanding dogma that all of the ova are produced before birth. The team from the Vincent Center for Reproductive Biology, Massachusetts, Boston showed that oocyte formation takes place in ovaries of reproductive-age women. This report challenged a fundamental belief, held since the 1950s, that female mammals are born with a finite supply of eggs that is depleted throughout life and exhausted at menopause.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mammals including humans.", "content": "In all mammals the ovum is fertilized inside the female body.  The human ova grow from primitive germ cells that are embedded in the substance of the ovaries. Each of them divides repeatedly to give secretions of the uterine glands, ultimately forming a blastocyst.  The ovum is one of the largest cells in the human body, typically visible to the naked eye without the aid of a microscope or other magnification device. The human ovum measures approximately in diameter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ooplasm.", "content": "Ooplasm (also: oöplasm) is the yolk of the ovum, a cell substance at its center, which contains its nucleus, named the germinal vesicle, and the nucleolus, called the germinal spot.  The ooplasm consists of the cytoplasm of the ordinary animal cell with its spongioplasm and hyaloplasm, often called the \"formative yolk\"; and the \"nutritive yolk\" or \"deutoplasm\", made of rounded granules of fatty and albuminoid substances imbedded in the cytoplasm.  Mammalian ova contain only a tiny amount of the nutritive yolk, for nourishing the embryo in the early stages of its development only. In contrast, bird eggs contain enough to supply the chick with nutriment throughout the whole period of incubation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ova development in oviparous animals.", "content": "In the oviparous animals (all birds, most fish, amphibians and reptiles) the ova develop protective layers and pass through the oviduct to the outside of the body. They are fertilized by male sperm either inside the female body (as in birds), or outside (as in many fish). After fertilization, an embryo develops, nourished by nutrients contained in the egg. It then hatches from the egg, outside the mother's body. See egg for a discussion of eggs of oviparous animals.  The egg cell's cytoplasm and mitochondria are the sole means the egg can reproduce by mitosis and eventually form a blastocyst after fertilization.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ovoviviparity.", "content": "There is an intermediate form, the ovoviviparous animals: the embryo develops within and is nourished by an egg as in the oviparous case, but then it hatches inside the mother's body shortly before birth, or just after the egg leaves the mother's body. Some fish, reptiles and many invertebrates use this technique.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plants.", "content": "Nearly all land plants have alternating diploid and haploid generations. Gametes are produced by the gametophyte, which is the haploid generation. The female gametophyte produces structures called archegonia, and the egg cells form within them via mitosis. The typical bryophyte archegonium consists of a long neck with a wider base containing the egg cell. Upon maturation, the neck opens to allow sperm cells to swim into the archegonium and fertilize the egg. The resulting zygote then gives rise to an embryo, which will grow into a new diploid individual (sporophyte). In seed plants, a structure called ovule, which contains the female gametophyte. The gametophyte produces an egg cell. After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed containing the embryo.  In flowering plants, the female gametophyte (sometimes referred to as the embryo sac) has been reduced to just eight cells inside the ovule. The gametophyte cell closest to the micropyle opening of the ovule develops into the egg cell. Upon pollination, a pollen tube delivers sperm into the gametophyte and one sperm nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo inside the ovule. The ovule, in turn, develops into a seed and in many cases, the plant ovary develops into a fruit to facilitate the dispersal of the seeds. Upon germination, the embryo grows into a seedling.  In the moss \"Physcomitrella patens\", the Polycomb protein FIE is expressed in the unfertilised egg cell (Figure, right) as the blue colour after GUS staining reveals. Soon after fertilisation the FIE gene is inactivated (the blue colour is no longer visible, left) in the young embryo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other organisms.", "content": "In algae, the egg cell is often called oosphere. \"Drosophila\" oocytes develop in individual egg chambers that are supported by nurse cells and surrounded by somatic follicle cells. The nurse cells are large polyploid cells that synthesize and transfer RNA, proteins, and organelles to the oocytes. This transfer is followed by the programmed cell death (apoptosis) of the nurse cells. During oogenesis, 15 nurse cells die for every oocyte that is produced. In addition to this developmentally regulated cell death, egg cells may also undergo apoptosis in response to starvation and other insults.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The egg cell, or ovum (plural ova), is the female reproductive cell, or gamete, in most anisogamous organisms (organisms that reproduce sexually with a larger, \"female\" gamete and a smaller, \"male\" one). The term is used when the female gamete is not capable of movement (non-motile). If the male gamete (sperm) is capable of movement, the type of sexual reproduction is also classified as oogamous.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971340}
{"src_title": "Cthulhu Mythos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In his essay \"H. P. Lovecraft and the Cthulhu Mythos\", Robert M. Price described two stages in the development of the Cthulhu Mythos. Price called the first stage the \"Cthulhu Mythos proper.\" This stage was formulated during Lovecraft's lifetime and was subject to his guidance. The second stage was guided by August Derleth who, in addition to publishing Lovecraft's stories after his death, attempted to categorize and expand the Mythos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First stage.", "content": "An ongoing theme in Lovecraft's work is the complete irrelevance of mankind in the face of the cosmic horrors that apparently exist in the universe. Lovecraft made frequent references to the \"Great Old Ones\", a loose pantheon of ancient, powerful deities from space who once ruled the Earth and have since fallen into a deathlike sleep. While these monstrous deities were present in almost all of Lovecraft's published work (his second short story \"Dagon\", published in 1919, is considered the start of the mythos), the first story to really expand the pantheon of Great Old Ones and its themes is \"The Call of Cthulhu\", which was published in 1928.  Lovecraft broke with other pulp writers of the time by having his main characters' minds deteriorate when afforded a glimpse of what exists outside their perceived reality. He emphasized the point by stating in the opening sentence of the story that \"The most merciful thing in the world, I think, is the inability of the human mind to correlate all its contents.\"  Writer Dirk W. Mosig notes that Lovecraft was a \"mechanistic materialist\" who embraced the philosophy of \"cosmic indifference\" (Cosmicism). Lovecraft believed in a purposeless, mechanical, and uncaring universe. Human beings, with their limited faculties, can never fully understand this universe, and the cognitive dissonance caused by this revelation leads to insanity, in his view.  There have been attempts at categorizing this fictional group of beings. Phillip A. Schreffler argues that by carefully scrutinizing Lovecraft's writings, a workable framework emerges that outlines the entire \"pantheon\"from the unreachable \"Outer Ones\" (e.g., Azathoth, who occupies the centre of the universe) and \"Great Old Ones\" (e.g., Cthulhu, imprisoned on Earth in the sunken city of R'lyeh) to the lesser castes (the lowly slave shoggoths and the Mi-go).  David E. Schultz, however, believes that Lovecraft never meant to create a canonical Mythos but rather intended his imaginary pantheon to serve merely as a background element. Lovecraft himself humorously referred to his Mythos as \"Yog Sothothery\" (Dirk W. Mosig coincidentally suggested the term \"Yog-Sothoth Cycle of Myth\" be substituted for \"Cthulhu Mythos\"). At times, Lovecraft even had to remind his readers that his Mythos creations were entirely fictional.  The view that there was no rigid structure is expounded upon by S. T. Joshi, who said Price, however, believed that Lovecraft's writings could at least be divided into categories and identified three distinct themes: the \"Dunsanian\" (written a similar style as Lord Dunsany), \"Arkham\" (occurring in Lovecraft's fictionalized New England setting), and \"Cthulhu\" (the cosmic tales) cycles. Writer Will Murray noted that while Lovecraft often used his fictional pantheon in the stories he ghostwrote for other authors, he reserved Arkham and its environs exclusively for those tales he wrote under his own name.  Although the Mythos was not formalized or acknowledged between them, Lovecraft did correspond and share story elements with other contemporary writers including Clark Ashton Smith, Robert E. Howard, Robert Bloch, Frank Belknap Long, Henry Kuttner, Henry S. Whitehead, and Fritz Leibera group referred to as the \"Lovecraft Circle.\"  For example, Robert E. Howard's character Friedrich Von Junzt reads Lovecraft's \"Necronomicon\" in the short story \"The Children of the Night\" (1931), and in turn Lovecraft mentions Howard's \"Unaussprechlichen Kulten\" in the stories \"Out of the Aeons\" (1935) and \"The Shadow Out of Time\" (1936). Many of Howard's original unedited \"Conan\" stories also involve parts of the Cthulhu Mythos.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second stage.", "content": "Price denotes the second stage's commencement with August Derleth, with the principal difference between Lovecraft and Derleth being Derleth's use of hope and development of the idea that the Cthulhu mythos essentially represented a struggle between good and evil. Derleth is credited with creating the \"Elder Gods.\" He stated:  Price believes that the basis for Derleth's system is found in Lovecraft: \"Was Derleth's use of the rubric 'Elder Gods' so alien to Lovecraft's in \"At the Mountains of Madness\"? Perhaps not. In fact, this very story, along with some hints from \"The Shadow over Innsmouth\", provides the key to the origin of the 'Derleth Mythos'. For in \"At the Mountains of Madness\" is shown the history of a conflict between interstellar races, first among them the Elder Ones and the Cthulhu-spawn.  Derleth himself believed that Lovecraft wished for other authors to actively write about the Mythos as opposed to it being a discrete plot device within Lovecraft's own stories. Derleth expanded the boundaries of the Mythos by including any passing reference to another author's story elements by Lovecraft as part of the genre. Just as Lovecraft made passing reference to Clark Ashton Smith's \"Book of Eibon\", Derleth in turn added Smith's Ubbo-Sathla to the Mythos.  Derleth also attempted to connect the deities of the Mythos to the four elements (\"air\", \"earth\", \"fire\", and \"water\"), creating new beings representative of certain elements in order to legitimize his system of classification. Derleth created \"Cthugha\" as a sort of fire elemental when a fan, Francis Towner Laney, complained that he had neglected to include the element in his schema. Laney, the editor of \"The Acolyte\", had categorized the Mythos in an essay that first appeared in the Winter 1942 issue of the magazine.  Impressed by the glossary, Derleth asked Laney to rewrite it for publication in the Arkham House collection \"Beyond the Wall of Sleep\" (1943). Laney's essay (\"The Cthulhu Mythos\") was later republished in \"Crypt of Cthulhu #32\" (1985). In applying the elemental theory to beings that function on a cosmic scale (e.g., Yog-Sothoth) some authors created a fifth element that they termed \"aethyr\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Cthulhu Mythos is a shared fictional universe, originating in the works of American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft. The term was coined by August Derleth, a contemporary correspondent and protégé of Lovecraft, to identify the settings, tropes, and lore that were employed by Lovecraft and his literary successors. The name \"Cthulhu\" derives from the central creature in Lovecraft's seminal short story, \"The Call of Cthulhu\", first published in the pulp magazine \"Weird Tales\" in 1928.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971341}
{"src_title": "Adrien Brody", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Brody was born in Woodhaven, Queens, New York City, the son of Sylvia Plachy, a photographer, and Elliot Brody, a retired history professor and painter. Brody's father is of Polish Jewish descent; Brody's mother, who was raised as a Catholic, was born in Budapest, Hungary, and is the daughter of a Catholic Hungarian aristocrat father and a Czech Jewish mother. Brody was raised \"without a strong connection\" to either Judaism or Catholicism.  As a child, Brody performed magic shows at children's birthday parties as \"The Amazing Adrien\". He attended I.S. 227 Louis Armstrong Middle School and New York's Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts. His parents enrolled him in acting classes to distance him from the dangerous children with whom he associated. He attended summer camp at Long Lake Camp for the Arts in the Adirondacks in upstate New York. Brody attended Stony Brook University before transferring to Queens College for a semester.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Taking acting classes as a child, by age thirteen, he appeared in an Off-Broadway play and a PBS television film. After appearing in \"Bullet\" in 1996 with Tupac Shakur and Mickey Rourke, Brody hovered on the brink of stardom, receiving an Independent Spirit Award nomination for his role in the 1998 film \"Restaurant\", and later praise for his roles in Spike Lee's \"Summer of Sam\" and Terrence Malick's \"The Thin Red Line\". He received widespread recognition when he was cast as the lead in Roman Polanski's \"The Pianist\" (2002). To prepare for the role, Brody withdrew for months, gave up his apartment and his car, broke up with his then-girlfriend, learned how to play Chopin on the piano, he is 6'1\" (1.85m) and lost thirty pounds (13.6 kg) dropping him to 130 lbs (59 kg). The role won him an Academy Award for Best Actor, making him, at age twenty nine, the youngest actor ever to win the award, and to date the only winner under the age of thirty. He also won a César Award for his performance.  Brody appeared on \"Saturday Night Live\" on May 10, 2003, his first TV work, during which he controversially gave an improvised introduction, while wearing faux dreadlocks and a Jamaican accent for Jamaican reggae musical guest Sean Paul (without Lorne Michaels' permission), causing him to be banned. Other TV appearances include NBC's \"The Today Show\", and on MTV's \"Punk'd\" after being tricked by Ashton Kutcher.  After \"The Pianist\", Brody appeared in four very different films. In \"Dummy\" (released in 2003, but originally shot in 2000, just prior to his work in \"The Pianist\"), he portrayed Steven Schoichet, a socially awkward aspiring ventriloquist in pursuit of a love interest (his employment counsellor). He learned ventriloquism and puppetry for the role (under the tutelage of actor/ventriloquist Alan Semok) convincingly enough to perform all of the voice stunts and puppet manipulation live on set in real time, with no subsequent post dubbing. He played Noah Percy, a mentally disabled young man, in the film \"The Village\", by M. Night Shyamalan, shell-shocked war veteran Jack Starks in \"The Jacket\", writer Jack Driscoll in the 2005 \"King Kong\" remake, and father-to-be Peter Whitman in \"The Darjeeling Limited\" by Wes Anderson. \"King Kong\" was both a critical and box office success – it grossed $550 million worldwide, and is Brody's most successful film to date in monetary terms. He also voiced Jack Driscoll in the video game adaptation. Additionally, Brody played a detective in \"Hollywoodland\". He has also appeared in Diet Coke and Schweppes commercials, as well as Tori Amos' music video for \"A Sorta Fairytale\".  On January 5, 2006, Brody confirmed speculation that he was interested in playing the role of The Joker in 2008's \"The Dark Knight\". However, Christopher Nolan and Warner Bros. decided instead to cast Heath Ledger in the role. He was also in talks with Paramount to play Spock in J. J. Abrams \"Star Trek XI\", but it ultimately went to Zachary Quinto. In 2009, he starred in \"Splice\", a science fiction film written and directed by Vincenzo Natali. Originally a Sundance film, \"Splice\" was adopted by Dark Castle Entertainment and distributed by Warner Bros. In 2010, he played the star role of Royce in \"Predators\" (a sequel to the original \"Predator\"), directed by Nimród Antal and produced by Robert Rodriguez.  In 2011, Brody starred in a Stella Artois beer ad called \"Crying Jean\" that premiered right after half-time of the Super Bowl XLV as part of Stella's \"She Is a Thing of Beauty\" campaign. He appeared in Woody Allen's 2011 Academy Award-winning comedy \"Midnight in Paris\" as Salvador Dalí. On January 16, 2012, Brody made his debut as a runway model for Prada Men Fall/Winter 2012 show.  In 2014, Brody collaborated again with Wes Anderson in the Academy Award-winning \"The Grand Budapest Hotel\", where he played Dmitri. He received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or in a Movie for portraying the titular character in \"Houdini\", a History channel miniseries. The following year, he starred as Tiberius in the Chinese film \"Dragon Blade\", which grossed $54.8 million in its opening week in China.  In 2017, it was announced he would join the cast of the fourth season of the BBC crime drama \"Peaky Blinders\".  On August 4, 2017, he received the Leopard Club Award at the Locarno Festival. The Leopard Club Award pays homage to a major film personality whose work has made a lasting impact on the collective imagination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1992, Brody was seriously hurt in a motorcycle accident in which he flew over a car and crashed head-first into a crosswalk. He spent months recuperating. He has broken his nose three times doing stunts; the most recent was during the filming of \"Summer of Sam\".  He dated Michelle Dupont, a music industry personal assistant, from 2003 to 2006. She was his date to the 2003 Oscars.  Brody began dating Spanish actress Elsa Pataky in 2006. For Pataky's 31st birthday in July 2007, Brody purchased her a 19th-century farm in Central New York state that was remodeled to look like a castle. Brody and Pataky were featured at their New York home in a 35-page spread for \"HELLO!\" magazine in October 2008. The pair broke up in 2009.  In 2010, Brody sued the \"Giallo\" filmmakers, alleging that they failed to pay his full salary.  In February 2020 it was reported that he was dating Georgina Chapman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oscar kiss controversy.", "content": "At the 75th Academy Awards in 2003, Brody forcibly kissed actress Halle Berry, who had been presenting him with the Oscar for Best Actor for his work in \"The Pianist\". In a 2017 interview with Andy Cohen, Berry confirmed that the kiss was unplanned, stating \"I knew nothing about it.\" USA Today has since called the moment \"cringeworthy,\" particularly \"in light of the sexual harassment allegations that have rocked Hollywood\". Good Housekeeping has ranked it among the biggest scandals in Oscar history.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adrien Brody (born April 14, 1973) is an American actor and producer. He received widespread recognition and acclaim after starring in Roman Polanski's \"The Pianist\" (2002), for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor at age twenty-nine, making him the youngest actor to win in that category. Brody is the second male American actor (after Christopher Lambert) to receive the César Award for Best Actor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971342}
{"src_title": "Solaris (novel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "A team of human scientists is probing and examining the oceanic surface of the planet Solaris from a hovering research station. Solaris manifests an ability to cast their secret, guilty concerns into a material form for each scientist to personally confront. All human efforts to make sense of Solaris' activities ultimately prove futile. As Lem wrote, \"The peculiarity of those phenomena seems to suggest that we observe a kind of rational activity, but the meaning of this seemingly rational activity of the Solarian Ocean is beyond the reach of human beings\". He also wrote that he deliberately chose the ocean as a sentient alien to avoid any personification and the pitfalls of anthropomorphism in depicting first contact.  The novel was first published in Warsaw in 1961. The 1970 Polish-to-French-to-English translation of \"Solaris\" is the best-known of Lem's English-translated works. It has been adapted for the screen in 1968, 1972, and 2002.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "\"Solaris\" chronicles the ultimate futility of attempted communications with the extraterrestrial life inhabiting a distant alien planet named Solaris. The planet is almost completely covered with an ocean of gel that is revealed to be a single, planet-encompassing entity. Terran scientists conjecture it is a living and a sentient being, and attempt to communicate with it.  Kris Kelvin, a psychologist, arrives aboard Solaris Station, a scientific research station hovering near the oceanic surface of Solaris. The scientists there have studied the planet and its ocean for many decades, mostly in vain. A scientific discipline known as Solaristics has degenerated over the years to simply observing, recording and categorizing the complex phenomena that occur upon the surface of the ocean. Thus far, the scientists have only compiled an elaborate nomenclature of the phenomena, and do not yet understand what such activities really mean. Shortly before Kelvin's arrival, the crew exposed the ocean to a more aggressive and unauthorized experimentation with a high-energy X-ray bombardment. Their experimentation gives unexpected results and becomes psychologically traumatic for them as individually flawed humans.  The ocean's response to this intrusion exposes the deeper, hidden aspects of the personalities of the human scientists, while revealing nothing of the ocean's nature itself. It does this by materializing physical simulacra, including human ones; Kelvin confronts memories of his dead lover and guilt about her suicide. The \"guests\" of the other researchers are only alluded to.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism and interpretations.", "content": "In an interview, Lem said that the novel \"has always been a juicy prey for critics\", with interpretations ranging from that of Freudism to anticommunism, the latter stating that the Ocean represents the USSR and the people on the space station represent the Soviet satellites. He also commented on the absurdity of the book cover blurb for the 1976 edition, which said the novel \"expressed the humanistic beliefs of the author about high moral qualities of the human\". Lem noted that the critic who promulgated the Freudian idea actually blundered by basing his psychoanalysis on dialogue from the English translation, whereas his diagnosis would fail on the idioms in the original Polish text.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English translation.", "content": "Both the original Polish version of the novel (published in 1961) and its English translation are titled \"Solaris\". Jean-Michel Jasiensko published his French translation in 1964 and that version was the basis of Joanna Kilmartin and Steve Cox's English translation in 1970 (published by Walker & Co., and republished many times since).  Lem, who read English fluently, repeatedly voiced his disappointment with the Kilmartin–Cox version, and it has generally been considered second-rate. In 2011 Bill Johnston completed an English translation. Lem's wife and son reviewed this version more favorably: “We are very content with Professor Johnston's work, that seems to have captured the spirit of the original.” It was released as an audio book and later in an Amazon Kindle edition (2014, ). Legal issues have prevented this translation from appearing in print.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cinema.", "content": "\"Solaris\" has been filmed three times:  Lem himself observed that none of the film versions depict much of the extraordinary physical and psychological \"alienness\" of the Solaris ocean. Responding to film reviews of Soderbergh's version, Lem, noting that he did not see the film, wrote:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Solaris is a 1961 philosophical science fiction novel by Polish writer Stanisław Lem. Its central theme is the complete failure of human beings to understand an extraterrestrial intelligence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971343}
{"src_title": "Klaus Mann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Born in Munich, Klaus Mann was the son of German writer Thomas Mann and his wife, Katia Pringsheim. His father was baptized as a Lutheran, while his mother was from a family of secular Jews. He began writing short stories in 1924 and the following year became drama critic for a Berlin newspaper. His first literary works were published in 1925.  Mann's early life was troubled. His homosexuality often made him the target of bigotry, and he had a difficult relationship with his father. After only a short time in various schools, he travelled with his sister Erika Mann, a year older than himself, around the world, visiting the US in 1927; they reported on the trip in essays published as a collaborative travelogue entitled \"Rundherum\" in 1929.  In 1924 he had become engaged to his childhood friend Pamela Wedekind, the eldest daughter of the playwright Frank Wedekind, who was also a close friend of his sister Erika. The engagement was broken off in January 1928.  He travelled with Erika to North Africa in 1929. Around this time they made the acquaintance of Annemarie Schwarzenbach, a Swiss writer and photographer, who remained close to them for the next few years. Klaus made several trips abroad with Annemarie, the final one to a Soviet writers' congress in Moscow in 1934.  Since his young adulthood, Klaus was using drugs, mostly opiates, to which he later became heavily addicted. His diaries document an attempted morphine-injection in 1933 when Hitler took power. Initially, the aspiring writer used opium, Eukodal and later heroin to possibly increase his creative energy, as this was often the case for artists and intellectuals in literary circles at the time. He underwent drug detoxification in Budapest during his frantic travels and at the Kilchberg Sanatorium in Switzerland. After 1936, his drug use and sexual escapades became excessive during his stay in New York.  In 1932 Klaus wrote the first part of his autobiography, which was well received until Hitler came to power.  In 1933 Klaus participated with Erika in a political cabaret, called \"Die Pfeffermühle\" (\"The Pepper-Mill\"), which came to the attention of the Nazi regime. To escape prosecution he left Germany in March 1933 for Paris, later visiting Amsterdam and Switzerland, where his family had a house. Also in 1933, Klaus Mann and Annemarie Schwarzenbach, together with Fritz Landshoff and Dutch publisher Emanuel Querido, founded \"Die Sammlung\", a literary magazine, first published in September 1933 in Amsterdam. It was primarily affiliated with a number of influential German writers who fled from the Hitler regime during the first years of the establishment and consolidation of Nazi rule. The magazine was funded by the wealthy Annemarie Schwarzenbach, and Klaus Mann served as its editor-in-chief from 1933 to 1935, when \"Die Sammlung\"'s activity ceased.  Klaus Mann not only played an important role in the consolidation of the German \"Exilliteratur\" but also communicated with authors who remained in Germany after 1933. In a letter exchange with Gottfried Benn, whose ambivalence towards Nazi rule was well known, Klaus expressed concern about his continued membership in the national German academy of writers, pointing out the moral dilemma it posed, even urging him to leave the country to join the German intellectuals in exile.  In November 1934 Klaus was stripped of German citizenship by the Nazi regime. He became a Czechoslovak citizen. In 1936, he moved to the United States, living in Princeton, New Jersey, and New York. In the summer of 1937, he met his partner for the rest of the year Thomas Quinn Curtiss, who was later a longtime film and theater reviewer for \"Variety\" and the \"International Herald Tribune\". In 1940 Klaus Mann founded another literary magazine for German writers living in exile in the United States, \"Decision\". It lasted for only a year. During that time, he also lived at his father's house in Pacific Palisades when he was unable to support himself financially.  Mann became a US citizen in 1943. The process of naturalization was delayed because of an investigation the FBI conducted into Klaus Mann's political and sexual activities; he was openly gay but not an adherent of marxist ideologies. Throughout his life in the US, he identified himself as a liberal antifascist and cosmopolitan. In World War II, he served as a Staff Sergeant of the 5th US Army in Italy. In summer 1945, he was sent by the \"Stars and Stripes\" to report from Postwar-Germany.  Mann's most famous novel, \"Mephisto\", was written in 1936 and first published in Amsterdam. The novel is a thinly-disguised portrait of his former brother-in-law, the actor Gustaf Gründgens. The literary scandal surrounding it made Mann posthumously famous in West Germany, as Gründgens' adopted son brought a legal case to have the novel banned after its first publication in West Germany in the early 1960s. After seven years of legal hearings, the West German Supreme Court banned it by a vote of three to three, although it continued to be available in East Germany and abroad. The ban was lifted and the novel published in West Germany in 1981.  Mann's novel \"Der Vulkan\" is one of the 20th century's most famous novels about German exiles during World War II.  He died in Cannes of an overdose of sleeping pills on 21 May 1949, after another drug treatment. The prolific writer likely committed suicide because of financial problems and social isolation. He was buried there in the Cimetière du Grand Jas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Klaus Heinrich Thomas Mann (18 November 1906 – 21 May 1949) was a German-born American writer and dissident. He was the brother of Erika Mann, with whom he maintained a lifelong close relationship. He is well known for his 1936 novel, \"Mephisto\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971344}
{"src_title": "Credit rating", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sovereign credit ratings.", "content": "A sovereign credit rating is the credit rating of a sovereign entity, such as a national government. The sovereign credit rating indicates the risk level of the investing environment of a country and is used by investors when looking to invest in particular jurisdictions, and also takes into account political risk.  The \"country risk rankings\" table shows the ten least-risky countries for investment. Ratings are further broken down into components including political risk, economic risk. Euromoney's bi-annual country risk index monitors the political and economic stability of 185 sovereign countries. Results focus foremost on economics, specifically sovereign default risk or payment default risk for exporters (also known as a trade credit risk).  A. M. Best defines \"country risk\" as the risk that country-specific factors could adversely affect an insurer's ability to meet its financial obligations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Short- and long-term ratings.", "content": "A rating expresses the likelihood that the rated party will go into default within a given time horizon. In general, a time horizon of one year or under is considered short term, and anything above that is considered long term. In the past institutional investors preferred to consider long-term ratings. Nowadays, short-term ratings are commonly used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Corporate credit ratings.", "content": "Credit ratings can address a corporation's financial instruments i.e. debt security such as a bond, but also the corporations itself. Ratings are assigned by credit rating agencies, the largest of which are Standard & Poor's, Moody's and Fitch Ratings. They use letter designations such as A, B, C. Higher grades are intended to represent a lower probability of default.  Agencies do not attach a hard number of probability of default to each grade, preferring descriptive definitions such as: \"the obligor's capacity to meet its financial commitment on the obligation is extremely strong,\" or \"less vulnerable to non-payment than other speculative issues...\" (Standard and Poors' definition of an AAA-rated and a BB-rated bond respectively). However, some studies have estimated the average risk and reward of bonds by rating. One study by Moody's claimed that over a \"5-year time horizon\" bonds it gave its highest rating (Aaa) to had a \"cumulative default rate\" of 0.18%, the next highest (Aa2) 0.28%, the next (Baa2) 2.11%, 8.82% for the next (Ba2), and 31.24% for the lowest it studied (B2). (See \"Default rate\" in \"Estimated spreads and default rates by rating grade\" table to right.) Over a longer period, it stated \"the order is by and large, but not exactly, preserved\". Another study in \"Journal of Finance\" calculated the additional interest rate or \"spread\" corporate bonds pay over that of \"riskless\" US Treasury bonds, according to the bonds' rating. (See \"Basis point spread\" in table to right.) Looking at rated bonds for 1973–89, the authors found a AAA-rated bond paid 43 \"basis points\" (or 43/100 of a percentage point) over a US Treasury bond (so that it would yield 3.43% if the Treasury yielded 3.00%). A CCC-rated \"junk\" (or speculative) bond, on the other hand, paid over 7% (724 basis points) more than a Treasury bond on average over that period.  Different rating agencies may use variations of an alphabetical combination of lowercase and uppercase letters, with either plus or minus signs or numbers added to further fine-tune the rating (see colored chart). The Standard & Poor's rating scale uses uppercase letters and pluses and minuses. The Moody's rating system uses numbers and lowercase letters as well as uppercase.  While Moody's, S&P and Fitch Ratings control approximately 95% of the credit ratings business, they are not the only rating agencies. DBRS's long-term ratings scale is somewhat similar to Standard & Poor's and Fitch Ratings with the words high and low replacing the + and −. It goes as follows, from excellent to poor: AAA, AA (high), AA, AA (low), A (high), A, A (low), BBB (high), BBB, BBB (low), BB (high), BB, BB (low), B (high), B, B (low), CCC (high), CCC, CCC (low), CC (high), CC, CC (low), C (high), C, C (low) and D. The short-term ratings often map to long-term ratings though there is room for exceptions at the high or low side of each equivalent.  S&P, Moody's, Fitch and DBRS are the only four ratings agencies that are recognized by the European Central Bank (ECB) for determining collateral requirements for banks to borrow from the central bank. The ECB uses a first, best rule among the four agencies that have the designated ECAI status, which means that it takes the highest rating among the four agencies – S&P, Moody's, Fitch and DBRS – to determine haircuts and collateral requirements for borrowing. Ratings in Europe have been under close scrutiny, particularly the highest ratings given to countries like Spain, Ireland and Italy, because they affect how much banks can borrow against sovereign debt they hold.  A. M. Best rates from excellent to poor in the following manner: A++, A+, A, A−, B++, B+, B, B−, C++, C+, C, C−, D, E, F, and S. The CTRISKS rating system is as follows: CT3A, CT2A, CT1A, CT3B, CT2B, CT1B, CT3C, CT2C and CT1C. All these CTRISKS grades are mapped to one-year probability of default.  Under the EU Credit Rating Agency Regulation (CRAR), the European Banking Authority has developed a series of mapping tables that map ratings to the \"Credit Quality Steps\" (CQS) as set out in regulatory capital rules and map the CQS to short run and long run benchmark default rates. These are provided in the table below:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Individuals:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A credit rating is an evaluation of the credit risk of a prospective debtor (an individual, a business, company or a government), predicting their ability to pay back the debt, and an implicit forecast of the likelihood of the debtor defaulting. The credit rating represents an evaluation of a credit rating agency of the qualitative and quantitative information for the prospective debtor, including information provided by the prospective debtor and other non-public information obtained by the credit rating agency's analysts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971345}
{"src_title": "Civil and political rights", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The phrase \"Rights for Civil\" is a translation of Latin \"jus civis\" (rights of a citizen). Roman citizens could be either free (\"libertas\") or servile (\"servitus\"), but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these rights included the freedom of religion; however in 380, the Edict of Thessalonica required all subjects of the Roman Empire to profess Catholic Christianity. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of universal rights could still be made based on Christian doctrine. According to the leaders of Kett's Rebellion (1549), \"all bond men may be made free, for God made all free with his precious blood-shedding.\"  In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights. The Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. It was one of the influences drawn on by George Mason and James Madison when drafting the Virginia Declaration of Rights in 1776. The Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U.S. Bill of Rights (1789).  The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a \"civil disability\". In early 19th century Britain, the phrase \"civil rights\" most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, with many politicians agreeing with the existing civil disabilities of Catholics. The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights.  In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks. Congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866, 1871, 1875, 1957, 1960, 1964, 1968, and 1991.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Protection of rights.", "content": "T. H. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights and still later by social rights. In many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in international human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the 1967 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.  Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected. However, most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil and political rights. Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his \"A Summary View of the Rights of British America\" that \"a free people [claim] their rights as derived from the laws of nature, and not as the gift of their chief magistrate.\"  The question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. Although in many countries citizens have greater protections against infringement of rights than non-citizens, civil and political rights are generally considered to be universal rights that apply to all persons.  According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr., analyzing the causes of and lack of protection from human rights abuses in the Global South should be focusing on the interactions of domestic and international factors—an important perspective that has usually been systematically neglected in the social science literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other rights.", "content": "Custom also plays a role. Implied or unenumerated rights are rights that courts may find to exist even though not expressly guaranteed by written law or custom; one example is the right to privacy in the United States, and the Ninth Amendment explicitly shows that there are other rights that are also protected.  The United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including \"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness\". It is considered by some that the sole purpose of government is the protection of life, liberty and property.  Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the medicine one takes, the habit one indulges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social movements for civil rights.", "content": "Civil rights guarantee equal protection under the law. When civil and political rights are not guaranteed to all as part of equal protection of laws, or when such guarantees exist on paper but are not respected in practice, opposition, legal action and even social unrest may ensue.  Civil rights movements in the United States gathered steam by 1848 with such documents as the Declaration of Sentiment. Consciously modeled after the Declaration of Independence, the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments became the founding document of the American women's movement, and it was adopted at the Seneca Falls Convention, July 19 and 20, 1848.  Worldwide, several political movements for equality before the law occurred between approximately 1950 and 1980. These movements had a legal and constitutional aspect, and resulted in much law-making at both national and international levels. They also had an activist side, particularly in situations where violations of rights were widespread. Movements with the proclaimed aim of securing observance of civil and political rights included:  Most civil rights movements relied on the technique of civil resistance, using nonviolent methods to achieve their aims. In some countries, struggles for civil rights were accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and even armed rebellion. While civil rights movements over the last sixty years have resulted in an extension of civil and political rights, the process was long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not achieve or fully achieve their objectives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Problems and analysis.", "content": "Questions about civil and political rights have frequently emerged. For example, to what extent should the government intervene to protect individuals from infringement on their rights by other individuals, or from corporations—e.g., in what way should employment discrimination in the private sector be dealt with?  Political theory deals with civil and political rights. Robert Nozick and John Rawls expressed competing visions in Nozick's \"Anarchy, State, and Utopia\" and Rawls' \"A Theory of Justice\". Other influential authors in the area include Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld, and Jean Edward Smith.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First-generation rights.", "content": "First-generation rights, often called \"blue\" rights, deal essentially with liberty and participation in political life. They are fundamentally civil and political in nature, as well as strongly individualistic: They serve negatively to protect the individual from excesses of the state. First-generation rights include, among other things, freedom of speech, the right to a fair trial, (in some countries) the right to keep and bear arms, freedom of religion, freedom from discrimination, and voting rights. They were pioneered in the United States by the Bill of Rights and in France by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in the 18th century, although some of these rights and the right to due process date back to the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Rights of Englishmen, which were expressed in the English Bill of Rights in 1689.  They were enshrined at the global level and given status in international law first by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and later in the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In Europe, they were enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights in 1953.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure one's entitlement to participate in the civil and political life of society and the state without discrimination or repression.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971346}
{"src_title": "Gyrobus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The concept of a flywheel-powered bus was developed and brought to fruition during the 1940s by Oerlikon (of Switzerland), with the intention of creating an alternative to battery-electric buses for quieter, lower-frequency routes, where full overhead-wire electrification could not be justified. Rather than carrying an internal combustion engine or batteries, or connecting to overhead powerlines, a gyrobus carries a large flywheel that is spun at up to 3,000 RPM by a \"squirrel cage\" motor. Power for charging the flywheel was sourced by means of three booms mounted on the vehicle's roof, which contacted charging points located as required or where appropriate (at passenger stops en route, or at terminals, for instance). To obtain tractive power, capacitors would excite the flywheel's charging motor so that it became a generator, in this way transforming the energy stored in the flywheel back into electricity. Vehicle braking was electric, and some of the energy was recycled back into the flywheel, thereby extending its range.  Fully charged, a gyrobus could typically travel as far as on a level route at speeds of up to, depending on vehicle batch (load), as top speeds varied from batch to batch. The installation in Yverdon-les-Bains (Switzerland) sometimes saw vehicles needing to travel as far as on one charge, although it is not known how well they performed towards the upper end of that distance.  Charging a flywheel took between 30 seconds and 3 minutes; in an effort to reduce the charge time, the supply voltage was increased from 380 volts to 500 volts. Given the relatively restricted range between charges, it is likely that several charging stops would have been required on longer routes, or in dense urban traffic. It is not clear whether vehicles that require such frequent delays would have been practical and/or suitable for modern-day service applications.  The demonstrator was first displayed (and used) publicly in summer 1950 and, to promote the system, this vehicle continued to be used for short periods of public service in a myriad of locations at least until 1954.  In 1979, General Electric was awarded a $5 million four-year contract by the United States government, the Department of Energy and the Department of Transportation, to develop a prototype flywheel bus.  In the 1980s, Volvo briefly experimented with using flywheels charged by a small diesel engine and recharged via braking energy. This was eventually dumped in favour of using hydraulic accumulators.  During the 1990s, the Dutch Centre for Concepts in Mechatronics had developed a flywheel for both mobile and stationary applications.  In 2005, the Center for Transportation and the Environment, working with the University of Texas at Austin, Center for Electromechanics, Test Devices, Inc., and DRS Technologies sought funding for the development of a prototype gyrobus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early commercial service.", "content": "The first full commercial service began in October 1953, linking the Swiss communities of Yverdon-les-Bains and Grandson. However, this was a route with limited traffic potential, and although technically successful it was not commercially viable. Services ended in late October 1960, and neither of the two vehicles (nor the demonstrator) survived.  The next system to open was in Léopoldville in Belgian Congo (now Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Here there were 12 vehicles (although apparently some reports suggest 17), which operated over four routes, with recharging facilities being provided about every. These were the largest of the gyrobuses, being in length, weighing, carrying up to 90 passengers, and having a maximum speed of. There were major problems related to excessive \"wear and tear\". One significant reason for this was that drivers often took shortcuts across unpaved roads, which after rains became nothing more than quagmires. Other problems included breakage of gyro ball bearings, and high humidity resulting in traction motor overload. The system's demise, however, came because of high energy consumption. The bus operator deemed that 3.4 kWh/km per gyrobus was unaffordable, so closure came in the summer of 1959 with the gyrobuses being abandoned and replaced with diesel buses.  The third location to use gyrobuses commercially was Ghent, Belgium. Three gyrobuses started operation in late summer 1956 on a route linking Ghent and Merelbeke. The flywheel was in the center of the bus, spanning almost the whole width of the vehicle, and having a vertical axis of rotation. The Ghent to Merelbeke route was intended to be the first of a proposed multi-route network; instead, its gyrobuses stayed in service for only three years, being withdrawn late autumn 1959. The operator considered them unreliable, \"spending more time off the road than on\", and that their weight damaged road surfaces. They were also considered to be energy hungry, consuming 2.9 kWh/km—compared with between 2.0 kWh/km and 2.4 kWh/km for trams with much greater capacity.  One of Ghent's gyrobuses has been preserved and restored, and is displayed at the VLATAM-museum in Antwerp. It is sometimes shown (and used to carry passengers) at Belgian exhibitions, transport enthusiasts' bazaars, etc. The tram depot in Merelbeke has been closed since 1998, but it still stands, as it is protected by the law.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further developments.", "content": "After the gyrobus was discontinued in all locations, there have been a number of attempts to make the concept work. Recently, there have been two successful projects, though the original idea of storing energy has been changed considerably: In Dresden, Germany there is the Autotram, a vehicle that looks like a modern tram, but moves on a flat surface, not on tracks. It has run since 2005 and is powered by a flywheel, though the wheel is small and only used to store energy from braking. The main source of energy is a fuel cell.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A gyrobus is an electric bus that uses flywheel energy storage, not overhead wires like a trolleybus. The name comes from the Greek language term for flywheel, \"gyros\". While there are no gyrobuses currently in use commercially, development in this area continues.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971347}
{"src_title": "Eurocontrol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The EUROCONTROL Convention was signed in 1960 and ratified in 1963. Before the Convention entered into force in 1963, there were already indications that the matter of national sovereignty would complicate the full implementation of the organisation's founding mission. The first European plan for a harmonised air traffic control (ATC) system, proposed in 1962, was beset by the refusal of both France and Britain to comply, largely due to reasons closely linked with their national military airspace control. The other four original members (the Federal Republic of Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) agreed in 1964 to set up a single international air traffic control centre to manage their upper airspace, settling in the Dutch city of Maastricht.  The European Parliament at the time expressed concern about the lack of clear intergovernmental agreements to ensure common air traffic control services across the continent. In 1979, EUROCONTROL signed a working cooperation agreement with the European Commission, attempting to create a synergy of EUROCONTROL's technical expertise and EU's regulatory authorities. Several initiatives originating in this period become a lasting element of the organisation, such as the EUROCONTROL forecasting service, which became STATFOR, as well as the Aeronautical Information Service. By 1986, the pressures on the European ATC network was so big that a new, wider mandate was already being considered for EUROCONTROL, with much of the initiative coming from ECAC’s Ministers of Transport. Subsequently, ECAC urged all of its member states to join EUROCONTROL.  A revised EUROCONTROL Convention was signed in 1997, renewing the organisation's optimism for greater political support, surpassing the original vision of the 1960 Convention. In June 1998, Eurocontrol, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the European Commission (EC) also signed an agreement formalising cooperation in the realm of satellite navigation systems and services. In 1999 the European Commission presented its plan for a Single European Sky (SES) to the European Parliament, followed by two High Level Groups (HLG). The HLG reports on SES led to the establishment of the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and reinforced the European Commission's role as the sole European aviation safety regulator, while acknowledging EUROCONTROL's technical expertise in the implementation of said regulations.  The early 2000s were marred by several fatal accidents in Europe, such as the 2001 Linate Airport disaster and the 2002 Überlingen mid-air collision, both of which were related to air traffic navigation shortcomings. The pressure was further compounded by the September 11 attacks, increasing the need for a rapid Europe-wide regulatory and coordinating body. By May 2003, EUROCONTROL and NATO had signed a memorandum of cooperation, followed by a similar memorandum with the European Commission in December 2003. In February 2004, EUROCONTROL started work on first mandates from the European Commission and in April 2004, it adopted the Single European Sky Regulations (Package 1). In March 2006, the European Commission's Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) Program was launched by the Stakeholder Consultation Group (SCG) under EUROCONTROL's aegis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Functions and centres.", "content": "EUROCONTROL provides a set of different services:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Maastricht Upper Area Control Centre.", "content": "EUROCONTROL's Maastricht Upper Area Control Centre (MUAC), ICAO designator EDYY, located at Maastricht Aachen Airport, provides air traffic control for traffic above 24,500 ft over Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and north-west Germany. In 2017 it became the first multinational, cross-border civil-military air navigation service provider since it integrated the military air traffic control of the German and Dutch upper airspace.  It is the third busiest upper area Area Control Centre (ACC) in Europe after the London Area Control Centre and Karlsruhe ACC in terms of traffic numbers, but the first in terms of flight hours and distance.  MUAC has put in operation innovative technology and productivity enhancements: a new generation Flight Data Processing System, Integrated Flow Management Position, the Short Term Conflict Alert (STCA), Controller Pilot Data Link Communications (CPDLC) and stripless controller working positions.  Typically, air traffic control sectors at MUAC can handle 55 or more flights per hour. The average flight duration is approximately 21 minutes and typically 80% of the traffic is climbing from or descending to the major European airports of London, Paris, Frankfurt, Amsterdam and Berlin. Maastricht UAC has undoubtedly one of the most complex airspace structures in the world and the traffic flow (up to 5,670 aircraft a day) can be disrupted by the many surrounding military airspaces.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Membership criteria.", "content": "To be considered for membership of EUROCONTROL, a country must meet \"all\" of the following criteria:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comprehensive Agreement States.", "content": "In addition to membership, EUROCONTROL also concludes the so-called Comprehensive Agreements, which enhances the organisation's cooperation with non-European countries that are closely tied to the continent's aviation network.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation, commonly known as EUROCONTROL, is an international organisation working to achieve safe and seamless air traffic management across Europe. Founded in 1960, EUROCONTROL currently has 41 member states and is headquartered in Brussels, Belgium, with local sites in Brétigny-sur-Orge, France for its R&D activities, the Institute of Air Navigation Training (IANS) a training centre in Luxembourg, and the Maastricht Upper Area Control Centre (MUAC). The organisation employs approximately two thousand people and operates with an annual budget in excess of half a billion Euro.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971348}
{"src_title": "Osteichthyes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Bony fish are characterized by a relatively stable pattern of cranial bones, rooted, medial insertion of mandibular muscle in the lower jaw. The head and pectoral girdles are covered with large dermal bones. The eyeball is supported by a sclerotic ring of four small bones, but this characteristic has been lost or modified in many modern species. The labyrinth in the inner ear contains large otoliths. The braincase, or neurocranium, is frequently divided into anterior and posterior sections divided by a fissure.  Early bony fish had simple lungs (a pouch on either side of the esophagus) which helped them breathe in low-oxygen water. In many bony fish these have evolved into swim bladders, which help the body create a neutral balance between sinking and floating. (The lungs of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals were inherited from their bony fish ancestors.) They do not have fin spines, but instead support the fin with lepidotrichia (bone fin rays). They also have an operculum, which helps them breathe without having to swim.  Bony fish have no placoid scales. Mucus glands coat the body. Most have smooth and overlapping ganoid, cycloid or ctenoid scales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Traditionally, Osteichthyes is considered a class, recognised on having a swim bladder, only three pairs of gill arches, hidden behind a bony operculum and a predominately bony skeleton. Under this classification systems, the Osteichthyes are paraphyletic with regard to land vertebrates as the common ancestor of all Osteichthyes includes tetrapods amongst its descendants. The largest subclass, the Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) are monophyletic, but with the inclusion of the smaller sub-class Sarcopterygii, Osteichthyes is paraphyletic.  This has led to an alternative cladistic classification, splitting the Osteichthyes into two full classes. Osteichthyes is under this scheme monophyletic, as it includes the tetrapods, making it a synonym of the clade Euteleostomi. Most bony fish belong to the ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "A phylogeny of living Osteichthyes, including the tetrapods, is shown in the cladogram.  Whole-genome duplication took place in the ancestral Osteichthyes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "All bony fish possess gills. For the majority this is their sole or main means of respiration. Lungfish and other osteichthyan species are capable of respiration through lungs or vascularized swim bladders. Other species can respire through their skin, intestines, and/or stomach.  Osteichthyes are primitively ectothermic (cold blooded), meaning that their body temperature is dependent on that of the water. But some of the larger marine osteichthyids, such as the opah, swordfish and tuna have independently evolved various levels of endothermy. Bony fish can be any type of heterotroph: numerous species of omnivore, carnivore, herbivore, filter-feeder or detritivore are documented.  Some bony fish are hermaphrodites, and a number of species exhibit parthenogenesis. Fertilization is usually external, but can be internal. Development is usually oviparous (egg-laying) but can be ovoviviparous, or viviparous. Although there is usually no parental care after birth, before birth parents may scatter, hide, guard or brood eggs, with sea horses being notable in that the males undergo a form of \"pregnancy\", brooding eggs deposited in a ventral pouch by a female.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "The ocean sunfish is the heaviest bony fish in the world, while the longest is the king of herrings, a type of oarfish. Specimens of ocean sunfish have been observed up to in length and weighing up to. Other very large bony fish include the Atlantic blue marlin, some specimens of which have been recorded as in excess of, the black marlin, some sturgeon species, and the giant and goliath grouper, which both can exceed in weight. In contrast, \"Paedocypris progenetica\" and the stout infantfish can measure less than.  The Beluga sturgeon is the largest species of freshwater bony fish extant today, and \"Arapaima gigas\" is among the largest of the freshwater fish. The largest bony fish ever was \"Leedsichthys\", which dwarfed the beluga sturgeon as well as the ocean sunfish, giant grouper and all the other giant bony fishes alive today.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison with cartilaginous fishes Chondrichthyes.", "content": "Cartilaginous fishes can be further divided into sharks, rays and chimaeras. In the table below, the comparison is made between sharks and bony fishes. For the further differences with rays, see sharks versus rays.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Osteichthyes (), popularly referred to as the bony fish, is a diverse taxonomic group of fish that have skeletons primarily composed of bone tissue, as opposed to cartilage. The vast majority of fish are members of Osteichthyes, which is an extremely diverse and abundant group consisting of 45 orders, and over 435 families and 28,000 species. It is the largest class of vertebrates in existence today. The group Osteichthyes is divided into the ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii) and lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii). The oldest known fossils of bony fish are about 420 million years old, which are also transitional fossils, showing a tooth pattern that is in between the tooth rows of sharks and bony fishes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971349}
{"src_title": "Heike Kamerlingh Onnes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Kamerlingh Onnes was born in Groningen, Netherlands. His father, Harm Kamerlingh Onnes, was a brickworks owner. His mother was Anna Gerdina Coers of Arnhem.  In 1870, Kamerlingh Onnes attended the University of Groningen. He studied under Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff at the University of Heidelberg from 1871 to 1873. Again at Groningen, he obtained his masters in 1878 and a doctorate in 1879. His thesis was \"Nieuwe bewijzen voor de aswenteling der aarde\" (\"tr\". New proofs of the rotation of the earth). From 1878 to 1882 he was assistant to Johannes Bosscha, the director of the Delft Polytechnic, for whom he substituted as lecturer in 1881 and 1882.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "He was married to Maria Adriana Wilhelmina Elisabeth Bijleveld (m. 1887) and had one child, named Albert. His brother Menso Kamerlingh Onnes (1860–1925) was a fairly well known painter (and father of another painter, Harm Kamerlingh Onnes), while his sister Jenny married another famous painter, Floris Verster (1861–1927).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "University of Leiden.", "content": "From 1882 to 1923 Kamerlingh Onnes served as professor of experimental physics at the University of Leiden. In 1904 he founded a very large cryogenics laboratory and invited other researchers to the location, which made him highly regarded in the scientific community. The laboratory is known now as Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory. Only one year after his appointment as professor he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Liquefaction of helium.", "content": "On 10 July 1908, he was the first to liquefy helium, using several precooling stages and the Hampson–Linde cycle based on the Joule–Thomson effect. This way he lowered the temperature to the boiling point of helium (−269 °C, 4.2 K). By reducing the pressure of the liquid helium he achieved a temperature near 1.5 K. These were the coldest temperatures achieved on earth at the time. The equipment employed is at the Museum Boerhaave in Leiden.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Superconductivity.", "content": "In 1911 Kamerlingh Onnes measured the electrical conductivity of pure metals (mercury, and later tin and lead) at very low temperatures. Some scientists, such as William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), believed that electrons flowing through a conductor would come to a complete halt or, in other words, metal resistivity would become infinitely large at absolute zero. Others, including Kamerlingh Onnes, felt that a conductor's electrical resistance would steadily decrease and drop to nil. Augustus Matthiessen said that when the temperature decreases, the metal conductivity usually improves or in other words, the electrical resistivity usually decreases with a decrease of temperature.  On 8 April 1911, Kamerlingh Onnes found that at 4.2 K the resistance in a solid mercury wire immersed in liquid helium suddenly vanished. He immediately realized the significance of the discovery (as became clear when his notebook was deciphered a century later). He reported that \"\"Mercury has passed into a new state, which on account of its extraordinary electrical properties may be called the superconductive state\"\". He published more articles about the phenomenon, initially referring to it as \"\"supraconductivity\"\" and, only later adopting the term \"superconductivity\".  Kamerlingh Onnes received widespread recognition for his work, including the 1913 Nobel Prize in Physics for (in the words of the committee) \"\"his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, \"inter alia\", to the production of liquid helium\"\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Some of the instruments he devised for his experiments can be seen at the Boerhaave Museum in Leiden. The apparatus he used to first liquefy helium is on display in the lobby of the physics department at Leiden University, where the low-temperature lab is also named in his honor. His student and successor as director of the lab Willem Hendrik Keesom was the first person who was able to solidify helium, in 1926. The former Kamerlingh Onnes laboratory building is currently the Law Faculty at Leiden University and is known as \"Kamerlingh Onnes Gebouw\" (Kamerlingh Onnes Building), often shortened to \"KOG\". The current science faculty has a \"Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratorium\" named after him, as well as a plaque and several machines used by Kamerling Onnes in the main hall of the physics department.  The Kamerlingh Onnes Award was established in his honour, recognising further advances in low-temperature science.  The Onnes effect referring to the creeping of superfluid helium is named in his honor.  The crater Kamerlingh Onnes on the Moon is named after him.  Onnes is also credited with coining the word \"enthalpy\".  Onnes' discovery of superconductivity was named an IEEE Milestone in 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Professor Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, (21 September 1853 – 21 February 1926) was a Dutch physicist and Nobel laureate. He exploited the Hampson–Linde cycle to investigate how materials behave when cooled to nearly absolute zero and later to liquefy helium for the first time, in 1908. He also discovered superconductivity in 1911.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971350}
{"src_title": "Psidium guajava", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, guava fruits can range in size from as small as an apricot to as large as a grapefruit. Various cultivars have white, pink, or red flesh, and a few also feature red (instead of green or yellow) skin.  When cultivated from seed, guavas are notable for an extremely slow growth rate for several months, before a very rapid acceleration in growth rate takes over. From seed, common guavas may bloom and set fruit in as few as two years or as many as eight. Cuttings, grafting, and air layering are more commonly used as a propagation method in commercial groves. Highly adaptable, guavas can be easily grown as container plants in temperate regions, though their ability to bloom and set fruit is somewhat less predictable. In some tropical locations, guavas can become invasive. It has become a major problem in the Galápagos Islands.  The plant is used in many different shampoo products for its scent. It is also becoming a popular bonsai species and is currently quite popular in India and Eastern Asia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The leaves of \"P. guajava\" contain the flavonol morin, morin-3-O-lyxoside, morin-3-O-arabinoside, quercetin and quercetin-3-O-arabinoside.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wood.", "content": "Guava wood from Hawaii is commonly used for the smoking of meat. The wood is resistant to insect and fungal attack. The density of oven-dry wood is about and has been found suitable for roof trusses in Nigeria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "\"Psidium guajava\" has been used in traditional medicine in many cultures throughout Central America, the Caribbean, Africa, and Asia. It is used for inflammation, diabetes, hypertension, caries, wounds, pain relief, fever, diarrhea, rheumatism, lung diseases, and ulcers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use as food and feed.", "content": "Guava is an edible fruit and can be eaten raw or cooked. The processing of the fruits yields by-products that can be fed to livestock. The leaves can also be used as fodder.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Psidium guajava, the common guava, yellow guava, or lemon guava, is an evergreen shrub or small tree native to the Caribbean, Central America and South America. It is easily pollinated by insects; in culture, mainly by the common honey bee, \"Apis mellifera\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971351}
{"src_title": "Augusta Raurica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Founding.", "content": "Augusta Raurica, or \"Colonia Augusta Rauracorum\", was founded by Lucius Munatius Plancus around 44 BC in the vicinity of a local Gallic tribe, the Rauraci, relatives of the Helvetii. No archaeological evidence from this period has yet been found, leading to the conclusion that, either the settlement of the colony was disturbed by the civil war following the death of Julius Caesar, or that Plancus' colony was actually in the area of modern Basel, not Augst.  Successful colonization of the site had to wait for Augustus' conquest of the central Alps around 15 BC. The oldest find to date at Augusta Raurica has been dated to 6 BC by dendrochronology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The inscription on Munatius Plancus' grave merely states the name of the colony as \"Colonia Raurica\". A fragmentary inscription from the Augustinian period speaks of the \"Colonia P[aterna] (?) M[unatia] (?) [Felix] (?) [Apolli]naris [Augusta E]merita [Raur]ica\" (letters in brackets are reconstructions). Apart from this fragmentary reference, the first certain witness to the use of the name \"Augustus\" comes from the geographer Ptolemy in the Ancient Greek form \"Augústa Rauríkon\" (lat. \"Augusta Rauricorum\").  Augusta Raurica played an important role in Augustus' plans of conquest with two other colonies that bear his name: Augusta Praetoria (modern Aosta at the southern end of the Great Saint Bernard Pass) and Augusta Vindelicum (modern Augsburg, an outpost on the Danube). These three \"Augustae\" form the corners of a triangle that reaches across the alpine conquests of Augustus, the long base of which form the Rhine knee to the Danube formed the frontier against unconquered Germania.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Layout of the settlement.", "content": "During excavations it was determined that the city was founded on a high plateau just south of the Rhine river. Two small rivers, the Ergolz and Violen, have carved a triangle in the plateau, the base of which is about 1 kilometer wide along the base of the Jura Mountains, and the apex points northward toward the Rhine, about 1 kilometer from the base. This point is the site of the Roman castrum, or military fortification. The city is, therefore, well-defended by steep slopes to the north, east, and west. The next step in planning the city was the surveying of the area according to the architect's plans for the city. Every important public building had its specific place, starting with the temple of Jupiter as the sacred high point from which the street network would spread. The architect, who was responsible for executing the plans for the city, next laid a longitudinal axis across the triangle 36 ̊ west of north to form the main street of the settlement. Other longitudinal streets were laid out parallel to the main street at intervals of 55 meters. The main street was then divided into sections of 66 meters (255 Roman feet), which formed the corners of 10 crossing streets. This created a series of rectangular blocks of around 50 by 60 meters. The streets were laid on a solid bed of gravel and flanked by gutters on both sides. The more important roads featured covered sidewalks behind rows of columns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Borders.", "content": "The limits of Colonia Raurica can no longer be determined with absolute accuracy. However the approximate boundaries can be determined by examining the extent of Augst in the Early Middle Ages. This would seem to indicate the colony extended from Basel toward the mouth of the Aare, then up the Aare to the mouth of the Sigger below Solothurn, across to the Lüssel, and then back down the Birs to Basel, though this is still conjecture. New research, based on tiles stamped with the mark of the Vindonissa Legion, indicates some administrative dependence on Vindonissa. This would indicate that the colony reached over the Bözberg toward Frick, with the Thiersteinberg below Frick forming the eastern boundary. The western boundary, was near the mouth of the Birs, possibly marked by a border station. Early Roman cremation remains, found in 1937 by the church in Neuallschwil, show that such a post did exist on the main road north (toward Blotzheim) into Alsace. The Colonia Raurica, on the whole, contained the modern Canton of Basel, the Frick valley, and the eastern Jura Mountains of the Canton of Solothurn. The total area of the colony was around 700 km2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subsequent history.", "content": "By the 2nd century AD, Augusta Raurica was a prosperous commercial trading centre and, in its glory days, the capital of a local Roman province. It is estimated that the population reached approximately 20,000 people. Augusta Raurica prospered between the 1st and 3rd centuries, and exported smoked pork and bacon to other parts of the Roman Empire. The city possessed the typical amenities of a Roman city, an amphitheatre, a main forum, several smaller forums, an aqueduct, a variety of temples, several public baths and the largest Roman theatre north of the Alps, with 8,000 to 10,000 seats. Many of these sites are open to visitors year-round. In 250 AD, a powerful earthquake damaged a large part of the city. Shortly after, around 260 AD, Alemanni tribes and/or marauding Roman troops destroyed the city. The Romans attempted to maintain their military position by building a fortress on the Rhine, Castrum Rauracense, the walls of which are still partly intact. Augusta Raurica was resettled on a much smaller scale on the site of the castrum. These two settlements form the centers of the modern communities of Augst and Kaiseraugst.  In 1442, these communities were divided along the Ergolz and rivers. The western portion was given to Basel, which became a canton of Switzerland in 1501. In 1833, Augst became part of the Canton of Basel-Land. The eastern part became part of Habsburg territories and, to differentiate between the two towns, was renamed Kaiseraugst. Kaiseraugst became part of Switzerland in 1803 after the defeat of the Habsburgs during the Napoleonic Wars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Augusta Raurica today.", "content": "The excavation site and the late Roman castle, the \"Castrum Rauracense\", are listed as heritage sites of national significance, as are the early Christian baptisterium and the brick kiln at Liebrüti.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Excavations.", "content": "Many of the Roman buildings have been discovered and conserved through excavations, and most are open to the public:  Several private commercial buildings also have been found (a taberna, a bakery, a potter, and a tile kiln), as well as portions of a sewer. Around 80% of the built-up area has yet to be excavated. Augusta Raurica is the best-preserved Roman city north of the Alps that has not been built-over in medieval or modern times.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Museum and Roman house.", "content": "The Roman Museum houses the most important finds from the Roman city and presents the history of Augusta Raurica. In the museum, visitors will often find special exhibits, as well as most the significant archaeological find at Augusta Raurica: the. This treasure hoard was found in the fortress in 1961-1962, and it is presumed to have once been the property of a commander. The museum also has a reconstruction of a Roman house, with artifacts and reconstructions showing daily domestic and commercial life from the Roman period.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Augusta Raurica is a Roman archaeological site and an open-air museum in Switzerland located on the south bank of the Rhine river about 20 km east of Basel near the villages of Augst and Kaiseraugst. It is the site of the oldest known Roman colony on the Rhine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971352}
{"src_title": "Martini (cocktail)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Preparation.", "content": "By 1922 the martini reached its most recognizable form in which London dry gin and dry vermouth are combined at a ratio of 2:1, stirred in a mixing glass with ice cubes, with the optional addition of orange or aromatic bitters, then strained into a chilled cocktail glass. Over time the generally expected garnish became the drinker's choice of a green olive or a twist of lemon peel.  A dry martini is made with dry, white vermouth. By the Roaring Twenties, it became a common drink order. Over the course of the 20th century, the amount of vermouth steadily dropped. During the 1930s the ratio was 3:1 (gin to vermouth), and during the 1940s the ratio was 4:1. During the latter part of the 20th century, 6:1, 8:1, 12:1, 15:1 (the \"Montgomery\", after British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery's supposed penchant for attacking only when in possession of great numerical superiority), or even 50:1 or 100:1 Martinis became considered the norm.  A dirty martini contains a splash of olive brine or olive juice and is typically garnished with an olive.  A perfect martini uses equal amounts of sweet and dry vermouth.  Some martinis were prepared by filling a cocktail glass with gin, then rubbing a finger of vermouth along the rim. There are those who advocated the elimination of vermouth altogether. According to Noël Coward, \"A perfect martini should be made by filling a glass with gin, then waving it in the general direction of Italy\", Italy being a major producer of vermouth. Luis Buñuel used the dry martini as part of his creative process, regularly using it to sustain \"a reverie in a bar\". He offers his own recipe, involving Angostura bitters, in his memoir.  In 1966, the American Standards Association (ASA) released K100.1-1966, \"Safety Code and Requirements for Dry Martinis\", a tongue-in-cheek account of how to make a \"standard\" dry martini. The latest revision of this document, K100.1-1974, was published by American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the successor to ASA, though it is no longer an active standard.  The traditional martini comes in a number of variations. The fictional spy James Bond sometimes asked for his vodka martinis to be \"shaken, not stirred\",(although, in books by Ian Fleming, Bond asks for \"stirred, not shaken\"), following Harry Craddock's \"The Savoy Cocktail Book\" (1930), which prescribes shaking for all its martini recipes. The proper name for a shaken martini is a Bradford; however, Somerset Maugham is often quoted as saying that \"a martini should always be stirred, not shaken, so that the molecules lie sensuously on top of one another.\" A martini may also be served on the rocks; that is, with the ingredients poured over ice cubes and served in an old fashioned glass.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins and mixology.", "content": "The exact origin of the martini is unclear. A popular theory suggests it evolved from a cocktail called the Martinez served sometime in the early 1860s at the Occidental Hotel in San Francisco, which people frequented before taking an evening ferry to the nearby town of Martinez, California. Alternatively, residents of Martinez say a bartender in their town created the drink, while another source indicates that the drink was named after the town. Indeed, a \"Martinez Cocktail\" was first described in Jerry Thomas' 1887 edition of his \"Bartender's Guide, How to Mix All Kinds of Plain and Fancy Drinks\":  Other bartending guides of the late 19th century contained recipes for numerous cocktails similar to the modern-day martini. For example, Harry Johnson's \"Bartenders' Manual\" (1888) listed a recipe for a drink that consisted in part of half a wine glass of Old Tom gin and a half a wine glass of vermouth.  The first dry martini is sometimes linked to the name of a bartender who concocted the drink at the Knickerbocker Hotel in New York City in 1911 or 1912. The \"Marguerite Cocktail\", first described in 1904, could be considered an early form of the dry martini, because it was a 2:1 mix of Plymouth dry gin and dry vermouth, with a dash of orange bitters.  During Prohibition in the United States, during the mid-20th century, the relative ease of illegal gin manufacture led to the martini's rise as the locally predominant cocktail. With the repeal of Prohibition, and the ready availability of quality gin, the drink became progressively drier. In the 1970s and '80s, the martini came to be seen as old-fashioned and was replaced by more intricate cocktails and wine spritzers, but the mid-1990s saw a resurgence in the drink and numerous new versions.  Some newer drinks include the word \"martini\" or the suffix \"-tini\" in the name (e.g., appletini, peach martini, chocolate martini, Espresso Martini). These are so named because they are served in a martini cocktail glass. Generally containing vodka, they share little in common with the martini.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The martini is a cocktail made with gin and vermouth, and garnished with an olive or a lemon twist. Over the years, the martini has become one of the best-known mixed alcoholic beverages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971353}
{"src_title": "Paul Heyse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Berlin (1830–54).", "content": "Paul Heyse was born on 15 March 1830 in Heiliggeiststraße, Berlin. His father, the distinguished philologist Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse, was a professor at the University of Berlin who had been the tutor of both Wilhelm von Humboldt's youngest son (during 1815–17) and Felix Mendelssohn (during 1819–27). His paternal grandfather Johann Christian August Heyse (21 April 1764, Nordhausen – 27 July 1829, Magdeburg), was a famous German grammarian and lexicographer. Paul Heyse's mother was Jewish.  Heyse attended the renamed Friedrich-Wilhelms-Gymnasium until 1847. He was later remembered as a model student. His family connections gained him early entry to the artistic circles of Berlin, where he made the acquaintance of Emanuel Geibel, a man fifteen years his elder who was to become his literary mentor and lifelong friend, and who introduced him to his future father-in-law, the art historian and writer Franz Kugler.  After leaving school Heyse began studying classical philology. He met Jacob Burckhardt, Adolph Menzel, Theodor Fontane and Theodor Storm, and in 1849 joined the \"Tunnel über der Spree\" literary group. \"Frühlingsanfang 1848\", the first of Heyse's poems to see print, expressed his enthusiasm for the recent Revolution. After a brief excursion to see the student militias he returned home without joining them, apparently out of consideration for the concerns of his parents and friends.  Having studied for two years at the University of Berlin he left for Bonn in April 1849 in order to study art history and Romance languages. In 1850 he finally resolved on a career as a writer and began a dissertation under the supervision of Friedrich Diez, a pioneer of Romance philology in Germany; but when it was discovered he was conducting an affair with the wife of one of his professors he was sent back to Berlin. Heyse's first book, \"Der Jungbrunnen\" (a collection of tales and poetry) was published anonymously by his father that same year as was his tragedy \"Francesca von Rimini\". About the same time, Heyse received from the publisher Alexander Duncker a manuscript by the then-unknown Theodor Storm. Heyse's enthusiastic critique of \"Sommergeschichten und Lieder\" laid the foundations of their future friendship.  In 1851 Heyse won a contest held by the members of the \"Tunnel\" for the ballad \"Das Tal von Espigno\", and his first short story, \"Marion\" (1852), was similarly honoured. It was followed in 1852 by the \"Spanisches Liederbuch\", a collection of translations of poems and folk songs by Geibel and Heyse which was to be a favourite with composers, including Robert Schumann (Opp. 74 & 138), Adolf Jensen (Op. 21) and Hugo Wolf (Lieder collection \"Spanisches Liederbuch\", 1891). Wolf also set poems from Heyse's collection \"Italienisches Liederbuch\" of 1860 (Lieder collection \"Italienisches Liederbuch\" 189296). Throughout his career Heyse worked as a translator, above all of Italian literature (Leopardi, Giusti).  Several members of the \"Tunnel\" began to find its formalities and public nature distasteful, and a smaller circle, the \"Rütli\", was formed in December 1852: it included Kugler, Lepel, Fontane, Storm, and Heyse.  In May 1852 Heyse was awarded a doctorate for his work on the troubadours, and a Prussian scholarship allowed him to depart for Italy to look for old Provençal manuscripts. He made friends with Arnold Böcklin and Joseph Victor von Scheffel but was banned from the Vatican library after being discovered copying passages from unpublished manuscripts. He returned to Germany in 1853, where, with the Italian landscape still fresh in his mind, he wrote the works which first made him famous: his most famous short story, \"L'Arrabbiata\" (\"The Fury\", 1853, published in 1855); and the \"Lieder aus Sorrent\" (\"Songs of Sorrento\", 1852/53). Much of his new writing appeared in the \"Argo\", the yearbook of the \"Rütli\" writers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Munich (1854–1914).", "content": "Emanuel Geibel persuaded the King of Bavaria, Maximilian II, to grant Heyse a titular professorship in Munich. Heyse was thus appointed professor of Romance philology, although he never taught at that city's university. After his marriage on 15 May to Margarete Kugler he arrived in Munich on 25 May 1854. At his first audience with the King, Heyse presented his verse tales, \"Hermen\", and began a productive life as one of the \"Nordlichtern\" (\"northern lights\": Geibel, Heyse and Riehl) and establishing another literary society, \"Die Krokodile\", which included Felix Dahn, Wilhelm Hertz, Hermann Lingg, Franz von Kobell, the cultural historian Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl, Friedrich Bodenstedt, and the travel writer and art patron Adolf Friedrich von Schack. In December Heyse began a long correspondence with Eduard Mörike.  On 22 August 1855 Heyse's first son, Franz, was born. Heyse would have four children by his first marriage: Franz (1855–1919), Julie or Lulu (Frau Baumgarten, 1857–1928), Ernst (1859–1871) and Clara (Frau Layriz, 1861–1931). In 1859, obligations to the Kugler family led Heyse to take up a position as editor of the \"Literaturblatt zum deutschen Kunstblatt\", and he declined a tempting offer from the Grand Duke Carl Alexander von Weimar which would have involved moving to Thuringia.  On 30 September 1862, his wife Margarete died in Meran of a lung illness. He completed the historical drama, \"Ludwig der Bayer\" – a Bavarian period piece which Maximilian II had long been eager to see – but its theatrical production was a failure. Nevertheless, Heyse worked throughout the 1860s on new plays, eventually achieving his greatest success with \"Kolberg\" (1865).  He married Anna Schubart in 1867. Over the next three decades, Heyse continued to write prolifically. Despite a number of bereavements his life was uneventful, and his fame grew steadily until he was a world-famous figure. He was a very early opponent of naturalism, making critical references to it in print long before its influence could be felt in Germany. Younger critics who favoured naturalism made attacks on his writings, to which he replied in \"Merlin\" (1892): but their influence on the public was negligible. He was dubbed \"Dichterfürst\", prince of poetry, and he worked tirelessly to promote international understanding within Europe. In 1900, he was named an honorary citizen of Munich, and several special publications honoured his 70th birthday; and in 1910, he was made a member of the nobility, before being awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature on 10 December. He could not attend the ceremony, and was represented in Sweden by Count von Pückler.  His last published works were \"Letzten Novellen\" and \"Italienischen Volksmärchen\" (1914). He died on 2 April 1914, several months before the outbreak of World War I, and was buried in the old section of the Waldfriedhof (Nr. 43-W-27).  A street in Munich, \"Paul-Heyse Strasse\" is named after him as well as “Heysestrasse” in Hamburg Bergedorf. It crosses Schwanthaler Strasse and it is near the \"Theresienwiese\", the site of Munich's annual Bierfest.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Paul Johann Ludwig von Heyse (15 March 1830 – 2 April 1914) was a distinguished German writer and translator. A member of two important literary societies, the \"Tunnel über der Spree\" in Berlin and \"Die Krokodile\" in Munich, he wrote novels, poetry, 177 short stories, and about sixty dramas. The sum of Heyse's many and varied productions made him a dominant figure among German men of letters. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1910 \"as a tribute to the consummate artistry, permeated with idealism, which he has demonstrated during his long productive career as a lyric poet, dramatist, novelist and writer of world-renowned short stories.\" Wirsen, one of the Nobel judges, said that \"Germany has not had a greater literary genius since Goethe.\" Heyse is the fifth oldest laureate in literature, after Sully Prudhomme, Theodor Mommsen, Alice Munro and Jaroslav Seifert.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971354}
{"src_title": "Carl David Anderson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Anderson was born in New York City, the son of Swedish immigrants. He studied physics and engineering at Caltech (B.S., 1927; Ph.D., 1930). Under the supervision of Robert A. Millikan, he began investigations into cosmic rays during the course of which he encountered unexpected particle tracks in his (modern versions now commonly referred to as an Anderson) cloud chamber photographs that he correctly interpreted as having been created by a particle with the same mass as the electron, but with opposite electrical charge. This discovery, announced in 1932 and later confirmed by others, validated Paul Dirac's theoretical prediction of the existence of the positron. Anderson first detected the particles in cosmic rays. He then produced more conclusive proof by shooting gamma rays produced by the natural radioactive nuclide ThC<nowiki>\"</nowiki> (Tl) into other materials, resulting in the creation of positron-electron pairs. For this work, Anderson shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics with Victor Hess. Fifty years later, Anderson acknowledged that his discovery was inspired by the work of his Caltech classmate Chung-Yao Chao, whose research formed the foundation from which much of Anderson's work developed but was not credited at the time.  Also in 1936, Anderson and his first graduate student, Seth Neddermeyer, discovered the muon (or'mu-meson', as it was known for many years), a subatomic particle 207 times more massive than the electron, but with the same negative electric charge and spin 1/2 as the electron, again in cosmic rays. Anderson and Neddermeyer at first believed that they had seen the pion, a particle which Hideki Yukawa had postulated in his theory of the strong interaction. When it became clear that what Anderson had seen was \"not\" the pion, the physicist I. I. Rabi, puzzled as to how the unexpected discovery could fit into any logical scheme of particle physics, quizzically asked \"Who ordered \"that\"?\" (sometimes the story goes that he was dining with colleagues at a Chinese restaurant at the time). The muon was the first of a long list of subatomic particles whose discovery initially baffled theoreticians who could not make the confusing \"zoo\" fit into some tidy conceptual scheme. Willis Lamb, in his 1955 Nobel Prize Lecture, joked that he had heard it said that \"the finder of a new elementary particle used to be rewarded by a Nobel Prize, but such a discovery now ought to be punished by a 10,000 dollar fine.\"  Anderson spent all of his academic and research career at Caltech. During World War II, he conducted research in rocketry there. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1950. He received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1975. He died on January 11, 1991, and his remains were interred in the Forest Lawn, Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles, California. His wife Lorraine died in 1984.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carl David Anderson (September 3, 1905 – January 11, 1991) was an American physicist. He is best known for his discovery of the positron in 1932, an achievement for which he received the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics, and of the muon in 1936.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971355}
{"src_title": "Albert Hofmann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Hofmann was born in Baden, Switzerland, the first of four children to factory toolmaker Adolf Hofmann and his wife Elisabeth (born Elisabeth Schenk). Owing to his father's low income, Albert's godfather paid for his education. When his father became ill, Hofmann obtained a position as a commercial apprentice in concurrence with his studies. At the age of twenty, Hofmann began his chemistry degree at the University of Zürich, finishing three years later, in 1929. His main interest was the chemistry of plants and animals, and he later conducted important research on the chemical structure of the common animal substance chitin, for which he received his doctorate with distinction in 1929.  Regarding his decision to pursue a career as a chemist, Hofmann provided insight during a speech he delivered to the 1996 Worlds of Consciousness Conference in Heidelberg, Germany:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery of LSD.", "content": "Hofmann became an employee of the pharmaceutical/chemical department of Sandoz Laboratories (now a subsidiary of Novartis), located in Basel as a coworker with professor Arthur Stoll, founder and director of the pharmaceutical department. He began studying the medicinal plant \"Drimia maritima\" (squill) and the fungus ergot, as part of a program to purify and synthesize active constituents for use as pharmaceuticals. His main contribution was to elucidate the chemical structure of the common nucleus of the \"Scilla\" glycosides (an active principal of Mediterranean squill). While researching lysergic acid derivatives, Hofmann first synthesized LSD on 16 November 1938. The main intention of the synthesis was to obtain a respiratory and circulatory stimulant (analeptic) with no effects on the uterus in analogy to nikethamide (which is also a diethylamide) by introducing this functional group to lysergic acid. It was set aside for five years, until 16 April 1943, when Hofmann decided to reexamine it. While re-synthesizing LSD, he accidentally absorbed a small amount of the drug through his fingertips and discovered its powerful effects. He described what he felt as being:  Three days later, on 19 April 1943, Hofmann intentionally ingested 250 micrograms of LSD. This day is now known as \"Bicycle Day\", because he began to feel the effects of the drug as he rode home on a bike. This was the first intentional LSD trip.  Hofmann continued to take small doses of LSD throughout much of his life, and always hoped to find a use for it. In his memoir, he emphasized it as a \"sacred drug\": \"I see the true importance of LSD in the possibility of providing material aid to meditation aimed at the mystical experience of a deeper, comprehensive reality.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further research.", "content": "Hofmann later discovered 4-Acetoxy-DET (4-acetoxy-N,N-diethyltryptamine, also known as ethacetin, ethylacybin, or 4-AcO-DET) a hallucinogenic tryptamine. He first synthesized 4-AcO-DET in 1958 in the Sandoz lab. Hofmann became director of Sandoz' natural products department and continued studying hallucinogenic substances found in Mexican mushrooms and other plants used by aboriginal people there. This led to the synthesis of psilocybin, the active agent of many \"magic mushrooms.\" Hofmann also became interested in the seeds of the Mexican morning glory species \"Turbina corymbosa\", which are called \"ololiuqui\" by natives. He was surprised to find the active compound of ololiuhqui, ergine (LSA, lysergic acid amide) to be closely related to LSD.  In 1962, Hofmann and his wife Anita Hofmann (née Guanella, sister of Gustav Guanella, an important Swiss inventor) traveled to southern Mexico to search for the plant \"Ska Maria Pastora\" (Leaves of Mary the Shepherdess), later known as \"Salvia divinorum\". He was able to obtain samples of this plant, but never succeeded in identifying its active compound, which has since been identified as the diterpenoid salvinorin A. In 1963, Hofmann attended the annual convention of the World Academy of Arts and Sciences (WAAS) in Stockholm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Hofmann, interviewed shortly before his hundredth birthday, called LSD \"medicine for the soul\" and was frustrated by the worldwide prohibition of it. \"It was used very successfully for ten years in psychoanalysis,\" he said, adding that the drug was misused by the counterculture of the 1960s, and then criticized unfairly by the political establishment of the day. He conceded that it could be dangerous if misused, because a relatively high dose of 500 micrograms will have an extremely powerful psychoactive effect, especially if administered to a first-time user without adequate supervision.  In December 2007, Swiss medical authorities allowed psychotherapist Peter Gasser to perform psycho-therapeutic experiments on patients suffering from terminal-stage cancer and other deadly diseases. Completed in 2011, these represent the first study of the therapeutic effects of LSD on humans in 35 years – other studies had examined the drug's effects on consciousness and body. Hofmann acclaimed the study and reiterated his belief in LSD's therapeutic benefits. In 2008, Hofmann wrote to Steve Jobs, asking him to support this research; it is not known if Jobs responded. The Multidisciplinary Association of Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) has supported psychoanalytic research using LSD, carrying on Hofmann's legacy and setting the groundwork for future studies.  Hofmann was to speak at the World Psychedelic Forum from 21 to 24 March 2008, but had to cancel because of ill health.  Hofmann was a long-time friend and correspondent of German author and entomologist Ernst Jünger, whom he met in 1949. Jünger experimented with LSD with Hofmann; in 1970, Jünger published a book of his experiences taking several types of drugs, \"Annäherungen. Drogen und Rausch\" (Approaches: Drugs and Intoxication).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hofmann's papers.", "content": "After retiring from Sandoz in 1971, Hofmann was allowed to take his papers and research home. He gave his archives to the Albert Hofmann Foundation, a Los Angeles-based nonprofit, but the documents mostly sat in storage for years. The archives were sent to the San Francisco area in 2002 to be digitized, but that process was never completed. In 2013, the archives were sent to the Institute of Medical History in Bern, Switzerland, where they are currently being organized. Hofmann felt that everyone should try his \"drug\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Hofmann died at the age of 102 from a heart attack on the 29th April 2008 in Switzerland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors and awards.", "content": "The \"Swiss Federal Institute of Technology\" (ETH Zurich) honored him with the title D.Sc. (honoris causa) in 1969 together with Gustav Guanella, his brother-in-law. In 1971 the Swedish Pharmaceutical Association (\"Sveriges Farmacevtförbund\") granted him the Scheele Award, which commemorates the skills and achievements of the Swedish Pomerania chemist and pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albert Hofmann (11 January 1906 – 29 April 2008) was a Swiss scientist known best for being the first known person to synthesize, ingest, and learn of the psychedelic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Hofmann was also the first person to isolate, synthesize, and name the principal psychedelic mushroom compounds psilocybin and psilocin. He authored more than 100 scientific articles and numerous books, including \"LSD: Mein Sorgenkind\" (LSD: My Problem Child). In 2007, he shared first place with Tim Berners-Lee in a list of the 100 greatest living geniuses, published by \"The Daily Telegraph\" newspaper.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971356}
{"src_title": "Stromboli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Volcano.", "content": "Mount Stromboli has been in almost continuous eruption for the past 2,000–5,000 years. A pattern of eruption is maintained in which explosions occur at the summit craters, with mild to moderate eruptions of incandescent volcanic bombs, a type of tephra, at intervals ranging from minutes to hours. This Strombolian eruption, as it is known, is also observed at other volcanoes worldwide. Eruptions from the summit craters typically result in a few short, mild, but energetic bursts, ranging up to a few hundred meters in height, containing ash, incandescent lava fragments and stone blocks. Stromboli's activity is almost exclusively explosive, but lava flows do occur at times when volcanic activity is high: an effusive eruption occurred in 2002, the first in 17 years, and again in 2003, 2007, and 2013–14. Volcanic gas emissions from this volcano are measured by a multi-component gas analyzer system, which detects pre-eruptive degassing of rising magma, improving prediction of volcanic activity.  On 3 July 2019, two major explosive events occurred at around 4:46 PM local time, alongside 20 additional minor explosive events identified by Italy's National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology. A hiker near the volcano's summit was killed after being struck by flying debris when the eruption began.  On 28 August 2019, at 10:16 AM local time, an explosive eruption sent a pyroclastic flow down the volcano’s northern flank and into the sea, where it continued for several hundred meters before collapsing. The resulting ash column reached a height of 2km.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Settlements.", "content": "The two villages San Bartolo and San Vincenzo lie in the northeast while the smaller village Ginostra lies in the southwest. Administratively, they are one of the \"\" of Lipari, Messina.  In the early 1900s a few thousand people inhabited the island, but after several waves of emigration the population has numbered a few hundred since the mid-1950s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stromboli (, ; ; ) is a small island in the Tyrrhenian Sea, off the north coast of Sicily, containing Mount Stromboli, one of the three active volcanoes in Italy. It is one of the eight Aeolian Islands, a volcanic arc north of Sicily. Strabo writes that people believed that this is where Aeolus lived.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971357}
{"src_title": "Man-in-the-middle attack", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Example.", "content": "Suppose Alice wishes to communicate with Bob. Meanwhile, Mallory wishes to intercept the conversation to eavesdrop and optionally to deliver a false message to Bob.  First, Alice asks Bob for his public key. If Bob sends his public key to Alice, but Mallory is able to intercept it, an MITM attack can begin. Mallory sends Alice a forged message that appears to originate from Bob, but instead includes Mallory's public key.  Alice, believing this public key to be Bob's, encrypts her message with Mallory's key and sends the enciphered message back to Bob. Mallory again intercepts, deciphers the message using her private key, possibly alters it if she wants, and re-enciphers it using the public key she intercepted from Bob when he originally tried to send it to Alice. When Bob receives the newly enciphered message, he believes it came from Alice.  This example shows the need for Alice and Bob to have some way to ensure that they are truly each using each other's public keys, rather than the public key of an attacker. Otherwise, such attacks are generally possible, in principle, against any message sent using public-key technology. A variety of techniques can help defend against MITM attacks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Defense and detection.", "content": "MITM attacks can be prevented or detected by two means: authentication and tamper detection. Authentication provides some degree of certainty that a given message has come from a legitimate source. Tamper detection merely shows evidence that a message may have been altered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Authentication.", "content": "All cryptographic systems that are secure against MITM attacks provide some method of authentication for messages. Most require an exchange of information (such as public keys) in addition to the message over a secure channel. Such protocols, often using key-agreement protocols, have been developed with different security requirements for the secure channel, though some have attempted to remove the requirement for any secure channel at all.  A public key infrastructure, such as Transport Layer Security, may harden Transmission Control Protocol against MITM attacks. In such structures, clients and servers exchange certificates which are issued and verified by a trusted third party called a certificate authority (CA). If the original key to authenticate this CA has not been itself the subject of a MITM attack, then the certificates issued by the CA may be used to authenticate the messages sent by the owner of that certificate. Use of mutual authentication, in which both the server and the client validate the other's communication, covers both ends of a MITM attack, though the default behavior of most connections is to only authenticate the server.  Attestments, such as verbal communications of a shared value (as in ZRTP), or recorded attestments such as audio/visual recordings of a public key hash are used to ward off MITM attacks, as visual media is much more difficult and time-consuming to imitate than simple data packet communication. However, these methods require a human in the loop in order to successfully initiate the transaction.  In a corporate environment, successful authentication (as indicated by the browser's green padlock) does not always imply secure connection with the remote server. Corporate security policies might contemplate the addition of custom certificates in workstations' web browsers in order to be able to inspect encrypted traffic. As a consequence, a green padlock does not indicate that the client has successfully authenticated with the remote server but just with the corporate server/proxy used for SSL/TLS inspection.  HTTP Public Key Pinning (HPKP), sometimes called \"certificate pinning,\" helps prevent a MITM attack in which the certificate authority itself is compromised, by having the server provide a list of \"pinned\" public key hashes during the first transaction. Subsequent transactions then require one or more of the keys in the list must be used by the server in order to authenticate that transaction.  DNSSEC extends the DNS protocol to use signatures to authenticate DNS records, preventing simple MITM attacks from directing a client to a malicious IP address.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tamper detection.", "content": "Latency examination can potentially detect the attack in certain situations, such as with long calculations that lead into tens of seconds like hash functions. To detect potential attacks, parties check for discrepancies in response times. For example: Say that two parties normally take a certain amount of time to perform a particular transaction. If one transaction, however, were to take an abnormal length of time to reach the other party, this could be indicative of a third party's interference inserting additional latency in the transaction.  Quantum Cryptography, in theory, provides tamper-evidence for transactions through the no-cloning theorem. Protocols based on quantum cryptography typically authenticate part or all of their classical communication with an unconditionally secure authentication scheme e.g. Wegman-Carter authentication.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Forensic analysis.", "content": "Captured network traffic from what is suspected to be an attack can be analyzed in order to determine whether or not there was an attack and determine the source of the attack, if any. Important evidence to analyze when performing network forensics on a suspected attack includes:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable instances.", "content": "A notable non-cryptographic MITM attack was perpetrated by a Belkin wireless network router in 2003. Periodically, it would take over an HTTP connection being routed through it: this would fail to pass the traffic on to destination, but instead itself responded as the intended server. The reply it sent, in place of the web page the user had requested, was an advertisement for another Belkin product. After an outcry from technically literate users, this 'feature' was removed from later versions of the router's firmware.  In 2011, a security breach of the Dutch certificate authority DigiNotar resulted in the fraudulent issuing of certificates. Subsequently, the fraudulent certificates were used to perform MITM attacks.  In 2013, the Nokia's Xpress Browser was revealed to be decrypting HTTPS traffic on Nokia's proxy servers, giving the company clear text access to its customers' encrypted browser traffic. Nokia responded by saying that the content was not stored permanently, and that the company had organizational and technical measures to prevent access to private information.  In 2017, Equifax withdrew its mobile phone apps following concern about MITM vulnerabilities.  Other notable real-life implementations include the following:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In cryptography and computer security, a man-in-the-middle attack (MITM), also known as a hijack attack is an attack where the attacker secretly relays and possibly alters the communications between two parties who believe that they are directly communicating with each other. One example of a MITM attack is active eavesdropping, in which the attacker makes independent connections with the victims and relays messages between them to make them believe they are talking directly to each other over a private connection, when in fact the entire conversation is controlled by the attacker. The attacker must be able to intercept all relevant messages passing between the two victims and inject new ones. This is straightforward in many circumstances; for example, an attacker within the reception range of an unencrypted Wi-Fi access point could insert themselves as a man-in-the-middle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971358}
{"src_title": "Louis II of Hungary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "At his premature birth in Buda on 1 July 1506, the court doctors kept him alive by slaying animals and wrapping him in their warm carcasses as a primitive incubator. He was the only son of Vladislaus II Jagiellon and his third wife, Anne of Foix-Candale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coronation.", "content": "Vladislaus II took steps to ensure a smooth succession by arranging for the boy to be crowned in his own lifetime; the coronation of Louis as king of Hungary took place on 4 June 1508 in Székesfehérvár Basilica, and his coronation as king of Bohemia was held in 1509 in St. Vitus Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Hungary and Croatia.", "content": "In 1515 Louis II was married to Mary of Austria, granddaughter of Emperor Maximilian I, as stipulated by the First Congress of Vienna in 1515. His sister Anne was married to Mary's brother Ferdinand, then a governor on behalf of his brother Charles V, and later Emperor Ferdinand I. During the greater part of his reign he was the puppet of the magnates and kept in such penury that he was often obliged to pawn his jewels to get enough food and clothing. His guardians, Cardinal Tamás Bakócz and Count George Brandenburg-Ansbach, shamefully neglected him, squandered the royal revenues and distracted the whole kingdom with their endless dissensions. Matters grew even worse on the death of cardinal Bakócz, when the magnates István Báthory, John Zápolya and István Werbőczy fought each other furiously, and used the diets as their tools.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "King of Bohemia.", "content": "As king of Bohemia, Louis became known as \"Ludovicus the Child\". The first thaler coins were minted during his reign in Bohemia, later giving the name to the dollars used in different countries. These correctly style him as \"LVDOVICVS•PRIM•D:GRACIA•REX•BO*\" (Louis the First, by the grace of God King of Bohemia).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War with Turks.", "content": "After his father's death in 1516, the minor Louis II ascended to the throne of Hungary and Croatia. Louis was adopted by the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in 1515. When Maximilian I died in 1519, Louis was raised by his legal guardian, his cousin George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach.  Following the accession to the throne of Suleiman I, the sultan sent an ambassador to Louis II to collect the annual tribute that Hungary had been subjected to. Louis refused to pay the annual tribute and had the Ottoman ambassador executed and sent the head to the Sultan. Louis believed that the Papal States and other Christian States including Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor would help him. This event hastened the fall of Hungary.  Hungary was in a state of near anarchy in 1520 under the rule of the magnates. The king's finances were a shambles; he borrowed to meet his household expenses despite the fact that they totaled about one-third of the national income. The country's defenses weakened as border guards went unpaid, fortresses fell into disrepair, and initiatives to increase taxes to reinforce defenses were stifled. In 1521 Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent was well aware of Hungary's weakness.  The Ottoman Empire declared war on the Kingdom of Hungary, Suleiman postponed his plan to besiege Rhodes and made an expedition to Belgrade. Louis failed to coordinate and gather his forces. At the same time, Hungary was unable to get assistance from other European states, which Louis had hoped for. Belgrade and many strategic castles in Serbia were captured by the Ottomans. This was disastrous for Louis' kingdom; without the strategically important cities of Belgrade and Šabac, Hungary, including Buda, was open to further Turkish conquests.  After the siege of Rhodes, in 1526 Suleiman made a second expedition to subdue all of Hungary. Louis made a tactical error when he tried to stop the Ottoman army in an open field battle with a medieval army, insufficient firearms, and obsolete tactics. On 29 August 1526, Louis led his forces against Suleiman in the disastrous Battle of Mohács. The Hungarian army was surrounded by Ottoman cavalry in a pincer movement, and in the center the Hungarian heavy knights and infantry were repulsed and suffered heavy casualties, especially from the well-positioned Ottoman cannons and well-armed and trained Janissary musketeers.  Nearly the entire Hungarian Royal army was destroyed on the battlefield. During the retreat, the twenty-year-old king died when he fell backwards off his horse while trying to ride up a steep ravine of the Csele stream. He fell into the stream and, due to the weight of his armor, he was unable to stand up and drowned. As Louis had no legitimate children, Ferdinand was elected as his successor in the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, but the Hungarian throne was contested by John Zápolya, who ruled the areas of the kingdom conquered by the Turks as an Ottoman client.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jagiellons in natural line.", "content": "Although Louis II's marriage remained childless, he probably had an illegitimate child with his mother's former lady-in-waiting, Angelitha Wass. This son was called John (János in Hungarian). This name appears in sources in Vienna as either János Wass or János Lanthos. The former surname is his mother's maiden name. The latter surname may refer to his occupation. \"Lanthos\" means \"lutenist\", or \"bard\". He received incomes from the Royal Treasury regularly. He had further offspring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "North of the town of Mohacs, there is a 5 meter high monument to the memory of Lajos II. It is located near the site of Louis' death at the Csele Stream. On the monument there is a bronze plaque which depicts Lajos falling off his horse. On the top of the monument there is a figure of a sleeping lion. Soma Turcsányi, a Hussar lieutenant, at his own expense, constructed the original commemorative column in 1864. It was reconstructed in 1897. The monument was restored by the local government in 1986.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis II (,,, ; 1 July 1506 – 29 August 1526) was King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia from 1516 to 1526. He was killed during the Battle of Mohács fighting the Ottomans, whose victory led to the Ottoman annexation of Hungary. He had no legitimate issue.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971359}
{"src_title": "Strategic Arms Limitation Talks", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "SALT I Treaty.", "content": "SALT I is the common name for the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Agreement signed on May 26, 1972. SALT I froze the number of strategic ballistic missile launchers at existing levels and provided for the addition of new submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) launchers only after the same number of older intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) and SLBM launchers had been dismantled. SALT I also limited land-based ICBMs that were in range from the northeastern border of the continental United States to the northwestern border of the continental USSR. In addition to that, SALT I limited the number of SLBM capable submarines that NATO and the United States could operate to 50 with a maximum of 800 SLBM launchers between them. If the United States or NATO were to increase that number, the USSR could respond with increasing their arsenal by the same amount.  The strategic nuclear forces of the Soviet Union and the United States were changing in character in 1968. The total number of missiles held by the United States had been static since 1967 at 1,054 ICBMs and 656 SLBMs but there was an increasing number of missiles with multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) warheads being deployed. MIRVs carried multiple nuclear warheads, often with dummies, to confuse ABM systems, making MIRV defense by ABM systems increasingly difficult and expensive. Both sides were also permitted to increase their number of SLBM forces, but only after disassembling an equivalent number of older ICBMs or SLBM launchers on older submarines.  One clause of the treaty required both countries to limit the number of deployment sites protected by an anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system to one each. The idea of this system was that it would prevent a competition in ABM deployment between the US and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union had deployed such a system around Moscow in 1966 and the United States announced an ABM program to protect twelve ICBM sites in 1967. After 1968, the Soviet Union tested a system for the SS-9 missile, otherwise known as the R-36 missile. A modified two-tier Moscow ABM system is still used. The United States built only one ABM site to protect a Minuteman base in North Dakota where the \"Safeguard\" Program was deployed. This base was increasingly more vulnerable to attacks by the Soviet ICBMs, because of the advancement in Soviet missile technology.  Negotiations lasted from November 17, 1969, until May 1972 in a series of meetings beginning in Helsinki, with the US delegation headed by Gerard C. Smith, director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. Subsequent sessions alternated between Vienna and Helsinki. After a long deadlock, the first results of SALT I came in May 1971, when an agreement was reached over ABM systems. Further discussion brought the negotiations to an end on May 26, 1972, in Moscow when Richard Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev signed both the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and the \"Interim Agreement Between The United States of America and The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on Certain Measures With Respect to the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms\".  The two sides also agreed to a number of basic principles regrading appropriate conduct. Each recognized the sovereignty of the other and agreed to the principle of non-interference while at the same seeking to promote economic, scientific, and cultural ties of mutual benefit and enrichment.  Nixon was proud that thanks to his diplomatic skills, he achieved an agreement that his predecessors were unable to reach. Nixon and Kissinger planned to link arms control to détente and to the resolution of other urgent problems through what Nixon called \"linkage.\" David Tal argues: This agreement paved the way for further discussion regarding international cooperation and a limitation of nuclear armaments, as seen through both the SALT II Treaty and the Washington Summit of 1973.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "SALT II Treaty.", "content": "SALT II was a series of talks between United States and Soviet negotiators from 1972 to 1979 which sought to curtail the manufacture of strategic nuclear weapons. It was a continuation of the SALT I talks and was led by representatives from both countries. SALT II was the first nuclear arms treaty which assumed real reductions in strategic forces to 2,250 of all categories of delivery vehicles on both sides.  The SALT II Treaty banned new missile programs (a new missile defined as one with any key parameter 5% better than in currently deployed missiles), so both sides were forced to limit their new strategic missile types development and construction, such as the development of additional fixed ICBM launchers. Likewise, this agreement would limit the number of MIRVed ballistic missiles and long range missiles to 1,320. However, the United States preserved their most essential programs like the Trident missile, along with the cruise missiles President Jimmy Carter wished to use as his main defensive weapon as they were too slow to have first strike capability. In return, the USSR could exclusively retain 308 of its so-called \"heavy ICBM\" launchers of the SS-18 type.  A major breakthrough for this agreement occurred at the Vladivostok Summit meeting in November 1974, when President Gerald Ford and General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev came to an agreement on the basic framework for the SALT II agreement. The elements of this agreement were stated to be in effect through 1985.  An agreement to limit strategic launchers was reached in Vienna on June 18, 1979, and was signed by Leonid Brezhnev and Carter at a ceremony held in the Redoutensaal of the imperial Hofburg Palace.  Six months after the signing, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, and in September of the same year, the United States discovered that a Soviet combat brigade was stationed in Cuba. Although President Carter claimed this Soviet brigade had only recently been deployed to Cuba, the unit had been stationed on the island since the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. In light of these developments, President Carter withdrew the treaty from consideration in January 1980 so that it was never ratified by the U.S. Senate. Its terms were, nonetheless, honored by both sides until 1986. SALT II was superseded by START I in 1991.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were two rounds of bilateral conferences and corresponding international treaties involving the United States and the Soviet Union, the Cold War superpowers, on the issue of arms control. The two rounds of talks and agreements were SALT I and SALT II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971360}
{"src_title": "Joe Pass", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in New Brunswick, New Jersey,  As early as 14, Pass started getting jobs performing. He played with bands led by Tony Pastor and Charlie Barnet, honing his guitar skills while learning about the music business. He began traveling with small jazz groups and moved from Pennsylvania to New York City. Within a few years he had developed an addiction to heroin, and spent much of the 1950s in prison. He eventually recovered after a two-and-a-half-year stay in the Synanon rehabilitation program. During that time he \"didn't do a lot of playing\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery and career.", "content": "Pass recorded a series of albums during the 1960s for Pacific Jazz Records, including \"Catch Me,\" \"12-String Guitar,\" \"For Django,\" and \"Simplicity.\" In 1963, he received \"Downbeat\" magazine's New Star Award. He was also played on Pacific Jazz recordings by Gerald Wilson, Bud Shank, and Les McCann. He toured with George Shearing in 1965. During the 1960s, he did mostly TV and recording session work in Los Angeles.  Norman Granz, the producer of Jazz at the Philharmonic and the founder of Verve Records, signed Pass to Pablo Records in December of 1973. In 1974, Pass released his solo album \"Virtuoso\" on Pablo. Also in 1974, Pablo released the album \"The Trio\" with Pass, Oscar Peterson, and Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen. He performed with them on many occasions throughout the 1970s and 1980s. At the Grammy Awards of 1975, \"The Trio\" won the Grammy Award for Best Jazz Performance by a Group. As part of the Pablo roster, Pass recorded with Benny Carter, Milt Jackson, Herb Ellis, Zoot Sims, Duke Ellington, Dizzy Gillespie, Ella Fitzgerald, and Count Basie.  Pass and Ella Fitzgerald recorded six albums together on Pablo toward the end of Fitzgerald's career: \"Take Love Easy\" (1973), \"Fitzgerald and Pass... Again\" (1976), \"Hamburg Duets - 1976\" (1976), \"Sophisticated Lady\" (1975, 1983), \"Speak Love\" (1983), and \"Easy Living\" (1986).  In 1994, Joe Pass died from liver cancer in Los Angeles, California at the age of 65. Before his death, he recorded an album of Hank Williams songs with country guitarist Roy Clark.  Speaking about \"Nuages: Live at Yoshi's, Volume 2,\" Jim Ferguson wrote:  The follow up to 1993's \"Joe Pass & Co. Live at Yoshi's,\" this release was colored by sad circumstances: both bassist Monty Budwig and Pass were stricken with fatal illnesses. Nevertheless, all concerned, including drummer Colin Bailey and second guitarist John Pisano, play up to their usual high levels...Issued posthumously, this material is hardly sub-standard. Bristling with energy throughout, it helps document the final stages in the career of a player who, arguably, was the greatest mainstream guitarist since Wes Montgomery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "\"New York\" magazine said of him, \"Joe Pass looks like somebody's uncle and plays guitar like nobody's business. He's called 'the world's greatest' and often compared to Paganini for his virtuosity. There is a certain purity to his sound that makes him stand out easily from other first-rate jazz guitarists.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joe Pass (born Joseph Anthony Jacobi Passalaqua; January 13, 1929 – May 23, 1994) was an American jazz guitarist of Sicilian descent. He is considered one of the greatest jazz guitarists of the 20th century. He created possibilities for jazz guitar through his style of chord-melody, his knowledge of chord inversions and progressions, and his use of walking basslines and counterpoint during improvisation. Pass worked often with pianist Oscar Peterson and vocalist Ella Fitzgerald.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971361}
{"src_title": "Jean Buridan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education and career.", "content": "Buridan was born sometime before 1301, perhaps at or near the town of Béthune in Picardy, France, or perhaps elsewhere in the diocese of Arras. He received his education in Paris, first at the Collège Lemoine and then at the University of Paris, receiving his Master of Arts degree and formal license to teach at the latter by the mid-1320s.  Unusually, he spent his entire academic life in the faculty of arts, rather than obtaining the doctorate in law, medicine or theology that typically prepared the way for a career in philosophy. Also unusual for a philosopher of his time, Buridan further maintained his intellectual independence by remaining a secular cleric, rather than joining a religious order. A papal letter of 1330 refers to him as simply, \"\"clericus Atrebatensis diocoesis, magister in artibus\" [a cleric from the Diocese of Arras and Master of Arts].\" As university statutes only permitted those educated in theology to teach or write on the subject, there are no writings from Buridan on either theological matters or commentary of Peter Lombard's \"Sentences\".  Speculation on his reasons for avoiding religious matters have remained uncertain. Most scholars think it is unlikely that he went unnoticed, given his philosophical talents. As well, it is unlikely that he could not afford to study theology, given that he received several bursaries and stipends. Indeed, he is listed in a document from 1350 as being among the teachers capable of supporting themselves without the need for financial assistance from the University. Zupko has speculated that Buridan \"deliberately chose to remain among the \"'artists\" [artistae],'\" possibly envisioning philosophy as a secular enterprise based on what is evident to both the senses and the intellect, rather than the non-evident truths of theology revealed through scripture and doctrine.  The last appearance of Buridan in historical documents came in 1359, where he was mentioned as the adjudicator in a territorial dispute between the English and Picard nations. It is supposed that he died sometime after then, since one of his benefices was awarded to another person in 1362.  The bishop Albert of Saxony, himself renowned as a logician, was among the most notable of his students.  An ordinance of Louis XI of France in 1473, directed against the nominalists, prohibited the reading of his works.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Apocryphal stories.", "content": "Apocryphal stories abound about his reputed amorous affairs and adventures which are enough to show that he enjoyed a reputation as a glamorous and mysterious figure in Paris life. None of the stories can be confirmed, and most contradict known historical information.  Some rumors hold that he died when the King of France had him put in a sack and thrown into the River Seine after his affair with the Queen came to light. François Villon alludes to this in his famous poem \"Ballade des Dames du Temps Jadis\". Others suggest that he was expelled from Paris due to his nominalist teachings and moved to Vienna to found the University of Vienna. Another story talks of him hitting Pope Clement VI with a shoe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Impetus theory.", "content": "The concept of \"inertia\" was alien to the physics of Aristotle. Aristotle, and his peripatetic followers held that a body was only maintained in motion by the action of a continuous external force. Thus, in the Aristotelian view, a projectile moving through the air would owe its continuing motion to \"eddies\" or \"vibrations\" in the surrounding medium, a phenomenon known as \"antiperistasis\". In the absence of a proximate force, the body would come to rest almost immediately.  The theory of impetus proposed that motion was maintained by some property of the body, imparted when it was set in motion. Buridan was the first to name this motion-maintaining property \"impetus\" but the theory itself probably did not originate with him. A less sophisticated notion of impressed forced can be found in the Avicenna's doctrine of \"mayl\" (inclination). In this he was possibly influenced by John Philoponus who was developing the Stoic notion of \"hormé\" (impulse). The major difference between Buridan's theory and that of his predecessor is that he rejected the view that the impetus dissipated spontaneously, instead asserting that a body would be arrested by the forces of air resistance and gravity which might be opposing its impetus. Buridan further held that the impetus of a body increased with the speed with which it was set in motion, and with its quantity of matter. This is closely related to the modern concept of momentum. Buridan saw impetus as \"causing\" the motion of the object:  Buridan also contended that impetus is a variable quality whose force is determined by the speed and quantity of the matter in the subject. In this way, the acceleration of a falling body could be understood in terms of its gradual accumulation of units of impetus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Because of his developments, historians of science Pierre Duhem and Anneliese Maier both saw Buridan as playing an important role in the demise of Aristotelian cosmology. Duhem even called Buridan the forerunner of Galileo. Zupko has disagreed, pointing out that Buridan did not use his theory to transform the science of mechanics, but instead remained a committed Aristotelian in thinking that motion and rest are contrary states and that the universe is finite in extent.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jean Buridan (; Latin: \"Johannes Buridanus\"; – ) was an influential 14th century French philosopher. Buridan was a teacher in the faculty of arts at the University of Paris for his entire career, focusing in particular on logic and the works of Aristotle. Buridan sowed the seeds of the Copernican revolution in Europe. He developed the concept of impetus, the first step toward the modern concept of inertia and an important development in the history of medieval science. His name is most familiar through the thought experiment known as Buridan's ass, however this thought experiment does not appear in his extant writings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971362}
{"src_title": "Limit of a sequence", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea is famous for formulating paradoxes that involve limiting processes.  Leucippus, Democritus, Antiphon, Eudoxus, and Archimedes developed the method of exhaustion, which uses an infinite sequence of approximations to determine an area or a volume. Archimedes succeeded in summing what is now called a geometric series.  Newton dealt with series in his works on \"Analysis with infinite series\" (written in 1669, circulated in manuscript, published in 1711), \"Method of fluxions and infinite series\" (written in 1671, published in English translation in 1736, Latin original published much later) and \"Tractatus de Quadratura Curvarum\" (written in 1693, published in 1704 as an Appendix to his \"Optiks\"). In the latter work, Newton considers the binomial expansion of (\"x\" + \"o\") which he then linearizes by \"taking limits\" (letting \"o\" → 0).  In the 18th century, mathematicians such as Euler succeeded in summing some \"divergent\" series by stopping at the right moment; they did not much care whether a limit existed, as long as it could be calculated. At the end of the century, Lagrange in his \"Théorie des fonctions analytiques\" (1797) opined that the lack of rigour precluded further development in calculus. Gauss in his etude of hypergeometric series (1813) for the first time rigorously investigated under which conditions a series converged to a limit.  The modern definition of a limit (for any ε there exists an index \"N\" so that...) was given by Bernhard Bolzano (\"Der binomische Lehrsatz\", Prague 1816, little noticed at the time) and by Karl Weierstrass in the 1870s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Real numbers.", "content": "In the real numbers, a number formula_1 is the limit of the sequence formula_2 if the numbers in the sequence become closer and closer to formula_1 and not to any other number.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formal definition.", "content": "We call formula_20 the limit of the sequence formula_2 if the following condition holds: In other words, for every measure of closeness formula_26, the sequence's terms are eventually that close to the limit. The sequence formula_2 is said to converge to or tend to the limit formula_20, written formula_29 or formula_30.  Symbolically, this is:  If a sequence converges to some limit, then it is convergent; otherwise it is divergent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "Limits of sequences behave well with respect to the usual arithmetic operations. If formula_32 and formula_33, then formula_34, formula_35 and, if neither \"b\" nor any formula_36 is zero, formula_37.  For any continuous function \"f\", if formula_29 then formula_39. In fact, any real-valued function \"f\" is continuous if and only if it preserves the limits of sequences (though this is not necessarily true when using more general notions of continuity).  Some other important properties of limits of real sequences include the following (provided, in each equation below, that the limits on the right exist).  These properties are extensively used to prove limits without the need to directly use the cumbersome formal definition. Once proven that formula_54 it becomes easy to show that formula_55, (formula_56), using the properties above.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Infinite limits.", "content": "A sequence formula_2 is said to tend to infinity, written formula_58 or formula_59 if, for every \"K\", there is an \"N\" such that, for every formula_24, formula_61; that is, the sequence terms are eventually larger than any fixed \"K\". Similarly, formula_62 if, for every \"K\", there is an \"N\" such that, for every formula_24, formula_64. If a sequence tends to infinity, or to minus infinity, then it is divergent (however, a divergent sequence need not tend to plus or minus infinity: take for example formula_65).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metric spaces.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition.", "content": "A point formula_20 of the metric space formula_67 is the limit of the sequence formula_2 if, for all formula_22, there is an formula_23 such that, for every formula_24, formula_72. This coincides with the definition given for real numbers when formula_73 and formula_74.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "For any continuous function \"f\", if formula_29 then formula_39. In fact, a function \"f\" is continuous if and only if it preserves the limits of sequences.  Limits of sequences are unique when they exist, as distinct points are separated by some positive distance, so for formula_26 less than half this distance, sequence terms cannot be within a distance formula_26 of both points.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Topological spaces.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition.", "content": "A point \"x\" of the topological space (\"X\", τ) is a limit of the sequence (\"x\") if, for every neighbourhood \"U\" of \"x\", there is an \"N\" such that, for every formula_24, formula_80. This coincides with the definition given for metric spaces if (\"X\", \"d\") is a metric space and formula_81 is the topology generated by \"d\".  A limit of a sequence of points formula_82 in a topological space \"T\" is a special case of a limit of a function: the domain is formula_83 in the space formula_84 with the induced topology of the affinely extended real number system, the range is \"T\", and the function argument \"n\" tends to +∞, which in this space is a limit point of formula_83.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "If \"X\" is a Hausdorff space then limits of sequences are unique where they exist. Note that this need not be the case in general; in particular, if two points \"x\" and \"y\" are topologically indistinguishable, any sequence that converges to \"x\" must converge to \"y\" and vice versa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cauchy sequences.", "content": "A Cauchy sequence is a sequence whose terms ultimately become arbitrarily close together, after sufficiently many initial terms have been discarded. The notion of a Cauchy sequence is important in the study of sequences in metric spaces, and, in particular, in real analysis. One particularly important result in real analysis is the \"Cauchy criterion for convergence of sequences\": A sequence of real numbers is convergent if and only if it is a Cauchy sequence. This remains true in other complete metric spaces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition in hyperreal numbers.", "content": "The definition of the limit using the hyperreal numbers formalizes the intuition that for a \"very large\" value of the index, the corresponding term is \"very close\" to the limit. More precisely, a real sequence formula_2 tends to \"L\" if for every infinite hypernatural \"H\", the term \"x\" is infinitely close to \"L\", i.e., the difference \"x\" − \"L\" is infinitesimal. Equivalently, \"L\" is the standard part of \"x\"  Thus, the limit can be defined by the formula  where the limit exists if and only if the righthand side is independent of the choice of an infinite \"H\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, the limit of a sequence is the value that the terms of a sequence \"tend to\". If such a limit exists, the sequence is called convergent. A sequence that does not converge is said to be divergent. The limit of a sequence is said to be the fundamental notion on which the whole of analysis ultimately rests.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971363}
{"src_title": "Bituminous coal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "Bituminous coals are graded according to vitrinite reflectance, moisture content, volatile content, plasticity and ash content. Generally, the highest value bituminous coals have a specific grade of plasticity, volatility and low ash content, especially with low carbonate, phosphorus, and sulfur.  Plasticity is vital for coking as it represents its ability to gradually form specific plasticity phases during the coking process, measured by coal dilatation tests. Low phosphorus content is vital for these coals, as phosphorus is a highly damaging element in steel making.  Coking coal is best if it has a very narrow range of volatility and plasticity. This is measured by the free swelling index test. Volatile content and swelling index are used to select coals for coke blending as well.  Volatility is also critical for steel-making and power generation, as this determines the burn rate of the coal. High volatile content coals, while easy to ignite often are not as prized as moderately volatile coals; low volatile coal may be difficult to ignite although it contains more energy per unit volume. The smelter must balance the volatile content of the coals to optimize the ease of ignition, burn rate, and energy output of the coal.  Low ash, sulfur, and carbonate coals are prized for power generation because they do not produce much boiler slag and they do not require as much effort to scrub the flue gases to remove particulate matter. Carbonates are deleterious as they readily stick to the boiler apparatus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Smithing coal.", "content": "Smithing coal is a type of high-quality bituminous coal ideally suited for use in a coal forge. It is as free from ash, sulfur, and other impurities as possible. The constituents of the coal should be as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cannel coal.", "content": "Cannel coal is a coal which ignites easily producing a bright flame. The name derives from the Scottish pronunciation of \"candle coal\". It contains a high volatile content, is non-coking and was a source for coal oil in West Virginia during the mid-1800s. While the use of Cannel has greatly diminished over the past century, it is still valued by artists for its ability to be carved and polished into sculptures and jewelry. \"Cannel coal is a terrestrial type of hydrogen sulfide rich oil shale that is technically called sapropelic coal.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coking coal.", "content": "When used for many industrial processes, bituminous coal must first be \"coked\" to remove volatile components. Coking is achieved by heating the coal in the absence of oxygen, which drives off volatile hydrocarbons such as propane, benzene and other aromatic hydrocarbons, and some sulfur gases. This also drives off a considerable amount of the contained water of the bituminous coal.  Coking coal (metallurgical coal) is used in the manufacture of steel, where carbon must be as volatile-free and ash-free as possible.  Coking coal is heated to produce coke, a hard, grey, porous material which is used in blast furnaces to extract iron from the iron ore.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bituminous coal by geologic period.", "content": "Bituminous coal in the United States is between 100 and 300 million years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cretaceous coals.", "content": "In the United States, Cretaceous bituminous coals occur in Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico.  In Canada, the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin of Alberta and British Columbia hosts major deposits of bituminous coal that formed in swamps along the western margin of the Western Interior Seaway. They range in age from latest Jurassic or earliest Cretaceous in the Mist Mountain Formation, to Late Cretaceous in the Gates Formation. The Intermontane and Insular Coalfields of British Columbia also contain deposits of Cretaceous bituminous coal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jurassic coals.", "content": "Extensive but low-value coals of Jurassic age extend through the Surat Basin in Australia, formed in an intracratonic sag basin, and contain evidence of dinosaur activity in the numerous ash plies. These coals are exploited in Queensland from the Walloon Coal Measures, which are up to 15 m thick of sub-bituminous to bituminous coals suited for coking, steam-raising and oil cracking.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Triassic coals.", "content": "Coals of Triassic age are known from the Clarence-Moreton and Ipswich Basins, near Ipswich, Australia and the Esk Trough. Coals of this era are rare, and many contain fossils of flowering plants. Some of the best coking coals are Australian Triassic coals, although most economic deposits have been worked out.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Permian coals.", "content": "The second largest deposits of the world's bituminous coal are contained within Permian strata in Russia. Australian deposits in the Bowen Basin in Queensland, the Sydney Basin and Perth Basin are Permian coal, where thicknesses in excess of 300 m are known. Current reserves and resources are projected to last for over 200 years.  Australia exports the vast majority of its coal for coking and steel making in Japan. Certain Australian coals are the best in the world for these purposes, requiring little to no blending. Some bituminous coals from the Permian and Triassic in Australia are also the most suitable for cracking into oil.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Carboniferous coals.", "content": "Much North American coal was created in subsiding areas adjacent to the Appalachian Mountains during the Pennsylvanian subperiod. A vast network of swamps covered large parts of North America at this time and much of the organic material created in these wetlands accumulated to form thick layers of peat (the precursor to coal) that were buried faster than they could decay.  Bituminous coal is mined in the Appalachian region, primarily for power generation. Mining is done via both surface and underground mines. Pocahontas bituminous coal at one time fueled half the world's navies and today stokes steel mills and power plants all over the globe.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike substance called bitumen or asphalt. It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than anthracite. Formation is usually the result of high pressure being exerted on lignite. Its coloration can be black or sometimes dark brown; often there are well-defined bands of bright and dull material within the seams. These distinctive sequences, which are classified according to either \"dull, bright-banded\" or \"bright, dull-banded\", is how bituminous coals are stratigraphically identified.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971364}
{"src_title": "Ammonium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Acid–base properties.", "content": "The ammonium ion is generated when ammonia, a weak base, reacts with Brønsted acids (proton donors): The ammonium ion is mildly acidic, reacting with Brønsted bases to return to the uncharged ammonia molecule: Thus, treatment of concentrated solutions of ammonium salts with strong base gives ammonia. When ammonia is dissolved in water, a tiny amount of it converts to ammonium ions:  The degree to which ammonia forms the ammonium ion depends on the pH of the solution. If the pH is low, the equilibrium shifts to the right: more ammonia molecules are converted into ammonium ions. If the pH is high (the concentration of hydrogen ions is low), the equilibrium shifts to the left: the hydroxide ion abstracts a proton from the ammonium ion, generating ammonia.  Formation of ammonium compounds can also occur in the vapor phase; for example, when ammonia vapor comes in contact with hydrogen chloride vapor, a white cloud of ammonium chloride forms, which eventually settles out as a solid in a thin white layer on surfaces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ammonium salts.", "content": "Ammonium cation is found in a variety of salts such as ammonium carbonate, ammonium chloride and ammonium nitrate. Most simple ammonium salts are very soluble in water. An exception is ammonium hexachloroplatinate, the formation of which was once used as a test for ammonium. The ammonium salts of nitrate and especially perchlorate are highly explosive, in these cases ammonium is the reducing agent.  In an unusual process, ammonium ions form an amalgam. Such species are prepared by the electrolysis of an ammonium solution using a mercury cathode. This amalgam eventually decomposes to release ammonia and hydrogen. To find whether the ammonium ion is present in the salt, first the salt is heated in presence of alkali hydroxide releasing a gas with characteristic smell which of course is ammonia.  To further confirm ammonia it passed through glass rod dipped in HCl solution (hydrochloric acid) creating white dense fumes of ammonium chloride.  Ammonia when passed through CuSO (copper sulphate) solution turns from blue to deep blue colour forming Schweizer's reagent.  Ammonia or Ammonium ion when added to nessler's reagent gives brown colour precipitate known as iodide of Million's base in basic medium.  Ammonium ion when added to chloroplatinic acid gives a yellow precipitate. Ammonium ion when added to sodium cobaltinitrite gives a yellow precipitate. Ammonium ion when added to potassium bitartrate gives a white precipitate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure and bonding.", "content": "The lone electron pair on the nitrogen atom (N) in ammonia, represented as a line above the N, forms the bond with a proton (H). Thereafter, all four N–H bonds are equivalent, being polar covalent bonds. The ion has a tetrahedral structure and is isoelectronic with methane and borohydride. In terms of size, the ammonium cation (\"r\" = 175 pm) resembles the caesium cation (\"r\" = 183 pm).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organic ammonium ions.", "content": "The hydrogen atoms in the ammonium ion can be substituted with an alkyl group or some other organic group to form a substituted ammonium ion (IUPAC nomenclature: aminium ion). Depending on the number of organic groups, the ammonium cation is called a \"primary\", \"secondary\", \"tertiary\", or \"quaternary\". With the exception of the quaternary ammonium cations, the organic ammonium cations are weak acids.  An example of a reaction forming an ammonium ion is that between dimethylamine, (CH)NH, and an acid to give the dimethylammonium cation, (CH)NH:  Quaternary ammonium cations have four organic groups attached to the nitrogen atom, they lack a hydrogen atom bonded to the nitrogen atom. These cations, such as the tetra-\"n\"-butylammonium cation, are sometimes used to replace sodium or potassium ions to increase the solubility of the associated anion in organic solvents. Primary, secondary, and tertiary ammonium salts serve the same function, but are less lipophilic. They are also used as phase-transfer catalysts and surfactants.  An unusual class of organic ammonium salts are derivatives of amine radical cations, RN such as tris(4-bromophenyl)ammoniumyl hexachloroantimonate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "Ammonium ions are a waste product of the metabolism of animals. In fish and aquatic invertebrates, it is excreted directly into the water. In mammals, sharks, and amphibians, it is converted in the urea cycle to urea, because urea is less toxic and can be stored more efficiently. In birds, reptiles, and terrestrial snails, metabolic ammonium is converted into uric acid, which is solid and can therefore be excreted with minimal water loss.  Ammonium is an important source of nitrogen for many plant species, especially those growing on hypoxic soils. However, it is also toxic to most crop species and is rarely applied as a sole nitrogen source.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ammonium metal.", "content": "The ammonium ion has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals cations and is often considered a close equivalent. Ammonium is expected to behave as a metal (NH ions in a sea of electrons) at very high pressures, such as inside gas giant planets such as Uranus and Neptune.  Under normal conditions, ammonium does not exist as a pure metal, but does as an amalgam (alloy with mercury).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The ammonium cation is a positively charged polyatomic ion with the chemical formula. It is formed by the protonation of ammonia (NH). Ammonium is also a general name for positively charged or protonated substituted amines and quaternary ammonium cations (), where one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic groups (indicated by R).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971365}
{"src_title": "Phytosociology", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Rooted in phytogeography and as such considered sometimes a field of geobotany, phytosociology emerged simultaneously in Poland (Paczoski), France (Braun-Blanquet) and Sweden (Du Rietz), but hardly penetrated into the Anglo-Saxon world, where the continuum concept of community prevailed, opposed to the concept of plant associations.  The term \"phytosociology\" was coined in 1896 by Józef Paczoski.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditions of Classifications.", "content": "There are five classification schools in phytosociology:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "The aim of phytosociology is to achieve a sufficient empirical model of vegetation using plant \"taxa\" combinations that characterize univocally vegetation units. Vegetation units as understood by phytosociologists may express largely abstract vegetation concepts (e.g. the set of all hard-leaved evergreen forests of western Mediterranean area) or actual readily recognizable vegetation types (e.g. cork-oak oceanic forests on Pleistocene dunes with dense canopy in SW-Iberian Peninsula). Such conceptual units are called \"syntaxa\" (singular \"syntaxon\") and can be set in a hierarchy system called \"synsystem\" or syntaxonomic system. The act of creation, amelioration or adjusting the synsystem is called \"syntaxonomy\". Therefore, the syntaxonomic system is putatively a sufficient empirical representation of vegetation of a given territory. An \"International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature\", issuing the rules for naming \"syntaxa\" exists and its use has increased among vegetation scientists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association model.", "content": "The basic unit of syntaxonomy is the \"association\", defined by its characteristic combination of plant taxa, habitat features, physiognomy, biogeographical area, role in ecological succession, historical (e.g. history of use by humans) and paleo-biogeographical relationships. The association is sometimes viewed as a concrete phytocoenosis (the plant component of a biocoenosis). Associations with floristic and territorial affinities can be grouped in larger ecological conceptual units (i.e. syntaxa) called \"alliances\". Similar alliances may be grouped in \"orders\" and orders in vegetation \"classes\". The setting of syntaxa in such a hierarchy makes up the syntaxonomical system, or the reference model of the given vegetation and territory.  This science began with Charles Flahault and continued in earnest with the work of Josias Braun-Blanquet (1884–1980).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vegetation complexes.", "content": "Nowadays, phytosociologists try to include higher levels of complexity in the perception of vegetation, namely by describing whole successional units (vegetation series) or, in general, vegetation complexes. These lie in the scope of Landscape Phytosociology. Other developments include the use of multivariate statistics for the definition of \"syntaxa\" and their environmental interpretation.  On the one hand, some authors consider phytosociology to be in the scope of contemporary vegetation science, a successful approach because of its highly descriptive and predictive powers, and its usefulness in nature management issues. On the other hand, there are numerous critics who have focused on several methodological limitations: the absence of statistical approaches, the complexity and non-stability of the nomenclatural system, the mistakes in the predictive models, and certain basic assumptions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat-type classification.", "content": "Even if in continental Europe, a complete synsystem describing vegetation types has been developed and it is a basis for habitat-type classification (e.g. NATURA 2000 typology and habitat network), there are numerous scientific experts who do not have a positive opinion about the suitability for phytosociology to be the main geobotanical approach for managing vegetation systems. An important point of disagreement is the floristic-phytosociological assumption that the forest patches of the Mediterranean species of pines mainly derived from afforestations, non-stables and incidentals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Data collections.", "content": "Phytosociological data contain information collected in relevés (or plots) listing each species cover-abundance values and the measured environmental variables. This data is conveniently databanked in a program like TURBOVEG allowing for editing, storage and export to other applications.  Data is usually classified and sorted using TWINSPAN in host programs like JUICE to create realistic species-relevé associations. Further patterns are investigated using clustering and resemblance methods, and ordination techniques available in software packages like CANOCO or the R-package vegan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phytosociology is the branch of science which deals with plant communities, their composition and development, and the relationships between the species within them. A phytosociological system is a system for classifying these communities.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971366}
{"src_title": "Aage Bohr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Aage Niels Bohr was born in Copenhagen on 19 June 1922, the fourth of six sons of the physicist Niels Bohr and his wife Margrethe Bohr (née Nørlund). His oldest brother, Christian, died in a boating accident in 1934, and his youngest, Harald, from childhood meningitis. Of the others, Hans became a physician; Erik, a chemical engineer; and Ernest, a lawyer and an Olympic athlete who played field hockey for Denmark at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London. The family lived at the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, where he grew up surrounded by physicists who were working with his father, such as Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, Yoshio Nishina, Wolfgang Pauli and Werner Heisenberg. In 1932, the family moved to the Carlsberg Æresbolig, a mansion donated by Carl Jacobsen, the heir to Carlsberg breweries, to be used as an honorary residence by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature or the arts.  Bohr went to high school at in Copenhagen. In 1940, shortly after the German occupation of Denmark in April, he entered the University of Copenhagen, where he studied physics. He assisted his father, helping draft correspondence and articles related to epistemology and physics. In September 1943, word reached his family that the Nazis considered them to be Jewish, because Aage's grandmother, Ellen Adler Bohr, had been Jewish, and that they therefore were in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped the family escape by sea to Sweden. Bohr arrived there in October 1943, and then flew to Britain on a de Havilland Mosquito operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation. The Mosquitoes were unarmed high-speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important passengers. By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid German fighters. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen mask, spent the three-hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft's bomb bay.  On arrival in London, Bohr rejoined his father, who had flown to Britain the week before. He officially became a junior researcher at the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, but actually served as personal assistant and secretary to his father. The two worked on Tube Alloys, the British atomic bomb project. On 30 December 1943, they made the first of a number of visits to the United States, where his father was a consultant to the Manhattan Project. Due to his father's fame, they were given false names; Bohr became James Baker, and his father, Nicholas Baker. In 1945, the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory, Robert Oppenheimer, asked them to review the design of the modulated neutron initiator. They reported that it would work. That they had reached this conclusion put Enrico Fermi's concerns about the viability of the design to rest. The initiators performed flawlessly in the bombs used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In August 1945, with the war ended, Bohr returned to Denmark, where he resumed his university education, graduating with a master's degree in 1946, with a thesis concerned with some aspects of atomic stopping power problems. In early 1948, Bohr became a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. While paying a visit to Columbia University, he met Isidor Isaac Rabi, who sparked in him an interest in recent discoveries related to the hyperfine structure of deuterium. This led to Bohr becoming a visiting fellow at Columbia from January 1949 to August 1950. While in the United States, Bohr married Marietta Soffer on 11 March 1950. They had three children: Vilhelm, Tomas and Margrethe.  By the late 1940s it was known that the properties of atomic nuclei could not be explained by then-current models such as the liquid drop model developed by Niels Bohr amongst others. The shell model, developed in 1949 by Maria Goeppert-Mayer and others, allowed some additional features to be explained, in particular the so-called magic numbers. However, there were also properties that could not be explained, including the non-spherical distribution of charge in certain nuclei. In a 1950 paper, James Rainwater of Columbia University suggested a variant of the drop model of the nucleus that could explain a non-spherical charge distribution. Rainwater's model postulated a nucleus like a balloon with balls inside that distort the surface as they move about. He discussed the idea with Bohr, who was visiting Columbia at the time, and had independently conceived the same idea, and had, about a month after Rainwater's submission, submitted for publication a paper that discussed the same problem, but along more general lines. Bohr imagined a rotating, irregular-shaped nucleus with a form of surface tension. Bohr developed the idea further, in 1951 publishing a paper that comprehensively treated the relationship between oscillations of the surface of the nucleus and the movement of the individual nucleons.  Upon his return to Copenhagen in 1950, Bohr began working with Ben Mottelson to compare the theoretical work with experimental data. In three papers, that were published in 1952 and 1953, Bohr and Mottelson demonstrated close agreement between theory and experiment; for example, showing that the energy levels of certain nuclei could be described by a rotation spectrum. They were thereby able to reconcile the shell model with Rainwater's concept. This work stimulated many new theoretical and experimental studies. Bohr, Mottelson and Rainwater were jointly awarded the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection\". Because his father had been awarded the prize in 1922, Bohr became one of only four pairs of fathers and sons to win the Nobel Prize in Physics.  Only after doing his Nobel Prize-winning research did Bohr receive his doctorate from the University of Copenhagen, in 1954, writing his thesis on \"Rotational States of Atomic Nuclei\". Bohr became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1956, and, following his father's death in 1962, succeeded him as director of the Niels Bohr Institute, a position he held until 1970. He remained active there until he retired in 1992. He was also a member of the board of the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics (Nordita) from its inception in 1957, and was its director from 1975 to 1981. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he won the Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics in 1960, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1969, H.C. Ørsted Medal in 1970, Rutherford Medal and Prize in 1972, John Price Wetherill Medal in 1974, and the Ole Rømer medal in 1976. Bohr and Mottelson continued to work together, publishing a two-volume monograph, \"Nuclear Structure\". The first volume, \"Single-Particle Motion,\" appeared in 1969; the second, \"Nuclear Deformations,\" in 1975.  In 1972 he was awarded an honorary degree, doctor philos. honoris causa, at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, later part of Norwegian University of Science and Technology.  In 1981, Bohr became a founding member of the World Cultural Council.  His wife Marietta died on 2 October 1978. In 1981, he married Bente Scharff Meyer (1926–2011). His son, Tomas Bohr, is a Professor of Physics at the Technical University of Denmark, working in the area of fluid dynamics. Aage Bohr died in Copenhagen on 9 September 2009. He was survived by his second wife and children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aage Niels Bohr (; 19 June 1922 – 8 September 2009) was a Danish nuclear physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975 with Ben Mottelson and James Rainwater \"for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection\". Starting from Rainwater's concept of an irregular-shaped liquid drop model of the nucleus, Bohr and Mottelson developed a detailed theory that was in close agreement with experiments. Since his father, Niels Bohr, had won the prize in 1922, he and his father were one of the six pairs of fathers and sons who have both won the Nobel Prize and one of the four pairs who have both won the Nobel Prize in Physics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971367}
{"src_title": "T.A.T.u.", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1999–2001: Formation and \"200 Po Vstrechnoy\".", "content": "Before production of t.A.T.u. began, the pair were in a group named Neposedi. Both Lena Katina and Julia Volkova were part of the band, along with members Sergey Lazarev and Vlad Topalov. Katina was also in a band named \"Avenue\" between 1994 and 1997. It was reported that Volkova was banned from being in Neposedi, amid claims she was misbehaving and disrupting other members in the group, along with being accused of smoking, swearing and drinking. However, Neposedi denied the claims and said that Volkova aged out of the group.  t.A.T.u. were formed in 1999 by Ivan Shapovalov and his friend/business partner Alexander Voitinskiy, who developed plans to create a musical project in", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2002–2003: \"200 km/h in the Wrong Lane\" and Eurovision Song Contest.", "content": "The English version of the album was released in December 2002 entitled \"200 km/h in the Wrong Lane\". The first single from the album was \"All the Things She Said\" which was released in October 2002. The song peaked at the top spot in Australia, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. The music video caused controversy worldwide, due to the members, who were both 14 at the time of the video's production, kissing behind a fence. Some believed the video promoted lesbianism and pedophilia. Many musical journalists, publications and music critics had branded the group's music as", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2004–2006: New management, \"Dangerous and Moving\", and \"Lyudi Invalidy\".", "content": "On 26 September 2003, the group released a remix compilation, titled \"Remixes\". In November 2003, the CD was released in Russia, with two new tracks and videos. The two new tracks were \"Prostiye Dvizheniya\" and \"Ne Ver, Ne Boisya.\" Both of the tracks were released as singles, however \"Prostye Dvizheniya\" did not broadcast well in Russia, due to the promotion for \"Ne Ver, Ne Boisya\" in the Eurovision Song Contest. The DVD compilation \"Screaming for More\" was released on 24 November 2003, featuring music videos and behind-the-scenes. \"Anatomy of t. A. T. u.\" aired on Russian television on 12 December 2003. The documentary revealed that the girls were not lesbians, and chronicled the group as they took part in Eurovision earlier in the year.  In early", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2007–2010: \"Vesyolye Ulybki\" and \"Waste Management\".", "content": "On 17 May 2007, t.A.T.u. issued a statement directed to their gay fans: \"When t.A.T.u.'s second album came out, many of our fans of alternative sexual orientation thought that we lied and betrayed them. This is not true! We’ve never done that and we’ve always advocated love without boundaries.\" On 26 May, they flew out to Moscow to take part in the Moscow Gay Pride demonstration.  On 12 September 2007 the group released the concert DVD \"\". It was the group's first release since leaving Universal. In late 2007, \"Белый Плащик\", \"Beliy Plaschik\", the lead single from their upcoming Russian-language album, was released. The project was then known as \"Управление Отбросами\", \"Upravleniye Otbrosami\", which translates to \"Waste Management\". The second single, \"220\" (\"Двести Двадцать\", Dvesti Dvadtsat'), made its radio premiere in May 2008 and the music video was released on their official YouTube channel on 5 June 2008. \"Beliy Plaschik\" and \"220\" were the main attractions on a special release known as \"Hyperion-Plate\", the first-ever EP from the duo. The EP was released on 8 May 2008 and featured multimedia content including music, video, ringtones and wallpapers. At the time of the", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011: Disbandment.", "content": "At the end of March 2011, t.A.T.u. management released a press release on their official website declaring t.A.T.u. over. Due to conflicts between the girls, and them both wanting to pursue solo careers, the duo was officially announced as disbanded. They finalised the duo's discography with a double remix album for \"Waste Management\". The management thanked fans for their loyalty over the past twelve years of the", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "On 2 October 2012, Cherrytree Records/Universal Russia announced that they would be issuing a special re-release of t.A.T.u's \"200 km/h in the Wrong Lane.\" The \"10th Year Anniversary Gold Edition\" featured all new artwork, a never-before-released song from the 2002 sessions, \"A Simple Motion\", a brand new remix of \"All the Things She Said\" from producer Fernando Garibay, in addition to newly mastered songs. On 24 October 2012, Cherrytree Records released the official track listing for the album; it was a note addressed to fans handwritten and signed by Julia and Lena themselves. The album was released on 12 November 2012.  On 11 December 2012, Lena and Julia reunited to appear as musical guests on \"The Voice of Romania\". It was their first performance together in three years. The duo t.A.T.u performed \"All About Us\" and \"All the Things She Said\" during the show. They also appeared in radio and on another television show before.  After the re-release, the group", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Artistry and controversies.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public image.", "content": "Throughout their career the group has received criticism, particularly since the release of \"All the Things She Said\". The AllMusic review for \"200 km/h in the Wrong Lane\" labelled the band as an exceptionally tawdry gimmick. In 2003, after the release of their video of \"All the Things She Said\", some UK presenters campaigned to ban the video worldwide. Despite subsequent reports that the BBC had banned the video from their pre-watershed programme \"Top of the Pops\", the BBC quickly denied the ban, stating only that they had better footage to show. Not only have t.A.T.u. received criticism", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cancellations of concerts controversy.", "content": "Between the years of 2002 and 2004, t.A.T.u. caused controversy for cancelling several concerts and tours around the world. In March 2003, the group announced dates for their \"Show Me Love Promo Tour\" in the United Kingdom. However the next month, just days before they were due to perform, the group dropped the dates and did not perform at the concert, due to poor ticket sales. BBC News stated that only a fraction of the tickets were sold for the concert and said the stadiums (held in London and Manchester) had capacities of around 10,000. A spokesman from their label, Interscope, did not understand why the cancellation took place.  In May 2003, t.A.T.u.'s management were sued by the promoters EEM Group for the cancellations of the concerts. EEM sued", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "\"All the Things She Said\" was ranked at number 452 in \"Blender\" magazine's \"The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born\". The song was listed at number 8 on the \"AOL\"'s Top 100 Pop Songs of the Decade. Rebecca Bary from \"The New Zealand Herald\" listed the song at number five on their Top Ten Best Singles of 2003. Bill Lamb from \"About.com\" listed the song on his Top 100 Pop Songs of 2003", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Productions and T.A. Music.", "content": "When t.A.T.u. was first formed by Shapovalov, \"Neformat\" was created as the group's production company, with Shapovalov and Renski at the head. In 2004, the company was dissolved when t.A.T.u. left Shapovalov.  Since 2005, T.A. Music has been the Moscow-based production company of t.A.T.u. The liner notes that accompanied the release", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Members.", "content": "Backing band members", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "t.A.T.u. (, ) was a Russian music duo that consisted of Lena Katina and Julia Volkova. The singers were part of children's music group Neposedy before being managed by producer and director Ivan Shapovalov and signing with Russian record label Neformat. t.A.T.u.'s debut album \"200 Po Vstrechnoy\" (2001) was a commercial success in Eastern Europe that made the duo sign with Interscope Records to release its English-language counterpart, \"200 km/h in the Wrong Lane\" (2002). The album was certified platinum by the IFPI for one million copies sold in Europe and became the first album by a foreign group to reach number one in Japan. It was also certified gold in the United States and included the international hits \"All the Things She Said\" and \"Not Gonna Get Us\". The duo represented Russia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2003 with the song \"Ne Ver', Ne Boysia\", finishing third.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971368}
{"src_title": "Martin Waldseemüller", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and works.", "content": "Details of Waldseemüller's life are scarce. He was born around 1470 in the German town of Wolfenweiler. His father was a butcher and moved to Freiburg im Breisgau in about 1480. Records show that Waldseemüller was enrolled in 1490 at the University of Freiburg where Gregor Reisch, a noted humanist scholar, was one of his influential teachers. After finishing at the university, he lived in Basel where he was ordained a priest and, apparently, gained experience in printing and engraving while working with the printer community in Basel.  Around 1500, an association of humanist scholars formed in Saint-Dié under the patronage of René II, Duke of Lorraine. They called themselves the \"Gymnasium Vosagense\" and their leader was Walter Lud. Their initial intention was to publish a new edition of Ptolemy's \"Geography\". Waldseemüller was invited to join the group and contribute his skills as a cartographer. It is not clear how he came to the groups's attention, but Lud later described him as a master cartographer. Matthias Ringmann was also brought into the group because of his previous work with the \"Geography\" and his knowledge of Greek and Latin. Ringmann and Waldseemüller soon became friends and collaborators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1507 world map.", "content": "In 1506, the \"Gymnasium\" obtained a French translation of the Soderini Letter, a booklet attributed to Amerigo Vespucci that provided a sensational account of four alleged Vespucci voyages to explore the coast of lands recently discovered in the western Atlantic. The \"Gymnasium\" surmised that this was the \"new world\" or the \"antipodes\" hypothesized by classical writers. The Soderini Letter gave Vespucci credit for discovery of this new continent and implied that newly obtained Portuguese maps were based on his explorations. They decided to put aside the \"Geography\" for the moment and publish a brief \"Introduction to Cosmography\" with an accompanying world map. The \"Introduction\" was written by Ringmann and included a Latin translation of the \"Soderini Letter\". In a preface to the \"Letter\", Ringmann wrote \"I see no reason why anyone could properly disapprove of a name derived from that of Amerigo, the discoverer, a man of sagacious genius. A suitable form would be Amerige, meaning Land of Amerigo, or America, since Europe and Asia have received women's names.\"  While Ringmann was writing the \"Introduction\", Waldseemüller focused on the creation of a world map using an aggregation of sources including maps based on the works of Ptolemy, Henricus Martellus, Alberto Cantino and Nicolò de Caverio. In addition to a large 12-panel wall map, Waldseemüller created a smaller, simplified globe. The wall map was decorated with prominent portraits of Ptolemy and Vespucci. The map and globe were notable for showing the New World as a continent separate from Asia and for naming the southern landmass America. By April 1507, the map, globe and accompanying book, \"Introduction to Cosmography\", were published. A thousand copies were printed and sold throughout Europe.  The \"Introduction\" and map were a great success and four editions were printed in the first year alone. The map was widely used in universities and was influential among cartographers who admired the craftsmanship that went into its creation. In the following years other maps were printed that often incorporated the name America. Although Waldseemüller had intended the name to apply only to a specific part of Brazil, other maps applied it to the entire continent. In 1538, Gerardus Mercator used America to name both the North and South continents on his influential map and by this point the name was securely fixed on the New World", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ptolemy's \"Geography\" (1513).", "content": "After 1507, Waldseemüller and Ringmann continued to collaborate on a new edition of Ptolemy's \"Geography\". In 1508 Ringmann traveled to Italy and obtained a Greek manuscript of \"Geography\" (\"Codex Vaticanum Graecorum 191\"). With this key reference they continued to make progress and Waldseemüller was able to finish his maps. However, completion was forestalled when their patron, Duke René II, died in 1508. The new edition was finally printed in 1513 by Johannes Schott in Strasbourg. By then, Waldseemüller had pulled out of the project and was not credited for his cartographic work. Nevertheless his maps were recognized as important contributions to the science of cartography and was considered a standard reference work for many decades.  Approximately twenty of Waldseemüller's \"tabulae modernae\" (modern maps) were included in the new \"Geography\" as a separate appendix, \"Claudii Ptolemaei Supplementem\". This supplement constitutes the first modern atlas. Maps of Lorraine and the upper Rhine region were the first printed maps of those regions and were probably based on survey work done by Waldseemüller himself.  The world map published in the 1513 \"Geography\" seems to indicate that Waldseemüller had second thoughts about the name and the nature of the lands discovered in the western Atlantic. The New World was no longer clearly shown as a continent separate from Asia and the name America had been replaced with \"Terra Incognita\" (Unknown Land). What caused him to make these changes is not clear but perhaps he was influenced by contemporary criticism that Vespucci had usurped Columbus's primacy of discovery.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other works.", "content": "Waldseemüller was also interested in surveying and surveying instruments. In 1508 he contributed a treatise on surveying and perspective to the fourth edition of Gregor Reisch’s \"Margarita Philosophica\". He included an illustration of a forerunner to the theodolite, a surveying instrument he called the polimetrum. In 1511 he published the \"Carta Itineraria Europae\", a road map of Europe that showed important trade routes as well as pilgrim routes from central Europe to Santiago de Compostela, Spain. It was the first printed wall map of Europe.  In 1516 he produced another large-scale wall map of the world, the \"Carta Marina Navigatoria\", printed in Strasbourg. It was designed in the style of portolan charts and consisted of twelve printed sheets.  The Paris Green Globe (or \"Globe vert\"), has been attributed to Waldseemüller by experts at the Bibliotheque Nationale. However, the attribution is not universally accepted.  Waldseemüller died without a will on 16 March 1520 in Saint-Dié, where he had served as a canon in the collegiate Church of Saint-Dié since 1514.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1507 map rediscovered.", "content": "The 1507 wall map was lost for a long time, but a copy was found in Schloss Wolfegg in southern Germany by Joseph Fischer in 1901. It is the only known copy and was purchased by the United States Library of Congress in May 2003 Five copies of Waldseemüller's globular map survive in the form of \"gores\": printed maps that were intended to be cut out and pasted onto a wooden globe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Martin Waldseemüller (c. 1470 – 16 March 1520) was a German cartographer and humanist scholar. Sometimes known by the Latinized form of his name, Hylacomylus, his work was influential among contemporary cartographers. He and his collaborator, Matthias Ringmann, are credited with the first recorded usage of the word \"America\" to name a portion of the New World in honour of the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci. Waldseemüller was also the first to map South America as a continent separate from Asia; the first to produce a printed globe and the first to create a printed wall map of Europe. A set of his maps printed as an appendix to the 1513 edition of Ptolemy's \"Geography\" is considered to be the first example of a modern atlas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971369}
{"src_title": "Bedroom", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In larger Victorian houses it was common to have accessible from the bedroom a boudoir for the lady of the house and a dressing room for the gentleman. Attic bedrooms exist in some houses; since they are only separated from the outside air by the roof they are typically cold in winter and may be too hot in summer. The slope of the rafters supporting a pitched roof also makes them inconvenient. In houses where servants were living in they often used attic bedrooms.  In the 14th century the lower class slept on mattresses that were stuffed with hay and broom straws. During the 16th century mattresses stuffed with feathers started to gain popularity, with those who could afford them. The common person was doing well if he could buy a mattress after seven years of marriage. In the 18th century cotton and wool started to become more common. The first coil spring mattress was not invented until 1871. The most common and most purchased mattress is the innerspring mattress, though a wide variety of alternative materials are available including foam, latex, wool, and even silk. The variety of firmness choices range from relatively soft to a rather firm mattress. A bedroom may have bunk beds if two or more people share a room. A chamber pot kept under the bed or in a nightstand was usual in the period before modern domestic plumbing and bathrooms in dwellings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Furnishings.", "content": "Furniture and other items in bedrooms vary greatly, depending on taste, local traditions and the socioeconomic status of an individual. For instance, a master bedroom may include a bed of a specific size (double, king or queen-sized); one or more dressers (or perhaps, a wardrobe armoire); a nightstand; one or more closets; and carpeting. Built-in closets are less common in Europe than in North America; thus there is greater use of freestanding wardrobes or armoires in Europe.  An individual's bedroom is a reflection of their personality, as well as social class and socioeconomic status, and is unique to each person. However, there are certain items that are common in most bedrooms. Mattresses usually have a bed set to raise the mattress off the floor and the bed often provides some decoration. There are many different types of mattresses.  Night stands are also popular. They are used to put various items on, such as an alarm clock or a small lamp. In the times before bathrooms existed in dwellings bedrooms often contained a washstand for tasks of personal hygiene. In the 2010s, having a television set in a bedroom is fairly common as well. 43% of American children from ages 3 to 4 have a television in their bedrooms. Along with television sets many bedrooms also have computers, video game consoles, and a desk to do work. In the late 20th century and early 21st century the bedroom became a more social environment and people started to spend a lot more time in their bedrooms than in the past.  Bedding used in northern Europe (especially in Scandinavia) is significantly different from that used in North America and other parts of Europe. In Japan futons are common.  In addition to a bed (or, if shared by two or more children, a bunk bed), a child's bedroom may include a small closet or dressers, a toy box or computer game console, bookcase or other items.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern bedrooms.", "content": "Many houses in North America have at least two bedrooms—usually a master bedroom and one or more bedrooms for either the children or guests.  In some jurisdictions there are basic features (such as a closet and a \"means of egress\") that a room must have in order to legally qualify as a bedroom. In many states, such as Alaska, bedrooms are not required to have closets and must instead meet minimum size requirements.  A closet by definition is a small space used to store things. In a bedroom, a closet is most commonly used for clothes and other small personal items that one may have. Walk in closets are more popular today and vary in size. However, in the past wardrobes have been the most prominent. A wardrobe is a tall rectangular shaped cabinet that clothes can be stored or hung in. Clothes are also kept in a dresser. Typically nicer clothes are kept in the closet because they can be hung up while leisure clothing and undergarments are stored in the dresser.  In buildings with multiple self-contained housing units (e.g., apartments), the number of bedrooms varies widely. While many such units have at least one bedroom—frequently, these units have at least two—some of these units may not have a specific room dedicated for use as a bedroom. (These units may be known by various names, including \"studio, efficiency, bedsit\", and others.)  Sometimes, a master bedroom is connected to a dedicated bathroom, often called an ensuite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Bedrooms typically have a door for privacy (in some cases lockable from inside) and a window for ventilation. In larger bedrooms, a small desk and chair or an upholstered chair and a chest of drawers may also be used. In Western countries, some large bedrooms, called master bedrooms, may also contain a bathroom. Where space allows bedrooms may also have televisions and / or video players, and in some cases a personal computer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Around the world.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Japan.", "content": "In Japan, the notion of having a bedroom is much less important than it is in the west, especially as it pertains to having a private space for personal use. Indeed, having a unified house corresponds to having a unified family, a concept so important that areas are seldom personalized, even those pertaining to relationships. Everything is subject to the concept of primitive cohesion. This makes for flexibility in terms of the way various spaces are utilized: Each evening, the Japanese unroll their futon directly on their tatami mats, typically close to one another. They then put them away come morning in the oshiire. The unity of the household is also reinforced by the use of sliding partitions (shoji) lined with rice paper and insulating in every way.  Materially, the Japanese tatami room, as opposed to its western counterpart (deemed The Western Room), has no door, bed, or even wall, making it barely detectable in space.  This room is typically situated towards the back of the home, close to the place dedicated to the family ancestors and opposite of the southern facade, the gardens, and the general exterior.  The second half of the twentieth century saw a considerable change in the bedroom style. Almost non-existent before World War Two, The Western Room continued to gain traction in new constructions to the point where there is a clear relationship between age of a building and presence of western-style bedrooms. Cultural habits, however, have not shifted as rapidly.  In the most densely-populated cities, there exists a type of hotel essentially consisting of stacks of individual \"rooms\" so cramped they hardly allow one to do more than lie down and sleep.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A bedroom is a room of a house, mansion, castle, palace, hotel, dormitory, apartment, condominium, duplex or townhouse where people sleep. A typical western bedroom contains as bedroom furniture one or two beds (ranging from a crib for an infant, a single or twin bed for a toddler, child, teenager, or single adult to bigger sizes like a full, double, queen, king or California king (eastern or waterbed size for a couple)), a clothes closet, and bedside table and dressing table, both of which usually contain drawers. Except in bungalows, ranch style homes, or one-storey motels, bedrooms are usually on one of the floors of a dwelling that is above ground level.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971370}
{"src_title": "Singularity (mathematics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Real analysis.", "content": "In real analysis, singularities are either discontinuities, or discontinuities of the derivative (sometimes also discontinuities of higher order derivatives). There are four kinds of discontinuities: type I, which has two subtypes, and type II, which can also be divided into two subtypes (though usually is not).  To describe the way these two types of limits are being used, suppose that formula_8 is a function of a real argument formula_9, and for any value of its argument, say formula_10, then the left-handed limit, formula_11, and the right-handed limit, formula_12, are defined by:  The value formula_11 is the value that the function formula_8 tends towards as the value formula_9 approaches formula_10 from \"below\", and the value formula_12 is the value that the function formula_8 tends towards as the value formula_9 approaches formula_10 from \"above\", regardless of the actual value the function has at the point where formula_25.  There are some functions for which these limits do not exist at all. For example, the function does not tend towards anything as formula_9 approaches formula_28. The limits in this case are not infinite, but rather undefined: there is no value that formula_29 settles in on. Borrowing from complex analysis, this is sometimes called an \"essential singularity\".  The possible cases at a given value formula_10 for the argument are as follows.  In real analysis, a singularity or discontinuity is a property of a function alone. Any singularities that may exist in the derivative of a function are considered as belonging to the derivative, not to the original function.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coordinate singularities.", "content": "A coordinate singularity occurs when an apparent singularity or discontinuity occurs in one coordinate frame, which can be removed by choosing a different frame. An example of this is the apparent singularity at the 90 degree latitude in spherical coordinates. An object moving due north (for example, along the line 0 degrees longitude) on the surface of a sphere will suddenly experience an instantaneous change in longitude at the pole (in the case of the example, jumping from longitude 0 to longitude 180 degrees). This discontinuity, however, is only apparent; it is an artifact of the coordinate system chosen, which is singular at the poles. A different coordinate system would eliminate the apparent discontinuity (e.g., by replacing the latitude/longitude representation with an -vector representation).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complex analysis.", "content": "In complex analysis, there are several classes of singularities. These include the isolated singularities, the nonisolated singularities and the branch points.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Isolated singularities.", "content": "Suppose that \"U\" is an open subset of the complex numbers C, with the point \"a\" being an element of \"U\", and that \"f\" is a complex differentiable function defined on some neighborhood around \"a\", excluding \"a\": \"U\" \\ {\"a\"}, then:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nonisolated singularities.", "content": "Other than isolated singularities, complex functions of one variable may exhibit other singular behaviour. These are termed nonisolated singularities, of which there are two types:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Branch points.", "content": "Branch points are generally the result of a multi-valued function, such as formula_50 or formula_51, which are defined within a certain limited domain so that the function can be made single-valued within the domain. The cut is a line or curve excluded from the domain to introduce a technical separation between discontinuous values of the function. When the cut is genuinely required, the function will have distinctly different values on each side of the branch cut. The shape of the branch cut is a matter of choice, even though it must connect two different branch points (such as formula_52 and formula_53 for formula_51) which are fixed in place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Finite-time singularity.", "content": "A finite-time singularity occurs when one input variable is time, and an output variable increases towards infinity at a finite time. These are important in kinematics and PDEs (Partial Differential Equations) – infinites do not occur physically, but the behavior near the singularity is often of interest. Mathematically, the simplest finite-time singularities are power laws for various exponents of the form formula_55 of which the simplest is hyperbolic growth, where the exponent is (negative) 1: formula_56 More precisely, in order to get a singularity at positive time as time advances (so the output grows to infinity), one instead uses formula_57 (using \"t\" for time, reversing direction to formula_58 so that time increases to infinity, and shifting the singularity forward from 0 to a fixed time formula_59).  An example would be the bouncing motion of an inelastic ball on a plane. If idealized motion is considered, in which the same fraction of kinetic energy is lost on each bounce, the frequency of bounces becomes infinite, as the ball comes to rest in a finite time. Other examples of finite-time singularities include the various forms of the Painlevé paradox (for example, the tendency of a chalk to skip when dragged across a blackboard), and how the precession rate of a coin spun on a flat surface accelerates towards infinite—before abruptly stopping (as studied using the Euler's Disk toy).  Hypothetical examples include Heinz von Foerster's facetious \"Doomsday's equation\" (simplistic models yield infinite human population in finite time).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Algebraic geometry and commutative algebra.", "content": "In algebraic geometry, a singularity of an algebraic variety is a point of the variety where the tangent space may not be regularly defined. The simplest example of singularities are curves that cross themselves. But there are other types of singularities, like cusps. For example, the equation defines a curve that has a cusp at the origin. One could define the -axis as a tangent at this point, but this definition can not be the same as the definition at other points. In fact, in this case, the -axis is a \"double tangent.\"  For affine and projective varieties, the singularities are the points where the Jacobian matrix has a rank which is lower than at other points of the variety.  An equivalent definition in terms of commutative algebra may be given, which extends to abstract varieties and schemes: A point is \"singular\" if the local ring at this point is not a regular local ring.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, a singularity is in general a point at which a given mathematical object is not defined, or a point where the mathematical object ceases to be well-behaved in some particular way, such as the lack of differentiability or analyticity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971371}
{"src_title": "Enantiomer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Naming conventions.", "content": "The R/S system is an important nomenclature system used to denote distinct enantiomers. Another system is based on prefix notation for optical activity: (+)- and (−)- or d- and l-. The Latin words for \"left\" are \"laevus\" and \"sinister\", and the word for \"right\" is \"dexter\" (or \"rectus\" in the sense of correct or virtuous). The English word \"right\" is a cognate of \"rectus\". This is the origin of the L/D and S/R notations, and the employment of prefixes \"levo-\" and \"dextro-\" in common names.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criterion of enantiomerism.", "content": "An asymmetric carbon atom is one which has bonds with four \"different\" atoms or groups, so that these bonds can be arranged in two different ways which are not superposable. Most compounds that contain one or more asymmetric carbon (or other element with a tetrahedral geometry) atoms show enantiomerism, but this is not always true. Compounds that contain two or more asymmetric carbon atoms but have a plane of symmetry with respect to the whole molecule are known as \"meso\" compounds. A \"meso\" compound does not have a mirror image stereoisomer because it is its own mirror image (i.e., it and its mirror image are the same molecule). For instance, \"meso\" tartaric acid (shown on the right) has two asymmetric carbon atoms, but it does not exhibit enantiomerism because each of the two halves of the molecule is equal and opposite to the other and thus is superposable on its geometric mirror image. Conversely, there exist forms of chirality that do not require individual asymmetric atoms. In fact, there are four distinct types of chirality: central, axial, planar, and helical chirality. Having an enantiomer by virtue of an asymmetric carbon atom represents the most common type of central chirality. The other three types of chirality do not involve asymmetric carbon atoms, and even central chirality does not require the center of chirality to be located at a carbon or any other atom. Consequently, while the presence of an asymmetric carbon atom is a convenient characteristic to look for when determining whether a molecule will have an enantiomer, it is neither sufficient nor necessary as a criterion.  As a rigorous criterion, a molecule is chiral, and will therefore possess an enantiomer, if and only if it belongs to one of the chiral point groups: \"C\", \"D\", \"T\", \"O\", and \"I\". However, as a caveat, enantiomers are not necessarily isolable if there is an accessible pathway for racemization at a given temperature and timescale. For example, amines with three distinct substituents are chiral, but with the exception of only a few atypical cases (e.g. substituted \"N\"-chloroaziridines), they rapidly planarize and invert (\"umbrella inversion\") at room temperature, leading to racemization. If the racemization is fast enough, the molecule can often be treated as an achiral, averaged structure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "An example of such an enantiomer is the sedative thalidomide, which was sold in a number of countries around the world from 1957 until 1961. It was withdrawn from the market when it was found to cause birth defects. One enantiomer caused the desirable sedative effects, while the other, unavoidably present in equal quantities, caused birth defects.  The herbicide mecoprop is a racemic mixture, with the (\"R\")-(+)-enantiomer (\"Mecoprop-P\", \"Duplosan KV\") possessing the herbicidal activity.  Another example is the antidepressant drugs escitalopram and citalopram. Citalopram is a racemate [1:1 mixture of (\"S\")-citalopram and (\"R\")-citalopram]; escitalopram [(\"S\")-citalopram] is a pure enantiomer. The dosages for escitalopram are typically 1/2 of those for citalopram.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Enantioselective preparations.", "content": "There are two main strategies for the preparation of enantiopure compounds. The first is known as chiral resolution. This method involves preparing the compound in racemic form, and separating it into its isomers. In his pioneering work, Louis Pasteur was able to isolate the isomers of tartaric acid because they crystallize from solution as crystals each with a different symmetry. A less common method is by enantiomer self-disproportionation.  The second strategy is asymmetric synthesis: the use of various techniques to prepare the desired compound in high enantiomeric excess. Techniques encompassed include the use of chiral starting materials (chiral pool synthesis), the use of chiral auxiliaries and chiral catalysts, and the application of asymmetric induction. The use of enzymes (biocatalysis) may also produce the desired compound.  Enantioconvergent synthesis is the synthesis of one enantiomer from a racemic precursor molecule utilizing both enantiomers. Thus, the two enantiomers of the reactant produce a single enantiomer of product.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Enantiopure medications.", "content": "Advances in industrial chemical processes have made it economic for pharmaceutical manufacturers to take drugs that were originally marketed as a racemic mixture and market the individual enantiomers. In some cases, the enantiomers have genuinely different effects. In other cases, there may be no clinical benefit to the patient. In some jurisdictions, single-enantiomer drugs are separately patentable from the racemic mixture. It is possible that only one of the enantiomers is active. Or, it may be that both are active, in which case separating the mixture has no objective benefits, but extends the drug's patentability.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Quasi\"-enantiomers.", "content": "\"Quasi\"-enantiomers are molecular species that are not strictly enantiomers, but behave as if they are. \"Quasi\"-enantiomers have applications in parallel kinetic resolution.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In chemistry, an enantiomer ( ; ) (archaically termed optical isomer, antipode, or optical antipode) is one of two stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other that are non-superposable (not identical), much as one's left and right hands are mirror images of each other that cannot appear identical simply by reorientation. A single chiral atom or similar structural feature in a compound causes that compound to have two possible structures which are non-superposable, each a mirror image of the other. Each member of the pair is termed an enantiomorph (\"enantio\" = opposite; \"morph\" = form); the structural property is termed enantiomerism. The presence of multiple chiral features in a given compound increases the number of geometric forms possible, though there may still be some perfect-mirror-image pairs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971372}
{"src_title": "Špindlerův Mlýn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Špindlerův Mlýn is in the north of the historic Bohemia region near the border with Poland. Situated on the southern slopes of the Kozí hřbety, part of the Krkonoše Bohemian Ridge, at an altitude of to a.s.l., it is protected on all sides by the mountain peaks of Kozí hřbety, Pláň and Mt. Medvědín. In the east rises Luční hora at, the second highest mountain of the Czech Republic.  Špindlerův Mlýn lies on the confluence of the river Labe (Elbe) and the Dolský potok (Dolský creek). The Elbe source is located northwest of the town, near the Polish border and Mt. Vysoké Kolo at an altitude of. About 1 km downstream are the Labe Falls (\"Labský vodopád\") which cascade about in depth. A large dam was built in 1911–16 near Labská (\"Krausebauden\").  The municipal area comprises the villages of Přední Labská, Labská, Bedřichov and Svatý Petr. Nowadays it has about 1,300 permanent inhabitants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The settlement was first documented in the early 16th century under the rule of King Louis II Jagiello. It received its name (which can be literally translated as Špindler's Mill) after a mill belonging to a Spindler family, where neighbours would meet.  In the 18th century, large parts of the surrounding forests were a possession of the Habsburg minister Friedrich August von Harrach-Rohrau (1696–1749), after whom the village of Bedřichov (\"Friedrichsthal\") is named. In 1793 the local miners and lumbermen were given permission by Emperor Francis II to build the parish church of Svatý Petr (St Peter). After World War II the remaining German-speaking population was expelled according to the Beneš decrees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Špindlerův Mlýn developed as a resort town from the mid 19th century onwards. Franz Kafka stayed here for recreation in January/February 1922 and began writing of one of his most famous works, \"The Castle\" (\"Das Schloss\").  With year-round use and with accommodation capacity of 10,000 beds, Špindlerův Mlýn is one of the most visited ski resorts in the Czech Republic, and has 20 runs, the most of all resorts in the country. During the winter season the area hosts the Europacup in freestyle skiing and SnowJam, a professional snowboarding event. Some years, e.g. 2019, the Alpine Ski World Cup has been held here. In the surroundings there are many marked hiking, mountain biking and cross-country skiing trails. Wildwater canoeing is also common on the Labe river.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns.", "content": "Špindlerův Mlýn is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Špindlerův Mlýn (;, formerly also \"Spindelmühle\") is a town in the Krkonoše mountains in the Hradec Králové Region of the Czech Republic. It is one of the most frequented ski resorts in the country.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971373}
{"src_title": "Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Johann Tserclaes was born in February 1559 in Castle Tilly, Walloon Brabant, now in Belgium, then the Spanish Netherlands. Johann Tserclaes was born into a devoutly Roman Catholic Brabantine family; and, after having received a Jesuit education in Cologne, he joined the Spanish army at age fifteen and fought under Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza in his campaign against the Dutch forces rebelling in the Eighty Years' War and participated in the successful Siege of Antwerp in 1585. After this he joined in the Holy Roman Empire's campaign against the Ottoman Turks in Hungary and Transylvania as a mercenary in 1600 and through rapid promotion became a field marshal in only five years. When the Turkish Wars ended in 1606, he remained in the service of Rudolf II in Prague until he was appointed commander of the Catholic League forces by Bavaria under Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria in 1610.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campaign in Bohemia.", "content": "As commander of the forces of the Catholic League he fought against the Bohemian rebels following the Defenestration of Prague, by which time he had trained his soldiers in the Spanish \"Tercio\" system, which featured musketeers supported by deep ranks of pikemen. A force of 25,000 soldiers, including troops of both the Catholic League and the Emperor scored an important victory against Christian of Anhalt and Count Thurn at the decisive Battle of White Mountain west of Prague on 8 November 1620. Half of the enemy forces were killed or captured, while the Catholic League lost only 700 men. This victory was vital in crushing resistance to the Emperor in Bohemia, as it allowed Prague to be captured several days later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campaign in Germany.", "content": "Next he turned west and marched through Germany, but was defeated at the Battle of Mingolsheim on 27 April 1622. He then joined with the Spanish general Duke Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba – not to be confused with the famous Spanish general of the same name from the Italian Wars in Italy at the end of the 15th century – and was victorious at the Battle of Wimpfen against George Fredrick, Margrave of Baden-Durlach on 6 May; this victory occurred after the enemies’ ammunition tumbril was hit by cannon fire and exploded.  He was successful again at the Battle of Höchst on 20 June and was made a count (\"Graf\" in German) for this victory. These three battles in two months allowed him to capture the city of Heidelberg following an eleven-week siege on 19 September. Christian the Younger of Brunswick, whom he had already defeated at Höchst, raised another army, but again lost to him at the Battle of Stadtlohn, where 13,000 out of his army of 15,000 were lost, including fifty of his high-ranking officers. Together with the complete surrender of Bohemia in 1623, this ended virtually all resistance in Germany.  This caused King Christian IV of Denmark to enter the Thirty Years' War in 1625 to protect Protestantism, and also in a bid to make himself the primary leader of Northern Europe. Count Tilly besieged and captured Münden on 30 May 1626, whereupon local and refugee Protestant ministers were thrown into the river Werra, but could not lay a siege to Kassel.  Tilly fought the Danes at the Battle of Lutter on 26–27 August 1626, in which his highly disciplined infantry charged the enemy lines four times, breaking through. This led him to win decisively, destroying more than half the fleeing Danish army, which was uncharacteristic of the warfare of the time. Denmark was forced to sue for peace at the Treaty of Lübeck. This disrupted the balance of power in Europe resulting in Swedish involvement in 1630 under their redoubtable leader, the brilliant King and field general Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who had been trying to dominate the Baltic for the previous ten years in wars with Poland, then a continental power of note.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sack of Magdeburg.", "content": "While Gustavus Adolphus landed his army in Mecklenburg and was in Berlin, trying to make alliances with the leaders of Northern Germany, Tilly laid siege to the city of Magdeburg on the Elbe, which promised to support Sweden. The siege began on 20 March 1631 and Tilly put his subordinate Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim in command while he campaigned elsewhere. After two months of laying siege, and after the fall of Frankfurt an der Oder to the Swedes, Pappenheim finally convinced Tilly, who had brought reinforcements, to storm the city on 20 May with 40,000 men under the personal command of Pappenheim. The assault was successful and the walls were breached, but the commanders supposedly lost control of their soldiers. A massacre of the populace ensued in which roughly 20,000 of the 25,000 inhabitants of the city perished by sword and the fire which destroyed most of the city, then one of the largest cities in Germany and about the size of Cologne or Hamburg.  Many historians consider it unlikely that he ordered the city torched. Magdeburg was a strategically vital city of the Elbe and was needed as a resupply center for the looming fight against the Swedes. Although extremely opposed to the Reformation movement, Tilly was an experienced commander and would have recognized the strategic importance of the city. Additionally, he sent a proposal of surrender to Magdeburg days before the final assault, after the capture of the Toll redoubt. However, the city's mayor rejected the offer, expecting a Swedish relief force to arrive soon. When the slaughter began, and no escape was possible, the children of the city were formed in procession and marched across the marketplace singing Luther's hymn: \"Lord keep us steadfast in thy Word, Curb Pope and Turk who by the sword, would wrest the kingdom from thy Son, and set at naught all he hath done.\" The children were slain without mercy, but whether by order from Tilly or not remains debated in some quarters. Tilly afterwards reportedly wrote to the Emperor,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campaign against the Swedes and death.", "content": "Following Magdeburg, Tilly engaged the army of Gustavus Adolphus at the Battle of Breitenfeld on 17 September 1631, near the city of Leipzig, which he had reached after laying waste to Saxony. In the battle he was outmaneuvered by King Gustavus Adolphus and suffered 27,000 casualties. The Swedes’ maneuvering and accurate, rapid artillery fire caused his troops to break and flee. He withdrew, and political rivalries prevented Wallenstein from coming to his aid, so he turned to defence.  While attempting to prevent the Swedes from crossing into Bavaria over the Lech near Rain am Lech, he was wounded early in the Battle of Rain by a 90-gram arquebus bullet (not as erroneously reported, by a culverin cannon ball) which shattered his right thigh, and died of osteomyelitis (bone infection) fifteen days later in Ingolstadt at the age of 73 on 30 April 1632. His tomb is in Altötting, Upper Bavaria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descendants.", "content": "A grandson of one of his brothers, Antonio Octavio Tserclaes de Tilly (1646–1715) was a Spanish general and nobleman. A sister or daughter, Albertina, of this Prince Antonio Octavio, would be the first root for the Spanish ducal title, Dukes of Tserclaes, bestowed in July 1856 by Queen Isabella II of Spain to members of the Pérez de Guzmán, family, living in Jerez and Seville, Spain.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly (; ; ; February 1559 – 30 April 1632) was a field marshal who commanded the Catholic League's forces in the Thirty Years' War. From 1620–31, he had an unmatched and demoralizing string of important victories against the Protestants, including White Mountain, Wimpfen, Höchst, Stadtlohn and the Conquest of the Palatinate. He destroyed a Danish army at Lutter and sacked the Protestant city of Magdeburg, which caused the death of some 20,000 of the city's inhabitants, both defenders and non-combatants, out of a total population of 25,000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971374}
{"src_title": "Alfred J. Lotka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Lotka was born in Lwów, Austria-Hungary (now in Ukraine) to Polish-American parents. His parents, Jacques and Marie (Doebely) Lotka, were US nationals. He gained his B.Sc. in 1901 at the University of Birmingham, England, he did graduate work in 1901–02 at Leipzig University, received an M.A. in 1909 at Cornell University and a D. Sc. at Birmingham University in 1912.  In 1935, he married Romola Beattie. They had no children.  He died in New York.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Although he is today known mainly for the Lotka–Volterra equations used in ecology, Lotka was a bio-mathematician and a bio-statistician, who sought to apply the principles of the physical sciences to biological sciences as well. His main interest was demography, which possibly influenced his professional choice as a statistician at Metropolitan Life Insurance.  One of Lotka's earliest publications, in 1912, proposed a solution to Ronald Ross's second malaria model. In 1923, he published a thorough five-part analysis and extension of both Ross's malaria models. The fourth part in the series, co-authored by F. R. Sharpe, modeled the time lag for pathogen incubation. Lotka published \"Elements of Physical Biology\" in 1925, one of the first books on mathematical biology after D'Arcy Thompson's \"On Growth and Form\". He is also known for his energetics perspective on evolution. Lotka proposed that natural selection was, at its root, a struggle among organisms for available energy; Lotka's principle states that organisms that survive and prosper are those that capture and use energy more efficiently than its competitors. Lotka extended his energetics framework to human society. In particular, he suggested that the shift in reliance from solar energy to nonrenewable energy would pose unique and fundamental challenges to society. These theories made Lotka an important forerunner to the development of biophysical economics and ecological economics, advanced by Frederick Soddy, Howard Odum and others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Elements of physical biology.", "content": "While at Johns Hopkins, Lotka completed his book \"Elements of Physical Biology\" (1925), in which he extended the work of Pierre François Verhulst. His first book summarizes his previous work and organizes his ideas of unity and universality of physical laws, making his works accessible to other scientists. Although the book covered a large amount of topics, from energetics of evolution (see below) to the physical nature of consciousness, the author is primarily known today for the Lotka–Volterra equation of population dynamics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Energetics of evolution.", "content": "His earlier work was centered on energetics and applications of thermodynamics in life sciences.  Lotka proposed the theory that the Darwinian concept of natural selection could be quantified as a physical law. The law that he proposed was that the selective principle of evolution was one which favoured the maximum useful energy flow transformation. The general systems ecologist Howard T. Odum later applied Lotka's proposal as a central guiding feature of his work in ecosystem ecology. Odum called Lotka's law the maximum power principle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demography and public health.", "content": "Lotka's work in mathematical demography began in 1907 with the publication of articles in the journal \"Science\" and \"American Journal of Science\". He published several dozen articles on the subject over more than two decades, culminating with \"Théorie Analytique des Associations Biologiques\" (Analytical Theory of Biological Associations). The 45-page Part 1, titled \"Principes\", was published in 1934; the 149-page Part 2, titled \"Analyse demographique avec application particuliere a l'espece humaine\", was published in 1939; both by Hermann & Cie, Paris.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bibliometrics.", "content": "Within the field of bibliometrics, particularly that part devoted to studying scientific publications, Lotka is noted for contributing \"Lotka's law\". The law, which Lotka discovered, relates to the productivity of scientists. As noted by W. G. Poitier in 1981: \"The Lotka distribution is based on an inverse square law where the number of authors writing \"n\" papers is 1/\"n\" of the number of authors writing one paper. Each subject area can have associated with it an exponent representing its specific rate of author productivity.\" Lotka's work sparked additional inquiries, eventually seminally contributing to the field of scientometrics—the scientific study of scientific publications.  He teamed up with Louis Israel Dublin, another statistician at Metropolitan Life, to write three books on demography and public health: \"The Money Value of a Man\" (1930), \"Length of Life\" (1936), and \"Twenty-five Years of Health Progress\" (1937).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alfred James Lotka (March 2, 1880 – December 5, 1949) was a US mathematician, physical chemist, and statistician, famous for his work in population dynamics and energetics. An American biophysicist, Lotka is best known for his proposal of the predator–prey model, developed simultaneously but independently of Vito Volterra. The Lotka–Volterra model is still the basis of many models used in the analysis of population dynamics in ecology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971375}
{"src_title": "Sentence (linguistics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Typical associates.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clauses.", "content": "In non-functional linguistics, a \"simple complete sentence\" consists of a single clause. In functional linguistics, a sentence is typically associated with a clause and a clause can be either a \"clause simplex\" or a \"clause complex\". A clause is a clause simplex if it represents a single process going on through time and it is a clause complex if it represents a logical relation between two or more processes and is thus composed of two or more clause simplexes.  A clause (simplex) typically contains a predication structure with a subject noun phrase and a finite verb. Although the subject is usually a noun phrase, other kinds of phrases (such as gerund phrases) work as well, and some languages allow subjects to be omitted. In the examples below, the subject of the outmost clause simplex is in italics and the subject of \"boiling\" is in square brackets. Notice that there is clause embedding in the second and third examples.  There are two types of clauses: \"independent\" and \"non-independent\"/\"interdependent\". An independent clause realises a speech act such as a statement, a question, a command or an offer. A non-independent clause does not realise any act. A non-independent clause (simplex or complex) is usually logically related to other non-independent clauses. Together they usually constitute a single independent clause (complex). For that reason, non-independent clauses are also called \"interdependent\". For instance, the non-independent clause \"because I have no friends\" is related to the non-independent clause \"I don't go out\" in \"I don't go out, because I have no friends\". The whole clause complex is independent because it realises a statement. What is stated is the causal nexus between having no friend and not going out. When such a statement is acted out, the fact that the speaker doesn't go out is already established, therefore it cannot be stated. What is still open and under negotiation is the reason for that fact. The causal nexus is represented by the independent clause complex and not by the two interdependent clause simplexes.  See also copula for the consequences of the verb \"to be\" on the theory of sentence structure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "By structure.", "content": "One traditional scheme for classifying English sentences is by clause structure, the number and types of clauses in the sentence with finite verbs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "By purpose.", "content": "Sentences can also be classified based on their purpose:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Major and minor sentences.", "content": "A major sentence is a \"regular\" sentence; it has a subject and a predicate, e.g. \"I have a ball.\". In this sentence, one can change the persons, e.g. \"We have a ball.\". However, a minor sentence is an irregular type of sentence that does not contain a main clause, e.g. \"Mary!\", \"Precisely so.\", \"Next Tuesday evening after it gets dark.\". Other examples of minor sentences are headings (e.g. the heading of this entry), stereotyped expressions (\"Hello!\"), emotional expressions (\"Wow!\"), proverbs, etc. These can also include nominal sentences like \"The more, the merrier\". These mostly omit a main verb for the sake of conciseness, but may also do so in order to intensify the meaning around the nouns.  Sentences that comprise a single word are called word sentences, and the words themselves sentence words.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Length.", "content": "The 1980s saw a renewed surge in interest in sentence length, primarily in relation to \"other syntactic phenomena\".  One definition of the average sentence length of a prose passage is the ratio of the number of words to the number of sentences. The textbook \"Mathematical linguistics\", by András Kornai, suggests that in \"journalistic prose the median sentence length is above 15 words.\" The average length of a sentence generally serves as a measure of sentence difficulty or complexity. In general, as the average sentence length increases, the complexity of the sentences also increases.  Another definition of \"sentence length\" is the number of clauses in the sentence, whereas the \"clause length\" is the number of phones in the clause.  Research by Erik Schils and Pieter de Haan by sampling five texts showed that two adjacent sentences are more likely to have similar lengths than two non-adjacent sentences, and almost certainly have a similar length when in a work of fiction. This countered the theory that \"authors may aim at an alternation of long and short sentences.\" Sentence length, as well as word difficulty, are both factors in the readability of a sentence; however, other factors, such as the presence of conjunctions, have been said to \"facilitate comprehension considerably\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In non-functional linguistics, a sentence is a textual unit consisting of one or more words that are grammatically linked. In functional linguistics, a sentence is a unit of written texts delimited by graphological features such as upper case letters and markers such as periods, question marks, and exclamation marks. This notion contrasts with a curve, which is delimited by phonologic features such as pitch and loudness and markers such as pauses; and with a clause, which is a sequence of words that represents some process going on throughout time. This entry is mainly about \"sentence\" in its non-functional sense, though much work in functional linguistics is indirectly cited or considered such as the categories of speech act theory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971376}
{"src_title": "John Hasbrouck Van Vleck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and early life.", "content": "Born in Middletown, Connecticut, the son of mathematician Edward Burr Van Vleck and grandson of astronomer John Monroe Van Vleck, he grew up in Madison, Wisconsin, and received an A.B. degree from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1920. Then he went to Harvard for graduate studies and earned a Ph.D degree in 1922 under the supervision of Edwin C. Kemble.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career and research.", "content": "He joined the University of Minnesota as an assistant professor in 1923, then moved to the University of Wisconsin–Madison before settling at Harvard. He also earned \"Honorary D. Sc.\", or \"D. Honoris Causa\", degree from Wesleyan University in 1936.  J. H. Van Vleck established the fundamentals of the quantum mechanical theory of magnetism, crystal field theory and ligand field theory (chemical bonding in metal complexes). He is regarded as the \"Father of Modern Magnetism\".  During World War II, J. H. Van Vleck worked on radar at the MIT Radiation Lab. He was half time at the Radiation Lab and half time on the staff at Harvard. He showed that at about 1.25-centimeter wavelength water molecules in the atmosphere would lead to troublesome absorption and that at 0.5-centimeter wavelength there would be a similar absorption by oxygen molecules. This was to have important consequences not just for military (and civil) radar systems but later for the new science of radioastronomy. J. H. Van Vleck participated in the Manhattan Project. In June 1942, J. Robert Oppenheimer held a summer study for confirming the concept and feasibility of a nuclear weapon at the University of California, Berkeley. Eight theoretical scientists, including J. H. Van Vleck, attended it. From July to September, the theoretical study group examined and developed the principles of atomic bomb design.  J. H. Van Vleck's theoretical work led to the establishment of the Los Alamos Nuclear Weapons Laboratory. He also served on the Los Alamos Review committee in 1943. The committee, established by General Leslie Groves, also consisted of W. K. Lewis of MIT, Chairman; E. L. Rose, of Jones & Lamson; E. B. Wilson of Harvard; and Richard C. Tolman, Vice Chairman of NDRC. The committee's important contribution (originating with Rose) was a reduction in the size of the firing gun for the Little Boy atomic bomb, a concept that eliminated additional design weight and sped up production of the bomb for its eventual release over Hiroshima. However, it was not employed for the Fat Man bomb at Nagasaki, which relied on implosion of a plutonium shell to reach critical mass.  The philosopher and historian of science Thomas Kuhn completed a Ph.D. in physics under van Vleck's supervision at Harvard.  In 1961/62 he was George Eastman Visiting Professor at University of Oxford and held a professorship at Balliol College.  In 1950 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1966 and the Lorentz Medal in 1974. For his contributions to the understanding of the behavior of electrons in magnetic solids, Van Vleck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics 1977, along with Philip W. Anderson and Sir Nevill Mott. Van Vleck transformations, Van Vleck paramagnetism and Van Vleck formula are named after him.  Van Vleck died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, aged 81.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "He was awarded the Irving Langmuir Award in 1965, the National Medal of Science in 1966 and elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1967. He was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal in 1971, the Lorentz Medal in 1974 and the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1977.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "J. H. Van Vleck and his wife Abigail were also important art collectors, particularly in the medium of Japanese woodblock prints (principally \"Ukiyo-e\"), known as \"Van Vleck Collection\". It was inherited from his father Edward Burr Van Vleck. They donated it to the Chazen Museum of Art in Madison, Wisconsin in 1980s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Hasbrouck Van Vleck (March 13, 1899 – October 27, 1980) was an American physicist and mathematician. He was co-awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1977, for his contributions to the understanding of the behavior of electrons in magnetic solids.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971377}
{"src_title": "Pyotr Kapitsa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Kapitsa was born in Kronstadt, Russian Empire, to Bessarabian-Volhynian-born parents Leonid Petrovich Kapitsa (Romanian \"Leonid Petrovici Capiţa\"), a military engineer who constructed fortifications, and Olga Ieronimovna Kapitsa from a noble Polish Stebnicki family. Besides Russian, the Kapitsa family also spoke Romanian.  Kapitsa's studies were interrupted by the First World War, in which he served as an ambulance driver for two years on the Polish front. He graduated from the Petrograd Polytechnical Institute in 1918. His wife and two children died in the flu epidemic of 1918-19. He subsequently studied in Britain, working for over ten years with Ernest Rutherford in the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, and founding the influential Kapitza club. He was the first director (1930–34) of the Mond Laboratory in Cambridge.  In the 1920s he originated techniques for creating ultrastrong magnetic fields by injecting high current for brief periods into specially constructed air-core electromagnets. In 1928 he discovered the linear dependence of resistivity on magnetic field strength in various metals for very strong magnetic fields.  In 1934 Kapitsa returned to Russia to visit his parents but the Soviet Union prevented him from travelling back to Great Britain.  As his equipment for high-magnetic field research remained in Cambridge (although later Ernest Rutherford negotiated with the British government the possibility of shipping it to the USSR), he changed the direction of his research to the study of low temperature phenomena, beginning with a critical analysis of the existing methods for achieving low temperatures. In 1934 he developed new and original apparatus (based on the adiabatic principle) for making significant quantities of liquid helium.  Kapitsa formed the Institute for Physical Problems, in part using equipment which the Soviet government bought from the Mond Laboratory in Cambridge (with the assistance of Rutherford, once it was clear that Kapitsa would not be permitted to return).  In Russia, Kapitsa began a series of experiments to study liquid helium, leading to the discovery in 1937 of its superfluidity (not to be confused with superconductivity). He reported the properties of this new state of matter in a series of papers, for which he was later awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics \"for basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics\".  In 1939 he developed a new method for liquefaction of air with a low-pressure cycle using a special high-efficiency expansion turbine. Consequently, during World War II he was assigned to head the Department of Oxygen Industry attached to the USSR Council of Ministers, where he developed his low-pressure expansion techniques for industrial purposes. He invented high power microwave generators (1950–1955) and discovered a new kind of continuous high pressure plasma discharge with electron temperatures over 1,000,000 K.  In November 1945, Kapitsa quarreled with Lavrentiy Beria, head of the NKVD and in charge of the Soviet atomic bomb project, writing to Joseph Stalin about Beria's ignorance of physics and his arrogance. Stalin backed Kapitsa, telling Beria he had to cooperate with the scientists. Kapitsa refused to meet Beria: \"If you want to speak to me, then come to the Institute.\" Stalin offered to meet Kapitsa, but this never happened.  Immediately after the war, a group of prominent Soviet scientists (including Kapitsa in particular) lobbied the government to create a new technical university, the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology. Kapitsa taught there for many years. From 1957, he was also a member of the presidium of the Soviet Academy of Sciences and at his death in 1984 was the only presidium member who was not also a member of the Communist Party.  In 1966, Kapitsa was allowed to visit Cambridge to receive the Rutherford Medal and Prize. While dining at his old college, Trinity, he found he did not have the required gown. He asked to borrow one, but a college servant asked him when be last dined at high table, \"Thirty-two years\" replied Kapitza. Within moments the servant-returned, not with any gown, but Kapitsa's own. In 1978, Kapitsa won the Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics\" and was also cited for his long term role as a leader in the development of this area. He shared the prize with Arno Allan Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson, who won for discovering the cosmic microwave background.  \"Kapitsa resistance\" is the thermal resistance (which causes a temperature discontinuity) at the interface between liquid helium and a solid. The \"Kapitsa–Dirac effect\" is a quantum mechanical effect consisting of the diffraction of electrons by a standing wave of light. In fluid dynamics, the \"Kapitza number\" is a dimensionless number characterizing the flow of thin films of fluid down an incline.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Kapitsa was married in 1927 to Anna Alekseevna Krylova (1903-1996), daughter of applied mathematician A.N. Krylov. They had two sons, Sergey and Andrey. Sergey Kapitsa (1928–2012) was a physicist and demographer. He was also the host of the popular and long-running Russian scientific TV show \"Evident, but Incredible\". Andrey Kapitsa (1931–2011) was a geographer. He was credited with the discovery and naming of Lake Vostok, the largest subglacial lake in Antarctica, which lies 4,000 meters below the continent's ice cap.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors and awards.", "content": "A minor planet, 3437 Kapitsa, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Georgievna Karachkina in 1982, is named after him. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1929. In 1958 he was elected a Member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa or Peter Kapitza (Russian: Пётр Леонидович Капица, Romanian: Petre Capiţa ( – 8 April 1984) was a leading Soviet physicist and Nobel laureate, best known for his work in low-temperature physics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971378}
{"src_title": "Arthur Leonard Schawlow", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Schawlow was born in Mount Vernon, New York. His mother, Helen (Mason), was from Canada, and his father, Arthur Schawlow, was a Jewish immigrant from Riga (then in the Russian Empire, now in Latvia). Schawlow was raised in his mother's Protestant religion. When Arthur was three years old, they moved to Toronto, Ontario, Canada.  At the age of 16, he completed high school at Vaughan Road Academy (then Vaughan Collegiate Institute), and received a scholarship in science at the University of Toronto (Victoria College). After earning his undergraduate degree, Schawlow continued in graduate school at the University of Toronto which was interrupted due to World War II. At the end of the war, he began work on his Ph.D at the university with Professor Malcolm Crawford. He then took a postdoctoral position with Charles H. Townes at the physics department of Columbia University in the fall of 1949.  He went on to accept a position at Bell Labs in late 1951. He left in 1961 to join the faculty at Stanford University as a professor. He remained at Stanford until he retired to emeritus status in 1996.  Although his research focused on optics, in particular, lasers and their use in spectroscopy, he also pursued investigations in the areas of superconductivity and nuclear resonance. Schawlow shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics with Nicolaas Bloembergen and Kai Siegbahn for their contributions to the development of laser spectroscopy.  Schawlow coauthored the widely used text \"Microwave Spectroscopy\" (1955) with Charles Townes. Schawlow and Townes were the first to publish the theory of laser design and operation in their seminal 1958 paper on \"optical masers\", although Gordon Gould is often credited with the \"invention\" of the laser, due to his unpublished work that predated Schawlow and Townes by a few months. The first working laser was made in 1960 by Theodore Maiman.  In 1991, the NEC Corporation and the American Physical Society established a prize: the Arthur L. Schawlow Prize in Laser Science. The prize is awarded annually to \"candidates who have made outstanding contributions to basic research using lasers.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Science and religion.", "content": "He participated in science and religion discussions. Regarding God, he stated, \"I find a need for God in the universe and in my own life.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1951, he married Aurelia Townes, younger sister of his postdoctoral advisor, Charles Townes. They had three children: Arthur Jr., Helen, and Edith. Arthur Jr. was autistic, with very little speech ability.  Schawlow and Professor Robert Hofstadter at Stanford, who also had an autistic child, teamed up to help each other find solutions to the condition. Arthur Jr. was put in a special center for autistic individuals, and later, Schawlow put together an institution to care for people with autism in Paradise, California. It was later named the Arthur Schawlow Center in 1999, shortly before his death on the 29th of April 1999. Schawlow was a promoter of the controversial method of facilitated communication with patients of autism.  He considered himself to be an orthodox Protestant Christian, and attended a Methodist church. Arthur Schawlow was an intense fan and collector of traditional American jazz recordings, as well as a supporter of instrumental groups performing this type of music.  Schawlow died of leukemia in Palo Alto, California.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arthur Leonard Schawlow (May 5, 1921 – April 28, 1999) was an American physicist and co-inventor of the laser with Charles Townes. His central insight, which Townes overlooked, was the use of two mirrors as the resonant cavity to take maser action from microwaves to visible wavelengths. He shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics with Nicolaas Bloembergen and Kai Siegbahn for his work using lasers to determine atomic energy levels with great precision.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971379}
{"src_title": "Liqueur", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The French word \"liqueur\" is derived from the Latin \"liquifacere\", which means \"to dissolve\".  In some parts of the United States and Canada, liqueurs may be referred to as cordials, or schnapps. This can cause confusion as in the United Kingdom a cordial would refer to a non-alcoholic concentrated fruit syrup, typically diluted to taste and consumed as a non-carbonated soft drink. Schnapps, on the other hand, can refer to any distilled beverage in Germany and aquavit in Scandinavian countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal definitions.", "content": "In the United States and Canada, where spirits are often called \"liquor\" (), there is often confusion discerning between liqueurs and liquors, due to the many different types of flavored spirits that are available today (e.g., flavored vodka). Liqueurs generally contain a lower alcohol content (15–30% ABV) than spirits and it has sweetener mixed, while some can have an ABV as high as 55%.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Canadian regulations.", "content": "Under the Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870), liqueurs are produced from mixing alcohol with plant materials. These materials include juices or extracts from fruits, flowers, leaves or other plant materials. The extracts are obtained by soaking, filtering or softening the plant substances. A sweetening agent should be added in an amount that is at least 2.5 percent of the finished liqueur. The alcohol percentage shall be at least 23%. It may also contain natural or artificial flavouring and color.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "The Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau regulates liqueurs similarly to Canada, requiring that alcohol be mixed with plant products and sweeteners be added to at least 2.5% by weight.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "Some liqueurs are prepared by infusing certain woods, fruits, or flowers in either water or alcohol and adding sugar or other items. Others are distilled from aromatic or flavoring agents.  Anise and Rakı liqueurs have the property of turning from transparent to cloudy when added to water: the oil of anise remains in solution in the presence of a high concentration of alcohol, but crystallizes when the alcohol concentration is reduced; this is known as the ouzo effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cocktails.", "content": "Liqueurs are sometimes mixed into cocktails to provide flavor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Layered drinks.", "content": "Layered drinks are made by floating different-colored liqueurs in separate layers. Each liqueur is poured slowly into a glass over the back of a spoon or down a glass rod, so that the liquids of different densities remain unmixed, creating a striped effect.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A liqueur (; ; ) is an alcoholic drink composed of distilled spirits and additional flavorings such as sugar, fruits, herbs, and spices. Often served with or after dessert, they are typically heavily sweetened and un-aged beyond a resting period during production, when necessary, for their flavors to mingle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971380}
{"src_title": "Equity (finance)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The term \"equity\" describes this type of ownership in English because it was regulated through the system of equity law that developed in England during the Late Middle Ages to meet the growing demands of commercial activity. While the older common law courts dealt with questions of property title, equity courts dealt with contractual interests in property. The same asset could have an owner in equity, who held the contractual interest, and a separate owner at law, who held the title indefinitely or until the contract was fulfilled. Contract disputes were examined with consideration of whether the terms and administration of the contract were fair — that is, equitable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Single assets.", "content": "Any asset that is purchased through a secured loan is said to have equity. While the loan remains unpaid, the buyer does not fully own the asset. The lender has the right to repossess it if the buyer defaults, but only to recover the unpaid loan balance. The equity balance — the asset's market value reduced by the loan balance — measures the buyer's partial ownership. This may be different from the total amount that the buyer has paid on the loan, which includes interest expense and does not consider any change in the asset's value. When an asset has a deficit instead of equity, the terms of the loan determine whether the lender can recover it from the borrower. Houses are normally financed with non-recourse loans, in which the lender assumes a risk that the owner will default with a deficit, while other assets are financed with full-recourse loans that make the borrower responsible for any deficit.  The equity of an asset can be used to secure additional liabilities. Common examples include home equity loans and home equity lines of credit. These increase the total liabilities attached to the asset and decrease the owner's equity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business entities.", "content": "A business entity has a more complicated debt structure than a single asset. While some liabilities may be secured by specific assets of the business, others may be guaranteed by the assets of the entire business. If the business becomes bankrupt, it can be required to raise money by selling assets. Yet the equity of the business, like the equity of an asset, approximately measures the amount of the assets that belongs to the owners of the business.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accounting.", "content": "Financial accounting defines the equity of a business as the net balance of its assets reduced by its liabilities. The fundamental accounting equation requires that the total of liabilities and equity is equal to the total of all assets at the close of each accounting period. To satisfy this requirement, all events that affect total assets and total liabilities unequally must eventually be reported as changes in equity. Businesses summarize their equity in a financial statement known as the balance sheet (or statement of net position) which shows the total assets, the specific equity balances, and the total liabilities and equity (or deficit).  Various types of equity can appear on a balance sheet, depending on the form and purpose of the business entity. Preferred stock, share capital (or capital stock) and capital surplus (or additional paid-in capital) reflect original contributions to the business from its investors or organizers. Treasury stock appears as a contra-equity balance (an offset to equity) that reflects the amount that the business has paid to repurchase stock from shareholders. Retained earnings (or accumulated deficit) is the running total of the business's net income and losses, excluding any dividends. In the United Kingdom and other countries that use its accounting methods, equity includes various reserve accounts that are used for particular reconciliations of the balance sheet.  Another financial statement, the statement of changes in equity, details the changes in these equity accounts from one accounting period to the next. Several events can produce changes in a firm's equity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Investing.", "content": "Equity investing is the business of purchasing stock in companies, either directly or from another investor, on the expectation that the stock will earn dividends or can be resold with a capital gain. Equity holders typically receive voting rights, meaning that they can vote on candidates for the board of directors and, if their holding is large enough, influence management decisions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legal foundations.", "content": "Investors in a newly established firm must contribute an initial amount of capital to it so that it can begin to transact business. This contributed amount represents the investors' equity interest in the firm. In return, they receive shares of the company's stock. Under the model of a private limited company, the firm may keep contributed capital as long as it remains in business. If it liquidates, whether through a decision of the owners or through a bankruptcy process, the owners have a residual claim on the firm's eventual equity. If the equity is negative (a deficit) then the unpaid creditors take a loss and the owners' claim is void. Under limited liability, owners are not required to pay the firm's debts themselves so long as the firm's books are in order and it has not involved the owners in fraud.  When the owners of a firm are shareholders, their interest is called shareholders' equity. If all shareholders are in one class, they share equally in ownership equity from all perspectives. It is not uncommon for companies to issue more than one class of stock, with each class having its own liquidation priority or voting rights. This complicates analysis for both stock valuation and accounting.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Valuation.", "content": "A company's shareholder equity balance does not determine the price at which investors can sell its stock. Other relevant factors include the prospects and risks of its business, its access to necessary credit, and the difficulty of locating a buyer. According to the theory of intrinsic value, it is profitable to buy stock in a company when it is priced below the present value of the portion of its equity and future earnings that are payable to stockholders. Advocates of this method have included Benjamin Graham, Philip Fisher and Warren Buffett. An equity investment will never have a negative market value (i.e. become a liability) even if the firm has a shareholder deficit, because the deficit is not the owners' responsibility.  According to the \"Merton model\", the value of stock equity is modeled as a call option on the value of the whole company (including the liabilities), struck at the nominal value of the liabilities. This is the first example of a \"structural model\", where bankruptcy is modeled using a microeconomic model of the firm's capital structure. It treats bankruptcy as a continuous probability of default, where, on the random occurrence of default, the stock price of the defaulting company is assumed to go to zero.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "In finance, equity is ownership of assets that may have debts or other liabilities attached to them. Equity is measured for accounting purposes by subtracting liabilities from the value of an asset. For example, if someone owns a car worth $9,000 and owes $3,000 on the loan used to buy the car, then the difference of $6,000 is equity. Equity can apply to a single asset, such as a car or house, or to an entire business. A business that needs to start up or expand its operations can sell its equity in order to raise cash that does not have to be repaid on a set schedule.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971381}
{"src_title": "Note value", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "List.", "content": "Shorter notes can be created theoretically \"ad infinitum\" by adding further flags, but are very rare.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "The breve appears in several different versions, as shown at right. The first two are commonly used; the third is a stylistic alternative.  Sometimes the longa or breve is used to indicate a very long note of indefinite duration, as at the end of a piece (e.g. at the end of Mozart's Mass KV 192).  A single eighth note, or any faster note, is always stemmed with flags, while two or more are usually beamed in groups. When a stem is present, it can go either up (from the right side of the note head) or down (from the left side), except in the cases of the \"longa\" or \"maxima\" which are nearly always written with downward stems. In most cases, the stem goes down if the notehead is on the center line or above, and up otherwise. Any flags always go to the right of the stem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modifiers.", "content": "A note value may be augmented by adding a dot after it. This dot adds the next briefer note value, making it one and a half times its original duration. A number of dots (\"n\") lengthen the note value by its value, so two dots add two lower note values, making a total of one and three quarters times its original duration. The rare three dots make it one and seven eighths the duration, and so on.  The double dot was first used in 1752 by J.J. Quantz; in music of the 18th century and earlier the amount by which the dot augmented the note varied: it could be more or less than the modern interpretation, to fit into the context.  To divide a note value to three equal parts, or some other value than two, tuplets may be used. However, see swung note and notes inégales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gregorian chant.", "content": "Although note heads of various shapes, and notes with and without stems appear in early Gregorian chant manuscripts, many scholars agree that these symbols do not indicate different durations, although the dot is used for augmentation. See neume.  In the 13th century, chant was sometimes performed according to rhythmic modes, roughly equivalent to meters; however, the note shapes still did not indicate duration in the same way as modern note values.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mensural notation.", "content": "Around 1250, Franco of Cologne invented different symbols for different durations, although the relation between different note values could vary; three was the most common ratio. Philippe de Vitry's treatise Ars nova (1320) described a system in which the ratios of different note values could be 2:1 or 3:1, with a system of mensural time signatures to distinguish between them.  This black mensural notation gave way to \"white mensural notation\" around 1450, in which all note values were written with white (outline) noteheads. In white notation the use of triplets was indicated by \"coloration\", i.e. filling in the noteheads to make them black (or sometimes red). Both black and white notation periodically made use of ligatures, a holdover from the \"clivis\" and \"porrectus\" neumes used in chant.  Around 1600 the modern notational system was generally adopted, along with barlines and the practice of writing multipart music in scores rather than only individual parts. In the 17th century, however, old usages came up occasionally.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Origins of the names.", "content": "The British names go back at least to English renaissance music, and the terms of Latin origin had international currency at that time. Obviously, \"longa\" means 'long', and the rest rarely indicate relative shortness. \"Breve\" is from Latin \"brevis\",'short', \"minim\" is from \"minimus\",'very small', and \"quaver\" refers to the quavering effect of very fast notes. The elements \"semi-\", \"demi-\" and \"hemi-\" mean 'half' in Latin, French and Greek respectively. The chain semantic shift whereby notes which were originally perceived as short came progressively to be long notes is interesting both linguistically and musically. However, the \"crotchet\" is named after the shape of the note, from the Old French for a 'little hook', and it is possible to argue that the same is true of the \"minim\", since the word is also used in palaeography to mean a vertical stroke in mediaeval handwriting.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In music notation, a note value indicates the relative duration of a note, using the texture or shape of the \"notehead\", the presence or absence of a \"stem\", and the presence or absence of \"flags/beams/hooks/tails\". Unmodified note values are fractional powers of two, for example one, one-half, one fourth, etc.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971382}
{"src_title": "Henri Moissan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Moissan was born in Paris on 28 September 1852, the son of a minor officer of the eastern railway company, Francis Ferdinand Moissan, and a seamstress, Joséphine Améraldine (née Mitel). His mother was of Jewish descent, his father wasn't. In 1864 they moved to Meaux, where he attended the local school. In 1870 he left the school without the \"grade universitaire\" necessary to attend university. He began working for a chemist in Paris, where he was able to save a person poisoned with arsenic. He decided to study chemistry and began first at the laboratory of Edmond Frémy and later at that of Pierre Paul Dehérain. Dehérain persuaded him to pursue an academic career. He passed the baccalauréat, which was necessary to study at university, in 1874 after an earlier failed attempt. During his time in Paris he became a friend of the chemist Alexandre Léon Étard and the botanist Vasque.  He published his first scientific paper, about carbon dioxide and oxygen metabolism in plants, with Dehérain in 1874. He left plant physiology and then turned towards inorganic chemistry; subsequently his research on pyrophoric iron was well received by the two most prominent French inorganic chemists of that time, Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville and Jules Henri Debray. After Moissan received his Ph.D. on cyanogen and its reactions to form cyanures in 1880, his friend Landrine offered him a position at an analytic laboratory. His marriage, to Léonie Lugan, took place in 1882. They had a son in 1885. During the 1880s, Moissan focused on fluorine chemistry and especially the production of fluorine itself. He had no laboratory of his own, but used several laboratories, for example that of Charles Friedel. There he had access to a strong battery consisting of 90 Bunsen cells which made it possible to observe a gas produced by the electrolysis of molten arsenic trichloride; the gas was reabsorbed by the arsenic trichloride. The electrolysis of hydrogen fluoride yielded fluorine on 26 June 1886. The French academy of science sent three representatives, Marcellin Berthelot, Henri Debray, and Edmond Frémy, to verify the results, but Moissan was unable to reproduce them, owing to the absence from the hydrogen fluoride of traces of potassium fluoride present in the previous experiments. After resolving the problem and demonstrating the production of fluorine several times, he was awarded a prize of 10,000 francs. In subsequent years, until 1891, he focused on the study of fluorine chemistry. He discovered numerous fluorine compounds, such as (together with Paul Lebeau) SF in 1901. His research in the production of boron and artificial diamonds and the development of an electrically heated oven capable of reaching 3500 °C using 2200 amperes at 80 volts followed by 1900.  His newly developed arc furnace led to the production of borides and carbides of numerous elements (e.g. silicon boride), another of his research areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Preparation of elemental fluorine.", "content": "The existence of the element fluorine had been well known for many years, but all attempts to isolate it had failed, and some experimenters had died in the attempt.  Moissan eventually succeeded in preparing fluorine in 1886 by the electrolysis of a solution of potassium hydrogen difluoride (KHF) in liquid hydrogen fluoride (HF). The mixture was needed because hydrogen fluoride is a nonconductor. The device was built with platinum/iridium electrodes in a platinum holder and the apparatus was cooled to −50 °C. The result was the complete isolation of the hydrogen produced at the negative electrode from the fluorine produced at the positive one. This is essentially still the way fluorine is produced today. For this achievement, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906. Late in his life, the government of France named him a Commandeur de la Legion d'honneur.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Further studies.", "content": "Moissan went on to study fluorine chemistry in great detail, contributed to the development of the electric arc furnace and attempted to use pressure to synthesize diamonds from the more common form of carbon. In 1893, Moissan began studying fragments of a meteorite found in Meteor Crater near Diablo Canyon in Arizona. In these fragments he discovered minute quantities of a new mineral and, after extensive research, Moissan concluded that this mineral was made of silicon carbide. In 1905, this mineral was named moissanite, in his honor. In 1903 Moissan was elected member of the International Atomic Weights Committee where he served until his death.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "He died suddenly in Paris in February 1907, shortly after his return from receiving the Nobel Prize in Stockholm. His death was attributed to an acute case of appendicitis.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Ferdinand Frédéric Henri Moissan (28 September 1852 – 20 February 1907) was a French chemist who won the 1906 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in isolating fluorine from its compounds. Moissan was one of the original members of the International Atomic Weights Committee.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971383}
{"src_title": "Kitsch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "As a descriptive term, \"kitsch\" originated in the art markets of Munich in the 1860s and the 1870s, describing cheap, popular, and marketable pictures and sketches. In \"Das Buch vom Kitsch\" (\"The Book of Kitsch\"), Hans Reimann defines it as a professional expression \"born in a painter's studio\".  The study of kitsch was done almost exclusively in German until the 1970s, with Walter Benjamin being an important scholar in the field.  Kitsch is regarded as a modern phenomenon, coinciding with social changes in recent centuries such as the Industrial Revolution, urbanization, mass production, modern materials and media such as plastics, radio and television, the rise of the middle class and public educationall of which have factored into a perception of oversaturation of art produced for the popular taste.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kitsch in art theory and aesthetics.", "content": "Modernist writer Hermann Broch argues that the essence of kitsch is imitation: kitsch mimics its immediate predecessor with no regard to ethics—it aims to copy the beautiful, not the good. According to Walter Benjamin, kitsch is, unlike art, a utilitarian object lacking all critical distance between object and observer; it \"offers instantaneous emotional gratification without intellectual effort, without the requirement of distance, without sublimation\".  Kitsch is less about the thing observed than about the observer. According to Roger Scruton, \"Kitsch is fake art, expressing fake emotions, whose purpose is to deceive the consumer into thinking he feels something deep and serious.\"  Tomáš Kulka, in \"Kitsch and Art\", starts from two basic facts that kitsch \"has an undeniable mass-appeal\" and \"considered (by the art-educated elite) bad\", and then proposes three essential conditions:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kitsch in Milan Kundera's \"The Unbearable Lightness of Being\".", "content": "The concept of kitsch is a central motif in Milan Kundera's 1984 novel \"The Unbearable Lightness of Being\". Towards the end of the novel, the book's narrator posits that the act of defecation (and specifically, the shame that surrounds it) poses a metaphysical challenge to the theory of divine creation: \"Either/or: either shit is acceptable (in which case don't lock yourself in the bathroom!) or we are created in an unacceptable manner\". Thus, in order for us to continue to believe in the essential propriety and rightness of the universe (what the narrator calls \"the categorical agreement with being\"), we live in a world \"in which shit is denied and everyone acts as though it did not exist\". For Kundera's narrator, this is the definition of kitsch: an \"aesthetic ideal\" which \"excludes everything from its purview which is essentially unacceptable in human existence\".  The novel goes on to relate this definition of kitsch to politics, and specifically — given the novel's setting in Prague around the time of the 1968 invasion by the Soviet Union — to communism and totalitarianism. He gives the example of the Communist May Day ceremony, and of the sight of children running on the grass and the feeling this is supposed to provoke. This emphasis on feeling is fundamental to how kitsch operates:  Kitsch causes two tears to flow in quick succession. The first tear says: How nice to see children running on the grass! The second tear says: How nice to be moved, together with all mankind, by children running on the grass! It is the second tear that makes kitsch kitsch.  According to the narrator, kitsch is \"the aesthetic ideal of all politicians and all political parties and movements\"; however, where a society is dominated by a single political movement, the result is \"totalitarian kitsch\":  When I say \"totalitarian,\" what I mean is that everything that infringes on kitsch must be banished for life: every display of individualism (because a deviation from the collective is a spit in the eye of the smiling brotherhood); every doubt (because anyone who starts doubting details will end by doubting life itself); all irony (because in the realm of kitsch everything must be taken quite seriously).  Kundera's concept of \"totalitarian kitsch\" has since been invoked in the study of the art and culture of regimes such as Stalin's Soviet Union, Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Iraq under Saddam Hussein. Kundera's narrator ends up condemning kitsch for its \"true function\" as an ideological tool under such regimes, calling it \"a folding screen set up to curtain off death\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art.", "content": "The Kitsch movement is an international movement of classical painters, founded in 1998 upon a philosophy proposed by Odd Nerdrum and later clarified in his book \"On Kitsch\" in cooperation with Jan-Ove Tuv and others, incorporating the techniques of the Old Masters with narrative, romanticism, and emotionally charged imagery.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kitsch ( ; loanword from German) is art or other objects that, generally speaking, appeal to popular rather than \"high art\" tastes. Such objects are sometimes appreciated in a knowingly ironic or humorous way. The word was first applied to artwork that was a response to certain divisions of 19th-century art with aesthetics that favored what later art critics would consider to be exaggerated sentimentality and melodrama. Hence, 'kitsch art' is closely associated with'sentimental art'. Kitsch is also related to the concept of camp, because of its humorous and ironic nature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971384}
{"src_title": "Frederick Soddy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Soddy was born at 5 Bolton Road, Eastbourne, England, the son of Benjamin Soddy, corn merchant, and his wife Hannah Green. He went to school at Eastbourne College, before going on to study at University College of Wales at Aberystwyth and at Merton College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1898 with first class honours in chemistry. He was a researcher at Oxford from 1898 to 1900.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific career.", "content": "In 1900 he became a demonstrator in chemistry at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, where he worked with Ernest Rutherford on radioactivity. He and Rutherford realized that the anomalous behaviour of radioactive elements was because they decayed into other elements. This decay also produced alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. When radioactivity was first discovered, no one was sure what the cause was. It needed careful work by Soddy and Rutherford to prove that atomic transmutation was in fact occurring.  In 1903, with Sir William Ramsay at University College London, Soddy showed that the decay of radium produced helium gas. In the experiment a sample of radium was enclosed in a thin-walled glass envelope sited within an evacuated glass bulb. After leaving the experiment running for a long period of time, a spectral analysis of the contents of the former evacuated space revealed the presence of helium. Later in 1907, Rutherford and Thomas Royds showed that the helium was first formed as positively charged nuclei of helium (He) which were identical to alpha particles, which could pass through the thin glass wall but were contained within the surrounding glass envelope.  From 1904 to 1914, Soddy was a lecturer at the University of Glasgow. Ruth Pirret worked as his research assistant during this time. In May 1910 Soddy was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1914 he was appointed to a chair at the University of Aberdeen, where he worked on research related to World War I.  The work that Soddy and his research assistant Ada Hitchins did at Glasgow and Aberdeen showed that uranium decays to radium. It also showed that a radioactive element may have more than one atomic mass though the chemical properties are identical. Soddy named this concept isotope meaning \"same place\". The word was initially suggested to him by Margaret Todd. Later, J. J. Thomson showed that non-radioactive elements can also have multiple isotopes.  In 1913, Soddy also showed that an atom moves lower in atomic number by two places on alpha emission, higher by one place on beta emission. This was discovered at about the same time by Kazimierz Fajans, and is known as the radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy, a fundamental step toward understanding the relationships among families of radioactive elements. Soddy published \"The Interpretation of Radium\" (1909) and \"Atomic Transmutation\" (1953).  In 1918 he announced discovery of a stable isotope of Protactinium, working with John Arnold Cranston. This slightly post-dated its discovery by German counterparts; however, it is said their discovery was actually made in 1915 but its announcement was delayed due to Cranston's notes being locked away whilst on active service in the First World War.  In 1919 he moved to the University of Oxford as Dr Lee's Professor of Chemistry, where, in the period up till 1936, he reorganized the laboratories and the syllabus in chemistry. He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his research in radioactive decay and particularly for his formulation of the theory of isotopes.  His work and essays popularising the new understanding of radioactivity was the main inspiration for H. G. Wells's \"The World Set Free\" (1914), which features atomic bombs dropped from biplanes in a war set many years in the future. Wells's novel is also known as \"The Last War\" and imagines a peaceful world emerging from the chaos. In \"Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt\" Soddy praises Wells’s \"The World Set Free\". He also says that radioactive processes probably power the stars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economics.", "content": "In four books written from 1921 to 1934, Soddy carried on a \"campaign for a radical restructuring of global monetary relationships\", offering a perspective on economics rooted in physics – the laws of thermodynamics, in particular – and was \"roundly dismissed as a crank\". While most of his proposals – \"to abandon the gold standard, let international exchange rates float, use federal surpluses and deficits as macroeconomic policy tools that could counter cyclical trends, and establish bureaus of economic statistics (including a consumer price index) in order to facilitate this effort\" – are now conventional practice, his critique of fractional-reserve banking still \"remains outside the bounds of conventional wisdom\" although a recent paper by the IMF reinvigorated his proposals. Soddy wrote that financial debts grew exponentially at compound interest but the real economy was based on exhaustible stocks of fossil fuels. Energy obtained from the fossil fuels could not be used again. This criticism of economic growth is echoed by his intellectual heirs in the now emergent field of ecological economics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Antisemitic views.", "content": "In \"Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt\" Soddy cited the (fraudulent) Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion as evidence for the belief, which was relatively widespread at the time, of a \"financial conspiracy to enslave the world\". He used the imagery of a Jewish conspiracy to buttress his claim that \"A corrupt monetary system strikes at the very life of the nation.\" In the same document, he made reference to \"the semi-Oriental\" who is \"supreme\" in \"high finance\" and to an \"iridescent bubble of beliefs blown around the world by the Hebraic hierarchy\". Later in life he published a pamphlet \"Abolish Private Money, or Drown in Debt\" (1939) with a noted publisher of anti-Semitic texts. The influence of his writing can be gauged, for example, in this quote from Ezra Pound: \"Professor Frederick Soddy states that the Gold Standard monetary system has wrecked a scientific age!... The world's bankers... have not been content to take their share of modern wealth production – great as it has been – but they have refused to allow the masses of mankind to receive theirs.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descartes' theorem.", "content": "He rediscovered the Descartes' theorem in 1936 and published it as a poem, \"The Kiss Precise\", quoted at Problem of Apollonius. The kissing circles in this problem are sometimes known as Soddy circles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours and awards.", "content": "He received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1921 and the same year he was elected member of the International Atomic Weights Committee. A small crater on the far side of the Moon as well as the radioactive uranium mineral soddyite are named after him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1908, Soddy married Winifred Moller Beilby (1885-1936), the daughter of industrial chemist Sir George Beilby and Lady Emma Bielby, a philanthropist to women's causes. The couple worked together and co-published a paper in 1910 on the absorption of gamma rays from radium. He died in Brighton, England in 1956, twenty days after his 79th birthday.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick Soddy FRS (2 September 1877 – 22 September 1956) was an English radiochemist who explained, with Ernest Rutherford, that radioactivity is due to the transmutation of elements, now known to involve nuclear reactions. He also proved the existence of isotopes of certain radioactive elements.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971385}
{"src_title": "George de Hevesy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Hevesy György was born in Budapest, Hungary to a wealthy and ennobled family of Hungarian-Jewish descent, the fifth of eight children to his parents Lajos Bischitz and Baroness Eugénia (Jenny) Schossberger (ennobled as \"De Tornya\"). Grandparents from both sides of the family had provided the presidents of the Jewish community of Pest. His parents converted to Roman Catholicism. George grew up in Budapest and graduated high school in 1903 from Piarista Gimnázium. The family's name in 1904 was Hevesy-Bischitz, and Hevesy later changed his own.  De Hevesy began his studies in chemistry at the University of Budapest for one year, and at the Technical University of Berlin for several months, but transferred to the University of Freiburg. There he met Ludwig Gattermann. In 1906 he started his Ph.D. thesis with Georg Franz Julius Meyer, acquiring his doctorate in physics in 1908. In 1908 Hevesy was offered a position at the ETH Zürich, Switzerland, yet being independently wealthy, he was able to choose his research environment. In succession he worked with Fritz Haber in Karlsruhe, Germany, then with Ernest Rutherford in Manchester, England, where he also met Niels Bohr. Back at home in Budapest he was appointed professor in physical chemistry in 1918. In 1920 he settled in Copenhagen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "In 1922 de Hevesy co-discovered (with Dirk Coster) the element hafnium (Hf) (Latin \"Hafnia\" for \"Copenhagen\", the home town of Niels Bohr). Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table arranged the chemical elements into a logical system, but a chemical element with 72 protons was missing. Hevesy determined to look for that element on the basis of Bohr's atomic model. The mineralogical museum of Norway and Greenland in Copenhagen furnished the material for the research. Characteristic X-ray spectra recordings made of the sample indicated that a new element was present. The accepted account has been disputed by Mansel Davies and Eric Scerri who attribute the prediction that element 72 would be a transition element to the chemist Charles Bury.  Supported financially by the Rockefeller Foundation, Hevesy had a very productive year. He developed the X-ray fluorescence analytical method, and discovered the samarium alpha-ray. It was here he began the use of radioactive isotopes in studying the metabolic processes of plants and animals, by tracing chemicals in the body by replacing part of stable isotopes with small quantities of the radioactive isotopes. In 1923, Hevesy published the first study on the use of the naturally radioactive Pb as radioactive tracer to follow the absorption and translocation in the roots, stems and leaves of Vicia faba, also known as the broad bean. Later, in 1943, the work on radioactive tracing would earn Hevesy the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.  In 1924 Hevesy returned to Freiburg as Professor of Physical Chemistry, and in 1930 went to Cornell University, Ithaca as Baker Lecturer. Four years later he resumed his activities at Niels Bohr's Institute, based there through 1952. During 1943 he was domiciled in Stockholm and was an Associate of the Institute of Research in Organic Chemistry. In 1949 he was elected Franqui Professor in the University of Ghent. In his retirement, he remained an active scientific associate of the University of Stockholm. Hevesy was offered and accepted a job from the University of Freiburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II and beyond.", "content": "When Nazi Germany occupied Denmark during World War II, de Hevesy dissolved the gold Nobel Prize medals of Max von Laue and James Franck in aqua regia. During the occupation, it was illegal to send gold out of the country. If Laue and Franck had done so to protect the medals from being stolen, they could have faced prosecution by the Nazis. De Hevesy placed the resulting solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. After the war, he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid. The Nobel Society then recast the Nobel Prize medals using the original gold.  By 1943 Copenhagen was no longer safe for a Jewish scientist and de Hevesy fled to Sweden, where he worked at the Stockholm University College until 1961. In Stockholm de Hevesy was received at the department of chemistry by the Swedish professor and Nobel Prize winner Hans von Euler-Chelpin, who remained strongly pro-German throughout the war. Despite this, de Hevesy and von Euler-Chelpin collaborated on many scientific papers during and after the war.  While he was in Stockholm, de Hevesy received the Nobel Prize in chemistry. He was later inducted into the Royal Society and received the Copley Medal, of which he was particularly proud. De Hevesy stated: \"The public thinks the Nobel Prize in chemistry for the highest honor that a scientist can receive, but it is not so. Forty or fifty received Nobel chemistry prizes, but only ten foreign members of the Royal Society and two (Bohr and Hevesy) received a medal-Copley.\" George de Hevesy was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1942, and his status was later changed to Swedish member. He received the Atoms for Peace Award in 1958 for his peaceful use of radioactive isotopes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family life and death.", "content": "De Hevesy married Pia Riis in 1924. They had one son and three daughters together, one of whom (Eugenie) married a grandson of the Swedish Nobel laureate Svante Arrhenius. De Hevesy died in 1966 at the age of eighty and was buried in Freiburg. In 2000, his corpse was transferred to the Kerepesi Cemetery in Budapest, Hungary. He had published a total of 397 scientific documents, one of which was the Becquerel-Curie Memorial Lecture, in which he had reminisced about the careers of pioneers of radiochemistry. At his family's request, his ashes were interred at his birthplace in Budapest on 19 April 2001.  10 May 2005 the Hevesy Laboratory was founded at Risø National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy, now Technical University of Denmark, DTU Nutech. It was named after George de Hevesy as the father of the isotope tracer principle by the initiative of the lab's first head Prof. Mikael Jensen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George Charles de Hevesy (; 1 August 1885 – 5 July 1966) was a Hungarian radiochemist and Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate, recognized in 1943 for his key role in the development of radioactive tracers to study chemical processes such as in the metabolism of animals. He also co-discovered the element hafnium.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971386}
{"src_title": "Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Bellingshausen was born to a Baltic German noble Bellingshausen family in the, Ösel County in the Governorate of Livonia of the Russian Empire; now Saare County, Estonia. His paternal family had Holsteinish origins, the surname Bellingshausen was first recorded in Lübeck. He enlisted as a cadet in the Imperial Russian Navy at the age of ten. After graduating from the Kronstadt naval academy at age eighteen, Bellingshausen rapidly rose to the rank of captain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Russian circumnavigation.", "content": "A great admirer of Cook's voyages, Bellingshausen served from 1803 in the first Russian circumnavigation of the Earth. He was one of the officers of the vessel \"Nadezhda\" (\"Hope\"), commanded by Adam Johann von Krusenstern.  The mission was completed in 1806. After the journey Bellingshausen published a collection of maps of the newly explored areas and islands of the Pacific Ocean.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service as captain.", "content": "Bellingshausen's career continued with the command of various ships in the Baltic and Black Seas. From 1812 to 1816 he commanded the frigate \"\" and from 1817 to 1819 the frigate \"\", both in the Black Sea Fleet. During 1812 he met on Macquarie island Richard Siddins, the Australian captain of the ship \"Campbell Macquarie\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Russian Antarctic expedition.", "content": "When Emperor Alexander I authorized an expedition to the south polar region in 1819, the authorities selected Bellingshausen to lead it as an experienced captain and explorer, and a prominent cartographer. The expedition was intended to explore the Southern Ocean and to find land in the proximity of the South Pole. The preparation work on the two ships, the 985-ton sloop-of-war \"Vostok\" (\"East\") and the 530-ton support vessel \"Mirny\" (\"Peaceful\") was carried out by Mikhail Lazarev, who had captained his own circumnavigation of the globe before. Bellingshausen became the captain of \"Vostok\", and Lazarev captained \"Mirny\". The journey started from Kronstadt on 4 June 1819. They stopped briefly in England, where Bellingshausen met with Sir Joseph Banks, the president of the Royal Society. Banks had sailed with Captain James Cook fifty years earlier and supplied the Russians with books and charts for their expedition.  Leaving Portsmouth on 5 September 1819 the expedition crossed the Antarctic Circle (the first to do so since Cook) on 26 January 1820 (New Style). On 27 January the expedition discovered the Antarctic mainland approaching the Antarctic coast at a point with coordinates 69o21'28\"S 2o14'50\"W and seeing ice-fields there. The point in question lies within twenty miles of the Antarctic mainland. Bellingshausen's diary, his report to the Russian Naval Minister on 21 July 1821 and other documents, available in the Russian State Museum of the Arctic and Antarctic in Saint Petersburg, Russia, were carefully compared with the log-books of other claimants by the British polar historian A. G. E. Jones in his 1982 study \"Antarctica Observed\". Jones concluded that Bellingshausen, rather than the Royal Navy's Edward Bransfield on 30 January 1820 or the American Nathaniel Palmer on 17 November 1820, was indeed the discoverer of the sought-after Terra Australis.  During the voyage Bellingshausen also visited Ship Cove in New Zealand, the South Shetland Islands, and discovered and named Peter I, Zavodovski, Leskov and Visokoi Islands, and a peninsula of the Antarctic mainland that he named the Alexander Coast but that has more recently borne the designation of Alexander Island. Bellingshausen and Lazarev managed to twice circumnavigate the continent and never lost each other from view. Thus they disproved Captain Cook's assertion that it was impossible to find land in the southern ice fields. The expedition also made discoveries and observations in the tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Admiral.", "content": "Returning to Kronstadt on 4 August 1821, Bellingshausen was made counter admiral. He fought in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 and attained the rank of vice admiral in 1830. In 1831 he published the book on his Antarctic travel, called \"Double Investigation of the Southern Polar Ocean and the Voyage Around the World\" (\"Двукратные изыскания в южнополярном океане и плавание вокруг света\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military governor of Kronstadt.", "content": "He became the military governor of Kronstadt, the naval base at the approaches of St Petersburg, from 1839, and died there in 1852.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen is remembered in Russia as one of its greatest admirals and explorers. In the Antarctic, multiple geographical features and locations, named in honor of Bellingshausen, remind of his role in exploration of the southern polar region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monuments.", "content": "There is a memorial stone of Bellingshausen on the previous site (on the ruins) of Lahhentagge/Lahetaguse manor in Ösel/Saaremaa.  There is a monument to Bellingshausen in Nikolayev, Ukraine.  There is a monument to Admiral Bellingshausen in Kronstadt.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Fabian Gottlieb Thaddeus von Bellingshausen (; – ), a Russian naval officer, cartographer and explorer of Baltic German extraction, who ultimately rose to the rank of admiral. He participated in the First Russian circumnavigation of the globe and subsequently became a leader of another circumnavigation expedition that discovered the continent of Antarctica.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971387}
{"src_title": "Acherontia atropos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Appearance.", "content": "\"Acherontia atropos\" is a large hawk moth with a wingspan of approximately 80–120 mm (about 3.5 to 5 inches), making it the largest moth in a number of the regions in which it resides. An adult \"A. atropos\" has the typical wing and body structure seen in the family Sphingidae. The upper set of wings are brown with hints of yellow, amber, charcoal and cream; the lower wings are yellow with two brown stripes fashioned in waves extending diagonally across the surface. At rest, the wings of the moth fold downwards, concealing the hindwings behind the forewings.  The abdomen of \"A. atropos\" is robust and is covered in brown, feathery down. Yellow striping that highly resembles the colour patterns of a hornet extends part way across each abdominal segment. The intensity and distribution of colour can vary widely in individual specimens, with some individuals occasionally found expressing an indistinguishable \"skull-like\" pattern on the thorax.  Sexual dimorphism  Like in most Lepidoptera, female moths of this species tend to be larger than males, appearing bulkier and sporting larger, more robust abdomens.  The abdomen of a male \"Acherotia atropos\" is less broad, with a pointed distal (lower) abdominal segment. In contrast, the females of the species have a distal abdominal segment that is rounded off at the tip. Antennae seen on a male are thinner and shorter than the antennae seen on a female. There are no pattern or colour changes related to the sex of an \"A. atropos\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "This species displays a number of behaviours not normally seen in Lepidoptera.  Unlike most moths, which generate noise by rubbing external body parts together, all three species within the genus \"Acherontia\" are capable of producing a \"squeak\" from the pharynx, a response triggered by external agitation. The moth sucks in air, causing an internal flap between the mouth and throat to vibrate at a rapid speed. The \"squeak\" described is produced upon the exhalation when the flap is open. Each cycle of inhalation and exhalation takes approximately one fifth of a second.  It is unclear exactly why the moth emits this sound. One thought is that the squeak may be used to deter potential predators. Due to its unusual method of producing sound, the squeak created by \"Acherontia atropos\" is especially startling. Another hypothesis suggests that the squeak relates to the moth's honey bee hive raiding habits. The squeak produced from this moth mimics the piping noise produced from a honey bee hive's queen, a noise in which she utilizes to signal the worker bees to stop moving.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Acherontia atropos\" receives both its species and genus names from bodies relating to death or dark subjects.  The species name \"atropos\" relates to death, and is named after the Greek goddess Atropos. Atropos was one of the three Moirai, goddesses of fate and destiny. According to Greek mythology, the three Moirai decide the fate of humans, making them a lesser symbol of death.  The genus name \"Acherontia\" is in relation to Acheron, a river located in Epirus, Greece. In mythology, Acheron was thought to be a pathway that lead to Hades due to the large, dark gorges it flowed through. In Greek mythology, Acheron is a river in Hades, and the name itself occasionally refers directly to the underworld.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Acherontia atropos\" occurs throughout the Middle East and the Mediterranean region, much of Africa down to the southern tip, and increasingly as far north as southern Great Britain due to recently mild British winters. It occurs as far east as India and western Saudi Arabia, and as far west as the Canary Islands and Azores. It invades western Eurasia frequently, although few individuals successfully overwinter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "There are several generations of \"Acherontia atropos\" per year, with continuous broods in Africa. In the northern parts of its range the species overwinters in the pupal stage. Eggs are laid singly under old leaves of Solanaceae: potato especially, but also \"Physalis\" and other nightshades. However it also has been recorded on members of the Verbenaceae, e.g. \"Lantana\", and on members of the families Cannabaceae, Oleaceae, Pedaliaceae and others. The larvae are stout with a posterior horn, as is typical of larvae of the Sphingidae. Most sphingid larvae however, have fairly smooth posterior horns, possibly with a simple curve, either upward or downward. In contrast, \"Acherontia\" species and certain relatives bear a posterior horn embossed with round projections about the thicker part. The horn itself bends downwards near the base, but curls upwards towards the tip.  The newly hatched larva starts out light green with yellow stripes diagonally on the sides, but darken after feeding. In the second instar, it has thorn-like horns on the back. In the third instar, purple or blue edging develops on the yellow stripes and the tail horn turns from black to yellow. In the final instar, the thorns disappear and the larva may adopt one of three colour morphs: green, brown or yellow. Larvae do not move much, and will click their mandibles or even bite if threatened, though the bite is effectively harmless to human skin. The larva grows to about 120–130 mm, and pupates in an underground chamber. The pupa is smooth and glossy with the proboscis fused to the body, as in most Lepidoptera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Folklore.", "content": "In spite of the fact that \"Acherontia atropos\" is perfectly harmless except as a minor pest to crops and to beehives, the fancied skull pattern has burdened the moth with a negative reputation, such as associations with the supernatural and evil. There are numerous superstitions to the effect that the moth brings bad luck to the house into which it flies, and that death or misfortune may be expected to follow. More prosaically, in South Africa at least, uninformed people have claimed that the moth has a poisonous, often fatal, sting (possibly referring mainly to the proboscis, but sometimes to the horn on the posterior of the larva).  It appeared in \"The Hireling Shepherd\", in Bram Stoker's \"Dracula\" and in movies such as \"Un Chien Andalou\" and the promotional marquee posters for \"The Silence of the Lambs\". In the latter film the moth is used as a calling card by the serial killer Buffalo Bill, and though the movie script refers to \"Acherontia styx\", the moths that appear in the film are \"Acherontia atropos\". In \"The Mothman Prophecies\" this moth is referred to. It also appears in the music video to Massive Attack's single, \"Butterfly Caught\".  The death's-head moth is mentioned in Susan Hill's gothic horror novel, \"I'm the King of the Castle\" as it is used to instil fear in one of the young protagonists.  John Keats mentioned the moth as a symbol of death in his \"Ode to Melancholy\": \"Make not your rosary of yew-berries, / Nor let the beetle, nor the death-moth be / Your mournful Psyche\".  In José Saramago's novel \"Death with Interruptions\", \"Acherontia atropos\" appears on the American edition's cover, and is a topic that two characters mull over.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Acherontia atropos, the (African) death's-head hawkmoth, is the most widely recognized of three species within the genus \"Acherontia\" (the other two being \"Acherontia lachesis\" and \"Acherontia styx\"). It is most commonly identified by the vaguely skull-shaped pattern adorning the thorax, the characteristic from which its common and scientific names are derived. The species was first given its scientific name by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of \"Systema Naturae\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971388}
{"src_title": "William Giauque", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "William Francis Giauque was born in Niagara Falls, Ontario, on May 12, 1895.  As his parents were U.S. citizens, they returned to the U.S. where he attended public schools primarily in Michigan. Following the death of his father in 1908, the family returned to Niagara Falls, where he studied at the Niagara Falls Collegiate Institute. After graduation, he looked for work in various power plants at Niagara Falls both for financial reasons and to pursue a career in electrical engineering. He was widely unsuccessful.  Eventually, however, his application was accepted by the Hooker Electro-Chemical Company in Niagara Falls, New York, which led him to employment in their laboratory. He enjoyed the work, and decided to become a chemical engineer.  After two years of employment, he entered the College of Chemistry of the University of California, Berkeley, where he received a bachelor of science degree with honors in 1920. He entered graduate school at Berkeley, becoming a University Fellow (1920–1921) and a James M. Goewey Fellow (1921–1922). He received the Ph.D. degree in chemistry with a minor in physics in 1922.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Although he began university study with an interest in becoming an engineer, he soon developed an interest in research under the influence of Professor Gilbert N. Lewis. Due to his outstanding performance as a student, he became an Instructor of Chemistry at Berkeley in 1922 and after passing through various grades of professorship, he became a full Professor of Chemistry in 1934. He retired in 1962.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Absolute zero.", "content": "He became interested in the third law of thermodynamics as a field of research during his experimental research for his Ph.D. research under Professor George Ernest Gibson comparing the relative entropies of glycerine crystals and glass.  The principal objective of his researches was to demonstrate through range of appropriate tests that the third law of thermodynamics is a basic natural law. In 1926, he proposed a method for observing temperatures considerably below 1 Kelvin (1 K is −457.87 °F or −272.15 °C). His work with D.P. MacDougall between 1933 and 1935 successfully employed them.  He developed a magnetic refrigeration device of his own design in order to achieve this outcome, getting closer to absolute zero than many scientists had thought possible. This trailblazing work, apart from proving one of the fundamental laws of nature led to stronger steel, better gasoline and more efficient processes in a range of industries.  His researches and that of his students included a large number of entropy determinations from low temperature measurements, particularly on condensed gases. The entropies and other thermodynamic properties of many gases were also determined from quantum statistics and molecular energy levels available from band spectra as well as other sources.  His correlated investigations of the entropy of oxygen with Dr. Herrick L. Johnston, led to the discovery of oxygen isotopes 17 and 18 in the Earth's atmosphere and showed that physicists and chemists had been using different scales of atomic weight for years without recognising it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1932, Giauque married Dr. Muriel Frances Ashley and they had two sons. He died on March 28, 1982 in Berkeley, California.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "William Francis Giauque (; May 12, 1895 – March 28, 1982) was an American chemist and Nobel laureate recognized in 1949 for his studies in the properties of matter at temperatures close to absolute zero. He spent virtually all of his educational and professional career at the University of California, Berkeley.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971389}
{"src_title": "John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Strutt was born on 12 November 1842 at Langford Grove in Maldon, Essex. In his early years he suffered from frailty and poor health. He attended Eton College and Harrow School (each for only a short period), before going on to the University of Cambridge in 1861 where he studied mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree (Senior Wrangler and 1st Smith's Prize) in 1865, and a Master of Arts in 1868. He was subsequently elected to a Fellowship of Trinity. He held the post until his marriage to Evelyn Balfour, daughter of James Maitland Balfour, in 1871. He had three sons with her. In 1873, on the death of his father, John Strutt, 2nd Baron Rayleigh, he inherited the Barony of Rayleigh.  He was the second Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge (following James Clerk Maxwell), from 1879 to 1884. He first described dynamic soaring by seabirds in 1883, in the British journal \"Nature\". From 1887 to 1905 he was Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Royal Institution.  Around the year 1900 Rayleigh developed the \"duplex\" (combination of two) theory of human sound localisation using two binaural cues, interaural phase difference (IPD) and interaural level difference (ILD) (based on analysis of a spherical head with no external pinnae). The theory posits that we use two primary cues for sound lateralisation, using the difference in the phases of sinusoidal components of the sound and the difference in amplitude (level) between the two ears.  During the First World War, he was president of the government's \"Advisory Committee for Aeronautics\", which was located at the National Physical Laboratory, and chaired by Richard Glazebrook.  In 1919, Rayleigh served as President of the Society for Psychical Research. As an advocate that simplicity and theory be part of the scientific method, Rayleigh argued for the principle of similitude.  Rayleigh was elected Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1873, and served as president of the Royal Society from 1905 to 1908. From time to time Rayleigh participated in the House of Lords; however, he spoke up only if politics attempted to become involved in science.  He died on 30 June 1919, at his home in Witham, Essex. He was succeeded, as the 4th Lord Rayleigh, by his son Robert John Strutt, another well-known physicist. Lord Rayleigh was buried in the graveyard of All Saints' Church in Terling in Essex.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious views.", "content": "Rayleigh was an Anglican. Though he did not write about the relationship of science and religion, he retained a personal interest in spiritual matters. When his scientific papers were to be published in a collection by the Cambridge University Press, Strutt wanted to include a religious quotation from the Bible, but he was discouraged from doing so, as he later reported:  Still, he had his wish and the quotation was printed in the five-volume collection of scientific papers. In a letter to a family member, he wrote about his rejection of materialism and spoke of Jesus Christ as a moral teacher:  He held an interest in parapsychology and was an early member of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR). He was not convinced of spiritualism but remained open to the possibility of supernatural phenomena. Rayleigh was the president of the SPR in 1919. He gave a presidential address in the year of his death but did not come to any definite conclusions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours and awards.", "content": "The lunar crater \"Rayleigh\" as well as the Martian crater \"Rayleigh\" were named in his honour. The asteroid 22740 Rayleigh was named after him on 1 June 2007. A type of surface waves are known as Rayleigh waves. The rayl, a unit of specific acoustic impedance, is also named for him. Rayleigh was also awarded with (in chronological order):  Lord Rayleigh was among the original recipients of the Order of Merit (OM) in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902, and received the order from King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 8 August 1902.  He received the degree of \"Doctor mathematicae (honoris causa)\" from the Royal Frederick University on 6 September 1902, when they celebrated the centennial of the birth of mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.  Sir William Ramsay, his co-worker in the investigation to discover Argon described Rayleigh as \"the greatest man alive\" while speaking to Lady Ramsay during his last illness.  H. M. Hyndman said of Rayleigh that \"no man ever showed less consciousness of great genius\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, (; 12 November 1842 – 30 June 1919), was a British scientist who made extensive contributions to both theoretical and experimental physics. He spent all of his academic career at the University of Cambridge. Among many honors, he received the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies.\" He served as President of the Royal Society from 1905 to 1908 and as Chancellor of the University of Cambridge from 1908 to 1919.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971390}
{"src_title": "Heap (data structure)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Operations.", "content": "The common operations involving heaps are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "Heaps are usually implemented with an implicit heap data structure, which is an implicit data structure consisting of an array (fixed size or dynamic array) where each element represents a tree node whose parent/children relationship is defined implicitly by their index. After an element is inserted into or deleted from a heap, the heap property may be violated and the heap must be balanced by swapping elements within the array. In an implicit heap data structure, the first (or last) element will contain the root. The next two elements of the array contain its children. The next four contain the four children of the two child nodes, etc. Thus the children of the node at position \"n\" would be at positions 2n and 2n + 1 in a one-based array, or 2n + 1 and 2n + 2 in a zero-based array. Computing the index of the parent node of n-th element is also straightforward. For one-based arrays the parent of element n is located at position n/2. Similarly, for zero-based arrays, is the parent is located at position (n-1)/2 (floored). This allows moving up or down the tree by doing simple index computations. Balancing a heap is done by sift-up or sift-down operations (swapping elements which are out of order). As we can build a heap from an array without requiring extra memory (for the nodes, for example), heapsort can be used to sort an array in-place.  Different types of heaps implement the operations in different ways, but notably, insertion is often done by adding the new element at the end of the heap in the first available free space. This will generally violate the heap property, and so the elements are then shifted up until the heap property has been reestablished. Similarly, deleting the root is done by removing the root and then putting the last element in the root and sifting down to rebalance. Thus replacing is done by deleting the root and putting the \"new\" element in the root and sifting down, avoiding a sifting up step compared to pop (sift down of last element) followed by push (sift up of new element).  Construction of a binary (or \"d\"-ary) heap out of a given array of elements may be performed in linear time using the classic Floyd algorithm, with the worst-case number of comparisons equal to 2\"N\" − 2\"s\"(\"N\") − \"e\"(\"N\") (for a binary heap), where \"s\"(\"N\") is the sum of all digits of the binary representation of \"N\" and \"e\"(\"N\") is the exponent of 2 in the prime factorization of \"N\". This is faster than a sequence of consecutive insertions into an originally empty heap, which is log-linear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "The heap data structure has many applications.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer science, a heap is a specialized tree-based data structure which is essentially an almost complete tree that satisfies the heap property: in a \"max heap\", for any given node C, if P is a parent node of C, then the \"key\" (the \"value\") of P is greater than or equal to the key of C. In a \"min heap\", the key of P is less than or equal to the key of C. The node at the \"top\" of the heap (with no parents) is called the \"root\" node.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971391}
{"src_title": "Lidl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1930, Josef Schwarz became a partner in Südfrüchte Großhandlung Lidl & Co., a fruit wholesaler, and he developed the company into a general food wholesaler.  In 1977, under his son Dieter Schwarz, the Schwarz-Gruppe began to focus on discount markets, larger supermarkets, and cash and carry wholesale markets. He did not want to use the name Schwarz-Markt (\"Schwarzmarkt\" means \"black market\") and rather use the name of Josef Schwarz's former business partner, A. Lidl, but legal reasons prevented him from taking over the name for his discount stores. When he discovered a newspaper article about the painter and retired schoolteacher Ludwig Lidl, he bought the rights to the name from him for 1,000 German marks.  Lidl is part of the Schwarz Group, the fifth-largest retailer in the world with sales of €104.3 billion (2018).  The first Lidl discount store was opened in 1973, copying the Aldi concept. Schwarz rigorously removed merchandise that did not sell from the shelves, and cut costs by keeping the size of the retail outlets as small as possible. By 1977, the Lidl chain comprised 33 discount stores.  Lidl opened its first UK store in 1994. Since then, Lidl UK has grown consistently, and today has over 800 stores. While it is still a small player in the United Kingdom, with a grocery market share of less than 5%, its importance, along with that of continental, no-frills competitor Aldi is growing, with half of the shoppers in the United Kingdom visiting Aldi or Lidl over Christmas 2014.  Sven Seidel was appointed CEO of the company in March 2014, after the previous CEO Karl-Heinz Holland stepped down. Holland had served as chief executive since 2008 but left due to undisclosed \"unbridgeable\" differences over future strategy. Seidel stepped down from his position in February 2017 after \"Manager Magazin\" reported he had fallen out of favour with Klaus Gehrig, who has headed the Schwarz Group since 2004. Seidel was succeeded as CEO by Dane Jesper Højer, previously head of Lidl's international buying operation.  In June 2015, the company announced it would establish a United States headquarters in Arlington, Virginia. Lidl has major distribution centers in Mebane, North Carolina, and Spotsylvania County, Virginia. The company initially focused on opening locations in East Coast states, between Pennsylvania and Georgia, and as far west as Ohio. In June 2017, Lidl opened its first stores in the United States in Virginia Beach and other mid-Atlantic cities. The company planned to open a total of one hundred U.S. stores by the summer of 2018. In November 2018, Lidl announced plans to acquire 27 Best Market stores in New York and New Jersey. In December 2018, Lidl opened its first location in New York City, in the Staten Island Mall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business model.", "content": "Like fellow German supermarket Aldi, Lidl has a zero waste, no-frills, \"pass-the-savings-to-the-consumer\" approach of displaying most products in their original delivery cartons, allowing the customers to take the product directly from the carton. When the carton is empty, it is simply replaced with a full one. Staffing is minimal.  In contrast to Aldi, there are generally more branded products offered. Lidl distributes many low-priced gourmet foods by producing each of them in a single European Union country for its whole worldwide chain, but it also sources many local products from the country where the store is located. Like Aldi, Lidl has special weekly offers, and its stock of non-food items often changes with time. In contrast to Aldi, Lidl advertises extensively in its homeland of Germany.  As with Aldi, Lidl does not play mood music in most countries including homeland Germany, In Lidl stores in the United States, Croatia, Spain (at least not all of them), Poland, Lithuania and two stores in Denmark as a test, they do play music. Lidl stores have PA systems for important announcements but do not broadcast commercials.  The Lidl operation in the United Kingdom took a different approach than in Germany, with a focus on marketing and public relations, and providing employee benefits not required by law, including paying the independently verified living wage and offering a staff discount. Upmarket products were introduced, especially in the lead-up to Christmas. This required significant investment in marketing to produce sales growth but had an effect on Lidl's logistical operation and pressure on profits. Ronny Gottschlich, who ran Lidl UK for the six years to 2016, was responsible for this approach, which led to friction with head office, due to the cost involved. In September 2016, Gottschlich unexpectedly left and was replaced by the Austrian sales and operations director, German-national Christian Härtnagel. Lidl continued to have ambitious investment plans in the United Kingdom, ultimately doubling the number of stores to 1,500. In the financial year of 2015, Lidl Great Britain's revenue from its over 630 stores throughout Britain was £4.7 billion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stores.", "content": "Lidl was present in 29 countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other services.", "content": "In October 2009, Lidl Movies was launched in the United Kingdom, undercutting Tesco DVD Rental, which had previously been the United Kingdom's cheapest online rental service for DVDs. The service was powered by OutNow DVD Rental. OutNow went into liquidation in October 2011, taking Lidl Movies with it.  In January 2012, Lidl launched bakeries in their stores across Europe. They consist of a small baking area with a number of ovens, together with an area where bread and pastries, such as croissants, are displayed for sale. The bakeries were initially trialed in a limited number of stores, to determine whether there was a demand for freshly baked products in-store.  In August 2013, Lidl UK also launched an online photo service, which prints photos and photo gifts at discounted prices.  As of May 2019, Lidl US has partnered with Boxed.com to test a home delivery service using the online retailer's technology. Lidl plans to open its first stores in Long Island, N.Y., in early 2020. Lidl also partners with Target Corp. subsidiary Shipt for grocery home delivery.  Lidl also runs Representative Offices in China and Bangladesh, though there is no mention of Lidl stores opening in said countries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lidl Stiftung & Co. KG (; ) is a German international discount supermarket chain that operates over 10,000 stores across Europe and the United States. Headquartered in Neckarsulm, Baden-Württemberg, the company belongs to Dieter Schwarz, who also owns the hypermarket chain Kaufland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971392}
{"src_title": "Eurasian otter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Eurasian otter is a typical species of the otter subfamily. Brown above and cream below, these long, slender creatures are well-equipped for their aquatic habits. Their bones show osteosclerosis, increasing their density to reduce buoyancy. This otter differs from the North American river otter by its shorter neck, broader visage, the greater space between the ears and its longer tail. However, the Eurasian otter is the only otter in much of its range, so it is rarely confused for any other animal. Normally, this species is long, not counting a tail of. The female is shorter than the male. The otter's average body weight is, although occasionally a large old male may reach up to. The record-sized specimen, reported by a reliable source but not verified, weighed over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The Eurasian otter is the most widely distributed otter species, its range including parts of Asia and Africa, as well as being spread across Europe, south to Israel. Though currently believed to be extinct in Liechtenstein and Switzerland, they are now very common in Latvia, along the coast of Norway, in the western regions of Spain and Portugal and across Great Britain, especially Shetland, where 12% of the UK breeding population exists. Ireland's otters are geographically widespread and believed to be the most stable population in Europe. In Italy, they can be found in southern parts of the peninsula. The South Korean population is endangered. In India, the species is distributed in the Himalayan foothills, southern Western Ghats and the central Indian landscape.  In general, their varied and adaptable diets mean they may inhabit any unpolluted body of fresh water, including lakes, streams, rivers, canals and ponds, as long as the food supply is adequate. In Andalusia the golf courses became part of their habitat. Eurasian otters may also live along the coast, in salt water, but require regular access to fresh water to clean their fur. When living in the sea, individuals of this species are sometimes referred to as \"sea otters\", but they should not be confused with the true sea otter, a North Pacific species much more strongly adapted to a marine existence.  The extinct Japanese river otter is usually considered a subspecies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "The Eurasian otter's diet mainly consists of fish. Fish is their most preferred choice of food in Mediterranean and temperate freshwater habitats. During the winter and in colder environments, though, fish consumption is significantly lower, and the otters use other sources of food, including amphibians, crustaceans, insects, birds and sometimes small mammals, including young beavers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "Eurasian otters are strongly territorial, living alone for the most part. An individual's territory may vary between about long, with about being usual. The length of the territory depends on the density of food available and the width of the water suitable for hunting (it is shorter on coasts, where the available width is much wider, and longer on narrower rivers).The Eurasian otter uses its feces, spraints, to mark its territory and prioritize the use of resources to other group members. The territories are only held against members of the same sex, so those of males and females may overlap. Mating takes place in water. Eurasian otters are nonseasonal breeders (males and females will breed at any time of the year) and it has been found that their mating season is most likely determined simply by the otters' reproductive maturity and physiological state. Female otters become sexually mature between 18 and 24 months old and the average age of first breeding is found to be years. Gestation for the Eurasian otter is 60–64 days, the litter weighing about 10% of the female body mass. After the gestation period, one to four pups are born, which remain dependent on the mother for about 13 months. The male plays no direct role in parental care, although the territory of a female with her pups is usually entirely within that of the male. Hunting mainly takes place at night, while the day is usually spent in the Eurasian otter's holt (den) – usually a burrow or hollow tree on the riverbank which can sometimes only be entered from underwater. Though long thought to hunt using sight and touch only, evidence is emerging that they may also be able to smell underwater – possibly in a similar manner to the star-nosed mole.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The Eurasian otter declined across its range in the second half of the 20th century primarily due to pollution from pesticides such as organochlorine and polychlorinated biphenyls. Other threats included habitat loss and hunting, both legal and illegal. Eurasian otter populations are now recovering in many parts of Europe. In the United Kingdom, the number of sites with an otter presence increased by 55% between 1994 and 2002. In August, 2011, the Environment Agency announced that otters had returned to every county in England since vanishing from every county except the West Country and parts of Northern England. Recovery is partly due to a ban on the most harmful pesticides that has been in place across Europe since 1979, partly to improvements in water quality leading to increases in prey populations, and partly to direct legal protection under the European Union Habitats Directive and national legislation in several European countries. In Hong Kong, it is a protected species under Wild Animals Protection Ordinance Cap 170. It is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN Red List.  In Asia, it is listed as endangered in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand, and critically endangered in Mongolia.  Most species that are victims of population decline or a loss of habitat tend to eventually lose their genetic difference due to inbreeding from small populations. A study conducted in 2001, examined whether or not the populations of Eurasian otters suffered from a lack of genetic variability. In the study, they examined teeth of otter skulls at the Zoological Museum, Copenhagen and the Natural History Museum, Aarhus. The samples were collected between 1883 and 1963 in Denmark (Funen, Zealand, and Jutland). The study examined the tissue on the teeth of the skulls and determined the genetic variability based on DNA analysis. In conclusion, the study discovered that despite the population declines, the Eurasian otter was not a victim of declining genetic variability.  The decline in population of native freshwater fishes, which is the preferred food of Eurasian otters, in the rivers of Iberia, along with the expansion of exotic fish species like centrarchids could potentially put Eurasian otters at risk for extinction.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Eurasian otter (\"Lutra lutra\"), also known as the European otter, Eurasian river otter, common otter, and Old World otter, is a semiaquatic mammal native to Eurasia. The most widely distributed member of the otter subfamily (Lutrinae) of the weasel family (Mustelidae), it is found in the waterways and coasts of Europe, many parts of Asia, and parts of northern Africa. The Eurasian otter has a diet mainly of fish, and is strongly territorial. It is endangered in some parts of its range, but is recovering in others.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971393}
{"src_title": "Canton of Vaud", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Humans lived alongside the Vaud lakes in prehistoric times. Later, the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii inhabited the area. Caesar's troops defeated the Helvetii in 58 BC and as a consequence the Romans settled in the area. The many towns established by the Romans include Vevey () and Lausanne (\"Lausonium\" or \"Lausonna\").  In 27 BC the state of \"Civitas Helvetiorum\" was established around the capital of Avenches (\"Aventicum\"). There are still many Roman remains around the town today. Between the 2nd and the 4th centuries Alemannic tribes repeatedly invaded the area, and in the 5th century the Burgundians occupied the territory. The Merovingian Franks later replaced the Burgundians. Their control did not last long either, and in 888 the area of the canton of Vaud became part of the Carolingian Empire (the successor state to the Merovingians). In 1032 the Zähringens of Germany defeated the Burgundians. The Zähringens themselves were succeeded in 1218 by the counts of Savoy. It was only under the counts of Savoy that the area gained political unity as the Barony of Vaud. A part stretching from Attalens to the River Sarine, in the north, was absorbed by the canton of Fribourg. As the power of the House of Savoy declined at the beginning of the 15th century, troops from Bern occupied the land. By 1536 Bern had completely annexed the area. Vaud's Protestant Reformation started with co-workers of John Calvin like Pierre Viret (a famous debate took place at the cathedral of Lausanne), but it was only decisively implemented when Bern put its full force behind it.  The Bernese occupiers were not popular amongst the population. In 1723 Major Abraham Davel led a revolt against Bern, in protest at what he saw as the denial of political rights of the French-speaking Vaudois by the German-speaking Bernese; he was subsequently beheaded. Later, inspired by the French Revolution of 1789–1799, the Vaudois drove out the Bernese governor in 1798 and declared the Lemanic Republic. Vaud nationalists like Frédéric-César de La Harpe had called for French intervention in liberating the area, and French Revolutionary troops moved in, taking over the whole of Switzerland itself in the process and setting up the Helvetic Republic. Under Napoleon I (Emperor 1804-1815), Vaud became (1798-1803) the canton of Léman. Unrest about the abolition of feudal rights and taxes led to increased discontent, which culminated in the revolt of the Bourla-papey in spring 1802, closely followed by the Stecklikrieg (August to October, 1802) that brought the end of the entire Helvetic Republic in 1803. In 1803 Vaud joined the re-installed Swiss Confederation. In spite of Bernese attempts to reclaim Vaud, it has remained a sovereign canton ever since.  In the 19th century, the canton of Vaud was an outspoken opponent of the \"Sonderbund\" Catholic separatist movement, which led to intervention by 99,000 Swiss Federal troops under General Henri Dufour against 79,000 separatists, in the Sonderbund War (November 1847). Separation was prevented at the cost of very few lives.  The current cantonal constitution dates from 14 April 2003, replacing the constitution of 1885.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The canton stretches from Lake Neuchâtel in the north, where it borders the canton of Neuchâtel, to Lake Geneva () in the south, where it borders the canton of Geneva, the French department of Haute-Savoie (lake border) and the canton of Valais (Chablais). In the Jura mountains in the west, the canton borders the French departments of Ain, Jura, and Doubs. In the east, it borders the cantons of Fribourg and Bern. The total area is.  Along with the canton of Berne, Vaud is one of the two cantons whose territory extends from the Jura to the Alps, through the three distinct geographic regions of Switzerland.  The areas in the south east are mountainous, situated on the north side of the Bernese Alps. This region is commonly named the \"Vaud Alps\" (). The Diablerets massif, peaking at, is the highest mountain of the canton. Other summits such as the Grand Muveran and the Tour d'Aï are visible from most of the canton. The area also hosts several popular skiing destinations such as Villars, Les Diablerets and Leysin.  The central area of the canton, in contrast, consists of moraines and is hilly. There are plains along the lakes. In the north, Avenches is in an exclave of the canton surrounded by the canton of Fribourg and Lake Neuchâtel. On the other hand, there are three enclaves of the canton of Fribourg (Estavayer-le-lac, Vuissens, Surpierre), as well as two enclaves of the canton of Geneva (Céligny), that are surrounded by the canton of Vaud.  The north-western part of the canton is also mountainous but in a more modest way with mountains generally not above ; the Jura Mountains. The Vallée de Joux is one of the most popular destinations in the region and also a centre of luxury mechanical Swiss watch manufacturing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Members of the national council.", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Members of the council of states.", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political subdivisions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Districts.", "content": "The canton of Vaud is divided into 10 districts:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Municipalities.", "content": "There are 376 municipalities in the canton ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "The population is French-speaking and historically was mostly Protestant (Calvinist), dating from the early years of the Reformation. Recently, however, this has been changing due to immigration from Southern Europe. In 2000, the population was nearly evenly split between Protestants (40%) and Roman Catholics (34%).  The population of the canton (as of ) was., the population included about 28% foreigners, including many Italians. The major population centres of the canton are: Lausanne ( inhabitants in ), Montreux-Vevey (Montreux: Vevey: inhabitants) and Yverdon-les-Bains ( inhabitants). The region around Nyon is often considered part of the agglomeration of Geneva. All of these are on Lake Geneva (called Lac Léman in French), except for Yverdon, which is on Lake Neuchâtel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The capital, Lausanne, is the major city of the canton. There are light industries concentrated around it. In 1998, 71.7% of the workers worked in the tertiary sector and 20.8% in the secondary.  The canton is the second-largest producer of wine in Switzerland. Most of the wine produced in the canton is white, and most vineyards are located on the steep shores of Lake Geneva such as the UNESCO World Heritage Site the Lavaux Vineyard Terraces. There is agriculture in the areas away from Lake Geneva. Sugar beet is important around Orbe, tobacco in La Broye Valley, and fruit at the foot of the Jura mountains. Cattle breeding and pasture are common in the Alps and the Jura mountains. There is a salt mine at Bex. Tourism is important in many towns along Lake Geneva. Major lakeside resorts include Lausanne, Montreux, and Vevey.  The Union Cycliste Internationale is based in Aigle, and many of its defamation lawsuits against critics have been heard in the Est Vaudois district court of Vevey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Two Swiss public universities are located within the canton:  Additionally, there are several public \"hautes écoles\" offering a limited selection of programmes:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local cuisine.", "content": "Taillé aux greubons are a salted bakery specialty of the region consisting of crackling encased in puff pastry. Another of the canton's specialties is carac, a pastry made of pie crust filled with chocolate ganache, covered by a characteristic green frangipane layer, and topped with a dot of chocolate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The canton of Vaud ( ;, ;, ) is the third largest of the Swiss cantons by population and fourth by size. It is located in Romandy, the French-speaking western part of the country; and borders the canton of Neuchâtel to the north, the cantons of Fribourg and Bern to the east, Valais and Lake Geneva to the south, the canton of Geneva to the south-west and France (Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes and Bourgogne-Franche-Comté) to the west.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971394}
{"src_title": "Pope Gregory V", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Gregory was a son of Otto I, Duke of Carinthia, a member of the Salian dynasty who was a grandson of Holy Roman Emperor Otto I. Gregory V succeeded John XV as pope when only twenty-four years of age. He was the chaplain of his cousin, Otto III, who presented him as candidate. Gregory V is often counted as the first German pope (or the second if Boniface II, an Ostrogoth, is counted).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Policies.", "content": "Politically, Gregory V acted consistently as the Emperor's representative in Rome and granted many exceptional privileges to monasteries within the Holy Roman Empire. One of his first acts was to crown Otto III emperor on 21 May 996. Together, they held a synod a few days after the coronation in which Arnulf, Archbishop of Reims, was ordered to be restored to his See of Reims, and Gerbert of Aurillac, was condemned as an intruder. King Robert II of France, who had been insisting on his right to appoint bishops, was ultimately forced to back down, and also to put aside his wife, Bertha of Burgundy, by the rigorous enforcement of a sentence of excommunication on the kingdom.  Until the conclusion of the council of Pavia in 997, Gregory V had a rival in the person of the antipope John XVI (997–998), whom Crescentius II and the nobles of Rome had chosen against the will of the youthful Emperor Otto III, Gregory's cousin. The revolt of Crescentius II was decisively suppressed by the Emperor, who marched upon Rome. John XVI fled, and Crescentius II shut himself up in the Castel Sant'Angelo. The Emperor's troops pursued the antipope, captured him, cut off his nose and ears, cut out his tongue, blinded him, and publicly degraded him before Otto III and Gregory V. When the much respected St. Nilus of Rossano castigated both the Emperor and Pope for their cruelty, John XVI was sent to the monastery of Fulda in Germany, where he lived until c. 1001. The Castel Sant'Angelo was besieged, and when it was taken in 998, Crescentius II was hanged upon its walls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Gregory V died suddenly, not without suspicion of foul play, on 18 February 999. He is buried in St. Peter's Basilica near Pope Pelagius I. His successor was Gerbert, who took the name Sylvester II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pope Gregory V (; c. 972 – 18 February 999), born Bruno of Carinthia, was the bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 3 May 996 to his death. A member of the Salian dynasty, he was made pope by his cousin Emperor Otto III.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971395}
{"src_title": "Pragmatic Sanction of 1713", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In 1700, the senior branch of the House of Habsburg became extinct with the death of Charles II of Spain. The War of the Spanish Succession ensued, with Louis XIV of France claiming the crowns of Spain for his grandson Philip, and Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor claiming them for his son Charles. In 1703, Charles and Joseph, Leopold's sons, signed the Mutual Pact of Succession, granting succession rights to the daughters of Joseph and Charles in the case of complete extinction of the male line but favouring the daughters of Joseph over those of Charles, as Joseph was older.  In 1705, Leopold I died and was succeeded by his elder son, Joseph I. Six years later, Joseph I died leaving behind two daughters, Archduchesses Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia. Charles succeeded Joseph, according to the Pact, and Maria Josepha became his heir presumptive.  However, Charles decided to amend the Pact to give his own future daughters precedence over his nieces. On 19 April 1713, he announced the changes in a secret session of the council.  Securing the right to succeed for his own daughters, who were not even born yet, became Charles's obsession. The previous succession laws had also forbidden the partition of the Habsburg dominions and provided for succession by females, but that had been mostly hypothetical. The Pragmatic Sanction was the first such document to be publicly announced and so required formal acceptance by the estates of the realms affected.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign recognition.", "content": "For 10 years, Charles VI laboured, with the support of his closest advisor, Johann Christoph von Bartenstein, to have his sanction accepted by the courts of Europe. Only the Electorate of Saxony and the Electorate of Bavaria did not accept it because it was detrimental to their inheritance rights. (Frederick Augustus II, Elector of Saxony was married to Maria Josepha of Austria and Charles, Elector of Bavaria to Maria Amalia of Austria, both daughters of Charles's deceased elder brother Joseph I.)  Charles VI made commitments with Russia and Augustus of Saxony, King of Poland, which caused two wars: the War of the Polish Succession against France and Spain, which cost him Naples and Sicily, and the Austro-Russian–Turkish War, which cost him Little Wallachia and northern Serbia, including the Fortress of Belgrade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Internal recognition.", "content": "Hungary, which had an elective kingship, had accepted the house of Habsburg as hereditary kings in the male line without election in 1687 but not semi-Salic inheritance. The Emperor-King agreed that if the Habsburg male line became extinct, Hungary would once again have an elective monarchy; the same was the rule in the Kingdom of Bohemia.  Maria Theresa, however, still gained the throne of Hungary. The Hungarian Parliament voted its own Pragmatic Sanction of 1723 in which the Kingdom of Hungary accepted female inheritance supporting her to become queen of Hungary.  Croatia was one of the crown lands that supported Emperor Charles's Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and supported Empress Maria Theresa in the War of the Austrian Succession of 1741–48 and the Croatian Parliament signed their own Pragmatic Sanction of 1712. Subsequently, the empress made significant contributions to Croatian matters by making several changes in the administrative control of the Military Frontier, the feudal and tax system. She also gave the independent port of Rijeka to Croatia in 1776.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outcome.", "content": "Charles VI spent the time of his reign preparing Europe for a female ruler, but he did not prepare his daughter, Maria Theresa. He would not read documents to her, take her to meetings or allow her to be introduced to ministers or have any preparation for the power she would receive in 1740. It is possible that the reason was that such instruction would imply an acceptance of his inability to produce a male heir.  Charles VI managed to get the great European powers to agree to the Pragmatic Sanction (for the time being) and died in 1740 with no male heirs. However, France, Prussia, Bavaria, and Saxony broke their promises and contested the claims of his daughter Maria Theresa on his Austrian lands, and initiated the War of the Austrian Succession, in which Austria lost Silesia to Prussia.  Further, the elective office of Holy Roman Emperor was filled by Joseph I's son-in-law Charles Albert of Bavaria, marking the first time in several hundred years that the position was not held by a Habsburg. As Emperor Charles VII, he lost his own country, Bavaria, to the Austrian army of his wife's cousin Maria Theresa and then died. His son, Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria, renounced claims on Austria in exchange for the return of his paternal duchy of Bavaria. Maria Theresa's husband was elected Holy Roman Emperor as Francis I in 1745. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, finally recognised Maria Theresa's rule.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pragmatic Sanction () was an edict issued by Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, on 19 April 1713 to ensure that the Habsburg hereditary possessions, which included the Archduchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Croatia, the Kingdom of Bohemia, the Duchy of Milan, the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Austrian Netherlands, could be inherited by a daughter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971396}
{"src_title": "Classification yard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flat yard.", "content": "Flat yards are constructed on flat ground, or on a gentle slope, not enough to allow a free-fall operation without locomotives. Freight cars are pushed by a locomotive and coast to their required location.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gravity yard.", "content": "Gravity yards were invented in the 19th century, saving shunting engines and instead letting the cars roll by gravity was seen as a major benefit, whereas the larger amount of manual work required to stop the rolling cars in the classification tracks was judged to be not that important. Gravity yards were a historical step in the development of classification yards and were later judged as inferior to hump yards, because it became clear that shunting engines were needed anyway (at least in inclement weather like strong winds or icy temperatures when the oil in the bearings became thick), and because manual labour was getting relatively more and more expensive. Thus, only few gravity yards were ever built, sometimes requiring massive earthwork (one example is the first German gravity yard at Dresden).  Most gravity yards were built in Germany and Great Britain, a few also in some other European countries, for example Łazy yard near Zawiercie on the Warsaw-Vienna Railway (in Poland). In the USA, there were only very few old gravity yards; one of the few gravity yards in operation today is CSX's Readville Yard south of Boston, Massachusetts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hump yard.", "content": "Hump yards are the largest and most effective classification yards, with the largest shunting capacity, often several thousand cars a day. They work similarly to gravity yards, but the falling gradient is limited to a small part of the yard, namely the hump. It is the heart of the yard—a lead track on a small hill over which an engine pushes the cars. Single cars, or a block of coupled cars, are uncoupled just before or at the crest of the hump, and roll by gravity onto their destination tracks in the tracks where the cars are sorted, called the \"classification bowl\". The speed of the cars rolling down from the hump into the classification bowl must be regulated according to whether they are full or empty, heavy or light freight, varying number of axles, whether there are few or many cars on the classification tracks, and varying weather conditions, including temperature, wind speed and direction. As concerns speed regulation, there are two types of hump yards—without or with mechanisation by retarders. In the old non-retarder yards braking was usually done in Europe by railroaders who laid skates onto the tracks. The skate or wheel chock was manually (or, in rare cases, mechanically) placed on one or both of the rails so that the treadles or rims of the wheel or wheels caused frictional retardation and resulted in the halting of the railway car. In the United States this braking was done by riders on the cars. In the modern retarder yards this work is done by mechanized \"rail brakes\" called retarders, which brake the cars by gripping the wheels. They are operated either pneumatically or hydraulically. Pneumatic systems are prevalent in the United States, France, Belgium, Russia and China, while hydraulic systems are used in Germany, Italy and the Netherlands.  Classification bowls in Europe typically consist of 20 to 40 tracks, divided into several fans or balloons of tracks, usually with eight classification tracks following a retarder in each one, often 32 tracks altogether. In the United States, many classification bowls have more than 40 tracks, which are often divided into six to ten classification tracks in each balloon loop.  Bailey Yard in North Platte, Nebraska, United States, the world's largest classification yard, is a hump yard. Other large American hump yards include Argentine Yard in Kansas City, Kansas, Robert Young Yard in Elkhart, Indiana, Clearing Yard in Chicago, Illinois, Englewood Yard in Houston, Texas, and Waycross Rice Yard in Waycross, Georgia. Notably, in Europe, Russia and China, all major classification yards are hump yards. Europe's largest hump yard is that of Maschen near Hamburg, Germany; it is only slightly smaller than Bailey Yard. The second largest is in the port of Antwerp, Belgium. Most hump yards are single yards with one classification bowl, but some, mostly very large, hump yards have two of them, one for each direction, thus are double yards, such as the Maschen, Antwerp, Clearing, and Bailey yards. According to the PRRT&HS PRR Chronology, the first hump yard in the United States was opened May 11, 1903 as part of the Altoona Yards at Bells Mills (East Altoona). Other sources report the PRR yard at Youngwood, PA which opened in the 1880s to serve the Connellsville coke fields as the first U.S. hump yard.  Almost all gravity yards have been retrofitted with humps and are worked as hump yards. Examples include Dresden Friedrichstadt and Nürnberg (Nuremberg) Rbf (Rbf: \"Rangierbahnhof\", \"classification yard\"), both in Germany.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A classification yard (American and Canadian English (Canadian National Railway use)) or marshalling yard (British, Hong Kong, Indian, Australian, and Canadian English (Canadian Pacific Railway use)) is a railway yard found at some freight train stations, used to separate railway cars onto one of several tracks. First the cars are taken to a track, sometimes called a \"lead\" or a \"drill\". From there the cars are sent through a series of switches called a \"ladder\" onto the classification tracks. Larger yards tend to put the lead on an artificially built hill called a \"hump\" to use the force of gravity to propel the cars through the ladder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971397}
{"src_title": "Access-control list", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Implementations.", "content": "Many kinds of operating systems implement ACLs, or have a historical implementation. The first time in the filesystem of Multics in 1965.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filesystem ACLs.", "content": "A filesystem ACL is a data structure (usually a table) containing entries that specify individual user or group rights to specific system objects such as programs, processes, or files. These entries are known as access-control entries (ACEs) in the Microsoft Windows NT, OpenVMS, Unix-like, and Mac OS X operating systems. Each accessible object contains an identifier to its ACL. The privileges or permissions determine specific access rights, such as whether a user can read from, write to, or execute an object. In some implementations, an ACE can control whether or not a user, or group of users, may alter the ACL on an object.  PRIMOS featured ACLs at least as early as 1984.  In the 1990s the ACL and RBAC models were extensively tested and used to administer file permissions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "POSIX ACL.", "content": "POSIX 1003.1e/1003.2c working group made an effort to standardize ACLs, resulting in what is now known as \"POSIX.1e ACL\" or simply \"POSIX ACL\". The POSIX.1e/POSIX.2c drafts were withdrawn in 1997 due to participants losing interest for funding the project and turning to more powerful alternatives such as NFSv4 ACL., no live sources of the draft could be found on the Internet, but it can still be found in the Internet Archive.  Most of the Unix and Unix-like operating systems (e.g. Linux since 2.5.46 or November 2002, BSD, or Solaris) support POSIX.1e ACLs (not necessarily draft 17). Many of them, for example AIX, FreeBSD, Mac OS X beginning with version 10.4 (\"Tiger\"), or Solaris with ZFS filesystem, support NFSv4 ACLs, which are part of the NFSv4 standard. There are two experimental implementations of NFSv4 ACLs for Linux: NFSv4 ACLs support for Ext3 filesystem and the more recent Richacls which brings NFSv4 ACLs support for Ext4 filesystem. ACLs are usually stored in the extended attributes of a file on these systems.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Active Directory ACLs.", "content": "Microsoft's Active Directory Directory Service implements an LDAP server that store and disseminate configuration information about users and computers in a domain. Active Directory extends the LDAP specification by adding the same type of access-control list mechanism as Windows NT uses for the NTFS filesystem. Windows 2000 then extended the syntax for access control entries such that they could not only grant or deny access to entire LDAP objects, but also to individual attributes within these objects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Networking ACLs.", "content": "On some types of proprietary computer-hardware (in particular routers and switches), an access-control list provides rules that are applied to port numbers or IP addresses that are available on a host or other layer 3, each with a list of hosts and/or networks permitted to use the service. Although it is additionally possible to configure access-control lists based on network domain names, this is a questionable idea because individual TCP, UDP, and ICMP headers do not contain domain names. Consequently, the device enforcing the access-control list must separately resolve names to numeric addresses. This presents an additional attack surface for an attacker who is seeking to compromise security of the system which the access-control list is protecting. Both individual servers as well as routers can have network ACLs. Access-control lists can generally be configured to control both inbound and outbound traffic, and in this context they are similar to firewalls. Like firewalls, ACLs could be subject to security regulations and standards such as PCI DSS.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "SQL implementations.", "content": "ACL algorithms have been ported to SQL and to relational database systems. Many \"modern\" (2000s and 2010s) SQL-based systems, like enterprise resource planning and content management systems, have used ACL models in their administration modules.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Comparing with RBAC.", "content": "The main alternative to the ACL model is the role-based access-control (RBAC) model. A \"minimal RBAC model\", \"RBACm\", can be compared with an ACL mechanism, \"ACLg\", where only groups are permitted as entries in the ACL. Barkley (1997) showed that \"RBACm\" and \"ACLg\" are equivalent.  In modern SQL implementations, ACLs also manage groups and inheritance in a hierarchy of groups. So \"modern ACLs\" can express all that RBAC express, and are notably powerful (compared to \"old ACLs\") in their ability to express access-control policy in terms of the way in which administrators view organizations.  For data interchange, and for \"high level comparisons\", ACL data can be translated to XACML.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An access-control list (ACL), with respect to a computer file system, is a list of permissions attached to an object. An ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects. Each entry in a typical ACL specifies a subject and an operation. For instance, if a file object has an ACL that contains, this would give Alice permission to read and write the file and Bob to only read it.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971398}
{"src_title": "Oder", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The Oder is known by several names in different languages, but the modern ones are very similar: English and ; Czech, Polish, and, ; (); Medieval Latin: \"Od(d)era\"; Renaissance Latin: \"Viadrus\" (invented in 1534).  Ptolemy knew the modern Oder as the Συήβος (\"Suebos\"; Latin \"Suevus\"), a name apparently derived from the Suebi, a Germanic people. While he also refers to an outlet in the area as the Οὐιαδούα \"Ouiadoua\" (or Οὐιλδούα \"Ouildoua\"; Latin \"Viadua\" or \"Vildua\"), this was apparently the modern Wieprza, as it was said to be a third of the distance between the \"Suebos\" and Vistula. The name \"Suebos\" may be preserved in the modern name of the Świna river (German \"Swine\"), an outlet from the Szczecin Lagoon to the Baltic.  In the Old Church Slavonic language, the name of the river is \"Vjodr\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Oder is long: in the Czech Republic, in Poland (including on the border between Germany and Poland) and is the third longest river located within Poland (after the Vistula and Warta), however, second longest river overall taking into account its total length, including parts in neighbouring countries. It drains a basin of, of which are in Poland (89%), in the Czech Republic (6%), and in Germany (5%). Channels connect it to the Havel, Spree, Vistula system and Kłodnica. It flows through Silesian, Opole, Lower Silesian, Lubusz, and West Pomeranian voivodeships of Poland and the states of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany.  The main branch empties into the Szczecin Lagoon near Police, Poland. The Szczecin Lagoon is bordered on the north by the islands of Usedom (west) and Wolin (east). Between these two islands, there is only a narrow channel (Świna) going to the Bay of Pomerania, which forms a part of the Baltic Sea.  The largest city on the Oder is Wrocław, in Lower Silesia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Navigation.", "content": "The Oder is navigable over a large part of its total length, as far upstream as the town of Koźle, where the river connects to the Gliwice Canal. The upstream part of the river is canalized and permits larger barges (up to CEMT Class IV) to navigate between the industrial sites around the Wrocław area.  Further downstream the river is free flowing, passing the towns of Eisenhüttenstadt (where the Oder–Spree Canal connects the river to the Spree in Berlin) and Frankfurt upon Oder. Downstream of Frankfurt the river Warta forms a navigable connection with Poznań and Bydgoszcz for smaller vessels. At Hohensaaten the Oder–Havel Canal connects with the Berlin waterways again.  Near its mouth the Oder reaches the city of Szczecin, a major maritime port. The river finally reaches the Baltic Sea through the Szczecin Lagoon and the river mouth at Świnoujście.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Under Germania Magna the river was known to the Romans as the \"Viadrus\" or \"Viadua\" in Classical Latin, as it was a branch of the Amber Road from the Baltic Sea to the Roman Empire. In Germanic languages, including English, it was and still is called the \"Oder\", written in medieval Latin documents as \"Odera\" or \"Oddera\". Most notably, it was mentioned in the Dagome iudex, which described territory of the Duchy of Poland under Duke Mieszko I in A.D. 990, as a part of duchy's western frontier.  Before Slavs settled along its banks, the Oder was an important trade route and towns in Germania were documented along with many tribes living between the rivers Albis (Elbe), Oder, and Vistula. Centuries later, after Germanic tribes, the Bavarian Geographer (ca. 845) specified the following West Slavic peoples: Sleenzane, Dadosesani, Opolanie, Lupiglaa, and Golensizi in Silesia and Wolinians with Pyrzycans in Western Pomerania. A document of the Bishopric of Prague (1086) mentions Zlasane, Trebovyane, Poborane, and Dedositze in Silesia.  From the 13th century on, the Oder valley was central to German Ostsiedlung, making the towns on its banks German-speaking over the following centuries.  The Finow Canal, first built in 1605, connects the Oder and Havel. After completion of the more straight Oder–Havel Canal in 1914, its economic relevance decreased.  The earliest important undertaking with a view to improving the waterway was initiated by Frederick the Great, who recommended diverting the river into a new and straight channel in the swampy tract known as Oderbruch near Küstrin. The work was carried out in the years 1746–53, a large tract of marshland being brought under cultivation, a considerable detour cut off and the main stream successfully confined to a canal.  In the late 19th century, three additional alterations were made to the waterway:  By the Treaty of Versailles, navigation on the Oder became subject to International Commission of the Oder. Following the articles 363 and 364 of the Treaty Czechoslovakia was entitled to lease in Stettin (now Szczecin) its own section in the harbour, then called \"Tschechoslowakische Zone im Hafen Stettin\". The contract of lease between Czechoslovakia and Germany, and supervised by the United Kingdom, was signed on February 16, 1929, and would end in 2028, however, after 1945 Czechoslovakia did not regain this legal position, de facto abolished in 1938–39.  At the 1943 Tehran Conference the allies decided that the new eastern border of Germany would run along the Oder. However, after World War II, the German areas east of the Oder and the Lusatian Neisse were put under Polish administration by the victorious allies at the Potsdam Conference (at the insistence of the Soviets). As a result, the so-called Oder–Neisse line formed the border between the Soviet occupation zone (from 1949 East Germany) and the areas of Germany under Polish administration. The final border between Germany and Poland was to be determined at a future peace conference. A part of the German population east of these two rivers was evacuated by the Nazis during the war or fled from the approaching Red Army. After the war, the remaining 8 million Germans were forcibly expelled from these territories by the Polish and Soviet administrations. East Germany confirmed the border with Poland under Soviet pressure in the Treaty of Zgorzelec in 1950. West Germany, after a period of refusal, confirmed the inviolability of the border in 1970 in the Treaty of Warsaw. In 1990 newly reunified Germany and the Republic of Poland signed a treaty recognizing the Oder–Neisse line as their border.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cities.", "content": "Main section:  Dziwna branch (between Wolin Island and mainland Poland):  Świna branch (between Wolin and the Usedom islands):  Szczecin Lagoon:  Peene branch (between Usedom Island and the German mainland):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Oder (, ; Czech, Lower Sorbian and ; ) is a river in Central Europe and Poland's third-longest river after the Vistula and Warta. It rises in the Czech Republic and flows through western Poland, later forming of the border between Poland and Germany as part of the Oder–Neisse line. The river ultimately flows into the Szczecin Lagoon north of Szczecin and then into three branches (the Dziwna, Świna and Peene) that empty into the Bay of Pomerania of the Baltic Sea.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971399}
{"src_title": "Toco toucan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and systematics.", "content": "German zoologist Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller described the toco toucan in 1776.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "Two subspecies are recognized:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The toco toucan has a striking plumage with a mainly black body, a white throat, chest and uppertail-coverts, and red undertail-coverts. What appears to be a blue iris is actually thin blue skin around the eye. This blue skin is surrounded by another ring of bare, orange skin. The most noticeable feature, however, is its huge bill, which measures from in length, which is yellow-orange, tending to deeper reddish-orange on its lower sections and culmen, and with a black base and large spot on the tip. It looks heavy, but as in other toucans it is relatively light because the inside largely is hollow. The tongue is nearly as long as the bill and very flat. This species is the largest toucan and the largest representative of the order Piciformes. The total length of the species is. Body weight in these birds can vary from, with males averaging against the smaller female, which averages. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is, the tail is and the tarsus is. Other than the size difference, there are no external differences between the sexes. Juveniles are duller and shorter-billed than adults. Its voice consists of a deep, coarse croaking, often repeated every few seconds. It also has a rattling call and will bill-clack.  The bill is the largest relative to body size of all birds providing 30 to 50% of its body surface area, although another Neotropical species, the sword-billed hummingbird, has a longer bill relative to its body length. It was called by Buffon a “grossly monstrous” appendage. Diverse functions have been suggested. Charles Darwin suggested it was a sexual ornament: “toucans may owe the enormous size of their beaks to sexual selection, for the sake of displaying the diversified and vivid stripes of colour with which these organs are ornamented\". Further suggestions have included aid in peeling fruit, intimidating other birds when robbing their nests, social selection related to defense of territory, and as a visual warning.  Research has shown that one function is as a surface area for heat exchange. The bill has the ability to modify blood flow and so regulate heat distribution in the bird, allowing it to use its bill as a thermal radiator. In terms of surface area used for this function, the bill relative to the bird's size is amongst the largest of any animal and has a network of superficial blood vessels supporting the thin horny sheath on the bill made of keratin called the rhamphotheca.  In its capacity to remove body heat the bill is comparable to that of elephant ears. The ability to radiate heat depends upon air speed: if this is low only 25% of the adult bird's resting heat production to as much as four times this heat production. In comparison, the bill of a duck and the ears of elephant can shed only 9 to 9.1% of resting heat production. The bill normally is responsible for 30 to 60% of heat loss. The practice of toco toucans of placing their bills under their wings may serve to insulate the bill and reduce heat loss during sleep. It has been observed that \"complexities of the vasculature and controlling mechanisms needed to adjust the blood flow to the bill may not be completely developed until adulthood.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The toco toucan occurs in northern and eastern Bolivia, extreme south-eastern Peru, northern Argentina, eastern and central Paraguay, and eastern and southern Brazil (excluding southern Rio Grande do Sul, the dry regions dominated by Caatinga vegetation and coastal regions between Ceará and Rio de Janeiro). Other disjunct populations occur along the lower Amazon River (Ilha de Marajó west approximately to the Madeira River), far northern Brazil in Roraima, coastal regions of the Guianas and it has been recently registered in north-west Uruguay. It only penetrates the Amazon in relatively open areas (e.g. along rivers). It is resident, but local movements may occur.  It is, unlike the other members of the genus \"Ramphastos\", essentially a non-forest species. It can be found in a wide range of semi-open habitats such as woodland, savanna and other open habitats with scattered trees, Cerrado, plantations, forest-edge, and even wooded gardens. It is mainly a species of lowlands, but occurs up to near the Andes in Bolivia. It is easily seen in the Pantanal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "The toco toucan eats fruit using its bill to pluck them from trees, but also insects, frogs, small reptiles, small birds and their eggs and nestlings. The long bill is useful for reaching things that otherwise would be out-of-reach. It is typically seen in pairs or small groups. In flight it alternates between a burst of rapid flaps with the relatively short, rounded wings, and gliding. Nesting is seasonal, but timing differs between regions. The nest is typically placed high in a tree and consists of a cavity, at least part of which is excavated by the parent birds themselves. It has also been recorded nesting in holes in earth-banks and terrestrial termite-nests. Their reproduction cycle is annual. The female usually lays two to four eggs a few days after mating. The eggs are incubated by both sexes and hatch after 17–18 days. These birds are very protective of themselves and their chicks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aviculture.", "content": "Like the keel-billed toucan, the toco toucan is sometimes kept in captivity, but has a high fruit diet and is sensitive to hemochromatosis (an iron storage disease). Also, pet toco toucans must not be permitted to eat mouse (or rat) meat, due to a risk of bacterial infection. There is an ongoing population management plan that should help to revert the decreasing captive population of the toco toucan for Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) member institutions. This is the second management plan that is occurring since 2001.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status.", "content": "Because it prefers open habitats, the toco toucan is likely to benefit from the widespread deforestation in tropical South America. It has a large range and except in the outer regions of its range, it typically is fairly common. It is therefore considered to be of Least Concern by BirdLife International.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The toco toucan (\"Ramphastos toco\"), also known as the common toucan or giant toucan, is the largest and probably the best known species in the toucan family. It is found in semi-open habitats throughout a large part of central and eastern South America. It is a common attraction in zoos.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971400}
{"src_title": "Lake Lugano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first certain testimony of a political body governing the shores of the lake is from 818. Occupying an area of strategic importance, the lake was then part of the feudal dominion of the County of Sperio. Circa 1000, it came under the control of the Bishop of Como. The region was the site of the war between Como and Milan over control of Alpine traffic from 1218 to 1227. As the lake and its shores became progressively incorporated into the Duchy of Milan they became the subject of political and territorial contention during the 15th century, and Lugano became the lake's main town.  The lake definitively ceased to belong to a single sovereign political entity following the establishment of the transalpine bailiwicks of the Swiss cantons at the beginning of the 16th century. The Italian-Swiss border was fixed in 1752 by the Treaty of Varese, and has since remained virtually unchanged.  In 1848, the Melide causeway was built on a moraine between Melide and Bissone, in order to carry a road across the lake and provide a direct connection between Lugano and Chiasso. Today the causeway also carries the Gotthard railway and the A2 motorway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The lake is in size, 63% of which is in Switzerland and 37% in Italy, has an average width of roughly, a maximum depth of found in the northern basin. The culminating point of the lake's drainage basin is the Pizzo di Gino summit in the Lugano Prealps (). Bathing in the lake is allowed at any of the 50 or so bathing establishments located along the Swiss shores.  The Italian exclave of Campione d'Italia and parts of the waters of the lake are considered by European Customs Law as non-territorial for fiscal purposes and as such enjoy a special tax status as a duty-free area, exemption from EU VAT  and offer residents other advantageous tax privileges.  The Melide causeway separates the northern () and southern () basins, although a bridge in the causeway permits water flow and navigation. The lake retention time is an average of 8.2 years; that of the northern basin (11.9 years) is considerably higher than the southern one (2.3 years).  Places on the lake in Switzerland (CH) and in Italy (I) include (from Lugano, clockwise):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Navigation.", "content": "The lake is navigable, and used by a considerable number of private vessels. Passenger boats of the Società Navigazione del Lago di Lugano (SNL) provide services on the lake, principally for tourist purposes, but also connecting Lugano with other lakeside communities, some of which have no road access.  Fishery in the lake (and Lake Maggiore) is regulated by a 1986 agreement between Switzerland and Italy. The current agreement on navigation dates from 1992.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pollution.", "content": "Pollution has long been a problem in Lake Lugano. In the 1960s and 1970s it was officially forbidden to bathe in the lake. Despite the continued introduction of sewage treatment plants such as in Gandria, factors such as lake retention time and lack of oxygen and increasing phosphorus concentrations means it is unclear if the lake will recover.  The Federal Office for the Environment's last published report on Lake Lugano dates from 1995. To summarise that report:  The Swiss-Italian organisation CIPAIS in its most recent published report says: The Italian environmental group Legambiente, in its 2007 study of all northern Italian lakes, found Lake Lugano to be the most polluted of all. According to Legambiente, the only reason swimming was not banned on the Italian Lakes was because the state of Lombardy changed the law. They state that pollution levels in the lakes do not conform to European rulings and the lack of sewage treatment is illegal.  Their 2010 measurements found samples taken at Ponte Tresa, Ostene and Port Ceresio to be \"heavily polluted\" (more than 1,000 UFC/100 ml intestinal enterococci and/or greater than 2000 UFC/100 ml \"E. coli\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fauna.", "content": "The lake is full of fish. Apart from a few protected areas, such as the mouth of the River Cuccio in Porlezza, fishing is allowed anywhere, although according to various regulations. Protected species are the bleak and the white clawed crayfish (\"Austropotamobius pallipes\"). The bleak is almost extinct here, unlike in Lago Maggiore, and planning is under way for the controlled repopulation of the lake, particularly around Ponte Tresa.  In 1895 the brook trout was introduced from Lake Zug, while between 1894 and 1897 the common whitefish was introduced. Since 1950 attempts have been made to introduce the whitefish \"Coregonus macrophthalmus\" from Lake Neuchâtel, but it has not established itself effectively.  The Common Roach is present in large numbers and took around ten years to colonise the entire lake, thereby replacing the bleak. Still present are the European chub, tench, carp and a few examples of European perch, largemouth bass, zander and burbot. Recently the wels catfish and pigo have been spotted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossils.", "content": "The whole area behind the southern shores of Lake Lugano is rich in fossils. The focal point of these fossil deposits is Monte San Giorgio, where since the 19th century many fossils have been found dating from the mid-Triassic (around 220 million years ago). The deposits on Monte San Giorgio stretch towards the west into Italian territory and the deposits of Besano. Fossils dating from the early Jurassic (around 180 million years ago) have also been found along the southern shores but more towards the east and Osteno.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lake Lugano ( or, from ; ; ) is a glacial lake which is situated on the border between southern Switzerland and northern Italy. The lake, named after the city of Lugano, is situated between Lake Como and Lago Maggiore. It was cited for the first time by Gregory of Tours in 590 with the name \"Ceresio\", a name which is said to have derived from the Latin word \"cerasus\", meaning cherry, and refers to the abundance of cherry trees which at one time adorned the shores of the lake. The lake appears in documents in 804 under the name \"Laco Luanasco\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971401}
{"src_title": "Characidae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Systematics.", "content": "This family has undergone a large amount of systematic and taxonomic change. More recent revision has moved many former members of the family into their own related but distinct families – the pencilfishes of the genus \"Nannostomus\" are a typical example, having now been moved into the Lebiasinidae, the assorted predatory species belonging to \"Hoplias\" and \"Hoplerythrinus\" have now been moved into the Erythrinidae, and the sabre-toothed fishes of the genus \"Hydrolycus\" have been moved into the Cynodontidae. The former subfamily Alestiinae was promoted to family level (Alestiidae) and the subfamilies Crenuchinae and Characidiinae were moved to the family Crenuchidae. Other fish families that were formerly classified as members of the Characidae, but which were moved into separate families of their own during recent taxonomic revisions (after 1994) include Acestrorhynchidae, Anostomidae, Chilodontidae, Citharinidae, Ctenoluciidae, Curimatidae, Distichodontidae, Gasteropelecidae, Hemiodontidae, Hepsetidae, Parodontidae, Prochilodontidae, Serrasalmidae, and Triporthidae.  The larger piranhas were originally classified as belonging to the Characidae, but various revisions place them in their own related family, the Serrasalmidae. This reassignment has yet to enjoy universal acceptance, but is gaining in popularity among taxonomists working with these fishes. Given the current state of flux of the Characidae, a number of other changes will doubtless take place, reassigning once-familiar species to other families. Indeed, the entire phylogeny of the Ostariophysi – fishes possessing a Weberian apparatus – has yet to be settled conclusively. Until that phylogeny is settled, the opportunity for yet more upheavals within the taxonomy of the characoid fishes is considerable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The subfamilies and tribes currently recognized by most if not all authors, and their respective genera, are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Former members.", "content": "The Chalceidae, Iguanodectidae, Bryconidae and Heterocharacinae are the most recent clades to be removed in order to maintain a monophyletic Characidae.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genera \"incertae sedis\".", "content": "A large number of taxa in this family are \"incertae sedis\". The relationships of many fish in this family – in particular species traditionally placed in the Tetragonopterinae, which had become something of a \"wastebin taxon\" – are poorly known, a comprehensive phylogenetic study for the entire family is needed. The genera \"Hyphessobrycon\", \"Astyanax\", \"Hemigrammus\", \"Moenkhausia\", and \"Bryconamericus\" include the largest number of currently recognized species among characid fishes that are in need of revision; \"Astyanax\" and \"Hyphessobrycon\" in the usual delimitation are among the largest genera in this family. These genera were originally proposed between 1854 and 1908 and are still more or less defined as by Carl H. Eigenmann in 1917, though diverse species have been added to each genus since that time. The anatomical diversity within each genus, the fact that each of these generic groups at the present time cannot be well-defined, and the high number of species involved are the major reasons for the lack of phylogenetic analyses dealing with the relationships of the species within these generic \"groups\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Characidae, the characids or characins is a family of freshwater subtropical and tropical fish, belonging to the order Characiformes. The name \"characins\" is the historical one, but scientists today tend to prefer \"characids\" to reflect their status as a by and large monophyletic group at family rank. To arrive there, this family has undergone much systematic and taxonomic change. Among those fishes that remain in the Characidae for the time being are the tetras, comprising the very similar genera \"Hemigrammus\" and \"Hyphessobrycon\", as well as a few related forms such as the cave and neon tetras. Fish of this family are important as food and also include popular aquarium fish species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971402}
{"src_title": "Chandra X-ray Observatory", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1976 the Chandra X-ray Observatory (called AXAF at the time) was proposed to NASA by Riccardo Giacconi and Harvey Tananbaum. Preliminary work began the following year at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO). In the meantime, in 1978, NASA launched the first imaging X-ray telescope, Einstein (HEAO-2), into orbit. Work continued on the AXAF project throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In 1992, to reduce costs, the spacecraft was redesigned. Four of the twelve planned mirrors were eliminated, as were two of the six scientific instruments. AXAF's planned orbit was changed to an elliptical one, reaching one third of the way to the Moon's at its farthest point. This eliminated the possibility of improvement or repair by the space shuttle but put the observatory above the Earth's radiation belts for most of its orbit. AXAF was assembled and tested by TRW (now Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems) in Redondo Beach, California.  AXAF was renamed Chandra as part of a contest held by NASA in 1998, which drew more than 6,000 submissions worldwide. The contest winners, Jatila van der Veen and Tyrel Johnson (then a high school teacher and high school student, respectively), suggested the name in honor of Nobel Prize–winning Indian-American astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. He is known for his work in determining the maximum mass of white dwarf stars, leading to greater understanding of high energy astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars and black holes. Fittingly, the name Chandra means \"moon\" in Sanskrit.  Originally scheduled to be launched in December 1998, the spacecraft was delayed several months, eventually being launched in July 23, 1999, at 04:31 UTC by during STS-93. Chandra was deployed from \"Columbia\" at 11:47 UTC. The Inertial Upper Stage's first stage motor ignited at 12:48 UTC, and after burning for 125 seconds and separating, the second stage ignited at 12:51 UTC and burned for 117 seconds. At, it was the heaviest payload ever launched by the shuttle, a consequence of the two-stage Inertial Upper Stage booster rocket system needed to transport the spacecraft to its high orbit.  Chandra has been returning data since the month after it launched. It is operated by the SAO at the Chandra X-ray Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with assistance from MIT and Northrop Grumman Space Technology. The ACIS CCDs suffered particle damage during early radiation belt passages. To prevent further damage, the instrument is now removed from the telescope's focal plane during passages.  Although Chandra was initially given an expected lifetime of 5 years, on September 4, 2001, NASA extended its lifetime to 10 years \"based on the observatory's outstanding results.\" Physically Chandra could last much longer. A 2004 study performed at the Chandra X-ray Center indicated that the observatory could last at least 15 years.  In July 2008, the International X-ray Observatory, a joint project between ESA, NASA and JAXA, was proposed as the next major X-ray observatory but was later cancelled. ESA later resurrected a downsized version of the project as the Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics (ATHENA), with a proposed launch in 2028.  On October 10, 2018, Chandra entered safe mode operations, due to a gyroscope glitch. NASA reported that all science instruments were safe. Within days, the 3-second error in data from one gyro was understood, and plans were made to return Chandra to full service. The gyroscope that experienced the glitch was placed in reserve and is otherwise healthy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example discoveries.", "content": "The data gathered by Chandra has greatly advanced the field of X-ray astronomy. Here are some examples of discoveries supported by observations from Chandra:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical description.", "content": "Unlike optical telescopes which possess simple aluminized parabolic surfaces (mirrors), X-ray telescopes generally use a Wolter telescope consisting of nested cylindrical paraboloid and hyperboloid surfaces coated with iridium or gold. X-ray photons would be absorbed by normal mirror surfaces, so mirrors with a low grazing angle are necessary to reflect them. Chandra uses four pairs of nested mirrors, together with their support structure, called the High Resolution Mirror Assembly (HRMA); the mirror substrate is 2 cm-thick glass, with the reflecting surface a 33 nm iridium coating, and the diameters are 65 cm, 87 cm, 99 cm and 123 cm. The thick substrate and particularly careful polishing allowed a very precise optical surface, which is responsible for Chandra's unmatched resolution: between 80% and 95% of the incoming X-ray energy is focused into a one-arcsecond circle. However, the thickness of the substrate limits the proportion of the aperture which is filled, leading to the low collecting area compared to XMM-Newton.  Chandra's highly elliptical orbit allows it to observe continuously for up to 55 hours of its 65-hour orbital period. At its furthest orbital point from Earth, Chandra is one of the most distant Earth-orbiting satellites. This orbit takes it beyond the geostationary satellites and beyond the outer Van Allen belt.  With an angular resolution of 0.5 arcsecond (2.4 μrad), Chandra possesses a resolution over 1000 times better than that of the first orbiting X-ray telescope.  CXO uses mechanical gyroscopes, which are sensors that help determine what direction the telescope is pointed. Other navigation and orientation systems on board CXO include an aspect camera, Earth and Sun sensors, and reaction wheels. It also has two sets of thrusters, one for movement and another for offloading momentum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Instruments.", "content": "The Science Instrument Module (SIM) holds the two focal plane instruments, the Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer (ACIS) and the High Resolution Camera (HRC), moving whichever is called for into position during an observation.  ACIS consists of 10 CCD chips and provides images as well as spectral information of the object observed. It operates in the photon energy range of 0.2–10 keV. HRC has two micro-channel plate components and images over the range of 0.1–10 keV. It also has a time resolution of 16 microseconds. Both of these instruments can be used on their own or in conjunction with one of the observatory's two transmission gratings.  The transmission gratings, which swing into the optical path behind the mirrors, provide Chandra with high resolution spectroscopy. The High Energy Transmission Grating Spectrometer (HETGS) works over 0.4–10 keV and has a spectral resolution of 60–1000. The Low Energy Transmission Grating Spectrometer (LETGS) has a range of 0.09–3 keV and a resolution of 40–2000.  Summary:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO), previously known as the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), is a Flagship-class space telescope launched aboard the during STS-93 by NASA on July 23, 1999. Chandra is sensitive to X-ray sources 100 times fainter than any previous X-ray telescope, enabled by the high angular resolution of its mirrors. Since the Earth's atmosphere absorbs the vast majority of X-rays, they are not detectable from Earth-based telescopes; therefore space-based telescopes are required to make these observations. Chandra is an Earth satellite in a 64-hour orbit, and its mission is ongoing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971403}
{"src_title": "Pope Fabian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and accession.", "content": "According to the \"Liber Pontificalis\", Fabian was a noble Roman by birth, and his father's name was Fabius. Nothing more is known about his background. The legend concerning the circumstances of his election is preserved by the fourth-century writer Eusebius of Caesarea (\"Church History\", VI. 29).  After the short reign of Pope Anterus, Fabian had come to Rome from the countryside when the new papal election began. \"Although present,\" says Eusebius, Fabian \"was in the mind of none.\" While the names of several illustrious and noble churchmen were being considered over the course of thirteen days, a dove suddenly descended upon the head of Fabian. To the assembled electors, this strange sight recalled the gospel scene of the descent of the Holy Spirit on Jesus at the time of his baptism by John the Baptist. The congregation took this as a sign that he was marked out for this dignity, and Fabian was at once proclaimed bishop by acclamation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Papacy.", "content": "During Fabian's reign of 14 years, there was a lull in the storm of persecution which had resulted in the exile of both Anterus' predecessor Pontian and the antipope (and later saint) Hippolytus. Fabian had enough influence at court to effect the return of the bodies of both of these martyrs from Sardinia, where they had died at hard labor in the mines. The report that he baptized the emperor Philip the Arab and his son, however, is probably a legend, although he did seem to enjoy some connections at court, since the bodies of Pontian and Hippolytus could not have been exhumed without the emperor's approval.  According to the sixth-century historian Gregory of Tours Fabian sent out the \"apostles to the Gauls\" to Christianise Gaul in A.D. 245. Fabian sent seven bishops from Rome to Gaul to preach the Gospel: Gatianus of Tours to Tours, Trophimus of Arles to Arles, Paul of Narbonne to Narbonne, Saturnin to Toulouse, Denis to Paris, Austromoine to Clermont, and Martial to Limoges. He also condemned Privatus, the originator of a new heresy in Africa. The \"Liber Pontificalis\" says that Fabian divided the Christian communities of Rome into seven districts, each supervised by a deacon. Eusebius (VI §43) adds that he appointed seven subdeacons to help collect the \"acta\" of the martyrs—the reports of the court proceedings on the occasion of their trials. There is also a tradition that he instituted the four minor clerical orders: porter, lector, exorcist, and acolyte. However most scholars believe these offices evolved gradually and were formally instituted at a later date.  His deeds are thus described in the \"Liber Pontificalis\": \"Hic regiones dividit diaconibus et fecit vii subdiacones, qui vii notariis imminerent, Ut gestas martyrum integro fideliter colligerent, et multas fabricas per cymiteria fieri praecepit\". (\"He divided the \"regiones\" into deaconships and made seven sub-deaconships which seven secretaries oversaw, so that they brought together the deeds of the martyrs faithfully made whole, and he brought forth many works in the cemeteries.\")  The \"Liberian Catalogue\" of the popes also reports that Fabian initiated considerable work on the catacombs, where honored Christians were buried, and where he also caused the body of Pope Pontian to be entombed at the catacomb of Callixtus.  With the advent of Emperor Decius, the Roman government's tolerant policy toward Christianity temporarily ended. Decius ordered leading Christians to demonstrate their loyalty to Rome by offering incense to the cult images of deities which represented the Roman state. This was unacceptable to many Christians, who, while no longer holding most of the laws of the Old Testament to apply to them, took the commandment against idolatry with deadly seriousness. Fabian was thus one of the earliest victims of Decius, dying as a martyr on 20 January 250, at the beginning of the Decian persecution, probably in prison rather than by execution.  Fabian was buried in the catacomb of Callixtus in Rome. The Greek inscription on his tomb has survived, and bears the words:  His remains were later reinterred at San Sebastiano fuori le mura by Pope Clement XI where the Albani Chapel is dedicated in his honour.  The Coptic Orthodox Church teaches that Fabianus was martyred twice in the same week.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pope Fabian () was the bishop of Rome from 10 January 236 to his death on 20 January 250, succeeding Anterus. He is famous for the miraculous nature of his election, in which a dove is said to have descended on his head to mark him as the Holy Spirit's unexpected choice to become the next pope. He was succeeded by Cornelius.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971404}
{"src_title": "Pope Stephen I", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Stephen was born in Rome but had Greek ancestry. He served archdeacon of Pope Lucius I, who appointed Stephen his successor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pontificate.", "content": "Following the Decian persecution of 250–251, there was disagreement about how to treat those who had lapsed from the faith. Stephen was urged by Bishop Faustinus of Lyon to take action against Marcian, the Novatianist bishop of Arles, who denied penance and communion to the lapsed who repented. The controversy arose in the context of a broad pastoral problem. During the Decian persecution some Christians had purchased certificates attesting that they had made the requisite sacrifices to the Roman gods. Others had denied they were Christians while yet others had in fact taken part in pagan sacrifices. These people were called \"lapsi\". The question arose that if they later repented, could they be readmitted to communion with the church, and if so, under what conditions.  Stephen held that converts who had been baptized by splinter groups did not need re-baptism, while Cyprian and certain bishops of the Roman province of Africa held rebaptism necessary for admission to the Eucharist. Stephen's view eventually won broad acceptance in the Latin Church. However, in the Eastern Churches this issue is still debated. He is also mentioned as having insisted on the restoration of the bishops of León and Astorga, who had been deposed for unfaithfulness during the persecution but afterwards had repented.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The \"Depositio episcoporum\" of 354 does not speak of Pope Stephen I as a martyr and he is not celebrated as such by the Catholic Church, in spite of the account in the \"Golden Legend\" that in 257 Emperor Valerian resumed the persecution of Christians, and Stephen was sitting on his pontifical throne celebrating Mass for his when the emperor's men came and beheaded him on 2 August 257. As late as the 18th century, what was said to be the chair was preserved, still stained with blood.  Stephen I's feast day in the Catholic Church is celebrated on 2 August. In 1839, when the new feast of St Alphonsus Mary de Liguori was assigned to 2 August, Stephen I was mentioned only as a commemoration within the Mass of Saint Alphonsus. The revision of the calendar in 1969 removed the mention of Stephen I from the General Roman Calendar, but, according to the General Instruction of the Roman Missal, the 2 August Mass may now everywhere be that of Stephen I, unless in some locality an obligatory celebration is assigned to that day, and some continue to use pre-1969 calendars that mention a commemoration of Saint Stephen I on that day.  Pope Stephen I is the patron of Hvar and of Modigliana Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pope Stephen I () was the bishop of Rome from 12 May 254 to his death on 2 August 257.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971405}
{"src_title": "Zinc sulfide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "ZnS exists in two main crystalline forms, and this dualism is often a salient example of polymorphism. In each form, the coordination geometry at Zn and S is tetrahedral. The more stable cubic form is known also as zinc blende or sphalerite. The hexagonal form is known as the mineral wurtzite, although it also can be produced synthetically. The transition from the sphalerite form to the wurtzite form occurs at around 1020 °C. A tetragonal form is also known as the very rare mineral called polhemusite, with the formula (Zn,Hg)S.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Luminescent material.", "content": "Zinc sulfide, with addition of few ppm of suitable activator, exhibits strong phosphorescence (described by Nikola Tesla in 1893), and is currently used in many applications, from cathode ray tubes through X-ray screens to glow in the dark products. When silver is used as activator, the resulting color is bright blue, with maximum at 450 nanometers. Using manganese yields an orange-red color at around 590 nanometers. Copper gives long-time glow, and it has the familiar greenish glow-in-the-dark. Copper-doped zinc sulfide (\"ZnS plus Cu\") is used also in electroluminescent panels. It also exhibits phosphorescence due to impurities on illumination with blue or ultraviolet light.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Optical material.", "content": "Zinc sulfide is also used as an infrared optical material, transmitting from visible wavelengths to just over 12 micrometers. It can be used planar as an optical window or shaped into a lens. It is made as microcrystalline sheets by the synthesis from hydrogen sulfide gas and zinc vapour, and this is sold as FLIR-grade (Forward Looking Infrared), where the zinc sulfide is in a milky-yellow, opaque form. This material when hot isostatically pressed (HIPed) can be converted to a water-clear form known as Cleartran (trademark). Early commercial forms were marketed as Irtran-2 but this designation is now obsolete.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pigment.", "content": "Zinc sulfide is a common pigment, sometimes called sachtolith. When combined with barium sulfate, zinc sulfide forms lithopone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Catalyst.", "content": "Fine ZnS powder is an efficient photocatalyst, which produces hydrogen gas from water upon illumination. Sulfur vacancies can be introduced in ZnS during its synthesis; this gradually turns the white-yellowish ZnS into a brown powder, and boosts the photocatalytic activity through enhanced light absorption.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semiconductor properties.", "content": "Both sphalerite and wurtzite are intrinsic, wide-bandgap semiconductors. These are prototypical II-VI semiconductors, and they adopt structures related to many of the other semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide. The cubic form of ZnS has a band gap of about 3.54 electron volts at 300 kelvins, but the hexagonal form has a band gap of about 3.91 electron volts. ZnS can be doped as either an n-type semiconductor or a p-type semiconductor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The phosphorescence of ZnS was first reported by the French chemist Théodore Sidot in 1866. His findings were presented by A. E. Becquerel, who was renowned for the research on luminescence. ZnS was used by Ernest Rutherford and others in the early years of nuclear physics as a scintillation detector, because it emits light upon excitation by x-rays or electron beam, making it useful for X-ray screens and cathode ray tubes. This property made zinc sulfide useful in the dials of radium watches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Zinc sulfide is usually produced from waste materials from other applications. Typical sources include smelter, slag, and pickle liquors. It is also a by-product of the synthesis of ammonia from methane where zinc oxide is used to scavenge hydrogen sulfide impurities in the natural gas:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Laboratory preparation.", "content": "It is easily produced by igniting a mixture of zinc and sulfur. Since zinc sulfide is insoluble in water, it can also be produced in a precipitation reaction. Solutions containing Zn salts readily form a precipitate ZnS in the presence of sulfide ions (e.g., from HS). This reaction is the basis of a gravimetric analysis for zinc.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Zinc sulfide (or zinc sulphide) is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula of ZnS. This is the main form of zinc found in nature, where it mainly occurs as the mineral sphalerite. Although this mineral is usually black because of various impurities, the pure material is white, and it is widely used as a pigment. In its dense synthetic form, zinc sulfide can be transparent, and it is used as a window for visible optics and infrared optics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971406}
{"src_title": "Rubus idaeus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "A closely related plant in North America, sometimes regarded as the variety \"Rubus idaeus\" var. \"strigosus\", is more commonly treated as a distinct species, \"Rubus strigosus\" (American red raspberry), as is done here. Red-fruited cultivated raspberries, even in North America, are generally \"Rubus idaeus\" or horticultural derivatives of hybrids of \"R. idaeus\" and \"R. strigosus;\" these plants are all addressed in the present article.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Plants of \"Rubus idaeus\" are generally perennials which bear biennial stems (\"canes\") from a perennial root system. In its first year, a new, unbranched stem (\"primocane\") grows vigorously to its full height of 1.5–2.5 m (5.0–8.3 feet), bearing large pinnately compound leaves with five or seven leaflets, but usually no flowers. In its second year (as a \"floricane\"), a stem does not grow taller, but produces several side shoots, which bear smaller leaves with three or five leaflets. The flowers are produced in late spring on short racemes on the tips of these side shoots, each flower about 1 cm (0.4 inches) diameter with five white petals. The fruit is red, edible, and sweet but tart-flavoured, produced in summer or early autumn; in botanical terminology, it is not a berry at all, but an aggregate fruit of numerous drupelets around a central core. In raspberries (various species of \"Rubus\" subgenus \"Idaeobatus\"), the drupelets separate from the core when picked, leaving a hollow fruit, whereas in blackberries and most other species of \"Rubus,\" the drupelets stay attached to the core.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biotope.", "content": "As a wild plant, \"R. idaeus\" typically grows in forests, forming open stands under a tree canopy, and denser stands in clearings. In the south of its range (southern Europe and central Asia), it only occurs at high altitudes in mountains. The species name \"idaeus\" refers to its occurrence on Mount Ida near Troy in northwest Turkey, where the ancient Greeks were most familiar with it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "\"R. idaeus\" is grown primarily for its fruits, but occasionally for its leaves, roots, or other parts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fruits.", "content": "The fruit of \"R. idaeus\" is an important food crop, though most modern commercial raspberry cultivars derive from hybrids between \"R. idaeus\" and \"R. strigosus\". The fruits of wild plants have a sweet taste and are very aromatic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leaves and other parts.", "content": "Red raspberries contains 31 μg/100 g of folate. Red raspberries have antioxidant effects that play a minor role in the killing of stomach and colon cancer cells.  Young roots of \"Rubus idaeus\" prevented kidney stone formation in a mouse model of hyperoxaluria. Tiliroside from raspberry is a potent tyrosinase inhibitor and might be used as a skin-whitening agent and pigmentation medicine.  Raspberry fruit may protect the liver.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "Vitamin C and phenolics are present in red raspberries. Most notably, the anthocyanins cyanidin-3-sophoroside, cyanidin-3-(2(G)-glucosylrutinoside) and cyanidin-3-glucoside, the two ellagitannins sanguiin H-6 and lambertianin C are present together with trace levels of flavonols, ellagic acid and hydroxycinnamate.  Polyphenolic compounds from raspberry seeds have antioxidant effects in vitro, but have no proven antioxidant effect in humans. Raspberry ketones are derived from various fruits and plants, not raspberries, and are marketed as having weight loss benefits. There is no clinical evidence for this effect in humans.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rubus idaeus (raspberry, also called red raspberry or occasionally as European raspberry to distinguish it from other raspberries) is a red-fruited species of \"Rubus\" native to Europe and northern Asia and commonly cultivated in other temperate regions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971407}
{"src_title": "Marc-Vivien Foé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Foé was born on 1 May 1975 in Yaoundé. He started as a junior with Second Division Union Garoua. Moving to Canon Yaoundé, one of the biggest clubs in Cameroon, he won the Cameroonian Cup in 1993. Foé began representing Cameroon at under-20s when he was called up to the squad of 18 players for the 1993 FIFA World Youth Championship in Australia, under the management of Jean Manga-Onguéné. He played in all of their three group stage matches, scoring one goal in a 3–2 defeat to Colombia in their second match on 8 March 1993, as Cameroon were eventually eliminated from the competition after finishing third. Foé later made his senior debut against Mexico on 22 September 1993 at the Memorial Coliseum, a match which Cameroon lost 1–0.  The following year, he was included in the Cameroon squad for the 1994 World Cup, starting all three of their matches. Marred by financial and disciplinary disputes, the 1994 Cameroon squad was a shadow compared to the quarter-finals in 1990. Cameroon mustered just one point from three matches, and finished with a 6–1 defeat to Russia. However, Foé's performances (including a goal assist) prompted interest from European clubs.  After turning down Auxerre for a trainee position, he signed for another French club, RC Lens of Ligue 1. His debut on 13 August 1994 was a 2–1 win against Montpellier. In five seasons at Lens, he won the 1998 French league title.  In 1998, he was targeted by Manchester United, but Lens refused a £3 million offer. Further negotiations were curtailed abruptly after he broke a leg at Cameroon's pre-World Cup training camp, and missed the 1998 World Cup.  Shortly after his recovery, he moved to English Premier League club West Ham United, for a club record £4.2 million in January 1999. He played 38 league matches for West Ham, scoring one goal against Sheffield Wednesday. He also scored a goal in West Ham's 3–1 win against NK Osijek in the UEFA Cup.  In May 2000, he moved back to France, joining Lyon on a £6 million transfer. He missed much of the season from malaria. After recovery, he won the Coupe de la Ligue in 2001, and the Division 1 league title a year later.  He was on the Cameroon squad in the 2002 World Cup. As in 1994, he played in all of Cameroon's matches. Though the team performed better since 1994, they were again eliminated. At the group stage, they beat Saudi Arabia, drew with Ireland and lost to Germany.  Foé returned to the Premier League, loaned to Manchester City in the 2002–03 season for £550,000. His debut on the opening day of the season was a 3–0 loss to Leeds United. Foé was a first team regular for Kevin Keegan's team, starting 38 of 41 matches. His first goal for the club came against Sunderland at the Stadium of Light on 9 December 2002, and he scored five more goals in the next month. His second goal in a 3–0 victory against Sunderland on 21 April 2003 was the club's final goal at their Maine Road stadium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Foé was part of the Cameroon squad for the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup. He played in wins against Brazil and Turkey, and was rested for the match against the United States, with Cameroon having already qualified. On 26 June 2003, Cameroon faced Colombia in the semi-final, held at the Stade de Gerland in Lyon, France. In the 72nd minute of the match Foé collapsed in the centre circle with no other players near him. After attempts to resuscitate him on the pitch, he was stretchered off the field, where he received mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and oxygen. Medics spent 45 minutes attempting to restart his heart, and although he was still alive upon arrival at the stadium's medical centre, he died shortly afterwards. A first autopsy did not determine an exact cause of death, but a second autopsy concluded that Foé's death was heart-related as it discovered evidence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, a hereditary condition known to increase the risk of sudden death during physical exercise.  Foé's widow Marie-Louise stated that he had been ill with gastric problems and dysentery before his final match, but he was adamant to play in his adopted hometown of Lyon. Cameroon manager Winfried Schäfer wanted to substitute him minutes before his collapse, observing that the player seemed fatigued, but he signalled that he wanted to continue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Foé was a practising Roman Catholic and gave money to charity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributes.", "content": "Foé's death caused a profound shock. Numerous tributes to his joyous personality and infectious humour were expressed in the media. Also Thierry Henry and other players pointed to the sky in tribute to Foé after Henry had opened the scoring against Turkey in France's Confederations Cup semi-final that evening.  It was suggested that the Confederations Cup and the Stade Gerland could have been renamed after him, and Manchester City manager Kevin Keegan announced that the club would no longer use the number 23 shirt Foé wore during his successful season there. At Manchester City's former ground, Maine Road, there is a small memorial to him in the stadium's memorial garden, and on the walls of the players' tunnel are plaques paid for by supporters, with their names, dubbed the Walk of Pride. The first plaque on the wall is for Marc and reads \"Marc Vivien Foé – 1975–2003\". His first club Lens gave his name to an avenue near the Stade Félix Bollaert. Foé was given a state funeral in Cameroon. Lens decided to withdraw the number 17 shirt that Foé wore for five years.  Lyon also decided to withdraw the number 17 shirt that Foé wore a year before when he played at the Stade de Gerland with the Lyon team. People in Lyon were shocked as he had received a warm welcome on his return to the stadium. However, when fellow Cameroonian Jean II Makoun was transferred to Lyon, Makoun took up the number 17 shirt, explaining that he wore the number: \"In memory of Marc, for me and for the whole Cameroon, this will be for something.\"  Prior to the kick-off of the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup final between the United States and Brazil, his son, then fourteen years old, gave a brief speech in memory of his father.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Marc-Vivien Foé (1 May 1975 – 26 June 2003) was a Cameroonian professional footballer, who played as a midfielder for both club and country. Foé had success in France's Division 1 and England's Premier League, before his sudden death during an international competitive match which shocked the football community worldwide. He was posthumously decorated with the Commander of the National Order of Valour.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971408}
{"src_title": "Amedeo Avogadro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Amedeo Avogadro was born in Turin to a noble family of the Kingdom of Sardinia (now part of Italy) in the year 1776. He graduated in ecclesiastical law at the late age of 20 and began to practice. Soon after, he dedicated himself to physics and mathematics (then called \"positive philosophy\"), and in 1809 started teaching them at a \"liceo\" (high school) in Vercelli, where his family lived and had some property.  In 1811, he published an article with the title \"Essai d'une manière de déterminer les masses relatives des molécules élémentaires des corps, et les proportions selon lesquelles elles entrent dans ces combinaisons\" (\"Essay on a manner of Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies and the Proportions by Which They Enter These Combinations\"), which contains Avogadro's hypothesis. Avogadro submitted this essay to Jean-Claude Delamétherie's \"Journal de Physique, de Chimie et d'Histoire naturelle\" (\"Journal of Physics, Chemistry and Natural History\").  In 1820, he became a professor of physics at the University of Turin. Turin was now the capital of the restored Savoyard Kingdom of Sardinia under Victor Emmanuel I. Avogadro was active in the revolutionary movement of March 1821. As a result, he lost his chair in 1823 (or, as the university officially declared, it was \"very glad to allow this interesting scientist to take a rest from heavy teaching duties, in order to be able to give better attention to his researches\"). Eventually, King Charles Albert granted a Constitution (\"Statuto Albertino\") in 1848. Well before this, Avogadro had been recalled to the university in Turin in 1833, where he taught for another twenty years.  Little is known about Avogadro's private life, which appears to have been sober and religious. He married Felicita Mazzé and had six children. Avogadro held posts dealing with statistics, meteorology, and weights and measures (he introduced the metric system into Piedmont) and was a member of the Royal Superior Council on Public Instruction.  He died on 9 July 1856.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accomplishments.", "content": "In honor of Avogadro's contributions to molecular theory, the number of molecules per mole of substance is named the \"Avogadro constant\", \"N\". It is exactly The Avogadro constant is used to compute the results of chemical reactions. It allows chemists to determine the amounts of substances produced in a given reaction to a great degree of accuracy.  Johann Josef Loschmidt first calculated the value of the Avogadro constant, the number of particles in one mole, sometimes referred to as the Loschmidt number in German-speaking countries (Loschmidt constant now has another meaning).  Avogadro's Law states that the relationship between the masses of the same volume of all gases (at the same temperature and pressure) corresponds to the relationship between their respective molecular weights. Hence, the relative molecular mass of a gas can be calculated from the mass of a sample of known volume.  Avogadro developed this hypothesis after Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac published his law on volumes (and combining gases) in 1808. The greatest problem Avogadro had to resolve was the confusion at that time regarding atoms and molecules. One of his most important contributions was clearly distinguishing one from the other, stating that gases are composed of molecules, and these molecules are composed of atoms. (For instance, John Dalton did not consider this possibility.) Avogadro did not actually use the word \"atom\" as the words \"atom\" and \"molecule\" were used almost without difference. He believed that there were three kinds of \"molecules,\" including an \"elementary molecule\" (our \"atom\"). Also, he gave more attention to the definition of mass, as distinguished from weight. In 1815, he published \"Mémoire sur les masses relatives des molécules des corps simples, ou densités présumées de leur gaz, et sur la constitution de quelques-uns de leur composés, pour servir de suite à l'Essai sur le même sujet, publié dans le Journal de Physique, juillet 1811\" (\"Note on the Relative Masses of Elementary Molecules, or Suggested Densities of Their Gases, and on the Constituents of Some of Their Compounds, As a Follow-up to the Essay on the Same Subject, Published in the Journal of Physics, July 1811\") about gas densities.  In 1821 he published another paper, \"Nouvelles considérations sur la théorie des proportions déterminées dans les combinaisons, et sur la détermination des masses des molécules des corps\" (\"New Considerations on the Theory of Proportions Determined in Combinations, and on Determination of the Masses of Atoms\") and shortly afterwards, \"Mémoire sur la manière de ramener les composès organiques aux lois ordinaires des proportions déterminées\" (\"Note on the Manner of Finding the Organic Composition by the Ordinary Laws of Determined Proportions\").  In 1841, he published his work in \"Fisica dei corpi ponderabili, ossia Trattato della costituzione materiale de' corpi\", 4 volumes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Response to the theory.", "content": "The scientific community did not give great attention to Avogadro's theory, and it was not immediately accepted. André-Marie Ampère proposed a very similar theory three years later (in his \"\"; \"On the Determination of Proportions in which Bodies Combine According to the Number and the Respective Disposition of the Molecules by Which Their Integral Particles Are Made\"), but the same indifference was shown to his theory as well.  Only through studies by Charles Frédéric Gerhardt and Auguste Laurent on organic chemistry was it possible to demonstrate that Avogadro's law explained why the same quantities of molecules in a gas have the same volume.  Unfortunately, related experiments with some inorganic substances showed seeming contradictions. This was finally resolved by Stanislao Cannizzaro, as announced at Karlsruhe Congress in 1860, four years after Avogadro's death. He explained that these exceptions were due to molecular dissociations at certain temperatures, and that Avogadro's law determined not only molecular masses, but atomic masses as well.  In 1911, a meeting in Turin commemorated the hundredth anniversary of the publication of Avogadro's classic 1811 paper. King Victor Emmanuel III attended, and Avogadro's great contribution to chemistry was recognized.  Rudolf Clausius, with his kinetic theory on gases proposed in 1857, provided further evidence for Avogadro's Law. Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff showed that Avogadro's theory also held in dilute solutions.  Avogadro is hailed as a founder of the atomic-molecular theory.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro (,, ; 9 August 17769 July 1856), Count of Quaregna and Cerreto, was an Italian scientist, most noted for his contribution to molecular theory now known as Avogadro's law, which states that equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure will contain equal numbers of molecules. In tribute to him, the number of elementary entities (atoms, molecules, ions or other particles) in 1 mole of a substance,, is known as the Avogadro constant, one of the seven SI base units and represented by \"N\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971409}
{"src_title": "Luna programme", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission types.", "content": "The name \"Luna\" was used to designate a variety of spacecraft designs, to achieve several types of missions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impactors.", "content": "Impactor spacecraft are designed to hit the near side of the Moon, transmitting photographs back to Earth until their destruction on impact. Luna 1 (January 1959) missed its intended impact with the Moon and became the first spacecraft to escape the Earth-Moon system. Luna 2 (September 1959) mission successfully hit the Moon's surface, becoming the first man-made object to reach the Moon. This was Luna's only impact success out of six tries from September 1958 to September 1959.  The United States competed with the Luna impactors via the Ranger programme, which performed four successful impacts in nine attempts from August 1961 to March 1965.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flybys.", "content": "A flyby is the simplest lunar spacecraft, requiring neither a propulsion device for slowing, nor a guidance system sensitive enough to hit the Moon. Its function is to transmit photographs back to Earth. Luna 3 (October 1959) rounded the Moon later that year, and returned the first photographs of its far side, which can never be seen from Earth. This was Luna's only successful flyby, out of three tries from October 1959 to April 1960.  The United States launched two lunar flyby probes as part of its Pioneer program. Pioneer 3, launched on 6 December 1958, failed to reach the Moon. Pioneer 4 succeeded in flying by the Moon on 6 March 1959 and achieved a heliocentric orbit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soft landers.", "content": "Soft landers require rocket propulsion to slow their speed sufficiently to prevent the craft's destruction. It can continue to transmit pictures from the surface, and possibly dig into the lunar soil or return other information about the lunar environment. Luna 9 (February 1966) became the first probe to achieve a soft landing on another planetary body. It transmitted five black and white stereoscopic circular panoramas, which were the first close-up shots of the lunar surface. Two successful soft landings were achieved out of thirteen attempts from January 1963 to December 1966.  The United States competed with the Luna landers by the Surveyor programme, which performed five successful landings out of seven attempts from June 1966 to January 1968.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Orbiters.", "content": "Orbiter spacecraft require less thrust and propellant than landers, but still, require enough to achieve lunar orbit insertion. Luna 10 (March 1966) became the first artificial satellite of the Moon. Luna flew six successful orbiters out of eight attempts from March 1966 to May 1974.  The United States attempted a series of seven lunar orbiter probes as part of its Pioneer program from August 1958 to December 1960; all (Pioneer 0, Pioneer 1, Pioneer 2, Pioneer P-1, Pioneer P-3, Pioneer P-30, and Pioneer P-31) were failures. Later, the US successfully flew five Lunar Orbiter spacecraft from August 1966 to August 1967, to map 99% of the lunar surface and help select landing sites for the Apollo crewed landing programme.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rovers.", "content": "More sophisticated soft lander craft can deploy wheeled vehicles to explore a wider area of the lunar surface than the immediate landing site. The first attempted Lunokhod failed in February 1969. Luna 17 (November 1970) and Luna 21 (January 1973) carried Lunokhod vehicles, which were the first robotic wheeled vehicles to explore the Moon's terrain. Lunokhod 1 travelled in 322 days and returned more than 20,000 television images and 206 high-resolution panoramas. Lunokhod 2 operated for about four months, covered of terrain, A third Lunokhod was built and intended for launch in 1977, but never flew due to lack of launchers and funding.  The United States landed crewed rovers (Lunar Roving Vehicles) on Apollo 15 (July–August 1971), Apollo 16 (April 1972), and Apollo 17 (December 1972). Apollo 15 covered ; Apollo 16 covered, and Apollo 17 covered.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sample return.", "content": "More complex soft lander craft can robotically scoop up a small amount of lunar material, lift off from the surface, and return the material to Earth. Luna 16 (September 1970), Luna 20 (February 1972) and Luna 24 (August 1976), returned samples of lunar soil to Earth. A total of of soil sample was returned from the three missions.  The United States achieved lunar sample return with crewed lunar landings on the Apollo programme, which successfully landed six two-man crews out of seven attempts from July 1969 to December 1972. A total of of human-selected rocks and soil was returned to Earth.  Luna 15 (July 1969) flew at the same time as the Apollo 11 mission. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin had already performed the first crewed lunar landing when Luna 15 began its descent, and the spacecraft crashed into a mountain minutes later.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Failed missions.", "content": "While the programme was active, it was Soviet practice not to release any details of missions that had failed to achieve orbit. This resulted in Western observers assigning their own designations to the missions. For example, Luna E-1 No.1, the first failure of 1958 which NASA believed was associated with the Luna programme, was known as Luna 1958A.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Luna programme (from the Russian word Луна \"Luna\" meaning \"Lunar\" or \"Moon\"), occasionally called \"Lunik\" by western media, was a series of robotic spacecraft missions sent to the Moon by the Soviet Union between 1959 and 1976. Fifteen were successful, each designed as either an orbiter or lander, and accomplished many firsts in space exploration. They also performed many experiments, studying the Moon's chemical composition, gravity, temperature, and radiation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971410}
{"src_title": "Biophysics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Molecular biophysics typically addresses biological questions similar to those in biochemistry and molecular biology, seeking to find the physical underpinnings of biomolecular phenomena. Scientists in this field conduct research concerned with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis, as well as how these interactions are regulated. A great variety of techniques are used to answer these questions.  Fluorescent imaging techniques, as well as electron microscopy, x-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and small-angle scattering (SAS) both with X-rays and neutrons (SAXS/SANS) are often used to visualize structures of biological significance. Protein dynamics can be observed by neutron spin echo spectroscopy. Conformational change in structure can be measured using techniques such as dual polarisation interferometry, circular dichroism, SAXS and SANS. Direct manipulation of molecules using optical tweezers or AFM, can also be used to monitor biological events where forces and distances are at the nanoscale. Molecular biophysicists often consider complex biological events as systems of interacting entities which can be understood e.g. through statistical mechanics, thermodynamics and chemical kinetics. By drawing knowledge and experimental techniques from a wide variety of disciplines, biophysicists are often able to directly observe, model or even manipulate the structures and interactions of individual molecules or complexes of molecules.  In addition to traditional (i.e. molecular and cellular) biophysical topics like structural biology or enzyme kinetics, modern biophysics encompasses an extraordinarily broad range of research, from bioelectronics to quantum biology involving both experimental and theoretical tools. It is becoming increasingly common for biophysicists to apply the models and experimental techniques derived from physics, as well as mathematics and statistics, to larger systems such as tissues, organs, populations and ecosystems. Biophysical models are used extensively in the study of electrical conduction in single neurons, as well as neural circuit analysis in both tissue and whole brain.  Medical physics, a branch of biophysics, is any application of physics to medicine or healthcare, ranging from radiology to microscopy and nanomedicine. For example, physicist Richard Feynman theorized about the future of nanomedicine. He wrote about the idea of a \"medical\" use for biological machines (see nanomachines). Feynman and Albert Hibbs suggested that certain repair machines might one day be reduced in size to the point that it would be possible to (as Feynman put it) \"swallow the doctor\". The idea was discussed in Feynman's 1959 essay \"There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Some of the earlier studies in biophysics were conducted in the 1840s by a group known as the Berlin school of physiologists. Among its members were pioneers such as Hermann von Helmholtz, Ernst Heinrich Weber, Carl F. W. Ludwig, and Johannes Peter Müller. Biophysics might even be seen as dating back to the studies of Luigi Galvani.  The popularity of the field rose when the book \"What Is Life?\" by Erwin Schrödinger was published. Since 1957, biophysicists have organized themselves into the Biophysical Society which now has about 9,000 members over the world.  Some authors such as Robert Rosen criticize biophysics on the ground that the biophysical method does not take into account the specificity of biological phenomena.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Focus as a subfield.", "content": "While some colleges and universities have dedicated departments of biophysics, usually at the graduate level, many do not have university-level biophysics departments, instead having groups in related departments such as biochemistry, cell biology, chemistry, computer science, engineering, mathematics, medicine, molecular biology, neuroscience, pharmacology, physics, and physiology. Depending on the strengths of a department at a university differing emphasis will be given to fields of biophysics. What follows is a list of examples of how each department applies its efforts toward the study of biophysics. This list is hardly all inclusive. Nor does each subject of study belong exclusively to any particular department. Each academic institution makes its own rules and there is much overlap between departments.  Many biophysical techniques are unique to this field. Research efforts in biophysics are often initiated by scientists who were biologists, chemists or physicists by training.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that applies approaches and methods traditionally used in physics to study biological phenomena. Biophysics covers all scales of biological organization, from molecular to organismic and populations. Biophysical research shares significant overlap with biochemistry, molecular biology, physical chemistry, physiology, nanotechnology, bioengineering, computational biology, biomechanics, developmental biology and systems biology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971411}
{"src_title": "Treaty of Lunéville", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terms.", "content": "The Treaty of Lunéville declared that \"there shall be, henceforth and forever, peace, amity, and good understanding\" among the parties. The treaty required Austria to enforce the conditions of the earlier Treaty of Campo Formio (concluded on 17 October 1797). Certain Austrian holdings within the borders of the Holy Roman Empire were relinquished, and French control was extended to the left bank of the Rhine, \"in complete sovereignty\" but France renounced any claim to territories east of the Rhine. Contested boundaries in Italy were set.  The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was awarded to the French, but the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand III, was promised territorial compensations in Germany. In a secret article, the compensations were tentatively set to be the Archbishopric of Salzburg and Berchtesgaden. The two parties agreed to respect the independence of the Batavian, Cisalpine, Helvetic and Ligurian Republics. On the other hand, Austria's possession of Venetia and Dalmatian coast was confirmed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences for the Holy Roman Empire.", "content": "The Treaty of Lunéville in Article 6 reaffirmed the cession of all territory of the Empire to France on the left bank of the river Rhine. Article 7 stipulated that the princes, whose territories were partly or wholly ceded, were to be compensated with lands from within the new borders of the Empire. The territories lost included the Austrian Netherlands, Savoy, and imperial Italy. The task of compensation was left to an Imperial Deportation (German: \"Reichsdeputation\"). France and Russia greatly influenced the negotiations, with France urging for larger new territories to be formed, which it hoped would later ally with them, while Russia favoured \"a more traditional balance\". Eventually, the \"Reichsdeputationshauptschluss\" (Imperial Recess), the final document which reorganised the Empire, was signed on 25 February 1803. The Recess did far more than simply satisfy the need to compensate the princes, but fundamentally restructured the Empire by secularising all ecclesiastical states except for the Electorate of Mainz. Almost all free imperial cities lost their sovereignty. The \"Reichsdeputationshauptschluss\" was the last major law in the history of the Holy Roman Empire before its dissolution in 1806.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End of peace.", "content": "The Austrians resumed war against France in 1805.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Treaty of Lunéville was signed in the Treaty House of Lunéville on 9 February 1801. The signatory parties were the French Republic and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II. The latter was negotiating both on his own behalf as ruler of the hereditary domains of the Habsburg Monarchy and on behalf of other rulers who controlled territories in the Holy Roman Empire. The signatories were Joseph Bonaparte and Count Ludwig von Cobenzl, the Austrian foreign minister.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971412}
{"src_title": "Hibiscus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The leaves are alternate, ovate to lanceolate, often with a toothed or lobed margin. The flowers are large, conspicuous, trumpet-shaped, with five or more petals, colour from white to pink, red, orange, peach, yellow or purple, and from 4–18 cm broad.  Flower colour in certain species, such as \"H. mutabilis\" and \"H. tiliaceus\", changes with age. The fruit is a dry five-lobed capsule, containing several seeds in each lobe, which are released when the capsule dehisces (splits open) at maturity. It is of red and white colours. It is an example of complete flowers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "In temperate zones, probably the most commonly grown ornamental species is \"Hibiscus syriacus\", the common garden hibiscus, also known in some areas as the \"rose of Althea\" or \"rose of Sharon\" (but not to be confused with the unrelated \"Hypericum calycinum\", also called \"rose of Sharon\"). In tropical and subtropical areas, the Chinese hibiscus (\"H. rosa-sinensis\"), with its many showy hybrids, is the most popular hibiscus.  Several hundred species are known, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolism and culture.", "content": "The red hibiscus is the flower of the Hindu goddess Kali, and appears frequently in depictions of her in the art of Bengal, India, often with the goddess and the flower merging in form. The hibiscus is used as an offering to goddess Kali and Lord Ganesha in Hindu worship.  In the Philippines, the \"gumamela\" (local name for hibiscus) is used by children as part of a bubble-making pastime. The flowers and leaves are crushed until the sticky juices come out. Hollow papaya stalks are then dipped into this and used as straws for blowing bubbles. Together with soap, hibiscus juices produce more bubbles. Also called \"Tarukanga\" in waray particularly in eastern samar province.  The hibiscus flower is traditionally worn by Tahitian and Hawaiian girls. If the flower is worn behind the left ear, the woman is married or has a boyfriend. If the flower is worn on the right, she is single or openly available for a relationship. The yellow hibiscus is Hawaii's state flower.  Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie named her first novel \"Purple Hibiscus\" after the delicate flower.  The bark of the hibiscus contains strong bast fibres that can be obtained by letting the stripped bark set in the sea to let the organic material rot away.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As a national and state symbol.", "content": "The hibiscus is a national symbol of Haiti, and the national flower of nations including the Solomon Islands and Niue. \"Hibiscus syriacus\" is the national flower of South Korea, and \"Hibiscus rosa-sinensis\" is the national flower of Malaysia. \"Hibiscus brackenridgei\" is the state flower of Hawaii.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Landscaping.", "content": "Many species are grown for their showy flowers or used as landscape shrubs, and are used to attract butterflies, bees, and hummingbirds.  Hibiscus is a very hardy, versatile plant and in tropical conditions it can enhance the beauty of any garden. Being versatile it adapts itself easily to balcony gardens in crammed urban spaces and can be easily grown in pots as a creeper or even in hanging pots. It is a perennial and flowers through the year. As it comes in a variety of colors, it's a plant which can add vibrancy to any garden.  The only infestation that gardeners need to be vigilant about is mealybug. Mealybug infestations are easy to spot as it is clearly visible as a distinct white cottony infestation on buds, leaves or even stems. To protect the plant you need to trim away the infected part, spray with water, and apply an appropriate pesticide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Paper.", "content": "One species of \"Hibiscus\", known as kenaf (\"Hibiscus cannabinus\"), is extensively used in paper-making.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rope and construction.", "content": "The inner bark of the sea hibiscus (\"Hibiscus tiliaceus\"), also called 'hau', is used in Polynesia for making rope, and the wood for making canoe floats. The ropes on the missionary ship \"Messenger of Peace\" were made of fibres from hibiscus trees.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beverage.", "content": "The tea made of the calyces of Hibiscus sabdariffa is known by many names in many countries around the world and is served both hot and cold. The beverage is well known for its red colour, tartness and unique flavour. Additionally, it is highly nutritious because of its vitamin C content.  It is known as \"bissap\" in West Africa, \"Gul e Khatmi\" in Urdu & Persian, \"agua de jamaica\" in Mexico and Central America (the flower being\" flor de jamaica\") and \"Orhul\" in India. Some refer to it as \"roselle\", a common name for the hibiscus flower. In Jamaica, Trinidad and many other islands in the Caribbean, the drink is known as \"sorrel\" (\"Hibiscus sabdariffa\"; not to be confused with \"Rumex acetosa\", a species sharing the common name \"sorrel\"). In Ghana, the drink is known as \"soobolo\" in one of the local languages.  In Cambodia, a cold beverage can be prepared by first steeping the petals in hot water until the colors are leached from the petals, then adding lime juice (which turns the beverage from dark brown/red to a bright red), sweeteners (sugar/honey) and finally cold water/ice cubes.  In the Arab world, hibiscus tea is known as \"karkadé\" (كركديه), and is served as both a hot and a cold drink.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "Dried hibiscus is edible, and it is often a delicacy in Mexico. It can also be candied and used as a garnish, usually for desserts.  The roselle (\"Hibiscus sabdariffa\") is used as a vegetable. The species \"Hibiscus suratensis\" Linn synonymous to \"Hibiscus aculeatus\" G. Don is noted in Visayas in the Philippines as being a souring ingredient for almost all local vegetables and menus. Known as labog in the Visayan area, (or labuag/sapinit in Tagalog), the species is an ingredient in cooking native chicken soup.  \"Hibiscus\" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some lepidopteran species, including \"Chionodes hibiscella\", \"Hypercompe hambletoni\", the nutmeg moth, and the turnip moth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Folk medicine.", "content": "\"Hibiscus rosa-sinensis\" is described as having a number of medical uses in Indian Ayurveda.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Claimed effects on blood pressure.", "content": "It has been claimed that sour teas derived from \"Hibiscus sabdariffa\" may lower blood pressure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Precautions and contraindications.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pregnancy and lactation.", "content": "While the mechanism is not well understood, previous animal studies have demonstrated both an inhibitory effect of \"H. sabdariffa\" on muscle tone and the anti-fertility effects of \"Hibiscus rosa-sinensis\", respectively. The extract of \"H. sabdariffa\" has been shown to stimulate contraction of the rat bladder and uterus; the \"H.rosa-sinensis\" extract has exhibited contraceptive effects in the form of estrogen activity in rats. These findings have not been observed in humans. The \"Hibiscus rosa-sinensis\" is also thought to have emmenagogue effects which can stimulate menstruation and, in some women, cause an abortion. Due to the documented adverse effects in animal studies and the reported pharmacological properties, the \"H. sabdariffa\" and \"H.rosa-sinensis\" are not recommended for use during pregnancy.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Drug interactions.", "content": "It is postulated that \"H. sabdariffa\" interacts with diclofenac, chloroquine and acetaminophen by altering the pharmacokinetics. In healthy human volunteers, the \"H. sabdariffa\" extract was found to reduce the excretion of diclofenac upon co-administration. Additionally, co-administration of Karkade (\"H. sabdariffa\"), a common Sudanese beverage, was found to reduce chloroquine bioavailability. However, no statistically significant changes were observed in the pharmacokinetics of acetaminophen when administered with the Zobo (\"H.sabdariffa\") drink. Further studies are needed to demonstrate clinical significance.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Hibiscus is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family, Malvaceae. The genus is quite large, comprising several hundred species that are native to warm temperate, subtropical and tropical regions throughout the world. Member species are renowned for their large, showy flowers and those species are commonly known simply as \"hibiscus\", or less widely known as rose mallow. Other names include hardy hibiscus, rose of sharon, and tropical hibiscus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971413}
{"src_title": "Morris (cartoonist)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Kortrijk, Belgium, Maurice DeBevere attended the well-known Jesuit college in Aalst. His math teacher told his parents the youth would unfortunately never succeed in life, as he passed math classes doodling in the margin of his math books. The student uniforms required there inspired his choices for those of the undertakers in his \"Lucky Luke\" cartoon series.  Morris started his career after college drawing in the Compagnie Belge d'Actualités (CBA) animation studios. This was a small and short-lived Belgian animation studio, where he met fellow artists Peyo and André Franquin.  After World War II, the company folded. Morris worked as an illustrator for \"Het Laatste Nieuws\", a Flemish newspaper, and \"Le Moustique\", a French-language weekly magazine published by Dupuis. He made some 250 covers and numerous other illustrations for the latter magazine, mainly caricatures of movie stars.  Morris died in 2001 of a pulmonary embolism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Lucky Luke\".", "content": "In 1946, Morris created \"Lucky Luke\" for \"Spirou\" magazine, the Franco-Belgian comics magazine published by Dupuis. Lucky Luke is a solitary cowboy who travels across the Wild West of the United States, helping those in need and aided by his faithful horse, Jolly Jumper. The first adventure, \"Arizona 1880\", was published in \"L'Almanach Spirou 1947\", released on 7 December 1946.  Morris became one of the central artists of the magazine. He was one of the so-called \"La bande des quatre\" (Gang of 4), with Jijé, André Franquin, and Will. He did not work at Jijé's studio, unlike the other two, but all four became very good friends, stimulating each other artistically.  In 1948, Morris, Jijé and Franquin travelled to the United States (Will was still too young and had to remain in Belgium). They wanted to get to know the country, see what was left of the Wild West, and meet some American comic artists. Morris stayed the longest of the three, for six years. During his six-year stay in the U.S. Morris met Jack Davis and Harvey Kurtzman, and assisted them with founding their \"Mad\" magazine at EC Comics. In the U.S. he also met René Goscinny, a French comic artist and writer.  They developed a long collaboration, and Goscinny wrote all the \"Lucky Luke\" stories between 1955 and his death in 1977. In the 1950s, Goscinny was still fairly unknown, but he became the most successful comic writer in Europe, first with \"Lucky Luke\" and a few years later with his \"Asterix\" series.  Morris's time in the USA were integral to his development, not only because of his collaboration with Goscinny, but because he gathered a great deal of documentation for his later work. He also became familiar with the Hollywood films of the time. In the following years, Morris introduced many cinematic techniques in his comics, such as freeze-frames and close-ups. Walt Disney's style influenced him, which can be seen in the very round lines that characterize the early Lucky Luke albums. Many characters in his comics are also clearly based on famous American actors, such as Jack Palance, Gary Cooper, W.C. Fields, and William Hart. He also caricatured unexpected figures, such as Louis de Funès and French singer Serge Gainsbourg.  The first 31 Lucky Luke adventures were published by Dupuis. In the late 1960s, Morris left Dupuis and \"Spirou\" and went to Dargaud and \"Pilote\" magazine. This was started by his friend and collaborator Goscinny.  In 1984, Hanna-Barbera made a series of 52 cartoons of \"Lucky Luke\", increasing the popularity of the series. 52 more animated cartoons were made in the early 1990s, and three live action movies followed. A few videogames based on the series were also made, e.g. for PlayStation and Game Boy Color. \"Lucky Luke\" is the best-selling European comics series ever, with more than 300 million copies sold, and published in more than thirty languages.  Unlike many of his contemporaries, Morris never worked on several series. He made numerous illustrations for stories in the forties and fifties. In the nineties, he did make \"Rantanplan\", a spin-off from \"Lucky Luke\", starring the dumbest dog in the West.  In 2005 Morris was ranked as 79th for The Greatest Belgian in the French-speaking community.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Maurice De Bevere (; 1 December 1923 – 16 July 2001), better known as Morris, was a Belgian cartoonist, comics artist, illustrator and the creator of \"Lucky Luke,\" a bestselling comic series about a gunslinger in the American Wild West. He was inspired by the adventures of the historic Dalton Gang and other outlaws. It was a bestselling series for more than 20 years that was translated into 23 languages and published internationally. He collaborated for two decades with French writer René Goscinny on the series. Morris's pen name is an Anglicized version of his first name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971414}
{"src_title": "Motion blur", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Applications of motion blur.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photography.", "content": "When a camera creates an image, that image does not represent a single instant of time. Because of technological constraints or artistic requirements, the image may represent the scene over a period of time. Most often this exposure time is brief enough that the image captured by the camera appears to capture an instantaneous moment, but this is not always so, and a fast moving object or a longer exposure time may result in blurring artifacts which make this apparent. As objects in a scene move, an image of that scene must represent an integration of all positions of those objects, as well as the camera's viewpoint, over the period of exposure determined by the shutter speed. In such an image, any object moving with respect to the camera will look blurred or smeared along the direction of relative motion. This smearing may occur on an object that is moving or on a static background if the camera is moving. In a film or television image, this looks natural because the human eye behaves in much the same way.  Because the effect is caused by the relative motion between the camera, and the objects and scene, motion blur may be manipulated by panning the camera to track those moving objects. In this case, even with long exposure times, the moving objects will appear sharper while the background will become more blurred, with the resulting image conveying a sense of movement and speed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Animation.", "content": "In computer animation this effect must be simulated as a virtual camera actually does capture a discrete moment in time. This simulated motion blur is typically applied when either the camera or objects in the scene move rapidly.  Without this simulated effect each frame shows a perfect instant in time (analogous to a camera with an infinitely fast shutter), with zero motion blur. This is why a video game with a frame rate of 25-30 frames per second will seem staggered, while natural motion filmed at the same frame rate appears rather more continuous. Many modern video games feature motion blur, especially vehicle simulation games.  Some of the better-known games that utilise this are the recent Need for Speed titles, Unreal Tournament III,, among many others. There are two main methods used in video games to achieve motion blur: cheaper full-screen effects, which typically only take camera movement (and sometimes how fast the camera is moving in 3-D Space to create a radial blur) into mind, and more \"selective\" or \"per-object\" motion blur, which typically uses a shader to create a velocity buffer to mark motion intensity for a motion blurring effect to be applied to or uses a shader to perform geometry extrusion. Classic \"motion blur\" effects prior to modern per-pixel shading pipelines often simply drew successive frames on top of each other with slight transparency, which is strictly speaking a form of video feedback.  In pre-rendered computer animation, such as CGI movies, realistic motion blur can be drawn because the renderer has more time to draw each frame. Temporal anti-aliasing produces frames as a composite of many instants. Frames are not points in time, they are periods of time. If an object makes a trip at a linear speed along a path from 0% to 100% in four time periods, and if those time periods are considered frames, then the object would exhibit motion blur streaks in each frame that are 25% of the path length. If the shutter speed is shortened to less than the duration of a frame, and it may be so shortened as to approach zero time in duration, then the computer animator must choose which portion of the quarter paths (in our 4 frame example) they wish to feature as \"open shutter\" times. They may choose to render the beginnings of each frame, in which case they will never see the arrival of the object at the end of the path, or they may choose to render the ends of each frame, in which case they will miss the starting point of the trip. Most computer animations systems make the classic \"fence-post error\" in the way they handle time, confusing the periods of time of an animation with the instantaneous moments that delimit them. Thus most computer animation systems will incorrectly place an object on a four frame trip along a path at 0%, 0.33%, 0.66%, and 1.0% and when called upon to render motion blur will have to cut one or more frames short, or look beyond the boundaries of the animation, compromises that real cameras don't do and synthetic cameras needn't do.  Motion lines in cel animation are drawn in the same direction as motion blur and perform much the same duty. Go motion is a variant of stop motion animation that moves the models during the exposure to create a less staggered effect.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Computer graphics.", "content": "In 2D computer graphics, motion blur is an artistic filter that converts the digital image/bitmap/raster image in order to simulate the effect. Many graphical software products (e.g. Adobe Photoshop or GIMP) offer simple motion blur filters. However, for advanced motion blur filtering including curves or non-uniform speed adjustment, specialized software products (e.g. VirtualRig Studio) are necessary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "When an animal's eye is in motion, the image will suffer from motion blur, resulting in an inability to resolve details. To cope with this, humans generally alternate between saccades (quick eye movements) and fixation (focusing on a single point). Saccadic masking makes motion blur during a saccade invisible. Similarly, smooth pursuit allows the eye to track a target in rapid motion, eliminating motion blur of that target instead of the scene.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Negative effects of motion blur.", "content": "In televised sports, where conventional cameras expose pictures 25 or 30 times per second, motion blur can be inconvenient because it obscures the exact position of a projectile or athlete in slow motion. For this reason special cameras are often used which eliminate motion blurring by taking rapid exposures on the order of 1 millisecond, and then transmitting them over the course of the next 30 to 40 milliseconds. Although this gives sharper slow motion replays it can look strange at normal speed because the eye expects to see motion blurring and is not provided with blurred images.  Conversely, extra motion blur can unavoidably occur on displays when it is not desired. This occurs with some video displays (especially LCD) that exhibits motion blur during fast motion. This can lead to more perceived motion blurring above and beyond the preexisting motion blur in the video material. See display motion blur.  Sometimes, motion blur can be removed from images with the help of deconvolution.  In video games the use or not of motion blur is somewhat controversial. Some gamers claim that the blur actually makes gaming worse since it does blur images, making more difficult to recognize objects, especially in fast-paced moments. This does become noticeable the lower the frame rate is. Improvements in the visual quality of modern post-process motion blur shaders as well as a tendency towards high frame rate video games has lessened the visual detriment of undersampled motion blur effects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restoration.", "content": "An example of blurred image restoration with Wiener deconvolution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Motion blur is the apparent streaking of moving objects in a photograph or a sequence of frames, such as a film or animation. It results when the image being recorded changes during the recording of a single exposure, due to rapid movement or long exposure.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971415}
{"src_title": "Pope John XXI", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Pedro Julião was born in Lisbon between 1210 and 1220. He started his studies at the episcopal school of Lisbon Cathedral and later joined the University of Paris, although some historians claim that he was educated at Montpellier. Wherever he studied, he concentrated on medicine, theology, logic, physics, metaphysics, and Aristotle's dialectic. He is traditionally and usually identified with the medical author Peter of Spain, an important figure in the development of logic and pharmacology. Peter of Spain taught at the University of Siena in the 1240s and his \"\" was used as a university textbook on Aristotelian logic for the next three centuries. At the court in Lisbon, he was the councilor and spokesman for King Afonso III in church matters. Later, he became prior of Guimarães.  He was Archdeacon of Vermoim (Vermuy) in the Archdiocese of Braga. He tried to become bishop of Lisbon but was defeated. Instead, he became the Master of the school of Lisbon. Peter became the physician of Pope Gregory X (1271–76) early in his reign. In March 1273 he was elected Archbishop of Braga, but did not assume that post; instead, on 3 June 1273, Pope Gregory X created him Cardinal Bishop of Tusculum (Frascati).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Papacy.", "content": "After the death of Pope Adrian V on 18 August 1276, Peter was elected Pope on 8 September. He was crowned a week later on 20 September. One of John XXI's few acts during his brief reign was the reversal of a decree recently passed at the Second Council of Lyon (1274); the decree had not only confined cardinals in solitude until they elected a successor Pope, but also progressively restricted their supplies of food and wine if their deliberations took too long. Though much of John XXI's brief papacy was dominated by the powerful Cardinal Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, who succeeded him as Pope Nicholas III, John attempted to launch a crusade for the Holy Land, pushed for a union with the Eastern church, and did what he could to maintain peace between the Christian nations. He also launched a mission to convert the Tatars, but he died before it could start. To secure the necessary quiet for his medical studies, he had an apartment added to the papal palace at Viterbo, to which he could retire when he wished to work undisturbed. On 14 May 1277, while the pope was alone in this apartment, it collapsed; John was buried under the ruins and died on 20 May in consequence of the serious injuries he had received. He was buried in the Duomo di Viterbo, where his tomb can still be seen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "After his death, it was rumored that John XXI had actually been a necromancer, a suspicion frequently directed towards the few scholars among medieval popes (see, e.g., Sylvester II). It was also said that his death had been an act of God, stopping him from completing a heretical treatise. Since the works of \"Peter of Spain\" continued to be studied and appreciated, however, Dante Alighieri placed \"Pietro Spano\" in his \"Paradiso's\" with the spirits of other great religious scholars.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pope John XXI (; – 20 May 1277), born Peter Juliani (; ), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 September 1276 to his death. Apart from Damasus I (from Roman Lusitania), he has been the only Portuguese pope. He is sometimes identified with the logician and herbalist Peter of Spain (; ), which would make him the only pope to have been a physician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971416}
{"src_title": "Collaborative software", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Douglas Engelbart first envisioned collaborative computing in 1951 and documented his vision in 1962, with working prototypes in full operational use by his research team by the mid-1960s, and held the first public demonstration of his work in 1968 in what is now referred to as \"The Mother of All Demos.\" The following year, Engelbart's lab was hooked into the ARPANET, the first computer network, enabling them to extend services to a broader userbase.  Online collaborative gaming software began between early networked computer users. In 1975, Will Crowther created Colossal Cave Adventure on a DEC PDP-10 computer. As internet connections grew, so did the numbers of users and multi-user games. In 1978 Roy Trubshaw, a student at University of Essex in the United Kingdom, created the game MUD (Multi-User Dungeon).  The US Government began using truly collaborative applications in the early 1990s. One of the first robust applications was the Navy's Common Operational Modeling, Planning and Simulation Strategy (COMPASS). The COMPASS system allowed up to 6 users to create point-to-point connections with one another; the collaborative session only remained while at least one user stayed active, and would have to be recreated if all six logged out. MITRE improved on that model by hosting the collaborative session on a server that each user logged into. Called the Collaborative Virtual Workstation (CVW), this allowed the session to be set up in a virtual file cabinet and virtual rooms, and left as a persistent session that could be joined later.  In 1996, Pavel Curtis, who had built MUDs at PARC, created PlaceWare, a server that simulated a one-to-many auditorium, with side chat between \"seat-mates\", and the ability to invite a limited number of audience members to speak. In 1997, engineers at GTE used the PlaceWare engine in a commercial version of MITRE's CVW, calling it InfoWorkSpace (IWS). In 1998, IWS was chosen as the military standard for the standardized Air Operations Center. The IWS product was sold to General Dynamics and then later to Ezenia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Groupware.", "content": "Collaborative software was originally designated as \"groupware\" and this term can be traced as far back as the late 1980s, when Richman and Slovak (1987) wrote: \"Like an electronic sinew that binds teams together, the new \"groupware\" aims to place the computer squarely in the middle of communications among managers, technicians, and anyone else who interacts in groups, revolutionizing the way they work.\"  Even further back, in 1978 Peter and Trudy Johnson-Lenz coined the term groupware; their initial 1978 definition of groupware was, \"intentional group processes plus software to support them.\" Later in their article they went on to explain groupware as \"computer-mediated culture... an embodiment of social organization in hyperspace.\" Groupware integrates co-evolving human and tool systems, yet is simply a single system.  In the early 1990s the first commercial groupware products were delivered, and big companies such as Boeing and IBM started using electronic meeting systems for key internal projects. Lotus Notes appeared as a major example of that product category, allowing remote group collaboration when the internet was still in its infancy. Kirkpatrick and Losee (1992) wrote then: \"If really makes a difference in productivity long term, the very definition of an office may change. You will be able to work efficiently as a member of a group wherever you have your computer. As computers become smaller and more powerful, that will mean anywhere.\" In 1999, Achacoso created and introduced the first wireless groupware.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design and implementation issues.", "content": "The complexity of groupware development is still an issue. One reason for this is the socio-technical dimension of groupware. Groupware designers do not only have to address technical issues (as in traditional software development) but also consider the organizational aspects and the social group processes that should be supported with the groupware application. Some examples for issues in groupware development are:  One approach for addressing these issues is the use of design patterns for groupware design. The patterns identify recurring groupware design issues and discuss design choices in a way that all stakeholders can participate in the groupware development process.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Groupware and levels of collaboration.", "content": "Groupware can be divided into three categories depending on the level of collaboration:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collaborative management (coordination) tools.", "content": "Collaborative management tools facilitate and manage group activities. Examples include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collaborative software and human interaction.", "content": "The design intent of collaborative software (groupware) is to transform the way documents and rich media are shared in order to enable more effective team collaboration.  Collaboration, with respect to information technology, seems to have several definitions. Some are defensible but others are so broad they lose any meaningful application. Understanding the differences in human interactions is necessary to ensure the appropriate technologies are employed to meet interaction needs.  There are three primary ways in which humans interact: conversations, transactions, and collaborations.  \"Conversational interaction\" is an exchange of information between two or more participants where the primary purpose of the interaction is discovery or relationship building. There is no central entity around which the interaction revolves but is a free exchange of information with no defined constraints, generally focused on personal experiences. Communication technology such as telephones, instant messaging, and e-mail are generally sufficient for conversational interactions.  \"Transactional interaction\" involves the exchange of transaction entities where a major function of the transaction entity is to alter the relationship between participants.  In \"collaborative interactions\" the main function of the participants' relationship is to alter a collaboration entity (i.e., the converse of transactional). When teams collaborate on projects it is called Collaborative project management.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Collaborative software or groupware is application software designed to help people working on a common task to attain their goals. One of the earliest definitions of groupware is \"intentional group processes plus software to support them\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971417}
{"src_title": "Joseph Mohr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Mohr was born in Salzburg on 11 December 1792, to an unmarried embroiderer, Anna Schoiberin, and Franz Mohr, a mercenary soldier and deserter, who abandoned Joseph's mother before the birth. The ancestors on his father's side came from the town of Mariapfarr in the mountainous Lungau region south of Salzburg, while his mother's family was from the salt-mining city of Hallein. At his baptism shortly after birth, the godfather was recorded as Joseph Wohlmuth, the last official executioner of Salzburg, who did not personally attend but had himself represented by one Franziska Zachin. As the parents were unmarried, Joseph received the name of his father, according to custom.  Johann Nepomuk Hiernle, vicar and leader of music at Salzburg Cathedral, enabled Mohr to have an education and encouraged him in music. As a boy, Mohr would serve simultaneously as a singer and violinist in the choirs of the University Church and at the Benedictine monastery church of St. Peter. From 1808 to 1810, Mohr studied at the Benedictine monastery of Kremsmünster in the province of Upper Austria. He then returned to Salzburg to attend the Lyceum school, and in 1811, he entered the seminary. Since he was of illegitimate birth, a special dispensation was required in those days for him to attend seminary. On 21 August 1815, Mohr graduated and was ordained as a priest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Father Mohr.", "content": "In the fall of 1815, Mohr was asked to provide temporary help in the village of Ramsau near Berchtesgaden. Mohr then served as assistant priest in Mariapfarr (1815–1817). It was during this time, in 1816, that he penned the words to \"Silent Night\" in Mariapfarr. Poor health forced him to return to Salzburg in the summer of 1817. After a short recuperation he began serving as an assistant priest at St. Nicholas in Oberndorf, where he made the acquaintance of Franz Gruber, schoolteacher in neighbouring Arnsdorf.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Stille Nacht\".", "content": "On a cold Christmas Eve in 1818, Mohr walked the three kilometres from his home in Oberndorf bei Salzburg to visit his friend Franz Xaver Gruber in the neighbouring town of Arnsdorf bei Laufen. Mohr brought with him a poem he had written some two years earlier. He needed a carol for the Christmas Eve midnight Mass that was only a few hours away, and hoped his friend, a school teacher who also served as the church's choir master and organist, could set his poem to music. Gruber composed the melody for Mohr's \"Stille Nacht\" in just a few hours.  The song was sung at Midnight Mass in a simple arrangement for guitar and choir. Various legends have sprung up over the years concerning the genesis of \"Silent Night\", but the simplest and likeliest explanation seems to have been that Mohr simply wanted an original song that he could play on his favourite instrument, the guitar. Within a few years, arrangements of the carol appeared in churches in the Salzburg Archdiocese and folk singers from the Ziller Valley were taking the composition on tours around Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Mohr, a generous man who donated most of his salary to charity, was moved from place to place, and remained in Oberndorf only until 1819. After Oberndorf he was sent to Kuchl, followed by stays in Golling an der Salzach, Bad Vigaun, Adnet and Anthering. In 1827 he was made pastor of Hintersee, and in 1837 of the Alpine village of Wagrain. Here he created a fund to allow children from poor families to attend school and set up a system for the care of the elderly. Mohr died of respiratory disease on 4 December 1848, at the age of 55.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Mohr's final resting place is in the tiny Alpine ski resort of Wagrain, where he died in 1848. The Joseph Mohr School stands as a fitting memorial, and close to the grave of the man who wrote the words heard around the world. The village school is named after him and his grave has been kept in a place of honour in the nearby churchyard cemetery. An outdoor exhibit detailing the life of Joseph Mohr is situated on the walkway between the church and the parish house where he once lived. In 2006, the town's Waggerl Museum set up a permanent exhibit – \"Joseph Mohr – Vicar of Wagrain\".  In Austria, \"Stille Nacht\" is considered a national treasure. Traditionally, the song may not be played publicly before Christmas Eve.  Until 2006, it was thought that Mohr and Gruber had collaborated on just one composition, but another was located in the Wagrain parish archive by the Salzburg Archdiocesan authorities. The \"Te Deum\" with text by Joseph Mohr and melody by Franz Xaver Gruber can be heard in an audio exhibit at the Waggerl Museum in Wagrain.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josephus Franciscus Mohr, sometimes spelled Josef (11 December 1792 – 4 December 1848) was an Austrian Roman Catholic priest and writer, who wrote the words to the Christmas carol \"Silent Night.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971418}
{"src_title": "ChessBase", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Starting in 1983, Frederic Friedel and his colleagues put out a magazine \"Computer-schach und Spiele\" covering the emerging hobby of computer chess. In 1985, he invited then world chess champion Garry Kasparov to his house, and Kasparov mused about how a chess database would make it easier for him to prepare for specific opponents. Friedel began working with Bonn physicist Matthias Wüllenweber who created the first such database ChessBase 1.0, software for the Atari ST. The February 1987 issue of \"Computerschach & Spiele\" introduced the database program as well as Chessbase magazine, a floppy disk containing chess games edited by GM John Nunn.  The August 1991 issue of Computerschach & Spiele announced that Dutch programmer Frans Morsch's Fritz program would soon be available, sold as software for PCs unlike all of the dedicated chess computers which at the time dominated the ratings lists. This program was marketed initially as Knightstalker in the U.S., and Fritz in the rest of the world. Mathias Feist joined ChessBase, and ported Fritz to DOS and then Microsoft Windows.  In 1994, German GM Rainer Knaak joined ChessBase as a full-time employee, annotating games for Chessbase magazine, and soon authoring game database CD-ROMs on topics such as the Trompowsky Attack or Mating Attacks against 0-0. British GM Daniel King was another early author of such CD-ROMs which eventually grew into the Fritztrainer series of multimedia DVDs.  In the mid-1990s, R&D Publishing in the U.S. released a series of print books in the Chessbase University Opening Series, including Anatoly Karpov and Alexander Beliavsky's \"The Caro-Kann in Black and White\".  In December 1996, ChessBase added Mark Uniacke's Hiarcs 6 chess engine to its product line up, selling it inside the existing Fritz graphical user interface (GUI). In March 1998, ChessBase added Junior 4.6 and Dr. Christian Donninger's Nimzo99. Also that year, ChessBase released Fritz 5 including a 'friend mode' which would automatically scale its strength of play down to the level that it assessed the player was playing. This remains a feature of all of ChessBase's Graphical User Interfaces even now.  In 1998, Chessbase took their database of chess games online. In November, Chessbase started offering trainer CD-ROMs by such GMs as Robert Hübner, Rainer Knaak and Daniel King.  In 1999, Stefan Meyer-Kahlen's Shredder had won the world computer chess championship. In April, Meyer-Kahlen and Huber released the Universal Chess Interface (UCI) protocol for engines to communicate with GUIs, to compete with Winboard and Chessbase's. Meyer-Kahlen's contract with Millennium 2000 expired in June, and ChessBase immediately snapped him up, adding Shredder to their product line under a Fritz style GUI, and giving their new GUIs the ability to import UCI engines.  In April 2000, ChessBase released a Young Talents CD featuring the engines Anmon, Goliath Light, Gromit, Ikarus, Patzer, Phalanx and Rudolf Huber's SOS. Christophe Theron's engines Chess Tiger and Gambit Tiger were also released as Chessbase engines that month.  In the early 2000s matches were held pitting world champions Garry Kasparov and Vladimir Kramnik against versions of the Fritz or Junior engines.  In 2003, ChessBase introduced the Chess Media System, allowing players to produce videos with them playing out moves that can be seen on the user's chessboard within a Chessbase program. Eventually, ChessBase commissioned world champions Garry Kasparov, Viswanathan Anand, Vladimir Kramnik and Rustam Kasimdzhanov to produce DVDs using the new format. Chessbase also produced Fritztrainer Opening DVDs by the likes of grandmasters Alexei Shirov and Viktor Bologan and a Power Play series by British GM Daniel King for lower level players.  In April 2006, following its victory at the World Computer Chess Championship, Anthony Cozzie's Zappa chess engine was published by ChessBase as \"Zap!Chess\".  In 2008, Vasik Rajlich's Rybka engine was added to the ChessBase product line, followed by Robert Houdart's Houdini and Don Dailey and Larry Kaufman's Komodo engines.  Recent versions of ChessBase and the engine GUIs such as Fritz offer access to cloud engines. ChessBase/Playchess had long had a downloadable client, but they had a web interface by 2013. ChessBase added a tactics trainer web app in 2015. In 2015, ChessBase added a play Fritz web app, as well as My Games for storing one's games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The company.", "content": "The company is located in Hamburg, Germany. ChessBaseUSA markets their products in the United States, and some of the most popular programs are sold by licensee Viva Media, now a division of Encore, Inc. In 1998, the German company Data Becker released the program 3D Schach Genie, containing the Shredder engine and Fritz interface. Chessbase India markets their products in India and surrounding countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The database.", "content": "Chessbase the program was originally designed for the Atari ST by Matthias Wüllenweber, the physicist/co-founder of the company. Mathias Feist helped port the program to DOS, and has been a key developer ever since. In more recent years, Lutz Nebe, Wolfgang Haar and Jeroen van den Belt have also been involved in program development. ChessBase uses a proprietary format for storing games (CBH), but can also handle games in portable game notation (PGN). The proprietary format uses less hard drive space and manages information that is not possible in PGN. The software converts files from PGN to ChessBase format, or from ChessBase to PGN.  The program permits searches for games, and positions in games, based on player names, openings, some tactical and strategic motifs, material imbalance, and features of the position. Chessbase can import engines either those such as Fritz or Shredder in native Chessbase format or Universal Chess Interface (UCI) engines such as Stockfish. , Chessbase's database contained 7.8 million games. The online database can be accessed directly through their database programs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "News site.", "content": "Chessbase also maintains ChessBase News, a web site containing chess news, as well as information on their products. The site is available in English, German, Spanish and Hindi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other publications.", "content": "ChessBase produces many CDs and DVDs, including monographs on famous players, tactical training exercises, and training for specific opening systems. They publish \"ChessBase Magazine\" six times per year, which comes on DVD with video clip interviews, articles on opening novelties, database updates (including annotated games), and other articles. All these are designed for viewing within their database software or the free ChessBase Reader.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related computer programs.", "content": "A database-only version of ChessBase for the BBC Micro, called \"BBChessBase\", was published by Peter Tate in 1991.  Gerritt Reubold's Der Bringer chess program is a rare example of a Chessbase format engine not released by Chessbase itself.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "ChessBase GmbH is a German company that makes and sells chess software, maintains a chess news site, and operates internet chess server for online chess. Founded in 1986, it maintains and sells massive databases, containing the moves of recorded chess games. Databases organise data from prior games; engines provide analyses of games while endgame tablebases offer perfect play in some endgames.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971419}
{"src_title": "Johann Bernoulli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Johann was born in Basel, the son of Nicolaus Bernoulli, an apothecary, and his wife, Margaretha Schonauer, and began studying medicine at Basel University. His father desired that he study business so that he might take over the family spice trade, but Johann Bernoulli did not like business and convinced his father to allow him to study medicine instead. However, Johann Bernoulli did not enjoy medicine either and began studying mathematics on the side with his older brother Jacob. Throughout Johann Bernoulli's education at Basel University the Bernoulli brothers worked together spending much of their time studying the newly discovered infinitesimal calculus. They were among the first mathematicians to not only study and understand calculus but to apply it to various problems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adult life.", "content": "After graduating from Basel University, Johann Bernoulli moved to teach differential equations. Later, in 1694, he married Dorothea Falkner, the daughter of an alderman of Basel, and soon after accepted a position as the professor of mathematics at the University of Groningen. At the request of his father-in-law, Bernoulli began the voyage back to his home town of Basel in 1705. Just after setting out on the journey he learned of his brother's death to tuberculosis. Bernoulli had planned on becoming the professor of Greek at Basel University upon returning but instead was able to take over as professor of mathematics, his older brother's former position. As a student of Leibniz's calculus, Bernoulli sided with him in 1713 in the Leibniz–Newton debate over who deserved credit for the discovery of calculus. Bernoulli defended Leibniz by showing that he had solved certain problems with his methods that Newton had failed to solve. Bernoulli also promoted Descartes' vortex theory over Newton's theory of gravitation. This ultimately delayed acceptance of Newton's theory in continental Europe. In 1724, Johann Bernoulli entered a competition sponsored by the French Académie Royale des Sciences, which posed the question:  In defending a view previously espoused by Leibniz, he found himself postulating an infinite external force required to make the body elastic by overcoming the infinite internal force making the body hard. In consequence, he was disqualified for the prize, which was won by Maclaurin. However, Bernoulli's paper was subsequently accepted in 1726 when the Académie considered papers regarding elastic bodies, for which the prize was awarded to Pierre Mazière. Bernoulli received an honourable mention in both competitions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disputes and controversy.", "content": "Although Johann and his brother Jacob Bernoulli worked together before Johann graduated from Basel University, shortly after this, the two developed a jealous and competitive relationship. Johann was jealous of Jacob's position and the two often attempted to outdo each other. After Jacob's death Johann's jealousy shifted toward his own talented son, Daniel. In 1738 the father–son duo nearly simultaneously published separate works on hydrodynamics. Johann attempted to take precedence over his son by purposely and falsely predating his work two years prior to his son's.  The Bernoulli brothers often worked on the same problems, but not without friction. Their most bitter dispute concerned the brachistochrone curve problem, or the equation for the path followed by a particle from one point to another in the shortest amount of time, if the particle is acted upon by gravity alone. Johann presented the problem in 1696, offering a reward for its solution. Entering the challenge, Johann proposed the cycloid, the path of a point on a moving wheel, also pointing out the relation this curve bears to the path taken by a ray of light passing through layers of varied density. Jacob proposed the same solution, but Johann's derivation of the solution was incorrect, and he presented his brother Jacob's derivation as his own.  Bernoulli was hired by Guillaume de l'Hôpital for tutoring in mathematics. Bernoulli and l'Hôpital signed a contract which gave l'Hôpital the right to use Bernoulli's discoveries as he pleased. L'Hôpital authored the first textbook on infinitesimal calculus, \"Analyse des Infiniment Petits pour l'Intelligence des Lignes Courbes\" in 1696, which mainly consisted of the work of Bernoulli, including what is now known as l'Hôpital's rule. Subsequently, in letters to Leibniz, Varignon and others, Bernoulli complained that he had not received enough credit for his contributions, in spite of the preface of his book:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Johann Bernoulli (also known as Jean or John; – 1 January 1748) was a Swiss mathematician and was one of the many prominent mathematicians in the Bernoulli family. He is known for his contributions to infinitesimal calculus and educating Leonhard Euler in the pupil's youth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971420}
{"src_title": "Jacob Bernoulli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Jacob Bernoulli was born in Basel, Switzerland. Following his father's wish, he studied theology and entered the ministry. But contrary to the desires of his parents, he also studied mathematics and astronomy. He traveled throughout Europe from 1676 to 1682, learning about the latest discoveries in mathematics and the sciences under leading figures of the time. This included the work of Johannes Hudde, Robert Boyle, and Robert Hooke. During this time he also produced an incorrect theory of comets. Bernoulli returned to Switzerland, and began teaching mechanics at the University of Basel from 1683. His doctoral dissertation \"Solutionem tergemini problematis\" was submitted in 1684. It appeared in print in 1687.  In 1684 Bernoulli married Judith Stupanus; they had two children. During this decade, he also began a fertile research career. His travels allowed him to establish correspondence with many leading mathematicians and scientists of his era, which he maintained throughout his life. During this time, he studied the new discoveries in mathematics, including Christiaan Huygens's \"De ratiociniis in aleae ludo\", Descartes' \"La Géométrie\" and Frans van Schooten's supplements of it. He also studied Isaac Barrow and John Wallis, leading to his interest in infinitesimal geometry. Apart from these, it was between 1684 and 1689 that many of the results that were to make up \"Ars Conjectandi\" were discovered.  He was appointed professor of mathematics at the University of Basel in 1687, remaining in this position for the rest of his life. By that time, he had begun tutoring his brother Johann Bernoulli on mathematical topics. The two brothers began to study the calculus as presented by Leibniz in his 1684 paper on the differential calculus in \"Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis\" published in \"Acta Eruditorum\". They also studied the publications of von Tschirnhaus. It must be understood that Leibniz's publications on the calculus were very obscure to mathematicians of that time and the Bernoullis were among the first to try to understand and apply Leibniz's theories.  Jacob collaborated with his brother on various applications of calculus. However the atmosphere of collaboration between the two brothers turned into rivalry as Johann's own mathematical genius began to mature, with both of them attacking each other in print, and posing difficult mathematical challenges to test each other's skills. By 1697, the relationship had completely broken down.  The lunar crater Bernoulli is also named after him jointly with his brother Johann.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Important works.", "content": "Jacob Bernoulli's first important contributions were a pamphlet on the parallels of logic and algebra published in 1685, work on probability in 1685 and geometry in 1687. His geometry result gave a construction to divide any triangle into four equal parts with two perpendicular lines.  By 1689 he had published important work on infinite series and published his law of large numbers in probability theory. Jacob Bernoulli published five treatises on infinite series between 1682 and 1704 The first two of these contained many results, such as the fundamental result that formula_1 diverges, which Bernoulli believed were new but they had actually been proved by Mengoli 40 years earlier. Bernoulli could not find a closed form for formula_2, but he did show that it converged to a finite limit less than 2. Euler was the first to find the sum of this series in 1737. Bernoulli also studied the exponential series which came out of examining compound interest.  In May 1690 in a paper published in \"Acta Eruditorum\", Jacob Bernoulli showed that the problem of determining the isochrone is equivalent to solving a first-order nonlinear differential equation. The isochrone, or curve of constant descent, is the curve along which a particle will descend under gravity from any point to the bottom in exactly the same time, no matter what the starting point. It had been studied by Huygens in 1687 and Leibniz in 1689. After finding the differential equation, Bernoulli then solved it by what we now call separation of variables. Jacob Bernoulli's paper of 1690 is important for the history of calculus, since the term integral appears for the first time with its integration meaning. In 1696 Bernoulli solved the equation, now called the Bernoulli differential equation,  Jacob Bernoulli also discovered a general method to determine evolutes of a curve as the envelope of its circles of curvature. He also investigated caustic curves and in particular he studied these associated curves of the parabola, the logarithmic spiral and epicycloids around 1692. The lemniscate of Bernoulli was first conceived by Jacob Bernoulli in 1694. In 1695 he investigated the drawbridge problem which seeks the curve required so that a weight sliding along the cable always keeps the drawbridge balanced. Jacob Bernoulli's most original work was \"Ars Conjectandi\" published in Basel in 1713, eight years after his death. The work was incomplete at the time of his death but it is still a work of the greatest significance in the theory of probability. In the book Bernoulli reviewed work of others on probability, in particular work by van Schooten, Leibniz, and Prestet. The Bernoulli numbers appear in the book in a discussion of the exponential series. Many examples are given on how much one would expect to win playing various games of chance. The term Bernoulli trial resulted from this work. There are interesting thoughts on what probability really is: ... probability as a measurable degree of certainty; necessity and chance; moral versus mathematical expectation; a priori an a posteriori probability; expectation of winning when players are divided according to dexterity; regard of all available arguments, their valuation, and their calculable evaluation; law of large numbers...  Bernoulli was one of the most significant promoters of the formal methods of higher analysis. Astuteness and elegance are seldom found in his method of presentation and expression, but there is a maximum of integrity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery of the mathematical constant e.", "content": "In 1683 Bernoulli discovered the constant e by studying a question about compound interest which required him to find the value of the following expression (which is in fact ):  One example is an account that starts with $1.00 and pays 100 percent interest per year. If the interest is credited once, at the end of the year, the value is $2.00; but if the interest is computed and added twice in the year, the $1 is multiplied by 1.5 twice, yielding $1.00×1.52 = $2.25. Compounding quarterly yields $1.00×1.25 = $2.4414..., and compounding monthly yields $1.00×(1.0833...) = $2.613035...  Bernoulli noticed that this sequence approaches a limit (the force of interest) for more and smaller compounding intervals. Compounding weekly yields $2.692597..., while compounding daily yields $2.714567..., just two cents more. Using as the number of compounding intervals, with interest of 100%/ in each interval, the limit for large is the number that Euler later named ; with \"continuous\" compounding, the account value will reach $2.7182818... More generally, an account that starts at $1, and yields (1+) dollars at Compound interest, will yield dollars with continuous compounding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tombstone.", "content": "Bernoulli wanted a logarithmic spiral and the motto \"Eadem mutata resurgo\" ('Although changed, I rise again the same') engraved on his tombstone. He wrote that the self-similar spiral \"may be used as a symbol, either of fortitude and constancy in adversity, or of the human body, which after all its changes, even after death, will be restored to its exact and perfect self.\" Bernoulli died in 1705, but an Archimedean spiral was engraved rather than a logarithmic one.  Translation of Latin inscription:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacob Bernoulli (also known as James or Jacques; – 16 August 1705) was one of the many prominent mathematicians in the Bernoulli family. He was an early proponent of Leibnizian calculus and sided with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz during the Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy. He is known for his numerous contributions to calculus, and along with his brother Johann, was one of the founders of the calculus of variations. He also discovered the fundamental mathematical constant e. However, his most important contribution was in the field of probability, where he derived the first version of the law of large numbers in his work \"Ars Conjectandi\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971421}
{"src_title": "Bandoneon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Bandonion, so named by the German instrument dealer Heinrich Band (1821–1860), was originally intended as an instrument for religious and popular music of the day, in contrast to its predecessor, German concertina (), which had predominantly been used in folk music. Around 1870, German and Italian emigrants and sailors brought the instrument to Argentina, where it was adopted into the nascent genre of tango music, a descendant of the earlier milonga.  By 1910 bandoneons were being produced expressly for the Argentine and Uruguayan markets, with 25,000 shipping to Argentina in 1930 alone. However, declining popularity and the disruption of German manufacturing in World War II led to an end of bandoneon mass-production.  Original instruments can be seen in a number of German museums, such as the Preuss family's Bandoneon Museum in Lichtenberg and the Steinhart family's collection in Kirchzarten, Freiburg.  Historically, bandoneons were produced primarily in Germany and never in Argentina itself, despite their popularity in that country. As a result, vintage bandoneons had by the 2000s become rare and expensive (costing around 4000 USD), limiting the opportunities for prospective bandeonists. In 2014, the National University of Lanús announced its plan to develop an affordable Argentine-made bandoneon, which it hoped to market for one-third to one-half of the cost of vintage instruments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technique.", "content": "As with other members of the concertina family, the bandoneon is held between both hands, and pulling and pushing actions force air through bellows and then through particular reeds as selected by pressing the instrument's buttons. As with other concertinas, the button action is in parallel to the motion of the bellows, and not perpendicular to it as with an accordion.  Unlike what happens with a piano accordion, but in similar fashion to a melodeon or Anglo concertina, a given bandoneon button produces different notes on the push and the pull (bisonoric). This means that each keyboard actually has two layouts: one for opening notes, and one for closing notes. Since the right and left hand layouts are also different, a musician must learn four different keyboard layouts to play the instrument.  These keyboard layouts are not structured to make it easy to play scale passages of single notes: they were originally laid out to facilitate playing chords, for supporting singers of religious music in small churches with no organ or harmonium, or for clergy requiring a portable instrument (missionaries, traveling evangelists, army and navy chaplains, and so forth).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unisonoric.", "content": "While the standard bandoneon is bisonoric (different note on push and pull), some bandoneon variants are monosonoric, or unisonoric (same note on push and pull). These include the Ernst Kusserow and Charles Peguri systems, both introduced around 1925.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Players.", "content": "The Argentinian bandleader, composer, arranger, and tango performer Aníbal Troilo was a leading 20th-century proponent of the bandoneon. The bandoneon player and composer Ástor Piazzolla played and arranged in Troilo's orquesta from 1939 to 1944. Piazzolla's \"\"Fugata\"\" from 1969 showcases the instrument, which plays the initial fugue subject on the 1st statement, then moves on to the outright tango after the introduction. With his solos and accompaniment on the bandoneon, Piazzolla combined a musical composition much derived from classical music (which he had studied intensively in his formative years) with traditional instrumental tango, to form \"nuevo tango\", his new interpretation of the genre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of luthiers and manufacturers.", "content": "A list of some current bandoneon manufacturers:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Exterior: A look inside a bandoneon:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The bandoneon (or bandonion, ) is a type of concertina particularly popular in Argentina and Uruguay. It is an essential instrument in most tango ensembles from the traditional orquesta típica of the 1910s onwards. As with other members of the concertina family, the bandoneon is held between both hands, and by pulling and pushing actions force air through bellows and then routing air through particular reeds as by pressing the instrument's buttons. Bandoneons have a different sound from accordions, because bandoneons do not usually have the register switches that are common on accordions. Nevertheless, the tone of the bandoneon can be changed a great deal using varied bellows pressure and overblowing, thus creating potential for expressive playing and diverse timbres.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971422}
{"src_title": "Antipope Benedict X", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Giovanni was named Cardinal Bishop of Velletri by Pope Leo IX in 1050. He was highly esteemed, however, by those who wanted to reform the Church, and was one of five men proposed by Cardinal Frederick of Lorraine when consulted during the summer of 1057 concerning a possible successor to Pope Victor II, whom Frederick himself succeeded as Pope Stephen IX.  Upon Pope Stephen's death the following year, Giovanni was elected pope on 4 April 1058, his election having been arranged by his family. This was in violation, however, of a decree by the late pope that no election was to be held until the return of Cardinal Hildebrand from a mission to Germany. Hildebrand (later Pope Gregory VII) had been sent by the late Pope Stephen to the court of Empress Agnes, who had questioned the validity of Stephen's own election. As a result, a number of cardinals alleged that the election was irregular. These cardinals were soon forced to flee Rome.  When Hildebrand heard of Benedict's election during his return journey to Rome, he decided to oppose it. He went to Florence where he obtained the support of the Duke of Lorraine and Tuscany for the election of Gerhard of Burgundy, Archbishop of Florence, as pope instead. Support for this was given by Empress Agnes. Those cardinals who had opposed Benedict's election met at Siena in December 1058, and elected Gerhard, who then took the name of Nicholas II.  Nicholas then proceeded towards Rome, along the way holding a synod at Sutri, where he pronounced Benedict deposed and excommunicated. The supporters of Nicholas then gained control of Rome, and forced Benedict to flee to the castle of Count Gerard of Galeria. Having arrived in Rome, Nicholas was crowned as pope on 24 January 1059. He then proceeded to wage war against Benedict and his supporters, with the assistance of Norman forces based in southern Italy, after he agreed to recognize Count Richard of Aversa as ruler of Capua. An initial battle was fought in Campagna in early 1059, which was not wholly successful for Nicholas; but later that same year, his forces conquered Praeneste, Tusculum and Numentanum, and then attacked Galéria, forcing Benedict to surrender and to renounce the papacy in the Fall of that year.  Benedict was allowed to go free, and he retired to one of his family's estates in the city. Pope Nicholas, however, deemed his submission inadequate and had him publicly tried in 1060, with Hildebrand serving as his prosecutor. Despite pleading that he had been forced to assume the papal crown, he was convicted that April and stripped of all his titles. He was further sentenced to confinement in the hospital attached to the Basilica of Sant'Agnese fuori le mura, where he died, still a prisoner, sometime between 1073 and 1080. He was likely buried in the adjoining church.  The most important consequence of these events was the adoption of new regulations for papal elections, laid out at a synod called by Pope Nicholas in the Lateran Palace on Easter 1059. These took away the role of the Roman citizenry in the election of future popes, limiting the vote to the College of Cardinals. Additionally, the ancient title which Benedict had held of Bishop of Velletri was combined with the see of the Bishop of Ostia. (Ostia and Velletri would be separated in 1914.)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Benedict X (died 1073/1080) was born Giovanni, a son of Guido (the youngest son of Alberic III, Count of Tusculum), a brother of the notorious Pope Benedict IX (deposed in 1048), a member of the dominant political dynasty in the region at that time. He reportedly later was given the nickname of \"Mincius\" (thin) due to his ignorance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971423}
{"src_title": "United Kingdom of the Netherlands", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Before the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), the Low Countries was a patchwork of different polities created by the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648). The Dutch Republic in the north was independent; the Southern Netherlands was split between the Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège - the former being part of Habsburg Monarchy, while both were part of the Holy Roman Empire. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, the War of the First Coalition broke out in 1792 and France was invaded by Prussia and the Holy Roman Empire. After two years of fighting, the Austrian Netherlands and Liège were captured by the French in 1794 and annexed into France. The Dutch Republic collapsed in 1795 and became a French client state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Creation of the United Netherlands.", "content": "In 1813, the Netherlands was liberated from French rule by Prussian and Russian troops during the Napoleonic Wars. It was taken for granted that any new regime would have to be headed by the son of the last Dutch \"stadhouder\", William Frederik of Orange-Nassau. A provisional government was formed, most of whose members had helped drive out the House of Orange 18 years earlier. However, they realised that it would be better in the long term to offer leadership of the new government to William Frederik themselves rather than have him imposed by the allies. Accordingly, William Frederick was installed as the \"sovereign prince\" of a new Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands. The future of the Southern Netherlands, however, was less clear. In June 1814, the Great Powers secretly agreed to the Eight Articles of London which allocated the region to the Dutch as William had advocated. That August, William Frederik was made Governor-General of the Southern Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège–almost all of what is now Belgium. For all intents and purposes, William Frederik had completed his family's three-century dream of uniting the Low Countries under a single rule.  Discussions on the future of the region were still ongoing at the Congress of Vienna when Napoleon attempted to return to power in the \"Hundred Days\". William used the occasion to declare himself king on 16 March 1815 as William I. After the Battle of Waterloo, discussions continued.  In exchange for the Southern Netherlands, William agreed to cede the Principality of Orange-Nassau and parts of the Liège to Prussia on 31 May 1815. In exchange, William also gained control over the Duchy of Luxembourg, which was elevated to a grand duchy and placed in personal and political union with the Netherlands, though it remained part of the German Confederation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Constitution and government.", "content": "Though the United Netherlands was a constitutional monarchy, the king retained significant control as head of state and head of government. Beneath the king was a bicameral legislature known as the States General with a Senate and House of Representatives. From the start, the administrative system proved controversial. Representation in the 110-seat House of Representatives, for example, was divided equally between south and north, although the former had a larger population. This was resented in the south, which believed that the government was dominated by northerners.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Provinces.", "content": "The United Netherlands was divided into 17 provinces and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg which was constitutionally distinct. Many were based on the pre-existing \"départements\", established by the French. They included:  The United Netherlands was also a colonial power with overseas colonies in the East Indies and elsewhere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economic policy.", "content": "Economically, the United Netherlands prospered. Supported by the state, the Industrial Revolution began to affect the Southern Netherlands where a number of modern industries emerged, encouraged by figures such as John Cockerill who created the steel industry in Wallonia. Antwerp emerged as major trading port.  William I actively supported economic modernisation. Modern universities were established at Leuven, Liège, and Ghent in 1817. Lower education was also extended. The General Netherlands Society for Advancing National Industry (\"Algemeene Nederlandsche Maatschappij ter Begunstiging van de Volksvlijt\") was created in 1822 to encourage industrialisation in the south, while the Netherlands Trading Society (\"Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij\") was created in 1825 to encourage trade with the colonies. William I also embarked on a programme of canal building that saw the creation of the North Holland, Ghent–Terneuzen and Brussels–Charleroi canals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional tensions.", "content": "Differences between Southern and Northern Netherlands were never totally effaced. The two were divided by the issue of religion because the south was strongly Roman Catholic and the north largely Dutch Reformed. The Catholic Church in Belgium resented the state's encroachment on its traditional privileges, especially in education. In French-speaking parts of the south, attempts to enforce the use of Dutch language were particularly resented among the elite. Many Belgians believed that the United Netherlands' constitution discriminated against them. Though they represented 62 percent of the population, they were only allocated 50 percent of the seats in the House and less in the Senate while the state extracted money from the richer south to subsidise the north. By the mid-1820s, a union of opposition had formed in Belgium, uniting liberals and Catholic conservatives against Dutch rule.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Belgian Revolution and secession.", "content": "The Belgian Revolution broke out on 25 August 1830, inspired by the recent July Revolution in France. A military intervention in September failed to defeat the rebels in Brussels, radicalising the movement. Belgium was declared an independent state on 4 October 1830. A constitutional monarchy was established under King Leopold I.  William I refused to accept the secession of Belgium. In August 1831, he launched the Ten Days' Campaign, a major military offensive into Belgium. Though initially successful, the French intervened to support the Belgians and the invasion had to be abandoned. After a period of tension, a settlement was agreed at the Treaty of London in 1839. The Dutch recognised Belgian independence, in exchange for territorial concessions. The frontier between the two countries was finally fixed by the Treaty of Maastricht in 1843. Luxembourg became an autonomous state in personal union with the Dutch, though ceding some territory to Belgium.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The United Kingdom of the Netherlands (; ) is the unofficial name given to the Kingdom of the Netherlands as it existed between 1815 and 1839. The United Netherlands was created in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars through the fusion of territories that had belonged to the former Dutch Republic, Austrian Netherlands, and Prince-Bishopric of Liège in order to form a buffer state between the major European powers. The polity was a constitutional monarchy, ruled by William I of the House of Orange-Nassau.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971424}
{"src_title": "William II, Prince of Orange", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "William II, Prince of Orange, was the son of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. Frederick Henry was the youngest son of William the Silent (stadtholder 1559–1584); his older half brother Maurits of Nassau was stadtholder (1585–1625); he was stadtholder from 1625 to 1647. The stadtholders governed in conjunction with the States-General, an assembly of representatives from each of the seven provinces, but usually dominated by the largest and wealthiest province, Holland.  On 2 May 1641, William married Mary, Princess Royal, who was the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England, in the Chapel Royal of Whitehall Palace in London. William was fifteen, while Mary was just nine at that time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "In 1647, his father Frederick Henry died, and William II succeeded to both his hereditary titles and his elective offices as stadtholder of five of the seven provinces: Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel.  The Netherlands at this time was engaged in the Eighty Years' War against Spain for its independence. Under Frederick Henry, the Netherlands had largely won the war, and since 1646 had been negotiating with Spain on the terms for ending it.  The negotiators agreed to the Peace of Münster in 1648, but William opposed acceptance of the treaty, even though it recognized the independence of the (northern) Netherlands, because it left the southern Netherlands in the hands of the Spanish monarchy. A separate peace furthermore violated the alliance with France formed in 1635. However, the States of six provinces voted to accept it.  Secretly, William opened his own negotiations with France with the goal of extending his own territory under a more centralized government. In addition, he worked for the restoration of his exiled brother-in-law, Charles II, to the throne of England.  In 1650 William II became involved in a bitter quarrel with the province of Holland and the powerful Regents of Amsterdam, Andries Bicker and his cousin Cornelis de Graeff. With the Peace of Münster, the Regents wanted to reduce the army, saving money. That would also diminish William's authority. William imprisoned eight members of the States of Holland (including Jacob de Witt) in the castle of Loevestein. In addition, he sent his cousin, Willem Frederik of Nassau-Dietz with an army of 10,000 men to seize Amsterdam by force. Bad weather foiled this campaign, but Amsterdam did give in.  William served as stadtholder for only three years, until he died of smallpox in 1650. His only son William was born one week after his death. This was the beginning of the First Stadtholderless Period. His son succeeded him in 1672 as stadtholder and later, in 1689, also became King of England.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "William II used the following arms during his time as prince of Orange, Stadholder or Holland, etc., and Captain-General:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William II (27 May 1626 – 6 November 1650) was sovereign Prince of Orange and Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, Overijssel and Groningen in the United Provinces of the Netherlands from 14 March 1647 until his death three years later. His only child, William III, reigned as King of England, Ireland, and Scotland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971425}
{"src_title": "Margay", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The margay is very similar to the larger ocelot in appearance, although the head is a little shorter, the eyes larger, and the tail and legs longer. It weighs from, with a body length of, and a tail length of. Unlike most other cats, the female possesses only two teats.  Its fur is brown and marked with numerous rows of dark brown or black rosettes and longitudinal streaks. The undersides are paler, ranging from buff to white, and the tail has numerous dark bands and a black tip. The backs of the ears are black with circular white markings in the centre.  Most notably the margay is a much more skillful climber than its relative, and it is sometimes called the tree ocelot because of this ability. Whereas the ocelot mostly pursues prey on the ground, the margay may spend its entire life in the trees, leaping after and chasing birds and monkeys through the treetops. Indeed, it is one of only two cat species with the ankle flexibility necessary to climb head-first down trees (the other being the clouded leopard, although the poorly studied marbled cat may also have this ability). It is remarkably agile; its ankles can turn up to 180 degrees, it can grasp branches equally well with its fore and hind paws, and it is able to jump up to horizontally. The margay has been observed to hang from branches with only one foot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The margay is found from southern Mexico, through Central America and in northern South America east of the Andes. The southern edge of its range reaches Uruguay and northern Argentina. They are found almost exclusively in areas of dense forest, ranging from tropical evergreen forest to tropical dry forest and high cloud forest. Margays have sometimes also been observed in coffee and cocoa plantations.  Fossil evidence of margays or margay-like cats has been found in Florida and Georgia dating to the Pleistocene, suggesting that they had a wider distribution in the past. The last record from Texas was from 1852.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior and ecology.", "content": "The margay is nocturnal, but has also been observed hunting during the day in some areas. It prefers to spend most of its life in trees, but also travels on the ground, especially when moving between hunting areas. During the day, it rests in relatively inaccessible branches or clumps of lianas.  It is usually solitary and lives in home ranges of. It uses scent marking to indicate its territory, including urine spraying and leaving scratch marks on the ground or on branches. Its vocalisations all appear to be short range; it does not call over long distances.  A margay has been observed to mimic the vocalisation of a pied tamarin (\"Saguinus bicolor\") infant while hunting. This represents the first observation of a Neotropical predator employing this type of mimicry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Because the margay is mostly nocturnal and is naturally rare in its environment, most dietary studies have been based on stomach contents and faecal analysis. This cat hunts small mammals, including monkeys, and birds, eggs, lizards and tree frogs. It also eats grass, fruit and other vegetation, most likely to help digestion. A 2006 report about a margay chasing squirrels in its natural environment confirmed that the margay is able to hunt its prey entirely in trees. However, margays do sometimes hunt on the ground, and have been reported to eat terrestrial prey, such as cane rats and guinea pigs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction and lifecycle.", "content": "Female margays are in estrus for four to ten days over a cycle of 32 to 36 days, during which they attract males with a long, moaning call. The male responds by yelping or making trilling sounds, and also by rapidly shaking his head from side to side, a behavior not seen in any other cat species. Copulation lasts up to sixty seconds, and is similar to that in domestic cats; it takes place primarily in the trees, and occurs several times while the female is in heat. Unlike other felid species, margays are not induced ovulators.  Gestation lasts about 80 days, and generally results in the birth of a single kitten (very rarely, there are two) usually between March and June. Kittens weigh at birth. This is relatively large for a small cat, and is probably related to the long gestation period. The kittens open their eyes at around two weeks of age, and begin to take solid food at seven to eight weeks. Margays reach sexual maturity at twelve to eighteen months of age, and have been reported to live more than 20 years in captivity.  Cubs suffer from a 50% mortality rate. Coupled with the problems they have breeding in captivity, this makes the prospect of increasing the population very difficult.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Felis wiedii\" was the scientific name proposed by Heinrich Rudolf Schinz in 1821 for a zoological specimen from Brazil. \"Felis macroura\" was proposed by Maximilian von Wied in 1825 who described margays that he obtained in the jungles along the Mucuri River in Brazil. In the 20th century, several type specimens were described and proposed as new species or subspecies:  Results of a genetic study of margay mitochondrial DNA samples indicate that three phylogeographic groups exist. Therefore, three subspecies are currently considered valid taxa:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local names.", "content": "In the Spanish language it is known as,,, or. In Portuguese it is called or simply. In the Guaraní language, the term originally referred only to the margay, but is now also used for domestic cats.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The margay (\"Leopardus wiedii\") is a small wild cat native to Central and South America. A solitary and nocturnal cat, it lives mainly in primary evergreen and deciduous forest.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971426}
{"src_title": "Anatole France", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "The son of a bookseller, France, a bibliophile, spent most of his life around books. His father's bookstore specialized in books and papers on the French Revolution and was frequented by many writers and scholars. France studied at the Collège Stanislas, a private Catholic school, and after graduation he helped his father by working in his bookstore. After several years, he secured the position of cataloguer at Bacheline-Deflorenne and at Lemerre. In 1876 he was appointed librarian for the French Senate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "France began his literary career as a poet and a journalist. In 1869, \"Le Parnasse Contemporain\" published one of his poems, \"\". In 1875, he sat on the committee in charge of the third \"Parnasse Contemporain\" compilation. As a journalist, from 1867, he wrote many articles and notices. He became known with the novel \" (1881). Its protagonist, skeptical old scholar Sylvester Bonnard, embodied France's own personality. The novel was praised for its elegant prose and won him a prize from the Académie française.  In'(1893) France ridiculed belief in the occult; and in'(1893), France captured the atmosphere of the \". He was elected to the Académie française in 1896.  France took a part in the Dreyfus affair. He signed Émile Zola's manifesto supporting Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer who had been falsely convicted of espionage. France wrote about the affair in his 1901 novel \"Monsieur Bergeret\".  France's later works include \"L'Île des Pingouins\" (\"Penguin Island\", 1908) which satirizes human nature by depicting the transformation of penguins into humans – after the birds have been baptized by mistake by the almost-blind Abbot Mael. It is a satirical history of France, starting in Medieval times, going on to the author's own time with special attention to the Dreyfus affair and concluding with a dystopian future. \"\" (\"The Gods Are Athirst\", 1912) is a novel, set in Paris during the French Revolution, about a true-believing follower of Maximilien Robespierre and his contribution to the bloody events of the Reign of Terror of 1793–94. It is a wake-up call against political and ideological fanaticism and explores various other philosophical approaches to the events of the time. \"La Revolte des Anges\" (\"Revolt of the Angels\", 1914) is often considered Anatole France's most profound and ironic novel. Loosely based on the Christian understanding of the War in Heaven, it tells the story of Arcade, the guardian angel of Maurice d'Esparvieu. Bored because Bishop d'Esparvieu is sinless, Arcade begins reading the bishop's books on theology and becomes an atheist. He moves to Paris, meets a woman, falls in love, and loses his virginity causing his wings to fall off, joins the revolutionary movement of fallen angels, and meets the Devil, who realizes that if he overthrew God, he would become just like God. Arcade realizes that replacing God with another is meaningless unless \"in ourselves and in ourselves alone we attack and destroy Ialdabaoth.\" \"Ialdabaoth\", according to France, is God's secret name and means \"the child who wanders\".  He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. He died in 1924 and is buried in the Neuilly-sur-Seine community cemetery near Paris.  On 31 May 1922, France's entire works were put on the \"Index Librorum Prohibitorum\" (Prohibited Books Index) of the Catholic Church. He regarded this as a \"distinction\". This Index was abolished in 1966.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1877, France married Valérie Guérin de Sauville, a granddaughter of Jean-Urbain Guérin a miniaturist who painted Louis XVI, and with whom he had a daughter, Suzanne, in 1881 (dec. 1918). France's relations with women were always turbulent, and in 1888 he began a relationship with Madame Arman de Caillavet, who conducted a celebrated literary salon of the Third Republic; the affair lasted until shortly before her death in 1910. After his divorce in 1893, he had many liaisons, notably with Mme Gagey, who committed suicide in 1911. France married again in 1920, to Emma Laprévotte.  Politically, France was a socialist and an outspoken supporter of the 1917 Russian Revolution. In 1920, he gave his support to the newly founded French Communist Party.  France was documented to have a brain size just two-thirds the normal size.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reputation.", "content": "After his death in 1924, France was the object of written attacks, including particularly venomous assaults both the left and the right of politics. The attack from the right came from the Nazi collaborator Pierre Drieu La Rochelle. From the left, the Surrealists who published \"Un Cadavre\" largely as a response to the popular appeal of France, who they deemed vulgar and derivative. An admirer, the English writer George Orwell, defended him however and declared that he remained very readable, and that \"it is unquestionable that he was attacked partly from political motive.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "' (; born ', ; 16 April 1844 – 12 October 1924) was a French poet, journalist, and novelist with several best-sellers. Ironic and skeptical, he was considered in his day the ideal French man of letters. He was a member of the Académie française, and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Literature \"in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements, characterized as they are by a nobility of style, a profound human sympathy, grace, and a true Gallic temperament\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971427}
{"src_title": "Léon Bloy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Bloy was born on 11 July 1846 in Notre-Dame-de-Sanilhac, in the arondissement of Périgueux, Dordogne. He was the second of six sons of Jean-Baptiste Bloy, a Voltairean freethinker, and Anne-Marie Carreau, a stern disciplinarian and pious Spanish-Catholic daughter of a Napoleonic soldier. After an agnostic and unhappy youth in which he cultivated an intense hatred for the Roman Catholic Church and its teaching, his father found him a job in Paris, where he went in 1864. In December 1868, he met the aging Catholic author Barbey d'Aurevilly, who lived opposite him in rue Rousselet and who became his mentor. Shortly afterwards, he underwent a dramatic religious conversion.  Bloy was a friend of the author Joris-Karl Huysmans, the painter Georges Rouault, the philosophers Jacques and Raïssa Maritain and was instrumental in reconciling these intellectuals with Roman Catholicism. However, he acquired a reputation for bigotry because of his frequent outbursts of temper. For example, in 1885, after the death of Victor Hugo, whom Bloy believed to be an atheist, Bloy decried Hugo's \"senility\", \"avarice\", and \"hypocrisy\", identifying Hugo among \"contemplatives of biological scum.\" Bloy's first novel, \"Le Désespéré\", a fierce attack on rationalism and those he believed to be in league with it, made him fall out with the literary community of his time and even many of his old friends. Soon, Bloy could count such prestigious authors as Émile Zola, Guy de Maupassant, Ernest Renan, and Anatole France as his enemies.  In addition to his published works, he left a large body of correspondence with public and literary figures. He died on 3 November 1917 in Bourg-la-Reine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticisms.", "content": "Bloy was noted for personal attacks, but he saw them as the mercy or indignation of God. According to Jacques Maritain, he used to say: \"My anger is the effervescence of my pity.\"  Among the many targets of Bloy's attacks were people of business. In an essay in \"Pilgrim of the Absolute\", he compared the businessmen of Chicago unfavourably to the cultured people of Paris:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Our Lady of La Salette.", "content": "Inspired by both the millennialist visionary and the reports of an apparition at La Salette—Our Lady of La Salette—Bloy was convinced that the Virgin's message was that if people did not reform, the end time was imminent. He was particularly critical of the attention paid to the shrine at Lourdes and resented the fact that it distracted people from what he saw as the less sentimental message of La Salette.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "Bloy is quoted in the epigraph at the beginning of Graham Greene's novel \"The End of the Affair,\" though Greene claimed that \"this irate man lacked creative instinct\". He is further quoted in the essay \"The Mirror of Enigmas\" by the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges, who acknowledged his debt to him by naming him in the foreword to his short story collection \"Artifices\" as one of seven authors who were in \"the heterogeneous list of the writers I am continually re-reading\". In his novel \"The Harp and the Shadow\", Alejo Carpentier excoriates Bloy as a raving, Columbus-defending lunatic during Vatican deliberations over the explorer's canonization. Bloy is also quoted at the beginning of John Irving's \"A Prayer for Owen Meany\", and there are several quotations from his \"Letters to my Fiancée\" in Charles Williams's anthology \"The New Christian Year\". \"Le Désespéré\" was republished in 2005 by Éditions Underbahn with a preface by Maurice G. Dantec. In Chile historian Jaime Eyzaguirre came to be influenced by Bloy's writings.  According to the historian John Connelly, Bloy's \"Le Salut par les Juifs\", with its apocalyptically radical interpretation of chapters 9 to 11 of Paul's Letter to the Romans, had a major influence on the Catholic theologians of the Second Vatican Council responsible for section 4 of the council's declaration \"Nostra aetate\", the doctrinal basis for a revolutionary change in the Catholic Church's attitude to Judaism.  In 2013, Pope Francis surprised many by quoting Bloy during his first homily as pope.  Bloy and his effect on 21st-century French scholars make a significant appearance in Michel Houellebecq's 2015 novel \"Submission\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diaries.", "content": "A study in English is \"Léon Bloy\" by Rayner Heppenstall (Cambridge: Bowes & Bowes, 1953).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Léon Bloy (11 July 1846 – 3 November 1917) was a French novelist, essayist, pamphleteer, and poet, known additionally for his eventual, passionate defense of Roman Catholicism and influence within French Catholic circles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971428}
{"src_title": "Schengen Information System", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Participating nations.", "content": "Information in SIS is shared among the institutions of countries participating in the Schengen Agreement Application Convention (SAAC). The five original participating countries were France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Twenty-one additional countries have joined the system since its creation: Spain, Portugal, Italy, Austria, Greece, Finland, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Estonia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Liechtenstein. Among the current participants, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland are not members of the European Union.  Although Ireland and the United Kingdom have not signed the Schengen Agreement Application Convention, they take part in Schengen co-operation under the terms of the Treaty of Amsterdam, which introduced the provisions of Schengen \"acquis\" into European Union law. Schengen \"acquis\" allows the United Kingdom and Ireland to take part in all or part of the Schengen convention arrangements. Ireland and the United Kingdom use the Schengen Information System for law enforcement purposes.  Ireland and the United Kingdom do not have access to Article 26D (former 96) data because these countries do not intend to remove the border controls between themselves and the rest of Europe. European citizens still have the right of free movement to the UK and Ireland but must pass through a border control point, unlike the other Schengen signatory countries, among whom internal border controls have been largely abolished. Since 1 August 2018, Bulgaria and Romania have full access to SIS; before that they had access to SIS only for law enforcement purposes. Croatia has access to SIS for law enforcement purposes, while Cyprus does not have any access.  The UK did 571 millions searches in the database in 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Introduction.", "content": "SIS information is stored according to the legislation of each participating country. There are more than 46 million entries (called \"alerts\") in SIS, most about lost identity documents. Person alerts make up around 1.9 percent of the database (about 885,000 records). Each alert contains information such as: name, date of birth, gender, nationality, aliases, arms or history of violence, the reason for the alert and the action to be taken if the person is encountered. SIS does not record travellers' entries and exits from the Schengen Area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "On 25 March 1957, the Treaty of Rome was completed. On 3 February 1958, the economic union of the Benelux countries was formed. Both agreements aimed to enable the free movement of people and goods across national borders. The Benelux countries, as a smaller group, were able to quickly implement the agreement. The European Communities' focus was on economic integration. It was not until the agreement of Saarbrücken was completed on 13 July 1984, that border controls between France and Germany were eased.  On 14 June 1985, France, Germany and three of the Benelux nations completed the Schengen Agreement. Border controls on people and goods between these nations were gradually relaxed. On 19 June 1990, the initial five nations were joined by Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, Austria and five Nordic Passport Union countries: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden.  On 21 December 2007, the Schengen border-free zone was enlarged to include Estonia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal aspects and technical characteristics.", "content": "SIS was created to maintain European security after 25 March 2001 when border security between fifteen nations was relaxed. The SIS requires Schengen nations to respect the legal force of the information it contains. It also requires the nations to respect the privacy and personal freedom of the people whose data is held according to national data laws. SIS's information processing system must be permanently connected to member nations' databases and must be updated in real-time.  These commitments are supplemented by consultation procedures between the member nations. Discussions may take place about issues such as confirmation of information, variation of actions directed by SIS, questions of residency, and international warrants for arrest.  SIS is controlled by an authority composed of representatives of the member nations. Personal data protection is a key responsibility. At a technical level, the participating countries adopted a data-processing star architecture made up of a central site containing the reference database, known as C-SIS, for which the responsibility is entrusted to the French Republic by the CAAS, and a site by country, known as N-SIS, containing a copy of the database.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Data.", "content": "The type of data about people kept in SIS includes: requests for extradition; undesirability of presence in particular territory; minor age; mental illnesses; missing person status; a need for protection; requests by a judicial authority; and suspected of crime. The SIS also keeps data referring to lost, stolen and misappropriated firearms, identity documents, motor vehicles and banknotes.  France is responsible for management of SIS and uses an automated system of data updates which occur every five minutes. The SIS automatically directs data to queries arriving via large national databases. Each member nation has an office responsible for SIS communications. SIS also has a function called \"Supplementary Information Request at the National Entry\" (SIRENE). The SIRENE office records an \"hit\" on a SIS data record and forwards further information to assist investigations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Police co-operation and legal mutual assistance.", "content": "In addition to SIS and SIRENE, the Schengen convention ensured police co-operation and legal mutual assistance. Police of member nations can cooperate to prevent and identify crime (article 39); to continue surveillance across borders (article 40); to pursue across borders in certain circumstances (article 41); and to share information that is significant for the repression or the prevention of in flagrante delicto or threats to order and public safety (article 46). This allows execution of criminal judgements and extraditions where a national attempts to take refuge in another territory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "System evolution.", "content": "In November 2011, SIS1 was renewed for a second time. The main reason for renewal was to connect more nations.  In 2007, while developments were in progress, Portugal had offered the use of a version called \"SISone4ALL\" developed by SEF (Portugal's Border and Foreigners Service) and Critical Software.  On 15 October 2010, Bulgaria and Romania joined SIS II for law enforcement cooperation.  On 9 April 2013, SIS II went live.  On 27 June 2017, Croatia joined SIS II for law enforcement cooperation.  On 1 August 2018, Bulgaria and Romania gained full access to SIS. , Ireland had achieved \"technical readiness\" to participate and anctipated that it would begin \"phased implementation\" during the first quarter of 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brexit.", "content": "With Brexit, the use of the Schengen Information System by the UK is under negotiation, while the EU expects the UK to comply with the EU law to use it. In June 2020, the Security and Intelligence subcommittee of the House of Lords, on hearing evidence by Home Office Minister James Brokenshire, expressed concerns that failure of the (post-Brexit) trade negotiation between the UK and the EU could lead to worrying delays in access to counter-terrorism intelligence.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Schengen Information System (SIS) is a governmental database maintained by the European Commission. The SIS is used by 31 European countries to find information about individuals and entities for the purposes of national security, border control and law enforcement since 2001. A second technical version of this system, SIS II, went live on 9 April 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971429}
{"src_title": "Oligarchy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Minority rule.", "content": "The exclusive consolidation of power by a dominant religious or ethnic minority has also been described as a form of oligarchy. Examples of this system include South Africa under \"apartheid\", Liberia under Americo-Liberians, the Sultanate of Zanzibar, and Rhodesia, where the installation of oligarchic rule by the descendants of foreign settlers was primarily regarded as a legacy of various forms of colonialism.  The modern United States has also been described as an oligarchy because economic elites and organized groups representing special interests have substantial independent impacts on U.S. government policy, while average citizens and mass-based interest groups have little or no independent influence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Putative oligarchies.", "content": "A business group might be defined as an oligarch if it satisfies the following conditions:  (1) owners are the largest private owners in the country (2) it possesses sufficient political power to promote its own interests (3) owners control multiple businesses, which intensively coordinate their activities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russian Federation.", "content": "Since the collapse of the Soviet Union and privatization of the economy in December 1991, privately owned Russia-based multinational corporations, including producers of petroleum, natural gas, and metal have, in the view of many analysts, led to the rise of Russian oligarchs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ukraine.", "content": "The Ukrainian oligarchs are a group of business oligarchs that quickly appeared on the economic and political scene of Ukraine after its independence in 1991. Overall there are 35 oligarchic groups", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zimbabwe.", "content": "The Zimbabwean oligarchs are a group of liberation war veterans who form the Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front, a colonial liberation party. The philosophy of the Zimbabwean government is that Zimbabwe can only be governed by a leader who took part in the pre-independence war. The motto of ZANU-PF in Shona is \"\"Zimbabwe yakauya neropa\"\", meaning Zimbabwe was born from the blood of the sons and daughters who died fighting for its independence. The born free generation (born since independence in 1980) has no birthright to rule Zimbabwe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Some contemporary authors have characterized current conditions in the United States as oligarchic in nature. Simon Johnson wrote that \"the reemergence of an American financial oligarchy is quite recent\", a structure which he delineated as being the \"most advanced\" in the world. Jeffrey A. Winters wrote that \"oligarchy and democracy operate within a single system, and American politics is a daily display of their interplay.\"<ref name='TAI 11-12/2011'> </ref> The top 1% of the U.S. population by wealth in 2007 had a larger share of total income than at any time since 1928. In 2011, according to PolitiFact and others, the top 400 wealthiest Americans \"have more wealth than half of all Americans combined.\"  In 1998, Bob Herbert of \"The New York Times\" referred to modern American plutocrats as \"The Donor Class\" (list of top donors) and defined the class, for the first time, as \"a tiny group—just one-quarter of 1 percent of the population—and it is not representative of the rest of the nation. But its money buys plenty of access.\"  French economist Thomas Piketty states in his 2013 book, \"Capital in the Twenty-First Century,\" that \"the risk of a drift towards oligarchy is real and gives little reason for optimism about where the United States is headed.\"  A study conducted by political scientists Martin Gilens of Princeton University and Benjamin Page of Northwestern University was released in April 2014, which stated that their \"analyses suggest that majorities of the American public actually have little influence over the policies our government adopts.\" The study analyzed nearly 1,800 policies enacted by the US government between 1981 and 2002 and compared them to the expressed preferences of the American public as opposed to wealthy Americans and large special interest groups. It found that wealthy individuals and organizations representing business interests have substantial political influence, while average citizens and mass-based interest groups have little to none. The study did concede that \"Americans do enjoy many features central to democratic governance, such as regular elections, freedom of speech and association, and a widespread (if still contested) franchise.\" Gilens and Page do not characterize the US as an \"oligarchy\" per se; however, they do apply the concept of \"civil oligarchy\" as used by Jeffrey Winters with respect to the US. Winters has posited a comparative theory of \"oligarchy\" in which the wealthiest citizens – even in a \"civil oligarchy\" like the United States – dominate policy concerning crucial issues of wealth- and income-protection.  Gilens says that average citizens only get what they want if wealthy Americans and business-oriented interest groups also want it; and that when a policy favored by the majority of the American public is implemented, it is usually because the economic elites did not oppose it. Other studies have questioned the Page and Gilens study.  In a 2015 interview, former President Jimmy Carter stated that the United States is now \"an oligarchy with unlimited political bribery\" due to the \"Citizens United v. FEC\" ruling which effectively removed limits on donations to political candidates. Wall Street spent a record $2 billion trying to influence the 2016 United States presidential election.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Oligarchy (; ) is a form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people. These people may be distinguished by nobility, wealth, education, corporate, religious, political, or military control. Such states are often controlled by families who pass their influence from one generation to the next, but inheritance is not a necessary condition of oligarchy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971430}
{"src_title": "Corundum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geology and occurrence.", "content": "Corundum occurs as a mineral in mica schist, gneiss, and some marbles in metamorphic terranes. It also occurs in low-silica igneous syenite and nepheline syenite intrusives. Other occurrences are as masses adjacent to ultramafic intrusives, associated with lamprophyre dikes and as large crystals in pegmatites. It commonly occurs as a detrital mineral in stream and beach sands because of its hardness and resistance to weathering. The largest documented single crystal of corundum measured about, and weighed. The record has since been surpassed by certain synthetic boules.  Corundum for abrasives is mined in Zimbabwe, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Russia, Sri Lanka, and India. Historically it was mined from deposits associated with dunites in North Carolina, US and from a nepheline syenite in Craigmont, Ontario. Emery-grade corundum is found on the Greek island of Naxos and near Peekskill, New York, US. Abrasive corundum is synthetically manufactured from bauxite.  Four corundum axes dating back to 2500 BCE from the Liangzhou culture have been discovered in China.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synthetic corundum.", "content": "The Verneuil process allows the production of flawless single-crystal sapphire and ruby gems of much larger size than normally found in nature. It is also possible to grow gem-quality synthetic corundum by flux-growth and hydrothermal synthesis. Because of the simplicity of the methods involved in corundum synthesis, large quantities of these crystals have become available on the market causing a significant reduction of price in recent years.  Apart from ornamental uses, synthetic corundum is also used to produce mechanical parts (tubes, rods, bearings, and other machined parts), scratch-resistant optics, scratch-resistant watch crystals, instrument windows for satellites and spacecraft (because of its transparency in the ultraviolet to infrared range), and laser components. For example, the KAGRA gravitational wave detector's main mirrors are sapphires, and Advanced LIGO considered sapphire mirrors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure and physical properties.", "content": "Corundum crystallizes with trigonal symmetry in the space group and has the lattice parameters and at standard conditions. The unit cell contains six formula units.  The toughness of corundum is sensitive to surface roughness and crystallographic orientation. It may be 6–7 MPa·m for synthetic crystals, and around 4 MPa·m for natural.  In the lattice of corundum, the oxygen atoms form a slightly distorted hexagonal close packing, in which two-thirds of the gaps between the octahedra are occupied by aluminium ions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Corundum is a crystalline form of aluminium oxide () typically containing traces of iron, titanium, vanadium and chromium. It is a rock-forming mineral. It is also a naturally transparent material, but can have different colors depending on the presence of transition metal impurities in its crystalline structure. Corundum has two primary gem varieties: ruby and sapphire. Rubies are red due to the presence of chromium, and sapphires exhibit a range of colors depending on what transition metal is present. A rare type of sapphire, padparadscha sapphire, is pink-orange.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971431}
{"src_title": "Innere Stadt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Innere Stadt is the central district of Vienna. It borders on Leopoldstadt in the northeast, on Landstraße in the east, on Wieden and Mariahilf in the south, on Neubau and Josefstadt in the west, and on Alsergrund in the north. The district border, starting at Urania, follows Wienfluss, Lothringerstraße, Karlsplatz, Gedreidemarkt, Museumsplatz, Museumstraße, Auerspergstraße, Landesgerichtsstraße, Universitätsstraße, Maria-Theresien-Straße and the Donaukanal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Before 1850, Innere Stadt was physically equivalent with the city of Vienna. See History of Vienna for details about the history of Vindobona and Vienna, as well as historical significance after 1850.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Over time.", "content": "Population has been declining ever since its peak of 73,000 in 1880, until it hit the lowest recorded value of 17,000 in 2001. Although population has been increasing slightly since then, Innere Stadt continues to remain the least populated district in Vienna.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Structural.", "content": "In 2001, 28.1% of the district's population was over 60 years of age, above the city average of 22.2%. The percentage of people under 15 years of age was 9.8%. The female population of 53.3% was also above city average.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Origin and language.", "content": "At 15.5%, the percentage of foreign residents in Innere Stadt was 2% under city average for the year 2001. 2.8% of the population had EU Citizenship (Germany excluded), 2.7% were citizens of Serbia and Montenegro, and 2.2% were German citizens. In total, 25.6% of the population were born in a foreign country. 79% of residents listed German as their language of choice. 4.0% spoke primarily Serbian, 1.8% Hungarian, and 1.4% Croatian. 14.3% spoke other languages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "Roman catholics made up 51.3% of the Innere Stadt population in 2001, followed by 6.6% Protestants, 5.1% Orthodox Christians, 3.3% Jews. 22.7% were listed as non-confessional.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "The \"Bezirksvorsteher\" (District Director) has been a member of the conservative ÖVP party since 1946. Former Bezirksvorsteher Ursula Stenzel has spoken out against holding events in the inner city, citing concerns regarding noise pollution. Her comments have drawn criticism from other parties, especially the social democratic SPÖ.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat of arms.", "content": "The first district's coat of arms is a white cross on a red background. It is also the coat of arms for the City of Vienna and the State of Vienna. The current coat of arms dates back to around 1270, when it first appeared on the minted \"Wiener Pfennige\" coins. It may have been based on the flag of the King of the Romans' forces during the Middle Ages, as the combat flag of Rudolph I of Germany featured a similar design.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Innere Stadt (; Central Bavarian: \"Innare Stod\") is the 1st municipal District of Vienna (German: \"1. Bezirk\") located in the center of the Austrian capital. The Innere Stadt is the old town of Vienna. Until the city boundaries were expanded in 1850, the Innere Stadt was congruent with the city of Vienna. Traditionally it was divided into four quarters, which were designated after important town gates: \"Stubenviertel\" (northeast), \"Kärntner Viertel\" (southeast), \"Widmerviertel\" (southwest), \"Schottenviertel\" (northwest).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971432}
{"src_title": "Disaster", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"disaster\" is derived from Middle French \"désastre\" and that from Old Italian \"disastro\", which in turn comes from the Ancient Greek pejorative prefix δυσ-, (\"dus-\") \"bad\" and ἀστήρ (\"aster\"), \"star\". The root of the word \"disaster\" (\"bad star\" in Greek) comes from an astrological sense of a calamity blamed on the position of planets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Disasters are routinely divided into natural or human-made, although complex disasters, where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific disaster may spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami, resulting in coastal flooding. Some manufactured disasters have been ascribed to nature.  Some researchers also differentiate between recurring events such as seasonal flooding, and those considered unpredictable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natural disasters.", "content": "A natural disaster is a natural process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.  Various phenomena like earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, tsunamis, cyclones and pandemics are all natural hazards that kill thousands of people and destroy billions of dollars of habitat and property each year. However, the rapid growth of the world's population and its increased concentration often in hazardous environments has escalated both the frequency and severity of disasters. With the tropical climate and unstable landforms, coupled with deforestation, unplanned growth proliferation, non-engineered constructions make the disaster-prone areas more vulnerable. Developing countries suffer more or less chronically from natural disasters due to ineffective communication combined with insufficient budgetary allocation for disaster prevention and management.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Human-made disasters.", "content": "Human-instigated disasters are the consequence of technological or human hazards. Examples include stampedes, fires, transport accidents, industrial accidents, oil spills, terrorist attacks, nuclear explosions/nuclear radiation. War and deliberate attacks may also be put in this category.  Other types of induced disasters include the more cosmic scenarios of catastrophic global warming, nuclear war, and bioterrorism.  One opinion argues that all disasters can be seen as human-made, due to human failure to introduce appropriate emergency management measures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Responses.", "content": "The following table categorizes some disasters and notes first response initiatives.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A disaster is a serious disruption occurring over a short or long period of time that causes widespread human, material, economic or environmental loss which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits – more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by hazards occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural hazards are 20 times greater (as a percentage of GDP) in developing countries than in industrialized countries. No matter what society disasters occur in, they tend to induce change in government and social life. They may even alter the course of history by broadly affecting entire populations and exposing mismanagement or corruption regardless of how tightly information is controlled in a society.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971433}
{"src_title": "Olympias", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "Olympias was the daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of the Molossians, an ancient Greek tribe in Epirus, and sister of Alexander I. Her family belonged to the Aeacidae, a well-respected family of Epirus, which claimed descent from Neoptolemus, son of Achilles. Apparently, she was originally named Polyxena, as Plutarch mentions in his work \"Moralia\", and changed her name to Myrtale prior to her marriage to Philip II of Macedon as part of her initiation into an unknown mystery cult.  The name \"Olympias\" was the third of four names by which she was known. She probably took it as a recognition of Philip's victory in the Olympic Games of 356 BC, the news of which coincided with Alexander's birth (Plut. Alexander 3.8). She was finally named Stratonice, which was probably an epithet attached to Olympias following her victory over Eurydice in 317 BC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen of Macedonia.", "content": "When Neoptolemus I died in 360 BC, his brother Arymbas succeeded him on the Molossian throne. In 358 BC, Arymbas made a treaty with the new king of Macedonia, Philip II, and the Molossians became allies of the Macedonians. The alliance was cemented with a diplomatic marriage between Arymbas' niece, Olympias, and Philip in 357 BC. It made Olympias the queen consort of Macedonia, and Philip the king. Philip had allegedly fallen in love with Olympias when both were initiated into the mysteries of Cabeiri at the Sanctuary of the Great Gods, on the island of Samothrace, though their marriage was largely political in nature.  One year later, in 356 BC, Philip's race horse won in the Olympic Games; for this victory, his wife, who was known then as Myrtale, received the name \"Olympias\". In the summer of the same year, Olympias gave birth to her first child, Alexander. In ancient Greece people believed that the birth of a great man was accompanied by portents. As Plutarch describes, the night before the consummation of their marriage, Olympias dreamed that a thunderbolt fell upon her womb and a great fire was kindled, its flames dispersed all about and then were extinguished. After the marriage Philip dreamed that he put a seal upon his wife's womb, the device of which was the figure of a lion. Aristander's interpretation was that Olympias was pregnant of a son whose nature would be bold and lion-like. Philip and Olympias also had a daughter, Cleopatra, who later married her uncle, Alexander I of Epirus, to further diplomatic ties between Macedonia and Epirus.  According to primary sources, their marriage was very stormy due to Philip's volatility and Olympias' ambition and alleged jealousy, which led to their growing estrangement. Things got more tumultuous in 337 BC when Philip married a noble Macedonian woman, Cleopatra, the niece of Attalus, who was given the name Eurydice by Philip. At a gathering after the marriage, Philip failed to defend Alexander's claim to the Macedonian throne when Attalus threatened his legitimacy, causing great tensions between Philip, Olympias, and Alexander. Olympias went into voluntary exile in Epirus along with Alexander, staying at the Molossian court of her brother Alexander I, who was the king at the time.  In 336 BC, Philip cemented his ties to Alexander I of Epirus by offering him the hand of his and Olympias' daughter Cleopatra in marriage, a fact that led Olympias to further isolation as she could no longer count on her brother's support. However, Philip was murdered by Pausanias, a member of Philip's \"somatophylakes\", his personal bodyguard, while attending the wedding, and Olympias, who returned to Macedonia, was suspected of having countenanced his assassination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alexander's reign and the Wars of the Diadochi.", "content": "After the death of Philip II, Olympias allegedly ordered the execution of Eurydice and her child in order to secure Alexander's position as king of Macedonia. During Alexander's campaigns, she regularly corresponded with him and may have confirmed her son's claim in Egypt that his father was not Philip but Zeus. The relationship between Olympias and Alexander was cordial, but her son tried to keep her away from politics. However, she wielded great influence in Macedonia and caused troubles to Antipater, the regent of the kingdom. In 330 BC, she returned to Epirus and served as a regent to her cousin Aeacides in the Epirote state, as her brother Alexander I had died during a campaign in southern Italy.  After Alexander the Great's death in Babylon in 323 BC, his wife Roxana gave birth to their son named Alexander IV. Alexander IV and with his uncle Philip III Arrhidaeus, the half brother of Alexander the Great who may have been disabled, were subject to the regency of Perdiccas, who tried to strengthen his position through a marriage with Antipater's daughter Nicaea. At the same time, Olympias offered Perdiccas the hand of her and Philip's daughter, Cleopatra. Perdiccas chose Cleopatra, which angered Antipater, who allied himself with several other Diadochi, deposed Perdiccas, and was declared regent, only to die within the year.  Polyperchon succeeded Antipater in 319 BC as regent, but Antipater's son Cassander established Philip II's son Philip III (Arrhidaeus) as king and forced Polyperchon out of Macedonia. He fled to Epirus, taking Roxana and her son Alexander IV with him, who had previously been left in the care of Olympias. At the beginning, Olympias had not been involved in this conflict, but she soon realized that in the case of Cassander's rule, her grandson would lose the crown, so she allied with Polyperchon in 317 BC. The Macedonian soldiers supported her return and the united armies of Polyperchon and Olympias, with the house of Aeacides, invaded Macedonia to drive Cassander out from power.  After winning in battle by convincing the army of Adea Eurydice, the wife of Philip III, to side with her own, Olympias captured and executed the two in October 317 BC. She also captured Cassander's brother and a hundred of his partisans. Cassander soon blockaded and besieged Olympias in Pydna and one of the terms of the capitulation had been that Olympias's life would be saved, but Cassander had decided to execute her, sparing only temporarily the lives of Roxana and Alexander IV (they were executed a few years later in 309 BC). When the fortress of Pydna fell, Cassander ordered Olympias killed, but the soldiers refused to harm the mother of Alexander the Great. In the end, the families of her many victims stoned her to death with the approval of Cassander, who is also said to have denied to her body the rites of burial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Iconography.", "content": "A medal bearing the name \"Olympias\" was found in 1902 at Abu Qir, Egypt that dates back to AD 225-250, and belongs to the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki. The reverse shows a Nereid mounted on a fantastic sea creature. It had been suggested that the Olympias depicted on the medal was Queen Olympias, but this theory has been challenged. The name ΟΛΥΜΠΙΑΔΟΣ is thought to refer to the Olympiads instead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Primary sources  Secondary sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Olympias (,, c. 375–316 BC) was the daughter of king Neoptolemus I of Epirus, the sister of Alexander I of Epirus, the fourth wife of Philip II, the king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia and the mother of Alexander the Great. She was extremely influential in Alexander's life and was recognized as de facto leader of Macedon during Alexander's conquests. After her son's death, she fought on behalf of Alexander's son Alexander IV, successfully defeating Adea Eurydice. After she was finally defeated by Cassander, his armies refused to execute her, and he finally had to summon family members of those Olympias had previously killed to end her life. According to the 1st century AD biographer, Plutarch, she was a devout member of the orgiastic snake-worshiping cult of Dionysus, and he suggests that she slept with snakes in her bed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971434}
{"src_title": "Schottenstift", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the early Middle Ages, Irish monks were actively involved in missionary work. Ireland was known in Latin as \"Scotia Major\"; therefore, in German, Irish monks were called \"\"Schotten\"\" (Scots) or \"\"Iroschotten\"\". The monasteries that they founded were called \"\"Schottenklöster\"\". In the foundation documents of the Schottenstift, Henry II specified that it was to be occupied exclusively by these \"Iroschotten\" (\"Solos elegimus Scottos\").  Henry II was elevated from the rank of Margrave (\"Markgraf\") to that of Duke (\"Herzog\") in 1156. He moved his residence from Klosterneuburg to Vienna and required a monastery for his new city. In the Middle Ages, monasteries were not only places for prayer, but also and above all, repositories of knowledge. The foundation of a monastery gave the ruler support for his administration (for example, schools to educate competent scribes). It also provided a library, a hospice and old age home, architects, educated men, and priests to conduct services in the new ducal city. The \"\"Schotten\"\" would also be involved with the University of Vienna, which was founded in 1365.  Henry granted the new monastery extensive privileges. Construction of the first monastery started in 1160, and the structure was consecrated in 1200. The monastery was outside the city walls of Vienna. The monks also built a hospice for pilgrims and crusaders, who often passed through Vienna on their way to Jerusalem.  The first church was a three-aisled, Romanesque, pillar church with a single apse. Henry II was buried there upon his death in 1177.  A fire in the year 1276 destroyed the cloister, along with many other buildings in Vienna.  In 1418, Duke Albert V seized the cloister during the Melker Reform, an attempt to revive the original ideals of Benedictine monasticism, and settled a community of Benedictines in their place. These new residents, however, continued to be known as the \"\"Schotten\"\".  In the middle of the 15th century, the monastery was distinguished through the literary activities of its schoolmaster, Wolfgang Schmeltzl, and his successor, Johannes Rasch. The collapse of the tower, struck by a lightning bolt in 1638, was seized as an opportunity to completely rebuild the church, a project undertaken by the architects Andrea d'Allio the Younger and Silvestro Carlone. The church was somewhat shortened, and the tower no longer stood directly beside the basilica. Joachim von Sandrart provided the church with a new altar piece, which today is kept in the prelates' hall. After the Turkish siege, the church was restored. As the Baroque west tower was barely higher than the façade itself, its extension has often been proposed, but this has never come to fruition.  Around 1700 the great Baroque musician Johann Fux was the organist at the Schottenstift.  In 1773 and 1774, a new priory, with school, was built by Andreas Zach in the grounds of an open air cemetery. As it resembled a piece of furniture, it became popularly known as the \"Schubladkastenhaus\" (\"the chest-of-drawers house\"). Directly next door stood the \"Hotel Römischer Kaiser\", where the first public performance of a song by Franz Schubert was held.  In 1807 the \"Schottengymnasium\", an institute for secondary education, was founded by imperial decree.  Around 1830, the auxiliary buildings of the Abbey, in particular those that bordered on the Freyung, were renovated and partially rebuilt by Joseph Kornhäusel.  In the 1880s the church was restored and partially renovated. From this period date the ceiling paintings by Julius Schmid, and a new high altar, built from sketches by Heinrich von Ferstel, with a mosaic by Michael Rieser.  In the court, there is a \"Schwarze Muttergottes\" (a \"Black Madonna\"), designed in 1825 by Peter Nobile. The fountain, with a statue of Henry II, is the work of Sebastian Wagner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museum.", "content": "The museum has been reinstalled twice in recent history, in 1994/95 and in 2004/5. It contains, among other notable items, the \"Schottenmeisteraltar\" from ca. 1470, which is not only a significant work of late Gothic art, but also an important historical source, on account of its views of the city.  Open on Thursday until Friday, 11 am to 5 pm, and Saturday, 11 am to 4.30 pm. Guided Tour on Saturday, 2.30 pm (church, crypt, library and museum).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "The Schottenstift is located on the Freyung (Freyung 6, A-1010 Wien) in Vienna, Austria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Schottenstift (), formally called \"Benediktinerabtei unserer Lieben Frau zu den Schotten\" (), is a Roman Catholic monastery founded in Vienna in 1155 when Henry II of Austria brought Irish monks to Vienna. The monks did not come directly from Ireland, but came instead from Scots Monastery in Regensburg, Germany. Since 1625, the abbey has been a member of the Austrian Congregation, now within the Benedictine Confederation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971435}
{"src_title": "Wasabi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "Wasabi is generally sold either as a rhizome or stem, which must be very finely grated before use, as dried powder, or as a ready-to-use paste in tubes similar to toothpaste tubes.  The part used for wasabi paste is variously characterized as a rhizome, a stem, or the \"rhizome plus the base part of the stem\".  In some high-end restaurants, the paste is prepared when the customer orders, and is made using a grater to grate the stem; once the paste is prepared, it loses flavor in 15 minutes if left uncovered. In \"sushi\" preparation, chefs usually put the wasabi between the fish and the rice because covering wasabi until served preserves its flavor.  Fresh wasabi leaves can be eaten raw, having the spicy flavor of wasabi stems, but a common side effect is diarrhea.  Legumes (peanuts, soybeans, or peas) may be roasted or fried, and then coated with wasabi powder mixed with sugar, salt, or oil and eaten as a crunchy snack. In Japan, it is called \"wasabi-mame\" (lit. wasabi bean).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surrogates.", "content": "Wasabi favours growing conditions that restrict its wide cultivation (among other things, it is quite intolerant of direct sunlight, requires an air temperature between 8°C (46°F) and 20 °C (70°F), and prefers high humidity in summer). This makes it impossible for growers to fully satisfy commercial demand, which makes wasabi quite expensive. Therefore, outside Japan, it is rare to find real wasabi plants. Due to its high cost, a common substitute is a mixture of horseradish, mustard, starch, and green food coloring or spinach powder. Often packages are labeled as wasabi while the ingredients do not actually include any part of the wasabi plant. The primary difference between the two is color, with Wasabi being naturally green. In Japan, horseradish is referred to as. In the United States, true wasabi is generally found only at specialty grocers and high-end restaurants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The chemical in wasabi that provides for its initial pungency is the volatile compound allyl isothiocyanate, which is produced by hydrolysis of natural thioglucosides (conjugates of the sugar glucose, and sulfur-containing organic compounds); the hydrolysis reaction is catalyzed by myrosinase and occurs when the enzyme is released on cell rupture caused by maceration – e.g., grating – of the plant. The same compound is responsible for the pungency of horseradish and mustard. Allyl isothiocyanate can also be released when the wasabi plants have been damaged, because it is being used as a defense mechanism.  The unique flavor of wasabi is a result of complex chemical mixtures from the broken cells of the plant, including those resulting from the hydrolysis of thioglucosides from sinigrin into glucose and methylthioalkyl isothiocyanates:  Research has shown that such isothiocyanates inhibit microbe growth, perhaps with implications for preserving food against spoilage and suppressing oral bacterial growth.  Because the burning sensations of wasabi are not oil-based, they are short-lived compared to the effects of capsaicin in chili peppers, and are washed away with more food or liquid. The sensation is felt primarily in the nasal passage and can be quite painful depending on the amount consumed. Inhaling or sniffing wasabi vapor has an effect like smelling salts, a property exploited by researchers attempting to create a smoke alarm for the deaf. One deaf subject participating in a test of the prototype awoke within 10 seconds of wasabi vapor sprayed into his sleeping chamber. The 2011 Ig Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to the researchers for determining the ideal density of airborne wasabi to wake people in the event of an emergency.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutritional information.", "content": "Wasabi is normally consumed in such small quantities that its nutritional value is negligible. The major constituents of raw wasabi root are carbohydrates (23.5%), water (69.1%), fat (0.63%), and protein (4.8%).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Few places are suitable for large-scale wasabi cultivation, and cultivation is difficult even in ideal conditions. In Japan, wasabi is cultivated mainly in these regions:  There are also numerous artificial cultivation facilities as far north as Hokkaido and as far south as Kyushu. As the demand for real wasabi is higher than that which is able to be produced within Japan, Japan imports copious amounts of wasabi from the United States, Taiwan, Korea, Israel, Thailand and New Zealand. In North America, \"Wasabia japonica\" is cultivated by a handful of small farmers and companies\",\" the most prominent of which is King Wasabi, located in Forest Grove, Oregon. In Europe, wasabi is grown commercially in Iceland, the Netherlands, Hungary, and the UK.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "Wasabi is often grated with a metal \"oroshigane\", but some prefer to use a more traditional tool made of dried sharkskin (fine skin on one side; coarse skin on the other). A hand-made grater with irregular shark teeth can also be used. If a shark-skin grater is unavailable, a ceramic cheese grater can be an acceptable substitute.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wasabi (Japanese: 山葵, ; \"Eutrema japonicum\" or \"Wasabia japonica\") or Japanese horseradish is a plant of the family Brassicaceae, which also includes horseradish and mustard in other genera. A paste made from its ground rhizomes is used as a pungent condiment for \"sushi\" and other foods. It is similar in taste to hot mustard or horseradish rather than chili peppers in that it stimulates the nose more than the tongue.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971436}
{"src_title": "Jan Neruda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jan Neruda was born in Prague, Bohemia; son of a small grocer who lived in the Malá Strana district. Initially, they lived on Újezd Street and later, when he was four, moved to Ostruhová Street (now called, in his honor), where they owned a house known as “U Dvou Slunců” (At the Two Suns).  His studies began in 1845 at the local Grammar school then, in 1850, continued at the Academic Grammar School in Clementinum. His favourite writers at the time were Heine, Byron, Shakespeare, Karel Hynek Mácha and Václav Bolemír Nebeský.  After graduation he tried to study law, but he failed. He worked as a clerk for a short time, but was unhappy, so he decided to study philosophy and philology at Charles University. He then worked as a teacher until 1860, when he became a freelance journalist and writer.  He started his career at \"Národní listy\" (National Sheets). Later, he worked for \"Obrazy života\" (Pictures of Life) and'(Time). He also contributed to'(Blossoms) and \"Lumír\".  He became the de facto leader of a generation of writers that included Karolina Světlá, Vítězslav Hálek, Adolf Heyduk and Karel Sabina; devoted to continuing the legacy of Karel Hynek Mácha. They published their works in the literary almanac \"Máj\".  By 1871, various groups had labeled Neruda as a \"Traitor to the Nation\", so he decided to spend some time away; visiting Italy, Greece, France, Germany, Hungary and Egypt. He kept detailed records of these journeys, which provide an interesting testimony to his life and times, with various insights that prove him to be a good observer.  From 1883 to his death he lived on Vladislavova Street, 1382/14 in Nové Město, Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Neruda was a loner and an introvert, although he was a friend of composer Bedřich Smetana.  Neruda never married, but he had close relationships with Anna Holinová and Karolína Světlá.  Holinová was his first love. Many of his poems were meant for her. Through her father, Neruda was able to meet Božena Němcová and Karel Jaromír Erben, famous Czech nationalist writers.  His second love was Světlá, a married woman who was also a writer. They supported each other emotionally with their works. She also supported him financially. When he found himself deeply in debt, she sold a precious brooch and lent him the money. Unfortunately her husband,, found out about it and forced him to give up the relationship. He also had to give him all the letters they had written to each other. These letters became the source for the movie called \"Příběh lásky a cti\" (The Story of Love and Honor). Throughout his life, the poet had been in material need, although he was an extremely prolific and respected journalist. Once a week, for example, he wrote a column for the National Papers, worked as a theater officer and literary critic, and edited several popular science journals.  He had a close relationship with his mother. Her death in 1869 greatly affected him and brought a sadder tone to his works.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In his work, Neruda supported the Czech National Revival and promoted Czech nationalism. He participated in all the central cultural and political struggles of his generation, and gained a reputation as a sensitive critic. Neruda became, along with Vítězslav Hálek, one of the most prominent representatives of the new literary trends.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Beginning in 1880, he suffered from a swelling of his veins, which contributed to a number of diseases that afflicted him for the rest of his life. In the winter of 1888, he shattered his kneecap when he slipped on some ice. From that time on, he relied on messengers to deliver his articles to \"Národní listy\".  He died on August 22, 1891, from an inflammation of his digestive tract caused by intestinal cancer.  He was buried at Vyšehrad Cemetery in Prague. His funeral became the occasion for an expression of Czech nationalist sentiment.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jan Nepomuk Neruda (Czech: ]; 9 July 1834 – 22 August 1891) was a Czech journalist, writer, poet and art critic; one of the most prominent representatives of Czech Realism and a member of the \"May School\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971437}
{"src_title": "Polyamide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "Polymers of amino acids are known as polypeptides or proteins.  According to the composition of their main chain, synthetic polyamides are classified as follows:  All polyamides are made by the formation of an amide function to link two molecules of monomer together. The monomers can be amides themselves (usually in the form of a cyclic lactam such as caprolactam), α,ω-amino acids or a stoichiometric mixture of a diamine and a diacid. Both these kinds of precursors give a homopolymer. Polyamides are easily copolymerized, and thus many mixtures of monomers are possible which can in turn lead to many copolymers. Additionally many nylon polymers are miscible with one another allowing the creation of blends.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Polymerization chemistry.", "content": "Production of polymers requires the repeated joining of two groups to form an amide linkage. In this case this specifically involves amide bonds, and the two groups involved are an amine group, and a terminal carbonyl component of a functional group. These react to produce a carbon-nitrogen bond, creating a singular amide linkage. This process involves the elimination of other atoms previously part of the functional groups. The carbonyl-component may be part of either a carboxylic acid group or the more reactive acyl halide derivative. The amine group and the carboxylic acid group can be on the same monomer, or the polymer can be constituted of two different bifunctional monomers, one with two amine groups, the other with two carboxylic acid or acid chloride groups.  The condensation reaction is used to synthetically produce nylon polymers in industry. Nylons must specifically include a straight chain (aliphatic) monomer. The amide link is produced from an amine group (alternatively known as an amino group), and a carboxylic acid group. The hydroxyl from the carboxylic acid combines with a hydrogen from the amine, and gives rise to water, the elimination byproduct that is the namesake of the reaction.  As an example of condensation reactions, consider that in living organisms, Amino acids are condensed with one another by an enzyme to form amide linkages (known as peptides). The resulting polyamides are known as proteins or polypeptides. In the diagram below, consider the amino-acids as single aliphatic monomers reacting with identical molecules to form a polyamide, focusing on solely the amine and acid groups. Ignore the substituent R groups – under the assumption the difference between the R groups are negligible:  For fully aromatic polyamides or 'aramids' e.g. Kevlar, the more reactive acyl chloride is used as a monomer. The polymerization reaction with the amine group eliminates hydrogen chloride. The acid chloride route can be used as a laboratory synthesis to avoid heating and obtain an almost instantaneous reaction. The aromatic moiety itself does not participate in elimination reaction, but it does increase the rigidity and strength of the resulting material which leads to Kevlar's renowned strength.  In the diagram below, Aramid is made from two different monomers which continuously alternate to form the polymer. Aramid is an aromatic polyamide:  Polyamides can also be synthesized from dinitriles using acid catalysis via an application of the Ritter reaction. This method is applicable for preparation of nylon 1,6 from adiponitrile, formaldehyde and water. Additionally, polyamides can be synthesized from glycols and dinitriles using this method as well.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A polyamide is a polymer with repeating units linked by amide bonds. Polyamides occur both naturally and artificially. Examples of naturally occurring polyamides are proteins, such as wool and silk. Artificially made polyamides can be made through step-growth polymerization or solid-phase synthesis yielding materials such as nylons, aramids, and sodium poly(aspartate). Synthetic polyamides are commonly used in textiles, automotive industry, carpets, kitchen utensils and sportswear due to their high durability and strength. The transportation manufacturing industry is the major consumer, accounting for 35% of polyamide (PA) consumption.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971438}
{"src_title": "August Sander", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Sander was born in Herdorf, the son of a carpenter working in the mining industry. While working at a local mine, Sander first learned about photography by assisting a photographer who was working for a mining company. With financial support from his uncle, he bought photographic equipment and set up his own darkroom.  He spent his military service (1897–99) as a photographer's assistant and the next years wandering across Germany. In 1901, he started working for a photo studio in Linz, Austria, eventually becoming a partner (1902), and then its sole proprietor (1904). He left Linz at the end of 1909 and set up a new studio in Cologne.  In 1911, Sander began with the first series of portraits for his work \"People of the 20th Century\". In the early 1920s, he came in contact with the Cologne Progressives a radical group of artists linked to the workers' movement which, as put it, \"sought to combine constructivism and objectivity, geometry and object, the general and the particular, avant-garde conviction and political engagement, and which perhaps approximated most to the forward looking of New Objectivity [...] \". In 1927, Sander and writer travelled through Sardinia for three months, where he took around 500 photographs. However, a planned book detailing his travels was not completed.  Sander's \"Face of our Time\" was published in 1929. It contains a selection of 60 portraits from his series \"People of the 20th Century\", and is introduced by an essay by Alfred Döblin titled \"On Faces, Pictures, and their Truth.\" Under the Nazi regime, his work and personal life were greatly constrained. His son Erich, who was a member of the left wing Socialist Workers' Party (SAP), was arrested in 1934 and sentenced to 10 years in prison, where he died in 1944, shortly before the end of his sentence. Sander's book \"Face of our Time\" was seized in 1936 and the photographic plates destroyed. Around 1942, during World War II, he left Cologne and moved to a rural area, allowing him to save most of his negatives. His studio was destroyed in a 1944 bombing raid. Thirty thousand of Sander's roughly forty-thousand negatives survived the war, only to perish in an accidental fire in Cologne in 1946. Sander practically ceased to work as a photographer after World War II. He died in Cologne in 1964.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Sander's work includes landscape, nature, architecture, and street photography, but he is best known for his portraits, as exemplified by his series \"People of the 20th Century\". In this series, he aims to show a cross-section of society during the Weimar Republic. The series is divided into seven sections: The Farmer, The Skilled Tradesman, Woman, Classes and Professions, The Artists, The City, and The Last People (homeless persons, veterans, etc.). By 1945, Sander's archive included over 40,000 images.  In 2002, the August Sander Archive and scholar Susanne Lange published a seven-volume collection comprising some 650 of Sander's photographs, \"August Sander: People of the 20th Century\". In 2008, the Mercury crater Sander was named after him.  August Sander's estate is represented by Galerie Julian Sander, which was established in 2009 by his great grandson, in collaboration with Hauser & Wirth. In 2014 Galerie Julian Sander held 8 exhibitions dedicated solely to August Sander's work in its exhibition space in Cologne, Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "August Sander (17 November 1876 – 20 April 1964) was a German portrait and documentary photographer. Sander's first book \"Face of our Time\" (German: \"Antlitz der Zeit\") was published in 1929. Sander has been described as \"the most important German portrait photographer of the early twentieth century.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971439}
{"src_title": "Wieden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The name Wieden was first recorded in 1137, and is thus the oldest \"Vorstadt\" (former municipality within the \"Linienwall\") of Vienna. The main street (Wiedner Hauptstraße) is certainly even older. The district was the site of the former royal Summer residence, which was completed under Ferdinand II, and was expanded many times until Maria Theresa sold it to the Jesuits. Today it is the Theresianum, a prestigious private boarding school, while the Diplomatic Academy of Vienna resides in a wing of the building.  In the beginning of the 18th century, the development of Wieden as a suburb began. Many palaces and other buildings were built. Two small \"Vorstädte\" in the area of the present fourth district were Hungelbrunn and Schamburgergrund.  These three areas along with a number of others were incorporated into the city of Vienna as the fourth district on March 6, 1850. Because of social and economic differences, Margareten was separated from the fourth district to form the fifth district in 1861.  The so-called \"Freihaus\", built in 1700 and the largest apartment building/tenement of the time, was located in this area, although by 1970 its state had deteriorated. The name has been rehabilitated in recent years to give an identity to the local bars, restaurants and independent retailers. During the occupation by the allies (1945–1955), Wieden was part of the Soviet sector of Vienna.  The Vienna University of Technology is located in this district with its main administration buildings being located in Karlsplatz and a nearby satellite campus in the 6th district across the Wienzeile.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wieden (; Central Bavarian: \"Wiedn\") is the 4th municipal District of Vienna, Austria (German: \"4. Bezirk\"). It is near the centre of Vienna and was established as a district in 1850, but its borders were changed later. Wieden is a small region near the city centre. After World War II, Wieden was part of the Soviet sector of Vienna for 10 years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971440}
{"src_title": "Simian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and evolution.", "content": "In earlier classification, New World and Old World monkeys, apes, and humans – collectively known as simians or anthropoids – were grouped under Anthropoidea (; ; also called anthropoids), while the strepsirrhines and tarsiers were grouped under the suborder \"Prosimii\". Under modern classification, the tarsiers and simians are grouped under the suborder Haplorhini while the strepsirrhines are placed in suborder Strepsirrhini. Strong genetic evidence for this is that five SINEs are common to all Haplorhines whilst absent in Strepsirrhines - even one being coincidental between tarsiers and simians would be quite unlikely. Despite this preferred taxonomic division, \"prosimian\" is still regularly found in textbooks and the academic literature because of familiarity, a condition likened to the use of the metric system in the sciences and the use of customary units elsewhere in the United States. In Anthropoidea, evidence indicates that the Old World and New World primates went through parallel evolution.  Primatology, paleoanthropology, and other related fields are split on their usage of the synonymous infraorder names, Simiiformes and Anthropoidea. According to Robert Hoffstetter (and supported by Colin Groves), the term Simiiformes has priority over Anthropoidea because of the taxonomic term \"Simii\" by van der Hoeven, from which it is constructed, dates to 1833. In contrast, \"Anthropoidea\" by Mivart dates to 1864, while Simiiformes by Haeckel dates to 1866, leading to counterclaims of priority. Hoffstetter also argued that Simiiformes is also constructed like a proper infraorder name (ending in -\"iformes\"), whereas Anthropoidea ends in -\"oidea\", which is reserved for superfamilies. He also noted that Anthropoidea is too easily confused with \"anthropoïdes\", which translates to \"apes\" from several languages.  Extant simians are split into three distinct groups. The New World monkeys in parvorder Platyrrhini split from the rest of the simian line about, leaving the parvorder Catarrhini occupying the Old World. This group split about between the Cercopithecidae and the apes.  There are also some lines of extinct simian, either placed into Eosimiidae (to reflect their Eocene origin) and sometimes in Amphipithecidae, thought to originate in the Early Oligocene. Additionally, Phileosimias is sometimes placed in the Eosimiidae and sometimes categorised separately.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The following is the listing of the various simian families, and their placement in the order Primates:  Below is a cladogram with some of the extinct simian species with the more modern species emerging within the Eosimiidae. The Simians originated in Asia while the crown simians were in Afro-Arabia. It is indicated approximately how many million years ago (Mya) the clades diverged into newer clades.  Usually the Ekgmowechashalidae are considered to be Strepsirrhini, not Haplorhini. A 2018 study places Eosimiidae as a sister to the crown haplorhini.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Key biological features.", "content": "In a section of their 2010 assessment of the evolution of anthropoids (simians) entitled 'What Is An Anthropoid', Williams, Kay and Kirk set out a list of biological features that are common to all or most anthropoids, including genetic similarities, similarities in eye location and the muscles close to the eyes, internal similarities between ears, dental similarities, and similarities on foot bone structure. The earliest anthropods were small primates with varied diets, forward-facing eyes, acute color vision for daytime lifestyles, and brains devoted more to vision and less to smell. Living simians in both the New World and the Old World have larger brains than other primates, but they evolved these larger brains independently.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The simians or anthropoids or higher primates are an infraorder (Simiiformes) of primates containing the parvorders Platyrrhini and Catarrhini, which consists of the superfamilies Cercopithecoidea and Hominoidea (including the genus \"Homo\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971441}
{"src_title": "Toluene", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The compound was first isolated in 1837 through a distillation of pine oil by the Polish chemist Filip Walter, who named it \"rétinnaphte\". In 1841, French chemist Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville isolated a hydrocarbon from balsam of Tolu (an aromatic extract from the tropical Colombian tree \"Myroxylon balsamum\"), which Deville recognized as similar to Walter's \"rétinnaphte\" and to benzene; hence he called the new hydrocarbon \"benzoène\". In 1843, Jöns Jacob Berzelius recommended the name \"toluin\". In 1850, French chemist Auguste Cahours isolated from a distillate of wood a hydrocarbon which he recognized as similar to Deville's \"benzoène\" and which Cahours named \"toluène\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical properties.", "content": "Toluene reacts as a normal aromatic hydrocarbon in electrophilic aromatic substitution. Because the methyl group has greater electron-releasing properties than a hydrogen atom in the same position, toluene is more reactive than benzene toward electrophiles. It undergoes sulfonation to give \"p\"-toluenesulfonic acid, and chlorination by Cl in the presence of FeCl to give ortho and para isomers of chlorotoluene.  Importantly, the methyl side chain in toluene is susceptible to oxidation. Toluene reacts with Potassium permanganate to yield benzoic acid, and with chromyl chloride to yield benzaldehyde (Étard reaction).  The methyl group undergoes halogenation under free radical conditions. For example, \"N\"-bromosuccinimide (NBS) heated with toluene in the presence of AIBN leads to benzyl bromide. The same conversion can be effected with elemental bromine in the presence of UV light or even sunlight. Toluene may also be brominated by treating it with HBr and HO in the presence of light.  The methyl group in toluene undergoes deprotonation only with very strong bases, its pK is estimated to be approximately 41. Hydrogenation of toluene gives methylcyclohexane. The methylcyclohexane then turns to ice as it dissolves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Toluene occurs naturally at low levels in crude oil and is a byproduct in the production of gasoline by a catalytic reformer or ethylene cracker. It is also a byproduct of the production of coke from coal. Final separation and purification is done by any of the distillation or solvent extraction processes used for BTX aromatics (benzene, toluene, and xylene isomers).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Laboratory preparation.", "content": "Toluene is inexpensively produced industrially. In principle it could be prepared by a variety of methods. For example, although only of didactical interest, benzene reacts with methyl chloride in presence of a Lewis acid such as aluminium chloride to give toluene : Such reactions are complicated by polymethylation because toluene is more susceptible to alkylation than is benzene.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Precursor to benzene and xylene.", "content": "Toluene is mainly used as a precursor to benzene via hydrodealkylation:  The second ranked application involves its disproportionation to a mixture of benzene and xylene.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nitration.", "content": "Nitration of toluene give mono-, di-, and trinitrotoluene, all of which are widely used. Dinitrotoluene is the precursor to toluene diisocyanate, which used in the manufacture of polyurethane foam. Trinitrotoluene is the explosive typically abbreviated TNT.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Oxidation.", "content": "Benzoic acid and benzaldehyde are produced commercially by partial oxidation of toluene with oxygen. Typical catalysts include cobalt or manganese naphthenates.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Solvent.", "content": "Toluene is a common solvent, e.g. for paints, paint thinners, silicone sealants, many chemical reactants, rubber, printing ink, adhesives (glues), lacquers, leather tanners, and disinfectants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fuel.", "content": "Toluene can be used as an octane booster in gasoline fuels for internal combustion engines as well as jet fuel. Toluene at 86% by volume fuelled all the turbocharged engines in Formula One during the 1980s, first pioneered by the Honda team. The remaining 14% was a \"filler\" of \"n\"-heptane, to reduce the octane to meet Formula One fuel restrictions. Toluene at 100% can be used as a fuel for both two-stroke and four-stroke engines; however, due to the density of the fuel and other factors, the fuel does not vaporize easily unless preheated to. Honda solved this problem in their Formula One cars by routing the fuel lines through a heat exchanger, drawing energy from the water in the cooling system to heat the fuel.  In Australia in 2003, toluene was found to have been illegally combined with petrol in fuel outlets for sale as standard vehicular fuel. Toluene incurs no fuel excise tax, while other fuels are taxed at more than 40%, providing a greater profit margin for fuel suppliers. The extent of toluene substitution has not been determined.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Niche applications.", "content": "In the laboratory, toluene is used as a solvent for carbon nanomaterials, including nanotubes and fullerenes, and it can also be used as a fullerene indicator. The color of the toluene solution of C is bright purple. Toluene is used as a cement for fine polystyrene kits (by dissolving and then fusing surfaces) as it can be applied very precisely by brush and contains none of the bulk of an adhesive. Toluene can be used to break open red blood cells in order to extract hemoglobin in biochemistry experiments. Toluene has also been used as a coolant for its good heat transfer capabilities in sodium cold traps used in nuclear reactor system loops. Toluene had also been used in the process of removing the cocaine from coca leaves in the production of Coca-Cola syrup.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicology and metabolism.", "content": "The environmental and toxicological effects of toluene have been extensively studied. In 2013, worldwide sales of toluene amounted to about 24.5 billion US-dollars. Inhalation of toluene in low to moderate levels can cause tiredness, confusion, weakness, drunken-type actions, memory loss, nausea, loss of appetite, hearing loss, and colour vision loss. Some of these symptoms usually disappear when exposure is stopped. Inhaling high levels of toluene in a short time may cause light-headedness, nausea, or sleepiness, unconsciousness, and even death. Toluene is, however, much less toxic than benzene, and as a consequence, largely replaced it as an aromatic solvent in chemical preparation. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that the carcinogenic potential of toluene cannot be evaluated due to insufficient information.  Similar to many other solvents such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane and some alkylbenzenes, toluene has been shown to act as a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist and GABA receptor positive allosteric modulator. Additionally, toluene has been shown to display antidepressant-like effects in rodents in the forced swim test (FST) and the tail suspension test (TST), likely due to its NMDA antagonist properties.  Toluene is sometimes used as a recreational inhalant (\"glue sniffing\"), likely on account of its euphoric and dissociative effects.  Toluene inhibits excitatory ion channels including the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and potentiates the function of inhibitory ion channels such as the gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor type A, glycine, and serotonin receptors. In addition, toluene disrupts voltage-gated calcium channels and ATP-gated ion channels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recreational use.", "content": "Toluene is used as an intoxicative inhalant in a manner unintended by manufacturers. People inhale toluene-containing products (e.g., paint thinner, contact cement, model glue, etc.) for its intoxicating effect. The possession and use of toluene and products containing it are regulated in many jurisdictions, for the supposed reason of preventing minors from obtaining these products for recreational drug purposes. As of 2007, 24 U.S. states had laws penalizing use, possession with intent to use, and/or distribution of such inhalants. In 2005 the European Union banned the general sale of products consisting of greater than 0.5% toluene.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bioremediation.", "content": "Several types of fungi including \"Cladophialophora\", \"Exophiala\", \"Leptodontium\", \"Pseudeurotium zonatum\", and \"Cladosporium sphaerospermum\", and certain species of bacteria can degrade toluene using it as a source of carbon and energy.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Toluene (), also known as toluol (), is an aromatic hydrocarbon. It is a colorless, water-insoluble liquid with the smell associated with paint thinners. It is a mono-substituted benzene derivative, consisting of a CH group attached to a phenyl group. As such, its IUPAC systematic name is methylbenzene. Toluene is predominantly used as an industrial feedstock and a solvent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971442}
{"src_title": "Potassium hydroxide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Properties and structure.", "content": "Potassium hydroxide is usually sold as translucent pellets, which become tacky in air because KOH is hygroscopic. Consequently, KOH typically contains varying amounts of water (as well as carbonates - see below). Its dissolution in water is strongly exothermic. Concentrated aqueous solutions are sometimes called potassium lyes. Even at high temperatures, solid KOH does not dehydrate readily.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "At higher temperatures, solid KOH crystallizes in the NaCl crystal structure. The OH group is either rapidly or randomly disordered so that the group is effectively a spherical anion of radius 1.53 Å (between and in size). At room temperature, the groups are ordered and the environment about the centers is distorted, with distances ranging from 2.69 to 3.15 Å, depending on the orientation of the OH group. KOH forms a series of crystalline hydrates, namely the monohydrate KOH, the dihydrate KOH and the tetrahydrate KOH.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Thermal stability.", "content": "Like NaOH, KOH exhibits high thermal stability. The gaseous species is dimeric. Because of its high stability and relatively low melting point, it is often melt-cast as pellets or rods, forms that have low surface area and convenient handling properties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Basicity, solubility and desiccating properties.", "content": "About 121 g of KOH dissolve in 100 mL water at room temperature, which contrasts with 100 g/100 mL for NaOH. Thus on a molar basis, KOH is slightly more soluble than NaOH. Lower molecular-weight alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, and propanols are also excellent solvents. They participate in an acid-base equilibrium. In the case of methanol the potassium methoxide (methylate) forms:  Because of its high affinity for water, KOH serves as a desiccant in the laboratory. It is often used to dry basic solvents, especially amines and pyridines.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As a nucleophile in organic chemistry.", "content": "KOH, like NaOH, serves as a source of, a highly nucleophilic anion that attacks polar bonds in both inorganic and organic materials. Aqueous KOH saponifies esters:  When R is a long chain, the product is called a potassium soap. This reaction is manifested by the \"greasy\" feel that KOH gives when touched — fats on the skin are rapidly converted to soap and glycerol.  Molten KOH is used to displace halides and other leaving groups. The reaction is especially useful for aromatic reagents to give the corresponding phenols.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions with inorganic compounds.", "content": "Complementary to its reactivity toward acids, KOH attacks oxides. Thus, SiO is attacked by KOH to give soluble potassium silicates. KOH reacts with carbon dioxide to give bicarbonate:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manufacture.", "content": "Historically, KOH was made by adding potassium carbonate to a strong solution of calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) The salt metathesis reaction results in precipitation of solid calcium carbonate, leaving potassium hydroxide in solution: Filtering off the precipitated calcium carbonate and boiling down the solution gives potassium hydroxide (\"calcinated or caustic potash\"). This method of producing potassium hydroxide remained dominant until the late 19th century, when it was largely replaced by the current method of electrolysis of potassium chloride solutions. The method is analogous to the manufacture of sodium hydroxide (see chloralkali process):  Hydrogen gas forms as a byproduct on the cathode; concurrently, an anodic oxidation of the chloride ion takes place, forming chlorine gas as a byproduct. Separation of the anodic and cathodic spaces in the electrolysis cell is essential for this process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "KOH and NaOH can be used interchangeably for a number of applications, although in industry, NaOH is preferred because of its lower cost.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Precursor to other potassium compounds.", "content": "Many potassium salts are prepared by neutralization reactions involving KOH. The potassium salts of carbonate, cyanide, permanganate, phosphate, and various silicates are prepared by treating either the oxides or the acids with KOH. The high solubility of potassium phosphate is desirable in fertilizers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manufacture of soft soaps.", "content": "The saponification of fats with KOH is used to prepare the corresponding \"potassium soaps\", which are softer than the more common sodium hydroxide-derived soaps. Because of their softness and greater solubility, potassium soaps require less water to liquefy, and can thus contain more cleaning agent than liquefied sodium soaps.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As an electrolyte.", "content": "Aqueous potassium hydroxide is employed as the electrolyte in alkaline batteries based on nickel-cadmium, nickel-hydrogen, and manganese dioxide-zinc. Potassium hydroxide is preferred over sodium hydroxide because its solutions are more conductive. The nickel–metal hydride batteries in the Toyota Prius use a mixture of potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide. Nickel–iron batteries also use potassium hydroxide electrolyte.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food industry.", "content": "In food products, potassium hydroxide acts as a food thickener, pH control agent and food stabilizer. The FDA considers it (as a direct human food ingredient) as generally safe when combined with \"good\" manufacturing practice conditions of use. It is known in the E number system as E525.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Niche applications.", "content": "Like sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide attracts numerous specialized applications, virtually all of which rely on its properties as a strong chemical base with its consequent ability to degrade many materials. For example, in a process commonly referred to as \"chemical cremation\" or \"resomation\", potassium hydroxide hastens the decomposition of soft tissues, both animal and human, to leave behind only the bones and other hard tissues. Entomologists wishing to study the fine structure of insect anatomy may use a 10% aqueous solution of KOH to apply this process.  In chemical synthesis, the choice between the use of KOH and the use of NaOH is guided by the solubility or keeping quality of the resulting salt.  The corrosive properties of potassium hydroxide make it a useful ingredient in agents and preparations that clean and disinfect surfaces and materials that can themselves resist corrosion by KOH.  KOH is also used for semiconductor chip fabrication. \"See also: anisotropic wet etching.\"  Potassium hydroxide is often the main active ingredient in chemical \"cuticle removers\" used in manicure treatments.  Because aggressive bases like KOH damage the cuticle of the hair shaft, potassium hydroxide is used to chemically assist the removal of hair from animal hides. The hides are soaked for several hours in a solution of KOH and water to prepare them for the unhairing stage of the tanning process. This same effect is also used to weaken human hair in preparation for shaving. Preshave products and some shave creams contain potassium hydroxide to force open the hair cuticle and to act as a hygroscopic agent to attract and force water into the hair shaft, causing further damage to the hair. In this weakened state, the hair is more easily cut by a razor blade.  Potassium hydroxide is used to identify some species of fungi. A 3–5% aqueous solution of KOH is applied to the flesh of a mushroom and the researcher notes whether or not the color of the flesh changes. Certain species of gilled mushrooms, boletes, polypores, and lichens are identifiable based on this color-change reaction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Potassium hydroxide and its solutions are severe irritants to skin and other tissue.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH, and is commonly called caustic potash. Along with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), this colorless solid is a prototypical strong base. It has many industrial and niche applications, most of which exploit its caustic nature and its reactivity toward acids. An estimated 700,000 to 800,000 tonnes were produced in 2005. KOH is noteworthy as the precursor to most soft and liquid soaps, as well as numerous potassium-containing chemicals. It is a white solid that is dangerously corrosive. Most commercial samples are ca. 90% pure, the remainder being water and carbonates.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971443}
{"src_title": "Vas deferens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "There are two ducts, connecting the left and right epididymis with the seminal vesicles to form the ejaculatory duct in order to move sperm. In humans, each tube is about long, 3 to 5 mm (0.118 to 0.197 inches) in diameter and is muscular (surrounded by smooth muscle). Its epithelium is pseudostratified columnar epithelium lined by stereocilia.  They are part of the spermatic cords.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blood supply.", "content": "The vas deferens is supplied by an accompanying artery (artery of vas deferens). This artery normally arises from the superior (sometimes inferior) vesical artery, a branch of the internal iliac artery.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "During ejaculation, the smooth muscle in the walls of the vas deferens contracts reflexively, thus propelling the sperm forward. This is also known as peristalsis. The sperm is transferred from the vas deferens into the urethra, collecting secretions from the male accessory sex glands such as the seminal vesicles, prostate gland and the bulbourethral glands, which form the bulk of semen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical significance.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contraception.", "content": "The procedure of deferentectomy, also known as a vasectomy, is a method of contraception in which the vasa deferentia are permanently cut, though in some cases it can be reversed. A modern variation, which is also known as a vasectomy even though it does not include cutting the vas, involves injecting an obstructive material into the ductus to block the flow of sperm.  Investigational attempts for male contraception have focused on the vas with the use of the intra vas device and reversible inhibition of sperm under guidance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disease.", "content": "The vas deferens may be obstructed, or it may be completely absent in a condition known as congenital absence of the vas deferens (CAVD, a potential feature of cystic fibrosis), causing male infertility. Acquired obstructions can occur due to infections. To treat these causes of male infertility, sperm can be harvested by testicular sperm extraction (TESE), microsurgical epididymal sperm aspiration (MESA), or other methods of collecting sperm cells directly from the testicle or epididymis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses in pharmacology and physiology.", "content": "The vas deferens has a dense sympathetic innervation, making it a useful system for studying sympathetic nerve function and for studying drugs that modify neurotransmission.  It has been used:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other animals.", "content": "Most vertebrates have some form of duct to transfer the sperm from the testes to the urethra. In cartilaginous fish and amphibians, sperm is carried through the archinephric duct, which also partially helps to transport urine from the kidneys. In teleosts, there is a distinct sperm duct, separate from the ureters, and often called the vas deferens, although probably not truly homologous with that in humans. The vas deferens loops over the ureter in placental mammals, but not in marsupial mammals.  In cartilaginous fishes, the part of the archinephric duct closest to the testis is coiled up to form an epididymis. Below this are a number of small glands secreting components of the seminal fluid. The final portion of the duct also receives ducts from the kidneys in most species.  In amniotes, however, the archinephric duct has become a true vas deferens, and is used only for conducting sperm, never urine. As in cartilaginous fish, the upper part of the duct forms the epididymis. In many species, the vas deferens ends in a small sac for storing sperm.  The only vertebrates to lack any structure resembling a vas deferens are the primitive jawless fishes, which release sperm directly into the body cavity, and then into the surrounding water through a simple opening in the body wall.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The vas deferens (Latin: \"carrying-away vessel\"; plural: vasa deferentia), also called ductus deferens (Latin: \"carrying-away duct\"; plural: ductus deferentes), is part of the male reproductive system of many vertebrates; these ducts transport sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts in anticipation of ejaculation. It is a partially coiled tube which exits the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971444}
{"src_title": "Bes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Worship.", "content": "Bes was a household protector, becoming responsible – throughout ancient Egyptian history – for such varied tasks as killing snakes, fighting off evil spirits, watching after children, and aiding women in labour by fighting off evil spirits, and thus present with Taweret at births.  Images of the deity, quite different from those of the other gods, were kept in homes. Normally Egyptian gods were shown in profile, but instead Bes appeared in full face portrait, ithyphallic, and sometimes in a soldier's tunic, so as to appear ready to launch an attack on any approaching evil. He scared away demons from houses, so his statue was put up as a protector. Since he drove off evil, Bes also came to symbolize the good things in life – music, dance, and sexual pleasure. In the New Kingdom, tattoos of Bes could be found on the thighs of dancers, musicians and servant girls. Many instances of Bes masks and costumes from the New Kingdom and later have been uncovered. These show considerable wear, thought to be too great for occasional use at festivals, and are therefore thought to have been used by professional performers, or given out for rent.  Later, in the Ptolemaic period of Egyptian history, chambers were constructed, painted with images of Bes and his wife Beset, thought by Egyptologists to have been for the purpose of curing fertility problems or general healing rituals.  Like many Egyptian gods, the worship of Bes or Beset was exported overseas. While the female variant had been more popular in Minoan Crete, the male version would prove popular with the Phoenicians and the ancient Cypriots. The Balearic island of Ibiza derives its name from the god's name, brought along with the first Phoenician settlers in 654 BC. These settlers, amazed at the lack of any sort of venomous creatures on the island, thought it to be the island of Bes (<איבשם> \"ʔybšm\", \"*ʔibošim\", \"yibbōšīm\" \"dedicated to Bes\"). Later the Roman name Ebusus was derived from this designation.  At the end of the 6th century BC, images of Bes began to spread across the Achaemenid Empire, which Egypt belonged to at the time. Images of Bes have been found at the Persian capital of Susa, and as far away as central Asia. Over time, the image of Bes became more Persian in style, as he was depicted wearing Persian clothes and headdress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Iconography.", "content": "Modern scholars such as James Romano claim that in its earliest inception Bes was a representation of a lion rearing up on its hind legs. After the Third Intermediate Period, Bes is often seen as just the head or the face, often worn as amulets.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bes (; also spelled as Bisu), together with his feminine counterpart Beset, is an Ancient Egyptian deity worshipped as a protector of households and, in particular, of mothers, children and childbirth. Bes later came to be regarded as the defender of everything good and the enemy of all that is bad. Bes may have been a Middle Kingdom import from Nubia or Somalia, and his cult did not become widespread until the beginning of the New Kingdom. Worship of Bes spread as far north as the area of Syria, and later into the Roman and Achaemenid Empires.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971445}
{"src_title": "Stefan Edberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Edberg first came to the tennis world's attention as a junior player. He won all four Grand Slam junior titles in 1983 to become the first (and only) player to achieve the \"Junior Grand Slam\" in the open era. Later that year as a professional, Edberg won his first career doubles title in Basel. Edberg accidentally caused the death of linesman Dick Wertheim with an errant serve during the 1983 US Open.  In 1984, Edberg won his first top-level singles title in Milan. Edberg also won the tennis tournament at the 1984 Summer Olympics when the sport was an exhibition event and partnered with fellow Swede Anders Järryd to reach the final of the US Open. Edberg also reached the French Open doubles final with Järryd in 1986 and consequently was world No. 1 in doubles in that year.  U.S. fans first took notice of Edberg's professional career when he won the U.S. Indoor in Memphis in February 1985, defeating Yannick Noah in the final. Edberg's first two Grand Slam singles titles came at the Australian Open. In December 1985, he defeated Mats Wilander in straight sets to claim his first major title. In January 1987, he defended his title by defeating local favourite Pat Cash in five sets to win the last Australian Open held on grass courts. Edberg also won the Australian Open and US Open men's doubles titles in 1987 (partnering fellow Swede Anders Järryd).  In 1988, Edberg reached the first of three consecutive finals at Wimbledon, but lost his ranking as Sweden's number-one-player when Mats Wilander had his best year by winning the Australian, French and US Opens, becoming the world's number-one-ranked player. In all three of his consecutive Wimbledon finals, Edberg played German Boris Becker in what became one of Wimbledon's greatest rivalries. Edberg won their first encounter in a four-set match spread over two days because of rain delays. A year later, Becker won in straight sets. The closest of their matches came in the 1990 final, when Edberg won in five sets after being down a break in the fifth set.  Edberg reached the French Open final in 1989 but lost in five sets to 17-year-old Michael Chang, who became the youngest ever male winner of a Grand Slam singles title. This was the only Grand Slam singles title that Edberg never won, denying him the completion of a career Grand Slam at the senior level, to match his junior Grand Slam.  In 1990, an abdominal muscle injury forced Edberg to retire from the Australian Open final while trailing Ivan Lendl 5–2 (including two breaks of serve) in the third set. Edberg nevertheless took the world No. 1 ranking from Lendl on 13 August 1990 by winning the Super 9 tournament in Cincinnati. He held it for the rest of that year and for much of 1991 and 1992. Edberg spent a total of 72 weeks as World No. 1. In 1991, Edberg again reached the semifinals of Wimbledon but lost to Michael Stich in a close match: 6–4, 6–7, 6–7, 6–7.  Edberg's final two Grand Slam singles triumphs came at the US Open, with wins over Jim Courier in the 1991 final and Pete Sampras (who was just months away from attaining the world No. 1 ranking) in the 1992 final.  Edberg reached the finals of the Australian Open again in 1992 and 1993, losing both times to Jim Courier in four sets. He was one of the few players who reached the finals of the Australian Open five times. The 1993 Australian Open final was Edberg's last Grand Slam singles final appearance.  In 1996, Edberg reached the finals of Queens Club but lost the match to Boris Becker. He won his third and final Grand Slam doubles title at the Australian Open with Petr Korda. He reached the quarterfinals of his last US Open after defeating Richard Krajicek and Tim Henman, but lost in the quarterfinals to Goran Ivanisevic.  Edberg was most comfortable playing tennis on fast-playing surfaces. Of his six Grand Slam singles titles, four were won on grass courts at the Australian Open (1985 and 1987) and Wimbledon (1988 and 1990) and two were won on hardcourts at the US Open (1991 and 1992).  In December 2013, Edberg began coaching Roger Federer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Edberg is noted as the finest serve-and-volley player of his era and arguably the greatest of all-time. Edberg did not possess a powerful dominating serve like Pete Sampras or Boris Becker, but his serve was still largely effective. Edberg often chose to use a less powerful serve, such as a kick or slice serve. The extra time from using a slower serve gave Edberg more time to get to the net, where he used his quick feet and athleticism to gain control of the point. Edberg's volleying skills were among the very best and he could easily redirect powerfully struck balls to the open court. He had sufficient groundstrokes, and his one-handed backhand was one of his marquee shots. Edberg's backhand was extremely effective and considered amongst the best of his era.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Throughout his career, Edberg used Wilson Sporting Goods racquets and Adidas clothing and shoes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-career competitive racquet sports.", "content": "Edberg began playing competitive squash after his retirement from professional tennis and soon became an elite player in Sweden. When racketlon emerged as a growing sport in Scandinavia, Edberg's pro-level tennis ability and emerging squash prowess made him highly competitive, despite his relative inexperience in badminton and table tennis.  In September 2008, Stefan Edberg officially joined the \"Black Rock Tour of Champions\", a tour for professional tennis players who have retired from the ATP Tour. Edberg won his first tournament in Paris held on clay, winning matches against clay court specialists Thomas Muster in the opening round and Sergi Bruguera in the finals.  In January 2012, Edberg played a one-set exhibition against Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in Doha, Qatar, and lost 5–7.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching.", "content": "Edberg signed a contract to become Roger Federer's coach at the end of 2013. Their collaboration officially started at the 2014 Australian Open. Federer described Edberg's role as \"more of a mentor than a coach\"; nonetheless, his influence has been widely regarded as pivotal in the Swiss champion's eventual resurgence, especially in bringing effective and more frequent serve-and-volley and net charging to his game. Their collaboration ended in December 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Edberg was born in Västervik, Sweden. He is married to Annette Hjort Olsen. They have two children, Emilie and Christopher. (Olsen was once romantically linked to Edberg's tennis rival Mats Wilander before her marriage to Edberg.)  Edberg is a supporter of English football team Leeds United and the Swedish ice hockey team Växjö Lakers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Place in history.", "content": "Edberg is considered by many to be one of the greatest tennis players of his era. In his home country, together with Mats Wilander, he is commonly regarded as the best Swedish tennis player after Björn Borg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stefan Bengt Edberg (; born 19 January 1966) is a Swedish former world No. 1 professional tennis player (in both singles and doubles). A major proponent of the serve-and-volley style of tennis, he won six Grand Slam singles titles and three Grand Slam men's doubles titles between 1985 and 1996. He also won the Masters Grand Prix and was a part of the Swedish Davis Cup-winning-team four times. In addition he won four Masters Series titles, four Championship Series titles and the unofficial Olympic tournament 1984, was ranked in the singles top 10 for ten successive years, and ranked 9 years in the top 5. Edberg began coaching Roger Federer in January 2014, with this partnership ending in December 2015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971446}
{"src_title": "Henrich Focke", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Henrich Focke was born in Bremen on 8 October 1890, Focke studied at Leibniz University Hannover, where he became friends with Georg Wulf in 1911. In 1914, he and Wulf both reported for military service and Focke was deferred due to heart problems, but was eventually drafted into an infantry regiment. After serving on the Eastern front, he was transferred to the Imperial German Army Air Service.  Focke graduated in 1920 as Dipl-Ing with distinction. His first job was with the Francke Company of Bremen as a designer of water-gas systems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Focke-Wulf and Focke-Achgelis.", "content": "In 1923, with Wulf and Dr. Werner Naumann, Focke co-founded Focke-Wulf-Flugzeugbau GmbH. In 1927 Wulf died while test flying the Focke-Wulf F 19 canard monoplane.  In 1930 Focke was offered a chair at the Danzig Institute of Technology, an honour which he declined. In 1931 the city of Bremen awarded him the title of Professor. The same year, Focke-Wulf was merged with the Albatros Flugzeugwerke company.  Focke-Wulf constructed Juan de la Cierva's C.19 and C.30 autogyros under license from 1933, and Focke was inspired by it to design the world's first practical helicopter, the Focke-Wulf Fw 61, which first flew on 26 June 1936 by Hanna Reitsch. In the Deutschlandhalle arena in 1938, it also became the first practical helicopter to be flown indoors.  In 1936 Focke was ousted from the Focke-Wulf company by shareholder pressure. Though the ostensible reason was that he was considered \"politically unreliable\" by the Nazi regime, there is reason to believe it was so that Focke-Wulf's manufacturing capacity could be used to produce Bf 109 aircraft. The company was taken over by AEG, but soon after this the Air Ministry, which had been impressed by the Fw 61 helicopter, suggested that Focke establish a new company dedicated to helicopter development and issued him with a requirement for an improved design capable of carrying a payload.  Focke established the Focke-Achgelis company on 27 April 1937 in partnership with pilot Gerd Achgelis, and began development work at Delmenhorst in 1938. The new company built the experimental Fa 225 using the fuselage of a DFS 230 glider and a rotor from a Fa 223. Another project was the Fa 330 kite with rotor, capable of being deployed by a submarine at a moments notice and then used as a towed spotter. It was stored in a watertight container on the deck of the U-boat and was used during the war. A powered version of the kite would have been the Fa 336 which was in the design phase when the war ended and built in France postwar for testing.  Focke subsequently manufactured the heavy-lift transport helicopter Fa 223, and designed the Fa 224, Fa 266, Fa 269, Fa 283, Fa 284, and the Fa 336 during World War II. Only a few of the large Fa 223 \"Drache\" (\"Dragon\") helicopters actually were produced, but even the prototype set a new helicopter speed record of 182 km/h (113 mph) and climb record of 8.8 m/s (1,732 ft/min) in 1940. Subsequent war models were primarily used as mountain troop transport, rescue, and crashed aircraft recovery. The helicopter had provision for a nose-mounted machine gun, and could carry one or two bombs, but the \"Drache\" was never used for combat.  Towards the end of the Third Reich Focke started design work on the Focke Rochen, also known as \"Schnellflugzeug\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Postwar.", "content": "On 1 September 1945, Focke signed a contract with the French company SNCASE and assisted in development of their SE-3000 passenger helicopter, which was based on the Focke-Achgelis Fa 223 \"Drache\" and which first flew in 1948.  In 1950, he worked as a designer with the North German Automobile Company (Norddeutsche Fahrzeugwerke) of Wilhelmshaven.  In 1952, Focke and other members of his former design team were employed by Brazil's Centro Técnico Aeroespacial (CTA), at the time the air force's technical center, to develop a Convertiplane, the \"Convertiplano\", which drew heavily on Focke's wartime work on the Fa 269. Also recruited was Bussmann, a transmission specialist formerly of BMW. The Convertiplano was built using the fuselage and wings of a Supermarine Spitfire Mk 15, which was believed to be one delivered to Argentina as a sales example. Britain refused to supply the Armstrong Siddeley Double Mamba engine originally selected and the design was altered to accept a mid-mounted 2200 hp Wright engine instead as used in the Lockheed Constellation, which necessitated a redesign of the transmission due to the increase in weight and vibration. Some 40 workers and US$8 million were devoted to the project, and more than 300 takeoffs were achieved.  While working at the CTA Focke also developed the BF-1 \"Beija-Flor\" (hummingbird) two-seater light helicopter from 1954, which made its first flight at Sao Jose dos Campos on 22 January 1959. The BF-1 was similar in design to the Cessna CH-1, with a 225 hp Continental E225 engine in the nose and the rotor mast running vertically between the front seats. An open structure tubular steel tail boom carried a pair of tail surfaces and a small tail rotor. The BF-2 was developed from this and first flew on 1 January 1959, and performed an extended flight-testing campaign until it was damaged in an accident. It is thought that further work on the \"Beija Flor\" was then abandoned.  Focke returned permanently to Germany in 1956 and began developing a three-seater helicopter named the \"Kolibri\" (\"hummingbird\") at the Borgward company in Bremen, with its first flight taking place in 1958. While working at Borgward Focke set up a wind tunnel in a disused hangar in central Bremen; this wind tunnel was rediscovered in 1997 and is today the centerpiece of a museum devoted to him.  After Borgward collapsed in 1961, Focke became a consulting engineer with Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke of Bremen and Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Luft-und Raumfahrt. Focke was awarded the Ludwig-Prandtl-Ring from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt (German Society for Aeronautics and Astronautics) for \"outstanding contribution in the field of aerospace engineering\" in 1961. Focke died in Bremen on 25 February 1979.  In 1993, Focke was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Focke's wind tunnel", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henrich Focke (8 October 1890 – 25 February 1979) was a German aviation pioneer from Bremen and also a co-founder of the Focke-Wulf company. He is best known as the inventor of the Fw 61, the first successful German helicopter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971447}
{"src_title": "Formentera", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The island's name is usually said to derive from the Latin word \"frumentarium\", meaning \"granary\". The island was occupied in prehistoric times, going back to 2,000–1,600 BC. Archaeological sites from that period remain in Ca na Costa, Cap de Barbaria (multiple sites) and Cova des Fum. The island had been occupied by the Carthaginians before passing to the ancient Romans. In succeeding centuries, it passed to the Visigoths, the Byzantines, the Vandals, and the Arabs. In 1109 it was the target of a devastating attack by the Norwegian king Sigurd I at the head of the \"Norwegian Crusade\". The island was conquered by the Catalans, added to the Crown of Aragon and later became part of the medieval Kingdom of Majorca.  From 1403 to the early 18th century, the threat of Barbary pirate attacks rendered the island uninhabitable.  The island (along with its surrounding islets) became a separate insular council (with the same territory as the municipality of the same name) after 1977. Before that, it was administered in the former insular council of Ibiza and Formentera (covering the whole group of the Pityusic Islands), but in a separate comarca (which already covered the current municipality of Formentera). This reform allowed Ibiza to unify its comarca (of five municipalities) with its new insular council (no longer administrating Formentera).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The main island of Formentera is long and is located about south of Ibiza in the Mediterranean Sea. More specifically Formentera is part of the delimitation of the Balearic Sea which is a northwestern element of the Mediterranean Sea. Its major villages are Sant Francesc Xavier, Sant Ferran de ses Roques, El Pilar de la Mola and La Savina.  Formentera comprises one municipality, also called Formentera, and has a population of 9,962 (as at 1 January 2010). Its land area is. It is subdivided into several civil parishes (\"parròquies\"), themselves subdivided into \"vendas\" (\"véndes\" in Catalan).  North of Formentera is the island of Espalmador (\"Illa de s'Empalmador\" in Catalan), which is the second largest island of the municipality, and is itself surrounded by a few minor islets. Espalmador is a tombolo, separated from the main island of Formentera by a shallow sandbar, and during low tide, it is possible for one to wade between the two islands. This area is a popular stopping point for those in yachts heading between Ibiza and Formentera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attractions.", "content": "Since the 1960s, Formentera has been a popular destination for hippies. Formentera is renowned across Europe for many pristine white beaches and the fact that nude sunbathing is allowed on most of its beaches. The Canadian writer Patrick Roscoe was born in Formentera. Meanwhile, Joni Mitchell wrote her 1971 album \"Blue\" on the island while Bob Dylan once lived in the Cap de Barbaria lighthouse on the island. Author Matt Haig also writes about visiting the island often in his twenties in \"Reasons to Stay Alive\". The opening track of the King Crimson album \"Islands\", \"Formentera Lady\", is named after the island.  Although paved roads allow access to all parts of the island and cars are easily hired in the port, many people choose to rent mopeds or even bicycles due to the flat nature of most of the island and the availability of dedicated cycle tracks in many locations.  The island also has four Martello towers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "With no airports, the island was formerly reachable only by boat from Ibiza, making it the quieter of the two islands, but in recent years regular passenger service from the Spanish mainland has increased tourism.  Ferry tickets from Ibiza are available in advance, as are transfers from Ibiza airport or port directly to accommodation in Formentera.  Ferries to Formentera operate from their own terminal in Ibiza port, with departures every half hour in high season on large (200+ passenger) fast catamarans. The journey takes approximately 30 minutes with 10 minutes each leaving Ibiza, crossing the sea, and arriving in Formentera past the isthmus to Espalmador.  Some of the anchorages may not be ideal for sailboats under less than ideal circumstances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "A local Ibizan (\"eivissenc\") variant of the Balearic dialect of the Catalan language is spoken in Formentera. While the official languages are Catalan and Spanish, other major languages like English, Italian, German, French and Dutch can also be heard extensively in the summer due to mass tourism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "From 1 September to 7 September, Formentera hosted the 2007 Techno 293 OD World Championships in windsurfing for juniors under 15 and youths under 17.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Formentera (, ) is the smallest and more southerly island of the Pityusic Islands group (comprising Ibiza and Formentera, as well as various small islets), which belongs to the Balearic Islands autonomous community (Spain). It covers an area of (including offshore islets) and had a population of 10,582 at the Census of 1 November 2011; the latest official estimate (as at 1 January 2019) was 12,111.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971448}
{"src_title": "Oak Island", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The majority of Nova Scotia is a Humid continental climate with hot and humid summers, and cold or frigid winters. While there is no weather station on the island, or along Mahone Bay, there is one towards the west in the town of Bridgewater. The average annual temperature given in Bridgewater is, while the precipitation runs at. The ocean has an effect on Oak Island in terms of visibility, as the southern coasts of Nova Scotia can be hidden in fog for as many as 90 days a year. These coasts are also vulnerable to powerful storms which include nor'easters and hurricanes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Oak Island is made up of a temperate broadleaf and mixed forest, known regionally as the New England/Acadian forests. Wildlife in the Mahone Bay area includes great blue herons, black guillemots, osprey, Leach's storm petrels, and razorbills. In addition, non-specific eagles and puffins are also mentioned. On a particular note is the Roseate tern, which is considered an endangered species in the area that is protected by the Canadian government. Efforts to restore their habitat such as curbing the population of other bird species have been undertaken.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "The geology of Oak Island was first mapped in 1924, which found a composite of four drumlins (two large and two small) forming the Island. These drumlins are \"elongated hills\" which consist of multiple layers of till resting on bedrock, and are from different phases of glacial advance that span the past 75,000 years. The layers on top of the bedrock are mainly made up of \"Lawrencetown\" and slate till. The former of these two is considered a type of clay till which is made up of 50% sand, 30% silt, and 20% clay. In the main area that has been searched for treasure along with the till lie bits of anhydrite, which become more competent deeper down. Researchers Les MacPhie, and John Wonnacott concluded that the deep deposits at the east end of the Island make up the drumlin formations. There are two types of bedrock that lie under Oak Island; the southeastern portion consists of \"Mississippian Windsor Group limestone\" and gypsum, while the northwestern part is Cambro-Ordovician Halifax Formation slate. Oak Island and the area that is now Mahone Bay was once a lagoon 8,000 years BP, before the sea level rose with the melting glaciers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Human history.", "content": "The first major indigenous people in Nova Scotia were the Mi'kmaq, who formed an Indian nation in present-day Canada several thousand years ago. The area that encompasses Oak Island was once known as the \"Segepenegatig\" region. While it is unknown when Oak Island was first discovered, the tribe had a presence in the overall area which included the entire island of Newfoundland. The earliest confirmed European residents date back to the 1750s in the form of French fishermen, who had by this time built a few houses on the future site of the nearby village of Chester, Nova Scotia. Following the Expulsion of the Acadians during the Seven Years' War, the British government of Nova Scotia enacted a series of measures to encourage settlement of the area by the European-descended New Englanders. Land was made available to settlers in 1759 through the Shorham grant, and Chester was officially founded that same year.  The first major group of settlers arrived in the Chester area from Massachusetts in 1761, and Oak Island was officially surveyed and divided into 32 four-acre lots in the following year. A large part of the island was owned at the time by the Monro, Lynch, Seacombe and Young families who had been granted the land in 1759. In the early days of British settlement, the Island was known locally as \"Smith's Island,\" after an early settler of the area named Edward Smith. Cartographer Joseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres renamed the Island \"Gloucester Isle\" in 1778. Shortly thereafter, the locally used name \"Oak Island\" was officially adopted for the Island. Early residents included Edward Smith in the 1760s and Anthony Vaughn Sr. in the early 1770s. In 1784, the government made additional land grants, this time to former soldiers, which included parts of Oak Island. It was not until July 6, 1818 that the original lot owners' names were mapped for the Nova Scotia Crown Lands office.  Oak Island has been intermittently owned by treasure hunters ever since early settler stories started appearing in the late 1700s. The hunt for treasure got so extensive that in 1965 a causeway was built from the western end of the island to Crandall's Point on the mainland, two hundred metres away in order to bring heavy machinery onto the island. Oak Island has had several different recent owners which include a treasure hunter named Dan Blankenship, who initially partnered with \"Oak Island Tours Inc.\" run by David Tobias. Oak Island Tours eventually dissolved, and in February 2019, it was announced that a new partnership had been formed with a company called the \"Michigan Group\". This group consists of brothers Rick and Marty Lagina, Craig Tester, and Alan Kostrzewa who had been purchasing lots from Tobias. It is unclear who is involved to what degree as Blankenship only revealed Kostrzewa's name to the press saying he was \"on board\". Blankenship owned the island with the Michigan Group, until his death on March 17, 2019 at the age of 95. Oak Island is populated on a seasonal basis with two permanent homes and two cottages being occupied part-time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Oak Island mystery.", "content": "Oak Island has been a subject for treasure hunters ever since the late 1700s, with rumours that Captain Kidd's treasure was buried there. While there is little evidence to support what went on during the early excavations, stories began to be published and documented as early as 1856. Since that time there have been many theories that extend beyond that of Captain Kidd which include among others religious artifacts, manuscripts, and Marie Antoinette's jewels. The \"treasure\" has also been prone to criticism by those who have dismissed search areas as natural phenomena. Areas of interest on the island with regard to treasure hunters include a location known as the \"Money Pit\", which is allegedly the original searchers’ spot. There is also a formation of boulders called \"Nolan's Cross\", named after a former treasure hunter with a theory on it, and a triangle-shaped swamp. Lastly, there has been searcher activity on a beach at a place called \"Smith's Cove\". Various objects including non-native coconut fibre have been found there. More recent archaeological discoveries in the 'Smith's Cove\" area have included an allegedly pre-15th century lead cross and various wooden earthworks.  More than fifty books have been published recounting the island's history and exploring competing theories. Several works of fiction have also been based upon the Money Pit, including \"The Money Pit Mystery\", \"Riptide\", \"The Hand of Robin Squires\", and \"Betrayed: The Legend of Oak Island\". In January 2014, the History Channel began airing a reality TV show called \"The Curse of Oak Island\" about a group of modern treasure hunters. These hunters include brothers Rick and Marty Lagina of the \"Michigan Group\". The series has documented finds such as centuries-old coins, an antique brooch, and a lead cross that was allegedly made between 1200 and 1600 A.D.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Oak Island is a privately owned island in Lunenburg County on the south shore of Nova Scotia, Canada. The tree-covered island is one of about 360 small islands in Mahone Bay and rises to a maximum of above sea level. The island is located from shore and connected to the mainland by a causeway and gate. The nearest community is the rural community of Western Shore which faces the island, while the nearest village is Chester. The island is best known for various theories about possible buried treasure or historical artifacts, and the associated exploration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971449}
{"src_title": "Amanita caesarea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and naming.", "content": "\"Amanita caesarea\" was first described by Italian mycologist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1772 as \"Agaricus caesareus\", before later being placed in \"Amanita\" by Persoon in 1801. The common name comes from its being a favourite of the Roman emperors, who took the name Caesar (originally a family name) as a title. It was a personal favorite of Roman emperor Claudius. The Romans called it \"Bōlētus\", derived from the Ancient Greek βωλιτης for this fungus as named by Galen. Several modern common names recognise this heritage with the English Caesar's mushroom and royal amanita, French \"impériale\", Polish \"cesarski\" and German \"Kaiserling\". In Italian, it is \"ovolo\" (pl. \"ovoli\"), due to its resemblance to an egg when very young. In Albanian it is \"kuqëlorja\" from its colour (< Albanian \"kuqe\"'red'). Other common names include \"Amanite des Césars\" and \"Oronge\".  It has also been classified as \"A. umbonata\". \"A. hemibapha\" is a similar species originally described from Sikkim, India. It is widely eaten in the Himalayas and the Tibetan areas. Also North American collections have been labeled in the past as \"A. hemibapha\". The relationship of the similar North American species \"A. arkansana\" and \"A. jacksonii\" to \"A. caesarea\" is not clear. The edibility of some of these similar species is also unclear, though \"A. jacksonii\" is eaten by many and there have been no reports of illness from it. A similar mushroom can also be found in La Esperanza, Honduras, where a festival is celebrated annually in its honor. \"A. caesarea\" was first domesticated in 1984.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "This mushroom has an orange-red cap, initially hemispherical before convex and finally flat. The surface is smooth, and margins striated, and it can reach or rarely in diameter. The free gills are pale to golden yellow, as is the cylinder-shaped stipe, which is tall and wide. The ring hangs loosely and is lined above and smooth below. The base of the stipe is thicker than the top and is seated in a greyish-white cup-like volva, which is a remnant of universal veil. The spores are white.  It could be confused with the poisonous fly agaric (\"Amanita muscaria\"). Though \"A. muscaria\" has a distinctive red cap dotted with fluffy white flakes, these tend to fall off as the carpophor ages and the bright red tends to fade to a yellowy orange. The latter mushroom will always have white gills and stalk with a ringed volva rather than a yellow stalk and is typically associated with spruce (\"Picea\"), pine (\"Pinus\") or birch (\"Betula\"). Certain varieties (e.g. \"Amanita muscaria var. guessowii\") are close to yellow even at the juvenile stage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical properties.", "content": "A study of isolates from the fruit bodies of \"A. caesarea\" showed that the radial growth (increases in axon's diameter) of this species was possible at pH 6-7, and optimal growth was in a temperature of, depending on the isolate.  An investigation of the heavy metal content of mushroom samples found cadmium levels in \"A. caesarea\" four times greater than allowed in cultivated mushrooms by EU standards. The amount of lead in \"A. caesarea\" also exceeded allowed levels. The study concluded that the accumulation of heavy metals may be a species-specific property of mushrooms, and that chronic consumption of some mushroom types could potentially be harmful.  A study of the organic acid composition of mushrooms found a relatively high level, about 6 g/kg, in \"A. caesarea\". Malic acid, ascorbic acid, citric acid, ketoglutaric acid, fumaric acid, shikimic acid and traces of succinic acid were detected. Malic and ascorbic acids were the most abundant compounds. Ergosterol has also been isolated from \"A. caesarea\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "\"A. caesarea\" is a highly appreciated mushroom in Europe. It is traditionally gathered and consumed in Italy, where it is known as \"ovolo\" or \"ovolo buono\" or \"fungo reale\". It has been traditionally taken as food in Mexico. There it is consumed roasted with a bit of the herb epazote, \"Dysphania ambrosioides\". The international export market developed in the 1990s.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "It is found in southern Europe and North Africa, particularly in the hills of northern Italy. It is thought to have been introduced north of the Alps by the Roman armies as it is most frequently found along old Roman roads. The mushroom is also distributed in the Balkans, Hungary, India, and China (Sichuan Province). Although the species is not known to exist in the United States and Canada, it has been collected in Mexico.  In Europe, \"Amanita caesarea\" inhabits primarily oak forests (\"Quercetum troianae\" Em. et Ht., \"Quercetum frainetto-cerris\" Rudsky. and \"Quercetum frainetto-cerris macedonicum\" Oberd., e.g.). It grows individually or in groups from early summer to mid autumn. In warmer climates this mushroom fruits in higher oak woodlands, sometimes mixed with conifers. Thus, in Mexico its natural habitat is oak, pine or fir forests at altitudes of above sea level, where it prefers plains and can occur at slopes of 20 degrees.  \"Amanita caesarea\" is listed in the Red Data book of Ukraine, and it is protected by law in Croatia, and Slovenia and Czechia", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Amanita caesarea, commonly known as Caesar's mushroom, is a highly regarded edible mushroom in the genus \"Amanita\", native to southern Europe and North Africa. While it was first described by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1772, this mushroom was a known favorite of early rulers of the Roman Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971450}
{"src_title": "Elite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Elitist privilege.", "content": "According to Mills, men receive the education necessary for elitist privilege to obtain their background and contacts, allowing them to enter three branches of the power elite, which are;  According to Mills, the governing elite in the United States primarily draws its members from political leaders, including the president, and a handful of key cabinet members, as well as close advisers, major corporate owners and directors, and high-ranking military officers. These groups overlap and elites tend to circulate from one sector to another, consolidating power in the process.  Unlike the ruling class, a social formation based on heritage and social ties, the power elite is characterized by the organizational structures through which its wealth is acquired. According to Mills, the power elite rose from \"the managerial reorganization of the propertied classes into the more or less unified stratum of the corporate rich\". Domhoff further clarified the differences in the two terms: \"The upper class as a whole does not do the ruling. Instead, class rule is manifested through the activities of a wide variety of organizations and institutions...Leaders within the upper class join with high-level employees in the organizations they control to make up what will be called the power elite\".  The Marxist theoretician Nikolai Bukharin anticipated the elite theory in his 1929 work, \"Imperialism and World Economy\": \"present-day state power is nothing but an entrepreneurs' company of tremendous power, headed even by the same persons that occupy the leading positions in the banking and syndicate offices\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Power elite.", "content": "The \"power elite\" is a term used by Mills to describe a relatively small, loosely connected group of individuals who dominate American policymaking. This group includes bureaucratic, corporate, intellectual, military, media, and government elites who control the principal institutions in the United States and whose opinions and actions influence the decisions of the policymakers. The basis for membership of a power elite is institutional power, namely an influential position within a prominent private or public organization. A study of the French corporate elite has shown that social class continues to hold sway in determining who joins this elite group, with those from the upper-middle class tending to dominate. Another study (published in 2002) of power elites in the United States under President George W. Bush (in office 2001-2009) identified 7,314 institutional positions of power encompassing 5,778 individuals. A later study of U.S. society noted demographic characteristics of this elite group as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impacts on economy.", "content": "In the 1970s an organized set of policies promoted reduced taxes, especially for the wealthy, and a steady erosion of the welfare safety net. Starting with legislation in the 1980s, the wealthy banking community successfully lobbied for reduced regulation. The wide range of financial and social capital accessible to the power elite gives their members heavy influence in economic and political decision making, allowing them to move toward attaining desired outcomes. Sociologist Christopher Doob gives a hypothetical alternative, stating that these elite individuals would consider themselves the overseers of the national economy. Also appreciating that it is not only a moral, but a practical necessity to focus beyond their group interests. Doing so would hopefully alleviate various destructive conditions affecting large numbers of less affluent citizens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Global politics and hegemony.", "content": "Mills determined that there is an \"inner core\" of the power elite involving individuals that are able to move from one seat of institutional power to another. They, therefore, have a wide range of knowledge and interests in many influential organizations, and are, as Mills describes, \"professional go-betweens of economic, political, and military affairs\". Relentless expansion of capitalism and the globalizing of economic and military power, binds leaders of the power elite into complex relationships with nation states that generate global-scale class divisions. Sociologist Manuel Castells writes in \"The Rise of the Network Society\" that contemporary globalization does not mean that \"everything in the global economy is global\". So, a global economy becomes characterized by fundamental social inequalities with respect to the \"level of integration, competitive potential and share of the benefits from economic growth\". Castells cites a kind of \"double movement\" where on one hand, \"valuable segments of territories and people\" become \"linked in the global networks of value making and wealth appropriation\", while, on the other, \"everything and everyone\" that is not valued by established networks gets \"switched off...and ultimately discarded\". The wide-ranging effects of global capitalism ultimately affect everyone on the planet, as economies around the world come to depend on the functioning of global financial markets, technologies, trade and labor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In political and sociological theory, the elite (French \"élite\", from Latin \"eligere\", to select or to sort out) are a small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a society. Defined by the Cambridge Dictionary, the \"elite\" are \"those people or organizations that are considered the best or most powerful compared to others of a similar type.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971451}
{"src_title": "Peter Waldo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Relationship with Waldenses.", "content": "Peter Waldo is regarded as the founder of the Waldensians sometime between 1170 and 1177.  There were claims that the Waldensians predated Peter Waldo. In his \"A History of the Vaudois Church\" (1859), Antoine Monastier quotes Bernard, Abbott of Foncald, writing at the end of the 12th century, that the Waldensians arose during the papacy of Lucius. Monastier takes him to mean Lucius II, Pope 1144–1145, and concludes that the Waldenses were active before 1145. Bernard also says that the same Pope Lucius condemned them as heretics, but they were condemned by Pope Lucius III in 1184.  Monastier also says that Eberard de Béthune, writing in 1210 (although Monastier says 1160), claimed that the name Vaudois meant valley dwellers or those who \"dwell in a vale of sorrow and tears\" and was in use before Peter Waldo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Most details of Waldo's life are unknown. Extant sources relate that he was a wealthy clothier and merchant from Lyon and a man of some learning. Sometime shortly before the year 1160, he was inspired by a series of events, firstly, after hearing a sermon on the life of St. Alexius, secondly, rejection of transubstantiation when it was considered a capital crime to do it, thirdly, the sudden and unexpected death of a friend during an evening meal. From this point onward he began living a radical Christian life, giving his property over to his wife, while the remainder of his belongings he distributed as alms to the poor.  At about this time, Waldo began to preach and teach publicly, based on his ideas of simplicity and poverty, notably that \"No man can serve two masters, God and Mammon.\" Waldo condemned what he considered as papal excesses and Catholic dogmas, including purgatory and transubstantiation. He said that these dogmas were \"the harlot\" from the book of Revelation. By 1170 Waldo had gathered a large number of followers, referred to as \"the Poor of Lyons,\" \"the Poor of Lombardy,\" or \"the Poor of God.\" They evangelized their teaching while traveling as peddlers. Often referred to as the Waldensians (or Waldenses), they were distinct from the Albigensians or Cathari.  The Waldensian movement was characterized from the beginning by lay preaching, voluntary poverty, and strict adherence to the Bible. Between 1170–80 Waldo commissioned a cleric from Lyon to translate the New Testament into the vernacular \"Romance\" (Franco-Provençal). He is credited with providing to Europe the first translation of the Bible in a'modern tongue' outside of Latin.  In January 1179, Waldo and one of his disciples went to Rome, where they were welcomed by Pope Alexander III and the Roman Curia. They had to explain their faith before a panel of three clergymen, including issues which were then debated within the Church, such as the universal priesthood, the gospel in the vulgate or local language, and the issue of voluntary poverty. The results of the meeting were inconclusive. The pope affirmed his vow of poverty, but he was forbidden to continue preaching because he was a layperson.  Waldo's ideas, but not the movement itself, were condemned at the Third Lateran Council in March of the same year. The leaders of the Waldensian movement were not yet excommunicated.  In 1180, Waldo composed a profession of faith which is still extant.  Driven away from Lyon, Waldo and his followers settled in the high valleys of Piedmont, and in France, in the Luberon, as they continued in their pursuit of Christianity based on the New Testament. Finally, Waldo was excommunicated by Pope Lucius III during the synod held at Verona in 1184. The doctrine of the Poor of Lyons was again condemned by the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, when they mentioned the group by name for the first time, and declared its principles to be heresy. Fearing suppression from the Church, Waldo's followers fled to the mountainous regions of northern Italy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Waldo, Valdo, Valdes, or Waldes (c. 1140 – c. 1205), also Pierre Vaudès or de Vaux, was a leader of the Waldensians, a Christian spiritual movement of the Middle Ages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971452}
{"src_title": "Goldsmith", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gold.", "content": "Compared to other metals, gold is malleable, ductile, rare, and it is the only solid metallic element with a yellow color. It may easily be melted, fused, and cast without the problems of oxides and gas that are problematic with other metals such as bronzes, for example. It is fairly easy to \"pressure weld\", wherein, similarly to clay, two small pieces may be pounded together to make one larger piece. Gold is classified as a noble metal—because it does not react with most elements. It usually is found in its native form, lasting indefinitely without oxidization and tarnishing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Gold has been worked by humans in all cultures where the metal is available, either indigenously or imported, and the history of these activities is extensive. Superbly made objects from the ancient cultures of Africa, Asia, Europe, India, North America, Mesoamerica, and South America grace museums and collections throughout the world. Some pieces date back thousands of years and were made using many techniques that still are used by modern goldsmiths. Techniques developed by some of those goldsmiths achieved a skill level that was lost and remained beyond the skills of those who followed, even to modern times. Researchers attempting to uncover the chemical techniques used by ancient artisans have remarked that their findings confirm that \"the high level of competence reached by the artists and craftsmen of these ancient periods who produced objects of an artistic quality that could not be bettered in ancient times and has not yet been reached in modern ones.\"  In medieval Europe goldsmiths were organized into guilds and usually were one of the most important and wealthiest of the guilds in a city. The guild kept records of members and the marks they used on their products. These records, when they survive, are very useful to historians. Goldsmiths often acted as bankers, since they dealt in gold and had sufficient security for the safe storage of valuable items. In the Middle Ages, goldsmithing normally included silversmithing as well, but the brass workers and workers in other base metals normally were members of a separate guild, since the trades were not allowed to overlap. Many jewelers also were goldsmiths. The Sunar caste is one of the oldest communities in goldsmithing in India, whose superb gold artworks were displayed at The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. In India, 'Vishwakarma', 'Daivadnya Brahmins', 'Kshatriya Sunar' are the goldsmith castes.  The printmaking technique of engraving developed among goldsmiths in Germany around 1430, who had long used the technique on their metal pieces. The notable engravers of the fifteenth century were either goldsmiths, such as Master E. S., or the sons of goldsmiths, such as Martin Schongauer and Albrecht Dürer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contemporary goldsmithing.", "content": "A goldsmith might have a wide array of skills and knowledge at their disposal. Gold, being the most malleable metal of all, offers unique opportunities for the worker. In today's world a wide variety of other metals, especially platinum alloys, also may be used frequently. 24 karat is pure gold and historically, was known as fine gold.  Because it is so soft, however, 24 karat gold is rarely used. It is usually alloyed to make it stronger and to create different colors. Depending on the metals used to create the alloy, the color can change.  This alloyed gold is then stamped with the 725 mark, representing the percentage of gold present in the alloy for commercially used gold. The majority of the jewellery is made with this alloy, while a smaller part uses lower gold-density alloys to keep jewel cheaper. The gold may be cast into some item then, usually with the lost wax casting process, or it may be used to fabricate the work directly in metal.  In the latter case, the goldsmith will use a variety of tools and machinery, including the rolling mill, the drawplate, and perhaps, swage blocks and other forming tools to make the metal into shapes needed to build the intended piece. Then parts are fabricated through a wide variety of processes and assembled by soldering. It is a testament to the history and evolution of the trade that those skills have reached an extremely high level of attainment and skill over time. A fine goldsmith can and will work to a tolerance approaching that of precision machinery, but largely using only his eyes and hand tools. Quite often the goldsmith's job involves the making of mountings for gemstones, in which case they often are referred to as \"jewelers\".  'Jeweller', however, is a term mostly reserved for a person who deals in jewellery (buys and sells) and not to be confused with a goldsmith, silversmith, gemologist, diamond cutter, and diamond setters. A 'jobbing jeweller' is the term for a jeweller who undertakes a small basic amount of jewellery repair and alteration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A goldsmith is a metalworker who specializes in working with gold and other precious metals. Nowadays they mainly specialize in jewellery-making but historically, goldsmiths have also made silverware, platters, goblets, decorative and serviceable utensils, ceremonial or religious items, and rarely using Kintsugi, but the rising prices of precious metals have curtailed the making of such items to a large degree.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971453}
{"src_title": "Joseph Anton von Maffei", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Joseph Anton Maffei was born in Munich, the son of an Italian tradesman from Verona. The Palazzo Maffei still stands today on the Piazza delle Erbe. His father came to Munich in order to run a tobacco wholesale business, that Joseph Anton Maffei continued. In 1835 Maffei was one of the founding shareholders of the Bavarian Mortgage and Discount Bank (\"Bayerische Hypotheken- und Wechselbank\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Railway pioneer.", "content": "In 1836 Maffei founded the locomotive firm of J. A. Maffei in the English Garden in Munich. His desire was to make Bavaria competitive in the field of industrial engines. From small beginnings, a locomotive factory of world renown arose. Maffei, amongst others, also championed the construction of the railway line from Munich to Augsburg and supported Johann Ulrich Himbsel in building the private railway from Munich to Starnberg. In 1864 the 500th locomotive was delivered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other achievements.", "content": "In 1851 Maffei supplied the first steamer, the \"Maximilian\", for boat services on Lake Starnberg. By 1926 there were 44 steamships.  Maffei was also a city councillor (\"Magistratsrat\") in Munich and busied himself e.g. with the construction of the famous hotel, the Bayerischer Hof.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Maffei died in Munich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Maffei's legacy.", "content": "Joseph Anton Ritter von Maffei died on 1 September 1870. His grave may still be found today at the Old Southern Cemetery (Alter Südfriedhof) in Munich.  The locomotive works he founded survived him by some 60 years, but in 1930 J. A. Maffei went bankrupt and was amalgamated with the firm of Krauss in 1930 to form Krauss-Maffei.  Today, Villa Maffei in Feldafing (on Lake Starnberg) houses a museum and exhibitions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin of the Maffei family.", "content": "The surname von Maffei or Maffei is a patronymic name derived from the personal name Matthäus (German). In ancient times the Maffei family settled in Verona from Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Anton von Maffei (4 September 1790 – 1 September 1870) was a German industrialist. Together with Joseph von Baader (1763–1835) and Baron Theodor Freiherr von Cramer-Klett (1817–1884), Maffei was one of the three most important railway pioneers in Bavaria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971454}
{"src_title": "Eltz Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The castle is surrounded on three sides by the Elzbach River, a tributary on the north side of the Moselle. It is on a rock spur, on an important Roman trade route between rich farmlands and their markets. The Eltz Forest has been declared a nature reserve by Flora-Fauna-Habitat and Natura 2000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The castle is a so-called \"Ganerbenburg\", or castle belonging to community of joint heirs. This is a castle divided into several parts, which belong to different families or different branches of a family; this usually occurs when multiple owners of one or more territories jointly build a castle to house themselves. Only wealthy medieval European lords could afford to build castles or equivalent structures on their lands; many of them only owned one village, or even only part of a village. This was an insufficient base to afford castles. Such lords usually lived in \"knight's houses\", which were fairly simple houses, scarcely bigger than those of their tenants. In some parts of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, inheritance law required that the estate be divided among all successors. These successors, each of whose individual inheritance was too small to build a castle of his own, could build a castle together, where each owned one separate part for housing and all of them together shared the defensive fortification. In the case of Eltz, the family comprised three branches and the existing castle was enhanced with three separate complexes of buildings.  The main part of the castle consists of the family portions. At up to eight stories, these eight towers reach heights of between. They are fortified with strong exterior walls; to the yard they present a partial framework. About 100 members of the owners' families lived in the over 100 rooms of the castle. A village once existed below the castle, on its southside, which housed servants, craftsman, and their families supporting the castle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Platteltz, a Romanesque keep, is the oldest part of the castle, having begun in the 9th century as a simple manor with an earthen palisade. By 1157 the fortress was an important part of the empire under Frederick Barbarossa, standing astride the trade route from the Moselle Valley and the Eifel region. In the years 1331–1336, there occurred the only serious military conflicts that the castle experienced. During the Eltz Feud, the lords of Eltzer, together with other free imperial knights, opposed the territorial policy of the Archbishop and Elector Balduin von Trier. The Eltz Castle was put under siege and possible capture and was bombarded with catapults by the Archbishop of the Diocese of Trier. A small siege castle, Trutzeltz Castle, was built on a rocky outcrop on the hillside above the castle, which can still be seen today as a few ruined walls outside of the northern side of the castle. The siege lasted for two years, but ended only when the free imperial knights had given up their imperial freedom. Balduin reinstated Johann again to the burgrave, but only as his subjects and no longer as a free knight. In 1472 the Rübenach house, built in the Late Gothic style, was completed. Remarkable are the Rübenach Lower Hall, a living room, and the Rübenach bedchamber with its opulently decorated walls.  Started in 1470 by Philipp zu Eltz, the 10-story Greater Rodendorf House takes its name from the family's land holding in Lorraine. The oldest part is the flag hall with its late Gothic vaulted ceiling, which was probably originally a chapel. Construction was completed around 1520. The (so-called) Little Rodendorf house was finished in 1540, also in Late Gothic style. It contains the vaulted \"banner-room\".  The Kempenich house replaced the original hall in 1615. Every room of this part of the castle could be heated; in contrast, other castles might only have one or two heated rooms.  In the Palatinate War of Succession from 1688 to 1689, most of the early Rhenish castles were destroyed. Since Hans Anton was a senior officer in the French army to Eltz Üttingen, he was able to protect the castle Eltz from destruction.  Count Hugo Philipp zu Eltz was thought to have fled during the French rule on the Rhine from 1794 to 1815. The French confiscated his possessions on the Rhine and nearby Trier which included Eltz castle, as well as the associated goods which were held at the French headquarters in Koblenz.  In 1797, when Count Hugo Philipp later turned out to have remained hidden in Mainz, he came back to the reclaim of his lands, goods and wealth. In 1815 he became the sole owner of the castle through the purchase of the Rübenacher house and the landed property of the barons of Eltz-Rübenach.  In the 19th century, Count Karl zu Eltz was committed to the restoration of his castle. In the period between 1845 and 1888, 184,000 marks (about 15 million euros in 2015) was invested into the extensive construction work, very carefully preserving the existing architecture.  Extensive security and restoration work took place between the years 2009 to 2012. Among other things, the vault of flags hall was secured after it was at risk of partially collapsing walls and the porch of the Kempenich section. In addition to these static repairs, almost all the slate roofs were replaced. Structural problems were remedied in the ceiling and wood damage was repaired. In the interior, heating and sanitary facilities, windows and fire alarm system were renewed, and also historic plaster was restored. The half-timbered facades and a spiral staircase were renovated at the costs of around €4.4 million. The measures were supported by a €2 million grant from an economic stimulus package provided by the German federal government. The state of Rhineland-Palatinate, the German Foundation for Monument Protection and the owners provided further funds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "The Rübenach and Rodendorf families' homes in the castle are open to the public, while the Kempenich branch of the family uses the other third of the castle. The public is admitted seasonally, from April to October. Visitors can view the treasury, with gold, silver and porcelain artifacts and the armory of weapons and suits of armor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "From 1965 to 1992, an engraving of Eltz Castle was used on the German 500 Deutsche Mark note. The castle was also used as the exterior for the fictional American military lunatic asylum in the 1979 William Peter Blatty movie, \"The Ninth Configuration\", starring Stacy Keach. The opening sequences of \"Le Feu de Wotan\", a Belgian bande dessinée (comic book) in the Yoko Tsuno series, take place in Eltz Castle. Eltz castle also inspired the castle featured chiefly on the Himmelsdorf map and its winter derivative of the MMO \"World of Tanks\". The model of the castle is also reused on the maps Westfield and Erlenberg. Eltz Castle decorates the homepage of the German Whitepages as a symbol of German culture next to BMW, Nivea Cream, a Thurn and Taxis postcoach or the facade of Deutsches Museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eltz Castle () is a medieval castle nestled in the hills above the Moselle River between Koblenz and Trier, Germany. It is still owned by a branch of the same family (the Eltz family) that lived there in the 12th century, 33 generations ago. Bürresheim Castle, Eltz Castle and Lissingen Castle are the only castles on the left bank of the Rhine in Rhineland-Palatinate which have never been destroyed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971455}
{"src_title": "Straubing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The area of Straubing has been continuously settled since the Neolithic. The conquest by the Romans in 16–14 BC had a dramatic impact on the whole region. Even today many traces of the 400-year Roman occupation can be found: for example, the famous 'Römerschatz' (Roman treasure) which was excavated in 1950 and which is shown in the Gäubodenmuseum. \"Sorviodurum\", as the Romans called it, was an important military support base.  After the fall of the Roman Empire Straubing became a centre of settlement of the Bavarii, mostly around St. Peter's Church (built in the 9th century) between Allachbach and Danube. According to the customs of the Bavarii the settlement was named after their leader \"Strupinga\", which later evolved into the name Straubing.  In 1218 a new part of the city (called 'new town') was founded by Duke Ludwig I Wittelsbach of Bavaria. Straubing became the capital of the Duchy of Bavaria-Straubing under Duke Wilhelm I when Bavaria was divided among the sons of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor in 1349. In 1429 Straubing passed to Ernest, Duke of Bavaria-Munich, who ordered the murder of Agnes Bernauer in Straubing. The grave of Agnes Bernauer cannot be found. But in the graveyard of St. Peter's Church is a chapel built by Duke Ernest.  In 1633, during the Thirty Years' War, the Swedish army successfully besieged the city. Nowadays, this new town is the centre of Straubing with many shops, offices, restaurants and a pedestrian area. Most buildings there still have medieval style. The nightlife of Straubing, with many pubs and discothèques, is concentrated in this area.  The most important buildings are the beautiful Gothic cathedral-like Basilica of St. Jacob, the Romanesque St. Peter's Church, the Carmelite monastery with its Baroque church and library, St. Vitus's, where you can find a life-size personification of \"state and church\" joined in holy matrimony.  Between 1933 and 1945 most of the members of the then small Jewish community of Straubing were murdered or forced to emigrate. In 2006, Straubing had a lively Jewish community with around 950 members.  During a rally in June 1940, when Straubing and Bogen held its Kriegskreistag, some 20,000 people gathered at the \"Großdeutschlandplatz\". Among the speakers were Gauleiter Wächtler and \"Gauamtsleiter\" Erbersdobler. In July 1940, the \"Donau-Zeitung\" reported that the Straubing \"Kreisleiter\", Anton Putz, had flown toward France and not returned.  In 1944 and 1945, Straubing suffered from several American air raids. The local military hospital was destroyed to the extent of 80 percent with a loss of 45 patients.  In November 2016 a fire destroyed a greater part of the medieval town hall.  Straubing has many industrial areas and a port at the river Danube with access to the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal, a connection from the North Sea to the Black Sea. It is the centre of the Bavarian high tech offensive in biotechnology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "As one of five ducal residences of medieval Bavaria (besides Landshut, Munich, Ingolstadt and Burghausen) the old town of Straubing especially features many Gothic buildings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The Technical University of Munich has one of its campuses in Straubing. It is specialised on renewables. A Fraunhofer Institute for boundary and biodiversity engineering is also located in Straubing.  Straubing has four \"Gymnasiums\" (German for grammar school):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Straubing is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Straubing () is an independent city in Lower Bavaria, southern Germany. It is seat of the district of Straubing-Bogen. Annually in August the Gäubodenvolksfest, the second largest fair in Bavaria, is held.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971456}
{"src_title": "Roland Garros (aviator)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Eugène Adrien Roland Georges Garros was born in Saint-Denis, Réunion, and studied at the Lycée Janson de Sailly and HEC Paris.  At the age of 12, he contracted pneumonia, and was sent to Cannes to recuperate. He took up cycling to restore his health, and went on to win an inter-school championship in the sport. He was also keen on football, rugby and tennis.  When he was 21 he started a car dealership in Paris. He was a close friend of Ettore Bugatti and in 1913 became the first owner of a Garros Bugatti Type 18, later christened \"Black Bess\" by its second owner, British racing driver Ivy Cummings, which survives today at the Louwman Museum in the Netherlands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aviation.", "content": "During his summer holiday in 1909, at Sapicourt near Reims, staying with a friend's uncle, he saw the Grande Semaine d'Aviation de la Champagne which ran from 22 to 29 August. After this, he knew he had to be an aviator.  He started his aviation career in 1909 flying a Demoiselle (Damselfly) monoplane, an aircraft that only flew well with a small lightweight pilot. He gained Ae.C.F. licence no. 147 in July 1910. In 1911 Garros graduated to flying Blériot monoplanes and entered a number of European air races with this type of aircraft, including the 1911 Paris to Madrid air race and the Circuit of Europe (Paris–London–Paris), in which he came second.  On 4 September 1911, he set an altitude record of. The following year, on 6 September 1912, after Austrian aviator Philipp von Blaschke had flown to, he regained the height record by flying to.  By 1913 he had switched to flying the faster Morane-Saulnier monoplanes, and on 23 September gained fame for making the first non-stop flight across the Mediterranean Sea from Fréjus-Saint Raphaël in the south of France to Bizerte in Tunisia in a Morane-Saulnier G. The flight commenced at 5:47 am and lasted nearly eight hours during which Garros had to solve two engine malfunctions. The following year, Garros joined the French army at the outbreak of World War I.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Myth of first air battle.", "content": "Reports published in August 1914 claimed Garros was involved in the \"first air battle in world history\" and that he had flown his plane into a Zeppelin, destroying the airship and killing its pilots and himself. This story was quickly contradicted by reports that Garros was alive and well in Paris. Such early reports maintained that an unidentified French pilot had indeed rammed and destroyed a Zeppelin, however, German authorities denied the story. Later sources indicated the first aerial victory against a Zeppelin occurred in June 1915 and that earlier reports, including that of Garros, had been discredited.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Development of interrupter gear.", "content": "In the early stages of the air war in World War I the problem of mounting a forward-firing machine gun on combat aircraft was considered by several people. So-called \"interrupter gear\" came into use when Anthony Fokker developed a synchronization device which had a large impact on air combat, after Garros used deflector plates.  As a reconnaissance pilot with the Escadrille MS26, Garros visited the Morane-Saulnier Works in December 1914. Saulnier's work on metal deflector wedges attached to propeller blades was taken forward by Garros; he eventually had a workable installation fitted to his Morane-Saulnier Type L aircraft. The Aero Club of America awarded him a medal for this invention three years later. Garros achieved the first ever shooting-down of an aircraft by a fighter firing through a tractor propeller, on 1 April 1915; two more victories over German aircraft were achieved on 15 and 18 April 1915.  On 18 April 1915, Garros's fuel line clogged or his aircraft was hit by ground fire, and he glided to a landing on the German side of the lines. Garros failed to destroy his aircraft completely before being taken prisoner: most significantly, the gun and armoured propeller remained intact. It was reported that after examining the plane, German aircraft engineers, led by Fokker, designed the improved interrupter gear system. In fact the work on Fokker's system had been going for at least six months before Garros's aircraft fell into their hands. With the advent of the interrupter gear the tables were turned on the Allies, with Fokker's planes shooting down many Allied aircraft, leading to what became known as the Fokker Scourge.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "POW camp internment and escape.", "content": "After almost three years in captivity in various German POW camps Garros managed to escape on 14 February 1918 together with fellow aviator lieutenant Anselme Marchal. Via the Netherlands they made it to London, England and from there back to France where he rejoined the French army. He settled into Escadrille 26 to pilot a SPAD, and claimed two victories on 2 October 1918, one of which was confirmed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 5 October 1918, he was shot down and killed near Vouziers, Ardennes, a month before the end of the war and one day before his 30th birthday. His adversary was probably German ace Hermann Habich from \"Jasta 49\", flying a Fokker D.VII.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Garros is erroneously called the world's first fighter ace. In fact, he shot down only four aircraft; the definition of \"ace\" is five or more victories. The honour of becoming the first ace went to another French airman, Adolphe Pégoud, who had six victories early in the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eponyms.", "content": "A tennis centre constructed in Paris in the 1920s was named after him, the \"Stade Roland Garros\". The stadium accommodates the French Open, one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments. Consequently, the tournament is officially called \"Les Internationaux de France de Roland-Garros\" (the \"French Internationals of Roland Garros\").  According to Vũ Trọng Phụng's urban novel, \"Dumb Luck,\" (1936), during colonial times the Hanoi government named the city's main tennis stadium after Roland Garros.  The international airport of La Réunion, Roland Garros Airport, is also named after him. There is a monument to Garros in Bizerte at the site of his landing, which is called \"Roland Garros Plaza\". The town of Houlgate in Normandy has named their promenade after Roland Garros in celebration of his altitude record breaking location.  The French car manufacturer Peugeot commissioned a 'Roland Garros' limited edition version of its 205 model in celebration of the tennis tournament that bears his name. The model included special paint and leather interior. Because of the success of this special edition, Peugeot later created Roland Garros editions of its 106, 108, 206, 207, 208, 306, 307, 406, and 806 models.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eugène Adrien Roland Georges Garros (; 6 October 1888 – 5 October 1918) was a French pioneering aviator and fighter pilot during World War I and early days of aviation. In 1928, the Roland Garros tennis stadium was named in his memory; the French Open tennis tournament takes the name of Roland-Garros from the stadium in which it is held.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971457}
{"src_title": "Horst P. Horst", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "The younger of two sons, Horst was born in Weißenfels-an-der-Saale, Germany, to Klara (Schönbrodt) and Max Bohrmann. His father was a successful merchant. In his teens, he met dancer Evan Weidemann at the home of his aunt, and this aroused his interest in avant-garde art. In the late 1920s, Horst studied at Hamburg Kunstgewerbeschule, leaving there in 1930 to go to Paris to study under the architect Le Corbusier.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth.", "content": "While in Paris, he befriended many people in the art community and attended many galleries. In 1930 he met \"Vogue\" photographer Baron George Hoyningen-Huene, a half-Baltic, half-American nobleman, and became his photographic assistant, occasional model, and lover. He traveled to England with him that winter. While there, they visited photographer Cecil Beaton, who was working for the British edition of \"Vogue\". In 1931, Horst began his association with \"Vogue\", publishing his first photograph in the French edition of \"Vogue\" in December of that year. It was a full-page advertisement showing a model in black velvet holding a Klytia scent bottle.  His first exhibition took place at La Plume d'Or in Paris in 1932. It was reviewed by Janet Flanner in \"The New Yorker\", and this review, which appeared after the exhibition ended, made Horst instantly prominent. Horst made a portrait of Bette Davis the same year, the first in a series of public figures he would photograph during his career. Within two years, he had photographed Noël Coward, Yvonne Printemps, Lisa Fonssagrives, Count Luchino Visconti di Madrone, Duke Fulco di Verdura, Baron Nicolas de Gunzburg, Princess Natalia Pavlovna Paley, Daisy Fellowes, Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark, Cole Porter, Elsa Schiaparelli, and others like Eve Curie.  Horst rented an apartment in New York City in 1937, and while residing there met Coco Chanel, whom Horst called \"the queen of the whole thing\". He would photograph her fashions for three decades.  He met Valentine Lawford, British diplomat in 1938, and they lived together until Lawford's death in 1991. They adopted and raised a son, Richard J. Horst, together.  In 1941, Horst applied for United States citizenship. In 1942, he passed an Army physical, and joined the Army on July 2, 1943. On October 21, he received his United States citizenship as Horst P. Horst. He became an Army photographer, with much of his work printed in the forces' magazine \"Belvoir Castle\". In 1945, he photographed United States President Harry S. Truman, with whom he became friends, and he photographed every First Lady in the post-war period at the invitation of the White House. In 1947, Horst moved into his house in Oyster Bay, New York. He designed the white stucco-clad building himself, the design inspired by the houses that he had seen in Tunisia during his relationship with Hoyningen-Huene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Horst is best known for his photographs of women and fashion, but is also recognized for his photographs of interior architecture, still lifes, especially ones including plants, and environmental portraits. One of the great iconic photos of the Twentieth-Century is \"The Mainbocher Corset\" with its erotically charged mystery, captured by Horst in \"Vogue\"’s Paris studio in 1939. Designers like Donna Karan continue to use the timeless beauty of \"The Mainbocher Corset\" as an inspiration for their outerwear collections today. His work frequently reflects his interest in surrealism and his regard of the ancient Greek ideal of physical beauty.  His method of work typically entailed careful preparation for the shoot, with the lighting and studio props (of which he used many) arranged in advance. His instructions to models are remembered as being brief and to the point. His published work uses lighting to pick out the subject; he frequently used four spotlights, often one of them pointing down from the ceiling. Only rarely do his photos include shadows falling on the background of the set. Horst rarely, if ever, used filters. While most of his work is in black & white, much of his color photography includes largely monochromatic settings to set off a colorful fashion. Horst's color photography did include documentation of society interior design, well noted in the volume \"Horst Interiors\". He photographed a number of interiors designed by Robert Denning and Vincent Fourcade of Denning & Fourcade and often visited their homes in Manhattan and Long Island. After making the photograph, Horst generally left it up to others to develop, print, crop, and edit his work.  One of his most famous portraits is of Marlene Dietrich, taken in 1942. She protested the lighting that he had selected and arranged, but he used it anyway. Dietrich liked the results and subsequently used a photo from the session in her own publicity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In the 1960s, encouraged by \"Vogue\" editor Diana Vreeland, Horst began a series of photos illustrating the lifestyle of international high society which included people like: Consuelo Vanderbilt, Marella Agnelli, Gloria Guinness, Baroness Pauline de Rothschild and Baron Philippe de Rothschild, Helen of Greece and Denmark, Baroness Geoffroy de Waldner, Princess Tatiana of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg, Lee Radziwill, Duke of Windsor and Duchess of Windsor, Peregrine Eliot, 10th Earl of St Germans and Lady Jacquetta Eliot, Countess of St Germans, Antenor Patiño, Oscar de la Renta and Françoise de Langlade, Desmond Guinness and Princess Henriette Marie-Gabrielle von Urach, Andy Warhol, Nancy Lancaster, Yves Saint Laurent, Doris Duke, Emilio Pucci, Cy Twombly, Billy Baldwin, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, Amanda Burden, Paloma Picasso and Comtesse Jacqueline de Ribes. The articles were written by the photographer's longtime companion, Valentine Lawford, a former English diplomat. From this point until nearly the time of his death, Horst spent most of his time traveling and photographing. In the mid 1970s, he began working for \"House & Garden\" magazine as well as for \"Vogue\".  Horst's last photograph for British \"Vogue\" was in 1991 with Princess Michael of Kent, shown against a background of tapestry and wearing a tiara belonging to her mother-in-law, Princess Marina, who he had photographed in 1934. He died at his home in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida at 93 years of age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Books featuring Horst's photography:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Horst Paul Albert Bohrmann (August 14, 1906November 18, 1999), who chose to be known as Horst P. Horst, was a German-American fashion photographer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971458}
{"src_title": "XD-Picture Card", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The cards were developed by Olympus and Fujifilm, and introduced into the market in July 2002. Toshiba Corporation and Samsung Electronics manufactured the cards for Olympus and Fujifilm. xD cards were sold under other brands, including Kodak, SanDisk, PNY, and Lexar, but were not branded with the respective companies' logos, except for Kodak. Previously, xD competed primarily with Secure Digital (SD) cards, CompactFlash (CF), and Sony's Memory Stick. Because of its higher cost and limited usage in products other than digital cameras, xD lost ground to SD, which is broadly used by cellular phones, personal computers, digital audio players and many other digital cameras.  Olympus began to move away from the xD format with the mid-2009 announcement of the E-P1 camera, which supported only Secure Digital memory cards. As of Spring 2010, all new Olympus cameras announced at the 2010 Consumer Electronics Show and Photo Marketing Association International Trade Show can use SD cards. This changeover to the SD card format has never been officially announced by Olympus Corporation. The higher-end DSLR cameras such as the E-3 and E-5 among others continue to use Compact Flash cards as well.  Fuji released its last digital camera accepting that card, namely Fujifilm FinePix F200EXR (a variant of 2008 FinePix F100fd), being released back in Q2 2009, as being moving away from xD format since Q4 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison with rival formats.", "content": "The xD format has been discontinued. New cards are still manufactured, but cameras supporting xD memory cards exclusively are no longer manufactured.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other information.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Type M/M+ and Type H cards.", "content": "The original xD cards were available in 16 MB to 512 MB capacities. The Type M card, released in February 2005, uses multi-level cell (MLC) architecture to achieve a theoretical storage capacity of up to 8 GB., Type M cards are available in sizes from 256 MB to 2 GB. However, the Type M suffers from slower read/write speeds than the original cards.  The Type H card, first released in November 2005, offers higher data rates than Type M cards (theoretically as much as 3 times faster). As of 2008, Type H cards were only available in 256 MB, 512 MB, 1000 MB, and 2000 MB capacities. Both Fuji and Olympus discontinued the production of Type H cards in 2008, citing high production costs.  The Type M+ card, first released in April 2008, offers data rates 1.5 times that of Type M cards. As of 2008, cards are available only in 1 and 2 GB capacities.  Olympus says that its xD cards support special \"picture effects\" when used in some Olympus cameras, though these software features are not intrinsically hardware-dependent. Type H and M+ cards however, are required in newer models to capture video at high rate (640×480 @ 30fps). Due to changes in the cards' storage architecture, newer Type M and H cards may have compatibility issues with some older cameras (especially video recording). Compatibility lists are available for Olympus: Olympus America's and Fujifilm's. Newer cards are incompatible with some card readers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theoretical transfer speeds.", "content": "Pictures may be transferred from a digital camera's xD card to a personal computer by plugging the camera into the PC via a USB or IEEE 1394 cable, or by removing the card from the camera and inserting it into a card reader. In both cases, the computer sees the card as a mass storage device containing image files, although software or firmware can alter this representation. Card readers may be integrated into the PC or attached via cable. Adapters are available to allow an xD picture card to be plugged into other readers (and in some cases cameras), including PC card, parallel port, CompactFlash and SmartMedia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Detailed specifications.", "content": "Detailed specifications are tightly controlled by Olympus and Fujifilm, which charge licensing fees and royalties and require non-disclosure agreements in exchange for the technical information required to produce xD-compatible devices.  The memory format used is not well documented. It is difficult to study it directly, since most camera devices and most USB card readers do not provide direct access to the flash memory. Since the cards are controller-less, cameras and card readers must perform wear leveling and error detection. They normally hide the portion of the memory which stores this information (among other things) from higher level access.  However, a few models of xD card readers based on the Alauda chip \"do\" allow direct access (bypassing the above mechanisms) to an xD card's flash memory. These readers have been reverse-engineered and Linux drivers have been produced by the Alauda Project, which has documented the on-chip data structures of the xD card. According to this information, xD card headers are similar to those used by SmartMedia, and include chip manufacturer information.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Raw hardware.", "content": "At the raw hardware level, an xD card is simply an ordinary NAND flash integrated circuit in an unusual package. Comparing the pinout of an xD card to the pinout of a NAND flash chip in a standard TSOP package, one finds a nearly one-to-one correspondence between the active pins of the two devices. xD cards share this characteristic with the older SmartMedia cards, which are also basically raw NAND flash chips, albeit in a larger package.  xD and SmartMedia cards can be used by hobbyists as a convenient source of NAND flash memory chips for custom projects. For example, the Mattel Juice Box PMP can be booted into Linux using a modified cartridge containing an xD card with a boot image written on it. Additionally, SmartMedia and xD card readers can be used to read the data from NAND flash chips in electronic devices, by soldering leads between the chip and the card reader.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Panoramic mode.", "content": "Some Olympus cameras offer camera-based panoramic processing. In those cameras that support both xD and CompactFlash cards, panoramic processing only works with images stored on the xD card, if installed. Newer Olympus cameras have neither xD cards nor this restriction.  Unsubtantiated reports claim that some cameras such as the E-450 only support panoramic processing when using Olympus branded xD cards. The model numbers have not been documented. In this case, there appears to be a workaround: it appears that the card manufacturer information is simply stored in the flash memory, in the Card Information Structure (described in the Alauda Project's documentation, see above). Thus, it is possible to alter another brand of xD card to present itself as Olympus xD card by accessing the raw flash memory. This can be done by using a hacked device driver for a USB card reader.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "xD-Picture Card is a flash memory card format, used in digital cameras made by Olympus and Fujifilm. The xD in the xD-Picture Card stands for eXtreme Digital.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971459}
{"src_title": "Dandy horse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The dandy-horse was a two-wheeled vehicle, with both wheels in-line, propelled by the rider pushing along the ground with the feet as in regular walking or running. The front wheel and handlebar assembly was hinged to allow steering.  Drais was inspired, at least in part, by the need to develop a form of transit that did not rely on the horse. After the eruption of Mount Tambora and the Year Without a Summer (1816), which followed close on the devastation of the Napoleonic Wars, widespread crop failures and food shortages resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of horses, which either starved to death or were killed to provide meat and hides. \"In wartime,\" he wrote, \"when horses and their fodder often become scarce, a small fleet of such wagons at each corps could be important, especially for dispatches over short distances and for carrying the wounded.”  Several manufacturers in France and England made their own dandy-horses during its brief popularity in the summer of 1819—most notably Denis Johnson of London, who used an elegantly curved wooden frame that allowed the use of larger wheels. Riders preferred to operate their vehicles on the smooth pavements instead of the rough roads, but their interactions with pedestrians caused many municipalities worldwide to enact laws prohibiting their use. Later designs avoided the initial drawback of this device when it had to be made to measure, manufactured to conform with the height and the stride of its rider. An example is Nicéphore Niépce's 1818 model with an adjustable saddle for his'velocipede' built by Lagrange.  However, in the 1860s in France, the vélocipède bicycle was created by attaching rotary cranks and pedals to the front-wheel hub of a dandy-horse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern adaptation.", "content": "The dandy horse has been adapted as a starter bicycle for children, and is variously called a balance bike or run bike.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Buster Keaton rides a dandy-horse in his 1923 film \"Our Hospitality\", which is set in the 1830s. Keaton's technical crew were unable to obtain a vintage dandy horse, so they built one to match existing drawings and prints. Keaton later donated the machine to the Smithsonian Institution, which had lacked an authentic example.  George Arliss, as the title character of the 1929 film \"Disraeli\", rides a dandy-horse through a London park until he collides with a pedestrian. This occurs in the opening scene of the film, set in the 1830s, when Disraeli was still a writer and a famous dandy.  In the 1997 film \"Amistad\", a citizen is briefly seen riding a dandy-horse through a forest trail when the escaped slaves first land on American soil.  A bi-annual magazine called \"dandyhorse\", based in Toronto, Canada, promotes art, fashion and cycling culture.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The dandy horse, a derogatory term for what was first called a Laufmaschine (in German), then a vélocipède or draisienne (in French and then English), and then a pedestrian curricle or hobby-horse, is a human-powered vehicle that, being the first means of transport to make use of the two-wheeler principle, is regarded as the forerunner of the bicycle. A dandy horse is powered by the rider's feet on the ground instead of the pedals of later bicycles. It was invented by Karl Drais (who called it a \"Laufmaschine\" [, \"running machine\"]) in 1817, and then patented by him in France in February 1818 using the term \"vélocipède\". It is also known as a \"Draisine\" ( in German, a term used in English only for light auxiliary railcars regardless of their form of propulsion), and as a \"draisienne\" ( in French and English. In English, it is also sometimes still known as a velocipede, but that term now also has a broader meaning.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971460}
{"src_title": "Good Bye, Lenin!", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The film is set in East Berlin, from October 1989 to just after German reunification a year later.  Alex Kerner lives with his mother Christiane, his sister Ariane, and her infant daughter Paula. Alex's father purportedly abandoned the family for a mistress in the West in 1978. His mother joined the Socialist Unity Party and devotes her time to advocating for citizens. While Christiane believes socialism can improve Germany and the world, her children are cynical. Alex is disgusted with the celebration of East Germany's 40th anniversary and participates in an anti-government demonstration. There he meets a girl but they are separated by the \"Volkspolizei\" before they can introduce themselves.  Christiane, seeing Alex being arrested and beaten, suffers a heart attack and falls into a coma. Visiting his mother in hospital Alex finds that her nurse, Lara, is the girl from the demonstration. She and Alex begin dating.  Erich Honecker resigns, the borders are opened, the Berlin Wall falls, East Germany holds free elections, and capitalism comes to East Berlin. Alex begins working for a West German firm selling and installing satellite dishes. He befriends a western coworker, aspiring filmmaker Denis Domaschke. Ariane's university closes and she works at Burger King. She begins dating the manager, Rainer, who moves into their apartment.  After eight months Christiane awakens from her coma. Her doctor warns that she is still weak and any shock might cause another, possibly fatal, heart attack. Alex resolves to conceal the profound societal changes from her and maintain the illusion that the German Democratic Republic is just as it was before her coma. He, Ariane, and Lara retrieve their old East German furniture from storage, dress in their old clothes, and repackage new Western food in old East German jars. The deception is increasingly complicated as Christiane witnesses strange occurrences, such as a gigantic Coca-Cola banner on an adjacent building. Denis and Alex create fake news broadcasts from old East German news tapes to explain these odd events. Alex and Ariane fail to find where Christiane keeps her life savings (in East German marks) in time to exchange them for West German marks before the deadline.  Christiane gets stronger and one day wanders outside while Alex is asleep. She sees her neighbors' furniture stacked in the street, new West German cars for sale, advertisements for Western corporations, and a statue of Lenin being flown away by helicopter. Alex and Ariane take her home and show her a fake newscast explaining East Germany is now accepting refugees from the West following an economic crisis there.  At the family dacha Christiane reveals her own secret: Her husband had fled not for a mistress but because his refusal to join the ruling party had made his life and job increasingly difficult, and the plan had been for the rest of the family to join him. Christiane, fearing the government would take her children if things went wrong, decided to stay. Contrary to what she had told her children their father wrote many letters which she hid. As she declares her wish to see her husband one last time to make amends, she relapses and is taken back to hospital.  Alex meets his father, Robert, who has remarried, has two children, and lives in West Berlin. He convinces him to see Christiane one last time. Under pressure to reveal the truth about the fall of the East, Alex creates a final fake news segment, persuading a taxi driver (who is or resembles cosmonaut Sigmund Jähn, the first German in space and Alex's childhood hero) to act in the false news report as the new leader of East Germany and to give a speech about opening the borders to the West. However, unbeknownst to Alex, Lara had already recounted the true political developments to Christiane earlier that day. Christiane reacts fondly to her son's effort without revealing her knowledge.  Christiane dies two days later, outliving the German Democratic Republic by three days after German reunification. The family and friends scatter her ashes in the wind using a toy rocket Alex made with his father during childhood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The film score was composed by Yann Tiersen, except the version of \"Summer 78\" sung by Claire Pichet. Stylistically, the music is very similar to Tiersen's earlier work on the soundtrack to \"Amélie\". One piano composition, \"Comptine d'un autre été : L'après-midi\", is used in both films.  Several famous East German songs are featured. Two children, members of the Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organisation, sing \"Unsere Heimat\" (Our Homeland). Friends of Christiane (living in the same building) follow with \"\" (Build Up! Build Up!), another anthem of the Free German Youth. The final fake newscast with Sigmund Jähn features a rousing rendition of the East German national anthem, \"Auferstanden aus Ruinen\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Ostalgie\".", "content": "Alex creates fictional newscasts to reminisce about his earlier East German lifestyle as well as a communist environment. He goes out of his way to use East German products to fool his mother such as Spreewald gherkins and although this is for his mother, there is also a hint he himself is creating a fantasy in which he would like to live. Alex lived his whole life with this barrier; therefore the drastic change is hard for him unlike his older sister Ariane. Ariane quickly adopts the new Western ideals and lifestyle, but Alex experiences nostalgia for their former way of life. \"Ostalgie\" is a neologism for the nostalgia for a communist past which is a common theme in \"Good Bye, Lenin!\" Alex shows signs of \"ostalgie\" when he increasingly begins to reprove the Western changes in themselves.  In 2004 the \"New York Times\" commented on \"Ostalgie\" which was embodied in the town of Eisenhüttenstadt. It became popular because of \"Good Bye, Lenin!\" which imitated Christiane's bedroom. This put a lot of light on the \"ostalgie\" situation, in addition to the film.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The film received strong positive reviews, holding a rating of 90% on Rotten Tomatoes. \"Empire\" gave the film four stars out of five with a verdict of, \"An ingenious little idea that is funny, moving and—gasp!—even makes you think.\"  \"Empire\" magazine ranked it 91st in \"The 100 Best Films of World Cinema\" in 2010.  \"Good Bye, Lenin!\" is frequently contrasted with \"The Lives of Others\", which was released three years later in 2006. Both films portray the legacy of East Germany, but with decidedly different tones.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accolades.", "content": "\"Good Bye, Lenin!\" was submitted for consideration for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, but not nominated.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Good Bye Lenin! is a 2003 German tragicomedy film, directed by Wolfgang Becker. The cast includes Daniel Brühl, Katrin Saß, Chulpan Khamatova, and Maria Simon. The story follows a family in East Germany; the mother (Saß) is dedicated to the socialist cause and falls into a coma in October 1989, shortly before the November revolution. When she awakens eight months later in June 1990, her son (Brühl) attempts to protect her from a fatal shock by concealing the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of communism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971461}
{"src_title": "Rudolf Clausius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Clausius was born in Köslin (now Koszalin, Poland) in the Province of Pomerania in Prussia. His father was a Protestant pastor and school inspector, and Rudolf studied in the school of his father. In 1838, he went to the Gymnasium in Szczecin. Clausius graduated from the University of Berlin in 1844 where he had studied mathematics and physics since 1840 with, among others, Gustav Magnus, Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet and Jakob Steiner. He also studied history with Leopold von Ranke. During 1848, he got his doctorate from the University of Halle on optical effects in Earth's atmosphere. In 1850 he became professor of physics at the Royal Artillery and Engineering School in Berlin and Privatdozent at the Berlin University. In 1855 he became professor at the ETH Zürich, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, where he stayed until 1867. During that year, he moved to Würzburg and two years later, in 1869 to Bonn.  In 1870 Clausius organized an ambulance corps in the Franco-Prussian War. He was wounded in battle, leaving him with a lasting disability. He was awarded the Iron Cross for his services.  His wife, Adelheid Rimpau died in 1875, leaving him to raise their six children. In 1886, he married Sophie Sack, and then had another child.  Two years later, on 24 August 1888, he died in Bonn, Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Clausius's PhD thesis concerning the refraction of light proposed that we see a blue sky during the day, and various shades of red at sunrise and sunset (among other phenomena) due to reflection and refraction of light. Later, Lord Rayleigh would show that it was in fact due to the scattering of light, but regardless, Clausius used a far more mathematical approach than some have used.  His most famous paper, \"Ueber die bewegende Kraft der Wärme\" (\"On the Moving Force of Heat and the Laws of Heat which may be Deduced Therefrom\") was published in 1850, and dealt with the mechanical theory of heat. In this paper, he showed that there was a contradiction between Carnot's principle and the concept of conservation of energy. Clausius restated the two laws of thermodynamics to overcome this contradiction (the third law was developed by Walther Nernst, during the years 1906–1912). This paper made him famous among scientists.  Clausius' most famous statement of thermodynamics second law was published in German in 1854, and in English in 1856. During 1857, Clausius contributed to the field of kinetic theory after refining August Krönig's very simple gas-kinetic model to include translational, rotational and vibrational molecular motions. In this same work he introduced the concept of 'Mean free path' of a particle.  Clausius deduced the Clausius–Clapeyron relation from thermodynamics. This relation, which is a way of characterizing the phase transition between two states of matter such as solid and liquid, had originally been developed in 1834 by Émile Clapeyron.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Entropy.", "content": "In 1865, Clausius gave the first mathematical version of the concept of entropy, and also gave it its name. Clausius chose the word because the meaning (from Greek ἐν \"en\" \"in\" and τροπή \"tropē\" \"transformation\") is \"\"content transformative\"\" or \"\"transformation content\"\" (\"\"Verwandlungsinhalt\"\"). He used the now abandoned unit 'Clausius' (symbol: Cl) for entropy.  The landmark 1865 paper in which he introduced the concept of entropy ends with the following summary of the first and second laws of thermodynamics:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius (; 2 January 1822 – 24 August 1888) was a German physicist and mathematician and is considered one of the central founders of the science of thermodynamics. By his restatement of Sadi Carnot's principle known as the Carnot cycle, he gave the theory of heat a truer and sounder basis. His most important paper, \"On the Moving Force of Heat\", published in 1850, first stated the basic ideas of the second law of thermodynamics. In 1865 he introduced the concept of entropy. In 1870 he introduced the virial theorem which applied to heat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971462}
{"src_title": "Flash mob", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First flash mob.", "content": "The first flash mobs were created in Manhattan in 2003, by Bill Wasik, senior editor of \"Harper's Magazine\". The first attempt was unsuccessful after the targeted retail store was tipped off about the plan for people to gather. Wasik avoided such problems during the first successful flash mob, which occurred on June 17, 2003 at Macy's department store, by sending participants to preliminary staging areas—in four Manhattan bars—where they received further instructions about the ultimate event and location just before the event began.  More than 130 people converged upon the ninth floor rug department of the store, gathering around an expensive rug. Anyone approached by a sales assistant was advised to say that the gatherers lived together in a warehouse on the outskirts of New York, that they were shopping for a \"love rug\", and that they made all their purchase decisions as a group. Subsequently, 200 people flooded the lobby and mezzanine of the Hyatt hotel in synchronized applause for about 15 seconds, and a shoe boutique in SoHo was invaded by participants pretending to be tourists on a bus trip.  Wasik claimed that he created flash mobs as a social experiment designed to poke fun at hipsters and to highlight the cultural atmosphere of conformity and of wanting to be an insider or part of \"the next big thing\". \"The Vancouver Sun\" wrote, \"It may have backfired on him... [Wasik] may instead have ended up giving conformity a vehicle that allowed it to appear nonconforming.\" In another interview he said \"the mobs started as a kind of playful social experiment meant to encourage spontaneity and big gatherings to temporarily take over commercial and public areas simply to show that they could\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Precedents and precursors.", "content": "In 19th-century Tasmania, the term \"flash mob\" was used to describe a subculture consisting of female prisoners, based on the term \"flash language\" for the jargon that these women used. The 19th-century Australian term \"flash mob\" referred to a segment of society, not an event, and showed no other similarities to the modern term \"flash mob\" or the events it describes.  In 1973, the story \"Flash Crowd\" by Larry Niven described a concept similar to flash mobs. With the invention of popular and very inexpensive teleportation, an argument at a shopping mall—which happens to be covered by a news crew—quickly swells into a riot. In the story, broadcast coverage attracts the attention of other people, who use the widely available technology of the teleportation booth to swarm first that event—thus intensifying the riot—and then other events as they happen. Commenting on the social impact of such mobs, one character (articulating the police view) says, \"We call them flash crowds, and we watch for them.\" In related short stories, they are named as a prime location for illegal activities (such as pickpocketing and looting) to take place. Lev Grossman suggests that the story title is a source of the term \"flash mob\"  Flash mobs began as a form of performance art. While they started as an apolitical act, flash mobs may share superficial similarities to political demonstrations. In the 1960s, groups such as the Yippies used street theatre to expose the public to political issues. Flash mobs can be seen as a specialized form of smart mob, a term and concept proposed by author Howard Rheingold in his 2002 book \"\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use of the term.", "content": "The first documented use of the term \"flash mob\" as it is understood today was in 2003 in a blog entry posted in the aftermath of Wasik's event. The term was inspired by the earlier term \"smart mob\".  Flash mob was added to the 11th edition of the \"Concise Oxford English Dictionary\" on July 8, 2004 where it noted it as an \"unusual and pointless act\" separating it from other forms of smart mobs such as types of performance, protests, and other gatherings. Also recognized noun derivatives are flash mobber and flash mobbing. \"Webster's New Millennium Dictionary of English\" defines \"flash mob\" as \"a group of people who organize on the Internet and then quickly assemble in a public place, do something bizarre, and disperse.\" This definition is consistent with the original use of the term; however, both news media and promoters have subsequently used the term to refer to any form of smart mob, including political protests; a collaborative Internet denial of service attack; a collaborative supercomputing demonstration; and promotional appearances by pop musicians. The press has also used the term \"flash mob\" to refer to a practice in China where groups of shoppers arrange online to meet at a store in order to drive a collective bargain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legality.", "content": "The city of Brunswick, Germany has stopped flash mobs by strictly enforcing the already existing law of requiring a permit to use any public space for an event. In the United Kingdom, a number of flash mobs have been stopped over concerns for public health and safety. The British Transport Police have urged flash mob organizers to \"refrain from holding such events at railway stations\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crime.", "content": "Referred to as \"flash robs\", \"flash mob robberies\", or \"flash robberies\" by the media, crimes organized by teenage youth using social media rose to international notoriety beginning in 2011. The National Retail Federation does not classify these crimes as \"flash mobs\" but rather \"multiple offender crimes\" that utilize \"flash mob tactics\". In a report, the NRF noted, \"multiple offender crimes tend to involve groups or gangs of juveniles who already know each other, which does not earn them the term \"flash mob\".\" Mark Leary, a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University, said that most \"flash mob thuggery\" involves crimes of violence that are otherwise ordinary, but are perpetrated suddenly by large, organized groups of people: \"What social media adds is the ability to recruit such a large group of people, that individuals who would not rob a store or riot on their own feel freer to misbehave without being identified.\"  \"HuffPost\" raised the question asking if \"the media was responsible for stirring things up\", and added that in some cases the local authorities did not confirm the use of social media making the \"use of the term flash mob questionable.\" Amanda Walgrove wrote that criminals involved in such activities don't refer to themselves as \"flash mobs\", but that this use of the term is nonetheless appropriate. Dr. Linda Kiltz drew similar parallels between flash robs and the Occupy Movement stating, \"As the use of social media increases, the potential for more flash mobs that are used for political protest and for criminal purposes is likely to increase.\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A flash mob (or flashmob) is a group of people who assemble suddenly in a public place, perform for a brief time, then quickly disperse, often for the purposes of entertainment, satire, and artistic expression. Flash mobs may be organized via telecommunications, social media, or viral emails.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971463}
{"src_title": "Peyo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Peyo was born in 1928 in the Belgian municipality Schaerbeek, as the son of an English father and a Belgian mother. On Christmas Eve 1992, Peyo died of a heart attack in Brussels at age 64.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "He took on the name \"Peyo\" early in his professional career, based on an English cousin's mispronunciation of Pierrot (a diminutive form of Pierre).  Peyo began work, fresh from his coursework at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts in Brussels, at the (CBA), a small Belgian animation studio, where he met a few of his future colleagues and co-celebrities, like André Franquin, Morris, and Eddy Paape. When the studio folded after the war, the other artists went to work for Dupuis, but Peyo, a few years younger than the others, was not accepted. He made his first comics for the newspaper \"La Dernière Heure\" (The Latest Hour), but also accepted many promotional drawing jobs for income. From 1949 to 1952, he drew \"Poussy\", a gag-a-day comic about a cat, for \"Le Soir\". For the same newspaper, he also created \"Johan\".  In 1952, Franquin introduced Peyo to \"Spirou\", a children's Franco-Belgian comics magazine published by Dupuis. Peyo wrote and drew a number of characters and storylines, including \"Pierrot\", and \"Benoît Brisefer\" (translated into English as \"Steven Strong\"). But his favourite was \"Johan et Pirlouit\" (translated into English as \"Johan and Peewit\"), which was a continuation of the series \"Johan\" he had created earlier. He also continued \"Poussy\" in \"Spirou\".  Set in the Middle Ages in Europe, \"Johan et Pirlouit\" stars a brave young page to the king, and his faithful, if boastful and cheating, midget sidekick. Johan rides off to defend the meek on his trusty horse, while Peewit gallops sporadically behind on his goat, named Biquette. The pair was driven by duty to their king and the courage to defend the underpowered. Peewit only appeared in the third adventure in 1954 but would stay for all later adventures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Smurfs.", "content": "The first Smurf appeared in \"Johan and Peewit\" on 23 October 1958 in the album \"La Flûte à Six Schtroumpfs\" (\"The Six Smurfed Flute\"). As the Smurfs became increasingly popular, Peyo started a studio in the early 1960s, where a number of talented comics artists started to work. Peyo himself supervised the work and worked primarily on \"Johan and Peewit\", leaving the Smurfs to the studio. The most notable artists to come out of this studio were Walthéry,, (Gos), Derib,, and.  In 1959, the Smurfs got their own series, and in 1960, two more began: \"Steven Strong\" and \"Jacky and Célestin\". Many authors of the Marcinelle school collaborated on the writing, or on the artwork, including Willy Maltaite (aka 'Will'), Yvan Delporte, and Roger Leloup. Peyo became more of a businessman and supervisor and was less involved in the actual creation of the comics. He let his son, Thierry Culliford, lead the studio, while his daughter Véronique was responsible for the merchandising (I.M.P.S. was established in 1985 by her).  The merchandising of the Smurfs began in 1959, with the PVC figurines as the most important aspect until the late 1970s. Then, with the success of The Smurfs records by Pierre Kartner, the Smurfs achieved more international success, with a new boom in toys and gadgets. Some of these reached the United States, where Hanna-Barbera created a Saturday morning animated series in 1981 for which Peyo served as story supervisor. Peyo's health began to fail. In 1989, after his partnership with Dupuis ended, he established Cartoon Creation to publish new Smurf stories. In late 1991, the company was forced to shut down due to mismanagement. The publishing rights were soon sold to Le Lombard. Peyo died at age 64, on Christmas Eve 1992, of a heart attack in Brussels. His studio still exists, and new stories for various series are regularly produced under his name.  In the 2011 film \"The Smurfs\", Peyo was included in the plot as a researcher who studied the myths concerning the Smurfs, who were made to be real-life legendary creatures in the film's storyline.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Only those comics Peyo collaborated on are listed here: the comics made in those series after his death can be found in the articles for each series. Artist and writers mentioned are only those officially credited: unnamed studio collaborators are not listed here.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Culliford (; 25 June 1928 – 24 December 1992) was a Belgian cartoonist who worked under the pseudonym Peyo (). His best-known works are the comic strips \"The Smurfs\" and \"Johan and Peewit\", in which the Smurfs first appeared.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971464}
{"src_title": "Heinrich Gontermann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Siegen, Southern Westphalia, on 25 February 1896, Heinrich Gontermann grew into a tall slender man, full of vitality. He abstained from smoking and was only a social drinker. He was a patriotic, religious introvert.  Gontermann's father, a cavalry officer, pushed him towards a career in the military. After leaving school, Heinrich enlisted into the 6th Uhlan Cavalry Regiment in Hanau on 14 August 1914. Only days after arriving in his regiment, he was sent into action.  Gontermann had a reputation for being aloof, but during his time with the Uhlans he displayed leadership abilities. He was slightly wounded in September 1914, and he was promoted to Feldwebel. Early in the spring of 1915, he was given a field commission as leutnant and he was also awarded the Iron Cross Second Class. While he continued to lead his men through 1915 Gontermann applied for a transfer to the newly formed German Army Air Service, but in October 1915 he was transferred to the 80th Fusilier Regiment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aerial service.", "content": "Gontermann was finally accepted for pilot/observer training, and upon his graduation in early 1916 was posted to \"Kampfstaffel Tergnier\" as a reconnaissance pilot flying the Roland C.II. Later that spring he was posted to \"Field-Abteilung\" 25 where he flew both as a pilot and as an observer on AGO C.Is.  Gontermann applied for aviation training at \"Jastaschule\" and a transfer to a fighter unit. He was accepted and on 11 November 1916 joined Jasta 5. Three days later, while on his first combat sortie, he shot down his first aircraft: an FE.2b on patrol over Morval.  There was a lull in his scoring until 6 March 1917, when Gontermann shot down an FE.2d of No. 57 Squadron RFC the day after being awarded the Iron Cross First Class. He scored regularly in March, becoming an ace on the 24th by downing a Sopwith 11⁄2 Strutter. He added a second one the following day. It was after this victory that he wrote home, \"Today I shot down a two-seater... He broke up into dust in the air... It is a horrible job but one must do one's duty.\"  During Bloody April, 1917, Gontermann had 12 victories. On the 8th, he achieved his first success as a balloon buster, with all its extraordinary hazards, by downing an observation balloon. He shot down 4 others within the month, including a double victory on the 16th.  On 26 April 1917, Gontermann brought his victory total to 17 victories. Gontermann was also promoted to Staffelführer of Prussian Jagdstaffel 15 four days later. He replaced Max Reinhold, who was killed in action.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gontermann as commander.", "content": "Gontermann's personal reputation was that of an aloof man with few friends. Professionally, he was a student of enemy aircraft types, with a special knack for picking off his foes from point-blank range within their blind spots. He was considered the premier marksman of his unit, as well as a skilled aerobaticist. Udet wrote of Gontermann, \"Before he opens fire, he defeats his enemy by outflying him. When he finally fires, he requires, at most, a dozen rounds to tear apart the other's machine.\" Gontermann was noted as nervous, stressed, and slept poorly. Such was the strain of combat that he was sent on a month's leave during May to recuperate.  On 6 May 1917, Gontermann was awarded the Knight's Cross with Swords of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern. He scored his 19th triumph, over five-victory ace Didier Lecour Grandmaison, on 10 May 1917. Heinrich Gontermann received Bavaria's Military Order of Max Joseph on the 11 May. The Pour le Merite followed on the 17th.  Gontermann was granted four weeks leave in May–June 1917 upon receipt of the Blue Max. Upon Gontermann's return to the Jasta on 19 June, he found that acting \"Staffelführer\" Ernst Udet had requested a transfer. Under Udet's leadership the Jasta had suffered three demoralizing losses. For the remainder of June, Gontermann again targeted observation balloons, shooting down one on both the 24th and the 27th. He also scored two triumphs in July, one of which was a balloon.  August was as productive a month for Gontermann. After shooting down a Nieuport on the 5th, he shot down two balloons each on both the 9th and the 17th. 19 August saw the peak of Gontermann's career. He shot down a Spad in the morning, while at 1923 hours, he took out an observation balloon south of Aisne-Tal; three others were destroyed in as many minutes. The downing of the balloons brought his score to 35.  In September, Gontermann shot down three more enemy aircraft. By 2 October 1917, Gontermann had become a celebrated ace with 39 victories. He was credited with defeating 21 enemy aircraft and 18 balloons, plus an unconfirmed balloon shot down. He would rank eighth among balloon busting aces of the war; only Friedrich Ritter von Röth outscored him amongst German fliers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Last mission.", "content": "On 29 October Gontermann took off in a Fokker Dr.I. He had not yet recovered fully from a bout of dysentery. Nevertheless, he was anxious to try his new airplane, despite misgivings about it. After a few minutes, he tried aerobatics at 700 meters altitude. He pulled out of the second loop and dived into a left turn. The upper wing collapsed and broke completely off. His airplane plunged into the ground.  Gontermann was pulled from the wreck alive, though with severe head injuries after slamming into the machine gun breeches. He was taken to the Jasta's medical bay, where he died from his injuries several hours later. Some sources say his death occurred the day after his accident.  Gontermann was only one of several German pilots killed testing the new Dr.I. As a result, Fokker was accused of shoddy construction and directed to change production methods for the manufacture of the plane.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heinrich Gontermann (25 February 1896 – 30 October 1917) was a German fighter ace credited with 39 victories during the First World War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971465}
{"src_title": "Jeremias Gotthelf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Bitzius was born at Murten, where his father was pastor. The Bitzius family had once belonged to the Bernese patriciate, but was known for its craftsmen and pastors since the 17th century. In 1804 the family home was moved to Utzenstorf, a village in the Bernese Emmental. Here young Bitzius grew up, receiving his early education and consorting with the boys of the village, as well as helping his father to cultivate his glebe. In 1812 he went to complete his education at Bern. He was a founding member of the Student Society Zofingia, the second-oldest fraternity in Switzerland (founded in 1819).  In 1820 he was received as a pastor. In 1821 he enrolled for a year at the University of Göttingen, but returned home in 1822 to act as his father's assistant. On his father's death (1824) he went in the same capacity to Herzogenbuchsee, and later to Bern (1829). Early in 1831 he went as assistant to the aged pastor of the village of Lützelflüh, in the Lower Emmental (between Langnau and Burgdorf), being soon elected his successor (1832) and marrying one of his granddaughters, Henriette Zeender (1833).  He spent the rest of his life in Lützelflüh, where he died, leaving three children (the son was a pastor, the two daughters married pastors). During the 1840s, he steadfastly opposed radicalism and secularism and placed a conservative emphasis on piety and ecclesiastical authority. There are lives of Bitzius by C. Manuel, in the Berlin edition of Bitzius's works (Berlin, 1861), and by J. Ammann in vol. i. (Bern, 1884) of the \"Sammlung Bernischer Biographien\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "Bitzius started writing late in life. His first work, the \"Der Bauernspiegel, oder die Lebensgeschichte des Jeremias Gotthelf\", appeared in 1837. It purported to be the life of Jeremias Gotthelf, narrated by himself, and this name was later adopted by the author as his pen name. It sketches the development of a poor country orphan boy, but is not an autobiography. It is a living picture of Bernese (or, strictly speaking, Emmental) village life, true to nature, and not attempting to gloss over its defects and failings. It is written (like the rest of his works) in German, but contains expressions from the Bernese dialect of the Emmental, though Bitzius was not (like Auerbach) a peasant by birth, but belonged to the educated classes, so that he reproduces what he had seen and learnt, and not what he had himself personally experienced. The book was a great success, as it was a picture of real life, and not of fancifully beribboned eighteenth-century villagers. Henceforth Bitzius was a prolific writer, and in the last 18 years of his life became one of the important novelists not only of Switzerland but of the German language in general. His best known work is without doubt the short novel \"The Black Spider\" (\"Die schwarze Spinne\"), a semi-allegorical tale of the plague in form of the titular monster that devastates a Swiss valley community; first as a result of a pact with the devil born out of need and a second time due to the moral decay that releases the monster from its prison again.  Among his later tales are the \"Leiden und Freuden eines Schulmeisters\" (1838–1839), \"Uli der Knecht\" (The story of a poor peasant laborer who develops into the owner of a prosperous farm; 1841), with its continuation, \"Uli der Pächter\" (1849), \"Anne-Bäbi Jowäger\" (1843–1844), \"Käthi, die Großmutter\" (1846), \"Die Käserei in der Vehfreude\" (1850), and the \"Erlebnisse eines Schuldenbauers\" (1853). He also published several volumes of shorter tales.  His works were issued in 24 volumes at Berlin, between 1856 and 1861, while 10 volumes, giving the original text of each story, were issued at Bern between 1898 and 1900.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "In the novel \"2666\" by Roberto Bolaño Gotthelf is mentioned as the subject of the novel \"Bitzius\": (...) and in \"Bitzius\", a novel less than one hundred pages long, similar in some ways to \"Mitzi's Treasure\", (...) and that told the story of the life of Albert Bitzius, pastor of Lützelflüh, in the canton of Bern, an author of sermons as well as a writer under the pseudonym Jeremias Gotthelf. All six films were directed by the Swiss film director Franz Schnyder.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Albert Bitzius (4 October 179722 October 1854) was a Swiss novelist, best known by his pen name of Jeremias Gotthelf.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971466}
{"src_title": "Pannonia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "Julius Pokorny believed the name \"Pannonia\" is derived from Illyrian, from the Proto-Indo-European root \"*pen-\", \"swamp, water, wet\" (cf. English \"fen\", \"marsh\"; Hindi \"pani\", \"water\").  Pliny the Elder, in \"Natural History\", places the eastern regions of the Hercynium jugum, the \"Hercynian mountain chain\", in Pannonia (present-day Hungary) and Dacia (present-day Romania). He also gives us some dramaticised description of its composition, in which the proximity of the forest trees causes competitive struggle among them (\"inter se rixantes\"). He mentions its gigantic oaks. But even he—if the passage in question is not an interpolated marginal gloss—is subject to the legends of the gloomy forest. He mentions unusual birds, which have feathers that \"shine like fires at night\". Medieval bestiaries named these birds the \"Ercinee\". The impenetrable nature of the \"Hercynian Silva\" hindered the last concerted Roman foray into the forest, by Drusus, during 12–9 BC: Florus asserts that \"Drusus invisum atque inaccessum in id tempus Hercynium saltum\" (Hercynia saltus, the \"Hercynian ravine-land\")\" patefecit\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prior to Roman conquest.", "content": "The first inhabitants of this area known to history were the Pannonii (Pannonians), a group of Indo-European tribes akin to Illyrians. From the 4th century BC, it was invaded by various Celtic tribes. Little is known of Pannonia until 35 BC, when its inhabitants, allies of the Dalmatians, were attacked by Augustus, who conquered and occupied Siscia (Sisak). The country was not, however, definitively subdued by the Romans until 9 BC, when it was incorporated into Illyricum, the frontier of which was thus extended as far as the Danube.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Under Roman rule.", "content": "In AD 6, the Pannonians, with the Dalmatians and other Illyrian tribes, engaged in the so-called Great Illyrian Revolt, and were overcome by Tiberius and Germanicus, after a hard-fought campaign, which lasted for three years. After the rebellion was crushed in AD 9, the province of Illyricum was dissolved, and its lands were divided between the new provinces of Pannonia in the north and Dalmatia in the south. The date of the division is unknown, most certainly after AD 20 but before AD 50. The proximity of dangerous barbarian tribes (Quadi, Marcomanni) necessitated the presence of a large number of troops (seven legions in later times), and numerous fortresses were built on the bank of the Danube.  Some time between the years 102 and 107, between the first and second Dacian wars, Trajan divided the province into Pannonia Superior (western part with the capital Carnuntum), and Pannonia Inferior (eastern part with the capitals in Aquincum and Sirmium). According to Ptolemy, these divisions were separated by a line drawn from Arrabona in the north to Servitium in the south; later, the boundary was placed further east. The whole country was sometimes called the Pannonias (Pannoniae).  Pannonia Superior was under the consular legate, who had formerly administered the single province, and had three legions under his control. Pannonia Inferior was at first under a praetorian legate with a single legion as the garrison; after Marcus Aurelius, it was under a consular legate, but still with only one legion. The frontier on the Danube was protected by the establishment of the two colonies Aelia Mursia and Aelia Aquincum by Hadrian.  Under Diocletian, a fourfold division of the country was made:  Diocletian also moved parts of today's Slovenia out of Pannonia and incorporated them in Noricum. In 324 AD, Constantine I enlarged the borders of Roman Pannonia to the east, annexing the plains of what is now eastern Hungary, northern Serbia and western Romania up to the limes that he created: the Devil's Dykes.  In the 4th-5th century, one of the dioceses of the Roman Empire was known as the Diocese of Pannonia. It had its capital in Sirmium and included all four provinces that were formed from historical Pannonia, as well as the provinces of Dalmatia, Noricum Mediterraneum and Noricum Ripense.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Roman.", "content": "During the Migrations Period in the 5th century, some parts of Pannonia was ceded to the Huns in 433 by Flavius Aetius, the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire. After the collapse of the Hunnic empire in 454, large numbers of Ostrogoths were settled by Marcian in the province as foederati. The Eastern Roman Empire controlled it for a time in the 6th century, and a Byzantine province of Pannonia with its capital at Sirmium was temporarily restored, but it included only a small southeastern part of historical Pannonia.  Afterwards, it was again invaded by the Avars in the 560s, the Slavs, who first settled c. 480s but became independent only from the 7th century, and the Franks, who named a frontier march the March of Pannonia in the late 8th century. The term Pannonia was also used for a Slavic duchy that was vassal to the Franks.  Between the 5th and the 10th centuries, the romanized population of Pannonia developed the Romance Pannonian language, mainly around Lake Balaton in present-day western Hungary, where there was the keszthely culture. This language and the related culture became extinct with the arrival of the Magyars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cities and auxiliary forts.", "content": "The native settlements consisted of pagi (cantons) containing a number of vici (villages), the majority of the large towns being of Roman origin. The cities and towns in Pannonia were:  Now in Austria:  Now in Bosnia and Hercegovina:  Now in Croatia:  Now in Hungary:  Now in Serbia:  Now in Slovakia:  Now in Slovenia:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy and country features.", "content": "The country was fairly productive, especially after the great forests had been cleared by Probus and Galerius. Before that time, timber had been one of its most important exports. Its chief agricultural products were oats and barley, from which the inhabitants brewed a kind of beer named sabaea. Vines and olive trees were little cultivated. Pannonia was also famous for its breed of hunting dogs. Although no mention is made of its mineral wealth by the ancients, it is probable that it contained iron and silver mines. Its chief rivers were the Dravus, Savus, and Arrabo, in addition to the Danuvius (less correctly, Danubius), into which the first three rivers flow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The ancient name Pannonia is retained in the modern term \"Pannonian plain\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pannonia () was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Pannonia was located in the territory of present-day western Hungary, eastern Austria, northern Croatia, north-western Serbia, northern Slovenia and northern Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971467}
{"src_title": "Hugues de Payens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The majority of the primary sources of information for his life are presented in Latin or the medieval French language. In French his name usually appears as \"Hugues de Payens\" or \"Payns\" (). His earliest certain appearance in documents is under the part-Latin, part-French name \"Hugo de Peans\" (1120–1125; details below). Later Latin sources call him \"Hugo de Paganis\". In English works he often appears as \"Hugh de Payns\", in Italian sometimes as \"Ugo de' Pagani'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin and early life.", "content": "There is no known early biography of Hugues de Payens in existence, nor do later writers cite such a biography. None of the sources on his later career give details of his early life. Information is therefore scanty and uncertain; embellishments depend partly on documents that may not refer to the same individual, partly on histories written decades or even centuries after his death.  The earliest source that details a geographical origin for the later Grand Master is the Old French translation of William of Tyre's \"History of Events Beyond the Sea\". The Latin text calls him simply \"Hugo de Paganis\", but the French translation, dated to c. 1200, describes him as \"Hues de Paiens delez Troies\" (\"Hugh of Payens near Troyes\"), a reference to the village of Payns, about 10 km from Troyes, in Champagne (eastern France).  In early documents of that region \"Hugo de Pedano, Montiniaci dominus\" is mentioned as a witness to a donation by Count Hugh of Champagne in a document of 1085–90, indicating that the man was at least sixteen by this date—a legal adult and thus able to bear witness to legal documents—and so born no later than 1070. The same name appears on a number of other charters up to 1113 also relating to Count Hugh of Champagne, suggesting that \"Hugo de Pedano\" or \"Hugo dominus de Peanz\" was a member of the Count's court. By the year 1113 he was married to Elizabeth de Chappes, who bore him at least one child, Thibaud, later abbot of Abbaye de la Colombe|la Colombe at Sens. The documents span Hugues' lifetime and the disposition of his property after his death.  The one belated statement that the founder of the Knights Templars came from \"Payns near Troyes\" has some circumstantial confirmation. Bernard of Clairvaux, who favoured the Order and helped to compose its \"Latin Rule\", also had the support of Hugh of Champagne. The \"Latin Rule\" of the Order was confirmed at the Council of Troyes in 1129. A Templar commandery was eventually built at Payns. Some scholars have however looked for Hugues' origins elsewhere. There was an early claim that he came from the Vivarais (the district of Viviers in the modern \"département\" of Ardèche). Hugues has also been identified with Hug de Pinós, third son of Galceran I, lord of Pinós in Catalonia; however, Galceran married only in 1090, far too late a date for him to be the father of the founder of the Knights Templars.  There is also a claim that Hugues de Payens or \"Ugo de' Pagani\" came from Nocera de' Pagani in Campania, southern Italy. Reference to Nocera as his birthplace is found at least as early as Baedeker's \"Southern Italy\" (1869) and is also found in the Old Catholic Encyclopedia. Two more recent writers say that the theory is supported by a letter that Hugues wrote from Palestine in 1103, in which he talked of writing to \"my father in Nocera\" to tell him of the death of his cousin Alessandro.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The foundation of the Order.", "content": "Hugh, Count of Champagne made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1104–07 and visited Jerusalem for a second time in 1114–16. It is probable that he was accompanied by Hugues de Payens, who remained there after the Count returned to France as there is a charter with \"Hugonis de Peans\" in the witness list from Jerusalem in 1120 and again in 1123. In 1125 his name appears again as a witness to a donation, this time accompanied by the title \"magister militum Templi\" (\"Master of the Knights of the Temple\"). He most likely obtained approval for the Order from King Baldwin II of Jerusalem and Warmund, Patriarch of Jerusalem at the Council of Nablus in 1120.  One early chronicler, Simon de St. Bertin, implies that the Knights Templar originated earlier, before the death of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1100: \"While he [Godfrey] was reigning magnificently, some had decided not to return to the shadows of the world after suffering such dangers for God's sake. On the advice of the princes of God's army they vowed themselves to God's Temple under this rule: they would renounce the world, give up personal goods, free themselves to pursue purity, and lead a communal life wearing a poor habit, only using arms to defend the land against the attacks of the insurgent pagans when necessity demanded.\"  Later chroniclers write that Hugues de Payens approached King Baldwin II of Jerusalem (whose reign began in 1118) with eight knights, two of whom were brothers and all of whom were his relatives by either blood or marriage, in order to form the Order of the Knights Templar. The other knights were Godfrey de Saint-Omer, Payen de Montdidier, Archambaud de St. Agnan, André de Montbard, Geoffrey Bison, and two men recorded only by the names of Rossal and Gondamer. Baldwin approved the foundation of the Order and entrusted the Temple of Jerusalem to its care.  Count Hugh of Champagne himself joined the Knights Templar on his third visit to the Holy Land in 1125.  As Grand Master, Hugues de Payens led the Order for almost twenty years until his death, helping to establish the Order's foundations as an important and influential military and financial institution. On his visit to England and Scotland in 1128, he raised men and money for the Order, and also founded their first House in London and another near Edinburgh at Balantrodoch, now known as Temple, Midlothian. The \"Latin Rule\" laying down the way of life of the Order, attributed to Hugues de Payens and Bernard of Clairvaux, was confirmed in 1129 at the Council of Troyes over which Pope Honorius II presided.  Hugues de Payens died, apparently on Bornholm, in 1136. He had lived on the island in his older days and has also used hammerhus to meetings, with the templegroup. The circumstances and date of his death are not recorded in any chronicle, though the Templars commemorated him every year on 24 May, and it's presumed he died of old age. The 16th century historian Marco Antonio Guarini claimed that Hugues was buried in the Church of San Giacomo at Ferrara. He was succeeded as Grand Master by Robert de Craon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "It has recently been claimed that the wife of Hugues de Payens was Catherine St. Clair within the context of the alternative history of Rosslyn.  Hugues is the main protagonist of the Jack Whyte novel \"Knights of the Black and White\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hugues de Payens or Payns ( 1070 – 24 May 1136) was the co-founder and first Grand Master of the Knights Templar. In association with Bernard of Clairvaux, he created the \"Latin Rule\", the code of behavior for the Order.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971468}
{"src_title": "Säntis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Säntis is located in the Alpstein region, nearly 10 km (as the crow flies) southwest of the town of Appenzell. Three cantons meet on Säntis: Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Appenzell Innerrhoden, and St. Gallen, the mountain being split between the municipalities of Hundwil, Schwende and Wildhaus-Alt St. Johann. Even though its summit is at only 2502 metres above sea level, the mountain ranks number 13th in the Alps and 29th in Europe in topographic prominence at 2021 metres. Peaks with high prominence often have impressive summit views, even if their elevations are relatively modest, Säntis being a prime example. Säntis is also the highest mountain of both cantons of Appenzell Ausserrhoden and Appenzell Innerrhoden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The exposed position of Säntis results in weather conditions normally observed in the high Alps, which means being a typically polar climate (Köppen: \"ET\") with heavy precipitation not found in most of the Arctic. For example, in April 1999, just beneath the summit on the northern snowfield of the mountain, a snow height of was recorded. The daily mean temperature is with a precipitation of per year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The name \"Säntis\" dates back to the 9th century. It is an abbreviation of the Romansh language for \"Sambatinus\" (English: \"the one born on Saturday\"), which was thought to be the name of a nearby area. The name was later used to refer to the summit. In the German language it was called \"Semptis\" or \"Sämptis\". The mountain later gave its name to a canton of the Helvetic Republic (1798–1803).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weather station.", "content": "The International Meteorological Congress of Rome in 1879 declared it as a necessity to build weather stations on adequate and accessible summits. Therefore, the Swiss built a weather station on Säntis. The position of the northern ridge proved to be ideal for such an endeavour. The weather station was commissioned in autumn of 1882.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Säntis murder.", "content": "The so-called \"Säntismord\" (English: \"Säntis murder\") happened in the winter of 1922. It refers to a crime in which the weather station keeper and his wife were murdered. The murder was only discovered because of missing weather reports on 21 February. As a result of the missing reports, a search party was sent to Säntis, where they discovered the bodies. The prime suspect was shoemaker Gregor Anton Kreuzpointner, who committed suicide three weeks after the murder. The truth about this double murder hence remains unclear to this day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lightning measurements station.", "content": "Säntis has one of the highest rate of lightning strikes in Europe. In 2010 a lightning measurement station was installed atop a tall telecommunications tower on the mountain by the Electromagnetic Compatibility Lab of the EPFL in Lausanne. The station automatically records about one gigabyte of data per strike and then notifies researchers. In the first nine months of operation it recorded about 50 strikes, including 7 positive lightning strikes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transmission tower.", "content": "Located at the peak of the Säntis is a 123.55 meter high transmission tower, which was commissioned in November 1997. The original tower stemming from the year 1955 had to be renovated several times due to the rough weather conditions before finally being replaced. The antenna of the new transmission tower got a fibre-glass enforced plastic layer on the outside in order to prevent ice falling onto the visitors' terrace. Swiss radio channels such as DRS 1, DRS 2, DRS 3, RSR la Première and RSI Rete Uno are broadcast from the tower. Swiss television channels such as SF 1, SF 2, SF Info, TSR 1 and TSI 1 are also broadcast from this location.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Today, the summit is easily accessible by aerial tramway from Schwägalp. It had been a popular destination for tourists since the mid 19th century. However, even though many ideas to make the summit more easily accessible existed since those days, it took almost another century for them to materialize. Many approaches, using various types of railways starting from several nearby towns, were tried, but ultimately failed. One project planned to access Säntis from Wasserauen or Unterwasser by rack-and-pinion railway. While the lower section of this project between Appenzell and Wasserauen was built and is still part of today's active railway network, the rest of it was halted due to a lack of funding. Finally, local businessman Dr. Carl Meyer of Herisau came forward with the idea to construct an aerial tramway from the base of the mountain, at Schwägalp, and build a mountain road from the nearby town of Urnäsch for easier access to its lower terminal. On 22 September 1933, his project was ultimately selected for construction and Meyer was awarded with the necessary licences by the federal government. Finally, on 1 July 1935, the aerial tramway started operations. The original cabins were replaced by larger ones in 1960. The entire aerial tramway installation was replaced between 1968 and 1976. In 2000, new cabins were commissioned. The aerial tramway Luftseilbahn Schwägalp-Säntis is one of the most frequented tramways in Switzerland. It has a total length of 2307 meters. The altitude gain between the terminals is 1123 meters. The journey takes roughly 8 minutes. The first tramway was constructed from 1933 to 1935.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Miscellaneous.", "content": "In honour of the Swiss National Day, which is celebrated 1 August each year, the world's largest Swiss flag was to be seen on Säntis from 31 July – 2 August 2009. The square national flag was 120 meters each side and weighed 1.2 tons. The flag ripped on 2 August 2009 due to strong winds in the area.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "At 2,501.9 metres above sea level, Säntis is the highest mountain in the Alpstein massif of northeastern Switzerland. It is also the culminating point of the whole Appenzell Alps, between Lake Walen and Lake Constance. Shared by three cantons, the mountain is a highly visible landmark thanks to its exposed northerly position within the Alpstein massif. As a consequence, houses called \"Säntisblick\" (English: \"Säntis view\") can be found in regions as far away as the Black Forest in Germany. Säntis is among the most prominent summits in the Alps and the most prominent summit in Europe with an observation deck on the top. The panorama from the summit is spectacular. Six countries can be seen if the weather allows: Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, France, and Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971469}
{"src_title": "Nikolaus Harnoncourt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Johann Nikolaus Harnoncourt was born 1929 as Austrian citizen in Berlin, Germany. His Austrian mother, Ladislaja, born Gräfin von Meran, Freiin von Brandhoven, was the great-granddaughter of the Habsburg Archduke Johann, the 13th child of Emperor Leopold II, making him a descendant of various Holy Roman Emperors and other European royalty. His father, Eberhard Harnoncourt, born de la Fontaine Graf d'Harnoncourt-Unverzagt, was an Austrian engineer working in Berlin who had two children from a previous marriage. Two years after Nikolaus's birth, his brother Philipp was born. The family eventually moved to Graz, where Eberhard had obtained a post in the state government (\"Landesregierung\") of Styria.  Harnoncourt was raised in Graz, Austria, and studied music in Vienna. During his youth, he served in the Hitler Youth under duress, where, as he noted: At the Vienna Music Academy, Harnoncourt studied cello with Paul Grümmer and Emanuel Brabec, and also learned viola da gamba.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Harnoncourt was a cellist with the Vienna Symphony from 1952 to 1969. In 1953, he founded the period-instrument ensemble Concentus Musicus Wien with his wife, Alice Hoffelner, whom he married that year. The Concentus Musicus Wien was dedicated to performances on period instruments, and by the 1970s his work with it had made him quite well known. He played the viola da gamba at this time, as well as the cello. For the Telefunken (later Teldec) label, Harnoncourt recorded a wide variety of the Baroque repertoire, beginning with the viol music of Henry Purcell, and extending to include works like Bach's \"The Musical Offering\", Monteverdi's \"L'incoronazione di Poppea\", and Rameau's \"Castor et Pollux\". One of his final recordings with the Concentus Musicus Wien was of Beethoven's Symphonies Nos. 4 and 5.  One reason that Harnoncourt left the Vienna Symphony was to become a conductor. He made his conducting debut at La Scala, Milan, in 1970, leading a production of Monteverdi's \"Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria\".  In 1971, Harnoncourt started a joint project with conductor Gustav Leonhardt to record all of J. S. Bach's cantatas. The Teldec Bach cantata project was eventually completed in 1990 and was the only cantata cycle to use an all-male choir and soloist roster, with the exception of cantatas nos. 51 and 199, which were intended for a female soprano voice. He also made the first recordings in historically informed performance of Bach's Mass in B minor (1968) and \"St Matthew Passion\" (1970). In 2001 a critically acclaimed and Grammy Award winning recording of the \"St Matthew Passion\" with the Arnold Schoenberg Choir was released, which included the entire score of the piece in Bach's own hand on a CD-ROM. This was his third recording of the work.  Harnoncourt later performed with many other orchestras that played on modern instruments, but still with an eye on historical authenticity in terms of tempi and dynamics, among other things. He also expanded his repertoire, continuing to play the baroque works, but also championing the Viennese operetta repertoire. He made a benchmark recording of Beethoven's symphonies with the Chamber Orchestra of Europe (COE), and recorded Beethoven's piano concertos with Pierre-Laurent Aimard and the COE.  Harnoncourt was also a guest conductor of the Vienna Philharmonic and made several recordings with the orchestra. Between 1987 and 1991, he conducted four new productions of Mozart operas at the Vienna State Opera (1987–91: \"Idomeneo\"; 1988–90: \"Die Zauberflöte\"; 1989: \"Die Entführung aus dem Serail\"; 1989–91: \"Così fan tutte\"). He directed the Vienna Philharmonic's New Year's Day concerts in 2001 and 2003.  In 1992, Harnoncourt debuted at the Salzburg Festival conducting a concert with the Chamber Orchestra of Europe. In the following years, he led several concerts with the Chamber Orchestra of Europe, the Vienna Philharmonic and the Concentus Musicus. Harnoncourt also served as the conductor for major opera productions of the Festival: \"L'incoronazione di Poppea\" (1993), Mozart's \"Le nozze di Figaro\" (1995 and 2006), \"Don Giovanni\" (2002, marking also Anna Netrebko's international breakthrough as Donna Anna, and 2003) and \"La clemenza di Tito\" (2003 and 2006), and Purcell's \"King Arthur\" (2004). In 2012, Harnoncourt conducted a new production of \"Die Zauberflöte\" staged by Jens-Daniel Herzog.  Harnoncourt made his guest-conducting debut with the Concertgebouw Orchestra, Amsterdam, in 1975. He continued as a guest conductor with the orchestra, including in several opera productions and recordings. In October 2000, the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra (KCO) named him their \"Honorair gastdirigent\" (Honorary Guest Conductor). His final appearance with the KCO was in October 2013, leading Bruckner's Symphony No. 5.  Other recordings outside of the baroque and classical era repertoire included his 2002 recording of Bruckner's Symphony No. 9 with the Vienna Philharmonic. An accompanying second CD contained a lecture by Harnoncourt about the symphony with musical examples, including the rarely heard fragments from the unfinished finale. In 2009, Harnoncourt recorded Gershwin's \"Porgy and Bess\", taken from live performances at Graz.  On 5 December 2015, one day before his 86th birthday, Harnoncourt announced his retirement via his website. \"My bodily strength requires me to cancel my future plans,\" he wrote in a hand-written letter inserted into the program on his 86th birthday of a concert by the Concentus Musicus Wien.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Styriarte.", "content": "Harnoncourt was the focus of the annual festival of classical music Styriarte, founded in 1985 to tie him closer to his hometown Graz. He programmed the festival for 31 years. Events have been held at different venues in Graz and in the surrounding region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Harnoncourt met his wife Alice through their mutual interest in historically informed performances of Baroque music and co-founded the Concentus Musicus Wien. Their daughter is the mezzo-soprano Elisabeth von Magnus. Their two surviving sons are Philipp and Franz. Their third son Eberhard, a violin maker, died in 1990 in an automobile accident.  Harnoncourt died on 5 March 2016 in the village of Sankt Georgen im Attergau, north east of Salzburg. His widow Alice, their three adult children, seven grandchildren, and three great-grandchildren survive him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Harnoncourt was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music, Honorary Doctor of the University of Edinburgh and of the Order Pour le Mérite for Science and Art.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikolaus Harnoncourt (Johann Nikolaus Harnoncourt, nobility historically Johann Nikolaus Graf de la Fontaine und d'Harnoncourt-Unverzagt; 6 December 1929 – 5 March 2016) was an Austrian conductor, particularly known for his historically informed performances of music from the Classical era and earlier. Starting out as a classical cellist, he founded his own period instrument ensemble, Concentus Musicus Wien, in the 1950s, and became a pioneer of the Early Music movement. Around 1970, Harnoncourt started to conduct opera and concert performances, soon leading renowned international symphony orchestras, and appearing at leading concert halls, operatic venues and festivals. His repertoire then widened to include composers of the 19th and 20th centuries. In 2001 and 2003, he conducted the Vienna New Year's Concert. Harnoncourt was also the author of several books, mostly on subjects of performance history and musical aesthetics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971470}
{"src_title": "Grand Duchy of Hesse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Hesse-Darmstadt was a member of Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine during the Napoleonic Wars. Rapidly expanding during the mediatizations, Hesse-Darmstadt became an amalgamation of smaller German states, such as the Electorate of Cologne. The legal patchwork of the state culminated in a decree issued on 1 October 1806 by Louis I. The old territorial estates were abolished, which altered Hesse-Darmstadt \"from a mosaic of patrimonial fragments into a centralized, absolute monarchy.\" The Duchy of Westphalia, which Hesse-Darmstadt had received in 1803, was ceded to the Kingdom of Prussia during the Congress of Vienna. However, Hesse-Darmstadt was compensated with some territory on the western bank of the Rhine, including the important federal fortress at Mainz.  The neighboring Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel had backed Prussia against Napoleon and was absorbed into the Kingdom of Westphalia. At the Congress of Vienna, Hesse-Kassel was reestablished as the Electorate of Hesse. To distinguish the two Hessian states, the grand duchy changed its name to the Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine () in 1816.  In 1867, the northern half of the Grand Duchy (Upper Hesse) became a part of the North German Confederation, while the half of the Grand Duchy south of the Main (Starkenburg and Rhenish Hesse) remained outside. In 1871, it became a constituent state of the German Empire. The last Grand Duke, Ernst Ludwig (a grandson of Queen Victoria and brother to Empress Alexandra of Russia), was forced from his throne at the end of World War I, and the state was renamed the People's State of Hesse (\"Volksstaat Hessen\").  After World War II, the majority of the state combined with Frankfurt am Main, the Waldeck area (Rhine-Province) and the former Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau to form the new state of Hesse. Excluded were the Montabaur district from Hessen-Nassau and that part of Hessen-Darmstadt on the left bank of the Rhine (Rhenish Hesse), which became part of the Rhineland-Palatinate state. (Bad) Wimpfen—an exclave of Hessen-Darmstadt—became part of Baden-Württemberg, in the district of Sinsheim. After a plebiscite on 29 April 1951, Bad Wimpfen was transferred from Sinsheim district to Heilbronn District. This change to Heilbronn was carried out on 1 May 1952.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Because of the disjointed nature of the state, it did not develop its own state railway to begin with, but set up joint railway projects with its neighbouring states: These were the:  In addition the state encouraged numerous other projects by the privately owned Hessian Ludwig Railway Company. Finally, in 1876 the state founded its own company, the Grand Duchy of Hesse State Railways, which continued to expand the network until it was finally merged into the Prussian-Hessian Railway Company in 1897.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivisions of Hesse.", "content": "The Grand Duchy of Hesse was divided into three provinces:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine () was a grand duchy in western Germany that existed from 1806 (the period of German mediatization) to the end of the German Empire in 1918. The grand duchy originally formed on the basis of the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1806 as the Grand Duchy of Hesse (). After the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, it changed its name in 1816 to distinguish itself from the Electorate of Hesse, which had formed from neighboring Hesse-Kassel. Colloquially, the grand duchy continued to be known by its former name of Hesse-Darmstadt. It joined the German Empire in 1871 and became a republic after the German defeat in World War I in 1918.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971471}
{"src_title": "Robert Michels", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Michels born to a wealthy German family, studied in England, Paris (at the Sorbonne), and at universities in Munich, Leipzig (1897), Halle (1898), and Turin. He became a Socialist while teaching at the University of Marburg and became active in the Social Democratic Party of Germany for whom he was an unsuccessful candidate in the 1903 German federal election. In Italy, he associated with, a leftist branch of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI). He left both parties in 1907.  He achieved international recognition for his historical and sociological study, \"Zur Soziologie des Parteiwesens in der modernen Demokratie. Untersuchungen über die oligarchischen Tendenzen des Gruppenlebens\", which was published in 1911; its title in English is \"Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy\". In it, he presented his \"Iron law of oligarchy\" theory that political parties, including those considered socialist, cannot be democratic because they quickly transform themselves into bureaucratic oligarchies. Michels attended the First International Eugenics Congress in 1912 where he delivered a papaer entitled \"Eugenics in Party Organization\". Michels was considered a brilliant pupil of Max Weber, who began publishing his writings in the \"Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik\" in 1906 and appointed him as co-editor in 1913, but they disagreed over Michels' opposition to World War I.  Michels criticized what he perceived to be Karl Marx's materialistic determinism. Michels borrowed from Werner Sombart's historical methods. Because Michels admired Italian culture and was prominent in the social sciences, he was brought to the attention of Luigi Einaudi and Achille Loria. They succeeded in procuring for Michels a professorship at the University of Turin, where he taught economics, political science and socioeconomics until 1914. He then became professor of economics at the University of Basel, Switzerland, a post he held until 1928.  In 1924 he joined the Fascist Party, led by Benito Mussolini, former director of the Italian Socialist Party's newspaper \"\"Avanti!\"\". Michels was convinced that the direct link between Benito Mussolini's charisma and the working class was in some way the best means to realize a real lower social class government without political bureaucratic mediation. In 1928, he became professor of economics and the history of doctrines at the University of Perugia and occasionally lectured in Rome where he died on May 3, 1936.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Michels (; 9 January 1876, Cologne, Germany – 3 May 1936, Rome, Italy) was a German-born Italian sociologist who contributed to elite theory by describing the political behavior of intellectual elites. He belonged to the Italian school of elitism. He is best known for his book \"Political Parties\", published in 1911, which contains a description of the \"iron law of oligarchy.\" He was a friend and disciple of Max Weber, Werner Sombart and Achille Loria. Politically, he moved from the Social Democratic Party of Germany to the Italian Socialist Party, adhering to the Italian revolutionary syndicalist wing and later to Italian Fascism, which he saw as a more democratic form of socialism. His ideas provided the basis of moderation theory which delineates the processes through which radical political groups are incorporated into the existing political system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971472}
{"src_title": "Camping", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "Camping describes a range of activities and approaches to outdoor accommodation. Survivalist campers set off with as little as possible to get by, whereas recreational vehicle travelers arrive equipped with their own electricity, heat, and patio furniture. Camping may be combined with hiking, as in backpacking, and is often enjoyed in conjunction with other outdoor activities such as canoeing, climbing, fishing, and hunting. Fastpacking involves both running and camping.  There is no universally held definition of what is and what is not camping. Just as with motels which serve both recreational and business guests, the same campground may serve recreational campers, migrant workers, and homeless at the same time. Fundamentally, it reflects a combination of \"intent\" and the nature of activities involved. A children's summer camp with dining hall meals and bunkhouse accommodations may have \"camp\" in its name but fails to reflect the spirit and form of \"camping\" as it is broadly understood. Similarly, a homeless person's lifestyle may involve many common camping activities, such as sleeping out and preparing meals over a fire, but fails to reflect the elective nature and pursuit of spirit rejuvenation that are integral aspect of camping. Likewise, cultures with itinerant lifestyles or lack of permanent dwellings cannot be said to be \"camping\", it is just their way of life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The history of recreational camping is often traced back to Thomas Hiram Holding, a British travelling tailor, but it was actually first popularised in the UK on the river Thames. By the 1880s large numbers of visitors took part in the pastime, which was connected to the late Victorian craze for pleasure boating. The early camping equipment was very heavy, so it was convenient to transport it by boat or to use craft that converted into tents. Although Thomas Hiram Holding is often seen as the father of modern camping in the UK, he was responsible for popularising a different type of camping in the early twentieth century. He experienced the activity in the wild from his youth, when he had spent much time with his parents traveling across the American prairies. Later he embarked on a cycling and camping tour with some friends across Ireland. His book on his Ireland experience, \"Cycle and Camp in Connemara\" led to the formation of the first camping group in 1901, the Association of Cycle Campers, later to become the Camping and Caravanning Club. He wrote \"The Campers Handbook\" in 1908, so that he could share his enthusiasm for the great outdoors with the world.  Possibly the first commercial camping ground in the world was Cunningham's camp, near Douglas, Isle of Man, which opened in 1894. In 1906 the Association of Cycle Campers opened its first own camping site, in Weybridge. By that time the organization had several hundred members. In 1910 the Association was merged into the National Camping Club. Although WW1 was responsible for a certain hiatus in camping activity, the association received a new lease of life after the war when Sir Robert Baden-Powell (founder of the Boy Scouts movement) became its president.  In the US, camping may be traced to William Henry Harrison Murray 1869 publication of \"Camp-Life in the Adirondacks\" resulting in a flood of visitors to the Adirondacks that summer.  The International Federation of Camping Clubs (Federation Internationale de Camping et de Caravanning) was founded in 1932 with national clubs from all over the world affiliating with it. By the 1960s camping had become an established family holiday standard and today camp sites are ubiquitous across Europe and North America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Forms.", "content": "Different types camping may be named after their form of transportation, such as with Canoe camping, car camping, RVing, and backpacking, which can involve ultralight gear.  Camping is also labeled by lifestyle: Glamping (glamorous camping) combines camping with the luxury and amenities of a home or hotel, and has its roots are in the early 1900s European and American safaris in Africa. Workamping allows campers to trade their labor variously for discounts on campsite fees, campground utilities, and even some degree of pay. Migrant camps are formed not for recreation, but as a temporary housing arrangement. Campgrounds for custom harvesters in the United States may include room to park combines and other large farm equipment.  Another way of describing camping is by the manner of arrangement: reservation camping vs. drop camping. Campgrounds may require campers to check in with an employee or campground host prior to setting up camp, or they may allow \"drop camping,\" where this is not required. Drop-in campsites may be free or a drop-box may be provided to accept payments on the honor system. Although drop camping is often specifically allowed by law, it may also exist in a legal grey area, such as at California's Slab City. Social media-oriented towards drop camping provides information on recent police enforcement, campsite quality, cost, and length-of-stay requirements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campgrounds and commercial campsites.", "content": "Campers span a broad range of age, ability, and ruggedness, and campsites are designed in many ways as well. Many campgrounds have sites with facilities such as fire rings, barbecue grills, utilities, shared bathrooms and laundry, as well as access to nearby recreational facilities, however, not all campsites have similar levels of development. Campsites can range from a patch of dirt, to a level, paved pad with sewer and electricity. (For more information on facilities, see the campsite and RV park articles.)  Other vehicles used for camping include motorcycles, touring bicycles, boats, canoes, pack animals, and even bush planes; although backpacking on foot is a popular alternative.  Tent camping sites often cost less than campsites with full amenities, and most allow direct access by car. Some \"walk-in\" sites lie a short walk away from the nearest road, but do not require full backpacking equipment. Those who seek a rugged experience in the outdoors prefer to camp with only tents, or with no shelter at all (\"under the stars\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "By country.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "According to an infographic produced by Red Rover Camping and based on data from the 2014 American Camper Report published by the Coleman Company, Inc. and the Outdoor Foundation, camping in the United States is gaining popularity after a fall of 4.2 million participants from 2011 to 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "According to data provided by the Great British Tourism Survey conducted by Visit England, almost 4.5 million camping and caravanning holidays were taken by British residents during the first half of 2015, for an average of 3.7 nights. As in the United States, camping is gaining popularity, with an 8% increase in trips compared to the same period in 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France.", "content": "Data collected by the Fédération Nationale De L'Hôtellerie De Plein Air (FNHPA) shows that around 113 million nights were taken at French campsites in 2015, which was up by 3.9% on the same period in 2014. French holidaymakers took 77 million of these, and the rest was made up of other nationalities, the majority of whom were Dutch, German and UK tourists. The French Government hopes to have 100 million tourists each year by 2030. The most popular region for camping is Languedoc and Roussillon with around 19,331,663 nights spent at campsites during 2015, whilst the department with the most campsites is the Vendée.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Camping is an outdoor activity involving overnight stays away from home in a shelter, such as a tent or a recreational vehicle. Typically participants leave developed areas to spend time outdoors in more natural ones in pursuit of activities providing them enjoyment. To be regarded as \"camping\" a minimum of one night is spent outdoors, distinguishing it from day-tripping, picnicking, and other similarly short-term recreational activities. Camping can be enjoyed through all four seasons.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971473}
{"src_title": "Daugava", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The total catchment area of the river is, of which are within Belarus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries.", "content": "The following rivers are tributaries to the river Daugava (from source to mouth):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "According to the Max Vasmer's \"Etymological Dictionary\", the toponym Dvina clearly cannot stem from a Uralic language, and it possibly comes from an Indo-European word which used to mean \"river\" or \"stream\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environment.", "content": "The river began experiencing environmental deterioration in the era of Soviet collective agriculture (producing considerable adverse water pollution runoff) and a wave of hydroelectric power projects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cities, towns and settlements.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russia.", "content": "Andreapol, Zapadnaya Dvina and Velizh.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Belarus.", "content": "Ruba, Vitebsk, Beshankovichy, Polotsk with Boris stones strewn in the vicinity, Navapolatsk, Dzisna, Verkhnedvinsk, and Druya.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Latvia.", "content": "Krāslava, Daugavpils, Līvāni, Jēkabpils, Pļaviņas, Aizkraukle, Jaunjelgava, Lielvārde, Kegums, Ogre, Ikšķile, Salaspils and Riga.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Humans have settled at the mouth of the Daugava and around the other shores of the Gulf of Riga for millennia, initially participating in a hunter-gatherer economy and utilizing the waters of the Daugava estuary as fishing and gathering areas for aquatic biota. Beginning around the sixth century AD, Viking explorers crossed the Baltic Sea and entered the Daugava River, navigating upriver into the Baltic interior.  In medieval times the Daugava was an important area of trading and navigation - part of the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks - for transport of furs from the north and of Byzantine silver from the south. The Riga area, inhabited by the Finnic-speaking Livs, became a key element of settlement and defence of the mouth of the Daugava at least as early as the Middle Ages, as evidenced by the now destroyed fort at Torņakalns on the west bank of the Daugava at present day Riga. Since the Late Middle Ages the western part of the Daugava basin has come under the rule of various peoples and states; for example the Latvian town of Daugavpils, located on the western Daugava, variously came under papal rule as well as Slavonic, Polish, German and Russian sway until restoration of the Latvian independence in 1990 at the end of the Cold War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Water quality.", "content": "Upstream of the Latvian town of Jekabpils the pH has a characteristic value of about 7.8 (slight alkaline); in this reach the calcium ion has a typical concentration of around 43 milligrams per liter; nitrate has a concentration of about 0.82 milligrams per liter (as nitrogen); phosphate ion is measured at 0.038 milligrams per liter; and oxygen saturation was measured at eighty percent. The high nitrate and phosphate load of the Daugava is instrumental to the buildup of extensive phytoplankton biomass in the Baltic Sea; other European rivers contributing to such high nutrient loading of the Baltic are the Oder and Vistula Rivers.  In Belarus, water pollution of the Daugava is considered moderately severe, with the chief sources being treated wastewater, fish-farming and agricultural chemical runoff (e.g. herbicides, pesticides, nitrate and phosphate).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Daugava (;, meaning \"Western Dvina\"), is a river rising in the Valdai Hills, flowing through Russia, Belarus, and Latvia and into the Gulf of Riga. The total length of the river is 1,020 km (630 mi), of which 325 km (202 mi) are in Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971474}
{"src_title": "Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "On 21 July 1542, Pope Paul III proclaimed the Apostolic Constitution \"Licet ab initio\", establishing the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition, staffed by cardinals and other officials whose task it was \"to maintain and defend the integrity of the faith and to examine and proscribe errors and false doctrines.\" It served as the final court of appeal in trials of heresy and served as an important part of the Counter-Reformation.  This body was renamed the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office in 1908 by Pope Pius X. In many Catholic countries, the body is often informally called the Holy Office (e.g., and ).  The congregation's name was changed to Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (SCDF) on 7 December 1965, at the end of the Second Vatican Council. Soon after the 1983 \"Code of Canon Law\" came into effect, the adjective \"sacred\" was dropped from the names of all Curial Congregations, and so the dicastery adopted its current name, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role.", "content": "According to the 1988 Apostolic Constitution on the Roman Curia, \"Pastor bonus\", article 48, promulgated by John Paul II: \"The proper duty of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith is to promote and safeguard the doctrine on faith and morals in the whole Catholic world; so it has competence in things that touch this matter in any way.\"  This includes investigations into grave delicts, i.e., acts which the Catholic Church considers as being the most serious crimes: crimes against the Eucharist and against the sanctity of the Sacrament of Penance, and crimes against the sixth Commandment (\"Thou shall not commit adultery.\") committed by a cleric against a person under the age of eighteen. These crimes, in \"Sacramentorum sanctitatis tutela\" a \"motu proprio\" of 2001, come under the competency of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. In effect, it is the \"promoter of justice\" which deals with, among other things, the question of priests accused of paedophilia.  Within the CDF are the International Theological Commission, the Pontifical Biblical Commission, and the Pontifical Commission \"Ecclesia Dei\". The Prefect of the CDF is \"ex officio\" president of these commissions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "Until 1968, the pope held the title of prefect and appointed a cardinal to preside over the meetings, first as Secretary, then as Pro-Prefect.  Since 1968, the Cardinal head of the dicastery has borne the title of \"Prefect\" and the title of \"Secretary\" refers to the second highest-ranking officer of the Congregation. As of 2012 the Congregation had a membership of 18 cardinals and a smaller number of non-cardinal bishops, a staff of 38 (clerical and lay) and 26 consultors.  The work of the CDF is divided into four sections: the doctrinal, disciplinary, matrimonial, and clerical offices. The CDF holds biennial plenary assemblies, and issues documents on doctrinal, disciplinary, and sacramental questions that occasionally include notifications concerning books by Catholic theologians (e.g., Hans Küng, Charles Curran, and Leonardo Boff) that it judges contrary to Church doctrine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent canonical judgments and publications.", "content": "The following is a list of recent documents and judgments issued by the CDF. Lengthy CDF documents usually have Latin titles. A short document that briefly states objections to one or more writings by a Catholic theologian is typically called a \"notification.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leadership.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secretaries until 1965.", "content": "When the Supreme Sacred Congregation for the Roman and Universal Inquisition was first established in 1542, it was composed of several Cardinal Inquisitors styled as \"Inquisitors-General\", who were formally equal to each other, even if some of them were clearly dominant (e.g. Cardinal Gian Pietro Carafa from 1542, who was elected Pope Paul IV in 1555). Until 1968 the Pope himself presided over the Congregation. However, from 1564 the daily administration of the affairs of the Congregation was entrusted to the Cardinal Secretary. This model was retained when the Inquisition was formally renamed as the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office in 1908.  Unless stated otherwise, the secretaryship ended with the officeholder's death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prefects since 1965.", "content": "When Pope Paul VI changed the name of the dicastery on 7 December 1965, he changed the title of the cardinal in charge of the daily administration of the Congregation from Secretary to Pro-Prefect. He continued to reserve the title of Prefect to himself until 1968 when he relinquished his role as head of the Congregation and named a \"Prefect\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Secretaries since 1965.", "content": "With the December 1965 reorganization of the Holy Office as the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, the head of the Congregation was no longer titled Secretary. The dicastery's second-in-command, until then titled assessor, was then given the title of Secretary, as was already the case with the other Roman Congregations. The following Archbishops have held the title of Secretary:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF; ) is the oldest among the nine congregations of the Roman Curia, seated at the Palace of the Holy Office in Rome. It was founded to defend the church from heresy; today, it is the body responsible for promulgating and defending Catholic doctrine. Formerly known as the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition, it is informally known in many Catholic countries as the Holy Office (), and between 1908 and 1965 was officially known as the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971475}
{"src_title": "Dniester", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The name \"Dniester\" derives from Sarmatian \"dānu nazdya\" \"the close river.\" The Dnieper, also of Sarmatian origin, derives from the opposite meaning, \"the river on the far side\". Alternatively, according to Vasily Abaev \"Dniester\" would be a blend of Scythian \"dānu\" \"river\" and Thracian \"Ister\", the previous name of the river, literally Dān-Ister (River Ister). The Ancient Greek name of Dniester, \"Tyras\" (Τύρας), is from Scythian \"tūra\", meaning \"rapid.\"  The names of the Don and Danube are also from the same Indo-Iranian word \"*dānu\" \"river\". Classical authors have also referred to it as \"Danaster.\" These early forms, without -\"i\"- but with -\"a\"-, contradict Abaev's hypothesis. Edward Gibbon refers to the river both as the Niester and Dniester in his \"History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire\".  In Ukrainian, it is known as (translit. \"Dnister\"), and in Romanian as. In Russian, it is known as (translit. \"Dnestr\"), in Yiddish: \"Nester\" נעסטער; in Turkish, \"Turla\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Dniester rises in Ukraine, near the city of Drohobych, close to the border with Poland, and flows toward the Black Sea. Its course marks part of the border of Ukraine and Moldova, after which it flows through Moldova for, separating the main territory of Moldova from its breakaway region Transnistria. It later forms an additional part of the Moldova-Ukraine border, then flows through Ukraine to the Black Sea, where its estuary forms the Dniester Liman.  Along the lower half of the Dniester, the western bank is high and hilly while the eastern one is low and flat. The river represents the \"de facto\" end of the Eurasian Steppe. Its most important tributaries are Răut and Bîc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "During the Neolithic, the Dniester River was the centre of one of the most advanced civilizations on earth at the time. The Cucuteni–Trypillian culture flourished in this area from roughly 5300 to 2600 BC, leaving behind thousands of archeological sites. Their settlements had up to 15,000 inhabitants, making them among the first large farming communities in the world. In antiquity, the river was considered one of the principal rivers of European Sarmatia, and it was mentioned by many Classical geographers and historians. According to Herodotus (iv.51) it rose in a large lake, whilst Ptolemy (iii.5.17, 8.1 &c.) places its sources in Mount Carpates (the modern Carpathian Mountains), and Strabo (ii) says that they are unknown. It ran in an easterly direction parallel with the Ister (lower Danube), and formed part of the boundary between Dacia and Sarmatia. It fell into the Pontus Euxinus to the northeast of the mouth of the Ister, the distance between them being 900 stadia – approximately – according to Strabo (vii.), while (from the \"Pseudostoma\") according to Pliny (iv. 12. s. 26). Scymnus (Fr. 51) describes it as of easy navigation, and abounding in fish. Ovid (\"ex Pont.\" iv.10.50) speaks of its rapid course.  Greek authors referred to the river as \"Tyras\" (). At a later period it obtained the name of \"Danastris\" or \"Danastus\", whence its modern name of Dniester (Niester), though the Turks still called it \"Turla\" during the 19th century. The form is sometimes found.  According to Constantine VII, the Varangians used boats on their trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, along Dniester and Dnieper and along the Black Sea shore. The navigation near the western shore of Black Sea contained stops at Aspron (at the mouth of Dniester), then Conopa, Constantia (localities today in Romania) and Messembria (today in Bulgaria).  From the 14th century to 1812, part of the Dniester formed the eastern boundary of the Principality of Moldavia.  Between the World Wars, the Dniester formed part of the boundary between Romania and the Soviet Union. In 1919, on Easter Sunday, the bridge was blown up by the French Army to protect Bender from the Bolsheviks. During World War II, German and Romanian forces battled Soviet troops on the western bank of the river.  After the Republic of Moldova declared its independence in 1991, the small area to the east of the Dniester that had been part of the Moldavian SSR refused to participate and declared itself the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, or Transnistria, with its capital at Tiraspol on the river.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries.", "content": "From source to mouth, right tributaries, i.e. on the southwest side, are the Stryi (), (), (), Bystrytsia (101 km), Răut (), (), Bîc (), and Botna ().  Left tributaries, on the northeast side, are the Strwiąż (), Zubra, Hnyla Lypa (), Zolota Lypa (), (), Strypa (), Seret (), Zbruch (), Smotrych (), (), (), (), Murafa (), (), (), and Kuchurhan ().", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dniester ( ) is a river in Eastern Europe. It runs first through Ukraine and then through Moldova (from which it separates the breakaway territory of Transnistria), finally discharging into the Black Sea on Ukrainian territory again.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971476}
{"src_title": "Tram-train", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Technology.", "content": "The tram-train often is a type of interurban, i.e. they link separate towns or cities. according to George W. Hilton and John F. Due's definition.  Most tram-trains are standard gauge, which facilitates sharing track with main-line trains. Exceptions include Alicante Tram and Nordhausen, which are metre gauge.  Tram-train vehicles are dual-equipped to suit the needs of both tram and train operating modes, with support for multiple electrification voltages if required and safety equipment such as train stops and other railway signalling equipment. The Karlsruhe and Saarbrücken systems use \"PZB\" or \"Indusi\" automatic train protection, so that if the driver passes a signal at stop the emergency brakes are applied.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The idea is not new; in the early 20th century, interurban streetcar lines often operated on dedicated rights-of-way between towns, while running on street trackage in town. The first interurban to emerge in the United States was the Newark and Granville Street Railway in Ohio, which opened in 1889. In 1924, in Hobart, Tasmania, sharing of tracks between trams and trains was proposed.  The difference between modern tram-trains and the older interurbans and radial railways is that tram-trains are built to meet mainline railway standards, rather than ignoring them. An exception is the United States' River Line in New Jersey which runs along freight tracks with time separation: passenger trains run by day, and freight by night.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proposed systems.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "A two-year tram-train pilot project is being undertaken between Sheffield and Rotherham. In the initial phase, from October 2017, Stadler Citylink tram-train vehicles (British Rail designation Class 399) were introduced onto the Sheffield tram network only. Late in 2018, with the completion of a chord at Tinsley connecting Rotherham Parkgate rail station with Meadowhall Interchange tram stop, the tram-train vehicles operate on national rail tracks. If the trial proves successful, similar schemes could be rolled out across the UK.  In March 2008 the UK Department for Transport released details of a plan to trial diesel tram-trains on the Penistone Line for two years starting in 2010. There was no commitment to connect them to the Sheffield tram network, and in September 2009 the idea was withdrawn as it was deemed not economically viable for a trial due to the cost of the extra development required for the diesel engines to meet the forthcoming stringent EU emission regulations. Instead single-voltage electric tram-trains will be trialled between Rotherham and Sheffield.  A tram-train trial in the Manchester area was ruled out as the Department for Transport wanted to try low-floor tram-trains, whereas Manchester Metrolink cars have high floors.  In August 2009 the \"Liverpool Daily Post\" reported that a new Merseyrail tram-train link to Liverpool John Lennon Airport was under consideration. The Merseyrail Northern Line and the City Line between and were being assessed. From South Parkway the tram-trains would transfer seamlessly to a new tramway. A link from Edge Hill in the east of the city to the Arena at Kings Dock near the city centre was also being considered.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Manufacturers.", "content": "Models of tram designed for tram-train operation include:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A tram-train is a light-rail public transport vehicle where trams run through from an urban tramway network to main-line railway lines which are shared with conventional trains. This combines the tram's flexibility and accessibility with a train's greater speed, and bridges the distance between main railway stations and a city centre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971477}
{"src_title": "Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Elector Frederick William was born in Berlin to George William, Elector of Brandenburg, and Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. His inheritance consisted of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Duchy of Cleves, the County of Mark, and the Duchy of Prussia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign diplomacy.", "content": "Following the Thirty Years' War that devastated much of the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick William focused on rebuilding his war-ravaged territories. Brandenburg-Prussia benefited from his policy of religious tolerance and he used French subsidies to build up an army that took part in the 1655 to 1660 Second Northern War. This ended with the treaties of Labiau, Wehlau, Bromberg and Oliva; they removed Swedish control of the Duchy of Prussia, which meant he held it direct from the Holy Roman Emperor.  In 1672, Frederick William joined the Franco-Dutch War as an ally of the Dutch Republic, led by his nephew William of Orange but made peace with France in the June 1673 Treaty of Vossem. Although he rejoined the anti-French alliance in 1674, this left him diplomatically isolated; despite conquering much of Swedish Pomerania during the Scanian War, he was obliged to return these to Sweden in the 1679 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Frederick William was a military commander of wide renown, and his standing army would later become the model for the Prussian Army. He is notable for his joint victory with Swedish forces at the Battle of Warsaw, which, according to Hajo Holborn, marked \"the beginning of Prussian military history\", but the Swedes turned on him at the behest of King Louis XIV and invaded Brandenburg. After marching 250 kilometres in 15 days back to Brandenburg, he caught the Swedes by surprise and managed to defeat them on the field at the Battle of Fehrbellin, destroying the myth of Swedish military invincibility. He later destroyed another Swedish army that invaded the Duchy of Prussia during the Great Sleigh Drive in 1678. He is noted for his use of broad directives and delegation of decision-making to his commanders, which would later become the basis for the German doctrine of Auftragstaktik, and for using rapid mobility to defeat his foes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Domestic policies.", "content": "Frederick William raised an army of 40,000 soldiers by 1678, through the General War Commissariat presided over by Joachim Friedrich von Blumenthal. He was an advocate of mercantilism, monopolies, subsidies, tariffs, and internal improvements. Following Louis XIV's revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Frederick William encouraged skilled French and Walloon Huguenots to emigrate to Brandenburg-Prussia with the Edict of Potsdam, bolstering the country's technical and industrial base. On Blumenthal's advice he agreed to exempt the nobility from taxes and in return they agreed to dissolve the Estates-General. He also simplified travel in Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia by connecting riverways with canals, a system that was expanded by later Prussian architects, such as Georg Steenke; the system is still in use today.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In his half-century reign, 1640–1688, the Great Elector transformed the small remote state of Prussia into a great power by augmenting and integrated the Hohenzollern family possessions in northern Germany and Prussia. When he became elector (ruler) of Brandenburg in 1640, the country was in ruins from the Thirty Years War; it had lost half its population from war, disease and emigration. The capital Berlin had only 6,000 people left when the wars ended in 1648. He united the multiple separate domains that his family had acquired primarily by marriage over the decades, and built the powerful unified state of Prussia out of them. His success in rebuilding the lands and his astute military and diplomatic leadership propelled him into the ranks of the prominent rulers in an era of \"absolutism\". Historians compare him to his contemporaries such as Louis XIV of France (1661–1715), Peter the Great (1682–1725) of Russia, and Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697).  Although a strict Calvinist who stood ready to form alliances against the Catholic states led by France's Louis XIV, he was tolerant of Catholics and Jews. He settled some 20,000 Huguenot refugees from France in his domains, which helped establish industry and trade, as did the foreign craftsmen he brought in. Establish local governments in each province, headed by a governor and a chancellor, but they reported to his central government in Berlin. The Great Elector is most famous for building a strong standing army, with an elite officer corps. In 1668 he introduced the Prussian General Staff; it became the model in controlling an army for other European powers. Funding the military through heavy taxes required building up new industry, such as wool, cotton, linen, lace, soap, paper, and iron. He paid attention to infrastructure, especially building the Frederick William Canal through Berlin, linking his capital city to ocean traffic. He was frustrated in building up naval power, lacking ports and sailors. A learned man, he founded a university and established the Berlin library.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages.", "content": "On 7 December 1646 in The Hague, Frederick William entered into a marriage, proposed by Blumenthal as a partial solution to the Jülich-Berg question, with Luise Henriette of Nassau (1627–1667), daughter of Frederick Henry of Orange-Nassau and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels and his 1st cousin once removed through William the Silent. Their children were as follows:  On 13 June 1668 in Gröningen, Frederick William married Sophie Dorothea of Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, daughter of Philip, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and Sophie Hedwig of Saxe-Lauenburg. Their children were the following:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick William (; 16 February 1620 – 29 April 1688) was Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia, thus ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia, from 1640 until his death in 1688. A member of the House of Hohenzollern, he is popularly known as \"the Great Elector\" (\"\") because of his military and political achievements. Frederick William was a staunch pillar of the Calvinist faith, associated with the rising commercial class. He saw the importance of trade and promoted it vigorously. His shrewd domestic reforms gave Prussia a strong position in the post-Westphalian political order of north-central Europe, setting Prussia up for elevation from duchy to kingdom, achieved under his son and successor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971478}
{"src_title": "Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen was born on 30 March 1818 at Hamm/Sieg (Westerwald). He was the seventh out of nine children. His father Gottfried Friedrich Raiffeisen was a farmer and also mayor of Hamm for a while. One can go back to his family’s origin until the 16th century in the Swabian-Franconian area. The family of his mother, Amalie Christiane Susanna Maria, born Lantzendörffer, came from the “Siegerland”. Leaving school at the age of 14 he received three years of education from a local pastor before he entered the military at the age of 17. His career in the military-led him to Cologne, Coblenz, and Sayn. An eye disease forced him to resign from the military service in 1843 and he went into public service. He was mayor of several towns: from 1845 he was mayor of Weyerbusch/Westerwald; from 1848 he was mayor of Flammersfeld/Westerwald; and finally, he was mayor of Heddesdorf from 1852 until late 1865, when, at the age of 47, his worsening health cut his career short; he had caught typhus in 1863 during an epidemic during which his wife had died. Since his small pension was not sufficient to meet the living of Raiffeisen’s family he initially started a small cigar factory and later on wine business. In 1867, he married the widow Maria Panseroth. She outlived him by 12 years and their marriage remained childless. He died on 11 March 1888 in Neuwied-Heddesdorf, shortly before his 70th birthday.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Raiffeisen conceived of the idea of cooperative self-help during his tenure as the young mayor of Flammersfeld. He was inspired by observing the suffering of the farmers who were often in the grip of loan sharks. He founded the first cooperative lending bank, in effect the first rural credit union in 1864.  Motivated by the misery of the poor part of the population he founded during the starvation winter of 1846/47 the “Verein für Selbstbeschaffung von Brod und Früchten” (Association for Self-procurement of Bread and Fruits). He bought flour with the help of private donations.The bread was baked in a self-built bakery and distributed on credit to the poorest amongst the population. The bread society as well as the aid society founded in 1849 in Flammersfeld and the benevolent society created in 1854 in Heddesdorf were pre-cooperative societies based on the principle of benevolent assistance.  To secure the liquidity equalization between the small credit banks, in 1872 Raiffeisen created the first rural central bank at Neuwied, the “Rheinische Landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaftsbank” (Rhenish Agricultural Cooperative Bank). In 1881, Raiffeisen created a printing house in Neuwied that still exists today, carries his name and was merged in 1975 with the German cooperative publishing house “Deutscher Genossenschafts-Verlag”.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Raiffeisen stated that there is a connection between poverty and dependency. To fight poverty one should fight dependency first. Based on this idea he came up with the three 'S' formula: self-help, self-governance, and self-responsibility (in the original German: \"Selbsthilfe\", \"Selbstverwaltung,\" and \"Selbstverantwortung\"). When put into practice, the necessary independence from charity, politics, and loan sharks could be established.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organizations named for Raiffeisen.", "content": "Several credit unions are named after Raiffeisen:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen (30 March 1818 – 11 March 1888) was a German mayor and cooperative pioneer. Several credit union systems and cooperative banks have been named after Raiffeisen, who pioneered rural credit unions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971479}
{"src_title": "Polotsk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nomenclature.", "content": "The Old East Slavic name, \"Polotesk\", derives from the Polota River, which flows into the Western Dvina nearby. The Vikings rendered that name as \"Palteskja\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Polotsk is one of the most ancient cities of the Eastern Slavs. The \"Primary Chronicle\" (a history of Kievan Rus' from about 850 to 1110, compiled in Kiev about 1113) listed Polotsk in 862 (as Полотескъ, /poloteskŭ/), together with Murom and Beloozero. However, an archaeological expedition from the Institute of History of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus suggests that Polotsk existed in the first half of the 9th century.  The first known prince of Polotsk was Rogvolod (ruled 945–978). He had two sons and a daughter named Rogneda. Rogvolod promised Rogneda to the prince of Kiev, Yaropolk, as a wife. But Yaropolk's brother, Vladimir, had attacked Polotsk before Yaropolk came. He killed Rogvolod, his wife and sons, and married Rogneda.  Vladimir and Rogneda had five children and the eldest of them, Izyaslav, became Prince of Polotsk (ruled 989-1001).  Between the 10th and 12th centuries, the Principality of Polotsk emerged as the dominant center of power in what is now Belarusian territory, with a lesser role played by the Principality of Turov to the south. It repeatedly asserted its sovereignty in relation to other centers of Kievan Rus, becoming a political capital, the episcopal see and the controller of vassal territories among Balts in the west. Its most powerful ruler was Prince Vseslav Bryachislavich, who reigned from 1044 to 1101. A 12th-century inscription commissioned by Vseslav's son Boris may still be seen on a huge boulder installed near the St. Sophia Cathedral. For a full list of the Polotsk rulers, see the list of Belarusian rulers. In 1240, Polotsk became a vassal of the Lithuanian princes. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytenis annexed the city by military force in 1307, completing the process which the Lithuanian princes had begun in the 1250s. Polotsk received a charter of autonomy guaranteeing that the grand dukes \"will not introduce new, nor destroy the old\". It was the earliest to be so incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. By doing so, the Lithuanians managed to firmly grasp the Dvina trade route in their hands, securing an important element for the surrounding economies. Magdeburg law was adopted in 1498. Polotsk functioned as a capital of the Połock Voivodship of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1772. Captured by the Russian army of Ivan the Terrible in 1563, it was returned to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania just 15 years later. It was again captured by Russia on 17 June 1654, but recaptured by Poland-Lithuania on 30 October 1660 during the Russo-Polish War (1654-67).  In 1773, with the First Partition of Poland, Russia seized Polotsk (then Połock) as part of the Russian Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Since the Russian Empress Catherine II did not acknowledge the Papal suppression of the Society of Jesus (1773–1814), the Jesuit branches in these lands were not disbanded, and Połock became the European centre of the Order, with a novitiate opening in 1780, and with the arrival of distinguished Jesuits from other parts of Europe who brought with them valuable books and scientific collections. Jesuits continued their pastoral work and upgraded the Jesuit College in Polotsk (opened in 1580 by decree of the Polish king Stefan Batory, with the Jesuit Piotr Skarga (1536-1612) as its first rector) into the Połock Academy (1812–1820), with three faculties (Theology, Languages and Liberal Arts), four libraries, a printing house, a bookshop, a theatre with 3 stages, a science museum, an art gallery and a scientific and literary periodical, and a medical-care centre. The school was also the patron of the college in Petersburg, the mission to Saratów and an expedition to Canton. When in 1820 pressure from the Russian Orthodox Church influenced the Russian Emperor Alexander I to exile the Jesuits and to close the Academy, there were 700 students studying there. The Russian authorities also broke up the Academy's library of 40,000-60,000 volumes, the richest collection of 16th- to 18th-century books - the books went to St. Petersburg, Kiev and other cities, 4000 volumes (along with books from other closed Jesuit schools) going to the St. Petersburg State University Scientific Library.  That period of warfare started the gradual decline of the city. After the first partition of Poland (1772), Polotsk became reduced to the status of a small provincial town of the Russian Empire. During the French invasion of Russia in 1812 the area saw two battles, the First Battle of Polotsk (August 1812) and the Second Battle of Polotsk (October 1812).  Polotsk came under occupation by the German Empire between 25 February 1918 and 21 November 1918 in World War I, by Poland between 22 September 1919 and 14 May 1920 in the Polish–Soviet War and by Nazi Germany between 16 July 1941 and 4 July 1944 in World War II. Polotsk functioned as the center of Polatsk Voblast between 20 September 1944 and 8 January 1954. A reorganisation of the area between Vitebsk and Molodechno voblasts left Polotsk part of the former.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural heritage.", "content": "The city's Cathedral of Saint Sophia in Polotsk (1044–1066) was a symbol of the independent-mindedness of Polotsk, rivaling churches of the same name in Novgorod and Kiev. The name referred to the original \"Hagia Sophia\" in Constantinople and thus to claims of imperial prestige, authority and sovereignty. The cathedral had been ruined by the troops of Peter I of Russia. Hence the present baroque building by Johann Christoph Glaubitz dates from the mid-18th century. Some genuine 12th-century architecture (notably Transfiguration Church) survives in the Convent of Saint Euphrosyne, which also features a neo-Byzantine cathedral, designed and built in 1893—1899 by Vladimir Korshikov.  Cultural achievements of the medieval period include the work of the nun Euphrosyne of Polotsk (1120–1173), who built monasteries, transcribed books, promoted literacy and sponsored art (including local artisan Lazarus Bohsha's famous \"Cross of Saint Euphrosyne,\" a national symbol and treasure lost during World War II), and the prolific, original Church Slavonic sermons and writings of Bishop Cyril of Turaw (1130–1182).  The first Belarusian printer, Francysk Skaryna, was born in Polotsk around 1490. He is famous for the first printing of the Bible in an East Slavic language (in Old Belarusian) in 1517, several decades after the first-ever printed book by Johann Gutenberg and just several years after the first Czech Bible (1506).  In September 2003, as \"Days of Belarusian Literacy\" were celebrated for the 10th time in Polotsk, city authorities dedicated a monument to honor the unique Cyrillic Belarusian letter Ў, which is not used in any other Slavic language. The original idea for the monument came from the Belarusian calligraphy professor Paval Siemchanka, who has been studying Cyrillic scripts for many years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "The city has produced players for the Belarus national bandy team. In October 2011 a team planned to participate in the Russian Cup in rink bandy, but did not after all.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Polotsk (; ; ; ) is a historical city in Belarus, situated on the Dvina River. It is the center of the Polotsk District in Vitsebsk Voblast. Its population is more than 80,000 people. It is served by Polotsk Airport and during the Cold War was home to Borovitsy air base.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971480}
{"src_title": "Appeal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Appellate courts and other systems of error correction have existed for many millennia. During the first dynasty of Babylon, Hammurabi and his governors served as the highest appellate courts of the land. Ancient Roman law employed a complex hierarchy of appellate courts, where some appeals would be heard by the emperor. Additionally, appellate courts have existed in Japan since at least the Kamakura Shogunate (1185–1333 CE). During this time, the Shogunate established \"hikitsuke\", a high appellate court to aid the state in adjudicating lawsuits.  Although some scholars argue that \"the right to appeal is itself a substantive liberty interest\", the notion of a right to appeal is a relatively recent advent in common law jurisdictions. In fact, commentators have observed that common law jurisdictions were particularly \"slow to incorporate a right to appeal into either its civil or criminal jurisprudence\".  The idea of an appeal from court to court (as distinguished from court directly to the Crown) was unheard of in early English courts. English common law courts eventually developed the writs of error and certiorari as routes to appellate relief, but both types of writs were severely limited in comparison to modern appeals in terms of availability, scope of review, and remedies afforded. For example, writs of error were originally not available as a matter of right and were issued only upon the recommendation of the Attorney General (which was regularly granted in modern times). Certiorari was originally available only for summary offences; in the early 19th century, certiorari became available for indictable offences, but only to obtain relief before judgment. Due to widespread dissatisfaction with writs (resulting in the introduction of at least 28 separate bills in Parliament), England switched over to appeals in civil cases in 1873, and in criminal cases in 1907.  The United States first created a system of federal appellate courts in 1789, but a federal right to appeal did not exist in the United States until 1889, when Congress passed the Judiciary Act to permit appeals in capital cases. Two years later, the right to appeals was extended to other criminal cases, and the United States Courts of Appeals were established to review decisions from district courts. Some states, such as Minnesota, still do not formally recognize a right to criminal appeals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appellate procedure.", "content": "Although some courts permit appeals at preliminary stages of litigation, most litigants appeal final orders and judgments from lower courts. A fundamental premise of many legal systems is that appellate courts review questions of law \"de novo\", but appellate courts do not conduct independent fact-finding. Instead, appellate courts will generally defer to the record established by the trial court, unless some error occurred during the fact-finding process. Many jurisdictions provide a statutory or constitutional right for litigants to appeal adverse decisions. However, most jurisdictions also recognize that this right may be waived. In the United States, for example, litigants may waive the right to appeal, as long as the waiver is \"considered and intelligent\".  The appellate process usually begins when an appellate court grants a party's petition for review or petition for certiorari. Unlike trials, appeals are generally presented to a judge, or a panel of judges, rather than a jury. Before making any formal argument, parties will generally submit legal briefs in which the parties present their arguments. Appellate courts may also grant permission for an \"amicus curiae\" to submit a brief in support of a particular party or position. After submitting briefs, parties often have the opportunity to present an oral argument to a judge or panel of judges. During oral arguments, judges often ask question to attorneys to challenge their arguments or to advance their own legal theories. After deliberating in chambers, appellate courts will issue formal opinions that resolve the legal issues presented for review.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appellate courts.", "content": "When considering cases on appeal, appellate courts generally affirm, reverse, or vacate the decision of a lower court. Some courts maintain a dual function, where they consider both appeals as well as matters of \"first instance\". For example, the Supreme Court of the United States primarily hears cases on appeal but retains original jurisdiction over a limited range of cases. Some jurisdictions maintain a system of intermediate appellate courts, which are subject to the review of higher appellate courts. The highest appellate court in a jurisdiction is sometimes referred to as a \"court of last resort\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In law, an appeal is the process in which cases are reviewed, where parties request a formal change to an official decision. Appeals function both as a process for error correction as well as a process of clarifying and interpreting law. Although appellate courts have existed for thousands of years, common law countries did not incorporate an affirmative right to appeal into their jurisprudence until the 19th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971481}
{"src_title": "Frederick Augustus III of Saxony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Military career.", "content": "Frederick Augustus entered the Royal Saxon Army in 1877 as a second lieutenant, despite being only twelve years old. Given his royal status, he advanced rapidly through the ranks. He served initially with the Royal Saxon \"1. (Leib-) Grenadier Regiment Nr. 100\". He was promoted to first lieutenant in 1883, captain in 1887, major in 1889 and lieutenant colonel in 1891. By 1891, he was commander of the 1st Battalion of \"Schützen (Füsilier)-Regiment Nr. 108\". He was promoted to colonel on 22 September 1892 and took command of the \"Schützen (Füsilier)-Regiment Nr. 108\" on the same day. On 20 September 1894, the 29-year-old prince was promoted to \"Generalmajor\" and given command of the 1st Royal Saxon Infantry Brigade Nr. 45 (Saxon higher units usually bore two numbers: one their Saxon Army number and the other their number in the Prussian Army order of battle). On 22 May 1898, he was promoted to \"Generalleutnant\" and given command of the 1st Royal Saxon Infantry Division Nr. 23. He commanded this division until 26 August 1902, when he took command of the XII (1st Royal Saxon) Corps. He was promoted to \"General der Infanterie\" one month later, on 24 September. He remained in command of the corps until October 1904, when he became king. His military career effectively ended with his accession to the throne, but he was promoted subsequently to \"Generaloberst\" and then to \"Generalfeldmarschall\" (on 9 September 1912).  Following his father's accession, he was in July 1902 appointed \"à la suite\" of the German Marine Infantry by Emperor Wilhelm II during a visit to Kiel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Frederick Augustus married Archduchess Luise, Princess of Tuscany, in Vienna on 21 November 1891. They were divorced in 1903 by the royal decree of the King after she ran away while pregnant with her last child. Luise's flight from Dresden was due to her father-in-law's threatening to have her interned in Sonnestein Mental Asylum for life. Her brother supported her in her wish to escape Saxony. Emperor Franz-Josef of Austria-Hungary did not recognise the divorce.  They had seven children:  Their two eldest sons, Friedrich August and Friedrich Christian were born in the same year, 1893, but were not twins. Friedrich August was born in January, while Friedrich Christian was born in December.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick Augustus III (; 25 May 1865 – 18 February 1932) was the last King of Saxony (1904–1918) and a member of the House of Wettin. Born in Dresden, Frederick Augustus was the eldest son of King George of Saxony and his wife, Maria Anna of Portugal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971482}
{"src_title": "Mozartkugel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Paul Fürst's family descended from Dinkelsbühl; he himself was born in Sierning, Upper Austria, and was raised in Salzburg. Upon the early death of his father, he lived in the house of his uncle, who owned a confectionery at No. 13, Brodgasse. Fürst took over his uncle's business and trained as an apprentice in Vienna, Budapest, Paris, and Nice. In 1884 he opened his own pastry shop at No. 13, Brodgasse, where he, by his own account, created the \"Mozart-Bonbon\" praline after lengthy trials in 1890. As his specialty became increasingly popular, Fürst established a company that continues to sell \"Mozartkugeln\". However, he had not applied for a patent to protect his invention and soon other Salzburg cake shops began to sell similar products.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recipe.", "content": "The original recipe for Mozartkugeln is as follows: a ball of green pistachio marzipan covered in a layer of nougat is produced. This ball is then placed on a small wooden stick and coated in dark chocolate. The stick is then placed vertically, with the ball at the top, on a platform to allow the chocolate to cool off and harden. Finally, the stick is removed; the hole that it leaves behind is filled with chocolate coating, and the ball is wrapped in tin foil. The balls remain fresh for about eight weeks at room temperature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name dispute.", "content": "When imitation products began to appear, Fürst initiated a court process to attempt to secure a trademark. At first, the dispute concerned only confectionery producers in Salzburg, but later spread to include the competition from Germany. The result was an agreement which obliged Fürst’s competitors to use other names. The Mirabell firm, based in Grödig near Salzburg, chose the name, “Real Salzburg Mozartkugeln”. The Bavarian producer, Reber, opted for “Real Reber Mozartkugeln”. In 1996, a dispute between Fürst and a subsidiary of the Swiss food producer, Nestlé, which wanted to market “Original Austria Mozartkugeln”, was decided in the third instance. Only Fürst's products may be called \"Original Salzburg Mozartkugeln\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dispute between Mirabell and Reber.", "content": "At the end of the 1970s, another dispute arose between the industrial confection producer Mirabell (today part of Mondelez International) and its competitor Reber over the \"Mozartkugel\" trademark. A provisional agreement was reached in 1981 between representatives of the Austrian and German governments, whereby only Austrian producers were to be allowed to use the label \"Mozartkugeln\". Reber protested against this agreement, and the EC-Commissioner in Brussels charged with deciding in the affair finally declared the agreement invalid. This is why Reber may legitimately and continuously use his \"Genuine Reber Mozart-Kugeln\" trademark, though with a hyphen in-between.  Nonetheless, only Mirabell Mozartkugeln are allowed to be round. Other industrially produced Mozartkugeln must have one flat side. Besides Mirabell and Reber, \"Mozartkugeln\" manufacturers include Hofbauer, Vienna (part of Lindt & Sprüngli) and Manner, as well as Halloren in Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trivia.", "content": "The Mozartkugel won the gold medal at a fair in Paris in 1905.  In the winter of 2006, 80 oversized polyester Mozartkugeln, each with a diameter of 1.6 metres, were placed in the old town of Salzburg. They had been designed by artists. On the night of the 27th of March, vandals removed one of these Mozartkugeln from the Franziskanergasse, where it had been bolted to the ground. They then rolled the Mozartkugel onto the street, causing damages of 7000 euro.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Mozartkugel (English: Mozart ball), is a small, round sugar confection made of pistachio marzipan and nougat that is covered with dark chocolate. It was originally known as \"Mozart-Bonbon\", created in 1890 by Salzburg confectioner Paul Fürst (1856–1941) and named after Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Hand-made \"Original Salzburger Mozartkugeln\" are manufactured by Fürst's descendants up to today, while similar products have been developed by numerous confectioners, often industrially produced.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971483}
{"src_title": "Numismatics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "First attested in English 1829, the word \"numismatics\" comes from the adjective \"numismatic\", meaning \"of coins\". It was borrowed in 1792 from French \"numismatiques\", itself a derivation from Late Latin \"numismatis\", genitive of \"numisma\", a variant of \"nomisma\" meaning \"coin\". Nomisma is a latinisation of the Greek νόμισμα (\"nomisma\") which means \"current coin/custom\", which derives from νομίζω (\"nomizō\"), \"to hold or own as a custom or usage, to use customarily\", in turn from νόμος (\"nomos\"), \"usage, custom\", ultimately from νέμω (\"nemō\"), \"I dispense, divide, assign, keep, hold\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of money.", "content": "Throughout its history, money itself has been made to be a scarce good, although it does not have to be. Many materials have been used to form money, from naturally scarce precious metals and cowry shells through cigarettes to entirely artificial money, called fiat money, such as banknotes. Many complementary currencies use time as a unit of measure, using mutual credit accounting that keeps the balance of money intact.  Modern money (and most ancient money too) is essentially a token – an abstraction. Paper currency is perhaps the most common type of physical money today. However, goods such as gold or silver retain many of the essential properties of money, such as volatility and limited supply. However, these goods are not controlled by one single authority.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of numismatics.", "content": "Coin collecting may have possibly existed in ancient times. Caesar Augustus gave \"coins of every device, including old pieces of the kings and foreign money\" as Saturnalia gifts.  Petrarch, who wrote in a letter that he was often approached by vinediggers with old coins asking him to buy or to identify the ruler, is credited as the first Renaissance collector. Petrarch presented a collection of Roman coins to Emperor Charles IV in 1355.  The first book on coins was \"De Asse et Partibus\" (1514) by Guillaume Budé. During the early Renaissance ancient coins were collected by European royalty and nobility. Collectors of coins were Pope Boniface VIII, Emperor Maximilian of the Holy Roman Empire, Louis XIV of France, Ferdinand I, Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg who started the Berlin coin cabinet and Henry IV of France to name a few. Numismatics is called the \"Hobby of Kings\", due to its most esteemed founders.  Professional societies organised in the 19th century. The Royal Numismatic Society was founded in 1836 and immediately began publishing the journal that became the \"Numismatic Chronicle\". The American Numismatic Society was founded in 1858 and began publishing the \"American Journal of Numismatics\" in 1866.  In 1931 the British Academy launched the Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum publishing collections of Ancient Greek coinage. The first volume of Sylloge of Coins of the British Isles was published in 1958.  In the 20th century coins gained recognition as archaeological objects, scholars such as Guido Bruck of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna realised their value in providing a temporal context and the difficulty that curators faced when identifying worn coins using classical literature. After World War II in Germany a project, \"Fundmünzen der Antike\" (Coin finds of the Classical Period) was launched, to register every coin found within Germany. This idea found successors in many countries.  In the United States, the US mint established a coin cabinet in 1838 when chief coiner Adam Eckfeldt donated his personal collection. William E. Du Bois’ \"Pledges of History...\" (1846) describes the cabinet.  C. Wyllys Betts' \"American colonial history illustrated by contemporary medals\" (1894) set the groundwork for the study of American historical medals.  Helen Wang's \"A short history of Chinese numismatics in European languages\" (2012-2013) gives an outline history of Western countries' understanding of Chinese numismatics. Lyce Jankowski's \"Les amis des monnaies\" is an in-depth study of Chinese numismatics in China in the 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern numismatics.", "content": "Modern numismatics is the study of the coins of the mid-17th century onward, the period of machine-struck coins. Their study serves more the need of collectors than historians and it is more often successfully pursued by amateur aficionados than by professional scholars. The focus of modern numismatics lies frequently in the research of production and use of money in historical contexts using mint or other records in order to determine the relative rarity of the coins they study. Varieties, mint-made errors, the results of progressive die wear, mintage figures and even the sociopolitical context of coin mintings are also matters of interest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subfields.", "content": "Exonumia (UK English: Paranumismatica) is the study of coin-like objects such as token coins and medals, and other items used in place of legal currency or for commemoration. This includes elongated coins, encased coins, souvenir medallions, tags, badges, counterstamped coins, wooden nickels, credit cards, and other similar items. It is related to numismatics proper (concerned with coins which have been legal tender), and many coin collectors are also exonumists.  Notaphily is the study of paper money or banknotes. It is believed that people have been collecting paper money for as long as it has been in use. However, people only started collecting paper money systematically in Germany in the 1920s, particularly the \"Serienscheine\" (Series notes) Notgeld. The turning point occurred in the 1970s, when notaphily was established as a separate area by collectors. At the same time, some developed countries such as the United States, Germany and France began publishing their respective national catalogues of paper money, which represented major points of reference literature.  Scripophily is the study and collection of stocks and Bonds. It is an area of collecting due to both the inherent beauty of some historical documents as well as the interesting historical context of each document. Some stock certificates are excellent examples of engraving. Occasionally, an old stock document will be found that still has value as a stock in a successor company.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Numismatists.", "content": "The term numismatist applies to collectors and coin dealers as well as scholars using coins as source or studying coins.  The first group chiefly derive pleasure from the simple ownership of monetary devices and studying these coins as private amateur scholars. In the classical field amateur collector studies have achieved quite remarkable progress in the field. Examples are Walter Breen, a well-known example of a noted numismatist who was not an avid collector, and King Farouk I of Egypt was an avid collector who had very little interest in numismatics. Harry Bass by comparison was a noted collector who was also a numismatist.  The second group are the coin dealers. Often called professional numismatists, they authenticate or grade coins for commercial purposes. The buying and selling of coin collections by numismatists who are professional dealers advances the study of money, and expert numismatists are consulted by historians, museum curators, and archaeologists.  The third category are scholar numismatists working in public collections, universities or as independent scholars acquiring knowledge about monetary devices, their systems, their economy and their historical context. An example would be G. Kenneth Jenkins. Coins are especially relevant as source in the pre-modern period.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of important numismatic scholars.", "content": "See also Portraits of Famous Numismatists who died before 1800 and Portraits of Famous Numismatists who died after 1800", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money and related objects. While numismatists are often characterised as students or collectors of coins, the discipline also includes the broader study of money and other payment media used to resolve debts and the exchange of goods. Early money used by people is referred to as \"Odd and Curious\", but the use of other goods in barter exchange is excluded, even where used as a circulating currency (e.g., cigarettes in prison). The Kyrgyz people used horses as the principal currency unit and gave small change in lambskins; the lambskins may be suitable for numismatic study, but the horses are not. Many objects have been used for centuries, such as cowry shells, precious metals, cocoa beans, large stones, and gems.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971484}
{"src_title": "Soprano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"soprano\" comes from the Italian word \"sopra\" (above, over, on top of), as the soprano is the highest pitch human voice, often given to the leading female roles in operas. \"Soprano\" refers mainly to women, but it can also be applied to men; \"sopranist\" is the term for a male countertenor able to sing in the soprano vocal range, while a castrato is the term for a castrated male singer, typical of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, and a treble is a boy soprano who has not reached puberty yet and still able to sing in that range.  The term \"soprano\" is also based on the Latin word \"superius\" which, like soprano, referred to the highest pitch vocal range of all human voice types. The word \"superius\" was especially used in choral and other multi-part vocal music between the 13th and 16th centuries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vocal range.", "content": "The soprano has the highest vocal range of all voice types, with the highest tessitura. A soprano and a mezzo-soprano have a similar range, but their tessituras will lie in different parts of that range.  The low extreme for sopranos is roughly A or B (just below middle C). Within opera, the lowest demanded note for sopranos is F (from Richard Strauss's \"Die Frau ohne Schatten\"). Often low notes in higher voices will project less, lack timbre, and tend to \"count less\" in roles (although some Verdi, Strauss and Wagner roles call for stronger singing below the staff). However, rarely is a soprano simply unable to sing a low note in a song within a soprano role. Low notes can be reached with a lowered position of the larynx.  The high extreme, at a minimum, for non-coloratura sopranos is \"soprano C\" (C two octaves above middle C), and many roles in the standard repertoire call for C or D. A couple of roles have optional Es, as well. In the coloratura repertoire several roles call for E on up to F. In rare cases, some coloratura roles go as high as G or G, such as Mozart's concert aria \"Popoli di Tessaglia!\", or the title role of Jules Massenet's opera \"Esclarmonde\". While not necessarily within the tessitura, a good soprano will be able to sing her top notes full-throated, with timbre and dynamic control.  In opera, the tessitura, vocal weight, and timbre of voices, and the roles they sing, are commonly categorized into voice types, often called (, from German or, \"vocal category\"). A singer's tessitura is where the voice has the best timbre, easy volume, and most comfort.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In choral music.", "content": "In SATB four-part mixed chorus, the soprano is the highest vocal range, above the alto, tenor, and bass. Sopranos commonly sing in the tessitura G4-A5. When the composer calls for divisi, sopranos can be separated into Soprano I (highest part) and Soprano II (lower soprano part).  In contrast to choral singing, in classical solo singing a person is classified through the identification of several vocal traits, including range, vocal timbre, vocal weight, vocal tessitura, vocal resonance, and vocal transition points (lifts or \"passaggio\") within the singer's voice.  These different traits are used to identify different sub-types within the voice, sometimes referred to as (sg. \"fach\", from German or, \"vocal category\"). Within opera, particular roles are written with specific kinds of soprano voices in mind, causing certain roles to be associated with certain kinds of voices.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subtypes and roles in opera.", "content": "Within the soprano voice type category are five generally recognized subcategories: coloratura soprano, soubrette, lyric soprano, spinto soprano, and dramatic soprano.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coloratura.", "content": "The coloratura soprano may be a lyric coloratura or a dramatic coloratura. The lyric coloratura soprano is a very agile light voice with a high upper extension capable of fast vocal coloratura. Light coloraturas have a range of approximately middle C (C) to \"high F\" (\"in alt\") (F) with some coloratura sopranos being able to sing somewhat lower or higher, e.g. an interpolated A in the Doll Aria, \"Les oiseaux dans la charmille\", from \"The Tales of Hoffmann\", e.g. by Rachele Gilmore in a 2009 performance, and a written A by Audrey Luna in 2017 in \"The Exterminating Angel\", both at the Metropolitan Opera in New York.  The dramatic coloratura soprano is a coloratura soprano with great flexibility in high-lying velocity passages, yet with great sustaining power comparable to that of a full spinto or dramatic soprano. Dramatic coloraturas have a range of approximately \"low B\" (B) to \"high F\" (F) with some coloratura sopranos being able to sing somewhat higher or lower.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soubrette.", "content": "In classical music and opera, a soubrette soprano refers to both a voice type and a particular type of opera role. A soubrette voice is light with a bright, sweet timbre, a tessitura in the mid-range, and with no extensive coloratura. The soubrette voice is not a weak voice, for it must carry over an orchestra without a microphone like all voices in opera. The voice, however, has a lighter vocal weight than other soprano voices with a brighter timbre. Many young singers start out as soubrettes, but, as they grow older and the voice matures more physically, they may be reclassified as another voice type, usually either a light lyric soprano, a lyric coloratura soprano, or a coloratura mezzo-soprano. Rarely does a singer remain a soubrette throughout her entire career. A soubrette's range extends approximately from middle C (C) to \"high D\" (D). The tessitura of the soubrette tends to lie a bit lower than the lyric soprano and spinto soprano.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lyric.", "content": "The lyric soprano is a warm voice with a bright, full timbre, which can be heard over a big orchestra. It generally has a higher tessitura than a soubrette and usually plays \"ingénues\" and other sympathetic characters in opera. Lyric sopranos have a range from approximately below middle C (C) to \"high D\" (D).  The lyric soprano may be a light lyric soprano or a full lyric soprano. The light lyric soprano has a bigger voice than a soubrette but still possesses a youthful quality. The full lyric soprano has a more mature sound than a light-lyric soprano and can be heard over a bigger orchestra.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spinto.", "content": "Also lirico-spinto, Italian for \"pushed lyric\", the spinto soprano has the brightness and height of a lyric soprano, but can be \"pushed\" to dramatic climaxes without strain, and may have a somewhat darker timbre. Spinto sopranos have a range from approximately from B (B) to \"high D\" (D).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dramatic.", "content": "A dramatic soprano (or \"soprano robusto\") has a powerful, rich, emotive voice that can sing over a full orchestra. Usually (but not always) this voice has a lower tessitura than other sopranos, and a darker timbre. Dramatic sopranos have a range from approximately A (A) to \"high C\" (C).  Some dramatic sopranos, known as Wagnerian sopranos, have a very big voice that can assert itself over an exceptionally large orchestra (over eighty pieces). These voices are substantial and very powerful and ideally even throughout the registers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other types.", "content": "Two other types of soprano are the \"Dugazon\" and the \"Falcon\", which are intermediate voice types between the soprano and the mezzo-soprano: a Dugazon is a darker-colored soubrette, a Falcon a darker-colored soprano drammatico.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A soprano is a type of classical female singing voice and has the highest vocal range of all voice types. The soprano's vocal range (using scientific pitch notation) is from approximately middle C (C) = 261 Hz to \"high A\" (A) = 880 Hz in choral music, or to \"soprano C\" (C, two octaves above middle C) = 1046 Hz or higher in operatic music. In four-part chorale style harmony, the soprano takes the highest part, which often encompasses the melody. The soprano voice type is generally divided into the coloratura, soubrette, lyric, spinto, and dramatic soprano.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971485}
{"src_title": "John Schlesinger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Schlesinger was born and raised at Hampstead, London, into a Jewish family, the eldest of five children of distinguished Emmanuel College, Cambridge-educated paediatrician and physician Bernard Edward Schlesinger (1896–1984), OBE, FRCP, who had also served in the Royal Army Medical Corps as a Brigadier, and his wife Winifred Henrietta, daughter of Hermann Regensburg, a stockbroker from Frankfurt. She had left school at 14 to study at the Trinity College of Music, and later studied languages at the University of Oxford for three years. Bernard Schlesinger's father Richard, a stockbroker, had come to England in the 1880s from Frankfurt.  After St Edmund's School, Hindhead and Uppingham School (where his father had also been), Schlesinger enlisted in the British Army during World War II. While serving with the Royal Engineers, he made films on the war's front line. He also entertained his fellow troops by performing magic tricks. After his tour of duty, he continued making short films and acted in stage productions while studying at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was involved in the Oxford University Dramatic Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Schlesinger's acting career began in the 1950s and consisted of supporting roles in British films such as \"The Divided Heart\" and \"Oh... Rosalinda!!\", and British television productions such as \"BBC Sunday Night Theatre\", \"The Adventures of Robin Hood\" and \"The Vise\". He began his directorial career in 1956 with the short documentary \"Sunday in the Park\" about London's Hyde Park. In 1958, Schlesinger created a documentary on Benjamin Britten and the Aldeburgh Festival for the BBC's \"Monitor\" TV programme, including rehearsals of the children's opera \"Noye's Fludde\" featuring a young Michael Crawford. In 1959, Schlesinger was credited as exterior or second unit director on 23 episodes of the TV series \"The Four Just Men\" and four 30-minute episodes of the series \"Danger Man\". He also appeared in \"Col March of Scotland Yard\" as \"Dutch cook\" in \"Death and the Other Monkey\" 1956.  By the 1960s, he had virtually given up acting to concentrate on a directing career, and another of his earlier directorial efforts, the British Transport Films' documentary \"Terminus\" (1961), gained a Venice Film Festival Gold Lion and a British Academy Award. His first two fiction films, \"A Kind of Loving\" (1962) and \"Billy Liar\" (1963) were set in the North of England. \"A Kind of Loving\" won the Golden Bear award at the 12th Berlin International Film Festival in 1962. His third feature film, \"Darling\" (1965), tartly described the modern way of life in London and was one of the first films about'swinging London'. Schlesinger's next film was the period drama \"Far from the Madding Crowd\" (1967), an adaptation of Thomas Hardy's popular novel accentuated by beautiful English country locations. Both films (and \"Billy Liar\") featured Julie Christie as the female lead.  Schlesinger's next film, \"Midnight Cowboy\" (1969), was internationally acclaimed. A story of two hustlers living on the fringe in the bad side of New York City, it was Schlesinger's first film shot in the US, and it won Oscars for Best Director and Best Picture. During the 1970s, he made an array of films that were mainly about loners, losers and people outside the mainstream world, such as \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\" (1971), \"The Day of the Locust\" (1975), \"Marathon Man\" (1976) and \"Yanks\" (1979). Later, came the major box office and critical failure of \"Honky Tonk Freeway\" (1981), followed by films that attracted mixed responses from the public, and low returns, although \"The Falcon and the Snowman\" (1985) made money and \"Pacific Heights\" (1990) was a box-office hit. In Britain, he did better with films like \"Madame Sousatzka\" (1988) and \"Cold Comfort Farm\" (1995). Other later works include \"An Englishman Abroad\" (1983), the TV play \"A Question of Attribution\" (1991), \"The Innocent\" (1993) and \"The Next Best Thing\" (2000).  Schlesinger also directed \"Timon of Athens\" (1965) for the Royal Shakespeare Company and the musical \"I and Albert\" (1972) at London's Piccadilly Theatre. From 1973, he was an associate director of the Royal National Theatre, where he produced George Bernard Shaw's \"Heartbreak House\" (1975). He also directed several operas, beginning with \"Les contes d'Hoffmann\" (1980) and \"Der Rosenkavalier\" (1984), both at Covent Garden. Schlesinger also directed a party political broadcast for the Conservative Party in the general election of 1992, which featured Prime Minister John Major returning to Brixton in south London, where he had spent his teenage years, which highlighted his humble background, atypical for a Conservative politician. Schlesinger admitted to having voted for all three main political parties in the UK at one time or another.  Schlesinger was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1970 Birthday Honours for services to film. In 2003, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California Walk of Stars was dedicated to him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Schlesinger underwent a quadruple heart bypass in 1998, before suffering a stroke in December 2000. He was taken off life support at Desert Regional Medical Center in Palm Springs on 24 July 2003, and he died early the following day at the age of 77. He was survived by his partner of over 30 years, photographer Michael Childers. A memorial service was held on 30 September 2003.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and nominations.", "content": "Academy Awards BAFTA Awards Golden Globe Awards", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Richard Schlesinger (; 16 February 1926 – 25 July 2003) was an English film and stage director, and actor. He won an Academy Award for Best Director for \"Midnight Cowboy\", and was nominated for two other films (\"Darling\" and \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971486}
{"src_title": "Autogenic training", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The roots of this technique lie in the research carried out by Oscar Vogt in the field of sleep and hypnosis. Vogt investigated individuals who had experience in hypnotic sessions. Under his guidance, they were able to go into a state (similar to a hypnotic state) for a self-determined period of time. These short-term mental exercises appeared to reduce stress or effects such as fatigue and tension. In the meantime, other disturbing effects (e.g. headaches) could be avoided. Inspired by this research and Vogt's work, Johannes Heinrich Schultz became interested in the phenomenon of autosuggestion. He wanted to explore an approach, which would avoid undesirable implications of hypnotherapy (e.g., the passivity of the individual and dependency on the therapist). When he was investigating hallucinations in healthy persons, he found that a majority of the subjects reported having two types of experienced sensation: heaviness in the extremities and feeling of warmth. Schultz wanted to understand whether simply imagining a state of heaviness and warmth in one's limbs could induce a state similar to hypnosis. Based on this idea he developed six basic exercises.  Autogenic training was popularized in North America and the English-speaking world by Wolfgang Luthe, who co-authored, with Schultz, a multi-volume tome on autogenic training. In 1963 Luthe discovered the significance of \"autogenic discharges\", paroxysmic phenomena of motor, sensorial, visual and emotional nature related to the traumatic history of the patient, and developed the method of \"autogenic abreaction\". His disciple Luis de Rivera, a McGill University-trained psychiatrist, introduced psychodynamic concepts into Luthe's approach, developing \"autogenic analysis\" as a new method for uncovering the unconscious.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practice and effects.", "content": "The main purpose of autogenic training is the achievement of autonomic self-regulation by removing environmental distraction, training imagery that accompanies autonomic self-regulation, and by providing a facilitative set of exercises that are easy to learn and remember.  Autogenic training is based on 3 main principles: In the context of autogenic training passive concentration means that the trainee is instructed to concentrate on inner sensations rather than environmental stimuli. Passiveness refers to allowing sensations to happen and being an observer rather than a manipulator.  The training can be performed in different postures:  The technique consists of six standard exercises according to Schultz:  When a new exercise step is added in autogenic training, the trainee should always concentrate initially on the already learned exercises and then add a new exercise. In the beginning, a new exercise is added for only brief periods.  According to the specific clinical needs, different modifications of formulas are used. These modifications can be classified into 3 main types:  A study by Spencer suggests that autogenic training restores the balance between the activity of the sympathetic (flight or fight) and the parasympathetic (rest and digest) branches of the autonomic nervous system. The author hypothesizes that this can have important health benefits, as the parasympathetic activity promotes digestion and bowel movements, lowers the blood pressure, slows the heart rate, and promotes the functions of the immune system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Neurophysiological aspects.", "content": "There is a lack of neurophysiological investigations addressing this topic; however, one EEG study from 1963 suggests that the decrease in afferent stimulation induces: The same study suggests that EEG patterns obtained from subjects with different level of practice are not similar.  Another study from 1958 hypothesizes that autogenic state is between the normal waking state and sleep. It suggests that EEG patterns occurring during autogenic training are similar to electrophysiological changes occurring during initial stages of sleep.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contraindications.", "content": "Autogenic training is contra-indicated for children below the age of 5 and the individuals whose symptoms cannot be controlled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical application and evidence.", "content": "Autogenic training has different applications and is used in a variety of pathophysiological conditions, such as bronchial asthma or hypertension, as well as psychological disorders e.g. anxiety and depression. Autogenic training has been subject to clinical evaluation from its early days in Germany, and from the early 1980s worldwide. In 2002, a meta-analysis of 60 studies was published in \"Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback\", finding significant positive effects of treatment when compared to normals over a number of diagnoses; finding these effects to be similar to best recommended rival therapies; and finding positive additional effects by patients, such as their perceived quality of life. Autogenic training is recommended in the 2016 European Society of Cardiology Guideline for prevention of cardiovascular disease in persons who experience psychosocial problems. The International Journal of Dermatology conducted a study and found that Autogenic Training was potentially helpful for improving aged skin in women experiencing menopause.  In Japan, researchers from the Tokyo Psychology and Counseling Service Center have formulated a measure for reporting clinical effectiveness of autogenic training.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versus other relaxation techniques.", "content": "The principle of passive concentration in autogenic training makes this technique different from other relaxation techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation and biofeedback, in which trainees try to control physiological functions. As in biofeedback, bidirectional change in physiological activity is possible. Autogenic training is classified as a self-hypnotic technique. It is different from hetero-hypnosis, where trance is induced by another individual. Autogenic training emphasizes a trainee's independence and gives control from therapist to the trainee. By this, the need for physiological feedback devices or a hypnotherapist is eliminated.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Autogenic training is a desensitization-relaxation technique developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Heinrich Schultz by which a psychophysiologically determined relaxation response is obtained. The technique was first published in 1932. Studying the self-reports of people immersed in a hypnotic state, J.H. Schultz noted that physiological changes are accompanied by certain feelings. Abbé Faria and Émile Coué are the forerunners of Schultz. The technique involves repetitions of a set of visualisations that induce a state of relaxation and is based on passive concentration of bodily perceptions (e.g., heaviness and warmth of arms, legs), which are facilitated by self-suggestions. The technique is used to alleviate many stress-induced psychosomatic disorders.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971487}
{"src_title": "Log file", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Event logs.", "content": "Event logs record events taking place in the execution of a system in order to provide an audit trail that can be used to understand the activity of the system and to diagnose problems. They are essential to understand the activities of complex systems, particularly in the case of applications with little user interaction (such as server applications).  It can also be useful to combine log file entries from multiple sources. This approach, in combination with statistical analysis, may yield correlations between seemingly unrelated events on different servers. Other solutions employ network-wide querying and reporting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transaction logs.", "content": "Most database systems maintain some kind of transaction log, which are not mainly intended as an audit trail for later analysis, and are not intended to be human-readable. These logs record changes to the stored data to allow the database to recover from crashes or other data errors and maintain the stored data in a consistent state. Thus, database systems usually have both general event logs and transaction logs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Message logs.", "content": "Internet Relay Chat (IRC), instant messaging (IM) programs, peer-to-peer file sharing clients with chat functions, and multiplayer games (especially MMORPGs) commonly have the ability to automatically log or save textual communication, both public (IRC channel/IM conference/MMO public/party chat messages) and private chat messages between users.  Message logs are almost universally plain text files, but IM and VoIP clients (which supports textual chat, e.g. Skype) might save them in HTML files or in a custom format to ease reading and encryption.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Internet Relay Chat (IRC).", "content": "In the case of IRC software, message logs often include system/server messages and entries related to channel and user changes (e.g. topic change, user joins/exits/kicks/bans, nickname changes, user status changes), making them more like a combined message/event log of the channel in question, but such a log isn't comparable to a true IRC server event log, because it only records user-visible events for the time frame the user spent being connected to a certain channel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Instant messaging.", "content": "Instant messaging and VoIP clients often offer the chance to store encrypted logs to enhance the user's privacy. These logs require a password to be decrypted and viewed, and they are often handled by their respective writing application..", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transaction log analysis.", "content": "The use of data stored in transaction logs of Web search engines, Intranets, and Web sites can provide valuable insight into understanding the information-searching process of online searchers. This understanding can enlighten information system design, interface development, and devising the information architecture for content collections.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In computing, a log file is a file that records either events that occur in an operating system or other software runs, or messages between different users of a communication software. Logging is the act of keeping a log. In the simplest case, messages are written to a single log file.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971488}
{"src_title": "Salzach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The river's name is derived from the German word \"Salz\" \"salt\" and \"Aach\". Until the 19th century, shipping of salt down the \"Salza\" was an important part of the local economy. The shipping ended when the parallel Salzburg-Tyrol Railway line replaced the old transport system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Course.", "content": "The Salzach is the main river in the Austrian state of Salzburg. The source is located on the edge of the Kitzbühel Alps near Krimml in the western Pinzgau region. Its headstreams drain several alpine pastures at around (metres above the Adriatic), between Krimml and the Tyrolean state border, north of the Gerlos Pass on the slopes of the Salzachgeier () and the nearby Schwebenkopf peak ).  From here, it runs eastwards through a large valley via Bruck south of Lake Zell to Schwarzach im Pongau. It then turns northwards and passes Sankt Johann im Pongau. North of here, the Salzach forms the narrow Salzachöfen Gorge between the Berchtesgaden Alps and the Tennen Mountains and then flows to Hallein and the city of Salzburg.  From the junction with its Saalach tributary in the northern Salzburg basin, the Salzach forms the border between Bavaria, Germany and the Austrian states of Salzburg and Upper Austria for almost. Cities on the banks in this lower section include Laufen and its sister town Oberndorf bei Salzburg, Tittmoning, and Burghausen. All these towns have border crossings.  The river finally joins the Inn in Haiming between Burghausen and Braunau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries.", "content": "Upper and lower reaches:, and from the Kitzbühel Alps, Krimmler Ache,,,,,,, from the High Tauern, Pinzga from Lake Zell, Fuscher Ache, from the High Tauern, from the Salzburg Slate Alps,,, from the High Tauern, from the, and from the Hochkönig.  Lower reaches: Lammer from the east, (in the ) from the Berchtesgaden Alps, and Almbach from the, both from the Osterhorn Group, Königsseer Ache from the Königssee,, Fischach from the lake, Klausbach, Saalach the largest tributaries, Sur and Götzinger Achen on the Bavarian side, Oichten near Oberndorf and Moosach in the Salzburg-Upper Austrian border region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hydroelectric power plants.", "content": "Currently, there are 12 hydroelectric power plants on the Salzach. The power plants are listed beginning at the headwaters:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Salzach (Austrian: [ˈsaltsax]; ) is a river in Austria and Germany. It is a right tributary of the Inn and is in length, its flow eventually joins the Danube. Its drainage basin of comprises large parts of the Northern Limestone and Central Eastern Alps. 83% of its drainage basin () lies in Austria, the remainder in Germany (Bavaria). Its largest tributaries are Lammer, Berchtesgadener Ache, Saalach, Sur and Götzinger Achen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971489}
{"src_title": "Council of Trent", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecliptic.", "content": "Cetus is not among the 13 true zodiac constellations in the J2000 epoch, nor classical 12-part zodiac. The ecliptic passes less than 0.25° from one of its corners. Thus the moon and planets will enter Cetus (occulting any stars as a foreground object) in 50% of their successive orbits briefly and the southern part of the sun appears in Cetus for about one day each year. Many asteroids in belts have longer phases occulting the north-western part of Cetus, that bulk with a slightly greater inclination to the ecliptic than the moon and planets.  As seen from Mars, the ecliptic (apparent plane of the sun and also the average plane of the planets which is almost the same) passes into Cetus - the centre of the sun is a foreground object in Cetus for around six days shortly after the northern summer solstice. Mars's orbit is tilted by 1.85° with respect to Earth's - Mars has relatively great 'inclination', that is, is marginally inclined away from the ecliptic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stars.", "content": "Mira (\"wonderful\", named by Bayer: Omicron Ceti, a star of the neck of the asterism) was the first variable star to be discovered and the prototype of its class, Mira variables. Over a period of 332 days, it reaches a maximum apparent magnitude of 3 - visible to the naked eye - and dips to a minimum magnitude of 10, invisible to the unaided eye. Its seeming appearance and disappearance gave it its name. Mira pulsates with a minimum size of 400 solar diameters and a maximum size of 500 solar diameters. 420 light-years from Earth, it was discovered by David Fabricius in 1596.  α Ceti, traditionally called Menkar (\"the nose\"), is a red-hued giant star of magnitude 2.5, 220 light-years from Earth. It is a wide double star; the secondary is 93 Ceti, a blue-white hued star of magnitude 5.6, 440 light-years away. β Ceti, also called Deneb Kaitos and Diphda is the brightest star in Cetus. It is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 2.0, 96 light-years from Earth. The traditional name \"Deneb Kaitos\" means \"the whale's tail\". γ Ceti, Kaffaljidhma (\"head of the whale\") is a very close double star. The primary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 3.5, 82 light-years from Earth, and the secondary is a blue-hued star of magnitude 6.6. Tau Ceti is noted for being the nearest Sun-like star at a distance of 11.9 light-years. It is a yellow-hued main-sequence star of magnitude 3.5.  AA Ceti is a triple star system; the brightest member has a magnitude of 6.2. The primary and secondary are separated by 8.4 arcseconds at an angle of 304 degrees. The tertiary is not visible in telescopes. AA Ceti is an eclipsing variable star; the tertiary star passes in front of the primary and causes the system's apparent magnitude to decrease by 0.5 magnitudes. UV Ceti is an unusual binary variable star. 8.7 light-years from Earth, the system consists of two red dwarfs. Both of magnitude 13. One of the stars is a flare star, which are prone to sudden, random outbursts that last several minutes; these increase the pair's apparent brightness significantly - as high as magnitude 7.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deep-sky objects.", "content": "Cetus lies far from the galactic plane, so that many distant galaxies are visible, unobscured by dust from the Milky Way. Of these, the brightest is Messier 77 (NGC 1068), a 9th magnitude spiral galaxy near Delta Ceti. It appears face-on and has a clearly visible nucleus of magnitude 10. About 50 million light-years from Earth, M77 is also a Seyfert galaxy and thus a bright object in the radio spectrum. Recently, the galactic cluster JKCS 041 was confirmed to be the most distant cluster of galaxies yet discovered.  The massive cD galaxy Holmberg 15A is also found in Cetus. As is spiral galaxy NGC 1042 and ultra-diffuse galaxy NGC 1052-DF2.  IC 1613 (Caldwell 51) is an irregular dwarf galaxy near the star 26 Ceti and is a member of the Local Group.  NGC 246 (Caldwell 56), also called the Cetus Ring, is a planetary nebula with a magnitude of 8.0, 1600 light-years from Earth. Among some amateur astronomers, NGC 246 has garnered the nickname \"Pac-Man Nebula\" because of the arrangement of its central stars and the surrounding star field.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History and mythology.", "content": "Cetus may have originally been associated with a whale, which would have had mythic status amongst Mesopotamian cultures. It is often now called the Whale, though it is most strongly associated with Cetus the sea-monster, who was slain by Perseus as he saved the princess Andromeda from Poseidon's wrath. Cetus is located in a region of the sky called \"The Sea\" because many water-associated constellations are placed there, including Eridanus, Pisces, Piscis Austrinus, Capricornus, and Aquarius.  Cetus has been depicted in many ways throughout its history. In the 17th century, Cetus was depicted as a \"dragon fish\" by Johann Bayer. Both Willem Blaeu and Andreas Cellarius depicted Cetus as a whale-like creature in the same century. However, Cetus has also been variously depicted with animal heads attached to a piscine body.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In global astronomy.", "content": "In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Cetus are found among two areas: the Black Tortoise of the North (北方玄武, \"Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ\") and the White Tiger of the West (西方白虎, \"Xī Fāng Bái Hǔ\").  The Tukano and Kobeua people of the Amazon used the stars of Cetus to create a jaguar, representing the god of hurricanes and other violent storms. Lambda, Mu, Xi, Nu, Gamma, and Alpha Ceti represented its head; Omicron, Zeta, and Chi Ceti represented its body; Eta Eri, Tau Cet, and Upsilon Cet marked its legs and feet; and Theta, Eta, and Beta Ceti delineated its tail.  In Hawaii, the constellation was called \"Na Kuhi\", and Mira (Omicron Ceti) may have been called \"Kane\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Namesakes.", "content": "USS Cetus (AK-77) was a United States Navy Crater class cargo ship named after the constellation. \"Cetus\" is the title of a ragtime piano composition by Tom Brier on the album \"Constellations\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Council of Trent (), held between 1545 and 1563 in Trent (or Trento, in northern Italy), was the 19th ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. Prompted by the Protestant Reformation, it has been described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971490}
{"src_title": "Packet analyzer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Capabilities.", "content": "On wired shared medium networks, such as Ethernet, Token Ring, and FDDI networks, depending on the network structure (hub or switch), it may be possible to capture all traffic on the network from a single machine on the network. On modern networks, traffic can be captured using a network switch with a so-called \"monitoring port\" that mirrors all packets that pass through designated ports of the switch. A network tap is an even more reliable solution than to use a monitoring port, since taps are less likely to drop packets during high traffic load.  On wireless LANs, traffic can be captured on one channel at a time, or by using multiple adapters, on several channels simultaneously.  On wired broadcast and wireless LANs, to capture unicast traffic between other machines, the network adapter capturing the traffic must be in promiscuous mode. On wireless LANs, even if the adapter is in promiscuous mode, packets not for the service set the adapter is configured for are usually ignored. To see those packets, the adapter must be in monitor mode. No special provisions are required to capture multicast traffic to a multicast group the packet analyzer is already monitoring, or broadcast traffic.  When traffic is captured, either the entire contents of packets are recorded, or just the headers are recorded. Recording just headers reduces storage requirements, and avoids some legal issues, yet often provides sufficient information to diagnose problems.  Captured information is decoded from raw digital form into a human-readable format that lets users easily review exchanged information. Protocol analyzers vary in their abilities to display and analyze data.  Some protocol analyzers can also generate traffic and thus act as the reference device. These can act as protocol testers. Such testers generate protocol-correct traffic for functional testing, and may also have the ability to deliberately introduce errors to test the device under test (DUT)'s ability to handle errors.  Protocol analyzers can also be hardware-based, either in probe format or, as is increasingly common, combined with a disk array. These devices record packets (or a slice of the packet) to a disk array. This allows historical forensic analysis of packets without users having to recreate any fault.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Packet sniffers can:  Packet capture can be used to fulfill a warrant from a law enforcement agency to wiretap all network traffic generated by an individual. Internet service providers and VoIP providers in the United States must comply with Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act regulations. Using packet capture and storage, telecommunications carriers can provide the legally required secure and separate access to targeted network traffic and are able to use the same device for internal security purposes. Collecting data from a carrier system without a warrant is illegal due to laws about interception. By using end-to-end encryption, communications can be kept confidential from telecommunication carriers and legal authorities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A packet analyzer (also known as a packet sniffer) is a computer program or piece of computer hardware (such as a packet capture appliance) that can intercept and log traffic that passes over a digital network or part of a network. Packet capture is the process of intercepting and logging traffic. As data streams flow across the network, the sniffer captures each packet and, if needed, decodes the packet's raw data, showing the values of various fields in the packet, and analyzes its content according to the appropriate RFC or other specifications.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971491}
{"src_title": "Hugo von Hofmannsthal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hofmannsthal was born in Landstraße, Vienna, the son of an upper-class Christian Austrian mother, Anna Maria Josefa Fohleutner (1852–1904), and a Christian Austrian–Italian bank manager, Hugo August Peter Hofmann, Edler von Hofmannsthal (1841–1915).  His great-grandfather, Isaak Löw Hofmann, Edler von Hofmannsthal, from whom his family inherited the noble title \"Edler von Hofmannsthal\", was a Jewish tobacco farmer ennobled by the Austrian emperor.  He was schooled in Vienna at Akademisches Gymnasium, where he studied the works of Ovid, later a major influence on his work. He began to write poems and plays from an early age. Some of his early works were written under pseudonyms, such as \"Loris Melikow\" and \"Theophil Morren\", because he was not allowed to publish as a student. He met the German poet Stefan George at the age of seventeen and had several poems published in George's journal, \"Blätter für die Kunst\". He studied law and later philology in Vienna but decided to devote himself to writing upon graduating in 1901. Along with Peter Altenberg and Arthur Schnitzler, he was a member of the \"avant garde\" group Young Vienna (\"Jung Wien\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1900 Hofmannsthal met the composer Richard Strauss for the first time. He later wrote libretti for several of his operas, including \"Elektra\" (1909), \"Der Rosenkavalier\" (1911) with Harry von Kessler, \"Ariadne auf Naxos\" (1912, rev. 1916), \"Die Frau ohne Schatten\" (1919), \"Die ägyptische Helena\" (1928), and \"Arabella\" (1933).  In 1911 he adapted the 15th century English morality play \"Everyman\" as \"Jedermann\", and Jean Sibelius (amongst others) wrote incidental music for it. The play later became a staple at the Salzburg Festival.  During the First World War Hofmannsthal held a government post. He wrote speeches and articles supporting the war effort, and emphasizing the cultural tradition of Austria-Hungary. The end of the war spelled the end of the Habsburg monarchy in Austria; this was a blow from which the patriotic and conservative-minded Hofmannsthal never fully recovered.  Nevertheless, the years after the war were very productive ones for Hofmannsthal; he continued with his earlier literary projects, almost without a break. He wrote several new libretti for Richard Strauss operas. In 1920, Hofmannsthal, along with Max Reinhardt, founded the Salzburg Festival. His later plays revealed a growing interest in religious, particularly Roman Catholic, themes. Among his writings was a screenplay for a film version of \"Der Rosenkavalier\" (1925) directed by Robert Wiene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1901 he married Gertrud \"Gerty\" Schlesinger, the daughter of a Viennese banker. Gerty, who was Jewish, converted to Christianity before their marriage. They settled in (now part of Liesing), not far from Vienna, and had three children:  Two days after his eldest son committed suicide, shortly after attending Franz's funeral, Hugo himself died of a stroke at Rodaun. He was buried wearing the habit of a Franciscan tertiary, as he had requested.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thought.", "content": "On 18 October 1902 Hofmannsthal published a fictive letter in the Berlin Daily, \"Der Tag\" (\"The Day\") titled simply \"Ein Brief\" (\"A Letter\"). It was purportedly written in 1603 by Philip, Lord Chandos to Francis Bacon. In this letter Chandos says that he has stopped writing because he has \"lost completely the ability to think or to speak of anything coherently\"; he has given up on the possibility of language to describe the world. This letter reflects the growing distrust of and dissatisfaction with language that so characterizes the Modern era, and Chandos's dissolving personality is not only individual but societal.  Growing up the son of a wealthy merchant who was well connected with the major artists of the time, Hofmannsthal was raised in what Carl Schorske refers to as \"the temple of art\". This perfect setting for aesthetic isolation allowed Hofmannsthal the unique perspective of the privileged artist, but also allowed him to see that art had become a flattened documenting of humanity, which took our instincts and desires and framed them for viewing without acquiring any of the living, passionate elements. Because of this realization, Hofmannsthal’s idea of the role of the artist began to take shape as someone who created works that would inspire or inflame the instinct, rather than merely preserving it in a creative form. He also began to think that the artist should not be someone isolated and left to his art, but rather a man of the world, immersed in both politics and art.  Hofmannsthal saw in English culture the ideal setting for the artist. This was because the English simultaneously admired Admiral Nelson and John Milton, both war heroes and poets, while still maintaining a solid national identity. \"In [Hofmannsthal’s] view, the division between artist (writer) and man of action (politician, explorer, soldier) does not exist in England. Britain provides her subjects with a common base of energy which functions as equilibrium, a force lacking in fragmented Germany\" (Weiss). This singular and yet pragmatic identity must have appealed to Hofmannsthal to a certain degree due to the large scale fragmentation of Austria at the time, which was in the throes of radical nationalism and anti-Semitism, a nation in which the progressive artist and the progressive politician were growing more different and hostile to each other by the day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "The Austrian author Stefan Zweig wrote in his memoirs \"The World of Yesterday\" (1942) on Hofmannsthal's early accomplishments and their influence on Zweig's generation:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected works.", "content": "Plays Libretti Narrations and fictitious conversations Novel (fragment) Essays, speeches, prose Poetry", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hugo Laurenz August Hofmann von Hofmannsthal (; 1 February 1874 – 15 July 1929) was an Austrian prodigy, a novelist, librettist, poet, dramatist, narrator, and essayist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971492}
{"src_title": "Class (set theory)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Examples.", "content": "The collection of all algebraic structures of a given type will usually be a proper class. Examples include the class of all groups, the class of all vector spaces, and many others. In category theory, a category whose collection of objects forms a proper class (or whose collection of morphisms forms a proper class) is called a large category.  The surreal numbers are a proper class of objects that have the properties of a field.  Within set theory, many collections of sets turn out to be proper classes. Examples include the class of all sets, the class of all ordinal numbers, and the class of all cardinal numbers.  One way to prove that a class is proper is to place it in bijection with the class of all ordinal numbers. This method is used, for example, in the proof that there is no free complete lattice on three or more generators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paradoxes.", "content": "The paradoxes of naive set theory can be explained in terms of the inconsistent tacit assumption that \"all classes are sets\". With a rigorous foundation, these paradoxes instead suggest proofs that certain classes are proper (i.e., that they are not sets). For example, Russell's paradox suggests a proof that the class of all sets which do not contain themselves is proper, and the Burali-Forti paradox suggests that the class of all ordinal numbers is proper. The paradoxes do not arise with classes because there is no notion of classes containing classes. Otherwise, one could, for example, define a class of all classes that do not contain themselves, which would lead to a Russell paradox for classes. A conglomerate, on the other hand, can have proper classes as members, although the \"theory\" of conglomerates is not yet well-established.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classes in formal set theories.", "content": "ZF set theory does not formalize the notion of classes, so each formula with classes must be reduced syntactically to a formula without classes. For example, one can reduce the formula formula_1 to formula_2. Semantically, in a metalanguage, the classes can be described as equivalence classes of logical formulas: If formula_3 is a structure interpreting ZF, then the object language \"class-builder expression\" formula_4 is interpreted in formula_3 by the collection of all the elements from the domain of formula_3 on which formula_7 holds; thus, the class can be described as the set of all predicates equivalent to formula_8 (which includes formula_8 itself). In particular, one can identify the \"class of all sets\" with the set of all predicates equivalent to formula_10  Because classes do not have any formal status in the theory of ZF, the axioms of ZF do not immediately apply to classes. However, if an inaccessible cardinal formula_11 is assumed, then the sets of smaller rank form a model of ZF (a Grothendieck universe), and its subsets can be thought of as \"classes\".  In ZF, the concept of a function can also be generalised to classes. A class function is not a function in the usual sense, since it is not a set; it is rather a formula formula_12 with the property that for any set formula_13 there is no more than one set formula_14 such that the pair formula_15 satisfies formula_16 For example, the class function mapping each set to its successor may be expressed as the formula formula_17 The fact that the ordered pair formula_15 satisfies formula_19 may be expressed with the shorthand notation formula_20  Another approach is taken by the von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel axioms (NBG); classes are the basic objects in this theory, and a set is then defined to be a class that is an element of some other class. However, the class existence axioms of NBG are restricted so that they only quantify over sets, rather than over all classes. This causes NBG to be a conservative extension of ZF.  Morse–Kelley set theory admits proper classes as basic objects, like NBG, but also allows quantification over all proper classes in its class existence axioms. This causes MK to be strictly stronger than both NBG and ZF.  In other set theories, such as New Foundations or the theory of semisets, the concept of \"proper class\" still makes sense (not all classes are sets) but the criterion of sethood is not closed under subsets. For example, any set theory with a universal set has proper classes which are subclasses of sets.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In set theory and its applications throughout mathematics, a class is a collection of sets (or sometimes other mathematical objects) that can be unambiguously defined by a property that all its members share. The precise definition of \"class\" depends on foundational context. In work on Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, the notion of class is informal, whereas other set theories, such as von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory, axiomatize the notion of \"proper class\", e.g., as entities that are not members of another entity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971493}
{"src_title": "Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Frederick Henry was born on 29 January 1584 in Delft, Holland, Dutch Republic. He was the youngest child of William the Silent and Louise de Coligny. His father William was stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, and Friesland. His mother Louise was daughter of the Huguenot leader Gaspard de Coligny, and was the fourth wife of his father. He was thus the half brother of his predecessor Maurice of Orange, deceased in 1625.  Frederick Henry was born six months before his father's assassination on 10 July 1584. The boy was trained to arms by his elder brother Maurice, one of the finest generals of his age. After Maurice threatened to legitimize his illegitimate children if he did not marry, Frederick Henry married Amalia of Solms-Braunfels in 1625. His illegitimate son by Margaretha Catharina Bruyns (1595–1625), Frederick Nassau de Zuylestein was born in 1624 before his marriage. This son later became the governor of the young William III of England for seven years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stadtholder.", "content": "On the death of Maurice in 1625 without legitimate issue, Frederick Henry succeeded him in his paternal dignities and estates, and also in the stadtholderates of the five provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Guelders, and in the important posts of captain and admiral-general of the Union (commander-in-chief of the Dutch States Army and of the Dutch navy).  Frederick Henry proved himself almost as good a general as his brother, and a far more capable statesman and politician. For twenty-two years he remained at the head of government in the United Provinces, and in his time the power of the stadtholderate reached its highest point. The \"Period of Frederick Henry,\" as it is usually styled by Dutch writers, is generally accounted the golden age of the republic. It was marked by great military and naval triumphs, by worldwide maritime and commercial expansion, and by a wonderful outburst of activity in the domains of art and literature.  The chief military exploits of Frederick Henry were the sieges and captures of Grol in 1627,'s-Hertogenbosch in 1629, of Maastricht in 1632, of Breda in 1637, of Sas van Gent in 1644, and of Hulst in 1645. During the greater part of his administration the alliance with France against Spain had been the pivot of Frederick Henry's foreign policy, but in his last years he sacrificed the French alliance for the sake of concluding a separate peace with Spain, by which the United Provinces obtained from that power all the advantages they had been seeking for eighty years.  Frederick Henry built the country houses Huis Honselaarsdijk, Huis ter Nieuwburg, and for his wife Huis ten Bosch, and he renovated the Noordeinde Palace in The Hague. Huis Honselaarsdijk and Huis ter Nieuwburg are now demolished.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Frederick Henry died on 14 March 1647 in The Hague, Holland, Dutch Republic. He left his wife Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, his son William II, Prince of Orange, four of his daughters, and his illegitimate son Frederick Nassau de Zuylestein.  On Frederick Henry's death, he was buried with great pomp beside his father and brother at Delft. The treaty of Munster, ending the long struggle between the Dutch and the Spaniards, was not actually signed until 30 January 1648, the illness and death of the stadtholder having caused a delay in the negotiations. Frederick Henry left an account of his campaigns in his \"Mémoires de Frédéric Henri\" (Amsterdam, 1743). See \"Cambridge Mod. Hist.\" vol. iv. chap. 24.  His widow commissioned an elaborate mausoleum in the \"Oranjezaal\", a panoramic painted ballroom with scenes from his life and allegories of good government based on his achievements.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Frederick Henry and his wife Amalia of Solms-Braunfels had nine children, being seven daughters and two sons. Four of their children, including one son, died in childhood, leaving Frederick Henry with only a single son as heir. Ultimately, after the death of Frederick Henry's only male-line grandson, the stadtholdership was to pass to a distant agnatic cousin, who was married to Frederick Henry's daughter Albertine Agnes. Frederick Henry's children were:  Frederick Henry recognized one illegitimate child by Margaretha Catharina Bruyns:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat of arms and titles.", "content": "Frederick Henry, besides being Stadholder of several provinces and Captain-General, both non-hereditary and appointive titles:  Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, and Overijssel;  he was the hereditary sovereign of the principality of Orange in what is today Provence in France. He also was the lord of many other estates, which formed his wealth:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of military battles.", "content": "Frederick Henry participated in these battles as principal Dutch commander:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick Henry (; 29 January 1584 – 14 March 1647) was the sovereign prince of Orange and stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, Overijssel in the Dutch Republic from 1625 until his death in 1647. The last seven years of his life he also was the stadtholder of Groningen (1640-1647).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971494}
{"src_title": "Imperial Estate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition.", "content": "Imperial Estates could be either ecclesiastic or secular. The ecclesiastical Estates were led by: The secular Estates, most notably: Until 1582 the votes of the Free and Imperial Cities were only advisory. None of the rulers below the Holy Roman Emperor ranked as kings, with the exception of the Kings of Bohemia.  The status of Estate was normally attached to a particular territory within the Empire, but there were some \", or \"persons with imperial statehood\". Originally, the Emperor alone could grant that status, but in 1653, several restrictions on the Emperor's power were introduced. The creation of a new Estate required the assent of the College of Electors and of the College of Princes (see below). The ruler was required to agree to accept imperial taxation and military obligations. Furthermore, the Estate was required to obtain admittance into one of the Imperial Circles. Theoretically, personalist Estates were forbidden after 1653, but exceptions were often made. Once a territory attained the status of an Estate, it could lose that status under very few circumstances. A territory ceded to a foreign power ceased to be an Estate.  From 1648 onwards, inheritance of the Estate was limited to one family; a territory inherited by a different family ceased to be an Estate unless the Emperor explicitly allowed otherwise. Finally, a territory could cease to be an imperial Estate by being subjected to the Imperial ban (the most notable example involved the Elector Palatine Frederick V, who was banned in 1621 for his participation in the Bohemian Revolt).  In the German mediatization between 1803 and 1806, the vast majority of the Estates of the Holy Roman Empire were mediatised. They lost their imperial immediacy and became part of other Estates. The number of Estates was reduced from about three hundred to about thirty. Mediatisation went along with secularisation: the abolition of most of the ecclesiastical Estates. This dissolution of the constitution of the structure of the empire was soon followed by the dissolution of the empire itself, in 1806.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rights and privileges.", "content": "Rulers of Imperial States enjoyed precedence over other subjects in the Empire. Electors were originally styled'(Serene Highness), princes'(high-born) and counts'(high and well-born). In the eighteenth century, the electors were upgraded to'(Most Serene Highness), princes to'(Serene Highness) and counts to'(Illustrious Highness).  Imperial States enjoyed several rights and privileges. Rulers had autonomy inasmuch as their families were concerned; in particular, they were permitted to make rules regarding the inheritance of their states without imperial interference. They were permitted to make treaties and enter into alliances with other Imperial States as well as with foreign nations. The electors, but not the other rulers, were permitted to exercise certain regalian powers, including the power to mint money, the power to collect tolls and a monopoly over gold and silver mines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imperial Diet.", "content": "From 1489 onwards, the Imperial Diet was divided into three \": the Council of Electors, the Council of Princes and the Council of Cities. Electoral states belonged to the first of the aforementioned councils; other states, whether ecclesiastical or secular, belonged to the Council of Princes.  Votes were held in right of the states, rather than personally. Consequently, an individual ruling several states held multiple votes; similarly, multiple individuals ruling parts of the same state shared a single vote. These rules were not formalized until 1582; prior to this time, when multiple individuals inherited parts of the same state, they sometimes received a vote each. Votes were either individual or collective. Princes and senior clerics generally held individual votes (but such votes, as noted above, were sometimes shared). Prelates (abbots and priors) without individual votes were classified into two benches—the Bench of the Rhine and the Bench of Swabia — each of which enjoyed a collective vote. Similarly, Counts were grouped into four comital benches with a collective vote each — the Upper Rhenish Bench of Wetterau, the Swabian Bench, the Franconian Bench and the Westphalian Bench.  No elector ever held multiple electorates; nor were electorates ever divided between multiple heirs. Hence, in the Council of Electors, each individual held exactly one vote. Electors who ruled states in addition to their electorates also voted in the Council of Princes; similarly, princes who also ruled comital territories voted both individually and in the comital benches. In the Reichstag in 1792, for instance, the Elector of Brandenburg held eight individual votes in the Council of Princes and one vote in the Bench of Westphalia. Similarly, among ecclesiastics, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order held one individual vote in the Council of Princes and two in the Bench of the Rhine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quaternions.", "content": "The so-called imperial quaternions (German: \"Quaternionen der Reichsverfassung\" \"quaternions of the imperial constitution\"; from Latin \"quaterniō\" \"group of four soldiers\") were a conventional representation of the Imperial States of the Holy Roman Empire which first became current in the 15th century and was extremely popular during the 16th century.  Apart from the highest tiers of the emperor, kings, prince-bishops and the prince electors, the estates are represented in groups of four. The number of quaternions was usually ten, in descending order of precedence Dukes (\"Duces\"), Margraves (\"Marchiones\"), Landgraves (\"Comites Provinciales\"), Burggraves (\"Comites Castrenses\"), Counts (\"Comites\"), Knights (\"Milites\"), Noblemen (\"Liberi\"), Cities (\"Metropoles\"), Villages (\"Villae\") and Peasants (\"Rustici\"). The list could be shortened or expanded, by the mid-16th century to as many as 45. It is likely that this system was first introduced under Emperor Sigismund, who is assumed to have commissioned the frescoes in Frankfurt city hall in 1414.  As has been noted from an early time, this representation of the \"imperial constitution\" does not in fact represent the actual constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, as some imperial cities appear as \"villages\" or even \"peasants\". E.g. the four \"peasants\" are Cologne, Constance, Regensburg and Salzburg. The Burggrave of Stromburg (or Straburg, Strandeck, and variants) was an unknown entity even at the time. The representation of imperial subjects is also far from complete. The \"imperial quaternions\" are, rather, a more or less random selection intended to represent \"pars pro toto\" the structure of the imperial constitution.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An Imperial State or Imperial Estate (;, plural: ') was a part of the Holy Roman Empire with representation and the right to vote in the Imperial Diet ('). Rulers of these Estates were able to exercise significant rights and privileges and were \"immediate\", meaning that the only authority above them was the Holy Roman Emperor. They were thus able to rule their territories with a considerable degree of autonomy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971495}
{"src_title": "Erste Allgemeine Verunsicherung", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Style.", "content": "Their songs are mostly comical and weird in nature, but the lyrics contain hints of social criticism as well. For example, \"Cinderella\" (1994) is one of their \"fun\" songs, in which they tell the tale of Cinderella in a funny way: \"Sie schlief im Kohlenkeller, trotzdem war sie bettelarm, weil sie von der vielen Kohle, die da lag, zu wenig nahm\" (\"She slept in the coal cellar, but she was dirt-poor, because she didn't take much of the plentiful coal that lay there\"). The word \"Kohle\" (\"coal\") is a colloquial word for money in German.  More critical lyrics can be seen in the song \"Burli\" (1987), which tells the story of a boy born shortly after the Chernobyl accident in an exaggerated and humorous way: \"Herr Anton hat ein Häuschen mit einem Gartenzwerg und davor, da steht ein Kernkraftwerk. Da gab es eines Tages eine kleine Havarie, die Tomaten war'n so groß wie nie...\" (\"Mr. Anton has a small house with a garden gnome, and nearby there's a nuclear power plant. One day there was a small accident - the tomatoes were bigger than ever before...\"). Both \"Burli\" and the song \"Afrika\" led radio stations to boycott the band.  The band is known for open statements against political extremism especially on the right (\"bacillus nationalis\") and was sued by prominent politicians of the political right like Kurt Waldheim for drawing attention to his past in the 3rd Reich and Jörg Haider, then-head of the right-leaning FPÖ. Songs on this topic include e.g. \"Eierkopf-Rudi\" or \"Wir marschieren\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Members.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deaths of members.", "content": "In February 1981, group member Walter Hammerl (b. 1952) committed suicide by hanging. He had attempted suicide before. He was a close friend of Klaus Eberhartinger, who took over his duties. Bandmate Thomas Spitzer commented that it was worrying how the band got on and felt so close to Walter Hammerl, but without actually knowing him. Hammerl had mainly done managing and stage directing work for the band, however he did sing on a few tracks.  In May 2012, former group member Andy Töfferl died of a heart attack at the age of 56 years.  In July 2017, former singer Wilfried Scheutz died after a short battle with cancer at the age of 69 years.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The \"EAV\" (Erste Allgemeine Verunsicherung, German for \"First General Confusion/Uncertainty/'Uninsurance'\") was an Austrian band which was formed in 1977 and disbanded in 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971496}
{"src_title": "Tuple", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The term originated as an abstraction of the sequence: single, couple/double, triple, quadruple, quintuple, sextuple, septuple, octuple,..., ‐tuple,..., where the prefixes are taken from the Latin names of the numerals. The unique 0‐tuple is called the null tuple or empty tuple. A 1‐tuple is called a single (or singleton), a 2‐tuple is called an ordered pair or couple, and a 3‐tuple is called a triple (or triplet). The number can be any nonnegative integer. For example, a complex number can be represented as a 2‐tuple of reals, a quaternion can be represented as a 4‐tuple, an octonion can be represented as an 8‐tuple, and a sedenion can be represented as a 16‐tuple.  Although these uses treat \"‐uple\" as the suffix, the original suffix was \"‐ple\" as in \"triple\" (three-fold) or \"decuple\" (ten‐fold). This originates from medieval Latin \"plus\" (meaning \"more\") related to Greek ‐πλοῦς, which replaced the classical and late antique \"‐plex\" (meaning \"folded\"), as in \"duplex\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "The general rule for the identity of two -tuples is  Thus a tuple has properties that distinguish it from a set.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definitions.", "content": "There are several definitions of tuples that give them the properties described in the previous section.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tuples as functions.", "content": "If we are dealing with sets, an -tuple can be regarded as a function,, whose domain is the tuple's implicit set of element indices,, and whose codomain,, is the tuple's set of elements. Formally: where: In slightly less formal notation this says:  Using this definition of formula_12-tuples, it follows that there is only one formula_13-tuple, the empty function.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tuples as nested ordered pairs.", "content": "Another way of modeling tuples in Set Theory is as nested ordered pairs. This approach assumes that the notion of ordered pair has already been defined; thus a 2-tuple This definition can be applied recursively to the -tuple:  Thus, for example:  A variant of this definition starts \"peeling off\" elements from the other end: This definition can be applied recursively:  Thus, for example:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tuples as nested sets.", "content": "Using Kuratowski's representation for an ordered pair, the second definition above can be reformulated in terms of pure set theory:  In this formulation:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "-tuples of -sets.", "content": "In discrete mathematics, especially combinatorics and finite probability theory, -tuples arise in the context of various counting problems and are treated more informally as ordered lists of length. -tuples whose entries come from a set of elements are also called \"arrangements with repetition\", \"permutations of a multiset\" and, in some non-English literature, \"variations with repetition\". The number of -tuples of an -set is. This follows from the combinatorial rule of product. If is a finite set of cardinality, this number is the cardinality of the -fold Cartesian power. Tuples are elements of this product set.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Type theory.", "content": "In type theory, commonly used in programming languages, a tuple has a product type; this fixes not only the length, but also the underlying types of each component. Formally: and the projections are term constructors:  The tuple with labeled elements used in the relational model has a record type. Both of these types can be defined as simple extensions of the simply typed lambda calculus.  The notion of a tuple in type theory and that in set theory are related in the following way: If we consider the natural model of a type theory, and use the Scott brackets to indicate the semantic interpretation, then the model consists of some sets formula_31 (note: the use of italics here that distinguishes sets from types) such that: and the interpretation of the basic terms is:  The -tuple of type theory has the natural interpretation as an -tuple of set theory: The unit type has as semantic interpretation the 0-tuple.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, a tuple is a finite ordered list (sequence) of elements. An -tuple is a sequence (or ordered list) of elements, where is a non-negative integer. There is only one 0-tuple, an empty sequence, or empty tuple, as it is referred to. An -tuple is defined inductively using the construction of an ordered pair. Tuples: 1- single 2- couple 3- triple 4- quadruple 5- quintuple 6- sextuple 7- septuple 8- octuple 9- nonuple (n-tuple) 10- decuple 20- viguple", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971497}
{"src_title": "Bauxite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formation.", "content": "Numerous classification schemes have been proposed for bauxite but,, there was no consensus.  Vadász (1951) distinguished lateritic bauxites (silicate bauxites) from karst bauxite ores (carbonate bauxites):  In the case of Jamaica, recent analysis of the soils showed elevated levels of cadmium, suggesting that the bauxite originates from recent Miocene ash deposits from episodes of significant volcanism in Central America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production trends.", "content": "Australia is the largest producer of bauxite, followed by China. In 2017, China was the top producer of aluminium with almost half of the world's production, followed by Russia, Canada, and India. Although aluminium demand is rapidly increasing, known reserves of its bauxite ore are sufficient to meet the worldwide demands for aluminium for many centuries. Increased aluminium recycling, which has the advantage of lowering the cost in electric power in producing aluminium, will considerably extend the world's bauxite reserves.  In November 2010, Nguyen Tan Dung, the prime minister of Vietnam, announced that Vietnam's bauxite reserves might total 11,000 Mt (11 trillion kg); this would be the largest in the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Processing.", "content": "Bauxite is usually strip mined because it is almost always found near the surface of the terrain, with little or no overburden., approximately 70% to 80% of the world's dry bauxite production is processed first into alumina and then into aluminium by electrolysis. Bauxite rocks are typically classified according to their intended commercial application: metallurgical, abrasive, cement, chemical, and refractory.  Usually, bauxite ore is heated in a pressure vessel along with a sodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of. At these temperatures, the aluminium is dissolved as sodium aluminate (the Bayer process). The aluminium compounds in the bauxite may be present as gibbsite(Al(OH)), boehmite(AlOOH) or diaspore(AlOOH); the different forms of the aluminium component will dictate the extraction conditions. The undissolved waste, bauxite tailings, after the aluminium compounds are extracted contains iron oxides, silica, calcia, titania and some un-reacted alumina. After separation of the residue by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled, and then seeded with fine-grained aluminium hydroxide. The gibbsite is usually converted into aluminium oxide, AlO, by heating in rotary kilns or fluid flash calciners to a temperature in excess of. This aluminium oxide is dissolved at a temperature of about in molten cryolite. Next, this molten substance can yield metallic aluminium by passing an electric current through it in the process of electrolysis, which is called the Hall–Héroult process, named after its American and French discoverers.  Prior to the invention of this process, and prior to the Deville process, aluminium ore was refined by heating ore along with elemental sodium or potassium in a vacuum. The method was complicated and consumed materials that were themselves expensive at that time. This made early elemental aluminium more expensive than gold.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Source of gallium.", "content": "Bauxite is the main source of the rare metal gallium.  During the processing of bauxite to alumina in the Bayer process, gallium accumulates in the sodium hydroxide liquor. From this it can be extracted by a variety of methods. The most recent is the use of ion-exchange resin. Achievable extraction efficiencies critically depend on the original concentration in the feed bauxite. At a typical feed concentration of 50 ppm, about 15 percent of the contained gallium is extractable. The remainder reports to the red mud and aluminium hydroxide streams.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bauxite is a sedimentary rock with a relatively high aluminium content. It is the world's main source of aluminium and gallium. Bauxite consists mostly of the aluminium minerals gibbsite (Al(OH)), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)) and diaspore (α-AlO(OH)), mixed with the two iron oxides goethite (FeO(OH)) and haematite (FeO), the aluminium clay mineral kaolinite (AlSiO(OH)) and small amounts of anatase (TiO) and ilmenite (FeTiO or FeO.TiO).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971498}
{"src_title": "Karl Carstens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Carstens was born in the City of Bremen, the son of a commercial school teacher, who had been killed at the Western Front of World War I shortly before his birth. He studied law and political science at the universities of Frankfurt, Dijon, Munich, Königsberg, and Hamburg from 1933 to 1936, gaining a doctorate in 1938 and taking the Second \"Staatsexamen\" degree in 1939. In 1949 he also received a Master of Laws (LL.M.) degree from Yale Law School.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "From 1939 to 1945, during the Second World War, Carstens was a member of an anti-aircraft artillery (\"Flak\") unit in the Luftwaffe, reaching the rank of \"Leutnant\" (Second Lieutenant) by the war's end. In 1940 he joined the Nazi Party; reportedly, he had applied for admission in 1937 to avoid detrimental treatment when he worked as a law clerk. He had, however, joined the Nazi \"SA\" paramilitary organisation already in 1934.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war years.", "content": "In 1944 Carstens married the medical student Veronica Prior in Berlin. After the war he became a lawyer in his hometown Bremen, and from 1949 acted as a councillor of the city's Senate. From 1950 he also worked as lecturer at the University of Cologne, where he habilitated two years later. In 1954 he joined the diplomatic service of the German Foreign Office, serving as West German representative at the Council of Europe in Strasbourg. In 1955 he joined the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.  In July 1960 Carstens reached the position of secretary of state at the Foreign Office and in the same year was also appointed as professor for public and international law at Cologne University. During the grand coalition government of 1966-1969 under Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger, he first served as secretary of state in the Ministry of Defence, and after 1968 as head of the German Chancellery.  In 1972 Carstens was first elected into the Bundestag, of which he was a member until 1979. From May 1973 until October 1976 he was chairman of the CDU/CSU parliamentary group, succeeding Rainer Barzel. During that time he was an outspoken critic of left-wing tendencies in the German student movement and particular accused the governing Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) of being too soft on left-wing extremists. He also famously denounced the author and Nobel laureate Heinrich Böll as a supporter of left-wing terrorism (specifically, the Baader-Meinhof Gang) for his 1974 novel \"The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum\".  After the 1976 federal elections, which made the CDU/CSU the largest group in parliament, Carstens was elected president of the Bundestag on 14 December 1976. The CDU/CSU had also reached a majority in the Federal Convention electing the President of Germany, and in 1979 the party nominated Carstens, though in contestation due to his Nazi past, as candidate, whereafter incumbent President Walter Scheel (FDP) chose to renounce a second term.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President of West Germany.", "content": "On 23 May 1979, Carstens was elected as the fifth President of the Federal Republic of Germany, prevailing against the SPD candidate Annemarie Renger in the first ballot. During his term of office, Carstens was well known for hiking Germany in order to decrease the gulf between politics and the people.  In December 1982, the new Chancellor Helmut Kohl (CDU), recently elected in a successful motion of no confidence against Helmut Schmidt (SPD) deliberately lost a vote of confidence in the Bundestag, in order to obtain a clearer majority in new general elections. Though already former Chancellor Willy Brandt had similarly proceeded in 1972, this action gave rise to a discussion whether such a step constitutes a \"manipulation of the Constitution\". On 7 January 1983, President Carstens nonetheless dissolved the Bundestag and called for new elections. In February 1983 his decision was approved by the Federal Constitutional Court so that 1983 general elections could take place on 6 March.  In 1984 Carstens decided not to seek a second term on account of his age and left office on 30 June 1984. He was succeeded by Richard von Weizsäcker.  Carstens was a member of the Evangelical Church in Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Carstens (14 December 1914 – 30 May 1992) was a German politician. He served as President of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) from 1979 to 1984.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971499}
{"src_title": "Pyramids of Güímar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Research history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thor Heyerdahl's hypothesis.", "content": "In 1990, adventurer and publisher, Thor Heyerdahl, became aware of the \"Canarian Pyramids\" by reading an article written by Francisco Padrón in the Tenerife newspaper \"Diario de Avisos\" detailing \"real pyramids on the Canaries\". As Heyerdahl had hypothesized a transatlantic link between Egypt and Central America, he became intrigued by the Güímar pyramids and relocated to Tenerife. There Heyerdahl researched possible parallels between the Canarian terrace structures and pyramid structures in Egypt and Central America in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica as ceremonial areas.  Heyerdahl hypothesised that the Canarian pyramids formed a temporal and geographic stopping point on voyages between ancient Egypt and the Maya civilization, initiating a controversy in which historians, esoterics, archaeologists, astronomers, and those with a general interest in history took part.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Astronomical research and Freemasonry.", "content": "In 1991, research by Juan Antonio Belmonte Avilés, Antonio Aparicio Juan and César Esteban López, researchers of the Canary Institute of Astrophysics, shown that the long sides of some of the terrace structures at Güímar marked the direction of both solstices. The main limiting wall points to the sunset in the Summer solstice and the pyramids have stairs on their western side which face the direction of the rising sun on the Winter solstice. Also, standing on the platform of the largest pyramid on the day of the Summer solstice it is possible to experience a double sunset, as first the sun sets behind a mountain top, then it emerges again from behind the mountain and sets a second time behind a neighbouring peak. However, considering the room for interpretation, it is impossible based solely on these observations to conclude what was the intention of the builders or the building date.  In 2005, a book was published in Spanish by Aparicio and Esteban titled \"The Pyramids of Güímar: Myth and Reality\". Aparicio and Esteban suggest that the solstitial orientations of the pyramids were potentially motivated by the Masonic symbolism. These authors argue that solstices are very important in the symbolism of Freemasonry, and that the owner of the land in the epoch in which the pyramids were built was himself a Freemason. This motivation would be only an aesthetic one and would not modify in any rate the fundamental motivation (agriculture) and date of construction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Archaeological excavations.", "content": "Between 1991 and 1998, with the agreement of Thor Heyerdahl, multiple excavations of the site by archaeologists of the University of La Laguna (Departamento de Prehistoria, Antropología e Historia Antigua) took place. In 1996 the results of the 1991 excavation were presented at a colloquium (published in 1998), providing evidence for the dating of the pyramids. According to the preceding geophysical Georadar-Survey eight locations adjacent to the pyramids, each with an area of 25 m2, were investigated in layers down to the solid lava-floor. In doing so it was possible to establish three specific sediment layers. Starting from the top these were:  Furthermore, under the border edge of one of the pyramids, a natural lava cave was discovered. It had been walled up and yielded artefacts from the time of the Guanches. Since the pyramids lie stratigraphically above the cave, the Guanche finds from between 600 and 1000 AD can only support conclusions on the date of human use of the cave. The above survey indicates that the pyramids themselves cannot be older than the 19th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conclusions.", "content": "The archaeologists involved maintain that the creation of the terrace structures followed from the practices of the 19th century rural population, who created these structures while clearing cultivatable land of stones, as they piled the stones into these terrace shapes. The excavations and subsequent research support a date for the construction of the structures no earlier than the 19th century.  Heyerdahl suggested that the structures were not haphazardly piled-up stones. Heyerdahl maintained a belief in the hypothesis that the pyramids were connected with Guanches until his death. The association of the Guanches and the pyramids continues to be elaborated upon both in \"Pyramid park\" and on its official website.  Aparicio and Esteban's theory connects the facts that the pyramids were built in the 19th century with the acknowledgement that they are not simply piles of stones.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnographic park.", "content": "Following the completion of the excavations in 1998, the 65,000 m2 area surrounding the pyramids was made accessible to the public. Heyerdahl received financial support from his friend the Canarian businessman Fred Olsen, who owns the largest transport company in the Canaries and whose family came to the islands from Norway in the 20th century. An information centre provides visitors with information about Heyerdahl’s research trips and his previous ideas regarding the pyramids. Two pavilions contain exhibits relating to Heyerdahl along with models of his boats; a replica of the Ra II in its original size, amongst others. In spite of the conclusions regarding the age of the pyramids outlined above, Heyerdahl continued to maintain a belief \"in a possible relationship between the existence of the pyramids and the pre Hispanic civilisation on Tenerife\". The objects found in the Guanche cave are shown in the \"museum\" in heavily enlarged photos, whilst the imported ceramics from the 19th century are mentioned only briefly on an information board – without illustration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pyramids of Güímar are six rectangular pyramid-shaped, terraced structures built from lava stone without the use of mortar. They are located in the district of Chacona, part of the town of Güímar on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands, Spain. The structures have been dated to the 19th century AD and they may originally have been a byproduct of contemporary agricultural techniques.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971500}
{"src_title": "Sierra Nevada (Spain)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formation.", "content": "The Sierra Nevada was formed during the Alpine Orogeny, a mountain-building event that also formed the European Alps to the east and the Atlas Mountains of northern Africa across the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Sierra as observed today formed during the Paleogene and Neogene Periods (66 to 1.8 million years ago) from the collision of the African and Eurasian continental plates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Central to the mountain range is a ridge running broadly west-south-west - east-north-east. For a substantial distance, the watershed stays consistently above.  On the southern side of the range, several long, (but) narrow river valleys lead off towards the south-west, separated by a number of subsidiary ridges.  On the steeper and craggier northern side, the valleys have less regular orientations. This side is dominated by the Rio Genil which starts near Mulhacén and into which many of the other rivers flow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "According to the Köppen climate classification, Sierra Nevada has a Mediterranean subalpine climate (Dsc), due to the location's high elevation and low summer precipitation. With June and September being around the threshold of in mean temperature to avoid the subarctic classification, the climate at a slightly lower elevation is continental highland climate. At an elevation slightly lower than that classification area; where February means average above ; it falls into the normal cool-summer mediterranean classification transitioning with the hot-summer variety in surrounding lowland areas. This renders Sierra Nevada's climate a highland cooled-down variety of a typical mediterranean climate. Summer and winter daytime temperatures are some 12° C cooler than found in Granada, differences that are even greater in spring as Sierra Nevada takes longer to approach the short summers. In May daytime highs in Sierra Nevada are around with Granada having an average of. The yearly temperature of is in stark contrast to Granada's and coastal Málaga's.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sierra Nevada (; meaning \"mountain range covered in snow\") is a mountain range in the region of Andalucia, in the province of Granada and, a little further, Málaga and Almería in Spain. It contains the highest point of continental Spain: Mulhacén, at above sea level.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971501}
{"src_title": "European spruce bark beetle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biology of the species.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "Adults are usually long, cylindrical and robust, black or brownish-black. Elytral declivity is slightly shiny, with 4 teeth on each margin side. The third tooth is the biggest and club like on its top. The egg is yellowish-white. The larva is white and legless. The pupa is also white.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life cycle and interactions.", "content": "Bark beetles are so named because they reproduce in the inner bark, living and dead phloem tissues, of trees. Adult beetles hibernate in forest litter and host trees when environmental conditions are not favorable for reproduction. When conditions are right, they travel up to half a mile in search of a vulnerable host. Once the host is located, the adult burrows through the weakened bark in order to build tunnels where they can mate and lay eggs. They release pheromones to attract more individuals to the host tree. Two to five weeks after contamination, they may migrate to another host and repeat the process. Once the larvae hatch, they feed and pupate under the bark. Up to three generations are produced per year.  Bark beetles communicate with one another using semiochemicals, compounds or mixtures that carry messages. Some electrophysiological and behavioral statistics show that bark beetles can not only sense olfactory signals directly from other bark beetles, but also some compounds from trees.  It is also possible that beetles are attracted to the pheromone ipslure. They are also thought to be attracted to ethanol, one of the byproducts of microbial growth in dead woody tissues.  Bark beetles can form a symbiotic relationship with certain Ophiostomatales fungi. These phloem-feeding bark beetles use phloem-infesting fungi as an addition to their diet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dispersal ability.", "content": "European bark beetles have the ability to spread quickly over large areas. Some scientists hypothesize that long-distance movements originating from the Iberian Peninsula may have contributed to their invasion of northern Norway spruce forests. Movements like this can happen when various environmental factors such as severe storms, drought, or mass fungal infections damage or kill host trees. Trees in the genera \"Picea\" (spruce), \"Abies\" (fir), \"Pinus\" (pine), and \"Larix\" (larch) are the bark beetles' trees of choice. The most recent spruce bark beetle invasive outbreaks are found mainly in fallen, diseased or damaged Norway spruce. Healthy trees use defenses by producing resin or latex, which might contain several insecticidal and fungicidal compounds that kill or injure attacking insects. However, under outbreak conditions, the beetles can overwhelm the tree's defenses.  Though it specializes on Norway spruce, it is not found throughout the tree's range. It may not be able to persist in the northernmost spruce forests due to inadequate climatic oscillations. Other researchers argue that the beetle populations that have evolved in such regions have an active, directed host searching ability and are not equipped for long-range dispersal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Impact.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecological.", "content": "The European spruce bark beetle has a significant impact on both the ecological and economic environment of Norway spruce forests. Together with storm events, bark beetle outbreaks are thought by some to be one of the most important natural disturbances in this region. Some scientists consider this beetle to be a keystone species, in part because it has an unusually high number of relationships with other organisms in the community and because it changes its environment so drastically.  Outbreak species, in general, assist in the renewal of the forest. Spruce beetles are detritivores. They feed on and break down dead plant matter, returning essential nutrients to the ecosystem. Also, they further the evolution of stronger, more resistant trees by instigating a range of adaptations to ward off their attacks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economical.", "content": "The bark beetles of the Norway spruce forests are associated with various types of fungi, who each have different basic ecological roles. Several fungal pathogens can be transmitted to spruces by the invasive beetles. One of the most damaging is a species of blue stain fungus, \"Ophiostoma polonicum\", which can kill healthy trees by hindering the upward flow of water, wilting its foliage. It also stains the wood with blue streaks, which destroys its commercial value. The results of such beetle outbreaks could be devastating for the lumber industry in that area because of the amount of time required for natural regression to take place. When this cycle affects the lumber industries by attacking spruce tree farms, they become known as serious pests.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Detection.", "content": "Spruce beetles usually infest the lower and middle parts of trunks. Trees that have been attacked are easy to recognize by concentrations of brown dust from bark at the basal areas of stems and trunks. However, sometimes apparently infected trees with green crowns can be without bark because of larval and woodpecker activity. Other common ways that infection can be detected is the presence of red-brown dust (frass) in bark crevices, many round exit holes, or small pitch tubes extruding from the bark. Large populations can be detected from a distance by patches of red foliage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "Interventions for beetle outbreaks are controversial in locations such as the Šumava National Park in the Bohemian Forest of the Czech Republic. Some authorities suggest that outbreaks be allowed to run their course, even at the expense of most of the forest. Others, including the lumber industry, request intervention. Some experts argue that salvage logging tends to have a greater negative effect on the vegetation than the bark beetle outbreak alone. A study of the effects of forestry interventions on the herb and moss layers of infested mountain spruce forests suggest that without intervention the forests do eventually recover. Salvage logging also had negative effects on the composition of species, delaying recovery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prevention and control methods.", "content": "Several methods have been proposed to prevent the start of beetle outbreaks. Some suggest using “trap trees” at the beginning of each reproductive cycle. This should be done in March, May, and in late June or early July. The trap trees should be debarked when distinct larval galleries with small larvae are found. Another method is clearcutting, removing sections of trees at the first signs of infestation. Pheromone traps can be used. Removal of attractive material, such as logs with bark, weakened trees, and windthrow, may help prevent outbreaks.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The European spruce bark beetle (\"Ips typographus\"), is a species of beetle in the weevil subfamily Scolytinae, the bark beetles, and is found from Europe to Asia Minor and some parts of Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971502}
{"src_title": "Kodkod", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The kodkod's fur color ranges from brownish-yellow to grey-brown. It has dark spots, a pale underside and a ringed tail. The ears are black with a white spot, while the dark spots on the shoulders and neck almost merge to form a series of dotted streaks. Melanistic kodkods with spotted black coats are quite common. It has a small head, large feet, and a thick tail. Adult kodkods are in head to body length with a short tail and a shoulder height of about. Weight ranges between.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The kodkod is strongly associated with mixed temperate rainforests of the southern Andean and coastal ranges, particularly the Valdivian and Araucaria forests of Chile, which is characterized by the presence of bamboo in the understory. It prefers evergreen temperate rainforest habitats to deciduous temperate moist forests, sclerophyllous scrub and coniferous forests. It is tolerant of altered habitats, being found in secondary forest and shrub as well as primary forest, and on the fringes of settled and cultivated areas. It ranges up to the treeline at approximately. In Argentina, it has been recorded from moist montane forest, which has Valdivian temperate rain forest characteristics, including a multi-layered structure with bamboo, and numerous lianas and epiphytes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behavior.", "content": "Kodkods are equally active during the day and during the night, although they only venture into open terrain under the cover of darkness. During the day, they rest in dense vegetation in ravines, along streams with heavy cover, and in piles of dead gorse. They are excellent climbers, and easily able to climb trees more than a meter in diameter. They are terrestrial predators of birds, lizards and rodents in the ravines and forested areas, feeding on southern lapwing, austral thrush, chucao tapaculo, huet-huet, domestic geese and chicken.  Male kodkods maintain exclusive territories in size, while females occupy smaller ranges of just.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The gestation period lasts about 72–78 days. The average litter size is one to three kittens. This species may live to be about 11 years old.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The major threat to the kodkod is logging of its temperate moist forest habitat, and the spread of pine forest plantations and agriculture, particularly in central Chile. In 1997 to 1998, two out of five radio-collared kodkods were killed on Chiloé Island while raiding chicken coops.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Felis guigna\" was the scientific name used in 1782 by Juan Ignacio Molina who first described a kodkod from Chile. \"Felis tigrillo\" was the name used in 1844 by Heinrich Rudolf Schinz.  The genus \"Leopardus\" was proposed in 1842 by John Edward Gray, when he described two spotted cat skins from Central America and two from India in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London. The subgenus \"Oncifelis\" was proposed in 1851 by Nikolai Severtzov with the Geoffroy's cat as type species. The kodkod was subordinated to \"Leopardus\" in 1958, and to \"Oncifelis\" in 1978.  Today, the genus \"Leopardus\" is widely recognized as valid, with two kodkod subspecies:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The kodkod (\"Leopardus guigna\") (), also called güiña, is the smallest cat in the Americas. It lives primarily in central and southern Chile and marginally in adjoining areas of Argentina. Its area of distribution is small compared to the other South American cats. Since 2002, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List as the total effective population may comprise less than 10,000 mature individuals, and is threatened due to persecution and loss of habitat and prey base.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971503}
{"src_title": "Caesaropapism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Eastern Church.", "content": "Caesaropapism's chief example is the authority that the Byzantine (East Roman) Emperors had over the Church of Constantinople and Eastern Christianity from the 330 consecration of Constantinople through the tenth century. The Byzantine Emperor would typically protect the Eastern Church and manage its administration by presiding over Ecumenical Councils and appointing Patriarchs and setting territorial boundaries for their jurisdiction. The Emperor exercised a strong control over the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and the Patriarch of Constantinople could not hold office if he did not have the Emperor's approval. Such Emperors as Basiliscus, Zeno, Justinian I, Heraclius, and Constans II published several strictly ecclesiastical edicts either on their own without the mediation of church councils, or they exercised their own political influence on the councils to issue the edicts. According to Metropolitan Kallistos Ware, the historical reality of caesaropapism stems from the confusion of the Byzantine Empire with the Kingdom of God and the zeal of the Byzantines \"to establish here on earth a living icon of God's government in heaven.\"  However, Caesaropapism \"never became an accepted principle in Byzantium.\" Several Eastern churchmen such as John Chrysostom, Patriarch of Constantinople and Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria, strongly opposed imperial control over the Church, as did Western theologians like Hilary of Poitiers and Hosius, Bishop of Córdoba. Saints, such as Maximus the Confessor, resisted the imperial power as a consequence of their witness to orthodoxy. In addition, at several occasions imperial decrees had to be withdrawn as the people of the Church, both lay people, monks and priests, refused to accept inventions at variance with the Church's customs and beliefs. These events show that power over the Church really was in the hands of the Church itself – not solely with the emperor.  Caesaropapism was most notorious in the Tsardom of Russia when Ivan IV the Terrible assumed the title Czar in 1547 and subordinated the Russian Orthodox Church to the state. This level of caesaropapism far exceeded that of the Byzantine Empire and was taken to a new level in 1721, when Peter the Great replaced the patriarchate with a Holy Synod, making the church a department of his government.  The patriarchate was restored on November 10 (October 28 O.S.), 1917, 3 days after the Bolshevik Revolution, by decision of the All-Russian Local Council.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Western Church.", "content": "Justinian I conquered the Italian peninsula in the Gothic War (535–554) and appointed the next three popes, a practice that would be continued by his successors and later be delegated to the Exarchate of Ravenna. The \"Byzantine Papacy\" was a period of Byzantine domination of the papacy from 537 to 752, when popes required the approval of the Byzantine Emperor for episcopal consecration, and many popes were chosen from the \"apocrisiarii\" (liaisons from the pope to the emperor) or the inhabitants of Byzantine Greece, Byzantine Syria, or Byzantine Sicily.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analogue in the Church of England.", "content": "During the dispute between Henry VIII and Pope Clement VII over Henry's wish to have his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled, the English Parliament passed the Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533). It stated  The next year Parliament passed the First Act of Supremacy (1534) that explicitly tied the head of church to the imperial crown:  The Crown of Ireland Act, passed by the Irish Parliament in 1541 (effective 1542), changed the traditional title used by the Monarchs of England for the reign over Ireland, from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland and naming Henry head of the Church of Ireland, for similar reasons.  During the reign of Mary I, the First Act of Supremacy was annulled, but during the reign of Elizabeth I the Second Act of Supremacy, with similar wording to the First Act, was passed in 1559. During the English Interregnum the laws were annulled, but the acts which caused the laws to be in abeyance were themselves deemed to be null and void by the Parliaments of the English Restoration.  When Elizabeth I restored royal supremacy, she replaced the title \"Supreme Head\" with that of \"Supreme Governor\", a change both conciliatory to English Catholics on a political level and reflecting a shift toward a more metaphysically and theologically modest stance involving only a claim to supreme authority over the Church of England's conduct in temporal matters. Since then, the monarchs of England, of Great Britain, and of the United Kingdom have claimed the \"Supreme Governor\" status as well as the title of \"Defender of the Faith\" (which was originally bestowed on Henry VIII by Pope Leo X but later revoked by Pope Paul III, as that was originally an award for Henry's defense of Catholicism).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Caesaropapism is the idea of combining the social and political power of secular government with religious power, or of making secular authority superior to the spiritual authority of the Church; especially concerning the connection of the Church with government. Justus Henning Böhmer (1674–1749) may have originally coined the term \"\" (\"Cäseropapismus\"). Max Weber (1864-1920) wrote: \"a secular, caesaropapist ruler... exercises supreme authority in ecclesiastic matters by virtue of his autonomous legitimacy\". According to Weber, caesaropapism entails \"the complete subordination of priests to secular power.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971504}
{"src_title": "Lotus effect", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Functional principle.", "content": "The high surface tension of water causes droplets to assume a nearly spherical shape, since a sphere has minimal surface area, and this shape therefore minimizes the solid-liquid surface energy. On contact of liquid with a surface, adhesion forces result in wetting of the surface. Either complete or incomplete wetting may occur depending on the structure of the surface and the fluid tension of the droplet. The cause of self-cleaning properties is the hydrophobic water-repellent double structure of the surface. This enables the contact area and the adhesion force between surface and droplet to be significantly reduced, resulting in a self-cleaning process. This hierarchical double structure is formed out of a characteristic epidermis (its outermost layer called the cuticle) and the covering waxes. The epidermis of the lotus plant possesses papillae 10 μm to 20 μm in height and 10 μm to 15 μm in width on which the so-called epicuticular waxes are imposed. These superimposed waxes are hydrophobic and form the second layer of the double structure. This system regenerates. This biochemical property is responsible for the functioning of the water repellency of the surface.  The hydrophobicity of a surface can be measured by its contact angle. The higher the contact angle the higher the hydrophobicity of a surface. Surfaces with a contact angle < 90° are referred to as hydrophilic and those with an angle >90° as hydrophobic. Some plants show contact angles up to 160° and are called ultrahydrophobic, meaning that only 2–3% of the surface of a droplet (of typical size) is in contact. Plants with a double structured surface like the lotus can reach a contact angle of 170°, whereby the droplet's contact area is only 0.6%. All this leads to a self-cleaning effect.  Dirt particles with an extremely reduced contact area are picked up by water droplets and are thus easily cleaned off the surface. If a water droplet rolls across such a contaminated surface the adhesion between the dirt particle, irrespective of its chemistry, and the droplet is higher than between the particle and the surface. This cleaning effect has been demonstrated on common materials such as stainless steel when a superhydrophobic surface is produced. As this self-cleaning effect is based on the high surface tension of water it does not work with organic solvents. Therefore, the hydrophobicity of a surface is no protection against graffiti.  This effect is of a great importance for plants as a protection against pathogens like fungi or algae growth, and also for animals like butterflies, dragonflies and other insects not able to cleanse all their body parts. Another positive effect of self-cleaning is the prevention of contamination of the area of a plant surface exposed to light resulting in reduced photosynthesis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical application.", "content": "When it was discovered that the self-cleaning qualities of ultrahydrophobic surfaces come from physical-chemical properties at the microscopic to nanoscopic scale rather than from the specific chemical properties of the leaf surface, the possibility arose of using this effect in manmade surfaces, by mimicking nature in a general way rather than a specific one.  Some nanotechnologists have developed treatments, coatings, paints, roof tiles, fabrics and other surfaces that can stay dry and clean themselves by replicating in a technical manner the self-cleaning properties of plants, such as the lotus plant. This can usually be achieved using special fluorochemical or silicone treatments on structured surfaces or with compositions containing micro-scale particulates.  In addition to chemical surface treatments, which can be removed over time, metals have been sculpted with femtosecond pulse lasers to produce the lotus effect. The materials are uniformly black at any angle, which combined with the self-cleaning properties might produce very low maintenance solar thermal energy collectors, while the high durability of the metals could be used for self-cleaning latrines to reduce disease transmission.  Further applications have been marketed, such as self-cleaning glasses installed in the sensors of traffic control units on German autobahns developed by a cooperation partner (Ferro GmbH). The Swiss companies HeiQ and Schoeller Textil have developed stain-resistant textiles under the brand names \"HeiQ Eco Dry\" and \"nanosphere\" respectively. In October 2005, tests of the Hohenstein Research Institute showed that clothes treated with NanoSphere technology allowed tomato sauce, coffee and red wine to be easily washed away even after a few washes. Another possible application is thus with self-cleaning awnings, tarpaulins and sails, which otherwise quickly become dirty and difficult to clean.  Superhydrophobic coatings applied to microwave antennas can significantly reduce rain fade and the buildup of ice and snow. \"Easy to clean\" products in ads are often mistaken in the name of the self-cleaning properties of hydrophobic or ultrahydrophobic surfaces. Patterned ultrahydrophobic surfaces also show promise for \"lab-on-a-chip\" microfluidic devices and can greatly improve surface-based bioanalysis.  Superhydrophobic or hydrophobic properties have been used in dew harvesting, or the funneling of water to a basin for use in irrigation. The Groasis Waterboxx has a lid with a microscopic pyramidal structure based on the ultrahydrophobic properties that funnel condensation and rainwater into a basin for release to a growing plant's roots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research history.", "content": "Although the self-cleaning phenomenon of the lotus was possibly known in Asia long before (reference to the lotus effect is found in the \"Bhagavad Gita\",) its mechanism was explained only in the early 1970s after the introduction of the scanning electron microscope. Studies were performed with leaves of \"Tropaeolum\" and lotus (\"Nelumbo\"). \"The Lotus Effect\" is a registered trademark of STO SE & CO. KGAA (US Registration No. 2613850). Similar to lotus effect, a recent study has revealed a honeycomb like micro-structures on the taro leaf, which makes the leaf superhydrophobic. The measured contact angle on this leaf in this study is around 148 degrees.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The lotus effect refers to self-cleaning properties that are a result of ultrahydrophobicity as exhibited by the leaves of \"Nelumbo\" or \"lotus flower\". Dirt particles are picked up by water droplets due to the micro- and nanoscopic architecture on the surface, which minimizes the droplet's adhesion to that surface. Ultrahydrophobicity and self-cleaning properties are also found in other plants, such as \"Tropaeolum\" (nasturtium), \"Opuntia\" (prickly pear), \"Alchemilla\", cane, and also on the wings of certain insects.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971505}
{"src_title": "Jovian (emperor)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Jovian was born at Singidunum (today Belgrade in Serbia) in 331 AD, the son of Varronianus, the commander of Constantius II's imperial bodyguards (\"comes domesticorum\"). He also joined the guards and in this capacity in 361, escorted Constantius' remains to the Church of the Holy Apostles. Jovian was married to Charito and they had two sons, Varronianus, and the other's name is unknown.  Jovian accompanied the Emperor Julian on the Mesopotamian campaign of the same year against Shapur II, the Sasanid king. At the Battle of Samarra, a small but decisive engagement, Julian was mortally wounded, and died on 26 June 363. The next day, after the aged Saturninius Secundus Salutius, praetorian prefect of the Orient, had declined their offer for Emperor, the army elected, despite Julian's reinstitution of paganism, the Christian Jovian, senior officer of the Scholae, as Emperor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rule.", "content": "On the very morning of his accession, Jovian resumed the retreat begun by Julian. Though harassed by the Sasanids, the army succeeded in reaching the city of Dura on the banks of the Tigris. There the army came to a halt, hoping to cross the Tigris to reach the Empire on the western bank. When the attempt to bridge the river failed, he was forced to sue for a peace treaty on humiliating terms. In exchange for an unhindered retreat to his own territory, he agreed to a thirty-year truce, a withdrawal from the five Roman provinces, Arzamena, Moxoeona, Azbdicena, Rehimena and Corduena, and to allow the Sasanids to occupy the fortresses of Nisibis, Castra Maurorum and Singara. The Romans also surrendered their interests in the Kingdom of Armenia to the Sasanids. The king of Armenia, Arsaces II (Arshak II), was to receive no help from Rome. The treaty was widely seen as a disgrace.  After crossing the Tigris, Jovian sent an embassy to the West to announce his elevation. With the treaty signed, Jovian and his army marched to Nisibis. The populace of Nisibis, devastated by the news their city was to be given to the Sasanids, were given three days to leave.  In September 363 Jovian arrived at Edessa where he issued two edicts. The first, a limitation on the distance a soldier could be sent for straw, was to indicate an end to the war with Sasanid Persia. The second was the restoration of estates of the \"res privata\" to the Imperial finances following Julian's incorporating them to pagan temples.  Jovian's arrival at Antioch in October 363, was met with an enraged populace. Faced with offensive graffiti and insulting authorless bills (\"famosi\") throughout the city, he ordered the Library of Antioch to be burned down. Jovian left Antioch in November 363, making his way back to Constantinople. By December 363 Jovian was at Ancyra proclaiming his infant son, Varronianus, consul. While en route from there to Constantinople, Jovian was found dead in his tent at Dadastana, halfway between Ancyra and Nicaea, on 17 February 364. His death, which went uninvestigated, was possibly the result of suffocating on poisonous fumes seeping from the newly painted bedchamber walls by a brazier. Jovian died aged 33 and was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, in a porphyry sarcophagus. He was succeeded by two brothers, Valentinian I and Valens, who subsequently divided the empire between them.  Following Jovian's death, Valentinian and Valens removed any threats to their position. Jovian's son Varronianus was blinded to ensure he would never inherit the throne. According to John Chrysostom, Jovian's wife Charito lived in fear the remaining days of her life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restoration of Christianity.", "content": "Jovian was met at Edessa by a group of bishops, including Athanasius. The Semi-Arian bishops received a poor greeting, but Athanasius, newly returned from exile, delivered a letter to Jovian insisting on the Nicene Creed and the rejection of Arianism. Having restored Athanasius to his episcopal duties, Jovian allowed Athanasius to accompany him to Antioch.  Upon arriving at Antioch, Jovian received a letter from the Synod of Antioch, imploring for Meletius' restoration as bishop of Antioch. By September 363, Jovian reestablished Christianity as the state religion, restored the labarum (\"Chi-Rho\") as the army's standard, and revoked the edicts of Julian against Christians, but did not close any pagan temples. He issued an edict of toleration, to the effect that his subjects could enjoy full liberty of conscience, but he banned magic and divination. Despite supporting the Nicene doctrines, he passed no edicts against Arians. Philostorgius, an Arian church historian, stated, \"The Emperor Jovian restored the churches to their original uses, and set them free from all the vexatious persecutions inflicted on them by the Apostate Julian.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jovian (; ; 331 – 17 February 364) was Roman Emperor from June 363 to February 364. As part of the imperial bodyguard, he accompanied Emperor Julian on his campaign against the Sasanian Empire and following the latter's death, Jovian was hastily declared Emperor by his soldiers. With the army exhausted, provisions running low, and unable to cross the Tigris, he sought peace with the Sasanids on humiliating terms. After his arrival at Edessa, Jovian was petitioned by bishops over doctrinal issues concerning Christianity and by September 363, he had reestablished Christianity as the state religion. His return to Constantinople would be cut short by his death at Dadastana. Jovian reigned only eight months.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971506}
{"src_title": "Gratian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Gratian was the son of Emperor Valentinian I by Marina Severa, and was born at Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) in Pannonia. He was named after his grandfather Gratian the Elder. Gratian was first married to Flavia Maxima Constantia, daughter of Constantius II. His second wife was Laeta. Both marriages remained childless. His stepmother was Empress Justina and his paternal half siblings were Valentinian II, Galla and Justa. Gratian was educated by Ausonius who had praised his pupil for his tolerance.  On 24 August 367 he received from his father the title of \"Augustus\". When his father died on 17 November 375, Gratian began his actual reign at the age of sixteen. Six days later, Gratian's half brother Valentinian II, Valentinian's four-year old son by his second wife Justina, was also proclaimed Emperor by troops in Pannonia, impelled by the generals Aequitius and Maximinus, two of Valentinian's more unscrupulous ministers.  Gratian prudently acquiesced in their choice; reserving for himself the administration of the Gallic provinces, to command the forces responsible for the frontier, while handing over the peaceful Italy, Illyricum and Africa to Valentinian and his mother, who fixed their residence at Mediolanum. The division, however, was merely nominal, and the real authority even in those provinces remained in the hands of Gratian.  Gratian, with the aid of his capable generals Mallobaudes, a king of the Franks, and Naniemus, completely defeated the Lentienses, the southernmost branch of the Alamanni, in May 378 at the Battle of Argentovaria. Next, Gratian personally led a campaign across the Upper Rhine into the territory of the Lentienses. After initial trouble facing the Lentienses on high ground, Gratian blockaded the enemy instead and received their surrender. The Lentienses were forced to supply young men to be levied into the Roman army, while the remainder were allowed to return home.  Later that year, Gratian's uncle Valens met his death in the Battle of Adrianople against a coalition of hostile Gothic and Hunnic tribes who had rebelled after being settled in Thrace by the eastern emperor. Valens refused to wait for Gratian, who had promised to march to his aid as soon as the Alemanni threat was contained; as a result, two-thirds of Valens men, to the number of 40,000 dead, fell in the battle along with the emperor and some of his top staff. By the time Gratian arrived in the east, the Gothic war had spiraled out of control; the provinces south of the Danube were daily being devastated by barbarians, and Roman authority as well as military prestige was all but annihilated. Hearing that the Germans were planning a new invasion in Gaul now that Gratian had departed from the province, and convinced that one emperor alone was incapable of repelling the inundation of foes on several different fronts, Gratian appointed the Spaniard Theodosius I Augustus on 19 January 379 to govern the east. During the ensuing four years Theodosius would take advantage of the internal discord and disorder of the Goths to destroy the more intractable of the barbarians and settle the rest by a peaceful treaty in the provinces of Thrace and Asia Minor.  For some years Gratian governed the Empire with energy and success, earning the esteem of the army and people by his personal courage and justice, but at length, being deprived by death of some of his abler counselors, the promising young emperor neglected public affairs, and occupied himself chiefly with the hunting. He alienated the army and German auxiliaries by his favoritism towards his Frankish general Merobaudes and a body of Scythian archers whom he made his body-guard and companions in the hunt. On other side his tutor Ausonius which has worked toward religious tolerance, has lost influence with time as bishop Ambrose' influence over Gratian grew. This has resulted with Roman Senate protests and fall of emperor popularity.  By appearing in public in the dress of a Scythian warrior, after the disaster of the Battle of Adrianople, he finally exasperated his army. One of his generals, Magnus Maximus, took advantage of this feeling to raise the standard of revolt in Britain and invaded Gaul with a large army. From Paris, Gratian, having been deserted by his troops, fled to Lyon. There, through the treachery of the governor, Gratian was delivered over to one of the rebel generals, Andragathius, and assassinated on 25 August 383.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Empire and Christianity.", "content": "The reign of Gratian forms an important epoch in church history, since during that period Nicene Christianity for the first time became dominant throughout the empire. In his reign, his co-Emperor Theodosius I also published an edict that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith). The move was mainly thrust at the various beliefs that had arisen out of Arianism, but smaller dissident sects, such as the Macedonians, were also prohibited.  Gratian, under the influence of Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, took active steps against pagan worship. This brought to an end a period of widespread religious tolerance that had existed since the death of Julian.  In 382, Gratian appropriated the income of the pagan priests and Vestal Virgins, forbade legacies of real property to them and abolished other privileges belonging to the Vestals and to the pontiffs. He confiscated the personal possessions of the colleges of pagan priests, which also lost all their privileges and immunities. Gratian declared that all of the pagan temples and shrines were to be confiscated by the government and that their revenues were to be joined to the property of the royal treasury. According to Zosimus, Gratian was the first Emperor to reject the insignia of the \"Pontifex Maximus\" in 381. He ordered another removal of the Altar of Victory from the Senate House at Rome, despite protests of the pagan members of the Senate, and confiscated its revenues.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gratian (; ; ; 18 April/23 May 359 – 25 August 383) was Roman emperor from 367 to 383. The eldest son of Valentinian I, Gratian accompanied, during his youth, his father on several campaigns along the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Upon the death of Valentinian in 375, Gratian's brother Valentinian II was declared emperor by his father's soldiers. In 378, Gratian's generals won a decisive victory over the Lentienses, a branch of the Alamanni, at the Battle of Argentovaria. Gratian subsequently led a campaign across the Rhine, the last emperor to do so, and attacked the Lentienses, forcing the tribe to surrender. That same year, his uncle Valens was killed in the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths. He favoured Christianity over traditional Roman religion, refusing the office of Pontifex maximus and removing the Altar of Victory from the Roman Senate.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971507}
{"src_title": "Butane", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Isomers.", "content": "Rotation about the central C−C bond produces two different conformations (\"trans\" and \"gauche\") for \"n\"-butane.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "When oxygen is plentiful, butane burns to form carbon dioxide and water vapor; when oxygen is limited, carbon (soot) or carbon monoxide may also be formed. Butane is denser than air.  When there is sufficient oxygen: When oxygen is limited:  The maximum adiabatic flame temperature of butane with air is.  \"n\"-Butane is the feedstock for DuPont's catalytic process for the preparation of maleic anhydride:  \"n\"-Butane, like all hydrocarbons, undergoes free radical chlorination providing both 1-chloro- and 2-chlorobutanes, as well as more highly chlorinated derivatives. The relative rates of the chlorination is partially explained by the differing bond dissociation energies, 425 and 411 kJ/mol for the two types of C-H bonds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Normal butane can be used for gasoline blending, as a fuel gas, fragrance extraction solvent, either alone or in a mixture with propane, and as a feedstock for the manufacture of ethylene and butadiene, a key ingredient of synthetic rubber. Isobutane is primarily used by refineries to enhance (increase) the octane number of motor gasoline.  When blended with propane and other hydrocarbons, it may be referred to commercially as LPG, for liquefied petroleum gas. It is used as a petrol component, as a feedstock for the production of base petrochemicals in steam cracking, as fuel for cigarette lighters and as a propellant in aerosol sprays such as deodorants.  Very pure forms of butane, especially isobutane, can be used as refrigerants and have largely replaced the ozone-layer-depleting halomethanes, for instance in household refrigerators and freezers. The system operating pressure for butane is lower than for the halomethanes, such as R-12, so R-12 systems such as in automotive air conditioning systems, when converted to pure butane will not function optimally and therefore a mix of isobutane and propane is used to give cooling system performance comparable to R-12.  Butane is also used as lighter fuel for a common lighter or butane torch and is sold bottled as a fuel for cooking, barbecues and camping stoves. Butane canisters global market is dominated by South Korean manufacturers.  As fuel, it is often mixed with small amounts of hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans which will give the unburned gas an offensive smell easily detected by the human nose. In this way, butane leaks can easily be identified. While hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans are toxic, they are present in levels so low that suffocation and fire hazard by the butane becomes a concern far before toxicity. Most commercially available butane also contains a certain amount of contaminant oil which can be removed through filtration but which will otherwise leave a deposit at the point of ignition and may eventually block the uniform flow of gas. and butane gases can cause gas explosions in poorly ventilated areas if leaks go unnoticed and are ignited by spark or flame.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effects and health issues.", "content": "Inhalation of butane can cause euphoria, drowsiness, unconsciousness, asphyxia, cardiac arrhythmia, fluctuations in blood pressure and temporary memory loss, when abused directly from a highly pressurized container, and can result in death from asphyxiation and ventricular fibrillation. It enters the blood supply and within seconds produces intoxication. Butane is the most commonly abused volatile substance in the UK, and was the cause of 52% of solvent related deaths in 2000. By spraying butane directly into the throat, the jet of fluid can cool rapidly to by expansion, causing prolonged laryngospasm. \"Sudden sniffer's death\" syndrome, first described by Bass in 1970, is the most common single cause of solvent related death, resulting in 55% of known fatal cases.  A small amount of nitrogen dioxide, a toxic gas, results from burning butane gas, along with any combustion in the earth's atmosphere, and represents a human health hazard from home heaters and stoves.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Butane () or \"n\"-butane is an alkane with the formula CH. Butane is a gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Butane is highly flammable, colorless, easily liquefied gas that quickly vaporize at room temperature. The name butane comes from the roots but- (from butyric acid, named after the Greek word for butter) and -ane. It was discovered by the chemist Edward Frankland in 1849. It was found dissolved in crude petroleum in 1864 by Edmund Ronalds, who was the first to describe its properties.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971508}
{"src_title": "Theodor Lessing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Lessing was born into an upper-middle-class assimilated Jewish family. His father was a doctor in Hanover, his mother the daughter of a banker. He remembered his schooldays as unhappy; he was a mediocre student and graduated from Ratsgymnasium Hannover only with great difficulty. In his memoirs he wrote: \"This humanistic German gymnasium specialising in patriotism, Latin, and Greek... this institute for the furtherance of stupidification, half of it built on white-collar boundering, the other half on mendacious, platitudinous German nationalism, was not just incredibly irresponsible, it was utterly boring... Nothing, nothing could ever make up for what those fifteen years destroyed in me. Even now, almost every night I dream of the tortures of my schooldays.\" At the time he was friendly with Ludwig Klages, but this friendship came to an end in 1899 (although whether anti-Semitism was a factor is unclear). Each later maintained that his own adult views had been determined by this shared background.  After his graduation he began studying medicine in Freiburg im Breisgau, Bonn, and finally Munich, where, in greater conformity with his real interests, he turned to literature, philosophy, and psychology. He concluded his study of philosophy with a dissertation on the work of the Russian logician Afrikan Spir.  His plans of habilitation at the University of Dresden were abandoned in the face of continuing public outrage over the influence in academia of Jews, socialists, and feminists. The next few years he spent as a substitute teacher and lecturer. In 1906 he travelled to Göttingen in order to obtain a habilitation under Edmund Husserl. This plan also came to nothing, but resulted briefly in a position as theatre critic for the \"Göttinger Zeitung\"; his critical notes were later collected in book form as \"Nachtkritiken\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Growing renown.", "content": "In 1907 he returned to Hanover, where he lectured on philosophy at the \"Technische Hochschule\", founding the first German anti-noise (noise abatement) society.  In January 1910 he created a literary scandal with a vicious attack on the critic Samuel Lublinski and his \"Bilanz der Moderne\" (1904), in a piece published in \"Die Schaubühne\" filled with \"Jewish jokes\" and gibes about Lublinski's appearance; it drew strong condemnation from Thomas Mann, who returned the insults by calling Lessing a \"disgraceful dwarf who should consider himself lucky that the sun shines on him, too.\"  On the outbreak of World War I Lessing volunteered for medical service. At this time he wrote his famous essay \"Geschichte als Sinngebung des Sinnlosen\" (\"History as Making Sense of the Senseless\"). Its publication was delayed by the censor until 1919 on account of its uncompromising anti-war position. After the war he returned to lecturing in Hanover and established the Volkshochschule Hannover-Linden with the help of his second wife, Ada Lessing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fame and anti-nationalist polemics.", "content": "From 1923 he was highly active in public life, publishing articles and essays in \"Prager Tagblatt\" and \"Dortmunder Generalanzeiger\", and quickly became one of the best-known political writers of Weimar Germany. In 1925 he drew attention to the fact that the serial killer Fritz Haarmann had been a spy for the Hanover police, and this resulted in him being excluded from covering the trial. In the same year he wrote an unflattering piece on Paul von Hindenburg, describing him as an intellectually vacuous man who was being used as a front by sinister political forces:  This article earned him the enmity of nationalists, and his lectures were soon disrupted by anti-Semitic protestors. Lessing received only limited support from the public, and even his colleagues argued that he had gone too far. A six-month leave of absence failed to calm the situation. On 7 June nearly a thousand students threatened to move their studies to the Technische Universität Braunschweig unless he was removed, and on 18 June 1926 the Prussian minister Carl Heinrich Becker bowed to public pressure by putting Lessing on indefinite leave on a reduced salary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Escape from the Nazis and assassination.", "content": "On 30 January 1933 the Nazi Party entered government and in February, after the suppression of the \"Freie Wort\" congress, Lessing started packing his bags. On 1 March he and his wife fled to Marienbad in Czechoslovakia, where he continued to write for German-language newspapers abroad. But in June it was reported in Sudeten newspapers that a reward had been announced for his capture.  On 30 August 1933 he was working in his study when he was shot through the window by assassins. He died the next day at the hospital in Marienbad.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Theodor Lessing (8 February 1872, Hanover – 31 August 1933, Marienbad) was a German Jewish philosopher. He is known for opposing the rise of Hindenburg as president of the Weimar Republic and for his classic on Jewish self-hatred (Der jüdische Selbsthaß), a book which he wrote in 1930, three years before Hitler came to power, in which he tried to explain the phenomenon of Jewish intellectuals who incited anti-Semitism against the Jewish people and who regarded Judaism as the source of evil in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971509}
{"src_title": "Benoni Defense", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Ben oni\" (בֶּן אוֹנִי) is a Hebrew term meaning \"son of my sorrow\" (cf. Genesis 35:18) – the name of an 1825 book by Aaron Reinganum about several defenses against the King's Gambit and the Queen's Gambit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Old Benoni: 1.d4 c5.", "content": "The Old Benoni starts with 1.d4 c5. The Old Benoni may transpose to the Czech Benoni, but there are a few independent variations. This form has never attracted serious interest in high-level play, though Alexander Alekhine defeated Efim Bogoljubow with it in one game of their second match, in 1934. The Old Benoni is sometimes called the Blackburne Defense, after Englishman Joseph Henry Blackburne, the first player known to have used it successfully.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Czech Benoni: 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 c5 3.d5 e5.", "content": "In the Czech Benoni, also known as the Hromadka Benoni, after Karel Hromádka, Black plays 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 c5 3.d5 e5. The Czech Benoni is more than the Modern Benoni, but also more passive. The middlegames arising from this line are characterized by much maneuvering; in most lines, Black will look to break with...b7–b5 or...f7–f5 after due preparation, while White may play Nc3–e4–h3–Bd3–Nf3–g4, in order to gain space on the and prevent...f5.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern Benoni: 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 c5 3.d5 e6.", "content": "The Modern Benoni, 1. 2. 3., is the most common form of Benoni apart from the Benko Gambit. Black's intention is to play...exd5 and create a, whose advance will be supported by fianchettoed bishop on g7. The combination of these two features differentiates Black's setup from the other Benoni defenses and the King's Indian Defense, although transpositions between these openings are common. The Modern Benoni is classified under the \"ECO\" codes A60–A79.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Snake Benoni: 4.Nc3 exd5 5.cxd5 Bd6.", "content": "The Snake Benoni refers to a variant of the Modern Benoni where the bishop is developed to d6 rather than g7. This opening was invented in 1982 by Rolf Olav Martens, who gave it its name because of the sinuous movement of the bishop—in Martens's original concept, Black follows up with 6...Bc7 and sometimes...Ba5—and because the Swedish word for \"snake\", \"orm\", was an anagram of his initials. Normunds Miezis has been a regular exponent of this variation. Aside from Martens's plan, 6...0-0 intending...Re8,...Bf8 and a potential redeployment of the bishop to g7, has also been tried. White appears to retain the advantage against both setups.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"ECO\".", "content": "The \"Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings\" (\"ECO\") has many codes for the Benoni Defense.  Old Benoni Defense:  Benoni Defense:  Fianchetto Variation:  Modern Benoni:  Taimanov Variation:  Four Pawns Attack:  Classical Benoni:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Benoni Defense is a chess opening characterized by the moves: Black can then sacrifice a pawn with 3...b5 (the Benko Gambit), otherwise 3...e6 is the most common move (although 3...d6 or 3...g6 are also seen, typically transposing to main lines).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971510}
{"src_title": "Petrov's Defence", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "White's third move.", "content": "White's two main choices for move three are:  The move 3.Nc3 may transpose to the Four Knights Game or the Three Knights Game. The move 3.Bc4 may lead to the Boden–Kieseritzky Gambit or transpose to the Two Knights Defence. Occasionally seen is the 3.d3.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classical Variation: 3.Nxe5.", "content": "After 3.Nxe5, the Classical Variation, Black should not continue to copy White's moves and try to restore the balance immediately with 3...Nxe4? because after 4.Qe2 White will either win material (4...Nf6 5.Nc6+ wins Black's queen, and after 4...d5 5.d3 Qe7 6.dxe4 Qxe5 7.exd5 Black loses a pawn), or obtain a superior position (4...Qe7 5.Qxe4 d6 6.d4 f6 7.Nc3 dxe5 8.Nd5 Qd6 9.Bf4 Nd7 10.0-0-0 and White has a big advantage). Black usually plays 3...d6 (although 3...Qe7 is also possible). White now must retreat the knight, or sacrifice it.  Most often, White follows the main line 4.Nf3 Nxe4 5.d4 (5.Bd3 is also playable) d5 6.Bd3, where he will try to drive Black's advanced knight from e4 with moves like c4 and Re1. If White achieves this, then he is up two tempi (Nf6-e4-f6, plus the tempo White starts the game with). In practice White is usually able to achieve this, but at some structural cost such as having to play c4, which balances out. White can also force simplification with Lasker's 5.Qe2 Qe7 6.d3. This is generally only good enough for a draw, which Black should be satisfied with. Another possibility, explored by Keres, is 5.c4, known as the Kauffmann Attack.  A completely different approach is to meet 4...Nxe4 with 5.Nc3 Nxc3 6.dxc3, with rapid and castling. For instance, White can plan a quick Be3, Qd2, and 0-0-0, and play for a attack, trusting that his doubled c-pawns will help protect his king, and that his initiative and attacking potential will offset the long term disadvantage of having doubled pawns. In the 5.Nc3 line, Black must avoid 5...Bf5?? 6.Qe2! which wins a piece due to the pin (if 6...Qe7 7.Nd5, forcing 7...Qd7 because of the threat to the c7-pawn. Then 8.d3 wins the piece). Viswanathan Anand resigned after only six moves after falling for this against Alonso Zapata at Biel in 1988.  The Cochrane Gambit, 4.Nxf7, is labeled \"speculative but entertaining\" by Nick de Firmian. In \"Modern Chess Openings–14\" he evaluates the position in Veselin Topalov–Vladimir Kramnik, Linares 1999, as offering chances for both sides after 4...Kxf7 5.Nc3 c5!? 6.Bc4+ Be6 7.Bxe6+ Kxe6 8.d4 Kf7 9.dxc5 Nc6.  The Paulsen Variation, 4.Nc4, is labelled \"ineffective\" by de Firmian in \"MCO\", but is occasionally seen at grandmaster level. US master Andrew Karklins has experimented with 4.Nd3!?  The Stafford Gambit is 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nf6 3. Nxe5 Nc6.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Steinitz Variation: 3.d4.", "content": "The move 3.d4 was favoured by Wilhelm Steinitz, and is sometimes called the Steinitz Variation though it was known earlier. Black can capture either pawn; also possible is 3...d6, transposing into the Philidor Defence.  After 3...exd4 4.e5 (4.Bc4 transposes into the Urusov Gambit) 4...Ne4 (4...Qe7 5.Be2 is better for White) 5.Qxd4 d5 6.exd6 Nxd6 7.Nc3 Nc6 8.Qf4 the game is approximately equal. After the other capture, 3...Nxe4, 4.Bd3 d5 (4...Nc6!? 5.Bxe4 d5, intending 6.Bd3 e4, is also possible) 5.Nxe5, either 5...Nd7 or 5...Bd6 gives roughly equal chances.  A long and complicated tactical sequence which has frequently been seen in master games is 3...Nxe4 4.Bd3 d5 5.Nxe5 Bd6 6.0-0 0-0 7.c4 Bxe5 8.dxe5 Nc6 9.cxd5 Qxd5 10.Qc2 Nb4 11.Bxe4 Nxc2 12.Bxd5 Bf5 13.g4 Bxg4 14.Be4 Nxa1 15.Bf4 f5 16.Bd5+ Kh8 17.Rc1 c6 18.Bg2 Rfd8 19.Nd2 (diagram) and White has the slightly better endgame after either 19...Rxd2 20.Bxd2 Rd8 21.Bc3 Rd1+ 22.Rxd1 Bxd1 or 19...h6 20.h4.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Three Knights Game: 3.Nc3.", "content": "The move 3.Nc3 is the Three Knights Game of Petrov's Defence. It can also be reached via 2.Nc3 Nf6 3.Nf3 (the Vienna Game). Commonly, with the move 3...Nc6, the opening transposes to the Four Knights Game. With the reply 3...Bb4 (or some others), it remains the Three Knights Game proper.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italian Variation: 3.Bc4.", "content": "The move 3.Bc4 is the Italian Variation of Petrov's Defence. With the move 3...Nc6, it transposes to the Two Knights Defence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Boden–Kieseritzky Gambit.", "content": "Another possibility is 3.Bc4 Nxe4 4.Nc3, the Boden–Kieseritzky Gambit. It is not considered wholly sound, since Black has several viable options. Black can accept the gambit with 4...Nxc3 5.dxc3 f6, although he must play carefully after 6.0-0 (for example 6...Bc5?? 7.Nxe5! is disastrous; 6...d6 and 6...Nc6 are good). Another more aggressive try is 6.Nh4, where White goes for a quick assault on Black's king, but Black can maintain a small advantage if he plays cautiously via 6...g6 7.f4 Qe7 8.f5 Qg7 9.Qg4 Kd8. Another possibility is returning the gambit pawn with 4...Nxc3 5.dxc3 c6 6.Nxe5 d5, which equalises. A third possibility is transposing to the Italian Four Knights Game with 4...Nc6, and if 5.Nxe4, d5. If 5.Bxf7+?, Kxf7 6.Nxe4 d5 gives Black the and control of the. If 5.0-0, Black plays 5...Nxc3 6.dxc3 and now Black can play 6...Qe7!, after which Bobby Fischer wrote that \"White has no compensation for the Pawn\", or 6...f6 transposing to the main line of the Boden–Kieseritzky. Black also has lines beginning 6...Be7 and 6...h6.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Petrov's Defence or the Petrov Defence (also called Petroff's Defence, Petrov's Game, Russian Defence, or Russian Game — ) is a chess opening characterised by the following moves:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971511}
{"src_title": "Nimzo-Indian Defence", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "General considerations.", "content": "In the Nimzo-Indian, Black is generally prepared to concede the bishop pair by playing Bxc3. As dynamic compensation, he often doubles White's c-pawns, which represent a static weakness, and gains play against the central light squares d5 and e4, even in those instances where White is able to recapture with a piece after...Bxc3. Black will aim to close the position to reduce the scope of White's bishops. To this end, Black must blockade the white pawn centre from advancing and neutralise White's attacking chances on the. An example of Black's strategy carried out successfully is the game Mikhail Botvinnik–Samuel Reshevsky from the 1948 World Chess Championship, which reached the position in the diagram after White's 24th move.  Earlier in the game, Reshevsky was able to block White's kingside attack by playing...Nf6–h5 and...f7–f5. Now, both White's bishops are reduced to defence, and White's queen is reduced to passivity at the a2-square to defend the pawns on a3 and c4. Without prospects for counterplay, White's game is strategically hopeless, and Black ultimately exchanged queens and won the endgame.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rubinstein System: 4.e3.", "content": "The Rubinstein System (named after Akiba Rubinstein) is White's most common method of combating the Nimzo-Indian. Svetozar Gligorić and Lajos Portisch made great contributions to the theory and practice of this line at top level during their careers. White continues his development before committing to a definite plan of action. In reply, Black has three main moves to choose from: 4...0-0, 4...c5, and 4...b6.  In addition, Black sometimes plays 4...d5 or 4...Nc6. 4...d5 can transpose to lines arising from 4...0-0, but White has the extra option of 5.a3 (known as the Botvinnik Variation). This forces Black to retreat the bishop to e7 or capture on c3, which transposes to a line of the Sämisch Variation long considered good for White because he will undouble his pawns at some point by playing cxd5, eliminating the weak pawn on c4, then prepare the e4 pawn break, backed by the bishop pair (and in some cases with f3, since he hasn't committed the knight to that square yet), which will gain force in the more open type of position which will ensue. 4...Nc6 is the Taimanov Variation, named after Russian GM Mark Taimanov. Black prepares to play...e5, which may be preceded by...d5 and...dxc4, or...d6. The variation was tried several times by the young Bobby Fischer, and has long been favoured by GM Nukhim Rashkovsky.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "4...0-0 Main line: 4.e3 0-0 5.Bd3 d5 6.Nf3 c5 7.0-0.", "content": "Black's most flexible and frequently played response is 4...0-0. The main line continues 5.Bd3 d5 6.Nf3 c5 7.0-0, reaching the position in the diagram.  White has completed his kingside development, while Black has claimed his share of the centre. At this point, the most important continuations are:  After 7...dxc4 8.Bxc4, Black also has two rare alternatives on his eighth move worth mentioning: 8...Qe7 intending...Rd8 is the Smyslov Variation, invented by former world champion Vasily Smyslov, and 8...Bd7 followed by...Bc6 is the Bronstein Variation, the brainchild of two-time world championship finalist David Bronstein.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "4...0-0: lines with Ne2.", "content": "In general, the main line of the Rubinstein has held up very well for Black, so since the 1980s White has begun to look elsewhere for chances of obtaining an advantage. In the Rubinstein, White has often resorted to playing Ne2 rather than Nf3 at some point to be able to recapture on c3 with the knight, thus avoiding the doubled pawns. Two lines where White does this (following 4.e3 0-0) are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "4...c5.", "content": "Black puts pressure on d4 and leaves open the option of playing...d5, or...d6 and...e5. The game can still transpose to the main line mentioned above after moves such as 5.Bd3 d5 6.Nf3 0-0 7.0-0, but there are two major variations particular to 4...c5:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "4...b6.", "content": "Favoured by Nimzowitsch, 4...b6 is a move in accordance with the spirit of the Nimzo-Indian: Black fianchettoes his light-squared bishop to increase his control over e4. White usually continues 5.Ne2, avoiding the doubled pawns, or 5.Bd3, continuing his development (5.Nf3 usually transposes to 5.Bd3). The main variations emerging from these moves are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classical Variation: 4.Qc2.", "content": "The Classical or Capablanca Variation was popular in the early days of the Nimzo-Indian, and though eventually superseded by 4.e3 it was revived in the 1990s; it is now just as popular as the Rubinstein. White aims to acquire the two bishops without compromising his pawn structure. The drawback is that the queen will move at least twice within the opening moves and that White's kingside development is delayed. Thus, even though White possesses the bishop pair, it is usually advisable for Black to open the game quickly to exploit his lead in development. Black has four common replies to 4.Qc2. These include 4...0-0, 4...c5, 4...d5, and 4...Nc6 (4...d6 intending...Nbd7 and...e5 is a rarer fifth option).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kasparov Variation: 4.Nf3.", "content": "4.Nf3 is known as the Kasparov Variation, since Garry Kasparov used it to great effect against Anatoly Karpov in their 1985 World Championship match. Kasparov played 4.Nf3 six times, scoring three wins and three draws. Today as White, this is a favourite weapon of GM Alexei Barsov and former Women's Champion Nona Gaprindashvili.  White develops the knight to a natural square and waits to see Black's reply. 4...d5 transposes to the Ragozin Defence of the Queen's Gambit Declined and 4...b6 5.Bg5 Bb7 transposes to the Nimzo/Queen's Indian hybrid line, so 4...c5 is the most common move that stays within Nimzo-Indian territory. Now 5.e3 transposes to the Rubinstein System, but the main move is 5.g3, which leads to a position that also arises from the Fianchetto Variation. 5.g3 cxd4 6.Nxd4 0-0 7.Bg2 d5 8.cxd5 Nxd5 can be considered the main line. Black has dissolved White's centre, but the bishop on g2 exerts pressure on the black queenside, which White may augment with 9.Qb3.  This line can also arise from the Bogo-Indian Defence (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 Bb4+) if White blocks the check with 4.Nc3.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"ECO\" codes.", "content": "In the \"Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings\", the Nimzo-Indian Defence has codes E20 to E59. All codes begin with 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4, excluding E20, which also includes alternatives to 3...Bb4 apart from 3...d5 (which would be the Queen's Gambit Declined).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nimzo-Indian Defence is a chess opening characterised by the moves: Other move orders, such as 1.c4 e6 2.Nc3 Nf6 3.d4 Bb4, are also feasible. In the \"Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings\", the Nimzo-Indian is classified as E20–E59.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971512}
{"src_title": "Benko Gambit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin and predecessors.", "content": "The idea of sacrificing a pawn with...b5 and...a6 is quite old. Karel Opočenský applied the idea against, among others, Gideon Ståhlberg at Poděbrady 1936, Paul Keres at Pärnu 1937, Erich Eliskases at Prague 1937, and Theo van Scheltinga at the Buenos Aires Chess Olympiad 1939. Later the Mark Taimanov versus David Bronstein game at the Candidates Tournament, Zürich 1953, drew attention. Most of these games began as a King's Indian, with Black only later playing...c5 and...b5. Possibly the first to use the now-standard move order 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 c5 3.d5 b5 was Thorvaldsson–Vaitonis, Munich Olympiad 1936.  In many countries, particularly in the Eastern Bloc, the opening is known as the Volga Gambit (). This name is derived from the Volga River after an article about 3...b5 by B. Argunow written in Kuibyshev (Samara since 1991), Russia, that was published in the second 1946 issue of the magazine \"Shakhmaty v SSSR\".  Beginning in the late 1960s, this opening idea was also promoted by Hungarian-American grandmaster Pal Benko, who provided many new suggestions and published his book \"The Benko Gambit\" in 1974. The name \"Benko Gambit\" stuck and is particularly used in English-speaking countries.  In his 1974 book, Benko drew a distinction between the \"Benko Gambit\" and the \"Volga Gambit\": \"Volga Gambit\" referred to the move 3...b5 (sometimes followed by an early...e6), while the \"Benko Gambit\" consisted of the moves 3...b5 4.cxb5 a6, which is now considered the main line. Now the terms are synonyms and are used interchangeably or joined together with a hyphen (Volga-Benko Gambit).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theory.", "content": "The main line continues with the moves 4. cxb5 a6 5. bxa6 Bxa6 followed by Black fianchettoing the f8-bishop. (Black players leery of the double-fianchetto system, where White plays g3 and b3, and fianchettos both bishops, have preferred 5...g6 intending 6.b3 Bg7 7.Bb2 Nxa6! The point is that it is awkward for White to meet the threat of...Nb4, hitting d5 and a2, when Nc3 may often be met by...Nfxd5 because of the latent pin down the.) Black's compensation for the pawn takes several forms. First, White, who is already behind in, must solve the problem of developing the f1-bishop. After 6. Nc3 d6, if White plays 7. e4, then Black will play 7...Bxf1, and after recapturing with the king, White will have to spend time castling artificially with g3 and Kg2, as in the line 7...Bxf1 8. Kxf1 g6 9. g3 Bg7 10. Kg2. If White avoids this by fianchettoing the bishop, it will be in a rather passive position, being blocked by White's own pawn on d5.  Apart from this, Black also obtains fast development and good control of the a1–h8 diagonal and can exert pressure down the half-open a- and b-files. These are benefits which can last well into the endgame and so, unusually for a gambit, Black does not generally mind if queens are exchanged; indeed, exchanging queens can often remove the sting from a attack by White.  Although the main line of the Benko is considered acceptable for White, there are various alternatives that avoid some of the problems entailed in the main line. The simplest is to just decline the gambit with 4.Nf3. Other possible moves are 4. Nd2, 4. a4, 4. e3 and 4. Qc2. Another idea, popular at the grandmaster level as of 2004, is to accept the pawn but then immediately return it with 4. cxb5 a6 5. b6.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sosonko Variation.", "content": "After 4. a4 by white, black has three sound replies. The most popular line is the \"Sosonko Accepted\" variation, where 4. bxc4 is played by black. This can, and frequently does, lead to very sharp and sacrificial variations for both sides. Such lines include the \"poisoned knight\" variation where after 4. a4 bxc4, 5. Nc3 e6, 6. e4 exd5 and 7. e5, black sacrifices a knight for a huge central pawn majority, an excellent spacial advantage with good attacking chances, and the \"River Styx Attack,\" where 5. Nc3 Ba6, 6. e4 Nf6, 7. f4 d6, 8. Nf3 g6, 9. e5 is played. This leads to a very sharp, and extremely complicated pawn sacrifice by white, where white often delays or even stops black castling either side, has a solid grip over the kingside with the pawn e6 and Nf7 outpost combo. It is named after the Greek Mythological river that interconnects the Earth and the Underworld.  These lines are incredibly diverse and complicated; they require much more exploration. Players who wish to avoid the fully accepted, and usually play the \"pawn return\" variation (to avoid giving black the infamous compensation of the Benko pawn sacrifice), ought to consider this variation for play as well.  Other less common lines include the \"Advance\" variation with 4. a4 b4, leading to very positional games with pseudo-benoni structures, and the rare 4. Qa5+ which often transposes into an altered advance variation with white playing 5. Bd2 to block the check, and black responding with 5. b4.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "The gambit's most notable practitioner has been its eponym, Pal Benko. Many of the world's strongest players have used it at one time or another, including former world champions Viswanathan Anand, Garry Kasparov, Veselin Topalov, and Mikhail Tal; and grandmasters Vassily Ivanchuk, Michael Adams, Alexei Shirov, Boris Gelfand, and Evgeny Bareev. It is a popular opening at amateur level, where it is considered to offer Black good practical chances of playing for a win.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Benko Gambit (or Volga Gambit) is a chess opening characterised by the move 3...b5 in the Benoni Defence arising after:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971513}
{"src_title": "Two Knights Defense", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Main variations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "4.Ng5.", "content": "German master Siegbert Tarrasch called 4.Ng5 a \"real duffer's move\" (\"ein richtiger Stümperzug\") and Soviet opening theorist Vasily Panov called it \"primitive\", but this attack on f7 practically wins a pawn by force. Despite Tarrasch's criticism, 4.Ng5 has remained a popular choice for White and has been played by world champions Wilhelm Steinitz, Bobby Fischer, Anatoly Karpov, Garry Kasparov, and Viswanathan Anand.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Main line: 4...d5.", "content": "After 4...d5 White has little option but to play 5.exd5, since both the bishop and e4-pawn are attacked. Then Black usually plays 5...Na5 but there are other options: After 5...Na5, Paul Morphy would play to hold the gambit pawn with 6.d3. The Morphy Variation (or Kieseritzky Attack) has not been popular, since it has long been known that Black obtains good chances for the pawn with 6...h6 7.Nf3 e4 8.Qe2 Nxc4 9.dxc4 Bc5. (Bronstein once tried the piece sacrifice 8.dxe4!? with success, but its soundness is doubtful.)  Instead, White usually plays 6.Bb5+, when play usually continues 6...c6 (6...Bd7 is also possible) 7.dxc6 bxc6 8.Be2 h6. (The move 8.Qf3, popular in the nineteenth century and revived by Efim Bogoljubov in the twentieth, can be played instead; Black may reply with 8...h6, 8...Rb8, or 8...Be7.) White then has a choice of retreats for the knight. The usual move here is 9.Nf3, after which Black obtains some initiative after 9...e4 10.Ne5 Bd6 (see diagram). This is the Knorre Variation, and is considered to be the main line of the Two Knights Defense. After ten moves, White has developed only two pieces against Black's three pieces and pawns, but has an extra pawn as well as a better pawn structure. Both 11.d4 and 11.f4 have been tried here with no definitive conclusion. 10...Bc5 is a viable alternative for Black, as is 10...Qc7 (the Goring Variation).  Steinitz favored 9.Nh3 instead, although it did not bring him success in his famous 1891 cable match against Chigorin. The Steinitz Variation was mostly forgotten until Fischer revived it in the 1960s. Nigel Short led a second revival of 9.Nh3 in the 1990s, and today it is thought to be about equal in strength to the more common 9.Nf3. In addition to the moves 8.Be2 and 8.Qf3, the move 8.Bd3 is a valid alternative that has apparently become fashionable in recent years.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Traxler Variation: 4...Bc5.", "content": "This bold move ignores White's attack on f7 and leads to wild play. Czech problemist Karel Traxler played it against Reinisch in Prague in 1890. Later it was named after Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania by Frank Marshall, who claimed to be first to analyze and publish it, so today 4...Bc5 is known as both the Traxler Variation and (in the United States and the United Kingdom only) the Wilkes-Barre Variation.  White can play 5.d4, 5.Nxf7, or 5.Bxf7+. After 5.d4 d5!, White's best is to go into an equal endgame after 6.dxc5 dxc4 7.Qxd8+. Other sixth moves have scored very badly for White.  5.Nxf7 is very complicated after 5...Bxf2+. The current main lines all are thought to lead to drawn or equal positions, e.g. after 6.Kxf2 Nxe4+ 7.Kg1, or even 7.Ke3.  White's best try for an advantage is probably 5.Bxf7+ Ke7 6.Bb3 (although 6.Bd5 was the move recommended by Lawrence Trent in his recent Fritztrainer DVD), as this poses Black the most problems. No grandmasters have regularly adopted the Wilkes-Barre as Black, but Alexander Beliavsky and Alexei Shirov have played it occasionally even in top competition. No clear refutation is known.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "4...Nxe4.", "content": "4...Nxe4?! is considered unsound but must be handled carefully. 5.Nxe4 d5 poses no problems for Black. If 5.Nxf7? Qh4! 6.g3 (6.0-0 Bc5!) 6...Qh3 7.Nxh8 Qg2 8.Rf1 Nd4 9.Qh5+ g6 10.Nxg6 hxg6 11.Qxg6+ Kd8 and Black has dangerous threats. (Alternatively, after 5.Nxf7? Qh4! 6.g3, Black could play more aggressively 6...Nxg3! 7.fxg3 Qe4+ 8.Qe2 Qxh1+ 9.Qf1 Qxf1+ 10.Kxf1 d5 11.Bxd5 Bh3+ 12.Ke1 Nb4 13.Bb3 Nxc2+ 14.Bxc2 Kxf7 with a distinct advantage of material for Black.) Correct is 5.Bxf7+! Ke7 6.d4! (6.d3 is also good) and now:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "4.d4.", "content": "White can choose to rapidly with 4.d4 exd4 5.0-0. Now Black can simply by eliminating White's last center pawn with 5...Nxe4, after which White regains the with 6.Re1 d5 7.Bxd5 Qxd5 8.Nc3, but Black has a comfortable position after 8...Qa5 or 8...Qh5, or can obtain good chances with the complex Max Lange Attack after 5...Bc5 6.e5 d5. The extensively analyzed Max Lange can also arise from the Giuoco Piano or Scotch Game. White can choose to avoid these lines by playing 5.e5, a line often adopted by Sveshnikov. After 5.e5, either 5...Ne4 or 5...Ng4 is a reply, but most common and natural is 5...d5 6.Bb5 Ne4 7.Nxd4 Bc5, with play. The tricky 5.Ng5?! is best met by 5...d5! 6.exd5 Qe7+!", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern Bishop's Opening: 4.d3.", "content": "The quiet move 4.d3 transposes into the Giuoco Pianissimo if Black responds 4...Bc5, but there are also independent variations after 4...Be7 or 4...h6. White tries to avoid the tactical battles that are common in other lines of the Two Knights and to enter a more positional game. The resulting positions take on some characteristics of the Ruy Lopez if White plays c3 and retreats the bishop to c2 via Bc4–b3–c2. This move became popular in the 1980s and has been used by John Nunn and others. Black can confound White's attempt to avoid tactical play with 4...d5!? This move is rarely played as opening theory does not approve, but Jan Piński suggests that it is better than is commonly believed. In practice after 5.exd5 White still has strong winning chances.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Four Knights Variation: 4.Nc3.", "content": "The attempt to defend the pawn with 4.Nc3 does not work well since Black can take the pawn anyway and use a fork trick to regain the piece, 4.Nc3?! Nxe4! 5.Nxe4 d5. The try 5.Bxf7+? does not help, as Black has the and a better position after 5...Kxf7 6.Nxe4 d5. Instead, 4.Nc3 is usually played with the intent to gambit the e-pawn with the Boden–Kieseritzky Gambit, 4.Nc3 Nxe4 5.0-0. This gambit is not commonly seen in tournament play as it is not well regarded by opening theory, but it can offer White good practical chances, especially in blitz chess.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chess opening theory table.", "content": "White must respond to the attack on the e-pawn. (For explanation of notation, see chess opening theory table.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Two Knights Defense is a chess opening that begins with the moves: First recorded by Polerio (c. 1550 – c. 1610) in the late 16th century, this line of the Italian Game was extensively developed in the 19th century. Black's third move is a more aggressive defense than the Giuoco Piano (). Black invites White to attack his f7-pawn with 4.Ng5. If White accepts the offer, the game quickly takes on a tactical character: Black is practically to give up a pawn for the initiative. The complications are such that David Bronstein suggested that the term \"defense\" does not fit, and that the name \"Chigorin Counterattack\" would be more appropriate. The Two Knights has been adopted as Black by many aggressive players including Mikhail Chigorin and Paul Keres, and world champions Mikhail Tal and Boris Spassky. In modern grandmaster play, 3.Bc4 is far less common than 3.Bb5, and the more solid 3...Bc5 is the usual reply, so the Two Knights Defense is infrequently seen. It remains popular with amateur players. The theory of this opening has been explored extensively in correspondence chess by players such as Hans Berliner and Yakov Estrin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971514}
{"src_title": "Propionic acid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Propionic acid was first described in 1844 by Johann Gottlieb, who found it among the degradation products of sugar. Over the next few years, other chemists produced propionic acid in various other ways, none of them realizing they were producing the same substance. In 1847, French chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas established all the acids to be the same compound, which he called propionic acid, from the Greek words πρῶτος (prōtos), meaning \"first\", and πίων (piōn), meaning \"fat\", because it is the smallest H(CH)COOH acid that exhibits the properties of the other fatty acids, such as producing an oily layer when salted out of water and having a soapy potassium salt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "Propionic acid has physical properties intermediate between those of the smaller carboxylic acids, formic and acetic acids, and the larger fatty acids. It is miscible with water, but can be removed from water by adding salt. As with acetic and formic acids, it consists of hydrogen bonded pairs of molecules as both the liquid and the vapor.  Propionic acid displays the general properties of carboxylic acids: it can form amide, ester, anhydride, and chloride derivatives. It undergoes the Hell–Volhard–Zelinsky reaction that involves α-halogenation of a carboxylic acid with bromine, catalysed by phosphorus tribromide, in this case to form 2-bromopropanoic acid, CHCHBrCOOH. This product has been used to prepare a racemic mixture of alanine by ammonolysis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "In industry, propionic acid is mainly produced by the hydrocarboxylation of ethylene using nickel carbonyl as the catalyst:  It is also produced by the aerobic oxidation of propionaldehyde. In the presence of cobalt or manganese salts (manganese propionate is most commonly used), this reaction proceeds rapidly at temperatures as mild as 40–50 °C:  Large amounts of propionic acid were once produced as a byproduct of acetic acid manufacture. At the current time, the world's largest producer of propionic acid is BASF, with approximately 150 kt/a production capacity.  Propionic acid is produced biologically as its coenzyme A ester, propionyl-CoA, from the metabolic breakdown of fatty acids containing odd numbers of carbon atoms, and also from the breakdown of some amino acids. Bacteria of the genus \"Propionibacterium\" produce propionic acid as the end-product of their anaerobic metabolism. This class of bacteria is commonly found in the stomachs of ruminants and the sweat glands of humans, and their activity is partially responsible for the odor of Emmental cheese, American \"Swiss cheese\" and sweat.  Biotechnological production of propionic acid is mainly studied by the use of \"Propionibacterium\" strains. However, production of propionic acid by \"Propionibacteria\" is facing challenges such as severe inhibition of end-products during cell growth and the formation of by-products (acetic acid and succinic acid). One approach to improve productivity and yield during fermentation is through the use of cell immobilization techniques, which also promotes easy recovery, reuse of the cell biomass and enhances microorganisms’ stress tolerance. In 2018, 3D printing technology was used for the first time to create a matrix for cell immobilization in fermentation. Propionic acid production by \"Propionibacterium acidipropionici\" immobilized on 3D-printed nylon beads was chosen as a model study. It was shown that those 3D-printed beads were capable to promote high density cell attachment and propionic acid production, which could be adapted to other fermentation bioprocesses. Other cell immobilization matrices have been tested, such as recycled-glass Poraver and fibrous-bed bioreactor.  It is also biosynthesized in the large intestine of humans by bacterial fermentation of dietary fibre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industrial uses.", "content": "Propionic acid inhibits the growth of mold and some bacteria at the levels between 0.1 and 1% by weight. As a result, most propionic acid produced is consumed as a preservative for both animal feed and food for human consumption. For animal feed, it is used either directly or as its ammonium salt. The antibiotic Monensin is added to cattle feed to favor propionibacteria over acetic acid producers in the rumen; this produces less carbon dioxide and feed conversion is better. This application accounts for about half of the world production of propionic acid. Another major application is as a preservative in baked goods, which use the sodium and calcium salts. As a food additive, it is approved for use in the EU, USA, Australia and New Zealand.  Propionic acid is also useful as an intermediate in the production of other chemicals, especially polymers. Cellulose-acetate-propionate is a useful thermoplastic. Vinyl propionate is also used. In more specialized applications, it is also used to make pesticides and pharmaceuticals. The esters of propionic acid have fruit-like odors and are sometimes used as solvents or artificial flavorings.  In biogas plants, propionic acid is a common intermediate product, which is formed by fermentation with propionic acid bacteria. Its degradation in anaerobic environments (e.g. biogas plants) requires the activity of complex microbial communities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biological uses.", "content": "The metabolism of propionic acid begins with its conversion to propionyl coenzyme A, the usual first step in the metabolism of carboxylic acids. Since propionic acid has three carbons, propionyl-CoA cannot directly enter either beta oxidation or the citric acid cycles. In most vertebrates, propionyl-CoA is carboxylated to -methylmalonyl-CoA, which is isomerised to -methylmalonyl-CoA. A vitamin B-dependent enzyme catalyzes rearrangement of -methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA, which is an intermediate of the citric acid cycle and can be readily incorporated there.  In propionic acidemia, a rare inherited genetic disorder, propionate acts as a metabolic toxin in liver cells by accumulating in mitochondria as propionyl-CoA and its derivative, methylcitrate, two tricarboxylic acid cycle inhibitors. Propanoate is metabolized oxidatively by glia, which suggests astrocytic vulnerability in propionic acidemia when intramitochondrial propionyl-CoA may accumulate. Propionic acidemia may alter both neuronal and glial gene expression by affecting histone acetylation. When propionic acid is infused directly into rodents' brains, it produces reversible behavior (e.g., hyperactivity, dystonia, social impairment, perseveration) and brain changes (e.g., innate neuroinflammation, glutathione depletion) that may be used as a means to model autism in rats.  It also, being a three-carbon molecule, feeds into hepatic gluconeogenesis (that is, the creation of glucose molecules from simpler molecules in the liver).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human occurrence.", "content": "The human skin is host of several species of bacteria known as \"Propionibacteria\", which are named after their ability to produce propionic acid. The most notable one is the \"Cutibacterium acnes\" (formerly known as \"Propionibacterium acnes\"), which lives mainly in the sebaceous glands of the skin and is one of the principal causes of acne.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Propionic acid (, from the Greek words \"protos\", meaning \"first\", and \"pion\", meaning \"fat\"; also known as propanoic acid) is a naturally occurring carboxylic acid with chemical formula CHCHCOH. It is a liquid with a pungent and unpleasant smell somewhat resembling body odor. The anion CHCHCO as well as the salts and esters of propionic acid are known as propionates or propanoates.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971515}
{"src_title": "Malonic acid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biochemistry.", "content": "Malonic acid is often mistakenly believed to occur in beetroot at high concentration. However, a study on the composition of sugar beet liquors revealed no malonic acid. It exists in its normal state as white crystals. Malonic acid is the classic example of a competitive inhibitor: It acts against succinate dehydrogenase (complex II) in the respiratory electron transport chain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "A classical preparation of malonic acid starts from chloroacetic acid:  Sodium carbonate generates the sodium salt, which is then reacted with sodium cyanide to provide the cyano acetic acid salt via a nucleophilic substitution. The nitrile group can be hydrolyzed with sodium hydroxide to sodium malonate, and acidification affords malonic acid. Industrially, however, malonic acid is produced by hydrolysis of dimethyl malonate or diethyl malonate.  Malonic acid was first prepared in 1858 by the French chemist Victor Dessaignes (1800-1885) via the oxidation of malic acid.  Malonic acid has been produced through fermentation of glucose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organic reactions.", "content": "In a well-known reaction, malonic acid condenses with urea to form barbituric acid. Malonic acid is also frequently used as an enolate in Knoevenagel condensations or condensed with acetone to form Meldrum's acid. The esters of malonic acid are also used as a CHCOOH synthon in the malonic ester synthesis.  Additionally, the coenzyme A derivative of malonate, malonyl-CoA, is an important precursor in fatty acid biosynthesis along with acetyl CoA. Malonyl CoA is formed from acetyl CoA by the action of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, and the malonate is transferred to an acyl carrier protein to be added to a fatty acid chain.  Malonic acid is also known to be a competitive inhibitor of succinic dehydrogenase, the enzyme responsible for the dehydrogenation of succinate within the Krebs cycle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Condensed phase thermochemistry data.", "content": "Constant pressure heat capacity of solid:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Malonic acid in fruits.", "content": "Malonic acid is a naturally occurring substance found in some fruits. In citrus, fruits produced in organic farming contain higher levels of malonic acid than fruits produced in conventional agriculture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Malonic acid is a precursor to specialty polyesters. It can be converted into 1,3 propanediol for use in polyesters and polymers and a projected market size of $621.2 million by 2021. It can also be a component in alkyd resins, which are used in a number of coatings applications for protecting against damage caused by UV light, oxidation, and corrosion. One application of malonic acid is in the coatings industry as a crosslinker for low-temperature cure powder coatings, which are becoming increasingly valuable for heat sensitive substrates and a desire to speed up the coatings process. The global coatings market for automobiles was estimated to be $18.59 billion in 2014 with projected combined annual growth rate of 5.1% through 2022.  It is used in a number of manufacturing processes as a high value specialty chemical including the electronics industry, flavors and fragrances industry, specialty solvents, polymer crosslinking, and pharmaceutical industry. In 2004, annual global production of malonic acid and related diesters was over 20,000 metric tons. Potential growth of these markets could result from advances in industrial biotechnology that seeks to displace petroleum-based chemicals in industrial applications.  Malonic acid was listed as one of the top 30 chemicals to be produced from biomass by the US Department of Energy.  In food and drug applications, malonic acid can be used to control acidity, either as an excipient in pharmaceutical formulation or natural preservative additive for foods.  Malonic acid is used as a building block chemical to produce numerous valuable compounds, including the flavor and fragrance compounds gamma-nonalactone, cinnamic acid, and the pharmaceutical compound valproate.  Malonic acid (up to 37.5% w/w) has been used to cross-link corn and potato starches to produce a biodegradable thermoplastic; the process is performed in water using non-toxic catalysts. Starch-based polymers comprised 38% of the global biodegradable polymers market in 2014 with food packaging, foam packaging, and compost bags as the largest end-use segments.  Eastman Kodak company and others use malonic acid and derivatives as a surgical adhesive.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Malonic acid (IUPAC systematic name: propanedioic acid) is a dicarboxylic acid with structure CH(COOH). The ionized form of malonic acid, as well as its esters and salts, are known as malonates. For example, diethyl malonate is malonic acid's diethyl ester. The name originates from the Greek word μᾶλον (\"malon\") meaning 'apple'.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971516}
{"src_title": "Reiki", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the English alternative medicine word \"reiki\" is etymologically from Japanese \"reiki\" (霊気) \"mysterious atmosphere, miraculous sign\" (first recorded in 1001), combining \"rei\" \"soul, spirit\" and \"ki\" \"vital energy\"—the Sino-Japanese reading of Chinese \"língqì\" (靈氣) \"numinous atmosphere\". The earliest recorded English usage dates to 1975.  The Japanese \"reiki\" is commonly written as レイキ in katakana syllabary or as 霊気 in shinjitai \"new character form\" kanji. It compounds the words \"rei\" (: \"spirit, miraculous, divine\") and \"ki\" (気; qi: \"gas, vital energy, breath of life, consciousness\"). \"Ki\" is additionally defined as \"... spirits; one's feelings, mood, frame of mind; temperament, temper, disposition, one's nature, character; mind to do something, intention, will; care, attention, precaution\". Some \"reiki\" translation equivalents from Japanese-English dictionaries are: \"feeling of mystery,\" \"an atmosphere (feeling) of mystery\", and \"an ethereal atmosphere (that prevails in the sacred precincts of a shrine); (feel, sense) a spiritual (divine) presence.\" Besides the usual Sino-Japanese pronunciation \"reiki\", these kanji 霊気 have an alternate Japanese reading, namely \"ryōge\", meaning \"demon; ghost\" (especially in spirit possession).  Chinese \"língqì\" 靈氣 was first recorded in the (ca. 320 BCE) \"Neiye\" \"Inward Training\" section of the \"Guanzi\", describing early Daoist meditation techniques. \"That mysterious vital energy within the mind: One moment it arrives, the next it departs. So fine, there is nothing within it; so vast, there is nothing outside it. We lose it because of the harm caused by mental agitation.\" Modern Standard Chinese \"língqì\" is translated by Chinese-English dictionaries as: \"(of beautiful mountains) spiritual influence or atmosphere\"; \"1. intelligence; power of understanding; 2. supernatural power or force in fairy tales; miraculous power or force\"; and \"1. spiritual influence (of mountains/etc.); 2. ingeniousness; cleverness.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "According to the inscription on his memorial stone, Usui taught his system of reiki to more than 2,000 people during his lifetime. While teaching reiki in Fukuyama, Usui suffered a stroke and died on 9 March 1926.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research, critical evaluation, and controversy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Basis.", "content": "Reiki's teachings and adherents claim that \"qi\" is physiological and can be manipulated to treat a disease or condition. The existence of qi has not been established by medical research. Therefore, reiki is a pseudoscientific theory based on metaphysical concepts.  The existence of the proposed mechanism for reiki—\"qi\" or \"life force\" energy—has not been scientifically established. Most research on reiki is poorly designed and prone to bias. There is no reliable empirical evidence that reiki is helpful for treating any medical condition, although some physicians have said it might help promote general well-being. In 2011, William T. Jarvis of The National Council Against Health Fraud stated that there \"is no evidence that clinical reiki's effects are due to anything other than suggestion\" or the placebo effect.  The April 22, 2014 \"Skeptoid\" podcast episode titled \"Your Body's Alleged Energy Fields\" relates a reiki practitioner's report of what was happening as she passed her hands over a subject's body: Evaluating these claims scientific skeptic author Brian Dunning reported:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scholarly evaluation.", "content": "Reiki is used as an illustrative example of pseudoscience in scholarly texts and academic journal articles.  In criticizing the State University of New York for offering a continuing education course on reiki, one source stated, \"reiki postulates the existence of a universal energy unknown to science and thus far undetectable surrounding the human body, which practitioners can learn to manipulate using their hands,\" and others said, \"In spite of its [reiki] diffusion, the baseline mechanism of action has not been demonstrated...\" and, \"Neither the forces involved nor the alleged therapeutic benefits have been demonstrated by scientific testing.\"  Several authors have pointed to the vitalistic energy which reiki is claimed to treat, with one saying, \"Ironically, the only thing that distinguishes reiki from Therapeutic touch is that it [reiki] involves actual touch,\" and others stating that the International Center for Reiki Training \"mimic[s] the institutional aspects of science\" seeking legitimacy but holds no more promise than an alchemy society.  A guideline published by the American Academy of Neurology, the American Association of Neuromuscular & Electrodiagnostic Medicine, and the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation states, \"Reiki therapy should probably not be considered for the treatment of PDN [painful diabetic neuropathy].\" Canadian sociologist Susan J. Palmer has listed reiki as among the pseudoscientific healing methods used by cults in France to attract members.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evidence quality.", "content": "A 2008 systematic review of nine randomized clinical trials found several shortcomings in the literature on reiki. Depending on the tools used to measure depression and anxiety, the results varied and were not reliable or valid. Furthermore, the scientific community has been unable to replicate the findings of studies that support reiki. The review also found issues in reporting methodology in some of the literature, in that often there were parts omitted completely or not clearly described. Frequently in these studies, sample sizes were not calculated and adequate allocation and double-blind procedures were not followed. The review also reported that such studies exaggerated the effectiveness of treatment and there was no control for differences in experience of reiki practitioners or even the same practitioner at times produced different outcomes. None of the studies in the review provided a rationale for the treatment duration and no study reported adverse effects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Safety concerns for reiki sessions are very low and are akin to those of many complementary and alternative medicine practices. Some physicians and health care providers, however, believe that patients may unadvisedly substitute proven treatments for life-threatening conditions with unproven alternative modalities including reiki, thus endangering their health.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Catholic Church concerns.", "content": "In March 2009, the Committee on Doctrine of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops issued the document \"Guidelines for Evaluating Reiki as an Alternative Therapy\", in which they declared that the practice of reiki was based on superstition, being neither truly faith healing nor science-based medicine. They stated that reiki was incompatible with Christian spirituality since it involved belief in a human power over healing rather than prayer to God, and that, viewed as a natural means of healing, it lacked scientific credibility. The 2009 guideline concluded that \"since reiki therapy is not compatible with either Christian teaching or scientific evidence, it would be inappropriate for Catholic institutions, such as Catholic health care facilities and retreat centers, or persons representing the Church, such as Catholic chaplains, to promote or to provide support for reiki therapy.\" Since this announcement, some Catholic lay people have continued to practice reiki, but it has been removed from many Catholic hospitals and other institutions.  In a December 2014 article by the USCCB Committee on Divine Worship on exorcism and its use in the Church, reiki is listed as a practice \"that may have impacted the current state of the afflicted person\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Training, certification and adoption.", "content": "There is no central authority controlling use of the words \"reiki\" or \"reiki master\". Certificates can be purchased online for under $100. It is \"not uncommon\" for a course to offer attainment of reiki master in two weekends. There is no regulation of practitioners or reiki master in the United States. The \"Washington Post\" reported in 2014 that in response to customer demand at least 60 hospitals in the United States offered reiki, at a cost of between $40 and $300 per session. Cancer Research UK reported in 2019 that some cancer centers and hospices in the UK offer free or low-cost reiki for people with cancer.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Reiki is a pseudoscience, and is used as an illustrative example of pseudoscience in scholarly texts and academic journal articles. It is based on \"qi\" (\"chi\"), which practitioners say is a universal life force, although there is no empirical evidence that such a life force exists.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971517}
{"src_title": "Lidice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The village is first mentioned in writing in 1318. After the industrialisation of the area, many of its people worked in mines and factories in the neighbouring cities of Kladno and Slaný.  Lidice was chosen as a target for reprisals in the wake of the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, because its residents were suspected of harbouring local resistance partisans and were falsely associated with aiding team members of Operation Anthropoid. Altogether, about 340 people from Lidice were murdered in the German reprisal (192 men, 60 women and 88 children). The village of Lidice was set on fire and the remains of the buildings destroyed with explosives. After the war ended, only 153 women and 17 children returned. They were rehoused in a new village of Lidice that was built overlooking the original site, built using money raised by the Lidice Shall Live campaign, initiated by Sir Barnett Stross and based in north Staffordshire in the United Kingdom. The first part of the new village was completed in 1949.  An art gallery, which displays permanent and temporary exhibitions, is in the new village from the museum. The annual children's art competition attracts entries from around the world.  In 1943, the Czech composer, Bohuslav Martinů, wrote the musical work, \"Memorial to Lidice\".  In 2017, to mark the 75th anniversary of the tragedy, the English composer Vic Carnall wrote his Opus 17, \"In Memoriam: the Village of Lidice (Czechoslovakia / June, 1942)\", a work for solo piano.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Lidice is twinned with Coventry, United Kingdom.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lidice () is a village in the Kladno District of the Czech Republic, northwest of Prague. It is built near the site of the previous village of the same name, which was completely destroyed on June 10th, 1942 on orders from Adolf Hitler and Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler in reprisal for the assassination of Reich Protector Reinhard Heydrich.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971518}
{"src_title": "Pinsk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early 20th century.", "content": "Pinsk was occupied by the German Empire on 15 September 1915, during the First World War. After the German defeat, Pinsk became the subject of dispute between the Belarusian People's Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic, both short-lived. Pinsk was taken by the advancing Red Army on 25 January 1919, during the Soviet westward offensive of 1918–19. It was retaken by Polish troops on 5 March 1919 during the Polish–Soviet War but was retaken by the Red Army on 23 July 1920 and finally retaken by the Polish on 26 September 1920. Pińsk became part of the reborn Poland in 1920 when the Polish-Soviet War ended with the Peace of Riga, signed in March 1921.  Like many other cities in Eastern Europe, Pinsk had a significant Jewish population before World War II. According to the Russian census of 1897, out of the total number of 28,400 inhabitants, Jews were approximately 74% of the population (21,100 persons), making it one of the most Jewish cities under tsarist rule. During the Polish-Soviet War, 35 Jewish civilians from Pinsk were executed by the Polish Army in April 1919 after being accused of collaborating with Russian Bolsheviks. The incident, the Pinsk massacre, created a diplomatic crisis noted at the Versailles Conference.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interwar period.", "content": "Pińsk was the initial capital of the Polesie Voivodeship, but it moved to Brześć-nad-Bugiem (now Brest, Belarus) after a citywide fire on 7 September 1921. The population of the city grew rapidly in interwar Poland from 23,497 in 1921 to 33,500 in 1931. Pińsk became a bustling commercial centre, and 70% of the population was Jewish in spite of considerable migration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent history.", "content": "Following the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, Pinsk and the surrounding area was annexed to the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. It was the seat of the Pinsk Oblast from 1940.  After Operation Barbarossa, Germany occupied Pinsk from 4 July 1941 to 14 July 1944, as part of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine. Most Jews were killed in late October 1942 during the liquidation of the Pińsk Ghetto by the German \"Ordnungspolizei\" and the Byelorussian Auxiliary Police, 10,000 being murdered in one day. In 1945, after postwar border adjustments of Poland, Pinsk again became part of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.  In 1954 it became part of the Brest Voblast.  Pinsk has formed part of the Republic of Belarus since Belarusian independence from the Soviet Union in 1991.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "Three main sights of the town are lined along the river: the Assumption Cathedral of the Monastery of the Greyfriars (1712–1730), with a campanile from 1817, the Jesuit collegium (1635–1648); a large Mannerist complex, whose cathedral was demolished after World War II by communists; and the Butrymowicz Palace (1784–1790), built for Mateusz Butrymowicz, an important political and economical figure of Pinsk and Polesie. The Church of St. Charles Borromeo (1770—1782) and St. Barbara Cathedral of the Monastery of the St. Bernard Order (1786–1787) are placed near historic centre in the former Karolin suburb, which is now part of Pinsk. The foremost modern buildings is the black-domed Orthodox Cathedral of St. Theodore.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pinsk (; ;, \"Pins'k\"; ; Yiddish/, ) is a city in Brest Region of Belarus, in the Polesia region, at the confluence of the Pina River and the Pripyat River. The region was known as the Marsh of Pinsk and is southwest of Minsk. The city's population is about 138,202.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971519}
{"src_title": "Cedilla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The tail originated in Spain as the bottom half of a miniature cursive z. The word \"cedilla\" is the diminutive of the Old Spanish name for this letter, \"ceda\" (zeta). Modern Spanish and Galician no longer use this diacritic, although it is used in Portuguese, Catalan, Occitan, and French, which gives English the alternative spellings of \"cedille\", from French \"'\", and the Portuguese form '. An obsolete spelling of \"cedilla\" is \"cerilla\". The earliest use in English cited by the \"Oxford English Dictionary\" is a 1599 Spanish-English dictionary and grammar. Chambers’ \"Cyclopædia\" is cited for the printer-trade variant \"ceceril\" in use in 1738. The main use in English is not universal and applies to loan words from French and Portuguese such as \"façade\", \"limaçon\" and \"cachaça\" (often typed \"facade\", \"limacon\" and \"cachaca\" because of lack of \"ç\" keys on Anglophone keyboards).  With the advent of modernism, the calligraphic nature of the cedilla was thought somewhat jarring on sans-serif typefaces, and so some designers instead substituted a comma design, which could be made bolder and more compatible with the style of the text. This can add to confusion as the use of commas as opposed to cedillas varies by language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "C.", "content": "The most frequent character with cedilla is \"ç\" (\"c\" with cedilla, as in \"façade\"). It was first used for the sound of the voiceless alveolar affricate in old Spanish and stems from the Visigothic form of the letter \"z\" (ꝣ), whose upper loop was lengthened and reinterpreted as a \"c\", whereas its lower loop became the diminished appendage, the cedilla.  It represents the \"soft\" sound, the voiceless alveolar sibilant, where a \"c\" would normally represent the \"hard\" sound (before \"a\", \"o\", \"u\", or at the end of a word) in English and in certain Romance languages such as Catalan, Galician, French (where ç appears in the name of the language itself, '), Ligurian, Occitan, and Portuguese. In Occitan, Friulian and Catalan \"ç\" can also be found at the beginning of a word (', ') or at the end (').  It represents the voiceless postalveolar affricate (as in English \"church\") in Albanian, Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, Friulian, Kurdish, Tatar, Turkish (as in ', ', ', '), and Turkmen. It is also sometimes used this way in Manx, to distinguish it from the velar fricative.  In the International Phonetic Alphabet, ⟨ç⟩ represents the voiceless palatal fricative.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "S.", "content": "The character \"ş\" represents the voiceless postalveolar fricative (as in \"show\") in several languages, including many belonging to the Turkic languages, and included as a separate letter in their alphabets:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Latvian.", "content": "Comparatively, some consider the diacritics on the palatalized Latvian consonants and formerly to be cedillas. Although their Adobe glyph names are commas, their names in the Unicode Standard are \"g\", \"k\", \"l\", \"n\", and \"r\" with a cedilla. The letters were introduced to the Unicode standard before 1992, and their names cannot be altered. The uppercase equivalent \"Ģ\" sometimes has a regular cedilla.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marshallese.", "content": "Four letters in Marshallese have cedillas: < >. In standard printed text they are \"always\" cedillas, and their omission or the substitution of comma below and dot below diacritics are nonstandard. , many font rendering engines do not display \"any\" of these properly, for two reasons:  Because of these font display issues, it is not uncommon to find nonstandard \"ad hoc\" substitutes for these letters. The online version of the Marshallese-English Dictionary (the only complete Marshallese dictionary in existence) displays the letters with dot below diacritics, all of which do exist as precombined glyphs in Unicode: \"\", \"\", \"\" and \"\". The first three exist in the International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, and \"\" exists in the Vietnamese alphabet, and both of these systems are supported by the most recent versions of common fonts like Arial, Courier New, Tahoma and Times New Roman. This sidesteps most of the Marshallese text display issues associated with the cedilla, but is still inappropriate for polished standard text.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other diacritics.", "content": "Languages such as Romanian add a comma (virgula) to some letters, such as \"\", which looks like a cedilla, but is more precisely a diacritical comma. This is particularly confusing with letters which can take either diacritic: for example, the consonant is written as \"ş\" in Turkish but \"ș\" in Romanian, and Romanian writers will sometimes use the former instead of the latter because of insufficient font or character-set support.  The Polish letters and and Lithuanian letters and are not made with the cedilla either, but with the unrelated ogonek diacritic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French.", "content": "In 1868, Ambroise Firmin-Didot suggested in his book'(Observations on French Spelling) that French phonetics could be better regularized by adding a cedilla beneath the letter \"t\" in some words. For example, the suffix'this letter is usually not pronounced as (or close to) in French, but as. It has to be distinctly learned that in words such as'(but not ') it is pronounced. A similar effect occurs with other prefixes or within words. Firmin-Didot surmised that a new character could be added to French orthography. A letter of the same description T-cedilla (majuscule: Ţ, minuscule: ţ) is used in Gagauz. A similar letter, the T-comma (majuscule: Ț, minuscule: ț), does exist in Romanian, but it has a comma accent, not a cedilla.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romanian.", "content": "The Unicode characters for Ţ (T with cedilla) and Ş (S with cedilla) were wrongly implemented in Windows-1250, the code page for Romanian. In Windows 7, Microsoft corrected the error by replacing T-cedilla with T-comma (Ț) and S-cedilla with S-comma (Ș).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vute.", "content": "Vute, a Mambiloid language from Cameroon, uses cedilla for the nasalization of all vowel qualities (cf. the ogonek used in Polish and Navajo for the same purpose). This includes unconventional roman letters that are formalized from the IPA into the official writing system. These include <\"i̧ ȩ ɨ̧ ə̧ a̧ u̧ o̧ ɔ̧>.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gagauz.", "content": "Gagauz uses Ţ (T with cedilla), one of the few languages to do so, and Ş (S with cedilla). Besides being present in some Gagauz orthographies, T with Cedilla exists as part of the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages, in the Kabyle dialect of the Berber language, and possibly elsewhere.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ISO 259 Romanization of Hebrew.", "content": "The ISO 259 Romanization of Hebrew uses Ȩ (E with cedilla) and Ḝ (E with cedilla and breve).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Encodings.", "content": "Unicode provides precomposed characters for some Latin letters with cedillas. Others can be formed using the cedilla combining character.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A'( ; from Spanish), also known as'(from Portuguese) or (from French), is a hook or tail ( ̧ ) added under certain letters as a diacritical mark to modify their pronunciation. In Catalan, French, and Portuguese, it is used only under the \"c\", and the entire letter is called, respectively, (i.e. \"broken C\"),, and (or, colloquially). It is used to mark vowel nasalization in many languages of sub-Saharan Africa, including Vute from Cameroon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971520}
{"src_title": "Firmware", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Ascher Opler coined the term \"firmware\" in a 1967 \"Datamation\" article. Originally, it meant the contents of a writable control store (a small specialized high-speed memory), containing microcode that defined and implemented the computer's instruction set, and that could be reloaded to specialize or modify the instructions that the central processing unit (CPU) could execute. As originally used, firmware contrasted with hardware (the CPU itself) and software (normal instructions executing on a CPU). It was not composed of CPU machine instructions, but of lower-level microcode involved in the implementation of machine instructions. It existed on the boundary between hardware and software; thus the name \"firmware\". Over time, popular usage extended the word \"firmware\" to denote any computer program that is tightly linked to hardware, including processor machine instructions for BIOS, bootstrap loaders, or the control systems for simple electronic devices such as a microwave oven, remote control, or computer peripheral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal computers.", "content": "In some respects, the various firmware components are as important as the operating system in a working computer. However, unlike most modern operating systems, firmware rarely has a well-evolved automatic mechanism of updating itself to fix any functionality issues detected after shipping the unit.  The BIOS may be \"manually\" updated by a user, using a small utility program. In contrast, firmware in storage devices (harddisks, DVD drives, flash storage) rarely gets updated, even when flash (rather than ROM) storage is used for the firmware; there are no standardized mechanisms for detecting or updating firmware versions.  Most computer peripherals are themselves special-purpose computers. Devices such as printers, scanners, cameras, and USB flash drives have internally stored firmware; some devices may also permit field upgrading of their firmware.  Some low-cost peripherals no longer contain non-volatile memory for firmware, and instead rely on the host system to transfer the device control program from a disk file or CD.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consumer products.", "content": ", most portable music players support firmware upgrades. Some companies use firmware updates to add new playable file formats (codecs). Other features that may change with firmware updates include the GUI or even the battery life. Most mobile phones have a Firmware Over The Air firmware upgrade capability for much the same reasons; some may even be upgraded to enhance reception or sound quality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Automobiles.", "content": "Since 1996, most automobiles have employed an on-board computer and various sensors to detect mechanical problems., modern vehicles also employ computer-controlled anti-lock braking systems (ABS) and computer-operated transmission control units (TCUs). The driver can also get in-dash information while driving in this manner, such as real-time fuel economy and tire pressure readings. Local dealers can update most vehicle firmware.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "Examples of firmware include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flashing.", "content": "Flashing involves the overwriting of existing firmware or data, contained in EEPROM or flash memory modules present in an electronic device, with new data. This can be done to upgrade a device or to change the provider of a service associated with the function of the device, such as changing from one mobile phone service provider to another or installing a new operating system. If firmware is upgradable, it is often done via a program from the provider, and will often allow the old firmware to be saved before upgrading so it can be reverted to if the process fails, or if the newer version performs worse. As an alternative to vendor tools, open source alternatives have been developed such as flashrom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Firmware hacking.", "content": "Sometimes, third parties create an unofficial new or modified (\"aftermarket\") version of firmware to provide new features or to unlock hidden functionality; this is referred to as custom firmware. An example is Rockbox as a firmware replacement for portable media players. There are many homebrew projects for various devices, which often unlock general-purpose computing functionality in previously limited devices (e.g., running Doom on iPods).  Firmware hacks usually take advantage of the firmware update facility on many devices to install or run themselves. Some, however, must resort to exploits to run, because the manufacturer has attempted to lock the hardware to stop it from running unlicensed code.  Most firmware hacks are free software.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "HDD firmware hacks.", "content": "The Moscow-based Kaspersky Lab discovered that a group of developers it refers to as the \"Equation Group\" has developed hard disk drive firmware modifications for various drive models, containing a trojan horse that allows data to be stored on the drive in locations that will not be erased even if the drive is formatted or wiped. Although the Kaspersky Lab report did not explicitly claim that this group is part of the United States National Security Agency (NSA), evidence obtained from the code of various Equation Group software suggests that they are part of the NSA.  Researchers from the Kaspersky Lab categorized the undertakings by Equation Group as the most advanced hacking operation ever uncovered, also documenting around 500 infections caused by the Equation Group in at least 42 countries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Security risks.", "content": "Mark Shuttleworth, the founder of the company Canonical, which maintains the Ubuntu Linux distribution, has described proprietary firmware as a security risk, saying that \"firmware on your device is the NSA's best friend\" and calling firmware \"a trojan horse of monumental proportions\". He has asserted that low-quality, closed source firmware is a major threat to system security: \"Your biggest mistake is to assume that the NSA is the only institution abusing this position of trust in fact, it's reasonable to assume that all firmware is a cesspool of insecurity, courtesy of incompetence of the highest degree from manufacturers, and competence of the highest degree from a very wide range of such agencies\". As a potential solution to this problem, he has called for declarative firmware, which would describe \"hardware linkage and dependencies\" and \"should not include executable code\". Firmware should be open-source so that the code can be checked and verified.  Custom firmware hacks have also focused on injecting malware into devices such as smartphones or USB devices. One such smartphone injection was demonstrated on the Symbian OS at MalCon, a hacker convention. A USB device firmware hack called \"BadUSB\" was presented at the Black Hat USA 2014 conference, demonstrating how a USB flash drive microcontroller can be reprogrammed to spoof various other device types to take control of a computer, exfiltrate data, or spy on the user. Other security researchers have worked further on how to exploit the principles behind BadUSB, releasing at the same time the source code of hacking tools that can be used to modify the behavior of different USB devices.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computing, firmware is a specific class of computer software that provides the low-level control for a device's specific hardware. Firmware can either provide a standardized operating environment for more complex device software (allowing more hardware-independence), or, for less complex devices, act as the device's complete operating system, performing all control, monitoring and data manipulation functions. Typical examples of devices containing firmware are embedded systems, consumer appliances, computers, computer peripherals, and others. Almost all electronic devices beyond the simplest contain some firmware.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971521}
{"src_title": "Canaletto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "He was born in Venice as the son of the painter Bernardo Canal, hence his mononym \"Canaletto\" (\"little Canal\"), and Artemisia Barbieri. Canaletto served his apprenticeship with his father and his brother. He began in his father's occupation, that of a theatrical scene painter. Canaletto was inspired by the Roman \"vedutista\" Giovanni Paolo Pannini, and started painting the daily life of the city and its people.  After returning from Rome in 1719, he began painting in his topographical style. His first known signed and dated work is \"Architectural Capriccio\" (1723, Milan, in a private collection). Studying with the older Luca Carlevarijs, a well-regarded painter of urban cityscapes, he rapidly became his master's equal.  In 1725, the painter Alessandro Marchesini, who was also the buyer for the Lucchese art collector Stefano Conti, had inquired about buying two more 'views of Venice', when the agent urged him to consider instead the work of \"Antonio Canale... it is like Carlevaris, but you can see the sun shining in it.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outdoor painting.", "content": "Much of Canaletto's early artwork was painted \"from nature\", differing from the then customary practice of completing paintings in the studio. Some of his later works do revert to this custom, as suggested by the tendency for distant figures to be painted as blobs of colour – an effect possibly produced by using a camera obscura, which blurs farther-away objects – although research by art historians working for the Royal Collection in the United Kingdom has shown Canaletto almost never used a camera obscura.  However, his paintings are always notable for their accuracy: he recorded the seasonal submerging of Venice in water and ice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early and late work.", "content": "Canaletto's early works remain his most coveted and, according to many authorities, his best. One of his early pieces is \"The Stonemason's Yard\" (, the National Gallery, London) which depicts a humble working area of the city. It is regarded one of his finest works and was presented by Sir George Beaumont in 1823 and 1828.  Later Canaletto painted grand scenes of the canals of Venice and the Doge's Palace. His large-scale landscapes portrayed the city's pageantry and waning traditions, making innovative use of atmospheric effects and strong local colours. For these qualities, his works may be said to have anticipated Impressionism.  His graphic print \"S. A. Giustina in Prà della Vale\" was found in the 2012 Munich Art Hoard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Work in England.", "content": "Many of his pictures were sold to Englishmen on their Grand Tour, first through the agency of Owen Swiny and later the banker Joseph Smith. It was Swiny in the late 1720s who encouraged the artist to paint small topographical views of Venice with a commercial appeal for tourists and foreign visitors to the city. Sometime before 1728, Canaletto began his association with Smith, an English businessman and collector living in Venice who was appointed British Consul in Venice in 1744. Smith later became the artist's principal agent and patron, acquiring nearly fifty paintings, one hundred fifty drawings, and fifteen rare etchings from Canaletto, the largest and finest single group of the artist's works, which he sold to King George III in 1763.  In the 1740s Canaletto's market was disrupted when the War of the Austrian Succession led to a reduction in the number of British visitors to Venice. Smith also arranged for the publication of a series of etchings of \"capricci\" (or architectural phantasies) (\"capriccio\" Italian for fancy) in his \"vedute ideale\", but the returns were not high enough, and in 1746 Canaletto moved to London, to be closer to his market.  He remained in England until 1755, producing views of London (including several of the new Westminster Bridge, which was completed during his stay) and of his patrons' houses and castles. These included Northumberland House for Sir Hugh Smithson, Bt., who by marriage later became the 2nd Earl of Northumberland; and Warwick Castle for Lord Brooke, later 1st Earl of Warwick. Smithson was one of the commissioners of Westminster Bridge, and it is \"not impossible\" that he had encouraged Canaletto to come to England and record the beginning of the bridge's life. His 1754 painting of Old Walton Bridge includes an image of Canaletto himself.  He was often expected to paint England in the fashion with which he had painted his native city. Canaletto's painting began to suffer from repetitiveness, losing its fluidity, and becoming mechanical to the point that the English art critic George Vertue suggested that the man painting under the name 'Canaletto' was an impostor. This may have been because Canaletto's nephew, Bernardo Bellotto, was also using his uncle's nickname; or more likely because the story had been spread by unscrupulous art dealers who had been passing off copies of Canaletto's own work and were anxious to see him return to Venice. Historian Michael Levey described his work from this period as \"inhibited\".  In order to refute this claim the artist, through an advertisement in a newspaper, invited \"any Gentleman\" to inspect his latest painting of St. James's Park at his studio in Silver Street (now Beak Street) off Golden Square; however, his reputation never fully recovered in his lifetime.  After his return to Venice, Canaletto was elected to the Venetian Academy in 1763 and appointed prior of the \"Collegio dei Pittori\". He continued to paint until his death in 1768. In his later years he often worked from old sketches, but he sometimes produced surprising new compositions. He was willing to make subtle alterations to topography for artistic effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Market.", "content": "His students included his nephew Bernardo Bellotto, Francesco Guardi, Michele Marieschi, Gabriele Bella, and Giuseppe Moretti. The painter, Giuseppe Bernardino Bison was a follower of his style.  Joseph Smith sold much of his collection to George III, creating the bulk of the large collection of works by Canaletto owned by the Royal Collection. in 1762, George III paid £20,000 for Consul Smith's collection of 50 paintings and 142 drawings. There are many examples of his work in other British collections, including several (19) at the Wallace Collection and a set of 24 in the dining room at Woburn Abbey. A large set of Canaletto works was also part of the collection of the Earls of Carlisle, however many were lost at the 1940 fire of Castle Howard and others were sold over the last century. Among those formerly at the Carlisle collection are \"The Bacino di San Marco: looking East\", now at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (sold in 1939) and the pair \"Entrance to the Grand Canal from the Molo, Venice\" and \"The Square of Saint Mark's, Venice\", now at the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC (sold in 1938). The last important venetian \"veduta\" at Castle Howard was by Bernardo Bellotto, \"A View of the Grand Canal Looking South from the Palazzo Foscari\", which was sold at Sotheby's in July 2015 for £2.6 million.  Canaletto's views always fetched high prices, and as early as the 18th century Catherine the Great and other European monarchs vied for his grandest paintings. The record price paid at auction for a Canaletto is £18.6 million for \"View of the Grand Canal from Palazzo Balbi to the Rialto\", set at Sotheby's in London in July 2005.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giovanni Antonio Canal (18 October 1697 – 19 April 1768), commonly known as Canaletto (), was a italian painter from the Republic of Venice, considered important member of the 18th-century Venetian school. Painter of city views or \"vedute\", of Venice, Rome, and London, he also painted imaginary views (referred to as capricci), although the demarcation in his works between the real and the imaginary is never quite clearcut. He was further an important printmaker using the etching technique. In the period from 1746 to 1756 he worked in England where he painted many views of London and other sites including Warwick Castle and Alnwick Castle. He was highly successful in England, thanks to the British merchant and connoisseur Joseph \"Consul\" Smith, whose large collection of Canaletto's works was sold to King George III in 1762.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971522}
{"src_title": "Sandstone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Sandstones are \"clastic\" in origin (as opposed to either \"organic\", like chalk and coal, or \"chemical\", like gypsum and jasper). They are formed from cemented grains that may either be fragments of a pre-existing rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding these grains together are typically calcite, clays, and silica. Grain sizes in sands are defined (in geology) within the range of 0.0625 mm to 2 mm (0.0025–0.08 inches). Clays and sediments with smaller grain sizes not visible with the naked eye, including siltstones and shales, are typically called \"argillaceous\" sediments; rocks with larger grain sizes, including breccias and conglomerates, are termed \"rudaceous\" sediments.  The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages. First, a layer or layers of sand accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water (as in a stream, lake, or sea) or from air (as in a desert). Typically, sedimentation occurs by the sand settling out from suspension; i.e., ceasing to be rolled or bounced along the bottom of a body of water or ground surface (e.g., in a desert or erg). Finally, once it has accumulated, the sand becomes sandstone when it is compacted by the pressure of overlying deposits and cemented by the precipitation of minerals within the pore spaces between sand grains.  The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are often derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was buried. Colors will usually be tan or yellow (from a blend of the clear quartz with the dark amber feldspar content of the sand). A predominant additional colourant in the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red (terracotta), with additional manganese imparting a purplish hue. Red sandstones, both Old Red Sandstone and New Red Sandstone, are also seen in the Southwest and West of Britain, as well as central Europe and Mongolia. The regularity of the latter favours use as a source for masonry, either as a primary building material or as a facing stone, over other forms of construction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Components.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Framework grains.", "content": "Framework grains are sand-sized ( diameter) detrital fragments that make up the bulk of a sandstone. These grains can be classified into several different categories based on their mineral composition:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Matrix.", "content": "Matrix is very fine material, which is present within interstitial pore space between the framework grains. The nature of the matrix within the interstitial pore space results in a twofold classification:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cement.", "content": "Cement is what binds the siliciclastic framework grains together. Cement is a secondary mineral that forms after deposition and during burial of the sandstone. These cementing materials may be either silicate minerals or non-silicate minerals, such as calcite.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pore space.", "content": "Pore space includes the open spaces within a rock or a soil. The pore space in a rock has a direct relationship to the porosity and permeability of the rock. The porosity and permeability are directly influenced by the way the sand grains are packed together.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Types of sandstone.", "content": "All sandstones are composed of the same general minerals. These minerals make up the framework components of the sandstones. Such components are quartz, feldspars, and lithic fragments. Matrix may also be present in the interstitial spaces between the framework grains. Below is a list of several major groups of sandstones. These groups are divided based on mineralogy and texture. Even though sandstones have very simple compositions which are based on framework grains, geologists have not been able to agree on a specific, right way, to classify sandstones. Sandstone classifications are typically done by point-counting a thin section using a method like the Gazzi-Dickinson Method. The composition of a sandstone can have important information regarding the genesis of the sediment when used with a triangular \"Q\"uartz, \"F\"eldspar, \"L\"ithic fragment (QFL diagrams). Many geologists, however, do not agree on how to separate the triangle parts into the single components so that the framework grains can be plotted. Therefore, there have been many published ways to classify sandstones, all of which are similar in their general format.  Visual aids are diagrams that allow geologists to interpret different characteristics about a sandstone. The following QFL chart and the sandstone provenance model correspond with each other therefore, when the QFL chart is plotted those points can then be plotted on the sandstone provenance model. The stage of textural maturity chart illustrates the different stages that a sandstone goes through.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dott's classification scheme.", "content": "Dott's (1964) sandstone classification scheme is one of many such schemes used by geologists for classifying sandstones. Dott's scheme is a modification of Gilbert's classification of silicate sandstones, and it incorporates R.L. Folk's dual textural and compositional maturity concepts into one classification system. The philosophy behind combining Gilbert's and R. L. Folk's schemes is that it is better able to \"portray the continuous nature of textural variation from mudstone to arenite and from stable to unstable grain composition\". Dott's classification scheme is based on the mineralogy of framework grains, and on the type of matrix present in between the framework grains.  In this specific classification scheme, Dott has set the boundary between arenite and wackes at 15% matrix. In addition, Dott also breaks up the different types of framework grains that can be present in a sandstone into three major categories: quartz, feldspar, and lithic grains.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Sandstone has been used for domestic construction and housewares since prehistoric times, and continues to be used.  Sandstone was a popular building material from ancient times. It is relatively soft, making it easy to carve. It has been widely used around the world in constructing temples, homes, and other buildings. It has also been used for artistic purposes to create ornamental fountains and statues.  Some sandstones are resistant to weathering, yet are easy to work. This makes sandstone a common building and paving material including in asphalt concrete. However, some that have been used in the past, such as the Collyhurst sandstone used in North West England, have been found less resistant, necessitating repair and replacement in older buildings. Because of the hardness of individual grains, uniformity of grain size and friability of their structure, some types of sandstone are excellent materials from which to make grindstones, for sharpening blades and other implements. Non-friable sandstone can be used to make grindstones for grinding grain, e.g., gritstone.  A type of pure quartz sandstone, orthoquartzite, with more of 90–95 percent of quartz, has been proposed for nomination to the Global Heritage Stone Resource. In some regions of Argentina, the orthoquartzite-stoned facade is one of the main features of the Mar del Plata style bungalows.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized (0.0625 to 2 mm) mineral particles or rock fragments (clasts) or organic material.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971523}
{"src_title": "Federweisser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Fermentation.", "content": "Once yeast has been added, grapes begin to ferment rapidly. The sugar contained in the grapes is broken down into alcohol and carbon dioxide (glycolysis). As soon as an alcohol content of four percent has been reached, Federweißer may be sold. It continues to ferment until all the sugar has been broken down and an alcohol content of about ten percent has been reached.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a beverage.", "content": "Due to the carbonation, Federweißer tastes quite refreshing, not unlike a light grape soda or a sweet sparkling wine. As fermentation progresses, however, Federweißer may increasingly assume a darker, often amber-like or light brown hue. In general, Federweißer is made from white grapes; when made from red grapes, the drink is called \"Federroter\", \"Roter Sauser\", or \"Roter Rauscher\". Federroter is less common than Federweißer. Because of rapid fermentation, Federweißer can not be stored for long and should be consumed within a few days of purchase. As carbonic acid is constantly produced, the bottles can not be sealed airtight and have a permeable lid (they would burst otherwise). They must be stored in an upright position to allow the gas to continuously escape from the bottle and to prevent spilling.  Progressing fermentation was also a challenge in transporting bottled Federweisser over long distances before the advent of modern-day commercial traffic and refrigerated vehicles, the latter of which are needed to slow down the yeast's metabolism during transport. Therefore, in the old days, Federweisser was almost exclusively available (and, for the most part, known) in and around wine-growing regions.  Depending on the date of the grape harvest, it is available from early September to late October, and is generally served together with savoury food. The classic combination is Federweißer and Zwiebelkuchen, although Federweißer and chestnuts is also popular.  Federweißer contains yeast, lactic acid bacteria, and a large amount of vitamin B and B.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Federweisser (also Federweißer, from German \"Feder\", \"feather\", and \"weiß\", \"white\"; from the appearance of the suspended yeast, also known as \"Sturm\", from German \"Sturm\", \"sturm\" in Austria), is an alcoholic beverage, typically 4% alcohol by volume, although versions of up to 11.5% alcohol by volume are not uncommon. (In contrast to all other alcoholic beverages, the alcohol content stated on a bottle of Federweisser is inconclusive, and presents an uppermost limit, not the actual content at any given time.) It is the product of fermented freshly pressed grape juice, known as \"must\". The term in principle includes all stages of fermentation from must to finished wine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971524}
{"src_title": "Hundred Flowers Campaign", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "During the summer, Mao found the idea interesting and had superseded Zhou Enlai to take control. The idea was to have intellectuals discuss the country's problems in order to promote new forms of arts and new cultural institutions. Mao, however, also saw this as the chance to promote socialism. He believed that after discussion it would be apparent that socialist ideology was the dominant ideology over capitalism, even amongst non-communist Chinese, and would thus propel the development and spread of the goals of socialism.  The beginning of the Hundred Flowers Movement was marked by a speech titled \"On the Correct Handling of the Contradictions Among the People\", in which Mao displayed open support for the campaign, saying \"Our society cannot back down, it could only progress... criticism of the bureaucracy is pushing the government towards the better.\" The speech, published on February 27, 1957, encouraged people to vent their criticisms as long as they were \"constructive\" (\"among the people\") rather than \"hateful and destructive\" (\"between the enemy and ourselves\").  The name of the movement originated in a poem: \"Let a hundred flowers bloom; let a hundred schools of thought contend\" (, \"Bǎihuā qífàng, bǎijiā zhēngmíng\"). Mao had used this to signal what he had wanted from the intellectuals of the country, for different and competing ideologies to voice their opinions about the issues of the day. He alluded to the Warring States period when numerous schools of thought competed for ideological, not military, supremacy. Historically, Confucianism and Taoism had gained prominence, and socialism would now stand to its test.  Historians debate whether Mao's motivations for launching the campaign were genuine. Some find it possible that Mao originally had pure intentions, but later decided to utilize the opportunity to destroy criticism. Historian Jonathan Spence suggests that the campaign was the culmination of a muddled and convoluted dispute within the Party regarding how to address dissent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campaign launch.", "content": "The campaign publicly began in late 1956. In the opening stage of the movement, issues discussed were relatively minor and unimportant in the grand scheme. The Central Government did not receive much criticism, although there was a significant rise in letters of conservative advice. Premier Zhou Enlai received some of these letters, and once again realized that, although the campaign had gained notable publicity, it was not progressing as had been hoped. Zhou approached Mao about the situation, stating that more encouragement was needed from the central bureaucracy to lead the intellectuals into further discussion.  By the spring of 1957, Mao had announced that criticism was \"preferred\" and had begun to mount pressure on those who did not turn in healthy criticism on policy to the Central Government. The reception with intellectuals was immediate, and they began voicing concerns without any taboo. In the period from May 1 to June 7, 1957, millions of letters were pouring into the Premier's Office and other authorities.  People spoke out by putting up posters around campuses, rallying in the streets, holding meetings for CPC members, and publishing magazine articles. For example, students at Peking University created a \"Democratic Wall\" on which they criticized the CPC with posters and letters. \"They protested CPC control over intellectuals, the harshness of previous mass campaigns such as that against counter-revolutionaries, the slavish following of Soviet models, the low standards of living in China, the proscription of foreign literature, economic corruption among party cadres, and the fact that 'Party members [enjoyed] many privileges which make them a race apart'\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Effects.", "content": "In July 1957, Mao ordered a halt to the campaign. By that time, Mao had witnessed Nikita Khrushchev denouncing Joseph Stalin and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, events by which he felt threatened. Mao's earlier speech, \"On the Correct Handling of the Contradictions Among the People\", was significantly changed and appeared later on as an anti-rightist piece in itself.  The campaign made a lasting impact on Mao's ideological perception. Mao, who is known historically to be more ideological and theoretical, less pragmatic and practical, continued to attempt to solidify socialist ideals in future movements, and in the case of the Cultural Revolution, employed more violent means. Another result of the Hundred Flowers Campaign was that it discouraged dissent and made intellectuals reluctant to criticize Mao and his party in the future. The Anti-Rightist Movement, that shortly followed and was possibly caused by the Hundred Flowers Campaign, resulted in the persecution of intellectuals, officials, students, artists and dissidents labeled \"rightists\". The campaign led to a loss of individual rights, especially for any Chinese intellectuals educated in Western centers of learning.  The Hundred Flowers Movement was the first of its kind in the history of the People's Republic of China in that the government opened up to ideological criticisms from the general public. Although its true nature has always been questioned by historians, it can be generally concluded that the events that took place alarmed the central communist leadership. The movement also represented a pattern that has emerged from Chinese history wherein free thought is promoted by the government, and then suppressed by it. A similar surge in ideological thought would not occur again until the late 1980s, leading up to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The latter surge, however, did not receive the same amount of government backing and encouragement.  Another important issue of the campaign was the tension that surfaced between the political center and national minorities. With criticism allowed, some of the minorities' activists made public their protest against \"Han chauvinism\" which they saw the informal approach of party officials toward the local specifics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discussion.", "content": "The first part of the phrase is often remembered as \"let a hundred flowers bloom\". It is used to refer to an orchestrated campaign to flush out dissidents by encouraging them to show themselves as critical of the regime, and then subsequently imprison them. This view is supported by authors Clive James and Jung Chang, who posit that the campaign was, from the start, a ruse intended to expose rightists and counter-revolutionaries, and that Mao Zedong persecuted those whose views were different from the party's. For instance, in Jung Chang and Jon Halliday's text \"\", Chang asserts that \"...Mao was setting a trap, and...was inviting people to speak out so that he could use what they said as an excuse to victimise them.\" The prominent critic Harry Wu, who as a teenager was a victim, later wrote that he \"could only assume that Mao never meant what he said, that he was setting a trap for millions...\"  Mao's personal physician, Li Zhisui, suggested that the campaign was \"a gamble, based on a calculation that genuine counterrevolutionaries were few, that rebels like Hu Feng had been permanently intimidated into silence, and that other intellectuals would follow Mao's lead, speaking out only against the people and practices Mao himself most wanted to subject to reform.\" Only when criticisms began shifting toward him personally did Mao move to suppress the Hundred Flowers movement and punish some of its participants.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hundred Flowers Campaign, also termed the Hundred Flowers Movement (), was a period in 1956 in the People's Republic of China during which the Communist Party of China (CPC) encouraged citizens to express openly their opinions of the communist regime. Differing views and solutions to national policy were encouraged based on the famous expression by Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong: \"The policy of letting a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend is designed to promote the flourishing of the arts and the progress of science\". The movement was in part a response to the demoralization of intellectuals, who felt estranged from the Communist Party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971525}
{"src_title": "Security through obscurity", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "An early opponent of security through obscurity was the locksmith Alfred Charles Hobbs, who in 1851 demonstrated to the public how state-of-the-art locks could be picked. In response to concerns that exposing security flaws in the design of locks could make them more vulnerable to criminals, he said: \"Rogues are very keen in their profession, and know already much more than we can teach them\".  There is scant formal literature on the issue of security through obscurity. Books on security engineering cite Kerckhoffs' doctrine from 1883, if they cite anything at all. For example, in a discussion about secrecy and openness in Nuclear Command and Control: [T]he benefits of reducing the likelihood of an accidental war were considered to outweigh the possible benefits of secrecy. This is a modern reincarnation of Kerckhoffs' doctrine, first put forward in the nineteenth century, that the security of a system should depend on its key, not on its design remaining obscure.  In the field of legal academia, Peter Swire has written about the trade-off between the notion that \"security through obscurity is an illusion\" and the military notion that \"loose lips sink ships\" as well as how competition affects the incentives to disclose.  The principle of security through obscurity was more generally accepted in cryptographic work in the days when essentially all well-informed cryptographers were employed by national intelligence agencies, such as the National Security Agency. Now that cryptographers often work at universities, where researchers publish many or even all of their results, and publicly test others' designs, or in private industry, where results are more often controlled by patents and copyrights than by secrecy, the argument has lost some of its former popularity. An early example was PGP, whose source code is publicly available to anyone. The security technology in some of the best commercial browsers is also considered highly secure despite being open source.  There are conflicting stories about the origin of this term. Fans of MIT's Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS) say it was coined in opposition to Multics users down the hall, for whom security was far more an issue than on ITS. Within the ITS culture the term referred, self-mockingly, to the poor coverage of the documentation and obscurity of many commands, and to the attitude that by the time a tourist figured out how to make trouble he'd generally got over the urge to make it, because he felt part of the community. One instance of deliberate security through obscurity on ITS has been noted: the command to allow patching the running ITS system (altmode altmode control-R) echoed as $$^D. Typing Alt Alt Control-D set a flag that would prevent patching the system even if the user later got it right.  In January 2020, NPR reported that party officials in Iowa declined to share information regarding the security of its caucus app, to \"make sure we are not relaying information that could be used against us.\" Cybersecurity experts replied that \"to withhold the technical details of its app doesn't do much to protect the system.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Security by obscurity alone is discouraged and not recommended by standards bodies. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the United States sometimes recommends against this practice: \"System security should not depend on the secrecy of the implementation or its components.\"  The technique stands in contrast with security by design and open security, although many real-world projects include elements of all strategies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Obscurity in architecture vs. technique.", "content": "Knowledge of how the system is built differs from concealment and camouflage. The efficacy of obscurity in operations security depends by whether the obscurity lives on top of other good security practices, or if it is being used alone. When used as an independent layer, obscurity is considered a valid security tool.  In recent years, security through obscurity has gained support as a methodology in cybersecurity through Moving Target Defense and cyber deception. NIST's cyber resiliency framework, 800-160 Volume 2, recommends the usage of security through obscurity as a complementary part of a resilient and secure computing environment. The research firm Forrester recommends the usage of environment concealment to protect messages against Advanced Persistent Threats.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Security through obscurity (or security by obscurity) is the reliance in security engineering on design or implementation secrecy as the main method of providing security to a system or component. Security experts have rejected this view as far back as 1851, and advise that obscurity should never be the only security mechanism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971526}
{"src_title": "Northbridge (computing)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The northbridge typically handles communications among the CPU, in some cases RAM, and PCI Express (or AGP) video cards, and the southbridge. Some northbridges also contain integrated video controllers, also known as a Graphics and Memory Controller Hub (GMCH) in Intel systems. Because different processors and RAM require different signaling, a given northbridge will typically work with only one or two classes of CPUs and generally only one type of RAM.  There are a few chipsets that support two types of RAM (generally these are available when there is a shift to a new standard). For example, the northbridge from the Nvidia nForce2 chipset will only work with Socket A processors combined with DDR SDRAM; the Intel i875 chipset will only work with systems using Pentium 4 processors or Celeron processors that have a clock speed greater than 1.3 GHz and utilize DDR SDRAM, and the Intel i915g chipset only works with the Intel Pentium 4 and the Celeron, but it can use DDR or DDR2 memory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name is derived from drawing the architecture in the fashion of a map. The CPU would be at the top of the map comparable to due north on most general purpose geographical maps. The CPU would be connected to the chipset via a fast bridge (the northbridge) located north of other system devices as drawn. The northbridge would then be connected to the rest of the chipset via a slow bridge (the southbridge) located south of other system devices as drawn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overclocking.", "content": "The northbridge plays an important part in how far a computer can be overclocked, as its frequency is commonly used as a baseline for the CPU to establish its own operating frequency. This chip typically gets hotter as processor speed becomes faster, requiring more cooling. There is a limit to CPU overclocking, as digital circuits are limited by physical factors such as rise, fall, delay and storage times of the transistors, current gain bandwidth product, parasitic capacitance, and propagation delay, which increases with (among other factors) operating temperature; consequently most overclocking applications have software-imposed limits on the multiplier and external clock setting. Additionally, heat is a major limiting factor, as higher voltages are needed to properly activate field effect transistors inside CPUs and this higher voltage produces larger amounts of heat, requiring greater thermal solutions on the die.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "The overall trend in processor design has been to integrate more functions onto fewer components, which decreases overall motherboard cost and improves performance. The memory controller, which handles communication between the CPU and RAM, was moved onto the processor die by AMD beginning with their AMD64 processors and by Intel with their Nehalem processors. One of the advantages of having the memory controller integrated on the CPU die is to reduce latency from the CPU to memory.  Another example of this kind of change is Nvidia's nForce3 for AMD64 systems. It combines all of the features of a normal southbridge with an Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) port and connects directly to the CPU. On nForce4 boards it was marketed as a media communications processor (MCP).  AMD Accelerated Processing Unit processors feature full integration of northbridge functions onto the CPU chip, along with processor cores, memory controller and graphics processing unit (GPU). This was an evolution of the AMD64, since the memory controller was integrated on the CPU die in the AMD64.  The northbridge was replaced by the system agent introduced by the Sandy Bridge microarchitecture in 2011, which essentially handles all previous Northbridge functions. Intel's Sandy Bridge processors feature full integration of northbridge functions onto the CPU chip, along with processor cores, memory controller and graphics processing unit (GPU). This was a further evolution of the Westmere architecture, which also featured a CPU and GPU in the same package.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A northbridge or host bridge is one of the two chips in the core logic chipset architecture on a PC motherboard, the other being the southbridge. Unlike the southbridge, northbridge is connected directly to the CPU via the front-side bus (FSB) and is thus responsible for tasks that require the highest performance. The northbridge, also known as Memory Controller Hub, is usually paired with a southbridge. In systems where they are included, these two chips manage communications between the CPU and other parts of the motherboard, and constitute the core logic chipset of the PC motherboard.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971527}
{"src_title": "Uzhhorod", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The historical name of the city is Hungarian, Ungvár. The Rusyn name Uzhhorod is a recent construct, and has been used only since the beginning of the 20th century.  The town is also known by several alternative names: ; ; ; ; ;.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uzhhorod.", "content": "The city gets its name from the Uzh River, which divides the city into two parts (the old and new sections), while \"horod\" (город) is Rusyn for \"city\", coming from Old Slavonic \"grad\" (градъ).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ungvár.", "content": "Ungvár, also spelled Ongvár, Hungvár, and Unguyvar, is derived from \"Ung\", the Hungarian name for the Uzh (as well as the surrounding county) and \"vár\", meaning \"castle, fort\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Slavic beginnings.", "content": "The best known of the first city founders are early Slavs. One of their tribes – White Croats – settled the area of the modern Uzhhorod in the second half of the first millennium AD. During the 9th century a fortified castle changed into a fortified early feudal town-settlement, which became the center of a new Slavic principality, at the head of which was a mythical prince Laborec, who was vassal of Great Moravia. Great Moravia, according to historians and experts did not extend as far east as Uzhgorod, in fact, it was west of what is now the City of Bratislava, Slovakia. According to Gesta Hungarorum, the city was under the rule of Salan, the Bulgarian Prince.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Hungarian conquest (895).", "content": "In 895 AD, Magyar tribes, headed by their leader Árpád, stormed the Hungvar fortress. The forces were not equal and Laborec was defeated and beheaded on the banks of the river that still carries his name. Again, this is mythical. There was not much of a settlement when the Magyar tribes arrived, having left Kiev (then known as Kevevara) and encountering no resistance.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "10th-15th centuries.", "content": "After the arrival of the Hungarians, the small town began to extend its borders. In 1241–1242 the Mongols of Batu Khan burnt the settlement. After, in 1248 the city was granted town privileges by the King Béla IV of Hungary. In the early 14th century, Uzhhorod showed strong resistance to the new Hungarian rulers of the Anjou dynasty. Although the majority of inhabitants were Hungarians, they wanted more freedom. From 1318 for 360 years, the Drugeths (Italian counts from the Kingdom of Naples) owned the town. During that period Philip Drugeth built Uzhhorod Castle. Together with the castle, the city began to grow. From 1430, Uzhhorod became a free royal town.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "16th-18th centuries.", "content": "During the 16–17th centuries there were many handicraft corporations in Uzhhorod. In this period the city was engaged in the religious fight between primarily Protestant Transylvania and Catholic Austria. In 1646 the Union of Ungvár was proclaimed and the Greek-Catholic church was established in Subcarpathia, in a ceremony held in the Ungvár castle by the Vatican Aegis. In 1707 Ungvár was the residence of Ferenc II Rákóczi, leader of the national liberation war of Hungarians against Vienna. From 1175 the city became the capital of the Greek Catholic Eparchy and from 1776 the center of new created school district.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "19th century.", "content": "The beginning of the 19th century was characterized by economic changes, including the first factories in the city. The greatest influence on Ungvar among the political events of the 19th century was made by the Hungarian Revolution of 1848-1849, during which the native Hungarian nobility sought both shake off the suzerainty of the Austrian Empire and to have authority over their own people. 27 March 1848 was officially celebrated in the city as the overthrow of the monarchy in Hungary. It is now celebrated in Hungary on 15 March.  In 1872 the first railway line opened, linking the city to the important railway junction of Chop, then known as Csap.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Twentieth century.", "content": "According to the 1910 census, the city had 16,919 inhabitants, of which 13,590 (80.3%) were Magyars, 1,219 (7.2%) Slovaks, 1,151 (6.8%) Germans, 641 (3.8%) Rusyns and 1.6% Czechs. Since Jews were not counted as ethnicity (as defined by language), rather only religious group, this Austrian-Hungarian census does not specifically mention the Jewish population, which was significant, and represented about 31% of the total population in 1910. In the same time, the municipal area of the city had a population composed of 10,541 (39.05%) Hungarians, 9,908 (36.71%) Slovaks, and 5,520 (20.45%) Rusyns.  The First World War slowed down the tempo of city development. On 10 September 1919, Subcarpathia was officially allocated to the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Uzhhorod became the administrative center of the territory. During these years Uzhhorod developed into an architecturally modern city. After the Treaty of Trianon 1920, Uzhhorod became part of the eastern half of the new Czecho-Slovak state.  After the First Vienna Award in 1938, Uzhhorod was given back to Hungary from which it was separated after WWI.  In 1941 the Jewish population reached 9,576. On 19 March 1944, Germans troops entered the city. They established a \"Judenrat\" (Jewish council) and set up two ghettos, at the Moskovitz brickyard and Gluck lumberyard. During May 1944, all Jews were deported to Auschwitz in five different transports and subsequently murdered. Only a few hundred Jews survived. On 27 October 1944, the city was captured by the troops of the 4th Ukrainian Front of the Red Army. Thousands of ethnic Hungarians were killed, expelled, or else taken to work in Soviet forced labor camps. The Hungarian majority population was decimated in order to strengthen the Soviet and Ukrainian right to the city.  This period brought significant changes. On the outskirts of Uzhhorod new enterprises were constructed and the old enterprises were renewed. On 29 June 1945, Subcarpathian Ukraine was annexed by the Soviet Union and became a westernmost part of the Ukrainian SSR. That year the Uzhhorod State University (now Uzhhorod National University) was also opened. Since January 1946 Uzhhorod was the center of newly formed Zakarpatska oblast.  Since 1991 Uzhhorod has become one of 24 regional capitals within Ukraine. Of these, Uzhhorod is the smallest and westernmost.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Twenty-first century.", "content": "In 2002, after some controversy, a bust of Tomáš Masaryk, Czechoslovakia's first president, was unveiled in a main square of the city. A similar bust was unveiled in 1928 on the 10th anniversary of Czechoslovak independence, but was removed by the Hungarians when they took over the region in 1939.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Uzhhorod has a humid continental climate (Köppen: \"Dfb\") with cool to cold winters and warm summers. The coldest month is January with an average temperature of while the warmest month is July with an average temperature of. The coldest temperature ever recorded is and the warmest temperature was. Average annual precipitation is, which is evenly distributed throughout the year though the summer months have higher precipitation. On average, Uzhhorod receives 1950 hours of sunshine per year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "According to the Ukrainian 2001 census, the population of Uzhhorod included:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Uzhhorod is served by Uzhhorod railway station and has railway connection with Chop (further to Hungary and Slovakia) and Lviv (further to Kiev).  Uzhhorod is served by Uzhhorod International Airport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "The city was home to the SC Rusj Uzhorod football club from 1925. Contemporary side FC Hoverla Uzhhorod made their debut in the Ukrainian Premier League in 2001.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – Sister cities.", "content": "Uzhhorod is currently twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Uzhhorod (, ;, or \"Užhorod\") previously and historically known as Ungvár (in Hungarian; ) is a city located in western Ukraine, at the border with Slovakia and near the border with Hungary. The city is located nearly within the same distance to the three nearest seas: the Baltic, the Adriatic and the Black Sea (650-690 km) making it the most inland city in this part of Europe. It is the administrative center of Zakarpattia Oblast (region), as well as the administrative center of the surrounding Uzhhorod Raion (district) within the oblast. The city itself is also designated as city of oblast significance, a status equivalent to that of a raion, and does not belong to Uzhhorod Raion. Population:.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971528}
{"src_title": "Dew point", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Humidity.", "content": "If all the other factors influencing humidity remain constant, at ground level the relative humidity rises as the temperature falls; this is because less vapor is needed to saturate the air. In normal conditions, the dew point temperature will not be greater than the air temperature, since relative humidity cannot exceed 100%.  In technical terms, the dew point is the temperature at which the water vapor in a sample of air at constant barometric pressure condenses into liquid water at the same rate at which it evaporates. At temperatures below the dew point, the rate of condensation will be greater than that of evaporation, forming more liquid water. The condensed water is called dew when it forms on a solid surface, or frost if it freezes. In the air, the condensed water is called either fog or a cloud, depending on its altitude when it forms. If the temperature is below the dew point, and no dew or fog forms, the vapor is called supersaturated. This can happen if there are not enough particles in the air to act as condensation nuclei.  A high relative humidity implies that the dew point is close to the current air temperature. A relative humidity of 100% indicates the dew point is equal to the current temperature and that the air is maximally saturated with water. When the moisture content remains constant and temperature increases, relative humidity decreases, but the dew point remains constant.  General aviation pilots use dew point data to calculate the likelihood of carburetor icing and fog, and to estimate the height of a cumuliform cloud base.  Increasing the barometric pressure increases the dew point. This means that, if the pressure increases, the mass of water vapor in the air must be reduced in order to maintain the same dew point. For example, consider New York ( elevation) and Denver ( elevation). Because Denver is at a higher elevation than New York, it will tend to have a lower barometric pressure. This means that if the dew point and temperature in both cities are the same, the amount of water vapor in the air will be greater in Denver.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to human comfort.", "content": "When the air temperature is high, the human body uses the evaporation of sweat to cool down, with the cooling effect directly related to how fast the perspiration evaporates. The rate at which perspiration can evaporate depends on how much moisture is in the air and how much moisture the air can hold. If the air is already saturated with moisture, perspiration will not evaporate. The body's thermoregulation will produce perspiration in an effort to keep the body at its normal temperature even when the rate at which it is producing sweat exceeds the evaporation rate, so one can become coated with sweat on humid days even without generating additional body heat (such as by exercising).  As the air surrounding one's body is warmed by body heat, it will rise and be replaced with other air. If air is moved away from one's body with a natural breeze or a fan, sweat will evaporate faster, making perspiration more effective at cooling the body. The more unevaporated perspiration, the greater the discomfort.  A wet bulb thermometer also uses evaporative cooling, so it provides a good measure for use in evaluating comfort level.  Discomfort also exists when the dew point is very low (below around ). The drier air can cause skin to crack and become irritated more easily. It will also dry out the airways. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration recommends indoor air be maintained at with a 20–60% relative humidity, equivalent to a dew point of.  Lower dew points, less than, correlate with lower ambient temperatures and causes the body to require less cooling. A lower dew point can go along with a high temperature only at extremely low relative humidity, allowing for relatively effective cooling.  People inhabiting tropical and subtropical climates acclimatize somewhat to higher dew points. Thus, a resident of Singapore or Miami, for example, might have a higher threshold for discomfort than a resident of a temperate climate like London or Chicago. People accustomed to temperate climates often begin to feel uncomfortable when the dew point gets above, while others might find dew points up to comfortable. Most inhabitants of temperate areas will consider dew points above oppressive and tropical-like, while inhabitants of hot and humid areas may not find this uncomfortable. Thermal comfort depends not just on physical environmental factors, but also on psychological factors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Measurement.", "content": "Devices called hygrometers are used to measure dew point over a wide range of temperatures. These devices consist of a polished metal mirror which is cooled as air is passed over it. The temperature at which dew forms is, by definition, the dew point. Manual devices of this sort can be used to calibrate other types of humidity sensors, and automatic sensors may be used in a control loop with a humidifier or dehumidifier to control the dew point of the air in a building or in a smaller space for a manufacturing process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calculating the dew point.", "content": "A well-known approximation used to calculate the dew point, \"T\", given just the actual (\"dry bulb\") air temperature, \"T\" (in degrees Celsius) and relative humidity (in percent), RH, is the Magnus formula: formula_1 The more complete formulation and origin of this approximation involves the interrelated saturated water vapor pressure (in units of millibars, also called hectopascals) at \"T\", \"P\"(\"T\"), and the actual vapor pressure (also in units of millibars), \"P\"(\"T\"), which can be either found with \"RH\" or approximated with the barometric pressure (in millibars), \"BP\", and \"wet-bulb\" temperature, \"T\" is (unless declared otherwise, all temperatures are expressed in degrees Celsius): formula_2  For greater accuracy, \"P\"(\"T\") (and therefore \"γ\"(\"T\", RH)) can be enhanced, using part of the \"Bögel modification\", also known as the Arden Buck equation, which adds a fourth constant \"d\": formula_3 where  There are several different constant sets in use. The ones used in NOAA's presentation are taken from a 1980 paper by David Bolton in the \"Monthly Weather Review\": These valuations provide a maximum error of 0.1%, for and. Also noteworthy is the Sonntag1990, Another common set of values originates from the 1974 \"Psychrometry and Psychrometric Charts\", as presented by Paroscientific, Also, in the \"Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology\", Arden Buck presents several different valuation sets, with different maximum errors for different temperature ranges. Two particular sets provide a range of −40 °C to +50 °C between the two, with even lower maximum error within the indicated range than all the sets above:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Simple approximation.", "content": "There is also a very simple approximation that allows conversion between the dew point, temperature, and relative humidity. This approach is accurate to within about ±1 °C as long as the relative humidity is above 50%: formula_4  This can be expressed as a simple rule of thumb:  For every 1 °C difference in the dew point and dry bulb temperatures, the relative humidity decreases by 5%, starting with RH = 100% when the dew point equals the dry bulb temperature. The derivation of this approach, a discussion of its accuracy, comparisons to other approximations, and more information on the history and applications of the dew point are given in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.  For temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit, these approximations work out to T_\\mathrm{dp,^\\circ F} &\\approx T_\\mathrm", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated with water vapor. When cooled further, the airborne water vapor will condense to form liquid water (dew). When air cools to its dew point through contact with a surface that is colder than the air, water will condense on the surface. When the temperature is below the freezing point of water, the dew point is called the frost point, as frost is formed rather than dew. The measurement of the dew point is related to humidity. A higher dew point means there is more moisture in the air.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971529}
{"src_title": "List of ethnic groups in China", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ethnic groups recognized by the People's Republic of China.", "content": "The following are the 56 ethnic groups (listed by population) officially recognized by the People's Republic of China (39 in 1954; 54 by 1964; with the most recent addition the Jino people in 1979).  GB 3304-91 \"Names of ethnicities of China in romanization with codes\";<br> The population only includes mainland China and Taiwan;<br> For ethnic groups officially recognised in 1964 or earlier, this is the year of first inclusion in the national census, which were in 1954 and 1964;<br> Also included are the Chuanqing;<br> Also includes Utsuls of Hainan, descended from Cham refugees;<br> A subset of which is also known as Hmong (Thus, Hmong peoples worldwide are NOT only Miao);<br> including Amdowa and Khampa, as well as roughly half of Pumi speakers, the remainder of whom are classified as a separate Pumi ethnicity;<br> Also known as \"Kam\";<br> Also included are the Sangkong;<br> This category includes several different Tai-speaking groups historically referred to as \"Bai-yi\" [in fact, the \"Dai\" nationalities are actually speakers of Shan languages varieties -for example : Tai Lue and Tai Nuea peoples are actually Shan peoples subgroups]. Although that, the speakers of Bumang are also included in this \"Dai\" nationality. ;<br> Also included are the Mosuo;<br> Also included are the Qago ();<br> Known as \"Kachin\" in Myanmar;<br> Also included are the Then;<br> Actually not Tajik people but Pamiri people;<br> The same group as Vietnamese or \"Kinh people\" in Sino-Vietnamese;<br> Known as \"Palaung\" in Myanmar;<br> The same group as Nanai on the Russian side of the border;<br> A collective name for all Taiwanese aborigine groups in Taiwan. In fact, the numbers of \"Gaoshan\" in census covers only those who lives in Mainland China (mainly in Fujian) and consists of Amis (autonym : \"Pangcah\"), Paiwan and Bunun peoples", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taiwanese aborigines.", "content": "The People's Republic of China government officially refers to all Taiwanese Aborigines (), as \"Gaoshan\" (), whereas the Republic of China (Taiwan) recognizes 16 groups of Taiwanese aborigines. The term \"Gaoshan\" has a different connotation in Taiwan than it does in mainland China. While several thousands of these aborigines have migrated to Fujian province in mainland China, most remain in Taiwan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Undistinguished\" ethnic minority groups.", "content": "This is a list of ethnic groups in China that are not officially recognized by the government of the People's Republic of China.  Japanese Ili Turki people Sung or Song Chinese that is Southern Chinese  During the Fifth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China (2000), 734,438 persons in the Chinese mainland, 97% of them in Guizhou, were specifically recorded as belonging to \"Undistinguished ethnic groups\". Presumably, other members of such groups may have been counted within larger \"recognized\" groups.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnic groups in Hong Kong and Macau.", "content": "Hong Kong and Macau are special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China. The governments of Hong Kong and Macau do not use the official PRC ethnic classification system, nor does the PRC's official classification system take ethnic groups in Hong Kong and Macau into account. Minority groups such as Europeans (mainly English and Portuguese), and South or Southeast Asians (mainly Filipinos, Indians, Indonesians, Nepalese, and Pakistanis) live in Hong Kong.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Multiple ethnic groups populate China, the area claimed by both the People's Republic of China (China) and the Republic of China (Taiwan).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971530}
{"src_title": "The Wealth of Nations", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Harris was born in Linton, Indiana, but grew up in Nashville, Tennessee, and identified himself as a Southerner. His hallmark song was \"That's What I Like About the South\". He had a trace of a Southern accent and in later years made self-deprecating jokes over the air about his heritage. His parents were circus performers. His father, a tent bandleader, gave him his first job as a drummer with the circus's band.  His unusual first name \"Wonga\", is said to derive from a Cherokee word meaning \"messenger of fleet\" or, perhaps more accurately translated, \"fast messenger.\"  On September 2, 1927, he married actress Marcia Ralston in Sydney, Australia; they had met when he played a concert date. In 1933, he made a short film for RKO called \"So This Is Harris!\", which won an Academy Award for best live action short subject. He followed with a feature-length film, \"Melody Cruise\". Both films were created by the same team that produced \"Flying Down to Rio\", which started the careers of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. He also starred in \"I Love a Bandleader\" (1945) with Leslie Brooks. Here he played a house painter who gets amnesia, then starts to lead a band. He recorded \"Woodman, Spare That Tree\" (by George Pope Morris, Henry Russell) in 1947. His nickname was \"Old Curly\". Additionally, he appeared in \"The Wild Blue Yonder\" a.k.a. \"Thunder Across the Pacific\" (1951), alongside Forrest Tucker and Walter Brennan. He made a cameo appearance in the Warner Bros. musical, \"Starlift\", with Janice Rule and Dick Wesson, and was featured in \"The High and the Mighty\" with John Wayne in 1954.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After radio.", "content": "A Democrat, he supported the campaign of Adlai Stevenson during the 1952 presidential election.  Harris worked as a voice actor for animated films, providing the voice of Baloo the bear in \"The Jungle Book\" (1967), Thomas O'Malley in \"The Aristocats\" (1970), and Little John in \"Robin Hood\" (1973). In 1989, he reprised his role as Baloo for the cartoon series \"TaleSpin\", but after a few recording sessions he was replaced by Ed Gilbert.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bing Crosby.", "content": "Harris was a lifelong friend of singer and actor Bing Crosby. He appeared on telecasts of Bing's Pro-Am Golf Tournament from Pebble Beach, California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Harris died of a heart attack at his Rancho Mirage home on August 11, 1995. Alice Faye died of stomach cancer three years later. He is interred at Forest Lawn Cemetery, Cathedral City, California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "Harris was a resident and benefactor of Palm Springs, California, active in many local civic organizations.  In 1994, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars was dedicated to him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, generally referred to by its shortened title The Wealth of Nations, is the \"magnum opus\" of the Scottish economist and moral philosopher Adam Smith. First published in 1776, the book offers one of the world's first collected descriptions of what builds nations' wealth, and is today a fundamental work in classical economics. By reflecting upon the economics at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the book touches upon such broad topics as the division of labour, productivity, and free markets.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971531}
{"src_title": "IP address spoofing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The basic protocol for sending data over the Internet network and many other computer networks is the Internet Protocol (IP). The protocol specifies that each IP packet must have a header which contains (among other things) the IP address of the sender of the packet. The source IP address is normally the address that the packet was sent from, but the sender's address in the header can be altered, so that to the recipient it appears that the packet came from another source.  The protocol requires the receiving computer to send back a response to the source IP address, so that spoofing is mainly used when the sender can anticipate the network response or does not care about the response.  The source IP address provides only limited information about the sender. It may provide general information on the region, city and town when on the packet was sent. It does not provide information on the identity of the sender or the computer being used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "IP address spoofing involving the use of a trusted IP address can be used by network intruders to overcome network security measures, such as authentication based on IP addresses. This type of attack is most effective where trust relationships exist between machines. For example, it is common on some corporate networks to have internal systems trust each other, so that users can log in without a username or password provided they are connecting from another machine on the internal network (and so must already be logged in). By spoofing a connection from a trusted machine, an attacker on the same network may be able to access the target machine without authentication.  IP address spoofing is most frequently used in denial-of-service attacks, where the objective is to flood the target with an overwhelming volume of traffic, and the attacker does not care about receiving responses to the attack packets. Packets with spoofed IP addresses are more difficult to filter since each spoofed packet appears to come from a different address, and they hide the true source of the attack. Denial of service attacks that use spoofing typically randomly choose addresses from the entire IP address space, though more sophisticated spoofing mechanisms might avoid unroutable addresses or unused portions of the IP address space. The proliferation of large botnets makes spoofing less important in denial of service attacks, but attackers typically have spoofing available as a tool, if they want to use it, so defenses against denial-of-service attacks that rely on the validity of the source IP address in attack packets might have trouble with spoofed packets. Backscatter, a technique used to observe denial-of-service attack activity in the Internet, relies on attackers' use of IP spoofing for its effectiveness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legitimate uses.", "content": "The use of packets with a false source IP address is not always evidence of malicious intent. For example, in performance testing of websites, hundreds or even thousands of \"vusers\" (virtual users) may be created, each executing a test script against the website under test, in order to simulate what will happen when the system goes \"live\" and a large number of users log in on at once.  Since each user will normally have its own IP address, commercial testing products (such as HP LoadRunner, WebLOAD, and others) can use IP spoofing, allowing each user its own \"return address\" as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Services vulnerable to IP spoofing.", "content": "Configuration and services that are vulnerable to IP spoofing:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Defense against spoofing attacks.", "content": "Packet filtering is one defense against IP spoofing attacks. The gateway to a network usually performs ingress filtering, which is blocking of packets from outside the network with a source address inside the network. This prevents an outside attacker spoofing the address of an internal machine. Ideally the gateway would also perform egress filtering on outgoing packets, which is blocking of packets from inside the network with a source address that is not inside. This prevents an attacker within the network performing filtering from launching IP spoofing attacks against external machines.  It is also recommended to design network protocols and services so that they do not rely on the source IP address for authentication.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Upper layers.", "content": "Some upper layer protocols provide their own defense against IP spoofing attacks. For example, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) uses sequence numbers negotiated with the remote machine to ensure that arriving packets are part of an established connection. Since the attacker normally cannot see any reply packets, the sequence number must be guessed in order to hijack the connection. The poor implementation in many older operating systems and network devices, however, means that TCP sequence numbers can be predicted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other definitions.", "content": "The term spoofing is also sometimes used to refer to \"header forgery\", the insertion of false or misleading information in e-mail or netnews headers. Falsified headers are used to mislead the recipient, or network applications, as to the origin of a message. This is a common technique of spammers and sporgers, who wish to conceal the origin of their messages to avoid being tracked.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer networking, IP address spoofing or IP spoofing is the creation of Internet Protocol (IP) packets with a false source IP address, for the purpose of impersonating another computing system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971532}
{"src_title": "Poi (performance art)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Māori culture.", "content": "In the Māori language, \"poi\" can mean the physical objects used by the dancers, the choreography itself, or the accompanying music. In Māori culture, poi performance is usually practiced by women. Some legends indicate that it was first used by men to develop wrist flexibility for the use of hand weapons such as the club-like patu, mere, and kotiate, but recent academic study has found no evidence to confirm this story.  Māori poi come in two forms: short, with strings equal to the length of the fingertips to the wrist; and long, with strings equal to the distance from fingertips to shoulder. A performance includes storytelling and singing in conjunction with choreographed poi routines and is often presented alongside other disciplines, such as \"waiata a ringa\", haka and \"titi torea\" (included in kapa haka performances). Poi feature in the 1980s hit song \"Poi E\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional construction.", "content": "Originally, poi were most commonly made from harakeke (New Zealand flax, \"Phormium tenax\") and raupō (\"Typha orientalis\"). Makers stripped and scraped flax to provide the muka (inner flax fibre), which was twisted into two strands to make the taura (cord) as well as the aho (ties). A large knot was tied at one end of the cord, around which the core was formed from the pithy middle of the raupō stem. Dampened strips of raupō stems were then wrapped around the ball and tied off around the cord, forming the covering. The other end of the cord was often decorated with a mukamuka, a tassel made from muka formed around a smaller knot. Occasionally, smaller tassels called poi piu were affixed to the base of the poi ball. Construction and design varied widely depending on regional, tribal, and personal preferences.  Another variety of poi is poi tāniko. In this construction, the outer shell was made of finely woven muka using a pattern based on a fishing net; these poi sometimes included strands that were dyed yellow to form a diamond pattern known as Te Karu ō te Atua (the Eye of God).  In the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, a cottage industry developed from the manufacture of raupō poi for sale to tourists, especially in the Rotorua area. Tourist-friendly variations included miniature poi that could be worn in buttonholes and as earrings.  Traditional raupō poi are less likely to be used by modern poi artists since traditional materials wear quickly with frequent use. Also, flax and raupō are becoming increasingly difficult to find as the wetlands where they are naturally found have been drained or made into conservation reserves (although traditional harvesting is, generally, allowed by law).  Today, most performance poi are made from durable and readily available modern materials. Cores are often made of foam or crumpled paper, while skins consist of plastic or loomed fabrics, such as tulle. Tassels are usually made of wool.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern poi.", "content": "Modern poi coexists with traditional Maori poi and enjoys a broader, worldwide audience.  Traditional Maori poi is generally performed in group choreography at cultural events, with vocal and musical accompaniment. By contrast, modern poi is generally performed by individuals, without singing and with less structured choreography. The tools and styles used are more varied. Many people first encounter poi in the form of fire spinning, but fire spinning is just one form of this highly varied art.  Modern poi borrows significantly from other physical arts, including various schools of dance and many object manipulation arts. Poi is practiced around the world and can often be seen at large festivals like Burning Man, European Juggling Convention.  Unlike many physical arts, learning poi does not usually involve formal education. Most spinners learn from each other or teach themselves using DVDs or online resources. A strong sense of community and self-teaching are key elements of modern poi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practice poi.", "content": "Beginners often learn using a simple pair of practice poi, which are typically constructed from soft materials such as socks or stockings that are weighted with soft household objects such as bean bags, juggling balls, balloons filled with legumes, or small toys. Simple poi can also be constructed from tennis balls and lengths of rope.  More advanced practice poi models can include swivels (for orbital-type tricks), weighted handles (for tosses), or incorporate contact stage balls to enable the spinner to execute contact poi moves (i.e., rolls and fishtails).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Performance poi.", "content": "Performers often use poi with bright, contrasting colors to enhance aesthetics and emphasize patterns. Some performance poi also incorporate tails or streamers for visual effect.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Glow poi.", "content": "Poi can be performed in the dark to dramatic effect when spinners use poi containing a light source, such as UV-sensitive materials, LED lights, or chemical glow sticks. Glowstringing, or using glowsticks swung from shoelaces, is popular at festivals and raves. It is also noted that while poi focuses on the manipulation of the head (the other side of the cord/chain from where you are holding), glowstringing focuses on the manipulation of the cord.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Meteor.", "content": "Meteor were cross-adapted from poi and from a Chinese martial arts weapon called the meteor hammer. The meteor is often constructed similar to poi, or can actually be made using poi. The meteor, however, also incorporates an additional short chain, rope, or bar in the center. This format means that most poi skills will translate to meteor, plus some staff, rope dart and chain whip skills as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fire poi.", "content": "Fire poi use wicks made from kevlar or Technora or another flame resistant material for the weighted ends. The wicks are soaked in fuel, set on fire, and then spun for dramatic effect.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health benefits of poi.", "content": "A scientific study conducted by Kate Riegle van West at the University of Auckland showed significant improvements in grip strength, balance, and attention after one month of poi practice. She and others in various countries are working with poi as a therapeutic intervention and helping organisations implement poi wellbeing programmes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Poi refers to both a style of performing art and the equipment used for engaging in poi performance. As a performance art, poi involves swinging tethered weights through a variety of rhythmical and geometric patterns. Poi artists may also sing or dance while swinging their poi. Poi can be made from various materials with different handles, weights, and effects (such as fire).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971533}
{"src_title": "Moravian-Silesian Region", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Administrative division.", "content": "The Moravian-Silesian Region is divided into 6 districts, in which are 300 municipalities (39 are towns): Traditionally, the region has been divided into six districts () which still exist as regional units, though most administration has been shifted to the municipalities with extended competence and the municipalities with commissioned local authority.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Municipalities with extended competence.", "content": "Since 1 January 2003, the region has been divided into 22 municipalities with extended competence, which took over most of the administration of the former district authorities. Some of these are further divided into municipalities with commissioned local authority. They are unofficially named little districts (). They are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "The total population of the region was 1,203,292 (men 49.1%, women 50.9%) in 2019, which makes it the third most populous region in the Czech Republic; 86.9% are Czechs, 3.3% Slovaks, 3.0% Poles, 2.3% Moravians, 0.8% Silesians, 0.3% Germans, and 0.2% Romani, though this last figure might be considerably higher, as Romani often do not officially admit their ethnicity. Around 40.2% of the population is religious, mostly Roman Catholic, while 52.3% declares as atheist.  The population density is 222 inhabitants per km2, which is the second-highest in the country, after the capital Prague. Most of the population is urban, with 59% living in towns with over 20,000 inhabitants. The average age of the population in the region was 42.7 in 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cities and towns.", "content": "The table shows cities and towns in the region with the largest population (as of January 1, 2019):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 19.6 billion € in 2018, accounting for 9.5% of Czech economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 23,000 € or 76% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 74% of the EU average.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The geography of the region varies considerably, comprising many land forms from lowlands to high mountains whose summits lie above the tree line.  In the west lie the Hrubý Jeseník mountains, with the highest mountain of the region (and all Moravia), Praděd, rising. The mountains are heavily forested, with many spectacular places and famous spas such as Karlova Studánka and Jeseník, so are very popular with tourists. Also, several ski resorts are there, including Červenohorské Sedlo and Ovčárna, with long-lasting snow cover. The Hrubý Jeseník mountains slowly merge into the rolling hills of the Nízký Jeseníks and Oderské Vrchy, rising to 800 m at Slunečná and 680 m at Fidlův Kopec, respectively.  To the east, the landscape gradually descends into the Moravian Gate (\"Moravská brána\") valley with the Bečva and Odra Rivers. The former flows to the south-west, the latter to the north-east, where the terrain spreads into the flat Ostrava and Opava basins (Ostravská Opavská pánev), where most of the population lives. The region's heavy industry, which has been in decline for the last decade, is located there, too, benefiting from huge deposits of hard coal. The confluence of the Odra and Olše is the lowest point of the region, at 195 m.  To the south-east, towards the Slovakian border, the landscape sharply rises into the Moravian-Silesian Beskids () (often referred to just as Beskydy), with its highest mountain Lysá Hora at, which is the place with the highest annual rainfall in the Czech Republic, a year. The mountains are heavily forested and serve as a holiday resort for the industrial north.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nature conservation.", "content": "Three large landscape protected areas (\"Chráněné krajinné oblasti, CHKO\") and a number of smaller nature reserves are in the region. The countryside is mostly man-made, but five natural parks (\"Přírodní parky\") with preserved natural scenery exist.  The CHKO Jeseníky (with an area of ) lies in the mountain range of the same name in the north east of the region. The terrain is very diverse, with steep slopes and deep valleys. About 80%t of the area is forested, mostly by secondary plantations of Norway spruce, which were seriously damaged by industrial emissions. Due to local weather conditions, the tree line in the area descends to. Alpine meadows can be found in particularly low elevations in the Jeseník mountains. Also, a few peat moors are found there, which are otherwise nonexistent in Moravia.  The CHKO Poodří () lies in the Moravian Gate, in close proximity to the region's capital Ostrava, on the banks of the meandering Odra. It is an area of floodplain forests (one of the last preserved in Central Europe), flooded meadows, and many shallow ponds, on which water birds thrive.  The CHKO Beskydy () is the largest Czech CHKO. It lies in the south-east of the region, along the Slovakian boundary. In the north, the mountains rise steeply from the Ostrava basin, to the south their elevation and severity decreases. Most of the area is forested, mainly by Norway spruce plantations, which are not indigenous to the area. Many of these were severely damaged by emissions from the Ostrava industrial region. There are, however, also a lot of either newly planted or preserved forests of European beech, which in the past covered most of the mountains. The CHKO is typical by its mosaic of forests and highland meadows and pastures with hamlets scattered throughout all the mountains. In recent years bear and wolf sighting have become more frequent.  Altogether, 125 small, protected nature areas cover an area of. The most notable of them is the lime Šipka Cave (\"Jeskyně Šipka\") near Štramberk, where remnants of a Neanderthal man were discovered in the late 19th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Places of interest.", "content": "There are three towns with protected historical centers. Příbor, the birthplace of Sigmund Freud, was an important center of education for northern Moravia from the 17th century to the first half of the 20th. Nový Jičín, founded under the castle of Starý Jičín, has a well-preserved central square dating back to the 14th century, with the Žerotínský château nearby. Štramberk is a unique small town nestled in a valley between lime hills, with many timber houses and the Trúba Spire rising on a hill above the town.  Many castles and châteaus are in the region, the most famous being Hradec nad Moravicí, Raduň, Kravaře, and Fulnek. Hukvaldy, in a village of the same name under the Moravian-Silesian Beskids, is one the region's many castle ruins, known for a musical festival dedicated to the composer Leoš Janáček, who was born there. Another well-known castle ruin is Sovinec under the Hrubý Jeseníks.  Due to the importance of industry in the region, many museums display products of local technical development. The Automobile Museum in Kopřivnice exhibits the history of the Tatra cars, The Train Carriage Museum is in Studénka, and the Mining Museum and the former Michal Mine (\"Důl Michal\") are in Ostrava.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Until 2000, the current region did not exist as such, but was only a part of a larger administrative unit called the North Moravian Region (\"Severomoravský kraj\"). Six of its districts (\"okresy\"), Bruntál, Frýdek-Místek, Karviná, Nový Jičín, Opava, and Ostrava, were in 2000 put into the newly established Moravian-Silesian Region. The old North Moravian Region still exists and jurisdiction of some administrative bodies is defined by its borders.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Moravian-Silesian Region (; ; ), is one of the 14 administrative regions of the Czech Republic. Before May 2001, it was called the Ostrava Region (). The region is located in the north-eastern part of its historical region of Moravia and in most of the Czech part of the historical region of Silesia. The region borders the Olomouc Region to the west and the Zlín Region to the south. It also borders two other countries – Poland (Opole and Silesian Voivodeships) to the north and Slovakia (Žilina Region) to the east.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971534}
{"src_title": "Vysočina Region", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Administrative divisions.", "content": "The Vysočina Region is divided into 5 districts: On a lower level, the region has 704 municipalities, second-most in the country behind the Central Bohemian Region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "As of 1 January 2019 the population of the Vysočina Region was 509,274, which was the third lowest out of regions in the Czech Republic. 49.7% of population were males, which was the highest share in the Czech Republic. The density of Vysočina Region is the second lowest in the Czech Republic (75 inhabitants per km).  The table shows cities and towns in the region with the largest population (as of January 1, 2019):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "With three UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the region is home to more of these than any other region of the Czech Republic. These are the historical centre of Telč, the Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk in Žďár nad Sázavou and the Jewish Quarter and St Procopius' Basilica in Třebíč.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The Vysočina Region is intersected by the D1 motorway, which passes through Jihlava on the way between Prague and Brno. A total of of motorway is present in the region. The length of operated railway lines in the region is. In 2014 a plan was announced by which a high-speed train, capable of reaching speeds of would run through the region, involving a total of four stops within the territory. Construction is projected to begin in 2025.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "In the Vysočina Region there are two organisations providing further education, namely College of Polytechnics Jihlava and Westmoravian College Třebíč. The College of Polytechnics Jihlava is the only public college in the region, whereas Westmoravian College Třebíč is a private institution, established in 2003.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vysočina Region (; \"Highlands Region\", ), is an administrative unit () of the Czech Republic, located partly in the south-eastern part of the historical region of Bohemia and partly in the south-west of the historical region of Moravia. Its capital is Jihlava.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971535}
{"src_title": "Cartilage", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "In embryogenesis, the skeletal system is derived from the mesoderm germ layer. Chondrification (also known as chondrogenesis) is the process by which cartilage is formed from condensed mesenchyme tissue, which differentiates into chondroblasts and begins secreting the molecules (aggrecan and collagen type II) that form the extracellular matrix.  Following the initial chondrification that occurs during embryogenesis, cartilage growth consists mostly of the maturing of immature cartilage to a more mature state. The division of cells within cartilage occurs very slowly, and thus growth in cartilage is usually not based on an increase in size or mass of the cartilage itself. It has been identified that non-coding RNAs (e.g. miRNAs and long non-coding RNAs) as the most important epigenetic modulators can affect the chondrogenesis. This can also justifies the non-coding RNAs' contribution in various cartilage-dependent pathological conditions such as arthritis, and so on.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Articular cartilage.", "content": "The articular cartilage function is dependent on the molecular composition of the extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM consists mainly of proteoglycan and collagens. The main proteoglycan in cartilage is aggrecan, which, as its name suggests, forms large aggregates with hyaluronan. These aggregates are negatively charged and hold water in the tissue. The collagen, mostly collagen type II, constrains the proteoglycans. The ECM responds to tensile and compressive forces that are experienced by the cartilage. Cartilage growth thus refers to the matrix deposition, but can also refer to both the growth and remodeling of the extracellular matrix. Due to the great stress on the patellofemoral joint during resisted knee extension, the articular cartilage of the patella is among the thickest in the human body.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanical properties.", "content": "The mechanical properties of articular cartilage in load-bearing joints such as the knee and hip have been studied extensively at macro, micro, and nano-scales. These mechanical properties include the response of cartilage in frictional, compressive, shear and tensile loading. Cartilage is resilient and displays viscoelastic properties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Frictional properties.", "content": "Lubricin, a glycoprotein abundant in cartilage and synovial fluid, plays a major role in bio-lubrication and wear protection of cartilage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Repair.", "content": "Cartilage has limited repair capabilities: Because chondrocytes are bound in lacunae, they cannot migrate to damaged areas. Therefore, cartilage damage is difficult to heal. Also, because hyaline cartilage does not have a blood supply, the deposition of new matrix is slow. Damaged hyaline cartilage is usually replaced by fibrocartilage scar tissue. Over the last years, surgeons and scientists have elaborated a series of cartilage repair procedures that help to postpone the need for joint replacement.  Biological engineering techniques are being developed to generate new cartilage, using a cellular \"scaffolding\" material and cultured cells to grow artificial cartilage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clinical significance.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disease.", "content": "Several diseases can affect cartilage. Chondrodystrophies are a group of diseases, characterized by the disturbance of growth and subsequent ossification of cartilage. Some common diseases that affect the cartilage are listed below.  Tumors made up of cartilage tissue, either benign or malignant, can occur. They usually appear in bone, rarely in pre-existing cartilage. The benign tumors are called chondroma, the malignant ones chondrosarcoma. Tumors arising from other tissues may also produce a cartilage-like matrix, the best known being pleomorphic adenoma of the salivary glands.  The matrix of cartilage acts as a barrier, preventing the entry of lymphocytes or diffusion of immunoglobulins. This property allows for the transplantation of cartilage from one individual to another without fear of tissue rejection.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Imaging.", "content": "Cartilage does not absorb X-rays under normal \"in vivo\" conditions, but a dye can be injected into the synovial membrane that will cause the x-rays to be absorbed by the dye. The resulting void on the radiographic film between the bone and meniscus represents the cartilage. For In vitro x-ray scans, the outer soft tissue is most likely removed, so the cartilage and air boundary are enough to contrast the presence of cartilage due to the refraction of the x-ray.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other animals.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cartilaginous fish.", "content": "Cartilaginous fish (chondrichthyes) like sharks, rays and skates have a skeleton composed entirely of cartilage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invertebrate cartilage.", "content": "Cartilage tissue can also be found among some arthropods such as horseshoe crabs, some mollusks such as marine snails and cephalopods, and some annelids like sabellid polychaetes.  The most studied cartilage in arthropods is the \"Limulus polyphemus\" branchial cartilage. It is a vesicular cell-rich cartilage due to the large, spherical and vacuolated chondrocytes with no homologies in other arthropods. Other type of cartilage found in \"Limulus polyphemus\" is the endosternite cartilage, a fibrous-hyaline cartilage with chondrocytes of typical morphology in a fibrous component, much more fibrous than vertebrate hyaline cartilage, with mucopolysaccharides immunoreactive against chondroitin sulfate antibodies. There are homologous tissues to the endosternite cartilage in other arthropods. The embryos of \"Limulus polyphemus\" express ColA and hyaluronan in the gill cartilage and the endosternite, which indicates that these tissues are fibrillar-collagen-based cartilage. The endosternite cartilage forms close to Hh-expressing ventral nerve cords and expresses ColA and SoxE, a Sox9 analog. This is also seen in gill cartilage tissue.  In cephalopods, the models used for the studies of cartilage are \"Octopus vulgaris\" and \"Sepia officinalis\". The cephalopod cranial cartilage is the invertebrate cartilage that shows more resemblance to the vertebrate hyaline cartilage. The growth is though to take place throughout the movement of cells from the periphery to the center. The chondrocytes present different morphologies related to their position in the tissue. The embryos of \"Sepia officinalis\" express ColAa, ColAb and hyaluronan in the cranial cartilages and other regions of chondrogenesis. This implies that the cartilage is fibrillar-collagen-based. The \"Sepia officinalis\" embryo expresses hh, whose presence causes ColAa and ColAb expression and is also able to maintain proliferating cells undiferentiated. It has been observed that this species presents the expression SoxD and SoxE, analogs of the vertebrate Sox5/6 and Sox9, in the developing cartilage. The cartilage growth pattern is the same than in vertebrate cartilage.  In gastropods, the interest lies on the odontophore, a cartilaginous structure that supports the radula. The most studied species regarding to this particular tissue is \"Busycotypus canaliculatus\". The odontophore is a vesicular cell rich cartilage, consisting on vacuolated cells containing myoglobin, surrounded by a low amount of extra cellular matrix containing collagen. The odontophore contains muscle cells along with the chondrocytes in the case of \"Lymnaea\" and other mollusks that graze vegetation.  The Sabellid polychaetes, or feather duster worms, have cartilage tissue with cellular and matrix specialization supporting their tentacles. They present two distinct extracellular matrix regions. These regions are an acellular fibrous region with a high collagen content, called cartilage-like matrix, and a collagen lacking highly cellularized core, called osteoid-like matrix. The cartilage-like matrix surrounds the osteoid-like matrix. The amount of the acellular fibrous region is variable. The model organisms used in the study of cartilage in sabellid polychaetes are \"Potamilla sp\" and \"Myxicola infundibulum\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Cartilage is a resilient and smooth elastic tissue, a rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints, and is a structural component of the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes, the intervertebral discs, and many other body components. It is not as hard and rigid as bone, but it is much stiffer and much less flexible than muscle. The matrix of cartilage is made up of glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, collagen fibers and, sometimes, elastin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971536}
{"src_title": "La Tène (archaeological site)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The site is located in the \"lieu-dit\" « La Tène », which is related to the latin \"tenuis\" evoking the shallow waters of the lake northernmost extremity. It is also the point where the Thielle river leaves the lake and flows in the direction of lake Biel. Being constantly in the vicinity of the lake, the artifacts were marked by the changes in the lake level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery.", "content": "The site of La Tène was discovered in 1857 during a period dubbed the \"lake dwelling fever\" (in french: \"\"fièvre lacustre\"\"). Pile-dwellings were found on the banks of many Swiss lakes, most of the time with the collaboration of scientists and fishermen. In november 1857, fisherman Hans Kopp was sailing to a Neolithic dwelling near Concise from Lake Biel under orders from Colonel Friedrich Schwab when he spotted an interesting spot near La Tène. He stopped and started investigating, and found within an hour around 40 iron objects, among which 8 spearheads and 12 swords. At that time, that is before the Jura water correction, the lake level was 2.7 m higher, and therefore, the site was 60 to 70 cm underwater. The discoveries made by Kopp went into Friedrich Shwab private collection until his death when they were given to the city of Biel/Bienne.  The first scholars studying the site, colonel Friedrich Schwab and Ferdinand Keller did not not give the site a particular interest. However when Édouard Desor, professor of geology and paleontology heard of the discoveries, around a year later, he immediately realised the potential of La Tène within the Three-age system. In 1866, the first International congress of prehistoric archaeology and anthropology took place in Neuchâtel, Desor advocated the site of La Tène as the reference for the prehistoric Iron Age. A few years later, during a later meeting of the congress in Stockholm, it was decided to divide the Iron Age in Europe in two periods. The first was labelled Hallstatt culture, from a site located in Austria. The second Iron Age (from around 450 BCE to 25 BCE) was named after the site of La Tène, and thus called the La Tène culture.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early excavations (1880s–1917).", "content": "The site quickly got quickly noted for the quality of the artifacts that were found. After Desor and Schwab, La Tène attracted other archaeology amateurs like Alexis Dardel-Thorens or Victor Gross. It also attracted many looters. Around 1870, the first Jura water correction brought the lake level 2.7 m lower, the site which was believed to be exhausted proved to have more to be found. With the lowered water, the site's topography became much easier to understand, this led to the discovery of the remains of two bridges over an old branch of the Thielle river as well as buildings of an undetermined function.  During the 1880s, excavations were conducted by Emile Vouga, the organisation of the site was clarified but the interpretation remained unclear. In 1907, on an initiative of the History and Archaeology society of Neuchâtel with a support from the Canton of Neuchâtel, a well organized excavation started. The excavation, lead by William Wavre and then Paul Vouga (1909) consisted in systematically emptying the old river Thielle bed. This methodical excavation lasted until 1917 and brought to light a large corpus of remarkably culturally similar artifacts. Six years later, Vouga published a monograph in the form of a typological inventory of the excavation discoveries where he did not try to suggest an interpretation of the site's function. The publication was considered disappointing, because Vouga did not use technics that were already known at the time, such as studying the site's stratigraphy. However, Vouga's monograph remains useful for the chronotypological studies of the second Iron Age.  During the following years, the interest for the site declined because of the difficulty of interpretation. However, many hypothesis were proposed, cult site, sacrificial site, theories concerning the large number of bent or broken weapons and the humans and animals skeletons that were found. La Tène remains a particulary difficult site to interpret, mostly due to three majors problems:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resumed excavations.", "content": "The Neuchâtel Department of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology (\"Office du Patrimoine et de l'Archéologie, OPAN\") organized a rescue excavation when construction works took place in the nearby camping area. The dig took place through already excavated layers backfilled by Paul Vouga and its aims were to obtain a precise stratigraphy and to date the already known structures.  A new project led by professor Gilbert Kaenel was launched in 2007, with the support of the Swiss National Science Foundation, the University of Neuchâtel and the Neuchâtel Department of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology (\"Office du Patrimoine et de l'Archéologie, OPAN\"). The project aimed to establish an inventory of the artifacts and archives concerning the site, to confront them to the results of the 2003 excavation and to stimulate cooperation between the museums in possession of the La Tène discoveries as well as encouraging works about certains categories of artifacts. The project has led to the publications of the La Tène collections from the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Geneva, the Bern Historical Museum and the British Museum in London based on a model establish by Thierry Lejars for the Schwab museum in Biel/Bienne.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discoveries.", "content": "The excavations on the site of La Tène led to the discovery of around 2500 artifacts, including offensives and defensives weapons in iron or wood (swords and scabbard, spears, arrowheads, a bow and shields) tools for industry and agriculture (axes, scythes, knives and a wooden plow), horse harnesses, rings and brochs in iron or bronze, pieces of cloth, a few pots and different celtic and roman coinage.  The artifacts discovered in La Tène are now dispersed around the globe, many of which have been illegally sold, which means completing a thorough inventory is extremely hard. Nonetheless, the majority of the objects is kept between the Swiss National Museum in Zürich and the archaeology museum of the Canton of Neuchâtel, the Laténium in Hauterive. Part of Colonel Schwab collection is kept in the Schwab Museum in Biel/Bienne and has been the subject of a thorough monograph.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "La Tène is a protohistoric archaeological site on the northern shore of Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland. Dating to the second part of the European Iron Age it is the type site of the La Tène culture, which dates to about 450 BCE to the 1st century BCE and extends from Ireland to Anatolia and from Portugal to Czechia. La Tène is listed as a property of national significance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971537}
{"src_title": "Joachim von Sandrart", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Sandrart was born in Frankfurt am Main, but the family originated from Mons/Bergen. According to his dictionary of art called the \"Teutsche Academie\", he learned to read and write from the son of Theodor de Bry, Johann Theodoor de Brie and his associate Matthäus Merian, but at age 15 was so eager to learn more of the art of engraving, that he walked from Frankfurt to Prague to become a pupil of Aegidius Sadeler of the Sadeler family. Sadeler in turn urged him to paint, whereupon he travelled to Utrecht in 1625 to become a pupil of Gerrit van Honthorst, and through him he met Rubens when he brought a visit to Honthorst in 1627, to recruit him for collaboration on part of his Marie de' Medici cycle. Honthorst took Sandrart along with him when he travelled to London. There he worked with Honthorst and spent time making copies of Holbein portraits for the portrait gallery of Henry Howard, 22nd Earl of Arundel.  Making all of those copies only served to arouse more curiosity in the young adventurer, and in 1627 Sandrart booked a passage on a ship from London to Venice, where he was welcomed by Jan Lis (whose Bentvueghels \"bent\" name was \"Pan\"), and Nicolao Renier. He then set out for Bologna, where he was met by his cousin on his father's side Michael le Blond, a celebrated engraver. With him, he crossed the mountains to Florence, and from there on to Rome, where they met Pieter van Laer (whose bent name was \"Bamboccio\"). Sandrart became famous as a portrait-painter. After a few years he undertook a tour of Italy, traveling to Naples, where he drew studies of Mount Vesuvius, believed to be the entrance to the Elysian fields described by Virgil. From there he traveled to Malta and beyond, searching for literary sights to see and paint, and wherever he went he paid his way by selling portraits. Only when he was done traveling did he finally return to Frankfurt, where he married Johanna de Milkau.  Afraid of political unrest and plague, he moved to Amsterdam with his wife in 1637.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Painting career.", "content": "In Amsterdam he worked as a painter of genre works, and portraits. He won a very good following as a painter, winning a lucrative commission for a large commemorative piece for the state visit by Maria of Medici in 1638, which hangs in the Rijksmuseum. This piece was commissioned by the Bicker Company of the Amsterdam \"schutterij\", and shows the members posing around a bust of Maria of Medici, with a poem by Joost van den Vondel hanging below it. The state visit was a big deal for Amsterdam, as it meant the first formal recognition of the Dutch Republic of the seven provinces by France. However, Maria herself was fleeing Richelieu at the time and never returned to France. This piece cemented his reputation as a leading painter, and in 1645 Sandrart decided to cash in and go home when he received an inheritance in Stockau, outside Ingolstadt, he sold his things and moved there. He received 3000 guilders for 2 books of his Italian drawings, that according to Houbraken were resold in his lifetime for 4555 guilders.  Though he rebuilt the old homestead, it was burned by the French. He sold it and moved to Augsburg, where he painted for the family of Maximilian I, the Elector of Bavaria. When his wife died in 1672, Sandrart moved to Nuremberg, where he married Hester Barbara Bloemaart, the daughter of a magistrate there. This is where he started writing.  His large 1649 painting \"Peace-Banquet\" commemorating the Peace of Münster, now hangs in Nuremberg's town hall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teutsche Academie.", "content": "He is best known as an author of books on art, some of them in Latin, and especially for his historical work, the \"Teutsche Academie\", published between 1675 and 1680, and in more recent editions. This work is an educational compilation of short biographies of artists, that was inspired by Karel van Mander's similar \"Schilder-boeck\". Both Sandrart and van Mander based their Italian sections on the work of Giorgio Vasari. His work in turn became one of the primary sources for Arnold Houbraken's \"Schouburg\", who wrote a little poem about him:  Sandrart published the first biography of the German artist Matthias Grünewald, and incorrectly bestowed on the artist the name \"Grünewald\" by which he is now popularly known. Sandrart also copied a mistake in Cornelis de Bie's \"Het Gulden Cabinet\" on Hendrick ter Brugghen whom De Bie has erroneously called \"Verbrugghen\". De Bie corrects this mistake in a manuscript and attacks Sandrart for having copied the mistake without proper research in a later work of his.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joachim von Sandrart (12 May 1606 – 14 October 1688) was a German Baroque art-historian and painter, active in Amsterdam during the Dutch Golden Age. He is most significant for his collection of biographies of Dutch and German artists the \"Teutsche Academie\", published between 1675 and 1680.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971538}
{"src_title": "Vulcano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Romans used the island mainly for raw materials, harvesting timber, and mining alum and sulfur. These were the principal activities on the island until the end of the nineteenth century.  After the Bourbon rule collapsed in 1860, the Scottish industrialist and philanthropist James Stevenson bought the northern part of the island. He then built a villa, reopened the local mines, and planted vineyards for making Malmsey wine. Stevenson lived on Vulcano until the last major eruption on the island happened in 1888. This eruption lasted the better part of two years, by which time Stevenson had sold all of his property to the local populace. He never returned to the island. His villa is still intact.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "The volcanic activity in the region is largely the result of the northward-moving African Plate meeting the Eurasian Plate. There are three volcanic centres on the island:  Vulcano has been quiet since the eruption of the Fossa cone on 3 August 1888 to 1890, which deposited about of pyroclastic material on the summit. The style of eruption seen on the Fossa cone is called a Vulcanian eruption, being the explosive emission of pyroclastic fragments of viscous magmas caused by the high viscosity preventing gases from escaping easily. This eruption of Vulcano was carefully documented at the time by Giuseppe Mercalli. Mercalli described the eruptions as \"...explosions sounding like a cannon at irregular intervals...\" As a result, vulcanian eruptions are based on his description. A typical vulcanian eruption can hurl blocks of solid material several hundreds of metres from the vent. Mercalli reported that blocks from the 1888–1890 eruption fell into the sea between Vulcano and Lipari, and several that had fallen on the island of Vulcano were photographed by him or his assistants. Volcanic gas emissions from this volcano are measured by a multicomponent gas analyzer system, which detects degassing of rising magmas before an eruption, improving prediction of volcanic activity.  A survey on local groundwater occurred during 1995–1997 showed temperatures up to 49–75 °C, sodium sulfate-chloride chemical composition, and near neutral pH in the water wells closest to the slopes of the volcanic cone. This is mainly due to condensation onto the slopes of the volcanic cone and water-rock interaction buffering.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "At the 2011 Census, Vulcano had a population of 953 residents, living in three localities – Vulcano Porto, Vulcano Piano and Vulcanello.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "Since Vulcano island has volcanic activity, it is a place where thermophiles and hyperthermophiles are likely to be found. In fact, the hyperthermophilic archaea \"Pyrococcus furiosus\" was described for the first time when it was isolated from sediments of this island by Gerhard Fiala and Karl Stetter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mythology.", "content": "The Ancient Greeks named this island \"Therasía\" (Θηρασία) and \"Thérmessa\" (Θέρμεσσα, source of heat). The island appeared in their myths as the private foundry of the Olympian god Hephaestus, the patron of blacksmiths. Their myths noted two more of his foundries, at Etna and Olympus. Strabo also mentions Thermessa as \"sacred place of Hephaestus\" (ἱερὰ Ἡφαίστου), but it is not certain whether this was a third name for the island, or merely an adjective.  Similarly, the Romans believed that Vulcano was the chimney of their god Vulcan's workshop and, therefore, named the island after him. According to the Roman myths, the island had grown due to his periodic clearing of cinders and ashes from his forge. They also explained earthquakes that either preceded or accompanied the explosions of ash as being due to Vulcan making weapons for their god Mars for his armies to wage war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearances in contemporary culture.", "content": "The motion picture \"Vulcano\" (released in the U.S. as, \"Volcano\") was filmed on Vulcano and the nearby island of Salina between 1949 and 1950.  An asteroid is named for this island, 4464 Vulcano.  The island of Vulcano is featured in the \"Battle Tendency\" story arc of the manga \"JoJo's Bizarre Adventure\" by Hirohiko Araki, as the scene of the final clash between the protagonist Joseph Joestar and the antagonist Kars, leader of the Pillar Men.  The American attorney and writer, Richard Paul Roe, asserts that the play \"The Tempest\" by William Shakespeare is set on the island of Vulcano, rather than the more authoritative interpretation that the setting was based on reports about Bermuda in the Americas and a hurricane encountered there.  The island is referred to by the Da Vinci character in the episode \"Concerning Flight\" while speaking to Tuvok, an alien from a planet named Vulcan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vulcano () or Vulcan is a small volcanic island in the Tyrrhenian Sea, about north of Sicily and located at the southernmost end of the seven Aeolian Islands. The island is in area, rises to above sea level, and it contains several volcanic calderas, including one of the four active volcanoes in Italy that are not submarine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971539}
{"src_title": "Carillon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In medieval times, swinging bells were first used as a way of notifying people of imminent church services, and for such as fires, storms, wars and other secular events.  However, the use of bells to play melodic musical compositions originated in the 16th century in the Low Countries. The first carillon was in Flanders, where a \"fool\" performed music on the bells of Oudenaarde Town Hall in 1510 by using a baton keyboard.  Major figures in the evolution of the modern carillon were Pieter and François Hemony working in the 17th century. They are credited as being the greatest carillon bell founders in the history of the Low Countries. They developed the carillon, in collaboration with Jacob van Eyck, into a full-fledged musical instrument by casting the first tuned carillon in 1644, which was installed in Zutphen's Wijnhuistoren tower.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical characteristics.", "content": "The World Carillon Federation defines a carillon as \"a musical instrument composed of tuned bronze bells which are played from a baton keyboard. Only those carillons having at least 23 bells will be taken into consideration. Instruments built before 1940 and composed of between 15 and 22 bells may be designated as 'historical carillons.'\"  The Guild of Carillonneurs in North America GCNA defines a carillon as \"a musical instrument consisting of at least two octaves of carillon bells arranged in chromatic series and played from a keyboard permitting control of expression through variation of touch. A carillon bell is a cast bronze cup-shaped bell whose partial tones are in such harmonious relationship to each other as to permit many such bells to be sounded together in varied chords with harmonious and concordant effect.\" The GCNA defines a \"traditional carillon\" as one played from a carillon mechanical (not electrified) baton keyboard, and a \"non-traditional carillon\" as a musical instrument with bells, but played by automated mechanical or electro-mechanical means, or from an electrical or electronic keyboard.  Since each note is produced by an individual bell, a carillon's musical range is determined by the number of bells it has. Different names are assigned to instruments based on the number of bells they comprise: The Riverside Carillon in New York City has the largest tuned carillon bell in the world, which sounds C (two octaves below middle C).  Travelling or mobile carillons are not placed in a tower, but can be transported. Some of them can even be played indoors—in a concert hall or church—like the mobile carillon of Frank Steijns.  Poorly tuned bells often give an \"out of tune\" impression and also can be out of tune with themselves. This is due to the unusual harmonic characteristics of foundry bells, which have strong overtones above and below the fundamental frequency.  There is no standard pitch range for the carillon. In general, a concert carillon will have a minimum of 48 bells. The range of any given instrument usually depends on funds available for the fabrication and installation of the instrument: more money allows more bells to be cast, especially the larger, more costly ones. Older carillons can be transposing instruments, generally transposing upward. Most modern instruments sound at concert pitch. A carillon clavier has both a manual and a pedal keyboard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Carillon music.", "content": "Carillon music is typically written on two staves. Notes written in the bass clef are generally played by the feet. Notes written in the treble clef are played with the hands. Pedals range from the lowest note (the bourdon) and may continue up to two and half octaves. In the North American Standard keyboard, all notes can be played on the manual.  Because of the acoustic peculiarities of a carillon bell (the prominence of the minor third, and the lack of damping of sound), music written for other instruments needs to be arranged specifically for the carillon.  The combination of carillon and other instruments, while possible, is generally not a happy marriage. The carillon is generally far too loud to perform with most other concert instruments. The great exceptions to this are some late twentieth and early twenty-first century compositions involving electronic media and carillon. In these compositions, sound amplification is able to match the extreme dynamic range of the carillon and, in the case of sensitive composers, even the most delicate effects are possible. Brass music is often heard together with a (traveling) carillon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Carillonneurs.", "content": "The carillonneur or carillonist is the title of the musician who plays the carillon. The carillonneur usually sits in a cabin beneath the bells and plays with the fifth (little) finger pressed down with a loosely closed fist, on a series of baton-like keys arranged in the same pattern as a piano keyboard. The batons are almost never played with the fingers as one does a piano, though this is sometimes used as a special carillon playing technique. The keys activate levers and wires that connect directly to the bells' clappers; thus, as with a piano, the carillonneur can vary the volume of each note according to the force applied to the key. In addition to the manual keys, the heavier bells are also played with a pedal keyboard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Carillon schools.", "content": "The world's first international carillon school, the Royal Carillon School \"Jef Denyn\", is in Mechelen, Belgium, where the study of campanology originated. Other carillon schools include the Netherlands Carillon School in Amersfoort.  In North America, one can study the carillon at the University of California, Berkeley, the University of California, Santa Barbara, the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor (which is home to two of only twenty-three grand carillons in the world), the University of Florida, the University of Denver's Lamont School of Music, and Missouri State University, all of which offer complete courses of study. One can also take private lessons at many carillon locations, and there are universities that offer limited credit for carillon performance, such as Clemson University, the University of Kansas, Iowa State University, Grand Valley State University, Marquette University and the University of Rochester.  The George Cadbury Carillon School was opened in 2006 and is the only carillon school in the UK.  Another international carillon school, the Scandinavian Carillon School in Løgumkloster, Denmark, was established in 1979. It serves mainly Scandinavians, but cooperates with other carillon schools at the university level with student exchange.  A number of universities and undergraduate institutions make use of carillons as part of their tradition. Princeton University houses a carillon of 67 bells which can be heard every Sunday afternoon with performances from Lisa Lonie. Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, is home to one of the world's only completely student-led guild of carillonneurs. Members of this group are selected by audition, following an intensive five-week training program for potential recruits. The Yale Memorial Carillon can be heard from the university's iconic Harkness Tower twice a day. A similar student-run program is that of the University of Texas at Austin. Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, completed its carillon of 48 bells in 2009, ninety years after the first bells were hung in 1919. Middlebury College in Vermont has a 48-bell carillon located in the steeple of the college's Mead Memorial Chapel. The University of Toronto in Canada has a 51 bell carillon located at Soldiers' Tower, and is the only Canadian university with a functioning carillon.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A carillon ( or ; ) is a musical instrument typically housed in the bell tower (belfry) of a church or municipal building. The instrument consists of at least 23 cast bronze, cup-shaped bells, which are played serially to produce a melody, or together to play a chord. A traditional manual carillon is played by striking a keyboard—the stick-like keys of which are called batons—with the fists, and by pressing the keys of a pedal keyboard with the feet. The keys mechanically activate levers and wires connected to metal clappers which strike the bells.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971540}
{"src_title": "Amnesty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Purposes.", "content": "An amnesty may be extended when the authority decides that bringing citizens into compliance with a law is more important than punishing them for past offenses. Amnesty after a war helps end a conflict. While laws against treason, sedition, etc. are retained to discourage future traitors during future conflicts, it makes sense to forgive past offenders, after the enemy no longer exists which had attracted their support but a significant number remains in flight from authorities. Amnesty is often used to get people to turn in contraband, as in the case of China's gun restrictions, or the Kansas City ban on pit bulls. Advantages of using amnesty may include avoiding expensive prosecutions (especially when massive numbers of violators are involved); prompting violators to come forward who might otherwise have eluded authorities; and promoting reconciliation between offenders and society. An example of the latter was the amnesty that was granted to conscientious objectors and draft evaders in the wake of the Vietnam War in the 1970s, in an effort by President Carter to heal war wounds, given that both the war and the draft were over.  An example of an argument made for amnesty for illegal immigrants is that they would be allowed to qualify for higher paying jobs, scholarships, and other services. According to the Center for Study of Immigration Integration, if California alone were to adopt an amnesty program, they would benefit by $16 billion (Pastor, 2010).  With amnesty, immigrants can seek out higher education. A RAND study found that, by the age of 30, a Mexican immigrant woman who becomes a legal resident can obtain a college degree. With a college degree she will pay $5,300 more in taxes and cost $3,900 less in government expenses each year compared to a high-school dropout with similar characteristics. Workers who lacked a high-school diploma in 2006 earned an average of only $419 per week and had an unemployment rate of 6.8 percent. In contrast, workers with a bachelor's degree earned $962 per week and had an unemployment rate of 2.3 percent, while those with a doctorate earned $1,441 and had an unemployment rate of only 1.4 percent (Gonzales, 2010).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "Amnesty can at times raise questions of justice. An example was the Ugandan government's offer not to prosecute alleged war criminal Joseph Kony, in hopes that further bloodshed would be avoided. David Smock noted, \"The downside of it is the impunity that it implies; that people can commit atrocities and say that they will only stop if they are given amnesty...\"  A controversial issue in the United States is whether illegal immigrants should be granted some form of amnesty. It is proposed that illegal immigrants be able to come forward and immediately receive probationary status. California Republican Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger said an amnesty program similar to the one the federal government undertook in the late 1980s would be ill-advised today. It just didn't work. \"It backfired big-time. It sent the wrong message: You come here illegally, and then we go and give you amnesty. So then, the next million come and they say, 'Hey, we get amnesty, this is really terrific'.\"  Some allege that at the national level an amnesty program would cost $2.6 trillion. This would only include the costs for the first year. The Federal Government would need to hire additional workers to help register immigrants, increasing costs for labor and or facilities. It is also alleged that an amnesty program would draw far more immigrants into the U.S. to receive amnesty, so the costs would continue to increase.  Some allege that due to the large number of illegal immigrants residing in the U.S., the government had to hire outside contractors. This led to mass cases of fraudulent activity. Illegal immigrants were paying off workers to falsify information, grant amnesty for family and or friends, and providing other relevant services.  Controversies also raise towards amnesties given to alleged perpetrators of the most serious crimes of international law (or crimes of the \"Jus Cogens\" which include genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and aggression). Courts have rejected amnesties for such crimes, such as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the Special Court for Sierra Leone. But scholars have suggested that there should be room for amnesties which were imperative necessities to achieve peace and accompanied by effective Truth and Reconciliation Commissions. One particular case was in Uruguay: the controversial Law on the Expiration of the Punitive Claims of the State pretended to put an end to unsolved issues deriving from 12 years of civic-military dictatorship; local human rights organizations challenged that law and called a referendum in 1989 which confirmed the law by 56% of the popular vote.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Amnesty (from the Greek ἀμνηστία \"amnestia\", \"forgetfulness, passing over\") is defined as \"A pardon extended by the government to a group or class of people, usually for a political offense; the act of a sovereign power officially forgiving certain classes of people who are subject to trial but have not yet been convicted.\" An amnesty constitutes more than a pardon, in so much as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the offense. Amnesty is increasingly used to express the idea of \"freedom\" and to refer to when prisoners can go free.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971541}
{"src_title": "Stratigraphy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical development.", "content": "Catholic priest Nicholas Steno established the theoretical basis for stratigraphy when he introduced the law of superposition, the principle of original horizontality and the principle of lateral continuity in a 1669 work on the fossilization of organic remains in layers of sediment.  The first practical large-scale application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the 1790s and early 19th century. Known as the \"Father of English geology\", Smith recognized the significance of strata or rock layering and the importance of fossil markers for correlating strata; he created the first geologic map of England. Other influential applications of stratigraphy in the early 19th century were by Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, who studied the geology of the region around Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lithostratigraphy.", "content": "Variation in rock units, most obviously displayed as visible layering, is due to physical contrasts in rock type (lithology). This variation can occur vertically as layering (bedding), or laterally, and reflects changes in environments of deposition (known as facies change). These variations provide a lithostratigraphy or lithologic stratigraphy of the rock unit. Key concepts in stratigraphy involve understanding how certain geometric relationships between rock layers arise and what these geometries imply about their original depositional environment. The basic concept in stratigraphy, called the law of superposition, states: in an undeformed stratigraphic sequence, the oldest strata occur at the base of the sequence.  Chemostratigraphy studies the changes in the relative proportions of trace elements and isotopes within and between lithologic units. Carbon and oxygen isotope ratios vary with time, and researchers can use those to map subtle changes that occurred in the paleoenvironment. This has led to the specialized field of isotopic stratigraphy.  Cyclostratigraphy documents the often cyclic changes in the relative proportions of minerals (particularly carbonates), grain size, thickness of sediment layers (varves) and fossil diversity with time, related to seasonal or longer term changes in palaeoclimates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biostratigraphy.", "content": "Biostratigraphy or paleontologic stratigraphy is based on fossil evidence in the rock layers. Strata from widespread locations containing the same fossil fauna and flora are said to be correlatable in time. Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's principle of faunal succession, which predated, and was one of the first and most powerful lines of evidence for, biological evolution. It provides strong evidence for the formation (speciation) and extinction of species. The geologic time scale was developed during the 19th century, based on the evidence of biologic stratigraphy and faunal succession. This timescale remained a relative scale until the development of radiometric dating, which gave it and the stratigraphy it was based on an absolute time framework, leading to the development of chronostratigraphy.  One important development is the Vail curve, which attempts to define a global historical sea-level curve according to inferences from worldwide stratigraphic patterns. Stratigraphy is also commonly used to delineate the nature and extent of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir rocks, seals, and traps of petroleum geology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chronostratigraphy.", "content": "Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that places an absolute age, rather than a relative age on rock strata. The branch is concerned with deriving geochronological data for rock units, both directly and inferentially, so that a sequence of time-relative events that created the rocks formation can be derived. The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to place dates on the sequence of deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and then to every region, and by extension to provide an entire geologic record of the Earth.  A gap or missing strata in the geological record of an area is called a stratigraphic hiatus. This may be the result of a halt in the deposition of sediment. Alternatively, the gap may be due to removal by erosion, in which case it may be called a stratigraphic vacuity. It is called a \"hiatus\" because deposition was \"on hold\" for a period of time. A physical gap may represent both a period of non-deposition and a period of erosion. A geologic fault may cause the appearance of a hiatus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Magnetostratigraphy.", "content": "Magnetostratigraphy is a chronostratigraphic technique used to date sedimentary and volcanic sequences. The method works by collecting oriented samples at measured intervals throughout a section. The samples are analyzed to determine their detrital remanent magnetism (DRM), that is, the polarity of Earth's magnetic field at the time a stratum was deposited. For sedimentary rocks this is possible because, as they fall through the water column, very fine-grained magnetic minerals (< 17 μm) behave like tiny compasses, orienting themselves with Earth's magnetic field. Upon burial, that orientation is preserved. For volcanic rocks, magnetic minerals, which form in the melt, orient themselves with the ambient magnetic field, and are fixed in place upon crystallization of the lava.  Oriented paleomagnetic core samples are collected in the field; mudstones, siltstones, and very fine-grained sandstones are the preferred lithologies because the magnetic grains are finer and more likely to orient with the ambient field during deposition. If the ancient magnetic field were oriented similar to today's field (North Magnetic Pole near the North Rotational Pole), the strata would retain a normal polarity. If the data indicate that the North Magnetic Pole were near the South Rotational Pole, the strata would exhibit reversed polarity.  Results of the individual samples are analyzed by removing the natural remanent magnetization (NRM) to reveal the DRM. Following statistical analysis, the results are used to generate a local magnetostratigraphic column that can then be compared against the Global Magnetic Polarity Time Scale.  This technique is used to date sequences that generally lack fossils or interbedded igneous rocks. The continuous nature of the sampling means that it is also a powerful technique for the estimation of sediment-accumulation rates.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has two related subfields: lithostratigraphy (lithologic stratigraphy) and biostratigraphy (biologic stratigraphy).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971542}
{"src_title": "Castoridae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Castorids are medium-sized mammals, although large compared with most other rodents. They are semiaquatic, with sleek bodies and webbed hind feet, and are more agile in the water than on land. Their tails are flattened and scaly, adaptations that help them manoeuvre in the water. Castorids live in small family groups that each occupy a specific territory, based around a lodge and dam constructed from sticks and mud. They are herbivores, feeding on leaves and grasses in the summer, and woody plants such as willow in the winter. They have powerful incisors and the typical rodent dental formula:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "The earliest castorids belong to the genus \"Agnotocastor\", known from the late Eocene and Oligocene of North America and Asia. Other early castorids included genera such as \"Steneofiber\", from the Oligocene and Miocene of Europe, the earliest member of the subfamily Castorinae, which contains castorids closely related to living beavers. Their teeth were not well suited to gnawing wood, suggesting this habit evolved at a later point, but they do appear adapted to semiaquatic living. Later, such early species evolved into forms such as \"Palaeocastor\" from the Miocene of Nebraska. \"Palaeocastor\" was about the size of a muskrat, and dug corkscrew-shaped burrows up to deep.  Giant forms evolved in the Pleistocene, including \"Trogontherium\" in Europe, and \"Castoroides\" in North America. The latter animal was as large as a black bear, yet had a brain only marginally larger than that of modern beavers. Its shape suggests it would have been a good swimmer, and it probably lived in swampy habitats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "McKenna and Bell divided Castoridae into two subfamilies, Castoroidinae and Castorinae. More recent studies have recognized two additional subfamilies of basal castorids, Agnotocastorinae and Palaeocastorinae, which is followed here. Within the family, Castorinae and Castoroidinae are sister taxa; they share a more recent common ancestor with each other than with members of the other two subfamilies. Both subfamilies include semiaquatic species capable of constructing dams. The Palaeocastorinae include beavers that are interpreted as fossorial (burrowing), as are nothodipoidins and \"Migmacastor\". The following taxonomy is based on Korth and Rybczynski, with preference given to the latter where these differ.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The family Castoridae contains the two living species of beavers and their fossil relatives. This was once a highly diverse group of rodents, but is now restricted to a single genus, \"Castor\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971543}
{"src_title": "Rose Ausländer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and education, 1901–20.", "content": "Rose Ausländer was born in Czernowitz, Bukovina (now Chernivtsi, Ukraine), to a German-speaking Jewish family. At the time Chernowitz was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Her father Sigmund (Süssi) Scherzer (1871–1920) was from a small town near Czernowitz, and her mother Kathi Etie Rifke Binder (1873–1947) was born in Czernowitz to a German-speaking family. From 1907 and 1919, she went to school in Czernowitz. In 1916 her family fled the Russian Occupying Army to Vienna but returned to Cernăuți, Bukovina which was given the name 'Cernăuți' and became part of the Kingdom of Romania after 1918.  In 1919, she began studying literature and philosophy in Cernăuți. At this time, she developed a lifelong interest in the philosopher Constantin Brunner. After her father died in 1920 she left university.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New York, 1921–27.", "content": "In 1921, she migrated to the United States with her university friend, and future husband, Ignaz Ausländer. In Minneapolis, she worked as an editor for the German language newspaper \"Westlicher Herold\" and was a collaborator of the anthology \"Amerika-Herold-Kalender\", in which she published her first poems. In 1922, she moved with Ausländer to New York City, where they were married on October 19, 1923. She separated from Ausländer three years later aged 25, but kept his last name. She became an American citizen in 1926. In the cycle of poems \"New York\" (1926/27), the expressionist pathos of her early work yields to a cool-controlled language of Neue Sachlichkeit. Her interest in the ideas of the Spinoza inspired philosopher Constantin Brunner, next to Plato, Sigmund Freud and others is a topic of later essays, that have disappeared.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cernauti and New York 1926–31.", "content": "From 1926-28 she returned home to Cernauti to take care of her sick mother. There, she met graphologist Helios Hecht, who became her partner. In 1928 she went back to New York with Hecht. She published poems in the \"New Yorker Volkszeitung\" and in the Cernauti-based socialist daily Vorwärts until 1931.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cernauti 1931–45.", "content": "In 1931, she returned to look after her mother again, working for the newspaper \"Czernowitzer Morgenblatt\" until 1940. She lost her US citizenship by 1934, because she had not been in the US for more than 3 years. She separated from Hecht that year. She was in a relationship with Hecht until 1936, when she left for Bucharest.  At the beginning of 1939, she traveled to Paris and New York, but once more returned to Czernowitz to take care of her sick mother. In 1939, her first volume of poems, \"Der Regenbogen\" (\"The Rainbow\") was published with the help of her mentor, the Bukovinian writer Alfred Margul-Sperber. Even though critics received it favorably, it was not accepted by the public. The greater part of the print run was destroyed when Nazi Germany occupied Cernauti in 1941.  From October 1941–44, she worked as a forced laborer (Zwangsarbeiter) in the ghetto of Cernauti. She remained there with her mother and brother for two years, and another year in hiding so as not to be deported to the Nazi concentration camps.  In the spring of 1943 Ausländer met poet Paul Celan in the Cernauti ghetto. He later used Ausländer's image of \"black milk\" of a 1939 poem in his well-known poem \"Todesfuge\" published in 1948. Ausländer herself is recorded as saying that Celan's usage was \"self-explanatory, as the poet may take all material to transmute in his own poetry. It's an honour to me that a great poet found a stimulus in my own modest work\". 4 In the spring of 1944, the Bukowina became part of the Soviet Union. Ausländer worked in the Cernauti city library until September 1944.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New York, 1944–66.", "content": "In October 1944, Ausländer returned to live in New York. In 1947, her mother died and Ausländer suffered a physical collapse. From 1948 to 1956, Ausländer wrote her poems only in English. From 1953–61, she made a living by working as a foreign correspondent at a shipping company in New York, and obtained US citizenship again in 1948.  While attending the New York City Writer's Conference at Wagner College, Staten Island, Ausländer met poet Marianne Moore. This was the beginning of a friendship documented in several letters, in which Moore advised Ausländer on her writing and finally encouraged her to return to writing poetry in German. Several of Ausländer's English poems are dedicated to Moore.  In 1957, she met Paul Celan in Paris again, with whom she discussed modern poetry, poem and shoah. She returned to her mother tongue. Celan encouraged her \"to radically change her poetic style, which had been solemn and plangent, influenced by Hölderlin and Trakl, yielding to a no-frills, ever more musical-rhythmic clarity\". In 1963, she spent time in Vienna, where she published her first book since 1939. The public welcomed \"Blinder Sommer\" (\"Blind summer\") enthusiastically.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Düsseldorf, 1967–88.", "content": "In 1967, she remigrated to Europe. After an unsuccessful attempt to settle in Vienna, she finally moved to Düsseldorf. She first lived in a pension on Poensgenstraße 9 near the rail road station. She was invited to read her poems at the legendary Oberkasseler pub Sassafras. Here she created her expansive late work in rapid sequence and several major pushes. After an accident she moved in the Nelly Sachs Home for the elderly starting in 1972. Severely affected by arthritis and bedridden from 1978 onward she still created a large part of her work, dictating her texts until 1986, as she was not able to write by herself. She died in Düsseldorf in 1988.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Ausländer wrote more than 3000 poems, essentially revolving around the topics of \"Heimat\" (home land, Bukowina), childhood, relationship to her mother, Judaism (Holocaust, exile), language (as a medium of expression and of home), love, ageing and death. With any poem written after 1945 one has to consider that it is influenced by her experience of the Holocaust whether it directly deals with the topic or not. Ausländer lived in the hope that writing was still possible, not the least because she derived her identity from writing: \"Wer bin ich / wenn ich nicht schreibe?\" (Who am I / if not writing?).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rose Ausländer (born Rosalie Beatrice Scherzer; May 11, 1901 – January 3, 1988) was a Jewish poet writing in German and English. Born in Czernowitz in the Bukovina, she lived through its tumultuous history of belonging to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Kingdom of Romania, and eventually the Soviet Union.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971544}
{"src_title": "Berthold Auerbach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Moses (Moyses) Baruch Auerbach was born in Nordstetten (now Horb am Neckar) in the Kingdom of Württemberg. He attended Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium. He was intended for the ministry, but after studying philosophy at Tübingen, Munich and Heidelberg, and becoming estranged from Jewish orthodoxy by the study of Spinoza, he devoted himself to literature. While a student in Heidelberg and under the pseudonym “Theobald Chauber,” he produced a \"Biography of Frederick the Great\" (1834–36).  Another early publication was entitled \"Das Judentum und die neueste Litteratur\" (Judaism and Recent Literature; 1836), and was to be followed by a series of novels taken from Jewish history. Of this intended series he actually published, with considerable success, \"Spinoza\" (1837) and \"Dichter und Kaufmann\" (Poet and Merchant; 1839). His romance on the life of Spinoza adheres so closely to fact that it may be read with equal advantage as a novel or as a biography. In 1841, he created a translation of Spinoza's works. In 1842, he wrote \"Der gebildete Bürger\" (The educated citizen), an attempt to popularize philosophical subjects.  But real fame and popularity came to him after 1843, when he began to occupy himself with the life of the common people which forms the subject of his best-known works. That year he published \"Schwarzwälder Dorfgeschichten\" (Black Forest Village Stories; 1843) which was his first great success, widely translated, and expressing with a sympathetic realism the memories and scenes of youth. In his later books, of which \"Auf der Höhe\" (On the Heights; 1865) is perhaps the most characteristic, and certainly the most famous, he revealed an unrivaled insight into the soul of the Southern German country folk, and especially of the peasants of the Black Forest and the Bavarian Alps. His descriptions are remarkable for their fresh realism, graceful style and humour. In addition to these qualities, his last books are marked by great subtlety of psychological analysis. \"Auf der Höhe\" was first published at Stuttgart in 1861, and has been translated into several languages.  Auerbach died at Cannes shortly before his 70th birthday. His life was uneventful, though embittered at the close by the growth of German anti-Semitism.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Berthold Auerbach (28 February 1812 – 8 February 1882) was a German-Jewish poet and author. He was the founder of the German \"tendency novel\", in which fiction is used as a means of influencing public opinion on social, political, moral, and religious questions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971545}
{"src_title": "Andean mountain cat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Andean mountain cat has an ashy-gray fur, a gray head, ears and face. The areas around the lips and cheeks are white; two dark brown lines run from the corners of the eyes across the cheeks. There are some black spots on the forelegs, yellowish-brown blotches on the flanks, and up to two narrow, dark rings on the hind limbs. The long bushy tail has 6–9 rings, which are dark brown to black. The markings of juveniles are darker and smaller than those of adults. The skulls of adult specimens range in length from and are larger than those of the pampas cat and domestic cat.  The Andean mountain cat has a black nose and lips, and rounded ears. On the back and on the tail, the hair is long. Its rounded footprints are long and wide. Its pads are covered with hair.  Adult specimens range from in head-to-body length, with a long tail. The shoulder height is about and body weight is up to.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differences between Andean and pampas cats.", "content": "The Andean mountain cat and pampas cat look similar. This makes it difficult to identify which cat is observed and makes correct estimations of populations problematic. This can be especially difficult when attempting to gain correct information from the observations of individuals that have seen one of these cats but are not aware to look for specific features to distinguish between the two.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The Andean mountain cat lives only at high elevations in the Andes. Records in Argentina indicate that it lives at elevations from in the southern Andes to over in Chile, Bolivia and central Peru. This terrain is arid, sparsely vegetated, rocky and steep. The population in the Salar de Surire Natural Monument was estimated at five individuals in an area of. Results of a survey in the Jujuy Province of northwestern Argentina indicates a density of seven to 12 individuals per at an elevation of about.  Its habitat in the Andes is fragmented by deep valleys, and its preferred prey, mountain viscachas (\"Lagidium\") occur in patchy colonies. Across this range, the level of genetic diversity is very low.  It is also probable that mountain chinchillas were previously important prey of the Andean mountain cat before their populations were drastically reduced due to hunting for the fur trade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behaviour.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competition with other predators.", "content": "Six different species of carnivores live in the Andes Mountain range. Apart from the Andean cat, there are two other cat species: the pampas cat and the puma. The puma is a large predator, while the Andean and Pampas Cat are medium-sized predators. These two medium-sized predators are very much alike. They both hunt within the same territory. They hunt the same prey, the mountain viscacha (\"Lagidium viscacia\"), a rodent. The viscacha makes up 93.9% of the biomass consumed in the Andean cat's diet while the Pampas Cat depends on it for 74.8% of its biomass consumption. Both of these cats depend on a specific prey to make up a large portion of their dietary needs. In some areas, the mountain viscacha will make up 53% of the Andean cat's prey items. This is because the other prey items are so significantly smaller that even though the Andean cat will successfully hunt, kill, and eat a mountain viscacha half the time, the mountain viscacha is so much larger than the other food items, it makes up more substance. They also hunt frequently during the same periods. During one study, both the Andean cat and the Pampas Cat were seen most frequently during moonless nights; the second most sightings of these cats were during full moons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "By using the residents' observations of Andean cats in coupled pairs with their litters, it is theorized that the mating season for the Andean cat is within the months of July and August. Because kittens have been seen in the months of April and October, this could mean that the mating season extends into November or even December. A litter will usually consist of one or two offspring born in the spring and summer months. This is common with many other species that also have their young when food resources are increasing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "In 2002 the status of the Andean cat was moved from Vulnerable to Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Due to the Andean cat's habitat being spread across four countries, biologists have attempted to collaborate in efforts to protect the species. One of the groups formed was the Andean Cat Conservation Committee, now known as the Andean Cat Alliance. The table below was taken directly from the most current strategy plan for 2011–2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The Andean cat is protected in all the countries of its range.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Prior to 1998, the only evidence of this cat's existence was two photographs. It was then that Jim Sanderson took up his quest to find the Andean mountain cat. Sanderson sighted and photographed one in Chile in 1998 near Chile's northern border with Peru. In 2004, he joined a Bolivian research team and helped radio-collar an Andean cat in Bolivia. In April 2005, this cat was found dead, perhaps after being caught in a poacher's trap.  Sanderson is still involved with the Andean cat. Together with Constanza Napolitano, Lilian Villalba, and Eliseo Delgado and others in the Andean Cat Alliance, the Small Cat Conservation Alliance has forged conservation agreements with Fundación Biodiversitas, a Chilean non-profit organization, and CONAF, the government agency responsible for managing national parks and production forests. CONAF has agreed to allow the SCCA to renovate a building for the Andean Cat Conservation and Monitoring Center on their already-functioning compound at San Pedro de Atacama in Chile.  Villalba of the Andean Cat Alliance conducted a major research program, including radio-telemetry studies, from 2001 to 2006 in the Khastor region of southern Bolivia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Andean mountain cat (\"Leopardus jacobita\") is a small wild cat native to the high Andes that has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List because fewer than 2,500 individuals are thought to exist in the wild. It is traditionally considered a sacred animal by indigenous Aymara and Quechua people.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971546}
{"src_title": "Shenzhou (spacecraft)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "China's first efforts at human spaceflight started in 1968 with a projected launch date of 1973. Although China successfully launched an uncrewed satellite in 1970, its crewed spacecraft program was cancelled in 1980 due to a lack of funds.  The Chinese crewed spacecraft program was relaunched in 1992 with Project 921. The Phase One spacecraft followed the general layout of the Russian Soyuz spacecraft, with three modules that could separate for reentry. China signed a deal with Russia in 1995 for the transfer of Soyuz technology, including life support and docking systems. The Phase One spacecraft was then modified with the new Russian technology. The general designer of Shenzhou-1 through Shenzhou-5 was Qi Faren (戚发轫, 26 April 1933), and from Shenzhou-6 on, the general design was turned over to Zhang Bainan (张柏楠, 23 June 1962).  The first uncrewed flight of the spacecraft was launched on 19 November 1999, after which Project 921/1 was renamed Shenzhou, a name reportedly chosen by Jiang Zemin. A series of three additional uncrewed flights were carried out. The first crewed launch took place on 15 October 2003 with the Shenzhou 5 mission. The spacecraft has since become the mainstay of the Chinese crewed space program, being used for both crewed and uncrewed missions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "Shenzhou consists of three modules: a forward orbital module (轨道舱), a reentry module (返回舱) in the middle, and an aft service module (推进舱). This division is based on the principle of minimizing the amount of material to be returned to Earth. Anything placed in the orbital or service modules does not require heat shielding, increasing the space available in the spacecraft without increasing weight as much as it would if those modules were also able to withstand reentry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orbital module.", "content": "The orbital module (轨道舱) contains space for experiments, crew-serviced or crew-operated equipment, and in-orbit habitation. Without docking systems, Shenzhou 1–6 carried different kinds of payload on the top of their orbital modules for scientific experiments.  Up until Shenzhou 8, the orbital module of the Shenzhou was equipped with its own propulsion, solar power, and control systems, allowing autonomous flight. It is possible for Shenzhou to leave an orbital module in orbit for redocking with a later spacecraft, a capability which Soyuz does not possess, since the only hatch between the orbital and reentry modules is a part of the reentry module, and orbital module is depressurized after separation. For future missions, the orbital module(s) could also be left behind on the planned Chinese project 921/2 space station as additional station modules.  In the uncrewed test flights launched, the orbital module of each Shenzhou was left functioning on orbit for several days after the reentry modules return, and the Shenzhou 5 orbital module continued to operate for six months after launch.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reentry module.", "content": "The reentry module (返回舱) is located in the middle section of the spacecraft and contains seating for the crew. It is the only portion of Shenzhou which returns to Earth's surface. Its shape is a compromise between maximizing living space and allowing for some aerodynamic control upon reentry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Service module.", "content": "The aft service module (推进舱) contains life support and other equipment required for the functioning of Shenzhou. Two pairs of solar panels, one pair on the service module and the other pair on the orbital module, have a total area of over 40 m2 (430 ft2), indicating average electrical power over 1.5 kW (\"Soyuz\" have 1.0 kW).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Comparison with Soyuz.", "content": "Although the Shenzhou spacecraft follows the same layout as the Russian Soyuz spacecraft, it is substantially larger than Soyuz. There is enough room to carry an inflatable raft in case of a water landing, whereas Soyuz astronauts must jump into the water and swim. The commander sits in the center seat on both spacecraft. However, the copilot sits in the left seat on Shenzhou and the right seat on Soyuz.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Shenzhou (; ) is a spacecraft developed and operated by China using Soyuz technology to support its crewed spaceflight program. The name is variously translated as \"Divine vessel\", \"Divine craft\", or \"Divine ship\". Its design resembles the Russian Soyuz spacecraft, but it is larger in size. The first launch was on 19 November 1999 and the first crewed launch was on 15 October 2003. In March 2005, an asteroid was named 8256 Shenzhou in honour of the spacecraft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971547}
{"src_title": "Baudolino", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "In the year of 1204, Baudolino of Alessandria enters Constantinople, unaware of the Fourth Crusade that has thrown the city into chaos. In the confusion, he meets Niketas Choniates and saves his life. Niketas is amazed by his language genius, speaking many languages he has never heard, and on the question: if he is not part of the crusade, who is he? Baudolino begins to recount his life story to Niketas.  His story begins in 1155, when Baudolino – a highly talented Italian peasant boy – is sold to and adopted by the emperor Frederick I. At court and on the battlefield, he is educated in reading and writing Latin and learns about the power struggles and battles of northern Italy at the time. He is sent to Paris to become a scholar.  In Paris, he gains friends (such as the Archpoet, Abdul, Robert de Boron and Kyot, the purported source of Wolfram von Eschenbach's \"Parzival\") and learns about the legendary kingdom of Prester John. From this event onward, Baudolino dreams of reaching this fabled land.  The earlier parts of the story follow the general historical and geographical outlines of 12th-century Europe, with special emphasis on the Emperor Frederick's futile efforts to subdue the increasingly independent and assertive city states of Northern Italy. Baudolino, being both a beloved adopted son to the Emperor and a loyal native of the newly founded and highly rebellious town of Alessandria, plays a key role in effecting reconciliation between the Emperor and the Alessandria townspeople, who are led by Baudolino's biological father; a way is found for the Emperor to recognize Alessandria's independence without losing face. (It is no accident that Alessandria is Umberto Eco's own hometown.) During the siege, Baudolino works on the side of Frederick Barbarossa, but concocts a plan to help win the Alessandrian townspeople some independence. He attempts to convince the emperor's forces that Alessandria is more prepared for a siege than them through stuffing a cow with the last of Alessandria's wheat and sends the cow out to the Emperor's forces. When the cow is cut open, it reveals a full belly of wheat. The emperor's forces are convinced that Alessandria is not worth besieging, and thus leave.  The incident of the death of Emperor Frederick, while on the Third Crusade, is a key element of the plot. This part involves an element of secret history – the book asserts that Emperor Frederick had not drowned in a river, as history records, but died mysteriously at night while hosted at the castle of a sinister Armenian noble. This part also constitutes a historical detective mystery – specifically, a historical locked room mystery – with various suspects suggested, each of whom had a clever means of killing the Emperor, and with Baudolino acting as the detective.  After the Emperor's death, Baudolino and his friends set off on a long journey, encompassing 15 years, to find the Kingdom of Prester John. From the moment when they depart eastwards, the book becomes pure fantasy – the lands which the band travels bearing no resemblance to the continent of Asia at that or any other historical time, being rather derived from the various myths which Europeans had about Asia – including the aforementioned Christian myth of the Kingdom of Prester John, as well as the Jewish myth of the Ten Lost Tribes and the River Sambation, and some earlier accounts provided by Herodotos. Baudolino meets eunuchs, unicorns, Blemmyes, skiapods and pygmies. At one point, he falls in love with a female satyr-like creature who recounts to him the full Gnostic creation myth; Gnosticism is a pervasive presence in another of Eco's novels, \"Foucault's Pendulum\". Philosophical debates are mixed with comedy, epic adventure and creatures drawn from the strangest medieval bestiaries.  After many disastrous adventures, the destruction of Prester John's Kingdom by the White Huns followed by a long stint of slavery at the hands of the Old Man of the Mountain, Baudolino and surviving members of his band of friends return to Constantinople undergoing the agony of the Fourth Crusade – the book's starting point. The wise and rather cynical Niketas Choniates helps Baudolino to at last discover the truth about how the Emperor Frederick died – with shattering results for Baudolino and his friends.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baudolino is a 2000 novel by Umberto Eco about the adventures of a man named Baudolino in the known and mythical Christian world of the 12th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971548}
{"src_title": "Ferdinand I of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ferdinand was the eldest son of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor and Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily. Possibly as a result of his parents' genetic closeness (they were double first cousins), Ferdinand suffered from epilepsy, hydrocephalus, neurological problems, and a speech impediment. He was educated by Baron Josef Kalasanz von Erberg, and his wife Josephine, by birth a Countess von Attems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Ferdinand has been depicted as feeble-minded and incapable of ruling. Yet, although he had epilepsy, he kept a coherent and legible diary and has even been said to have had a sharp wit. However, suffering as many as twenty seizures per day severely restricted his ability to rule with any effectiveness. Though he was not declared incapacitated, a Regent's Council (Archduke Louis, Count Kolowrat, and Prince Metternich) steered the government.  When Ferdinand married Princess Maria Anna of Savoy, the court physician considered it unlikely that he would be able to consummate the marriage. When he tried to consummate the marriage, he had five seizures. He is best remembered for his command to his cook: when told he could not have apricot dumplings (\"Marillenknödel\") because apricots were out of season, he said \"I am the Emperor, and I want dumplings!\" (!).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1848 Revolution.", "content": "As the revolutionaries of 1848 were marching on the palace, he is supposed to have asked Metternich for an explanation. When Metternich answered that they were making a revolution, Ferdinand is supposed to have said \"But are they allowed to do that?\" (Viennese German: \"Ja, dürfen's denn des?\") He was convinced by Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg to abdicate in favour of his nephew, Franz Joseph (the next in line was Ferdinand's younger brother Franz Karl, but he was persuaded to waive his succession rights in favour of his son) who would occupy the Austrian throne for the next sixty-eight years.  Ferdinand recorded the events in his diary: \"\"The affair ended with the new Emperor kneeling before his old Emperor and Lord, that is to say, me, and asking for a blessing, which I gave him, laying both hands on his head and making the sign of the Holy Cross... then I embraced him and kissed our new master, and then we went to our room. Afterwards I and my dear wife heard Holy Mass... After that I and my dear wife packed our bags.\"\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In retirement (1848–1875).", "content": "Ferdinand was the last King of Bohemia to be crowned as such. Due to his sympathy with Bohemia (where he spent the rest of his life in Prague Castle) he was given the Czech nickname \"Ferdinand V, the Good\" (\"Ferdinand Dobrotivý\"). In Austria, Ferdinand was similarly nicknamed \"Ferdinand der Gütige\" (Ferdinand the Benign), but also ridiculed as \"Gütinand der Fertige\" (Goodinand the Finished).  He is interred in tomb number 62 in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Titles and honours.", "content": "He used the titles:  His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty Ferdinand the First, By the Grace of God", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancestry.", "content": "Ferdinand's parents were double first cousins as they shared all four grandparents (Francis' paternal grandparents were his wife's maternal grandparents and vice versa). Therefore, Ferdinand only had four great-grandparents, being descended from each of them twice. Further back in his ancestry there is more pedigree collapse due to the close intermarriage between the Houses of Austria and Spain and other Catholic monarchies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferdinand I ( 19 April 1793 – 29 June 1875) was the Emperor of Austria from 1835 until his abdication in 1848. As ruler of Austria, he was also President of the German Confederation, King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia (as Ferdinand V), King of Lombardy–Venetia and holder of many other lesser titles (see grand title of the Emperor of Austria). Due to his rocky, passive but good-intended character, he gained the sobriquet The Benign () or The Good ().", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971549}
{"src_title": "Austrian Littoral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The territory of the medieval Patriarchate of Aquileia had gradually been conquered by the Republic of Venice (\"Domini di Terraferma\") until the early 15th century. In the east, the Habsburg archdukes of Austria, based on the March of Carniola they held from 1335, had gained suzerainty over Istrian Pazin in 1374 and the port of Trieste in 1382. They also purchased Duino and Rijeka (Fiume) on the northern Adriatic coast in 1474, and inherited more territory in Friuli when the line of the Counts of Görz died out in 1500. In 1511, Emperor Maximilian I annexed the city of Gradisca from Venice.  The Habsburgs did little initially to consolidate or develop their holdings in the Littoral. The supremacy of the Republic of Venice in the Adriatic, and the attention to the threat posed by an expanding Ottoman Empire, gave the Austrian archdukes little opportunity to enlarge their coastal possessions. Incorporated into the Austrian Circle of the Holy Roman Empire, Görz, Trieste and Istria remained separately administered and retained their autonomy until the 18th century.  Emperor Charles VI increased the sea power of the Habsburg Monarchy by making peace with the Ottomans and declaring free shipping in the Adriatic. In 1719, Trieste and Fiume were made free ports. In 1730, administration of the Littoral was unified under the Intendancy in Trieste. However, in 1775, Emperor Joseph II divided the administration of the two main ports, assigning Trieste as the port for the Austrian \"hereditary lands\" and Fiume for the Kingdom of Hungary. Shortly after, Trieste was merged with the Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca in the north.  During the Napoleonic Wars, the Habsburg Monarchy gained Venetian lands in the Istrian Peninsula and the Quarnero (Kvarner) Islands as part of the Treaty of Campo Formio of 1797. However, these territories and all of the new Austrian Empire's Adriatic lands were soon lost to the French Empire's puppet state, the Kingdom of Italy by the Treaty of Pressburg of 1805. The 1809 Treaty of Schönbrunn then transferred the area to the Illyrian Provinces which were directly ruled by France.  With Napoleon's defeats, the Austrian Empire regained the region. In 1813, all of the Littoral including Trieste, Gorizia and Gradisca, all of Istria, the Quarnero Islands, Fiume, and the hinterland of Fiume, Civil Croatia, including Karlstadt (Karlovac), became one administrative unit. From 1816, the Littoral was a part of the Austrian Empire's Kingdom of Illyria. In 1822, Fiume and Civil Croatia were separated from the territory and ceded to the Kingdom of Hungary (and in 1849 to Croatia).  The Littoral was officially the Trieste (\"Triest\") Province, one of two provinces (or \"gouvernements\") of the Kingdom, the other being Laibach (Ljubljana). It was subdivided into four districts (\"kreis\"): Gorizia (\"Görz\"; including Gorizia and the Julian March), Istria (\"Istrien\"; Eastern Istria and the Quarnero Islands), Trieste (\"Triest\"; the Trieste hinterland and Western Istria), and Trieste city (\"Triester Stadtgebiet\").  Around 1825, the Littoral was reorganized into only two subdivisions: Istria with its capital at Mitterburg (Pisino/Pazin) and Gorizia with Trieste and its immediate surroundings under the direct control of the crown and separate from the local administrative structure.  In 1849, the Kingdom of Illyria was dissolved and the Littoral became a separate crown land with a governor in Trieste. It was formally divided into the Margravate of Istria and the Princely County (\"Gefürstete Grafschaft\") of Gorizia and Gradisca with Trieste remaining separate from both.  By the 1861 February Patent, Gorizia and Gradisca and Istria became administratively separate entities and, in 1867, Trieste received separate status as well, and the Littoral was divided into the three crown lands of the Imperial Free City of Trieste and its suburbs, the Margraviate of Istria, and the Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca, which each had separate administrations and Landtag assemblies, but were all subject to a \"k.k.\" statholder at Trieste.  Following the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the Littoral fell within Italy's newly expanded borders as part of the Julian March. An area of similar extent under the name of Adriatic Littoral (\"Adriatisches Küstenland\") was one of the operational zones of German forces during World War II after the capitulation of Italy in September 1943 until the end of the war. After World War II, most of it was included in the Second Yugoslavia.  Today Croatia and Slovenia each hold portions of the territory, and the city of Trieste remains under Italian rule. The name of the region lives on in its Slovene version, \"Primorska\" (Slovenian Littoral), a region of Slovenia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Area and population.", "content": "Area:  Population (1910 Census):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Linguistic composition.", "content": "According to the last Austrian census of 1910 (1911 in Trieste), the Austrian Littoral was composed of the following linguistic communities:  Total:  Gorizia and Gradisca:  Trieste:  Istria:  The Austrian censuses did not count ethnic groups, nor the mother tongue, but the \"language of daily interaction\" (\"\"). Except for a small Serbian community in Trieste and the village of Peroj in Istria, the vast majority of Croatian speakers in the Austrian Littoral can be identified as Croats.  After 1880, Italian and Friulian languages were counted under one category, as Italian. The estimated number of Friulian speakers can be extrapolated from the Italian census of 1921, the only one in the 20th century when Friulian was counted as a distinct linguistic category. The Austrian Littoral had a large number of foreign nationals (around 71,000 or 7.9% of the overall population), which were not asked about their language of interaction. More than half of them resided in the city of Trieste. The majority were citizens of the Kingdom of Italy, followed by citizens of the Kingdom of Hungary (part of the Dual Monarchy) and the German Empire. It can be supposed that the majority of these foreign citizens were Italian speakers, followed by German, Croatian (from Rijeka and Croatia-Slavonia) and Slovene (from Venetian Slovenia), and Hungarian speakers.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Austrian Littoral (,,,, ) was a crown land (\"Kronland\") of the Austrian Empire, established in 1849. It consisted of three regions: the Istria peninsula, Gorizia and Gradisca, and the Imperial Free City of Trieste. Throughout history, the region has been frequently contested, with parts of it controlled at various times by the Republic of Venice, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Yugoslavia among others.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971550}
{"src_title": "Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Francis was born in Nancy, Lorraine (now in France), the oldest surviving son of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, and his wife Princess Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans. He was connected with the Habsburgs through his grandmother Eleonore, daughter of Emperor Ferdinand III. He was very close to his brother Charles and sister Anne Charlotte.  Emperor Charles VI favoured the family, who, besides being his cousins, had served the house of Austria with distinction. He had designed to marry his daughter Maria Theresa to Francis' older brother Leopold Clement. On Leopold Clement's death, Charles adopted the younger brother as his future son-in-law. Francis was brought up in Vienna with Maria Theresa with the understanding that they were to be married, and a real affection arose between them.  At the age of 15, when he was brought to Vienna, he was established in the Silesian Duchy of Teschen, which had been mediatised and granted to his father by the emperor in 1722. Francis succeeded his father as Duke of Lorraine in 1729. In 1731 he was initiated into freemasonry (Grand Lodge of England) by John Theophilus Desaguliers at a specially convened lodge in The Hague at the house of the British Ambassador, Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield. During a subsequent visit to England, Francis was made a Master Mason at another specially convened lodge at Houghton Hall, the Norfolk estate of British Prime Minister Robert Walpole.  Maria Theresa arranged for Francis to become \"Lord Lieutenant\" (locumtenens) of Hungary in 1732. He was not excited about this position, but Maria Theresa wanted him closer to her. In June 1732 he agreed to go to Pressburg.  When the War of the Polish Succession broke out in 1733, France used it as an opportunity to seize Lorraine, since France's prime minister, Cardinal Fleury, was concerned that, as a Habsburg possession, it would bring Austrian power too close to France.  A preliminary peace was concluded in October 1735 and ratified in the Treaty of Vienna in November 1738. Under its terms, Stanisław I, the father-in-law of King Louis XV and the losing claimant to the Polish throne, received Lorraine, while Francis, in compensation for his loss, was made heir to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, which he would inherit in 1737.  Although fighting stopped after the preliminary peace, the final peace settlement had to wait until the death of the last Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany, Gian Gastone de' Medici in 1737, to allow the territorial exchanges provided for by the peace settlement to go into effect.  In March 1736 the Emperor persuaded Francis, his future son-in-law, to secretly exchange Lorraine for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. France had demanded that Maria Theresa's fiancé surrender his ancestral Duchy of Lorraine to accommodate the deposed King of Poland. The Emperor considered other possibilities (such as marrying her to the future Charles III of Spain) before announcing the engagement of the couple. If something were to go wrong, Francis would become governor of the Austrian Netherlands.  Elisabeth of Parma had also wanted the Grand Duchy of Tuscany for her son Charles III of Spain; Gian Gastone de' Medici was childless and was related to Elisabeth via her great-grandmother Margherita de' Medici. As a result, Elisabeth's sons could claim by right of being a descendant of Margherita.  On 31 January 1736 Francis agreed to marry Maria Theresa. He hesitated three times (and laid down the feather before signing). Especially his mother Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans and his brother Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine were against the loss of Lorraine. On 1 February, Maria Theresa sent Francis a letter: she would withdraw from her future reign, when a male successor for her father appeared.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "They married on 12 February in the Augustinian Church, Vienna. The wedding was held on 14 February 1736. The (secret) treaty between the Emperor and Francis was signed on 4 May 1736. In January 1737, the Spanish troops withdrew from Tuscany, and were replaced by 6,000 Austrians. On 24 January 1737 Francis received Tuscany from his father-in-law. Until then, Maria Theresa was Duchess of Lorraine.  Gian Gastone de' Medici, who died on 9 July 1737, was the second cousin of Francis (Gian Gastone and Francis' father Leopold were both great-grandchildren of Francis II, Duke of Lorraine), who also had Medici blood through his maternal great-great-grandmother Marie de' Medici, Queen consort of France and Navarre. In June 1737 Francis went to Hungary again to fight against the Turks. In October 1738 he was back in Vienna. On 17 December 1738 the couple travelled south, accompanied by his brother Charles to visit Florence for three months. They arrived on 20 January 1739.  In 1744 Francis' brother Charles married a younger sister of Maria Theresa, Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria. In 1744 Charles became governor of the Austrian Netherlands, a post he held until his death in 1780.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Maria Theresa secured in the Treaty of Füssen his election to the Empire on 13 September 1745, in succession to Charles VII, and she made him co-regent of her hereditary dominions.  Francis was well content to leave the wielding of power to his able wife. He had a natural fund of good sense and brilliant business capacity and was a useful assistant to Maria Theresa in the laborious task of governing the complicated Austrian dominions, but he was not active in politics or diplomacy. However, his wife left him in charge of the financial affairs, which he managed well until his death. Heavily indebted and on the verge of bankruptcy at the end of the Seven Years' War, the Austrian Empire was in a better financial condition than France or England in the 1780s. He also took a great interest in the natural sciences.  Francis was a serial adulterer, many of his affairs well-known and indiscreet, notably one with Maria Wilhelmina, Princess of Auersperg, who was thirty years his junior. This particular affair was remarked upon in the letters and journals of visitors to the court and in those of his children.  He died suddenly in his carriage while returning from the opera at Innsbruck on 18 August 1765. He is buried in tomb number 55 in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna.  Maria Theresa and Francis I had sixteen children, amongst them the last pre-revolutionary queen consort of France, their youngest daughter, Marie Antoinette (1755–1793). Francis was succeeded as Emperor by his eldest son, Joseph II, and as Grand Duke of Tuscany by his younger son, Peter Leopold (later Emperor Leopold II). Maria Theresa retained the government of her dominions until her own death in 1780.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles.", "content": "\"Francis I, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany and of Jerusalem, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Lorraine, Bar, and Grand Duke of Tuscany, Duke of Calabria, in Silesia of Teschen, Prince of Charleville, Margrave of Pont-à-Mousson and Nomeny, Count of Provence, Vaudémont, Blâmont, Zütphen, Saarwerden, Salm, Falkenstein, etc. etc.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Award.", "content": "The Francis Stephen Award pays homage to the interest that Francis I had in science, arts and culture of Austria. It honors works of excellence in the 18th century or the Habsburg monarchy. The award gives rise to the award of a diploma at a ceremony at the University of Vienna.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francis I (Francis Stephen; ; ; 8 December 1708 – 18 August 1765) was Holy Roman Emperor and Grand Duke of Tuscany, though his wife, Maria Theresa, effectively executed the real powers of those positions. They were the founders of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. From 1728 until 1737 he was Duke of Lorraine. Francis traded the duchy to the ex-Polish king Stanisław Leszczyński in exchange for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany as one of the terms ending the War of the Polish Succession in November 1738. The duchy and the ducal title to Lorraine and Bar passed to King Louis XV of France upon Leszczynski's death in 1766, though Francis and his successors retained the right to style themselves as dukes of Lorraine and Bar.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971551}
{"src_title": "Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Vienna, Joseph was educated strictly by Prince Dietrich Otto von Salm and became a good linguist. Although he was the first son and child born of his parents' marriage, he was his father's third son and seventh child. Previously, Leopold had been married to Infanta Margaret Theresa of Spain, who had given him four children, one of whom survived infancy. He then married Claudia Felicitas of Austria, who gave him two short-lived daughters. Thus, Joseph had six half-siblings. In 1684, the six-year-old Archduke had his first portrait painted by Benjamin Block. At the age of nine, on 9 December 1687, he was crowned King of Hungary; and at the age of eleven, on 23 January 1690, King of the Romans. Although he never formally ceased to be a Roman Catholic, Joseph (unlike his parents and most of his other relatives) was not particularly devout by nature. He had two great enthusiasms: music and hunting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military service.", "content": "In 1702, at the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession, Joseph saw his only military service. He joined the Imperial General, Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden, in the Siege of Landau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Holy Roman Emperor.", "content": "Prior to his ascension, Joseph had surrounded himself with reform-hungry advisors and the young court of Vienna was ambitious in the elaboration of innovative plans. He was described as a \"forward-looking ruler\". The large number of privy councillors was reduced and attempts were made to make the bureaucracy more efficient. Measures were taken to modernize the central bodies and a certain success was achieved in stabilizing the chronic Habsburg finances. Joseph also endeavoured to strengthen his position in the Holy Roman Empire – as a means of strengthening Austria’s standing as a great power. When he sought to lay claim to imperial rights in Italy and gain territories for the Habsburgs, he even risked a military conflict with the Pope over the duchy of Mantua. Joseph I was threatened with excommunication by Pope Clement XI on 16 June 1708.  In Hungary, Joseph had inherited the kuruc rebellion from his father Leopold I: once again, nobles in Transylvania (Siebenbürgen) had risen against Habsburg rule, even advancing for a time as far as Vienna. Although Joseph was compelled to take military action, he refrained – unlike his predecessors – from seeking to teach his subjects a lesson by executing the leaders. Instead, he agreed to a compromise peace, which in the long term facilitated the integration of Hungary into the Habsburg domains. It was his good fortune to govern the Austrian dominions and to be head of the Empire, during the years in which his trusted general, Prince Eugene of Savoy, either acting alone in Italy or with the Duke of Marlborough in Germany and Flanders, was beating the armies of Louis XIV of France. During the whole of his reign, Hungary was disturbed by the conflict with Francis Rákóczi II, who eventually took refuge in the Ottoman Empire. The emperor reversed many of the authoritarian measures of his father, thus helping to placate opponents. He began the attempts to settle the question of the Austrian inheritance by a pragmatic sanction, which was continued by his brother Charles VI. In 1710, Joseph extended his father's edict of outlawry against the Romani (Gypsies) in the Habsburg lands. Per Leopold, any Romani who entered the kingdom was to be declared an outlaw by letters patent and if the same person returned to Bohemia a second time \"treated with all possible severity\". Joseph ordered that in the Kingdom of Bohemia they were to have their right ears cut off; in the March of Moravia, the left ear was to be cut off; in Austria, they would be branded on the back with a branding iron, representing the gallows. These mutilations were to enable the authorities to identify Romani who had been outlawed and returned. Joseph's edict specified \"that all adult males were to be hanged without trial, whereas women and young males were to be flogged and banished forever.\" Officials who failed to enforce the edict could be fined 100 Reichsthaler. Helping Romani was punishable by a half-year's forced labor. \"Mass killings\" of Romani were reported as a result.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "During the smallpox epidemic of 1711, which killed Louis, le Grand Dauphin and three siblings of the future Holy Roman Emperor Francis I, Joseph became infected. He died on 17 April in the Hofburg Palace. He had previously promised his wife to stop having affairs, should he survive.  The Emperor was buried in the Imperial Crypt, resting place of the majority of the Habsburgs. His funeral took place on 20 April, in tomb no. 35 in Karl's Vault. His tomb was designed by Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt, decorated with pictures of various battles from the War of Spanish Succession. Josefstadt (the eighth district of Vienna) is named for Joseph.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and lack of heir(s).", "content": "On 24 February 1699, he married Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg in Vienna. They had three children and their only son died of hydrocephalus before his first birthday. Joseph had a passion for love affairs (none of which resulted in illegitimate children) and he caught a sexually transmittable disease, probably syphilis, which he passed on to his wife while they were trying to produce a new heir. This incident rendered her sterile. Their father, who was still alive during these events, made Joseph and his brother Charles sign the Mutual Pact of Succession, ensuring that Joseph's daughters would have absolute precedence over Charles's daughters, neither of whom was born at the time, and that Maria Josepha would inherit both the Austrian and Spanish realms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Full title.", "content": "\"Joseph I, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany, King of Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania and Bulgaria, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Margrave of Moravia, Duke of Luxemburg, of the Higher and Lower Silesia, of Württemberg and Teck, Prince of Swabia, Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Kyburg and Goritia, Marquess of the Holy Roman Empire, Burgovia, the Higher and Lower Lusace, Lord of the Marquisate of Slavonia, of Port Naon and Salines, etc.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "C. W. Ingrao, In Quest and Crisis: Emperor Joseph I and the Habsburg Monarchy (1979)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph I (Joseph Jacob Ignaz Johann Anton Eustachius; 26 July 1678 – 17 April 1711) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1705 until his death in 1711. He was the eldest son of Emperor Leopold I from his third wife, Eleonor Magdalene of Neuburg. Joseph was crowned King of Hungary at the age of nine in 1687 and King in Germany at the age of eleven in 1690. He succeeded to the thrones of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire when his father died.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971552}
{"src_title": "Parish", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and use.", "content": "First attested in English in the late, 13th century, the word \"parish\" comes from the Old French \"paroisse\", in turn from, the latinisation of the, \"sojourning in a foreign land\", itself from (\"paroikos\"), \"dwelling beside, stranger, sojourner\", which is a compound of (\"pará\"), \"beside, by, near\" and οἶκος (\"oîkos\"), \"house\".  As an ancient concept, the term \"parish\" occurs in the long-established Christian denominations: Catholic, Anglican Communion, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and Lutheran churches, and in some Methodist, Congregationalist and Presbyterian administrations.  The eighth Archbishop of Canterbury Theodore of Tarsus (c. 602–690) appended the parish structure to the Anglo-Saxon township unit, where it existed, and where minsters catered to the surrounding district.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Territorial structure.", "content": "Broadly speaking, the parish is the standard unit in episcopal polity of church administration, although parts of a parish may be subdivided as a \"chapelry\", with a chapel of ease or filial church serving as the local place of worship in cases of difficulty to access the main parish church.  In the wider picture of ecclesiastical polity, a \"parish\" comprises a division of a diocese or see. Parishes within a diocese may be grouped into a deanery or \"vicariate forane\" (or simply \"vicariate\"), overseen by a dean or \"vicar forane\", or in some cases by an archpriest. Some churches of the Anglican Communion have deaneries as units of an archdeaconry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Church of England.", "content": "The Church of England geographical structure uses the local parish church as its basic unit. The parish system survived the Reformation with the Anglican Church's secession from Rome remaining largely untouched, thus it shares its roots with the Catholic Church's system described above. Parishes may extend into different counties or hundreds and historically many parishes comprised extra outlying portions in addition to its principal district, usually being described as 'detached' and intermixed with the lands of other parishes. Church of England parishes nowadays all lie within one of 44 dioceses divided between the provinces of Canterbury, 30 and York, 14.  Each parish normally has its own parish priest (either a vicar or rector, owing to the vagaries of the feudal tithe system: rectories usually having had greater income) and perhaps supported by one or more curates or deacons - although as a result of ecclesiastical pluralism some parish priests might have held more than one parish living, placing a curate in charge of those where they do not reside. Now, however, it is common for a number of neighbouring parishes to be placed under one benefice in the charge of a priest who conducts services by rotation, with additional services being provided by lay readers or other non-ordained members of the church community.  A chapelry was a subdivision of an ecclesiastical parish in England, and parts of Lowland Scotland up to the mid 19th century. It had a similar status to a township but was so named as it had a chapel which acted as a subsidiary place of worship to the main parish church.  In England civil parishes and their governing parish councils evolved in the 19th century as ecclesiastical parishes began to be relieved of what became considered to be civic responsibilities. Thus their boundaries began to diverge. The word \"parish\" acquired a secular usage. Since 1895, a parish council elected by public vote or a (civil) parish meeting administers a civil parish and is formally recognised as the level of local government below a district council.  The traditional structure of the Church of England with the parish as the basic unit has been exported to other countries and churches throughout the Anglican Communion and Commonwealth but does not necessarily continue to be administered in the same way.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Church of Scotland.", "content": "The parish is also the basic level of church administration in the Church of Scotland. Spiritual oversight of each parish church in Scotland is responsibility of the congregation's Kirk Session. Patronage was regulated in 1711 (Patronage Act) and abolished in 1874, with the result that ministers must be elected by members of the congregation. Many parish churches in Scotland today are \"linked\" with neighbouring parish churches served by a single minister. Since the abolition of parishes as a unit of civil government in Scotland in 1929, Scottish parishes have purely ecclesiastical significance and the boundaries may be adjusted by the local Presbytery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Church in Wales.", "content": "The church in Wales was disestablished in 1920 and is made up of six dioceses. Parishes were also civil administration areas until communities were established in 1974.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Methodist Church.", "content": "Although they are more often simply called congregations and have no geographic boundaries, in the United Methodist Church congregations are called parishes. A prominent example of this usage comes in \"The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist Church\", in which the committee of every local congregation that handles staff support is referred to as the committee on Pastor-Parish Relations. This committee gives recommendations to the bishop on behalf of the parish/congregation since it is the United Methodist Bishop of the episcopal area who appoints a pastor to each congregation. The same is true in the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church.  In New Zealand, a local grouping of Methodist churches that share one or more ministers (which in the United Kingdom would be called a circuit) is referred to as a parish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Catholic Church.", "content": "In the Catholic Church, each parish normally has its own parish priest (in some countries called pastor), who has responsibility and canonical authority over the parish.  What in most English-speaking countries is termed the \"parish priest\" is referred to as the \"pastor\" in the United States, where the term \"parish priest\" is used of any priest assigned to a parish even in a subordinate capacity. These are called \"assistant priests\", \"parochial vicars\", \"curates\", or, in the United States, \"associate pastors\" and \"assistant pastors\".  Each diocese (administrative region) is divided into parishes, each with their own central church called the parish church, where religious services take place. Some larger parishes or parishes that have been combined under one parish priest may have two or more such churches, or the parish may be responsible for chapels (or chapels of ease) located at some distance from the mother church for the convenience of distant parishioners.  Normally, a parish comprises all Catholics living within its geographically defined area, but non-territorial parishes can also be established within a defined area on a personal basis for Catholics belonging to a particular rite, language, nationality, or community. An example is that of personal parishes established in accordance with the 7 July 2007 \"motu proprio\" \"Summorum Pontificum\" for those attached to the pre-Vatican II liturgy.  Most Catholic parishes are part of Latin Rite dioceses, which together cover the whole territory of a country. There can also be overlapping parishes of eparchies of Eastern Catholic Churches, personal ordinariates or military ordinariates. Parishes are generally territorial, but may be personal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A parish is a territorial entity in many Christian denominations, constituting a division within a diocese. A parish is under the pastoral care and clerical jurisdiction of a priest, often termed a parish priest, who might be assisted by one or more curates, and who operates from a parish church. Historically, a parish often covered the same geographical area as a manor. Its association with the parish church remains paramount.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971553}
{"src_title": "Feldenkrais Method", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Feldenkrais Method is a type of alternative exercise therapy that proponents claim can repair impaired connections between the motor cortex and the body, so benefiting the quality of body movement and improving wellbeing. The Feldenkrais Guild of North America claims that the Feldenkrais method allows people to \"rediscover [their] innate capacity for graceful, efficient movement\" and that \"These improvements will often generalize to enhance functioning in other aspects of [their] life\". Proponents claim that the Feldenkrais Method can benefit people with a number of medical conditions, including children with autism, and people with multiple sclerosis.  In a session, a Feldenkrais practitioner directs attention to habitual movement patterns that are thought to be inefficient or strained, and attempts to teach new patterns using gentle, slow, repeated movements. Slow repetition is believed to be necessary to impart a new habit and allow it to begin to feel normal. These movements may be passive (performed by the practitioner on the recipient's body) or active (performed by the recipient). The recipient is fully clothed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effectiveness and reception.", "content": "In 2015, the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; the Feldenkrais Method was one of 17 therapies evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found. Accordingly in 2017 the Australian government identified the Feldenkrais Method as a practice that would not qualify for insurance subsidy, saying this step would \"ensure taxpayer funds are expended appropriately and not directed to therapies lacking evidence\".  There is limited evidence that workplace-based use of the Feldenkrais Method may help aid rehabilitation of people with upper limb complaints.  David Gorski has written that the Method bears similarities to faith healing, is like \"glorified yoga\", and that it \"borders on quackery\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Similar to some other somatic methods, such as those started by F. Matthias Alexander, Elsa Gindler, and Gerda Alexander, the Feldenkrais Method originated in the efforts of its founder to work with his own bodily problem. In the case of Moshé Feldenkrais, it was a chronically injured knee.  Feldenkrais first injured his knee while playing soccer in British-controlled Palestine in the 1920s. He reinjured it while negotiating the slippery decks of submarines while working as a scientist at the British Naval station at Fairlie, North Ayrshire, Scotland during the Second World War.  By that time Feldenkrais was a judo teacher and had mostly completed the work toward a D.Sc. under the guidance of Nobel laureate Frédéric Joliot-Curie. Facing the prospect of a surgery that could leave him with a life-long limp, Feldenkrais decided to apply the knowledge gained from his study of physics, engineering, and martial arts to an intensive self-study of his own movement habits. When his work provided him with relief, allowing him to avoid the knee surgery, he began exploring the methods he developed on himself with a small group of people at Fairlie, including scientific colleague John Desmond Bernal and John Boyd-Orr, Nobel laureate and first president of the World Academy of Art and Science.  After serving as head of electronic engineering for the Israeli Army in newly formed Israel from 1951 to 1953, Feldenkrais devoted the rest of his life, from age 50 onward, to developing and teaching self-awareness through movement lessons.  From the 1950s till his death in 1984, he taught continuously in his home city of Tel Aviv. Feldenkrais gained recognition in part through media accounts of his work with prominent individuals, including Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion. Beginning in the late 1950s, Feldenkrais made trips to teach in Europe and America. Several hundred people became certified Feldenkrais practitioners through trainings he held in San Francisco from 1975 to 1978 and in Amherst, Massachusetts from 1980 to 1984. Anticipating the need for an institutional structure to carry on his teaching, he helped found the Feldenkrais Guild of North America in 1977.  Feldenkrais developed the conceptual framework of his method in part through the publication of six books, beginning with \"Body and Mature Behavior\" (1949) and ending with the posthumously published \"The Potent Self\" (1985).  Since Feldenkrais' death, the international Feldenkrais community has used a guild structure to regulate its activity, with training accreditation boards in the Americas, Europe, and Australasia overseeing guilds and associations in eighteen member countries. \"The Feldenkrais Journal\", the annual publication of the Feldenkrais Guild of North America, serves as a forum for the Feldenkrais community to discuss the method and its applications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "The development of the Feldenkrais Method was influenced by Moshe Feldenkrais's involvement in the martial arts. After meeting Kano Jigoro, the founder of Judo, while living in Paris in the 1930s, Feldenkrais transitioned to that practice. One of the main influences of judo on the Feldenkrais Method is the differentiation between rote exercise and attentive movement: \"the methods of physical exercise in vogue... exert only the muscles without any other goal, and one needs much will to bind oneself unfailingly to one of these methods\", wrote Feldenkrais in 1952. \"Judo is very different, each movement has a specific goal which is reached after a precise and supple execution.\" Before he focused on the creation of his own method, Feldenkrais influenced the teaching of martial arts in Western Europe through the publication of five books on jiujitsu and judo, as well as teaching at practice centers in France and Great Britain.  Feldenkrais was born into an Hasidic family and community, and he acknowledged the influence of Hasidic Judaism on his method. In David Kaetz's biography, \"Making Connections: Roots and Resonance in the Life of Moshe Feldenkrais\" (2007), he argues many lines of influence can be found between the Judaism of Feldenkrais's upbringing and the Feldenkrais Method – for instance, the use of paradox as a pedagogical tool. Feldenkrais also acknowledged the influence of the Russian spiritualist George Gurdjieff on his work, in particular Gurdjieff's teachings on automatism and freedom in embodiment.  Feldenkrais earned his doctorate in a program at the Sorbonne intended to bridge theoretical physics and industrial engineering. Mark Reese, another biographer of the teacher, says that Feldenkrais brought this emphasis on practical scientific inquiry to the understanding of embodiment expressed through his method:  \"Feldenkrais was critical of the appropriation of the term 'energy' to express immeasurable phenomena or to label experiences that people had trouble describing,\" notes Reese. \"He was impatient when someone invoked energy in pseudoscientific 'explanations' that masked a lack of understanding. In such cases he urged skepticism and scientific discourse. He encouraged empirical and phenomenological narratives that could lead to insights.\"  Feldenkrais incorporated the views of other scientists into his teaching; for instance, he asked questions of both the neurosurgeon Karl H. Pribram and the cyberneticist Heinz von Foerster at trainings in San Francisco in the mid-1970s. Cybernetics, also known as dynamic systems theory, continued to influence the Feldenkrais Method in the 1990s through the work of human development researcher Esther Thelen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Feldenkrais Method is a type of exercise therapy devised by Israeli Moshé Feldenkrais (1904–1984) during the mid-20th century. The method is claimed to reorganize connections between the brain and body and so improve body movement and psychological state.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971554}
{"src_title": "Christa Wolf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Wolf was born the daughter of Otto and Herta Ihlenfeld, in Landsberg an der Warthe, then in the Province of Brandenburg; the city is now Gorzów Wielkopolski, Poland. After World War II, her family, being Germans, were expelled from their home on what had become Polish territory. They crossed the new Oder-Neisse border in 1945 and settled in Mecklenburg, in what would become the German Democratic Republic, or East Germany. She studied literature at the University of Jena and the University of Leipzig. After her graduation, she worked for the German Writers' Union and became an editor for a publishing company. While working as an editor for publishing companies \"Verlag Neues Leben\" and \"Mitteldeutscher Verlag\" and as a literary critic for the journal \"Neue deutsche Literatur\", Wolf was provided contact with antifascists and Communists, many of whom had either returned from exile or from imprisonment in concentration camps. Her writings discuss political, economic, and scientific power, making her an influential spokesperson in East and West Germany during post-World War II for the empowerment of individuals to be active within the industrialized and patriarchal society.  She joined the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) in 1949 and left it in June 1989, six months before the Communist regime collapsed. She was a candidate member of the Central Committee of the SED from 1963 to 1967. Stasi records found in 1993 showed that she worked as an informant (\"Inoffizieller Mitarbeiter\") during the years 1959–61. The Stasi officers criticized what they called her \"reticence\", and they lost interest in her cooperation. She was herself then closely watched for nearly 30 years. During the Cold War, Wolf was openly critical of the leadership of the GDR, but she maintained a loyalty to the values of socialism and opposed German reunification.  In 1961, she published \"Moskauer Novelle\" (\"Moscow Novella\"). However, Wolf's breakthrough as a writer came in 1963 with the publication of \"Der geteilte Himmel\" (\"Divided Heaven\", \"They Divided the Sky\"). Her subsequent works included \"Nachdenken über Christa T.\" (\"The Quest for Christa T.\") (1968), \"Kindheitsmuster\" (\"Patterns of Childhood\") (1976), \"Kein Ort. Nirgends\" (\"No Place On Earth\") (1979), \"Kassandra\" (\"Cassandra\") (1983), \"Störfall\" (\"Accident\") (1987), \"Medea\" (1996), \"Auf dem Weg nach Tabou\" (\"On the Way to Taboo\") (1994), and \"Stadt der Engel oder The Overcoat of Dr. Freud\" (2010) (\"City of Angels or The Overcoat of Dr. Freud\"). \"Christa T\" was a work that—while briefly touching on a disconnection from one's family's ancestral home—was concerned with a woman's experiencing overwhelming societal pressure to conform.  \"Kassandra\" is perhaps Wolf's most important book, re-interpreting the battle of Troy as a war for economic power and a shift from a matriarchal to a patriarchal society. \"Was bleibt\" (\"What Remains\"), described her life under Stasi surveillance, was written in 1979, but not published until 1990. \"Auf dem Weg nach Tabou\" (1995; translated as \"Parting from Phantoms\") gathered essays, speeches, and letters written during the four years following the reunification of Germany. \"Leibhaftig\" (2002) describes a woman struggling with life and death in 1980s East-German hospital, while awaiting medicine from the West. Central themes in her work are German fascism, humanity, feminism, and self-discovery. In many of her works, Wolf uses illness as a metaphor. In a speech addressed to the \"Deutsche Krebsgesellschaft\" (German Cancer Society) she says, \"How we choose to speak or not to speak about illnesses such as cancer mirrors our misgivings about society.\" In \"Nachdenken über Christa T.\" (The Quest for Christa T). the protagonist dies of leukemia. This work demonstrates the dangers and consequences that happen to an individual when they internalize society's contradictions. In \"Accident\", the narrator's brother is undergoing surgery to remove a brain tumor a few days after the Chernobyl nuclear disaster had occurred. In 2004 she edited and published her correspondence with her UK-based near namesake Charlotte Wolff over the years 1983–1986 (Wolf, Christa and Wolff, Charlotte (2004) \"Ja, unsere Kreise berühren sich: Briefe\", Luchterhand Munich). Wolf died 1 December 2011 in Berlin, where she had lived with her husband,. She was buried on 13 December 2011 in Berlin's Dorotheenstadt cemetery. In 2018, the city of Berlin designated her grave as an \"Ehrengrab\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Although Wolf's works were widely praised in both Germanys in the 1970s and 1980s, they have sometimes been seen as controversial since German reunification. William Dalrymple wrote that in East Germany \"writers such as Christa Wolf became irrelevant overnight once the Berlin Wall was broached\". Upon publication of \"Was bleibt\", West German critics such as Frank Schirrmacher argued that Wolf failed to criticize the authoritarianism of the East German Communist regime, whilst others called her works \"moralistic\". Defenders have recognized Wolf's role in establishing a distinctly East German literary voice. Fausto Cercignani's study of Wolf's earlier novels and essays on her later works have helped promote awareness of her narrative gifts, irrespective of her political and personal ups and downs. The emphasis placed by Cercignani on Christa Wolf's heroism has opened the way to subsequent studies in this direction.  Wolf received the Heinrich Mann Prize in 1963, the Georg Büchner Prize in 1980, and the Schiller Memorial Prize in 1983, the Geschwister-Scholl-Preis in 1987, as well as other national and international awards. After the German reunification, Wolf received further awards: in 1999 she was awarded the Elisabeth Langgässer Prize and the Nelly Sachs Literature Prize, and Wolf became the first recipient of the Deutscher Bücherpreis (German Book Prize) in 2002 for her lifetime achievement. In 2010, Wolf was awarded the Großer Literaturpreis der Bayerischen Akademie der Schönen Künste.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christa Wolf (; née Ihlenfeld; 18 March 1929 – 1 December 2011) was a German literary critic, novelist, and essayist. She was one of the best-known writers to emerge from the former East Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971555}
{"src_title": "Virus classification", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Virus species definition.", "content": "Species form the basis for any biological classification system. Before 1982, it was thought that viruses could not be made to fit Ernst Mayr's reproductive concept of species, and so were not amenable to such treatment. In 1982, the ICTV started to define a species as \"a cluster of strains\" with unique identifying qualities. In 1991, the more specific principle that a virus species is a polythetic class of viruses that constitutes a replicating lineage and occupies a particular ecological niche was adopted.  In July 2013, the ICTV definition of species changed to state: \"A species is a monophyletic group of viruses whose properties can be distinguished from those of other species by multiple criteria.\" Viruses are real physical entities produced by biological evolution and genetics, whereas virus species and higher taxa are abstract concepts produced by rational thought and logic. The virus/species relationship thus represents the front line of the interface between biology and logic.  The actual criteria used vary by the taxon, and can be inconsistent (arbitrary similarity thresholds) or unrelated to lineage (geography) at times. The matter is, for many, not yet settled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ICTV classification.", "content": "The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses began to devise and implement rules for the naming and classification of viruses early in the 1970s, an effort that continues to the present. The ICTV is the only body charged by the International Union of Microbiological Societies with the task of developing, refining, and maintaining a universal virus taxonomy. The system shares many features with the classification system of cellular organisms, such as taxon structure. However, some differences exist, such as the universal use of italics for all taxonomic names, unlike in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.  Viral classification starts at the level of realm and continues as follows, with the taxonomic suffixes in parentheses:  Species names often take the form of \"[Disease] virus\", particularly for higher plants and animals.  As of 2019, all levels of taxa except subrealm, subkingdom, and subclass are used. Four realms, one \"incertae sedis\" order, 24 \"incertae sedis\" families, and three \"incertae sedis\" genera are recognized:  Realms: \"Duplodnaviria\", \"Monodnaviria\", \"Riboviria\", and \"Varidnaviria\"  \"incertae sedis\" order: \"Ligamenvirales\"  \"incertae sedis\" families:  \"incertae sedis\" genera: \"Deltavirus\", \"Dinodnavirus\", \"Rhizidiovirus\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure-based virus classification.", "content": "It has been suggested that similarity in virion assembly and structure observed for certain viral groups infecting hosts from different domains of life (e.g., bacterial tectiviruses and eukaryotic adenoviruses or prokaryotic Caudovirales and eukaryotic herpesviruses) reflects an evolutionary relationship between these viruses. Therefore, structural relationship between viruses has been suggested to be used as a basis for defining higher-level taxa – structure-based viral lineages – that could complement the existing ICTV classification scheme.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Baltimore classification.", "content": "Baltimore classification (first defined in 1971) is a classification system that places viruses into one of seven groups depending on a combination of their nucleic acid (DNA or RNA), strandedness (single-stranded or double-stranded), sense, and method of replication. Named after David Baltimore, a Nobel Prize-winning biologist, these groups are designated by Roman numerals. Other classifications are determined by the disease caused by the virus or its morphology, neither of which are satisfactory due to different viruses either causing the same disease or looking very similar. In addition, viral structures are often difficult to determine under the microscope. Classifying viruses according to their genome means that those in a given category will all behave in a similar fashion, offering some indication of how to proceed with further research. Viruses can be placed in one of the seven following groups:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Holmes classification.", "content": "Holmes (1948) used Carl Linnaeus's system of binomial nomenclature to classify viruses into 3 groups under one order, Virales. They are placed as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "LHT System of Virus Classification.", "content": "The LHT System of Virus Classification is based on chemical and physical characters like nucleic acid (DNA or RNA), symmetry (helical or icosahedral or complex), presence of envelope, diameter of capsid, number of capsomers. This classification was approved by the Provisional Committee on Nomenclature of Virus (PNVC) of the International Association of Microbiological Societies (1962). It is as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subviral agents.", "content": "The following infectious agents are smaller than viruses and have only some of their properties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Viroids and virus-dependent agents.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Satellites.", "content": "Satellites depend on co-infection of a host cell with a helper virus for productive multiplication. Their nucleic acids have substantially distinct nucleotide sequences from either their helper virus or host. When a satellite subviral agent encodes the coat protein in which it is encapsulated, it is then called a satellite virus.  Satellite-like nucleic acids resemble satellite nucleic acids, in that they replicate with the aid of helper viruses. However they differ in that they can encode functions that can contribute to the success of their helper viruses; while they are sometimes considered to be genomic elements of their helper viruses, they are not always found within their helper viruses.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Defective interfering particles.", "content": "Defective interfering particles are defective viruses that have lost their ability to replicate except in the presence of a helper virus, which is normally the parental virus. They can also interfere with the helper virus.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Prions.", "content": "Prions, named for their description as \"proteinaceous infectious particles\", do not have nucleic acids or virus-like particles. They resist inactivation procedures that normally affect nucleic acids.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Virus classification is the process of naming viruses and placing them into a taxonomic system. Similar to the classification systems used for cellular organisms, virus classification is the subject of ongoing debate and proposals. This is mainly due to the pseudo-living nature of viruses, which is to say they are non-living particles with some chemical characteristics similar to those of life, or non-cellular life. As such, they do not fit neatly into the established biological classification system in place for cellular organisms.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971556}
{"src_title": "Arithmetic mean", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "The arithmetic mean (or mean or average), formula_1 (read formula_2 \"bar\"), is the mean of the formula_3 values formula_4.  The arithmetic mean is the most commonly used and readily understood measure of central tendency in a data set. In statistics, the term average refers to any of the measures of central tendency. The arithmetic mean of a set of observed data is defined as being equal to the sum of the numerical values of each and every observation divided by the total number of observations. Symbolically, if we have a data set consisting of the values formula_5, then the arithmetic mean formula_6 is defined by the formula:  (See summation for an explanation of the summation operator).  For example, consider the monthly salary of 10 employees of a firm: 2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400. The arithmetic mean is  If the data set is a statistical population (i.e., consists of every possible observation and not just a subset of them), then the mean of that population is called the population mean. If the data set is a statistical sample (a subset of the population), we call the statistic resulting from this calculation a sample mean.  The arithmetic mean can be similarly defined for vectors in multiple dimension, not only scalar values; this is often referred to as a centroid. More generally, because the arithmetic mean is a convex combination (coefficients sum to 1), it can be defined on a convex space, not only a vector space.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motivating properties.", "content": "The arithmetic mean has several properties that make it useful, especially as a measure of central tendency. These include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contrast with median.", "content": "The arithmetic mean may be contrasted with the median. The median is defined such that no more than half the values are larger than, and no more than half are smaller than, the median. If elements in the data increase arithmetically, when placed in some order, then the median and arithmetic average are equal. For example, consider the data sample formula_15. The average is formula_16, as is the median. However, when we consider a sample that cannot be arranged so as to increase arithmetically, such as formula_17, the median and arithmetic average can differ significantly. In this case, the arithmetic average is 6.2 and the median is 4. In general, the average value can vary significantly from most values in the sample, and can be larger or smaller than most of them.  There are applications of this phenomenon in many fields. For example, since the 1980s, the median income in the United States has increased more slowly than the arithmetic average of income.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Generalizations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weighted average.", "content": "A weighted average, or weighted mean, is an average in which some data points count more heavily than others, in that they are given more weight in the calculation. For example, the arithmetic mean of formula_18 and formula_19 is formula_20, or equivalently formula_21. In contrast, a \"weighted\" mean in which the first number receives, for example, twice as much weight as the second (perhaps because it is assumed to appear twice as often in the general population from which these numbers were sampled) would be calculated as formula_22. Here the weights, which necessarily sum to the value one, are formula_23 and formula_24, the former being twice the latter. The arithmetic mean (sometimes called the \"unweighted average\" or \"equally weighted average\") can be interpreted as a special case of a weighted average in which all the weights are equal to each other (equal to formula_25 in the above example, and equal to formula_26 in a situation with formula_3 numbers being averaged).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Continuous probability distributions.", "content": "If a numerical property, and any sample of data from it, could take on any value from a continuous range, instead of, for example, just integers, then the probability of a number falling into some range of possible values can be described by integrating a continuous probability distribution across this range, even when the naive probability for a sample number taking one certain value from infinitely many is zero. The analog of a weighted average in this context, in which there are an infinite number of possibilities for the precise value of the variable in each range, is called the \"mean of the probability distribution\". A most widely encountered probability distribution is called the normal distribution; it has the property that all measures of its central tendency, including not just the mean but also the aforementioned median and the mode (the three M's), are equal to each other. This equality does not hold for other probability distributions, as illustrated for the lognormal distribution here.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Angles.", "content": "Particular care must be taken when using cyclic data, such as phases or angles. Naïvely taking the arithmetic mean of 1° and 359° yields a result of 180°. This is incorrect for two reasons:  In general application, such an oversight will lead to the average value artificially moving towards the middle of the numerical range. A solution to this problem is to use the optimization formulation (viz., define the mean as the central point: the point about which one has the lowest dispersion), and redefine the difference as a modular distance (i.e., the distance on the circle: so the modular distance between 1° and 359° is 2°, not 358°).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbols and encoding.", "content": "The arithmetic mean is often denoted by a bar, for example as in formula_1 (read formula_2 \"bar\").  Some software (text processors, web browsers) may not display the x̄ symbol properly. For example, the x̄ symbol in HTML is actually a combination of two codes - the base letter x plus a code for the line above (&#772; or ̄).  In some texts, such as pdfs, the x̄ symbol may be replaced by a cent (¢) symbol (Unicode &#162) when copied to text processor such as Microsoft Word.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean (, stress on first and third syllables of \"arithmetic\"), or simply the mean or average when the context is clear, is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the count of numbers in the collection. The collection is often a set of results of an experiment or an observational study, or frequently a set of results from a survey. The term \"arithmetic mean\" is preferred in some contexts in mathematics and statistics because it helps distinguish it from other means, such as the geometric mean and the harmonic mean.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971557}
{"src_title": "Notary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Documents are notarized to deter fraud and to ensure they are properly executed. An impartial witness (the notary) identifies signers to screen out impostors and to make sure they have entered into agreements knowingly and willingly. Loan documents including deeds, affidavits, contracts, powers of attorney are very common documents needing notarization.  To \"notarize\" a document or event is not a term of art, and its definition varies from place to place; but it generally means the performance by a notary of a series of possible steps, which may include the following (not an exhaustive list):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Common law vs. Civil law notaries.", "content": "Most common law systems have what is called in the United States a notary public, a public official who notarizes legal documents and who can also administer and take oaths and affirmations, among other tasks. Although notaries public are public officials, they are not paid by the government; they may obtain income by charging fees, provide free services in connection with other employment (for example, bank employees), or provide free services for the public good. In the US (except Puerto Rico), any person – lawyer or otherwise – may be commissioned as a notary.  Most civil law-based systems (including Puerto Rico and Quebec) have the civil law notary, a legal professional performing many more functions than a common-law notary public. They are qualified lawyers who provide many of the same services as common-law attorneys/solicitors (negotiation and drafting of contracts, legal advice, settlement of estates, creation of a company and its status, writing of wills and power of attorney, interpretation of the law, mediation, etc...) except any involvement in disputes to be presented before a court.  In the United States, a signing agent, also known as a loan signing agent, is a notary public who specializes in notarizing mortgage and real estate documents.  Notaries in civil law jurisdictions are specialized in all matters relating to real estate, completing title exams in order to confirm the ownership of the property, the existence of any encumbrances such as easements or mortgages and hypothecs.  Often, in the case of lawyer notaries, the certificate to be provided will not require the person appearing to sign. Examples are: certificates authenticating copies (which are mostly not within the permissible functions of U.S. notaries) and certificates as to law, such as certificates as to the capacity of a company to perform certain acts, or explaining probate law in the place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Online systems.", "content": "In the United States, the states of Virginia, Texas, and Nevada have all passed laws allowing for online witness by notaries, using screen sharing or webcam as well as identity verification processes. Virginia was the first state to pass legislation allowing online notarization in 2012. Texas and Nevada passed similar laws in 2017 that went into effect in July, 2018. Some sites and apps include Notarize, DocVerify, NotaryCam, Safedocs, and SIGNiX. Notarize is also the first company to offer fully online mortgage closings, executing the first in August 2017 with United Wholesale Mortgage and Stewart Title. In the United States as of 2017 there are estimated to be over 4 million notaries employed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A notary is a person authorised to perform acts in legal affairs, in particular witnessing signatures on documents. The form that the notarial profession takes varies with local legal systems.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971558}
{"src_title": "Vin Diesel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Diesel was born Mark Sinclair on July 18, 1967, in Alameda County, California, with his fraternal twin brother, Paul. His mother, Delora Sherleen Vincent (née Sinclair), is an astrologer. Diesel has stated that he is \"of ambiguous ethnicity\". His mother has English, German, and Scottish roots. He has never met his biological father, and has stated that \"all I know from my mother is that I have connections to many different cultures\". Diesel has self-identified as \"definitely a person of color\", and has stated that his parents' relationship would have been illegal in parts of the United States due to anti-miscegenation laws. He was raised in New York City by his white American mother and African-American stepfather, Irving H. Vincent, an acting instructor and theater manager.  Diesel made his stage debut at age seven when he appeared in the children's play \"Dinosaur Door\", written by Barbara Garson. The play was produced at Theater for the New City in New York's Greenwich Village. His involvement in the play came about when he, his brother and some friends had broken into the Theater for the New City space on Jane Street with the intent to vandalize it. They were confronted by the theater's artistic director, Crystal Field, who offered them roles in the upcoming show instead of calling the police. Diesel remained involved with the theater throughout adolescence, going on to attend NYC's Hunter College, where studies in creative writing led him to begin screenwriting. He has identified himself as a \"multi-faceted\" actor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Diesel's first film role was a brief uncredited appearance in the drama film \"Awakenings\" (1990). In 1994, he wrote, directed, produced, and starred in the short drama film \"Multi-Facial\", a semi-autobiographical film which follows a struggling multiracial actor stuck in the audition process. The film was selected for screening at the 1995 Cannes Festival.  In 1997, Diesel made his first feature-length film, \"Strays\", an urban drama in which he played a gang leader whose love for a woman inspires him to try to change his ways. Written, directed, and produced by Diesel, the film was selected for competition at the 1997 Sundance Festival, leading to an MTV deal to turn it into a series. Director Steven Spielberg took notice of Diesel after seeing him in \"Multi-Facial\" and cast him in a small role as a soldier in his 1998 Oscar-winning war film \"Saving Private Ryan\". In 1999, he provided the voice of the title character in the animated film \"The Iron Giant\".  In 2000, Diesel had a supporting role in the drama thriller \"Boiler Room\", where he appeared alongside Giovanni Ribisi and Ben Affleck. He got his breakthrough leading role as the anti-hero Riddick in the science-fiction film \"Pitch Black\" later that year. Diesel attained action hero stardom with two box office hits: the street racing action film \"The Fast and the Furious\" (2001), and the action thriller \"XXX\" (2002). He turned down the chance to reprise his roles in the sequels \"2 Fast 2 Furious\" (2003) and \"\" (2005). Instead he chose to reprise his role as Riddick in \"The Chronicles of Riddick\", which was a box office failure considering the large budget. He also voiced the character in two spin-off video games and the anime film \"\". In a change from his previous action hero roles, in 2005, he played a lighthearted role in the comedy film \"The Pacifier\", which was a box office success. In 2006, he chose a dramatic role playing real-life mobster Jack DiNorscio in \"Find Me Guilty\". Although he received critical acclaim for his performance, the film did poorly at the box office grossing only $2 million against a budget of $13 million. Later that year, Diesel made a cameo appearance in \"\", reprising his role from \"The Fast and the Furious\". In 2007, Diesel was set to produce and star as Agent 47 in the film adaptation of the video game \"\", but eventually pulled back and served as executive producer on the film instead. In 2008, he starred in the science-fiction action thriller \"Babylon A.D.\" which was a critical and box office failure. Diesel returned to \"The Fast and the Furious\" series, alongside most of the principal cast from the original 2001 film, in \"Fast & Furious\", which was released in April 2009.  Diesel reprised his role as Dominic Toretto in installments five through eight of the \"Fast & Furious\" franchise, \"Fast Five\" (2011), \"Fast & Furious 6\" (2013), \"Furious 7\" (2015), and \"The Fate of the Furious\" (2017). He reprised his role as Riddick in the third film of \"The Chronicles of Riddick\" series, simply titled \"Riddick\" (2013). In August 2013, Diesel received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. He voiced Groot in the 2014 Marvel Cinematic Universe film \"Guardians of the Galaxy\". He starred in the supernatural action film \"The Last Witch Hunter\" (2015). In 2016, Diesel appeared as a supporting character in Ang Lee's war drama \"Billy Lynn's Long Halftime Walk\".  In 2017, Diesel also reprised his roles as Xander Cage in \"\", and Groot in \"Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2\". Over the course of several years, Diesel has discussed playing two separate roles within the Marvel Cinematic Universe. In November 2016 director of \"Guardians of the Galaxy\", James Gunn, confirmed that Diesel had been in talks to play Blackagar Boltagon / Black Bolt for the planned \"Inhumans\" film, but it was turned into a television series instead without Diesel involved.  Diesel reprised his role of Groot once again in the crossover films \"\" (2018) and \"\" (2019) which combined the superhero teams of Guardians of the Galaxy and The Avengers. He has said, \"[I] think there's gonna be a moment that we're all waiting for, and whether you know it or not, you are waiting to see [Groot] and [the Hulk] get down.\"  Diesel portrayed Valiant Comics character \"Bloodshot\" in the film of the same name which released in March 2020. He is also joining the cast of James Cameron's \"Avatar 2\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Diesel said in 2006 that he prefers to maintain his privacy regarding his personal life: \"I'm not gonna put it out there on a magazine cover like some other actors. I come from the Harrison Ford, Marlon Brando, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino code of silence.\"  Sometime around 2001, Diesel dated his \"Fast and the Furious\" co-star, Michelle Rodriguez. He began dating Mexican model Paloma Jimenez in 2007, and they have three children: daughter Hania Riley (born April 2008), son Vincent Sinclair (born 2010), and daughter Pauline (born March 2015). The latter is named in honor of his friend and co-star, Paul Walker, who died in November 2013. He is also the godfather of Walker's daughter, Meadow.  Diesel is noted for his recognizably deep voice; he has said that his voice broke around age 15, giving him a mature-sounding voice on the telephone. He has played \"Dungeons & Dragons\" for over 20 years, and wrote the foreword for the commemorative book \"\". Canadian video game designer and developer Merritt k created the 2015 ASMR game \"Vin Diesel DMing a Game of D&D Just For You\" based on his \"D&D\" fandom. He has expressed his love for the Dominican Republic and how he relates to its multicultural facets. He is acquainted with its former president, Leonel Fernández, and appeared in one of Fernández's earlier campaign ads. \"Los Bandoleros\", a short film directed by Diesel, was filmed in the Dominican Republic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mark Sinclair (born July 18, 1967), known professionally as Vin Diesel, is an American actor, producer, director, and screenwriter. He is best known for playing Dominic Toretto in the \"Fast & Furious\" franchise, and is one of the highest-grossing actors of all time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971559}
{"src_title": "Bender, Moldova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "First mentioned in 1408 as \"Tyagyanyakyacha\" (Тягянякяча) in a document in Old Slavonic (the term has Cuman origins), the town was known in the Middle Ages as Tighina in Romanian from Moldavian sources and later as \"Bender\" in Ottoman sources. The fortress and the city were called \"Bender\" for most of the time they were a rayah of the Ottomans (1538–1812), and during most of the time they belonged to the Russian Empire (1828–1917). They were known as \"Tighina\" (Тигина, ) in the Principality of Moldavia, in the early part of the Russian Empire period (1812–1828), and during the time the city belonged to Romania (1918–1940; 1941–1944).  The city is part of the historical region of Bessarabia and of Bessarabia Governorate within the Russian Empire. During the Soviet period the city was known in the Moldavian SSR as \"Bender\" in Romanian, written \"Бендер\" with the Cyrillic alphabet, as \"Bendery\" () in Russian and \"Bendery\" (Бенде́ри) in Ukrainian. Today the city is officially named \"Bender\", but both \"Bender\" and \"Tighina\" are in use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The town was first mentioned as an important customs post in a commerce grant issued by the Moldavian voivode Alexander the Good to the merchants of Lviv on October 8, 1408. The name \"Tighina\" is found in documents from the second half of the 15th century. The town was the main Moldavian customs point on the commercial road linking the country to Tatar Crimea. During his reign of Moldavia, Stephen III had a small wooden fort built in the town to defend the settlement from Tatar raids.  In 1538, the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent conquered the town from Moldavia, and renamed it \"Bender\". Its fortifications were developed into a full fortress under the same name under the supervision of the Turkish architect Koji Mimar Sinan. The Ottomans used it to keep the pressure on Moldavia. At the end of the 16th century several unsuccessful attempts to retake the fortress were made: in the summer of 1574 Prince John III the Terrible led a siege on the fortress, as did Michael the Brave in 1595 and 1600. About the same time the fortress was attacked by Zaporozhian Cossacks.  In the 18th century, the fort's area was expanded and modernized by the prince of Moldavia Antioh Cantemir, who carried out these works under Ottoman supervision.  In 1713, the fortress, the town, and the neighboring village Varnița were the site of skirmishes (\"kalabalik\") between Charles XII of Sweden, who had taken refuge there with the Cossack Hetman Ivan Mazepa after his defeat in the Battle of Poltava, and Turks who wished to enforce the departure of the Swedish king.  During the second half of the 18th century, the fortress fell three times to the Russians during the Russo-Turkish Wars (in 1770, 1789, and in 1806 without a fight).  Along with Bessarabia, the city was annexed to the Russian Empire in 1812, and remained part of the Russian Governorate of Bessarabia until 1917. Many Ukrainians, Russians and Jews settled in or around Bender, and the town quickly became predominantly Russian-speaking. By 1897, speakers of Romanian and Moldovan made up only around 7% of Bender's population, while 33.4% were Jews.  Tighina was part of the Moldavian Democratic Republic in 1917–1918, and after 1918, as part of Bessarabia, the city belonged to Romania, where it was the seat of Tighina County. In 1918, it was shortly controlled by the Odessa Soviet Republic which was driven out by the Romanian army. The local population was critical of Romanian authorities; pro-Soviet separatism remained popular. On Easter Day, 1919, the bridge over the Dniester River was blown up by the French Army in order to block the Bolsheviks from coming to the city. In the same year, there was a pro-Soviet uprising in Bender, attempting to attach the city to the newly founded Soviet Union. Several hundred communist workers and Red Army members from Bessarabia, headed by Grigori Stary, seized control in Bender on May 27. However, the uprising was crushed on the same day by the Romanian army.  Romania launched a policy of Romanianization and the use of Russian was now discouraged and in certain cases restricted. In Bender, however, Russian continued to be the city's most widely spoken language, being native to 53% of its residents in 1930. Although their share had doubled, Romanian-speakers made up only 15%.  Along with Bessarabia, the city was occupied by the Soviet Union on June 28, 1940, following an ultimatum. In the course of World War II, it was retaken by Romania in July 1941, and again by the USSR in August 1944. Most of the city's Jews were killed during the Holocaust, although Bender continued to have a significant Jewish community well until the 1990s.  From 1940–41, and 1944–1991 it was one of the four \"republican cities\", not subordinated to a district, of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic, one of the 15 republics of the Soviet Union. Since 1991, the city has been disputed between the Republic of Moldova and Transnistria. Due to the city's key strategic location on the right bank of the Dniester river, from left-bank Tiraspol, Bender saw the heaviest fighting of the 1992 War of Transnistria. Since then, it is controlled by Transnistrian authorities, although it has been formally in the demilitarized zone established at the end of the conflict. Most of the city's remaining Jews emigrated after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.  Moldovan authorities control the commune of Varnița, a suburb fringing the city to the north. Transnistrian authorities control the suburban communes of Proteagailovca, which borders the city to the west and Gîsca, which borders the city to the south-west. They also control Chițcani and Cremenciug, further to the south-east, while Moldovans are in control of Copanca, further to the south-east.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "Nikolai Gliga is the head of the state administration of Bender.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "People and culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "In 1920, the population of Bender was approximately 26,000. At that time, one third of the population was Jewish. One third of the population was Romanian. Germans, Russians, and Bulgarians were also mixed into the population during that time.  At the 2004 Census, the city had a population of 100,169, of which the city itself 97,027, and the commune of Proteagailovca, 3,142.  Population dynamics by years:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "FC Dinamo Bender is the city's professional football club, formerly playing in the top Moldovan football league, the Divizia Naţională, before being relegated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – Sister cities.", "content": "Bender is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Bender (; or Tighina (Romanian) \"de facto\" official name Bendery (, ); also known by other alternative names) is a city within the internationally recognized borders of Moldova under \"de facto\" control of the unrecognized Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (Transnistria) (PMR) since 1992. It is located on the western bank of the river Dniester in the Romanian historical region of Bessarabia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971560}
{"src_title": "Urbain Le Verrier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Le Verrier was born at Saint-Lô, Manche, France, in a modest bourgeois family, being his parents, Louis-Baptiste Le Verrier and Marie-Jeanne-Josephine-Pauline de Baudre, and studied at École Polytechnique. He briefly studied chemistry under Gay-Lussac, writing papers on the combinations of phosphorus and hydrogen, and phosphorus and oxygen. He then switched to astronomy, particularly celestial mechanics, and accepted a job at the Paris Observatory. He spent most of his professional life there, and eventually became that institution's Director, from 1854 to 1870 and again from 1873 to 1877.  In 1846, Le Verrier became a member of the French Academy of Sciences, and in 1855, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Le Verrier's name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early work.", "content": "Le Verrier's first work in astronomy was presented to the \"Académie des Sciences\" in September 1839, entitled \"Sur les variations séculaires des orbites des planètes\" (\"On the Secular Variations of the Orbits of the Planets\"). This work addressed the then most-important question in astronomy: the stability of the Solar System, first investigated by Laplace. He was able to derive some important limits on the motions of the system, but due to the inaccurately-known masses of the planets, his results were tentative.  From 1844 to 1847, Le Verrier published a series of works on periodic comets, in particular those of Lexell, Faye and DeVico. He was able to show some interesting interactions with the planet Jupiter, proving that certain comets were actually the reappearance of previously-known comets flung into different orbits.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Discovery of Neptune.", "content": "Le Verrier's most famous achievement is his prediction of the existence of the then unknown planet Neptune, using only mathematics and astronomical observations of the known planet Uranus. Encouraged by physicist Arago, Director of the Paris Observatory, Le Verrier was intensely engaged for months in complex calculations to explain small but systematic discrepancies between Uranus's observed orbit and the one predicted from the laws of gravity of Newton. At the same time, but unknown to Le Verrier, similar calculations were made by John Couch Adams in England. Le Verrier announced his final predicted position for Uranus's unseen perturbing planet publicly to the French Academy on 31 August 1846, two days before Adams's final solution was privately mailed to the Royal Greenwich Observatory. Le Verrier transmitted his own prediction by 18 September in a letter to Johann Galle of the Berlin Observatory. The letter arrived five days later, and the planet was found with the Berlin Fraunhofer refractor that same evening, 23 September 1846, by Galle and Heinrich d'Arrest within 1° of the predicted location near the boundary between Capricorn and Aquarius.  There was, and to an extent still is, controversy over the apportionment of credit for the discovery. There is no ambiguity to the discovery claims of Le Verrier, Galle, and d'Arrest. Adams's work was begun earlier than Le Verrier's but was finished later and was unrelated to the actual discovery. Not even the briefest account of Adams's predicted orbital elements was published until more than a month after Berlin's visual confirmation. Adams made full public acknowledgement of Le Verrier's priority and credit (not forgetting to mention the role of Galle) when he gave his paper to the Royal Astronomical Society in November 1846:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Tables of the planets.", "content": "Early in the 19th century, the methods of predicting the motions of the planets were somewhat scattered, having been developed over decades by many different researchers. In 1847, Le Verrier took on the task to \"... embrace in a single work the entire planetary system, put everything in harmony if possible, otherwise, declare with certainty that there are as yet unknown causes of perturbations...\", a work which would occupy him for the rest of his life.  Le Verrier began by re-evaluating, to the 7th order, the technique of calculating the planetary perturbations known as the perturbing function. This derivation, which resulted in 469 mathematical terms, was complete by 1849. He next collected observations of the positions of the planets as far back as 1750. Examining these and correcting for inconsistencies with the most recent data occupied him until 1852.  Le Verrier published, in the \"Annales de l'Observatoire de Paris\", tables of the motions of all of the known planets, releasing them as he completed them, starting in 1858. The tables formed the fundamental ephemeris of the \"Connaissance des Temps\", the astronomical almanac of the \"Bureau des Longitudes\", until about 1912. About that time, Le Verrier's work on the outer planets was revised and expanded by Gaillot.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Precession of Mercury.", "content": "Le Verrier began studying the motion of Mercury as early as 1843, with a report entitled \"Détermination nouvelle de l ’orbite de Mercure et de ses perturbations\" (\"A New Determination of the Orbit of Mercury and its Perturbations\"). In 1859, Le Verrier was the first to report that the slow precession of Mercury’s orbit around the Sun could not be completely explained by Newtonian mechanics and perturbations by the known planets. He suggested, among possible explanations, that another planet (or perhaps, instead, a series of smaller 'corpuscules') might exist in an orbit even farther to the Sun than that of Mercury, to account for this perturbation. (Other explanations considered included a slight oblateness of the Sun.) The success of the search for Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus led astronomers to place some faith in this possible explanation, and the hypothetical planet was even named Vulcan. However, no such planet was ever found, and the anomalous precession was eventually explained by general relativity theory.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Le Verrier's methods of management were disliked by the staff of the \"Observatoire\", and the disputes became so great that he was driven out in 1870. He was succeeded by Delaunay, but was reinstated in 1873 after Delaunay accidentally drowned. Le Verrier held the position until his death in 1877.  Le Verrier married Lucille Clotilde Choquet in 1837 and had 3 children. He died in Paris, France and was buried in the Montparnasse Cemetery. A large stone celestial globe sits over his grave. He will be remembered by the phrase attributed to Arago: \"the man who discovered a planet with the point of his pen.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier FRS (FOR) HFRSE (; 11 March 1811 – 23 September 1877) was a French astronomer and mathematician who specialized in celestial mechanics and is best known for predicting the existence and position of Neptune using only mathematics. The calculations were made to explain discrepancies with Uranus's orbit and the laws of Kepler and Newton. Le Verrier sent the coordinates to Johann Gottfried Galle in Berlin, asking him to verify. Galle found Neptune in the same night he received Le Verrier's letter, within 1° of the predicted position. The discovery of Neptune is widely regarded as a dramatic validation of celestial mechanics, and is one of the most remarkable moments of 19th-century science.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971561}
{"src_title": "Estonians", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prehistoric roots.", "content": "Estonia was first inhabited about 10,000 years ago, just after the Baltic ice lake had retreated from Estonia. Living in the same area for more than 5,000 years would put the ancestors of Estonians among the oldest permanent inhabitants in Europe. On the other hand, some recent linguistic estimations suggest that Finno-Ugrian language arrived around the Baltic Sea considerably later, perhaps during the Early Bronze Age (ca. 1800 BCE).  The oldest known endonym of the Estonians is, literally meaning \"land people\" or \"country folk\". It was used up until the mid-19th century, when it was gradually replaced by \"Eesti rahvas\" \"Estonian people\" during the Estonian national awakening. \"Eesti\", the modern endonym of Estonia, is thought to be derived from the word \"Aestii\", the name given by the ancient Germanic people to the Baltic people living northeast of the Vistula River. The Roman historian Tacitus in 98 AD was the first to mention the \"\"Aestii\"\" people, and early Scandinavians called the land south of the Gulf of Finland \"\"Eistland\"\" ( is also the current word in Icelandic for Estonia), and the people \"\"eistr\"\". Proto-Estonians (as well as other speakers of the Finnish language group) were also called \"Chuds\" () in Old East Slavic chronicles.  The Estonian language belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic family of languages, as does the Finnish language. The branch is a little more than 1000 years old. The first known book in Estonian was printed in 1525, while the oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th-century chronicles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National consciousness.", "content": "Although Estonian national consciousness spread in the course of the 19th century during the Estonian national awakening, some degree of ethnic awareness preceded this development. By the 18th century the self-denomination spread among Estonians along with the older. Anton thor Helle's translation of the Bible into Estonian appeared in 1739, and the number of books and brochures published in Estonian increased from 18 in the 1750s to 54 in the 1790s. By the end of the century more than a half of adult peasants could read. The first university-educated intellectuals identifying themselves as Estonians, including Friedrich Robert Faehlmann (1798–1850), Kristjan Jaak Peterson (1801–1822) and Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald (1803–1882), appeared in the 1820s. The ruling elites had remained predominantly German in language and culture since the conquest of the early 13th century. Garlieb Merkel (1769–1850), a Baltic-German Estophile, became the first author to treat the Estonians as a nationality equal to others; he became a source of inspiration for the Estonian national movement, modelled on Baltic German cultural world before the middle of the 19th century. However, in the middle of the century, the Estonians became more ambitious and started leaning toward the Finns as a successful model of national movement and, to some extent, toward the neighbouring Latvian national movement. By the end of 1860 the Estonians became unwilling to reconcile with German cultural and political hegemony. Before the attempts at Russification in the 1880s, their view of Imperial Russia remained positive.  Estonians have strong ties to the Nordic countries stemming from important cultural and religious influences gained over centuries during Scandinavian and German rule and settlement. Indeed, Estonians consider themselves Nordic rather than Baltic, in particular because of close ethnic and linguistic affinities with the Finns.  After the Treaty of Tartu (1920) recognised Estonia's 1918 independence from Russia, ethnic Estonians residing in Russia gained the option of opting for Estonian citizenship (those who opted were called \"optandid\" - 'optants') and returning to their fatherland. An estimated 40,000 Estonians lived in Russia in 1920. In sum, 37,578 people moved from Soviet Russia to Estonia (1920–1923).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Emigration.", "content": "During World War II, when Estonia was invaded by the Soviet Army in 1944, large numbers of Estonians fled their homeland on ships or smaller boats over the Baltic Sea. Many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to Sweden or Germany later moved from there to Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States or Australia. Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991.  Over the years of independence, increasing numbers of Estonians have chosen to work abroad, primarily in Finland, but also in other European countries (mostly in the UK, Benelux, Sweden, and Germany), making Estonia the country with the highest emigration rate in Europe. This is at least partly due to the easy access to oscillating migration to Finland.  Recognising the problems arising from both low birth rate and high emigration, the country has launched various measures to both increase the birth rate and to lure migrant Estonians back to Estonia. Former president Toomas Hendrik Ilves has lent his support to the campaign \"Talendid koju!\" (\"Bringing talents home!\") which aims to coordinate and promote the return of Estonians who have particular skills needed in Estonia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Estonians in Canada.", "content": "One of the largest permanent Estonian community outside Estonia is in Canada with about 24,000 people (according to some sources up to 50,000 people). In the late 1940s and early 1950s, about 17,000 arrived in Canada, initially to Montreal. Toronto is currently the city with the largest population of Estonians outside of Estonia. The first Estonian World Festival was held in Toronto in 1972. Some notable Estonian Canadians include Endel Tulving, Elmar Tampõld, Alison Pill, Uno Prii, Kalle Lasn, and Andreas Vaikla.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Estonians () are a Finnic ethnic group native to Estonia who speak the Estonian language and share a common culture and history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971562}
{"src_title": "Swimmer's itch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cause.", "content": "Swimmer's itch probably has been around as long as humans. The condition was known to exist as early as the 1800s, but it was not until 1928 that a biologist found that the dermatitis was caused by the larval stage of a group of flatworm parasites in the family Schistosomatidae. The genera most commonly associated with swimmer's itch in humans are \"Trichobilharzia\" and \"Gigantobilharzia\". It can also be caused by schistosome parasites of non-avian vertebrates, such as \"Schistosomatium douthitti\", which infects snails and rodents. Other taxa reported to cause the reaction include \"Bilharziella polonica\" and \"Schistosoma bovis\". In marine habitats, especially along the coasts, swimmer's itch can occur as well.  These parasites use both freshwater snails and vertebrates as hosts in their parasitic life cycles as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Risk factors.", "content": "Humans usually become infected after swimming in lakes or other bodies of slow-moving fresh water. Some laboratory evidence indicates snails shed cercariae most intensely in the morning and on sunny days, and exposure to water in these conditions may therefore increase risk. Duration of swimming is positively correlated with increased risk of infection in Europe and North America, and shallow inshore waters may harbour higher densities of cercariae than open waters offshore. Onshore winds are thought to cause cercariae to accumulate along shorelines. Studies of infested lakes and outbreaks in Europe and North America have found cases where infection risk appears to be evenly distributed around the margins of water bodies as well as instances where risk increases in endemic swimmer's itch \"hotspots\". Children may become infected more frequently and more intensely than adults but this probably reflects their tendency to swim for longer periods inshore, where cercariae also concentrate. Stimuli for cercarial penetration into host skin include unsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic and linolenic acids. These substances occur naturally in human skin and are found in sun lotions and creams based on plant oils.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Control.", "content": "Various strategies targeting the mollusc and avian hosts of schistosomes, have been used by lakeside residents in recreational areas of North America to deal with outbreaks of swimmer's itch. In Michigan, for decades, authorities used copper sulfate as a molluscicide to reduce snail host populations and thereby the incidence of swimmer's itch. The results with this agent have been inconclusive, possibly because:  More importantly, perhaps, copper sulfate is toxic to more than just molluscs, and the effects of its use on aquatic ecosystems are not well understood.  Another method targeting the snail host, mechanical disturbance of snail habitat, has been also tried in some areas of North America and Lake Annecy in France, with promising results. Some work in Michigan suggests that administering praziquantel to hatchling waterfowl can reduce local swimmer's itch rates in humans. Work on schistosomiasis showed that water-resistant topical applications of the common insect repellent DEET prevented schistosomes from penetrating the skin of mice. Public education of risk factors, a good alternative to the aforementioned interventionist strategies, can also reduce human exposure to cercariae.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Swimmer's itch or cercarial dermatitis, is a short-term allergic immune reaction occurring in the skin of humans that have been infected by water-borne schistosomes. Symptoms, which include itchy, raised papules, commonly occur within 1–2 days of infection and do not generally last more than 2–3 weeks. However, people repeatedly exposed to cercariae develop heavier symptoms with faster onset. Cercarial dermatitis is common in freshwater, brackish and marine habitats worldwide. Incidence may be on the rise, although this may also be attributed to better monitoring. Nevertheless, the condition has been regarded as emerging infectious disease.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971563}
{"src_title": "Private label", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prevalence.", "content": "Growing market shares and increasing variety of private label consumer packaged goods is now a global phenomenon. However, private label market shares exhibit widespread diversity across international markets and product categories. Empirical research on private label products has been of substantial interest to both marketing academics and managers. Considerable work has been done on well-defined areas of private-label research such as private-label brand strategy, market performance of private-label products, competition with national brands, market structure, and buyer behavior.  A Food Marketing Institute study found that store brands account for an average of 14.5 percent of in store sales with some stores projecting they will soon reach as high as 20 percent of all sales. Store branding is a mature industry; consequently, some store brands have been able to position themselves as premium brands. Sometimes store-branded goods mimic the shape, packaging, and labeling of national brands; for example, \"Dr. Thunder\" and \"Mountain Lightning\" are the names of the Sam's Choice store brand equivalents of Dr Pepper and Mountain Dew, respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "Richelieu Foods is a private-label company producing frozen pizza, salad dressing, marinades, and condiments for other companies, including Hy-Vee, Aldi, Save-A-Lot, Sam's Club, Hannaford Brothers Co., BJ's Wholesale Club (Earth's Pride brand) and Shaw's Supermarkets (Culinary Circle brand). McBride plc is a Europe-based provider of private-label household and personal care products.  In 2007, there was a recall in the United States of more than 60 million cans of pet food sold under more than 100 brand names made by Menu Foods. The mass recall revealed that competing brands are often made by the same manufacturer. However, ingredients, designs and quality may differ substantially among the labels produced by the same manufacturer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic assessment.", "content": "Research has found that some retailers believe that, while advertising by premium national brands brings shoppers to the store, the retailer typically makes more profit by selling the shopper a store brand. The Fashion Institute of Technology has published research on store branding and store positioning. Grocery chains such as Aldi and Save-A-Lot primarily sell store brands to promote overall lower prices, compared to supermarket chains that sell several brands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private Label Manufacturers Association.", "content": "The Private Label Manufacturer's Association (PLMA) in the United States categorizes private-label manufacturers into four categories:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Private label products are those manufactured by one company for sale under another company's brand. Private-label goods are available in a wide range of industries from food to cosmetics. Private label brands managed solely by a retailer for sale in a specific chain of stores are called store brands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971564}
{"src_title": "Johan Huizinga", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Groningen as the son of Dirk Huizinga, a professor of physiology, and Jacoba Tonkens, who died two years after his birth, he started out as a student of Indo-European languages, earning his degree in 1895. He then studied comparative linguistics, gaining a good command of Sanskrit. He wrote his doctoral thesis on the role of the jester in Indian drama in 1897.  It was not until 1902 that his interest turned towards medieval and Renaissance history. He continued teaching as an Orientalist until he became a Professor of General and Dutch History at Groningen University in 1905. In 1915, he was made Professor of General History at Leiden University, a post he held until 1942. In 1916 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.  In 1942, he spoke critically of his country's German occupiers, comments that were consistent with his writings about Fascism in the 1930s. He was held in detention by the Nazis between August and October 1942. Upon his release, he was banned from returning to Leiden. He subsequently lived at the house of his colleague Rudolph Cleveringa in De Steeg in Gelderland, near Arnhem, where he died just a few weeks before Nazi rule ended. He lies buried in the graveyard of the Reformed Church at 6 Haarlemmerstraatweg in Oegstgeest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Huizinga had an aesthetic approach to history, where art and spectacle played an important part. His most famous work is \"The Autumn of the Middle Ages\" (a.k.a. \"The Waning of the Middle Ages\") (1919).  Worthy of mentioning are also \"Erasmus\" (1924) and \"Homo Ludens\" (1938). In the latter book he discussed the possibility that play is the primary formative element in human culture. Huizinga also published books on American history and Dutch history in the 17th century.  Alarmed by the rise of National Socialism in Germany, Huizinga wrote several works of cultural criticism. Many similarities can be noted between his analysis and that of contemporary critics such as Ortega y Gasset and Oswald Spengler. Huizinga argued that the spirit of technical and mechanical organisation had replaced spontaneous and organic order in cultural as well as political life.  The Huizinga Lecture (Dutch: \"Huizingalezing\") is a prestigious annual lecture in the Netherlands about a subject in the domains of cultural history or philosophy in honour of Johan Huizinga.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Huizinga's son Leonhard Huizinga became a well-known writer in the Netherlands, especially renowned for his series of tongue-in-cheek novels on the Dutch aristocratic twins (\"Adriaan en Olivier\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johan Huizinga (; 7 December 1872 – 1 February 1945) was a Dutch historian and one of the founders of modern cultural history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971565}
{"src_title": "Saccharin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "Andravida is located in the plains of northwestern Elis, at about 7 km from the Ionian Sea coast. It is 3 km south of Lechaina, 6 km north of Gastouni, 30 km northwest of Pyrgos and 55 km southwest of Patras.  The Greek National Road 9 (also E55) Patras-Pyrgos-Pylos passes east of the town. The Andravida Air Base is 2.5 km to the east of the city center.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Andravida's early history is obscure: the name is of unknown provenance—several proposals have been made, the most probable of which is that it derives from a Slavic name for \"place of the otters\"—and the site is not mentioned before the conquest by the Crusaders in 1205, even though it certainly existed before that. According to the \"Chronicle of the Morea\", Andravida, like most of the towns and regions of the northern and western Peloponnese, was captured without a fight in 1205 by the Crusader leader William of Champlitte, and it was there that the local Greek magnates and lords of Elis and of the mountains of Skorta and Mesarea paid him homage and recognized him as their lord.  Soon after the Frankish conquest, Andravida (known as \"Andreville\" in French, \"Andrevilla\" in Aragonese and \"Andravilla\" in Italian) became the residence of the princes of the newly established Principality of Achaea. As the medievalist Antoine Bon points out, Andravida's choice as the \"de facto\" capital of the principality rested on its favourable location: situated in the midst of the fertile plain of Elis, it was well provisioned and could sustain horses, it was located near the major port town of Glarentza, but not on the coast and hence not vulnerable to seaborne raids, and was equally far from the mountains of the central Peloponnese with their rebellious inhabitants. Consequently, despite its importance, it was never fortified. The town also became the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, attested since 1212, which assimilated the pre-existing Greek bishopric of Olena and retained the latter's name.  Only a few traces survive of the Frankish town, and most of the testimony about its buildings comes from literary sources: a palace for the Princes; the Church of Saint Stephen, possibly belonging to the Franciscans; the Church and hospice of Saint James, given to the Teutonic Order in 1241 and serving as the burial place for the princely House of Villehardouin; the convent of Saint Nicholas of Carmel; and the Church of Saint Sophia, serviced by the Dominicans and the largest of them all, by virtue of which it often served as the site of assemblies and parliaments of the principality's nobility. Early 19th-century travellers like François Pouqueville and Jean Alexandre Buchon reported that the three churches were still largely extant, but today only Saint Sophia survives to a substantial extent.  Like the rest of the Principality's remnants in Elis and Achaea, Andravida was conquered by the Despotate of the Morea in the late 1420s. In 1460 it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and remained under Ottoman rule, with the exception of a brief Venetian period in 1686–1715, until Greek independence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "The municipal unit Andravida is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):  The small village Agios Georgios (pop. 77) lies 6 km east of Andravida town centre, on the east side of the air base.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andravida (, ) is a town and a former municipality in Elis, in the northwest of the Peloponnese peninsula of Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Andravida-Kyllini, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 40.728 km. Its population is about 4,300. The town was the capital of the Frankish Principality of Achaea in the late Middle Ages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971566}
{"src_title": "Food additive", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Numbering.", "content": "To regulate these additives and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number called an \"E number\", which is used in Europe for all approved additives. This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended by the \"Codex Alimentarius\" Commission to internationally identify all additives, regardless of whether they are approved for use.  E numbers are all prefixed by \"E\", but countries outside Europe use only the number, whether the additive is approved in Europe or not. For example, acetic acid is written as E260 on products sold in Europe, but is simply known as additive 260 in some countries. Additive 103, alkannin, is not approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number, although it is approved for use in Australia and New Zealand. Since 1987, Australia has had an approved system of labelling for additives in packaged foods. Each food additive has to be named or numbered. The numbers are the same as in Europe, but without the prefix \"E\".  The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lists these items as \"generally recognized as safe\" (GRAS); they are listed under both their Chemical Abstracts Service number and FDA regulation under the United States Code of Federal Regulations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Categories.", "content": "Food additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap because some additives exert more than one effect. For example, salt is both a preservative as well as a flavor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Safety and regulation.", "content": "With the increasing use of processed foods since the 19th century, food additives are more widely used. Many countries regulate their use. For example, boric acid was widely used as a food preservative from the 1870s to the 1920s, but was banned after World War I due to its toxicity, as demonstrated in animal and human studies. During World War II, the urgent need for cheap, available food preservatives led to it being used again, but it was finally banned in the 1950s. Such cases led to a general mistrust of food additives, and an application of the precautionary principle led to the conclusion that only additives that are known to be safe should be used in foods. In the United States, this led to the adoption of the Delaney clause, an amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, stating that no carcinogenic substances may be used as food additives. However, after the banning of cyclamates in the United States and Britain in 1969, saccharin, the only remaining legal artificial sweetener at the time, was found to cause cancer in rats. Widespread public outcry in the United States, partly communicated to Congress by postage-paid postcards supplied in the packaging of sweetened soft drinks, led to the retention of saccharin, despite its violation of the Delaney clause. However, in 2000, saccharin was found to be carcinogenic in rats due only to their unique urine chemistry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hyperactivity.", "content": "Periodically, concerns have been expressed about a linkage between additives and hyperactivity, however \"no clear evidence of ADHD was provided\".  In 2007, Food Standards Australia New Zealand published an official shoppers' guidance with which the concerns of food additives and their labeling are mediated. In the EU it can take 10 years or more to obtain approval for a new food additive. This includes five years of safety testing, followed by two years for evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority and another three years before the additive receives an EU-wide approval for use in every country in the European Union. Apart from testing and analyzing food products during the whole production process to ensure safety and compliance with regulatory standards, Trading Standards officers (in the UK) protect the public from any illegal use or potentially dangerous mis-use of food additives by performing random testing of food products.  There has been significant controversy associated with the risks and benefits of food additives. Natural additives may be similarly harmful or be the cause of allergic reactions in certain individuals. For example, safrole was used to flavor root beer until it was shown to be carcinogenic. Due to the application of the Delaney clause, it may not be added to foods, even though it occurs naturally in sassafras and sweet basil.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Micronutrients.", "content": "A subset of food additives, micronutrients added in food fortification processes preserve nutrient value by providing vitamins and minerals to foods such as flour, cereal, margarine and milk which normally would not retain such high levels. Added ingredients, such as air, bacteria, fungi, and yeast, also contribute manufacturing and flavor qualities, and reduce spoilage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Standardization of its derived products.", "content": "ISO has published a series of standards regarding the topic and these standards are covered by ICS 67.220.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance its taste, appearance, or other qualities. Some additives have been used for centuries; for example, preserving food by pickling (with vinegar), salting, as with bacon, preserving sweets or using sulfur dioxide as with wines. With the advent of processed foods in the second half of the twentieth century, many more additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin. Food additives also include substances that may be introduced to food indirectly (called \"indirect additives\") in the manufacturing process, through packaging, or during storage or transport.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971567}
{"src_title": "Nucleolus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The nucleolus was identified by bright-field microscopy during the 1830s. Little was known about the function of the nucleolus until 1964, when a study of nucleoli by John Gurdon and Donald Brown in the African clawed frog \"Xenopus laevis\" generated increasing interest in the function and detailed structure of the nucleolus. They found that 25% of the frog eggs had no nucleolus and that such eggs were not capable of life. Half of the eggs had one nucleolus and 25% had two. They concluded that the nucleolus had a function necessary for life. In 1966 Max L. Birnstiel and collaborators showed via nucleic acid hybridization experiments that DNA within nucleoli code for ribosomal RNA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Three major components of the nucleolus are recognized: the fibrillar center (FC), the dense fibrillar component (DFC), and the granular component (GC). Transcription of the rDNA occurs in the FC. The DFC contains the protein fibrillarin, which is important in rRNA processing. The GC contains the protein nucleophosmin, (B23 in the external image) which is also involved in ribosome biogenesis.  However, it has been proposed that this particular organization is only observed in higher eukaryotes and that it evolved from a bipartite organization with the transition from anamniotes to amniotes. Reflecting the substantial increase in the DNA intergenic region, an original fibrillar component would have separated into the FC and the DFC.  Another structure identified within many nucleoli (particularly in plants) is a clear area in the center of the structure referred to as a nucleolar vacuole. Nucleoli of various plant species have been shown to have very high concentrations of iron in contrast to human and animal cell nucleoli.  The nucleolus ultrastructure can be seen through an electron microscope, while the organization and dynamics can be studied through fluorescent protein tagging and fluorescent recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). Antibodies against the PAF49 protein can also be used as a marker for the nucleolus in immunofluorescence experiments.  Although usually only one or two nucleoli can be seen, a diploid human cell has ten nucleolus organizer regions (NORs) and could have more nucleoli. Most often multiple NORs participate in each nucleolus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function and ribosome assembly.", "content": "In ribosome biogenesis, two of the three eukaryotic RNA polymerases (pol I and III) are required, and these function in a coordinated manner. In an initial stage, the rRNA genes are transcribed as a single unit within the nucleolus by RNA polymerase I. In order for this transcription to occur, several pol I-associated factors and DNA-specific trans-acting factors are required. In yeast, the most important are: UAF (upstream activating factor), TBP (TATA-box binding protein), and core binding factor (CBF)) which bind promoter elements and form the preinitiation complex (PIC), which is in turn recognized by RNA pol. In humans, a similar PIC is assembled with SL1, the promoter selectivity factor (composed of TBP and TBP-associated factors, or TAFs), transcription initiation factors, and UBF (upstream binding factor). RNA polymerase I transcribes most rRNA transcripts 28S, 18S, and 5.8S) but the 5S rRNA subunit (component of the 60S ribosomal subunit) is transcribed by RNA polymerase III.  Transcription of rRNA yields a long precursor molecule (45S pre-rRNA) which still contains the ITS and ETS. Further processing is needed to generate the 18S RNA, 5.8S and 28S RNA molecules. In eukaryotes, the RNA-modifying enzymes are brought to their respective recognition sites by interaction with guide RNAs, which bind these specific sequences. These guide RNAs belong to the class of small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) which are complexed with proteins and exist as small-nucleolar-ribonucleoproteins (snoRNPs). Once the rRNA subunits are processed, they are ready to be assembled into larger ribosomal subunits. However, an additional rRNA molecule, the 5S rRNA, is also necessary. In yeast, the 5S rDNA sequence is localized in the intergenic spacer and is transcribed in the nucleolus by RNA pol.  In higher eukaryotes and plants, the situation is more complex, for the 5S DNA sequence lies outside the Nucleolus Organiser Region (NOR) and is transcribed by RNA pol III in the nucleoplasm, after which it finds its way into the nucleolus to participate in the ribosome assembly. This assembly not only involves the rRNA, but ribosomal proteins as well. The genes encoding these r-proteins are transcribed by pol II in the nucleoplasm by a \"conventional\" pathway of protein synthesis (transcription, pre-mRNA processing, nuclear export of mature mRNA and translation on cytoplasmic ribosomes). The mature r-proteins are then imported into the nucleus and finally the nucleolus. Association and maturation of rRNA and r-proteins result in the formation of the 40S (small) and 60S (large) subunits of the complete ribosome. These are exported through the nuclear pore complexes to the cytoplasm, where they remain free or become associated with the endoplasmic reticulum, forming rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).  In human endometrial cells, a network of nucleolar channels is sometimes formed. The origin and function of this network has not yet been clearly identified.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequestration of proteins.", "content": "In addition to its role in ribosomal biogenesis, the nucleolus is known to capture and immobilize proteins, a process known as nucleolar detention. Proteins that are detained in the nucleolus are unable to diffuse and to interact with their binding partners. Targets of this post-translational regulatory mechanism include VHL, PML, MDM2, POLD1, RelA, HAND1 and hTERT, among many others. It is now known that long noncoding RNAs originating from intergenic regions of the nucleolus are responsible for this phenomenon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The nucleolus (, plural: nucleoli ) is the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. It is best known as the site of ribosome biogenesis. Nucleoli also participate in the formation of signal recognition particles and play a role in the cell's response to stress. Nucleoli are made of proteins, DNA and RNA and form around specific chromosomal regions called nucleolar organizing regions. Malfunction of nucleoli can be the cause of several human conditions called \"nucleolopathies\" and the nucleolus is being investigated as a target for cancer chemotherapy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971568}
{"src_title": "Ferrite (magnet)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition, structure, and properties.", "content": "Ferrites are usually ferrimagnetic ceramic compounds derived from iron oxides. Magnetite (FeO) is a famous example. Like most of the other ceramics, ferrites are hard, brittle, and poor conductors of electricity.  Many ferrites adopt the spinel structure with the formula ABO, where A and B represent various metal cations, usually including iron (Fe). Spinel ferrites usually adopt a crystal motif consisting of cubic close-packed (fcc) oxides (O) with A cations occupying one eighth of the tetrahedral holes and B cations occupying half of the octahedral holes, i.e.,.  Ferrite crystals do not adopt the ordinary spinel structure, but rather the inverse spinel structure: One eighth of the tetrahedral holes are occupied by B cations, one fourth of the octahedral sites are occupied by A cations. and the other one fourth by B cation. It is also possible to have mixed structure spinel ferrites with formula [MFe][MFe]O where δ is the degree of inversion.  The magnetic material known as \"ZnFe\" has the formula ZnFeO, with Fe occupying the octahedral sites and Zn occupy the tetrahedral sites, it is an example of normal structure spinel ferrite.  Some ferrites adopt hexagonal crystal structure, like barium and strontium ferrites BaFeO (BaO:6FeO) and SrFeO (SrO:6FeO).  In terms of their magnetic properties, the different ferrites are often classified as \"soft\", \"semi-hard\" or \"hard\", which refers to their low or high magnetic coercivity, as follows.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soft ferrites.", "content": "Ferrites that are used in transformer or electromagnetic cores contain nickel, zinc, and/or manganese compounds. They have a low coercivity and are called soft ferrites. The low coercivity means the material's magnetization can easily reverse direction without dissipating much energy (hysteresis losses), while the material's high resistivity prevents eddy currents in the core, another source of energy loss. Because of their comparatively low losses at high frequencies, they are extensively used in the cores of RF transformers and inductors in applications such as switched-mode power supplies and loopstick antennas used in AM radios.  The most common soft ferrites are:  For applications below 5 MHz, MnZn ferrites are used; above that, NiZn is the usual choice. The exception is with common mode inductors, where the threshold of choice is at 70 MHz.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hard ferrites.", "content": "In contrast, permanent ferrite magnets are made of hard ferrites, which have a high coercivity and high remanence after magnetization. Iron oxide and barium or strontium carbonate are used in manufacturing of hard ferrite magnets. The high coercivity means the materials are very resistant to becoming demagnetized, an essential characteristic for a permanent magnet. They also have high magnetic permeability. These so-called \"ceramic magnets\" are cheap, and are widely used in household products such as refrigerator magnets. The maximum magnetic field \"B\" is about 0.35 tesla and the magnetic field strength \"H\" is about 30 to 160 kiloampere turns per meter (400 to 2000 oersteds). The density of ferrite magnets is about 5 g/cm.  The most common hard ferrites are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Ferrites are produced by heating a mixture of the oxides of the constituent metals at high temperatures, as shown in this idealized equation: In some cases, the mixture of finely-powdered precursors is pressed into a mold. For barium and strontium ferrites, these metals typically supplied as their carbonates, BaCO or SrCO. During the heating process, these carbonates undergo calcination: After this step, the two oxides combine to give the ferrite. The resulting mixture of oxides undergoes sintering.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Processing.", "content": "Having obtained the ferrite, the cooled product is milled to particles smaller than 2 μm, sufficiently small that each particle consists of a single magnetic domain. Next the powder is pressed into a shape, dried, and re-sintered. The shaping may be performed in an external magnetic field, in order to achieve a preferred orientation of the particles (anisotropy).  Small and geometrically easy shapes may be produced with dry pressing. However, in such a process small particles may agglomerate and lead to poorer magnetic properties compared to the wet pressing process. Direct calcination and sintering without re-milling is possible as well but leads to poor magnetic properties.  Electromagnets are pre-sintered as well (pre-reaction), milled and pressed. However, the sintering takes place in a specific atmosphere, for instance one with an oxygen shortage. The chemical composition and especially the structure vary strongly between the precursor and the sintered product.  To allow efficient stacking of product in the furnace during sintering and prevent parts sticking together, many manufacturers separate ware using ceramic powder separator sheets. These sheets are available in various materials such as alumina, zirconia and magnesia. They are also available in fine, medium and coarse particle sizes. By matching the material and particle size to the ware being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced while maximizing furnace loading.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Ferrite cores are used in electronic inductors, transformers, and electromagnets where the high electrical resistance of the ferrite leads to very low eddy current losses. They are commonly seen as a lump in a computer cable, called a ferrite bead, which helps to prevent high frequency electrical noise (radio frequency interference) from exiting or entering the equipment.  Early computer memories stored data in the residual magnetic fields of hard ferrite cores, which were assembled into arrays of \"core memory\". Ferrite powders are used in the coatings of magnetic recording tapes.  Ferrite particles are also used as a component of radar-absorbing materials or coatings used in stealth aircraft and in the absorption tiles lining the rooms used for electromagnetic compatibility measurements. Most common audio magnets, including those used in loudspeakers and electromagnetic instrument pickups, are ferrite magnets. Except for certain \"vintage\" products, ferrite magnets have largely displaced the more expensive Alnico magnets in these applications. In particular, for hard hexaferrites today the most common uses are still as permanent magnets in refrigerator seal gaskets, microphones and loud speakers, small motors for cordless appliances and in automobile applications.  Ferrite nanoparticles exhibit superparamagnetic properties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Yogoro Kato and Takeshi Takei of the Tokyo Institute of Technology synthesized the first ferrite compounds in 1930. This led to the founding of TDK Corporation in 1935, to manufacture the material.  Barium hexaferrite (BaO•6FeO) was discovered in 1950 at the Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium (\"Philips Physics Laboratory\"). The discovery was somewhat accidental—due to a mistake by an assistant who was supposed to be preparing a sample of hexagonal lanthanum ferrite for a team investigating its use as a semiconductor material. On discovering that it was actually a magnetic material, and confirming its structure by X-ray crystallography, they passed it on to the magnetic research group. Barium hexaferrite has both high coercivity (170 kA/m) and low raw material costs. It was developed as a product by Philips Industries (Netherlands) and from 1952 was marketed under the trade name \"Ferroxdure\". The low price and good performance led to a rapid increase in the use of permanent magnets.  In the 1960s Philips developed strontium hexaferrite (SrO•6FeO), with better properties than barium hexaferrite. Barium and strontium hexaferrite dominate the market due to their low costs. However other materials have been found with improved properties. BaO•2(FeO)•8(FeO) came in 1980. and BaZnFeO came in 1991.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A ferrite is a ceramic material made by mixing and firing large proportions of iron(III) oxide (FeO, rust) blended with small proportions of one or more additional metallic elements, such as barium, manganese, nickel, and zinc. They are electrically nonconductive, meaning that they are insulators, and ferrimagnetic, meaning they can easily be magnetized or attracted to a magnet. Ferrites can be divided into two families based on their resistance to being demagnetized (magnetic coercivity).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971569}
{"src_title": "Pistol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "Sometimes in usage, the term \"pistol\" refers to a handgun having a single fixed chamber integral with its barrel, making pistols distinct from the other main type of handgun, the revolver, which has multiple chambers within a rotating cylinder that is separately aligned with a single barrel; and the derringer, which is a compact weapon often with multiple barrels.  UK/Commonwealth usage does not always make this distinction, particularly when the terms are used by the military. For example, the official designation of the Webley Mk VI revolver was \"Pistol, Revolver, Webley, No. 1 Mk VI\". In contrast to Merriam-Webster, the Oxford English Dictionary (a descriptive dictionary) describes \"pistol\" as a small firearm to be used in one hand and the usage of \"revolver\" as being a type of handgun and gives its original form as \"revolving pistol\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History and etymology.", "content": "The pistol originates in the 16th century, when early handguns were produced in Europe. The English word was introduced in ca. 1570 from the Middle French \"pistolet\" (ca. 1550).  The etymology of the French word \"pistolet\" is disputed. It may be from a Czech word for early hand cannons, \"píšťala\" (\"whistle\" or \"pipe\"), or alternatively from Italian \"pistolese\", after Pistoia, a city renowned for Renaissance-era gunsmithing, where hand-held guns (designed to be fired from horseback) were first produced in the 1540s.  The first suggestion derives the word from Czech \"píšťala\", a type of hand-cannon used in the Hussite Wars during the 1420s. The Czech word was adopted in German as \"pitschale\", \"pitschole\", \"petsole\", and variants.  The second suggestion is less likely; the use of the word as a designation of a gun is not documented before 1605 in Italy, long after it was used in French and German. The Czech word is well documented since the Hussite wars in 1420s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Action.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Single shot.", "content": "Single shot handguns were mainly seen during the era of flintlock and musket weaponry where the pistol was loaded with a lead ball and fired by a flint striker, and then later a percussion cap. However, as technology improved, so did the single shot pistol. New operating mechanisms were created, and due to this, they are still made today. They are the oldest type of pistol, and are often used to hunt wild game.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Multi-barreled.", "content": "Multi-barreled pistols, such as the Pepperbox, were common during the same time as single shot pistols. As designers looked for ways to increase fire rates, multiple barrels were added to all guns including pistols. One example of a multi-barreled pistol is the Duck's foot pistol, which generally had either four or eight barrels, although some 20th-century models had three barrels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Harmonica pistol.", "content": "Around 1850, pistols such as the Jarre harmonica gun were produced that had a sliding magazine. The sliding magazine contained pinfire cartridges or speedloaders. The magazine needed to be moved manually in many designs, hence distinguishing them from semi-automatic pistols.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Revolver.", "content": "With the development of the revolver, short for revolving pistol, in the 19th century, gunsmiths had finally achieved the goal of a practical capability for delivering multiple loads to one handgun barrel in quick succession. Revolvers feed ammunition via the rotation of a cartridge-filled cylinder, in which each cartridge is contained in its own ignition chamber, and is sequentially brought into alignment with the weapon's barrel by an indexing mechanism linked to the weapon's trigger (double-action) or its hammer (single-action). These nominally cylindrical chambers, usually numbering between five and eight depending on the size of the revolver and the size of the cartridge being fired, are bored through the cylinder so that their axes are parallel to the cylinder's axis of rotation; thus, as the cylinder rotates, the chambers revolve about the cylinder's axis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lever-action.", "content": "Lever action pistols are very rare. The most notable of which is the Volcanic pistol.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-automatic.", "content": "The semi-automatic pistol was the next step in the development of the pistol. By avoiding multiple chambers—which need to be individually reloaded—semi-automatic pistols delivered faster rates of fire and required only a few seconds to reload (depending on the skill of the shooter). In blowback-type semi-automatics, the recoil force is used to push the slide back and eject the shell (if any) so that the magazine spring can push another round up; then as the slide returns, it chambers the round. An example of a modern blow back action semi-automatic pistol is the Walther PPK. Blowback pistols are some of the more simply designed handguns. Many semi-automatic pistols today operate using short-recoil. This design is often coupled with the Browning type tilting barrel.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A pistol is a type of handgun, which is a short-barrelled projectile weapon inclusive of the revolver and the derringer. The English word was introduced in ca. 1570—when early handguns were produced in Europe—and derives from the Middle French \"pistolet\" (ca. 1550). The most common type of pistol in modern times is the semi-automatic pistol, while the older single-shot pistols are now far less common and used primarily for hunting, and the fully automatic machine pistols are rare due to strict laws and regulations governing their manufacture and sale.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971570}
{"src_title": "Pablo Neruda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Pablo Neruda was born Ricardo Eliécer Neftalí Reyes Basoalto on 12 July 1904, in Parral, Chile, a city in Linares Province, now part of the greater Maule Region, some 350 km south of Santiago, to José del Carmen Reyes Morales, a railway employee, and Rosa Neftalí Basoalto Opazo, a schoolteacher who died two months after he was born. Soon after her death, Reyes moved to Temuco, where he married a woman, Trinidad Candia Malverde, with whom he had another child born nine years earlier, a boy named Rodolfo de la Rosa. Neruda grew up in Temuco with Rodolfo and a half-sister, Laura Herminia \"Laurita\", from one of his father's extramarital affairs (her mother was Aurelia Tolrà, a Catalan woman). He composed his first poems in the winter of 1914. Neruda was an atheist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "Neruda's father opposed his son's interest in writing and literature, but he received encouragement from others, including the future Nobel Prize winner Gabriela Mistral, who headed the local school. On 18 July 1917, at the age of thirteen, he published his first work, an essay titled \"Entusiasmo y perseverancia\" (\"Enthusiasm and Perseverance\") in the local daily newspaper \"La Mañana\", and signed it Neftalí Reyes. From 1918 to mid-1920, he published numerous poems, such as \"Mis ojos\" (\"My eyes\"), and essays in local magazines as Neftalí Reyes. In 1919, he participated in the literary contest Juegos Florales del Maule and won third place for his poem \"Comunión ideal\" or \"Nocturno ideal\". By mid-1920, when he adopted the pseudonym Pablo Neruda, he was a published author of poems, prose, and journalism. He is thought to have derived his pen name from the Czech poet Jan Neruda. The young poet's intention in publishing under a pseudonym was to avoid his father's disapproval of his poems.  In 1921, at the age of 16, Neruda moved to Santiago to study French at the Universidad de Chile, with the intention of becoming a teacher. However, he was soon devoting all his time to writing poems and with the help of well-known writer Eduardo Barrios, he managed to meet and impress Don Carlos George Nascimento, the most important publisher in Chile at the time. In 1923, his first volume of verse, \"Crepusculario\" (\"Book of Twilights\"), was published by Editorial Nascimento, followed the next year by \"Veinte poemas de amor y una canción desesperada\" (\"Twenty Love Poems and A Desperate Song\"), a collection of love poems that was controversial for its eroticism, especially considering its author's young age. Both works were critically acclaimed and have been translated into many languages. Over the decades, \"Veinte poemas\" sold millions of copies and became Neruda's best-known work, though a second edition did not appear until 1932. Almost one hundred years later, Veinte Poemas still retains its place as the best-selling poetry book in the Spanish language. By the age of 20, Neruda had established an international reputation as a poet, but faced poverty.  In 1926, he published the collection \"Tentativa del hombre infinito\" (\"The Attempt of the Infinite Man\") and the novel \"El habitante y su esperanza\" (\"The Inhabitant and His Hope\"). In 1927, out of financial desperation, he took an honorary consulship in Rangoon, the capital of the British colony of Burma, then administered from New Delhi as a province of British India. Rangoon was a place he had never heard of before. Later, mired in isolation and loneliness, he worked in Colombo (Ceylon), Batavia (Java), and Singapore. In Batavia the following year he met and married (6 December 1930) his first wife, a Dutch bank employee named Marijke Antonieta Hagenaar Vogelzang, known as Maruca.<ref", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ricardo Eliécer Neftalí Reyes Basoalto (12 July 1904 – 23 September 1973), better known by his pen name and, later, legal name Pablo Neruda (; ), was a Chilean poet-diplomat and politician who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1971. Neruda became known as a poet when he was 13 years old, and wrote in a variety of styles, including surrealist poems, historical epics, overtly political manifestos, a prose autobiography, and passionate love poems such as the ones in his collection \"Twenty Love Poems and a Song of Despair\" (1924).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971571}
{"src_title": "Samo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Reign.", "content": "The dates for Samo's rule are based on Fredegar, who says that he went to the Slavs in the fortieth year of Chlothar II (i.e., 623–24) and reigned for thirty five years. The interpretation that places the start of Samo's reign in the year of Fredegar's arrival has been questioned on the basis that the Wends would have most likely rebelled after the defeat of the Avar khagan at the First Siege of Constantinople in 626. The Avars first arrived in the Pannonian Basin and subdued the local Slavs in the 560s. Samo may have been one of the merchants who supplied arms to the Slavs for their frequent revolts. Whether he became king during a revolt of 623–24 or during one that inevitably followed the Avar defeat in 626, he definitely took advantage of the latter to solidify his position. A string of victories over the Avars proved his \"utilitas\" (usefulness) to his subjects and secured his election as \"rex\" (king). Samo went on to secure his throne by marriage into the major Wendish families, wedding at least twelve women and fathering twenty-two sons and fifteen daughters.  The most well-documented event of Samo's career was his victory over the Frankish royal army under Dagobert I in 631 or 632. Provoked to action by a \"violent quarrel in the Pannonian kingdom of the Avars or Huns\" during his ninth year (631–32), Dagobert led three armies against the Wends, the largest being his own Austrasian army. The Franks were routed near Wogastisburg (Latin \"castrum Vogastisburg\"), an unidentified location meaning \"fortress/castle of Vogast.\" The majority of the besieging armies were slaughtered, while the rest of the troops fled, leaving weapons and other equipment lying on the ground. In the aftermath of the Wendish victory, Samo invaded Frankish Thuringia several times and undertook looting raids there. The Sorbian prince Dervan abandoned the Franks and \"placed himself and his people under Samo's realm\".  In 641, the rebellious duke of Thuringia, Radulf, sought an alliance with Samo against his sovereign, Sigebert III. Samo also maintained long-distance trade relationships. On his death, however, his title was not inherited by his sons. Ultimately, Samo can be credited with forging a Wendish identity by speaking on behalf of the community that recognised his authority.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sources.", "content": "The main source of written information on Samo and his empire is the \"Fredegarii Chronicon\", a Frankish chronicle written in the mid-7th century (c. 660). Though theories of multiple authorship once abounded, the notion of a single Fredegar is now common scholarly fare. The last or only Fredegar was the author of a brief account of the Wends including the best, and only contemporary, information on Samo. According to Fredegar, \"Samo [was] a Frank by birth [or nation] from the \"pago Senonago\"\", which could be present-day Soignies in Belgium or present-day Sens in France. Although he was of Frankish origin, Samo demanded that an ambassador (Sicharius) of Dagobert I (King of the Franks) put on Slavic clothes before entering his castle.  All other sources for Samo are derived from Fredegar and are much more recent. The \"Gesta Dagoberti I regis Francorum\" (\"Deeds of King Dagobert I of the Franks\") was written in the first third of the 9th century. The \"Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum\" (\"Conversion of the Bavarians and Karantanians\") from Salzburg (the Bavarian ecclesiastic centre), written in 871–72, is a very tendentious source, as its name suggests. According mainly to the \"Conversio\", Samo was a Karantanian merchant.  The sources Fredegar used to compile his Wendish account are unknown. A few scholars have attacked the entire account as fictitious, but Fredegar displays a critical attitude and a knowledge of detail that suggest otherwise. It is possible that he had an eyewitness in the person of Sicharius, the ambassador of Dagobert I to the Slavs. According to Fredegar, the \"Wends\" had long been subjects and \"befulci\" of the Avars. \"Befulci\" is a term, cognate with the word \"fulcfree\" found in the Edict of Rothari, signifying \"entrusted [to guard]\", from the Old German root \"felhan, falh, fulgum\" and Middle German \"bevelhen\". Fredegar appears to have envisaged the Wends as a military unit of the Avar host. He probably based his account on \"native\" Wendish accounts. Fredegar records the story of the \"origo gentis\" (origin of the people) of the Wends. The Wends were Slavs, but Samo was the only king of the Wends, at least according to Fredegar.  It has also been suggested that Fredegar's sources may have been the reports of Christian missionaries, especially disciples of Columbanus and the Abbey of Luxeuil. If this is correct, it may explain why he is remarkably free of typical stereotypes of heathen Slavs, and why he was familiar with the Wends as a specifically pagan nation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular literature.", "content": "Few written works have their storyline taking place during Samo's Empire. One of them is the book \"Fire Worshipers\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Samo founded the first recorded political union of Slavic tribes, known as Samo's Empire (\"realm\", \"kingdom\", or \"tribal union\"), stretching from Silesia to present-day Slovenia, ruling from 623 until his death in 658. According to Fredegarius, the only contemporary source, Samo was a Frankish merchant who unified several Slavic tribes against robber raids and violence by nearby settled Avars, showing such bravery and command skills in battle that he was elected as the \"Slavic king\" (). In 631, Samo successfully defended his realm against the Frankish Kingdom in the three-day Battle of Wogastisburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971572}
{"src_title": "Lavandula angustifolia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Growth.", "content": "It is a strongly aromatic shrub growing as high as tall. The leaves are evergreen, long, and broad. The flowers are pinkish-purple (lavender-coloured), produced on spikes long at the top of slender, leafless stems long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The species name \"angustifolia\" is Latin for \"narrow leaf\". Previously, it was known as \"Lavandula officinalis\", referring to its medicinal properties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "English lavender is commonly grown as an ornamental plant. It is popular for its colourful flowers, its fragrance, and its ability to survive with low water consumption. It does not grow well in continuously damp soil and may benefit from increased drainage provided by inorganic mulches such as gravel. It does best in Mediterranean climates similar to its native habitat, characterised by wet winters and dry summers. It is fairly tolerant of low temperatures and is generally considered hardy to USDA zone 5. It tolerates acid soils but favours neutral to alkaline soils, and in some conditions it may be short-lived.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "The following cultivars of \"L. angustifolia\" and its hybrids have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dwarf cultivars.", "content": "Compacta, Folgate, Dwarf Blue, Dwarf White, Hidcote Pink, Hidcote Superior, Munstead, Nana Atropurpurea, Nana Rosea, Sarah, Summerland Supreme, Lady Lavender", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-dwarf cultivars.", "content": "Bowles Early, Hidcote Variety, Loddon Blue, Martha Roderick, Jean Davis, Twickle Purple, Pink Perfume", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Giant cultivars.", "content": "Alba, Blackhouse Purple, Biostos, Bridestowe, Graves, Gray Lady, Gwendolyn Anley, Hidcote Giant, Irene Doyle, Mailette, Middachten", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The flowers and leaves are used as a herbal medicine, either in the form of lavender oil or as a herbal tea. The flowers are also used as a culinary herb, most often as part of the North American version of the French herb blend called \"herbes de Provence\".  Lavender essential oil, when diluted with a carrier oil, is commonly used as a relaxant with massage therapy. Products for home use, such as lotions, eye pillows (including lavender flowers or the essential oil itself) and bath oils, etc., are also used. Both the petals and the oil are the most popular ingredients in handmade soap.  Dried lavender flowers and lavender essential oil are also used as a prevention against clothing moths, which do not like their scent.  \"Lavandula angustifolia\" is included in the Tasmanian Fire Service's list of low flammability plants, indicating that it is suitable for growing within a building protection zone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hybrids.", "content": "\"Lavandula\" hybrids are referred to as lavandins. Hybrids between \"L. angustifolia\" and \"L. latifolia\" (spike lavender) are called \"Lavandula x intermedia\". They bloom later than the ordinary English lavenders.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lavandula angustifolia (lavender most commonly true lavender or English lavender, though not native to England; also garden lavender, common lavender, narrow-leaved lavender), formerly \"L. officinalis\", is a flowering plant in the family Lamiaceae, native to the Mediterranean (Spain, France, Italy, Croatia etc.).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971573}
{"src_title": "East Slavs", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "Researchers know relatively little about the Eastern Slavs prior to approximately 859 AD, when the first events recorded in the \"Primary Chronicle\" occurred. The Eastern Slavs of these early times apparently lacked a written language. The few known facts come from archaeological digs, foreign travellers' accounts of the Rus' land, and linguistic comparative analyses of Slavic languages.  Very few native Rus' documents dating before the 11th century (none before the 10th century) have survived. The earliest major manuscript with information on Rus' history, the \"Primary Chronicle\", dates from the late 11th and early 12th centuries. It lists twelve Slavic tribal unions which, by the 10th century, had settled in the later territory of the Kievan Rus between the Western Bug, the Dniepr and the Black Sea: the \"Polans\", \"Drevlyans\", \"Dregovichs\", \"Radimichs\", \"Vyatichs\", \"Krivichs\", \"Slovens\", \"Dulebes\" (later known as Volhynians and Buzhans), \"White Croats\", \"Severians\", \"Ulichs\", and \"Tivertsi\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Migration.", "content": "There is no consensus among scholars as to the urheimat of the Slavs. In the first millennium AD, Slavic settlers are likely to have been in contact with other ethnic groups who moved across the East European Plain during the Migration Period. Between the first and ninth centuries, the Sarmatians, Huns, Alans, Avars, Bulgars, and Magyars passed through the Pontic steppe in their westward migrations. Although some of them could have subjugated the region's Slavs, these foreign tribes left little trace in the Slavic lands. The Early Middle Ages also saw Slavic expansion as an agriculturist and beekeeper, hunter, fisher, herder, and trapper people. By the 8th century, the Slavs were the dominant ethnic group on the East European Plain.  By 600 AD, the Slavs had split linguistically into southern, western, and eastern branches. The East Slavs practiced \"slash-and-burn\" agricultural methods which took advantage of the extensive forests in which they settled. This method of agriculture involved clearing tracts of forest with fire, cultivating it and then moving on after a few years. Slash and burn agriculture requires frequent movement, because soil cultivated in this manner only yields good harvests for a few years before exhausting itself, and the reliance on slash and burn agriculture by the East Slavs explains their rapid spread through eastern Europe. The East Slavs flooded Eastern Europe in two streams. One group of tribes settled along the Dnieper river in what is now Ukraine and Belarus to the North; they then spread northward to the northern Volga valley, east of modern-day Moscow and westward to the basins of the northern Dniester and the Southern Buh rivers in present-day Ukraine and southern Ukraine.  Another group of East Slavs moved to the northeast, where they encountered the Varangians of the Rus' Khaganate and established an important regional centre of Novgorod. The same Slavic population also settled the present-day Tver Oblast and the region of Beloozero. Having reached the lands of the Merya near Rostov, they linked up with the Dnieper group of Slavic migrants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pre-Kievan period.", "content": "In the eighth and ninth centuries, the south branches of East Slavic tribes had to pay tribute to the Khazars, a Turkic-speaking people who adopted Judaism in the late eighth or ninth century and lived in the southern Volga and Caucasus regions. Roughly in the same period, the Ilmen Slavs and Krivichs were dominated by the Varangians of the Rus' Khaganate, who controlled the trade route between the Baltic Sea and the Byzantine Empire.  The earliest tribal centres of the East Slavs included Novgorod, Izborsk, Polotsk, Gnezdovo, and Kiev. Archaeology indicates that they appeared at the turn of the tenth century, soon after the Slavs and Finns of Novgorod had rebelled against the Norse and forced them to withdraw to Scandinavia. The reign of Oleg of Novgorod in the early tenth century witnessed the return of the Varangians to Novgorod and relocation of their capital to Kiev on the Dnieper. From this base, the mixed Varangian-Slavic population (known as the Rus) launched several expeditions against Constantinople.  At first the ruling elite was primarily Norse, but it was rapidly Slavicized by the mid-century. Sviatoslav I of Kiev (who reigned in the 960s) was the first Rus ruler with a Slavonic name.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Kievan period.", "content": "The disintegration, or parcelling of the polity of Kievan Rus' in the 11th century resulted in considerable population shifts and a political, social, and economic regrouping. The resultant effect of these forces coalescing was the marked emergence of new peoples. While these processes began long before the fall of Kiev, its fall expedited these gradual developments into a significant linguistic and ethnic differentiation among the Rus' people into Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Russians. All of this was emphasized by the subsequent polities these groups migrated into: southwestern and western Rus', where the Ruthenian and later Ukrainian and Belarusian identities developed, was subject to Lithuanian and later Polish influence; whereas the Russian ethnic identity developed in the Muscovite northeast and the Novgorodian north.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern East Slavs.", "content": "Modern East Slavic peoples and ethnic/subethnic groups include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The East Slavs are Slavic peoples speaking the East Slavic languages. Formerly the main population of the loose medieval Kievan Rus federation state, by the seventeenth century they evolved into the Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn and Ukrainian people.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971574}
{"src_title": "Merchandising", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Promotional merchandising.", "content": "The annual cycle of merchandising differs between countries and even within them, particularly relating to cultural customs like holidays, and seasonal issues like climate and local sporting and recreation. Events such as Chinese festivals and Japanese festivals are incorporated in an annual cycle of shop decorations and merchandise promotion.  In the United States, the basic retail cycle begins in early January with merchandise for Valentine's Day, which is not until mid-February. Presidents' Day sales are held shortly thereafter. Following this, Easter is the major holiday, while springtime clothing and garden-related merchandise is already arriving at stores, often as early as mid-winter (toward the beginning of this section, St. Patrick's Day merchandise, including green items and products pertaining to Irish culture, is also promoted). Mother's Day and Father's Day are next, with graduation gifts (typically small consumer electronics like digital cameras) often being marketed as \"dads and grads\" in June (though most college semesters end in May; the grads portion usually refers to high school graduation, which ends one to two weeks after Father's Day in many U.S. states). Summer merchandise is next, including patriotic-themed products with the American flag, out by Memorial Day in preparation for Independence Day (with Flag Day in between). By July, back-to-school is on the shelves and autumn merchandise is already arriving, and at some arts and crafts stores, Christmas decorations. (Often, a Christmas in July celebration is held around this time.) The back-to-school market is promoted heavily in August, when there are no holidays to promote. By September, particularly after Labor Day, summer merchandise is on final closeout and overstock of school supplies is marked-down some as well, and Halloween (and often even more of the Christmas) merchandise is appearing. As the Halloween decorations and costumes dwindle in October, Christmas is already being pushed on consumers, and by the day after Halloween retailers are going full-force with advertising, even though the \"official\" season doesn't start until the day after Thanksgiving. Christmas clearance sales begin even before Christmas at many retailers, though others begin on the day after Christmas and continue on at least until New Year's Day but sometimes as far out as February.  Merchandising also varies within retail chains, where stores in places like Buffalo might carry snow blowers, while stores in Florida and southern California might instead carry beach clothing and barbecue grills all year. Coastal-area stores might carry water skiing equipment, while ones near mountain ranges would likely have snow skiing and snowboarding gear if there are ski areas nearby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trading industry.", "content": "In Eastern Europe, particularly in Russian, the term \"merchandising\" is commonly used within the trading industry and denotes all marketing and sales stimulation activities around PoS (point of sale): design, creation, promotion, care, and training of the sales staff. A merchandiser is someone who is continuously involved in business promotion by buying and selling of goods. In Asian countries, such as India, this term is more synonymous with activities right from sampling and idea conception to dispatching of the shipment. It is a job description that involves leading and working with different departments within the organization, suppliers and buyers to deal with timely deadlines and accepted quality levels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retail supply chain.", "content": "In the supply chain, merchandising is the practice of making products in retail outlets available to consumers, primarily by stocking shelves and displays. While this used to be done exclusively by the stores' employees, many retailers have found substantial savings in requiring it to be done by the manufacturer, vendor, or wholesaler that provides the products to the retail store. In the United Kingdom, there are a number of organizations that supply merchandising services to support retail outlets with general stock replenishment and merchandising support in new stores. By doing this, retail stores have been able to substantially reduce the number of employees needed to run the store.  While stocking shelves and building displays is often done when the product is delivered, it is increasingly a separate activity from delivering the product. In grocery stores, for example, almost all products delivered directly to the store from a manufacturer or wholesaler will be stocked by the manufacturer's/wholesaler's employee who is a full-time merchandiser. Product categories where this is common are Beverage (all types, alcoholic and non-alcoholic), packaged baked goods (bread and pastries), magazines and books, and health and beauty products. For major food manufacturers in the beverage and baked goods industries, their merchandisers are often the single largest employee group within the company. For nationwide branded goods manufacturers such as The Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo, their respective merchandiser work forces number in the thousands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Licensing.", "content": "In marketing, one of the definitions of merchandising is the practice in which the brand or image from one product or service is used to sell another. Trademarked brand names, logos, or character images are licensed to manufacturers of products such as toys or clothing, which then make items in or emblazoned with the image of the license, hoping they'll sell better than the same item with no such image. For the owners of the IP (intellectual property) in question, merchandising is a very popular source of revenue, due to the low cost of letting a third party manufacture the merchandise, while the IP owners collect the merchandising fees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Merchandising for children is most prominently seen in connection with films and videogames, usually those in current release and with television shows oriented towards children.  Merchandising, especially in connection with child-oriented films and TV shows, often consists of toys made in the likeness of the show's characters (action figures) or items which they use. However, sometimes it can be the other way around, with the show written to include the toys, as advertising for the merchandise. The first major example of this was the TV show \"G.I. JOE A Real American Hero.,\" produced by Hasbro in the early 1980s, but this practice has been common in children's broadcasting ever since.  Sometimes merchandising from a television show can grow far beyond the original show, even lasting decades after the show has largely disappeared from popularity. In other cases, large amounts of merchandise can be generated from a pitifully small amount of source material (Mashimaro).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adult.", "content": "The most common adult-oriented merchandising is that related to professional sports teams (and their players).  A smaller niche in merchandising is the marketing of more adult-oriented products in connection with similarly adult-oriented films and TV shows. This is common especially with the science fiction and horror genres. (Example: McFarlane Toys) Occasionally, shows which were intended more for children find a following among adults, and you can see a bit of a crossover, with products from that show oriented towards both adults and children. (\"Gundam\" model kits) An early example of this phenomenon was the cartoon character Little Lulu, who became licensed to products for adults, such as Kleenex facial tissue.  Sometimes a brand of non-media products can achieve enough recognition and respect that simply putting its name or images on a completely unrelated item can sell that item. (An example would be Harley-Davidson branded clothing.)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the broadest sense, merchandising is any practice which contributes to the sale of products to a retail consumer. At a retail in-store level, merchandising refers to the variety of products available for sale and the display of those products in such a way that it stimulates interest and entices customers to make a purchase.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971575}
{"src_title": "Ferdinand Tönnies", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Ferdinand Tönnies was born 26 July 1855 on the Haubuarg 'De Reap\", Oldenswort on the Eiderstedt Peninsula into a wealthy farmer's family in North Frisia, Schleswig, then under Danish rule. He was the third child of church chief and farmer August Ferdinand Tönnies (1822–1883) and his wife Ida Frederica (born Mau, 1826–1915) who came from a theological family from East Holstein. The two had seven children, four sons and three daughters. On the day he was born, Ferdinand Tönnies received the baptismal name of Ferdinand Julius.  Tönnies was the only sociologist of his generation who came from the countryside. At the age of 16, he graduated from high school in Husum and later studied at the universities of Jena, Bonn, Leipzig, Berlin, and Tübingen. At age 22, he received a doctorate in philology at the University of Tübingen in 1877 (with a Latin thesis on the ancient Siwa Oasis). At the age of 25, he habilitated with a thesis on the life and work of Thomas Hobbes at the Christian Albrechts University in Kiel. He taught at the University of Kiel from 1909 to 1933 and eventually became a private lecturer. He held this post at the University of Kiel for only three years. Because he sympathized with the Hamburg dockers' strike of 1896, the conservative Prussian government considered him to be a social democrat, and Tönnies would not be called to a professorial chair until 1913. He returned to Kiel as a professor emeritus in 1921 where he took on a teaching position in sociology and taught until 1933 when he was ousted by the Nazis, due to earlier publications in which he had criticized them. Remaining in Kiel, he died three years later in 1936.  Many of his writings on sociological theories—including \"Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft\" (1887)—furthered pure sociology. He coined the metaphysical term \"Voluntarism\". Tönnies also contributed to the study of social change, particularly on public opinion, customs and technology, crime, and suicide. He also had a vivid interest in methodology, especially statistics, and sociological research, inventing his own technique of statistical association.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Gemeinschaft\" and \"Gesellschaft\".", "content": "Tönnies distinguished between two types of social groupings. \"Gemeinschaft\"—often translated as \"community\" (or left untranslated)—refers to groupings based on feelings of togetherness and on mutual bonds, which are felt as a goal to be kept up, their members being means for this goal. \"Gesellschaft\"—often translated as \"society\"—on the other hand, refers to groups that are sustained by it being instrumental for their members' individual aims and goals.  \"Gemeinschaft\" may be exemplified historically by a family or a neighborhood in a pre-modern (rural) society; \"Gesellschaft\" by a joint-stock company or a state in a modern society, i.e. the society when Tönnies lived. \"Gesellschaft\" relationships arose in an urban and capitalist setting, characterized by individualism and impersonal monetary connections between people. Social ties were often instrumental and superficial, with self-interest and exploitation increasingly the norm. Examples are corporations, states, or voluntary associations. In his book \"Einteilung der Soziologie\" (Classification of Sociology) he distinguished between three disciplines of sociology the latter being Pure or Theoretical (\"reine, theoretische\") Sociology, Applied (\"angewandte\") Sociology, and Empirical (\"emprische\") Sociology.  His distinction between social groupings is based on the assumption that there are only two basic forms of an actor's will, to approve of other men. For Tönnies, such an approval is by no means self-evident; he is quite influenced by Thomas Hobbes. Following his \"essential will\" (\"\"Wesenwille\"\"), an actor will see himself as a means to serve the goals of social grouping; very often it is an underlying, subconscious force. Groupings formed around an essential will are called a \"Gemeinschaft\". The other will is the \"arbitrary will\" (\"\"Kürwille\"\"): An actor sees a social grouping as a means to further his individual goals; so it is purposive and future-oriented. Groupings around the latter are called \"Gesellschaft\". Whereas the membership in a \"Gemeinschaft\" is self-fulfilling, a \"Gesellschaft\" is instrumental for its members. In pure sociology—theoretically—these two normal types of will are to be strictly separated; in applied sociology—empirically—they are always mixed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticisms.", "content": "Tönnies' distinction between \"Gemeinschaft\" and \"Gesellschaft\", like others between tradition and modernity, has been criticized for over-generalizing differences between societies, and implying that all societies were following a similar evolutionary path, an argument which he never proclaimed. The equilibrium in \"Gemeinschaft\" is achieved through means of social control, such as morals, conformism, and exclusion, while \"Gesellschaft\" keeps its equilibrium through police, laws, tribunals and prisons. Amish, Hassidic communities are examples of \"Gemeinschaft\", while states are types of \"Gesellschaft\". Rules in \"Gemeinschaft\" are implicit, while \"Gesellschaft\" has explicit rules (written laws).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferdinand Tönnies (; Oldwenswort, 26 July 1855 – Kiel, 9 April 1936) was a German sociologist, economist and philosopher. He was a major contributor to sociological theory and field studies, best known for his distinction between two types of social groups, Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (\"Community and Society\"). He co-founded the German Society for Sociology alongside Max Weber and Georg Simmel and many other founders. He was president of the society from 1909 to 1934, after which he was ousted for having criticized the Nazis. Tönnies was considered the first German sociologist proper, published over 900 works and contributed to many areas of sociology and philosophy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971576}
{"src_title": "Andorra (play)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Andri is a young man who has been raised by the Teacher (\"der Lehrer\") and the Mother (\"die Mutter\") as their Jewish adopted son alongside their daughter Barblin; the Teacher claims to have rescued Andri from the anti-Semitic Blacks (\"die Schwarzen\") in the neighbouring country. Apart from Andri and Barblin, the other characters are referred to by their occupations or roles (though most do have names). After some of twelve scenes (which are called \"Bilder\", meaning \"pictures\"), characters come forth to a witness box and talk about Andri's death in the past tense (each additional scene is denoted \"Vordergrund\", which means \"foreground\"). In this way, information about Andri's parentage and fate is gradually revealed. Each townsperson attempts to rationalise their involvement in Andri's death; only the Priest (\"der Pater\") is willing to accept any guilt. Every character alive at the end of the play makes such a statement, except for Barblin, the Mother, and the non-speaking characters.  At the beginning of the play, Andri is engaged to Barblin. The Soldier (\"der Soldat\") is interested in her sexually, but she strongly dislikes him. The townspeople hold anti-Semitic views, and there are rumours of a coming invasion by the Blacks. The Teacher sells land to the Landlord (\"der Wirt\") so that he can pay the Carpenter (\"der Tischler\") to take on Andri as an apprentice. However, Andri is later dismissed from his apprenticeship when the Carpenter thinks that Andri has made a poor-quality chair, which was in fact made by the Journeyman (\"der Geselle\"), who does not admit to it. The Carpenter instead employs Andri as a salesman.  The Doctor (\"der Doktor\") makes anti-Semitic remarks in front of Andri, unaware that Andri believes that he is Jewish. Andri tells the Teacher and the Mother that he and Barblin want to marry, and that they have been in love since childhood. The Teacher forbids the marriage without giving a reason; Andri thinks that it is because he is Jewish. The Teacher says (in an aside) that Andri is in fact his biological son. He tries to tell Andri this, but Andri has embraced his Jewishness and refuses to listen. At the same time, the Soldier rapes Barblin; Andri discovers that they had sex.  The Mother, believing Andri to be a Jew, asks the Priest to speak to Andri to help him accept his Jewishness. The Señora (\"die Senora\") then arrives in town; the townspeople are prejudiced against her because she is a foreigner. She helps Andri after he is assaulted by the Soldier. It is revealed that the Señora is Andri's real mother, but she leaves the town without telling Andri this (she gives Andri a ring). The Mother learns the truth about Andri's parentage, and the Teacher asks the Priest to explain the truth to Andri. Andri is not at all receptive and believes his fate to be sealed. The Señora is killed after a stone is thrown at her, and the Landlord claims that Andri is responsible (it is heavily implied that the Landlord killed her).  The Blacks invade, and the Soldier defects and joins them. The townspeople search for Andri, believing him to be a murderer; Andri hides outside, where the Teacher tries to persuade him of the truth, and then inside the Teacher's house with Barblin. Andri confronts Barblin about her relationship with the Soldier, and tells her to kiss him; he is not acting rationally at this point. The Soldier enters the house and arrests Andri.  The Blacks conduct a \"Jew-Show\" (\"die Judenschau\") in the town square, led by the \"Jew-Inspector\" (\"der Judenschauer\"), to find the Señora's killer. This is shown to be a show trial; despite Barblin and the Mother's attempts to disrupt the process, the other townspeople co-operate. Andri does not defend himself, and is killed by soldiers, who are implied to cut off his finger to take the Señora's ring. Afterwards, the Teacher hangs himself. Barblin has her head shaved (earlier in the play, the Blacks are rumoured to do to this the wives of Jews) and goes mad. She does not fully accept that Andri has died, and leaves his shoes on the stage, stopping people from touching them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dramatic techniques.", "content": "Andorra is an example of epic theatre (as opposed to classical theatre), which was popularised by Bertolt Brecht in the early 20th century. Epic theatre aims to activate the audience into thinking about the important questions and ideas within the play so that he or she can form their own rational opinion for themselves after having been an active, critical observer.  Frisch uses the \"Verfremdungseffekt\" (distancing effect) throughout the play, with the aim of distancing the audience from the action so that they can think about the themes of the play rather than getting immersed in the plot. Frisch uses these techniques, as he wanted to create a dramatic situation where a character is mistaken for a Jew when he really wasn't one. All the characters and events are subservient to this central idea.  Their personality is otherwise completely irrelevant to the plot, and it would only divert the audience's attention from what is important if these characters had a personality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "The play was written fifteen years after the end of World War II and is more of a study of cultural prejudice than a specific reflection on the war. However, it concerns more than just prejudice: many of the characters have something to gain from Andri's being a Jew: the Teacher has been able to present himself as a Good Samaritan, the Soldier can get Barblin, the Carpenter can make money; even the Priest can demonstrate his Christian sympathy for the outsider. The motif of whitewashing, with which the play starts and ends, points to hypocrisy as a central theme.  Another recurring theme is people's shoes, and how they represent the roles assigned to their wearers. This idea is likely to have been inspired by the phrase \"to put oneself in someone else's shoes\", which exists in German as in English. At the end of the play, Andri's shoes are left on the stage; Barblin asks the other characters not to touch them until he comes back, although Andri is dead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andorra is a play written by the Swiss dramatist Max Frisch in 1961. The original text came from a prose sketch Frisch had written in his diary titled \"Der andorranische Jude\" (\"The Andorran Jew\"). The Andorra in Frisch's play is fictional and not intended to be a representation of the real Andorra located between France and Spain. Frisch has stated that the title \"Andorra\" had only been intended as a working title but later liked using the term \"Andorrans\" so much he kept it.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971577}
{"src_title": "Saliva", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition.", "content": "Produced in salivary glands, human saliva comprises 99.5% water, but also contains many important substances, including electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds and various enzymes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Daily salivary output.", "content": "There is much debate about the amount of saliva that is produced in a healthy person. Production is estimated at 1500ml per day and is generally accepted that during sleep the amount drops significantly. In humans, the submandibular gland contributes around 70–75% of secretion, while the parotid gland secretes about 20–25% and small amounts are secreted from the other salivary glands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Functions.", "content": "Saliva contributes to the digestion of food and to the maintenance of oral hygiene. Without normal salivary function the frequency of dental caries, gum disease (gingivitis and periodontitis), and other oral problems increases significantly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lubricant.", "content": "Saliva coats the oral mucosa mechanically protecting it from trauma during eating, swallowing, and speaking. Mouth soreness is very common in people with reduced saliva (xerostomia) and food (especially dry food) sticks to the inside of the mouth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Digestion.", "content": "The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food and helping to create a food bolus. The lubricative function of saliva allows the food bolus to be passed easily from the mouth into the esophagus. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, also called ptyalin, which is capable of breaking down starch into simpler sugars such as maltose and dextrin that can be further broken down in the small intestine. About 30% of starch digestion takes place in the mouth cavity. Salivary glands also secrete salivary lipase (a more potent form of lipase) to begin fat digestion. Salivary lipase plays a large role in fat digestion in newborn infants as their pancreatic lipase still needs some time to develop.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Role in taste.", "content": "Saliva is very important in the sense of taste. It is the liquid medium in which chemicals are carried to taste receptor cells (mostly associated with lingual papillae). Persons with little saliva often complain of dysgeusia (i.e. disordered taste, e.g. reduced ability to taste, or having a bad, metallic taste at all times). A rare condition identified to affect taste is that of \"\", or excessive amounts of sodium in saliva that is \"not\" caused by any other condition (e.g., \"Sjögren syndrome\"), causing everything to taste'salty'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The production of saliva is stimulated both by the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic.  The saliva stimulated by sympathetic innervation is thicker, and saliva stimulated parasympathetically is more fluid-like.  Sympathetic stimulation of saliva is to facilitate respiration, whereas parasympathetic stimulation is to facilitate digestion.  Parasympathetic stimulation leads to acetylcholine (ACh) release onto the salivary acinar cells. ACh binds to muscarinic receptors, specifically M, and causes an increased intracellular calcium ion concentration (through the IP/DAG second messenger system). Increased calcium causes vesicles within the cells to fuse with the apical cell membrane leading to secretion. ACh also causes the salivary gland to release kallikrein, an enzyme that converts kininogen to lysyl-bradykinin. Lysyl-bradykinin acts upon blood vessels and capillaries of the salivary gland to generate vasodilation and increased capillary permeability, respectively. The resulting increased blood flow to the acini allows the production of more saliva. In addition, Substance P can bind to Tachykinin NK-1 receptors leading to increased intracellular calcium concentrations and subsequently increased saliva secretion. Lastly, both parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous stimulation can lead to myoepithelium contraction which causes the expulsion of secretions from the secretory acinus into the ducts and eventually to the oral cavity.  Sympathetic stimulation results in the release of norepinephrine. Norepinephrine binding to α-adrenergic receptors will cause an increase in intracellular calcium levels leading to more fluid vs. protein secretion. If norepinephrine binds β-adrenergic receptors, it will result in more protein or enzyme secretion vs. fluid secretion. Stimulation by norepinephrine initially decreases blood flow to the salivary glands due to constriction of blood vessels but this effect is overtaken by vasodilation caused by various local vasodilators.  Saliva production may also be pharmacologically stimulated by the so-called sialagogues. It can also be suppressed by the so-called antisialagogues.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spitting.", "content": "Spitting is the act of forcibly ejecting saliva or other substances from the mouth. In many parts of the world, it is considered rude and a social taboo, and has even been outlawed in many countries. In Western countries, for example, it has often been outlawed for reasons of public decency and attempting to reduce the spread of disease; however, these laws are often not strictly enforced. In Singapore, the fine for spitting may be as high as SGD$2,000 for multiple offenses, and one can even be arrested. In some other parts of the world, such as in China, expectoration is more socially acceptable (even if officially disapproved of or illegal), and spittoons are still a common appearance in some cultures. Some animals, even humans in some cases, use spitting as an automatic defensive maneuver. Camels are well known for doing this, though most domestic camels are trained not to.  Because saliva can contain large amounts of virus copies in infected individuals (for example, in people infected with SARS-CoV-2), spitting in public places can pose a health hazard to the public.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Glue to construct bird nests.", "content": "Many birds in the swift family, Apodidae, produce a viscous saliva during nesting season to glue together materials to construct a nest. Two species of swifts in the genus Aerodramus build their nests using only their saliva, the base for bird's nest soup.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wound licking.", "content": "A common belief is that saliva contained in the mouth has natural disinfectants, which leads people to believe it is beneficial to \"lick their wounds\". Researchers at the University of Florida at Gainesville have discovered a protein called nerve growth factor (NGF) in the saliva of mice. Wounds doused with NGF healed twice as fast as untreated and unlicked wounds; therefore, saliva can help to heal wounds in some species. NGF has not been found in human saliva; however, researchers find human saliva contains such antibacterial agents as secretory mucin, IgA, lactoferrin, lysozyme and peroxidase. It has not been shown that human licking of wounds disinfects them, but licking is likely to help clean the wound by removing larger contaminants such as dirt and may help to directly remove infective bodies by brushing them away. Therefore, licking would be a way of wiping off pathogens, useful if clean water is not available to the animal or person.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classical conditioning.", "content": "In Pavlov's experiment, dogs were conditioned to salivate in response to a ringing bell, this stimulus is associated with a meal or hunger. Salivary secretion is also associated with nausea. Saliva is usually formed in the mouth through an act called gleeking, which can be voluntary or involuntary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Making alcoholic beverages.", "content": "Some old cultures chewed grains to produce alcoholic beverages, such as chicha, kasiri or sake.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Substitutes.", "content": "A number of commercially available saliva substitutes exist.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saliva (commonly referred to as spit) is an extracellular fluid produced and secreted by salivary glands in the mouth. In humans, saliva is 99.5% water plus electrolytes, mucus, white blood cells, epithelial cells (from which DNA can be extracted), enzymes (such as amylase and lipase), antimicrobial agents such as secretory IgA, and lysozymes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971578}
{"src_title": "Saltasaurus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery.", "content": "The fossils of \"Saltasaurus\" were excavated by José Fernando Bonaparte, Martín Vince and Juan C. Leal between 1975 and 1977 at the Estancia \"El Brete\". The find was in 1977 reported in the scientific literature.  \"Saltasaurus\" was named and described by Bonaparte and Jaime E. Powell in 1980. The type species is \"Saltasaurus loricatus\". Its generic name is derived from Salta Province, the region of north-west Argentina where the first fossils were recovered. The specific name means \"protected by small armoured plates\" in Latin.  The holotype, PVL 4017-92, was found in a layer of the Lecho Formation dating from the early Maastrichtian stage of the Upper Cretaceous period, about seventy million years old. It consists of a sacrum connected to two ilia. Under the inventory number PVL 4017 over two hundred additional fossils have been catalogued. These include rear skull elements, teeth, vertebrae of the neck, back, hip and tail, parts of the shoulder girdle and the pelvis, and limb bones — plus various pieces of armour. These bones represent a minimum of five individuals, two adults and three juveniles or subadults.  Currently the only recognised species of \"Saltasaurus\" is \"S. loricatus\". A \"S. robustus\" and a \"S. australis\" have been suggested but these are now considered to belong to a separate genus, \"Neuquensaurus\". Earlier, armour plates from the area had been named as \"Loricosaurus\" by Friedrich von Huene who assumed them to be from an armoured ankylosaurian. It has been suggested these plates were in fact from \"Saltasaurus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Saltasaurus\" is very small compared to most other members of the Sauropoda. Powell estimated the adult length at six metres. In 2010, Gregory S. Paul estimated the maximum length at 8.5 metres, the weight at 2.5 tonnes. However, Donald Henderson in 2013 estimated the animal at in length and in weight.  The teeth of \"Saltasaurus\" were cylindrical, with spatulate points. \"Saltasaurus\" had a relatively short neck with shortened neck vertebrae. The vertebrae from the middle part of its tail had elongated centra. \"Saltasaurus\" had vertebral lateral fossae, pleurocoels, that resembled shallow depressions. Fossae that similarly resemble shallow depressions are known from \"Malawisaurus\", \"Alamosaurus\", \"Aeolosaurus\", and \"Gondwanatitan\". \"Venenosaurus\" also had depression-like fossae, but its pleurocoels penetrated deeper into the vertebrae, were divided into two chambers, and extend farther into the vertebral columns. In \"Saltasaurus\", the vertebral bone was generally cancellous and there were larger air chambers present as well. The limbs were short and stubby with especially short hands and feet. \"Saltasaurus\" had more robust radii than \"Venenosaurus\". The belly was extremely wide.  The osteoderms came in two types. There were larger oval plates with a length of up to twelve centimetres. These were keeled or spiked and perhaps were ordered in longitudinal rows along the back. The second type consists of small ossicles, rounded or pentagonal, about seven millimetres in diameter, that formed a continuous armour between the plates. A study in 2010 concluded that the larger plates had cancellous bone but that the ossicles had a denser bone tissue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Palaeobiology.", "content": "Like all sauropods, \"Saltasaurus\" was herbivorous. Because of its barrel-like rump, shaped like a hippopotamus, Powell suggested that \"Saltasaurus\" was aquatic. Despite its small stature, \"Saltasaurus\" was still graviportal like other sauropods, meaning it could not run because its hindlimbs had to be held straight at the load-bearing phase of their walking cycle. Powell assumed adult individuals were protected against predators by their body armour, while juveniles were protected by the herd as a whole.  In the Cretaceous Period, sauropods in North America were no longer the dominant group of herbivorous dinosaurs, with the ornithopod and ceratopsian dinosaurs, such as \"Edmontosaurus\" and \"Triceratops\", becoming the most abundant (this being most evident by the Late Cretaceous epoch). However, on other landmasses such as South America and Africa (which were island continents much like modern Australia) sauropods, in particular the titanosaurs, continued to be the dominant herbivores.  \"Saltasaurus\" was one such titanosaur sauropod, and lived around 70 million years ago. When it was first discovered, in 1975, it forced palaeontologists to reconsider some assumptions about sauropods as \"Saltasaurus\" possessed crocodile-like armour (osteoderms) 10 to 12 centimetres (4 to 5 in) in diameter. Previously, it had been assumed that size alone was sufficient defence for the massive sauropods. Since then, palaeontologists have investigated the possibility that other sauropods may also have had armour; for example, \"Laplatasaurus\".  A new discovery, from another formation, may shed light on the nesting habits of \"Saltasaurus\". A large titanosaurid nesting ground was discovered in Auca Mahuevo, in Patagonia, Argentina (another titanosaur nesting site has reportedly been discovered in Spain). Several hundred female saltasaurines dug holes with their back feet, laid eggs in clutches averaging around 25 eggs each, and buried the nests under dirt and vegetation. The small eggs, about 11–12 cm (4–5 in) in diameter, contained fossilised embryos, complete with skin impressions showing a mosaic armour of small bead-like scales. The armour pattern resembled that of \"Saltasaurus\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saltasaurus (which means \"lizard from Salta\") is a genus of titanosaurid sauropod dinosaur of the Late Cretaceous Period of Argentina. Small among sauropods, though still heavy by the standards of modern creatures, \"Saltasaurus\" was characterized by a short neck and stubby limbs. It was the first genus of sauropod known to possess armour of bony plates embedded in its skin. Such small bony plates, called osteoderms, have since been found on other titanosaurids.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971579}
{"src_title": "Mojito", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Havana, Cuba, is the birthplace of the mojito, although its exact origin is the subject of debate. It was known that the local South American Indians had remedies for various tropical illnesses, so a small boarding party went ashore on Cuba and came back with ingredients for an effective medicine. The ingredients were \"aguardiente de caña\" (translated as \"burning water\", a crude form of rum made from sugar cane) mixed with local tropical ingredients: lime, sugarcane juice, and mint. Lime juice on its own would have significantly prevented scurvy and dysentery, and tafia/rum was soon added as it became widely available to the British (ca. 1650). Mint, lime and sugar were also helpful in hiding the harsh taste of this spirit. While this drink was not called a mojito at this time, it was the original combination of these ingredients.  Some historians contend that African slaves who worked in the Cuban sugar cane fields during the 19th century were instrumental in the cocktail's origin. Guarapo, the sugar cane juice often used in mojitos, was a popular drink among the slaves who named it. It never originally contained lime juice.  There are several theories behind the origin of the name \"mojito\": one such theory holds that name relates to mojo, a Cuban seasoning made from lime and used to flavour dishes. Another theory is that the name Mojito is simply a derivative of \"mojadito\" (Spanish for \"a little wet\"), the diminutive of \"mojado\" (\"wet\").  The mojito has routinely been presented as a favorite drink of author Ernest Hemingway. It has also often been said that Hemingway made the bar called La Bodeguita del Medio famous when he became one of its regulars and wrote \"My mojito in La Bodeguita, My daiquiri in El Floridita\" on a wall of the bar. This epigraph, handwritten and signed in his name, persists despite doubts expressed by Hemingway biographers about such patronage and the author's taste for mojitos. La Bodeguita del Medio is better known for its food than its drink.  A survey by an international market research company found that in 2016 the mojito was the most popular cocktail in Britain and France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "Many hotels in Havana also add Angostura bitters to cut the sweetness of the Mojito; while icing sugar is often muddled with the mint leaves rather than cane sugar, and many establishments simply use sugar syrup to control sweetness. Many bars today in Havana use lemon juice rather than fresh lime. The \"Rose Mojito,\" which is a Mojito variation containing the rose-flavored spirit, Lanique, was first created at the Albert's Schloss bar in Manchester, England. A Mojito without alcohol is called a \"Virgin Mojito\" or \"Nojito\". The Cojito adds coconut flavor, often through the use of coconut-flavored rum. The South Side is made with gin instead of rum; the South Side Fizz adds seltzer water. A dirty mojito calls for gold rum instead of white rum and to use raw sugar or demerara sugar. Demerara is a light brown, partially refined, sugar produced from the first crystallization during processing cane juice into sugar crystals. Adding this to a mojito gives it a caramel-like flavor. A dark rum mojito simply calls for a dark rum to be used instead of white.  In Mexico, tequila brand Don Julio offers the \"Mojito Blanco\" by simply replacing rum with tequila.  In Peru, there are mojito variations that are made by adding fruits like grapefruit, called \"Mojito de toronja\", or with passionfruit, called \"Mojito de maracuyá\". Many restaurants serve them, and these added ingredients enhance the cocktail and its original flavor. Some other fruits are found in other mojito recipes: pears, raspberries, and oranges. Purees of such fruits may also be used instead of the whole fruit itself.  The strawberry mojito includes muddled strawberries; a further departure along these lines substitutes gin for the light rum and lemon juice for lime juice, and adds tonic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mojito (; ) is a traditional Cuban highball. Traditionally, a mojito is a cocktail that consists of five ingredients: white rum, sugar (traditionally sugar cane juice), lime juice, soda water, and mint. Its combination of sweetness, citrus, and herbaceous mint flavors is intended to complement the rum, and has made the mojito a popular summer drink.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971580}
{"src_title": "Fragaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Strawberries are not true berries. The fleshy and edible part of the fruit is a receptacle, and the parts that are sometimes mistakenly called \"seeds\" are achenes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Although it is commonly thought that strawberries get their name from straw being used as a mulch in cultivating the plants, the word is possibly derived from \"strewn berry\" in reference to the runners that \"strew\" or \"stray away\" from the base of the plants. David Mikkelson argues that \"the word'strawberry' has been part of the English language for at least a thousand years, well before strawberries were cultivated as garden or farm edibles.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "There are more than 20 different \"Fragaria\" species worldwide. Numbers of other species have been proposed, some of which are now recognized as subspecies. Key to the classification of strawberry species is recognizing that they vary in the number of chromosomes. There are seven basic \"types\" of chromosomes that they all have in common. However, they exhibit different polyploidy. Some species are diploid, having two sets of the seven chromosomes (14 chromosomes total). Others are tetraploid (four sets, 28 chromosomes total), hexaploid (six sets, 42 chromosomes total), octoploid (eight sets, 56 chromosomes total), or decaploid (ten sets, 70 chromosomes total).  As a rough rule (with exceptions), strawberry species with more chromosomes tend to be more robust and produce larger plants with larger berries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "A number of species of butterflies and moths feed on strawberry plants: see list of Lepidoptera that feed on strawberry plants.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fragaria is a genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, commonly known as strawberries for their edible fruits. There are more than 20 described species and many hybrids and cultivars. The most common strawberries grown commercially are cultivars of the garden strawberry, a hybrid known as \"Fragaria\" × \"ananassa\". Strawberries have a taste that varies by cultivar, and ranges from quite sweet to rather tart. Strawberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971581}
{"src_title": "Prunus armeniaca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Prunus armeniaca\" is a small tree, tall, with a trunk up to in diameter and a dense, spreading canopy. The leaves are ovate, long and wide, with a rounded base, a pointed tip and a finely serrated margin. The flowers are in diameter, with five white to pinkish petals; they are produced singly or in pairs in early spring before the leaves. The fruit is a drupe similar to a small peach, diameter (larger in some modern cultivars), from yellow to orange, often tinged red on the side most exposed to the sun; its surface can be smooth (botanically described as: glabrous) or velvety with very short hairs (botanically: pubescent). The flesh is usually firm and not very juicy. Its taste can range from sweet to tart. The single seed is enclosed in a hard, stony shell, often called a \"stone\", with a grainy, smooth texture except for three ridges running down one side.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of cultivation.", "content": "The origin of the species is disputed. It was known in Armenia during ancient times, and has been cultivated there for so long, it is often thought to have originated there. Seeds of the apricot have been discovered during archaeological excavations of the Garni Temple and Shengavit Settlement, having a history of 6000 years. Its scientific name \"Prunus armeniaca\" (Armenian plum) derives from that assumption. For example, De Poerderlé, writing in the 18th century, asserted, \"\"Cet arbre tire son nom de l'Arménie, province d'Asie, d'où il est originaire et d'où il fut porté en Europe...\"\" (\"this tree takes its name from Armenia, province of Asia, where it is native, and whence it was brought to Europe...\"). An archaeological excavation at Garni in Armenia found apricot seeds in an Eneolithic-era site. Despite the great number of varieties of apricots that are grown in Armenia today (about 50), according to Vavilov its center of origin would be the Chinese region, where the domestication of apricot would have taken place. Other sources say that the apricot was first cultivated in India in about 3000 BC.  Its introduction to Greece is attributed to Alexander the Great; later, the Roman General Lucullus (106–57 B.C.) also would have imported some trees – the cherry, white heart cherry, and apricot – from Armenia to Rome. Subsequent sources were often confused about the origin of the species. Loudon (1838) believed it had a wide native range including Armenia, Caucasus, the Himalaya, China, and Japan.  Apricots have been cultivated in Persia since antiquity, and dried ones were an important commodity on Persian trade routes.  More recently, English settlers brought the apricot to the English colonies in the New World. Most of modern American production of apricots comes from the seedlings carried to the west coast by Spanish missionaries.  Today, apricot cultivation has spread to all parts of the globe having climates that can support its growth needs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Seeds or kernels of the apricot grown in central Asia and around the Mediterranean are so sweet, they may be substituted for almonds. The Italian liqueur amaretto and amaretti biscotti are flavoured with extract of apricot kernels rather than almonds. Oil pressed from these cultivar kernels, and known as oil of almond, has been used as cooking oil. Kernels contain between 2.05% and 2.40% hydrogen cyanide, but normal consumption is insufficient to produce serious effects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The scientific name \"armeniaca\" was first used by Gaspard Bauhin in his \"Pinax Theatri Botanici\" (page 442), referring to the species as \"Mala armeniaca\" \"Armenian apple\". It is sometimes stated that this came from Pliny the Elder, but it was not used by Pliny. Linnaeus took up Bauhin's epithet in the first edition of his \"Species Plantarum\" in 1753.  The name \"apricot\" is probably derived from a tree mentioned as \"praecocia\" by Pliny. Pliny says \"We give the name of apples (\"mala\")... to peaches (\"persica\") and pomegranates (\"granata\")...\" Later in the same section he states \"The Asiatic peach ripens at the end of autumn, though an early variety (\"praecocia\") ripens in summer – these were discovered within the last thirty years...\".  The classical authors connected Greek \"armeniaca\" with Latin \"praecocia\": Pedanius Dioscorides' \"... \" and Martial's \"\"Armeniaca, et praecocia latine dicuntur\"\". Putting together the \"Armeniaca\" and the \"Mala\" obtains the well-known epithet, but there is no evidence the ancients did it; \"Armeniaca\" alone meant the apricot. Nonetheless, the 12th century Andalusian agronomist Ibn al-'Awwam refers to the species in the title of chapter 40 of his \"Kitab al-Filaha\" as والتفاح الارمني, \"\"apple from Armenia\"\", stating that it is the same as المشمش or البرقوق (\"al-mishmish\" or \"al-barqūq\").  Accordingly, the \"American Heritage Dictionary\" under \"apricot\" derives \"praecocia\" from \"praecoquus\", \"cooked or ripened beforehand\" [in this case meaning \"early ripening\"], becoming Greek \"πραικόκιον\" \"praikókion\" \"apricot\" and Arabic البرقوق \"al-barqūq\", a term that has been used for a variety of different members of the genus \"Prunus\" (it currently refers primarily to the plum in most varieties of Arabic, but some writers use it as a catchall term for \"Prunus\" fruit).  The English name comes from earlier \"\"abrecock\"\" in turn from the Middle French \"abricot\", from Catalan \"abercoc\" in turn from Spanish \"albaricoque\". The Spanish \"albaricoque\" were adaptation of the Arabic البرقوق (al-barqūq), dating from the Moorish rule of Spain.  However, in Argentina and Chile the word for \"apricot\" is \"damasco\", which could indicate that, to the Spanish settlers of these countries, the fruit was associated with Damascus in Syria. The word \"damasco\" is also the word for \"apricot\" in Portuguese (both European and Brazilian, though in Portugal the word \"alperce\" and \"albricoque\" are also used).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "The Chinese associate the apricot with education and medicine. For instance, the classical word 杏壇 (literally: 'apricot altar') which means \"educational circle\", is still widely used in written language. Chuang Tzu, a Chinese philosopher in 4th century BCE, told a story that Confucius taught his students in a forum surrounded by the wood of apricot trees. The association with medicine in turn comes from the common use of apricot kernels as a component in traditional Chinese medicine, and from the story of Dong Feng (董奉), a physician during the Three Kingdoms period, who required no payment from his patients except that they plant apricot trees in his orchard on recovering from their illnesses, resulting in a large grove of apricot trees and a steady supply of medicinal ingredients. The term \"Expert of the Apricot Grove\" (杏林高手) is still used as a poetic reference to physicians.  In Armenia, the wood of the apricot tree is used for making wood carvings such as the \"duduk\", which is a popular wind instrument in Armenia and is also called the apricot pipe. Several hand-made souvenirs are also made from the apricot wood.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prunus armeniaca (meaning \"Armenian plum\"), the most commonly cultivated apricot species, also called ansu apricot, Siberian apricot, Tibetan apricot, is a species of \"Prunus\", classified with the plum in the subgenus \"Prunus\". The native range is somewhat uncertain due to its extensive prehistoric cultivation, though almost certainly somewhere in Asia. It is extensively cultivated in many countries and has escaped into the wild in many places.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971582}
{"src_title": "Vacation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "In the United Kingdom, \"vacation\" once specifically referred to the long summer break taken by the law courts and then later the term was applied to universities. The custom was introduced by William the Conqueror from Normandy where it facilitated the grape harvest. In the past, many upper-class families moved to a summer home for part of the year, leaving their usual home vacant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impact of digital communications.", "content": "Recent developments in communication technology—internet, mobile, instant messaging, presence tracking, etc.— have begun to change the nature of vacation. Vacation today means absence from the workplace rather than temporary cession of work. It is now the norm in North America and the United Kingdom, to carry on working or remain on call while on vacation rather than abandon work altogether. Office employees telecommute whilst on vacation. Workers may choose to unplug for a portion of a day and thus create the feeling of a \"vacation\" by simply separating themselves from the demands of constant digital communications. Antithetically, workers may take time out of the office to go on vacation, but remain plugged-in to work-related communications networks. While remaining plugged-in over vacation may generate short-term business benefits, the long-term psychological impacts of these developments are only beginning to be understood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional meaning.", "content": "\"Vacation\", in English-speaking North America, describes recreational travel, such as a short pleasure trip, or a journey abroad. People in Commonwealth countries use the term \"holiday\" to describe absence from work as well as to describe a vacation or journey. Vacation can mean either staying home or going somewhere.  Canadians often use \"vacation\" and \"holiday\" interchangeably referring to a trip away from home or time off work. In Australia and the UK, \"holiday\" can refer to a vacation or a public holiday.  The Vanderbilts, Rockefellers, Carnegies, Huntingtons and other fabulously wealthy industrialists built their own spectacular \"great camps\" in the Adirondacks of upstate New York where they could spend time with their families in private luxury. The scions of New York City took to declaring that they would \"vacate\" their city homes for their lakeside summer retreats, and the term \"vacation\" replaced the British \"holiday\" in common parlance.  In Hungarian, the word \"vakáció\" can mean both a recreational trip, an officially granted absence from work (generally in warmer months), and the summer (longest) school break. For absence from work, the word \"szabadság\" (freedom/liberty) can be used, possibly as \"betegszabadság\" (sickness freedom/sickness liberty) when the reason of absence is medical in nature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family vacation.", "content": "Family vacation refers to recreation taken together by the family. The intended purpose of family vacation is for family to get away from day-to-day chores and to devote time specifically for the relaxation and unity of family members. Family vacation can be ritual—for example, annually around the same time—or it can be a one-time event. It can involve travel to a far-flung spot or, for families on a tight budget, a stay-at-home staycation. Some examples of favorite family vacations might include family cruises, trips to popular theme parks, ski vacations, beach vacations, food vacations or similar types of family trips.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vacation policy.", "content": "In nearly all countries worldwide, there are minimum requirements as to the annual leave that must be afforded to an employee (see also List of minimum annual leave by country).  Even in the United States, where no federal requirements as to minimum annual leave exist, many large corporations have generous vacation policies, some allowing employees to take weeks off and some even allowing unlimited vacation. Unlimited vacation arrangements may nonetheless come with implicit expectations, for instance, it may be implied that an employee should not take more than about the average number of vacation days taken by others. They normally also have the consequence that employees who leave the company receive no monetary compensation for leave days not taken.  According to the U.S. Travel Association, Americans collectively did not use 662 million vacation days in 2016. More than half of all working people in the United States forfeited paid time off at the end of the year. Two-thirds of people still do work while they are on vacation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Family vacation and vacation in general has become a common theme in many books, films and movies. Writers often draw on common occurrences that take place during a vacation such as bonding and disasters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A vacation (American English), or holiday (British English), is a leave of absence from a regular occupation, or a specific trip or journey, usually for the purpose of recreation or tourism. People often take a vacation during specific holiday observances, or for specific festivals or celebrations. Vacations are often spent with friends or family. Traveling together creates chemistry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971583}
{"src_title": "Khanate of Sibir", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Aristocracy of the Khanate.", "content": "The Sibir Khanate was administered by Mirzas who originated from various indigenous Siberian tribes. These Mirzas organized loosely knit dominions, which were all under the nominal authority of the \"Khan\" of Tyumen and Sibir. Mirzas also led the warriors of the Khanate of Sibir into battle and owed nominal allegiance to the \"Khan\" of Tyumen and Sibir.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Islam was the professed religion of the Sibir Khanate; it was the religion of the ruling \"Khan\" of Tyumen and Sibir. Grand mosques, palaces and fortified walls were constructed in both Tyumen and Sibir.  The leading Imams and Muftis of the Sibir Khanate are known to have had some influence in the nearby regions of Kazan and even in Samarqand. The Khanate of Sibir was the northernmost Muslim state in recorded history; its territories even included parts of the shore of the Arctic Ocean.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Khanate of Sibir was founded in the fifteenth century, at a time when the Mongols of the house of Jochi were generally in a state of decline. The original capital of the Khans was Chimgi-Tura. The first Khan was Taibuga, who was a member of the Borjigin. He was succeeded by his son Khoja or Hoca, who was in turn succeeded by his son Mar.  The Taibugids' control of the region between the Tobol and middle Irtysh was not uncontested. The Shaybanids, descendants of Jochi, frequently claimed the area as their own. Ibak Khan, a member of a junior branch of the Shaybanid house, killed Mar and seized Chimgi-Tura. A Taibugid restoration occurred when Mar's grandson Muhammad fled to the eastern territories around the Irtysh and killed Ibak in battle in c. 1493. Muhammad decided not to remain at Chimgi-Tura, but chose a new capital named Iskar (or Sibir) located on the Irtysh. The Russian conquest of Kazan in 1552 prompted the Taibugid Khan of Sibir, Yadigar, to seek friendly relations with Moscow. Yadigar, however, was challenged by a Shaybanid, Ibak's grandson Kuchum. Several years of fighting (1556–1563) ended with Yadigar's death and Kuchum becoming Khan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conquest of Sibir.", "content": "Kuchum attempted to convert the Siberian Tatars, who were mostly shamanists, to Islam. His decision to conduct a raid on the Stroganov trading posts resulted in an expedition led by the Cossack Yermak against the Khanate of Sibir. Kuchum's forces were defeated by Yermak at the Battle of Chuvash Cape in 1582 and the Cossacks entered Iskar later that year. Kuchum reorganized his forces, killed Yermak in battle in 1584, and reasserted his authority over Sibir. Over the next fourteen years, however, the Russians slowly conquered the Khanate. In 1598 Kuchum was defeated on the banks of the Ob and was forced to flee to the territories of the Nogai, bringing an end to his rule.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taibugids and Shaybanids.", "content": "The Khanate of Sibir and the town of Tyumen were founded by Taibuga probably some time between 1405 and 1428. The latter was probably of Keraite origin. However, some scholars also attempt to link the Taibugids to the Kipchak elites and others. Control alternated between the descendants of Taibuga and the Shaybanids who had descended from Genghis Khan. There are hints that the Shaybanids were more connected to the steppe nomads and that the Taibugids were more connected with the forest peoples to the north and east.  Taibuga's father was called On (On-Son, Onsom and other variants). Grousset says that they were 'the issue of Taibugha-bäki' without explanation ('bäki' (bek) was a princely suffix and Taibuqa was a Naiman chief at the time of Genghis Khan.) A few sources identify him with Bek Ondi Oglan, the great-great-great grandson of Shayban, and thus a Shaybanid. The Stroganov chronicle says that On was killed by a chief called Chingi who spared Taibuga, sent him to fight the Ostyaks and granted him his own principality. Taibuga founded Tyumen and named it Chingi-tura in honor of his benefactor. Another source makes On a Nogai whose 'Hoflager' (German for 'court-camp') was Kasyl-Tura at the mouth of the Ishim River about east of Tobolsk. Another source says that when Tokhtamysh was defeated he fled to the 'land of Sibir' (the first mention of 'Sibir' in Russian chronicles). Here he was protected by On until both were killed by Edigu about 1405.  There is no more information about Taibuga except that some say he drove the Novgoroders from his lands. In 1428 a 17-year old Shaybanid called Abu'l-Khayr Khan was chosen Khan on the Tura River (possibly at Tyumen). This implies that the Taibugids had been pushed aside. When he led his followers south for better things the remaining Shaybanids gathered around Ibak Khan, who was from a junior branch of the house. The Taibugids must have been restored because some time between 1464 and 1480 Ibak killed the Taibugid Mar and made himself Khan. In 1483 Fyodor Kurbsky is said to have led an army to the Irtysh River, but this had no lasting effects. Ibak went to the Volga where he killed the last Khan of the Golden Horde. Returning, he was killed by Mar's grandson called Mamuk or Makhmet or Mamet (about 1495). Makhmet moved the capital from Tyumen to Sibir and was briefly Khan of Kazan (1496). In 1552 the Taibugids Yediger and Bekbulat congratulated Ivan the Terrible on his conquest of Kazan. Later they paid limited tribute to Russia. In 1563 Ibak Khan's grandson Kuchum seized the throne from Yediger and Bekbulat. In 1573, following the Russo-Crimean War (1571) he stopped paying tribute and raided the Perm lands. In 1582, he was driven out by Yermak and died some time after 1600.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of Khans.", "content": "\"List of Taibugids\":  \"List of Shaybanids:\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Khanate of Sibir (), also historically called the Khanate of Turan, was a Turkic Khanate located in southwestern Siberia with a Turco-Mongol ruling class. Throughout its history, members of the Shaybanid and Taibugid dynasties often contested the rulership over the Khanate between each other; both of these competing tribes were direct patrilineal descendants of Genghis Khan through his eldest son Jochi and Jochi's fifth son Shayban (Shiban). The area of the Khanate was itself once an integral part of the Mongol Empire, and later came under the control of the White Horde and of the Golden Horde.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971584}
{"src_title": "Dmitry Donskoy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early reign.", "content": "Dmitry was born in Moscow in 1350, the son of Ivan the Fair, Grand Prince of Moscow, and his second wife, Alexandra Vassilievna Velyaminova, the daughter of the mayor of Moscow. Dmitry was orphaned at the age of nine and ascended the throne of the Principality of Moscow. Per the terms of Ivan's will, during Dmitry's minority, Metropolitan Aleksey served as regent.  In 1360, Khan of the Golden Horde, transferred the title most prized among Russian princes, that of Grand Prince of Vladimir, to Dmitry Konstantinovich of Nizhniy Novgorod. In 1363, after that prince was deposed, Dmitry Ivanovich was crowned at Vladimir. Three years later, he made peace with Dmitry Konstantinovich and married his daughter Eudoxia.  The most important event during Dmitry's early reign was to start building the Moscow Kremlin; it was completed in 1367. Thanks to the new fortress, the city withstood two sieges by Algirdas of Lithuania during the Lithuanian–Muscovite War (1368–72). The war ended with the Treaty of Lyubutsk. In 1375, Dmitry settled, in his own favor, a conflict with Mikhail II of Tver over Vladimir. Other princes of Northern Russia acknowledged his authority and contributed troops to the impending struggle against the Horde. By the end of his reign, Dmitry had more than doubled the territory of the Principality of Moscow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Struggle against Mamai.", "content": "Mongol domination of Rus began to crumble during Dmitry's thirty-year reign. The Golden Horde was severely weakened by civil war and dynastic rivalries. Dmitry took advantage of this lapse in Mongol authority to openly challenge the Tatars. While he kept the Khan's patent to collect taxes for all of Russia, Dmitry is also famous for leading the first Russian military victory over the Mongols. Mamai, a Mongol general and claimant to the throne, tried to punish Dmitry for attempting to increase his power. In 1378 Mamai sent a Mongol army, but it was defeated by Dmitry's forces in the Battle of Vozha River.  Two years later Mamai personally led a large force against Moscow. Sergius of Radonezh blessed Dmitry Donskoy when he went to fight the Tatars in the signal Battle of Kulikovo field, but only after he was certain Dmitry had pursued all peaceful means of resolving the conflict. Sergius sent the two warrior monks Alexander Peresvet and his friend Rodion Oslyabya to join the Russian troops. The battle of Kulikovo was opened by single combat between two champions. The Russian champion was Alexander Peresvet. The Horde champion was Temir-murza. The champions killed each other in the first run. Dmitry then met defeated the Horde. In gratitude for the victory, Dmitry established the Dormition monastery on the Dubenka River and built a church in honor of the Nativity of the Holy Theotokos over the graves of the fallen warriors.  The defeated Mamai was presently dethroned by a rival Mongol general, Tokhtamysh. That khan reasserted Mongol rule of Rus and overran Moscow in 1382 for Dmitry's resistance to Mamai. Dmitry, however, pledged his loyalty to Tokhtamysh and to the Golden Horde and was reinstated as Mongol principal tax collector and Grand Duke of Vladimir. Upon his death in Moscow in 1389, Dmitry was the first Grand Duke to bequeath his titles to his son Vasili I of Russia without consulting the Khan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "He was married to Eudoxia of Nizhniy Novgorod. She was a daughter of Dmitry of Suzdal and Vasilisa of Rostov. They had at least twelve children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (, also known as Dimitrii or Demetrius), or Dmitry of the Don, sometimes referred to simply as Dmitry (12 October 1350 – 19 May 1389), son of Ivan II the Fair of Moscow (1326–1359), reigned as the Prince of Moscow from 1359 and Grand Prince of Vladimir from 1363 to his death. He was the first prince of Moscow to openly challenge Mongol authority in Russia. His nickname, Donskoy (i.e., \"of the Don\"), alludes to his great victory against the Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380), which took place on the Don River. He is venerated as a Saint in the Orthodox Church with his feast day on 19 May(O.S.), or June 1.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971585}
{"src_title": "Safavid dynasty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Genealogy—ancestors of the Safavids and its multi-cultural identity.", "content": "The Safavid Kings themselves claimed to be sayyids, family descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, although many scholars have cast doubt on this claim. There seems now to be a consensus among scholars that the Safavid family hailed from Iranian Kurdistan, and later moved to Azerbaijan, finally settling in the 11th century CE at Ardabil. Traditional pre-1501 Safavid manuscripts trace the lineage of the Safavids to the Kurdish dignitary, Firuz-Shah Zarrin-Kolah.  According to historians, including Vladimir Minorsky and Roger Savory, the Safavids were of Turkicized Iranian origin:  By the time of the establishment of the Safavid empire, the members of the family were Turkicized and Turkish-speaking, and some of the Shahs composed poems in their then-native Turkish language. Concurrently, the Shahs themselves also supported Persian literature, poetry and art projects including the grand \"Shahnameh\" of Shah Tahmasp, while members of the family and some Shahs composed Persian poetry as well.  The authority of the Safavids was religiously based, and their claim to legitimacy was founded on being direct male descendants of Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, and regarded by the Shiʻa as the first Imam.  Furthermore, the dynasty was from the very start thoroughly intermarried with both Pontic Greek as well as Georgian lines. In addition, from the official establishment of the dynasty in 1501, the dynasty would continue to have many intermarriages with both Circassian as well as again Georgian dignitaries, especially with the accession of Tahmasp I.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The Safavid family was a literate family from its early origin. There are extant Tati and Persian poetry from Shaykh Safi ad-din Ardabili as well as extant Persian poetry from Shaykh Sadr ad-din. Most of the extant poetry of Shah Ismail I is in Azerbaijani pen-name of Khatai. Sam Mirza, the son of Shah Ismail as well as some later authors assert that Ismail composed poems both in Turkish and Persian but only a few specimens of his Persian verse have survived. A collection of his poems in Azeri were published as a Divan. Shah Tahmasp who has composed poetry in Persian was also a painter, while Shah Abbas II was known as a poet, writing Azerbaijani verses. Sam Mirza, the son of Ismail I was himself a poet and composed his poetry in Persian. He also compiled an anthology of contemporary poetry.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Safavid dynasty (;, ) was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran from 1501 to 1736. The Safavid dynasty had its origin in the Safavid order of Sufism, which was established in the city of Ardabil in the Azerbaijan region. It was an Iranian dynasty of Kurdish origin but during their rule they intermarried with Turkoman, Georgian, Circassian, and Pontic Greek dignitaries. From their base in Ardabil, the Safavids established control over parts of Greater Iran and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region, thus becoming the first native dynasty since the Sasanian Empire to establish a national state officially known as Iran.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971586}
{"src_title": "Titus Pomponius Atticus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born Titus Pomponius in Rome, Atticus descended from a family of equestrian rank and was the son of Titus Pomponius and Caecilia. He had a sister named Pomponia. Growing up, he studied and developed close friendships with Cicero, Lucius Manlius Torquatus, and Gaius Marius the Younger. He is said to have been an excellent student, and in 85 BC, Atticus moved to Athens to further his education, particularly in philosophy. His love of Athens inspired his self-appointed nickname \"Atticus\", or \"Man of Attica\", which is mentioned in the fifth book of Cicero's \"\" (section 4). During his visit to Athens, Julius Caesar was Atticus's guest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Atticus inherited family money, which he successfully invested in real estate, enhancing his wealth. Using his income to support his love of letters, he had trained Roman slaves as scribes and taught them to make papyrus scrolls, allowing Atticus to publish, amongst other things, the works of his friend Cicero. His editions of Greek authors such as Plato, Demosthenes, and Aeschines were prized for their accuracy in the ancient world. None of Atticus's own writings have survived, but he is known to have written one book (in Ancient Greek) on Cicero's consulship, the \"Liber Annalis\" (a work on Roman chronology), and a small amount of Roman poetry.  In 65 BC, Atticus returned from Athens to Rome. In keeping with his Epicurean sympathies, he kept out of politics to the greatest extent possible, except to lend Cicero a helping hand in times of peril — for instance, when Cicero was forced to flee the country in 49 BC, Atticus made him a present of 250,000 sesterces. All in all, his political activity was minimal, though we know that, like Cicero, he belonged to the \"optimates\" (the aristocratic party), and held generally conservative views. He was also a partner of the Triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus.  Upon the death of his wealthiest maternal uncle Quintus Caecilius, Atticus became his adopted son and heir, assuming the name Quintus Caecilius Pomponianus Atticus. Lucius Licinius Lucullus, despite being his personal friend, resented Atticus's receiving an inheritance he felt he was entitled to for his association with the campaign against Mithridates and as Governor of Syria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "In his later years, he married a relative, Caecilia Pilea/Pilia ( – 46 BC), daughter of Pileus/Pilius and a maternal granddaughter of the Triumvir, Crassus. Atticus and Pilea/Pilia were married in 58/56 BC, when Atticus was already 53/54 years old, and she died after 12 years of happy marriage. She bore him a son of the same name, Titus Pomponius Atticus (of whom little is known), as well as a daughter, Caecilia Pomponia Attica, who became the first wife of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Atticus lived out the remainder of his life in Rome. Just after his 77th birthday he fell ill, and at first his ailment appeared minor. But after three months his health suddenly deteriorated. Deciding to accelerate the inevitable, he abstained from ingesting any nourishment, starving himself to death, and dying on the fifth day of such fasting, \"which was the 31st March, in the consulship of Cn. Domitius and C. Sosius\", that is in the year 32 BC. He was buried at the family tomb located at the Fifth Mile of the Appian Way.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Titus Pomponius Atticus ( – 31 March 32 BC; also known as Quintus Caecilius Pomponianus) was a Roman editor, banker, and patron of letters, best known for his correspondence and close friendship with prominent Roman statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero. Atticus was from a wealthy Roman family of the equestrian class (lower aristocratic non-ruling class) and from the Pomponian gens.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971587}
{"src_title": "Büdingen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "Büdingen is in the south of the Wetterau below the Vogelsberg hills at an altitude of approx. 160 meters. The city is situated 15 km northwest of Gelnhausen and about 40 km east from Frankfurt am Main. Historically, the city belongs to Oberhessen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "Büdingen is situated in a wet and swampy valley. The castle and the old town therefore rest on centuries-old oak planks, placed horizontally across vertical beech piles (poles). The water level has to be kept high enough so that no air can reach these foundations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Districts.", "content": "Since 1972, the municipality includes the following formerly independent villages: Aulendiebach, Büches, Büdingen (core or centre), Calbach, Diebach am Haag, Düdelsheim (the largest municipality), Dudenrod, Eckartshausen, Lorbach, Michelau, Orleshausen, Rinderbügen, Rohrbach, Vonhausen, Wolf, and Wolferborn.  In the same year, the district (\"Landkreis\") of Büdingen was dissolved, and Büdingen and the district of Friedberg formed the \"Wetteraukreis\", with Friedberg becoming the new district capital.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Around 700 the wooden church of Saint Remigius was built by an unknown lord. In 847 a \"Büdingen\" was named in a document for the first time, but it is not clear which Büdingen was meant, because there are some other smaller towns with the same name in Germany and Lorraine. An additional floor was added to St. Remigius's church in about 1050 and the building has basically remained unchanged since then.  In 1131 the House of Büdingen were mentioned for the first time. They became Burggrafen of Gelnhausen in 1155. The \"villa\" () Büdingen was officially mentioned in 1206. The ruling House of Büdingen died out with Gerlach II before 1247.  Their heirs were the houses of Hohenlohe-Brauneck, of Isenburg-Kempenich, of Trimberg, of Hohenlohe and of Isenburg. On 26 July 1330, Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV granted the status of a market town to Luther of Büdingen.  With his edict of liberty in 1353, Burggraf Heinrich II granted freedom and some independence to the people of Büdingen. In return the people had to defend the city, so the Marksmen's Society was founded. This society still exists today as one of the oldest rifle associations in Germany.  Since 1442 the masters of Büdingen have been known as Grafen of Isenburg-Büdingen. After a local war, Graf Ludwig II built an enormous new defensive wall with 22 towers around the old stronghold between 1480 and 1510. These walls are still nearly completely extant and they are one of the most important medieval fortifications in Germany.  In 1521, Martin Luther allegedly passed through. In the same year, the town became Protestant, later to become Calvinist.  In 1576, the Black Death killed many inhabitants, as it did again in 1632.  In 1590, a great fire destroyed many buildings.  Between 1633 and 1634 114 people were victims of witch hunting, although the first prosecutions took place in 1567. During the Thirty Years' War, in 1634, the town was taken by Imperial troops, who defeated the Swedish occupants.  In 1578 Emperor Rudolf II rewarded the Grafen/Counts of Büdingen with the \"Jubilate\"-market (from the Latin word jubilate: \"to praise\"); an occasion for feasting. In 1806 the County of Ysenburg-Büdingen was annexed to the Principality of Isenburg-Birstein. After the Congress of Vienna, the Principality of Isenburg was divided in 1816 between the Grand Duchy of Hessen-Darmstadt and the Electorate of Hessen; Büdingen went to Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1840, Graf Ernst Casimir III was promoted by a decree of the Grand Duke to the status of hereditary prince.  In 1601 Graf Wolfgang Ernst founded the Latin School, known today as the Wolfgang-Ernst-Gymnasium. In 1712 Graf Ernst Casimir I issued an edict of tolerance permitting religious dissenters to settle in Büdingen. As a result, by 1724 there was a suburb at the Lower Gate (Jerusalem Gate) where Huguenots, Waldensians, sectarians, and other separationists lived.  In 1822, administration and justice were split in the Grand-Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt. Büdingen became seat of the Büdingen counties lawcourt, which was followed in 1852 by the installation of the district of Büdingen. In 1839, the laborers' school (later called the trade school) was founded. The Mathildenhospital was built between 1867 and 1868. In 1879, a credit union (today the \"Volksbank\"), was founded. In 1936 Büdingen became a garrison town; U.S. troops were stationed there since 1945. The last American troops (1st Squadron, 1st Cavalry Regiment) departed Büdingen on 15 August 2007, ending 71 years of town history as a military garrison.  Mail service between Büdingen and Frankfurt am Main began in 1739: one mail coach and two mounted messengers a week. The Gießen–Gelnhausen railway, including Büdingen station was opened between Büdingen and Gelnhausen on 30 November 1870. In 1879 the new Gymnasium was built, including a gym and the principal's residence. Between 1888 and 1895 built a water main and began partial installation of a sewage system. The municipal gas works was established in 1910, and Büdingen received electric light in 1913.  Other personalities associated with the town:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Büdingen is a town in the Wetteraukreis, in Hesse, Germany. It is mainly known for its well-preserved, heavily fortified medieval town wall and half-timbered houses.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971588}
{"src_title": "Yves Montand", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Montand was born Ivo Livi in Monsummano Terme, Italy, to Giovanni Livi, a broom manufacturer, and Giuseppina Simoni, a devout Catholic, while her husband held strong Communist beliefs. Montand's family left for France in 1923 because of Italy's Fascist regime. He grew up in Marseille, where, as a young man, he worked in his sister's beauty salon (Salon de Coiffure), and later on the docks. He began a career in show business as a music-hall singer. In 1944, he was discovered by Édith Piaf in Paris and she made him part of her act.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Montand went on to international recognition as a singer and actor, starring in numerous films. His recognizably crooner songs, especially those about Paris, became instant classics. He was one of the most famous performers at Bruno Coquatrix's famous Paris Olympia music hall, and toured with musicians including Didi Duprat. In October 1947, he sang \"Mais qu'est-ce que j'ai?\" (music by Henri Betti and lyrics by Édith Piaf) at the \"Théâtre de l'Étoile\". Betti also asked him to sing \"C'est si bon\" but Montand refused. Following the success of the recording of this song by the Sœurs Étienne in 1948, he decided to record it.  During his career, Montand acted in a number of American motion pictures as well as on Broadway. He was nominated for a César Award for \"Best Actor\" in 1980 for \"I comme Icare\" and again in 1984 for \"Garçon!\" In 1986, after his international box-office draw power had fallen off considerably, the 65-year-old Montand gave one of his most memorable performances, as the scheming uncle in the two-part film \"Jean de Florette\", co-starring Gérard Depardieu, and \"Manon des Sources\", co-starring Emmanuelle Béart. The film was a worldwide critical hit and raised Montand's profile in the US, where he made an appearance on \"Late Night with David Letterman\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1951, he married Simone Signoret, and they co-starred in several films throughout their careers. The marriage was, by all accounts, fairly harmonious, lasting until her death in 1985, although Montand had a number of well-publicized affairs, notably with Marilyn Monroe, with whom he starred in one of her last films, \"Let's Make Love\". He was the stepfather to Signoret’s daughter from her prior marriage, Catherine Allégret.  Montand's only child, Valentin, his son by his second wife, Carole Amiel, was born in 1988. In a paternity suit that rocked France, another woman accused Montand of being the father of her daughter and went to court to obtain a DNA sample from him. Montand refused, but the woman persisted even after his death. In a court ruling that made international headlines, the woman won the right to have Montand exhumed and a sample taken. The results indicated that he was probably not the girl's biological father.  Signoret and Montand had a home in Autheuil-Authouillet, Normandy, where the main village street is named after him.  In his later years he maintained a home in St Paul de Vence, Provence, until his death from a heart attack in November 1991. In an interview, Jean-Jacques Beineix said, \"[H]e died on the set [of \"IP5: The Island of Pachyderms\"]... On the very last day, after his very last shot. It was the very last night and we were doing retakes. He finished what he was doing and then he just died. And the film tells the story of an old man who dies from a heart attack, which is the same thing that happened!\" Montand is interred next to his first wife, Simone Signoret, in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.  In 2004, Catherine Allegret, Signoret's daughter, alleged in her autobiography \"\"Un Monde a L'envers\"\" (A World Upside Down), that she had been sexually abused by her stepfather at the age of five and that he had a \"more than equivocal attitude to her\" as she got older. However she also claimed to have been reconciled to him in the latter years of his life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ivo Livi (), better known as Yves Montand (; 13 October 1921 – 9 November 1991), was an Italian-French actor and singer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971589}
{"src_title": "Johannes R. Becher", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Johannes R. Becher was born in Munich in 1891, the son of Judge Heinrich Becher and his wife Johanna, née Bürck. He attended local schools.  In April 1910, Becher and Fanny Fuss, a young woman he had encountered in January of that year, planned a joint suicide; Becher shot them both, killing her and wounding himself severely. His father succeeds in quashing the case of killing on demand. Becher is certified insanity. His early poetry was filled with struggling to come to terms with this event.  From 1911 he studied medicine and philosophy in college in Munich and Jena. He left his studies and became an expressionist writer, his first works appearing in 1913. An injury from his suicide attempt made him unfit for military service/ and he became addicted to morphine, which he struggled with for the rest of the decade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activity in Germany.", "content": "He was also engaged in many communist organisations, joining the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1917, then went over to the Spartacist League in 1918 from which emerged the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). In 1920 he left the KPD, disappointed with the failure of the German Revolution, and embraced religion. In 1923, he returned to the KPD and very actively worked within the party.  His art entered an expressionist period, from which he would later dissociate himself. He was part of \"die Kugel\", an artistic group based in Magdeburg. During this time, he published in the magazines \"Verfall und Triumph\", \"Die Aktion\" (The Action) and \"Die neue Kunst\".  In 1925 government reaction against his anti-war novel, \"(CHCI=CH)As (Levisite) oder Der einzig gerechte Krieg,\" resulted in his being indicted for \"\"literarischer Hochverrat\"\" or \"literary high treason\". It was not until 1928 that this law was amended.  That year, Becher became a founding member of the KPD-aligned Association of Proletarian-Revolutionary Authors (Bund proletarisch-revolutionärer Schriftstellers), serving as its first chairman and co-editor of its magazine, \"Die Linkskurve\". From 1932 Becher became a publisher of the newspaper, \"Die Rote Fahne\". In the same year he was elected representing the KPD to the Reichstag.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fleeing from Nazis.", "content": "After the Reichstag fire, Becher was placed on the Nazi blacklist, but he escaped from a large raid in the Berlin artist colony near Breitenbachplatz in Wilmersdorf. By March 15, 1933 he, with the support of the secretary of the Association of Proletarian-Revolutionary Authors, traveled to the home of Willy Harzheim. After staying briefly in Brno, he moved to Prague after some weeks.  He traveled on to Zurich and Paris, where he lived for a time as part of the large émigré community. There his portrait was done by the Hungarian artist, Lajos Tihanyi, whom he befriended.  Finally, in 1935 Becher emigrated to the USSR as did other members of the central committee of the KPD. In Moscow he became editor-in-chief of the German émigré magazine, \"Internationale Literatur-Deutsche Blätter.\" He was selected as a member of the Central Committee of the KPD. Soon Becher was caught up in the midst of the Great Purge. In 1935 he was accused of links with Leon Trotsky. Becher tried to save himself by “informing” on other writers' alleged political misdemeanors. From 1936, he was forbidden to leave the USSR. During this period, he struggled with depression and tried several times to commit suicide.  The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 horrified German communists. Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the government evacuated the German communists to internal exile. Becher was evacuated to Tashkent, as were most of the communist émigrés. It became the center of evacuation for hundreds of thousands of Russians and Ukrainians from the war zones, and the government relocated industry here to preserve some capacity from the Germans.  During his time in Tashkent, he befriended Georg Lukács, the Hungarian philosopher and literary critic, who was also evacuated there. They intensively studied 18th- and 19th-century literature together, after which Becher turned from modernism to Socialist Realism.  Becher was recalled to Moscow by 1942. In 1943, he became one of the founders of the National Committee for a Free Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Return to East Germany.", "content": "After the Second World War, Becher returned to Germany with a KPD team, where he settled in the Soviet zone of occupation. There he was appointed to various cultural-political positions. He took part in the establishment of the Cultural Association, to \"revive German culture,\" and founded the Aufbau-Verlag publishing house and the literature magazine, \"Sinn und Form\". He also contributed to the satirical magazine, \"Ulenspiegel\".  In 1946, Becher was selected for the Party Executive Committee and the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party. After the establishment of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) on 7 October 1949, he became a member of the Volkskammer. He also wrote the lyrics to Hanns Eisler's melody \"Auferstanden aus Ruinen,\" which became the national anthem of the GDR.  That year, he helped establish the DDR Academy of Arts, Berlin. He served as its president from 1953 to 1956, succeeding Arnold Zweig. In January 1953 he received the Stalin Peace Prize (later renamed the Lenin Peace Prize) in Moscow.  In Leipzig in 1955, the German Institute for Literature was founded and originally named in Becher's honor. The Institute's purpose was to train socialist writers. Institute graduates include Erich Loest, Volker Braun, Sarah Kirsch and Rainer Kirsch.  From 1954 to 1958, Becher served as Minister of Culture of the GDR. During the Khrushchev Thaw, Becher fell out of favor. Internal struggles of the party eventually lead to his political demotion in 1956.  Late in his life, Becher began to renounce socialism. His book \"Das poetische Prinzip\" [The Poetic Principle] wherein he calls socialism the fundamental error of his life [\"Grundirrtum meines Lebens\"] was only published in 1988.  The following year, in declining health, Becher gave up all his offices and functions in September 1958. He died of cancer on 11 October 1958 in the East Berlin government hospital. Becher was buried at the Dorotheenstadt cemetery in the Berlin center, with his gravesite designated as a \"grave of honor\" () of Berlin. Becher lived in Majakowskiring 34 street, Pankow, East Berlin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and honours.", "content": "Although the party praised Becher after his death as the \"greatest German poet in recent history\", his work was criticised by younger East German authors as backward and politically embarrassing. Examples include Katja Lange-Müller who called him a \"Neanderthal minister of culture [Neandertaler von Kulturminister]\".  Official awards and honours include the following:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johannes Robert Becher (, 22 May 1891 – 11 October 1958) was a German politician, novelist, and poet. He was affiliated with the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) before World War II. At one time, he was part of the literary avant-garde, writing in an expressionist style.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971590}
{"src_title": "Jacob L. Moreno", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Jacob Levy Moreno was born in Bucharest in the Kingdom of Romania. His father was Moreno Nissim Levy, a Sephardi Jewish merchant born in 1856 in Plevna in the Ottoman Empire (today Pleven, Bulgaria). Jacob's grandfather Buchis had moved to Plevna from Constantinople, where his ancestors had settled after they left Spain in 1492. It is thought that the Morenos left Plevna for Bucharest during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, following the Plevna rabbi, Haim Bejarano in search of a more hospitable environment. Jacob Moreno's mother, Paulina Iancu or Wolf, was also a Sephardi Jew, born in 1873, and originated from Călăraşi, Romania.  In 1895, a time of great intellectual creativity and political turmoil, the family moved to Vienna. He studied medicine, mathematics, and philosophy at the University of Vienna, becoming a Doctor of Medicine in 1917. He had rejected Freudian theory while still a medical student, and became interested in the potential of group settings for therapeutic practice.  In his autobiography, Moreno recalls this encounter with Sigmund Freud in 1912. \"I attended one of Freud’s lectures. He had just finished an analysis of a telepathic dream. As the students filed out, he singled me out from the crowd and asked me what I was doing. I responded, 'Well, Dr. Freud, I start where you leave off. You meet people in the artificial setting of your office. I meet them on the street and in their homes, in their natural surroundings. You analyze their dreams. I give them the courage to dream again. You analyze and tear them apart. I let them act out their conflicting roles and help them to put the parts back together again.'\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and children.", "content": "In Brooklyn, New York, Moreno married Beatrice Beecher in 1926. The marriage ended in divorce, and in 1938 he married Florence Bridge, with whom he had one child, Regina Moreno (born 1939). They too were divorced, and he married Zerka Toeman in 1949, with whom he had one child Jonathan D. Moreno (born 1952).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "While living in Vienna in the early 1900s Moreno started an improvisational theater company, \"Stegreiftheater\", the Theater of Spontaneity where he formulated a form of psychotherapy he called psychodrama, which employed improvised dramatizations, role-plays and other therapeutic, spontaneous dramatic expressions that utilized and unleashed the spontaneity and creativity of the group and its individual members. Moreno saw \"psychodrama as the next logical step beyond psychoanalysis.\" It was \"an opportunity to get into action instead of just talking, to take the role of the important people in our lives to understand them better, to confront them imaginatively in the safety of the therapeutic theater, and most of all to become more creative and spotantaneous human beings.\"  In his book \"Who Shall Survive?\" (Preludes, p.xxviii) Moreno wrote of the genesis of his Group Psychotherapy in 1913-14 in Vienna, formulating his ideas while working with groups of prostitutes.  Moving to the U.S.A. in 1925, he began working in New York City. There, Moreno worked on his theory of interpersonal relations, and the development of his work in psychodrama, sociometry, group psychotherapy, sociodrama, and sociatry. In his autobiography he wrote \"only in New York, the melting pot of the nations, the vast metropolis, with all its freedom from all preconceived notions, could I be free to pursue sociometric group research in the grand style I had envisioned\".  The New York Times wrote “He found that acceptance of his theories was slow, particularly because some colleagues deplored his showmanship.”  He worked at the Plymouth Institute, Brooklyn, and at Mount Sinai Hospital. In 1929, he founded an Impromptu Theater at Carnegie Hall and later did work at the Guild Theater. He made studies of sociometry at Sing Sing Prison in 1931. In 1936, he founded the Beacon Hill Sanitarium, and the adjacent Therapeutic Theater.  He later held positions at Columbia University and the New School for Social Research.  In 1932, Moreno first introduced group psychotherapy to the American Psychiatric Association, and co-authored the monograph \"Group Method and Group Pschotherapy\" with Helen Hall Jennings. He and Jennings were the first to use a stochastic network model (or, \"chance sociogram\", as they called it), predating the Erdős–Rényi model and the network model of Anatol Rapoport.  For the next 40 years he developed and introduced his Theory of Interpersonal Relations and tools for social sciences he called'sociodrama', 'psychodrama','sociometry', and'sociatry'. In his monograph entitled, \"The Future of Man's World\", he describes how he developed these sciences to counteract \"the economic materialism of Marx, the psychological materialism of Freud, and the technological materialism\" of our modern industrial age. His autobiography describes his position as \"threefold:  Moreno died in New York City in 1974, aged 84. He chose to die by abstaining from all food and water after a long illness. His ashes are buried at Feuerhalle Simmering in Vienna. His epitaph, at his request, reads \"Der mann, der freude und lachen in die psychiatre brechte\" (The man who brought joy and laughter to psychiatry).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Summary of contribution.", "content": "There is evidence that the methods of J. L. Moreno have held up respectably over time. Subsequent research from the University of Vienna shows the enormous influence that Moreno's theory of the Encounter (\"Invitations to an Encounter\", 1914) had on the development of Martin Buber's I-Thou philosophy, and Buber's influence on philosophy, theology, and psychology. His wife, Zerka Moreno, wrote: \"While it is true that Buber broadened the idea of the Encounter, he did not create the instruments for it to occur.\" Moreno \"produced the various instruments we now use for facilitating the human encounter, sociometry, group psychotherapy, psychodrama, and sociodrama\". Zerka was herself an expert in psychodrama and sociometry, and continued her late husband's work.  With training centers and institutes on nearly every continent, there are many thousands of students who are expanding and developing training and teaching the Morenean Arts and Sciences across the disciplines, to more fully realize Moreno's vision to make these social sciences available for \"the whole of [hu]mankind.\"  Moreno is also widely credited as one of the founders of the discipline of social network analysis, the branch of sociology that deals with the quantitative evaluation of an individual's role in a group or community by analysis of the network of connections between them and others.  His 1934 book \"Who Shall Survive?\" contains some of the earliest graphical depictions of social networks (sociograms). In this book, he introduced a famous explanation, why a pandemic of runaways emerged at the New York Training School for Girls in Hudson.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacob Levy Moreno (born Iacob Levy; May 18, 1889 – May 14, 1974) was a Romanian-American psychiatrist, psychosociologist, and educator, the founder of psychodrama, and the foremost pioneer of group psychotherapy. During his lifetime, he was recognized as one of the leading social scientists.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971591}
{"src_title": "Renault Kangoo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Kangoo I (1997–2007).", "content": "The first generation Kangoo was introduced in October 1997, and was facelifted in March 2003, with new front end nose styling, especially the grille, standardised across the Renault range, with the Renault diamond mounted on a body colour panel in the centre of the grille and teardrop headlamps.  The rear windows and seats of the Kangoo could be removed, producing the panel van Kangoo Express. The Kangoo became popular with mobility impaired and wheelchair users due to its height and accessibility, and because it could be adapted to include mounting points for wheelchairs. The rear of the vehicle is cut to allow a ramp to be fitted. A pair of front tie downs are fitted (retractable seat belts with a solonoid release to allow them to be extended, passed around the wheelchair frame, and then locked back when the solonoid is switched off and they retract); this stops the wheelchair from moving back. A pair of rear tie downs with the normal clamping buckles stop the wheelchair from moving forward. A normal, long seat belt is worn by the wheelchair user.  Both the Kangoo and Kangoo Express were available in four-wheel drive versions and a lengthened version was available, with an increased cargo area. A pickup version was sold in the Swedish market. In some countries, such as Malaysia, the Kangoo was assembled by Nissan with third row seats.  A badge-engineered version of the Kangoo panel van was sold as the Nissan Kubistar, sold by Nissan from 1997 to 2009. From July 2003, \"Wallace and Gromit\" starred in adverts in the United Kingdom for the Kangoo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Break'Up.", "content": "The Kangoo Break'Up was a four wheel drive concept car announced in August 2002 and previewed the facelift design due in 2003, together with a pick up-style rear. It was powered by 1.6 L engine producing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Four wheel drive.", "content": "The 4WD version of the Kangoo was introduced in 2002, and was marketed under the model name Trekka. It should not be confused with the Skoda powered New Zealand built utility vehicle named Trekka, which was marketed in the Antipodes for several years circa 1970.  The Kangoo Trekka's all wheel drive system differed from the Renault Scenic RX4 in its inclusion of a Nissan sourced automatic torque coupling \"ATC\", a hydraulic coupling that would engage drive on all four wheels should the front wheels start to lose traction.  This allowed the Kangoo Trekka to run in front wheel drive in most conditions, thus saving fuel. Working in combination with the ATC, the Kangoo Trekka featured an electronically controlled \"ASR\" traction control system which could brake the front wheels to arrest traction loss.  The suspension on the front had longer front struts with revised coil springs, lower suspension arms were revised to a cast steel item. The rear suspension was completely revised from the standard Kangoo torsion bar suspension beam axle to a fully independent coil sprung system with wishbones. The rear differential was centrally mounted with two driveshafts transmitting power to the rear wheels. All this was carried on a subframe which increased the ground clearance and wheel travel.  These changes gave the Kangoo Trekka a fording depth and 28 degree hill climbing capability. The Kangoo Trekka was marketed in the UK with a choice of two engines, the 1.6 L 16 valve petrol engine and the 1.9 L dCi common rail turbodiesel both with a five speed manual gearbox  In 2005, these models were priced at £12,600 and £13,600 respectively. The diesel produced a peak torque of and achieved over on the combined (urban and extra urban) fuel consumption test.  The petrol engine had a time of 14.3 seconds, and a combined fuel consumption of. The interior of the Kangoo Trekka was spartan. The rear bench seat could be folded forward to provide a loading area, with better access through the sliding side doors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Engines.", "content": "The Kangoo and Kangoo Express was/is available with a choice of multiple engines:  Some LPG and CNG variants of petrol engines have also been produced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electric vehicles based on Kangoo I.", "content": "Cleanova II is a hybrid electric drive train system, used in a vehicle based on Renault Kangoo, with two electric versions: full electric vehicle (FEV) and plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kangoo II (2007–present).", "content": "The New Renault Kangoo and New Renault Kangoo Express are based on the Scenic and manufactured in Maubeuge. Sales began in May 2007. A seven seat version, which is longer by 40cm, became available from July 2012.  They are also sold by Mercedes-Benz as the Mercedes-Benz Citan, with a revised front design, being launched in September 2012. In February 2012, Renault retired the Kangoo MPV, Espace, Laguna, Modus, and Wind lines in the United Kingdom.  A facelifted version of both the van and the passenger versions was available from the beginning of 2013.  During November 2018, it was announced Nissan will be badge engineering the Kangoo, turning it into its NV250.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Body styles.", "content": "The Kangoo is available in three wheelbase configurations: the Kangoo Express, the Kangoo Compact with a shorter wheelbase, and the Kangoo Express Maxi with a longer wheelbase – all three offered in passenger variants. The short wheelbase version was sold as the between 2009 and 2012.  The payload of the Kangoo Express and Express Maxi is between and depending on version and market, while the Kangoo Compact with its short wheelbase has a reduced payload of. The Kangoo Express Maxi has up to of usable floor length.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kangoo Z.E..", "content": "As part of its Z.E. electric car initiative, Renault has developed the Kangoo Z.E. model that is manufactured at its Maubeuge plant, and released the electric van for retail sales in October 2011.  A total of 3,652 Kangoo Z.E. utility vans were registered in France through December 2012, and, with 2,869 units delivered in 2012, the electric van became the top selling plug-in electric vehicle in the country. During 2011, the Kangoo Z.E. sold 991 units in Europe, and cumulative sales in the region reached 6,658 units sold in the region through December 2012, with global sales of 6,665 units.  Worldwide cumulative sales passed the 10,000 mark by the start of September 2013, representing about 10% of overall Kangoo van global sales. The Kangoo Z.E. is the leader of the small all electric van segment, and the best selling electric vehicle in France, with 9,125 units registered through June 2014. The Kangoo Z.E. is Europe's top selling all-electric light commercial vehicle, with global sales of 48,821 units delivered since inception through December 2019.  The Kangoo Z.E. has the same dimensions as the internal combustion model. It uses a synchronous electric motor with rotor coil. Its peak power is at 10,500rpm, while maximum torque is. Its top speed is capped electronically to.  The vehicle is powered by a 22 kWh lithium-ion battery pack that delivers a combined cycle range of NEDC that varies depending on factors such as type of road, temperature, speed or driving style. In November 2011, the Kangoo Z.E. was voted \"International Van of the Year\" for 2012. It was also elected \"Electric Vehicle of the Year\" in 2012 and 2013 by GreenFleet.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Renault Kangoo and the Renault Kangoo Express are a range of multi purpose vehicles manufactured and marketed by Renault across two generations since 1997 in commercial as well as passenger variants., the electric variant, the Renault Kangoo Z.E., is Europe's top selling all-electric light commercial vehicle, with global sales of 48,821 units since its inception in 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971592}
{"src_title": "Subsidiarity", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Political theory.", "content": "Alexis de Tocqueville's classic study, \"Democracy in America\", may be viewed as an examination of the operation of the principle of subsidiarity in early 19th century America. De Tocqueville noted that the French Revolution began with \"a push towards decentralization... in the end, an extension of centralization\". He wrote that \"Decentralization has, not only an administrative value, but also a civic dimension, since it increases the opportunities for citizens to take interest in public affairs; it makes them get accustomed to using freedom. And from the accumulation of these local, active, persnickety freedoms, is born the most efficient counterweight against the claims of the central government, even if it were supported by an impersonal, collective will.\" As Christian Democratic political parties were formed, they adopted the Catholic social teaching of subsidiarity, as well as the neo-Calvinist theological teaching of sphere sovereignty, with both Protestants and Roman Catholics agreeing \"that the principles of sphere sovereignty and subsidiarity boiled down to the same thing\".  The term \"subsidiarity\" is also used to refer to a tenet of some forms of conservative or libertarian thought in the United States. For example, conservative author Reid Buckley writes:  Will the American people never learn that, as a principle, to expect swift response and efficiency from government is fatuous? Will we never heed the principle of subsidiarity (in which our fathers were bred), namely that no public agency should do what a private agency can do better, and that no higher-level public agency should attempt to do what a lower-level agency can do better – that to the degree the principle of subsidiarity is violated, first local government, the state government, and then federal government wax in inefficiency? Moreover, the more powers that are invested in government, and the more powers that are wielded by government, the less well does government discharge its primary responsibilities, which are (1) defence of the commonwealth, (2) protection of the rights of citizens, and (3) support of just order.  The United Nations Development Programme's 1999 report on decentralisation noted that subsidiarity was an important principle. It quoted one definition:  Decentralization, or decentralising governance, refers to the restructuring or reorganisation of authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions of governance at the central, regional and local levels according to the principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and effectiveness of the system of governance, while increasing the authority and capacities of sub-national levels.  According to Richard Macrory, the positive effects of a political/economic system governed by the principle of subsidiarity include:  He writes that the negative effects of a political/economic system governed by the principle of subsidiarity include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General principle of European Union law.", "content": "Subsidiarity is perhaps presently best known as a general principle of European Union law. According to this principle, the Union may only act (i.e. make laws) collectively where independent action of individual countries is insufficient without equal action by other members. The principle was established in the 1992 Treaty of Maastricht. However, at the local level it was already a key element of the European Charter of Local Self-Government, an instrument of the Council of Europe promulgated in 1985 (see Article 4, Paragraph 3 of the Charter) (which states that the exercise of public responsibilities should be decentralised). Subsidiarity is related in essence to, but should not be confused with, the concept of a margin of appreciation.  Subsidiarity was established in EU law by the Treaty of Maastricht, which was signed on 7 February 1992 and entered into force on 1 November 1993. The present formulation is contained in Article 5(3) of the Treaty on European Union (consolidated version following the Treaty of Lisbon, which entered into force on 1 December 2009): Under the principle of subsidiarity, in areas which do not fall within its exclusive competence, the Union shall act only if and in so far as the objectives of the proposed action cannot be sufficiently achieved by the Member States, either at central level or at regional and local level, but can rather, by reason of the scale or effects of the proposed action, be better achieved at Union level.  The national parliaments of EU member states have an \"early warning mechanism\" whereby if one third raise an objection – a \"yellow card\" – on the basis that the principle of subsidiarity has been violated, then the proposal must be reviewed. If a majority do so – an \"orange card\" – then the Council or Parliament can vote it down immediately. If the logistical problems of putting this into practice are overcome, then the power of the national parliaments could be deemed an extra legislature, without a common debate or physical location: dubbed by EUObserver a \"virtual third chamber\".  A more descriptive analysis of the principle can be found in Protocol 2 to the European Treaties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Court of Justice.", "content": "The Court of Justice of the European Union in Luxembourg is the authority that has to decide whether a regulation falls within the exclusive competence of the Union, as defined by the Treaty of European Union and its predecessors. As the concept of subsidiarity has a political as well as a legal dimension, the Court of Justice has a reserved attitude toward judging whether EU legislation is consistent with the concept. The Court will examine only marginally whether the principle is fulfilled. A detailed explanation of the legislation is not required; it is enough that the EU institutions explain why national legislation seems inadequate and that Union law has an added value.  An example is the judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union in a legal action taken by the Federal Republic of Germany against the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union concerning a Directive on deposit guarantee schemes (13 May 1997). Germany argued that the Directive did not explain how it was compatible with the principle of subsidiarity. The Court answered:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Subsidiarity is a principle of social organization that holds that social and political issues should be dealt with at the most immediate (or local) level that is consistent with their resolution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971593}
{"src_title": "Vogtland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natural geography.", "content": "The landscape of the Vogtland is sometimes referred to as idyllic, bearing in mind its fields, meadows and wooded hilltops. In the south and southeast, Vogtland rises to a low or mid-height mountain range also called \"Oberes Vogtland\", or Upper Vogtland. Here, monocultural coniferous forest is the predominant form of vegetation. The Vogtland's highest mountain is Schneehübel, reaching 974 metres; another remarkable landmark is the Schneckenstein, above sea level, which gained some renown for its (falsely) alleged unique abundance of topaz crystals. Its mountains spread from Ore Mountains in the south-east to Fichtelgebirge in the south-west, some peaks also belonging to Elstergebirge.  Neighbouring regions are Frankenwald, Ore Mountains, Thüringer Schiefergebirge (\"Thuringian Slate Mountains\") and Fichtelgebirge. The south-eastern part of the Vogtland belongs to \"Ore Mountain/Vogtland Nature Park\", a protected area comparable to a national park.  In its northern part, which averages around 250m above sea level, the landscape is marked by several river valleys, as the White Elster, the Zwickauer Mulde and the Göltzsch have their spring in the Vogtland, while the Saale flows through Bavaria and Thuringia in the west of Vogtland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural geography.", "content": "The river valley geography in Vogtland's north made it necessary to build comparatively big bridges to channel railroad and automobile traffic streams. Especially famous is the \"Göltzsch Viaduct\" for being the world's largest bridge built of bricks and her \"little sister\", the \"Elster Viaduct\". Both of them are in use as railroad bridges closing the gap between Dresden and Nuremberg.  As road bridges are concerned, the major bridges forming part of the A 72 near Hof, Pirk and Weißensand are the most important ones, while one urban bridge poses as a rarity: The Syratal Viaduct is Europe's biggest mono-arch bridge made of chunked natural stone - to be found in Plauen, commonly called \"Friedensbrücke\".  Integral part of the Vogtland landscape are its reservoirs, the shores of which mostly are popular holiday and camping destinations.  Plauen, the largest town, is known as the \"capital of the Vogtland\" or, with a proud note, as \"Vogtlandmetropolis\". Other towns of regional significance are:  In Saxony:  In Thuringia:  In Bavaria:  In the Czech Republic:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The larger settlemental region surrounding Gera has been recorded in documents as early as the year 1000. It is thought to have been inhabited since late 7th or early 8th century by Slavic Settlers who tribally belonged to the Sorbs. Large portions of the Vogtland, however, were still covered with pristine forests and were not settled before the High Middle Ages, especially until the period called \"Deutsche Ostsiedlung\". Those settlers arrived mainly in eleventh and twelfth centuries, ethnically being Slavic or German, coming from areas of traditionally older settlement like Franconia, Thuringia and Saxony. Even today this can be traced along lines dividing dialectal areas, providing linguistic differences at close distances of settlement while demonstrating peculiar commonalities with varieties spoken in more distant regions of Germany. For instance, in a number of villages of the upper Vogtland even nowadays a dialect is spoken similar to that in \"Oberpfalz\" (/ou/ sounds instead of /u:/ as in \"Kou\" (en. \"cow\") etc.).  The place name Vogtland (formerly also known as \"Voigtland\", \"terra advocatorum\") originates in the rule of the Vogts in this region from the eleventh to the sixteenth century A.D., specifically in reference to the Vogts of Weida, Gera and Plauen. In the 12th century, Kaiser Barbarossa appointed the first Vogts as administrators of his imperial forest areas in the East to facilitate his rule. Their headquarters was the Osterburg at Weida, thus giving it the reputation as the cradle of the Vogtland. Among the privileges of the Vogts were the endowment over minerals still unextracted from the ground \"(Bergregal)\" and the entitlement to regulating mint and coinage affairs \"(Münzregal)\", which were both handed down to them by Kaiser Frederick II in 1232.  As in the 14th century claims to power by the Margraves of Meißen emerged, Henry of Plauen submitted to the tenure-based regnancy of the Bohemian Crown, excepting only the dominion of Voigtsberg, that stayed tenured to the Reich. In 1349, his equinomic son Henry also handed Voigtsberg over to Bohemian tenure; thus the whole Vogtland had become a Reichsafterlehn (a specific status of tenure). In 1357 an exchange of territories was agreed with by the Margraviate of Meißen, effectually making Wiedersberg, Liebau, Adorf, Pausa, Neuenkirchen and Hirschberg (among others) Meißenian while Borna, Geithein and Kohren were handed to the Vogt. The exchange was heavily disputed by branch line cousins of Henry's. The Lords of Plauen, as they called themselves, retrieved Auerbach, Pausa and Liebau as Meißenian tenure in 1379. Since 1426 the Lords of Plauen were Burggraves of Meißen and found themselves in constant power struggles with the Saxonian Kurfürsts.  King George of Podiebrad took the burning of the royal castle of Graslitz due to fights between Henry II of Plauen and his enemies to be an occasion to withdraw his tenure and have the Vogtland occupied by Ernest in 1466. Henry II von Plauen had fallen into disgrace with him for his open opposition against nobility. Thus, Ernest received tenure over the Vogtland which, at the occasion of the Leipziger Teilung in 1485, was transferred to the House of Ernest while keeping the \"Bergregal\" under joint control. In 1547, after the Battle of Mühlberg, the Ernestines forfeited the tenure over the Vogtland and Kaiser Ferdinand I handed it down to his Chancellor Henry IV of Plauen, making Maurice, Elector of Saxony co-tenant to the Vogtland tenure. Henry V and Henry VI could not settle up their debts towards Augustus, Elector of Saxony. Due to arrears in Tithe and other liabilities the Brothers impawned the Vogtland to Kursachsen in 1559.  With Heinrich VI the rule of the Vogts of Plauen over the Vogtland ended, as he could not redeem the pawn any more. In 1566, Augustus acquired the office and towns of Voigtsberg, Oelsnitz, Plauen and Pausa. Matters were furtherly resettled in 1657, among other transactions assigning office over Plauen, Voigtsberg and Pausa to the Duchy of Saxe-Zeitz while \"schriftsässige Rittergüter\" and the town of Schöneck remained in Kursaxon possession. In 1718, after the Duchy of Saxe-Zeitz line had vanished, the areas in concern reverted to Kursachsen. Asides from the Kursaxonian share, the forests around Auerbach and Schöneck remained an exceptional area being both Kursaxonian and ducal at the same time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation and infrastructure.", "content": "Two major motorways (A 72 and A 9) serve the Vogtland with connection to the surrounding regions and cities. Providing connections locally within the region and beyond state and national borders, Vogtlandbahn is a private railway company which operates the Vogtland Express. Vogtlandbahn services includes direct connections to Leipzig, Regensburg and Berlin independently from Deutsche Bahn and cooperates with Bohemian (Czech) railway company Viamont as well as with Bavaria-based Alex train services to provide further connections to Munich, Prague and further destinations of note in Euregio Egrensis and beyond. There is a bus service that runs from Vogtland to Berlin.  While the European Union develops into a Europe of Regions, Vogtland could experience an increase of significance for transiting traffic and tourism for the region of Euregio Egrensis, independently from the political meaning of Vogtlandkreis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vogtland (, ) is a region spanning the German federal states of Bavaria, Saxony and Thuringia and north-western Bohemia in the Czech Republic. It overlaps with and is largely contained within Euregio Egrensis. The name alludes to the former leadership by the Vögte (\"advocates\" or \"lords protector\") of Weida, Gera and Plauen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971594}
{"src_title": "Germinal (novel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The novel's central character is Étienne Lantier, previously seen in \"L'Assommoir\" (1877), and originally to have been the central character in Zola's \"murder on the trains\" thriller \"La Bête humaine\" (1890) before the overwhelmingly positive reaction to \"Germinal\" persuaded him otherwise. The young migrant worker arrives at the forbidding coal mining town of Montsou in the bleak area of the far north of France to earn a living as a miner. Sacked from his previous job on the railways for assaulting a superior, Étienne befriends the veteran miner Maheu, who finds him somewhere to stay and gets him a job pushing the carts down the pit.  Étienne is portrayed as a hard-working idealist but also a naïve youth; Zola's genetic theories come into play as Étienne is presumed to have inherited his Macquart ancestors' traits of hotheaded impulsiveness and an addictive personality capable of exploding into rage under the influence of drink or strong passions. Zola keeps his theorizing in the background and Étienne's motivations are much more natural as a result. He embraces socialist principles, reading large amounts of working class movement literature and fraternizing with Souvarine, a Russian anarchist and political émigré who has also come to Montsou to seek a living in the pits. Étienne's simplistic understanding of socialist politics and their rousing effect on him are very reminiscent of the rebel Silvère in the first novel in the cycle, \"La Fortune des Rougon\" (1871).  While this is going on, Étienne also falls for Maheu's daughter Catherine, also employed pushing carts in the mines, and he is drawn into the relationship between her and her brutish lover Chaval, a prototype for the character of Buteau in Zola's later novel \"La Terre\" (1887). The complex tangle of the miners' lives is played out against a backdrop of severe poverty and oppression, as their working and living conditions continue to worsen throughout the novel; eventually, pushed to breaking point, the miners decide to strike and Étienne, now a respected member of the community and recognized as a political idealist, becomes the leader of the movement. While the anarchist Souvarine preaches violent action, the miners and their families hold back, their poverty becoming ever more disastrous, until they are sparked into a ferocious riot, the violence of which is described in explicit terms by Zola, as well as providing some of the novelist's best and most evocative crowd scenes. The rioters are eventually confronted by police and the army that repress the revolt in a violent and unforgettable episode. Disillusioned, the miners go back to work, blaming Étienne for the failure of the strike; then, Souvarine sabotages the entrance shaft of one of the Montsou pits, trapping Étienne, Catherine and Chaval at the bottom. The ensuing drama and the long wait for rescue are among some of Zola's best scenes, and the novel draws to a dramatic close. Étienne is eventually rescued and fired but he goes on to live in Paris with Pluchart.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical context.", "content": "The title, \"Germinal\", is drawn from the springtime seventh month of the French Revolutionary Calendar and is meant to evoke imagery of germination, new growth and fertility. Accordingly, Zola ends the novel on a note of hope and one that has provided inspiration to socialist and reformist causes of all kinds throughout the years since its first publication:  By the time of Zola's death, the novel had come to be recognized as his undisputed masterpiece. At his funeral crowds of workers gathered, cheering the cortège with shouts of \"Germinal! Germinal!\". Since then the book has come to symbolize working class causes and to this day retains a special place in French mining-town folklore.  Zola was always very proud of \"Germinal\" and was always keen to defend its accuracy against accusations of hyperbole and exaggeration (from the conservatives) or of slander against the working classes (from the socialists). His research had been typically thorough, especially the parts involving lengthy observational visits to northern French mining towns in 1884, such as witnessing the after-effects of a crippling miners' strike first-hand at Anzin or actually going down a working coal pit at Denain. The mine scenes are especially vivid and haunting as a result.  A sensation upon original publication, it is now by far the best-selling of Zola's novels, both in France and internationally. A number of modern translations are currently in print and widely available.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The novel has been filmed a number of times, including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Germinal is the thirteenth novel in Émile Zola's twenty-volume series \"Les Rougon-Macquart\". Often considered Zola's masterpiece and one of the most significant novels in the French tradition, the novel – an uncompromisingly harsh and realistic story of a coalminers' strike in northern France in the 1860s – has been published and translated in over one hundred countries and has additionally inspired five film adaptations and two television productions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971595}
{"src_title": "Redemption (theology)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Christianity.", "content": "In Christian theology, redemption (Greek: \"apolutrosis\") refers to the deliverance of Christians from sin. It assumes an important position in salvation because the transgressions in question form part of a great system against which human power is helpless. Leon Morris says that \"Paul uses the concept of redemption primarily to speak of the saving significance of the death of Christ.\" In the New Testament, the redemption word group is used to refer both to deliverance from sin and freedom from captivity. In Christian theology, redemption is a metaphor for what is achieved through the Atonement; therefore, there is a metaphorical sense in which the death of Jesus pays the price of a ransom, releasing Christians from bondage to sin and death.  Most evangelical theologians and Protestant denominations reject Origen's argument that God paid the ransom price of redemption to Satan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hinduism.", "content": "A similar concept in Indian religions is called Prāyaścitta, which it is not related to theological sense of sin, but to expiation and personal liberation from guilt or sin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Islam.", "content": "In Islam, redemption is achieved through being a Muslim and doing no action that would forfeit one's identification with Islam, being of sincere faith (\"iman\") and doing virtuous actions. Muslim sinners need only turn to a merciful God in repentance and carry out other good deeds, such as prayer (\"salah\") and charity, for redemption. As a result of this view of redemption, Muslims have criticized alternative views on redemption, especially the Christian doctrine of original sin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Judaism.", "content": "In Judaism, redemption (Hebrew \"ge'ulah\") refers to God redeeming the people of Israel from their exiles, starting with that from Egypt. This includes the final redemption from the present exile.  In the Torah, redemption referred to the ransom of slaves (Exodus 21:8).  The concept of redemption is however a legal and transactional one in the Torah Halakha, including various sacrifices at the Temple in Jerusalem:  The concept also applies to redemption of real property such as fields and houses, stock animals, such as donkeys, produce, and specific items such as tefillin. It also means the liberation of an estate in real property from a mortgage.  Redemption also applies to individuals or groups: an Israelite slave, an Israelite captive, and the firstborn son \"pidyon haben\", () or redemption of the first-born son, is a mitzvah in Judaism whereby a Jewish firstborn son is redeemed from God by use of silver coins to a kohen. It is from these three cases that the concept of exilic redemption is derived because the People Israel are considered God's 'firstborn' derived from Jacob, who are God's slaves forever, but are currently held captive, even while they reside in the modern state of Israel.  In Hasidic philosophy parallels are drawn between the redemption from exile and the personal redemption achieved when a person refines his character traits, although there is no source for this in the Talmud. Rather the Messianic redemption is linked to observing Shabbat, Jewish prayer, and the promise of redemption for those looking toward Mount Zion, the last being the original cultural source of 'Zionism'. As such, the original intent of Zionism was the redemption process by which the Land of Israel that has been pledged to the Israelites is reclaimed, accomplished through a payment of the debt owed to God as a fulfillment of the conditions set out in the Torah.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Redemption is an essential concept in many religions, including Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The English word \"redemption\" means'repurchase' or 'buy back'.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971596}
{"src_title": "Altan Khan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Consolidation of power.", "content": "Borjigin Barsboladiin Altan was the second son of Bars Bolud Jinong, and a grandson of Batumongke Dayan Khan who had re-unified the Mongolian nobility in an attempt to regain the glory of the Yuan dynasty. Altan Khan ruled the Tümed and belonged to the Right Wing of the Mongols along with his elder brother Gün Bilig, who ruled the Ordos. After Gün Bilig's death in 1542, Altan became the de facto leader of the whole of the Right Wing and was given the title, \"Tösheetü Sechen Khan\".  When Bodi Alagh Khan, the Khagan of the Mongols from the Chahar, died in 1547, Altan forced Bodi Alagh's successor Darayisung Küdeng Khan to flee eastward. In 1551 Darayisung made a compromise with Altan in exchange for giving the title \"Gegeen Khan\" to him. Altan Khan, who controlled the Ordos tumen of the Huang He or Yellow River was well placed to keep pressure on the Chinese and the Oirat Mongols in Tibet while developing both agriculture and trade.  Altan Khan also founded the city of Köke Khota (Hohhot, meaning \"The Blue City\"), now the capital of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. There is an impressive statue of him in one of the city's main squares.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alliance with the Gelug.", "content": "Altan Khan is particularly remembered for establishing ties between Mongolia and the religious leaders of the Tibetan Gelug order. Altan Khan first invited 3rd Dalai Lama to Tümed in 1569, but apparently he refused to go and sent a disciple instead, who reported back to him about the great opportunity to spread Buddhist teachings throughout Mongolia. In 1571, Altan Khan got the title \"Prince of Shunyi\" (Obedient and Righteous Prince) from the Longqing Emperor (March 4, 1537-July 5, 1572), the 12th emperor of China (Ming dynasty). In 1573, Altan Khan took some Tibetan Buddhist monks prisoner. The emperor also gave the Prince of Shunyi's new capital a new name, Guihua, meaning \"return to civilization\". The prince became very interested in Gelukpa, and Beijing was happy to provide him with Tibetan lamas, Tibetan scriptures, and translations.  Sonam Gyatso accepted Altan Khan's invitation to Tümed in 1577. Altan Khan later had Thegchen Chonkhor, Mongolia's first monastery, built at the place of the meeting. Also, the ruler of the Khalkha Mongols, Abtai Sain Khan, rushed to Tümed to meet the Dalai Lama. The Erdene Zuu Monastery was built by him in 1586, at the site of the former Mongol capital of Karakorum following his adoption of Buddhism as the state religion. This monastery is also often (wrongly) referred to as the first monastery in Mongolia and it grew into a massive establishment. In 1792, it contained 62 temples and some 10,000 lamas.  Sonam Gyatso publicly announced that he was a reincarnation of the Tibetan Sakya monk Drogön Chögyal Phagpa (1235–1280) who converted Kublai Khan, while Altan Khan was a reincarnation of Kublai Khan (1215–1294), the famous ruler of the Mongol Empire and Emperor of China, and that they had come together again to cooperate in propagating the Buddhist religion.  Altan Khan designated Sonam Gyatso as \"Dalai\" (a translation into Mongolian of the name Gyatso, meaning \"ocean\"). As a result, Sonam Gyatso became known as the Dalai Lama which, since then, has been used as a title – frequently translated into English as \"Ocean of Wisdom\". The title was also posthumously given to Gendun Drup and Gendun Gyatso, who were considered Sonam Gyatso's previous incarnations. Thus, Sonam Gyatso was recognized as being already the 3rd Dalai Lama.  Sonam Gyatso never returned to Tibet but remained proselytizing among the Mongols. The Tümed Mongols and their allies were brought into the Gelug tradition, which was to become the main spiritual orientation of the Mongols in the ensuing centuries.  Sonam Gyatso's message was that the time had come for Mongolia to embrace Buddhism, that from that time on there should be no more animal sacrifices, there must be no taking of life, animal or human, military action must be pursued only with purpose and the immolation of women on the funeral pyres of their husbands must be abolished. He also secured an edict abolishing the Mongol custom of blood-sacrifices. \"These and many other such laws were set forth by Gyalwa Sonam Gyatso and were instituted by Altan Khan.\"  A massive program of translating Tibetan (and Sanskrit) texts into Mongolian was commenced, with letters written in silver and gold and paid for by the Dalai Lama's Mongolian devotees. Within 50 years virtually all Mongols had become Buddhist, with tens of thousands of monks, who were members of the Gelug order, loyal to the Dalai Lama.  When Sonam Gyatso died in 1588, his incarnation – and thus, the new Dalai Lama – was Altan Khan's great-grandson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military exploits.", "content": "Altan Khan used his military strength to threaten the Ming dynasty of China. He led raids into inland China in 1529, 1530 and 1542 returning with plunder and livestock. In 1550 he crossed the Great Wall and besieged Beijing, setting the suburbs on fire. In 1552 Altan Khan gained control of the remains of Karakorum, the old Mongol capital. Longqing Emperor, the reigning emperor of Ming dynasty was forced to grant special trading rights to the khanate, after signing a peace treaty with him in 1571, allowing it to trade horses for silks, which further strengthened it economically. Altan Khan was also granted the title Prince Shunyi (\"prince who conforms to righteousness\") from the emperor. During his reign he made several successful military campaigns to the west against rebellious Oirats, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz, bringing them back under his rule.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Altan Khan died in 1582, only four years after meeting with the Third Dalai Lama. He was 74 or 75 years old at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Succession.", "content": "Altan Khan's title Prince of Shunyi was succeeded by his son Sengge Düüreng who was supported by the Ming court. Altan Khan's great-grandson, Yonten Gyatso, was selected as the 4th Dalai Lama.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Altan Khan of the Tümed (1507–1582; ; Chinese: 阿勒坦汗), whose given name was Anda ( in Mongolian; 俺答 in Chinese), was the leader of the Tümed Mongols and de facto ruler of the Right Wing, or western tribes, of the Mongols. He was the grandson of Dayan Khan (1464–1543), a descendant of Kublai Khan (1215–1294), who had managed to unite a tribal league between the Khalkha Mongols in the north and the Chahars (Tsakhars) to the south. His name means \"Golden Khan\" in the Mongolian language.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971597}
{"src_title": "Engelbert Humperdinck (composer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Humperdinck was born at Siegburg in the Rhine Province in 1854. After receiving piano lessons, he produced his first composition at the age of seven. His first attempts at works for the stage were two singspiele written when he was 13. His parents disapproved of his plans for a career in music and encouraged him to study architecture. Nevertheless, he began taking music classes under Ferdinand Hiller and Isidor Seiss at the Cologne Conservatory in 1872. In 1876, he won a scholarship that enabled him to go to Munich, where he studied with Franz Lachner and later with Josef Rheinberger. In 1879, he won the first Mendelssohn Award given by the Mendelssohn Stiftung (foundation) in Berlin. He went to Italy and became acquainted with Richard Wagner in Naples. Wagner invited him to join him in Bayreuth, and during 1880 and 1881 Humperdinck assisted in the production of \"Parsifal\". He also served as music tutor to Wagner's son, Siegfried.  After winning another prize, Humperdinck traveled through Italy, France, and Spain and spent two years teaching at the Gran Teatre del Liceu Conservatory in Barcelona. In 1887, he returned to Cologne. He was appointed professor at the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt in 1890 and also teacher of harmony at Julius Stockhausen's Vocal School. By this time he had composed several works for chorus and a \"Humoreske\" for small orchestra, which enjoyed a vogue in Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Hänsel und Gretel\".", "content": "Humperdinck's reputation rests chiefly on his opera \"Hänsel und Gretel\", on which he began work in Frankfurt in 1890. He first composed four songs to accompany a puppet show his nieces were giving at home. Then, using a libretto by his sister Adelheid Wette rather loosely based on the version of the fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm, he composed a singspiel of 16 songs with piano accompaniment and connecting dialogue. By January 1891 he had begun working on a complete orchestration.  The opera premiered in Weimar on 23 December 1893, under the baton of Richard Strauss. With its highly original synthesis of Wagnerian techniques and traditional German folk songs, \"Hansel and Gretel\" was an instant and overwhelming success.  \"Hansel and Gretel\" has always been Humperdinck's most popular work. In 1923 the Royal Opera House (London) chose it for their first complete radio opera broadcast. Eight years later, it was the first opera transmitted live from the Metropolitan Opera (New York).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "In 1896, Kaiser Wilhelm II made Humperdinck a Professor and he went to live at Boppard. Four years later, however, he went to Berlin where he was appointed head of a Meister-Schule of composition. His students included the Basque composer Andrés Isasi. Among his other stage works are:  While composing those works, Humperdinck held various teaching positions of distinction and collaborated in the theater, providing incidental music for a number of Max Reinhardt's productions in Berlin, for example, for Shakespeare's \"The Merchant of Venice\" in 1905.  Although recognized as a disciple of Wagner rather than an innovator, Humperdinck was nevertheless the first composer to use Sprechgesang—a vocal technique halfway between singing and speaking—in his melodrama \"Königskinder\" (1897).  In 1914, Humperdinck seems to have applied for the post of director of the Sydney Conservatorium of Music in Australia, but with the outbreak of World War I it became unthinkable for a German to hold that position, and the job went instead to Belgium's Henri Verbrugghen. Also in 1914, Humperdinck signed the Manifesto of the Ninety-Three, declaring support for German military actions during early World War I.  On 5 January 1912 Humperdinck suffered a severe stroke. Although he recovered, his left hand remained permanently paralyzed. He continued to compose, completing \"Gaudeamus\" with the help of his son, Wolfram, in 1918. On 26 September 1921 Humperdinck attended a performance of Carl Maria von Weber's \"Der Freischütz\" in Neustrelitz, Wolfram's first effort as a stage director. He suffered a heart attack during the performance and died the next day from a second heart attack. The Berlin State Opera performed \"Hansel and Gretel\" in his memory a few weeks later. He was buried at the in Stahnsdorf near Berlin.  For a list of Humperdinck's pupils, see.  In 1965, British singer Arnold Dorsey named himself after the composer.  The main belt asteroid 9913 Humperdinck, discovered in 1977, was named after the composer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Engelbert Humperdinck (; 1 September 1854 – 27 September 1921) was a German composer, who wrote the opera \"Hansel and Gretel\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971598}
{"src_title": "Wall plug", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Before commercial wall plugs, fixings were made to brick or masonry walls by chiselling a groove into a soft mortar joint, hammering in a crude wooden plug and then attaching to the wooden plug. This was time consuming and required a large hole, thus more patching of the wall afterwards. It also limited the holes' location to the mortar joints.  The original wall plug was invented by John Joseph Rawlings in 1911, and marketed under the name \"Rawlplug\". These plugs became popular after the First World War, when a demand for retro-fitting existing buildings with new electric lighting coincided with a shortage of labour, encouraging many new labour-saving innovations in the building trade. Rawlplug gained their prominence from their adoption in the British Museum.  Early wall plugs were thick-walled fibre tubes, made of parallel strings bonded with glue. The Rawlings brothers conducted thousand of trials using many diverse materials in their search for the perfect plug. Among the many solutions tested were plugs made of lead, zinc, natural and synthetic rubber, hemp fibres, glass, wood, and paper. They imported Indian jute as it possessed natural resistance to the effects of humidity and for particularly damp conditions they developed a range of white bronze plugs. Most current brands are plastic, first designed in 1958 by German inventor Artur Fischer, known as the Fischer Wall Plug.  Other varieties of wall plug are mechanical anchors for heavy duty loads and hollow wall fixings for fixing to plasterboard. The first mechanical anchor, the Rawlbolt, was designed in the 1930s by the Rawlplug company and the first fixing for hollow walls was the Toggle Bolt, which was also designed by Rawlplug in 1941.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Split-ribbed anchor.", "content": "Nowadays, one of the most common designs for light loads is the split-ribbed plastic anchor. It consist of two halves that increase their separation (split) as the screw penetrates between them. As its name suggests, this type of anchor also has ribs on the outside to prevent the anchor from slipping out of the hole as the screw is driven in. This type of anchor is also known as a \"conical screw anchor\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fibre and resin mixes.", "content": "On crumbling walls it may be difficult to drill a clean hole, or the force of the expanding plug may be enough to cause cracking. In these cases, a hardening liquid or putty mixture may be used instead.  One of the first of these mixtures was produced by Rawlplug and was composed of dry white asbestos fibres, sold loose in a tin. The user wetted some into a ball (usually by spitting on them) and pushed this plug of putty into the hole. A small tamper and spike was supplied with the kit. This putty worked very well, but the hazard of the asbestos fibres means that the product is no longer available. However, another way to fix wall plugs is accomplished by the application of a cotton woven pad which has been impregnated with a special formulated gypsum to bond into the wall. The pad is wetted and wrapped around the wall plug, and the two are inserted into the hole; after a short time it hardens and a strong bond is achieved and the wall fitting can be applied. It is used in combination with wall plugs in masonry, ceramic, wood and plasterboard walls.  Modern resin mixtures are based on polyester resins. Apart from their use in construction, they're also used in climbing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hollow walls.", "content": "There are special fasteners for hollow walls such as plasterboard partitions, which are not thick enough to take wall plugs. The fasteners have toggle arms, which either drop into place or expand within the cavity, and a fixing screw which is threaded through them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansion anchors.", "content": "These are often called \"lead anchors\" or \"plastic anchors\", and are used as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other types.", "content": "Anchors designed especially for fastening to hollow walls, include toggle bolts and molly bolts. These wall anchors are also known by other names, such as, \"tacos\", drywall hangers, expansion nuts, etc.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A wall plug (UK English), also known as an anchor (US) or \"Rawlplug\" (UK), is a fibre or plastic (originally wood) insert used to enable the attachment of a screw in material that is porous or brittle or that would otherwise not support the weight of the object attached with the screw. It is a type of anchor that, for example, allows screws to be fitted into masonry walls.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971599}
{"src_title": "Jean Gabin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Gabin was born Jean-Alexis Moncorgé in Paris, the son of Madeleine Petit and Ferdinand Moncorgé, a cafe owner and cabaret entertainer whose stage name was Gabin, which is a first name in French. He grew up in the village of Mériel in the Seine-et-Oise (now Val-d'Oise) département, about 22 mi (35 km) north of Paris. He attended the Lycée Janson de Sailly. Gabin left school early, and worked as a laborer until the age of 19 when he entered show business with a bit part in a Folies Bergères production. He continued performing in a variety of minor roles before going into the military.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early days.", "content": "After completing his military service in the Fusiliers marins, he returned to the entertainment business, working under the stage name of Jean Gabin at whatever was offered in the Parisian music halls and operettas, imitating the singing style of Maurice Chevalier, which was the rage at the time. He was part of a troupe that toured South America, and upon returning to France found work at the Moulin Rouge. His performances started getting noticed, and better stage roles came along that led to parts in two silent films in 1928.  Two years later Gabin made the transition to sound films in a 1930 Pathé Frères production, \"\". Playing secondary roles, he made more than a dozen films over the next four years, including films directed by Maurice and Jacques Tourneur. But he only gained real recognition for his performance in \"Maria Chapdelaine\", a 1934 production directed by Julien Duvivier. He was then cast as a romantic hero in the 1936 war drama \"La Bandera\"; this second Duvivier-directed film established him as a major star. The next year he teamed up with Duvivier again in the highly successful \"Pépé le Moko\". Its popularity brought Gabin international recognition. That same year he starred in Jean Renoir's \"La Grande Illusion\", an antiwar film that ran at a New York City theatre for an unprecedented six months. This was followed by another of Renoir's major works, \"La Bête Humaine\" (\"The Human Beast\"), a film noir tragedy based on the novel by Émile Zola and starring Gabin and Simone Simon, as well as \"Le Quai Des Brumes\" (\"Port of Shadows\"), one of director Marcel Carné's classics of poetic realism. He divorced his second wife in 1939.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Hollywood.", "content": "In the late 1930s Gabin was flooded with offers from Hollywood, but turned them all down until the outbreak of World War II. After the German occupation of France in 1940, he joined Renoir and Duvivier in the United States. During his time in Hollywood, Gabin began a romance with actress Marlene Dietrich that lasted until 1948. His films in America—\"Moontide\" (1942) and \"The Impostor\" (1944), the latter with Duvivier—were not successful.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "World War II action.", "content": "Undaunted, Gabin joined General Charles de Gaulle's Free French Forces and earned the Médaille militaire and a Croix de guerre for his wartime valor fighting with the Allies in North Africa. Following D-Day, Gabin was part of the French 2nd armoured division that liberated Paris.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Career slump.", "content": "In 1945 Carné chose Gabin to star in the film \"Gates of the Night\" with Dietrich as his co-star. She disliked the screenplay and feared her German accent would not go over well with postwar French audiences. When she withdrew from the project, Gabin followed suit, leading to a falling out with Carné. He found a French producer and director willing to cast him and Dietrich together, but the film, \"Martin Roumagnac\", was not a success and their personal relationship soon ended. In 1948 Gabin starred in René Clément's poetic realist film \"The Walls of Malapaga\" (), which won an Oscar for Best Foreign Language Picture but garnered little recognition for Gabin. In 1949 he starred in his only role in legitimate theatre in Henri Bernstein's \"La Soif\". It ran in Paris for six months, with Gabin critically praised as \"a first-rate stage actor.\" Despite this recognition, his subsequent films did not do well at the French box office, and the next five years brought repeated failures.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Comeback.", "content": "Gabin's career seemed headed for oblivion until the 1954 film \"Touchez pas au grisbi\" (\"Don't Touch the Loot\"), directed by Jacques Becker, earned him critical acclaim. The film was very profitable internationally. He then worked once again with Renoir in \"French Cancan\", with María Félix and Françoise Arnoul. Gabin played Georges Simenon's detective Jules Maigret in three films in 1958, 1959 and 1963. Over the next 20 years, he made almost 50 more films, most of them very successful commercially and critically, including many for Gafer Films, his production partnership with fellow actor Fernandel. His co-stars included such leading figures of postwar cinema as Brigitte Bardot (\"En cas de malheur\"), Alain Delon (\"Le Clan des Siciliens\", \"Mélodie en sous-sol\" and \"Deux hommes dans la ville\"), Jean-Paul Belmondo (\"Un singe en hiver\") and Louis de Funès (\"Le Tatoué\").", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Gabin died of leukaemia at the American Hospital of Paris, in the Parisian suburb of Neuilly-sur-Seine. His body was cremated, and—with full military honours—his ashes were scattered at sea from a military ship.  Joseph Harriss: \"Jean Gabin: The Actor Who Was France.\" McFarland, Jefferson, NC 2018", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jean Gabin (; 17 May 190415 November 1976) was a French actor and sometime singer. Considered a key figure in French cinema, he starred in several classic films including \"Pépé le Moko\" (1937), \"La grande illusion\" (1937), \"Le Quai des brumes\" (1938), \"La bête humaine\" (1938), \"Le jour se lève\" (1939), and \"Le plaisir\" (1952). Gabin was made a member of the Légion d'honneur in recognition of the important role he played in French cinema.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971600}
{"src_title": "Karpathos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The island is located about southwest of Rhodes, in the part of the Mediterranean which is called the \"Carpathian Sea\" (). The Sea of Crete, a sub-basin of the Mediterranean Sea, has its eastern limit defined by the island of Karpathos. Karpathos' highest point is Mt. Lastos, at. Karpathos comprises 10 villages. Pigadia (official name \"Karpathos\"), the capital and main port of the island, is located in the southeast of the island. The capital is surrounded by the villages of Menetes, Arkasa, Aperi, Volada, Othos, and Pyles. In the north Mesochori, Spoa and Olympos. There are two ports, in Karpathos and in the north of the island next to Olympos named Diafani.  The island Saria was once united with Karpathos, but an earthquake divided them. Saria preserves many important antiquities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The weather station of Karpathos alongside Ierapetra holds Greece's highest annual mean temperature, (1950–1960, 1970–1975).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Municipality.", "content": "The present municipality Karpathos was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 2 former municipalities, that became municipal units:  The municipality has an area of 324.800 km, the municipal unit 219.924 km.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The island of Karpathos was in both ancient and medieval times closely connected with Rhodes. Its current name is mentioned, with a slight shift of one letter, in Homer's \"Iliad\" as Krapathos (). Apollonius of Rhodes, in his epic \"Argonautica\", made it a port of call for the Argonauts travelling between Libya and Crete (). The island is also mentioned by Diodorus who claims it was a colony of the Dorians, Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, and Strabo.  The Karpathians sided with Sparta in the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE and lost their independence to Rhodes in 400 BCE. In 42 BCE, the island fell to Rome. After the division of the Roman Empire in 395 CE, the island became part of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.  Of its Christian bishops, the names are known of Olympius, who was a supporter of Nestorius, Zoticus (in 518), Mennas (in 553), Ioannes, Leo (in 787), and Philippus (in 879). In the 14th century, the island was a see of the Latin Church, four of whose bishops bore the name Nicolaus. No longer a residential bishopric, Karpathos (in Latin Carpathus) is today listed by the Catholic Church as an archiepiscopal titular see.  In 1304, Karpathos was given as fief to the Genoese corsairs Andrea and Lodovico Moresco, but in 1306 it fell to Andrea Cornaro, a member of the Venetian Cornaro family. The Cornaro controlled Karpathos until 1538, when it passed into the possession of the Ottoman Turks.  During the Greek War of Independence from 1821 to 1822, the island rebelled, but afterwards it fell again under the Ottoman rule. In 1835, Sultan Mahmud II conceded to the island the privilege of the \"maktu\" tax system; that is, the tax was calculated as an annual lump sum, and not on an household basis. The Ottoman rule ended on 12 May 1912, when the Italians occupied the island and the rest of the Dodecanese, during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-12. On that day, sailors from the \"Regia Marina\" battleship \"Vittorio Emanuele\" and the destroyer \"Alpino\" landed in Karpathos. With the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), Karpathos joined the other islands of the Dodecanese in the Italian possession of the Italian Aegean Islands, and was ceded by Italy to Greece with the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947. The island formally joined the Kingdom of Greece on 7 March 1948, together with the other Dodecanese islands.  In the late 1940s and 1950s, due to the economic problems after World War II, a number of Karpathians emigrated to the U.S. eastern seaboard cities;. Karpathos today has a significant Greek-American constituency who have returned to their island and invested heavily. Inhabitants of the mountains to the north are more traditional.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Karpathos Island National Airport, with its relatively large runway, is located on the south side (Afiartis area). Karpathos is connected to neighboring islands and to the mainland via ferries and airplanes. The ferries provide transport to and from Piraeus (via Crete and Rhodes). Scheduled domestic flights connect the island with Rhodes, Kasos, Crete and Athens daily. Additionally, charter flights from various European cities are frequently scheduled during the high season (April–October).  Within the island, cars are the preferred mode of transportation. The port, the airport, the main villages and other popular locations are connected by an adequate system of municipal roads, most of which are paved. During the summer months, small private boats depart from Pigadia to various locations daily, including Olympos (via Diafani) and some inaccessible beaches. Fixed-rate taxis (\"agoraia\") and municipal buses are also available all year long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "The island's 2011 census population was 6,226 inhabitants. This number more than doubles in the summer months as many Karpathian expatriates come to the island for their vacation with their families. Also, taking into consideration the number of tourists that visit, there can be up to 20,000 people on the island during the summer months. The population density is greatest during the 15th of August due to the Panagias festival (Assumption of Mary), which is considered the most important festival on the island. Individuals travel from around the world to attend the festival and view the many traditions that still remain on the island.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beaches.", "content": "The beaches of Karpathos island can be divided into four large groups: the beaches on the east coast are smaller and gravelly but without wind; the beaches of the southern part of the island, near the airport, area made of fine white sand; the sandy beach on the west coast are the most exposed to the Meltemi and they are only available in low wind conditions; the beaches of the north of the island, accessible only by sea and partly by a jeep.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karpathos (, ), also Carpathos, is the second largest of the Greek Dodecanese islands, in the southeastern Aegean Sea. Together with the neighboring smaller Saria Island it forms the municipality of Karpathos, which is part of the Karpathos regional unit. Because of its remote location, Karpathos has preserved many peculiarities of dress, customs and dialect, the last resembling those of Crete and Cyprus. The island has also been called Carpathus in Latin and Scarpanto in Italian.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971601}
{"src_title": "Whist", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Whist is a descendant of the 16th-century game of \"trump\" or \"ruff\". Whist replaced the popular variant of \"trump\" known as ruff and honours. The game takes its name from the 17th-century \"whist\" (or \"wist\") meaning \"quiet\", \"silent\", \"attentive\", which is the root of the modern \"wistful\".  According to Daines Barrington, whist was first played on scientific principles by a party of gentlemen who frequented the Crown Coffee House in Bedford Row, London, around 1728. Edmond Hoyle, suspected to be a member of this group, began to tutor wealthy young gentlemen in the game and published \"A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist\" in 1742. It became the standard text and rules for the game for the next hundred years.  In 1862 Henry Jones, writing under the pseudonym \"Cavendish\", published \"The Principles of Whist Stated and Explained, and Its Practice Illustrated on an Original System, by Means of Hands Played Completely Through\", which became the standard text. Many subsequent editions and enlargements of this work were published using the simpler title \"Cavendish On Whist\". By this time whist was governed by elaborate and rigid rules covering the laws of the game, etiquette and play which took time to study and master.  In the 1890s, a variant known as bridge whist became popular which eventually evolved into contract bridge. The traditional game of whist survives at social events called \"whist drives\". There are many modern variants of whist played for fun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rules.", "content": "A standard 52-card pack is used. The cards in each suit rank from highest to lowest: A K Q J 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2. Whist is played by four players, who play in two partnerships with the partners sitting opposite each other. Players draw cards to determine dealer and partners, with the two highest playing against the lowest two, who have seating rights. To comment on the cards in any way is strictly against the rules. One may not comment upon the hand one was dealt nor about one's good fortune or bad fortune. One may not signal to one's partner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shuffling and dealing.", "content": "The cards can be shuffled by any player, though usually the player to dealer's left. The dealer has the right to shuffle last if they wish. To speed up dealing, a second pack can be shuffled by the dealer's partner during the deal and then placed to the right ready for the next hand. The cards are cut by the player on dealer's right before dealing. The dealer deals out all the cards, one at a time, face down, so that each player has thirteen cards. The final card, which belongs to the dealer, is turned face up to indicate which suit is trumps. The turned-up trump card remains face up on the table until it is the dealer's turn to play to the first trick, at which point the dealer may pick up the card and place it in their hand. The deal advances clockwise.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play.", "content": "The player to the dealer's left leads to the first trick. They may lead any card in their hand. The other players, in clockwise order, each play a card to the trick and must follow suit by playing a card of the suit led if they have one. A player with no card of the suit led may play any card, either discarding or trumping. The trick is won by the highest card of the suit led, unless a trump is played, in which case the highest trump wins. The winner of the trick leads the next trick.  Play continues until all thirteen tricks are played, at which point the score is recorded. If no team has enough points to win the game, another hand is played.  Part of the skill involved in the game is one's ability to remember what cards have been played and reason out what cards remain. Therefore, once each trick is played, its cards are turned face down and kept in a stack of four near the player who won the trick. Before the next trick starts, a player may ask to review the cards from the last trick only. Once the lead card is played, however, no previously played cards can be reviewed by anyone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scoring.", "content": "After all tricks have been played, the side which won more tricks scores 1 point for each trick won in excess of 6. When all four players are experienced, it is unusual for the score for a single hand to be higher than two. A game is over when one team reaches a score of five. There are so-called \"Hotel Rules\" variations where other numbers are agreed to be played to in advance such as \"American\" and \"Long\", where the games are played to seven and nine respectively. The \"Long\" version is normally combined with \"Honours.\"  In longer variations of the game, those games where the winning score is not the standard 5 points, honours are points that are claimed at the end of each hand. Honours add nothing to the play of a hand. Honours serve only as an element of luck that speeds up games, and they are often omitted. Serious players disdain honours because it greatly increases the element of chance. A team that was dealt the top four cards (A, K, Q, J) in the trump suit collects 4 bonus points; if they hold three of the four honours between them they score 2 bonus points. Tricks are scored before honours. Honour points can never be used for the last point of a game. For example: a game is being played to 9 points. The score is tied at 6. A hand is played and the winner of that hand took seven tricks and claimed honours. That team would receive 1 point for the 7th trick and only 1 point for honours. The score would then be 8 to 6.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List of variations.", "content": "The name \"whist\" has become attached to a wide variety of games based on classic whist, but often with some kind of bidding added, for example:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Whist drive.", "content": "A whist drive is a social event at which progressive games of whist are played across a number of tables which are numbered or ordered into a sequence.  In it the winning (or sometimes losing, dependent on the local custom) pair of a hand \"progress\" around the room, i.e. one person moves up the table sequence and one person moves down. On arriving at the new table, the next hand is played.  By convention the pair who sits has shuffled and deals after the arriving pair has cut the pack.  A progressive whist drive is normally 24 hands, with each hand being a different trump. Trumps normally follow the sequence: hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades.  Sometimes a break for refreshments is taken after 12 hands.  Whist has long been noted for its influence upon what is termed the calculating power; and men of the highest order of intellect have been known to take an apparently unaccountable delight in it, [...]\" His only pastime was reading the papers and playing whist. He frequently won at this quiet game, so very appropriate to his nature;[...]\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Whist is a classic English trick-taking card game which was widely played in the 18th and 19th centuries. Although the rules are simple, there is scope for scientific play.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971602}
{"src_title": "Normal subgroup", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definitions.", "content": "A subgroup of a group is called a normal subgroup of if it is invariant under conjugation; that is, the conjugation of an element of by an element of is always in. The usual notation for this relation is formula_1, and the definition may be written in symbols as formula_3", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equivalent conditions.", "content": "For any subgroup of, the following conditions are equivalent to being a normal subgroup of. Therefore, any one of them may be taken as the definition:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lattice of normal subgroups.", "content": "Given two normal subgroups, and, of, their intersection formula_19and their product formula_20 are also normal subgroups of.  The normal subgroups of form a lattice under subset inclusion with least element,, and greatest element,. The meet of two normal subgroups, and, in this lattice is their intersection and the join is their product.  The lattice is complete and modular.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Normal subgroups, quotient groups and homomorphisms.", "content": "If is a normal subgroup, we can define a multiplication on cosets as follows:formula_21This relation defines a mapping formula_22. To show that this mapping is well-defined, one needs to prove that the choice of representative elements formula_23 does not affect the result. To this end, consider some other representative elements formula_24. Then there are formula_25 such that formula_26. It follows that formula_27where we also used the fact that formula_28 is a \"normal\" subgroup, and therefore there is formula_29 such that formula_30. This proves that this product is a well-defined mapping between cosets.  With this operation, the set of cosets is itself a group, called the quotient group and denoted with. There is a natural homomorphism,, given by. This homomorphism maps formula_28 into the identity element of, which is the coset, that is, formula_32.  In general, a group homomorphism, sends subgroups of to subgroups of. Also, the preimage of any subgroup of is a subgroup of. We call the preimage of the trivial group in the kernel of the homomorphism and denote it by. As it turns out, the kernel is always normal and the image of,, is always isomorphic to (the first isomorphism theorem). In fact, this correspondence is a bijection between the set of all quotient groups of,, and the set of all homomorphic images of (up to isomorphism). It is also easy to see that the kernel of the quotient map,, is itself, so the normal subgroups are precisely the kernels of homomorphisms with domain.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In abstract algebra, a normal subgroup is a subgroup that is invariant under conjugation by members of the group of which it is a part. In other words, a subgroup of the group is normal in if and only if for all and. The usual notation for this relation is formula_1.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971603}
{"src_title": "East Francia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In August 843, after three years of civil war following the death of emperor Louis the Pious on 20 June 840, the Treaty of Verdun was signed by his three sons and heirs. The division of lands was largely based on the Meuse, Scheldt, Saone and Rhone rivers. While the eldest son Lothair I kept the imperial title and the kingdom of Middle Francia, Charles the Bald received West Francia and Louis the German received the eastern portion of mostly Germanic-speaking lands: the Duchy of Saxony, Austrasia, Alamannia, the Duchy of Bavaria, and the March of Carinthia.  The contemporary East Frankish \"Annales Fuldenses\" describes the kingdom being \"divided in three\" and Louis \"acceding to the eastern part\". The West Frankish \"Annales Bertiniani\" describe the extent of Louis's lands: \"at the assigning of portions, Louis obtained all the land beyond the Rhine river, but on this side of the Rhine also the cities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz with their counties\". The kingdom of West Francia went to Louis's younger half-brother Charles the Bald, and between their realms a kingdom of Middle Francia, incorporating Italy, was given to their elder brother, the Emperor Lothair I.  While Eastern Francia contained about a third of the traditional Frankish heartland of Austrasia, the rest consisted mostly of lands annexed to the Frankish empire between the fifth and the eighth century. These included the duchies of Alamannia, Bavaria, Saxony and Thuringia, as well as the northern and eastern marches with the Danes and Slavs. The contemporary chronicler Regino of Prüm wrote that the \"different people\" (\"diversae nationes populorum\") of East Francia, mostly Germanic- and Slavic-speaking, could be \"distinguished from each other by race, customs, language and laws\" (\"genere moribus lingua legibus\").  In 869 Lotharingia was divided between West and East Francia under the Treaty of Meersen. The short lived Middle Francia turned out to be the theatre of Franco-German wars up until the 20th century. All the Frankish lands were briefly reunited by Charles the Fat, but in 888 he was deposed by nobles and in East Francia Arnulf of Carinthia was elected king. The increasing weakness of royal power in East Francia meant that dukes of Bavaria, Swabia, Franconia, Saxony and Lotharingia turned from appointed nobles into hereditary rulers of their territories. Kings increasingly had to deal with regional rebellions.  In 911 Saxon, Franconian, Bavarian and Swabian nobles no longer followed the tradition of electing someone from the Carolingian dynasty as a king to rule over them and on 10 November, 911 elected one of their own as the new king. Because Conrad I was one of the dukes, he found it very hard to establish his authority over them. Duke Henry of Saxony was in rebellion against Conrad I until 915 and struggle against Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria cost Conrad I his life. On his deathbed Conrad I chose Henry of Saxony as the most capable successor. This kingship changed from Franks to Saxons, who had suffered greatly during the conquests of Charlemagne. Henry, who was elected to kingship by only Saxons and Franconians at Fritzlar, had to subdue other dukes and concentrated on creating a state apparatus which was fully utilized by his son and successor Otto I. By his death in July 936 Henry had prevented collapse of royal power as was happening in West Francia and left a much stronger kingdom to his successor Otto I. After Otto I was crowned as the Emperor in Rome in 962 the era of the Holy Roman Empire began.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The term \"orientalis Francia\" originally referred to Franconia and \"orientales Franci\" to its inhabitants, the ethnic Franks living east of the Rhine. The use of the term in a broader sense, to refer to the eastern kingdom, was an innovation of Louis the German's court. Since eastern Francia could be identified with old Austrasia, the Frankish heartland, Louis's choice of terminology hints at his ambitions. Under his grandson, Arnulf of Carinthia, the terminology was largely dropped and the kingdom, when it was referred to by name, was simply \"Francia\".  When it was necessary, as in the Treaty of Bonn (921) with the West Franks, the \"eastern\" qualifier appeared. Henry I refers to himself as \"rex Francorum orientalium\", \"king of the East Franks\", in the treaty. By the 12th century, the historian Otto of Freising, in using the Carolingian terminology, had to explain that the \"eastern kingdom of the Franks\" (\"orientale Francorum regnum\") was \"now called the kingdom of the Germans\" (\"regnum Teutonicorum\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kingship.", "content": "The regalia of the Carolingian empire had been divided by Louis the Pious on his deathbed between his two faithful sons, Charles the Bald and Lothair. Louis the German, then in rebellion, received nothing of the crown jewels or liturgical books associated with Carolingian kingship. Thus the symbols and rituals of East Frankish kingship were created from scratch.  From an early date the East Frankish kingdom had a more formalised notion of royal election than West Francia. Around 900, a liturgy (\"ordo\") for the coronation of a king, called the early German \"ordo\", was written for a private audience. It required the coronator to ask the \"designated prince\" (\"princeps designatus\") whether he was willing to defend the church and the people and then to turn and ask the people whether they were willing to be subject to the prince and obey his laws. The latter then shouted, \"\"Fiat\", \"fiat\"!\" (Let it be done!), an act that later became known as \"Recognition\". This is the earliest known coronation \"ordo\" with a Recognition in it, and it was subsequently incorporated in the influential Pontificale Romano-Germanicum.  In June 888, King Arnulf of Carinthia convened a council at Mainz. In attendance were the three archbishops of the East Frankish kingdom—Wilbert of Cologne, Liutbert of Mainz and Ratbod of Trier—and the West Frankish archbishops of Reims (Fulk) and Rouen (John I) along with the bishops of Beauvais and Noyon. According to Walter Ullmann, the presence of the West Franks was on account of the \"barren ecclesiastical thought\" of the East, and the council proceeded to adopt West Frankish ideas of royal sacrality and anointing. It was \"the first phase in the process of assimilation of the two halves of the Carolingian inheritance\". In another church council at Tribur in 895, the prelates declared that Arnulf was chosen by God and not by men and Arnulf in turn swore to defend the church and its privileges from all its enemies. When Arnulf died in 899, his minor son, Louis IV, was crowned, but not anointed, and placed under the tutelage of Archbishop Hatto I of Mainz. Louis's coronation was the first in German history. When Louis died in late September 911, Duke Conrad I, then the Duke of Franconia, was elected to replace him on 10 November and he became the first German king to receive unction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Church.", "content": "The three basic services monasteries could owe to the sovereign in the Frankish realms were military service, an annual donation of money or work, and prayers for the royal family and the kingdom. Collectively, these were known by the technical term \"servitium regis\" (\"king's service\"). According to the evidence of the \"Notitia de servitio monasteriorum\", a list of monasteries and the services they owed drawn up around 817, the burden of military and monetary service was more severe in west Francia than in east Francia. Only four monasteries listed as \"beyond the Rhine\" (\"ultra Rhenum\") owed these services: Lorsch, Schuttern, Mondsee and Tegernsee.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "East Francia (Latin: \"Francia orientalis\") or the Kingdom of the East Franks (\"regnum Francorum orientalium\") was a precursor of the Holy Roman Empire. A successor state of Charlemagne's empire, it was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty until 911. It was created through the Treaty of Verdun (843) which divided the former empire into three kingdoms.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971604}
{"src_title": "Cult of personality", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified emperors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctioned authority (auctoritas) of the Roman State. Throughout history, monarchs and other heads of state were often held in enormous reverence and imputed super-human qualities. Through the principle of the divine right of kings, in medieval Europe for example, rulers were said to hold office by the will of God. Ancient Egypt, Imperial Japan, the Inca, the Aztecs, Tibet, Siam (now Thailand), and the Roman Empire are especially noted for redefining monarchs as \"god-kings\".  The spread of democratic and secular ideas in Europe and North America in the 18th and 19th centuries made it increasingly difficult for monarchs to preserve this aura. However, the subsequent development of mass media, such as radio, enabled political leaders to project a positive image of themselves onto the masses as never before. It was from these circumstances in the 20th century that the most notorious personality cults arose. Often these cults are a form of political religion.  The term \"cult of personality\" probably appeared in English around 1800–1850, along with the French and German use. At first it had no political connotations but was instead closely related to the Romantic \"cult of genius\". The political use of the phrase came first in a letter from Karl Marx to German political worker, Wilhelm Blos, 10 November 1877:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "There are various views about what constitutes a cult of personality in a leader. Historian Jan Plamper has written that modern-day personality cults display five characteristics that set them apart from \"their predecessors\": The cults are secular and \"anchored in popular sovereignty\"; their objects are all males; they target the entire population, not only the well-to-do or just the ruling class; they use mass media; and they exist where the mass media can be controlled enough to inhibit the introduction of \"rival cults\".  In his 2013 paper, \"What is character and why it really does matter\", Thomas A. Wright states, \"The cult of personality phenomenon refers to the idealized, even god-like, public image of an individual consciously shaped and molded through constant propaganda and media exposure. As a result, one is able to manipulate others based entirely on the influence of public personality...the cult of personality perspective focuses on the often shallow, external images that many public figures cultivate to create an idealized and heroic image.\"  Adrian Teodor Popan defines cult of personality as a \"quantitatively exaggerated and qualitatively extravagant public demonstration of praise of the leader\". He also identifies three causal \"necessary, but not sufficient, structural conditions, and a path dependent chain of events which, together, lead to the cult formation: a particular combination of patrimonialism and clientelism, lack of dissidence, and systematic falsification pervading the society’s culture.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The role of mass media.", "content": "The mass media have played an instrumental role in forging national leaders' cults of personality.  Thomas A. Wright in 2013 reported that \"It is becoming evident that the charismatic leader, especially in politics, has increasingly become the product of media and self-exposure.\" And, focusing on the media in the United States, Robert N. Bellah adds that, \"It is hard to determine the extent to which the media reflect the cult of personality in American politics and to what extent they have created it. Surely they did not create it all alone, but just as surely they have contributed to it. In any case, American politics is dominated by the personalities of political leaders to an extent rare in the modern world...in the personalised politics of recent years the \"charisma\" of the leader may be almost entirely a product of media exposure.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Purpose.", "content": "Often, a single leader became associated with this revolutionary transformation and came to be treated as a benevolent \"guide\" for the nation without whom the transformation to a better future could not occur. This has been generally the justification for personality cults that arose in totalitarian societies, such as those of Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, and Mao Zedong. The admiration for Mao Zedong has remained widespread in China. In December 2013, a \"Global Times\" poll revealed that over 85% of Chinese viewed Mao's achievements as outweighing his mistakes. Jan Plamper argues while Napoleon III made some innovations it was Benito Mussolini in Italy in the 1920s who originated the model of dictator-as-cult-figure that was emulated by Hitler, Stalin and the others, using the propaganda powers of a totalitarian state.  Pierre du Bois argues that the Stalin cult was elaborately constructed to legitimize his rule. Many deliberate distortions and falsehoods were used. The Kremlin refused access to archival records that might reveal the truth, and key documents were destroyed. Photographs were altered and documents were invented. People who knew Stalin were forced to provide \"official\" accounts to meet the ideological demands of the cult, especially as Stalin himself presented it in 1938 in \"Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)\", which became the official history.  Historian David L. Hoffmann states \"The Stalin cult was a central element of Stalinism, and as such it was one of the most salient features of Soviet rule...Many scholars of Stalinism cite the cult as integral to Stalin's power or as evidence of Stalin's megalomania.\"  In Latin America, Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser link the \"cult of the leader\" to the concept of the \"caudillo\", a strong leader \"who exercises a power that is independent of any office and free of any constraint.\" These populist strongmen are portrayed as \"masculine and potentially violent\" and enhance their authority through the use of the cult of personality. Mudde and Kaltwasser trace the linkage back to Juan Peron of Argentina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography  Further reading", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A cult of personality, or cult of the leader, arises when a country's regime – or, more rarely, an individual – uses the techniques of mass media, propaganda, the big lie, spectacle, the arts, patriotism, and government-organized demonstrations and rallies to create an idealized, heroic, and worshipful image of a leader, often through unquestioning flattery and praise. A cult of personality is similar to apotheosis, except that it is established by modern social engineering techniques, usually by the state or the party in one-party states and dominant-party states. It is often seen in totalitarian or authoritarian countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971605}
{"src_title": "Freising", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "Freising is the oldest town between Regensburg and Bolzano and located in Upper Bavaria north of Munich, near Munich International Airport, on the Isar river. There are two hills, the cathedral hill with the bishop's castle and Freising cathedral, and Weihenstephan Hill with Weihenstephan Abbey, the oldest working brewery in the world. It was also the first recorded place of a European tornado. The city is 448 meters above sea level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural significance.", "content": "Freising is one of the oldest settlements in Bavaria, becoming a major religious centre in the early Middle Ages. It is the centre of an important diocese. Some important historical documents were created between 900 and 1200 in its monastery:  The above and other scripts from that time can be found in the \"Bayerische Staatsbibliothek\" (Bavarian State Library) in Munich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Even though archaeological finds show that the area was settled in the Bronze Age, no proof has been found yet to suggest a continuous settlement until the 8th century AD \"Frigisinga\". Saint Corbinian settled at a shrine that already existed at Freising in 724. He was the forerunner of the diocese of Freising, established after his death by Saint Boniface. According to his \"Vita\" by Bishop Arbeo he ordered a bear to carry his luggage over the Alps after it had killed his packhorse. The saddled bear is still the symbol of the city, displayed in the coat of arms. Though the seat of the diocese was moved to Munich in 1821, including the elevation to an arch-diocese, Freising has remained the seat of diocese administration until today.  Between 764-783, Bishop Arbeo founded a library and scriptorium at the abbey. The settlement started to become a religious centre.  The earliest recorded tornado in Europe struck Freising in 788.  The mortal remains of Pope Alexander I are said to have been transferred to Freising in 834.  In 996, Freising received city rights from Emperor Otto III. However, after the \"(...) destruction of the episcopal bridge, custom houses, mint, and salt works near Oberföhring by Duke Henry the Lion, who transferred the custom houses and bridge site to the upper part of Oberföhring, placing them in the village of Munich on the Isar\" (Lins, Catholic Encyclopedia, 1913) in 1158, Freising started to lose its economic significance. In 1159, the romanesque cathedral was constructed (with a notable animal column in the crypt).  In the secularization of 1803, the Roman Catholic Church lost most of its properties and authority over the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Schools include:  Universities include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns.", "content": "Freising is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Freising () is a town in Bavaria, Germany, and the capital of the Freising \"Landkreis\" (district), with a population of about 50,000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971606}
{"src_title": "Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Changes to the classification.", "content": "Within each category, the various châteaux are ranked in order of quality and only twice since the 1855 classification has there been a change: first when in 1856 Cantemerle was added as a fifth growth (having either been originally omitted by oversight or added as an afterthought, depending on which of the conflicting accounts is correct) and, more significantly, in 1973, when Château Mouton Rothschild was elevated from a second growth to a first growth vineyard after decades of intense lobbying by the powerful Philippe de Rothschild. A third, but less known \"change\", is the removal of Château Dubignon, a third growth from Margaux that was absorbed into the estate Château Malescot St. Exupéry.  A superficial change is that since 1855, when only five of the estates were styled with the word \"château\" in their name, most Bordeaux wine estates now use this nomenclature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critique.", "content": "As a classification of châteaux, the actual vineyards owned by some wineries have expanded, shrunk and been divided without any reclassification, and considerable plots of valued \"terroir\" have changed ownership. Indeed, it is a peculiarity of Bordeaux that as long as a vineyard parcel lies within the boundaries of the wine commune, it is eligible to be used by any chateau, independent of the quality of the parcel itself.  Many wine critics have argued that the 1855 Classification became outdated and does not provide an accurate guide to the quality of the wines being made on each estate. Several proposals have been made for changes to the classification, and a bid for a revision was unsuccessfully attempted in 1960. Alexis Lichine, a member of the 1960 revision panel, launched a campaign to implement changes that lasted over thirty years, in the process publishing several editions of his own unofficial classification and the \"Alexis Lichine's Guide to the Wines and Vineyards of France\", in which he devoted a chapter to the subject. In support of his argument, Lichine cited the case of Chateau Lynch-Bages, the Pauillac Fifth Growth that, through good management and by patiently collecting the best parcels as they come on the market, makes wine that in his view are worthy of a much higher classification. Conversely, poor management can result in a significant decline in quality, as the example of Chateau Margaux shows—the wines it made in the 1960s and 1970s are widely regarded as far below what's expected of a First Growth. Other critics have followed a similar suit, including Robert Parker who published a top 100 Bordeaux estates in 1985 and \"L'histoire de la vigne & du vin\" () by Bernard and Henri Enjalbert in 1989, as well as efforts made by Clive Coates (MW) and David Peppercorn (MW). Ultimately nothing has come of them; the likely negative impact on prices for any downgraded châteaux and the 1855 establishment's political muscle are considered among the reasons.  In March 2009, the British wine exchange Liv-ex released The Liv-ex Bordeaux Classification, a modern re-calculation of the 1855 classification, with an aim to apply the original method to the contemporary economical context.  Many of the leading estates from the Médoc appellation that were not included in the 1855 classification are classified as \"Cru Bourgeois\", a classification system that has been updated on a regular basis since 1932, banned in 2007, but reinstated in 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Médoc Classification of 1855.", "content": "In French \"Les Grands Crus classés en 1855\". The estates are listed with their commune (village), and their AOC in parenthesis, if different from the commune. The 19th-century names appear as listed by the brokers on April 18, 1855, followed by the modern names, as the use of \"second cru\" for red wines and \"deuxième cru\" for white wines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The White Wines of the Gironde.", "content": "[Barsac estates may be labelled with the appellation Barsac or Sauternes.]", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notes and references.", "content": "a. The only classified estate situated in Graves rather than Médoc. b. Listed as Second Growth in 1855, elevated to First Growth in 1973. c. Dissolved in 1960. d. Added in 1856.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855 resulted from the 1855 Exposition Universelle de Paris, when Emperor Napoleon III requested a classification system for France's best Bordeaux wines that were to be on display for visitors from around the world. Brokers from the wine industry ranked the wines according to a château's reputation and trading price, which at that time was directly related to quality.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971607}
{"src_title": "Golden Fleece", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Athamas the Minyan, a founder of Halos in Thessaly but also king of the city of Orchomenus in Boeotia (a region of southeastern Greece), took the goddess Nephele as his first wife. They had two children, the boy Phrixus (whose name means \"curly,\" as in the texture of the ram's fleece) and the girl Helle. Later Athamas became enamored of and married Ino, the daughter of Cadmus. When Nephele left in anger, drought came upon the land.  Ino was jealous of her stepchildren and plotted their deaths; in some versions, she persuaded Athamas that sacrificing Phrixus was the only way to end the drought. Nephele, or her spirit, appeared to the children with a winged ram whose fleece was of gold. The ram had been sired by Poseidon in his primitive ram-form upon Theophane, a nymph and the granddaughter of Helios, the sun-god. According to Hyginus, Poseidon carried Theophane to an island where he made her into a ewe, so that he could have his way with her among the flocks. There Theophane's other suitors could not distinguish the ram-god and his consort.  Nepheles' children escaped on the yellow ram over the sea, but Helle fell off and drowned in the strait now named after her, the Hellespont. The ram spoke to Phrixus, encouraging him, and took the boy safely to Colchis (modern-day Georgia), on the easternmost shore of the Euxine (Black) Sea.  There Phrixus sacrificed the winged ram to Poseidon, essentially returning him to the god. The ram became the constellation Aries.  Phrixus settled in the house of Aeetes, son of Helios the sun god. He hung the Golden Fleece preserved from the sacrifice of the ram on an oak in a grove sacred to Ares, the god of war and one of the Twelve Olympians. The golden fleece was defended by bulls with hoofs of brass and breath of fire. It was also guarded by a never sleeping dragon with teeth which could become soldiers when planted in the ground. The dragon was at the foot of the tree on which the fleece was placed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution of plot.", "content": "Pindar employed the quest for the Golden Fleece in his Fourth Pythian Ode (written in 462 BC), though the fleece is not in the foreground. When Aeetes challenges Jason to yoke the fire-breathing bulls, the fleece is the prize: \"Let the King do this, the captain of the ship! Let him do this, I say, and have for his own the immortal coverlet, the fleece, glowing with matted skeins of gold\".  In later versions of the story, the ram is said to have been the offspring of the sea god Poseidon and Themisto (less often, Nephele or Theophane). The classic telling is the \"Argonautica\" of Apollonius of Rhodes, composed in the mid-third century BC Alexandria, recasting early sources that have not survived. Another, much less-known Argonautica, using the same body of myth, was composed in Latin by Valerius Flaccus during the time of Vespasian.  Where the written sources fail, through accidents of history, sometimes the continuity of a mythic tradition can be found among the vase-painters. The story of the Golden Fleece appeared to have little resonance for Athenians of the Classic age, for only two representations of it on Attic-painted wares of the fifth century have been identified: a \"krater\" at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and a \"kylix\" in the Vatican collections. In the \"kylix\" painted by Douris, ca 480-470, Jason is being disgorged from the mouth of the dragon, a detail that does not fit easily into the literary sources; behind the dragon, the fleece hangs from an apple tree. Jason's helper in the Athenian vase-paintings is not Medea— who had a history in Athens as the opponent of Theseus— but Athena.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interpretations.", "content": "The very early origin of the myth in preliterate times means that during the more than a millennium when it was to some degree part of the fabric of culture, its perceived significance likely passed through numerous developments.  Several euhemeristic attempts to interpret the Golden Fleece \"realistically\" as reflecting some physical cultural object or alleged historical practice have been made. For example, in the 20th century, some scholars suggested that the story of the Golden Fleece signified the bringing of sheep husbandry to Greece from the east; in other readings, scholars theorized it referred to golden grain, or to the sun. A more widespread interpretation relates the myth of the fleece to a method of washing gold from streams, which was well attested (but only from c. 5th century BC) in the region of Georgia to the east of the Black Sea. Sheep fleeces, sometimes stretched over a wooden frame, would be submerged in the stream, and gold flecks borne down from upstream placer deposits would collect in them. The fleeces would be hung in trees to dry before the gold was shaken or combed out. Alternatively, the fleeces would be used on washing tables in alluvial mining of gold or on washing tables at deep gold mines. Judging by the very early gold objects from a range of cultures, washing for gold is a very old human activity.  Strabo describes the way in which gold could be washed: \"It is said that in their country gold is carried down by the mountain torrents, and that the barbarians obtain it by means of perforated troughs and fleecy skins, and that this is the origin of the myth of the golden fleece—unless they call them Iberians, by the same name as the western Iberians, from the gold mines in both countries.\"  Another interpretation is based on the references in some versions to purple or purple-dyed cloth. The purple dye extracted from the purple dye murex snail and related species was highly prized in ancient times. Clothing made of cloth dyed with Tyrian purple was a mark of great wealth and high station (hence the phrase \"royal purple\"). The association of gold with purple is natural and occurs frequently in literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main theories.", "content": "Jason attempts to put the serpent guarding the golden fleece to sleep. The snake is coiled around a column at the base of which is a ram and on top of which is a bird.  The following are the chief among the various interpretations of the fleece, with notes on sources and major critical discussions:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In Greek mythology, the Golden Fleece (, \"Chrysómallo déras\") is the fleece of the golden-woolled, winged ram, Chrysomallos, which was held in Colchis. The fleece is a symbol of authority and kingship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971608}
{"src_title": "Jaroslav Heyrovský", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Jaroslav Heyrovský was born in Prague on December 20, 1890, the fifth child of Leopold Heyrovský, Professor of Roman Law at the Charles University in Prague, and his wife Clara, née Hanl von Kirchtreu. He obtained his early education at secondary school until 1909 when he began his study of chemistry, physics, and mathematics at the Charles University in Prague. From 1910 to 1914 he continued his studies at University College London, under Professors Sir William Ramsay, W. C. McC. Lewis, and F. G. Donnan, taking his B.Sc. degree in 1913. He was particularly interested in working with Professor Donnan, on electrochemistry.  During the First World War Heyrovský worked in a military hospital as a dispensing chemist and radiologist, which enabled him to continue his studies and to take his Ph.D. degree in Prague in 1918 and D.Sc. in London in 1921.  Heyrovský started his university career as assistant to Professor B. Brauner in the Institute of Analytical Chemistry of the Charles University, Prague; he was promoted to Associate Professor in 1922 and in 1926 he became the University's first Professor of Physical Chemistry.  Heyrovský's invention of the polarographic method dates from 1922 and he concentrated his whole further scientific activity on the development of this new branch of electrochemistry. He formed a school of Czech polarographers in the University, and was himself in the forefront of polarographic research. In 1950 Heyrovský was appointed Director of the newly established Polarographic Institute which has since been incorporated into the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences since 1952.  In 1926 Professor Heyrovský married Marie (Mary) Koranová, and the couple had two children, a daughter, Jitka, and a son, Michael.  Jaroslav Heyrovský died on March 27, 1967. He was interred in the Vyšehrad cemetery in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors, awards, legacy.", "content": "Many universities and seats of learning honored Heyrovský. He was elected Fellow of University College, London, in 1927, and received honorary doctorates from the Technical University, Dresden in 1955, the University of Warsaw in 1956, the University Aix-Marseille in 1959, and the University of Paris in 1960. He was granted honorary membership in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1933; in the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in 1955; the Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore, in 1955; the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, in 1962; was elected Corresponding Member of the German Academy of Sciences, Berlin, in 1955; member of the German Academy of Natural Scientists, Leopoldina (Halle-Saale) in 1956; Foreign Member of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences, Copenhagen, in 1962; Vice-President of the International Union of Physics from 1951 to 1957; President and first honorary member of the Polarographic Society, London; honorary member of the Polarographic Society of Japan; honorary member of the Chemical Societies of Czechoslovakia, Austria, Poland, England and India. In 1965, Heyrovský was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1965.  In Czechoslovakia Heyrovský was awarded the State Prize, First Grade, in 1951, and in 1955 the Order of the Czechoslovak Republic.  Heyrovský lectured on polarography in the United States in 1933, the USSR in 1934, England in 1946, Sweden in 1947, the People's Republic of China in 1958, and in U.A.R. (Egypt) in 1960 and 1961.  The crater Heyrovský on the Moon is named in his honour.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jaroslav Heyrovský () (December 20, 1890 – March 27, 1967) was a Czech chemist and inventor. Heyrovský was the inventor of the polarographic method, father of the electroanalytical method, and recipient of the Nobel Prize in 1959 for his discovery and development of the polarographic methods of analysis. His main field of work was polarography.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971609}
{"src_title": "International Table Tennis Federation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Founding history.", "content": "The ITTF was founded in 1926 by William Henry Lawes of Wymondham, the nine founding members being Austria, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, England, Germany, Hungary, India, Sweden and Wales. The first international tournament was held in January 1926 in Berlin while the first World Table Tennis Championships was held in December 1926 in London.  Toward the end of 2000, the ITTF instituted several rules changes aimed at making table tennis more viable as a televised spectator sport. The older 38 mm balls were officially replaced by 40 mm balls. This increased the ball's air resistance and effectively slowed down the game.  On 29 February 2008, the ITTF announced several rules changes after an ITTF Executive Meeting in Guangzhou, Guangdong, China with regards to a player's eligibility to play for a new association. The new ruling is to encourage associations to develop their own players.  The headquarters of the ITTF is in Lausanne, Switzerland. The previous president of the ITTF was Adham Sharara from Canada; the current president since 2014 is Thomas Weikert from Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Membership.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Continental Federations.", "content": "The ITTF recognises six continental federations. Each continental federation has a president as its top official and owns its constitution. The following are recognised federations:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National Federations.", "content": "There are currently 226 member associations within the ITTF.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organisational Structure.", "content": "All member associations of the ITTF attend annual general meeting (AGM). Agendas on changes of the constitution, laws of table tennis, applications for membership etc. are discussed and finalised through votes. Also, the president of ITTF, 8 executive vice-presidents, and 32 or less continental representatives are elected at an AGM, serving for a four-year term. The president, executive vice-presidents, and the chairman of the athletes' commission compose executive committee.  The executive committee, continental representatives and presidents of the six continental federations or their appointees compose the board of directors (Board). The Board manages the work of the ITTF between AGMs. Several committees, commissions, working groups or panels work under the constitution of ITTF or under the Board.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in diplomacy.", "content": "Unlike the organisations for more popular sports, the ITTF tends to recognise teams from generally unrecognised governing bodies for disputed territory. For example, it currently recognises the Table Tennis Federation of Kosovo even though Kosovo is excluded from most other sports. It recognised the People's Republic of China in 1953 and allowed some basic diplomacy which lead to an opening for U.S. President Richard Nixon, called \"Ping Pong Diplomacy\", in the early 1970s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rules.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Player eligibility.", "content": "For ITTF World Title events, a player is eligible to play for his association by registering with the ITTF. If the player chooses to play for a new association, he shall register with the ITTF, through the new association.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Service and point system.", "content": "The table tennis point system was reduced from a 21 to an 11-point scoring system in 2001. A game shall be won by the player or pair first scoring 11 points unless both players or pairs score 10 points, when the game shall be won by the first player or pair subsequently gaining a lead of 2 points. This was intended to make games more fast-paced and exciting. The ITTF also changed the rules on service to prevent a player from hiding the ball during service, in order to increase the average length of rallies and to reduce the server's advantage. Today, the game changes from time to time mainly to improve on the excitement for television viewers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Speed glue ban.", "content": "In 2007, ITTF's board of directors in Zagreb decided to implement the VOC-free glue rule at Junior events, starting from 1 January 2008, as a transitional period before the full implementation of the VOC ban on 1 September 2008.  As of 1 January 2009, all speed glue was to have been banned.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Contests.", "content": "Conventions: MT/WT: Men's/Women's Teams; MS/WS: Men's/Women's Singles; MD/WD: Men's/Women's Doubles; XD: Mixed Doubles", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ITTF World Ranking.", "content": "The ITTF maintains an official World Ranking list based on players' results in tournaments throughout the year.  The tables below show the current ITTF World Ranking for men ibrahim shaik", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) is the governing body for all national table tennis associations. The role of the ITTF includes overseeing rules and regulations and seeking technological improvement for the sport of table tennis. The ITTF is responsible for the organization of numerous international competitions, including the World Table Tennis Championships that has continued since 1926.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971610}
{"src_title": "Otto von Kotzebue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Born into the Kotzebue family of Brandenburgish origin, originating in Kossebau in Altmark, he was the second son of writer and diplomat August von Kotzebue and his wife, he was born in Reval (now Tallinn, Estonia), then part of the Russian Empire. After attending the Saint Petersburg school of cadets, he accompanied Adam Johann von Krusenstern on his voyage of 1803–1806.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naval career.", "content": "On promotion to lieutenant, Kotzebue was placed in command of an expedition, fitted out at the expense of the imperial chancellor, Count Nikolay Rumyantsev, in the brig \"Rurik\". In this vessel, with only twenty-seven men, including the naturalists Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz and Adelbert von Chamisso, and the artist Louis Choris, Kotzebue set out on July 30, 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic Ocean and explore the less-known parts of Oceania.  Proceeding via Cape Horn, he discovered the Romanzov Islands, Rurik Islands and Krusenstern Islands (today Tikehau), then made for Kamchatka. In the middle of July he proceeded northward, coasting along the north-west coast of North America, and discovering and naming Kotzebue Sound or Gulf and Cape Krusenstern in the remote Chukchi Sea.  Returning by the coast of Asia, he again sailed to the south, sojourned for three weeks at the Sandwich Islands, and on January 1, 1817 discovered New Year Island. After further cruising in the Pacific Ocean, he proceeded north. Severe illness compelled him to return to Europe, and he reached the Neva River in Russia on August 3, 1818, bringing home a large collection of previously unknown plants and new ethnological information.  In 1823 Kotzebue, now a captain, was entrusted with the command of an expedition of two ships of war, the main object of which was to take reinforcements to Kamchatka. A staff of scientists on board the Russian sailing sloop \"Enterprise\" collected much valuable information and material in geography, ethnography and natural history. The expedition, proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the Radak and Society Islands, and reached Petropavlovsk in July 1824. Many positions along the coast were rectified, the Navigator islands visited, and several discoveries made. The expedition returned by the Marianas, Philippines, New Caledonia and the Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on July 10, 1826.  Both of Kotzebue's narratives: \"A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Bering’s Straits for the Purpose of exploring a North-East Passage, undertaken in the Years 1815–1818\" (3 vols. 1821), and \"A New Voyage Round the World in the Years 1823–1826\" (1830), have been translated into English.  In the last years of his life, Kotzebue lived at the Triigi Manor near Kose. He died in Reval (now Tallinn) in 1846. He was buried in the Kose churchyard approx. 30 km from Tallinn, and the gravesite is marked by an imposing monument.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otto von Kotzebue (, tr. ; – ) was a Russian officer and navigator in the Imperial Russian Navy. He was born in Reval. He was known for his explorations of Oceania.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971611}
{"src_title": "Gustav Kirchhoff", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Gustav Kirchhoff was born on 12 March 1824 in Königsberg, Prussia, the son of Friedrich Kirchhoff, a lawyer, and Johanna Henriette Wittke. His family were Lutherans in the Evangelical Church of Prussia. He graduated from the Albertus University of Königsberg in 1847 where he attended the mathematico-physical seminar directed by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, Franz Ernst Neumann and Friedrich Julius Richelot. In the same year, he moved to Berlin, where he stayed until he received a professorship at Breslau. Later, in 1857, he married Clara Richelot, the daughter of his mathematics professor Richelot. The couple had five children. Clara died in 1869. He married Luise Brömmel in 1872. Kirchhoff formulated his circuit laws, which are now ubiquitous in electrical engineering, in 1845, while still a student. He completed this study as a seminar exercise; it later became his doctoral dissertation. He was called to the University of Heidelberg in 1854, where he collaborated in spectroscopic work with Robert Bunsen. In 1857 he calculated that an electric signal in a resistanceless wire travels along the wire at the speed of light. He proposed his law of thermal radiation in 1859, and gave a proof in 1861. Together Kirchhoff and Bunsen invented the spectroscope, which Kirchhoff used to pioneer the identification of the elements in the Sun, showing in 1859 that the Sun contains sodium. He and Bunsen discovered caesium and rubidium in 1861. At Heidelberg he ran a mathematico-physical seminar, modelled on Neumann's, with the mathematician Leo Koenigsberger. Among those who attended this seminar were Arthur Schuster and Sofia Kovalevskaya.  He contributed greatly to the field of spectroscopy by formalizing three laws that describe the spectral composition of light emitted by incandescent objects, building substantially on the discoveries of David Alter and Anders Jonas Ångström (see also: spectrum analysis). In 1862 he was awarded the Rumford Medal for his researches on the fixed lines of the solar spectrum, and on the inversion of the bright lines in the spectra of artificial light. In 1875 Kirchhoff accepted the first chair specifically dedicated to theoretical physics at Berlin.  He also contributed to optics, carefully solving the wave equation to provide a solid foundation for Huygens' principle (and correct it in the process).  In 1884 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.  Kirchhoff died in 1887, and was buried in the St Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery in Schöneberg, Berlin (just a few meters from the graves of the Brothers Grimm). Leopold Kronecker is buried in the same cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kirchhoff's circuit laws.", "content": "Kirchhoff's first law is that the algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point (or node) is zero. The second law is that in a closed circuit, the directed sums of the voltages in a closed system is zero.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kirchhoff's three laws of spectroscopy.", "content": "Kirchhoff did not know about the existence of energy levels in atoms. The existence of discrete spectral lines was later explained by the Bohr model of the atom, which helped lead to quantum mechanics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermochemistry.", "content": "Kirchhoff showed in 1858 that, in thermochemistry, the variation of the heat of a chemical reaction is given by the difference in heat capacity between products and reactants:  Integration of this equation permits the evaluation of the heat of reaction at one temperature from measurements at another temperature.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (; 12 March 1824 – 17 October 1887) was a German physicist who contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971612}
{"src_title": "Chess tactic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Attacking and defending pieces.", "content": "A piece is said to \"attack\" (or threaten) an opponent's piece if, in the next move, it could capture that piece. A piece is said to \"defend\" (or protect) a piece of the defender's color if, in case the defended piece were taken by the opponent, the defender could immediately recapture. Attacking a piece usually, but not always (see Sacrifice), forces the opponent to respond if the attacked piece is undefended, or if the attacking piece is of lower value than the one attacked.  When the piece attacked is a king, then a player has exactly three options:  When the piece attacked is not a king, a player has more options:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gaining material.", "content": "When a player is able to capture the opponent's piece(s) without losing any of their own (or losing a piece of lesser value), the player is said to have \"won \"; i.e., the opponent will have fewer (or less valuable) pieces remaining on the board. The goal of each basic tactic is to win material. At the professional level, often the mere threat of material loss (i.e., an anticipated tactic) induces the opponent to pursue an alternative line. In amateur games, however, tactics often come to full fruition – unforeseen by the opponent and resulting in material gain and a corresponding, perhaps decisive, advantage. Material gain can be achieved by several different types of tactics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovered attack.", "content": "A \"discovered attack\" is a move which allows an attack by another piece. A piece is moved away so as to allow the attack of a friendly bishop, rook or queen on an enemy piece. If the attacked piece is the king, the situation is referred to as a \"discovered check\". Discovered attacks are powerful since the moved piece may be able to pose a second threat.  A special case of a discovered check is a \"double check\", where both the piece being unmasked and the piece being moved attack the enemy king. A double check always forces the opponent to move the king, since it is impossible to defend attacks from two directions in any other way.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fork.", "content": "A \"fork\" is a move that uses one piece to attack two or more of the opponent's pieces simultaneously, with the aim to achieve material advantage, since the opponent can counter only one of the threats. Knights are often used for forks, with their unique moving and jumping ability. A common situation is a knight played to c2 or c7, threatening both the enemy rook and king. Such forks checking a king are particularly effective, because the opponent is forced by the rules of chess to immediately remove the check to his king. The opponent cannot choose to defend the other piece, or use a \"zwischenzug\" to complicate the situation. Pawns can also be effective in forking. By moving a pawn forward, it can attack two pieces—one diagonally to the left, and another diagonally to the right.  The queen is also an excellent forking piece, since she can move in eight different directions. However, a queen fork is only useful if both pieces are undefended, or if one is undefended and the other is the enemy's king. The queen is the most valuable attacking piece, so it is usually not profitable for her to capture a defended piece.  Fork attacks can be either \"relative\" (meaning the attacked pieces comprise pawn[s], knight[s], bishop[s], rook[s], or queen[s]), or \"absolute\" (one of the attacked pieces is the enemy king, in check). The targets of a fork do not have to be pieces, although this is known as a \"double attack\". One or more of the targets can be a mate threat (for example, forking a loose knight and setting up a battery of queen and bishop that creates a mate threat as well) or implied threat (for example, a knight move that forks a loose bishop and also threatens to fork enemy queen and rook).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pin.", "content": "A \"pin\" is a move that inhibits an opponent piece from moving, because doing so would expose a more valuable (or vulnerable) piece behind it. Only bishops, rooks, and queens can perform a pin, since they can move more than one square in a straight line. If the pinned piece cannot move because doing so would produce check, the pin is called \"absolute\". If moving the pinned piece would expose a non-king piece, the pin is called \"relative\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Skewer.", "content": "A \"skewer\" is a move which attacks two pieces in a line, similar to a pin, except that the enemy piece of greater value is in front of the piece of lesser value. After the more valuable piece moves away, the lesser piece can be captured. Like pins, only queens, rooks, and bishops can perform the skewer, and skewer attacks can be either \"absolute\" (the more valuable piece in front is the king, in check) or \"relative\" (the piece in front is a non-king piece).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pawns.", "content": "Pawns are the least valuable chess piece, so are often used to capture defended pieces. A single pawn typically forces a more powerful piece, such as a rook or a knight, to retreat. The ability to fork two enemy pieces by advancing a pawn is often a threat. Or a simple pawn move can reveal a discovered attack. When pawns are arranged on a diagonal, with each pawn guarded by the pawn behind it, they form a wall or \"\" protecting any friendly pieces behind them. A weak pawn structure, with unprotected or isolated pawns ahead of more valuable pieces, can be a decisive weakness. A pawn that has advanced all the way to the opposite side of the board is promoted to any other piece except a king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sacrifices.", "content": "A \"sacrifice\" of some material is often necessary to throw the opponent's position out of balance, potentially gaining positional advantage. The sacrificed material is sometimes later offset with a consequent material gain. Pawn sacrifices in the opening are known as gambits; they are usually not intended for material gain, but rather to achieve a more active position.  Direct attacks against the enemy king are often started by sacrifices. A common example is sacrificing a bishop on h2 or h7, checking the king, who usually must take the bishop. This allows the queen and knight to develop a fulminant attack.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zugzwang.", "content": "\"Zugzwang\" (German for the \"compulsion to move\") occurs when a player is forced to make an undesirable move. The player is put at a disadvantage because he would prefer to pass and make no move, but a move has to be made, all of which weaken his position. Situations involving zugzwang occur uncommonly, but when they do occur, it is almost always in the endgame, where there are fewer choices of available moves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zwischenzug.", "content": "\"Zwischenzug\" (German for \"intermediate move\") is a common tactic in which a player under threat, instead of directly countering, introduces an even more devastating threat. The tactic often involves a new attack against the opponent's queen or king. The opponent then may be forced to address the new threat, abandoning the earlier attack.  The concept of a zwischenzug is often listed as a tactic, but might properly be called a counter-tactic instead. The effect of a zwischenzug is to change the status quo before a tactic can come to fruition. The near ubiquity of the zwischenzug makes long combinations all the more rare and impressive.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In chess, a tactic refers to a sequence of moves that limits the opponent's options and may result in tangible gain. Tactics are usually contrasted with strategy, in which advantages take longer to be realized, and the opponent is less constrained in responding.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971613}
{"src_title": "Vincenzo Coronelli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Vincenzo Coronelli was born, probably in Venice, on August 16, 1650, the fifth child of a Venetian tailor named Maffio Coronelli. At ten, young Vincenzo was sent to the city of Ravenna and was apprenticed to a xylographer. In 1663 he was accepted into the Conventual Franciscans, becoming a novice in 1665. At age sixteen he published the first of his one hundred forty separate works. In 1671 he entered the Convent of Saint Maria Gloriosa dei Frari in Venice, and in 1672 Coronelli was sent by the order to the College of Saint Bonaventura and Saints Apostoli in Rome where he earned his doctor’s degree in theology in 1674. He excelled in the study of both astronomy and Euclid. A little before 1678, Coronelli began working as a geographer and was commissioned to make a set of terrestrial and celestial globes for Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma. Each finely crafted globe was five feet in diameter (c. 175 cm) and so impressed the Duke that he made Coronelli his theologian. Coronelli's renown as a theologian grew and in 1699 he was appointed Father General of the Franciscan order.  The International Coronelli Society for the Study of Globes, founded 1952 in Vienna, is named in Coronelli's honor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Globes for Louis XIV.", "content": "Cardinal César d'Estrées, friend and adviser to Louis XIV and ambassador to Rome, saw the Duke of Parma’s globes and invited Coronelli to Paris in 1681 to construct a pair of globes for the Most Christian King. Coronelli moved to the French capital in 1681, where he lived for two years. Each globe was composed of spindles of bent timber about ten feet long and four inches broad at the equator. This wood was then coated with a layer of plaster about an inch thick and covered in a layer of strong unfinished fabric. This was then wrapped in a quarter-inch layer of two very fine fabrics which provided backing for the painted information of the globes. These globes, measuring 384 cm in diameter and weighing approximately 2 tons, are displayed in the Bibliothèque nationale François Mitterrand in Paris. The globes depicted the latest information of French explorations in North America, particularly the expeditions of René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Bergamo Globes.", "content": "The request for \"Globes\" started as a private princely commission from a highdemanding class, mostly concentrated in the northern and central Europe courts. The art of coated cards globes with terrestrial or celestial, handwritten and often finely decorated originated in Italy. Coronelli was among the initiators of this art. The most famous Coronelli ‘s globes are divided into 2 groups: the first one includes the Globes manufactured for Parma’s Duke and for Louis XIV, which are unique for top quality; the second one includes those built since 1688, as result of a well known experience. Indeed, the quality of globes made for Louis XIV created the \"request\" for other Coronelli's globes. Their reputation was so wide that provoked the request from the highest class and institution, desiring to adorn their libraries with these elements not only for scientific use but also as artistic element. By this intent the two globes that we admire today in the Salone Furietti of Angelo Mai Library arrived in Bergamo. The history of the two globes is closely tied to cultural events and policies that have affected the city of Bergamo in the last 500 years. In fact the two Coronelli globes came to Bergamo in 1692, when Angelo Finardi, man of letter and Augustinian friar was librarian at the St. Augustine monastery. He charged a man to buy them in Venice just with the purpose of equipping the monastery library with essential tools to culture. In 1797, the St. Augustine monastery was suppressed, both the globes met with the confiscations of Napoleonic laws and were on the way to be brought to Paris and gathered with the Versailles globes. Nevertheless, thanks to the noble Giovanni Battista Vertova who hidden the two globes in his home in 1834 they were donated by his son Andrea to the Bergamo Library.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current locations of 110cm globes.", "content": "Other 110cm diameter Coronelli globes are at", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Coronelli worked in various European countries in the following years, before permanently returning to Venice in 1705. Here he started his own cosmographical project and published the volumes of \"Atlante Veneto\". In his home city he founded the very first geographical society, the Accademia Cosmografica degli Argonauti. He also held the position of Cosmographer of the Republic of Venice. Later six volumes of the \"Biblioteca Universale Sacro-Profana\" were published by Coronelli. This was a kind of encyclopedia, its compiled entries ordered alphabetically.  Coronelli died at the age of 68 in Venice, having created hundreds of maps in his lifetime.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vincenzo Maria Coronelli (August 16, 1650 – December 9, 1718) was an Italian Franciscan friar, cosmographer, cartographer, publisher, and encyclopedist known in particular for his atlases and globes. He spent most of his life in Venice.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971614}
{"src_title": "Slate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical mining terminology.", "content": "Before the mid-19th century, the terms \"slate\", \"shale\" and \"schist\" were not sharply distinguished. In the context of underground coal mining in the United States, the term slate was commonly used to refer to shale well into the 20th century. For example, \"roof slate\" referred to shale above a coal seam, and \"draw slate\" referred to shale that fell from the mine roof as the coal was removed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mineral composition.", "content": "Slate is mainly composed of the minerals quartz and muscovite or illite, often along with biotite, chlorite, hematite, and pyrite and, less frequently apatite, graphite, kaolinite, magnetite, tourmaline, or zircon as well as feldspar. Occasionally, as in the purple slates of North Wales, ferrous reduction spheres form around iron nuclei, leaving a light green spotted texture. These spheres are sometimes deformed by a subsequent applied stress field to ovoids, which appear as ellipses when viewed on a cleavage plane of the specimen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Slate in buildings.", "content": "Slate can be made into roofing slates, a type of roof shingle, or more specifically a type of roof tile, which are installed by a slater. Slate has two lines of breakability – cleavage and grain – which make it possible to split the stone into thin sheets. When broken, slate retains a natural appearance while remaining relatively flat and easy to stack. A series of \"slate booms\" occurred in Europe from the 1870s until the First World War following improvements in railway, road and waterway transportation systems.  Slate is particularly suitable as a roofing material as it has an extremely low water absorption index of less than 0.4%, making the material waterproof. In fact, this natural slate, which requires only minimal processing, has the lowest embodied energy of all roofing materials. Natural slate is used by building professionals as a result of its beauty and durability. Slate is incredibly durable and can last several hundred years, often with little or no maintenance. Its low water absorption makes it very resistant to frost damage and breakage due to freezing. Natural slate is also fire resistant and energy efficient. Slate roof tiles are usually fixed (fastened) either with nails, or with hooks as is common with Spanish slate. In the UK, fixing is typically with double nails onto timber battens (England and Wales) or nailed directly onto timber sarking boards (Scotland and Northern Ireland). Nails were traditionally of copper, although there are modern alloy and stainless steel alternatives. Both these methods, if used properly, provide a long-lasting weathertight roof with a lifespan of around 80–100 years.  Some mainland European slate suppliers suggest that using hook fixing means that:  The metal hooks are, however, visible and may be unsuitable for historic properties.  Slate tiles are often used for interior and exterior flooring, stairs, walkways and wall cladding. Tiles are installed and set on mortar and grouted along the edges. Chemical sealants are often used on tiles to improve durability and appearance, increase stain resistance, reduce efflorescence, and increase or reduce surface smoothness. Tiles are often sold gauged, meaning that the back surface is ground for ease of installation. Slate flooring can be slippery when used in external locations subject to rain. Slate tiles were used in 19th century UK building construction (apart from roofs) and in slate quarrying areas such as Blaenau Ffestiniog and Bethesda, Wales there are still many buildings wholly constructed of slate. Slates can also be set into walls to provide a rudimentary damp-proof membrane. Small offcuts are used as shims to level floor joists. In areas where slate is plentiful it is also used in pieces of various sizes for building walls and hedges, sometimes combined with other kinds of stone. In modern homes slate is often used as table coasters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Because it is a good electrical insulator and fireproof, it was used to construct early-20th-century electric switchboards and relay controls for large electric motors. Fine slate can also be used as a whetstone to hone knives.  Due to its thermal stability and chemical inertness, slate has been used for laboratory bench tops and for billiard table tops. In 18th- and 19th-century schools, slate was extensively used for blackboards and individual writing slates, for which slate or chalk pencils were used.  In areas where it is available, high-quality slate is used for tombstones and commemorative tablets. In some cases slate was used by the ancient Maya civilization to fashion stelae.  Slate was the traditional material of choice for black Go stones in Japan. It is now considered to be a luxury.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Slate extraction.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "Most slate in Europe today comes from Spain, the world's largest producer and exporter of natural slate, and 90 percent of Europe's natural slate used for roofing originates from the slate industry there.  Lesser slate-producing regions in Europe include Wales (with a museum at Llanberis), Cornwall (famously the village of Delabole), Cumbria (see Burlington Slate Quarries, Honister Slate Mine and Skiddaw Slate) and, formerly in the West Highlands of Scotland, around Ballachulish and the Slate Islands in the United Kingdom. Parts of France (Anjou, Loire Valley, Ardennes, Brittany, Savoie) and Belgium (Ardennes), Liguria in northern Italy, especially between the town of Lavagna (which means \"chalkboard\" in Italian) and Fontanabuona valley; Portugal especially around Valongo in the north of the country.  Germany's Moselle River region, Hunsrück (with a former mine open as a museum at Fell), Eifel, Westerwald, Thuringia and north Bavaria; and Alta, Norway (actually schist, not a true slate). Some of the slate from Wales and Cumbria is colored slate (non-blue): purple and formerly green in Wales and green in Cumbria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Americas.", "content": "Slate is abundant in Brazil, the world's second-biggest producer of slate, around Papagaios in Minas Gerais, which extracts 95 percent of Brazil's slate. However, not all \"slate\" products from Brazil are entitled to bear the CE mark.  Slate is produced on the east coast of Newfoundland, in Eastern Pennsylvania, Buckingham County, Virginia, and the Slate Valley of Vermont and New York, where colored slate is mined in the Granville, New York area. Pennsylvania slate is widely used in the manufacture of turkey calls used for hunting turkeys in the U.S. The tones produced from the slate (when scratched with various species of wood strikers) imitates almost exactly the calls of all four species of wild turkey in North America: eastern, Rio Grande, Osceola and Merriam's.  A major slating operation existed in Monson, Maine during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, where the slate is usually dark purple to blackish, and many local structures are still roofed with slate tiles. The roof of St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York was made of Monson slate, as is the headstone of John F. Kennedy.  Slate is found in the Arctic, and was used by Inuit to make the blades for ulus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Asia.", "content": "China has vast slate deposits; in recent years its export of finished and unfinished slate has increased. It has slate in various colors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "Deposits of slate exist throughout the Australian continent, with large reserves quarried in the Adelaide Hills (Willunga and Kanmantoo) and the Mid North (Mintaro and Spalding).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fossils.", "content": "Because slate was formed in low heat and pressure, compared to a number of other metamorphic rocks, some fossils can be found in slate; sometimes even microscopic remains of delicate organisms can be found in slate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Slate is a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous metamorphic rock derived from an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash through low-grade regional metamorphism. It is the finest grained foliated metamorphic rock. Foliation may not correspond to the original sedimentary layering, but instead is in planes perpendicular to the direction of metamorphic compression.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971615}
{"src_title": "Conrad I of Germany", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Conrad was the son of duke Conrad of Thuringia (called \"the Elder\") and his wife Glismut, probably related to Ota, wife of the Carolingian emperor Arnulf of Carinthia and mother of Louis the Child. The Conradines, counts in the Franconian Lahngau region, had been loyal supporters of the Carolingians. At the same time, they competed vigorously for predominance in Franconia with the sons of the Babenbergian duke Henry of Franconia at Bamberg Castle. In 906 the two parties battled each other near Fritzlar. Conrad the Elder was killed, as were two of the three Babenberg brothers. King Louis the Child then took the Conradines' side and the third Babenbergian brother Adalbert was arrested and executed shortly thereafter, despite a promise of safe conduct by the king's chancellor, Archbishop Hatto I of Mainz. Conrad then became the undisputed duke of all Franconia. Nevertheless, he failed in his attempts to extend the rule of Conradines over the western Lotharingia after the death of his uncle, duke Gebhard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rule.", "content": "After the death of Louis the Child, Conrad was elected king of East Francia on 10 November 911 at Forchheim by the rulers of Saxony, Swabia and Bavaria. The dukes prevented the succession to the throne of Louis' Carolingian relative Charles the Simple, king of West Francia. They chose the Conradine scion, who was maternally related to the late king. Only Conrad's rival, Reginar, duke of Lotharingia refused to give him his allegiance and joined West Francia.  Exactly because Conrad I was one of the dukes, he found it very hard to establish his authority over them. Duke Henry of Saxony was in rebellion against Conrad I until 915 and the struggle against Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria cost Conrad I his life. Burchard II, Duke of Swabia demanded and received more autonomy. Arnulf of Bavaria called on Magyars for assistance in his uprising, and when defeated, fled to Magyar lands. For this he was condemned to death as a traitor, but the powerful duke managed to avoid execution.  In 913 Conrad I married the sister of the Swabian count Erchanger, grandson of king Louis the German. Cunigunde, widow of Liutpold and mother of Duke Arnulf of Bavaria, gave him two children: Cunigunda and Herman, both born in 913.  In 913 Erchanger revolted against Conrad I. In 914 He captured Solomon III, Bishop of Constance, who was Conrad’s chief counselor. Erchanger was exiled but still managed to defeat royal army in a battle near Lake Constance. He was finally arrested for treason in assembly of nobles at Hohenaltheim in Swabia and on 21 January 917 was executed together with his brother Berthold.  Conrad's reign was a continuous and generally unsuccessful struggle to uphold the power of king against the growing power of the local dukes. His military campaigns against Charles the Simple to regain Lotharingia and the Imperial city of Aachen were failures. Archbishop Ratbod of Trier even became West Frankish chancellor in 913. Conrad's realm was also exposed to the continuous raids of the Magyars since the disastrous defeat of the Bavarian forces at the 907 Battle of Pressburg, leading to a considerable decline in his authority. His attempt to mobilize the East Frankish episcopate led by Archbishop Unni of Bremen to his cause at the 916 synod of Hohenaltheim was not enough to compensate other failures. After several clashes, Conrad at least was able to come to terms with duke Henry of Saxony. The restless Swabian dukes Erchanger (executed in 917) and Burchard II were a continuous threat, as was Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria.  Severely injured at one of his battles with Arnulf, Conrad died on 23 December 918 at his residence in Weilburg Castle. He was buried in Fulda Cathedral.  According to the \"Res gestae saxonicae\" by the chronicler Widukind of Corvey, Conrad on his deathbed persuaded his younger brother Eberhard of Franconia to offer the royal crown to Henry the Fowler, the duke of Saxony and one of his principal opponents, since he considered Henry to be the only duke capable of holding the kingdom together in the face of internal rivalries among the dukes and the continuous Magyar raids. It was not until May 919, when Eberhard and the other Frankish nobles accepted Conrad's advice, and Henry was elected king as Henry I at the Reichstag of Fritzlar. Kingship now changed from Franks to Saxons, who had suffered greatly during the conquests of Charlemagne and were proud of their identity.  Eberhard succeeded Conrad as duke of Franconia. He was killed in 939 at the Battle of Andernach during his rebellion against emperor Otto I, whereafter the duchy of Franconia became a direct Imperial possession of the Ottonian dynasty until 1024.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Conrad I (; c. 881 – 23 December 918), called the Younger, was the king of East Francia from 911 to 918. He was the first king not of the Carolingian dynasty, the first to be elected by the nobility and the first to be anointed. He was chosen as the king by the rulers of the East Frankish stem duchies after the death of young king Louis the Child. Ethnically Frankish, prior to this election he had ruled the Duchy of Franconia from 906.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971616}
{"src_title": "Drahomíra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Drahomíra was born in the present-day Havelland region centered around the fortress of Brandenburg (Brennabor), the daughter of a Hevelli (Stodoran) prince. According to Cosmas of Prague, she married Duke Vratislav I of Bohemia about 906. Drahomíra gave birth to at least six children: her sons were Wenceslaus and Boleslaus, who both succeeded their father as Bohemian dukes. Among her four daughters were one Přibislava, who became a nun at the Prague St. George's Convent, and possibly Střezislava, the wife of the Bohemian nobleman Slavník, founder of the Slavník dynasty. The marriage led the Přemyslid dynasty to cooperation with the Polabian Slavs and brought Bohemia in conflict with the Saxon duke Henry the Fowler, who became German king in 919 and later waged war against the Hevelli tribes.  After her husband's untimely death in 921, the Bohemian nobles designated Drahomíra regent for her minor son Wenceslaus. However, she had to divide the government of Bohemia with her mother-in-law Ludmila, widow of Duke Bořivoj I, who took over the religious education of her sons. Popular history depicts Ludmila as a restrained and pious grandmother, but it is likely that the political demands of government called for more energy and worldliness than history records.  Wenceslaus was one of the main reasons for the eventually fatal discord between Drahomíra and Ludmila, who had exerted great influence over Drahomíra's eldest son, leaving Drahomíra to concentrate her efforts on her younger son, Boleslaus. Despite or perhaps as a result of her political and personal efforts, Ludmila attracted Drahomíra's bitter enmity. She alleged that her mother-in-law, with the help of Bavarian missionaries, educated Wenceslaus to become a monk rather than a prince. Moreover, the two women may have disagreed whether to recognise the East Frankish supremacy of Henry the Fowler. Ludmila fled from Prague to Tetín Castle on the road to Regensburg, where on 16 September 921 Drahomíra's henchmen, Tunna and Gommon, attacked and strangled her.  The next year the troops of Duke Arnulf of Bavaria raided the Bohemian duchy. When Drahomíra's son Wenceslaus came of age about 922, he sent his mother into exile, though he called her back in 925. She spent her later years in Prague, however, upon the murder of her son (in 929 or 935) she fled from the court.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "She is the subject of two operas, \"Drahomíra\" by František Škroup (1848), and \"Drahomíra\" by Karel Šebor (1867).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Drahomíra of Stodor (; – died after 934 or 936) was Duchess consort of Bohemia from 915 to 921, wife of the Přemyslid duke Vratislaus I. She also acted as regent of the Duchy of Bohemia from 921 to 924 during the minority of her son Wenceslaus. She is chiefly known for the murder of her mother-in-law Ludmila of Bohemia by hired assassins.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971617}
{"src_title": "Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Boleslaus was the son of Duke Vratislaus I of Bohemia (d. 921) by his marriage with Drahomíra (d. 934), probably a Hevellian princess. His father took over the rule in Prague during the time of his birth, he had to deal with both the exertion of influence by both the East Frankish dukes of Bavaria and Saxony and the Magyar incursions.  Boleslaus and his elder brother Wenceslaus were taught the Christian faith and reading the Psalms by their grandmother Ludmila. There is evidence that Boleslaus's pagan mother might [have] influenced him against his brother and Christianity, though he later repented. In no way did he impede the growth of Christianity during his reign in Bohemia, and in fact, he actually sent his daughter Mlada, a nun, to Pope John XIII in Rome to ask permission to make Prague a bishopric.  Upon his death, Vratislaus was succeeded by his eldest son Wenceslaus. While the external situation worsened with the alliance between Duke Arnulf of Bavaria and the Saxon duke Henry the Fowler, King of East Francia from 919, he could only maintain his independence by entering an agreement on an annual tribute payable to the East Frankish (German) ruler. Shortly afterwards, in 935 (or in 929, according to other sources), Wenceslaus was murdered at Stará Boleslav to where he was invited by Boleslaus. According to tradition, he was killed during the feast of Saints Cosmas and Damian (September 28), at precisely the time when a son of Boleslaus was born. The child was given a strange name: Strachkvas, which means \"a dreadful feast\". Remorseful for what he had done, Boleslaus promised to have his son educated as a clergyman and devoted his life to religion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Once having taking over the Prague throne, one of Boleslaus's major concerns was the tribute paid yearly to the East Frankish kings as stipulated in the peace treaty that Henry the Fowler had established with Boleslaus's brother Wenceslaus. He stopped the payment shortly after he ascended the throne, which led to a prolonged war with Henry's successor King Otto. In 935 Boleslaus attacked the Thuringian allies of the Saxons in the northwest and defeated two of Otto's armies (from Thuringia and Merseburg). The war then deteriorated to border raids (the general pattern of warfare in this region at the time) and reached its conclusion in 950, when King Otto besieged a castle owned by Boleslaus's son. This prompted Boleslaus to sign a peace treaty with Otto. Although he remained undefeated, he promised to resume the payment of tribute.  Five years later, the armies of Czechs and Germans allied against the Magyars in the victorious Battle of Lechfeld on 10 August 955. After the battle, the remainder of the huge Magyar army turned to Bohemia, where it was crushed by Boleslaus. Shortly afterwards, in October, he also helped Otto to crush an uprising of Slavic tribes led by the Obotrite princes Nakon and Stojgněv on the Lower Elbe river in the Battle on the Raxa.  The defeat of invading Hungarians brought the same benefits to both Germans and Czechs. Less obvious is what Boleslaus expected to gain from his participation in Otto's war against the Obotrite princes in far north. He probably wanted to ensure that his powerful German neighbors did not interfere with him in expanding the Bohemian territories to the east. As a result of the victory, Boleslaus freed the Moravian lands from Magyar raids and expanded his territory, which in turn was later conquered by Polish dukes and became known as Upper Silesia and Lesser Poland. By occupying the city of Kraków, he controlled important trade routes from Prague to Kiev and Lviv. To defuse the Bohemian-Polish conflict, Duke Boleslav married his daughter Dobrawa to the pagan Piast prince Mieszko I in 963/964, and helped bring Christianity to Poland. He even allied with Mieszko in the campaign against the Saxon count Wichmann the Younger.  According to the medieval chronicler Cosmas of Prague, Duke Boleslaus died on 15 July 967, a date questioned by recent research. He was succeeded by his eldest son Boleslaus the Pious.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Boleslav's wife may have been Biagota. It is unknown if she was the mother of all his four adult children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Boleslaus I the Cruel, also called Boleslav I () ( – 15 July, 967 or 972), a member of the Přemyslid dynasty, was ruler (\"kníže\", \"duke\") of the Duchy of Bohemia from 935 to his death. He is notorious for the murder of his elder brother Wenceslaus, through which he became duke. Despite his complicity in this fratricide, Boleslaus is generally respected by Czech historians as an energetic ruler who significantly strengthened the Bohemian state and expanded its territory. His accomplishments include significant economic development due to an expansion in trade, the introduction of silver mining and the minting of the first local coinage, the Prague denarius.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971618}
{"src_title": "Ludmila of Bohemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Ludmila was married to Bořivoj I of Bohemia, the first Christian Duke of Bohemia, in 873. The couple was converted to Christianity through the efforts of Saint Methodius. Their efforts to convert Bohemia to Christianity were initially not well received, and they were driven from their country for a time by the pagans. Eventually the couple returned, and ruled for several years before retiring to Tetín, near Beroun.  The couple was succeeded by their son Spytihněv. Spytihněv was succeeded by his brother Vratislav. When Vratislav died in 921, his son Wenceslas became the next ruler of Bohemia. It had been mainly Ludmila who raised her grandson and she now acted as regent for him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ludmila and Drahomíra.", "content": "Wenceslaus' mother Drahomíra became jealous of Ludmila's influence over Wenceslaus. She had two noblemen Tunna and Gommon (probably of Frankish or Varangian descend) murder Ludmila at Tetín, and part of Ludmila's story says that she was strangled with her veil. Initially, Saint Ludmila was buried at St. Michael's at Tetín.  Saint Ludmila was canonized shortly after her death. As part of the process of canonization, in 925, Wenceslaus moved her remains to the St. George's Basilica, Prague. She is venerated as a patroness of Bohemia. She is considered to be a patron saint of Bohemia, converts, Czech Republic, duchesses, problems with in-laws, and widows. Her feast day is celebrated on September 16th.  Antonín Dvořák composed his oratorio \"Svatá Ludmila\" (Saint Ludmila) between September 1885 and May 1886. The work was commissioned by the publisher Littleton for the Leeds Festival.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Ludmila (c. 860 – 15 September 921) is a Czech saint and martyr venerated by the Orthodox and the Roman Catholics. She was born in Mělník as the daughter of the Sorbian prince Slavibor. Saint Ludmila was the grandmother of Saint Wenceslaus, who is widely referred to as Good King Wenceslaus. Saint Ludmila was canonized shortly after her death. As part of the process of canonization, in 925, Wenceslaus moved her remains to the St. George's Basilica, Prague.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971619}
{"src_title": "Rabanus Maurus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Rabanus was born of noble parents in Mainz. The date of his birth remains uncertain, but in 801 he was ordained a deacon at Benedictine Abbey of Fulda in Hesse, where he had been sent to school and had become a monk. At the insistence of Ratgar, his abbot, he went together with Haimo (later of Halberstadt) to complete his studies at Tours. There he studied under Alcuin, who in recognition of his diligence and purity gave him the surname of Maurus, after the favourite disciple of Benedict, Saint Maurus.  Returning to Fulda, in 803 he was entrusted with the principal charge of the abbey school, which under his direction became one of the most preeminent centers of scholarship and book production in Europe, and sent forth such pupils as Walafrid Strabo, Servatus Lupus of Ferrières, and Otfrid of Weissenburg. It was probably at this period that he compiled his excerpt from the grammar of Priscian, a popular textbook during the Middle Ages. According to Alban Butler's \"Lives of the Saints,\" Rabanus ate no meat and drank no wine.  In 814 Rabanus was ordained a priest. Shortly afterwards, apparently on account of disagreement with Abbot Ratgar, he withdrew for a time from Fulda. This banishment has long been understood to have occasioned a pilgrimage to Palestine, based on an allusion in his commentary on Joshua. However, the passage in question is taken from Origen's \"Homily\" xiv \"In Librum Jesu Nave\". Hence, it was Origen, not Rabanus, who visited Palestine. Rabanus returned to Fulda in 817 on the election of a new abbot, Eigil, and at Eigil's death in 822, Rabanus himself became abbot. He handled this position efficiently and successfully, but in 842 he resigned so as to have greater leisure for study and prayer, retiring to the neighbouring monastery of St Petersberg.  In 847 Rabanus was constrained to return to public life when he was elected to succeed Otgar as Archbishop of Mainz. He died at Winkel on the Rhine in 856.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hymns.", "content": "Rabanus composed a number of hymns, the most famous of which is the \"Veni Creator Spiritus\". This is a hymn to the Holy Spirit often sung at Pentecost and at ordinations. It is known in English through many translations, including \"Come, Holy Ghost, our souls inspire\"; \"Come, Holy Ghost, Creator blest\"; and \"Creator Spirit, by whose aid.\" \"Veni Creator Spiritus\" was used by Gustav Mahler as the first chorale of his eighth symphony.  Another of Rabanus' hymns, \"Christ, the fair glory of the holy angels\" (\"Christe, sanctorum decus Angelorum\"), sung for the commemoration of Saint Michael and All Angels, and to include the archangels Gabriel and Raphael, is found in English translation in The Hymnal 1982 (of the Episcopal Church), and was harmonized by Ralph Vaughan Williams.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Rabanus' works, many of which remained unpublished, comprise commentaries on scripture (Genesis to Judges, Ruth, Kings, Chronicles, Judith, Esther, Canticles, Proverbs, Wisdom, Sirach, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Maccabees, Matthew, the Epistles of St Paul, including Hebrews); and various treatises relating to doctrinal and practical subjects, including more than one series of homilies. In \"De institutione clericorum\" he brought into prominence the views of Augustine and Gregory the Great as to the training which was requisite for a right discharge of the clerical function. One of his most popular and enduring works is a spectacular collection of poems centered on the cross, called \"De laudibus sanctae crucis\" or \"In honorem sanctae crucis,\" a set of highly sophisticated poems that present the cross (and, in the last poem, Rabanus himself kneeling before it) in word and image, even in numbers.  Among the others may be mentioned the \"De universo libri xxii., sive etymologiarum opus\", a kind of dictionary or encyclopedia, heavily dependent upon Isidore of Seville's \"Etymologies\", designed as a help towards the typological, historical and mystical interpretation of Scripture, the \"De sacris ordinibus\", the \"De disciplina ecclesiastica\" and the \"Martyrologium\". All of them are characterized by erudition (he knew even some Greek and Hebrew).  In the annals of German philology a special interest attaches to the \"Glossaria Latino-Theodisca\". A commentary, \"Super Porphyrium\", printed by Cousin in 1836 among the \"Ouvrages inédits d'Abélard\", and assigned both by that editor and by Haurau to Hrabantis Maurus, is now generally believed to have been the work of a disciple.  In 2006 Germans marked the 1150th anniversary of his death, especially in Mainz and in Fulda. Highlights of the celebrations included the display of Codex Vaticanus Reginensis latinus 124, an extremely rare loan by the Vatican to Mainz of a spectacular manuscript containing \"De laudibus sanctae crucis\". The anniversary also saw the publication of no fewer than three book-length studies of Maurus and his work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "The first nominally complete edition of the works of Hrabanus Maurus was that of Georges Colvener (Cologne, 6 vols. fol., 1627). The \"Opera omnia\" form vols. cvii–cxii of Migne's \"Patrologiae cursus completus\". The \"De universo\" is the subject of \"Compendium der Naturwissenschaften an der Schule zu Fulda im IX. Jahrhundert\" (Berlin, 1880).  Recent critical editions are available of some of his works:  Publications on the occasion of the 1150th anniversary of his death:  \"See also\" (2012) \"Verzeichnis der Handschriften mit den Werken des Hrabanus Maurus\", Hahnsche Buchhandlung, Hannover. (Translation: Index of Manuscripts with the Works of Hrabanus Maurus, compiled by Raymund Kottje, Professor Emeritus, University of Bonn, Germany.)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rabanus Maurus Magnentius ( 780 – 4 February 856), also known as Hrabanus or Rhabanus, was a Frankish Benedictine monk, theologian, poet, encyclopedist and military writer who became archbishop of Mainz in East Francia. He was the author of the encyclopaedia \"De rerum naturis\" (\"\"On the Natures of Things\"\"). He also wrote treatises on education and grammar and commentaries on the Bible. He was one of the most prominent teachers and writers of the Carolingian age, and was called \"Praeceptor Germaniae,\" or \"the teacher of Germany.\" In the most recent edition of the Roman Martyrology (\"Martyrologium Romanum\", 2004, pp. 133), his feast is given as 4 February and he is qualified as a Saint ('sanctus').", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971620}
{"src_title": "Ochroma", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biology.", "content": "A member of the mallow family, \"O. pyramidale\" is native from southern Mexico to southern Brazil, but can now be found in many other countries (Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Thailand, Solomon Islands). It is a pioneer plant, which establishes itself in clearings in forests, either man-made or where trees have fallen, or in abandoned agricultural fields. It grows extremely rapidly, up to 27 m in 10–15 years. The speed of growth accounts for the lightness of the wood, which has a lower density than cork. Trees generally do not live beyond 30 to 40 years.  Flowers are produced from the third year onwards, typically at the end of the rainy season when few other trees are in flower. The large flowers open in the late afternoon and remain open overnight. Each may contain a pool of nectar up to 2.5 cm deep. Daytime pollinators include capuchin monkeys. However, most pollination occurs at night. The main pollinators were once thought to be bats, but recent evidence suggests that two nocturnal arboreal mammals, the kinkajou and the olingo, may be the primary pollinators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Ecuador supplies 95% or more of commercial balsa. In recent years, about 60% of the balsa has been plantation-grown in densely packed patches of around 1000 trees per hectare (compared to about two to three per hectare in nature). It is evergreen or dry-season deciduous, with large 30- to 40-cm, weakly palmately lobed leaves. Being a deciduous angiosperm, balsa is classified as a hardwood despite the wood itself being very soft. It is the softest commercial hardwood. The trees are harvested after six to 10 years of growth. The name balsa comes from the Spanish word for \"raft\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Balsa lumber is very soft and light, with a coarse, open grain. The density of dry balsa wood ranges from 40–340 kg/m, with a typical density around 160 kg/m. The wood of the living tree has large cells that are filled with water. This gives the wood a spongy texture. It also makes the wood of the living tree not much lighter than water and barely able to float. For commercial production, the wood is kiln-dried for about two weeks, leaving the cells hollow and empty. The large volume-to-surface ratio of the resulting thin-walled, empty cells gives the dried wood a large strength-to-weight ratio because the cells are mostly air. Unlike naturally rotted wood, which soon disintegrates in the rainforests where balsa trees grow, the cell walls of kiln-seasoned balsa wood retain their strong structure of cellulose and lignin. Because it is low in density but high in strength, balsa is a very popular material for light, stiff structures in model bridge tests, model buildings, and construction of model aircraft; all grades are usable for airworthy control line and radio-controlled aircraft varieties of the aeromodeling sports, with the lightest \"contest grades\" especially valuable for free-flight model aircraft. However, it also is valued as a component of full-sized light wooden aeroplanes, most notably the World War II de Havilland Mosquito.  Balsa is used to make wooden crankbaits for fishing, especially Rapala lures.  Sticks of dried balsa are useful as makeshift pens for calligraphy when commercial metal nibs of the desired width are not available.  Balsa wood is often used as a core material in composites; for example, the blades of many wind turbines are partly of balsa. In table tennis bats, a balsa layer is typically sandwiched between two pieces of thin plywood made from other species of wood. Balsa wood is also used in laminates together with glass-reinforced plastic (fiberglass) for making high-quality balsa surfboards and for the decks and topsides of many types of boats, especially pleasure craft less than 30 m in length. On a boat, the balsa core is usually end-grain balsa, which is much more resistant to compression than if the soft balsa wood were laid lengthwise.  Balsa is also used in the manufacture of \"breakaway\" wooden props such as tables and chairs that are designed to be broken as part of theatre, movie, and television productions.  The fifth and sixth generations of the Chevrolet Corvette had floor pans composed of balsa sandwiched between sheets of carbon fiber reinforced plastic.  Norwegian scientist and adventurer Thor Heyerdahl, convinced that early contact between the peoples of South America and Polynesia was possible, built the raft \"Kon Tiki\" from balsa logs, and upon it his crew and he sailed the Pacific Ocean from Peru to the Polynesian Tuamotu Archipelago in 1947. However, the \"Kon Tiki\" logs were not seasoned and owed much of their (rather slight) buoyancy to the fact that their sap was of lower density than seawater. This serendipitously may have saved the expedition, because it prevented the seawater from the wood and sinking the raft.  Balsa wood is also a popular wood type used in the arts of whittling, and surfing. When picture frames still used wood, balsa was often used in a baroque style because of the ease of shaping the design.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ochroma is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family, Malvaceae, containing the sole species Ochroma pyramidale, commonly known as the balsa tree. It is a large, fast-growing tree that can grow up to 30 m tall. Balsa wood is a very lightweight material with many uses. Balsa trees are native to Mexico, Central America and South America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971621}
{"src_title": "The Kelly Family", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The Kelly Kids.", "content": "The patriarch of the family, Daniel Kelly Sr., has been described as a \"grizzled, ageing druid aesthetic\", but according to his daughter Kathy he was in earlier days \"a clean-cut, intense conservative Catholic\" who studied for the priesthood. He married his first wife, Joanne, in 1957, and the couple left their native United States in 1965 with their children Daniel Jr., Caroline, Kathleen and Paul, and settled in Spain, where Daniel opened an antiques shop.  Daniel Kelly and Joanne separated, and Joanne returned to the US with Daniel Jr., who had a disability. In 1970, Kelly married Barbara Ann Suokko. Daniel and Barbara had eight children, with the eldest, John, born in 1967, and the youngest, Angelo in 1981. The children were homeschooled and given lessons in music and dance.  In 1974, the older children, Caroline, Daniel, Kathy and Paul, formed The Kelly Kids, at first busking, then performing at parties and local events. They became well-known enough that they appeared on Spanish television in 1975. The band was joined by the younger members of the family as they matured and learned to play musical instruments. The band's popularity increased in Spain, with several performances on television and in circuses. In 1976, they went on tour as The Kelly Family, in Italy, Germany and The Netherlands. Their money was stolen during the tour and, penniless, they had to busk on the streets to earn enough for the return trip home.  The family moved to Ireland, living at a campground and touring there in 1977. Then, in 1978, they toured again in their hallmark double-decker bus. (They later lived on a large houseboat.) Daniel and Barbara Kelly joined their children for performances, Barbara often performing with a baby in her arms.  In 1977, they landed a record contract in Germany. Their first major chart hit came in 1980, with the song \"Who'll Come With Me (David's Song)\", with John Kelly, aged 12, singing the solo. The song, with a Gaelic melody by Vladimir Cosma, was the theme to a German television production \"The Adventures of David Balfour\", based on \"Kidnapped\" by Robert Louis Stevenson. The song hit number 1 in the Netherlands and Belgium, and it reached the top 20 in Germany.  Barbara Kelly died of breast cancer in 1982, shortly after the birth of the youngest child, Angelo. Her last words to her family were \"Keep on singing!\" The band continued to record, Daniel Kelly having formed his own recording company in 1980. As the older members of the family reached adulthood, Caroline and Paul left the band, Caroline to study nursing and Paul to become a chef. In 1990, Daniel Kelly suffered a stroke, but he remained fairly active in the group through the 1990s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fame.", "content": "The Kelly Family covered famous songs such as \"We are the World\" and \"The Rose\", but wrote most of their own music based on family and personal experience, their Catholic faith, and their worldview. Songs include \"Santa Maria\"; \"Why, Why, Why\"; \"An Angel\", the video of which popularized a younger family member Paddy; \"Break Free\", sung by Barby; the haunting \"Mama\", in which Barbara Kelly is remembered by her children; and \"The Pee Pee Song\", in which the common childhood problem of bedwetting is portrayed by the raucous, flaxen haired baby-of-the-family Angelo.  In the 1990s, the group enjoyed their biggest success. Their 1994 album \"Over the Hump\" sold more than 2.25 million copies in Germany alone, and 4.5 million copies throughout Europe. In 1995, to promote the album, they played a concert to a Vienna audience of 250,000. In the same year they filled the Westfalenhalle, Dortmund, nine times in a row, a feat no other musician has since accomplished. In 1996 they headlined their first Stadium Tour, filling some of Europe's largest venues. They played in Beijing, China in front of 20,000 people. In 1998 they bought a castle, Schloss Gymnich, on the Erft near Cologne, Germany. About the same time, Adam Kelly, son of Papa Kelly’s younger brother Henry, started performing with his cousins in The Kelly Family. Success continued until they started to disagree on a professional basis at the beginning of the year 2000. In 2002 Papa Kelly died from yet another stroke. That same year the family competed in the German Eurovision Song Contest with the song of Maite Kelly \"I wanna be loved\" and placed fourth.  In 2002, Barby's ongoing illness forced her retirement from the band and, to the disappointment of his fans, Paddy cut his long hair and joined a religious order in France. Members of the family continued to perform as soloists or together, or in combination with their partners, as both Jimmy and John married singers. Fan interest prompted a comeback with gigs in Germany in 2007.  In 2011, the 12 Kelly siblings were reported as living in Ireland, Germany, the United States, Spain, and Belgium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies and problems.", "content": "Along with their fame and rabid followers came problems. The father, Daniel Kelly, was described, allegedly by his children, as having a \"tyrannical, controlling streak\". The most outspoken sibling, Jimmy, has criticized his father for not giving his children a formal education and imposing on them a \"Huckleberry Finn\" lifestyle. Moreover, he said that as The Kelly Family group began to dissolve, he had almost nothing left of the millions of dollars the family had earned. The oldest daughter, Kathy, who managed most of the finances of the family, said that Daniel was more \"free spirit than tyrant\" but that \"we got too big too fast, we should have cut things down some or handed over to professional management.\"  Dan Kelly taught his children to \"always keep independent of the structures of the modern entertainment industry.\" He formed his own record label and \"the Kellys kept everything in the family, from copyright and bookings to promotion and money matters.\"  The Kellys ran into tax problems in Germany, the \"Dan Kelly Foundation\" was discovered not to be a registered charity, and they were criticized for their lack of transparency in accounting for money raised for an AIDS charity. Likewise, the group had little success in the English-speaking world and aroused the derision of critics. Der Spiegel called them a \"singing second-hand clothes collection\" and Die Zeit called them a cult.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "For the solo recordings of the individual members please see \"Solo Recordings\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kelly Family is an Irish-American-European music group consisting of a multi-generational family, usually consisting of nine siblings joined occasionally on stage in their earlier years by their father and mother. They played a repertoire of rock, pop, and folk music. They had chart and concert success around the world, especially in Germany, the Benelux countries, Scandinavia, Poland, Spain and Portugal. They have sold over 20 million albums since the early 1980s. The Kelly Family was ranked as the 6th most popular music act in Germany in the 1990s. Despite its American origins, the group is virtually unknown in the United States. They sang in English, Spanish, German and Basque.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971622}
{"src_title": "Soup", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Evidence of the existence of soup can be found as far back as about 20,000 BC. Boiling was not a common cooking technique until the invention of waterproof containers (which probably came in the form of clay vessels). Animal hides and watertight baskets of bark or reeds were used before this. To boil the water hot rocks were used. This method was also used to cook acorns and other plants.  The word \"soup\" comes from French \"soupe\" (\"soup\", \"broth\"), which comes through Vulgar Latin \"suppa\" (\"bread soaked in broth\") from a Germanic source, from which also comes the word \"sop\", a piece of bread used to soak up soup or a thick stew.  The word \"restaurant\" (meaning \"[something] restoring\") was first used in France in the 16th century, to refer to a highly concentrated, inexpensive soup, sold by street vendors, that was advertised as an antidote to physical exhaustion. In 1765, a Parisian entrepreneur opened a shop specializing in such soups. This prompted the use of the modern word \"restaurant\" for the eating establishments.  In the US, the first colonial cookbook was published by William Parks in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1742, based on Eliza Smith's \"The Compleat Housewife; or Accomplished Gentlewoman's Companion\", and it included several recipes for soups and bisques. A 1772 cookbook, \"The Frugal Housewife\", contained an entire chapter on the topic. English cooking dominated early colonial cooking; but as new immigrants arrived from other countries, other national soups gained popularity. In particular, German immigrants living in Pennsylvania were famous for their potato soups. In 1794, Jean Baptiste Gilbert Payplat dis Julien, a refugee from the French Revolution, opened an eating establishment in Boston called \"The Restorator\", and became known as the \"Prince of Soups\". The first American cooking pamphlet dedicated to soup recipes was written in 1882 by Emma Ewing: \"Soups and Soup Making\".  Portable soup was devised in the 18th century by boiling seasoned meat until a thick, resinous syrup was left that could be dried and stored for months at a time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial products.", "content": "Commercial soup became popular with the invention of canning in the 19th century, and today a great variety of canned and dried soups are on the market.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Canned.", "content": "Canned soup can be condensed, in which case it is prepared by adding water (or sometimes milk) or it can be \"ready-to-eat\", meaning that no additional liquid is needed before eating. Condensed soup (invented in 1897 by John T. Dorrance, a chemist with the Campbell Soup Company) allows soup to be packaged into a smaller can and sold at a lower price than other canned soups. The soup is usually doubled in volume by adding a \"can full\" of water or milk, about. The \"ready-to-eat\" variant can be prepared by simply heating the contents of the can on a kitchen stove or in a microwave oven, rather than actually cooking anything. Such soups can be used as a base for homemade soups, with the consumer adding anything from a few vegetables to eggs, meat, cream or pasta.  Since the 1990s, the canned soup market has burgeoned, with non-condensed soups marketed as \"ready-to-eat\", so they require no additional liquid to prepare. Microwaveable bowls have expanded the \"ready-to-eat\" canned soup market even more, offering convenience (especially in workplaces), and making for popular lunch items. In response to concerns over the negative health effects of excessive salt intake, some soup manufacturers have introduced reduced-salt versions of popular soups.  Today, Campbell's Tomato (introduced in 1897), Cream of Mushroom, and Chicken Noodle (introduced in 1934) are three of the most popular soups in America. Americans consume approximately 2.5 billion bowls of these three soups alone each year. Other popular brands of soup include Progresso.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dried.", "content": "Dry soup mixes are sold by many manufacturers, and are reconstituted with hot water; other fresh ingredients may then be added.  The first dried soup was bouillon cubes; the earlier meat extract did not require refrigeration, but was a viscous liquid.  East Asian-style instant noodle soups include ramen and seasonings, and are marketed as a convenient and inexpensive instant meal, requiring only hot water for preparation.  Western-style dried soups include vegetable, chicken base, potato, pasta and cheese flavors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "In French cuisine, soup is often served before other dishes in a meal. In 1970, Richard Olney gave the place of the entrée in a French full menu: \"A dinner that begins with a soup and runs through a fish course, an entrée, a sorbet, a roast, salad, cheese and dessert, and that may be accompanied by from three to six wines, presents a special problem of orchestration\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fruit.", "content": "Fruit soups are prepared using fruit as a primary ingredient, and may be served warm or cold depending on the recipe. Many varieties of fruit soups exist, and they may be prepared based upon the availability of seasonal fruit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cold.", "content": "Cold soups are a particular variation on the traditional soup, wherein the temperature when served is kept at or below room temperature. They may be sweet or savory. In summer, sweet cold soups can form part of a dessert tray. An example of a savory chilled soup is \"gazpacho\", a chilled vegetable-based soup originating from Spain. Vichyssoise is a cold purée of potatoes, leeks, and cream.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Asian.", "content": "A feature of East Asian soups not normally found in Western cuisine is the use of tofu in soups. Many traditional East Asian soups are typically broths, \"clear soups\", or starch thickened soups.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As a figure of speech.", "content": "In the English language, the word \"soup\" has developed several uses in phrase.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot (but may be cool or cold), that is made by combining ingredients of meat or vegetables with stock, or water. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, forming a broth. Soups are similar to stews, and in some cases there may not be a clear distinction between the two; however, soups generally have more liquid (broth) than stews.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971623}
{"src_title": "Authority", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Ancient understandings of authority trace back to Rome and draw later from Catholic (Thomistic) thought and other traditional understandings. In more modern terms, forms of authority include transitional authority exhibited in for example Cambodia, public authority in the form of popular power, and, in more administrative terms, bureaucratic or managerial techniques. In terms of bureaucratic governance, one limitation of the governmental agents of the executive branch, as outlined by George A. Krause, is that they are not as close to the popular will as elected representatives are. The claims of authority can extend to national or individual sovereignty, which is broadly or provisionally understood as a claim to political authority that is legitimated.  Historical applications of authority in political terms include the formation of the city-state of Geneva, and experimental treatises involving the topic of authority in relation to education include \"Emile\" by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. As David Laitin defines, authority is a key concept to be defined in determining the range and role of political theory, science and inquiry. The relevance of a grounded understanding of authority includes the basic foundation and formation of political, civil and/or ecclesiastical institutions or representatives. In recent years, however, authority in political contexts has been challenged or questioned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political philosophy.", "content": "There have been several contributions to the debate of political authority. Among others, Hannah Arendt, Carl Joachim Friedrich, Thomas Hobbes, Alexandre Kojève and Carl Schmitt have provided some of the most remarkable texts.  In political philosophy, the jurisdiction of political authority, the location of sovereignty, the balancing of freedom and authority, and the requirements of political obligations have been core questions from the time of Plato and Aristotle to the present. Most democratic societies are engaged in an ongoing discussion regarding the legitimate extent of the exercise of governmental authority. In the United States, for instance, there is a prevailing belief that the political system as instituted by the Founding Fathers should accord the populace as much freedom as reasonable, and that government should limit its authority accordingly, known as limited government.  In the discussion regarding the legitimacy of political authority, there are two beliefs at the respective ends of the spectrum. The first is the belief in the absolute freedom of the individual, otherwise known as political anarchism. The second is the belief that there must be a central authority in the form of a sovereign that claims ownership and control over the masses. This belief is known as statism. Sovereignty, in modern terms, can refer either to the adherence to a form of sovereign rule or the individual sovereignty, or autonomy, of a nation-state. The argument for political anarchy and anti-statism is made by Michael Huemer in his book \"The Problem of Political Authority\". On the other side, one of the main arguments for the legitimacy of the state is some form of the “social contract theory” developed by Thomas Hobbes in his 1668 book, \"Leviathan\", or by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his political writings on the social contract.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sociology.", "content": "Since the emergence of the social sciences, authority has become a subject of research in a variety of empirical settings: the family (parental authority), small groups (informal authority of leadership), intermediate organizations such as schools, churches, armies, industries and bureaucracies (organizational and bureaucratic authority), and society-wide or inclusive organizations, ranging from the most primitive tribal society to the modern nation-state and intermediate organization (political authority).  The definition of authority in contemporary social science remains a matter of debate. Max Weber in his essay \"Politics as a Vocation\" (1919) divided legitimate authority into three types. Others, like Howard Bloom, suggest a parallel between authority and respect/reverence for ancestors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The United Kingdom and the Commonwealth realms.", "content": "The political authority in the British context can be traced to James VI and I of Scotland who wrote two political treatise called \"Basilikon Doron\" and \"\" which advocated his right to rule on the basis of the concept of the divine right of kings, a theological concept that has basis in multiple religions, but in this case, Christianity, tracing this right to the apostolic succession. The King in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth states are considered the foundations of judicial, legislative and executive authority.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The United States.", "content": "The understanding of political authority and the exercise of political powers in the American context traces back to the writings of the Founding Fathers, including the arguments put forward in \"The Federalist Papers\" by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and the First Chief Justice of the United States John Jay, and later speeches by the 16th President of the United States Abraham Lincoln. \"Our government rests in public opinion,\" President Abraham Lincoln said in 1856. In his 1854 Speech at Peoria, Illinois, Lincoln espoused \"the proposition that each man should do precisely as he pleases with all which is exclusively his own,\" a principle existing \"at the foundation of the sense of justice.\" This sense of personal ownership and stewardship was integral to the practice of self-government as Abraham Lincoln saw it by a Republican nation and its people. This was because, as Abraham Lincoln also declared, \"No man is good enough to govern another man, without that other's consent.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Authority is the legitimate power which one person or group possesses and practices over another. A civil state usually makes this formal by way of a judicial branch and an executive branch of government. In the exercise of governance, the terms \"authority\" and \"power\" sometimes are inaccurately used as synonyms. The term \"authority\" identifies political legitimacy, which grants and justifies the right to exercise power of government; and the term \"power\" identifies the ability to accomplish an authorized goal, by way either of compliance or of obedience; hence, authority is the power to make decisions and the legitimacy to make such legal decisions and order their execution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971624}
{"src_title": "Monoculture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Agriculture.", "content": "The term is used in agriculture and describes the practice of planting one species in a field. Examples of monoculture include lawns and most fields of wheat or corn. The term is also used where a single breed of farm animal is raised in large-scale concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Benefits.", "content": "In crop monocultures, each plant in a field has the same standardized planting, maintenance and harvesting requirements resulting in greater yields and lower costs. When a crop is matched to its well-managed environment, a monoculture can produce higher yields than a polyculture. In the last 40 years, modern practices such as monoculture planting and the use of synthesized fertilizers have reduced the amount of additional land needed to produce food.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Risks.", "content": "Annually planting the same crop in the same area depletes the nutrients from the earth that the plant relies on and leaves soil weak and unable to support healthy growth. Because soil structure and quality is so poor, farmers are forced to use chemical fertilizers to encourage plant growth and fruit production. These fertilizers, in turn, disrupt the natural makeup of the soil and contribute further to nutrient depletion. Polyculture, the mixing of different crops, increases the likelihood that one or more of the crops will be resistant to any particular pathogen. Studies have shown that planting a mixture of crop strains in the same field can combat disease effectively. Switching to polyculture in areas with disease conditions can greatly increased yields. In one study in China, the planting of several varieties of rice in the same field increased yields of non-resistant strains by 89% compared to non-resistant strains grown in monoculture, largely because of a dramatic (94%) decrease in the incidence of disease, making pesticides less necessary.  Humans rely heavily on a relatively small number of food crops and farm animals for food. If disease hits a major food crop - as happened during the 19th-century Irish potato famine - food supplies for large populations could come under threat. Maintaining and increasing biodiversity in agriculture could help safeguard world food-supplies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Forestry.", "content": "In forestry, monoculture refers to the planting of one species of tree. Monoculture plantings provide greater yields and more efficient harvesting than natural stands of trees. Single-species stands of trees are often the natural way trees grow, but the stands show a diversity in tree sizes, with dead trees mixed with mature and young trees. In forestry, monoculture stands that are planted and harvested as a unit provide limited resources for wildlife that depend on dead trees and openings, since all the trees are the same size; they are most often harvested by clearcutting, which drastically alters the habitat. The mechanical harvesting of trees can compact soils, which can adversely affect understory growth. Single-species planting also causes trees to be more vulnerable when they are infected with a pathogen, or attacked by insects, or affected by adverse environmental conditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetic monocultures.", "content": "While often referring to the mass production of the same species of crop, it can also refer to planting of a single cultivar which has same identical genetic makeups to the plants around them. When all plants in a monoculture are genetically similar, a disease, to which they have no resistance, can destroy entire populations of crops. the wheat leaf-rust fungus occasioned a great deal of worry internationally, having already decimated wheat crops in Uganda and Kenya, and having started to make inroads into Asia as well. Given the very genetically similar strains of much of the world's wheat crops following the Green Revolution, the impacts of such diseases threaten agricultural production worldwide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historic examples of monocultures.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Great Famine of Ireland.", "content": "In Ireland, exclusive use of one variety of potato, the \"lumper\", led to the Great Famine of 1845–1849. Lumpers provided inexpensive food to feed the Irish masses. Potatoes were propagated vegetatively with little to no genetic variation. When \"Phytophthora infestans\" arrived in Ireland from the Americas in 1845, the lumper had no resistance to the disease, leading to the nearly complete failure of the potato crop across Ireland.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Bananas.", "content": "Until the 1950s, the Gros Michel cultivar of banana represented almost all bananas consumed in the United States because of their taste, small seeds, and efficiency to produce. Their small seeds, while more appealing than the large ones in other Asian cultivars, were not suitable for planting. This meant that all new banana plants had to be grown from the cut suckers of another plant. As a result of this asexual form of planting, all bananas grown had identical genetic makeups which gave them no traits for resistance to \"Fusarium wilt\", a fungal disease that spread quickly throughout the Caribbean where they were being grown. By the beginning of the 1960s, growers had to switch to growing the Cavendish banana, a cultivar grown in a similar way. This cultivar is under similar disease stress since all the bananas are clones of each other and could easily succumb as the Gros Michel did.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Cattle.", "content": "Many of today's livestock production systems rely on just a handful of highly specialized breeds. Focusing heavily on a single trait (output) may come at the expense of other desirable traits - such as fertility, resistance to disease, vigor, and mothering instincts. In the early 1990s a few Holstein calves were observed to grow poorly and died in the first 6 months of life. They were all found to be homozygous for a mutation in the gene that caused bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency. This mutation was found at a high frequency in Holstein populations worldwide. (15% among bulls in the US, 10% in Germany, and 16% in Japan.) Researchers studying the pedigrees of affected and carrier animals tracked the source of the mutation to a single bull that was widely used in the industry. Note that in 1990 there were approximately 4 million Holstein cattle in the US, making the affected population around 600,000 animals.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Benefits of genetic diversity.", "content": "While having little to no variety in the genetics of an agricultural system can have drawbacks, increasing genetic diversity by introducing organisms with varying genes can divert them and make the system more sustainable. For example, by having crops with varying genetic traits for disease and pest resistance, there is a much lower chance of having those pests or diseases spread throughout the area. This is because if one crop becomes infected with a particular strain of disease or species of pest, there is a chance that the other plants around it will have genes that protect them from that strain/species. This can help increase crop productivity while simultaneously lowering pesticide usage and risk of exposure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Polyculture.", "content": "The environmental movement seeks to change popular culture by redefining the \"perfect lawn\" to be something other than a turf monoculture, and seeks agricultural policy that provides greater encouragement for more diverse cropping systems. Local food systems may also encourage growing multiple species and a wide variety of crops at the same time and same place. Heirloom gardening and raising heritage livestock breeds have come about largely as a reaction against monocultures in agriculture.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing a single crop, plant, or livestock species, variety, or breed in a field or farming system at a time. Polyculture, where more than one crop is grown in the same space at the same time, is the alternative to monoculture. Monoculture, widely used both in industrial farming and in organic farming, has allowed increased efficiency in planting and harvesting while simultaneously increasing the risk of exposure to diseases or pests. This is a cheap way of duplicating produce.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971625}
{"src_title": "Tape drive", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "Magnetic tape drives with capacities less than one megabyte were first used for data storage on mainframe computers in the 1950s., capacities of 10 terabytes or higher of uncompressed data per cartridge were available.  In early computer systems, magnetic tape served as the main storage medium because although the drives were expensive, the tapes were inexpensive. Some computer systems ran the operating system on tape drives such as DECtape. DECtape had fixed-size indexed blocks that could be rewritten without disturbing other blocks, so DECtape could be used like a slow disk drive.  Data tape drives may use advanced data integrity techniques such as multilevel forward error correction, shingling, and linear serpentine layout for writing data to tape.  Tape drives can be connected to a computer with SCSI, Fibre Channel, SATA, USB, FireWire, FICON, or other interfaces. Tape drives are used with autoloaders and tape libraries which automatically load, unload, and store multiple tapes, increasing the volume of data which can be stored without manual intervention.  In the early days of home computing, floppy and hard disk drives were very expensive. Many computers had an interface to store data via an audio tape recorder, typically on Compact Cassettes. Simple dedicated tape drives, such as the professional DECtape and the home ZX Microdrive and Rotronics Wafadrive, were also designed for inexpensive data storage. However, the drop in disk drive prices made such alternatives obsolete.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Data compression.", "content": "As some data can be compressed to a smaller size than the original files, it has become commonplace when marketing tape drives to state the capacity with the assumption of a 2:1 compression ratio; thus a tape with a capacity of 80 GB would be sold as \"80/160\". The true storage capacity is also known as the native capacity or the raw capacity. The compression ratio actually achievable depends on the data being compressed. Some data has little redundancy; large video files, for example, already use compression and cannot be compressed further. A database with repetitive entries, on the other hand, may allow compression ratios better than 10:1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Technical limitations.", "content": "A disadvantageous effect termed occurs during read/write if the data transfer rate falls below the minimum threshold at which the tape drive heads were designed to transfer data to or from a continuously running tape. In this situation, the modern fast-running tape drive is unable to stop the tape instantly. Instead, the drive must decelerate and stop the tape, rewind it a short distance, restart it, position back to the point at which streaming stopped and then resume the operation. If the condition repeats, the resulting back-and-forth tape motion resembles that of shining shoes with a cloth. Shoe-shining decreases the attainable data transfer rate, drive and tape life, and tape capacity.  In early tape drives, non-continuous data transfer was normal and unavoidable. Computer processing power and available memory were usually insufficient to provide a constant stream, so tape drives were typically designed for \"start-stop\" operation. Early drives used very large spools, which necessarily had high inertia and did not start and stop moving easily. To provide high start, stop and seek performance, several feet of loose tape was played out and pulled by a suction fan down into two deep open channels on either side of the tape head and capstans. The long thin loops of tape hanging in these \"vacuum columns\" had far less inertia than the two reels and could be rapidly started, stopped and repositioned. The large reels would move as required to keep the slack tape in the vacuum columns.  Later, most tape drives of the 1980s introduced the use of an internal data buffer to somewhat reduce start-stop situations. These drives are often referred to as \"tape streamers\". The tape was stopped only when the buffer contained no data to be written, or when it was full of data during reading. As faster tape drives became available, despite being buffered, the drives started to suffer from the shoe-shining sequence of stop, rewind, start.  Most recently, drives no longer operate at a single fixed linear speed, but have several speeds. Internally, they implement algorithms that dynamically match the tape speed level to the computer's data rate. Example speed levels could be 50 percent, 75 percent and 100 percent of full speed. A computer that streams data slower than the lowest speed level (e.g. at 49 percent) will still cause shoe-shining.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "Magnetic tape is commonly housed in a casing known as a cassette or cartridge—for example, the 4-track cartridge and the Compact Cassette. The cassette contains magnetic tape to provide different audio content using the same player. The outer shell, made of plastic, sometimes with metal plates and parts, permits ease of handling of the fragile tape, making it far more convenient and robust than having spools of exposed tape. Simple analog cassette audio tape recorders were commonly used for data storage and distribution on home computers at a time when floppy disk drives were very expensive. The Commodore Datasette was a dedicated data version using the same media.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capacity.", "content": "Manufacturers often specify the capacity of tapes using data compression techniques; compressibility varies for different data (commonly 2:1 to 8:1), and the specified capacity may not be attained for some types of real data., tape drives capable of higher capacity were still being developed.  In 2011, Fujifilm and IBM announced that they had been able to record 29.5 billion bits per square inch with magnetic tape media developed using the BaFe particles and nanotechnologies, allowing drives with true (uncompressed) tape capacity of 35 TB. The technology was not expected to be commercially available for at least a decade.  In 2014, Sony and IBM announced that they had been able to record 148 gigabits per square inch with magnetic tape media developed using a new vacuum thin-film forming technology able to form extremely fine crystal particles, allowing true tape capacity of 185 TB.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A tape drive is a data storage device that reads and writes data on a magnetic tape. Magnetic tape data storage is typically used for offline, archival data storage. Tape media generally has a favorable unit cost and a long archival stability.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971626}
{"src_title": "Galatia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Galatia was bounded on the north by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, on the east by Pontus and Cappadocia, on the south by Cilicia and Lycaonia, and on the west by Phrygia. Its capital was Ancyra (i.e. Ankara, today the capital of modern Turkey).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Celtic Galatia.", "content": "The terms \"Galatians\" came to be used by the Greeks for the three Celtic peoples of Anatolia: the Tectosages, the Trocmii, and the Tolistobogii. By the 1st century BC the Celts had become so Hellenized that some Greek writers called them \"Hellenogalatai\" (Ἑλληνογαλάται). The Romans called them \"Gallograeci\". Though the Celts had, to a large extent, integrated into Hellenistic Asia Minor, they preserved their linguistic and ethnic identity.  By the 4th century BC the Celts had penetrated into the Balkans, coming into contact with the Thracians and Greeks. In 380 BC they fought in the southern regions of Dalmatia (present day Croatia), and rumors circulated around the ancient world that Alexander the Greats father, Philip II of Macedonia had been assassinated by a dagger of Celtic origins. Arrian writes that \"Celts established on the Ionic coast\" were among those who came to meet Alexander the Great during a campaign against the Getae in 335 BC. Several ancient accounts mention that the Celts formed an alliance with Dionysius I of Syracuse who sent them to fight alongside the Macedonians against the Thebans. In 279 BC two Celtic factions united under the leadership of Brennus and began to push southwards from southern Bulgaria towards the Greek states. According to Livy, a sizable force split off from this main group and head toward Asia Minor.  For several years a federation of Hellespontine cities, including Byzantion and Chalkedon prevented the Celts from entering Asia Minor but this changed when Nikomedes I of Bithynia allied with some of the Celtic leaders in a war against his brother Zipoetes and the Seleucid king Antiochus I. When the Celts finally entered Asia Minor chaos ensued until the Celts were briefly routed by Antiochus' army in the Battle of Elephants. In the aftermath of the battle the Celts withdrew to Phrygia, eventually settling in Galatia. The territory of Celtic Galatia included the cities of Ancyra (present day Ankara), Pessinus, Tavium, and Gordion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roman Galatia.", "content": "Upon the death of Deiotarus, the Kingdom of Galatia was given to Amyntas, an auxiliary commander in the Roman army of Brutus and Cassius who gained the favor of Mark Antony. After his death in 25 BC, Galatia was incorporated by Augustus into the Roman Empire, becoming a Roman province. Near his capital Ancyra (modern Ankara), Pylamenes, the king's heir, rebuilt a temple of the Phrygian god Men to venerate Augustus (the Monumentum Ancyranum), as a sign of fidelity. It was on the walls of this temple in Galatia that the major source for the \"Res Gestae\" of Augustus were preserved for modernity. Few of the provinces proved more enthusiastically loyal to Rome.  Josephus related the Biblical figure Gomer to Galatia (or perhaps to Gaul in general): \"For Gomer founded those whom the Greeks now call Galatians, [Galls], but were then called Gomerites.\" Others have related Gomer to Cimmerians.  Paul the Apostle visited Galatia in his missionary journeys, and wrote to the Christians there in the Epistle to the Galatians.  Although originally possessing a strong cultural identity, by the 2nd century AD, the Galatians had become assimilated (Hellenization) into the Hellenistic civilization of Anatolia. The Galatians were still speaking the Galatian language in the time of St. Jerome (347–420 AD), who wrote that the Galatians of Ancyra and the Treveri of Trier (in what is now the Rhineland) spoke the same language (\"Comentarii in Epistolam ad Galatos\", 2.3, composed c. 387).  In an administrative reorganisation (\"c.\" 386–395), two new provinces succeeded it, \"Galatia Prima\" and \"Galatia Secunda\" or \"Salutaris\", which included part of Phrygia. The fate of the Galatian people is a subject of some uncertainty, but they seem ultimately to have been absorbed into the Greek-speaking populations of Anatolia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Galatia (;, \"Galatía\", \"Gaul\") was an ancient area in the highlands of central Anatolia, roughly corresponding to the provinces of Ankara and Eskişehir, in modern Turkey. Galatia was named after the Gauls from Thrace (cf. Tylis), who settled here and became its ruling caste in the 3rd century BC, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC. It has been called the \"Gallia\" of the East, Roman writers calling its inhabitants \"Galli\" (\"Gauls\" or \"Celts\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971627}
{"src_title": "Georg Büchner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Born in Goddelau (now part of Riedstadt) in the Grand Duchy of Hesse as the son of a physician, Büchner attended the Darmstadt gymnasium, a humanistic secondary school.  In 1828, he became interested in politics and joined a circle of William Shakespeare aficionados, which later on probably became the Gießen and Darmstadt section of the Society for Human Rights ().  In 1831, at age 18, he began to study medicine in Strasbourg. In Strasbourg, he immersed himself in French literature and political thought. He was influenced by the utopian communist theories of François-Noël Babeuf and Claude Henri de Saint-Simon. In 1833 he moved to Gießen and continued his studies at the University of Giessen.  While Büchner continued his studies in Gießen, he established a secret society dedicated to the revolutionary cause. In July 1834, with the help of evangelical theologian Friedrich Ludwig Weidig, he published the leaflet \"Der Hessische Landbote\", a revolutionary pamphlet critical of social injustice in the Grand Duchy of Hesse. The authorities charged them with treason and issued a warrant for their arrest. Weidig was arrested, tortured and later died in prison in Darmstadt; Büchner managed to flee across the border to Strasbourg where he wrote most of his literary work and translated two French plays by Victor Hugo, \"Lucrèce Borgia\" and \"Marie Tudor\". Two years later, his medical dissertation, \"Mémoire sur le Système Nerveux du Barbeaux (Cyprinus barbus L.)\" was published in Paris and Strasbourg. In October 1836, after receiving his M.D. and being appointed by the University of Zürich as a lecturer in anatomy, Büchner relocated to Zürich where he spent his final months writing and teaching until his death from typhus at the age of twenty-three. His first play, \"Dantons Tod\" (\"Danton's Death\"), about the French revolution, was published in 1835, followed by \"Lenz\" (first partly published in Karl Gutzkow's and Wienberg's \"Deutsche Revue\", which was quickly banned). \"Lenz\" is a novella based on the life of the Sturm und Drang poet Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz. In 1836 his second play, \"Leonce and Lena\", satirized the nobility. His unfinished and most famous play, \"Woyzeck\", was notable because its main characters were all from the working class. It exists only in fragments and was published posthumously.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "By the 1870s, Büchner was nearly forgotten in Germany when Karl Emil Franzos edited his works; these later became a major influence on the naturalist and expressionist movements. Arnold Zweig described \"Lenz\", Büchner's only work of prose fiction, as \"the beginning of modern European prose\".  The play \"Woyzeck\" became the basis for many adaptations including Alban Berg's landmark atonal opera \"Wozzeck\" which premiered in 1925, and Werner Herzog's 1979 film \"Woyzeck\" (see main article, \"Woyzeck\", for a full list).  A literary prize in Germany, the Georg Büchner Prize, is awarded annually. It was created in 1923.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Georg Büchner (17 October 1813 – 19 February 1837) was a German dramatist and writer of poetry and prose, considered part of the Young Germany movement. He was also a revolutionary and the brother of physician and philosopher Ludwig Büchner. His literary achievements, though few in number, are generally held in great esteem in Germany and it is widely believed that, had it not been for his early death, he might have joined such central German literary figures as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller at the summit of their profession.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971628}
{"src_title": "Torch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "From the Old French \"\"torche\"\" meaning \"twisted thing\", hence \"torch formed of twisted tow dipped in wax\", probably from Vulgar Latin *\"torca\", alteration of Late Latin \"torqua\", variant of classical Latin \"torques\" \"collar of twisted metal\", from \"torquere\" \"to twist\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Torch construction.", "content": "Torch construction has varied through history depending on the torch's purpose. Torches were usually constructed of a wooden stave with one end wrapped in a material which was soaked in a flammable substance. In ancient Rome some torches were made of sulfur mixed with lime. This meant that the fire would not diminish after being plunged into water. Modern procession torches are made from coarse hessian rolled into a tube and soaked in wax. A wooden handle is usually used, and a cardboard collar is attached to deflect any wax droplets. They are an easy, safe and relatively cheap way to hold a flame aloft in a parade or to provide illumination in any after-dark celebration.  Modern torches suitable for juggling are made of a wooden-and-metal or metal-only stave with one end wrapped in a Kevlar wick. This wick is soaked in a flammable liquid, usually paraffin (kerosene).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolism.", "content": "The torch is a common emblem of both enlightenment and hope. Thus the Statue of Liberty, actually \"Liberty Enlightening the World\", lifts her torch. Crossed reversed torches were signs of mourning that appear on Greek and Roman funerary monuments—a torch pointed downwards symbolizes death, while a torch held up symbolizes life, truth and the regenerative power of flame. The torch is also a symbol used by political parties, for instance by both Labour (from 1918 to 1980) and the Conservatives (from 1983 to 2006) in the UK, and the Malta Labour Party. In the seals of schools in the Philippines, the torch symbolizes the vision of education to provide enlightenment to all the students.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Olympics.", "content": "A torch carried in relay by runners is used to light the Olympic flame which burns without interruption until the end of the Games. These torches and the relay tradition were introduced in the 1936 Summer Olympics by Carl Diem, the chairman of the event because during the duration of the Ancient Olympic Games in Olympia, a sacred flame burnt inside of the temple of Hera, kept in custody by her priestess.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Juggling.", "content": "Juggling torches are often used as a prop in toss juggling: they can be flipped into the air in an end-over-end motion while being juggled, in the same manner as juggling clubs or juggling knives, but because of their sound and 'trail of flame', they can appear much more impressive to audiences. To a skilled juggler, there is only a slight chance of being burned, but they are still dangerous.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In Roman Catholic liturgy.", "content": "In former times, liturgical torches were carried in Eucharistic processions simply to give light. The Church eventually adopted their use for Solemn High Masses.  According to Adrian Fortescue, the more correct form of liturgical torches are non-freestanding (i.e. cannot stand up on their own). However, today, even in the Vatican, freestanding, tall candles in ornate candle-stick holders have replaced the former type. The torches are carried by torchbearers, who enter at the Sanctus and leave after Communion.  Anglicans of the High Church and some Lutherans use torches in some of their liturgical celebrations as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Torchlight march.", "content": "Torchlight march is a type of illuminated procession which is held after dark so that torches carried by the participants form a spectacle (other types of an illuminated procession involve candles, lanterns etc).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Associations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Love.", "content": "The association of a torch with love may date to the Greek and Roman tradition of a wedding torch, lit in the bride's hearth on her wedding night, then used to light the hearth in her new home. Such a torch is associated with the Greek god of marriage Hymen.  The idiom to carry a torch (for someone) means to love or to be romantically infatuated with someone, especially when such feelings are not reciprocated. It is often used to characterize a situation in which a romantic relationship has ended, but where one partner still loves the other. It is considered by some to be dated, but still in wide usage. A torch song is typically a sentimental love song in which a singer laments an unrequited love.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A torch is a stick with combustible material at one end, which is ignited and used as a light source. Torches have been used throughout history, and are still used in processions, symbolic and religious events, and in juggling entertainment. In some countries \"torch\" in modern usage is the term for a battery-operated portable light.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971629}
{"src_title": "BMX", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "BMX began during the early 1970s in the United States when children began racing their bicycles on dirt tracks in southern California, inspired by the motocross stars of the time. The size and availability of the Schwinn Sting-Ray and other wheelie bikes made them the natural bike of choice for these races, since they were easily customized for better handling and performance. BMX racing was a phenomenon by the mid-1970s. Children were racing standard road bikes off-road, around purpose-built tracks in California. The 1972 motorcycle racing documentary \"On Any Sunday\" is generally credited with inspiring the movement nationally in the United States; its opening scene shows kids riding their Sting-Rays off-road. By the middle of that decade, the sport achieved critical mass, and manufacturers began creating bicycles designed especially for the sport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "US timeline.", "content": "George E. Esser founded the National Bicycle League as a non-profit bicycle motocross sanctioning organization in 1974. Before they set up the NBL, Esser and his wife, Mary, sanctioned motorcycle races with the American Motocross Association (AMA). Their two sons, Greg and Brian, raced motorcycles, but also enjoyed riding and racing BMX with their friends. It was their sons’ interest, and the lack of BMX organizations in the East, which prompted Esser to start the NBL in Florida.  By 1977, the American Bicycle Association (ABA) was organized as a national sanctioning body for the growing sport.  Freestyle BMX is now one of the staple events at the annual Summer X Games Extreme Sports competition and the Etnies Backyard Jam, held primarily on the East and West coasts of the United States. The popularity of the sport has increased due to its relative ease and availability of places to ride and do tricks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "UK BMX explosion.", "content": "In the UK, BMX was a craze which took off in the early 1980s, specifically 1982/3, when it became the \"must have\" bicycle for children and teenagers. Previously a small niche area, BMX exploded at this time into the dominant bicycle for the younger rider, with older teenagers and even adults becoming known names through publications like BMX Bi weekly, featuring big names like Tim March and Andy Ruffell. The shift to freestyle from racing came in 1985 with popular styling moving from chrome frames and contrasting components in black blue or red being the norm, to brightly coloured bikes in one colour only, including their mag wheels and even matching tyres. Because BMX exploded into Britain's streets so suddenly, it was perhaps inevitable that it would implode with similar speed, when the children who rode the bikes left school and went to work. This was indeed the case, as by 1986/7 sales in the UK had dropped off dramatically, with the new ATB or \"mountain bike\" taking off and soon to become the generic adult bicycle, again from California where it had begun in the mid 1970s. Nevertheless, the first BMX track in the UK was founded in Landseer Park, Ipswich in 1980 by the Ipswich BMX Club which still provides coaching and races on a regular basis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International development.", "content": "In April 1981, the International BMX Federation was founded, and the first world championships were held in 1982. Since January 1993, BMX has been integrated into the Union Cycliste Internationale.  In 2003, the International Olympic Committee made BMX a full medal Olympic sport for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing, China, and Māris Štrombergs (male, for Latvia) and Anne-Caroline Chausson (female, for France) became the first Olympic champions.  Many talented BMX riders go on to other cycling sports like downhill, including Australian Olympian Jared Graves, Eric Carter and youth BMX racer Aaron Gwin. Multiple world and Olympic champion track sprinter Chris Hoy also began as a BMX rider.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "BMX, an abbreviation for bicycle motocross or bike motocross, is a cycle sport performed on BMX bikes, either in competitive BMX racing or freestyle BMX, or else in general on- or off-road recreation. BMX began when young cyclists appropriated motocross tracks for fun, racing and stunts, eventually evolving specialized BMX bikes and competitions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971630}
{"src_title": "Illyria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "In Greek mythology, the name of Illyria is aetiologically traced to Illyrius, the son of Cadmus and Harmonia, who eventually ruled Illyria and became the eponymous ancestor of the Illyrians. A later version of the myth identifies Polyphemus and Galatea as parents of Celtus, Galas, and Illyrius.  Ancient Greek writers used the name \"Illyrian\" to describe peoples between the Liburnians and Epirus. Fourth-century BC Greek writers clearly separated the people along the Adriatic coast from the Illyrians, and only in the 1st century AD was \"Illyrian\" used as a general term for all the peoples across the Adriatic. Writers also spoke of \"Illyrians in the strict sense of the word\"; Pomponius Mela (43 AD) the \"stricto sensu\" Illyrians lived north of the Taulantii and Enchele, on the Adriatic shore; Pliny the Elder used \"properly named Illyrians\" (\"Illyrii proprii/proprie dicti\") for a small people south of Epidaurum, or between Epidaurum (now Cavtat) and Lissus (now Lezhë). In the Roman period, \"Illyricum\" was used for the area between the Adriatic and Danube.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The prehistory of Illyria and the Illyrians is known from archaeological evidence. The Romans conquered the region in 168 BC in the aftermath of the Illyrian Wars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kingdoms.", "content": "The earliest recorded Illyrian kingdom was that of the Enchele in the 8th century BC. The era in which we observe other Illyrian kingdoms begins approximately at 400 BC and ends at 167 BC. The Autariatae under Pleurias (337 BC) were considered to have been a kingdom. The Kingdom of the Ardiaei began at 230 BC and ended at 167 BC. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardyllis of the Dardani and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last and best-known Illyrian kingdom. Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. As for the Dardanians, they always had separate domains from the rest of the Illyrians.  The Illyrian kingdoms were composed of small areas within the region of Illyria. Only the Romans ruled the entire region. The internal organization of the south Illyrian kingdoms points to imitation of their neighbouring Greek kingdoms and influence from the Greek and Hellenistic world in the growth of their urban centres. Polybius gives as an image of society within an Illyrian kingdom as peasant infantry fought under aristocrats which he calls in Greek \"Polydynastae\" (Greek: Πολυδυνάστες) where each one controlled a town within the kingdom. The monarchy was established on hereditary lines and Illyrian rulers used marriages as a means of alliance with other powers. Pliny (23–79 AD) writes that the people that formed the nucleus of the Illyrian kingdom were 'Illyrians proper' or Illyrii Proprie Dicti. They were the Taulantii, the Pleraei, the Endirudini, Sasaei, Grabaei and the Labeatae. These later joined to form the Docleatae.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roman and Byzantine rule.", "content": "The Romans defeated Gentius, the last king of Illyria, at Scodra (in present-day Albania) in 168 BC and captured him, bringing him to Rome in 165 BC. Four client-republics were set up, which were in fact ruled by Rome. Later, the region was directly governed by Rome and organized as a province, with Scodra as its capital.  The Roman province of \"Illyricum\" replaced the formerly independent kingdom of Illyria. It stretched from the Drilon river in modern Albania to Istria (Croatia) in the west and to the Sava river (Bosnia and Herzegovina) in the north. Salona (near modern Split in Croatia) functioned as its capital.  After crushing a revolt of Pannonians and Daesitiates, Roman administrators dissolved the province of Illyricum and divided its lands between the new provinces of Pannonia in the north and Dalmatia in the south. Although this division occurred in 10 AD, the term \"Illyria\" remained in use in Late Latin and throughout the medieval period. After the division of the Roman Empire, the bishops of Thessalonica appointed papal vicars for Illyricum. The first of these vicars is said to have been Bishop Acholius or Ascholius (died 383 or 384), the friend of St. Basil. In the 5th century, the bishops of Illyria withdrew from communion with Rome, without attaching themselves to Constantinople, and remained for a time independent, but in 515, forty Illyrian bishops renewed their loyalty to Rome by declaring allegiance to Pope Hormisdas. The patriarchs of Constantinople succeeded in bringing Illyria under their jurisdiction in the 8th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The name \"Illyria\" only disappears from the historical record after the Ottoman invasion of the Balkans in the 15th century, and re-emerges in the 17th century, acquiring a new significance in the Ottoman–Habsburg Wars, as Leopold I designated as the \"Illyrian nation\" the South Slavs in Hungarian territory. Several armorials of the Early modern period, popularly called the \"Illyrian Armorials\", depicted fictional coats of arms of Illyria.  The name \"Illyria\" was revived by Napoleon for the Illyrian Provinces that were incorporated into the French Empire from 1809 to 1813, and the Kingdom of Illyria (1816–1849) was part of Austria until 1849, after which time it was not used in the reorganised Austro-Hungarian Empire.  The Illyrian movement was a pan-South Slavist (Yugoslavism) cultural and political campaign by a group of young Croatian and Serbian intellectuals during the first half of the 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "William Shakespeare chose a fictionalized Illyria as the setting for his play \"Twelfth Night\". (In the modernised film spoof \"She's the Man\", this function is served by \"Illyria High School\" in California.) An extensive history of Illyria by Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange, was published by Joseph Keglevich in 1746. Shakespeare also mentioned the region in the Part 2 of the play \"Henry VI\".  The land of Illyria is the setting for Jean-Paul Sartre's \"Les Mains Sales\" and in Lloyd Alexander's \"The Illyrian Adventure\".  John Hawkes' 1970 novel \"The Blood Oranges\" is set in a fictionalized Illyria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In classical antiquity, Illyria (;, \"Illyría\" or, \"Illyrís\";, see also: \"Illyricum\") was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by numerous tribes of people collectively known as the Illyrians. Besides them, this region was also settled, in various times, by some tribes of Celts, Goths and Thracians. Illyrians spoke Illyrian languages, a group of Indo-European languages, which in ancient times perhaps had speakers in some parts in Southern Italy. The geographical term Illyris (distinct from \"Illyria\") was used to define approximately the area of northern and central Albania down to the Aoös valley, including in most periods much of the lakeland area.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971631}
{"src_title": "Adam Johann von Krusenstern", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Krusenstern was born in Hagudi, Harrien, Governorate of Estonia, Russian Empire into a Baltic German family descended from the Swedish aristocratic family von Krusenstjerna, who remained in the province after the country was ceded to Russia. In 1787, he joined the Russian Imperial Navy, and served in the war against Sweden. Subsequently, he served in the Royal Navy between 1793 and 1799, visiting America, India and China.  After publishing a paper pointing out the advantages of direct communication by sea between Russia and China by passing Cape Horn at the southern tip of South America and the Cape of Good Hope at the tip of South Africa, he was appointed by Tsar Alexander I to make a voyage to the Far East coast of Asia to endeavour to carry out the project. Under the patronage of Alexander, Count Nikolay Petrovich Rumyantsev and the Russian-American Company, Krusenstern led the first Russian circumnavigation of the world. The chief object of this undertaking was the development of the fur trade with Russian America (Alaska). Other goals of the two-ship expedition were to establish trade with China and Japan, facilitate trade in South America, and examine the coast of California in western North America for a possible colony.  The two ships, \"Nadezhda\" (Hope, formerly the British merchant \"Leander\") under the command of Krusenstern, and \"Neva\" (formerly the British merchant \"Thames\") under the command of Captain-Lieutenant Yuri F. Lisianski, set sail from Kronstadt in August 1803, rounded Cape Horn of South America, reached the northern Pacific Ocean, and returned via the Cape of Good Hope at South Africa. Krusenstern arrived back at Kronstadt in August 1806. Both seafarers made maps and detailed recordings of their voyages.  Upon his return, Krusenstern wrote a detailed report, \"\"Reise um die Welt in den Jahren 1803, 1804, 1805 und 1806 auf Befehl Seiner Kaiserlichen Majestät Alexanders des Ersten auf den Schiffen Nadeschda und Newa\"\" (\"Journey around the World in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, and 1806 at the Command of his Imperial Majesty Alexander I in the Ships Nadezhda and Neva\") published in Saint Petersburg in 1810. It was published in 1811–1812 in Berlin; this was followed by an English translation, published in London in 1813 and subsequently by French, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, and Italian translations. His scientific work, which includes an atlas of the Pacific, was published in 1827 in Saint Petersburg.  The geographical discoveries of Krusenstern made his voyage very important for the progress of geographical science. His work won him an honorary membership in the Russian Academy of Sciences. In 1816, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.  As director of the Russian naval school Krusenstern did much useful work. He was also a member of the scientific committee of the marine department, and his contrivance for counteracting the influence of the iron in vessels on the compass was adopted in the navy. Krusenstern became an admiral in 1841 and he was awarded the Pour le Mérite (civil class) in 1842. He died in 1846 in Kiltsi manor, an Estonian manor he had purchased in 1816, and was buried in the Tallinn Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Russian training tall ship \"Kruzenshtern\" is named after him. To commemorate the 200th anniversary of Krusenstern's circumnavigation, the ship retraced his route around the globe in 2005–2006.  Another ship named after him is the Russian icebreaker \"Ivan Kruzenshtern\". Also, an Aeroflot Airbus 320 VP-BKC is named after him.  The crater Krusenstern on the Moon is named after him. There is Krusenstern Island in the Bering Strait, as well as a small group of islands in the Kara Sea, southwest of the Nordenskiöld Archipelago, called Krusenstern Islands. Cape Krusenstern in Northwest Alaska is the site of Cape Krusenstern National Monument (1978), one of the most important archaeological sites in the state.  In Russia (as well as in other Russophone places), a fictional steamship \"Admiral Ivan Fyodorovich Kruzenshtern\" from the popular \"Prostokvashino\" animated film series is well-known, often as part of a catchphrase \"Admiral I.F. Kruzenshtern, a man and a steamship\", \"pirated\" from the title of a requiem poem by Vladimir Mayakovsky, \"To Comrade Nette, a Man and a Steamship\". As a third-level linguistic derivation, there is a Russophone Israel klezmer-rock band, Kruzenshtern & Parohod (\"Krusenstern and Steamship\").  Another legacy is that the Cook Islands in the South Pacific bear that name thanks to von Krusenstern. Previously known as the Hervey (or Harvey) Islands (or Group), he changed their name in 1835 to honour Captain Cook. More accurately, he changed the name of those which comprised the Southern Group and it was subsequently applied to all 15 islands when the New Zealand Parliament passed \"The Cook Islands and other Islands Government Act\" in 1901. He recorded the new name in his \"Atlas de l'Océan Pacifique\" published at St. Petersburg between 1824 and 1835.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adam Johann von Krusenstern (also Krusenstjerna in Swedish;, tr. ; 10 October 177012 August 1846) was a Baltic German admiral and explorer, who led the first Russian circumnavigation of the globe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971632}
{"src_title": "Lutein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "As a pigment.", "content": "This xanthophyll, like its sister compound zeaxanthin, has primarily been used in food and supplement manufacturing as a colorant due to its yellow-red color. Lutein absorbs blue light and therefore appears yellow at low concentrations and orange-red at high concentrations.  Many songbirds (like golden oriole, evening grosbeak, yellow warbler, common yellowthroat and Javan green magpie, but not American goldfinch or yellow canaries) deposit lutein obtained from the diet into growing tissues to color their feathers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in human eyes.", "content": "Although lutein is concentrated in the macula – a small area of the retina responsible for three-color vision – the precise functional role of retinal lutein has not been determined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Macular degeneration.", "content": "In 2013, findings of the Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) showed that a dietary supplement formulation containing lutein reduced progression of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) by 25 percent. However, lutein and zeaxanthin had no overall effect on preventing AMD, but rather \"the participants with low dietary intake of lutein and zeaxanthin at the start of the study, but who took an AREDS formulation with lutein and zeaxanthin during the study, were about 25 percent less likely to develop advanced AMD compared with participants with similar dietary intake who did not take lutein and zeaxanthin.\"  In AREDS2, participants took one of four AREDS formulations: the original AREDS formulation, AREDS formulation with no beta-carotene, AREDS with low zinc, AREDS with no beta-carotene and low zinc. In addition, they took one of four additional supplement or combinations including lutein and zeaxanthin (10 mg and 2 mg), omega-3 fatty acids (1,000 mg), lutein/zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids, or placebo. The study reported that there was no overall additional benefit from adding omega-3 fatty acids or lutein and zeaxanthin to the formulation. However, the study did find benefits in two subgroups of participants: those not given beta-carotene, and those who had little lutein and zeaxanthin in their diets. Removing beta-carotene did not curb the formulation's protective effect against developing advanced AMD, which was important given that high doses of beta-carotene had been linked to higher risk of lung cancers in smokers. It was recommended to replace beta-carotene with lutein and zeaxanthin in future formulations for these reasons.  A more recent study investigated the effects of lutein and zeaxanthin on macular pigment and visual function in patients with early AMD. Daily intake of either 20 mg lutein alone or 10 mg lutein and 10 mg zeaxanthin was found to significantly increase the macular pigment content in comparison with the placebo group; the authors also reported a significant improvement in contrast sensitivity and a trend toward improvement in best-corrected visual acuity after 48 weeks of carotenoid supplementation. Furthermore, they found a significant correlation between these two parameters of visual function and the macular pigment content, suggesting that the increase in the latter underlies the improvement of visual function.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cataract research.", "content": "There is preliminary epidemiological evidence that increasing lutein and zeaxanthin intake lowers the risk of cataract development. Consumption of more than 2.4 mg of lutein/zeaxanthin daily from foods and supplements was significantly correlated with reduced incidence of nuclear lens opacities, as revealed from data collected during a 13- to 15-year period in one study.  Two meta-analyses confirm a correlation between high diet content or high serum concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin and a decrease in the risk of cataract. There is only one published clinical intervention trial testing for an effect of lutein and zeaxanthin supplementation on cataracts. The AREDS2 trial enrolled subjects at risk for progression to advanced age-related macular degeneration. Overall, the group getting lutein (10 mg) and zeaxanthin (2 mg) were NOT less likely to progress to needing cataract surgery. The authors speculated that there may be a cataract prevention benefit for people with low dietary intake of lutein and zeaxanthin, but recommended more research.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In diet.", "content": "Lutein is a natural part of a human diet found in orange-yellow fruits and flowers, and in leafy vegetables. According to the NHANES 2013-2014 survey, adults in the United States consume on average 1.7 mg/day of lutein and zeaxanthin combined. No recommended dietary allowance currently exists for lutein. Some positive health effects have been seen at dietary intake levels of 6–10 mg/day. The only definitive side effect of excess lutein consumption is bronzing of the skin (carotenodermia).  As a food additive, lutein has the E number E161b (INS number 161b) and is extracted from the petals of African marigold (\"Tagetes erecta\"). It is approved for use in the EU and Australia and New Zealand In the United States lutein may not be used as a food coloring for foods intended for human consumption, but can be added to animal feed and is allowed as a human dietary supplement often in combination with Zeaxanthin. Example: lutein fed to chickens will show up in skin color and egg yolk color.  Some foods contain relatively high amounts of lutein:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "In humans, the Observed Safe Level (OSL) for lutein, based on a non-government organization evaluation, is 20 mg/day. Although much higher levels have been tested without adverse effects and may also be safe, the data for intakes above the OSL are not sufficient for a confident conclusion of long-term safety. Neither the U.S. Food and Drug Administration nor the European Food Safety Authority considers lutein an essential nutrient or has acted to set a tolerable upper intake level.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Commercial value.", "content": "The lutein market is segmented into pharmaceutical, dietary supplement, food, pet food, and animal and fish feed. The pharmaceutical market for lutein is estimated to be about US$190 million, and the nutraceutical and food categories are estimated to be about US$110 million. Pet food and other animal applications for lutein are estimated at US$175 million annually. This includes chickens (usually in combination with other carotenoids), to get color in egg yolks, and fish farms to color the flesh closer to wild-caught color. In the dietary supplement industry, the major market for lutein is for products with claims of helping maintain eye health. Newer applications are emerging in oral and topical products for skin health. Skin health via orally consumed supplements is one of the fastest growing areas of the US$2 billion carotenoid market.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lutein (; from Latin \"luteus\" meaning \"yellow\") is a xanthophyll and one of 600 known naturally occurring carotenoids. Lutein is synthesized only by plants, and like other xanthophylls is found in high quantities in green leafy vegetables such as spinach, kale and yellow carrots. In green plants, xanthophylls act to modulate light energy and serve as non-photochemical quenching agents to deal with triplet chlorophyll (an excited form of chlorophyll), which is overproduced at very high light levels, during photosynthesis. See xanthophyll cycle for this topic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971633}
{"src_title": "Current clamp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types of current clamp.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current transformer.", "content": "A common form of current clamp comprises a split ring made of ferrite or soft iron. A wire coil is wound round one or both halves, forming one winding of a current transformer. The conductor it is clamped around forms the other winding. Like any transformer this type works only with AC or pulse waveforms, with some examples extending into the megahertz range.  When measuring current, the subject conductor forms the primary winding and the coil forms the secondary.  This type may also be used in reverse, to inject current into the conductor, for example in electromagnetic compatibility susceptibility testing to induce an interference current. Usually, the injection probe is specifically designed for this purpose. In this mode, the coil forms the primary and the test conductor the secondary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Iron vane.", "content": "In the iron vane type, the magnetic flux in the core directly affects a moving iron vane, allowing both AC and DC to be measured, and gives a true root mean square (RMS) value for non-sinusoidal AC waveforms. Due to its physical size it is generally limited to power transmission frequencies up to around 100 Hz.  The vane is usually fixed directly to the display mechanism of an analogue (moving pointer) clamp meter. The calibration of the instrument is clearly non-linear.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hall effect.", "content": "The Hall effect type is more sensitive and is able to measure both DC and AC, in some examples up to the kilohertz (thousands of hertz) range. This type was often used with oscilloscopes, and with high-end computerized digital multimeters, however, they are becoming common place for more general use.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rogowski coil.", "content": "Resembling a current clamp in appearance and function is the Rogowski coil current sensor. This coreless transformer is used in clamp meters and power monitoring loggers. It has the advantage of better linearity, having no core to saturate, it can be made flexible, and does not require any magnetic or electrical contact at the opening end. The Rogowski coil gives a voltage proportional to the rate of change of current in the primary cable, so more signal processing is needed before the sensed values can be displayed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clamp meter.", "content": "An electrical meter with integral AC current clamp is known as a clamp meter, clamp-on ammeter, tong tester, or colloquially as an amp clamp.  A clamp meter measures the vector sum of the currents flowing in all the conductors passing through the probe, which depends on the phase relationship of the currents. Only one conductor is normally passed through the probe. In particular if the clamp is closed around a two-conductor cable carrying power to equipment, the same current flows down one conductor and up the other; the meter correctly reads a net current of zero. As electrical cables for equipment have both insulated conductors (and possibly an earth wire) bonded together, clamp meters are often used with what is essentially a short extension cord with the two conductors separated, so that the clamp can be placed around only one conductor of this extension.  A relatively recent development is a multi-conductor clamp meter with several sensor coils around the jaws of the clamp. This could be clamped around standard two- or three-conductor single-phase cables to provide a readout of the current flowing through the load, with no need to separate the conductors.  The reading produced by a conductor carrying a very low current can be increased by winding the conductor around the clamp several times; the meter reading divided by the number of turns is the current, with some loss of accuracy due to inductive effects.  Clamp meters are used by electricians, sometimes with the clamp incorporated into a general purpose multimeter.  It is simple to measure very high currents (hundreds of amperes) with the appropriate current transformer. Accurate measurement of low currents (a few milliamperes) with a current transformer clamp is more difficult. The range of any given meter can be extended by passing the conductor through the jaw multiple times. For example a 0–200 A meter can be turned into a 0–20 A meter by winding the conductor 10 times around the jaw's core. Less-expensive clamp meters use a rectifier circuit which actually reads mean current, but is calibrated to display the RMS current corresponding to the measured mean, giving a correct RMS reading only if the current is a sine wave. For other waveforms readings will be incorrect; when these simpler meters are used with non-sinusoidal loads such as the ballasts used with fluorescent lamps or high-intensity discharge lamps or most modern computer and electronic equipment, readings can be quite inaccurate. Meters which respond to true RMS rather than mean current are described as \"true RMS\".  Typical hand-held Hall effect units can read currents as low as 200 mA, and units that can read down to 1 mA are available.  The Columbia tong test ammeter (illustrated) is an example of the iron vane type, used for measuring large AC currents up to 1000 amperes. The iron jaws of the meter direct the magnetic field surrounding the conductor to an iron vane that is attached to the needle of the meter. The iron vane moves in proportion to the strength of the magnetic field, and thus produces a meter indication proportional to the current. This type of ammeter can measure both AC and DC currents and provides a true RMS current measurement of non-sinusoidal or distorted AC waveforms. Interchangeable meter movements can be installed in the clamping assembly to provide various full-scale current values up to 1000 amperes. The iron vane is in a small cylinder that is inserted in a space at the hinged end of the clamp-on jaws. Several jaw sizes are available for clamping around large conductors and bus bars up to wide. As the illustration shows, the scale is very non-linear and unsuitable for measuring low currents, with currents of less than half the full-scale deflection crammed into a short section of the dial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Power meter, energy analyzer.", "content": "Clamp probes are used with some meters to measure electrical power and energy. The clamp measures the current and other circuitry the voltage; the true power is the product of the instantaneous voltage and current integrated over a cycle. Comprehensive meters designed to measure many parameters of electrical energy (power factor, distortion, instantaneous power as a function of time, phase relationships, etc.), use this principle. A single clamp is used for single-phase measurements; with an appropriate instrument with three clamps, measurements may be made on three-phase power systems.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In electrical and electronic engineering, a current clamp, also known as current probe, is an electrical device with jaws which open to allow clamping around an electrical conductor. This allows measurement of the current in a conductor without the need to make physical contact with it, or to disconnect it for insertion through the probe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971634}
{"src_title": "Sewerage", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Components and types.", "content": "The main part of such a system is made up of large pipes (i.e. the sewers, or \"sanitary sewers\") that convey the sewage from the point of production to the point of treatment or discharge.  Types of sanitary sewer systems that all usually are gravity sewers include:  Sanitary sewers not relying solely on gravity include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Maintenance and rehabilitation.", "content": "Severe constraints are applied to sewerage, which may result in premature deterioration. These include root intrusion, joint displacement, cracks, and hole formations that lead to a significant volume of leakage with an overall risk for the environment and public health. For example, it is estimated that 500 million m of contaminated water per year can leak into soil and ground-water in Germany. The rehabilitation and replacement of damaged sewers is very costly. Annual rehabilitation costs for Los Angeles County are about €400 million, and in Germany, these costs are estimated to be €100 million. Hydrogen sulfide (HS) is indirectly responsible for biogenic sulfide corrosion and consequently, sewers need rehabilitation work. Various repair options are available to owners over a large range of costs and potential durability. One option is the application of a cementitious material based on calcium aluminate cement, after a cleaning of the corroded structure to remove loose material and contaminants in order to expose a sound, rough and clean substrate. Depending on the concrete condition and contamination, the cleaning can range from simple high pressure jet water cleaning (200 bar) up to real hydro-demolition (2000 bars).  One method to ensure sound concrete is exposed is to verify that the surface pH is superior to 10.  As for any concrete repair, the state-of-the-art rules must be followed. After this cleaning step, the cementitious material is applied to the saturated-surface-dry substrate using either:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Challenges.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Water table.", "content": "Sewer system infrastructure often reduces the water table in areas, especially in densely populated areas where rainwater (from house roofs) is directly piped into the system, as opposed to being allowed to be absorbed by the soil. In certain areas it has resulted in a significant lowering of the water table. In the example of Belgium, a lowering of the water table by 100 meters has been the result. The freshwater that is accumulated by the system is then piped to the sea.  In areas where this is a concern, vacuum sewers may be used instead, due to the shallow excavation that is possible for them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regulations.", "content": "In many European countries, citizens are obliged to connect their home sanitation to the national sewerage where possible. This has resulted in large percentages of the population being connected. For example, the Netherlands have 99% of the population connected to the system, and 1% has an individual sewage disposal system or treatment system, e.g., septic tank. Others have slightly lower (although still substantial) percentages; e.g., 96% for Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sewerage is the infrastructure that conveys sewage or surface runoff (stormwater, meltwater, rainwater) using sewers. It encompasses components such as receiving drains, manholes, pumping stations, storm overflows, and screening chambers of the combined sewer or sanitary sewer. Sewerage ends at the entry to a sewage treatment plant or at the point of discharge into the environment. It is the system of pipes, chambers, manholes, etc. that conveys the sewage or storm water.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971635}
{"src_title": "Imperative programming", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Imperative and procedural programming.", "content": "Procedural programming is a type of imperative programming in which the program is built from one or more procedures (also termed subroutines or functions). The terms are often used as synonyms, but the use of procedures has a dramatic effect on how imperative programs appear and how they are constructed. Heavily procedural programming, in which state changes are localized to procedures or restricted to explicit arguments and returns from procedures, is a form of structured programming. From the 1960s onwards, structured programming and modular programming in general have been promoted as techniques to improve the maintainability and overall quality of imperative programs. The concepts behind object-oriented programming attempt to extend this approach.  Procedural programming could be considered a step toward declarative programming. A programmer can often tell, simply by looking at the names, arguments, and return types of procedures (and related comments), what a particular procedure is supposed to do, without necessarily looking at the details of how it achieves its result. At the same time, a complete program is still imperative since it \"fixes\" the statements to be executed and their order of execution to a large extent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rationale and foundations of imperative programming.", "content": "The hardware implementation of almost all computers is imperative. Nearly all computer hardware is designed to execute machine code, which is native to the computer and is written in the imperative style. From this low-level perspective, the program state is defined by the contents of memory, and the statements are instructions in the native machine language of the computer. Higher-level imperative languages use variables and more complex statements, but still follow the same paradigm. Recipes and process checklists, while not computer programs, are also familiar concepts that are similar in style to imperative programming; each step is an instruction, and the physical world holds the state. Since the basic ideas of imperative programming are both conceptually familiar and directly embodied in the hardware, most computer languages are in the imperative style.  Assignment statements, in imperative paradigm, perform an operation on information located in memory and store the results in memory for later use. High-level imperative languages, in addition, permit the evaluation of complex expressions, which may consist of a combination of arithmetic operations and function evaluations, and the assignment of the resulting value to memory. Looping statements (as in while loops, do while loops, and for loops) allow a sequence of statements to be executed multiple times. Loops can either execute the statements they contain a predefined number of times, or they can execute them repeatedly until some condition changes. Conditional branching statements allow a sequence of statements to be executed only if some condition is met. Otherwise, the statements are skipped and the execution sequence continues from the statement following them. Unconditional branching statements allow an execution sequence to be transferred to another part of a program. These include the jump (called \"goto\" in many languages), switch, and the subprogram, subroutine, or procedure call (which usually returns to the next statement after the call).  Early in the development of high-level programming languages, the introduction of the block enabled the construction of programs in which a group of statements and declarations could be treated as if they were one statement. This, alongside the introduction of subroutines, enabled complex structures to be expressed by hierarchical decomposition into simpler procedural structures.  Many imperative programming languages (such as Fortran, BASIC, and C) are abstractions of assembly language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of imperative and object-oriented languages.", "content": "The earliest imperative languages were the machine languages of the original computers. In these languages, instructions were very simple, which made hardware implementation easier, but hindered the creation of complex programs. FORTRAN, developed by John Backus at International Business Machines (IBM) starting in 1954, was the first major programming language to remove the obstacles presented by machine code in the creation of complex programs. FORTRAN was a compiled language that allowed named variables, complex expressions, subprograms, and many other features now common in imperative languages. The next two decades saw the development of many other major high-level imperative programming languages. In the late 1950s and 1960s, ALGOL was developed in order to allow mathematical algorithms to be more easily expressed, and even served as the operating system's target language for some computers. MUMPS (1966) carried the imperative paradigm to a logical extreme, by not having any statements at all, relying purely on commands, even to the extent of making the IF and ELSE commands independent of each other, connected only by an intrinsic variable named $TEST. COBOL (1960) and BASIC (1964) were both attempts to make programming syntax look more like English. In the 1970s, Pascal was developed by Niklaus Wirth, and C was created by Dennis Ritchie while he was working at Bell Laboratories. Wirth went on to design Modula-2 and Oberon. For the needs of the United States Department of Defense, Jean Ichbiah and a team at Honeywell began designing Ada in 1978, after a 4-year project to define the requirements for the language. The specification was first published in 1983, with revisions in 1995, 2005 and 2012.  The 1980s saw a rapid growth in interest in object-oriented programming. These languages were imperative in style, but added features to support objects. The last two decades of the 20th century saw the development of many such languages. Smalltalk-80, originally conceived by Alan Kay in 1969, was released in 1980, by the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Drawing from concepts in another object-oriented language—Simula (which is considered the world's first object-oriented programming language, developed in the 1960s)—Bjarne Stroustrup designed C++, an object-oriented language based on C. Design of C++ began in 1979 and the first implementation was completed in 1983. In the late 1980s and 1990s, the notable imperative languages drawing on object-oriented concepts were Perl, released by Larry Wall in 1987; Wolfram Language, released by Wolfram Research in 1988; Python, released by Guido van Rossum in 1990; Visual Basic and Visual C++ (which included Microsoft Foundation Class Library (MFC) 2.0), released by Microsoft in 1991 and 1993 respectively; PHP, released by Rasmus Lerdorf in 1994; Java, released by Sun Microsystems in 1995, JavaScript, by Brendan Eich (Netscape), and Ruby, by Yukihiro \"Matz\" Matsumoto, both released in 1995. Microsoft's.NET Framework (2002) is imperative at its core, as are its main target languages, VB.NET and C# that run on it; however Microsoft's F#, a functional language, also runs on it.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer science, imperative programming is a programming paradigm that uses statements that change a program's state. In much the same way that the imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands, an imperative program consists of commands for the computer to perform. Imperative programming focuses on describing \"how\" a program operates.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971636}
{"src_title": "Bequest", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Bequest comes from Old English \"becwethan\", \"to declare or express in words\" — cf. \"quoth\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interpreting bequests.", "content": "Part of the process of probate involves interpreting the instructions in a will. Some wordings that define the scope of a bequest have specific interpretations. \"All the estate I own\" would involve all of the decedent's possessions at the moment of death.  A \"conditional request\" is a bequest that will be granted only if a particular event has occurred by the time of its operation. For example, a testator might write in the will that \"Mary will receive the house held in trust if she is married\" or \"if she has children,\" etc.  An \"executory request\" is a bequest that will be granted only if a particular event occurs in the future. For example, a testator might write in the will that \"Mary will receive the house held in trust set when she marries\" or \"when she has children\".  In some jurisdictions, a bequest can also be a deferred payment, as held in \"Wolder v. Commissioner\", which will impact its tax status.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Explaining bequests.", "content": "In microeconomics theorists have engaged the issue of bequest from the perspective of consumption theory, in which they seek to explain the phenomenon in terms of a bequest motive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oudh bequest.", "content": "The Oudh Bequest is a \"waqf\" which led to the gradual transfer of more than six million rupees from the Indian kingdom of Oudh (Awadh) to the Shia holy cities of Najaf and Karbala between 1850 and 1903. The bequest first reached the cities in 1850. It was distributed by two \"mujtahids\", one from each city. The British later gradually took over the bequest and its distribution; according to scholars, they intended to use it as a \"power lever\" to influence Iranian \"ulama\" and Shia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "For the recipient.", "content": "In order to calculate a taxpayer's income tax obligation, the gross income of the taxpayer must be determined. Under Section 61 of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code gross income is \"all income from whatever source derived\". On its face, the receipt of a bequest would seemingly fall within gross income and thus be subject to tax. However, in other sections of the code, exceptions are made for a variety of things that do not need to be included in gross income. Section 102(a) of the Code makes an exception for bequests stating that \"Gross income does not include the value of property acquired by gift, bequest, or inheritance.\" In general this means that the value or amount of the bequest does not need to be included in a taxpayer's gross income. This rule is not exclusive, however, and there are some exceptions under Section 102(b) of the code where the amount of value must be included. There is great debate about whether or not bequests should be included in gross income and subject to income taxes, however there has been some type of exclusion for bequests in every Federal Income Tax Act.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "For the donor.", "content": "One reason that the recipient of a bequest is usually not taxed on the bequest is because the donor may be taxed on it. Donors of bequests may be taxed through other mechanisms such as federal wealth transfer taxes. Wealth Transfer taxes, however, are usually imposed against only the very wealthy.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "A bequest is property given by will. Historically, the term \"bequest\" was used for personal property given by will and \"deviser\" for real property. Today, the two words are used interchangeably.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971637}
{"src_title": "Gherman Titov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Titov was born in the village of Verkhneye Zhilino in the Altai Krai and went to school at the Stalingrad Military Aviation School. After graduating as an air force pilot, he was selected for cosmonaut training in 1960.  He flew the Vostok 2 mission launched on 6 August 1961. It lasted for 25.3 hours and he performed 17 orbits of the Earth. His call sign was \"Eagle\" (). He landed close to the town of Krasny Kut in Saratov Oblast, Russia. A month short of 26 years old at launch, he remains the youngest person to fly in space. Titov was a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, as were almost all the Soviet cosmonauts.  Titov was a fine sportsman, and keen on gymnastics:  He was the first person to suffer from space sickness (motion sickness in space) and was also the first person to sleep in space. He slept for roughly one orbit and was surprised to wake with his arms floating in the air due to the absence of normal gravity. He returned to sleep after putting his arms under a security belt, then slept 30 minutes more than predicted by the flight plan. He stated that \"Once you have your arms and legs arranged properly, space sleep is fine... I slept like a baby\". Though he had been suffering from space sickness during his orbit, Titov celebrated upon landing. His celebration is described as \"a fit of euphoria\" after landing, and on his return flight to Kubishev for debriefing, he alarmed the medical staff by opening and downing a beer in complete violation of the rules.  After landing, Titov landed and was sent to hospital for further testing to ensure that he was not sick. After his mission, he reportedly engaged in behaviours that could be considered unacceptable for someone working within the space programme. He is reported to have been enthralled in his love of women, excessive drinking, and fast cars which caused some to theorize that his behavior had potentially been another side effect of the space sickness he experienced from zero gravity. Further testing revealed that this was not the case.  During a widely publicized 1962 visit to Seattle to tour the Century 21 World's Fair, Titov was asked by reporters how his space flight affected his philosophy of life. He replied: \"Sometimes people are saying that God is out there. I was looking around attentively all day but I didn’t find anybody there. I saw neither angels nor God.\" The utterance was famously used in Soviet anti-religion propaganda, but it was misattributed to Yuri Gagarin.  Following his space flight, Titov assumed various senior positions in the Soviet space programme until his retirement in 1992. In 1995, he was elected to the State Duma as a member of the Communist Party. He died of cardiac arrest in his sauna at the age of 65 in Moscow. He was buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and legacy.", "content": "Gherman Titov was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union, two Orders of Lenin, and numerous medals and foreign orders. He was bestowed the title of the Hero of Socialist Labor of Bulgaria, Hero of Labour of Vietnam, and Hero of Mongolia. Titov crater on the far side of the Moon and an island in Halong Bay are named after him, Ti Tốp Island.  On 6 August 2011, the 50th anniversary of Titov's flight, the reconstructed and expanded Gherman Titov Museum was opened in his native village of Polkovnikovo, Altai Krai.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "In Arthur C. Clarke's 1982 book, \"\" (and the 1984 film adaptation \"2010\"), the opening scene features a conversation between Dimitri Moisevitch of the Soviet Space Council and Dr. Heywood Floyd. When Moisevitch informs Floyd that the Soviets will be travelling to Jupiter on their new spaceship, the \"Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov\", Floyd is initially puzzled, claiming that he thought the ship was to be named after Gherman Titov. In the book, Moisevitch just mentioned that it had been changed to \"Leonov\"; in the film, he replies that Titov has fallen out of favour, though he does not elaborate.  BBC Radio 4's \"Afternoon Play\" on 12 April 2011,\" Titanium\", features Titov as narrator during the training and flight of Yuri Gagarin. It was part of a week to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Gagarin's flight.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gherman Stepanovich Titov (; 11 September 1935 – 20 September 2000) was a Soviet cosmonaut who, on 6 August 1961, became the second human to orbit the Earth, aboard Vostok 2, preceded by Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1. He was the fourth person in space, counting suborbital voyages of US astronauts Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971638}
{"src_title": "Lake Neusiedl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Water level fluctuations.", "content": "In the past, rainfall and aridity caused significant floods (which in 1768 enlarged the lake to its maximum documented size of ) and significant decreases in the lake's level, although frequently there seemed to be no apparent connection with the weather situation.  Stratigraphy shows that the lake bed has totally dried up at least 100 times since its formation (18,000–14,000 BC). During recent history the lake's complete disappearance has been documented in considerable detail on several occasions, e.g. in 1740–1742, 1811–1813, and most recently in 1866, when the private diary of a local, Gottlieb Wenzel, noted that he crossed the bed of the lake on 4 June without soiling his boots. Parts of the lake bed were claimed for agriculture; wheat and turnips were being planted. However, in 1871 the lake began to return and by the spring of 1876 it had already reassumed its usual size. The last (brief and partial) vanishing took place during the summer of 1949 when the northern part of the lake bed (to the approximate latitude of Podersdorf) fell dry for a few weeks. Each time the drying-up of the lake bed caused major environmental disruptions because the humidifying and temperature buffering effect of the large water body was absent, and because the winds blew large amounts of salty dust into the surrounding villages. On earlier occasions the lake was sometimes referred to as a \"swamp\", suggesting a very low water level with an expansion of reeds throughout the lake bed. Two records dated to 1318 and 1324, respectively mention a \"river\", implying that at this time the lake might have been reduced to a central body of water running from north to south.  Today the water level is controlled by an artificial outflow, the, and a sluice on Hungarian territory near Fertőújlak, and bilateral issues are dealt with by the Austro-Hungarian water commission which was established in 1956. However, comparatively minor fluctuations of the lake's level continue to occur. In 1965 the lake gained of water within a single month, raising its level by. The water level decreased to a similar extent, by within one year as a result of the drought of 2003. Both types of events are perfectly within the normal range, and because of the shallowness of the water can be either exacerbated or compensated by the effects of wind pressure, which can temporarily raise or reduce the local water level by as much as. However, the lake remains sensitive to changes in its equilibrium, as recent climate change scenario simulations have shown. Before the regulation works of the 19th century, the lake extended in the southeast to the marshlands of the Hanság () which have been increasingly drained and claimed for agriculture from the 16th century onward. Originally, the lake was thus closely connected to the Danube and the Rába river systems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nature and wildlife.", "content": "Most of the lake is surrounded by reeds which serve as a habitat for wildlife (making the lake an important resting place for migratory birds) and are harvested in winter as soon as the ice is solid enough. This serves a double purpose, one ecological (removal of the bulk of organic matter that would otherwise decay in the lake) and one economic (the reed is sold for various purposes, mostly related to construction and housing). During the summer months, there are occasional reed fires, as dry reed is easily flammable, and fires spread quickly because of the almost constant wind. Water quality is determined by temperature, wind, and by the amount of salt and mud emanating with the ground water from the sediments.  Several plans for dams and other intrusive construction works which would have destroyed the lake and its biotopes were discussed during the first half of the 20th century but came to nothing. Detailed plans to divide the lake bed with earthworks so that certain parts with reasonably fertile soil could be permanently drained and claimed for agriculture while the remaining parts would be used for intensive aquaculture had been finalized and approved in 1918 but were abandoned when most of the lake became Austrian territory after World War I. In 1971 plans for a bridge across the Austrian part of the lake were thwarted by environmentalists.  In 1993 the National Park Neusiedler See-Seewinkel gained international acceptance as an IUCN Category II preserve. In 2001 the national parks in Austria and Fertő-Hanság in Hungary were together accepted as a World Heritage Site. Lake Neusiedl See and its surrounding areas in Austria also enjoy protection through the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Towns and villages around the lake.", "content": "Traces of human settlement around Lake Neusiedl go back to the neolithic period. The area became densely populated from the 7th century BC onward, initially by people of the Hallstatt culture and remained so throughout Roman times. In 454 Theodoric the Great, the preeminent king of the Ostrogoths, was born here. Near Fertőrákos there are two Roman villas and a 3rd-century Mithras temple open to visitors.  The more important extant towns lying on the lake's shore are Illmitz (Illmic), Podersdorf am See (Pátfalu), Weiden (Védeny), Neusiedl am See (Nezsider), Jois (Nyulas), Winden (Sásony), Breitenbrunn (Fertőszéleskút), Purbach am Neusiedlersee (Feketeváros), Donnerskirchen (Fertőfehéregyháza), Oggau (Oka), Rust (Ruszt) and Mörbisch (Fertőmeggyes) in Austria, and Sopron, Fertőrákos, Fertőboz, Fertőd, Balf and Fertőújlak in Hungary, with the communities of Illmitz, Apetlon (Mosonbánfalva) and Podersdorf am See forming the so-called Seewinkel (lake corner), which is located between the lake and the Hungarian border. Hungarian names of Austrian towns lying on the lake's shore are given in parentheses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Despite remaining a protected wildlife habitat, the region of Lake Neusiedl, particularly in its Austrian part, draws significant numbers of tourists. The lake is known as the \"Sea of the Viennese\", as it offers ample opportunities for sailing and windsurfing at a reasonable distance from Vienna. There is also some commercial fishing.  Low water levels pose a problem for sailing and commercial shipping, as boats hit the ground more frequently and mooring sites can become temporarily unusable. However, it somewhat facilitates the annual freestyle mass crossing of the lake from Mörbisch to Illmitz. Everybody who can swim and is more than in height can participate in this event, which was revived in 2004.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lake Neusiedl () or Fertő (; ; ; ; ) is the largest endorheic lake in Central Europe, straddling the Austrian–Hungarian border. The lake covers, of which is on the Austrian side and on the Hungarian side. The lake's drainage basin has an area of about. From north to south, the lake is about long, and it is between and wide from east to west. On average, the lake's surface is above the Adriatic Sea and the lake is no more than deep.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971639}
{"src_title": "Shoshone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"Shoshone\" comes from \"Sosoni\", a Shoshone word for high-growing grasses. Some neighboring tribes call the Shoshone \"Grass House People,\" based on their traditional homes made from \"sosoni\". Shoshones call themselves \"Newe\", meaning \"People.\"  Meriwether Lewis recorded the tribe as the \"Sosonees or snake Indians\" in 1805.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "The Shoshoni language is spoken by approximately 1,000 people today. It belongs to the Central Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Speakers are scattered from central Nevada to central Wyoming.  The largest numbers of Shoshoni speakers live on the federally recognized Duck Valley Indian Reservation, located on the border of Nevada and Idaho; and Goshute Reservation in Utah. Idaho State University also offers Shoshoni-language classes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Shoshone are a Native American tribe, who originated in the western Great Basin and spread north and east into present-day Idaho and Wyoming. By 1500, some Eastern Shoshone had crossed the Rocky Mountains into the Great Plains. After 1750, warfare and pressure from the Blackfoot, Crow, Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho pushed Eastern Shoshone south and westward. Some of them moved as far south as Texas, emerging as the Comanche by 1700.  As more European-American settlers migrated west, tensions rose with the indigenous people over competition for territory and resources. Wars occurred throughout the second half of the 19th century. The Northern Shoshone, led by Chief Pocatello, fought during the 1860s with settlers in Idaho (where the city Pocatello was named for him). As more settlers encroached on Shoshone hunting territory, the natives raided farms and ranches for food and attacked immigrants.  The warfare resulted in the Bear River Massacre (1863) when US forces attacked and killed an estimated 410 Northwestern Shoshone, who were at their winter encampment. A large number of the dead were civilians, including women and children, deliberately killed by the soldiers. This was the highest number of deaths which the Shoshone suffered at the hands of United States forces.  During the American Civil War travelers continued to migrate westward along the Westward Expansion Trails. When the Shoshone, along with the Utes participated in attacks on the mail route that ran west out of Fort Laramie, the mail route had to be relocated south of the trail through Wyoming.  Allied with the Bannock, to whom they were related, the Shoshone fought against the United States in the Snake War from 1864 to 1868. They fought US forces together in 1878 in the Bannock War. In 1876, by contrast, the Shoshone fought alongside the U.S. Army in the Battle of the Rosebud against their traditional enemies, the Lakota and Cheyenne.  In 1879 a band of approximately 300 Eastern Shoshone (known as \"Sheepeaters\") became involved in the Sheepeater Indian War. It was the last Indian war fought in the Pacific Northwest region of the present-day United States.  In 1911 a small group of Bannock under a leader named Mike Daggett, also known as \"Shoshone Mike,\" killed four ranchers in Washoe County, Nevada. The settlers formed a posse and went out after the Native Americans. They caught up with the Bannock band on February 26, 1911 and killed eight. They lost one man of the posse, Ed Hogle. The posse captured three children and a woman.  A rancher donated the partial remains of three adult males, two adult females, two adolescent males, and three children (believed to be Shoshone Mike and his family, according to contemporary accounts) to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC for study. In 1994, the institution repatriated the remains to the Fort Hall Idaho Shoshone-Bannock Tribe.  In 2008 the Northwestern Band of the Shoshone Nation acquired the site of the Bear River Massacre and some surrounding land. They wanted to protect the holy land and to build a memorial to the massacre, the largest their nation had suffered. \"In partnership with the American West Heritage Center and state leaders in Idaho and Utah, the tribe has developed public/private partnerships to advance tribal cultural preservation and economic development goals.\" They have become a leader in developing tribal renewable energy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical population.", "content": "In 1845 the estimated population of Northern and Western Shoshone was 4,500, much reduced after they had suffered infectious disease epidemics and warfare. The completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 was followed by European-American immigrants arriving in unprecedented numbers in the territory.  In 1937 the Bureau of Indian Affairs counted 3,650 Northern Shoshone and 1,201 Western Shoshone. As of the 2000 census, some 12,000 persons identified as Shoshone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bands.", "content": "Shoshone people are divided into traditional bands based both on their homelands and primary food sources. These include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Shoshone or Shoshoni ( or ) are a Native American tribe with four large cultural/linguistic divisions: They traditionally speak the Shoshoni language, part of the Numic languages branch of the large Uto-Aztecan language family. The Shoshone were sometimes called the Snake Indians by neighboring tribes and early American explorers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971640}
{"src_title": "Cross-multiplication", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Procedure.", "content": "In practice, the method of \"cross-multiplying\" means that we multiply the numerator of each (or one) side by the denominator of the other side, effectively crossing the terms over.  The mathematical justification for the method is from the following longer mathematical procedure. If we start with the basic equation:  we can multiply the terms on each side by the same number and the terms will remain equal. Therefore, if we multiply the fraction on each side by the product of the denominators of both sides——we get:  We can reduce the fractions to lowest terms by noting that the two occurrences of formula_6 on the left-hand side cancel, as do the two occurrences of on the right-hand side, leaving:  and we can divide both sides of the equation by any of the elements—in this case we will use —getting:  Another justification of cross-multiplication is as follows. Starting with the given equation:  multiply by = 1 on the left and by = 1 on the right, getting:  and so:  Cancel the common denominator =, leaving:  Each step in these procedures is based on a single, fundamental property of equations. Cross-multiplication is a shortcut, an easily understandable procedure that can be taught to students.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "This is a common procedure in mathematics, used to reduce fractions or calculate a value for a given variable in a fraction. If we have an equation like this, where is a variable we are interested in solving for:  we can use cross multiplication to determine that:  For example, suppose we want to know how far a car will travel in 7 hours, if we know that its speed is constant and that it already travelled 90 miles in the last 3 hours. Converting the word problem into ratios we get  Cross-multiplying yields:  and so:  Note that even simple equations like this:  are solved using cross multiplication, since the missing term is implicitly equal to 1:  Any equation containing fractions or rational expressions can be simplified by multiplying both sides by the least common denominator. This step is called \"clearing fractions\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rule of Three.", "content": "The Rule of Three was a historical shorthand version for a particular form of cross-multiplication that could be taught to students by rote. It was considered the height of Colonial math education and still figures in the French national curriculum for secondary education.  For an equation of the form:  where the variable to be evaluated is in the right-hand denominator, the Rule of Three states that:  In this context, is referred to as the \"extreme\" of the proportion, and and are called the \"means\".  This rule was already known to Chinese mathematicians prior to the 2nd century CE, though it was not used in Europe until much later.  The Rule of Three gained notoriety for being particularly difficult to explain. Cocker's Arithmetick, the premier textbook in the 17th century, introduces its discussion of the Rule of Three with the problem, \"If 4 Yards of Cloth cost 12 Shillings, what will 6 Yards cost at that Rate?\" The Rule of Three gives the answer to this problem directly; whereas in modern arithmetic, we would solve it by introducing a variable to stand for the cost of 6 yards of cloth, writing down the equation:  and then using cross-multiplication to calculate :  An anonymous manuscript dated 1570 said: \"Multiplication is vexation, / Division is as bad; / The Rule of three doth puzzle me, / And Practice drives me mad.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Double Rule of Three.", "content": "An extension to the Rule of Three was the Double Rule of Three, which involved finding an unknown value where five rather than three other values are known.  An example of such a problem might be \"If 6 builders can build 8 houses in 100 days, how many days would it take 10 builders to build 20 houses at the same rate?\" and this can be set up as  which, with cross-multiplication twice, gives  Lewis Carroll's \"The Mad Gardener's Song\" includes the lines \"He thought he saw a Garden-Door / That opened with a key: / He looked again, and found it was / A double Rule of Three\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, specifically in elementary arithmetic and elementary algebra, given an equation between two fractions or rational expressions, one can cross-multiply to simplify the equation or determine the value of a variable.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971641}
{"src_title": "Serendipity", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The first noted use of \"serendipity\" in the English language was by Horace Walpole on 28 January 1754. In a letter he wrote to his friend Horace Mann, Walpole explained an unexpected discovery he had made about a lost painting of Bianca Cappello by Giorgio Vasari by reference to a Persian fairy tale, \"The Three Princes of Serendip\". The princes, he told his correspondent, were \"always making discoveries, by accidents and sagacity, of things which they were not in quest of.\" The name comes from \"Serendip\", an old name for Sri Lanka (Ceylon), hence \"Sarandib\" by Arab traders. It is derived from the Sanskrit \"Siṃhaladvīpaḥ\" (Siṃhalaḥ, Sri Lanka + dvīpaḥ, island).  The word has been exported into many other languages, with the general meaning of “unexpected discovery” or “fortunate chance”.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inventions.", "content": "The term \"serendipity\" is often applied to inventions made by chance rather than intent. Andrew Smith, editor of \"The\" \"Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink\", has speculated that most everyday products had serendipitous roots, with many early ones related to animals. The origin of cheese, for example, possibly originated in the Nomad practice of storing milk in the stomach of a dead camel that was attached to the saddle of a live one, thereby mixing rennet from the stomach with the milk stored within.  Other examples of serendipity in inventions include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discoveries.", "content": "Serendipity contributed to entomologist Shaun Winterton discovering \"Semachrysa jade\", a new species of lacewing, which he found not in its native Malaysia, but on the photo-sharing site Flickr. Winterton's discovery was aided by Flickr's ability to present images that are personalized to a user's interests, thereby increasing the odds he would chance upon the photo. Computer scientist Jaime Teevan has argued that serendipitous discovery is promoted by such personalization, writing that \"people don’t know what to do with random new information. Instead, we want information that is at the fringe of what we already know, because that is when we have the cognitive structures to make sense of the new ideas.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Online activity.", "content": "Serendipity is a design principle for online activity that would present viewpoints that diverge from those participants already hold. Harvard Law professor Cass Sunstein argues that such an \"architecture of serendipity\" would promote a healthier democracy. Like a great city or university, \"a well-functioning information market\" provides exposure to new ideas, people, and ways of life, \"Serendipity is crucial because it expands your horizons. You need that if you want to be free.\" The idea has potential application in the design of social media, information searches, and web browsing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Related terms.", "content": "William Boyd coined the term zemblanity in the late twentieth century to mean somewhat the opposite of serendipity: \"making unhappy, unlucky and expected discoveries occurring by design\". A zemblanity is, effectively, an \"unpleasant unsurprise\". It derives from Novaya Zemlya (or Nova Zembla), a cold, barren land with many features opposite to the lush Sri Lanka (Serendip).  Bahramdipity is derived directly from Bahram Gur as characterized in \"The Three Princes of Serendip\". It describes the \"suppression\" of serendipitous discoveries or research results by powerful individuals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Serendipity is the occurrence of an unplanned fortunate discovery. Serendipity is a common occurrence throughout the history of product invention and scientific discovery. Serendipity is also seen as a potential design principle for online activities that would present a wide array of information and viewpoints, rather than just re-enforcing a user's opinion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971642}
{"src_title": "Neman, Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"Ragnita\" (from Old Prussian: \"ragas\", \"spur\"), founded in 1288, was a settlement of the Baltic (Old Prussian) tribe of Skalvians. It was contested by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since its creation in the 13th century, and on April 23, 1289 it was conquered by the Teutonic Knights, who built a Gothic castle there, which later became the seat of a \"Komtur\". The stronghold was called \"Landeshut\", but the name did not become popular and the name Ragnit, after a local river, a tributary of the Memel (outside of Prussia called Neman), continued to be used.  Although the settlement had an important castle not only guarding the Prussian lands of the State of the Teutonic Order from the north but also serving as a military base for the Knights' campaigns into adjacent Samogitia, it was living in the shadow of the nearby city of Tilsit (present-day Sovetsk). After the dissolution of the Order's State under its last Grand Master Albrecht von Hohenzollern, Ragnit on April 10, 1525 became a part of the Duchy of Prussia, which was ruled by the House of Hohenzollern as a fief of the Polish Crown until 1657. The duchy was inherited by the Hohenzollern margraves of Brandenburg in 1618, becoming an integral part of Brandenburg-Prussia, whereby remote Ragnit retained its status as a regional capital. Ragnit was devastated by Tatars during the Second Northern War in 1656 and again by Swedish forces during the Scanian War in 1678, while the \"Great Elector\" Frederick William of Brandenburg had achieved full sovereignty over his Prussian lands by the 1657 Treaty of Wehlau. His son and successor Elector Frederick III elevated himself to a King \"in\" Prussia in 1701. He granted Ragnit town privileges on April 6, 1722. It was again destroyed during the Seven Years' War, this time by Russian forces in 1757.  Incorporated into the Province of East Prussia from 1815, Ragnit became a part of the German Empire upon the Prussian-led unification of Germany in 1871. On November 1, 1892, a railroad line linking the town with Tilsit (now Sovetsk) was opened. It was built to develop the wood industry in the area, but the development did not actually start and the area's economy remained dominated by food production. When Germany had to cede the Klaipėda Region north of the Neman River to the Conference of Ambassadors according to the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, Ragnit became a border town. In 1922, it lost its status as an administrative capital in favor of Tilsit.  During World War II, on January 19, 1945, Ragnit was captured without a fight by the 3rd Belorussian Front of the Red Army in the course of the East Prussian Offensive. In accordance to the 1945 Potsdam Agreement, the town became a part of Kaliningrad Oblast of the Russian SFSR. It was renamed to Neman in 1946. Most of the local inhabitants who had not fled during the Soviet conquest of East Prussia were subsequently expelled to the western parts of Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Neman serves as the administrative center of Nemansky District. As an administrative division, it is, together with nineteen rural localities, incorporated within Nemansky District as the town of district significance of Neman. As a municipal division, the town of district significance of Neman is incorporated within Nemansky Municipal District as Nemanskoye Urban Settlement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lithuanian minority.", "content": "Despite being a part of German-speaking states, for centuries Ragnit was an important center of Lithuanian culture. From 1549 to 1563, famous Lithuanian writer and translator (who wrote the first book in the Lithuanian language, \"Catechismusa Prasty Szadei\" (\"The Simple Words of Catechism\")) Martynas Mažvydas was priest and Archdiacon of Ragainė. While living in Ragainė he wrote \"The Song of St. Ambrosy\" (with a dedication in Lithuanian), translated \"The Form of Baptism\" from German into Lithuanian, published \"The Prussian Agenda\" into the prayer \"Paraphrasis\". One of his major works was \"The Christian Songs\" (\"Giesmės Krikščioniškos\"). In the 19th century, after the January Uprising when the Lithuanian language was banned from the office in all of Russian-ruled Lithuania, books in that language were printed in Ragnit and then smuggled to Russia by the Lithuanian book smugglers (\"knygnešiai\"). According to German data 17,500 Lithuanians lived in the Ragnit district in 1890 (32% of the population). In 2010 Lithuanians composed 2.8% of the town population, being the third largest ethnic group after Russians and Belarusians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Neman is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Neman (), prior to 1946 known by its German name Ragnit (; ), is a town and the administrative center of Nemansky District in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located in the historic East Prussia, on the steep southern bank of the Neman River, where it forms the Russian border with the Klaipėda Region in Lithuania, and northeast of Kaliningrad, the administrative center of the oblast. Population figures:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971643}
{"src_title": "Nesterov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the Middle Ages, the area in Old Prussia had been settled by the Nadruvian tribe of the Baltic Prussians. It was conquered by the Teutonic Knights in about 1276 and incorporated into the State of the Teutonic Order. From the 15th century onwards, the Knights largely resettled the lands with Samogitian and Lithuanian colonists.  The settlement itself was first mentioned as \"Stallupoenen\", or \"Stallupönen\", in 1539, named after a nearby river called \"Stalupė\" in Lithuanian. At that time, with the secularization of the Order's Prussian lands in 1525, Stallupönen had already become part of the Duchy of Prussia, a Polish fief which in 1618 was inherited by the Hohenzollern margraves of Brandenburg. Stallupönen then belonged to Brandenburg-Prussia and in 1701 became a part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701. King Frederick William I granted it town privileges in 1722. Like other cities in East Prussia during the Seven Years' War between 1757 and 1762, it was occupied by the Russian forces. It was administered in the Province of East Prussia beginning in 1773. During the Prussian-led unification of Germany, Stallupönen became a part of the German Empire in 1871. With the construction of railways, the town became well-acquainted to travelers, as it was the last stop on the German-Russian frontier. Here, travelers made the transfer from standard gauge railway carriages of western Europe to the broad gauge carriages of Russia.  In August 1914, the city and the surrounding area were a focal point of Battle of Stallupönen between Russian and Imperial German armies, an opening battle on the Eastern Front of World War I. It was occupied by the Russian army between August 18, 1914 and February 18, 1915.  Because of the Lithuanian minority living there, the Republic of Lithuania tried unsuccessfully to obtain the town from Germany after World War I. Because \"Stallupönen\" sounded too \"un-German\", the Nazi regime renamed the town Ebenrode in 1938.  The town was overrun by the Soviet Red Army during World War II on January 13, 1945. The region was transferred from Germany to the Russian SFSR in 1945 and made a part of Kaliningrad Oblast. In 1946, the town, whose German inhabitants had been largely evacuated or expelled, was renamed Nesterov after Sergey Nesterov, a Soviet war hero who was killed in the vicinity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Nesterov serves as the administrative center of Nesterovsky District. As an administrative division, it is incorporated within Nesterovsky District as the town of district significance of Nesterov. As a municipal division, the town of district significance of Nesterov is incorporated within Nesterovsky Municipal District as Nesterovskoye Urban Settlement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Today Nesterov is one of the cultural centers of the Lithuanian minority in Russia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nesterov (), until 1938 known by its German name (; ) and in 1938-1946 as Ebenrode, is a town and the administrative center of Nesterovsky District in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located east of Kaliningrad, near the Russian-Lithuanian border on the railway connecting Kaliningrad Oblast with Moscow. Population figures:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971644}
{"src_title": "Ebony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Species.", "content": "Species of ebony include \"Diospyros ebenum\" (Ceylon ebony), native to southern India and Sri Lanka; \"Diospyros crassiflora\" (Gabon ebony), native to western Africa; and \"Diospyros celebica\" (Sulawesi ebony), native to Indonesia and prized for its luxuriant, multi-colored wood grain. Mauritius ebony, \"Diospyros tessellaria\", was largely exploited by the Dutch in the 17th century. Some species in the genus \"Diospyros\" yield an ebony with similar physical properties, but striped rather than evenly black (\"Diospyros ebenum\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Ebony has a long history of use, with carved pieces having been found in Ancient Egyptian tombs.  By the end of the 16th century, fine cabinets for the luxury trade were made of ebony in Antwerp. The wood's dense hardness lent itself to refined moldings framing finely detailed pictorial panels with carving in very low relief (bas-relief), usually of allegorical subjects, or with scenes taken from classical or Christian history. Within a short time, such cabinets were also being made in Paris, where their makers became known as \"ébénistes\", which remains the French term for a cabinetmaker.  Modern uses are largely restricted to small items, such as crucifixes, and musical instrument parts, including black piano, Organ (music), and harpsichord keys, violin, viola, mandolin, guitar, double bass, and cello fingerboards, tailpieces, pegs, chinrests, and bow frogs. Many plectrums, or guitar picks, are made from this black wood.  Traditionally, the black pieces in chess sets were made from ebony, with boxwood or ivory being used for the white pieces. Modern East Midlands-style lace-making bobbins, also being small, are often made of ebony and look particularly decorative when bound with brass or silver wire. Due to its strength, many handgun grips and rifle fore-end tips are made of ebony, as are the butts of pool cues.  As a result of unsustainable harvesting, many species yielding ebony are now considered threatened. Africa in particular has had most of its indigenous ebony cut down illegally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legislation.", "content": "In Sri Lanka, ebony is a protected species and harvesting and sale of ebony is illegal and punishable by imprisonment.  In 2012, the Gibson Guitar company was raided by the US Fish and Wildlife Service for violations of the Lacey Act of 1900, which prohibits the importation of threatened woods and other materials.  An ebony and rosewood expert at the Missouri Botanical Garden calls the Madagascar wood trade the \"equivalent of Africa's blood diamonds\".  Ebony, when ground into fine dust (for example, during sawing), results in a flammable and toxic powder which can float about in air for several days. Due to the high toxicity of ebony in powdered form, its use in construction work requires government certification in several South Asian countries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ebony is a dense black/brown hardwood, most commonly yielded by several different species in the genus \"Diospyros\", which also contains the persimmons. Ebony is dense enough to sink in water. It is finely-textured and has a mirror finish when polished, making it valuable as an ornamental wood. The word \"ebony\" comes from the Ancient Egyptian ', through the Ancient Greek ('), into Latin and Middle English.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971645}
{"src_title": "Rigging", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition \"rigging\" derives from Anglo-Saxon \"wrigan\" or \"wringing\", \"to clothe\". The same source points out that \"rigging\" a sailing vessel refers to putting all the components in place to allow it to function, including the masts, spars, sails and the rigging.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of rigging.", "content": "Rigging is divided into two classes, \"standing\", which supports the mast (and bowsprit), and \"running\", which controls the orientation of the sails and their degree of reefing. Configurations differ for each type of rigging, between \"fore-and-aft rigged\" vessels and \"square-rigged\" vessels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standing.", "content": "Standing rigging is cordage which is fixed in position. Standing rigging is almost always between a mast and the deck, using tension to hold the mast firmly in place. Due to its role, standing rigging is now most commonly made of steel cable. It was historically made of the same materials as running rigging, only coated in tar for added strength and protection from the elements.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fore-and-aft rigged vessels.", "content": "Most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the following types of standing rigging: a forestay, a backstay, and upper and lower shrouds (side stays). Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers. Both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals and fail-safe wire rigging insulators.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Square-rigged vessels.", "content": "Whereas 20th-century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. As rigs became taller by the end of the 19th century, masts relied more heavily on successive spars, stepped one atop the other to form the whole, from bottom to top: the \"lower mast\", \"top mast\", and \"topgallant mast\". This construction relied heavily on support by a complex array of stays and shrouds. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a corresponding one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored in front each mast. Shrouds were tensioned by pairs deadeyes, circular blocks that had the large-diameter line run around them, whilst multiple holes allowed smaller line—\"lanyard\"—to pass multiple times between the two and thereby allow tensioning of the shroud. In addition to overlapping the mast below, the top mast and topgallant mast were supported laterally by shrouds that passed around either a platform, called a \"top\", or cross-wise beams, called \"crosstrees\". Each additional mast segment is supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Running.", "content": "Running rigging is the cordage used to control the shape and position of the sails. Materials have evolved from the use of Manilla rope to synthetic fibers, which include dacron, nylon and kevlar. Running rigging varies between \"fore-and-aft rigged\" vessels and \"square-rigged\" vessels. They have common functions between them for supporting, shaping and orienting sails, which employ different mechanisms. For supporting sails, halyards (sometimes haulyards), are used to raise sails and control luff tension. On gaff-rigged vessels, topping lifts hold the yards across the top of the sail aloft. Sail shape is usually controlled by lines that pull at the corners of the sail, including the outhaul at the clew and the downhaul at the tack on fore-and-aft rigs. The orientation of sails to the wind is controlled primarily by sheets, but also by braces, which position the yard arms with respect to the wind on square-rigged vessels.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Rigging comprises the system of ropes, cables and chains, which support a sailing ship or sail boat's masts—\"standing rigging\", including shrouds and stays—and which adjust the position of the vessel's sails and spars to which they are attached—the \"running rigging\", including halyards, braces, sheets and vangs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971646}
{"src_title": "Barrel organ", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "There are many names for the barrel organ, such as hand organ, cylinder organ, box organ (though that can also mean a positive organ), street organ, grinder organ, and Low Countries organ. In French names include \"orgue à manivelle\" (\"crank organ\") and \"orgue de Barbarie\" (\"Barbary organ\"); German names include \"Drehorgel\" (\"crank organ\"), \"Leierkasten\" (\"brace box\"), and \"Walzenorgel\" (\"cylinder organ\"); Hungarian names include \"verkli\" (from Austrian-German \"Werkl\"), \"sípláda\" (\"whistle chest\") and \"kintorna\" (from Bayern-Austrian \"Kinterne\"); Italian names include \"organetto a manovella\" (\"crank organ\") and \"organo tedesco\" (\"German organ\"); the Polish name is \"katarynka\". However, several of these names include types of mechanical organs for which the music is encoded as book music or by holes on a punched paper tape instead of by pins on a barrel. While many of these terms refer to the physical operation of the crank, some refer to an exotic origin. The French name \"orgue de Barbarie\", suggesting barbarians, has been explained as a corruption of, variously, the terms \"bara\" (\"bread\") and \"gwen\" (\"wine\") in the Breton language, the surname of an early barrel-organ manufacturer from Modena, Giovanni Barberi, or that of the English inventor John Burberry.  The term hurdy-gurdy is sometimes mistakenly applied to a small, portable barrel organ that was frequently played by organ grinders and buskers (street musicians), but the two terms should not be confused. Although the hurdy-gurdy is also powered by a crank and often used by street performers, it produces sound with a rosin-covered wheel rotated against tuned strings. Another key difference is that the hurdy-gurdy player is free to play any tune he or she desires, while the barrel organist is generally confined to pre-programmed tunes.  Some also confuse the barrel organ with the steam organ or calliope. In the United Kingdom barrel pianos, particularly those played in the streets, are frequently called barrel organs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Barrel.", "content": "The pieces of music (or tunes) are encoded onto the barrel using metal pins and staples. Pins are used for short notes, and staples of varying lengths for longer notes. Each barrel usually carried several different tunes. Pinning such barrels was something of an art form, and the quality of the music produced by a barrel organ is largely a function of the quality of its pinning.  The organ barrels must be sturdy to maintain precise alignment over time, since they play the same programming role as music rolls and have to endure significant mechanical strain. Damage to the barrel, such as warpage, would have a direct (and usually detrimental) effect on the music produced.  The size of the barrel will depend on the number of notes in the organ and the length of the tune to be played. The more notes, the longer the barrel. The longer the tune, the greater the diameter.  Since the music is hard-coded onto the barrel, the only way for a barrel organ to play a different set of tunes is to replace the barrel with another one. While not a difficult operation, barrels are unwieldy and expensive, so many organ grinders have only one barrel for their instrument.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "A set of levers called keys is positioned just above the surface of the barrel. Each key corresponds to one pitch. A rod is connected to the rear of each key. The other end of the rod is a metal pin which operates a valve within the wind chest. When the instrument is played (by turning the crank), offsets on the crank shaft cause bellows to open and close to produce pressurized air. A reservoir/regulator maintains a constant pressure. A worm gear on the crank shaft causes the barrel to rotate slowly and its pins and staples lift the fronts of the keys. This causes the other end of the key to press down on the end of the rod which, in turn, activates the valve and allows air from the bellows to pass into the corresponding pipe. To allow different tunes to be played from one barrel, the barrel can be moved laterally to bring a different set of pins and staples under the keys. Street barrel organs usually play 7 to 9 tunes, although small organs (usually the older ones) can play up to 15 tunes. Less commonly (and usually for large orchestrions) the pinning will form one continuous spiral and the barrel will be gradually moved as it rotates so that the pins remain lined up with the keys. In this case, each barrel plays only one long tune.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "The barrel organ was the traditional instrument of organ grinders. With a few exceptions, organ grinders used one of the smaller, more portable versions of the barrel organ, containing perhaps one (or just a few) rank(s) of pipes and only 7 to 9 tunes. Use of these organs was limited by their weight. Most weighed 25 to 50 pounds but some were as heavy as 100 pounds.  There were many larger versions located in churches, fairgrounds, music halls, and other large establishments such as sports arenas and theaters. The large barrel organs were often powered by very heavy weights and springs, like a more powerful version of a longcase clock. They could also be hydraulically powered, with a turbine or waterwheel arrangement giving the mechanical force to turn the barrel and pump the bellows. The last barrel organs were electrically powered, or converted to electrical power. Eventually, many large barrel organs had their barrel actions removed and were converted to play a different format of music, such as cardboard books or paper rolls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Combined barrel and manually played instruments.", "content": "Especially in churches, some large barrel organs were built as \"barrel and finger\" organs. Such instruments are furnished with a normal organ keyboard, in addition to the automatic mechanism, making it possible to play them by hand when a human organist is available. The barrels were often out of sight.  At the beginning of the 20th century, large barrel organs intended for use as fairground organs or street organs were often converted, or newly built, to play music rolls or book music rather than barrels. This allows a much greater variety of melodies to be played.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A barrel organ (also called roller organ or crank organ) is a mechanical musical instrument consisting of bellows and one or more ranks of pipes housed in a case, usually of wood, and often highly decorated. The basic principle is the same as a traditional pipe organ, but rather than being played by an organist, the barrel organ is activated either by a person turning a crank, or by clockwork driven by weights or springs. The pieces of music are encoded onto wooden barrels (or cylinders), which are analogous to the keyboard of the traditional pipe organ. A person (or in some cases, a trained animal) which plays a barrel organ is known as an organ grinder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971647}
{"src_title": "Contortion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Skills.", "content": "Many factors affect the flexibility of performers including age, genetics, stature, and adherence to rigorous physical training routines. Most contortionists are generally categorized as \"frontbenders\" or \"backbenders\", depending on the direction in which their spine is most flexible. Relatively few performers are equally adept at both.  Skills performed by contortionists include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Risks.", "content": "A medical publication from 2008 suggests that long-term damage to the spine is common in long-term contortion practitioners. A study of five practitioners using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) by Peoples et al. documented limbus vertebrae, intervertebral disc bulges, and disc degeneration. Three of the five practitioners also reported back pain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performances.", "content": "Contortion acts are highly variable; many incorporate elements of humor, drama, shock, sensuality, or a blend of styles. Contortion may be incorporated into other types of performance, such as dance and theater.  A contortionist may perform alone or may have one or two assistants, or up to four contortionists may perform together as a group.  In the past, contortionists were associated almost exclusively with circuses and fairs, but recently they have also found work performing in nightclubs, amusement parks, in magazine advertisements, at trade shows, on television variety shows, in music videos, and as warmup acts or in the background at music concerts.  The Ross Sisters were American contortionists most famous for their musical rendition of 'Solid Potato Salad' in the 1944 movie \"Broadway Rhythm\". In addition, contortion photos and digital movie clips are traded by fans on the Internet, and several web sites provide original photos of contortion acts for a monthly fee, or sell videotapes of performances through the mail.  Some loose-jointed people are able to pop a joint out of its socket without pain, thereby making it difficult to determine if a joint is dislocated without medical examination such as an X-ray. However, as long as the joint socket is the right shape, most extreme bends can be achieved without dislocating the joint. Actual dislocations are rarely used during athletic contortion acts since they make the joint more unstable and prone to injury, and a dislocated limb cannot lift itself or support any weight.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Contortion (sometimes contortionism) is a performance art in which performers called contortionists showcase their skills of extreme physical flexibility. Contortion acts often accompany acrobatics, circus acts, street performers and other live performing arts. Contortion acts are typically performed in front of a live audience. An act will showcase one or more artists performing a choreographed set of moves or poses, often to music, which require extreme flexibility. The physical flexibility required to perform such acts greatly exceeds that of the general population. It is the dramatic feats of seemingly inhuman flexibility that captivate audiences.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971648}
{"src_title": "Thurn und Taxis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Tasso family (from the Italian word for \"badger\") was a Lombard family in the area of Bergamo. The earliest records place them in Almenno in the Val Brembana around 1200 before they fled to the more distant village of Cornello to escape feuding between Bergamo's Guelf Colleoni and the Ghibelline Suardi families. Around 1290, after Milan had conquered Bergamo, Omodeo Tasso organized 32 of his relatives into the Company of Couriers (\"Compagnia dei Corrieri\") and linked Milan with Venice and Rome. The recipient of royal and papal patronage, his post riders were so comparatively efficient that they became known as \"bergamaschi\" throughout Italy.  Ruggiero de Tassis was named to the court of the emperor Frederick the Peaceful in 1443. He organized a post system between Bergamo and Vienna by 1450; from Innsbruck to Italy and Styria around 1460; and Vienna with Brussels around 1480. Upon his success, Ruggiero was knighted and made a gentleman of the Chamber. was appointed Chief Master of Postal Services at Innsbruck in 1489. Philip of Burgundy elevated Janetto's brother to captain of his post in 1502. Owing to a payment dispute with Philip, Francisco opened his post to public use in 1506. By 1516, Francisco had moved the family to Brussels in the Duchy of Brabant, where they became instrumental to Habsburg rule, linking the rich Habsburg Netherlands to the Spanish court. The normal route passed through France, but a secondary route across the Alps to Genoa was available in times of hostility.  The name \"Thurn und Taxis\" arose from the translation into German of the family's French title (\"de La Tour et Tassis\" or \"de Tour et Taxis\"). Charles V named Giovanni Battista de Tassis as master of his post in 1520; Maximilian I expanded their network throughout the Holy Roman Empire. In 1624, the family were elevated to \"grafen\" (\"counts\") and they formally adopted the German form of their name in 1650. They were named \"princely\" in 1695 at the behest of Emperor Leopold I. The family operated the Thurn-und-Taxis Post, successor to the Imperial Reichspost of the Holy Roman Empire, between 1806 and 1867. Their postal service was gradually lost over the centuries, with the Spanish network being bought by the crown in the 18th century and the German post being purchased by Prussia after the fall of the Free City of Frankfurt in 1866. The family seat was established in Regensburg, Germany, and has remained at St. Emmeram Castle there since 1748. Rainer Maria Rilke wrote his \"Duino Elegies\" while visiting Princess Marie of Thurn and Taxis (\"née\" Princess of Hohenlohe) at her family's Duino Castle. Rilke later dedicated his only novel (\"The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge\") to the princess, who was his patroness. Princess Marie's relation to Regensburg's Thurn and Taxis family is rather distant, however – she was married to Prince Alexander of Thurn and Taxis, a member of the family's Czech branch that in the early 19th century settled in Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) and became strongly connected to Czech national culture and history.  Several members of the family have been Knights of Malta.  Until 1919, the titles of the head of the princely house were \"Seine Durchlaucht der Fürst von Thurn und Taxis, Fürst zu Buchau und Fürst von Krotoszyn, Herzog zu Wörth und Donaustauf, gefürsteter Graf zu Friedberg-Scheer, Graf zu Valle-Sássina, auch zu Marchtal, Neresheim usw., Erbgeneralpostmeister\" (His Serene Highness the Prince of Thurn and Taxis, Prince of Buchau and Prince of Krotoszyn, Duke of Wörth and Donaustauf, Princely Count of Friedberg-Scheer, Count of Valle-Sássina, Marchtal, Neresheim etc., Hereditary Postmaster General).  The current head of the house of Thurn and Taxis is Albert II, 12th Prince of Thurn and Taxis, son of Johannes and his wife, Gloria. The family is one of the wealthiest in Germany. The family's brewery was sold to the Paulaner Group of Munich in 1996, but it still produces beer under the brand of \"Thurn und Taxis\".  The Thurn and Taxis family came to massive media attention during the late 1970s through mid-1980s when the late Prince Johannes married Countess Mariae Gloria of Schönburg-Glauchau, a member of an impoverished but mediatized noble family. The couple's wild, \"jet set\" lifestyle and Princess Gloria's over-the-top appearance (characterized by bright hair colours and \"avant-garde\" clothes) earned her the nickname of \"Princess TNT\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Princely House of Thurn and Taxis ( ) is a family of German nobility that is part of the \"Briefadel\". It was a key player in the postal services in Europe during the 16th century, until the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, and became well known as the owner of breweries and builder of many castles. The current head of the house is Albert II, 12th Prince of Thurn and Taxis. The family is one of the wealthiest in Germany and has resided at St. Emmeram Castle in Regensburg since 1748. As former sovereign family, it belongs to the \"Hochadel\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971649}
{"src_title": "Erysipelas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Symptoms often occur suddenly. Affected individuals may develop a fever, shivering, chills, fatigue, headaches, vomiting and be generally unwell within 48 hours of the initial infection. The red plaque enlarges rapidly and has a sharply demarcated, raised edge. It may appear swollen, feel firm, warm and tender to touch and may have a consistency similar to orange peel. Pain may be extreme.  More severe infections can result in vesicles (pox or insect bite-like marks), blisters, and petechiae (small purple or red spots), with possible skin necrosis (death). Lymph nodes may be swollen, and lymphedema may occur. Occasionally, a red streak extending to the lymph node can be seen.  The infection may occur on any part of the skin, including the face, arms, fingers, legs and toes; it tends to favour the extremities. The umbilical stump and sites of lymphoedema are also common sites affected.  Fat tissue and facial areas, typically around the eyes, ears, and cheeks, are most susceptible to infection. Repeated infection of the extremities can lead to chronic swelling (lymphoedema).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "Most cases of erysipelas are due to \"Streptococcus pyogenes\", also known as \"group A β-hemolytic streptococci\", less commonly by group C or G streptococci and rarely due to \"Staphylococcus aureus\". Newborns may contract erysipelas due to \"Streptococcus agalactiae\", also known as \"group B streptococcus\" or GBS.  The infecting bacteria can enter the skin through minor trauma, human, insect or animal bites, surgical incisions, ulcers, burns and abrasions. There may be underlying eczema, athlete's foot, and it can originate from streptococci bacteria in the subject's own nasal passages or ear.  The rash is due to an exotoxin, not the \"Streptococcus\" bacteria, and is found in areas where no symptoms are present; e.g., the infection may be in the nasopharynx, but the rash is found usually on the epidermis and superficial lymphatics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Risk factors.", "content": "This disease is most common among the elderly, infants, and children. People with immune deficiency, diabetes, alcoholism, skin ulceration, fungal infections, and impaired lymphatic drainage (e.g., after mastectomy, pelvic surgery, bypass grafting) are also at increased risk.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "This disease is diagnosed mainly by the appearance of well-demarcated rash and inflammation. Blood cultures are unreliable for diagnosis of the disease, but may be used to test for sepsis. Erysipelas must be differentiated from herpes zoster, angioedema, contact dermatitis, erythema chronicum migrans of early Lyme disease, gout, septic arthritis, septic bursitis, vasculitis, allergic reaction to an insect bite, acute drug reaction, deep venous thrombosis and diffuse inflammatory carcinoma of the breast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differentiating from cellulitis.", "content": "Erysipelas can be distinguished from cellulitis by two particular features;its raised advancing edge and its sharp borders. The redness in cellulitis is not raised and its border is relatively indistinct. Bright redness of erysipelas has been described as a third differentiating feature.  Erysipelas does not affect subcutaneous tissue. It does not release pus, only serum or serous fluid. Subcutaneous edema may lead the physician to misdiagnose it as cellulitis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Depending on the severity, treatment involves either oral or intravenous antibiotics, using penicillins, clindamycin, or erythromycin. While illness symptoms resolve in a day or two, the skin may take weeks to return to normal.  Because of the risk of reinfection, prophylactic antibiotics are sometimes used after resolution of the initial condition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prognosis.", "content": "The disease prognosis includes:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "Erysipelas may affect any age, but most commonly the very young and the elderly.  Erysipelas occurs in isolation and outbreaks are rare. The fall in incidence throughout the mid-20th century is likely attributed to improved hygiene, sanitation and the development of antibiotics. The incidence began to rise in the 1980s. Four out of five cases occur on the legs, although historically the face was a more frequent site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "It was historically known as St. Anthony's fire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erysipelas, also known as St. Anthony's fire, is a relatively common bacterial infection of the superficial layer of the skin (upper dermis), extending to the superficial lymphatic vessels within the skin, characterized by a raised, well-defined, tender, bright red rash typically on the face or legs, but can occur anywhere in skin. It is a form of cellulitis and is potentially serious.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971650}
{"src_title": "Adalbert Stifter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Oberplan in Bohemia (now Horní Planá in the Czech Republic), he was the eldest son of Johann Stifter, a wealthy linen weaver, and his wife, Magdalena. Johann died in 1817 after being crushed by an overturned wagon. Stifter was educated at the \" Benedictine Gymnasium\" at Kremsmünster, and went to the University of Vienna in 1826 to study law. In 1828 he fell in love with Fanny Greipl, but after a relationship lasting five years, her parents forbade further correspondence, a loss from which he never recovered. In 1835 he became engaged to Amalia Mohaupt, and they married in 1837, but the marriage was not a happy one. Stifter and his wife, unable to conceive, tried adopting three of Amalia's nieces at different times. One of them, Juliana, ran away several times and finally disappeared, only to be found drowned in the Danube four weeks later.  As a man of strong liberal convictions who welcomed the 1848 revolutions and allowed his name to go forward as a candidate in the Frankfurt Parliament, even suspected by others of being a radical, the cornerstone of Stifter's philosophy was Bildung. Instead of becoming a state official, he became a tutor to the aristocrats of Vienna, and was highly regarded as such. His students included Princess Maria Anna von Schwarzenberg and Richard Metternich, son of Klemens Wenzel von Metternich. He also made some money from selling paintings, and published his first story, \"Der Condor\", in 1840. An immediate success, it inaugurated a steady writing career.  Stifter visited Linz in 1848, and moved there permanently a year later, where he became editor of the \"Linzer Zeitung\" and the \"Wiener Bote\". In 1850 he was appointed supervisor of elementary schools for Upper Austria.  His physical and mental health began to decline in 1863, and he became seriously ill from cirrhosis of the liver in 1867. In deep depression, he slashed his neck with a razor on the night of 25 January 1868 and died three days later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Stifter's work is characterized by the pursuit of beauty; his characters strive to be moral and move in gorgeous landscapes luxuriously described. Evil, cruelty, and suffering rarely appear on the surface of his writing, but Thomas Mann noted that \"behind the quiet, inward exactitude of his descriptions of Nature in particular there is at work a predilection for the excessive, the elemental and the catastrophic, the pathological.\" Although considered by some to be one-dimensional compared to his more famous and realistic contemporaries, his visions of ideal worlds reflect his informal allegiance to the Biedermeier movement in literature. As Carl Schorske puts it, \"To illustrate and propagate his concept of Bildung, compounded of Benedictine world piety, German humanism, and Biedermeier conventionality, Stifter gave to the world his novel \"Der Nachsommer\"\".  The majority of his works are long stories or short novels, many of which were published in multiple versions, sometimes radically changed. His major works are the long novels \"Der Nachsommer\" and \"Witiko\".  Stifter's \"Der Nachsommer\" (1857) and Gottfried Keller's \"Die Leute von Seldwyla\" (\"The People of Seldwyla\") were named the two great German novels of the 19th century by Friedrich Nietzsche. \"Der Nachsommer\" is considered one of the finest examples of the Bildungsroman, but received a mixed reception from critics at the time. Friedrich Hebbel offered the crown of Poland to whoever could finish it, and called Stifter a writer only interested in \"beetles and buttercups.\" The excessive detail for which Hebbel derided the novel, is, according to Christine Oertel Sjögren, \"precisely a source of fascination for modern scholars, who seize upon the number of objects as the distinguishing characteristic of this novel and accord it high esteem because of the very significance of the 'things' in it. Far from being extraneous elements, as Hebbel regarded them, the art and nature objects provide a rich setting of beauty and a mirror-background to the human story in the foreground.\" [3]:20  \"Witiko\" is a historical novel set in the 12th century, a strange work panned by many critics, but praised by Hermann Hesse and Thomas Mann. Dietrich Bonhoeffer found great comfort from his reading of \"Witiko\" while in Tegel Prison under Nazi arrest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "In the German edition of his \"Reminiscences\", Carl Schurz recalls his meeting with the daughter of the keeper of the Swiss inn he was staying at whose favorite book was Stifter's \"Studien\". This incident occurred prior to 1852.  He was named as an influence by W. G. Sebald, and both W. H. Auden and Marianne Moore admired his work, the latter co-translating \"Bergkristall\" as \"Rock Crystal\" with Elizabeth Mayer in 1945. Auden included Stifter in his poem \"Academic Graffiti\" as one of the celebrities, literary and otherwise, captured in a clerihew: Adalbert Stifter / Was no weight-lifter: / He would hire old lags / To carry his bags.  In Hermann Hesse's \"Steppenwolf\", the main character Harry Haller wonders \"whether it isn't time to follow the example of Adalbert Stifter and have an accident while shaving\".  Thomas Mann was also an admirer of Stifter, calling him \"one of the most extraordinary, the most enigmatic, the most secretly daring and the most strangely gripping narrators in world literature.\"  Rilke and Hugo von Hofmannsthal were deeply indebted to his art.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent production.", "content": "In 2007 German theater director Heiner Goebbels, inspired by works of Adalbert Stifter, composed and directed a musical installation called \"Stifters Dinge\" (\"Stifter's Things\"), which premiered in 2007 at the Théâtre Vidy-Lausanne, in Lausanne, Switzerland.  Sjögren, Christine Oertel. The Marble Statue as Idea; Collected Essays on Adalbert Stifter's Der Nachsommer, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adalbert Stifter (; 23 October 1805 – 28 January 1868) was an Austrian writer, poet, painter, and pedagogue. He was especially notable for the vivid natural landscapes depicted in his writing and has long been popular in the German-speaking world, while remaining almost entirely unknown to English readers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971651}
{"src_title": "Knight (chess)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The knight, along with the king and the rook, has the oldest defined movement of any chess piece, its movement being unchanged since the invention of chaturanga in India around the 6th century.  Similar pieces are found in almost all games of the chess family. The \"ma\" of xiangqi and janggi are slightly more restricted; conceptually, the piece is considered to pass through the adjacent orthogonal square, which must be unoccupied, rather than \"jumping\". Another related piece is the \"keima\" of shogi, which moves like a knight but may only move two squares forward followed by one square sideways, restricting its movement to two possible squares.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Names.", "content": "Colloquially it is sometimes referred to as a \"horse\", which is also the translation of the piece's name in several languages. Some languages refer to it as the \"jumper\", reflecting the knight's ability to move over pieces in its way: Polish \"skoczek\", Danish/Norwegian \"springer\", Swedish \"springare\", German \"Springer\", Luxembourgish \"Sprénger\", Slovene \"skakač\". In Sicilian it is called \"sceccu\", a slang term for a donkey, derived from the Arabic \"sheikh\", who during the Islamic period rode from village to village on donkeys collecting taxes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Movement.", "content": "Compared to other chess pieces, the knight's movement is unique: it may move two squares vertically and one square horizontally, or two squares horizontally and one square vertically (with both forming the shape of an \"L\"). While moving, the knight can jump over pieces to reach its destination. Knights capture in the same way, replacing the enemy piece on the square and removing it from the board. Knights and pawns are the only pieces that can be moved in the initial position.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Strength.", "content": "Knights and bishops, collectively referred to as, are considered approximately equal in strength. Bishops utilize a longer range, but can only move to squares of one color. The knight's value increases in since it can jump over blockades. They are stronger when supported by other pieces (such as pawns) to create outposts and become more powerful when they advance (but must remain active since an inactive knight is useless, regardless of its position).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "Enemy pawns are very effective at harassing knights because a pawn attacking a knight is not itself attacked by the knight. For this reason, a knight is most effective when placed in a weakness in the opponent's pawn structure, i.e. a square which cannot be attacked by enemy pawns. In the diagram, White's knight on d5 is very powerful – more powerful than Black's bishop on g7.  Whereas two bishops cover each other's weaknesses, two knights tend not to cooperate with each other as efficiently. As such, a pair of bishops is usually considered better than a pair of knights. World Champion José Raúl Capablanca considered that a queen and a knight is usually a better combination than a queen and a bishop. However, Glenn Flear found no game of Capablanca's that supported his statement; statistics do not support the statement, either. In an endgame without other pieces or pawns, two knights generally have a better chance against a queen than two bishops or a bishop and a knight (see Fortress (chess)).  Compared to a bishop, a knight is often not as good in an endgame. A knight can only exert control over one part of the board at a time and often takes multiple moves to reposition to a new location, which often makes it less suitable in endgames with pawns on both sides of the board. However, this limitation is less important in endgames with pawns on only one side of the board. Knights are superior to bishops in an endgame if all the pawns are on one side of the board. Furthermore, knights have the advantage of being able to control squares of either color, unlike a lone bishop. Nonetheless, a disadvantage of the knight (compared to the other pieces) is that by itself it cannot lose a move to put the opponent in zugzwang (see triangulation and tempo), while a bishop can. In this position, if the knight is on a white square and it is White's turn to move, White cannot win. Similarly, if the knight was on a black square and it was Black's turn to move, White cannot win. In the other two cases, White would win. If instead of the knight, White had a bishop on either color of square, White would win with either side to move.  At the end of the game, if one side has only a king and a knight while the other side has only a king, the game is a draw since a checkmate is impossible. When a bare king faces a king and two knights, checkmate can occur only if the opponent commits a blunder by moving his king to a square where it may be checkmated on the next move. Otherwise, a checkmate can never be forced. However checkmate can be forced with a bishop and knight, or with two bishops, even though the bishop and knight are in general about equal in value. Paradoxically, checkmate with two knights sometimes \"can\" be forced if the weaker side has a single extra pawn, but this is a curiosity of little practical value (see two knights endgame). Pawnless endings are a rarity, and if the stronger side has even a single pawn, an extra knight should give them an easy win. A bishop can trap (although it cannot then capture) a knight on the rim (diagram), especially in the endgame.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notation.", "content": "In algebraic notation, the usual modern way of recording chess games, the letter \"N\" stands for the knight (\"K\" is reserved for the king); in descriptive chess notation, \"Kt\" is sometimes used instead, mainly in older literature. In chess problems and endgame studies, the letter \"S\", standing for the German name for the piece, \"Springer\", is often used (and in some variants of fairy chess \"N\" is used for the popular fairy chess piece, the nightrider).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knight variations.", "content": "Even among sets of the standard Staunton pattern, the style of the pieces varies. The knights vary considerably. Here are some examples.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unicode.", "content": "Unicode defines two codepoints for knight:  ♘ U+2658 White Chess Knight (HTML &#9816;)  ♞ U+265E Black Chess Knight (HTML &#9822;)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The knight (♘,♞) is a piece in the game of chess and is represented by a horse's head and neck. Both players start with two knights, which are located between the rooks and bishops.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971652}
{"src_title": "King (chess)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Placement and movement.", "content": "White starts with the king on the first to the right of the queen. Black starts with the king directly across from the white king. The white king starts on e1 and the black king on e8.  A king can move one square in any direction (horizontally, vertically, or diagonally) unless the square is already occupied by a friendly piece or the move would place the king in check. As a result, opposing kings may never occupy adjacent squares (see opposition), but the king can give discovered check by unmasking a bishop, rook, or queen. The king is also involved in the special move of castling.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Castling.", "content": "In conjunction with a rook, the king may make a special move called castling, in which the king moves two squares toward one of its rooks and then the rook is placed on the square over which the king crossed. Castling is allowed only when neither the king nor the castling rook previously moved, no squares between them are occupied, the king is not in check, and the king will not move across or end its movement on a square that is under enemy attack.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Status in games.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Check and checkmate.", "content": "A king that is under attack is said to be \"in check\", and the player in check must immediately remedy the situation. There are three possible ways to remove the king from check:  If none of the three options are available, the player's king has been \"checkmated\" and the player loses the game.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stalemate.", "content": "A stalemate occurs when a player, on their turn, has no legal moves, and the player's king is not in check.  If this happens, the king is said to have been stalemated and the game ends in a draw. A player who has very little or no chance of winning will often, in order to avoid a loss, try to entice the opponent to inadvertently place the player's king in stalemate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Role in gameplay.", "content": "In the opening and middlegame, the king will rarely play an active role in the development of an offensive or defensive position. Instead, a player will normally try to castle and seek safety on the edge of the board behind friendly pawns. In the endgame, however, the king emerges to play an active role as an offensive piece as well as assisting in the promotion of their remaining pawns.  It is not meaningful to assign a value to the king relative to the other pieces, as it cannot be captured or exchanged, and must be protected at all costs. In this sense, its value could be considered infinite. As an assessment of the king's capability as an offensive piece in the endgame, it is often considered to be slightly stronger than a bishop or knight – Emanuel Lasker gave it the value of a knight plus a pawn (i.e. four points on the scale of chess piece relative value). It is better at defending nearby pawns than the knight is, and it is better at attacking them than the bishop is.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unicode.", "content": "Unicode defines two codepoints for king:  ♔ U+2654 White Chess King (HTML &#9812;)  ♚ U+265A Black Chess King (HTML &#9818;)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The king (♔,♚) is the most important piece in the game of chess. The object of the game is to threaten the opponent's king in such a way that escape is not possible (checkmate). If a player's king is threatened with capture, it is said to be \"in check\", and the player must remove the threat of on the next move. If this cannot be done, the king is said to be in checkmate, resulting in a loss for that player. Players cannot make any move that places their own king in check. Although the king is the most important piece, it is usually the weakest piece in the game until a later phase, the endgame.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971653}
{"src_title": "Yamoussoukro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prehistory.", "content": "Stone tools found in the country from hundreds of thousands of years ago show that the area around Yamoussoukro has been occupied since ancient times. Due to the desertification of the Sahara, many moved south to avoid the harsh conditions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Colonial period.", "content": "Queen Yamoussou, the niece of Kouassi N'Go, ran the city of \"N'Gokro\" in 1929 at the time of French colonization. The village of N'Gokro was renamed Yamoussoukro, the suffix \"Kro\" meaning town in Baoule.  Diplomatic and commercial relations were then established, but in 1909, on the orders of the Chief of Djamlabo, the Akoué revolted against the administration. Bonzi station, from Yamoussoukro on the Bouaflé road, was set on fire, and the French administrator, Simon Maurice, was spared only by the intervention of Kouassi N'Go.  As the situation got worse, Maurice, judging that Bonzi had become safe, decided to transfer the French military station to Yamoussoukro, where the French Administration built a pyramid to the memory of Kouassi N'Go, Chief of the Akoué, who was assassinated in 1910 by Akoué rebels, accusing him of being too close to the French.  In 1919, the civil station of Yamoussoukro was removed. Félix Houphouët-Boigny became the leader of the village in 1939. A long period passed wherein Yamoussoukro, still a small agricultural town, remained in the shadows. This continued until after the Second World War, which saw the creation of the African Agricultural Union, as well as the first conferences of its chief. However, it was only with independence that Yamoussoukro finally started to rise.  In 1950, the village comprised 500 inhabitants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Since independence.", "content": "After 1964, the President Félix Houphouët-Boigny made ambitious plans and started to build. One day in 1965, later called the Great Lesson of Yamoussoukro, he visited the plantations with the leaders of the county, inviting them to transpose to their own villages the efforts and agricultural achievements of the region. On 21 July 1977, Houphouët offered his plantations to the State.  In March 1983, President Houphouët-Boigny made Yamoussoukro the political and administrative capital of Ivory Coast, as the city was his birthplace. This marked the fourth movement of the country's capital city in a century. Ivory Coast's previous capital cities were Grand-Bassam (1893), Bingerville (1900), and Abidjan (1933). The majority of economic activity still takes place in Abidjan, and it is officially designated as the \"economic capital\" of the country.  Yamoussoukro is the seat of Yamoussoukro Department and the neighbouring Bélier Region, but Yamoussoukro itself is not part of the region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Governance.", "content": "Beginning in 2001, the city was governed as part of the Yamoussoukro Department and incorporated into Lacs Region. In 2011, the department was abolished and the autonomous district of Yamoussoukro was created and separated from the rest of Lacs, which became a separate district.  Unlike most districts of the country, the autonomous district of Yamoussoukro is not subdivided into regions. The district, however, is divided into departments, sub-prefectures and a commune. The district consists of the departments of Attiégouakro and Yamoussoukro. The departments further divided into the sub-prefectures of Attiégouakro, Kossou, Lolobo, and Yamoussoukro. There is one commune, which is also named Yamoussoukro, and it shares the same borders as the district. In 2011, the position of Mayor of Yamoussoukro was replaced with a district governor appointed by the head of state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Also noteworthy are the Kossou Dam, the PDCI-RDA House, the schools of the Félix Houphouët-Boigny National Polytechnic Institute, the Town Hall, the Protestant Temple, the Mosque, and the Palace of Hosts. The international airport had an average of six hundred passengers and 36 flights in 1995. It is one of two airports in Africa (with Gbadolite) that could accommodate the Concorde.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Places of worship.", "content": "Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Christian churches and temples : Roman Catholic Diocese of Yamoussoukro (Catholic Church), United Methodist Church Ivory Coast (World Methodist Council), Union of Missionary Baptist Churches in Ivory Coast (Baptist World Alliance), Assemblies of God. There are also Muslim mosques. Yamoussoukro is the site of the largest Christian church in the world: The Basilica of Our Lady of Peace, consecrated by Pope John Paul II on 10 September 1990.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transports.", "content": "There is the Yamoussoukro International Airport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The main activities in the city are fishing, forestry, and perfume industries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Yamoussoukro features a tropical wet and dry climate (Aw) under the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system. The city features a lengthy wet season covering the months of March through October, and a shorter dry season that covers the remaining four months. Like many other cities in West Africa, Yamoussoukro is affected by the harmattan, which serves as a primary source of the city's dry season. Despite the lengthy wet season, Yamoussoukro does not see the level of rainfall experienced in Abidjan. Yamoussoukro on average sees roughly of precipitation annually.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The Institut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouët-Boigny was founded in 1996.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yamoussoukro (; ) is one of the two political capitals and administrative capital of Ivory Coast and an autonomous district of the country, while the other capital of the country is Abidjan. As of the 2014 preliminary census, the district had a population of 355,573 inhabitants. Located north-west of Abidjan, the administrative centre on the coast, upon rolling hills and plains, the municipality covers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971654}
{"src_title": "Hanomag", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The company dates back to 1835 when Georg Egestorff founded in Linden near Hanover a company called \"Eisen-Giesserey und Maschinenfabrik Georg Egestorff\" to build small steam engines. They soon started making farm machinery and in 1846 built their first railway locomotive for the Royal Hanoverian State Railways. By 1870 they had made 500 locomotives and in 1871 changed their name to \"Hannoversche Maschinenbau Actien-Gesellschaft vorm. Georg Egestorff, Linden vor Hannover\". Road vehicles followed when in 1905 they received a contract for steam waggons for the German army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tractors.", "content": "In 1912 Hanomag started the production of plows with up to 80 hp benzene engines. In 1924, the first farm tractor WD 26 (WD) with a 26 hp four-cylinder benzene engine was presented to the market. In 1931, the first diesel tractor RD 36 with a 36-horsepower four-cylinder engine, and 5.2 liters of capacity was made. Hanomag was the market leader in 1939 and the early 1950s. In 1951, a series of new tractors were developed, based on a modular system with 2-3- and 4-cylinder engines. From 1962 until the cessation of production in 1971, only four-stroke diesel tractors were built.  From 1912 to 1971, more than 250,000 machines from 12 to 92 hp left the factory halls in Linden. In addition, there were manufacturing facilities in Argentina and license agreements with the Spanish industrialists.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cars.", "content": "By the 1920s, the market for steam road vehicles was in terminal decline, and Hanomag looked to cars as the future, particularly economy models. In 1925, they launched the Hanomag 2/10, a open two-seater with a mid-mounted 500cc single-cylinder water-cooled engine. Named \"Zweisitzer Limousine\" (two-seat limousine) by the company, its rounded front and rear gained it the nickname \"Kommissbrot\" for its resemblance to a loaf of Army bread. Although made in large numbers, 15,775 in total, it did not make much money for the company and in the late 1920s the railway locomotive division was sold to Henschel & Son of Kassel.  A more conventional car, the 3/16PS, and the first diesel engined tractors, came in 1928, taking the company back into profit. Hanomag were badly hurt by the drop in trade in 1929 and built a large stock of unsold vehicles. Things improved in 1930 and the company got 14 per cent of the domestic car market, second place behind Opel, but in 1931 a new crisis came when the banks called in a loan. The factory was mortgaged to Hannover City and the Vereinigte Stahlwerke trust and the company relaunched as Hanomag Automobil und Schlepperbau GmbH.  For 1932, a new small car, the 1.1 Litre, renamed the \"Garant\" in 1934, was announced and sold well, allowing two-shift working to be introduced and it was joined by the larger 1.5 litre Rekord (a name later used by Opel) in 1933, with independent front suspension. A diesel Rekord was shown at the 1936 Berlin Motor Show.  The Hanomag 1.3 litre was introduced in 1939 and had unitary body, an innovative feature for that time. It was studied by Volvo engineers and influenced the construction of the Volvo PV 444 passenger car.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military vehicles.", "content": "During World War II, the car plant made military vehicle engines, a military version of their heavy tractor renamed the SS-100, and half track troop carriers. The Hanomag 20 B, a four-wheel-drive Small Unit-Personnel Carrier was produced from 1937 until 1940 (circa 2000 built) under the parentage of Stoewer (as the R180, R200 and Type 40). Capacity problems by Stoewer resulted in co-production by both BMW (as the 325) and Hanomag. Together, the three manufacturers made about 10,000 units. The special four-wheel-steering system was fitted on most models. Operating a \"lock-level\" between the front seats, made the steerable rear axle turn sideways to a certain angle.  The single most important and iconic military vehicle to be designed and built by Hanomag during World War II was the Sd.Kfz. 251 half-track (commonly called simply \"the Hanomag\") with a total production numbering just over 15,000. Built to protect and transport the Panzergrenadier mechanized infantry forces, it was by far the most common German armoured troop-carrying vehicle of World War II, and a direct precursor to the armoured personnel carriers of today. In comparison to the most common Allied half-track of the war, the M3 Half-track, the Sd.Kfz. 251 was slower and lower-powered, but with thicker, sloping side armour provided better protection; the flat-sided M3 was, at one point, panned as the \"Purple Heart Box\" for being unable to stop 7.92mm Mauser bullets at close range, while the Hanomag's sloping side armour deflected Allied bullets with no similar issue.  Post-war production resumed, making trailer units, followed by tractors and, in 1949, a 1.5 ton truck. Although prototypes were made, no cars were produced postwar. Rudolph Hiller, who had been president of Phänomen trucks, joined the board and restructured the company by arranging for it to join the Rheinstahl consortium in 1952.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Merger and split.", "content": "In 1964, Rheinstahl took over Henschel-Werke and in a reverse of history the company was merged with Hanomag.  The farm tractor operation was sold to Massey Ferguson and in 1969 the truck making division of Hanomag-Henschel went to Daimler Benz, leaving the Hanover works making earth-moving machinery for Massey Ferguson.  In 1989, the world's second largest construction machine manufacturer, Komatsu, bought a share of Hanomag AG and, since 2002, Komatsu Hanomag GmbH has been a 100% subsidiary of the global company.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction machinery.", "content": "In Hanover, the company is producing wheel loaders ranging from 54 to and since 2005 also has been producing wheeled excavators from 14 to 22 tons. Thanks to the European Technical Center (EUTC), these correspond to the latest state of technology. In Hanover, the company develops construction machines which meet varied requirements of customers all over Europe as well as for certain products also worldwide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hanomag in Argentina.", "content": "In 1960, Cura Hnos began to build a billet factory from an electric furnace on the premises, which he later suspended for associating with Rheinstahl Hanomag, from Germany, to manufacture tractors. The new company by the merger, used the industrial warehouse of Granadero Baigorria, while the administration and factory of the new company was built.  Models produced", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hanomag (Hannoversche Maschinenbau AG, ) was a German producer of steam locomotives, tractors, trucks and military vehicles in Hanover. Hanomag first achieved international fame by delivering numerous steam locomotives to Finland, Romania and Bulgaria before World War I and making of first tractor Hanomag R26 in 1924 in Germany. In 1925, they added automobiles to their line, additionally moving in 1931 into the production of construction machinery. Since 1989, the company has been part of the Komatsu company.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971655}
{"src_title": "Vienna New Year's Concert", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Music and setting.", "content": "The concert programmes always include pieces from the Strauss family—Johann Strauss I, Johann Strauss II, Josef Strauss and Eduard Strauss. On occasion, music principally of other Austrian composers, including Joseph Hellmesberger Jr., Joseph Lanner, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Otto Nicolai (the Vienna Philharmonic's founder), Emil von Reznicek, Franz Schubert, Franz von Suppé, and Karl Michael Ziehrer has featured in the programmes. In 2009, music by Joseph Haydn was played for the first time, where the 4th movement of his \"Farewell\" Symphony marked the 200th anniversary of his death. Other European composers such as Hans Christian Lumbye, Jacques Offenbach, Emile Waldteufel, Richard Strauss, Verdi, and Tchaikovsky have been featured in recent programmes.  The announced programme contains approximately 14-20 compositions, and also three encores. The announced programme includes waltzes, polkas, mazurkas, and marches. Of the encores, the unannounced first encore is often a fast polka. The second is Johann Strauss II's waltz \"The Blue Danube\", whose introduction is interrupted by applause of recognition and a New Year's greeting from the conductor and orchestra to the audience. The final encore is Johann Strauss I's Radetzky March, during which the audience claps along under the conductor's direction. In this last piece, the tradition also calls for the conductor to start the orchestra as soon he steps onto the stage, before reaching the podium. The complete duration of the event is around two and a half hours. The concerts have been held in the \"\" (Golden Hall) of the Musikverein since 1939. The television broadcast is augmented by ballet performances in selected pieces during the second part of the programme. The dancers come from the Vienna State Ballet and dance at different famous places in Austria, e. g. Schönbrunn Palace, Schloss Esterházy, the Vienna State Opera or the Wiener Musikverein itself. In 2013, the costumes were designed by Vivienne Westwood. From 1980 until 2013, the flowers that decorated the hall were a gift from the city of Sanremo, Liguria, Italy. In 2014, the orchestra itself provided the flowers. Since 2014, the flowers have been arranged by the \"Wiener Stadtgärten\". In 2017, the orchestra performed for the first time in new attire designed by Vivienne Westwood and Andreas Kronthaler.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "There had been a tradition of concerts on New Year's Day in Vienna since 1838, but not with music of the Strauss family. From 1928 to 1933 there were six New Year's concerts in the Musikverein, conducted by Johann Strauss III. These concerts were broadcast by the RAVAG. In 1939, Clemens Krauss, with the support of Vienna Gauleiter Baldur von Schirach, devised a New Year's concert which the orchestra dedicated to \"Kriegswinterhilfswerk\" ('Winter War Relief'), to improve morale at the front lines. After World War II, this concert survived, as the Nazi origins were largely forgotten, until more recently.  The concert was first performed in 1939, and conducted by Clemens Krauss. For the first and only time, the concert was not given on New Year's Day, but instead on 31 December of that year. It was called then a special, or 'extraordinary' concert (). Johann Strauss II was the only composer performed, in a modest program:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Encores.", "content": "There were no encores in 1939, and sources indicate that encores were not instituted until 1945. Clemens Krauss almost always included \"Perpetuum mobile\" either on the concert or as an encore. The waltz \"The Blue Danube\" was not performed until 1945, and then as an encore. The Radetzky March was first performed in 1946, as an encore. Until 1958, these last two pieces were often but not always given as encores. Since that year, their position as twin encores has become inviolable tradition, with two exceptions: One unannounced encore is always placed before the \"Blue Danube\", and after the final announced work on the printed concert programme.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conductors.", "content": "Boskovsky, concertmaster of the orchestra from 1939 until 1970, directed the Vienna New Year's concerts from 1955 to 1979. In 1980, Lorin Maazel became the first non-Austrian conductor of the concert. The orchestra subsequently changed practice, to choose a different conductor every year. The first such choice was Herbert von Karajan, for the 1987 concert. Karajan's concert also featured the only invited guest artist in the history of the concert, Kathleen Battle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Audience.", "content": "The concert is popular throughout Europe, and more recently around the world. The demand for tickets is so high that people have to pre-register one year in advance in order to participate in the drawing of tickets for the following year. Some seats are pre-registered by certain Austrian families and are passed down from generation to generation.  The event is televised by the Austrian national broadcasting service ORF – from 1989 to 1993, 1997 to 2009, and again in 2011 under the direction of Brian Large – and relayed via the European Broadcasting Union's Eurovision network to most major broadcasting organizations in Europe. On 1 January 2013, for example, the concert was shown on Één and La Une in Belgium, ZDF in Germany, France 2 in France, BBC Two in the United Kingdom, Rai 2 in Italy (on some hours delay), RSI La 1 in Switzerland, La 1 in Spain, ČT2 in the Czech Republic, RTP1 in Portugal, and TVP2 in Poland, among many other channels. The concert was again televised by ORF on 1 January 2015 and 1 January 2016. Estimated audience numbers are ~50 million, in 73 countries in 2012, 93 countries in 2017 and 95 countries in 2018.  Outside Europe, the concert is also shown on PBS in the United States (beginning in 1985, as part of the performing arts anthology \"Great Performances\", in abridged form), CCTV in China since 1987 (being telecast live since 1989, except in 1990) while also being broadcast live by CNR in China since 2013, NHK in Japan since 1973, MetroTV in Indonesia, KBS in South Korea, and SBS in Australia (until 2018, on delay). Since 2006, the concert has also been broadcast to viewers in several African countries (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe). In Latin America the concert is shown in Chile by La Red, and in Guatemala, Ecuador and Bolivia. Indonesia's MetroTV broadcasts the concert although it is delayed by four to five days. The concert was broadcast for the first time in Mongolia, Mozambique, Sri Lanka and Trinidad and Tobago in 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial recordings.", "content": "Decca Records made the first of the live commercial recordings, with the 1 January 1979 digital recording (their first digital LP releases) of the 25th time (and 24 years = 1979-1955) of the New Year's Concert with Willi Boskovsky conducting the Vienna Philharmonic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other New Year's concerts in Vienna.", "content": "The Vienna Hofburg Orchestra's traditional New Year's Eve Concert takes place on 31 December in the halls of the Hofburg Palace. The program features the most famous waltz and operetta melodies by Johann Strauss, Emmerich Kálmán, Franz Lehár and opera arias by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vienna New Year's Concert () is an annual concert of classical music performed by the Vienna Philharmonic on the morning of New Year's Day in Vienna, Austria. The concert occurs at the Musikverein at 11:15. The orchestra performs the same concert programme on 30 December, 31 December, and 1 January but only the last concert is regularly broadcast on radio and television.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971656}
{"src_title": "Clan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The English word \"clan\" is derived from the Gaelic meaning \"children\", \"offspring\", \"progeny\" or \"descendants\"; it is not from the word for \"family\" or \"clan\" in either Irish or Scottish Gaelic. According to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", the word \"clan\" was introduced into English in around 1425, as a descriptive label for the organization of society in the Scottish Highlands.  None of the Irish and Scottish Gaelic terms for kinship groups is cognate to English \"clan\" or Gaelic \" (\"descendants\"):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clans as political units.", "content": "In different cultures and situations, a clan usually has different meaning than other kin-based groups, such as tribes and bands. Often, the distinguishing factor is that a clan is a smaller, integral part of a larger society such as a tribe, chiefdom, or a state. In some societies, clans may have an official leader such as a chief, matriarch or patriarch; or such leadership role is performed by elders. In others, leadership positions may have to be achieved.  Examples include Irish, Scottish, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese clans, which exist as kin groups within their respective nations. Note, however, that tribes and bands can also be components of larger societies. The early Norse clans, the, are often translated as \"house\" or \"line\". The Biblical \"tribes\" of Israel were composed of many clans. Arab clans are sub-tribal groups within Arab society. Native American and First Nations peoples, often referred to as \"tribes\", also have clans. For instance, Ojibwa bands are smaller parts of the Ojibwa people or tribe in North America. The many Native American peoples are distinguished by language and culture, and most have clans and bands as the basic kinship organizations. In some cases tribes recognized each other's clans; for instance, both the Chickasaw and Choctaw tribes of the Southeast United States had fox and bear clans, who felt a kinship that reached beyond their respective tribes.  Apart from these different historical traditions of kinship, conceptual confusion arises from colloquial usages of the term. In post-Soviet countries, for example, it is quite common to speak of \"clans\" in reference to informal networks within the economic and political sphere. This usage reflects the assumption that their members act towards each other in a particularly close and mutually supportive way, approximating the solidarity among kinsmen. Similar usage of the term applies to specific groups of various cultures and nationalities involved in organized crime. Polish clans differ from most others as they are a collection of families who bear the same coat of arms, as opposed to claiming a common descent (see Polish heraldry). There are multiple closely related clans in the Indian subcontinent, especially South India.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clan members may be organized around a founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be exogamous, meaning that their members cannot marry one another. Clans preceded more centralized forms of community organization and government, and exist in every country. Members may identify with a coat of arms or other symbol to show that they are an independent clan. The kinship-based bonds may also have a symbolic ancestor, whereby the clan shares a \"stipulated\" common ancestor that is a symbol of the clan's unity. When this \"ancestor\" is non-human, it is referred to as a totem, which is frequently an animal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971657}
{"src_title": "Isser Harel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Isser Halperin (later Harel) was born in Vitebsk, Russia (now Belarus), to a large, wealthy family. The exact date of his birth was not passed on to him because the book of Gemara in which the date was recorded was lost in the migrations of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and World War I. The family had a vinegar factory in Vitebsk. It was a gift of his maternal grandfather, who had a concession to make vinegar in large parts of Tsarist Russia. Young Isser was five years old when the revolution broke out and Vitebsk passed several times between the Whites and the Reds. On one occasion he saw Leon Trotsky give a speech in the town.  The Harel family faced hardship when the Soviet regime confiscated their property. In 1922 they emigrated from the Soviet Union to Daugavpils in independent Latvia. On the way, Soviet soldiers stole their suitcases, which contained the rest of their possessions. In Daugavpils, Isser began his formal studies, completed primary school, and began secondary school. As he grew, a Jewish national consciousness grew within him and he joined a Zionist youth organization.  When he was 16, Harel began preparations to emigrate to the British Mandate for Palestine. During this preparatory year he worked in agriculture with the aspiration to join a kibbutz. With the outbreak of the 1929 Hebron massacre, his friends decided to move up their emigration date in order to reinforce the Jewish settlement in Palestine. Documents were prepared for the 17-year-old Harel stating that he was 18 and eligible for a British visa. At the beginning of 1930 he immigrated to Palestine. He crossed Europe from north to south to board a ship in Genoa, carrying a pistol that he concealed in a loaf of bread.  Harel's powerful position stood in contrast to his personal life. His neighbors took him for a minor government official. Harel and his wife Rivka had one daughter, named Miriam, two grandsons and one granddaughter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Intelligence career.", "content": "After the creation of Israel in 1948, Harel founded and became the first director of Israel's internal security agency, Shin Bet. Later, he took over the Mossad a year after it was created in 1951. As chief of two of the nation's three intelligence agencies, Harel wielded considerable power in Israel's first 15 years.  In 1957, members of the West German government provided Israel with information that Adolf Eichmann was hiding in Argentina under the name \"Ricardo Klement\". Eichmann, as director of Department IV-B4 of the Third Reich's Reich Main Security Office during the Second World War, had played a crucial role in the planning and execution of the so-called \"Final Solution to the Jewish Question\". Israeli prime minister David Ben-Gurion believed that seeking Eichmann's extradition from Argentina by legal and diplomatic methods would be unsuccessful. In 1959, he placed Harel in charge of the operation to locate, seize, and secretly extract Eichmann from Argentina, with the intention of returning him to Israel to stand trial. In April 1960, Harel's team of agents arrived in Buenos Aires, and tracked Eichmann to a residence in the San Fernando neighborhood of the city. Harel followed soon after. On May 11, they kidnapped Eichmann as he walked from a bus stop to his home. Days later, Eichmann was drugged and clandestinely placed on an Israeli diplomatic aircraft, disguised as a crew member. He was flown to Tel Aviv. According to Harel himself, when he arrived back in Israel with the captured Eichmann, Harel went to Ben-Gurion's office and told the prime minister: \"I've brought you a present. Eichmann is here.\"  Harel later stated that it was his belief that if the Eichmann operation had begun some weeks earlier, the Mossad may have had a chance to apprehend Dr. Josef Mengele, the notorious physician who presided over the selections on the train platform at Auschwitz. His book about the operation, \"The House on Garibaldi Street\", became a best-seller and a TV Movie.  Harel was also responsible for the intelligence coup that cemented the Mossad's reputation with Western intelligence agencies. In March 1956, three years after the death of Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, his successor Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin's \"cult of personality\" and brutal paranoia in a speech before a closed session of the Communist Party's 20th Congress. Word spread of this event, but U.S. intelligence agencies were unable to obtain the text of the so-called \"Secret Speech\".  The Soviet politburo delivered copies of the speech to a few Eastern-bloc countries; in Poland, a journalist named Viktor Grayevsky borrowed a copy from his girlfriend, who worked in the office of the First Secretary of the Polish Communist Party. Grayevsky, who was Jewish, had recently visited Israel and had decided to emigrate; he gave the speech to security officers at the Israeli embassy in Warsaw, and they in turn sent photographed copies to Harel in Tel Aviv.  Harel shared the speech with his counterparts in other Western intelligence offices, most notably counterintelligence spymaster James Jesus Angleton of the American CIA.  Harel was forced to resign from Mossad in March 1963, while conducting Operation Damocles, a covert operation to dissuade German rocket scientists from working for Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser's heavy rocket program. The Mossad's tactics included sending mail bombs and arranging assassination attempts. Ben-Gurion demanded Harel's resignation after these tactics injured several people other than the scientists and seemed to be ineffective in preventing their cooperation with the Egyptians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "After leaving Mossad, Harel turned to politics. He joined David Ben-Gurion's newly created National List prior to the 1969 elections, and was elected to the Knesset as the party won four seats. However, after Ben-Gurion resigned from the party it began to disintegrate, with two of the MKs defecting to Likud and the other to the Alignment. As a result, Harel lost his seat in the 1973 elections.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Isser Harel (, 1912 – 18 February 2003) was spymaster of the intelligence and the security services of Israel and the Director of the Mossad (1952–1963). In his capacity as Mossad director he oversaw the capture and covert transportation to Israel of Holocaust organizer Adolf Eichmann.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971658}
{"src_title": "Carl Larsson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Larsson was born in the Gamla stan neighborhood of Stockholm, Sweden. His parents were extremely poor, and his childhood was not happy.  Renate Puvogel, in her book \"Carl Larsson\" (Cologne: Taschen; 1994), gives detailed information about Larsson's life: \"His mother was thrown out of the house, together with Carl and his brother Johan; after enduring a series of temporary dwellings, the family moved into Grev Magnigränd No. 7 (later No. 5) in what was then Ladugårdsplan, present-day Östermalm\". As a rule, each room was home to three families; \"penury, filth and vice thrived there, leisurely seethed and smouldered, eaten-away and rotten bodies and souls. Such an environment is the natural breeding ground for cholera\", he wrote in his autobiographical novel \"Jag\".  Larsson's father worked as a casual laborer, sailed as a stoker on a ship headed for Scandinavia, and lost the lease to a nearby mill, only to work there later as a mere grain carrier. Larsson portrays him as a loveless man lacking self-control; he drank, ranted and raved, and incurred the lifelong anger of his son after an outburst in which he declared, \"I curse the day you were born\". In contrast, Carl's mother worked long hours as a laundress to provide for her family.  However, at the age of thirteen, his teacher at the school for poor children urged him to apply to the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts, and he was admitted. During his first years there, Larsson felt socially inferior, confused, and shy. In 1869, at the age of sixteen, he was promoted to the \"antique school\" of the same academy. There Larsson gained confidence, and even became a central figure in student life. Carl earned his first medal in nude drawing. In the meantime, Larsson worked as a caricaturist for the humorous paper \"Kasper\" and as a graphic artist for the newspaper \" Ny Illustrerad Tidning\". His annual wages were sufficient to allow him to help support his parents financially.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After several years working as an illustrator of books, magazines, and newspapers, Larsson moved to Paris in 1877, where he spent several frustrating years as a hardworking artist without any success. Larsson was not eager to establish contact with the French progressive Impressionists; instead, along with other Swedish artists, he cut himself off from the radical movement of change.  After spending two summers in Barbizon, the refuge of the plein-air painters, he settled down with his Swedish painter colleagues in 1882 in Grez-sur-Loing at a Scandinavian artists' colony outside Paris. It was there that he met the artist Karin Bergöö (1859–1928), who soon became his wife. This was to be a turning point in Larsson's life. In Grez, Larsson painted some of his most important works, now in watercolour and very different from the oil painting technique he had previously employed.  Carl and Karin Larsson had eight children (Suzanne (b. 1884), Ulf (b. 1887), Pontus (b. 1888), Lisbeth (b. 1891), Brita (b. 1893), Mats (b. 1894), Kersti (b. 1896) and Esbjörn (b. 1900). His family became Larsson's favourite models. Many of the interiors depicted were the work of Karin Larsson, who also worked as an interior designer.  In 1888 the young family was given a small house named Little Hyttnäs at Sundborn just outside Falun in Dalarna by Karin's father Adolf Bergöö (1828–1890). Carl and Karin decorated and furnished this house according to their particular artistic taste and also for the needs of the growing family. Through his paintings and books, Little Hyttnäs has become one of the most famous artist's homes in the world, transmitting the artistic taste of its creators and making it a major line in Swedish interior design. The descendants of Carl and Karin Larsson now own this house, now known as Carl Larsson-gården, and keep it open for tourists each summer from May until October.  In his later years he suffered from bouts of depression. While working on \"Midvinterblot\" (1915), a large decoration for the vestibule of the Nationalmuseum, Larsson experienced the onset of an eye problem and a worsening of his frequent headaches. After suffering a mild stroke in January 1919, he spent his remaining time completing his memoirs. He died later that month in Falun and was buried in the cemetery of Sundborn Church (\"Sundborns kyrka\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Paintings.", "content": "Larsson's popularity increased considerably with the development of colour reproduction technology in the 1890s, when the Swedish publisher Bonnier published books written and illustrated by Larsson and containing full colour reproductions of his watercolours, titled \"A Home\". However, the print runs of these rather expensive albums did not come close to that produced in 1909 by the German publisher Karl Robert Langewiesche (1874–1931). Langewiesche's choice of watercolours, drawings and text by Carl Larsson, titled \"Das Haus in der Sonne\" (Königstein, Verlag Karl Robert Langewiesche. 1909), immediately became one of the German publishing industry's best-sellers of the year—40,000 copies sold in three months, and more than 40 print runs have been produced up to 2001. Carl and Karin Larsson declared themselves overwhelmed by such success.  Carl Larsson considered his monumental works, such as his frescos in schools, museums and other public buildings, to be his most important works. His last monumental work, \"Midvinterblot\" (\"Midwinter Sacrifice\"), a oil painting completed in 1915, had been commissioned for a wall in the National Museum in Stockholm (which already had several of his frescos adorning its walls). However, upon completion, it was rejected by the board of the museum. The fresco depicts the blót of King Domalde at the Temple of Uppsala. Decades later, the painting was purchased and placed in the National Museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Midvinterblot\".", "content": "In his memoirs \"Jag\" (Stockholm: Albert Bonniers förlag, 1931) – published after Larsson's death – he declared his bitterness and disappointment over this rejection of the painting he himself considered to be his greatest achievement: \"The fate of \"Midvinterblot\" broke me! This I admit with a dark anger. And still, it was probably the best thing that could have happened, because my intuition tells me – once again! – that this painting, with all its weaknesses, will one day, when I'm gone, be honoured with a far better placement.\" Larsson admitted, however, in the same memoirs that the pictures of his family and home \"became the most immediate and lasting part of my life's work. For these pictures are of course a very genuine expression of my personality, of my deepest feelings, of all my limitless love for my wife and children.\"  Fights between different schools of Swedish artists caused the \"Midvinterblot\" controversy to continue for many years. In 1987 the museum was even offered the monumental painting for free, provided it would adorn the empty wall for which it had been intended, but the museum declined the offer, so the painting was sold to the Japanese collector Hiroshi Ishizuka. In 1992, he agreed to lend it to the museum for its major Carl Larsson exhibition, where it was hung in the intended place. Public appreciation changed the \"experts'\" view of the painting, and with the help of private donations the museum was able to buy it from Ishizuka in 1997 and permanently display it in the location for which it was intended.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Carl Olof Larsson (; 28 May 1853 – 22 January 1919) was a Swedish painter representative of the Arts and Crafts movement. His many paintings include oils, watercolors, and frescoes. He is principally known for his watercolors of idyllic family life. He considered his finest work to be \"Midvinterblot\" (\"Midwinter Sacrifice\"), a large painting now displayed inside the Swedish National Museum of Fine Arts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971659}
{"src_title": "Sepp Herberger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Controversy.", "content": "Herberger joined the Nazi Party in 1933. His nomination to the Germany's Sports Hall of Fame in 2008 caused a lot of criticism because of his Nazi past.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1954 World Cup win / The Miracle of Bern.", "content": "Hungary was the overwhelming favourite to win the 1954 World Cup. Its legendary \"Golden Team\", also known as the \"Mighty Magyars\", had not lost a match in 4 years. They were the reigning Olympic Champion and had won the Central European International Cup in 1953. Once the World Cup started, Hungary had been dominant, outscoring their opponents 17–3 in their two group games while West Germany had been outscored 7–9. In their match against each other, Hungary had won 8–3. The final was played in heavy rain. Hungary scored an early goal and minutes later doubled their lead. Germany pulled one back within two minutes, and equalized eight minutes after that. Hungary had more chances the rest of the way, but was unable to score. West Germany scored with 6 minutes left in the match to win 3–2. Among Herberger's moves credited with helping the team in the final are: fielding a below strength and largely out-of-position team in the first match against Hungary, to disguise the team's strengths; giving Fritz Walter defensive help, so he could concentrate his energies on attacking; and instructing his team to attack the Hungarian penalty area from the wings, instead of down the middle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References in popular culture.", "content": "Three of these sayings are quoted in the beginning of the 1998 film \"Run Lola Run\". The first is at the very beginning of the film (\"Nach dem Spiel ist vor dem Spiel\", \"After the game is before the game\"). Then after a series of intentionally confusing and seemingly innocuous statements and character introductions, a simple minded security guard utters the phrase \"Der Ball ist rund und das Spiel dauert 90 Minuten.\", which is a commonly used amalgamation of two separate famous quotes.  The 2003 film, \"The Miracle of Bern\", following Herberger and his team's path to victory in the 1954 World Cup, also features a number of these quotations including the amalgamation of two of the above, \"The ball is round and the game lasts for 90 minutes\" (\"Der Ball ist rund und das Spiel dauert 90 Minuten\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a player.", "content": "VfR Mannheim", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As a manager.", "content": "Germany", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Josef \"Sepp\" Herberger (28 March 1897 – 28 April 1977) was a German football player and manager. He is most famous for being the manager of the West German national team which won the 1954 FIFA World Cup final, a match later dubbed \"The Miracle of Bern\", defeating the overwhelming favourites from Hungary. Previously he had also coached the Breslau Eleven, one of the greatest teams in German football history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971660}
{"src_title": "Mödling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Grapes are grown on the slopes of the Wienerwald; the area is called \"Thermenregion\", where one can find much \"Heurigen\" (the most recent year's wine).  Wiener Neudorf to the east, and Maria Enzersdorf to the north, merge directly into Mödling. South of Mödling is Gumpoldskirchen, separated by the Eichkogel with its very special flora. In the west a narrow street runs through Vorderbrühl, formally a village in its own rights, and leads to Hinterbrühl. This narrow valley is called Klausen, above it the remains of the Mödling castle, once belonging to the Babenberger, the then ruling family. On the other side of the Klausen is the Kalenderberg, with the castle of Liechtenstein on its far side. The beginning of the Klausen is marked by the large red-brick aqueduct of the \"Erste Wiener Hochquellenwasserleitung\". The steep, rocky valley sides of the \"Naturpark Föhrenberge\" grow the typical \"Wienerwald-Schwarzföhren\" (the \"austriaca\" form of the European Black Pine, \"Pinus nigra\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The settlement dates back to the Neolithic era. Through the centuries, the name of the town evolved from Medilihha to Medelikch, Medling and, finally, Mödling. These names traces back to old Slavic meaning'slowly running water'. Today there is a quaint old town with a pedestrian area. The town was the residence of a branch of the Babenberger family, as a result of which it received the nickname Babenbergerstadt ('Town of the Babenbergers').  Traces of the first settlements of the Hallstatt culture from the Neolithic era were found on the Kalenderberg. Roman coins and a Roman burial site have been found near today's railway station.  After Charlemagne's victory in 803 AD against the Avars, the area around Mödling was settled by settlers from Bavaria. About 500 Avar graves were found in the area of the \"Goldenen Stiege\" (very close to today's old city).  The first ancient document mentioning \"MEDILIHHA ULTRA MONTEM COMMIGENIUM\" is dated 8 September 903, when two bishops (of the then Roman Catholic church) exchanged lands. However, in 907 the settlement seems to have been destroyed again. After the battle on the \"Lechfeld\" settlement in the area of today's Mödling started again.  After this, for some time Mödling housed a relative of the then ruling House of Babenberg. Hence their castle's ruin. In 1177, Henry the Elder, son of Henry II Jasomirgott, became landlord in an area reaching from Liesing to Piesting and Bruck an der Leitha. You can read this in old documents kept in the nearby monastery of Heiligenkreuz. In Henry's days arts and culture dominated in the castle of Mödling; the famous minnesinger Walther von der Vogelweide stayed there more than once. The Spitalkirche and today's St. Othmar were built in the 15th century, the Karner (charnel house) in the 12th.  Even in these times, Mödling grew grapes; after Langenlois, it was the largest grape-growing community in Lower Austria.  Duke Albrecht II, in 1343 granted the rights of a \"Market\" to Mödling.  In 1529, the Ottomans devastated Mödling for the first time. In 1679, many citizens died of the Black Death. When the Ottomans came again in 1683, almost all the citizens of Mödling were killed. The second epidemic of the Black Death only brought death to 22 inhabitants, hence the survivors built the monument of the Holy Trinity (Dreifaltigkeits- or Pestsäule, Freiheitsplatz).  In the early 19th century, Ludwig van Beethoven often visited his favorite pub, the Three Ravens, in Mödling.  Arnold Schönberg lived in Mödling between 1918 and 1925, and invented his twelve-tone technique of composition there.  On 18 November 1875, Mödling was designated a \"City\".  From 1883 to 1932, Mödling was the starting point of the Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram, Austria's first electric railway and world's first long-lasting tram with overhead lines. In 1938, after the Anschluss with Nazi Germany, Mödling was incorporated into the newly formed 24th District of Vienna. In 1954, it became once again a part of Lower Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Members of the city-government (2016)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traffic.", "content": "Mödling functions as a traffic hub for its direct vicinity. Bus lines connect the town and Südbahn with the surrounding areas. The Südbahn connects Mödling to Vienna, but also to other local centers like Wiener Neustadt by commuter trains.  Many bus lines end/start at Mödling's railway station: Most of them lead to Vienna (with different ways) (207, 259, 260, 265, 266, 269, 270...) but also other villages in the district are destinations: Gießhübel (262), Hinterbrühl, Gaaden... (364, 365), Guntramsdorf (363) and many more.  The closest airport is Vienna International Airport.  The town lies close to several major motorways (A2, A23, S1).  Until the 1960s, the town was connected to the tram system of Vienna though the line 360 was discontinued after the commuter train system was introduced on the Südbahn. Historically Mödling was the site of the first electrified tram line, which had mainly touristic use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "In the old days, because of the rail-connection to the north/Vienna and to the south, several large industries had their plants here. Today most of the firms are SMEs. The larger ones have moved to Wiener Neudorf into the 'Industriezentrum Niederösterreich Süd'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Castles.", "content": "The Mödling area in the Vienna Forest contains many old castles () and ruins. Castle Liechtenstein is the most famous and biggest castle. It was owned by the wealthy family who later founded the country of the same name. Burgruine Mödling also stands nearby and is one of the oldest ruins in the area. It dates back to the 11th century. In addition, Black Tower (Schwarzer Turm) looks out over downtown Mödling from the Calendar mountains. It was built over 200 years ago, but is still privately occupied to this day. Lastly, on the walk between Black Tower and Castle Liechtenstein, one will come across a 200-year-old amphitheatre nearly buried in the woods. It was built in the same time frame as the Black Tower and served as an important cultural centre for the local Mödling population.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture and sights.", "content": "The well-preserved and revitalized Old City is protected by the Hague Convention. The town hall holds the registry office. Because of its lovely environment many couples choose to marry here. Schrannenplatz and Kaiserin-Elisabeth-Strasse were pedestrianised at the very early date of 1976, the first time a 'Bundesstraße' had been declared a pedestrian area.  Nearby is the Eichkogel Nature Reserve, with rare flora, like 'Knollen-Brandkraut' (\"Phlomoides tuberosa\") and others, on 'Halbtrockenrasen'. Among the rocks in the Klausen rare plants grow, like the 'Mödlinger Federnelke' (\"Dianthus plumarius\" subsp. \"neilreichii\"), which was discovered as late as the middle of the 19th century by the botanist August Neilreich, or the 'Deutsche Alant' (Inula germanica).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — Sister cities.", "content": "Mödling is twinned with", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mödling is the capital of the Austrian district of the same name located approximately 14 km south of Vienna. Mödling lies in Lower Austria's industrial zone. The Mödlingbach, a brook which rises in the Vienna Woods, flows through the town. Near Achau it joins with the Schwechat. Woodland occupies a large part of the municipality, part of the Föhrenberge ('Pine Mountains').", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971661}
{"src_title": "CMYK color model", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Halftoning.", "content": "With CMYK printing, \"halftoning\" (also called \"screening\") allows for less than full saturation of the primary colors; tiny dots of each primary color are printed in a pattern small enough that humans perceive a solid color. Magenta printed with a 20% halftone, for example, produces a pink color, because the eye perceives the tiny magenta dots on the large white paper as lighter and less saturated than the color of pure magenta ink.  Without halftoning, the three primary process colors could be printed only as solid blocks of color, and therefore could produce only seven colors: the three primaries themselves, plus three secondary colors produced by layering two of the primaries: cyan and yellow produce green, cyan and magenta produce blue, yellow and magenta produce red (these subtractive secondary colors correspond roughly to the additive primary colors), plus layering all three of them resulting in black. With halftoning, a full continuous range of colors can be produced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Screen angle.", "content": "To improve print quality and reduce moiré patterns, the screen for each color is set at a different angle. While the angles depend on how many colors are used and the preference of the press operator, typical CMYK process printing uses any of the following screen angles:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Benefits of using black ink.", "content": "The \"black\" generated by mixing commercially practical cyan, magenta, and yellow inks is unsatisfactory, so four-color printing uses black ink in addition to the subtractive primaries. Common reasons for using black ink include:  When a very dark area is desirable, a coloured or gray CMY \"bedding\" is applied first, then a full black layer is applied on top, making a rich, deep black; this is called \"rich black\". A black made with just CMY inks is sometimes called a \"composite black\".  The amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other ink is variable, and the choice depends on the technology, paper and ink in use. Processes called under color removal, under color addition, and gray component replacement are used to decide on the final mix; different CMYK recipes will be used depending on the printing task.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other printer color models.", "content": "CMYK or process color printing is contrasted with spot color printing, in which specific colored inks are used to generate the colors appearing on paper. Some printing presses are capable of printing with both four-color process inks and additional spot color inks at the same time. High-quality printed materials, such as marketing brochures and books, often include photographs requiring process-color printing, other graphic effects requiring spot colors (such as metallic inks), and finishes such as varnish, which enhances the glossy appearance of the printed piece.  CMYK are the process printers which often have a relatively small color gamut. Processes such as Pantone's proprietary six-color (CMYKOG) Hexachrome considerably expand the gamut. Light, saturated colors often cannot be created with CMYK, and light colors in general may make visible the halftone pattern. Using a CcMmYK process, with the addition of light cyan and magenta inks to CMYK, can solve these problems, and such a process is used by many inkjet printers, including desktop models.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison with RGB displays.", "content": "Comparisons between RGB displays and CMYK prints can be difficult, since the color reproduction technologies and properties are very different. A computer monitor mixes shades of red, green, and blue light to create color pictures. A CMYK printer instead uses light-absorbing cyan, magenta, and yellow inks, whose colors are mixed using dithering, halftoning, or some other optical technique.  Similar to monitors, the inks used in printing produce a color gamut that is \"only a subset of the visible spectrum\" although both color modes have their own specific ranges. As a result of this, items which are displayed on a computer monitor may not completely match the look of items which are printed if opposite color modes are being combined in both mediums. When designing items to be printed, designers view the colors which they are choosing on an RGB color mode (their computer screen), and it is often difficult to visualize the way in which the color will turn out post-printing because of this.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spectrum of printed paper.", "content": "To reproduce color, the CMYK color model codes for absorbing light rather than emitting it (as is assumed by RGB). The 'K' component absorbs all wavelengths and is therefore achromatic. The Cyan, Magenta, and Yellow components are used for color reproduction and they may be viewed as the inverse of RGB. Cyan absorbs Red, Magenta absorbs Green, and Yellow absorbs Blue (-R,-G,-B).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conversion.", "content": "Since RGB and CMYK spaces are both device-dependent spaces, there is no simple or general conversion formula that converts between them. Conversions are generally done through color management systems, using color profiles that describe the spaces being converted. An ICC profile defines the bidirectional conversion between a neutral \"profile connection\" color space (CIE XYZ or Lab) and a colorspace we are interested in, in this case both RGB and CMYK. The precision of the conversion depends on the profile itself, the exact methodology, and because the gamuts do not generally match, the rendering intent and constraints such as ink limit.  ICC profiles, internally built out of lookup tables and other transformation functions, are capable of handling many effects of ink blending. One example is the dot gain, which show up as non-linear components in the color-to-density mapping. More complex interactions such as \"Neugebauer\" blending can be modelled in higher-dimension lookup tables.  The problem of computing a colorimetric estimate of the color that results from printing various combinations of ink has been addressed by many scientists. A general method that has emerged for the case of halftone printing is to treat each tiny overlap of color dots as one of 8 (combinations of CMY) or of 16 (combinations of CMYK) colors, which in this context are known as \"Neugebauer primaries\". The resultant color would be an area-weighted colorimetric combination of these primary colors, except that the \"Yule–Nielsen\" effect of scattered light between and within the areas complicates the physics and the analysis; empirical formulas for such analysis have been developed, in terms of detailed dye combination absorption spectra and empirical parameters.  Standardization of printing practices allow for some profiles to be predefined. One of them is the US Specifications for Web Offset Publications (SWOP), which has its ICC color profile built into many software including Microsoft Office (as Agfa RSWOP.icm).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The CMYK color model (; process color, four color) is a subtractive color model, based on the CMY color model, used in color printing, and is also used to describe the printing process itself. CMYK refers to the four ink plates used in some color printing: cyan, magenta, yellow, and key (black).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971662}
{"src_title": "Shetland pony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Shetland ponies originated in the Shetland Isles, located northeast of mainland Scotland. Small horses have been kept in the Shetland Isles since the Bronze Age. People who lived on the islands probably later crossed the native stock with ponies imported by Norse settlers. Shetland ponies also were probably influenced by the Celtic pony, brought to the islands by settlers between 2000 and 1000 BCE. The harsh climate and scarce food developed the ponies into extremely hardy animals.  Shetland ponies were first used for pulling carts, carrying peat, coal and other items, and plowing farm land. Then, as the Industrial Revolution increased the need for coal in the mid-19th century, thousands of Shetland ponies travelled to mainland Britain to be pit ponies, working underground hauling coal, often for their entire (often short) lives. Coal mines in the eastern United States also imported some of these animals. The last pony mine in the United States closed in 1971.  The Shetland Pony Stud-Book Society is the breed society for the traditional Shetland throughout the world. It was started in 1890 to maintain purity and encourage high-quality animals. In 1957, the Shetland Islands Premium Stallion Scheme was formed to subsidise high-quality registered stallions to improve the breeding stock. In the United States, ponies may also be registered with the American Shetland Pony Club and the Shetland Pony Society of North America.  A number of pony breeds derive from the traditional Shetland. These include the American Shetland Pony and Pony of the Americas in the United States, and the Deutsches Classic Pony in Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Shetland Ponies are hardy and strong, in part because the breed developed in the harsh conditions of the Shetland Isles. In appearance, Shetlands have small heads, sometimes with dished faces, widely spaced eyes and small and alert ears. The original breed has a short, muscular neck; a compact, stocky body; short, strong legs; and a shorter-than-normal cannon bone in relation to its size. A short broad back and deep girth are universal characteristics, as is a springy stride. Shetlands have long thick manes and tails and dense double winter coats to withstand harsh weather.  Shetlands can be almost every colour, including skewbald and piebald (called pinto in the United States), but are mainly black, chestnut, bay, grey, palomino, dun, roan, cremello, and silver dapple. Registered shetlands are not leopard spotted (Appaloosa), nor do they carry the champagne gene, though these colours are sometimes seen in Shetland-sized crossbreds.  Shetland ponies are generally gentle, good-tempered, and very intelligent by nature. They make good children's ponies, and are sometimes noted for having a \"brave\" character. They can be very opinionated or \"cheeky\", and can be impatient, snappy, and sometimes become uncooperative. Due in part to their intelligence and size, they are easily spoiled and can be very headstrong if not well-trained.  For its size, the Shetland is the strongest of all horse and pony breeds. It can pull twice its own weight under circumstances where a draft horse can only pull approximately half its own weight, as well as many being able to carry up to 9 stone –. Shetland ponies are found worldwide, though mainly in the UK and North America. In general, UK ponies tend to preserve more of the original characteristics of the breed and are often stockier than their American cousins.  Many ponies are long-lived; it is not unusual for a Shetland pony to live more than 30 years. Conversely, their small size also predisposes some individuals to a greater probability of heart problems than in larger animals, on occasion leading to early death. Shetland ponies, like many hardy small horse and pony breeds, can easily develop laminitis if on a diet high in non-structural carbohydrates. Therefore, owners must pay careful attention to nutrition, being careful to regulate feed quantity and type.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Today, Shetlands are ridden by children and are shown by both children and adults at horse shows in harness driving classes as well as for pleasure driving outside of the show ring. Shetlands are ridden by small children at horse shows, in riding schools and stables as well as for pleasure. They are seen working in commercial settings such as fairs or carnivals to provide short rides for visitors. They are also seen at petting zoos and sometimes are used for therapeutic horseback riding purposes. In the United Kingdom, Shetlands are also featured in the Shetland Pony Grand National, galloping around a racecourse with young jockeys.  Junior Harness Racing was founded in Queensland by a group of breeders to give young people aged 6–16 an opportunity to obtain a practical introduction to the harness racing industry. The children have the opportunity to drive Shetland ponies in harness under race conditions. No prize money is payable on pony races, although winners and place-getters receive medallions.  Miniature Shetlands have been trained as guide horses to take the same role as guide dogs. This task is also performed by other miniature horse breeds.  The Royal Regiment of Scotland and the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, prior to the regiment's formation, adopted the Shetland as its regimental mascot and names them \"Cruachan\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Shetland pony is a Scottish breed of pony originating in the Shetland Isles in the north of Scotland. The ponies range in height at the withers from approximately to a permitted maximum of. They have a heavy coat and short legs, and are considered quite intelligent. They are strong for their size, and are used for riding, driving, and pack purposes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971663}
{"src_title": "Tillandsia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "They are perennial herbaceous plants which exhibit a multitude of physiological and morphological differences making this genus an excellent example of diversity. Having native habitats that vary from being epiphytic and saxicolous, species have certain adaptations, such as root systems designed to anchor to other plants or substrates, and modified trichomes for water and nutrient intake. Some of the species, like the majority of bromeliaceae, grow as funnel bromeliads, with a compressed stem axis. The leaves are then close together in rosettes, and cover the lower areas of the leaves, forming a funnel for collecting water.  These leaf rosettes, a common physical characteristic in \"Tillandsia\" species, collect nutrients and water. The flowers typically involve bright, vibrant colors, with blooms or inflorescences produced on a stalk or several stalks. The flower's color varies greatly; red, yellow, purple and pink flowers exist in this genus, and multicolored flowers are known. The bright colors attract pollinators. An air plant's foliage may also change color when it blooms, also attracting pollinators. The hermaphrodite flowers are threefold with double perianth. The three free sepals are symmetrical and pointed. The seeds have a \"parachute\" similar to the dandelion.  Common pollinators of this genera include moths, hummingbirds and, more recently recognized, bats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "They have naturally been established in diverse environments such as equatorial tropical rain forests, high elevation Andes mountains, rock dwelling (saxicolous) regions, and Louisiana swamps, such as Spanish moss (\"T. usneoides\"), a species that grows atop tree limbs. But there are also species that live lithophytic, so on rocks (but also roofs and even telephone wires).  The green species with their claim to a cool-humid climate live mostly more in the shade terrestrial or in the lower levels of the forests. In contrast, almost all gray species live in precipitation-poor areas with high humidity. They prefer the full sun and can therefore be found in the upper floors of the woods, on rocks or (rarely) on the ground. Many of the gray species are epiphytes. Some species are more or less xeromorphic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Tillandsias, like other bromeliads, can multiply through pollination and seed formation. Since Tillandsia are not self-fertile, the pollen must come from another plant of the same species. Tillandsia, depending on the species, may take months or years to flower. After flowering, the plant forms offsets and dies.  Generally, the thinner-leafed varieties grow in rainy areas and the thick-leafed varieties in areas more subject to drought. Most species absorb moisture and nutrients through the leaves from rain, dew, dust, decaying leaves and insect matter, aided by structures called trichomes. Air plants are growing rapidly in popularity as a low maintenance household plant. Due to their minimal root system and other adaptations, they generally do not require frequent watering, no more than four times a week, allowing the plant to completely dry before watering again.  The amount of light required depends on the species; overall, air plants with silver dusting and stiff foliage will require more sunlight than air plants with softer foliage. They generally need a strong light. In summer outside, however, they prefer the light shade of a tree at the hottest hours. Plants are commonly seen mounted, placed in a terrarium, or simply placed in seashells as decorative pieces. For so-called \"aerial\" species (the majority of the common species in culture except \"Tillandsia cyanea\"), that is to say those whose roots are transformed into crampons without any power of absorption, watering is done by the leaves in the form of frequent sprays, or brief soaking of the plant in a container full of water. It is imperative to use non-calcareous water. Rainwater recovered from the flow of a mossy or green roof is best for this purpose, if available.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Species of \"Tillandsia\" photosynthesize through a process called CAM cycle, where they close their stomata during the day to prevent water loss and open them at night to fix carbon dioxide and release oxygen. This allows them to preserve water, necessary because they are epiphytes. They do not have a functional root system and instead absorb water in small amounts through their leaves via small structures called trichomes. Species of \"Tillandsia\" also absorb their nutrients from debris and dust in the air.  Any root system found on \"Tillandsia\" has grown to act as a fragile stabilizing scaffold to grip the surface they grow on. As soon as they have been soaked with water, the green assimilation tissue below the suction scales becomes visible again, the plant is therefore \"greened\". Now the plant can absorb more light. When the sun dries the plants, they turn white. Thanks to this special survival trick, plants without roots can absorb fog droplets as well as rainwater and thus cover their water needs.  Temperature is not critical, the range being from to. Frost hardiness depends on the species. \"T. usneoides\", for example, can tolerate night-time frosts down to about. For most species, the ideal growth temperature is between 20 °C and 25 °C, with a minimum of 10 °C and a maximum of 30 °C. Few are resistant to −10 °C, but some, usually from higher elevation areas, are hardy enough to withstand light and brief freezes and live outdoors year round in areas with mild winters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The genus \"Tillandsia\" was named by Carl Linnaeus after the Swedish physician and botanist Dr. Elias Tillandz (originally Tillander) (1640–1693). Some common types of \"Tillandsia\" include ball moss (\"T. recurvata\") and Spanish moss (\"T. usneoides\"). The genus contains around 650 species, where 635 are considered epiphytic are traditionally divided into seven subgenera:  Four species are protected under CITES II:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tillandsia is a genus of around 650 species of evergreen, perennial flowering plants in the family Bromeliaceae, native to the forests, mountains and deserts of northern Mexico and south-eastern United States, Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to mid Argentina. Their leaves, more or less silvery in color, are covered with specialized cells (trichomes) capable of rapidly absorbing water that gathers on them.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971664}
{"src_title": "Political economy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Originally, political economy meant the study of the conditions under which production or consumption within limited parameters was organized in nation-states. In that way, political economy expanded the emphasis of economics, which comes from the Greek \"oikos\" (meaning \"home\") and \"nomos\" (meaning \"law\" or \"order\"). Political economy was thus meant to express the laws of production of wealth at the state level, just as economics was the ordering of the home. The phrase \"économie politique\" (translated in English as \"political economy\") first appeared in France in 1615 with the well-known book by Antoine de Montchrétien, \"Traité de l’economie politique\". Other contemporary scholars derive the roots of this study to the 13th Century Tunisian Arab Historian and Sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, for his work on making the distinction between \"profit\" and \"sustenance\", in modern political economy terms, surplus and that required for the reproduction of classes respectively. He also calls for the creation of a science to explain society and goes on to outline these ideas in his major work, the \"Muqaddimah\". In Al-Muqaddimah Khaldun states, “Civilization and its well-being, as well as business prosperity, depend on productivity and people’s efforts in all directions in their own interest and profit” – seen as a modern precursor to Classical Economic thought.  Leading on from this, the French physiocrats were the first major exponents of political economy, although the intellectual responses of Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, David Ricardo, Henry George and Karl Marx to the physiocrats generally receives much greater attention. The world's first professorship in political economy was established in 1754 at the University of Naples Federico II in southern Italy. The Neapolitan philosopher Antonio Genovesi was the first tenured professor. In 1763, Joseph von Sonnenfels was appointed a Political Economy chair at the University of Vienna, Austria. Thomas Malthus, in 1805, became England's first professor of political economy, at the East India Company College, Haileybury, Hertfordshire. In its contemporary meaning, political economy refers to different yet related approaches to studying economic and related behaviours, ranging from the combination of economics with other fields to the use of different, fundamental assumptions that challenge earlier economic assumptions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current approaches.", "content": "Political economy most commonly refers to interdisciplinary studies drawing upon economics, sociology and political science in explaining how political institutions, the political environment, and the economic system—capitalist, socialist, communist, or mixed—influence each other. The \"Journal of Economic Literature\" classification codes associate political economy with three sub-areas: (1) the role of government and/or class and power relationships in resource allocation for each type of economic system; (2) international political economy, which studies the economic impacts of international relations; and (3) economic models of political or exploitative class processes. Much of the political economy approach is derived from public choice theory on the one hand and radical political economics on the other hand, both dating from the 1960s.  Public choice theory is a microfoundations theory that is closely intertwined with political economy. Both approaches model voters, politicians and bureaucrats as behaving in mainly self-interested ways, in contrast to a view, ascribed to earlier mainstream economists, of government officials trying to maximize individual utilities from some kind of social welfare function. As such, economists and political scientists often associate political economy with approaches using rational-choice assumptions, especially in game theory and in examining phenomena beyond economics' standard remit, such as government failure and complex decision making in which context the term \"positive political economy\" is common. Other \"traditional\" topics include analysis of such public policy issues as economic regulation, monopoly, rent-seeking, market protection, institutional corruption and distributional politics. Empirical analysis includes the influence of elections on the choice of economic policy, determinants and forecasting models of electoral outcomes, the political business cycles, central-bank independence and the politics of excessive deficits.  A more recent focus has been on modeling economic policy and political institutions as to interactions between agents and economic and political institutions, including the seeming discrepancy of economic policy and economist's recommendations through the lens of transaction costs. From the mid-1990s, the field has expanded, in part aided by new cross-national data sets that allow tests of hypotheses on comparative economic systems and institutions. Topics have included the breakup of nations, the origins and rate of change of political institutions in relation to economic growth, development, financial markets and regulation, the importance of institutions, backwardness, reform and transition economies, the role of culture, ethnicity and gender in explaining economic outcomes, macroeconomic policy, the environment, fairness and the relation of constitutions to economic policy, theoretical and empirical.  Other important landmarks in the development of political economy include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related disciplines.", "content": "Because political economy is not a unified discipline, there are studies using the term that overlap in subject matter, but have radically different perspectives:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Political economy is the study of production and trade and their relations with law, custom and government; and with the distribution of national income and wealth. As a discipline, political economy originated in moral philosophy, in the 18th century, to explore the administration of states' wealth, with \"political\" signifying the Greek word \"polity\" and \"economy\" signifying the Greek word \"okonomie\" (household management). The earliest works of political economy are usually attributed to the British scholars Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo, although they were preceded by the work of the French physiocrats, such as François Quesnay (1694–1774) and Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727–1781).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971665}
{"src_title": "Helmuth von Moltke the Younger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Helmuth von Moltke was born in Biendorf, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and was named after his uncle, Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke, future \"Generalfeldmarschall\" (Field Marshal) and hero of the Unification of Germany. During the Franco-Prussian War, Moltke served with the 7th Grenadier Regiment and was cited for bravery. He attended the War Academy between 1875 and 1878 and joined the General Staff in 1880. In 1882 he became personal adjutant to his uncle, who was then Chief of the General Staff. In 1891, on the death of his uncle, Moltke became aide-de-camp to Kaiser Wilhem II, thus becoming part of the Emperor's inner circle. In 1898 he became commander of the 1st Guards Infantry Brigade and in 1902, being promoted to Lieutenant General, received command of the 1st Guards Infantry Division.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rise to the General Staff.", "content": "In 1904 Moltke was made Quartermaster-General; in effect, Deputy Chief of the General Staff. In 1906, he became chief on the retirement of Alfred von Schlieffen. His appointment was controversial then and remains so today. The other likely candidates for the position were Hans Hartwig von Beseler, Karl von Bülow and Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz. Critics charge that Moltke gained the position on the strength of his name and his friendship with the Kaiser, whom he was certainly far closer to than the other candidates. Historians argue that Beseler was too close to Schlieffen to have succeeded him, while Bülow and Goltz were too independent for Wilhelm to have accepted them. Moltke's friendship with the Kaiser permitted him a latitude that others could not have enjoyed. Goltz, at least, saw nothing wrong with Moltke's performance as Chief.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marne campaign.", "content": "Shortly before the outbreak of the First World War and the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Moltke was called to the Kaiser who had been told by Karl Max, Prince Lichnowsky, that the British Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, had offered French neutrality under guarantee of Great Britain. According to John Keegan however, the Kaiser believed that Britain would remain neutral if Germany did not attack France. Whichever is true, the Kaiser, seeing that a two-front war could be avoided, told Moltke to divert forces from the western to the eastern front against Russia. Moltke refused, arguing that such a drastic alteration of a long-planned major mobilization could not be done without throwing the forces into organizational chaos and the original plan now in motion must be followed through. Years later, General, head of the German railway division, would disagree in a book detailing a contingency plan that the German army had for such a situation. Grey's offer turned out to be a wishful misinterpretation by Lichnowsky and the Kaiser told Moltke to proceed as originally planned. Moltke's health, already stressed from this argument with his ruler, broke down as a consequence of German defeat at the first battle of the Marne, and on 14 September 1914, he was succeeded by Erich von Falkenhayn.  It is a matter of debate whether the \"failure\" of the Marne Campaign can be placed at Moltke's feet. Some critics contend that Moltke's weakening of the Schlieffen Plan led to German defeat. The records show that Moltke, who was concerned about Russia, moved 180,000 men east before the war. Many thousands more men were transported from the crucial right wing to the left wing facing France in Alsace and Lorraine. Most controversially, on 28 August, Moltke sent two corps and a cavalry division to reinforce Ludendorff and Hindenburg, just before the epic victory at the Battle of Tannenberg. The series of moves has been viewed by some historians as responsible for much of the strategic failure of the Schlieffen Plan as enacted in 1914. A number of historians, notably Zuber and S. L. A. Marshall, contend that the failure of Alexander von Kluck's 1st Army to keep position with Karl von Bülow's 2nd Army, thus creating a gap near Paris that was exploited by the French, is a more direct cause than any planning foibles on Moltke's part. The Schlieffen School disagrees and argues that Moltke lost control of the invading armies during the month of August and thus was unable to react when the First Battle of the Marne developed in September. While Moltke had lost touch with his field commanders, German operational doctrine had always stressed (personal initiative) on the part of subordinate officers, more so than in other armies. Other historians argue that the multitude of strategic options Moltke faced and the danger of the Russian invasion of East Prussia clouded Moltke's judgement.  Although earlier in the campaign, German generals and the press had been proclaiming the campaign as good as won, on 4 September, Moltke was found despondent that the lack of prisoners meant that the Germans had not yet really won a decisive victory. Moltke may well have been overly preoccupied with the unsuccessful German offensive in Lorraine, and he issued no orders to the First, Second and Third Armies between 2 and 5 September whilst the Battle of the Marne was in progress.  Following the German retreat from the Marne, Moltke allegedly reported to the Kaiser, \"Your Majesty, we have lost the war.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After being succeeded by Falkenhayn, Moltke was entrusted in Berlin with the office of chief of the home substitute for the general staff (\"Der stellvertretende Generalstab\"), which had the task of organising and forwarding the reserves and of controlling the territorial army corps, corresponding to those at the front. Moltke's health continued to deteriorate and he died in Berlin on 18 June 1916, during the \"Staatsakt\" (memorial state ceremony) for Marshal Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz. He left a pamphlet entitled \"Die 'Schuld' am Kriege\" (The Blame for the War), which his widow Eliza intended to publish in 1919. She was dissuaded from doing so because of the problems it might cause. The pamphlet was designed to show the \"chaotic\" nature of events leading up to the war, to counter Allied accusations of warmongering by Germany. Army chiefs and the German foreign ministry were disturbed by its contents. General Wilhelm von Dommes was sent to advise Eliza von Moltke against publication. Having read the pamphlet he confided to his diary that it \"contains nasty stuff\". Instead, Eliza published the more bland \"Erinnerungen, Briefe, Dokumente\", a collection of her husband's letters and documents. Other material was archived. Some was later destroyed in World War II and the original pamphlet has not been accessible since.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "At sixty-six, Moltke was one of the older commanders of 1914 and in poor health, having suffered a stroke shortly before the outbreak of war. These factors negatively affected his determination when he was under stress. His personal interests included music, painting and literature. While often assertive in manner, his character was assessed by the historian Barbara W. Tuchman as being essentially that of a self-doubting introvert.  Moltke was a follower of theosophy, which taught that humanity was an endless, unchanging cycle of civilizations rising and falling. Historian Margaret MacMillan connected his personal beliefs with his resigned approach to the possibility of a general war in the leadup to the First World War. Like many of his colleagues on the German General Staff, he was heavily influenced by Social Darwinism. His view of international relations as merely a struggle for survival led him to believe that the longer the start of the war was delayed the worse things would be for Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Helmuth Johannes Ludwig Graf von Moltke (; 25 May 1848 – 18 June 1916), also known as Moltke the Younger, was a German general and Chief of the Great German General Staff. He was also the nephew of \"Generalfeldmarschall\" (Field Marshal) Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke who is commonly called \"Moltke the Elder\" to differentiate the two.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971666}
{"src_title": "Pelargonium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"Pelargonium\" is derived from the Greek πελαργός, \"pelargós\" (stork), because the seed head looks like a stork's beak. Dillenius originally suggested the name'stork', because \"Geranium\" was named after a crane — \"\"a\" πελαργός, \"ciconia, sicuti vocamus Gerania\", γερανός, \"grus\"\" (as \"pelargos\", stork, as we call the \"Gerania\", \"geranos\", crane). Despite the Latin, this should not be confused with the modern-day genus \"Ciconia\", of birds in the stork family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Pelargonium\" occurs in a large number of growth forms, including herbaceous annuals, shrubs, subshrubs, stem succulents and geophytes. The erect stems bear five-petaled flowers in umbel-like clusters, which are occasionally branched. Because not all flowers appear simultaneously but open from the centre outwards, this is a form of inflorescence is referred to as pseudoumbels.  The flower has a single symmetry plane (zygomorphic), which distinguishes it from the \"Geranium\" flower, which has radial symmetry (actinomorphic). Thus the lower three (anterior) petals are differentiated from the upper two (posterior) petals. The posterior sepal is fused with the pedicel to form a hypanthium (nectary tube). The nectary tube varies from only a few millimeters, up to several centimeters, and is an important floral characteristic in morphological classification. Stamens vary from 2 to 7, and their number, position relative to staminodes, and curvature are used to identify individual species. There are five stigmata in the style. For the considerable diversity in flower morphology, see figure 1 of Röschenbleck \"et al.\" (2014)  Leaves are usually alternate, and palmately lobed or pinnate, often on long stalks, and sometimes with light or dark patterns. The leaves of \"Pelargonium peltatum\" (Ivy-leaved Geranium), have a thick cuticle better adapting them for drought tolerance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Pelargonium\" is the second largest genus (after \"Geranium\") within the family Geraniaceae, within which it is sister to the remaining genera of the family in its strict sense, \"Erodium\", \"Geranium\", and \"Monsonia\" including \"Sarcocaulon\". The Geraniaceae have a number of genetic features unique amongst angiosperms, including highly rearranged plastid genomes differing in gene content, order and expansion of the inverted repeat.<!--- Current insights in the relationships of the Geraniaceae, based on a 2008 DNA-analysis, are summarized in the following tree.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pelargonium is a genus of flowering plants which includes about 200 species of perennials, succulents, and shrubs, commonly known as geraniums, pelargoniums, or storksbills. Confusingly, \"Geranium\" is the botanical name and common name of a separate genus of related plants (also known as cranesbills). Both genera belong to the family Geraniaceae. Linnaeus originally included all the species in one genus, \"Geranium\", and they were later separated into two genera by Charles L’Héritier in 1789.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971667}
{"src_title": "Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "UNPO was conceived of in the 1980s by leaders of self-determination movements, Linnart Mäll of the Congress of Estonia, Erkin Alptekin, of East Turkestan, and Lodi Gyari of Tibet, together with Michael van Walt van Praag, long the international law adviser of the 14th Dalai Lama. The founders were representatives of national movements of Estonia, Latvia, Tibet, Crimean Tatars, Armenia, Georgia, Tatarstan, East Turkestan, East Timor, Australian Aboriginals, The Cordillera, the Greek Minority in Albania, Kurdistan, Palau, Taiwan, and West Papua. A key UNPO goal was, and remains, to replicate the success of the 14th Dalai Lama's and the Tibetan people's non-violent message in the face of oppression and occupation.  UNPO chose for its founding headquarters in 1991 The Hague in the Netherlands because the city aimed at becoming the International City of Peace and Justice and hosts international courts like the ICJ and ICC. A Foundation was established in the Netherlands to provide secretarial support to the UNPO General Assembly and to carryout research and educational activities related to unrepresented peoples worldwide. The Foundation maintains a permanent presence before the European Union, United States and United Nations. It is funded by a combination of member contributions, donations from individuals and project-based grants from foundations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aims.", "content": "UNPO's vision is to affirm democracy as a fundamental human right, implement human, civil and political rights worldwide, uphold the universal right to autonomy and self-determination and further federalism. It encourages nonviolent methodologies to reach peaceful solutions to conflicts and oppression. UNPO supports members in getting their human and cultural rights respected and in preserving their environments. The organization provides a forum for members to network and assists them in participating at an international level.  Although UNPO members often have different goals, they have one thing in common: they are generally not represented diplomatically (or only with a minor status, such as observer) in major international institutions, such as the United Nations (UN). As a result, their ability to have their concerns addressed by the global bodies mandated to protect human rights and address conflict is limited.  UNPO is dedicated to the five principles enshrined in its Covenant:  All members are required to sign and abide by the UNPO Covenant. UNPO members are required to be nonviolent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Members.", "content": "The following are listed as members by the UNPO.  Original members are listed with pink background and in bold.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Suspensions.", "content": "Organizations representing nations may become suspended from the UNPO if they fail to follow its covenant.  In 1993, Khalistan was briefly admitted in the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, but was suspended in a few months. The membership suspension was made permanent on 22 January 1995.  Scania was also suspended.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Former members.", "content": "Some members of the UNPO have left because of United Nations (UN) recognition, autonomy agreements, or for other reasons.  The following lists former and suspended members.  Former members who became part of UN are highlighted with a blue background and \"italics\". Original members (from 11 February 1991) are listed with pink background and in bold.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leadership.", "content": "Secretaries general Executive Director  Chair/Presidents of the General Assembly", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) is an international membership organization established to facilitate the voices of unrepresented and marginalised nations and peoples worldwide. It was formed on 11 February 1991 in The Hague, Netherlands. Its members consist of indigenous peoples, minorities, and unrecognised or occupied territories. UNPO works to develop the understanding of and respect for the right to self-determination, provides advice and support related to questions of international recognition and political autonomy, trains groups on how to advocate for their causes effectively, and directly advocates for an international response to human rights violations perpetrated against UNPO member groups. Some former members, such as Armenia, East Timor, Estonia, Latvia, Georgia and Palau, have gained full independence and joined the United Nations (UN).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971668}
{"src_title": "Web Map Service", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) became involved in developing standards for web mapping after a paper was published in 1997 by Allan Doyle, outlining a \"WWW Mapping Framework\". The OGC established a task force to come up with a strategy, and organized the \"Web Mapping Testbed\" initiative, inviting pilot web mapping projects that built upon ideas by Doyle and the OGC task force. Results of the pilot projects were demonstrated in September 1999, and a second phase of pilot projects ended in April 2000.  The Open Geospatial Consortium released WMS version 1.0.0 in April 2000, followed by version 1.1.0 in June 2001, and version 1.1.1 in January 2002. The OGC released WMS version 1.3.0 in January 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Requests.", "content": "WMS specifies a number of different request types, two of which are required by any WMS server:  Request types that WMS providers may optionally support include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Map image.", "content": "A WMS server usually serves the map in a bitmap format, e.g. PNG, GIF or JPEG and etc... In addition, vector graphics can be included, such as points, lines, curves and text, expressed in SVG or WebCGM format.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Software.", "content": "Open source software that provide web map services capability include:  Proprietary server software that allow providing web map services include:  Open source standalone (client side) software that allow viewing web map services include:  Proprietary standalone (client side) software that allow viewing web map services include:  WMS is a widely supported format for maps and GIS data accessed via the Internet and loaded into client side GIS software. Major commercial GIS and mapping software that support WMS include:  Open source software that supports WMS include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Web Map Service (WMS) is a standard protocol developed by the Open Geospatial Consortium in 1999 for serving georeferenced map images over the Internet. These images are typically produced by a map server from data provided by a GIS database.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971669}
{"src_title": "Christopher Tolkien", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Tolkien was born in Leeds, England, the third of four children and youngest son of John Ronald Reuel Tolkien and his wife, Edith Mary Tolkien (née Bratt). He was educated at the Dragon School (Oxford) and later at The Oratory School.  He entered the Royal Air Force in mid-1943 and was sent to South Africa for flight training, completing the elementary flying course at 7 Air School, Kroonstad, and the service flying course at 25 Air School, Standerton. He was commissioned into the general duties branch of the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve on 27 January 1945 as a pilot officer on probation (emergency) and was given the service number 193121. He briefly served as an RAF pilot before transferring to the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve on 28 June 1945. His commission was confirmed and it was announced he was promoted to flying officer (war substantive) on 27 July 1945.  After the war, he studied English at Trinity College, Oxford, taking his B.A. in 1949 and his B.Litt. a few years later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Tolkien had long been part of the critical audience for his father's fiction, first as a child listening to tales of Bilbo Baggins (which were published as \"The Hobbit\"), and then as a teenager and young adult offering much feedback on \"The Lord of the Rings\" during its 15-year gestation. He had the task of interpreting his father's sometimes self-contradictory maps of Middle-earth in order to produce the versions used in the books, and he re-drew the main map in the late 1970s to clarify the lettering and correct some errors and omissions. Tolkien was invited by his father to join the Inklings when he was 21 years old, making him the youngest member of the informal literary discussion society that included C. S. Lewis, Owen Barfield, Charles Williams, Warren Lewis, Lord David Cecil, and Nevill Coghill.  He published \"The Saga of King Heidrek the Wise\": \"Translated from the Icelandic with Introduction, Notes and Appendices by Christopher Tolkien\" in 1960. Later, Tolkien followed in his father's footsteps, becoming a lecturer and tutor in English Language at New College, Oxford, from 1964 to 1975.  In 2016, he was given the Bodley Medal, an award that recognises outstanding contributions to literature, culture, science, and communication.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editorial work.", "content": "His father wrote a great deal of material connected to the Middle-earth legendarium that was not published in his lifetime. He had originally intended to publish \"The Silmarillion\" along with \"The Lord of the Rings\", and parts of it were in a finished state when he died in 1973, but the project was incomplete. Tolkien once referred to his son as his \"chief critic and collaborator\", and named him his literary executor in his will. Tolkien organised the masses of his father's unpublished writings, some of them written on odd scraps of paper a half-century earlier. Much of the material was handwritten; frequently a fair draft was written over a half-erased first draft, and names of characters routinely changed between the beginning and end of the same draft. In the years following, Tolkien worked on the manuscripts and was able to produce an edition of \"The Silmarillion\" for publication in 1977.  \"The Silmarillion\" was followed by \"Unfinished Tales\" in 1980, and \"The History of Middle-earth\" in 12 volumes between 1983 and 1996. Most of the original source-texts have been made public from which \"The Silmarillion\" was constructed. In April 2007, Tolkien published \"The Children of Húrin\", whose story his father had brought to a relatively complete stage between 1951 and 1957 before abandoning it. This was one of his father's earliest stories, its first version dating back to 1918; several versions are published in \"The Silmarillion\", \"Unfinished Tales\", and \"The History of Middle-earth\". \"The Children of Húrin\" is a synthesis of these and other sources. \"Beren and Lúthien \" is an editorial work and was published as a stand-alone book in 2017.  The next year, \"The Fall of Gondolin \" was published, also as an editorial work. \"The Children of Húrin\", \"Beren and Lúthien\", and \"The Fall of Gondolin\" make up the three \"Great Tales\" of the Elder Days which J.R.R. Tolkien considered to be the biggest stories of the First Age.  HarperCollins published other J. R. R. Tolkien work edited by Tolkien which is not connected to the Middle-earth legendarium. \"The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún\" appeared in May 2009, a verse retelling of the Norse Völsung cycle, followed by \"The Fall of Arthur\" in May 2013, and by \"\" in May 2014.  Tolkien served as chairman of the Tolkien Estate, Ltd., the entity formed to handle the business side of his father's literary legacy, and as a trustee of the Tolkien Charitable Trust. He resigned as director of the estate in 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reaction to filmed versions.", "content": "In 2001, he expressed doubts over \"The Lord of the Rings\" film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, questioning the viability of a film interpretation that retained the essence of the work, but stressed that this was just his opinion. In a 2012 interview with \"Le Monde\" he criticised the films saying: \"They gutted the book, making an action film for 15 to 25-year-olds.\"  In 2008, Tolkien commenced legal proceedings against New Line Cinema, which he claimed owed his family £80 million in unpaid royalties. In September 2009, he and New Line reached an undisclosed settlement, and he withdrew his legal objection to \"The Hobbit\" films.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Tolkien lived from 1975 in the French countryside with his second wife, Baillie Tolkien (née Klass), who edited his father's \"The Father Christmas Letters\" for posthumous publication. They had two children, Adam Reuel Tolkien and Rachel Clare Reuel Tolkien. In the wake of a dispute surrounding the making of \"The Lord of the Rings\" film trilogy, he disowned his son by his first marriage, barrister and novelist Simon Mario Reuel Tolkien, though they reconciled prior to Christopher's death.  He died on 16 January 2020, at the age of 95, in Draguignan, Var, France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "As author or translator  As editor", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christopher John Reuel Tolkien (21 November 1924 – 16 January 2020) was an English and French academic editor. He was the son of author J. R. R. Tolkien and the editor of much of his father's posthumously published work. Tolkien drew the original maps for his father's \"The Lord of the Rings\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971670}
{"src_title": "Senet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"Senet\" is one of the oldest known board games. Fragmentary boards that could be \"senet\" have been found in First Dynasty burials in Egypt, c. 3100 BC. A hieroglyph resembling a \"senet\" board appears in the tomb of Merknera (3300–2700 BC). The first unequivocal painting of this ancient game is from the Third Dynasty tomb of Hesy (c. 2686–2613 BC). People are depicted playing \"senet\" in a painting in the tomb of Rashepes, as well as from other tombs of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties (c. 2500 BC). The oldest intact \"senet\" boards date to the Middle Kingdom, but graffiti on Fifth and Sixth Dynasty monuments could date as early as the Old Kingdom.  At least by the time of the New Kingdom in Egypt (1550–1077 BC), \"senet\" was conceived as a representation of the journey of the \"ka\" (the vital spark) to the afterlife. This connection is made in the \"Great Game Text\", which appears in a number of papyri, as well as the appearance of markings of religious significance on \"senet\" boards themselves. The game is also referred to in chapter XVII of the \"Book of the Dead\". A study on a \"senet\" board in the Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum, dating back to the early New Kingdom of Egypt, showed the evolution of the game from its secular origins into a more religious artifact.  \"Senet\" also was played by people in neighboring cultures, and it probably came to those places through trade relationships between Egyptians and local peoples. It has been found in the Levant at sites such as Arad and Byblos, as well as in Cyprus. Because of the local practice of making games out of stone, there are more \"senet\" games that have been found in Cyprus than have been found in Egypt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "The \"senet\" gameboard is a grid of 30 squares, arranged in three rows of ten. A \"senet\" board has two sets of pawns (at least five of each). Although details of the original game rules are a subject of some conjecture, \"senet\" historians Timothy Kendall and R. C. Bell have made their own reconstructions of the game. These rules are based on snippets of texts that span over a thousand years, over which time gameplay is likely to have changed. Therefore, it is unlikely these rules reflect the exact course of ancient Egyptian gameplay. Their rules have been adopted by sellers of modern \"senet\" sets. Scenes found in Old Kingdom tombs, dating 2686 to 2160 BC, reveal that Senet was a game of position, strategy, and a bit of luck.  In a presentation to the XX Board Games Studies Colloquium at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, Espen Aarseth asked if the game \"Senet\" could be said to still exist, given that the rules were unknown. In response, Alexander de Voogt of the American Museum of Natural History pointed out that games did not have a fixed set of rules, but rules varied over time and from place to place. Moreover, many players of games, even today, do not play (or sometimes do not even know) the \"official rules\".  Games historian Eddie Duggan (University of Suffolk) provides a brief resume of ideas related to the ancient Egyptian game of \"senet\" (together with an overview of the so-called \"Royal Game of Ur\") and a version of rules for play in his teaching notes on ancient games.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Senet (or senat) is a board game from ancient Egypt, whose original rules are the subject of conjecture. The oldest hieroglyph resembling a \"senet\" game dates to around 3100 BC. The full name of the game in Egyptian is thought to have been \"zn.t n.t ḥˁb\", meaning the \"game of passing\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971671}
{"src_title": "Sample (statistics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Kinds of samples.", "content": "A complete sample is a set of objects from a parent population that includes \"all\" such objects that satisfy a set of well-defined selection criteria. For example, a complete sample of Australian men taller than 2 m would consist of a list of \"every\" Australian male taller than 2 m. But it wouldn't include German males, or tall Australian females, or people shorter than 2 m. So to compile such a complete sample requires a complete list of the parent population, including data on height, gender, and nationality for each member of that parent population. In the case of human populations, such a complete list is unlikely to exist (the human population being in the billions). But such complete samples are often available in other disciplines, such as the set of players in a major sports league, the birth dates of the members of a parliament, or a complete magnitude-limited list of astronomical objects.  An unbiased (representative) sample is a set of objects chosen from a complete sample using a selection process that does not depend on the properties of the objects. For example, an unbiased sample of Australian men taller than 2 m might consist of a randomly sampled subset of 1% of Australian males taller than 2 m. But one chosen from the electoral register might not be unbiased since, for example, males aged under 18 will not be on the electoral register. In an astronomical context, an unbiased sample might consist of that fraction of a complete sample for which data are available, provided the data availability is not biased by individual source properties.  The best way to avoid a biased or unrepresentative sample is to select a random sample, also known as a probability sample. A random sample is defined as a sample where each individual member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected as part of the sample. Several types of random samples are simple random samples, systematic samples, stratified random samples, and cluster random samples.  A sample that is not random is called a non-random sample or a non-probability sampling. Some examples of nonrandom samples are convenience samples, judgment samples, purposive samples, quota samples, snowball samples, and quadrature nodes in quasi-Monte Carlo methods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematical description of random sample.", "content": "In mathematical terms, given a probability distribution \"F\", a random sample of length \"n\" (where \"n\" may be any positive integer) is a set of realizations of \"n\" independent, identically distributed (iid) random variables with distribution \"F\".  A sample concretely represents the results of \"n\" experiments in which the same quantity is measured. For example, if we want to estimate the average height of members of a particular population, we measure the heights of \"n\" individuals. Each measurement is drawn from the probability distribution \"F\" characterizing the population, so each measured height formula_1 is the realization of a random variable formula_2 with distribution \"F\". Note that a set of random variables (i.e., a set of measurable functions) must not be confused with the realizations of these variables (which are the values that these random variables take). In other words, formula_2 is a function representing the measurement at the \"i\"-th experiment and formula_4 is the value obtained when making the measurement.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In statistics and quantitative research methodology, a sample is a set of individuals or objects collected or selected from a statistical population by a defined procedure. The elements of a sample are known as sample points, sampling units or observations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971672}
{"src_title": "C++Builder", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Technology.", "content": "C++Builder uses the same IDE as Delphi, and shares many core libraries. Notable shared Delphi (Object Pascal code) and C++ Builder routines include the FastMM4 memory manager, which was developed as a community effort within the FastCode project, the entire UI framework known as the VCL, which is written in Object Pascal, as well as base system routines, many of which have been optimised for both Delphi and C++Builder through the FastCode project.  C++Builder projects can include Delphi code. The Delphi compiler emits C++ headers, allowing C++ code to link to Delphi classes and methods as though they were written in C++. The reverse (C++ code being used by Delphi) is not as straightforward but possible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Borland C++Builder.", "content": "C++Builder originally targeted only the Microsoft Windows platform. Later versions incorporated Borland CLX, a cross-platform development visual component library based on Qt, that supports Windows and Linux, however CLX is now abandoned. A cross-platform version for Linux and OS X is reportedly planned.  Traditionally, the release cycle was such that Delphi got major enhancements first, with C++Builder following, though recent versions have been released at the same time as their Delphi equivalents.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1.0.", "content": "Preview edition was announced in Jan. 7, 1997. Retail version was released on February 26, 1997. Original Borland C++Builder editions include Client/Server Suite, Professional, Standard.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Borland C++Builder 4.", "content": "New features include:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Borland C++Builder 5.", "content": "On March 22, 2000, Inprise Corporation announced the release of Borland C++Builder 5, available in Enterprise, Professional, Standard editions. New features include:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Borland C++Builder 6 (Studio).", "content": "On February 5, 2002, Borland Software Corporation announced the release of Borland C++Builder 6 on February 8, 2002, including C++Builder 6 Enterprise, C++Builder 6 Professional, and C++Builder 6 Personal editions. 60-day free trial download of C++Builder 6 Enterprise was also planned. New features include:  Minimum supported operating system was changed to Windows 98.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "C++ Builder 2006.", "content": "On Oct 10, 2005, Borland Software Corporation announced the release of Borland C++Builder (previously codenamed \"DeXter\"). Minimum supported operating system was changed to Windows 2000.  About a year after the announcement Borland released \"Borland Developer Studio 2006\" which includes \"Borland C++Builder 2006\" that provides improved configuration management and bug fixes. \"Borland Developer Studio 2006\" is a single package containing Delphi, C++Builder, and C#Builder.  In 2006 Borland's Developer Tools Group, developers of C++Builder, was transferred to a wholly owned subsidiary, CodeGear.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Borland C++BuilderX.", "content": "On Sep 15, 2003, Borland Software Corporation announced the release of \"Borland C++BuilderX\" (CBX), which was also included as part of the latest Borland Enterprise Studio for Mobile. CBX was written using the same framework as JBuilder and bore little resemblance to either C++Builder or Delphi. This product was aimed at developing large programs for enterprises, but did not sell well.  On Sep 22, 2003, Borland Software Corporation and PalmSource, Inc. announced Borland has licensed the PalmSource software development kits (SDKs) and will support Palm OS development in the Borland C++BuilderX Integrated Development Environment (IDE) and latest Borland Application Lifecycle Management (ALM) solutions for C++.  At the end of 2004 Borland announced that it would continue to develop the earlier C++Builder and bundle it with the Delphi development suite, abandoning C++BuilderX.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CodeGear Borland C++Builder.", "content": "In 2007 CodeGear released \"C++Builder 2007\", providing full API support for Microsoft Vista, increased ANSI C++ conformance, up to 500% faster in-IDE build performance, support for MSBuild, DBX4 database architecture, and \"VCL for the Web\" which supports Ajax. The API support for Microsoft Vista includes themed applications and seamless VCL support for Aero and Vista Desktop. \"CodeGear RAD Studio 2007\" incorporates \"C++Builder 2007\" and \"Delphi\". Also in 2007 Borland revived the \"Turbo\" brand and released two \"Turbo\" editions of C++Builder: Turbo C++ Professional, and Turbo C++ Explorer (no longer available from CodeGear), based on \"Borland C++Builder 2006\".  In 2008 CodeGear was purchased by Embarcadero Technologies, who continued development.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Embarcadero C++Builder.", "content": "\"C++Builder 2009\" was released in August 2008, with the most notable improvements being full Unicode support throughout VCL and RTL, early adoption of the C++0x standard, full ITE (Integrated Translation Environment) support, native Ribbon components and the inclusion of the Boost library. \"C++Builder 2010\" then followed in August 2009, adding in particular the touch and gesture support newly introduced to the VCL and a C++ specific class explorer. C++Builder XE was released in August 2010.  Embarcadero moved to a different versioning scheme in 2010. Rather than using numbers, they use XE.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "XE (15).", "content": "C++ Builder XE was released in August 2010. No notable major changes were included in this version except for bug fixes.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "XE2 (16).", "content": "C++Builder XE2 was released in August 2011. Inclusion of 'FireMonkey' for creating cross-platform GUIs.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "XE3 (17).", "content": "C++ Builder XE3 was released in August 2012. No notable major changes were included in this version except for bug fixes.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "XE4 (18).", "content": "C++ Builder XE4 was released in April 2013. Included a 64-bit Windows compiler based on Clang 3.1. The 32-bit compiler is still based on Embarcadero's older technology.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "XE5 (19).", "content": "Changes to C++Builder XE5 include: C++Builder XE5 Starter Edition includes: Available editions include Architect, Ultimate, Enterprise, Professional, Starter.  RAD Studio XE5 also includes C++Builder XE5.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "10 Seattle (23).", "content": "Released in late August 2015 Seattle updates the C++ compiler suite to CLANG 3.3 with the following exceptions:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "10.1 Berlin (24).", "content": "Released in late April 2016.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "10.2 Tokyo (25).", "content": "Released in late March 2017.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "macOS support.", "content": "C++Builder XE2 was released in August 2011, introducing OS X support to the compiler for the first time. This allows the creation of cross-platform executables from a single source using the included FireMonkey libraries, however the IDE is only compatible with Microsoft Windows.  C++Builder XE3 was released in August 2012 containing further OS X support and an upgraded version of FireMonkey.  C++Builder XE4 was released in April 2013 containing further OS X support and FireMonkey version 3.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Version history.", "content": "The following is a rough outline of product release information.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "C++ Builder is available in four editions with increasing features and price:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "C++Builder is a rapid application development (RAD) environment, originally developed by Borland and owned by Embarcadero Technologies (a subsidiary of Idera), for writing programs in the C++ programming language targeting Windows NT (IA-32 and x64), macOS, iOS and Android. C++Builder combines the Visual Component Library and IDE written in Object Pascal with multiple C++ compilers. Most components developed in Delphi can be used in C++Builder with no or little modification, although the reverse is not true, but this constraint is valid only for source code. Binary code generated by Delphi can easily be linked to binary code generated by C++Builder and vice versa to generate an executable written in both Object Pascal and C++. With this approach, C++ can be called from Object Pascal and vice versa. Since both Delphi and C++ use the same back end linker, the debugger can single step from Delphi code into C++ transparently.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971673}
{"src_title": "Imam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sunni imams.", "content": "The Sunni branch of Islam does not have imams in the same sense as the Shi'a, an important distinction often overlooked by those outside of the Islamic religion. In everyday terms, the imam for Sunni Muslims is the one who leads Islamic formal (Fard) prayers, even in locations besides the mosque, whenever prayers are done in a group of two or more with one person leading (imam) and the others following by copying his ritual actions of worship. Friday sermon is most often given by an appointed imam. All mosques have an imam to lead the (congregational) prayers, even though it may sometimes just be a member from the gathered congregation rather than an officially appointed salaried person. The position of women as imams is controversial. The person that should be chosen, according to Hadith, is one who has most knowledge of the Quran and Sunnah (prophetic tradition) and is of good character.  The term is also used for a recognized religious scholar or authority in Islam, often for the founding scholars of the four Sunni madhhabs, or schools of jurisprudence (\"fiqh\"). It may also refer to the Muslim scholars who created the analytical sciences related to Hadith or it may refer to the heads of Muhammad's family in their generational times.  The Position of Imams In Turkey  Imams are appointed by the state to work at mosques and they are required to be graduates of an İmam Hatip high school or have a university degree in Theology. This is an official position regulated by the Presidency of Religious Affairs in Turkey and only males are appointed to this position while female officials under the same state organisation work as preachers and Qur'an course tutors, religious services experts. These officials are supposed to belong to the Hanafi school of the Sunni sect.  A central figure in an Islamic movement is also called as an Imam like the Imam Nabhawi in Syria and Ahmad Raza Khan in India and Pakistan is also called as the Imam for Sunni Muslims.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shi'a imams.", "content": "In the Shi'a context, an imam is not only presented as the man of God \"par excellence\", but as participating fully in the names, attributes, and acts that theology usually reserves for God alone. Imams have a meaning more central to belief, referring to leaders of the community. Twelver and Ismaili Shi'a believe that these imams are chosen by God to be perfect examples for the faithful and to lead all humanity in all aspects of life. They also believe that all the imams chosen are free from committing any sin, impeccability which is called \"ismah\". These leaders must be followed since they are appointed by God.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twelver.", "content": "Here follows a list of the Twelvers Shia imams:  Fatimah, also Fatimah al-Zahraa, daughter of Muhammed (615–632), is also considered infallible but not an Imam. The Shi'a believe that the last Imam, the 12th Imam Mahdi will one day emerge on Qiyamah.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ismaili.", "content": "See Imamah (Ismaili doctrine) and List of Ismaili imams for Ismaili imams.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zaidi.", "content": "See details under Zaidiyyah, Islamic history of Yemen and Imams of Yemen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Imams as secular rulers.", "content": "At times, imams have held both secular and religious authority. This was the case in Oman among the Kharijite or Ibadi sects. At times, the imams were elected. At other times the position was inherited, as with the Yaruba dynasty from 1624 and 1742. See List of rulers of Oman, the Rustamid dynasty: 776–909, Nabhani dynasty: 1154–1624, the Yaruba dynasty: 1624–1742, the Al Said: 1744–present for further information. The Imamate of Futa Jallon (1727-1896) was a Fulani state in West Africa where secular power alternated between two lines of hereditary Imams, or \"almami\". In the Zaidi Shiite sect, imams were secular as well as spiritual leaders who held power in Yemen for more than a thousand years. In 897, a Zaidi ruler, al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya, founded a line of such imams, a theocratic form of government which survived until the second half of the 20th century. (See details under Zaidiyyah, History of Yemen, Imams of Yemen.)  Ruhollah Khomeini is officially referred to as Imam in Iran. Several Iranian places and institutions are named \"Imam Khomeini\", including a city, an international airport, a hospital, and a university.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Imam (; '; plural: ') is an Islamic leadership position. It is most commonly used as the title of a worship leader of a mosque and Muslim community among Sunni Muslims. In this context, imams may lead Islamic worship services, serve as community leaders, and provide religious guidance. In Yemen, the title was formerly given to the king of the country.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971674}
{"src_title": "Raetia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Little is known of the origin or history of the Raetians, who appear in the records as one of the most powerful and warlike of the Alpine tribes. Livy states distinctly that they were of Etruscan origin (a belief that was favored by Niebuhr and Mommsen). A tradition reported by Justin and Pliny the Elder affirmed that they were a portion of that people who had settled in the plains of the Po and were driven into the mountains by the invading Gauls, when they assumed the name of \"Raetians\" from an eponymous leader Raetus. Even if their Etruscan origin be accepted, at the time when the land became known to the Romans, Celtic tribes were already in possession of it and had amalgamated so completely with the original inhabitants that, generally speaking, the Raetians of later times may be regarded as a Celtic people, although non-Celtic tribes (es. Euganei) were settled among them.  The Raetians are first mentioned (but only incidentally) by Polybius, and little is heard of them till after the end of the Republic. There is little doubt, however, that they retained their independence until their subjugation in 15 BC by Tiberius and Drusus.  At first Raetia formed a distinct province, but towards the end of the 1st century AD Vindelicia was added to it; hence Tacitus (\"Germania\", 41) could speak of \"Augusta Vindelicorum\" (Augsburg) as \"a colony of the province of Raetia\". The whole province (including Vindelicia) was at first under a military prefect, then under a procurator; it had no standing army quartered in it but relied on its own native troops and militia for protection until the 2nd century AD.  During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, Raetia was governed by the commander of the Legio III \"Italica\", which was based in Castra Regina (Regensburg) by 179 AD. Under Diocletian, Raetia formed part of the diocese of the \"vicarius Italiae\", and was subdivided into \"Raetia prima\", with a \"praeses\" at Curia Raetorum (Chur) and \"Raetia secunda\", with a \"praeses\" at Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), the former corresponding to the old Raetia, the latter to Vindelicia. The boundary between them is not clearly defined, but may be stated generally as a line drawn eastwards from the \"lacus Brigantinus\" (Lake Constance) to the \"Oenus\" (River Inn).  During the last years of the Western Roman Empire, the land was in a desolate condition, but its occupation by the Ostrogoths in the time of Theodoric the Great, who placed it under a \"dux\", to some extent revived its prosperity. Much of \"Raetia prima\" remained as a separate political unit, Raetia Curiensis, for several centuries, until it was attached to the Duchy of Swabia in AD 917.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The land was very mountainous, and the inhabitants, when not engaged in predatory expeditions, chiefly supported themselves by breeding cattle and cutting timber, little attention being paid to agriculture. Some of the valleys, however, were rich and fertile, and produced wine, which was considered equal to any in Italia. Augustus Caesar preferred Raetian wine to any other. Considerable trade in pitch, honey, wax, and cheese occurred.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The chief towns of Raetia (excluding Vindelicia) were \"Tridentum\" (Trento) and \"Curia\" (Coire or Chur). It was traversed by two great lines of Roman roads — the Via Claudia Augusta leading from Verona and Tridentum across the Reschen Pass to the Fern Pass and thence to \"Augusta Vindelicorum\" (Augsburg), the other from \"Brigantium\" (Bregenz) on Lake Constance by Chur and Chiavenna to Como and Milan.  The Rätikon mountain range derives its name from Raetia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Raetia (, ; also spelled Rhaetia) was a province of the Roman Empire, named after the Rhaetian (\"Raeti\" or \"Rhaeti\") people. It bordered on the west with the country of the Helvetii, on the east with Noricum, on the north with Vindelicia, on the south-west with Transalpine Gaul and on the south with Venetia et Histria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971675}
{"src_title": "Pope Leo III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rise.", "content": "Leo was of a modest family in southern Italy, the son of Atyuppius and Elizabeth. He was made cardinal-priest of Santa Susanna by Pope Adrian I, and seemingly also vestiarius, or chief of the pontifical treasury, or wardrobe.  He was elected on 26 December 795, the day Adrian I was buried, and consecrated on the following day. It is quite possible that this haste may have been due to a desire on the part of the Romans to prevent any interference by the Franks. With the letter informing the Frankish ruler Charlemagne that he had been unanimously elected pope, Leo sent him the keys of the confession of St. Peter, and the standard of the city, and requested an envoy. This he did to show that he regarded the Frankish king as the protector of the Holy See. In return, Charlemagne sent letters of congratulation and a great part of the treasure which the king had captured from the Avars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pontificate.", "content": "Charlemagne's gift enabled Leo to be a great benefactor to the churches and charitable institutions of Rome. While Charlemagne's letter is respectful and even affectionate, it also exhibits his concept of the coordination of the spiritual and temporal powers, and he does not hesitate to remind the pope of his grave spiritual obligations. Charlemagne's reply stated that it was his role to defend the Church, and the role of the pope to pray for the realm and for the victory of his army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attack on Leo.", "content": "Prompted by jealousy or ambition, or the thought that only someone of the nobility should hold the office of pope, a number of relatives of Adrian I formed a plot to render Leo unfit to hold his office. On the occasion of the procession of the Greater Litanies, 25 April 799, when the pope was making his way towards the Flaminian Gate, he was suddenly attacked by armed men. He was dashed to the ground, and an effort was made to root out his tongue and tear out his eyes which left him injured and unconscious. He was rescued by two of Charlemagne's \"missi dominici\", who came with a considerable force. Duke Winiges of Spoleto sheltered the fugitive pope, who went later to Paderborn, where Charlemagne's camp then was. He was received by the Frankish king with the greatest honour at Paderborn. This meeting forms the basis of the epic poem \"Karolus Magnus et Leo Papa\".  Leo was accused by his enemies of adultery and perjury. Charlemagne ordered them to Paderborn, but no decision could be made. He then had Leo escorted back to Rome. In November 800, Charlemagne himself went to Rome, and on 1 December held a council there with representatives of both sides. Leo, on 23 December, took an oath of purgation concerning the charges brought against him, and his opponents were exiled.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coronation of Charlemagne.", "content": "Charlemagne's father, Pepin the Short, defended the papacy against the Lombards and issued the Donation of Pepin, which granted the land around Rome to the pope as a fief. In 754 Pope Stephen II had conferred on Charles's father the dignity of \"Patricius Romanus\", which implied primarily the protection of the Roman Church in all its rights and privileges; above all in its temporal authority which it had gradually acquired (notably in the former Byzantine Duchy of Rome and the Exarchate of Ravenna) by just titles in the course of the two preceding centuries.  Two days after his oath, on Christmas Day 800, Leo crowned Charlemagne as emperor. According to Charlemagne's biographer, Einhard, Charles had no suspicion of what was about to happen, and if informed would not have accepted the imperial crown. There is, however, no reason to doubt that for some time previous the elevation of Charlemagne had been discussed, both at home and at Rome, especially since the imperial throne in Constantinople was controversially occupied by a woman, Irene of Athens, and since the Carolingian dynasty had firmly established its power and prestige. The coronation offended Constantinople, which had seen itself still as the rightful defender of Rome, but Empress Irene, like many of her predecessors since Justinian I, was too weak to offer protection to the city or its much reduced citizenry.  In 808, Leo committed Corsica to Charlemagne for safe-keeping because of Muslim raids, originating from Al-Andalus, on the island. Nonetheless, Corsica, along with Sardinia, would still go on to be occupied by Muslim forces in 809 and 810.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theological policy.", "content": "Leo helped restore King Eardwulf of Northumbria and settled various matters of dispute between the archbishops of York and Canterbury. He also reversed Adrian I's decision in regards to the granting of the pallium to Bishop Hygeberht of Lichfield. He believed that the English episcopate had been misrepresented before Adrian and that therefore his act was invalid. In 803, Lichfield was a regular diocese again.  When asked to confirm the decision of the 809 Council of Aachen, Leo, though affirming the orthodoxy of the term \"Filioque\" and approving of its use in catechesis and personal professions of the faith, explicitly disapproved the addition of the \"filioque\" to the Creed of 381. Around this time, he ordered two heavy silver shields, containing the original text of the Creed in both Greek and Latin, to be made and placed in St. Peter's Basilica, adding: \"Haec Leo posui amore et cautela orthodoxae fidei\" (\"I, Leo, put these here for love and protection of orthodox faith\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Leo III died in 816 after a reign of more than 20 years. He was originally buried in his own monument. However, some years after his death, his remains were put into a tomb that contained the first four popes named Leo. In the 18th century, the relics of Leo the Great were separated from his namesakes, and he was given his own chapel.  Leo III was canonized by Clement X, who, in 1673, had Leo's name entered in the Roman Martyrology.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pope Leo III (; 12 June 816) was the bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 26 December 795 to his death. Protected by Charlemagne from the supporters of his predecessor, Adrian I, Leo subsequently strengthened Charlemagne's position by crowning him emperor. The coronation was not approved in Constantinople, although the Byzantines, occupied with their own defenses, were in no position to offer much opposition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971676}
{"src_title": "Code refactoring", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Motivation.", "content": "Refactoring is usually motivated by noticing a code smell. For example, the method at hand may be very long, or it may be a near duplicate of another nearby method. Once recognized, such problems can be addressed by \"refactoring\" the source code, or transforming it into a new form that behaves the same as before but that no longer \"smells\".  For a long routine, one or more smaller subroutines can be extracted; or for duplicate routines, the duplication can be removed and replaced with one shared function. Failure to perform refactoring can result in accumulating technical debt; on the other hand, refactoring is one of the primary means of repaying technical debt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Benefits.", "content": "There are two general categories of benefits to the activity of refactoring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Challenges.", "content": "Refactoring requires extracting software system structure, data models, and intra-application dependencies to get back knowledge of an existing software system. The turnover of teams implies missing or inaccurate knowledge of the current state of a system and about design decisions made by departing developers. Further code refactoring activities may require additional effort to regain this knowledge. Refactoring activities generate architectural modifications that deteriorate the structural architecture of a software system. Such deterioration affects architectural properties such as maintainability and comprehensibility which can lead to a complete re-development of software systems. Code refactoring activities are secured with software intelligence when using tools and technics providing data about algorithms and sequences of code execution. Providing a comprehensible format for the inner-state of software system structure, data models, and intra-components dependencies is a critical element to form a high-level understanding and then refined views of what needs to be modified, and how.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Testing.", "content": "Automatic unit tests should be set up before refactoring to ensure routines still behave as expected. Unit tests can bring stability to even large refactors when performed with a single atomic commit. A common strategy to allow safe and atomic refactors spanning multiple projects is to store all projects in a single repository, known as monorepo.  With unit testing in place, refactoring is then an iterative cycle of making a small program transformation, testing it to ensure correctness, and making another small transformation. If at any point a test fails, the last small change is undone and repeated in a different way. Through many small steps the program moves from where it was to where you want it to be. For this very iterative process to be practical, the tests must run very quickly, or the programmer would have to spend a large fraction of their time waiting for the tests to finish. Proponents of extreme programming and other agile software development describe this activity as an integral part of the software development cycle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Techniques.", "content": "Here are some examples of micro-refactorings; some of these may only apply to certain languages or language types. A longer list can be found in Martin Fowler's refactoring book and website. Many development environments provide automated support for these micro-refactorings. For instance, a programmer could click on the name of a variable and then select the \"Encapsulate field\" refactoring from a context menu. The IDE would then prompt for additional details, typically with sensible defaults and a preview of the code changes. After confirmation by the programmer it would carry out the required changes throughout the code.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hardware refactoring.", "content": "While the term \"refactoring\" originally referred exclusively to refactoring of software code, in recent years code written in hardware description languages (HDLs) has also been refactored. The term \"hardware refactoring\" is used as a shorthand term for refactoring of code in hardware description languages. Since HDLs are not considered to be programming languages by most hardware engineers, hardware refactoring is to be considered a separate field from traditional code refactoring.  Automated refactoring of analog hardware descriptions (in VHDL-AMS) has been proposed by Zeng and Huss. In their approach, refactoring preserves the simulated behavior of a hardware design. The non-functional measurement that improves is that refactored code can be processed by standard synthesis tools, while the original code cannot. Refactoring of digital HDLs, albeit manual refactoring, has also been investigated by Synopsys fellow Mike Keating. His target is to make complex systems easier to understand, which increases the designers' productivity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Although refactoring code has been done informally for decades, William Griswold's 1991 Ph.D. dissertation is one of the first major academic works on refactoring functional and procedural programs, followed by William Opdyke's 1992 dissertation on the refactoring of object-oriented programs, although all the theory and machinery have long been available as program transformation systems. All of these resources provide a catalog of common methods for refactoring; a refactoring method has a description of how to apply the method and indicators for when you should (or should not) apply the method.  Martin Fowler's book \"Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code\" is the canonical reference.  The first known use of the term \"refactoring\" in the published literature was in a September, 1990 article by William Opdyke and Ralph Johnson. Griswold's Ph.D. thesis, Opdyke's Ph.D. thesis, published in 1992, also used this term.  The terms \"factoring\" and \"factoring out\" have been used in this way in the Forth community since at least the early 1980s. Chapter Six of Leo Brodie's book \"Thinking Forth\" (1984) is dedicated to the subject.  In extreme programming, the Extract Method refactoring technique has essentially the same meaning as factoring in Forth; to break down a \"word\" (or function) into smaller, more easily maintained functions.  Refactorings can also be reconstructed posthoc to produce concise descriptions of complex software changes recorded in software repositories like CVS or SVN.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Automated code refactoring.", "content": "Many software editors and IDEs have automated refactoring support. It is possible to refactor application code as well as test code. Here is a list of a few of these editors, or so-called refactoring browsers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer programming and software design, code refactoring is the process of restructuring existing computer code—changing the \"factoring\"—without changing its external behavior. Refactoring is intended to improve the design, structure, and/or implementation of the software (its \"non-functional\" attributes), while preserving its functionality. Potential advantages of refactoring may include improved code readability and reduced complexity; these can improve the source codes maintainability and create a simpler, cleaner, or more expressive internal architecture or object model to improve extensibility. Another potential goal for refactoring is improved performance; software engineers face an ongoing challenge to write programs that perform faster or use less memory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971677}
{"src_title": "Spinel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Properties.", "content": "Spinel crystallizes in the isometric system; common crystal forms are octahedra, usually twinned. It has an imperfect octahedral cleavage and a conchoidal fracture. Its hardness is 8, its specific gravity is 3.5–4.1, and it is transparent to opaque with a vitreous to dull luster. It may be colorless, but is usually various shades of pink, rose, red, blue, green, yellow, brown, black, or (uncommon) violet. There is a unique natural white spinel, now lost, that surfaced briefly in what is now Sri Lanka. Some spinels are among the most famous gemstones; among them are the Black Prince's Ruby and the \"Timur ruby\" in the British Crown Jewels, and the \"Côte de Bretagne\", formerly from the French Crown jewels. The Samarian Spinel is the largest known spinel in the world, weighing.  The transparent red spinels were called spinel-rubies or balas rubies. In the past, before the arrival of modern science, spinels and rubies were equally known as rubies. After the 18th century the word ruby was only used for the red gem variety of the mineral corundum and the word spinel came to be used. \"Balas\" is derived from Balascia, the ancient name for Badakhshan, a region in central Asia situated in the upper valley of the Panj River, one of the principal tributaries of the Oxus River. Mines in the Gorno Badakhshan region of Tajikistan constituted for centuries the main source for red and pink spinels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occurrence.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geologic occurrence.", "content": "Spinel is found as a metamorphic mineral, and also as a primary mineral in rare mafic igneous rocks; in these igneous rocks, the magmas are relatively deficient in alkalis relative to aluminium, and aluminium oxide may form as the mineral corundum or may combine with magnesia to form spinel. This is why spinel and ruby are often found together. The spinel petrogenesis in mafic magmatic rocks is strongly debated, but certainly results from mafic magma interaction with more evolved magma or rock (e.g. gabbro, troctolite).  Spinel, (Mg,Fe)(Al,Cr)O, is common in peridotite in the uppermost Earth's mantle, between approximately 20 km to approximately 120 km, possibly to lower depths depending on the chromium content. At significantly shallower depths, above the Moho, calcic plagioclase is the more stable aluminous mineral in peridotite while garnet is the stable phase deeper in the mantle below the spinel stability region.  Spinel, (Mg,Fe)AlO, is a common mineral in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions (CAIs) in some chondritic meteorites.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geographical occurrence.", "content": "Spinel has long been found in the gemstone-bearing gravel of Sri Lanka and in limestones of the Badakshan Province in modern-day Afghanistan and Tajikistan; and of Mogok in Myanmar. Over the last decades gem quality spinels are found in the marbles of Lục Yên District (Vietnam), Mahenge and Matombo (Tanzania), Tsavo (Kenya) and in the gravels of Tunduru (Tanzania) and Ilakaka (Madagascar).  Since 2000 in several locations around the world have been discovered spinels with unusual vivid pink or blue color. Such \"glowing\" spinels are known from Mogok (Myanmar), Mahenge plateau (Tanzania), Lục Yên District (Vietnam) and some more localities. In 2018 bright blue spinels have been reported also in the southern part of Baffin Island (Canada). The pure blue coloration of spinel is caused by small additions of cobalt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Synthetic spinel.", "content": "Synthetic spinel, accidentally produced in the middle of the 18th century, has been described more recently in scientific publications in 2000 and 2004. By 2015, transparent spinel was being made in sheets and other shapes through sintering. Synthetic spinel, which looks like glass but has notably higher strength against pressure, can also have applications in military and commercial use.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Spinel () is the magnesium/aluminium member of the larger spinel group of minerals. It has the formula MgAlO in the cubic crystal system. Its name comes from the Latin word \"spinella\", which means \"spine\" in reference to its pointed crystals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971678}
{"src_title": "Evaporation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Theory.", "content": "For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near the surface, they have to be moving in the proper direction, and have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome liquid-phase intermolecular forces. When only a small proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, the rate of evaporation is low. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures. As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling. This is why evaporating sweat cools the human body. Evaporation also tends to proceed more quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with higher vapor pressure. For example, laundry on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a windy day than on a still day. Three key parts to evaporation are heat, atmospheric pressure (determines the percent humidity), and air movement.  On a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between the liquid state and the vapor state. Instead, there is a Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined. Because this layer is only a few molecules thick, at a macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface cannot be seen.  Liquids that do not evaporate visibly at a given temperature in a given gas (e.g., cooking oil at room temperature) have molecules that do not tend to transfer energy to each other in a pattern sufficient to frequently give a molecule the heat energy necessary to turn into vapor. However, these liquids \"are\" evaporating. It is just that the process is much slower and thus significantly less visible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evaporative equilibrium.", "content": "If evaporation takes place in an enclosed area, the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid. Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density and pressure of the vapor increases. When the process of escape and return reaches an equilibrium, the vapor is said to be \"saturated\", and no further change in either vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature will occur. For a system consisting of vapor and liquid of a pure substance, this equilibrium state is directly related to the vapor pressure of the substance, as given by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation:  where \"P\", \"P\" are the vapor pressures at temperatures \"T\", \"T\" respectively, Δ\"H\" is the enthalpy of vaporization, and \"R\" is the universal gas constant. The rate of evaporation in an open system is related to the vapor pressure found in a closed system. If a liquid is heated, when the vapor pressure reaches the ambient pressure the liquid will boil.  The ability for a molecule of a liquid to evaporate is based largely on the amount of kinetic energy an individual particle may possess. Even at lower temperatures, individual molecules of a liquid can evaporate if they have more than the minimum amount of kinetic energy required for vaporization.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Factors influencing the rate of evaporation.", "content": "Note: Air used here is a common example; however, the vapor phase can be other gases.  In the US, the National Weather Service measures the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized \"pan\" open water surface outdoors, at various locations nationwide. Others do likewise around the world. The US data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map. The measurements range from under 30 to over per year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thermodynamics.", "content": "Evaporation is an endothermic process, in that heat is absorbed during evaporation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Combustion vaporization.", "content": "Fuel droplets vaporize as they receive heat by mixing with the hot gases in the combustion chamber. Heat (energy) can also be received by radiation from any hot refractory wall of the combustion chamber.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pre-combustion vaporization.", "content": "Internal combustion engines rely upon the vaporization of the fuel in the cylinders to form a fuel/air mixture in order to burn well. The chemically correct air/fuel mixture for total burning of gasoline has been determined to be 15 parts air to one part gasoline or 15/1 by weight. Changing this to a volume ratio yields 8000 parts air to one part gasoline or 8,000/1 by volume.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Film deposition.", "content": "Thin films may be deposited by evaporating a substance and condensing it onto a substrate, or by dissolving the substance in a solvent, spreading the resulting solution thinly over a substrate, and evaporating the solvent. The Hertz–Knudsen equation is often used to estimate the rate of evaporation in these instances.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs on the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas phase. The surrounding gas must not be saturated with the evaporating substance. When the molecules of the liquid collide, they transfer energy to each other based on how they collide with each other. When a molecule near the surface absorbs enough energy to overcome the vapor pressure, it will escape and enter the surrounding air as a gas. When evaporation occurs, the energy removed from the vaporized liquid will reduce the temperature of the liquid, resulting in evaporative cooling.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971679}
{"src_title": "Apple scab", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and distribution.", "content": "The earliest official reports of apple scab were made in 1819 by Swedish botanist, Elias Fries. However, genetic studies have indicated that apple scab likely emerged in Central Asia. As neither the spores nor conidia of this disease are capable of travelling great distances, it is likely that apple scab spread through the movement of domesticated apple trees by migrating humans. By the end of the 19th century, the disease had spread to North America and Oceania alongside the importation of host plants. Today apple scab is present in nearly all regions where apples are cultivated, with the most significant infections occurring in temperate areas, where it is cool and moist in the spring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disease cycle.", "content": "The disease cycle begins in early spring, when cool temperatures and abundant moisture promote the release of sexual spores (ascospores) from overwintering structures (pseudothecia) found in the debris at the base of previously-infected trees. Moisture is a critical factor in the development of the disease as rainfall not only triggers the release of ascospores, but also facilitates the infection of new hosts by helping the spores adhere to and germinate on the healthy tissue of new hosts. Following their dissemination, ascospores are transported to the surfaces of newly-emerged leaves and blossoms by wind and splashing water. The tissue is then penetrated either directly with a germ tube or indirectly using an appressorium, thus initiating a new infection. Shortly after penetration, light-green, irregularly shaped lesions develop on infected foliar tissue and gradually darken, expand, and pucker as the infection progresses. Lesions on fruit are black or brown and irregularly shaped, with older fruit lesions causing the underlying tissue to become dry, corky, and eventually disfigured by splitting. Within 10 days of infection, asexual conidia will develop on the darkened lesions and allow for the establishment of secondary infections in healthy leaf and fruit tissue. Under optimal conditions, this cycle may repeat every 1–2 weeks during the growing season. At the end of the season, heavily-infected fruit and foliage fall from the canopy, allowing for the development of pseuothecia, which serve as a source of primary inoculum for the next spring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Predicting infection.", "content": "First developed in 1944 by American plant pathologist, W.D. Mills, a Mills Table predicts the likelihood of an apple scab infection developing based on the average temperature and the number of hours of leaf wetness that the host plant is exposed to. This prediction system has been rapidly adopted in both Europe and North America, where apple growers use it as an early warning system for new infections, allowing them to apply preventive fungicides when appropriate. Several revisions have been made to the Mills Table since its creation. The most notable revision was made in 1989 by plant pathologists William MacHardy and David Gadoury, who determined that ascospores required 3 hours less than originally calculated in order to establish a new infection. While other methods of prediction include ascospore maturation models and leaf orchard leaf canopy models, the Mills Table, combined with electronic weather monitoring, remains the most-widely used tool for predicting apple scab infection periods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management of apple scab.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural controls.", "content": "Cultural controls may be used as a first step when seeking to reduce the incidence of new infections. These practices include cleaning leaf litter from the base of previously-infected trees, as well as removing infected woody material from the canopy when performing annual pruning. Doing so will reduce the amount of primary inoculum in the spring and subsequently delay the establishment of the disease. Furthermore, regular pruning will improve air flow and light penetration in the canopy, which ultimately inhibits the development and spread of disease. Another aspect of cultural control is water management. As water triggers ascospore release and promotes germination on vulnerable tissue, growers are advised to monitor watering periods and avoid using overhead watering systems. Doing so may ultimately aid in reducing infection periods caused by natural precipitation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemical controls.", "content": "The management of apple scab using chemical controls is primarily concerned with preventing the initiation of primary infection cycles by reducing the germination of ascospores. As such, fungicides are typically applied early in the season, when ascospores are first released. However, fungicide applications may also be made later in the season to prevent infection of old leaves, which can help reduce the amount of primary inoculum for the following season. Benzimidazole fungicides are among the most commonly-used classes of fungicide for managing apple scab in conventional orchards; however, there is some evidence that the disease is developing resistance to this class of fungicides, along with several others, including demethylation inhibitors and quinone outside inhibitors. To manage the development of fungicide resistance, growers can reduce the number of applications made throughout the season and alternate between different classes of fungicide.  In organic production systems, growers commonly use copper- or sulfur-based protectant sprays to reduce the efficacy of primary inoculum. Although these sprays were among the earliest methods of preventing the development of apple scab, they do little to manage pre-existing infections and application may significantly damage the foliage of treated trees. Moreover, research has indicated that applications of copper-based fungicides may result in changes in the structure and functionality of soil microbiota, thus having a negative effect on soil health. As such, alternative management strategies appropriate for organic production systems are currently being developed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biological Control.", "content": "Biological control refers to the use of a population of one organism (a biological control agent) to suppress the population of another. There are very few biological control agents registered for the control of apple scab. One of the most widely-recognized products is Serenade® ASO, a microbial biofungicide which uses \"Bacillus subtilis\" as its active ingredient and may be used to control foliar diseases caused by bacteria or fungi. Furthermore, several fungal antagonists have been isolated and identified as potential biocontrols. One of such antagonists is \"Cladosporium cladosporioides\" (strain H39). This antagonistic fungus has demonstrated significant bioactivity against apple scab. This was indicated in a 2015 study, which found that applications of \"C. cladosporioides\" could reduce leaf scab incidence by 42-98% and apple scab incidence by 41-94% in both conventionally and organically managed orchards.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resistance breeding programs.", "content": "The first formal resistance breeding programs for apple scab began in the early 20th century with the development of the PRI Apple Breeding Program by Purdue University, Rutgers University, and the University of Illinois. Since its inception in 1945, the PRI Apple Breeding Program has used controlled crosses between cultivated apples and wild \"Malus\" species to develop 1500 resistant cultivars, 16 of which (including 'Prima,' 'Jonafree,' and 'Goldrush') have been named released into market. Modern genetic work has found that a total of fifteen genes may confer resistance to apple scab. Many of these genes have been isolated from wild \"Malus\" spp. populations in East Asia, where a high level of species diversity still remains. Of these resistance genes, the Vf (Rvi6) gene is the most well-studied and is currently being used by researchers seeking to develop resistant cultivars using transgenic technology. While the development of transgenic resistant cultivars may reduce management costs in orchards, limited market acceptance pose a barrier to early adoption by commercial growers. Moreover, researchers have observed a breakdown of resistance genes by \"Venturia\" populations, posing another significant barrier to the success of this technology.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Apple scab is a common disease of plants in the rose family (Rosaceae) that is caused by the ascomycete fungus \"Venturia inaequalis\". While this disease affects several plant genera, including \"Sorbus, Cotoneaster,\" and \"Pyrus\", it is most commonly associated with the infection of \"Malus\" trees, including species of flowering crabapple, as well as cultivated apple. The first symptoms of this disease are found in the foliage, blossoms, and developing fruits of affected trees, which develop dark, irregularly-shaped lesions upon infection. Although apple scab rarely kills its host, infection typically leads to fruit deformation and premature leaf and fruit drop, which enhance the susceptibility of the host plant to abiotic stress and secondary infection. The reduction of fruit quality and yield may result in crop losses of up to 70%, posing a significant threat to the profitability of apple producers. To reduce scab-related yield losses, growers often combine preventive practices, including sanitation and resistance breeding, with reactive measures, such as targeted fungicide or biocontrol treatments, to prevent the incidence and spread of apple scab in their crops.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971680}
{"src_title": "European pine marten", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The European pine marten's fur is usually light to dark brown. It is short and coarse in the summer, growing longer and silkier during the winter. It has a cream- to yellow-coloured \"bib\" marking on its throat. Its body is up to long, with a bushy tail of about. Males are slightly larger than females; typically, it weighs around. It has excellent senses of sight, smell, and hearing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The European pine marten inhabits well-wooded areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Great Britain and Ireland.", "content": "In Great Britain, the species was for many years common only in northwestern Scotland. A study in 2012 found that martens have spread from their Scottish Highlands stronghold, north into Sutherland and Caithness and southeastwards from the Great Glen into Moray, Aberdeenshire, Perthshire, Tayside, and Stirlingshire, with some in the Central Belt, on the Kintyre and Cowal peninsulas and on Skye and Mull. The expansion in the Galloway Forest has been limited compared with that in the core marten range. Martens were reintroduced to the Glen Trool Forest in the early 1980s and only restricted spread has occurred from there. This may be due to ongoing persecution and trapping by local gamekeepers.  In England, pine martens are extremely rare, and long considered probably extinct. A scat found at Kidland Forest in Northumberland in June 2010 may represent either a recolonisation from Scotland, or a relict population that has escaped notice previously. There have been numerous reported sightings of pine martens in Cumbria, however, it was not until 2011 that concrete proof – some scat that was DNA-tested – was found. In July 2015, the first confirmed sighting of a pine marten in England for over a century was recorded by an amateur photographer in woodland in Shropshire. Sightings have continued in this area, and juveniles were recorded in 2019, indicating a breeding population. In July 2017, footage of a live pine marten was captured by a camera trap in the North York Moors in Yorkshire. In March 2018 the first ever footage of a pine marten in Northumberland was captured by the Back from the Brink pine marten project.  There is a small population of pine martens in Wales. Scat found in Cwm Rheidol forest in 2007 was confirmed by DNA testing to be from a pine marten. A male was found in 2012 as road kill near Newtown, Powys. This was the first confirmation in Wales of the species, living or dead, since 1971. The Vincent Wildlife Trust (VWT) has begun a reinforcement of these mammals in the mid-Wales area. During autumn 2015, 20 pine martens were captured in Scotland, in areas where a healthy pine marten population occurs, under licence from Scottish Natural Heritage. These animals were translocated and released in an area of mid-Wales. All of the martens were fitted with radio collars and are being tracked daily to monitor their movements and find out where they have set up territories. During autumn 2016, the VWT planned to capture and release another 20 pine martens in the hope of creating a self-sustaining population.  The marten is still quite rare in Ireland, but the population is recovering and spreading; its traditional strongholds are in the west and south, especially the Burren and Killarney National Park, but the population in the Midlands has significantly increased in recent years. A study managed by academics at Queens University Belfast, using cameras and citizen scientists, published in 2015, showed that pine martens were distributed across all counties of Northern Ireland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "Martens are the only mustelids with semiretractable claws. This enables them to lead more arboreal lifestyles, such as climbing or running on tree branches, although they are also relatively quick runners on the ground. They are mainly active at night and dusk. They have small, rounded, highly sensitive ears and sharp teeth adapted for eating small mammals, birds, insects, frogs, and carrion. They have also been known to eat berries, birds' eggs, nuts, and honey. European pine martens are territorial animals that mark their range by depositing feces (called scats) in prominent locations. These scats are black and twisted and can be confused with those of the fox, except that they reputedly have a floral odour. Pine Martens usually make their own dens in hollow trees or scrub-covered fields.  The diet of the pine marten includes small mammals, carrion, birds, insects, and fruits.  The recovery of the European pine marten has been credited with reducing the population of invasive grey squirrels in the UK and Ireland. Where the range of the expanding European pine marten population meets that of the grey squirrel, the population of the grey squirrels quickly retreats and the red squirrel population recovers. Because the grey squirrel spends more time on the ground than the red squirrel, which co-evolved with the pine marten, they are thought to be far more likely to come in contact with this predator.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifespan.", "content": "The European pine marten has lived to 18 years in captivity, but in the wild the maximum age attained is only 11 years, with a mere 3-4 years being more typical. They reach sexual maturity at 2–3 years of age. Copulation usually occurs on the ground and can last more than 1 hour. Mating occurs in July and August but the fertilized egg does not enter the uterus for about 7 months. The young are usually born in late March or early April after a 1-month-long gestation period that happens after the implantation of the fertilized egg, in litters of one to five. Young European pine martens weigh around 30 grams at birth. The young begin to emerge from their dens around 7-8 weeks after birth and are able to disperse from the den around 12-16 weeks after their birth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "Although they are preyed upon occasionally by golden eagles, red foxes, wolves, and wildcats, humans are the largest threat to pine martens. They are vulnerable from conflict with humans, arising from predator control for other species, or following predation of livestock and the use of inhabited buildings for denning. Martens may also be affected by woodland loss. Persecution (illegal poisoning and shooting) by gamekeepers, loss of habitat leading to fragmentation, and other human disturbances have caused a considerable decline in the pine marten population. They are also prized for their very fine fur in some areas. In the United Kingdom, European pine martens and their dens are offered full protection under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and the Environmental Protection Act 1990.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European pine marten (\"Martes martes\") is a mustelid native to Northern Europe. It is known most commonly as the pine marten in anglophone Europe, and less commonly also known as baum marten, or sweet marten.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971681}
{"src_title": "Helmut Newton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Newton was born in Berlin, the son of Klara \"Claire\" (née Marquis) and Max Neustädter, a button factory owner. His family was Jewish. Newton attended the Heinrich-von-Treitschke-Realgymnasium and the American School in Berlin. Interested in photography from the age of 12 when he purchased his first camera, he worked for the German photographer Yva (Elsie Neuländer Simon) from 1936.  The increasingly oppressive restrictions placed on Jews by the Nuremberg laws meant that his father lost control of the factory in which he manufactured buttons and buckles; he was briefly interned in a concentration camp on Kristallnacht, 9 November 1938, which finally compelled the family to leave Germany. Newton's parents fled to Argentina. He was issued with a passport just after turning 18 and left Germany on 5 December 1938. At Trieste he boarded the \"Conte Rosso\" (along with about 200 others escaping the Nazis), intending to journey to China. After arriving in Singapore he found he was able to remain there, first briefly as a photographer for the \"Straits Times\" and then as a portrait photographer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "From 1940: Life in Australia.", "content": "Newton was interned by British authorities while in Singapore and was sent to Australia on board the \"Queen Mary\", arriving in Sydney on 27 September 1940. Internees travelled to the camp at Tatura, Victoria, by train under armed guard. He was released from internment in 1942 and briefly worked as a fruit picker in Northern Victoria. In August 1942, he enlisted with the Australian Army and worked as a truck driver. After the war in 1945, he became a British subject and changed his name to Newton in 1946. In 1948, he married actress June Browne, who performed under the stage name June Brunell. She later became a successful photographer under the ironic pseudonym Alice Springs (after Alice Springs, the central Australian town).  In 1946, Newton set up a studio in fashionable Flinders Lane in Melbourne and worked on fashion, theatre and industrial photography in the affluent postwar years. He shared his first joint exhibition in May 1953 with Wolfgang Sievers, a German refugee like himself, who had also served in the same company. The exhibition of 'New Visions in Photography' was displayed at the Federal Hotel in Collins Street and was probably the first glimpse of New Objectivity photography in Australia. Newton went into partnership with Henry Talbot, a fellow German Jew who had also been interned at Tatura, and his association with the studio continued even after 1957, when he left Australia for London. The studio was renamed 'Helmut Newton and Henry Talbot'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Late 1950s: to London, Europe, a return to Australia.", "content": "Newton's growing reputation as a fashion photographer was rewarded when he secured a commission to illustrate fashions in a special Australian supplement for \"Vogue\" magazine, published in January 1956. He won a 12-month contract with British Vogue and left for London in February 1957, leaving Talbot to manage the business. Newton left the magazine before the end of his contract and went to Paris, where he worked for French and German magazines. He returned to Melbourne in March 1959 to a contract for Australian \"Vogue\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1961: to Paris.", "content": "Newton and wife finally settled in Paris in 1961 and the work continued as a fashion photographer. His images appeared in magazines including the French edition of \"Vogue\" and \"Harper's Bazaar\".  He established a particular style marked by erotic, stylised scenes, often with sado-masochistic and fetishistic subtexts. A heart attack in 1970 reduced Newton's output, nevertheless his wife's encouragement led to his profile continuing to expand, especially with a big success, the 1980 studio-bound stark infinity of the \"Big Nudes\" series. His \"Naked and Dressed\" portfolio followed and in 1992 \"Domestic Nudes\" which marked the pinnacle of his erotic-urban style, these series all underpinned with the prowess of his technical skills. Newton also worked in portraiture and more fantastical studies.  Newton shot a number of pictorials for \"Playboy\", including pictorials of Nastassja Kinski and Kristine DeBell. Original prints of the photographs from his August 1976 pictorial of DeBell, \"200 Motels, or How I Spent My Summer Vacation\" were sold at auctions of \"Playboy\" archives by Bonhams in 2002 for $21,075, and by Christie's in December 2003 for $26,290.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Three Boys from Pasadena\".", "content": "In 2009, June Browne Newton conceptualised a tribute exhibition to Newton, based on three photographers that befriended Newton in Los Angeles in 1980: Mark Arbeit, Just Loomis, and George Holz. All three had been photography students at The Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, California. All three became friends with Helmut and June Newton and to varying degrees assisted Helmut Newton. Each went on to independent careers. The exhibit premiered at the Helmut Newton Foundation in Berlin and combined the work of all three with personal snapshots, contact sheets, and letters from their time with Newton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In his later life, Newton lived in both Monte Carlo and Los Angeles, California. He was in an accident on 23 January 2004, when his car sped out of control and hit a wall on Sunset Boulevard, coming out from the Chateau Marmont, which had for several years served as his residence in Southern California. He died at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center. His ashes are buried three plots down from the grave of Marlene Dietrich at the Städtischer Friedhof III in Berlin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Helmut Newton (born Helmut Neustädter; 31 October 192023 January 2004) was a German-Australian photographer. He was a \"prolific, widely imitated fashion photographer whose provocative, erotically charged black-and-white photos were a mainstay of \"Vogue\" and other publications.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971682}
{"src_title": "Gripsholm Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "A fortress was built at the location in the 1370s by Bo Jonsson Grip. It was sold to queen Margaret in 1404, and remained the property of the crown until it was acquired by Sten Sture the Elder, the Regent, in 1472 by an exchange of landed properties, whereby it became private, hereditary land of allodial status, to belong to the ownership of Regent Steen's own family. Steen donated the place's use to a convent for males of the order of the Carthusians in 1498, and the Gripsholm estate functioned as a convent for almost thirty years. In 1526, the Carthusian Abbey was dissolved by King Gustav I during the Swedish Reformation, and the estate was returned to its hereditary owner, the heir of the late Sten Sture the Old. It is well-recorded that Gripsholm was a part of the so-called Kungens Arv och Eget in registers of the 1500s and the 1600s. The King tore the convent building and the old castle down, and built a fortified castle with circular corner towers and a wall, for defensive purposes. Of the original medieval fortress, only the façade of a wall remains. As private family inheritance from the Regent Steen Sture the Old, the royal Vasa family held Gripsholm in high regard, as reminder of the royals' descent from earlier rulers, and used the place frequently.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Royal Residence.", "content": "King Gustav had it constructed to serve as one of the main residences of the royal house. The castle was constructed between 1537 and 1545, and often served as the residence of the royal court: during the Dacke War, for example, the royal children were housed there.  Between 1563 and 1567, King Eric XIV imprisoned his brother John and his consort Catherine Jagiellon in the castle. John's son Sigismund, later the King of Poland and Sweden, was born in the castle on June 20, 1566. When Eric XIV was deposed by John, Gripsholm Castle came to serve as one of the castles were John had Eric imprisoned. The deposed king Eric was kept prisoner here from 1571 until 1573.  The royal family continued to use Gripsholm Castle during the 17th-century. It was the dower residence of the widow of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, who lived here from 1636 until 1640. Between 1654 and 1715, Gripsholm Castle was a part of the dower granted to queen Hedvig Eleonora, who often lived there with her court even before being widowed in 1660, and who rebuilt and expanded it in several ways. After her death, however, the Castle was abandoned by the court for some time. For a period during the 18th-century, it was used as a prison.  In 1773, Gripsholm Castle was renovated by King Gustav III on behalf of his consort Sophia Magdalena. The castle was frequently used the royal court during the reign of Gustav III, who favored it and spent several months there every year. The perhaps most famous addition to the castle during his reign was a theater, which was added in one of the castle towers. It was the stage for both the amateur theatre of the royal court as well as The French Theater of Gustav III in 1781–1792.  After the Coup of 1809, Gustav IV Adolf and his family were also imprisoned in the castle after his deposition from the throne. He had to sign his abdication document there.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Museum.", "content": "In 1822, the building came to host the National Portrait Gallery (Sweden), which was placed under the supervision of the \"Nationalmuseum\" in the 1860s.  Between 1889 and 1894, the castle underwent a heavy and controversial restoration by the architect Fredrik Lilljekvist during which many of the 17th and 18th-century alterations were removed. The largest change was the addition of a third floor; the planned demolition of a wing did not take place.  Now the castle is a museum which is open to the public, containing paintings and works of art. Part of the castle houses the National Portrait Gallery (\"Statens porträttsamlingar\"), one of the oldest portrait collections in the world.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gripsholm Castle () is a castle in Mariefred, Södermanland, Sweden. It is located by lake Mälaren in south central Sweden, in the municipality of Strängnäs, about 60 km west of Stockholm. Since Gustav Vasa, Gripsholm has belonged to the Swedish Royal Family and was used as one of their residences until the 18th century. It is now a museum, but it is still considered to be a palace at the disposal of the King and as such it is part of the Crown palaces in Sweden.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971683}
{"src_title": "Woyzeck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition and textual history.", "content": "Büchner probably began writing the play between June and September 1836. It is loosely based on the true story of Johann Christian Woyzeck, a Leipzig wigmaker who later became a soldier. In 1821, Woyzeck, in a fit of jealousy, murdered Christiane Woost, a widow with whom he had been living; he was later publicly beheaded. Büchner's work remained in a fragmentary state at the time of his early death in 1837.  The play was first made public in a heavily edited and augmented version by Karl Emil Franzos, who published it in periodicals in 1875 and 1877, before including it in his edition of Büchner's collected works in 1879. Franzos mistakenly understood the title character's name in the manuscripts as \"Wozzeck\", and the play bore that title in its first stage productions, and in subsequent published editions based on Franzos's version. The play was not performed until November 8, 1913 at the Residenztheater, Munich, where it was produced by Max Reinhardt.  Not only did Franzos have to cope with Büchner's \"microscopically small\" handwriting, but the pages had faded so badly that they had to be chemically treated to make the text decipherable at all. Franzos was unaware of the real-life basis of the drama, which was first generally disseminated through the appearance in 1921 of a new edition based on the manuscript by Georg Witkowski, which introduced the corrected title \"Woyzeck\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "Franz Woyzeck, a lonely soldier stationed in a provincial German town, is living with Marie, the mother of his child who is not blessed by the church as the child was born out of wedlock. Woyzeck earns extra money for his family by performing menial jobs for the Captain and agreeing to take part in medical experiments conducted by the Doctor. At one of these experiments, the Doctor tells Woyzeck that he must eat nothing but peas. Woyzeck's mental health is breaking down and he begins to experience a series of apocalyptic visions. Meanwhile, Marie grows tired of Woyzeck and turns her attentions to a handsome drum major who, in an ambiguous scene taking place in Marie's bedroom, sleeps with her.  With his jealous suspicions growing, Woyzeck confronts the drum major, who beats Woyzeck up and humiliates him. Finally, Woyzeck stabs Marie to death by a pond. While a third act trial is claimed by some, notably A. H. J. Knight and Fritz Bergemann, to have been part of the original conception (what may be the beginning of a courtroom scene survives), the fragment, as left by Büchner, ends with Woyzeck disposing of the knife in the pond while trying to clean himself of the blood.  Here Franzos inserted the stage direction \"ertrinkt\" (he drowns), and although this emendation according to Knight \"almost amounts to a forgery\", most versions employ drowning as an appropriate resolution to the story.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable productions.", "content": "Since the original play was unfinished, many productions have taken liberties with the play's dialogue and scene order. Notable productions include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The many adaptations of \"Woyzeck\" include:  The title character in Benjamin Hale's novel \"The Evolution of Bruno Littlemore\", a chimpanzee, stages the play at the research center to which he is confined.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Woyzeck () is a stage play written by Georg Büchner. He left the work incomplete at his death, but it has been posthumously \"finished\" by a variety of authors, editors and translators. \"Woyzeck\" deals with the dehumanising effects of doctors and the military on a young man's life. It is often seen as 'working class' tragedy, though it can also be viewed as having another dimension, portraying the 'perennial tragedy of human jealousy'. The play was admired both by the German naturalist Gerhart Hauptmann and, subsequently, by expressionist playwrights. \"Woyzeck\" has become one of the most performed and influential plays in the German theatre repertory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971684}
{"src_title": "Antigone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In Sophocles.", "content": "The story of Antigone was addressed by the fifth-century BC Greek playwright Sophocles in his Theban plays:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oedipus Rex.", "content": "Antigone and her sister Ismene are seen at the end of Oedipus Rex as Oedipus laments the \"shame\" and \"sorrow\" he is leaving his daughters to. He then begs Creon to watch over them, but in his grief reaches to take them with him as he is led away. Creon prevents him from taking the girls out of the city with him. Neither of them is named in the play.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Oedipus at Colonus.", "content": "Antigone serves as her father's guide in \"Oedipus at Colonus,\" as she leads him into the city where the play takes place. Antigone resembles her father in her stubbornness and doomed existence. She stays with her father for the majority of the play, until she is taken away by Creon in an attempt to blackmail Oedipus into returning to Thebes. However, Theseus defends Oedipus and rescues both Antigone and her sister who was also taken prisoner.  At the end of the play both Antigone and her sister mourn the death of their father. Theseus offers them the comfort of knowing that Oedipus has received a proper burial, but by his wishes they cannot go to the site. Antigone then decides to return to Thebes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Antigone.", "content": "Antigone is the subject of a story in which she attempts to secure a respectable burial for her brother Polynices. Oedipus's sons, Eteocles and Polynices, had shared the rule jointly until they quarrelled, and Eteocles expelled his brother. In Sophocles' account, the two brothers agreed to alternate rule each year, but Eteocles decided not to share power with his brother after his tenure expired. Polynices left the kingdom, gathered an army and attacked the city of Thebes in a conflict called the Seven Against Thebes. Both brothers were killed in the battle.  King Creon, who has ascended to the throne of Thebes after the death of the brothers, decrees that Polynices is not to be buried or even mourned, on pain of death by stoning. Antigone, Polynices' sister, defies the king's order and is caught.  Antigone is brought before Creon, and admits that she knew of Creon's law forbidding mourning for Polynices but chose to break it, claiming the superiority of divine over human law, and she defies Creon's cruelty with courage, passion and determination. Creon orders Antigone buried alive in a tomb. Although Creon has a change of heart and tries to release Antigone, he finds she has hanged herself. Creon's son Haemon, who was in love with Antigone commits suicide with a knife, and his mother Queen Eurydice, also kills herself in despair over her son's death. She has been forced to weave throughout the entire story, and her death alludes to The Fates. By her death Antigone ends up destroying the household of her adversary, Creon.  \"Antigone\" is a typical Greek tragedy, in which inherent flaws of the acting characters lead to irrevocable disaster. Antigone and Creon are prototypical tragic figures in an Aristotelian sense, as they struggle towards their fore-doomed ends, forsaken by the gods.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other representations.", "content": "In the oldest version of the story, the burial of Polynices takes place during Oedipus' reign in Thebes, before Oedipus marries his mother, Jocasta. However, in other versions such as Sophocles' tragedies \"Oedipus at Colonus\" and \"Antigone\", it occurs in the years after the banishment and death of Oedipus and Antigone's struggles against Creon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seven Against Thebes.", "content": "Antigone appears briefly in Aeschylus' \"Seven Against Thebes.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Euripides' lost story.", "content": "The dramatist Euripides also wrote a play called \"Antigone\", which is lost, but some of the text was preserved by later writers and in passages in his \"Phoenissae\". In Euripides, the calamity is averted by the intercession of Dionysus and is followed by the marriage of Antigone and Hæmon. Antigone also plays a role in the Phoenissae.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Appearance elsewhere.", "content": "Different elements of the legend appear in other places. A description of an ancient painting by Philostratus (\"Imagines\" ii. 29) refers to Antigone placing the body of Polynices on the funeral pyre, and this is also depicted on a sarcophagus in the Villa Doria Pamphili in Rome. And in Hyginus' version of the legend, founded apparently on a tragedy by some follower of Euripides, Antigone, on being handed over by Creon to her lover Hæmon to be slain, is secretly carried off by him and concealed in a shepherd's hut, where she bears him a son, Maeon. When the boy grows up, he attends some funeral games at Thebes, and is recognized by the mark of a dragon on his body. This leads to the discovery that Antigone is still alive. The demi-god Heracles then intercedes and pleads with Creon to forgive Hæmon, but in vain. Hæmon then kills Antigone and himself. The intercession by Heracles is also represented on a painted vase (circa 380–300 BC).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The story of Antigone has been a popular subject for books, plays, and other works, including:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Writings On.", "content": "In the works of Hegel, in particular in his discussion of Sittlichkeit in his \"Phenomenology of Spirit\" and his \"Elements of the Philosophy of Right\", Antigone is figured as exposing a tragic rift between the so-called feminine \"Divine Law,\" which Antigone represents, and the \"Human Law,\" represented by Creon. The Catholic philosopher Jacques Maritain considers Antigone as the \"heroine of the natural law:\" The psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan writes about the ethical dimension of Antigone in his Seminar VII, \"The Ethics of Psychoanalysis.\" Others who have written on Antigone include theorist Judith Butler, in her book \"Antigone's Claim\", as well as philosopher Slavoj Žižek, in various works, including \"Interrogating the Real\" (Bloomsbury: London, 2005) and \"The Metastases of Enjoyment\" (Verso: London, 1994).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Contemporary productions.", "content": "A new translation of \"Antigone\" into English by the Canadian poet Anne Carson has been used in a production of the play (March 2015) at the Barbican directed by Ivo van Hove and featuring Juliette Binoche as Antigone. This production was broadcast as a TV move on April 26, 2015. The play was transferred to the BAM Harvey Theatre at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, running from September 24 to October 4, 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "External Links.", "content": "Antigone - a review of the Antigone myth and the various productions of her story", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Greek mythology, Antigone ( ; Ancient Greek: Ἀντιγόνη) is the daughter of Oedipus and either his mother Jocasta or Euryganeia. She is a sister of Polynices, Eteocles, and Ismene. The meaning of the name is, as in the case of the masculine equivalent Antigonus, \"worthy of one's parents\" or \"in place of one's parents\". She is the protagonist of the Sophocles play named for her.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971685}
{"src_title": "Exxon Valdez", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Carrier.", "content": "The tanker was 301 meters long, 51 meters wide, 26 meters depth (987 ft x 166 ft x 88 ft), with a deadweight of 214,861 long tons and a full-load displacement of 240,291 long tons. The ship was able to transport up to 235,000 m3 (1.48 million barrels) at a sustained speed of 16.25 knots, powered by a (31,650 shp) diesel engine. Her hull design was of the single-hull type, constructed by National Steel and Shipbuilding Company in San Diego, California. She was a relatively new tanker at the time of the spill, and was delivered to Exxon on December 16, 1986.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Incident and accidents.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prince William Sound oil spill.", "content": "At the time of the spill, \"Exxon Valdez\" was employed to transport crude oil from the Alyeska consortium's pipeline terminal in Valdez, Alaska, to the lower 48 states of the United States. At the time it ran aground, the vessel was carrying about 201,000 m3 (53.1 million gallons) of oil. After the spill, the vessel was towed to San Diego, arriving on June 10, 1989, and repairs were started on June 30, 1989. Approximately 1,600 tons of steel were removed and replaced that July, totaling US$30 million of repairs to the tanker. Its single-hull design remained unaltered.  The Exxon Valdez spill occurred under President George H. W. Bush, whose EPA Administrator William K. Reilly played a significant role in mobilizing presidential support for action to contain and clean up the spill.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Litigation.", "content": "Litigation was filed on behalf of 38,000 litigants. In 1994, a jury awarded plaintiffs US$287 million in compensatory damages and US$5 billion in punitive damages. Exxon appealed and the Ninth Circuit Court reduced the punitive damages to US$2.5 billion. Exxon then appealed the punitive damages to the Supreme Court which capped the damages to US$507.5 million in June, 2008. On August 27, 2008, Exxon Mobil agreed to pay 75% of the US$507.5 million damages ruling to settle the 1989 \"Exxon Valdez\" oil spill off Alaska. In June 2009, a federal ruling ordered Exxon to pay an additional US$480 million in interest on their delayed punitive damage awards.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Return to service.", "content": "After repairs, \"Exxon Valdez\" was renamed \"Exxon Mediterranean\", then \"SeaRiver Mediterranean\" in the early 1990s, when Exxon transferred its shipping business to a new subsidiary company, River Maritime Inc. The name was later shortened to \"S/R Mediterranean\", then to simply \"Mediterranean\" in 2005. Although Exxon tried briefly to return the ship to its North American fleet, it was prohibited by law from returning to Prince William Sound. It then served in Europe, the Middle East and Asia. In 2002, the ship was again removed from service. In 2005, it began operating under the Marshall Islands flag of convenience. Since then, European Union regulations have also prevented vessels with single-hull designs such as the Valdez from entering European ports. In early 2008, SeaRiver Maritime, an ExxonMobil subsidiary, sold \"Mediterranean\" to the Hong Kong-based shipping company, Hong Kong Bloom Shipping Ltd., which renamed the ship, once again, to \"Dong Fang Ocean\", under Panama registry. In 2008, she was refitted and converted from an oil tanker to an ore carrier.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collision with MV \"Aali\".", "content": "On November 29, 2010, \"Dong Fang Ocean\" collided in the South China Sea with the Malta-flagged cargo ship, \"Aali\". Both vessels were severely damaged in the incident, and \"Aali\" was towed to Weihai and \"Dong Fang Ocean\" was towed to Longyan Port in Shandong.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "In March 2012, \"Dong Fang Ocean\" was purchased by Global Marketing Systems, Inc. for scrap at an estimated US$16 million and sailed under her own power to a ship breaker in Singapore. She changed hands again among scrap merchants (a common occurrence) and was eventually routed to Alang, India, under the ownership of Priya Blue Industries and at some point renamed \"Oriental Nicety\". Before being beached, some tried to halt the action, arguing that the vessel was in breach of the Basel Convention. On 30 July 2012, the Supreme Court of India granted permission for the owners of \"Oriental Nicety\" to beach her at Gujarat coast to be dismantled. She was then beached at Alang on 2 August 2012.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Oriental Nicety, formerly Exxon Valdez, Exxon Mediterranean, SeaRiver Mediterranean, S/R Mediterranean, Mediterranean, and Dong Fang Ocean, was an oil tanker that gained notoriety after running aground in Prince William Sound spilling hundreds of thousands of barrels of crude oil in Alaska. On March 24, 1989, while owned by the former Exxon Shipping Company, and captained by Joseph Hazelwood and First Mate James Kunkel bound for Long Beach, California, the vessel ran aground on the Bligh Reef resulting in the second largest oil spill in United States history. The size of the spill is estimated to have been, or 257,000 to 750,000 barrels. In 1989, the \"Exxon Valdez\" oil spill was listed as the 54th largest spill in history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971686}
{"src_title": "GUM (department store)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Moscow GUM.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design and structure.", "content": "With the façade extending for along the eastern side of Red Square, the Upper Trading Rows were built between 1890 and 1893 by Alexander Pomerantsev (responsible for architecture) and Vladimir Shukhov (responsible for engineering). The trapezoidal building features a combination of elements of Russian medieval architecture and a steel framework and glass roof, a similar style to the great 19th-century railway stations of London. William Craft Brumfield described the GUM building as \"a tribute both to Shukhov's design and to the technical proficiency of Russian architecture toward the end of the 19th century\".  The glass- roofed design made the building unique at the time of construction. The roof, the diameter of which is, looks light, but it is a firm construction made of more than 50,000 metal pods (about ), capable of supporting snowfall accumulation. Illumination is provided by huge arched skylights of iron and glass, each weighing some and containing in excess of 20,000 panes of glass. The facade is divided into several horizontal tiers, lined with red Finnish granite, Tarusa marble, and limestone. Each arcade is on three levels, linked by walkways of reinforced concrete.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Catherine II of Russia commissioned Giacomo Quarenghi, a Neoclassical architect from Italy, to design a huge trade center along the east side of Red Square. However, that building was lost to the 1812 Fire of Moscow and replaced by trading rows designed by Joseph Bove. In turn, the current structure replaced Bove's.  By the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the building contained some 1,200 stores. After the Revolution, the GUM was nationalised. During the NEP period (1921–28), GUM as a State Department Store operated as a model retail enterprise for consumers throughout Russia regardless of class, gender, and ethnicity. GUM's stores were used to further Bolshevik goals of rebuilding private enterprise along socialist lines and \"democratizing consumption for workers and peasants nationwide\". In the end, GUM's efforts to build communism through consumerism were unsuccessful and arguably \"only succeeded in alienating consumers from state stores and instituting a culture of complaint and entitlement\".  GUM continued to be used as a department store until Joseph Stalin converted it into office space in 1928 for the committee in charge of his first Five Year Plan. After the suicide of Stalin's wife Nadezhda in 1932, the GUM was used briefly to display her body.  After reopening as a department store in 1953, the GUM became one of the few stores in the Soviet Union that did not have shortages of consumer goods, and the queues of shoppers were long, often extending entirely across Red Square.  At the end of the Soviet era, GUM was partially, then fully privatized, and it had a number of owners before it ended up being owned by the supermarket company Perekryostok. In May 2005, a 50.25% interest was sold to Bosco di Ciliegi, a Russian luxury goods distributor and boutique operator. As a private shopping mall, it was renamed in such a fashion that it could maintain its old abbreviation and thus still be called GUM. However, the first word \"Gosudarstvennyi\" (\"state\") has been replaced with \"Glavnyi\" (\"main\"), so that GUM is now an abbreviation for \"Main Universal Store\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "GUM (, pronounced, an abbreviation of, literally \"Main Universal Store\") is the main department store in many cities of the former Soviet Union, known as State Department Store () during the Soviet era (until 1991). Similarly-named stores operated in some Soviet republics and in post-Soviet states.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971687}
{"src_title": "Servomotor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mechanism.", "content": "A servomotor is a closed-loop servomechanism that uses position feedback to control its motion and final position. The input to its control is a signal (either analogue or digital) representing the position commanded for the output shaft.  The motor is paired with some type of position encoder to provide position and speed feedback. In the simplest case, only the position is measured. The measured position of the output is compared to the command position, the external input to the controller. If the output position differs from that required, an error signal is generated which then causes the motor to rotate in either direction, as needed to bring the output shaft to the appropriate position. As the positions approach, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops.  The very simplest servomotors use position-only sensing via a potentiometer and bang-bang control of their motor; the motor always rotates at full speed (or is stopped). This type of servomotor is not widely used in industrial motion control, but it forms the basis of the simple and cheap servos used for radio-controlled models.  More sophisticated servomotors use optical rotary encoders to measure the speed of the output shaft and a variable-speed drive to control the motor speed. Both of these enhancements, usually in combination with a PID control algorithm, allow the servomotor to be brought to its commanded position more quickly and more precisely, with less overshooting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Servomotors vs. stepper motors.", "content": "Servomotors are generally used as a high-performance alternative to the stepper motor. Stepper motors have some inherent ability to control position, as they have built-in output steps. This often allows them to be used as an open-loop position control, without any feedback encoder, as their drive signal specifies the number of steps of movement to rotate, but for this the controller needs to 'know' the position of the stepper motor on power up. Therefore, on first power up, the controller will have to activate the stepper motor and turn it to a known position, e.g. until it activates an end limit switch. This can be observed when switching on an inkjet printer; the controller will move the ink jet carrier to the extreme left and right to establish the end positions. A servomotor will immediately turn to whatever angle the controller instructs it to, regardless of the initial position at power up.  The lack of feedback of a stepper motor limits its performance, as the stepper motor can only drive a load that is well within its capacity, otherwise missed steps under load may lead to positioning errors and the system may have to be restarted or recalibrated. The encoder and controller of a servomotor are an additional cost, but they optimise the performance of the overall system (for all of speed, power and accuracy) relative to the capacity of the basic motor. With larger systems, where a powerful motor represents an increasing proportion of the system cost, servomotors have the advantage.  There has been increasing popularity in closed loop stepper motors in recent years. They act like servomotors but have some differences in their software control to get smooth motion. The main benefit of a closed loop stepper motor is its relatively low cost. There is also no need to tune the PID controller on a closed loop stepper system.  Many applications, such as laser cutting machines, may be offered in two ranges, the low-priced range using stepper motors and the high-performance range using servomotors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Encoders.", "content": "The first servomotors were developed with synchros as their encoders. Much work was done with these systems in the development of radar and anti-aircraft artillery during World War II.  Simple servomotors may use resistive potentiometers as their position encoder. These are only used at the very simplest and cheapest level, and are in close competition with stepper motors. They suffer from wear and electrical noise in the potentiometer track. Although it would be possible to electrically differentiate their position signal to obtain a speed signal, PID controllers that can make use of such a speed signal generally warrant a more precise encoder.  Modern servomotors use rotary encoders, either absolute or incremental. Absolute encoders can determine their position at power-on, but are more complicated and expensive. Incremental encoders are simpler, cheaper and work at faster speeds. Incremental systems, like stepper motors, often combine their inherent ability to measure intervals of rotation with a simple zero-position sensor to set their position at start-up.  Instead of servomotors, sometimes a motor with a separate, external linear encoder is used. These motor + linear encoder systems avoid inaccuracies in the drivetrain between the motor and linear carriage, but their design is made more complicated as they are no longer a pre-packaged factory-made system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motors.", "content": "The type of motor is not critical to a servomotor and different types may be used. At the simplest, brushed permanent magnet DC motors are used, owing to their simplicity and low cost. Small industrial servomotors are typically electronically commutated brushless motors. For large industrial servomotors, AC induction motors are typically used, often with variable frequency drives to allow control of their speed. For ultimate performance in a compact package, brushless AC motors with permanent magnet fields are used, effectively large versions of Brushless DC electric motors.  Drive modules for servomotors are a standard industrial component. Their design is a branch of power electronics, usually based on a three-phase MOSFET or IGBT H bridge. These standard modules accept a single direction and pulse count (rotation distance) as input. They may also include over-temperature monitoring, over-torque and stall detection features. As the encoder type, gearhead ratio and overall system dynamics are application specific, it is more difficult to produce the overall controller as an off-the-shelf module and so these are often implemented as part of the main controller.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Control.", "content": "Most modern servomotors are designed and supplied around a dedicated controller module from the same manufacturer. Controllers may also be developed around microcontrollers in order to reduce cost for large-volume applications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Integrated servomotors.", "content": "Integrated servomotors are designed so as to include the motor, driver, encoder and associated electronics into a single package.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A servomotor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for precise control of angular or linear position, velocity and acceleration. It consists of a suitable motor coupled to a sensor for position feedback. It also requires a relatively sophisticated controller, often a dedicated module designed specifically for use with servomotors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971688}
{"src_title": "William of Gellone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "William in history.", "content": "William was born in northern France in the mid-8th century. He was a cousin of Charlemagne (his mother Aldana was daughter of Charles Martel) and the son of Thierry IV, Count of Autun. As a kinsman and trusted \"comes\", he spent his youth in the court of Charlemagne. In 788, Chorso, Count of, was captured by the Basque Adalric, and made to swear an oath of allegiance to the Duke of Gascony, Lupus II. Upon his release Charlemagne replaced him with his Frankish cousin William (790). William in turn successfully subdued the Gascons.  In 793, Hisham I, the successor of Abd ar-Rahman I, proclaimed a holy war against the Christians to the north. He amassed an army of 100,000 men, half of which attacked the Kingdom of Asturias while the other half invaded Languedoc, penetrating as far as Narbonne.  William met this force and defeated them. He met the Muslim forces again near the river Orbieu at Villedaigne but was defeated, though his obstinate resistance exhausted the Muslim forces so much that they retreated to Spain. In 801, William commanded along with Louis King of Aquitaine a large expedition of Franks, Burgundians, Provençals, Aquitanians, Gascons (Basques) and Goths that captured Barcelona from the Ummayads.  In 804, he founded the abbey in Gellone (now Saint-Guilhem-le-Désert) near Lodève in the diocese of Maguelonne. He granted property to Gellone and placed the monastery under the general control of Benedict of Aniane, whose monastery was nearby. Among his gifts to the abbey he founded was a piece of the True Cross, a present from his cousin Charlemagne. Charlemagne had received the relic from the Patriarch of Jerusalem according to the \"Vita\" of William.  In 806, William retired to Gellone as a monk and eventually died there on 28 May 812 (or 814). When he died, it was said the bells at Orange rang on their own accord.  William mentioned both his family and monastery in his will: His will of 28 January 804, names his living wives Gunegunde and Guitburgi, his deceased parents, Teuderico (Theodoric / Thierry IV) and Aldana (daughter of Charles Martel), two brothers, Teudoino and Adalelmo, two sisters, Abbana and Bertana, four sons, Barnardo, Guitcario, Gotcelmo, and Helmbruc, not his daughter Waldrada, or daughter Rotlinde, and one nephew, Bertrano. His wife Guitburgi is said to have been the widow of the Moorish wali of Orange taken by William in his battles against the Umayyad army of Hisham I in and around the county of Narbona about 793-796. His son Barnardo is said to have been by Guitburgi. Her name before her baptism was Orable. It is not clear if she married William or was held in concubinage, although he calls her his wife in his will.  Gellone remained under the control of the abbots of Aniane. It became a subject of contention however as the reputation of William grew. So many pilgrims were attracted to Gellone that his corpse was exhumed from the modest site in the narthex and given a more prominent place under the choir, to the intense dissatisfaction of the Abbey of Aniane. A number of forged documents and assertions were produced on each side that leave details of actual history doubtful. The Abbey was a major stop for pilgrims on their way to Santiago de Compostela. Its late 12th century Romanesque cloister, systematically dismantled during the French revolution, found its way to The Cloisters in New York. The \"Sacramentary of Gellone\", dating to the late 8th century, is a famous manuscript.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "William in romance.", "content": "William's faithful service to Charlemagne is portrayed as an example of feudal loyalty. William's career battling Saracens is sung in epic poems in the 12th and 13th century cycle called \"La Geste de Garin de Monglane\", some two dozen \"chansons de geste\" that actually center around William, the great-grandson of the largely legendary Garin.  One section of the cycle, however, is devoted to the feats of his father, there named Aymeri de Narbonne, who has received Narbonne as his seigniory after his return from Spain with Charlemagne. Details of the \"Aymeri\" of the poem are conflated with a later historic figure who was truly the viscount of Narbonne from 1108 to 1134. In the \"chanson\" he is awarded Ermengart, daughter of Didier, and sister of Boniface, king of the Lombards. Among his seven sons and five daughters (one of whom marries Louis the Pious) is William.  The defeat of the Moors at Orange was given legendary treatment in the 12th century epic \"La Prise d'Orange\". There, he was made Count of Toulouse in the stead of the disgraced Chorso, then King of Aquitaine in 778. He is difficult to separate from the legends and poems that gave him feats of arms, lineage and titles: Guillaume Fièrebras, Guillaum au Court-Nez (broken in a battle with a giant), Guillaum de Narbonne, Guillaume d'Orange. His wife is said to have been a converted Saracen, Orable later christened Guibourc.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William of Gellone ( 755 – 28 May 812 or 814 AD), the medieval William of Orange, was the second Duke of Toulouse from 790 until 811. In 804, he founded the abbey of Gellone. He was canonized a saint in 1066 by Pope Alexander II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971689}
{"src_title": "Rastatt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Until the end of the 17th century, Rastatt held little influence, but after its destruction by the French in 1689, it was rebuilt on a larger scale by Louis William, margrave of Baden, the imperial general in the Habsburg-Ottoman War known popularly as \"Türkenlouis\".  It then remained the residence of the margraves of Baden-Baden until 1771. It was the location of the First and Second Congress of Rastatt, the former giving rise to the Treaty of Rastatt while the second ended in failure in 1799. In the 1840s, Rastatt was surrounded by fortifications to form the fortress of Rastatt. For about 20 years previous to 1866, it was occupied by the troops of the German Confederation.  The Baden revolution of 1849 began with a mutiny of soldiers at Rastatt in May 1849 under Ludwik Mieroslawski and Gustav Struve, and ended there a few weeks later with the capture of the town by the Prussians. (See The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states and History of Baden.) For some years, Rastatt was one of the strongest fortresses of the German empire, but its fortifications were dismantled in 1890.  Between 1946 and 1954, about twenty major criminal proceedings (known as the Rastatt Trials) for crimes against foreign workers and prisoners in smaller camps in the National Socialist camp system in south-west Germany took place in front of the French Military Administration's Tribunal Général on the basis of Control Council Law No. 10, along with more than 2000 defendants.  In 1997, a new Mercedes-Benz car factory started production in Rastatt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local attractions.", "content": "Rastatt and the surrounding area is home to a variety of historical buildings, includes palaces and castles such as Schloss Rastatt and Schloss Favorite. It lies in the vicinity of the Black Forest and the French border.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Rastatt is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rastatt () is a town with a baroque core, District of Rastatt, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is located in the Upper Rhine Plain on the Murg river, above its junction with the Rhine and has a population of around 50,000 (2011). Rastatt was an important place of the War of the Spanish Succession (Treaty of Rastatt) and the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971690}
{"src_title": "Antonov An-124 Ruslan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "During the 1970s, the Military Transport Aviation (\"Komandovaniye voyenno-transportnoy aviatsii\" or VTA) arm of the Soviet Air Forces had a shortfall in strategic heavy airlift capacity. Its largest planes consisted of about 50 Antonov An-22 turboprops, which were used heavily for tactical roles. A declassified 1975 CIA analysis concluded that the USSR did \"...not match the US in ability to provide long-range heavy lift support.\" The An-124 was manufactured in parallel by two plants: the company Aviastar-SP (ex. Ulyanovsk Aviation Industrial Complex) in Ulyanovsk, Russia and by the Kyiv Aviation Plant AVIANT, in Ukraine. Design work started in 1971 and construction of facilities began in 1973. Manufacturing on the first airframe began in 1979. Ultimately this project brought together over 100 factories contracted to produce systems and parts.  The first flight took place in December 1982 and the first exposure to the West followed in 1985 at the Paris Air Show.  In the early 2000s, Volga-Dnepr upgraded its freighters with engine improvements to meet Chapter 4 noise regulations, structural improvements to increase service life, and avionics and systems changes for four persons operations down from six or seven.  Russia and Ukraine agreed to resume the production in the third quarter of 2008. In May 2008, a new variant—the An-124-150—was announced; it featured several improvements, including a maximum lift capacity of 150 tonnes. However, in May 2009, Antonov's partner, the Russian United Aircraft Corporation announced it did not plan production of An-124s in the period 2009–2012. In late 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev ordered production of the aircraft resumed. It is expected that Russia will purchase 20 new aircraft. In August 2014, Jane's reported that, Russian Deputy Minister of Industry and Trade Yuri Slusar announced that Antonov An-124 production was stopped due to ongoing political tensions between Russia and Ukraine.  As of late 2017, An-124s are being upgraded by the Aviastar-SP plant in Ulyanovsk, Russia, with three upgraded planes due to be ready by 2018. After Russia–Ukraine relations soured, Antonov had to source new suppliers and pushes to westernize the An-124. In 2018, GE Aviation was studying reengining it with CF6s for CargoLogicAir, a Volga-Dnepr subsidiary. This would likely provide a range increase, and Volga-Dnepr Group operates 12 aircraft, implying a 50-60 engines with spares program.  In January 2019, Antonov revealed its plans to restart the An-124 production without support from Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russian replacement design.", "content": "At MAKS Air Show in 2017, the TsAGI announced its Slon (elephant) design to replace the similar An-124. The design was detailed in January 2019 before Wind tunnel testing scheduled for August–September. It should be produced at the Aviastar-SP factory in Ulyanovsk but would be a difficult investment without substantial foreign orders. It should transport over (up from ), or over at. The Russian MoD wants a range of with five Sprut-SDM-1 light tanks, their 100 crew and 300 armed soldiers.  It would be larger at 82.3 m (270 ft) long from, with a span versus and high compared with. A new higher aspect ratio, composite wing and a airframe would allow a gross weight. It should be powered by Russian PD-35s developed for the CR929 widebody, producing up from. Two fuselages are planned, one for Volga-Dnepr with a width of from the An-124's, and one for the Russian MoD of wide to carry vehicles in two lines.  By November 2019, the TsAGI had shown a long and wide model, ahead of windtunnel testing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "Externally, the An-124 is similar to the American Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, having a double fuselage to allow for a rear cargo door (on the lower fuselage) that can open in flight without affecting structural integrity. It is slightly shorter, with a slightly greater wingspan, and a 17% larger payload. Instead of the Galaxy's T-tail, the An-124 uses a conventional empennage, similar in design to that of the Boeing 747. The An-124's main engine is the Lotarev D-18 (238–250 kN).  The aircraft uses oleo strut suspension for its 24 wheels. The suspension has been calibrated to allow landing on rough terrain and is able to kneel to allow easier front loading. The plane has an onboard overhead crane capable of lifting up to 30 tonnes of cargo, and items up to 120 tonnes can be winched on board.  Up to of cargo can be carried in a military An-124; it can also carry 88 passengers in an upper deck behind the wing centre section. The cargo compartment of An-124 is, ca. 20% larger than the main cargo compartment of the C-5 Galaxy, which is. Due to limited pressurisation in the main cargo compartment (24.6 kPa, 3.57 psi), it seldom carries paratroopers.  Pilots have stated that the An-124 is light on the controls and easy to handle for an aircraft of its size.  Some airports require pavement protection from the heat and blast effects of the An-124's auxiliary power unit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Germany led the recent effort to lease An-124s for NATO strategic airlift requirements. Two aircraft are leased from SALIS GmbH as a stopgap until the Airbus A400M is available. Under NATO SALIS programme NAMSA is chartering six An-124-100 transport aircraft. According to the contract An-124-100s of Antonov Airlines and Volga-Dnepr are used within the limits of NATO SALIS programme to transport cargo by requests of 18 countries: Belgium, Hungary, Greece, Denmark, Canada, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, United Kingdom, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Finland, France, Germany, Czech Republic and Sweden. Two An-124-100s are constantly based on full-time charter in the Leipzig/Halle airport, but the contract specifies that if necessary, two more aircraft will be provided at six days' notice and another two at nine days' notice. The aircraft proved extremely useful for NATO especially with ongoing operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. United Launch Alliance (ULA) contracts the An-124 to transport the Atlas V launch vehicle from its facilities in Decatur, Alabama to Cape Canaveral. ULA also uses the An-124 to transport the Atlas V launch vehicle and Centaur upper stage from their manufacturing facility in Denver, Colorado to Cape Canaveral and Vandenberg Air Force Base. Two flights are required to transfer each launch vehicle (one for the Atlas V main booster stage and another for the Centaur upper stage). It is also contracted by Space Systems Loral to transport satellites from Palo Alto, CA to the Arianespace spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana and by SpaceX to transport payload fairings between their factory in Hawthorne, California and Cape Canaveral.  Airbus Transport International, a subsidiary of Airbus, has selected a Russian cargo company, Polet Airlines, as \"designated carrier\" to the company. Polet expects its three An-124-100s will transport astronautic equipment manufactured by EADS, which is Airbus' parent company, and components of the Airbus A380 superjumbo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operators.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Civil.", "content": "In July 2013, 26 An-124s were in commercial service.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable accidents.", "content": ", five An-124 hull-losses have been recorded involving a total of 97 fatalities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "[[Category:Antonov aircraft|An-124]] [[Category:1980s Soviet cargo aircraft]] [[Category:1980s Soviet military transport aircraft]] [[Category:Quadjets]] [[Category:High-wing aircraft]] [[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1982]] [[Category:Double-deck aircraft]]", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Antonov An-124 Ruslan (; NATO reporting name: Condor) is a strategic airlift quadjet. It was designed in the 1980s by the Antonov design bureau in the Ukrainian SSR, then part of the Soviet Union (USSR). Until the Boeing 747-8F, the An-124 was, for thirty years, the world's heaviest gross weight production cargo airplane and second heaviest operating cargo aircraft, behind the one-off Antonov An-225 Mriya (a greatly enlarged design based on the An-124). The An-124 remains the largest military transport aircraft in current service. The lead designer of the An-124 (and the An-225) was Viktor Tolmachev.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971691}
{"src_title": "Junkers F 13", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The F 13 was a very advanced aircraft when built, an aerodynamically clean all-metal low-wing cantilever (without external bracing) monoplane. Even later in the 1920s, it and other Junkers types were unusual as unbraced monoplanes in a biplane age, with only Fokker's designs of comparable modernity. It was the world's first all-metal passenger aircraft and Junkers' first commercial aircraft.  The designation letter F stood for \"Flugzeug\", aircraft; it was the first Junkers aeroplane to use this system. Earlier Junkers notation labelled it J 13. Russian-built aircraft used the designation Ju 13.  Like all Junkers duralumin-structured designs, from the 1918 J 7 to the 1932 Ju 46, (some 35 models), it used an aluminium alloy (duralumin) structure entirely covered with Junkers' characteristic corrugated and stressed duralumin skin. Internally, the wing was built up on nine circular cross-section duralumin spars with transverse bracing. All control surfaces were horn balanced.  Behind the single engine was a semi-enclosed cockpit for the crew, roofed but without side glazing. There was an enclosed and heated cabin for four passengers with windows and doors in the fuselage sides. Passenger seats were fitted with seat belts, unusual for the time. The F 13 used a fixed conventional split landing gear with a rear skid, though some variants landed on floats or on skis.  The F 13 first flew on 25 June 1919, powered by a 127 kW (170 hp) Mercedes D IIIa inline upright water-cooled engine. The first production machines had a wing of greater span and area and had the more powerful 140 kW (185 hp) BMW IIIa upright inline water-cooled motor.  Many variants were built using Mercedes, BMW, Junkers, and Armstrong Siddeley Puma liquid-cooled inline engines, and Gnome-Rhône Jupiter and Pratt & Whitney Hornet air-cooled radial engines. The variants were mostly distinguished by a two letter code, the first letter signifying the airframe and the second the engine. Junkers L5-engined variants all had the second letter -e, so type -fe was the long fuselage -f airframe with a L5 engine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Any manufacturer of civil aircraft immediately after World War I was faced with competition from the very large numbers of surplus warplanes that might be cheaply converted – for example, the DH.9C. German manufacturers had further problems with the restrictions imposed by the Inter-Allied Aeronautical Commission of Control, which banned the production of warplanes and of any aircraft in the period of 1921–2. Junkers picked up orders abroad in 1919 in Austria, Poland and the USA and, in the following years with SCADTA (Colombia) and the United States Post Office Department. John Larsen Aircraft in the USA purchased a production licence, their machines being designated JL-6. In 1922 there were sales in England, France Italy and Japan.  In Bolivia, LAB's first airplane was a Junkers F-13; first flight took off from Cochabamba on September 23, 1925.  Junkers set up its own airline – Junkers Luftverkehr AG in 1921 – to encourage the acquisition of the F 13 by German airlines which was flying 60 of them by 1923. They also established a branch of this airline in Iran. Other marketing techniques were used, providing F 13s on cheap leases and free loans, with such effect that some 16 operators across Europe were flying them. When Junkers Luftverkehr merged into Luft Hansa in 1926, 9.5 million miles had been flown by them. \"Luft Hansa\" itself bought 55 aircraft and in 1928 were using them on 43 domestic routes. Even in 1937, their F 13s were flying over 50 flights per week on four routes. They were finally withdrawn in 1938.  Most of the F 13s produced before completion of the marque in 1932 were built at Junkers German base at Dessau. During the difficult 1921–3 period production was transferred to Junkers plants at Danzig and Reval. In 1922–3, Hugo Junkers signed a contract with the Soviet Union to produce the aircraft in a Soviet factory at Fili near Moscow which became known as \"Plant no. 22\". Some of these aircraft served Soviet airlines and some the Red Army.  There were some other military users. The Colombian Air Force used the F 13 (and the related W.33, W.34 and K.43) as bombers in the Colombia–Peru War in 1932–3. The Republic of China flew F 13s converted into scout bombers until the January 28 Incident in 1932, when they were destroyed by the Japanese along with the Shanghai Aircraft Factory. The Turkish Flying Forces flew a few.  A feature that made the F 13 popular internationally was the ease with which its landing gear could be converted to floats. During the formative years of commercial aviation, bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, seas and oceans were more abundant than landing strips and civil airports in many parts of the world, so seaplanes were commonplace and even, in some places, more useful than regular aircraft. Aside from the obvious addition of floats, little modification was needed for this conversion; however, the different configuration could cause issues with directional control, and so some models had their rudder extended to compensate for this.  From their introduction in 1919, commercial F 13s were in service for more than thirty years; the last commercial F 13 was retired in Brazil in 1951.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Back in Production 2009-2019.", "content": "A German-Swiss project to build a reconstruction of the F 13 was launched in 2009; the aircraft first lifted off in September 2016. The reconstruction is equipped with radio and a transponder, and uses a 1930s Pratt & Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior motor, but is otherwise as close as possible to the original. Additional reconstructions are to be sold for $2.5 million apiece.  Junkers Flugzeugwerke (SD303) has resurrected the Junkers F 13 as an all-new airplane to honor Hugo Junkers’ achievements. The company completed the aircraft in 2016 and it is at EBACE commemorating the type's maiden flight 100 years ago. The model is available for purchase, and three others like it are currently under construction. Work is currently in progress on the second and third aircraft, with airframe number two's maiden flight planned for early this summer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Junkers F 13 was the world's first all-metal transport aircraft, developed in Germany at the end of World War I. It was an advanced cantilever-wing monoplane, with enclosed accommodation for four passengers. Only 322 were manufactured. It was in production for thirteen years and in commercial service for almost twenty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971692}
{"src_title": "Wheat beer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Varieties.", "content": "Weißbier (German – \"white beer\") uses at least 50% wheat to barley malt to make a light coloured top-fermenting beer. Witbier (Dutch – \"white beer\") uses flavorings such as coriander and orange peel. Belgian white beers are often made with raw unmalted wheat.  German Weißbier and Belgian witbier are termed \"white beers\" because \"wheat\" has the same etymological root as \"white\" in most West Germanic languages (including English).  Other wheat beer styles, such as Berliner Weiße, Gose, and Lambic, are made with a significant proportion of wheat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weizenbier.", "content": "Weizenbier or Hefeweizen, in the southern parts of Bavaria usually called Weißbier (literally \"white beer\", but the name probably derives from Weizenbier, \"wheat beer\"), is a beer, traditionally from Bavaria, in which a significant proportion of malted barley is replaced with malted wheat. By German law, Weißbiers brewed in Germany must be fermented using a \"top-fermenting\" yeast, which is technically an \"ale yeast\". Specialized strains of yeast are used which produce overtones of banana and clove as by-products of fermentation. Weißbier is so called because it was, at the time of its inception, paler in color than Munich's traditional brown beer. It is well known throughout Germany, though better known as Weizen (\"Wheat\") outside Bavaria. The terms Hefeweizen (\"yeast wheat\") or Hefeweißbier refer to wheat beer in its traditional, unfiltered form. The term Kristallweizen (crystal wheat), or kristall Weiß (crystal white beer), refers to a wheat beer that is filtered to remove the yeast and wheat proteins which contribute to its cloudy appearance.  The Hefeweizen style is particularly noted for its low hop bitterness (about 15 IBUs) and relatively high carbonation (approaching four volumes), considered important to balance the beer's relatively malty sweetness. Another balancing flavor note unique to Hefeweizen beer is its phenolic character; its signature phenol is 4-vinyl guaiacol, a metabolite of ferulic acid, the result of fermentation by top-fermenting yeast appropriate for the style. \"Hefeweizen\"'s phenolic character has been described as \"clove\" and \"medicinal\" (\"Band-aid\") but also smoky. Other more typical but less assertive flavour notes produced by Weißbier yeast include \"banana\" (amyl acetate), \"bubble gum\", and sometimes \"vanilla\" (vanillin).  Weißbier is available in a number of other forms, including Dunkelweizen (dark wheat) and Weizenstarkbier (strong wheat beer), commonly referred to as Weizenbock. The dark wheat varieties are made with darker, more highly kilned malts (both wheat and barley). The Weizenbocks typically have a much higher alcohol content than their lighter cousins.  The four largest brands in Germany are Erdinger, Paulaner, Franziskaner, and Maisel. Other renowned brands are Augustiner, Weihenstephaner, Schneider (a bronze-coloured specialty), and Andechser. Regional brands in Bavaria are Hopf, Unertl, Ayinger, Schweiger and Plank. \"Aventinus\" is an example of Weizen Doppelbock, stronger and darker version of Weizenbock, made by the G. Schneider & Sohn brewery in Kelheim.  British brewers producing cask-conditioned varieties include Oakleaf \"Eichenblatt Bitte\", Hoskins \"White Dolphin\", Fyfe \"Weiss Squad\" and Oakham \"White Dwarf\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Witbier.", "content": "Witbier, white beer, bière blanche, or simply witte is a barley/wheat, top-fermented beer brewed mainly in Belgium and the Netherlands. It gets its name due to suspended yeast and wheat proteins which cause the beer to look hazy, or white, when cold. It is a descendant from medieval beers which were flavored and preserved with a blend of spices and other plants such as coriander, orange, and bitter orange referred to as \"gruit\" instead of using hops.  The style was revived by Pierre Celis at the Hoegaarden Brewery in Belgium and the Celis Brewery in the United States and is traditionally made with up to 50% raw wheat rather than wheat malt. The beers have a somewhat sour taste due to the presence of lactic acid or acetic acid, much more pronounced in the past than today. Also, the suspended yeast in the beer causes some continuing fermentation in the bottle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other varieties.", "content": "A minor variety of wheat beer is represented by Berliner Weiße (Berlin White), which is low in alcohol (2.5% to 3% ABV) and intentionally tart. Sweetened syrups of lemon, raspberry or woodruff herb are often added before drinking.  Leipziger Gose is similar to Berliner Weiße but slightly stronger at around 4% ABV. Its ingredients include coriander and salt, which are unusual for German beers.  Belgian Lambic is also made with wheat and barley, but differs from nearly all beers in the use of wild yeast for spontaneous fermentation.  A variation on the barley wine style involves adding a large quantity of wheat to the mash bill, resulting in what is referred to as wheat wine. This style originated in the United States in the 1980s.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Names and types.", "content": "Wheat beers vary in name according to the place in which they are brewed and small variations in the recipe. Among those used are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Serving.", "content": "Bavarian-style wheat beer is usually served in, vase-shaped glasses. In Belgium, witbier is usually served in a 250ml glass; each brewery (Hoegaarden, Dentergems, etc.) has its own shape of glass. Berliner Weiße is often served in a schooner.  Kristallweizen (especially in Austria) and American styles of wheat beer are sometimes served with a slice of lemon or orange in the glass. This is not traditional in Bavaria, and is generally frowned upon there. The modern American custom appears to have originated in Portland, Oregon in the mid-1980s, where the Dublin Pub served Widmer Brothers Brewery's Weizenbier with a slice of lemon, to accentuate the citrus flavor of the Cascade hops.  In northern Bavaria, it is common to add a grain of rice to kristallweizen, which causes a gentle bubbling effect and results in a longer-lasting foam. A common item on pub menus in Bavaria is cola-weizen, which is a mix of cola and Weizenbier. Another mixture popular during the summer is a radler variant with a 50–50 mix of Weißbier with lemonade called \"Russ\", which is the German term for Russian.  When serving a bottled unfiltered wheat beer hold the glass on an angle and pour slowly. With about 10% or 15% left swirl smoothly to suspend the yeast, then add to improve the flavor, scent and appearance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sensory profile.", "content": "Weißbiers feature fermentation by-products such as esters (which lend fruity flavors and aromas), especially isoamyl acetate, reminiscent of bananas, and the phenolic compound guaiacol, a metabolite of ferulic acid, which smells and tastes like cloves. Other phenolics sometimes found in Weißbiers evoke medicinal or smoky sensations. The bittering level of most Weißbiers is close to 15 International Bitterness Units, a very low level. Hop flavor and aroma are typically low.  The ester and phenolic aspects are produced by the special type of yeast, rather than the high fraction of wheat in the grain bill.  The carbonation level can range from 5.5 grams per liter (approximately 2.7 volumes; slightly higher than that of most other German beers) to 7 grams per liter, or more. This produces a generous stand of foam, especially in light of the high protein content of wheat malt.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wheat beer is a beer, usually top-fermented, which is brewed with a large proportion of wheat relative to the amount of malted barley. The two main varieties are Weißbier, based on the German tradition, and Witbier, based on the Belgian tradition; other types include Lambic (made with wild yeasts and bacteria), Berliner Weisse (a cloudy, sour beer), and Gose (a German-type sour, salty, herbal beer).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971693}
{"src_title": "Bithynia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara): Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius and Apamea. Bithynia also contained Nicaea, noted for being the birthplace of the Nicene Creed.  According to Strabo, Bithynia was bounded on the east by the river Sangarius (modern Sakarya river), but the more commonly received division extended it to the Parthenius, which river separated it from Paphlagonia, thus comprising the district inhabited by the Mariandyni. On the west and southwest it was separated from Mysia by the river Rhyndacus and on the south it adjoined Phrygia and Galatia.  It is occupied by mountains and forests, but has valleys and coastal districts of great fertility. The most important mountain range is the (so-called) \"Mysian\" Olympus (8000 ft., 2500 m), which towers above Bursa and is clearly visible as far away as Istanbul (70 miles, 113 km). Its summits are covered with snow for a great part of the year.  East of this the range extends for more than 100 miles (160 km), from the Sakarya to Paphlagonia. Both of these ranges are part of the border of mountains which bound the great tableland of Anatolia, Turkey. The broad tract which projects towards the west as far as the shores of the Bosporus, though hilly and covered with forests — the Turkish \"Ağaç Denizi\", or \"The Ocean of Trees\" — is not traversed by any mountain chain. The west coast is indented by two deep inlets, the northernmost, the Gulf of İzmit (ancient Gulf of Astacus), penetrating between 40 and 50 miles (65–80 km) into the interior as far as İzmit (ancient Nicomedia), separated by an isthmus of only about 25 miles (40 km) from the Black Sea; and the Gulf of Mudanya or Gemlik (Gulf of Cius), about 25 miles (40 km) long. At its extremity is situated the small town of Gemlik (ancient Cius) at the mouth of a valley, communicating with the lake of Iznik, on which was situated Nicaea.  The principal rivers are the Sangarios which traverses the province from down to north; the Rhyndacus, which separated it from Mysia; and the Billaeus (Filyos), which rises in the Aladağ, about 50 miles (80 km) from the sea, and after flowing by modern Bolu (ancient Bithynion-Claudiopolis) falls into the Euxine, close to the ruins of the ancient Tium, about 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Heraclea Pontica (the modern Karadeniz Ereğli), having a course of more than 100 miles (160 km). The Parthenius (modern Bartın), the eastern boundary of the province, is a much less considerable stream.  The valleys towards the Black Sea abound in fruit trees of all kinds, such as oranges, while the valley of the Sangarius and the plains near Bursa and Iznik (Nicaea) are fertile and well cultivated. Extensive plantations of mulberry trees supply the silk for which Bursa has long been celebrated, and which is manufactured there on a large scale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Iron Age.", "content": "Bithynia is named for the Thracian tribe of the \"Bithyni\", mentioned by Herodotus (VII.75) alongside the \"Thyni\". The \"Thraco-Phrygian\" migration from the Balkans to Asia Minor would have taken place at some point following the Bronze Age collapse or during the early Iron Age. The Thyni and Bithyni appear to have settled simultaneously in the adjoining parts of Asia, where they expelled or subdued the Mysians, Caucones and other minor tribes, the Mariandyni maintaining themselves in the northeast. Herodotus mentions the Thyni and Bithyni as settling side by side. No trace of their original language has been preserved, but Herodotus describes them as related to the tribes of Thracian extraction like the Phrygians and Armenians, whose languages may form part of the Paleo-Balkan group (although this is not certain and the theory is not universally accepted).  Later the Greeks established on the coast the colonies of Cius (modern Gemlik); Chalcedon (modern Kadıköy), at the entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite Byzantium (modern Istanbul) and Heraclea Pontica (modern Karadeniz Ereğli), on the Euxine, about 120 miles (190 km) east of the Bosporus.  The Bithynians were incorporated by king Croesus within the Lydian monarchy, with which they fell under the dominion of Persia (546 BC), and were included in the satrapy of Phrygia, which comprised all the countries up to the Hellespont and Bosporus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kingdom of Bithynia.", "content": "Even before the conquest by Alexander the Bithynians appear to have asserted their independence, and successfully maintained it under two native princes, Bas and Zipoites, the latter of whom assumed the title of king (\"basileus\") in 297 BC.  His son and successor, Nicomedes I, founded Nicomedia, which soon rose to great prosperity, and during his long reign ( BC), as well as those of his successors, Prusias I, Prusias II and Nicomedes II (14991 BC), the kingdom of Bithynia had a considerable standing and influence among the minor monarchies of Anatolia. But the last king, Nicomedes IV, was unable to maintain himself in power against Mithridates VI of Pontus. After being restored to his throne by the Roman Senate, he bequeathed his kingdom through his will to the Roman republic (74 BC).  The coinage of these kings show their regal portraits, which tend to be engraved in an extremely accomplished Hellenistic style.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roman province.", "content": "As a Roman province, the boundaries of Bithynia changed frequently. During this period, Bithynia was commonly united for administrative purposes with the province of Pontus. This was the situation at the time of Emperor Trajan, when Pliny the Younger was appointed governor of the combined provinces (109/110111/112), a circumstance which has provided historians with valuable information concerning the Roman provincial administration at that time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Byzantine province.", "content": "Under the Byzantine Empire, Bithynia was again divided into two provinces, separated by the Sangarius. Only the area to the west of the river retained the name of Bithynia.  Bithynia attracted much attention because of its roads and its strategic position between the frontiers of the Danube in the north and the Euphrates in the south-east. To secure communications with the eastern provinces, the monumental bridge across the river Sangarius was constructed around 562 AD. Troops frequently wintered at Nicomedia.  During this time, the most important cities in Bithynia were Nicomedia, founded by Nicomedes, and Nicaea. The two had a long rivalry with each other over which city held the rank of capital.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Bithynia (; Koine Greek:, \"Bithynía\") was an ancient region, kingdom and Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor, adjoining the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus and the Black Sea. It bordered Mysia to the southwest, Paphlagonia to the northeast along the Pontic coast, and Phrygia to the southeast towards the interior of Asia Minor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971694}
{"src_title": "Rod of Asclepius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Greek mythology and Greek society.", "content": "The Rod of Asclepius takes its name from the Greek god Asclepius, a deity associated with healing and medicinal arts in Greek mythology. Asclepius' attributes, the snake and the staff, sometimes depicted separately in antiquity, are combined in this symbol.  The most famous temple of Asclepius was at Epidaurus in north-eastern Peloponnese. Another famous healing temple (or asclepeion) was located on the island of Kos, where Hippocrates, the legendary \"father of medicine\", may have begun his career. Other asclepieia were situated in Trikala, Gortys (Arcadia), and Pergamum in Asia.  In honor of Asclepius, a particular type of non-venomous snake was often used in healing rituals, and these snakes – the Aesculapian snakes – crawled around freely on the floor in dormitories where the sick and injured slept. These snakes were introduced at the founding of each new temple of Asclepius throughout the classical world. From about 300 BCE onwards, the cult of Asclepius grew very popular and pilgrims flocked to his healing temples (Asclepieia) to be cured of their ills. Ritual purification would be followed by offerings or sacrifices to the god (according to means), and the supplicant would then spend the night in the holiest part of the sanctuary – the abaton (or adyton). Any dreams or visions would be reported to a priest who would prescribe the appropriate therapy by a process of interpretation. Some healing temples also used sacred dogs to lick the wounds of sick petitioners.  The original Hippocratic Oath began with the invocation \"I swear by Apollo the Physician and by Asclepius and by Hygieia and Panacea and by all the gods...\"  The serpent and the staff appear to have been separate symbols that were combined at some point in the development of the Asclepian cult. The significance of the serpent has been interpreted in many ways; sometimes the shedding of skin and renewal is emphasized as symbolizing rejuvenation, while other assessments center on the serpent as a symbol that unites and expresses the dual nature of the work of the physician, who deals with life and death, sickness and health. The ambiguity of the serpent as a symbol, and the contradictions it is thought to represent, reflect the ambiguity of the use of drugs, which can help or harm, as reflected in the meaning of the term \"pharmakon\", which meant \"drug\", \"medicine\", and \"poison\" in ancient Greek. Products deriving from the bodies of snakes were known to have medicinal properties in ancient times, and in ancient Greece, at least some were aware that snake venom that might be fatal if it entered the bloodstream could often be imbibed. Snake venom appears to have been 'prescribed' in some cases as a form of therapy.  The staff has also been variously interpreted. One view is that it, like the serpent, \"conveyed notions of resurrection and healing\", while another (not necessarily incompatible) is that the staff was a walking stick associated with itinerant physicians. Cornutus, a Greek philosopher probably active in the first century CE, in the \"Theologiae Graecae Compendium\" (Ch. 33) offers a view of the significance of both snake and staff: In any case, the two symbols certainly merged in antiquity as representations of the snake coiled about the staff are common. It has been claimed that the snake wrapped around the staff was a species of rat snake, \"Elaphe longissima\", the Aesculapian snake.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theories.", "content": "Some commentators have interpreted the symbol as a direct representation of traditional treatment of dracunculiasis, the Guinea worm disease. The worm emerges from painful ulcerous blisters. The blisters burn, causing the patient to immerse the affected area in water to cool and soothe it. The worm senses the temperature change and discharges its larvae into the water. The traditional treatment was to slowly pull the worm out of the wound over a period of hours to weeks and wind it around a stick. The modern treatment may replace the stick with a piece of sterile gauze, but is otherwise largely identical.  Biblical scholars look to the Book of Numbers, in which the Nehushtan (or Nohestan) (Hebrew: נחושתן or נחש הנחושת) was a brass serpent on a pole that God told Moses to erect, saying that anyone bitten [by a snake] would live if they looked at it. These scholars have made the connection between the Rod of Asclepius and the Nehustan, where the stick and serpent were put together in the biblical account of healing. The Biblical account is also the earliest known mention of the symbol.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern use.", "content": "A number of organizations and services use the rod of Asclepius as their logo, or part of their logo. These include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variation.", "content": "The emblem of Federal Drug Control Service of Russia features a variation with a sword and a snake on the shield.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unicode.", "content": "The Rod of Asclepius has a code point in the \"Miscellaneous Symbols\" table of the Unicode Standard, at.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Greek mythology, the Rod of Asclepius (,, sometimes also spelled Asklepios or Asclepius), also known as the Staff of Aesculapius and as the asklepian, is a serpent-entwined rod wielded by the Greek god Asclepius, a deity associated with healing and medicine. The symbol has continued to be used in modern times, where it is associated with medicine and health care, yet frequently confused with the staff of the god Hermes, the caduceus. Theories have been proposed about the Greek origin of the symbol and its implications.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971695}
{"src_title": "Vostok (spacecraft)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The Vostok spacecraft was originally designed for use both as a camera platform (for the Soviet Union's first spy satellite program, Zenit) and as a manned spacecraft. This dual-use design was crucial in gaining Communist Party support for the program. The basic Vostok design has remained in use for some 40 years, gradually adapted for a range of other unmanned satellites. The descent module design was reused, in heavily modified form, by the Voskhod program.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The craft consisted of a spherical descent module (mass 2.46 tonnes, diameter 2.3 meters), which housed the cosmonaut, instruments and escape system, and a biconical instrument module (mass 2.27 tonnes, 2.25 m long, 2.43 m wide), which contained propellant and the engine system. On reentry, the cosmonaut would eject from the craft at about 7,000 m (23,000 ft) and descend via parachute, while the capsule would land separately. The reason for this was that the Vostok descent module made an extremely rough landing that could have left a cosmonaut seriously injured.  The ejector seat also served as an escape mechanism in the event of a launch vehicle failure, which at this early phase of the space program was a common occurrence. If an accident occurred in the first 40 seconds after liftoff, the cosmonaut would simply eject from the spacecraft and parachute to Earth. From 40 to 150 seconds into launch, ground controllers could issue a manual shutdown command to the booster. When the launch vehicle fell to a low enough altitude, the cosmonaut would eject. Higher altitude failures after shroud jettison would involve detaching the entire spacecraft from the booster.  One problem that was never adequately resolved was the event of a launch vehicle malfunction in the first 20 seconds, when the ejector seat would not have enough time to deploy its parachute. LC-1 at the Baikonour Cosmodrome had netting placed around it to catch the descent module should the cosmonaut eject while still on the pad, but it was of doubtful value since he would likely end up landing too close to the exploding booster. An accident in the initial seconds of launch also likely would have not put the cosmonaut in a position where he could make a survivable ejection and in all probability, this situation would have resulted in his death. A 2001 recollection by V.V. Molodsov stated that Chief Designer Sergei Korolev felt \"absolutely terrible\" about the inadequate provisions for crew escape on the Vostok during the opening seconds of launch.  There were several models of the Vostok leading up to the manned version:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vostok 1K.", "content": "Prototype spacecraft.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vostok 2K.", "content": "Photo-reconnaissance and signals intelligence spacecraft. Later named Zenit spy satellite.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vostok 3KA.", "content": "The Vostok 3KA was the spacecraft used for the first human spaceflights. They were launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome using Vostok 8K72K launch vehicles. The first flight of a Vostok 3KA occurred on March 9, 1961. The first flight with a crew—Vostok 1 carrying Yuri Gagarin—took place on April 12, 1961. The last flight—Vostok 6 carrying the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova—took place on June 16, 1963.  A total of 8 Vostok 3KA spacecraft were flown, 6 of them with a human crew.  Specifications for this version are:  Reentry Module: Vostok SA. SA stands for - descent system. It was nicknamed \"Sharik\" (). Equipment Module: Vostok PA. PA stands for - instrument section.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reentry.", "content": "The Vostok capsule had limited thruster capability. As such, the reentry path and orientation could not be controlled after the capsule had separated from the engine system. This meant that the capsule had to be protected from reentry heat on all sides, thus explaining the spherical design (as opposed to Project Mercury's conical design, which allowed for maximum volume while minimizing the heat shield diameter). Some control of the capsule reentry orientation was possible by way of positioning of the heavy equipment to offset the vehicle center of gravity, which also maximized the chance of the cosmonaut surviving g-forces while in a horizontal position. Even then, the cosmonaut experienced 8 to 9g.  If the retrorocket failed, the spacecraft would naturally decay from orbit within ten days, and the cosmonaut was provided with enough food and oxygen to survive until that time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vostok (, translated as \"East\") was a type of spacecraft built by the Soviet Union. The first human spaceflight was accomplished with Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971696}
{"src_title": "Lake Balaton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "In distinction to all other endonyms for lakes, which universally bear the identifying suffix \"-tó\" (“lake”), Lake Balaton is referred to in Hungarian with a definite article, ie. \"a Balaton\" (the Balaton). It was called \"lacus Pelsodis\" or \"Pelso\" by the Romans. The name is Indo-European in origin (cf. Czech \"pleso\" ‘sinkhole, deep end of a lake’), later replaced by the Slavic *\"bolto\" (Czech \"bláto\", Slovak \"blato\", Polish \"błoto\") meaning'mud, swamp' (from earlier Proto-Slavic \"boltьno\",, ). In January 846 Slavic prince Pribina began to build a fortress as his seat of power and several churches in the region of Lake Balaton, in a territory of modern Zalavár surrounded by forests and swamps along the river Zala. His well fortified castle and capital of Balaton Principality that became known as \"Blatnohrad\" or \"Moosburg\" (\"Swamp Fortress\") served as a bulwark both against the Bulgarians and the Moravians.  The German name for the lake is '. It is unlikely that the Germans named the lake so for being shallow since the adjective'is a Greek loanword that was borrowed via French and entered the general German vocabulary in the 17th century. It is also noteworthy that the average depth of Balaton () is not extraordinary for the area (cf. the average depth of the neighbouring Neusiedler See, which is roughly ).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Lake Balaton affects the local area precipitation. The area receives approximately more precipitation than most of Hungary, resulting in more cloudy days and less extreme temperatures. The lake's surface freezes during winters. The microclimate around Lake Balaton has also made the region ideal for viticulture. The Mediterranean-like climate, combined with the soil (containing volcanic rock), has made the region notable for its production of wines since the Roman period two thousand years ago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "While a few settlements on Lake Balaton, including Balatonfüred and Hévíz, have long been resort centres for the Hungarian aristocracy, it was only in the late 19th century that the Hungarian middle class began to visit the lake. The construction of railways in 1861 and 1909 increased tourism substantially, but the post-war boom of the 1950s was much larger.  By the turn of the 20th century, Balaton had become a center of research by Hungarian biologists, geologists, hydrologists, and other scientists, leading to the country's first biological research institute being built on its shore in 1927.  The last major German offensive of World War II, Operation Frühlingserwachen, was conducted in the region of Lake Balaton in March 1945, being referred to as \"the Lake Balaton Offensive\" in many British histories of the war. The battle was a German attack by Sepp Dietrich's Sixth Panzer Army and the Hungarian Third Army between 6 March and 16 March 1945, and in the end, resulted in a Red Army victory. Several Ilyushin Il-2 wrecks have been pulled out of the lake after having been shot down during the later months of the war.  During the 1960s and 1970s, Balaton became a major tourist destination due to focused government efforts, causing the number of overnight guests in local hotels and campsites to increase from 700,000 in July 1965 to two million in July 1975. Weekend visitors to the region, including tens of thousands from Budapest, reached more than 600,000 by 1975. It was visited by ordinary working Hungarians and especially for subsidised holiday excursions for labor union members. It also attracted many East Germans and other residents of the Eastern Bloc. West Germans could also visit, making Balaton a common meeting place for families and friends separated by the Berlin Wall until 1989. The collapse of the Soviet Union after 1991 and the dismantling of the labor unions caused the gradual but steady reduction in numbers of lower-paid Hungarian visitors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The major resorts around the lake are Siófok, Keszthely, and Balatonfüred. Zamárdi, another resort town on the southern shore, has been the site of Balaton Sound, a notable electronic music festival since 2007. Balatonkenese has hosted numerous traditional gastronomic events. Siófok is known for attracting young people to it because of its large clubs. Keszthely is the site of the Festetics Palace and Balatonfüred is a historical bathing town which hosts the annual Anna Ball.  The peak tourist season extends from June until the end of August. The average water temperature during the summer is, which makes bathing and swimming popular on the lake. Most of the beaches consist of either grass, rocks, or the silty sand that also makes up most of the bottom of the lake. Many resorts have artificial sandy beaches and all beaches have step access to the water. Other tourist attractions include sailing, fishing, and other water sports, as well as visiting the countryside and hills, wineries on the north coast, and nightlife on the south shore. The Tihany Peninsula is a historical district. Badacsony is a volcanic mountain and wine-growing region as well as a lakeside resort. The lake is almost completely surrounded by separated bike lanes to facilitate bicycle tourism. Although the peak season at the lake is the summer, Balaton is also frequented during the winter, when visitors go ice-fishing or even skate, sledge, or ice-sail on the lake if it freezes over.  Sármellék International Airport provides air service to Balaton (although most service is only seasonal).  Other resort towns include: Balatonalmádi, Balatonboglár, Balatonlelle, Fonyód and Vonyarcvashegy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Towns and villages.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "North shore.", "content": "From east to west:  Balatonfőkajár - Balatonakarattya - Balatonkenese - Balatonfűzfő - Balatonalmádi - Alsóörs - Paloznak - Csopak - Balatonarács - Balatonfüred - Tihany - Aszófő - Örvényes - Balatonudvari - Fövenyes - Balatonakali - Zánka - Balatonszepezd - Szepezdfürdő - Révfülöp - Pálköve - Ábrahámhegy - Balatonrendes - Badacsonytomaj - Badacsony - Badacsonytördemic - Szigliget - Balatonederics - Balatongyörök - Vonyarcvashegy - Gyenesdiás - Keszthely", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "South shore.", "content": "From east to west:  Balatonakarattya - Balatonaliga - Balatonvilágos - Sóstó - Szabadifürdő - Siófok - Széplak - Zamárdi - Szántód - Balatonföldvár - Balatonszárszó - Balatonszemes - Balatonlelle - Balatonboglár - Fonyód - Fonyód–Alsóbélatelep - Bélatelep - Balatonfenyves - Balatonmáriafürdő - Balatonkeresztúr - Balatonberény - Fenékpuszta", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lake Balaton (Hungarian IPA,,,, ) is a freshwater lake in the Transdanubian region of Hungary. It is the largest lake in Central Europe, and one of the region's foremost tourist destinations. The Zala River provides the largest inflow of water to the lake, and the canalised Sió is the only outflow.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971697}
{"src_title": "Vienna Woods", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The Vienna Woods are bounded by the rivers Triesting, Gölsen, Traisen and Danube, and are on the border of the Mostviertel and the Industrieviertel, two of the four quarters of Lower Austria. Reaching into the city of Vienna itself, they are a favourite outdoor destination for the densely populated area around the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The highest elevation in the Vienna Woods is Schöpfl at above sea level, the location of the Leopold Figl observatory. Important rivers in the Vienna Woods are the Wien, the Schwechat and the Triesting. The northeasternmost Leopoldsberg overlooking the Danube and the Vienna Basin forms the eastern end of the Alpine chain.  Even though the Vienna Woods are a protected landscape and important recreational area, they are threatened by urban sprawl. The Lainzer Tiergarten, an extensive park populated by the wild boar and other woodland animals, as well as the \"Schwarzenbergpark\", were created on the territory of the city of Vienna during the 19th century. The natural park \"Sandstein-Wienerwald\" is near Purkersdorf, some 20 km (12 mi) west of Vienna. There are also some caves, such as the \"Dreidärrischenhöhle\" (\"cave of the three deaf men\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "The mountain ranges of the Vienna Woods are the transition between the Eastern Alps and the Carpathians, separated by the Danube and some tectonic lines near Vienna. The northern area is part of the Alps' sandstone zone, while its south is part of the Northern Limestone Alps. In the east, the border is the thermal line, which forms a geological break line to the Viennese Basin. Beeches, oaks and hornbeams grow throughout the north of the Wienerwald forest; in the south are conifers, mostly pines and firs. The \"Föhrenberge\" (Pine Mountains) natural park is in the latter region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Vienna Woods have probably been populated since the 8th century. The Vienna Woods was the royal hunting grounds from the 11th century until 1850. Under the influence of the Avars, a Slavic population settled here after the Völkerwanderung, which may account for village names such as Döbling, Liesing or Gablitz. From the 16th century onwards forestry was practised. Industrial development beginning circa 1840 encouraged increased settlement of the area. In 1870, plans were brought forward to clear most of the forest, but this caused widespread public resistance, in which Josef Schöffel was one of the most important figures.  In 1987, the governors of the states of Vienna, Lower Austria and Burgenland signed the \"Vienna Woods Declaration\" to protect nature in the region.  Through the northern part of the Vienna Woods (from Tulln an der Donau), a march of Polish troops of King Jan III Sobieski took place, which were to help Vienna in September 1683.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vienna Woods (; Central Bavarian: \"Weanawoid\") are forested highlands that form the northeastern foothills of the Northern Limestone Alps in the states of Lower Austria and Vienna. The long and wide range of hills is heavily wooded and a popular recreation area with the Viennese.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971698}
{"src_title": "Orinoco", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The river's name is derived from the Warao term for \"a place to paddle\", itself derived from the terms \"güiri\" (paddle) and \"noko\" (place) i.e. a navigable place.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The mouth of the Orinoco River at the Atlantic Ocean was documented by Columbus on 1August 1498, during his third voyage. Its source at the Cerro Delgado–Chalbaud, in the Parima range, was not explored until 1951, 453 years later. The source, near the Venezuelan–Brazilian border, at above sea level (), was explored in 1951 by a joint French-Venezuelan expedition.  The Orinoco, and tributaries in the eastern llanos such as the Apure and Meta, were explored in the 16th century by German expeditions under Ambrosius Ehinger and his successors. In 1531 Diego de Ordaz, starting at the principal outlet in the delta, the Boca de Navios, sailed up the river to the Meta. Antonio de Berrio sailed down the Casanare to the Meta, and then down the Orinoco River and back to Coro. In 1595, after capturing de Berrio to obtain information while conducting an expedition to find the fabled city of El Dorado, the Englishman Sir Walter Raleigh sailed down the river, reaching the savannah country.  Alexander von Humboldt explored the basin in 1800, reporting on the pink river dolphins. He published extensively on the river's flora and fauna.  The sources of the Orinoco River located at Cerro Carlos Delgado Chalbaud (2o19’05” N, 63o21’42” W) were discovered in 1951 by the French-Venezuelan expedition that went back and explored the Upper Orinoco course to the Sierra Parima near the border with Brasil, headed by Venezuelan army officer Frank Risquez Iribarren.  The first bridge across the Orinoco River was the Angostura Bridge at Ciudad Bolívar, Venezuela, completed in 1967.  On 1968, an expedition was set off by National Geographic and Hovercraft from Manaus in Brazil to Port Of Spain (Trinidad). Aboard of a SR.N6 hoverwork the expedicionaries followed the Negro river upstream to where it is joined by the Casiquiare canal in the border between Colombia and Venezuela. After following the Casiquiare to the Orinoco River they hovered thru perilous Rapids of Maipures and Atures. The Orinoco was then traversed down to its mouths in gulf of Paria and then to Port of Spain. The primary purpose of the expedition was filming for the BBC series \"The World About Us\" the episode \"The Last Great Journey on Earth from Amazon to Orinoco by Hovercraft\", aired in 1970, and demonstrate the abilities of a hovercraft, thereby promoting sales of this British invention.  The first powerline crossing of the Orinoco River was completed in 1981 for an 800kVTL single span of using two towers tall. In 1992, an overhead power line crossing for two 400kV-circuits was completed just west of Morocure (between the cities of Ciudad Bolivar and Ciudad Guayana), north of the confluence of Routes1 and 19. It had three towers, and the two spans measured and, respectively.  In 2006 a second bridge was completed near Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela, known as the Orinoquia Bridge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The course of the Orinoco forms a wide ellipsoidal arc, surrounding the Guiana Shield; it is divided in four stretches of unequal length that very roughly correspond to the longitudinal zonation of a typical large river:  At its mouth, the Orinoco River forms a wide delta that branches off into hundreds of rivers and waterways that flow through of swampy forests. In the rainy season, the Orinoco River can swell to a breadth of and a depth of.  Most of the important Venezuelan rivers are tributaries of the Orinoco River, the largest being the Caroní, which joins it at Puerto Ordaz, close to the Llovizna Falls. A peculiarity of the Orinoco river system is the Casiquiare canal, which starts as an arm of the Orinoco, and finds its way to the Rio Negro, a tributary of the Amazon, thus forming a 'natural canal' between Orinoco and Amazon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The boto and the giant otter inhabit the Orinoco River system. The Orinoco crocodile is one of the rarest reptiles in the world. Its range in the wild is restricted to the middle and lower Orinoco River Basin.  More than 1000 fish species have been recorded in the river basin and about 15% are endemic. Among the fish in the river are species found in brackish or salt water in the Orinoco estuary, but also many restricted to fresh water. By far the largest orders are Characiformes and Siluriformes, which together account for more than 80% of the fresh water species. Some of the more famous are the black spot piranha and the cardinal tetra. The latter species, which is important in the aquarium industry, is also found in the Rio Negro, revealing the connection between this river and the Orinoco through the Casiquiare canal. Because the Casiquiare includes both blackwater and clear- to whitewater sections, only relatively adaptable species are able to pass through it between the two river systems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic activity.", "content": "The river is navigable for most of its length, and dredging enables ocean ships to go as far as Ciudad Bolívar, at the confluence of the Caroní River, upstream. River steamers carry cargo as far as Puerto Ayacucho and the Atures Rapids.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "El Florero iron mine.", "content": "In 1926, a Venezuelan mining inspector found one of the richest iron ore deposits near the Orinoco delta, south of the city of San Felix on a mountain named \"El Florero\". Full-scale mining of the ore deposits began after World War II, by a conglomerate of Venezuelan firms and US steel companies. At the start in the early 1950s, about 10,000 tons of ore-bearing soil was mined per day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tar sands.", "content": "The Orinoco River deposits also contain extensive tar sands in the Orinoco oil belt, which may be a source of future oil production.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eastern Venezuelan basin.", "content": "Encompassing the states of Anzoategui-Guarico and Monagas states, the Interior Range forms the northern boundary and the Guayana Shield the southern boundary. Maturin forms the eastern subbasin and Guarico forms the western subbasin. The El Furrial oil field was discovered in 1978, producing from late Oligocene shallow marine sandstones in an overthrusted foreland basin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recreation and sports.", "content": "Since 1973, the Civil Association Nuestros Rios son Navegables organize the Internacional Rally \"Nuestros Rios son Navegables\", a motonautical round trip of over 1,200 kilometers through the Orinoco, Meta and Apure Rivers. Starting out from Ciudad Bolívar or San Fernando de Apure, is the longest fluvial rally in the world with the participation of worldwide competitors, more than 30 support boats, logistics teams, thousands of tourists and fans travel. The boats had an average speed of 120 miles per hour.  Since 1988, the local government of Ciudad Guayana has conducted a swim race in the rivers Orinoco and Caroní, with up to 1,000 competitors. Since 1991, the \"Paso a Nado Internacional de los Rios Orinoco–Caroní\" has been celebrated every year, on a Sunday close to 19 April. Worldwide, this swim-meet has grown in importance, and it has a large number of competitors. The 26th meet was held in 2016.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Orinoco River () is one of the longest rivers in South America at. Its drainage basin, sometimes known as the Orinoquia, covers, with 76.3 percent of it in Venezuela and the remainder in Colombia. It is the fourth largest river in the world by discharge volume of water. The Orinoco River and its tributaries are the major transportation system for eastern and interior Venezuela and the llanos of Colombia. The environment in the Orinoco's basin is extremely diverse; it hosts a wide variety of flora and fauna.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971699}
{"src_title": "Shiatsu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "In the Japanese language, \"shiatsu\" means \"finger pressure\". \"Shiatsu\" techniques include massages with fingers, thumbs, feet and palms; assisted stretching; and joint manipulation and mobilization. To examine a patient, a shiatsu practitioner uses palpation and, sometimes, pulse diagnosis.  The Japanese Ministry of Health defines shiatsu as \"a form of manipulation by thumbs, fingers and palms without the use of instruments, mechanical or otherwise, to apply pressure to the human skin to correct internal malfunctions, promote and maintain health, and treat specific diseases. The techniques used in shiatsu include stretching, holding, and most commonly, leaning body weight into various points along key channels.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Efficacy.", "content": "There is no evidence that shiatsu is of any benefit in treating cancer or any other disease, though some weak evidence suggests it might help people feel more relaxed. In 2015 the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; shiatsu was one of 17 therapies evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found.  Neither \"qi\" nor meridians exist. Studies on shiatsu's effectiveness have been poorly executed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Shiatsu evolved from \"anma\", a Japanese style of massage developed in 1320 by Akashi Kan Ichi. Anma was popularised in the seventeenth century by acupuncturist Sugiyama Waichi, and around the same time the first books on the subject, including Fujibayashi Ryohaku's \"Anma Tebiki\" (\"Manual of Anma\"), appeared.  The Fujibayashi school carried anma into the modern age. Prior to the emergence of shiatsu in Japan, masseurs were often nomadic, earning their keep in mobile massage capacities, and paying commissions to their referrers.  Since Sugiyama's time, massage in Japan had been strongly associated with the blind. Sugiyama, blind himself, established a number of medical schools for the blind which taught this practice. During the Tokugawa period, edicts were passed which made the practice of anma solely the preserve of the blind – sighted people were prohibited from practicing the art. As a result, the \"blind anma\" has become a popular trope in Japanese culture. This has continued into the modern era, with a large proportion of the Japanese blind community continuing to work in the profession.  Abdominal palpation as a Japanese diagnostic technique was developed by Shinsai Ota in the 17th century.  During the Occupation of Japan by the Allies after World War II, traditional medicine practices were banned (along with other aspects of traditional Japanese culture) by General MacArthur. The ban prevented a large proportion of Japan's blind community from earning a living. Many Japanese entreated for this ban to be rescinded. Additionally, writer and advocate for blind rights Helen Keller, on being made aware of the prohibition, interceded with the United States government; at her urging, the ban was rescinded.  Tokujiro Namikoshi (1905–2000) founded his shiatsu college in the 1940s and his legacy was the state recognition of shiatsu as an independent method of treatment in Japan. He is often credited with inventing modern shiatsu. However, the term shiatsu was already in use in 1919, when a book called \"Shiatsu Ho\" (\"finger pressure method\") was published by Tamai Tempaku. Also prior to Namikoshi's system, in 1925 the Shiatsu Therapists Association was founded, with the purpose of distancing shiatsu from anma massage.  Namikoshi's school taught shiatsu within a framework of western medical science. A student and teacher of Namikoshi's school, Shizuto Masunaga, brought shiatsu back to traditional eastern medicine and philosophic framework. Masunaga grew up in a family of shiatsu practitioners, with his mother having studied with Tamai Tempaku. He founded Zen Shiatsu and the Iokai Shiatsu Center school. Another student of Namikoshi, Hiroshi Nozaki founded the Hiron Shiatsu, a holistic technique of shiatsu that uses intuitive techniques and a spiritual approach to healing which identifies ways how to take responsibility for a healthy and happy life in the practitioner's own hands. It is practiced mainly in Switzerland, France and Italy where its founder opened several schools.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Shiatsu ( ; ) is a form of Japanese bodywork based on concepts in traditional Chinese medicine. \"Shiatsu\" derives from a Japanese massage modality called \"anma\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971700}
{"src_title": "Mikoyan MiG-27", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The MiG-27 shares the basic airframe of the MiG-23, but with a revised nose – nicknamed \"\"Utkonos\"\" (\"Platypus\") in Russian service, first introduced on the MiG-23B. Dissatisfaction with the MiG-23BN led to the further development of the basic airframe to accommodate a stronger undercarriage, simpler intakes and a shorter exhaust nozzle, without radar in favor of a downward-sloping profile for improved pilot visibility, a laser rangefinder and marked-target seeker. Among its test pilots, it was also called \"\"Balkon\"\" (\"Balcony\") because of the increased frontal view from the cockpit. Additional cockpit armor was installed, along with a totally new nav/attack system.  Since the MiG-27 was intended to fly most of its missions at low altitude, the MiG-23's variable intake ramps and exhaust nozzles were discarded in favor of a simpler fixed configuration, reducing weight and maintenance requirements. The aircraft also has larger, heavy-duty landing gear to facilitate operation from poorer-quality airfields. In accordance with the MiG-27's strike and low-level attack requirements, provisions were made to mount missiles and precision-guided munitions, as well as retaining a nuclear capability in line with other Soviet combat aircraft by introducing specialized navigation systems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Soviet forces used the MiG-27 during the later stages of the Afghanistan conflict in 1987–89.  Although several Western observers considered the MiG-27 widely exported, confusing it with the MiG-23BN, the aircraft type was only exported to India and Sri Lanka which also utilized the MiG-27 in regional conflicts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sri Lanka.", "content": "MiG-27 aircraft entered service with the Sri Lanka Air Force in 2000. During the Sri Lankan Civil War, they saw considerable action bombing targets and providing close air support. In August 2000, a MiG-27 crashed near Colombo International Airport, killing its pilot. In July 2001, a second MiG-27 was destroyed and another damaged on the ground during an assault on the same air force base by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. A MiG-27 crashed into the sea near the airport in June 2004. Another MiG-27 fighter jet crashed on a routine training mission on 13 February 2012 near the Dummalasuriya area at around 1.35 pm. The pilot managed to eject from the jet without sustaining injuries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "India.", "content": "On 27 May 1999, during the Kargil War, one Indian MiG-27 was lost due to engine failure and a MiG-21 was shot down by Pakistan Army while attacking the Pakistan Army Positions.  Since 2001, the Indian Air Force has lost more than 12 MiG-27s to crashes. In mid-February 2010, India grounded its entire fleet of over 150 of the aircraft after a MiG-27 crashed on 16 February 2010 in Siliguri, West Bengal. The crash was attributed to defects in the R-29 engines of the aircraft, suspected to have occurred during the overhauling of the aircraft by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). Another MiG-27 crashed in the Barmer area on 27 January 2015.  India retired the last MiG-27ML squadron on 27 December 2019, when the last two MiG-27 squadrons were retired with a ceremony at Jodhpur airbase.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kazakhstan.", "content": "12 MiG-27 remains in service with the Kazakh Air Force.  The first Flogger attack variant was powered by the AL-21F. Only 24 were produced, due a lack of engines (the AL-21F was destined for the Sukhoi Su-17/22 and the Su-24 Fencer). It was armed with the GSh-23L cannon, carrying 200 rounds.  Derived from the MiG-23B, but powered by the R29B-300 engine. This gave the advantage of making this variant exportable (the AL-21F was a restricted engine at the time, unlike the R29B-300). The R29B-300 also offered commonality with the MiG-23MS and MiG-23MF fighter variants already sold to the rest of world. It was armed with the GSh-23L cannon, with 200 rounds.  This was the first in the MiG-27 family to have a canopy without the central frame, suggesting that the ejection seat was designed to directly break through the transparency. The dielectric head above the pylon on the MiG-23 was used on the MiG-27 to house electro-optical and radio-frequency gear instead. It was also the first variant armed with a Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-6-30M Gatling gun. Its NATO reporting name was \"Flogger-D\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "NATO reporting name: \"Flogger-J2\". The MiG-27K was most advanced Soviet variant, with a laser designator and compatibility with TV-guided electro-optical weapons. It carried the GSh-6-30 cannon. Around 200 were built.  NATO reporting name: \"Flogger-J\". This model was a cheaper variant than the MiG-27K, but much better than the MiG-23B, MiG-23BN, and MiG-27 (MiG-23BM), with the electro-optical and radio-frequency heads above the glove pylons deleted. It was first armed with the GSh-6-23M Gatling gun, but this was later replaced by a new 30 mm GSh-6-30 six-barrel cannon with 260 rounds of ammunition in a fuselage gondola. It also received much-improved electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems, and a new PrNK-23K nav/attack system providing automatic flight control, gun firing, and weapons release. However, this modification was not very successful because of the heavy recoil from the new cannon, and bursts longer than two or three seconds often led to permanent damage to the airframe. Test pilot V. N. Kondaurov described the first firing of the GSh-6-30А: \"As I imposed the central mark on the air target and pressed the trigger to shoot, I heard such noise that I involuntarily drew my hand aside. The whole plane began to vibrate from the shooting and had almost stopped from the strong recoil of the gun. The pilotless target, which was just making a turn ahead of me, was literally disintegrating into pieces. I have hardly come to my senses from unexpectedness and admiration: This is a calibre! Such a beast! If you hit something — it will be plenty enough [to wipe it out]\". A total of 200 MiG-27Ms were built from 1978 to 1983, plus 160 for India. Sri Lanka used second-hand Soviet built Mig-27M.  All MiG-27D are MiG-27s (MiG-23BMs) upgraded to MiG-27M standard. It is very difficult to distinguish from the MiG-27M. 305 were upgraded.  This was an export variant of the MiG-27M provided in 1986 to India in knock-down kits for license-assembly. It was the same as the MiG-27M, except the undernose fairing for the infra-red search and track (IRST) sensor had a single window instead of several, like the one on the original MiG-27M. A total of 150 were assembled by India. India refers to this model as the MiG-27M \"Bahadur\", while MiG-27L is the Mikoyan export designation.  This was a 1988 indigenous Indian upgrade of its license-assembled MiG-27L with French avionics, which provides the same level of performance, but with much reduced size and weight. The capabilities of the aircraft are being enhanced by the incorporation of modern avionics systems consisting primarily of two Multi-Function Displays (MFDs) Mission and Display Processor (MDP), Sextant Ring Laser Gyros (RLG INSI), combined GPS/GLONASS navigation, HUD with UFCP, Digital Map Generator (DMG), jam-resistant Secured Communication, stand-by UHF communication, data link and a comprehensive Electronic Warfare (EW) Suite. A mission planning and retrieval facility, VTR and HUD Camera will also be fitted. The aircraft retains stand-by (conventional) instrumentation, including artificial horizon, altimeter and airspeed indicator, to cater for the failure of HUD and the MFDs. The MiG-27s are also being equipped with the French Agave or Russian Komar radar. The installation of the radar would give the MiG-27 anti-ship and some air-to-air capability. It is expected that at least 140 of the 180 aircraft will be converted from MiG-27MLs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mikoyan MiG-27 (; NATO reporting name: Flogger-D/J) is a variable-geometry ground-attack aircraft, originally built by the Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau in the Soviet Union and later licence-produced in India by Hindustan Aeronautics as the Bahadur (\"Valiant\"). It is based on the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 fighter aircraft, but optimised for air-to-ground attack. Unlike the MiG-23, the MiG-27 did not have widespread use outside Russia, as most countries opted for the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23BN and Sukhoi Su-22 instead. It remains in service only with the Kazakh Air Forces in the ground attack role. All Russian, Indian and Ukrainian MiG-27s have been retired.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971701}
{"src_title": "Eurasian bullfinch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and systematics.", "content": "The Eurasian bullfinch was listed in 1758 by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his \"Systema Naturae\" under the binomial name \"Loxia pyrrhula\". The Latin word \"pyrrhula\" comes from the Greek \"πυρρός\" (a flame-coloured bird, from πυρρός flame coloured, from \"πυρ\" fire : Pyrrha), a 'worm eating bird' that is mentioned by Aristotle. The Latin name for the species had been used by Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his \"Historiae animalium\" of 1555.  The closest relatives of the bullfinches are in the genus \"Pinicola\" (the pine grosbeak).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "The described subspecies include:  The Azores bullfinch (\"P. murina\"), previously regarded as a subspecies of the Eurasian bullfinch, is now recognised as a separate species.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The Eurasian bullfinch is a bulky bull-headed bird. The upper parts are grey; the flight feathers and short thick bill are black; as are the cap and face in adults (they are greyish-brown in juveniles), and the white rump and wing bars are striking in flight. The adult male has red underparts, but females and young birds have grey-buff underparts. It moults between July and October, but males do not have the duller autumn plumage that is typical of some other finches. The song of this unobtrusive bird contains fluted whistles, and is often described as'mournful'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "This bird breeds across Europe and temperate Asia. It is mainly resident, but many northern birds migrate further south in the winter. Mixed woodland with some conifers is favoured for breeding, including parkland and gardens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "This species does not form large flocks outside the breeding season, and is usually seen as a pair or family group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "It builds its nest in a bush, (preferably more than four metres tall and wide), mature stands of scrub, or tree, laying four to seven eggs. It is peculiar among the Passeriformes for having spermatozoa with a rounded head and a blunt acrosome.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "The food is mainly seeds and buds of fruit trees, which can make it a pest in orchards: in England, for centuries every parish paid a bounty for every Eurasian bullfinch killed. Ash and hawthorn are favoured in autumn and early winter. If wild bird cover is planted for it, kale, quinoa and millet are preferred, next to tall hedges or woodland.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Eurasian bullfinch, common bullfinch or bullfinch (\"Pyrrhula pyrrhula\") is a small passerine bird in the finch family, Fringillidae. In Anglophone Europe it is known simply as the bullfinch, as it is the original bird to bear the name bullfinch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971702}
{"src_title": "Noricum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Area and population.", "content": "Around 800 BC, the region was inhabited mostly by the people of the local Celtic Hallstatt culture. Around 450 BC, they merged with the people of the other core Celtic areas in the south-western regions of Germany and eastern France.  The country is mountainous and rich in iron and salt. It supplied material for the manufacturing of arms in Pannonia, Moesia, and northern Italy. The famous Noric steel was largely used in the making of Roman weapons (e.g. Horace, \"Odes\", i.16.9-10: \"Noricus ensis\", \"a Noric sword\"). Gold and salt were found in considerable quantities. The plant called saliunca (the wild or Celtic nard, a relative of the lavender) grew in abundance and was used as a perfume according to Pliny the Elder.  The Celtic inhabitants developed a culture rich in art, cattle breeding, salt mining and agriculture. When part of the area became a Roman province, the Romans introduced water management (Aqueduct) and the already vivid trade relations between the people north and south of the alps boosted - Noric steel was famous for its quality and hardness.  Archaeological research, particularly in the cemeteries of Hallstatt, has shown that a vigorous Celtic civilization was in the area centuries before recorded history, but the Celtic Hallstatt civilization was a cultural manifestation prior to the other Celtic invasions, The Hallstatt graves contained weapons and ornaments from the Bronze Age, through the period of transition, up to the \"Hallstatt culture\", i.e., the fully developed older period of the Iron Age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "The Noric language is attested in only fragmentary inscriptions, one from Ptuj and two from Grafenstein, neither of which provide enough information for any conclusions about the nature of the language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Steel for Roman weaponry.", "content": "The kingdom of Noricum was a major provider of weaponry for the Roman armies from the mid-Republic onwards. Roman swords were made of the best-quality steel then available from this region, the \"chalybs Noricus\".  The strength of steel is determined by its composition and heat treatment. The wrought iron produced in the Greco-Roman world was too soft for tools and weapons. Ore from Noricum, by contrast, could yield a superior product.  The ore needed to be rich in manganese (an element which remains essential in modern steelmaking processes), and contain little or no phosphorus, which weakens steel. The ore mined in Carinthia (S. Noricum) fulfilled both criteria particularly well. The Celts of Noricum discovered their ore made superior steel around 500 BC and built a major steel industry.  At Magdalensberg, a major production and trading centre, specialised blacksmiths crafted metal products and weapons. The finished arms were exported to Aquileia, a Roman colony founded in 180 BC.  From 200 BC the Noricum tribes gradually united into a kingdom, known as the \"regnum Noricum\", with its capital at a place called Noreia. Noricum became a key ally of the Roman Republic, providing high-quality weapons and tools in exchange for military protection. This was demonstrated in 113 BC, when Teutones invaded Noricum. In response, the Roman consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo led an army over the Alps to attack the Germanic tribes at the Noreia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roman rule.", "content": "Noricum was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 16 BC. For a long time previously, the Noricans had enjoyed independence under princes of their own and carried on commerce with the Romans. In 48 BC they took the side of Julius Caesar in the civil war against Pompey. In 16 BC, having joined with the Pannonians in invading Histria, they were defeated by Publius Silius Nerva, proconsul of Illyricum. Thereafter, Noricum was called a province, although it was not organized as such and remained a kingdom with the title of \"regnum Noricum\", yet under the control of an imperial procurator. Under the reign of Emperor Claudius (41–54) the Noricum Kingdom was ultimately incorporated into the Roman Empire apparently without offering resistance. It was not until the reign of Antoninus Pius that the Second Legion, \"Pia\" (later renamed \"Italica\") was stationed in Noricum, and the commander of the legion became the governor of the province.  Under Diocletian (245–313), Noricum was divided into \"Noricum ripense\" (\"Noricum along the river\", the northern part southward from the Danube), and \"Noricum mediterraneum\" (\"landlocked Noricum\", the southern, more mountainous district). The dividing line ran along the central part of the eastern Alps. Each division was under a praeses, and both belonged to the diocese of Illyricum in the Praetorian prefecture of Italy. It was in this time (304 A.D.) that a Christian serving as a military officer in the province suffered martyrdom for the sake of his faith, later canonised as Saint Florian.  The Roman colonies and chief towns were \"Virunum\" (near Maria Saal to the north of Klagenfurt), \"Teurnia\" (near Spittal an der Drau), \"Flavia Solva\" (near Leibnitz), \"Celeia\" (Celje) in today's Slovenia, \"Juvavum\" (Salzburg), \"Ovilava\" (Wels), \"Lauriacum\" (Lorch at the mouth of the Enns, the ancient \"Anisus\").  Knowledge of Roman Noricum has been decisively expanded by the work of Richard Knabl, an Austrian epigrapher of the 19th century.  The transition from Roman to barbarian rule in Noricum is well documented in Eugippius' Life of Saint Severinus, providing material for analogies for this process in other regions where primary sources from the period are lacking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In modern politics.", "content": "In 1919, Heinrich Lammasch, the last prime minister of Imperial Austria, proposed to give the young republic the name of \"Norische Republik\" or \"Noric Republic\", because the ancient borders were similar to those of the new state, which – at the time – did not wish to be considered the heir of the Habsburg monarchy, but an independent, neutral and peaceful state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Episcopal sees.", "content": "Episcopal sees of Noricum that are now listed in the \"Annuario Pontificio\" as titular sees include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Noricum () is the Latin name for the Celtic kingdom or federation of tribes that included most of modern Austria and part of Slovenia. In the first century AD, it became a province of the Roman Empire. Its borders were the Danube to the north, \"Raetia\" and \"Vindelicia\" to the west, Pannonia to the east and southeast, and \"Italia\" (\"Venetia et Histria\") to the south. The kingdom was founded around 400 BC, and had its capital at the royal residence at Virunum on the Magdalensberg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971703}
{"src_title": "Electrical cable", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The term \"cable\" originally referred to a nautical line of specific length where multiple ropes are combined to produce a strong thick line that was used to anchor large ships. As electric technology developed, people changed from using bare copper wire to using groupings of wires and various sheathing and shackling methods that resembled the mechanical cabling so the term was adopted for electrical wiring. In the 19th century and early 20th century, electrical cable was often insulated using cloth, rubber or paper. Plastic materials are generally used today, except for high-reliability power cables. The term has also come to be associated with communications because of its use in electrical communications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern applications.", "content": "Electrical cables are used to connect two or more devices, enabling the transfer of electrical signals or power from one device to the other. Cables are used for a wide range of purposes, and each must be tailored for that purpose. Cables are used extensively in electronic devices for power and signal circuits. Long-distance communication takes place over undersea cables. Power cables are used for bulk transmission of alternating and direct current power, especially using high-voltage cable. Electrical cables are extensively used in building wiring for lighting, power and control circuits permanently installed in buildings. Since all the circuit conductors required can be installed in a cable at one time, installation labor is saved compared to certain other wiring methods.  Physically, an electrical cable is an assembly consisting of one or more conductors with their own insulations and optional screens, individual covering(s), assembly protection and protective covering(s). Electrical cables may be made more flexible by stranding the wires. In this process, smaller individual wires are twisted or braided together to produce larger wires that are more flexible than solid wires of similar size. Bunching small wires before concentric stranding adds the most flexibility. Copper wires in a cable may be bare, or they may be plated with a thin layer of another metal, most often tin but sometimes gold, silver or some other material. Tin, gold, and silver are much less prone to oxidation than copper, which may lengthen wire life, and makes soldering easier. Tinning is also used to provide lubrication between strands. Tinning was used to help removal of rubber insulation. Tight lays during stranding makes the cable extensible (CBA – as in telephone handset cords).  Cables can be securely fastened and organized, such as by using trunking, cable trays, cable ties or cable lacing. Continuous-flex or flexible cables used in moving applications within cable carriers can be secured using strain relief devices or cable ties.  At high frequencies, current tends to run along the surface of the conductor. This is known as the skin effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cables and electromagnetic fields.", "content": "Any current-carrying conductor, including a cable, radiates an electromagnetic field. Likewise, any conductor or cable will pick up energy from any existing electromagnetic field around it. These effects are often undesirable, in the first case amounting to unwanted transmission of energy which may adversely affect nearby equipment or other parts of the same piece of equipment; and in the second case, unwanted pickup of noise which may mask the desired signal being carried by the cable, or, if the cable is carrying power supply or control voltages, pollute them to such an extent as to cause equipment malfunction.  The first solution to these problems is to keep cable lengths in buildings short since pick up and transmission are essentially proportional to the length of the cable. The second solution is to route cables away from trouble. Beyond this, there are particular cable designs that minimize electromagnetic pickup and transmission. Three of the principal design techniques are shielding, coaxial geometry, and twisted-pair geometry.  Shielding makes use of the electrical principle of the Faraday cage. The cable is encased for its entire length in foil or wire mesh. All wires running inside this shielding layer will be to a large extent decoupled from external \"electrical\" fields, particularly if the shield is connected to a point of constant voltage, such as earth or ground. Simple shielding of this type is not greatly effective against low-frequency \"magnetic\" fields, however - such as magnetic \"hum\" from a nearby power transformer. A grounded shield on cables operating at 2.5 kV or more gathers leakage current and capacitive current, protecting people from electric shock and equalizing stress on the cable insulation.  Coaxial design helps to further reduce low-frequency magnetic transmission and pickup. In this design the foil or mesh shield has a circular cross section and the inner conductor is exactly at its center. This causes the voltages induced by a magnetic field between the shield and the core conductor to consist of two nearly equal magnitudes which cancel each other.  A twisted pair has two wires of a cable twisted around each other. This can be demonstrated by putting one end of a pair of wires in a hand drill and turning while maintaining moderate tension on the line. Where the interfering signal has a wavelength that is long compared to the pitch of the twisted pair, alternate lengths of wires develop opposing voltages, tending to cancel the effect of the interference.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fire protection.", "content": "In building construction, electrical cable jacket material is a potential source of fuel for fires. To limit the spread of fire, one may use cable coating materials or jacketing that is fire retardant. The plastic covering on some metal clad cables may be stripped off at installation to reduce the fuel source for fires. Inorganic coatings and boxes around cables safeguard the adjacent areas from the fire threat associated with unprotected cable jacketing. However, this fire protection also traps heat generated from conductor losses, so the protection must be thin.  To provide fire protection to a cable, the insulation is treated with fire retardant materials, or non-combustible mineral insulation is used.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Codes and colours.", "content": "CENELEC HD 361 is a ratified standard published by CENELEC, which relates to wire and cable marking type, whose goal is to harmonize cables. Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN, VDE) has released a similar standard (DIN VDE 0292).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hybrid cables.", "content": "Hybrid optical and electrical cables can be used in wireless outdoor fiber-to-the-antenna (FTTA) applications. In these cables, the optical fibers carry information, and the electrical conductors are used to transmit power. These cables can be placed in several environments to serve antennas mounted on poles, towers or other structures. Local safety regulations may apply.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An electrical cable is an assembly of one or more wires running side by side or bundled, which is used to carry electric current.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971704}
{"src_title": "Karl Leisner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Leisner was born on 28 February 1915, the oldest of five children. When he was six years old, the family moved to Kleve, a city on the lower Rhine, where his father worked as a civil servant. He attended school and completed his gymnasium studies in 1934. During his youth, he became an altar boy and, at the suggestion of the high school chaplain, formed a Catholic youth group, the Saint Werner Group. These youth groups combined prayer with outdoor activities, such as camping and cycling. Leisner turned out to be a natural leader and became a youth leader in the 1930s, during the era in which the Nazis were beginning to take control of all youth organizations. In order to avoid Nazi interference, Leisner would often take his group on camping trips to Holland or Belgium.  In 1934, when he was nineteen, Leisner entered the seminary in Munich, and was named Diocesan Youth Leader by Clemens August von Galen, Bishop of Münster. He spent six months in compulsory agricultural work during which, despite Nazi opposition, he organized Sunday Mass for his fellow workers. His home was raided by the Gestapo, who seized his diaries and papers. These meticulously preserved documents tell how the spiritual young man became a religious leader.  On 25 March 1939, Galen ordained Leisner a deacon. Shortly after his ordination, during a medical examination, the doctor told the new deacon that he had contracted tuberculosis. In those days, the sole treatment available for the disease was good food and fresh air. These were to be found at a sanitorium in St. Blasien, in the Black Forest, where he was sent and began to recover. It was during his recovery that a fellow patient heard him criticize Adolf Hitler. The Gestapo arrested him as a political prisoner on 9 November 1939, when he was twenty-five. He was interned first in Freiburg and later in Mannheim. Leisner was initially imprisoned in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, but was moved to the Dachau concentration camp on 14 December 1940, where he became prisoner No. 22,356. Since he was a deacon, Leisner was assigned to the priests' block.  Prisoners often had to work outside in snow or rain and then had to sleep in their wet prison clothes. Cold weather, poor rations and harsh treatment proved a dangerous combination for someone already suffering to tuberculosis. Such conditions caused Leisner's condition to become active. Then, during an inspection, two Gestapo guards beat him unconscious and he spent several hours on the floor of his hut. By March 1942, he was spitting blood and was forced to report to the infirmary where medical experiments were known to be performed. He was put in a room that was crowded with over 100 tuberculosis patients. In Dachau, there was never any attempt to cure a disease and very little care was given to the sick. During inspections of the infirmary, any patient thought to be incurable was executed.  On 17 December 1944, Gaudete Sunday, a fellow prisoner, French Bishop Gabriel Piguet, secretly ordained him a priest. The necessary paperwork with the authorization for the ordination, as well as other necessary items, were smuggled into the camp by \"\"Mädi\"\", the \"Angel of Dachau\", a young woman named Josefa Mack. (Mack went on to become a School Sister of Notre Dame in Munich, called Sister Maria Imma.) Some imprisoned Protestant pastors helped organize the event and a Jewish violinist played music near the barracks to create a diversion.  The newly ordained priest only celebrated a single Mass and was so ill that he had to postpone his first Mass for over a week. When Dachau was liberated on 4 May 1945, Leisner was taken to a sanatarium in Planegg, near Munich. He died there a few months later, on 12 August 1945.  Leisner's body was taken to Kleve and buried in a local cemetery on 20 August 1945. His remains were exhumed and re-interred in the crypt of the Cathedral of Xanten in 1966.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beatification.", "content": "On a visit to Berlin in 1996, Pope John Paul II recognized Leisner as a martyr for the Catholic faith and beatified him, together with Bernhard Lichtenberg, another Nazi resister. His feast day is 12 August.  The canonization process for Leisner has not yet been completed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "Some works have been published in English about Leisner. One is \"The Victory of Father Karl\" by Otto Pies, published in 1957. It was a translation of \"Stephanus heute; Karl Leisner, Priester und Opfer\". A radio drama adaptation was produced for \"The Hour of St. Francis\" with the same title. A half-hour docudrama on videotape was released by the Daughters of St. Paul in 1984, also with the same title.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leisner and Schoenstatt.", "content": "Karl Leisner got to know the Schoenstatt movement as a teenager and belonged to a Schoenstatt group - which included the future Bishop of Münster, Heinrich Tenhumberg - up till his final days. Throughout his life, the few but intense times of personal encounter with Our Lady in the Original Shrine in Schoenstatt remained the decisive milestones for Karl Leisner on his path of calling. \"Christ, my passion\" - led by this ideal, he worked in the diocesan youth and wrestled his way to a decision for a celibate life as a priest. In the Dachau concentration camp he founded, together with Josef Fischer, the first Schoenstatt group in Dachau, which had to end its meetings in the 1942 starvation year. From 1943 Karl Leisner belonged to the group \"Victor in vinculis Mariae\" (victor in the shackles of Mary) and thus to the circle of Schoenstaetters around the founder Josef Kentenich. From the ideal and the fraternity of this group, Karl Leisner drew the strength to accept his fate, which was burdened by the tuberculosis of the lung as well as the difficult conditions in the concentration camp, as the will of God and to offer his life as a martyr.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Leisner (28 February 1915 in Rees – 12 August 1945 in Planegg, Germany) was a Roman Catholic priest interned in the Dachau concentration camp. He died of tuberculosis shortly after being liberated by the Allied forces. He has been declared a martyr and was beatified by Pope John Paul II on 23 June 1996.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971705}
{"src_title": "Thales's theorem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "There is nothing extant of the writing of Thales; work done in ancient Greece tended to be attributed to men of wisdom without respect to all the individuals involved in any particular intellectual constructions — this is true of Pythagoras especially. Attribution did tend to occur at a later time. Reference to Thales was made by Proclus, and by Diogenes Laërtius documenting Pamphila's statement that Thales \"was the first to inscribe in a circle a right-angle triangle\".  Indian and Babylonian mathematicians knew this for special cases before Thales proved it. It is believed that Thales learned that an angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle during his travels to Babylon. The theorem is named after Thales because he was said by ancient sources to have been the first to prove the theorem, using his own results that the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal, and that the sum of angles in a triangle is equal to 180°.  Dante's \"Paradiso\" (canto 13, lines 101–102) refers to Thales's theorem in the course of a speech.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proof.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First proof.", "content": "The following facts are used: the sum of the angles in a triangle is equal to 180° and the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal. Since = =, ∆OBA and ∆OBC are isosceles triangles, and by the equality of the base angles of an isosceles triangle, ∠OBC = ∠OCB and ∠OBA = ∠OAB.  Let \"α\" = ∠BAO and β = ∠OBC. The three internal angles of the ∆ABC triangle are \"α\", (\"α\" + \"β\"), and \"β\". Since the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to 180°, we have  Q.E.D.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second proof.", "content": "The theorem may also be proven using trigonometry: Let formula_5, formula_6, and formula_7. Then B is a point on the unit circle formula_8. We will show that ∆ABC forms a right angle by proving that and are perpendicular — that is, the product of their slopes is equal to −1. We calculate the slopes for and :  and  Then we show that their product equals −1:  Note the use of the Pythagorean trigonometric identity formula_12.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third proof.", "content": "Let formula_13 be a triangle in a circle where formula_14 is a diameter in that circle. Then construct a new triangle formula_15 by mirroring triangle formula_13 over the line formula_14 and then mirroring it again over the line perpendicular to formula_14 which goes through the center of the circle. Since lines formula_19 and formula_20 are parallel, likewise for formula_21 and formula_22, the quadrilateral formula_23 is a parallelogram. Since lines formula_14 and formula_25 are both diameters of the circle and therefore are equal length, the parallelogram must be a rectangle. All angles in a rectangle are right angles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Converse.", "content": "For any triangle, and, in particular, any right triangle, there is exactly one circle containing all three vertices of the triangle. (\"Sketch of proof\". The locus of points equidistant from two given points is a straight line that is called the perpendicular bisector of the line segment connecting the points. The perpendicular bisectors of any two sides of a triangle intersect in exactly one point. This point must be equidistant from the vertices of the triangle.) This circle is called the circumcircle of the triangle.  One way of formulating Thales's theorem is: if the center of a triangle's circumcircle lies on the triangle then the triangle is right, and the center of its circumcircle lies on its hypotenuse.  The converse of Thales's theorem is then: the center of the circumcircle of a right triangle lies on its hypotenuse. (Equivalently, a right triangle's hypotenuse is a diameter of its circumcircle.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proof of the converse using geometry.", "content": "This proof consists of 'completing' the right triangle to form a rectangle and noticing that the center of that rectangle is equidistant from the vertices and so is the center of the circumscribing circle of the original triangle, it utilizes two facts:  Let there be a right angle ∠ABC, r a line parallel to passing by A and s a line parallel to passing by C. Let D be the point of intersection of lines r and s (Note that it has not been proven that D lies on the circle)  The quadrilateral ABCD forms a parallelogram by construction (as opposite sides are parallel). Since in a parallelogram adjacent angles are supplementary (add to 180°) and ∠ABC is a right angle (90°) then angles ∠BAD, ∠BCD, and ∠ADC are also right (90°); consequently ABCD is a rectangle.  Let O be the point of intersection of the diagonals and. Then the point O, by the second fact above, is equidistant from A, B, and C. And so O is center of the circumscribing circle, and the hypotenuse of the triangle () is a diameter of the circle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alternate proof of the converse using geometry.", "content": "Given a right triangle with hypotenuse, construct a circle Ω whose diameter is. Let be the center of Ω. Let be the intersection of Ω and the ray. By Thales's theorem, ∠ is right. But then must equal. (If lies inside ∆, ∠ would be obtuse, and if lies outside ∆, ∠ would be acute.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proof of the converse using linear algebra.", "content": "This proof utilizes two facts: Let there be a right angle ∠ABC and circle M with as a diameter. Let M's center lie on the origin, for easier calculation. Then we know It follows  Hence:  This means that \"A\" and \"B\" are equidistant from the origin, i.e. from the center of \"M\". Since \"A\" lies on \"M\", so does \"B\", and the circle \"M\" is therefore the triangle's circumcircle.  The above calculations in fact establish that both directions of Thales's theorem are valid in any inner product space.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Generalizations and related results.", "content": "Thales's theorem is a special case of the following theorem: See inscribed angle, the proof of this theorem is quite similar to the proof of Thales's theorem given above.  A related result to Thales's theorem is the following:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application.", "content": "Thales's theorem can be used to construct the tangent to a given circle that passes through a given point. In the figure at right, given circle \"k\" with centre O and the point P outside \"k\", bisect OP at H and draw the circle of radius OH with centre H. OP is a diameter of this circle, so the triangles connecting OP to the points T and T′ where the circles intersect are both right triangles. Thales's theorem can also be used to find the centre of a circle using an object with a right angle, such as a set square or rectangular sheet of paper larger than the circle. The angle is placed anywhere on its circumference (figure 1). The intersections of the two sides with the circumference define a diameter (figure 2). Repeating this with a different set of intersections yields another diameter (figure 3). The centre is at the intersection of the diameters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In geometry, Thales's theorem states that if A, B, and C are distinct points on a circle where the line is a diameter, then the angle ∠ABC is a right angle. Thales' theorem is a special case of the inscribed angle theorem, and is mentioned and proved as part of the 31st proposition, in the third book of Euclid's \"Elements\". It is generally attributed to Thales of Miletus, who is said to have offered an ox (probably to the god Apollo) as a sacrifice of thanksgiving for the discovery, but sometimes it is attributed to Pythagoras.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971706}
{"src_title": "Visual Basic for Applications", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "Code written in VBA is compiled to Microsoft P-Code (pseudo-code), a proprietary intermediate language, which the host applications (Access, Excel, Word, Outlook, and PowerPoint) store as a separate stream in COM Structured Storage files (e.g., codice_1 or codice_2) independent of the document streams. The intermediate code is then executed by a virtual machine (hosted by the host application). Despite its resemblance to many old BASIC dialects (particularly Microsoft BASIC, from which it is indirectly derived), VBA is incompatible with any of them except Visual Basic, where source code of VBA modules and classes can be directly imported, and which shares the same library and virtual machine. Compatibility ends with Visual Basic version 6; VBA is incompatible with Visual Basic.NET (VB.NET). VBA is proprietary to Microsoft and, apart from the COM interface, is not an open standard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Automation.", "content": "Interaction with the host application uses OLE Automation. Typically, the host application provides a type library and application programming interface (API) documentation which document how VBA programs can interact with the application. This documentation can be examined from inside the VBA development environment using its Object Browser.  Visual Basic for Applications programs which are written to use the OLE Automation interface of one application cannot be used to automate a different application, even if that application hosts the Visual Basic runtime, because the OLE Automation interfaces will be different. For example, a VBA program written to automate Microsoft Word cannot be used with a different word processor, even if that word processor hosts VBA.  Conversely, multiple applications can be automated from the one host by creating Application objects within the VBA code. References to the different libraries must be created within the VBA client before any of the methods, objects, etc. become available to use in the application. This is achieved through what is referred to as Early or Late Binding. These application objects create the OLE link to the application when they are first created. Commands to the different applications must be done explicitly through these application objects in order to work correctly.  As an example, VBA code written in Microsoft Access can establish references to the Excel, Word and Outlook libraries; this allows creating an application that --- for instance --- runs a query in Access, exports the results to Excel and analyzes them, and then formats the output as tables in a Word document or sends them as an Outlook email.  VBA programs can be attached to a menu button, a macro, a keyboard shortcut, or an OLE/COM event, such as the opening of a document in the application. The language provides a user interface in the form of UserForms, which can host ActiveX controls for added functionality.  Inter-process communication automation includes the Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE) and RealTimeData (RTD) which allows calling a Component Object Model (COM) automation server for dynamic or realtime financial or scientific data.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Security concerns.", "content": "As with any common programming language, VBA macros can be created with malicious intent. Using VBA, most of the security features lie in the hands of the user, not the author. The VBA host application options are accessible to the user. The user who runs any document containing VBA macros can preset the software with user preferences. End-users can protect themselves from attack by disabling macros from running in an application or by granting permission for a document to run VBA code only if they are sure that the source of the document can be trusted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "As of July 1, 2007, Microsoft no longer offers VBA distribution licenses to new customers. Microsoft intended to add.NET-based languages to the current version of VBA ever since the release of the.NET Framework, of which versions 1.0 and 1.1 included a scripting runtime technology named \"Script for the.NET Framework\". Visual Studio.NET 2002 and 2003 SDK contained a separate scripting IDE called \"Visual Studio for Applications\" (VSA) that supported VB.NET. One of its significant features was that the interfaces to the technology were available via Active Scripting (VBScript and JScript), allowing even.NET-unaware applications to be scripted via.NET languages. However, VSA was deprecated in version 2.0 of the.NET Framework, leaving no clear upgrade path for applications desiring Active Scripting support (although \"scripts\" can be created in C#, VBScript, and other.NET languages, which can be compiled and executed at run-time via libraries installed as part of the standard.NET runtime).  Microsoft dropped VBA support for Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac. VBA was restored in Microsoft Office for Mac 2011. Microsoft said that it has no plan to remove VBA from the Windows version of Office.  With Office 2010, Microsoft introduced VBA7, which contains a true pointer data type: LongPtr. This allows referencing 64-bit address space. The 64-bit install of Office 2010 does not support common controls of MSComCtl (TabStrip, Toolbar, StatusBar, ProgressBar, TreeView, ListViews, ImageList, Slider, ImageComboBox) or MSComCt2 (Animation, UpDown, MonthView, DateTimePicker, FlatScrollBar), so legacy 32-bit code ported to 64-bit VBA code that depends on these common controls will not function. This does not affect the 32-bit version Office 2010. VBA7 includes no 64-bit version of the common controls, so it leaves developers with no means to migrate VBA applications to 64-bit. Microsoft suggests contacting the software vendor for 64-bit versions of VBA controls.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) is an implementation of Microsoft's event-driven programming language Visual Basic 6, which was declared legacy in 2008, and its associated integrated development environment (IDE). Although pre-.NET Visual Basic is no longer supported or updated by Microsoft, the VBA programming language was upgraded in 2010 with the introduction of Visual Basic for Applications 7 in Microsoft Office applications. As of 2020, VBA has held its position as \"most dreaded\" language for developers for 2 years. (The most dreaded language for 2018 was Visual Basic 6).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971707}
{"src_title": "Trutnov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Trutnov is located on a 12th-century Slavic settlement named after the Úpa River; the first written mention of this settlement is from 1260. In order to develop the countryside, King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia granted German settlers the right to establish a town at the pre-existing settlement. The first mention of the German name \"Trautenau\", from which the modern name \"Trutnov\" is derived, is from a document of King Wenceslaus II in 1301. Since the end of the 14th century, Trutnov was a dowry town for the Bohemian queen. Its stout defenses repelled all enemies except for a capture by Jan Žižka during the Hussite Wars in 1421 and sieges by the Swedes during the Thirty Years' War in 1642 and 1647. It also was the site of the Battle of Trautenau in 1866 during the Austro-Prussian War.  In 1974, Václav Havel, the future president of Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic, worked for nine months at the Krakonoš brewery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "For centuries, Trutnov relied on farming for its economy, but it began to be industrialized during the 19th century. In 1823, Johannes Faltis constructed a linen manufactury and a cotton weaving mill. Textiles remain an important part of the city's economy. Germans were the ethnic majority in the town until their expulsion in 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "Ice hockey team HC Trutnov is based in the town.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Trutnov has hosted the Trutnov Open Air Music Festival since 1990 and, since 1999, has hosted Obscene Extreme.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Trutnov is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Trutnov (; ) is a town in the Hradec Králové Region of the Czech Republic. It has a population of more than 30,000 and lies in the Krkonoše in the valley of the Úpa River.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971708}
{"src_title": "Ninjutsu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Spying in Japan dates as far back as Prince Shōtoku (572–622). According to Shōninki, the first open usage of \"ninjutsu\" during a military campaign was in the Genpei War, when Minamoto no Kuro Yoshitsune chose warriors to serve as \"shinobi\" during a battle. This manuscript goes on to say that during the Kenmu era, Kusunoki Masashige frequently used \"ninjutsu\". According to footnotes in this manuscript, the Genpei War lasted from 1180 to 1185, and the Kenmu Restoration occurred between 1333 and 1336. \"Ninjutsu\" was developed by the samurai of the Nanboku-cho period, and further refined by groups of samurai mainly from Kōka and the Iga Province of Japan in later periods.  Throughout history, the \"shinobi\" were assassins, scouts, and spies who were hired mostly by territorial lords known as \"daimyō\". Despite being able to assassinate in stealth, the primary role was as spies and scouts. \"Shinobi\" are mainly noted for their use of stealth, and deception. They would use this to avoid direct confrontation if possible, which enabled them to escape large groups of opposition.  Many different schools (\"ryū\") have taught their unique versions of \"ninjutsu\". An example of these is the Togakure-ryū, which claims to have been developed after a defeated samurai warrior called Daisuke Togakure escaped to the region of Iga. He later came in contact with the warrior-monk Kain Doshi, who taught him a new way of viewing life and the means of survival (\"ninjutsu\").  \"Ninjutsu\" was developed as a collection of fundamental survivalist techniques in the warring state of feudal Japan. The \"ninja\" used their art to ensure their survival in a time of violent political turmoil. \"Ninjutsu\" included methods of gathering information and techniques of non-detection, avoidance, and misdirection. \"Ninjutsu\" involved training in freerunning, disguise, escape, concealment, archery, and medicine. Skills relating to espionage and assassination were highly useful to warring factions in feudal Japan. At some point, the skills of espionage became known collectively as \"ninjutsu\", and the people who specialized in these tasks were called \"shinobi no mono\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": ", sometimes used interchangeably with the modern term, is the strategy and tactics of unconventional warfare, guerrilla warfare and espionage purportedly practiced by the ninja. \"Ninjutsu\" was a separate discipline in some traditional Japanese schools, which integrated study of more conventional martial arts (\"taijutsu\") along with \"shurikenjutsu\", \"kenjutsu\", \"sōjutsu\", \"bōjutsu\" and others.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971709}
{"src_title": "Theodor Körner (president)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "As son of an officer of the Austro-Hungarian Army, he was born in Újszőny, (today Komárom, Hungary). Family legend has it that he was related to the poet of the same name, but these stories are not proven.  Körner attended the military school in Mährisch Weißkirchen (Hranice), the military academy, and became lieutenant in 1894. He served as an officer in Agram (today Zagreb, Croatia) and was promoted to major in 1904, in which year he became a member of the Austrian staff. During World War I, he was an active commander on the Italian front. He resigned from his military career in 1924 as a General.  Always interested in politics, he joined the social democrats and became a member of parliament in 1924. He served as Chairman of the Federal Council of Austria between December 1933 and February 1934.  The civil war in Austria and the installation of the austro-fascist dictatorship under Engelbert Dollfuss ended Körner's career as a politician. He was arrested, like other members of his party, by the authoritarian government that banned all opposition parties and put their representatives into prison. During World War II, Körner was again imprisoned, this time by the Nazis.  After the war, in April 1945, Körner became Mayor of Vienna in the newly erected Second Republic. Körner was responsible for rebuilding and reconstructing Vienna, which was heavily destroyed due to the bombing during the war. After the death of Karl Renner, his party nominated Körner as candidate for the presidency, and Körner won the elections with slightly more than 51 percent of the votes. He therefore became the first President of Austria directly elected by the people. Körner died in Vienna, in office, the second consecutive President to do so.  Körner had a profound knowledge of military sciences and wrote about military theory. In Vienna, there is a street named after him, as is the Theodor Körner Prize, an Austrian award for science and art.  A motor vessel, the MS Theodor Körner was built in 1965 and currently operates on the Danube River as a \"Bike & Boat\" cruise ship, accommodating 135 passengers plus crew.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theodor Körner, Edler von Siegringen (; April 23, 1873 – January 4, 1957) served as President of Austria, between 1951 and 1957.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971710}
{"src_title": "Kirchhoff's circuit laws", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Kirchhoff's current law.", "content": "This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule, or Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule).  This law states that, for any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node; or equivalently:The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero.Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative) quantity reflecting direction towards or away from a node, this principle can be succinctly stated as:  where \"n\" is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from the node.  The law is based on the conservation of charge where the charge (measured in coulombs) is the product of the current (in amperes) and the time (in seconds). If the net charge in a region is constant, the current law will hold on the boundaries of the region. This means that the current law relies on the fact that the net charge in the wires and components is constant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "A matrix version of Kirchhoff's current law is the basis of most circuit simulation software, such as SPICE. The current law is used with Ohm's law to perform nodal analysis.  The current law is applicable to any lumped network irrespective of the nature of the network; whether unilateral or bilateral, active or passive, linear or non-linear.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kirchhoff's voltage law.", "content": "This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule, and Kirchhoff's second rule.  This law states thatThe directed sum of the potential differences (voltages) around any closed loop is zero.  Similarly to Kirchhoff's current law, the voltage law can be stated as:  Here, \"n\" is the total number of voltages measured.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Generalization.", "content": "In the low-frequency limit, the voltage drop around any loop is zero. This includes imaginary loops arranged arbitrarily in space – not limited to the loops delineated by the circuit elements and conductors. In the low-frequency limit, this is a corollary of Faraday's law of induction (which is one of Maxwell's equations).  This has practical application in situations involving \"static electricity\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Limitations.", "content": "Kirchhoff's circuit laws are the result of the lumped element model and both depend on the model being applicable to the circuit in question. When the model is not applicable, the laws do not apply.  The current law is dependent on the assumption that the net charge in any wire, junction or lumped component is constant. Whenever the electric field between parts of the circuit is non-negligible, such as when two wires are capacitively coupled, this may not be the case. This occurs in high-frequency AC circuits, where the lumped element model is no longer applicable. For example, in a transmission line, the charge density in the conductor will constantly be oscillating.  On the other hand, the voltage law relies on the fact that the action of time-varying magnetic fields are confined to individual components, such as inductors. In reality, the induced electric field produced by an inductor is not confined, but the leaked fields are often negligible.  Modelling real circuits with lumped elements  The lumped element approximation for a circuit is accurate at low frequencies. At higher frequencies, leaked fluxes and varying charge densities in conductors become significant. To an extent, it is possible to still model such circuits using parasitic components. If frequencies are too high, it may be more appropriate to simulate the fields directly using finite element modelling or other techniques.  To model circuits so that both laws can still be used, it is important to understand the distinction between \"physical\" circuit elements and the \"ideal\" lumped elements. For example, a wire is not an ideal conductor. Unlike an ideal conductor, wires can inductively and capacitively couple to each other (and to themselves), and have a finite propagation delay. Real conductors can be modeled in terms of lumped elements by considering parasitic capacitances distributed between the conductors to model capacitive coupling, or parasitic (mutual) inductances to model inductive coupling. Wires also have some self-inductance, which is the reason that decoupling capacitors are necessary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "Assume an electric network consisting of two voltage sources and three resistors.  According to the first law: Applying the second law to the closed circuit \"s\", and substituting for voltage using Ohm's law gives: The second law, again combined with Ohm's law, applied to the closed circuit \"s\" gives:  This yields a system of linear equations in formula_6: which is equivalent to Assuming the solution is  The current formula_12 has a negative sign which means the assumed direction of formula_12 was incorrect and formula_12 is actually flowing in the direction opposite to the red arrow labeled formula_12. The current in formula_16 flows from left to right.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities that deal with the current and potential difference (commonly known as voltage) in the lumped element model of electrical circuits. They were first described in 1845 by German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff. This generalized the work of Georg Ohm and preceded the work of James Clerk Maxwell. Widely used in electrical engineering, they are also called Kirchhoff's rules or simply Kirchhoff's laws. These laws can be applied in time and frequency domains and form the basis for network analysis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971711}
{"src_title": "Franz Lehár", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Lehár was born in the northern part of Komárom, Kingdom of Hungary (now Komárno, Slovakia), the eldest son of Franz Lehár (senior) (1838–1898), an Austrian bandmaster in the Infantry Regiment No. 50 of the Austro-Hungarian Army and Christine Neubrandt (1849–1906), a Hungarian woman from a family of German descent. He grew up speaking only Hungarian until the age of 12. Later he put an acute accent above the \"a\" of his father's surname \"Lehár\" to indicate the vowel in the corresponding Hungarian orthography.  While his younger brother Anton entered cadet school in Vienna to become a professional officer, Franz studied violin at the Prague Conservatory, where his violin teacher was Antonín Bennewitz, but was advised by Antonín Dvořák to focus on composition. However, the Conservatory's rules at that time did not allow students to study both performance and composition, and Bennewitz and Lehár senior exerted pressure on Lehár to take his degree in violin as a practical matter, arguing that he could study composition on his own later. Lehár followed their wishes, against his will, and aside from a few clandestine lessons with Zdeněk Fibich he was self-taught as a composer. After graduation in 1888 he joined his father's band in Vienna, as assistant bandmaster. Two years later he became bandmaster at Losonc (today Lučenec, Slovakia), making him the youngest bandmaster in the Austro-Hungarian Army at that time, but he left the army and joined the navy. With the navy he was first Kapellmeister at Pola (Pula) from 1894 to 1896, resigning in the later year when his first opera, \"Kukuschka\" (later reworked as \"Tatjana\" in 1906), premiered in Leipzig. It was only a middling success and Lehár eventually rejoined the army, with service in the garrisons at Trieste, Budapest (1898) and finally Vienna from 1899 to 1902. In 1902 he became conductor at the historic Vienna Theater an der Wien, where his operetta \"Wiener Frauen\" was performed in November of that year.  He is most famous for his operettas – the most successful of which is \"The Merry Widow\" (\"Die lustige Witwe\") – but he also wrote sonatas, symphonic poems and marches. He also composed a number of waltzes (the most popular being \"Gold und Silber\", composed for Princess Pauline von Metternich's \"Gold and Silver\" Ball, January 1902), some of which were drawn from his famous operettas. Individual songs from some of the operettas have become standards, notably \"Vilja\" from \"The Merry Widow\" and \"You Are My Heart's Delight\" (\"Dein ist mein ganzes Herz\") from \"The Land of Smiles\" (\"Das Land des Lächelns\"). His most ambitious work, \"Giuditta\" in 1934 is closer to opera than to operetta. It contains the ever popular \"Meine Lippen, sie küssen so heiß\" (\"On my lips every kiss is like wine\").  Lehár was also associated with the operatic tenor Richard Tauber, who sang in many of his operettas, beginning with a revival of his 1910 operetta \"Zigeunerliebe\" in 1920 and then \"\" in 1922, in which Lehár once again found a suitable post-war style. Lehár made a brief appearance in the 1930 film adaptation \"The Land of Smiles\" starring Tauber. Between 1925 and 1934 he wrote six operettas specifically for Tauber's voice. By 1935 he decided to form his own publishing house, Glocken-Verlag (Publishing House of the Bells), to maximize his personal control over performance rights to his works.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lehár and the Third Reich.", "content": "Lehár's relationship with the Nazi regime was an uneasy one. He had always used Jewish librettists for his operas and had been part of the cultural milieu in Vienna which included a significant Jewish contingent. Further, although Lehár was Roman Catholic, his wife, Sophie (née Paschkis) had been Jewish before her conversion to Catholicism upon marriage, and this was sufficient to generate hostility towards them personally and towards his work. Hitler enjoyed Lehár's music, and hostility diminished across Germany after Joseph Goebbels' intervention on Lehár's part. In 1938 Mrs. Lehár was given the status of \"Ehrenarierin\" (honorary Aryan by marriage). Nonetheless, attempts were made at least once to have her deported. The Nazi regime was aware of the uses of Lehár's music for propaganda purposes: concerts of his music were given in occupied Paris in 1941. Even so, Lehár's influence was limited. It is alleged that he tried personally to secure Hitler's guarantee of the safety of one of his librettists, Fritz Löhner-Beda, but he was not able to prevent the murder of Beda in Auschwitz-III. He also tried to prevent the arrest of Louis Treumann, the first Danilo in \"The Merry Widow\", but the 70-year old Treumann and his wife Stefanie were sent to Theresienstadt concentration camp on 28 July 1942, where Stefanie died in September and Louis died on 5 March 1943.  On 12 January 1939 and 30 April 1940 Lehár personally received awards from Hitler in Berlin and Vienna, including the Goethe Medal. On Hitler's birthday in 1938 Lehár had given him as a special gift a red Morocco leather volume in commemoration of the 50th performance of \"The Merry Widow\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "He died aged 78 in 1948 in Bad Ischl, near Salzburg, and was buried there. His younger brother Anton became the administrator of his estate, promoting the popularity of Franz Lehár's music.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lehár recording.", "content": "In 1908, the German branch of The Gramophone Company Ltd (afterwards HMV) issued twelve extracts (mostly ensembles) from Lehár's latest operetta, \"Der Mann mit den drei Frauen\", with the composer conducting. The singers included Mizzi Günther, Louise Kartousch and Ludwig Herold.  In 1929 and 1934, Lehár had conducted for Odeon Records \"The Land of Smiles\" and \"Giuditta\", starring Richard Tauber, Vera Schwarz and Jarmila Novotná. A 1942 Vienna broadcast of his operetta \"Paganini\" conducted by the composer has survived, starring soprano, Esther Réthy and tenor,. A 1942 Berlin radio production of \"Zigeunerliebe\" with Herbert Ernst Groh, conducted by Lehár, also survives.  In 1947, Lehár conducted the Tonhalle Orchester Zürich in a series of 78-rpm recordings for English Decca (released in the U.S. by London Records) of overtures and waltzes from his operettas. The recordings had remarkable sound for their time because they were made using Decca's Full Frequency Range Recording process, one of the first commercial high fidelity techniques. These recordings were later issued on LP (in 1969 on Decca eclipse ECM 2012 and reprocessed stereo on ECS 2012) and CD. A compilation of his recordings has been released by Naxos Records.  Following the collapse of the Berlin Wall, a set of discs recording the 1939 Saarbrücken concert of Lehár's works by German State Transmitter Saarbrücken conducted by Franz Lehár himself was discovered in East German state archives. This was released on CDs by Classic Produktion Osnabrück in 2000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anecdotes.", "content": "Gustav Mahler and his young wife Alma went to see Franz Lehár's Merry Widow in Vienna and loved it so much, they danced to its tunes as soon as they were home. From memory they played the waltzes on the piano, but could not remember the exact run of one passage. Next day they went to Vienna's main music shop Döblinger's, but hesitated to admit that they were looking for the score of what would be considered a \"popular\" operetta. While Mahler distracted the staff questioning them about the sales of his own compositions, Alma browsed through the music score of the Merry Widow. As soon as they were out on the street, Alma sang the complete waltz to Mahler.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Lehár ( ; ; 30 April 1870 – 24 October 1948) was an Austro-Hungarian composer. He is mainly known for his operettas, of which the most successful and best known is \"The Merry Widow\" (\"Die lustige Witwe\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971712}
{"src_title": "Sokoban", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rules.", "content": "The game is played on a board of squares, where each square is a floor or a wall. Some floor squares contain boxes and some floor squares are marked as storage locations.  The player is confined to the board and may move horizontally or vertically onto empty squares (never through walls or boxes). The player can move a box by walking up to it and push it to the square beyond. Boxes cannot be pulled, and they cannot be pushed to squares with walls or other boxes. The number of boxes equals the number of storage locations. The puzzle is solved when all boxes are placed at storage locations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected Releases.", "content": "In 1988, \"Sokoban\" was published in the U.S. by Spectrum HoloByte as \"Soko-Ban\" for the IBM-PC, compatible computers, Commodore 64, and Apple II series.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Sokoban\" was a hit in Japan and had sold over 400,000 units in that country by the time Spectrum HoloByte imported it to the United States. A review in \"Computer Gaming World\" praised the game for being \"pure and simple, very playable and mentally challenging\", citing its addictive qualities. It was also reviewed in \"Dragon\" giving it out of 5 stars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementations.", "content": "Implementations of \"Sokoban\" have been written for numerous computer platforms, including almost all home computer and personal computer systems. Different versions also exist for video game consoles, mobile phones, graphic calculators, digital cameras and electronic organizers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific Research.", "content": "\"Sokoban\" can be studied using the theory of computational complexity. The problem of solving \"Sokoban\" puzzles was first proved to be NP-hard. Further work showed that it was significantly more difficult than NP problems; it is PSPACE-complete. This is of interest for artificial intelligence (AI) research because solving \"Sokoban\" can be compared to the automated planning required by some autonomous robots.  \"Sokoban\" is difficult not only because of its large branching factor but also because of its large search tree depth. Some level types can even be extended indefinitely, with each iteration requiring an exponentially growing number of moves and pushes. Skilled human players rely mostly on heuristics and are usually able to quickly discard a great many futile or redundant lines of play by recognizing patterns and subgoals, thereby drastically reducing the amount of search.  Some \"Sokoban\" puzzles can be solved automatically by using a single-agent search algorithm, such as IDA*; enhanced by several techniques that make use of domain-specific knowledge. This is the method used by \"Rolling Stone\", a \"Sokoban\" solver developed by the University of Alberta GAMES Group. However, the more complex \"Sokoban\" levels are out of reach even for the best-automated solvers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "Several puzzles can be considered variants of the original \"Sokoban\" game in the sense that they all make use of a controllable character pushing boxes around in a maze.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Sokoban\" was created in 1981 by Hiroyuki Imabayashi. It was published in December 1982 by Thinking Rabbit, a software house based in Takarazuka, Japan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971713}
{"src_title": "Bitter orange", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Wild trees are found near small streams in generally secluded and wooded parts of Florida and The Bahamas after it was introduced to the area from Spain, where it had been introduced and cultivated heavily beginning in the 10th century by the Moors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "Many varieties of bitter orange are used for their essential oil, and are found in perfume, used as a flavoring or as a solvent and also for consumption. The Seville orange variety is used in the production of marmalade and also used to make French bigarade sauce.  Bitter orange is also employed in herbal medicine as a stimulant and appetite suppressant, due to its active ingredient, synephrine. Bitter orange supplements have been linked to a number of serious side effects and deaths, and consumer groups advocate that people avoid using the fruit medically. It is still not concluded if bitter orange affects medical conditions of heart and cardiovascular organs, by itself or in formulae with other substances. Standard reference materials are released concerning the properties in bitter orange by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), for ground fruit, extract and solid oral dosage form, along with those packaged together into one item.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cooking.", "content": "While the raw pulp is not edible, bitter orange is widely used in cooking. The Seville orange (the usual name in this context) is prized for making British orange marmalade, being higher in pectin than the sweet orange, and therefore giving a better set and a higher yield. Once a year, oranges of this variety are collected from trees in Seville and shipped to Britain to be used in marmalade. However, the fruit is rarely consumed locally in Andalusia. This reflects the historic Atlantic trading relationship with Portugal and Spain: the earliest recipe for'marmelat of oranges' dating from 1677.  Bitter orange—\"bigarrade\"—was used in all early recipes for Duck à l'orange, originally called \"canard à la bigarrade\". It is also used in compotes and for orange-flavored liqueurs. The peel can be used in the production of bitters. The unripe fruit, called \"narthangai\", is commonly used in Southern Indian cuisine, especially in Tamil cuisine. It is pickled by cutting it into spirals and stuffing it with salt. The pickle is usually consumed with yoghurt rice called \"thayir sadam\". The fresh fruit is also used frequently in \"pachadis\".  The Belgian \"Witbier\" (white beer) is often spiced with the peel of the bitter orange.  In Finland and Sweden bitter orange peel is used in dried, ground form (called \"pomeranssi\" in Finnish, \"pomerans\" in Swedish) in gingerbread (\"pepparkakor\"), some Christmas bread and in \"mämmi\". It is also used in the Nordic \"glögi\".  In Greece and Cyprus, the \"nerántzi\" or \"κιτρομηλο\", respectively, is one of the most prized fruits used for spoon sweets, and the \"C. aurantium\" tree (\"nerantziá\" or \"kitromiliá\") is a popular ornamental tree. In Albania as well, \"nerënxa\" or \"portokalli i hidhur\" is used commonly in spoon sweets.  In Turkey, juice of the ripe fruits can be used as salad dressing, especially in Çukurova region. However, in Iraqi cuisine, a bitter orange or \"raranj\" in Iraqi is used to complement dishes like Charred Fish \"samak/simach maskouf\", tomato stew \"morgat tamata\", \"Qeema\", a dish that has the same ingredients as an Iraqi tomato stew with the addition of minced meat, boiled chickpeas \"lablabi\", salads, as a dressing, and on essentially any dish one might desire to accompany bitter orange. Iraqis also consume it as a citrus fruit or juice it to make bitter orange juice \"'aseer raranj\". Throughout Iran (commonly known as narenj), the juice is popularly used as a salad dressing, souring agent in stews and pickles or as a marinade. The blossoms are collected fresh to make a prized sweet-smelling aromatic jam (\"Bitter orange blossom jam\" Morabba Bahar-Narenj), or added to brewing tea.  In the Americas, the juice from the ripe fruit is used as a marinade for meat in Nicaraguan, Cuban, Dominican and Haitian cooking, as it is in Peruvian ceviche. In Yucatán (Mexico), it is a main ingredient of the cochinita pibil. In Cuba a traditional Christmas time dessert is made with the peel of the bitter orange cooked in syrup and eaten with cheese and buñuelos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Herbal stimulant.", "content": "The extract of bitter orange (and bitter orange peel) has been marketed as dietary supplement purported to act as a weight-loss aid and appetite suppressant. Bitter orange contains the tyramine metabolites \"N\"-methyltyramine, octopamine and synephrine, substances similar to epinephrine, which act on the α adrenergic receptor to constrict blood vessels and increase blood pressure and heart rate. Several low-quality clinical trials have had results of p-Synephrine (alone or in combination with caffeine or some other substances) increasing weight loss slightly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similarities to ephedra.", "content": "Following bans on the herbal stimulant ephedra in the U.S., Canada, and elsewhere, bitter orange has been substituted into \"ephedra-free\" herbal weight-loss products by dietary supplement manufacturers. Like most dietary supplement ingredients, bitter orange has not undergone formal safety testing, but it is believed to cause the same spectrum of adverse events (harmful side-effects) as ephedra. The U.S. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health found that \"there is currently little evidence that bitter orange is safer to use than ephedra.\"  Case reports have linked bitter orange supplements to strokes, angina, and ischemic colitis. Following an incident in which a healthy young man suffered a myocardial infarction (heart attack) linked to bitter orange, a case study found that dietary supplement manufacturers had replaced ephedra with its analogs from bitter orange.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Drug interactions.", "content": "Bitter orange may have serious drug interactions with drugs such as statins in a similar way to the long list of grapefruit–drug interactions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "This orange is used as a rootstock in groves of sweet orange. The fruit and leaves make lather and can be used as soap. The hard white or light yellow wood is used in woodworking and made into baseball bats in Cuba.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bitter orange, Seville orange, sour orange, bigarade orange, or marmalade orange is the citrus tree Citrus\" × \"aurantium and its fruit. It is native to southeast Asia and has been spread by humans to many parts of the world. It is probably a cross between the Pomelo, \"Citrus maxima\", and the Mandarin orange, \"Citrus reticulata\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971714}
{"src_title": "Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Déodat de Dolomieu was born in Dauphiné, France, one of 11 children of Marie-Françoise de Berénger and her husband, the Marquis de Dolomieu. As a child young Déodat showed considerable intellectual potential and special interest in the natural surroundings of his home in the Alps of southeastern France. De Dolomieu began his military career in the Sovereign and Military Order of the Knights of Saint John (also called the Knights Hospitaller or the Knights of Malta) at the age of 12. His association with the Maltese Order caused him difficulties throughout his life, beginning with a duel, which he fought at the age of 18, when he killed a fellow member of the Order. For this infraction he was sentenced to life in prison but due to the intercession of Pope Clement XIII he was released after only 1 year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "During the years prior to the French Revolution Dolomieu took full part in the intellectual ferment of France and the rest of Europe. He maintained numerous social contacts among the nobility and although he never married, Dolomieu had something of a reputation as a ladies' man. Through his friend and mentor, the Duke de La Rochefoucauld, Dolomieu was made a corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences. He spent his spare time taking scientific excursions throughout Europe collecting mineral specimens and visiting mining areas. His particular interests included mineralogy, volcanology, and the origin of mountain ranges. Although Dolomieu was greatly interested in volcanoes, he became convinced that water played a major role in shaping the surface of the Earth through a series of prehistoric, catastrophic events. Dolomieu was not a uniformitarian geologist. He has been described as a \"non-actualistic catastrophist\".  His contemporary, James Hutton, did not publish the principle of uniformitarianism until 1795. Dolomieu was an observationalist and spent much of his time collecting and categorizing geological data. Unlike Hutton, no scientific principles or theories are credited to him, although he left his permanent mark on geology in another way: that is by discovering the mineral dolomite that would be named after him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology of the Dolomites.", "content": "During one of his voyages to the Alps of Tyrol (today part of northeastern Italy) Dolomieu discovered a calcareous rock which, unlike limestone, did not effervesce with weak hydrochloric acid. He published these observations in 1791 in the well-known French science magazine \"Journal de Physique\". In March 1792, the rock was named \"dolomie\" (or dolomite, in English) by Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure. Today both the rock and its major mineral constituent bear the name of Dolomieu, as do the Dolomites, the mountain range of northeastern Italy. Dolomieu was not the first to describe the mineral dolomite. Most probably it was Linnaeus, who was the first to note the fact that this rock resembled limestone but does not effervesce with dilute acid. In his book \"Oryctographia Carniola, oder physikalische Erdbeschreibung des Herzogthums Krain, Istrien und zum Theil der benachbarten Länder\", published by J. G. I. Breitkopf, Leipzig in 1778, the Austrian naturalist Belsazar Hacquet also observed this distinction between limestone and a rock that Hacquet described as \"lapis suillus\". The two men met in Laibach in 1784, when Dolomieu visited Sigmund Zois. However, Hacquet was well aware of the fact that the description of a limestone that would not effervesce with acid (and therefore had to be different from normal limestone) by the famous Carolus Linnaeus in 1768 preceded his own. On p. 5 of the second volume of his \"Oryctographia Carniola\", which appeared in 1781, Hacquet stated that the white powder he had found near the town of Vorle (\"unterm Teil der Oberkrain\") a white powder that strongly resembled limestone but would not react with dilute hydrochloric acid, reminded him of the Marmor Tardum described by Linnaeus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Knights of Malta.", "content": "In addition to his scientific activities Dolomieu continued to advance in rank in the Knights of Malta and was promoted to Commander in 1780. However, he continued to have difficulties as a result of his liberal political leanings which were unpopular among the conservative nobility who controlled the Order. De Dolomieu retired from active military service in 1780 to devote all of his time to travels and scientific work.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "French Revolution.", "content": "De Dolomieu was at first a strong partisan of the French Revolution, which began in 1789. However, the murder of his friend the Duc de la Rochefoucauld, a near-escape from the guillotine, and the beheading of several of his relatives, turned him against the revolution. During this time Dolomieu became a supporter of Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1795, having lost his fortune in the revolution, Dolomieu accepted the position of Professor of Natural Sciences at the École Centrale Paris and started to write the mineralogical section of the Encyclopédie Méthodique. The following year he was appointed Inspector of Mines and Professor at the École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris, where his portrait still hangs in the library. His extensive mineral collection is today housed at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle of Paris.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bonaparte era.", "content": "By 1798 De Dolomieu had developed an international reputation as one of the leading geologists in the world and was invited to join the scientific expedition accompanying Bonaparte's invasion of Egypt, as part of the natural history and physics section of the Institut d'Égypte. In March 1799 Dolomieu became ill and was forced to leave Alexandria, Egypt for France. His ship, caught in a storm, sought refuge at the port of Taranto, Italy where Dolomieu was made a prisoner of war. General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, the father of Alexandre Dumas, the author, was also captured and held. The city was part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which was then at war with France. Dolomieu had previously made a powerful enemy of the Grand Master of the Maltese Order when he helped negotiate the surrender of the island of Malta to Napoleon. The Grand Master denounced Dolomieu and he was transferred to Messina, Sicily and imprisoned under horrible conditions, in solitary confinement, for the next 21 months.  The imprisonment of a world-famous scientist, under such conditions, was abhorrent to the intellectual community of Europe. Even the scientific community of England (which was at war with France) protested the confinement. Talleyrand, the French foreign minister, attempted to negotiate Dolomieus release through the Pope. Napoleon, who was First Consul of France at the time, felt that asking for such an intervention by the Pope would be dishonorable. The future Emperor's approach to the problem was more direct. In the spring of 1800 Napoleon led the French army into Italy, delivering a crushing blow to the Austrians and their Italian allies on 14 June at the Battle of Marengo. All of Italy then came within Napoleon's sphere. One of the terms dictated by Napoleon in the peace treaty of Florence (March 1801) was the immediate release of Dolomieu.  Upon his liberation Dolomieu resumed his scientific studies and field excursions. But his health, broken by the long imprisonment in Sicily, gave way during a trip to the Alps. Déodat de Dolomieu died on 28 November 1801 at the home of his sister at Châteauneuf.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Dr. George F. Kunz wrote about his contributions to mineralogy.  Dolomieu's student and famous naturalist Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent gave his name in 1801 to the largest summital crater of the Piton de la Fournaise volcano on the French Island of Réunion, the «\"cratère Dolomieu\"».", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dieudonné Sylvain Guy Tancrède de Gratet de Dolomieu usually known as Déodat de Dolomieu (23 June 175028 November 1801) was a French geologist. The mineral and the rock dolomite and the largest summital crater on the Piton de la Fournaise volcano were named after him.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971715}
{"src_title": "Baldur von Schirach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Schirach was born in Berlin, the youngest of four children of theatre director, grand ducal chamberlain and retired captain of the cavalry Carl Baily Norris von Schirach (1873–1948) and his American wife Emma Middleton Lynah Tillou (1872–1944). A member of the noble Schirach family, of Sorbian West Slavic origins, three of his four grandparents were from the United States, chiefly from Pennsylvania. Through his mother, Schirach was a descendant of Thomas Heyward Jr. and an indirect descendant of Arthur Middleton, two signatories of the United States Declaration of Independence. English was the first language he learned at home and he did not learn to speak German until the age of five. He had two sisters, Viktoria and the opera singer Rosalind von Schirach, and a brother, Karl Benedict von Schirach. His brother committed suicide in 1919 at the age of 19.  On 31 March 1932 Schirach married the 19-year-old Henriette Hoffmann, the daughter of Heinrich Hoffmann, Adolf Hitler's personal photographer and sometime friend. Schirach's family was vehemently opposed to this marriage, but Hitler insisted. Gregor Strasser dismissively described Schirach as \"a young effeminate aristocrat\" upon whom Hitler bestowed both Henriette and the Hitler Youth position. Through this relationship, Schirach became part of Hitler's inner circle. The young couple were welcome guests at Hitler's \"Berghof\". Henriette von Schirach gave birth to four children: Angelika Benedikta von Schirach (born 1933), lawyer Klaus von Schirach (born 1935), businessman Robert von Schirach (born 1938) and sinologist Richard von Schirach (born 1942). The lawyer and best-selling German crime writer Ferdinand von Schirach is the couple's grandson. They are also the grandparents of the philosopher and critic Ariadne von Schirach and of the novelist Benedict Wells.  Schirach was a published author, contributing to literature journals, and an influential patron of the arts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career and the Nazi Party.", "content": "Schirach joined a \"Wehrjugendgruppe\" (military cadet group) at the age of ten and became a member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in 1925. He was soon transferred to Munich, and in 1929 became leader of the National Socialist German Students' League (\"Nationalsozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund\"; NSDStB). In 1931, he was named as \"Reichsjugendführer\" (Youth Leader) of the Nazi Party, and in 1933, was made head of the Hitler Youth (\"Hitlerjugend\") and given an SA rank of \"Gruppenführer\". He was made a state secretary in 1936.  Schirach appeared frequently at rallies, such as the Nuremberg rally of 1934, when he appeared with Hitler in rousing the \"Hitlerjugend\" audience. The event was filmed for \"Triumph of the Will\", the propaganda film made by Leni Riefenstahl for the Nazi Party. Schirach set the militaristic tone of the youth organisation, which participated in military-style exercises, as well as practising use of military equipment, such as rifles.  In July 1939, Schirach paid Passau a formal visit. In July 1940, when a new play by Hans Baumann was staged there, Schirach insisted that 2,000 local Hitler Youth members be part of that performance.  In 1940, Schirach organised the evacuation of five million children from cities threatened by Allied bombing. Later that year, he joined the army and volunteered for service in France, where he was awarded the Iron Cross before being recalled. He served with the 4th (Machine Gun) Company of Infantry Regiment Großdeutschland in the rank of \"Gefreiter\". During the French Campaign, he was promoted to Leutnant and decorated for bravery. Schirach lost control of the Hitler Youth to Artur Axmann, and was appointed Governor (\"Gauleiter\" or \"Reichsstatthalter\") of the Reichsgau Vienna, a post in which he remained until the end of the war.  Schirach was an anti-Semite, responsible for sending most of the Jews from Vienna to Nazi concentration camps. During his tenure, 65,000 Jews were deported. In a speech on 15 September 1942, he said that their deportation was a \"contribution to European culture\". In 1942, the German composer Richard Strauss moved with his son Franz and his Jewish daughter-in-law Alice and their children to Vienna so they could be afforded the protection of Schirach. However, 25 of her relatives died in Nazi concentration camps. In 1944, Alice and Franz were abducted by the Viennese Gestapo and imprisoned for two nights. Strauss's personal appeal to Schirach saved them, allowing him to take them back to his estate at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, where they remained under house arrest until the end of the war.  Later during the war, Schirach pleaded for a moderate treatment of the eastern European peoples and criticised the conditions in which Jews were being deported. He fell into disfavour with Hitler in 1943, but remained at his post in Vienna.  Schirach was notoriously anxious about air raids. He had the cellars of the Hofburg Palace in the Vienna city centre refurbished and adapted as a bomb shelter, and the lower level of the extensive subterranean Vienna air defence coordination centre in the forests to the west of Vienna held personal facilities for him. The Viennese promptly dubbed this command and control centre the \"Schirach-Bunker\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial and conviction.", "content": "Schirach surrendered in 1945 and was one of the officials put on trial at Nuremberg. At the trial, Schirach was one of only a few defendants to denounce Hitler (including Albert Speer and Hans Frank).  He claimed that members of the Hitler Youth were innocent of any of the German war crimes:  He said that he had not known about the extermination camps. He provided evidence that he had protested to Martin Bormann about the inhumane treatment of the Jews. Schirach claimed at the trials that the roots of his anti-semitism could be found in the readings of Henry Ford's \"The International Jew\". He was originally indicted for crimes against peace for his role in building up the Hitler Youth, but was acquitted on that charge. He was found guilty on 1 October 1946 of crimes against humanity for his role in the deportation of the Viennese Jews to certain death in German concentration camps located in German-occupied Poland. He was sentenced and served 20 years as a prisoner in Spandau Prison, Berlin.  On 20 July 1949, his wife Henriette von Schirach (3 February 1913 – 27 January 1992) divorced him while he was in prison.  He was released on 30 September 1966 after serving his full sentence, and retired quietly to Southern Germany. He published his memoirs, \"Ich glaubte an Hitler\" (\"I believed in Hitler\") and died on 8 August 1974 in Kröv.  Von Schirach is mentioned in Philip K. Dick's 1962 alternate history novel \"The Man in the High Castle\" as a candidate for \"Führer\" after the previous holder of the office, Martin Bormann, dies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Further reading", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baldur Benedikt von Schirach (9 May 1907 – 8 August 1974) was a Nazi German politician who is best known for his role as the Nazi Party national youth leader and head of the Hitler Youth from 1931 to 1940. He later served as \"Gauleiter\" and \"Reichsstatthalter\" (\"Reich Governor\") of Vienna. After World War II, he was convicted of crimes against humanity in the Nuremberg trials and sentenced to 20 years in prison.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971716}
{"src_title": "Andragogy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definitions.", "content": "Two primary understandings of \"andragogy\" exist:  Interpreted broadly throughout academic literature, the term also invites other definitions such as \"\"adult education practice\", \"desirable values\", \"specific teaching methods\", \"reflections\", and \"academic discipline\"\", with many authors claiming it to be better than traditional adult education.  The term has been used by some to allow discussion of contrast between self-directed and self-taught education.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The term was originally coined by German educator Alexander Kapp in 1833. Andragogy was developed into a theory of adult education by Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy. It later became very popular in the US by the American educator Malcolm Knowles. Knowles asserted that andragogy (Greek: \"man-leading\") should be distinguished from the more commonly used term \"pedagogy\" (Greek: \"child-leading\").  Knowles collected ideas about a theory of adult education from the end of World War II until he was introduced to the term \"andragogy\". In 1966, Knowles met Dusan Savicevic in Boston. Savicevic was the one who shared the term andragogy with Knowles and explained how it was used in the European context. In 1967, Knowles made use of the term \"androgogy\" to explain his theory of adult education. Then after consulting with Merriam-Webster, he corrected the spelling of the term to \"andragogy\" and continued to make use of the term to explain his multiple ideas about adult learning.  Knowles' theory can be stated with six assumptions related to the motivation of adult learning:  In most European countries, the Knowles discussion played at best, a marginal role. \"Andragogy\" was, from 1970 on, connected with emerging academic and professional institutions, publications, or programs, triggered by a similar growth of adult education in practice and theory as in the United States. \"Andragogy\" functioned here as a header for (places of) systematic reflections, parallel to other academic headers like \"biology\", \"medicine\", and \"physics\".  Examples of this use of andragogy are the Yugoslavian (scholarly) journal for adult education, named \"Andragogija\" in 1969, and the Yugoslavian Society for Andragogy; at Palacky University in Olomouc (Czech republic) the \"Katedra sociologie a andragogiky\" (Sociology and Andragogy Department) was established in 1990. Also, Prague University has a \"Katedra Andragogiky\" (Andragogical Department); in 1993, Slovenia's \"Andragoski Center Republike Slovenije\" (Slovenian Republic Andragogy Center) was founded with the journal \"Andragoska Spoznanja\"; in 1995, Bamberg University (Germany) named a \"Lehrstuhl Andragogik\" (Androgogy Chair).  On this formal level \"above practice\" and specific approaches, the term \"andragogy\" could be used relating to all types of theories, for reflection, analysis, training, in person-oriented programs, or human resource development.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Principles.", "content": "Adult learning is based upon comprehension, organization and synthesis of knowledge rather than rote memory. There are seven Principles of Adult Learning:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adult learning styles.", "content": "Learning styles are referred to and made by how certain people learn, categorize, and process new content. They are descriptors of common behavior patterns. Each person may have multiple preferred learning styles and these are preferences that have mild-strong inclinations. Keefe formally defines learning styles as \"characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interacts with, and respond to the learning environment\". The three primary learning styles are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. Kolb suggests to educate adult learners around the experiential cycle that reaches all types of learners.  Plato defines adult learning style as \"A free man ought not to learn anything under duress. Compulsory physical exercise does no harm to the body, but compulsory learning never sticks in the mind.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic discipline.", "content": "In the field of adult education during recent decades, a process of growth and differentiation emerged as a scholarly and scientific approach, andragogy. It refers to the academic discipline(s) within university programs that focus on the education of adults; andragogy exists today worldwide. The term refers to a new type of education which was not qualified by missions and visions, but by academic learning including: reflection, critique, and historical analyses.  Dusan Savicevic, who provided Knowles with the term andragogy, explicitly claims andragogy as a discipline, the subject of which is the study of education and learning of adults in all its forms of expression' (Savicevic, 1999, p. 97, similarly Henschke, 2003, Reischmann, 2003).  Recent research has expanded andragogy into the online world, finding that using collaborative tools like a wiki can encourage learners to become more self-directed, thereby enriching the classroom environment. It gives scope to self-directed learners. Andragogy helps in designing and delivering the solution focused instructions to self-directed. The methods used by andragogy can be used in different educational environments (e.g. adolescent education).  Andragologist Andragologists are those who practice and specialize in the field of andragogy. Andragologists have received a doctoral degree from an accredited university in Education (EdD) or a Philosophy (PhD) and focused their dissertation utilizing andragogy as a main component of their theoretical framework.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differences from pedagogy.", "content": "Here are some of the main differences between pedagogy and andragogy:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Optimal learning.", "content": "Neuroscientist and educator Eric Jensen's factors for optimal learning include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critique.", "content": "Knowles himself changed his position on whether andragogy really applied only to adults and came to believe that \"pedagogy-andragogy represents a continuum ranging from teacher-directed to student-directed learning and that both approaches are appropriate with children and adults, depending on the situation.\" Hanson (1996) argues that the difference in learning is not related to the age and stage of one's life, but instead related to individual characteristics and the differences in \"context, culture and power\" within different educational settings.  In another critique of Knowles' work, Knowles was not able to use one of his principles (Self-concept) with adult learners to the extent that he describes in his practices. In one course, Knowles appears to allow \"near total freedom in learner determination of objectives\" but still \"intended\" the students to choose from a list of 18 objectives on the syllabus. Self-concept can be critiqued not just from the instructor's point of view, but also from the student's point of view. Not all adult learners will know exactly what they want to learn in a course and may seek a more structured outline from an instructor. An instructor cannot assume that an adult will desire self-directed learning in every situation.  J.R. Kidd goes further by claiming that principles of learning have to be applied to lifelong development. He suggested that building a theory on adult learning would be meaningless, as there is no real basis for it. P. Jarvis even implies that andragogy would be more the result of an ideology than a scientific contribution to the comprehension of the learning processes. Knowles himself mentions that andragogy is a \"model of assumptions about learning or a conceptual framework that serves as a basis for an emergent theory.\" There appears to be a lack of research on whether this framework of teaching and learning principles is more relevant to adult learners or if it is just a set of good practices that could be used for both children and adult learners.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andragogy refers to methods and principles used in adult education. The word comes from the Greek ἀνδρ- (\"andr-\"), meaning \"man\", and ἀγωγός (\"agogos\"), meaning \"leader of\". Therefore, andragogy literally means \"leading man\", whereas \"pedagogy\" literally means \"leading children\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971717}
{"src_title": "Deadlock", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Necessary conditions.", "content": "A deadlock situation on a resource can arise if and only if all of the following conditions hold simultaneously in a system:  These four conditions are known as the \"Coffman conditions\" from their first description in a 1971 article by Edward G. Coffman, Jr.  While these conditions are sufficient to produce a deadlock on single-instance resource systems, they only indicate the possibility of deadlock on systems having multiple instances of resources.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deadlock handling.", "content": "Most current operating systems cannot prevent deadlocks. When a deadlock occurs, different operating systems respond to them in different non-standard manners. Most approaches work by preventing one of the four Coffman conditions from occurring, especially the fourth one. Major approaches are as follows.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ignoring deadlock.", "content": "In this approach, it is assumed that a deadlock will never occur. This is also an application of the Ostrich algorithm. This approach was initially used by MINIX and UNIX. This is used when the time intervals between occurrences of deadlocks are large and the data loss incurred each time is tolerable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Detection.", "content": "Under the deadlock detection, deadlocks are allowed to occur. Then the state of the system is examined to detect that a deadlock has occurred and subsequently it is corrected. An algorithm is employed that tracks resource allocation and process states, it rolls back and restarts one or more of the processes in order to remove the detected deadlock. Detecting a deadlock that has already occurred is easily possible since the resources that each process has locked and/or currently requested are known to the resource scheduler of the operating system.  After a deadlock is detected, it can be corrected by using one of the following methods:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prevention.", "content": "Deadlock prevention works by preventing one of the four Coffman conditions from occurring.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Livelock.", "content": "A \"livelock\" is similar to a deadlock, except that the states of the processes involved in the livelock constantly change with regard to one another, none progressing.  The term was coined by Edward A. Ashcroft in a 1975 paper in connection with an examination of airline booking systems. Livelock is a special case of resource starvation; the general definition only states that a specific process is not progressing.  Livelock is a risk with some algorithms that detect and recover from \"deadlock\". If more than one process takes action, the deadlock detection algorithm can be repeatedly triggered. This can be avoided by ensuring that only one process (chosen arbitrarily or by priority) takes action.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distributed deadlock.", "content": "\"Distributed deadlocks\" can occur in distributed systems when distributed transactions or concurrency control is being used.  Distributed deadlocks can be detected either by constructing a global wait-for graph from local wait-for graphs at a deadlock detector or by a distributed algorithm like edge chasing.  \"Phantom deadlocks\" are deadlocks that are falsely detected in a distributed system due to system internal delays but do not actually exist.  For example, if a process releases a resource \"R1\" and issues a request for \"R2\", and the first message is lost or delayed, a coordinator (detector of deadlocks) could falsely conclude a deadlock (if the request for \"R2\" while having \"R1\" would cause a deadlock).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In concurrent computing, a deadlock is a state in which each member of a group is waiting for another member, including itself, to take action, such as sending a message or more commonly releasing a lock. Deadlock is a common problem in multiprocessing systems, parallel computing, and distributed systems, where software and hardware locks are used to arbitrate shared resources and implement process synchronization.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971718}
{"src_title": "Cognac, France", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Cognac is situated on the river Charente between the towns of Angoulême and Saintes. The majority of the town has been built on the river's left bank, with the smaller right bank area known as the Saint Jacques district. The town is situated on one of the pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela and is home to the French Air Force training base 709. Cognac is southwest of Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Unknown prior to the 9th century, the town was subsequently fortified. During the Hundred Years' War, the town changed sides on several occasions as the result of fighting and treaties in the region.  The town gave its name to the 1526 League of Cognac, an anti-Habsburg alliance formed by Francis I, who granted it the lucrative right to trade salt along the river, which led to its later development as a center of wine and brandy.  In November 1651, it was besieged by rebels led by Prince de Condé during the 1648-1653 civil war or \"Fronde\"; it was relieved in December by a force under Comte d' Harcourt and given additional trading privileges by Louis XIV as a reward for its resistance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "The inhabitants of the town are known as \"Cognaçais\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "The area also contains many Romanesque churches as well as several châteaux.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cognac brandy.", "content": "The town gives its name to one of the world's best-known types of brandy or eau de vie. Drinks must be made in certain areas around the town of Cognac and must be made according to strictly defined regulations to be granted the name Cognac.  Cognac is a unique spirit in that it is double-distilled. This process can be viewed in one of the many \"Grande Marque\" Cognac houses which all have visitor centers. Most central in the town are Hennessy, Martell, Otard, Camus and Remy Martin. About east of Cognac is Jarnac, home to Courvoisier.  There are six vineyard areas around the Cognac area, all of which are within the Appellation Controlee for Cognac, but which are considered to vary in quality from the best growth area of \"Grande Champagne\" (nothing to do with the Champagne wine region in NE France), through \"Petite Champagne\" then \"Borderies\", \"Fins Bois\", \"Bon Bois\" and finally \"Bois Ordinaire\". The best Cognacs are generally only made using Grande and Petite Champagne grapes, but all Cognac is produced by blending a variety of \"Eau de Vie\" which can be made from grapes from different locations, and from different vintages. It is the cellar master's skill that ensures that a brand's Cognac is recognizable regardless of when it is produced since he can blend multiple eaux de vie to achieve the right taste for his house.  Different qualities of Cognac are produced by all brands, and include VS (\"Very Special\"); VSOP (\"Very Superior [or, more commonly, \"Special\", though the Bureau National Interprofessionnel du Cognac specifies \"Superior\"] Old Pale\") and XO (\"eXtra Old\"). (English terms are still used, since in the early days of Cognac production it was the British and Irish who were the main consumers and also became some of the main producers of Cognac, using techniques acquired from the distillation of whiskey, etc.) These are controlled by the length of time the Cognac is allowed to mature in oak barrels, a minimum time being required at each grade level. The longer the Cognac matures in the barrel the smoother it will generally become. Once it is bottled no further development takes place. Most houses still have barrels of Cognac dating back to the 19th century sitting in their cellars waiting for fine blending by the Cellar Master.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns—sister cities.", "content": "Cognac is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cognac (, Occitan:Conhac) is a commune in the Charente department in southwestern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971719}
{"src_title": "Beetroot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Beta\" is the ancient Latin name for beets, possibly of Celtic origin, becoming \"bete\" in Old English around 1400. \"Root\" derives from the late Old English \"rōt\", itself from Old Norse \"rót\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Beets were domesticated in the ancient Middle East, primarily for their greens, and were grown by the Ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. By the Roman era, it is thought that they were cultivated for their roots as well. From the Middle Ages, beetroot was used as a treatment for a variety of conditions, especially illnesses relating to digestion and the blood. Bartolomeo Platina recommended taking beetroot with garlic to nullify the effects of \"garlic-breath\".  During the middle of the 19th century, wine often was coloured with beetroot juice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "Below is a list of several commonly available cultivars of beets. Generally, 55 to 65 days are needed from germination to harvest of the root. All cultivars can be harvested earlier for use as greens. Unless otherwise noted, the root colours are shades of red and dark red with different degrees of zoning noticeable in slices.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "Usually the deep purple roots of beets are eaten boiled, roasted, or raw, and either alone or combined with any salad vegetable. A large proportion of the commercial production is processed into boiled and sterilized beets or into pickles. In Eastern Europe, beet soup, such as borscht, is a popular dish. In Indian cuisine, chopped, cooked, spiced beet is a common side dish. Yellow-coloured beetroots are grown on a very small scale for home consumption.  The green, leafy portion of the beet is also edible. The young leaves can be added raw to salads, whilst the mature leaves are most commonly served boiled or steamed, in which case they have a taste and texture similar to spinach. The domestication of beets can be traced to the emergence of an allele which enables biennial harvesting of leaves and taproot.  Beetroot can be boiled or steamed, peeled, and then eaten warm with or without butter as a delicacy; cooked, pickled, and then eaten cold as a condiment; or peeled, shredded raw, and then eaten as a salad. Pickled beets are a traditional food in many countries.  A traditional Pennsylvania Dutch dish is pickled beet egg. Hard-boiled eggs are refrigerated in the liquid left over from pickling beets and allowed to marinate until the eggs turn a deep pink-red colour.  In Poland and Ukraine, beet is combined with horseradish to form popular \"ćwikła\" or \"бурачки\" (burachky), which is traditionally used with cold cuts and sandwiches, but often also added to a meal consisting of meat and potatoes. Similarly in Serbia where the popular cvekla is used as winter salad, seasoned with salt and vinegar, with meat dishes. As an addition to horseradish, it is also used to produce the \"red\" variety of \"chrain\", a popular condiment in Ashkenazi Jewish, Hungarian, Polish, Lithuanian, Russian, and Ukrainian cuisine.  Popular in Australian hamburgers, a slice of pickled beetroot is combined with other condiments on a beef patty to make an Aussie burger.  In Northern Germany, beetroot is mashed with \"Labskaus\" or added as its side order. When beet juice is used, it is most stable in foods with a low water content, such as frozen novelties and fruit fillings. Betanins, obtained from the roots, are used industrially as red food colourants, e.g. to intensify the colour of tomato paste, sauces, desserts, jams and jellies, ice cream, sweets, and breakfast cereals.  Beetroot can also be used to make wine.  A moderate amount of chopped beetroot is sometimes added to the Japanese pickle \"fukujinzuke\" for color.  Food shortages in Europe following World War I caused great hardships, including cases of \"mangelwurzel\" disease, as relief workers called it. It was symptomatic of eating only beets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "Raw beetroot is 88% water, 10% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and less than 1% fat (see table). In a 100-gram amount providing 43 calories, raw beetroot is a rich source (27% of the Daily Value - DV) of folate and a moderate source (16% DV) of manganese, with other nutrients having insignificant content (table).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary research.", "content": "In preliminary research, beetroot juice reduced blood pressure in hypertensive people. Tentative evidence has found that dietary nitrate supplementation, such as from beets and other vegetables, results in a small improvement in endurance exercise performance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Betanin, obtained from the roots, is used industrially as red food colorant, to improve the color and flavor of tomato paste, sauces, desserts, jams and jellies, ice cream, candy, and breakfast cereals, among other applications.  The chemical adipic acid rarely occurs in nature, but happens to occur naturally in beetroot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "The red colour compound betanin is not broken down in the body, and in higher concentrations may temporarily cause urine or stools to assume a reddish colour, in the case of urine a condition called beeturia. Although harmless, this effect may cause initial concern due to the visual similarity to what appears to be blood in the stool, hematochezia (blood passing through the anus, usually in or with stool) or hematuria (blood in the urine).  Nitrosamine formation in beet juice can reliably be prevented by adding ascorbic acid.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The beetroot is the taproot portion of a beet plant, usually known in Canada and the USA as beets while the vegetable is referred to as beetroot in British English, and also known as the table beet, garden beet, red beet, dinner beet or golden beet. It is one of several cultivated varieties of \"Beta vulgaris\" grown for their edible taproots and leaves (called beet greens); they have been classified as \"B. vulgaris\" subsp. \"vulgaris\" 'Conditiva' Group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971720}
{"src_title": "Superfluidity", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Superfluidity of liquid helium.", "content": "Superfluidity was originally discovered in liquid helium by Pyotr Kapitsa and John F. Allen. It has since been described through phenomenology and microscopic theories. In liquid helium-4, the superfluidity occurs at far higher temperatures than it does in helium-3. Each atom of helium-4 is a boson particle, by virtue of its integer spin. A helium-3 atom is a fermion particle; it can form bosons only by pairing with itself at much lower temperatures. The discovery of superfluidity in helium-3 was the basis for the award of the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics. This process is similar to the electron pairing in superconductivity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ultracold atomic gases.", "content": "Superfluidity in an ultracold fermionic gas was experimentally proven by Wolfgang Ketterle and his team who observed quantum vortices in Li at a temperature of 50 nK at MIT in April 2005. Such vortices had previously been observed in an ultracold bosonic gas using Rb in 2000, and more recently in two-dimensional gases. As early as 1999 Lene Hau created such a condensate using sodium atoms for the purpose of slowing light, and later stopping it completely. Her team subsequently used this system of compressed light to generate the superfluid analogue of shock waves and tornadoes:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Superfluids in astrophysics.", "content": "The idea that superfluidity exists inside neutron stars was first proposed by Arkady Migdal. By analogy with electrons inside superconductors forming Cooper pairs because of electron-lattice interaction, it is expected that nucleons in a neutron star at sufficiently high density and low temperature can also form Cooper pairs because of the long-range attractive nuclear force and lead to superfluidity and superconductivity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In high-energy physics and quantum gravity.", "content": "Superfluid vacuum theory (SVT) is an approach in theoretical physics and quantum mechanics where the physical vacuum is viewed as superfluid.  The ultimate goal of the approach is to develop scientific models that unify quantum mechanics (describing three of the four known fundamental interactions) with gravity. This makes SVT a candidate for the theory of quantum gravity and an extension of the Standard Model.  It is hoped that development of such theory would unify into a single consistent model of all fundamental interactions, and to describe all known interactions and elementary particles as different manifestations of the same entity, superfluid vacuum.  On the macro-scale a larger similar phenomenon has been suggested as happening in the murmurations of starlings. The rapidity of change in flight patterns mimics the phase change leading to superfluidity in some liquid states.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Superfluidity is the characteristic property of a fluid with zero viscosity which therefore flows without any loss of kinetic energy. When stirred, a superfluid forms vortices that continue to rotate indefinitely. Superfluidity occurs in two isotopes of helium (helium-3 and helium-4) when they are liquefied by cooling to cryogenic temperatures. It is also a property of various other exotic states of matter theorized to exist in astrophysics, high-energy physics, and theories of quantum gravity. Superfluidity is often coincidental with Bose–Einstein condensation, but neither phenomenon is directly related to the other; not all Bose-Einstein condensates can be regarded as superfluids, and not all superfluids are Bose–Einstein condensates. The semiphenomenological theory of superfluidity was developed by Lev Landau.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971721}
{"src_title": "Albert I of Germany", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "From 1273 Albert ruled as a landgrave over his father's Swabian (Further Austrian) possessions in Alsace. In 1282 his father, the first German monarch from the House of Habsburg, invested him and his younger brother Rudolf II with the duchies of Austria and Styria, which he had seized from late King Ottokar II of Bohemia and defended in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld. By the 1283 Treaty of Rheinfelden his father entrusted Albert with their sole government, while Rudolf II ought to be compensated by the Further Austrian Habsburg home territories – which, however, never happened until his death in 1290. Albert and his Swabian \"ministeriales\" appear to have ruled the Austrian and Styrian duchies with conspicuous success, overcoming the resistance by local nobles.  King Rudolf I was unable to secure the succession to the German throne for his son, especially due to the objections raised by Ottokar's son King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia, and the plans to install Albert as successor of the assassinated King Ladislaus IV of Hungary in 1290 also failed. Upon Rudolf's death in 1291, the Prince-electors, fearing Albert's power and the implementation of a hereditary monarchy, chose Count Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg as King of the Romans. An uprising among his Styrian dependents compelled Albert to recognize the sovereignty of his rival and to confine himself for a time to the government of the Habsburg lands at Vienna.  He did not abandon his hopes of the throne, however, which were eventually realised: In 1298, he was chosen German king by some of the princes, who were bothered about Adolf's attempts to gain his own power basis in the lands of Thuringia and Meissen, again led by the Bohemian king Wenceslaus II. The armies of the rival kings met at the Battle of Göllheim near Worms, where Adolf was defeated and slain. Submitting to a new election but securing the support of several influential princes by making extensive promises, he was chosen at the Imperial City of Frankfurt on 27 July 1298, and crowned at Aachen Cathedral on 24 August.  Although a hard, stern man, Albert had a keen sense of justice when his own interests were not involved, and few of the German kings possessed so practical an intelligence. He encouraged the cities, and not content with issuing proclamations against private war, formed alliances with the princes in order to enforce his decrees. The serfs, whose wrongs seldom attracted notice in an age indifferent to the claims of common humanity, found a friend in this severe monarch, and he protected even the despised and persecuted Jews. Stories of his cruelty and oppression in the Swiss cantons (cf. William Tell) did not appear until the 16th century, and are now regarded as legendary.  Albert sought to play an important part in European affairs. He seemed at first inclined to press a quarrel with the Kingdom of France over the Burgundian frontier, but the refusal of Pope Boniface VIII to recognize his election led him to change his policy, and, in 1299, he made a treaty with King Philip IV, by which his son Rudolph was to marry Blanche, a daughter of the French king. He afterwards became estranged from Philip, but in 1303, Boniface recognized him as German king and future emperor; in return, Albert recognized the authority of the pope alone to bestow the Imperial crown, and promised that none of his sons should be elected German king without papal consent.  Albert had failed in his attempt to seize the counties of Holland and Zeeland, as vacant fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire, on the death of Count John I in 1299, but in 1306 he secured the crown of Bohemia for his son Rudolph III on the death of King Wenceslaus III. He also renewed the claim made by his predecessor, Adolf, on Thuringia, and interfered in a quarrel over the succession to the Hungarian throne. The Thuringian attack ended in Albert's defeat at the Battle of Lucka in 1307 and, in the same year, the death of his son Rudolph weakened his position in eastern Europe. His action in abolishing all tolls established on the Rhine since 1250 led the Rhenish prince-archbishops and the Elector of the Palatinate to form a league against him. Aided by the Imperial cities, however, he soon crushed the rising.  He was on the way to suppress a revolt in Swabia when he was murdered on 1 May 1308, at Windisch on the Reuss River, by his nephew Duke John, afterwards called \"the Parricide\" or \"John Parricida\", whom he had deprived of his inheritance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles.", "content": "Albert, by the grace of God, King of the Romans, Duke of Austria and Styria, Lord of Carniola, over the Wendish Mark and of Port Naon, Count of Habsburg and Kyburg, Landgrave of Alsace\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "In 1274 Albert had married Elizabeth, daughter of Count Meinhard II of Tyrol, who was a descendant of the Babenberg margraves of Austria who predated the Habsburgs' rule. The baptismal name Leopold, patron saint margrave of Austria, was given to one of their sons. Queen Elizabeth was in fact better connected to mighty German rulers than her husband: she was a descendant of earlier German kings, including Emperor Henry IV; she was also a niece of the Wittelsbach dukes of Bavaria, Austria's important neighbor.  Albert and his wife had twelve children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albert I of Habsburg () (July 12551 May 1308), the eldest son of King Rudolf I of Germany and his first wife Gertrude of Hohenberg, was a Duke of Austria and Styria from 1282 and King of Germany from 1298 until his assassination.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971722}
{"src_title": "Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Vienna, Rudolf was the eldest son of Duke Albert II of Austria and Joanna of Pfirt. One of the third generation of Habsburg dukes in Austria, he was the first to be born within the duchy. Therefore, he considered Austria his home, a sentiment that no doubt communicated itself to his subjects and contributed to his popularity. Faced with the Habsburgs' loss of the Imperial crown upon the assassination of his grandfather King Albert I of Germany in 1308, Rudolf was one of the most energetic and active rulers of Austria in the late Middle Ages, and it was said of him that as a young man he already had the air of a king.  In 1357 he was married to Catherine of Bohemia, daughter of Emperor Charles IV. Eager to compete with his mighty father-in-law, who had made the Kingdom of Bohemia and its capital Prague a radiant center of Imperial culture, Rudolf desired to raise the importance of his residence Vienna to a comparable or greater height.  For more than a century, the Habsburg dukes had chafed at the popes' failure to make Vienna the seat of its own diocese, a status that they considered appropriate for the capital of a duchy. Instead the city parish was subordinate to the bishops of Passau, who had excellent connections to the pope, apparently dooming Vienna's prospects in this regard. Rudolf, however, resorted to something which could be considered imposture: He initiated the creation of a \"metropolitan cathedral chapter\" at the church of St. Stephen (which, according to the name, should be assigned to a bishop), whose members wore red garments as cardinals do. The provost of the chapter received the title of an \"archchancellor of Austria\".  Rudolf extended St. Stephen's Cathedral, with the construction of its gothic nave being started under Rudolf's rule. The construction efforts can be seen as an attempt to compete with St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague. Rudolf had himself and his wife depicted on a cenotaph at the cathedral's entrance.  Similarly, by founding the University of Vienna in 1365, Rudolf sought to match Charles IV's founding of the Charles University of Prague in 1348. Still known as \"Alma Mater Rudolphina\" today, the University of Vienna is the oldest continuously operating university in the German-speaking world. However, a faculty of theology, which was considered crucial for a university at that time, was not established until 1385, twenty years after Rudolf's death.  To improve the economy of Vienna Rudolf introduced many other measures, including the supervision by the mayor of sales of real property, instituted to prevent sales to the \"dead hand\", \"i.e.\", to prevent economically unproductive ownership by the Church. Rudolf also managed to establish a relatively stable currency, the so-called \"Wiener Pfennig\" (Vienna Penny).  Rudolf is best known for another bluff, the forgery of the Privilegium Maius, which \"de facto\" put him on par with the seven Prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire, compensating for Austria's failure to receive an electoral vote in the Golden Bull of 1356 issued by Emperor Charles IV. The title of Archduke (\"Erzherzog\"), invented by Rudolf, became an honorific title of all males of the House of Habsburg from the 16th century.  In 1363, Rudolf entered into a contract of inheritance with Countess Margaret of Gorizia-Tyrol upon the death of her only son, Meinhard III. The County of Tyrol came under Austrian rule after her death in 1369 since Margraret's brother-in-law Duke Stephen II of Bavaria had invaded the country. In 1364 Rudolf declared the Carinthian March of Carniola a duchy and the next year established the town of Novo Mesto in the Windic March (in what would later be known as Lower Carniola, in present-day Slovenia), whose German name \"Rudolfswert\" was given in his honor. In the same time, he concluded another contract of inheritance with his father-in-law Emperor Charles IV, providing for mutual inheritance between the Habsburg and Luxembourg dynasties.  In spite of the high-flying (and maybe sometimes megalomaniac) character of his plans, he managed to modernize his territories and his city, the prominence of which considerably increased. Rudolf died suddenly at Milan in 1365 aged 25. His and his wife's mortal remains are buried at the Ducal Crypt underneath the \"Stephansdom\" in Vienna.  His untimely death without issue halted further progress, however. His younger brothers Albert III and Leopold III, who were to rule jointly under the \"Rudolfinische Hausordnung\" (Rudolfinian House Rules), began to quarrel ceaselessly and ultimately agreed to divide the Habsburg territories between them according to the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg. It was Leopold's descendant Frederick V of Austria, elected King of the Romans in 1440 and sole ruler over all Austrian lands from 1457, who reaped the fruit of Rudolf's efforts and laid the foundations of the Habsburg Monarchy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudolf IV (1 November 1339 – 27 July 1365), also called Rudolf the Founder (), was a scion of the House of Habsburg who ruled as duke of Austria (self-proclaimed archduke), Styria and Carinthia from 1358, as well as count of Tyrol from 1363 and as the first duke of Carniola from 1364 until his death. After the Habsburgs got nothing from the decree of the Golden Bull in 1356, he gave order to draw up the \"Privilegium Maius\", a fake document to empower the Austrian rulers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971723}
{"src_title": "C. L. Moore", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Moore was born on January 24, 1911 in Indianapolis, Indiana. She was chronically ill as a child and spent much of her time reading literature of the fantastic. She left college during the Great Depression to work as a secretary at the Fletcher Trust Company in Indianapolis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Writing career.", "content": "\"The Vagabond\", a student-run magazine at Indiana University, published three of her stories when she was a student there. The three short stories, all with a fantasy theme and all credited to \"Catherine Moore\", appeared in 1930/31. Her first professional sales appeared in pulp magazines beginning in 1933. Her decision to publish under the name \"C.L. Moore\" stemmed not from a desire to hide her gender, but to keep her employers at Fletcher Trust from knowing that she was working as a writer on the side.  Her early work included two significant series in \"Weird Tales\", then edited by Farnsworth Wright. One features the rogue and adventurer Northwest Smith wandering through the Solar System; the other features the swordswoman/warrior Jirel of Joiry, one of the first female protagonists in sword-and-sorcery fiction. Both series are sometimes named for their lead characters. One of the Northwest Smith stories, \"Nymph of Darkness\" (\"Fantasy Magazine\" (April 1935); expurgated version, \"Weird Tales\" (Dec 1939)), was written in collaboration with Forrest J Ackerman.  The most famous Northwest Smith story is \"Shambleau\", which was also Moore's first professional sale. It originally appeared in the November 1933 issue of \"Weird Tales\", netting her $100, and later becoming a popular anthology reprint. Her most famous Jirel story is also the first one, \"Black God's Kiss\", which was the cover story in the October 1934 issue of \"Weird Tales\", subtitled \"the weirdest story ever told\" (see figure). Moore's early stories were notable for their emphasis on the senses and emotions, which was unusual in genre fiction at the time.  Moore's work also appeared in \"Astounding Science Fiction\" magazine throughout the 1940s. Several stories written for that magazine were later collected in her first published book, \"Judgment Night\" (1952) One of them, the novella \"No Woman Born\" (1944), was to be included in more than 10 different science fiction anthologies including \"The Best of C. L. Moore\".  Included in that collection were \"Judgment Night\" (first published in August and September 1943), the lush rendering of a future galactic empire with a sober meditation on the nature of power and its inevitable loss; \"The Code\" (July 1945), an homage to the classic Faust with modern theories and Lovecraftian dread; \"Promised Land\" (February 1950) and \"Heir Apparent\" (July 1950), both documenting the grim twisting that mankind must undergo in order to spread into the Solar System; and \"Paradise Street\" (September 1950), a futuristic take on the Old West conflict between lone hunter and wilderness-taming settlers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage to Henry Kuttner and literary collaborations.", "content": "Moore met Henry Kuttner, also a science fiction writer, in 1936 when he wrote her a fan letter under the impression that \"C. L. Moore\" was a man. They soon collaborated on a story that combined Moore's signature characters, Northwest Smith and Jirel of Joiry: \"Quest of the Starstone\" (1937).  Moore and Kuttner married in 1940 and thereafter wrote many of their stories in collaboration, sometimes under their own names, but more often using the joint pseudonyms C. H. Liddell, Lawrence O'Donnell, or Lewis Padgett — most commonly the latter, a combination of their mothers' maiden names. Moore still occasionally wrote solo work during this period, including the frequently anthologized \"No Woman Born\" (1944). A selection of Moore's solo short fiction work from 1942 through 1950 was collected in 1952's \"Judgement Night\". Moore's only solo novel, \"Doomsday Morning\" appeared in 1957.  The vast majority of Moore's work in the period, though, was written as part of a very prolific partnership. Working together, the couple managed to combine Moore's style with Kuttner's more cerebral storytelling. They continued to work in sf and fantasy, and their works include two frequently anthologized sf classics: \"Mimsy Were the Borogoves\" (February 1943), the basis for the film \"The Last Mimzy\" (2007), and \"Vintage Season\" (September 1946), the basis for the film \"Timescape\" (1992). As \"Lewis Padgett\" they also penned two mystery novels: \"The Brass Ring\" (1946) and \"The Day He Died\" (1947).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career after Kuttner's death.", "content": "After Kuttner's death in 1958, Moore continued teaching her writing course at the University of Southern California but permanently retired from writing any further literary fiction. Instead, working as \"Catherine Kuttner\", she carved out a short-lived career as a scriptwriter for Warner Brothers television, writing episodes of the westerns \"Sugarfoot\", \"Maverick\", and \"The Alaskans\", as well as the detective series \"77 Sunset Strip\", all between 1958 and 1962. However, upon marrying Thomas Reggie (who was not a writer) in 1963, she ceased writing entirely.  Moore was the author guest of honor at Kansas City, MO's fantasy and science fiction convention BYOB-Con 6, held over the U. S. Memorial Day weekend in May, 1976.  In a 1979 interview she told that she and a writer friend were collaborating on a fantasy story, and how it could possibly form the basis of a new series. But nothing was ever published.  In 1981, Moore received two annual awards for her career in fantasy literature: the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement, chosen by a panel of judges at the World Fantasy Convention, and the Gandalf Grand Master Award, chosen by vote of participants in the World Science Fiction Convention. (Thus she became the eighth and final Grand Master of Fantasy, sponsored by the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America, in partial analogy to the Grand Master of Science Fiction sponsored by the Science Fiction Writers of America.)  Moore was an active member of the Tom and Terri Pinckard Science Fiction literary salon and a frequent contributor to literary discussions with the regular membership, including Robert Bloch, George Clayton Johnson, Larry Niven, Jerry Pournelle, Norman Spinrad, A. E. van Vogt, and others, as well as many visiting writers and speakers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "She developed Alzheimer's disease but that was not obvious for several years. She had ceased to attend the meetings when she was nominated to be the first woman Grand Master of the Science Fiction Writers of America; the nomination was withdrawn at the request of her husband, Thomas Reggie, who said the award and ceremony would be at best confusing and likely upsetting to her, given the progress of her disease. That caused dismay among the former SFWA presidents, for she was a great favorite to receive the award. (Former presidents and current officers select a living writer as Grand Master of SF, no more than one annually.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Moore died on April 4, 1987 at her home in Hollywood, California after a long battle with Alzheimer's.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "1981 World Fantasy Convention Lifetime Achievement Award  1981 Gandalf Grand Master Award  1998 Posthumous induction into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame  2004 Cordwainer Smith Rediscovery Award", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Catherine Lucille Moore (January 24, 1911 – April 4, 1987) was an American science fiction and fantasy writer, who first came to prominence in the 1930s writing as C. L. Moore. She was among the first women to write in the science fiction and fantasy genres, though earlier woman writers in these genres include Clare Winger Harris, Greye La Spina, and Francis Stevens, amongst others. Nevertheless, Moore's work paved the way for many other female speculative fiction writers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971724}
{"src_title": "Elvin Jones", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Elvin Jones was born in Pontiac, Michigan, United States, to parents Henry and Olivia Jones, who had moved to Michigan from Vicksburg, Mississippi. His two elder brothers, Hank Jones and Thad Jones, both became jazz musicians respectively on piano and trumpet. By age two, he said he knew he held a fascination for drums. He would watch the circus marching band parades go by his home as a boy, particularly fascinated by the drummers.  Following his early passion, Elvin joined his high school's black marching band, where he developed his foundation in rudiments. Jones began service in the United States Army in 1946. He was discharged in 1949. With his mustering-out pay and an additional $35 (US$ in dollars) borrowed from his sister, Jones purchased his first drumset.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1949-1960.", "content": "Jones began his professional career in 1949 with a short-lived gig in Detroit's Grand River Street club. Eventually he went on to play with artists including Miles Davis and Wardell Gray. In 1955, after a failed audition for the Benny Goodman band, he found work in New York City, joining Charles Mingus's for the \"Blue Moods\" album on Mingus's co-owned Debut label. During the late 1950s, Jones was a member of a Sonny Rollins trio that recorded most of the album \"A Night at the Village Vanguard\", an album cited as a high point for both Rollins and for 1950s jazz in general.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1960–1966: Association with John Coltrane.", "content": "In 1960, he began playing with John Coltrane. By 1962, he had become an integral member of the classic John Coltrane Quartet along with bassist Jimmy Garrison and pianist McCoy Tyner. Jones and Coltrane would often play extended duet passages. This band is widely considered to have redefined \"swing\" (the rhythmic feel of jazz) in much the same way that Louis Armstrong, Charlie Parker, and others had done during earlier stages of jazz's development. He stayed with Coltrane until 1966. By then, Jones was not entirely comfortable with Coltrane's new direction, especially as his polyrhythmic style clashed with the \"multidirectional\" approach of the group's second drummer, Rashied Ali.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Coltrane Career.", "content": "Jones remained active after leaving the Coltrane group, and led several bands in the late 1960s and 1970s that are considered influential groups. Notable among them was a trio formed with saxophonist and multi-instrumentalist Joe Farrell and (ex-Coltrane) bassist Jimmy Garrison, with whom he recorded the Blue Note albums \"Puttin' It Together\" and \"The Ultimate\". Jones recorded extensively for Blue Note under his own name in the late 1960s and early 1970s with groups that featured prominent as well as up and coming musicians. The two-volume \"Live at the Lighthouse\" showcases a 21- and 26-year-old Steve Grossman and Dave Liebman, respectively. Jones played on many albums of the modal jazz era, such as \"The Real McCoy\" with McCoy Tyner as well as on saxophonist Wayne Shorter's \"Speak No Evil\".  In 1969, Jones played drums for beat poet Allen Ginsberg's 1970 LP \"Songs of Innocence and Experience\", a musical adaptation of William Blake's poetry collection of the same name.  Other musicians who made significant contributions to Jones's music during this period were baritone saxophonist Pepper Adams, tenor saxophonists George Coleman and Frank Foster, trumpeter Lee Morgan, bassist Gene Perla, keyboardist Jan Hammer and jazz–world music group Oregon.  He appeared as the villain Job Cain in the 1971 musical Western film \"Zachariah\", in which he performed a drum solo after winning a saloon gunfight.  Jones performed and recorded with his own group, the Elvin Jones Jazz Machine, whose line up changed through the years. Both Sonny Fortune and Ravi Coltrane, John Coltrane's son, played saxophone with the Jazz Machine in the early 1990s, appearing together with Jones on \"In Europe\" on Enja Records in 1991.  Jones, who taught regularly, often took part in clinics, played in schools, and gave free concerts in prisons. His lessons emphasized music history as well as drumming technique. In 2001, Jones was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Elvin Jones died of heart failure in Englewood, New Jersey on May 18, 2004. He was survived by his first wife Shirley and his common-law second wife Keiko (Elvin married Keiko before divorcing Shirley, meaning that legally he and Keiko were not married), in addition to his son Elvin Nathan Jones of Seattle and daughter Rose-Marie Rosie Jones of Sweden.  On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Elvin Jones among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "Jones' sense of timing, polyrhythms, dynamics, timbre, and legato phrasing helped bring the drumset to the foreground. In a 1970 profile published in \"Life Magazine\", Albert Goldman dubbed Jones \"the world's greatest rhythm drummer\", and his free-flowing style was a major influence on many leading drummers, including Christian Vander, Mitch Mitchell (whom Jimi Hendrix called \"my Elvin Jones\"), Ginger Baker, John Densmore and Janet Weiss.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elvin Ray Jones (September 9, 1927 – May 18, 2004) was an American jazz drummer of the post-bop era. He showed an interest in drums at a young age, watching the circus bands march by his family's home in Pontiac, Michigan. He served in the United States Army from 1946 to 1949 and subsequently played in a Detroit house band led by Billy Mitchell. He moved to New York City in 1955 and worked as a sideman for Charles Mingus, Teddy Charles, Bud Powell and Miles Davis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971725}
{"src_title": "Tyrol (state)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The state of Tyrol is separated into two parts, divided by a strip. The larger territory is called North Tyrol (\"Nordtirol\") and the smaller area is called East Tyrol (\"Osttirol\"). The neighbouring Austrian state of Salzburg stands to the east, while on the south Tyrol has a border with the Italian province of South Tyrol (Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol) which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire before the First World War. With a land area of, Tyrol is the third-largest state in Austria.  Tyrol shares its borders with the federal state of Salzburg in the east and Vorarlberg in the west. In the north, it adjoins to the German state of Bavaria; in the south, it shares borders with the Italian province of South Tyrol and the Swiss canton of Graubünden. East Tyrol also shares its borders with the federal state of Carinthia to the east and Italy's Province of Belluno (Veneto) to the south.  The state's territory is located entirely within the Eastern Alps at the Brenner Pass. The highest mountain in the state is the Großglockner, part of the Hohe Tauern range on the border with Carinthia. It has a height of 3,797 m (12,457.35 ft), making it the highest mountain in Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In ancient times, the region was split between the Roman provinces of Raetia (left of the Inn River) and Noricum. From the mid-6th century, it was resettled by Germanic Bavarii tribes. In the Early Middle Ages it formed the southern part of the German stem duchy of Bavaria, until the Counts of Tyrol, former \"Vogt\" officials of the Trent and Brixen prince-bishops at Tyrol Castle, achieved imperial immediacy after the deposition of the Bavarian duke Henry the Proud in 1138, and their possessions formed a state of the Holy Roman Empire in its own right.  When the Counts of Tyrol died out in 1253, their estates were inherited by the Meinhardiner Counts of Görz. In 1271, the Tyrolean possessions were divided between Count Meinhard II of Görz and his younger brother Albert I, who took the lands of East Tyrol around Lienz and attached it (as \"outer county\") to his committal possessions around Gorizia (\"inner county\").  The last Tyrolean countess of the Meinhardiner Dynasty, Margaret, bequeathed her assets to the Habsburg duke Rudolph IV of Austria in 1363. In 1420, the committal residence was relocated from Merano to Innsbruck. The Tyrolean lands were reunited when the Habsburgs inherited the estates of the extinct Counts of Görz in 1500.  In the course of the German mediatization in 1803, the prince-bishoprics of Trent and Brixen were secularized and merged into the County of Tyrol (which in the next year became a constituent land of the Austrian Empire), but Tyrol was ceded to the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1805. Andreas Hofer led the Tyrolean Rebellion against the French and Bavarian occupiers. Later, South Tyrol was ceded to the Kingdom of Italy, a client state of the First French Empire, by Bavaria in 1810. After Napoleon's defeat, the whole of Tyrol was returned to Austria in 1814.  Tyrol was a Cisleithanian \"Kronland\" (royal territory) of Austria-Hungary from 1867. The County of Tyrol then extended beyond the boundaries of today's state, including North Tyrol and East Tyrol; South Tyrol and Trentino (\"Welschtirol\") as well as three municipalities, which today are part of the adjacent Province of Belluno. After World War I, these lands became part of the Kingdom of Italy according to the 1915 London Pact and the provisions of the Treaty of Saint Germain. Since November 1918, it was occupied by 20,000–22,000 soldiers of the Italian Army.  After World War II, Tyrol was governed by France until Austria regained independence again in 1955.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Towns.", "content": "The capital, Innsbruck, is known for its university, and especially for its medicine. Tyrol is popular for its famous ski resorts, which include Kitzbühel, Ischgl and St. Anton. The 15 largest towns in Tyrol are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 34.6 billion € in 2018, accounting for 9% of the Austria's economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 40,900 € or 136% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Tyrol has long been a central hub for European long-distance routes and thus a transit land for trans-European trade over the Alps. As early as the 1st century B.C. Tyrol had one of the most important north-south links of the Roman Empire, the Via Claudia Augusta. Roman roads crossed the Tyrol from the Po Plain in present-day Italy, following the course of the Etsch and Eisack in present South Tyrol over the Brenner and then following the northern Wipp valley to Hall. From there roads branched along the River Inn. The Via Raetia went westwards and up onto the Seefeld Plateau, where it crossed into Bavaria where Scharnitz is today. The Porta Claudia, built in the early 17th century is a fortification that underlines the importance of the road in the Early Modern Period.  Today Tyrol has international road, rail and air connections. Innsbruck Airport is Tyrol's international airport. In addition there are several smaller airports in various places such as St. Johann in Tirol, Höfen in the Außerfern or Langkampfen. Many public transit companies operate a common tariff scheme as part of the Tyrol Transport Association.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative divisions.", "content": "The state is divided into nine districts (\"Bezirke\"); one of them, Innsbruck, is a statutory city. The districts and their administrative centres, from west to east and north to south, are:  North Tyrol:  East Tyrol:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The traditional form of mural art known as Lüftlmalerei is typical of Tyrolean villages and towns.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tyrol (; ; ; ) is a federal state (\"Bundesland\") in western Austria. It comprises the Austrian part of the historical Princely County of Tyrol. It is a constituent part of the present-day Euroregion Tyrol–South Tyrol–Trentino (together with South Tyrol and Trentino in Italy). The capital of Tyrol is Innsbruck.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971726}
{"src_title": "Illegal prime", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "One of the earliest illegal prime numbers was generated in March 2001 by Phil Carmody. Its binary representation corresponds to a compressed version of the C source code of a computer program implementing the DeCSS decryption algorithm, which can be used by a computer to circumvent a DVD's copy protection.  Protests against the indictment of DeCSS author Jon Lech Johansen and legislation prohibiting publication of DeCSS code took many forms. One of them was the representation of the illegal code in a form that had an \"intrinsically archivable\" quality. Since the bits making up a computer program also represent a number, the plan was for the number to have some special property that would make it archivable and publishable (one method was to print it on a T-shirt). The primality of a number is a fundamental property of number theory and is therefore not dependent on legal definitions of any particular jurisdiction.  The large prime database of The Prime Pages website records the top 20 primes of various special forms; one of them is proof of primality using the elliptic curve primality proving (ECPP) algorithm. Thus, if the number were large enough and proved prime using ECPP, it would be published.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery.", "content": "Specifically, Carmody applied Dirichlet's theorem to several prime candidates of the form \"k\"·256 + \"b\", where \"k\" was the decimal representation of the original compressed file. Multiplying by a power of 256 adds as many trailing null characters to the gzip file as indicated in the exponent which would still result in the DeCSS C code when unzipped.  Of those prime candidates, several were identified as probable prime using the open source program OpenPFGW, and one of them was proved prime using the ECPP algorithm implemented by the Titanix software. Even at the time of discovery in 2001, this 1401-digit number, of the form \"k\"·256 + 2083, was too small to be mentioned, so Carmody discovered a 1905-digit prime, of the form \"k\"·256 + 99, that was the tenth largest prime found using ECPP, a remarkable achievement by itself and worthy of being published on the lists of the highest prime numbers. In a way, by having this number independently published for a completely unrelated reason to the DeCSS code, he had been able to evade legal responsibility for the original software.  Following this, Carmody discovered an 1811-digit prime—this one being non-compressed, directly executable machine language in the ELF format for Linux i386, implementing the same DeCSS functionality.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An illegal prime is a prime number that represents information whose possession or distribution is forbidden in some legal jurisdictions. One of the first illegal primes was found in 2001. When interpreted in a particular way, it describes a computer program that bypasses the digital rights management scheme used on DVDs. Distribution of such a program in the United States is illegal under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. An illegal prime is a kind of illegal number.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971727}
{"src_title": "Muzzleloader", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Loading.", "content": "In general, the sequence of loading is to put in first gunpowder, by pouring in a measured amount of loose powder, historically mostly by using a powder flask (or powder horn), or by inserting a pre-measured bag or paper packet of gunpowder (called a cartridge) or by inserting solid propellant pellets. The gunpowder used is typically black powder or black powder substitutes like Pyrodex. Sometimes two types of gunpowder (and two flasks) were used consisting of finer priming powder for the flash pan and coarser powder for the main charge behind the ball. This was particularly the case with earlier muzzleloaders like matchlocks but appear to have been less common with flintlocks and was irrelevant with percussion locks since they used percussion caps rather than priming powder.  Wadding is made from felt, paper, cloth or card and has several different uses. In shotguns, a card wad or other secure wadding is used between the powder and the shot charge to prevent pellets from dropping into the powder charge and on top of the shot charge to hold it in place in the barrel. In smooth bore muskets and most rifles used prior to cartridges being introduced in the mid-to late nineteenth century, wadding was used primarily to hold the powder in place. On most naval cannons, one piece of wadding was used to hold the powder in place and served the purpose of creating a better seal around the shot. Another was used to act as a plug to stop the shot rolling out because of the swaying of the ship.  The use of cartridges with both gunpowder charge and ball, made up in batches by the shooter or a servant, was known from very early on, but until roughly around 1800 loading using a powder flask and a bag of balls was more common outside of the military. The measuring stage for the barrel charge of gunpowder could be avoided by carrying a number of pre-measured charges in small containers of wood, metal or cloth, often carried on a bandolier. These were known by various names, including \"chargers\" or \"apostles\" as 12 were often carried. For most of the time muzzleloaders were in use, a round ball and pre-measured powder charge could be carried in a paper or cloth wrapping. The shooter would bite off the end of the paper cartridge with his teeth and pour the powder into the barrel followed by the ball encased in the paper wrapping.  The projectiles and wads were then pushed down into the breech with a ramrod until they were firmly seated on the propellant charge. Priming powder could be carried in a separate priming flask and poured into the priming pan or a little powder from the cartridge was used, and the frizzen was pushed down to hold the priming powder in place. After the gunpowder and projectile or shot charge were placed in the barrel a ramrod was used to firmly pack everything down at the base of the barrel. Then either a priming charge was placed in the priming pan or a percussion cap was placed on the nipple, the firing mechanism initiated; the cock or hammer was then cocked to make the firearm ready to fire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Projectile types and history.", "content": "Muzzleloading firearms generally use round balls, cylindrical conical projectiles, and shot charges.  In some types of rifles firing round ball, a lubricated patch (see Kentucky rifle) of fabric is wrapped around a ball which is slightly smaller than the barrel diameter. In other types of round ball firing rifles, a ramrod and hammer is used to force the round ball down through the rifling. When fired, either the lead ball or the wrapping grips the rifling and imparts spin to the ball which usually gives improved accuracy. In rifles firing Minié balls, the patch, often the paper wrapping from the cartridge, is used as an initial seal and to hold powder in place during loading.  The Minié ball replaced the round ball in most firearms, especially military, in the 1840s and 1850s. It has a hollow base which expands to grip the rifling. The combination of the spinning Minié ball and the consistent velocity provided by the improved seal gave far better accuracy than the smoothbore muzzleloaders that it replaced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern usage.", "content": "When aiming for great accuracy, muzzle-loaders are usually cleaned (\"swabbed\") before reloading, so that there is no residue left in the barrel to reduce accuracy, though in competitions run by the international governing body, the MLAIC, this is prohibited for military rifle and musket events. However, in small arms muzzleloading rifles, swabbing is only done after every 5-10 shots. Large caliber muzzle-loaders such as cannons are always swabbed between shots to prevent accidents caused by live sparks igniting the fresh charge of powder as it is being loaded.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Muzzleloading.", "content": "Muzzleloading is the sport or pastime of firing muzzleloading guns. Muzzleloading guns, both antique and reproduction, are used for target shooting, hunting, historical re-enactment and historical research. The sport originated in the United States in the 1930s, just as the last original users and makers of muzzleloading arms were dying out. The sport received a tremendous boost in the 1960s and 1970s. The Muzzle Loaders Associations International Committee (www.MLAIC.org) was formed in 1970 and held its first World Championship in 1971. Since then a flourishing industry manufacturing working reproductions of historic firearms now exists in the United States and Europe, particularly in northern Italy near Gardone. In the United States muzzleloading guns are, subject to a number of qualifications, generally not considered firearms. Subject to state law they may be possessed by persons who might otherwise not be legally allowed to own a firearm.  The American National Muzzle Loading Rifle Association holds two national tournaments a year in Friendship, Indiana as well as the Western National Shoot Event held in Phoenix, Arizona.  The Muzzle Loaders Associations International Committee (MLAIC) governs international competition with muzzle-loading arms. The MLAIC holds a Short Range World Championship in even-numbered years and a Long Range World Championship (300 to 1000 yards) on odd numbered years (South Africa has won the last 5 Long Range World Championships).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern use.", "content": "Driven by demand for muzzleloaders for special extended primitive hunting seasons, firearms manufacturers have developed in-line muzzleloading rifles with designs similar to modern breech-loading centerfire designs. Knight Rifles pioneered the in-line muzzleloader in the mid-1980s, manufacturing and selling them to this day. Savage Arms has created the 10ML-II, which can be used with smokeless powder, reducing the cleaning required.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A muzzleloader is any firearm into which the projectile and usually the propellant charge is loaded from the muzzle of the gun (i.e., from the forward, open end of the gun's barrel). This is distinct from the more popular modern (higher tech and harder to make) designs of breech-loading firearms. The term \"muzzleloader\" applies to both rifled and smoothbore type muzzleloaders, and may also refer to the marksman who specializes in the shooting of such firearms. The firing methods, paraphernalia and mechanism further divide both categories as do caliber (from cannons to small-caliber palm guns).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971728}
{"src_title": "Kingdom of Westphalia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formation.", "content": "The Kingdom of Westphalia was created in 1807 by merging territories ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia in the Peace of Tilsit, among them the region of the Duchy of Magdeburg west of the Elbe River, the Brunswick-Lüneburg territories of Hanover and Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, and the Electorate of Hesse. Hesse's capital Cassel (modern spelling \"Kassel\") then fulfilled the same function for Westphalia, and the king kept the court at the palace of Wilhelmshöhe, renamed Napoleonshöhe. The state was a member of the Confederation of the Rhine.  Since it was intended as a Napoleonic \"model state\", a constitution was written and enacted by King Jérôme on 7 December 1807, the day after he had arrived in Cassel, making Westphalia the first monarchy in Germany with a modern-style constitution. The constitution made all male residents citizens with equal rights. Thus serfs were liberated and Jews emancipated, and soccage was abolished. The Napoleonic code was enacted, doing away with guilds and providing for the right of capitalism. A metric system of weights and measures was introduced.  The organisers used French terms to designate the regional territories within the kingdom: departments received names based on watercourses (Elbe, Saale, Weser, Fulda, Leine, Oker) and mountains (Harz), regardless of their traditional names. These departments were generally composed of territories taken from a number of petty states. Compared to the departments of France itself the Westphalian departments were relatively small and sparsely populated.  While administrative divisions (departments, districts and cantons) were certainly less unequal than the previous territorial divisions, uniformity does not appear to have been a determining factor in their creation. The desire to break from the past, and not just from the random territorial divisions of the former manorial justices, especially influenced the cantonal distribution. Just as before the conquest, freedom of expression remained curtailed and censorship was instituted. In 1810 the coastal and northern départements \"North\" (capital: Stade) and \"Lower Elbe\" (capital: Lunenburg) had to be ceded to the French Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jews.", "content": "Following the French example, Jewish congregations were reorganised and a Consistory () supervising them was established. The former Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel merchant and man of letters, Israel Jacobson, became its consistorial president, assisted by a board of officers. Jacobson did his best to exercise a reforming influence upon the various congregations of the country. He opened a house of prayer in Cassel, with a ritual similar to that introduced in Seesen. Napoléon's inglorious so-called \"décret infâme\", again restricting the rights of many French Jews, did not apply in Westphalia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russian conquest.", "content": "A significant burden on the kingdom was the requirement to supply troops and financial support for the Napoleonic wars. Large numbers of Westphalian troops fought in the Russian campaign of 1812; the Westphalian Guards heroically but unsuccessfully charged the Raevski Redoubt during the Battle of Borodino.  In September 1813, Russian troops surrounded Cassel, defeated the French completely and retook the city. By October 1 they had conquered the whole Kingdom, but three days later Jérôme returned with French soldiers and managed to recapture Cassel. The Elector of Hesse-Kassel arrived soon after and the Russians besieged the city again. After France lost the Battle of the Nations on 19 October 1813, the Russians dissolved the Kingdom and restored the status quo of 1806 except for Rietberg and Stolberg-Wernigerode, with Prussia regaining control.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat of arms.", "content": "The arms reflect the incorporated territories. The first quarter shows the silver horse of Westphalia; the second the lion of Hesse over the counties of Dietz, Nidda, Ziegenhain and Katzenelnbogen; the third was newly designed for non-specified territories around Magdeburg; and the fourth combined Brunswick, Diepholz, Lüneburg and Lauterburg. Around the shield are the Order of the Crown of Westphalia and the French \"Grand Aigle\" of the Légion d'honneur. Above is Napoleon's star. Typical of Napoleonic heraldry are the crossed sceptres.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kingdom of Westphalia was a kingdom in Germany, with a population of 2.6 million, that existed from 1807 to 1813. It included territory in Hesse and other parts of present-day Germany. While formally independent, it was a vassal state of the First French Empire and was ruled by Napoleon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte. It was named after Westphalia, but this was a misnomer since the kingdom had little territory in common with that area; rather the kingdom mostly covered territory formerly known as Eastphalia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971729}
{"src_title": "Theodor Plievier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life & career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military service.", "content": "During his youth, Plievier worked as a sailor and travelled extensively throughout Europe and overseas. Through his travels he was exposed to anarchist-syndicalist philosophies that would influence his later work.  In 1914, after a fight in a quayside bar, he was forced to enlist in the Imperial Navy to escape imprisonment. During most of the war, he served on the SMS Wolf, an auxiliary cruiser which remained at sea for 451 days. He later participated in the 1918 Wilhelmshaven mutiny.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics & war.", "content": "Under the Weimar Republic, he became a social critic and author. His early works sought to connect personal experience with documentary-style literature. He founded the \"Publishing House of the 12\" (\"Verlag der Zwölf\") in Berlin during the 1920s. During this period he wrote and published \"Des Kaisers Kulis (\"The Kaiser's Coolies\")\", a critical account of his experiences in the Imperial Navy.  His books were burned after Hitler took power in 1933. Plievier fled to France, and later to Sweden, before settling in the Soviet Union in 1934. After the outbreak of World War II, Plievier gained access to the front lines, where he observed the carnage wrought there and interviewed captive German soldiers. In 1943, he became a member of the Nationalkomitee Freies Deutschland (National Committee for a Free Germany).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The novel \"Stalingrad\".", "content": "He used his experiences as the basis for his documentary novel, which was eventually translated into 26 languages. \"Stalingrad\" is one of the most important works of literature to emerge from the eastern front. Its pitiless descriptions of battle and the failures of the German military leadership indicts Hitler's megalomania and illustrates the senselessness of war.  The two main characters in \"Stalingrad\" are the Panzer commander Vilshofen and Gnotke, NCO of a Strafbattalion (penal battalion). Both men come from different backgrounds and experience the war differently. The Colonel is a convinced soldier who obeys orders and cares for his men. He fights with a sense of duty, but loses confidence in the German military leadership as he senses that he and his men are being sacrificed to a lost cause. NCO Gnotke's work is to collect the dead, or their dismembered parts, from the battlefield. He loses his humanity as he works under constant fire and is exposed to unrelenting horror month after month during the war, even to the point of warming up his body on freshly fallen soldiers.  \"Stalingrad\" was subject to harsh Soviet censorship, even though it deals mainly with the German side. Plievier eventually broke with Moscow, leaving for the west in 1947. His later book \"Moscow\" presents a comprehensive picture of life in the Soviet Union.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Television adaptations.", "content": "A television version of \"Stalingrad\" was produced by NDR in West Germany, and first shown on 31 January 1963. Adapted by Klaus Hubalek and directed by Gustav Burmester, it starred Ullrich Haupt as Generalmajor Vilshofen, Wolfgang Büttner as General Gönnern, Hanns Lothar as Gnotke, and P. Walter Jacob as General Vennekohl. Hubalek's screenplay was subsequently translated into English and directed by Rudolph Cartier for the BBC's \"Festival\" series, first shown on 4 December 1963. This version starred Albert Lieven as Vilshofen, Peter Vaughan as Gonnern, André van Gyseghem as Vennekohl, and Harry Fowler as Gnotke.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Theodor Otto Richard Plievier (Plivier, until 1933) (February 12, 1892, Berlin – March 12, 1955, Avegno, Switzerland) was a German author best known for his anti-war novel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971730}
{"src_title": "Italo Svevo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Trieste (then in the Austrian Empire, after 1867 Austria-Hungary) as Aron Ettore Schmitz to a Jewish German father and an Italian mother, Svevo was one of seven children and grew up enjoying a passion for literature from a young age, reading Goethe, Schiller, Shakespeare, and the classics of French and Russian literature.  Svevo was a citizen of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until the end of the First World War. He spoke Italian as a second language (as he usually spoke the Triestine dialect). Due to his germanophone ancestry by his father, he and his brothers were sent to a boarding school near Würzburg, Germany, where he learnt fluent German.  After returning to Trieste in 1880, Svevo continued his studies for a further two years at Istituto Revoltella before being forced to take financial responsibility when his father filed for bankruptcy after his once successful glassware business failed. This 20-year period as a bank clerk at Unionbank of Vienna served as inspiration for his first novel \"Una Vita\".  During his time at the bank, Svevo contributed to Italian-language socialist publication \"L'Indipendente\" (),and began writing plays (which he rarely finished) before beginning work on \"Una Vita\" in 1887. Svevo adhered to a humanistic and democratic socialism which predisposed him to pacifism and to advocate a European economic union after the war.  Following the death of his parents, Svevo married his cousin Livia Veneziani in 1896, and became a partner in his wealthy father-in-law's paint business that specialised in manufacturing industrial paint that was used on naval warships. He became successful in growing the business and after trips to France and Germany, set up a branch of the company in England.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "In 1923, Italo Svevo (literally \"Italian Swabian\") wrote and published the psychological novel \"La coscienza di Zeno\" (rendered as \"Confessions of Zeno\", or \"Zeno's Conscience\"). The work, showing the author's interest in the theories of Sigmund Freud, is written in the form of the memoirs of Zeno Cosini, who writes them at the insistence of his psychoanalyst. Svevo's novel received almost no attention from Italian readers and critics at the time.  The work might have disappeared altogether if it were not for the efforts of James Joyce. Joyce had met Svevo in 1907, when Joyce tutored him in English while working for Berlitz in Trieste. Joyce read Svevo's earlier novels \"Una Vita\" and \"Senilità\", which had also been largely ignored when published in 1898.  Joyce championed \"Confessions of Zeno\", helping to have it translated into French and then published in Paris, where critics praised it extravagantly. That led Italian critics, including Eugenio Montale, to discover it. Zeno Cosini, the book's hero and unreliable narrator, mirrored Svevo himself, being a businessman fascinated by Freudian theory. Svevo was also a model for Leopold Bloom, the protagonist of Joyce's seminal novel \"Ulysses\".  \"Confessions of Zeno\" never looks outside the narrow confines of Trieste, much like Joyce's work, which rarely left Dublin in the last years of Ireland's time as part of the United Kingdom. Svevo employed often sardonic wit in his observations of Trieste and, in particular, of his hero, an indifferent man who cheats on his wife, lies to his psychoanalyst, and is trying to explain himself to his psychoanalyst by revisiting his memories.  There is a final connection between Svevo and the character Cosini. Cosini sought psychoanalysis, he said, in order to discover why he was addicted to nicotine. As he reveals in his memoirs, each time he had given up smoking, with the iron resolve that this would be the \"\"ultima sigaretta!!\"\", he experienced the exhilarating feeling that he was now beginning life over without the burden of his old habits and mistakes. That feeling was, however, so strong that he found smoking irresistible, if only so that he could stop smoking again in order to experience that thrill once more.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and death.", "content": "Svevo lived for part of his life in Charlton, south-east London, while working for a family firm. He documented this period in his letters to his wife which highlighted the cultural differences he encountered in Edwardian England. His old home at 67 Charlton Church Lane now carries a blue plaque.  Svevo left Trieste's Jewish community to marry Livia Veneziani in a civil ceremony. Soonly after, Livia convinced him to convert to Catholicism and take part in a religious wedding (probably after a troublesome pregnancy). Personally, however, Svevo was an atheist.  Like his most famous character Zeno, Svevo smoked for all of his life. After being involved in a serious car accident, he was brought into hospital at Motta di Livenza, where his health rapidly failed. As death approached he asked one of his visitors for a cigarette. It was refused. Svevo replied: \"That would have been my last.\" He died that afternoon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Svevo, along with Luigi Pirandello, is considered a prominent figure of early 20th century Italian literature and has had an important influence on later generations of the country's writers.  Though only recognised for his literary achievements towards the end of his life, Svevo is celebrated as one of Italy's finest writers, particularly in his home city of Trieste, and has a statue in front of the Museum of Natural History erected in his honour.  The following are named after him:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aron Ettore Schmitz (19 December 186113 September 1928), better known by the pseudonym Italo Svevo (), was an Italian writer, businessman, novelist, playwright, and short story writer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971731}
{"src_title": "Giotto (spacecraft)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission.", "content": "Originally a United States partner probe was planned that would accompany \"Giotto\", but this fell through due to budget cuts at NASA. There were plans to have observation equipment on board a Space Shuttle in low-Earth orbit around the time of \"Giotto\"s fly-by, but they in turn fell through with the \"Challenger\" disaster.  The plan then became a cooperative armada of five spaceprobes including \"Giotto\", two from the Soviet Union's Vega program and two from Japan: the \"Sakigake\" and \"Suisei\" probes. The idea was for Japanese probes and the pre-existing American probe International Cometary Explorer to make long distance measurements, followed by the Russian Vegas which would locate the nucleus, and the resulting information sent back would allow \"Giotto\" to precisely target very close to the nucleus. Because Giotto would pass so very close to the nucleus ESA was mostly convinced it would not survive the encounter due to the spacecraft colliding at very high speed with the many dust particles from the comet. The coordinated group of probes became known as the Halley Armada.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The craft.", "content": "The spacecraft was derived from the GEOS research satellite built by British Aerospace in Filton, Bristol, and modified with the addition of a dust shield (Whipple shield) as proposed by Fred Whipple which comprised a thin (1 mm) aluminium sheet separated by a space and a thicker Kevlar sheet. The later \"Stardust\" spacecraft would use a similar Whipple shield. A mock up of the spacecraft resides at the Bristol Aero Collection hangar, at Filton, UK.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timeline.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Launch.", "content": "The mission was given the go-ahead by ESA in 1980, and launched on an Ariane 1 rocket (flight V14) on 2 July 1985 from Kourou, French Guiana. The craft was controlled from the European Space Agency ESOC facilities in Darmstadt (then West Germany) initially in Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) then in the Near Earth Phase (NEP) before the longer Cruise Phase through to the encounter. While in GTO a number of slew and spin-up manoeuvres (to 90 RPM) were carried out in preparation for the firing of the Apogee Boost Motor (ABM), although unlike orbit circularisations for geostationary orbit, the ABM for Giotto was fired at perigee. Attitude determination and control used sun pulse and IR Earth sensor data in the telemetry to determine the spacecraft orientation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Halley encounter.", "content": "The Soviet Vega 1 started returning images of Halley on 4 March 1986, and the first ever of its nucleus, and made its flyby on 6 March, followed by Vega 2 making its flyby on 9 March. Vega 1's closest approach to Halley was 8 889 km.  \"Giotto\" passed Halley successfully on 14 March 1986 at 596 km distance, and surprisingly survived despite being hit by some small particles. One impact sent it spinning off its stabilized spin axis so that its antenna no longer always pointed at the Earth, and its dust shield no longer protected its instruments. After 32 minutes \"Giotto\" re-stabilized itself and continued gathering science data.  Another impact destroyed the Halley Multicolor Camera, but not before it took photographs of the nucleus at closest approach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First Earth flyby.", "content": "\"Giotto\"s trajectory was adjusted for an Earth flyby and its science instruments were turned off on 15 March 1986 at 02:00 UTC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Grigg-Skjellerup encounter.", "content": "\"Giotto\" was commanded to wake up on 2 July 1990 when it flew by Earth in order to sling shot to its next cometary encounter.  The probe then flew by the Comet Grigg-Skjellerup on 10 July 1992 which it approached to a distance of about 200 km. Afterwards, Giotto was again switched off on 23 July 1992.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second Earth flyby.", "content": "In 1999 \"Giotto\" made another Earth flyby but was not reactivated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scientific results.", "content": "Images showed Halley's nucleus to be a dark peanut-shaped body, 15 km long, 7 km to 10 km wide. Only 10% of the surface was active, with at least three outgassing jets seen on the sunlit side. Analysis showed the comet formed 4.5 billion years ago from volatiles (mainly ice) that had condensed onto interstellar dust particles. It had remained practically unaltered since its formation.  Measured volume of material ejected by Halley:  \"Giotto\" found Halley's nucleus was dark, which suggested a thick covering of dust.  The nucleus's surface was rough and of a porous quality, with the density of the whole nucleus as low as 0.3 g/cm3. Sagdeev's team estimated a density of 0.6 g/cm3, but S. J. Peale warned that all estimates had error bars too large to be informative.  The quantity of material ejected was found to be three tonnes per second for seven jets, and these caused the comet to wobble over long time periods.  The dust ejected was mostly only the size of cigarette smoke particles, with masses ranging from 10 ag to 0.4 g. (See Orders of magnitude (mass).) The mass of the particle that impacted \"Giotto\" and sent it spinning was not measured, but from its effects—it also probably broke off a piece of \"Giotto\"—the mass has been estimated to lie between 0.1 g and 1 g.  Two kinds of dust were seen: one with carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen; the other with calcium, iron, magnesium, silicon and sodium.  The ratio of abundances of the comet's light elements excluding nitrogen (i.e. hydrogen, carbon, oxygen) were the same as the Sun's. The implication is that the constituents of Halley are among the most primitive in the Solar System.  The plasma and ion mass spectrometer instruments showed Halley has a carbon-rich surface.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giotto was a European robotic spacecraft mission from the European Space Agency. The spacecraft flew by and studied Halley's Comet and in doing so became the first spacecraft to make close up observations of a comet. On 13 March 1986, the spacecraft succeeded in approaching Halley's nucleus at a distance of 596 kilometers. It was named after the Early Italian Renaissance painter Giotto di Bondone. He had observed Halley's Comet in 1301 and was inspired to depict it as the star of Bethlehem in his painting \"Adoration of the Magi\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971732}
{"src_title": "Ovulation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In humans.", "content": "In humans, ovulation occurs about midway through the menstrual cycle, after the follicular phase. The few days surrounding ovulation (from approximately days 10 to 18 of a 28-day cycle), constitute the most fertile phase. The time from the beginning of the last menstrual period (LMP) until ovulation is, on average, 14.6 days, but with substantial variation among females and between cycles in any single female, with an overall 95% prediction interval of 8.2 to 20.5 days.  The process of ovulation is controlled by the hypothalamus of the brain and through the release of hormones secreted in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). In the preovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle, the ovarian follicle will undergo a series of transformations called cumulus expansion, which is stimulated by FSH. After this is done, a hole called the stigma will form in the follicle, and the secondary oocyte will leave the follicle through this hole. Ovulation is triggered by a spike in the amount of FSH and LH released from the pituitary gland. During the luteal (post-ovulatory) phase, the secondary oocyte will travel through the fallopian tubes toward the uterus. If fertilized by a sperm, the fertilized secondary oocyte or ovum may implant there 6–12 days later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Follicular phase.", "content": "The follicular phase (or proliferative phase) is the phase of the menstrual cycle during which the ovarian follicles mature. The follicular phase lasts from the beginning of menstruation to the start of ovulation.  For ovulation to be successful, the ovum must be supported by the corona radiata and cumulus oophorous granulosa cells. The latter undergo a period of proliferation and mucification known as cumulus expansion. Mucification is the secretion of a hyaluronic acid-rich cocktail that disperses and gathers the cumulus cell network in a sticky matrix around the ovum. This network stays with the ovum after ovulation and has been shown to be necessary for fertilization.  An increase in cumulus cell number causes a concomitant increase in antrum fluid volume that can swell the follicle to over 20 mm in diameter. It forms a pronounced bulge at the surface of the ovary called the blister.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ovulation.", "content": "Estrogen levels peak towards the end of the follicular phase. This, by positive feedback, causes a surge in levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). This lasts from 24 to 36 hours, and results in the rupture of the ovarian follicles, causing the oocyte to be released from the ovary.  Through a signal transduction cascade initiated by LH, proteolytic enzymes are secreted by the follicle that degrade the follicular tissue at the site of the blister, forming a hole called the \"stigma\". The secondary oocyte leaves the ruptured follicle and moves out into the peritoneal cavity through the stigma, where it is caught by the fimbriae at the end of the fallopian tube. After entering the fallopian tube, the oocyte is pushed along by cilia, beginning its journey toward the uterus.  By this time, the oocyte has completed meiosis I, yielding two cells: the larger secondary oocyte that contains all of the cytoplasmic material and a smaller, inactive first polar body. Meiosis II follows at once but will be arrested in the metaphase and will so remain until fertilization. The spindle apparatus of the second meiotic division appears at the time of ovulation. If no fertilization occurs, the oocyte will degenerate between 12 and 24 hours after ovulation. Approximately 1-2% of ovulations release more than one oocyte. This tendency increases with maternal age. Fertilization of two different oocytes by two different spermatozoa results in fraternal twins.  The mucous membrane of the uterus, termed the functionalis, has reached its maximum size, and so have the endometrial glands, although they are still non-secretory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Luteal phase.", "content": "The follicle proper has met the end of its lifespan. Without the oocyte, the follicle folds inward on itself, transforming into the corpus luteum (pl. corpora lutea), a steroidogenic cluster of cells that produces estrogen and progesterone. These hormones induce the endometrial glands to begin production of the proliferative endometrium and later into secretory endometrium, the site of embryonic growth if implantation occurs. The action of progesterone increases basal body temperature by one-quarter to one-half degree Celsius (one-half to one degree Fahrenheit). The corpus luteum continues this paracrine action for the remainder of the menstrual cycle, maintaining the endometrium, before disintegrating into scar tissue during menses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clinical presentation.", "content": "The start of ovulation can be detected by signs. Because the signs are not readily discernible by people other than the female, humans are said to have a concealed ovulation. In many animal species there are distinctive signals indicating the period when the female is fertile. Several explanations have been proposed to explain concealed ovulation in humans.  Females near ovulation experience changes in the cervical mucus, and in their basal body temperature. Furthermore, many females experience secondary fertility signs including Mittelschmerz (pain associated with ovulation) and a heightened sense of smell, and can sense the precise moment of ovulation.  Many females experience heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation. One study concluded that females subtly improve their facial attractiveness during ovulation. Symptoms related to the onset of ovulation, the moment of ovulation and the body's process of beginning and ending the menstrual cycle vary in intensity with each female but are fundamentally the same. The charting of such symptoms — primarily basal body temperature, mittelschmerz and cervical position — is referred to as the sympto-thermal method of fertility awareness, which allow auto-diagnosis by a female of her state of ovulation. Once training has been given by a suitable authority, fertility charts can be completed on a cycle-by-cycle basis to show ovulation. This gives the possibility of using the data to predict fertility for natural contraception and pregnancy planning.  The moment of ovulation has been photographed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disorders.", "content": "Disorders of ovulation are classified as menstrual disorders and include oligoovulation and anovulation:  The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed the following classification of ovulatory disorders:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ovulation induction.", "content": "Ovulation induction is a promising assisted reproductive technology for patients with conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and oligomenorrhea. It is also used in in vitro fertilization to make the follicles mature before egg retrieval. Usually, ovarian stimulation is used in conjunction with ovulation induction to stimulate the formation of multiple oocytes. Some sources include ovulation induction in the definition of \"ovarian stimulation\".  A low dose of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) may be injected after completed ovarian stimulation. Ovulation will occur between 24–36 hours after the HCG injection.  By contrast, induced ovulation in some animal species occurs naturally, ovulation can be stimulated by coitus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ovulation suppression.", "content": "Combined hormonal contraceptives inhibit follicular development and prevent ovulation as a primary mechanism of action. The \"ovulation-inhibiting dose\" (OID) of an estrogen or progestogen refers to the dose required to consistently inhibit ovulation in women.  In assisted reproductive technology including in vitro fertilization, cycles where a transvaginal oocyte retrieval is planned generally necessitates ovulation suppression, because it is not practically feasible to collect oocytes after ovulation. For this purpose, ovulation can be suppressed by either a GnRH agonist or a GnRH antagonist, with different protocols depending on which substance is used.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ovulation is the release of eggs from the ovaries. In women, this event occurs when the ovarian follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells. After ovulation, during the luteal phase, the egg will be available to be fertilized by sperm. In addition, the uterine lining (endometrium) is thickened to be able to receive a fertilized egg. If no conception occurs, the uterine lining as well as blood will be shed during menstruation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971733}
{"src_title": "Phenylalanine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first description of phenylalanine was made in 1879, when Schulze and Barbieri identified a compound with the empirical formula, CHNO, in yellow lupine (\"Lupinus luteus\") seedlings. In 1882, Erlenmeyer and Lipp first synthesized phenylalanine from phenylacetaldehyde, hydrogen cyanide, and ammonia.  The genetic codon for phenylalanine was first discovered by J. Heinrich Matthaei and Marshall W. Nirenberg in 1961. They showed that by using mRNA to insert multiple uracil repeats into the genome of the bacterium \"E. coli\", they could cause the bacterium to produce a polypeptide consisting solely of repeated phenylalanine amino acids. This discovery helped to establish the nature of the coding relationship that links information stored in genomic nucleic acid with protein expression in the living cell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dietary sources.", "content": "Good sources of phenylalanine are eggs, chicken, liver, beef, milk, and soybeans. Another common source of phenylalanine is anything sweetened with the artificial sweetener aspartame, such as diet drinks, diet foods and medication; the metabolism of aspartame produces phenylalanine as one of the compound's metabolites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dietary recommendations.", "content": "The Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) of the U.S. Institute of Medicine set Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for essential amino acids in 2002. For phenylalanine plus tyrosine, for adults 19 years and older, 33 mg/kg body weight/day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other biological roles.", "content": "-Phenylalanine is biologically converted into -tyrosine, another one of the DNA-encoded amino acids. -tyrosine in turn is converted into L-DOPA, which is further converted into dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline). The latter three are known as the catecholamines.  Phenylalanine uses the same active transport channel as tryptophan to cross the blood–brain barrier. In excessive quantities, supplementation can interfere with the production of serotonin and other aromatic amino acids as well as nitric oxide due to the overuse (eventually, limited availability) of the associated cofactors, iron or tetrahydrobiopterin. The corresponding enzymes in for those compounds are the aromatic amino acid hydroxylase family and nitric oxide synthase.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In plants.", "content": "Phenylalanine is the starting compound used in the synthesis of flavonoids. Lignan is derived from phenylalanine and from tyrosine. Phenylalanine is converted to cinnamic acid by the enzyme phenylalanine ammonia-lyase.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phenylketonuria.", "content": "The genetic disorder phenylketonuria (PKU) is the inability to metabolize phenylalanine because of a lack of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. Individuals with this disorder are known as \"phenylketonurics\" and must regulate their intake of phenylalanine. Phenylketonurics often use blood tests to monitor the amount of phenylalanine in their blood. Lab results may report phenylalanine levels using either mg/dL and μmol/L. One mg/dL of phenylalanine is approximately equivalent to 60 μmol/L.  A (rare) \"variant form\" of phenylketonuria called hyperphenylalaninemia is caused by the inability to synthesize a cofactor called tetrahydrobiopterin, which can be supplemented. Pregnant women with hyperphenylalaninemia may show similar symptoms of the disorder (high levels of phenylalanine in blood), but these indicators will usually disappear at the end of gestation. Pregnant women with PKU must control their blood phenylalanine levels even if the fetus is heterozygous for the defective gene because the fetus could be adversely affected due to hepatic immaturity.  A non-food source of phenylalanine is the artificial sweetener aspartame. This compound is metabolized by the body into several chemical byproducts including phenylalanine. The breakdown problems phenylketonurics have with the buildup of phenylalanine in the body also occurs with the ingestion of aspartame, although to a lesser degree. Accordingly, all products in Australia, the U.S. and Canada that contain aspartame must be labeled: \"Phenylketonurics: Contains phenylalanine.\" In the UK, foods containing aspartame must carry ingredient panels that refer to the presence of \"aspartame or E951\" and they must be labeled with a warning \"Contains a source of phenylalanine.\" In Brazil, the label \"Contém Fenilalanina\" (Portuguese for \"Contains Phenylalanine\") is also mandatory in products which contain it. These warnings are placed to help individuals avoid such foods.  Geneticists sequenced the genome of macaques in 2007. Their investigations found \"some instances where the normal form of the macaque protein looked like the diseased human protein\" including markers for PKU.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "-, - and -phenylalanine.", "content": "The stereoisomer -phenylalanine (DPA) can be produced by conventional organic synthesis, either as a single enantiomer or as a component of the racemic mixture. It does not participate in protein biosynthesis although it is found in proteins in small amounts - particularly aged proteins and food proteins that have been processed. The biological functions of -amino acids remain unclear, although -phenylalanine has pharmacological activity at niacin receptor 2.<ref name=\"IUPHAR/BPS-bio\"></ref>  -Phenylalanine (DLPA) is marketed as a nutritional supplement for its purported analgesic and antidepressant activities. -Phenylalanine is a mixture of -phenylalanine and -phenylalanine. The reputed analgesic activity of -phenylalanine may be explained by the possible blockage by -phenylalanine of enkephalin degradation by the enzyme carboxypeptidase A.<ref name=\"IUPHAR/BPS-clinical\"></ref> The mechanism of -phenylalanine's supposed antidepressant activity may be accounted for by the precursor role of -phenylalanine in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine. Elevated brain levels of norepinephrine and dopamine are thought to have an antidepressant effect. -Phenylalanine is absorbed from the small intestine and transported to the liver via the portal circulation. A small amount of -phenylalanine appears to be converted to -phenylalanine. -Phenylalanine is distributed to the various tissues of the body via the systemic circulation. It appears to cross the blood–brain barrier less efficiently than -phenylalanine, and so a small amount of an ingested dose of -phenylalanine is excreted in the urine without penetrating the central nervous system.  -Phenylalanine is an antagonist at α2δ Ca calcium channels with a K of 980 nM.  In the brain, -phenylalanine is a competitive antagonist at the glycine binding site of NMDA receptor and at the glutamate binding site of AMPA receptor. At the glycine binding site of NMDA receptor -phenylalanine has an apparent equilibrium dissociation constant (K) of 573 μM estimated by Schild regression which is considerably lower than brain -phenylalanine concentration observed in untreated human phenylketonuria. -Phenylalanine also inhibits neurotransmitter release at glutamatergic synapses in hippocampus and cortex with IC of 980 μM, a brain concentration seen in classical phenylketonuria, whereas -phenylalanine has a significantly smaller effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial synthesis.", "content": "-Phenylalanine is produced for medical, feed, and nutritional applications, such as aspartame, in large quantities by utilizing the bacterium \"Escherichia coli\", which naturally produces aromatic amino acids like phenylalanine. The quantity of -phenylalanine produced commercially has been increased by genetically engineering \"E. coli\", such as by altering the regulatory promoters or amplifying the number of genes controlling enzymes responsible for the synthesis of the amino acid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derivatives.", "content": "Boronophenylalanine (BPA) is a dihydroxyboryl derivative of phenylalanine, used in neutron capture therapy.  4-Azido-l-phenylalanine is a protein-incorporated unnatural amino acid used as a tool for bioconjugation in the field of chemical biology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phenylalanine (symbol Phe or F) is an essential α-amino acid with the formula. It can be viewed as a benzyl group substituted for the methyl group of alanine, or a phenyl group in place of a terminal hydrogen of alanine. This essential amino acid is classified as neutral, and nonpolar because of the inert and hydrophobic nature of the benzyl side chain. The -isomer is used to biochemically form proteins, coded for by DNA. Phenylalanine is a precursor for tyrosine, the monoamine neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline), and the skin pigment melanin. It is encoded by the codons UUU and UUC.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971734}
{"src_title": "Salzburg Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Saint Vergilius of Salzburg constructed the first cathedral possibly using the foundations of St. Rupert. The first Dom was recorded in 774. The so-called Virgil Dom was built from 767 to 774 and was 66 metres long and 33 metres wide.  Archbishop Arno (785 – 821) arranged the first renovations of the Dom, less than 70 years after its completion. In 842, the building burned after a lightning strike. Three years later, work began to rebuild the structure.  Under Archbishop Hartwig, the sanctuary expanded to the west with addition of a choir and crypt between 1000 and 1080. Archbishop Konrad I added the west towers from 1106 to 1147.  This original church, thus experienced at least three extensive building and rebuilding campaigns during the early Middle Ages, the final result of which was a somewhat \"ad hoc\" Romanesque basilica. In 1598, the basilica was severely damaged, and after several failed attempts at restoration and reconstruction, Prince-Bishop Wolf Dietrich Raitenau (Archbishop from 1587–1612) finally ordered it demolished. Wolf Dietrich was a patron and supporter of modern Italian Baroque architecture, having seen it from its origins in Italy and particularly Rome. Indeed, it was Wolf Dietrich who was also responsible for the building of the nearby \"Alten Residenz\", which is today connected to the cathedral. Wolf Dietrich hired the Italian architect Vincenzo Scamozzi to prepare a plan for a comprehensive new Baroque building. Construction did not begin however until Wolf Dietrich's successor, Markus Sittich von Hohenems (Archbishop from 1612–19), in 1614 laid the cornerstone of the new cathedral. Santino Solari designed the current cathedral by dramatically altering the original Scamozzi plan. The new sanctuary was completed 1628, less than 15 years after construction began. At its consecration on September 24, 1628, 12 choirs positioned in the marble galleries of the cathedral sang a Te Deum (the score of which is since lost) composed by Stefano Bernardi, the Kapellmeister to the Salzburg court. The present Salzburg Cathedral is built partially upon the foundations of the old basilica. Indeed, the foundation stones of the preceding church building may be seen in the \"Domgrabungen\", an excavation site under the cathedral that also features mosaics and other artifacts found when this location was the forum of the Roman city \"Juvavum\". One other surviving relic that predates the baroque edifice is the 14th Century Gothic baptismal font. The relics of Saint Rupert were transferred here when the cathedral was completed.  The finished church is 142 meters long and 33 meters high at the crossing/dome. The baroque style of St. Rupert's can be seen in the choir and the nave.  The Salzburg Cathedral was damaged in 1944 during World War II when a single bomb crashed through the central dome over the crossing. Repairs were somewhat slow to take place, but restoration was complete by 1959.  Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was baptized here on January 28, 1756, the day after his birth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "Salzburg Cathedral is located adjacent to Residenzplatz and Domplatz in the Altstadt (Old Town) area of the city. The Domplatz is accessed by three open arcade arches in the north, south, and west. These \"cathedral arches\" unite the cathedral with the Salzburg Residenz and St. Peter's Abbey to form a unique enclosed square measuring 101 meters long and 69 meters wide, with walls 81 meters high.  The Domplatz is dominated by the \"Maria Immaculata\" (Immaculate Mary) column, commissioned by Archbishop Sigismund von Schrattenbach and executed by the brothers Wolfgang and Johann-Baptist Hagenauer between 1766 and 1771. Modeled after similar columns in Vienna and Munich and constructed of marble and cast iron, the \"Maria Immaculata\" depicts the Virgin Mary enthroned on a mountain of clouds made of Untersberg marble and a globe. The central Marian figure is surrounded on four sides by allegoric figures representing angels, the devil, wisdom, and the Church. According to a plaque on the side of the cathedral, the figure group shows reactions to the mystery of the Immaculate Conception—the angels are delighted, human wisdom vanishes, the envious devil growls, and the triumphant Church rejoices. When viewed from the center of the arcades at the back of Domplatz, the classicist column is positioned in the central axis of the cathedral and shows the central Marian figure surrounded by the angels on the cathedral façade and seems to wear the crown mounted on the building. The body of the church is made of dark grey stone with ornamentation and façade of bright Untersberg marble. The richly decorated façade is framed by two towers and topped by a curved gable. The north tower houses an old oven used for baking communion bread. The façade is divided into three horizontal sections. The lower section has three high round arches or portals that provide access to three bronze doors. The portals are flanked by four large sculpted figures representing the diocesean and cathedral patrons. Mitred figures of Saint Rupert holding a salt barrel and Saint Virgilius holding a church were created c. 1660 by Bartholomäus van Opstal and flank figures of Saint Peter holding keys and Saint Paul holding a sword, sculpted c. 1697 by Bernhard Michael Mandl, who also created all the pedestals. The bases bear the arms of the Prince Archbishop Guidobald von Thun and Prince Archbishop Johann Ernst von Thun.  Along the balustrade above the entrance are statues of the four evangelists—Saint Matthew, Saint Mark, Saint Luke, and Saint John—who represent the salvation offered through their preaching. The pediments over the three windows behind the evangelists depict a lion and an ibex, the animals depicted in the coats of arms above. Above the center window, a golden crown aligns with the Marian column in the Domplatz. The top section tympanum bears the arms of the builders of the cathedral, Markus Sittikus and Paris Londron. The figure group on the pediment represents the Transfiguration of Jesus on Mount Tabor, showing Christ as \"Salvator Mundi\", with Moses holding the tablets on the left and the prophet Elijah to the right. The three statues were created in 1660 by Tommaso di Garona, the mason who built the Residenz Fountain.  The three bronze gates inside the portals date from 1957 and 1958 and represent the three divine virtues (\"Göttliche Tugenden\") of faith, hope, and love. The \"Tor des Glaubens\" (gate of faith) on the left was created by Toni Schneider-Manzell (1911-1996), the central \"Tor der Liebe\" (gate of love) was created by Giacomo Manzù (1908-1991), and the \"Tor der Hoffnung\" (gate of hope) on the right was created by Ewald Mataré (1887-1965).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bells.", "content": "The oldest bells in the cathedral are the \"Marienglocke\" and the\"Virgilglocke\", both cast in 1628. On 24 September 1961, the cathedral added five new bells. The \"Salvator\" bell of the cathedral is the second largest bell in Austria, after the \"Pummerin\" bell in Vienna Cathedral. The clappers are held against the sound bow whilst the bells are raised, then released sequentially to give a clean start to the ringing. At the end they are successively caught again by the mechanism to silence the bells.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salzburg Cathedral () is the seventeenth-century Baroque cathedral of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Salzburg in the city of Salzburg, Austria, dedicated to Saint Rupert and Saint Vergilius. Saint Rupert founded the church in 774 on the remnants of a Roman town, the cathedral was rebuilt in 1181 after a fire. In the seventeenth century, the cathedral was completely rebuilt in the Baroque style under Prince-Bishop Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau to its present appearance. Salzburg Cathedral still contains the baptismal font in which composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was baptized.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971735}
{"src_title": "Griot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Role of griots.", "content": "Griots today live in many parts of West Africa and are present among the Mande peoples (Mandinka, Malinké, Bambara, etc.), Fulɓe (Fula), Hausa, Songhai, Tukulóor, Wolof, Serer, Mossi, Dagomba, Mauritanian Arabs, and many other smaller groups. The word may derive from the French transliteration \"\"\"guiriot\"\"\" of the Portuguese word \"\"\"criado\"\"\", or the masculine singular term for \"servant.\" Griots are more predominant in the northern portions of West Africa.  In African languages, griots are referred to by a number of names: jeli in northern Mande areas, jali in southern Mande areas, guewel in Wolof, gawlo in Pulaar (Fula), iggawen in Hassaniyan, arokin in Yoruba, and diari or gesere in Soninke. Griots form an endogamous caste, meaning that most of them only marry fellow griots and those who are not griots do not typically perform the same functions that griots perform.  Francis Bebey writes about the griot in \"African Music, A People's Art\":  \"The West African griot is a troubadour, the counterpart of the medieval European minstrel... The griot knows everything that is going on... He is a living archive of the people's traditions... The virtuoso talents of the griots command universal admiration. This virtuosity is the culmination of long years of study and hard work under the tuition of a teacher who is often a father or uncle. The profession is by no means a male prerogative. There are many women griots whose talents as singers and musicians are equally remarkable.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terms: \"griot\" and \"jali\".", "content": "The Manding term \"jeliya\" (meaning \"musicianhood\") sometimes refers to the knowledge of griots, indicating the hereditary nature of the class. \"Jali\" comes from the root word \"jali\" or \"djali\" (blood). This is also the title given to griots in regions within the former Mali Empire. Though the term \"griot\" is more common in English, some, such as poet Bakari Sumano, prefer the term \"jeli\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the Mali Empire.", "content": "The Mali Empire (Malinke Empire), at its height in the middle of the 14th century, extended from central Africa (today's Chad and Niger) to West Africa (today's Mali and Senegal). The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita, whose exploits remain celebrated in Mali today. In the \"Epic of Sundiata\", Naré Maghann Konaté offered his son Sundiata Keita a griot, Balla Fasséké, to advise him in his reign. Balla Fasséké is considered the founder of the Kouyaté line of griots that exists to this day.  Each aristocratic family of griots accompanied a higher-ranked family of warrior-kings or emperors, called \"jatigi\". In traditional culture, no griot can be without a \"jatigi\", and no \"jatigi\" can be without a griot. However, the \"jatigi\" can loan his griot to another jatigi.  Most villages also had their own griot, who told tales of births, deaths, marriages, battles, hunts, affairs, and many other things.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Mande society.", "content": "In Mande society, the \"jeli\" was an historian, advisor, arbitrator, praise singer (patronage), and storyteller. They essentially served as history books, preserving ancient stories and traditions through song. Their tradition was passed down through generations. The name \"jeli\" means \"blood\" in Manika language. They were believed to have deep connections to spiritual, social, or political powers. Speech was believed to have power in its capacity to recreate history and relationships.  Despite the authority of griots and the perceived power of their songs, griots are not treated as positively in West Africa as we may imagine. Thomas A. Hale wrote, \"Another [reason for ambivalence towards griots] is an ancient tradition that marks them as a separate people categorized all too simplistically as members of a 'caste', a term that has come under increasing attack as a distortion of the social structure in the region. In the worst case, that difference meant burial for griots in trees rather than in the ground in order to avoid polluting the earth (Conrad and Frank 1995:4-7). Although these traditions are changing, griots and people of griot heritage still find it difficult to marry outside of their social group.\" This discrimination is now deemed illegal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical instruments used by griots.", "content": "In addition to being singers and social commentators, griots are often skilled instrumentalists. Their instruments include the kora, the khalam (or xalam), the goje (or n'ko in the Mandinka language), the balafon, and the ngoni. The kora is a long-necked lute-like instrument with 21 strings. The xalam is a variation of the kora, and usually consists of fewer than five strings. Both have gourd bodies that act as resonator. The ngoni is also similar to these two instruments, with five or six strings. The balafon is a wooden xylophone, while the goje is a stringed instrument played with a bow, much like a fiddle.  According to the Encyclopædia Britannica: \"West African plucked lutes such as the \"konting\", \"khalam\", and the \"nkoni\" (which was noted by Ibn Baṭṭūṭah in 1353) may have originated in ancient Egypt. The \"khalam\" is claimed to be the ancestor of the banjo. Another long-necked lute is the \"ramkie\" of South Africa.\" Griots also wrote stories that children enjoyed listening to. These stories were passed down to their children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Griots in present day.", "content": "Today, performing is one of the most common functions of a griot. Their range of exposure has widened, and many griots now travel internationally to sing and play the kora or other instruments.  Bakari Sumano, head of the Association of Bamako Griots in Mali from 1994 to 2003, was an internationally known advocate for the significance of the griot in West African society.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A griot (; ; Mandinka: jali or jeli (\"djeli\" or \"djéli\" in French spelling); Serer: kevel or kewel ; Wolof: gewel) is a West African historian, storyteller, praise singer, poet, or musician. The griot is a repository of oral tradition and is often seen as a leader due to his or her position as an advisor to royal personages. As a result of the former of these two functions, they are sometimes called a bard.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971736}
{"src_title": "Hartmann von Aue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Hartmann belonged to the lower nobility of Swabia, where he was born. After receiving a monastic education, he became retainer (\"Dienstmann\") of a nobleman whose domain, Aue, has been identified with Obernau on the River Neckar. He also took part in the Crusade of 1197. The date of his death is as uncertain as that of his birth; he is mentioned in Gottfried von Strassburg's \"Tristan\" (c. 1210) as still alive, and in the \"Crône\" of Heinrich von dem Türlin, written about 1220, he is mourned for as dead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Hartmann produced four narrative poems which are of importance for the evolution of the Middle High German court epic. The first of these, \"Erec\", which may have been written as early as 1191 or 1192, and the last, \"Iwein\", belong to the Arthurian cycle and are based on epics by Chrétien de Troyes (\"Erec and Enide\" and \"Yvain, the Knight of the Lion\", respectively). While the story of Chretien's \"Yvain\" refers to events in Chretien's \"Lancelot\", to explain that Arthur is not present to help because Guinevere has been kidnapped, Hartmann did not adapt Chretien's \"Lancelot\". The result is that Hartmann's \"Erec\" introduces entirely different explanations for Guinevere's kidnapping, which do not correspond to what occurred in the shared literary tradition of Chretien's Arthurian romances.  His other two narrative poems are \"Gregorius\", also an adaptation of a French epic, and \"Der arme Heinrich\", which tells the story of a leper cured by a young girl who is willing to sacrifice her life for him. The source of this tale evidently came from the lore of the noble family whom Hartmann served. \"Gregorius\", \"Der arme Heinrich\" and Hartmann's lyrics, which are all fervidly religious in tone, imply a tendency towards asceticism, but, on the whole, Hartmann's striving seems rather to have been to reconcile the extremes of life; to establish a middle way of human conduct between the worldly pursuits of knighthood and the ascetic ideals of medieval religion. Translations have been made into modern German of all Hartmann's poems, while \"Der arme Heinrich\" has repeatedly attracted the attention of modern poets, both English (Longfellow, Rossetti) and German (notably, Gerhart Hauptmann).  He was also a Minnesänger, and 18 of his songs survive.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hartmann von Aue, also known as Hartmann von Ouwe, (born \"c.\" 1160–70, died \"c.\" 1210–20) was a German knight and poet. With his works including \"Erec\", \"Iwein\", \"Gregorius\", and \"Der arme Heinrich\", he introduced the courtly romance into German literature and, with Wolfram von Eschenbach and Gottfried von Strassburg, was one of the three great epic poets of Middle High German literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971737}
{"src_title": "Pope Clement II", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Hornburg, Lower Saxony, Germany, he was the son of Count Konrad of Morsleben and Hornburg and his wife Amulrad. In 1040, he became bishop of Bamberg.  In the autumn of 1046, there were three rival claimants to the papacy, in St. Peter's, the Lateran, and St. Mary Major's. Two of them, Benedict IX and Sylvester III, represented rival factions of the nobility. The third, Pope Gregory VI, in order to free the city from the House of Tusculum, and Benedict's scandalous lifestyle, had paid Benedict money in exchange for his resignation. Regardless the motives, the transaction bore the appearance of simony. Questions regarding the legitimacy of any of them could undermine the validity of a coronation of Henry as Holy Roman Emperor. King Henry crossed the Alps at the head of a large army and accompanied by a brilliant retinue of the secular and ecclesiastical princes of the empire, for the twofold purpose of receiving the imperial crown and of restoring order.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Papacy.", "content": "In 1046, Suidiger accompanied King Henry on his campaign to Italy and in December, participated in the Council of Sutri, which deposed former Benedict IX and Sylvester III and persuaded Gregory VI to resign. Henry nominated Suidger for the papacy and the council elected him. Suidger insisted upon retaining the bishopric of his see, partly for needed financial support, and partly lest the turbulent Romans should before long send him back to Bamberg. Suidger took the name Clement II. Immediately after his election, Henry and the new pope travelled to Rome, where Clement was enthroned. He then crowned Henry III as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.  Clement's election as pope was later criticized by the reform party within the papal curia due to the royal involvement and the fact that the new bishop of Rome was already bishop of another diocese. Contrary to later practice, Clement kept his old see, governing both Rome and Bamberg simultaneously. Clement's first pontifical act was to crown Henry and Agnes of Poitou. He bestowed on the Emperor the title and diadem of a Roman Patricius, a dignity which was commonly understood to give the bearer the right of indicating the person to be chosen pope.  Clement II's short pontificate, starting with the Roman synod of 1047, initiated an improvement in the state of affairs within the Roman Church, particularly by enacting decrees against simony. A dispute for precedence among the Sees of Ravenna, Milan, and Aquileia was settled in favour of Ravenna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Clement accompanied Henry III in a triumphal progress through southern Italy and placed Benevento under an interdict for refusing to open its gates to them. Proceeding with Henry to Germany, he canonized Wiborada, a nun of St. Gall, martyred by the Hungarians in 925. On his way back to Rome, he died near Pesaro on 9 October 1047. His corpse was transferred back to Bamberg, which he had loved dearly, and interred in the western choir of the Bamberg Cathedral. His is the only tomb of a pope north of the Alps.  A toxicologic examination of his remains in the mid-20th century confirmed centuries-old rumors that the pope had been poisoned with lead sugar. It is not clear, however, whether he was murdered or whether the lead sugar was used as medicine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pope Clement II (; born Suidger von Morsleben; died 9 October 1047), was bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 25 December 1046 until his death in 1047. He was the first in a series of reform-minded popes from Germany. Suidger was the bishop of Bamberg. In 1046, he accompanied King Henry III of Germany, when at the request of laity and clergy of Rome, Henry went to Italy and summoned the Council of Sutri, which deposed Benedict IX and Sylvester III, and accepted the resignation of Gregory VI. Henry suggested Suidger for pope, and he was then elected, taking the name of Clement II. Clement then proceeded to crown Henry as emperor. Clement's brief tenure as pope saw the enactment of more stringent prohibitions against simony.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971738}
{"src_title": "Austrian Silesia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Austrian Silesia consisted of two territories, separated by the Moravian land strip of Moravská Ostrava between the Ostravice and Oder rivers.  The area east of the Ostravice around Cieszyn reached from the heights of the Western Carpathians (Silesian Beskids) in the south, where it bordered with the Kingdom of Hungary, along the Olza and upper Vistula rivers to the border with Prussian Silesia in the north. In the east the Biała river at Bielsko separated it from the Lesser Polish lands of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, incorporated into the Austrian Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria upon the First Partition of Poland in 1772.  The territory west of the Oder river stretching from the town of Opava up to Bílá Voda was confined by the Jeseníky mountain range of the eastern Sudetes in the south, separating it from Moravia, and the Opava river in the north. In the west the Golden Mountains formed the border with the County of Kladsko.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The area originally formed the south-eastern part of the Medieval Duchy of Silesia, a province of the Piast Kingdom of Poland. During the 14th century most Dukes of Silesia had declared themselves Bohemian vassals.  As part of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown, Silesia was inherited by the Habsburg archduke Ferdinand I of Austria in 1526, after the last Jagiellon king Louis II of Bohemia had died at the Battle of Mohács. With the female succession of the Habsburg empress Maria Theresa to the throne in 1740, the Prussian king Frederick the Great laid claim to the Silesian province and, without waiting for any reply, on 16 December started the First Silesian War, thereby opening the larger War of the Austrian Succession. His campaign was concluded in 1742 with the Prussian victory at the Battle of Chotusitz leading to the treaties of Breslau and Berlin, in which Silesia was divided.  Under the terms of the treaty, the Kingdom of Prussia received most of the territory including the Bohemian County of Kladsko, while only a small part of southeastern Silesia remained with the Habsburg Monarchy, consisting of: forming the Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia, which remained a Bohemian crown land with its capital in the city of Opava. In 1766 the title of a Duke of Teschen was granted to Prince Albert of Saxony, son-in-law of Maria Theresa, while the title of a Duke of Troppau and Jägerndorf remained with the Princely Family of Liechtenstein. The Nysa territory was held by the Bishops of Wrocław with their residence at Castle Jánský vrch \"(Johannisberg)\".  When in 1804 the Habsurg emperor Francis II established the Austrian Empire, his title would include the \"Duke of Upper and Lower Silesia\". Austrian Silesia was connected by rail with the Austrian capital Vienna, when the Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway line was extended to Bohumín station in 1847. In the course of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 the Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia became a crown land of Cisleithanian Austria.  In 1918, the Austrian monarchy was abolished and the major part of Austrian Silesia was ceded to the newly created state of Czechoslovakia by the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, with the exception of Cieszyn Silesia (the former Duchy of Teschen), which after the Polish–Czechoslovak War was split in 1920 along the Olza river with its eastern part falling to the Autonomous Silesian Voivodeship of Poland. Smaller parts of the duchy also became a part of Poland, while the adjacent Hlučín Region of Prussian Silesia fell to Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "According to an Austrian census, Austrian Silesia in 1910 was home to 756,949 people, speaking the following languages:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major towns.", "content": "Towns with more than 5,000 people in 1880:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "The Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia was originally divided into the two districts \"(Bezirke)\" of Teschen (\"Těšínský kraj\", pop. 213,040 in 1847) and Troppau (\"Opavský kraj\", pop. 260,199) with its seat at Krnov. In eastern Teschen, the autonomous Duchy of Bielsko was established in 1754. Upon the Revolutions of 1848 and up to its dissolution Austrian Silesia was intermittently re-organised into the districts of:  For example, in 1900, there were 8 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Austrian Silesia (in comparison to above list without Frydek).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Austrian Silesia ( (historically also \"Oesterreichisch-Schlesien, Oesterreichisch Schlesien, österreichisch Schlesien\"); ; ), officially the Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia ( (historically \"Herzogthum Ober- und Niederschlesien\"); ), was an autonomous region of the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Habsburg Monarchy (from 1804 the Austrian Empire, and from 1867 Cisleithanian Austria-Hungary). It is largely coterminous with the present-day region of Czech Silesia and was, historically, part of the larger Silesia region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971739}
{"src_title": "Czech Silesia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Czech Silesia borders Moravia in the south, Poland (Polish Silesia) in the north (in the northwest the County of Kladsko, until 1742/48 an integral part of Bohemia) and Slovakia in the southeast. With the city of Ostrava roughly in its geographic center, the area comprises much of the modern region of Moravian-Silesia (save for its southern edges) and, in its far west, a small part of the Olomouc Region around the city of Jeseník. After Ostrava, the most important cities are Opava and Český Těšín. Historically Český Těšín is the western part of the city of Cieszyn which nowadays lies in Poland.  Situated in the Sudetes, it is cornered by the Carpathians in the east. Its major rivers are the Oder (Polish, ), Opava and Olše () (which forms part of the natural border with Poland).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Modern-day Czech Silesia derives primarily from a small part of Silesia that remained within the Bohemian Crown and the Habsburg Monarchy at the end of the First Silesian War in 1742, when the rest of Silesia was ceded to Prussia. It was re-organised as the Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia, with its capital at Opava (, ). In 1900, the Duchy occupied an area of 5,140 km2 and had a population of 670,000.  In 1918, the former Duchy formed part of the newly created state of Czechoslovakia, except the Cieszyn Silesia, which was split between Czechoslovakia and Poland in 1920, Czechoslovakia gaining its western portion. Hlučín Region (, ), formerly part of Prussian Silesia, also became part of Czechoslovakia under the Treaty of Versailles in 1920.  Following the Munich Agreement of 1938, most of Czech Silesia became part of the Reichsgau Sudetenland and Poland occupied the Zaolzie area on the west bank of the Olza (the Polish gains being lost when Germany occupied Poland the following year).  With the exception of the areas around Cieszyn, Ostrava, and Hlučín, Czech Silesia was predominantly settled by German-speaking populations up until 1945. Following the Second World War, Czech Silesia and Hlučínsko were returned to Czechoslovakia and the ethnic Germans were expelled. The border with Poland was once again set along the Olza (although not confirmed by treaty until 1958).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "People.", "content": "The population mainly speaks Czech with altered vowels. Some of the native Slavic population speak Lach, which is classed by \"Ethnologue\" as a dialect of Czech, although it also shows some similarities to Polish. In Cieszyn Silesia a unique dialect is also spoken, mostly by members of the Polish minority there.  Notable people from Czech Silesia include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Czech Silesia (,, ; ; ; ; ; ) is the name given to the part of the historical region of Silesia located in the present-day Czech Republic. While not today an administrative entity in itself, Czech Silesia is, together with Bohemia and Moravia, one of the three historical Czech lands. In this context, it is often mentioned simply as \"Silesia\", even though it is only around one tenth of the area of the historic land of Silesia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971740}
{"src_title": "Maria Anna Mozart", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Maria Anna (Marianne) Mozart was born in Salzburg. When she was seven years old, her father Leopold Mozart started teaching her to play the harpsichord. Leopold took her and Wolfgang on tours of many cities, such as Vienna and Paris, to showcase their talents. In the early days, she sometimes received top billing, and she was noted as an excellent harpsichord player and fortepianist.  However, given the views of her parents, prevalent in her society at the time, it became impossible as she grew older for her to continue her career any further. According to \"New Grove\", \"from 1769 onwards she was no longer permitted to show her artistic talent on travels with her brother, as she had reached a marriageable age.\" Wolfgang went on during the 1770s to many artistic triumphs while traveling in Italy with Leopold, but Marianne stayed at home in Salzburg with her mother. She likewise stayed home with Leopold when Wolfgang visited Paris and other cities (1777–1779) accompanied by his mother.  There is evidence that Marianne wrote musical compositions, as there are letters from Wolfgang praising her work, but the voluminous correspondence of her father never mentions any of her compositions, and none have survived.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "In contrast to her brother, who quarreled with their father and eventually disobeyed his wishes with respect to career path and choice of spouse, Marianne remained entirely subordinate to her father. She fell in love with Franz d'Ippold, who was a captain and private tutor, but was forced by her father to turn down his marriage proposal. Wolfgang attempted, in vain, to get Marianne to stand up for her own preference.  Eventually, Marianne married a magistrate, Johann Baptist Franz von Berchtold zu Sonnenburg (23 August 1783), and settled with him in St. Gilgen, a village in Austria about 29 km east of the Mozart family home in Salzburg. Berchtold was twice a widower and had five children from his two previous marriages, whom Marianne helped raise. She also bore three children of her own: Leopold Alois Pantaleon (1785–1840), Jeanette (1789–1805) and Maria Babette (1790–1791).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leopold's raising of her son.", "content": "An unusual episode in Marianne's life occurred when she gave birth (27 July 1785) to her first child, a son who was named Leopold after his grandfather. Marianne had traveled from her home in St. Gilgen to Salzburg for the birth. When she returned to St. Gilgen, she left her infant in the care of her father and his servants. The elder Leopold stated (by a letter that preceded Marianne back to St. Gilgen) that he would prefer to raise the child for the first few months himself. In 1786, he extended the arrangement to an indefinite term. Leopold continued to care for his grandson, taking delight in his progress (toilet training, speech, and so on), and commencing with the very beginnings of musical training. Marianne saw her son on occasional visits, but in general was not involved in his care. The arrangement continued until the death of her father, on 28 May 1787.  Biographers differ on what was the basis for this arrangement. Little Leopold was ill in his infancy, and perhaps needed to be kept in Salzburg for this reason, but this does not explain why he was still kept there after his recovery. Another possibility attributes the arrangement to Marianne's delicate health or her need to take care of her stepchildren. Biographer Maynard Solomon attributes the arrangement to Leopold's wish to revive his skills in training a musical genius, as he had done with Wolfgang. He also suggests that giving up her son was indicative of Marianne's total subordination to her father's wishes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with Wolfgang.", "content": "When Wolfgang was a toddler, Nannerl (four and a half years older) was his idol. According to Maynard Solomon, \"at three, Mozart was inspired to study music by observing his father's instruction of Marianne; he wanted to be like her.\" The two children were very close, and they invented a secret language and an imaginary \"Kingdom of Back\" of which they were king and queen. Wolfgang's early correspondence with Marianne is affectionate, and includes some of the scatological and sexual word play in which Wolfgang indulged with intimates. Occasionally Wolfgang wrote entries in Marianne's diary, referring to himself in the third person.  Wolfgang wrote a number of works for Marianne to perform, including the Prelude and Fugue in C, K. 394 (1782). Until 1785, he sent her copies of his piano concertos (up to No. 21) in St. Gilgen.  Concerning the relationship between Wolfgang and Marianne in adulthood, authorities differ. According to \"New Grove\", Wolfgang \"remained closely attached to her.\" In contrast, Maynard Solomon contends that in later life Wolfgang and Marianne drifted apart completely. He notes, for instance, that after Wolfgang's visit to Salzburg in 1783 (with his new wife Constanze), Wolfgang and Marianne never visited each other again, that they never saw each other's children, and that their correspondence diminished to a trickle, ceasing entirely in 1788.  Wolfgang died on 5 December 1791. Sometime around 1800, Marianne encountered Franz Xaver Niemetschek's 1798 biography of Wolfgang. Since this biography had been written from the perspective of Vienna and of Constanze, much of its content was new to Marianne. In an 1800 letter, she wrote:  Herr Prof. Niemetschek's biography so completely reanimated my sisterly feelings toward my so ardently beloved brother that I was often dissolved in tears, since it is only now that I became acquainted with the sad condition in which my brother found himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Marianne's husband died in 1801. She returned to Salzburg, accompanied by her two living children and four stepchildren, and worked as a music teacher.  In her old age, Marianne had her first encounter in person with Wolfgang's widow Constanze since the visit of 1783. In 1820, Constanze and her second husband Georg Nikolaus von Nissen moved to Salzburg. Although Marianne had not even known that Constanze was still alive, the encounter was apparently \"cordial\", though not warm. Eventually, Marianne did the Nissens a great favor: to help them write a biography of Wolfgang, Marianne lent the Nissens her collection of family letters, including Wolfgang and Leopold's correspondence up to 1781.  In 1821, Marianne enjoyed a visit from Wolfgang's son, Franz Xaver Mozart, whom she had never met during her brother's lifetime. The son had come from his home in Lemberg to conduct a performance of his father's Requiem in remembrance of the recently deceased Nissen.  In her last years, Marianne's health declined, and she became blind in 1825. Mary Novello, visiting in 1829, recorded her impression that Mrs. Berchtold was \"blind, languid, exhausted, feeble and nearly speechless,\" as well as lonely. She mistakenly took Marianne to be impoverished, though in fact she was frugal and left a large fortune (7837 gulden).  Marianne died on 29 October 1829, at 78 years, and was buried in St Peter's Cemetery, Salzburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a fictional character.", "content": "Many authors have created fictional characters based on Maria Anna Mozart.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Works of biography  Works of literature with Maria Anna Mozart as a main character", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Anna Walburga Ignatia Mozart (30 July 1751 – 29 October 1829), called \"Marianne\" and nicknamed Nannerl, was a musician, the older sister of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791) and daughter of Leopold (1719-1787) and Anna Maria Mozart (1720-1778).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971741}
{"src_title": "Karl Drais", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Bicycle.", "content": "Drais was a prolific inventor, who invented the Laufmaschine (\"running machine\"), also later called the velocipede, \"draisine\" (English) or \"draisienne\" (French), also nicknamed the hobby horse or dandy horse. This was his most popular and widely recognized invention. It incorporated the two-wheeler principle that is basic to the bicycle and motorcycle and was the beginning of mechanized personal transport. This was the earliest form of a bicycle, without pedals. His first reported ride from Mannheim to the \"Schwetzinger Relaishaus\" (a coaching inn, located in \"Rheinau\", today a district of Mannheim) took place on 12 June 1817 using Baden's best road. Karl rode his bike; it was a distance of about. The round trip took him a little more than an hour, but may be seen as the big bang for horseless transport. However, after marketing the velocipede, it became apparent that roads were so rutted by carriages that it was hard to balance on the machine for long, so velocipede riders took to the pavements and moved far too quickly, endangering pedestrians. Consequently, authorities in Germany, Great Britain, the United States, and even Calcutta banned its use, which ended its vogue for decades.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Typewriter.", "content": "Drais also invented the earliest typewriter with a keyboard (1821). He later developed an early stenograph machine which used 16 characters (1827), a device to record piano music on paper (1812), the first meat grinder, and a wood-saving cooker including the earliest hay chest. He also invented two four-wheeled human powered vehicles (1813/1814), the second of which he presented in Vienna to the congress carving up Europe after Napoleon's defeat. In 1842, he developed a foot-driven human powered railway vehicle whose name \"draisine\" is used even today for railway handcars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Time as civil servant.", "content": "Drais was unable to market his inventions for profit because he was still a civil servant of Baden, even though he was being paid without providing active service. As a result, on 12 January 1818, Drais was awarded a grand-ducal privilege (\"Großherzogliches Privileg\") to protect his inventions for 10 years in Baden by the younger Grand Duke Karl. Grand Duke Karl also appointed Drais professor of mechanics. This was merely an honorary title, not related to any university or other institution. Drais retired from the civil service and was awarded a pension for his appointment to professor of mechanical science.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Upheaval.", "content": "In 1820 trouble overtook Drais when the political murder of the author August von Kotzebue was followed by the beheading of the perpetrator, Karl Ludwig Sand. In 1822 Drais was a fervent liberal who supported revolution in Baden. Drais's conservative father, as the highest Judge of Baden, had not entered a plea for pardon in the beheading of Karl Ludwig Sand, and the younger Drais was mobbed by the student partisans everywhere in Germany due to his family ties. Therefore, Drais emigrated to Brazil where he lived from 1822 to 1827, and worked as a land surveyor on the fazenda of Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff. In 1827 he returned to Mannheim. Three years later in 1830 Drais's father died and the younger Drais was mobbed by jealous rivals.  Surviving a murderous attack in 1838, in 1839 he moved to the village of Waldkatzenbach in the hills of Odenwald and remained there until 1845. During this period, he invented the railway handcar (later known as the draisine). Finally he moved back to his place of birth, Karlsruhe. Still being the fervent radical, in 1849 Drais gave up his title of Baron and dropped the \"von\" from his name. Subsequently, after the revolution collapsed, he was in a very bad position. The royalists tried to have him certified as mad and locked up. His pension was confiscated to help to pay for the \"costs of revolution\" after it was suppressed by the Prussians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Drais's undoing had been the fact that he had publicly renounced his noble title in 1848, and adopted the name \"Citizen Karl Drais\" as a tribute to the French Revolution.  Karl Drais died penniless on 10 December 1851 in Karlsruhe. The house in which he lived last is just two blocks away from where at that time a young Carl Benz was raised.  In 1985, West Germany issued a commemorative postage stamp, a semipostal 50 Pf+25 Pf surcharge, in remembrance of the 200th anniversary of Karl Drais's birthday.  In 2017, Germany issued a commemorative postage stamp (0,70 Euro) in remembrance of the 200th anniversary of Karl Drais's first run of his \"running machine\" on 12 June 1817. The stamp shows the machine plus as its shadow, a bicycle.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Freiherr von Drais (full name: Karl Friedrich Christian Ludwig Freiherr Drais von Sauerbronn) (29 April 1785 in Karlsruhe – 10 December 1851 in Karlsruhe) was a noble German forest official and significant inventor in the Biedermeier period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971742}
{"src_title": "Decathlon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical background.", "content": "The decathlon developed from the ancient pentathlon competitions held at the ancient Greek Olympics. Pentathlons involved five disciplines – long jump, discus throw, javelin throw, sprint and a wrestling match. Introduced in Olympia during 708 BC, the competition was extremely popular for many centuries. By the sixth century BC, pentathlons had become part of religious games.  A ten-event competition known as the \"all-around\" or \"all-round\" championship, similar to the modern decathlon, was first contested at the United States amateur championships in 1884 and reached a consistent form by 1890; an all-around was held at the 1904 Summer Olympics, though whether it was an official Olympic event has been disputed. The modern decathlon first appeared on the Olympic athletics program at the 1912 Games in Stockholm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Men's decathlon.", "content": "The vast majority of international and top level men's decathlons are divided into a two-day competition, with the track and field events held in the order below. Traditionally, all decathletes who finish the event, rather than just the winner or medal winning athletes, do a round of honour together after the competition. The current world record holder is Kevin Mayer from France with 9126 points which he set on September 16, 2018 in Talence, France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Women's decathlon.", "content": "At major championships, the women's equivalent of the decathlon is the seven-event heptathlon; prior to 1981 it was the five-event pentathlon. However, in 2001, the IAAF approved scoring tables for a women's decathlon; the current world record holder is Austra Skujytė of Lithuania, with 8,366. Women's disciplines differ from men's in the same way as for standalone events: the shot, discus and javelin weigh less, and the sprint hurdles uses lower hurdles over 100 m rather than 110 m. The points tables used are the same as for the heptathlon in the shared events. The schedule of events differs from the men's decathlon, with the field events switched between day one and day two; this is to avoid scheduling conflicts when men's and women's decathlon competitions take place simultaneously.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "One hour.", "content": "The one-hour decathlon is a special type of decathlon in which the athletes have to start the last of ten events (1500 m) within sixty minutes of the start of the first event. The world record holder is Czech decathlete Robert Změlík, who achieved 7,897 points at a meeting in Ostrava, Czechoslovakia, in 1992.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Masters athletics.", "content": "In Masters athletics, performance scores are age graded before being applied to the standard scoring table. This way, marks that would be competitive within an age division can get rated, even if those marks would not appear on the scale designed for younger age groups. Additionally, like women, the age divisions use different implement weights and lower hurdles. Based on this system, German Rolf Geese in the M60 division and American Robert Hewitt in the M80 divisions have set their respective world records over 8,000 points. Using the same scale, Nadine O'Connor scored 10,234 points in the W65 division, the highest decathlon score ever recorded.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Points system.", "content": "The 2001 IAAF points tables use the following formulae:  A, B and C are parameters that vary by discipline, as shown in the table on the right, while P is the performance by the athlete, measured in seconds (running), metres (throwing), or centimetres (jumping).  The decathlon tables should not be confused with the scoring tables compiled by Bojidar Spiriev, to allow comparison of the relative quality of performances by athletes in different events. On those tables, for example, a decathlon score of 9,006 points equates to 1,265 \"comparison points\", the same number as a triple jump of 18 m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Benchmarks.", "content": "Split evenly between the events, the following table shows the benchmark levels needed to earn 1,000, 900, 800 and 700 points in each sport.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Records.", "content": "The official decathlon world record holder is Kevin Mayer of France, with a score of 9,126 points set during the 2018 Décastar in Talence, France, which was ratified by the IAAF. Previous record from Ashton Eaton (9,045):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decathlon bests.", "content": "The total decathlon score for all world records in the respective events would be 12,568. The total decathlon score for all the best performances achieved during decathlons is 10,544. The \"Difference\" column shows the difference in points between the decathlon points that the individual current world record would be awarded and the points awarded to the current decathlon record for that event. The \"% Difference\" column shows the percentage difference between the time, distance or height of the individual world record and the decathlon record (other than the \"Total\" entry, which shows the percentage difference between awarded decathlon points). The relative differences in points are much higher in throwing events than in running and jumping events.  Decathlon bests are only recognized when an athlete completes the ten-event competition with a score over 7,000 points.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The decathlon is a combined event in athletics consisting of ten track and field events. The word \"decathlon\" was formed, in analogy to the word \"pentathlon\", from Greek δέκα (\"déka\", meaning \"ten\") and ἄθλος (\"áthlos\", or ἄθλον, \"áthlon\", meaning \"contest\" or “prize”). Events are held over two consecutive days and the winners are determined by the combined performance in all. Performance is judged on a points system in each event, not by the position achieved. The decathlon is contested mainly by male athletes, while female athletes typically compete in the heptathlon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971743}
{"src_title": "Nemmersdorf massacre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Incident.", "content": "The 2nd Battalion, 25th Guards Tank Brigade, belonging to the 2nd Guards Tank Corps of the 11th Guards Army, crossed the Angerapp bridge and established a bridgehead on the western bank of the Rominte river on 21 October 1944. German forces tried to retake the bridge, but several attacks were repelled by the Soviet tanks and the supporting infantry. During an air attack, a number of Soviet soldiers took shelter in an improvised bunker already occupied by 14 local men and women. According to the testimony of a seriously injured woman, Gerda Meczulat, when a Soviet officer arrived and ordered everybody out, the Russians shot and killed the German civilians at close range. During the night, the Soviet 25th Tank Brigade was ordered to retreat back across the river and take defensive positions along the Rominte. The Wehrmacht regained control of Nemmersdorf and discovered the massacre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evidence.", "content": "Nazi Germany authorities organized an international commission to investigate, headed by Estonian Hjalmar Mäe and other representatives of neutral countries, such as Francoist Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. The commission heard the report from a medical commission. It reported that all the dead females had been raped (they ranged in age from 8 to 84). The Nazi Propaganda Ministry (separately) used the \"Völkischer Beobachter\" and the cinema news series \"Wochenschau\" to accuse the Soviet Army of having killed dozens of civilians at Nemmersdorf and having summarily executed about 50 French and Belgian noncombatant POWs, who had been ordered to take care of thoroughbred horses but had been blocked by the bridge. The civilians were allegedly killed by blows with shovels or gun butts. The former chief of staff of the German Fourth Army, Major General Erich Dethleffsen, testified on 5 July 1946 before an American tribunal in Neu-Ulm. He said:  Karl Potrek of Königsberg, leader of a \"Volkssturm\" company present when the German Army took back the village, testified in a 1953 report:  At the time, the Nazi Propaganda Ministry disseminated a graphic description of the events in order to fanaticise German soldiers. On the home front, civilians reacted immediately, with an increase in the number of volunteers joining the Volkssturm. A larger number of civilians responded with panic, and started to leave the area en masse.  To many Germans, \"Nemmersdorf\" became a symbol of war crimes committed by the Red Army, and an example of the worst behavior in Eastern Germany. Marion Gräfin Dönhoff, the post-war co-publisher of the weekly \"Die Zeit\", at the time of the reports lived in the village of Quittainen (Kwitany) in western East Prussia, near Preussisch Holland (Pasłęk). She wrote in 1962 that:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Re-investigation.", "content": "After 1991 and the fall of the Soviet Union, new sources became available and the dominant view among scholars became that the massacre was embellished, and actually exploited, by Goebbels in an attempt to stir up civilian resistance to the advancing Soviet Army. Bernhard Fisch, in his book, \"Nemmersdorf, October 1944. What actually happened in East Prussia\" concluded that liberties were taken with at least some of the photographs; that some victims on the photographs were from other East Prussian villages, and that the notorious crucifixion barn doors were not even in Nemmersdorf. There also was the tight time schedule of witness Joachim Reisch, reducing the Soviet presence at Nemmersdorf to less than four hours of heavy fighting in front of the bridge.  Another writer, Joachim Reisch, claimed to have personally been at the scene of the bridge when the event was supposed to have occurred. He has said that the Soviet Brigade was on the bridge for less than four hours.  Sir Ian Kershaw is among those historians who believe that the Soviet forces committed a massacre at Nemmersdorf, although details and numbers are disputed. The German Federal Archives (Bundesarchiv) contain many contemporary reports and photographs by officials of Nazi Germany of the victims of the Nemmersdorf massacre. It holds evidence of other Soviet massacres in East Prussia, notably Metgethen. In the late 20th century, Alfred de Zayas interviewed numerous German soldiers and officers who had been in the Nemmersdorf area in October 1944, to learn what they saw. He also interviewed Belgian and French POWs who had been in the area and fled with German civilians before the Russian advance. De Zayas incorporated these sources into two of his own books, \"Nemesis at Potsdam\" and \"A Terrible Revenge\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nemmersdorf massacre was a civilian massacre perpetrated by Red Army soldiers in the late stages of World War II. Nemmersdorf (present-day Mayakovskoye, Kaliningrad Oblast) was one of the first pre-war ethnic German villages to fall to the advancing Red Army in World War II. On 21 October 1944, Soviet soldiers reportedly killed many German civilians as well as French and Belgian POWs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971744}
{"src_title": "Molecular-beam epitaxy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Method.", "content": "Molecular-beam epitaxy takes place in high vacuum or ultra-high vacuum (10–10 Torr). The most important aspect of MBE is the deposition rate (typically less than 3,000 nm per hour) that allows the films to grow epitaxially. These deposition rates require proportionally better vacuum to achieve the same impurity levels as other deposition techniques. The absence of carrier gases, as well as the ultra-high vacuum environment, result in the highest achievable purity of the grown films.  In solid source MBE, elements such as gallium and arsenic, in ultra-pure form, are heated in separate quasi-Knudsen effusion cells or electron-beam evaporators until they begin to slowly sublime. The gaseous elements then condense on the wafer, where they may react with each other. In the example of gallium and arsenic, single-crystal gallium arsenide is formed. When evaporation sources such as copper or gold are used, the gaseous elements impinging on the surface may be adsorbed (after a time window where the impinging atoms will hop around the surface) or reflected. Atoms on the surface may also desorb. Controlling the temperature of the source will control the rate of material impinging on the substrate surface and the temperature of the substrate will affect the rate of hopping or desorption. The term \"beam\" means that evaporated atoms do not interact with each other or vacuum-chamber gases until they reach the wafer, due to the long mean free paths of the atoms.  During operation, reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED) is often used for monitoring the growth of the crystal layers. A computer controls shutters in front of each furnace, allowing precise control of the thickness of each layer, down to a single layer of atoms. Intricate structures of layers of different materials may be fabricated this way. Such control has allowed the development of structures where the electrons can be confined in space, giving quantum wells or even quantum dots. Such layers are now a critical part of many modern semiconductor devices, including semiconductor lasers and light-emitting diodes.  In systems where the substrate needs to be cooled, the ultra-high vacuum environment within the growth chamber is maintained by a system of cryopumps and cryopanels, chilled using liquid nitrogen or cold nitrogen gas to a temperature close to 77 kelvins (−196 degree Celsius). Cold surfaces act as a sink for impurities in the vacuum, so vacuum levels need to be several orders of magnitude better to deposit films under these conditions. In other systems, the wafers on which the crystals are grown may be mounted on a rotating platter, which can be heated to several hundred degrees Celsius during operation.  Molecular-beam epitaxy is also used for the deposition of some types of organic semiconductors. In this case, molecules, rather than atoms, are evaporated and deposited onto the wafer. Other variations include gas-source MBE, which resembles chemical vapor deposition.  MBE systems can also be modified according to need. Oxygen sources, for example, can be incorporated for depositing oxide materials for advanced electronic, magnetic and optical applications, as well as for fundamental research.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quantum nanostructures.", "content": "One of the most accomplished achievements of molecular-beam epitaxy is the nano-structures that permitted the formation of atomically flat and abrupt hetero-interfaces. Such structures have played an unprecedented role in expanding the knowledge of physics and electronics. Most recently the construction of nanowires and quantum structures built within them that allow information processing and the possible integration with on-chip applications for quantum communication and computing. These heterostructure nanowire lasers are only possible to build using advance MBE techniques, allowing monolithical integration on silicon and picosecond signal processing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Asaro–Tiller–Grinfeld instability.", "content": "The Asaro–Tiller–Grinfeld (ATG) instability, also known as the Grinfeld instability, is an elastic instability often encountered during molecular-beam epitaxy. If there is a mismatch between the lattice sizes of the growing film and the supporting crystal, elastic energy will be accumulated in the growing film. At some critical height, the free energy of the film can be lowered if the film breaks into isolated islands, where the tension can be relaxed laterally. The critical height depends on the Young's modulus, mismatch size, and surface tension.  Some applications for this instability have been researched, such as the self-assembly of quantum dots. This community uses the name of Stranski–Krastanov growth for ATG.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) is an epitaxy method for thin-film deposition of single crystals. The MBE process was noticed in the late 1970s at Bell Telephone Laboratories by J. R. Arthur and J. J. LePore. This phenomenon was subsequently observed and described in detail by Alfred Y. Cho. MBE is widely used in the manufacture of semiconductor devices, including transistors, and it is considered one of the fundamental tools for the development of nanotechnologies. MBE is used to fabricate diodes and MOSFETs (MOS field-effect transistors) at microwave frequencies, and to manufacture the lasers used to read optical discs (such as CDs and DVDs).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971745}
{"src_title": "Conrad III of Germany", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Descent.", "content": "The origin of the House of Hohenstaufen in the Duchy of Swabia has not been conclusively established. As the name came from the Hohenstaufen Castle (built in 1105) Conrad's great-grandfather Frederick of Staufen was count in the Riesgau and in 1053 became Swabian Count palatine. His son Frederick of Buren probably resided near present-day Wäschenbeuren and about 1050 married Countess Hildegard of Egisheim-Dagsburg from Alsace. Conrad's father took advantage of the conflict between King Henry IV of Germany and the Swabian duke Rudolf of Rheinfelden during the Investiture Controversy. When Rudolf had himself elected German anti-king at Forchheim in 1077, Frederick of Hohenstaufen remained loyal to the royal crown and in 1079 was vested with the Duchy of Swabia by Henry IV, including an engagement with the king's minor daughter Agnes. He died in 1105, leaving two sons, Conrad and his elder brother Frederick II, who inherited the Swabian ducal title. Their mother entered into a second marriage with Babenberg margrave Leopold III of Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "In 1105 Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor since 1084, was overthrown by his son Henry V, Conrad's uncle. Emperor since 1111, Henry V preparing for his second campaign to Italy upon the death of Margravine Matilda of Tuscany, in 1116 appointed Conrad a Duke of Franconia. Conrad was marked out to act as regent for Germany, together with his elder brother, Duke Frederick II of Swabia. At the death of Henry V in 1125, Conrad unsuccessfully supported Frederick II for the kingship of Germany. Frederick was placed under a ban and Conrad was deprived of Franconia and the Kingdom of Burgundy, of which he was rector. With the support of the imperial cities, Swabia, and the Duchy of Austria, Conrad was elected anti-king at Nuremberg in December 1127.  Conrad quickly crossed the Alps to be crowned King of Italy by Anselmo della Pusterla, Archbishop of Milan, in the village of Monza. Over the next two years, he failed to achieve anything in Italy, however, and returned to Germany in 1130, after Nuremberg and Speyer, two strong cities that supported him, fell to Lothair in 1129. Conrad continued in Lothair's opposition, but he and Frederick were forced to acknowledge Lothair as emperor in 1135, during which time Conrad relinquished his title as King of Italy. After this they were pardoned and could take again possession of their lands.  After Lothair's death (December 1137), Conrad was elected king at Coblenz on 7 March 1138, in the presence of the papal legate Theodwin. Conrad was crowned at Aachen six days later (13 March) and was acknowledged in Bamberg by several princes of southern Germany. As Henry the Proud, son-in-law and heir of Lothair and the most powerful prince in Germany, who had been passed over in the election, refused to do the same, Conrad deprived him of all his territories, giving the Duchy of Saxony to Albert the Bear and that of Bavaria to Leopold IV, Margrave of Austria. Henry, however, retained the loyalty of his subjects. The civil war that broke out is considered the first act of the struggle between Guelphs and Ghibellines, which later extended southwards to Italy. After Henry's death (October 1139), the war was continued by his son Henry the Lion, supported by the Saxons, and by his brother Welf VI. Conrad, after a long siege, defeated the latter at Weinsberg in December 1140, and in May 1142 a peace agreement was reached in Frankfurt.  In the same year, Conrad entered Bohemia to reinstate his brother-in-law Vladislav II as prince. The attempt to do the same with another brother-in-law, the Polish prince Ladislaus the Exile, failed. Bavaria, Saxony, and the other regions of Germany were in revolt.  In 1146, Conrad heard Bernard of Clairvaux preach the Second Crusade at Speyer, and he agreed to join Louis VII in a great expedition to the Holy Land. At the imperial diet in Frankfurt in March 1147 Conrad and the assembled princes entrusted Bernard of Clairvaux with the recruitment for the Wendish crusade.  Before leaving, he had the nobles elect and crown his son Henry Berengar king. The succession secured in the event of his death, Conrad set out. His army of 20,000 men went overland, via Hungary, causing disruptions in the Byzantine territories through which they passed. They arrived at Constantinople by September 1147, ahead of the French army.  Rather than taking the coastal road around Anatolia through Christian-held territory, by which he sent most of his noncombatants, Conrad took his army across Anatolia. On 25 October 1147, they were defeated by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Dorylaeum. Conrad and most of the knights escaped, but most of the foot soldiers were killed or captured. The remaining 2,000 men of the German army limped on to Nicaea, where many of the survivors deserted and tried to return home. Conrad and his adherents had to be escorted to Lopadium by the French, where they joined the main French army under Louis. Conrad fell seriously ill at Ephesus and was sent to recuperate in Constantinople, where his host the Emperor Manuel I acted as his personal physician. After recovering, Conrad sailed to Acre, and from there reached Jerusalem. He participated in the ill-fated Siege of Damascus and after that failure, grew disaffected with his allies. Another attempt to attack Ascalon failed when Conrad's allies did not appear as promised, and Conrad returned to Germany.  In 1150, Conrad and Henry Berengar defeated Welf VI and his son Welf VII at the Battle of Flochberg. Henry Berengar died later that year and the succession was thrown open. The Welfs and Hohenstaufen made peace in 1152 and the peaceful succession of one of Conrad's family was secured.  Conrad was never crowned emperor and continued to style himself \"King of the Romans\" until his death. On his deathbed, in the presence of only two witnesses, his nephew Frederick Barbarossa and the Bishop of Bamberg, he allegedly designated Frederick his successor, rather than his own surviving six-year-old son Frederick. Frederick Barbarossa, who had accompanied his uncle on the unfortunate crusade, forcefully pursued his advantage and was duly elected king in Cologne a few weeks later. The young son of the late king was given the Duchy of Swabia.  Conrad left no male heirs by his first wife, Gertrude von Komburg. In 1136, he married Gertrude of Sulzbach, who was a daughter of Berengar II of Sulzbach, and whose sister Bertha was married to Emperor Manuel. Gertrude was the mother of Conrad's children and the link which cemented his alliance with Byzantium.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Conrad III (; ; 1093 or 1094 – 15 February 1152) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty was from 1116 to 1120 Duke of Franconia, from 1127 to 1135 anti-king of his predecessor King Lothair III and from 1138 until his death in 1152 King in the Holy Roman Empire. He was the son of Duke Frederick I of Swabia and Agnes, a daughter of the Salian Emperor Henry IV.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971746}
{"src_title": "Johann Palisa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Palisa was born on December 6, 1848 in Troppau in Austrian Silesia (now called \"Opava\" and located in the Czech Republic). From 1866 to 1870, Palisa studied mathematics and astronomy at the University of Vienna; however, he did not graduate until 1884. Despite this, by 1870 he was an assistant at the University's observatory, and a year later gained a position at the observatory in Geneva. A few years later, in 1872, at the age of 24, Palisa became the director of the Austrian Naval Observatory in Pula. While at Pula, he discovered his first asteroid, 136 Austria, on March 18, 1874. Along with this, he discovered twenty-seven minor planets and one comet. During his stay in Pula he used a small six-inch refractor telescope to aid in his research.  Palisa became director of the Pula observatory, with the rank of commander, until 1880. In 1880 Palisa moved to the new Vienna Observatory. While at the observatory he discovered 94 comets by visual means.  In 1883 he joined a French expedition to Caroline Island to observe the Solar eclipse of May 6, 1883. During the expedition, he joined to observations for the search for the hypothetical planet Vulcan, as well as collecting samples of insects for the Vienna Museum of Natural History. In memory of this expedition, he named the asteroid 235 Carolina after Caroline Island.  In 1885, Palisa offered to sell the naming rights of some of the minor planets he discovered, in order to fund his travels to observe the Solar eclipse of August 29, 1886. However he sold just a small number of these naming rights and apparently did not go.  Palisa and Max Wolf worked together to create the first star atlas created by photographic plates, the Palisa–Wolf Sternkarten, published in 1899, 1902, 1908. In 1908, Palisa published the Sternenlexikon, mapping the skies from declinations -1° to +19°. That same year, he became the vice director of the Vienna Observatory. He retired from administrative duties in 1919, but kept observation rights. Palisa continued to discover asteroids until 1923. He died on May 2, 1925.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discoveries.", "content": "Between 1874 and 1923 Palisa discovered 122 asteroids ranging from 136 Austria to 1073 Gellivara and the much later numbered Mars-crosser 14309 Defoy, respectively \"(see table below)\". He made his discoveries at the Austrian Naval Observatory at Pola and at the Vienna Observatory. He also discovered the parabolic comet C/1879 Q1 in August 1879.  One of his discoveries was 253 Mathilde, a 50-kilometer sized C-type asteroid in the intermediate asteroid belt, which was visited by the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft on June 27, 1997. The robotic probe passed within 1200 km of Mathilde at 12:56 UT at 9.93 km/s, returning imaging and other instrument data including over 500 images which covered 60% of Mathilde's surface. Only a small number of minor planets have been visited by spacecraft.  Palisa made all of his asteroid discoveries visually. Even though Max Wolf had revolutionised the process of asteroid discovery by introducing photography in the 1890s, Palisa continued to trust on visual observations. His final discovery, 1073 Gellivara, was the last asteroid that was found visually. Johann Palisa remains the most successful visual (non-photographic) asteroid discoverer of all time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Palisa married his second wife, Anna Benda, in 1902. Asteroid 734 Benda is named after her. He also named minor planets after other members of his family: 320 Katharina after his mother, Katherina, 321 Florentina for his daughter Florentine.  His granddaughter was Gertrud Rheden, wife of astronomer Joseph Rheden. Asteroid 710 Gertrud is named after her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors and awards.", "content": "In 1876 Palisa was awarded the Lalande Prize. Palisa was awarded the Valz Prize from the French Academy of Sciences in 1906.  The Phocaea main-belt asteroid 914 Palisana, discovered by Max Wolf in 1919, and the lunar crater \"Palisa\" were named in his honour. Minor planets 902 Probitas, 975 Perseverantia, and 996 Hilaritas that he discovered were given names after his death for traits qualities associated with him: adherence to the highest principles and ideals, perseverance and happy or contented mind. Names were given by Joseph Rheden with the support of Palisa's second wife, Anna.  Minor planet 1152 Pawona is named after both Johann Palisa and Max Wolf, in recognition of their cooperation. The name was proposed by Swedish astronomer Bror Ansgar Asplind. \"Pawona\" is a combination of \"Palisa\" and \"Wolf\" (Pa, Wo) joined with a Latin feminine suffix.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Palisa (December 6, 1848 – May 2, 1925) was an Austrian astronomer, born in Troppau, Austrian Silesia, now Czech Republic. He was a prolific discoverer of asteroids, discovering 122 in all, from 136 Austria in 1874 to 1073 Gellivara in 1923. Some of his notable discoveries include 153 Hilda, 216 Kleopatra, 243 Ida, 253 Mathilde, 324 Bamberga, and the near-Earth asteroid 719 Albert. Palisa made his discoveries without the aid of photography, and he remains the most successful visual (non-photographic) asteroid discoverer of all time. He was awarded the Valz Prize from the French Academy of Sciences in 1906. The asteroid 914 Palisana, discovered by Max Wolf in 1919, and the lunar crater \"Palisa\" were named in his honour.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971747}
{"src_title": "Hajj", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The euro came into existence on 1 January 1999. The euro's creation had been a goal of the European Union (EU) and its predecessors since the 1960s. The Maastricht Treaty entered into force in 1993 with the goal of creating economic and monetary union by 1999 for all EU states except the UK and Denmark (though Denmark has a policy of a fixed exchange rate with the euro).  In 1999, the currency was born virtually, and in 2002 notes and coins began to circulate. It rapidly took over from the former national currencies and slowly expanded around the rest of the EU. In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty formalised the Euro's political authority, the Euro Group, alongside the European Central Bank.  Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007, Cyprus and Malta in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, Estonia in 2011, Latvia in 2014 and Lithuania in 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Specification.", "content": "There are seven different denominations of the euro banknotes: €5, €10, €20, €50, €100, €200 and €500. Each has a distinctive colour and size. The designs for each of them have a common theme of European architecture in various artistic eras. The obverse of the banknote features windows or gateways while the reverse bears different types of bridges. The architectural examples are stylised illustrations, not representations of existing monuments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1st series ES1 (issued 2002).", "content": "The following table depicts the design characteristics of the 1st series (ES1) of euro notes.  All the notes of the initial series of euro notes bear the European flag, a map of the continent on the reverse, the name \"euro\" in both Latin and Greek script (EURO / ΕΥΡΩ) and the signature of a president of the ECB, depending on when the banknote was printed. The 12 stars from the flag are also incorporated into every note.  The notes also carry the acronyms of the name of the European Central Bank in five linguistic variants, covering all official languages of the EU in 2002 (the time of the banknote introduction), and now 19 out of 24 official languages of the EU28, in the following order:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Banknotes of the euro, the currency of the euro area and institutions, have been in circulation since the first series (also called \"ES1\") was issued in 2002. They are issued by the national central banks of the Eurosystem or the European Central Bank. In 1999 the euro was introduced virtually, and in 2002 notes and coins began to circulate. The euro rapidly took over from the former national currencies and slowly expanded around the European Union.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971748}
{"src_title": "Chan Chan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name is probably derived from the Quingnam \"Jiang\" or \"Chang\" which means Sun, from which Chan-Chan would be literally: Sun-Sun. It is hypothesized that its true meaning would be: Great sun, resplendent Sun, splendid sun or refulgent sun (since a typical feature of the Quingnam language is that the reduplication of a word acquires a new meaning). Another theory says that the name would derive from the term: Shian or Sian. The \"Shi\" voice translates as Moon and \"An\" as a house, meaning House of the Moon, making known that the Moon was the main deity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brief history.", "content": "Chan Chan is believed to have been constructed around 850 AD by the Chimú. It was the Chimor empire capital city with an estimated population of 40,000–60,000 people.  After the Inca conquered the Chimú around 1470 AD, Chan Chan fell into decline. In 1535 AD, Francisco Pizarro founded the Spanish city of Trujillo which pushed Chan Chan further into the shadows. While no longer a teeming capital city, Chan Chan was still well known for its great riches and was consequently looted by the Spaniards. An indication of the great Chimú wealth is seen in a sixteenth-century list of items looted from a burial tomb in Chan Chan; a treasure equivalent to 80,000 pesos of gold was recovered (nearly $5,000,000 US dollars in gold).  In 1969, Michael Moseley and Carol J. Mackey began excavations of Chan Chan; today these excavations continue under the Peruvian Instituto Nacional de Cultura.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation plan.", "content": "In 1998, The \"Master Plan for Conservation and Management of the Chan Chan Archeological Complex\" was drawn up by the Freedom National Culture Institute of Peru with contributions from the World Heritage Foundation – WHR, ICCROM, and GCI. The plan was approved by the Peruvian Government. Methods of conservation include reinforcement and stabilization of structures of main buildings and around the Tschudi Palace, using a blend of traditional and modern engineering techniques. Chan Chan currently has 46 points of critical damage, though the site's total damage far exceeds these points. The regional government of La Libertad is funding conservation efforts at these points.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "content": "On 28 November 1986, UNESCO designated Chan Chan as a World Heritage Site as well as placed it on the List of World Heritage in Danger. The World Heritage Committee's initial recommendations included taking the appropriate measures for conservation, restoration, and management; halting any excavation that did not have accompanying conservation measures; and mitigation of plundering. A Pan-American Course on the Conservation and Management of Earthen Architectural and Archaeological Heritage was funded by many institutes coming together, including ICCROM, the Getty Conservation Institute, and the Government of Peru.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Archeological site.", "content": "The archaeological site covers an area of approximately 20 square kilometers, being considered the largest adobe city in the Americas and the second in the world.  The walled compounds (palaces) that make up the metropolis are the following:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Walled compound Nik An (Ex Tschudi).", "content": "The walled complex \"Nik An\" is the greatest in illustration of the importance of water, particularly of the sea, and of the cult that surrounded it in the Chimu culture. The high reliefs of the walls represent fish, directed towards the north and the south (what can be interpreted as representation of the two currents that mark the Peruvian coast: that of Humboldt, cold, that comes from the south and the one of El Niño, hot, that comes from the north), waves, rombito (fishing nets), as well as pelicans and anzumitos (mixture of sea lion and otter).  This coastal society was governed by the powerful Chimucapac and was united by the force of a social control originated in the necessity of a strict management of the water, as well as by the external threats. The \"Nik An\" complex had a single entrance and high walls up to twelve meters for a better defense, and was wider at its bases (five meters) than at its summits (one meter), in anticipation of possible earthquakes on the seismic coast.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The city has ten walled \"ciudadelas\" which housed ceremonial rooms, burial chambers, temples, reservoirs and residences for the Chimú kings. In addition to the \"ciudadelas\", other compounds present in Chan Chan include courts, or \"audencias\", small, irregular agglutinated rooms (SIARs) and mounds called \"huacas\". Evidence for the significance of these structures is seen in many funerary ceramics recovered from Chan Chan. Many images seemingly depict structures very similar to \"audencias\" which indicates the cultural importance of architecture to the Chimú people of Chan Chan. Additionally, the construction of these massive architectural feats indicates that there was a large labor force available at Chan Chan. This further supports evidence for a hierarchical structure of society in Chan Chan as it was likely that the construction of this architecture was done by the working class.  Chan Chan is triangular, surrounded by walls. There are no enclosures opening north because the north-facing walls have the greatest sun exposure, serving to block wind and absorb sunlight where fog is frequent. The tallest walls shelter against south-westerly winds from the coast. The walls are adobe brick covered with a smooth surface into which intricate designs are carved. The two styles of carving design include a realistic representation of subjects such as birds, fish, and small mammals, as well as a more graphic, stylized representation of the same subjects. The carvings at Chan Chan depict crabs, turtles, and nets for catching sea creatures (such as Spondylus. Chan Chan, unlike most coastal ruins in Peru, is very close to the Pacific Ocean.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Irrigation.", "content": "Originally the city relied on wells that were around 15 meters deep. To increase the farmland surrounding the city, a vast network of canals diverting water from the Moche river were created. Once these canals were in place, the city had the potential to grow substantially. Many canals to the north were destroyed by a catastrophic flood around 1100 CE, which was the key motivation for the Chimú to refocus their economy to one rooted in foreign resources rather than in subsistence farming.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The ancient structures of Chan Chan are threatened by erosion due to changes in weather patterns — heavy rains, flooding, and strong winds. In particular, the city is severely threatened by storms from El Niño, which causes increased precipitation and flooding on the Peruvian coast. Chan Chan is the largest mud city in the world, and its fragile material is cause for concern. The heavy rains of El Niño damages the base of Chan Chan's structures. Increased rain also leads to increased humidity, and as humidity gathers in the bases of these structures, salt contamination and vegetation growth can occur, which further damage the integrity of Chan Chan's foundations. Global warming, if occurs as predicted by some, will only further these negative impacts, as some models suggest climate change facilitates increased precipitation.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Chan Chan was the largest city of the pre-Columbian era in South America. It is now an archaeological site in La Libertad Region west of Trujillo, Peru.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971749}
{"src_title": "Umar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The county was created by the Alabama Territorial General Assembly on February 13, 1818, preceding Alabama's statehood by almost two years. It was created from land acquired from the Chickasaw Indians by the Treaty of 1816. Marion County included all of its current territory and parts of what are now Winston, Walker, Fayette, and Lamar counties in Alabama as well as portions of present-day Lowndes, Monroe, and Itawamba counties in Mississippi. The county was named in honor of General Francis Marion (1732–1795), an American Revolutionary War hero from South Carolina who was known as \"The Swamp Fox.\" Most early settlers of Marion County came from Kentucky and Tennessee after General Andrew Jackson established the Military Road. The first towns in the area were Pikeville, Hamilton (formerly Toll Gate), Winfield, and Guin.  The county's first seat was settled in 1818 at Cotton Gin Port, near present-day Amory, Mississippi. It was moved in 1819 to the home of Henry Greer along the Buttachatchee River, in 1820, the first permanent county seat was established at Pikeville, now a ghost town, located between present day Hamilton and Guin, along U.S. Highway 43/Old U.S. Highway 78. Pikeville served as the county seat of Marion County until 1882. Although the town is now abandoned, the home of Judge John Dabney Terrell Sr., which served as the third county courthouse, still stands. In 1882, Hamilton became the county seat. The first courthouse in Hamilton was destroyed by fire on March 30, 1887, and the second courthouse, constructed in the same place, also burned. A new courthouse, constructed of local sandstone opened in 1901. In 1959, the building was significantly remodeled to give the structure its current 1950's \"international style\" design theme.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.2%) is water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "At the 2000 census there were 31,214 people, 12,697 households, and 9,040 families living in the county. The population density was 42 people per square mile (16/km). There were 14,416 housing units at an average density of 19 per square mile (8/km). The racial makeup of the county was 94.76% White, 3.3% Black or African American, 0.29% Native American, 0.20% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.39% from other races, and 0.70% from two or more races. 1.15% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Of the 12,697 households 30.40% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.40% were married couples living together, 9.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.80% were non-families. 26.50% of households were one person and 12.70% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.87.  The age distribution was 22.50% under the age of 18, 8.20% from 18 to 24, 28.20% from 25 to 44, 25.20% from 45 to 64, and 15.80% 65 or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 98.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.20 males.  The median household income was $27,475 and the median family income was $34,359. Males had a median income of $26,913 versus $19,022 for females. The per capita income for the county was $15,321. About 12.00% of families and 15.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.80% of those under age 18 and 20.00% of those age 65 or over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2010 census.", "content": "At the 2010 census there were 30,776 people, 12,651 households, and 8,676 families living in the county. The population density was 41 people per square mile (16/km). There were 14,737 housing units at an average density of 19 per square mile (8/km). The racial makeup of the county was 93.6% White, 3.8% Black or African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.9% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. 2.1% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Of the 12,651 households 26.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.9% were married couples living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.4% were non-families. 28.4% of households were one person and 13.1% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.87.  The age distribution was 21.7% under the age of 18, 7.7% from 18 to 24, 24.0% from 25 to 44, 28.4% from 45 to 64, and 18.3% 65 or older. The median age was 42.8 years. For every 100 females there were 98.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.5 males.  The median household income was $32,769 and the median family income was $44,223. Males had a median income of $34,089 versus $24,481 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,030. About 13.3% of families and 17.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28.3% of those under age 18 and 12.7% of those age 65 or over.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Two public school systems, Marion County Schools and Winfield City Schools, operate in the county. Hamilton is home to a campus of Bevill State Community College. Marion County School System  Winfield City School System", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Newspapers.", "content": "The Court House at Hamilton burned in March 1887. All newspapers before that date were lost in the flames as the Court House was the repository for them. The newspapers that we have record of after the fire are:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Umar (), also spelled Omar (;, \"Umar, Son of Al-Khattab\"; c. 584 CE 3 November 644 CE), was one of the most powerful and influential Muslim caliphs in history. He was a senior companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He succeeded Abu Bakr (632–634) as the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert Muslim jurist known for his pious and just nature, which earned him the epithet Al-Farooq (\"the one who distinguishes (between right and wrong)\"). He is sometimes referred to as Umar I by historians of Islam, since a later Umayyad caliph, Umar II, also bore that name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971750}
{"src_title": "Conrad IV of Germany", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "He was the second child, but only surviving son of Emperor Frederick II and Isabella II (Yolanda), the queen regnant of Jerusalem. Born in Andria, in the South Italian Kingdom of Sicily, his mother died shortly after giving birth to him and he succeeded her as monarch of the Crusader state of Jerusalem. By his father, Conrad was the grandson of the Hohenstaufen emperor Henry VI and great-grandson of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. He lived in Southern Italy until 1235, when he first visited the Kingdom of Germany. During this period his kingdom of Jerusalem, ruled by his father as regent through proxies, was racked by the civil War of the Lombards until Conrad declared his majority and his father's regency lost its validity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rise to power.", "content": "When Emperor Frederick II deposed his eldest son, Conrad's rebellious half-brother King Henry (VII), Conrad succeeded him as Duke of Swabia in 1235. However, the emperor was not able to have him elected King of the Romans until the 1237 Imperial Diet in Vienna. This title, though not acknowledged by Pope Gregory IX, presumed his future as a Holy Roman Emperor. Prince-Archbishop Siegfried III of Mainz, in his capacity as German archchancellor, acted as regent for the minor until 1242, when Frederick chose Landgrave Henry Raspe of Thuringia, and King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia to assume this function. Conrad intervened directly in German politics from around 1240.  However, when Pope Innocent IV imposed a papal ban on Frederick in 1245 and declared Conrad deposed, Henry Raspe supported the pope and was in turn elected as anti-king of Germany on 22 May 1246. Henry Raspe defeated Conrad in the battle of Nidda in August 1246, but died several months later. He was succeeded as anti-king by William of Holland.  This exertion of power by the pope has since been regarded as a transition of power in the Holy Roman Empire. Notably, many bishops took this opportunity to gain more influence with their vast wealth and relative stability as opposed to the fractured monarchy which had proven to be somewhat unreliable. Similarly, many nobles were given greater autonomy without the guidance of a king.  Also in 1246, Conrad married Elisabeth of Bavaria, a daughter of Otto II Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria. They had a son Conradin, in 1252. In 1250 Conrad temporarily settled the situation in Germany by defeating William of Holland and his Rhenish allies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Italian Campaign.", "content": "When Frederick II died in the same year, he passed Sicily and Germany, as well as the title of Jerusalem, to Conrad, but the struggle with the pope continued. Having been defeated by William in 1251, Conrad decided to invade Italy, hoping to regain the rich dominions of his father, and where his brother Manfred acted as vicar. In January 1252 he invaded Apulia with a Venetian fleet and successfully managed to restrain Manfred and to exercise control of the country. This year Conrad issued constitutions during the hoftag in Foggia, which were based on the well-known examples from Norman and early Staufer times. In addition, as the new sources show, Conrad tried to reconcile with the Pope, but no agreement was reached. After the death of Frederick II, riots prevailed in parts of the kingdom of Sicily, and several cities attempted to escape the royal control. Conrad was therefore forced to take military action against the revolts. In October 1253 his troops conquered Naples.  Conrad was however not able to subdue the pope's supporters, and the pope in turn offered Sicily to Edmund Crouchback, son of Henry III of England (1253). Conrad was excommunicated in 1254 and died of malaria in the same year at Lavello in Basilicata. Manfred first, and later Conrad's son Conradin, continued the struggle with the Papacy, although unsuccessfully.  Conrad's widow Elisabeth remarried to Meinhard II, Count of Tirol, who in 1286 became Duke of Carinthia.  Conrad's death in 1254 began the Interregnum, during which no ruler managed to gain undisputed control of Germany. The Interregnum ended in 1273, with the election of Rudolph of Habsburg as King of the Romans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "<br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Conrad (25 April 1228 – 21 May 1254), a member of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was the only son of Emperor Frederick II from his second marriage with Queen Isabella II of Jerusalem. He inherited the title of King of Jerusalem (as Conrad II) upon the death of his mother in childbed. Appointed Duke of Swabia in 1235, his father had him elected King of Germany (King of the Romans) and crowned King of Italy (as Conrad IV) in 1237. After the emperor was deposed and died in 1250, he ruled as King of Sicily (Conrad I) until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971751}
{"src_title": "Lateran Treaty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Content.", "content": "The Lateran Pacts are often presented as three treaties: a 27-article treaty of conciliation, a three-article financial convention, and a 45-article concordat. However, the website of the Holy See presents the pacts as two, making the financial convention an annex of the treaty of conciliation. In this presentation, the pacts consisted of two documents, the first of which had four annexes:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "During the unification of Italy in the mid-19th century, the Papal States resisted incorporation into the new nation, even as all the other Italian countries, except for San Marino, joined it; Camillo Cavour's dream of proclaiming the Kingdom of Italy from the steps of St. Peter's Basilica did not come to pass. The nascent Kingdom of Italy invaded and occupied Romagna (the eastern portion of the Papal States) in 1860, leaving only Latium in the pope's domains. Latium, including Rome itself, was occupied and annexed in 1870. For the following sixty years, relations between the Papacy and the Italian government were hostile, and the status of the pope became known as the \"Roman Question\".  Negotiations for the settlement of the Roman Question began in 1926 between the government of Italy and the Holy See, and culminated in the agreements of the Lateran Pacts, signed—the Treaty says—for King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy by Prime Minister Benito Mussolini and for Pope Pius XI by Cardinal Secretary Pietro Gasparri, on 11 February 1929. It was ratified on 7 June 1929. The agreements were signed in the Lateran Palace, hence the name by which they are known.  The agreements included a political treaty which created the state of the Vatican City and guaranteed full and independent sovereignty to the Holy See. The pope was pledged to perpetual neutrality in international relations and to abstention from mediation in a controversy unless specifically requested by all parties. In the first article of the treaty, Italy reaffirmed the principle established in the 4 March 1848 Statute of the Kingdom of Italy, that \"the Catholic, Apostolic and Roman Religion is the only religion of the State\". The attached financial agreement was accepted as settlement of all the claims of the Holy See against Italy arising from the loss of temporal power of the Papal States in 1870.  The sum thereby given to the Holy See was actually less than Italy declared it would pay under the terms of the Law of Guarantees of 1871, by which the Italian government guaranteed to Pope Pius IX and his successors the use of, but not sovereignty over, the Vatican and Lateran Palaces and a yearly income of 3,250,000 lire as indemnity for the loss of sovereignty and territory. The Holy See, on the grounds of the need for clearly manifested independence from any political power in its exercise of spiritual jurisdiction, had refused to accept the settlement offered in 1871, and the popes thereafter until the signing of the Lateran Treaty considered themselves prisoners in the Vatican, a small, limited area inside Rome.  To commemorate the successful conclusion of the negotiations, Mussolini commissioned the Via della Conciliazione (Road of the Conciliation), which would symbolically link the Vatican City to the heart of Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After 1946.", "content": "The Constitution of the Italian Republic, adopted in 1947, states that relations between the State and the Catholic Church \"are regulated by the Lateran Treaties\".  In 1984, an agreement was signed, revising the concordat. Among other things, both sides declared: \"The principle of the Catholic religion as the sole religion of the Italian State, originally referred to by the Lateran Pacts, shall be considered to be no longer in force\". The Church's position as the sole state-supported religion of Italy was also ended, replacing the state financing with a personal income tax called the \"otto per mille\", to which other religious groups, Christian and non-Christian, also have access., there are ten other religious groups with access. The revised concordat regulated the conditions under which civil effects are accorded by Italy to church marriages and to ecclesiastical declarations of nullity of marriages. Abolished articles included those concerning state recognition of knighthoods and titles of nobility conferred by the Holy See, the undertaking by the Holy See to confer ecclesiastical honours on those authorized to perform religious functions at the request of the State or the Royal Household, and the obligation of the Holy See to enable the Italian government to present political objections to the proposed appointment of diocesan bishops.  In 2008, it was announced that the Vatican would no longer immediately adopt all Italian laws, citing conflict over right-to-life issues following the trial and ruling of the Eluana Englaro case.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Violations.", "content": "Italy's anti-Jewish laws of 1938 prohibited marriages between Jews and non-Jews, including Catholics. The Vatican viewed this as a violation of the Concordat, which gave the church the sole right to regulate marriages involving Catholics. Article 34 of the Concordat had also specified that marriages performed by the Catholic Church would always be considered valid by civil authorities. The Holy See understood this to apply to all marriages in Italy celebrated by Roman Catholic clergy, regardless of the faiths of those being married.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lateran Treaty (; ) was one component agreement that made up the Lateran Pacts of 1929, the agreements made in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See settling the \"Roman Question\". The treaty and associated pacts are named after the Lateran Palace, where they were signed on 11 February 1929. The Italian parliament ratified them on 7 June 1929. The Lateran Treaty recognized Vatican City as an independent state under the sovereignty of the Holy See. The Italian government, at the time led by Benito Mussolini as prime minister, also agreed to give the Roman Catholic Church financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States. In 1947, the Lateran Treaty was recognized in the Constitution of Italy as regulating the relations between the state and the Catholic Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971752}
{"src_title": "Top", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "The top is one of the oldest recognizable toys found on archaeological sites. Spinning tops originated independently in cultures all over the world.  Besides toys, tops have also historically been used for gambling and prophecy. Some role-playing games use tops to augment dice in generating randomized results; it is in this case referred to as a \"spinner\".  Gould mentions maple seeds, celts (leading to rattlebacks), the fire-drill, the spindle whorl, and the potter's wheel as possible predecessors to the top, which he assumes was invented or discovered multiple times in multiple places.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Color demonstrations with tops.", "content": "A top may also be used to demonstrate visual properties, such as by James David Forbes and James Clerk Maxwell in Maxwell's disc (see color triangle). By rapidly spinning the top, Forbes created the illusion of a single color that was a mixture of the primaries:  Maxwell took this a step further by using a circular scale around the rim with which to measure the ratios of the primaries, choosing vermilion, emerald, and ultramarine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spinning methods.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Finger twirling.", "content": "Smaller tops have a short stem, and are set in motion by twirling it using the fingers. A thumbtack may also be made to spin on its tip in the same way.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Strings and whips.", "content": "A typical fist-sized model, traditionally made of wood with a blunt iron tip, is meant to be set in motion by briskly pulling a string or rope tightly coiled around the body. The rope is best wound starting near the tip and progressing up along the widening body, so that the tension of the string will remain roughly constant while the top's angular speed increases.  These tops may be thrown forward while firmly grasping the end of the string and pulling it back. The forward momentum of the top contributes to the string's tension and thus to the final spin rate.  In some throwing styles, the top is thrown upside-down, but the first loop of the rope is wound around a stubby \"head\". Then, the sudden yank on the head as the string finishes unwinding causes the spinning top to flip over and land on its tip.  Alternatively, tops of this class may be started by hand but then accelerated and kept in motion by striking them repeatedly with a small whip.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Augers.", "content": "Some larger models are set in motion by means of a built-in metal auger. In these models, the actual top may be enclosed in a hollow metal shell, with the same axis but decoupled from it; so that the toy may appear to be stationary but \"magically\" balanced on its tip.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Magnetic fields.", "content": "Some modern tops are kept perpetually in motion by spinning magnetic fields from a special ground plate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable types.", "content": "Gould classifies tops into six main types : twirler, supported top, peg-top, whip-top, buzzer, and yo-yo.  Modern tops may have several sophisticated improvements, such as a relatively sharp tip made of ruby or a hard ceramic like tungsten carbide, that reduces the friction with the ground surface. In addition, plastic and metal have largely supplanted the use of wood in tops.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physics.", "content": "The motion of a top is described by equations of rigid body dynamics, specifically the theory of rotating rigid bodies).  Because of the small contact area between the tip and the underlying surface, and the large rotational inertia of its body, a top that is started on a hard surface will usually keep spinning for tens of seconds or more, even without additional energy input.  Typically the top will at first wobble until friction and torque between the tip and the underlying surface force it to spin with the axis steady and upright. Contrary to what is sometimes assumed, longstanding scientific studies (and easy experimentations reproducible by anyone) show that reducing the friction increases the time needed to reach this stable state (unless the top is so unbalanced that it falls over before reaching it). After spinning upright (in the so-called \"sleep\" position) for an extended period, the angular momentum will gradually lessen (mainly due to friction), leading to ever increasing precession, finally causing the top to topple and roll some distance on its side. In the \"sleep\" period, and only in it, provided it is ever reached, less friction means longer \"sleep\" time (whence the common error that less friction implies longer global spinning time).  The total spinning time of a top is generally increased by increasing its moment of inertia and lowering its center of gravity.. These variables however are constrained by the need to prevent the body from touching the ground.  Asymmetric tops of virtually any shape can also be created and designed to balance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competitions.", "content": "There are many official competitions of top spinning, such as the U. S. National Championships in Chico, California and in the World Championships in Orlando, Florida.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The Jean Shepherd story \"Scut Farkas and the Murderous Mariah\" revolves around top-spinning in the fictional Depression-era American city of Hohman, Indiana. The bully and the named top in the title are challenged by Shepherd's ongoing protagonist Ralph and a so-called \"gypsy top\" of similar design to Mariah named Wolf.  The Top is a short story by bohemian writer Franz Kafka.  The top is a focal element and metaphysical symbol in the movie \"Inception\", directed by Christopher Nolan and starring Leonardo DiCaprio. In the final shot, the camera moves over the spinning top just before it appears to be wobbling.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A spinning top, or simply a top, is a toy with a squat body and a sharp point at the bottom, designed to be spun on its vertical axis, balancing on the tip due to the gyroscopic effect.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971753}
{"src_title": "Battle of White Mountain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "In the early 17th century most of the Bohemian estates, although under the dominion of the predominantly Roman Catholic Holy Roman Empire, had large Protestant populations, and had been granted rights and protections allowing them varying degrees of religious and political freedom.  In 1617, as the health of Emperor Matthias deteriorated, his cousin Ferdinand – a fiercely devout Roman Catholic and proponent of the Counter-Reformation – was named his successor as Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia. This led to deep consternation among many Bohemian Protestants, who feared not only the loss of their religious freedom, but also of their traditional semi-autonomy, under which many of the estates had separate, individual constitutions governing their relationship with the Empire, and where the king was elected by the local leaders.  Ferdinand (who would become Emperor Ferdinand II following Matthias' death in 1619) saw Protestantism as inimical to the Empire, and wanted to impose absolutist rule on Bohemia while forcefully encouraging conversion to the Roman Catholic faith. He also hoped to reclaim church properties which had been seized by Protestants at the start of the Reformation decades earlier, and to do away with the Electorate - the body of princes who chose the Holy Roman Emperor and who had considerable power over Imperial policy.  Particularly galling to Protestants were perceived violations of Emperor Rudolf II's 1609 Letter of Majesty, which had ensured religious freedom throughout Bohemia. In May, 1618, wanting to air their grievances over this and other issues, a group of Bohemian noblemen met representatives of the Emperor at the royal castle in Prague; the meeting ended with two of the representatives and their scribe being thrown out a high window and seriously injured. This incident, known as the Third Defenestration of Prague, triggered the Bohemian Revolt.  In November 1619, Elector Palatine Frederick V, who like many of the rebels was a Calvinist, was chosen as King of Bohemia by the Bohemian Electorate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "In 1620, now fully established as emperor, Ferdinand II set out to conquer Bohemia and make an example of the rebels. King Frederick and his military commander, Prince Christian of Anhalt, had organized a Protestant army of 30,000 men; Ferdinand countered with a force of 25,000, many of them seasoned soldiers, under the capable leadership of Field Marshal Tilly, a Roman Catholic Spanish-Flemish nobleman. Tilly's army enjoyed the advantage of including two successful military leaders - Tilly himself and the future General Wallenstein. Tilly's force was made up of two distinct groups: Imperial troops commanded by Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy, and soldiers of the German Catholic League, directly under Tilly. All of the armies of the day employed numerous mercenaries, including, by some definitions, Tilly himself. Serving with the Catholic League as an official observer was the future \"father of modern philosophy\", René Descartes.  After conquering most of western Bohemia, the Imperial army made for Prague, the Bohemian capital, then in rebel hands. The Bohemians attempted to block them by setting up defensive positions, which the Imperial army simply bypassed. Force-marching his men, Christian of Anhalt managed to get ahead of the Imperial army just before Prague. He thus gained an advantageous position on the \"White Mountain\", actually a low plateau, but had little time to set up defensive works. Enthusiasm for joining battle was low on both sides. After the reverses of the previous several weeks, Christian of Anhalt's army had been reduced to about 15,000 men, with little prospect of victory; the mercenaries on both sides had not been paid in months; and with winter approaching, cold, wet, weather made for less than ideal combat conditions.  On 8 November a small Imperial force was sent to probe the Protestant flank. To their surprise, the Bohemians retreated at their advance. Tilly quickly sent in reinforcements, and the Bohemian flank began to crumble. Anhalt tried to relieve the situation by sending forward infantry and cavalry led by his son Christian II. The cavalry charged into the Imperial infantry, causing significant casualties, but Tilly countered with his own cavalry, forcing the Bohemian horsemen to retire. The Bohemian infantry, who were only now approaching the Imperial army, saw the cavalry retreating, at which they fired one volley at extreme range before retreating themselves. A small group of Imperial cavalry began circling the Protestant forces, driving them to the middle of the battlefield. With the Bohemian army already demoralized, company after company began retreating, most without having actually entered the battle. Tilly and his Imperial cavalrymen advanced with 2,000 Bavarian hussars, steadily pushing Protestant forces back to the Star Palace (just west of Prague), where the rebels tried without success to establish a line of defense.  The Bohemian army was no match for the Emperor Ferdinand's troops. The actual battle lasted only an hour and left the Bohemian army in tatters. Some 4,000 Protestants were killed or captured, while Imperial losses amounted to only about 700.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "With the Bohemian army destroyed, Tilly entered Prague and the revolt collapsed. King Frederick fled the country with his wife Elizabeth (hence his nickname \"the Winter King\"). Forty-seven leaders of the insurrection were put on trial, and twenty-seven of them were executed in Prague's Old Town Square on what came to be called the \"Old Town Square execution\". Amongst those executed were Kryštof Harant and Jan Jesenius. Today, 27 crosses have been laid into the cobblestones as a tribute to those victims. An estimated five-sixths of the Bohemian nobility went into exile soon after the Battle of White Mountain, and their properties were confiscated.  There remained a strong Protestant army in Silesia under the command of Johann Georg von Brandenburg, Duke of Krnov, which continued fighting the Imperial army in Moravia and in what today is Slovakia until 1623.  In 1621, the Emperor ordered all Calvinists and other non-Lutherans to leave the realm in three days or to convert to Roman Catholicism. In 1622, he forbade practice of the Lutheran faith. In 1626, he ordered all Lutherans (most of whom had not been involved in the revolt) to convert or else leave the country. By 1627, Archbishop Harrach of Prague and Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice set out to convert the heretics, as they were termed, by peaceful means; most Bohemians converted, but a significant Protestant minority remained. Spanish troops, seeking to encircle their rebellious Dutch provinces, seized the Palatinate lands. With the prospect of Protestantism being overrun in Germany, Denmark entered the struggle. Sweden was to join the Protestant forces in 1630.  Before the war about 151,000 farmsteads existed in the Lands of the Bohemian Crown, while by the year 1648 only 50,000 remained. At the same time the number of inhabitants decreased from three million to only 800,000.  The result of the 1620 battle brought two centuries of recatholicization of the Czech lands and the decline of the Czech-speaking aristocracy and elite as well as the Czech language (accompanied with the growing influence of German-speaking elites), a process that was slowed by the Czech National Revival starting in the late 18th century. Czech nationalist historians and writers such as Alois Jirásek have referred to the 17th and 18th century in the Czech lands as the Dark Age.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of White Mountain (; ) was an important battle in the early stages of the Thirty Years' War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971754}
{"src_title": "Torgau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sights.", "content": "Sights include the historic town centre, restored since German reunification, a brewery museum, the monument for the meeting of the Russian and American troops on the Elbe and a Russian military cemetery. The early Renaissance Hartenfels Castle dominates the town. The chapel was built in 1544 (designed by Nickel Gromann) and combines late Gothic with early Renaissance elements. It was consecrated by Martin Luther on 5 October 1544. Brown bears are still kept in the moat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The settlement goes back to a Slavonic settlement named Turguo in the shire of Neletici. There was presumably a wooden Slavonic castle located on the site of the present-day Hartenstein castle. In the 10th century it fell under the rule of the Holy Roman Emperors, and a stone castle was built, round which the settlement congregated. A market is attested in 1119. The town was located on the important trade-road, the via regia Lusatiae inferioris, between Leipzig and Frankfurt an der Oder that crossed the river Elbe at a ford east of Torgau.  Torgau belonged to the duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg, which in 1356 was raised to be the Electorate of Saxony. After the last Ascanian duke died without issue in 1423, the Electorate passed to the Wettin dynasty, which took up its residence at Torgau. Following the Treaty of Leipzig partition of the Wettin inheritance on 26 August 1485, Torgau fell to the Ernestine line. Frederick III, Elector of Saxony and his successors had Hartenfels Castle at Torgau built by architect Conrad Pflüger and his successor Konrad Krebs. The court chapel, constructed in 1543-44 by Nikolaus Gromann, was consecrated by Martin Luther on 5 October 1544; it is thus the second oldest newly built protestant church in the world, after the court chapel of Neuburg Castle which was consecrated in 1543. The Ernestine court resided mainly in Torgau and in Weimar. From 1525 onwards, Torgau became the sole residence. Hartenfels Castle is the largest completely preserved castle of the early Renaissance in Germany. After the Battle of Mühlberg in 1547, Torgau fell to the Albertine line.  During the Reformation, the town council closed all cloisters in 1523. Citizens of Torgau destroyed the paintings and statues of saints in the churches and stormed the Franciscan monastery. After Luther had driven Andreas Karlstadt (Bodenstein) from Saxony in 1524, he enforced the expulsion of Karlstadt's followers in Torgau in 1529. Katharina von Bora, the wife of Martin Luther, died in Torgau and is buried there in St. Marien, Torgau. The Torgauer Artikel, a draft of the Augsburg Confession was composed by Luther, Melanchthon, Bugenhagen and Jonas in the electoral superindenture in 1530 (Wintergrün). The Lutheran Formula of Concord was written in Torgau in 1576.  The first German opera, Heinrich Schütz's \"Dafne\", was presented at the court in Torgau, 1627.  In the Battle of Torgau, on 3 November 1760, a Prussian army under the command of King Friedrich the Great defeated a larger Austrian army under the command of Field Marshal Leopold Josef Graf Daun, a major battle of the Seven Years' War. After the Congress of Vienna, it was passed to Prussia in 1815.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "The town is the place where during the Second World War, United States Army forces coming from the west met forces of the Soviet Union coming from the east during the invasion of Germany on 25 April 1945, which is now remembered as \"Elbe Day\". Units of the American First Army and the Soviet First Ukrainian Front met on the bridge at Torgau, and at Lorenzkirch (near Strehla), 20 miles to the south. The unit commanders met the following day at Torgau for an official handshake. This marked the beginning of the line of contact between Soviet and American forces, but not the finalized occupation zones. In fact the area surrounding Torgau initially occupied by U.S. forces was later, in July 1945, given over to Soviet forces in compliance with the Yalta agreement. After the war, in 1949, a film called \"Encounter at the Elbe\" was released from Mosfilm about this meeting of the two armies.  Torgau was one of the prisons where Reinhold Eggers spent his post war imprisonment after being sentenced by the Soviets. Eggers had been the security officer at Oflag IV-C during the war, Colditz Castle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post–World War II.", "content": "After the war, the Soviet secret police agency NKVD established its Special Camps Nos. 8 and 10 in Fort Zinna and in the nearby Seydlitz barracks. Germans and some Soviet citizens were interned here or served sentences passed by the Soviet military tribunals. The East German People's Police used the Fort Zinna prison from 1950 to 1990 as a penitentiary. In the 1950s it primarily housed political prisoners.  The Torgau Documentation and Information Center (DIZ), founded in 1991 and now under the administration of the Saxon Memorial Foundation for the commemoration of the victims of political despotism, researches and presents the history of the Torgau prisons in the permanent exhibition \"Traces of Injustice\".  After World War II, Torgau was initially the district centre of the state of Saxony Anhalt in East Germany. After the dissolution of the states of East Germany in 1952, it became part of Bezirk Leipzig. In 1990, after the Unification of Germany, it became part of the Leipzig (region) region of the state of Saxony. In 2008 it became the center of the Nordsachsen district.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Torgau is a town on the banks of the Elbe in northwestern Saxony, Germany. It is the capital of the district Nordsachsen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971755}
{"src_title": "Carcassonne (board game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "The game board is a medieval landscape built by the players as the game progresses. The game starts with a single terrain tile face up and 71 others shuffled face down for the players to draw from. On each turn a player draws a new terrain tile and places it adjacent to tiles that are already face up. The new tile must be placed in a way that extends features on the tiles it touches: roads must connect to roads, fields to fields, and cities to cities.  After placing each new tile, the placing player may opt to station a piece (called a \"follower\" or \"meeple\") on a feature of that newly placed tile. The placing player may not use a follower to claim any features of the tile that extend or connect features already claimed by another player. However, it is possible for terrain features claimed by opposing players to become \"shared\" by the subsequent placement of tiles connecting them. For example, two separate field tiles (each with a follower) can become connected into a single field by another terrain tile.  The game ends when the last tile has been placed. At that time, all features (including fields) score points for the players with the most followers on them. The player with the most points wins the game.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scoring.", "content": "During the players' turns, cities, cloisters, and roads (but not fields) are scored when they are completed—cities and roads when they are completed (i.e. contain no unfinished edges from which they may be expanded), and cloisters when surrounded by eight tiles. At the end of the game, when there are no tiles remaining, all incomplete features are scored. Points are awarded to the players with the most followers in a feature.  If there is a tie for the most followers in any given feature, all of the tied players are awarded the full number of points. In general (see table), points are awarded for the number of tiles covered by a feature; cloisters score for neighboring tiles; and fields score based on the number of connected \"completed\" cities.  Once a feature is scored, all of the followers in that feature are returned to their owners.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Older editions.", "content": "There are two older editions of \"Carcassonne\", differing in scoring of cities and fields. Though, until recently, the first edition scoring rules were included with English releases of \"Carcassonne\", third edition rules are now included with all editions (including the Xbox 360 and travel versions), and are assumed by all expansions in all languages.  In the first and second editions of the game, completed cities covering just two tiles scored two points (one per tile) and one extra point for every pennant that resides in the city. This exception is removed from the third edition, in which there is no difference between two-tile cities and cities of larger size.  The greatest divergence in scoring rules between the editions of \"Carcassonne\" is in scoring for fields. In the first edition, the players with the greatest number of followers adjacent to a city were awarded four points for that city. Thus, followers from different fields contributed to the scoring for a city, and followers on a field may contribute to the scoring for multiple cities. The second edition considered different fields separately – for each field, the players with the greatest number of followers in a field scored three points for each city adjacent to the field, although points were only scored once for any given city. The third edition removes these exceptions and brings field scoring in line with the scoring of other features.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Game interest.", "content": "\"Carcassonne\" is considered to be an excellent \"gateway game\" by many board game players as it is a game that can be used to introduce new players to board games. The rules are simple, no one is ever eliminated, and the play is fast. A typical game, without any expansions, takes about 45 minutes to play. There is a substantial luck component to the game; however, good tactics greatly improve one's chances of winning. Examples of tactical considerations include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Box contents.", "content": "The 2000 base box contains the following items:  The 2014 redesign contains the same items as the original and also adds the following items:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansions.", "content": "Several official expansions for \"Carcassonne\" have been published, which add numerous additional rules, tiles and new kinds of figures. Together, they can more than double the length of the game. These expansions are generally compatible with each other and may be played together.  Six stand-alone mini expansions, with each containing a tile for a seventh mini expansion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mini expansions.", "content": "1. Carcassonne — The Flying Machines (Carcassonne — Die Fluggeräte) 2. Carcassonne — The Messengers (Carcassonne — Die Depeschen) 3. Carcassonne — The Ferries (Carcassonne — Die Fähren) 4. Carcassonne — The Gold Mines (Carcassonne — Die Goldminen) 5. Carcassonne — Mage & Witch (Carcassonne — Magier & Hexe) 6. Carcassonne — The Robbers (Carcassonne — Die Räuber) 7. Carcassonne — Corn Circles II (Carcassonne – Die Kornkreise)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spinoffs.", "content": "Following the success of \"Carcassonne\", a number of games have been spun off from the main game, all sharing similar mechanics. There is also a travel-sized version of the original game, \"Travel Carcassonne\" (\"Reise-Carcassonne\"), released in 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tournaments and World Championships.", "content": "International \"Carcassonne\" tournaments were held in Germany in 2003–2005.  The first official \"Carcassonne\" World Championship was held at SPIEL in Essen, Germany, in 2006. An annual world championship has been held at SPIEL every year since 2006 with the exception of the fifth championship, which was held on 24 October 2010 during SPIEL but at an alternate location in Herne, Germany. Ralph Querfurth has been the World Champion in four editions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carcassonne is a tile-based German-style board game for two to five players, designed by Klaus-Jürgen Wrede and published in 2000 by Hans im Glück in German and by Rio Grande Games (until 2012) and Z-Man Games (currently) in English. It received the Spiel des Jahres and the Deutscher Spiele Preis awards in 2001.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971756}
{"src_title": "Pietà", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Context and development.", "content": "Pietà is one of the three common artistic representations of a sorrowful Virgin Mary, the other two being Mater Dolorosa (Mother of Sorrows) and Stabat Mater (here stands the mother). The other two representations are most commonly found in paintings, rather than sculpture, although combined forms exist. The pietà developed in Germany (where it is called the \"Vesperbild\") about 1300, reached Italy about 1400, and was especially popular in Central European Andachtsbilder. Many German and Polish 15th-century examples in wood greatly emphasise Christ's wounds. The Deposition of Christ and the Lamentation or Pietà form the 13th of the Stations of the Cross, as well as one of the Seven Sorrows of the Virgin.  Although the pietà most often shows the Virgin Mary holding Jesus, there are other compositions, including those where God the Father participates in holding Jesus (see gallery below). In Spain the Virgin often holds up one or both hands, sometimes with Christ's body slumped to the floor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Michelangelo.", "content": "A famous example by Michelangelo was carved from a block of marble and is located in St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City. The body of Christ is different from most earlier pietà statues, which were usually smaller and in wood. The Virgin is also unusually youthful, and in repose, rather than the older, sorrowing Mary of most pietàs. She is shown as youthful for two reasons; God is the source of all beauty and she is one of the closest to God, also the exterior is thought as the revelation of the interior (the virgin is morally beautiful). The \"Pietà\" with the Virgin Mary is also unique among Michelangelo's sculptures, because it was the only one he ever signed, upon hearing that visitors thought it had been sculpted by Cristoforo Solari, a competitor. His signature is carved as \"MICHAELA[N]GELUS BONAROTUS FLORENTIN[US] FACIEBA[T]\" \"Michelangelo Buonarroti the Florentine did it\". In a lesser known Michelangelo pietà, \"The Deposition\", it is not the Virgin Mary who is holding Jesus' body, but rather Nicodemus (or possibly Joseph of Arimathea), Mary Magdalene, and the Virgin Mary. There is some indication that the man in the hood is based on a self-portrait of the artist. The sculpture is housed in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo in Florence and is also known as the \"Florentine Pietà\".  A generation later, the Spanish painter Luis de Morales painted a number of highly emotional pietàs, with examples in the Louvre and Museo del Prado.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A pietà (; meaning \"pity\", \"compassion\") is a subject in Christian art depicting the Virgin Mary cradling the dead body of Jesus, most often found in sculpture. As such, it is a particular form of the Lamentation of Christ, a scene from the Passion of Christ found in cycles of the Life of Christ. When Christ and the Virgin are surrounded by other figures from the New Testament, the subject is strictly called a \"lamentation\" in English, although \"pietà\" is often used for this as well, and is the normal term in Italian.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971757}
{"src_title": "Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was born in Graz and baptized in the parish church of Heiligen Blut on 20 July 1656. His parents came from notable Graz families: his father was a provincial sculptor and artisan, his grandfather was a bookseller, and his mother was the daughter of a joiner and married to a sculptor prior to her second marriage. Raised in the tradition of Styrian craftsmanship in a city of significant architectural achievements, Johann received his early training as a sculptor in the workshop of his father, Johann Baptist Fischer, who contributed to the interior sculptural decorations of the Landhaus and Eggenberg Palace in Graz. During the seventeenth century, the Princes of Eggenberg had emerged as important patrons of the arts in Styria; through their patronage of Johann Baptist, they arranged for his talented son to travel to Italy and work in the flourishing artistic environment of the late Italian Baroque.  In 1671, at the age of sixteen, Johann moved to Rome and joined the workshop of his fellow Austrian Johann Paul Schor and of the great Gian Lorenzo Bernini, who gave him ample opportunities to study both ancient and modern sculpture and architecture. By 1685, he had followed Schor to Naples, where he was reported to have amassed a considerable fortune serving the Spanish viceroy.  Back in Austria in 1687, Fischer von Erlach was installed as a fashionable and sought-after architect. Commissions were plentiful, as royalty and highest echelons of aristocracy sought to repair damage inflicted on their country residences by the Ottoman Turks in the course of their 1683 campaign. Fischer's understanding of an urbane Baroque idiom appeared superior to that prevalent in Central Europe, and in 1687 he secured the key position of court architect, which he would retain in the service of three emperors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service under Emperor Joseph I.", "content": "During the 1690s, which have been described as the most fruitful period of Fischer's career, he adapted the Italian Baroque to local needs and traditions. In 1690, he won great acclaim for two temporary triumphal arches constructed in Vienna to celebrate Joseph I's coronation. He later personally instructed Joseph in architectural arts, so successfully that in 1696 the monarch elevated Johann Fischer to the nobility, as Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach.  In his 17th-century designs and commissions, Fischer von Erlach embraced Berniniesque powerful curving lines, seeking to convey a sense of movement. His other inspirations included Mansart's country residences and the Palladian classical villas, which he would study during his journeys to Prussia, the Netherlands, England in 1704 and Venice in 1707.  Thus Fischer presided over the genesis and early evolution of a distinctive brand of Baroque architecture, which would shape architectural tastes of the Austrian aristocracy for decades to come. His emblematic design from the 1690s was the Winter Palace of Prince Eugene of Savoy, commenced in 1695 in Vienna. As Hans Aurenhammer put it, this edifice represented \"a new type of town palace characterized by impressive form, structural clarity, and the dynamic tension of its decoration\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Salzburg and late works.", "content": "Fischer's expertise in town planning made itself felt in designs he executed for the Archbishop of Salzburg. Particularly accomplished are two churches, the Holy Trinity Church (\"Dreifaltigkeitskirche\") (1694–1702) and the Kollegienkirche (Collegiate Church) (1696–1707), whose highly pitched domes and towers, convex facades, and dynamic forms irrevocably changed the outline of Salzburg. They say that masses of stone were designed by Fischer so as to give the appearance of billows of cloud and smoke. The archbishop's country seat, Schloss Klessheim (1700–09), was also designed by him.  Fischer's visit to Dalmatia brought back to Western Europe the influence of the classical Diocletian's Palace and provided Europe with one of the first professional architectural glimpses of this notable Roman monument.  After Joseph I's death in 1711, Fischer von Erlach was rarely entrusted with new commissions, as the more pleasing and less demanding designs of his rival Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt proved more popular with the young monarch Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor and his court. He found an opportunity to draw some of the finest architectural reconstructions of the buildings of Antiquity, which were published in his groundbreaking \"Plan of Civil and Historical Architecture\" in 1721. He was also made responsible for various administrative tasks, which would take a large portion of his energy and time.  Clam-Gallas Palace in Prague, commenced in 1713, was one of his last designs for a stately town residence. The structure, much imitated by later architects, highlights Fischer's enthusiasm for Palladian facades, which became ever more pronounced during the last period of his work.  But it is Karlskirche in Vienna, started in 1715, that most fully illustrates his late synthetic style. In this structure, completed by his son Joseph Emanuel, Fischer's ambition was to harmonize the principal elements and ideas that underlie the most significant churches in the history of Western architecture: the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem, Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, the Pantheon and Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome, the Dome des Invalides in Paris and Saint Paul's Cathedral in London.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (20 July 1656 – 5 April 1723) was an Austrian architect, sculptor, and architectural historian whose Baroque architecture profoundly influenced and shaped the tastes of the Habsburg Empire. His influential book \"A Plan of Civil and Historical Architecture\" (1721) was one of the first and most popular comparative studies of world architecture. His major works include Schönbrunn Palace, Karlskirche, and the Austrian National Library in Vienna, and Schloss Klessheim, Holy Trinity Church, and the Kollegienkirche in Salzburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971758}
{"src_title": "Glam rock", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Glam rock can be seen as a fashion as well as musical subgenre. Glam artists rejected the revolutionary rhetoric of the late 1960s rock scene, instead glorifying decadence, superficiality, and the simple structures of earlier pop music. In response to these characteristics, scholars such as I.Taylor and D. Wall criticized Glam rock as \"offensive, commercial, and cultural emasculation\".  Artists drew on such musical influences as bubblegum pop, the brash guitar riffs of hard rock, stomping rhythms, and 1950s rock and roll, filtering them through the recording innovations of the late 1960s. Ultimately it became very diverse, varying between the simple rock and roll revivalism of figures like Alvin Stardust to the complex art pop of Roxy Music. In its beginning, however, it was a youth-oriented reaction to the creeping dominance of progressive rock and concept albums – what \"Bomp!\" called the \"overall denim dullness\" of \"a deadly boring, prematurely matured music scene\".  Visually it was a mesh of various styles, ranging from 1930s Hollywood glamour, through 1950s pin-up sex appeal, pre-war cabaret theatrics, Victorian literary and symbolist styles, science fiction, to ancient and occult mysticism and mythology; manifesting itself in outrageous clothes, makeup, hairstyles, and platform-soled boots. Glam is most noted for its sexual and gender ambiguity and representations of androgyny, beside extensive use of theatrics.  It was prefigured by the flamboyant English composer Noël Coward, especially his 1931 song \"Mad Dogs and Englishmen\", with music writer Daryl Easlea stating, \"Noël Coward's influence on people like Bowie, Roxy Music and Cockney Rebel was absolutely immense. It suggested style, artifice and surface were equally as important as depth and substance. \"Time\" magazine noted Coward's'sense of personal style, a combination of cheek and chic, pose and poise'. It reads like a glam manifesto.\" Showmanship and gender identity manipulation acts included the Cockettes and Alice Cooper, the latter of which combined glam with shock rock.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Glam rock emerged from the English psychedelic and art rock scenes of the late 1960s and can be seen as both an extension of, and a reaction against, those trends. Its origins are associated with Marc Bolan, who had renamed his acoustic duo T. Rex and taken up electric instruments by the end of the 1960s. Bolan was, in the words of music critic Ken Barnes, \"the man who started it all\". Often cited as the moment of inception is Bolan's appearance on the BBC music show \"Top of the Pops\" in March 1971 wearing glitter and satins, to perform what would be his second UK Top 10 hit (and first UK Number 1 hit), \"Hot Love\". \"The Independent\" states that Bolan's appearance on \"Top of the Pops\" “permitted a generation of teeny-boppers to begin playing with the idea of androgyny”. T. Rex's 1971 album \"Electric Warrior\" received critical acclaim as a pioneering glam rock album. In 1973, a few months after the release of the album \"Tanx\", Bolan captured the front cover of \"Melody Maker\" magazine with the declaration \"Glam rock is dead!\". From late 1971, already a minor star, David Bowie developed his Ziggy Stardust persona, incorporating elements of professional makeup, mime and performance into his act. Bowie, in a 1972 interview in which he noted that other artists described as glam rock were doing different work, said \"I think glam rock is a lovely way to categorize me and it's even nicer to be one of the leaders of it\". Bolan and Bowie were soon followed in the style by acts including Roxy Music, Sweet, Slade, Mott the Hoople, Mud and Alvin Stardust. The popularity of glam rock in the UK was such that three glam rock bands had major UK Christmas hit singles; \"Merry Xmas Everybody\" by Slade, \"I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday\" by Wizzard and \"Lonely This Christmas\" by Mud, all of which have remained hugely popular. Glam was not only a highly successful trend in UK popular music, it became dominant in other aspects of British popular culture during the 1970s. A heavier variant of glam rock, emphasising guitar riff centric songs, driving rhythms and live performance with audience participation, were represented by bands like Slade and Mott the Hoople, with later followers such as Def Leppard, Cheap Trick, Poison, Kiss, Bon Jovi, and Quiet Riot, some of which either covered Slade compositions or composed new songs based on Slade templates. While highly successful in the single charts in the UK, very few of these musicians were able to make a serious impact in the US; David Bowie was the major exception, becoming an international superstar and prompting the adoption of glam styles among acts like Lou Reed, Iggy Pop, New York Dolls and Jobriath, often known as \"glitter rock\" and with a darker lyrical content than their British counterparts.  In the UK, the term glitter rock was most often used to refer to the extreme version of glam pursued by Gary Glitter and the independent band with whom he often performed known as the Glitter Band. The Glitter Band and Gary Glitter had between them eighteen top ten singles in the UK between 1972 and 1975. A second wave of glam rock acts, including Suzi Quatro, Roy Wood's Wizzard and Sparks, had hits on the British single charts in 1973 and 1974. Quatro directly inspired the pioneering Los Angeles based all-girl group The Runaways. Existing acts, some not usually considered central to the genre, also adopted glam styles, including Rod Stewart, Elton John, Queen and, for a time, The Rolling Stones. Punk rock, often seen as a reaction to the artifice of glam rock, but using some elements of the genre, including makeup and involving cover versions of glam rock records, helped end the fashion for glam from about 1976.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "While glam rock was exclusively a British cultural phenomenon, with Steven Wells in \"The Guardian\" writing \"Americans only got glam second hand via the posh Bowie version\", covers of British glam rock classics are now piped-muzak staples at US sporting events. Glam rock was a background influence for Richard O'Brien, writer of the 1973 London musical \"The Rocky Horror Show\". Although glam rock went into a steep decline in popularity in the UK in the second half of the 1970s, it had a direct influence on acts that rose to prominence later, including Kiss and American glam metal acts like Quiet Riot, W.A.S.P., Twisted Sister, Bon Jovi and Mötley Crüe.  New Romantic acts in the UK such as Adam and the Ants and Flock of Seagulls extended glam, and its androgyny and sexual politics were picked up by acts including Culture Club, Bronski Beat and Frankie Goes to Hollywood. Gothic rock was largely informed by the makeup, clothes, theatricality and sound of glam, and punk rock adopted some of the performance and persona-creating tendencies of glam, as well as the genre's emphasis on pop-art qualities and simple but powerful instrumentation.  In Japan in the 1980s, visual kei was strongly influenced by glam rock aesthetics. Glam has since enjoyed continued influence and sporadic modest revivals in R&B crossover act Prince, and bands such as Marilyn Manson, Suede, Placebo, Chainsaw Kittens, Spacehog and the Darkness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "Movies that reflect glam rock aesthetics include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Glam rock is a style of rock music that developed in the United Kingdom in the early 1970s performed by musicians who wore outrageous costumes, makeup, and hairstyles, particularly platform shoes and glitter. Glam artists drew on diverse sources across music and throwaway pop culture, ranging from bubblegum pop and 1950s rock and roll to cabaret, science fiction, and complex art rock. The flamboyant clothing and visual styles of performers were often camp or androgynous, and have been described as playing with nontraditional gender roles. Glitter rock was a more extreme version of glam.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971759}
{"src_title": "Lorenz curve", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Explanation.", "content": "Data from 2005. Points on the Lorenz curve represent statements such as, \"the bottom 20% of all households have 10% of the total income.\"  A perfectly equal income distribution would be one in which every person has the same income. In this case, the bottom \"N\"% of society would always have \"N\"% of the income. This can be depicted by the straight line \"y\" = \"x\"; called the \"line of perfect equality.\"  By contrast, a perfectly unequal distribution would be one in which one person has all the income and everyone else has none. In that case, the curve would be at \"y\" = 0% for all \"x\" < 100%, and \"y\" = 100% when \"x\" = 100%. This curve is called the \"line of perfect inequality.\"  The Gini coefficient is the ratio of the area between the line of perfect equality and the observed Lorenz curve to the area between the line of perfect equality and the line of perfect inequality. The higher the coefficient, the more unequal the distribution is. In the diagram on the right, this is given by the ratio \"A\"/(\"A+B\"), where \"A\" and \"B\" are the areas of regions as marked in the diagram.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition and calculation.", "content": "The Lorenz curve is a probability plot (a P–P plot) comparing the distribution of a parameter in a population against a hypothetical uniform distribution of that parameter. It can usually be represented by a function \"L\"(\"F\"), where \"F\", the cumulative portion of the population, is represented by the horizontal axis, and \"L\", the cumulative portion of the total wealth or income, is represented by the vertical axis.  For a population of size \"n\", with a sequence of values \"y\", \"i\" = 1 to \"n\", that are indexed in non-decreasing order ( \"y\" ≤ \"y\"), the Lorenz curve is the continuous piecewise linear function connecting the points ( \"F\", \"L\" ), \"i\" = 0 to \"n\", where \"F\" = 0, \"L\" = 0, and for \"i\" = 1 to \"n\":  For a discrete probability function \"f\"(\"y\"), let \"y\", \"i\" = 1 to \"n\", be the points with non-zero probabilities indexed in increasing order ( \"y\" < \"y\"). The Lorenz curve is the continuous piecewise linear function connecting the points ( \"F\", \"L\" ), \"i\" = 0 to \"n\", where \"F\" = 0, \"L\" = 0, and for \"i\" = 1 to \"n\":  For a probability density function \"f\"(\"x\") with the cumulative distribution function \"F\"(\"x\"), the Lorenz curve \"L\" is given by:  where formula_8 denotes the average. The Lorenz curve \"L(F)\" may then be plotted as a function parametric in x: \"L(x)\" vs. \"F(x)\". In other contexts, the quantity computed here is known as the length biased (or size biased) distribution; it also has an important role in renewal theory.  Alternatively, for a cumulative distribution function \"F\"(\"x\") with inverse \"x\"(\"F\"), the Lorenz curve \"L\"(\"F\") is directly given by:  The inverse \"x\"(\"F\") may not exist because the cumulative distribution function has intervals of constant values. However, the previous formula can still apply by generalizing the definition of \"x\"(\"F\"):  For an example of a Lorenz curve, see Pareto distribution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "A Lorenz curve always starts at (0,0) and ends at (1,1).  The Lorenz curve is not defined if the mean of the probability distribution is zero or infinite.  The Lorenz curve for a probability distribution is a continuous function. However, Lorenz curves representing discontinuous functions can be constructed as the limit of Lorenz curves of probability distributions, the line of perfect inequality being an example.  The information in a Lorenz curve may be summarized by the Gini coefficient and the Lorenz asymmetry coefficient.  The Lorenz curve cannot rise above the line of perfect equality.  If the variable being measured cannot take negative values, the Lorenz curve: Note however that a Lorenz curve for net worth would start out by going negative due to the fact that some people have a negative net worth because of debt.  The Lorenz curve is invariant under positive scaling. If X is a random variable, for any positive number \"c\" the random variable \"c\" X has the same Lorenz curve as X.  The Lorenz curve is flipped twice, once about F = 0.5 and once about \"L\" = 0.5, by negation. If X is a random variable with Lorenz curve \"L\"(\"F\"), then −X has the Lorenz curve:  The Lorenz curve is changed by translations so that the equality gap \"F\" − \"L\"(\"F\") changes in proportion to the ratio of the original and translated means. If X is a random variable with a Lorenz curve \"L\"(\"F\") and mean \"μ\", then for any constant \"c\" ≠ −\"μ\", X + \"c\" has a Lorenz curve defined by:  For a cumulative distribution function \"F\"(\"x\") with mean \"μ\" and (generalized) inverse \"x\"(\"F\"), then for any \"F\" with 0 < \"F\" < 1 :", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In economics, the Lorenz curve is a graphical representation of the distribution of income or of wealth. It was developed by Max O. Lorenz in 1905 for representing inequality of the wealth distribution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971760}
{"src_title": "Nicolas Leblanc", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Earlier days.", "content": "Leblanc was born in Ivoy le Pré, Cher, France on December 6 1742. His father, a minor official at an iron works, died in 1751. Leblanc was sent to Bourges to live with Dr. Bien, a close family friend. Under the influence of his guardian, Leblanc developed an interest in medicine. When Bien died in 1759, Leblanc enrolled at the École de Chirurgie (College of Surgeons) in Paris to study medicine.  Graduating with a master's degree in surgery, Leblanc opened a medical practice. He married in 1776, and the couple's first child followed three years later. Unable to provide adequately for his family on the medical fees he obtained from his patients, Leblanc in 1780 accepted a position as the private physician to the household of the Louis Philip II, Duke of Orléans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Leblanc process.", "content": "In 1775, the French Academy of Sciences offered a prize for a process whereby soda ash could be produced from salt. The French Academy wanted to promote the production of much-needed sodium carbonate from inexpensive sodium chloride.  By 1791, Nicolas Leblanc had succeeded in producing sodium carbonate from salt by a 2-step process. In the first step, sodium chloride is mixed with concentrated sulfuric acid at temperatures of 800-900 °C; hydrogen chloride gas is evolved, leaving solid sodium sulfate. In the second step, the sodium sulfate is crushed, mixed with charcoal and limestone and again heated in a furnace.  The prize was awarded to Nicolas Leblanc for a process which used sea salt and sulfuric acid as the raw materials. Later a plant (of his own) was in operation producing 320 tons of soda ash per year. The process, however, is now obsolete and is superseded by the extremely profitable and convenient Solvay process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final days.", "content": "Two years later the plant was confiscated by the French revolutionary government, which refused to pay him the prize money he had earned ten years earlier.  In 1802 Napoleon returned the plant (but not the prize) to him, but by then Leblanc could not afford to run it. He committed suicide by a gunshot to the head in 1806.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "William Losh visited Paris to study Leblanc's process. In 1807, Losh, Wilson and Bell opened the first alkali works in England that used the Leblanc process, at Walker, Newcastle upon Tyne.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicolas Leblanc (6 December 1742 – 16 January 1806) was a French chemist and surgeon who discovered how to manufacture soda ash from common salt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971761}
{"src_title": "Günter Guillaume", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Günter Karl Heinz Guillaume was born on 1 February 1927 at 31 Choriner Straße in Prenzlauer Berg, a working-class district of Berlin. He was the only child of Karl Ernst Guillaume, a pianist who played in bars and theatres, where he provided background music for silent films, and Johanna Old Pauline, a hairdresser. His parents, who had married four months before Günter's birth, were both native to Berlin. Due to the combination of the Great Depression and the introduction of sound films, the Guillaumes suffered financial hardship. These experiences made the extremist policies being presented by Adolf Hitler and Nazi Party attractive to Karl Guillaume, and he joined the party in March 1934.  Guillaume was conscripted as a Flakhelfer in 1944 and later joined the Nazi Party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1956, he and his wife Christel emigrated to West Germany on Stasi orders to penetrate and spy on West Germany's political system. Rising through the hierarchy of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, he became a close aide to West German chancellor Willy Brandt.  In 1974, West German authorities discovered that Guillaume was spying for the East German government. The resulting scandal, the Guillaume Affair, led to Brandt's resigning the chancellorship. On 15 December 1975, Guillaume was sentenced to 13 years in prison for treason; his wife, to eight years. In 1981, Guillaume was returned to East Germany in exchange for Western spies caught by the Eastern Bloc.  In East Germany, Guillaume was received and celebrated as a hero, worked as a spy trainer, and published his autobiography \"Die Aussage\" (\"The Statement\") in 1988. Two years before he married his second wife, nurse Elke Bröhl. Guillaume and East German spymaster Markus Wolf have said that Willy Brandt's downfall was not intended, and that the affair is among the Stasi's biggest mistakes. After \"Die Wende\" and German reunification, the reunified Germany granted Guillaume immunity from any further prosecutions. He was a supportive witness in Wolf's trial for treason in 1993.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Guillaume died of kidney cancer on 10 April 1995, in Petershagen/Eggersdorf, near Berlin. Guillaume's first wife died 20 March 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "The Brandt-Guillaume story is told in the play \"Democracy\" by Michael Frayn. It follows Brandt's political career as West Germany's first left-of-centre chancellor in 40 years, and his fall because of his assistant. It portrays Guillaume as in conflict by spying on Brandt while growing to admire him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Günter Guillaume (1 February 1927 – 10 April 1995), was an intelligence agent for East Germany's secret service, the Stasi, in West Germany. Guillaume became West German chancellor Willy Brandt's secretary, and his discovery as a spy led to Brandt's downfall in the Guillaume affair.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971762}
{"src_title": "Romulus Augustulus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Romulus's father Orestes was a Roman citizen, originally from Pannonia, who had served as a secretary and diplomat for Attila the Hun and later rose through the ranks of the Roman army. The future emperor was named \"Romulus\" after his maternal grandfather, a nobleman from Poetovio in Noricum. Many historians have noted the coincidence that the last western emperor bore the names of both Romulus, the legendary founder and first king of Rome, and Augustus, the first emperor. Though this is not as coincidental as it may seem; all emperors bore the name \"Augustus\" as it was part of the imperial title.  Orestes was appointed Magister militum by Julius Nepos in 475. Shortly after his appointment, Orestes launched a rebellion and captured Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman Empire since 402, on 28 August 475. Nepos fled to Dalmatia, where his uncle had ruled a semi-autonomous state in the 460s. Orestes, however, refused to become emperor, \"from some secret motive\", said historian Edward Gibbon. Instead, he installed his son on the throne on 31 October 475.  The empire Augustus ruled was a shadow of its former self and had shrunk significantly over the previous 80 years. Imperial authority had retreated to the Italian borders and parts of southern Gaul: Italia and Gallia Narbonensis, respectively. The Eastern Roman Empire treated its western counterpart as a client state. The Eastern Emperor Leo, who died in 474, had appointed the western emperors Anthemius and Julius Nepos, and Constantinople never recognized the new government. Neither Zeno nor Basiliscus, the two generals fighting for the eastern throne at the time of Romulus's accession, accepted him as ruler.  As a proxy for his father, Romulus made no decisions and left no monuments, although coins bearing his name were minted in Rome, Milan, Ravenna, and Gaul. Several months after Orestes took power, a coalition of Heruli, Scirian, and Turcilingi mercenaries demanded that he give them a third of the land in Italy. When Orestes refused, the tribes revolted under the leadership of the Scirian chieftain Odoacer. Orestes was captured near Piacenza on 28 August 476 and swiftly executed.  Odoacer advanced on Ravenna, capturing the city and the young emperor after the short and decisive Battle of Ravenna. Romulus was compelled to abdicate the throne on 4 September 476. This act has been cited as the end of the Western Roman Empire, although Romulus's deposition did not cause any significant disruption at the time. Rome had already lost its hegemony over the provinces, Germanic peoples dominated the Roman army, and Germanic generals like Odoacer had long been the real powers behind the throne. Italy would suffer far greater devastation in the next century when Emperor Justinian I reconquered it in the Gothic War.  After the abdication of Romulus, the Roman Senate, on behalf of Odoacer, sent representatives to the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno, whom it asked to formally reunite the two halves of the Empire, with Odoacer as the \"protector of the state\": \"The West, they declared, no longer required an Emperor of its own: one monarch sufficed for the world...\" Zeno was asked to make Odoacer a patrician, and administrator of Italy in Zeno's name. Zeno pointed out that the Senate should rightfully have first requested that Julius Nepos take the throne once more, but he nonetheless agreed to their requests as a \"fait accompli\". Odoacer, already the \"de facto\" ruler of Italy, now ostensibly ruled \"de jure\" in Zeno's name.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "The ultimate fate of Romulus is a mystery. The \"Anonymus Valesianus\" wrote that Odoacer, \"taking pity on his youth\" (he was about 16), spared Romulus's life and granted him an annual pension of 6,000 solidi before sending him to live with relatives in Campania. Jordanes and Marcellinus Comes say Odoacer exiled Romulus to Campania but do not mention any financial support from the Germanic king.  The sources do agree that Romulus took up residence in the Castel dell'Ovo (Lucullan Villa) in Naples, now a castle but originally built as a grand sea-side house by Lucullus in the 1st century BC, fortified by Valentinian III in the mid-5th century. From here, contemporary histories fall silent. In the \"History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire\", Edward Gibbon notes that the disciples of Saint Severinus of Noricum were invited by a \"Neapolitan lady\" to bring his body to the villa in 488; Gibbon conjectures from this that Augustulus \"was probably no more.\" The villa was converted into a monastery before 500 to hold the saint's remains.  Cassiodorus, then a secretary to Theodoric the Great, wrote a letter in 507 to a \"Romulus\" confirming a pension. Thomas Hodgkin, a translator of Cassiodorus' works, wrote in 1886 that it was \"surely possible\" the Romulus in the letter was the same person as the last western emperor. The letter would match the description of Odoacer's coup in the \"Anonymus Valesianus\", and Romulus could have been alive in the early sixth century. But Cassiodorus does not supply any details about his correspondent or the size and nature of his pension, and Jordanes, whose history of the period abridges an earlier work by Cassiodorus, makes no mention of a pension.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Last Western emperor.", "content": "Some sources suggest that Julius Nepos claimed to hold the title of emperor legally when Odoacer took power. However, few of Nepos' contemporaries were willing to support his cause after he had fled to Dalmatia. Some historians regard Julius Nepos, who ruled in Dalmatia until he was murdered in 480, as the last lawful Western Roman Emperor.  Following Odoacer's coup, the Roman Senate sent a letter to Zeno that stated that \"the majesty of a sole monarch is sufficient to pervade and protect, at the same time, both the East and the West\". While Zeno told the Senate that Nepos was their lawful sovereign, he did not press the point and accepted the imperial insignia brought to him by the Senate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "As the last Western Roman emperor before the traditionally agreed-upon end of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus has been portrayed several times in film and literature; the play \"Romulus the Great\" (1950), by Friedrich Dürrenmatt, focuses on the reign of \"Romulus Augustus\" and the end of the Roman Empire in the West. The 2007 film \"The Last Legion\", and the novel on which it is based, includes a heavily fictionalized account of the reign and subsequent life of \"Romulus Augustus\"; escaping captivity with the aid of a small band of loyal Romans, he reaches Britain, where he eventually becomes Uther Pendragon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Flavius Romulus Augustus (c. AD 460 – after 476, possibly still alive as late as 507), known derisively and historiographically as Romulus Augustulus, was the Roman emperor who ruled the Western Roman Empire from 31 October 475 until 4 September 476. He is often described as the \"last Western Roman emperor\", though some historians consider this to be Julius Nepos. His deposition by Odoacer traditionally marks the end of the Roman Empire in the West, the end of Ancient Rome, and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Western Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971763}
{"src_title": "Book of Kells", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "The Book of Kells is one of the finest and most famous, and also one of the latest, of a group of manuscripts in what is known as the Insular style, produced from the late 6th through the early 9th centuries in monasteries in Ireland, Scotland and England and in continental monasteries with Hiberno-Scottish or Anglo-Saxon foundations. These manuscripts include the Cathach of St. Columba, the Ambrosiana Orosius, fragmentary Gospel in the Durham Dean and Chapter Library (all from the early 7th century), and the Book of Durrow (from the second half of the 7th century). From the early 8th century come", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medieval period.", "content": "Kells Abbey was plundered and pillaged by Vikings many times in the beginning of the 9th century, and how the book survived is not known. The earliest historical reference to the book, and indeed to the book's presence at Kells, can be found in a 1007 entry in the Annals of Ulster. This entry records that \"the great Gospel of Columkille, (Columba) the chief relic of the Western World, was wickedly stolen during the night from the western sacristy of the great stone church at Cenannas on account of its wrought shrine\". The manuscript was recovered a few months later—minus its golden and bejewelled cover—\"under a sod\". It is generally assumed that the \"great Gospel of Columkille\" is the Book", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Book of Kildare.", "content": "The 12th-century writer Gerald of Wales, in his \"Topographia Hibernica\", described seeing a great Gospel Book in Kildare which many have since assumed was the Book of Kells. The description certainly matches Kells:  Since Gerald claims to have seen this book in Kildare, he may have seen another, now lost, book equal in quality to the Book of Kells, or he may have misstated his location.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Modern period.", "content": "The Book of Kells remained in Kells until 1654. In that year, Cromwell's cavalry was quartered in the church at Kells, and the governor of the town sent the book to Dublin for safekeeping. Henry Jones, who later became bishop of Meath after the Restoration, presented the manuscript to Trinity College in Dublin in 1661, and it has remained there ever since, except for brief loans to other libraries and museums. It has been on display to the public in the Old Library at Trinity since the 19th century.  Over the years, the Book of Kells received several additions to its text. In the 16th century, one Gerald Plunkett of Dublin added a series of Roman numerals numbering the chapters of the Gospels according to the division created by 13th-century Archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton. The prominent Anglican clergyman James Ussher counted and numbered its folios in 1621, shortly after James VI and I named him Bishop of Meath.  The manuscript's rise to worldwide fame began in the 19th century. The association with St. Columba,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The Book of Kells contains the four Gospels of the Christian scriptures written in black, red, purple, and yellow ink in an insular majuscule script, preceded by prefaces, summaries, and concordances of Gospel passages. Today, it consists of 340 vellum leaves, or folios, totaling 680 pages. Almost all folios are numbered at recto, bottom left. One folio number, 36, was mistakenly double-counted. As a result, the pagination of the entire book is reckoned thus: folio 1r — 36v, 36*r — 36*v (the double-counted folio), and 37r — 339v. The majority of the folios are part of larger sheets, called bifolios, which are folded in half to form two folios. The bifolios are nested inside of each other and sewn together to form gatherings called quires. On occasion, a folio is not part of a bifolio but is instead a single sheet inserted within a quire. The extant folios are gathered into 38 quires. There are between four and twelve folios (two to six bifolios) per quire; the folios are commonly, but not invariably, bound in groups of ten. Some folios are single sheets, as is frequently the case with the important decorated pages. The folios had lines drawn for the text, sometimes on both sides, after the bifolios were folded. Prick marks and guide lines can still be seen on some pages. The vellum is of high quality, although the folios have an uneven thickness, with some being close to leather while others are so thin as to be almost translucent.  The book's current dimensions are 330 by 250 mm. Originally, the folios were of no standard size, but they were cropped to the current size during a 19th-century rebinding. The text area is approximately 250 by 170 mm. Each text page has 16 to 18 lines of text. The manuscript is in remarkably good condition considering its age, though many pages have suffered some damage to the delicate artwork due to rubbing. The book must have been the product of a major scriptorium over several years, yet was apparently never finished, the projected decoration of some pages appearing only in outline. It is believed that some 30 folios of the original manuscript have been lost over the centuries. Ussher counted 344 folios in 1621, but several leaves had already been lost by then. The overall estimate is based on gaps in the text and the absence of certain key illustrations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Purpose.", "content": "The book had a sacramental rather than educational purpose. Such a large, lavish Gospel would have been left on the high altar of the church and removed only for the reading of the Gospel during Mass, with the reader probably reciting from memory more than reading the text. It is significant that the \"Chronicles of Ulster\" state the book was stolen from the sacristy,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproductions.", "content": "Some of the first faithful reproductions made of pages and elements of the Book of Kells were by the artist Helen Campbell D'Olier in the 19th century. She used vellum and reproduced the pigments used in the original manuscript. Photographs of her drawings were included in Sullivan's study of the Book of Kells, first printed in 1913.  In 1951, the Swiss publisher Urs Graf Verlag Bern produced the first facsimile of the Book of Kells. The majority of the pages were reproduced in black-and-white photographs, but the edition also featured forty-eight colour reproductions, including all the full-page decorations. Under licence from the Board of Trinity College Dublin, Thames and Hudson produced a partial facsimile edition in 1974, which included a scholarly treatment of the work by Françoise Henry. This edition included all the full-page illustrations in the manuscript and a representative section of the ornamentation of the text pages, together with some enlarged details of the illustrations. The reproductions were all in full colour, with photography by John Kennedy, Green Studio, Dublin.  In 1979, Swiss publisher Faksimile-Verlag Luzern requested permission to produce a full-colour facsimile of the book. Permission was initially denied, because Trinity College officials felt that the risk of damage to the book was too high.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In film.", "content": "The 2009 animated film \"The Secret of Kells\" tells a fictional story of the creation of the Book of Kells by an elderly monk Aidan and his young apprentice Brendan, who struggle to work on the manuscript in the face of destructive Viking raids. It was directed by Tomm Moore and nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature in 2009.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Book of Kells (; ; Dublin, Trinity College Library, MS A. I. [58], sometimes known as the Book of Columba) is an illuminated manuscript Gospel book in Latin, containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables. It was created in a Columban monastery in either Britain or Ireland and may have had contributions from various Columban institutions from both Britain and Ireland. It is believed to have been created 800 AD. The text of the Gospels is largely drawn from the Vulgate, although it also includes several passages drawn from the earlier versions of the Bible known as the Vetus Latina. It is a masterwork of Western calligraphy and represents the pinnacle of Insular illumination. It is also widely regarded as one of Ireland's finest national treasures. The manuscript takes its name from the Abbey of Kells, which was its home for centuries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971764}
{"src_title": "Outsider art", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Art of the mentally ill.", "content": "Interest in the art of the mentally ill, along with that of children and the makers of \"peasant art\", was first demonstrated by \"Der Blaue Reiter\" group: Wassily Kandinsky, Auguste Macke, Franz Marc, Alexej Jawlensky, and others. What the artists perceived in the work of these groups was an expressive power born of their perceived lack of sophistication. Examples of this were reproduced in 1912 in the first and only issue of their publication, \"Der Blaue Reiter Almanac\". During World War I, Macke was killed at Champagne in 1914 and Marc was killed at Verdun in 1916; the gap left by these deaths was to some extent filled by Paul Klee, who continued to draw inspiration from these 'primitives'.  Interest in the art of insane asylum inmates continued to grow in the 1920s. In 1921, Dr. Walter Morgenthaler published his book \"Ein Geisteskranker als Künstler\" (\"A Psychiatric Patient as Artist\") about Adolf Wölfli, a psychotic mental patient in his care. Wölfli had spontaneously taken up drawing, and this activity seemed to calm him. His most outstanding work was an illustrated epic of 45 volumes in which he narrated his own imaginary life story. With 25,000 pages, 1,600 illustrations, and 1,500 collages, it is a monumental work. Wölfli also produced a large number of smaller works, some of which were sold or given as gifts. His work is on display at the Adolf Wölfli Foundation in the Museum of Fine Art, Bern.  A defining moment was the publication of \"Bildnerei der Geisteskranken\" (\"Artistry of the Mentally Ill\") in 1922, by Hans Prinzhorn. This was the first formal study of psychiatric works, based upon a compilation of thousands of examples from European institutions. The book and the art collection gained much attention from avant-garde artists of the time, including Paul Klee, Max Ernst, and Jean Dubuffet.  People with some formal artistic training as well as well-established artists are not immune from mental illness, and may also be institutionalized. For example, William Kurelek, later awarded the Order of Canada for his artistic life work, as a young man was admitted to the Maudsley Psychiatric Hospital where he was treated for schizophrenia. In hospital he painted, producing \"The Maze\", a dark depiction of his tortured youth. He was transferred from the Maudsley to Netherne Hospital from November 1953 to January 1955, to work with Edward Adamson (1911–1996), a pioneer of art therapy, and creator of the Adamson Collection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jean Dubuffet and \"art brut\".", "content": "French artist Jean Dubuffet was particularly struck by \"Bildnerei der Geisteskranken\" and began his own collection of such art, which he called \"art brut\" or \"raw art\". In 1948 he formed the Compagnie de l'Art Brut along with other artists, including André Breton. The collection he established became known as the Collection de l'art brut. It contains thousands of works and is now permanently housed in Lausanne, Switzerland.  Dubuffet characterized art brut as:  Dubuffet argued that 'culture', that is mainstream culture, managed to assimilate every new development in art, and by doing so took away whatever power it might have had. The result was to asphyxiate genuine expression. Art brut was his solution to this problem – only art brut was immune to the influences of culture, immune to being absorbed and assimilated, because the artists themselves were not willing or able to be assimilated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural context.", "content": "The interest in \"outsider\" practices among twentieth-century artists and critics can be seen as part of a larger emphasis on the rejection of established values within the modernist art milieu. The early part of the 20th century gave rise to Cubism and the Dada, Constructivist and Futurist movements in art, all of which involved a dramatic movement away from cultural forms of the past. Dadaist Marcel Duchamp, for example, abandoned \"painterly\" technique to allow chance operations a role in determining the form of his works, or simply to re-contextualize existing \"readymade\" objects as art. Mid-century artists, including Pablo Picasso, looked outside the traditions of high culture for inspiration, drawing from the artifacts of \"primitive\" societies, the unschooled artwork of children, and vulgar advertising graphics. Dubuffet's championing of the \"art brut\" – of the insane and others at the margins of society – is yet another example of avant-garde art challenging established cultural values.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terminology.", "content": "A number of terms are used to describe art that is loosely understood as \"outside\" of official culture. Definitions of these terms vary and overlap. The editors of \"Raw Vision\", a leading journal in the field, suggest that \"Whatever views we have about the value of controversy itself, it is important to sustain creative discussion by way of an agreed vocabulary\". Consequently, they lament the use of \"outsider artist\" to refer to almost any untrained artist. \"It is not enough to be untrained, clumsy or naïve. Outsider Art is virtually synonymous with Art Brut in both spirit and meaning, to that rarity of art produced by those who do not know its name.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Outsider art is art by self-taught or naïve art makers. Typically, those labeled as outsider artists have little or no contact with the mainstream art world or art institutions. In many cases, their work is discovered only after their deaths. Often, outsider art illustrates extreme mental states, unconventional ideas, or elaborate fantasy worlds.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971765}
{"src_title": "Manure", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "There are in the 21st century three main classes of manures used in soil management:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Animal manure.", "content": "Most animal manure consists of feces. Common forms of animal manure include farmyard manure (FYM) or farm slurry (liquid manure). FYM also contains plant material (often straw), which has been used as bedding for animals and has absorbed the feces and urine. Agricultural manure in liquid form, known as slurry, is produced by more intensive livestock rearing systems where concrete or slats are used, instead of straw bedding. Manure from different animals has different qualities and requires different application rates when used as fertilizer. For example horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, chickens, turkeys, rabbits, and guano from seabirds and bats all have different properties. For instance, sheep manure is high in nitrogen and potash, while pig manure is relatively low in both. Horses mainly eat grass and a few weeds so horse manure can contain grass and weed seeds, as horses do not digest seeds the way that cattle do. Cattle manure is a good source of nitrogen as well as organic carbon.Chicken litter, coming from a bird, is very concentrated in nitrogen and phosphate and is prized for both properties.  Animal manures may be adulterated or contaminated with other animal products, such as wool (shoddy and other hair), feathers, blood, and bone. Livestock feed can be mixed with the manure due to spillage. For example, chickens are often fed meat and bone meal, an animal product, which can end up becoming mixed with chicken litter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Compost.", "content": "Compost is the decomposed remnants of organic materials. It is usually of plant origin, but often includes some animal dung or bedding.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Green manure.", "content": "Green manures are crops grown for the express purpose of plowing them in, thus increasing fertility through the incorporation of nutrients and organic matter into the soil. Leguminous plants such as clover are often used for this, as they fix nitrogen using \"Rhizobia\" bacteria in specialized nodes in the root structure.  Other types of plant matter used as manure include the contents of the rumens of slaughtered ruminants, spent grain (left over from brewing beer) and seaweed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses of manure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Animal manure.", "content": "Odor is an obvious and major issue with manure. Components in swine manure include low molecular weight carboxylic acids, acetic, propionic, butyric, and valeric acids. Other components include skatole and trimethyl amine.  Animal manure, such as chicken manure and cow dung, has been used for centuries as a fertilizer for farming. It can improve the soil structure (aggregation) so that the soil holds more nutrients and water, and therefore becomes more fertile. Animal manure also encourages soil microbial activity which promotes the soil's trace mineral supply, improving plant nutrition. It also contains some nitrogen and other nutrients that assist the growth of plants.  Manures with a particularly unpleasant odor (such as slurries from intensive pig farming) are usually knifed (injected) directly into the soil to reduce release of the odor. Manure from pigs and cattle is usually spread on fields using a manure spreader. Due to the relatively lower level of proteins in vegetable matter, herbivore manure has a milder smell than the dung of carnivores or omnivores. However, herbivore slurry that has undergone anaerobic fermentation may develop more unpleasant odors, and this can be a problem in some agricultural regions. Poultry droppings are harmful to plants when fresh, but after a period of composting are valuable fertilizers.  Manure is also commercially composted and bagged and sold as a soil amendment.  In 2018, Austrian scientists offered a method of paper production from elephant and cow manure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issues.", "content": "Any quantity of manure may be a source of pathogens or food spoilage organisms which may be carried by flies, rodents or a range of other vector organisms and cause disease or put food safety at risk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Livestock antibiotics.", "content": "In 2007, a University of Minnesota study indicated that foods such as corn, lettuce, and potatoes have been found to accumulate antibiotics from soils spread with animal manure that contains these drugs.  Organic foods may be much more or much less likely to contain antibiotics, depending on their sources and treatment of manure. For instance, by Soil Association Standard 4.7.38, most organic arable farmers either have their own supply of manure (which would, therefore, not normally contain drug residues) or else rely on green manure crops for the extra fertility (if any nonorganic manure is used by organic farmers, then it usually has to be rotted or composted to degrade any residues of drugs and eliminate any pathogenic bacteria—Standard 4.7.38, Soil Association organic farming standards). On the other hand, as found in the University of Minnesota study, the non-usage of artificial fertilizers, and resulting exclusive use of manure as fertilizer, by organic farmers can result in significantly greater accumulations of antibiotics in organic foods.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Manure is organic matter that is used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Most manure consists of animal feces; other sources include compost and green manure. Manures contribute to the fertility of soil by adding organic matter and nutrients, such as nitrogen, that are utilised by bacteria, fungi and other organisms in the soil. Higher organisms then feed on the fungi and bacteria in a chain of life that comprises the soil food web.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971766}
{"src_title": "Ulrich Beck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Beck was born in the Pomeranian town of Stolp, Germany (now Słupsk in Poland), in 1944, and grew up in Hanover. He began university studies with a focus on law at Freiburg, and from 1966 onwards studied sociology, philosophy, psychology and political science at the University of Munich. Starting in 1972, after earning a doctorate, he was employed at Munich as a sociologist. In 1979 he qualified as a university lecturer with a habilitation thesis. He received appointments as professor at the universities of Münster (1979–1981) and Bamberg (1981–1992). From 1992 until his death, Beck was professor of sociology and director of the Institute for Sociology at the University of Munich. He received numerous international awards and honors, including election to the Council and Executive Board of the German Society for Sociology.  From 1995 to 1997 he was a member of the \"Kommission für Zukunftsfragen der Freistaaten Bayern und Sachsen\" (Bavarian and Saxon State Commission for Questions Concerning the Future). Beginning in 1999, he was the speaker of the DFG research programme on reflexive modernity.  From 1999 to 2009 Beck was a spokesman of the Collaborative Reflexive Modernization Research Centre 536, an interdisciplinary consortium of four universities in the Munich area funded and overseen by the German Research Foundation (DFG). Beck's theory of interdisciplinary reflexive modernization on a basis of a wide range of topics in appropriate research was empirically tested. The theory of reflexive modernization works from the basic idea that the rise of the modern industrial age produces side-effects across the globe that provide the institutional basis and coordinates that modern nation-states question, modify, and open for political action.  He was active as sociologist and public intellectual in Germany and throughout the world, regularly intervening in debates on the European Union, climate change and nuclear energy. At the time of his death, he and his international research group were only 1.5 years into the 5-year research project \"Methodological Cosmopolitanism – in the Laboratory of Climate Change\" (the Cosmo-Climate Research Project), of which Beck was the Principal investigator. For this research project he received the prestigious ERC Advanced Grant, scheduled to terminate in 2018. Along with Beck, sociologists David Tyfield and Anders Blok lead work packages within the overall project. The project also fostered international research collaboration with various research 'hubs' in East Asia through the Europe-Asia Research Network (EARN). In cooperation with EARN, Beck and sociologist Sang-Jin Han had been set to lead a 2-year project for the Seoul Metropolitan Government beginning in 2015.  Beck was a member of the Board of Trustees at the Jewish Center in Munich and a member of the German branch of PEN International.  He was married to the German social scientist Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim. He died of a myocardial infarction on 1 January 2015, at the age of 70.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research contributions.", "content": "For 25 years, Beck delivered new diagnoses to the following question: How can social and political thought and action in the face of radical global change (environmental destruction, financial crisis, global warming, the crisis of democracy and the nation-state institutions) be intertwined in a new modernity? A radicalized modernity, for Beck, attacks its own foundations. Institutions such as the nation-state and the family are globalized 'from the inside'.  Beck studied modernization, ecological problems, individualization and globalization. Later in his career, he embarked on exploring the changing conditions of work in a world of increasing global capitalism, declining influence of unions and flexibilisation of the labour process, a then new theory rooted in the concept of cosmopolitanism. Beck also contributed a number of new words to German and anglophone sociology, including \"risk society\", \"second modernity\", reflexive modernization and Brazilianization (Brasilianisierung). According to Beck, all contemporary political thinking emanates from the methodological nationalism of political thought and sociology (and other social sciences).  Beck was the editor of the sociological journal, \"\" (in German, since 1980), author of some 150 articles, and author or editor of many books.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Spinelli Group.", "content": "On 15 September 2010 Beck supported the European Parliament's Spinelli Group initiative to reinvigorate federalism in the European Union. The Union of European Federalists and its youth organisation Young European Federalists have been promoting the idea of European federalism for over 60 years, with a \"belief that only a European Federation, based on the idea of unity in diversity, could overcome the division of the European continent\". Prominent supporters of the initiative include Jacques Delors, Daniel Cohn-Bendit, Guy Verhofstadt, Andrew Duff and Elmar Brok.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Among his major works are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ulrich Beck (15 May 1944 – 1 January 2015) was a well known German sociologist, and one of the most cited social scientists in the world during his lifetime. His work focused on questions of uncontrollability, ignorance and uncertainty in the modern age, and he coined the terms \"risk society\" and \"second modernity\" or \"reflexive modernization\". He also tried to overturn national perspectives that predominated in sociological investigations with a cosmopolitanism that acknowledges the interconnectedness of the modern world. He was a professor at the University of Munich and also held appointments at the \"Fondation Maison des Sciences de l’Homme\" (FMSH) in Paris, and at the London School of Economics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971767}
{"src_title": "Paraná River", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Course.", "content": "The course is formed at the confluence of the Paranaiba and Rio Grande rivers in southern Brazil. From the confluence the river flows in a generally southwestern direction for about before encountering the city of Saltos del Guaira, Paraguay. This was once the location of the Guaíra Falls (Sete Quedas waterfalls, where the Paraná fell over a series of seven cascades. This natural feature was said to rival the world-famous Iguazu Falls to the south. The falls were flooded, however, by the construction of the Itaipu Dam, which began operating in 1984.  For approximately the next the Paraná flows southward and forms a natural boundary between Paraguay and Brazil until the confluence with the Iguazu River. Shortly upstream from this confluence, however, the river is dammed by the Itaipu Dam, the second largest hydroelectric power plant in the world (following the Three Gorges Dam in the People's Republic of China), and creating a massive, shallow reservoir behind it.  After merging with the Iguazu, the Paraná then becomes the natural border between Paraguay and Argentina. Overlooking the Paraná River from Encarnación, Paraguay, across the river, is downtown Posadas, Argentina. The river continues its general southward course for about before making a gradual turn to the west for another, and then encounters the Paraguay River, the largest tributary along the course of the river. Before this confluence the river passes through a second major hydroelectric project, the Yaciretá Dam, a joint project between Paraguay and Argentina. The massive reservoir formed by the project has been the source of a number of problems for people living along the river, most notably the poorer merchants and residents in the low-lying areas of Encarnación, a major city on the southern border of Paraguay. River levels rose dramatically upon completion of the dam, flooding out large sections of the city's lower areas.  From the confluence with the Paraguay River, the Paraná again turns to the south for another approximately through Argentina, making a slow turn back to the east near the city of Rosario for the final stretch of less than before merging with the Uruguay River to form the Río de la Plata. This flows into the Atlantic Ocean. During the part of its course downstream from the city of Diamante, Entre Ríos, it splits into several arms and it forms the Paraná Delta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Together with its tributaries, the Rio Paraná forms a massive drainage basin that encompasses much of the southcentral part of South America, essentially including all of Paraguay, much of southern Brazil, northern Argentina, and the southeastern part of Bolivia. If the Uruguay River is counted as a tributary to the Paraná, this watershed extends to cover most of Uruguay as well. The volume of water flowing into the Atlantic Ocean through the Río de la Plata roughly equals the volume at the Mississippi River delta. This watershed contains a number of large cities, including São Paulo, Buenos Aires, Rosario, Asunción, Brasília, and La Plata.  The Paraná and its tributaries provide a source of income and of daily sustenance for fishermen who live along its banks. Some of the species of fish (such as the surubí and the sábalo) are commercially important, and they are exploited for heavy internal consumption or for export. The Parana River delta ranks as one of the world's greatest bird-watching destinations.  Much of the length of the Paraná is navigable, and the river serves as an important waterway linking inland cities in Argentina and Paraguay with the ocean, providing deepwater ports in some of these cities. The construction of enormous hydroelectric dams along the river's length has blocked its use as a shipping corridor to cities further upstream, but the economic impact of those dams offsets this. The Yacyretá Dam and the Itaipu Dam on the Paraguay border have made the small, largely undeveloped nation of Paraguay the world's largest exporter of hydroelectric power.  Due to its use for oceangoing ships, measurements of the water tables extend back to 1904. The data correlates with the Sun's solar cycle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Links across the Paraná.", "content": "The course of the Paraná is crossed by the following bridges, beginning upstream:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Paraná River (,, ) is a river in south Central South America, running through Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina for some. It is second in length only to the Amazon River among South American rivers. The name Paraná is an abbreviation of the phrase \"para rehe onáva\", which comes from the Tupi language and means \"like the sea\" (that is, \"as big as the sea\"). It merges first with the Paraguay River and then farther downstream with the Uruguay River to form the Río de la Plata and empties into the Atlantic Ocean.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971768}
{"src_title": "George of Poděbrady", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "George was the son of Victor of Munsterberg, a Bohemian nobleman, one of the leaders of the Utraquists, the more moderate faction of the Hussites during the Hussite Wars. At the age of fourteen, George himself took part in the Battle of Lipany, which marked the downfall of the more radical Taborites.  Early in life, as one of the leaders of the Hussite party, he defeated the Austrian troops of the King Albert II, who had succeeded King Sigismund as King of Bohemia, Germany and Hungary. Jiří soon became a prominent member of the Hussite party, and after the death of Hynce Ptáček of Pirkstein, its leader.  King Albert was succeeded by his posthumously born son Ladislaus, during whose reign Bohemia was divided into two parties: the party faithful to Rome, led by Oldřich of Rožmberk (1403–1462), and the Hussite party, led by George.  After various attempts at reconciliation, George sought a military decision. He gradually raised an armed force in north-eastern Bohemia, where the Hussites were strong and where his ancestral castle Litice was situated. In 1448, he marched this army, about 9000 strong, from Kutná Hora to Prague, and obtained possession of the capital almost without resistance.  Civil war broke out, but George succeeded in defeating the nobles who remained faithful to Rome. In 1451 the emperor Frederick III, as guardian of the young king Ladislaus, entrusted Poděbrad with the administration of Bohemia. In the same year a diet assembled at Prague also conferred the regency on George.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ruler of Bohemia.", "content": "The struggle of the Hussites against the papal party continued uninterruptedly, and the position of George became a very difficult one when the young king Ladislaus, who was crowned in 1453, expressed his pro-Roman sympathies, though he had recognized the compacts and the ancient privileges of Bohemia. In 1457 King Ladislaus died suddenly and some voices accused George of having poisoned him. Research in 1985 gave acute leukemia as the cause of death.  On 2 March 1458 the estates of Bohemia unanimously chose George as king. Even the adherents of the papal party voted for him, some in honour of his moderate policies, some out of deference to popular feeling, which opposed the election of a foreign ruler.  George attempted to rule in a moderate manner based on the \"Compacta of Prague\". He won the loyalty of some Catholics, but had to contend with the opposition of Pope Pius II, which proved one of the most serious obstacles to his rule. Pius declared the Compacta null and void in 1462 and wished George to consent to this. George rejected this demand but endeavoured to curry favour with the Roman See by punishing the more extreme Hussites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The message of peace.", "content": "George attempted to secure peace with Rome by a radical suggestion, which some consider to have been a proposal before its time of a European Union. He proposed a treaty among all Christian powers, Hungary, Poland, Lands of Bohemian Crown, Bavaria, France, and Italy and its princes the founding members, but others, especially the Hispanic powers, joining later. The member states would pledge to settle all differences by exclusively peaceful means. There was to be a common parliament and other common institutions. George couched the proposal in Christian terms (\"Europe\" is not explicitly mentioned) as a way to stop the \"abominable Turk\" who had conquered Constantinople in 1453. He sent Leo of Rozmital on a tour of European courts with a draft treaty of The message of peace to promote this idea. George hoped that the treaty would come into effect in 1464. It is seen as one of historical visions of European unity foreshadowing the European Union.  That did not happen. All George's endeavours to establish peace with Rome proved ineffectual, although Pius II's plan of a crusade against Bohemia remained unexecuted. After Pius' death in 1464, George attempted to negotiate with the new pope, Paul II, but Paul proved to be an equally determined opponent.  George made enemies among the nobles of the papal party, who assembled at Zelená Hora (Grüneberg) on 28 November 1465 to voice their grievances and conclude an alliance against the king. This alliance was from the outset supported by Pope Paul II and on 23 December 1466 the Pope excommunicated George and pronounced his deposition as king of Bohemia, releasing all subjects of the Bohemian crown from their oaths of allegiance to George. Emperor Frederick III and the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus, George's former ally, joined the insurgent Bohemian nobles, starting the Bohemian War. King Matthias conquered a large part of Moravia, and was crowned by the papal party in the Moravian ecclesiastical metropolis Olomouc as king of Bohemia on 3 May 1469.  George was successful against Matthias but, contrary to the wishes of his followers, came to an agreement with the Hungarian king in 1470.  He died on 22 March 1471 and his followers chose Vladislaus II, the son of the Polish king, as his successor to continue the fight against Matthias.  In 1896, an equestrian statue of King George, sculpted by Bohuslav Schnirch was erected in Poděbrady. During the World War I, early in 1917, was created 2nd Czechoslovak Rifle Regiment of the Czechoslovak legions in Russia and named after \"King George of Podebrady\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and children.", "content": "In 1440 he married Kunigunde of Sternberg; they had the following children:  After Kunigunde died in 1449 after childbirth, he remarried to Johana of Rožmitál in 1450, they had the following children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George of Kunštát and Poděbrady (23 April 1420 – 22 March 1471), also known as Poděbrad or Podiebrad (; ), was King of Bohemia (1458–1471). He was a leader of the Hussites. He is known for his idea and attempt to establish common European institutions. It is seen as the first historical vision of European unity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971769}
{"src_title": "Krugerrand", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Krugerrand was introduced in 1967 as a vehicle for private ownership of gold. It was minted in a copper-gold alloy more durable than pure gold. By 1980 the Krugerrand accounted for 90% of the global gold coin market. That year, South Africa introduced three smaller coins with a half troy ounce, quarter ounce, and tenth ounce of gold.  Economic sanctions against South Africa for its policy of apartheid made the Krugerrand an illegal import in many Western countries during the 1970s and 1980s. The United States which had historically been the largest market for the coin, banned imports in 1985; the previous year, over US$600 million of Krugerrands had been marketed in that country. Most sanctions ended in 1991, after the South African government took steps toward ending its apartheid policy.  Production levels of Krugerrands have significantly varied since its introduction. From 1967 to 1969, around 40,000 coins were minted each year. In 1970, the number rose to over 200,000 coins. More than one million coins were produced in 1974, and in 1978 a total of six million were produced. The production dropped to 23,277 coins in 1998 and then increased again, although not reaching previous levels.  Over 50 million ounces of gold Krugerrand coins have been sold since production started in 1967.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations and imitations.", "content": "During the bull market in gold of the 1970s, the gold Krugerrand quickly became the primary choice for gold investors worldwide. Between 1974 and 1985, it is estimated that 22 million gold Krugerrand coins were imported into the United States alone. This huge success of the Krugerrand encouraged other gold-producing countries to mint and issue gold bullion coins of their own, including the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf in 1979, the Australian Nugget in 1987, the Chinese Gold Panda in 1982, the American Gold Eagle in 1986, and the British Britannia coin in 1987.  Private mints have also attempted minting gold and silver bullion \"rounds\" (the term \"coin\" denotes legal currency) in the style of the Krugerrand. The rounds often depict Paul Kruger and a springbok antelope, some even blatantly copying the design of the Krugerrands themselves, though the inscriptions are altered. These bullion rounds are not offered by the South African Mint or the Government of South Africa, and are therefore not official, have no legal tender value, and cannot technically be considered coins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "The Krugerrand is in diameter and thick. The Krugerrand's actual weight is. It is minted from gold alloy that is 91.67% pure (22 karats), so the coin contains of gold. The remaining 8.33% of the coin's weight of is copper (an alloy known historically as crown gold which has long been used for British gold sovereigns), which gives the Krugerrand a more orange appearance than silver-alloyed gold coins. Copper alloy coins are harder and more durable, so they can resist scratches and dents.  The coin is so named because the obverse, designed by Otto Schultz, bears the face of Boer statesman Paul Kruger, four-term president of the old South African Republic. The reverse depicts a springbok, the national animal of South Africa. The image was designed by Coert Steynberg, and was previously used on the reverse of the earlier South African five shilling coin. The name \"South Africa\" and the gold content are inscribed in both Afrikaans and English (as can be seen on the pictures of the coin).  Since September 1980, Krugerrands have also become available in three additional sizes containing, and of gold. The word \"Krugerrand\" is a registered trademark owned by Rand Refinery Limited, of Germiston.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proof Krugerrands.", "content": "The South African Mint Company produces limited edition proof Krugerrands intended to be collectors' items rather than bullion investments. These coins are priced above bullion value, although non-proof Krugerrands also have a premium above gold bullion value. They can be distinguished from the bullion Krugerrands by the number of serrations on the edge of the coin. Proof coins have 220 edge serrations, while bullion coins have 160.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "50th Anniversary Krugerrands.", "content": "2017 marked the 50th year of issuance (1967–2017) and to commemorate the anniversary, the South African Mint produced \"Premium Uncirculated\" versions in gold (.916 or 22 carat) and for the first time also in platinum (.999 fine) and silver (.999 fine). The issue limit for these commemorative platinum, gold and silver coins was 2,017 for platinum, 5,000 for gold and 1,000,000 for silver. The commemorative issues are distinguished by a '50' privy seal mark above the springbok design on the reverse for the platinum and silver issues and to the right of the springbok design on the gold issues. In addition to the \"Premium Uncirculated\" issue, 15,000 silver \"Proof\" krugerrands were also issued as well as \"Proof\" krugerrands in gold and platinum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Export Control.", "content": "The South African Reserve Bank restricts the exportation of Krugerrands by a South African resident to a non-resident to a maximum of R30,000 (about US$2,100 or 1,870 Euro as of June 2018). Visitors to South Africa can export up to 15 coins by declaring the items to the South African Revenue Service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charitable donations.", "content": "In the 21st century, Krugerrands have received media attention in the United States after anonymous donors have left the valuable coin in the Salvation Army's annual \"Christmas Kettle\" donation jars in various cities around the country.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Krugerrand (; ) is a South African coin, first minted on 3 July 1967 to help market South African gold and produced by Rand Refinery and the South African Mint. The name is a compound of \"Paul Kruger\", the former President of the South African Republic (depicted on the obverse), and \"rand\", the South African unit of currency. On the reverse side of the Krugerrand is a springbok, South Africa's national animal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971770}
{"src_title": "Carl Laemmle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Laemmle was born in 1867 to a Jewish family in Laupheim, in the German Kingdom of Württemberg. As a youth, he was an apprentice in Ichenhausen. He followed his older brother and immigrated to the United States in 1884, settling in Chicago, where he married Recha Stern, with whom he would have a son, Carl Laemmle, Jr. and a daughter, Rosabelle Laemmle Bergerman (later married to Stanley Bergerman). Laemmle became a naturalized American citizen in 1889. He worked a variety of jobs, but by 1894 he was the bookkeeper of the Continental Clothing Company in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, where he introduced a bolder advertising style.  In 1906, Laemmle quit his job and started one of the first motion picture theaters in Chicago, and quickly branched out into film exchange services. He challenged Thomas Edison's monopoly on moving pictures (the Motion Picture Patents Company) under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. As part of his offensive against Edison's company, Laemmle began advertising individual \"stars,\" such as Mary Pickford and Florence Lawrence, thus increasing their individual earning power, and thus their willingness to side with the \"Independents.\"  After moving to New York, Carl Laemmle got involved in producing movies, forming Independent Moving Pictures (IMP); the city was the site of many new movie-related businesses. On April 30, 1912, in New York, Laemmle brought together Pat Powers of Powers Motion Picture Company, Mark Dintenfass of Champion Film Company, William Swanson of Rex Motion Picture Company, David Horsley of Nestor Film Company, and Charles Baumann and Adam Kessel of the New York Motion Picture Company, to merge their companies with IMP as the Universal Film Manufacturing Company, with Laemmle assuming the role of president. They founded the Company with studios in Fort Lee, New Jersey, where many early film studios in America's first motion picture industry were based at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1915, the studio moved to of land in the San Fernando Valley, California. Universal maintained two East Coast offices: The first was located at 1600 Broadway, New York City. This building, initially known as The Studebaker building, was razed around 2004-5. The second location to house Universal's executive offices was at 730 Fifth Avenue, New York City. Many years later, 445 Park Avenue was the location of Universal's executive offices.  In 1916, Laemmle sponsored the $3,000 three-foot-tall solid silver Universal Trophy for the winner of the annual Universal race at the Uniontown Speedway board track in southwestern Pennsylvania. Universal filmed each race from 1916 to 1922.  After moving to California, Laemmle purchased as a residence for his family the former home of film pioneer Thomas Ince on Benedict Canyon Drive, Beverly Hills. The house was razed in the early 1940s. Laemmle also maintained a large apartment for himself and his two children at 465 West End Avenue, New York City, one block off Riverside Drive near the Hudson River.  Carl Laemmle, although having made hundreds of movies in his active years as a producer (1909-1934), is probably best remembered for \"The Hunchback of Notre Dame\" (1923), \"The Phantom of The Opera\" (1925), both with Lon Chaney Sr. in the title role, and \"The Man Who Laughs\" (1928) and most of the early sound horror films, such as \"Dracula\" (1931) and \"Frankenstein\" (1931), with his son Carl Jr. before they were removed from the company he founded by a hostile takeover. He briefly resumed distribution with a partner, Michael Mindlin, specializing in foreign films as CL Imports, in the mid-1930s, but for the most part remained in secluded retirement until his death.  Laemmle died from cardiovascular disease on September 24, 1939 in Beverly Hills, California, at the age of 72. Laemmle was entombed in the Chapel Mausoleum at Home of Peace Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and honors.", "content": "Laemmle remained connected to his home town of Laupheim throughout his life, providing financial support to it and also by sponsoring hundreds of Jews from Laupheim and Württemberg to emigrate from Nazi Germany to the United States in the 1930s, paying both emigration and immigration fees, thus saving them from the Holocaust. To ensure and facilitate their immigration, Laemmle contacted American authorities, members of the House of Representatives and Secretary of State Cordell Hull. He also intervened to try to secure entry for the refugees on board the, who were ultimately sent back from Havana to Europe in 1939, where many died in the Holocaust.  Asked how to pronounce his name, he told \"The Literary Digest\", \"The name means \"little lamb\", and is pronounced as if it were spelled 'lem-lee'.\"  His niece, Rebekah Isabelle Laemmle, known professionally as Carla Laemmle, appeared in several films until her retirement from acting at the end of the 1930s.  His great-grandniece, Antonia Carlotta, talks about him at length in her web series \"Universally Me,\" about the history of Universal Studios.  The poet Ogden Nash observed the following about Laemmle's habit of giving his son and nephews top executive positions in his studios:  \"\"Uncle Carl Laemmle\"<br> \"Has a very large faemmle.\"\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carl Laemmle (; born Karl Lämmle; January 17, 1867 – September 24, 1939) was a German-born filmmaker and the founder and, until 1934, owner of Universal Pictures. He produced or worked on over 400 films.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971771}
{"src_title": "Willibrord", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "His father, named Wilgils or Hilgis, was styled by Alcuin as a Saxon of Northumbria. Newly converted to Christianity, Wilgils entrusted his son as an oblate to the Abbey of Ripon, and withdrew from the world, constructing a small oratory, near the mouth of the Humber, dedicated to Saint Andrew. The king and nobles of the district endowed him with estates until he was at last able to build a church, over which Alcuin afterwards ruled.  Willibrord grew up under the influence of Saint Wilfrid, Bishop of York. Later he joined the Benedictines. He spent the years between the ages of 20 and 32 in the Abbey of Rath Melsigi, in County Carlow, Ireland, which was a centre of European learning in the 7th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Frisia.", "content": "During this time he studied under Saint Egbert, who sent him and eleven companions to Christianise the pagan Frisians of the North Sea coast at the request of Pepin of Herstal, Austrasian mayor of the palace, who had nominal suzerainty over that region. Willibrord travelled to Rome twice. Both of these trips to Rome have historical significance. As Bede tells us, Willibrord was not the only Anglo-Saxon to travel to Rome. The way in which he described the visit and its purpose is important; unlike all the others, Willibrord was not on the usual pilgrimage to the graves of the apostles Peter and Paul and the martyrs. Rather \"he made haste to Rome, where Pope Sergius then presided over the apostolical see, that he might undertake the desired work of preaching the Gospel to the Gentiles, with his licence and blessing\". As such he came to the pope not as a pilgrim but specifically as a missionary. The second time he went to Rome, on 21 November 695, in the Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Pope Sergius I gave him a pallium and consecrated him as bishop of the Frisians. He returned to Frisia to preach and establish churches, among them a monastery at Utrecht, where he built his cathedral. Willibrord is counted the first Bishop of Utrecht.  In 698 he established the Abbey of Echternach on the site of a Roman villa in Echternach, which was donated to him by Pepin's mother-in-law, Irmina of Oeren, the wife of seneschal and Count Palatine Hugobert. After Hugobert died, Irmina founded a Benedictine convent at Horren in Trier. When a plague threatened her community, she gained the help of Willibrord; and when the pestilence passed by the convent, she gave Willibrord the lands for his abbey in Echternach.  Pepin of Heristal died in 714. In 716 the pagan Radbod, king of the Frisians, retook possession of Frisia, burning churches and killing many missionaries. Willibrord and his monks were forced to flee. After the death of Radbod in 719, Willibrord returned to resume his work, under the protection of Charles Martel. Winfrid, better known as Boniface, joined Willibrord and stayed for three years, before travelling on to preach in Frankish territory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Willibrord died on 7 November 739 at the age of 81, and according to his wish, was buried in Echternach. He was quickly judged to be a saint. Willibrord wells, which skirted his missionary routes, were visited by the people, to solicit the healing of various nervous diseases, especially of children.  In the Catholic Church his feast day is celebrated on 7 November outside England, but on 29 November in England, by order of Pope Leo XIII. In the Church of England, he is celebrated on 7 November.  Numerous miracles and relics have been attributed to him. On one occasion, the transport of his relics was celebrated thus \"the five bishops in full pontificals assisted; engaged in the dance were 2 Swiss guards, 16 standard-bearers, 3,045 singers, 136 priests, 426 musicians, 15,085 dancers, and 2,032 players\". A Dancing Procession continues to be held in Echternach every year on Whit Tuesday, and attracts thousands of participants and an equal number of spectators, to honor the memory of a saint who is often called the apostle of the Benelux countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg).  At Gravelines in northern France, where Willibrord is said to have landed after crossing the Channel on his mission to the Frisians, the church in the old town is dedicated to him. Gravelines grew up after ca. 800 around the chapel commemorating Willibrord’s mission.  There is a 13th-century chapel dedicated to Willibrord at Wissembourg Abbey (Alsace), where Willibrord's benefactress Irmina of Oeren was also venerated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "A \"Life\" was written by Alcuin and dedicated to the Abbot of Echternach. Alcuin probably made use of an older one written by a British monk, which is now lost. Bede also makes mention of Willibrord.  Nothing written by Willibrord can be found save a marginal note in the Calendar of Echternach giving some chronological data. A copy of the Gospels (Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, 9389) under the name of Willibrord is an Irish codex no doubt brought by Willibrord from Ireland.  In 752/753 Boniface wrote a letter to Pope Stephen II, in which it is said that Willibrord destroyed the Frisian pagan sanctuaries and temples. In the \"Life\" written by Alcuin are two texts about Willibrord and pagan places of worship. In one he arrived with his companions in Walcheren in the Netherlands where he smashed a sculpture of the ancient religion. In the second text passage Willibord arrived on an island called Fositesland (possibly Heligoland) where a pagan god named Fosite was worshipped. Here he despoiled this god of its sanctity by using the god's sacred well for baptisms and the sacred cattle for food.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Willibrord (; 658 – 7 November AD 739) was a Northumbrian missionary saint, known as the \"Apostle to the Frisians\" in the modern Netherlands. He became the first Bishop of Utrecht and died at Echternach, Luxembourg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971772}
{"src_title": "Josef Kramer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Josef Kramer, an only child, was born and raised in Munich in a middle-class family. His parents, Theodore and Maria Kramer, brought him up as a \"strict Roman Catholic\". In 1915, the family moved from Munich to Augsburg, where Josef Kramer attended school. He began an apprenticeship as an electrician in 1920. From 1925 to 1933, except for working in a department store and as an accountant, he was mostly unemployed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "He joined the Nazi Party in 1931 and the SS in 1932. His SS training led him into work as a prison guard and, after the outbreak of war, as a concentration camp guard.  In 1934, he was assigned as a guard at Dachau. His promotion was rapid, obtaining senior posts at Sachsenhausen and Mauthausen concentration camps. He became assistant to Rudolf Höss, the Commandant at Auschwitz in 1940. He accompanied Höss to inspect Auschwitz as a possible site for a new synthetic oil and rubber plant, which was a vital industry for Nazi Germany given its shortage of oil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natzweiler-Struthof.", "content": "Kramer was named Commandant of Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp in April 1941. Natzweiler-Struthof was the only concentration camp established by the Nazis on present-day French territory, though there were French-run transit camps such as the one at Drancy. At the time, the Alsace-Lorraine area in which it was established had been annexed by Nazi Germany.  As commandant at Natzweiler-Struthof, Kramer personally carried out the gassings of 80 Jewish men and women, part of a group of 87 selected at Auschwitz to become anatomical specimens in a proposed Jewish skeleton collection to be housed at the Anatomy Institute at the Reich University of Strasbourg under the direction of August Hirt.  Ultimately, the 87 inmates were transported to Natzweiler-Struthof; 46 of these individuals were originally from Thessaloniki, Greece. The deaths of 86 of these inmates were, in the words of Hirt, \"induced\" in an improvised gassing facility at Natzweiler-Struthof and their corpses, 57 men and 29 women, were sent to Strasbourg. One male victim was shot as he fought to keep from being gassed. Kramer, who was the acting commandant of Natzweiler-Struthof, personally carried out the gassing of 80 of these 86 victims.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Auschwitz.", "content": "Kramer was promoted to the rank of \"Hauptsturmführer\" (Captain) in 1942 and, in May 1944, was transferred to become the \"Lagerführer\" (camp commander) in charge of operations at Auschwitz II-Birkenau, the main center used to kill inmates within the Auschwitz concentration camp complex, from 8 May 1944 to 25 November 1944. He was brought to Auschwitz to manage the gassings of new transports in May 1944, according to the Prosecution Judge Advocate at the War Crimes tribunal that convicted him of being responsible for the murders committed at Auschwitz. There were a number of witnesses who said that he took an active part in the selection parades in that, for instance, he loaded people into the trucks and beat them when they resisted. At Auschwitz, Kramer soon became known among his subordinates as a harsh taskmaster. One of the defendants at the Frankfurt Auschwitz Trial, Dr. Franz Lucas, testified that he tried to avoid assignments given to him by Kramer by pleading stomach and intestinal disorders. When Lucas saw that his name had been added to the list of selecting physicians for a large group of inmates transferred from Hungary, he objected strenuously. Kramer reacted sharply: \"I know you are being investigated for favouring prisoners. I am now ordering you to go to the ramp, and if you fail to obey an order, I shall have you arrested on the spot.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Belsen.", "content": "In December 1944, Kramer was transferred from Birkenau to Bergen Belsen, near the village of Bergen. Belsen had originally served as a temporary camp for those leaving Germany, but during the war had been expanded to serve as a convalescent depot for the ill and displaced people from across north-west Europe. Although it had no gas chambers, Kramer's rule was so harsh that he became known as the \"Beast of Belsen\".  As Nazi Germany collapsed, administration of the camp broke down, but Kramer remained devoted to bureaucracy. On 1 March 1945, he filed a report asking for help and resources, stating that of the 42,000 inmates in his camp, 250–300 died each day from typhus. On 19 March, the number of inmates rose to 60,000 as the Germans continued to evacuate camps that were soon to be liberated by the Allies. As late as the week of 13 April, some 28,000 additional prisoners were brought in.  With the collapse of administration and many guards fleeing to escape retribution, roll calls were stopped, and the inmates were left to their own devices. Corpses rotted everywhere, and rats attacked the living too weak to fight them off. Kramer remained even when the British arrived to liberate the camp, and took them on a tour of the camp to inspect the \"scenes\". Piles of corpses lay all over the camp, mass graves were filled in, and the huts were filled with prisoners in every stage of emaciation and disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trial and execution.", "content": "Kramer was imprisoned at the prison in Hamelin. Along with 44 other camp staff, Kramer was tried in the Belsen Trial by a British military court at Lüneburg. The trial lasted several weeks from September to November 1945. During the trial Anita Lasker testified that Kramer had taken part in selections for the gas chamber.  Kramer was sentenced to death on 17 November 1945, and was hanged at Hamelin prison by Albert Pierrepoint on 13 December 1945, aged 39.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josef Kramer (10 November 1906 – 13 December 1945) was the Commandant of Auschwitz-Birkenau (from 8 May 1944 to 25 November 1944) and of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (from December 1944 to its liberation, April 15, 1945). Dubbed The Beast of Belsen by camp inmates, he was a German Nazi war criminal, directly responsible for the deaths of thousands of people. He was detained by the British Army after the Second World War, convicted of war crimes and hanged on the gallows in the prison at Hamelin by British executioner Albert Pierrepoint.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971773}
{"src_title": "Théodore Géricault", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Rouen, France, Géricault was educated in the tradition of English sporting art by Carle Vernet and classical figure composition by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin, a rigorous classicist who disapproved of his student's impulsive temperament while recognizing his talent. Géricault soon left the classroom, choosing to study at the Louvre, where from 1810 to 1815 he copied paintings by Rubens, Titian, Velázquez and Rembrandt.  During this period at the Louvre he discovered a vitality he found lacking in the prevailing school of Neoclassicism. Much of his time was spent in Versailles, where he found the stables of the palace open to him, and where he gained his knowledge of the anatomy and action of horses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Success.", "content": "Géricault's first major work, \"The Charging Chasseur\", exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1812, revealed the influence of the style of Rubens and an interest in the depiction of contemporary subject matter. This youthful success, ambitious and monumental, was followed by a change in direction: for the next several years Géricault produced a series of small studies of horses and cavalrymen.  He exhibited \"Wounded Cuirassier\" at the Salon in 1814, a work more labored and less well received. Géricault in a fit of disappointment entered the army and served for a time in the garrison of Versailles. In the nearly two years that followed the 1814 Salon, he also underwent a self-imposed study of figure construction and composition, all the while evidencing a personal predilection for drama and expressive force.  A trip to Florence, Rome, and Naples (1816–17), prompted in part by the desire to flee from a romantic entanglement with his aunt, ignited a fascination with Michelangelo. Rome itself inspired the preparation of a monumental canvas, the \"Race of the Barberi Horses\", a work of epic composition and abstracted theme that promised to be \"entirely without parallel in its time\". However, Géricault never completed the painting and returned to France. In 1821, he painted \"The Derby of Epsom\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Raft of the Medusa\".", "content": "Géricault continually returned to the military themes of his early paintings, and the series of lithographs he undertook on military subjects after his return from Italy are considered some of the earliest masterworks in that medium. Perhaps his most significant, and certainly most ambitious work, is \"The Raft of the Medusa\" (1818–19), which depicted the aftermath of a contemporary French shipwreck, \"Meduse\", in which the captain had left the crew and passengers to die.  The incident became a national scandal, and Géricault's dramatic interpretation presented a contemporary tragedy on a monumental scale. The painting's notoriety stemmed from its indictment of a corrupt establishment, but it also dramatized a more eternal theme, that of man's struggle with nature. It surely excited the imagination of the young Eugène Delacroix, who posed for one of the dying figures.  The classical depiction of the figures and structure of the composition stand in contrast to the turbulence of the subject, so that the painting constitutes an important bridge between neo-classicism and romanticism. It fuses many influences: the \"Last Judgment\" of Michelangelo, the monumental approach to contemporary events by Antoine-Jean Gros, figure groupings by Henry Fuseli, and possibly the painting \"Watson and the Shark \"by John Singleton Copley.  The painting ignited political controversy when first exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1819; it then traveled to England in 1820, accompanied by Géricault himself, where it received much praise. While in London, Géricault witnessed urban poverty, made drawings of his impressions, and published lithographs based on these observations which were free of sentimentality. He associated much there with Charlet, the lithographer and caricaturist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After his return to France in 1821, Géricault was inspired to paint a series of ten portraits of the insane, the patients of a friend, Dr. Étienne-Jean Georget, a pioneer in psychiatric medicine, with each subject exhibiting a different affliction. There are five remaining portraits from the series, including \"Insane Woman\".  The paintings are noteworthy for their bravura style, expressive realism, and for their documenting of the psychological discomfort of individuals, made all the more poignant by the history of insanity in Géricault's family, as well as the artist's own fragile mental health. His observations of the human subject were not confined to the living, for some remarkable still-lifes—painted studies of severed heads and limbs—have also been ascribed to the artist.  Géricault's last efforts were directed toward preliminary studies for several epic compositions, including the \"Opening of the Doors of the Spanish Inquisition\" and the \"African Slave Trade\". The preparatory drawings suggest works of great ambition, but Géricault's waning health intervened. Weakened by riding accidents and chronic tubercular infection, Géricault died in Paris in 1824 after a long period of suffering. His bronze figure reclines, brush in hand, on his tomb at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, above a low-relief panel of \" The Raft of the Medusa\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Louis André Théodore Géricault (; 26 September 1791 – 26 January 1824) was an influential French painter and lithographer, whose best-known painting is \"The Raft of the Medusa\". Although he died young, he was one of the pioneers of the Romantic movement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971774}
{"src_title": "Quartzite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Occurrence.", "content": "In the United States, formations of quartzite can be found in some parts of Pennsylvania, the Washington DC area, eastern South Dakota, Central Texas, southwest Minnesota, Devil's Lake State Park in the Baraboo Range in Wisconsin, the Wasatch Range in Utah, near Salt Lake City, Utah and as resistant ridges in the Appalachians and other mountain regions. Quartzite is also found in the Morenci Copper Mine in Arizona. The town of Quartzsite in western Arizona derives its name from the quartzites in the nearby mountains in both Arizona and Southeastern California. A glassy \"vitreous quartzite\" has been described from the Belt Supergroup in the Coeur d’Alene district of northern Idaho.  In the United Kingdom, a craggy ridge of quartzite called the Stiperstones (early Ordovician – Arenig Epoch, 500 Ma) runs parallel with the Pontesford-Linley fault, 6 km north-west of the Long Mynd in south Shropshire. Also to be found in England are the Cambrian \"Wrekin quartzite\" (in Shropshire), and the Cambrian \"Hartshill quartzite\" (Nuneaton area). In Wales, Holyhead Mountain and most of Holy island off Anglesey sport excellent Precambrian quartzite crags and cliffs. In the Scottish Highlands, several mountains (e.g. Foinaven, Arkle) composed of Cambrian quartzite can be found in the far north-west Moine Thrust Belt running in a narrow band from Loch Eriboll in a south-westerly direction to Skye. In Ireland areas of quartzite are found across the northwest, with Errigal in Donegal as the most prominent outcrop.  In continental Europe, various regionally isolated quartzite deposits exist at surface level in a belt from the Rhenish Massif and the German Central Highlands into the Western Czech Republic, for example in the Taunus and Harz mountains. In Poland quartzite deposits at surface level exists in Świętokrzyskie Mountains.  In Canada, the La Cloche Mountains in Ontario are composed primarily of white quartzite. The highest mountain in Mozambique, Monte Binga (2436 m), as well as the rest of the surrounding Chimanimani Plateau are composed of very hard, pale grey, Precambrian quartzite. Quartzite is also mined in Brazil for use in kitchen countertops.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Quartzite is a decorative stone and may be used to cover walls, as roofing tiles, as flooring, and stairsteps. Its use for countertops in kitchens is expanding rapidly. It is harder and more resistant to stains than granite. Crushed quartzite is sometimes used in road construction. High purity quartzite is used to produce ferrosilicon, industrial silica sand, silicon and silicon carbide. During the Paleolithic, quartzite was used, along with flint, quartz, and other lithic raw materials, for making stone tools.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "As quartzite is a form of silica, it is a possible cause for concern in various workplaces. Cutting, grinding, chipping, sanding, drilling, and polishing natural and manufactured stone products can release hazardous levels of very small, crystalline silica dust particles into the air that workers breathe. Crystalline silica of respirable size is a recognized human carcinogen and may lead to other diseases of the lungs such as silicosis and pulmonary fibrosis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The term \"quartzite\" is derived from.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Quartzite is a hard, non-foliated metamorphic rock which was originally pure quartz sandstone. Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. Pure quartzite is usually white to grey, though quartzites often occur in various shades of pink and red due to varying amounts of iron oxide (FeO). Other colors, such as yellow, green, blue and orange, are due to other minerals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971775}
{"src_title": "Truman Doctrine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Turkish Straits crisis.", "content": "At the conclusion of World War II, Turkey was pressured by the Soviet government to allow Russian shipping to flow freely through the Turkish Straits, which connected the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. As the Turkish government would not submit to the Soviet Union's requests, tensions arose in the region, leading to a show of naval force on the side of the Soviets. Since British assistance to Turkey had ended in 1947, the U.S. dispatched military aid to ensure that Turkey would retain chief control of the passage. Turkey received $100 million in economic and military aid and the U.S. Navy sent the \"Midway\"-class aircraft carrier \"USS Franklin D. Roosevelt\". The postwar period from 1946 started with a \"multi-party period\" and the Democratic Party government of Adnan Menderes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Greek crisis.", "content": "Seven weeks after the Axis powers abandoned Greece in October 1944, the British helped retake Athens from the victorious National Liberation Front (EAM), controlled effectively by the Greek Communist Party (KKE). This began with a mass killing of largely unarmed EAM supporters known as the Dekemvriana on December 3. The left-wing attempted to retaliate, but were outgunned by the British-backed government and subjected to the White Terror. With the full outbreak of civil war (1946–49), guerrilla forces controlled by the Greek Communist Party sustained a revolt against the internationally recognized Greek government which was formed after 1946 elections boycotted by the KKE. The British realized that the KKE were being directly funded by Josip Broz Tito in neighboring Yugoslavia. In line with the Churchill-Stalin \"percentages agreement\", the Greek communists received no help from the Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia provided them support and sanctuary against Stalin's wishes. By late 1946, Britain informed the United States that due to its own weakening economy, it could no longer continue to provide military and economic support to royalist Greece.  In 1946–47, the United States and the Soviet Union moved from being wartime allies to Cold War adversaries. The breakdown of Allied cooperation in Germany provided a backdrop of escalating tensions for the Truman Doctrine. To Truman, the growing unrest in Greece began to look like a pincer movement against the oil-rich areas of the Middle East and the warm-water ports of the Mediterranean.  In February 1946, Kennan, an American diplomat in Moscow, sent his famed \"Long Telegram\", which predicted the Soviets would only respond to force and that the best way to handle them would be through a long-term strategy of containment, that is stopping their geographical expansion. After the British warned that they could no longer help Greece, and following Prime Minister Konstantinos Tsaldaris's visit to Washington in December 1946 to ask for American assistance, the U.S. State Department formulated a plan. Aid would be given to both Greece and Turkey, to help cool the long-standing rivalry between them.  American policy makers recognized the instability of the region, fearing that if Greece was lost to communism, Turkey would not last long. Similarly, if Turkey yielded to Soviet demands, the position of Greece would be endangered. A regional domino effect threat therefore guided the American decision. Greece and Turkey were strategic allies important for geographical reasons as well, for the fall of Greece would put the Soviets on a particularly dangerous flank for the Turks, and strengthen the Soviet Union's ability to cut off allied supply lines in the event of war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Truman's address.", "content": "To pass any legislation Truman needed the support of the Republicans, who controlled both houses of Congress. The chief Republican spokesman Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg strongly supported Truman and overcame the doubts of isolationists such as Senator Robert A. Taft. Truman laid the groundwork for his request by having key congressional leaders meet with himself, Secretary of State George Marshall, and Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson. Acheson laid out the \"domino theory\" in the starkest terms, comparing a communist state to a rotten apple that could spread its infection to an entire barrel. Vandenberg was impressed, and advised Truman to appear before Congress and \"scare the hell out of the American people.\" On March 7, Acheson warned Truman that Greece could fall to the communists within weeks without outside aid.  When a draft for Truman's address was circulated to policymakers, Marshall, Kennan, and others criticized it for containing excess \"rhetoric.\" Truman responded that, as Vandenberg had suggested, his request would only be approved if he played up the threat.  On March 12, 1947, Truman appeared before a joint session of Congress. In his eighteen-minute speech, he stated:  The reaction to Truman's speech was broadly positive, though there were dissenters. Anti-communists in both parties supported both Truman's proposed aid package and the doctrine behind it, and \"Collier's\" described it as a \"popularity jackpot\" for the President. Influential columnist Walter Lippmann was more skeptical, noting the open-ended nature of Truman's pledge; he felt so strongly that he almost came to blows while arguing with Acheson over the doctrine. Others argued that the Greek monarchy Truman proposed to defend was itself a repressive government, rather than a democracy.  Despite these objections, the fear of the growing communist threat almost guaranteed the bill's passage. In May 1947, two months after Truman's request, a large majority of Congress approved $400 million in military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey. Increased American aid helped defeat the KKE, after interim defeats for government forces from 1946 to 1948. The Truman Doctrine was the first in a series of containment moves by the United States, followed by economic restoration of Western Europe through the Marshall Plan and military containment by the creation of NATO in 1949.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Long-term policy and metaphor.", "content": "The Truman Doctrine underpinned American Cold War policy in Europe and around the world. In the words of historian James T. Patterson, \"The Truman Doctrine was a highly publicized commitment of a sort the administration had not previously undertaken. Its sweeping rhetoric, promising that the United States should aid all 'free people' being subjugated, set the stage for innumerable later ventures that led to globalisation commitments. It was in these ways a major step.\"  The doctrine endured, historian Dennis Merill argues, because it addressed broader cultural insecurity regarding modern life in a globalized world. It dealt with Washington's concern over communism's domino effect, it enabled a media-sensitive presentation of the doctrine that won bipartisan support, and it mobilized American economic power to modernize and stabilize unstable regions without direct military intervention. It brought nation-building activities and modernization programs to the forefront of foreign policy.  The Truman Doctrine became a metaphor for aid to keep a nation from communist influence. Truman used disease imagery not only to communicate a sense of impending disaster in the spread of communism but also to create a \"rhetorical vision\" of containing it by extending a protective shield around non-communist countries throughout the world. It echoed the \"quarantine the aggressor\" policy Truman's predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, had sought to impose to contain German and Japanese expansion in 1937 (\"quarantine\" suggested the role of public health officials handling an infectious disease). The medical metaphor extended beyond the immediate aims of the Truman Doctrine in that the imagery combined with fire and flood imagery evocative of disaster provided the United States with an easy transition to direct military confrontation in later years with the Korean War and the Vietnam War. By framing ideological differences in life or death terms, Truman was able to garner support for this communism-containing policy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to contain Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. It was announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947, and further developed on July 4, 1948, when he pledged to contain the communist uprisings in Greece and Turkey. Direct American military force was usually not involved, but Congress appropriated financial aid to support the economies and militaries of Greece and Turkey. More generally, the Truman Doctrine implied American support for other nations thought to be threatened by Soviet communism. The Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy, and led, in 1949, to the formation of NATO, a military alliance that still exists. Historians often use Truman's speech to date the start of the Cold War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971776}
{"src_title": "Neidhart von Reuental", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "He was mentioned in a passage of Wolfram von Eschenbach's \"Willehalm\" poem written before 1217, when Neidhart had already achieved a certain degree of fame. All manuscript sources until the 15th century refer to him only as \"Nithart\". The origin of the name itself is Nithard, Altniederfränkisch and the meaning is hard in hostility. With time and expanded geographical use, the spelling has changed and the meaning eventually being confused when interpreted in modern German. His name has before been believed to be an allegorical pseudonym, for its meaning could be interpreted more or less as \"Grim-Heart of Lament-Valley\". The second part of his name, was created by philologists of the 19th century, who took literally the role of the \"speaker,\" who calls himself \"von Reuental\" in his poems, and thus combined it with the author's name, which was simply \"Nîthart\".  His earlier poetry referred to places in the Bavarian and Salzburg region, while later he called the Austrian duke Frederick II his patron. He mentions a residence at Lengbach near Tulln, west of Vienna. His tomb, probably erected at the behest of Duke Rudolf IV of Austria (1339–1365), is preserved on the south side of St. Stephen's Cathedral.  Neidhart's poetry was handed down by the \"Codex Buranus\" and other medieval song manuscripts (\"Liederhandschriften\") such as the \"Codex Manesse\". His songs about the dreary rural life often stand in harsh contrast to the normal minnesinger topic, courtly or romantic love. His style has been referred to as \"Höfische Dorfpoesie\" (courtly village-poetry) by philologist Karl Lachmann (1793–1851) and was often imitated by composers called \"pseudo-Neidharts\". Probably his best-known song is \"Meienzît\" (\"May Time\") in which Neidhart starts by describing a peaceful spring scenario but quickly comes to insulting his foes (and several friends and allies who betrayed him). Perpetuated as \"Neithart Fuchs\" by later generations, he remained a popular character well into the early modern period; several farces based on his life and poetry are among the oldest profane dramas in Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Frescoes.", "content": "In about 1407, Viennese cloth merchant Michel Menschein commissioned a series of four murals for his private dance-hall based on songs by Neidhart. Each fresco depicts scenes from one of the four seasons of the year. The frescoes are remarkable as one of the few surviving works of the kind on a secular subject from so early a date. They were discovered during redevelopment in 1979 and are exhibited \"in situ\" by the City of Vienna Museum, which undertook an extensive restoration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Neidhart von Reuental (Middle High German: \"Nîthart von Riuwental\"; also \"Her Nîthart\"; possibly born c. 1190 – died after 1236 or 1237) was one of the most famous German minnesingers. He was probably active in the Duchy of Bavaria and then is known to have been a singer at the court of Duke Frederick II of Austria in Vienna. As a minnesinger he was most active from 1210 to at least 1236.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971777}
{"src_title": "Elettaria cardamomum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Growth.", "content": "\"Elettaria cardamomum\" is a pungent, aromatic, herbaceous, perennial plant, growing to about in height. The leaves are alternate in two ranks, linear-lanceolate, long, with a long pointed tip. The flowers are white to lilac or pale violet, produced in a loose spike long. The fruit is a three-sided yellow-green pod long, containing several (15-20) black and brown seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The green seed pods of the plant are dried and the seeds inside the pod are used in Indian and other Asian cuisines, either whole or ground. It is the most widely cultivated species of cardamom; for other types and uses, see cardamom. Ground cardamom is an ingredient in many Indian curries and is a primary contributor to the flavour of \"masala chai\". In Iran, cardamom is used to flavour coffee and tea. In Turkey, it is used to flavour the black Turkish tea, \"kakakule\".  In addition to its native range, it is grown in Nepal, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Central America. In India, the states of Sikkim and Kerala are the main producers of cardamom; they rank highest both in cultivated area and in production. It was first imported into Europe around 1300 BC. Cardomomum is called \"caranda mungu\" (කරඳමුංගු) in Sinhalese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"E. cardamomum\" is used as a food plant by the larvae of the moth \"Endoclita hosei\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "The three natural varieties of green cardamom plants are:  Recently, a few planters isolated high-yielding plants and started multiplying them on a large scale. The most popular high-yielding variety is 'Njallani', which is a unique high-yielding cardamom variety developed by an Indian farmer, Sebastian Joseph, at Kattappana in the South Indian state of Kerala. K. J. Baby of Idukki District, Kerala, has developed a purely white-flowered variety of Vazhuka type green cardamom having higher yield than 'Njallani'. The variety has high adaptability to different shade conditions and can also be grown in waterlogged areas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elettaria cardamomum, commonly known as green or true cardamom, is a herbaceous, perennial plant in the ginger family, native to southern India. It is the most common of the species whose seeds are used as a spice called cardamom. It is cultivated widely in tropical regions and reportedly naturalized in Réunion, Indochina, and Costa Rica.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971778}
{"src_title": "Laminar flow", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Relationship with the Reynolds number.", "content": "The type of flow occurring in a fluid in a channel is important in fluid-dynamics problems and subsequently affects heat and mass transfer in fluid systems. The dimensionless Reynolds number is an important parameter in the equations that describe whether fully developed flow conditions lead to laminar or turbulent flow. The Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial force to the shearing force of the fluid: how fast the fluid is moving relative to how viscous it is, irrespective of the scale of the fluid system. Laminar flow generally occurs when the fluid is moving slowly or the fluid is very viscous. As the Reynolds number increases, such as by increasing the flow rate of the fluid, the flow will transition from laminar to turbulent flow at a specific range of Reynolds numbers, the laminar–turbulent transition range depending on small disturbance levels in the fluid or imperfections in the flow system. If the Reynolds number is very small, much less than 1, then the fluid will exhibit Stokes, or creeping, flow, where the viscous forces of the fluid dominate the inertial forces.  The specific calculation of the Reynolds number, and the values where laminar flow occurs, will depend on the geometry of the flow system and flow pattern. The common example is flow through a pipe, where the Reynolds number is defined as  where:  For such systems, laminar flow occurs when the Reynolds number is below a critical value of approximately 2,040, though the transition range is typically between 1,800 and 2,100.  For fluid systems occurring on external surfaces, such as flow past objects suspended in the fluid, other definitions for Reynolds numbers can be used to predict the type of flow around the object. The particle Reynolds number Re would be used for particle suspended in flowing fluids, for example. As with flow in pipes, laminar flow typically occurs with lower Reynolds numbers, while turbulent flow and related phenomena, such as vortex shedding, occur with higher Reynolds numbers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Laminar flow barriers.", "content": "Laminar airflow is used to separate volumes of air, or prevent airborne contaminants from entering an area. Laminar flow hoods are used to exclude contaminants from sensitive processes in science, electronics and medicine. Air curtains are frequently used in commercial settings to keep heated or refrigerated air from passing through doorways. A laminar flow reactor (LFR) is a reactor that uses laminar flow to study chemical reactions and process mechanisms.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In fluid dynamics, laminar flow is characterized by fluid particles following smooth paths in layers, with each layer moving smoothly past the adjacent layers with little or no mixing. At low velocities, the fluid tends to flow without lateral mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another like playing cards. There are no cross-currents perpendicular to the direction of flow, nor eddies or swirls of fluids. In laminar flow, the motion of the particles of the fluid is very orderly with particles close to a solid surface moving in straight lines parallel to that surface. Laminar flow is a flow regime characterized by high momentum diffusion and low momentum convection.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971779}
{"src_title": "Minor (law)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "International.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Canada.", "content": "For all provincial laws (such as alcohol and tobacco regulation), the provincial and territorial governments have the power to set the age of majority in their respective province or territory, and the age varies across Canada.  Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Prince Edward Island have the age of majority set at 18, while in British Columbia, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick the age of majority is 19. In Saskatchewan, the legal gambling age and the legal drinking age are both 19.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italy.", "content": "In Italy, law nr. 39 of March 8, 1975, states that a minor is a person under the age of 18. Citizens under the age of 18 may not vote (to vote for senators, 25), be elected, obtain a driving license for automobiles or issue or sign legal instruments. Crimes committed in Italy by minors are tried in a juvenile court.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mexico.", "content": "In all 31 states, a minor is referred to as someone under the age of 18.  Minors aged 16 or 17 who are charged with crimes could sometimes be treated as an adult.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "India.", "content": "In all 28 states and 9 union territories, a minor is referred to as someone under the age of 18. In rare cases minors aged 16 or 17 who are charged with extremely heinous crimes could sometimes be treated as an adult.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Thailand.", "content": "The Civil and Commercial Code of the Kingdom of Thailand does not define the term \"minor\"; however, sections 19 and 20 read as follows:  Hence, a minor in Thailand refers to any person under the age of 20, unless they are married. A minor is restricted from doing juristic acts—for example, sign contracts. When minors wish to do a juristic act, they have to obtain the consent from their legal representative, usually (but not always) the parents and otherwise the act is voidable. The exceptions are acts by which a minor merely acquires a right or is freed from a duty, acts that are strictly personal, and acts that are suitable to the person's condition in life and are required for their reasonable needs. A minor can make a will at the age of fifteen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "In England and Wales and in Northern Ireland a minor is a person under the age of 18; in Scotland that age is 16. The age of criminal responsibility in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland is 10; and 12 in Scotland, formerly 8, which was the lowest age in Europe.  In England and Wales, cases of minors breaking the law are often dealt with by the Youth Offending Team. If they are incarcerated, they are sent to a Young Offender Institution.  Things that persons under 18 are prohibited from doing include sitting on a jury, voting, standing as a candidate, buying or renting films with an 18 certificate or R18 certificate or seeing them in a cinema, being depicted in pornographic materials, suing without a litigant friend, being civilly liable, accessing adoption records and purchasing alcohol, tobacco products, knives and fireworks. The rules on minimum age for sale of these products are frequently broken so in practice drinking and smoking takes place before the age of majority; however many UK shops are tightening restrictions on them by asking for identifying documentation from potentially underage customers.  Driving certain large vehicles, acting as personal license holder for licensed premises, and adopting a child are only permitted after the age of 21. The minimum age to drive a HGV1 vehicle was reduced to 18. However, certain vehicles, e.g., steamrollers, require that someone be 21 years of age to obtain an operating license.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "In the United States as of 1995, \"minor\" is generally legally defined as a person under the age of 18. However, in the context of alcohol or gambling laws, people under the age of 21 may also sometimes be referred to as \"minors\". However, not all minors are considered \"juveniles\" in terms of criminal responsibility. As is frequently the case in the United States, the laws vary widely by state.  Under this distinction, those considered juveniles are usually (but not always) tried in juvenile court, and they may be afforded other special protections. For example, in some states a parent or guardian must be present during police questioning, or their names may be kept confidential when they are accused of a crime. For many crimes (especially more violent crimes), the age at which a minor may be tried as an adult is variable below the age of 18 or (less often) below 16. For example, in Kentucky, the lowest age at which a juvenile may be tried as an adult, no matter how heinous the crime, is 14.  The death penalty for those who have committed a crime while under the age of 18 was discontinued by the U.S. Supreme Court case \"Roper v. Simmons\" in 2005. The court's 5–4 decision was written by Justice Kennedy and joined by Justices Ginsburg, Stevens, Breyer, and Souter, and cited international law, child developmental science, and many other factors in reaching its conclusion.  The twenty-sixth amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1971, granted all citizens the right to vote in every state, in every election, from the age of 18. The U.S. Department of Defense took the position that they would not consider \"enemy combatants\" held in extrajudicial detention in the Guantanamo Bay detainment camps minors unless they were less than sixteen years old. In any event, they only separated three of more than a dozen detainees under 16 from the adult prison population. Several dozen detainees between sixteen and eighteen were detained with the adult prison population. Now those under 18 are kept separate, in line with the age of majority and world expectations.  Some states, including Florida, have passed laws that allow a person accused of an extremely heinous crime, such as murder, to be tried as an adult, regardless of age. These laws have been challenged by the American Civil Liberties Union. An estimated 250,000 youth are tried, sentenced, or incarcerated as adults every year across the United States.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Emancipation of minors.", "content": "Emancipation of minors is a legal mechanism by which a minor is no longer under the control of their parents or guardians, and is given the legal rights associated with adults. Depending on country, emancipation may happen in different manners: through marriage, attaining economic self-sufficiency, obtaining an educational degree or diploma, or participating in a form of military service. In the United States, all states have some form of emancipation of minors.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In law, a minor is a person under a certain age, usually the age of majority, which legally demarcates childhood from adulthood. The age of majority depends upon jurisdiction and application, but it is generally 18. \"Minor\" may also be used in contexts that are unconnected to the overall age of majority. For example, the drinking age in the United States is usually 21, and younger people are sometimes called \"minors\" in the context of alcohol law, even if they are at least 18. The term underage often refers to those under the age of majority, but it may also refer to persons under a certain age limit, such as the drinking age, smoking age, age of consent, marriageable age, driving age, voting age, etc. Such age limits are often different from the age of majority.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971780}
{"src_title": "Doubt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "The concept of doubt as a suspense between two contradictory propositions covers a range of phenomena: on a level of the mind it involves reasoning, examination of facts and evidence and on an emotional level believing and disbelieving  In premodern theology doubt was \"the voice of an uncertain conscience\" and important to realize, because when in doubt \"the safer way is not to act at all\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Society.", "content": "Doubt sometimes tends to call on reason. Doubt may encourage people to hesitate before acting, and/or to apply more rigorous methods. Doubt may have particular importance as leading towards disbelief or non-acceptance.  Politics, ethics and law, with decisions that often determine the course of individual life, place great importance on doubt, and often foster elaborate adversarial processes to carefully sort through all available evidence.  Societally, doubt creates an atmosphere of distrust, being accusatory in nature and \"de facto\" alleging either foolishness or deceit on the part of another. Such a stance has been fostered in Western European society since the Enlightenment, in opposition to tradition and authority.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Psychology.", "content": "Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory attributes doubt (which may be interpreted as a symptom of a phobia emanating from the ego) to childhood, when the ego develops. Childhood experiences, these theories maintain, can plant doubt about one's abilities and even about one's very identity.  Cognitive mental as well as more spiritual approaches abound in response to the wide variety of potential causes for doubt. Behavioral therapy — in which a person systematically asks his own mind if the doubt has any real basis — uses rational, Socratic methods. This method contrasts to those of say, the Buddhist faith, which involve a more esoteric approach to doubt and inaction. Buddhism sees doubt as a negative attachment to one's perceived past and future. To let go of the personal history of one's life (affirming this release every day in meditation) plays a central role in releasing the doubts — developed in and attached to — that history.  Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Descartes employed Cartesian doubt as a pre-eminent methodological tool in his fundamental philosophical investigations. Branches of philosophy like logic devote much effort to distinguish the dubious, the probable and the certain. Much of illogic rests on dubious assumptions, dubious data or dubious conclusions, with rhetoric, whitewashing, and deception playing their accustomed roles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theology.", "content": "Doubt that god(s) exist may form the basis of agnosticism — the belief that one cannot determine the existence or non-existence of god(s). It may also form other brands of skepticism, such as Pyrrhonism, which do not take a positive stance in regard to the existence of god(s), but remain negative. Alternatively, doubt over the existence of god(s) may lead to acceptance of a particular religion: compare Pascal's Wager. Doubt of a specific theology, scriptural or deistic, may bring into question the truth of that theology's set of beliefs. On the other hand, doubt as to some doctrines but acceptance of others may lead to the growth of heresy and/or the splitting off of sects or groups of thought. Thus proto-Protestants doubted papal authority, and substituted alternative methods of governance in their new (but still recognizably similar) churches.  Christianity often debates doubt in the contexts of salvation and eventual redemption in an afterlife. This issue has become particularly important in Protestantism, which requires \"only\" the acceptance of Jesus, though more contemporary versions have arisen within the Protestant churches that resemble Catholicism. Doubt as a path towards (deeper) belief lies at the heart of the story of Saint Thomas the Apostle. Note in this respect the theological views of Georg Hermes:... the starting-point and chief principle of every science, and hence of theology also, is not only methodical doubt, but positive doubt. One can believe only what one has perceived to be true from reasonable grounds, and consequently one must have the courage to continue doubting until one has found reliable grounds to satisfy the reason. Christian existentialists such as Søren Kierkegaard suggest that for one to truly have belief in God, one would also have to doubt one's beliefs about God; the doubt is the rational part of a person's thought involved in weighing evidence, without which the belief would have no real substance. Belief is not a decision based on evidence that, say, certain beliefs about God are true or a certain person is worthy of love. No such evidence could ever be enough to pragmatically justify the kind of total commitment involved in true theological belief or romantic love. Belief involves making that commitment anyway. Kierkegaard thought that to have belief is at the same time to have doubt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Law.", "content": "Most criminal cases within an adversarial system require that the prosecution proves its contentions beyond a reasonable doubt — a doctrine also called the \"burden of proof\". This means that the State must present propositions which preclude \"reasonable doubt\" in the mind of a reasonable person as to the guilt of defendant. Some doubt may persist, but only to the extent that it would \"not\" affect a \"reasonable person's\" belief in the defendant's guilt. If the doubt raised \"does\" affect a \"reasonable person's\" belief, the jury is not satisfied beyond a \"reasonable doubt\". The jurisprudence of the applicable jurisdiction usually defines the precise meaning of words such as \"reasonable\" and \"doubt\" for such purposes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Science.", "content": "To doubt everything or to believe everything are two equally convenient solutions; both dispense with the necessity of reflection. —Henri Poincaré, Science and Hypothesis (1905) (from Dover abridged edition of 1952)  The scientific method regularly quantifies doubt, and uses it to determine whether further research is needed. Isaac Asimov, in his essay collection \"Fact and Fancy\", described science as a system for causing and resolving intelligent doubt.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Doubt is a mental state in which the mind remains suspended between two or more contradictory propositions, unable to assent to any of them. Doubt on an emotional level is indecision between belief and disbelief. It may involve uncertainty, distrust or lack of conviction on certain facts, actions, motives, or decisions. Doubt can result in delaying or rejecting relevant action out of concern for mistakes or missed opportunities.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971781}
{"src_title": "Bacterial conjugation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The process was discovered by Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum in 1946.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanism.", "content": "Conjugation diagram  The F-plasmid is an episome (a plasmid that can integrate itself into the bacterial chromosome by homologous recombination) with a length of about 100 kb. It carries its own origin of replication, the \"oriV\", and an origin of transfer, or \"oriT\". There can only be one copy of the F-plasmid in a given bacterium, either free or integrated, and bacteria that possess a copy are called \"F-positive\" or \"F-plus\" (denoted F). Cells that lack F plasmids are called \"F-negative\" or \"F-minus\" (F) and as such can function as recipient cells.  Among other genetic information, the F-plasmid carries a \"tra\" and \"trb\" locus, which together are about 33 kb long and consist of about 40 genes. The \"tra\" locus includes the \"pilin\" gene and regulatory genes, which together form pili on the cell surface. The locus also includes the genes for the proteins that attach themselves to the surface of F bacteria and initiate conjugation. Though there is some debate on the exact mechanism of conjugation it seems that the pili are not the structures through which DNA exchange occurs. This has been shown in experiments where the pilus are allowed to make contact, but then are denatured with SDS and yet DNA transformation still proceeds. Several proteins coded for in the \"tra\" or \"trb\" locus seem to open a channel between the bacteria and it is thought that the traD enzyme, located at the base of the pilus, initiates membrane fusion.  When conjugation is initiated by a signal the relaxase enzyme creates a nick in one of the strands of the conjugative plasmid at the \"oriT\". Relaxase may work alone or in a complex of over a dozen proteins known collectively as a relaxosome. In the F-plasmid system the relaxase enzyme is called TraI and the relaxosome consists of TraI, TraY, TraM and the integrated host factor IHF. The nicked strand, or \"T-strand\", is then unwound from the unbroken strand and transferred to the recipient cell in a 5'-terminus to 3'-terminus direction. The remaining strand is replicated either independent of conjugative action (vegetative replication beginning at the \"oriV\") or in concert with conjugation (conjugative replication similar to the rolling circle replication of lambda phage). Conjugative replication may require a second nick before successful transfer can occur. A recent report claims to have inhibited conjugation with chemicals that mimic an intermediate step of this second nicking event.  If the F-plasmid that is transferred has previously been integrated into the donor's genome (producing an Hfr strain [\"High Frequency of Recombination\"]) some of the donor's chromosomal DNA may also be transferred with the plasmid DNA. The amount of chromosomal DNA that is transferred depends on how long the two conjugating bacteria remain in contact. In common laboratory strains of \"E. coli\" the transfer of the entire bacterial chromosome takes about 100 minutes. The transferred DNA can then be integrated into the recipient genome via homologous recombination.  A cell culture that contains in its population cells with non-integrated F-plasmids usually also contains a few cells that have accidentally integrated their plasmids. It is these cells that are responsible for the low-frequency chromosomal gene transfers that occur in such cultures. Some strains of bacteria with an integrated F-plasmid can be isolated and grown in pure culture. Because such strains transfer chromosomal genes very efficiently they are called Hfr (high frequency of recombination). The \"E. coli\" genome was originally mapped by interrupted mating experiments in which various Hfr cells in the process of conjugation were sheared from recipients after less than 100 minutes (initially using a Waring blender). The genes that were transferred were then investigated.  Since integration of the F-plasmid into the \"E. coli\" chromosome is a rare spontaneous occurrence, and since the numerous genes promoting DNA transfer are in the plasmid genome rather than in the bacterial genome, it has been argued that conjugative bacterial gene transfer, as it occurs in the \"E. coli\" Hfr system, is not an evolutionary adaptation of the bacterial host, nor is it likely ancestral to eukaryotic sex.  Spontaneous zygogenesis in \"E. coli\"  In addition to classical bacterial conjugation described above for \"E. coli\", a form of conjugation referred to as spontaneous zygogenesis (Z-mating for short) is observed in certain strains of \"E. coli\". In Z-mating there is complete genetic mixing, and unstable diploids are formed that throw off phenotypically haploid cells, of which some show a parental phenotype and some are true recombinants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conjugal transfer in mycobacteria.", "content": "Conjugation in \"Mycobacteria smegmatis\", like conjugation in \"E. coli\", requires stable and extended contact between a donor and a recipient strain, is DNase resistant, and the transferred DNA is incorporated into the recipient chromosome by homologous recombination. However, unlike \"E. coli\" Hfr conjugation, mycobacterial conjugation is chromosome rather than plasmid based. Furthermore, in contrast to \"E. coli\" Hfr conjugation, in \"M. smegmatis\" all regions of the chromosome are transferred with comparable efficiencies. The lengths of the donor segments vary widely, but have an average length of 44.2kb. Since a mean of 13 tracts are transferred, the average total of transferred DNA per genome is 575kb. This process is referred to as \"Distributive conjugal transfer.\" Gray et al. found substantial blending of the parental genomes as a result of conjugation and regarded this blending as reminiscent of that seen in the meiotic products of sexual reproduction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inter-kingdom transfer.", "content": "Bacteria related to the nitrogen fixing \"Rhizobia\" are an interesting case of inter-kingdom conjugation. For example, the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid of \"Agrobacterium\" and the root-tumor inducing (Ri) plasmid of \"A. rhizogenes\" contain genes that are capable of transferring to plant cells. The expression of these genes effectively transforms the plant cells into opine-producing factories. Opines are used by the bacteria as sources of nitrogen and energy. Infected cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.  The Ti and Ri plasmids can also be transferred between bacteria using a system (the \"tra\", or transfer, operon) that is different and independent of the system used for inter-kingdom transfer (the \"vir\", or virulence, operon). Such transfers create virulent strains from previously avirulent strains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetic engineering applications.", "content": "Conjugation is a convenient means for transferring genetic material to a variety of targets. In laboratories, successful transfers have been reported from bacteria to yeast, plants, mammalian cells, diatoms and isolated mammalian mitochondria. Conjugation has advantages over other forms of genetic transfer including minimal disruption of the target's cellular envelope and the ability to transfer relatively large amounts of genetic material (see the above discussion of \"E. coli\" chromosome transfer). In plant engineering, \"Agrobacterium\"-like conjugation complements other standard vehicles such as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). While TMV is capable of infecting many plant families these are primarily herbaceous dicots. \"Agrobacterium\"-like conjugation is also primarily used for dicots, but monocot recipients are not uncommon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contact or by a bridge-like connection between two cells. This takes place through a pilus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971782}
{"src_title": "Ecclesiology", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The roots of the word \"ecclesiology\" come from the Greek, \"ekklēsia\" (Latin: \"ecclesia\") meaning \"congregation, church\" and, \"-logia\", meaning \"words\", \"knowledge\", or \"logic\", a combining term used in the names of sciences or bodies of knowledge.  The similar word \"ecclesialogy \"first appeared in the quarterly journal \"The British Critic\" in 1837, in an article written by an anonymous contributor who defined it thus:  However, in volume 4 of the Cambridge Camden Society's journal \"The Ecclesiologist\", published in January 1845 that society (the CCS) claimed that they had invented the word \"ecclesiology\":  \"The Ecclesiologist\" was first published in October 1841 and dealt with the study of the building and decoration of churches. It particularly encouraged the restoration of Anglican churches back to their supposed Gothic splendour and it was at the centre of the wave of Victorian restoration that spread across England and Wales in the second half of the 19th century. Its successor \"Ecclesiology Today\" is still,, being published by The Ecclesiological Society (successor to the CCS, now a registered charity).  The situation regarding the etymology has been summed up by Alister McGrath: \"'Ecclesiology' is a term that has changed its meaning in recent theology. Formerly the science of the building and decoration of churches, promoted by the Cambridge Camden Society, the Ecclesiological Society and the journal The Ecclesiologist, ecclesiology now stands for the study of the nature of the Christian church.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Catholic ecclesiology.", "content": "Catholic ecclesiology today has a plurality of models and views, as with all Catholic Theology since the acceptance of scholarly Biblical criticism that began in the early to mid 20th century. This shift is most clearly marked by the encyclical \"Divino afflante Spiritu\" in 1943. Avery Robert Cardinal Dulles, S.J. contributed greatly to the use of models in understanding ecclesiology. In his work Models of the Church, he defines five basic models of Church that have been prevalent throughout the history of the Catholic Church. These include models of the Church as institution, as mystical communion, as sacrament, as herald, and as servant.  The ecclesiological model of Church as an Institution holds that the Catholic Church alone is the \"one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church\", and is the only Church of divine and apostolic origin led by the Pope. This view of the Church is dogmatically defined Catholic doctrine, and is therefore \"de fide\". In this view, the Catholic Church— composed of all baptized, professing Catholics, both clergy and laity—is the unified, visible society founded by Christ himself, and its hierarchy derives its spiritual authority through the centuries, via apostolic succession of its bishops, most especially through the bishop of Rome (the Pope) whose successorship comes from St. Peter the Apostle, to whom Christ gave \"the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven\". Thus, the Popes, in the Catholic view, have a God-ordained universal jurisdiction over the whole Church on earth. The Catholic Church is considered Christ's mystical body, and the universal sacrament of salvation, whereby Christ enables human to receive sanctifying grace.  The model of Church as Mystical Communion draws on two major Biblical images, the first of the \"Mystical Body of Christ\" (as developed in Paul's Epistles) and the second of the \"People of God.\" This image goes beyond the Aristotelian-Scholastic model of \"\"Communitas Perfecta\"\" held in previous centuries. This ecclesiological model draws upon sociology and articulations of two types of social relationships: a formally organized or structured society (Gesellschaft) and an informal or interpersonal community (Gemeinschaft). The Catholic theologian Arnold Rademacher maintained that the Church in its inner core is community (Gemeinschaft) and in its outer core society (Gesellschaft). Here, the interpersonal aspect of the Church is given primacy and that the structured Church is the result of a real community of believers. Similarly, Yves Congar argued that the ultimate reality of the Church is a fellowship of persons. This ecclesiology opens itself to ecumenism and was the prevailing model used by the Second Vatican Council in its ecumenical efforts. The Council, using this model, recognized in its document \"Lumen gentium\" that the Body of Christ subsists in a visible society governed by the Successor of Peter and by the Bishops in communion with him, although many elements of sanctification and of truth are found outside its visible structure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eastern Orthodox ecclesiology.", "content": "From the Eastern Orthodox perspective, the Church is one, even though it is manifested in many places. Eastern Orthodox ecclesiology operates with a plurality in unity and a unity in plurality. For Eastern Orthodoxy there is no 'either / or' between the one and the many. No attempt is made to subordinate the many to the one (the Roman Catholic model), nor the one to the many (the Protestant model). In this view, it is both canonically and theologically correct to speak of the Church and the churches, and vice versa. Historically, that ecclesiological concept was applied in practice as patriarchal pentarchy, embodied in ecclesiastical unity of five major patriarchal thrones (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem).  There is disagreement between the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Patriarchate of Moscow on the question of separation between ecclesiological and theological primacy and separation of the different ecclesiological levels:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecclesiology of the Church of the East.", "content": "Historical development of the Church of the East outside the political borders of the Late Roman Empire and its eastern successor, the Byzantine Empire, resulted in the creation of its distinctive theological and ecclesiological traditions, regarding not only the questions of internal institutional and administrative organization of the Church, but also the questions of universal ecclesiastical order.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Protestant ecclesiology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Magisterial Reformation ecclesiology.", "content": "Martin Luther argued that because the Catholic Church had \"lost sight of the doctrine of grace\", it had \"lost its claim to be considered as the authentic Christian church\". This argument was open to the counter-criticism from Catholics that he was thus guilty of schism and the heresy of Donatism, and in both cases therefore opposing central teachings of the early Church and most especially the Church father St. Augustine of Hippo. It also challenged the Catholic doctrine that the Catholic Church was indefectible and infallible in its dogmatic teachings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Radical Reformation ecclesiology.", "content": "There is no single \"Radical Reformation Ecclesiology\". A variety of views is expressed among the various \"Radical Reformation\" participants.  A key \"Radical Reformer\" was Menno Simons, known as an \"Anabaptist\". He wrote: This was in direct contrast to the hierarchical, sacramental ecclesiology that characterised the incumbent Roman Catholic tradition as well as the new Lutheran and other prominent Protestant movements of the Reformation.  Some other Radical Reformation ecclesiology holds that \"the true church [is] in heaven, and no institution of any kind on earth merit[s] the name 'church of God.'\"  For historical Protestant ecclesiology, see", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In Christian theology, ecclesiology is the study of the Christian Church, the origins of Christianity, its relationship to Jesus, its role in salvation, its polity, its discipline, its destiny, and its leadership.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971783}
{"src_title": "Henry II, Duke of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Henry was the second son of Margrave Leopold III of Austria, the first from his second marriage with Agnes of Waiblingen, a sister of the last Salian emperor, Henry V. Leopold himself was expected to stand as a candidate in the 1125 election as king of Germany; nevertheless, he renounced in favour of his half-brother, the Hohenstaufen duke Frederick II of Swabia, who eventually lost against Lothair of Supplinburg. Among Henry's younger brothers were Bishop Otto of Freising and Archbishop Conrad II of Salzburg. His sister Judith became the wife of Marquess William V of Montferrat.  Henry's nickname, \"Jasomirgott\", was first documented during the 13th century in the form of \"Jochsamergott\", the meaning of which is unclear. According to one theory, it was derived from a spoofed Arab word bearing a connection to the Second Crusade in which Henry participated in 1147. According to popular etymology, it is derived from the Middle High German form of the oath \"joch sam mir got helfe\" (meaning: \"Yes, so help me God\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "When Margrave Leopold III died in 1136, he was succeeded by his third-born son Leopold IV, probably because Henry already administered the Rhenish possessions of his mother's now-extinct Salian dynasty. In April 1140, the Hohenstaufen king Conrad III of Germany enfeoffed him with the County Palatine of the Rhine, which he ruled for only a short time as he was appointed Bavarian duke and margrave of Austria when his younger brother Leopold IV unexpectedly died in October 1141. Leopold had received the Duchy of Bavaria in 1139, after King Conrad had deposed Duke Henry the Proud in the course of the dispute between the Welf and Hohenstaufen dynasties.  Henry took his residence in the Bavarian capital of Regensburg (\"Ratisbona\"). In May 1142 he married Gertrude, daughter of Emperor Lothair and widow of Henry the Proud. She died after less than one year, giving birth to her only child with Henry.  The duke remained a loyal follower of the Hohenstaufens and in May 1147 accompanied King Conrad on the Second Crusade. When they suffered a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Dorylaeum against the Seljuk Turks in October, Henry narrowly escaped together with Conrad's nephew, young Frederick Barbarossa. On their way home, Henry stayed at the court of the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos, where he married his niece Theodora in late 1148.  Elected king of Germany in 1152, Frederick Barbarossa tried to reach a compromise with the Welfs and endowed Henry the Lion, son of the late Henry the Proud, with the Duchy of Bavaria in 1156. A replacement duchy had to be found for the Babenberg family, which was accomplished by the \"Privilegium Minus\", through which Frederick elevated Henry's Margraviate of Austria to a duchy with complete independence from Bavaria.  Unlike his father, who had resided in Klosterneuburg most of the time, Henry moved his Austrian residence to Vienna in 1145. Only by this act could Vienna surpass other cities within the duchy, such as Krems, Melk, and Klosterneuburg. Since then, it has remained the capital of the country. In addition, in 1147 the first St. Stephen's Church was completed, becoming a visible landmark for the city and showing its prominence. In 1155, Henry founded the Schottenstift monastery in Vienna, in the courtyard of which a statue of him stands to this day.  In November 1176, while his Austrian lands were campaigned by the forces of Duke Soběslav II of Bohemia, Henry II with his horse fell from a rotten bridge near Melk and suffered a femoral neck fracture. Henry II succumbed to his injuries on 13 January 1177 in Vienna. According to his last will, he was buried in the Schottenstift monastery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Until 1143, Henry II was married to Gertrude of Süpplingenburg, the daughter of Emperor Lothair II. In 1148 he married Theodora Komnene, niece of the Byzantine emperor Manuel I. Both marriages were an expression of the importance of the Babenberg dynasty in Central Europe in that period.  Henry had one child by Gertrude of Süpplingenburg:  Henry had three children by Theodora Komnene:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry II (; 1112 – 13 January 1177), called Jasomirgott, a member of the House of Babenberg, was Count Palatine of the Rhine from 1140 to 1141, Duke of Bavaria (as \"Henry XI\") and Margrave of Austria from 1141 to 1156, and the first Duke of Austria from 1156 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971784}
{"src_title": "Social constructivism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Social constructivism.", "content": "Like social constructionism, social constructivism states that people work together to construct artifacts. While social constructionism focuses on the artifacts that are created through the social interactions of a group, social constructivism focuses on an individual's learning that takes place because of his or her interactions in a group.  A very simple example is an object like a cup. The object can be used for many things, but its shape does suggest some 'knowledge' about carrying liquids (see also Affordance). A more complex example is an online course—not only do the'shapes' of the software tools indicate certain things about the way online courses should work, but the activities and texts produced within the group as a whole will help shape how each person behaves within that group. A person's cognitive development will also be influenced by the culture that he or she is involved in, such as the language, history and social context.  For a philosophical account of one possible social-constructionist ontology, see the 'Criticism' section of \"Representative realism\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Strong social constructivism as a philosophical approach tends to suggest that \"the natural world has a small or non-existent role in the construction of scientific knowledge\". According to Maarten Boudry and Filip Buekens, Freudian psychoanalysis is a good example of this approach in action.  However, Boudry and Buekens do not claim that 'bona fide' science is completely immune from all socialisation and paradigm shifts, merely that the strong social constructivist claim that \"all\" scientific knowledge is constructed ignores the reality of scientific success.  One characteristic of social constructivism is that it rejects the role of superhuman necessity in either the invention/discovery of knowledge or its justification. In the field of invention it looks to contingency as playing an important part in the origin of knowledge, with historical interests and resourcing swaying the direction of mathematical and scientific knowledge growth. In the area of justification while acknowledging the role of logic and reason in testing, it also accepts that the criteria for acceptance vary and change over time. Thus mathematical proofs follow different standards in the present and throughout different periods in the past, as Paul Ernest argues.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Social constructivism has been studied by many educational psychologists, who are concerned with its implications for teaching and learning. Social constructivism extends constructivism by incorporating the role of other actors and culture in development. In this sense it can also be contrasted with social learning theory by stressing interaction over observation. For more on the psychological dimensions of social constructivism, see the work of A. Sullivan Palincsar. Psychological tools are one of the key concepts in Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural perspective.  Studies on increasing the use of student discussion in the classroom both support and are grounded in theories of social constructivism. There is a full range of advantages that results from the implementation of discussion in the classroom. Participating in group discussion allows students to generalize and transfer their knowledge of classroom learning and builds a strong foundation for communicating ideas orally. Many studies argue that discussion plays a vital role in increasing student ability to test their ideas, synthesize the ideas of others, and build deeper understanding of what they are learning. Large and small group discussion also affords students opportunities to exercise self-regulation, self-determination, and a desire to persevere with tasks. Additionally, discussion increases student motivation, collaborative skills, and the ability to problem solve. Increasing students’ opportunity to talk with one another and discuss their ideas increases their ability to support their thinking, develop reasoning skills, and to argue their opinions persuasively and respectfully. Furthermore, the feeling of community and collaboration in classrooms increases through offering more chances for students to talk together.  Studies have found that students are not regularly accustomed to participating in academic discourse. Martin Nystrand argues that teachers rarely choose classroom discussion as an instructional format. The results of Nystrand’s (1996) three-year study focusing on 2400 students in 60 different classrooms indicate that the typical classroom teacher spends under three minutes an hour allowing students to talk about ideas with one another and the teacher. Even within those three minutes of discussion, most talk is not true discussion because it depends upon teacher-directed questions with predetermined answers. Multiple observations indicate that students in low socioeconomic schools and lower track classrooms are allowed even fewer opportunities for discussion. Teachers who teach as if they value what their students think create learners. Discussion and interactive discourse promote learning because they afford students the opportunity to use language as a demonstration of their independent thoughts. Discussion elicits sustained responses from students that encourage meaning-making through negotiating with the ideas of others. This type of learning “promotes retention and in-depth processing associated with the cognitive manipulation of information”.  One recent branch of work exploring social constructivist perspectives on learning focuses on the role of social technologies and social media in facilitating the generation of socially constructed knowledge and understanding in online environments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic writing.", "content": "In a constructivist approach, the focus is on the sociocultural conventions of academic discourse such as citing evidence, hedging and boosting claims, interpreting the literature to back one's own claims, and addressing counter claims. These conventions are inherent to a constructivist approach as they place value on the communicative, interpersonal nature of academic writing with a strong focus on how the reader receives the message. The act of citing others’ work is more than accurate attribution; it is an important exercise in critical thinking in the construction of an authorial self.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Social constructivism is a sociological theory of knowledge according to which human development is socially situated and knowledge is constructed through interaction with others.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971785}
{"src_title": "Eight-thousander", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Climbing history.", "content": "The first recorded attempt on an eight-thousander was when Albert F. Mummery and J. Norman Collie tried to climb Pakistan's Nanga Parbat in 1895. The attempt failed when Mummery and two Gurkhas, Ragobir, and Goman Singh, were killed by an avalanche.  The first recorded successful ascent of an eight-thousander was by the French Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal, who reached the summit of Annapurna on 3 June 1950 during the 1950 French Annapurna expedition. The first winter ascent of an eight-thousander was done by a Polish team led by Andrzej Zawada on Mount Everest. Two climbers Leszek Cichy and Krzysztof Wielicki reached the summit on 17 February 1980.  The first person to climb all 14 eight-thousanders was Italian Reinhold Messner, on 16 October 1986. In 1987, Polish climber Jerzy Kukuczka became the second person to accomplish this feat. Kukuczka is also the man who established the most new routes (9) on the main eight-thousanders. Messner summited each of the 14 peaks without the aid of bottled oxygen. This feat was not repeated until nine years later by the Swiss Erhard Loretan in 1995. Phurba Tashi of Nepal has completed the most climbs of the eight-thousanders, with 30 ascents between 1998 and 2011. Juanito Oiarzabal has completed the second most, with a total of 25 ascents between 1985 and 2011.  The Italian Simone Moro made the most first winter ascents of eight-thousanders (4); Jerzy Kukuczka made four winter ascents as well, but one was a repetition., K2 remains the only eight-thousander that has never been summited during the winter season.  In 2010, Spanish climber Edurne Pasaban, became the first woman to summit all 14 eight-thousanders with no disputed climbing. In August 2011, Austrian climber Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner became the first woman to climb the 14 eight-thousanders without the use of supplementary oxygen.  The first couple and team who summited all 14 eight-thousanders together were the Italians Nives Meroi (second woman without supplementary oxygen), and her husband in 2017. The couple climbed alpine style, without the use of supplementary oxygen and other aids. , the country with the most climbers to have climbed all 14 eight-thousanders is Italy with seven climbers, followed by Spain with six climbers, and South Korea with five climbers. Kazakhstan and Poland each have three climbers who have completed the \"Crown of the Himalaya\" (all 14 eight-thousanders).  On 29 October 2019, former Nepalese Gurka, and Special Boat Service (SBS) elite soldier Nirmal Purja, set a new speed record by climbing the 14 eight-thousanders in 6 months and 6 days, beating the previous record of just under 8 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proposed expansion.", "content": "In 2012, to relieve capacity pressure, and develop climbing tourism, Nepal lobbied the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (or UIAA) to reclassify five summits (two on Lhotse and three on Kanchenjunga), as standalone eight-thousanders, while Pakistan lobbied for a sixth summit (on Broad Peak) In 2012, the UIAA set up a project group to consider the proposals called the \"AGURA Project\". The six proposed summits for reclassification are subsidiary-summits of existing eight-thousanders, but which are also themselves above 8,000 metres and have a prominence above 60 metres.  The proposed six new eight-thousander peaks would not meet the wider UIAA criteria of 600 metres of elevation from nearest larger mountain's saddle, called topographic prominence, as used by the UIAA elsewhere for major mountains (the lowest prominence of the existing 14 eight-thousanders is Lhotse, at 610 metres). For example, only Broad Peak Central, with a topographic prominence of 181 metres, would even meet the 150–metre prominence threshold to be a British Isles Marilyn. However, the appeal noted the UIAA's 1994 reclassification of Alpine 4,000-metre peaks where a prominence threshold of 30 metres was used, amongst other criteria; the logic being that if 30 metres worked for 4,000-metre summits, then 60 metres is proportional for 8,000m summits. , there has been no conclusion by the UIAA and the proposals appear to have been set aside.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climbers of all 14.", "content": "There is no single undisputed source for verified Himalayan ascents, however, Elizabeth Hawley's \"The Himalayan Database\", is considered as an important source for the \"Nepalese Himalayas\". Online ascent databases pay close regard to \"The Himalayan Database\", including the website \"AdventureStats.com\", and the \" List\". Various mountaineering journals, including the \"Alpine Journal\" and the \"American Alpine Journal\", maintain extensive records and archives but do not always opine on ascents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Verified ascents.", "content": "The \"No O\" column lists people who have climbed all 14 eight-thousanders without supplementary oxygen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disputed ascents.", "content": "Claims have been made for all 14 peaks in which not enough evidence was provided to verify the ascent. The disputed ascent in each claim is shown in parentheses. In most cases, the Himalayan chronicler Elizabeth Hawley is considered the definitive source regarding the facts of the dispute. Her \"The Himalayan Database\" is the source for other online Himalayan ascent databases (e.g. AdventureStats.com).  Cho Oyu is a recurrent problem peak as it is a small hump about 30 mins into the summit plateau, and the main proxy of a view of Everest, which is possible from the true summit, requires clear weather. Shishapangma is another problem peak because of its dual summits, which despite being close in height, are up to two hours climbing time apart. Hawley judged that Ed Viesturs had not reached the true summit, and he re-climbed the mountain to definitively establish his ascent.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation or UIAA recognise eight-thousanders as the 14 mountains that are more than in height above sea level, and are considered to be sufficiently independent from neighbouring peaks. However, there is no precise definition of the criteria used to assess independence, and since 2012 the UIAA has been involved in a process to consider whether the list should be expanded to 20 mountains. All eight-thousanders are located in the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges in Asia, and their summits are in the death zone.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971786}
{"src_title": "Prince Ernest Augustus, 3rd Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Prince of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was born at Hanover during the reign of his paternal grandfather, Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover. He became the crown prince of Hanover upon his father's accession as George V in November 1851. William I of Prussia and his minister-president Otto von Bismarck deposed George V and annexed Hanover after George sided with the defeated Austria in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. During that war, the Crown Prince saw action at the Battle of Langensalza.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile.", "content": "After the war, the exiled Hanoverian royal family took up residence in Hietzing, near Vienna, but spent a good deal of time in Paris. George V never abandoned his claim to the Hanoverian throne and maintained the Guelphic Legion at his own expense. The former Crown Prince travelled during this early period of exile, and ultimately accepted a commission in the Imperial and Royal Army of Austria-Hungary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Succession.", "content": "When King George V died in Paris on 12 June 1878, Prince Ernst August succeeded him as Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale in the Peerage of Great Britain and Earl of Armagh in the Peerage of Ireland. Queen Victoria created him a Knight of the Garter on 1 August 1878. Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria appointed him to succeed his father as colonel and proprietor of the Austrian 42nd Regiment of Infantry. The regiment's name was changed to honour him, and he served as its honorary colonel from 1879 to the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1918.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "While visiting his second cousin Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII) at Sandringham in 1875, he met Princess Thyra of Denmark (29 September 1853 – 26 February 1933), the youngest daughter of King Christian IX and a sister of the Princess of Wales (later Queen Alexandra).  On 21/22 December 1878, he and Princess Thyra married at Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duchy of Brunswick.", "content": "Queen Victoria appointed the Duke of Cumberland a colonel in the British Army in 1876 and promoted him to major general in 1886, lieutenant general in 1892 and general in 1898. Although he was a British peer and a prince of Great Britain and Ireland, he continued to consider himself an exiled monarch of a German realm and refused to disclaim his succession rights to Hanover, making his home in Gmunden, Upper Austria.  The Duke of Cumberland was also first in the line of succession to the Duchy of Brunswick after his distant cousin, Duke William. In 1879, when it became apparent that the senior line of the House of Welf would die with William, the Brunswick parliament created a council of regency to take over administration of the duchy upon William's death. This council would appoint a regent if the Duke of Cumberland could not ascend the throne. When William died in 1884, the Duke of Cumberland proclaimed himself Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick. However, since he still claimed to be the legitimate King of Hanover as well, the German Reichsrat declared that he would disturb the peace of the empire if he ascended the ducal throne. Under Prussian pressure, the council of regency ignored his claim and appointed Prince Albert of Prussia as regent.  Negotiations between Ernest Augustus and the German government continued for almost three decades, to no avail. During this time, Regent Albert died and Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg was appointed as regent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reconciliation.", "content": "The Duke of Cumberland was partially reconciled with the Hohenzollern dynasty in 1913, when his surviving son, Prince Ernst August, married the only daughter of Kaiser Wilhelm II, the grandson of the Prussian king who had deposed his father. On 24 October 1913, he renounced his succession rights to the Brunswick duchy (which had belonged to the Guelph dynasty since 1235) in favour of his son. The younger Ernst August thus became the reigning Duke of Brunswick on 1 November 1913 and married the Kaiser's daughter. As a mark of regard for his daughter's father-in-law, Kaiser Wilhelm II created the elder Ernst August a Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle.  In 1918, the younger Duke Ernst August abdicated his throne along with the other German princes when all the German dynasties were disestablished by the successor German provisional Government which was established when the Emperor himself abdicated and fled Germany in exile to the Netherlands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War.", "content": "The outbreak of World War I created a breach between the British Royal Family and its Hanoverian cousins. On 13 May 1915, King George V of the United Kingdom ordered the removal of the Duke of Cumberland from the Roll of the Order of the Garter. According to the letters patent on 30 November 1917, he lost the status of a British prince and the style of Highness. Under the terms of the Titles Deprivation Act 1917, on 28 March 1919 his name was removed from the roll of Peers of Great Britain and of Ireland by Order of the King in Council for \"bearing arms against Great Britain.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Prince Ernst August, the former Crown Prince of Hanover and former Duke of Cumberland, died of a stroke on his estate at Gmunden in November 1923. He is interred, next to his wife and his mother, in a mausoleum which he had built adjacent to Cumberland Castle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours and arms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military Appointments.", "content": "\"In Germany:\"  \"In Austria:\"  \"In the United Kingdom:\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "Until his father's death in 1878, Ernest Augustus' arms in right of the United Kingdom were those of his father (being the arms of the Kingdom of Hanover differenced by a label gules bearing a horse courant argent). Upon his father's death, he inherited his arms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "The Duke and Duchess of Cumberland had six children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancestry.", "content": "Patrilineal descent, descent from father to son, is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations - which means that the \"historically accurate\" royal house of monarchs of the House of Hanover was the House of Lucca (or Este, or Welf).  This is the descent of the primary male heir. For the complete expanded family tree, see List of members of the House of Hanover.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernest Augustus, Crown Prince of Hanover, 3rd Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale (; 21 September 1845 – 14 November 1923), was the eldest child and only son of George V of Hanover and his wife, Marie of Saxe-Altenburg. Ernst August was deprived of the thrones of Hanover upon its annexation by Prussia in 1866 and later the Duchy of Brunswick in 1884. Although he was the senior male-line great-grandson of George III, the Duke of Cumberland was deprived of his British peerages and honours for having sided with Germany in World War I. Ernst August was the last Hanoverian prince to hold a British royal title and the Order of the Garter. His descendants are in the line of succession to the British throne.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971787}
{"src_title": "Polycarbonate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "Carbonate esters have planar OC(OC) cores, which confers rigidity. The unique O=C bond is short (1.173 Å in the depicted example), while the C-O bonds are more ether-like (the bond distances of 1.326 Å for the example depicted). Polycarbonates received their name because they are polymers containing carbonate groups (−O−(C=O)−O−). A balance of useful features, including temperature resistance, impact resistance and optical properties, positions polycarbonates between commodity plastics and engineering plastics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The main polycarbonate material is produced by the reaction of bisphenol A (BPA) and phosgene. The overall reaction can be written as follows:  The first step of the synthesis involves treatment of bisphenol A with sodium hydroxide, which deprotonates the hydroxyl groups of the bisphenol A.  The diphenoxide (Na(OCH)CMe) reacts with phosgene to give a chloroformate, which subsequently is attacked by another phenoxide. The net reaction from the diphenoxide is:  In this way, approximately one billion kilograms of polycarbonate is produced annually. Many other diols have been tested in place of bisphenol A, e.g. 1,1-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)cyclohexane and dihydroxybenzophenone. The cyclohexane is used as a comonomer to suppress crystallisation tendency of the BPA-derived product. Tetrabromobisphenol A is used to enhance fire resistance. Tetramethylcyclobutanediol has been developed as a replacement for BPA.  An alternative route to polycarbonates entails transesterification from BPA and diphenyl carbonate: The diphenyl carbonate was derived in part from carbon monoxide, this route being greener than the phosgene method.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties and processing.", "content": "Polycarbonate is a durable material. Although it has high impact-resistance, it has low scratch-resistance. Therefore, a hard coating is applied to polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate exterior automotive components. The characteristics of polycarbonate compare to those of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, acrylic), but polycarbonate is stronger and will hold up longer to extreme temperature. Polycarbonate is highly transparent to visible light, with better light transmission than many kinds of glass.  Polycarbonate has a glass transition temperature of about, so it softens gradually above this point and flows above about. Tools must be held at high temperatures, generally above to make strain-free and stress-free products. Low molecular mass grades are easier to mold than higher grades, but their strength is lower as a result. The toughest grades have the highest molecular mass, but are much more difficult to process.  Unlike most thermoplastics, polycarbonate can undergo large plastic deformations without cracking or breaking. As a result, it can be processed and formed at room temperature using sheet metal techniques, such as bending on a brake. Even for sharp angle bends with a tight radius, heating may not be necessary. This makes it valuable in prototyping applications where transparent or electrically non-conductive parts are needed, which cannot be made from sheet metal. PMMA/Acrylic, which is similar in appearance to polycarbonate, is brittle and cannot be bent at room temperature.  Main transformation techniques for polycarbonate resins:  Polycarbonate may become brittle when exposed to ionizing radiation above", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Electronic components.", "content": "Polycarbonate is mainly used for electronic applications that capitalize on its collective safety features. Being a good electrical insulator and having heat-resistant and flame-retardant properties, it is used in various products associated with electrical and telecommunications hardware. It can also serve as a dielectric in high-stability capacitors. However, commercial manufacture of polycarbonate capacitors mostly stopped after sole manufacturer Bayer AG stopped making capacitor-grade polycarbonate film at the end of year 2000.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction materials.", "content": "The second largest consumer of polycarbonates is the construction industry, e.g. for domelights, flat or curved glazing, and sound walls.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Data storage.", "content": "A major application of polycarbonate is the production of Compact Discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs. These discs are produced by injection molding polycarbonate into a mold cavity that has on one side a metal stamper containing a negative image of the disc data, while the other mold side is a mirrored surface. Typical products of sheet/film production include applications in advertisement (signs, displays, poster protection).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Automotive, aircraft, and security components.", "content": "In the automotive industry, injection-molded polycarbonate can produce very smooth surfaces that make it well-suited for sputter deposition or evaporation deposition of aluminium without the need for a base-coat. Decorative bezels and optical reflectors are commonly made of polycarbonate. Due to its low weight and high impact resistance, polycarbonate is the dominant material for making automotive headlamp lenses. However, automotive headlamps require outer surface coatings because of its low scratch resistance and susceptibility to ultraviolet degradation (yellowing). The use of polycarbonate in automotive applications is limited to low stress applications. Stress from fasteners, plastic welding and molding render polycarbonate susceptible to stress corrosion cracking when it comes in contact with certain accelerants such as salt water and plastisol. It can be laminated to make bullet-proof \"glass\", although \"bullet-resistant\" is more accurate for the thinner windows, such as are used in bullet-resistant windows in automobiles. The thicker barriers of transparent plastic used in teller's windows and barriers in banks are also polycarbonate.  So-called \"theft-proof\" large plastic packaging for smaller items, which cannot be opened by hand, is uniformly made from polycarbonate. The cockpit canopy of the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor jet fighter is made from a piece of high optical quality polycarbonate, and is the largest piece of its type formed in the world.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Niche applications.", "content": "Polycarbonate, being a versatile material with attractive processing and physical properties, has attracted myriad smaller applications. The use of injection molded drinking bottles, glasses and food containers is common, but the use of BPA in the manufacture of polycarbonate has stirred concerns (see Potential hazards in food contact applications), leading to development and use of \"BPA-free\" plastics in various formulations. Polycarbonate is commonly used in eye protection, as well as in other projectile-resistant viewing and lighting applications that would normally indicate the use of glass, but require much higher impact-resistance. Polycarbonate lenses also protect the eye from UV light. Many kinds of lenses are manufactured from polycarbonate, including automotive headlamp lenses, lighting lenses, sunglass/eyeglass lenses, swimming goggles and SCUBA masks, and safety glasses/goggles/visors including visors in sporting helmets/masks and police riot gear (helmet visors, riot shields, etc.). Windscreens in small motorized vehicles are commonly made of polycarbonate, such as for motorcycles, ATVs, golf carts, and small airplanes and helicopters.  The light weight of polycarbonate as opposed to glass has led to development of electronic display screens that replace glass with polycarbonate, for use in mobile and portable devices. Such displays include newer e-ink and some LCD screens, though CRT, plasma screen and other LCD technologies generally still require glass for its higher melting temperature and its ability to be etched in finer detail.  As more and more governments are restricting the use of glass in pubs and clubs due to the increased incidence of glassings, polycarbonate glasses are becoming popular for serving alcohol because of their strength, durability, and glass-like feel.  Other miscellaneous items include durable, lightweight luggage, MP3/digital audio player cases, ocarinas, computer cases, riot shields, instrument panels, tealight candle containers and food blender jars. Many toys and hobby items are made from polycarbonate parts, like fins, gyro mounts, and flybar locks in radio-controlled helicopters, and transparent LEGO (ABS is used for opaque pieces).<ref", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Polycarbonates (PC) are a group of thermoplastic polymers containing carbonate groups in their chemical structures. Polycarbonates used in engineering are strong, tough materials, and some grades are optically transparent. They are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed. Because of these properties, polycarbonates find many applications. Polycarbonates do not have a unique resin identification code (RIC) and are identified as \"Other\", 7 on the RIC list. Products made from polycarbonate can contain the precursor monomer bisphenol A (BPA).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971788}
{"src_title": "Eutectic system", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Eutectic phase transition.", "content": "The eutectic solidification is defined as follows:  This type of reaction is an invariant reaction, because it is in thermal equilibrium; another way to define this is the change in Gibbs free energy equals zero. Tangibly, this means the liquid and two solid solutions all coexist at the same time and are in chemical equilibrium. There is also a thermal arrest for the duration of the change of phase during which the temperature of the system does not change.  The resulting solid macrostructure from a eutectic reaction depends on a few factors. The most important factor is how the two solid solutions nucleate and grow. The most common structure is a lamellar structure, but other possible structures include rodlike, globular, and acicular.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Non-eutectic compositions.", "content": "Compositions of eutectic systems that are not at the eutectic composition can be classified as \"hypoeutectic\" or \"hypereutectic\". Hypoeutectic compositions are those with a smaller percent composition of species β and a greater composition of species α than the eutectic composition (E) while hypereutectic solutions are characterized as those with a higher composition of species β and a lower composition of species α than the eutectic composition. As the temperature of a non-eutectic composition is lowered the liquid mixture will precipitate one component of the mixture before the other. In a hypereutectic solution, there will be a proeutectoid phase of species β whereas a hypoeutectic solution will have a proeutectic α phase.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alloys.", "content": "Eutectic alloys have two or more materials and have a eutectic composition. When a non-eutectic alloy solidifies, its components solidify at different temperatures, exhibiting a plastic melting range. Conversely, when a well-mixed, eutectic alloy melts, it does so at a single, sharp temperature. The various phase transformations that occur during the solidification of a particular alloy composition can be understood by drawing a vertical line from the liquid phase to the solid phase on the phase diagram for that alloy.  Some uses include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other critical points.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eutectoid.", "content": "When the solution above the transformation point is solid, rather than liquid, an analogous eutectoid transformation can occur. For instance, in the iron-carbon system, the austenite phase can undergo a eutectoid transformation to produce ferrite and cementite, often in lamellar structures such as pearlite and bainite. This eutectoid point occurs at and about 0.76% carbon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Peritectoid.", "content": "A \"peritectoid\" transformation is a type of isothermal reversible reaction that has two solid phases reacting with each other upon cooling of a binary, ternary,..., formula_2-ary alloy to create a completely different and single solid phase. The reaction plays a key role in the order and decomposition of quasicrystalline phases in several alloy types.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Peritectic.", "content": "Peritectic transformations are also similar to eutectic reactions. Here, a liquid and solid phase of fixed proportions react at a fixed temperature to yield a single solid phase. Since the solid product forms at the interface between the two reactants, it can form a diffusion barrier and generally causes such reactions to proceed much more slowly than eutectic or eutectoid transformations. Because of this, when a peritectic composition solidifies it does not show the lamellar structure that is found with eutectic solidification.  Such a transformation exists in the iron-carbon system, as seen near the upper-left corner of the figure. It resembles an inverted eutectic, with the δ phase combining with the liquid to produce pure austenite at and 0.17% carbon.  At the peritectic decomposition temperature the compound, rather than melting, decomposes into another solid compound and a liquid. The proportion of each is determined by the lever rule. In the Al-Au phase diagram, for example, it can be seen that only two of the phases melt congruently, AuAl and AuAl, while the rest peritectically decompose.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eutectic calculation.", "content": "The composition and temperature of a eutectic can be calculated from enthalpy and entropy of fusion of each components.  The Gibbs free energy \"G\" depends on its own differential:  Thus, the \"G\"/\"T\" derivative at constant pressure is calculated by the following equation:  The chemical potential formula_5 is calculated if we assume that the activity is equal to the concentration:  At the equilibrium, formula_7, thus formula_8 is obtained as  Using and integrating gives  The integration constant \"K\" may be determined for a pure component with a melting temperature formula_11 and an enthalpy of fusion formula_12:  We obtain a relation that determines the molar fraction as a function of the temperature for each component:  The mixture of \"n\" components is described by the system  which can be solved by", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A eutectic system ( ) from the Greek \"εύ\" (eu = well) and \"τήξις\" (tēxis = melting) is a homogeneous mixture of substances that melts or solidifies at a single temperature that is lower than the melting point of any of the constituents.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971789}
{"src_title": "Vicuña", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The vicuña is considered more delicate and gracile than the guanaco, and smaller. A key distinguishing element of morphology is the better-developed incisor roots for the guanaco. The vicuña's long, woolly coat is tawny brown on the back, whereas the hair on the throat and chest is white and quite long. The head is slightly shorter than the guanaco's and the ears are slightly longer. The length of head and body ranges from 1.45 to 1.60 m (about 5 ft); shoulder height is from 75 to 85 cm (around 3 ft); its weight is from 35 to 65 kg (under 150 lb). It falls prey to the puma and culpeo, a South American fox.  To prevent poaching, a round-up is held every year, and all vicuñas with fur longer than 2.5 cm are shorn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Vicuñas are native to the central Andes in South America. They are found in Peru, northwestern Argentina, Bolivia, and northern Chile. A smaller, introduced population lives in central Ecuador.  Vicuñas live at altitudes of. They feed in daytime on the grassy plains of the Andes Mountains, but spend the nights on the slopes. In these areas, only nutrient-poor, tough, bunch grasses and \"Festuca\" grow. The sun's rays are able to penetrate the thin atmosphere, producing relatively warm temperatures during the day; however, the temperatures drop to freezing at night. The vicuña's thick but soft coat is a special adaptation which traps layers of warm air close to its body, so it can tolerate freezing temperatures.  Chief predators include pumas and foxes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "The behavior of vicuñas is similar to that of the guanacos. They are very shy animals, and are easily aroused by intruders, due, among other things, to their extraordinary hearing. Like the guanacos, they frequently lick calcareous stones and rocks, which are rich in salt, and also drink salt water. Their diets consist mainly of low grasses which grow in clumps on the ground.  Vicuñas live in family-based groups made up of a male, five to 15 females, and their young. Each group has its own territory of about 18 km, which can fluctuate depending on the availability of food.  Mating usually occurs in March–April, and after a gestation period of about 11 months, the female gives birth to a single fawn, which is nursed for about 10 months. The fawn becomes independent at about 12 to 18 months old. Young males form bachelor groups and the young females search for a sorority to join. This deters intraspecific competition and inbreeding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "From the period of Spanish conquest to 1964, hunting of the vicuña was unrestricted, which reduced its numbers to only 6,000 in the 1960s. As a result, the species was declared endangered in 1974, and its status prohibited the trade of vicuña wool. In Peru, during 1964–1966, the Servicio Forestal y de Caza in cooperation with the US Peace Corps, Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, and the National Agrarian University of La Molina established a nature conservatory for the vicuña called the Pampa Galeras – Barbara D'Achille in Lucanas Province, Ayacucho. During that time, a game warden academy was held in Nazca, where eight men from Peru and six from Bolivia were trained to protect the vicuña from poaching. The estimated population in Peru increased from 6,000 to 75,000 with protection by game wardens. Currently, the community of Lucanas conducts a \"chaccu\" (herding, capturing, and shearing) on the reserve each year to harvest the wool, organized by the National Council for South American Camelids (CONACS).  The wool is sold on the world market for over $300 per kg, to help support the community. In Bolivia, the Ulla Ulla National Reserve was founded in 1977 partly as a sanctuary for the species. Their numbers grew to 125,000 in Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. Since this was a ready \"cash crop\" for community members, the countries relaxed regulations on vicuña wool in 1993, enabling its trade once again. While the population levels have recovered to a healthy level, poaching remains a constant threat, as do habitat loss and other threats. Consequently, the IUCN still supports active conservation programs to protect vicuñas, though they lowered their status to least concern. The US Fish and Wildlife Service has reclassified most populations as threatened, but still lists Ecuador's population as endangered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vicuña wool.", "content": "The wool is popular due to its warmth, and is used for apparel such as socks, sweaters, accessories, shawls, coats, and suits, and home furnishings such as blankets and throws. Its properties come from the tiny scales on the hollow, air-filled fibres. It causes them to interlock and trap insulating air. Vicuñas have some of the finest fibers in the world, at a diameter of 12 μm. The fiber of cashmere goats is 14 to 19 μm, while angora rabbit is 8 to 12 μm and that of shahtoosh from the Tibetan antelope, or chiru, is from 9 to 12 μm. Since it is sensitive to chemical treatment, the wool is usually left in its natural color.  The vicuña only produces about of wool a year, and gathering it requires a certain process. During the time of the Incas, vicuña wool was gathered by means of communal efforts called \"chacu\", in which multitudes of people herded hundreds of thousands of vicuña into previously laid funnel traps. The animals were shorn and then released; this was only done once every four years. The vicuña was believed to be the reincarnation of a beautiful young maiden who received a coat of pure gold once she consented to the advances of an old, ugly king. Because of this, it was against the law for anyone to kill a vicuña or wear its fleece, except for Inca royalty.  At present, the Peruvian government has a labeling system that identifies all garments that have been created through a government-sanctioned \"chacu\". This guarantees that the animal was captured, shorn alive, returned to the wild, and cannot be shorn again for another two years. The program also ensures that a large portion of the profits return to the villagers. However, annually, up to 22,500 kg of vicuña wool are exported as a result of illegal activities. Because of this, some countries have banned the importation of the wool to save the animal. There is a limited but growing trend to commercially produce wool from vicuñas in captivity, with growing herds in the Chilean Andes. Biologist Cristian Bonacic has expressed his concern about the possibility of habitat damage and the transmission of disease in the farms.  As of June 2007, prices for vicuña fabrics can range from US$1,800 to US$3,000 per yard. A vicuña wool scarf costs around US$1,500. A vicuña sport coat from the Italian tailoring house Kiton costs at least US$21,000 in 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The vicuña (\"Vicugna vicugna\") or vicuna (both, very rarely spelled \"vicugna\", which is actually the name of its genus) is one of the two wild South American camelids which live in the high alpine areas of the Andes, the other being the guanaco. Vicuñas are relatives of the llama, and are now believed to be the wild ancestor of domesticated alpacas, which are raised for their coats. Vicuñas produce small amounts of extremely fine wool, which is very expensive because the animal can only be shorn every three years and has to be caught from the wild. When knitted together, the product of the vicuña's wool is very soft and warm. The Inca valued vicuñas highly for their wool, and it was against the law for anyone but royalty to wear vicuña garments; today, the vicuña is the national animal of Peru and appears in the Peruvian coat of arms.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971790}
{"src_title": "Necessity (criminal law)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "General discussion.", "content": "As a matter of political expediency, states usually allow some classes of person to be excused from liability when they are engaged in socially useful functions but intentionally cause injury, loss or damage. For example, the fire services and other civil defence organizations have a general duty to keep the community safe from harm. If a fire or flood is threatening to spread out of control, it may be reasonably necessary to destroy other property to form a fire break, or to trespass on land to throw up mounds of earth to prevent the water from spreading. These examples have the common feature of individuals intentionally breaking the law because they believe it to be urgently necessary to protect others from harm, but some states distinguish between a response to a crisis arising from an entirely natural cause (an inanimate force of nature), e.g. a fire from a lightning strike or rain from a storm, and a response to an entirely human crisis. Thus, parents who lack the financial means to feed their children cannot use necessity as a defense if they steal food. The existence of welfare benefits and strategies other than self-help defeat the claim of an urgent necessity that cannot be avoided in any way other than by breaking the law. Further, some states apply a test of proportionality. So the defense would only be allowed where the degree of harm actually caused was a reasonably proportionate response to the degree of harm threatened. This is a legal form of cost–benefit analysis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Specific jurisdictions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Denmark and Norway.", "content": "Emergency law/right (\"nødret\", \"nødrett\") is the equivalent of necessity in Denmark and Norway. It is considered related to but separate from self-defence. Common legal examples of necessity includes: breaking windows and other objects in order to escape a fire, commandeering a vehicle to serve as an emergency ambulance, ignoring traffic rules while rushing a dying patient to a hospital, and even killing a person who poses an immediate threat to several other people not including yourself. In the last case self-defense laws are not enough, but the case is covered by \"nødret\". \"Nødret\" can only be invoked though when no other option is available.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International law.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Customary international law.", "content": "Under international law, an obligation of customary international law or an obligation granted under a bilateral investment treaty may be suspended under the doctrine of necessity. It is \"an exception from illegality and in certain cases even as an exception from responsibility.\" See \"Continental Casualty Company v Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No ARB/03/09.\" In order to invoke the doctrine of necessity:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Taiwan, Republic of China.", "content": "Necessity is a possible defense per the Criminal Code and the Administrative Penalty Act.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Necessity as a defense to criminal acts conducted to meet political ends was rejected in the case of \"United States v. Schoon\". In that case, 30 people, including appellants, gained admittance to the IRS office in Tucson, where they chanted \"keep America's tax dollars out of El Salvador,\" splashed simulated blood on the counters, walls, and carpeting, and generally obstructed the office's operation. The court ruled that the elements of necessity did not exist in this case.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Singapore.", "content": "Necessity is a defence per the Penal Code. This requires lack of criminal intent, good faith (due care and attention), and the goal of preventing harm. The harm must be sufficiently serious and imminent to justify or excuse the act.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Canada.", "content": "In Canada, Necessity is recognized as a defence for crimes committed in urgent situations of clear and imminent peril in which the accused has no safe or legal way out of the situation.  Three Requirements for defence of necessity: (1) Urgent situation of imminent peril or danger (2) No reasonable legal alternative (3) Proportionality between harm inflicted and harm avoided  The first and second element are evaluated on the modified objective standard. The third element is evaluated on a purely objective standard. R v Latimer, 2001 SCC 1", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In religious law.", "content": "In Judaism, the principle of \"pikuach nefesh\" allows any law to be broken to save a life, except laws against murder, adultery/incest and blasphemy/idolatry.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the criminal law of many nations, necessity may be either a possible justification or an exculpation for breaking the law. Defendants seeking to rely on this defense argue that they should not be held liable for their actions as a crime because their conduct was \"necessary\" to prevent some greater harm and when that conduct is not excused under some other more specific provision of law such as self defense. Except for a few statutory exemptions and in some medical cases there is no corresponding defense in English law for murder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971791}
{"src_title": "Michael Pacher", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Though Pacher's exact date of birth is not certain, he was born c. 1435 near Brixen on the southern slopes of the Alps in the County of Tyrol. Little is known of his training. His earliest recorded work is an altarpiece that was dated 1465 and signed, but which is now lost. Pacher visited Padua in northern Italy, where he became heavily influenced by the modern fresco work of Andrea Mantegna. Mantegna was considered the renowned master of perspective, whose stunning, low-set standpoint spatial compositions were important to the development of Pacher's own style. Pacher's Italian influences set him apart from most German artists of the time.  By 1467 Pacher was a distinguished artist and sculptor in Bruneck, twenty-five miles east of Brixen in the Puster Valley, where he had a workshop for making altarpieces. His skill in wood carving and painting provided him with employment for German style altars. They usually consisted of carved figural centerpieces, carved Gothic summits on top, a platform where the altar stands below, and painted scenes on panel wings. Pacher spent much of his time during the 1470s in Neustift by Brixen, where his work mainly consisted of painting frescoes. In 1484 he was commissioned by the Franciscan Order in Salzburg, to create an altarpiece, portions of which are still extant. Many of Pacher's works have been destroyed or badly damaged, some of them during the hostilities in the late 17th century, others in 1709. His most important surviving works are the \"St. Wolfgang Altarpiece\" and the \"Altarpiece of the Church Fathers\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"St. Wolfgang Altarpiece\".", "content": "His most famous work, the \"St. Wolfgang Altarpiece\", remains in its original location and setting in St. Wolfgang im Salzkammergut on the Abersee (the western end of lake Wolfgangsee) in Austria. The altarpiece is a polyptych, or Wandelaltar, where a painting is divided into four or more segments or panels. There are two pairs of movable wings, and three different displays for use on different occasions: an everyday display, a Sunday display, and a display for special holy days.  Commissioned for Abbot Benedict Eck of Mondsee in 1471 and completed in 1481, the giant polyptych has two sets of wings that can be closed across the inner corpus with the sculptured Coronation presenting a majestic array of huge Gothic figures dominated by the beautifully kneeling Madonna. The carved and painted gold centerpiece is visible when the inner panels are open, and shows the \"Coronation of the Virgin\". The outer two pairs of painted wings represent four scenes of Saint Wolfgang. Wolfgang was appointed as bishop Benedictine of Ratisbon, where he established himself radiantly for his revolutionary passions and also for his skills as statesman.  The entire altarpiece is overshadowed by an elaborate wooden structure that is placed on top, enclosing the Crucifixion. In the centerpiece, Christ is sitting on a throne sincerely blessing Mary, whom he has crowned as the Queen of Heaven. In keeping with the traditions of German Gothic art, angels are fluttering around while John the Evangelist looks on. The inner faces of the second panels, on both sides of the carved body, are painted with scenes from the life of the Virgin.  Some scholars believe that Pacher was not the only artist who has contributed to this very large altarpiece. His brother Friedrich Pacher may have painted the outer pieces of work depicting scenes from the life of Saint Wolfgang that are visible only when the altarpiece is closed shut. Nevertheless, the inner paintings all seem to have been completed by Michael Pacher himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Altarpiece of the Church Fathers.", "content": "The \"Altarpiece of the Church Fathers\", created in 1483 for Neustift Monastery, is probably Pacher's second most famous work. The significance in this work by Pacher lies in that the boundary between painting and sculpture was no longer clear.  The \"Altarpiece of the Church Fathers\" is divided into four sections, with each section depicting one of the four Great Doctors of the Western Church: Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, and Pope Gregory I. On the very left is the altarpiece of Saint Jerome, who is depicted in his cardinal's attire. Jerome, who is well known for a story in which he drew a thorn from a lion's paw, is indeed accompanied by the lion in Pacher's work. To his right is the panel of Augustine, portrayed with the child from a legend about Augustine. According to this legend, Augustine was walking along a beach one day when he saw a child scooping up the water with a spoon. When Augustine asked the child what he was doing, the child replied by saying that his own activity was as pointless as Augustine's attempts to understand the concept of the Holy Trinity with his rational mind.  To Augustine's right is Pope Gregory I, depicted with Emperor Trajan, for whom Gregory I is known to have prayed to restore dead Trajan's soul and baptized his soul in order to deliver him from purgatory. On the very right is the archbishop Ambrose, shown with a baby in a cradle, which probably symbolizes a legend regarding his life: when Ambrose was in his cradle as a baby, a swarm of bees covered his face and left a drop of honey. Ambrose’s father took it as a sign of Ambrose’s future ability as an eloquent speaker (sweet-tongue). Another interpretation of the child in a cradle is that it was a child who requested that Ambrose be bishop of Milan. Each the four Church Fathers are depicted with a dove, symbolizing the presence of the Holy Spirit in order to represent their holiness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Michael Pacher died in 1498, possibly in Salzburg, Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "The following works are attributable to Michael Pacher.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michael Pacher ( 1435 – August 1498) was a painter and sculptor from Tyrol active during the second half of the fifteenth century. He was one of the earliest artists to introduce the principles of Renaissance painting into Germany. Pacher was a comprehensive artist with a broad range of sculpting, painting, and architecture skills producing works of complex wood and stone. He painted structures for altarpieces on a scale unparalleled in North European art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971792}
{"src_title": "Leopold VI, Duke of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Leopold VI was the younger son of Duke Leopold V and his wife, Helena of Hungary (daughter of Géza II of Hungary and Euphrosyne of Kiev). He was betrothed to the Damsel of Cyprus in 1193, but the marriage never took place.  In contravention of the provisions of the Georgenberg Pact, the Babenberg reign was divided after the death of Leopold V: Leopold VI's elder brother, Frederick I, was given the Duchy of Austria (corresponding roughly to modern Lower Austria and eastern Upper Austria), while Leopold VI himself became Duke of Styria. Both duchies were reunified under Leopold VI when Frederick died after only four years of rule.  Leopold VI participated in the Reconquista in Spain and in two crusades, the Albigensian Crusade in 1212 and the failed Fifth Crusade from 1217 to 1221, and—like his predecessors—attempted to develop the land by founding monasteries. His most important foundation is Lilienfeld in the Lower Austrian valley of the Traisen river, where he was buried after his death. Besides that, he supported the then highly modern Mendicant Orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans. He elevated Enns to the status of a city in 1212, and Vienna in 1221, the territory of which was nearly doubled.  Under Leopold's rule, the Gothic style began to reach Austria - the Cappella Speciosa in his temporary residence of Klosterneuburg is known as the first building influenced by it in the Danube area - a reconstruction of it can be seen today in the palace gardens of Laxenburg.  Babenbergian Austria reached the zenith of its prestige under Leopold's rule. Evidence of this is given by his marriage to the Byzantine princess Theodora Angelina and his attempt to mediate between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX, which he was working on when he died in 1230 in Italy.  Leopold's court is known as a center of the Minnesang, e.g., Walther von der Vogelweide, Neidhart von Reuental and Ulrich von Liechtenstein were active here. Also, the Nibelungenlied may have been written in his court.  Leopold died at San Germano in 1230.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Leopold and Theodora Angelina had:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leopold VI (, 15 October 1176 – 28 July 1230), known as Leopold the Glorious (), was the Duke of Styria from 1194 and the Duke of Austria from 1198 to his death in 1230. He was a member of the House of Babenberg. Like his predecessors, he attempted to develop the land by founding monasteries. His most important foundation is Lilienfeld in the Lower Austrian valley of the Traisen river, where he was buried after his death. Besides that, he supported the then highly modern Mendicant Orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971793}
{"src_title": "State Duma", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The history of the Duma dates back to the Boyar dumas of Kievan Rus' and Muscovite Russia as well to Tsarist Russia. The State Duma was founded in 1905 after the violence and upheaval in the Russian Revolution of 1905 and was Russia's first elected parliament. The first two attempts by Tsar Nicholas II (1868-1918) to make it active were ineffective. Subsequently, each of these Dumas was dissolved after only a few months. The third Duma was the only one to last until the end of its five-year term. After the 1907 electoral reform, the third Duma, elected in November 1907, was largely made up of members of the upper classes, as radical influences in the Duma had almost entirely been removed. The establishment of the Duma after the 1905 Revolution was to herald significant changes to the previous Russian Imperial autocratic system. Furthermore, the Duma was later to have an important effect on Russian history, as it was one of the contributing factors in the February Revolution of 1917, the first of two that year, which led to the abolition of autocracy in Russia and the overthrow of the Tsar.  Several generations and 75 years later after another revolutionary era, in the December 1993 elections pro-Yeltsin parties won 175 seats in the Duma versus 125 seats for the left bloc. The balance of power lay with the sixty-four deputies of the ultranationalist Liberal Democratic Party of Russia. Only parties that won more than five percent of the vote were given party-list seats: eight passed the threshold in 1993. In addition to those eight parties, a pool of thirty-five deputies was entitled to form a registered group to reflect regional or sectoral interests. Business was governed by a steering committee, the Duma Council, consisting of one person from each party or group. The most important task was dividing up the chair positions in the Duma's twenty-three committees, which was done as part of a power-sharing \"package\" deal.  Despite the fact that the 1993 Russian Constitution states that the State Duma is elected for four years, it was decided to elect the first State Duma for two years.  During the second half of the 1990s, the Duma became an important forum for lobbying by regional leaders and businessmen looking for tax breaks and legislative favors. The work of the leading committees, such as those for defense, foreign affairs, or budget, attracted a good deal of media attention and lobbying activity.  In the early 2000s, following the 1999 parliamentary elections, the pro-presidential Unity party and the Communist Party were the leading forces in the State Duma.  After the 2003 elections, a Dominant-party system was established in the State Duma with the pro-presidential United Russia party. In all subsequent elections, United Russia has always received an absolute majority of seats (more than 226). After the 2007 elections, a four-party system was formed with a United Russia, Communist Party, Liberal Democratic Party and A Just Russia. Other parties could not get enough votes to go to the State Duma. Only in 2016 elections, two other parties, Rodina and the Civic Platform, were able to get one seat.  In 2008, after the adoption of amendments to the Constitution, the term of the State Duma was increased from four to five years.  A 2016 exposé by Dissernet showed that one in nine members of the State Duma had obtained academic degrees with theses that were substantially plagiarized and likely ghostwritten.  In 2018, it became known that the State Duma Building will be reconstructed. In March 2019 it became known that the repair will begin in May 2019 and will end in September 2020. During this period, the State Duma will temporarily be located in the House of Unions. In addition, a draft of a new conference room, which would be an amphitheatre, was presented.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Powers.", "content": "The State Duma has special powers enumerated by the Constitution of Russia. They are:  The State Duma adopts decrees on issues relating to its authority by the Constitution of the Russian Federation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Procedure.", "content": "Decrees of the State Duma are adopted by a majority of the total number of deputies of the State Duma, unless another procedure is envisaged by the Constitution. All bills are first approved by the State Duma and are further debated and approved (or rejected) by the Federation Council.  Relatively few roll call votes have been published that identify individual deputies' votes. The votes of individuals are recorded only if the voting is open and the electronic method is used. While not all votes are officially roll call votes, every time a deputy electronically votes a computer registers the individual deputy's vote.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Committees.", "content": "The State Duma forms committees and commissions. Committees are the main organs of the House involved in the legislative process. They are formed, as a rule, according to the principle of proportional representation of parliamentary associations. Chairmen of committees and their first deputies and deputies are elected by a majority vote of all deputies of the parliamentary representation of associations.  The main structural units of the State Duma are committees, each having a different sphere of responsibilities. Duma committees are formed for the duration of the current Duma itself. There are currently 26 committees in the 7th State Duma. Their areas of authority include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Commissions.", "content": "The State Duma commissions are formed in the cases and manner prescribed by law. Commissions are formed for a period not exceeding the term of the Duma of the convocation. In the 5th convocation of the State Duma, there were five committees:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Membership.", "content": "Any Russian citizen who is age 21 or older is eligible to participate in the election may be elected deputy to the State Duma. However, that same person may not be a deputy to the Federation Council. In addition, a State Duma deputy cannot hold office in any other representative body of state power or bodies of local self-government. The office as deputy of the State Duma is a full-time and professional position. Thus, deputies to the State Duma may not be employed in the civil service or engage in any activities for remuneration other than teaching, research or other creative activities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Latest election.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "By-elections.", "content": "One seat is vacant as of September 2019.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The State Duma (), commonly abbreviated in Russian as Gosduma (), is the lower house of the Federal Assembly of Russia, while the upper house is the Council of the Federation. The Duma headquarters are located in central Moscow, a few steps from Manege Square. Its members are referred to as deputies. The State Duma replaced the Supreme Soviet as a result of the new constitution introduced by Boris Yeltsin in the aftermath of the Russian constitutional crisis of 1993, and approved by the Russian people in a referendum.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971794}
{"src_title": "Linear independence", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "A sequence of vectors formula_1 from a vector space \"V\" is said to be \"linearly dependent\", if there exist scalars formula_2, not all zero, such that where formula_4 denotes the zero vector.  Notice that if not all of the scalars are zero, then at least one is non-zero, say formula_5, in which case this equation can be written in the form Thus, formula_7 is shown to be a linear combination of the remaining vectors. A sequence of vectors formula_8 is said to be \"linearly independent\" if the equation can only be satisfied by formula_10 for formula_11. This implies that no vector in the sequence can be represented as a linear combination of the remaining vectors in the sequence. In other words, a sequence of vectors is linearly independent if the only representation of formula_12 as a linear combination of its vectors is the trivial representation in which all the scalars formula_13 are zero. Even more concisely, a sequence of vectors is linear independent if and only if formula_12 can be represented as a linear combination of its vectors in a unique way.  The alternate definition, that a sequence of vectors is linearly dependent if and only if some vector in that sequence can be written as a linear combination of the other vectors, is only useful when the sequence contains two or more vectors. When the sequence contains no vectors or only one vector, the original definition is used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infinite dimensions.", "content": "In order to allow the number of linearly independent vectors in a vector space to be countably infinite, it is useful to define linear dependence as follows. More generally, let \"V\" be a vector space over a field \"K\", and let {\"v\" | \"i\" ∈ \"I\"} be a family of elements of \"V\" indexed by the set \"I\". The family is \"linearly dependent\" over \"K\" if there exists a non-empty \"finite\" subset \"J\" ⊆ \"I\" and a family {\"a\" | \"j\" ∈ \"J\"} of elements of \"K\", all non-zero, such that  A set \"X\" of elements of \"V\" is \"linearly independent\" if the corresponding family {\"x\"} is linearly independent. Equivalently, a family is dependent if a member is in the closure of the linear span of the rest of the family, i.e., a member is a linear combination of the rest of the family. The trivial case of the empty family must be regarded as linearly independent for theorems to apply.  A set of vectors which is linearly independent and spans some vector space, forms a basis for that vector space. For example, the vector space of all polynomials in \"x\" over the reals has the (infinite) subset {1, \"x\", \"x\",...} as a basis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geometric meaning.", "content": "A geographic example may help to clarify the concept of linear independence. A person describing the location of a certain place might say, \"It is 3 miles north and 4 miles east of here.\" This is sufficient information to describe the location, because the geographic coordinate system may be considered as a 2-dimensional vector space (ignoring altitude and the curvature of the Earth's surface). The person might add, \"The place is 5 miles northeast of here.\" Although this last statement is \"true\", it is not necessary.  In this example the \"3 miles north\" vector and the \"4 miles east\" vector are linearly independent. That is to say, the north vector cannot be described in terms of the east vector, and vice versa. The third \"5 miles northeast\" vector is a linear combination of the other two vectors, and it makes the set of vectors \"linearly dependent\", that is, one of the three vectors is unnecessary.  Also note that if altitude is not ignored, it becomes necessary to add a third vector to the linearly independent set. In general, \"n\" linearly independent vectors are required to describe all locations in \"n\"-dimensional space.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evaluating linear independence.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vectors in R.", "content": "Three vectors: Consider the set of vectors \"v\" = (1, 1), \"v\" = (−3, 2) and \"v\" = (2, 4), then the condition for linear dependence seeks a set of non-zero scalars, such that or  Row reduce this matrix equation by subtracting the first row from the second to obtain, Continue the row reduction by (i) dividing the second row by 5, and then (ii) multiplying by 3 and adding to the first row, that is  We can now rearrange this equation to obtain which shows that non-zero \"a\" exist such that \"v\" = (2, 4) can be defined in terms of \"v\" = (1, 1), \"v\" = (−3, 2). Thus, the three vectors are linearly dependent.  Two vectors: Now consider the linear dependence of the two vectors \"v\" = (1, 1), \"v\" = (−3, 2), and check, or  The same row reduction presented above yields, This shows that \"a\" = 0, which means that the vectors \"v\" = (1, 1) and \"v\" = (−3, 2) are linearly independent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vectors in R.", "content": "In order to determine if the three vectors in R, are linearly dependent, form the matrix equation,  Row reduce this equation to obtain, Rearrange to solve for v and obtain, This equation is easily solved to define non-zero \"a\",  where \"a\" can be chosen arbitrarily. Thus, the vectors \"v\", \"v\" and \"v\" are linearly dependent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alternative method using determinants.", "content": "An alternative method relies on the fact that \"n\" vectors in formula_29 are linearly independent if and only if the determinant of the matrix formed by taking the vectors as its columns is non-zero.  In this case, the matrix formed by the vectors is We may write a linear combination of the columns as We are interested in whether \"A\"Λ = 0 for some nonzero vector Λ. This depends on the determinant of \"A\", which is Since the determinant is non-zero, the vectors (1, 1) and (−3, 2) are linearly independent.  Otherwise, suppose we have \"m\" vectors of \"n\" coordinates, with \"m\" < \"n\". Then \"A\" is an \"n\"×\"m\" matrix and Λ is a column vector with \"m\" entries, and we are again interested in \"A\"Λ = 0. As we saw previously, this is equivalent to a list of \"n\" equations. Consider the first \"m\" rows of \"A\", the first \"m\" equations; any solution of the full list of equations must also be true of the reduced list. In fact, if 〈\"i\"...,\"i\"〉 is any list of \"m\" rows, then the equation must be true for those rows.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In the theory of vector spaces, a set of vectors is said to be'if at least one of the vectors in the set can be defined as a linear combination of the others; if no vector in the set can be written in this way, then the vectors are said to be '. These concepts are central to the definition of dimension.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971795}
{"src_title": "Eurystheus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Eurystheus was the son of Sthenelus and Nicippe, and he was a grandson of the hero Perseus, as was his opponent Heracles. He was married to Antimache, daughter of Amphidamas.  Eurystheus was a cousin of Heracles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mythology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Labours of Heracles.", "content": "In the contest of wills between Hera and Zeus over whose candidate would be hero, fated to defeat the remaining creatures representing an old order and bring about the reign of the Twelve Olympians, Eurystheus was Hera's candidate and Heracles—though his name implies that at one archaic stage of myth-making he had carried \"Hera's fame\"—was the candidate of Zeus. The arena for the actions that would bring about this deep change are the Twelve Labors imposed on Heracles by Eurystheus. The immediate necessity for the Labours of Heracles is as penance for Heracles' murder of his own family, in a fit of madness, which had been sent by Hera; however, further human rather than mythic motivation is supplied by mythographers who note that their respective families had been rivals for the throne of Mycenae. Details of the individual episodes may be found in the article on the Labours of Heracles, but Hera was connected with all of the opponents Heracles had to overcome.  Heracles' human stepfather Amphitryon was also a grandson of Perseus, and since Amphitryon's father (Alcaeus) was older than Eurystheus' father (Sthenelus), he might have received the kingdom, but Sthenelus had banished Amphitryon for accidentally killing (a familiar mytheme) the eldest son in the family (Electryon). When, shortly before his son Heracles was born, Zeus proclaimed the next-born descendant of Perseus should get the kingdom, Hera thwarted his ambitions by delaying Alcmene's labour and having her candidate Eurystheus born prematurely.Heracles' first task was to slay the Nemean Lion and bring back its skin, which Heracles decided to wear. Eurystheus was so scared by Heracles' fearsome guise that he hid in a subterranean bronze winejar, and from that moment forth all labors were communicated to Heracles through a herald, Copreus.  For his second labour, to slay the Lernaean Hydra, Heracles took with him his nephew, Iolaus, as a charioteer. When Eurystheus found out that Heracles' nephew had helped him he declared that the labour had not been completed alone and as a result did not count towards the ten labours set for him.  Eurystheus' third task did not involve killing a beast, but capturing one alive—the Ceryneian Hind, a golden-horned hind or doe sacred to Artemis. Heracles knew that he had to return the hind, as he had promised, to Artemis, so he agreed to hand it over on the condition that Eurystheus himself come out and take it from him. Eurystheus did come out, but the moment Heracles let the hind go, she sprinted back to her mistress, and Heracles departed, saying that Eurystheus had not been quick enough.  When Heracles returned with the Erymanthian Boar, Eurystheus was again frightened and hid in his jar, begging Heracles to get rid of the beast; Heracles obliged.  The fifth labour proposed by Eurystheus was to clear out the numerous stables of Augeias. Striking a deal with Augeias, Heracles proposed a payment of a tenth of Augeias' cattle if the labour was completed successfully. Not believing the task feasible, Augeias agreed, asking his son Phyleus to witness. Heracles rerouted two nearby rivers (Alpheis and Peneios) through the stable, clearing out the dung rapidly. When Augeias learned of Heracles' bargain for the task, he refused payment. Heracles brought the case to court, and Phyleus testified against his father. Enraged, Augeias banished both Phyleus and Heracles from the land before the court had cast their vote. However, Eurystheus refused to credit the labour to Heracles, as he had performed it for payment. So Heracles went and drove Augeias out of the kingdom and installed Phyleus as king. Heracles then took his tenth of the cattle and left them to graze in a field by his home.  For his sixth labour, Heracles had to drive the Stymphalian Birds off the marshes they plagued. He did so, shooting down several birds with his Hydra-poisoned arrows and bringing them back to Eurystheus as proof.  For his seventh labour, Heracles captured the Cretan Bull. He used a lasso and rode it back to his cousin. Eurystheus offered to sacrifice the bull to Hera his patron, who hated Heracles. She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles. The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the Marathonian Bull.  When Heracles brought back the man-eating Mares of Diomedes successfully, Eurystheus dedicated the horses to Hera and allowed them to roam freely in the Argolid. Bucephalus, Alexander the Great's horse, was said to be descended from these mares.  To acquire the belt of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons was Heracles ninth task. This task was at the request of Eurystheus' daughter, Admete. For the tenth labour, he stole the cattle of the giant Geryon, which Eurystheus then had sacrificed to Hera.  To extend what may have once been ten Labours to the canonical dozen, it was said that Eurystheus didn't count the Hydra, as he was assisted, nor the Augean stables, as Heracles received payment for his work. For the eleventh labour Heracles had to obtain the Apples of the Hesperides; he convinced their father, the Titan Atlas, to help him, but did his share of work by temporarily holding up the sky in the Titan's stead. For his final labour, he was to capture Cerberus, the three-headed hound that guarded the entrance to Hades. When he managed to bring the struggling animal back, the terrified Eurystheus hid in his jar one more time, begging Heracles to leave for good and take the dog with him.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "After Heracles died, Eurystheus remained bitter over the indignity the hero had caused him. He attempted to destroy Heracles' many children (the Heracleidae, led by Hyllus), who fled to Athens. He attacked the city but was soundly defeated, and Eurystheus and his sons were killed. Though it is widely told that Hyllus killed Eurystheus. The stories about the killer of Eurystheus and the fate of his corpse vary, but the Athenians believed the burial site of Eurystheus remained on their soil and served to protect the country against the descendants of Heracles, who traditionally included the Spartans and Argives.  After Eurystheus' death, the brothers Atreus and Thyestes, whom he had left in charge during his absence, took over the city, the former exiling the latter and assuming the kingship, while Tiryns returned to the overlordship of Argos.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eurystheus in Euripides.", "content": "Eurystheus was a character in \"Heracleidae\", a play by Euripides. Macaria, one of the daughters of Heracles, and her brothers and sisters hid from Eurystheus in Athens, ruled by King Demophon. As Eurystheus prepared to attack, an oracle told Demophon that he would win if and only if a noble woman was sacrificed to Persephone. Macaria volunteered for the sacrifice and a spring was named the Macarian spring in her honor. Eurystheus speaks prophetically of his burial within Attica, claiming that he will be an anti-hero of sorts, though one who will eventually protect the Athenians.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Greek mythology, Eurystheus (; meaning \"broad strength\" in folk etymology and pronounced ) was king of Tiryns, one of three Mycenaean strongholds in the Argolid, although other authors including Homer and Euripides cast him as ruler of Argos.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971796}
{"src_title": "Pausanias (geographer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Pausanias was born into a Greek family and was probably a native of Lydia; he was certainly familiar with the western coast of Asia Minor, but his travels extended far beyond the limits of Ionia. Before visiting Greece, he had been to Antioch, Joppa, and Jerusalem, and to the banks of the River Jordan. In Egypt, he had seen the pyramids. While at the temple of Ammon, he had been shown the hymn once sent to that shrine by Pindar. In Macedonia, he appears to have seen the tomb said to be that of Orpheus in Libethra (modern Leivithra). Crossing over to Italy, he had seen something of the cities of Campania and of the wonders of Rome. He was one of the first known to write of seeing the ruins of Troy, Alexandria Troas, and Mycenae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Pausanias' \"Description of Greece\" is in ten books, each dedicated to some portion of Greece. He begins his tour in Attica (), where the city of Athens and its demes dominate the discussion. Subsequent books describe Corinthia () (second book), Laconia () (third), Messenia () (fourth), Elis () (fifth and sixth), Achaea () (seventh), Arcadia () (eighth), Boetia () (ninth), Phocis () and Ozolian Locris () (tenth). The project is more than topographical; it is a cultural geography. Pausanias digresses from the description of architectural and artistic objects to review the mythological and historical underpinnings of the society that produced them. As a Greek writing under the auspices of the Roman empire, he was in an awkward cultural space, between the glories of the Greek past he was so keen to describe and the realities of a Greece beholden to Rome as a dominating imperial force. His work bears the marks of his attempt to navigate that space and establish an identity for Roman Greece.  He is not a naturalist, although from time to time, he does comment on the physical realities of the Greek landscape. He notices the pine trees on the sandy coast of Elis, the deer and the wild boars in the oak woods of Phelloe, and the crows amid the giant oak trees of Alalcomenae. It is mainly in the last section that Pausanias touches on the products of nature, such as the wild strawberries of Helicon, the date palms of Aulis, and the olive oil of Tithorea, as well as the tortoises of Arcadia and the \"white blackbirds\" of Cyllene.  Pausanias is most at home in describing the religious art and architecture of Olympia and of Delphi. Yet, even in the most secluded regions of Greece, he is fascinated by all kinds of depictions of deities, holy relics, and many other sacred and mysterious objects. At Thebes he views the shields of those who died at the Battle of Leuctra, the ruins of the house of Pindar, and the statues of Hesiod, Arion, Thamyris, and Orpheus in the grove of the Muses on Helicon, as well as the portraits of Corinna at Tanagra and of Polybius in the cities of Arcadia.  Pausanias has the instincts of an antiquary. As his modern editor, Christian Habicht, has said, Unlike a Baedeker guide, in \"Periegesis\" Pausanias stops for a brief excursus on a point of ancient ritual or to tell an apposite myth, in a genre that would not become popular again until the early nineteenth century. In the topographical part of his work, Pausanias is fond of digressions on the wonders of nature, the signs that herald the approach of an earthquake, the phenomena of the tides, the ice-bound seas of the north, and the noonday sun that at the summer solstice, casts no shadow at Syene (Aswan). While he never doubts the existence of the deities and heroes, he sometimes criticizes the myths and legends relating to them. His descriptions of monuments of art are plain and unadorned. They bear the impression of reality, and their accuracy is confirmed by the extant remains. He is perfectly frank in his confessions of ignorance. When he quotes a book at second hand he takes pains to say so.  The work left faint traces in the known Greek corpus. \"It was not read\", Habicht relates; \"there is not a single mention of the author, not a single quotation from it, not a whisper before Stephanus Byzantius in the sixth century, and only two or three references to it throughout the Middle Ages.\" The only manuscripts of Pausanias are three fifteenth-century copies, full of errors and lacunae, which all appear to depend on a single manuscript that survived to be copied. Niccolò Niccoli had this archetype in Florence in 1418. At his death in 1437, it went to the library of San Marco, Florence, then it disappeared after 1500.  Until twentieth-century archaeologists concluded that Pausanias was a reliable guide to the sites they were excavating, Pausanias was largely dismissed by nineteenth- and early twentieth-century classicists of a purely literary bent: they tended to follow the usually authoritative Wilamowitz in regarding him as little more than a purveyor of second-hand accounts, who, it was suggested, had not visited most of the places he described. Habicht (1985) describes an episode in which Wilamowitz was led astray by his misreading of Pausanias in front of an august party of travellers in 1873, and attributes to it Wilamowitz's lifelong antipathy and distrust of Pausanias. Modern archaeological research, however, has tended to vindicate Pausanias.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pausanias (; \"Pausanías\"; ) was a Greek traveler and geographer of the second century AD who lived in the time of Roman emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. He is famous for his \"Description of Greece\" (, \"Hellados Periegesis\"), a lengthy work that describes ancient Greece from his firsthand observations. This work provides crucial information for making links between classical literature and modern archaeology. Andrew Stewart assesses him as:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971797}
{"src_title": "Ephemeris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Modern ephemeris.", "content": "For scientific uses, a modern planetary ephemeris comprises software that generates positions of planets and often of their satellites, asteroids, or comets, at virtually any time desired by the user.  Typically, such ephemerides cover several centuries, past and future; the future ones can be covered because the field of celestial mechanics has developed several accurate theories. Nevertheless, there are secular phenomena which cannot adequately be considered by ephemerides. The greatest uncertainties in the positions of planets are caused by the perturbations of numerous asteroids, most of whose masses and orbits are poorly known, rendering their effect uncertain. Reflecting the continuing influx of new data and observations, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) has revised its published ephemerides nearly every year for the past 20 years.  Solar System ephemerides are essential for the navigation of spacecraft and for all kinds of space observations of the planets, their natural satellites, stars, and galaxies.  Scientific ephemerides for sky observers mostly contain the positions of celestial bodies in right ascension and declination, because these coordinates are the most frequently used on star maps and telescopes. The equinox of the coordinate system must be given. It is, in nearly all cases, either the actual equinox (the equinox valid for that moment, often referred to as \"of date\" or \"current\"), or that of one of the \"standard\" equinoxes, typically J2000.0, B1950.0, or J1900. Star maps almost always use one of the standard equinoxes.  Scientific ephemerides often contain further useful data about the moon, planet, asteroid, or comet beyond the pure coordinates in the sky, such as elongation to the Sun, brightness, distance, velocity, apparent diameter in the sky, phase angle, times of rise, transit, and set, etc. Ephemerides of the planet Saturn also sometimes contain the apparent inclination of its ring.  Celestial navigation serves as a backup to the Global Positioning System. Software is widely available to assist with this form of navigation; some of this software has a self-contained ephemeris. When software is used that does not contain an ephemeris, or if no software is used, position data for celestial objects may be obtained from the modern \"Nautical Almanac\" or \"Air Almanac\".  An ephemeris is usually only correct for a particular location on the Earth. In many cases, the differences are too small to matter. However, for nearby asteroids or the Moon, they can be quite important.  Other modern ephemerides recently created are the EPM (Ephemerides of Planets and the Moon), from the Russian Institute for Applied Astronomy of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the INPOP (\"\") by the French IMCCE.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In astronomy and celestial navigation, an ephemeris (plural: ephemerides) gives the trajectory of naturally occurring astronomical objects as well as artificial satellites in the sky, i.e., the position (and possibly velocity) over time. The etymology is and. Historically, positions were given as printed tables of values, given at regular intervals of date and time. The calculation of these tables was one of the first applications of mechanical computers. Modern ephemerides are often computed electronically, from mathematical models of the motion of astronomical objects and the Earth. However, printed ephemerides are still produced, as they are useful when computational devices are not available.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971798}
{"src_title": "Welwitschia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Naming.", "content": "\"Welwitschia\" is named after the Austrian botanist and doctor Friedrich Welwitsch, who was the first European to describe the plant, in 1859 in present-day Angola. Welwitsch was so overwhelmed by the plant that he, \"could do nothing but kneel down and gaze at it, half in fear lest a touch should prove it a figment of the imagination.\" Joseph Dalton Hooker of the Linnean Society of London, using Welwitsch's description and collected material along with material from the artist Thomas Baines who had independently recorded the plant in Namibia, described the species.  Welwitsch proposed calling the genus \"Tumboa\" after what he believed to be the local name, \"tumbo\". Hooker asked Welwitsch for permission to name the genus \"Welwitschia\" instead. Welwitsch concurred and supplied some well-preserved material from which Hooker was able to make substantial progress in determining its botanical affinities. The taxonomy of \"Welwitschia\" subsequently changed intermittently with the development of new classification systems (see Flowering plants: History of classification), however, its current taxonomic status is essentially the same as Hooker's placement.  Most botanists have treated \"Welwitschia\" as a distinct monotypic genus in a monotypic family or even order. Most recent systems place \"Welwitschia mirabilis\" in its own family Welwitschiaceae in the gymnosperm order Gnetales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "After germination, the seedling produces two cotyledons which grow to in length, and have reticulate venation. Subsequently, two foliage leaves are produced at the edge of a woody bilobed crown. The permanent leaves are opposite (at right angles to the cotyledons), amphistomatic (producing stomata on both sides of the leaf), parallel-veined and ribbon-shaped. Shortly after the appearance of the foliage leaves, the apical meristem dies and meristematic activity is transferred to the periphery of the crown.  The two foliage leaves grow continuously from a basal meristem reaching lengths up to. The tips of the leaves split and fray into several well-separated strap-shaped sections by the distortions of the woody portions surrounding the apical slit, and also by wind and adventitious external injuries. The largest specimens may be no more than tall above ground, but the circumference of the leaves in contact with the sand may exceed.  \"Welwitschia\" has an elongated shallow root system consisting of \"a tapering taproot with one or more non-tapering extensions, some pronounced lateral roots, and a network of delicate spongy roots\" and a woody fibrous unbranched main stem. The roots extend to a depth roughly equal to the span of the living leaves from tip to tip. The main stem consists of an unbranched woody crown roughly shaped like an inverted cone. The only branching in the shoot system occurs in the reproductive branches, which bear strobili.  The species is dioecious, with separate male and female plants. Fertilization is carried out by insects including flies and true bugs. The commonest of the true bugs attending \"Welwitschia\" is a member of the family Pyrrhocoridae, \"Probergrothius angolensis\", but a hypothesized role in pollination has so far not been demonstrated. Infrequently, wasps and bees also play a role as pollinators of \"Welwitschia\". At least some of the pollinators are attracted by \"nectar\" produced on both male and female strobili.  \"Welwitschia\" has been classified as a CAM plant (crassulacean acid metabolism) after reconciliation of some initially contradictory and confusing data. There are however some very puzzling aspects to the matter; for example, the employment of the CAM metabolism is very slight, which was part of the reason that it took so long to establish its presence at all; it is not understood why this should be.  The age of individual plants is difficult to assess, but many plants may be over 1000 years old. Some individuals may be more than 2000 years old. Because \"Welwitschia\" only produces a single pair of foliage leaves, the plant was thought by some to be neotenic, consisting essentially of a \"giant seedling.\" However, research showed that its anatomy is not consistent with the giant seedling idea. Instead, the plant is more accurately thought of as achieving its unusual morphology as a result of having \"lost its head\" (apical meristem) at an early stage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Welwitschia mirabilis\" is endemic to the Kaokoveld Desert, which lies within the Namib Desert. The population is distributed southwards from the Bentiaba River in southern Angola, to the Kuiseb River in Namibia, and up to inland of the coast. The area is extremely arid: the coast is recorded as having almost zero rainfall, while less than of rain falls annually below the escarpment in the wet season from February to April. Populations tend to occur in ephemeral water courses, indicating a dependence on ground water in addition to precipitation from fog.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Welwitschia mirabilis\" grows readily from seed, which may be bought from specialty seed dealers. The seeds have been shown to display orthodox seed behavior, which in general means that they may be stored for long periods at suitably low humidity and temperature. \"Welwitschia\" seeds naturally develop suitably low water concentrations as they ripen.  Removal of the outer seed coverings enhances germination performance, which suggests that the seeds may display non-deep physiological dormancy. On planting the seed it is necessary to keep it moist, but not immersed in water, for the first two weeks of cultivation; it has been suggested that soaking the seeds in water before planting interferes with germination. Seeds collected from the wild often are heavily contaminated with spores of the fungus \"Aspergillus niger var. phoenicis\", which causes them to rot shortly after they germinate.  The fungal inoculum infects the growing cones of \"W. mirabilis\" early during their development, and a sharp increase in infection occurs when the pollination drops appear; through those drops the fungal spores may gain access to the interior of the developing seed. Seeds in the wild may therefore be obliterated through fungal action even before they are fully developed. Seeds from botanical gardens or other cultivated sources are much cleaner and less likely to rot. The fungicide tebuconazole may be useful in controlling limited \"A. niger\" seed infection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The population of \"Welwitschia mirabilis\" in the wild is reasonably satisfactory at present. Plants in Angola are better protected than those in Namibia, because of the relatively high concentration of land mines in Angola, which keep collectors away.  Although \"Welwitschia mirabilis\" is not at present immediately threatened, there being abundant populations over a large area, its status is far from secure; its recruitment and growth rates are low, and its range, though wide, covers only a single compact, ecologically limited and vulnerable area. The remarkable longevity of Welwitschia favours its survival of temporary periods adverse to reproduction, but it offers no protection against circumstances of direct threat, such as overgrazing and disease. Fungal infection of female cones severely reduces seed viability, reducing already inherently low recruitment. Other threats include injury from off-road vehicles, collection of wild plants and overgrazing by zebras, rhinos, and domestic animals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heraldry.", "content": "The plant figures as a charge in the national coat of arms of Namibia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Welwitschia is a monotypic gymnosperm genus, comprising solely the distinctive \"Welwitschia mirabilis\", endemic to the Namib desert within Namibia and Angola. The plant is commonly known simply as welwitschia in English, but the name tree tumbo is also used. It is called \"kharos\" or \"khurub\" in Nama, \"tweeblaarkanniedood\" in Afrikaans, \"nyanka\" in Damara, and \"onyanga\" in Herero. \"Welwitschia\" is the only living genus of the family Welwitschiaceae and order Welwitschiales, in the division Gnetophyta. Informal sources commonly refer to the plant as a \"living fossil\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971799}
{"src_title": "Frederick I of Prussia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Born in Königsberg, he was the third son of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg by his father's first marriage to Louise Henriette of Orange-Nassau, eldest daughter of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. His maternal cousin was King William III of England. Upon the death of his father on 29 April 1688, Frederick became Elector Frederick III of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia. Right after ascending the throne Frederick founded a new city southerly adjacent to Dorotheenstadt and named it after himself, the Friedrichstadt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Frederick was noted for his opposition to France, in contrast to his father who had sought an alliance with Louis XIV. Frederick took Brandenburg into the League of Augsburg against France and in 1689 led military forces into the field as part of the allied coalition. That year an army under his command besieged and captured Bonn. Despite this opposition to France (a characteristic that was even more prominent in his son and heir) he was fond of French culture, and styled his court in imitation of that of Louis XIV.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign as King.", "content": "The Hohenzollern state was then known as Brandenburg-Prussia. The family's main possessions were the Margraviate of Brandenburg within the Holy Roman Empire and the Duchy of Prussia outside of the Empire, ruled as a personal union. Although he was the Margrave and Prince-elector of Brandenburg and the Duke of Prussia, Frederick desired the more prestigious title of king. However, according to Germanic law at that time, no kingdoms could exist within the Holy Roman Empire, with the exception of the Kingdom of Bohemia which belonged to the Holy Roman Emperor.  In the Crown Treaty of 16 November 1700, Frederick persuaded Leopold I, Archduke of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor, to allow Prussia to be elevated to a kingdom. This agreement was ostensibly given in exchange for an alliance against King Louis XIV in the War of the Spanish Succession and the provision of 8,000 Prussian troops to Leopold's service. Frederick argued that Prussia had never been part of the Holy Roman Empire, and he ruled over it with full sovereignty. Therefore, he said, there was no legal or political barrier to letting him rule it as a kingdom. Frederick was aided in the negotiations by Charles Ancillon.  Frederick crowned himself on 18 January 1701 in Königsberg. Although he did so with the Emperor's consent, and also with formal acknowledgement from Augustus II the Strong, Elector of Saxony, who held the title of King of Poland, the Polish-Lithuanian Diet (Sejm) raised objections, and viewed the coronation as illegal. In fact, according to the terms of the Treaty of Wehlau and Bromberg, the House of Hohenzollern's sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia was not absolute but contingent on the continuation of the male line (in the absence of which the duchy would revert to the Polish crown). Therefore, out of deference to the region's historic ties to the Polish crown, Frederick made the symbolic concession of calling himself \"King in Prussia\" instead of \"King of Prussia\".  His royalty was, in any case, limited to Prussia and did not reduce the rights of the Emperor in the portions of his domains that were still part of the Holy Roman Empire. In other words, while he was a king in Prussia, he was still only an elector under the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Emperor in Brandenburg. Legally, the Hohenzollern state was still a personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia. However, by the time Frederick crowned himself as king, the emperor's authority over Brandenburg (and the rest of the empire) was only nominal, and in practice it soon came to be treated as part of the Prussian kingdom rather than as a separate entity. His grandson, Frederick the Great, was the first Prussian king to formally style himself \"King of Prussia\".  Frederick was a patron of the arts and learning. The Akademie der Künste in Berlin was founded by Frederick in 1696, as was the Academy of Sciences in 1700, though the latter was closed down by his son as an economic measure; it was reopened in 1740 by his grandson, Frederick II. Frederick also appointed Jacob Paul von Gundling as Professor of History and Law at the Berlin Knights Academy in 1705, and as historian at the Higher Herald's Office in 1706.  Frederick died in Berlin in 1713 and is entombed in the Berliner Dom.  His grandson, Frederick the Great, referred to Frederick I as \"the mercenary king\", due to the fact that he greatly profited from the hiring of his Prussian troops to defend other territories, such as in northern Italy against the French. \"All in all,\" he wrote of his grandfather, \"he was great in small matters, and small in great matters.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriages and children.", "content": "Frederick was married three times: He also had an official mistress, Catharina von Wartenberg, between 1696 and 1711. However, he was never known to make use of her services, being deeply in love with his first wife.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Frederick I (; 11 July 1657 – 25 February 1713), of the Hohenzollern dynasty, was (as Frederick III) Elector of Brandenburg (1688–1713) and Duke of Prussia in personal union (Brandenburg-Prussia). The latter function he upgraded to royalty, becoming the first King in Prussia (1701–1713). From 1707 he was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel (). He was also the paternal grandfather of Frederick the Great.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971800}
{"src_title": "Ernst von Mansfeld", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Mansfeld was an illegitimate son of Count Peter Ernst von Mansfeld (1517–1604), a member of the comital House of Mansfeld and royal Spanish stadtholder. He was raised in the Catholic faith at his father's palace in Luxembourg.  He gained his earliest military experiences during the Long War in Hungary, where his elder half-brother Charles (1543–1595), also a soldier of renown, held a high command in the imperial army. While his brother succumbed to an epidemic within short time, young Ernst stayed at the theatre of war for several years. In the War of the Jülich Succession he served under Archduke Leopold V of Austria, until that prince's ingratitude, real or fancied, drove him into the arms of the enemies of the House of Habsburg. Although he remained a Roman Catholic, from about 1610 he openly allied himself with the Protestant princes, and during the earlier part of the Thirty Years' War he was one of their foremost champions.  He was despatched by Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, at the head of about 2000 men to aid the revolting Bohemians when war broke out in 1618. He took Pilsen, but in the summer of 1619 he was defeated at the Battle of Sablat; after this he offered his services to the Emperor Ferdinand II and remained inactive while the titular king of Bohemia, Frederick V, Elector Palatine of the Rhine, was driven in headlong rout from Prague. Mansfeld, however, was soon appointed by Frederick to command his army in Bohemia, and in 1621 he took up his position in the Upper Palatinate, successfully resisting the efforts made by Tilly to dislodge him.  From the Upper Palatinate, he passed into the Rhenish Palatinate. Here he relieved Frankenthal and took Hagenau; then, joined by his master, the elector Frederick, he defeated Tilly at Wiesloch (25 April 1622) and plundered Alsace and Hesse. But Mansfeld's ravages were not confined to the lands of his enemies; they were ruinous to the districts he was commissioned to defend.  At length Frederick was obliged to dismiss Mansfeld's troops from his service. Then joining Christian of Brunswick the count led his army through Lorraine, devastating the country as he went, and in August 1622 was defeated by the Spaniards at Fleurus. He next entered the service of the United Provinces and took up his quarters in East Frisia, capturing fortresses and inflicting great hardships upon the inhabitants. A mercenary and a leader of mercenaries, Mansfeld often interrupted his campaigns by journeys made for the purpose of raising money, or in other words of selling his services to the highest bidder, and in these diplomatic matters he showed considerable skill.  About 1624 he paid three visits to London, where he was hailed as a hero by the populace, and at least one to Paris. James I, being the father-in-law of Frederick V, Elector Palatine, was anxious to furnish him with men and money for the recovery of the Palatinate, but it was not until January 1625 that Mansfeld and his army of \"raw and poor rascals\" sailed from Dover to the Netherlands before failing to relieve the siege of Breda. Later in the year, the Thirty Years' War having been renewed under the leadership of Christian IV of Denmark, he re-entered Germany to take part therein. But on 25 April 1626 Wallenstein inflicted a severe defeat upon him at the bridge of Dessau. Mansfeld, however, quickly raised another army, with which he intended to attack the hereditary lands of the house of Austria, and pursued by Wallenstein he pressed forward towards Hungary, where he hoped to accomplish his purpose by the aid of Bethlen Gábor, prince of Transylvania. But when Bethlen changed his policy and made peace with the emperor, Mansfeld was compelled to disband his troops. He set out for Venice, but when he reached Rakovica near Sarajevo, in Bosnia, he was taken ill, and here he died on 29 November 1626, probably from a hemorrhage. He was buried at Split.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Ernst, count of Mansfeld (; c. 158029 November 1626), or simply Ernst von Mansfeld, was a German military commander who, despite being a Catholic, fought for the Protestants during the early years of the Thirty Years' War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971801}
{"src_title": "Locarno Treaties", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Planning the treaties.", "content": "German foreign minister Gustav Stresemann made his highest priority the restoration of German prestige and privileges as a leading European nation. French withdrawal from the Occupation of the Ruhr was scheduled for January 1925, but Stresemann sensed that France was very nervous about its security and might cancel the withdrawal. Having realized that France deeply desired a British guarantee of its postwar borders, but that London was reluctant, Stresemann came up with a plan whereby all sides would get what they wanted: through a series of treaties that promised these guarantees. Upon hearing this proposal, British Foreign Minister Austen Chamberlain enthusiastically agreed. France realized that its occupation of the Ruhr had caused more financial and diplomatic damage than it was worth. The foreign ministers then convened in the Swiss resort of Locarno in October 1925, where they came to an agreement on the treaties.  The first treaty was the most critical: a mutual guarantee of the frontiers of Belgium, France, and Germany, guaranteed by Britain and Italy. The second and third treaties called for arbitration between Germany and Belgium, and Germany and France, regarding future disputes. The fourth and fifth were similar arbitration treaties between Germany and Poland, and Germany and Czechoslovakia. Poland especially, and Czechoslovakia as well, felt threatened by the Locarno agreements and these treaties were an attempt to reassure them. Thanks to the Dawes Plan, Germany was now making regular reparations payments. The success of the Locarno agreements led to the admission of Germany to the League of Nations in September 1926, with a seat on its council as a permanent member.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Goals.", "content": "For the British government, the main goals were promoting Franco-German reconciliation, and the expectation that reconciliation would lead to France dissolving its \"Cordon sanitaire\", as the French alliance system in Eastern Europe was known between the wars. If France were to dissolve its alliances in Eastern Europe, the Poles and Czechoslovaks would peacefully hand over the territories claimed by Germany such as the Sudetenland, the Polish Corridor, and the Free City of Danzig (modern Gdańsk, Poland).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parties and agreement.", "content": "The principal treaty concluded at Locarno was the Rhineland Pact between Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, and Italy. Germany formally recognised its new western borders acted by the Treaty of Versailles. Furthermore, the first three signatories undertook not to attack each other, with the latter two acting as guarantors. In the event of aggression by any of the first three states against another, all other parties were to assist the country under attack.  Germany also agreed to sign arbitration conventions with France and Belgium and arbitration treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, undertaking to refer future disputes to an arbitration tribunal or to the Permanent Court of International Justice.  France signed further treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, pledging mutual assistance in the event of conflict with Germany. These essentially reaffirmed existing treaties of alliance concluded by France with Poland on 19 February 1921 and with Czechoslovakia on 25 January 1924. These treaties also showed that relations between France and Germany had not improved to a large extent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effect.", "content": "The Locarno Treaties marked a dramatic improvement in the political climate of western Europe in 1925–1930. They promoted expectations for continued peaceful settlements, often called the \"spirit of Locarno\". This spirit was made concrete when Germany joined the League in 1926, and the withdrawal of Allied troops occupying Germany's Rhineland. The Nobel Peace Prize was given to the lead negotiators of the treaty, going to Sir Austen Chamberlain in 1925 and jointly to Aristide Briand and Gustav Stresemann in 1926.  Historian Sally Marks says: Hitler repudiated Locarno by sending troops into the demilitarized Rhineland on 7 March 1936.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anger in Poland.", "content": "In Poland, the public humiliation received by Polish diplomats was one of the contributing factors to the fall of the Grabski cabinet. Locarno contributed to the worsening of the atmosphere between Poland and France, weakening the French-Polish alliance. Józef Beck ridiculed the treaties saying, \"Germany was officially asked to attack the east, in return for peace in the west.\" Józef Piłsudski would say that \"every honest Pole spits when he hears this word [Locarno]\". Proposals in 1934 for an \"eastern Locarno\" pact securing Germany's eastern frontiers foundered on German opposition and on Poland's insistence that its eastern borders should be covered by a western guarantee of her borders. The Locarno treaty was heavily undermined by the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance on 2 May 1935, which the German government claimed was a violation of its \"spirit\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland, on 5–16 October 1925 and formally signed in London on 1 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers and the new states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement, and return normalizing relations with the defeated German Reich (the Weimar Republic). It also stated that Germany would never go to war with the other countries. Locarno divided borders in Europe into two categories: western, which were guaranteed by Locarno treaties, and eastern borders of Germany with Poland, which were open for revision.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971802}
{"src_title": "Feldkirch, Vorarlberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The beautiful medieval town, which remains well preserved to this day, was mentioned as a city for the first time in 1218, after Count Hugo von Montfort built the \"Schattenburg\", a castle which still is the major landmark of Feldkirch. Other sights in the town include the cathedral of St. Nikolaus from the late Gothic period. Feldkirch was the birthplace of Rheticus, and is currently the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Feldkirch. From 1651–1773 and from 1856–1979, Feldkirch was the home of the Jesuit school Stella Matutina.  March 1799 saw two clashes between the forces of the First French Republic and the Habsburg Monarchy. On the 7th, Nicolas Oudinot with 9,000 French soldiers defeated Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze with 6,000 Austrians. The Battle of Feldkirch occurred on 23 March when André Masséna and 12,000 Frenchmen were beaten by Franz Jellacic and 5,500 Austrians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy and infrastructure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Feldkirch has had its own local bus network since 1993, which currently consists of 8 lines, including buses which run to the north of neighbouring Liechtenstein. The bus system works together with Vorarlberg's bus system which provides several supra-regional lines starting and ending in Feldkirch. There's an additional line called \"nightline\" which connects different bars and discos all around Feldkirch. The nightline plies until around 4 a.m. on weekends.  Feldkirch railway station lies on the main railway line through the Vorarlberg, with inter-city services to Zurich and Vienna. There are also local international trains to Buchs via Liechtenstein on the Feldkirch–Buchs railway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Companies.", "content": ", 13,146 employees were employed by 1,464 companies in Feldkirch, including 5 large companies each employing more than 200 people.  The following companies are based in Feldkirch:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture and landmarks.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Central Feldkirch.", "content": "Feldkirch has one of the best preserved medieval cityscapes of Vorarlberg. The city was built around 1200 at the same time as the Schattenburg and has a geometric grid system. Since around 1500, when the city wall was rebuilt, the city remained unchanged over the centuries.  Since 2015, the Feldkirch Ensemble has been listed in the Austrian List of Cultural Heritage (cultural property protected by the Hague Convention). The city is also a member of the Association of small historic towns, a tourism marketing association.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "City fortification.", "content": "The streets of the Schlossgraben, Hirschgraben and St. Leonhardsplatz marked the former course of the city wall surrounding the Neustadt area in the 13th century. The wall was largely rebuilt around 1500 and since 1826 in many places abraded.  As long as Feldkirch was surrounded by a city wall and a city moat, one could enter the city only through one of the four gates. These city gates were called Bregenzertor or Nikolaustor, Bludenzertor or Schultor, Milltor or Sautor, and Churertor or Salztor. The last two gates are still standing, the other two were removed together with the city wall at the beginning of the 19th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Villas and other residential buildings.", "content": "In the 19th century the Feldkirch bourgeoisie built a number of prestigious residential buildings, most of which are still privately owned. The villas were built mostly on the Reichsstraße and here mainly in the area between the Bärenkreuzung and the train station.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural events.", "content": "The Poolbar Festival is a modern music and culture festival in Feldkirch. Being held annually between July and August, it attracts around 20,000 visitors featuring music, exhibitions, poetry slams, fashion and an architectural prize. It was first held in 1994 as a cultural summer-academy and is, in organization and implementation of landscape and architecture, very different from other open-air events.  Feldkirch is the home of the Feldkirch Festival, an annual summer festival founded in 2002 by Thomas Hengelbrock and directed since 2007 by Philippe Arlaud.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Feldkirch has a humid continental climate (\"Dfb\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Feldkirch () is a medieval city in the western Austrian state of Vorarlberg on the border with Switzerland and Liechtenstein. It is the administrative centre of the Feldkirch district. After Dornbirn, it is the second most populous town in Vorarlberg, slightly larger than the state capital of Bregenz. The westernmost point in Austria lies in Feldkirch on the river Rhine, at the northern tripoint between Austria, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971803}
{"src_title": "Electrophoresis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Theory.", "content": "Suspended particles have an electric surface charge, strongly affected by surface adsorbed species, on which an external electric field exerts an electrostatic Coulomb force. According to the double layer theory, all surface charges in fluids are screened by a diffuse layer of ions, which has the same absolute charge but opposite sign with respect to that of the surface charge. The electric field also exerts a force on the ions in the diffuse layer which has direction opposite to that acting on the surface charge. This latter force is not actually applied to the particle, but to the ions in the diffuse layer located at some distance from the particle surface, and part of it is transferred all the way to the particle surface through viscous stress. This part of the force is also called electrophoretic retardation force. When the electric field is applied and the charged particle to be analyzed is at steady movement through the diffuse layer, the total resulting force is zero :  Considering the drag on the moving particles due to the viscosity of the dispersant, in the case of low Reynolds number and moderate electric field strength \"E\", the drift velocity of a dispersed particle \"v\" is simply proportional to the applied field, which leaves the electrophoretic mobility μ defined as:  The most well known and widely used theory of electrophoresis was developed in 1903 by Smoluchowski:  where ε is the dielectric constant of the dispersion medium, ε is the permittivity of free space (C2 N m), η is dynamic viscosity of the dispersion medium (Pa s), and ζ is zeta potential (i.e., the electrokinetic potential of the slipping plane in the double layer, units mV or V).  The Smoluchowski theory is very powerful because it works for dispersed particles of any shape at any concentration. It has limitations on its validity. It follows, for instance, because it does not include Debye length κ (units m). However, Debye length must be important for electrophoresis, as follows immediately from the Figure on the right. Increasing thickness of the double layer (DL) leads to removing the point of retardation force further from the particle surface. The thicker the DL, the smaller the retardation force must be.  Detailed theoretical analysis proved that the Smoluchowski theory is valid only for sufficiently thin DL, when particle radius \"a\" is much greater than the Debye length:  This model of \"thin double layer\" offers tremendous simplifications not only for electrophoresis theory but for many other electrokinetic theories. This model is valid for most aqueous systems, where the Debye length is usually only a few nanometers. It only breaks for nano-colloids in solution with ionic strength close to water.  The Smoluchowski theory also neglects the contributions from surface conductivity. This is expressed in modern theory as condition of small Dukhin number:  In the effort of expanding the range of validity of electrophoretic theories, the opposite asymptotic case was considered, when Debye length is larger than particle radius:  Under this condition of a \"thick double layer\", Hückel predicted the following relation for electrophoretic mobility:  This model can be useful for some nanoparticles and non-polar fluids, where Debye length is much larger than in the usual cases.  There are several analytical theories that incorporate surface conductivity and eliminate the restriction of a small Dukhin number, pioneered by Overbeek. and Booth. Modern, rigorous theories valid for any Zeta potential and often any \"aκ\" stem mostly from Dukhin–Semenikhin theory.  In the thin double layer limit, these theories confirm the numerical solution to the problem provided by O'Brien and White.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Electrophoresis (from the Greek \"ηλεκτροφόρηση\" meaning \"to bear electrons\") is the motion of dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the influence of a spatially uniform electric field. Electrophoresis of positively charged particles (cations) is sometimes called cataphoresis, while electrophoresis of negatively charged particles (anions) is sometimes called anaphoresis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971804}
{"src_title": "Skill", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Hard skills.", "content": "Hard skills, also called technical skills, are any skills relating to a specific task or situation. It involves both understanding and proficiency in such specific activity that involves methods, processes, procedures, or techniques. These skills are easily quantifiable unlike soft skills, which are related to one's personality. These are also skills that can be or have been tested and may entail some professional, technical, or academic qualification.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Labor skills.", "content": "Skilled workers have long had historical import (\"see\" Division of labor) as electricians, masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, bakers, brewers, coopers, printers and other occupations that are economically productive. Skilled workers were often politically active through their craft guilds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life skills.", "content": "An ability and capacity acquired through deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to smoothly and adaptively carryout complex activities or job functions involving ideas (cognitive skills), things (technical skills), and/or people (interpersonal skills).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "People skills.", "content": "According to the \"Portland Business Journal\", people skills are described as:  A British definition is \"the ability to communicate effectively with people in a friendly way, especially in business.\" The term is not listed yet in major US dictionaries.  The term \"people skills\" is used to include both psychological skills and social skills but is less inclusive than life skills.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social skills.", "content": "Social skill is any skill facilitating interaction and communication with others. Social rules and relations are created, communicated, and changed in verbal and nonverbal ways. The process of learning such skills is called socialization.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soft skills.", "content": "Soft skills are a combination of interpersonal people skills, social skills, communication skills, character traits, attitudes, career attributes and emotional intelligence quotient (EQ) among others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hierarchy of Skills.", "content": "Skills can be categorized based on the level of expertise and motivation. The highest level of engagement corresponds to the craftsman. About 2% of people reach the highest level.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A skill is the ability to perform an action with determined results often within a given amount of time, energy, or both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills. For example, in the domain of work, some general skills would include time management, teamwork and leadership, self-motivation and others, whereas domain-specific skills would be used only for a certain job. Skill usually requires certain environmental stimuli and situations to assess the level of skill being shown and used.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971805}
{"src_title": "Histidine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Properties of the imidazole side chain.", "content": "The conjugate acid (protonated form) of the imidazole side chain in histidine has a p\"K\" of approximately 6.0. Thus, at below a pH of 6, the imidazole ring is mostly protonated (as described by the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation). The resulting imidazolium ring bears two NH bonds and has a positive charge. The positive charge is equally distributed between both nitrogens and can be represented with two equally important resonance structures. Above pH 6, one of the two protons is lost. The remaining proton of the imidazole ring can reside on either nitrogen, giving rise to what are known as the N1-H or N3-H tautomers. The N3-H tautomer, shown in the figure above, is protonated on the #3 nitrogen, farther from the amino acid backbone bearing the amino and carboxyl groups, whereas the N1-H tautomer is protonated on the nitrogen nearer the backbone. The imidazole/imidazolium ring of histidine is aromatic at all pH values.  The acid-base properties of the imidazole side chain are relevant to the catalytic mechanism of many enzymes. In catalytic triads, the basic nitrogen of histidine abstract a proton from serine, threonine, or cysteine to activate it as a nucleophile. In a histidine proton shuttle, histidine is used to quickly shuttle protons. It can do this by abstracting a proton with its basic nitrogen to make a positively charged intermediate and then use another molecule, a buffer, to extract the proton from its acidic nitrogen. In carbonic anhydrases, a histidine proton shuttle is utilized to rapidly shuttle protons away from a zinc-bound water molecule to quickly regenerate the active form of the enzyme. In helices E and F of haemoglobin, histidine influences binding of dioxygen as well as carbon monoxide. This interaction enhances the affinity of Fe(II) for O2 but destabilizes the binding of CO, which binds only 200 times stronger in haemoglobin, compared to 20,000 times stronger in free haem.  The tautomerism and acid-base properties of the imidazole side chain has been characterized by N NMR spectroscopy. The two 14N chemical shifts are similar (about 200 ppm, relative to nitric acid on the sigma scale, on which increased shielding corresponds to increased chemical shift). NMR spectral measurements shows that the chemical shift of N1-H drops slightly, whereas the chemical shift of N3-H drops considerably (about 190 vs. 145 ppm). This change indicates that the N1-H tautomer is preferred, possibly due to hydrogen bonding to the neighboring ammonium. The shielding at N3 is substantially reduced due to the second-order paramagnetic effect, which involves a symmetry-allowed interaction between the nitrogen lone pair and the excited π* states of the aromatic ring. At pH > 9, the chemical shifts of N1 and N3 are approximately 185 and 170 ppm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ligand.", "content": "The imidazole sidechain of histidine commonly serves as a ligand in metalloproteins. One example is the axial base attached to Fe in myoglobin and hemoglobin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metabolism.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biosynthesis.", "content": "-Histidine, is an essential amino acid that is not synthesized \"de novo\" in humans. Humans and other animals must ingest histidine or histidine-containing proteins. The biosynthesis of histidine has been widely studied in prokaryotes such as \"E. coli\". Histidine synthesis in \"E. coli\" involves eight gene products (His1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8) and it occurs in ten steps. This is possible because a single gene product has the ability to catalyze more than one reaction. For example, as shown in the pathway, His4 catalyzes 4 different steps in the pathway.  Histidine is synthesized from phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP), which is made from ribose-5-phosphate by ribose-phosphate diphosphokinase in the pentose phosphate pathway. The first reaction of histidine biosynthesis is the condensation of PRPP and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the enzyme ATP-phosphoribosyl transferase. ATP-phosphoribosyl transferase is indicated by His1 in the image. His4 gene product then hydrolyzes the product of the condensation, phosphoribosyl-ATP, producing phosphoribosyl-AMP (PRAMP), which is an irreversible step. His4 then catalyzes the formation of phosphoribosylformiminoAICAR-phosphate, which is then converted to phosphoribulosylformimino-AICAR-P by the His6 gene product. His7 splits phosphoribulosylformimino-AICAR-P to form -erythro-imidazole-glycerol-phosphate. After, His3 forms imidazole acetol-phosphate releasing water. His5 then makes -histidinol-phosphate, which is then hydrolyzed by His2 making histidinol. His4 catalyzes the oxidation of -histidinol to form -histidinal, an amino aldehyde. In the last step, -histidinal is converted to -histidine.  Just like animals and microorganisms, plants need histidine for their growth and development. Microorganisms and plants are similar in that they can synthesize histidine. Both synthesize histidine from the biochemical intermediate phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate. In general, the histidine biosynthesis is very similar in plants and microorganisms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regulation of biosynthesis.", "content": "This pathway requires energy in order to occur therefore, the presence of ATP activates the first enzyme of the pathway, ATP-phosphoribosyl transferase (shown as His1 in the image on the right). ATP-phosphoribosyl transferase is the rate determining enzyme, which is regulated through feedback inhibition meaning that it is inhibited in the presence of the product, histidine.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Degradation.", "content": "Histidine is one of the amino acids that can be converted to intermediates of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Histidine, along with other amino acids such as proline and arginine, takes part in deamination, a process in which its amino group is removed. In prokaryotes, histidine is first converted to urocanate by histidase. Then, urocanase converts urocanate to 4-imidazolone-5-propionate. Imidazolonepropionase catalyzes the reaction to form formiminoglutamate (FIGLU) from 4-imidazolone-5-propionate. The formimino group is transferred to tetrahydrofolate, and the remaining five carbons form glutamate. Overall, these reactions result in the formation of glutamate and ammonia. Glutamate can then be deaminated by glutamate dehydrogenase or transaminated to form α-ketoglutarate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Requirements.", "content": "The Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) of the U.S. Institute of Medicine set Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for essential amino acids in 2002. For histidine, for adults 19 years and older, 14 mg/kg body weight/day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Histidine (symbol His or H) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated –NH form under biological conditions), a carboxylic acid group (which is in the deprotonated –COO form under biological conditions), and an imidazole side chain (which is partially protonated), classifying it as a positively charged amino acid at physiological pH. Initially thought essential only for infants, it has now been shown in longer-term studies to be essential for adults also. It is encoded by the codons CAU and CAC.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971806}
{"src_title": "Privilegium Minus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Content.", "content": "The name is opposed to the 14th century ', which was a forgery drawn up at the behest of the Habsburg duke Rudolf IV of Austria. The recipient of the'was Frederick's paternal uncle, the Babenberg margrave Henry II Jasomirgott.  In addition to the elevation of his margraviate, the emperor determined that inheritance should also be possible through the female line of the ducal family. In the absence of children, the duke was allowed to designate a successor ('). However, this extraordinary privilege was bound to the persons of Henry Jasomirgott and his wife Theodora Komnene (') for life, as both had no children and Henry's brothers Otto I of Freising and Conrad I of Passau had chosen ecclesiastical careers. The emperor reserved for himself the act of enfeoffment but would respect Henry's choice.  The duke's duty to attend the Imperial Diet was limited to those cases where it convened within the Bavarian lands ('), which saved costly traveling throughout the Empire. Also, Austria was henceforth only required to provide troops to the emperor in wars in its vicinity ('). Henry Jasomirgott was obliged to further on discharge his traditional duties as former margrave.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "The issue of the \"Privilegium Minus\" document is to be seen within the context of the conflict that pitted the Imperial House of Hohenstaufen against the ducal House of Welf in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1138 Emperor Frederick's uncle and predecessor, King Conrad III of Germany had deposed the reluctant Bavarian duke Henry the Proud and had enfeoffed his duchy to the Austrian margrave Henry Jasomirgott. King Conrad died in February 1152 and a few weeks later his nephew Frederick was elected King of the Romans, probably with the support of late Henry the Proud's son Henry the Lion.  The young king and Henry the Lion were cousins through Frederick's mother Judith of Bavaria, sister of Henry the Proud. Frederick prepared for a campaign to Rome to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor and in order to gain military support wished to end the conflict he had inherited from his uncle. He called for a diet at Würzburg —however, Henry Jasomirgott, who anticipated the king's intentions, did not appear under the pretext, that he had not been duly summoned. After several attempts to make an arrangement, Frederick left for Italy and was crowned Emperor on 18 June 1155.  Back in Germany, Frederick resolved upon returning the Duchy of Bavaria to Henry the Lion. He finally was able to hold a secret meeting with Henry Jasomirgott on 5 June 1156 near the Bavarian capital Regensburg. After the conditions were fixed, the emperor called for another diet in Regensburg on 8 September, where the Babenberger officially renounced the Bavarian duchy, which passed to the Welf Henry the Lion. To make up for the loss, Austria with the explicit consent by the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, led by Duke Vladislaus II of Bohemia, was raised to the status of a duchy. Frederick thereby avoided the degradation of Henry Jasomirgott to the rank of a margrave, which would have lacked any explanation and furthermore would have exposed Henry Jasomirgott to persecution by the Welfs. On the other hand, Henry the Lion only received a diminished Bavarian duchy and Henry Jasomirgott's right of \"\" would prevent any succession of the House of Welf in Austria. Disappointed, Henry the Lion turned to his Saxon estates in Northern Germany.  Frederick prevailed, settling the long-time conflict, keeping the Welfs covered and securing support by the House of Babenberg. Only much later, the document turned out to be the founding act for what was to become a nation. 1156 is therefore sometimes given as Austria's date of independence, which it gained from Bavaria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "13th century succession crisis.", "content": "Because the Babenberg Austria was inheritable by female lines, two rival candidates emerged after the last male Babenberg Frederick II, Duke of Austria, Styria and Carinthia died in 1246.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "18th century succession crisis.", "content": "The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 was partially based on provisions of the \"Privilegium Minus\" of Austria. Although not given to the Habsburgs but to the Babenbergs, it anyway allowed female heirs to succeed in Austria, and it designated to the Duke the right to name a successor in absence of heirs. It led to the War of Austrian Succession.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Blackwell, Basil, \"Source for the History of Medieval Europe\" (1966), pp. 160–164.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The is the denotation of a deed issued by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa on 17 September 1156. It included the elevation of the Bavarian frontier march of Austria (\"\") to a duchy, which was given as an inheritable fief to the House of Babenberg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971807}
{"src_title": "Praetorian prefect", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commander of the Praetorian Guard.", "content": "Under the empire the praetorians or imperial guards were commanded by one, two, or even three praefects (praefecti praetorio), who were chosen by the emperor from among the equites and held office at his pleasure. From the time of Alexander Severus the post was open to senators also, and if an equestrian was appointed he was at the same time raised to the senate. Down to the time of Constantine, who deprived the office of its military character, the prefecture of the guards was regularly held by tried soldiers, often by men who had fought their way up from the ranks. In course of time the command seems to have been enlarged so as to include all the troops in Italy except the corps commanded by the city praefect (\"cohortes urbanae\").  The special position of the praetorians made them a power in their own right in the Roman state, and their prefect, the \"praefectus praetorio\", soon became one of the more powerful men in this society. The emperors tried to flatter and control the praetorians, but they staged many coups d'état and contributed to a rapid rate of turnover in the imperial succession. The praetorians thus came to destabilize the Roman state, contrary to their purpose. The praetorian prefect became a major administrative figure in the later empire, when the post combined in one individual the duties of an imperial chief of staff with direct command over the guard also. Diocletian greatly reduced the power of these prefects as part of his sweeping reform of the empire's administrative and military structures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transformation to administrator.", "content": "In addition to his military functions, the praetorian prefect came to acquire jurisdiction over criminal affairs, which he exercised not as the delegate but as the representative of the emperor. By the time of Diocletian he had become a kind of grand-vizier as the emperor's vice-regent and 'prime minister.' Constantine removed active military command in 312. The prefect remained as chief quarter-master general responsible for the logistical supply of the army. The prefect was the chief financial officer whose office drew up the global imperial budget. His office drew up the state liturgical obligations laid on the richer inhabitants of the Empire. He ceased to be head of administration which had to be shared with the master of the offices attached to the palace. Constantine in 331 confirmed that from the sentence of the praetorian praefect there should be no appeal. A similar jurisdiction in civil cases was acquired by him not later than the time of Septimius Severus. Hence a knowledge of law became a qualification for the post, which under Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, but especially from the time of Severus, was held by the first jurists of the age, (e.g. Papinian, Ulpian, Paulus) and, under Justinianus, John the Cappadocian, while the military qualification fell more and more into the background.  The tetrarchy reform of Diocletian (c. 296) multiplied the office: there was a praetorian prefect as chief of staff (military and administrative)—rather than commander of the guard—for each of the two Augusti, but not for the two Caesars. Each praetorian prefect oversaw one of the four quarters created by Diocletian, which became regional praetorian prefectures for the young sons of Constantine ca 330 A.D. From 395 there two imperial courts, at Rome (later Ravenna) and Constantinople, but the four prefectures remained as the highest level of administrative division, in charge of several dioceses (groups of Roman provinces), each of which was headed by a Vicarius. Under Constantine I, the institution of the magister militum deprived the praetorian prefecture altogether of its military character but left it the highest civil office of the empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germanic era.", "content": "The office was among the many maintained after the Western Roman Empire had succumbed to the Germanic invasion in Italy, notably at the royal court of the Ostrogothic king Theoderic the Great, who as a nominal subject of Constantinople retained the Roman-era administration intact.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List of known prefects of the Praetorian Guard.", "content": "The following is a list of all known prefects of the Praetorian Guard, from the establishment of the post in 2 BC by Augustus until the abolishment of the Guard in 314. The list is presumed to be incomplete due to the lack of sources documenting the exact number of persons who held the post, what their names were and what the length of their tenure was. Likewise, the Praetorians were sometimes commanded by a single prefect, as was the case with for example Sejanus or Burrus, but more often, the emperor appointed two commanders, who shared joint leadership. Overlapping terms on the list indicate dual command.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "For praetorian prefects after the reformation of the office by emperor Constantine I, see:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The praetorian prefect (, ) was a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders becoming the Emperor's chief aides. Under Constantine I, the office was much reduced in power and transformed into a purely civilian administrative post, while under his successors, territorially-defined praetorian prefectures emerged as the highest-level administrative division of the Empire. The prefects again functioned as the chief ministers of the state, with many laws addressed to them by name. In this role, praetorian prefects continued to be appointed by the Eastern Roman Empire (and the Ostrogothic Kingdom) until the reign of Heraclius in the 7th century AD, when wide-ranging reforms reduced their power and converted them to mere overseers of provincial administration. The last traces of the prefecture disappeared in the Byzantine Empire by the 840s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971808}
{"src_title": "Alesia (city)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle of Alesia.", "content": "Alesia is best known for being the site of the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC that marked the defeat of the Gauls under Vercingetorix by the Romans under Julius Caesar. Caesar described the battle in detail in his \"\" (Book VII, 69–90). The battle's outcome determined the fate of all of Gaul: in winning the battle, the Romans won both the Gallic Wars and dominion over Gaul.  The enormous measures taken during the battle were impressive: in only six weeks, Caesar's troops built a ring of fortifications long (\"circumvallation\") around Alesia and an additional ring long (\"contravallation\") around that to stop reinforcements (around 250,000 men according to Caesar) from reaching the Gauls.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roman.", "content": "After being conquered by Caesar, Alesia became a Gallo-Roman town. It featured a town centre with monumental buildings such as temples and a forum. There was also a theatre.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography and location.", "content": "For a long time after the abandonment of the Roman town, the location of Alesia and thus the site of the important battle was unknown and subject to speculation. In the 19th century, Emperor Napoleon III developed an interest in the location of this crucial battle in pre-French history. He was writing a biography of Caesar and saw the command of Vercingetorix over all Gaulish armies as a symbol of the French nation. At the same time he realized that the future French nation was heavily influenced by the Roman victory and centuries of rule over Gaul.  In 1838, a find with the inscription: \", had been discovered near Alise-Sainte-Reine in the department near Dijon. Napoleon ordered an archaeological excavation by around. These excavations in 1861–65 concentrated on the vast Roman siege lines and indicated that the historical Alesia was indeed located there.  The was located on a plateau of, around above the valley floor, surrounded by steep cliffs in every direction except at the eastern and western extremities. It was protected by a wall (\") enclosing an area of up to 140 hectares, pierced by at least two pincer gates and in 52 BC it possibly had a population of 80,000 including refugees and men under the command of Vercingetorix.  Later archaeological analysis at has corroborated the described siege in detail. The remains of siege rings said to match Caesar’s descriptions have been identified by archaeologists using aerial photography (e.g. by ). Franco-German excavations led by and in 1991–97 confirmed these findings and effectively ended the long debate among archaeologists about the location of Alesia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternative theories on Alesia’s location.", "content": "There have been other theories about Alesia's location that claimed it was in or around in Jura. In the 1960s, a French archaeologist,, proposed that the location of Alesia is at in, at the gate of the Jura mountains—a place that better suits the descriptions in Caesar's Gallic Wars—and indeed, Roman fortifications have been found at that site. In total, around 40 towns and other locations have claimed to be the site of Alesia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "Part of the area has become the \"\". Not much of the Gallic is visible today, except for some remains of a rampart. Most of the ruins date to the town’s Roman period.  A large copper statue of Vercingetorix, made in 1865 by stands at the western end of the plateau.  The uncertainty surrounding Alesia's location is humorously parodied in the Asterix comic book \"Asterix and the Chieftain's Shield\", in which, in this case because of Gaulish pride, characters repeatedly and vehemently deny that they know its location: \"I don't know where Alesia is! No one knows where Alesia is!\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alesia was the capital of the Mandubii, one of the Gallic tribes allied with the Aedui. The Celtic was conquered by Julius Caesar during the Gallic Wars and afterwards became a Gallo-Roman town. Modern understanding of its location was controversial for a long time; however, it is now thought to have been located on, near in Burgundy, France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971809}
{"src_title": "Bat-eared fox", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Range and distribution.", "content": "Two allopatric populations (subspecies) occur in Africa. \"O. m. virgatus\" occurs from Ethiopia and southern Sudan to Tanzania. The other population, \"O. m. megalotis\", occurs in the southern part of Africa. It ranges from southern Zambia and Angola to South Africa, and extends as far east as Mozambique and Zimbabwe, spreading into the Cape Peninsula and toward Cape Agulhas. Home ranges vary in size from 0.3 to 3.5 km.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The bat-eared fox commonly inhabits short grasslands, as well as the more arid regions of the savanna. It prefers bare ground and areas where grass is kept short by grazing ungulates. It tends to hunt in these short grass and low shrub habitats. However, it does venture into areas with tall grasses and thick shrubs to hide when threatened.  In addition to raising their young in dens, bat-eared foxes use self-dug dens for shelter from extreme temperatures and winds. They also lie under acacia trees in South Africa to seek shade during the day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "The bat-eared fox is predominantly an insectivore that uses its large ears to locate its prey. About 80–90% of their diet is harvester termites (\"Hodotermes mossambicus\"). When this particular species of termite is not available, they feed on other species of termites and have also been observed consuming other arthropods such as ants, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, millipedes, moths, scorpions, spiders, and rarely birds, small mammals, reptiles, and fungi (the desert truffle \"Kalaharituber pfeilii\"). The insects they eat fulfill the majority of their water intake needs. The bat-eared fox refuses to feed on snouted harvester termites, likely because it is not adapted to tolerate termites' chemical defense.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dentition.", "content": "The teeth of the bat-eared fox are much smaller and reduced in shearing surface formation than teeth of other canid species. This is an adaptation to its insectivorous diet. Due to its unusual teeth, the bat-eared fox was once considered as a distinct subfamily of canids (Otocyoninae). However, according to more recent examinations, it is more closely related to the true foxes of the genus \"Vulpes\". Other research places the genus as an outgroup which is not very closely related to foxes. The bat-eared fox is an old species that was widely distributed in the Pleistocene era. The teeth are not the bat-eared fox's only morphological adaptation for its diet. The lower jaw has a step-like protrusion called the subangular process, which anchors the large muscle to allow for rapid chewing. The digastric muscle is also modified to open and close the jaw five times per second.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Foraging.", "content": "Bat-eared foxes usually hunt in groups, mostly in pairs and groups of three. Individuals forage alone after family groups break in June or July and during the months after cub birth. Prey is located primarily by auditory means, rather than by smell or sight. Foraging patterns vary between seasons and coincide with termite availability. In the midsummer, individuals begin foraging at sunset, continuing throughout the night, and fading into the early morning. Foraging is almost exclusively diurnal during the winter it usually occurs in patches, which match the clumped prey resources, such as termite colonies, that also occur in patches. Groups are able to forage on clumps of prey in patches because they do not fight each other for food due to their degree of sociality and lack of territoriality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "In the more northern areas of its range (around Serengeti), they are nocturnal 85% of the time. However, around South Africa, they are nocturnal only in the summer and diurnal during the winter.  Bat-eared foxes are highly social animals. They often live in pairs or groups of up to 15 individuals, and home ranges of groups either overlap substantially or very little. Individuals forage, play, and rest together in a group, which helps in protection against predators. Social grooming occurs throughout the year, mostly between mature adults, but also between young adults and mature adults.  Visual displays are very important in communication among bat-eared foxes. When they are looking intently at something, the head is held high, eyes are open, ears are erect and facing forward, and the mouth is closed. When an individual is in threat or showing submission, the ears are pulled back and lying against the head and the head is low. The tail also plays a role in communication. When an individual is asserting dominance or aggression, feeling threatened, playing, or being sexually aroused, the tail is arched in an inverted U shape. Individuals can also use piloerection, which occurs when individual hairs are standing straight, to make it appear larger when faced with extreme threat. When running, chasing, or fleeing, the tail is straight and horizontal. The bat-eared fox can recognize individuals up to 30 m away. The recognition process has three steps: First they ignore the individual, then they stare intently, and finally they either approach or attack without displays. When greeting another, the approaching individual shows symbolic submission which is received by the other individual with a high head and tail down. Few vocalizations are used for communication, but contact calls and warning calls are used, mostly during the winter. Glandular secretions and scratching, other than for digging, are absent in communication.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The bat-eared fox is predominantly socially monogamous, although it has been observed in polygynous groups. In contrast to other canids, the bat-eared fox has a reversal in parental roles, with the male taking on the majority of the parental care behavior. Gestation lasts for 60–70 days and females give birth to litters consisting of one to six kits. Beyond lactation, which lasts 14 to 15 weeks, males take over grooming, defending, huddling, chaperoning, and carrying the young between den sites. Additionally, male care and den attendance rates have been shown to have a direct correlation with cub survival rates. The female forages for food, which she uses to maintain milk production, on which the pups heavily depend. Food foraged by the female is not brought back to the pups or regurgitated to feed the pups.  Pups in the Kalahari region are born September–November and those in the Botswana region are born October–December. Young bat-eared foxes disperse and leave their family groups at 5–6 months old and reach sexual maturity at 8–9 months.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation threats.", "content": "The bat-eared fox has some commercial use for humans. They are important for harvester termite population control, as the termites are considered pests. They have also been hunted for their fur by Botswana natives. Additional threats to populations include disease and drought that can harm populations of prey; however, no major threats to bat-eared fox populations exist.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The bat-eared fox (\"Otocyon megalotis\") is a species of fox found on the African savanna, named for its large ears, which are used for thermoregulation. Fossil records show this canid first appeared during the middle Pleistocene, about 800,000 years ago. It is considered a basal canid species, resembling ancestral forms of the family, It has also been called a Sub-Saharan African version of a fennec fox due to their huge ears.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971810}
{"src_title": "Bora Bora", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "In ancient times the island was called \"Pora pora mai te pora\", meaning \"created by the gods\" in the local Tahitian dialect. This was often abbreviated \"Pora Pora\" meaning simply \"first born\". Because of ambiguities in the phonemes of the Tahitian language, this could also be pronounced \"Bola Bola\" or \"Bora Bora\". When explorer Jacob Roggeveen first landed on the island, he and his crew adopted the name \"Bora Bora\" which has stood ever since.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The island was inhabited by Polynesian settlers around the 4th century The first European sighting was made by Jakob Roggeveen in 1722.  James Cook sighted the island on 29 July 1769, using a Tahitian navigator, Tupaia. The London Missionary Society arrived in 1820 and founded a Protestant church in 1890. Bora Bora was an independent kingdom until 1888 when its last queen Teriimaevarua III was forced to abdicate by the French who annexed the island as a colony.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "In World War II the United States chose Bora Bora as a South Pacific military supply base, and an oil depot, airstrip, seaplane base, and defensive fortifications were constructed. Known as \"Operation Bobcat\", it maintained a supply force of nine ships, 20,000 tons of equipment and nearly 7,000 men.  At least eight 7\"/44 caliber guns, operated by elements of the 13th Coast Artillery Regiment (later the 276th Coast Artillery Battalion), were set up at strategic points around the island to protect it against potential military attack. Eight of these guns remain in the area.  However, the island saw no combat as the American presence on Bora Bora went uncontested over the course of the war. The base was officially closed on 2 June 1946. The World War II airstrip was never able to accommodate large aircraft, but it nonetheless was French Polynesia's only international airport until Faa'a International Airport opened next to Papeete, Tahiti, in 1960.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The island's economy is driven almost solely by tourism. Several resorts have been built on the \"motu\" (small islands, from Tahitian) surrounding the lagoon. Hotel Bora Bora opened in 1961, and nine years later built the first over-the-water bungalows on stilts over the lagoon. Today, over-water bungalows are a standard feature of most Bora Bora resorts. The quality of those bungalows ranges from comparably cheap, basic accommodations to very luxurious and expensive.  Most of the tourist destinations are aqua-centric; however, it is possible to visit attractions on land such as WWII cannons. Air Tahiti has five or six flights daily to the Bora Bora Airport on Motu Mute from Tahiti (as well as from other islands). Public transport on the island is nonexistent so rental cars and bicycles are the recommended methods of transport. There are also small, two-seater buggies for hire in Vaitape. It is possible to rent a motorboat to explore the lagoon.  Snorkeling and scuba diving in and around the lagoon of Bora Bora are popular activities. Many species of sharks and rays inhabit the surrounding body of water. There are a few dive operators on the island offering manta ray dives and also shark-feeding dives. Sharks living in the island's lagoon are not considered to be dangerous to people.  In addition to the existing islands of Bora Bora, the new manmade island of Motu Marfo has been added in the northeastern corner of the lagoon on the property of the St. Regis Resort.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Bora Bora has a tropical monsoon climate. Temperatures are relatively consistent throughout the year, with hot days and warm nights. The dry season lasts from June to October yet precipitation is still observed throughout this period.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Endemic gastropod ecology and decline.", "content": "Forest habitats on Bora Bora on the slopes of Mount Otemanu are quite diverse in gastropod life in comparison to other islands. Several species of endemic or native species existed in great numbers until relatively recently during the introductions of \"Lissachatina\", \"Euglandina\", and various flatworms which decimated populations of \"Partula lutea\" (an endemic partulid species that became extinct in the late 1990s), \"Samoana attenuata\" (a species once native to Bora Bora but later not found in surveys of the island), and \"Mautodontha boraborensis\" (a critically endangered species as of 1996 but most likely extinct, as it was last seen in the 1880s). The above listed native and endemic species were mostly restricted to virgin forest, and the only species that remain common (perhaps even extant) are several subulinids and tornatellinids among others, including \"Orobophana pacifica (\"a helicinid\").\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bora Bora (French: \"Bora-Bora\"; Tahitian: \"Pora Pora\") is a island group in the Leeward group in the western part of the Society Islands of French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of the French Republic in the Pacific Ocean. The main island, located about northwest of Papeete, is surrounded by a lagoon and a barrier reef. In the center of the island are the remnants of an extinct volcano rising to two peaks, Mount Pahia and Mount Otemanu, the highest point at. It is part of the commune of Bora-Bora, which also includes the atoll of Tūpai.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971811}
{"src_title": "Strait of Messina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Bird migration.", "content": "The Strait of Messina is a focal point in the migrations of birds every year, who mainly cross the strait to reach their breeding grounds in northern Europe. Due to this form of bottleneck more than 300 species are recorded in the area, which is a major European hot spot for raptors, with a record of 35.000 in a spring.  Among them the European honey buzzard and the marsh harrier are the most frequent, species like Bonelli's eagle and Egyptian vulture are less frequent but regular. In the coastal salt lakes of the Strait of Messina species like glossy ibis, flamingos and black-winged stilt stop to rest. The site is also favorable for observing storks. The Monte Dinnammare and the other Peloritani mountains overlooking the Strait are a natural theatre for birdwatching.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marine life.", "content": "Due to its unique hydrogeological conditions the Strait of Messina has high levels of biodiversity and multiple endemic species. In its waters there is a strong presence of deep sea fish like the Sloane's viperfish which, due to the particular and peculiar currents of the strait, are occasionally found stranded on the shore at sunrise. The strait is also an important point of migration of many species of fish in the Mediterranean Sea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "A ferry service connects Messina on Sicily with the mainland at Villa San Giovanni, which lies several kilometers north of the large city of Reggio Calabria; the ferries hold the cars (carriages) of the mainline train service between Palermo and Naples. There is also a hydrofoil service between Messina and Reggio Calabria.  For decades, the possibility of building a bridge across the Messina Strait has been under discussion. In 2006, under Prime Minister Romano Prodi the project was cancelled. On 6 March 2009, however, as part of a massive new public works program, Silvio Berlusconi's government announced that plans to construct the Messina Bridge had been fully revived, pledging €1.3 billion as a contribution to its estimated cost of €6.1 billion Some 3.3 km long and 60 m wide, the bridge would be supported by two 382 m pillars, each higher than the Empire State Building, and accommodate six freeway lanes, a railway (for up to 200 trains a day), and two walkways.  Supporters perceive the bridge as a huge job-creation scheme and a boost for tourism to the island. Opponents see it as an ecological disaster, a structure at risk due to especially strong winds and earthquakes (the area having an intense seismic record), and a boon for Sicilian and Calabrian organized crime. Berlusconi claimed in 2009 that work would be completed by 2016 although in February 2013, the project was cancelled again.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Strait of Messina () is a narrow strait between the eastern tip of Sicily (Punta del Faro) and the western tip of Calabria (Punta Pezzo) in the south of Italy. It connects the Tyrrhenian Sea to the north with the Ionian Sea to the south, within the central Mediterranean. At its narrowest point, between Torre Faro and Villa San Giovanni, it is wide. At the town of Messina it is wide. The strait's maximum depth is about.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971812}
{"src_title": "Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born in Graz, Styria, his cousin Guido Starhemberg also became a famous soldier and fought as an adjutant at his side. Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg fought in the 1660s under Imperial Lieutenant general Raimondo Montecuccoli against French and Ottoman forces.  In 1683 he was military commander of the city of Vienna, with fewer than 20,000 men to oppose about 120,000 besieging Ottomans. On 15 July 1683 Starhemberg refused an offer by the Turkish commander Kara Mustafa Pasha to capitulate, counting on the speedy arrival of an Imperial army, sent by the Habsburg emperor Leopold I who had fled his residence, and the strength of city walls which had been fortified after the first Ottoman Siege of Vienna in 1529.  When after two months the relief army under the command of Polish king Jan Sobieski arrived in the first half of September, Vienna was on the brink of collapse. Its walls were breached by Turkish sappers who had tunnelled under the walls, packed the tunnels with gunpowder, and detonated the explosive charges. Finally, on 12 September, 80,000 Polish, Venetian, Bavarian, and Saxon troops attacked the Turks and were able to defeat them in the Battle on the Kahlenberg.  Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg was promoted to the rank of a field marshal by the Emperor, recognizing Starhemberg's action in saving the imperial capital. He was also made a minister of the state. Going after the retiring Ottoman troops, Starhemberg was severely wounded in 1686 during the Siege of Buda by a shot in his left hand and had to abandon his command. In 1691 he was made President of the Hofkriegsrat and was responsible for the organisation of the Habsburg army.  Starhemberg died at Vösendorf on 4 January 1701, aged 62. His tomb (by Joseph Emanuel Fischer von Erlach) is situated in the Vienna Schottenkirche.  The later Austrian politician Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg (1899-1956) was a collateral descendant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Later generations have idealized Starhemberg as saviour of the Western world and culture. By order of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, a statue was erected in his honour in 1872 at the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum in Vienna, where the Battle of Vienna is thoroughly documented, with Starhemberg's épée and armour on display.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "Adolf Schinzl: Starhemberg, Ernst Rüdiger Graf von. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Band 35, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1893, S. 468–470. Die Türkenkriege, Angriff auf das Abendland (= G/Geschichte; Heft Juni 2007)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Count Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg (12 January 1638 – 4 January 1701) was military governor of Vienna from 1680, the city's defender during the Battle of Vienna in 1683, Imperial general during the Great Turkish War, and President of the Hofkriegsrat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971813}
{"src_title": "Antihero", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "An early antihero is Homer's Thersites. The concept has also been identified in classical Greek drama, Roman satire, and Renaissance literature such as \"Don Quixote\" and the picaresque rogue.  The term antihero was first used as early as 1714, emerging in works such as \"Rameau's Nephew\" in the 18th century, and is also used more broadly to cover Byronic heroes as well.  Literary Romanticism in the 19th century helped popularize new forms of the antihero, such as the Gothic double. The antihero eventually became an established form of social criticism, a phenomenon often associated with the unnamed protagonist in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's \"Notes from Underground.\" The antihero emerged as a foil to the traditional hero archetype, a process that Northrop Frye called the fictional \"center of gravity\". This movement indicated a literary change in heroic ethos from feudal aristocrat to urban democrat, as was the shift from epic to ironic narratives.  Huckleberry Finn (1884) has been called \"the first antihero in the American nursery\". Charlotte Mullen of Somerville and Ross' \"The Real Charlotte\" (1894) has been described as an antiheroine.  The antihero became prominent in early 20th century existentialist works such as Franz Kafka's \"The Metamorphosis\" (1915), Jean-Paul Sartre's \"La Nausée\" (1938) (), and Albert Camus' \"L'Étranger\" (1942) (). The protagonist in these works is an indecisive central character who drifts through his life and is marked by ennui, angst, and alienation.  The antihero entered American literature in the 1950s and up to the mid-1960s was portrayed as an alienated figure, unable to communicate. The American antihero of the 1950s and 1960s (as seen in the works of Jack Kerouac, Norman Mailer, et al.) was typically more proactive than his French counterpart, with characters such as Kerouac's Dean Moriarty famously taking to the road to vanquish his ennui. The British version of the antihero emerged in the works of the \"angry young men\" of the 1950s. The collective protests of Sixties counterculture saw the solitary antihero gradually eclipsed from fictional prominence, though not without subsequent revivals in literary and cinematic form.  The antihero also plays a prominent role in films noir such as \"Double Indemnity\" (1944) and \"Night and the City\" (1950), in gangster films such as \"The Godfather\" (1972), and in Western films, especially the Revisionist Western and Spaghetti Western. Lead figures in these westerns are often morally ambiguous, such as the \"Man with No Name\", portrayed by Clint Eastwood in \"A Fistful of Dollars\" (1964), \"For a Few Dollars More\" (1965) and \"The Good, the Bad and the Ugly\" (1966). In the early 21st century Golden Age of Television, antiheroic or morally ambiguous protagonists are prominent in series such as \"The Sopranos\" (1999–2007), \"Mad Men\" (2007–2015), \"Breaking Bad\" (2008–2013), \"Empire\", \"The Blacklist\", and \"Game of Thrones\" (2011–2019).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An antihero or antiheroine is a main character in a story who lacks conventional heroic qualities and attributes such as idealism, courage and morality. Although antiheroes may sometimes perform actions that are morally correct, it is not always for the right reasons, often acting primarily out of self-interest or in ways that defy conventional ethical codes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971814}
{"src_title": "Carsten Niebuhr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Niebuhr was born in Lüdingworth (now a part of Cuxhaven, Lower Saxony) in what was then Bremen-Verden. His father Barthold Niebuhr (1704-1749) was a successful farmer and owned his own property. Carsten and his sister were educated at home by a local school teacher, then he attended the Latin School in Otterndorf, near Cuxhaven.  Originally Niebuhr had intended to become a surveyor, but in 1757 he went to the \"Georgia Augusta\" University of Göttingen, at this time Germany's most progressive institution of higher education. Niebuhr was probably a strong student because in 1760 Johann David Michaelis (1717-1791) recommended him as a participant in the Royal Danish Arabia Expedition (1761-1767), mounted by Frederick V of Denmark (1722-1766). For a year and a half before the expedition Niebuhr studied mathematics, cartography and navigational astronomy under Tobias Mayer (1723-1762), one of the premier astronomers of the 18th century, and the author of the Lunar Distance Method for determining longitude. Niebuhr's observations during the Arabia Expedition proved the accuracy and the practicality of this method for use by mariners at sea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expeditions.", "content": "The expedition sailed in January 1761 via Marseilles and Malta to Istanbul and Alexandria. Then the members of the expedition visited Cairo and Sinai, before traversing the Red Sea via Jiddah to Yemen, which was their main destination.  In Mocha, on 25 May 1763, the expedition's philologist, Frederik Christian von Haven, died, and on 11 July 1763, on the way to Sanaʽa, the capital of Yemen, its naturalist Peter Forsskål also died.  In Sanaʽa the remaining members of the expedition had an audience with the Imam of Yemen al-Mahdi Abbas (1719-1775), but suffered from the climate and returned to Mocha. Niebuhr seems to have preserved his own life and restored his health by adopting native dress and eating native food.  From Mocha the expedition continued to Bombay, the expedition's artist Georg Wilhelm Baurenfeind died on the 29th of August and the expedition's servant Lars Berggren on the following day; both were buried at sea. The surgeon Christian C. Kramer (1732-1763) also died, soon after landing in Bombay. Niebuhr was the only surviving member. He stayed in Bombay for fourteen months and then returned home by way of Muscat, Bushire, Shiraz and Persepolis. His copies of the cuneiform inscriptions at Persepolis proved to be a key turning-point in the decipherment of cuneiform, and the birth of Assyriology.  His transcriptions were especially useful to Grotefend, who made the first correct decirpherments of Old Persian cuneiform:  He also visited the ruins of Babylon (making many important sketches), Baghdad, Mosul and Aleppo. He seems also to have visited the Behistun Inscription in around 1764. After a visit to Cyprus he made a tour through Palestine, crossed the Taurus Mountains to Bursa, reached Constantinople in February 1767 and finally arrived in Copenhagen in the following November.  Niebuhr's production during the expedition is indeed impressive. It includes small-scale maps and charts of Yemen, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and Oman, and other larger scale maps covering the Nile Delta, the Gulf of Suez and the regions surrounding various port cities he visited, including Mocha and Surat. He completed 28 town plans of significant historical value because of their uniqueness for that period.  In summary, Niebuhr's maps, charts and plans constitute the greatest single addition to the cartography of the region that was produced through field research and published in the 18th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and later career.", "content": "In 1773 Niebuhr married Christiane Sophia Blumenberg, the daughter of the crown physician, and for some years he held a post in the Danish military service, which enabled him to remain in Copenhagen. In 1776 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1778 he accepted a position in the civil service of Danish Holstein, and went to reside at Meldorf (Ditmarschen). In 1806 he was promoted to \"Etatsrat\", and in 1809 was made a Knight of the Order of the Dannebrog, one of Denmark-Norway's most valued honours for service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing and research.", "content": "Niebuhr's first book, \"Beschreibung von Arabien\", was published in Copenhagen in 1772, the Danish government providing subsidies for the engraving and printing of its numerous illustrations. This was followed in 1774 and 1778 by the first two volumes of Niebuhr's \"Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegender Ländern\". These works (particularly the one published in 1778), and most specifically the accurate copies of the cuneiform inscriptions found at Persepolis, were to prove to be extremely important to the decipherment of cuneiform writing. Before Niebuhr's publication, cuneiform inscriptions were often thought to be merely decorations and embellishments, and no accurate decipherments or translations had been made up to that point. Niebuhr demonstrated that the three trilingual inscriptions found at Persepolis were in fact three distinct forms of cuneiform writing (which he termed Class I, Class II, and Class III) to be read from left to right. His accurate copies of the trilingual inscriptions gave Orientalists the key to finally crack the cuneiform code, leading to the discovery of Old Persian, Akkadian, and Sumerian.  The third volume of the Reisebeschreibung, also based on materials from the expedition, was not published till 1837, long after Niebuhr's death, under the editorship of his daughter and his assistant, Johan Nicolaus Gloyer. Niebuhr also contributed papers on the interior of Africa, the political and military condition of the Ottoman Empire, and other subjects to a German periodical, the \"Deutsches Museum\". In addition, he edited and published the work of his friend Peter Forsskål, the naturalist on the Arabian expedition, under the titles \"Descriptiones animalium, Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica\" and \"Icones rerum naturalium\" (Copenhagen, 1775 and 1776).  French and Dutch translations of Niebuhr's narratives were published during his lifetime, and a condensed English translation of his own three volumes, prepared by Robert Heron, was published in Edinburgh in 1792, under the title \"Travels through Arabia\". A facsimile edition of this translation, as by \"M. Niebuhr\", was published in two volumes by the Libraire du Liban, Beirut (undated).  The government funds covered only a fraction of the printing costs for Niebuhr's first book, and probably a similar or smaller proportion of the costs for the other two volumes. To ensure that the volumes were published, Niebuhr had to pay over 80% of the costs himself. In all, Niebuhr devoted ten years of his life, the years 1768-1778, to the publication of six volumes of findings from the expedition. He had virtually no help from the academics who had conceived and shaped the expedition in Göttingen and Copenhagen. It was only Niebuhr's determination to publish the findings of the expedition that ensured that the Danish Arabia Expedition would produce results that would benefit the world of scholarship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Niebuhr died in Meldorf in 1815.  Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) highly prized Niebuhr's works. In 1811 he wrote to Niebuhr's son, Barthold Georg Niebuhr, that \"You carry a name which I have learned to honour since my youth.\"  Carsten Niebuhrs Gade, a street in the port area of Copenhagen, is named for him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carsten Niebuhr or Karsten Niebuhr (17 March 1733 Lüdingworth – 26 April 1815 Meldorf, Dithmarschen), a German mathematician, cartographer, and explorer in the service of Denmark, is renowned for his participation in the Royal Danish Arabia Expedition (1761-1767). He was the father of the Danish-German statesman and historian Barthold Georg Niebuhr, who published an account of his father's life in 1817.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971815}
{"src_title": "Collecting", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types of collection.", "content": "The most obvious way to categorize collections is by the type of objects collected. Most collections are of manufactured commercial items, but natural objects such as birds' eggs, butterflies, rocks, and seashells can also be the subject of a collection. For some collectors, the criterion for inclusion might not be the type of object but some incidental property such as the identity of its original owner.  Some collectors are generalists with very broad criteria for inclusion, while others focus on a subtopic within their area of interest. Some collectors accumulate arbitrarily many objects that meet the thematic and quality requirements of their collection, others—called \"completists\" or \"completionists\"—aim to acquire all items in a well-defined set that can in principle be completed, and others seek a limited number of items per category (e.g. one representative item per year of manufacture or place of purchase). Collecting items by country (e.g. one collectible per country) is very common. The monetary value of objects is important to some collectors but irrelevant to others. Some collectors maintain objects in pristine condition, while others use the items they collect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Value of collected items.", "content": "After a collectable has been purchased, its retail price no longer applies and its value is linked to what is called the secondary market. There is no secondary market for an item unless someone is willing to buy it, and an object's value is whatever the buyer is willing to pay. Depending on age, condition, supply, demand, and other factors, individuals, auctioneers, and secondary retailers may sell a collectable for either more or less than what they originally paid for it. Special or limited edition collectables are created with the goal of increasing demand and value of an item due to its rarity. A \"price guide\" is a resource such as a book or website that lists typical selling prices.  Products often become more valuable with age. The term \"antique\" generally refers to manufactured items made over 100 years ago, although in some fields, such as antique cars, the time frame is less stringent. For antique furniture, the limit has traditionally been set in the 1830s. Collectors and dealers may use the word \"vintage\" to describe older collectables that are too young to be called antiques, including Art Deco and Art Nouveau items, Carnival and Depression glass, etc. Items which were once everyday objects but may now be collectable, as almost all examples produced have been destroyed or discarded, are called \"ephemera\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Psychological aspects.", "content": "Psychological factors can play a role in both the motivation for keeping a collection and the impact it has on the collector's life. These factors can be positive or negative.  The hobby of collecting often goes hand-in-hand with an interest in the objects collected and what they represent, for example collecting postcards may reflect an interest in different places and cultures. For this reason, collecting can have educational benefits, and some collectors even become experts in their field.  Maintaining a collection can be a relaxing activity that counteracts the stress of life, while providing a purposeful pursuit which prevents boredom. The hobby can lead to social connections between people with similar interests and the development of new friendships. It has also been shown to be particularly common among academics.  Collecting for most people is a choice, but for some it can be a compulsion, sharing characteristics with obsessive hoarding. When collecting is passed between generations, it might sometimes be that children have inherited symptoms of obsessive–compulsive disorder. Collecting can sometimes reflect a fear of scarcity, or of discarding something then later regretting it.  It has been speculated that the widespread appeal of collecting is connected to the hunting and gathering that was once necessary for human survival. Collecting is also associated with memory by association and the need for the human brain to catalogue and organise information and give meaning to ones actions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Collecting is a practice with a very old cultural history. In Mesopotamia, collecting practices have been noted among royalty and elites as far back as the 3rd millennium BCE. The Egyptian Ptolemaic dynasty collected books from all over the known world at the Library of Alexandria. The Medici family, in Renaissance Florence, made the first effort to collect art by private patronage, this way artists could be free for the first time from the money given by the Church and Kings; this citizenship tradition continues today with the work of private art collectors. Many of the world's popular museums—from the Metropolitan in New York City to the Thyssen in Madrid or the Franz Mayer in Mexico City—have collections formed by the collectors that donated them to be seen by the general public.  The collecting hobby is a modern descendant of the \"cabinet of curiosities\" which was common among scholars with the means and opportunities to acquire unusual items from the 16th century onwards. Planned collecting of ephemeral publications goes back at least to George Thomason in the reign of Charles I and Samuel Pepys in that of Charles II. Collecting engravings and other prints by those whose means did not allow them to buy original works of art also goes back many centuries. The progress in 18th-century Paris of collecting both works of art and of \"curiosité\", dimly echoed in the English \"curios\", and the origins in Paris, Amsterdam and London of the modern art market have been increasingly well documented and studied since the mid-19th century.  The involvement of larger numbers of people in collecting activities came with the prosperity and increased leisure for some in the later 19th century in industrial countries. That was when collecting such items as antique china, furniture and decorative items from oriental countries became established. The first price guide was the Stanley Gibbons catalogue issued in November 1865.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "On the Internet.", "content": "The Internet offers many resources to any collector: personal sites presenting one's collection, tools for tracking conditions and number of items collected, item identification tools, pricing guides, online collectable catalogs, online marketplaces, trading platforms, collector clubs, autograph clubs, collector forums, and collector mailing lists.  Some of the most popular collecting websites are StampWorld, Delcampe, and Numista.  Some of the most spread collectables online are stamps and coins.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The hobby of collecting includes seeking, locating, acquiring, organizing, cataloging, displaying, storing, and maintaining items that are of interest to an individual \"collector\". Collections differ in a wide variety of respects, most obviously in the nature and scope of the objects contained, but also in purpose, presentation, and so forth. The range of possible subjects for a collection is practically unlimited, and collectors have realised a vast number of these possibilities in practice, although some are much more popular than others.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971816}
{"src_title": "North Cape (Norway)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The steep cliff of the North Cape is located at, about from the North Pole. Nordkapp is often inaccurately referred to as the northernmost point of Europe. However, the neighbouring Knivskjellodden Cape actually extends further north. Furthermore, both of these points are situated on an island (Magerøya), albeit one connected by road to the mainland. The northernmost point of mainland Europe is located at Cape Nordkinn () which lies about further south and about to the east. That point is located near the village of Mehamn on the Nordkinn Peninsula. The northernmost point of Europe including islands is hundreds of kilometres further north, either in Russia's Franz Josef Land or Norway's Svalbard archipelago, depending on whether Franz Josef Land is considered to be in Europe or in Asia.  The North Cape is the point where the Norwegian Sea, part of the Atlantic Ocean, meets the Barents Sea, part of the Arctic Ocean. The midnight sun can be seen from 14 May to 31 July. The sun reaches its lowest point between 12:14 am and 12:24 am (00:14 and 00:24) during those days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The North Cape is reached by European route E69 highway through the North Cape Tunnel, an undersea tunnel connecting the island of Magerøya to the mainland. The EuroVelo bicycle routes EV1, EV7 and EV11 connect the North Cape to Sagres, Portugal, Malta and Athens, respectively.  Several cruise ships visit North Cape every year. Honningsvåg is one of the main stops of the Hurtigruten coastal ships.  Regular buses run from the nearby town of Honningsvåg to the North Cape (), and coaches meet the many cruise ships that call at the port of Honningsvåg.  The nearest airport is Honningsvåg Valan Airport (HVG), which offer several flights to and from Tromsø Langnes International Airport (TOS).  Road distance to North Cape from different towns:  Honningsvåg;  Lakselv;  Hammerfest;  Alta;  Kirkenes;  Tromsø;", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winter.", "content": "It is possible to visit North Cape during winter, but when there is heavy snow and wind, the last stretch of road is only open for convoy driving at certain times. The road to North Cape is kept open during winter and is accessible to regular vehicles and drivers that both can cope with the hard snow and wind conditions that may occur in winter. Before this, E69 was the only winter-closed E-route in Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The North Cape was named by the Englishman Steven Borough, captain of the \"Edward Bonaventure\", which sailed past in 1553 in search of the Northeast Passage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early tourism.", "content": "The North Cape became a popular tourist destination during the last decades of the nineteenth century, especially after King Oscar II's visit in 1873. Regular coastal steamer routes from Germany to Northern Norway established in this period facilitated these visits, and Thomas Cook & Son began arranging tours to the destination as early as 1875. Tourists who climbed the cape would often do so using a path equipped with wired ropes from Hornviken. They would often celebrate the visit with champagne and the writing of postcards, so-called \"Cape cards\", gazing at the midnight sun.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Monuments and buildings.", "content": "A granite column was erected commemorating the visit of King Oscar II of Sweden in 1873 and the visit of German Emporer Wilhelm II (in 1891) was also marked with a memorial. In 1891–92, an octagonal wooden building was erected on top of the cape, later named \"Stoppenbrinck's\" (or \"Stoppenbrink's\") \"Champagne Pavilion\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "In 1943, the Battle of North Cape was fought in the Arctic Ocean off this cape, where the Nazi battleship \"Scharnhorst\" was eventually sunk by gunfire from the British battleship HMS \"Duke of York\" and torpedoes from the Norwegian destroyer HNoMS \"Stord\", and other ships of the British Navy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Road access.", "content": "A road to the North Cape was first built in 1956.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Admission fee controversy.", "content": "As of 2011, an adult ticket to the North Cape visitor centre cost between. Often there is fog (since the plateau is above the common cloud base), which obscures the view. There is no discount for this situation, but the full price ticket is valid for multiple entries within 48 hours.  In 2000, and again in 2011, the Norwegian Ministry of the Environment responded to pressure from interest groups and asked Nordkapps VEL, the company that maintains the site, to reduce the admission fee to the plateau. Nordkapps VEL responded that the 8,000 daily visitors and distant location places great demands on the operations, maintenance, and security of the facilities and natural features of the large site. The fee was not lowered, and has since been slightly increased although visitors arriving by foot, bicycle, or other non-motorized vehicles are nowadays offered free entrance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sport and leisure.", "content": "The 2009 Trans Europe Foot Race started in Bari, Italy and finished at North Cape. The total distance was.  The NorthCape4000 is a bicycle race that finishes at the North Cape. The total distance is around.  The first stage of the 2014 Arctic Race of Norway was held on North Cape on 14 August 2014. The bicycle race started in Hammerfest, finishing on North Cape and was won by Norwegian, Lars Petter Nordhaug for in a time of 4 hours 51 minutes 3 seconds.  The record of cycling from the northern to the southern end of Norway, North Cape to Lindesnes, is 4 days, 22 hours and 18 minutes, performed by a group of five men from Rye in Oslo, in July 2003.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Footage from the North Cape is featured frequently in films and television, most notably in the 2014 action comedy film \"Børning\", which revolves around an illegal street race from south of Oslo to the North Cape.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "North Cape (; ) is a cape on the northern coast of the island of Magerøya in Northern Norway. The cape is in Nordkapp Municipality in Troms og Finnmark county, Norway. The European route E69 highway has its northern terminus at North Cape, which makes it the northernmost point in Europe that can be accessed by car and makes the E69 the northernmost public road in Europe. The plateau is a popular tourist attraction. The cape includes a with a large flat plateau on top, where visitors, weather permitting, can watch the midnight sun and views of the Barents Sea to the north. North Cape Hall, a visitor centre, was built in 1988 on the plateau. It includes a café, restaurant, post office, souvenir shop, a small museum, and video cinema.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971817}
{"src_title": "Leopold V, Duke of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Leopold was the son of the Austrian duke Henry II Jasomirgott from his second marriage with the Byzantine princess Theodora, a daughter of Andronikos Komnenos, the second eldest son of Emperor John II Komnenos. Just before his birth, his father had achieved the elevation of the Austrian margraviate to a duchy according to the 1156 \"Privilegium Minus\", issued by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. As the eldest son of Henry II, Leopold was already enfeoffed with the Austrian duchy by the emperor in the summer of 1174 at Regensburg.  He succeeded his father as Duke of Austria upon his death on 13 January 1177. Soon after, Leopold lent his support to Duke Frederick of Bohemia stuck in a conflict with his Přemyslid cousin Soběslav II, who had campaigned in the Austrian duchy. In turn, Leopold reached a peace agreement with the neighbouring Duchy of Bohemia, determined by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Eger in 1179. Two years later, he attended an Imperial Diet in Erfurt, where his first-born son Frederick was enfeoffed with the Austrian estate. In 1182 Leopold went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and was received with honour at the courts of King Béla III of Hungary and of Emperor Alexios II Komnenos in Constantinople.  Back in Germany, he began negotiating the Georgenberg Pact with the last Otakar duke Ottokar IV of Styria, who had received the ducal title from Emperor Frederick in 1180. The agreement was concluded on 17 August 1186, whereafter Styria and the central part of Upper Austria with Wels and Steyr were amalgamated into the Duchy of Austria upon Ottokar's death in 1192. The next year Leopold was enfeoffed with Styria by the emperor; this was the first step towards the creation of modern Austria.  Leopold is mainly remembered outside Austria for his participation in the Third Crusade. Border disputes with King Béla III of Hungary had initially impeded the duke from accompanying Emperor Frederick on his departure in May 1189. When he heard about the emperor's death in 1190, he went to Venice, where he embarked to the Holy Land. Autumn storms forced him to winter in Zadar on the Adriatic coast. He arrived in Palestine to take part in the final stage of the Siege of Acre in spring 1191. Leopold assumed command of the remnants of the Imperial forces after the death of the emperor's son Duke Frederick of Swabia in January. According to legend, his tunic was blood-soaked after the fights. When he doffed his belt, a white stripe appeared. The new emperor Henry VI granted him the privilege to adopt these colours as his new banner, that later would become the flag of Austria.  Acre surrendered on July 12, after the arrival of King Philip II of France and King Richard I of England. Duke Leopold, as commander of the German contingent, demanded rights equal to those of the two kings but was rejected. When the banners of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, England, France and Leopold's ducal flag were raised in the city by Leopold's cousin, Marquis Conrad of Montferrat, Richard removed Leopold's colours (see Siege of Acre) and the duke wrathfully left for his Austrian home, where he arrived by the end of 1191. In January 1192 he proceeded to the court of Emperor Henry VI and complained bitterly about Richard, who also was suspected of involvement in the murder of Conrad, shortly after his election as King of Jerusalem in April.  The emperor probably agreed with King Philip, already in conflict with the English king, on Richard's capture. When Richard left the Holy Land in late October 1192, he found the French ports closed and sailed up the Adriatic Sea. He took the country road from Aquileia across Austria, to reach the Bavarian estates of his Welf brother-in-law Henry the Lion. Whilst travelling under disguise, he stopped at Vienna shortly before Christmas 1192, where he was recognized (supposedly because of his signet ring) and arrested in Erdberg (modern Landstraße district). Initially Duke Leopold had the king imprisoned in Dürnstein, and in March 1193 Richard was brought before Emperor Henry VI at Trifels Castle, accused of Conrad's murder. A ransom of 35,000 kilograms of silver was paid to release King Richard. Leopold demanded that Richard's niece, Eleanor, marry his son Frederick. Due to Leopold's death, this marriage never took place. Leopold's share of the ransom became the foundation for the mint in Vienna, and was used to build new city walls for Vienna, as well as to found the towns of Wiener Neustadt and Friedberg in Styria. The duke was excommunicated by Pope Celestine III for having taken a fellow crusader prisoner.  To receive absolution, Leopold prepared for another crusade, but this plan failed. In 1194, his foot was crushed when his horse fell on him at a tournament in Graz. Though advised by his surgeons to have the foot amputated, no one admitted to being able to do it. He ordered his servants to chop his foot off with an axe, which they succeeded in doing after three swings. He succumbed to gangrene. As a result of deathbed promises to make restitution given to the hastily-summoned Archbishop Adalbert of Salzburg, he was reconciled and received a Christian burial at Heiligenkreuz Abbey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "At Pentecost 1174, Leopold married Helena (1158–1199), a daughter of late King Géza II of Hungary. By her, Leopold had at least two children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leopold V (1157 – 31 December 1194), known as the Virtuous (), a member of the House of Babenberg, was Duke of Austria from 1177 and Duke of Styria from 1192 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971818}
{"src_title": "Philippe of Belgium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Philippe was born on 15 April 1960 during the reign of his uncle, King Baudouin of Belgium. His father, Prince Albert, Prince of Liège (later King Albert II) was the second son of King Leopold III of Belgium and a younger brother of Baudouin. His mother, Paola, Princess of Liège (later Queen Paola), is a daughter of Italian aristocrat Fulco VIII, Prince Ruffo di Calabria, 6th Duke of Guardia Lombarda. His mother descends from the French House of La Fayette, and the king is a descendant of Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette and Marie Adrienne Françoise de Noailles.  He was born at the Belvédère Castle in Laeken north of Brussels. He was baptised one month later at the church of Saint Jacques-sur-Coudenberg in Brussels on 17 May, and named Philippe after his great-great-grandfather Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders. His godparents were his paternal grandfather, King Leopold III, and his maternal grandmother, Donna Luisa, Princess Ruffo di Calabria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "From 1978 to 1981, Philippe was educated at the Belgian Royal Military Academy in the 118th \"Promotion Toutes Armes\". On 26 September 1980, he was appointed second lieutenant and took the officer's oath.  He continued his education at Trinity College, Oxford and he attended graduate school at Stanford University, California, where he graduated in 1985 with an MA degree in political science. He obtained his fighter pilot's wings and his certificates as a parachutist and a commando. In 1989, he attended a series of special sessions at the Royal Higher Defence Institute. The same year, he was promoted to colonel.  In 1993 King Baudouin died in Spain, Albert became the new king, and Philippe became the new heir apparent, titled Duke of Brabant.  On 25 March 2001, the prince was appointed to the rank of major-general in the Land Component and the Air Component and to the rank of rear-admiral in the Naval Component.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Philippe married Mathilde d'Udekem d'Acoz, daughter of a Walloon count of a Belgian noble family and female line descendant of Polish noble families such as the princes Sapieha and counts Komorowski, on 4 December 1999 in Brussels, in a civil ceremony at the Brussels Town Hall and a religious ceremony at the Cathedral of Saint Michel and Saint Gudule in Brussels. They have four children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign trade.", "content": "On 6 August 1993, the government named Philippe as honorary chairman of the Belgian Foreign Trade Board (BFTB). He succeeded his father, who had been honorary chairman of the BFTB since 1962. On 3 May 2003, Philippe was appointed honorary chairman of the board of the Foreign Trade Agency, replacing the BFTB.  In this capacity, Philippe has headed more than 60 economic missions. Upon his accession as seventh King of the Belgians, this role was taken over by his sister Princess Astrid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accession.", "content": "King Albert II announced on 3 July 2013 that he would abdicate in favour of Philippe on 21 July 2013. Approximately one hour after King Albert II's abdication, Prince Philippe was sworn in as King of the Belgians. His eldest child, Princess Elisabeth became his heir apparent and is expected to become Belgium's first queen regnant.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philippe or Filip (,,,, ; born 15 April 1960) is King of the Belgians, having ascended the throne on 21 July 2013, following his father's abdication. He is the eldest child of King Albert II, whom he succeeded upon Albert's abdication for health reasons, and Queen Paola. He married Countess Mathilde d'Udekem d'Acoz (now Queen Mathilde), with whom he has four children. King Philippe's elder daughter, Princess Elisabeth, is first in the line of succession.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971819}
{"src_title": "Abdera, Thrace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name \"Abdera\" is of Phoenician origin and was shared in antiquity by Abdera, Spain and a town near Carthage in North Africa. It was variously Hellenized as (\"Ábdēra\"), (\"Aúdēra\"), (\"Ábdara\"), (\"Ábdēron\"), and (\"Ábdēros\"), before being Latinized as \"Abdera\". Greek legend attributed the name to an eponymous Abderus who fell nearby and was memorialized by Hercules's founding of a city at the location.  The present-day town is written Avdira () and pronounced in modern Greek.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Antiquity.", "content": "The Phoenicians apparently began the settlement of Abdera at some point before the mid-7th century and the town long maintained Phoenician standards in its coinage.  The Greek settlement was begun as a failed colony from Klazomenai, traditionally dated to 654. (Evidence in 7th-century- Greek pottery tends to support the traditional date but the exact timing remains uncertain.) Herodotus reports that the leader of the colony had been Timesios but, within his generation, the Thracians had expelled the colonists. Timesios was subsequently honored as a local protective spirit by the later Abderans from Teos. Others recount various legends about this colony. Plutarch and Aelian relate that Timesios grew insufferable to his colonists because of his desire to do everything by himself; when one of their children let him know how they all really felt, he quit the settlement in disgust; modern scholars have tried to split the difference between the two accounts of early Abdera's failure by giving the latter as the reason for Timesios's having left Klazomenai.  The successful foundation occurred in 544BC, when the majority of the people of Teos (including the poet Anacreon) migrated to Abdera to escape the Persian yoke. The chief coin type, a \"griffon\", is identical with that of Teos; the rich silver coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types.  In 513 and 512, the Persians, under Darius conquered Abdera, by which time the city seems to have become a place of considerable importance, and is mentioned as one of the cities which had the expensive honour of entertaining the great king on his march into Greece. In 492, after the Ionian Revolt, the Persians again conquered Abdera, again under Darius I but led by his general Mardonius. On his flight after the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes stopped at Abdera and acknowledged the hospitality of its inhabitants by presenting them with a tiara and scimitar of gold. Thucydides mentions Abdera as the westernmost limit of the Odrysian kingdom when at its height at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. It later became part of the Delian League and fought on the side of Athens in the Peloponnesian war.  Abdera was a wealthy city, the third richest in the League, due to its status as a prime port for trade with the interior of Thrace and the Odrysian kingdom. In 408, Abdera was reduced under the power of Athens by Thrasybulus, then one of the Athenian generals in that quarter.  A valuable prize, the city was repeatedly sacked: by the Triballi in 376, Philip II of Macedon in 350; later by Lysimachos of Thrace, the Seleucids, the Ptolemies, and again by the Macedonians. In 170 the Roman armies and those of Eumenes II of Pergamon besieged and sacked it.  The town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the 4th century. Cicero ridicules the city as a byword for stupidity in his letters to Atticus, writing of a debate in the Senate, \"Here was Abdera, but I wasn't silent\" (\"Hic, Abdera non tacente me\"). Nevertheless, the city counted among its citizens the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras and Anaxarchus, historian and philosopher Hecataeus of Abdera, and the lyric poet Anacreon. Pliny the Elder speaks of Abdera as being in his time a free city.  Abdera had flourished especially in ancient times mainly for two reasons: because of the large area of their territory and their highly strategic position. The city controlled two great road passages (one of Nestos river and other through the mountains north of Xanthi). Furthermore, from their ports passed the sea road, which from Troas led to the Thracian and then the Macedonian coast.  The ruins of the town may still be seen on Cape Balastra (40°56'1.02\"N 24°58'21.81\"E); they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbor; on the southwestern hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern.", "content": "The municipality Abdera was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of three former municipalities that became municipal units: Abdera, Selero, and Vistonida.  The municipality has an area of 352.047 km, the municipal unit 161.958 km. The municipal unit Abdera is subdivided into the communities Abdera, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani. The community Abdera consists of the settlements Abdera, Giona, Lefkippos, Pezoula and Skala.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "Landmarks of Abdera include the Archaeological Museum of Abdera, and Agios Ioannis Beach (also \"Paralia Avdiron\") near the village Lefkippos.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abdera is a municipality in the Xanthi Prefecture of Thrace, Greece. In classical antiquity, it was a major Greek \"polis\" on the Thracian coast.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971820}
{"src_title": "Antonio Pigafetta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Pigafetta's exact year of birth is not known, with estimates ranging between 1480 and 1491. A birth year of 1491 would have made him around 30 years old during Magellan's expedition, which historians have considered more probable than an age close to 40. Pigafetta belonged to a rich family city of Vicenza in northeast Italy. In his youth he studied astronomy, geography and cartography. He then served on board the ships of the Knights of Rhodes at the beginning of the 16th century. Until 1519, he accompanied the papal nuncio, Monsignor Francesco Chieregati, to Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Voyage around the world.", "content": "In Seville, Pigafetta heard of Magellan's planned expedition and decided to join, accepting the title of supernumerary (\"sobresaliente\"), and a modest salary of 1,000 maravedís. During the voyage, which started in August 1519, Pigafetta collected extensive data concerning the geography, climate, flora, fauna and the native inhabitants of the places that the expedition visited. His meticulous notes proved invaluable to future explorers and cartographers, mainly due to his inclusion of nautical and linguistic data, and also to latter-day historians because of its vivid, detailed style. The only other sailor to maintain a journal during the voyage was Francisco Albo, \"Victoria's\" last pilot, who kept a formal logbook.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Return.", "content": "Pigafetta was wounded on Mactan in the Philippines, where Magellan was killed in the Battle of Mactan in April 1521. Nevertheless, he recovered and was among the 18 who accompanied Juan Sebastián Elcano on board the \"Victoria\" on the return voyage to Spain.  Upon reaching port in Sanlúcar de Barrameda in the modern Province of Cadiz in September 1522, three years after his departure, Pigafetta returned to the Republic of Venice. He related his experiences in the \"Report on the First Voyage Around the World\" (), which was composed in Italian and was distributed to European monarchs in handwritten form before it was eventually published by Italian historian Giovanni Battista Ramusio in 1550–59. The account centers on the events in the Mariana Islands and the Philippines, although it included several maps of other areas as well, including the first known use of the word \"Pacific Ocean\" (\"Oceano Pacifico\") on a map. The original document was not preserved.  However, it was not through Pigafetta's writings that Europeans first learned of the circumnavigation of the globe. Rather, it was through an account written by a Flanders-based writer Maximilianus Transylvanus, which was published in 1523. Transylvanus had been instructed to interview some of the survivors of the voyage when Magellan's surviving ship \"Victoria\" returned to Spain in September 1522 under the command of Juan Sebastian Elcano. After Magellan and Elcano's voyage, Pigafetta utilized the connections he had made prior to the voyage with the Knights of Rhodes to achieve membership in the order.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The \"Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo\".", "content": "Antonio Pigafetta also wrote a book, in which a detailed account of the voyage was given. It is quite unclear when it was first published and what language had been used in the first edition. The remaining sources of his voyage were extensively studied by Italian archivist, who wrote a critical study of Pigafetta's book in 1898 (\"Il primo viaggio intorno al globo di Antonio Pigafetta e le sue regole sull'arte del navigare\") and whose conclusions were later confirmed by J. Dénucé.  Today, three printed books and four manuscripts survive. One of the three books is in French, while the remaining two are in Italian language. Of the four manuscripts, three are in French (two stored in the Bibliothèque nationale de France and one in Cheltenham), and one in Italian.  From a philological point of view, the French editions seem to derive from an Italian original version, while the remaining Italian editions seem to derive from a French original version. Because of this, it remains quite unclear whether the original version of Pigafetta's manuscript was in French or Italian, though it was probably in Italian. The most complete manuscript, and the one that is supposed to be more closely related to the original manuscript, is the one found by Carlo Amoretti inside the Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan and published in 1800 (\"Primo viaggio intorno al globo terraqueo, ossia ragguaglio della navigazione alle Indie Orientali per la via d'Occidente fatta dal cavaliere Antonio Pigafetta patrizio vicentino, sulla squadra del capitano Magaglianes negli anni 1519-1522\"). Unfortunately, Amoretti, in his printed edition, modified many words and sentences whose meaning was uncertain (the original manuscript contained many words in Veneto dialect and some Spanish words). The modified version published by Amoretti was then translated into other languages carrying into them Amoretti's edits. critically analyzed the original version stored in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana and published this rigorous version of Pigafetta's book in 1894.  Regarding the French versions of Pigafetta's book, J. Dénucé extensively studied them and published a critical edition.  At the end of his book, Pigafetta stated that he had given a copy to Charles V. Pigafetta's close friend, Francesco Chiericati, also stated that he had received a copy and it is thought that the regent of France may have received a copy of the latter. It has been argued that the copy Pigafetta had provided may have been merely a short version or a draft. It was in response to a request, in January 1523, of the Marquis of Mantua that Pigafetta wrote his detailed account of the voyage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Antonio Pigafetta wrote at least two books, both of which have survived:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibition.", "content": "In June 2019, in the context of the quincentenary of the circumnavigation, an exhibition entitled \"Pigafetta: cronista de la primera vuelta al mundo Magallanes Elcano\" opened in Madrid at the library of the Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation (AECID). AECID was also involved in the publication of a book about the expedition \"La vuelta al mundo de Magallanes-Elcano : la aventura imposible, 1519-1522\" ().", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antonio Pigafetta (; c. 1491 – c. 1531) was a Venetian scholar and explorer. He joined the expedition to the Spice Islands led by explorer Ferdinand Magellan under the flag of King Charles I of Spain and, after Magellan's death in the Philippines, the subsequent voyage around the world. During the expedition, he served as Magellan's assistant and kept an accurate journal which later assisted him in translating the Cebuano language. It is the first recorded document concerning the language.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971821}
{"src_title": "Venus of Willendorf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Dating.", "content": "The figure is believed to have been carved during the European Upper Paleolithic, or \"Old Stone Age\", a period of prehistory starting around 30,000 BCE. A wide variety of dates have been proposed. Following a revised analysis of the stratigraphy of the site where the statuette was discovered, carried out in 1990, the figure was estimated to have been carved between 24,000 and 22,000 BCE. More recent estimates push the date back slightly to between about 28,000 and 25,000 BCE. In a 2009 reexamination of the stratigraphy at the site, researchers estimated that the age of the archaeological layer in which the figurine was found is about 30,000 years before our time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interpretation and purpose.", "content": "Similar sculptures, first discovered in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are traditionally referred to in archaeology as \"Venus figurines\", due to the widely-held belief that depictions of nude women with exaggerated sexual features represented an early fertility fetish, perhaps a mother goddess. The reference to Venus is metaphorical, since the figurines predate the mythological figure of Venus by many thousands of years. Some scholars reject this terminology, instead referring to the statuette as the \"Woman of\" or \"Woman from Willendorf\". Christopher Witcombe criticizes the term: \"the ironic identification of these figurines as 'Venus' pleasantly satisfied certain assumptions at the time about the primitive, about women, and about taste\". Very little is known about the \"Venus\" origin, method of creation, or cultural significance; however, it is one of numerous \"Venus figurines\" surviving from Paleolithic Europe. The purpose of the carving is the subject of much speculation. Like other similar sculptures, it probably never had feet, and would not have stood on its own, although it might have been pegged into soft ground. Parts of the body associated with fertility and childbearing have been emphasized, leading researchers to believe that the \"Venus of Willendorf\" may have been used as a fertility fetish. The figure has no visible face, her head being covered with circular horizontal bands of what might be rows of plaited hair, or perhaps a type of headdress.  Catherine McCoid and LeRoy McDermott hypothesize that the figurines may have been created as self-portraits by women. This theory stems from the correlation of the proportions of the statues to how the proportions of women's bodies would seem if they were looking down at themselves, which would have been the only way to view their bodies during this period. They speculate that the complete lack of facial features could be accounted for by the fact that sculptors did not own mirrors. This reasoning has been criticized by Michael S. Bisson, who notes that water pools and puddles would have been readily available natural mirrors for Paleolithic humans.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Venus of Willendorf is an Venus figurine estimated to have been made 30,000 BCE. It was found on August 7, 1908, by a workman named Johann Veran or Josef Veram during excavations conducted by archaeologists Josef Szombathy, Hugo Obermaier, and Josef Bayer at a paleolithic site near Willendorf, a village in Lower Austria near the town of Krems. It is carved from an oolitic limestone that is not local to the area, and tinted with red ochre. The figurine is now in the Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna, Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971822}
{"src_title": "Artaxerxes I of Persia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Succession to the throne.", "content": "Artaxerxes was probably born in the reign of his grandfather Darius I, to the emperor's son and heir, Xerxes I. In 465 BC, Xerxes I was murdered by \"Hazarapat\" (\"commander of thousand\") Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in \"Persica\" 20), Artabanus then accused Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder, and persuaded Artaxerxes to avenge the patricide by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in \"Politics\" 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Egyptian revolt.", "content": "Artaxerxes had to face a revolt in Egypt in 460–454 BC led by Inaros II, who was the son of a Libyan prince named Psamtik, presumably descended from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt. In 460 BC, Inaros II revolted against the Persians with the help of his Athenian allies, and defeated the Persian army commanded by satrap Akheimenes. The Persians retreated to Memphis, and the Athenians were finally defeated in 454 BC, by the Persian army led by Megabyzus, after a two-year siege. Inaros was captured and carried away to Susa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relations with Greece.", "content": "After the Achaemenid Empire had been defeated at the Battle of the Eurymedon (c. 469 BC), military action between Greece and Persia was at a standstill. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by funding their enemies in Greece. This indirectly caused the Athenians to move the treasury of the Delian League from the island of Delos to the Athenian acropolis. This funding practice inevitably prompted renewed fighting in 450 BC, where the Greeks attacked at the Battle of Cyprus. After Cimon's failure to attain much in this expedition, the Peace of Callias was agreed among Athens, Argos and Persia in 449 BC.  Artaxerxes I offered asylum to Themistocles, who was probably his father Xerxes's greatest enemy for his victory at the Battle of Salamis, after Themistocles was ostracized from Athens. Also, Artaxerxes I gave him Magnesia, Myus, and Lampsacus to maintain him in bread, meat, and wine. In addition, Artaxerxes I gave him Skepsis to provide him with clothes, and he also gave him Percote with bedding for his house. Themistocles would go on to learn and adopt Persian customs, Persian language, and traditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portrayal in the Book of Ezra and Nehemiah.", "content": "A King Artaxerxes (, ) is described in the Bible as having commissioned Ezra, a kohen and scribe, by means of a letter of decree (see Cyrus's edict), to take charge of the ecclesiastical and civil affairs of the Jewish nation.  Ezra thereby left Babylon in the first month of the seventh year of Artaxerxes' reign, at the head of a company of Jews that included priests and Levites. They arrived in Jerusalem on the first day of the fifth month of the seventh year according to the Hebrew calendar. The text does not specify whether the king in the passage refers to Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE) or to Artaxerxes II (404–359 BCE). Most scholars hold that Ezra lived during the rule of Artaxerxes I, though some have difficulties with this assumption: Nehemiah and Ezra \"seem to have no knowledge of each other; their missions do not overlap\", however, in Nehemiah 12, both are leading processions on the wall as part of the wall dedication ceremony. So, they clearly were contemporaries working together in Jerusalem at the time the wall and the city of Jerusalem was rebuilt in contrast to the previously stated viewpoint.;.\" These difficulties have led many scholars to assume that Ezra arrived in the seventh year of the rule of Artaxerxes II, i.e. some 50 years after Nehemiah. This assumption would imply that the biblical account is not chronological. The last group of scholars regard \"the seventh year\" as a scribal error and hold that the two men were contemporaries. However, Ezra appears for the first time in Nehemiah 8, having probably been at the court for twelve years.  The rebuilding of the Jewish community in Jerusalem had begun under Cyrus the Great, who had permitted Jews held captive in Babylon to return to Jerusalem and rebuild Solomon's Temple. Consequently, a number of Jews returned to Jerusalem in 538 BC, and the foundation of this \"Second Temple\" was laid in 536 BC, in the second year of their return (Ezra 3:8). After a period of strife, the temple was finally completed in the sixth year of Darius, 516 BC (Ezra 6:15).  In Artaxerxes' twentieth year, Nehemiah, the king's cup-bearer, apparently was also a friend of the king as in that year Artaxerxes inquired after Nehemiah's sadness. Nehemiah related to him the plight of the Jewish people and that the city of Jerusalem was undefended. The king sent Nehemiah to Jerusalem with letters of safe passage to the governors in Trans-Euphrates, and to Asaph, keeper of the royal forests, to make beams for the citadel by the Temple and to rebuild the city walls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interpretations of actions.", "content": "Roger Williams, a 17th-century Christian minister and founder of Rhode Island, interpreted several passages in the Old and New Testament to support limiting government interference in religious matters. Williams published \"The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience,\" arguing for a separation of church and state based on biblical reasoning. Williams believed that Israel was a unique covenant kingdom and not an appropriate model for New Testament Christians who believed that the Old Testament covenant had been fulfilled. Therefore, the more informative Old Testament examples of civil government were \"good\" non-covenant kings such as Artaxerxes, who tolerated the Jews and did not insist that they follow his state religion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical analysis.", "content": "According to a paper published in 2011, the discrepancy in Artaxerxes’ limb lengths may have arisen as a result of the inherited disease neurofibromatosis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "By queen Damaspia By Alogyne of Babylon By Cosmartidene of Babylon  By Andia of Babylon By another(?) unknown wife  By various wives", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Artaxerxes I (,, \"whose rule (\"xšaça\" < \"*xšaθram\") is through \"arta\" (\"truth\"); ; ) was the sixth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, from 465-424 BC. He was the third son of Xerxes I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971823}
{"src_title": "Napoleon II", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Birth.", "content": "Napoleon was born on 20 March 1811 at the Tuileries Palace, son of Emperor Napoleon I and Empress Marie Louise. On the same day he underwent \"ondoyé\" (a traditional French ceremony which is considered a preliminary, brief baptism) by Joseph Fesch with his full name of \"Napoleon François Charles Joseph\". The baptism, inspired by the baptismal ceremony of Louis, Grand Dauphin of France, was held on 9 June 1811 in Notre Dame de Paris. Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg, Austrian ambassador to France, wrote of the baptism:  He was put in the care of Louise Charlotte Françoise Le Tellier de Montesquiou, a descendant of François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, who was named Governess of the Children of France. Affectionate and intelligent, the governess assembled a considerable collection of books intended to give the infant a strong grounding in religion, philosophy, and military matters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Succession rights.", "content": "As the only legitimate son of Napoleon I, he was already constitutionally the Prince Imperial and heir apparent, but the Emperor also gave his son the style of King of Rome. Three years later, the First French Empire collapsed. Napoleon I saw his second wife and their son for the last time on 24 January 1814. On 4 April 1814, he abdicated in favour of his three-year-old son after the Six Days' Campaign and the Battle of Paris. The child became Emperor of the French under the regnal name of Napoleon II. However, on 6 April 1814, Napoleon I fully abdicated and renounced not only his own rights to the French throne, but also those of his descendants. The Treaty of Fontainebleau in 1814 gave the child the right to use the title of Prince of Parma, of Placentia, and of Guastalla, and his mother was styled the Duchess of Parma, of Placentia, and of Guastalla.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "On 29 March 1814, Marie Louise, accompanied by her entourage, left the Tuileries Palace with her son. Their first stop was the Château de Rambouillet; then, fearing the advancing enemy troops, they continued on to the Château de Blois. On 13 April, with her entourage much diminished, Marie Louise and her three-year-old son were back in Rambouillet, where they met her father, the Emperor Francis I of Austria, and the Emperor Alexander I of Russia. On 23 April, escorted by an Austrian regiment, mother and son left Rambouillet and France forever, for their exile in Austria.  In 1815, after his resurgence and his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon I abdicated for the second time in favour of his four-year-old son, whom he had not seen since his exile to Elba. The day after Napoleon's abdication, a Commission of Government of five members took the rule of France, awaiting the return of the Bourbon King Louis XVIII, who was in Le Cateau-Cambrésis. The Commission held power for two weeks, but never formally summoned Napoleon II as Emperor or appointed a regent. The entrance of the Allies into Paris on 7 July brought a rapid end to his supporters' wishes. Napoleon II was residing in Austria with his mother.  The next Bonaparte to ascend the throne of France, in 1852, would be Louis-Napoleon, the son of Napoleon's brother Louis I, King of Holland. He took the regnal name of Napoleon III.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life in Austria.", "content": "From the spring of 1814 onwards, the young Napoleon lived in Austria and was known as \"Franz\", his second given name. In 1818, he was awarded the title of Duke of Reichstadt by his maternal grandfather, Emperor Francis. He was educated by a staff of military tutors and developed a passion for soldiering, dressing in a miniature uniform like his father's and performing maneuvers in the palace. At the age of 8, it was apparent to his tutors that he had chosen his career.  By 1820, Napoleon had completed his elementary studies and begun his military training, learning German, Italian and mathematics as well as receiving advanced physical training. His official army career began at age 12, in 1823, when he was made a cadet in the Austrian Army. Accounts from his tutors describe Napoleon as intelligent, serious and focused. Additionally, he was a very tall young man: he had grown to nearly 6 feet by the time he was 17.  His budding military career gave some concern and fascination to the monarchies of Europe and French leaders over his possible return to France. However, he was allowed to play no political role and instead was used by Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich in bargaining with France to gain advantage for Austria. Fearful of anyone in the Bonaparte family regaining political power, Metternich even rejected a request for Franz to move to a warmer climate in Italy. He received another rejection when his grandfather refused to allow him to join the army traveling to Italy to put down a rebellion.  Upon the death of his stepfather, Adam Albert von Neipperg, and the revelation that his mother had borne two illegitimate children to Neipperg prior to their marriage, Franz grew distant from his mother and felt that his Austrian family were holding him back to avoid political controversy. He said to his friend, Anton von Prokesch-Osten, \"If Josephine had been my mother, my father would not have been buried at Saint Helena, and I should not be at Vienna. My mother is kind but weak; she was not the wife my father deserved\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In 1831, Franz was given command of an Austrian battalion, but he never got the chance to serve in any meaningful capacity. In 1832, he caught pneumonia and was bedridden for several months. His poor health eventually overtook him and on 22 July 1832 Franz died of tuberculosis at Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna. He had no children; thus the Napoleonic claim to the throne of France passed to his cousin, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who later successfully restored the empire as Napoleon III.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disposition of his remains.", "content": "On 15 December 1940, Adolf Hitler ordered the remains of Napoleon II to be transferred from Vienna to the dome of Les Invalides in Paris. The remains of Napoleon I had been returned to France in December 1840, at the time of the July Monarchy. For some time, the remains of the young prince who had briefly been an emperor rested beside those of his father. Later, the prince's remains were moved to the lower church.  While most of his remains were transferred to Paris, his heart and intestines remained in Vienna, which is traditional for members of the Habsburg house. They are in Urn 42 in the \"Heart Crypt\" (\"Herzgruft\") and his viscera are in Urn 76 of the Ducal Crypt.  He was noted for his friendship with Sophie, a Bavarian princess of the House of Wittelsbach. Intelligent, ambitious and strong-willed, Sophie had little in common with her husband Franz Karl. There were rumors of a love affair between Sophie and Napoleon II, as well as the possibility that Sophie's second son, Maximilian I of Mexico (born 1832), was the result issue of the affair.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Napoléon François Joseph Charles Bonaparte (20 March 181122 July 1832), Prince Imperial,, known in the Austrian court as Franz from 1814 onward, Duke of Reichstadt from 1818, was the son of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, and his second wife, Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971824}
{"src_title": "James Clark Ross", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arctic exploration.", "content": "Ross was born in London, the nephew of Sir John Ross, under whom he entered the Royal Navy in 1812, accompanying him on Sir John's first Arctic voyage in search of a Northwest Passage in 1818. Between 1819 and 1827, Ross took part in four Arctic expeditions under Sir William Parry, and in 1829 to 1833, again served under his uncle on Sir John's second Arctic voyage. It was during this trip that a small party led by James Ross (including Thomas Abernethy) located the position of the North Magnetic Pole on 1 June 1831, on the Boothia Peninsula in the far north of Canada. It was on this trip, too, that Ross charted the Beaufort Islands, later renamed Clarence Islands by his uncle.  In 1834, Ross was promoted to captain. In December 1835, he offered his services to the Admiralty to resupply 11 whaling ships which had become trapped in Baffin Bay. They accepted his offer, and he set sail in HMS \"Cove\" in January 1836. The crossing was difficult, and by the time he had reached the last known position of the whalers in June, all but one had managed to return home. Ross found no trace of this last vessel, \"William Torr\", which was probably crushed in the ice in December 1835. He returned to Hull in September 1836 with all his crew in good health.  From 1835–1839, except for his voyage with \"Cove,\" he conducted a magnetic survey of Great Britain with Sir Edward Sabine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Antarctic exploration.", "content": "Between 1839 and 1843, Ross commanded on his own Antarctic expedition and charted much of the continent's coastline. Captain Francis Crozier was second-in-command of the expedition, commanding. Support for the expedition had been arranged by Francis Beaufort, hydrographer of the Navy and a member of several scientific societies. On the expedition was Joseph Dalton Hooker, who had been invited along as assistant ship's surgeon. \"Erebus\" and \"Terror\" were bomb vessels—an unusual type of warship named after the mortar bombs they were designed to fire and constructed with extremely strong hulls, to withstand the recoil of the heavy weapons. The ships were selected for the Antarctic mission as being able to resist thick ice, as proved true in practice.  In 1841, James Ross discovered the Ross Sea, Victoria Land, and the volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, which were named for the expedition's vessels. They sailed for along the edge of the low, flat-topped ice shelf they called variously the Barrier or the Great Ice Barrier, later named the Ross Ice Shelf in his honour. The following year, he attempted to penetrate south at about 55° W, and explored the eastern side of what is now known as James Ross Island, discovering and naming Snow Hill Island and Seymour Island.  Ross reported that Admiralty Sound (which he named Admiralty Inlet) appeared to him to have been blocked by glaciers at its southern end. Ross's ships arrived back in England on 4 September 1843. He was awarded the \"Grande Médaille d'Or des Explorations\" in 1843, knighted in 1844, and elected to the Royal Society in 1848.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Search for Franklin's lost expedition.", "content": "In 1848, Ross was sent on one of three expeditions to find Sir John Franklin. The others were the Rae–Richardson Arctic expedition and the expedition aboard HMS \"Plover\" and through the Bering Strait. He was given command of, accompanied by, Because of heavy ice in Baffin Bay he only reached the northeast tip of Somerset Island where he was frozen in at Port Leopold. In the spring he and Sir Francis McClintock explored the west coast of the island by sledge. He recognized Peel Sound but thought it too ice-choked for Franklin to have used it. (In fact Franklin had used it in 1846 when the extent of sea ice had been atypically low.) The next summer he tried to reach Wellington Channel but was blocked by ice and returned to England.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He was married to Lady Ann Coulman. He died at Aylesbury in 1862, five years after his wife. A blue plaque marks Ross's home in Eliot Place, Blackheath, London. His closest friend was Francis Crozier, with whom he sailed many times.  He also lived in the ancient House of the Abbots of St. Albans in Buckinghamshire. He is buried with his wife in the local churchyard of St. James the Great, Aston Abbotts. In the gardens of the Abbey there is a lake with two islands, named after the ships \"Terror\" and \"Erebus\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Ross, played by British actor Richard Sutton, is a secondary character in the 2018 AMC television series \"The Terror\", portrayed in a fictionalized version of his 1848 search for Franklin's lost expedition, as well as in the 2007 Dan Simmons novel on which the series is based. Ross is also mentioned continuously by Jules Verne in his novel \"The Adventures of Captain Hatteras\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sir James Clark Ross (15 April 1800 – 3 April 1862) was a British Royal Navy officer and polar explorer known for his explorations of the Arctic, participating in two expeditions led by his uncle Sir John Ross, and four led by Sir William Parry, and, in particular, for his own Antarctic expedition from 1839 to 1843.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971825}
{"src_title": "Ferdinand de Lesseps", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "The byname \"Trithemius\" refers to his native town of Trittenheim on the Moselle River, at the time part of the Electorate of Trier.  When Johannes was still an infant his father Johann von Heidenburg died. His stepfather, whom his mother Elisabeth married seven years later, was hostile to education and thus Johannes could only learn in secret and with many difficulties. He learned Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. When he was 17 years old he escaped from his home and wandered around looking for good teachers, travelling to Trier, Cologne, the Netherlands, and Heidelberg. He studied at the University of Heidelberg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Travelling from the university to his home town in 1482, he was surprised by a snowstorm and took refuge in the Benedictine abbey of Sponheim near Bad Kreuznach. He decided to stay and was elected abbot in 1483, at the age of twenty-one. He set out to transform the abbey from a neglected and undisciplined place into a centre of learning. In his time, the abbey library increased from around fifty items to more than two thousand. He often served as featured speaker and chapter secretary at the Bursfelde Congregation's annual chapter from 1492 to 1503, the annual meeting of reform-minded abbots. Trithemius also supervised the visits of the Congregation's abbeys.  Trithemius wrote extensively as a historian, starting with a chronicle of Sponheim and culminating in a two-volume work on the history of Hirsau Abbey. His work was distinguished by mastery of the Latin language and eloquent phrasing, yet it was soon discovered that he inserted several fictional passages into his works. His work as a historian has been tainted ever since, the invented passages proved by several scholars.  However, his efforts did not meet with praise, and his reputation as a magician did not further his acceptance. Increasing differences with the convent led to his resignation in 1506, when he decided to take up the offer of the Bishop of Würzburg, Lorenz von Bibra (bishop from 1495 to 1519), to become the abbot of St. James's Abbey, the \"Schottenkloster\" in Würzburg. He remained there until the end of his life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Trithemius was buried in this abbey's church; a tombstone by the famous Tilman Riemenschneider was erected in his honor. In 1825, the tombstone was moved to the Neumünster church, next to the cathedral. It was damaged in the firebombing of 1945, and subsequently restored by the workshop of Theodor Spiegel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Notably, the German polymath, physician, legal scholar, soldier, theologian, and occult writer Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535) and the Swiss physician, alchemist, and astrologer Paracelsus (1493–1541) were among his pupils.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Steganographia\".", "content": "Trithemius' most famous work, \"Steganographia\" (written c. 1499; published Frankfurt, 1606), was placed on the \"Index Librorum Prohibitorum\" in 1609 and removed in 1900. This book is in three volumes, and appears to be about magic—specifically, about using spirits to communicate over long distances. Since the publication of the decryption key to the first two volumes in 1606, they have been known to be actually concerned with cryptography and steganography. Until recently, the third volume was widely still believed to be solely about magic, but the \"magical\" formulae have now been shown to be covertexts for yet more cryptographic content. However, mentions of the magical work within the third book by such figures as Agrippa and John Dee still lend credence to the idea of a mystic-magical foundation concerning the third volume. Additionally, while Trithemius's steganographic methods can be established to be free of the need for angelic–astrological mediation, still left intact is an underlying theological motive for their contrivance. The preface to the \"Polygraphia\" equally establishes, the everyday practicability of cryptography was conceived by Trithemius as a \"secular consequent of the ability of a soul specially empowered by God to reach, by magical means, from earth to Heaven\". Robert Hooke suggested in the chapter \"Of Dr. Dee's Book of Spirits\", that John Dee made use of Trithemian steganography, to conceal his communication with Queen Elizabeth I. Amongst the codes used in this book is the Ave Maria cipher where each coded letter is replaced by a short sentence about Jesus in latin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johannes Trithemius (; 1 February 1462 – 13 December 1516), born Johann Heidenberg, was a German Benedictine abbot and a polymath who was active in the German Renaissance as a lexicographer, chronicler, cryptographer, and occultist. He had considerable influence on the development of early modern and modern occultism. His students included Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa and Paracelsus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971826}
{"src_title": "Aerobatics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "In the early days of flying, some pilots used their aircraft as part of a flying circus to entertain. Maneuvers were flown for artistic reasons or to draw gasps from onlookers. In due course some of these maneuvers were found to allow aircraft to gain tactical advantage during aerial combat or dogfights between fighter aircraft.  Aerobatic aircraft fall into two categories—specialist aerobatic, and aerobatic capable. Specialist designs such as the Pitts Special, the Extra 200 and 300, and the Sukhoi Su-26M and Sukhoi Su-29 aim for ultimate aerobatic performance. This comes at the expense of general purpose use such as touring, or ease of non aerobatic handling such as landing. At a more basic level, \"aerobatic capable\" aircraft, such as the Cessna 152 Aerobat or the R2160 Acrobin, can be dual purpose—equipped to carrying passengers and luggage, as well as being capable of basic aerobatic figures.  \"Flight formation aerobatics\" are flown by teams of up to sixteen aircraft, although most teams fly between four and ten aircraft. Some are state funded to reflect pride in the armed forces while others are commercially sponsored. Coloured smoke trails may be emitted to emphasise the patterns flown and/or the colours of a national flag. Usually each team will use aircraft similar to one another finished in a special and dramatic colour scheme, thus emphasising their entertainment function.  Teams often fly V-formations (otherwise known as echelon formation)— they will not fly directly behind another aircraft because of danger from wake vortices or engine exhaust. Aircraft will always fly slightly below the aircraft in front, if they have to follow in line (the \"trail formation\").  Aerobatic maneuvers flown in a jet-powered aircraft are limited in scope as they cannot take advantage of the gyroscopic forces that a propeller driven aircraft can exploit. Jet-powered aircraft also tend to fly much faster, which increases the size of the figures and the length of time the pilot has to withstand increased g-forces. Jet aerobatic teams often fly in formations, which further restricts the maneuvers that can be safely flown.  Aerobatics done at low levels and for an audience is called \"stunt flying\". To enhance the show effect of aerobatic maneuvers, smoke is sometimes generated; the smoke allows viewers to see the path travelled by the aircraft. Due to safety concerns, the smoke is not a result of combustion but is produced by the vaporization of fog oil into a fine aerosol, achieved either by injecting the oil into the hot engine exhaust or by the use of a dedicated device that can be fitted in any position on the aircraft. The first military aerobatic team to use smoke at will during displays was Fleet Air Arm 702 Squadron \"The Black Cats\" at the Farnborough Airshow in September 1957.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Training.", "content": "Aerobatics are taught to military fighter pilots as a means of developing flying skills and for tactical use in combat. Many aerobatic manoeuvers were indeed developed in military conflicts, e.g. the Immelmann turn or Split S.  Aerobatics and formation flying is not limited solely to fixed-wing aircraft; the British Army, Royal Navy, Spanish Air Force and the Indian Air Force, among others, have helicopter display teams.  All aerobatic maneuvers demand training and practice to avoid accidents. Accidents due to aerobatic manoeuvers are very rare in competition aerobatics, most of them happen when performing formation flying or stunt flying at very low levels at airshows or air racing. Low-level aerobatics are extremely demanding and airshow pilots must demonstrate their ability before being allowed to gradually reduce the height at which they may fly their show.  In the EU, flying aerobatics requires a special training and license. In Canada, no licence is required to perform aerobatics, but to carry passengers during aerobatics a pilot must have at least 10 hours dual flight instruction of aerobatic manoeuvres, or 20 hours of total aerobatic experience.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Competition.", "content": "Competitions start at Primary, or Graduate level and proceed in complexity through Sportsman, Intermediate and Advanced, with Unlimited being the top competition level. Experienced aerobatic pilots have been measured to pull +/-5g for short periods while unlimited pilots can perform more extreme maneuvers and experience higher g levels -possibly up to +8/−6g. The limits for positive g are higher than for negative g and this is due to the ability to limit blood pooling for positive g maneuvers, but it is generally accepted that +9 g for more than a few seconds will lead to loss of consciousness (also known as GLOC).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Performance.", "content": "Aerobatics are most likely to be seen at public airshows in the form of stunt flying. Aerobatic competitions usually do not attract large crowds of spectators since the manoeuvers are flown at safe altitudes to avoid accidents.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Aerobatics (a portmanteau of \"aerial-acrobatics\") is the practice of flying maneuvers involving aircraft attitudes that are not used in normal flight. Aerobatics are performed in airplanes and gliders for training, recreation, entertainment, and sport. Additionally, some helicopters, such as the MBB Bo 105, are capable of limited aerobatic maneuvers. An example of a fully aerobatic helicopter, capable of performing loops and rolls, is the Westland Lynx.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971827}
{"src_title": "Clostridium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "\"Clostridium\" contains around 250 species that include common free-living bacteria, as well as important pathogens. The main species responsible for disease in humans are:  \"Bacillus\" and \"Clostridium\" are often described as Gram-variable, because they show an increasing number of gram-negative cells as the culture ages.  \"Clostridium\" and \"Bacillus\" are both in the phylum Firmicutes, but they are in different classes, orders, and families. Microbiologists distinguish \"Clostridium\" from \"Bacillus\" by the following features:  \"Clostridium\" and \"Desulfotomaculum\" are both in the class Clostridia and order Clostridiales, and they both produce bottle-shaped endospores, but they are in different families. \"Clostridium\" can be distinguished from \"Desulfotomaculum\" on the basis of the nutrients each genus uses (the latter requires sulfur).  Glycolysis and fermentation of pyruvic acid by Clostridia yield the end products butyric acid, butanol, acetone, isopropanol, and carbon dioxide.  The Schaeffer-Fulton stain (0.5% malachite green in water) can be used to distinguish endospores of \"Bacillus\" and \"Clostridium\" from other microorganisms. There is a commercially available polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test kit (Bactotype) for the detection of \"C. perfringens\" and other pathogenic bacteria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "In general, the treatment of clostridial infection is high-dose penicillin G, to which the organism has remained susceptible. \"Clostridium welchii\" and \"Clostridium tetani\" respond to sulfonamides. Clostridia are also susceptible to tetracyclines, carbapenems (imipenem), metronidazole, vancomycin, and chloramphenicol.  The vegetative cells of clostridia are heat-labile and are killed by short heating at temperatures above 72–75 °C. The thermal destruction of \"Clostridium\" spores requires higher temperatures (above 121.1 °C, for example in an autoclave) and longer cooking times (20 min, with a few exceptional cases of > 50 min recorded in the literature). \"Clostridia\" and \"Bacilli\" are quite radiation-resistant, requiring doses of about 30 kGy, which is a serious obstacle to the development of shelf-stable irradiated foods for general use in the retail market. The addition of lysozyme, nitrate, nitrite and propionic acid salts inhibits clostridia in various foods.  Fructooligosaccharides (fructans) such as inulin, occurring in relatively large amounts in a number of foods such as chicory, garlic, onion, leek, artichoke, and asparagus, have a prebiotic or bifidogenic effect, selectively promoting the growth and metabolism of beneficial bacteria in the colon, such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, while inhibiting harmful ones, such as clostridia, fusobacteria, and bacteroides.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In the late 1700s, Germany experienced a number of outbreaks of an illness that seemed connected to eating certain sausages. In 1817, the German neurologist Justinus Kerner detected rod-shaped cells in his investigations into this so-called sausage poisoning. In 1897, the Belgian biology professor Emile van Ermengem published his finding of an endospore-forming organism he isolated from spoiled ham. Biologists classified van Ermengem's discovery along with other known gram-positive spore formers in the genus \"Bacillus\". This classification presented problems, however, because the isolate grew only in anaerobic conditions, but \"Bacillus\" grew well in oxygen.  Circa 1880, in the course of studying fermentation and butyric acid synthesis, a scientist surnamed Prazmowski first assigned a binomial name to \"Clostridium butyricum\". The mechanisms of anaerobic respiration were still not yet well elucidated at that time, so taxonomy of anaerobes was still nascent.  In 1924, Ida A. Bengtson separated van Ermengem's microorganisms from the \"Bacillus\" group and assigned them to the genus \"Clostridium\". By Bengtson's classification scheme, \"Clostridium\" contained all of the anaerobic endospore-forming rod-shaped bacteria, except the genus \"Desulfotomaculum\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clostridium is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria. This genus includes several significant human pathogens, including the causative agents of botulism and tetanus. The genus formerly included an important cause of diarrhea, \"Clostridioides difficile\", which was separated after 16S rRNA analysis. They are obligate anaerobes capable of producing endospores. The normal, reproducing cells of \"Clostridium\", called the vegetative form, are rod-shaped, which gives them their name, from the Greek κλωστήρ or spindle. \"Clostridium\" endospores have a distinct bowling pin or bottle shape, distinguishing them from other bacterial endospores, which are usually ovoid in shape. \"Clostridium\" species inhabit soils and the intestinal tract of animals, including humans. \"Clostridium\" is a normal inhabitant of the healthy lower reproductive tract of females.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971828}
{"src_title": "Heimito von Doderer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Heimito von Doderer was born in Weidlingau, since 1938 a part of Vienna, in a forester's lodge where his family stayed while his father, the architect and engineer (1854, Klosterbruck (), Znaim 1932, Vienna) worked on the regulation of the Wien River. The lodge was not preserved, today a memorial marks the site. Wilhelm Carl Doderer also worked on the construction of the Tauern Railway, the Kiel Canal and the Wiener Stadtbahn public transport network. His brother Richard (18761955) and his father (1825, Heilbronn 1900, Vienna; ennobled in 1877) too were noted architects and industrialists. Carl Wilhelm's wife Maria von (18351914) by her mother was related to the Austrian poet Nikolaus Lenau.  Doderer's mother, Wilhelm Carl's wife Louise Wilhelmine \"Willy\" von Hügel (18621946) also was the daughter of the established German building contractor (18281899), who had worked with her later husband on several railroad projects. Her sister Charlotte had married (1859, Vienna 1936, Vienna), son of Heinrich von Ferstel, architect of the Vienna Votive Church. Max von Ferstel had designed the plans for the Doderer family home in the Vienna Landstraße district.  Until World War I, the Doderer family ranked among the wealthiest industrial dynasties of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Heimito was the youngest of six children. His unusual first name was a German phonetic spelling of the Spanish name \"Jaimito\", a diminutive of \"Jaime\" (James). As Louise Wilhelmine was Protestant, her children likewise were baptised evangelical, although they grew up in a mainly Catholic environment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Heimito von Doderer spent most of his life in Vienna, where he attended the gymnasium school with moderate success. He spent his summers in his family's retreat in Reichenau an der Rax. The adolescent entered into a homoerotic romantic affair with his home tutor, and gained bisexual and sadomasochistic experiences as a frequent brothel visitor. In 1914 he narrowly passed his matura exams and enrolled to study law at the University of Vienna, however, in April 1915 he joined the dragoon regiment No. 3 of the Austro-Hungarian Army and served in the mounted infantry at the Eastern Front in Galicia and Bukovina. On 12 July 1916 (during Brusilov Offensive) he was captured as a prisoner of war by the Imperial Russian Army in the area of Tlumach.  A long way from home, in a Russian Far East camp for officer POWs in Krasnaya Rechka near Khabarovsk, he decided to become an author and began writing. Upon the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk he was released by the Bolshevik government, but had to make his way back to Austria through the Russian Civil War. Stranded in Samara, Doderer and his comrades again turned to the East, and found refuge in a Red Cross camp near Krasnoyarsk, cared for by Elsa Brändström. Many men had died from typhoid fever during their flight. Doderer stayed in Siberia until his eventual return to Austria in 1920; he finally reached Vienna on 14 August.  His first published work, the book of poems \"Gassen und Landschaft\" (\"Streets and countryside\"), appeared in 1923, followed by the novel \"Die Bresche\" (\"The breach\") in 1924, both with little success. A second novel, \"Das Geheimnis des Reichs\" (\"The secret of the empire\"), was published in 1930. In the same year he married Gusti Hasterlik, but they separated two years later and were divorced in 1938.  In 1933 Doderer joined the Austrian section of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) and published several stories in the \"Deutschösterreichische Tages-Zeitung\" (\"German-Austrian Daily\"), a newspaper closely linked to the party and promoting racism and the incorporation of Austria into Nazi Germany. In 1936 he moved to Dachau, Germany, where he met Emma Maria Thoma, who would become his second wife in 1952. In Germany, he renewed his NSDAP membership (the Austrian Nazi Party had been banned since 1933). He returned to Vienna in 1938, sharing a flat with the celebrated painter Albert Paris Gütersloh. In that year the novel \"Ein Mord, den jeder begeht\" (\"A murder everyone commits\") was published. He converted to Catholicism in 1940 as a result of his reading of Thomas Aquinas and his alienation from the Nazis, which had been growing for some years. Also in 1940, Doderer was called up to the Wehrmacht and was later posted to German-occupied France, where he began work on his most celebrated novel \"Die Strudlhofstiege\" (the name refers to the so-called Strudlhofstiege, an outdoor staircase in Vienna). Due to ill health, he was allowed in 1943 to return from France, serving in the Vienna area, before a final posting to Oslo at the end of the war.  After his return to Austria in early 1946, he was banned from publishing until 1947. He continued work on \"Die Strudlhofstiege\", but although he completed it in 1948, the still-obscure author was unable to get it published immediately. However, when it did finally appear in 1951 it was a huge success, and Doderer's place in the post-war Austrian literary scene was assured. Doderer subsequently returned to an earlier unfinished project, \"Die Dämonen\" (\"The demons\"), which appeared in 1956 to much acclaim. In 1958 he began work on what was intended to be a four-volume novel under the general title of \"Roman Nr. 7\" (\"Novel No. 7\"), to be written as a counterpart to Beethoven's Seventh Symphony. The first volume \"Die Wasserfälle von Slunj\", appeared in 1963; the second volume, \"Der Grenzwald\", was to be his last work and was published, incomplete and posthumously, in 1967. Doderer died of intestinal cancer on 23 December 1966.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Carl Heimito, Ritter von Doderer; known as Heimito von Doderer (5 September 1896, Weidlingau (now part of, Penzing, the 14th District of Vienna) 23 December 1966, Vienna) was an Austrian writer. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature five times.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971829}
{"src_title": "Francesco Cavalli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Cavalli was born at Crema, Lombardy. He became a singer (soprano) at St Mark's Basilica in Venice in 1616, where he had the opportunity to work under the tutorship of Claudio Monteverdi. He became second organist in 1639, first organist in 1665, and in 1668 \"maestro di cappella\". He is chiefly remembered for his operas. He began to write for the stage in 1639 (\"Le nozze di Teti e di Peleo\") soon after the first public opera house opened in Venice, the Teatro San Cassiano. He established so great a reputation that he was summoned to Paris from 1660 (he revived his opera \"Xerse\") until 1662, producing his \"Ercole amante\". He died in Venice at the age of 73.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and influence.", "content": "Cavalli was the most influential composer in the rising genre of public opera in mid-17th-century Venice. Unlike Monteverdi's early operas, scored for the extravagant court orchestra of Mantua, Cavalli's operas make use of a small orchestra of strings and basso continuo to meet the limitations of public opera houses.  Cavalli introduced melodious arias into his music and popular types into his libretti. His operas have a remarkably strong sense of dramatic effect as well as a great musical facility, and a grotesque humour which was characteristic of Italian grand opera down to the death of Alessandro Scarlatti. Cavalli's operas provide the only example of a continuous musical development of a single composer in a single genre from the early to the late 17th century in Venice — only a few operas by others (e.g., Monteverdi and Antonio Cesti) survive. The development is particularly interesting to scholars because opera was still quite a new medium when Cavalli began working, and had matured into a popular public spectacle by the end of his career.  Cavalli wrote forty-one operas, twenty-seven of which are extant, being preserved in the Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana (Library of St Mark) in Venice. Copies of some of the operas also exist in other locations. In addition, two last operas (\"Coriolano\" and \"Masenzio\"), which are clearly attributed to him, are lost, as well as twelve other operas that have been attributed to him, though the music is lost and attribution impossible to prove.  In addition to operas, Cavalli wrote settings of the \"Magnificat\" in the grand Venetian polychoral style, settings of the Marian antiphons, other sacred music in a more conservative manner – notably a Requiem Mass in eight parts (SSAATTBB), probably intended for his own funeral – and some instrumental music.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern performances.", "content": "Cavalli's music was revived in the twentieth century. The Glyndebourne production of \"La Calisto\" is an example. More recently, \"Hipermestra\" was performed at Glyndebourne in 2017. The discography is extensive and Cavalli has featured in BBC Radio 3's \"Composer of the Week\" series.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes  Further reading", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francesco Cavalli (born Pietro Francesco Caletti-Bruni 14 February 1602 – 14 January 1676) was an Italian composer of the early Baroque period. He took the name \"Cavalli\" from his patron, Venetian nobleman Federico Cavalli.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971830}
{"src_title": "Johann Heinrich Lambert", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Lambert was born in 1728 into a Huguenot family in the city of Mulhouse (now in Alsace, France), at that time an exclave of Switzerland. Leaving school at 12, he continued to study in his free time whilst undertaking a series of jobs. These included assistant to his father (a tailor), a clerk at a nearby iron works, a private tutor, secretary to the editor of \"Basler Zeitung\" and, at the age of 20, private tutor to the sons of Count Salis in Chur. Travelling Europe with his charges (1756–1758) allowed him to meet established mathematicians in the German states, The Netherlands, France and the Italian states. On his return to Chur he published his first books (on optics and cosmology) and began to seek an academic post. After a few short posts he was rewarded (1763) by an invitation to a position at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, where he gained the sponsorship of Frederick II of Prussia, and became a friend of Euler. In this stimulating and financially stable environment, he worked prodigiously until his death in 1777.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematics.", "content": "Lambert was the first to introduce hyperbolic functions into trigonometry. Also, he made conjectures regarding non-Euclidean space. Lambert is credited with the first proof that π is irrational by using a generalized continued fraction for the function tan x. Euler believed the conjecture but could not prove that π was irrational, and it is speculated that Aryabhata also believed this, in 500 CE. Lambert also devised theorems regarding conic sections that made the calculation of the orbits of comets simpler.  Lambert devised a formula for the relationship between the angles and the area of hyperbolic triangles. These are triangles drawn on a concave surface, as on a saddle, instead of the usual flat Euclidean surface. Lambert showed that the angles added up to less than π (radians), or 180°. The amount of shortfall, called the defect, increases with the area. The larger the triangle's area, the smaller the sum of the angles and hence the larger the defect C△ = π — (α + β + γ). That is, the area of a hyperbolic triangle (multiplied by a constant C) is equal to π (in radians), or 180°, minus the sum of the angles α, β, and γ. Here C denotes, in the present sense, the negative of the curvature of the surface (taking the negative is necessary as the curvature of a saddle surface is defined to be negative in the first place). As the triangle gets larger or smaller, the angles change in a way that forbids the existence of similar hyperbolic triangles, as only triangles that have the same angles will have the same area. Hence, instead of expressing the area of the triangle in terms of the lengths of its sides, as in Euclid's geometry, the area of Lambert's hyperbolic triangle can be expressed in terms of its angles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Map projection.", "content": "Lambert was the first mathematician to address the general properties of map projections (of a spherical earth). In particular he was the first to discuss the properties of conformality and equal area preservation and to point out that they were mutually exclusive. (Snyder 1993 p77). In 1772, Lambert published seven new map projections under the title \"Anmerkungen und Zusätze zur Entwerfung der Land- und Himmelscharten\", (translated as \"Notes and Comments on the Composition of Terrestrial and Celestial Maps\" by Waldo Tobler (1972)). Lambert did not give names to any of his projections but they are now known as: The first three of these are of great importance. Further details may be found at map projections and in several texts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Physics.", "content": "Lambert invented the first practical hygrometer. In 1760, he published a book on photometry, the \"Photometria\". From the assumption that light travels in straight lines, he showed that illumination was proportional to the strength of the source, inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the illuminated surface and the sine of the angle of inclination of the light's direction to that of the surface. These results were supported by experiments involving the visual comparison of illuminations and used for the calculation of illumination. In \"Photometria\" Lambert also formulated the law of light absorption (the Beer–Lambert law) and introduced the term \"albedo\". Lambertian reflectance is named after Johann Heinrich Lambert, who introduced the concept of perfect diffusion in his 1760 book Photometria. He wrote a classic work on perspective and contributed to geometrical optics.  The non-SI unit of luminance, Lambert, is named in recognition of his work in establishing the study of photometry. Lambert was also a pioneer in the development of three-dimensional colour models. Late in life, he published a description of a triangular colour pyramid (\"Farbenpyramide\"), which shows a total of 107 colours on six different levels, variously combining red, yellow and blue pigments, and with an increasing amount of white to provide the vertical component. His investigations were built on the earlier theoretical proposals of Tobias Mayer, greatly extending these early ideas. Lambert was assisted in this project by the court painter Benjamin Calau.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "In his main philosophical work, \"Neues Organon\" (\"New Organon\", 1764), Lambert studied the rules for distinguishing subjective from objective appearances. This connects with his work in the science of optics. In 1765 he began corresponding with Immanuel Kant who intended to dedicate to him the \"Critique of Pure Reason\" but the work was delayed, appearing after his death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Astronomy.", "content": "Lambert also developed a theory of the generation of the universe that was similar to the nebular hypothesis that Thomas Wright and Immanuel Kant had (independently) developed. Wright published his account in \"An Original Theory or New Hypothesis of the Universe\" (1750), Kant in \"Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels\", published anonymously in 1755. Shortly afterward, Lambert published his own version of the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system in \"Cosmologische Briefe über die Einrichtung des Weltbaues\" (1761). Lambert hypothesized that the stars near the sun were part of a group which travelled together through the Milky Way, and that there were many such groupings (star systems) throughout the galaxy. The former was later confirmed by Sir William Herschel. In astrodynamics he also solved the problem of determination of time of flight along a section of orbit, known now as Lambert's problem. His work in this area is commemorated by the Asteroid 187 Lamberta named in his honour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Logic.", "content": "Johann-Heinrich Lambert is the author of a treatise on logic, which he called \"Neues Organon\" (1764), that is to say, the New Organon. The most recent edition of this work named after Aristotle's \"Organon\" was issued in 1990 by the Akademie-Verlag of Berlin. This contains one of the first appearances of the term \"phenomenology\", and one can find therein a very pedagogical presentation of the various kinds of syllogism. According to John Stewart Mill,", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Johann Heinrich Lambert (, \"Jean-Henri Lambert\" in French; 26 August 1728 – 25 September 1777) was a Swiss polymath who made important contributions to the subjects of mathematics, physics (particularly optics), philosophy, astronomy and map projections. Edward Tufte calls him and William Playfair \"The two great inventors of modern graphical designs\" (\"Visual Display of Quantitative Information\", p. 32).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971831}
{"src_title": "Wakeboarding", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The sport that would later become wakeboarding began as wakesurfing, which was invented by surfers who were looking for an alternative to surfing when the sea was calm. Wakesurfing began picking up traction around 1964, where it was seen as an \"exciting new sport that's soon going to sweep the waterways.\" Although surfboards were originally used, boards without straps or bindings were first seen in New Zealand with boards called \"skurfboards\". Eventually, wakeboards with bindings or straps were sold in Australia under the name \"McSkis\". Later, another company called \"Skurfer\" was founded by Tony Finn in 1985, named as such due to the board being a cross of a surfboard and a water ski. The first board made in the early 1990s was the Hyperlite board by the O’Brien company, a water ski manufacturer who marketed the board as a “compression-molded neutral-buoyancy wakeboard.” This was followed by a variety of boards that are curvier and more compact, creating a smoother ride.  The wakeboard rope has advanced over the years with improvements in the material makeup. When wakeboarding first started, wakeboarders used ski rope, which was made with stretchy cloth or plastic ropes. The latter soon grew in popularity, and a braided rope made out of polypropylene was eventually introduced. A few years later, a rope that was less stretchy was invented that gave the rider a more consistent pull on the rope, though they were heavier and larger in diameter. Modern ropes are coated with Spectra and Dyneema, which decrease the stretch and drag of the rope.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "When wakeboarding, a wide variety of safety equipment is used. These include life vests or other buoyancy aids which prevent water-related injuries and deaths, as they keep the wearer buoyant until they are picked up. These vests especially help in situations where the rider is knocked unconscious or cannot tread water. Furthermore, wakeboarders use water-resistant helmets that are able to ventilate water so that the helmets do not fill up with water. Even the length of a wakeboarder's rope is important in providing safety; if the rope is too long, a wakeboarder will land on the flat part of the wake instead of the downside, and their knees will buckle.  At the same time, the length of a wakeboarding rope will vary based on the rider's preferences. A longer rope may allow for more preparation and momentum before performing tricks, whereas a shorter rope may require less speed and height to travel between wakes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tricks.", "content": "When wakeboarding, a variety of tricks may be attempted. Most of these stem from the wakeboarder adjusting their posture, edge, and distribution of weight so as to fly into the air upon hitting the wake. Various tricks include the toeside edge, the heelside edge, the ride switch, and the 180° spin.  More advanced tricks call for what is known as inversion or “inverts”. An invert is considered any action where the board is above the head of the rider. This does not necessarily mean the rider is fully upside down, as evidenced by the Raley, a trick where the rider extends their body parallel to the water bending at the knees to achieve inversion.  The heel side backflip, otherwise known as a tantrum, is often regarded as the first and easiest invert to learn as an intermediate level rider. This is because the shape of the wake or the “kicker” (a type of floating ramp, used primarily at cable parks, that mimics the shape of a wake) naturally initiates the sequence of motions which are necessary to complete the trick.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wakeboarding is a water sport in which the rider, standing on a wakeboard (a short board with foot bindings), is towed behind a motorboat across its wake and especially up off the crest in order to perform aerial maneuvers. A hallmark of wakeboarding is the attempted performance of midair tricks. The rider is usually towed by a rope behind a boat, but can also be towed by cable systems and winches, and be pulled by other motorized vehicles like personal watercraft, cars, trucks, and all-terrain vehicles. The gear and wakeboard boat used are often personalized to each rider's liking.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971832}
{"src_title": "Eduard von Böhm-Ermolli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Eduard Böhm was born in the Italian city of Ancona where his father served with a small representative detachment of the Austrian army. His father, Georg Böhm (1813–1893), had as a sergeant won a battlefield commission for bravery after the battle of Novara in 1849, been promoted to the rank of major upon his retirement in 1877. In June 1885, he received permission to attach his wife's (Maria Josepha Ermolli) maiden name to his family name. He was elevated to hereditary nobility in September 1885, and hence the family was known as \"von Böhm-Ermolli\".  Böhm-Ermolli was trained at the cadet academy in St. Pölten and the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt and entered the service on 1 September 1875 as a lieutenant in the dragoons. He served in a variety of line and staff positions, steadily rose through the ranks, being promoted to General of the Cavalry on 1 May 1912 and appointed commanding general of the 1st Army Corps in Kraków.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Service during World War One.", "content": "At the start of World War I, Böhm-Ermolli was given command of the Austrian 2nd Army, which was intended for action on the Serbian front. After the Russian Empire mobilised, the 2nd Army was diverted to the Russian front, where it reinforced the armies of Austria's German ally.<br> In September 1915 he also became commander of the Army Group Böhm-Ermolli which included the German South Army besides his own Second Army.  Böhm-Ermolli was promoted to \"Generaloberst\" in May 1916 and to \"Feldmarschall\" in January 1918. In March 1918, his forces occupied Ukraine. His Army Group was dissolved at Odessa at the war's end.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Böhm-Ermolli then settled in his home town of Troppau in Austrian Silesia, which became part of Czechoslovakia in 1919, and the government of Czechoslovakia paid him his pension and honored him as a General 1st Class in the reserve. In 1928 he became an \"Army General\" of Czechoslovakia, even though he never served in the Czechoslovak Army.  When the Sudetenland, the predominantly German settled regions along the fringes of Czechoslovakia, was annexed to Nazi Germany in 1938, he became a German subject. On 31 October 1940 Böhm-Ermolli received an honorary promotion to \"Generalfeldmarschall\" of the German Army. In addition, he was appointed honorary colonel-in-chief of Infantry Regiment 28 in his hometown of Troppau (Opava).  When he died in December 1941, he was accorded a state funeral with full military honors in Vienna.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military Service and Promotion Record.", "content": "Retired, December 1, 1918.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eduard Freiherr von Böhm-Ermolli (12 February 1856 – 9 December 1941) was an Austrian general during World War I who rose to the rank of field marshal in the Austro-Hungarian Army. He was the head of the Second Army and fought mainly on the front of Galicia during the entire conflict. On 30 October 1940, Böhm-Ermolli was made a German \"Generalfeldmarschall\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971833}
{"src_title": "Philip I of France", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Philip was born 23 May 1052 at Champagne-et-Fontaine, the son of Henry I and his wife Anne of Kiev. Unusually for the time in Western Europe, his name was of Greek origin, being bestowed upon him by his mother. Although he was crowned king at the age of seven, until age fourteen (1066) his mother acted as regent, the first queen of France ever to do so. Baldwin V of Flanders also acted as co-regent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal rule.", "content": "Following the death of Baldwin VI of Flanders, Robert the Frisian seized Flanders. Baldwin's widow, Richilda, requested aid from Philip, who was defeated by Robert at the battle of Cassel in 1071.  Philip first married Bertha of Holland in 1072. Although the marriage produced the necessary heir, Philip fell in love with Bertrade de Montfort, the wife of Fulk IV, Count of Anjou. He repudiated Bertha (claiming she was too fat) and married Bertrade on 15 May 1092. In 1094, he was excommunicated by Hugh of Die, for the first time; after a long silence, Pope Urban II repeated the excommunication at the Council of Clermont in November 1095. Several times the ban was lifted as Philip promised to part with Bertrade, but he always returned to her, but in 1104 Philip made a public penance and must have kept his involvement with Bertrade discreet. In France, the king was opposed by Bishop Ivo of Chartres, a famous jurist.  Philip appointed Alberic first Constable of France in 1060. A great part of his reign, like his father's, was spent putting down revolts by his power-hungry vassals. In 1077, he made peace with William the Conqueror, who gave up attempting the conquest of Brittany. In 1082, Philip I expanded his demesne with the annexation of the Vexin, in reprisal against Robert Curthose's attack on William's heir, William Rufus. Then in 1100, he took control of Bourges.  It was at the aforementioned Council of Clermont that the First Crusade was launched. Philip at first did not personally support it because of his conflict with Urban II. Philip's brother Hugh of Vermandois, however, was a major participant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Philip died in the castle of Melun and was buried per his request at the monastery of Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire – and not in St Denis among his forefathers. He was succeeded by his son, Louis VI, whose succession was, however, not uncontested. According to Abbot Suger:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Philip's children with Bertha were:  Philip's children with Bertrade were:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philip I (c.1052 – 29 July 1108), called the Amorous, was King of the Franks from 1060 to 1108. His reign, like that of most of the early Capetians, was extraordinarily long for the time. The monarchy began a modest recovery from the low it reached in the reign of his father and he added to the royal demesne the Vexin and Bourges.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971834}
{"src_title": "Joachim Meisner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and ordination.", "content": "Meisner was born in Breslau, Germany (modern Wrocław, Poland). He studied in East Germany at the seminary of Erfurt from 1959 to 1962, and was ordained a deacon on 8 April 1962. On 22 December 1962, he was ordained to the priesthood by Bishop Josef Freusberg, an auxiliary bishop of the Diocese of Fulda.  Between 1963 and 1975, Meisner served as chaplain at St. Giles Parish in Heiligenstadt and Holy Cross Parish in Erfurt. He also served as diocesan director of Caritas. During his pastoral ministry, he studied at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, earning his doctorate of theology in 1969.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bishop.", "content": "In 1975, he was elected titular Bishop of Vina and auxiliary bishop to the Apostolic Administrator Erfurt-Meiningen. He was elected as a delegate to the Fourth Synod of Bishops at the Vatican in 1977, where he renewed a friendship with Karol Wojtyła, who in 1980 as Pope John Paul II appointed Meisner Bishop of Berlin and made him Cardinal-Priest of Santa Pudenziana in the consistory of 2 February 1983.  In 1988 after the death of Joseph Höffner, Meisner was named Archbishop of Cologne, a post he continued to hold until he retired. He was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2005 papal conclave that selected Pope Benedict XVI. Meisner was the bishop in charge for the XX. World Youth Day in August 2005 in the archdiocese in Cologne that attracted more than one million people.  On 18 September 2012, Meisner was appointed by Pope Benedict XVI as a Synod Father for the October 2012 Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops.  In January 2013, two Catholic hospitals refused to provide a \"morning after pill\" to a rape victim based on Church policy that treats such medications as abortifacients. Meisner apologized and approved the use of some such pills for rape victims based on the belief that they prevented fertilization and did not induce abortion. He said that if \"a medication that hinders conception is used after a rape with the purpose of avoiding fertilization, then this is acceptable in my view.\" The German Bishops' Conference endorsed his policy on 21 February, distinguishing between different types of morning after pills.  Meisner participated in the 2013 papal conclave that elected Pope Francis. At Pope Francis' inauguration, Meisner was one of the six cardinals who made the public act of obedience on behalf of the College of Cardinals.  On 25 December 2013, Cardinal Meisner turned 80 and lost the right to participate in future conclaves and he submitted his resignation, which Pope Francis accepted on 28 February 2014. Diocesan administrator Stefan Heße led the archdiocese until a successor, Rainer Woelki, was appointed on 11 July and installed as Archbishop on 20 September 2014.  Meisner died on 5 July 2017 while vacationing in Bad Füssing in Bavaria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Views.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Papacy and Magisterium.", "content": "Meisner was known for his support of the Pope and of the teachings of the Church. Pope John Paul asked for Cardinal Meisner to see him when he was in the Gemelli Hospital in Rome. Meisner had a very close relationship to Pope John Paul II and was a long-time friend of Joseph Ratzinger, later Pope Benedict XVI.  He said that Benedict \"has the intelligence of 12 professors and is as pious as a child on the day of his first communion.\"  In 2009, Meisner \"approached [Pope] Benedict on behalf of a number of cardinals to ask him to dump his Secretary of State, Italian Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone.\" \"According to the interview in the \"Frankfurter Rundschau\", Meisner told Benedict: 'Your Holiness, you have to make Cardinal Bertone resign! He has the responsibility, like in a secular government.' According to Meisner, Benedict's response was: 'Listen to me carefully. Bertone will remain! Enough, enough, enough.'\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture and liturgy.", "content": "\"Wherever culture is separated from the worship of God, cult atrophies in ritualism and culture becomes degenerate\", said Meisner at the blessing of his own archdiocese's new art museum, the Kolumba, on 14 September 2007. His choice of words recalled the phrase \"\"entartete Kunst\"\" (\"degenerate art\") used as the title of the exhibition opened by Adolf Hitler in Munich on 19 July 1937 and provoked strong negative reaction.  It was widely recognized that Meisner was criticizing the stained-glass window in Cologne Cathedral by Gerhard Richter, which was unveiled just weeks before and of which he disapproved.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Amoris laetitia\".", "content": "In April 2016, Pope Francis issued the apostolic exhortation \"Amoris laetitia\". Meisner and three other cardinals (Carlo Caffarra, Walter Brandmüller and Raymond Leo Burke) submitted \"dubia\" (doubts) in private, followed by a public letter (\"Seeking Clarity: A Plea to Untie the Knots in \"Amoris Laetitia\"\") in November 2016, asking Francis to clarify various points of doctrine. The first \"dubia\" asked about the reception of the sacraments by the divorced and remarried. The public letter asked about fundamental issues of the Christian life and referenced Pope John Paul II's encyclical \"Veritatis splendor\". In April 2017, following no reply to their letter, the cardinals requested a meeting with Francis, but there had been no response to this request by June 2017.  While waiting for a response from Francis, Pope Emeritus Benedict wrote a letter complimentary of Cardinal Meisner, in spite of the latter being \"a fierce critic of Francis who spoke out against the pontiff allowing remarried divorcees to receive holy communion\", according to The Guardian.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Joachim Meisner (25 December 1933 – 5 July 2017) was a German cardinal of the Catholic Church. He was the immediate past Archbishop of Cologne, serving from 1989 until his resignation was accepted by Pope Francis in 2014. He previously served as Bishop of Berlin from 1980 to 1989, and was created a cardinal in 1983. He was widely considered to be Germany's leading conservative Roman Catholic figure.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971835}
{"src_title": "Rachel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Marriage to Jacob.", "content": "Rachel is first mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in when Jacob happens upon her as she is about to water her father's flock. She was the second daughter of Laban, Rebekah's brother, making Jacob her first cousin. Jacob had traveled a great distance to find Laban. Rebekah had sent him there to be safe from his angry twin brother, Esau.  During Jacob's stay, he fell in love with Rachel and agreed to work seven years for Laban in return for her hand in marriage. On the night of the wedding, the bride was veiled and Jacob did not notice that Leah, Rachel's older sister, had been substituted for Rachel. Whereas \"Rachel was lovely in form and beautiful\", \"Leah had tender eyes\". Later Jacob confronted Laban, who excused his own deception by insisting that the older sister should marry first. He assured Jacob that after his wedding week was finished, he could take Rachel as a wife as well, and work another seven years as payment for her. When God \"saw that Leah was unloved, he opened her womb\" (Gen 29:31), and she gave birth to four sons.  Rachel, like Sarah and Rebecca, remained unable to conceive. According to Tikva Frymer-Kensky, \"The infertility of the matriarchs has two effects: it heightens the drama of the birth of the eventual son, marking Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph as special; and it emphasizes that pregnancy is an act of God.\"  Rachel became jealous of Leah and gave Jacob her maidservant, Bilhah, to be a surrogate mother for her. Bilhah gave birth to two sons that Rachel named and raised (Dan and Naphtali). Leah responds by offering her handmaid Zilpah to Jacob, and names and raises the two sons (Gad and Asher) that Zilpah bears. According to some commentaries, Bilhah and Zilpah are actually half-sisters of Leah and Rachel. After Leah conceived again, Rachel was finally blessed with a son, Joseph, who would become Jacob's favorite child.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Rachel's son Joseph was destined to be the leader of Israel's tribes between exile and nationhood. This role is exemplified in the Biblical story of Joseph, who prepared the way in Egypt for his family's exile there.  After Joseph's birth, Jacob decided to return to the land of Canaan with his family. Fearing that Laban would deter him, he fled with his two wives, Leah and Rachel, and twelve children without informing his father-in-law. Laban pursued him and accused him of stealing his idols. Indeed, Rachel had taken her father's idols, hidden them inside her camel's seat cushion, and sat upon them. Laban had neglected to give his daughters their inheritance ().  Not knowing that the idols were in his wife's possession, Jacob pronounced a curse on whoever had them: \"With whoever you will find your gods, he will not live\" (). Laban proceeded to search the tents of Jacob and his wives, but when he came to Rachel's tent, she told her father, \"Let not my lord be angered that I cannot rise up before you, for the way of women is upon me\" (). Laban left her alone, but the curse Jacob had pronounced came true shortly thereafter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and burial.", "content": "Near Ephrath, Rachel went into a difficult labor with her second son, Benjamin. The midwife told her in the middle of the birth that her child was a boy. Before she died, Rachel named her son Ben Oni (\"son of my mourning\"), but Jacob called him Ben Yamin (Benjamin). Rashi explains that Ben Yamin either means \"son of the right\" (i.e., \"south\"), since Benjamin was the only one of Jacob's sons born in Canaan, which is to the south of Paddan Aram; or it could mean \"son of my days\", as Benjamin was born in Jacob's old age.  Rachel was buried on the road to Efrat, just outside Bethlehem, and not in the ancestral tomb at Machpelah. Today a site claimed to be Rachel's Tomb, located between Bethlehem and the Israeli settlement of Gilo, is visited by tens of thousands of visitors each year. Rachel's tomb is said to be in the ancient city of Zelzah in the land of the Tribe of Benjamin (First Book of Samuel, chapter 10, v. 2).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Islam.", "content": "Despite not being named in the Quran, Rachel (, Rāḥīl) is honored in Islam as the wife of Jacob and mother of Joseph, who are frequently mentioned by name in the Qur'an as \"Ya‘qūb\" () and \"Yūsuf\" (), respectively.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rachel () was a Biblical figure, the favorite of Jacob's two wives, and the mother of Joseph and Benjamin, two of the twelve progenitors of the tribes of Israel. Rachel's father was Laban. Her older sister was Leah, Jacob's first wife; their mother was Adinah. Her aunt Rebekah was Jacob's mother.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971836}
{"src_title": "Kaiser-Wilhelmsland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The coastline of the northern and eastern portions of New Guinea had been charted by navigators in the early 17th century, and the visible mountain ranges named by British admiralty navigators later in the century. Most German surveying efforts had focused on coastal regions and river basins, where Germans had established plantations. The boundary between Papua and Kaiser Wilhelmsland had been established by a joint British-German expedition in 1909; the interior had not been mapped. Since then, Papuan gold prospectors had crossed into German territory which, from the German perspective, made the accuracy of the border essential.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1870–1880.", "content": "In the 1870s and 1880s German commercial firms began to site trading stations in New Guinea. Agents of J.C. Godeffroy & Sohn reached the Bismarck Archipelago from the Caroline Islands in 1872. In 1875 Hernsheim & Company moved to the Archipelago.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1880–1900.", "content": "In 1884, the German New Guinea Company was founded in Berlin by Adolph von Hansemann and a syndicate of German bankers for the purpose of colonising and exploiting resources on \"Neu Guinea\" (German New Guinea), where German interest grew after British Queensland's annexation of part of eastern New Guinea. This expedition was with the knowledge and blessing of the German Chancellor, Count Otto von Bismarck, and with secrecy and speed an expedition was fitted out under Dr Otto Finsch, ornithologist and explorer.  His task was to select land for plantation development on the north-east coast of New Guinea and establish trading posts. Its influence soon grew to encompass the entire north-eastern part of New Guinea and some of the islands off the coast.  The Neuguinea Compagnie expedition left Sydney for New Guinea in the steamer Samoa captained by Eduard Dallmann. On 19 August, Chancellor Bismarck ordered the establishment of a German protectorate in the New Britain Archipelago and north-eastern New Guinea.  In 1885 and 1887, Johann Flierl established missionary stations in Simbang and Timba Island. After malaria epidemics in 1889 and again in 1891 killed almost half of the European settlers on the coast in Finschhafen, many of the Europeans moved toward Friedrich Wilhelmshafen (now Madang). Flierl established a Mission station at the Sattelberg, in the highlands. In 1890 and 1891, he built the Sattelberg Mission Station there and constructed a road approximately between the station and the Finsch harbour (\"Finschhafen\"), which cut the travelling time from three days to five hours.  German colonial rule in New Guinea lasted for a period of thirty years, For the first fifteen years the colony was administered under imperial charters by a private company, in the manner of the old British and Dutch East India company, but with far less success. From 1899 to 1914, the Imperial Government administered German New Guinea through a governor, who was assisted after 1904 by a nominated Government Council.  When the Imperial Government took over the running of the colony in 1899, its over-riding objective was rapid economic development, based on a German- controlled plantation economy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1900–1914.", "content": "In April 1911, Dr Wegener, director of the Meteorological Observatory in Apia, stated he was on his way to German New Guinea, to make preliminary arrangements for a series of journeys by balloon across the mainland, the purpose of which was to make aerial surveys.  In late 1913, the Imperial Colonial Office appointed Hermann Detzner to lead an expedition to survey the border between the British protectorate, called Papua, and the German territory and to survey and map the interior. Detzner, an Austrian, was a military surveyor.  The expedition set off along the Langimar-Watut divide, and travelled by raft down the Watut River to its junction with the Markham River, and on to the Lutheran Mission station at Gabmadzung (near the Lae Nadzab Airport).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1914–1918.", "content": "On 4 August 1914, Britain declared war on Germany. As World War I spread to the Pacific, Australian troops invaded German New Guinea, taking the German barracks in Herbertshöhe (present day Kokopo) and forcing the defending German colonial troops to capitulate on 21 September after their defeat at Bita Paka.  On 6 August 1914, residents of the Protectorate were notified by proclamation that a state of war existed between Germany, and England, France and Russia. During this time Detzner continued surveying and avoiding allied forces.  On 11 November 1918, Detzner was advised that the war had ended and surrendered himself at Finschafen complete with sword and sun helmet. He was interned at Sydney and returned to Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1920–1945.", "content": "In 1918, Kaiser Wilhelmsland and the other territories that comprised German New Guinea (New Pomerania and the islands of the Bismarck Archipelago) were administered by the Commonwealth of Australia. Beginning in 1920, Australia, under a mandate from the League of Nations, governed the former German territory of New Guinea. It was administered under this mandate until the Japanese invasion in December 1941. Most of the territory of New Guinea, including the islands of Bougainville, and New Britain, was occupied by Japanese forces before recapture during the final months of the war in the Australian-American New Guinea campaign.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Natural features.", "content": "Quaternary glaciers created much of the topography of Kaiser-Wilhelmsland. Recent studies suggest Mount Wilhelm held approximately of glacial ice. Further north, closer to the Equator, the glaciers left behind large rubble fields.  The territory of Kaiser-Wilhelmsland was largely mountainous, with Mount Wilhelm the highest peak of the Hagan Range, which separated the protectorate from the British \"Papua\". There are several major rivers, notably the Sepik River which drops from the Highlands and winds through lowland swamp plains to the north coast. The Markham River flows from the Finisterre Range and ends in the Huon Gulf. The Huon Peninsula, named for the French explorer Jean-Michel Huon de Kermadec, has raised beaches, usually created by the combination of tectonic coastal uplift and quaternary sea-level fluctuations. The Saruwaged \"massif\", with its twin peaks of Bangeta and Saruwaged, dominate the Saruwaged Range; rugged and steep, the massif reaches, and is surrounded by jungles at its base.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Indigenous population.", "content": "Near Mount Hagen, archaeologists have identified the Kuk Swamp (), one of the oldest agricultural drainage sites in Australasia; the site has been identified as a UNESCO site, and is on the list of recommended World Heritage sites.  Linguistic features suggest the origins of the population. Along the southeast coast and in the Markham Valley, the Austronesia family of languages predominate. The two main languages were Kâte and Yabim, with Kâte spoken in the mountainous hinterlands and Yabim on the coastal areas, particularly on coast of the Huon Peninsula. The Non-Austronesia languages are heard most commonly in the mountain regions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kaiser-Wilhelmsland formed part of German New Guinea (German: \"Deutsch-Neuguinea\"), the South Pacific protectorate of the German Empire. Named in honour of Wilhelm I, who reigned as German Emperor (\"Kaiser\") from 1871 to 1888, it included the northern part of present-day Papua New Guinea. From 1884 until 1920 the territory was a protectorate () of the German Empire. Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, the Bismarck Archipelago (including New Mecklenburg and New Pomerania), the northern Solomon Islands, the Caroline Islands, Palau, Nauru, the Mariana Islands, and the Marshall Islands comprised German New Guinea.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971837}
{"src_title": "Robert II of France", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Co-rule with father.", "content": "Immediately after his own coronation, Robert's father Hugh began to push for the coronation of his son. \"The essential means by which the early Capetians were seen to have kept the throne in their family was through the association of the eldest surviving son in the royalty during the father's lifetime,\" Andrew W. Lewis has observed, in tracing the phenomenon in this line of kings who lacked dynastic legitimacy. Hugh's claimed reason was that he was planning an expedition against the Moorish armies harassing Borrel II of Barcelona, an invasion which never occurred, and that the stability of the country necessitated a co-king, should he die while on expedition. Ralph Glaber, however, attributes Hugh's request to his old age and inability to control the nobility. Modern scholarship has largely imputed to Hugh the motive of establishing a dynasty against the claims of electoral power on the part of the aristocracy, but this is not the typical view of contemporaries and even some modern scholars have been less sceptical of Hugh's \"plan\" to campaign in Spain. Robert was eventually crowned on 25 December 987. A measure of Hugh's success is that when Hugh died in 996, Robert continued to reign without any succession dispute, but during his long reign actual royal power dissipated into the hands of the great territorial magnates.  Robert had begun to take on active royal duties with his father in the early 990s. In 991, he helped his father prevent the French bishops from trekking to Mousson in the Kingdom of Germany for a synod called by Pope John XV, with whom Hugh was then in disagreement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marital problems.", "content": "As early as 989, having been rebuffed in his search for a Byzantine princess, Hugh Capet arranged for Robert to marry Rozala, the recently widowed daughter of Berengar II of Italy, many years his senior, who took the name of Susanna upon becoming queen. She was the widow of Arnulf II of Flanders, with whom she had two children. Robert divorced her within a year of his father's death in 996. He then married Bertha, daughter of Conrad of Burgundy, around the time of his father's death. She was a widow of Odo I of Blois, but was also Robert's second cousin. For reasons of consanguinity, Pope Gregory V refused to sanction the marriage, and Robert was excommunicated. After long negotiations with Gregory's successor, Sylvester II, the marriage was annulled.  Finally, in 1001, Robert entered into his final and longest-lasting marriage—to Constance of Arles, the daughter of William I of Provence. Her southern customs and entourage were regarded with suspicion at court. After his companion Hugh of Beauvais, count palatine, urged the king to repudiate her as well, knights of her kinsman Fulk III, Count of Anjou had Beauvais murdered in 1008. The king and Bertha then went to Rome to ask Pope Sergius IV for an annulment so they could remarry. After this was refused, he went back to Constance and fathered several children by her. Her ambition alienated the chroniclers of her day, who blamed her for several of the king's decisions. Constance and Robert remained married until his death in 1031.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Piety.", "content": "Robert was a devout Catholic, hence his sobriquet \"the Pious.\" He was musically inclined, being a composer, chorister, and poet, and made his palace a place of religious seclusion where he conducted the matins and vespers in his royal robes. Robert's reputation for piety also resulted from his lack of toleration for heretics, whom he harshly punished. He is said to have advocated forced conversions of local Jewry. He supported riots against the Jews of Orléans who were accused of conspiring to destroy the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Furthermore, Robert reinstated the Roman imperial custom of burning heretics at the stake.  In 1030–1031, Robert confirmed the foundation of Noyers Abbey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "The kingdom Robert inherited was not large and, in an effort to increase his power, he vigorously pursued his claim to any feudal lands that became vacant, usually resulting in war with a counter-claimant. In 1003, his invasion of the Duchy of Burgundy was thwarted, and it would not be until 1016 that he was finally able to get the support of the Church to be recognized as Duke of Burgundy.  The pious Robert made few friends and many enemies, including three of his own sons: Hugh, Henry, and Robert. They turned against their father in a civil war over power and property. Hugh died in revolt in 1025. In a conflict with Henry and the younger Robert, King Robert's army was defeated, and he retreated to Beaugency outside Paris, his capital. He died in the middle of the war with his sons on 20 July 1031 at Melun. He was interred with Constance in Saint Denis Basilica and succeeded by his son Henry, in both France and Burgundy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Robert had no children from his short-lived marriage to Susanna. His illegal marriage to Bertha gave him one stillborn son in 999, but only Constance gave him surviving children:  Robert also left an illegitimate son: Rudolph, Bishop of Bourges.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert II (27 March 972 – 20 July 1031), called the Pious () or the Wise (), was King of the Franks from 996 to 1031, the second from the House of Capet. He was born in Orléans to Hugh Capet and Adelaide of Aquitaine. Robert distinguished himself with an extraordinarily long reign for the time. His 35-year-long reign was marked by his attempts to expand the royal domain by any means, especially by his long struggle to gain the Duchy of Burgundy. His policies earned him many enemies, including three of his sons. He was also known for his difficult marriages: he married three times, annulling two of these and attempting to annul the third, prevented only by the Pope's refusal to accept a third annulment.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971838}
{"src_title": "Lino Ventura", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Parma, Emilia-Romagna, Italy to Giovanni Ventura and Luisa Borrini, who moved to France soon thereafter, Lino dropped out of school at the age of eight and later took on a variety of jobs. At one point Ventura was pursuing a prizefighting and professional wrestling career but had to end it because of an injury.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early roles.", "content": "In 1953, by chance, one of his friends mentioned him to Jacques Becker who was looking for an Italian actor to play opposite Jean Gabin in a gangster movie called \"Touchez pas au grisbi\" (1954). Becker offered him on the spot the role of Angelo, which Ventura refused at first but then accepted. He had such a presence in the film that the whole profession took notice. The film was a big success.  Ventura started to build up an acting career in similar hard-boiled gangster films, often playing beside his friend Jean Gabin, including his second film, \"Razzia sur la chnouf\" (1955).  He followed it with \"Law of the Streets\" (1956), \"Crime and Punishment\" (1956) with Gabin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "Some of his most famous roles include the portrait of corrupt police chief Tiger Brown in \"The Threepenny Opera\" (1963) and mob boss Vito Genovese in \"The Valachi Papers\" (1972).  Although he remained an Italian citizen throughout his life and long used to seeing himself dubbed into Italian from the original French release, he only made a handful of films in his native language, among them \"The Last Judgement\" (\"Il giudizio universale\", 1961), \"Illustrious Corpses\" (\"Cadaveri eccellenti\", 1976) and \"Cento Giorni a Palermo\" (1983).  Ventura remained active until the year before his death from a heart attack in 1987 at the age of 68. Having a disabled daughter himself, he created a charitable foundation, \"Perce-Neige\" (\"Snowdrop\") in 1966, which supports disabled people.  Throughout his career, he was one of the most popular actors of French cinema. He spoke French without any accent (excepting a Parisian one at the beginning of his career) and spoke Italian with a slight French accent, having arrived in France at the age of seven. Forcibly conscripted into the Italian army during the Second World War, he deserted. But, although his wife and four children were French, he never wanted to give up Italian citizenship, out of respect for his parents. Despite this, he was ranked 23rd of the 100 greatest Frenchmen, 17 years after his death.  Somewhat paradoxically, Ventura attributed his great success to his limited range as an actor; and often said \"If I cannot believe in a character, or if something does not ring true, I cannot act it.\"  In a 1980 interview he said that the previous year \"I began to realize how incredibly lucky I had been since the age of 9, how much I had been loved by so many people. When I act, I am doing what I love, and I am paid for it. So I put myself in the service of the film, never the film in service to me.\" He mentioned he turned down several roles - a part in \"Apocalypse Now\" (cut from the final film), a role in a Robert Aldrich film and the part played by François Truffaut in \"Close Encounters of the Third Kind\".  He said, \"The story is everything. My good friend Jean Gabin told me 25 years ago there are three important things in movies: the story, the story and the story.\"  \"I have limitations,\" he said. \"I have no training; I could not do the classics. What I can do is myself. And I like best not to talk at all... I study the script, and then try to become the character. That is very mysterious, how that happens. I cannot explain it. There are so many mysteries in cinema, the way everything must interlock, that when you think of it all, you never want to make a film.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Angiolino Giuseppe Pasquale Ventura (14 July 1919 – 22 October 1987) was an Italian actor who grew up in France and starred in many French films. Born in Italy, he was raised in Paris by his Italian mother. After a first career as a professional wrestler was ended by injury, he was offered a part as a gang boss in the Jacques Becker film \"Touchez pas au grisbi\" (1954) and rapidly became one of France's favourite film actors, playing opposite many other great stars such as Bourvil, Jean Gabin, Alain Delon, Claude Rich, Bernard Blier, Jacques Brel, Michel Serrault, Jean-Paul Belmondo, and working with other leading directors such as Louis Malle, Claude Sautet, Claude Miller, and the great script writer Michel Audiard. Usually portraying a tough man, either a criminal or a cop, he also featured as a leader of the Resistance in the Jean-Pierre Melville directed \"Army of Shadows\" (\"L'armée des ombres\", 1969). Having a daughter born handicapped, he and his wife founded a charity Perce-Neige (Snowdrop) which aids disabled children and their parents. Though he never renounced his Italian citizenship, he was voted 23rd in a poll for the 100 greatest Frenchmen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971839}
{"src_title": "OSGi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Specification process.", "content": "The OSGi specification is developed by the members in an open process and made available to the public free of charge under the OSGi Specification License. The OSGi Alliance has a compliance program that is open to members only. As of November 2010, there are seven certified OSGi framework implementations. A separate page lists both certified and non-certified OSGi Specification Implementations, which include OSGi frameworks and other OSGi specifications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "OSGi is a Java framework for developing and deploying modular software programs and libraries. Each bundle is a tightly coupled, dynamically loadable collection of classes, jars, and configuration files that explicitly declare their external dependencies (if any).  The framework is conceptually divided into the following areas:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bundles.", "content": "A bundle is a group of Java classes and additional resources equipped with a detailed manifest codice_1 file on all its contents, as well as additional services needed to give the included group of Java classes more sophisticated behaviors, to the extent of deeming the entire aggregate a component.  Below is an example of a typical codice_1 file with OSGi Headers:  The meaning of the contents in the example is as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life-cycle.", "content": "A Life Cycle layer adds bundles that can be dynamically installed, started, stopped, updated and uninstalled. Bundles rely on the module layer for class loading but add an API to manage the modules in run time. The life cycle layer introduces dynamics that are normally not part of an application. Extensive dependency mechanisms are used to assure the correct operation of the environment. Life cycle operations are fully protected with the security architecture. Below is an example of a typical Java class implementing the codice_3 interface:  package org.wikipedia;  import org.osgi.framework.BundleActivator; import org.osgi.framework.BundleContext;  public class Activator implements BundleActivator {", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Services.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standard services.", "content": "The OSGi Alliance has specified many services. Services are specified by a Java interface. Bundles can implement this interface and register the service with the Service Registry. Clients of the service can find it in the registry, or react to it when it appears or disappears.  The table below shows a description of OSGi System Services:  The table below shows a description of OSGi Protocol Services:  The table below shows a description of OSGi Miscellaneous Services:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "The OSGi Alliance was founded by Ericsson, IBM, Motorola, Sun Microsystems and others in March 1999. Before incorporating as a nonprofit corporation, it was called the Connected Alliance.  Among its members are () more than 35 companies from quite different business areas, for example Adobe Systems, Deutsche Telekom, Hitachi, IBM, Liferay, Makewave, NEC, NTT, Oracle, Orange S.A., ProSyst, Salesforce.com, Siemens, Software AG and TIBCO Software.  The Alliance has a board of directors that provides the organization's overall governance. OSGi officers have various roles and responsibilities in supporting the alliance. Technical work is conducted within Expert Groups (EGs) chartered by the board of directors, and non-technical work is conducted in various working groups and committees. The technical work conducted within Expert Groups include developing specifications, reference implementations, and compliance tests. These Expert Groups have produced five major releases of the OSGi specifications ().  Dedicated Expert Groups exist for the enterprise, mobile, vehicle and the core platform areas.  The Enterprise Expert Group (EEG) is the newest EG and is addressing Enterprise / Server-side applications. In November 2007 the Residential Expert Group (REG) started to work on specifications to remotely manage residential/home-gateways. In October 2003, Nokia, Motorola, IBM, ProSyst and other OSGi members formed a Mobile Expert Group (MEG) that will specify a MIDP-based service platform for the next generation of smart mobile phones, addressing some of the needs that CLDC cannot manage - other than CDC. MEG became part of OSGi as with R4.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The OSGi Alliance, formerly known as the Open Services Gateway initiative, is an open standards organization founded in March 1999 that originally specified and continues to maintain the OSGi standard.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971840}
{"src_title": "Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ernest was the eldest son of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and Countess Augusta of Reuss-Ebersdorf. His youngest brother, Leopold Georg Christian Frederick, was later elected the first King of the Belgians.  On 10 May 1803, aged 19, Ernest was proclaimed an adult because his father had become gravely ill, and he was required to take part in the government of the duchy. When his father died in 1806, he succeeded in the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld as Ernest III. However, he could not immediately take over the formal government of his lands, because the duchy was occupied by Napoleonic troops and was under French administration. The following year, after the Peace of Tilsit (1807), the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld was reunited (having previously been dissolved) and restored to Ernest. This occurred through Russian pressure, since his sister Juliane was married to the brother of the Russian Tsar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and children.", "content": "Ernest married Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg in Gotha on 3 July 1817. They had two children:  The marriage was unhappy because both husband and wife were promiscuous. As the biographer Lytton Strachey put it: \"The ducal court was not noted for the strictness of its morals; the Duke was a man of gallantry, and the Duchess followed her husband's example. There were scandals: one of the Court Chamberlains, a charming and cultivated man of Jewish extraction, was talked of; at last there was a separation, followed by a divorce.\" Ernest and Louise were separated in 1824 and were officially divorced on 31 March 1826. As heirs to Coburg, the children remained with their father. Seven months after the divorce, in October 1826, Louise secretly married one of her lovers. She died in 1831.  In Coburg on 23 December 1832, Ernest married his niece Duchess Marie of Württemberg, the daughter of his sister Antoinette. They had no children. This marriage made Marie both Prince Albert's first cousin and his stepmother.  Ernest had three illegitimate children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Estates.", "content": "After 1813, Ernest was a Prussian general and participated in military actions against Napoleon. He fought in the battles of Lützen and Leipzig (1813), and drew in 1814 into the French fortress of Mainz. After the battle of Leipzig, he commanded the \"5. Armeekorps\".  After the defeat of Napoleon in the Battle of Waterloo, the Congress of Vienna on 9 June 1815 gave him an area of 450 square kilometres with 25,000 inhabitants around the town of St. Wendel. Its area was somewhat augmented by the second Treaty of Paris. In 1816, this estate received the name of Principality of Lichtenberg. Ernest sold it to Prussia in 1834.  In 1825, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, who was the uncle of Ernest's first wife Louise, died without an heir. This resulted in a rearrangement of the Ernestine duchies. It was only as a member of the Ernestine dynasty (and not as Louise's husband) that Ernest had a claim on the late duke's estates. However, he was at that time in the process of divorcing Louise, and the other branches used this as a leverage to drive a better bargain for themselves by insisting that he should not inherit Gotha. They reached a compromise on 12 November 1826: Ernest received Gotha, but had to cede Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen. He subsequently became \"Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\". Although he had given a constitution to Gotha in 1821, he did not interfere in the system of government in Gotha.  At Coburg, Ernest was responsible for various construction projects, including the establishment of the \"Hoftheater\" in its new building. The \"Schlossplatz\" as it appears today is largely due to work under his rule. He is chiefly remembered for the economic, educational and constitutional development of his territories, and for the significant international position attained by the house of Coburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and burial.", "content": "Ernest died on 29 January 1844 and was initially buried in the Morizkirche but later reinterred in the newly built mausoleum in \"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "He received the following awards:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernest I (; 2 January 178429 January 1844) was the last sovereign duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (as Ernest III) and, from 1826, the first sovereign duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (as Ernest I). He was the father of Albert, Prince Consort, who was the husband of Queen Victoria. Ernest fought against Napoleon Bonaparte, and through construction projects and the establishment of a court theatre, he left a strong imprint on his residence town, Coburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971841}
{"src_title": "Adelaide of Italy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Orbe Castle, Orbe, Kingdom of Upper Burgundy (now in modern-day Switzerland), she was the daughter of Rudolf II of Burgundy, a member of the Elder House of Welf, and Bertha of Swabia.  She became involved from the beginning in the complicated fight to control not only Burgundy but also Lombardy. The battle between her father Rudolf II and Berengar I to control northern Italy ended with Berengar's death, and Rudolf could claimed the throne.  However, the inhabitants of Lombardy weren't happy with this decision and called for help of another ally, Hugh of Provence, who considered Rudolf an enemy for a long time. Although Hugh challenged Rudolf for the Burgundian throne, he only succeeded when Adelaide's father died in 937, and in order to be able to control Upper Burgundy he decided to marry his son Lothair II, the nominal King of Italy, with Adelaide (in 947, before June 27) who was fifteen years old.  The marriage produced a daughter, Emma of Italy, born about 948. She became Queen of Western France by marrying King Lothair of France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Empress.", "content": "The Calendar of Saints states that her first husband was poisoned, on November 22 of 950 in Turin, by the holder of real power, his successor, Berengar II of Italy.  Not only did some people of Lombardy suggest that Adelaide wanted to rule the kingdom by herself, but Berengar attempted to cement his political power by forcing her to marry his son, Adalbert. The young widow refused and fled, taking refuge in the castle of Como. Nevertheless, she was quickly tracked down and imprisoned for four months at Garda.  According to Adelaide's contemporary biographer, Odilo of Cluny, she managed to escape from captivity. After a time spent in the marshes nearby, she was rescued by a priest and taken to a \"certain impregnable fortress,\" likely the fortified town of Canossa Castle near Reggio. She managed to send an emissary to Otto I, and asked the East Frankish king for his protection. The widow met Otto at the old Lombard capital of Pavia and they married on 23 September 951.  A few years later, in 953, Liudolf, Duke of Swabia, Otto's son by his first marriage, made a big revolt against his father that was quelled by the latter. On account of this episode, Otto decided to dispossess Liudolf of his ducal title. This decision favoured the position of Adelaide and her descendants at court. Adelaide also managed to retain her entire territorial dowry.  After returning to Germany with his new wife, Otto cemented the existence of the Holy Roman Empire by defeating the Hungarian invaders at the battle of Lechfeld (August 10, 955). In addition, he extended the boundaries of East Francia beyond the Elbe River, defeating the Obrodites and other Slavs of the Elbe at the battle of Recknitz (October 16, 955).  Adelaide accompanied her husband on his second expedition to Italy, destined to subdue the revolt of Berengar II and to protect Pope John XII. In Rome, Otto the Great was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on February 2, 962 by Pope John XII and breaking tradition, also crowned Adelaide as Holy Roman Empress. Four years later, Adelaide and their eleven-year-old son, Otto II, traveled again with Otto in 966 on his third expedition to Italy, where the Emperor restored the newly elected Pope John XIII to his throne (and executed some of the Roman rioters who had deposed him).  Adelaide remained in Rome for six years while Otto ruled his kingdom from Italy. Their son Otto II was crowned co-emperor in 967, then married the Byzantine princess Theophanu in April 972, resolving the conflict between the two empires in southern Italy, as well as ensuring the imperial succession. Adelaide and her husband then returned to Germany, where Otto died in May 973, at the same Memleben palace where his father had died 37 years earlier.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regency.", "content": "In the years following Oto's death, Adelaide exerted a powerful influence at court. However, her daughter-in-law, the Byzantine princess Theophanu, turned her husband against her and Adelaide was expelled from court in 978. During her exile, she divided her time living partly in Italy and partly in Arles with her brother Conrad of Burgundy, King of Burgundy, through whom she was finally reconciled with her son; in 983 (shortly before his death) Otto II appointed her his viceroy in Italy.  In 983, her son Otto II died and was succeeded by her grandson Otto III under the regency of his mother Adelaide's daughter-in-law Dowager Empress Theophanu while Adelaide remained in Italy. When Theophanu died in 990, Adelaide assumed regency on behalf of her grandson the Emperor until he reached legal majority four years later. Adelaide resigned as regent when Otto III was declared of legal majority in 995 and then was free to devote herself exclusively to her works of charity, in particular to the foundation and restoration of religious houses: monasteries, churches and abbeys.  Adelaide had long entertained close relations with Cluny, then the center of the movement for ecclesiastical reform, and in particular with its abbots Majolus and Odilo. She retired to a nunnery she had founded in c. 991 at Selz in Alsace.  On her way to Burgundy to support her nephew Rudolf III against a rebellion, she died at Selz Abbey on 16 December 999, days short of the millennium she thought would bring the Second Coming of Christ. She was buried in the Abbey and Pope Urban II canonized her in 1097. Although after serious flooding, which almost completely destroyed it in 1307, the saint's relics, miraculously saved, were moved to the parish church in the town of Seltz, dedicated to Saint Stephen, where they now rest.  Adelaide had constantly devoted herself to the service of the church and peace, and to the empire as guardian of both; she also interested herself in the conversion of the Slavs. She was thus a principal agent—almost an embodiment—of the work of the pre-schism Orthodox Catholic Church at the end of the Early Middle Ages in the construction of the religious culture of Central Europe. Some of her relics are preserved in a shrine in Hanover. Her feast day, 16 December, is still kept in many German dioceses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "In 947, Adelaide was married to King Lothair II of Italy. The union produced one child:  In 951, Adelaide was married to King Otto I, the future Holy Roman Emperor. The union produced four children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy, art, and literature.", "content": "Adelaide is usually represented in the garb of an empress, with sceptre and crown. Since 14th century, it is also given as an attribute a model church or a ship (with which it is said to have escaped from captivity).  The most famous representation of German art belongs to a group of sandstone figures in the choir of Meissen Cathedral, which was created around 1260. She is shown here with her husband, who was not canonized, since he founded the diocese of Meissen with her.  Operas:  Books and Novels:  Artwork:  Others:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adelaide of Italy (; 93116 December 999 AD), also called Adelaide of Burgundy, was Holy Roman Empress by marriage to Emperor Otto the Great; she was crowned with him by Pope John XII in Rome on 2 February 962. She was regent of the Holy Roman Empire as the guardian of her grandson in 991–995.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971842}
{"src_title": "Holy Alliance", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Establishment.", "content": "Ostensibly, the alliance was formed to instill the divine right of kings and Christian values in European political life, as pursued by Alexander I under the influence of his spiritual adviser Baroness Barbara von Krüdener. About three months after the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna, the monarchs of Catholic (Austria), Protestant (Prussia), and Orthodox (Russia) confession promised to act on the basis of \"justice, love and peace\", both in internal and foreign affairs, for \"consolidating human institutions and remedying their imperfections\".  The Alliance was quickly rejected by the United Kingdom (though George IV declared consent in his capacity as King of Hanover), the Papal States, and the Ottoman Empire. Lord Castlereagh, the British Foreign Secretary, called it \"a piece of sublime mysticism and nonsense\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "In practice, the Austrian state chancellor and foreign minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich made it a bastion against democracy, revolution, and secularism (although it is said that his first reaction was to call it \"a resounding nothing\"). The monarchs in the Alliance used it to suppress revolutionary influence (especially from the French Revolution) from entering their own nations.  The Alliance is usually associated with the later Quadruple and Quintuple Alliances, which included the United Kingdom and (from 1818) France with the aim of upholding the European peace settlement and balance of power in the Concert of Europe concluded at the Congress of Vienna. On 29 September 1818, Alexander, Emperor Francis I of Austria and King Frederick William III of Prussia met with the Duke of Wellington, Viscount Castlereagh and the Duc de Richelieu at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle to demand stern measures against university \"demagogues\", which would be realized in the Carlsbad Decrees of the following year. At the Congress of Troppau in 1820 and the succeeding Congress of Laibach in 1821, Metternich tried to align his allies in the suppression of the Carbonari revolt against King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies. In 1821 the Alliance met in Ljubljana. The Quintuple Alliance met for the last time at the Congress of Verona in 1822 to advise against the Greek Revolution and to resolve upon the French invasion of Spain.  The last meetings had revealed the rising antagonism with Britain and France, especially on Italian unification, the right to self-determination, and the Eastern Question. The Alliance is conventionally taken to have become defunct with Alexander's death in 1825. France ultimately went her separate way following the July Revolution of 1830, leaving the core of Austria, Prussia, and Russia as a Central-Eastern European block which once again congregated to suppress the Revolutions of 1848. The Austro-Russian alliance finally broke up in the Crimean War. Though Russia had helped to suppress the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Austria did not take any action to support her ally, declared herself neutral, and even occupied the Wallachian and Moldavian lands on the Danube upon the Russian retreat in 1854. Thereafter, Austria remained isolated, which added to the loss of her leading role in the German states, culminating in her defeat during the Austro-Prussian War in 1866.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Holy Alliance (;, \"Svyashchennyy soyuz\"; also called the Grand Alliance) was a coalition linking the monarchist great powers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. It was created after the final defeat of Napoleon at the behest of Emperor Alexander I of Russia and signed in Paris on 26 September 1815. The alliance aimed to restrain liberalism and secularism in Europe in the wake of the devastating French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars, and it nominally succeeded in this until the Crimean War. Otto von Bismarck managed to reunite the Holy Alliance following the unification of Germany in 1871, but the alliance again faltered by the 1880s over Austrian and Russian conflicts of interest with regard to the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971843}
{"src_title": "Christian V of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Christian was elected successor to his father in June 1650. This was not a free choice, but \"de facto\" automatic hereditary succession. Escorted by his chamberlain Christoffer Parsberg, Christian went on a long trip abroad, to Holland, England, France, and home through Germany. On this trip, he saw absolutism in its most splendid achievement at the young Louis XIV's court, and heard about the theory of the divine right of kings. He returned to Denmark in August 1663. From 1664 he was allowed to attend proceedings of the State College. Hereditary succession was made official by Royal Law in 1665. Christian was hailed as heir in Copenhagen in August 1665, in Odense and Viborg in September, and in Christiania, Norway in July 1666. Only a short time before he became king, he was taken into the Council of the Realm and the Supreme Court. He became king upon his father's death on 9 February 1670, and was formally crowned in 1671. He was the first hereditary king of Denmark-Norway, and in honor of this, Denmark-Norway acquired costly new crown jewels and a magnificent new ceremonial sword.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "It is generally argued that Christian V's personal courage and affability made him popular among the common people, but his image was marred by his unsuccessful attempt to regain Scania for Denmark in the Scanian War. The war exhausted Denmark's economic resources without securing any gains. Part of Christian's appeal to the common people may be explained by the fact that he allowed Danish and Norwegian commoners into state service, but his attempts to curtail the influence of the nobility also meant continuing his father's drive toward absolutism. To accommodate non-aristocrats into state service, he created the new noble ranks of count and baron. One of the commoners elevated in this way by the king was Peder Schumacher, named Count of Griffenfeld by Christian V in 1670 and high councillor of Denmark in 1674. Griffenfeld, a skilled statesman, better understood the precarious situation Denmark-Norway placed itself by attacking Sweden at a time when the country was allied with France, the major European power of the era. After some hesitation, Christian V initiated the Scanian War (1675-1679) against Sweden in an attempt to reconquer Scania which Denmark the lost under the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. As Griffenfeld predicted, Sweden's stronger ally France was the party that dictated the peace with Denmark's ally the Netherlands, and in spite of Danish victory at sea in the battles against Sweden in 1675–1679 during the Scanian War, Danish hopes for border changes on the Scandinavian Peninsula between the two countries were dashed. The results of the war efforts proved politically and financially unremunerative for Denmark-Norway. The damage to the Danish-Norwegian economy was extensive. At this point, Christian V no longer had his most experienced foreign relations counsel around to repair the political damage — in 1676 he had been persuaded to sacrifice Griffenfeld as a traitor, and to the clamour of his adversaries, Griffenfeld was imprisoned for the remainder of his life.  After the Scanian War, his sister, Princess Ulrike Eleonora of Denmark, married Swedish king Charles XI, whose mother was a stout supporter of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp. In spite of the family ties, war between the brothers-in-law was close again in 1689, when Charles XI nearly provoked confrontation with Denmark-Norway by his support of the exiled Christian Albert, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp in his claims to Holstein-Gottorp in Schleswig-Holstein.  Like Charles XI of Sweden, who had never been outside Sweden, Christian V spoke only German and Danish and was therefore often considered poorly educated due to his inability to communicate with visiting foreign diplomats. Christian V was also often considered dependent on his councillors by contemporary sources. The Danish monarch did nothing to dispel this notion. In his memoirs, he listed \"hunting, love-making, war and maritime affairs\" as his main interests in life.  Christian V introduced the Danish Code (\"Danske Lov\") in 1683, the first law code for all of Denmark. He also introduced the similar \"Norske Lov\" (Norwegian Code) of 1687 to replace Christian IVs Norwegian Code from 1604 in Norway. He also introduced the land register of 1688, which attempted to work out the land value of the united monarchy in order to create a more just taxation.  During the reign of Christian V, Denmark's trade in cattle that had declined due to catastrophic fires and wars has been restored, and livestock and crop exports have also surpassed Frederick III, with thousands of cattle entering and leaving Jutland through the Oxen Way. After entering and fattening in the Danish King's German enclave County of Oldenburg,the castle reached the big market in Wedel. From there, cattle are resold to all parts of North Germany via Stade, Hamburg and Lübeck. As the population continues to soar at the end of the seventeenth century, demand for beef, grains and fish is increasing, both throughout North Germany and on the Baltic coast alone. In terms of the number of livestock shipped to the South, in 1680 each market had reached 40,000 cattle. Traditional export commodities, including fish and grains, have increased their exports since the beginning of the seventeenth century. The agricultural products exported by Denmark, especially cattle, have made a lot of money from Germany and the Netherlands for the Danish royal family, the aristocrats and the town residents. During his reign, science witnessed a golden age due to the work of the astronomer Ole Rømer in spite of the king's personal lack of scientific knowledge and interest. He died from the after-effects of a hunting accident and was interred in Roskilde Cathedral.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Christian V had eight children by his wife and six by his Maîtresse-en-titre, Sophie Amalie Moth (1654–1719), whom he took up with when she was sixteen. Sophie was the daughter of his former tutor Poul Moth. Christian publicly introduced Sophie into court in 1672, a move which insulted his wife, and made her countess of Samsø on 31 December 1677.  Legitimate children by his queen Charlotte Amalie: Illegitimate children by his mistress, Sophie Amalie Moth, Countess of Samsø:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Christian V (15 April 1646 25 August 1699) was king of Denmark and Norway from 1670 until his death in 1699. Well-regarded by the common people, he was the first king anointed at Frederiksborg Castle chapel as absolute monarch since the decree that institutionalized the supremacy of the king in Denmark-Norway, he fortified the absolutist system against the aristocracy by accelerating his father's practice of allowing Holstein nobles but also Danish and Norwegian commoners into state service.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971844}
{"src_title": "ATI Technologies", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Lee Ka Lau, Francis Lau, Benny Lau, and Kwok Yuen Ho founded ATI in 1985 as Array Technology Inc. Working primarily in the OEM field, ATI produced integrated graphics cards for PC manufacturers such as IBM and Commodore. By 1987, ATI had grown into an independent graphics-card retailer, introducing EGA Wonder and VGA Wonder card product lines that year. In the early nineties, they released products able to process graphics without the CPU: in May 1991, the Mach8, in 1992 the Mach32, which offered improved memory bandwidth and GUI acceleration. ATI Technologies Inc. went public in 1993, with shares listed on NASDAQ and on the Toronto Stock Exchange.  In 1994, the Mach64 accelerator debuted, powering the Graphics Xpression and Graphics Pro Turbo, offering hardware support for YUV-to-RGB color space conversion in addition to hardware zoom; early techniques of hardware-based video acceleration.  ATI introduced its first combination of 2D and 3D accelerator under the name 3D Rage. This chip was based on the Mach 64, but it featured elemental 3D acceleration. The ATI Rage line powered almost the entire range of ATI graphics products. In particular, the Rage Pro was one of the first viable 2D-plus-3D alternatives to 3Dfx's 3D-only Voodoo chipset. 3D acceleration in the Rage line advanced from the basic functionality within the initial 3D Rage to a more advanced DirectX 6.0 accelerator in 1999 Rage 128.  The All-in-Wonder product line, introduced in 1996, was the first combination of integrated graphics chip with TV tuner card and the first chip that enabled display of computer graphics on a TV set. The cards featured 3D acceleration powered by ATI's 3D Rage II, 64-bit 2D performance, TV-quality video acceleration, analog video capture, TV tuner functionality, flicker-free TV-out and stereo TV audio reception.  ATI entered the mobile computing sector by introducing 3D-graphics acceleration to laptops in 1996. The Mobility product line had to meet requirements different from those of desktop PCs, such as minimized power usage, reduced heat output, TMDS output capabilities for laptop screens, and maximized integration. In 1997, ATI acquired Tseng Labs's graphics assets, which included 40 engineers.  The Radeon line of graphics products was unveiled in 2000. The initial Radeon graphics processing unit offered an all-new design with DirectX 7.0 3D acceleration, video acceleration, and 2D acceleration. Technology developed for a specific Radeon generation could be built in varying levels of features and performance in order to provide products suited for the entire market range, from high-end to budget to mobile versions.  In 2000, ATI acquired ArtX, which engineered the Flipper graphics chip used in the Nintendo GameCube game console. They also created a modified version of the chip (codenamed Hollywood) for the successor of the GameCube, the Wii. Microsoft contracted ATI to design the graphics core (codenamed Xenos) for the Xbox 360. Later in 2005, ATI acquired Terayon's cable modem silicon intellectual property, strengthening their lead in the consumer digital television market. K. Y. Ho remained as Chairman of the Board until he retired in November 2005. Dave Orton replaced him as the President and CEO of the organization.  On July 24, 2006, a joint announcement revealed that Advanced Micro Devices would acquire ATI in a deal valued at $5.6 billion. The acquisition consideration closed on October 25, 2006, and included over $2 billion financed from a loan and 56 million shares of AMD stock. ATI's operations became part of the AMD Graphics Product Group (GPG), and ATI's CEO Dave Orton became the Executive Vice President of Visual and Media Businesses at AMD until his resignation in 2007. The top-level management was reorganized with the Senior Vice President and General Manager, and the Senior Vice President and General Manager of Consumer Electronics Group, both of whom would report to the CEO of AMD. On 30 August 2010, John Trikola announced that AMD would retire the ATI brand for its graphics chipsets in favor of the AMD name.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "In addition to developing high-end GPUs (originally called a VPU, visual processing unit, by ATI) for PCs and Apple Macs, ATI also designed embedded versions for laptops (Mobility Radeon), PDAs and mobile phones (Imageon), integrated motherboards (Radeon IGP), and others.  \"Ruby\", a fictional female character described as a \"mercenary for hire\", was created by ATI to promote some of its products. Computer-animated videos produced by RhinoFX about Ruby on a mission (being a sniper, saboteur, hacker and so on) appeared at large technology shows such as \"CeBIT\" and \"CES\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Computer graphics chipsets.", "content": "Although AMD strongly considered making the functional part of the ATI drivers \"open source\", before the merger with AMD, ATI had no plans to release their graphics drivers as free software:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal computer platforms and chipsets.", "content": "In addition to the above chipset, ATI struck a deal in 2005, with CPU and motherboard manufacturers, particularly Asus and Intel, to create onboard 3D Graphics solutions for Intel's range of motherboards released with their range of Intel Pentium M-based desktop processors, the Intel Core and Intel Core 2 processors, the D101GGC and D101GGC2 chipset (codenamed \"\"Grand County\"\") based on the Radeon Xpress 200 chipset. However, high-end boards with integrated graphics processor (IGP) still used Intel GMA integrated graphics processors. The deal with Intel ended with the purchase of ATI by AMD in 2006, with Intel announcing SiS IGP chipset (D201GLY chipset, codenamed \"\"Little Valley\"\") for entry-level desktop platform, replacing the \"\"Grand County\"\" series chipsets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Handheld chipsets.", "content": "Besides full products, ATI also supplied 3D and 2D graphics components to other vendors, specifically the Qualcomm MSM7000 series SoC chips of handheld and upcoming Freescale i. MX processors ATI claimed in May 2006, that it had sold over 100 million 'cell phone media co-processors', significantly more than ATI's rival NVIDIA, and announced in February 2007, that the firm had shipped a total of 200 million of Imageon products since 2003.  After the AMD acquisition, the Imageon and Xilleon were sold off to Qualcomm and Broadcom, respectively.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "ATI Technologies Inc. (commonly called ATI, later known as Radeon Technologies Group) was a semiconductor technology corporation based in Markham, Ontario, Canada, that specialized in the development of graphics processing units and chipsets. Founded in 1985 as Array Technology Inc., the company listed publicly in 1993. Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) acquired ATI in 2006. As a major fabrication-less or fabless semiconductor company, ATI conducted research and development in-house and outsourced the manufacturing and assembly of its products. With the decline and eventual bankruptcy of 3dfx in 2000, ATI and its chief rival Nvidia emerged as the two dominant players in the graphics processors industry, eventually forcing other manufacturers into niche roles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971845}
{"src_title": "Arcangelo Corelli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Baptismal records indicate that Corelli was born on 17 February 1653 in the small Romagna town of Fusignano, then in the diocese of Ferrara, Papal States. His ancestors had been in Fusignano and land-owners there since 1506, when a Corelli moved to the area from Rome. Although apparently prosperous, they were almost certainly not of the nobility, as several fanciful accounts of the composer's genealogy subsequently claimed. Corelli's father, from whom he took the name Arcangelo, died five weeks before the composer's birth. Consequently, he was raised by his mother, Santa (\"née\" Ruffini, or Raffini), alongside four elder siblings.  The wealth of anecdotes and legends attached to Corelli contrast sharply with the paucity of reliable contemporary evidence documenting events in his life. This gap is especially pronounced for his formative years, including his musical education, even though traditional accounts of a highly idealized childhood have long been debunked. According to the poet Giovanni Mario Crescimbeni, who presumably knew the composer well, Corelli initially studied music under a priest in the nearby town of Faenza, and then in Lugo, before moving in 1666 to Bologna.  A major centre of musical culture of the time, Bologna had a flourishing school of violinists associated with Ercole Gaibara and his pupils, Giovanni Benvenuti and Leonardo Brugnoli. Reports by later sources link Corelli's musical studies with several master violinists, including Benvenuti, Brugnoli, Bartolomeo Laurenti and Giovanni Battista Bassani. Although historically plausible, these accounts remain largely unconfirmed, as does the claim that the papal contralto Matteo Simonelli first taught him composition. A remark Corelli later made to a patron suggests that his musical education focused mainly on the violin.  Chronicles of the Accademia Filarmonica of Bologna indicate that Corelli was accepted as a member by 1670, at the exceptionally young age of seventeen. The credibility of this attribution has been disputed. Although the nickname \"Il Bolognese\" appears on the title-pages of Corelli's first three published sets of works (Opus 1 to 3), the duration of his stay in Bologna remains unclear. Anecdotes of trips outside Italy to France, Germany and Spain lack any contemporary evidence. For example, the anecdote that Corelli's continental fame stemmed from a trip to Paris at the age of nineteen, where he was chased away by an envious Jean-Baptiste Lully, seems to have originated with Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It was also claimed that Corelli spent time in Germany in the service of Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria (supposedly in 1681), as well as in the house of his friend and fellow violinist-composer Cristiano Farinelli (between 1680 and 1685).  Although it is unclear quite when Corelli arrived in Rome, he was certainly active there by 1675, when \"Arcangelo Bolognese\" (as he was referred to) was engaged to play as one of the supporting violinists in lenten oratorios at the church of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, as well as in the French national celebrations held each year on 25 August at San Luigi dei Francesi and during the ordination of a member of the powerful Chigi family at Santi Domenico e Sisto. In August 1676, he was already playing second violin to the renowned Carlo Mannelli at San Luigi dei Francesi. Although Rome did not have any permanent orchestra providing stable employment for instrumentalists, Corelli rapidly made a name for himself, playing in a variety of ensembles sponsored by wealthy patrons, such as Cardinal Benedetto Pamphili, for whom he played in Lenten oratorios at San Marcello from 1676 to 1679. In 1687 Corelli led the festival performances of music for Queen Christina of Sweden. He was also a favorite of Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, grandnephew of another Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, who in 1689 became Pope Alexander VIII. From 1689 to 1690 he was in Modena. The Duke of Modena was generous to him. In 1706 Corelli was elected a member of the Pontificia Accademia degli Arcadi (the Arcadian Academy of Rome). He received the Arcadian name of Arcomelo Erimanteo. In 1708 he returned to Rome, living in the palace of Cardinal Ottoboni. His visit to Naples, at the invitation of the king, took place in the same year. The style of execution introduced by Corelli and preserved by his pupils, such as Francesco Geminiani, Pietro Locatelli, Pietro Castrucci, Francesco Antonio Bonporti, Giovanni Stefano Carbonelli, Francesco Gasparini, and others, was of vital importance for the development of violin playing. It has been said that the paths of all of the famous violinist-composers of 18th-century Italy led to Arcangelo Corelli, who was their \"iconic point of reference\".  However, Corelli used only a limited portion of his instrument's capabilities. This may be seen from his writings. The parts for violin very rarely proceed above D on the highest string, sometimes reaching the E in fourth position on the highest string. The story has been told and retold that Corelli refused to play a passage that extended to A in altissimo in the overture to Handel's oratorio \"The Triumph of Time and Truth\" (premiered in Rome, 1708), and felt seriously offended when the composer (32 years his junior) played the note.  Nevertheless, his compositions for the instrument mark an epoch in the history of chamber music. His influence was not confined to his own country. Johann Sebastian Bach studied the works of Corelli and based an organ fugue (BWV 579) on Corelli's Opus 3 of 1689. Handel's Opus 6 \"Concerti Grossi\" take Corelli's own older Opus 6 \"Concerti\" as models, rather than the later three-movement Venetian concerto of Antonio Vivaldi favoured by Bach.  Musical society in Rome also owed much to Corelli. He was received in the highest circles of the aristocracy, and for a long time presided at the celebrated Monday concerts in the palace of Cardinal Ottoboni. Corelli died in Rome in possession of a fortune of 120,000 marks and a valuable collection of works of art and fine violins, the only luxury in which he had indulged. He left both to his benefactor and friend, who generously made over the money to Corelli's relatives. Corelli is buried in the Pantheon at Rome.  His concerti grossi have often been popular in Western culture. For example, a portion of the \"Christmas Concerto\", Op. 6 No. 8, is in the soundtrack of the film \"\", and Corelli's Op. 6 No. 2 also provided the theme for Sir Michael Tippett's \"Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Corelli composed 48 trio sonatas, 12 violin and continuo sonatas, and 12 concerti grossi.  Six sets of twelve compositions, published between 1888 and 1891 by Chrysander, are authentically ascribed to Corelli, together with a few other works.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arcangelo Corelli (,,, ; 17 February 1653 – 8 January 1713) was an Italian violinist and composer of the Baroque era. His music was key in the development of the modern genres of sonata and concerto, in establishing the preeminence of the violin, and as the first coalescing of modern tonality and functional harmony.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971846}
{"src_title": "Michael Haydn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Michael Haydn was born in 1737 in the Austrian village of Rohrau, near the Hungarian border. His father was Mathias Haydn, a wheelwright who also served as \"Marktrichter\", an office akin to village mayor. Haydn's mother Maria, Koller, had previously worked as a cook in the palace of Count Harrach, the presiding aristocrat of Rohrau. Mathias was an enthusiastic folk musician, who during the journeyman period of his career had taught himself to play the harp, and he also made sure that his children learned to sing.  Michael went to Vienna at the age of eight, his early professional career path being paved by his older brother Joseph, whose skillful singing had landed him a position as a boy soprano in the St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna choir under the direction of Georg Reutter, as were Johann Georg Albrechtsberger and Franz Joseph Aumann, both composers with whom Haydn later traded manuscripts. By Michael's 12th birthday he was earning extra money as a substitute organist at the cathedral and had, reportedly, performed preludes and fantasies of his own composition. The early 19th-century author Albert Christoph Dies, based on Joseph's late-life reminiscences, wrote:  Reutter was so captivated by [Joseph]'s talents that he declared to his father that even if he had twelve sons he would take care of them all. The father saw himself freed of a great burden by this offer, consented to it, and some five years after dedicated Joseph's brothers Michael, and still later Johann to the musical muse. Both were taken on as choirboys, and, to Joseph's unending joy, both brothers were turned over to him to be trained.  The same source indicates that Michael was a brighter student than Joseph, and that (particularly when Joseph had grown enough to have trouble keeping his soprano voice) it was Michael's singing that was the more admired.  About 1753, he left the choir school because of the breaking of his voice. In 1760 Michael was appointed Kapellmeister at Großwardein (today Oradea) and later, in 1762, was appointed concertmaster at Salzburg, where he remained for 44 years, during which he wrote over 360 compositions comprising both church and instrumental music. From their mutual sojourn in Salzburg, Haydn was acquainted with Mozart, who held his work in high esteem.  On 17 August 1768 he married singer Maria Magdalena Lipp (1745–1827); their only child, a daughter (Aloisia Josepha, born 31 January 1770) died just short of her first birthday, on 27 January 1771. Although Lipp was disliked by the women in Mozart's family for some reason, she still created the role of \"\" ([Divine] Mercy) in Mozart's first musical play, \"Die Schuldigkeit des ersten Gebots\" (\"The Obligation of the First Commandment\"), 1767, and later the role of Tamiri in his short pastoral opera \"Il re pastore\" of 1775.  Leopold Mozart criticized Haydn's heavy drinking.  In Salzburg Haydn taught young Carl Maria von Weber and Anton Diabelli. Michael remained close to Joseph all of his life. Joseph regarded his brother's music highly, to the point of feeling Michael's religious works were superior to his own (possibly for their devotional intimacy, as opposed to Joseph's monumental and majestic, more secularized, symphonic style). In 1802, when Michael was \"offered lucrative and honourable positions\" by \"both Esterházy and the Grand Duke of Tuscany,\" he wrote to Joseph in Vienna asking for advice on whether or not to accept any of them, but in the end chose to stay in Salzburg. Michael and Maria Magdalena Haydn named their daughter Aloisia Josepha not in honor of Michael's brother, but after Josepha Daubrawa von Daubrawaick, who substituted as godmother at the baptism for Countess de Firmian.  He died in Salzburg at the age of 68.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Musicologist Karl Geiringer has claimed that Michael Haydn has not received the recognition he deserves from posterity, taking the view that his church music, his choruses for male voices, and many of his instrumental works are on respectable level and ought to be revived.  Michael Haydn never compiled a thematic catalog of his works, nor did he ever supervise the making of one. The earliest catalog was compiled in 1808 by Nikolaus Lang for his 'Biographische Skizze' (Biographical Sketch). In 1907 Lothar Perger compiled a catalogue of his orchestral works, the Perger-Verzeichnis, for \"Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Österreich\", which is somewhat more reliable than Lang's catalog and attaches P. (for Perger) numbers to many of Haydn's instrumental works. And in 1915 Anton Maria Klafsky undertook a similar work regarding Michael's sacred vocal music. In 1982, Charles H. Sherman, who has edited scores of many of his symphonies for Doblinger, published a chronological catalog of them which some recording companies have adopted. Later, in 1991, Sherman joined forces with T. Donley Thomas to publish a chronological catalog of Michael's complete works using a single continuous range of numbers after Köchel's pioneering catalog of all of Mozart's works and Otto Erich Deutsch's similar comprehensive compendium for all of Schubert's works. Further important amendments to the Sherman/Thomas catalogue have been made by Dwight Blazin.  The task of cataloging Michael's music is facilitated by the fact that he almost always entered the date of completion on his manuscripts. Guesswork was necessary only where autograph manuscripts did not survive. Haydn's sacred choral works are generally regarded as his most important; his musical taste and skill showed themselves best in his church compositions and were already in his lifetime old-fashioned. Some of these works include the \"Requiem pro defuncto Archiepiscopo Sigismundo\" (Requiem for the death of Archbishop Siegmund) in C minor, which greatly influenced the \"Requiem\" by Mozart; \"Missa Hispanica\" (which he exchanged for a diploma at Stockholm); his magnificent last St. Francis Mass in D minor; the motet \"Lauda Sion\" which he wished to have sung at his funeral; and a set of graduals, forty-two of which are reprinted in Anton Diabelli's \"Ecclesiasticon\". He wrote several settings of the mass ordinary in German by Franz Seraph von Kohlbrenner, named \"Deutsches Hochamt\".  Haydn was also a prolific composer of secular music, including forty symphonies and wind partitas, and multiple concertos and chamber music including a string quintet in C major was once thought to have been by his brother Joseph. There was another case of posthumous mistaken identity involving Michael Haydn: for many years, the G major symphony now known to be Michael Haydn's Symphony No. 25 was thought to be Mozart's Symphony No. 37 and assigned as K. 444. The confusion arose because an autograph was discovered with the opening movement of the symphony in Mozart's hand and the rest in another's hand. It is now known that Mozart composed the slow introduction to the first movement but the rest of the work is by Michael. As a result, this work, which had been quite widely played when thought to be a Mozart symphony, has been performed considerably less often since this discovery in 1907.  Indeed, several of Michael Haydn's works influenced Mozart. To give just three examples: the \"Te Deum\" \"which Wolfgang was later to follow very closely in K. 141\"; the finale of the Symphony No. 23 which influenced the finale of the G major Quartet, K. 387; and the (fugal) transition and (nonfugal) closing theme of the G major second subject expositions of the finales of both Michael's Symphony No. 28 (1784) and Mozart's monumental last Symphony No. 41 (\"Jupiter\") (1788), both in C major.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Michael Haydn (; 14 September 173710 August 1806) was an Austrian composer of the Classical period, the younger brother of Franz Joseph Haydn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971847}
{"src_title": "Alessandro Scarlatti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Scarlatti was born in Palermo (or in Trapani), then part of the Kingdom of Sicily. He is generally said to have been a pupil of Giacomo Carissimi in Rome, and some theorize that he had some connection with northern Italy because his early works seem to show the influence of Stradella and Legrenzi. The production at Rome of his opera \"Gli equivoci nel sembiante\" (1679) gained him the support of Queen Christina of Sweden (who at the time was living in Rome), and he became her \"maestro di cappella\". In February 1684 he became \"maestro di cappella\" to the viceroy of Naples, perhaps through the influence of his sister, an opera singer, who might have been the mistress of an influential Neapolitan noble. Here he produced a long series of operas, remarkable chiefly for their fluency and expressiveness, as well as other music for state occasions.  In 1702 Scarlatti left Naples and did not return until the Spanish domination had been superseded by that of the Austrians. In the interval he enjoyed the patronage of Ferdinando de' Medici, for whose private theatre near Florence he composed operas, and of Cardinal Ottoboni, who made him his \"maestro di cappella\", and procured him a similar post at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome in 1703.  After visiting Venice and Urbino in 1707, Scarlatti took up his duties in Naples again in 1708, and remained there until 1717. By this time Naples seems to have become tired of his music; the Romans, however, appreciated it better, and it was at the Teatro Capranica in Rome that he produced some of his finest operas (\"Telemaco\", 1718; \"Marco Attilio Regolò\", 1719; \"La Griselda\", 1721), as well as some noble specimens of church music, including a \"Messa di Santa Cecilia\" for chorus and orchestra, composed in honor of Saint Cecilia for Cardinal Francesco Acquaviva in 1721. His last work on a large scale appears to have been the unfinished \"Erminia\" serenata for the marriage of the prince of Stigliano in 1723. He died in Naples in 1725 and is entombed there at the church of Santa Maria di Montesanto.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scarlatti's music.", "content": "Scarlatti's music forms an important link between the early Baroque Italian vocal styles of the 17th century, with their centers in Florence, Venice and Rome, and the classical school of the 18th century. Scarlatti's style, however, is more than a transitional element in Western music; like most of his Naples colleagues he shows an almost modern understanding of the psychology of modulation and also frequently makes use of the ever-changing phrase lengths so typical of the Napoli school.  His early operas—\"Gli equivoci nel sembiante\" 1679; \"L'honestà negli amori\" 1680, containing the famous aria \"Già il sole dal Gange\"; \"Il Pompeo\" 1683, containing the well-known airs \"O cessate di piagarmi\" and \"Toglietemi la vita ancor,\" and others down to about 1685—retain the older cadences in their recitatives, and a considerable variety of neatly constructed forms in their charming little arias, accompanied sometimes by the string quartet, treated with careful elaboration, sometimes with the continuo alone. By 1686, he had definitely established the \"Italian overture\" form (second edition of \"Dal male il bene\"), and had abandoned the ground bass and the binary form air in two stanzas in favour of the ternary form or da capo type of air. His best operas of this period are \"La Rosaura\" (1690, printed by the Gesellschaft für Musikforschung), and \"Pirro e Demetrio\" (1694), in which occur the arias \"Le Violette\", and \"Ben ti sta, traditor\".  From about 1697 onwards (\"La caduta del Decemviri\"), influenced partly perhaps by the style of Giovanni Bononcini and probably more by the taste of the viceregal court, his opera arias become more conventional and commonplace in rhythm, while his scoring is hasty and crude, yet not without brilliance (\"L'Eraclea\", 1700), the oboes and trumpets being frequently used, and the violins often playing in unison. The operas composed for Ferdinando de' Medici are lost; they might have given a more favourable idea of his style as his correspondence with the prince shows that they were composed with a very sincere sense of inspiration.  \"Mitridate Eupatore\", accounted his masterpiece, composed for Venice in 1707, contains music far in advance of anything that Scarlatti had written for Naples, both in technique and in intellectual power. The later Neapolitan operas (\"L'amor volubile e tiranno\" 1709; \"La principessa fedele\" 1710; \"Tigrane\", 1714, &c.) are showy and effective rather than profoundly emotional; the instrumentation marks a great advance on previous work, since the main duty of accompanying the voice is thrown upon the string quartet, the harpsichord being reserved exclusively for the noisy instrumental \"ritornelli\". In his opera \"Teodora\" (1697) he originated the use of the orchestral \"ritornello\".  His last group of operas, composed for Rome, exhibit a deeper poetic feeling, a broad and dignified style of melody, a strong dramatic sense, especially in accompanied recitatives, a device which he himself had been the first to use as early as 1686 (\"Olimpia vendicata\") and a much more modern style of orchestration, the horns appearing for the first time, and being treated with striking effect.  Besides the operas, oratorios (\"Agar et Ismaele esiliati\", 1684; \"La Maddalena\", 1685; \"La Giuditta\", 1693; \"Christmas Oratorio\", c. 1705; \"S. Filippo Neri\", 1714; and others) and serenatas, which all exhibit a similar style, Scarlatti composed upwards of five hundred chamber-cantatas for solo voice. These represent the most intellectual type of chamber-music of their period, and it is to be regretted that they have remained almost entirely in manuscript, since a careful study of them is indispensable to anyone who wishes to form an adequate idea of Scarlatti's development.  His few remaining Masses (the story of his having composed two hundred is hardly credible) and church music in general are comparatively unimportant, except the great \"Saint Cecilia Mass\" (1721), which is one of the first attempts at the style which reached its height in the great Masses of Johann Sebastian Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven. His instrumental music, though not without interest, is curiously antiquated as compared with his vocal works.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pietro Alessandro Gaspare Scarlatti (2 May 1660 – 22 October 1725) was an Italian Baroque composer, known especially for his operas and chamber cantatas. He is considered the founder of the Neapolitan school of opera. He was the father of two other composers, Domenico Scarlatti and Pietro Filippo Scarlatti.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971848}
{"src_title": "Ermanaric", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The first element of the name \"Ermanaric\" appears to be based on the Proto-Germanic root \"*ermena-\", meaning universal. The second element is from the element \"*-rik\", Gothic \"reiks\", meaning ruler; this is found frequently in Gothic royal names.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical Ermanaric.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Roman sources.", "content": "According to Ammianus, Ermanaric was \"\"a most warlike king\"\" who eventually committed suicide, faced with the aggression of the Alani and of the Huns, who invaded his territories in the 370s. Ammianus says he \"ruled over extensively wide and fertile regions\". Ammianus also says that after Ermanaric's death, a certain Vithimiris was elected as the new king.  According to Jordanes' \"Getica\", Ermanaric ruled the realm of Oium. He describes him as a \"Gothic Alexander\" who \"ruled all the nations of Scythia and Germania as they were his own\". Jordanes also states that the king put to death a young woman named Sunilda (Svanhildr) with the use of horses, because of her infidelity. Thereupon her two brothers, Sarus and Ammius, severely wounded Ermanaric leaving him unfit to defend his kingdom from Hunnic incursions. Variations of this legend had a profound effect on medieval Germanic literature, including that of England and Scandinavia (see Jonakr's sons). Jordanes claims that he successfully ruled the Goths until his death at the age of 110.  Gibbon gives the version of Ammianus and Jordanes as historical, reporting that Ermanaric successively conquered, during a reign of about 30 years from 337 to 367 A.D., the west-goths, the Heruli, the Venedi and the Aestii, establishing a kingdom which ranged from the Baltic to the Black Sea; and died at the age of 110 of a wound inflicted by the brothers of a woman whom he had cruelly executed for her husband's revolt, being succeeded by his brother Vithimiris.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In Germanic sources.", "content": "Iormunrek (Jörmunrekkr) is the Norse form of the name. Ermanaric appears in Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian legend. In the former, the poem Beowulf focused on the image of \"Eormenric's wiles and hatred\". According to Tolkien, he is described in the 10th century poem Deor as a powerful but perilous king: \"We have heard of the wolfish mind of Eormanric: far and wide he ruled the people of the realm of the Goths: he was a cruel king\".  Ermanaric also appears in the Norse sources, such as \"Thidreks Saga\", in which he is ill-advised by his counsellors to put his own wife to death for supposed adultery with his son, for which revenge is taken by his brothers-in-law.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mythic Ermanaric.", "content": "The death of Swanhild (Svanhildr Sigurðardóttir) and Ermanaric's (Jörmunrek) subsequent death at the hands of Jonakr's sons occupies an important place in the world of Germanic legend. The tale is retold in many northern European stories, including the Icelandic Poetic Edda (Hamðismál and Guðrúnarhvöt), Prose Edda and the Volsunga Saga; the Norwegian Ragnarsdrápa; the Danish Gesta Danorum; and the German Nibelungenlied and Annals of Quedlinburg.  In the Norse \"Thidreks Saga\", Ermanaric is ill-advised by his treacherous counsellor Bicke, Bikka, Sifka, or Seveke (who wants revenge for the rape of his wife by Ermanaric), with the result that the king puts his own wife to death for supposed adultery with his son; he is thereafter crippled by his brothers-in-law in revenge.  In the Middle High German poems \"Dietrichs Flucht\", the \"Rabenschlacht\", and \"Alpharts Tod\" about Dietrich of Bern, Ermanaric is Dietrich's uncle who has driven his nephew into exile. The early modern Low German poem \"Ermenrichs Tod\" recounts a garbled version of Ermanaric's death reminiscent of the scene told in Jordanes and Scandinavian legend.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "Ermanaric's Gothic name is reconstructed as \"*Airmanareiks\". It is recorded in the various Latinized forms:  In medieval Germanic epics, the name appears as:  Since the name \"Heiðrekr\" may have been confused with Ermanaric through folk etymology he is possibly identical to \"Heiðrekr Ulfhamr\" of the Hervarar saga.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ermanaric (; or \"Hermanaricus\"; ; ; died 376) was a Greuthungian Gothic King who before the Hunnic invasion evidently ruled a sizable portion of Oium, the part of Scythia inhabited by the Goths at the time. He is mentioned in two Roman sources; the contemporary writings of Ammianus Marcellinus and in \"Getica\" by the 6th-century historian Jordanes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971849}
{"src_title": "Mayen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "To the west, as well as to the north and south-west of Mayen, is the country landscape of the Eifel. To the east, the landscape flattens out, running towards the Koblenz-Neuwied Basin, which is divided into the northern section of the Pellenz and the southern section of the Maifeld. This area is geographically considered to be part of the Eifel. Mayen is often called ‘The Gateway to the Eifel’.  The small river Nette runs through the town, flowing from the Eifel towards Weißenthurm on the Rhine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Even in Roman times, Mayen (Lat. \"Megina\") was an important economic centre. From the end of the 3rd century up until the Middle Ages, potteries operated here, and their products were traded and sold across Central Europe. During prehistoric times, nearby quarries were the sources of basalt to make millstones and tuff used to make sarcophagi. These sarcophagi were found buried with significant glass artifacts as grave goods. (Both classes of items are displayed in the Genovevaburg Museum in Mayen).  The name Mayen probably comes from the name Megina. Records from as far back as 847 show this as a designation of the town; it was adapted by the Romans from the Celtic word \"magos,\" meaning field. In the 8th century the legend of Genoveva of Brabant, names Mayen as the seat of government of Duke Siegfried of the Pfalz.  Mayen received its first official recognition in 1041, and was granted Town Status in 1291 from Rudolf I von Habsburg, at the same time as Bernkastel, Welschbillig, Montabaur and Saarburg. Mayen is possibly linked to the town of Maifeld, which lies a short distant to the south-east, since Mayen was called the capital of the Meiengau in the Middle Ages.  During the Second World War, in particular during the allied forces air attacks of 12 December 1944 and 2 January 1945, approximately 90% of the town was destroyed. After the war and following a special referendum which addressed costs of rebuilding, the people voted to rebuild the town.  Up until 1973, Mayen was the District Centre of the Mayen District (with number-plate code MY). After 1973, the district administration was moved to Koblenz and the District was renamed Mayen-Koblenz District with the new number-plate code of MYK; Koblenz kept its own code of KO.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Boroughs.", "content": "Because of the Kommunalreform in 1970, four villages next to Mayen were incorporated. The four villages now belong officially to the town and became Boroughs of Mayen. The Boroughs are still village-like and hold most of the Agriculture of Mayen. The Boroughs are  The population of Alzheim and Hausen is increasing in the last years, due to the development of new residential areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry.", "content": "Basalt mining, slate mining, cardboard industry, machine-production, aluminium- and artificial material processing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Mayen is the location of  The Bundeswehr (German Armed Forces) has a forces school at the Mayen Barracks, where troops are trained for psychological aspects of leadership of operations, as well as dealing with the media. This school is unique in Germany. Michigan State University, based in Michigan, the United States, has a summer program in Mayen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable residents and natives.", "content": "Mayen", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Mayen is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mayen is a town in the Mayen-Koblenz District of the Rhineland-Palatinate Federal State of Germany, in the eastern part of the Volcanic Eifel Region. As well as the main town, additional settlements include Alzheim, Kürrenberg, Hausen-Betzing, Hausen and Nitztal. Mayen is the administrative centre of the Vordereifel ‘Collective Municipality’, although it is not part of the municipality.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971850}
{"src_title": "Frederick I of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Frederick was the younger son of the first Oldenburg King Christian I of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (1426–81) and of Dorothea of Brandenburg (1430–95). Soon after the death of his father, the underage Frederick was elected co-Duke of Schleswig and Holstein in 1482, the other co-duke being his elder brother, King John of Denmark. In 1490 at Frederick's majority, both duchies were divided between the brothers.  In 1500 he had convinced his brother King John to conquer Dithmarschen. A great army was called from not only the duchies, but with additions from all of the Kalmar Union for which his brother briefly was king. In addition, numerous German mercenaries took part. The expedition failed miserably, however, in the Battle of Hemmingstedt, where one third of all knights of Schleswig and Holstein lost their lives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "When his brother, King John died, a group of Jutish nobles had offered Frederick the throne as early as 1513, but he had declined, rightly believing that the majority of the Danish nobility would be loyal to his nephew Christian II. In 1523, Christian was forced by disloyal nobles to abdicate, and Frederick took the throne. It is not certain that Frederick ever learned to speak Danish. After becoming king, he continued spending most of his time at Gottorp, a castle and estate in the city of Schleswig.  In 1524 and 1525 Frederick had to suppress revolts among the peasants in Agder, Jutland and Scania who demanded the restoration of Christian II. The high point of the rebellion came in 1525 when Søren Norby, the governor (\"statholder\") of Gotland, invaded Blekinge in an attempt to restore Christian II to power. He raised 8000 men who besieged Kärnan (\"Helsingborgs slott\"), a castle in Helsingborg. Frederick's general, Johann Rantzau, moved his army to Scania and defeated the peasants soundly in April and May 1525.  Frederick played a central role in the spread of Lutheran teaching throughout Denmark. In his coronation charter, he was made the solemn protector (\"værner\") of Roman Catholicism in Denmark. In that role, he asserted his right to select bishops for the Roman Catholic dioceses in the country. Christian II had been intolerant of Protestant teaching, but Frederick took a more opportunist approach. For example, he ordered that Lutherans and Roman Catholics share the same churches and encouraged the first publication of the Bible in the Danish language. In 1526, when Lutheran Reformer Hans Tausen was threatened with arrest and trial for heresy, Frederick appointed him his personal chaplain to give him immunity.  Starting in 1527, Frederick authorized the closure of Franciscan houses and monasteries in 28 Danish cities. He used the popular anti-establishment feelings that ran against some persons of the Roman Catholic hierarchy and nobility of Denmark as well as keen propaganda to decrease the power of bishops and Roman Catholic nobles. During his reign, Frederick was skillful enough to prevent all-out warfare between Protestants and Roman Catholics. In 1532 he succeeded in capturing Christian II who had tried to make a political come-back in Norway. Frederick died on 10 April 1533 in Gottorp, at the age of 61, and was buried in Schleswig Cathedral. Upon Frederick's death, tensions between Roman Catholics and Protestants rose to a fever pitch which would result in the Count's Feud (\"Grevens Fejde\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and children.", "content": "On 10 April 1502, Frederick married Anna of Brandenburg (1487–1514), the daughter of John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg and Margaret of Thuringia. The couple had two children:  Frederick's wife Anna died on 5 May 1514, 26 years old. Four years later on 9 October 1518 at Kiel, Frederick married Sophie of Pomerania (20 years old; 1498–1568), a daughter of Bogislaw \"the Great\", Duke of Pomerania. Sophie and Frederick had six children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick I (7 October 1471 – 10 April 1533) was the king of Denmark and Norway. His name is also spelled \"Frederik\" in Danish and Norwegian, \"Friedrich\" in German and \"Fredrik\" in Swedish. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch to reign over Denmark, when subsequent monarchs embraced Lutheranism after the Protestant Reformation. As king of Norway, Frederick is most remarkable in never having visited the country and was never crowned as such. Therefore, he was styled \"King of Denmark, the Vends and the Goths, elected King of Norway\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971851}
{"src_title": "Dmitry Dmitrievich Maksutov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Dmitry Dmitriyevich Maksutov was born in 1896 in either Nikolayev or the port city of Odessa, Russian Empire. His father, was a naval officer serving with the Black Sea Fleet, who came from a family with a long and distinguished naval tradition. His great-grandfather, Peter Ivanovich Maksutov, was given the title of prince, thereby raising the family to hereditary nobility as a reward for bravery in combat. His grandfather, Dmitri Petrovich Maksutov, was the last Russian governor of Russian Alaska, before it was purchased by the United States in 1867.  Dmitri became interested in astronomy in early childhood, and constructed his first telescope (a 7.2 inch / 180 mm reflector) when he was twelve years old. Later he read publications by the Russian optician Alexander Andreevich Chikin (1865–1924), who became his teacher. He constructed a much better 10 inch (210 mm) reflector and began serious astronomical observation. At 15 years of age he had already been accepted as a member of the Russian Astronomical Society. Three years later he graduated from the Military Nikolayev Engineering Institute in what was then Petrograd (a.k.a. Saint Petersburg, Russia), now the Saint Petersburg Military Engineering-Technical University. Between 1921 and 1930 he worked at the Physics Institute of the University of Odessa in the field of astronomical optics.  In 1930 Maksutov established the Laboratory of Astronomical Optics at the State Optical Institute of Leningrad and led it until 1952. This laboratory was one of the leading astronomical research groups in the USSR. While there he published \"Анаберрационные отражающие поверхности и системы и новые способы их испытания\" [Aberration-free reflective surfaces and systems and new methods of testing them] (1932), in which he analyzed aplanatic double mirror systems and introduced the compensating method, which he proposed as early as 1924. This became the main control method of mirror study along with the shadow method.  In 1944 he became a professor as a result of his paper, and from 1946 a Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. From 1952 he worked in Pulkovo Observatory. Maksutov died in what was then Leningrad (a.k.a. Saint Petersburg) in 1964.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inventions.", "content": "Maksutov's most well known contribution in the field of optics was made in 1941, when he invented the Maksutov telescope. Like the Schmidt telescope, the Maksutov corrects for spherical aberration by placing a corrector lens in front of the primary mirror. However, where the Schmidt uses an aspheric corrector at the entrance pupil, Maksutov's telescope uses a deeply curved full diameter negative meniscus lens (a \"meniscus corrector shell\"). He published the design in 1944 in a paper entitled \"Новые катадиоптрические менисковые системы\" [New catadioptric meniscus systems]. This method was adopted not only by his own laboratory for many of the most important observatories in the Soviet Union, but also internationally. Several commercial telescope-making companies produce Maksutovs, including Celestron, Meade, and Questar.  He created many objective lenses, mirrors, and prisms of various sizes and purposes. He also created a photo-gastrograph (used for photographing the stomach), a needle-microscope, shadow instruments for aerodynamic tubes, telescopic spectacles, and other instruments.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dmitry Dmitrievich Maksutov () ( – 12 August 1964) was a Russian / Soviet optical engineer and amateur astronomer. He is best known as the inventor of the Maksutov telescope.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971852}
{"src_title": "Triple Alliance (1882)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Germany.", "content": "The man chiefly responsible for the Triple Alliance was Otto von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Germany. His primary goal was to preserve the status quo in Europe after he had unified Germany in 1871. He was particularly concerned about France finding allies to help it regain Alsace-Lorraine. By promising to aid Austria-Hungary and Italy in the event of attack, Bismarck sought to make them somewhat dependent on Germany and therefore unsympathetic to French adventures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Austria-Hungary.", "content": "By the late 1870s, Austrian territorial ambitions in both the Italian Peninsula and Central Europe had been thwarted by the rise of Italy and Germany as new powers. With the decline and the failed reforms of the Ottoman Empire, Slavic discontent in the occupied Balkans grew, which both Russia and Austria-Hungary saw as an opportunity to expand in the region. In 1876, Russia offered to partition the Balkans, but the Hungarian statesman Gyula Andrássy declined because Austria-Hungary was already a \"saturated\" state and could not cope with additional territories. The whole empire was thus drawn into a new style of diplomatic brinkmanship, which was first conceived of by Andrássy, centring on the province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a predominantly-Slav area that was still under the control of the Ottoman Empire.  On the heels of the Great Balkan Crisis, Austro-Hungarian forces occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in August 1878, and Austria-Hungary eventually annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1908 as a common holding under the control of the finance ministry, rather than attaching it to either Austria or Hungary. The occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina was a step taken in response to Russian advances into Bessarabia. Unable to mediate between the Ottoman and the Russian Empires over the control of Serbia, Austria–Hungary declared neutrality when the conflict between the empires escalated into the escalated into war. To counter Russian and French interests in Europe, an alliance was concluded with Germany in October 1879 and with Italy in May 1882.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Italy.", "content": "Italy had several motives for joining the existing Austro-German alliance. The Italian government at that time was controlled by conservatives, who sympathized ideologically with the two monarchies. Also, Catholic Austria was a traditional protector of the Vatican, which Italy wanted to absorb. However, perhaps most importantly, Italy was seeking potential allies against France. The Kingdom of Italy, like some of the other European powers, wanted to set up colonies and build up an overseas empire. Although France had supported Italian unification, Italy's colonial ambitions in Africa quickly brought it into a rivalry with France. That was reflected in anger at the French seizure of Tunisia in 1881, the so-called \"Schiaffo di Tunisi\" by Italian press, which many Italians had seen as a potential colony. By joining the Alliance, Italy hoped to guarantee itself support in case of foreign aggression. The main alliance compelled any signatory country to support the other parties if two other countries attacked. Germany had won a war against France in 1870 and was a natural ally for Italy. Thus, Italy found itself coming to terms with its historical enemy, Austria-Hungary, against which Italy had fought three wars in the 34 years before the signing of the first treaty.  However, Italian public opinion remained unenthusiastic about their country's alignment with Austria-Hungary, a past enemy of Italian unification and whose Italian-populated districts in the Trentino and Istria were seen as occupied territories by Italian irredentists. In the years before World War I, many distinguished military analysts predicted that Italy would attack its supposed ally in the event of a large scale conflict. Italy's adherence to the Triple Alliance was doubted, and from 1903 plans for a possible war against Rome were again maintained by the Austro-Hungarian General Staff. Mutual suspicions led to reinforcement of the frontier and speculation in the press about a war between the two countries into the first decade of the 20th century. As late as 1911, Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, the chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff, was advocating a preemptive strike against Austria's supposed Italian ally. That prediction was strengthened by Italy's invasion and annexation of Libya, bringing it into conflict with the German-backed Ottoman Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romania.", "content": "King Carol I of Romania was of German ancestry, which, combined with his wish to turn Romania into a centre of stability in Southeastern Europe and his fear of Russian expansion and the competing claims on Bessarabia, led to Romania secretly joining the Triple Alliance on 18 October 1883. Only the King and a handful of senior Romanian politicians knew about it. Romania and Austria-Hungary pledged to help each other in the event of a Russian, Serbian or Bulgarian attack. There were, however, several disputes between Romania and Austria-Hungary, the most notable being the policy of Magyarization of Transylvania's Romanian population. Romania eventually managed to achieve the status of regional power in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars and the 1913 Treaty of Bucharest, but less than a year later, World War I started, and Romania, after a period of neutrality in which both the Central Powers and the Allies tried persuading Romania to join their respective sides, eventually joined the Allies in 1916, after it had been promised Romanian-inhabited Austro-Hungarian lands. Romania's official reason for not siding with the Triple Alliance when the war started was the same as Italy's. The Triple Alliance was a defensive alliance, but Germany and Austria-Hungary had taken the offensive.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Triple Alliance was an agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. It was formed on 20 May 1882 and renewed periodically until it expired in 1915 during World War I. Germany and Austria-Hungary had been closely allied since 1879. Italy was looking for support against France shortly after it lost North African ambitions to the French. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power. The treaty provided that Germany and Austria-Hungary were to assist Italy if it was attacked by France without provocation. In turn, Italy would assist Germany if attacked by France. In the event of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral. The existence and membership of the treaty were well known, but its exact provisions were kept secret until 1919.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971853}
{"src_title": "Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was a son of William, Duke of Nassau (1792–1839), and his first wife, Princess Louise of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Adolphe's half-sister, Sophia of Nassau, was the wife of Oscar II of Sweden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duke of Nassau.", "content": "Adolphe became Duke of Nassau in August 1839 at the age of 22, after the death of his father. Wiesbaden had by this time become the capital of the Duchy and Adolphe took up residence in the newly constructed Stadtschloss in 1841. On 4 March 1848 he consented to the population of Nassau's 9 \"Demands of the Nassauers\". A few years later, however, he revoked his liberal views and took a strongly conservative and reactionary course. In general, though, he was seen as a popular ruler. He supported the Austrian Empire in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. After Austria's defeat, Nassau was annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia and he lost his throne on 20 September 1866.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Grand Duke of Luxembourg.", "content": "In 1879, Adolphe's niece Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont, the daughter of another of his half-sisters, married William III, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg. In 1890, their only daughter Wilhelmina succeeded on his death without surviving male issue to the Dutch throne, but was excluded from the succession to Luxembourg by Salic Law. The Grand Duchy, which had been linked to the Netherlands in personal union since 1815, passed to Adolphe in accordance with the Nassau Family Pact. Adolphe was King-Grand Duke William III's 17th cousin once removed through male line, which is the greatest distance over which a crown has ever been inherited.  He had, in fact, taken over the regency of Luxembourg for a short time during William III's illness.  In any case, as he was already 73 years old and knew little of Luxembourgish politics, he left his hands off the day-to-day governing. The prime minister Paul Eyschen, in office since 1888, took care of the affairs of state, and this created a tradition that the ruler would remain absent from the politics of the day. In 1902 Adolphe appointed his son William as Lieutenant-Representative. He died in 1905 at his summer home, Schloss Hohenburg in Lenggries, and in 1953 was buried in the crypt of the church of Schloss Weilburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "On 31 January 1844, Adolphe married firstly in St. Petersburg Grand Duchess Elizabeth Mikhailovna of Russia, niece of Emperor Nicholas I of Russia. She died less than a year afterwards giving birth to a stillborn daughter. Adolphe built the Russian Orthodox Church of Saint Elizabeth 1847 to 1855 as her funeral church.  On 23 April 1851, he remarried in Princess Adelheid-Marie of Anhalt-Dessau. They had five children, of whom only two lived to the age of eighteen and became prince and princess of Luxembourg:  In 1892, Grand Duke Adolphe conferred the hereditary title Count of Wisborg on his Swedish nephew, Oscar, Prince Bernadotte, who had lost his Swedish titles after marrying without his father's approval. Wisborg (also spelled Visborg) in the ruins of an old castle in the city of Visby within Oscar's former Dukedom of Gotland, but the title itself was created in the nobility of Luxembourg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adelsverein.", "content": "On April 20, 1842, the Adelsverein, \"Society for the Protection of German Immigrants in Texas\", was organised in the Grand Duke's castle at Biebrich on the Rhine. He was named the Protector of the organisation. The Verein was responsible for the large emigration of Germans to Texas in the 19th Century, and on January 9, 1843, established the 4,428 acre Nassau Plantation in Fayette County, Texas and named it after the Grand Duke.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adolphe (Adolf Wilhelm August Karl Friedrich; 24 July 1817 – 17 November 1905) was the last sovereign Duke of Nassau, reigning from 20 August 1839 until the duchy's annexation to Kingdom of Prussia in 1866. In 1890, he became Grand Duke of Luxembourg following the death of King William III of the Netherlands, ending the personal union between the Netherlands and Luxembourg, until his own death in 1905. He was the first monarch of Luxembourg from the House of Nassau-Weilburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971854}
{"src_title": "Smooth snake", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Both sexes of \"C. austriaca\" grow to an average total length (including tail) of about to. Two specimens measuring have been recorded in Sweden, as well as one in Russia that was.  The head has a rostral scale that is at least as deep as it is wide, creating a triangular indentation between the internasal scales (rarely separating them). The top of the head is covered with nine large plates. The nasal scale is often divided. There is one (rarely two) preoculars and two postoculars. The temporals number 2+2 or 2+3 (rarely 1+2). There are seven (rarely eight) upper labials, of which the third and fourth or fourth and fifth border the eye.  In the middle part of the body there are 19 (rarely 17 or 21) rows of dorsal scales. In contrast with many other snakes found in the region, these scales are flat (not keeled). This gives the snake a smooth texture to the touch, from which it gets its common name. The ventral scales number 150-164 in males and 162–200 in females. The anal scale is divided (rarely single) and the subcaudal scales are paired. Males have 54–70 subcaudal scales and females 40–76.  The colour pattern consists of a brown, grey or reddish ground colour with two rows of small, rather indistinct dark spots running down the back towards the tail. In some cases, each pair of spots may be united toward the neck area, forming a series of cross-bars over the back. There is also a very indistinct series of dark spots running along each of the flanks. These four series of spots along the body overlay four parallel, rather shadowy stripes that also run down the back and flanks.  On the top of the head is a dark marking which is often in the shape of a crown, giving rise to the generic name \"Coronella\" (which means coronet). A relatively thick dark stripe extends from each nostril, through the eye, and along the side of the head to a little beyond the neck. The upper labials are whitish, greyish-white or light brown, sometimes with darker spots. The tongue is reddish brown or dark red.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "The smooth snake feeds on smaller animals, especially other reptiles. It subdues larger prey by constriction, although unlike true constrictors it does not kill by this method. Smooth snakes are ovoviviparous. The juveniles hatch out of eggs internally and are born live.  In Britain it is restricted to heathland habitats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geographic range.", "content": "\"Coronella austriaca\" is found from the south of England through France and the Low Countries to northern Spain and Portugal, Germany, Norway and Sweden (as far north as latitude 63°), Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Switzerland, Austria, Italy and Sicily (but not in Corsica or Sardinia), the western Balkans and Greece, and European Russia as far north as latitude 57°. In Asia, it is found from Turkey to Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia and northern Iran. It is oddly absent in Denmark despite the species being found just south of the German border as well as southern Sweden.  In Finland, the species is found only on the Åland Islands, and it is not common there.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The smooth snake (\"Coronella austriaca\") is a species of non-venomous snake in the family Colubridae. The species is found in northern and central Europe, but also as far east as northern Iran. The Reptile Database recognizes two subspecies as being valid, including the nominotypical subspecies described here.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971855}
{"src_title": "Tim Allen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Allen was born in Denver, Colorado, to Martha Katherine (née Fox), a community-service worker, and Gerald M. Dick, a real estate agent. He is the third oldest of six children. Allen has two older brothers as well as two younger brothers and a younger sister. His father died in a car accident in November 1964, colliding with a drunk driver when Allen was 11. Two years later, his mother married her high school sweetheart, a business executive, and moved with her six children to Birmingham, Michigan, to be with her new husband and his three children.  Allen attended Seaholm High School in Birmingham, where he was in theater and music classes (resulting in his love of classical piano). He then attended Central Michigan University before transferring to Western Michigan University in 1974. At Western Michigan, Allen worked at the student radio station WIDR and received a Bachelor of Science degree in communications specializing in radio and television production in 1976 with a split minor in philosophy and design. In 1998, Western Michigan awarded Allen an honorary fine arts degree and the Distinguished Alumni Award.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Allen started his career as a comedian in 1975. On a dare from one of his friends, he participated in a comedy night at Mark Ridley's Comedy Castle in Royal Oak, a suburb of Detroit. While in Detroit he began to get recognition appearing in local television commercials and appearing on cable comedy shows such as Gary Thison's \"Some Semblance of Sanity\".  On October 2, 1978, Allen was arrested in the Kalamazoo/Battle Creek International Airport for possession of over of cocaine. He subsequently pleaded guilty to felony drug trafficking charges and provided the names of other dealers in exchange for a sentence of three to seven years rather than a possible life imprisonment. He was paroled on June 12, 1981, after serving two years and four months in Federal Correctional Institution, Sandstone in Sandstone, Minnesota. Following his release from prison, he returned to comedy. He moved to Los Angeles and became a regular performer at The Comedy Store. He began to do stand-up appearances on late-night talk shows and specials on record and film.  Despite his admitted limited acting range (he once told a magazine his range as an actor is \"... strictly limited. I can only play a part if I can draw on personal experience, and that well can go dry pretty quickly\"), Allen rose to fame in acting with the ABC sitcom \"Home Improvement\" (1991–1999) produced for ABC by Wind Dancer Productions, a company he co-founded with producer Carmen Finestra. Allen played the main character Tim \"The Tool-Man\" Taylor. In November 1994, he simultaneously starred in the highest-grossing film (Disney's \"The Santa Clause\"), topped the \"New York Times\" bestseller list with his book \"Don't Stand Too Close to a Naked Man\", and appeared in the top rated television series (\"Home Improvement\") within the span of one week. \"Home Improvement\" ran until 1999, for which he was paid US$1.25 million per episode.  In 1995, Allen provided the voice of Buzz Lightyear in the Disney/Pixar blockbuster \"Toy Story\". In 1997, he starred in the family comedy \"Jungle 2 Jungle\" from Disney. The next year he returned to voice Buzz Lightyear in \"Toy Story 2\" which was a financial and critical hit. That same year, Allen was arrested for DUI in Birmingham, Michigan. At the time, his blood alcohol content was 0.15, nearly double the legal limit in Michigan. He was sentenced to one-year probation and entered a rehabilitation clinic for alcohol abuse as part of his court obligation. In 1999, he starred in the sci-fi parody \"Galaxy Quest\" alongside Sigourney Weaver, Alan Rickman, and Sam Rockwell.  In 2002, he reprised his role as Scott Calvin in \"The Santa Clause 2\". Two years later, he starred as Luther Krank in \"Christmas with the Kranks\". In 2006, \"Zoom\" was released, starring Allen as Jack Shepard. The same year, he also starred in \"The Shaggy Dog\" and \"The Santa Clause 3\". 2008 marked his first dramatic turn with a supporting role as an aging action movie star in David Mamet's \"Redbelt\". Allen began narrating the \"Pure Michigan\" television and radio commercials for the \"Travel Michigan\" agency. These commercials can be seen and heard throughout the Midwest and began airing nationally in 2009.  In December 2009, he started a preview tour of \"Crazy on the Outside\", a film that debuted in January 2010. Allen accompanied the film, helping promote it with a series of stand-up acts beforehand. During the performances, he told audiences that he planned a 2010 comedy tour. Allen also directed the film, marking his film directorial debut.  Allen hosted the 8th Annual TV Land Awards on April 25, 2010. That same year, he became the official voice of the Chevrolet Cruze, narrating commercials for the vehicle, and he became the voice of Campbell Soup's \"It's Amazing What Soup Can Do\" campaign. Allen returned to ABC with the sitcom \"Last Man Standing\" (2011–2017). He played the role of Mike Baxter, a conservative father fighting for his manhood in a house filled with women. The character is loosely based on his own life, as a Republican father of three girls. After six seasons, the show was canceled in May 2017. ABC Entertainment Chief Channing Dungey denied claims of political bias against Allen, explaining that the network simply could not accommodate the program on their schedule. On May 11, 2018, Fox TV's CEOs and chairmen announced that Fox had officially picked up \"Last Man Standing\" for a seventh season.  Shortly before the cancellation of \"Last Man Standing\", Allen had been announced as part of the cast of the Netflix original comedy film \"El Camino Christmas\" (2017).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Allen was raised as an Episcopalian. He married Laura Deibel on April 7, 1984. In December 1989, their daughter Katherine was born. He and Laura legally separated in 1999. Their divorce was finalized in 2003. Allen married actress Jane Hajduk on October 7, 2006, in a small private ceremony in Grand Lake, Colorado. They had dated for five years. In March 2009, their daughter Elizabeth was born.  Allen is a Republican. He has appeared on Sean Hannity's show and announced support for John Kasich, and later Donald Trump, in the 2016 presidential election.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Timothy Alan Dick (born June 13, 1953), known professionally as Tim Allen, is an American actor and comedian. He is known for playing Tim \"The Toolman\" Taylor on the ABC sitcom \"Home Improvement\" (1991–1999) and Mike Baxter on the ABC/Fox sitcom \"Last Man Standing\" (2011–). He voices Buzz Lightyear for the \"Toy Story\" franchise and played Scott Calvin and Santa Claus in the \"Santa Clause\" film trilogy (1994–2006). Allen's other films include \"For Richer or Poorer\" (1997), \"Jungle 2 Jungle\" (1997), \"Galaxy Quest\" (1999), \"Big Trouble\" (2002), \"Christmas with the Kranks\" (2004), \"The Shaggy Dog\" (2006), \"Wild Hogs\" (2007), \"Redbelt\" (2008), and \"Crazy on the Outside\" (2010).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971856}
{"src_title": "Hominization", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Paleontology.", "content": ", paleoanthropologists tend to regard the search for a precise point of hominization as somewhat irrelevant, seeing the process as gradual. Anatomically modern humans (AMH, or AMHS) developed within the species \"Homo sapiens\" about 200,000 years ago.  Many thinkers have attempted to explain hominization – from Classical times through Hobbes, Rousseau, Hegel, and Engels, who wrote an essay on \"The Part Played by Labour in the Transition from Ape to Man\". The contemporary study of hominization in archeology often looks for signs that mark out human habitations from pre-human forms: for example, the use of grave goods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy and theology.", "content": "In ancient philosophy, \"hominization\" referred to the ensoulment of the human fetus. When the soul is said to enter the fetus at some time later than conception, this is sometimes called \"delayed hominization\", as in the Aristotelian belief in ensoulment 40 days after conception.  In the context of modern theistic evolution, \"hominization\" refers to the theory that there was a point at which a population of hominids who had (or may have) evolved by a process of evolution acquired souls and thus (with their descendants) became fully human in theological terms. This group might be restricted to Adam and Eve, or indeed to Mitochondrial Eve, although versions of the theory allow for larger populations. The point at which this occurred should essentially be the same as in paleoanthropology and archeology, but theological discussion of the matter tends to concentrate on the theoretical. The term \"special transformism\" refers to theories of a divine intervention of some sort, achieving hominization.  The process and means by which hominization occurs is a key problem in theistic evolutionary thought, at least for the Abrahamic religions, for which the belief that animals do not have souls but humans do is a core teaching. Scientific accounts of the origin of the universe, origin of life and subsequent evolution of pre-human life forms may not cause any difficulty (helped by the reluctance of science itself to say anything about what preceded the Big Bang) but the need to reconcile religious and scientific views of hominization and account for the addition of a soul to humans remains a problem. Several 19th-century theologians attempted specific solutions, including the Catholics John Augustine Zahm and St. George Jackson Mivart, but tended to come under attack from both the theological and biological camps. 20th-century thinking has tended to avoid proposing precise mechanisms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "This term is used to describe the tendency to attribute \"human\" characteristics to entities that are other than human. Example; \"My dog's separation anxiety\", etc.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hominization, also called anthropogenesis, refers to the process of becoming human, and is used in somewhat different contexts in the fields of paleontology and paleoanthropology, archeology, philosophy, and theology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971857}
{"src_title": "Junkers Ju 86", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1934, a specification for a modern twin-engined aircraft, capable of operating both as a high-speed airliner for the German airline Luft Hansa and as a medium bomber for the nascent Luftwaffe, was issued to both Junkers and Heinkel. Five prototypes were ordered from each company; the Junkers Ju 86 and Heinkel He 111.  Junkers' design was a low-winged twin-engined monoplane, of all-metal stressed skin construction. Unlike most of Junkers' previous designs, it discarded the typical corrugated skinning in favour of smooth metal skinning which helped to reduce drag. The craft was fitted with a narrow track retractable-main gear conventional undercarriage with a fixed tailwheel, and twin fins and rudders. It was intended to be powered by Junkers Jumo 205 diesel engines, which although heavy, gave better fuel consumption than conventional petrol engines.  The design featured the distinctive Junkers \"doppelflügel\" control surfaces on the wing, similar to those on the Junkers Ju 52. These were hinged below the wing's trailing edge, with the outboard section on each side functioning as an aileron, and the inner section functioning as a wing flap. The bomber aircraft had a crew of four; a pilot, navigator, radio operator/bombardier and gunner. Defensive armament consisted of three machine guns, situated at the nose; at a dorsal position; and within a retractable ventral position. Bombs were carried vertically in four fuselage cells behind the cockpit. The airliner version replaced the bomb cells with seating for ten passengers, with fuel tanks being moved from the fuselage to the wings.  Jumo 205s were unavailable when the first prototype airframe was completed. Instead, the bomber-configured Ju 86ab1 was fitted with Siemens SAM 22 radial engines and flew for the first time on 4 November 1934. The second prototype, also a bomber, flew in January 1935. The third Ju 86, the first civil prototype, flew on 4 April 1935. Production of pre-series military and civil aircraft started in late 1935, with full production of the Ju 86A-1 bomber commencing in April 1936. Production quickly switched to the improved Ju 86D with a modified tail cone to improve stability.  Early use of the Jumo-powered Ju 86 bomber in the Spanish Civil War showed that it was inferior to the He 111, with the diesel engines being unsuitable for rough treatment during combat; and production plans were cut back. One Ju 86 had already been converted to use radial engines as a testbed for possible export versions, and this showed improved reliability. Production switched to a version powered by the BMW 132 engine, the Ju 86E, with production continuing until 1938.  Civil variants, introduced in 1936, were designated Ju 86Z in three different models differing in their engines. The Jumo-engined Ju 86Z-1 (corresponding to the former B-0 or C-1) was sold to Swissair (one), Airlines of Australia (one), and LAN-Chile (three). The BMW 132H-powered Ju 86Z-2 was sold to DLH (two) and the para-military Manchukuo Air Transport (five or more). The Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet-engined Ju 86Z-7 was delivered to AB Aerotransport (ABA) of Sweden (one, for use as a mail carrier), Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano (three), and South African Airways - SAA - (17). The ABA aircraft was later transferred to the Swedish Air Force, with which it served, under the designation Tp 9, until 1958. South African Airways' original intention was to have its Ju 86s powered by 745 hp Rolls-Royce Kestrels. Six aircraft for SAA, flown with these engines, were refitted with Hornets before delivery, and the remainder were also Hornet-powered.  The Ju 86K was an export model, also built under license in Sweden by Saab as the B 3 with (905 hp) Bristol Mercury XIX radial engines. Several aircraft remained in service with the Swedish Air Force until 1958. A few were converted for radio interception activities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The bomber was field-tested in the Spanish Civil War, where it proved inferior to the He 111. Four Ju 86D-1s arrived in Spain in early February 1937, but after a few sorties one of them was shot down on 23 February by Republican fighters with the loss of three crewmen killed and one captured. A replacement aircraft was sent from Germany, but in the summer of 1937 another was lost in an accident, and the three remaining aircraft were sold to the Nationalist air forces. Ju 86s were again used in the 1939 invasion of Poland, but retired soon after. In January 1940, the \"Luftwaffe\" tested the prototype Ju 86P with a longer wingspan, pressurized cabin, Junkers Jumo 207A-1 turbocharged two-stroke, opposed-piston diesel engines and a two-man crew. The Ju 86P could fly at heights of 12,000 m (39,000 ft) and higher on occasion, where it was felt to be safe from enemy fighters. The British Westland Welkin and Soviet Yakovlev Yak-9PD were developed specifically to counter this threat.  At the outbreak of the Second World War, South Africa's Ju 86Zs were militarised and armed as bombers with defensive guns and external bomb racks. These aircraft were initially used for coastal patrols along with the sole Ju 86K-1, playing an important role in the interception of the German blockade runner SS \"Watussi\" in December 1939. In May 1940, they were used to re-equip No. 12 Squadron SAAF, which was deployed in the East African Campaign from June 1940. It flew its first bombing missions on 14 June 1940. As more modern aircraft became available, the South African Ju 86s were passed from squadron to squadron, seeing their last use with No. 22 Squadron SAAF, which used it along with the Avro Anson in the coastal reconnaissance role, finally retiring its Ju 86s in September 1942.  Satisfied with the trials of the new Ju 86P prototype, the \"Luftwaffe\" ordered that some 40 older-model bombers be converted to Ju 86P-1 high-altitude bombers and Ju 86P-2 photo-reconnaissance aircraft. Those operated successfully for some years over Britain, the Soviet Union and North Africa. In August 1942, a modified Supermarine Spitfire V shot one down over Egypt at an altitude of some 14,500 m (49,000 ft); when two more were lost, Ju 86Ps were withdrawn from service in 1943.  Junkers developed the Ju 86R for the \"Luftwaffe\", using larger wings and new engines capable of even higher altitudes - up to 16,000 m (52,500 ft) - but production was limited to prototypes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "Only one Junkers Ju 86 is known to exist today. The aircraft was built in Germany and sold to Sweden in 1938. Before it was retired from Swedish service in 1958, the aircraft was used in the 1955 movie \"Des Teufels General\". It is on permanent static display at the Swedish Air Force Museum near Linköping.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Junkers Ju 86 was a German monoplane bomber and civilian airliner designed in the early 1930s, and employed by various air forces on both sides during World War II. The civilian model Ju 86B could carry ten passengers. Two were delivered to Swissair and five to Deutsche Luft Hansa. In addition a single civilian Ju 86Z was delivered to Sweden's AB Aerotransport.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971858}
{"src_title": "Christkind", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Promulgated by Martin Luther at the Protestant Reformation in 16th–17th-century Europe, many Protestants adopted this gift bringer, the Christ Child or \"Christkindl\", and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve. As such, the \"Lutheran Church promoted Christ as the children's gift-giver, hoping to draw attention to the child for whom Christmas was named.\" The Christkind was adopted in Catholic areas of Germany during the 19th century. To this date, the Christkindl \"remains the main gift bringer in many Catholic countries in Latin America.\"  The Christkind is a sprite-like child, usually depicted with blond hair and angelic wings. Martin Luther intended it to be a reference to the incarnation of Jesus as an infant (see Christ Child). Sometimes the Christ Child is, instead of the infant Jesus, interpreted as a specific angel bringing the presents, as it appears in some processions together with an image of little Jesus Christ. Later, the Christkind was said to make rounds delivering gifts with St. Nicholas.  Children never see the Christkind in person, and parents tell them that Christkind will not come and bring presents if they are curious and try to spot it. The family enters the living room, where the Christmas tree has been put up, for the opening of presents (the \"Bescherung\"), when the parents say that they think that the Christkind who has brought the presents has now left again. In some traditions, the departure is announced by the ringing of a small bell, which the parents pretend to have heard or which is secretly done by one of the adults in the family.  Since the 1990s, the Christkind has faced increasing competition from the Weihnachtsmann, caused by the use of the American version of Santa Claus as an advertising figure. Many traditionalist Catholics in recent times have advocated for the tradition of the Christkind as a \"beautiful means of restoring the true meaning of Christmas\".  Christkindl or Christkindel are diminutive versions of Christkind. Christkind and Belsnickel are also found among communities of Volga German descent in Argentina. A well-known figure is the Christkind at the Christkindlesmarkt in Nuremberg, which is represented by a young woman chosen every two years for this task.  Christkindl is also a part of the city of Steyr in Austria, named after the allegedly miraculous wax statue of Christkind in the town church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Czech Ježíšek.", "content": "Ježíšek (the Baby Jesus) is the Czech-language name for the Christkind Christmas figure. There is no accurate description of Ježíšek. He has been depicted as a baby, toddler, and young lad. Some even consider him simply as an abstract figure. According to tradition, Ježíšek makes his appearance on Christmas Eve. In some families, Ježíšek is said to bring the Christmas tree and the gifts, while the elders do it in secret. In other families, the Christmas tree is decorated collaboratively with the children. Christmas gifts are delivered and unboxed on Christmas Eve (24 December).  The tradition of Ježíšek has been observed by the Czechs for more than 400 years. This is partly due to the large population of Catholics during that period. It was Martin Luther who coined the term during the 16th century, an attempt to provide a suitable name to their figure other than St. Nicholas.  At present, belief in Ježíšek is upheld in modern Czech society, despite having the lowest rates of religious affiliation in the world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Christkind (; ), sometimes also called \"Christkindl\", is the traditional Christmas gift-bringer in Austria, Switzerland, southern and western Germany, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Belgium, Portugal, Slovakia, Hungary, parts of northeastern France, Upper Silesia in Poland, parts of Hispanic America, in certain areas of southern Brazil, and in the Acadiana region of Louisiana. In some parts of Italy, the analogous figure of the Christkind is known as, however Santa Claus is the traditional bearer of Christmas gifts. Christkind is called in Portuguese (\"Jesus Boy\"), in Hungarian (\"Little Jesus\"), in Slovak (\"Little Jesus\"), in Czech (\"Little Jesus\"), in Latin America (\"God Child\") or (\"Jesus Child\") and in Croatian or (\"Little Jesus\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971859}
{"src_title": "Vltava", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Course.", "content": "The Vltava river is long and drains an area in size, over half of Bohemia and about a third of the Czech Republic's entire territory. As it runs through Prague, the river is crossed by 18 bridges (including the Charles Bridge) and covers within the city. The water from the river was used for drinking until 1912, when the Vinohrady Water Tower ceased pumping operations. It is, however, the source of drinking water in case of failures of or repairs to the water supply from the Želivka and Kárané sources. The Podolí water processing plant is on standby for such cases with the long section of the river upstream of the Podolí plant under the stricter, second degree of pollution prevention regulations.  The height difference from source to mouth is about and the largest stream at the source is named Černý Potok (Black Brook) or Teplá Vltava (Warm Vltava). The Vltava itself originates by a confluence of two streams, the Warm Vltava (\"), which is longer, and the Cold Vltava (\"Studená Vltava\"), sourcing in Bavaria. Along its course, Vltava receives many tributaries, the biggest being Otava and Berounka from the left and Lužnice and Sázava from the right side.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Navigation.", "content": "Between the confluence with the Elbe at Mělník and Prague, the river is navigable by vessels of up to displacement. Most of the river upstream of Prague as far as České Budějovice is currently navigable by craft of up to displacement, but such vessels cannot pass the dams at Orlík and Slapy, and are also restricted by a low bridge at Týn nad Vltavou. Work is planned to complete boat lifts, planned for but never completed, at the two dams, and to rebuild the bridge, in order for them to navigate throughout. Much smaller craft, of up to displacement and under beam and air draft, can avoid these obstacles.  Upstream of České Budějovice, the river's section around Český Krumlov (specifically from Vyšší Brod to Boršov nad Vltavou) is a very popular destination for water tourism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dams.", "content": "Nine hydroelectric dams have been built on the Vltava south of Prague to regulate the water flow and generate hydroelectric power, starting in the 1950s. Beginning at the headwaters, these are: Lipno, Lipno II, Hněvkovice, Kořensko, Orlík, Kamýk, Slapy, Štěchovice and Vrané. The Orlík dam supports the largest reservoir on the Vltava by volume, while the Lipno dam retains the largest reservoir by area. The Štěchovice Reservoir is built over the site of the St John's Rapids.  The river also features numerous weirs that help mitigate its flow from in elevation at its source near the German border to at its mouth in Mělník.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Floods.", "content": "The Vltava basin has flooded multiple times throughout recorded history. Markers have been created along the banks denoting the water line for notable floods in 1784, 1845, 1890, 1940, and the highest of all in 2002.  In August of that year, the basin was heavily affected by the 2002 European floods when the flooded river killed several people and caused massive damage and disruption along its length, including in Prague. It left the oldest bridge in Prague, Charles Bridge, seriously weakened, requiring years of work to repair.  Prague was again flooded in 2013. Many locations within the Vltava and Elbe basins were left under water, including the Prague Zoo, but metal barriers were erected along the banks of the Vltava to help protect the historic city centre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References in culture and science.", "content": "One of the best-known works of classical music by a Czech composer is Bedřich Smetana's \"Vltava\", sometimes called \"The Moldau\" in English. It is from the Romantic era of classical music and is a musical description of the river's course through Bohemia (listen).  A minor planet 2123 Vltava discovered in 1973 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh is named after the river.  Smetana's symphonic poem also inspired a song of the same name by Bertolt Brecht. An English version of it, by John Willett, features the lyrics \"Deep down in the Moldau the pebbles are shifting\" / \"In Prague three dead emperors moulder away.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vltava (, ; ) is the longest river within the Czech Republic, running southeast along the Bohemian Forest and then north across Bohemia, through Český Krumlov, České Budějovice and Prague, and finally merging with the Elbe at Mělník. It is commonly referred to as the \"Czech national river\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971860}
{"src_title": "PEN International", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first PEN Club was founded in London in 1921 by Catherine Amy Dawson Scott, with John Galsworthy as its first president. Its first members included Joseph Conrad, Elizabeth Craig, George Bernard Shaw, and H. G. Wells.  PEN originally stood for \"Poets, Essayists, Novelists\", but now stands for \"Poets, Playwrights, Editors, Essayists, Novelists\", and includes writers of any form of literature, such as journalists and historians.  The club established the following aims:  Past presidents of PEN International have included Alberto Moravia, Heinrich Böll, Arthur Miller, Mario Vargas Llosa, Homero Aridjis, Jiří Gruša and John Ralston Saul. The current president is Jennifer Clement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure and status.", "content": "PEN International is headquartered in London and composed of autonomous PEN Centres in over 100 countries around the world, each of which are open to writers, journalists, translators, historians and others actively engaged in any branch of literature, regardless of nationality, race, colour, or religion.  It is a non-governmental organization in formal consultative relations with UNESCO and Special Consultative Status with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charter.", "content": "The PEN Charter is based on resolutions passed at its International Congresses and may be summarised as follows:  PEN affirms that:  Literature knows no frontiers and must remain common currency among people in spite of political or international upheavals. In all circumstances, and particularly in time of war, works of art, the patrimony of humanity at large, should be left untouched by national or political passion. Members of PEN should at all times use what influence they have in favour of good understanding and mutual respect between nations and people; they pledge themselves to do their utmost to dispel all hatreds and to champion the ideal of one humanity living in peace and equality in one world. PEN stands for the principle of unhampered transmission of thought within each nation and between all nations, and members pledge themselves to oppose any form of suppression of freedom of expression in the country and community to which they belong, as well as throughout the world wherever this is possible. PEN declares for a free press and opposes arbitrary censorship in time of peace. It believes that the necessary advance of the world towards a more highly organised political and economic order renders a free criticism of governments, administrations and institutions imperative. And since freedom implies voluntary restraint, members pledge themselves to oppose such evils of a free press as mendacious publication, deliberate falsehood and distortion of facts for political and personal ends.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writers in Prison Committee.", "content": "PEN International Writers in Prison Committee works on behalf of persecuted writers worldwide. Established in 1960 in response to increasing attempts to silence voices of dissent by imprisoning writers, the Writers in Prison Committee monitors the cases of as many as 900 writers annually who have been imprisoned, tortured, threatened, attacked, made to disappear, and killed for the peaceful practice of their profession. It publishes a bi-annual Case List documenting free expression violations against writers around the world.  The committee also coordinates the PEN International membership's campaigns that aim towards an end to these attacks and to the suppression of freedom of expression worldwide.  PEN International Writers in Prison Committee is a founding member of the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX), a global network of 90 non-governmental organisations that monitors censorship worldwide and defends journalists, writers, internet users and others who are persecuted for exercising their right to freedom of expression.  It is also a member of IFEX's Tunisia Monitoring Group (TMG), a coalition of twenty-one free expression organisations that began lobbying the Tunisian government to improve its human rights record in 2005. Since the Arab Spring events that led to the collapse of the Tunisian government, TMG has worked to ensure constitutional guarantees of free expression and human rights within the country.  On 15 January 2016, PEN International joined human rights organisations Freemuse and the International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran, along with seven other organisations, to protest against the 2013 imprisonment and 2015 sentencing of musicians Mehdi Rajabian and Yousef Emadi, and filmmaker Hossein Rajabian, and called on the head of the judiciary and other Iranian authorities to drop the charges against them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "PEN affiliated awards.", "content": "The various PEN affiliations offer many literary awards across a broad spectrum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memorials.", "content": "A grove of trees beside Lake Burley Griffin forms the PEN International memorial in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory. The dedication reads: \"The spirit dies in all of us who keep silent in the face of tyranny.\" The memorial was officially opened on 17 November 1997.  A cast-iron sculpture entitled \"Witness\", commissioned by English PEN to mark their 90th anniversary and created by Antony Gormley, stands outside the British Library in London. It depicts an empty chair, and is inspired by the symbol used for 30 years by English PEN to represent imprisoned writers around the world. It was unveiled on 13 December 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "PEN International (known as International PEN until 2010) is a worldwide association of writers, founded in London in 1921 to promote friendship and intellectual co-operation among writers everywhere. The association has autonomous International PEN centers in over 100 countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971861}
{"src_title": "Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Prince Alfred of Edinburgh was born on 15 October 1874 at Buckingham Palace, London. His father was Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, second eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. His mother, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, was a daughter of Emperor Alexander II of Russia and Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine.  Archibald Campbell Tait, Archbishop of Canterbury, baptised the prince in the Lower Bow Room of Buckingham Palace on 23 November 1874. His godparents were the Queen, the Emperor of Russia (whose son Tsesarevich Alexander stood proxy for him), the German Emperor (for whom Alfred's paternal uncle Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn stood proxy), the German Crown Princess (Alfred's paternal aunt, for whom her sister Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein stood proxy), the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (his paternal grand-uncle, for whom Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein stood proxy), and the Prince of Wales (his paternal uncle).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.", "content": "In 1893, his granduncle, Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the elder brother of his paternal grandfather, died without legitimate heirs. Being ineligible under Saxe-Coburg-Gotha house law to succeed to the duchy due to his status as the heir apparent to an existing throne, the Prince of Wales had previously renounced his claim to the ducal throne. Thus, the succession devolved to Alfred's father, who was at that time the Duke of Edinburgh. Alfred thus became the \"Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\".  Prince Alfred had lived in Clarence House in the early years of his life with his parents and sisters; after his father's accession to the ducal throne of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, he moved to Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Failed engagement.", "content": "On 28 January 1895, the Court Circular published the following: “We are informed that a marriage has been arranged between his Royal Highness Prince Alfred of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, only son of their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and grandson of Her Majesty, and Her Royal Highness the Duchess Elsa Matilda Marie, elder twin daughter of the late Duke William Eugene of Württemberg by his marriage with the Grand Duchess Vera of Russia.” The marriage never occurred.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 23 January 1899 Maria Alexandrovna and her husband celebrated their 25th wedding anniversary at Schloss Friedestein, the Duke's official residence in Gotha. Absent from the festivities was their only son, who was gravely ill.  The exact circumstances of Alfred's death are not known, and varying accounts have been published. His sister Marie's memoirs simply say his health \"broke down\", and other writers have said that he had \"consumption\". \"The Times\" published an account stating he had died of a tumor, while the \"Complete Peerage\" gives the generally accepted account that he \"shot himself\".  Various authors have speculated on reasons why he might have killed himself. One author, Frank Bush, claimed to have been a descendant of a secret marriage between Alfred and Mabel Fitzgerald, granddaughter of the 4th Duke of Leinster, and claimed that friction between Alfred and his family over the \"secret marriage\" was the cause of the suicide. Despite the lack of documentary evidence, and the lack of contemporary reference, other authors have repeated Bush's assertion that Alfred and Mabel married, including John van der Kiste and Bee Jordaan in \"Dearest Affie\", and the assertion is repeated as fact in the official family history (\"Das Haus von Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha\").  According to theory, Alfred shot himself with a revolver while the rest of the family was gathered for the anniversary celebration. He survived and was looked after at Schloss Friedenstein in Gotha (Thuringia) for three days before being sent to the Martinnsbrunn Sanatorium in Gratsch near Meran in the County of Tyrol (Austria-Hungary, now Italy). Alfred died there at 4:15 pm on 6 February 1899, aged 24 years. He was buried in the ducal mausoleum of the \"\", Coburg, Bavaria (southern Germany).  Later in 1899 Alfred's uncle the Duke of Connaught and his son Prince Arthur of Connaught renounced their succession rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. As a result, his first cousin Prince Charles Edward, Duke of Albany, became heir presumptive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles, honours and arms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "He received the following orders and decorations:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "As a male-line grandson of the British Sovereign, young Alfred bore the royal arms, with an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony, all differenced by a label argent of five points, the odd bearing crosses gules and even anchors azure.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Alfred Alexander William Ernest Albert; 15 October 1874 – 6 February 1899), was the son and heir apparent of Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He died aged 24 under circumstances still not entirely clear. He was a first cousin of King George V of the United Kingdom, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and brother of Queen Marie of Romania.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971862}
{"src_title": "Didius Julianus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Julianus was born to Quintus Petronius Didius Severus and Aemilia Clara. Julianus's father came from a prominent family in Mediolanum, modern-day Milan, and his mother was a North African woman of Roman descent, from a family of consular rank. His brothers were Didius Proculus and Didius Nummius Albinus. His date of birth is given as 30 January 133 by Cassius Dio and 2 February 137 by the \"Historia Augusta\".  Didius Julianus was raised by Domitia Lucilla, mother of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. With Domitia's help, he was appointed at a very early age to the vigintivirate, the first step towards public distinction. He married a Roman woman named Manlia Scantilla, and sometime around 153, she bore him a daughter, Didia Clara, their only child.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public service.", "content": "In succession Julianus held the offices of quaestor and aedile, and then, around 162, was named as praetor. He was nominated to the command of the Legio XXII Primigenia in Mogontiacum (now Mainz). In 170, he became praefectus of Gallia Belgica and served for five years. After repelling an invasion by the Chauci, a tribe dwelling in the drainage basin of the river Scheldt, the northwestern coastal area of present-day Germany, he was raised to the consulship in 175 along with Pertinax.  He further distinguished himself in a campaign against the Chatti, governed Dalmatia and Germania Inferior. He was then made prefect, charged with distributing money to the poor of Italy. Modern historians generally consider this a demotion for political reasons, as Commodus, the Roman Emperor at the time, feared Julianus' growing power. It was around this time that he was charged with having conspired against the life of Commodus, but the jury acquitted him and instead punished his accuser. Afterwards, he governed Bithynia and succeeded Pertinax as the proconsul of North Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career as Emperor.", "content": "After the murder of Pertinax on March 28, 193, the Praetorian guard announced that the throne was to be sold to the man who would pay the highest price. Titus Flavius Claudius Sulpicianus, prefect of Rome and Pertinax's father-in-law, who was in the Praetorian camp ostensibly to calm the troops, began making offers for the throne. Meanwhile, Julianus also arrived at the camp, and since his entrance was barred, shouted out offers to the guard.  After hours of bidding, Sulpicianus promised 20,000 sesterces to every soldier; Julianus, fearing that Sulpicianus would gain the throne, then offered 25,000. The guards closed with the offer of Julianus, threw open the gates, and proclaimed him emperor. Threatened by the military, the senate also declared him emperor. His wife and his daughter both received the title Augusta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Upon his accession, Julianus immediately reversed Pertinax's monetary reforms by devaluing the Roman currency to near pre-Pertinax levels.  Because Julianus bought his position rather than acquiring it conventionally through succession or conquest, he was a deeply unpopular emperor. When Julianus appeared in public, he frequently was greeted with groans and shouts of \"robber and parricide.\" Once, a mob even obstructed his progress to the Capitol by pelting him with large stones.  When news of the public anger in Rome spread across the Empire, three influential generals, Pescennius Niger in Syria, Septimius Severus in Pannonia, and Clodius Albinus in Britain, each able to muster three legions, rebelled. They refused to accept Julianus' authority as emperor and instead declared themselves emperor. Julianus declared Severus a public enemy because he was the nearest of the three to Rome, making him the most dangerous foe. Julianus sent senators to persuade Severus' legionaries to abandon him, a new general was nominated to replace him, and a centurion dispatched to take Severus' life.  The Praetorian Guard had rarely fought in field battles, so Julianus marched them into the Campus Martius and drilled the guard in the construction of fortifications and field works. Despite this training, the Praetorian Guard was still undertrained compared to the field legionaries of Severus. Severus first secured the support of Albinus, declaring him Caesar, and then seized Ravenna and its fleet. Severus killed Tullius Crispinus, the Praetorian prefect, who was sent to negotiate with Severus and slow his march on Rome and won over to his cause the ambassadors sent to turn his troops.  Cassius Dio maintains that the Praetorian Guard tried to fight back, but were crushed, while modern historians believe that the Praetorian Guard simply abandoned Julianus, deserting \"en masse\". Julianus attempted to negotiate with Severus, offering to share the empire with his rival, but Severus ignored these overtures and pressed forward. As he marched, more and more cities in Italy supported his claim to the throne. The remnants of the Praetorian Guard received pardons from Severus in exchange for surrendering the actual murderers of Pertinax. After seizing the ringleaders and killing them, the soldiers reported what they had done to Marcus Silius Messala, the consul, who summoned the senate to inform them of the proceedings.  The Senate passed a motion proclaiming Severus emperor, awarded divine honours to Pertinax, and sentenced Julianus to death. Julianus was deserted by all except one of the prefects and his son-in-law, Cornelius Repentinus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Execution (193).", "content": "Julianus was killed in the palace by a soldier on June 1, 193 AD, after a mere 66 days of ruling. Severus dismissed the Praetorian Guard and executed the soldiers who had killed Pertinax, the previous emperor. According to the contemporary Roman historian Cassius Dio, Julianus' last words were: \"But what evil have I done? Whom have I killed?\" His body was given to his wife and daughter, who buried it in his great-grandfather's tomb by the fifth milestone on the Via Labicana. The Senate passed a damnatio memoriae motion to condemn Julianus and his legacy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Julianus repelled invasions by the Chatti and the Chauci, both of which helped protect Rome's border provinces. In the long run, the two tribes he repelled were but the harbingers of far larger Germanic migrations that would only truly finish in the sixth century AD.  As emperor, Didius Julianus was unable to pass any major policy reforms in his short reign other than currency devaluation. While the currency devaluation was comparatively minor, he restarted the trend of devaluing the Roman currency which had abated under Pertinax's reign. The trend he started, which would continue under the Severan dynasty at a far larger scale, destroyed confidence in Rome's currency, led to rampant hyperinflation, and caused widespread economic upheaval. Moreover, his blatant purchase of the throne shattered any illusions of normalcy in the Roman Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "In the movie The Fall of The Roman Empire Julianus is played by Eric Porter and depicted as a scheming henchman of Commodus. At the end of the movie, Julianus and Pescennius Niger, played by Douglas Wilmer, another crony of Commodus, compete against each other in the auction for the throne of Rome.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Didius Julianus (; Marcus Didius Severus Julianus Augustus; born 30 January 133 or 2 February 137 – 1 June 193) was Roman emperor for nine weeks from March to June 193, during the Year of the Five Emperors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971863}
{"src_title": "Hanif Kureishi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kureishi was born in Bromley, South London, to a Pakistani father, Rafiushan (Shanoo) Kureishi, and an English mother, Audrey Buss. His father was from a wealthy Madras family, most of whose members moved to Pakistan after the Partition of British India in 1947. Rafiushan came to the UK in 1950 to study law but for financial reasons worked at the Pakistani embassy instead. Here he met his wife-to-be, Buss. He wanted to be a writer but his ambitions were frustrated. The couple were married, the family settled in Bromley where Kureishi was born. In interview, Kureishi notes:My [paternal] grandfather, an army doctor, was a colonel in the Indian army. Big family. Servants. Tennis court. Cricket. Everything. My father went to the Cathedral School that Salman Rushdie went to. Later, in Pakistan, my family were close to the Bhuttos. My uncle Omar was a newspaper columnist and the manager of the Pakistan cricket team... My grandfather, the colonel, was terrifying. A hard-living, hard-drinking gambler. Womanising. Around him it was like \"The Godfather\". They drank and they gossiped. The women would come and go.  Hanif Kureishi attended Bromley Technical High School and studied for A-levels at Bromley College of Technology. While at this college he was elected as Student Union President (1972) and some of the characters from his semi-autobiographical work \"The Buddha of Suburbia\" are from this period. He went on to spend a year studying philosophy at Lancaster University before dropping out. Later he attended King's College London and earned a degree in philosophy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Kureishi started his career in the 1970s as a pornography writer, under the pseudonyms Antonia French and Karim. He went on to write plays for the Hampstead Theatre, Soho Poly and by the age of 18 was with the Royal Court. He wrote \"My Beautiful Laundrette\" in 1985, a screenplay about a gay Pakistani-British boy growing up in 1980s London for a film directed by Stephen Frears. The screenplay, especially the racial discrimination experienced, contained elements from Hanif's own experiences as the only Pakistani student in his class at school. It won the New York Film Critics Best Screenplay Award and an Academy Award nomination for Best Screenplay. He also wrote the screenplay for \"Sammy and Rosie Get Laid\" (1987). His book \"The Buddha of Suburbia\" (1990) won the Whitbread Award for the best first novel and was made into a BBC television series with a soundtrack by David Bowie. 1991 saw the release of the feature film entitled \"London Kills Me\", written and directed by Kureishi.  His novel \"Intimacy\" (1998) revolved around the story of a man leaving his wife and two young sons after feeling physically and emotionally rejected by his wife. This created some controversy as Kureishi had recently left his own partner (the editor and producer Tracey Scoffield) and two young sons; it was assumed to be at least semi-autobiographical. In 2000/2001 the novel was adapted into a film, \"Intimacy\" by Patrice Chéreau, which won two Bears at the Berlin Film Festival: a Golden Bear for Best Film and a Silver Bear for Best Actress (Kerry Fox). It was controversial for its explicit sex scenes. The book was translated into Persian by Niki Karimi in 2005.  Kureishi's drama \"The Mother\" was adapted to a movie by Roger Michell, which won a joint First Prize in the Director’s Fortnight section at Cannes Film Festival. It showed a cross-generational relationship with changed roles: a seventy-year-old English lady and grandmother (played by Anne Reid) who seduces her daughter's boyfriend (played by Daniel Craig), a thirty-year-old craftsman. Explicit sex scenes were shown in realistic drawings only, thus avoiding censorship. His 2006 screenplay \"Venus\" saw Oscar, BAFTA, Screen Actors Guild, Broadcast Film Critics Association and Golden Globe nominations for Peter O'Toole in the best actor category.  A novel entitled \"Something to Tell You\" was published in 2008. His 1995 novel \"The Black Album\", adapted for the theatre, was performed at the National Theatre in July and August 2009. In May 2011, he was awarded the second Asia House Literature Award on the closing night of the Asia House Literary Festival where he discussed his \"Collected Essays\" (Faber).  Kureishi has also written non-fiction, including autobiography. As noted by Cathy Galvin in \"The Telegraph\": \"But at the core of his life, as described in his memoir, \"My Ear at His Heart\", is Kureishi’s relationship with his father, Rafiushan, who died in 1991.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Kureishi has twin boys (from his relationship with film producer Tracey Scoffield) and a younger son. Kureishi currently lives in West London. He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2008 New Year Honours. In 2013, Kureishi lost his life savings, intended to cover \"the ups and downs of being a writer\", in a suspected fraud. Although he acknowledges his father's Pakistani roots (originating in Madras, in British India, present-day Chennai, India), he rarely visits Pakistan. Upon a 2012 visit sponsored by the British Council, he acknowledged that it was his first trip to Pakistan in 20 years.  Kureishi's family have accused him of exploiting them with thinly disguised references in his work; Kureishi has denied the claims. His sister Yasmin has accused him of selling her family \"down the line\". She wrote, in a letter to \"The Guardian\", that if her family's history had to become public, she would not stand by and let it be \"fabricated for the entertainment of the public or for Hanif's profit\". She says that his description of her family's working-class roots are fictitious. Their grandfather was not \"cloth cap working class\", their mother never worked in a shoe factory, and their father, she says, was not a bitter old man. Yasmin takes up issues with her brother not merely for his thinly disguised autobiographical references in his first novel, \"The Buddha of Suburbia\", but also for the image of his own past that he portrays in newspaper interviews. She wrote: \"My father was angry when \"The Buddha of Suburbia\" came out as he felt that Hanif had robbed him of his dignity, and he didn't speak to Hanif for about a year.\" Kureishi and his father did not speak for many months during the controversy. There was further furore with the publication of \"Intimacy\", as the story was assumed to be autobiographical.  In 2013 Kureishi was appointed as a professor in the creative writing department at Kingston University in London, where he was a Writer in Residence. However, at \"The Independent\" Bath Literature Festival, 2 March 2014, he stated that creative writing courses were a \"waste of time\" and commented that 99.9 per cent of his students were talentless. In 2014 the British Library announced that they would be acquiring the archive of Kureishi's documents spanning 40 years of his writing life. The body of work will include diaries, notebooks and drafts.  Major influences on Kureishi's writing include P. G. Wodehouse and Philip Roth. Kureishi's uncle was the writer, columnist and Pakistani cricket commentator and team manager Omar Kureishi. The poet Maki Kureishi was his aunt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Story basis only.", "content": "2001 \"Intimacy\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Producer.", "content": "2006 \"Souvenir\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Hanif Kureishi, CBE (born 5 December 1954) is a British playwright, screenwriter, filmmaker and novelist of Pakistani and English descent. In 2008, \"The Times\" included Kureishi in their list of \"The 50 greatest British writers since 1945\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971864}
{"src_title": "Demand responsive transport", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "DRT can be used to refer to many different types of transport. When taxicabs were first introduced to many cities, they were hailed as an innovative form of DRT. They are still referred to as DRT in some jurisdictions around the world as their very nature is to take people from point-to-point based on their needs.  More recently, DRT generally refers to a type of public transport. They are disinct from fixed-route services as they do not always operate to a specific timetable or route. While specific operations vary widely, generally a particular area is designated for service by DRT. Once a certain number of people have requested a trip, the most efficient route will then be calculated depending on the origins and destinations of passengers.  Share taxis are another form of DRT. They are usually operated on an ad-hoc basis but also do not have fixed routes or times and change their route and frequency depending on demand.  Some DRT systems operate as a service that can deviate from a fixed route. These operate along a fixed alignment or path at specific times but may deviate to collect or drop off passengers who have requested the deviation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "A DRT service will be restricted to a defined operating zone, within which journeys must start and finish. Journeys may be completely free form, or accommodated onto skeleton routes and schedules, varied as required. As such, users will be given a specified pick-up point and a time window for collection. Some DRT systems may have defined termini, at one or both ends of a route, such as an urban centre, airport or transport interchange, for onward connections.  DRT systems require passengers to request a journey by booking with a central dispatcher who determines the journey options available given the users' location and destination.  DRT systems take advantage of fleet telematics technology in the form of vehicle location systems, scheduling and dispatching software and hand-held/in vehicle computing.  Vehicles used for DRT services will usually be small minibuses, reflecting the low ridership, but also allowing the service to provide as near a door to door service as practical, by being able to use residential streets. In some cases Taxicabs are hired by the DRT provider to serve their routes on request.  DRT schemes may be fully or partially funded by the local transit authority. As such, operators of DRT schemes may be selected by public tendering. Other schemes may be partially or fully self-funded as community centred not for profit social enterprises (such as a Community interest company in the UK). They may also be provided by private companies for commercial reasons; some conventional bus operating companies have set up DRT-style airport bus services, which compete with larger private hire airport shuttle companies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Simulations of health and environmental effects.", "content": "For a model of a hypothetical large-scale demand-responsive public transport system for the Helsinki metropolitan area, simulation results published in 2005 demonstrated that “in an urban area with one million inhabitants, trip aggregation could reduce the health, environmental, and other detrimental impacts of car traffic typically by 50–70%, and if implemented could attract about half of the car passengers, and within a broad operational range would require no public subsidies”.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Licensing.", "content": "DRT schemes may require new or amended legislation, or special dispensation, to operate, as they do not meet the traditional licensing model of authorised bus transport providers or licensed taxicab operators. The status has caused controversy between bus and taxi operators when the DRT service picks up passengers without pre-booking, due to the licensing issues. Issues may also arise surrounding tax and fuel subsidy for DRT services.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effectiveness.", "content": "Ridership on DRT services is usually quite low (less than ten passengers per hour), but DRT can provide coverage effectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current DRT systems by country.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hong Kong.", "content": "Red minibuses which serve non-franchised routes across the country, depending on routes, allow passengers to reserve their seats by phone such that operators and drivers are able to know where passengers are and how many there are in deploying their vehicles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Iceland.", "content": "Public transport authority in the Icelandic capital of Reykjavik and the surrounding municipalities. Manages public bus transport and disabled transport, but does not have its own vehicles. About 1300 enquiries and thousand trips a day. Uses 60 vehicles and 10–20 more for school transport for children with special needs. For more see http://eu-en.trapezegroup.com/case-study/straeto-iceland]", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italy.", "content": "Following some pioneering DRT schemes implemented in the 1980s, a second wave of systems were launched from the mid 1990s. There are now DRT schemes in urban and peri-urban areas as well as in rural communities. Operated by both public transport companies and private service providers, the DRT schemes are offered either as intermediate collective transport services for generic users or as schemes for specific user groups. DRT schemes operate in major cities including Rome, Milan, Genoa, Florence, and in several mid- to small-size towns including Alessandria, Aosta, Cremona, Livorno, Mantova, Parma, Empoli, Siena, and Sarzana.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Japan.", "content": "More than 200 of the 1700 local governments in Japan have introduced DRT public transport services.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Poland.", "content": "The first ever demand responsive transport scheme in Poland – called Tele-Bus – has been operated since 2007 in Krakow by MPK, the local public transport company (see also Tramways in Krakow).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sweden.", "content": "Regional transport authority in Västra Götaland in southwestern Sweden is responsible for all public transport and for transport offers to citizens with special needs. This is an example of DRT used for people with special needs (paratransit).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Switzerland.", "content": "DRT services have operated in some sparsely populated areas (under 100 p/km2) since 1995. \"PostBus Switzerland Ltd\", the national post company, has operated a DRT service called PubliCar, formerly also Casa Car.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "Under the existing UK bus operating regulations of 1986, some DRT schemes were operating, allowed by the fact they had a core start and finish point, and a published schedule. For England and Wales in 2004, the regulations concerning bus service registration and application of bus operating grants were amended, to allow registration of fully flexible pre-booked DRT services. Some services such as LinkUp only pick up passengers at'meeting points', but can set down at the passenger's destination.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "The large majority of 1,500 rural systems in the US provide demand-response service; there are also about 400 urban DRT systems.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Demand-responsive transport, also known as demand-responsive transit (DRT), demand-responsive service, Dial-a-Ride transit (DART) or flexible transport services is a form of shared private transport (or quasi-public) for groups travelling where vehicles alter their routes based on particular transport demand rather than using a fixed route or timetable. These vehicles typically pick-up and drop-off passengers in locations according to passengers needs and can include taxis, buses or other vehicles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971865}
{"src_title": "Messerschmitt Me 263", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Although the Me 163 had very short endurance, it had originally been even shorter. In the original design, the engine had only one throttle setting, \"full on\", and burned through its fuel in a few minutes. Not only did this further limit endurance, in flight testing, pilots found the aircraft quickly exhibited compressibility effects as soon as they levelled off from the climb and speeds picked up. This led the \"RLM\" to demand the addition of a throttle, leading to lengthy delays and a dramatic decrease in fuel economy when throttled.  This problem was addressed in the larger Me 163C. This featured the same HWK 509B or -C dual chamber rocket engine already trialled on the Me 163B V6 and V18 prototypes; the main upper chamber was tuned for high thrust while the lower \"Marschofen\" combustion chamber was designed for a much lower thrust output (about 400 kgf maximum) for economic cruise. In operation, throttling was accomplished by starting or stopping the main engine, which was about four times as powerful as the smaller one. This change greatly simplified the engine, while also retaining much higher efficiency during cruise. Along with slightly increased fuel tankage, the powered endurance rose to about 12 minutes, a 50% improvement. As the aircraft spent only a short time climbing, this meant the time at combat altitude would be more than doubled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ju 248.", "content": "Throughout development the RLM proved unhappy with the progress on the 163 project, and eventually decided to transfer development to Heinrich Hertel at Junkers. Lippisch remained at Messerschmitt and retained the support of Waldemar Voigt, continuing development of the 163C.  At Junkers, the basic plan of the 163C was followed to produce an even larger design, the Ju 248. It retained the new pressurized cockpit and bubble canopy of the 163C, with even more fuel tankage, and adding a new retractable landing gear design. On 25 September 1944 a wooden mock-up was shown to officials. The production version was intended to be powered by the more powerful BMW 109-708 rocket engine in place of the Walter power plant.  Prior to the actual building of the Ju 248, two Me 163Bs, V13 and V18, were slated to be rebuilt. V13 had deteriorated due to weather exposure, so only V18 was rebuilt, but had been flown by test pilot Heini Dittmar at a record-setting 1,130 km/h (702 mph) velocity on July 6, 1944 and suffered near-total destruction of its rudder surface as a result. It is this aircraft that is often identified as the Me 163D, but this aircraft was built after the Ju 248 project had started.  Hertel had hoped to install Lorin ramjet engines, but this technology was still far ahead of its time. As a stopgap measure, they decided to build the aircraft with a \"Sondergeräte\" (special equipment) in the form of a \"Zusatztreibstoffbehälter\" (auxiliary fuel tank): two external T-Stoff oxidizer tanks were to be installed under the wings. This would lead to a 10% speed decrease but no negative flight characteristics. Although Junkers claimed the Ju 248 used a standard Me 163B wing, they decided to modify the wing to hold more C-Stoff fuel. This modification was carried out by the Puklitsch firm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Me 263.", "content": "In November 1944, the aircraft was again redesignated as the Me 263 to show its connection with the Me 163. The two projects also got names - the Ju 248 \"Flunder\" (Flounder) and the Me 263 \"Scholle\" (Plaice). In early 1945, Junkers proposed its own project, the EF 127 \"Walli\" rocket fighter, as a competitor to the Me 163C and Me 263.  The first unpowered flight of the Me 263 V1 was in February 1945. Several more unpowered flights took place that month. The biggest problem had to do with the center of gravity which was restored with the addition of counterweights. Eventually, the production aircraft would have repositioned the engine or the landing gear installation to solve this problem. The landing gear was still non-retractable. The first flights gave the impression that it was suitable as it was for production.  Test flights were later stopped because of fuel shortages for the Bf 110 towplanes. As the Me 263 was not a part of the \"Jägernotprogramm\" (Emergency Fighter Program), it was difficult to get the resources it needed. For the time being the plane was not expected to enter production but further development was allowed. The V2 and V3 were not yet ready. The V2 was to get the retractable landing gear and the V3 would have the armament built in. The next month both the V1 and the V2 had the two-chambered HWK 109-509C installed, correcting the center-of-gravity problems. They flew only as gliders.  In April, the Americans occupied the plant and captured the three prototypes and the mock-up. The V2 was destroyed but another prototype ended up in the US. The rest was handed over to the Russians, who then created their own Mikoyan-Gurevich I-270 interceptor.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Messerschmitt Me 263 \"Scholle\" (plaice) was a rocket-powered fighter aircraft developed from the Me 163 \"Komet\" towards the end of World War II. Three prototypes were built but never flown under their own power as the rapidly deteriorating military situation in Germany prevented the completion of the test program.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971866}
{"src_title": "Archduke", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The English word is first recorded in 1530, derived from Middle French ', a 15th-century derivation from Medieval Latin ', from Latin \"-\" (Greek ) meaning \"authority\" or \"primary\" (see \"arch-\") and \"\" \"duke\" (literally \"leader\").  \"Archduke\" (; ) is a title distinct from \"Grand Duke\" (; ; ), a later monarchic title borne by the rulers of other European countries (for instance, Luxembourg).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Latin title \"archidux\" is first attested in reference to Bruno the Great, who ruled simultaneously as Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia in the 10th century, in the work of his biographer Ruotger. In Ruotger, the title served as an honorific denoting Bruno's unusual position rather than a formal office.  The title was not used systematically until the 14th century, when the title \"Archduke of Austria\" was invented in the forged \"Privilegium Maius\" (1358–1359) by Duke Rudolf IV of Austria. Rudolf originally claimed the title in the form \"palatinus archidux\" (\"palatine archduke\"). The title was intended to emphasize the claimed precedence (thus \"Arch-\") of the Duchy of Austria, in an effort to put the Habsburgs on an even level with the Prince-Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, as Austria had been passed over when the Golden Bull of 1356 assigned that dignity to the four highest-ranking secular Imperial princes and three Archbishops. Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV refused to recognise the title, as did all the other ruling dynasties of the member countries of the Empire. But Duke Ernest the Iron and his descendants unilaterally assumed the title of \"Archduke\".  The archducal title was only officially recognized in 1453 by Emperor Frederick III, when the Habsburgs had solidified their grip on the throne of the \"de jure\" elected Holy Roman Emperor, making it \"de facto\" hereditary. Despite that imperial authorization of the title, which showed a Holy Roman Emperor from the Habsburg dynasty deciding over a title claim of the Habsburg dynasty, many ruling dynasties of the countries which formed the Empire refused to recognize the title \"Archduke\". Ladislaus the Posthumous, Duke of Austria, who died in 1457, never got in his lifetime the imperial authorization to use it, and accordingly, neither he nor anyone in his branch of the dynasty ever used the title. Emperor Frederick III himself simply used the title \"Duke of Austria\", never \"Archduke\", until his death in 1493. The title was first granted to Frederick's younger brother, Albert VI of Austria (d. 1463), who used it at least from 1458.  In 1477, Frederick III also granted the title of \"Archduke\" to his first cousin, Sigismund of Austria, ruler of Further Austria (). Frederick's son and heir, the future Emperor Maximilian I, started to use the title, but apparently only after the death of his wife Mary of Burgundy (d. 1482), as \"Archduke\" never appears in documents issued jointly by Maximilian and Mary as rulers in the Low Countries (where Maximilian is still titled \"Duke of Austria\"). The title appears first in documents issued under the joint rule of Maximilian and his son Philip in the Low Countries.  \"Archduke\" was initially borne by those dynasts who ruled a Habsburg territory—i.e., only by males and their consorts, appanages being commonly distributed to cadets. But these \"junior\" \"archdukes\" did not thereby become sovereign hereditary rulers, since all territories remained vested in the Austrian crown. Occasionally a territory might be combined with a separate gubernatorial mandate ruled by an archducal cadet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "From the 16th century onward, \"Archduke\" and its female form, \"Archduchess\", came to be used by \"all\" the members of the House of Habsburg (e.g. Queen Marie Antoinette of France was born Archduchess Maria Antonia of Austria). Upon extinction of the male line of the Habsburgs and the marriage of their heiress, the Holy Roman Empress-consort Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary and Archduchess of Austria, to Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine, who was elected Holy Roman Emperor, their descendants formed the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire this usage was retained in the Austrian Empire (1804–1867) and the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867–1918).  The official use of titles of nobility and of all other hereditary titles, including \"Archduke\", has been illegal in the Republic of Austria for Austrian citizens since the Law on the Abolition of Nobility (\"Gesetz vom 3. April 1919 über die Aufhebung des Adels, der weltlichen Ritter- und Damenorden und gewisser Titel und Würden\"). Thus those members of the Habsburg family who are residents of the Republic of Austria are simply known by their first name(s) and their surname \"Habsburg-Lothringen\". However, members of the family who reside in other countries may or may not use the title, in accordance with laws and customs in those nations.  For example, Otto Habsburg-Lothringen (1912–2011), the eldest son of the last Habsburg Emperor, was an Austrian, Hungarian and German citizen. As he lived in Germany, where it is permitted to use hereditary titles as part of the civil surname (including indications of origin, such as \"von\" or \"zu\"), his official civil name was Otto von Habsburg (literally: Otto \"of\" Habsburg), whereas in Austria he was registered as Otto Habsburg.  The King of Spain also bears the nominal title of Archduke of Austria as part of his full list of titles, as the Bourbon dynasty adopted all the titles previously held by the Spanish Habsburgs when they took over the Spanish throne. However, \"Archduke\" was never considered by the Spanish Bourbons as a substantial dignity of their own dynasty, but rather as a traditional supplementary title of the Spanish Kings since the days of the Habsburg dynasty on the royal throne (1516–1700). Hence, no member of the royal family other than the King bears the (additional) title of \"Archduke\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Insignia.", "content": "The insignia of the Archduke of Lower and Upper Austria was the archducal hat, a coronet which is kept in Klosterneuburg Monastery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduke (feminine: Archduchess; German: \"Erzherzog\", feminine form: \"Erzherzogin\") was the title borne from 1358 by the Habsburg rulers of the Archduchy of Austria, and later by all senior members of that dynasty. It denotes a rank within the former Holy Roman Empire (962–1806), which was below that of Emperor, King, and (debatably) a Grand Duke and above that of Duke and Prince.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971867}
{"src_title": "Nauruan language", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Phonology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consonants.", "content": "Nauruan has 16–17 consonant phonemes. Nauruan makes phonemic contrasts between velarized and palatalized labial consonants. Velarization is not apparent before long back vowels and palatalization is not apparent before non-low front vowels.  Voiceless stops are geminated and nasals also contrast in length. Dental stops and become and respectively before high front vowels.  The approximants become fricatives in \"emphatic pronunciation.\" transcribes them as and but also remarks that they contrast with the non-syllabic allophones of the high vowels.  Depending on stress, may be a flap or a trill. The precise phonetic nature of is unknown. transcribes it as and speculates that it may pattern like palatalized consonants and be partially devoiced.  Between a vowel and word-final, an epenthetical appears.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vowels.", "content": "There are 12 phonemic vowels (six long, six short). In addition to the allophony in the following table from, a number of vowels reduce to :  Non-open vowels (that is, all but ) become non-syllabic when preceding another vowel, as in → ('hide').", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stress.", "content": "Stress is on the penultimate syllable when the final syllable ends in a vowel, on the last syllable when it ends in a consonant, and initial with reduplications.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Writing system.", "content": "In the Nauruan written language, 17 letters were originally used:  The letters c, f, h, l, s, v, x, y and z were not included. With the growing influence of foreign languages (most of all German, English and Kiribati and some minority of Malay) more letters were incorporated into the Nauruan alphabet. In addition, phonetic differences of a few vowels arose, so that umlauts and other similar-sounding sounds were indicated with a tilde.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attempt at language reform of 1938.", "content": "In 1938 there was an attempt by the Nauruan language committee and Timothy Detudamo to make the language easier to read for Europeans and Americans. It was intended to introduce as many diacritical symbols as possible for the different vowel sounds to state the variety of the Nauruan language in writing. It was decided to introduce only a grave accent in the place of the former tilde, so that the umlauts \"õ\" and \"ũ\" were replaced by \"ô\" and \"û\". The \"ã\" was substituted with \"e\".  Also, \"y\" was introduced in order to differentiate words with the English \"j\" (\"puji\"). Thus, words like \"ijeiji\" were changed to \"iyeyi\". In addition, \"ñ\" (which represented the velar nasal) was replaced with \"ng\", to differentiate the Spanish Ñ, \"bu\" and \"qu\" were replaced with \"bw\" and \"kw\" respectively, \"ts\" was replaced with \"j\" (since it represented a pronunciation similar to English \"j\"), and the \"w\" written at the end of words was removed.  These reforms were only partly carried out: the umlauts \"õ\" and \"ũ\" are still written with tildes. However, the letters \"ã\" and \"ñ\" are now only seldom used, being replaced with \"e\" and \"ng\", as prescribed by the reform. Likewise, the writing of the double consonants \"bw\" and \"kw\" has been implemented. Although the \"j\" took the place of \"ts\", certain spellings still use \"ts.\" For example, the districts Baiti and Ijuw (according to the reform \"Beiji\" and \"Iyu\") are still written with the old writing style. The \"y\" has largely become generally accepted.  Today the following 29 Latin letters are used.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dialects.", "content": "According to a report published in 1937 in Sydney, there was a diversity of dialects until Nauru became a colony of Germany in 1888, and until the introduction of publication of the first texts written in Nauruan. The varieties were largely so different that people of various districts often had problems understanding each other completely. With the increasing influence of foreign languages and the increase of Nauruan texts, the dialects blended into a standardized language, which was promoted through dictionaries and translations by Alois Kayser and Philip Delaporte.  Today there is significantly less dialectal variation. In the district of Yaren and the surrounding area there is an eponymous dialect spoken, which is only slightly different.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Delaporte's Nauruan dictionary.", "content": "In 1907, Philip Delaporte published his pocket German-Nauruan dictionary. The dictionary is small (10.5 × 14 cm), with 65 pages devoted to the glossary and an additional dozen to phrases, arranged alphabetically by the German. Approximately 1650 German words are glossed in Nauruan, often by phrases or synonymous forms. There are some 1300 'unique' Nauruan forms in the glosses, including all those occurring in phrases, ignoring diacritical marks. The accents used there are not common; just one accent (the tilde) is in use today.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sample text.", "content": "The following example of text is from the Bible (Genesis, 1.1–1.8):  \"Ñaga ã eitsiõk õrig imim, Gott õrig ianweron me eb. Me eitsiõk erig imin ñana bain eat eb, me eko õañan, mi itũr emek animwet ijited, ma Anin Gott õmakamakur animwet ebõk. Me Gott ũge, Enim eaõ, me eaõen. Me Gott ãt iaõ bwo omo, me Gott õekae iaõ mi itũr. Me Gott eij eget iaõ bwa Aran, me E ij eget itũr bwa Anũbũmin. Ma antsiemerin ma antsioran ar eken ũrõr adamonit ibũm. Me Gott ũge, Enim tsinime firmament inimaget ebõk, me enim ekae ebõk atsin eat ebõk. Me Gott eririñ firmament, mõ õ ekae ebõk ñea ijõñin firmament atsin eat ebõk ñea itũgain firmament, mõ ũgan. Me Gott eij egen firmament bwe Ianweron. Ma antsiemerin ma antsioran ar eke ũrõr karabũmit ibũm.\"  It is notable that the Nauruan vocabulary contains a few German loanwords (e.g. \"Gott\", \"God\"; and \"Firmament\", \"celestial sphere\"), which is traced back to the strong influence of German missionaries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nauruan or Nauru<ref name=\"ISO 639-2/RA\"><ref name=\"ISO 639-3/RA\"> language (\"dorerin Naoero\") is an Austronesian language, spoken natively by around 6,000 people in the island country of Nauru. Its relationship to the other Micronesian languages is not well understood.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971868}
{"src_title": "Telephoto lens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "In contrast to a telephoto lens, for any given focal length a simple lens of non-telephoto design is constructed from one lens (which can, to minimize aberrations, consist of several elements to form an achromatic lens). To focus on an object at infinity, the distance from this single lens to focal plane of the camera (where the sensor or film is respectively) has to be adjusted to this focal length. For example, given a focal length of 500 mm, the distance between lens and focal plane is 500 mm. The farther the focal length is increased, the more the physical length of such a simple lens makes it unwieldy.  But such simple lenses are not telephoto lenses, no matter how extreme the focal length – they are known as \"long-focus lenses\". While the optical centre of a simple (\"non-telephoto\") lens is within the construction, the telephoto lens moves the optical centre in front of the construction. While the length of a long-focus lens approximates its focal length, a telephoto lens manages to be shorter than its focal length. E.g., a telephoto lens might have a focal length of 400 mm, while it is shorter than that.  A telephoto lens works by having the outermost (i.e. light gathering) element of a much shorter focal length than the equivalent long-focus lens and then incorporating a second set of elements close to the film or sensor plane that extend the cone of light so that it appears to have come from a lens of much greater focal length. The basic construction of a telephoto lens consists of front lens elements that, as a group, have a positive focus. The focal length of this group is shorter than the effective focal length of the lens. The converging rays from this group are intercepted by the rear lens group, sometimes called the \"telephoto group,\" which has a negative focus. The simplest telephoto designs could consist of one element in each group, but in practice, more than one element is used in each group to correct for various aberrations. The combination of these two groups produces a lens assembly that is physically shorter than a long-focus lens producing the same image size.  This same property is achieved in camera lenses that combine mirrors with lenses. These designs, called catadioptric,'reflex', or'mirror' lenses,have a curved mirror as the primary objective with some form of negative lens in front of the mirror to correct optical aberrations. They also use a curved secondary mirror to relay the image that extends the light cone the same way the negative lens telephoto group does. The mirrors also fold the light path. This makes them much shorter, lighter, and cheaper than an all refractive lens, but at the cost of some optical compromises due to aberrations caused by the central obstruction from the secondary mirror.  The heaviest non-Catadioptric telephoto lens for civilian use was made by Carl Zeiss and has a focal length of 1700 mm with a maximum aperture of, implying a entrance pupil. It is designed for use with a medium format Hasselblad 203 FE camera and weighs.  The telephoto lens design has also been used for wide angles, at least once in the case of the Olympus XA where it permitted a 35mm focal length to fit in an extra compact camera body.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retrofocus lenses.", "content": "Inverting the telephoto configuration, employing one or more negative lens groups in front of a positive lens group, creates a wide-angle lens with an increased back focal distance. These are called retrofocus lenses or inverted telephotos, which have greater clearance from the rear element to the film plane than their focal length would permit with a conventional wide-angle lens optical design. This allows for greater clearance for other optical or mechanical parts such as the mirror parts in a single-lens reflex camera. Zoom lenses that are telephotos at one extreme of the zoom range and retrofocus at the other are now common.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The concept of the telephoto lens, in reflecting form, was first described by Johannes Kepler in his \"Dioptrice\" of 1611, and re-invented by Peter Barlow in 1834.  Histories of photography usually credit Thomas Rudolphus Dallmeyer with the invention of the photographic telephoto lens in 1891, though it was independently invented by others about the same time; some credit his father John Henry Dallmeyer in 1860.  In 1883 or 1884 New Zealand photographer Alexander McKay discovered he could create a much more manageable long-focus lens by combining a shorter focal length telescope objective lens with negative lenses and other optical parts from opera glasses to modify the light cone. Some of his photographs are preserved in the holdings of the Turnbull Library in Wellington, and two of these can be unequivocally dated as having been taken during May 1886. One of McKay’s photographs shows a warship anchored in Wellington harbour about two and a half kilometres away, with its rigging lines and gun ports clearly visible. The other, taken from the same point, is of a local hotel, the Shepherds Arms, about 100 metres distant from the camera. The masts of the ship are visible in the background. McKay's other photographic achievements include photo-micrographs, and a ‘shadow-less technique’ for photographing fossils.  McKay presented his work to the Wellington Philosophical Society (the precursor of the Royal Society of New Zealand) in 1890.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A telephoto lens, in photography and cinematography, is a specific type of a long-focus lens in which the physical length of the lens is shorter than the focal length. This is achieved by incorporating a special lens group known as a \"telephoto group\" that extends the light path to create a long-focus lens in a much shorter overall design. The angle of view and other effects of long-focus lenses are the same for telephoto lenses of the same specified focal length. Long-focal-length lenses are often informally referred to as \"telephoto lenses\" although this is technically incorrect: a telephoto lens specifically incorporates the telephoto group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971869}
{"src_title": "Hohensalzburg Fortress", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "Construction of the fortress began in 1077 under Archbishop Gebhard von Helfenstein. The original design was a basic bailey with a wooden wall. In the Holy Roman Empire, the archbishops of Salzburg were already powerful political figures and they expanded the fortress to protect their interests. Helfenstein's conflict with Emperor Henry IV during the Investiture Controversy influenced the expansion of the fortress, with the Archbishop taking the side of Pope Gregory VII and the German anti-king Rudolf of Rheinfelden. The fortress was gradually expanded during the following centuries. The ring walls and towers were built in 1462 under Prince-Archbishop Burkhard II von Weißpriach.  Prince-Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach further expanded the fortress during his term from 1495 until 1519. His coadjutor Matthäus Lang von Wellenburg, who was later to succeed Leonhard, in 1515 wrote a description of the Reisszug, a very early and primitive funicular railway that provided freight access to the upper courtyard of the fortress. The line still exists, albeit in updated form, and is probably the oldest operational railway in the world. The current external bastions, begun in the 16th century and completed in the 17th, were added as a precaution because of fears of Turkish Invasion.  The only time that the fortress actually came under siege was during the German Peasants' War in 1525, when a group of miners, farmers and townspeople tried to oust Prince-Archbishop Matthäus Lang, but failed to take the fortress. In 1617 the deposed Archbishop Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau died in the fortress prison. During the Thirty Years' War, Archbishop Count Paris of Lodron strengthened the town's defenses, including Hohensalzburg. He added various parts to the fortress, such as the gunpowder stores and additional gatehouses. The fortress was surrendered without a fight to French troops under General Jean Victor Marie Moreau during the Napoleonic War of the Second Coalition in 1800 and the last Prince-Archbishop Count Hieronymus von Colloredo fled to Vienna. In the 19th century, it was used as barracks, storage depot and dungeon before being abandoned as a military outpost in 1861.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent history.", "content": "Hohensalzburg Fortress was refurbished from the late 19th century onwards and became a major tourist attraction with the Festungsbahn funicular railway, opened in 1892, leading up from the town to the Hasengrabenbastei. It stands today as one of the best preserved castles in Europe.  During the early 20th century it was used as a prison, holding Italian prisoners of war during World War I and Nazi activists before Germany's annexation of Austria in March 1938.  German ceramicist, sculptor and painter Arno Lehmann lived and created in Hohensalzburg Fortress from 1949 until his death in 1973.  Hohensalzburg Fortress was selected as main motif for the Austrian Nonnberg Abbey commemorative coin minted on April 5, 2006. This was the first coin of the series \"Great Abbeys of Austria\". It shows the Benedictine convent of Nonnberg Abbey. In the hilltop on the background, the fortress and the Kajetaner church can be seen. Also in 1977 the Austrian Mint issued a coin for the 900th anniversary of Hohensalzburg Fortress.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The fortress consists of various wings and courtyard. The Prince-Bishop's apartments are located in the so-called \"Hoher Stock\" (high floor).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Salzburg Bull.", "content": "The \"Krautturm\" houses a large aerophon of more than 200 pipes which is called the \"Salzburg Bull\" (\"Salzburger Stier\"). This huge mechanical organ was built in 1502 by Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach. It was renewed by Rochus Egedacher in 1735.  From Palm Sunday to 31 October the \"Salzburg Bull\" is played daily at 7, 11 and 18 o'clock. The aerophone thus initiated the playing of the carillon at the Residenzplatz and ended it again.  One of Austria's most famous cabaret groups is named after it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Golden Hall.", "content": "Starting in 1498, Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach had the magnificent state apartments installed on the third floor. The rooms in which the archbishops would normally have lived were one floor below. The state apartments were primarily used for representative purposes and for festivities. The Golden Hall was richly decorated and indicates that the fortress served the archbishops not only as a refuge in times of crisis, but frequently also as a residence up to the 16th century.  In order to gain more space, Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach had four massive marble pillars constructed on the right-hand outer wall and had a loggia added on. As in the other rooms the ceiling is coffered, each coffer being adorned with gold buttons symbolising the stars in the sky.  The 17-metre-long beam, supporting the ceiling, is particularly worth mentioning. The coat of arms of Leonhard von Keutschach together with those of the Holy Roman Empire, the most powerful German towns and the bishoprics that were connected to Salzburg, are painted on it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chapel of Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach.", "content": "Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach (1495-1519) had the chapel built at a later time. One of the figure consoles in the beam ceiling had to be removed to make room for it. A richly ornamented star vault decorates the ceiling of the chapel. The inner part of the door at the entrance is covered with stucco. The painted frame shows red columns on a high plinth with grey capitals. The coat of arms of Salzburg and of Leonhard von Keutschach is reproduced in the tympanum beneath the mitre, legate cross and sword. A special feature of the coat of arms is the turnip and in many places in the fortress this can be found as an indication of prince-archbishop Keutschach's building activity. In the north wall of the chapel there are two openings which made it possible to attend the church service from the side room.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Golden Chamber.", "content": "The Golden Chamber is the most magnificently furnished room of the princely chambers. The two long walls are taken up by benches that are richly decorated with vines, grapes, foliage and animals. These benches used to be covered with cloth or leather, but the upholstery has not survived into the modern age. The walls also used to be covered in gold-embossed leather tapestry which adorned the lower part of the wall.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bedchamber.", "content": "The bedchamber is the most intimate room of the princely chambers. The original furniture and precious textiles, such as tapestry, were in the course of time replaced by more \"modern\" ones. The elaborate wainscoting to keep out the cold still bears witness to the splendour of the past. The upper part of the panels is decorated with gilded buttons and rosettes, whereas the lower part, which is bare today, was probably covered with leather or velvet tapestry. The door conceals a toilet, which is basically a hole in the floor with a wooden frame. Back in the past this was a highly modern sanitary facility and was accessible from each floor.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Hohensalzburg Fortress () sits atop the Festungsberg, a small hill in the Austrian city of Salzburg. Erected at the behest of the Prince-Archbishops of Salzburg with a length of and a width of, it is one of the largest medieval castles in Europe. Hohensalzburg Fortress is situated at an altitude of 506 m.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971870}
{"src_title": "Affinity (law)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "In law, affinity relatives by marriage are known as affines.  More commonly, they are known as or family-in-law, with affinity being usually signified by adding to a degree of kinship. This is standard for the closest degrees of kinship, such as \"father-in-law\", \"daughter-in-law\", \"brother/sister-in-law\", etc., but is frequently omitted in the case of more extended relations. As \"uncle\" and \"aunt\" are frequently used to refer indifferently to friends of the family, the terms may be used without specifying whether the person is a cognate or affine. Similarly, the spouse of a cousin may not be called a relation at all or may be referenced as a \"cousin by marriage\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "In South Africa, sexual relations are prohibited within the first degree of affinity, that is, where one person is the direct ancestor or descendant of the spouse of the other person.  Brazilian law, by the Article 1521 of the Civil Code, also extends the invalidity of marriage between parents and children to grandparents and grandchildren or any other sort of ascendant-descendant relationship (both consanguineous and adoptive), parents-in-law and children-in-law even after the divorce of the earlier couple, as well as to stepparents and stepchildren, and former husbands or wives to an adoptive parent who did this unilaterally (regarded as an equivalent, in families formed by adoption, to stepparents and stepchildren); and extends the invalidity of marriage between siblings to biological cousin-siblings.  In Hawaii, sexual penetration and marriage is prohibited within close degrees affinity and is punishable by up to 5 years.  In Michigan, sexual contact between persons related \"by blood or affinity to the third degree\" are chargeable as criminal sexual conduct in the 4th degree and punishable by a 2-year sentence or a fine of up to $500 or both.  In New Jersey, sexual contact is prohibited when the actor is \"related to the victim by blood or affinity to the 3rd degree\" and the victim is at least 16 but less than 18 years old.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In law and in cultural anthropology, affinity is the kinship relationship created or that exists between two people as a result of someone's marriage. It is the relationship which each party to a marriage has to the relations of the other partner to the marriage, but it does not cover the marital relationship itself. Laws, traditions and customs relating to affinity vary considerably, sometimes ceasing with the death of one of the marriage partners through whom affinity is traced, and sometimes with the divorce of the marriage partners. In addition to kinship by marriage, \"affinity\" can sometimes also include kinship by adoption or a step relationship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971871}
{"src_title": "Stanisław Leszczyński", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Lwów in 1677, he was the son of Rafał Leszczyński, voivode of Poznań Voivodeship, and Princess Anna Katarzyna Jabłonowska. He married Katarzyna Opalińska, by whom he had a daughter, Maria, who became Queen of France as wife of Louis XV. In 1697, as Cup-bearer of Poland, he signed the confirmation of the articles of election of August II the Strong. In 1703 he joined the Lithuanian Confederation, which the Sapiehas with the aid of Sweden had formed against August.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King for first time.", "content": "The following year, Stanisław was selected by Charles XII of Sweden after a successful Swedish invasion of Poland, to supersede Augustus II, who was hostile towards the Swedes. Leszczyński was a young man of blameless antecedents, respectable talents, and came from an ancient family, but certainly without sufficient force of character or political influence to sustain himself on so unstable a throne.  Nevertheless, with the assistance of a bribing fund and an army corps, the Swedes succeeded in procuring his election by a scratch assembly of half a dozen castellans and a few score of gentlemen on 12 July 1704. A few months later, Stanisław was forced by a sudden inroad of Augustus II to seek refuge in the Swedish camp, but finally on 24 September 1705, he was crowned king with great splendor. Charles himself supplied his nominee with a new crown and scepter \"in lieu\" of the ancient Polish regalia, which had been carried off to Saxony by August. During this time the King of Sweden sent Peter Estenberg to King Stanislaw to act as an ambassador and correspondence secretary. The Polish king's first act was to cement an alliance with Charles XII whereby the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth engaged to assist Sweden against the Russian tsar. Stanisław did what he could to assist his patron. Thus, he induced Ivan Mazepa, the Cossack hetman, to desert Peter the Great at the most critical period of the Great Northern War between Russia and Sweden, and Stanisław placed a small army corps at the disposal of the Swedes and was beaten in Battle of Koniecpol. However, Stanisław depended so entirely on the success of Charles' arms that after the Battle of Poltava (1709), his authority vanished as a dream at the first touch of reality. Stanisław then resided in the town of Rydzyna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First loss of throne.", "content": "The vast majority of Poles hastened to repudiate Stanisław and make their peace with August. Henceforth a mere pensioner of Charles XII, Stanisław accompanied Krassow's army corps in its retreat to Swedish Pomerania. On the restoration of Augustus, Stanisław resigned the Polish Crown (though he retained the royal title) in exchange for the little principality of Zweibrücken. In 1716, an assassination was attempted by a Saxon officer, Lacroix, but Stanisław was saved by Stanisław Poniatowski, father of the future king. Forced to leave Zweibrücken in 1719 after the death of Charles XII in whose name he was Count Palatine, Stanisław Leszczyński then resided at Wissembourg in Alsace. In 1725, he had the satisfaction of seeing his daughter Maria become queen consort of Louis XV of France. From 1725 to 1733, Stanisław lived at the Château de Chambord.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King for second time.", "content": "Stanislaw's son-in-law Louis XV supported his claims to the Polish throne after the death of August II the Strong in 1733, which led to the War of the Polish Succession. In September 1733, Stanisław himself arrived at Warsaw, having traveled night and day through central Europe disguised as a coachman. On the following day, despite many protests, Stanisław was duly elected King of Poland for the second time. However, Russia was opposed to any nominee of France and Sweden. Russia protested against his election at once, in favor of the new Elector of Saxony, as being the candidate of her Austrian ally.  On 30 June 1734, a Russian army of 20,000 under Peter Lacy, after proclaiming August III the Saxon at Warsaw, proceeded to besiege Stanisław at Danzig, where he was entrenched with his partisans (including the Primate and the French and Swedish ministers) to await the relief that had been promised by France.  The siege began in October 1734. On 17 March 1735, Marshal Münnich superseded Peter Lacy, and on 20 May 1735 the long-expected French fleet appeared and disembarked 2,400 men on Westerplatte. A week later, this little army gallantly attempted to force the Russian entrenchments, but was finally compelled to surrender. This was the first time that France and Russia had met as foes in the field. On 30 June 1735, Danzig capitulated unconditionally, after sustaining a siege of 135 days which cost the Russians 8,000 men.  Disguised as a peasant, Stanisław had contrived to escape two days before. He reappeared at Königsberg (where he briefly met the future King Frederick the Great of Prussia), whence he issued a manifesto to his partisans which resulted in the formation of a confederation on his behalf, and the despatch of a Polish envoy to Paris to urge France to invade Saxony with at least 40,000 men. In Ukraine too, Count Nicholas Potocki kept on foot to support Stanisław a motley host of 50,000 men, which was ultimately scattered by the Russians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duke of Lorraine.", "content": "On 26 January 1736, Stanisław again abdicated the throne but received in compensation the Duchy of Lorraine and of Bar, which was to revert to France on his death. In 1738, he sold his estates of Rydzyna and Leszno to Count (later Prince) Alexander Joseph Sułkowski. He settled at Lunéville, founded there in 1750 both the Académie de Stanislas and Bibliothèque municipale de Nancy, and devoted himself for the rest of his life to science and philanthropy, engaging most notably in controversy with Rousseau. He also published \"Głos wolny wolność ubezpieczający\", one of the most important political treatises of the Polish Enlightenment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Stanisław was still alive when his great-great-granddaughter, Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria, was born in 1762. In his last years, his close friend, the Hungarian-born Marshal of France Ladislas Ignace de Bercheny lived on his estate to provide company.  Leszczyński died in 1766, aged 88 as a result of serious burns – his silk attire caught fire from a spark while the King was snoozing near the fireplace in his palace in Lunéville. He was medically treated for several days but died of wounds on 23 February. He was the longest living Polish king.  Originally buried in the Church of Notre-Dame-de-Bonsecours, Nancy, following the French Revolution his remains were brought back to Poland and buried in the royal tomb of the Wawel Cathedral in Kraków.  His wife also suffered many miscarriages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Play and opera.", "content": "Loosely based on an incident of King Stanisław's life are the play \"Le faux Stanislas\" written by the Frenchman Alexandre Vincent Pineu-Duval in 1808, transformed into the opera \"Un giorno di regno, ossia Il finto Stanislao\" (\"A One-Day Reign, or The Pretend Stanislaus\", but often translated into English as \"King for a Day\") by Giuseppe Verdi, to an Italian libretto written in 1818 by Felice Romani.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stanisław I Leszczyński (; ; ; 20 October 1677 – 23 February 1766), also Anglicized and Latinized as Stanislaus I, was King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Duke of Lorraine and a count of the Holy Roman Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971872}
{"src_title": "Alcúdia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The area where Alcúdia is located has been inhabited since the Bronze Age, but it is with the arrival of the Romans that the city makes its entry in the history books. The Romans used the beaches of Alcúdia bay when they captured the island in 123 B.C. Shortly after this the capital Palma was founded and then the city of Pollentia. From Pollentia it was possible to view both the bay of Pollenca and the bay of Alcúdia. Pollentia served as a guard for other invaders. The city was also mentioned in Rome since they here produced excellent fabrics that were used in the most exclusive togas.  After Rome lost its position as the dominant power in the western Mediterranean, Pollentia was attacked by pirates and several times by the Vandals. Finally, the city was abandoned, and the remaining population left to create a new town at a more protected location. This town became Pollenca and the area where Pollentia stood was left to ruins.  After the invasion of the Moors, a farmstead was created very close to where the ancient village of Pollentia had been. The farm was called Alcúdia, which is Arabic for \"on the hill\". In 1229, the Moors were defeated by King James I of Aragon, who overtook the power of the area. In 1298, King James II of Aragon bought the farmstead Alcúdia and founded the new town. A church, a graveyard, a house for priests, and a square were created in the same year. The construction of the walls was also initiated at the same time and finished in 1362. The city plan that was made at the time remains the same for Alcúdia today. During the Renaissance, walls were reconstructed, and a second wall was constructed outside the first one. This wall has since been torn down and only details show where it once was.  During the 16th century pirates attacked the city several times. The population shrank, and there was from time to time a risk that the city would be abandoned totally. In 1779 a decision was taken to support the city by constructing a harbour. This really improved the economy of Alcúdia and the village was saved. But it remained a rather small and poor village.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alcúdia today.", "content": "In the 1920s the first tourists began to visit Mallorca and also Alcúdia. This was in a very limited scale and the economy of the village stayed weak. In the early '70s it started to be clear that the future of Alcúdia would be in tourism. 15 years later the old harbour of Puerto de Alcúdia had developed into a major resort for European tourism. In the '90s the construction boom calmed down and several regulations were put in place to secure the quality of the resort. The focus is on visitors searching for both relaxation and activity. A golf course has been constructed and both bicycle and hiking trips are commonplace. The old town has been preserved and pedestrianised. It has now become one of the most visited villages in Majorca.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "The old town has a 14th-century wall and it is possible to step up on the wall and follow it almost all around the village. There are remains of a Roman town just outside the medieval town walls, in front of the Church of St. Jaume, belonging to the ancient city of Pollentia (see also the Italian Pollentia). There is also a small Roman theatre. North of the town is a bull ring from the 19th century.  The old town also hosts a market both on Sundays and Tuesdays all year round. Inside the walls there are several popular restaurants and bistros famous for good home-cooked food in small settings. In Port d'Alcúdia most of the restaurants are located around the marina. Most of these restaurants are only open in the tourist season. Further north and west are some coves and beaches ideal for sunbathing, swimming or snorkeling. The beach at Alcúdia is c. 14 km long and stretches as far as C'an Picafort. Alcúdia joins onto Playa de Muro which is home to S'Albufera; a natural park that is very popular with birders.  Alcúdia celebrates the festival of St. Jaume every summer. It goes on for nine days at the beginning of July. Before the festival starts the town is decorated and each street picks out a theme for that year's look. During the festival several traditional evening festivities are arranged in the old town such as the Night of the Romans where the streets are full of locals dressed in traditional ancient Roman dresses. There are also outdoor theatres, sport tournaments, exhibitions and the traditional bullfight. The fiesta is finished with La Noche de Sant Jaume, a fireworks display and philharmonic concert by the old walls.  Alcúdia hosts also many other fairs and festivals throughout the year. During the summer, there are plenty of al fresco events, with dramatised tours of the old town, and theatre productions in the old Roman amphitheatre. The Alcúdia Jazz Festival starts at the end of August and runs for a month. International sporting events are held down the road at the port, with an Ironman Triathlon twice a year, beach volleyball and beach rugby... There is an agricultural fair in the Autumn at the beginning of October and a nautical fair in April, which features the cuttlefish.  Taking place every three years is the Triennial of Sant Crist, a religious procession where the population slowly walks barefoot through the town in silence, for several hours. The origin of this procession dates back to 1507. According to tradition, the image of Sant Crist sweated blood and water, thus putting an end to a drought. Alcúdia is home to UD Alcúdia who plays at Els Arcs, which has a capacity of 1,750.  Alcúdia is home to one of Europe's largest hotel complexes, Bellevue. With 8 swimming pools and 17 apartment blocks the complex is set in 150,000 square meters of gardens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Alcúdia tourist guide Things to see in Alcúdia", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alcúdia () is a municipality and township of the Spanish autonomous community of the Balearic Islands. It is the main tourist centre in the North of Majorca on the eastern coast. It is a large resort popular with families. Most of the hotels are located in Port d'Alcúdia and Platja d'Alcúdia along the 14 km long beach that stretches all the way to Can Picafort. In Alcúdia the old town is well preserved with houses dating back to the 13th century. The old town is surrounded by a medieval wall.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971873}
{"src_title": "Chinese mountain cat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The scientific name \"Felis bieti\" was proposed by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in 1892 who described the Chinese mountain cat based on a skin collected in Sichuan Province. He named it \"Felis Bieti\" after the French missionary Félix Biet.  Some authorities consider the \"chutuchta\" and \"vellerosa\" subspecies of the wildcat as Chinese mountain cat subspecies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Chinese mountain cat has sand-coloured fur with dark guard hairs. Faint dark horizontal stripes on the face and legs are hardly visible. Its ears have black tips. It has a relatively broad skull, and long hair growing between the pads of their feet. It is whitish on the belly, and its legs and tail bear black rings. The tip of the tail is black. It is long in head and body with a long tail. Adults weigh from.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The Chinese mountain cat is endemic to China and lives on the north-eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. It was recorded only in eastern Qinghai and north-western Sichuan. It inhabits high-elevation steppe grassland, alpine meadow, alpine shrubland and coniferous forest edges between elevation. It has not been confirmed in true desert or heavily forested mountains.  The first photographs of a wild Chinese mountain cat were taken by camera traps during light snow in May 2007 at elevation in Sichuan. These photographs were taken in rolling grasslands and brush-covered mountains. One individual was observed and photographed in May 2015 in the Ruoergai grasslands. Between autumn 2018 and spring 2019, Chinese mountain cats were documented in an alpine meadow in the southeastern Sanjiangyuan region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behaviour.", "content": "The Chinese mountain cat is active at night and preys on pikas, rodents and birds. It breeds between January and March. Females give birth to two to four kittens in a secluded burrow.  Until 2007, the Chinese mountain cat was known only from six individuals, all living in Chinese zoos, and a few skins in museums.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The Chinese mountain cat is threatened due to the organised poisoning of pikas. The poison used diminishes prey species and also kills cats unintentionally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "\"Felis bieti\" is listed on CITES Appendix II. It is protected in China.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Chinese mountain cat (\"Felis bieti\"), also known as Chinese desert cat and Chinese steppe cat, is a wild cat endemic to western China that has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2002, as the effective population size may be fewer than 10,000 mature breeding individuals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971874}
{"src_title": "Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Canonical status.", "content": "According to canon law, the FSSP is a \"Clerical Society of Apostolic Life of Pontifical Right\". It is not, therefore, an Institute of Consecrated Life and members take no religious vows, but are instead bound by the same general laws of celibacy and obedience as diocesan clergy and, in addition, swear an oath as members of the society. The fraternity's pontifical-right status means that it has been established by the Pope and is answerable only to him in terms of its operation (through the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith; prior to January 17, 2019, through the Pontifical Commission \"Ecclesia Dei\"), rather than to local bishops. A local bishop still governs the fraternity's work within his respective diocese. In this sense its organization and administrative reporting status are similar to those of religious orders of pontifical right (for example, the Jesuits or Dominicans).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission and charism.", "content": "The FSSP consists of priests and seminarians who intend to pursue the goal of Christian perfection according to a specific charism, which is to offer the Mass and other sacraments according to the Roman Rite as it existed before the liturgical reforms that followed the Second Vatican Council. Thus, the fraternity uses the Roman Missal, the Roman Breviary, the Pontifical (\"Pontificale Romanum\"), and the Roman Ritual in use in 1962, the last editions before the revisions that followed the Council.  The 2007 \"motu proprio\" \"Summorum Pontificum\" has authorized use of the 1962 Roman Missal by all Latin Rite priests as an extraordinary form of the Roman Rite without limit when celebrating Mass \"without a congregation\". Its use for Mass with a congregation is allowed with the permission of the priest in charge of a church for stable groups attached to this earlier form of the Roman Rite, provided that the priest using it is \"qualified to do so and not juridically impeded\" (as for instance by suspension).  Following from its charism, the fraternity's mission is twofold: to sanctify each priest through the exercise of his priestly function, and to deploy these priests to parishes. As such, they are to celebrate the sacraments, catechise, preach retreats, organize pilgrimages, and generally provide a full sacramental and cultural life for lay Catholics who are likewise drawn to the rituals of the 1962 missal. In order to help complete its mission, the fraternity has built its own seminaries with the goal of forming men to serve the fraternity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Founding.", "content": "The FSSP was established on July 18, 1988, at the Abbey of Hauterive, Switzerland, by twelve priests and twenty seminarians, led by Josef Bisig, all of whom had formerly belonged to Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre's Society of Saint Pius X; they were unwilling to follow that movement into what the Congregation for Bishops and Pope John Paul II declared to be a schismatic act and grounds for excommunication \"latae sententiae\" due to the consecration of four bishops without a papal mandate. Josef Bisig became the fraternity's first superior general.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": ", the fraternity included 482 members: 320 priests, 17 deacons, and 145 non-deacon seminarians in 142 dioceses spread among Australia, Austria, Benin, Canada, Colombia, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, Nigeria, Poland, Switzerland, and the United States. The fraternity's membership represents 35 nationalities, and the average age of its members is 38. The lay Confraternity of Saint Peter enrolls 6 996 members who spiritually support the fraternity's charism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Superiors General.", "content": "The FSSP's current superior general is Andrzej Komorowski.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Districts and regions.", "content": "The fraternity is divided into three districts and one region:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Educational institutions.", "content": "The fraternity has two seminaries:  Ezekiel House, a house of formation for first-year seminarians, exists in the city of Sydney, Australia. The Director of Ezechiel House is Duncan Wong.  In 2015, the fraternity established in Guadalajara, Mexico, Casa Cristo Rey, an apostolate which it plans to develop into a house of formation for first-year seminarians for native Spanish-speaking postulants. Presently, Casa Cristo Rey serves as a priestly discernment program for young men from Spain and Latin America. In 2016 Casa Cristo Rey opened the Junipero Serra Spanish Institute, a program offering 6 or 8 weeks of Spanish immersion for priests and seminarians.  Until 2012, the fraternity also operated an American boarding school: St. Gregory's Academy in Elmhurst, Pennsylvania.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter (; FSSP) is a traditionalist Catholic society of apostolic life for priests and seminarians which is in communion with the Holy See.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971875}
{"src_title": "Maximilian von Weichs", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "Born in 1881 into an aristocratic family, Maximilian von Weichs entered the Bavarian Cavalry in 1900 and participated in World War I as a staff officer. After the war he remained in the newly created Reichswehr where he worked at a number of General Staff positions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inter-war years.", "content": "Transferred from the 3rd Cavalry Division to command Germany's 1st Panzer Division upon its formation in October 1935, he led the unit in maneuvers that impressed Army Commander in Chief Werner von Fritsch. Weichs' aristocratic and cavalry credentials demonstrated the continuing influence of these military elites in Germany's modernizing force. In October 1937 he became the commander of the 13th Army Corps, that later served in the 1938 German annexation of the Sudetenland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "For the German invasion of Poland beginning World War II in 1939, Weichs was appointed head of his own Army Corps \"Weichs\". After the Polish surrender, he was made Commander-in-Chief of the 2nd Army, a part of Rundstedt's Army Group A in the West. After the Battle of France, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross and promoted to colonel-general. Leading his army, Weichs later took part in the Balkans Campaign, and in preparation for Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, he was assigned to lead the 2nd Army as a part of Fedor von Bock’s Army Group Centre. He led the 2nd Army in 1941 through the Battle of Kiev, the Battle of Smolensk, and then on to Vyazma and Bryansk.  In 1942, for Fall Blau, Weichs was assigned to lead the newly created Army Group B. Army Group B was composed of Salmuth's 2nd Army, Hoth’s 4th Panzer Army, and Paulus's 6th Army. In addition to the German armies, Army Group B included the 2nd Hungarian Army, 8th Italian Army, the Third and the Fourth Romanian Armies. The 6th Army was assigned to take the city of Stalingrad and cover approximately 800 km of front.  The Soviet Operation Uranus broke through the Romanian armies on his flanks, cutting off the 6th Army inside Stalingrad. Suggesting retreat, Weichs fell out of Hitler’s favor. Consequently, parts of Army Group B were taken away from the command of Weichs and incorporated into a new \"Army Group Don\", led by Manstein. Later in February, the remaining part merged with the Don Group into a newly reinstated Army Group South, also led by Manstein. Weichs was relieved of command.  Weichs was promoted to Field Marshal on 1 February 1943. In August 1943 Weichs was appointed Commander of Army Group F in the Balkans directing operations against local partisan groups. Since August 1943 Weichs was also OB Südost, commander-in-chief of the German occupied Greece and the Balkans (Yugoslavia, Albania and Thrace) whose headquarters were first in Belgrade and since 5 October 1944 in Vukovar. In April 1944 Weichs was appointed to the position of commander of all German troops stationed in Hungary. In late 1944, he oversaw the German retreat from Greece and most of Yugoslavia.  Weichs was retired on 25 March 1945 and was arrested by American troops in May. During the Nuremberg Trials, Weichs was said to be implicated in war crimes committed while suppressing the partisans. He was removed from the US Army's Hostages Trial for medical reasons without having been judged or sentenced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Citations Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maximilian Maria Joseph Karl Gabriel Lamoral Reichsfreiherr von und zu Weichs an der Glon (12 November 1881 – 27 September 1954) was a field marshal in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971876}
{"src_title": "Yakutsk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Yakuts, also known as the Sakha people, migrated to the area during the 13th and 14th centuries from other parts of Siberia. When they arrived they mixed with other indigenous Siberians in the area. The Russian settlement of Yakutsk was founded in 1632 as an \"ostrog\" (fortress) by Pyotr Beketov. In 1639, it became the center of a \"voyevodstvo\". The Voivode of Yakutsk soon became the most important Russian official in the region and directed expansion to the east and south.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "With an extremely continental subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification: \"Dfd\"), Yakutsk has the coldest winter temperatures for any major city on Earth. Average monthly temperatures in Yakutsk range from in July to in January. Yakutsk is the largest city built on continuous permafrost, and many houses there are built on concrete piles.  The lowest temperatures ever recorded on the planet outside Antarctica occurred in the basin of the Yana River to the northeast of Yakutsk, making it the coldest major city in the world. Although winters are extremely cold and long – Yakutsk has never recorded a temperature above freezing between 10 November and 14 March inclusive – summers are warm (though rather short), with daily maximum temperatures occasionally exceeding, making the seasonal temperature differences for the region the greatest in the world at. The lowest temperature recorded in Yakutsk was on 5 February 1891 and the highest temperatures on 17 July 2011 and on 15 July 1942. The hottest month in records going back to 1834 has been July 1894, with a mean of, and the coldest, January 1900, which averaged.  Yakutsk has a distinct inland location, being almost from the Pacific Ocean, which coupled with the high latitude means exposure to severe winters and also lack of temperature moderation. July temperatures soar to an above-normal average for this parallel, with the average being several degrees hotter than such more southerly Far East cities as Vladivostok or Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. The July daytime temperatures are even hotter than some marine subtropical areas. The warm summers ensure that Yakutsk, despite its freezing winters, is far south of the tree line.  The climate is quite dry, with most of the annual precipitation occurring in the warmest months, due to the intense Siberian High forming around the very cold continental air during the winter. However, summer precipitation is not heavy since the moist southeasterly winds from the Pacific Ocean lose their moisture over the coastal mountains well before reaching the Lena valley.  With the Lena River navigable in the summer, there are various boat cruises offered, including upriver to the Lena Pillars, and downriver tours which visit spectacular scenery in the lower reaches and the Lena Delta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Yakutia Airlines has its head office in the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "There are several theaters in Yakutsk: the State Russian Drama Theater, named after A. S. Pushkin; the Sakha Theater, named after P. A. Oiyunsky; the Suorun Omoloon Young Spectator's Theater; and the State Academic Opera and Ballet Theater, named after D. K. Sivtsev.  There are a number of museums as well: the National Fine Arts Museum of Sakha; the Museum of Local Lore and History, named after E. Yaroslavsky; and the only museums in the world dedicated to the khomus and permafrost.  The annual Ysyakh summer festival takes place the last weekend in June. The traditional Yakut summer solstice festivities include a celebration of the revival and renewal of the nature, fertility and beginning of a new year. It is accompanied by national Yakut rituals and ceremonies, folk dancing, horse racing, Yakut ethnic music and singing, national cuisine, and competitions in traditional Yakut sports.  There is a local punk scene in Yakutsk, with many bands. Shows can bring up to 300 people, young but also older too.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Yakutsk is the capital of the Sakha Republic. As an inhabited locality, Yakutsk is classified as a city under republic jurisdiction. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with the settlement of Zhatay and eleven rural localities, incorporated as the city of republic significance of Yakutsk—an administrative unit with a status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Yakutsk and the eleven rural localities are incorporated as Yakutsk Urban Okrug. The settlement of Zhatay is not a part of Yakutsk Urban Okrug and is independently incorporated as Zhatay Urban Okrug.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Yakutsk is a destination of the Lena Highway. The city's connection to that highway is only usable by ferry in the summer, or in the dead of winter, by driving directly over the frozen Lena River, since Yakutsk lies entirely on its western bank, and there is no bridge anywhere in the Sakha Republic that crosses the Lena. The river is impassable for long periods of the year when it contains loose ice, when the ice cover is not thick enough to support traffic, or when the water level is too high and the river is turbulent with spring flooding. The highway ends on the eastern bank of Lena in Nizhny Bestyakh (Нижний Бестях), an urban-type settlement of some four thousand people. Yakutsk is connected with Magadan by the Kolyma Highway.  A highway bridge over the Lena in the Okrug had been scheduled to be built by the year 2020. However, as of 2018, no decision to actually build the bridge has been taken. The bridge had originally been planned to be a dual-use railroad and highway bridge so the Amur Yakutsk Mainline, the North–South railroad being extended from the south, could connect the city with the East–West Baikal Amur Mainline. The railroad reached the settlement of Nizhny Bestyakh, on the opposite bank of the Lena from Yakutsk, in November 2011.  The new river bridge would be over long and would be constructed upriver at Tabaga, where the river narrows and does not create a wide flooded area in spring. In the dead of winter, the frozen Lena River makes for a passable highway for ice truckers using its channel to deliver provisions to far-flung outposts. Yakutsk is also connected to other parts of Russia by Yakutsk Airport.  Construction of a road bridge over the River Lena to Yakutsk was approved by president Vladimir Putin on 9 November 2019. Cost of the bridge and its of approaches was estimated at 63.7 billion Rubles (83 billion rubles including VAT [НДС]), of which a grant of 54.2 billion Rubles was to be provided, with the remainder to be sourced from investors. The bridge was to be toll-free for cars, with a toll for trucks.  The 2019 completion of a new rail line to the eastern bank of the Lena permitted the start of passenger rail services between Yakutsk and the rest of Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education and research.", "content": "M.K.Ammosov North-Eastern Federal University is situated in the city. There is also a branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, which contains, among other things, the \"Institute of Cosmophysical Research\", which runs the Yakutsk Extensive Air Shower installation (one of the largest cosmic-ray detector arrays in the world), and the Melnikov Permafrost Institute, developed with the aim of solving the serious and costly problems associated with construction of buildings on frozen soil.  At the primary and secondary levels, the city has a number of UNESCO Associated Schools, including the Sakha-Turkish College, Sakha-French School, Sakha-Korean School, and School #16.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Yakutsk is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yakutsk (;, \"Cokuuskay\", ) is the capital city of the Sakha Republic, Russia, located about south of the Arctic Circle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971877}
{"src_title": "International E-road network", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "UNECE was formed in 1947, and their first major act to improve transport was a joint UN declaration no. 1264, the Declaration on the Construction of Main International Traffic Arteries, signed in Geneva on September 16, 1950, which defined the first E-road network. Originally it was envisaged that the E-road network would be a motorway system comparable to the US Interstate Highway System. The declaration was amended several times before November 15, 1975, when it was replaced by the European Agreement on Main International Traffic Arteries or \"AGR\", which set up a route numbering system and improved standards for roads in the list. The AGR last went through a major change in 1992 and in 2001 was extended into Central Asia to include the Caucasus nations. There were several minor revisions since, last in 2008 ().  These were the historical roads before 1975:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Numbering system.", "content": "The route numbering system is as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exceptions.", "content": "In the first established and approved version, the road numbers were well ordered. Since then a number of exceptions to this principle have been allowed.  Two Class-A roads, E6 and E4 were originally scheduled to be renamed into E47 and E55, respectively. However, since Sweden and Norway have integrated the E-roads into their national networks, signposted as E6 and E4 throughout, a decision was made to officially keep the pre-1992 numbers for the roads in those two countries. These exceptions were granted because of the excessive expense connected with re-signing not only the long routes themselves, but also the associated road network in the area. The new numbers are, however, used from Denmark and southward, though, as do other European routes within Scandinavia. These two roads are the most conspicuous exceptions to the rule that even numbers signify west-to-east E-roads.  Further exceptions are E67, going from Finland to Czech Republic (wrong side of E75 and E77), assigned around year 2000, simply because it was best available number for this new route, most of E63 in Finland (wrong side of E75) E8 in Finland (partly on the wrong side of E12 after a lengthening around 2002) and E82 (Spain and Portugal, wrong side of E80). These irregularities exist just because it is hard to maintain good order when extending the network, and the UNECE does not want to change road numbers unnecessarily.  Because the Socialist People's Republic of Albania refused to participate in international treaties such as the AGR, it was conspicuously excluded from the route scheme, with E65 and E90 making noticeable detours to go around it. In the 1990s, Albania opened up to the rest of Europe, but only ratified the AGR in August 2006, so its integration into the E-road network remains weak.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Signage.", "content": "Where the European routes are signed, green signs with white numbers are used. There are different strategies for determining how frequently to signpost the roads.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Road design standards.", "content": "The following design standards should be applied to Euroroutes unless there are exceptional circumstances (such as mountain passes etc.):  These requirements are meant to be followed for road construction. When new E-roads have been added these requirements have not been followed stringently. For example, the E45 in Sweden, added in 2006, has long parts with width or the E22 in eastern Europe forcing drivers to slow down to by taking the route through villages. In Norway, parts of the E10 are wide and in Central Asia some gravel roads have even been included.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural significance.", "content": "In Belgium, for example, motorway E-numbers have taken on the same kind of persistent cultural integration and significance as M-numbers in the UK, or Interstate numbers in the United States. Local businesses will refer to, or even incorporate the road designator in their business name. The annual road cycling race \"E3 Harelbeke\" takes part of its name from the former E3 (the part between Antwerp and Lille was renamed E17 in 1992). The same applies to the retail chain \"E5-mode\" (E5-fashion) that started with shops easily accessible from the former E5 (renamed E40 in 1992).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of roads.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes to the listings.", "content": "In the road listings below, a dash ('–') indicates a land road connection between two towns/cities—the normal case—while an ellipsis ('...') denotes a stretch across water. There aren't ferry connections at all of these places and operating ferry connections are usually run by private companies without support from the respective governments, i.e. may cease operating at any time.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The international E-road network is a numbering system for roads in Europe developed by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The network is numbered from E1 up and its roads cross national borders. It also reaches Central Asian countries like Kyrgyzstan, since they are members of the UNECE.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971878}
{"src_title": "Mariánské Lázně", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "German settlers were called into this region by Bohemian rulers from the Přemyslid dynasty in the 12th Century. Although the town itself is only about two hundred years old, the locality has been inhabited much longer. The first written record dates back to 1273, when there was a village of Úšovice. The springs first appear in a document dating from 1341 where they are called \"the Auschowitzer springs\" belonging to the Teplá Abbey. It was only through the efforts of Dr Josef Nehr, the abbey's physician, who from 1779 until his death in 1820 worked hard to demonstrate the curative properties of the springs, that the waters began to be used for medicinal purposes. The place obtained its current name of Marienbad in 1808; became a watering-place in 1818, and received its charter as a town in 1868.  By the early 20th century, approximately 1,000,000 bottles of mineral water were exported annually from Marienbad. The water from the Cross Spring (\"Kreuzquelle\", \"Křížový pramen\") was evaporated and the final product was sold as a laxative under the name of \"sal teplensis\". The modern spa town was founded by the Teplá abbots, namely Karl Kaspar Reitenberger, who also bought some of the surrounding forests to protect them. Under the guidance of gardener Václav Skalník, architect Jiří Fischer, and builder Anton Turner the inhospitable marshland valley was changed into a park-like countryside with colonnades, neoclassical buildings and pavilions around the springs.  The name Marienbad first appeared in 1786; since 1865 it has been a town. Then came a second period of growth, the town's Golden Era. Between 1870 and 1914 many new hotels, colonnades and other buildings, designed by Friedrich Zickler, Josef Schaffer, and Arnold Heymann, were constructed or rebuilt from older houses. In 1872 the town got a railway connection with the town of Cheb (Eger) and thus with the whole Austro-Hungarian Empire and the rest of Europe.  The town soon became one of the top European spas, popular with notable figures and rulers who often returned there. Among them were such names as Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Frédéric Chopin, Thomas Edison, Richard Wagner or Prince Friedrich of Saxony, King Edward VII of the United Kingdom, the Russian Czar Nicholas II, and Emperor Franz Joseph I and many others. At those times, about 20,000 visitors came every year.  Marienbad remained a popular destination between World War I and World War II. After World War II, the ethnic German population of the town was forcibly expelled according to the Potsdam agreement, thereby emptying the town of the majority of its population. After the communist coup-d'état in 1948; it got sealed off from most of its foreign visitors. After the return of democracy in 1989 much effort was put into restoring the town into its original character. Today it is not only a spa town but also a popular holiday resort thanks to its location among the green mountains of the Slavkovský les and the Český les, sport facilities (the town's first golf course was opened in 1905 by the British King Edward VII) and the proximity to other famous spa towns, such as Karlovy Vary (\"Carlsbad\") or Františkovy Lázně (\"Franzensbad\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "Until their expulsion in 1945 the majority of the population of the city spoke German (see Sudetenland). Nowadays, however, most of the inhabitants are Czechs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mineral springs and colonnades.", "content": "The top attraction of the town is its 100 mineral springs (53 of them are tapped) with high carbon dioxide content and often also higher iron content, both in the town itself and its surroundings. Most of them are well-kept and often pavilions and/or colonnades are built around them. The most notable ones are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Churches.", "content": "Because of the diverse number of visitors the town is able to maintain churches of several denominations. These include the Anglican Church designed by the notable Victorian architect William Burges and founded by Lady Anna Scott in memory of her husband who died in Mariánské Lázně in 1867. The church was constructed in 1879, shortly before Burges's own death. It is no longer in use as a place of worship and is now a concert hall.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public transport.", "content": "The town's public transport is operated mainly by trolleybuses and accompanied by buses servicing the neighbouring villages. There are currently 4 trolleybus lines and 4 bus lines in operation (2016).  The trolleybus system in Mariánské Lázně has been disputed several times since late 1990s by the town's council, claiming high network maintenance costs. Although this is true the current town's representation is looking for ways to keep the system running and asking for state and EU funds to preserve the system. The fact trolleybuses are emission-less makes them more suitable for a spa town than regular polluting buses - or even battery powered buses which are inadequate for a small system with minimal backups due to their low reliability. In addition Mariánské Lázně is one of the smallest towns in the world to operate a trolleybus system and may be viewed as one of the local tourist attractions, rising the value of the town.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "Mariánské Lázně has a very famous motorcycle racing circuit. The venue, a Speedway Longtrack, has hosted six Long Track World Champion finals and five rounds of Grand-Prix racing.  A number of notable people visited Mariánské Lázně, among them:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Mariánské Lázně is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mariánské Lázně (; ) is a spa town in the Karlovy Vary Region of the Czech Republic. The town, surrounded by green mountains, is a mosaic of parks and noble houses. Most of its buildings come from the town's Golden Era in the second half of the 19th century, when many celebrities and top European rulers came to enjoy the curative carbon dioxide springs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971879}
{"src_title": "Žatec", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest historical reference to the Bohemian fortress of \"Sacz\" is in the Latin chronicle of Thietmar of Merseburg of 1004, when King Henry II of Germany reconquered it from the Polish duke Bolesław I Chrobry. During the 11th century it belonged to the Vršovci - a powerful Czech aristocratic family. It received the privileges of a royal town under King Ottokar II of Bohemia in 1265. A coat-of-arms was given to the citizens by King Vladislav II for their courage during the storming of Milan.  From the outbreak of the Hussite Wars in 1419 to the Thirty Years' War, the town was Hussite or Protestant, but after the Battle of White Mountain (1620) the greater part of the Czech inhabitants left the town, which remained German and Roman Catholic until 1945, when the German speaking inhabitants were forced to leave their home and expelled to Germany. On June 3, 1945 about 5,000 German inhabitants were gathered on the Market place and marched to Postoloprty, where at least 763 were murdered in the Postoloprty massacre, estimates range up to 2,000 victims killed by Czechoslovak military in Žatec and on the March.  During and after the Second World War a Messerschmitt production facility and air base for testing aircraft, including new jet fighters, was located close to the town. In 1948 the production facility continued to produce the Avia S-199, a version of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 aircraft which were sold to Israel, with the initial training for the Israeli pilots provided at the air base. Many other military supplies were flown to Israel from the air base, which helped the new state to secure its independence.  The Czech Culture Ministry sent the nomination of Zatec as the town of hops for listing among the world heritage to the UNESCO committee on 29/05/2007. Unfortunately within this round Zatec did not make UNESCO World Heritage Sites list, but it has been encouraged by the respective committee assessing nominations to try again.  In 2018, Žatec was used as one of the locations for the Oscar-winning film, Jojo Rabbit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Žatec is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Žatec (; ) is a historic town in Louny District, Ústí nad Labem Region, in the Czech Republic. It is famous for an over-700-year-long tradition of growing Saaz noble hops used by several breweries. Žatec produces its own beer and hosts 'Dočesná', its hops-related harvest festival every year on the town square.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971880}
{"src_title": "Raimondo Montecuccoli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Montecuccoli was born on 21 February 1609 in the Castello di Montecuccolo in Pavullo nel Frignano, near Modena.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early military service.", "content": "At the age of sixteen Montecuccoli began as a private soldier under his uncle, Count Ernest Montecuccoli (died 1633), a distinguished Austrian general. Four years later, after much active service in Germany and the Low Countries, he became a captain of infantry. He was severely wounded at the storming of New Brandenburg, and again in the same year (1631) at the first battle of Breitenfeld, where he fell into the hands of the Swedes.  He was again wounded at Lützen in 1632, and on his recovery was made a major in his uncle's regiment. Shortly afterwards he became a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry. He did good service at the first battle of Nordlingen (1634), and at the storming of Kaiserslautern in the following year won his colonelcy by a feat of arms of unusual brilliance, a charge through the breach at the head of his heavy cavalry.  He fought in Pomerania, Bohemia and Saxony (surprise of Wolmirstadt, battles of Wittstock and Chemnitz), and in 1639 he was taken prisoner at Melnik and detained for two and a half years in Stettin and Weimar. In captivity he studied military science, and also geometry by the way of Euclid, history of Tacitus, and Vitruvius' architecture, all the while planning his great work on war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commanding officer.", "content": "Returning to Italy and to the field in 1642, Montecuccoli commanded mercenaries loyal to the Duke of his native Modena during the First War of Castro, but when that conflict ground to an unproductive stalemate he departed. His involvement, though understandable given his allegiance to Modena, was nonetheless unusual in that his service pitted him against the papal forces of Pope Urban VIII.  In 1643 he was promoted to lieutenant-field-marshal and obtained a seat in the Council of War. In 1645–46 he served in Hungary against Prince Rákóczy of Transylvania, on the Danube and Neckar against the French, and in Silesia and Bohemia against the Swedes. The victory of Triebel in Silesia won him the rank of \"General of Cavalry\", and at the battle of Zusmarshausen in 1648 his stubborn rearguard fighting rescued the imperials from annihilation.  For some years after the Peace of Westphalia Montecuccoli was chiefly concerned with the business of the council of war, though he went to Flanders and England as the representative of the emperor, and to Sweden as the envoy of the pope to Queen Christina, and at Modena his lance was victorious in a great tourney.  In 1657, soon after his marriage with Countess Margarethe de Dietrichstein, he was ordered by the Emperor to take part in the Habsburg expedition (as agreed between the King of Poland and the Emperor) against Prince Rákóczy, Charles X Gustav of Sweden and the Cossacks, who had already, in 1655, attacked the Kingdom of Poland in the war known in Poland as \"The Deluge\" or elsewhere as the \"Second Northern War\". During the conflict he was promoted to commanding officer of the division.  He became field-marshal in the imperial army and his division, along with Stefan Czarniecki's division, Frederick William's army and Danish forces, participated in the struggle in Denmark against the invading Swedes. Eventually the war ended with the Peace of Oliva in 1660 and Montecuccoli returned to his sovereign.  From 1661 to 1664 Montecuccoli, with inferior numbers, defended Austria against the Turks but at St. Gotthard Abbey, on the Rába, he and Carl I. Ferdinand Count of Montenari defeated the Turks so comprehensively that they entered into a twenty-year truce. They were given the Order of the Golden Fleece, and Montecuccoli became president of the council of war and director of artillery. He also devoted much time to compiling his various works on military history and science. He opposed the progress of the French arms under Louis XIV, and when the inevitable war broke out he received command of the imperial forces. In the campaign of 1673 he completely outmanoeuvred his rival Turenne on the Neckar and the Rhine, captured Bonn and joined his army with that of William III, the prince of Orange on the lower Rhine.  He retired from the army when, in 1674, the Great Elector was named command in chief, but the brilliant successes of Turenne in the winter of 1674 and 1675 brought him back. For months the two famous commanders manoeuvred against each other in the Rhine valley, but on the eve of a decisive battle Turenne was killed and Montecuccoli promptly invaded Alsace, where he engaged in another war of manoeuvre with the Great Condé. The siege of Philippsburg was Montecuccoli's last achievement in war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement and death.", "content": "The rest of Montecuccoli's life was spent in military administration and literary and scientific work at Vienna. In 1679 the emperor made him a prince of the empire, and shortly afterwards he received the dukedom of Melfi from the King of Spain.  Montecuccoli died in an accident at Linz in October 1680.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assessment.", "content": "As a general, Montecuccoli shared with Turenne and Condé the first place among European soldiers of his time. For his success in halting the Turkish advance he had been hailed the savior of Europe. He was also influential as a military theorist, with perhaps his most famous quote being \"For war you need three things: 1. Money. 2. Money. 3. Money.\" His \"Memorie della guerra\" profoundly influenced the age which followed his own. \"Unequalled as a master of 17th-century warfare, Montecuccoli excelled in the art of fortification and siege, march and countermarch, and cutting his enemy’s lines of communications. In advocating standing armies, he clearly foresaw future trends in the military field\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1657, Montecuccoli married Countess Margarethe de Dietrichstein. With the death of his only son Leopold Philip Montecuccoli in 1698 the principality became extinct, but the title of count descended through his daughters to two branches, Austrian and Modenese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "The \"Memorie della guerra\" was published at Venice in 1703 and at Cologne in 1704. A French edition was issued in Paris in 1712 and a Latin edition appeared in 1718 at Vienna, and the German \"Kriegsnachrichten des Fürsten Raymundi Montecuccoli\" was issued at Leipzig in 1736. Of this work there are manuscripts in various libraries, and many memoirs on military history, tactics, fortification, written in Italian, Latin and German, remain still unedited in the archives of Vienna. The collected \"Opere di Raimondo Montecuccoli\" were published at Milan (1807), Turin (1821) and Venice (1840), and include political essays and poetry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memorials.", "content": "In 1934 the Italian navy launched the \"Raimondo Montecuccoli\", a \"Condottieri \"class light cruiser named in his honour which served with the \"Regia Marina\" during World War II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Raimondo, Count of Montecuccoli (; ; 21 February 1609 – 16 October 1680) was an Italian-born professional soldier who served the Habsburg Monarchy. He was also a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire and Duke of Melfi, in the Kingdom of Naples.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971881}
{"src_title": "Ottavio Piccolomini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Piccolomini was born in Florence and received a military education as a young boy. He became a tercio pikeman for the Crown of Spain at the age of sixteen.  1618 saw the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War. Piccolomini was appointed captain of a cavalry regiment in Bohemia, sent by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to the emperor's army. He fought with distinction under Count Charles Bucquoy at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620 and later in Hungary. In 1624 he served for a short time again in the Spanish army and then as lieutenant-colonel of Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim's cuirassier regiment in the war with the Milanese. In 1627 he returned to the Imperial service as colonel and captain of the personal guard of Albrecht von Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland. In this capacity Piccolomini fell into disgrace for attempting to extort money from people of Stargard in Pomerania. But his dedication and contrition saw him returned to the rank of \"colonel of horse and foot\".  In 1629 his younger brother, Ascanio Piccolomini, was appointed Archbishop of Siena which secured the older Piccolomini brother a position of influence in the diplomatic world. Italians were at the centre of diplomacy in Europe (due in no small part to the influence of the Roman Catholic Church) and this was even more so the case for a family that had seen two of its members elected to the papal throne (Popes Pius II and Pius III). Wallenstein made use of his subordinate's capacity for negotiation and intrigue. During the Mantuan War, Piccolomini took a prominent part in the dual role of subtle diplomat and plundering soldier of fortune.  In 1630 came the invasion of Germany by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. Piccolomini was captured and held hostage at Ferrara for helping in unauthorised negotiations for peace with the Swedish Empire. Despite his support for Wallenstein, he was not included in the list of promotions when the Duke resumed action against Saxony, Brandenburg, Sweden and France. Thereafter, Piccolomini served as a colonel under Feldmarschallleutnant Heinrich Holk, a Danish officer, in the battle of Lützen and other operations.  Nineteenth-century authors were so impressed by Piccolomini's role in the battle of Lützen that they falsely ascribed to him the command of the entire Imperial left wing. He did, though, play a pivotal role at the head of his cavalry regiment, leading numerous cavalry charges against the Swedish army, having five horses shot under him, and receiving five painful bruises from musket balls that deflected off his armour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a commanding officer.", "content": "Piccolomini's efforts at Lützen were recognised by his contemporaries too – on reading the official report of the battle, the emperor made him \"General-Feldwachtmeister\" (a rank equivalent to major-general). At the same time, however, Holk, who had played an even more crucial role in holding the Imperial army together at Lützen, was promoted to field marshal at Wallenstein's insistence, much to Piccolomini's chagrin.  In the campaign of 1633 Piccolomini was appointed commander of a detachment posted at Königgratz assigned to bar the enemy's advance from Silesia into Bohemia. In May, Wallenstein entered Silesia with the main army in an attempt to compel the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony to join the Holy Roman Empire against the Swedes. Piccolomini was with Wallenstein but disapproved of his policy and joined in the military conspiracy to oust the Duke. On 24 January 1634 Ferdinand II signed a decree dismissing Wallenstein and instructed Count Gallas and Piccolomini to determine a course of action for removing the Duke, but did not specifically demand his death. Nevertheless, the conspiracy developed into a plot to assassinate the Duke; Wallenstein was killed on 25 February 1634 at Cheb Castle. Piccolomini's reward was his marshal's baton, 100,000 gulden and the estate of Náchod in the Orlické mountains in East Bohemia. Piccolomini's part in the assassination was set out in fictionalised form in Friedrich Schiller's play, \"Wallenstein\".  On 5 and 6 September of that same year, Piccolomini distinguished himself at the Battle of Nördlingen. By 1635, Piccolomini was again allied with a Spanish army but complained that their laziness and caution ruined every strategy he developed.  In 1638 he was made a Count of the Empire. In 1639, having won a great victory over the French (at the relief of Thionville, on 7 July), he was rewarded with elevation to the office of privy councillor and the dukedom of Amalfi from King Philip IV of Spain.  Following these illustrious rewards, Piccolomini had expected to be appointed as successor to Matthias Gallas. Instead of being appointed, though, he was called in to act as an assistant to Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria, with whom he served in the second battle of Breitenfeld in 1642. Thereafter he spent several years in the Spanish service and received the title of grandee and induction into the Order of the Golden Fleece.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Promotion to Generalissimo.", "content": "Some years later, having re-entered the Imperial army, he was again disappointed with the chief command's selection of Peter Melander, Count Holzapfel. But when in 1648 Melander fell in battle at Zusmarshausen, Piccolomini was at last appointed lieutenant-general of the emperor, and thus conducted as generalissimo the final weary and desultory campaign of the Thirty Years' War.  Three days after the commission for executing the peace had finished its labours, the emperor addressed a letter of thanks to the Prince Piccolomini, and awarded him a gift of 114,566 gulden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage, Death and legacy.", "content": "On 4 June 1651 he married Maria Benigna Francisca of Saxe-Lauenburg, daughter of Duke Julius Henry of Saxe-Lauenburg with no legitimate children.  He left an illegitimate son Josef Silvio, who was murdered by the Swedes after the Battle of Jankov (near Votice in the district of Tábor) in southern Bohemia in 1645. (His son Max in \"Wallenstein\" is a fictional character invented by Schiller.) Piccolomini's titles and estates passed to his brother's son. He had two known illegitimate sons – Ascanio and Diego, who left descendants, one in Bohemia the other in Italy. His elder son Ascanio died as a captain of infantry in the battle near Mírov in September 1643, while the younger son Diego died in Italy, gaining the title \"don\" and becoming a \"noble\" married to Nobile Donna Maria Anna Tarragona Ruxoto. Ascanio himself had an illegitimate son with Liduska Nyvlt. With the death of the latter's nephew Octavio Aeneas Josef in 1757, the line became extinct.  Piccolomini died after an accident on 11 August 1656 (falling from a horse).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ottavio Piccolomini (11 November 1599 – 11 August 1656) was an Italian nobleman whose military career included service as a Spanish general and then as a field marshal of the Holy Roman Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971882}
{"src_title": "Andrey Kolmogorov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Andrey Kolmogorov was born in Tambov, about 500 kilometers south-southeast of Moscow, in 1903. His unmarried mother, Maria Y. Kolmogorova, died giving birth to him. Andrey was raised by two of his aunts in Tunoshna (near Yaroslavl) at the estate of his grandfather, a well-to-do nobleman.  Little is known about Andrey's father. He was supposedly named Nikolai Matveevich Kataev and had been an agronomist. Nikolai had been exiled from St. Petersburg to the Yaroslavl province after his participation in the revolutionary movement against the czars. He disappeared in 1919 and was presumed to have been killed in the Russian Civil War.  Andrey Kolmogorov was educated in his aunt Vera's village school, and his earliest literary efforts and mathematical papers were printed in the school journal \"The Swallow of Spring\". Andrey (at the age of five) was the \"editor\" of the mathematical section of this journal. Kolmogorov's first mathematical discovery was published in this journal: at the age of five he noticed the regularity in the sum of the series of odd numbers: formula_1 etc.  In 1910, his aunt adopted him, and they moved to Moscow, where he graduated from high school in 1920. Later that same year, Kolmogorov began to study at the Moscow State University and at the same time Mendeleev Moscow Institute of Chemistry and Technology. Kolmogorov writes about this time: \"I arrived at Moscow University with a fair knowledge of mathematics. I knew in particular the beginning of set theory. I studied many questions in articles in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron, filling out for myself what was presented too concisely in these articles.\"  Kolmogorov gained a reputation for his wide-ranging erudition. While an undergraduate student in college, he attended the seminars of the Russian historian S. V. Bachrushin, and he published his first research paper on the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries' landholding practices in the Novgorod Republic. During the same period (1921–22), Kolmogorov worked out and proved several results in set theory and in the theory of Fourier series.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adulthood.", "content": "In 1922, Kolmogorov gained international recognition for constructing a Fourier series that diverges almost everywhere. Around this time, he decided to devote his life to mathematics.  In 1925, Kolmogorov graduated from the Moscow State University and began to study under the supervision of Nikolai Luzin. He formed a lifelong close friendship with Pavel Alexandrov, a fellow student of Luzin. Kolmogorov (together with Aleksandr Khinchin) became interested in probability theory. Also in 1925, he published his work in intuitionistic logic, \"On the principle of the excluded middle\", in which he proved that under a certain interpretation, all statements of classical formal logic can be formulated as those of intuitionistic logic. In 1929, Kolmogorov earned his Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree, from Moscow State University.  In 1930, Kolmogorov went on his first long trip abroad, traveling to Göttingen and Munich, and then to Paris. He had various scientific contacts in Göttingen. First of all with Richard Courant and his students working on limit theorems, where diffusion processes turned out to be the limits of discrete random processes, then with Hermann Weyl in intuitionistic logic, and lastly with Edmund Landau in function theory. His pioneering work, \"About the Analytical Methods of Probability Theory,\" was published (in German) in 1931. Also in 1931, he became a professor at the Moscow State University.  In 1933, Kolmogorov published his book, \"Foundations of the Theory of Probability\", laying the modern axiomatic foundations of probability theory and establishing his reputation as the world's leading expert in this field. In 1935, Kolmogorov became the first chairman of the department of probability theory at the Moscow State University. Around the same years (1936) Kolmogorov contributed to the field of ecology and generalized the Lotka–Volterra model of predator-prey systems.  In 1936, Kolmogorov and Alexandrov were involved in the political persecution of their common teacher Nikolai Luzin, in the so-called Luzin affair.  In a 1938 paper, Kolmogorov \"established the basic theorems for smoothing and predicting stationary stochastic processes\"—a paper that had major military applications during the Cold War. In 1939, he was elected a full member (academician) of the USSR Academy of Sciences.  During World War II Kolmogorov contributed to the Russian war effort by applying statistical theory to artillery fire, developing a scheme of stochastic distribution of barrage balloons intended to help protect Moscow from German bombers.  In his study of stochastic processes, especially Markov processes, Kolmogorov and the British mathematician Sydney Chapman independently developed the pivotal set of equations in the field, which have been given the name of the Chapman–Kolmogorov equations.  Later, Kolmogorov focused his research on turbulence, where his publications (beginning in 1941) significantly influenced the field. In classical mechanics, he is best known for the Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem, first presented in 1954 at the International Congress of Mathematicians. In 1957, working jointly with his student Vladimir Arnold, he solved a particular interpretation of Hilbert's thirteenth problem. Around this time he also began to develop, and was considered a founder of, algorithmic complexity theory – often referred to as Kolmogorov complexity theory.  Kolmogorov married Anna Dmitrievna Egorova in 1942. He pursued a vigorous teaching routine throughout his life, not only at the university level but also with younger children, as he was actively involved in developing a pedagogy for gifted children (in literature, music, and mathematics). At the Moscow State University, Kolmogorov occupied different positions, including the heads of several departments: probability, statistics, and random processes; mathematical logic. He also served as the Dean of the Moscow State University Department of Mechanics and Mathematics.  In 1971, Kolmogorov joined an oceanographic expedition aboard the research vessel \"Dmitri Mendeleev\". He wrote a number of articles for the \"Great Soviet Encyclopedia.\" In his later years, he devoted much of his effort to the mathematical and philosophical relationship between probability theory in abstract and applied areas.  Kolmogorov died in Moscow in 1987, and his remains were buried in the Novodevichy cemetery.  A quotation attributed to Kolmogorov is [translated into English]: \"Every mathematician believes that he is ahead of the others. The reason none state this belief in public is because they are intelligent people.\"  Vladimir Arnold once said: \"Kolmogorov – Poincaré – Gauss – Euler – Newton, are only five lives separating us from the source of our science\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards and honours.", "content": "Kolmogorov received numerous awards and honours both during and after his lifetime:  The following are named in Kolmogorov's honour:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "A bibliography of his works appeared in Textbooks:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov (, 25 April 1903 – 20 October 1987) was a Soviet mathematician who made significant contributions to the mathematics of probability theory, topology, intuitionistic logic, turbulence, classical mechanics, algorithmic information theory and computational complexity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971883}
{"src_title": "Pertinax", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "His career before becoming emperor is documented in the \"Historia Augusta\" and confirmed in many places by existing inscriptions. He was born in Alba Pompeia in Italy, the son of freedman Helvius Successus. Pertinax through the help of patronage was commissioned an officer in a cohort.  In the Parthian war that followed, he was able to distinguish himself, which resulted in a string of promotions, and after postings in Britain (as military tribune of the Legio VI \"Victrix\") and along the Danube, he served as a procurator in Dacia. He suffered a setback as a victim of court intrigues during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, but shortly afterwards he was recalled to assist Claudius Pompeianus in the Marcomannic Wars. In 175, he received the honor of a suffect consulship and until 185, Pertinax was governor of the provinces of Upper and Lower Moesia, Dacia, Syria and finally governor of Britain.  During the 180s, Pertinax took a pivotal role in the Roman Senate until the praetorian prefect Sextus Tigidius Perennis forced him out of public life. He was recalled after three years to Britain, where the Roman army was in a state of mutiny. He tried to quell the unruly soldiers there but one legion attacked his bodyguard, leaving Pertinax for dead. When he was forced to resign in 187, the reason given was that the legions had grown hostile to him because of his harsh rule.  He served as proconsul of Africa from 188–189, and followed this term of service with the urban prefecture of Rome, and a second consulship as ordinarius with the emperor Commodus as his colleague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Emperor.", "content": "When Commodus' behaviour became increasingly erratic throughout the early 190s, a conspiracy led to his assassination on 31 December 192. The plot was carried out by the Praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus, Commodus' mistress Marcia, and his chamberlain Eclectus. After the murder had been carried out, Pertinax, who was serving as urban prefect at this time, was hurried to the Praetorian Camp and proclaimed emperor the following morning. His short reign (86 days) was an uneasy one. He attempted to emulate the restrained practices of Marcus Aurelius, and made an effort to reform the alimenta but he faced antagonism from many quarters.  Ancient writers detail how the Praetorian Guard expected a generous donativum on his ascension, and when they were disappointed, agitated until he produced the money, selling off Commodus' property, including the concubines and youths Commodus kept for his sexual pleasures. He reformed the Roman currency dramatically, increasing the silver purity of the denarius from 74% to 87% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.22 grams to 2.75 grams.  Pertinax attempted to impose stricter military discipline upon the pampered Praetorians. In early March he narrowly averted one conspiracy by a group to replace him with the consul Quintus Sosius Falco while he was in Ostia inspecting the arrangements for grain shipments. The plot was betrayed; Falco himself was pardoned but several of the officers behind the coup were executed.  On 28 March 193, Pertinax was at his palace when, according to the \"Historia Augusta\", a contingent of some three hundred soldiers of the Praetorian Guard rushed the gates (two hundred according to Cassius Dio). Ancient sources suggest that they had received only half their promised pay. Neither the guards on duty nor the palace officials chose to resist them. Pertinax sent Laetus to meet them, but he chose to side with the insurgents instead and deserted the emperor.  Although advised to flee, he then attempted to reason with them, and was almost successful before being struck down by one of the soldiers. Pertinax must have been aware of the danger he faced by assuming the purple, for he refused to use imperial titles for either his wife or son, thus protecting them from the aftermath of his own assassination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "After Pertinax's death, the Praetorians auctioned off the imperial title, which was won by the wealthy senator Didius Julianus, whose reign would end on 1 June 193. Julianus was succeeded by Septimius Severus. After his entry to Rome, Septimius recognized Pertinax as a legitimate emperor, executed the soldiers who killed him, and not only pressured the Senate to deify him and provide him a state funeral, but also adopted his \"cognomen\" of Pertinax as part of his name. For some time, he held games on the anniversary of Pertinax's ascension and his birthday.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical reputation.", "content": "Pertinax's historical reputation is largely a positive one, beginning with the assessment of Cassius Dio, a historian and senator who was a colleague of Pertinax. Dio refers to him as \"an excellent and upright man\" who displayed \"not only humaneness and integrity in the imperial administrations, but also the most economical management and the most careful consideration for the public welfare.\"  Dio's approval is not unqualified, however. He acknowledges that while some would call Pertinax's decision to confront the soldiers that would wind up killing him \"noble\", others would call it \"senseless\". He is also critical of Pertinax's judgment when it came to the speed with which he tried to reform the excesses of the reign of Commodus, suggesting that a more tempered approach would have been less likely to result in his murder.  Pertinax is discussed in \"The Prince\" by Niccolò Machiavelli. When discussing the importance of a prince not being hated, Machiavelli provides Pertinax as an example of how it is as easy for a ruler to be hated for good actions as for bad ones. Though describing him as a good man, Machiavelli considered Pertinax's attempt to reform a soldiery that had become \"accustomed to live licentiously\" a mistake, as it inspired their hatred of him, which led to his overthrow and death.  Pertinax is described by David Hume in his essay \"Of the Original Contract\" as an \"excellent prince\" possessing an implied modesty when, on the arrival of soldiers who had come to proclaim him emperor, he believed that Commodus had ordered his death.  During the debate over ratification of the United States Constitution, Virginia politician John Dawson, at the state's ratifying convention in 1788, spoke of the \"atrocious murder\" of Pertinax by the Praetorian Guard as an example of the danger of establishing a standing army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Pertinax was the pseudonym of the French journalist André Géraud (1882–1974).  In \"\"Romanitas\"\", a fictional alternate history novel by Sophia McDougall, Pertinax's reign is the point of divergence. In the history as established by the novel, the plot against Pertinax was thwarted, and Pertinax introduced a series of reforms that would consolidate the Roman Empire to such a degree that it would still be a major power in the 21st century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pertinax (; Publius Helvius Pertinax; 1 August 126 – 28 March 193) was a Roman soldier and politician who ruled as Roman emperor for the first three months of 193. He succeeded Commodus to become the first emperor during the tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971884}
{"src_title": "The Tin Drum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The story revolves around the life of Oskar Matzerath, as narrated by himself when confined in a mental hospital during the years 1952–1954. Born in 1924 in the Free City of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland), with an adult's capacity for thought and perception, he decides never to grow up when he hears his father declare that he would become a grocer. Gifted with a piercing shriek that can shatter glass or be used as a weapon, Oskar declares himself to be one of those \"clairaudient infants\", whose \"spiritual development is complete at birth and only needs to affirm itself\". He retains the stature of a child while living through the beginning of World War II, several love affairs, and the world of postwar Europe. Through all this, a toy tin drum, the first of which he received as a present on his third birthday, followed by many replacement drums each time he wears one out from over-vigorous drumming, remains his treasured possession; he is willing to commit violence to retain it.  Oskar considers himself to have two \"presumptive fathers\"—his mother's husband Alfred Matzerath, a member of the Nazi Party, and her cousin and lover Jan Bronski, a Danzig Pole who is executed for defending the Polish Post Office in Danzig during the German invasion of Poland. Oskar's mother having died, Alfred marries Maria, a woman who is secretly Oskar's first mistress. After marrying Alfred, Maria gives birth to Kurt, whom Oskar thereafter refers to as his son. But Oskar is disappointed to find that the baby persists in growing up, and will not join him in ceasing to grow at the age of three.  During the war, Oskar joins a troupe of performing dwarfs who entertain the German troops at the front line. But when his second love, the diminutive Roswitha, is killed by Allied troops in the invasion of Normandy, Oskar returns to his family in Danzig where he becomes the leader of a criminal youth gang (akin to the Edelweiss Pirates). The Russian army soon captures Danzig, and Alfred is shot by invading troops after he goes into seizures while swallowing his party pin to avoid being revealed as a Nazi.  Oskar bears some culpability for both of his presumptive fathers' deaths since he leads Joseph Bronski to the Polish Post Office in an effort to get his drum repaired and since he returns Alfred Matzerath's Nazi party pin while the latter is being interrogated by Soviet soldiers.  After the war Oskar, his widowed stepmother, and their son have to leave the now Polish city of Danzig and move to Düsseldorf, where he models in the nude and works engraving tombstones. Mounting tensions compel Oskar to live apart from Maria and Kurt; he decides on a flat owned by the Zeidlers. Upon moving in, he falls in love with Sister Dorothea, a neighbor, but he later fails to seduce her. During an encounter with fellow musician Klepp, Klepp asks Oskar how he has an authority over the judgement of music. Oskar, willing to prove himself once and for all, picks up his drum and sticks despite his vow to never play again after Alfred's death, and plays a measure on his drum. The ensuing events lead Klepp, Oskar, and Scholle, a guitarist, to form the Rhine River Three jazz band. They are discovered by Mr. Schmuh, who invites them to play at the Onion Cellar club. After a virtuoso performance, a record company talent seeker discovers Oskar the jazz drummer and offers a contract. Oskar soon achieves fame and riches. One day while walking through a field he finds a severed finger: the ring finger of Sister Dorothea, who has been murdered. He then meets and befriends Vittlar. Oskar allows himself to be falsely convicted of the murder and is confined to an insane asylum, where he writes his memoirs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main characters.", "content": "The novel is divided into three books. The main characters in each book are:  Book One:  Book Two:  Book Three:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "Oskar Matzerath is an unreliable narrator, as his sanity, or insanity, never becomes clear. He tells the tale in first person, though he occasionally diverts to third person, sometimes within the same sentence. As an unreliable narrator, he may contradict himself within his autobiography, as with his varying accounts of, but not exclusively, the Defense of the Polish Post Office, his grandfather Koljaiczek's fate, his paternal status over Kurt, Maria's son, and many others.  The novel is strongly political in nature, although it goes beyond a political novel in the writing's stylistic plurality. There are elements of allegory, myth and legend, placing it in the genre of magic realism.  \"The Tin Drum\" has religious overtones, both Jewish and Christian. Oskar holds conversations with both Jesus and Satan throughout the book. His gang members call him \"Jesus\", then he refers to himself as \"Satan\" later in the book.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "Initial reaction to \"The Tin Drum\" was mixed. It was called blasphemous and pornographic by some, and legal action was taken against it and Grass. However, by 1965 sentiment had cemented into public acceptance, and it soon became recognized as a classic of post-World War II literature, both in Germany and around the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translation.", "content": "A translation into English by Ralph Manheim was published in 1961. A new 50th anniversary translation into English by Breon Mitchell was published in 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "In 1979 a film adaptation appeared by Volker Schlöndorff. It covers only Books 1 and 2, concluding at the end of the war. It shared the 1979 Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or with \"Apocalypse Now\". It also won the Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film of 1979 at the 1980 Academy Awards.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Radio.", "content": "In 1996 a radio dramatisation starring Phil Daniels was broadcast by BBC Radio 4. Adapted by Mike Walker, it won the British Writers Guild award for best dramatisation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theatre.", "content": "Kneehigh theatre company with the Everyman theatre produced a theatre adaptation in 2017. The production is mostly sung, and features the story from birth through the war, and then ends with Oskar marrying Maria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Idiom.", "content": "To \"beat a tin drum\" when used as an idiom means to create a disturbance in order to bring attention to a cause. This is based on an interpretation of the book where Oskar's beating \"his tin drum symbolizes his protest against the middle-class mentality of his family and neighborhood.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Tin Drum () is a 1959 novel by Günter Grass. The novel is the first book of Grass's \"\" (Danzig Trilogy). It was adapted into a 1979 film, which won both the Palme d'Or, in the same year, and the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film the following year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971885}
{"src_title": "Lens hood", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cause of lens flare.", "content": "Flare occurs when stray light strikes the front element of a lens and then bounces around within the lens. This stray light often comes from very bright light sources, such as the Sun, bright studio lights, or a bright white background. If a light source is in the lens' angle of view, a lens hood will hardly have any effect, but the light does not have to cause lens flare. It is sufficient that stray light from a bright light source enters the lens. Multi-layer coatings in newer lenses also help to reduce lens flare.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "The shape of a lens hood can vary from a plain cylindrical or conical section (much like a lamp shade) to a more complex shape, sometimes called a petal, tulip, or flower hood. These more complex shapes take into account the final image's shape and aspect ratio. This allows the lens hood to block stray light with the longer portions of the lens hood, while allowing more light into the corners of the image through the shorter portions of the hood, thereby reducing the amount of mechanical vignetting (reduction of light around the periphery) in the final image.  The geometry of a lens hood is dependent on three things: Ideally, lens hoods should increase in length, and therefore in efficiency, as the focal length of the lens increases and the angle of view reduces. Lens hoods are more prominent in long focus lenses because they have a smaller viewing angle than that of wide-angle lenses. For wide angle lenses, the length of the hood (away from the end of the lens) cannot be as long as those for telephoto lenses, as a longer hood would enter the wider field of view of the lens.  Maximum aperture also affects the shape of a lens hood. As the aperture gets larger the amount of light and consequentially the amount of the frame the sensor \"sees\" increases. This can be seen when comparing two lens hoods of the same focal length but with differing apertures – compare the lens hood of a telephoto 4 lens with that of the same lens but with a maximum aperture of 2.8.  Correctly made rectangular or square lens hoods are generally more efficient than cylindrical or conical ones because those shapes closely resemble the shape of the photograph. However, rectangular or square lens hoods should not be used with zoom lenses whose front elements rotate as the focal length is changed, as the hood will rotate as well, blocking parts of the angle of view. The same also applies to petal lens hoods. For these types of lenses, only cylindrical or conical lens hoods will work effectively.  In addition, lens hoods can offer some degree of physical protection for the lens due to the hood extending farther than the lens itself.  Lens hoods with an extending bellows design (much like the bellows of a medium or large format camera) can be adjusted for depth. This means that the depth can be increased when used on longer focal length lenses, and reduced as necessary for shorter focal length lenses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Storage.", "content": "Lens hoods that are supplied by the manufacturer of the lens are often designed to fit onto the matching lens facing either forward, for normal use, or backwards, so that the hood may be stored with the lens without occupying much additional space. Rubber lens hoods are flexible and generally collapse for storage. However other lens hoods must be removed if these features are not available and length extension of the lens is not preferred during storage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In photography, a lens hood or lens shade is a device used on the front end of a lens to block the Sun or other light source(s) to prevent glare and lens flare. Lens hoods may also be used to protect the lens from scratches and the elements without having to put on a lens cover. The geometry of a lens hood is dependent on three parameters: the focal length of the lens, the size of the front lens element and the dimensions of the image sensor or film in the camera.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971886}
{"src_title": "Imperial Regalia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Components.", "content": "The regalia is composed of two different parts. The greater group are the so-called Nürnberger Kleinodien (roughly translated \"Nuremberg jewels\"), named after the town of Nuremberg, where the regalia were kept from 1424 to 1796. This part comprised the Imperial Crown, parts of the coronation vestments, the Imperial Orb, the Imperial Sceptre, the Imperial Sword, the Ceremonial Sword, the Imperial Cross, the Holy Lance, and all other reliquaries except St. Stephen's Purse.  St. Stephen's Purse, the Imperial Bible, and the so-called Sabre of Charlemagne were kept in Aachen until 1794, which gave them the name Aachener Kleinodien (\"Aachen jewels\"). It is not known how long they have been considered among the Imperial Regalia, nor how long they had been in Aachen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "The inventory of the regalia during the late Middle Ages normally consisted only of five to six items. Goffredo da Viterbo counted following items: the Imperial Cross, the Holy Lance, the crown, the sceptre, the orb, and the sword. On other lists, however, the sword is not mentioned.  Whether the medieval chronicles really do refer to the same regalia which are kept in Vienna today depends on a variety of factors. Descriptions of the emperors only spoke of them being “clothed in imperial regalia” without exactly describing which items they were.  The crown can only be dated back to the 13th century, when it is described in a medieval poem. The poem speaks of the \"Waise\" (i.e., \"The Orphan\") stone, which was a big and prominent jewel on the front of the crown, probably a white opal with an exceptionally brilliant red fire and has since been replaced by a triangular blue sapphire. The first definite pictorial image of the crown can only be found later in a mural in the Karlstein Castle close to Prague.  It is also difficult to define for how long the Imperial and Ceremonial Swords have belonged to the regalia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Whereabouts in medieval times.", "content": "Until the 15th century the Imperial Regalia had no firm depository and sometimes accompanied the ruler on his trips through the empire. Above all with conflicts around the legality of the rule it was important to own the insignia. As depositories during this time some imperial castles or seats of reliable ministerialises are known:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Committal to Nuremberg.", "content": "Emperor Sigismund transferred the Imperial Regalia \"to everlasting preservation\" to the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg with a dated document on 29 September 1423. They arrived there on 22 March in the next year from Plintenburg coming and were kept in the \"Heilig-Geist-Spital\". They left this place regularly for the \"Heiltumsweisungen\" (, yearly on the fourteenth day after Good Friday) and for coronations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ceremonial decoration.", "content": "Since the Age of Enlightenment at least, the imperial regalia had no constitutive or confirming character for the imperial function any more. It served merely as an adornment for the coronation of the emperors, who all belonged to the House of Habsburg and since the early 16th century had ceased to be crowned by the pope. Johann Wolfgang Goethe on 3 April 1764, was an eyewitness in Frankfurt during the coronation of the 18-year-old Joseph, Duke of Lorraine to King in Germany. He wrote dismissively about the event in his autobiography \"Dichtung und Wahrheit\" ():", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Refuge in Vienna.", "content": "While French troops were advancing in 1794 in the direction of Aachen, the pieces located there were spent in the Capuchin's monastery to Paderborn. In July 1796 French troops crossed the Rhine and shortly after reached Franconia. On 23 July a part of the Imperial Regalia (crown, sceptre, orb, eight pieces of the vestments) were transported by Nuremberg colonel Johann Georg Haller von Hallerstein from Nuremberg to Regensburg, where they arrived on the next day. On 28 September the remaining parts of the jewels were also delivered to Regensburg. Since this elopement parts of the treasure are missing.  Until 1800 the Imperial Regalia remained in the St. Emmeram Castle in Regensburg, from where on 30 June their transfer began to Vienna. There the committal is verified for 29 October. The pieces from Aachen were brought in 1798 to Hildesheim and reached Vienna not before 1801.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Time of the National Socialism and post-war period.", "content": "After the \"Anschluss\" of Austria to the Nazi Reich in 1938 the imperial regalia were returned on instruction by Adolf Hitler to Nuremberg, where they were exhibited in the Katharinenkirche. In the Second World War they were stored for protection from air raids in the \"Historischer Kunstbunker\" () beneath Nuremberg Castle. In 1945 the imperial regalia were found there by US soldiers and were brought back in 1946 to the Hofburg in Vienna.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Imperial Regalia, also Imperial Insignia (in German \"Reichskleinodien\", \"Reichsinsignien\" or \"Reichsschatz\"), are regalia of the Holy Roman Emperor. The most important parts are the Imperial Crown, the Holy Lance and the Imperial Sword. Today they are kept at the Imperial Treasury in the Hofburg palace in Vienna, Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971887}
{"src_title": "Arnold of Brescia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Brescia, Arnold became an Augustinian canon and then prior of a monastery in Brescia. He criticized the Catholic Church's temporal powers that involved it in a land struggle in Brescia against the Count-Bishop of Brescia. He called on the Church to renounce its claim and return ownership to the city government so as not to be tainted by possession—renunciation of worldliness being one of his primary teachings. He was condemned at the Second Lateran Council in 1139 and forced from Italy.  According to the chronicler Otto of Freising, Arnold had studied in Paris under the tutelage of the reformer and philosopher Pierre Abélard. He took to Abélard's philosophy of reform ways. The issue came before the Synod of Sens in 1141 and both Arnold and Abélard's positions were overruled by Bernard of Clairvaux. Arnold stood alone against the church's decision after Abélard's capitulation; he returned to Paris, where he continued to teach and preach against Bernard. As a consequence he was then commanded to silence and exiled by Pope Innocent II. He took refuge first in Zürich and then probably in Bavaria. His writings were also condemned to be burned as a further measure, though the condemnation is the only evidence that he had actually written anything. Arnold continued to preach his radical ideas concerning apostolic poverty. Arnold, who is known only from the vituperative condemnation of his foes, was declared to be a demagogue; his motives were impugned.  Having returned to Italy after 1143, Arnold made his peace in 1145 with Pope Eugene III, who ordered him to submit himself to the mercy of the Church in Rome. When he arrived, he found that Giordano Pierleoni's followers had asserted the ancient rights of the commune of Rome, taken control of the city from papal forces, and founded a republic, the Commune of Rome. Arnold sided with the people immediately and, after Pierleoni's deposition, soon rose to the intellectual leadership of the Commune, calling for liberties and democratic rights. Arnold taught that clergy who owned property had no power to perform the Sacraments. He succeeded in driving Pope Eugene into exile in 1146, for which he was excommunicated on 15 July 1148. When Pope Eugene returned to the city in 1148, Arnold continued to lead the blossoming republic despite his excommunication. In summing up these events, Caesar Baronius called Arnold \"the father of political heresies\", while Edward Gibbon later expressed his view that \"the trumpet of Roman liberty was first sounded by Arnold.\"  After Pope Eugene's death, Pope Adrian IV swiftly took steps to regain control of Rome. He allied with Frederick Barbarossa, who took Rome by force in 1155 after a Holy Week interdict and forced Arnold again into exile. Arnold was seized by Imperial forces and tried by the Roman Curia as a rebel. Importantly, he was never accused of heresy. Faced with the stake, he refused to recant any of his positions. Convicted of rebellion, Arnold was hanged in June and his body burnt. Because he remained a hero to large sections of the Roman people and the minor clergy, his ashes were cast into the Tiber, to prevent his burial place becoming venerated as the shrine of a martyr.  In 1882, after the collapse of Papal temporal powers, the city of Brescia erected a monument to its native son.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arnold of Brescia ( 1090 – June 1155), also known as Arnaldus (), was an Italian canon regular from Lombardy. He called on the Church to renounce property ownership and participated in the failed Commune of Rome.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971888}
{"src_title": "Pascendi Dominici gregis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Context.", "content": "Pius X viewed the church as under siege, intellectually from rationalism and materialism, politically from liberalism and anti-clericalism. The pope condemned modernism, a loose movement of Catholic biblical scholars, philosophers and theologians who believed that the church could not ignore new scientific historical research concerning the Bible. Maude Petre would later recall, \"We must remember, in fairness to those who were not always fair, that the impact of historical criticism on the traditional teaching of the Church was terrifying; that it seemed a case of saving the very essence of the Christian faith from destruction.\"  Alfred Loisy held that only scientific exegesis is verifiable and therefore, reliable. Interpretation based on faith, on the other hand, \"is a purely subjective\". This discounts entirely the value of revelation. Concerning Jesus, \"In the person of Christ, they say, science and history encounter nothing that is not human. Therefore, in virtue of the first canon deduced from agnosticism, whatever there is in His history suggestive of the divine, must be rejected.\". The threat was seen as more severe as appearing to come from member of the ordained clergy.  Much of the encyclical was drafted by Joseph Lemius, Procurator General of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate, and Capuchin Cardinal José Calassanç Vives y Tuto.  It condemned the proposition that religion is merely a sentiment based on a psychological need for the divine.  Following the example of the bishops of Umbria, Pius X directed the bishops to establish councils to look into any errors being promoted in their dioceses and to inform the bishop thereof, with particular attention given to the curriculum and texts used in the seminaries and schools. It also reiterated a 1896 decree of the Congregation of Indulgences and Sacred Relics that \"Ancient relics are to retain the veneration they have always enjoyed except when in individual instances there are clear arguments that they are false or suppositions.' If however, the bishop knows the relic is not authentic, it is to be withdrawn from veneration, and if authentication has been lost due to civil disturbances, no relic may be presented for public veneration before the bishop has verified it.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pascendi Dominici gregis () is a papal encyclical letter, subtitled \"On the Doctrines of the Modernists\", promulgated by Pope Pius X on 8 September 1907.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971889}
{"src_title": "Osip Mandelstam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Mandelstam was born in Warsaw, Congress Poland, Russian Empire to a wealthy Polish-Jewish family. His father, a leather merchant by trade, was able to receive a dispensation freeing the family from the Pale of Settlement. Soon after Osip's birth, they moved to Saint Petersburg. In 1900, Mandelstam entered the prestigious Tenishev School. His first poems were printed in 1907 in the school's almanac.  In April 1908, Mandelstam decided to enter the Sorbonne in Paris to study literature and philosophy, but he left the following year to attend the University of Heidelberg in Germany. In 1911, he decided to continue his education at the University of Saint Petersburg, from which Jews were excluded. He converted to Methodism and entered the university the same year. He did not complete a formal degree.  Mandelstam's poetry, acutely populist in spirit after the first Russian revolution in 1905, became closely associated with symbolist imagery. In 1911, he and several other young Russian poets formed the \"Poets' Guild\", under the formal leadership of Nikolai Gumilyov and Sergei Gorodetsky. The nucleus of this group became known as Acmeists. Mandelstam wrote the manifesto for the new movement: \"The Morning Of Acmeism\" (1913, published in 1919). In 1913 he published his first collection of poems, \"The Stone\"; it was reissued in 1916 under the same title, but with additional poems included.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "Mandelstam was said to have had an affair with the poet Anna Akhmatova. She insisted throughout her life that their relationship had always been a very deep friendship, rather than a sexual affair. In the 1910s, he was in love, secretly and unrequitedly, with a Georgian princess and St. Petersburg socialite Salomea Andronikova, to whom Mandelstam dedicated his poem \"Solominka\" (1916).  In 1922, Mandelstam married Nadezhda Khazina in Kiev, Ukraine, where she lived with her family, but the coupled settled in Moscow. He continued to be attracted to other women, sometimes seriously. Their marriage was threatened by his falling in love with other women, notably Olga Vaksel in 1924-25 and Mariya Petrovykh in 1933-34.  During Mandelstam's years of imprisonment, 1934–38, Nadezhda accompanied him into exile. Given the real danger that all copies of Osip's poetry would be destroyed, she worked to memorize his entire corpus, as well as to hide and preserve select paper manuscripts, all the while dodging her own arrest. In the 1960s and 1970s, as the political climate thawed, she was largely responsible for arranging clandestine republication of Mandelstam's poetry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career, political persecution and death.", "content": "In 1922, Mandelstam and Nadezhda moved to Moscow. At this time, his second book of poems, \"Tristia\", was published in Berlin. For several years after that, he almost completely abandoned poetry, concentrating on essays, literary criticism, memoirs \"The Noise Of Time\", \"Feodosiya\" - both 1925; (\"Noise of Time\" 1993 in English) and small-format prose \"The Egyptian Stamp\" (1928). As a day job, he translated literature into Russian (19 books in 6 years), then worked as a correspondent for a newspaper.  In the autumn of 1933, Mandelstam composed the poem \"Stalin Epigram\", which he read at a few small private gatherings in Moscow. The poem was a sharp criticism of the \"Kremlin highlander\". Six months later, in 1934, Mandelstam was arrested. But, after interrogation about his poem, he was not immediately sentenced to death or the Gulag, but to exile in Cherdyn in the Northern Ural, where he was accompanied by his wife. After he attempted suicide, and following an intercession by Nikolai Bukharin, the sentence was lessened to banishment from the largest cities. Otherwise allowed to choose his new place of residence, Mandelstam and his wife chose Voronezh.  This proved a temporary reprieve. In the next years, Mandelstam wrote a collection of poems known as the \"Voronezh Notebooks\", which included the cycle \"Verses on the Unknown Soldier\". He also wrote several poems that seemed to glorify Stalin (including \"Ode To Stalin\"). However, in 1937, at the outset of the Great Purge, the literary establishment began to attack him in print, first locally, and soon after from Moscow, accusing him of harbouring anti-Soviet views.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second arrest and death.", "content": "Early the following year, Mandelstam and his wife received a government voucher for a holiday not far from Moscow; upon their arrival in May 1938, he was arrested on 5 May (ref. camp document of 12 October 1938, signed by Mandelstam) and charged with \"counter-revolutionary activities\". Four months later, on 2 August 1938, Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in correction camps. He arrived at the Vtoraya Rechka (Second River) transit camp near Vladivostok in Russia's Far East and managed to get a note out to his wife asking for warm clothes; he never received them. He died from cold and hunger. His death was described later in a short story \"Sherry Brandy\" by Varlam Shalamov.  Mandelstam's own prophecy was fulfilled: \"Only in Russia is poetry respected, it gets people killed. Is there anywhere else where poetry is so common a motive for murder?\" Nadezhda wrote memoirs about her life and times with her husband in \"Hope against Hope\" (1970) and \"Hope Abandoned\". She also managed to preserve a significant part of Mandelstam's unpublished work.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Osip Emilyevich Mandelstam (; – 27 December 1938) was a Russian and Soviet poet and essayist of Jewish origin. He was the husband of Nadezhda Mandelstam and one of the foremost members of the Acmeist school of poets. He was arrested by Joseph Stalin's government during the repression of the 1930s and sent into internal exile with his wife.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971890}
{"src_title": "High Tauern", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "According to the Alpine Club classification of the Eastern Alps, the range is bounded by the Salzach valley to the north (separating it from the Kitzbühel Alps), the Mur valley and the Murtörl Pass to the east (separating it from the Lower Tauern), the Drava valley to the south (separating it from the Southern Limestone Alps), and the Birnlücke Pass to the west (separating it from the Zillertal Alps).  Its most important subgroups along the Alpine crest are (from West to East):  The eastern end of the High Tauern is formed by the Hafner massif of the Ankogel Group, which includes the easternmost three-thousander peaks in the Alpine chain.  Further parts of the High Tauern south of the main crest of the Alps are (from West to East):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "High Tauern National Park.", "content": "Along of the main chain stretches the High Tauern National Park (\"Nationalpark Hohe Tauern\"), to which the Austrian Alpine Club as freeholder and the three states of Carinthia, Salzburg and Tyrol have contributed territory. With an area of about, it is by far the largest of Austria's seven national parks as well as the largest nature reserve in the Alps. It is divided into a core zone of including the Grossglockner and Grossvenediger massifs, with complete prohibition of agricultural use, and a fringe zone of used for forestry and alpine-meadow farming. Five special nature sanctuaries are protected from any human disturbance.  The park of the IUCN II category comprises the Pasterze and numerous further glaciers, the Krimml Waterfalls, several glacial valleys and alluvial fans, as well as extended tundra areas and forests. Among the flora of the Alps, especially Swiss Pines grow along the tree line; above subshrub, mainly alpenrose but also the endemic \"Saxifraga rudolphiana\", up to nival level at about 2,800 m (9,200 ft). The fauna includes chamois, Alpine ibex and red deer, as well as griffon vulture and the golden eagle. The formerly extinct bearded vulture and the Alpine marmot have been successfully reintroduced.  The park was established according to a 1971 declaration signed by the participating states at Heiligenblut, it nevertheless took until 1981, when the first parts around Großglockner and Hochschober in Carinthia were put under protection. The adjacent area in Salzburg followed two years later, and Tyrol finally joined in 1992. Tourism only increased marginally since the creation of the national park, but has become less harmful to the environment. A particular emphasis is put on environmental protection and the maintenance of traditional ways of life in the Alps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Peaks.", "content": "The main peaks of the High Tauern are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tunnels and passes.", "content": "The High Tauern are crossed by three tunnels:  The best-known mountain pass road of the High Tauern is the scenic Grossglockner High Alpine Road inaugurated in 1935, including a tunnel at an elevation of under the Hochtor Pass (). East of it, the Katschberg Pass () on \"B 99\" Katschberg Straße highway parallel to the Katschberg Tunnel links Sankt Michael and Rennweg. Another road crosses the Staller Sattel between Sankt Jakob in Defereggen and Rasen-Antholz at.  Beside there are numerous bridle and footpaths, in part used since ancient times:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The High Tauern (pl.;, ) are a mountain range on the main chain of the Central Eastern Alps, comprising the highest peaks east of the Brenner Pass. The crest forms the southern border of the Austrian states of Salzburg, Carinthia and East Tyrol, with a small part in the southwest belongs to the Italian province of South Tyrol. The range includes Austria's highest mountain, the Grossglockner at above the Adriatic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971891}
{"src_title": "Fire alarm system", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "After the fire protection are established – usually by referencing the minimum levels of protection mandated by the appropriate model building code, insurance agencies, and other authorities – the fire alarm designer undertakes to detail specific components, arrangements, and interfaces necessary to accomplish these goals. Equipment specifically manufactured for these purposes is selected and standardized installation methods are anticipated during the design.  Last version 2019; Status, Published. This code is part of a family standard NFPA  There are national codes in each European country for planning, design, installation, commissioning, use and maintenance of fire detection system with additional requirements that are mentioned on TS 54 -14  As per NFPA 72, 18.4.2 (2010 Edition)Temporal Code 3 is the standard audible notification in a modern system. It consists of a repeated 3-pulse cycle (.5s on.5s off.5s on.5s off.5s on 1.5s off). Voice Evacuation is the second most common audible in a modern system. Legacy systems, typically found in older schools and buildings have used continuous tones alongside other audible schemas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mass notification systems/emergency communication systems.", "content": "Mass notification systems often extend the notification appliances of a standard fire alarm system to include PC based workstations, text-based digital signage, and a variety of remote notification options including email, text message, RSS feed, or IVR-based telephone text-to-speech messaging.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European fire alarm system categories.", "content": "Fire alarm systems in non-domestic premises are generally designed and installed in accordance with the guidance given in BS 5839 Part 1. There are many types of fire alarm systems each suited to different building types and applications. A fire alarm system can vary dramatically in both price and complexity, from a single panel with a detector and sounder in a small commercial property to an addressable fire alarm system in a multi-occupancy building.  BS 5839 Part 1 categorizes fire alarm systems as:  Categories for automatic systems are further subdivided into L1 to L5 and P1 to P2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zoning.", "content": "An important consideration when designing fire alarms is that of individual zones. The following recommendations are found in BS 5839 Part 1:  Also, the NFPA recommends placing a list for reference near the FACP showing the devices contained in each zone.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A fire alarm system has a number of devices working together to detect and warn people through visual and audio appliances when smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or other emergencies are present. These alarms may be activated automatically from smoke detectors, and heat detectors or may also be activated via manual fire alarm activation devices such as manual call points or pull stations. Alarms can be either motorized bells or wall mountable sounders or horns. They can also be speaker strobes which sound an alarm, followed by a voice evacuation message which warns people inside the building not to use the elevators. Fire alarm sounders can be set to certain frequencies and different tones including low, medium and high, depending on the country and manufacturer of the device. Most fire alarm systems in Europe sound like a siren with alternating frequencies. Fire alarm electronic devices are known as horns in the United States and Canada, and can be either continuous or set to different codes. Fire alarm warning devices can also be set to different volume levels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971892}
{"src_title": "Aswan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Other spellings and variations.", "content": "Aswan was formerly spelled Assuan or Assouan. Names in other languages include (; Ancient Egyptian: ; ; ). The Nubians also call the city \"Dib\" which means \"\"fortress, palace\"\" and is derived from the Old Nubian name ⲇⲡ̅ⲡⲓ.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Aswan is the ancient city of Swenett, later known as Syene, which in antiquity was the frontier town of Ancient Egypt facing the south. Swenett is supposed to have derived its name from an Egyptian goddess with the same name. This goddess later was identified as Eileithyia by the Greeks and Lucina by the Romans during their occupation of Ancient Egypt because of the similar association of their goddesses with childbirth, and of which the import is \"the opener\". The ancient name of the city also is said to be derived from the Egyptian symbol for \"trade\", or \"market\".  Because the Ancient Egyptians oriented themselves toward the origin of the life-giving waters of the Nile in the south, and as Swenett was the southernmost town in the country, Egypt always was conceived to \"open\" or begin at Swenett. The city stood upon a peninsula on the right (east) bank of the Nile, immediately below (and north of) the first cataract of the flowing waters, which extend to it from Philae. Navigation to the delta was possible from this location without encountering a barrier.  The stone quarries of ancient Egypt located here were celebrated for their stone, and especially for the granitic rock called Syenite. They furnished the colossal statues, obelisks, and monolithal shrines that are found throughout Egypt, including the pyramids; and the traces of the quarrymen who worked in these 3,000 years ago are still visible in the native rock. They lie on either bank of the Nile, and a road, in length, was cut beside them from Syene to Philae.  Swenett was equally important as a military station as a place of traffic. Under every dynasty it was a garrison town; and here tolls and customs were levied on all boats passing southwards and northwards. Around 330, the legion stationed here received a bishop from Alexandria; this later became the Coptic Diocese of Syene. The city is mentioned by numerous ancient writers, including Herodotus, Strabo, Stephanus of Byzantium, Ptolemy, Pliny the Elder, Vitruvius, and it appears on the Antonine Itinerary. It may also be mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Isaiah. The latitude of the city that would become Aswan – located at 24° 5′ 23′′ – was an object of great interest to the ancient geographers. They believed that it was seated immediately under the tropic, and that on the day of the summer solstice, a vertical staff cast no shadow. They noted that the sun's disc was reflected in a well at noon. This statement is only approximately correct; at the summer solstice, the shadow was only of the staff, and so could scarcely be discerned, and the northern limb of the Sun's disc would be nearly vertical.  The Nile is nearly wide above Aswan. From this frontier town to the northern extremity of Egypt, the river flows for more than without bar or cataract. The voyage from Aswan to Alexandria usually took 21 to 28 days in favourable weather.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeological findings.", "content": "Archaeologists have discovered 35 mummified remains of Egyptians in a tomb in Aswan in 2019. Italian archaeologist Patrizia Piacentini, professor of Egyptology at the University of Milan, and Khaled El-Enany, the Egyptian minister of antiquities reported that the tomb where the remains of ancient men, women and children were found, dates back to the Greco-Roman period between 332 BC and 395 AD. While the findings assumed belonging to a mother and a child were well preserved, others had suffered major destruction. Beside the mummies, artefacts including painted funerary masks, vases of bitumen used in mummification, pottery and wooden figurines were revealed. Thanks to the hieroglyphics on the tomb, it was detected that the tomb belongs to a tradesman named Tjit.  “It’s a very important discovery because we added something to the history of Aswan that was missing. We knew about tombs and necropoli dating back to the second and third millennium, but we didn’t know where the people who lived in the last part of the Pharaoh era were. Aswan, on the southern border of Egypt, was also a very important trading city” Piacentini said.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Aswan has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification \"BWh\") like the rest of Egypt. Aswan and Luxor have the hottest summer days of any city in Egypt. Aswan is one of the hottest, sunniest and driest cities in the world. Average high temperatures are consistently above during summer (June, July, August and also September) while average low temperatures remain above. Summers are long, prolonged and extremely hot. Average high temperatures remain above during the coldest month of the year while average low temperatures remain above. Winters are short, brief and extremely warm. Wintertime is very pleasant and enjoyable while summertime is unbearably hot with blazing sunshine although desert heat is dry.  The climate of Aswan is extremely dry year-round, with less than of average annual precipitation. The desert city is one of the driest ones in the world, and rainfall doesn't occur every year, as of early 2001, the last rain there was seven years earlier. Aswan is one of the least humid cities on the planet, with an average relative humidity of only 26%, with a maximum mean of 42% during winter and a minimum mean of 16% during summer.  The weather of Aswan is extremely clear, bright and sunny year-round, in all seasons, with a low seasonal variation, with almost 4,000 hours of annual sunshine, very close to the maximum theoretical sunshine duration. Aswan is one of the sunniest places on Earth.  The highest record temperature was on July 4, 1918, and the lowest record temperature was on January 6, 1989.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "In 1999, South Valley University was inaugurated and it has three branches; Aswan, Qena and Hurghada. The university grew steadily and now it is firmly established as a major institution of higher education in Upper Egypt. Aswan branch of Assiut University began in 1973 with the Faculty of Education and in 1975 the Faculty of Science was opened. Aswan branch has five faculties namely; Science, Education, Engineering, Arts, Social Works and Institute of Energy. The Faculty of Science in Aswan has six departments. Each department has one educational programme: Chemistry, Geology, Physics and Zoology. Except Botany Department, which has three educational programmes: Botany, Environmental Sciences and Microbiology; and Mathematics Department, which has two educational programmes: Mathematics and Computer Science. The Faculty of Science awards the following degrees: Bachelor of Science in nine educational programmes, Higher Diploma, Master of Science and Philosophy Doctor of Science. Aswan also has Aswan Higher Institute of Social Work that was established in 1975 making it the oldest private higher institute of Social Work in Upper Egypt", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Aswan is served by the Aswan International Airport. Train and bus service is also available. Taxi and rickshaw are used for transport here.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns/Sister cities.", "content": "Aswan is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Aswan (, ; ; ) is a city in the south of Egypt, and is the capital of the Aswan Governorate.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971893}
{"src_title": "Peter Simon Pallas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Pallas was born in Berlin, the son of Professor of Surgery Simon Pallas. He studied with private tutors and took an interest in natural history, later attending the University of Halle and the University of Göttingen. In 1760, he moved to the University of Leiden and passed his doctor's degree at the age of 19.  Pallas travelled throughout the Netherlands and to London, improving his medical and surgical knowledge. He then settled at The Hague, and his new system of animal classification was praised by Georges Cuvier. Pallas wrote \"Miscellanea Zoologica\" (1766), which included descriptions of several vertebrates new to science which he had discovered in the Dutch museum collections. A planned voyage to southern Africa and the East Indies fell through when his father recalled him to Berlin. There, he began work on his \"Spicilegia Zoologica\" (1767–80). In 1767, Pallas was invited by Catherine II of Russia to become a professor at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences and, between 1768 and 1774, he led an expedition to central Russian provinces, Povolzhye, Urals, West Siberia, Altay, and Transbaikal, collecting natural history specimens for the academy. He explored the Caspian Sea, the Ural and Altai Mountains and the upper Amur River, reaching as far eastward as Lake Baikal. The regular reports which Pallas sent to St Petersburg were collected and published as \"Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs\" (Journey through various provinces of the Russian Empire) (3 vols., 1771–1776). They covered a wide range of topics, including geology and mineralogy, reports on the native peoples and their religions, and descriptions of new plants and animals. In 1776, Pallas was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.  Pallas settled in St Petersburg, becoming a favourite of Catherine II and teaching natural history to the Grand Dukes Alexander and Constantine. He was provided with the plants collected by other naturalists to compile the \"Flora Rossica\" (1784–1815), a Russian flora, and started work on his \"Zoographica Rosso-Asiatica\" (1811–31), a zoography of Russia and Asia. He also published an account of Johann Anton Güldenstädt's travels in the Caucasus. The Empress bought Pallas's large natural history collection for 2,000 rubles, 500 more than his asking price, and allowed him to keep them for life. During this period, Pallas helped plan the Mulovsky expedition, which was cancelled in October 1787. Between 1793 and 1794, Pallas led a second expedition to southern Russia, visiting the Crimea and the Black Sea. He was accompanied by his daughter (by his first wife who had died in 1782) and his new wife, an artist, servants, and a military escort. In February 1793, they travelled to Saratov and then downriver to Tsaritsyn. They explored the country to the east, and in August travelled along the banks of the Caspian Sea and into the Caucasus Mountains. In September, they travelled to the Crimea, wintering in Simferopol. Pallas spent early 1794 exploring to the southeast, and in July travelled up the valley of the Dnieper, arriving back in St Petersburg in September. Pallas gave his account of the journey in his \"P. S. Pallas Bemerkungen auf einer Reise in die Südlichen Statthalterschaften des Russischen Reichs\" (1799–1801). Catherine II gave him a large estate at Simferopol, where Pallas lived until the death of his second wife in 1810. He was then granted permission to leave Russia by Emperor Alexander, and returned to Berlin, where he died in the following year. His grave is preserved in the Protestant \"Friedhof I der Jerusalems- und Neuen Kirchengemeinde\" (Cemetery No. I of the congregations of Jerusalem's Church and New Church) in Berlin-Kreuzberg, south of Hallesches Tor.  In 1809 he became associate member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pallasite.", "content": "In 1772, Pallas was shown a 680-kg lump of metal that had been found near Krasnoyarsk. Pallas arranged for it to be transported to St Petersburg. Subsequent analysis of the metal showed it to be a new type of stony-iron meteorite. This new type of meteorite was called pallasite after him; the meteorite itself is named Krasnojarsk or sometimes Pallas Iron (the name given to it by Ernst Chladni in 1794).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemorated.", "content": "Several animals were described by Pallas, and his surname is included in their common names, including: Pallas' glass lizard, Pallas' viper, Pallas's cat, Pallas's long-tongued bat, Pallas's tube-nosed bat, Pallas's squirrel, Pallas's leaf warbler, Pallas's cormorant, Pallas's fish-eagle, Pallas's gull, Pallas's sandgrouse, Pallas's rosefinch, and Pallas's grasshopper warbler.  Also, he is honoured in the scientific names of animals described by others, including: the Dagestani tortoise (\"Testudo graeca pallasi\"), Pallas's pika (\"Ochotona pallasi\"), Pallas's reed bunting (\"Emberiza pallasi\"), and the Pacific herring (\"Clupea pallasii\").  Streets in Berlin and Castrop-Rauxel are named \"Pallasstraße\". Pallasovka, a city in Volgograd Oblast, is named after him, and his monument stands there.  An asteroid is named after him: 21087 Petsimpallas. A Belgian astronomer, Eric Elst chose the name \"Sarapul 26851\" for an asteroid because in Pallas' writings, he mentioned his liking of the city of Sarapul, Russia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Simon Pallas FRS FRSE (22 September 1741 – 8 September 1811) was a Prussian zoologist and botanist who worked in Russia (1767–1810).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971894}
{"src_title": "Matti Nykänen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ski jumping career.", "content": "For most of the 1980s, Nykänen and Jens Weißflog of East Germany dominated the sport. Nykänen won gold and silver at the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo. His 17.5-point gold medal victory was the largest margin of victory in Olympic ski jumping history at the time. He was also the first ever to win gold medals on both hills at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary. In 1985 he flew 191 metres in Planica, a world record that stood briefly until Piotr Fijas (Poland) flew 194 metres, again in Planica, in 1987. His other achievements include a total of nine medals (five golds) at the World Championship level. He also won a total of 46 World Cup competitions (only now topped by the current record-holder Gregor Schlierenzauer, Austria) and won the overall title four times (also a record, currently shared with Adam Małysz Poland). He won the prestigious Four Hills Tournament twice. He competed in the FIS Ski Flying World Championships five times and placed in the medals every time. Nykänen also won the ski jumping competition at the Holmenkollen ski festival twice (1982, 1985). In 1987, Nykänen was awarded the Holmenkollen Medal (shared with Hermann Weinbuch).  On 28 February 2008, he won the International Masters Championship for veteran ski jumpers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ski jumping world records.", "content": "He set five world records in total, the most of any ski jumper in history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Nykänen was married six times:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with Mervi Tapola.", "content": "Nykänen met millionaire “sausage heiress” Mervi Tapola (1954–2019) in 1999, and they were married from 2001 to 2003. They got divorced in 2003, and remarried again in 2004. The marriage was tempestuous and gave rise to many well-publicised incidents: The first reported assault against Tapola occurred in June 2000, following a restraining order that was imposed upon Nykänen. In 2004, Nykänen was handed a suspended sentence for assaulting Tapola again. Nykänen had already been accused of assaulting Tapola in 2001, but the charges were withdrawn because Tapola exercised her right to remain silent.  In September 2005, while on probation for another assault, Nykänen was re-arrested four days after his release for abusing his partner again. Nykänen was convicted and imprisoned for four months on 16 March 2006. Soon after his release, he stabbed a man in a pizza restaurant in Korpilahti. In the summer of 2009, Tapola (then Tapola-Nykänen) petitioned for divorce a 14th time, but cancelled it.  On Christmas Day 2009, Nykänen allegedly injured his wife with a knife and tried to throttle her with a bathrobe belt. He was charged for attempted manslaughter and held in custody by Tampere police, but was released on 28 December after charges were dropped for insufficient evidence. On 24 August 2010, Nykänen was convicted of grievous bodily harm and sentenced to 16 months in prison and ordered to pay €5,000 in compensation to his wife for pain and emotional suffering and €3,000 for legal expenses. In August 2010, Tapola made a 15th request for divorce.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Assault incident.", "content": "On 24 August 2004, Nykänen was arrested on suspicion of attempted manslaughter of a family friend after losing a finger pulling competition in Tottijärvi, Nokia. In October 2004, he was found guilty of aggravated assault, and sentenced to 26 months in prison. As it was a first offence, he was released in September 2005.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As an entertainer.", "content": "When Nykänen's ski jumping career was drawing to a close, a group of businessmen proposed to make him a singer. His first album \"Yllätysten yö\" was released in 1992 and sold over 25,000 copies. Nykänen became the second Olympic gold medalist after Tapio Rautavaara to be awarded a \"golden record\" in Finland. His next album \"Samurai\" (1993) was not as successful.  At the end of the 1990s, due to serious financial problems, Nykänen worked as a stripper in a Järvenpää restaurant. The restaurateur was reproached for exploitation of Nykänen.  In 2002, Nykänen made a comeback as a singer and released the single \"Ehkä otin, ehkä en\". He also gave his name to a cider brand with the same advertisement slogan. In 2006 Nykänen released his third studio album \"Ehkä otin, ehkä en\". During most his musical career, Nykänen worked with professional musician Jussi Niemi. Nykänen toured Finland performing two to three times a week with the \"Samurai\" ensemble led by Niemi.  Many of Nykänen's singles were named after some (in)famous quotes by Nykänen, such as \"Elämä on laiffii\" (\"Life is life\"), \"Jokainen tsäänssi on mahdollisuus\" (\"Every chance is a possibility\"), and \"Ehkä otin, ehkä en\" (\"Maybe I did [drink], maybe I didn't\").  In November 2009, Nykänen began to present his own cooking web series \"Mattihan se sopan keitti\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "ADHD diagnosis.", "content": "In the early 2000s, Nykänen was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, which conveniently could be blamed for his abusive behaviour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Matti Nykänen died at his home in Lappeenranta, shortly after midnight on 4 February 2019, from a sudden attack of illness, at the age of 55. He had complained of dizziness and nausea earlier that night. He had been diagnosed with diabetes less than three months earlier. The news of his death was widely reported by the media both in Finland and abroad, with many tributes also paid to him by fellow ski jumpers of his time. He was survived by his fifth wife and three children; two from previous and one outside of marriage. In May 2019 Nykänen's sisters confirmed that the cause of death was pancreatitis and pneumonia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Matti Ensio Nykänen () (17 July 1963 – 4 February 2019) was a Finnish ski jumper who competed from 1981 to 1991. Widely considered to be the greatest male ski jumper of all time, he won five Winter Olympic medals (four gold), nine World Championship medals (five gold), and 22 Finnish Championship medals (14 gold). Most notably, he won three gold medals at the 1988 Winter Olympics, becoming, along with Yvonne van Gennip of the Netherlands, the most medaled athlete at that Olympiad.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971895}
{"src_title": "Andy Goldsworthy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "The son of F. Allin Goldsworthy (1929–2001), former professor of applied mathematics at the University of Leeds. England, and Muriel (Stanger) Goldsworthy, Andy Goldsworthy was born in Cheshire, England in 1956. He grew up on the Harrogate side of Leeds, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. From the age of 13 he worked on farms as a labourer. He has likened the repetitive quality of farm tasks to the routine of making sculpture: \"A lot of my work is like picking potatoes; you have to get into the rhythm of it.\"  Goldsworthy studied fine art at Bradford College of Art (1974–75) and at Preston Polytechnic (1975–78) (now the University of Central Lancashire) in Preston, Lancashire, receiving his Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) degree from the latter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "After leaving college, Goldsworthy lived in Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cumbria. In 1985, he moved to Langholm in Dumfries and Galloway, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, and a year later to Penpont. It has been said that his gradual drift northwards was \"due to a way of life over which he did not have complete control\", but that contributing factors were opportunities and desires to work in these areas and \"reasons of economy\".  In 1993, he received an honorary degree from the University of Bradford. He was an A.D. White Professor-At-Large in Sculpture at Cornell University 2000–2006 and 2006–2008.  Goldsworthy is represented by Galerie Lelong, New York and Paris.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "An example of art work.", "content": "In 2003, Goldsworthy produced a commissioned work for the entry courtyard of San Francisco's de Young Museum called \"Drawn Stone\", which echoes San Francisco's frequent earthquakes and their effects. His installation included a giant crack in the pavement that broke off into smaller cracks, and broken limestone, which could be used for benches. The smaller cracks were made with a hammer adding unpredictability to the work as he created it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Art process.", "content": "The materials used in Andy Goldsworthy's art often include brightly coloured flowers, icicles, leaves, mud, pinecones, snow, stone, twigs, and thorns. He has been quoted as saying, \"I think it's incredibly brave to be working with flowers and leaves and petals. But I have to: I can't edit the materials I work with. My remit is to work with nature as a whole.\" Goldsworthy is generally considered the founder of modern rock balancing. For his ephemeral works, Goldsworthy often uses only his bare hands, teeth, and found tools to prepare and arrange the materials; however, for his permanent sculptures like \"Roof\", \"Stone River\" and \"Three Cairns\", \"Moonlit Path\" (Petworth, West Sussex, 2002) and \"Chalk Stones\" in the South Downs, near West Dean, West Sussex he has also employed the use of machine tools. To create \"Roof\", Goldsworthy worked with his assistant and five British dry-stone wallers, who were used to make sure the structure could withstand time and nature.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Photography.", "content": "Photography plays a crucial role in his art due to its often ephemeral and transient state. According to Goldsworthy, \"Each work grows, stays, decays – integral parts of a cycle which the photograph shows at its heights, marking the moment when the work is most alive. There is an intensity about a work at its peak that I hope is expressed in the image. Process and decay are implicit.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Documentary films on Goldsworthy.", "content": "Andy Goldsworthy is the subject of a 2001 documentary feature film called \"Rivers and Tides\", directed by Thomas Riedelsheimer. In 2018, Riedelsheimer released a second documentary on Goldsworthy, \"Leaning Into the Wind\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1982, Goldsworthy married Judith Gregson. They had four children and settled in the village of Penpont in the region of Dumfries and Galloway, Dumfriesshire, in southwest Scotland. The couple later separated. He now lives there with his partner, Tina Fiske, an art historian whom he met when she came to work with him a few years after he separated from his wife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further information.", "content": "Articles:  Books:  Film/Documentary", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "General:  Art:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andy Goldsworthy (born 26 July 1956) is a British sculptor, photographer and environmentalist who produces site-specific sculptures and land art situated in natural and urban settings. He lives and works in Scotland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971896}
{"src_title": "Annaberg-Buchholz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is located in the Ore Mountains, at the side of the \"Pöhlberg\" ( above sea level).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The previously heavily forested upper Ore Mountains were settled in the 12th and 13th centuries by Franconian farmers. Frohnau, Geyersdorf, and Kleinrückerswalde—all now part of present-day town—are all attested from 1397.  Barbara Uthmann introduced braid- and lace-making in 1561 and it was further developed in the 1590s by Belgian refugees fleeing the policies of Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, Spain's governor over the Low Countries. The industry was further developed in the 19th century, when Annaberg and Buchholz were connected by rail to Chemnitz and each other and both settlements had specialized schools for lace-making. The population of Annaberg in the 1870s was 11,693. This had risen to 16,811 by 1905, with another 9307 in Buchholz.  The town's mines formerly produced silver, tin, and cobalt but ceased production before the First World War. After the Reunification of Germany in 1989, some were restored for tourist purposes.  In 1945 the two towns Annaberg and Buchholz merged into the new town Annaberg-Buchholz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical Population.", "content": "At the start of the 16th Century Annaberg was one of the largest towns in Germany with an estimated 8,000 inhabitants. In 1834 Annaberg had a population of 5,068 and Buchholz 1,424. In 1875 people lived in Annaberg, in 1890 11,725, in 1925 18,204, and in 1933 19,818. The figures in the table are for Annaberg-Buchholz.  Historical population \"(from 1960, on 31 December)\":", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "The area is a tourist destination and ski resort. The Ore Mountains are referred to as Land of Christmas and famous for the Christmas Markets and the carved sculptures. Annaberg has a Roman Catholic church and three Protestant churches, among them St. Anne's (built 1499-1525), which is the largest of its kind in Saxony. There are public monuments to Luther, the famous mathematician Adam Ries, and Barbara Uthmann. Buchholz had another Gothic Protestant church and monuments to Frederick the Wise and Bismarck. Annaberg is well known for its historical old town and market square; the house Markt 2 shows the coat of arms of the family Apian-Bennewitz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museums.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Frohnauer Hammer.", "content": "The Frohnauer Hammer is a historic and fully working preserved hammer mill in the village of Frohnau within the municipality. In 1907, it was declared a technical monument and, since then, has been open to the public. In addition to the actual hammer mill itself, there is an exhibition of forged items and the former master hammersmith's house (\"Hammerherrenhaus\").", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Annaberg-Buchholz is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Annaberg-Buchholz () is a town in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. Lying in the Ore Mountains, it is the capital of the district of Erzgebirgskreis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971897}
{"src_title": "Alfred Jodl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Alfred Jodl was educated at a military Cadet School in Munich, from which he graduated in 1910. Ferdinand Jodl, who would also become an Army General, was his younger brother. The philosopher and psychologist Friedrich Jodl at the University of Vienna was his uncle.  From 1914 to 1916 he served with a Battery unit on the Western Front, being awarded the Iron Cross for gallantry in November 1914, and being wounded in action. In 1917 he served briefly on the Eastern Front before returning to the West as a Staff Officer. In 1918 he again won the Iron Cross for gallantry in action. After the defeat of the German Empire in 1918, he continued his career as a professional soldier with the much-reduced German Army (Reichswehr). Jodl married twice: in 1913, and (after becoming a widower) in 1944.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Jodl's appointment as a major in the operations branch of the Truppenamt in the Army High Command in the last years of the Weimar Republic put him under command of General Ludwig Beck. In September 1939 Jodl first met Adolf Hitler. In the build-up to the Second World War, Jodl was nominally assigned as a commander of the 44th Division from October 1938 to August 1939 during the Anschluss. Jodl was chosen by Hitler to be Chief of Operation Staff of the newly formed Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) on 23 August 1939, just prior to the German invasion of Poland. Jodl acted as a Chief of Staff during the swift invasion of Denmark and Norway. Following the Fall of France Jodl was optimistic of Germany's success over Britain, on 30 June 1940 writing \"The final German victory over England is now only a question of time.\"  Jodl signed the Commissar Order of 6 June 1941 (in which Soviet political commissars were to be shot) and the Commando Order of 28 October 1942 (in which Allied commandos, including properly uniformed soldiers as well as combatants wearing civilian clothes, such as Maquis and partisans, were to be executed immediately without trial if captured behind German lines). Jodl spent most of the war at the Wolf's Lair, Hitler's forward command post in East Prussia. On 1 February 1944, Jodl was promoted to the rank of Generaloberst (Colonel General). Jodl was among those slightly injured during the 20 July plot of 1944 against Hitler where he suffered a concussion from the explosion. Jodl was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross by Admiral Karl Dönitz, Hitler's successor, on 6 May.  At the end of World War II in Europe, Jodl signed the German Instrument of Surrender on 7 May 1945 in Reims as the representative of Dönitz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial and conviction.", "content": "Jodl was arrested by British troops on 23 May 1945 and transferred to Flensburg POW camp and later put before the International Military Tribunal at the Nuremberg trials. Jodl was accused of conspiracy to commit crimes against peace; planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression; war crimes; and crimes against humanity. The principal charges against him related to his signature of the Commando Order and the Commissar Order, both of which ordered that certain classes of prisoners of war were to be summarily executed upon capture. When confronted with the 1941 mass shootings of Soviet POWs, Jodl claimed the only prisoners shot were \"not those that could not, but those that did not want to walk.\"  Additional charges at his trial included unlawful deportation and abetting execution. Presented as evidence was his signature on an order that transferred Danish citizens, including Jews, to Nazi concentration camps. Although he denied his role in this activity of the regime, the court sustained his complicity based on the evidence it had examined, with the French judge, Henri Donnedieu de Vabres, dissenting.  His wife Luise attached herself to her husband's defence team. Subsequently, interviewed by Gitta Sereny, researching her biography of Albert Speer, Luise alleged that in many instances the Allied prosecution made charges against Jodl based on documents that they refused to share with the defence. Jodl nevertheless proved that some of the charges made against him were untrue, such as the charge that he had helped Hitler gain control of Germany in 1933.  Jodl pleaded not guilty \"before God, before history and my people\". Found guilty on all four charges, he was hanged at Nuremberg Prison on 16 October 1946. Jodl's last words were reportedly \"Ich grüße Dich, mein ewiges Deutschland\"—lit. \"I salute you, my eternal or everlasting Germany.\"  His remains, like those of the other nine executed men and Hermann Göring (who had taken his own life prior to his scheduled execution), were cremated at Ostfriedhof and the ashes were scattered in the Wentzbach, a small tributary of the River Isar to prevent the establishment of a permanent burial site which might be enshrined by nationalist groups.  On 28 February 1953, a West German denazification court declared the now-deceased Jodl not guilty of breaking international law. This not guilty declaration was revoked by the Minister of Political Liberation for Bavaria on 3 September 1953, following objections from the United States.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfred Josef Ferdinand Jodl () (10 May 1890 – 16 October 1946) was a German \"Generaloberst\" who served as the Chief of the Operations Staff of the Armed Forces High Command (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht) throughout World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971898}
{"src_title": "Ferdinand VI of Spain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born at the Royal Alcázar of Madrid, Ferdinand endured a lonely childhood. His stepmother, the domineering Elisabeth Farnese, had no affection except for her own children, and looked upon Ferdinand as an obstacle to their fortunes. The hypochondria of his father left Elisabeth mistress of the palace.  Ferdinand was by temperament melancholic, shy and distrustful of his own abilities. When complimented on his shooting, he replied, \"It would be hard if there were not something I could do.\" Shooting and music were his only pleasures, and he was the generous patron of the famous singer Farinelli, whose voice soothed his melancholy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Ferdinand was married in 1729 to Infanta Barbara of Portugal, daughter of John V of Portugal and Maria Anna of Austria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beginning of the reign.", "content": "When he came to the throne, Spain found itself in the War of the Austrian Succession, which ended without any benefit to Spain. He started his reign by eliminating the influence of his stepmother and her group of Italian courtiers. As king he followed a steady policy of neutrality in the conflict between France and Britain and refused to be tempted by the offers of either into declaring war on the other.  Prominent figures during his reign were Marquis of Ensenada, a Francophile; and José de Carvajal y Lancáster, a supporter of the alliance with Great Britain. The fight between both ended in 1754 with the death of Carvajal and the fall of Ensenada, after which Ricardo Wall became the most powerful advisor to the monarch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Projects of Ensenada.", "content": "The most important tasks during the reign of Ferdinand VI were carried out by the Marquis of Ensenada, the Secretary of the Treasury, Navy and Indies. He suggested that the state help modernize the country. To him, this was necessary to maintain a position of exterior strength so that France and Great Britain would consider Spain as an ally without supposing Spain's renunciation of its claim to Gibraltar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reforms.", "content": "New model of the Treasury was suggested by Ensenada in 1749. He proposed substitution of the traditional taxes with a special tax, the cadastre, that weighed the economic capacity of each contributor based on their property holdings. He also proposed a reduction of subsidies by the state to the Cortes and the army. The opposition by the nobility caused the abandonment of the project.  The bank Giro Real was created in 1752. It favored the transfer of public and private funds outside of Spain keeping all of the foreign exchanges in the hands of the Royal Treasury, enriching the State. It is considered the predecessor to the Bank of San Carlos, introduced during the reign of Charles III. Commerce was stimulated in the Americas, in an attempt to end the monopoly in the Indies and eliminate the injustices of colonial commerce. Ferdinand leaned toward registered ships rather than fleets of ships. The new system consisted of the substitution of the fleets and galleons so that a Spanish ship, previously authorized, could conduct trade freely in the Americas. This increased the revenues and decreased the fraud. Even so, this system provoked many protests among merchants in the private sector.  According to Ensenada, a powerful navy was fundamental to power of an overseas empire and aspirations of being respected by France and Great Britain. He increased the navy's budget and expanded the capacity of the shipyards of Cádiz, Ferrol, Cartagena and Havana which marked a commitment to extending the naval policies already underway in his predecessor's reign.  Church relations were really tense from start of the reign of Philip V because of the recognition of Charles of Austria as the king of Spain by the pope. A regalist policy was maintained that pursued as much political as fiscal objectives and whose decisive achievement was the Concord of 1753. From this the right of universal patronage was obtained from Pope Benedict XIV, giving important economic benefits to the Crown and a great control over the clergy.  King Ferdinand helped create the Royal Academy of the Fine Arts of San Fernando in 1752. The noted composer Domenico Scarlatti, music teacher to Queen Barbara, wrote many of his 555 harpsichord sonatas at Ferdinand's court.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Foreign policy.", "content": "During the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, Spain reinforced its military might.  The main conflict was its confrontation with Portugal over the colony of Sacramento, from which British contraband was transferred down the Río de la Plata. In 1750 José de Carvajal helped Spain and Portugal strike a deal. Portugal agreed to renounce the colony and its claim to free navigation down the Río de la Plata. In return, Spain ceded to Portugal two regions on the Brazilian border, one in the Amazon and the other to the south, in which were seven of the thirty Jesuit Guaraní towns. The Spanish had to expel the missionaries, generating a conflict with the Guaraní people that lasted eleven years.  The conflict over the towns provoked a crisis in the Spanish Court. Ensenada, favorable to the Jesuits, and Father Rávago, confessor of the King and members of the Society of Jesus, were fired, accused of hindering the agreements with Portugal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "During his last year of reign, Ferdinand VI was rapidly losing his mental capacity and he was held in the Villaviciosa de Odón castle until his death on August 10 1759. That period of time between August 1758 and August 1759 is known in Spanish historiography as the year without a king, due to the absence of the royal figure as ruler. The cause of the disease is still debated. Some authors suggest that the king suffered a depressive episode. The death of his wife Barbara, who had been devoted to him, and who carefully abstained from political intrigue, broke his heart. Between the date of her death in August 1758 and his own on 10 August 1759, he fell into a state of prostration in which he would not even dress, but wandered unshaven, unwashed and in a nightgown about his park.d.. Other opinion is that Ferdinand VI suffered a rapidly progressive clinical syndrome where behavioral disorganization with apathy and impulsivity, loss of judgment, and epileptic seizures of right frontal lobe semiology were predominant. This semiology is highly suggestive of a right frontal lobe syndrome. As the couple had no children, Ferdinand VI of Spain was succeeded as King by his half-brother Charles III", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "A fictionalized version of Ferdinand VI appears in the 2011 adventure film \"\". In the film, after learning about the discovery of the Fountain of Youth, Ferdinand (portrayed by Sebastian Armesto) sends his most trusted agent, known only as \"The Spaniard\", to find and destroy the Fountain, because he saw it as the abomination in the eyes of God. Also, his residence, for unknown reasons, is situated in Cádiz, not in Madrid, the true capital of Spain.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferdinand VI of Spain (; 23 September 1713 – 10 August 1759), called the Learned (\"el Prudente\") and the Just (\"el Justo\"), King of Spain from 9 July 1746 until his death in 1759, was the third ruler of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty. He was the third son of the previous monarch Philip V and his first wife Maria Luisa of Savoy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971899}
{"src_title": "Young Plan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The Plan.", "content": "The Committee, which had been appointed by the Allied Reparations Committee, met in the first half of 1929, and submitted its first report on June 7 of that year. In addition to Young, the United States was represented by J. P. Morgan, Jr., the prominent banker, and his partner, Thomas W. Lamont. The report met with great objections from the United Kingdom but, after a first Conference in The Hague, a plan was finalised on August 31. The plan was formally adopted at a second Hague Conference, in January 1930.  Amongst other provisions, the plan called for an international bank of settlements to handle the reparations transfers. The resulting Bank for International Settlements was duly established at the Hague Conference in January.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subsequent events.", "content": "Between agreement and adoption of the plan came the Wall Street Crash of October 1929, of which the main consequences were twofold. The American banking system had to recall money from Europe, and cancel the credits that made the Young Plan possible. Moreover, the downfall of imports and exports affected the rest of the world. By 1933, almost two-thirds of world trade had vanished. A new trade policy was set with the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act. The latter was influenced by nationalism and the adopted economic policy. Unemployment soared to 33.7% in 1931 in Germany, and 40% in 1932. Under such circumstances, U.S. President Herbert Hoover issued a public statement that proposed a one-year moratorium on the payments. He managed to assemble support for the moratorium from 15 nations by July 1931. But the adoption of the moratorium did little to slow economic decline in Europe. Germany was gripped by a major banking crisis. A final effort was made at the Lausanne Conference of 1932. Here, representatives from Great Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Germany and Japan gathered to come to an agreement. By that time it was clear that the deepening depression had made it impossible for Germany to resume its reparations payments. They agreed:  Hoover made the obligatory public statement about the lack of any connection between reparations and war debts, however in December 1932, the U.S. Congress rejected the Allied war debt reduction plan, which technically meant that the war reparations and debt reverted to the debt reduction previously granted Germany by the 1929 Young Plan. However, the system had collapsed, and Germany did not resume payments. Once the National Socialist government consolidated power, the debt was repudiated and Germany made no further payments. By 1933, Germany had made World War I reparations of only one eighth of the sum required under the Treaty of Versailles, and owing to the repudiated American loans the United States in effect paid \"reparations\" to Germany. The plan ultimately failed, not because of the U.S. Congress' refusal to go along, but because it became irrelevant upon Hitler's rise to power.  After Germany’s defeat in World War II, an international conference (London Agreement on German External Debts, 1953) decided that Germany would pay the remaining debt only after the country was reunified. Nonetheless, West Germany paid off the principal by 1980; then in 1995, after reunification, the new German government announced it would resume payments of the interest. Germany was due to pay off the interest to the United States in 2010, and to other countries in 2020. In 2010, \"Time\" reported that Germany made \"final reparations-related payment for the Great War on Oct. 3, nearly 92 years after the country's defeat by the Allies.\"  This agreement had been preceded by bitter diplomatic struggles, and its acceptance aroused nationalist passions and resentment. It also weakened, rather than helped, the advocates of a policy of international understanding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opposition to war reparations: the \"Liberty Law\".", "content": "Although the Young plan had effectively reduced Germany's obligations, it was opposed by parts of the political spectrum in Germany. Conservative groups had been most outspoken in opposition to reparations and seized on opposition to the Young Plan as an issue. A coalition was formed of various conservative groups under the leadership of Alfred Hugenberg, the head of the German National People's Party. One of the groups that joined this coalition was Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Party.  The coalition's goal was the enactment of the \"Freiheitsgesetz\" (\"Liberty Law\"). This law would renounce all reparations and make it a criminal offense for any German official to cooperate in their collection. It would also renounce the German acknowledgement of \"war guilt\" and the occupation of German territory which were also terms of the Treaty of Versailles.  Under the terms of the German constitution, if ten percent of the eligible voters in the country signed a petition in favor of a proposed law, the Reichstag had to put the matter to a vote. If the Reichstag voted against the law, the proposal would automatically be put to a national referendum. If fifty percent of the people voted in favor of it, it would become a law.  The Liberty Law proposal was officially put forth on October 16, 1929. The National Socialists and other groups held large public rallies to collect signatures. The government opposed the Liberty Law and staged demonstrations against it. However, the coalition succeeded in collecting enough names to put the proposal before the Reichstag. The Reichstag voted the bill down by a 318-82 margin. In the subsequent popular vote on December 22, the Liberty Law referendum, voter turnout was only 14.9%, although 94.5% of the votes cast (13.8% of registered voters) were in favor of the proposed law.  While the Liberty Law was not enacted in 1929, the campaign for it was a major factor in bringing Hitler and the National Socialists into the political mainstream. Following the defeat, Hitler denounced Hugenberg and said the loss was a result of his poor leadership. Hugenberg and many other conservatives soon found themselves being eclipsed by the National Socialists. Hitler would later enact by decree most of the proposals of the Liberty Law after achieving power.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Young Plan was a program for settling Germany's World War I reparations written in August 1929 and formally adopted in 1930. It was presented by the committee headed (1929–30) by American industrialist Owen D. Young, creator and ex-first chairman of the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), who, at the time, concurrently served on the board of trustees of the Rockefeller Foundation, and also had been one of the representatives involved in a previous war-reparations restructuring arrangement—the Dawes Plan of 1924. The Inter-Allied Reparations Commission established the German reparation sum at a theoretical total of 132 billion, but a practical total of 50 billion gold marks. After the Dawes Plan was put into operation in 1924, it became apparent that Germany would not willingly meet the annual payments over an indefinite period of time. The Young Plan reduced further payments by about 20 percent. Although the theoretical total was 112 billion Gold Marks, equivalent to US ca. $27 billion in 1929 (US$ billion in ) over a period of 58 years, which would end in 1988, few expected the plan to last for much more than a decade. In addition, the Young Plan divided the annual payment, set at two billion Gold Marks, US $473 million, into two components: one unconditional part, equal to one third of the sum, and a postponable part, equal to the remaining two-thirds, which would incur interest and be financed by a consortium of American investment banks coordinated by J.P. Morgan & Co.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971900}
{"src_title": "Nickel silver", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Nickel silver was first known and used in China. During the Qing dynasty, it was \"smuggled into various parts of the East Indies\", despite a government ban on the export of nickel silver. It became known in the West from imported wares called (Mandarin) or (Cantonese) (白 銅, literally \"white copper\"), for which the silvery metal colour was used to imitate sterling silver. According to Berthold Laufer, it was identical to \"khar sini\", one of the seven metals recognized by Jābir ibn Hayyān. In Europe, consequently, it was at first called, which is about the way is pronounced in the Cantonese dialect. The earliest European mention of occurs in the year 1597. From then until the end of the eighteenth century there are references to it as having been exported from Canton to Europe. German imitations of, however, began to appear from about 1750 onward. In 1770 the Suhl (Germany) metalworks were able to produce a similar alloy. In 1823 a German competition was held to perfect the production process: the goal was to develop an alloy that possessed the closest visual similarity to silver. The brothers Henniger in Berlin and Ernst August Geitner in Schneeberg independently achieved this goal. The manufacturer Berndorf named the trademark brand \"Alpacca\", which became widely known in northern Europe for nickel silver. In 1830 the German process of manufacture was introduced into England, while exports of from China gradually stopped. In 1832, a form of German silver was also developed in Birmingham, England.  After the modern process for the production of electroplated nickel silver was patented by the Elkington brothers in Sheffield in 1840, the development of electroplating caused nickel silver to become widely used. It formed an ideal, strong and bright substrate for the plating process. It was also used unplated in applications such as cutlery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Nickel silver first became popular as a base metal for silver-plated cutlery and other silverware, notably the electroplated wares called EPNS (electroplated nickel silver). It is used in zippers, better-quality keys, costume jewelry, for making musical instruments (e.g., flutes, clarinets), and is preferred for the track in electrically powered model railway layouts, as its oxide is conductive. It is widely used in the production of coins (e.g. Portuguese escudo and the former GDR marks). Its industrial and technical uses include marine fittings and plumbing fixtures for its corrosion resistance, and heating coils for its high electrical resistance.  In the nineteenth century, particularly after 1868, North American Plains Indian jewelers were able to easily acquire sheets of German silver. They used them to cut, stamp, and cold hammer a wide range of accessories and also horse gear. Continuing into the present, Plains metalsmiths have used German silver for pendants, pectorals, bracelets, armbands, hair plates, \"conchas\" (oval decorative plates for belts), earrings, belt buckles, necktie slides, stickpins, \"dush-tuhs\", and tiaras. Nickel silver is the metal of choice among contemporary Kiowa and Pawnee metalsmiths in Oklahoma. Many of the metal fittings on modern higher-end equine harness and tack are of nickel silver.  Early in the twentieth century, German silver was used by automobile manufacturers before the advent of steel sheet metal; for example, the famous Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost of 1907. After about 1920, its use became widespread for pocketknife bolsters, due to its machinability and corrosion resistance. Prior to this point, the most common metal was iron.  Musical instruments, including the flute, saxophone, trumpet, and French horn, can be made of nickel silver. Many professional-level French horns are entirely made of nickel silver. Some saxophone manufacturers, such as Keilwerth, offer saxophones made of nickel silver (Shadow model); these are far rarer than traditional lacquered brass saxophones. Student-level flutes and piccolos are also made of silver-plated nickel silver, although upper-level models are likely to use sterling silver. Nickel silver produces a bright and powerful sound quality; an additional benefit is that the metal is harder and has more corrosion resistance than brass. Because of its hardness, it is the most commonly used material for woodwind keys. Most clarinets, flutes, oboes and similar wind instruments have nickel silver keys, normally silver-plated. It is used to produce the tubes (called staples) onto which oboe reeds are tied. Many parts of brass instruments are made of nickel silver, such as tubes, braces or valve mechanism. Trombone slides of many manufacturers offer lightweight nickel silver (LT slide) option for faster slide action and weight balance. It was used in the construction of the National tricone resophonic guitar. The frets of guitar, mandolin, banjo, bass, and related string instruments are typically made of nickel silver. Nickel silver is sometimes used as ornamentation on the great highland bagpipe.  Nickel silver is also used in art. The Dutch sculptor Willem Lenssinck has made several objects in German silver. Outdoor art made from this material can easily stand against all kinds of weather influences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fraudulent uses.", "content": "Counterfeiters have used nickel silver to produce coins and medallions purporting to be silver rounds, generally in an attempt to trick unsuspecting buyers into paying prices based on the spot price of silver. The metal has also been used to produce counterfeit Morgan dollars.  Nickel silver fraud has included the production of replica bullion bars, marked \"nickel silver\" or \"German silver\", in weights of one troy ounce. They are sold without notification that they contain no elemental silver.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "According to the \"Merck Manual\", prolonged contact of copper alloys with acidic food or beverages (including boiling milk) can leach out the copper and cause toxicity. Long-term, low doses can lead to cirrhosis. It is also the case that many people have allergic reactions to nickel, causing a weeping rash that will not heal as long as the metal is in contact with the skin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nickel silver, Maillechort, German silver, Argentan, new silver, nickel brass, albata, alpacca, is a copper alloy with nickel and often zinc. The usual formulation is 60% copper, 20% nickel and 20% zinc. Nickel silver is named due to its silvery appearance, but it contains no elemental silver unless plated. The name \"German silver\" refers to its development by 19th-century German metalworkers from the Chinese alloy known as (白銅) (\"white copper\" or cupronickel). All modern, commercially important nickel silvers (such as those standardized under ASTM B122) contain significant amounts of zinc, and are sometimes considered a subset of brass.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971901}
{"src_title": "Joseph I of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Joseph was the third child of King John V of Portugal and his wife Maria Anna of Austria. Joseph had an older brother Pedro, an older sister Barbara and three younger brothers. At the death of his elder brother, who died at the age of two in 1714, Joseph became Prince of Brazil as the heir apparent of the king, and Duke of Braganza.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 19 January 1729, Joseph married the Spanish Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain, daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese, and his elder sister Barbara of Portugal married the future Ferdinand VI of Spain. Mariana Victoria loved music and hunting, just like her husband, but she was also a serious woman who disapproved of the king's love affairs and did not hesitate to expose them to acquaintances.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Joseph succeeded to the Portuguese throne in 1750, when he was 36 years old, and almost immediately placed effective power in the hands of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, better known today as the Marquis of Pombal. Indeed, the history of Joseph's reign is really that of Pombal himself. King Joseph also declared his eldest daughter Maria Francisca as the official heiress of the throne and proclaimed her Princess of Brazil. By this time, the king did not believe he would ever father a son by his queen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Victory over Spain and France (1762).", "content": "One of the most difficult situations faced by the king was the Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal, in the end of the Seven Years' War (5 May-24 November 1762). France and Spain sent an ultimatum in order to force Portugal to abandon its alliance with Great Britain and close her ports to British ships. D. José I refused to submit and asked for British help since both the country and the army were in a very poor condition, mainly because of the great 1755 Lisbon earthquake. England sent a force of 7,104 men led by Loudon and Burgoyne, and also an exceptional military leader, the Count of Lippe, which reformed the Portuguese army and led the allied army of 14-15, 000 men in a victorious war. The Bourbon invaders first led by Sarria and then by Aranda were thrice defeated by a combination of popular uprising, scorched earth strategy/famine and encircling movements by the regular Anglo-Portuguese troops, which like the militia, skilfully used the mountainous terrain at their advantage. The Spanish and French troops suffered staggering losses when they were driven out from Portugal and chased into Spain. As synthesized by historian Walter Dorn:  In South America, the war ended in a draw; the Portuguese took territory from Spain (most of the Rio Negro Valley) and defeated a Spanish invasion of Mato Grosso, while Spain conquered Colónia do Sacramento and the vast territory of Rio Grande do Sul (1763). The Treaty of Paris (1763) restored the \"status quo ante bellum\". The rich and huge territory of Rio Grande do Sul would be retaken from the Spanish army during the undeclared war of 1763-1777.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marquis of Pombal.", "content": "The powerful Marquis of Pombal sought to overhaul all aspects of economic, social and colonial policy to make Portugal a more efficient contender with the other great powers of Europe, and thus enhance his own political stature. A conspiracy of nobles aimed at murdering King Joseph and Pombal gave him the opportunity (some say, the pretext) to neutralize the Távora family in the Távora affair, and to expel the Jesuits in September 1759, thus gaining control of public education and a wealth of church lands and ushering Portugal into the Age of the Enlightenment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy and death.", "content": "The reign of Joseph is also noteworthy for the Lisbon earthquake, firestorm and tsunami of 1 November 1755, in which between 30,000 and 40,000 people died. The earthquake caused Joseph to develop a severe case of claustrophobia, and he was never again comfortable living within a walled building. Consequently, he moved the royal court to an extensive complex of tents in the hills of Ajuda.  The Project for the Royal Palace in Campo de Ourique was an ambitious palatial complex planned for the Campo de Ourique neighborhood of Lisbon, but later abandoned due to a lack of impetus from the Portuguese Royal Family and a prioritization of other reconstruction efforts.  The capital was eventually rebuilt at great cost, and an equestrian statue of King Joseph still dominates the Praça do Comércio, Lisbon's main plaza. With Joseph's death on 24 February 1777, the throne passed to his daughter Maria I and brother/son-in-law Peter III. Pombal's iron rule was sharply brought to an end, because Maria disliked him since she had been heavily influenced by the Portuguese old nobility that strongly opposed Pombal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Joseph I fathered eight children by the Queen, but only four daughters survived:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph I (,, 6 June 1714 – 24 February 1777), \"The Reformer\" (), reigned as King of Portugal from 31 July 1750 until his death. Among other activities, Joseph was devoted to hunting and the opera. Indeed, he assembled one of the greatest collections of operatic scores in Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971902}
{"src_title": "Face", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "The front of the human head is called the face. It includes several distinct areas, of which the main features are:  Facial appearance is vital for human recognition and communication. Facial muscles in humans allow expression of emotions.  The face is itself a highly sensitive region of the human body and its expression may change when the brain is stimulated by any of the many human senses, such as touch, temperature, smell, taste, hearing, movement, hunger, or visual stimuli.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shape.", "content": "The face is the feature which best distinguishes a person. Specialized regions of the human brain, such as the fusiform face area (FFA), enable facial recognition; when these are damaged, it may be impossible to recognize faces even of intimate family members. The pattern of specific organs, such as the eyes, or of parts of them, is used in biometric identification to uniquely identify individuals.  The shape of the face is influenced by the bone-structure of the skull, and each face is unique through the anatomical variation present in the bones of the viscerocranium (and neurocranium). The bones involved in shaping the face are mainly the maxilla, mandible, nasal bone and zygomatic bone. Also important are various soft tissues, such as fat, hair and skin (of which color may vary).  The face changes over time, and features common in children or babies, such as prominent buccal fat-pads disappear over time, their role in the infant being to stabilize the cheeks during suckling. While the buccal fat-pads often diminish in size, the prominence of bones increase with age as they grow and develop.  Facial shape is an important determinant of beauty, particularly facial symmetry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Emotion.", "content": "Faces are essential to expressing emotion, consciously or unconsciously. A frown denotes disapproval; a smile usually means someone is pleased. Being able to read emotion in another's face is \"the fundamental basis for empathy and the ability to interpret a person’s reactions and predict the probability of ensuing behaviors\". One study used the Multimodal Emotion Recognition Test to attempt to determine how to measure emotion. This research aimed at using a measuring device to accomplish what people do so easily everyday: read emotion in a face.  The muscles of the face play a prominent role in the expression of emotion, and vary among different individuals, giving rise to additional diversity in expression and facial features. People are also relatively good at determining if a smile is real or fake. A recent study looked at individuals judging forced and genuine smiles. While young and elderly participants equally could tell the difference for smiling young people, the \"older adult participants outperformed young adult participants in distinguishing between posed and spontaneous smiles\". This suggests that with experience and age, we become more accurate at perceiving true emotions across various age groups.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Perception and recognition of faces.", "content": "Gestalt psychologists theorize that a face is not merely a set of facial features, but is rather something meaningful in its form. This is consistent with the Gestalt theory that an image is seen in its entirety, not by its individual parts. According to Gary L. Allen, people adapted to respond more to faces during evolution as the natural result of being a social species. Allen suggests that the purpose of recognizing faces has its roots in the \"parent-infant attraction, a quick and low-effort means by which parents and infants form an internal representation of each other, reducing the likelihood that the parent will abandon his or her offspring because of recognition failure\". Allen's work takes a psychological perspective that combines evolutionary theories with Gestalt psychology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biological perspective.", "content": "Research has indicated that certain areas of the brain respond particularly well to faces. The fusiform face area, within the fusiform gyrus, is activated by faces, and it is activated differently for shy and social people. A study confirmed that \"when viewing images of strangers, shy adults exhibited significantly less activation in the fusiform gyri than did social adults\". Furthermore, particular areas respond more to a face that is considered attractive, as seen in another study: \"Facial beauty evokes a widely distributed neural network involving perceptual, decision-making and reward circuits. In those experiments, the perceptual response across FFA and LOC remained present even when subjects were not attending explicitly to facial beauty\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Society and culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Facial surgery.", "content": "Cosmetic surgery can be used to alter the appearance of the facial features. Maxillofacial surgery may also be used in cases of facial trauma, injury to the face and skin diseases. Severely disfigured individuals have recently received full face transplants and partial transplants of skin and muscle tissue.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Caricatures.", "content": "Caricatures often exaggerate facial features to make a face more easily recognized in association with a pronounced portion of the face of the individual in question—for example, a caricature of Osama bin Laden might focus on his facial hair and nose; a caricature of George W. Bush might enlarge his ears to the size of an elephant's; a caricature of Jay Leno may pronounce his head and chin; and a caricature of Mick Jagger might enlarge his lips. Exaggeration of memorable features helps people to recognize others when presented in a caricature form.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metaphor.", "content": "By extension, anything which is the forward or world-facing part of a system which has internal structure is considered its \"face\", like the façade of a building. For example, a public relations or press officer might be called the \"face\" of the organization he or she represents. \"Face\" is also used metaphorically in a sociological context to refer to reputation or standing in society, particularly Chinese society, and is spoken of as a resource which can be won or lost. Because of the association with individuality, the anonymous person is sometimes referred to as \"faceless\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The face is the front of an animal's head that features three of the head's sense organs, the eyes, nose, and mouth, and through which animals express many of their emotions. The face is crucial for human identity, and damage such as scarring or developmental deformities affects the psyche adversely.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971903}
{"src_title": "David II of Scotland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "David II was the eldest and only surviving son of Robert I of Scotland and his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh. He was born on 5 March 1324 at Dunfermline Abbey, Fife. His mother died in 1327, when he was 3 years old. In accordance with the Treaty of Northampton's terms, on 17 July 1328, when he was 4, David was married to 7 year old Joan of the Tower, at Berwick-upon-Tweed. She was the daughter of Edward II of England and Isabella of France. They had no issue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "David became King of Scots upon the death of his father on 7 June 1329, aged 5 years, 3 months, and 3 days. David and his wife were crowned at Scone on 24 November 1331.  During David's minority, Sir Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray was appointed Guardian of Scotland by the Act of Settlement of 1318. After Moray's death, on 20 July 1332, he was replaced by Donald, Earl of Mar, elected by an assembly of the magnates of Scotland at Perth, 2 August 1332. Only ten days later Mar fell at the Battle of Dupplin Moor. Sir Andrew Murray of Bothwell, who was married to Christian (or Christina), the sister of King Robert I, was chosen as the new Guardian. He was taken prisoner by the English at Roxburgh in April 1333 and was thence replaced as Guardian by Archibald Douglas (the Tyneman), who fell at Halidon Hill that July.  Meanwhile, on 24 September 1332, following the Scots' defeat at Dupplin, Edward Balliol, a protégé of Edward III of England, and a pretender to the throne of Scotland, was crowned by the English and his Scots adherents. By December, however, Balliol was forced to flee to England, although he returned the following year as part of an invasion force led by the English king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile in France.", "content": "Following the English victory at the Battle of Halidon Hill in July 1333, David and his wife were sent for safety into France, reaching Boulogne on 14 May 1334. They were received very graciously by King Philip VI. Little is known about the life of the Scottish king in France, except that Château Gaillard was given to him for a residence, and that he was present at the bloodless meeting of the English and French armies in October 1339 at Vironfosse, now known as Buironfosse, in the Arrondissement of Vervins.  By 1341, David's representatives had once again obtained the upper hand in Scotland. David was able to return to his kingdom, landing at Inverbervie in Kincardineshire on 2 June 1341. He took the reins of government into his own hands, at the age of 17.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Captivity in England.", "content": "In 1346, under the terms of the Auld Alliance, David invaded England in the interests of the French, who were at war with the English in Normandy. After initial success at Hexham, David was wounded, and his army soundly defeated at the Battle of Neville's Cross on 17 October 1346. David was captured and taken prisoner by Sir John de Coupland, who imprisoned him in the Tower of London. David was transferred to Windsor Castle in Berkshire upon the return of Edward III from France. The depiction of David being presented to King Edward III in the play \"The Reign of King Edward the Third\" is fictitious. David and his household were later moved to Odiham Castle in Hampshire. His imprisonment was not reputed to be a rigorous one, although he remained captive in England for eleven years.  On 3 October 1357, after several protracted negotiations with the Scots' regency council, a treaty was signed at Berwick-upon-Tweed under which Scotland's nobility agreed to pay 100,000 marks, at the rate of 10,000 marks per year, as a ransom for their king. This was ratified by the Scottish Parliament at Scone on 6 November 1357.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Scotland.", "content": "David returned at once to Scotland, bringing with him a mistress, Katherine Mortimer, of whom little is known. This was an unpopular move, and Katherine was murdered in 1360. After six years, owing to the poverty of the kingdom, it was found impossible to raise the ransom instalment of 1363. David then made for London and sought to get rid of the liability by offering to bequeath Scotland to Edward III, or one of his sons, in return for a cancellation of the ransom. David did this with the full awareness that the Scots would never accept such an arrangement. In 1364, the Scottish parliament indignantly rejected a proposal to make Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the next king. Over the next few years, David strung out secret negotiations with Edward III, which apparently appeased the matter.  His wife, Queen Joan, died on 7 September 1362 (aged 41) at Hertford Castle, Hertfordshire, possibly a victim of the Black Death. He remarried, on about 20 February 1364, Margaret Drummond, widow of Sir John Logie, and daughter of Sir Malcolm Drummond. He divorced her on about 20 March 1370. They had no children. Margaret, however, travelled to Avignon, and made a successful appeal to the Pope Urban V to reverse the sentence of divorce which had been pronounced against her in Scotland. She was still alive in January 1375, four years after David died.  From 1364, David governed actively, dealing firmly with recalcitrant nobles, and a wider baronial revolt, led by his prospective successor, the future Robert II. David continued to pursue the goal of a final peace with England. At the time of his death, the Scottish monarchy was stronger, and the kingdom and the royal finances more prosperous than might have seemed possible.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "David II died unexpectedly, and at the height of his power, in Edinburgh Castle on 22 February 1371. He was buried in Holyrood Abbey. The funeral was overseen by Abbot Thomas.  At the time of his death, he was planning to marry his mistress, Agnes Dunbar, the niece of Agnes Randolph, who was known as \"Black Agnes of Dunbar\". He left no children and was succeeded by his nephew, Robert II, the son of David's half-sister Marjorie Bruce. He was the last male of the House of Bruce.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fictional portrayals.", "content": "David II has been depicted in historical novels. They include  David II also appears as a character in the Elizabethan play \"Edward III\". And also in 2012 grand strategy game Crusader Kings II as the monarch of Scotland in 1336", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "David II (5 March 132422 February 1371) was King of Scotland for nearly 42 years, from 1329 until his death in 1371. He was the last male of the House of Bruce. Although David spent long periods in exile or captivity, he managed to ensure the survival of his kingdom and left the Scottish monarchy in a strong position.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971904}
{"src_title": "Lamoral, Count of Egmont", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The Count of Egmont was at the head of one of the wealthiest and most powerful families in the Low Countries. Paternally, a branch of the Egmonts ruled the sovereign duchy of Guelders until 1538. Lamoral was born in La Hamaide near Ellezelles. His father was John IV of Egmont, knight in the Order of the Golden Fleece. His mother belonged to a cadet branch of the House of Luxembourg, and through her he inherited the title \"prince de Gavere\". During his youth, he received a military education in Spain. In 1542, he inherited the estates of his elder brother Charles in Holland. His family's stature increased further in 1544 when, at Spires, in the presence of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and of the Archduke Ferdinand I, he married the Countess Palatine Sabine of Simmern, whose brother became the Elector Palatine Frederick III. By appointment, he was Captain General of the Lowlands under Charles V, knight of the Golden Fleece from 1546, and Imperial Chamberlain. In the service of the Spanish army, he defeated the French in the battles of Saint-Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558). Egmont was appointed stadtholder of Flanders and Artois in 1559, aged only 37. As a leading Netherlandic nobleman, Egmont was a member of King Philip II of Spain's official Council of State for Flanders and Artois. Together with William, Prince of Orange and the Count of Horn, he protested against the introduction of the inquisition in Flanders by the cardinal Antoine Perrenot Granvelle, bishop of Arras. Egmont even threatened to resign, but after Granvelle left, there was a reconciliation with the king. In 1565, running short of funds as he had continued the representation of the Low Countries entirely from his own pocket, Egmont went to Madrid to beseech Philip II, the king of Spain, for a change of policy in the Netherlands, but met with little more than courtesy.  Soon thereafter, the 'Beeldenstorm' started, the massive iconoclasm of Catholic churches in the Netherlands, and resistance against the Spanish rule in the Netherlands increased. As a devout Catholic, Egmont deplored the iconoclasm, and remained faithful to the Spanish king.  After Philip II sent the Duke of Alba to the Netherlands, William of Orange decided to flee Brussels. Having always declined to do anything that smacked of \"lèse majesté\", Egmont refused to heed Orange's warning; thus he and Horn decided to stay in the city. Upon arrival, Alba almost immediately had the counts of Egmont and Horn arrested on charges of heresy, and imprisoned them in a castle in Ghent, prompting Egmont's wife and their eleven surviving children (from the thirteen they had together) to seek refuge in a convent. Pleas for amnesty came to the Spanish king from throughout Europe, including from many reigning sovereigns, the Order of the Golden Fleece (both being knights of the Order, and thereby theoretically immune from trial by any but their peers of the Order), and the king's kinsman the Emperor Maximilian II, all to no avail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Execution and destruction of Castle Egmond.", "content": "On 4 June Egmont and Horn were condemned to death, and lodged that night in the \"maison du roi\". On 5 June 1568 both men were beheaded in the \"Grand Place\" in Brussels, Egmont's uncomplaining dignity on the occasion being widely noted. Their deaths led to public protests throughout the Netherlands, and contributed to the resistance against the Spaniards. The Count of Egmont lies buried in a crypt in Zottegem, a Belgian city in which Egmont is remembered by his two statues, his museum and his castle. His castle in Egmond aan den Hoef was destroyed in 1573 and a statue in his memory is erected on the site of the ruins.  A statue erected on the Petit Sablon / Kleine Zavel Square in Brussels commemorates the Counts of Egmont and Horn, in historical overview usually mentioned together as \"\"Egmond en Hoorne\"\" and hailed as the first leaders of the Dutch revolt, as the predecessors of William of Orange, who grew to importance and obtained the leadership after their execution, and who was assassinated in 1584 in Delft, having succeeded in liberating parts of The Netherlands in the early years of the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648).  Egmont's offices and vast estates were forfeited upon his execution, escheating to the Prince-Bishop of Liège. By inheritance he had been count of Egmont (or Egmond), prince de Gavre and van Steenhuysen, baron de Fiennes, Gaesbeke and La Hamaide, seigneur de Purmerent, Hoogwoude, Aertswoude, Beyerland, Sottenghien, Dondes, Auxy and Baer. Some of these lands were eventually returned to his heirs by the Bishop, principally in 1600. Despite the taint of treason and the family's impoverishment, his niece Louise of Lorraine-Mercœur, was chosen to become the Queen consort of Henry III of France in 1575.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary treatments.", "content": "The Count of Egmont is the main character in a play by Goethe, \"Egmont\". In 1810 Ludwig van Beethoven composed the Egmont Overture an overture and incidental music for a revival of the play.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lamoral, Count of Egmont, Prince of Gavere (18 November 1522 – 5 June 1568) was a general and statesman in the Spanish Netherlands just before the start of the Eighty Years' War, whose execution helped spark the national uprising that eventually led to the independence of the Netherlands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971905}
{"src_title": "Carolingian minuscule", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Creation.", "content": "The script is derived from Roman half uncial and the insular scripts that were being used in Irish and English monasteries. The strong influence of Irish literati on the script can be seen in the distinctively cló-Gaelach (Irish style) forms of the letters, especially a, e, d, g, s, and t.  Carolingian minuscule was created partly under the patronage of the Emperor Charlemagne (hence Carolingian). Charlemagne had a keen interest in learning, according to his biographer Einhard (here with apices):  Temptábat et scríbere, tabulásque et códicellós ad hoc in lectó sub cervícálibus circumferre solébat, ut, cum vacuum tempus esset, manum litterís effigiendís adsuésceret, sed parum successit labor praeposterus ac séró incohátus.  As a part of Charlemagne's educational and religious reforms, he decreed that every church and monastery should have a copy of Jerome's Vulgate Bible. Charlemagne wanted to make the Vulgate Bible more readable for preachers and easier to copy for scribes. Thus, Marcia Colish explains,  Charlemagne looked first to Anglo-Saxon England for a scholar to head his court school, finding him in Alcuin (). He assigned to Alcuin the correction of the Vulgate. In conjunction with this project, and later in his career when he became abbot of Tours, Alcuin invented a new style of handwriting, the Caroline minuscule. This script was far more legible than earlier medieval hands and an improvement on Roman book hands, since it provided spaces between the words, more extensive punctuation, and a hierarchy of hands, with capitals used for titles, a mix of capitals and lower-case letters for subtitles or chapter headings, and lower case for the body of the text. With the newly corrected Bible, pastors would be able to base their teaching and preaching on what it actually said.  Although Charlemagne was never fully literate, he understood the value of literacy and a uniform script in running his empire. Charlemagne sent for the English scholar Alcuin of York to run his palace school and scriptorium at his capital, Aachen. Efforts to supplant Gallo-Roman and Germanic scripts had been under way before Alcuin arrived at Aachen, where he was master from 782 to 796, with a two-year break. The new minuscule was disseminated first from Aachen, of which the Ada Gospels provided classic models, and later from the influential scriptorium at Marmoutier Abbey (Tours), where Alcuin withdrew from court service as an abbot in 796 and restructured the scriptorium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Carolingian minuscule was uniform, with rounded shapes in clearly distinguishable glyphs, disciplined and above all, legible. Clear capital letters and spaces between words became standard in Carolingian minuscule, which was one result of a campaign to achieve a culturally unifying standardization across the Carolingian Empire.  Traditional charters, however, continued to be written in a Merovingian \"chancery hand\" long after manuscripts of Scripture and classical literature were being produced in the minuscule hand. Documents written in a local language, like Gothic or Anglo-Saxon rather than Latin, tended to be expressed in traditional local script.  Carolingian script generally has fewer ligatures than other contemporary scripts, although the \"et\" (\"&\"), \"æ\", \"rt\", \"st\", and \"ct\" ligatures are common. The letter \"d\" often appears in an uncial form with an ascender slanting to the left, but the letter \"g\" is essentially the same as the modern minuscule letter, rather than the previously common uncial \"ᵹ\". Ascenders are usually \"clubbed\" – they become thicker near the top.  The early period of the script, during Charlemagne's reign in the late 8th century and early 9th, still has widely varying letter forms in different regions. The uncial form of the letter \"a\", similar to a double \"c\" (\"cc\"), is still used in manuscripts from this period. There is also use of punctuation such as the question mark, as in Beneventan script of the same period. The script flourished during the 9th century, when regional hands developed into an international standard, with less variation of letter forms. Modern glyphs, such as \"s\" and \"v\", began to appear (as opposed to the \"long \"s\"\" \"s\" and \"u\"), and ascenders, after thickening at the top, were finished with a three-cornered wedge. The script began to evolve slowly after the 9th century. In the 10th and 11th centuries, ligatures were rare and ascenders began to slant to the right and were finished with a fork. The letter \"w\" also began to appear. By the 12th century, Carolingian letters had become more angular and were written closer together, less legibly than in previous centuries; at the same time, the modern dotted \"i\" appeared.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spread.", "content": "The new script spread through Western Europe most widely where Carolingian influence was strongest. In luxuriously produced lectionaries that now began to be produced for princely patronage of abbots and bishops, legibility was essential. It reached far afield: the 10th century Freising manuscripts, which contain the oldest Slovene language, the first Roman-script record of any Slavic language, are written in Carolingian minuscule. In Switzerland, Carolingian was used in the Rhaetian and Alemannic minuscule types. Manuscripts written in Rhaetian minuscule tend to have slender letters, resembling Insular script, with the letters and, and ligatures such as, showing similar to Visigothic and Beneventan. Alemannic minuscule, used for a short time in the early 9th century, is usually larger and broader, very vertical compared to the slanting Rhaetian type. In Austria, Salzburg was the major centre of Carolingian script, while Fulda, Mainz, and Würzburg were the major centres in Germany. German minuscule tends to be oval-shaped, very slender, and slants to the right. It has uncial features as well, such as the ascender of the letter slanting to the left, and vertical initial strokes of and.  In northern Italy, the monastery at Bobbio used Carolingian minuscule beginning in the 9th century. Outside the sphere of influence of Charlemagne and his successors, however, the new legible hand was resisted by the Roman Curia; nevertheless the Romanesca type was developed in Rome after the 10th century. The script was not taken up in England and Ireland until ecclesiastic reforms in the middle of the 10th century; in Spain a traditionalist Visigothic hand survived; and in southern Italy a 'Beneventan minuscule' survived in the lands of the Lombard duchy of Benevento through the 13th century, although Romanesca eventually also appeared in southern Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in cultural transmission.", "content": "Scholars during the Carolingian Renaissance sought out and copied in the new legible standardized hand many Roman texts that had been wholly forgotten. Most of our knowledge of classical literature now derives from copies made in the scriptoria of Charlemagne. Over 7000 manuscripts written in Carolingian script survive from the 8th and 9th centuries alone.  Though the Carolingian minuscule was superseded by Gothic blackletter hands, it later seemed so thoroughly 'classic' to the humanists of the early Renaissance that they took these old Carolingian manuscripts to be ancient Roman originals and modelled their Renaissance hand, the humanist minuscule, on the Carolingian one. From there the script passed to the 15th- and 16th-century printers of books, such as Aldus Manutius of Venice. In this way it forms the basis of our modern lowercase typefaces. Indeed, 'Carolingian minuscule' is a style of typeface, which approximates this historical hand, eliminating the nuances of size of capitals, long descenders, and so on.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carolingian minuscule or Caroline minuscule is a script which developed as a calligraphic standard in Europe so that the Latin alphabet of Jerome's Vulgate Bible could be easily recognized by the literate class from one region to another. It was developed for the first time, circa AD 780, by a Benedictine monk of Corbie Abbey (about north of Paris), Alcuin of York. However, not all sources agree with the latter. Alcuin might not have been involved in the creation of the script. He was most likely responsible for copying and preserving the manuscripts and upkeeping of the script. It was used in the Holy Roman Empire between approximately 800 and 1200. Codices, pagan and Christian texts, and educational material were written in Carolingian minuscule throughout the Carolingian Renaissance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971906}
{"src_title": "Pedro V of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and reign.", "content": "As the eldest son of Queen Maria II and King Ferdinand II, Peter was a member of the House of Braganza. As heir apparent to the throne he was styled Prince Royal (Portuguese: \"Príncipe Real\"), and was also the 19th Duke of Braganza (\"Duque de Bragança\").  Peter was a conscientious and hard-working monarch who, under the guidance of his father, sought radical modernisation of the Portuguese state and infrastructure. Under his reign, roads, telegraphs, and railways were constructed and improvements in public health advanced. His popularity increased when, during the cholera outbreak of 1853–1856, he visited hospitals handing out gifts and comforting the sick.  Pedro V, along with his brothers Fernando and João and other royal family members, succumbed to typhoid fever or cholera in 1861.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Peter married Princess Stephanie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, eldest daughter of Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, and Princess Josephine of Baden, by proxy in Berlin on 29 April 1858 and then in person in Lisbon on 18 May 1858. It was a happy marriage until Queen Stephanie died a year later from diphtheria. As Peter and Stephanie's marriage was childless, the Portuguese throne passed to his brother Luís.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles and honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles and styles.", "content": "Pedro V's official styling as King of Portugal: \"By the Grace of God and by the Constitution of the Monarchy, Peter V, King of Portugal and the Algarves, of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, South Africa, Arabia, Persia and India, etc.\"  As heir apparent to the Portuguese crown, Peter held the following titles:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Peter V ( ; 16 September 1837 – 11 November 1861), nicknamed \"the Hopeful\" (), was King of Portugal from 1853 to 1861.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971907}
{"src_title": "Alien (law)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Lexicology.", "content": "The term \"alien\" is derived from the Latin \"alienus\", meaning stranger, foreign, etym. \"belonging (somewhere) else\". Similar terms to \"alien\" in this context include \"foreigner\" and \"lander\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Categories.", "content": "Different countries around the world use varying terms for aliens. The following are several types of aliens:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Common law jurisdictions.", "content": "An \"alien\" in English law denoted any person born outside of the monarch's dominions and who did not owe allegiance to the monarch. Aliens were not allowed to own land and were subject to different taxes to subjects. This idea was passed on in the Commonwealth to other common law jurisdictions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "In Australia, citizenship is defined in the Australian nationality law. Non-citizens in Australia are either permanent residents; temporary residents; or illegal residents (technically called \"unlawful non-citizens\"). Most non-citizens (including those who lack citizenship documents) traveling to Australia must obtain a visa prior to travel. The only exceptions to this rule are holders of New Zealand passports and citizenship, who may apply for a visa on arrival according to the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement.  In 2020, in \"Love v Commonwealth\", the High Court of Australia ruled that Aboriginal Australians (as defined in \"Mabo v Queensland (No 2)\") cannot be considered aliens under the Constitution of Australia, regardless of whether they were born in Australia or hold Australian citizenship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Canada.", "content": "In Canada, the term \"alien\" is not used in federal statues. Instead, the term \"foreign national\" serves as its equivalent and is found in legal documents. The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act defines \"foreign national\" as \"a person who is not a Canadian citizen or a permanent resident, and includes a stateless person.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "In the United Kingdom, the British Nationality Act of 1981 defines an alien as a person who is not a British citizen, a citizen of Ireland, a Commonwealth citizen, or a British protected person. The Aliens Act of 1905, the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act of 1914 and the Aliens Restriction (Amendment) Act of 1919 were all products of the turbulence in the early part of the 20th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) of the United States, \"[t]he term 'alien' means any person not a citizen or national of the United States.\"  The usage of the term \"alien\" dates back to 1798, when it was used in the Alien and Sedition Acts. Although the INA provides no overarching explicit definition of the term \"illegal alien\", it is mentioned in a number of provisions under title 8. Several provisions even mention the term \"unauthorized alien\". According to PolitiFact, the term \"illegal alien\" occurs in federal law, but does so scarcely. PolitiFact opines that, \"where the term does appear, it’s undefined or part of an introductory title or limited to apply to certain individuals convicted of felonies.\"  Because the U.S. law says that a corporation is a person, the term alien is not limited to natural humans because what are colloquially called foreign corporations are technically called alien corporations. Because corporations are creations of local state law, a foreign corporation is an out-of-state corporation.  There are a multitude of unique and highly complex U.S. domestic tax laws and regulations affecting the U.S. tax residency of foreign nationals, both nonresident aliens and resident aliens, in addition to income tax and social security tax treaties and Totalization Agreements.  \"Alienage,\" i.e., citizenship status, has been prohibited since 1989 in New York City from being considered for employment, under that town's Human Rights legislation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other jurisdictions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arab states.", "content": "In the Arab states of the Persian Gulf (United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain, Qatar, etc.), many non-natives (foreigners) have lived in the region since birth or since independence. However, these Arab states of the Persian Gulf do not easily grant citizenship to the non-natives.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Latvia.", "content": "On Latvian passports, the mark \"nepilsoņi\" (alien) refers to non-citizens or former citizens of the Soviet Union (USSR) who do not have voting rights for the parliament of Latvia but have rights and privileges under Latvian law and international bilateral treaties, such as the right to travel without visas to both the European Union and Russia, where latter is not possible for Latvian citizens.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In law, an alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of a given country, though definitions and terminology differ to some degree depending on the continent or region of the world. The term \"alien\" is synonymous to \"foreign national\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971908}
{"src_title": "Tilia platyphyllos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Tilia platyphyllos\" is a narrowly domed tree with a moderate growth rate, and can eventually attain a height of 40 m. The reddish-brown young stems later develop dark grey bark with fine fissures and furrows. The branches spread upwards at wide angles. The twigs are reddish-green and slightly pubescent. The foliage consists of simple, alternately arranged leaves. As indicated by its common name, this tree has larger leaves than the related \"Tilia cordata\" (small-leaved lime), 6 to 9 cm (exceptionally 15 cm). They are ovate to cordate, mid to dark green above and below, with white downy hair on the underside, particularly along the veins, tapering into a mucronate tip. The margin is sharply serrate, and the base cordate; the venation is palmate along a midrib. The pubescent petiole is usually 3–4 cm long, but can vary between 1.5–5 cm. The autumn foliage is yellow-green to yellow.  The small, fragrant, yellowish-white flowers are arranged in drooping, cymose clusters in groups of 3 to 4. Their whitish-green, leaf-like bracts have an oblong-obovate shape. The geniculate peduncles are between 1.5–3 cm long. The hermaphroditic flowers have 5 sepals and 5 tepals, numerous stamens, but no staminodes. The superior ovary is 2–10 locular with one smooth style. The flowers are pollinated by butts. The fruit is a fat, round, tomentose, cream-colored nutlet with a diameter of 1 cm or less. It has a woody shell with 3–5 ridges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Tilia platyphyllos\" is widely planted throughout the temperate world as an ornamental tree in parks and city streets. Numerous cultivars are available, including 'Aurea', (golden leafed), 'Fastigiata', 'Laciniata' (seemingly torn leaves), 'Örebro' (columnar), 'Princes Street' (narrow crown), 'Rubra' (red twigged), 'Tortuosa' (twisted branches), and 'Tiltstone Filigree' (upswept branches).  The cultivar 'Rubra' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hybrids.", "content": "\"Tilia platyphyllos\" readily hybridises with \"Tilia cordata\", the hybrid being the Common Lime \"T.\" × \"europaea\" (syn. \"T.\" × \"vulgaris\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "Fossils of \"Tilia platyphyllos\" have been described from the fossil flora of Kızılcahamam district in Turkey, which is of early Pliocene age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "\"Tilia\" wood is used for carving, and almost all parts of the tree can be used for fodder, ropes or firewood. Bast and honey, which were historically the main products of \"Tilia\", may have been an important factor in the spread of the species and its status as a typical agroforestry tree in the Middle Ages. \"Tilia spp\". are also important for amenity use, shelterbelts and game plantings in the open landscape, in urban areas and recreational forestry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "The plant also contains tannins that can act as an astringent. The wood is burned to charcoal and ingested for intestinal disorders and used topically for edema or infection, such as cellulitis or of the lower leg.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Tilia platyphyllos (large-leaved lime or large-leaved linden) is a species of flowering plant in the family Malvaceae (Tiliaceae). It is a deciduous tree, native to much of Europe, including locally in southwestern Great Britain, growing on lime-rich soils. The common names largeleaf linden and large-leaved linden are in standard use throughout the English-speaking world except in the British Isles, where it is known as large-leaved lime. The name \"lime\", possibly a corruption of \"line\" originally from \"lind\", has been in use for centuries and also attaches to other species of \"Tilia\". It is not, however, closely related to the lime fruit tree, a species of citrus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971909}
{"src_title": "Henry, King of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Lisbon, Henry was the fifth son of King Manuel I of Portugal and Maria of Aragon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cardinal.", "content": "As the younger brother of King John III of Portugal and a younger son in the Royal Family, Henry was not expected to succeed to the Portuguese throne. Early in his life, Henry took Holy Orders to promote Portuguese interests within the Catholic Church, then dominated by Spain. He rose fast through the Church hierarchy, becoming in quick succession Archbishop of Braga, Archbishop of Évora and Grand Inquisitor before receiving a galero in 1545, along with the \"Titulus Ss. Quattuor Coronatorum\". From 1564 to 1570 he was Archbishop of Lisbon. Henry, more than anyone, endeavoured to bring the Jesuits to Portugal to employ them in the colonial empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Henry served as regent for his great-nephew King Sebastian, replacing his sister-in-law and Sebastian's grandmother Queen dowager Catherine, following her resignation from the role in 1562. King Sebastian died without an heir in the disastrous Battle of Alcácer Quibir that took place in 1578, and the elderly cardinal was proclaimed king soon after. Henry sought to be released from his ecclesiastical vows so he could take a bride and pursue the continuation of the Aviz dynasty, but Pope Gregory XIII, not wanting to antagonize Philip II of Spain, did not grant him that release.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and succession.", "content": "The Cardinal-King died in Almeirim, on his 68th birthday, without having appointed a successor, leaving only a regency to care for the kingdom. One of the closest dynastic claimants was King Philip II of Spain who, in November 1580, sent the Duke of Alba to claim Portugal by force. Lisbon soon fell, and Philip was elected king of Portugal at the Portuguese Cortes of Tomar in 1581—on the condition that the kingdom and its overseas territories would not become Spanish provinces.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Henry ( ; 31 January 1512 – 31 January 1580) was king of Portugal and a cardinal of the Catholic Church. He ruled Portugal between 1578 and 1580 and was known as Henry the Chaste (Portuguese: \"Henrique o Casto\") and the Cardinal-King. As a clergyman, he was bound to chastity, and as such, had no children to succeed him, and thus put an end to the House of Aviz. His death led to the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580 and ultimately to the 60-year Iberian Union that saw Portugal share a monarch with that of Spain. The next independent monarch of Portugal would be John IV, who took the throne after 60 years of Spanish rule.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971910}
{"src_title": "John II of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Lisbon, the son of King Afonso V of Portugal by his wife, Isabella of Coimbra, John II succeeded his father as ruler of Portugal in 1477, when the king retired to a monastery, but only became king in 1481, after the death of his father and predecessor.  As a prince, John II accompanied his father in the campaigns in northern Africa and was made a knight after the victory in the Conquest of Arzila in 1471. In 1473, he married Leonor of Viseu, an infanta of Portugal and his first cousin.  Even at a young age, John was not popular among the peers of the kingdom since he was immune to external influence and appeared to despise intrigue. The nobles (including particularly his half second cousin Ferdinand II, the Duke of Braganza) were afraid of his future policies as king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consolidation of power.", "content": "accession to the throne in 1481, John II took a series of measures to curtail the power of the Portuguese aristocracy and concentrate power in himself. As one of example of the measure he took, he deprived the nobles of their right to administer justice on their estates. Immediately, the nobles started to conspire. Letters of complaint and pleas to intervene were exchanged between the Duke of Braganza and Queen Isabella I of Castile.  King John took the precaution of renegotiating the \"Tercerias de Moura\" agreement to insure that his son Afonso was living safely back at court before he would move against Braganza, the most powerful noble in the realm (the original agreement called for Afonso to live in Moura, Portugal, with his intended Spanish bride, Isabella, Princess of Asturias, as children before their marriage). In 1483, additional correspondence was intercepted by royal spies. The House of Braganza was outlawed, their lands confiscated and the duke executed in Évora. The Duke's widow, Isabella of Viseu, John's cousin and sister-in-law, fled with her children to Castile.  In the following year, the Duke of Viseu, John's cousin and brother-in-law, was summoned to the palace and stabbed to death by the king himself for suspicion of a new conspiracy. Many other people were executed, murdered, or exiled to Castile, including the Bishop of Évora, who was poisoned in prison. Following the crackdown, no one in the country dared to defy the king and John saw no further conspiracies during his reign. A great confiscation of estates followed and enriched the crown, which now became the dominant power of the realm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Facing a bankrupt kingdom, John II showed the initiative to solve the situation by creating a regime in which a Council of Scholars took a vital role. The king conducted a search of the population and selected members for the Council on the basis of their abilities, talents and credentials ( Meritocracy ). John's exploration policies (see below) also paid great dividends. Such was the profit coming from John II's investments in the overseas explorations and expansion that the Portuguese currency had become the soundest in Europe. The kingdom could finally collect taxes for its own use rather than to pay debts, mainly thanks to its main gold source at that time, the coast of Guinea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exploration.", "content": "John II famously restored the policies of Atlantic exploration, reviving the work of his great-uncle, Henry the Navigator. The Portuguese explorations were his main priority in government. Portuguese explorers pushed south along the known coast of Africa with the purpose of discovering the maritime route to India and breaking into the spice trade. During his reign, the following achievements were realized:  The true extent of Portuguese explorations has been the subject of academic debate. According to one theory, some navigations were kept secret for fear of competition by neighbouring Castile. The archives of this period were mainly destroyed in the fire after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, and what was not destroyed during the earthquake was either stolen or destroyed during the Peninsular War or otherwise lost.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conflict with Castile.", "content": "When Columbus returned from his first voyage early in 1493, he first stopped in Lisbon to claim his victory in front of King John II. King John II's only response to this was that under the Treaty of Alcáçovas previously signed with Spain, Columbus's discoveries lay within Portugal's sphere of influence. Before Columbus even reached Isabella I of Castile, John II had already sent a letter to them threatening to send a fleet to claim it for Portugal. Spain quickly hastened to the negotiating table, which took place in a small Spanish town named Tordesillas. A papal representative was present to act as mediator. The result of this meeting would be the famous Treaty of Tordesillas, which sought to divide all newly discovered lands in the New World between Spain and Portugal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "John II died at Alvor at age 40 without legitimate children. Despite his attempts to have his son Jorge, Duke of Coimbra, succeed him, he was succeeded by his first cousin Manuel I.  The nickname \"the Perfect Prince\" is a posthumous appellation that is intended to refer to Niccolò Machiavelli's work \"The Prince\". John II is considered to have lived his life exactly according to the writer's idea of a perfect prince. Nevertheless, he was admired as one of the greatest European monarchs of his time. Isabella I of Castile usually referred to him as \"El Hombre\" (\"The Man\").  The Italian scholar Poliziano wrote a letter to John II that paid him a profound homage:  Indeed, Poliziano considered his achievements to be more meritorious than those of Alexander the Great or Julius Caesar. He offered to write an epic work giving an account of John II accomplishments in navigation and conquests. The king replied in a positive manner in a letter of 23 October 1491, but delayed the commission.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John II (; ; 3 March 1455 – 25 October 1495), called the Perfect Prince (), was King of Portugal from 1481 until his death in 1495, and also for a brief time in 1477. He is known for re-establishing the power of the Portuguese monarchy, reinvigorating the Portuguese economy, and renewing his country's exploration of Africa and the Orient.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971911}
{"src_title": "Afonso V of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Afonso was born in Sintra, the second son of King Edward of Portugal by his wife Eleanor of Aragon. Following the death of his older brother, Infante João (1429-1433), Afonso acceded to the position of heir apparent and was made the first Prince of Portugal by his father, who sought to emulate the English Court's custom of a dynastic title that distinguished the heir apparent from the other children of the monarch. He was only six years old when he succeeded his father in 1438.  During his minority, Afonso V was placed under the regency of his mother in accordance with a will of his late father. As both a foreigner and a woman, the queen was not a popular choice for regent. Opposition rose and without any important ally among the Portuguese aristocracy other than Afonso, Count of Barcelos, the illegitimate half brother of King Edward, the queen's position was untenable. In 1439, the Portuguese Cortes (assembly of the kingdom) decided to replace the queen with Peter, Duke of Coimbra (Dom Pedro), the young king's oldest uncle.  Peter's main policies were concerned with restricting the political power of the great noble houses and expanding the powers of the crown. The country prospered under his rule, but not peacefully, as his laws interfered with the ambition of powerful nobles. The count of Barcelos, a personal enemy of the Duke of Coimbra (despite being half-brothers) eventually became the king's favourite uncle and began a constant struggle for power. In 1442, the king made Afonso the first Duke of Braganza. With this title and its lands, he became the most powerful man in Portugal and one of the richest men in Europe. To secure his position as regent, Peter had Afonso marry his daughter, Isabella of Coimbra, in 1445.  But on 9 June 1448, when the king came of age, Peter had to surrender his power to Afonso V. The years of conspiracy by the Duke of Braganza finally came to a head. On 15 September of the same year, Afonso V nullified all the laws and edicts approved under the regency. In the following year, led by what were later discovered to be false accusations, Afonso declared Peter a rebel and defeated his army in the Battle of Alfarrobeira, in which his uncle (and father-in-law) was killed. After this battle and the loss of one of Portugal's most remarkable infantes, the Duke of Braganza became the \"de facto\" ruler of the country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasion of Morocco.", "content": "Afonso V then turned his attentions to North Africa. In the reign of his grandfather John I, Ceuta had been conquered from the king of Morocco, and now the new king wanted to expand the conquests. The king's army conquered Alcácer Ceguer in 1458 and Arzila in 1471. Tangiers, on the other hand, was won and lost several times between 1460 and 1464. These achievements granted the king the nickname of \"the African\" or \"Africano\". The king also supported the exploration of the Atlantic Ocean led by prince Henry the Navigator but after Henry's death in 1460, he did nothing to continue Henry's work. Administratively, Afonso V was a passive king. He chose not to pursue the revision of laws or development of commerce, preferring instead to preserve the legacy of his father Edward and grandfather John I.  In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull \"Dum Diversas\", which granted Afonso V the right to reduce \"Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers\" to hereditary slavery. This was reaffirmed and extended in the Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455 (also by Nicholas V). These papal bulls came to be seen by some as a justification for the subsequent era of slave trade and European colonialism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Castile.", "content": "When the campaigns in Africa were over, Afonso V found new grounds for battle in neighboring Castile. On December 11, 1474 King Henry IV of Castile died without a male heir, leaving just one daughter, Joanna la Beltraneja. However, her paternity was questioned; it was rumored that his wife, Queen Joan of Portugal had an affair with a nobleman named Beltrán de La Cueva. The death of Henry ignited a war of succession with one faction supporting Joanna and the other supporting Isabella, Henry's half-sister. Afonso V was persuaded to intervene on behalf of Joanna, his niece. He betrothed himself to her, proclaimed himself king of Castile and led troops into the kingdom. Because of their close blood-relationship, a formal marriage had to wait for papal dispensation.  On May 12, 1475, Afonso entered Castile with an army of 5,600 cavalry and 14,000 foot soldiers. In March, 1476, after several skirmishes and much maneuvering, the 8, 000 men of Afonso and Prince João, faced a Castilian force of similar size in the battle of Toro. The Castilians were led by Isabella's husband, Prince Ferdinand II of Aragon, Cardinal Mendoza and the Duke of Alba. The fight was fierce and confusing but the result was a stalemate: While the forces of Cardinal Mendoza and the Duke of Alba won over their opponents led by the Portuguese King –who left the battlefield to take refuge in Castronuño, the troops commanded by Prince Joao defeated and persecuted the troops of the Castilian right wing, recovered the Portuguese royal standard, remaining ordered in the battlefield where they collected the fugitives of Afonso. Both sides claimed victory but Afonso's prospects for obtaining the Castilian crown were severely damaged.  After the battle, Afonso sailed to France hoping to obtain the assistance of King Louis XI in his fight against Castile. But finding himself deceived by the French monarch, he returned to Portugal in 1477. Disillusioned, he abdicated for a few days in November 1477 in favor of his son John II, then after returning to the throne, he retired to a monastery in Sintra, where he died in 1481.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and descendants.", "content": "Afonso married firstly, in 1447, Isabella of Coimbra, with whom he had three children:  Afonso married secondly, in 1475, his niece Joanna of Castile, known as \"La Beltraneja\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Articles Books", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Afonso V () (15 January 1432 – 28 August 1481), known by the sobriquet the African (), was King of Portugal. His sobriquet refers to his conquests in Northern Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971912}
{"src_title": "Silverfish", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Silverfish are nocturnal insects typically long. Their abdomens taper at the end, giving them a fish-like appearance. The newly hatched are whitish, but develop a greyish hue and metallic shine as they get older. They have two long cerci and one terminal filament at the tip of the abdomen between the cerci. They also have two small compound eyes, despite other members of Zygentoma being completely eyeless, such as the family Nicoletiidae.  Like other species in Apterygota, silverfish are completely wingless. They have long antennae, and move in a wiggling motion that resembles the movement of a fish. This, coupled with their appearance and silvery scales, inspires their common name. Silverfish typically live for two to eight years. Silverfish are agile runners and can outrun most of their predators (including wandering spiders and centipedes). However, such running is possible only on horizontal surfaces, as they lack any additional appendages, and therefore are not fast enough to climb walls at the same speed. They also avoid light.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Silverfish are a cosmopolitan species, found in Africa, the Americas, Australia, Eurasia, and other parts of the Pacific. They inhabit moist areas, requiring a relative humidity between 75% and 95%. In urban areas, they can be found in attics, basements, bathtubs, sinks, kitchens, old books, classrooms, and showers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction and life cycle.", "content": "Before silverfish reproduce, they carry out a ritual involving three phases, which may last over half an hour. In the first phase, the male and female stand face to face, their quivering antennae touching, then repeatedly back off and return to this position. In the second phase, the male runs away and the female chases him. In the third phase, the male and female stand side by side and head to tail, with the male vibrating his tail against the female. Finally, the male lays a spermatophore, a sperm capsule covered in gossamer, which the female takes into her body via her ovipositor to fertilize her eggs. The female lays groups of fewer than 60 eggs at once, deposited in small crevices. The eggs are oval-shaped, whitish, about long, and take between two weeks and two months to hatch. A silverfish usually lays fewer than 100 eggs in her lifetime.  When the nymphs hatch, they are whitish in colour, and look like smaller adults. As they moult, young silverfish develop a greyish appearance and a metallic shine, eventually becoming adults after three months to three years. They may go through 17 to 66 moults in their lifetimes, sometimes 30 in a single year—many more than most insects. Silverfish are among the few types of insect that continue to moult after reaching adulthood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Silverfish consume matter that contains polysaccharides, such as starches and dextrin in adhesives. These include book bindings, carpet, clothing, coffee, dandruff, glue, hair, some paints, paper, photos, plaster, and sugar. They will damage wallpaper in order to consume the paste. Silverfish can also cause damage to tapestries. Other substances they may eat include cotton, dead insects, linen, silk, leftover crumbs, or even their own exuvia (moulted exoskeleton). During famine, a silverfish may even consume leatherware and synthetic fabrics. Silverfish can live for a year or more without eating if water is available.  Silverfish are considered household pests, due to their consumption and destruction of property. However, although they are responsible for the contamination of food and other types of damage, they do not transmit disease. Earwigs, house centipedes, and spiders such as the spitting spider \"Scytodes thoracica\" are known to be predators of silverfish.  The essential oil of the Japanese cedar \"Cryptomeria japonica\" has been investigated as a repellent and insecticide against \"L. saccharina\", with promising results: filter paper impregnated with a concentration of 0.01mg/cm of essential oil repelled 80% of silverfish, and an exposure to vapours of 0.16mg/cm for 10 hours caused a 100% mortality rate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The scientific name for the species is \"Lepisma saccharina\", due to its tendency to eat starchy foods high in carbohydrates and protein, such as dextrin. However, the insect's more common name comes from its distinctive metallic appearance and fish-like shape. While the scientific name was established by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of \"Systema Naturae\", the common name has been in use since at least 1855.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Together with jumping bristletails, the predecessors of silverfish are considered the earliest, most primitive insects. They evolved at the latest in mid-Devonian and possibly as early as late Silurian more than 400 million years ago. Some fossilized arthropod trackways from the Paleozoic Era, known as \"Stiaria intermedia\" and often attributed to jumping bristletails, may have been produced by silverfish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "Other similar insect species are also known as silverfish. Two other silverfish are common in North America, \"Ctenolepisma longicaudata\" and \"Ctenolepisma quadriseriata\". \"Ctenolepisma urbana\" is known as the urban silverfish. The Australian species most commonly referred to as silverfish is a different lepismatid, \"Acrotelsella devriesiana\". The firebrat (\"Thermobia domestica\") is like a silverfish, but with a mottled gray and brown body.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A silverfish (\"Lepisma saccharina\") is a small, primitive, wingless insect in the order Zygentoma (formerly Thysanura). Its common name derives from the animal's silvery light grey colour, combined with the fish-like appearance of its movements. The scientific name (\"L. saccharina\") indicates that the silverfish's diet consists of carbohydrates such as sugar or starches.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971913}
{"src_title": "Spandau (locality)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Position.", "content": "The locality is situated in the middle of its borough. It borders Wilhelmstadt in the south, Staaken and Falkenhagener Feld in the west, Hakenfelde in the north as well as Haselhorst, Siemensstadt and Westend (in Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf district) in the east.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subdivision.", "content": "Spandau proper is subdivided into four historic (\"Ortslagen\"):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The city was founded at the confluence of the rivers Spree and Havel. The settlement of the area can be traced back to the 6th century when the eastern territories of the Elbe river were populated by several Slavic tribes. The history of Spandau begins in the 7th or 8th century, when the Slav Hevelli settled in the area and later built a fortress there. It was conquered in 928 by the German King Henry I, but returned to Slavic rule after the rebellion of 983. In 1156, the Ascanian count Albert the Bear took possession of the region and is believed to have established a fortress here, from which the name Spandau originated. It was around this fortress that the city of Spandow developed, becoming the centre of the entire region.  It was first mentioned as \"Spandowe\" in 1197 in a deed of Otto II, Margrave of Brandenburg – 40 years earlier than the Cölln part of medieval Berlin. Spandau was given city rights in 1232.  During the Ascanian Rule the construction of the Spandau Citadel began, which was completed between 1559 and 1594 by Joachim II of Brandenburg. In 1558 the village of Gatow became part of Spandau. During the Thirty Years' War Spandau was surrendered to the Swedes in 1634.  In 1806, after the Battle of Jena and Auerstedt, French troops under Napoleon took possession of the city and stayed there until 1807. In 1812, Napoleon returned and the Spandau Citadel was besieged in 1813 by Prussian and Russian troops.  The poet and revolutionary Gottfried Kinkel was an inmate of the Spandau town prison from 1849, until he was freed by his friend Carl Schurz on the night of November 6, 1850.  Before World War I, Spandau was a seat of large, government, cannon foundries, factories for making gunpowder, and other munitions of war making, it a centre of the arms industry in the German Empire. It was also a garrison town with numerous barracks, home of the 5th Guards Infantry Brigade and the 5th Foot Guards of the German Army. In 1920, the independent city of Spandau (whose name had been changed from \"Spandow\" in 1878) was incorporated into Greater Berlin as a borough.  After World War II until 1990, when Berlin was divided into four sections administered by the victorious Allies, Spandau was part of the British Occupation Sector in West Berlin. The Spandau Prison, built in 1876, was used to house Nazi war criminals who were sentenced to imprisonment at the Nuremberg Trials. After the death of its last inmate, Rudolf Hess in 1987, Spandau Prison was completely demolished by the Allied powers and later replaced by a shopping mall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Spandau is served by the Berliner S-Bahn lines S3 and S9 and by the U-Bahn line U7. The main railway station is Berlin Spandau, one of the most important of the city.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Spandau is a locality (\"Ortsteil\") of Berlin in the homonymous borough (\"Bezirk\") of Spandau. The historic city is situated, for the most part, on the western banks of the Havel river. As of 2008 the estimated population of Spandau was 33,433.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971914}
{"src_title": "Hermann Buhl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Buhl was born in Innsbruck, the youngest of four children. After the death of his mother, he spent years in an orphanage. Before Scouting was banned in Austria, Hermann Buhl was a Cub Scout in Innsbruck. In the 1930s, as a sensitive (and not very healthy) teenager, he began to climb the Austrian Alps. In 1939, he joined the Innsbruck chapter of the Deutscher Alpenverein (the German Alpine association) and soon mastered climbs up to category 6. He was a member of the Mountain rescue team in Innsbruck (\"Bergrettung Innsbruck\").  World War II interrupted his commercial studies, and he joined the Alpine troops, mostly on the Monte Cassino. After being taken prisoner by American troops, he returned to Innsbruck and earned his living doing odd jobs. At the end of the 1940s, he finally completed his training as a mountain guide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Himalayas.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nanga Parbat.", "content": "Before his successful Nanga Parbat expedition, 31 people had died trying to make the first ascent.  Buhl is the only mountaineer to have made the first ascent of an eight-thousander solo. His climbing partner, Otto Kempter, was too slow in joining the ascent, so Buhl struck off alone. He returned 41 hours later, having barely survived the arduous climb to the summit, 6.5 km (4 miles) distant from, and 1.2 km (4,000 feet) higher than, camp V.  Experienced climbers, upon hearing later of Buhl's near-death climb, faulted him for making the attempt solo. Regardless, his monumental efforts, along with spending the night standing on a tiny pedestal too small to squat upon, untethered, on the edge of a 60-degree ice slope, have become mountaineering legend.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Broad Peak.", "content": "The first ascent of Broad Peak was made between June 8 and 9, 1957, by Fritz Wintersteller, Marcus Schmuck, Kurt Diemberger, and Buhl of an Austrian expedition led by Schmuck. A first attempt by the team had been made on May 29, when Fritz Wintersteller and Kurt Diemberger reached the forepeak (8030 m). This was also accomplished without the aid of supplemental oxygen, high-altitude porters or base camp support.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chogolisa.", "content": "Just a few weeks after the successful first ascent of Broad Peak, Buhl and Diemberger made an attempt on nearby, unclimbed Chogolisa (7665 m) in Alpine style. Buhl lost his way in an unexpected snow storm and walked over a huge cornice on the south-east ridge, near the summit of Chogolisa II (7654 m; also known as Bride Peak), subsequently triggering an avalanche that hurled him down 900 m over Chogolisa's north face. His body could not be recovered and remains in the ice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Hermann Buhl is still considered by alpinists and mountaineering historians to be the most complete and advanced mountaineer of his time. His ascents on rock and snow, solo and as a rope leader, his attitude towards the mountain and his physical elegance have been assessed by such contemporary luminaries as Kurt Diemberger, Marcus Schmuck, Heinrich Harrer, Walter Bonatti and Gaston Rébuffat. He was also an idol and hero of climbers of younger generations, such as Reinhold Messner, Peter Habeler and Hansjörg Auer.  Buhl can be considered a pioneer of Alpine style mountaineering in the Himalayas, a style defined by light-weight expedition gear, little to no fixed ropes and the relinquishing of bottled oxygen.  His expedition to Nanga Parbat was dramatized by Donald Shebib in the 1986 film \"The Climb\", based in part on Buhl's own writings about the expedition and starring Bruce Greenwood as Buhl.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hermann Buhl (21 September 1924 – 27 June 1957) was an Austrian mountaineer and is considered one of the best climbers of all time. He was particularly innovative in applying Alpine style to Himalayan climbing. His accomplishments include:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971915}
{"src_title": "Flag of Estonia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "The flag of Estonia fundamentally grew out of the flag of the German Order of the Cross, the black cross on a white field. This flag later resurfaced several other times, it was used as the flag of the United Baltic Duchy.  In the era of the crusades, the particular geographic domain of the contemporary Estonia's location (the Eastern Baltic shores) was proclaimed to be \"Land of Mary\", the Land of the Virgin Mary, \"Terra Mariana\" in Latin. (The region more to the South, the then-Prussia, was named the Land of St Peter). When creating its flag, the generic Teutonic banner was adapted so as to include the colors of the flag of St Mary. Mary being the \"Virgin/Queen of Heaven\", her flag consists of blue representing the heaven/sky, and white, the color of purity. The \"Marian flag\" itself, the flag of St Mary (St Maria), has two fields, white over blue. This original flag is still to be found in the flag of the Baltic Germans, and the flag of Pomerania (Province of Pomerania (1815–1945)). The Marian flag is still popular in Poland. It is also the flag of the Cathedral of St Mary in Luxembourg. This flag is also taken for the background in the San Marino (St Marinus) banner.  The merging of the Teutonic cross with the Marian colors resulted in the Terra mariana pattern. The pattern is today used in the coat of arms of the Jungingen family (Ulrich von Jungingen, notably, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order active in the Baltic domain). It is also used in the coat of arms of the German town of Jungingen.  The State of the German Order of the Cross ceased to exist in 1561.  In 1860 the students of the Baltic-Prussian extraction studying in Germany (in Danzig, in Karlsruhe) established a society, the Baltica-Borussia (Prussia) student organisation (\"corporation\"). The coat of arms of that corporation was based on the known pattern of colours and their arrangement associated with the region and its German past (the coat of arms also incorporated the German eagle). The corporation also adopted a flag. As the idea behind the French revolutionary tricolours demanded that flags be composed of three fields of equal width (representing the equality of the citizens), so was the old Terra Mariana flag transformed into a tricolour (technically, a triband).  In 1881 the Society of Estonian Students at the University of Tartu (Estonia) was formed, a similar tricolour was constructed. Yet by that time the selection of the particular colours was also attributed to the Finnish flag, and the colours were ascribed symbolic meanings.  The Estonian flag was therefore officially adopted first as a student organisation flag on 17 September 1881 by the constituent assembly of the first Estonian national student Corps \"Vironia\" (modern Estonian Students Society) in the city of Tartu. The colours and the pattern eventually became the national flag.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Independence.", "content": "The flag became associated with Estonian nationalism and was used as the national flag (\"riigilipp\") when the Estonian Declaration of Independence was issued on 24 February 1918. The flag was formally adopted on 21 November 1918. 12 December 1918 was the first time the flag was raised as the national symbol atop of the Pikk Hermann Tower in Tallinn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soviet occupation.", "content": "The invasion by the Soviet Union in June 1940 led to the flag's ban. It was taken down from the most symbolic location, the tower of Pikk Hermann in Tallinn, on 21 June 1940, when Estonia was still formally independent. On the next day, 22 June, it was hoisted along with the red flag. The tricolour disappeared completely from the tower on 27 July 1940, and was replaced by the flag of the Estonian SSR.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "German occupation.", "content": "During the German occupation from 1941 until 1944, the flag was accepted as the ethnic flag of Estonians but not the national flag. After the German retreat from Tallinn in September 1944, the Estonian flag was hoisted once again.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second Soviet occupation.", "content": "When the Red Army arrived on 22 September 1944, the red flag was just added at first. Soon afterwards, however, the blue-black-white flag disappeared. In its place from February 1953, the Estonian SSR flag was redesigned to include the six blue spiked waves on the bottom with the hammer and sickle with the red star on top. The blue-black-white flag remained illegal until the days of perestroika in the late 1980s. 21 October 1987 was the first time when Soviet forces did not take down the flag at a public event. 24 February 1989 the blue-black-white flag was again flown from the Pikk Hermann tower in Tallinn. It was formally re-declared as the national flag on 7 August 1990, little over a year before Estonia regained full independence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Symbolism.", "content": "A symbolism-interpretation made popular by the poetry of Martin Lipp says the blue is for the vaulted blue sky above the native land, the black for attachment to the soil of the homeland as well as the fate of Estonians — for centuries black with worries, and white for purity, hard work, and commitment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Colours.", "content": "The shade of blue is defined in the Estonian flag law as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selections from the Estonian Flag Act.", "content": "The most recent Estonian Flag Act was passed 23 March 2005 and came into force on 1 January 2006. It has been amended several times since then. The Act specifies the colours in Pantone and CMYK formats, as well as specifying when it can be hoisted and how it can be used and by whom. The Act specifies that the flag is \"the ethnic and the national flag\".  More specifically, the Flag Act specifies that the flag be hoisted on the Pikk Hermann tower in Tallinn every day at sunrise, but not earlier than 7.00 am, and is lowered at sunset\". The lawful flag days are as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nordic flag proposals.", "content": "In 2001, politician Kaarel Tarand suggested that the flag be changed from a tricolour to a Scandinavian-style cross design with the same colours. Supporters of this design claim that a tricolour gives Estonia the image of a post-Soviet or Eastern European country, while a cross design would symbolise the country's links with Nordic countries. Several Nordic cross designs were proposed already in 1919, when the state flag was officially adopted, three of which are shown here. As the tricolour is considered an important national symbol, the proposal did not achieve the popularity needed to modify the national flag.  Advocates for a Nordic flag state that Estonians consider themselves a Nordic nation rather than Baltic, based on their cultural and historical ties with Sweden, Denmark, and particularly Finland. In December 1999 Estonian foreign minister—later the Estonian president from 2006 to 2016—Toomas Hendrik Ilves delivered a speech entitled \"Estonia as a Nordic Country\" to the Swedish Institute for International Affairs. Diplomat Eerik-Niiles Kross also suggested changing the country's official name in English and several other foreign languages from \"Estonia\" to \"Estland\" (which is the country's name in Danish, Dutch, German, Swedish, Norwegian and many other Germanic languages).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The national flag of Estonia () is a tricolour featuring three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), black, and white. The normal size is. In Estonian it is colloquially called the \"\"sinimustvalge\"\" (), after the colours of the bands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971916}
{"src_title": "Flag of Libya", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin and history.", "content": "The flag of the Kingdom of Libya was adopted when Libya gained full independence in 1951. It consisted of a white star and crescent on a triband red-black-green design, with the central black band being twice the width of the outer bands. The design was based on the banner of the Senussi dynasty from Cyrenaica, which consisted of a black field and star and crescent design, and was later used as the flag of the region.  Omar Faiek Shennib, Chief of the Royal Diwans, Vice President of the National Assembly and Minister of Defense under King Idris Al Senussi is credited in the memoirs of Adrian Pelt, UN commissioner for Libya (1949 to 1951) for the design of the original flag of Libya. According to Pelt: \"during deliberations of the Libyan National Constitutional Convention, a paper drawing of a proposed national flag was presented to the convention by Omar Faiek Shennib [distinguished member of the delegation from Cyrenaica]. The design was composed of three colors; red, black and green, with a white Crescent and Star centered in the middle black stripe. Mr. Shennib informed the delegates that this design had met the approval of His Highness Emir of Cyrenaica, King Idris Al Senussi [later to become King of Libya]. The assembly subsequently approved that design.\"  This flag represented Libya from its independence in 1951 until the 1969 Libyan coup d'état. The symbolism of the star and crescent in the flag of the Kingdom of Libya was explained in an English language booklet, \"The Libyan Flag & The National Anthem\", issued by the Ministry of Information and Guidance of the Kingdom of Libya (year unknown) as follows: \"The crescent is symbolic of the beginning of the lunar month according to the Muslim calendar. It brings back to our minds the story of Hijra [migration] of our Prophet Mohammed from his home in order to spread Islam and teach the principles of right and virtue. The Star represents our smiling hope, the beauty of aim and object and the light of our belief in God, in our country, its dignity and honour which illuminate our way and puts an end to darkness.\"  In 2011, interviews with Ibtisam Shennib and Amal Omar Shennib, Omar Faeik Shennib's only two remaining children, were cited as confirming Pelt's account of the origin of the flag. Ibtisam Shennib recalled the morning her father brought a draft of the flag to the breakfast table and showed it to her and her siblings, explaining the original intent behind the selection of the flag's colours and symbols. According to Omar Faiek Shennib, \"red was selected for the blood sacrificed for the freedom of Libya, black to remember the dark days that Libyans lived under the occupation of the Italians and green to represent its primary wealth, agriculture, [Libya once being referred to as the 'agricultural basket' or 'breadbasket' of the Ottoman Empire] and the future prosperity of the country. The star and crescent were placed within the black central strip of the flag as a reference to the Senussi flag and the role of King Idris in leading the country to independence\".  During the Libyan Civil War against the rule of Muammar Gaddafi, the 1951–69 flag — as well as various makeshift versions without the crescent and star symbol, or without the green stripe — came back into use in areas held by the Libyan opposition and by protesters at several Libyan diplomatic missions abroad. The National Transitional Council, formed on 27 February 2011, adopted the flag previously used in the Kingdom of Libya between 1951 and 1969 as the \"emblem of the Libyan Republic\". The flag was officially defined in article three of the Libyan Draft Constitutional Charter for the Transitional Stage:  The national flag shall have the following shape and dimensions:  Its length shall be double its width, its shall be divided into three parallel coloured stripes, the uppermost being red, the centre black and lowest green, the black stripe shall be equal in area to the other two stripes together and shall bear in its centre a white crescent, between the two extremities of which there shall be a five-pointed white star. On 10 March 2011, France was the first country to recognise the council as the official government of Libya, as well as the first to allow the Libyan embassy staff to raise the flag. On 21 March, the flag was flown by the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations and appeared on their official website, and thereafter in late August by the Arab League and by Libya's own telecommunications authority, the Libya Telecom & Technology, on its own website. In the following months many other Libyan embassies replaced the green flag of Gaddafi with the tricolour flag.  This original flag of Libya is now the only flag used by the United Nations to represent Libya, according to the following UN statement: \"Following the adoption by the General Assembly of resolution 66/1, the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations formally notified the United Nations of a Declaration by the National Transitional Council of 3 August 2011 changing the official name of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya to 'Libya' as well as a decision to change Libya's national flag to the original.\" All Libyan diplomatic posts, such as embassies and consulates, use the original flag of Libya.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal basis and construction.", "content": "The flag of Libya is described in Article 7 of the Constitution of 7 October 1951. It was officially adopted on 24 December 1951. The passage from the constitution reads:  Both the precise shade and legal construction is described in a booklet issued by the Ministry of Information and Guidance of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951. The passage reads:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The flag of Libya was originally introduced in 1951, following the creation of the Kingdom of Libya. It was designed by Omar Faiek Shennib and approved by King Idris Al Senussi who comprised the UN delegation representing the three regions of Cyrenaica, Fezzan, and Tripolitania at UN unification discussions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971917}
{"src_title": "Samovar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Samovars are typically crafted out of plain iron, copper, polished brass, bronze, silver, gold, tin, or nickel. A typical samovar consists of a body, base and chimney, cover and steam vent, handles, tap and key, crown and ring, chimney extension and cap, drip-bowl, and teapot. The body shape can be an urn, krater, barrel, cylinder, or sphere. Sizes and designs vary, from large, \"40-pail\" ones holding to those of a modest size.  A traditional samovar consists of a large metal container with a tap near the bottom and a metal pipe running vertically through the middle. The pipe is filled with solid fuel which is ignited to heat the water in the surrounding container. A small (6 to 8 inch) smoke-stack is put on the top to ensure draft. After the water boils and the fire is extinguished, the smoke-stack can be removed and a teapot placed on top to be heated by the rising hot air. The teapot is used to brew a strong concentrate of tea known as \"заварка\" (\"zavarka\"). The tea is served by diluting this concentrate with \"кипяток\" (\"kipyatok\") (boiled water) from the main container, usually at a water-to-tea ratio of 10-to-1, although tastes vary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prehistory.", "content": "The predecessor of the modern samovar is unknown; it could have originated from Russia or Central Asia.  Samovar-like pottery was found in Shaki, Azerbaijan in 1989. It was estimated to be at least 3,600 years old. While it differed from modern samovars in many respects, it contained the distinguishing functional feature of an inner cylindrical tube that increased the area available for heating the water. Unlike modern samovars, the tube was not closed from below, and so the device relied on an external fire (i.e. by placing it above the flame) instead of carrying its fuel and fire internally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The invention and cultural development of samovar in Russia was probably influenced by Byzantine and Asian cultures. Conversely, Russian culture also influenced Asian, Western Europe and Byzantine cultures. Cultural connections exist to a similar Greek water-heater of classical antiquity, the autepsa, a vase with a central tube for coal. The first historically recorded samovar-makers were the Russian Lisitsyn brothers, Ivan Fyodorovich and Nazar Fyodorovich. From their childhood they were engaged in metalworking at the brass factory of their father, Fyodor Ivanovich Lisitsyn. In 1778 they made a samovar, and the same year Nazar Lisitsyn registered the first samovar-making factory in Russia. They may not have been the inventors of the samovar, but they were the first documented samovar-makers, and their various and beautiful samovar designs became very influential throughout the later history of samovar-making. These and other early producers lived in Tula, a city known for its metalworkers and arms-makers. Since the 18th century Tula has been also the main center of Russian samovar production, with \"tul'sky samovar\" being the brand mark of the city. A Russian saying equivalent to \"carrying coal to Newcastle\" is \"to travel to Tula with one's own samovar\". Although Central Russia and Ural region were among the first Samovar producers, over time several samovar producers emerged all over Russia, which gave the somovar its different local characteristics. By the 19th century samovars were already a common feature of Russian tea culture. They were produced in large numbers and exported to Central Asia and other regions. The samovar was an important attribute of Russian households and taverns to tea-drinking. It was used by all classes, from the poorest peasants up to the most well-suited people. The Russian expression \"to have a sit by the samovar\" means to have a leisurely talk while drinking tea from a samovar. In everyday use samovars were an economical permanent source of hot water in older times. Various slow-burning items could be used for fuel, such as charcoal or dry pinecones. When not in use, the fire in the samovar pipe faintly smouldered. As needed it could be quickly rekindled with the help of bellows. Although a Russian jackboot \"сапог\" (\"sapog\") could be used for this purpose, bellows were manufactured specifically for use on samovars. Today samovars are popular souvenirs among tourists in Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural extension outside of Russia.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Iran.", "content": "Samovar culture has an analog in Iran and is maintained by expatriates around the world. In Iran, samovars have been used for at least two centuries (roughly since the era of close political and ethnic contact between Russia and Iran started), and electrical, oil-burning or natural gas-consuming samovars are still common. Samovar is pronounced \"samăvar\" in Persian. Iranian craftsmen used Persian art motifs in their samovar production. The Iranian city of Borujerd has been the main centre of samovar production and a few workshops still produce hand-made samovars. Borujerd's samovars are often made with German silver, in keeping with the famous Varsho-Sazi artistic style. The art samovars of Borujerd are often displayed in Iranian and Western museums as illustrations of Iranian art and handicraft.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kashmir, India.", "content": "A samovar () is a traditional Kashmiri kettle used to brew, boil and serve Kashmiri salted tea (Noon Chai) and kahwa. Kashmiri samovars are made of copper with engraved or embossed calligraphic motifs. In fact in Kashmir, there were two variants of samovar. The copper samovar was used by Muslims and that of brass was used by local Hindus called Kashmiri Pandit. The brass samovars were nickel-plated inside. Inside a samovar there is a fire-container in which charcoal and live coals are placed. Around the fire-container there is a space for water to boil. Green tea leaves, salt, cardamom, and cinnamon are put into the water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Turkey.", "content": "Although Turkish samovars are popular souvenirs among tourists, and charcoal burning samovars are still popular in the fields, it has in the modern homes of cities been replaced with Çaydanlık, a metal teapot with a smaller teapot on top taking the place of the cap of the lower one.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A samovar (, ; literally \"self-brewer\") is a metal container traditionally used to heat and boil water in Russia. Additionally, the samovar is well known outside of Russia and spread through the Russian culture to Eastern Europe, South-Eastern Europe, Iran, Afghanistan, the Kashmir region of India, the Middle East, Vietnam, and is also known in some parts of Central Europe. Since the heated water is typically used to make tea, many samovars have a ring-shaped attachment (, ) around the chimney to hold and heat a teapot filled with tea concentrate. Though traditionally heated with coal or kindling, many newer samovars use electricity to heat water in a manner similar to an electric water boiler. Antique samovars are often prized for their beautiful workmanship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971918}
{"src_title": "Gershom Scholem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Gerhard (Gershom) Scholem was born in Berlin to Arthur Scholem and Betty Hirsch Scholem. His father was a printer. He studied Hebrew and Talmud with an Orthodox rabbi.  Scholem met Walter Benjamin in Munich in 1915, when the former was seventeen years old and the latter was twenty-three. They began a lifelong friendship that ended when Benjamin committed suicide in 1940 in the wake of Nazi persecution. Scholem dedicated his book \"Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism\" (\"Die jüdische Mystik in ihren Hauptströmungen\"), based on lectures 1938–1957, to Benjamin. In 1915 Scholem enrolled at the Frederick William University in Berlin (today, Humboldt University), where he studied mathematics, philosophy, and Hebrew. There he met Martin Buber, Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Hayim Nahman Bialik, Ahad Ha'am, and Zalman Shazar.  In Berlin, Scholem befriended Leo Strauss and corresponded with him throughout his life. He studied mathematical logic at the University of Jena under Gottlob Frege. He was in Bern in 1918 with Benjamin when he met Elsa (Escha) Burchhard, who became his first wife. Scholem returned to Germany in 1919, where he received a degree in semitic languages at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. Together with Benjamin he established a fictitious school - the University of Muri.  Scholem wrote his doctoral thesis on the oldest known kabbalistic text, \"Sefer ha-Bahir\".  Drawn to Zionism and influenced by Buber, he immigrated in 1923 to the British Mandate of Palestine. He became a librarian, and eventually head of the Department of Hebrew and Judaica at the National Library. Scholem's brother Werner was a member of the ultra-left \"Fischer-Maslow Group\" and the youngest ever member of the Reichstag, representing the Communist Party (KPD) in the German parliament. He was expelled from the party and later murdered by the Nazis during the Third Reich. Gershom Scholem, unlike his brother, was vehemently opposed to both Communism and Marxism. In 1936, he married his second wife, Fania Freud.  Scholem died in Jerusalem, where he is buried next to his wife in the Sanhedria Cemetery. Jürgen Habermas delivered the eulogy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic career.", "content": "He became a lecturer at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Scholem taught the Kabbalah and mysticism from a scientific point of view and became the first professor of Jewish mysticism at the university in 1933, working in this post until his retirement in 1965, when he became an emeritus professor. Scholem directly contrasted his historiographical approach on the study of Jewish mysticism with the approach of the 19th-century school of the \"Wissenschaft des Judentums\" (\"Science of Judaism\"), which sought to submit the study of Judaism to the discipline of subjects such as history, philology, and philosophy. According to Jeremy Adler, Scholem's thinking was \"both recognizably Jewish and deeply German,\" and \"changed the course of twentieth-century European thought.\"  Jewish mysticism was seen as Judaism's weakest scholarly link. Scholem told the story of his early research when he was directed to a prominent rabbi who was an expert on Kabbalah. Seeing the rabbi's many books on the subject, Scholem asked about them, only to be told: \"This trash? Why would I waste my time reading nonsense like this?\" (Robinson 2000, p. 396)  The analysis of Judaism carried out by the \"Wissenschaft\" school was flawed in two ways, according to Scholem: It studied Judaism as a dead object rather than as a living organism; and it did not consider the proper \"foundations\" of Judaism, the non-rational force that, in Scholem's view, made the religion a living thing.  In Scholem's opinion, the mythical and mystical components were at least as important as the rational ones, and he thought that they, rather than the minutiae of Halakha, were the truly living core of Judaism. In particular, he disagreed with what he considered to be Martin Buber's personalization of Kabbalistic concepts as well as what he argued was an inadequate approach to Jewish history, Hebrew language, and the land of Israel.  In the \"Weltanschauung\" of Scholem, the research of Jewish mysticism could not be separated from its historical context. Starting from something similar to the \"Gegengeschichte\" of Friedrich Nietzsche he ended up including less normative aspects of Judaism in the public history.  Specifically, Scholem thought that Jewish history could be divided into three periods:  The notion of the three periods, with its interactions between rational and irrational elements in Judaism, led Scholem to put forward some controversial arguments. He thought that the 17th century messianic movement, known as Sabbatianism, was developed from the Lurianic Kabbalah. In order to neutralize Sabbatianism, Hasidism had emerged as a Hegelian synthesis. Many of those who joined the Hasidic movement, because they had seen in it an Orthodox congregation, considered it scandalous that their community should be associated with a heretical movement.  In the same way, Scholem produced the hypothesis that the source of the 13th century Kabbalah was a Jewish gnosticism that preceded Christian gnosticism.  The historiographical approach of Scholem also involved a linguistic theory. In contrast to Buber, Scholem believed in the power of the language to invoke supernatural phenomena. In contrast to Walter Benjamin, he put the Hebrew language in a privileged position with respect to other languages, as the only language capable of revealing the divine truth. Scholem considered the Kabbalists as interpreters of a pre-existent linguistic revelation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Debate with Hannah Arendt.", "content": "In the aftermath of the Eichmann trial in Jerusalem, Scholem sharply criticised Hannah Arendt's book, \"\" and decried her lack of \"ahavath Yisrael\" (solidarity with the Jewish people). Arendt responded that she never loved any collective group, and that she does not love the Jewish people but was only part of them. The bitter fight, which was exchanged in various articles, made Scholem break off ties with Arendt and refuse to forgive her. Scholem wrote to Hans Paeschke that he \"knew Hannah Arendt when she was a socialist or half-communist and...when she was a Zionist. I am astounded by her ability to pronounce upon movements in which she was once so deeply engaged, in terms of a distance measured in light years and from such sovereign heights.”  Various other Israeli and Jewish academics also broke off ties with Arendt, claiming that her lack of solidarity with the Jewish people in their time of need was appalling, along with her victimization of various Nazis. Before the Eichmann trial, Scholem also opposed Arendt's interpretation (in letters and the introduction to \"Illuminations\") of Walter Benjamin as a Marxist thinker who predated the New Left. For Scholem, Benjamin had been an essentially religious thinker, whose turn to Marxism had been merely an unfortunate, but inessential and superficial, expedient.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary influence.", "content": "Various stories and essays of the Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges were inspired or influenced by Scholem's books. He has also influenced ideas of Umberto Eco, Jacques Derrida, Harold Bloom, Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben, and George Steiner. American author Michael Chabon cites Scholem's essay, \"The Idea of the Golem\", as having assisted him in conceiving the Pulitzer-Prize winning book \"The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gershom Scholem () (December 5, 1897 – February 21, 1982), was a German-born Israeli philosopher and historian. He is widely regarded as the founder of the modern, academic study of Kabbalah. He was the first professor of Jewish Mysticism at Hebrew University of Jerusalem. His close friends included Walter Benjamin and Leo Strauss, and selected letters from his correspondence with those philosophers have been published.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971919}
{"src_title": "Adige", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The river source is near the Reschen Pass () close to the borders with Austria and Switzerland above the Inn valley. It flows through the artificial alpine Lake Reschen. The lake is known for the church tower that marks the site of the former village of Alt Graun (\"Old Graun\"); it was evacuated and flooded in 1953 after the dam was finished. Near Glurns, the Rom river joins from the Swiss Val Müstair.  The Adige runs eastward through the Vinschgau to Merano, where it is met by the Passer river from the north. The section between Merano and Bolzano is called Etschtal, meaning Adige Valley. South of Bolzano, the river is joined by the Eisack and turns south through a valley which has always been one of the major routes through the Alps, connecting the Reschen and the Brenner passes, at considered the easiest of the main Alpine passes.  The \"Chiusa di Salorno\" narrows at Salorno mark the southernmost part of the predominantly German-speaking province of South Tyrol. The Adige was mentioned in the \"Lied der Deutschen\" of 1841 as the southern border of the German language area. As of 2011 62% of Salorno speaks Italian and 37% speaks German. In 1922 Germany adopted the song as its national anthem, although by that time Italy had taken control of all of the Adige.  Near Trento, the Avisio, Noce, and Fersina rivers join. The Adige crosses Trentino and later Veneto, flowing past the town of Rovereto, the Lagarina Valley, the cities of Verona and Adria and the north-eastern part of the Po Plain into the Adriatic Sea. The Adige and the Po run parallel in the river delta without properly joining.  The Adige is connected to Lake Garda by the Mori-Torbole tunnel, an artificial underground canal built for flood prevention.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries.", "content": "The following rivers are tributaries to the river Adige (from source to mouth):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fauna.", "content": "The Adige is a home to the marble trout (\"Salmo marmoratus\"), but at far lower populations than in the past. Fish stocking is one of the most significant causes of the sharp reduction in the original (indigenous) fish population of this subspecies. It will spawn with and interbreed with brown trout, which are regularly stocked in the river and its tributaries.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Adige (; ; ; ; ; ;, or, \"Átagis\") is the second-longest river in Italy, after the Po, rises in the Alps in the province of South Tyrol, near the Italian border with Austria and Switzerland, and flows through most of northeastern Italy to the Adriatic Sea.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971920}
{"src_title": "Focolare Movement", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Beginnings.", "content": "In the Northern Italian city of Trent in 1943, in the climate of violence and hatred of the Second World War, the young elementary school teacher Chiara Lubich saw God's love as the only antidote when civil life was crumbling around her. With Bible in hand in the shelters during air raids, she felt deeply Jesus' desire \"that they all may be one.\" A group sharing her vision joined in helping those in the shelters and in the poorest parts of town, and numbers grew. In 1948, the journalist Igino Giordani, a member of Parliament and pioneer of ecumenism, joined the group, bringing his ideal of social unity. Another cofounder was Fr. Pasquale Foresi with his theological background, and founder of New City Press in 1964.  Focolare initially spread in Italy and Europe, then worldwide: South America (1958), North America (1961), Africa (1963), Asia (1966), and Australia (1967).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Focolare towns.", "content": "After 1949, summer vacations together in Fiera di Primiero in the Dolomite Mountains led to the desire to share – materially, culturally, and spiritually. Numbers increased for these retreats, including priests and religious with a variety of spiritualities, and by 1955 this gathering took on the name \"Mariapolis\", a model of peace for the world under Mother Mary's patronage. In 1962 Chiara's visit to the Benedictine Einsiedeln Abbey in Switzerland made her dream of permanent towns of brother/sisterhood, \"simple houses, work places, schools – just like an ordinary town.\" In 1964 Loppiano, the first permanent Mariapolis, was built on land donated by Vincenzo Folonari, near Florence. It has grown to include 900 people of worldwide origins and diverse occupations, married and single, priests and religious, who work and study together and strive to live in exemplary Christian charity. Each year an average of 40,000 visitors pass through Loppiano.  Twentyfour other such towns have sprung up worldwide. Some have specific emphases: \"ecumenism\" (Ottmaring, Germany; Welwyn Garden City, Great Britain); \"ecology\" (Rotselaar, Belgium); \"interreligious dialogue\" (Tagaytay, Philippines); \"multi-ethnic harmony\" (Luminosa, New York; Križevci, Croatia); or \"inculturation\" (Fontem, Cameroon; Kenya; Ivory Coast). In these towns religious and cultural differences are respected, to exemplify Jesus' dream: \"Father, may they all be one, as you and I are one.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "The president of the Focolare movement, who is always a lay woman, is Maria Voce, first elected in 2008. The chief goals of the movement are: to cooperate in the consolidation of unity in the Christian world, with individuals and groups, movements, and associations; to contribute to full communion with Christians of different churches; and to work towards universal brother/sisterhood of all peoples, regardless of religious beliefs.  The movement has branched out to address a variety of groups including families, youth, and different religions. Special projects have sprung up within the movement, such as the \"Abba\" school, \"Young People for a United World\" (now Youth for a United World), Teens4unity, Economy of Communion (involving 800 companies), evangelism within small cities, social work, the Igino Giordani Centre, and 27 publishing houses. Pope Francis in praising Economy of Communion called on it to change “the rules of the game of the socio-economic system.” John L. Allen Jr. has observed that it is hard to \"pick a fight with a \"focolarino\"....They tend to be open, ego-free, and just relentlessly nice.\"  Focolare has 140,440 members in more than 180 countries. People more broadly involved in the movement are estimated by the Vatican at 4.5 million.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Renewal.", "content": "At a reorganizational meeting in 2014 newly elected council members had an average age 16 years younger than that of the previous council, and the 30 council members came from 20 different countries. In Pope Francis' address to the reorganizational meeting he said: \"The Work of Mary, that everyone knows as the Focolare movement, was a little seed in the Catholic Church’s womb, that in the course of the years has brought to life a tree which now extends its branches in all the expressions of the Christian family and also among members of different religions and among many who cultivate justice and solidarity together with the search for truth.\" Francis went on to describe elements of the movement as contemplation, going out to engage in dialogue, and formation of youth. Of contemplation he said: “We need to contemplate God and the beauty of his love,” keeping in mind that “to contemplate means to live together with brothers and sisters, breaking with them the bread of communion and fraternity,” since “contemplation that leaves people outside is a lie, it is narcissism.”", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "New City Press, established in 1964, is the official publishing house for the Focolare movement, publishing books, periodicals, and e-books. Among its publications are the \"Spirituality of Unity\" series, featuring the works of founder Chiara Lubich, and \"Understanding the Scriptures\", Bible commentaries by scholars such as Daniel J. Harrington, Dianne Bergant, Robert Karris, and Ronald Witherup. NCP publications include: the academic journal \"Sophia\" twice a year; three quarterlies – \"Gen's\" on ecclesial commitment as well as \"New Humanity,\" and \"Unity and Charisms\"; the bimonthly \"Teens\" for children; and the monthly periodicals \"Città Nuova\" (published in 38 different national or regional formats; known as \"New City\" in the UK, and as \"Living City\" in the US) with opinion and dialogue, \"Big Smart Kids\" including inserts for educators, and \"Gospel of the Day.\"  Focolare also produces \"Economy of Communion\" quarterly and website.  2001", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Focolare Movement is an international organization that promotes the ideals of unity and universal brotherhood. Founded in Trent, northern Italy, in 1943 by Chiara Lubich as a Catholic movement, it remains largely Roman Catholic but has strong links to the major Christian denominations and other religions, or in some cases with the non-religious.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971921}
{"src_title": "Arecibo message", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Frank Drake, then at Cornell University and creator of the Drake equation, wrote the message with help from Carl Sagan and others. The Arecibo message was meant as a demonstration of human technological achievement, rather than a real attempt to enter into a conversation with extraterrestrials. In fact, the core of M13, to which the message was aimed, will no longer be in that location when the message arrives. However, as the proper motion of M13 is small, the message will still arrive near the center of the cluster.  The message consists of seven parts that encode the following (from the top down):  The message consisted of 1,679 binary digits, approximately 210 bytes, transmitted at a frequency of 2,380 MHz and modulated by shifting the frequency by 10 Hz, with a power of 450 kW. The \"ones\" and \"zeros\" were transmitted by frequency shifting at the rate of 10 bits per second. The total broadcast was less than three minutes.  The number 1,679 was chosen because it is a semiprime (the product of two prime numbers), to be arranged rectangularly as 73 rows by 23 columns., 23 rows by 73 columns, produces an unintelligible set of characters (as do all other X/Y formats).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Numbers.", "content": "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10  The numbers from 1 to 10 appear in binary format (the bottom row marks the beginning of each number).  Even assuming that recipients would recognize binary, the encoding of the numbers may not be immediately obvious because of the way they have been written. To read the first seven digits, ignore the bottom row, and read them as three binary digits from top to bottom, with the top digit being the most significant. The readings for 8, 9 and 10 are a little different, as they have been given an additional column next to the first (to the right in the image). This is intended to show that numbers too large to fit in a single column can be written in several contiguous ones, where the additional columns do not have the least-significant-digit marker.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "DNA elements.", "content": "H C N O P  The numbers 1, 6, 7, 8, and 15 appear. These are the atomic numbers of hydrogen (H), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and phosphorus (P), the components of DNA.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nucleotides.", "content": "The nucleotides are described as sequences of the five atoms that appear on the preceding line. Each sequence represents the molecular formula of the nucleotide as incorporated into DNA (as opposed to the free form of the nucleotide).  For example, deoxyribose (CHO in DNA, CHO when free), the compound in the top left in the image, is read as:  i.e., 7 atoms of hydrogen, 5 atoms of carbon, 0 atoms of nitrogen, 1 atom of oxygen, and 0 atoms of phosphorus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Double helix.", "content": "11  DNA double helix; the vertical bar represents the number of nucleotides. The value depicted is around 4.3 billion, which was believed to be the case in 1974 when the message was transmitted. There are approximately 3.2 billion base pairs in the human genome.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Humanity.", "content": "The element in the center represents a human. The element on the left (in the image) indicates the average height of an adult male in the US:. This corresponds to the horizontally-written binary 14 multiplied by the wavelength of the message (126 mm). The element on the right depicts the size of human population in 1974, approximately 4.3 billion (which, coincidentally, is within 0.1% of the number of DNA nucleotides). In this case, the number is oriented in the data horizontally rather than vertically. The least-significant-digit marker is in the upper left in the image, with bits going to the right and more significant digits below.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Planets.", "content": "The Solar System, showing the Sun and the planets in the order of their position from the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. (Pluto has since been reclassified as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union, but it was considered a planet at the time the message was transmitted.)  The Earth is the third planet from the Sun; its graphic is shifted up to identify it as the planet from which the signal was sent. Additionally, the human figure is shown just above the Earth graphic.  In addition to showing position, the graphic provides a general, not-to-scale size reference of each planet and the Sun.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Telescope.", "content": "The last part represents the Arecibo radio telescope with its diameter: 2,430 multiplied by the wavelength gives. In this case, the number is oriented horizontally, with the least-significant-digit marker to the lower right in the image. The part of the image that resembles a letter \"M\" is there to demonstrate to the reader of the message that the curved line is a paraboloid mirror.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arecibo answer hoax.", "content": "The \"Arecibo answer\" is a hoax by people that created an imprint in a crop field (crop circle) in 2001 near the Chilbolton radio telescope in Hampshire, UK, portrayed as a response from an extraterrestrial civilization. The crop circle is a near replica of the Arecibo message. The feature forms the same 23 x 73 grid because these numbers are primes and most of the chemical data remains the same with the exception that in the section detailing important chemical elements, the main focus is altered from carbon to silicon, and the diagram of DNA has been rewritten. At the bottom, the pictogram of a human is replaced with a shorter figure with a large, bulbous head.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Arecibo message is a 1974 interstellar radio message carrying basic information about humanity and Earth sent to globular star cluster M13. It was meant as a demonstration of human technological achievement, rather than a real attempt to enter into a conversation with extraterrestrials. The message was broadcast into space a single time via frequency modulated radio waves at a ceremony to mark the remodeling of the Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico on 16 November 1974. The message was aimed at the current location of M13 some 25,000 light years away because M13 was a large and close collection of stars that was available in the sky at the time and place of the ceremony. The message forms the image shown here when translated into graphics, characters, and spaces.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971922}
{"src_title": "Alfred Radcliffe-Brown", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown was born Alfred Reginald Brown in Sparkbrook, Birmingham, England, the second son of Alfred Brown (d.1886), a manufacturer's clerk, and his wife Hannah (née Radcliffe). He later changed his last name, by deed poll, to Radcliffe-Brown, Radcliffe being his mother's maiden name. He was educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1905; M.A., 1909), graduating with first-class honours in the moral sciences tripos. While still a student he earned the nickname \"Anarchy Brown\" for his close interest in the writings of the anarcho-communist and scientist Peter Kropotkin.  He studied psychology under W. H. R. Rivers who, with A. C. Haddon, led him toward social anthropology. Under the latter's influence he travelled to the Andaman Islands (1906–1908) and Western Australia (1910–1912, with biologist and writer E. L. Grant Watson and Daisy Bates) to conduct fieldwork into the workings of the societies there. His time in the Andaman Islands and Western Australia served as the inspiration for his later books \"The Andaman Islanders\" (1922) and \"The Social Organization of Australian Tribes\" (1930). However at the 1914 meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in Melbourne he was accused by Bates of plagiarising her work.  Before departing for Western Australia, Brown married Winifred Marie Lyon in Cambridge; they had one daughter, Mary Cynthia Lyon Radcliffe. The couple became estranged by about 1926, and they may have divorced in 1938 (sources disagree on whether a divorce indeed took place).  In 1916 he became a director of education in Tonga, and in 1921 moved to Cape Town to become professor of social anthropology, founding the School of African Life. Further university appointments were University of Cape Town (1921–25), University of Sydney (1925–31) and University of Chicago (1931–37). Among his most prominent students during his years at the University of Chicago was Sol Tax and Fred Eggan. After these various far-flung appointments, he finally returned to England in 1937 to take up an appointment to the first chair in social anthropology at Oxford in 1937, a post he held until his retirement in 1946. He died in London in 1955.  While he founded the Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology at Oxford, according to Rodney Needham his absence from the Institute during the war years prevented his theories and approach from having a major influence on Oxford anthropology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "He has been described as \"the classic to Bronisław Malinowski's romantic\". Radcliffe-Brown brought French sociology (namely Émile Durkheim) to British anthropology, constructing a rigorous battery of concepts to frame ethnography.  Greatly influenced by the work of Émile Durkheim, he saw institutions as the key to maintaining the global social order of a society, analogous to the organs of a body, and his studies of social function examine how customs aid in maintaining the overall stability of a society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concept of function.", "content": "Radcliffe-Brown has often been associated with functionalism, and is considered by some to be the founder of structural functionalism. Nonetheless, Radcliffe-Brown vehemently denied being a functionalist, and carefully distinguished his concept of function from that of Malinowski, who openly advocated functionalism. While Malinowski's functionalism claimed that social practices could be directly explained by their ability to satisfy basic biological needs, Radcliffe-Brown rejected this as baseless. Instead, influenced by the process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead, he claimed that the fundamental units of anthropology were processes of human life and interaction. Because these are by definition characterised by constant flux, what calls for explanation is the occurrence of stability. Why, Radcliffe-Brown asked, would some patterns of social practices repeat themselves and even seem to become fixed? He reasoned that this would at least require that other practices must not conflict with them too much; and that in some cases, it may be that practices grow to support each other, a notion he called 'coadaptation', deriving from the biological term. Functional analysis, then, was just the attempt to explain stability by discovering how practices fit together to sustain that stability; the 'function' of a practice was just its role in sustaining the overall social structure, insofar as there was a stable social structure (Radcliffe-Brown 1957). This is far from the 'functional explanation' later impugned by Carl Hempel and others. It is also clearly distinct from Malinowski's notion of function, a point which is often ignored by Radcliffe-Brown's detractors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Concept of social structure.", "content": "While Lévi-Strauss (1958) claimed that social structure and the social relations that are its constituents are theoretical constructions used to model social life, Radcliffe-Brown only half-agreed  In addition to identifying abstract relationships between social structures, Radcliffe-Brown argued for the importance of the notion of a 'total social structure', which is the sum total of social relations in a given social unit of analysis during a given period. The identification of 'functions' of social practices was supposed to be relative to this total social structure. Lévi-Strauss saw social structure as a model.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evolutionism, diffusionism, and the role of social anthropology.", "content": "A major view in the study of tribal societies had been that all societies follow a unilineal path ('evolutionism'), and that therefore 'primitive' societies could be understood as earlier stages along that path; conversely,'modern' societies contained vestiges of older forms. Another view was that social practices tend to develop only once, and that therefore commonalities and differences between societies could be explained by a historical reconstruction of the interaction between societies ('diffusionism'). According to both of these views, the proper way to explain differences between tribal societies and modern ones was historical reconstruction.  Radcliffe-Brown rejected both of these views because of the untestable nature of historical reconstructions. Instead, he argued for the use of the comparative method to find regularities in human societies and thereby build up a genuinely scientific knowledge of social life.  To that end, Radcliffe-Brown argued for a 'natural science of society'. He claimed that there was an independent role for social anthropology here, separate from psychology, though not in conflict with it. This was because psychology was to be the study of individual mental processes, while social anthropology was to study processes of interaction between people (social relations). Thus he argued for a principled ontological distinction between psychology and social anthropology, in the same way as one might try to make a principled distinction between physics and biology. Moreover, he claimed that existing social scientific disciplines, with the possible exception of linguistics, were arbitrary; once our knowledge of society is sufficient, he argued, we will be able to form subdisciplines of anthropology centred around relatively isolated parts of the social structure. But without extensive scientific knowledge, it is impossible to know where these boundaries should be drawn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ethnography.", "content": "Radcliffe-Brown carried out extensive fieldwork in the Andaman Islands, Australia, and elsewhere. On the basis of this research, he contributed extensively to the anthropological ideas on kinship, and criticised Lévi-Strauss's Alliance theory. He also produced structural analyses of myths, including on the basis of the concept of binary distinctions and dialectical opposition, an idea later echoed by Lévi-Strauss.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criticisms.", "content": "Radcliffe-Brown was often criticised for failing to consider the effect of historical changes in the societies he studied, in particular changes brought about by colonialism, but he is now considered, together with Bronisław Malinowski, as the father of modern social anthropology.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown, FBA (born Alfred Reginald Brown; 17 January 1881 – 24 October 1955) was an English social anthropologist who developed the theory of structural functionalism and coadaptation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971923}
{"src_title": "FVWM", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1993, during his work analyzing acoustic signatures for the United States Department of Defense, Robert Nation began hacking twm with the intent of simultaneously reducing memory usage and adding support for virtual desktops.  Already known for his rxvt terminal emulator, Nation worked on reducing the memory consumption of his new window manager. Deciding to test FVWM's reception, on June 1, 1993, he bundled it with a rxvt release.  In 1994 Rob Nation stopped developing FVWM and made Charles Hines the maintainer. Rob Nation's last release of FVWM was fvwm-1.24r. The post-Rob Nation version of FVWM uses a different configuration file format and has a significantly different architecture. Many Linux distributions, as a result, distributed both fvwm-1.24r and later releases of FVWM as separate programs., fvwm-1.24r still compiles and runs on a modern Linux system without any problems. A small number of users continue to use the older FVWM release. In late 1998 the office of FVWM maintainer was abolished and further development has been conducted by a group of volunteers.  Many developers have based their own projects on FVWM in order to benefit from the years of refinement and development. Many of the popular window managers in use today are related to FVWM: Afterstep, Xfce, Enlightenment, Metisse and many more.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name origin.", "content": "Originally, FVWM was the \"Feeble Virtual Window Manager\", which was clearly stated by Robert Nation in a 1997 Linux Journal interview with him, who also claimed the name had been chosen because original releases had almost no user selectable features, so it really was feeble. However, at some point the meaning of the \"F\" was lost. When Google published the old news group archives acquired from DejaNews, the original meaning was re-discovered. However, when Chuck Hine was maintaining the official FVWM Frequently Asked Questions, Chuck had never agreed with the 'feeble' explanation, and added alternate possible meanings of \"F\" to the FAQ, with many entries coming from mailing list messages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "This is a partial list based on the documentation distributed with FVWM.  Many of these features can be disabled at runtime or compile time, or dynamically for specific windows or loaded and unloaded as modules, or many other possibilities. These are not rigid features, FVWM does not dictate how the user's desktop should work or look like but provides the mechanisms to configure the desktop to work, look and behave the way the user wants it to.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The F Virtual Window Manager is a virtual window manager for the X Window System. Originally a twm derivative, FVWM has evolved into a powerful and highly configurable environment for Unix-like systems.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971924}
{"src_title": "Morava (river)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Though the German name \"March\" may refer to \"Mark\", \"border, frontier\" (cf. English \"march\"), the river's name more probably is derived from Proto-Indo-European \"*mori\", \"waters\" (\"mare\"). It was first documented as \"Maraha\" in an 892 deed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The shores of the Morava have been inhabited for a very long time. The village of, on the Austrian part of the river, was the location of a human settlement already 30,000 years ago. Agriculture began to be practiced in the Morava valley approximately 7,000 years ago, and fortified settlements began to appear during the New Stone Age.  The lower part of the river, downstream of the confluence with the Thaya at Hohenau an der March, which today marks the Austro-Slovakian border, is one of the oldest national boundaries still extant in continental Europe: it was the eastern boundary of the Carolingian Empire with the Avar Khaganate around 800, and from the 10th century onward marked the border of the Imperial \"marcha orientalis\", later Duchy of Austria, with the Kingdom of Hungary (within the Habsburg Monarchy during 1526–1918 because of imperial expansion). During the Cold War, this section of the river was part of the Iron Curtain, forming the frontier between Austria and Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1997 flooding.", "content": "In July 1997, the Morava basin (especially its northern and eastern part) was affected by heavy stratiform rain, which lasted several days and caused catastrophic floods, which also affected the Oder River basin in Poland and Germany. In the Czech Republic, 49 people lost their life, more than 250 villages had to be evacuated and the total damage was 63 billion crowns.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Course.", "content": "The river originates in the Králický Sněžník mountains in north-western Moravia, not far from the border with Poland. The lowlands formed by the river are the Upper Moravian Vale or \"Hornomoravský úval\" and then the Lower Morava Valley or \"Dolnomoravský úval\" in Moravia, the \"Morava Field\" or Marchfeld in Lower Austria, and the Záhorie Lowland or \"Záhorská nížina\" in Slovakia. The latter three are actually continuous parts of one large basin, forming the major part of the Vienna Basin.  In the Czech Republic, there are some larger towns lying upon Morava, particularly Olomouc, Kroměříž, Otrokovice, Uherské Hradiště and Hodonín. Brno, the second largest city of Czech Republic, lies within the river basin. The catchment area of the river has a population of 3,5 million people. Downstream from Hodonín, the river flows along sparsely inhabited, forested border area, all the way to its outfall into the Danube, just below the Devín Castle at the outskirts of the Slovak capital Bratislava. After 354 km of its course, Morava feeds the Danube by an average discharge rate of 120 m/s, gathered from a drainage area of 26 658 km.  The river's longest tributary by far is the \"Thaya\" (in German) or \"Dyje\" (in Czech), flowing in at the tripoint of Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The biggest tributary from the left is \"Bečva\".  The Morava is a lowland river with a basin that consists to 51 percent of plains; mountains make up only seven percent of the basin while 35 percent are considered highland. The average slope of the river is 1.8‰ and at the confluence 4‰. The bedrock of the river basin is mostly crystalline bedrock and flysch.  The Morava river is unusual in that it is a European blackwater river.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The Morava river forms an important link between the Danube Valley and the plains of northern Europe, for animals as well as, at least historically, for humans. Its weak slope across flat plains furthermore means that the river is prone to meander and flood, creating vast floodplains. Because of these reasons, the floodplains of the Morava river are among the most biologically diverse ecosystems in Europe. Its richness in plant and animal species (some 12,000 species have been identified) ranks it second in diversity only to the Danube Delta. During the 20th century however, large tracts of the river, especially downstream from Litovel, have been regulated with the ensuing effect of loss of inundation areas (floodplains). Since the river basin is densely populated and, especially the Czech part, industrialised, the river also receives a lot of wastewater. Agriculture also contributes to spreading nitrogen and other nutrients into the river. Nevertheless, the central part of the river has retained much of its natural character and in later years conscious efforts have been made to protect the nature and ecosystem of the river basin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Morava (,, ) is a river in Central Europe, a left tributary of the Danube. It is the main river of Moravia, which derives its name from it. The river originates on the Králický Sněžník mountain in the north-eastern corner of Pardubice Region, near the border between the Czech Republic and Poland and has a vaguely southward trajectory. The lower part of the river's course forms the border between the Czech Republic and Slovakia and then between Austria and Slovakia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971925}
{"src_title": "UEFA Cup Winners' Cup", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Format.", "content": "Throughout its 39-year history, the Cup Winners' Cup was always a straight knock-out tournament with two-legged home and away ties until the single match final staged at a neutral venue, the only exception to this being the two-legged final in the competition's first year. In common with other UEFA club tournaments, the away goal applied when aggregate scores was parity. The format was identical to the original European Champions' Cup with 32 teams contesting four knock-out rounds prior to the showpiece final, with the tournament usually running from September to May each year. Following the influx of new UEFA member nations during the 1990s, a regular August preliminary round was added to reduce the number of entrants to 32  Entry was restricted to one club from each UEFA member association, the only exception being to allow the current Cup Winners' Cup holders to enter alongside their nation's new domestic cup winners in order to allow them a chance to defend their Cup Winners' Cup title (although no club ever managed to do this). However, if this team also qualified for the European Champions' Cup then they would default on their place in the Cup Winners' Cup and no other team would replace them.  On occasions when a club completed a domestic league and cup 'double' that club would enter the European Cup/UEFA Champions League and their place in the Cup Winners' Cup would be taken by the domestic cup runners-up. In 1998–99, the competition's final year, Heerenveen of the Netherlands entered the Cup Winners' Cup despite only reaching the semi-final of the previous season's Dutch Cup. This was due to both Dutch Cup finalists Ajax and PSV Eindhoven qualifying for the recently expanded Champions League.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inauguration and prestige.", "content": "Mirroring the circumstances behind the creation of the European Cup five years earlier, the idea for a pan-European cup competition contested by all of Europe's domestic cup winners came from prominent European sports journalists. The European Cup had proven to be a great success and the Fairs Cup had also proven popular – as a result, other ideas for new European football tournaments were being aired. One proposal was for a tournament based upon the format of the European Cup, but with national cup winners rather than league champions taking part, which could run alongside that competition. The inaugural Cup Winners' Cup was held in the 1960–61 season and was basically a semi-official pilot tournament. However the initial reaction to the competition's creation was unenthusiastic on the part of many of Europe's top clubs – many European associations did not have domestic cup competitions at the time and in those countries that did, the cup competition was generally held in low esteem and often not taken seriously by the bigger clubs. It was essentially only in England, Scotland and to a lesser extent Germany and Spain that the domestic cup was considered especially prestigious. Many were sceptical about the viability of a European tournament for cup winners and many of the bigger clubs eligible to contest the first CWC turned down the chance to enter, such as Atlético Madrid of Spain and AS Monaco of France.  Ultimately the inaugural CWC was contested by just 10 clubs (with Fiorentina of Italy winning the two-legged final against the Scottish team Rangers) but the games were generally well attended and the response from the public and the media to the new tournament was positive and enthusiastic. For the tournament's second season in 1961–62, UEFA took over the running of all aspects of the competition and this time all the clubs eligible to enter accepted the opportunity. By 1968, all UEFA member nations had set up domestic cup competitions due to the success of the Cup Winners' Cup. UEFA regarded it as the second most prestigious competition, behind the European Cup (later the UEFA Champions League) and ahead of the Fairs Cup (later the UEFA Cup). Therefore, a team qualified for both the European Cup and the Cup Winners' Cup would play in the European Cup, whereas a team qualified for both the UEFA Cup and the Cup Winners' Cup would play in the Cup Winners' Cup. Nevertheless, many commentators and fans regarded the Cup Winners' Cup as weaker than the UEFA Cup, which had more and better teams from the stronger European leagues.  In the 1985–86 season, English clubs were banned from European competition as a result of Heysel Stadium disaster. Consequently, Manchester United, Everton, Coventry City, Wimbledon and Liverpool were prevented from competing in the Cup Winners' Cup until the beginning of the 1990–91 season.  No club managed to retain the Cup Winners' Cup, although eight times a winning side followed up their victories with a losing appearance in the following season's final.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decline.", "content": "After the establishment of the UEFA Champions League (formerly called the European Champion Clubs' Cup) in the early 1990s, the standing and prestige of the Cup Winners' Cup began to decline. With the expansion of the Champions League in 1997 to allow more than one team from the highest-ranked member associations to enter, the Cup Winners' Cup began to look noticeably inferior. Many of the bigger teams who would previously have entered the Cup Winners' Cup were now gaining entry to the Champions League instead by finishing second in their domestic league – such as Cup Winners' Cup holders Barcelona in 1997–98 and Bayern Munich and PSV Eindhoven in 1998–99 – and this greatly weakened the Cup Winners' Cup.  At the time of the Champions League expansion, UEFA also considered expanding the Cup Winners' Cup from 32 teams to 64 by allowing a second team to enter from many countries, although by what qualification criteria the second entrants would be determined were never settled upon – ultimately UEFA did not make any of these changes to the Cup Winners' Cup.  By the late 1990s, the Cup Winners' Cup had come to be seen as a second-rate competition with only one or two big name teams available to enter each year and the interest in the tournament from both major clubs and the public dropped. Finally, with the further expansion of the UEFA Champions League to include as many as three or four teams from the top footballing nations, the decision was taken to abolish the competition after the end of the 1998–99 tournament and merge it into the UEFA Cup (now UEFA Europa League). Since then, domestic cup winners who do not otherwise qualify for the Champions League are given a place in the Europa League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The trophy.", "content": "The Cup Winners' Cup trophy itself is a property of UEFA and it is not assigned to any club. There were various versions of the trophy awarded throughout its history. The first was only awarded in its maiden season to Fiorentina. The appearance of the second trophy differed significantly from the successor versions. The third and the fourth trophy differed only in the type of base. The wooden-based trophy was awarded to the winners during the 1990s, with exception of 1993 when the special version with a metal base was awarded to Parma.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The UEFA Cup Winners' Cup (abbreviated as CWC) was a football club competition contested annually by the most recent winners of all European domestic cup competitions. The cup was one of the many inter-European club competitions that have been organised by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). The first competition was held in the 1960–61 season – but not recognised by the governing body of European football until October 1963. The tournament ran for 39 seasons with its final edition held in 1998–99, after which it was absorbed into the UEFA Cup.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971926}
{"src_title": "Freedom Union – Democratic Union", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Founding.", "content": "The party was founded on 17 January 1998 at a congress in Litomyšl as Freedom Union (), as a split from the Civic Democratic Party. The party was founded after divisions within the Civic Democratic Party over the leadership of Václav Klaus and what the defectors said was his failure to tackle funding scandals. The former Interior Minister Jan Ruml led a challenge for the leadership of the Civic Democrats, but was defeated by Klaus by 227 votes to 72 at a special congress on 14 December 1997. Afterwards 30 Members of Parliament formed Freedom Union, with these including the Finance Minister Ivan Pilip and the Defence Minister Michal Lobkowicz. The party elected Jan Ruml as the first leader of the party on 2 February 1998.  Both Ivan Pilip and Michal Lobkowicz were among the members of the Freedom Union who remained in the caretaker government of Josef Tošovský, which had been formed after the collapse of the coalition led by Václav Klaus. The party initially did well in the polls, with a poll in March 1998 showing Freedom Union on 13%, ahead of the Civic Democrats who were on 8%. However the party suffered in the campaign for the June 1998 election, due to a lack of readiness for an election and a vague programme that was seen as being very similar to the Civic Democrats.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Opposition.", "content": "At the 1998 election the Freedom Union won 8.6% of the vote and 19 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The party went into opposition as they would not govern with a Civic Democratic Party led by Václav Klaus and would not form a coalition with the Social Democratic Party as their policies were so different. Instead the Social Democrats formed a minority government, which was tolerated by the Civic Democrats.  In September 1998 Freedom Union formed an alliance with 3 other centre-right parties, the Christian Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party, Democratic Union and the Civic Democratic Alliance, with the alliance being called the \"Four-Coalition\". The Four Coalition went on to win the most seats at the November 1998 Senate election. Jan Ruml resigned as leader in December 1999 and the following February the party elected Karel Kühnl as the new leader after receiving 193 votes compared to 87 for Vladimír Mlynář.  Freedom Union had a strong performance at the November 2000 Senate election, becoming the third largest party in the Senate and in late 2001 Freedom Union merged with the Democratic Union party to form the Freedom Union-Democratic Union (US-DEU). However the Four Coalition ended at the beginning of 2002, after the level of debt held by the Civic Democratic Alliance emerged and they were unable to agree on dealing with it. Freedom Union-Democratic Union instead then formed an alliance just with the Christian Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party to fight the 2002 election as the \"Coalition\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "At the 2002 election the coalition between Freedom Union-Democratic Union and the Christian Democrats won 31 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Following the election Freedom Union-Democratic Union and the Christian Democrats became part of a coalition government led by the Czech Social Democratic Party, which together held a one-seat majority. However at the 2002 Senate election Freedom Union-Democratic Union was reduced to only one senator.  As a part of government, the party started to lose members and support. Freedom Union-Democratic Union suffered defeat in the 2004 European Parliamentary elections, failing to pass the 5% threshold required to win seats, with the party leader Petr Mares resigning as a result and being succeeded by the Regional Development Minister Pavel Němec. The party would then win just one seat at the 2004 Senate election.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decline and dissolution.", "content": "At the 2006 election it received just 0.3% of votes cast and lost all its seats in the Chamber of Deputies, which led to the resignation of its leader, Pavel Němec.  The party held a final party conference on 4 December 2010, where the decision was made that it should cease to exist as of 1 January 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Policies.", "content": "Freedom Union-Democratic Union was a centre-right liberal party. It believed in free market policies and supported lower taxes and university tuition fees. Freedom Union-Democratic Union also had a consistent party message of the fight against corruption.  However the party was also socially liberal, believing in the protection of the environment and minority rights. For the 2006 election the party would support euthanasia, same-sex marriage and the legalisation of marijuana. The party was also pro-European and supported direct presidential elections.  These policies meant that the party was able to get support from younger urban voters and those with higher education.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Freedom Union–Democratic Union (, US–DEU) was a small pro-European liberal party in the Czech Republic from 1998 to 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971927}
{"src_title": "Pallas's cat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Felis manul\" was the scientific name used by Peter Simon Pallas in 1776, who first described a Pallas's cat that he had encountered during his travels in eastern Siberia. Several Pallas's cat zoological specimens were subsequently described:  \"Otocolobus\" was proposed by Nikolai Severtzov in 1858 as generic name. Reginald Innes Pocock recognized the taxonomic classification of \"Otocolobus\" in 1907, described several Pallas's cat skulls in detail, and considered the Pallas's cat an aberrant form of \"Felis\".  In the 1960s, John Ellerman and Terence Morrison-Scott considered  Since 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group recognises only two subspecies as valid taxa, namely:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "Phylogenetic analysis of the nuclear DNA in tissue samples from all Felidae species revealed that the evolutionary radiation of the Felidae began in Asia in the Miocene around. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA of all Felidae species indicates a radiation at around. The Pallas's cat is estimated to have genetically diverged from a common ancestor with the genus \"Prionailurus\" between, based on analysis of nuclear DNA. and based on analysis of mitochondrial DNA.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Pallas's cat is about the size of a domestic cat. Its body is long and its tail. It weighs. The combination of its stocky posture and long, dense fur makes it appear stout and plush. Its fur is ochre with dark vertical bars on the torso and forelegs. The winter coat is greyer and less patterned than the summer coat. There are clear black rings on the tail and dark spots on the forehead. The cheeks are white with narrow black stripes running from the corners of the eyes. The chin and throat are also white, merging into the greyish, silky fur of the underparts. Concentric white and black rims around the eyes accentuate their rounded shape. The legs are proportionately shorter than those of other cats, the ears are set very low and wide apart, and the claws are unusually short. The face is shortened compared with other cats, giving it a flattened look. The pupils are circular rather than vertical slits. The short jaw has fewer teeth than is typical among cats, with the first pair of upper premolars missing, but the canine teeth are large.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The Pallas's cat is native to the steppe regions of Central Asia, where it inhabits elevations of up to in the Tibetan Plateau. It is also found in parts of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, India, Kazakhstan, and Pakistan, and occur across much of western China. In the south of Russia it occurs in the Transbaikal Krai, and, less frequently, in the Altai, Tyva, and Buryatia Republics. In 1997, it was reported for the first time as being present in the eastern Sayan Mountains.  Until the early 1970s, only two Pallas's cats were recorded in the Transcaucasus, both encountered near the Aras River in northwestern Iran. Populations in the Caspian Sea region, in Afghanistan and Pakistan, are thought to be declining and becoming increasingly isolated.  In recent years, several Pallas' cats were photographed for the first time during camera trapping surveys:  In Ladakh's Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary, Pallas's cats were sighted near Hanle River at an altitude of in 2013, and at in 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "Pallas's cats are solitary. Both males and females scent mark their territory. They spend the day in caves, rock crevices, or marmot burrows, and emerge in the late afternoon to begin hunting. They are not fast runners, and hunt primarily by ambush or stalking, using low vegetation and rocky terrain for cover. They feed largely on diurnally active prey species such as gerbils, pikas, voles and chukar partridges, and sometimes catch young marmots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The breeding season is relatively short due to the extreme climate in the cat's native range. Estrus lasts between 26 and 42 hours, which is also shorter than in many other felids. Pallas's cats give birth to a litter of around two to six kittens after a gestation period of 66 to 75 days, typically in April or May. Such large litters may compensate for a high rate of infant mortality in the harsh environment. The young are born in sheltered dens lined with dried vegetation, feathers, and fur. The kittens weigh around at birth, and have a thick coat of fuzzy fur, which is replaced by the adult coat after around two months. They are able to begin hunting at four months, and reach adult size at six months. Pallas's cats have been reported to live up to 11 years in captivity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The Pallas's cat has been hunted for its fur in relatively large numbers in China, Mongolia, and Russia; international trade in manul pelts largely ceased since the late 1980s. About 1,000 hunters of Pallas's cats remain in Mongolia, with a mean estimated take of 2,000 cats per year. Cats are also shot when mistaken for the commonly hunted marmot, and trapped incidentally in both legholds set for wolves and foxes and snares set for marmots and hares. They are also killed by herding dogs. While Mongolia has not recorded any trophy exports, pelt exports have grown since 2000, with 143 reported exported in 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The Pallas's cat is listed in CITES Appendix II. Hunting is prohibited in all range countries except Mongolia, where the species has no legal protection despite being classified as Near Threatened in the country. Since 2009, it is legally protected in Afghanistan, where all hunting and trade in its parts is banned.  The cat is being studied in the Daursky Nature Reserve in Russia to obtain new information about habitats and migrations, and to estimate the survival rate of kittens and adult cats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In captivity.", "content": "As of 2010, there were 47 Pallas's cats in 19 member institutions of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums; four litters were expected. No births and three deaths occurred in 2009. The 30-day mortality of 44.9% is the highest mortality rate of any small wild cat. The seasonality of its reproduction makes it difficult to control reproductive cycles. Keeping Pallas's cats healthy in captivity is difficult. They breed well, but survival rates are low owing to infections, which are attributed to an underdeveloped immune system and exposure to viruses not present in their natural high-altitude habitat.  In June 2010, five kittens were born in the Red River Zoo in Fargo. A female was artificially inseminated for the first time at the Cincinnati Zoo and gave birth to three kittens in June 2011. In May 2013, three kittens were born at the Nordens Ark zoo. In May 2016, four kittens were born at the Korkeasaari zoo. In March 2017, five kittens were born in the Hogle Zoo. In April 2017, five kittens were again born in the Red River Zoo in Fargo. In April 2019, Miller Park Zoo announced five kittens; their father was imported from the Czech Republic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The Pallas's cat alternate name'manul' is the Kyrgyz word for the cat. In Mongolian language, it is called'manol'. The name 'Pallas's cat' was coined by William Thomas Blanford. The alternate spelling 'Pallas’ cat' is also used.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pallas's cat (\"Otocolobus manul\"), also called the manul, is a small wild cat with a broad, but fragmented distribution in the grasslands and montane steppes of Central Asia. It is negatively affected by habitat degradation, prey base decline and hunting, and has therefore been classified as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971928}
{"src_title": "Pupienus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins and early career.", "content": "The \"Historia Augusta\", whose testimony is not to be trusted unreservedly, paints Pupienus as an example of advancement through the cursus honorum due to military success. It claims he was the son of a blacksmith, was adopted by one Pescennia Marcellina (otherwise unknown), and who started his career as a \"Centurio\" \"primus pilus\" before becoming a Tribunus Militum, and then a Praetor. Pupienus's career was allegedly impressive, serving a number of important posts during the reign of the Severan dynasty throughout the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries. This included assignment as Proconsul of the senatorial propraetorial provinces of Bithynia et Pontus, Achaea, and Gallia Narbonensis.  In fact Pupienus was part of the aristocracy, albeit a minor member, and his family had possibly been elevated only recently. Hailing from the Etruscan city of Volterra, it has been speculated that Pupienus was the son of Marcus Pupienus Maximus, a Senator who was the first member of his family to enter the Senate, and wife Clodia Pulchra.  The claim in the \"Historia Augusta\" that Pupienus held three praetorian proconsular governorships is unlikely. For one thing, as Bernard Rémy points out, during Pupienus' lifetime the province of Bithynia et Pontus was an imperial one, governed by an imperial \"legatus\". Remy points out another problem: that being awarded three praetorian proconsular governorships violates what we know of Roman practice, and lacks any similar cases. Remy pointedly quotes the opinion of André Chastagnol who recommended \"to admit an information provided by the \"Augustan History\" only if it is confirmed by another document\" and considers that, faced with such an unreliable source, one must permit \"methodical doubt and hypercritical attitude to prevail.\" No \"fasti\" or list of governors of any of the three provinces to which the \"Historia Augusta\" assigns Pupienus includes him as a governor.  After his consulship (around the year 222), his \"cursus honorum\" is much more reliable. Pupienus was later assigned as imperial legate to one of the German provinces, most probably after his first suffect consulship, circa 207 AD. While governor he scored military victories over the Sarmatians and German tribes. At some point after he concluded his duties in the German province, the sortition awarded him proconsular governorship of Asia.  In 234, during the last years of Severus Alexander's reign, he was installed as Consul for the second time. In that same year he was also appointed Urban Prefect of Rome and gained a reputation for severity, to the extent that he became unpopular with the Roman mob.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "When Gordian I and his son were proclaimed Emperors in Africa, the Senate appointed a committee of twenty men, including the elderly Senator Pupienus, to co-ordinate operations against Maximinus until the arrival of the Gordians. On the news of the Gordians' defeat and deaths, however, the Senate met in closed session in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and voted for two members of the committee to be installed as co-emperors – Pupienus and Balbinus. Unlike the situation in 161 with Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, both emperors were elected as \"pontifices maximi\", chief priests of the official cults.  According to Edward Gibbon (drawing on the narratives of Herodian and the \"Historia Augusta\"), the choice was sensible, as:  the mind of Maximus [Pupienus] was formed in a rougher mould [than that of Balbinus]. By his valour and abilities he had raised himself from the meanest origin to the first employments of the state and army. His victories over the Sarmatians and the Germans, the austerity of his life, and the rigid impartiality of his justice whilst he was prefect of the city, commanded the esteem of a people whose affections were engaged in favour of the more amiable Balbinus. The two colleagues had both been consul... and, since the one was sixty and the other seventy-four years old, they had both attained the full maturity of age and experience.  However, factions within the Senate who had hoped to profit from the accession of the Gordians manipulated the people and the Praetorian Guard to agitate for the elevation of Gordian III as their imperial colleague. Leaving his senior colleague Balbinus in charge of the civil administration at Rome, sometime during late April Pupienus marched to Ravenna, where he oversaw the campaign against Maximinus, recruiting German auxiliary troops who had served under him whilst he was in Germania. After Maximinus was assassinated by his soldiers just outside Aquileia, Pupienus despatched both Maximinus's troops and his own back to their provinces (along with a considerable donative) and returned to Rome with his newly-acquired German bodyguard.  Balbinus, in the meantime, had failed to keep public order in the capital. The sources suggest that Balbinus suspected Pupienus of using his German bodyguard to supplant him, and they were soon living in different parts of the Imperial palace. This meant that they were at the mercy of disaffected elements in the Praetorian Guard, who resented serving under Senate-appointed emperors, and now plotted to kill them. Pupienus, becoming aware of the threat, begged Balbinus to call for the German bodyguard. Balbinus, believing that this news was part of a plot by Pupienus to have him assassinated, refused, and the two began to argue just as the Praetorians burst into the room. Both emperors were seized and dragged back to the Praetorian barracks where they were tortured and brutally hacked to death in the bath house.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Three individuals have been identified as his children. Tiberius Clodius Pupienus Pulcher Maximus, \"consul suffectus\" c. 235, and patron of the town of Tibur outside Rome, has been identified as his oldest son. Marcus Pupienus Africanus Maximus, \"consul ordinarius\" in 236 as the colleague of the Emperor Maximinus Thrax, has been identified as his youngest son. These consulships in the family, across the reigns of Severus Alexander and Maximinus Thrax, suggest that the family was influential and in high favour. Pupienus also had a daughter, named Pupiena Sextia Paulina Cethegilla, wife of Marcus Ulpius Eubiotus Leurus.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pupienus (Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus; born c. 165/170 – 29 July 238) was Roman emperor with Balbinus for three months in 238, during the Year of the Six Emperors. The sources for this period are scant, and thus knowledge of the emperor is limited. In most contemporary texts Pupienus is referred to by his cognomen \"Maximus\" rather than by his second nomen (family name) Pupienus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971929}
{"src_title": "Merano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Placename.", "content": "Both the Italian () and the German () name for the city are used in English. The Ladin form of the name is. The official name of the municipality (\"comune\") is \"Stadtgemeinde Meran\" in German and \"Comune di Merano\" in Italian (both are in official use).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 17th-century Latin, the city was called \"Meranum\". Other archaic names are \"Mairania\" (from 857 AD) and \"an der Meran\" (from the 15th century).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "The area has been inhabited since the 3rd millennium BC, as shown by the presence of menhirs and other findings. The story of the city proper began in 15 BC when the Romans occupied the Adige valley founding a road station, \"Statio Maiensis\".  The settlement was first mentioned in an 857 deed as \"Mairania\". The Counts at Castle Tyrol elevated Meran to the status of a city during the 13th century and made it the capital of their County of Tyrol. After the county had been handed over to the Habsburg dynasty in 1363 upon the abdication of Margaret, Countess of Tyrol, in 1420 Duke Friedrich IV of Austria moved the Tyrolean court to Innsbruck. Though Meran remained the official capital until 1848, it subsequently lost its predominant position and almost all its importance as an economic hub across the roads connecting Italy and Germany. The important mint was also moved to Hall in 1477.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "The Tyrolean Rebellion of 1809 against the French occupation drew attention again to Meran. In that year, on the Küchelberg above the city, a peasants' army eked out a victory against the united French and Bavarian forces before their revolt was finally crushed. After World War I, under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye Meran became part of the Kingdom of Italy with the rest of the southern part of the former Cisleithanian crown land of Tyrol.  During the Nazi occupation of the region in 1943–5, the Meranese Jewish population has been almost completely deported and murdered within concentration camps.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coat of arms.", "content": "The city's coat of arms depicts the red Tyrolean eagle sitting on a wall with four pieces of Ghibelline battlements and three arches that symbolize the city. The arms is known from 14th century and the oldest seal dates from 1353, while the coloured one since 1390. In a 1759 image, the eagle is represented with a crown and a green wreath of honor. After World War I and the annexation of the city from Austria-Hungary to Italy, it was a new coat of arms given in 1928, which looked similar to the old one, but with five parts of the battlements and the arches with the gates opened on a lawn of shamrock. A mural crown was placed above the shield. The five parts of the battlement represented the districts of Untermais, Meran (old city), Obermais, and Gratsch and Hafling, which were incorporated into the city by the Italian fascists. After World War II, Hafling became independent again and the historical coat of arms was restored.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "Among the city's landmarks are the medieval city gates such as the \"Vinschgauer Tor\", \"Passeirer Tor,\" and the \"Bozener Tor\". Also belonging to the fortifications is the medieval Ortenstein tower, popularly called \"Pulverturm\" (lit. \"powder tower\").  The main churches are the Gothic St. Nicholas' Church and the St. Barbara's Chapel, both dating to the 15th century. Also dating to this period is the Princely Castle (\"Landesfürstliche Burg\"), which was a residence of Archduke Sigismund of Austria.  The \"Steinerner Steg\" stone bridge crosses the Passer River and dates to the 17th century.  The city saw further development as it became increasingly popular as a spa resort, especially after Empress Elisabeth of Austria started visiting. Dating from the 19th century are the Civic Theatre, the \"Kurhaus\" and the Empress Elisabeth Park. Also famous are the arched \"Wandelhalle\" promenades along the river.  After the annexation of the city by Italy in 1919, the Fascist authorities constructed the new city hall in the 1920s.  Outside the city is Trauttmansdorff Castle and its gardens. Located there is the Museum of Tourism, which was opened in the spring of 2003 and shows the historical development of tourism in the province. Tirol Castle is also close by.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Merano is on the borderline between several climates. Officially, it has a oceanic climate (\"Cfb\"). However, it is close to being humid subtropical (\"Cfa\") due to the mean temperature in July being just under 22 °C; even on those terms, the overnight lows in the winter bring the mean temperatures low enough for the city as a whole to have continental (\"Dfa/Dfb\") influences with more distinct seasons.  The average daily temperatures in summer in Meran lie between 27 and 30 °C, while at night temperatures usually drop to between 12 and 15 °C. The average daily temperatures in winter lie between 6 and 10 °C, while at night temperatures usually drop to between -4 and -2 °C. The wettest month is August with 96 mm, while the driest is February with only 25 mm. This data was measured at the weather station Meran/Gratsch at an altitude of 333 metres between 1983 and 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "The area is well known for its wines, both white and red, and vineyards extend right into the city. The local wine, \"Meraner Leiten (Meranese di collina)\", is a light red wine, best drunk young. There are also extensive orchards, and apples are exported throughout Europe. The Forst Brewery on the edge of the city produces a popular range of beers, sold throughout northern Italy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural events.", "content": "Merano organizes the following events every year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Merano is a popular tourist destination especially for Germans and Italians. In the summer, there are concerts on the promenade almost daily, and there are fine walks around the city and in the surrounding hills, not least \"Meran 2000\", where there is also skiing in winter. The city is reachable with the railway Bolzano-Merano, which continues to the Vinschgau Railway Merano-Malles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Society.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Linguistic distribution.", "content": "According to the 2011 census, 50.47% of the resident population spoke German as mother language, 49.06% Italian, and 0.47% Ladin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "A chess opening, the \"Meran Variation\" of the Semi-Slav Defense, is named after the city, from its successful use by Akiba Rubinstein against Ernst Grünfeld during a tournament held in the city in 1924. In 1981, the World Chess Championship match between Anatoly Karpov and Victor Korchnoi was held in Meran. The first act of the musical \"Chess\" also has a world chess championship match set in Meran, and features a song entitled \"Merano\", which includes the line, \"rosy-cheeked Merano, flourishing to a fault\".  The city's handball team,, is one of the most successful in Italy, winning the \"scudetto\" in 2005. The ice hockey team won two national championships but currently plays in the second division, Serie B.  Each September, the Gran Premio Merano takes place in the Maia Racecourse; this is the most famous Italian Steeplechase.  Merano hosted the 1953, 1971 and 1983 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships. This is where the well known 'Merano' move was created due to a tricky upstream gate. This move is now used and well known by many slalom paddlers globally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "The twin towns and sister cities are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Merano (,, ) or Meran () is a city and \"comune\" in South Tyrol, northern Italy. Generally best known for its spa resorts, it is located within a basin, surrounded by mountains standing up to above sea level, at the entrance to the Passeier Valley and the Vinschgau.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971930}
{"src_title": "Holon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name of the city comes from the Hebrew word \"holon\", meaning \"(little) sand\". The name Holon also appears in the Bible: \"And Holon with its suburbs, and Debir with its suburbs\" (Book of Joshua, 21:15).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Holon was founded on sand dunes six kilometers () from Tel Aviv in 1935. The Łódzia textile factory was established there by Jewish immigrants from Łódź, Poland, along with many other industrial enterprises. In the early months of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Holon was on the front line, with constant shooting taking place on the border with the village of Tel A-Rish to its northwest—a suburb of Arab Jaffa—and clashes also in the direction of the town of Yazur to the east. An attack by the Holon-based Haganah militia units on Tel A-Rish was repulsed with considerable losses.  After the establishment of the state, Holon expanded to include Tel A-Rish (renamed \"Tel Giborim\", \"The Mound of the Heroes\") and the orange groves of Yazur.  In February 2001, eight Israelis were killed and twenty-five were injured in a Palestinian attack on a crowded bus stop in Holon.  The image of Holon as a working-class bedroom community has changed over the years. Through municipal efforts, the city has been rebranded as a child-friendly city, offering family attractions such as the Yamit Water Park, the Israeli Children's Museum and the Israel Museum of Caricature and Comics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Urban development.", "content": "Historic landmarks in Holon slated for preservation include Derech Habitachon (\"Safe Road\"), paved during the Israeli war of independence; water towers in the Moledet and Azor neighborhoods; Hosmasa, a building used by the Haganah; the pillbox guard post; Stroma Square, Mansbach health clinic, Hameshakem building, the Agrobank neighborhood and two schools – Bialik and Shenkar. A new neighborhood, Migdalim Bashdera, is under construction, with plans for 23 upscale residential towers, a new city hall, several cultural and commercial centers, some of them already built. A French urban planner was commissioned to design a north-south boulevard with pedestrian walks, bicycle paths, sports fields, parks and waterfalls. The last undeveloped land reserve remaining in Holon is the H-500 Holon plan, that consists of approximately 4,080 dunams in the south of the city, and is intended to consist of 13,700 dwelling units in total.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Holon hosts a variety of springtime events, including the Yemay Zemer (Days of Song) Festival during Passover and a Women's Festival in March, both at the Holon Theater. Holon is also one of the host cities for the Rhythmic Gymnastics Grand Prix Series in March. Israeli violinist Pinchas Zukerman runs a summer music camp in the city for young violinists. Since the election of Mayor Moti Sasson in 1993, many cultural projects have been inaugurated. Billing itself as a \"children's city,\" Holon is home to the Holon Children's Museum and the Mediatheque youth theater. Holon also plays host each year to a street carnival in celebration of the Jewish holiday of Purim, the Adloyada. Thousands of children dress up in costumes and the streets close down for a parade featuring colorful floats.  The Design Museum Holon, which opened in 2010 near the \"Médiathèque\" and the Faculty of Design of Holon Institute of Technology, is the first Israeli museum of design.  In October 2013, Holon hosted major international designers who arrived for Holon Fashion Week (known as HoF13), among them milliner Stephen Jones and BioCouture founder Suzanne Lee.  Cinematheque Holon hosts the only digital arts and media arts festival in Israel, \"Print Screen Festival\". The festival was established 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Samaritan community.", "content": "In 1954, the president of Israel, Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, helped to establish a Samaritan quarter on the outskirts of Holon. The quarter was named Neve Pinchas after Pinhas Ben-Abraham, the high priest of the Samaritan community.  Holon is one of only two cities in the world to have a Samaritan community, the other being the village of Kiryat Luza on Mount Gerizim above Nablus on the West Bank.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The \"Collège-Lycée franco-israélien Raymond Leven\" is located in Mikve, Holon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Holon is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Holon ( ) is a city on the central coastal strip of Israel, south of Tel Aviv. Holon is part of the metropolitan Gush Dan area. In it had a population of. Holon has the second-largest industrial zone in Israel, after Haifa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971931}
{"src_title": "Amber Road", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Antiquity.", "content": "From at least the 16th century BC, amber was moved from Northern Europe to the Mediterranean area. The breast ornament of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen (c. 1333–1324 BC) contains large Baltic amber beads. Heinrich Schliemann found Baltic amber beads at Mycenae, as shown by spectroscopic investigation. The quantity of amber in the Royal Tomb of Qatna, Syria, is unparalleled for known second millennium BC sites in the Levant and the Ancient Near East. Amber was sent from the North Sea to the temple of Apollo at Delphi as an offering. From the Black Sea, trade could continue to Asia along the Silk Road, another ancient trade route.  In Roman times, a main route ran south from the Baltic coast (modern Lithuania), the entire north–south length of modern-day Poland (likely through the Iron Age settlement of Biskupin), through the land of the Boii (modern Czech Republic and Slovakia) to the head of the Adriatic Sea (Aquileia by the modern Gulf of Venice).  The Old Prussian towns of Kaup and Truso on the Baltic were the starting points of the route to the south. In Scandinavia the amber road probably gave rise to the thriving Nordic Bronze Age culture, bringing influences from the Mediterranean Sea to the northernmost countries of Europe.  Kaliningrad Oblast is occasionally referred to in Russian as, which means \"the amber region\" (see Kaliningrad Regional Amber Museum).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview of known amber finding places in Europe.", "content": "Amber roads connect amber finding locations to customer sites in Europe, in the Middle East regions and in the Far East.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview of known amber roads by country.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poland.", "content": "The shortest (and possibly oldest) road avoids alpine areas and led from the Baltic coastline (nowadays Lithuania and Poland), through Biskupin, Milicz, Wrocław, the Kłodzko Valley or Moravian Gate, crossed the Danube near Carnuntum in the Noricum Province, headed southwest past Poetovio, Celeia, Emona, Nauportus, and reached Patavium and Aquileia at the Adriatic coast. One of the oldest directions of the last stage of the Amber Road to the south of the Danube, noted in the myth about the Argonauts, used the Sava and Kupa rivers, ending with a short continental road from Nauportus to \"Tarsatica\" (Trsat, Rijeka) on the coast of the Adriatic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "Several roads connected the North Sea and Baltic Sea, especially the city of Hamburg to the Brenner Pass, proceeding southwards to Brindisi (nowadays Italy) and Ambracia (nowadays Greece).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Switzerland.", "content": "The Swiss region indicates a number of alpine roads, concentrating around the capital city Bern and probably originating from the borders of the Rhône River and the Rhine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Netherlands.", "content": "A small section, including Baarn, Barneveld, Amersfoort and Amerongen, connected the North Sea with the Lower Rhine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Belgium.", "content": "A small section led southwards from Antwerp and Bruges to the towns Braine-l’Alleud and Braine-le-Comte, both originally named \"Brennia-Brenna\". The route continued by following the Meuse River towards Bern in Switzerland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France.", "content": "Three routes may be identified leading from an amber finding region or delta at the mouth of the River Openia towards Bresse and Bern, crossing the Alps to Switzerland and Italy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Southern France and Spain.", "content": "Routes connected amber finding locations at Ambares (near Bordeaux), leading to Béarn and the Pyrenees. Routes connecting the amber finding locations in northern Spain and in the Pyrenees were a trading route to the Mediterranean Sea.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern use of \"Amber Road\".", "content": "There is a tourist route stretching along the Baltic coast from Kaliningrad to Latvia called \"Amber Road\".  \"Amber Road\" sites are:  In Poland a north–south motorway A1 is officially named Amber Highway.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Amber Road was an ancient trade route for the transfer of amber from coastal areas of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Prehistoric trade routes between Northern and Southern Europe were defined by the amber trade. As an important commodity, sometimes dubbed \"the gold of the north\", amber was transported from the North Sea and Baltic Sea coasts overland by way of the Vistula and Dnieper rivers to Italy, Greece, the Black Sea, Syria and Egypt over a period of thousands of years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971932}
{"src_title": "Frederick II of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "King of Denmark.", "content": "Frederick II was the son of King Christian III of Denmark and Norway and Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg, the daughter of Magnus I, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg. He was hailed as successor to the throne of Denmark in 1542, and of Norway in 1548. Unlike his father, King Frederick II was strongly affected by military ideals. Already as a young man, he made friendships with German war princes. In 1552, Steward of the Realm, Peder Oxe (1520–1575), had been raised to Councillor of State (\"Rigsraad\"). During the spring of 1557, Oxe and the King had quarreled over a mutual property exchange. Failing to compromise matters with the King, Oxe had fled to Germany in 1558. However, financial difficulties arose during the stress of the Northern Seven Years' War. King Frederick II won his first victory with the conquest of Dithmarschen in Schleswig-Holstein under Johan Rantzau, during the summer of 1559.  From his predecessor, he inherited the Livonian War. In 1560, he installed his younger brother, Magnus of Holstein (1540–1583), in the Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek. King Frederick II largely tried to avoid conflict in Livonia and consolidated amicable relations with Tsar Ivan IV of Russia in the 1562 Treaty of Mozhaysk. His brother Magnus was later made titular King of Livonia, as a vassal of Tsar Ivan IV.  King Frederick's competition with Sweden for supremacy in the Baltic broke out into open warfare in 1563, the start of the Northern Seven Years' War, the dominating conflict of his rule. He tried in vain to conquer Sweden, which was ruled by his cousin, King Eric XIV. It developed into an extremely expensive war of attrition in which the areas of Scania were ravaged by the Swedes, and Norway was almost lost. During this war, King Frederick II led his army personally on the battlefield, but without much result. The conflict damaged his relationship with his noble councillors; however, the later Sture Murders of 24 May 1567 by the insane King Eric XIV in Sweden, eventually helped stabilize the situation in Denmark.  After state finances collapsed during the years 1566 to 1567, King Frederick II called Peder Oxe home to address the kingdom's economy. The taking over of Danish administration and finances by the able councillor, provided a marked improvement for the national treasury. Councillors of experience, including Niels Kaas, Arild Huitfeldt, and Christoffer Valkendorff, took care of the domestic administration. Subsequently, government finances were put in order and Denmark's economy improved. One of the chief expedients of the improved state of affairs was the raising of the Sound Dues. Oxe, as lord treasurer, reduced the national debt considerably and redeemed portions of crown lands. After King John III of Sweden, King Eric's successor, refused to accept a peace favoring Denmark in the Treaties of Roskilde (1568), the ongoing war dragged on until it was ended by a status quo peace in the Treaty of Stettin (1570), that let Denmark save face but also show limits of Danish military power. After the war, King Frederick II kept the peace without giving up his attempt of trying to expand his prestige as a naval ruler. His foreign politics were marked by a moral support of the Protestant powers – but at the same time by a strict neutrality.  A period of affluence and growth followed in Danish history. In 1567, King Frederick II founded Fredrikstad in Norway. Frederik II Upper Secondary School in Fredrikstad, one of the largest schools of its kind in Norway, is named after Frederick. He also rebuilt Kronborg in Elsinore from a medieval fortress into a magnificent Renaissance castle, between 1574 and 1585. In 1585, he visited Norway as king when he came to Båhus. He was a major patron and close personal friend of the famous astronomer, Tycho Brahe (whose step-father, Jørgen Thygesen Brahe, had rescued the King from drowning, catching pneumonia and dying as a result).  King Frederick II stands as a typical renaissance ruler of Denmark. He was a lover of hunting, wine, and feasts. As a person, he was often described as hot-headed, vain, courageous, and ambitious.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and children.", "content": "As a young man, Frederick II had desired to marry the noblewoman, Anne Hardenberg, who had served as a lady-in-waiting to his mother, the Dowager Queen Dorothea of Denmark, however as she was not of princely birth, this was impossible. There is no evidence that either of them had any interest in entering af morganatic marriage and Anne Hardenberg was married six months after Frederick, after which there is no known contact between them. Negotiations to find a suitable royal bride were manifold during the 1560s, but mostly it came to nothing, often because Frederick strongly insisted on meeting the prospective bride before committing to her. He had also wooed Queen Elizabeth I of England, and was later made a Knight of the Garter. On 20 July 1572, he was married to Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow, a descendant of King John of Denmark, and also his own first half-cousin, through their grandfather, Frederick I, King of Denmark and Norway. Sophie was the daughter of Ulrich III, Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow and Elizabeth of Denmark. Their marriage was harmonious and happy. Sophie is consistently mentioned in Frederick's handwritten diary as \"mynt Soffye\", meaning \"my Sophie\" and she followed him through the country as the court was very mobile. Frederick and Sophie had seven children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick II (1 July 1534 – 4 April 1588) was King of Denmark and Norway and Duke of Schleswig from 1559 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971933}
{"src_title": "Magdalenian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Period biology.", "content": "The Magdalenian epoch is represented by numerous sites, whose contents show progress in arts and culture. It was characterized by a cold and dry climate, humans in association with the reindeer, and the extinction of the mammoth. The use of bone and ivory as implements, begun in the preceding Solutrean epoch, increased, making the period essentially a bone period. Bone instruments are quite varied: spear-points, harpoon-heads, borers, hooks and needles.  The fauna of the Magdalenian epoch seems to have included tigers and other tropical species along with reindeer, blue foxes, Arctic hares, and other polar creatures. Magdalenian humans appear to have been of short stature, dolichocephalic, with a low retreating forehead and prominent brow ridges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chronology.", "content": "The culture spans from approximately 17,000 to 12,000 BP, toward the end of the most recent ice age. Magdalenian tool culture is characterised by regular blade industries struck from carinated cores.  The Magdalenian epoch is divided into six phases generally agreed to have chronological significance. The earliest phases are recognised by the varying proportion of blades and specific varieties of scrapers, the middle phases marked by the emergence of a microlithic component (particularly the distinctive denticulated microliths), and the later phases by the presence of uniserial (phase5) and biserial 'harpoons' (phase6) made of bone, antler and ivory.  Debate continues about the nature of the earliest Magdalenian assemblages, and it remains questionable whether the Badegoulian culture is the earliest phase of Magdalenian culture. Similarly, finds from the forest of Beauregard near Paris have been suggested as belonging to the earliest Magdalenian. The earliest Magdalenian sites are in France. The Epigravettian is a similar culture appearing at the same time. Its known range extends from southeast France to the western shores of the Volga River, Russia, with many sites in Italy.  The later phases of Magdalenian culture are contemporaneous with the human re-settlement of north-western Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum during the Late Glacial Maximum. As hunter gatherers, Magdalenians did not re-settle permanently in northwest Europe, instead following herds and seasons.  By the end of the Magdalenian epoch, lithic technology shows a pronounced trend toward increased microlithisation. The bone harpoons and points have the most distinctive chronological markers within the typological sequence. As well as flint tools, Magdalenians are known for their elaborate worked bone, antler and ivory that served both functional and aesthetic purposes, including perforated batons.  The sea shells and fossils found in Magdalenian sites may be sourced to relatively precise areas and have been used to support hypotheses of Magdalenian hunter-gatherer seasonal ranges, and perhaps trade routes.  In northern Spain and south-west France this tool culture was superseded by the Azilian culture. In northern Europe it was followed by variants of the Tjongerian techno-complex. It has been suggested that key Late-glacial sites in south-western Britain may be attributed to Magdalenian culture, including Kent's Cavern.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art.", "content": "Bones, reindeer antlers and animal teeth display crude pictures carved or etched on them of seals, fish, reindeer, mammoths and other creatures.  The best of Magdalenian artworks are a mammoth engraved on a fragment of its own ivory; a dagger of reindeer antler, with a handle in form of a reindeer; a cave-bear cut on a flat piece of schist; a seal on a bear's tooth; a fish drawn on a reindeer antler; and a complete picture, also on reindeer antler, showing horses, an aurochs, trees, and a snake biting a man's leg. The man is naked, which, together with the snake, suggests a warm climate in spite of the presence of the reindeer.  Examples of Magdalenian portable art include batons, figurines, and intricately engraved projectile points, as well as items of personal adornment including sea shells, perforated carnivore teeth (presumably necklaces), and fossils.  Cave sites such as Lascaux contain the best known examples of Magdalenian cave art. The site of Altamira in Spain, with its extensive and varied forms of Magdalenian mobiliary art has been suggested to be an agglomeration site where groups of Magdalenian hunter-gatherers congregated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment of the dead.", "content": "Human bones from the Magdalenian often show cut marks and breakage, consistent with cannibalism with both flesh and bone marrow being consumed. Some skulls were cleaned of soft tissues, then had the facial regions removed, with the remaining brain case retouched, possibly to make the broken edges more regular. This manipulation suggests the shaping of skulls to produce skull cups.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "The genes of seven Magdalenians, the El Miron Cluster in Iberia, have shown close relationship to a population who had lived in Northern Europe some 20,000 years previously. The analyses suggested that 70-80% of the ancestry of these individuals was from the population represented by Goyet Q116-1, associated with the Aurignacian culture of about 35,000 BP, from the Goyet Caves in modern Belgium.  The three samples of Y-DNA included two samples of haplogroup I and one sample of HIJK. All samples of mtDNA belonged to U, including five samples of U8b and one sample of U5b.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Magdalenian cultures (also Madelenian; French: \"Magdalénien\") are later cultures of the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic in western Europe. They date from around 17,000 to 12,000 years ago. It is named after the type site of La Madeleine, a rock shelter located in the Vézère valley, commune of Tursac, in France's Dordogne department.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971934}
{"src_title": "Hans Leo Hassler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Hassler was born in Nuremberg and baptized on 26 October 1564, receiving his first instruction in music from his father, the organist Isaak Hassler. In 1584, Hassler became the first of many German composers of the time who went to Italy to continue their studies; he arrived in Venice during the peak of activity of the Venetian school, the composers who wrote in the resplendent polychoral style, which was soon to become popular outside its native city. Hassler was already familiar with some of this music, as numerous prints had circulated in Germany due to the interest of Leonhard Lechner, who was associated with Orlandus Lassus in Munich.  While in Venice, Hassler became friends with Giovanni Gabrieli, with whom he composed a wedding motet for Georg Gruber, a Nuremberg merchant living in Venice, in 1600. Together they studied with Andrea Gabrieli, Giovanni's uncle. Under Andrea, Hassler received instruction in composition and organ playing.  Following Andrea Gabrieli's death, Hassler returned to Germany in the latter part of 1585, moving to Augsburg where he served as an organist to Octavian II Fugger, a nobleman there. The Augsburg years were extremely creative for him; in addition he became well known as a composer and organist at this time, though his influence was limited because he was a Protestant in an area which was still heavily Catholic.  Hassler was not only a composer, but also an active organist and a consultant to organ builders. In 1596, Hassler, along with 53 other organists, was given the opportunity to examine a new instrument with 59 stops at the Schlosskirche, Groningen. Hassler was continually recognized for his expertise in organ design, and was often called upon as the examiner of new instruments. Using his extensive organ background, Hassler stepped into the world of mechanical instrument construction and developed a clockwork organ that was later sold to Emperor Rudolf II.  In 1602, Hassler returned to Nuremberg where he became the \"Kapellmeister,\" or director of town music. While there, he was appointed \"Kaiserlicher Hofdiener\" in the court of Rudolf II. In 1604, he took a leave of absence and traveled to Ulm, where he was wed to Cordula Claus. Four years later, Hassler moved to Dresden where he served as the electoral chamber organist to the Elector Christian II of Saxony, and eventually as \"Kapellmeister.\" By this time, Hassler had already developed the tuberculosis that would claim his life in June 1612. After he died, Michael Praetorius and Heinrich Schütz were appointed in his place.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "Hassler was one of the first to bring the innovations of the Venetian style across the Alps. Through his songs, “in the manner of foreign madrigal and canzonets,” and the \"Lustgarten\", Hassler brought to Germany the \"villanelle\", \"canzonette\", and dance songs of Gastoldi and Orazio Vecchi. As the first great German composer to undertake an “Italian Journey,” Hassler's influence was one of the reasons for the Italian domination over German music and for the common trend of German musicians finishing their education in Italy. While musicians of the stature of Lassus had been working in Germany for years, they represented the older school, the \"prima pratica\", the fully developed and refined Renaissance style of polyphony; in Italy new trends were emerging which were to define what was later called the Baroque era. Musicians such as Hassler, and later Schütz, carried the concertato style, the polychoral idea, and the freely emotional expression of the Venetians into the German culture, creating the first and most important Baroque development outside of Italy.  Though Hassler was Protestant, he wrote many masses and directed the music for Catholic services in Augsburg. While in the service of Octavian Fugger, Hassler dedicated both his \"Cantiones sacrae\" and a book of masses for four to eight voices to him. Due to the demands of the Catholic patrons, and his own Protestant beliefs, Hassler's compositions represented a skillful blend of both religions’ music styles that allowed his compositions to function in both contexts. Thus, many of Hassler's works could be used both in the Roman Catholic Church and the Lutheran. During his time in Augsburg, Hassler only produced two works that were specifically meant for the Lutheran church. Under the commission of the free city of Nuremberg, the \"Psalmen simpliciter\" was composed in 1608, and was dedicated to the city. Hassler also produced the \"Psalmen und christliche Gesänge, mit vier Stimmen auf die Melodeien fugweis komponiert\" in 1607 and dedicated it to Elector Christian II of Saxony. Stylistically, Hassler's early works exhibit reflections of the influence of Lassus, while his later works are marked by the impressions left on him by his studies in Italy. After returning from Italy, Hassler incorporated polychoral techniques, textural contrasts and occasional chromaticism in his compositions. His later masses were characterized by light melodies juxtaposed with the grace and fluidity of the madrigalian dance songs; thus creating a charming sacred style that was more sonorous than it was profound. His secular music—madrigals, canzonette, and songs among the vocal, and ricercars, canzonas, introits and toccatas among the instrumental—show many of the advanced techniques of the Gabrielis in Italy, but with a somewhat more restrained character, and always attentive to craftsmanship and beauty of sound. However, Hassler's greatest success in combining the German and Italian compositional styles existed in his \"lieder.\" In 1590, Hassler released his first publication, a set of twenty-four, four-part \"canzonette\". The \"Lustgarten neuer teutscher Gesang, Balletti, Galliarden und Intraden\", which contains thirty-nine vocal and eleven instrumental pieces, is Hassler's most renowned collection of \"lieder.\" Within this work, Hassler published dance collections for four, five, or six string or wind instruments with voice and without continuo. He also composed \"Mein G'müt ist mir verwirret\", a five-part piece. Its melody was later combined with the text \"O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden\" of Paul Gerhardt, in which form it was used by Bach in his St Matthew Passion. Bach also employed the melody as a counterpoint to the Aria, \"Komm,Du Susse Todesstunde\", in Cantata BWV 161 and used it once again as the final chorale melody in that same cantata.  Along with many of his contemporaries, Hassler sought to blend the Italian virtuoso style with the traditional style prevalent in Germany. This was accomplished in the chorale motet by employing the thorough bass continuo and including instrumental and solo ornamentation. Hassler's motets exhibit this blend of the old and the new in the way they reflect both the influence of Lassus and the two four-part chorus style of the Gabrielis.  Hassler is considered to be one of the most important German composers of all time. His use of the innovative Italian techniques, coupled with traditional, conservative German techniques allowed his compositions to be fresh without the modern affective tone. His songs presented a combined vocal and instrumental literature that did not make use of the continuo, or only provided it as an option, and his sacred music introduced the Italian polychoral structures that would later influence many composers leading into the Baroque era.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Leo Hassler (in German, Hans Leo Haßler) (baptized 26 October 1564 – 8 June 1612) was a German composer and organist of the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras, elder brother of composer Jakob Hassler. He was born in Nuremberg and died in Frankfurt am Main.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971935}
{"src_title": "Gaston, Duke of Orléans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Gaston Jean Baptiste was born at the Palace of Fontainebleau on 24 April 1608 and at birth was given the title of Duke of Anjou. As a child, he was raised under the supervision of the royal governess Françoise de Montglat. In 1626, at the time of his marriage to the young Marie de Bourbon, Duchess of Montpensier, he received in appanage (with their respective titles) the duchies of Orléans and Chartres, and the county of Blois. He had nominal command of the army which besieged La Rochelle in 1628, having already entered upon a course of political intrigue that would occupy the remainder of his life. He was the heir presumptive to the throne of France from the death of his brother Nicolas Henri in 1611 until the birth of his elder brother's first son in 1638.  On two occasions, he had to leave France for conspiring against the government of his brother and his Prime Minister Cardinal Richelieu. After waging an unsuccessful war in Languedoc leading to the Battle of Castelnaudary in 1632, he took refuge in Flanders. Reconciled with his brother Louis XIII, he plotted against Richelieu in 1635, fled from the country again, and then submitted to the King and the Cardinal.  Soon afterwards, the same process repeated itself. Orléans conspired with the marquis de Cinq-Mars to attempt Richelieu's assassination, and then deserted his unfortunate accomplice (1642). In 1643, upon the death of Louis XIII, Gaston became Lieutenant-General of the Kingdom, and fought against Spain on the northern frontiers of France. He was created duc d'Alençon in 1646. During the wars of the Fronde (1648–1653), he demonstrated no particular loyalty to the crown and passed with great facility from one side to the other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages.", "content": "Gaston first married on 6 August 1626, at Nantes to Marie de Bourbon, Duchess of Montpensier, daughter and heiress of Henri de Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier. They had a daughter, Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, Duchess of Montpensier (29 May 1627 – 5 April 1693), called \"Mademoiselle de Montpensier\", but later being best known as the \"Grande Mademoiselle\".  Marie de Bourbon died six days after giving birth (4 June 1627), leaving her daughter the last of the line of the Montpensier line of the House of Bourbon.  While taking refuge from the wrath of Cardinal Richelieu in Lorraine, Gaston fell in love at first sight with Marguerite of Lorraine, the sister of Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine. But as France and Lorraine were then enemies, he was refused the king's permission to marry a sister of its duke. Nonetheless, Gaston fled again to Lorraine and, in a secret ceremony in the presence of her family at Nancy during the night of 2 – 3 January 1632, Gaston took the princess Marguerite as his wife. Because he had not obtained the prior permission of his elder brother, the king – one of his many acts of defiance – the couple could not appear at the French court and the marriage was kept secret.  But in November of that year, Henri II, Duke of Montmorency, on his way to the scaffold, betrayed Gaston, his former co-conspirator, and Louis XIII and Richelieu learnt of the elopement. The king had his brother's marriage declared null and void by the Parlement of Paris in September 1634 and, despite the protest of Pope Urban VIII, the Assembly of the French clergy held in September 1635 that a \"prince du sang\" could enter matrimony only with permission of the king – consistent with French sovereignty and custom. Although Marguerite and Gaston had re-celebrated their marriage before the Archbishop of Malines, a French emissary persuaded the Pope not to protest the matter publicly, and Gaston formally accepted the annulment of his marriage. It was not until Louis XIII was on his deathbed in May 1643 that he accepted his brother's plea for forgiveness and authorized his marriage to Marguerite, whereupon the couple undertook nuptials for the third time in July 1643 before the Archbishop of Paris at Meudon, and the Duke and Duchess of Orléans were finally received at court.  By right of her marriage, Marguerite became known as \"Madame\" at court. After the death of his mother in 1642, Gaston was bequeathed the Luxembourg Palace, which became the couple's Parisian residence under the name \"Palais Orléans\" once they were restored to royal favour. They also sojourned at the Château de Blois, in the Loire Valley, where their first child was born in 1645.  Marguerite and Gaston d'Orléans had five children, of whom three daughters survived into adulthood:  Gaston had an illegitimate daughter by Marie Porcher:  He also had an illegitimate son by Louise-Roger de La Marbelière:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After the death of Gaston's brother Louis XIII in 1643, his nephew Philippe, brother of the new king Louis XIV, became the new \"Monsieur\". To differentiate the older \"Monsieur\" from the younger, Gaston, the uncle, was called \"Le Grand Monsieur\" and Philippe, the nephew, was called \"Le Petit Monsieur\".  After the Fronde, Gaston was exiled by Cardinal Mazarin to Blois in 1652, and remained there until his death. All of his Orléans titles then went to his nephew, now the only \"Monsieur\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gaston, Duke of Orléans (24 April 1608 – 2 February 1660), was the third son of King Henry IV of France and his wife Marie de' Medici. As a son of the king, he was born a \"Fils de France\". He later acquired the title Duke of Orléans, by which he was generally known during his adulthood. As the eldest surviving brother of King Louis XIII, he was known at court by the traditional honorific Monsieur.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971936}
{"src_title": "Hans Jonas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Jonas was born in Mönchengladbach, on 10 May 1903. He studied philosophy and theology at the University of Freiburg, the University of Berlin and the University of Heidelberg, and finally earned his Doctor of Philosophy in 1928 from the University of Marburg with a thesis on Gnosticism entitled \"Der Begriff der Gnosis\" (\"The Concept of Gnosis\") and directed by Martin Heidegger. During his study years his academic advisors included Edmund Husserl and Rudolf Bultmann. In Marburg he met Hannah Arendt, who was also pursuing her PhD there, and the two of them were to remain friends for the rest of their lives.  Heidegger joined the Nazi Party in 1933, which may have disturbed Jonas, as he was Jewish and an active Zionist. Certainly, in 1964 Jonas would repudiate his mentor Heidegger, for his affiliation with the Nazis.  He left Germany for England in 1933, and from England he moved to Palestine in 1934. There he met Lore Weiner, to whom he became betrothed. In 1940 he returned to Europe to join the British Army which had been arranging a special brigade for German Jews wanting to fight against Hitler (See \"The Jewish Brigade\"). He was sent to Italy, and in the last phase of the war moved into Germany. Thus, he kept his promise that he would return only as a soldier in the victorious army. In this time he wrote several letters to Lore about philosophy, in particular philosophy of biology, that would form the basis of his later publications on the subject. They finally married in 1943.  Immediately after the war he returned to Mönchengladbach to search for his mother but found that she had been sent to the gas chambers in the Auschwitz concentration camp. Having heard this, he refused to live in Germany again. He returned to Palestine and took part in Israel's war of independence in 1948. Jonas taught briefly at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem before moving to North America. In 1950 he left for Canada, teaching at Carleton University. From there he moved in 1955 to New York City, where he was to live for the rest of his life. He was a fellow of the Hastings Center and Professor of Philosophy at New School for Social Research from 1955 to 1976 (where he was Alvin Johnson Professor). From 1982 to 1983 Jonas held the Eric Voegelin Visiting Professorship at the University of Munich. He died at his home in New Rochelle, New York, on 5 February 1993, aged 89.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophical work.", "content": "Jonas's writings were very influential in different spheres. For example, \"The Gnostic Religion\", based on his early research on the Gnosis and first published in 1958, was for many years the standard work in English on the subject of Gnosticism. \"The Imperative of Responsibility\" (German 1979, English 1984) centers on social and ethical problems created by technology. Jonas insists that human survival depends on our efforts to care for our planet and its future. He formulated a new and distinctive supreme moral imperative: \"Act so that the effects of your action are compatible with the permanence of genuine human life\".  While \"The Imperative of Responsibility\" has been credited with catalyzing the environmental movement in Germany, his work \"The Phenomenon of Life\" (1966) forms the philosophical undergirding of one major school of bioethics in America. Murray Bookchin and Leon Kass both referred to Hans Jonas's work as major, or primary, inspiration. Heavily influenced by Martin Heidegger, \"The Phenomenon of Life\" attempts to synthesize the philosophy of matter with the philosophy of mind, producing a rich existential understanding of biology, which ultimately argues for a simultaneously material and moral human nature.  His writing on the history of Gnosticism revisits terrain covered by earlier standard works on the subject such as Ernesto Buonaiuti's \"Lo gnosticismo: storia di antiche lotte religiose\" (1907), interpreting the religion from an existentialist philosophical viewpoint. He was one of the first philosophers to concern himself with ethical questions in biological science. Jonas's career is generally divided into three periods defined by his three primary works, but in reverse order: studies of gnosticism, studies of philosophical biology, and ethical studies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Jonas (; ; 10 May 1903 – 5 February 1993) was a German-born American Jewish philosopher, from 1955 to 1976 the Alvin Johnson Professor of Philosophy at the New School for Social Research in New York City.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971937}
{"src_title": "Saint Gall", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The fragmentary oldest \"Life\" was recast in the 9th century by two monks of Reichenau, enlarged in 816–824 by Wettinus, and about 833–884 by Walafrid Strabo, who also revised a book of the miracles of the saint. Other works ascribed to Walafrid tell of Saint Gall in prose and verse.  Gallus' origin is a matter of dispute. According to his 9th-century biographers in Reichenau, he was from Ireland and entered Europe as a companion of Columbanus. The Irish origin of the historical Gallus was called into question by Hilty (2001), who proposed it as more likely that he was from the Vosges or Alsace region. Schär (2010) proposed that Gallus may have been of Irish descent but born and raised in the Alsace.  According to the 9th-century hagiographies, Gallus as a young man went to study under Comgall of Bangor Abbey. The monastery at Bangor had become renowned throughout Europe as a great centre of Christian learning. Studying in Bangor at the same time as Gall was Columbanus, who with twelve companions, set out about the year 589.  Gall and his companions established themselves with Columbanus at first at Luxeuil in Gaul. In 610, St. Columban was exiled by leaders opposed to Christianity and fled with St. Gall to Alemannia. He accompanied Columbanus on his voyage up the Rhine River to Bregenz but when in 612 Columbanus travelled on to Italy from Bregenz, Gall had to remain behind due to illness and was nursed at Arbon. He remained in Alemannia, where, with several companions, he led the life of a hermit in the forests southwest of Lake Constance, near the source of the river Steinach. Cells were soon added for twelve monks whom Gall carefully instructed. Gall was soon known in Switzerland as a powerful preacher.  When the See of Constance became vacant, the clergy who assembled to elect a new Bishop were unanimously in favour of Gall. He, however, refused, pleading that the election of a stranger would be contrary to Church law. Some time later, in the year 625, on the death of Eustasius, abbott of Luxeuil, a monastery founded by Saint Columbanus, members of that community were sent by the monks to request Saint Gall to undertake the government of the monastery. He refused to quit his life of solitude, and undertake any office of rank which might involve him in the cares of the world. He was then an old man.  He died at the age of ninety-five around 646–650 in Arbon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legends.", "content": "From as early as the 9th century a series of fantastically embroidered \"Lives\" of Saint Gall were circulated. Prominent was the story in which Gall delivered Fridiburga from the demon by which she was possessed. Fridiburga was the betrothed of Sigebert II, King of the Franks, who had granted an estate at Arbon (which belonged to the royal treasury) to Gall so that he might found a monastery there.  Another popular story has it that as St Gall was travelling in the woods of what is now Switzerland he was sitting one evening warming his hands at a fire. A bear emerged from the woods and charged. The holy man rebuked the bear, so awed by his presence it stopped its attack and slunk off to the trees. There it gathered firewood before returning to share the heat of the fire with St Gall. The legend says that for the rest of his days St Gall was followed around by his companion the bear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "His feast is celebrated on 16 October.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Iconography.", "content": "Images of St. Gall typically represent him standing with a bear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "When Columbanus, Gall and their companions left Ireland for mainland Europe, they took with them learning and the written word. Their effect on the historical record was significant as the books were painstakingly reproduced on vellum by monks across Europe. Many of the Irish texts destroyed in Ireland during Viking raids were preserved in Abbeys across the channel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abbey of St. Gall.", "content": "After his death, a small church was erected which developed into the Abbey of St. Gall, the nucleus of the Canton of St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland the first abbot of which was Saint Othmar. The monastery was freed from its dependence of the bishop of Constance and Emperor Louis the Pious made it an imperial institution. The \"Abbey of St. Gall\", (not from the name of its founder and first abbot, but of the saint who had lived in this place and whose relics were honoured there) the monastery and especially its celebrated scriptorium played an illustrious part in Catholic and intellectual history until it was secularised in 1798.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "\"St Gall\" is the name of a wheel shaped hard cheese made from the milk of Friesian cows, which won a Gold Medal at the World Cheese Awards held in Dublin 2008.  Robertson Davies, in his book, \"The Manticore\", interprets the legend in Jungian psychological terms. In the final scene of the novel where David Staunton is celebrating Christmas with Lizelloti Fitziputli, Magnus Eisengrim, and Dunstan Ramsay he is given a gingerbread bear. Ramsay explains that Saint Gall made a pact of peace with a bear who was terrorising the citizens of the nearby village. They would feed him gingerbread and he would refrain from eating them. The parable is a Jungian exhortation to make peace with one's dark side.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Gall, or Gallus ( 550 646, ) according to hagiographic tradition was a disciple and one of the traditional twelve companions of Saint Columbanus on his mission from Ireland to the continent. Saint Deicolus was the elder brother of Gall.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971938}
{"src_title": "Michael Praetorius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Praetorius was born Michael Schultze, Schultheis, or Schultz, the youngest son of a Lutheran pastor, in Creuzburg, in present-day Thuringia. After attending school in Torgau and Zerbst, he studied divinity and philosophy at the University of Frankfurt (Oder). He was fluent in a number of languages. After receiving his musical education, from 1587 he served as organist at the Marienkirche in Frankfurt. From 1592/3 he served at the court in Wolfenbüttel, under the employ of Henry Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg. He served in the duke's State Orchestra, first as organist and later (from 1604) as \"Kapellmeister\" (court music director).  His first compositions appeared around 1602/3. Their publication primarily reflects the care for music at the court of Gröningen. The motets of this collection were the first in Germany to make use of the new Italian performance practices; as a result, they established him as a proficient composer.  These \"modern\" pieces mark the end of his middle creative period. The nine parts of his \"Musae Sioniae\" (1605–10) and the 1611 published collections of liturgical music (masses, hymns, magnificats) follow the German Protestant chorale style. With these, at the behest of a circle of orthodox Lutherans, he followed the Duchess Elizabeth, who ruled the duchy in the duke's absence.  When the duke died in 1613 and was succeeded by Frederick Ulrich, Praetorius retained his post in Wolfenbüttel. But he also began working at the court of John George I, Elector of Saxony at Dresden as \"Kapellmeister von Haus aus\" (nonresident music director). There he was responsible for festive music and was exposed to the latest Italian music, including the polychoral works of the Venetian School. His subsequent development of the form of the chorale concerto, particularly the polychoral variety, resulted directly from his familiarity with the music of such Venetians as Giovanni Gabrieli. The solo-voice, polychoral, and instrumental compositions Praetorius prepared for these events mark the high period of his artistic creativity. Gottfried Staffel’s detailed eyewitness account of Praetorius’s music directing at the 1614 Princes’ Convention (\"Fürstentag\") in Naumburg and Matthias Hoë von Hoënegg’s epigram describing the impression Praetorius’s music made on Emperor Matthias and other princes during a visit to Dresden in the summer of 1617 provide some sense of Praetorius’s fame at the time. In Dresden Praetorius also worked and consulted with Heinrich Schütz from 1615–1619.  It seems that Praetorius’s appointment in Wolfenbüttel was no longer being renewed by Trinity Sunday of 1620. He was probably already lying sick in bed in Wolfenbüttel by that time. There he passed away on February 15, 1621, at age forty-nine. His body was entombed in a vault beneath the organ of the Marienkirche on February 23.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "His family name in German appears in various forms including Schultze, Schulte, Schultheiss, Schulz and Schulteis. Praetorius was the conventional Latinized form of this family name, \"Schultze\" meaning \"village judge \"or\" magistrate\" in German. The Latin \"Praetorius\" means \"magistrate-related \"or\" one with the rank of a magistrate.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Praetorius was a prolific composer; his compositions show the influence of Italian composers and his younger contemporary Heinrich Schütz. His works include the 17 volumes of music published during his time as Kapellmeister to Duke Heinrich Julius of Wolfenbüttel, between 1605 and 1613. The most significant of these publications is the nine-part \"Musae Sioniae\" (1605–10), a collection of chorale and song arrangements for 2 to 16 voices. He wrote many other works for the Lutheran church; and \"Terpsichore\", a compendium of more than 300 instrumental dances, which is both his most widely known work, and his sole surviving secular work.  Many of Praetorius' choral compositions were scored for several smaller choirs situated in several locations in the church, in the style of the Venetian polychoral music of Gabrieli.  Praetorius composed the familiar harmonization of \"Es ist ein Ros entsprungen\" (\"Lo, How a Rose E'er Blooming\") in 1609.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical writings.", "content": "Praetorius was the greatest musical academic of his day and the Germanic writer on music best known to other 17th-century musicians. Although his original theoretical contributions were relatively few, with nowhere near the long-range impact of other 17th-century German writers, like Johannes Lippius, Christoph Bernhard or Joachim Burmeister, he compiled an encyclopedic record of contemporary musical practices. While Praetorius made some refinements to figured-bass practice and to tuning practice, his importance to scholars of the 17th century derives from his discussions of the normal use of instruments and voices in ensembles, the standard pitch of the time, and the state of modal, metrical, and fugal theory. His meticulous documentation of 17th-century practice was of inestimable value to the early-music revival of the 20th century.  His expansive but unfinished treatise, \"Syntagma Musicum\", appeared in three volumes (with appendix) between 1614 and 1620. The first volume (1614), titled \"Musicae Artis Analecta\", was written mostly in Latin, and regarded the music of the ancients and of the church. The second (\"De Organographia\", 1618) regarded the musical instruments of the day, especially the organ; it was one of the first theoretical treatises written in the vernacular. The third (\"Termini Musicali\", 1618), also in German, regarded the genres of composition and the technical essentials for professional musicians. An appendix to the second volume (\"Theatrum Instrumentorum seu Sciagraphia\", 1620) consisted of 42 beautifully drawn woodcuts, depicting instruments of the early 17th century, all grouped in families and shown to scale. A fourth volume on composition was planned, with the help of Baryphonus, but was left incomplete at his death. Gustave Reese said that the \"Syntagma Musicum\" was one of the most important sources of seventeenth century musical history.  Praetorius wrote in a florid style, replete with long asides, polemics, and word-puzzles – all typical of 17th-century scholarly prose. As a lifelong committed Christian, he often regretted not taking holy orders but did write several theological tracts, which are now lost. As a Lutheran from a militantly Protestant family, he contributed greatly to the development of the vernacular liturgy, but also favored Italian compositional methods, performance practice and figured-bass notation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michael Praetorius (probably 28 September 1571 – 15 February 1621) was a German composer, organist, and music theorist. He was one of the most versatile composers of his age, being particularly significant in the development of musical forms based on Protestant hymns.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971939}
{"src_title": "Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Maximilian I was born in Munich, the eldest son of William V, Duke of Bavaria and Renata of Lorraine to survive infancy. He was educated by the Jesuits, and upon his father's abdication, began to take part in the government in 1591. In 1595 he married his cousin, Elisabeth Renata (also known as Elizabeth of Lorraine), daughter of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine, and became Duke of Bavaria upon his father's abdication in 1597.  His first marriage to Elisabeth Renata was childless. A few months after the death of Elisabeth Renata, Maximilian married, on 15 July 1635 in Vienna, his 25-year-old niece Maria Anna of Austria (1610-1665), the daughter of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and Maximillian's sister, Maria Anna of Bavaria (1574-1616). The main motivation for this swift remarriage was not so much political grounds as the hope of producing a prince to inherit. In contrast to the Elector's first wife, Maria Anna was very interested in politics and well instructed about developments. She was not bound to the Habsburgs, but rather completely advocated the Bavarian standpoint. Additionally, she conducted lively exchanges of opinion with high officials of the Munich court and took part in meetings of the cabinet. By her he left two sons, Ferdinand Maria, who succeeded him, and Maximilian Philip.  As the ablest prince of his age he sought to prevent Germany from becoming the battleground of Europe, and although a rigid adherent of the Catholic faith, was not always subservient to the church. Weak in health and feeble in frame, Maximilian had high ambitions both for himself and his duchy, and was tenacious and resourceful in prosecuting his designs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "German politics and the Thirty Years' War.", "content": "Maximilian refrained from any interference in German politics until 1607, when he was entrusted with the duty of executing the imperial ban against the free city of Donauwörth, a Protestant stronghold. In December 1607 his troops occupied the city, and vigorous steps were taken to restore the supremacy of Catholicism. Some Protestant princes, alarmed at this action, formed the Protestant Union to defend their interests, which was answered in 1609 by the establishment of the Catholic League, in the formation of which Maximilian took an important part. Under his leadership an army was set on foot, but his policy was strictly defensive and he refused to allow the League to become a tool in the hands of the House of Habsburg. Dissensions among his colleagues led the duke to resign his office in 1616, but the approach of trouble brought about his return to the League about two years later.  Having refused to become a candidate for the imperial throne in 1619, Maximilian was faced with the complications arising from the outbreak of war in Bohemia. After some delay he made a treaty with Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor in October 1619, and in return for large concessions placed the forces of the League at the emperor's service. Anxious to curtail the area of the struggle, he made a treaty of neutrality with the Protestant Union, and occupied Upper Austria as security for the expenses of the campaign. On 8 November 1620 his troops under Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly defeated the forces of Frederick, King of Bohemia and Count Palatine of the Rhine, at the Battle of White Mountain near Prague. Subsequently Ferdinand II released Upper Austria as a pawn for Maximilian until 1628. In spite of the arrangement with the Union, Tilly then devastated the Rhenish Palatinate, and in February 1623 Maximilian was formally invested with the electoral dignity and the attendant office of imperial steward, which had been enjoyed since 1356 by the Counts Palatine of the Rhine. After receiving the Upper Palatinate and restoring Upper Austria to Ferdinand, Maximilian became leader of the party which sought to bring about Albrecht von Wallenstein's dismissal from the imperial service. At the Diet of Regensburg (1630) Ferdinand was compelled to assent to this demand, but the sequel was disastrous both for Bavaria and its ruler. Attempting to remain neutral during the war, Maximilian signed the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1631) with the Kingdom of France, but this proved worthless.  Early in 1632 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden marched into the duchy and occupied Munich, and Maximilian could only obtain the assistance of the Imperial troops by placing himself under the orders of Wallenstein, now restored to the command of the emperor's forces. The ravages of the Swedes and their French allies induced the elector to enter into negotiations for peace with the Swedes and Cardinal Cardinal Richelieu of France. He also wooed the Protestants by proposing modifications to the Edict of Restitution of 1629, but these efforts were abortive.  In September 1638 Baron Franz von Mercy was made master-general of ordnance in the army of Bavaria, then the second largest army in the Holy Roman Empire. Mercy and Johann von Werth as lieutenant field-marshal fought with varying success France and Sweden.  In March 1647 Maximilian concluded the Truce of Ulm (1647) with France and Sweden, but the entreaties of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor led him to disregard his undertaking. Bavaria was again ravaged, and the elector's forces were defeated in May 1648 at the Battle of Zusmarshausen. The Peace of Westphalia soon put an end to the struggle. By this treaty it was agreed that Maximilian should retain the electoral dignity, which was made hereditary in his family, Upper Palatinate. Maximilain had to give up the Lower Palatine, which was restored to Charles Louis, Frederick V's son and heir.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and cultural activities.", "content": "Maximilian rehabilitated the Bavarian state finances, reorganised the Bavarian administration and army, and introduced mercantilist measures as well as a new corpus juris, the \"Codex Maximilianeus\". In 1610 Maximilian ordered to enlarge the Munich Residenz and to upgrade the Hofgarten. The original buildings of Schleissheim Palace were extended between 1617 and 1623 by Heinrich Schön and Hans Krumpper to the so-called \"Old Palace\". Maximilian acquired numerous paintings of Albrecht Dürer, Peter Paul Rubens and additional artists for the Wittelsbach collection. In 1616 for example Maximilian I commissioned four hunt paintings from Peter Paul Rubens. He even obtained Dürer's \"The Four Apostles\" in the year 1627 due to pressure on the Nuremberg city fathers. Among his court artists were Peter Candid, Friedrich Sustris, Hubert Gerhard, Hans Krumpper, Adrian de Vries and Georg Petel.  The Duke died at Ingolstadt on 27 September 1651. He is buried in St. Michael's Church, Munich. In 1839 a statue was erected to his memory at Munich by King Ludwig I of Bavaria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and children.", "content": "On 6 February 1595, Maximilian married his first cousin princess Elisabeth (1574–1635), daughter of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine and Claudia of France, daughter of Henry II of France, in Nancy. They had no issue.  On 15 July 1635, Maximilian married his niece Maria Anna of Austria (1610-1665), daughter of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and Maria Anna of Bavaria (1574-1616), in Vienna. They had two sons:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maximilian I (17 April 157327 September 1651), occasionally called \"the Great\", a member of the House of Wittelsbach, ruled as Duke of Bavaria from 1597. His reign was marked by the Thirty Years' War during which he obtained the title of a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire at the 1623 Diet of Regensburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971940}
{"src_title": "Salvia sclarea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Salvia sclarea\" reaches in height, with thick square stems that are covered in hairs. The leaves are approximately long at the base, long higher on the plant. The upper leaf surface is rugose, and covered with glandular hairs. The flowers are in verticils, with 2-6 flowers in each verticil, and are held in large colorful bracts that range in color from pale mauve to lilac or white to pink with a pink mark on the edge. The lilac or pale blue corolla is approximately, with the lips held wide open. The cultivar \"S. sclarea\" 'Turkestanica' bears pink stems, petiolate leaves, and white, pink-flecked blossoms on spikes to tall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Descriptions of medicinal use of the plant goes back to the writings of Theophrastus (4th century BCE), Dioscorides (1st century CE), and Pliny the Elder (1st century CE).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Clary seeds have a mucilaginous coat, which is why some old herbals recommended placing a seed into the eye of someone with a foreign object in it so that it could adhere to the object and make it easy to remove. This practice is noted by Nicholas Culpeper in his \"Complete Herbal\" (1653), who referred to the plant as \"clear-eye\".  The distilled essential oil is used widely in perfumes and as a muscatel flavoring for vermouths, wines, and liqueurs. It is also used in aromatherapy.  It has also been used to induce labour and throughout labour to bring on contractions.  In the United States, large scale production is concentrated in northeastern North Carolina in the counties surrounding Bertie County.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salvia sclarea, the clary or clary sage, is a biennial or short-lived herbaceous perennial in the genus \"Salvia\". It is native to the northern Mediterranean Basin, along with some areas in north Africa and Central Asia. The plant has a lengthy history as an herb, and is currently grown for its essential oil.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971941}
{"src_title": "Livonian Brothers of the Sword", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Albert, Bishop of Riga (also called Prince-Bishop of Livonia) (or possibly Theoderich von Treyden), founded the Brotherhood in 1202 to aid the Bishopric of Livonia in the conversion of the pagan Livonians, Latgalians and Selonians living across the ancient trade routes from the Gulf of Riga eastwards. From its foundation, the undisciplined Order tended to ignore its supposed vassalage to the bishops. In 1218, Albert asked King Valdemar II of Denmark for assistance, but Valdemar instead arranged a deal with the Brotherhood and conquered northern Estonia (now known as Danish Estonia) for Denmark.  The Brotherhood had its headquarters at Fellin (Viljandi) in present-day Estonia, where the walls of the Master's castle stand. Other strongholds included Wenden (Cēsis), Segewold (Sigulda) and Ascheraden (Aizkraukle). The commanders of Fellin, Goldingen (Kuldīga), Marienburg (Alūksne), Reval (Tallinn), and the bailiff of Weißenstein (Paide) belonged to the five-member entourage of the Order's Master.  Pope Gregory IX asked the Brothers to defend Finland from the Novgorodian attacks in his letter of November 24, 1232. However, no known information regarding the knights' possible activities in Finland has survived. (Sweden eventually conquered Finland following the Second Swedish Crusade in 1249.)  The Order was decimated in the Battle of Schaulen (Saule) in 1236 against Lithuanians and Semigallians. This disaster led the surviving Brothers to become incorporated into the Order of Teutonic Knights in the following year, and from that point on they became known as the Livonian Order. They continued, however, to function in all respects (rule, clothing and policy) as an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, headed by their own Master (himself \"de jure\" subject to the Teutonic Order's Grand Master).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Livonian Brothers of the Sword (,, ) was a Catholic military order established by Albert, the third bishop of Riga (or possibly by Theoderich von Treyden), in 1202. Pope Innocent III sanctioned the establishment in 1204 for the second time. The membership of the order comprised German \"warrior monks\" who fought Baltic and Finnic pagans in the area of modern-day Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Alternative names of the Order include Christ Knights, Swordbrothers, Sword Brethren, and The Militia of Christ of Livonia. The seal reads: \"+MAGISTRI ETFRM (et fratrum) MILICIE CRI (Christi) DE LIVONIA\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971942}
{"src_title": "Fort Eben-Emael", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The fort is located along the Albert Canal where it runs through a deep cutting at the junction of the Belgian, Dutch and German borders, about northeast of Liège and about south of Maastricht. A huge excavation project was carried out in the 1920s to create the Caster cutting through Mount Saint Peter to keep the canal in Belgian territory. This created a natural defensive barrier that was augmented by the fort, at a location that had been recommended by Brialmont in the 19th century. Eben-Emael was the largest of four forts built in the 1930s as the Fortified Position of Liège I (\"Position Fortifiée de Liège I\" (PFL I)). From north to south, the new forts were Eben-Emael, Fort d'Aubin-Neufchâteau, Fort de Battice and Fort de Tancrémont. Tancrémont and Aubin-Neufchâteau are smaller than Eben-Emael and Battice. Several of the 19th century forts designed by General Henri Alexis Brialmont that encircled Liège were reconstructed and designated PFL II.  A great deal of the fort's excavation work was carried out on the canal side, sheltered from view and a convenient location to load excavated spoil into barges to be taken away economically. The fort's elevation above the canal also allowed for efficient interior drainage, making Eben-Emael drier than many of its sister fortifications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Fort Eben-Emael was a greatly enlarged development of the original Belgian defence works designed by General Henri Alexis Brialmont before World War I. Even in its larger form, the fort comprised a relatively compact ensemble of gun turrets and observation posts, surrounded by a defended ditch. This was in contrast with French thinking for the contemporary Maginot Line fortifications, which were based on the dispersed \"fort palmé\" concept, with no clearly defined perimeter, a lesson learned from the experiences of French and Belgian forts in World War I. The new Belgian forts, while more conservative in design than the French \"ouvrages\", included several new features as a result of World War I experience. The gun turrets were less closely grouped. Reinforced concrete was used in place of plain mass concrete, and its placement was done with greater care to avoid weak joints between pours. Ventilation was greatly improved, including an air filtration system for protection against gas attack, magazines were deeply buried and protected, and sanitary facilities and general living arrangements for the troops were given careful attention. Eben-Emael and Battice featured 120mm and 75mm guns, giving the fort the ability to bombard targets across a wide area of the eastern Liège region.  Fort Eben-Emael occupies a large hill just to the east of Eben-Emael village (now part of Bassenge) and bordering the Albert Canal. The irregularly-shaped fort is about in the east-west dimension, and about in the north-south dimension. It was more heavily armed than any other in the PFL I. In contrast to the other forts whose main weapons were in turrets, Eben-Emael's main weapons were divided between turrets and casemates. The 60mm, 75mm and 120mm guns were made by the Fonderie Royale des Canons de Belgique (F.R.C.) in the city of Liege. The artillery turrets were so well-designed and constructed the artillerists were not required to wear hearing protection when firing the guns. Underground galleries extend over beneath the hill, connecting the combat blocks and serving the underground barracks, power plant, ammunition magazines and other spaces. Fresh air was obtained from intake vents over the canal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personnel.", "content": "In 1940, Fort Eben-Emael was commanded by Major Jottrand. There were around 1,200 Belgian troops stationed at the fort, divided into three groups. The first group was permanently stationed at the fort and consisted of 200 technical personnel (e.g. doctors, cooks, weapon maintenance technicians, administration staff). The two other groups consisted of 500 artillerists each. In peace time, one group would be stationed at the fort for one week, and the other group would be in reserve at the village of Wonck, about away. These two groups would change places every week.  Except for some of the officers and NCOs, most of the men were conscripts. The majority of these were reservists and were called up after the Invasion of Poland in 1939. Infantry training was poor, since the men were considered to be purely artillerists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1940.", "content": "On 10 May 1940, 78 paratroopers of the German 7th \"Flieger\" (later 1st \"Fallschirmjäger\" Division) landed on the fortress with DFS 230 gliders, armed with special high explosives to attack the fortress and its guns. Most of the fort's defenses were lightly manned and taken by complete surprise. Much of the fort's defensive armament was destroyed in a few minutes. The \"Fallschirmjäger\" were able to penetrate one of the 75 mm turrets, killing some defenders and containing the rest in the lower sections of the fortress. The attackers were unable to penetrate further inside the underground galleries, but the garrison was unable to dislodge them from the surface of the fort. The fortress surrendered one day later, when the paratroopers were reinforced by the German 151st Infantry Regiment. While 1,200 soldiers were authorized to be at the fort on any given day, only 650 were there, with an additional 233 troops six km away at the time of the German assault.  The Germans had planned the capture of the fort well in advance. In preparation they had practised assaulting a full-scale mock up of the fort's exterior in occupied Czechoslovakia using the recently built and captured border fortifications that were modeled to a large degree on western designs. Adolf Hitler himself conceived a plan to take over the fort by getting men onto it by using gliders to overcome the problem of concentrating an airdrop on a small target, and utilizing the new top secret shaped charge (also called \"hollow charge\") bombs to penetrate the cupolas.  Good espionage and superior planning, combined with unpreparedness on the Belgian side, helped make the execution of Hitler's top secret plan a swift and overwhelming success. The capture of Eben-Emael involved the first utilization of gliders for the initial attack and the first use of hollow charge devices in war. The gliders, led by First Lieutenant Rudolf Witzig, landed on the roof of the fortress and being totally silent, took the defenders by complete surprise. They were able to use the hollow charges to destroy or disable the gun cupolas. They also used a flamethrower against machine guns. The Belgians did destroy one of the key bridges, preventing it from being used by the Germans but also preventing a relieving force from aiding the fortress. The Germans lost only six of the assaulting engineers and had 21 wounded, keeping all the defenders pinned down until the arrival of the main attacking army. After the extraordinary success in the capture of the fort, Hitler personally decorated all the participants of the assault. Eben Emael, considered the strongest fortress in the world, was the linchpin of the Belgian main line of defense and dominated all terrestrial communications around the Albert Canal. It was a sensational coup and its loss delivered a hard blow from which the Belgian Army could not recover.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Present day.", "content": "Fort Eben-Emael is now open to the public. While still military property, it is administered by the Association Fort Eben-Emael, which provides tours and activities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fort Eben-Emael () is an inactive Belgian fortress located between Liège and Maastricht, on the Belgian-Dutch border, near the Albert Canal. It was designed to defend Belgium from a German attack across the narrow belt of Dutch territory in the region. Constructed in 1931–1935, it was reputed to be impregnable and at the time, the largest in the world. The fort was neutralized by glider-borne German troops (85 men) on 10 May 1940 during the Second World War. The action cleared the way for German ground forces to enter Belgium, unhindered by fire from Eben-Emael. Still the property of the Belgian Army, the fort has been preserved and may be visited.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971943}
{"src_title": "Ischgl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ski resort.", "content": "Ischgl is located on the Austrian side of one of the world's largest ski areas. Its of groomed pistes are served by over 45 mechanical lifts including cable cars, gondolas, detachable chair lifts and some T-bars. Three ropeways give access to the ski area from the village: the Pardatschgratbahn, the Fimbabahn & the Silvrettabahn. Only the Fimbabahn and the Silvrettabahn have middle stations. Many of the lifts converge at Idalp, where there is a restaurant. The area above Idalp offers wide, easy pistes and a snow park. Other parts of the Ischgl area, towards Höllboden and Paznauner Thaya, offer many red runs and some more challenging blacks. The steepest run in the resort is a black run with a gradient of 70%, located in the Höllboden bowl, and accessed by the \"Lange Wand\" chair lift. Paznauner Thaya offers many red runs suitable for intermediate-level skiers.  Ischgl is known for lively après-ski parties and nightlife. The resort hosts pop concerts celebrating the end of the annual ski season (\"Top of the Mountain Concert\") at the Idalp (). Bob Dylan, Tina Turner, Elton John, Mariah Carey, The Corrs, Thirty Seconds to Mars, Rod Stewart, Jon Bon Jovi, Nena, Sugababes, Enrique Iglesias, Pink, Anastacia, Beyoncé, Melanie C, Rihanna, Gabriella Cilmi, Leona Lewis, Kylie Minogue, Katy Perry and Alicia Keys have performed at these concerts. In April 2002 Bill Clinton gave a speech at Ischgl.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "COVID-19 pandemic hotspot.", "content": "Ischgl was identified as a major hotspot of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe. Six hundred infections in Austria and up to 1,200 infections in Germany and the Nordic countries were traced back to the ski resort starting from Iceland on 1 March with transmissions occurring from late February on. A significant portion of the cases were further traced to \"Kitzloch\" après-ski bar at the resort, where sharing of whistles were likely conduits of contagion. Even as health authorities in other countries began raising warnings against travel to Ischgl, the resort remained open with Tyrolean authorities playing down the risks. The bar was eventually closed on 10 March and the whole town quarantined from 13 March until 22 April.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ischgl () is a town in the Paznaun valley in the Austrian state of Tyrol. Its ski resort \"Silvretta Arena Ischgl-Samnaun\" is connected with the ski resort of Samnaun across the border in Switzerland to form one of the largest skiing resorts in the Alps. Ischgl was a major hotspot of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971944}
{"src_title": "Witness", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Court procedure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calling a witness.", "content": "In a court proceeding, a witness may be \"called\" (requested to testify) by either the prosecution or the defense. The side that calls the witness first asks questions in what is called direct examination. The opposing side then may ask their own questions in what is called cross-examination. In some cases, redirect examination may be used by the side that called the witness but usually only to contradict specific testimony from the cross-examination.  Recalling a witness means calling a witness, who has already given testimony in a proceeding, to give further testimony. A court may give leave to a party to recall a witness only to give evidence about a matter adduced by another party if the second party's testimony contradicts evidence given by the original witness on direct examination.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Testimony.", "content": "Witnesses are usually permitted to testify only what they experienced first-hand. In most cases, they may not testify about something they were told (hearsay). That restriction does not apply to expert witnesses, but they may testify only in the area of their expertise.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reliability.", "content": "Eyewitness testimony is generally presumed to be more reliable than circumstantial evidence. Studies have shown, however, that individual, separate witness testimony is often flawed, and parts of it can be meaningless. That can occur because of flaws in eyewitness identification (such as faulty observation and recollection, or bias) or because a witness is lying. If several people witness a crime, it is probative to look for similarities in their collective descriptions to substantiate the facts of an event but to keep in mind the contrasts between individual descriptions.  One study involved an experiment, in which subjects acted as jurors in a criminal case. Jurors heard a description of a robbery-murder, a prosecution argument, and then an argument for the defense. Some jurors heard only circumstantial evidence; others heard from a clerk who claimed to identify the defendant. In the former case, 18% percent found the defendant guilty, but in the latter case, 72% found the defendant guilty (Loftus 1988).  Police lineups in which the eyewitness picks out a suspect from a group of people in the police station are often grossly suggestive, and they give the false impression that the witness remembered the suspect. In another study, students watched a staged crime. An hour later they looked through photos. A week later they were asked to pick the suspect out of lineups. 8% of the people in the lineups were mistakenly identified as criminals. 20% of the innocent people whose photographs were included were mistakenly identified (University of Nebraska 1977).  Weapon focus effects in which the presence of a weapon impairs memory for surrounding details is also an issue.  Another study looked at 65 cases of \"erroneous criminal convictions of innocent people.\" In 45% of the cases, eyewitness mistakes were responsible.  The formal study of eyewitness memory is usually undertaken within the broader category of cognitive processes, the different ways in which we make sense of the world around us. That is done by employing the mental skills at one's disposal like thinking, perception, memory, awareness, reasoning, and judgment. Although cognitive processes can be only inferred and cannot be seen directly, they all have very important practical implications within a legal context.  If one were to accept that the way people think, perceive, reason, and judge is not always perfect, it becomes easier to understand why cognitive processes and the factors influencing the processes are studied by psychologists in matters of law, one being the grave implications that this imperfection can have within the criminal justice system.  The study of witness memory has dominated the realm of investigation. As Huff and Rattner note, the single most important factor contributing to wrongful conviction is eyewitness misidentification.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Credibility.", "content": "Several factors affect witnesses' credibility. Generally, they are deemed to be credible if they are recognized (or can be recognized) as a source of reliable information about someone, an event, or a phenomenon. As an example, the 2009 arrest of an illegal immigrant from El Salvador in the murder of federal intern Chandra Levy saw many questions arise surrounding the credibility of various witnesses. Contesting the credibility of so-called \"expert\" witnesses rose into more common practice in the 1860s and 1870s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A witness is someone who has knowledge about a matter. In law a witness is someone who, either voluntarily or under compulsion, provides testimonial evidence, either oral or written, of what he or she knows or claims to know.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971945}
{"src_title": "Red Pyramid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Red Pyramid was the third pyramid built by Old Kingdom Pharaoh Sneferu, and is located approximately one kilometer to the north of the Bent Pyramid. It is built at the same shallow 43 degree angle as the upper section of the Bent Pyramid, which gives it a noticeably squat appearance compared to other Egyptian pyramids of comparable scale. Construction is believed to have begun during the thirtieth year of Sneferu's reign (ca. 2590 BCE). Egyptologists disagree on the length of time it took to construct. Based on quarry marks found at various phases of construction, Rainer Stadelmann estimates the time of completion to be approximately 17 years while John Romer, based on this same graffiti, suggests it took only ten years and seven months to build.  Archaeologists speculate its design may be an outcome of engineering crises experienced during the construction of Sneferu's two earlier pyramids. The first of these, the Pyramid at Meidum, collapsed in antiquity, while the second, the Bent Pyramid, had the angle of its inclination dramatically altered from 54 to 43 degrees part-way through construction.  Some archaeologists now believe that the Meidum pyramid was the first attempt at building a smooth-sided pyramid, and that it may have collapsed when construction of the Bent Pyramid was already well under way — and that the pyramid may by then have already begun to show alarming signs of instability itself, as evident by the presence of large timber beams supporting its inner chambers. The outcome of this was the change in inclination of the Bent Pyramid, and the commencement of the later Red Pyramid at an inclination known to be less susceptible to instability and therefore less susceptible to catastrophic collapse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern day.", "content": "The Red Pyramid is high. A rare pyramidion, or capstone, for the Red Pyramid has been uncovered and reconstructed, and is now on display at Dahshur. However, whether it was actually ever used is unclear, as its angle of inclination differs from that of the pyramid for which it was apparently intended.  The Red Pyramid, along with the Bent Pyramid, was closed to tourists for many years because of a nearby army camp. It is now usually open for tourists and a somewhat intrusive ventilation has been installed which pipes air down the entrance shaft to the interior chambers.  Visitors climb steps cut in or built over the stones of the pyramid to an entrance high on the north side. A passage, in height and wide, slopes down at 27° for to a short horizontal passage leading into a chamber whose corbelled roof is high and rises in eleven steps. At the southern end of the chamber, but offset to the west, another short horizontal passage leads into the second chamber. This passage was probably closed at one time and the offset was a measure intended to confuse potential robbers.  The second chamber is similar to the first and lies directly beneath the apex of the pyramid. High in the southern wall of the chamber is an entrance, now reached by a large wooden staircase built for the convenience of tourists. This gives onto a short horizontal passage that leads to the third and final chamber with a corbelled roof high. The first two chambers have their long axis aligned north-south, but this chamber's long axis is aligned east-west. Unlike the first two chambers, which have fine smooth floors on the same level as the passages, the floor of the third chamber is very rough and sunk below the level of the access passage. It is believed that this is the work of robbers searching for treasure in what is thought to have been the burial chamber of the pyramid.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Red Pyramid, also called the North Pyramid, is the largest of the three major pyramids located at the Dahshur necropolis in Cairo, Egypt. Named for the rusty reddish hue of its red limestone stones, it is also the third largest Egyptian pyramid, after those of Khufu and Khafra at Giza. It is also believed to be Egypt's first successful attempt at constructing a \"true\" smooth-sided pyramid. Local residents refer to the Red Pyramid as \"el-heram el-watwaat\", meaning the Bat Pyramid.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971946}
{"src_title": "Frederick VI of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Frederick was born at Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen. Frederick belonged to the House of Oldenburg. His parents were King Christian VII and Caroline Matilda of Great Britain. He was born after 15 months of marriage, a day before his father's 19th birthday, when his mother was just 16. As the eldest son of the ruling king, he automatically became crown prince at birth. On 30 January of the same year, he was baptised at Christiansborg Palace by Ludvig Harboe, Bishop of Zealand. His godparents were King Christian VII (his father), the dowager queen Juliana Maria (his step-grandmother) and his half-uncle, Hereditary Prince Frederick (\"Arveprins Frederik\").  His father suffered from serious psychological problems, including suspected schizophrenia expressed by catatonic periods which resulted in the king ceding power to his doctor, Johann Friedrich Struensee. From 1770 to 1772, Struensee was de facto regent and lover of Caroline Matilda, Frederick's mother. Both were ideologically influenced by Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau. While Struensee was in power, young Frederick was raised at Hirschholm Palace following the educational approach advocated by Rousseau in his famous work \"Émile\". Instead of receiving direct instruction, Frederick was expected to learn everything through his own efforts through playing with two commoner boys as per Struensee's instructions.  On 8 January 1772, after the revolt against Struensee, Frederick's 18-year-old half-uncle Hereditary Prince Frederick was made regent. The real power, however, was held by Hereditary Prince Frederick's mother (Crown Prince Frederick's step-grandmother), Queen Dowager Juliana Maria, aided by Ove Høegh-Guldberg. Frederick was raised under the supervision of Margrethe Marie Thomasine Numsen. Finally, on 14 April 1784, the Crown Prince Frederick was declared of legal majority; he proceeded to seize and exercise the full powers of the regency, dismissing the ministers loyal to the Queen Dowager. It is said that during the coup, he engaged in a fistfight with his half-uncle over the regency. He continued as regent of Denmark under his father's name until the latter's death in 1808.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crown prince's regency.", "content": "During the regency, Frederick instituted widespread liberal reforms with the assistance of Chief Minister Andreas Peter Bernstorff, including the abolition of serfdom in 1788. Crises encountered during his reign include disagreement with the British over neutral shipping. This resulted in two British attacks on Copenhagen, the Battle of Copenhagen of 1801 and the Battle of Copenhagen of 1807. The conflict continued in the Gunboat War between Denmark-Norway and the United Kingdom, which lasted until the Treaty of Kiel in 1814.  There was speculation that he was to marry a Prussian princess, a choice supported by his step-grandmother Juliana Maria and her brother-in-law Frederick the Great. To demonstrate his independence, however, he personally selected his first-cousin Marie Sophie of Hesse-Kassel, a member of a German family with close marriage links with the royal families of both Denmark and Great Britain. They married in Gottorp on 31 July 1790 and had eight children. Their eldest daughter, Princess Caroline married her father’s first cousin, Ferdinand, Hereditary Prince of Denmark. The youngest, Princess Wilhelmine, became the wife of the future Frederick VII of Denmark. None of Frederick VI's sons survived infancy and when he died, he was succeeded by his half-cousin Christian VIII of Denmark, the son of his half-uncle Prince Frederick.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "King of Denmark and loss of Norway.", "content": "Frederick became King of Denmark-Norway on 13 March 1808. When the throne of Sweden seemed likely to become vacant in 1809, Frederick was interested in being elected there as well. Frederick actually was the first monarch of Denmark and Norway to descend from Gustav I of Sweden, who had secured Sweden's independence in 1520s after the period of the Kalmar Union with other Scandinavian countries. However, Frederick's brother-in-law, Prince Christian Augustus of Augustenborg, was first elected to the throne of Sweden, followed by the French Marshal Bernadotte.  During the Napoleonic Wars, he tried to maintain neutrality; however, after the British bombardment of Copenhagen, he was forced to ally Denmark-Norway with Napoleon. After the French defeat in Russia in 1812, the Allies again asked him to change sides but he refused. Many Danish historians portray the king as stubborn, incompetent, and motivated by a misconceived loyalty towards Napoleon. However, some historians in recent years have provided a different interpretation that sheds a better light on the king. He stayed with Napoleon in order to protect the exposed situation of Norway, which was dependent on grain imports and had become the target of Swedish territorial ambitions. He expected the wars would end with a great international conference in which Napoleon would have a major voice, and would help protect Denmark's interests, especially in Norway.  After the French defeat in the Napoleonic Wars in 1814 and the loss of the Norwegian crown, Frederick VI carried through an authoritarian and reactionary course, giving up the liberal ideas of his years as a prince regent. Censorship and suppression of all opposition together with the poor state of the country's economy made this period of his reign somewhat gloomy, though the king himself in general maintained his position of a well-meaning autocrat. From the 1830s the economic depression was eased a bit and from 1834 the king reluctantly accepted a small democratic innovation by the creation of the Assemblies of the Estate (purely consultative regional assemblies); this had the unintended result of later exacerbating relations between Danes and Germans in Schleswig, whose regional assembly became a forum for constant bickering between the two national groups.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and succession.", "content": "Frederick VI was known as a patron of astronomy and in 1832 offered gold medal prizes to anyone who discovered a comet using a telescope. His successors continued this until 1850. The prize was terminated in the aftermath of the First War of Schleswig. On 23rd February 1827, he granted a Royal Charter giving Serampore College in Danish India the status of a university to confer degrees. It became the third Danish University after the ones in Copenhagen and Kiel. After the discovery of the Haraldskær Woman in a peat bog in Jutland in the year 1835, Frederick VI ordered a royal interment in an elaborately carved sarcophagus for the Iron Age mummy, decreeing it to be the body of Queen Gunnhild. Later this identification proved incorrect, but the action suited his political agenda at the time.  Frederick VI died at the age of 71 at Amalienborg Palace and was buried in Frederick V's chapel in Roskilde Cathedral. Frederick reigned over Denmark for a total of 55 years; 24 years as crown prince regent and 31 years as king. He was the 894th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain and the 654th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1822. The Royal Frederick University (now University of Oslo) in Oslo was named in his honour.  As Frederick VI had no surviving sons to succeed him (only two daughters), he was succeeded on the throne of Denmark by his half-first cousin Christian, who was his father's half-brother's son.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descendants.", "content": "Frederick VI and his wife Marie of Hesse-Kassel were the parents of eight children, but six of them died in infancy. Only two daughters grew to adulthood, and incidentally, both of them remained childless, meaning that Frederick VI and his wife had no grandchildren at all. Their children were:  By his mistress Frederikke Dannemand (Bente Mortensdatter Andersen (Rafsted)), King Frederick VI had the following children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "He received the following orders and decorations:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick VI (Danish and Norwegian: \"Frederik\"; 28 January 17683 December 1839) was King of Denmark from 13 March 1808 to 3 December 1839 and King of Norway from 13 March 1808 to 7 February 1814, making him the last king of Denmark–Norway. From 1784 until his accession, he served as regent during his father's mental illness and was referred to as the \"Crown Prince Regent\" (\"kronprinsregent\"). For his motto he chose \"God and the just cause\" () and since the time of his reign, succeeding Danish monarchs have also chosen mottos in the Danish language rather than the formerly customary Latin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971947}
{"src_title": "Christian VIII of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Christian was born at Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen. He was the eldest son of Hereditary Prince Frederick of Denmark and Norway and Duchess Sophia Frederica of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. His paternal grandparents were King Frederick V of Denmark-Norway and his second wife, Duchess Juliana Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.  Christian's mother died in 1794 when he was eight years old, and his father died in 1805 when Christian was nineteen. His upbringing was marked by a thorough and broad-spectrum education with exposure to artists and scientists who were linked to his father's court. Christian inherited the talents of his highly gifted mother, and his amiability and handsome features are said to have made him very popular in Copenhagen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Christian first married his cousin Duchess Charlotte Frederica of Mecklenburg-Schwerin at Ludwigslust on 21 June 1806. Charlotte Frederica was a daughter of Friedrich Franz I, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (1756-1808). His first-born son was Christian Frederik, who was born and died at Schloss Plön on 8 April 1807. His second son became Frederick VII of Denmark. The marriage was dissolved by divorce in 1810 after Charlotte Frederica was accused of adultery.  Christian married his second wife, Princess Caroline Amalie of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (daughter of Louise Augusta of Denmark, the only sister of Frederick VI) at Augustenborg Palace on 22 May 1815. The couple was childless and lived in comparative retirement as leaders of the literary and scientific society of Copenhagen until Christian ascended the throne of Denmark.  Christian had ten extramarital children, for whom he carefully provided. It has been suggested that these extramarital children included the fairy tale author Hans Christian Andersen, though there is little evidence to support this.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Norway.", "content": "In May 1813, as the heir presumptive of the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, Christian was sent as \"stattholder\" (the king's highest representative in Norway) to Norway to promote the loyalty of the Norwegians to the House of Oldenburg, which had been very badly shaken by the disastrous results of Frederick VI's adhesion to the falling fortunes of Napoleon I of France. Christian did all he could personally to strengthen the bonds between the Norwegians and the royal house of Denmark. Though his endeavours were opposed by the so-called Swedish party, which desired a dynastic union with Sweden, he placed himself at the head of the Norwegian party of independence after the Treaty of Kiel had forced the king to cede Norway to the king of Sweden. He was elected Regent of Norway by an assembly of notables on 16 February 1814.  This election was confirmed by the Norwegian Constituent Assembly convoked at Eidsvoll on 10 April, and on 17 May the constitution was signed and Christian was unanimously elected king of Norway under the name Christian Frederick (Kristian Frederik in Norwegian). Christian next attempted to interest the great powers in Norway's cause, but without success. On being pressed by the commissioners of the allied powers to bring about a union between Norway and Sweden in accordance with the terms of the treaty of Kiel, and then return to Denmark, he replied that, as a constitutional king, he could do nothing without the consent of the parliament (Storting), which would not be convoked until there was a suspension of hostilities on the part of Sweden.  Sweden refused Christian's conditions and a short military campaign ensued in which the Norwegian army was defeated by the forces of the Swedish crown prince Charles John. The brief war concluded with the Convention of Moss on 14 August 1814. By the terms of this treaty, King Christian Frederick transferred executive power to the Storting, then abdicated and returned to Denmark. The Storting in its turn adopted the constitutional amendments necessary to allow for a personal union with Sweden and on 4 November elected Charles XIII of Sweden as the new king of Norway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Denmark.", "content": "On 3 December 1839 he ascended the Danish throne as Christian VIII. The Liberal party had high hopes of “the giver of constitutions.” However, by this time, Christian had become more conservative, and disappointed his admirers by steadily rejecting every Liberal project. Administrative reform was the only reform he would promise. In his attitude to the growing national unrest in the twin duchies of Schleswig and Holstein he often seemed hesitant and half-hearted, which damaged his position there. It was not until 1846 that he clearly supported the idea of Schleswig being a Danish area.  King Christian VIII continued his predecessor's patronage of astronomy, awarding gold medals for the discovery of comets by telescope and financially supporting Heinrich Christian Schumacher with his publication of the scientific journal \"Astronomische Nachrichten\". It was during his reign that the last remnants of Danish India, namely Tranquebar in the south and Serampore in Bengal, were sold to the British in 1845.  His only legitimate son, the future Frederick VII (1808–1863) was married three times, but produced no legitimate issue. Since he was apparently unlikely to beget heirs, Christian wished to avert a succession crisis. Christian commenced arrangements to secure the succession in Denmark. The result was the selection of the future Christian IX as hereditary prince, the choice made official by a new law enacted on 31 July 1853 after an international treaty made in London.  King Christian died of blood poisoning in Amalienborg Palace in 1848 and was interred in Roskilde Cathedral. Some historians and biographers believe that King Christian would have given Denmark a free constitution had he lived long enough; his last words are sometimes (rather tragically) recorded as \"I didn't make it\". (\"Jeg nåede det ikke\")", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "He received the following orders and decorations:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christian VIII (18 September 1786 – 20 January 1848) was the king of Denmark from 1839 to 1848 and, as Christian Frederick, King of Norway in 1814.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971948}
{"src_title": "Helmet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Designs.", "content": "Some British gamekeepers during the 18th and 19th centuries wore helmets made of straw bound together with cut bramble. Europeans in the tropics often wore the pith helmet, developed in the mid-19th century and made of pith or cork.  Military applications in the 19th-20th centuries saw a number of leather helmets, particularly among aviators and tank crews in the early 20th century. In the early days of the automobile, some motorists also adopted this style of headgear, and early football helmets were also made of leather. In World War II, American, Soviet, German, Italian and French flight crews wore leather helmets, the German pilots disguising theirs under a beret before disposing of both and switching to cloth caps. The era of the First and Second World Wars also saw a resurgence of metal military helmets, most notably the Brodie helmet and the Stahlhelm.  Modern helmets have a much wider range of applications, including helmets adapted to the specific needs of many athletic pursuits and work environments, and these helmets very often incorporate plastics and other synthetic materials for their light weight and shock absorption capabilities. Some types of synthetic fibers used to make helmets in the 21st century include Aramid, Kevlar and Twaron.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Helmet types.", "content": "Helmets of many different types have developed over time. Most early helmets had military uses, though some may have had more ceremonial than combat applications.  Two important helmet types to develop in antiquity were the Corinthian helmet and the Roman galea.  During the Middle Ages, many different military helmets and some ceremonial helmets were developed, almost all being metal. Some of the more important medieval developments included the great helm, the bascinet, the frog-mouth helm and the armet.  The great seal of Owain Glyndŵr (c. 1359 – c. 1415) depicts the prince of Wales & his stallion wearing full armour, they both wear protective headgear with Owain's gold dragon mounted on top. This would have been impractical in battle, so therefore these would have been ceremonial.  In the 19th century, more materials were incorporated, namely leather, felt and pith. The pith helmet and the leather pickelhaube were important 19th century developments. The greatest expansion in the variety of forms and composition of helmets, however, took place in the 20th century, with the development of highly specialized helmets for a multitude of athletic and professional applications, as well as the advent of modern plastics. During World War I, the French army developed the Adrian helmet, the British developed the Brodie helmet, and the Germans produced the Stahlhelm. Flight helmets were also developed throughout the 20th century. A multitude of athletic helmets, including football helmets, batting helmets, cricket helmets, bicycle helmets, motorcycle helmets and racing helmets, were also developed in the 20th century.  Helmets since the mid-20th century have often incorporated lightweight plastics and other synthetic materials, and their use has become highly specialized. Some important recent developments include the French SPECTRA helmet, Spanish MARTE helmet or the American PASGT (commonly called \"Kevlar\" by U.S. troops) and Advanced Combat Helmet, or ACH.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heraldry.", "content": "As the coat of arms was originally designed to distinguish noble combatants on the battlefield or in a tournament, even while covered in armour, it is not surprising that heraldic elements constantly incorporated the shield and the helmet, these often being the most visible parts of a knight's military equipment.  The practice of indicating peerage through the display of barred or grilled helmets first appeared around 1587-1615, and the heraldic convention of displaying helmets of rank in the United Kingdom, which came into vogue around Stuart times, is as follows:  Earlier rolls of arms reveal, however, that early heraldic helmets were depicted in a manner faithful to the styles in actual military or tournament use at the time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A helmet is a form of protective gear worn to protect the head. More specifically, a helmet complements the skull in protecting the human brain. Ceremonial or symbolic helmets (e.g. UK policeman's helmet) without protective function are sometimes worn. Soldiers wear helmets, often made from lightweight plastic materials.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971949}
{"src_title": "Christian VII of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Christian was the son of King Frederick V and his first wife Louise of Great Britain. He was born in the Queen's Bedchamber at Christiansborg Palace, the royal residence in Copenhagen. He was baptized a few hours later the same day. His godparents were King Frederick V (his father), Queen Dowager Sophie Magdalene (his paternal grandmother), Princess Louise (his aunt) and Princess Charlotte Amalie (his grand-aunt).  A former heir to the throne, also named Christian, had died in infancy in 1747; therefore, hopes were high for the future of the new heir apparent. Christoph Willibald Gluck, then conductor of the royal opera troupe, composed the opera \"La Contesa dei Numi\" (\"The Contention of the Gods\"), in which the Olympian Gods gather at the banks of the Great Belt and discuss who in particular should protect the new prince. His mother Queen Louise died in 1751, two years after his birth. The following year his father married Duchess Juliana Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Early historians state that he had a winning personality and considerable talent, but that he was poorly educated and systematically terrorized by a brutal tutor, Christian Ditlev Frederik Reventlow, the Count of Reventlow. He seems to have been intelligent and had periods of clarity, but suffered from severe emotional problems, possibly schizophrenia, as argued by Doctor Viggo Christiansen in \"Christian VII's mental illness\" (1906).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "After a long period of infirmity, Frederick V died on 14 January 1766, just 42 years old. Later the same day, Christian was proclaimed king from the balcony of Christiansborg Palace, weeks before his 17th birthday. Christian's reign was marked by mental illness which affected government decisions, and for most of his reign Christian was only nominally king. His court physicians were especially worried by his frequent masturbation. His royal advisers changed depending on who won power struggles around the throne. In the late 1760s, he came under the influence of his personal physician Johann Friedrich Struensee, who rose steadily in power. From 1770 to 1772, Struensee was \"de facto\" regent of the country, and introduced progressive reforms signed into law by Christian VII. Struensee was deposed by a coup in 1772 after which the country was ruled by Christian's stepmother, Juliane Marie of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, his half-brother Frederick and the Danish politician Ove Høegh-Guldberg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "The young King was betrothed to his fifteen-year-old cousin Princess Caroline Matilda, sister of George III of the United Kingdom, who was anxious about the marriage but not aware that the bridegroom was mentally ill. The dynastic marriage took place at Christiansborg Palace on 8 November 1766. After his marriage, he abandoned himself to the worst excesses, especially sexual promiscuity. In 1767, he entered into a relationship with the courtesan Støvlet-Cathrine. He ultimately sank into a condition of mental stupor. Symptoms during this time included paranoia, self-mutilation and hallucinations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Struensee.", "content": "The progressive and radical thinker Johann Friedrich Struensee, Christian's personal physician, became his advisor and rose steadily in power in the late 1760s to \"de facto\" regent of the country, where he introduced widespread progressive reforms. Struensee was a protégé of an Enlightenment circle of aristocrats that had been rejected by the court in Copenhagen. He was a skilled doctor, and having somewhat restored the king's health while visiting the Schleswig-Holstein area, he gained the king's affection. He was retained as travelling physician (\"Livmedikus hos Kong Christian VII\") on 5 April 1768, and accompanied the entourage on the King’s foreign tour to Paris and London via Hannover from 6 May 1768 to 12 January 1769. He was given the title of State Councilor (\"etatsråd\") on 12 May 1768, barely a week after leaving Altona. The neglected and lonely Caroline Matilda entered into an affair with Struensee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Divorce.", "content": "In 1772, the king's marriage with Caroline Matilda was dissolved by divorce. Christian's marriage with Caroline Matilda produced two children: the future King Frederick VI and Princess Louise Auguste. However, it is widely believed that Louise was the daughter of Struensee—portrait comparisons tend to support this hypothesis. Struensee, who had enacted many modernising and emancipating reforms, was arrested and executed the same year. Christian signed Struensee's arrest and execution warrant under pressure from his stepmother, Queen Juliane Marie, who had led the movement to have the marriage ended. Caroline Matilda, retaining her title but not her children, eventually left Denmark, and passed her remaining days in exile at Celle Castle in her brother's German territory, the Electorate of Hanover. She died there of scarlet fever on 10 May 1775, at the age of 23.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Christian was only nominally king from 1772 onward. Between 1772 and 1784, Denmark-Norway was ruled by his stepmother, the Queen Dowager Juliane Marie, his half-brother Frederick, and the Danish politician Ove Høegh-Guldberg. From 1784, his son Frederick VI ruled permanently as prince regent. This regency was marked by liberal and agricultural reforms, but also by the beginning of the disasters of the Napoleonic Wars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and succession.", "content": "Christian died at age 59 of a stroke on 13 March 1808 in Rendsburg, Schleswig. Although there were rumors that the stroke was caused by fright at the sight of Spanish auxiliary troops, which he took to be hostile, Ulrik Langen, in his biography of the king, did not indicate that there was any external cause. He was buried in Roskilde Cathedral and was succeeded by his son Frederick VI.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contribution to science.", "content": "In 1769 Christian VII of Denmark invited the Hungarian astronomer Miksa Hell (Maximilian Hell) to Vardø. Hell observed the transit of Venus, and his calculations gave the most precise calculation of the Earth–Sun distance to that date (approx. 151 million kilometres). Hell's companion János Sajnovics explored the affinity among the languages of the Sami, Finnish, and Hungarian peoples (all members of the Finno-Ugric language family).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural depictions.", "content": "Christian VII, the story of his marriage, and his wife's affair with Struensee has featured in many artistic works:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles and styles.", "content": "The full title of Christian VII was: \"By the Grace of God, King of Denmark and Norway, the Wends, and the Goths, Duke of Schleswig, Holstein, Stormarn, and Dithmarschen, Count of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst\". Oldenburg was elevated to a duchy during his reign, and the style was changed accordingly: \"By the Grace of God, King of Denmark and Norway, the Wends, and the Goths, Duke of Schleswig, Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, and Oldenburg\". This style was used until his son, Frederick VI, lost control over Norway by the 1814 Treaty of Kiel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christian VII (29 January 1749 – 13 March 1808) was a monarch of the House of Oldenburg who was King of Denmark–Norway and Duke of Schleswig and Holstein from 1766 until his death. For his motto he chose: \"\"Gloria ex amore patriae\"\" (\"glory through love of the fatherland\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971950}
{"src_title": "Pope Pius IV", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Giovanni Angelo Medici was born in Milan on 31 March 1499 as the second of eleven children to Bernardino de' Medici and Clelia Serbelloni.  Giovanni Medici was the younger brother of condottiero Gian Giacomo Medici, and the maternal uncle of Charles Borromeo. Medici studied philosophy and medicine in Pavia.  After studying at Bologna and acquiring a reputation as a jurist he obtained his doctorate in both canon and civil law on 11 May 1525. Medici went in 1527 to Rome, and as a favourite of Pope Paul III was rapidly promoted to the governorship of several towns, the archbishopric of Ragusa (1545–1553), and the vice-legateship of Bologna.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cardinalate.", "content": "In April 1549, Pope Paul III made Medici a cardinal. Under Papal authority, he was sent on diplomatic missions to Germany and also to Hungary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pontificate.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Election.", "content": "On the death of Pope Paul IV, he was elected pope on 25 December 1559, taking the name Pius IV, and installed on 6 January 1560. His first public acts of importance were to grant a general pardon to the participants in the riot after the death of his predecessor, and to bring to trial the nephews of his predecessor. One, Cardinal Carlo Carafa, was strangled, and Duke Giovanni Carafa of Paliano, with his nearest associates, was beheaded.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Council of Trent.", "content": "On 18 January 1562 the Council of Trent, which had been suspended by Pope Julius III, was convened by Pius IV for the third and final time. Great skill and caution were necessary to effect a settlement of the questions before it, inasmuch as the three principal nations taking part in it, though at issue with regard to their own special demands, were prepared to unite their forces against the demands of Rome. Pius IV, however, aided by Cardinal Morone and Charles Borromeo, proved himself equal to the emergency, and by judicious management – and concession – brought the council to a termination satisfactory to the disputants and favourable to the pontifical authority. Its definitions and decrees were confirmed by a papal bull (\"\"Benedictus Deus\"\") dated 26 January 1564; and, though they were received with certain limitations by France and Spain, the famous Creed of Pius IV, or Tridentine Creed, became an authoritative expression of the Catholic faith. The more marked manifestations of stringency during his pontificate appear to have been prompted rather than spontaneous, his personal character inclining him to moderation and ease.  Thus, a warning, issued in 1564, summoning Jeanne d'Albret, the Queen of Navarre, before the Inquisition on a charge of Calvinism, was withdrawn by him in deference to the indignant protest of Charles IX of France. In the same year he published a bull granting the use of the cup to the laity of Austria and Bohemia. One of his strongest passions appears to have been that of building, which somewhat strained his resources in contributing to the adornment of Rome (including the new Porta Pia and Via Pia, named after him, and the northern extension (\"Addizione\") of the rione of Borgo), and in carrying on the work of restoration, erection, and fortification in various parts of the ecclesiastical states.  On the other hand, others bemoaned the austere Roman culture during his papacy; Giorgio Vasari in 1567 spoke of a time when \"the grandeurs of this place reduced by stinginess of living, dullness of dress, and simplicity in so many things; Rome is fallen into much misery, and if it is true that Christ loved poverty and the City wishes to follow in his steps she will quickly become beggarly...\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consistories.", "content": "Pius IV created 46 cardinals in four consistories during his pontificate, and elevated three nephews to the cardinalate, including Carlo Borromeo. The pope also made Ugo Boncompagni, who would later be elected Pope Gregory XIII, a cardinal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conspiracy.", "content": "A conspiracy against Pius IV, headed by Benedetto Accolti the Younger (who died in 1549), the son of a cardinal, was discovered and crushed in 1565.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Architectural achievements.", "content": "During the reign of Pius IV, Michelangelo rebuilt the basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli (in Diocletian's Baths) and the eponymous Villa Pia, now known as Casina Pio IV. in the Vatican Gardens designed by Pirro Ligorio. It is now the headquarters of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences.  Pius IV also ordered public construction to improve the water supply of Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Pius IV died on 9 December 1565. He was buried in Santa Maria degli Angeli. His successor was Pius V.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pope Pius IV (31 March 1499 – 9 December 1565), born Giovanni Angelo Medici, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 25 December 1559 to his death in 1565. Born in Milan, his family considered itself a branch of the House of Medici and used the same coat of arms. Although modern historians have found no proof of this connection, the Medici of Florence recognized the claims of the Medici of Milan in the early 16th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971951}
{"src_title": "Charles Fourier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Fourier was born in Besançon, France on 7 April 1772. The son of a small businessman, Fourier was more interested in architecture than in his father's trade. He wanted to become an engineer, but the local military engineering school accepted only sons of noblemen. Fourier later said he was grateful that he did not pursue engineering, because it would have consumed too much of his time and taken away from his true desire to help humanity.  When his father died in 1781, Fourier received two-fifths of his father's estate, valued at more than 200,000 francs. This inheritance enabled Fourier to travel throughout Europe at his leisure. In 1791 he moved from Besançon to Lyon, where he was employed by the merchant M. Bousquet. Fourier's travels also brought him to Paris, where he worked as the head of the Office of Statistics for a few months. From 1791 to 1816 Fourier was employed in Paris, Rouen, Lyon, Marseille, and Bordeaux. As a traveling salesman and correspondence clerk, his research and thought was time-limited: he complained of \"serving the knavery of merchants\" and the stupefaction of \"deceitful and degrading duties.\" He took up writing, and his first book was published in 1808 but it only sold few copies. Surprisingly, after six years the book fell into the hands of Monsieur Just Muiron who eventually became Fourier's patron. Fourier produced most of his writings between 1816 and 1821. In 1822, he tried to sell his books again but with no success.  Fourier died in Paris in 1837.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideas.", "content": "Fourier declared that concern and cooperation were the secrets of social success. He believed that a society that cooperated would see an immense improvement in their productivity levels. Workers would be recompensed for their labors according to their contribution. Fourier saw such cooperation occurring in communities he called \"phalanxes,\" based upon structures called Phalanstères or \"grand hotels\". These buildings were four-level apartment complexes where the richest had the uppermost apartments and the poorest had a ground-floor residence. Wealth was determined by one's job; jobs were assigned based on the interests and desires of the individual. There were incentives: jobs people might not enjoy doing would receive higher pay. Fourier considered trade, which he associated with Jews, to be the \"source of all evil\" and advocated that Jews be forced to perform farm work in the phalansteries. By the end of his life, Fourier advocated the return of Jews to Palestine with the assistance of the Rothschilds. John K. Roth and Richard L. Rubenstein have seen Fourier as motivated by economic and religious antisemitism, rather than the racial antisemitism that would emerge later in the century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attack on civilization.", "content": "Fourier characterized poverty (not inequality) as the principal cause of disorder in society, and he proposed to eradicate it by sufficiently high wages and by a \"decent minimum\" for those who were not able to work. Fourier used the word civilization in a negative sense and as such \"Fourier's contempt for the respectable thinkers and ideologies of his age was so intense that he always used the terms philosopher and civilization in a pejorative sense. In his lexicon civilization was a depraved order, a synonym for perfidy and constraint... Fourier's attack on civilization had qualities not to be found in the writing of any other social critic of his time.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Work and liberated passions.", "content": "For Herbert Marcuse \"The idea of libidinal work relations in a developed industrial society finds little support in the tradition of thought, and where such support is forthcoming it seems of a dangerous nature. The transformation of labor into pleasure is the central idea in Fourier's giant socialist utopia.\"  He believed that there were twelve common passions which resulted in 810 types of character, so the ideal phalanx would have exactly 1620 people. One day there would be six million of these, loosely ruled by a world \"omniarch\", or (later) a World Congress of Phalanxes. He had a concern for the sexually rejected; jilted suitors would be led away by a corps of \"fairies\" who would soon cure them of their lovesickness, and visitors could consult the card-index of \"personality types\" for suitable partners for casual sex. He also defended homosexuality as a personal preference for some people. Anarchist Hakim Bey describes Fourier's ideas as follows: In Fourier's system of Harmony all creative activity including industry, craft, agriculture, etc. will arise from liberated passion—this is the famous theory of \"attractive labor.\" Fourier sexualizes work itself—the life of the Phalanstery is a continual orgy of intense feeling, intellection, & activity, a society of lovers & wild enthusiasts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Women's rights.", "content": "Fourier was also a supporter of women's rights in a time period when influences like Jean-Jacques Rousseau were prevalent. Fourier believed that all important jobs should be open to women on the basis of skill and aptitude rather than closed on account of gender. He spoke of women as individuals, not as half the human couple. Fourier saw that \"traditional\" marriage could potentially hurt woman's rights as human beings and thus never married. Writing before the advent of the term 'homosexuality', Fourier held that both men and women have a wide range of sexual needs and preferences which may change throughout their lives, including same-sex sexuality and \"androgénité\". He argued that all sexual expressions should be enjoyed as long as people are not abused, and that \"affirming one's difference\" can actually enhance social integration.  Fourier's concern was to liberate every human individual, man, woman, and child, in two senses: education and the liberation of human passion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children and education.", "content": "On education, Fourier felt that \"civilized\" parents and teachers saw children as little idlers. Fourier felt that this way of thinking was wrong. He felt that children as early as age two and three were very industrious. He listed the dominant tastes in all children to include, but not limited to:  Fourier was deeply disturbed by the disorder of his time and wanted to stabilize the course of events which surrounded him. Fourier saw his fellow human beings living in a world full of strife, chaos, and disorder.  Fourier is best remembered for his writings on a new world order based on unity of action and harmonious collaboration. He is also known for certain Utopian pronouncements, such as that the seas would lose their salinity and turn to lemonade, and a coincidental view of climate change, that the North Pole would be milder than the Mediterranean in a future phase of Perfect Harmony.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "The influence of Fourier's ideas in French politics was carried forward into the 1848 Revolution and the Paris Commune by followers such as Victor Considerant.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François Marie Charles Fourier (;; 7 April 1772 – 10 October 1837) was a French philosopher, an influential early socialist thinker and one of the founders of utopian socialism. Some of Fourier's social and moral views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have become mainstream thinking in modern society. For instance, Fourier is credited with having originated the word \"feminism\" in 1837.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971952}
{"src_title": "Pope Alexander III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Rolando was born in Siena. From the 14th century, he was referred to as a member of the aristocratic family of Bandinelli, although this has not been proven. He was long thought to be the 12th-century canon lawyer and theologian Master Roland of Bologna, who composed the \"Stroma\" or \"Summa Rolandi\"—one of the earliest commentaries on the \"Decretum\" of Gratian—and the \"Sententiae Rolandi\", a sentence collection displaying the influence of Pierre Abélard, but John T. Noonan and Rudolf Weigand have shown this to be another Rolandus.  Alexander probably studied at Bologna, where Robert of Torigni notes that he taught theology. In October 1150, Pope Eugene III created him Cardinal-Deacon of Santi Cosma e Damiano. Later he became Cardinal-Priest of St Mark. In 1153, he became papal chancellor and was the leader of the cardinals opposed to German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. He negotiated the Treaty of Benevento, which restored peaceful relations between Rome and the Kingdom of Sicily.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disputed election.", "content": "On 7 September 1159, Alexander III was chosen to succeed Adrian IV as pope. A minority of the cardinals, however, elected the cardinal priest Octavian, who assumed the name of Victor IV and became the German Emperor's antipope. The situation was critical for Alexander III, because according to many chronicles of the time (perhaps exaggerating), Barbarossa's antipope received the approval of most of the kingdoms of Europe, with the exception of the kingdoms of Portugal, Sicily and Spain. However, in 1161, King Géza II of Hungary signed an agreement and recognised Alexander III as the rightful pope and declared that the supreme spiritual leader was the only one who could exercise the rite of investiture. This meant that Alexander's legitimacy was gaining strength, as soon proved by the fact that other monarchs, such as the king of France and King Henry II of England, recognized his authority. Because of imperial strength in Italy, Alexander was forced to reside outside Rome for a large part of his pontificate. When news reached him of the death of Victor in 1164, he openly wept, and scolded the cardinals in his company for rejoicing at the end of the rival antipope.  However, the dispute between Alexander III, Victor IV and his successors Paschal III and Calixtus III (who had the German imperial support) continued until Frederick Barbarossa's defeat at the Legnano in 1176, after which Barbarossa finally (in the Peace of Venice of 1177) recognized Alexander III as pope. On 12 March 1178, Alexander III returned to Rome, which he had been compelled to leave twice: the first time between 1162 and 23 November 1165. When Alexander was arrested by supporters of the imperialist Antipope Victor IV, Oddone Frangipane freed him and sent to safety in Campania. Alexander again left Rome in 1167. At first he went to Benevento, later moving to various strongholds such as of Anagni, Palestrina, Ferentino, Tusculum, and Veroli.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Alexander III was the first pope known to have paid direct attention to missionary activities east of the Baltic Sea. He had created the Archbishopric of Uppsala in Sweden in 1164, probably at the suggestion of his close friend Archbishop Eskil of Lund – exiled in Clairvaux, France, due to a conflict with the Danish king. The latter appointed a Benedictine monk Fulco as a bishop in Estonia. In 1171, Alexander became the first pope to address the situation of the Church in Finland, with Finns allegedly harassing priests and only relying on God in time of war. In the bull \"Non parum animus noster\", in 1171 or 1172, he gave papal sanction to ongoing crusades against pagans in northern Europe, promising remission of sin for those who fought there. In doing so, he legitimized the widespread use of forced conversion as a tactic by those fighting in the Baltic.  In 1166, Alexander received an embassy from the Byzantine emperor Manuel I. The Byzantine ambassador, the \"sebastos\" Iordanos, relayed that Manuel would end the Great Schism of the eastern and western churches if Alexander would recognize him as emperor. As emperor, Manuel would supply the pope with men and money to restore his authority in Italy. Alexander gave an evasive answer, but in 1168 he rejected outright the same proposal from a second Byzantine embassy. His stated reason amounted to it being too difficult. He appears to have feared Byzantine domination of Italy if the pope owed his position to its support.  Besides checkmating Barbarossa, Alexander humbled King Henry II of England for the murder of Thomas Becket in 1170, to whom he was unusually close, later canonizing Becket in 1173. This was the second English saint canonized by Alexander, the first being Edward the Confessor in 1161. Nonetheless, he confirmed the position of Henry as Lord of Ireland in 1172.  Through the papal bull \"Manifestis Probatum\", issued on 23 May 1179, Alexander recognized the right of Afonso I to proclaim himself King of Portugal – an important step in the process of Portugal becoming a recognized independent kingdom. Afonso had been using the title of king since 1139.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Efforts at reform.", "content": "Even as a fugitive, Alexander enjoyed the favour and protection of Louis VII of France.  In 1163 Alexander summoned clergy and prelates from England, France, Italy, and Spain to the Council of Tours to address, among other things, the unlawful division of ecclesiastical benefices, clerical usury, and lay possession of tithes.  In March 1179, Alexander III held the Third Council of the Lateran, one of the most important mediaeval church councils, reckoned by the Catholic Church as the eleventh ecumenical council. Its acts embodied several of the Pope's proposals for the betterment of the condition of the Church, among them the law requiring that no one could be elected pope without the votes of two-thirds of the cardinals. The rule was altered slightly in 1996, but was restored in 2007. The period from 1177, which saw the submission of both emperor Frederick and anti-pope Calixtus III, and this synod/council marked the summit of Alexander III's power.  Nevertheless, soon after the close of the synod, the Roman Republic forced Alexander III to leave the city, which he never re-entered, and on 29 September 1179, some nobles set up the Antipope Innocent III. By the judicious use of money, however, Alexander III got him into his power, so that he was deposed in January 1180. In 1181, Alexander III excommunicated King William I of Scotland and put the kingdom under an interdict.  He died at Civita Castellana on 30 August 1181.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pope Alexander III (c. 1100/1105 – 30 August 1181), born Roland (), was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 7 September 1159 until his death. A native of Bologna, Alexander became pope after a contested election, but had to spend much of his pontificate outside Rome while several rivals, supported by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, claimed the papacy. Alexander rejected Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos' offer to end the East–West Schism, sanctioned the Northern Crusades, and held the Third Council of the Lateran.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971953}
{"src_title": "Gabriel Tarde", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Tarde was born in Sarlat in the province of Dordogne, and he studied law at Toulouse and Paris. From 1869 to 1894 he worked as a magistrate and investigating judge in the province. In the 1880s he corresponded with representatives of the newly formed criminal anthropology, most notably the Italians Enrico Ferri and Cesare Lombroso and the French psychiatrist Alexandre Lacassagne. With the latter, Tarde came to be the leading representative for a \"French school\" in criminology. In 1900 he was appointed professor in modern philosophy at the Collège de France. As such he was the most prominent contemporary critic of Durkheim's sociology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Among the concepts that Tarde initiated were the group mind (taken up and developed by Gustave Le Bon, and sometimes advanced to explain so-called herd behaviour or crowd psychology), and economic psychology, where he anticipated a number of modern developments. Tarde was very critical of Émile Durkheim's work at the level of both methodology and theory. However, Durkheim's sociology overshadowed Tarde's insights, and it was not until U.S. scholars, such as the Chicago school, took up his theories that they became famous.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criminology.", "content": "Tarde took an interest in criminology and the psychological basis of criminal behavior while working as a magistrate in public service. He was critical of the concept of the atavistic criminal as developed by Cesare Lombroso. Tarde's criminological studies served as the underpinning of his later sociology.  Tarde also emphasized the tendency of the criminal to return to the scene of the crime and to repeat it, which he saw as part of a wider process of repetition compulsion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Imitation.", "content": "Tarde considered imitation, conscious and unconscious, as a fundamental interpersonal trait, with the imitation of fathers by sons as the primal situation, resting on prestige.  Tarde highlighted the importance of the creative exemplar in society, arguing that \"genius is the capacity to engender one's own progeny\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Science fiction.", "content": "Tarde also wrote a science-fiction novel entitled \"Underground Man\" (\"Fragment d'histoire future\", 1896). The plot is a post-apocalyptic story of an Earth destroyed by a new Ice Age. Humanity must rebuild a new civilization underground. The choice is made to lay the foundation of their utopia on music and art.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "For example, it has recently been revealed that in \"Difference and Repetition\", Deleuze's milestone book which affected his transition to a more socially-aware brand of philosophy and his writing partnership with Guattari, Deleuze in fact re-centered his philosophical orientation around Tarde's thesis that repetition serves difference rather than vice versa. Also on the heels of the re-release of Tarde's works has come an important development in which French sociologist Bruno Latour has referred to Tarde as a possible predecessor to Actor-Network Theory in part because of Tarde's criticisms of Durkheim's conceptions of the Social.  A book, \"The Social after Gabriel Tarde: Debates and Assessments\", edited by Matei Candea, was published by Routledge in 2010. It provides a set of mature critiques of the recent renaissance of Tarde as well as suggesting models for scholars to use Tarde's thought in their scholarship. This book includes contributions that philosophically reflect the Latourian (including a contribution from Latour himself) as well as Deleuzian approaches to Tarde, and also highlight a number of new ways Tarde is being adapted in terms of methods in contemporary sociology, particularly in the area of ethnography, and the study of online communities. Additionally, in 2010, Bruno Latour and Vincent Antonin Lepinay released a short book called \"The Science of Passionate Interests: An Introduction to Gabriel Tarde's Economic Anthropology\", in which they show how Tarde's work offers a strong critique of the foundations of the economics discipline and economic methodology.  Tarde's work has further influenced affect philosophy. For example, in 2012 Tony D Sampson's \"book Virality: Contagion Theory in the Age of Networks\" used a Tarde inspired imitation thesis to describe the tendency for emotions, feelings and affects to spread \"accidentally\" on digital networks.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gabriel Tarde (; in full Jean-Gabriel De Tarde; 12 March 1843 – 13 May 1904) was a French sociologist, criminologist and social psychologist who conceived sociology as based on small psychological interactions among individuals (much as if it were chemistry), the fundamental forces being imitation and innovation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971954}
{"src_title": "Raymonde de Laroche", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born on 22 August 1882 in Paris, France, as Elise Raymonde Deroche, Raymonde De Laroche was the daughter of a plumber. She had a fondness for sports as a child, as well as for motorcycles and automobiles when she was older. As a young woman she became an actress and used the stage name \"Raymonde de Laroche\". Inspired by Wilbur Wright's 1908 demonstrations of powered flight in Paris and being personally acquainted with several aviators, including artist-turned-aviator Léon Delagrange, who was reputed to be the father of her son André, de Laroche determined to take up flying for herself. also Leslie was Raymonde de Laroche's best friend.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Achievements in aviation.", "content": "In October 1909, de Laroche appealed to her friend, aviator and aeroplane builder Charles Voisin, to instruct her in how to fly. On 22 October 1909, de Laroche went to the Voisin brothers' base of operations at Chalons, east of Paris. Voisin's aircraft could seat only one person, so she operated the plane by herself while he stood on the ground and gave instructions. After she mastered taxiing around the airfield, she lifted off and flew. De Laroche's flight is often cited as the first by a woman in a powered heavier-than-air craft; there is evidence that two other women, P. Van Pottelsberghe and Thérèse Peltier, had flown the previous year with Henri Farman and Delagrange respectively as passengers but not as pilots.  Decades later, aviation journalist Harry Harper wrote that until de Laroche made her celebrated flight on the Voisin, she had only flown once, for a short hop, as a passenger; when she first took the controls, Charles Voisin expressly forbade her to attempt a flight; and after taxiing twice across the airfield, she took off, flying \"ten or fifteen feet high\" and handling the controls with \"cool, quick precision\".  Although Gabriel Voisin wrote, \"... my brother [was] entirely under her thumb\", the story of de Laroche as a headstrong woman making the flight after scant preparation and against Voisin's orders almost certainly romanticises what actually took place. \"Flight\" magazine, a week after the flight, reported: \"For some time the Baroness has been taking lessons from M. Chateau, the Voisin instructor, at Chalons, and on Friday of last week she was able to take the wheel for the first time. This initial voyage into the air was only a very short one, and \"terra firma\" was regained after.\" \"Flight\" was also responsible for bestowing the title \"Baroness\" upon de Laroche, as she was not of noble birth. \"Flight\" added that on the following day she circled the flying field twice, \"the turnings being made with consummate ease. During this flight of about four miles (6 km) there was a strong gusty wind blowing, but after the first two turnings the Baroness said that it did not bother her, as she had the machine completely under control.\"  On 8 March 1910, de Laroche became the first woman in the world to receive a pilot licence when the Aero-Club of France issued her licence #36 of the \"Fédération Aéronautique Internationale\" (International Aeronautics Federation or F.A.I.).  De Laroche participated in aviation meetings at Heliopolis in Egypt as well as Saint Petersburg, Budapest and Rouen. During the show in St. Petersburg, she was personally congratulated by Tsar Nicholas II. There, she was presented once again as \"Baroness\" de Laroche. Thereafter, the title became commonly used.  In July 1910, de Laroche was participating in the week-long airshow at Reims in France. On 8 July, her aeroplane crashed, and she suffered such severe injuries that her recovery was in doubt, but two years later, she was fit again and had returned to flying. On 26 September 1912, she and Charles Voisin were involved in a car crash. Voisin was killed, and she was severely injured.  On 25 November 1913 de Laroche won the Aero-Club of France's Femina Cup for a non-stop long-distance flight of over 4 hours duration.  During World War I, as flying was considered too dangerous for women, she served as a military driver, chauffeuring officers from the rear zones to the front under fire.  In June 1919 de Laroche set two women's altitude records, one at ; and also the women's distance record, at.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "On 18 July 1919, de Laroche, who was a talented engineer, went to the airfield at Le Crotoy as part of her plan to become the first female test pilot. She co-piloted an experimental aircraft (whether she flew this is not known); on its landing approach the aeroplane went into a dive and crashed, killing both de Laroche and the co-pilot.  There is a statue of de Laroche at Paris–Le Bourget Airport in France.  From 6 to 12 March 2010, to celebrate the Centennial of Licensed Women Pilots, women pilots from eight countries on three continents used 20 types of aircraft to establish a new world record: 310 girls and women introduced to piloting by women pilots in one week.  Women of Aviation Worldwide Week is held annually during the week including 8 March, which marks the anniversary of Raymonde de Laroche's pilot licence.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Raymonde de Laroche (22 August 1882 – 18 July 1919), is thought to be the first woman to pilot a plane. She did become the world's first licensed female pilot on 8 March 1910.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971955}
{"src_title": "Bjørn Dæhlie", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Born in Elverum, Norway, Dæhlie later moved to Nannestad, where he settled down. Dæhlie attributes much of his success in sports to his upbringing where he was active in hunting, fishing, hiking, kayaking, football and, of course, skiing from a very early age. For much of his childhood Dæhlie wanted to be a football player, but after being prompted by a coach, he tried Nordic skiing. Dæhlie did not have immediate success as a junior racer, but he consistently improved and eventually qualified for the FIS World Cup competitions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Athletic career.", "content": "Dæhlie was first on the Norwegian skiing team for the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Canada. However, he did not participate in any races and was there to learn from more senior skiers. He later claimed these Olympics were the turning point for Norwegian skiing before their following period of success. He made his debut in the world cup in January 1989, finishing 11th on 15 km freestyle in Kavgolovo. In December the same year, he won his first world cup race. He finished first on the 15 km freestyle, the first world cup race of the season.  In the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1991 in Val di Fiemme, Dæhlie won his first World Championship gold medal. He beat skiing legend Gunde Svan on the 15 km freestyle. The medal was unexpected, since Dæhlie was young and still unknown. It was Norway's first individual gold medal in the World Championships since Oddvar Brå won gold in the same race in Oslo in 1982. Dæhlie also skied the last leg on the winning 4 × 10 km relay team.  In 1992, Dæhlie's period of dominance started. He won the world cup overall for the first time, a feat he would accomplish five more times in the next seven years. In Albertville Dæhlie won his first Olympic medals. He won gold in 10/15 km freestyle pursuit, 50 km freestyle and was on the winning team for the 4 × 10 km relay. He won a silver in 30 km classical style. Dæhlie also finished fourth on the 10 km freestyle, where his teammate Vegard Ulvang won the gold. Dæhlie completed the fourth leg of the relay, and crossed the finishing line backwards, having won by a margin of over one and a half minutes. Dæhlie and Ulvang completed a clean sweep of the cross-country skiing gold medals, each winning three golds and a silver. Dæhlie was awarded Fearnley's Olympic Prize for his performance, a prize given to the best performing Norwegian athlete in the Olympics.  In the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway, Dæhlie won gold in the 10 km classical style and the 15 km freestyle pursuit. He won silver in the 30 km freestyle, where he was beaten by Thomas Alsgaard. The 4 × 10 km relay was a very tight race between Norway and Italy. The Italians won the gold after Silvio Fauner beat Dæhlie on the sprint on the last leg. In later years, Thomas Alsgaard took over the fourth leg on the Norwegian relay team with Dæhlie skiing the third leg, since Alsgaard was the better sprinter.  The 1997 Skiing World Championships were Dæhlie's most successful World Championships. In front of the home crowd in Trondheim he won a medal in every race, taking gold in the 10 km classical race, the 10+15 km combined pursuit and the 4 × 10 km relay. In addition he won a silver in the 30 km freestyle and bronze in the 50 km classical. Dæhlie said the championships were like \"Lillehammer all over again\" and that \"For me, it's very special to compete in Norway\".  Dæhlie won three golds and one silver in his last Olympics in Nagano. He won the 10 km classical style, the 50 km freestyle and the 4 × 10 km skiing relay. In the 15 km freestyle pursuit, he got a silver medal having been beaten by Thomas Alsgaard on the sprint. Dæhlie won the 50 km freestyle ahead of Niklas Jonsson by only eight seconds. Both skiers collapsed on the finishing line, having given everything in pursuit of victory. Dæhlie described the race as his hardest race ever. Dæhlie also formed a lasting friendship with Phillip Boit, the Kenyan skier. Dæhlie waited for Boit on the finish line for 20 minutes following the 10 km race, saying Boit deserved encouragement. Philip went on to name one of his children Dæhlie Boit.  Dæhlie was planning to compete in the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, but he was prevented from participating by a career-ending roller skiing accident in August 1999. The resulting back injury prevented Dæhlie from adding more medals to his collection. He retired from the sport in March 2001, having tried extensive rehabilitation and surgery to come back. His decision to retire shocked the nation of Norway, where Dæhlie was idolized for his great winning record.  Dæhlie's eight Olympic titles are a record for the Winter Olympics, as are his total of 12 Olympic medals (he also won four silver medals) which he amassed in three Olympics (Albertville, Lillehammer and Nagano). In addition to his achievements at the Olympics he had great success in the World Championships where he won 17 medals of which nine were gold medals. He was particularly successful in the Trondheim 1997 World Championships, where he earned medals in all five events. Despite his unanticipated early exit from the sport, Dæhlie is considered by many to be one of the greatest Winter Olympic athletes of all time. In his illustrious career, Dæhlie never won a race at the Holmenkollen ski festival, but he was still awarded the Holmenkollen medal in 1997 (shared with Bjarte Engen Vik and Stefania Belmondo).  He also supports non-profit organisations that work for causes such as multiple sclerosis. In 2009 Dæhlie raced in the American Birkebeiner as a fundraiser for multiple sclerosis. Dæhlie competed in the classic race, which is 54 km long, finishing second in a photo finish.  In 2011, Dæhlie won the downhill event in the Kicksled World Championships in Hurdal. Also in 2011, Dæhlie announced a comeback, stating his intention to participate in long distance races like Marcialonga and Vasaloppet  Dæhlie also participated in long-distance running in his youth, representing Ullensaker/Kisa IL. He participated in the Nordic junior match versus Denmark/Iceland, Finland and Sweden in 1987.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cross-country skiing results.", "content": "All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).  Note: Until the 1999 World Championships and the 1994 Olympics, World Championship and Olympic races were included in the World Cup scoring system.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bjørn Erlend Dæhlie (born 19 June 1967) is a Norwegian businessman and retired cross-country skier. In the years from 1992 to 1999, Dæhlie won the Nordic World Cup six times, finishing second in 1994 and 1998. Dæhlie won a total of 29 medals in the Olympics and World Championships in the period between 1991 and 1999, making Dæhlie the most successful male cross-country skier in history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971956}
{"src_title": "Ludwig Richter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born in Dresden, the son of the engraver Karl August Richter, from whom he received his training. The interest of his uneventful life centres within the circle of his art. As a painter Richter aimed at a thorough blending of the figure element with the landscape and may be judged by the following examples: \"Harvest Procession in the Campagna\" (1833) and three others in the Leipzig Museum: \"Ferry at the Schreckenstein\" (1836) and \"Bridal Procession in Springtime\" (1847), in the Dresden Gallery; \"View of the Riesengebirge\" (1839), in the National Gallery, Berlin. One of his most notable protégés was Hermann Lungkwitz.  Richter visited Italy from 1823–1826, and his \"Thunderstorm in the Sabine Mountains\" at the Staedel Museum in Frankfurt is one of the rare Italian subjects from his brush.  From 1828 he worked as designer for the Meissen factory, living in a house on Schlossbrucke, close to the castle and cathedral, from 1828 to 1836.  In 1841 he became professor and head of the landscape \"atelier\" at the Dresden Academy, (now Hochschule für Bildende Künste Dresden). The Dresden Gallery owns one of his best and most characteristic paintings: \"Bridal Procession in a Spring Landscape\". An eye disease put a stop to the practice of his art in 1874; he was pensioned in 1877, and died at Loschwitz, near Dresden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main Works.", "content": "Among his 240 etchings are about 140 views in Saxony, others of Salzburg, Rome, and the Campagna. His individuality is most completely revealed in his 3000 or more drawings. Of special charm are his illustrations for \"The Vicar of Wakefield\" (1841), for Musäus' \"Volksmärchen\" (1842) and for numerous other fairy tales, for the \"Goethe Album\" (1855), for Schiller's \"Glocke\" (1857), and those cyclical publications which reveal the most brilliant side of the artist's inexhaustible fancy, such as \"Beschauliches und Erbauliches\" (1851); \"Kinderleben\" (1852); \"Fürs Haus\" (1858–1861); \"Der gute Hirt\" (1860); \"Unser täglich Brot\" (1866); \"Bilder und Vignetten\" (1874).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adrian Ludwig Richter (September 28, 1803June 19, 1884), a 19th-century German painter and etcher, who was strongly influenced by Erhard and Chodowiecki.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971957}
{"src_title": "Outer Space Treaty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Key points.", "content": "The Outer Space Treaty represents the basic legal framework of international space law. Among its principles, it bars states party to the treaty from placing weapons of mass destruction in Earth orbit, installing them on the Moon or any other celestial body, or otherwise stationing them in outer space. It exclusively limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications (Article IV). However, the treaty does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit and thus some highly destructive attack strategies such as kinetic bombardment are still potentially allowable. The treaty also states that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and that space shall be free for exploration and use by all the states.  The treaty explicitly forbids any government to claim a celestial resource such as the Moon or a planet. Article II of the treaty states that \"outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.\" However, the state that launches a space object retains jurisdiction and control over that object. The state is also liable for damages caused by its space object.  Being mostly an arms-control treaty for a peaceful outer space use, it offers insufficient and ambiguous regulations to newer space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining. It therefore remains under contention whether the extraction of resources falls within the prohibitive language of appropriation or whether the use encompasses the commercial use and exploitation. Seeking clearer guidelines, private companies in the US prompted the US government and legalized space mining in 2015 by introducing the US Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015. Similar national legislations legalizing extraterrestrial appropriation of resources are now being replicated by other nations, including Luxembourg, Japan, China, India and Russia. This has created a controversy on legal claims for mining for profit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Responsibility for activities in space.", "content": "Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty deals with international responsibility, stating that \"the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty\" and that States Parties shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities.  As a result of discussions arising from Project West Ford in 1963, a consultation clause was included in Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty: \"A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment.\"  The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) coordinates these treaties and other questions of space jurisdiction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of parties.", "content": "The Outer Space Treaty was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, and entered into force on 10 October 1967. As of June 2019, 109 countries are parties to the treaty, while another 23 have signed the treaty but have not completed ratification.  Multiple dates indicate the different days in which states submitted their signature or deposition, which varied by location. This location is noted by: (L) for London, (M) for Moscow, and (W) for Washington, DC. Also indicated is whether the state became a party by way of signing the treaty and subsequent ratification, by accession to the treaty after it had closed for signature, or by succession of states after separation from some other party to the treaty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Partially recognized state abiding by treaty.", "content": "The Republic of China (Taiwan), which is currently recognized by, ratified the treaty prior to the United Nations General Assembly's vote to transfer China's seat to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971. When the PRC subsequently ratified the treaty, they described the Republic of China's (ROC) ratification as \"illegal\". The ROC has committed itself to continue to adhere to the requirements of the treaty, and the United States has declared that it still considers the ROC to be \"bound by its obligations\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "States that have signed but not ratified.", "content": "Twenty-three states have signed but not ratified the treaty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Shakouri Hassanabadi, Babak (30 July 2018). \"Space Force and international space law\". The Space Review. Retrieved 22 May 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a treaty that forms the basis of international space law. The treaty was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, and entered into force on 10 October 1967. As of June 2019, 109 countries are parties to the treaty, while another 23 have signed the treaty but have not completed ratification. In addition, Taiwan, which is currently recognized by, ratified the treaty prior to the United Nations General Assembly's vote to transfer China's seat to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971958}
{"src_title": "Plecoptera", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description and ecology.", "content": "Stoneflies have a generalized anatomy, with few specialized features compared to other insects. They have simple mouthparts with chewing mandibles, long, multiple-segmented antennae, large compound eyes, and two or three ocelli. The legs are robust, with each ending in two claws. The abdomen is relatively soft, and may include remnants of the nymphal gills even in the adult. Both nymphs and adults have long, paired cerci projecting from the tip of their abdomens.  The name \"Plecoptera\" literally means \"braided-wings\", from the Ancient Greek \"plekein\" (πλέκειν, \"to braid\") and \"pteryx\" (πτέρυξ, \"wing\"). This refers to the complex venation of their two pairs of wings, which are membranous and fold flat over their backs. Stoneflies are generally not strong fliers, and some species are entirely wingless.  A few wingless species, such as the Lake Tahoe benthic stonefly (\"\"Capnia\" lacustra\") or \"Baikaloperla\", are the only known insects, perhaps with the exception of \"Halobates\", that are exclusively aquatic from birth to death. Some true water bugs (Nepomorpha) may also be fully aquatic for their entire lives, but can leave the water to travel.  The nymphs (technically, \"naiads\") are aquatic and live in the benthic zone of well-oxygenated lakes and streams. A few species found in New Zealand and nearby islands have terrestrial nymphs, but even these inhabit only very moist environments. The nymphs physically resemble wingless adults, but often have external gills, which may be present on almost any part of the body. Nymphs can acquire oxygen via diffusing through the exoskeleton, or through gills located on behind the head, on the thorax, or around the anus. Due to their nymph's requirement for well oxygenated water, the species is very sensitive to water pollution. This makes them important indicators for water quality. Most species are herbivorous as nymphs, feeding on submerged leaves and benthic algae, but many are hunters of other aquatic arthropods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "The female can lay up to one thousand eggs. It will fly over the water and drop the eggs in the water. It also may hang on a rock or branch. Eggs are covered in a sticky coating which allows them to adhere to rocks without being swept away by swift currents. The eggs typically take two to three weeks to hatch, but some species undergo diapause, with the eggs remaining dormant throughout a dry season, and hatching only when conditions are suitable.  The insects remain in the nymphal form for one to four years, depending on species, and undergo from 12 to 36 molts before emerging and becoming terrestrial as adults. Before becoming adults, nymphs will leave the water, attach to a fixed surface and molt one last time.  The adults generally only survive for a few weeks, and emerge only during specific times of the year when resources are optimal. Some do not feed at all, but those that do are herbivorous. Adults are not strong fliers and generally stay near the stream or lake they hatched from.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Systematics.", "content": "Traditionally, the stoneflies were divided into two suborders, the \"Antarctoperlaria\" (or \"Archiperlaria\") and the Arctoperlaria. However, the former simply consists of the two most basal superfamilies of stoneflies, which do not seem to be each other's closest relatives. Thus, the \"Antarctoperlaria\" are not considered a natural group (despite some claims to the contrary).  The Arctoperlaria, though, have been divided into two infraorders, the Euholognatha (or Filipalpia) and the Systellognatha (also called Setipalpia or Subulipalpia). This corresponds to the phylogeny with one exception: the Scopuridae must be considered a basal family in the Arctoperlaria, not assignable to any of the infraorders. Alternatively, the Scopuridae were placed in an unranked clade \"Holognatha\" together with the Euholognatha (meaning roughly \"advanced Holognatha\"), but the Scopuridae do not appear significantly closer to the Euholognatha than to the Systellognatha.  In addition, not adopting the clades Antarctoperlaria and Holognatha allows for a systematic layout of the Plecoptera that adequately reproduces phylogeny, while retaining the traditional ranked taxa. Basal lineages (\"Antarctoperlaria\")  Suborder Arctoperlaria", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Plecoptera are an order of insects, commonly known as stoneflies. Some 3,500 species are described worldwide, with new species still being discovered. Stoneflies are found worldwide, except Antarctica. Stoneflies are believed to be one of the most primitive groups of Neoptera, with close relatives identified from the Carboniferous and Lower Permian geological periods, while true stoneflies are known from fossils only a bit younger. Their modern diversity, however, apparently is of Mesozoic origin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971959}
{"src_title": "Fujita scale", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The scale was introduced in 1971 by Ted Fujita of the University of Chicago, in collaboration with Allen Pearson, head of the National Severe Storms Forecast Center/NSSFC (currently the Storm Prediction Center/SPC). The scale was updated in 1973, taking into account path length and width. In the United States, starting in 1973, tornadoes were rated soon after occurrence. The Fujita scale was applied retroactively to tornadoes reported between 1950 and 1972 in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Tornado Database. Fujita rated tornadoes from 1916–1992 and Tom Grazulis of The Tornado Project retroactively rated all known significant tornadoes (F2–F5 or causing a fatality) in the U.S. back to 1880. The Fujita scale was adopted in most areas outside of Great Britain.  On February 1, 2007, the Fujita scale was decommissioned, and the Enhanced Fujita Scale was introduced in the United States. The new scale more accurately matches wind speeds to the severity of damage caused by the tornado.  Though each damage level is associated with a wind speed, the Fujita scale is effectively a damage scale, and the wind speeds associated with the damage listed aren't rigorously verified. The Enhanced Fujita Scale was formulated due to research which suggested that the wind speeds required to inflict damage by intense tornadoes on the Fujita scale are greatly overestimated. A process of expert elicitation with top engineers and meteorologists resulted in the EF scale wind speeds, however, these are biased to United States construction practices. The EF scale also improved damage parameter descriptions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derivation.", "content": "The original scale as derived by Fujita was a theoretical 13-level scale (F0–F12) designed to smoothly connect the Beaufort scale and the Mach number scale. F1 corresponds to the twelfth level of the Beaufort scale, and F12 corresponds to Mach number 1.0. F0 was placed at a position specifying no damage (approximately the eighth level of the Beaufort scale), in analogy to how the Beaufort's zeroth level specifies little to no wind. From these wind speed numbers, qualitative descriptions of damage were made for each category of the Fujita scale, and then these descriptions were used to classify tornadoes. The diagram on the right illustrates the relationship between the Beaufort, Fujita, and Mach number scales.  At the time Fujita derived the scale, little information was available on damage caused by wind, so the original scale presented little more than educated guesses at wind speed ranges for specific tiers of damage. Fujita intended that only F0–F5 be used in practice, as this covered all possible levels of damage to frame homes as well as the expected estimated bounds of wind speeds. He did, however, add a description for F6, which he phrased as \"inconceivable tornado\", to allow for wind speeds exceeding F5 and for possible future advancements in damage analysis which might show it.  Furthermore, the original wind speed numbers have since been found to be higher than the actual wind speeds required to incur the damage described at each category. The error manifests itself to an increasing degree as the category increases, especially in the range of F3 through F5. NOAA notes that \"... precise wind speed numbers are actually guesses and have never been scientifically verified. Different wind speeds may cause similar-looking damage from place to place—even from building to building. Without a thorough engineering analysis of tornado damage in any event, the actual wind speeds needed to cause that damage are unknown.\" Since then, the Enhanced Fujita Scale has been created using better wind estimates by engineers and meteorologists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parameters.", "content": "The six categories are listed here, in order of increasing intensity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rating classifications.", "content": "For purposes such as tornado climatology studies, Fujita scale ratings may be grouped into classes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decommission in the US.", "content": "The Fujita scale, introduced in 1971 as a means to differentiate tornado intensity and path area, assigned wind speeds to damage that were, at best, educated guesses. Fujita and others recognized this immediately and intensive engineering analysis was conducted through the rest of the 1970s. This research, as well as subsequent research, showed that tornado wind speeds required to inflict the described damage were actually much lower than the F-scale indicated, particularly for the upper categories. Also, although the scale gave general descriptions for the type of damage a tornado could cause, it gave little leeway for strength of construction and other factors that might cause a building to receive higher damage at lower wind speeds. Fujita tried to address these problems somewhat in 1992 with the Modified Fujita Scale, but by then he was semi-retired and the National Weather Service was not in a position for the undertaking of updating to an entirely new scale, so it went largely unenacted.  In the United States, on February 1, 2007, the Fujita scale was decommissioned in favor of what these scientists believe is a more accurate Enhanced Fujita Scale, which replaces it. The meteorologists and engineers who designed the EF Scale believe it an improvement on the F-scale on many counts—it accounts for different degrees of damage that occur with different types of structures, both man-made and natural. The expanded and refined damage indicators and degrees of damage standardize what was somewhat ambiguous. It also is thought to provide a much better estimate for wind speeds and sets no upper limit on the wind speeds for the strongest level, EF5. Several countries continue to use the original Fujita Scale. Environment Canada has begun using the Enhanced Fujita scale in Canada as of April 18, 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fujita scale (F-Scale; ), or Fujita–Pearson scale (FPP scale), is a scale for rating tornado intensity, based primarily on the damage tornadoes inflict on human-built structures and vegetation. The official Fujita scale category is determined by meteorologists and engineers after a ground or aerial damage survey, or both; and depending on the circumstances, ground-swirl patterns (cycloidal marks), weather radar data, witness testimonies, media reports and damage imagery, as well as photogrammetry or videogrammetry if motion picture recording is available. The Fujita scale was replaced with the Enhanced Fujita scale (EF-Scale) in the United States in February 2007. In April 2013, Canada adopted the EF-Scale over the Fujita scale along with 31 \"Specific Damage Indicators\" used by Environment Canada (EC) in their ratings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971960}
{"src_title": "Samarra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient Samarra.", "content": "The remains of prehistoric Samarra were first excavated between 1911 and 1914 by the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld. Samarra became the type site for the Samarra culture. Since 1946, the notebooks, letters, unpublished excavation reports and photographs have been in the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.  The civilization flourished alongside the Ubaid period, as one of the first town states in the Near East. It lasted from 5,500 BCE and eventually collapsed in 3,900 BCE.  A city of Sur-marrati (refounded by Sennacherib in 690 BC according to a stele in the Walters Art Museum) is insecurely identified with a fortified Assyrian site of Assyrian at al-Huwaysh on the Tigris opposite modern Samarra. The State Archives of Assyria Online identifies \"Surimarrat\" as the modern site of Samarra.  Ancient place names for Samarra noted by the Samarra Archaeological Survey are Greek \"Souma\" (Ptolemy V.19, Zosimus III, 30), Latin \"Sumere\", a fort mentioned during the retreat of the army of Julian in 363 AD (Ammianus Marcellinus XXV, 6, 4), and Syriac \"Sumra\" (Hoffmann, \"Auszüge\", 188; Michael the Syrian, III, 88), described as a village.  The possibility of a larger population was offered by the opening of the Qatul al-Kisrawi, the northern extension of the Nahrawan Canal which drew water from the Tigris in the region of Samarra, attributed by Yaqut al-Hamawi (\"Muʿjam\", see under \"Qatul\") to Khosrau I (531–578). To celebrate the completion of this project, a commemorative tower (modern Burj al-Qa'im) was built at the southern inlet south of Samarra, and a palace with a \"paradise\" or walled hunting park was constructed at the northern inlet (modern Nahr ar-Rasasi) near ad-Dawr. A supplementary canal, the Qatul Abi al-Jund, excavated by the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, was commemorated by a planned city laid out in the form of a regular octagon (modern Husn al-Qadisiyya), called al-Mubarak and abandoned unfinished in 796.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Abbasid capital.", "content": "In 836 CE, the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mu'tasim founded a new capital at the banks of the Tigris. Here he built extensive palace complexes surrounded by garrison settlements for his guards, mostly drawn from Central Asia and Iran (most famously the Turks, as well as the Khurasani \"Ishtakhaniyya\", \"Faraghina\" and \"Ushrusaniyya\" regiments) or North Africa (like the \"Maghariba\"). Although quite often called Mamluk slave soldiers, their status was quite elevated; some of their commanders bore Sogdian titles of nobility.  The city was further developed under Caliph al-Mutawakkil, who sponsored the construction of lavish palace complexes, such as al-Mutawakkiliyya, and the Great Mosque of Samarra with its famous spiral minaret or Malwiya, built in 847. For his son al-Mu'tazz he built the large palace Bulkuwara.  Samarra remained the residence of the caliph until 892, when al-Mu'tadid eventually returned to Baghdad. The city declined but maintained a mint until the early 10th century.  The Nestorian patriarch Sargis (860–72) moved the patriarchal seat of the Church of the East from Baghdad to Samarra, and one or two of his immediate successors may also have sat in Samarra so as to be close to the seat of power.  During the long decline of the Abbasid empire, 940 Samarra was largely abandoned starting in AD 940. Its population returned to Baghdad and the city rapidly declined. Its field of ruins is the only world metropolis of late antiquity which is available for serious archaeology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religious significance.", "content": "The city is also home to al-Askari Shrine, containing the mausolea of the Imams Ali al-Hadi and Hasan al-Askari, the tenth and eleventh Shiʿi Imams, respectively, as well as the place from where Muhammad al-Mahdi, known as the \"Hidden Imam\", reportedly went into The Occultation in the belief of the Twelver or Shias. This has made it an important pilgrimage centre for the Imami Shias. In addition, Hakimah and Narjis, female relatives of the Prophet Muhammad and the Imams, held in high esteem by Muslims, are buried there, making this mosque one of the most significant sites of worship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern era.", "content": "In the eighteenth century, one of the most violent battles of the 1730–1735 Ottoman–Persian War, the Battle of Samarra, took place, where over 50,000 Turks and Persians became casualties. The engagement decided the fate of Ottoman Iraq and kept it under Istanbul's suzerainty until the First World War.  During the 20th century, Samarra gained new importance when a permanent lake, Lake Tharthar, was created through the construction of the Samarra Barrage, which was built in order to prevent the frequent flooding of Baghdad. Many local people were displaced by the dam, resulting in an increase in Samarra's population.  Samarra is a key city in Saladin Governorate, a major part of the so-called Sunni Triangle where insurgents were active during the Iraq War.  Though Samarra is famous for its Shi'i holy sites, including the tombs of several Shi'i Imams, the town was traditionally and until very recently, dominated by Sunni Arabs. Tensions arose between Sunnis and the Shi'a during the Iraq War. On February 22, 2006, the golden dome of the al-Askari Mosque was bombed, setting off a period of rioting and reprisal attacks across the country which claimed hundreds of lives. No organization claimed responsibility for the bombing. On June 13, 2007, insurgents attacked the mosque again and destroyed the two minarets that flanked the dome's ruins. On July 12, 2007, the clock tower was blown up. No fatalities were reported. Shiʿi cleric Muqtada al-Sadr called for peaceful demonstrations and three days of mourning. He stated that he believed no Sunni Arab could have been behind the attack, though according to the \"New York Times\" the attackers were likely Sunnis linked to Al-Qaeda. The mosque compound and minarets had been closed since the 2006 bombing. An indefinite curfew was placed on the city by the Iraqi police.  Ever since the end of Iraqi civil war in 2007, the Shia population of the holy city has increased exponentially. However, violence has continued, with bombings taking place in 2011 and 2013. In June 2014, the city was attacked by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) as part of the Northern Iraq offensive. ISIL forces captured the municipality building and university, but were later repulsed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Samarra has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification \"BWh\"). Most rain falls in the winter. The average annual temperature in Samarra is. About of precipitation falls annually.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The metaphor of \"Having an appointment in Samarra\", signifying death, is a literary reference to an ancient Babylonian myth recorded in the Babylonian Talmud and transcribed by W. Somerset Maugham, in which Death narrates a man's futile attempt to escape him by fleeing from Baghdad to Samarra. The story \"The Appointment in Samarra\" subsequently formed the germ of a novel of the same name by John O'Hara. The story is told in \"The Six Thatchers\", a 2017 episode of \"Sherlock\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Samarra (, \"\") is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Saladin Governorate, north of Baghdad. In 2003 the city had an estimated population of 348,700. During the sectarian violence in Iraq (2006–07), Samarra was in the \"Sunni Triangle\" of violence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971961}
{"src_title": "Kinsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "According to romantic medieval legend, the Kinsky story began in Bohemia over 1,000 years ago, when a king's beautiful daughter went out hunting in the forest and was attacked by a pack of wolves. Her attendants all fled the terrible scene except for one young man, who saved the princess by killing some wolves and driving the rest away. In gratitude, the girl's father ennobled the young man, granting him a coat of arms featuring three wolves' teeth as an emblem of his bravery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rise.", "content": "The first factual mention of an ancestor of this clan dates back to 1237, during the reign of the Přemyslid king Wenceslaus I of Bohemia. Over the next three centuries they were only minor nobles with estates in northwestern Bohemia, around the village of Vchynice () near Litoměřice. Holding of Vchynice manor was confirmed by the Habsburg emperor Rudolf II in 1596 and in 1611 one of the family's members, Radslav Vchynský of Vchynice the Elder, ennobled as lord (), became a member of the Diet of Bohemia (\"zemský sněm\").  The rise of the family to prominence began in the turbulent era of religious conflicts between Catholics and Protestants which finally led to the cataclysm for Bohemia in the Thirty Years' War: Radslav's nephew, the royal official Vilém Kinský, took part in the Protestant revolt against Emperor Ferdinand II, which culminated in the 1618 Defenestration of Prague. Vilém was among the nobles who, without success, offered the Bohemian crown to the Wettin elector John George I of Saxony. After the loss of Czech independence in 1620 (Battle of White Mountain), when the majority of local Protestant aristocracy was banished and their possessions expropriated in favour of nobility faithful to the Catholic House of Habsburg, he retained his possessions and was even elevated to the rank of a Count (\"Graf\") in 1628. Through his marriage with Alžběta (Elisabeth) Trčka of Lípa, he was a brother-in-law of the Imperial generalissimo Albrecht von Wallenstein, with whom he was assassinated at Cheb in 1634.  A branch of the family was elevated to Princes of the Holy Roman Empire by Empress Maria Theresa in 1747. Many members of the family served in high diplomatic or military positions in the Habsburg Monarchy and subsequently in the Austrian Empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Confiscation and restoration.", "content": "After World War II, estates of the princely (Choceň) branch of the family were confiscated under the Beneš decrees, as the late Prince Ulrich (1893–1938) was reproached for his declared German nationality and active collaboration with the Sudeten German Party. Estates of the other branches, Kostelec and Chlumec, which had been confiscated by the Nazis during the German occupation, were returned after 1945 but confiscated again, this time by the ruling Communist Party in 1948. After the Velvet Revolution and the fall of Communism, several possessions – for example, Karlova Koruna Chateau and Kost Castle – were returned to the family.  From 2003, the senior member of the princely branch, Prince Ulrich's son Franz Ulrich, sued the Czech Republic for return of the properties confiscated in 1945 under the Beneš decrees only because, he maintained, the confiscation implicitly labeled his family as historical traitors against Czechoslovakia and as willful collaborators during the Nazi occupation. The Kinsky family has denied such charges, arguing that Prince Franz Ulrich was just two years old at the time of his father's death and that he and his mother, Princess Kinsky (\"née\" Baroness Mathilde von dem Bussche-Haddenhausen — whose family reputedly plotted against Hitler), had left the occupied country and went into exile in Argentina shortly afterwards.  According to a 2005 judgement by the Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic, at least the expropriations enacted before the Communist coup d'état (1948) are valid. Prince Franz Ulrich died in 2009 in Buenos Aires after a brief illness and was survived by his widow, \"née\" Countess Lena Hutten-Czapska. He left as heir to his title, properties and pending claims against the Czech state, his son Karl (\"Charlie\") and three grandchildren.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Residences.", "content": "Like many of the aristocratic families of the Habsburg monarchy, the Kinskys were great landowners and patrons of the arts. They employed (between 1713 and 1716) the celebrated architect Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt to build their residence Palais Kinsky in Vienna, which remained in the family's ownership until 1987. In addition to this home, from the 18th century the family also owned the vast baroque Kinsky Palace in Old Town Square, Prague. Another family home was Choceň Chateau, a medieval Bohemian fortress rebuilt in the neo-gothic style in the 19th century. All of these homes were filled with priceless treasures and artifacts. The family lost most of its property in 1945 by confiscation in Czechoslovakia, but after 1990, Karlova Koruna Chateau and Kost Castle were restituted to the family. The Kinskys also own Burg Heidenreichstein in Lower Austria, which they inherited.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Support of Beethoven.", "content": "As a patron of the arts, along with Archduke Rudolf and Prince Josef Lobkovic, Ferdinand, Prince Kinsky of Wchinitz and Tettau contributed 1.800 fl. to a yearly salary of 4.000 fl. (abbr. for florin, gulden, Austrian - Hungarian gold coin from 1754–1892) for Ludwig van Beethoven. Ferdinand arranged his share to be paid on as a pension until Beethoven died in March 1827.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stud farms.", "content": "In 1723, Emperor Charles VI ordered the Kinsky family to develop their stud farms and breed horses of such quality as to provide superior mounts for the officers of the elite cavalry regiments of the empire. In 1776, the quality of the Kinsky horses was further improved by bloodstock from England.  In 1838, Count Oktavian Kinsky expanded still further the Kinsky studs, famous throughout Europe for their high equine quality, known as the Kinsky horse.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The House of Kinsky (formerly Vchynští, sg. \"Vchynský\" in Czech; later (in modern Czech) Kinští, sg. \"Kinský\"; ) is a prominent Czech noble family originating from the Kingdom of Bohemia. During the Thirty Years' War, the Kinsky family rose from minor nobles to comital (1628) and later princely status (1747) under the rule of the Habsburgs. The family, recorded in the \"Almanach de Gotha\", is considered to have been one of the most illustrious of Austria-Hungary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971962}
{"src_title": "African golden cat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Felis aurata\" was the scientific name used by Coenraad Jacob Temminck who described a reddish-brown coloured cat skin in 1827 that he had bought from a merchant in London. Temminck also described a grey coloured skin of a cat with chocolate brown spots that had lived in the menagerie in London. He named it \"Felis celidogaster\". \"Felis neglecta\" proposed by John Edward Gray in 1838 was a brownish grey cat skin from Sierra Leone. \"Felis rutilus\" proposed by George Robert Waterhouse in 1842 was a reddish cat skin from Sierra Leone. \"Felis chrysothrix cottoni\" proposed by Richard Lydekker in 1906 was a dark grey cat skin from the Ituri Rainforest. A black cat skin from eastern Congo was proposed as \"Felis maka\" in 1942.  In 1858, Nikolai Severtzov proposed the generic names \"Profelis\" with \"F. celidogaster\" as type species, and \"Chrysailurus\" with \"F. neglecta\" as type species. In 1917, Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated both the African golden cat and the Asian golden cat to \"Profelis\". This classification was followed by several subsequent authors.  Phylogenetic analysis of cat samples showed that the African golden cat is closely related with the caracal (\"Caracal caracal\"). These two species, together with the serval (\"Leptailurus serval\"), form the Caracal lineage, one of the eight lineages of Felidae. This lineage evolved nearly 8.5 million years ago. Because of this close relationship, the African golden cat has been placed into the genus \"Caracal\".  Two African golden cat subspecies are recognised as valid since 2017:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships of the African golden cat:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The African golden cat has a fur colour ranging from chestnut or reddish-brown, greyish brown to dark slaty. Some are spotted, with the spots ranging from faded tan to black in colour. In others the spotting pattern is limited to the belly and inner legs. Its undersides and areas around the eyes, cheeks, chin, and throat are lighter in colour to almost white. Its tail is darker on the top and either heavily banded, lightly banded or plain, ending in a black tip. Cats in the western parts of its range tend to have heavier spotting than those in the eastern region. Two color morphs, a red and a grey phase, were once thought to indicate separate species, rather than colour variations of the same species. Grey skins have hairs that are not pigmented in their middle zones, whereas hair of red skins is pigmented intensively red. Hair of melanistic skins is entirely black.  Skins of African golden cats can be identified by the presence of a distinctive whorled ridge of fur in front of the shoulders, where the hairs change direction. It is about twice the size of a domestic cat. Its rounded head is very small in relation to its body size. It is a heavily built cat, with stocky, long legs, a relatively short tail, and large paws. Body length usually varies within the range of. Tail length ranges from, and shoulder height is about. The cat weighs around, with males being larger than females.  Overall, the African golden cat resembles the caracal, but has shorter untufted ears, a longer tail, and a shorter, more rounded face. It has small, rounded ears. Its eye colour ranges from pale blue to brown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The African golden cat inhabits tropical forests from sea level to. It prefers dense, moist forest with heavy undergrowth, and is often found close to rivers, but it may also be found in cloud forest, bamboo forests, and high moorland habitats. The cat is found from Senegal in the west to Kenya in the east, and ranges as far north as the Central African Republic and as far south as northern Angola.  In Guinea's National Park of Upper Niger, it was recorded during surveys conducted in 1996 to 1997.  In Uganda's Kibale National Park, an African golden cat was recorded in an old growth forest patch in 2008. In Gabon's Moukalaba-Doudou National Park, it was recorded in forested areas during surveys in 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behaviour.", "content": "Due to its extremely reclusive habits, little is known about the behaviour of African golden cats. They are solitary animals, and are normally crepuscular or nocturnal, although they have also been observed hunting during the day, depending on the availability of local prey.  African golden cats are able to climb, but hunt primarily on the ground. They mainly feed on tree hyrax, rodents, but also hunt birds, small monkeys, duikers, young of giant forest hog, and small antelope. They have also been known to take domestic poultry and livestock.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Knowledge of the African golden cat's reproductive habits is based on captive individuals. The female gives birth to one or two kittens after a gestation period of around 75 days. The kittens weigh. Their eyes open within a week of birth, and they are weaned at 6–8 weeks. They grow and develop rapidly in comparison with other small cat species. One individual was reported to be scaling a 40-cm wall within 16 days of birth, reflecting a high degree of physical agility from an early age. Females reach sexual maturity at 11 months of age, and males at around 18 months. In captivity, they live up to 12 years. Their lifespan in the wild is unknown.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The African golden cat is threatened by extensive deforestation of tropical rainforests, their conversion to oil palm plantations coupled with mining activities and road building, thus destroying its essential habitat. It is also threatened by bushmeat hunting, particularly in the Congo Basin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The African golden cat is listed in CITES Appendix II. Hunting African golden cats is prohibited in Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone. In Gabon, Liberia and Togo, hunting regulations are in place.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The African golden cat (\"Caracal aurata\") is a wild cat endemic to the rainforests of West and Central Africa. It is threatened due to deforestation and bushmeat hunting and listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. It is a close relative of both the caracal and the serval. Previously, it was placed in the genus \"Profelis\". Its body size ranges from with a long tail.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971963}
{"src_title": "Al Di Meola", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Jersey City, New Jersey, into an Italian family with roots in Cerreto Sannita, a small town northeast of Benevento, Di Meola grew up in Bergenfield, where he attended Bergenfield High School. He has been a resident of Old Tappan, New Jersey.  When he was eight years old, he was inspired by Elvis Presley and the Ventures to start playing guitar. His teacher directed him toward jazz standards. He cites as influences jazz guitarists George Benson and Kenny Burrell and bluegrass and country guitarists Clarence White and Doc Watson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "He attended Berklee College of Music in the early 1970s. At nineteen, he was hired by Chick Corea to replace Bill Connors in the pioneering jazz fusion band Return to Forever with Stanley Clarke and Lenny White. He recorded three albums with Return to Forever, helping the quartet earn its greatest commercial success as all three albums cracked the Top 40 on the U.S. \"Billboard\" pop albums chart. He could play so fast, that he was sometimes criticized for playing too many notes.  As Return to Forever was disbanding around 1976, Di Meola began recording solo albums on which he demonstrated mastery of jazz fusion, flamenco, and Mediterranean music. His album \"Elegant Gypsy\" (1977) received a gold certification. In 1980 he recorded the acoustic live album \"Friday Night in San Francisco\" with Paco de Lucía and John McLaughlin.  In the beginning of his career, as evidenced on his first solo album \"Land of the Midnight Sun\" (1976), Di Meola was noted for his technical mastery and extremely fast, complex guitar solos and compositions. But even on his early albums, he had begun to explore Mediterranean cultures and acoustic genres like flamenco. Notable examples are \"Mediterranean Sundance\" and \"Lady of Rome, Sister of Brazil\" from the \"Elegant Gypsy\" album (1977).  His early albums were influential among rock and jazz guitarists. Di Meola continued to explore Latin music within jazz fusion on \"Casino\" and \"Splendido Hotel\". He exhibited a more subtle touch on acoustic numbers \"Fantasia Suite for Two Guitars\" from the \"Casino\" album and on the best-selling live album with McLaughlin and de Lucia, \"Friday Night in San Francisco\". The latter album became one of the most popular live albums for acoustic guitar, selling more than two million copies worldwide.  With \"Scenario\", he explored the electronic side of jazz in a collaboration with Jan Hammer (keyboardist with Fusion pioneers \"Mahavishnu Orchestra,\" on albums with Jeff Beck, and later, composed the \"Miami Vice\" theme). Beginning with this change, he further expanded his horizons with the acoustic album \"Cielo e Terra\". He began to incorporate the Synclavier guitar synthesizer on mid-1980s albums such as \"Soaring Through a Dream\". By the 1990s, Di Meola recorded albums closer to world music and modern Latin styles than jazz. A notable exception was the 1991 album \"Kiss My Axe\", which peaked at #2 on the US Contemporary Jazz Albums chart.  However, in 2006 he rediscovered his love of the electric guitar, and the DVD of his concert at the Leverkusen Jazz Festival 2006 is subtitled \"Return to Electric Guitar\". In 2018, Di Meola was awarded an honorary doctorate of music from his alma mater, Berklee College of Music.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albert Laurence Di Meola (born July 22, 1954) is an American guitarist. Known for his works in jazz fusion and world music, he began his career as a guitarist of the group Return to Forever in 1974. Between the 1970s and 1980s, albums such as \"Elegant Gypsy\" and \"Friday Night in San Francisco\" earned him both critical and commercial success.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971964}
{"src_title": "Eucalyptol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition.", "content": "The content of eucalyptol is 90% of eucalyptus oil, leading to its name. Wormwood, rosemary, common sage, \"Cannabis sativa\", and other aromatic plant foliage contain eucalyptol. Eucalyptol may be toxic if ingested.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "Eucalyptol has a fresh mint-like smell and a spicy, cooling taste. It is insoluble in water, but miscible with ether, ethanol, and chloroform. The boiling point is 176°C and the flash point is 49°C. Eucalyptol forms crystalline adducts with hydrohalic acids, \"o\"-cresol, resorcinol, and phosphoric acid. Formation of these adducts is useful for purification.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flavoring and fragrance.", "content": "Because of its pleasant, spicy aroma and taste, eucalyptol is used in flavorings, fragrances, and cosmetics. Cineole-based eucalyptus oil is used as a flavouring at low levels (0.002%) in various products, including baked goods, confectionery, meat products, and beverages. In a 1994 report released by five top cigarette companies, eucalyptol was listed as one of the 599 additives to cigarettes. It is claimed to be added to improve the flavor.  Eucalyptol is an ingredient in commercial mouthwashes, and has been used in traditional medicine as a cough suppressant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Insecticide and repellent.", "content": "Eucalyptol is used as an insecticide and insect repellent.  In contrast, eucalyptol is one of many compounds that are attractive to males of various species of orchid bees, which gather the chemical to synthesize pheromones; it is commonly used as bait to attract and collect these bees for study. One such study with \"Euglossa imperialis\", a nonsocial orchid bee species, has shown that the presence of cineole (also eucalyptol) elevates territorial behavior and specifically attracts the male bees. It was even observed that these males would periodically leave their territories to forage for chemicals such as cineole, thought to be important for attracting and mating with females, to synthesize pheromones.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicology.", "content": "In higher-than-normal doses, eucalyptol is hazardous via ingestion, skin contact, or inhalation. It can have acute health effects on behavior, the respiratory tract, and the nervous system. The acute oral is 2480 mg/kg (rat). It is classified as a reproductive toxin for females and a suspected reproductive toxin for males.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacodynamics.", "content": "It is known that eucalyptol has anti-inflammatory properties and researchers have suggested these, and other effects such as soothing sensations, may be mediated by the ion channel TRPM8. The same channel is also activated by menthol.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compendial status.", "content": "N.B. Listed as \"cineole\" in some pharmacopoeias.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eucalyptol is a natural organic compound that is a colorless liquid. It is a cyclic ether and a monoterpenoid. Eucalyptol is also known by a variety of synonyms: 1,8-cineol, 1,8-cineole, cajeputol, 1,8-epoxy-\"p\"-menthane, 1,8-oxido-\"p\"-menthane, eucalyptol, eucalyptole, 1,3,3-trimethyl-2-oxabicyclo[2.2.2]octane, cineol, and cineole.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971965}
{"src_title": "Georges Pompidou", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Pompidou was born in the commune of Montboudif, in the department of Cantal in central France. After his \"khâgne\" at Lycée Louis-le-Grand, where he befriended future Senegalese poet and statesman Léopold Sédar Senghor, he attended the École Normale Supérieure, from which he graduated with a degree of \"agrégation\" in literature.  He first taught literature at the lycée Henri IV in Paris until hired in 1953 by Guy de Rothschild to work at Rothschild. In 1956, he was appointed the bank's general manager, a position he held until 1962. Later, he was hired by Charles de Gaulle to manage the Anne de Gaulle Foundation for Down syndrome (de Gaulle's daughter Anne had Down syndrome).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime Minister.", "content": "Jacques Chirac served as an aide to Prime Minister Pompidou and recalled:  He served as prime minister of France under de Gaulle after Michel Debré resigned, from 14 April 1962 to 10 July 1968, and to this day is the longest serving French prime minister under the Fifth Republic. His nomination was controversial because he was not a member of the National Assembly. In October 1962, he was defeated in a vote of no-confidence, but de Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly. The Gaullists won the legislative election and Pompidou was reappointed as Prime Minister. In 1964, he was faced with a miners' strike. He led the 1967 legislative campaign of the Union of Democrats for the Fifth Republic to a narrow victory. Pompidou was widely regarded as being responsible for the peaceful resolution of the student uprising of May 1968. His strategy was to break the coalition of students and workers by negotiating with the trade-unions and employers (Grenelle conference).  However, during the events of May 1968, disagreements arose between Pompidou and de Gaulle. Pompidou did not understand why the President did not inform him of his departure to Baden-Baden on May 29. Their relationship, until then very good, would be strained from then on. Pompidou led and won the 1968 legislative campaign, overseeing a tremendous victory of the Gaullist Party. He then resigned. Nevertheless, in part due to his actions during the May 1968 crisis, he appeared as the natural successor to de Gaulle. Pompidou announced his candidature for the Presidency in January 1969. Some weeks later, his wife's name was mentioned in the Markovic affair, thus appearing to confirm her husband's status as a cuckold. Pompidou was certain that de Gaulle's inner circle was responsible for this smear.  In social policy, Pompidou's tenure as prime minister witnessed the establishment of the National Employment Fund in 1963 to counter the negative effects on employment caused by industrial restructuring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President.", "content": "After the failure of the 1969 constitutional referendum, de Gaulle resigned and Pompidou was elected president of France. In the general election of 15 June 1969, he defeated the centrist President of the Senate and Acting President Alain Poher by a wide margin (57%–42%). Though a Gaullist, Pompidou was more pragmatic than de Gaulle, notably facilitating the accession of the United Kingdom to the European Community on 1 January 1973. He embarked on an industrialisation plan and initiated the Arianespace project, as well as the TGV project, and furthered the French civilian nuclear programme. He was sceptical about the \"New Society\" programme of his prime minister, Jacques Chaban-Delmas. In 1972, he replaced Chaban-Delmas with Pierre Messmer, a more conservative Gaullist. While the left-wing opposition organised itself and proposed a \"Common Programme\" before the 1973 legislative election, Pompidou widened his presidential majority by including Centrist pro-European parties. In addition, he paid special attention to regional and local needs in order to strengthen his political party, the UDR (Union des Democrates pour la Ve République), which he made a central and lasting force in the Gaullist movement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign affairs.", "content": "The United States was eager to restore positive relations with France after de Gaulle's departure from office. New US President Richard Nixon and his top adviser Henry Kissinger admired Pompidou; the politicians were in agreement on most major policy issues. The United States offered to help the French nuclear programme. Economic difficulties, however, arose following the Nixon Shock and the 1973-75 recession, particularly over the role of the American dollar as the medium for world trade.  Pompidou sought to maintain good relations with the newly-independent former French colonies in Africa. In 1971, he visited Mauritania, Senegal, Ivory Coast, Cameroon, and Gabon. He brought a message of cooperation and financial assistance, but without the traditional paternalism. More broadly, he made an effort to foster closer relations with North African and Middle Eastern countries in order to develop a hinterland including all nations bordering the Mediterranean.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modernising Paris.", "content": "Pompidou's time in office was marked by constant efforts to modernise France's capital city. He spearheaded construction of a modern art museum, the Centre Beaubourg (renamed Centre Pompidou after his death), on the edge of the Marais area of Paris. Other attempts at modernisation included tearing down the open air markets at Les Halles and replacing them with the shopping mall of the same name, building the Montparnasse Tower, and constructing an expressway on the right bank of the Seine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death in office.", "content": "While still in office, Pompidou died on 2 April 1974, at 9 PM, while in his apartment, from Waldenström's macroglobulinemia. His body was buried on the 4th of April, in the churchyard of Orvilliers, where he had bought an old baker's house and turned it into a weekend home.. The official memorial service for him was held at Notre-Dame de Paris with 3000 Dignitaries in attendance (including 28 heads of state and representatives from 82 countries).  Attendees included :  Pompidou's wife Claude Pompidou would outlive him by more than thirty years. The couple had one (adopted) son, Alain Pompidou, who went on to serve as president of the European Patent Office.  France withdrew from the Eurovision Song Contest 1974, which took place just four days after Pompidou's death, as a mark of respect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ministries.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second ministry, 28 November 1962 – 8 January 1966.", "content": "Changes", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou (, ; 5 July 19112 April 1974) was a French politician who served as President of France from 1969 until his death in 1974. He previously was Prime Minister of France from 1962 to 1968—the longest tenure in the position's history. He had long been a top aide to President Charles de Gaulle; as head of state, he was a moderate conservative who repaired France's relationship with the United States and maintained positive relations with the newly independent former colonies in Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971966}
{"src_title": "Caelifera", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Subdivisions and their distribution.", "content": "The Caelifera include some 2,400 valid genera and about 12,000 known species. Many undescribed species probably exist, especially in tropical forests. The Caelifera have a predominantly tropical distribution (as with most Orthoptera) with fewer species known from temperate climate zones. Caelifera are divided into two infraorders: the more basal Tridactylidea and the Acrididea or grasshopper-like species. This latter name is derived from older sources, such as Imms, which placed the \"short-horned grasshoppers\" and locusts at the family level (Acrididae).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Affiliations.", "content": "The phylogeny of the Caelifera, is described in detail for grasshoppers, with 6 out of 8 extant superfamilies shown here as a cladogram. Like the Ensifera, Caelifera and all of its superfamilies appear to be monophyletic. The phylogeny of the Caelifera, based on mitochondrial ribosomal RNA of thirty-two taxa in six out of seven superfamilies, is shown as a cladogram. The Ensifera, Caelifera and all the superfamilies of grasshoppers except Pamphagoidea appear to be monophyletic.  In evolutionary terms, the split between the Caelifera and the Ensifera is no more recent than the Permo-Triassic boundary; the earliest insects that are certainly Caeliferans are in the extinct families Locustopseidae and Locustavidae from the early Triassic, roughly 250 million years ago. The group diversified during the Triassic and have remained important plant-eaters from that time to now. The first modern families such as the Eumastacidae, Tetrigidae and Tridactylidae appeared in the Cretaceous, though some insects that might belong to the last two of these groups are found in the early Jurassic. Morphological classification is difficult because many taxa have converged towards a common habitat type; recent taxonomists have concentrated on the internal genitalia, especially those of the male. This information is not available from fossil specimens, and the palaentological taxonomy is founded principally on the venation of the hindwings.  The Caelifera includes some 2,400 valid genera and about 11,000 known species. Many undescribed species probably exist, especially in tropical wet forests. The Caelifera have a predominantly tropical distribution with fewer species known from temperate zones, but most of the superfamilies have representatives worldwide. They are almost exclusively herbivorous and are probably the oldest living group of chewing herbivorous insects.  The most diverse superfamily is the Acridoidea, with around 8,000 species. The two main families in this are the Acrididae (grasshoppers and locusts) with a worldwide distribution, and the Romaleidae (lubber grasshoppers), found chiefly in the New World. The Ommexechidae and Tristiridae are South American, and the Lentulidae, Lithidiidae and Pamphagidae are mainly African. The Pauliniids are nocturnal and can swim or skate on water, and the Lentulids are wingless. Pneumoridae are native to Africa, particularly southern Africa, and are distinguished by the inflated abdomens of the males.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economic significance and terminology.", "content": "A number of species, especially in the Acridoidea, are significant agricultural pests, but not all of them are locusts: a non-taxonomic term referring to species whose populations which may change morphologically when crowded and show swarming behaviour. Examples of agricultural grasshopper pests that are not called locusts include the Senegalese grasshopper and certain species in the Pyrgomorphidae, notably the variegated grasshopper (\"\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Caelifera are a suborder of orthopteran insects. They include the grasshoppers and grasshopper-like insects, as well as other superfamilies classified with them: the ground-hoppers (Tetrigoidea) and pygmy mole crickets (Tridactyloidea). The latter should not be confused with the mole crickets (Gryllotalpidae), which belong to the other Orthopteran sub-order Ensifera.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971967}
{"src_title": "Nuclear explosion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first man made nuclear explosion occurred on July 16, 1945 at 5:50 am on the Trinity Test Site near Alamogordo, New Mexico in the United States, an area now known as the White Sands Missile Range. The event involved the full-scale testing of an implosion-type fission atomic bomb. In a memorandum to the U.S. Secretary of War, General Leslie Groves describes the yield as equivalent to 15,000 to 20,000 tons of TNT. Following this test, a uranium-gun type nuclear bomb (Little Boy) was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, with a blast yield of 15 kilotons; and a plutonium implosion-type bomb (Fat Man) on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, with a blast yield of 21 kilotons. In the years following World War II, eight countries have conducted nuclear tests with 2475 devices fired in 2120 tests.  In 1963, the United States, Soviet Union, and United Kingdom signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty, pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. The treaty permitted underground tests. Many other non-nuclear nations acceded to the Treaty following its entry into force; however, two nuclear weapons states have not acceded: France, China  The primary application to date has been military (i.e. nuclear weapons), and the remainder of explosions include the following:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nuclear weapons.", "content": "Only two nuclear weapons have been deployed in combat—both by the United States against Japan in World War II. The first event occurred on the morning of 6 August 1945, when the United States Army Air Forces dropped a uranium gun-type device, code-named \"Little Boy\", on the city of Hiroshima, killing 70,000 people, including 20,000 Japanese combatants and 20,000 Korean slave laborers. The second event occurred three days later when the United States Army Air Forces dropped a plutonium implosion-type device, code-named \"Fat Man\", on the city of Nagasaki. It killed 39,000 people, including 27,778 Japanese munitions employees, 2,000 Korean slave laborers, and 150 Japanese combatants. In total, around 109,000 people were killed in these bombings. (See \"Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\" for a full discussion). Nuclear weapons are largely seen as a 'deterrent' by most governments; the sheer scale of the destruction caused by a nuclear weapon has prevented serious consideration of their use in warfare.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nuclear testing.", "content": "Since the Trinity test and excluding the combat use of nuclear weapons, mankind (those few nations with capability) has detonated roughly 1,700 nuclear explosions, all but 6 as tests. Of these, six were peaceful nuclear explosions. Nuclear tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the 20th century, most nations that have developed nuclear weapons had a staged test of them. Testing nuclear weapons can yield information about how the weapons work, as well as how the weapons behave under various conditions and how structures behave when subjected to a nuclear explosion. Additionally, nuclear testing has often been used as an indicator of scientific and military strength, and many tests have been overtly political in their intention; most nuclear weapons states publicly declared their nuclear status by means of a nuclear test.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Effects of nuclear explosions.", "content": "The dominant effects of a nuclear weapon (the blast and thermal radiation) are the same physical damage mechanisms as conventional explosives, but the energy produced by a nuclear explosive is millions of times more per gram and the temperatures reached are in the tens of megakelvin. Nuclear weapons are quite different from conventional weapons because of the huge amount of explosive energy they can put out and the different kinds of effects they make, like high temperatures and nuclear radiation.  The devastating impact of the explosion does not stop after the initial blast, as with conventional explosives. A cloud of nuclear radiation travels from the hypocenter of the explosion, causing an impact to life forms even after the heat waves have ceased.  Any nuclear explosion (or nuclear war) would have wide-ranging, long-term, catastrophic effects. Radioactive contamination would cause genetic mutations and cancer across many generations.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A nuclear explosion is an explosion that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed nuclear reaction. The driving reaction may be nuclear fission or nuclear fusion or a multi-stage cascading combination of the two, though to date all fusion-based weapons have used a fission device to initiate fusion, and a pure fusion weapon remains a hypothetical device.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971968}
{"src_title": "Hermann Broch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Broch was born in Vienna to a prosperous Jewish family and worked for some time in his family's factory, though he maintained his literary interests privately. As the oldest son, he was expected to take over his father’s textile factory in Teesdorf; therefore, he attended a technical college for textile manufacture and a spinning and weaving college.  In 1909 he converted to Roman Catholicism and married Franziska von Rothermann, the daughter of a knighted manufacturer. The following year, their son Hermann Friedrich Maria was born. His marriage ended in divorce in 1923. In 1927 he sold the textile factory and decided to study mathematics, philosophy and psychology at the University of Vienna. He embarked on a full-time literary career only around the age of 40. At the age of 45, his first major literary work, the trilogy \"The Sleepwalkers\", was published by Daniel Brody, for the Rhein Verlag in 1931/1932 in Munich.  He was acquainted with many of the now well-known writers, intellectuals, and artists of his time, including Robert Musil, Rainer Maria Rilke, Elias Canetti, Leo Perutz, Franz Blei and writer and former nude model Ea von Allesch.  With the annexation of Austria by the Nazis (1938), Broch was arrested in the small Alpine town of Bad Aussee for possession of a socialist magazine but was soon released. Shortly thereafter, a movement organized by friends – including James Joyce, Thornton Wilder, and his translators Edwin and Willa Muir – managed to help him emigrate; first to Britain and then to the United States, where he published his novel \"The Death of Virgil\" and his collection of short stories \"The Guiltless\". While in exile, he also continued to write on politics and work on mass psychology, similar to Elias Canetti and Hannah Arendt. His essay on mass behaviour remained unfinished.  From the 15th of August to the 15th of September 1939, Hermann Broch lived at the Albert Einstein House at 112 Mercer Street Princeton, New Jersey when the Einsteins were on vacation. From 1942 to 1948 Broch lived in an attic apartment in Eric and Lili Kahler's house at One Evelyn Place in Princeton, New Jersey. Broch died in 1951 in New Haven, Connecticut. He is buried in Killingworth, Connecticut, in the cemetery on Roast Meat Hill Road. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "One of his foremost works, \"The Death of Virgil\" (\"\") was first published in 1945 simultaneously in its original German and in English translation. Having begun the text as a short radio lecture in 1937, Broch expanded and redeveloped the text over the next eight years of his life, which witnessed a short incarceration in an Austrian prison after the Austrian Anschluss, his flight to Scotland via England, and his eventual exile in the United States. This extensive, difficult novel interweaves reality, hallucination, poetry and prose, and reenacts the last 18 hours of the Roman poet Virgil's life in the port of Brundisium (Brindisi). Here, shocked by the balefulness (\"Unheil\") of the society he glorifies in his \"Aeneid\", the feverish Virgil resolves to burn his epic, but is thwarted by his close friend and emperor Augustus before he succumbs to his fatal ailment. The final chapter exhibits the final hallucinations of the poet, where Virgil voyages to a distant land at which he witnesses roughly the biblical creation story in reverse.  The French composer Jean Barraqué composed a number of works inspired by \"The Death of Virgil\".  Erich Heller observed that if \"\"The Death of Virgil\" is his masterpiece... it is a very problematical one, for it attempts to give literary shape to the author's growing aversion to literature. In the very year the novel appeared, Broch confessed to 'a deep revulsion' from literature as such – 'the domain of vanity and mendacity'. Written with a paradoxical, lyrical exuberance, it is the imaginary record of the poet’s last day and his renunciation of poetry. He commands the manuscript of the \"Aeneid\" to be destroyed, not because it is incomplete or imperfect but because it is poetry and not 'knowledge'. He even says his \"Georgics\" are useless, inferior to any expert treatise on agriculture. His friend the Emperor Augustus undoes his design and his works are saved.\" (Erich Heller, \"Hitler in a very Small Town\", \"The New York Times\", January 25, 1987.)  Other important works by Broch are \"The Sleepwalkers\" (\"\", 1932) and \"The Guiltless\" (\"Die Schuldlosen\", 1950). \"The Sleepwalkers\" is a trilogy, where Broch takes \"the degeneration of values\" as his theme. The trilogy has been praised by Milan Kundera, whose writing has been greatly influenced by Broch. Broch demonstrates mastery of a wide range of styles, from the gentle parody of Theodor Fontane in the first volume of \"The Sleepwalkers\" through the essayistic segments of the third volume to the dithyrambic phantasmagoria of \"The Death of Virgil.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected Bibliography.", "content": "Works translated into English:  Complete works in German:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hermann Broch (; November 1, 1886 – May 30, 1951) was a 20th-century Austrian writer, considered one of the major Modernists.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971969}
{"src_title": "Peppermint", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Botany.", "content": "Peppermint was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus from specimens that had been collected in England; he treated it as a species, but it is now universally agreed to be a hybrid. It is a herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant that grows to be tall, with smooth stems, square in cross section. The rhizomes are wide-spreading, fleshy, and bear fibrous roots. The leaves can be long and broad. They are dark green with reddish veins, and they have an acute apex and coarsely toothed margins. The leaves and stems are usually slightly fuzzy. The flowers are purple, long, with a four-lobed corolla about diameter; they are produced in whorls (verticillasters) around the stem, forming thick, blunt spikes. Flowering season lasts from mid- to late summer. The chromosome number is variable, with 2n counts of 66, 72, 84, and 120 recorded. Peppermint is a fast-growing plant; once it sprouts, it spreads very quickly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Peppermint typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream sides and drainage ditches. Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only vegetatively, spreading by its runners. If placed, it can grow almost anywhere.  Outside of its native range, areas where peppermint was formerly grown for oil often have an abundance of feral plants, and it is considered invasive in Australia, the Galápagos Islands, New Zealand, and the United States in the Great Lakes region, noted since 1843.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Peppermint generally grows best in moist, shaded locations, and expands by underground rhizomes. Young shoots are taken from old stocks and dibbled into the ground about 1.5 feet apart. They grow quickly and cover the ground with runners if it is permanently moist. For the home gardener, it is often grown in containers to restrict rapid spreading. It grows best with a good supply of water, without being water-logged, and planted in areas with part-sun to shade.  The leaves and flowering tops are used; they are collected as soon as the flowers begin to open and can be dried. The wild form of the plant is less suitable for this purpose, with cultivated plants having been selected for more and better oil content. They may be allowed to lie and wilt a little before distillation, or they may be taken directly to the still.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "A number of cultivars have been selected for garden use:  Commercial cultivars may include", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "In 2014, world production of peppermint was 92,296 tonnes, led by Morocco with 92% of the world total reported by FAOSTAT of the United Nations. Argentina accounted for 8% of the world total.  In the United States, Oregon and Washington produce most of the country's peppermint, the leaves of which are processed for the essential oil to produce flavorings mainly for chewing gum and toothpaste.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical constituents.", "content": "Peppermint has a high menthol content. The oil also contains menthone and carboxyl esters, particularly menthyl acetate. Dried peppermint typically has 0.3–0.4% of volatile oil containing menthol (7–48%), menthone (20–46%), menthyl acetate (3–10%), menthofuran (1–17%) and 1,8-cineol (3–6%). Peppermint oil also contains small amounts of many additional compounds including limonene, pulegone, caryophyllene and pinene.  Peppermint contains terpenoids and flavonoids such as eriocitrin, hesperidin, and kaempferol 7-O-rutinoside.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oil.", "content": "Peppermint oil has a high concentration of natural pesticides, mainly pulegone (found mainly in \"Mentha arvensis\" var. \"piperascens\" cornmint, field mint, Japanese mint, and to a lesser extent (6,530 ppm) in \"Mentha\" × \"piperita\" subsp. \"notho\") and menthone. It is known to repel some pest insects, including mosquitos, and has uses in organic gardening. It is also widely used to repel rodents.  The chemical composition of the essential oil from peppermint (\"Mentha\" × \"piperita\" L.) was analyzed by GC/FID and GC-MS. The main constituents were menthol (40.7%) and menthone (23.4%). Further components were (±)-menthyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, limonene, beta-pinene and beta-caryophyllene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research and health effects.", "content": "Peppermint oil is under preliminary research for its potential as a short-term treatment for irritable bowel syndrome, and has supposed uses in traditional medicine for minor ailments. Peppermint oil and leaves have a cooling effect when used topically for muscle pain, nerve pain, relief from itching, or as a fragrance. High oral doses of peppermint oil (500 mg) can cause mucosal irritation and mimic heartburn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary and other uses.", "content": "Fresh or dried peppermint leaves are often used alone in peppermint tea or with other herbs in herbal teas (tisanes, infusions). Peppermint is used for flavouring ice cream, candy, fruit preserves, alcoholic beverages, chewing gum, toothpaste, and some shampoos, soaps and skin care products.  Menthol activates cold-sensitive TRPM8 receptors in the skin and mucosal tissues, and is the primary source of the cooling sensation that follows the topical application of peppermint oil.  Peppermint oil is also used in construction and plumbing to test for the tightness of pipes and disclose leaks by its odor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Medicinal uses of peppermint have not been approved as effective or safe by the US Food and Drug Administration. With caution that the concentration of the peppermint constituent pulegone should not exceed 1% (140 mg), peppermint preparations are considered safe by the European Medicines Agency when used in topical formulations for adult subjects. Diluted peppermint essential oil is safe for oral intake when only a few drops are used.  Although peppermint is commonly available as a herbal supplement, there are no established, consistent manufacturing standards for it, and some peppermint products may be contaminated with toxic metals or other substituted compounds. Skin rashes, irritation, or an allergic reaction may result from applying peppermint oil to the skin, and its use on the face or chest of young children may cause side effects if the oil menthol is inhaled. A common side effect from oral intake of peppermint oil or capsules is heartburn. Oral use of peppermint products may have adverse effects when used with iron supplements, cyclosporine, medicines for heart conditions or high blood pressure, or medicines to decrease stomach acid.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peppermint (Mentha\" × \"piperita, also known as \"Mentha balsamea\" Wild.) is a hybrid mint, a cross between watermint and spearmint. Indigenous to Europe and the Middle East, the plant is now widely spread and cultivated in many regions of the world. It is occasionally found in the wild with its parent species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971970}
{"src_title": "Armin Meiwes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Killing and cannibalism.", "content": "Looking for a willing volunteer, Meiwes posted an advertisement on the website \"The Cannibal Cric\" (a defunct forum for people with a cannibalism fetish). Meiwes's post stated that he was \"looking for a well-built 18- to 30-year-old to be slaughtered and then consumed.\" Bernd Jürgen Armando Brandes, an engineer from Berlin, answered the advertisement in March 2001. Many other people responded to the advertisement but backed out; Meiwes did not attempt to force them to do anything against their will.  The two made a videotape when they met on 9 March 2001 in Meiwes's home, in the small town of Wüstefeld, west of Rotenburg an der Fulda, showcasing Meiwes amputating Brandes's penis (with his agreement) and the two men attempting to eat it together. Before doing so, Brandes swallowed twenty sleeping pills, and a bottle of cough syrup, likely causing an effect of slowed breathing and extreme tiredness. Brandes initially insisted that Meiwes attempt to bite his penis off. This did not work, and ultimately, Meiwes used a knife to remove Brandes's appendage. Brandes apparently tried to eat some of his own penis raw but could not, because it was too tough and, as he put it, \"chewy\". Meiwes then fried the penis in a pan with salt, pepper, wine, and garlic; he then fried it with some of Brandes's fat, but by then it was too burnt to be consumed. He then chopped the penis up into chunks and fed it to his dog. According to court officials who saw the video (which has not been made public), Brandes may already have been too weakened from blood loss to eat any of his penis.  Meiwes then ran Brandes a bath, before going to read a \"Star Trek\" book, while checking back on Brandes every fifteen minutes, during which time Brandes lay bleeding in the bath. Brandes continued to drift in and out of consciousness before finally collapsing again. After long hesitation and prayer, Meiwes killed Brandes by stabbing him in the throat, after which he hung the body on a meat hook. The incident was recorded on a four-hour videotape. Meiwes dismembered and ate the corpse over the next ten months, storing body parts in his freezer under pizza boxes and consuming up to of the flesh. According to prosecutors, Meiwes committed the act for sexual pleasure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arrest, trial, and manslaughter conviction.", "content": "Meiwes was arrested in December 2002, when a college student alerted authorities to new advertisements for victims online. Investigators searched his home and found body parts and the videotape of the killing.  On 30 January 2004, Meiwes was convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to eight years and six months in prison. The case attracted considerable media attention.  When speaking to a German newspaper, Meiwes admitted cannibalising Brandes and expressed regret for his actions. He added he wants to write a biography with the aim of deterring anyone wanting to follow in his footsteps. Websites dedicated to Meiwes started appearing after his 2002 arrest, with people advertising for willing victims. \"They should go for treatment, so it doesn't escalate like it did with me,\" said Meiwes. While in prison, Meiwes has since become a vegetarian. He believes there are about 800 cannibals in Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retrial and murder conviction.", "content": "In April 2005, a German court ordered a retrial after prosecutors appealed Meiwes's sentence, arguing that he should have been convicted of murder because he killed for sexual gratification, a motive proved by his having videotaped the crime. The court ruled that the original trial had ignored the significance of the video in disproving the argument that Meiwes only killed because he had been asked to kill.  At his retrial, a psychologist stated that Meiwes could reoffend, as he \"still had fantasies about devouring the flesh of young people.\" On 10 May 2006, a court in Frankfurt convicted Meiwes of murder and sentenced him to life imprisonment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural impact.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Films.", "content": "Other films based on the case include: Rosa von Praunheim's \"Dein Herz in Meinem Hirn\" (Your Heart in My Brain) and Ulli Lommel's \"Diary of a Cannibal\".  The plot of Australian thriller \"Feed\" (2006) bears many similarities to the case.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Armin Meiwes (; born 1 December 1961) is a German former computer repair technician who achieved international notoriety for killing and eating a voluntary victim in 2001, whom he had found via the Internet. After Meiwes and the victim jointly attempted to eat the victim's severed penis, Meiwes killed his victim and proceeded to eat a large amount of his flesh. He was arrested in December 2002. In January 2004, Meiwes was convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to eight years and six months in prison. In a retrial May 2006, he was convicted of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment. Because of his acts, Meiwes is also known as the Rotenburg Cannibal or (The Master Butcher).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971971}
{"src_title": "DVD-RAM", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "DVD-RAM Format.", "content": "DVD-RAM works by means of phase change technology which was chosen instead of magneto-optical technology (an already existing rewritable solution at the time) because it doesn't require a magnetic head and therefore it represented reduced complexity and costs. Phase change technology uses laser light to heat the surface of a phase changing alloy and allows it to go from a crystalline to an amorphous state and vice versa, therefore altering its optical reflectivity index. To change the recording material from a crystalline to an amorphous state, and back again a high or medium power laser light is used to control the rate of cooling of the phase changing alloy therefore establishing the final state. Encoding is done by means of difference in reflectivity of the alloy, a laser is pointed at the surface and the returned intensity signifies either a 1 or a 0.  DVD-RAM uses concentric tracks each divided into hard (factory originated) sectors, in contrast to traditional spiral recording found in other DVD and CD formats which makes its data structuring very similar to that of hard drives and floppy disks. This means that usually DVD-RAMs are suitable to be accessed by the OS without any special software", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Specification.", "content": "Since the Internationale Funkausstellung Berlin 2003 the specification is being marketed by the \"RAM Promotion Group\" (RAMPRG), built by Hitachi, Toshiba, Maxell, LG Electronics, Matsushita/Panasonic, Samsung, Lite-On and Teac. The specification distinguishes between:  Speeds more than 2x are defined by Optional Specifications (Nx-speed DVD-RAM):  Physically smaller, 80 mm in diameter, DVD-RAM discs also exist with a capacity of 1.46 GB for a single-sided disc and 2.8 GB for a double-sided disc, but they are uncommon. DVD-RAMs were originally solely sold in cartridges; recent DVD recorders can work with discs either with or without a cartridge, and many devices do not work with cartridges. Discs can be removed from cartridges for use with these drives (except with type 1 media, see table above).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compatibility.", "content": "Many operating systems like the classic Mac OS (from Mac OS 8.6 up), macOS, Linux, and Microsoft Windows XP can use DVD-RAM directly, while earlier versions of Windows require separate device drivers or the program InCD.  Windows XP Home and Professional can only write directly to FAT32 formatted DVD-RAM discs. For UDF formatted discs, which are considered faster, a third-party UDF file system driver capable of writing or software such as InCD or DLA are required. Windows Vista and later can natively access and write to both FAT32 and UDF formatted DVD-RAM discs using mastered burning method or packet writing. Even though it is possible to use any file system one likes, very few perform well on DVD-RAM. This is because some file systems frequently overwrite data on the disc and the table of contents is contained at the start of the disc. Windows Vista (and later) implement the CPRM data protection and thus discs formatted under Windows XP (or earlier) have compatibility issues with Vista onwards (and vice versa).  The classic Mac OS up to 9.2 can read and write HFS, HFS+, FAT, and UDF formatted DVD-RAM discs directly. In Mac OS X (versions 10.0.x through 10.4.x) UDF-formatting of DVD-RAM is no longer supported, instead formatting and writing DVD-RAM is done in HFS+ format. (UDF support was re-implemented in 10.5 Leopard) (HFS and UFS should also be supported on older versions of Mac OS X that retain support for these file systems.)  Many DVD standalone players and recorders do not work with DVD-RAM. However, within \"RAMPRG\" (the DVD-RAM Promotion Group consisting of Hitachi, Toshiba, Maxell, LG Electronics, Matsushita/Panasonic, Samsung, Lite-On, Teac) there are a number of well-known manufacturers of standalone players, recorders, and camcorders that \"can\" use DVD-RAM. Panasonic, for instance, has a range of players and recorders which make full use of the advantages of DVD-RAM.  The newest DVD-RAM Specification, DVD-RAM2 (also called RAM2), is not compatible with DVD drives that do not specifically allow reading DVD-RAM2 discs. DVD-RAM2 medium was brought to the market in Japan, but was not launched worldwide.  Some high end products such as IBM System p mainframes require DVD-RAM instead of DVD-RW.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "DVD-RAM (DVD Random Access Memory) is a disc specification presented in 1996 by the DVD Forum, which specifies rewritable DVD-RAM media and the appropriate DVD writers. DVD-RAM media have been used in computers as well as camcorders and personal video recorders since 1998.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971972}
{"src_title": "Event (probability theory)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "A simple example.", "content": "If we assemble a deck of 52 playing cards with no jokers, and draw a single card from the deck, then the sample space is a 52-element set, as each card is a possible outcome. An event, however, is any subset of the sample space, including any singleton set (an elementary event), the empty set (an impossible event, with probability zero) and the sample space itself (a certain event, with probability one). Other events are proper subsets of the sample space that contain multiple elements. So, for example, potential events include: Since all events are sets, they are usually written as sets (e.g. {1, 2, 3}), and represented graphically using Venn diagrams. In the situation where each outcome in the sample space Ω is equally likely, the probability formula_1 of an event \"A\" is the following : This rule can readily be applied to each of the example events above.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Events in probability spaces.", "content": "Defining all subsets of the sample space as events works well when there are only finitely many outcomes, but gives rise to problems when the sample space is infinite. For many standard probability distributions, such as the normal distribution, the sample space is the set of real numbers or some subset of the real numbers. Attempts to define probabilities for all subsets of the real numbers run into difficulties when one considers 'badly behaved' sets, such as those that are nonmeasurable. Hence, it is necessary to restrict attention to a more limited family of subsets. For the standard tools of probability theory, such as joint and conditional probabilities, to work, it is necessary to use a σ-algebra, that is, a family closed under complementation and countable unions of its members. The most natural choice of σ-algebra is the Borel measurable set derived from unions and intersections of intervals. However, the larger class of Lebesgue measurable sets proves more useful in practice.  In the general measure-theoretic description of probability spaces, an event may be defined as an element of a selected σ-algebra of subsets of the sample space. Under this definition, any subset of the sample space that is not an element of the σ-algebra is not an event, and does not have a probability. With a reasonable specification of the probability space, however, all \"events of interest\" are elements of the σ-algebra.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "A note on notation.", "content": "Even though events are subsets of some sample space Ω, they are often written as predicates or indicators involving random variables. For example, if \"X\" is a real-valued random variable defined on the sample space Ω, the event can be written more conveniently as, simply, This is especially common in formulas for a probability, such as The set \"u\" < \"X\" ≤ \"v\" is an example of an inverse image under the mapping \"X\" because formula_6 if and only if formula_7.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In probability theory, an event is a set of outcomes of an experiment (a subset of the sample space) to which a probability is assigned. A single outcome may be an element of many different events, and different events in an experiment are usually not equally likely, since they may include very different groups of outcomes. An event defines a complementary event, namely the complementary set (the event \"not\" occurring), and together these define a Bernoulli trial: did the event occur or not?", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971973}
{"src_title": "Compound eye", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "Compound eyes are typically classified as either apposition eyes, which form multiple inverted images, or superposition eyes, which form a single erect image.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Apposition eyes.", "content": "Apposition eyes can be divided into two groups. The typical apposition eye has a lens focusing light from one direction on the rhabdom, while light from other directions is absorbed by the dark wall of the ommatidium. The mantis shrimp is the most advanced example of an animal with this type of eye. In the other kind of apposition eye, found in the Strepsiptera, each lens forms an image, and the images are combined in the brain. This is called the schizochroal compound eye or the neural superposition eye (which, despite its name, is a form of the apposition eye).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Superposition eyes.", "content": "The second type is named the superposition eye. The superposition eye is divided into three types; the refracting, the reflecting and the parabolic superposition eye. The refracting superposition eye has a gap between the lens and the rhabdom, and no side wall. Each lens takes light at an angle to its axis and reflects it to the same angle on the other side. The result is an image at half the radius of the eye, which is where the tips of the rhabdoms are. This kind is used mostly by nocturnal insects. In the parabolic superposition compound eye type, seen in arthropods such as mayflies, the parabolic surfaces of the inside of each facet focus light from a reflector to a sensor array. Long-bodied decapod crustaceans such as shrimp, prawns, crayfish and lobsters are alone in having reflecting superposition eyes, which also have a transparent gap but use corner mirrors instead of lenses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "Good fliers like flies or honey bees, or prey-catching insects like praying mantis or dragonflies, have specialized zones of ommatidia organized into a fovea area which gives acute vision. In the acute zone the eye is flattened and the facets larger. The flattening allows more ommatidia to receive light from a spot and therefore higher resolution.  There are some exceptions from the types mentioned above. Some insects have a so-called single lens compound eye, a transitional type which is something between a superposition type of the multi-lens compound eye and the single lens eye found in animals with simple eyes. Then there is the mysid shrimp, \"Dioptromysis paucispinosa\". The shrimp has an eye of the refracting superposition type, in the rear behind this in each eye there is a single large facet that is three times in diameter the others in the eye and behind this is an enlarged crystalline cone. This projects an upright image on a specialized retina. The resulting eye is a mixture of a simple eye within a compound eye.  Another version is the pseudofaceted eye, as seen in Scutigera. This type of eye consists of a cluster of numerous ocelli on each side of the head, organized in a way that resembles a true compound eye.  The body of \"Ophiocoma wendtii\", a type of brittle star, was previously thought to be covered with ommatidia, turning its whole skin into a compound eye.  Asymmetries in compound eyes may be associated with asymmetries in behaviour. For example, \"Temnothorax albipennis\" ant scouts show behavioural lateralization when exploring unknown nest sites, showing a population-level bias to prefer left turns. One possible reason for this is that its environment is partly maze-like and consistently turning in one direction is a good way to search and exit mazes without getting lost. This turning bias is correlated with slight asymmetries in the ants' compound eyes (differential ommatidia count).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A compound eye is a visual organ found in arthropods such as insects and crustaceans. It may consist of thousands of ommatidia, which are tiny independent photoreception units that consist of a cornea, lens, and photoreceptor cells which distinguish brightness and color. The image perceived by this arthropod eye is a combination of inputs from the numerous ommatidia, which are oriented to point in slightly different directions. Compared with single-aperture eyes, compound eyes have poor image resolution; however, they possess a very large view angle and the ability to detect fast movement and, in some cases, the polarization of light.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971974}
{"src_title": "Rusty-spotted cat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Felis rubiginosa\" was the scientific name used by Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1831 for a rusty-spotted cat specimen from Pondicherry, India. \"Prionailurus\" was proposed by Nikolai Severtzov in 1858 as a generic name. \"Prionailurus rubiginosus phillipsi\" was proposed by Reginald Innes Pocock in 1939 who described a specimen from Central Province, Sri Lanka and subordinated both to the genus \"Prionailurus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "Phylogenetic analysis of the nuclear DNA in tissue samples from all Felidae species revealed that the evolutionary radiation of the Felidae began in Asia in the Miocene around. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA of all Felidae species indicates a radiation at around.  The \"Prionailurus\" species are estimated to have had a common ancestor between, and. The rusty-spotted cat possibly genetically diverged from this ancestor between. Both models agree in the rusty-spotted cat having been the first cat of this lineage that diverged, followed by the flat-headed cat (\"P. planiceps\") and the fishing cat (\"P. viverrinus\"). The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships of the rusty-spotted cat as derived through analysis of nuclear DNA:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The rusty-spotted cat has a short reddish grey fur over most of the body with rusty spots on the back and flanks. Four blackish lines run over the eyes, and two of them extend over the neck. Six dark streaks are on each side of the head, extending over the cheeks and forehead. Its chin, throat, inner side of the limbs and belly are whitish with tiny brownish spots. It has a rusty band on the chest. Its paws and tail are uniform reddish grey.  It is the smallest wild cat in Asia and rivals the black-footed cat as the world's smallest wild cat. It is in length, with a tail, and weighs only. The bushy tail is about half the length of the body.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The distribution of the rusty-spotted cat is relatively restricted. It occurs mainly in moist and dry deciduous forests as well as scrub and grassland, but is likely absent from evergreen forest. It prefers dense vegetation and rocky areas.  In India, it was long thought to be confined to the south, but records have established that it is found over much of the country. It was observed in eastern Gujarat's Gir National Park, in Maharashtra's Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve and along India's Eastern Ghats. Camera trapping revealed its presence in Pilibhit Tiger Reserve in the Indian Terai and in Nagzira Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra. In western Maharashtra, there is a breeding population of rusty-spotted cats in a human dominated agricultural landscape, where rodent densities are high. In December 2014 and in April 2015, it was photographed by camera traps in Kalesar National Park, Haryana. It was also discovered using camera traps in Mirzapur Forest Division of Uttar Pradesh in 2018.  In March 2012, a rusty-spotted cat was photographed in Bardia National Park for the first time, and in March 2016 also in Shuklaphanta National Park, both in Nepal.  In Sri Lanka, there are a few records from montane and lowland rainforest. There are two distinct populations, one in the dry zone and the other in the wet zone. In 2016, it was recorded for the first time in Horton Plains National Park at elevations of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behaviour.", "content": "Very little is known about the ecology and behaviour of rusty-spotted cats in the wild. Captive ones are mostly nocturnal but also briefly active during the day. Most wild ones were also recorded after dark. At Horton Plain National Park in Sri Lanka, they were mostly recorded between sunset and sunrise, with limited daytime activity. Several individuals were observed hiding in trees and in caves.  They feed mainly on rodents and birds, but may also hunt lizards, frogs, and insects. They hunt primarily on the ground, making rapid, darting movements to catch their prey. They apparently venture into trees to escape larger predators. Captive females and males both scent-mark their home range by spraying urine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The female's oestrus lasts five days, and mating is unusually brief. Since the female is likely to be vulnerable during this period, its brevity may be an adaptation to help it avoid larger predators. She prepares a den in a secluded location, and after a gestation of 65–70 days gives birth to one or two kittens. At birth, the kittens weigh just, and are marked with rows of black spots. They reach sexual maturity at around 68 weeks, by which time they have developed the distinctive adult coat pattern of rusty blotches. Rusty-spotted cats have lived for twelve years in captivity, but their lifespan in the wild is unknown.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "Habitat loss and the spread of cultivation are serious problems for wildlife in both India and Sri Lanka. Although there are several records of rusty-spotted cats from cultivated and settled areas, it is not known to what degree cat populations are able to persist in such areas. There have been occasional reports of rusty-spotted cat skins in trade. In some areas, they are hunted for food or as livestock pests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The Indian population is listed on CITES Appendix I. The Sri Lankan population is included on CITES Appendix II. The species is fully protected over most of its range, with hunting and trade banned in India and Sri Lanka.  As of 2010, the captive population of \"P. r. phillipsi\" comprised 56 individuals in eight institutions, of which 11 individuals were kept in the Colombo Zoo in Sri Lanka and 45 individuals in seven European zoos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local names.", "content": "In Sri Lanka, the rusty-spotted cat is known as \"kola diviya\" or \"balal diviya\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The rusty-spotted cat (\"Prionailurus rubiginosus\") is one of the cat family's smallest members, of which historical records are known only from India and Sri Lanka. In 2012, it was also recorded in the western Terai of Nepal. Since 2016, the global wild population is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List as it is fragmented and affected by loss and destruction of prime habitat, deciduous forests.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971975}
{"src_title": "Opus number", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "In the classical period, the Latin word \"opus\" (\"work\", \"labour\"), plural \"opera\", was used to identify, list, and catalogue a work of art.  By the 15th and 16th centuries, the word \"opus\" was used by Italian composers to denote a specific musical composition, and by German composers for collections of music. In compositional practise, numbering musical works in chronological order dates from 17th century Italy, especially Venice. In common usage, the word \"Opus\" is used to describe the best work of an artist with the term \"magnum opus\".  In Latin, the words \"opus\" (singular) and \"opera\" (plural) are related to the words \"opera\" (singular) and \"operae\" (plural), which gave rise to the Italian words \"opera\" (singular) and \"opere\" (plural), likewise meaning \"work\". In contemporary English, the word \"opera\" has specifically come to denote the dramatic musical genres of opera or ballet, which were developed in Italy. As a result, the plural \"opera\" of \"opus\" tends to be avoided in English. In other languages such as German, however, it remains common.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early usage.", "content": "In the arts, an opus number usually denotes a work of musical composition, a practice and usage established in the seventeenth century when composers identified their works with an opus number. In the eighteenth century, publishers usually assigned opus numbers when publishing groups of like compositions, usually in sets of three, six or twelve compositions. Consequently, opus numbers are not usually in chronological order, unpublished compositions usually had no opus number, and numeration gaps and sequential duplications occurred when publishers issued contemporaneous editions of a composer’s works, as in the sets of string quartets by Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827); Haydn's Op. 76, the Erdödy quartets (1796–97), comprises six discrete quartets consecutively numbered Op. 76 No. 1 – Op. 76 No. 6; whilst Beethoven's Op. 59, the Rasumovsky quartets (1805–06), comprises String Quartet No. 7, String Quartet No. 8, and String Quartet No. 9.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "19th century to date.", "content": "From about 1800, composers usually assigned an opus number to a work or set of works upon publication. After approximately 1900, they tended to assign an opus number to a composition whether published or not. However, practices were not always perfectly consistent or logical. For example, early in his career, Beethoven selectively numbered his compositions (some published without opus numbers), yet in later years, he published early works with high opus numbers. Likewise, some posthumously published works were given high opus numbers by publishers, even though some of them were written early in Beethoven's career. Since his death in 1827, the un-numbered compositions have been cataloged and labeled with the German acronym WoO (\"Werk ohne Opuszahl\"), meaning \"work without opus number\"; the same has been done with other composers who used opus numbers. (There are also other catalogs of Beethoven's works – see Catalogues of Beethoven compositions.)  The practice of enumerating a posthumous opus (\"Op. posth.\") is noteworthy in the case of Felix Mendelssohn (1809–47); after his death, the heirs published many compositions with opus numbers that Mendelssohn did not assign. In life, he published two symphonies (Symphony No. 1 in C minor, Op. 11; and Symphony No. 3 in A minor, Op. 56), furthermore he published his symphony-cantata \"Lobgesang\", Op. 52, which was posthumously counted as his Symphony No. 2; yet, he chronologically wrote symphonies between symphonies Nos. 1 and 2, which he withdrew for personal and compositional reasons; nevertheless, the Mendelssohn heirs published (and cataloged) them as the \" Italian\" Symphony No. 4 in A major, Op. 90, and as the \" Reformation\" Symphony No. 5 in D major and D minor, Op. 107.  While many of the works of Antonín Dvořák (1841–1904) were given opus numbers, these did not always bear a logical relationship to the order in which the works were written or published. To achieve better sales, some publishers, such as N. Simrock, preferred to present less experienced composers as being well established, by giving some relatively early works much higher opus numbers than their chronological order would merit. In other cases, Dvořák gave lower opus numbers to new works to be able to sell them to other publishers outside his contract obligations. This way it could happen that the same opus number was given to more than one of his works. Opus number 12, for example, was assigned, successively, to five different works (an opera, a concert overture, a string quartet, and two unrelated piano works). In other cases, the same work was given as many as three different opus numbers by different publishers. The sequential numbering of his symphonies has also been confused: (a) they were initially numbered by order of publication, not composition; (b) the first four symphonies to be composed were published after the last five; and (c) the last five symphonies were not published in order of composition. The \"New World Symphony\" originally was published as No. 5, later was known as No. 8, and definitively was renumbered as No. 9 in the critical editions published in the 1950s.  Other examples of composers' historically inconsistent opus-number usages include the cases of César Franck (1822–1890), Béla Bartók (1881–1945), and Alban Berg (1885-1935), who initially numbered, but then stopped numbering their compositions. Carl Nielsen (1865–1931) and Paul Hindemith (1895–1963) were also inconsistent in their approaches. Sergei Prokofiev (1891–1953) was consistent and assigned an opus number to a composition \"before\" composing it; at his death, he left fragmentary and planned, but numbered, works. In revising a composition, Prokofiev occasionally assigned a new opus number to the revision; thus Symphony No. 4 is two thematically related but discrete works: Symphony No. 4, Op. 47, written in 1929; and Symphony No. 4, Op. 112, a large-scale revision written in 1947. Likewise, depending upon the edition, the original version of Piano Sonata No. 5 in C major, is cataloged both as Op. 38 and as Op. 135.  Despite being used in more or less normal fashion by a number of important early-twentieth-century composers, including Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951) and Anton Webern (1883-1945), opus numbers became less common in the later part of the twentieth century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other catalogues.", "content": "To manage inconsistent opus-number usages — especially by composers of the Baroque (1600–1750) and of the Classical (1720—1830) music eras — musicologists have developed comprehensive and unambiguous catalogue number-systems for the works of composers such as:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In musical composition, the opus number is the \"work number\" that is assigned to a musical composition, or to a set of compositions, to indicate the chronological order of the composer's production. Opus numbers are used to distinguish among compositions with similar titles; the word is abbreviated as \"Op.\" for a single work, or \"Opp.\" when referring to more than one work.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971976}
{"src_title": "Brännboll", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rules.", "content": "The rules of brännboll differ between different areas and there is no governing body. Nevertheless, this section outlines some rules and traditions which are commonly upheld.  In contrast to baseball and cricket, there is no pitcher/bowler, but the batsman himself throws or bounces the ball (usually a tennis ball) and hits it with his bat. A selection of bats is sometimes available, with a regular wooden or metallic baseball bat usually present, and a paddle-like bat resembling a cricket bat available for less experienced batsmen. On some occasions, there is also a stiff racket. The valid area for a successful batting is usually delimited by natural features such as trees, or simply an agreed upon imaginary border, this rule only restricts how widely the batter can hit, but not how far. The proportions of the field and positioning of the players are arbitrary, albeit usually adjusted according to the batting and running ability of the players, as well as team size.  When the batsman successfully hits the ball, they drop the bat and make their way around the four bases (usually counter-clockwise), while the players in the catching team catch and throw the ball back to the designated catcher positioned by the outing base (\"brännplatta\"), who announces the end of the batting round with \"out\" (\"bränd\", \"burned\") when the catcher has made contact with the outing base whilst holding the ball. If a player from the batting team is caught between two bases at the end of the batting round, they move back to either the last visited base or first base (depending on the local rules) and the catching team scores a point. If a batsman is unsuccessful at batting after the three attempts allowed, they move to the first base and will run when the next batsman bats a valid hit. There are no restrictions on the number of players at each base. If all players on the batting team fail to reach the fourth base (and thus rejoin the queue) and no batsmen remain in the queue, the inner team is caught out (\"utebrända\"), and depending on local rules extra points may be awarded to the opposing team in return for the safe passage on the players to the queue. Alternatively, the inner team gets to switch sides as batting is often more lucrative for scoring points.  Each team get to play as both sides, usually one or two times, and sides are shifted at predetermined time intervals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scoring system.", "content": "Score and time is kept by a score keeper, who also has the final say in whether inner team players are caught out at the end of a batting round.  Generic scoring system (Due to the lack of a professional organisation governing brännboll, many local varieties exist):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Penalty system.", "content": "Generic penalty system (Several varieties exist)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popularity.", "content": "While not being an organized sport with teams and a league, it is appreciated by children of all ages during school or after, and friends after work play for fun.  Since 1974 an annual Students World Championship tournament has been held in the northern city of Umeå, whereby some standardized rules are followed. The world championship is called Brännbollscupen, which is followed by the festival Brännbollsyran.  Brännboll is enjoyed by elementary schoolchildren in the American Upper Midwest (particularly Minnesota), due to the area's large Scandinavian influence.  A similar game, brennball, is popular in PE classes at German schools. It is usually played indoors, with a larger ball (such as a volleyball or a basketball) and without a bat; batting is replaced by throwing. The bases are usually far larger than in baseball and more than one player can be on the same base at the same time. German brennball is rarely played outside a PE setting.  In Norway another similar game, called (deadball or deathball), is common. The game has six or five rings (approximately one meter in diameter) marked on the ground instead of four bases, limiting the number of players secured by a given ring to the amount that can fit within it. The term \"dead\" (død) is used instead of \"burnt\" or \"out\". When the catcher gets the ball he or she also has to bounce it on the ground (usually on a predetermined square called døboksen, \"the death box\") and shout \"dø\" (\"die\"). A dead player is exempt from play for the rest of the round unless a home run is achieved; in which case a set number of dead players (usually either one or all of them, depending on the rule-set) are \"saved\" and allowed to rejoin the queue. To complete a run a player has to reenter the \"in\" side of the field rather than just reaching the last base. Scoring- and win-conditions varies widely from rule-set to rule-set. Points can be determined by runs, just by home runs, by rounds won (usually determined by reaching set numbers of home runs for the in-team or dead players for the out-team) or by combinations of the above. Sometimes points are not used at all and a game ends with no formal winner after a set amount of time.  Another version of the game, popular among students, is called ölbrännboll (beer-brännball), where beercases are used as bases so the players of the batting team, waiting to run can drink freely. It is however not mandatory to drink while waiting. One version of the game where drinking \"is\" mandatory is vinbrännboll (wine-brännball), where you take a glass of wine after passing the fourth base and thus being \"safe\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Brännboll (); Brennball in Germany, rundbold in Denmark, brennball or slåball in Norway) is a bat-and-ball game played on amateur level throughout Sweden, Finland, Norway, Denmark and Germany, mostly on fields and in public parks, but it is also part of the PE curriculum in some areas. The name is derived from the act of catching a player between two bases at the end of a batting round, referred to as \"burning\" them (\"bränna\"), roughly equivalent to being run out in cricket or out in baseball. The world championship, called Brännbollscupen, is an annual event in the Swedish city of Umeå.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971977}
{"src_title": "Junkers Ju 287", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The Ju 287 was intended to provide the \"Luftwaffe\" with a bomber that could avoid interception by outrunning enemy fighters. The swept-forward wing was suggested by the project's head designer, Dr. Hans Wocke as a way of providing extra lift at low airspeeds - necessary because of the poor responsiveness of early turbojets at the vulnerable times of takeoff and landing. A further structural advantage of the forward-swept wing was that it would allow for a single massive weapons bay in the best location, the centre of gravity of the plane, with the main wing spar passing behind the bomb bay. The same structural requirement meant the wing could then be located at the best aerodynamic location, the centre of the fuselage. Prior to the assembly of the first Ju 287, an He 177 A-5 (designated as na He 177 prototype, V38) was modified at the Letov plant in Prague to examine the technical characteristics of this single large bomb bay design.  The first and second prototypes (Ju 287 V1 and V2; both designated Ju 288 V201 and Ju 288 V202 for security reasons) were intended to evaluate the concept, with V1 being intended to test the FSW and V2 being earmarked for evaluating flight at high subsonic speeds, and both were assembled from the fuselages of the He 177 A-5, the tail of the Ju 188G-2, main undercarriage from a Ju 352, and nosewheels taken from shot-down B-24 Liberators, all of which were fixed to lower weight and complexity, and equipped with spats to reduce drag. The fixed undercarriage was used as the wing box couldn't have cutouts for wheel stowage which would reduce wing torsion box stiffness required for the forward sweep design. Later prototypes with higher power engines and higher top speed would have the undercarriage stowage in the centre fuselage sides Two of the Jumo 004 engines were hung in nacelles (pods) under the wings, with the other two mounted in nacelles added to the sides of the forward fuselage.  Flight tests began on 16 August 1944 (pilot: Siegfried Holzbaur), with the aircraft displaying extremely good handling characteristics, as well as revealing some of the problems of the forward-swept wing under some flight conditions. The most notable of these drawbacks was 'wing warping', or excessive in flight flexing of the main spar and wing assembly. Tests suggested that the warping problem would be eliminated by concentrating greater engine mass under the wings. This technical improvement would be incorporated in the subsequent prototypes with under wing engines moved forward under leading edge as a mass balance. The Ju 287 was intended to be powered by four Heinkel-Hirth HeS 011 engines, but because of the development problems experienced with that engine, the BMW 003 was selected in its place. The second prototype (Junkers Ju 287 V2) would have had six engines (originally four underwing BMW 003s and two fuselage-mounted Jumo 004s, but later changed to two triple clusters composed of four Jumo 004s and two BMW 003s), and also differed from the Ju 287 V1 in having the main undercarriage struts with an inward cant, the horizontal stabilizer lowered by 30 centimeters, and light grey-colored trouser pants for the nose wheels. The third prototype, the Junkers Ju 287 V3, employed six BMW 003s, in a triple cluster under each wing, and featured the all-new fuselage and tail design intended for the production bomber, the Ju 287A-1, utilizing a pressurised cockpit used on the Junkers Ju 288. The Ju 287 V4 and V5 would have served as prototypes of the Ju 287A-2 and Ju 287B-1 respectively, and the V5 and V6 were to feature tail armament and ejection seats. The Ju 287B-1 would have had four thrust HeS 011 turbojets, while the Junkers Ju 287B-2 was to employ two thrust BMW 018 turbojets. While the Heinkel turbojet was in the pre-production phase at war's end, work on BMW's radical and very powerful turbine engine never proceeded past three barely-tested prototypes. The final Ju 287 variant design to be mooted was a Mistel combination-plane ground attack version, comprising an unmanned explosives-packed \"drone\" 287 and a manned Me 262 fighter attached to the top of the bomber by a strut assembly. The cockpit of the 287 would be replaced by a massive impact-fused warhead. Takeoff and flight control of the combination would be under the direction of the 262's pilot. The 262 would disengage from the 287 drone as the Mistel neared its target, the pilot of the fighter remotely steering the 287 for the terminal phase of its strike mission.  Work on the Ju 287 programme, along with all other pending German bomber projects (including Junkers' other ongoing heavy bomber design, the piston-engined Ju 488) came to a halt in July 1944, but Junkers was allowed to go forward with the flight testing regime on the V1 prototype. The components for the Junkers Ju 287 V2 had been completed by that time, and were shipped to Brandis for final assembly. Seventeen test flights were undertaken in total, which passed without notable incident. Minor problems, however, did arise with the turbojet engines and the equally-experimental HWK 109-501 higher-thrust (14.71 kN apiece) bipropellant \"Starthilfe\" RATO booster units, which proved to be unreliable over sustained periods. This initial test phase was designed purely to assess the low-speed handling qualities of the forward-swept wing, but despite this the V1 was dived at full jet power on at least one occasion, attaining a speed in the medium dive-angle employed of 660 km/h. To gain data on airflow patterns, small woolen tufts were glued to the airframe and the \"behavior\" of these tufts during flight was captured by a cine camera mounted on a sturdy tripod directly ahead of the plane's tailfin. After the seventeenth and last flight in late autumn of 1944, the V1 was transferred to the Luftwaffe's primary \"Erprobungsstelle\" evaluation and test centre at Rechlin\", for flow tests. However, in March 1945, for unknown reasons, the Ju 287 program was restarted, with the RLM issuing a requirement for mass production of the jet bomber (100 airframes a month) as soon as possible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Postwar development.", "content": "The Junkers factory in Dessau was overrun by the Red Army in late April 1945. Before long, the Junkers Ju 287 V2 had been almost completed, waiting for its engines to be fitted, and construction of the V3 had reached 80-90 percent completion, while the V4 was reportedly 60 percent complete. Both V1 and V2 were destroyed by the Nazis to avoid capture by Allied forces. Wocke and his staff were captured by the Red Army and taken to the Soviet Union, and remnants of V2, especially the wings, were used in construction of the EF 131 which was flown on 23 May 1947, but by that time, jet development had already overtaken the Ju 287. A final much-enlarged derivative, the EF 140, was tested in prototype form in 1949 but soon abandoned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "\"Data from:\" Junkers Ju 287: The World's First Swept-Wing Jet Aircraft", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Junkers Ju 287 was an aerodynamic testbed built in Nazi Germany to develop the technology required for a multi-engine jet bomber. It was powered by four Junkers Jumo 004 engines, featured an unusual and novel forward-swept wing, and apart from the wing was assembled largely from components scavenged from other aircraft. It was one of the very few jet propelled aircraft ever built with fixed landing gear.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971978}
{"src_title": "Crime and Punishment", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Wellsboro was incorporated in 1830 and was named in honor of Mary Wells, wife of one of the original settlers, Benjamin Wistar Morris. The town was the home of George W. Sears (1821 – 1890), a sportswriter for \"Field & Stream\" magazine in the 1880s and an early environmentalist. His stories, appearing under the pen name \"Nessmuk\", popularised self-guided canoe camping tours of the Adirondack lakes in open lightweight solo canoes and what is today called ultralight camping. The town was also the home of Polish-American mathematician Mateusz Stepczak. Wellsboro was also the site of one of the first factories where light bulbs were mass-produced, using machines whose design remains essentially unchanged from the early 20th century when the Corning company established the plant in the town.  The Robinson House, Jesse Robinson House, Wellsboro Armory, and Wellsboro Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Wellsboro is located at (41.746794, -77.301881).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has a total area of, of which, of it is land and of it (0.61%) is water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "As of the census of 2000, there were 3,328 people, 1,469 households, and 866 families residing in the borough. The population density was 681.0 people per square mile (262.8/km2). There were 1,602 housing units at an average density of 327.8 per square mile (126.5/km2). The racial makeup of the borough was 98.14% White, 0.39% African American, 0.18% Native American, 0.90% Asian, 0.18% from other races, and 0.21% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.57% of the population.  There were 1,469 households out of which 25.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.0% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.0% were non-families. 36.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.17 and the average family size was 2.83.  In the borough the population was spread out with 20.9% under the age of 18, 7.7% from 18 to 24, 23.1% from 25 to 44, 24.2% from 45 to 64, and 24.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females there were 80.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75.3 males.  The median income for a household in the borough was $30,169, and the median income for a family was $39,898. Males had a median income of $37,083 versus $20,492 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $18,096. About 9.5% of families and 14.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.8% of those under age 18 and 13.9% of those age 65 or over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "WNDA 1490AM (1000 watts) and WNBT-FM (50,000 watts) are owned by Southern Belle LLC. The Wellsboro Gazette is a weekly print publication owned by Tioga Publishing Company which covers news in Wellsboro and surrounding towns. Mountain Home, published by Beagle Media, is a monthly regional magazine headquartered and published out of Wellsboro.  Wellsboro receives television programming from the Elmira-Corning media market.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Residents of Wellsboro may attend the local, public schools operated by Wellsboro Area School District which provides full day kindergarten through 12th grade. In 2013, the District's enrollment declined to 1,526 students in kindergarten through 12th grade. In 2013, Wellsboro Area School District ranked 311th out of 498 public schools for academic achievement of its pupils, by the Pittsburgh Business Times.  Wellsboro residents may also apply to attend any of the Commonwealth's 14 public cyber charter schools (in 2013) at no additional cost to the parents. The resident's public school district is required to pay the charter school and cyber charter school tuition for residents who attend these public schools. By Commonwealth law, since the District provides transportation for its own students, then Wellsboro Area School District must provide transportation to any school that lies within 10 miles of its borders. Residents may also seek admission for their school aged child to any other public school district. When accepted for admission, the student's parents are responsible for paying an annual tuition fee set by the Pennsylvania Department of Education. In 2012, the tuition fees for Wellsboro Area School District were: Elementary School - $8,343.38, High School - $9,951.51.  BLaST Intermediate Unit #17 provides a wide variety of services to children living in its region which includes the borough of Wellsboro. Early screening for disabilities, special educations services, speech and hearing therapy and many other services like driver education are available. Services for children during the preschool years are provided without cost to their families when the child is determined to meet eligibility requirements.  Community members have access to the Green Free Library located in Wellsboro; the Westfield Public Library which is located on Maple Street, in Westfield; the Elkland Area Community Library located on East Parkway Avenue, in Elkland and to the statewide PA Power Library which is an online library funded with tax dollars from the state's education budget.  Mansfield University of Pennsylvania is a state university located in Mansfield, Tioga County, Pennsylvania. Residents may take courses at a discounted tuition rate for state residents.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Crime and Punishment (pre-reform Russian: ; post-reform ) is a novel by the Russian author Fyodor Dostoevsky. It was first published in the literary journal \"The Russian Messenger\" in twelve monthly installments during 1866. It was later published in a single volume. It is the second of Dostoevsky's full-length novels following his return from ten years of exile in Siberia. \"Crime and Punishment\" is considered the first great novel of his \"mature\" period of writing. Since its publication, it has been acclaimed as one of the supreme achievements in world literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971979}
{"src_title": "The Sorrows of Young Werther", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "Most of \"The Sorrows of Young Werther\", a story about unrequited love, is presented as a collection of letters written by Werther, a young artist of a sensitive and passionate temperament, to his friend Wilhelm. These give an intimate account of his stay in the fictional village of Wahlheim (based on Garbenheim, near Wetzlar), whose peasants have enchanted him with their simple ways. There he meets Charlotte, a beautiful young girl who takes care of her siblings after the death of their mother. Werther falls in love with Charlotte despite knowing beforehand that she is engaged to a man named Albert, eleven years her senior.  Despite the pain it causes him, Werther spends the next few months cultivating a close friendship with them both. His sorrow eventually becomes so unsupportable that he is forced to leave Wahlheim for Weimar, where he makes the acquaintance of \"Fräulein\" von B. He suffers great embarrassment when he forgetfully visits a friend and unexpectedly has to face there the weekly gathering of the entire aristocratic set. He is not tolerated and asked to leave since he is not a nobleman. He then returns to Wahlheim, where he suffers still more than before, partly because Charlotte and Albert are now married. Every day becomes a torturing reminder that Charlotte will never be able to requite his love. She, out of pity for her friend and respect for her husband, decides that Werther must not visit her so frequently. He visits her one final time, and they are both overcome with emotion after he recites to her a passage of his own translation of \"Ossian\".  Even before that incident, Werther had hinted at the idea that one member of the love triangle – Charlotte, Albert or Werther himself – had to die to resolve the situation. Unable to hurt anyone else or seriously consider murder, Werther sees no other choice but to take his own life. After composing a farewell letter to be found after his death, he writes to Albert asking for his two pistols, on the pretext that he is going \"on an adventure\". Charlotte receives the request with great emotion and sends the pistols. Werther then shoots himself in the head, but does not die until twelve hours later. He is buried under a lime tree that he has mentioned frequently in his letters. The funeral is not attended by any clergy, or by Albert or Charlotte. The book ends with an intimation that Charlotte may die of a broken heart. \"I shall say nothing of... Charlotte's grief... Charlotte's life was despaired of.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effect on Goethe.", "content": "\"Werther\" was one of Goethe's few works aligned with the aesthetic, social and philosophical ideals that pervaded the German proto-Romantic movement known as \"Sturm und Drang\", before he and Friedrich von Schiller moved into Weimar Classicism. The novel was published anonymously, and Goethe distanced himself from it in his later years, regretting the fame it had brought him and the consequent attention to his own youthful love of Charlotte Buff, then already engaged to Johann Christian Kestner. Although he wrote \"Werther\" at the age of 24, it was all for which some of his visitors in his old age knew him. His views of literature had changed radically by then. He even denounced the Romantic movement as \"everything that is sick.\"  Goethe described the powerful impact the book had on him, writing that even if Werther had been a brother of his whom he had killed, he could not have been more haunted by his vengeful ghost. Yet, Goethe substantially reworked the book for the 1787 edition and acknowledged the great personal and emotional influence that \"The Sorrows of Young Werther\" could exert on forlorn young lovers who discovered it. As he commented to his secretary in 1821, \"It must be bad, if not everybody was to have a time in his life, when he felt as though \"Werther\" had been written exclusively for him.\" Even fifty years after the book's publication, Goethe wrote in a conversation with Johann Peter Eckermann about the emotional turmoil he had gone through while writing the book: \"That was a creation which I, like the pelican, fed with the blood of my own heart.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural impact.", "content": "\"The Sorrows of Young Werther\" turned Goethe, previously an unknown author, into a literary celebrity almost overnight. Napoleon Bonaparte considered it one of the great works of European literature, having written a Goethe-inspired soliloquy in his youth and carried \"Werther\" with him on his campaigning to Egypt. It also started the phenomenon known as the \"Werther Fever\", which caused young men throughout Europe to dress in the clothing style described for Werther in the novel. Items of merchandising such as prints, decorated Meissen porcelain and even a perfume were produced.  The book reputedly also led to some of the first known examples of copycat suicide. The men were often dressed in the same clothing \"as Goethe's description of Werther and using similar pistols.\" Often the book was found at the scene of the suicide. Rüdiger Safranski, a modern biographer of Goethe, dismisses the Werther Effect 'as only a persistent rumor'. Nonetheless, this aspect of \"Werther Fever\" was watched with concern by the authorities – both the novel and the Werther clothing style were banned in Leipzig in 1775; the novel was also banned in Denmark and Italy. It was also watched with fascination by fellow authors. One of these, Friedrich Nicolai, decided to create a satirical piece with a happy ending, entitled \"Die Freuden des jungen Werthers\" (\"\"The Joys of Young Werther\"\"), in which Albert, having realized what Werther is up to, loaded chicken's blood into the pistol, thereby foiling Werther's suicide, and happily concedes Charlotte to him. After some initial difficulties, Werther sheds his passionate youthful side and reintegrates himself into society as a respectable citizen.  Goethe, however, was not pleased with the \"Freuden\" and started a literary war with Nicolai that lasted all his life, writing a poem titled \"Nicolai auf Werthers Grabe\" (\"Nicolai on Werther's grave\"), in which Nicolai (here a passing nameless pedestrian) defecates on Werther's grave, so desecrating the memory of a Werther from which Goethe had distanced himself in the meantime, as he had from the \"Sturm und Drang\". This argument was continued in his collection of short and critical poems, the \"Xenien\", and his play \"Faust.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sorrows of Young Werther () is a loosely autobiographical epistolary novel by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. First published in 1774, it reappeared as a revised edition in 1787. It was one of the most important novels in the \"Sturm und Drang\" period in German literature, and influenced the later Romantic movement. Goethe, aged 24 at the time, finished \"Werther\" in five-and-a-half weeks of intensive writing in January–March 1774. The book's publication instantly placed the author among the foremost international literary celebrities, and was among the best known of his works.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971980}
{"src_title": "Document management system", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Beginning in the 1980s, a number of vendors began to develop software systems to manage paper-based documents. These systems dealt with paper documents, which included not only printed and published documents, but also photographs, prints, etc.  Later developers began to write a second type of system which could manage electronic documents, i.e., all those documents, or files, created on computers, and often stored on users' local file-systems. The earliest electronic document management (EDM) systems managed either proprietary file types, or a limited number of file formats. Many of these systems later became known as document imaging systems, because they focused on the capture, storage, indexing and retrieval of image file formats. EDM systems evolved to a point where systems could manage any type of file format that could be stored on the network. The applications grew to encompass electronic documents, collaboration tools, security, workflow, and auditing capabilities.  These systems enabled an organization to capture faxes and forms, to save copies of the documents as images, and to store the image files in the repository for security and quick retrieval (retrieval made possible because the system handled the extraction of the text from the document in the process of capture, and the text-indexer function provided text-retrieval capabilities).  While many EDM systems store documents in their native file format (Microsoft Word or Excel, PDF), some web-based document management systems are beginning to store content in the form of html. These policy management systems require content to be imported into the system. However, once content is imported, the software acts like a search engine so users can find what they are looking for faster. The html format allows for better application of search capabilities such as full-text searching and stemming.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Components.", "content": "Document management systems commonly provide storage, versioning, metadata, security, as well as indexing and retrieval capabilities. Here is a description of these components:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standardization.", "content": "Many industry associations publish their own lists of particular document control standards that are used in their particular field. Following is a list of some of the relevant ISO documents. Divisions ICS 01.140.10 and 01.140.20. The ISO has also published a series of standards regarding the technical documentation, covered by the division of 01.110.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Document control.", "content": "Government regulations require that companies working in certain industries control their documents. These industries include accounting (for example: 8th EU Directive, Sarbanes–Oxley Act), food safety (e.g., Food Safety Modernization Act), ISO (mentioned above), medical-device manufacturing (FDA), manufacture of blood, human cells, and tissue products (FDA), healthcare (\"JCAHO\"), and information technology (\"ITIL\"). Some industries work under stricter document control requirements due to the type of information they retain for privacy, warranty, or other highly regulated purposes. Examples include Protected Health Information (PHI) as required by HIPAA or construction project documents required for warranty periods. An information systems strategy plan (ISSP) can shape organisational information systems over medium to long-term periods.  Documents stored in a document management system—such as procedures, work instructions, and policy statements—provide evidence of documents under control. Failing to comply can cause fines, the loss of business, or damage to a business's reputation.  The following are important aspects of document control:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Integrated DM.", "content": "Integrated document management comprises the technologies, tools, and methods used to capture, manage, store, preserve, deliver and dispose of 'documents' across an enterprise. In this context 'documents' are any of a myriad of information assets including images, office documents, graphics, and drawings as well as the new electronic objects such as Web pages, email, instant messages, and video.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Document management software.", "content": "Paper documents have long been used in storing information. However, paper can be costly and, if used excessively, wasteful. Document management software is not simply a tool but it lets a user manage access, track and edit information stored. Document management software is an electronic cabinet that can be used to organize all paper and digital files. The software helps the businesses to combine paper to digital files and store it into a single hub after it is scanned and digital formats get imported. One of the most important benefits of digital document management is that you will enjoy a “fail-safe” environment for safeguarding all of your documents and data.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A document management system (DMS) is a system used to receive, track, manage and store documents and reduce paper. Most are capable of keeping a record of the various versions created and modified by different users (history tracking). In the case of the management of digital documents such systems are based on computer programs. The term has some overlap with the concepts of content management systems. It is often viewed as a component of enterprise content management (ECM) systems and related to digital asset management, document imaging, workflow systems and records management systems.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971981}
{"src_title": "Flat-headed cat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The flat-headed cat is distinguished at once by the extreme depression of the skull, which extends along the nose to the extremity of the muzzle, the sides of which are laterally distended. The general habit of body is slender, and the extremities are delicate and lengthened. The head itself is more lengthened and cylindrical than in the domestic cat. The distance between the eyes and the ears is comparatively great. The cylindrical form and lateral contraction of the head is contrasted by an unusual length of the teeth. The canine teeth are nearly as long as in an individual of double its size.  The thick fur is reddish-brown on top of the head, dark roan brown on the body, and mottled white on the underbelly. The face is lighter in color than the body, and the muzzle and chin are white. Two prominent buff whitish streaks run on either side of the nose between the eyes. The ears are rounded. The eyes are unusually far forward and close together, compared with other cats, giving the felid improved stereoscopic vision. The teeth are adapted for gripping onto slippery prey, and the jaws are relatively powerful. These features help the flat-headed cat to catch and retain aquatic prey, to which it is at least as well adapted as the fishing cat. Legs are fairly short. Claws are retractable, but the covering sheaths are so reduced in size that about two-thirds of the claws are left protruding.  The anterior upper premolars are larger and sharper relative to other cats. The interdigital webs on its paws help the cat gain better traction in muddy environments and water, and are even more pronounced on this cat than those on the paws of the fishing cat.  It has a head-and-body length of and a short tail of. It weighs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The flat-headed cat's distribution is restricted to lowland tropical rainforests in extreme southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and on Borneo in Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei Darussalam and Kalimantan. It primarily occurs in freshwater habitats near coastal and lowland areas. More than 70% of records were collected less than away from water.  The flat-headed cat occurs in both primary and secondary forest.  In Peninsular Malaysia, flat-headed cats were recorded in the Pasoh Forest Reserve in 2013. As the Pasoh Forest Reserve contains no major rivers or lakes and is generally covered by hill dipterocarp forest, this detection provides new evidence of the species' potential habitat range. The reserve ranks as low probability of occurrence in a previously published species distribution model. Pasoh's surrounding landscape is dominated by plantations that have been established since the 1970s. The detection, occurring < from oil palm plantations, suggests that the flat-headed cat is more tolerant of changes in its surrounding environment than previously assumed.  In Kalimantan, flat-headed cats were recorded in mixed swamp forest and tall interior forest at altitudes below in the vicinity of Sabangau National Park.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behavior.", "content": "Flat-headed cats recorded in Kalimantan were foremost active by night. They are presumably solitary, and probably maintain their home ranges by scent marking. In captivity, both females and males spray urine by walking forward in a crouching position, leaving a trail on the ground. Anecdotal historical accounts report that they are nocturnal, but an adult captive female was crepuscular and most active between 8:00 and 11:30 and between 18:00 and 22:00 hours. The stomach contents of an adult shot on a Malaysian riverbank consisted only of fish. They have been observed to wash objects, raccoon-style. Live fish are readily taken, with full submergence of the head, and the fish were usually carried at least 2 m away, suggesting a feeding strategy to avoid letting aquatic prey escape back into water. Captive specimens show much greater interest in potential prey in the water than on dry land, suggesting a strong preference for riverine hunting in their natural habitat. Their morphological specializations suggest that their diet is mostly composed of fish, but they are reported to hunt for frogs, and are thought to catch crustaceans. They also catch rats and chickens.  Vocalizations of a flat-headed cat kitten resembled those of a domestic cat. The vocal repertoire of adults has not been analyzed completely, but they purr and give other short-ranged vocalizations.  Their gestation period lasts about 56 days. Of three litters recorded in captivity, one consisted of two kittens, the other two were singletons. Two captive individuals have lived for 14 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The flat-headed cat is primarily threatened by wetland and lowland forest destruction and degradation. Causes of this destruction include human settlement, forest transformation to plantations, draining for agriculture, pollution, and excessive hunting, wood-cutting, and fishing. In addition, clearance of coastal mangroves over the past decade has been rapid in tropical Asia. The depletion of fish stocks from overfishing is prevalent in many Asian wetland environments and is likely to be a significant threat. Expansion of oil palm plantations is currently viewed as the most urgent threat.  It is also threatened by trapping, snaring, and poisoning. Flat-headed cats have been captured in traps set out to protect domestic fowl.  Although flat-headed cats are not known to be a specific target for poachers in Southeast Asia, side-catch poaching in small snares might pose an additional threat for the species. In fragmented landscapes, motor vehicle collisions and direct competition with domestic cats could pose more serious threats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The flat-headed cat is included on CITES Appendix I. It is fully protected by national legislation over its range, with hunting and trade prohibited in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The scientific name \"Felis planiceps\" was proposed by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827, who first described a skin of a flat-headed cat specimen collected in Sumatra. \"Prionailurus\" was proposed by Nikolai Severtzov in 1858 as generic name for spotted wild cats native to Asia. He proposed the generic name \"Ictailurus\" for the flat-headed cat.  In 1951, Ellerman and Morrison-Scott grouped the flat-headed cat with the fishing cat (\"P. viverrinus\"), assuming it occurs in Lower Siam, Patani, the Malay States, Sumatra and Borneo. It was subordinated to the genus \"Prionailurus\" by Ingrid Weigel in 1961 who compared fur patterns of wild and domestic cats. It was grouped into \"Ictailurus\" in 1997 following a study on mitochondrial genes of cat species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "Phylogenetic analysis of the nuclear DNA in tissue samples from all Felidae species revealed that their evolutionary radiation began in Asia in the Miocene around. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA of Felidae species indicates a radiation at around. Both models agree in the rusty-spotted cat (\"P. planiceps\") having been the first cat of the \"Prionailurus\" lineage that genetically diverged, followed by the flat-headed cat and then the fishing cat. It is estimated to have diverged together with the leopard cat (\"P. bengalensis\") between and.  The following cladogram shows their phylogenetic relationship as derived through analysis of nuclear DNA:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The flat-headed cat (\"Prionailurus planiceps\") is a small wild cat native to the Thai-Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Sumatra. It is an Endangered species, because the wild population probably comprises fewer than 2,500 mature individuals, with small subpopulations of no more than 250 adults. The population inhabits foremost wetlands, which are being destroyed and converted. For these reasons, it is listed on the IUCN Red List since 2008.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971982}
{"src_title": "Senones", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "They are mentioned as \"Sḗnōnes\" (Σήνωνες) and \"Sḗnōnas\" (Σήνωνας) by Polybius (2nd c. BC), as \"Senonii\" by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), as \"Sénnōnes\" (Σέννωνες) by Diodorus Siculus (1st c. BC), as \"Sénōnes\" (Σένωνες) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), as \"Senones\" by Pliny (1st c. AD), as \"Sénones\" (Σένονες) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as \"Senones\" by Ammnianus (4th c. AD).  The name \"Senones\" ('the ancient ones') is a derivative of Gaulish \"senos\" ('ancient, old') stemming from Proto-Celtic \"*senos\" ('old'; compare with Old Irish \"sen\"; Middle Welsh \"hen\" 'old'), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European \"*sénos\" ('old'; compare with Sanskrit \"sana-;\" Latin \"senex;\" Armenian \"hin\", 'old').  The city of Sens, attested as \"Senonas oppidum\" in the 4th century CE ('oppidum of the Senones'), is named after the Gallic tribe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Senones of Gauls dwelled around their capital \"Agedincum\" (present-day Sens).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Gallia Cisalpina.", "content": "They joined Bellovesus' migrations towards Italy, together with the Aeduii, Ambarri, Arverni, Aulerci, and Carnutes.  In 400 BCE, they crossed the Alps and, driving out the Umbrians, settled on the east coast of Italy. Their territory spanned from Forlì to Ancona and Terni, in the \"Ager Gallicus\". They founded the town of Sena Gallica (Senigallia), which became their capital. In 391 BCE, under the chieftain Brennus, they invaded Etruria and besieged Clusium. The Clusines appealed to Rome for aid. The Romans provided support, which constituted a violation of the law of nations. The ensuing war resulted in the defeat of the Romans at the Battle of the Allia (18 July 390 BCE) and the sacking of Rome.  For more than 100 years the Senones were engaged in hostilities with the Romans, until they were finally subdued (283 BCE) by P. Cornelius Dolabella and driven out of their territory. Nothing more was heard of them in Italy. It is possible that they joined with Gallic tribes who spread themselves throughout the lands of the Danube, Macedonia, and Asia Minor. A Roman colony was established at Sena, called Sena Gallica (currently Senigallia) to distinguish it from Sena Julia (Siena) in Etruria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In Gallia Transalpina.", "content": "A branch of the Senones (or a different tribe of the same name) settling the district which now includes the departments of Seine-et-Marne, Loiret and Yonne from 53–51 BCE were engaged in hostilities with Julius Caesar brought about by their expulsion of Cavarinus, whom he had appointed their king. In 51 BCE, a Senonian named Drappes threatened the Provincia, but was captured and starved himself to death. From this time the Gallic Senones disappear from history. In later times, they were included in Gallia Lugdunensis. Their chief towns were Agedincum (later Senones, whence Sens), (Melun; according to A. Holder, Meudon), and Vellaunodunum (site uncertain).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Senones or Senonii (Gaulish: \"the ancient ones\"; ) were an ancient Gallic tribe that dwelled in the Seine basin, around present-day Sens, in Caesar's time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971983}
{"src_title": "Malus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Apple trees are typically talI at maturity, with a dense, twiggy crown. The leaves are long, alternate, simple, with a serrated margin. The flowers are borne in corymbs, and have five petals, which may be white, pink or red, and are perfect, with usually red stamens that produce copious pollen, and a half-inferior ovary; flowering occurs in the spring after 50–80 growing degree days (varying greatly according to subspecies and cultivar).  Many apples require cross-pollination between individuals by insects (typically bees, which freely visit the flowers for both nectar and pollen); these are called self-sterile, and therefore self-pollination is impossible, making pollinating insects essential.  There are a number of cultivars which are self-pollinating, such as Granny Smith and Golden Delicious. There are considerably fewer of these, compared to their cross-pollination dependent counterparts.  Several \"Malus\" species, including domestic apples, hybridize freely. They are used as food plants by the larvae of a large number of Lepidoptera species; see list of Lepidoptera that feed on \"Malus\".  The fruit is a globose pome, varying in size from diameter in most of the wild species, to in \"M. sylvestris sieversii\", in \"M. domestica\", and even larger in certain cultivated orchard apples. The centre of the fruit contains five carpels arranged star-like, each containing one or two seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivisions and species.", "content": "There are about 42 to 55 species and natural hybrids with about 25 from China, of which 15 are endemic. The genus \"Malus\" is subdivided into eight sections (six with two added in 2006 and 2008).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "For the \"Malus pumila\" cultivars, the culinary, and eating apples, see Apple.  Crabapples are popular as compact ornamental trees, providing blossom in Spring and colourful fruit in Autumn. The fruits often persist throughout Winter. Numerous hybrid cultivars have been selected. The following have won the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit:-  Other varieties are dealt with under their species names.  Some crabapples are used as rootstocks for domestic apples to add beneficial characteristics. For example, varieties of \"baccata\", also called Siberian crab, rootstock is used to give additional cold hardiness to the combined plant for orchards in cold northern areas.  They are also used as pollinizers in apple orchards. Varieties of crabapple are selected to bloom contemporaneously with the apple variety in an orchard planting, and the crabs are planted every sixth or seventh tree, or limbs of a crab tree are grafted onto some of the apple trees. In emergencies, a bucket or drum bouquet of crabapple flowering branches are placed near the beehives as orchard pollenizers. See also Fruit tree pollination.  Because of the plentiful blossoms and small fruit, crabapples are popular for use in bonsai culture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Crabapple fruit is not an important crop in most areas, being extremely sour due to malic acid (which like the genus derives from the Latin name \"mālum\"), and in some species woody, and for this reason is rarely eaten raw. In some southeast Asian cultures they are valued as a sour condiment, sometimes eaten with salt and chili pepper, or shrimp paste.  Some crabapple varieties are an exception to the reputation of being sour, and can be very sweet, such as the 'Chestnut' cultivar.  Crabapples are an excellent source of pectin, and their juice can be made into a ruby-coloured preserve with a full, spicy flavour. A small percentage of crabapples in cider makes a more interesting flavour. As Old English \"Wergulu\", the crab apple is one of the nine plants invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon \"Nine Herbs Charm\", recorded in the 10th century.  Apple wood gives off a pleasant scent when burned, and smoke from an apple wood fire gives an excellent flavour to smoked foods. It is easier to cut when green; dry apple wood is exceedingly difficult to carve by hand. It is a good wood for cooking fires because it burns hot and slow, without producing much flame.  Crab apple has been listed as one of the 38 plants whose flowers are used to prepare the Bach flower remedies.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Malus ( or ) is a genus of about 30–55 species of small deciduous trees or shrubs in the family Rosaceae, including the domesticated orchard apple (\"M. domestica\" syn. \"M. pumila\") – also known as the eating apple, cooking apple, or culinary apple. The other species are commonly known as crabapples, crab apples, crabtrees, or wild apples.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971984}
{"src_title": "Mount Pelée", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geographical setting and description.", "content": "Mount Pelée is the result of a typical subduction zone. The subduction formed the Lesser Antilles island arc, a curved chain of volcanoes approximately in length, between Puerto Rico and Venezuela, where the Caribbean Plate meets Atlantic oceanic crust belonging to the South American Plate. Other volcanoes in the island arc are also known for their volcanic activity, including Saint Vincent's La Soufrière, Guadeloupe's La Grande Soufriere volcano, Montserrat's Soufrière Hills, and the submarine volcano Kick 'em Jenny.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geological history.", "content": "Volcanologists have identified three different phases in the evolution of Mount Pelée volcano: initial, intermediate, and modern. In an initial phase, called the \"Paléo-Pelée\" stage, Mount Pelee was a common stratovolcano. The cone of Paléo-Pelée was composed of many layers of lava flows and fragmented volcanic debris. Remains of the Paléo-Pelée cone are still visible at the northern view at the volcano today.  A second stage, now called the intermediate phase, started around 100,000 years ago, after a long period of quiescence. This stage is grouped by the formation of the Morne Macouba lava dome, then later on, the Morne Macouba caldera. During the intermediate phase, there were several eruptions which produced pyroclastic flows like those that destroyed Saint-Pierre in the 1902 eruption. Around 25,000 years ago, a large southwest sector collapse occurred, forming a landslide. This event is similar to the eruption of Mount Saint Helens in 1980.  The modern stage of the evolution of Mount Pelée has created most of the current cone, with deposits of pumice and the results of past pyroclastic flows. More than 30 eruptions have been identified during the last 5,000 years of the volcano's activity.  3,000 years ago, following a large pumice eruption, the Étang Sec (French for Dry Pond) caldera was then formed. The 1902 eruption took place within the Étang Sec crater. This eruption formed many pyroclastic flows and produced a dome that filled the caldera. Mount Pelée continued to erupt until 4 July 1905. Thereafter, the volcano was dormant until 1929.  On 16 September 1929, Mount Pelée began to erupt again. This time, there was no hesitation on the part of authorities and the danger area was immediately evacuated. The 1929 eruption formed a second dome in the Étang Sec caldera and produced pyroclastic flows emptying into the Blanche River valley. Although there were pyroclastic flows, the activity was not as violent as the 1902 activity. It culminated in another \"spine\" or lava plug, albeit smaller than the 1902 plug, being emplaced at the summit. The activity ended in late 1932..", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current status.", "content": "The volcano is currently active. A few volcano tectonic earthquakes occur on Martinique every year, and Mount Pelée is under continuous watch by geophysicists and volcanologists (IPGP). Before the 1902 eruption—as early as the summer of 1900—signs of increased fumarole activity were present in the Étang Sec crater (Scarth, p. 30). Relatively minor phreatic (steam) eruptions that occurred in 1792 and 1851 were evidence that the volcano was active. Signs of unrest are likely to precede any future eruptive activity from Mount Pelée, and its past activity (including the violent eruptions uncovered by carbon dating) is an extremely important factor for hazard assessment.  The city of Saint-Pierre was never fully rebuilt, though some villages grew up in its place. The estimated population of the Commune of Saint-Pierre in 2004 was 4,544.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "The Martinique volcano frog, \"Allobates chalcopis\", is endemic to Mount Pelée, and the only species among related frogs (family Aromobatidae) endemic to an oceanic island.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mount Pelée ( ;, meaning \"bald mountain\" or \"peeled mountain\") is an active volcano at the northern end of Martinique, an island and French overseas department in the Lesser Antilles Volcanic Arc of the Caribbean. Its volcanic cone is composed of stratified layers of hardened ash and solidified lava. Its most recent eruption was in 1932.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971985}
{"src_title": "Epirus (region)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography and ecology.", "content": "Greek Epirus, like the region as a whole, is rugged and mountainous. It comprises the land of the ancient Molossians and Thesprotians and a small part of the land of the Chaonians the greater part being in Southern Albania. It is largely made up of mountainous ridges, part of the Dinaric Alps. The region's highest spot is on Mount Smolikas, at an altitude of 2.637 metres above sea level. In the east, the Pindus Mountains that form the spine of mainland Greece separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly. Most of Epirus lies on the windward side of the Pindus. The winds from the Ionian Sea offer the region more rainfall than any other part of Greece.  The Vikos-Aoos and Pindus National Parks are situated in the Ioannina Prefecture of the region. Both areas have a wide range of fauna and flora. The climate of Epirus is mainly alpine. The vegetation is made up mainly of coniferous species. The animal life is especially rich in this area and includes, among other species, bears, wolves, foxes, deer and lynxes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "The \"Epirus Region\" (, ), as it is currently defined, was established in the 1987 administrative reform and was divided into prefectures (, ), which were further subdivided into municipalities (, ).  Greece's local government reforms of 2011 streamlined local government by replacing the prefectures with regional units (, ) and re-structuring former municipalities and communities to reduce their total number. Today, the four regional units of Epirus are: Thesprotia, Ioannina, Arta, and Preveza.  The region's governor, since 1 January 2011, is Alexandros Kachrimanis, who was elected in the November 2010 local administration elections for the New Democracy and Popular Orthodox Rally parties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Epirus has few resources and its rugged terrain makes agriculture difficult. Sheep and goat pastoralism have always been an important activity in the region (Epirus provides more than 45% of meat to the Greek market) but there seems to be a decline in recent years. Tobacco is grown around Ioannina, and there is also some farming and fishing, but most of the area's food must be imported from more fertile regions of Greece. Epirus is home to a number of the country's most famous dairy products' brands, which produce feta cheese among others. Another important area of the local economy is tourism, especially eco-tourism. The natural environment of the area, as well as its traditional villages and lifestyle, have made Epirus a tourist attraction.  The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 4.1 billion € in 2018, accounting for 2.2% of Greek economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 14,700 € or 49% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 63% of the EU average. Epirus is the region in Greece with the third lowest GDP per capita and one of the poorest regions in the EU.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "Around 350,000 people live in Epirus. According to the 2001 census, it has the lowest population of the 13 regions of Greece. This is partly due to the impact of repeated wars in the 20th century as well as mass emigration due to adverse economic conditions. The capital and largest city of the region is Ioannina, where nearly a third of the population lives. The great majority of the population are Greeks, including Aromanians and Arvanites.  The delineation of the border between Greece and Albania in 1913 left some Albanian-populated villages on the Greek side of the border as well as Greek-populated villages and cities in Northern Epirus, in present-day Albania. In the past, the coastal region of Thesprotia was also home to a Cham Albanian minority, whose number did not exceed 25,000 in 1940s, alongside the local Greeks. After the war and their expulsion, the Greek census of 1951 counted a total of 127 Muslim Albanian Chams in Epirus, while in 1986 44 were counted in Thesprotia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Epirus (;, ), is a traditional geographic and modern administrative region in northwestern Greece. It borders the regions of Western Macedonia and Thessaly to the east, West Greece to the south, the Ionian Sea and Ionian Islands to the west and Albania to the north. The region has an area of about. It is part of the wider historical region of Epirus, which overlaps modern Albania and Greece but lies mostly within Greek territory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971986}
{"src_title": "Hymen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development and histology.", "content": "The genital tract develops during embryogenesis, from the third week of gestation to the second trimester, and the hymen is formed following the vagina. At week seven, the urorectal septum forms and separates the rectum from the urogenital sinus. At week nine, the Müllerian ducts move downwards to reach the urogenital sinus, forming the uterovaginal canal and inserting into the urogenital sinus. At week twelve, the Müllerian ducts fuse to create a primitive uterovaginal canal called unaleria. At month five, the vaginal canalization is complete and the fetal hymen is formed from the proliferation of the sinovaginal bulbs (where Müllerian ducts meet the urogenital sinus), and normally becomes perforate before or shortly after birth.  The hymen has dense innervation. In newborn babies, still under the influence of the mother's hormones, the hymen is thick, pale pink, and redundant (folds in on itself and may protrude). For the first two to four years of life, the infant produces hormones that continue this effect. Their hymenal opening tends to be annular (circumferential).  Past neonatal stage, the diameter of the hymenal opening (measured within the hymenal ring) widens by approximately 1 mm for each year of age. During puberty, estrogen causes the hymen to become very elastic and fimbriated.The hymen can stretch or tear as a result of various behaviors, by tampon or menstrual cup use, pelvic examinations with a speculum, regular physical activity, sexual intercourse, insertion of multiple fingers or items into the vagina, and activities such as gymnastics (doing 'the splits'), or horseback riding. Remnants of the hymen are called carunculae myrtiformes.  A glass or plastic rod of 6 mm diameter having a globe on one end with varying diameter from 10 to 25 mm, called a Glaister Keen rod, is used for close examination of the hymen or the degree of its rupture. In forensic medicine, it is recommended by health authorities that a physician who must swab near this area of a prepubescent girl avoid the hymen and swab the outer vulval vestibule instead. In cases of suspected rape or child sexual abuse, a detailed examination of the hymen may be performed, but the condition of the hymen alone is often inconclusive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anatomic variations.", "content": "Normal variations of the hymen range from thin and stretchy to thick and somewhat rigid; or it may also be completely absent. An imperforate hymen occurs in 1-2 out of 1,000 infants. The only variation that may require medical intervention is the imperforate hymen, which either completely prevents the passage of menstrual fluid or slows it significantly. In either case, surgical intervention may be needed to allow menstrual fluid to pass or intercourse to take place at all.  Prepubescent girls' hymenal openings come in many shapes, depending on hormonal and activity level, the most common being crescentic (posterior rim): no tissue at the 12 o'clock position; crescent-shaped band of tissue from 1–2 to 10–11 o'clock, at its widest around 6 o'clock. From puberty onwards, depending on estrogen and activity levels, the hymenal tissue may be thicker, and the opening is often fimbriated or erratically shaped. In younger children, a torn hymen will typically heal very quickly. In adolescents, the hymenal opening can naturally extend and variation in shape and appearance increases.  Variations of the female reproductive tract can result from agenesis or hypoplasia, canalization defects, lateral fusion and failure of resorption, resulting in various complications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trauma.", "content": "Historically, it was believed that first sexual intercourse was necessarily traumatic to the hymen and always resulted in the hymen being \"broken\" or torn, causing bleeding. However, research on women in Western populations has found that bleeding during first consensual intercourse does not always happen or is less common than not bleeding. In one cross-cultural study, slightly more than half of all women self-reported bleeding during first intercourse, with significantly different levels of pain and bleeding reported depending on their region of origin. Not all women experience pain, and one study found a correlation between the experience of strong emotions - such as excitement, nervousness, or fear - with experiencing pain during first intercourse.  In several studies of adolescent female rape victims, where patients were examined at a hospital following sexual assault, half or fewer of virgin victims had any injury to the hymen. Tears of the hymen occurred in less than a quarter of cases. However, virgins were significantly more likely to have injuries to the hymen than non-virgins.  In a study of adolescents who had previously had consensual sex, approximately half showed evidence of trauma to the hymen. Trauma to the hymen may also occur in adult non-virgins following consensual sex, although it is rare. Trauma to the hymen may heal without any visible sign of injury. An observational study of adolescent sexual assault victims found that majority of wounds to the hymen healed without any visible sign of injury having occurred.  Trauma to the hymen is hypothesized to occur as a result of various other behaviors, such as tampon or menstrual cup use, pelvic examinations with a speculum, masturbation, gymnastics, or horseback riding, although the true prevalence of trauma as a result of these activities is unclear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural significance.", "content": "The hymen is often attributed important cultural significance in certain communities because of its association with a woman's virginity. In those cultures, an intact hymen is highly valued at marriage in the belief that this is a proof of virginity. Some women undergo hymenorrhaphy to restore their hymen for this reason.  In October 2018, the UN Human Rights, UN Women and the World Health Organization (WHO) stated that virginity testing must end as it is a painful, humiliating and traumatic practice, constituting violence against women.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Womb fury.", "content": "In the 16th and 17th centuries, medical researchers mistakenly saw the presence or absence of the hymen as founding evidence of physical diseases such as \"womb-fury\", i.e., (female) hysteria. If not cured, womb-fury would, according to doctors practicing at the time, result in death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other animals.", "content": "Due to similar reproductive system development, many mammals have hymens, including chimpanzees, elephants, manatees, whales, horses and llamas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The hymen is a thin piece of mucosal tissue that surrounds or partially covers the external vaginal opening. It forms part of the vulva, or external genitalia, and is similar in structure to the vagina.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971987}
{"src_title": "Coober Pedy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Aboriginal people have a long-standing connection with the area. The first European explorer to pass near the site of Coober Pedy was Scottish-born John McDouall Stuart in 1858. The town was not established until after 1915, when opal was discovered by Wille Hutchison. Miners first moved in about 1916. By 1999, there were more than 250,000 mine shaft entrances in the area and a law discouraged large-scale mining by allowing each prospector a claim.  The harsh summer desert temperatures mean that many residents prefer to live in caves bored into the hillsides (\"dugouts\"). A standard three-bedroom cave home with lounge, kitchen, and bathroom can be excavated out of the rock in the hillside for a similar price to building a house on the surface. However, dugouts remain at a constant temperature, while surface buildings need air conditioning, especially during the summer months, when temperatures often exceed. The relative humidity rarely gets over 20% on these hot days, and the skies are usually cloud-free. The average maximum temperature is, but it can get quite cool in the winter.  Coober Pedy is a very small town, about halfway between Adelaide and Alice Springs. It has become a popular stopover point and tourist destination, especially since 1987, when the sealing of the Stuart Highway was completed. Visitors attractions in Coober Pedy include the mines, the graveyard and the underground churches (the Serbian Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church). There are several motels offering underground accommodation, ranging from a few rooms to the entire motel being a dug-out. The hybrid Coober Pedy Solar Power Station supplies power to the off-grid area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heritage sites.", "content": "Coober Pedy has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "The District Council of Coober Pedy estimates the population to be around 2,500. Approximately 60% of the people are of European extraction, migrating from southern and eastern Europe after the Second World War. In all, there are more than 45 nationalities represented.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "Coober Pedy is home to the \"Coober Pedy Regional Times\", a free community publication released fortnightly since 15 March 2001. Under a previous name, it had begun as a newsletter called the \"Coober Pedy Times\", which was first issued in August 1982, itself continuing from a publication known as \"\"Opal Chips\"\". After some financial difficulties, the \"Times\" was bought by its editor, Margaret McKay, in 2006 and now includes online versions too.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport and recreation.", "content": "The local golf course – mostly played at night with glowing balls, to avoid daytime heat – is completely free of grass, and golfers take a small piece of \"turf\" around to use for teeing off. As a result of correspondence between the two clubs, the Coober Pedy golf club is the only club in the world to enjoy reciprocal rights at The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews.  The town also has an Australian rules football club, the Coober Pedy Saints, established in 2004 and compete in the Far North Football League (formerly the Woomera & Districts Football League). Due to the town's isolation, to play matches the Saints must make round trips of over to Roxby Downs, where the rest of the league's teams are located.  The town has a drive-in theatre. It opened in 1965, but became less popular after 1980 with the arrival of television to the town, and ceased regular operation in 1984. It was re-opened in 1996.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Coober Pedy has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification \"BWh\"). Typical of a desert climate, diurnal ranges are wider than in most places, with an annual average high of and an annual average low of just. Summer temperatures range from in the shade, with occasional dust storms. The annual rainfall in the area is low and amongst the lowest in Australia, at around. Precipitation is well-distributed through the year, although the lowest amounts are recorded in the winter months (although precipitation is very low in all months).  Extremes of annual rainfall since 1921 range from in 1929 to in 1973.  Coober Pedy was flooded when of rainfall was recorded in 24 hours (which is over three-quarters of the mean annual rainfall) on 10 April 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terrain.", "content": "Coober Pedy is situated on the edge of the erosional scarp of the Stuart Ranges, on beds of sand and siltstone deep and topped with a stony, treeless desert. Very little plant life exists in town due to the region's low rainfall, high cost of water, the sandstone and lack of topsoil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The town is served by daily coach services from Adelaide by Greyhound Australia. The Ghan train serves the town through the Manguri Siding, from Coober Pedy, which is served by trains once weekly in each direction. Passengers on The Ghan are not usually allowed to disembark at Manguri unless they have prearranged transport, due to the siding's isolation and the extremely cold temperatures at night.  Coober Pedy is a gateway to the outback communities of Oodnadatta and William Creek, which are both located on the Oodnadatta Track. There is a twice-a-week mail run from Coober Pedy to these communities and other outback homesteads. It carries the mail, general freight and passengers.  Regional Express also has direct flights to Adelaide, from Coober Pedy Airport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minerals.", "content": "In May 2009, South Australian Premier Mike Rann opened the $1.15 billion Prominent Hill Mine, South East of Coober Pedy. The copper-gold mine is operated by OZ Minerals. In August 2010 Rann opened the Cairn Hill iron ore/copper/gold mine operated by IMX Resources near Coober Pedy. It was the first new iron ore mining area opened in South Australia since the 19th Century. Due to low iron ore prices, the Cairn Hill mine was closed in June 2014. It was sold to Cu-River Mining who reopened the mine in 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oil reserves.", "content": "In 2013, it was reported that a potentially significant tight oil (oil trapped in oil-bearing shales) resource has been found near the outskirts of Coober Pedy in the Arckaringa Basin. This resource is estimated to hold between of oil, which provides the potential for Australia to become a net oil exporter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Both the town and its hinterland, for different reasons, are photogenic and have attracted film makers.The town itself was the setting for  Its environment also attracted movie producers, with parts of these movies filmed in the area:  The town is featured in the 2016 racing game \"Forza Horizon 3\" and is the location of the Horizon Outback Festival.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In philately.", "content": "A rare exhibition cachet, signed by Coober Pedy Postmaster Alfred P. North, was discovered in Memphis, Tennessee on 3 February 2016. To date, it is the only known example of this cachet in the world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Coober Pedy () is a town in northern South Australia, north of Adelaide on the Stuart Highway. In the 2016 Census, there were 1,762 people in Coober Pedy (State Suburbs). Of these, 962 were male and 801 were female. There were 302 Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander people that made up 17.1% of the population. The town is sometimes referred to as the \"opal capital of the world\" because of the quantity of precious opals that are mined there. Coober Pedy is renowned for its below-ground residences, called \"dugouts\", which are built in this fashion due to the scorching daytime heat. The name \"Coober Pedy\" comes from the local Aboriginal term \"kupa-piti\", which means \"boys' waterhole\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971988}
{"src_title": "Marbled cat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The marbled cat is similar in size to a domestic cat, but has rounded ears and a very long tail that is as long as the cat's head and body. The ground colour of its long fur varies from brownish-grey to ochreous brown above and greyish to buff below. It is patterned with black stripes on the short and round head, on the neck and back. On the tail, limbs and underbelly it has solid spots. On the flanks it has irregular dark-edged blotches that fuse to dark areas and look like a'marbled' pattern. Its paws are webbed between the digits and are completely sheathed. Its coat is thick and soft. Spots on the forehead and crown merge into narrow longitudinal stripes on the neck, and irregular stripes on the back. The legs and underparts are patterned with black dots, and the tail is marked with black spots proximally and rings distally. It has large feet and unusually large canine teeth, resembling those of the big cats, although these appear to be the result of parallel evolution. Marbled cats range from in head-body length with a long and thickly furred tail that indicates the cat's adaptation to an arboreal lifestyle, where the tail is used as a counterbalance. Recorded weights vary between.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The marbled cat occurs along the eastern Himalayan foothills and in tropical Indomalaya eastward into southwest China, and on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo. It is primarily associated with moist and mixed deciduous-evergreen tropical forests. Its distribution in India is confined to the north-eastern forests.  In eastern Nepal, a marbled cat was recorded for the first time in January 2018, outside a protected area in the Kangchenjunga landscape at an altitude of.  In northeast India, marbled cats were recorded in Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary, Dampa and Pakke Tiger Reserves, Balpakram-Baghmara landscape and Singchung-Bugun Village Community Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh between January 2013 and March 2018.  In Bhutan, it has been recorded in Royal Manas National Park, and in broadleaved and mixed conifer forests at elevations up to in Jigme Dorji National Park and Wangchuck Centennial National Park.  In Thailand, it was recorded in a hill evergreen bamboo mixed forest in Phu Khieu Wildlife Sanctuary.  In Borneo, it has also been recorded in peat swamp forest. The population size of the marbled cat is not well understood. Few records were obtained during camera-trapping surveys throughout much of its range. In three areas in Sabah, the population density was estimated at 7.1 to 19.6 individuals per, an estimate that may be higher than elsewhere in the cat's range. In Kalimantan, marbled cats were recorded in mixed swamp forest and tall interior forest at altitudes below in the vicinity of Sabangau National Park between 2008 and 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "Marbled cats recorded in northeastern India and Kalimantan on Borneo were active by day.  The first-ever radio-tracked marbled cat had an overall home range of at an elevation of and was active primarily during nocturnal and crepuscular times. Marbled cats recorded in northeast India were active during the day with activity peaks around noon.  Forest canopies probably provide the marbled cat with much of its prey: birds, squirrels and other rodents, and reptiles. In the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, a marbled cat was observed in a dense forest patch in an area also used by siamang. In Thailand, one individual has been observed in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary preying on a Phayre's leaf monkey.  A few marbled cats have been bred in captivity, with gestation estimated to be 66 to 82 days. In the few recorded instances, two kittens were born in each litter, and weighed from. Their eyes open at around 12 days, and the kittens begin to take solid food at two months, around the time that they begin actively climbing. Marbled cats reach sexual maturity at 21 or 22 months of age, and have lived for up to 12 years in captivity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "Indiscriminate snaring is prevalent throughout much of its range, and likely poses a major threat. It is valued for its skin, meat, and bones, but infrequently observed in the illegal Asian wildlife trade. During a survey in the Lower Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh, a marbled cat was encountered that had been killed by a local hunter for a festival celebrated by the indigenous Apatani community in March and April every year. The dead cat was used in a ceremony, and its blood was sacrificed to the deity for goodwill of their family and for ensuring a good harvest, protection from wildlife, disease and pest. Deforestation is a further threat to the marbled cat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "\"Pardofelis marmorata\" is included in CITES Appendix I and protected over parts of its range. Hunting is prohibited in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Yunnan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, and Thailand. Hunting is regulated in Laos and Singapore. In Bhutan and Brunei, the marbled cat is not legally protected outside protected areas. No information about protection status is available from Cambodia and Vietnam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Felis marmorata\" was the scientific name proposed by William Charles Linnaeus Martin in 1836 for a skin of a male marbled cat from Java or Sumatra. \"Felis longicaudata\" proposed by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville in 1843 was a zoological specimen from India or Cochinchina. \"Felis charltoni\" proposed by John Edward Gray in 1846 was a specimen from Darjeeling. The generic name \"Pardofelis\" was proposed by Nikolai Severtzov in 1858.  At present, two subspecies are recognized as valid:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "Results of a phylogenetic analysis indicate that the marbled cat diverged between 8.42 and 4.27 million years ago. Together with the Asian golden cat (\"Catopuma temminckii\") and the bay cat (\"C. badia\"), it forms an evolutionary lineage that diverged between 12.77 and 7.36 million years ago.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The marbled cat (\"Pardofelis marmorata\") is a small wild cat native from the eastern Himalayas to Southeast Asia, where it inhabits forests up to altitude. As it is present in a large range, it has been listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971989}
{"src_title": "Driver's education", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Driver training began as a business in the United Kingdom in 1909-1910. The British School of Motoring (BSM) was founded in 1910 in South London by Hugh Stanley Roberts. It offered hands-on training and courses in driving skills (managing the controls and road aptitude) and repair. It also offered vehicles to drivers who wished to practice.  In the United States, Amos Neyhart, a professor at Penn State University, started the first high school driver's ed course in 1934 at a high school in State College, Pennsylvania.  The more correct and original designation is driver education, without the possessive, as with teacher education, or driving education as with nursing education. However over time the possessive version has become dominant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Instruction.", "content": "Driver's education (or driver education) is intended to supplement the knowledge obtained from government-printed driving handbooks or manuals and prepares students for tests to obtain a driver's license or learner's permit. In-car instruction places a student in a vehicle with an instructor. A car fitted with dual controls, which has pedals or other controls on the passenger side, may be used. In the United States, driver's education is typically offered to students who are sixteen years old or will be by the end of the course. Each state has its own laws regarding the licensing of teenagers. With the growing US population, traffic accidents are becoming more common than ever before. In Germany, space is at a premium while traffic is able to flow very efficiently and with less accidents. The way in which people are taught driving fundamentals plays a huge role in the safety and efficiency of traffic. Within the United States, students may have access to online training, classroom training, or parent-taught courses. While these classes may provide a lot of information to the student, their effectivity may only be limited to one area of knowledge. In Germany, students are given a hybrid of these classes. They have much more exposure throughout their school to real-world scenarios and classroom curriculum. Fundamentals of driving are reinforced in these classes, including the importance of turn-signal usage, keeping a safe distance behind others, and maintaining situational awareness. It is argued that more efficient and safer traffic flow can be achieved by increasing the length of driver's education classes in the United States, to involve more hands-on training and a strengthening of driving principles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Online courses.", "content": "An online driving education is one of the most affordable and convenient ways to acquire driving education. Many driver's education courses are available online. It is up to the relevant government authority to accept any such programs as meeting their requirements. Online drivers ed may be taken as a substitute for classroom courses in 13 states. Some car insurance agencies offer discounts to those students who have completed a driver's education program. Online programs allow parents to administer the behind the wheel driving instruction. Many studies have also started looking at the relationship between online activity, especially among the young adults, and driving licence holding", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Obtaining a license.", "content": "Successful completion of a driver education course is required by many agencies before young drivers receive their driver license or learner's permit. In some countries students taking driver's education have the opportunity to receive a waiver for successful course completion which allows them to receive a learner's permit or driver's license without taking some of the tests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "On track.", "content": "Some car clubs conduct driver education programs focused on how to handle a car under high-speed driving conditions rather than on learning the rules of the road. These programs take place at road racing courses and include both classroom instruction and vehicle-based instruction.  Students drive with an experienced instructor until they are \"signed off\". At this point they can continue practicing and improving their skills without an instructor. Driver education programs involve multiple cars together on a racetrack, but they are not considered racing because they are not timed, winners are not declared, and drivers must wait to pass until the driver being passed gives permission with a hand signal. These programs require approved racing helmets and rollover protection for convertibles. Some require long-sleeved shirts and long pants for fire safety. However, they do not require full roll cages, five or six-point seat belts, fire extinguishers, fire-resistant racing suits, or other safety features seen in racing and more.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Driver's education, driver education, driving education, driver's ed, or driving tuition or driving lessons is a formal class or program that prepares a new driver to obtain a learner's permit or driver's license. The formal class program may also prepare existing license holders for an overseas license conversion or medical assessment driving test or refresher course. It may take place in a classroom, in a vehicle, online, or a combination of the above. Topics of instruction include traffic code or laws and vehicle operation. Typically, instruction will warn of dangerous conditions in driving such as road conditions, driver impairments, and hazardous weather. Instructional videos may also be shown, demonstrating proper driving strategies and the consequences for not observing the rules.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971990}
{"src_title": "Romantic music", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Romantic movement was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe and strengthened in reaction to the Industrial Revolution. In part, it was a revolt against social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography and education, and was in turn influenced by developments in natural history.  One of the first significant applications of the term to music was in 1789, in the \"Mémoires\" by the Frenchman André Grétry, but it was E.T.A. Hoffmann who really established the principles of musical romanticism, in a lengthy review of Ludwig van Beethoven's Fifth Symphony published in 1810, and in an 1813 article on Beethoven's instrumental music. In the first of these essays Hoffmann traced the beginnings of musical Romanticism to the later works of Haydn and Mozart. It was Hoffmann's fusion of ideas already associated with the term \"Romantic\", used in opposition to the restraint and formality of Classical models, that elevated music, and especially instrumental music, to a position of pre-eminence in Romanticism as the art most suited to the expression of emotions. It was also through the writings of Hoffmann and other German authors that German music was brought to the centre of musical Romanticism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traits.", "content": "Characteristics often attributed to Romanticism: Such lists, however, proliferated over time, resulting in a \"chaos of antithetical phenomena\", criticized for their superficiality and for signifying so many different things that there came to be no central meaning. The attributes have also been criticized for being too vague. For example, features of the \"ghostly and supernatural\" could apply equally to Mozart's \"Don Giovanni\" from 1787 and Stravinsky's \"The Rake's Progress\" from 1951.  In music there is a relatively clear dividing line in musical structure and form following the death of Beethoven. Whether one counts Beethoven as a \"romantic\" composer or not, the breadth and power of his work gave rise to a feeling that the classical sonata form and, indeed, the structure of the symphony, sonata and string quartet had been exhausted. Schumann, Schubert, Berlioz and other early-Romantic composers tended to look in alternative directions. Some characteristics of Romantic music include :", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trends of the 19th century.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Non-musical influences.", "content": "Events and changes in society such as ideas, attitudes, discoveries, inventions, and historical events often affect music. For example, the Industrial Revolution was in full effect by the late 18th century and early 19th century. This event had a profound effect on music: there were major improvements in the mechanical valves and keys that most woodwinds and brass instruments depend on. The new and innovative instruments could be played with greater ease and they were more reliable.  Another development that had an effect on music was the rise of the middle class. Composers before this period lived on the patronage of the aristocracy. Many times their audience was small, composed mostly of the upper class and individuals who were knowledgeable about music. The Romantic composers, on the other hand, often wrote for public concerts and festivals, with large audiences of paying customers, who had not necessarily had any music lessons. Composers of the Romantic Era, like Elgar, showed the world that there should be \"no segregation of musical tastes\" and that the \"purpose was to write music that was to be heard\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nationalism.", "content": "During the Romantic period, music often took on a much more nationalistic purpose. For example, Jean Sibelius' \"Finlandia\" has been interpreted to represent the rising nation of Finland, which would someday gain independence from Russian control. Frédéric Chopin was one of the first composers to incorporate nationalistic elements into his compositions. Joseph Machlis states, \"Poland's struggle for freedom from tsarist rule aroused the national poet in Poland.... Examples of musical nationalism abound in the output of the romantic era. The folk idiom is prominent in the Mazurkas of Chopin\". His mazurkas and polonaises are particularly notable for their use of nationalistic rhythms. Moreover, \"During World War II the Nazis forbade the playing of... Chopin's Polonaises in Warsaw because of the powerful symbolism residing in these works\". Other composers, such as Bedřich Smetana, wrote pieces that musically described their homelands; in particular, Smetana's \"Vltava\" is a symphonic poem about the Moldau River in the modern-day Czech Republic and the second in a cycle of six nationalistic symphonic poems collectively titled \"Má vlast\" (My Homeland). Smetana also composed eight nationalist operas, all of which remain in the repertory. They established him as the first Czech nationalist composer as well as the most important Czech opera composer of the generation who came to prominence in the 1860s.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Romantic music is a stylistic movement in Western classical music associated with the period of the nineteenth century commonly referred to as the Romantic era (or Romantic period). It is closely related to the broader concept of Romanticism—the intellectual, artistic and literary movement that became prominent in Europe from approximately 1800 until 1910.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971991}
{"src_title": "Gilbert's syndrome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jaundice.", "content": "Gilbert's syndrome produces an elevated level of unconjugated bilirubin in the bloodstream, but normally has no serious consequences. Mild jaundice may appear under conditions of exertion, stress, fasting, and infections, but the condition is otherwise usually asymptomatic. Severe cases are seen by yellowing of the skin tone and yellowing of the sclera in the eye.  GS has been reported to possibly contribute to an accelerated onset of neonatal jaundice, especially in the presence of increased red blood cell destruction due to diseases such as G6PD deficiency. This situation can be especially dangerous if not quickly treated, as the high bilirubin causes irreversible neurological disability in the form of kernicterus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Detoxification of certain drugs.", "content": "The enzymes that are defective in GS – UDP glucuronosyltransferase 1 family, polypeptide A1 (UGT1A1) – are also responsible for some of the liver's ability to detoxify certain drugs. For example, Gilbert's syndrome is associated with severe diarrhea and neutropenia in patients who are treated with irinotecan, which is metabolized by UGT1A1.  While paracetamol (acetaminophen) is not metabolized by UGT1A1, it is metabolized by one of the other enzymes also deficient in some people with GS. A subset of people with GS may have an increased risk of paracetamol toxicity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cardiovascular effects.", "content": "Several analyses have found a significantly decreased risk of coronary artery disease (CAD) in individuals with GS.  Specifically, people with mildly elevated levels of bilirubin (1.1 mg/dl to 2.7 mg/dl) were at lower risk for CAD and at lower risk for future heart disease. These researchers went on to perform a meta-analysis of data available up to 2002, and confirmed the incidence of atherosclerotic disease (hardening of the arteries) in subjects with GS had a close and inverse relationship to the serum bilirubin. This beneficial effect was attributed to bilirubin IXα which is recognized as a potent antioxidant, rather than confounding factors such as high-density lipoprotein levels.  This association was also seen in long-term data from the Framingham Heart Study. Moderately elevated levels of bilirubin in people with GS and the (TA)/(TA) genotype were associated with one-third the risk for both coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease as compared to those with the (TA)/(TA) genotype (i.e. a normal, nonmutated gene locus).  Platelet counts and MPV are decreased in patients with Gilbert's syndrome. The elevated levels of bilirubin and decreasing levels of MPV and CRP in Gilbert's syndrome patients may have an effect on the slowing down of the atherosclerotic process.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "Symptoms, whether connected or not to GS, have been reported in a subset of those affected: feeling tired all the time (fatigue), difficulty maintaining concentration, unusual patterns of anxiety, loss of appetite, nausea, abdominal pain, loss of weight, itching (with no rash), and others, but scientific studies found no clear pattern of adverse symptoms related to the elevated levels of unconjugated bilirubin in adults. However, other substances glucuronidized by the affected enzymes in Gilbert's syndrome sufferers could theoretically, at their toxic levels, cause these symptoms. Consequently, debate exists about whether GS should be classified as a disease. However, Gilbert's syndrome has been linked to an increased risk of gallstones.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "Gilbert's syndrome is a phenotypic effect, mostly clearly associated with increased blood bilirubin levels, but also sometimes characterized by mild jaundice due to increased unconjugated bilirubin, that arises from several different genotypic variants of the gene for the enzyme responsible for changing bilirubin to the conjugated form.  Gilbert's syndrome is characterized by a 70–80% reduction in the glucuronidation activity of the enzyme (UGT1A1). The \"UGT1A1\" gene is located on human chromosome 2.  More than 100 variants of the \"UGT1A1\" gene are known, designated as \"UGT1A1*n\" (where n is the general chronological order of discovery), either of the gene itself or of its promoter region. \"UGT1A1 \"is associated with a TATA box promoter region; this region most commonly contains the genetic sequence A(TA)TAA; this variant accounts for about 50% of alleles in many populations. However, several allelic polymorphic variants of this region occur, the most common of which results from adding another dinucleotide repeat TA to the promoter region, resulting in A(TA)TAA, which is called \"UGT1A1*28\"; this common variant accounts for about 40% of alleles in some populations, but is seen less often, around 3% of alleles, in Southeast and East Asian people and Pacific Islanders.  In most populations, Gilbert's syndrome is most commonly associated with homozygous A(TA)TAA alleles. In 94% of GS cases, two other glucuronosyltransferase enzymes, UGT1A6 (rendered 50% inactive) and UGT1A7 (rendered 83% ineffective), are also affected.  However, Gilbert's syndrome can arise without TATA box promoter polymorphic mutations; in some populations, particularly healthy Southeast and East Asians, Gilbert's syndrome is more often a consequence of heterozygote missense mutations (such as Gly71Arg also known as \"UGT1A1*6\", Tyr486Asp also known as \"UGT1A1*7\", Pro364Leu also known as \"UGT1A1*73\") in the actual gene coding region, which may be associated with significantly higher bilirubin levels.  Because of its effects on drug and bilirubin breakdown and because of its genetic inheritance, Gilbert's syndrome can be classed as a minor inborn error of metabolism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "People with GS predominantly have elevated unconjugated bilirubin, while conjugated bilirubin is usually within the normal range and is less than 20% of the total. Levels of bilirubin in GS patients are reported to be from 20 μM to 90 μM (1.2 to 5.3 mg/dl) compared to the normal amount of < 20 μM. GS patients have a ratio of unconjugated/conjugated (indirect/direct) bilirubin commensurately higher than those without GS.  The level of total bilirubin is often further increased if the blood sample is taken after fasting for two days, and a fast can, therefore, be useful diagnostically. A further conceptual step that is rarely necessary or appropriate is to give a low dose of phenobarbital: the bilirubin will decrease substantially.  Tests can also detect DNA mutations of \"UGT1A1\" by polymerase chain reaction or DNA fragment sequencing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differential diagnosis.", "content": "While Gilbert's syndrome is considered harmless, it is clinically important because it may give rise to a concern about a blood or liver condition, which could be more dangerous. However, these conditions have additional indicators:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Typically no treatment is needed. If jaundice is significant phenobarbital may be used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Gilbert's syndrome was first described by French gastroenterologist Augustin Nicolas Gilbert and co-workers in 1901. In German literature, it is commonly associated with Jens Einar Meulengracht.  Alternative, less common names for this disorder include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gilbert's syndrome (GS) is a mild liver disorder in which the liver does not properly process bilirubin. Many people never have symptoms. Occasionally a slight yellowish color of the skin or whites of the eyes may occur. Other possible symptoms include feeling tired, weakness, and abdominal pain. Gilbert's syndrome is due to a mutation in the UGT1A1 gene which results in decreased activity of the bilirubin uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase enzyme. It is typically inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern and occasionally in an autosomal dominant pattern depending on the type of mutation. Episodes of jaundice may be triggered by stress such as exercise, menstruation, or not eating. Diagnosis is based on higher levels of unconjugated bilirubin in the blood without either signs of other liver problems or red blood cell breakdown. Typically no treatment is needed. If jaundice is significant phenobarbital may be used. Gilbert's syndrome affects about 5% of people in the United States. Males are more often diagnosed than females. It is often not noticed until late childhood to early adulthood. The condition was first described in 1901 by Augustin Nicolas Gilbert.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971992}
{"src_title": "Statics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Archimedes (c. 287–c. 212 BC) did pioneering work in statics. Later developments in the field of statics are found in works of Thebit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vectors.", "content": "A scalar is a quantity which only has a magnitude, such as mass or temperature. A vector has a magnitude and a direction. There are several notations to identify a vector, including:  Vectors are added using the parallelogram law or the triangle law. Vectors contain components in orthogonal bases. Unit vectors i, j, and k are, by convention, along the x, y, and z axes, respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Force.", "content": "Force is the action of one body on another. A force is either a push or a pull, and it tends to move a body in the direction of its action. The action of a force is characterized by its magnitude, by the direction of its action, and by its point of application. Thus, force is a vector quantity, because its effect depends on the direction as well as on the magnitude of the action.  Forces are classified as either contact or body forces. A contact force is produced by direct physical contact; an example is the force exerted on a body by a supporting surface. A body force is generated by virtue of the position of a body within a force field such as a gravitational, electric, or magnetic field and is independent of contact with any other body. An example of a body force is the weight of a body in the Earth's gravitational field.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Moment of a force.", "content": "In addition to the tendency to move a body in the direction of its application, a force can also tend to rotate a body about an axis. The axis may be any line which neither intersects nor is parallel to the line of action of the force. This rotational tendency is known as the \"moment\" (M) of the force. Moment is also referred to as \"torque\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Moment about a point.", "content": "The magnitude of the moment of a force at a point \"O\", is equal to the perpendicular distance from \"O\" to the line of action of \"F\", multiplied by the magnitude of the force:, where  The direction of the moment is given by the right hand rule, where counter clockwise (CCW) is out of the page, and clockwise (CW) is into the page. The moment direction may be accounted for by using a stated sign convention, such as a plus sign (+) for counterclockwise moments and a minus sign (−) for clockwise moments, or vice versa. Moments can be added together as vectors.  In vector format, the moment can be defined as the cross product between the radius vector, r (the vector from point O to the line of action), and the force vector, F:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Varignon's theorem.", "content": "Varignon's theorem states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of the components of the force about the same point.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equilibrium equations.", "content": "The static equilibrium of a particle is an important concept in statics. A particle is in equilibrium only if the resultant of all forces acting on the particle is equal to zero. In a rectangular coordinate system the equilibrium equations can be represented by three scalar equations, where the sums of forces in all three directions are equal to zero. An engineering application of this concept is determining the tensions of up to three cables under load, for example the forces exerted on each cable of a hoist lifting an object or of guy wires restraining a hot air balloon to the ground.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Moment of inertia.", "content": "In classical mechanics, moment of inertia, also called mass moment, rotational inertia, polar moment of inertia of mass, or the angular mass, (SI units kg·m2) is a measure of an object's resistance to changes to its rotation. It is the inertia of a rotating body with respect to its rotation. The moment of inertia plays much the same role in rotational dynamics as mass does in linear dynamics, describing the relationship between angular momentum and angular velocity, torque and angular acceleration, and several other quantities. The symbols I and J are usually used to refer to the moment of inertia or polar moment of inertia.  While a simple scalar treatment of the moment of inertia suffices for many situations, a more advanced tensor treatment allows the analysis of such complicated systems as spinning tops and gyroscopic motion.  The concept was introduced by Leonhard Euler in his 1765 book \"Theoria motus corporum solidorum seu rigidorum\"; he discussed the moment of inertia and many related concepts, such as the principal axis of inertia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Solids.", "content": "Statics is used in the analysis of structures, for instance in architectural and structural engineering. Strength of materials is a related field of mechanics that relies heavily on the application of static equilibrium. A key concept is the center of gravity of a body at rest: it represents an imaginary point at which all the mass of a body resides. The position of the point relative to the foundations on which a body lies determines its stability in response to external forces. If the center of gravity exists outside the foundations, then the body is unstable because there is a torque acting: any small disturbance will cause the body to fall or topple. If the center of gravity exists within the foundations, the body is stable since no net torque acts on the body. If the center of gravity coincides with the foundations, then the body is said to be metastable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fluids.", "content": "Hydrostatics, also known as fluid statics, is the study of fluids at rest (i.e. in static equilibrium). The characteristic of any fluid at rest is that the force exerted on any particle of the fluid is the same at all points at the same depth (or altitude) within the fluid. If the net force is greater than zero the fluid will move in the direction of the resulting force. This concept was first formulated in a slightly extended form by French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal in 1647 and became known as Pascal's Law. It has many important applications in hydraulics. Archimedes, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Al-Khazini and Galileo Galilei were also major figures in the development of hydrostatics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Statics is the branch of mechanics that is concerned with the analysis of loads (force and torque, or \"moment\") acting on physical systems that do not experience an acceleration (\"a\"=0), but rather, are in static equilibrium with their environment. The application of Newton's second law to a system gives:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971993}
{"src_title": "Feodor I of Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Feodor was born in Moscow, the son of Ivan IV (The Terrible) by his first wife Anastasia Romanovna. Although he was the sixth and youngest child of his mother, he grew up with only one older brother, Ivan, because all his other older siblings died before Feodor was one year old. His mother also died by the time Feodor was three years old, and her death greatly affected his father, who had been very attached to his wife. Ivan the Terrible began to earn his sobriquet 'the terrible' during the years of Feodor's childhood. He also took a series of other wives, but Feodor's only surviving half-sibling, Dmitry of Uglich, was fully twenty-five years younger than him.  Feodor therefore grew up in the shadow of a terrible father, with no mother to succor him, and only his older brother Ivan for family solidarity. He grew to be sickly of health and diffident of temperament. He was extremely pious by nature, spending hours in prayer and contemplation. He was very fond of visiting churches, and would often cause the bells to be rung according to a special tradition in the Russian Orthodox Church. For this reason, he is known to history as Feodor the Bellringer. In Russian documents, he is sometimes called blessed (). He is also listed in the \"Great Synaxaristes\" of the Orthodox Church, with his feast day on January 7 (OS). Overall, he was considered a good-natured, simple-minded man who took little interest in politics. By some reports, he may have suffered from intellectual disability or learning disability, but this may have been a misinterpretation of his nature and behavior.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "In 1580, Feodor married Irina (Alexandra) Feodorovna Godunova (1557 – 26 October/23 November 1603), sister of Ivan's minister Boris Godunov. Although the marriage was arranged by the Tsar, and the couple knew nothing of each other before their wedding day, they went on to have a strong marriage. The lonely Feodor soon grew extremely close to his wife, to a degree that was unusual for that period and milieu. Husband and wife shared a relationship of warmth and trust which was the support of Feodor's life as long as he lived. However, the marriage was not immediately blessed with children, and may not have even been consummated for some years. It was only in 1592, after almost twelve years of marriage, that Tsaritsa Irina gave birth to a daughter, who was named Feodosia after her father. Feodor and his wife doted on their daughter, who however died aged two in 1594. There were no other children from the marriage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "In November 1581, Feodor's elder brother Ivan Ivanovich was killed by their father in a fit of rage. His death meant that Feodor became the heir to his father's throne. He had never been considered a candidate for the Russian throne until that moment, and was not a little daunted by the prospect. One year later, in October 1582, his father's latest wife bore a son, Dmitry of Uglich, who was Feodor's only surviving sibling.  Ivan the Terrible died in March 1584, and Feodor became Tsar. Two months later, on 31 May 1584, he was crowned Tsar and Autocrat of all Russia at Dormition Cathedral in Moscow.  Feodor was only the nominal ruler: his wife's brother and trusted minister Boris Godunov legitimized himself, after Ivan IV's death, as a \"de facto\" regent for the weak and disabled Feodor. Feodor's failure to sire other children brought an end to the centuries-old central branch of the Rurik dynasty (although many princes of later times are descendants of Rurik as well). Feodor was succeeded as tsar by Godunov. The termination of the dynasty can also be considered to be one of the reasons for the Time of Troubles. He died in Moscow and was buried at Archangel Cathedral, Kremlin.  His troubled reign was dramatised by Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy in his verse drama \"Tsar Fiodor Ioannovich\" (1868).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign policy.", "content": "Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm for maintaining exclusive trading rights with the Kingdom of England. Feodor declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Sir Jerome Bowes, whose pomposity had been tolerated by Feodor's father. Elizabeth I sent a new ambassador, Giles Fletcher, the Elder, to demand of Boris Godunov that he convince the tsar to reconsider. The negotiations failed because Fletcher addressed Feodor with two of his titles omitted. Even after this setback, Elizabeth continued to address Feodor on that topic in half appealing, half reproachful letters. She proposed an alliance between Russia and England, something which she had refused to do when it had been sought by Feodor's father, but he turned her down.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Fyodor I Ivanovich () or Feodor I Ioannovich (; 31 May 1557 – 16 January (NS) 1598), also known as Feodor the Bellringer (), was the last Rurikid Tsar of Russia (1584–1598).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971994}
{"src_title": "Michael of Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and reign.", "content": "Michael's grandfather, Nikita, was brother to the first Russian Tsaritsa Anastasia and a central advisor to Ivan the Terrible. As a young boy, Michael and his mother had been exiled to Beloozero in 1600. This was a result of the recently elected Tsar Boris Godunov, in 1598, falsely accusing his father, Feodor, of treason. This may have been partly because Feodor had married Ksenia Shestova against Boris' wishes. Michael was unanimously elected Tsar of Russia by a national assembly on 21 February 1613, but the delegates of the council did not discover the young Tsar and his mother at the Ipatiev Monastery near Kostroma until 24 March. He had been chosen after several other options had been removed, including royalty of Poland and Sweden. Initially, Martha protested, believing and stating that her son was too young and tender for so difficult an office, and in such a troublesome time.  Michael's election and accession to the throne form the basis of the Ivan Susanin legend, which Russian composer Mikhail Glinka dramatized in his opera \"A Life for the Tsar\".  In so dilapidated a condition was the capital at this time that Michael had to wait for several weeks at the Troitsa monastery, off, before decent accommodation could be provided for him at Moscow. He was crowned on 22 July 1613. The first task of the new tsar was to clear the land of the countries occupying it. Sweden and Poland were then dealt with respectively by the peace of Stolbovo (17 February 1617) and the Truce of Deulino (1 December 1618). The most important result of the Truce of Deulino was the return from exile of the tsar's father, who henceforth took over the government till his death in October 1633, Michael occupying quite a subordinate position.  Michael's reign saw the greatest territorial expansion in Russian history. During his reign, the conquest of Siberia continued, largely accomplished by the Cossacks and financed by the Stroganov merchant family.  Tsar Michael suffered from a progressive leg injury (a consequence of a horse accident early in his life), which resulted in his not being able to walk towards the end of his life. He was a gentle and pious prince who gave little trouble to anyone and effaced himself behind his counsellors. Sometimes they were relatively honest and capable men like his father; sometimes they were corrupted and bigoted, like the Saltykov relatives of his mother. He was married twice. He was married off to Princess Maria Vladimirovna Dolgorukova in 1624, but she became ill, and died in early 1625, only four months after the marriage. In 1626, he married Eudoxia Streshneva (1608–1645), who bore him 10 children, of whom four reached adulthood: the future Tsar Alexis and the Tsarevnas Irina, Anna, and Tatyana. Michael's failure to wed his eldest daughter, Irina, with Count Valdemar Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, a morganatic son of King Christian IV of Denmark, in consequence of the refusal of the latter to accept Orthodoxy, so deeply afflicted him as to contribute to bringing about his death. Tsar Michael fell ill in April 1645, with scurvy, dropsy, and probably depression. His doctors prescribed purgatives which did not improve his condition; and after fainting in church on 12 July, he died on 23 July 1645.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Michael's governments.", "content": "The two government offices (prikazes) that were most important politically were Posolsky Prikaz (\"Foreign Office\") and Razryadny Prikaz (a Duma chancellery and a personnel department for both central and provincial administration including military command). Those offices could be pivotal in struggles between Boyar factions, so they were traditionally headed not by Boyars but by dyak (professional clerks).  The first head of the Posolsky Prikaz under Michael was Pyotr Tretyakov until his death in 1618; he conducted policy of allying with Sweden against Poland. The next one, Ivan Gramotin had a reputation of a Poloniphile; this appointment was necessary to bring forth Filaret's release from captivity. In the mid-1620s Filaret began preparations for war with Poland; Gramotin fell in his disfavour and was fired and exiled in 1626. The same fate was shared by Efim Telepnev in 1630 and Fedor Likhachov in 1631 – they too tried to soothe Filaret's belligerent approach. Ivan Gryazev, appointed in 1632, was promoted from second ranks of bureaucracy to fulfill Filaret's orders. After the deaths of Filaret and Gryazev the post was once again assumed by Gramotin in 1634, and after his retirement in 1635, by Likhachov, with a general course of pacification.  The Razryadny Prikaz was first headed by Sydavny Vasilyev; Filaret replaced him by his fellow in captivity Tomilo Lugovskoy, but the latter somehow caused Filaret's anger and was exiled. In 1623 Fedor Likhachov was made head of Prikaz till his shift to Posolsky Prikaz, and in 1630 Razryad was given to Ivan Gavrenev, an outstanding administrator who took up this post for 30 years.  Three other key offices were the \"Streletsky Prikaz\" (in charge of the streltsy regiments who served as Moscow's garrison), \"Prikaz bolshoy kazny\", minister of the treasury, and \"Aptekarsky Prikaz\" (\"Pharmacy office\", de facto ministry of health, most particularly the tsar's health). After Filaret's arrival their former heads were sent away from Moscow, and all three given to Ivan Cherkassky (Filaret's nephew), who proved to be an able and competent administrator and was a de facto prime minister till his death in 1642. Fedor Sheremetev who had succeeded to all Cherkassky's posts was a rather weak figure; the real power was in the hands of a court marshal, Alexey Lvov.  When Tsar Michael ascended to power, music was largely dead in the nation (except in the folk songs of poor villagers), because of a 12th Century decree from Bishop Cyril Tourovsky that designated it as a product of hell, but he soon invited French and German singers, along with harpsichordists and other instrument players of the west, and western music began to take hold in Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "From his marriage to Eudoxia Streshneva, Michael fathered 10 children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michael I (Russian: Михаи́л Фёдорович Рома́нов, \"Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov\") () became the first Russian Tsar of the House of Romanov after the zemskiy sobor of 1613 elected him to rule the Tsardom of Russia. He was the son of Feodor Nikitich Romanov (later known as Patriarch Filaret) and of Xenia (later known as \"the \"great nun\"\" Martha). He was also a first cousin once removed of the last Rurikid Tsar Feodor I through his great-aunt Anastasia Romanovna, who was the mother of Feodor I, and through marriage, a great-nephew in-law with Tsar Ivan IV of Russia. His accession marked the end of the Time of Troubles. During his reign, Russia conquered most of Siberia, largely with the help of the Cossacks and the Stroganov family. Russia had extended to the Pacific Ocean by the end of Michael's reign.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971995}
{"src_title": "Henry III, Margrave of Meissen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born probably at the Albrechtsburg residence in Meissen, Henry was the youngest son of Margrave Theodoric I, Margrave of Meissen and his wife Jutta, daughter of Landgrave Hermann I of Thuringia. In 1221 he succeeded his father as Margrave of Meissen and Lusatia, at first under guardianship of his maternal uncle, Landgrave Louis IV of Thuringia, and after his death in 1227, under that of Duke Albert I of Saxony. In 1230 he was legally proclaimed an adult.  Henry had his first combat experience in sometime around 1234, while on crusade in Prussia, fighting against the Pomesanians. His pilgrimage and company is well-documented by Peter of Dusburg, and it resulted in the construction of Balga castle, an important administrative centre for the Teutonic Knights. In 1245 after many years of conflict with the Ascanian margraves of Brandenburg, he was forced to cede the fortresses of Köpenick, Teltow and Mittenwalde north of Lower Lusatia. In 1249 however, the Silesian duke Bolesław II the Bald granted him the eastern area around Schiedlo Castle at the Oder river, where Henry founded the town of Fürstenberg.  In the struggle between the Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX, Henry took the side of the Emperor. In consideration, Frederick II in 1242 promised him the heritage of Henry Raspe as Landgrave of Thuringia and Count palatine of Saxony. In 1243 the Emperor also betrothed his daughter Margaret of Sicily to Henry's son Albert II.  Henry remained a loyal supporter of the Hohenstaufens and not before the departure of Frederick's son Conrad IV from Germany did he recognise the antiking William of Holland. After the death of Henry Raspe in 1247, he enforced his rights in Thuringia by military means in the War of the Thuringian Succession against the claims raised by Sophie of Thuringia, daughter of late Landgrave Louis IV, and her husband Duke Henry II of Brabant, as well as by Prince Siegfried I of Anhalt-Zerbst. After a long drawn-out war he detached the Landgraviate of Hesse in the west and gave it to Sophie's younger son Henry, but kept Thuringia, which he granted to his son Albert II together with the Palatinate of Saxony. The Thuringian acquisition significantly increased the Wettin territorial possessions, which now reached from the Silesian border at the Bóbr river in the east up to the Werra in the west, and from the border with Bohemia along the Erzgebirge in the south to the Harz range in the north.  From 1273 Henry was an important support to the newly elected \"Rex Romanorum\" Rudolph of Habsburg in his struggle against rivaling King Ottokar II of Bohemia. Against Bohemia he won, among other places, Sayda and Purschenstein Castle near Neuhausen,  He was known throughout the whole empire as a glittering prince, famous as a patron of the arts and a model knight, and as a significant minnesinger (not to be confused with Heinrich Frauenlob), poet and composer. Henry was patron of many tournaments and singing competitions, in which he also took part himself, and commissioned the famous \"Christherre-Chronik.\" He set to music hymns to be sung in the churches, by express permission of the pope.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1234 Henry married Constance of Babenberg, the daughter of Duke Leopold VI of Austria. Together they had two sons:  As early as 1265 he attached the Imperial Pleissnerland around Altenburg, the dowry of his daughter-in-law Margaret, to the Landgraviate of Thuringia and gave both to his elder son Albert II, otherwise Albert the Degenerate. For his younger son Theodoric, Henry had created – though without imperial consent – the smaller Margraviate of Landsberg in the western part of the Lusatian lands around Leipzig. Henry kept for himself only the Margraviate of Meissen, the remaining Lower Lusatian lands, and a formal power of oversight. Only domestic disorders, caused by the unworthiness of his son Albert, clouded the later years of his reign and indeed, long after his death in 1288, led to the loss of Lusatia and Thuringia.  After the death of Constance in 1243 Henry took as his second wife Agnes (d. 1268), a daughter of King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia, and in his third marriage the daughter of a \"ministerialis\", or serving knight, Elisabeth von Maltitz, who bore him Friedrich Clem (whose only daughter Elisabeth married Otto II, Prince of Anhalt-Aschersleben) and Hermann the Long.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry III, called Henry the Illustrious (\"Heinrich der Erlauchte\") (c. 1215 – 15 February 1288) from the House of Wettin was Margrave of Meissen and last Margrave of Lusatia (as Henry IV) from 1221 until his death; from 1242 also Landgrave of Thuringia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971996}
{"src_title": "Charles XV of Sweden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Stockholm Palace, Stockholm in 1826 and dubbed Duke of Scania at birth. Born the eldest son of Crown Prince Oscar of Sweden and his wife Crown Princess Josephine, he would be second in line to the throne of his grandfather, the ruling King Charles XIV John of Sweden. During his childhood he was placed in the care of the royal governess countess Christina Ulrika Taube. When he was just 15, he was given his first officer's commission in 1841 by his grandfather the king.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Crown Prince.", "content": "The aging King Charles XIV would suffer a stroke on his 81st birthday in 1844, dying little more than a month later. His successor would be his son, Charles’s father Oscar, who ascended the throne as King Oscar I of Sweden. Upon his father's accession to the throne in 1844, the youth Charles was made a chancellor of the universities of Uppsala and Lund, and in 1853 chancellor of Royal Swedish Academy of Arts. On 11 February 1846 he was made an honorary member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.  The Crown Prince was Viceroy of Norway briefly in 1856 and 1857. He became Regent on 25 September 1857, and king on the death of his father on 8 July 1859. As grandson of Augusta of Bavaria, he was a descendant of Gustav I of Sweden and Charles IX of Sweden, whose blood returned to the throne after being lost in 1818 when Charles XIII of Sweden died.  On 19 June 1850 he married in Stockholm Louise of the Netherlands, niece of William II of the Netherlands through her father and niece of William I of Prussia, German Emperor, through her mother. The couple were personally quite dissimilar; Louise was a cultured and refined woman, however, she was considered to be quite plain and Charles was disappointed with her appearance. Louise was in love with her husband, whereas he preferred other women, saddening her deeply. His well-known mistresses included the actress Laura Bergnéhr, the countess Josephine Sparre, Wilhelmine Schröder and the actresses Hanna Styrell and Elise Hwasser, and the Crown Prince neglected his shy wife. On the other hand, his relationship to his only daughter, Louise, was warm and close.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "As Crown Prince, Charles' brusque manner led many to regard his future accession with some apprehension, yet he proved to be one of the most popular of Scandinavian kings and a constitutional ruler in the best sense of the word. His reign was remarkable for its manifold and far-reaching reforms. Sweden's existing municipal law (1862), ecclesiastical law (1863) and criminal law (1864) were enacted appropriately enough under the direction of a king whose motto was: \"Land skall med lag byggas\" – \"With law shall the land be built\". Charles also helped Louis De Geer to carry through his reform of the Parliament of Sweden in 1866. He also declared the freedom of women by passing the law of legal majority for unmarried women in 1858 – his sister Princess Eugenie became the first woman who was declared mature.  Charles, like his father Oscar I, was an advocate of Scandinavianism and the political solidarity of the three northern kingdoms, and his friendship with Frederick VII of Denmark, it is said, led him to give half promises of help to Denmark on the eve of the war of 1864, which, in the circumstances, were perhaps misleading and unjustifiable. In view, however, of the unpreparedness of the Swedish army and the difficulties of the situation, Charles was forced to observe a strict neutrality. He died in Malmö on 18 September 1872.  Charles XV attained some eminence as a painter and as a poet. He was followed on the thrones of both Norway and Sweden by his brother Oscar II.  In 1872, Charles XV had controversial plans to enter a non-morganatic marriage with the Polish countess Marya Krasińska through the assistance of Ohan Demirgian, plans that aroused opposition both in the royal house and government and which were interrupted only by his death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "By his wife, Louise of the Netherlands, Charles had two children, a son who died in infancy and a daughter who married the King of Denmark. The early death of his only legitimate son meant that he was succeeded on the throne of Sweden by his younger brother Oscar II. Charles also sired an illegitimate son, Carl Johan Bolander, (4 February 1854 - 28 July 1903), the father of Bishop Nils Bolander and daughter, Ellen Svensson Hammar (28 October 1865 - 1931), and it has been widely rumored that he had many more extramarital children.  No subsequent king of Sweden to this day is Charles' descendant. However, his descendants are or have been on the thrones of Denmark, Luxembourg, Greece, Belgium and Norway. A few weeks before Charles' death, his daughter Louise (then the Crown Princess of Denmark) gave birth to her second son. The young Prince of Denmark became christened as grandfather Charles' namesake. In 1905 this grandson, Prince Carl of Denmark, ascended the throne of Norway, becoming thus his maternal grandfather's successor in that country, and assumed the reign name Haakon VII. The present king, Harald V of Norway, is Charles' great-great-grandson, through his father and mother.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles XV also Carl (\"Carl Ludvig Eugen\"); Swedish: \"Karl XV\" and Norwegian: \"Karl IV\" (3 May 1826 – 18 September 1872) was King of Sweden (\"Charles XV\") and Norway, there often referred to accurately as Charles IV, from 1859 until his death. Though known as King Charles XV in Sweden (and also on contemporary Norwegian coins), he was actually the ninth Swedish king by that name, as his predecessor Charles IX (reigned 1604–1611) had adopted a numeral according to a fictitious history of Sweden.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971997}
{"src_title": "Oscar I of Sweden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Oscar was born at 291 Rue Cisalpine in Paris (today: 32 Rue Monceau) to Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, then-French Minister of War and later Marshal of the Empire and Sovereign Prince of Pontecorvo, and Désirée Clary, Napoleon Bonaparte's former fiancée. He was named \"Joseph\" after his godfather Joseph Bonaparte, who was married to his mother's elder sister Julie, but was also given the names \"François Oscar\". The latter name was chosen by Napoleon after one of the heroes in the Ossian cycle of poems. Désirée is said to have chosen Napoleon to be Oscar's godfather.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prince of Sweden.", "content": "On 21 August 1810, Oscar's father was elected heir-presumptive to the Swedish throne by the Riksdag of the Estates, as King Charles XIII was without legitimate heirs. Two months later, on 5 November, he was formally adopted by the king under the name of \"Charles John\"; Oscar was then created a Prince of Sweden with the style of \"Royal Highness\", and further accorded the title of Duke of Södermanland. Oscar and his mother moved from Paris to Stockholm in June 1811; while Oscar soon acclimatized to life at the royal court, quickly acquiring the Swedish language, Désirée had difficulty adjusting and despised the cold weather. Consequently, she left Sweden in the summer of 1811, and would not return until 1823.  On 17 January 1816, Oscar was elected an honorary member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1818 was appointed chancellor of Uppsala University, where he spent one semester.  Oscar became Crown Prince in 1818 upon the death of his adoptive grandfather, and the accession of Charles John to the Swedish and Norwegian thrones.  In 1832-34 he completed the romantic opera \"Ryno, the errant knight\", which had been left unfinished on the death of the young composer Eduard Brendler. In 1839 he wrote a series of articles on popular education, and in 1841 anonymously published \"Om Straff och straffanstalter\", a work advocating prison reforms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Seeking to legitimise the new Bernadotte dynasty, Charles XIV John had selected four princesses as candidates for marriage, in order of his priority:  Oscar would eventually marry Josephine, first by proxy at the Leuchtenberg Palace in Munich on 22 May 1823 and in person at a wedding ceremony conducted in Stockholm on 19 June 1823.  The couple had five children:  Oscar also had two illegitimate sons (unofficially called the \"Princes of Lapland\") by his first mistress, the actress Emilie Högquist:  With his second mistress, Jaquette Löwenhielm (née Gyldenstolpe), Oscar had a daughter:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "In 1824 and 1833, Oscar briefly served as Viceroy of Norway.  In 1838 Charles XIV John began to suspect that his son was plotting with the Liberal politicians to bring about a change of ministry, or even his own abdication. If Oscar did not actively assist the Opposition on this occasion, his disapprobation of his father's despotic behaviour was notorious, though he avoided an actual rupture. Yet his liberalism was of the most cautious and moderate character, as the Opposition—shortly after his accession to the thrones in 1844—discovered to their great chagrin. The new king would not hear of any radical reform of the cumbersome and obsolete 1809 Instrument of Government, which made the king a near-autocrat. However, one of his earliest measures was to establish freedom of the press. He also passed the first law supporting gender equality in Sweden when he in 1845 declared that in the absence of a will specifying otherwise, brothers and sisters should have equal inheritance. Oscar I also formally established equality between his two kingdoms by introducing new flags with the common Union badge of Norway and Sweden, as well as a new coat of arms for the union.  In foreign affairs, Oscar I was a friend of the principle of nationality; in 1848 he supported Denmark against the Kingdom of Prussia in the First War of Schleswig by placing Swedish and Norwegian troops in cantonments in Funen and North Schleswig (1849–1850), and was the mediator of the Truce of Malmö (26 August 1848). He was also one of the guarantors of the integrity of Denmark (the London Protocol, 8 May 1852).  As early as 1850, Oscar I had conceived the plan of a dynastic union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, but such difficulties presented themselves that the scheme had to be abandoned. He succeeded, however, in reversing his father's obsequious policy towards Imperial Russia. His fear lest Russia should demand a stretch of coast along the Varanger Fjord induced him to remain neutral during the Crimean War, and, subsequently, to conclude an alliance with Great Britain and the Second French Empire (25 November 1855) for preserving the territorial integrity of Sweden-Norway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In the 1850s, Oscar's health began to rapidly deteriorate, becoming paralyzed in 1857; he died two years later at the Royal Palace in Stockholm on 8 July 1859. His eldest son, who served as Regent during his absence, succeeded him as Charles XV.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Swedish and Norwegian honours  Foreign honours", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Oscar I (4 July 1799 – 8 July 1859) was King of Sweden and Norway from 8 March 1844 until his death. He was the second monarch of the House of Bernadotte.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971998}
{"src_title": "Gustaf VI Adolf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Birth.", "content": "He was born at the Royal Palace in Stockholm and at birth created Duke of Scania. A patrilineal member of the Bernadotte family, he was also a descendant of the House of Vasa through maternal lines. Through his mother, Victoria, he was a descendant of Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden of the deposed House of Holstein-Gottorp.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crown Prince (1907–1950).", "content": "Gustaf Adolf became Crown Prince of Sweden on 8 December 1907, on the death of his grandfather, King Oscar II.  In 1938 he was elected an honorary member of the Virginia Society of the Cincinnati.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign (1950–1973).", "content": "On 29 October 1950, Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf became king a few days before his 68th birthday, upon the death of his father, King Gustaf V. He was at the time the world's oldest heir apparent to a monarchy (this in turn was broken by his great-nephew Charles, Prince of Wales on 2 November 2016). His personal motto was \"Plikten framför allt\", \"Duty before all\".  During Gustaf VI Adolf's reign, work was underway on a new Instrument of Government to replace the 1809 constitution and produce reforms consistent with the times. Among the reforms sought by some Swedes was the replacement of the monarchy or at least some moderation of the old constitution's provision that \"The King alone shall govern the realm.\"  Gustaf VI Adolf's personal qualities made him popular among the Swedish people and, in turn, this popularity led to strong public opinion in favour of the retention of the monarchy. Gustaf VI Adolf's expertise and interest in a wide range of fields (architecture and botany being but two) made him respected, as did his informal and modest nature and his purposeful avoidance of pomp. While the monarchy had been \"de facto\" subordinate to the Riksdag and ministers since the definitive establishment of parliamentary rule in 1917, the king still nominally retained considerable reserve powers. With few exceptions, though, Gustaf was bound to act on the advice of the ministers. These nominal powers were removed when Sweden's constitutional reform became complete in 1975, thus making Gustaf Adolf the last monarch to wield even nominal political power.  The King died in 1973, ten weeks shy of his 91st birthday, at the old hospital in Helsingborg, Scania, close to his summer residence, Sofiero Castle, after a deterioration in his health that culminated in pneumonia. He was succeeded on the throne by his 27-year-old grandson Carl XVI Gustaf, son of the late Prince Gustaf Adolf. He died the day before the election of 1973, which is suggested to have swayed it in support of the incumbent Social Democratic government. In a break with tradition, he was not buried in Riddarholmskyrkan in Stockholm, but in the Royal Cemetery in Haga alongside his wives. He was the last surviving son of Gustaf V.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal interests.", "content": "The King's reputation as a \"professional amateur professor\" was widely known; nationally and internationally, and among his relatives. Gustaf VI Adolf was a devoted archaeologist, and was admitted to the British Academy for his work in botany in 1958. Gustaf VI Adolf participated in archaeological expeditions in China, Greece, Korea and Italy, and founded the Swedish Institute in Rome.  Gustaf VI Adolf had an enormous private library consisting of 80 000 volumes and – nearly more impressively – he actually \"had\" read the main part of the books. He had an interest in specialist literature on Chinese art and East Asian history. Throughout his life, King Gustaf VI Adolf was particularly interested in the history of civilization, and he participated in several archaeological expeditions. His other great area of interest was botany, concentrating in flowers and gardening. He was considered an expert on the Rhododendron flower. At Sofiero Castle (the king's summer residence) he created one of the very finest Rhododendron collections.  Like his sons, Prince Gustaf Adolf and Prince Bertil, Gustaf VI Adolf maintained wide, lifelong interests in sports. He enjoyed tennis and golf, and fly fishing for charity. He was president of the Swedish Olympic Committee and the Swedish Sports Confederation from their foundations and until 1933, and these positions were then taken over by his sons in succession, Gustaf Adolf until 1947 and then Bertil until 1997.  According to all six books of memoires by his sons Sigvard and Carl Johan, nephew Lennart and of wives of the two sons, Gustaf Adolf from the 1930s on took a great and abiding interest in removing their royal titles and privileges (because of marriages that were unconstitutional at the time), persuaded his father Gustaf V to do so and to have the Royal Court call the three family members only \"Mr. Bernadotte\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and issue.", "content": "Gustaf Adolf married Princess Margaret of Connaught on 15 June 1905 in St. George's Chapel, at Windsor Castle. Princess Margaret was the daughter of Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, third son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of the United Kingdom. Gustaf Adolf and Margaret had five children:  Crown Princess Margaret died suddenly on 1 May 1920 with her cause of death given as an infection following surgery. At the time, she was eight months pregnant and expecting their sixth child.  Gustaf Adolf married Lady Louise Mountbatten, formerly Princess Louise of Battenberg, on 3 November 1923 at St. James's Palace. She was the sister of Lord Mountbatten and aunt of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. It was Lady Louise who became Queen of Sweden. Both Queen Louise and her stepchildren were great-grandchildren of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.  His second marriage produced only one stillborn daughter on 30 May 1925.  While his first wife visited her native Britain in the early years of their marriage, it was widely rumored in Sweden that Gustaf Adolf had an affair there with operetta star Rosa Grünberg. Swedish vocalist Carl E. Olivebring (1919–2002) in a press interview claimed to be an extramarital son of Gustaf VI Adolf, a claim taken seriously by the king's biographer Kjell Fridh (1944–1998).  King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden was the grandfather of his direct successor King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden, of Queen Margrethe II of Denmark and also of former Queen Anne-Marie of Greece.  King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden was the uncle by his second marriage to Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign.", "content": "In 1918, Gustaf VI Adolf received an honorary doctorate at Lund University, in 1926 an Honorary Doctorate at Yale, Princeton and Clark Universities, at Cambridge in 1929 and in 1932 at the University of Dorpat.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arms and monogram.", "content": "Upon his creation as Duke of Skåne, Gustaf Adolf was granted a coat of arms with the arms of Skåne in base. These arms can be seen on his stall-plates both as Knight of the Swedish order of the Seraphim in the Riddarsholmskyrkan in Sweden, but also the Frederiksborg Chapel in Copenhagen, Denmark, as a Knight of the Danish Order of the Elephant. Upon his accession to the throne in 1950, he assumed the Arms of Dominion of Sweden.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gustaf VI Adolf (Oscar Fredrik Wilhelm Olaf Gustaf Adolf; 11 November 1882 – 15 September 1973) was King of Sweden from 29 October 1950 until his death. He was the eldest son of King Gustaf V and his wife, Victoria of Baden, and had been Crown Prince of Sweden for the preceding 43 years in the reign of his father. Not long before his death at age 90, he approved the constitutional changes which removed the Swedish monarchy's last nominal political powers. He was a lifelong amateur archeologist particularly interested in Ancient Italian cultures.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4971999}
{"src_title": "Kufstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "It is located in the Tyrolean Unterland region on the river Inn, at the confluence with its Weißache and Kaiserbach tributaries, near the border to Bavaria, Germany. The municipal area stretches along the Lower Inn Valley between the Brandenberg Alps in the northwest and the Kaiser Mountains in the southeast. The remote Kaisertal until recently was the last settled valley in Austria without transport connections, prior to the completion of a tunnel road from Kufstein to neighbouring Ebbs in 2008. North of the town, the Inn river leaves the Northern Limestone Alps and enters the Bavarian Alpine Foreland. The town area comprises several small lakes, such as Pfrillsee, Längsee, and Hechtsee; Egelsee and Maistaller Lacke are protected nature reserves.  The municipal arrangement comprises the cadastral communities of Kufstein, Mosbach and Thierberg; the town itself is divided into five quarters (Zentrum, Sparchen, Weissach, Endach, and Zell).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Glass manufacturer Riedel, gunmaker Voere, and textile mat manufacturer Kleen-Tex are based in Kufstein.  Kufstein is also home to the University of Applied Sciences Kufstein which specializes in providing business education and is a center for international exchange.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Kufstein has two exits along the A12 motorway (autobahn) from Innsbruck to Rosenheim.  Kufstein railway station, opened in 1876, forms part of the Lower Inn Valley railway section of the Brenner-axis from Munich to Verona.  The Festungsbahn is a funicular that links the city centre with the Kufstein Fortress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Archaeological findings in the Tischofer Cave in Kaisertal denote a settlement of the area more than 30,000 years ago, the oldest traces of human habitation in Tyrol. Incorporated into the Roman Empire in 15 BC, the Inn river formed the border between the Roman provinces of \"Raetia\" and \"Noricum\".  A church at \"Caofstein\" was first mentioned in a 788 deed issued by Bishop Arno of Salzburg. At that time, the Lower Inn Valley was part of the Bavarian realm under the Agilolfing duke Tassilo III, who was deposed by Charlemagne and replaced by Prefect Gerold. The Fortress is first documented in 1205 as a possession of the Bishop of Regensburg and the Duke of Bavaria.  In the early 14th century, the Wittelsbach emperor Louis IV, also Bavarian duke, vested the Kufstein citizens with rights of jurisdiction. Kufstein passed to the County of Tyrol in 1342, when it was a wedding gift to Countess Margaret from her husband, Emperor Louis's son Louis the Brandenburger. However, it fell back to Bavaria upon Margaret's death in 1369. Duke Stephen III of Bavaria granted Kufstein city status in 1393, due to its prominence as a trading and docking point on the Inn River. From 1415 onwards, his son and successor Duke Louis VII had the Fortress largely rebuilt and expanded.  The possession of the strategically important Kufstein border fortress remained disputed. In 1504, the Habsburg emperor Maximilian I took the opportunity of the War of the Succession of Landshut within the Bavarian Wittelsbach dynasty: his Austrian forces laid siege to the town, and at the Imperial Diet in Cologne the next year, the emperor resolved upon the cession of the Kufstein territories to the Habsburg lands of Tyrol. Maximilian had the prominent \"Kaiserturm\" tower of the fortress erected, which was finished in 1522.  During the War of the Spanish Succession, the castle was again besieged by Bavarian troops under Elector Maximilian II Emanuel in 1703, nevertheless the Austrian domains were confirmed by the Treaty of Ilbersheim the next year. After the War of the Third Coalition, Kufstein once again was awarded to the newly established Kingdom of Bavaria in the 1805 Peace of Pressburg and the Tyrolean Rebellion of 1809 was crushed by the Bavarian Army. Finally in 1813/14 it passed to the Austrian Empire.  In the 19th century, Kufstein Fortress was turned into a bastille for political prisoners, such as the Hungarian outlaw Sándor Rózsa, who spent several years here before he was finally pardoned in 1868. The town's economic development was decisively promoted by the opening of the Lower Inn Valley Railway line in 1858.  In the late days of World War II the historic town centre suffered from Allied bombing. After the war, Kufstein was occupied by French and US forces; it was the site of a French sector United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration Displaced Persons camp.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "Due to its long history, the city of Kufstein has various sights to offer:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — Sister cities.", "content": "Kufstein is twinned with", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film and television.", "content": "Locations in and around Kufstein have been used for a number of films and television programmes: \"Destiny\" (1942), \"Mountain Crystal\" (1949), \"Bluebeard\" (1951), \"White Shadows\" (1951), \"Das letzte Aufgebot\" (1953), \"The Flying Classroom\" (1954), \"Graf Porno und die liebesdurstigen Töchter\" (1969), \"Vanessa\" (1977), \"Sachrang\" (1978), TV documentary series \"Bilderbuch Deutschland\" (1996), \"Da wo das Glück beginnt\" (2006), \"Da wo es noch Treue gibt\" (2006), and \"Da wo die Freundschaft zahlt\" (2007). For further information see the \"Internet Movie Database\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Heino sings in \"Das Kufsteinlied\" about Kufstein. Franzl Lang sings \"Kufstein-lied.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kufstein is a town in the Austrian state of Tyrol, the administrative seat of Kufstein District. With a population of about 18,400, it is the second largest Tyrolean town after the state capital Innsbruck. The greatest landmark is Kufstein Fortress, first mentioned in the 13th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972000}
{"src_title": "Pollutant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Different types of pollutants in nature.", "content": "Pollutants, towards which the environment has low absorptive capacity are called \"stock pollutants\". (e.g. persistent organic pollutants such as PCBs, non-biodegradable plastics and heavy metals). Stock pollutants accumulate in the environment over time. The damage they cause increases as more pollutant is emitted, and persists as the pollutant accumulates. Stock pollutants can create a burden for the future generations, bypassing on the damage that persists well after the benefits received from incurring that damage, have been forgotten.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable pollutants.", "content": "Notable pollutants include the following groups", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fund pollutants.", "content": "Fund pollutants are those for which the environment has the moderate absorptive capacity. Fund pollutants do not cause damage to the environment unless the emission rate exceeds the receiving environment's absorptive capacity (e.g. carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by plants and oceans). Fund pollutants are not destroyed, but rather converted into less harmful substances, or diluted/dispersed to non-harmful concentrations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Light pollutant.", "content": "Light pollution is the impact that anthropogenic light has on the visibility of the night sky. It also encompasses ecological light pollution which describes the effect of artificial light on individual organisms and on the structure of ecosystems as a whole.  Primary Pollutants: Pollutants which are emitted directly to the environment are called primary pollutants", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zones of influence.", "content": "Pollutants can also be defined by their zones of influence, both horizontally and vertically.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Horizontal zone.", "content": "The horizontal zone refers to the area that is damaged by a pollutant. Local pollutants cause damage near the emission source. Regional pollutants cause damage further from the emission source.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vertical zone.", "content": "The vertical zone refers to whether the damage is ground-level or atmospheric. Surface pollutants cause damage by accumulating near the Earth's surface. Global pollutants cause damage by concentrating on the atmosphere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regulation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Pollutants can cross international borders and therefore international regulations are needed for their control. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which entered into force in 2004, is an international legally binding agreement for the control of persistent organic pollutants. Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTR) are systems to collect and disseminate information on environmental releases and transfers of toxic chemicals from industrial and other facilities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "European Union.", "content": "The European Pollutant Emission Register is a type of PRTR providing access to information on the annual emissions of industrial facilities in the Member States of the European Union, as well as Norway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Clean Air Act standards. Under the Clean Air Act, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are developed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for six common air pollutants, also called \"criteria pollutants\": particulates; smog and ground-level ozone; carbon monoxide; sulfur oxides; nitrogen oxides; and lead. The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants are additional emission standards that are set by EPA for toxic air pollutants.  Clean Water Act standards. Under the Clean Water Act, EPA promulgated national standards for municipal sewage treatment plants, also called \"publicly owned treatment works,\" in the \"Secondary Treatment Regulation.\" National standards for industrial dischargers are called \"Effluent guidelines\" (for existing sources) and New Source Performance Standards, and currently cover over 50 industrial categories. In addition, the Act requires states to publish water quality standards for individual water bodies to provide additional protection where the national standards are insufficient.  RCRA standards. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulates the management, transport and disposal of municipal solid waste, hazardous waste and underground storage tanks.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A pollutant is a substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired effects, or adversely affects the usefulness of a resource. A pollutant may cause long- or short-term damage by changing the growth rate of plant or animal species, or by interfering with human amenities, comfort, health, or property values. Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the environment in the long term. However, the degradation products of some pollutants are themselves polluting such as the products DDE and DDD produced from the degradation of DDT.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972001}
{"src_title": "Order of Friars Minor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name and demographics.", "content": "The \"Order of Friars Minor\" are commonly called simply the \"Franciscans\". This Order is a mendicant religious order of men that traces its origin to Francis of Assisi. Their official Latin name is the \"Ordo Fratrum Minorum\".  The modern organization of the Friars Minor comprises three separate families or groups, each considered a religious order in its own right under its own minister General and particular type of governance. They all live according to a body of regulations known as the Rule of St Francis. These are  The 2013 \"Annuario Pontificio\" gave the following figures for the membership of the principal male Franciscan orders:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beginnings.", "content": "A sermon on Mt 10:9 which Francis heard in 1209 made such an impression on him that he decided to fully devote himself to a life of apostolic poverty. Clad in a rough garment, barefoot, and, after the Evangelical precept, without staff or scrip, he began to preach repentance.  The mendicant orders had long been exempt from the jurisdiction of the bishop, and enjoyed (as distinguished from the secular clergy) unrestricted freedom to preach and hear confessions in the churches connected with their monasteries. This had led to endless friction and open quarrels between the two divisions of the clergy. This question was definitively settled by the Council of Trent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Separate congregations.", "content": "Amid numerous dissensions in the 14th century, a number of separate congregations sprang up, almost of sects, to say nothing of the heretical parties of the Beghards and Fraticelli, some of which developed within the order on both hermit and cenobitic principles.  A difference of opinion developed in the community concerning the interpretation of the rule regarding property. The Observants held to a strict interpretation that the friars may not hold any property either individually nor communally. The literal and unconditional observance of this was rendered impracticable by the great expansion of the order, its pursuit of learning, and the accumulated property of the large cloisters in the towns. Regulations were drafted by which all alms donated were held by custodians appointed by the Holy See, who would make distributions upon request. It was John XXII who had introduced Conventualism in the sense of community of goods, income, and property as in other religious orders, in contradiction to Observantism or the strict observance of the rule. Pope Martin V, in the Brief \"Ad statum\" of 23 August 1430, allowed the Conventuals to hold property like all other orders.  Projects for a union between the two main branches of the order were put forth not only by the Council of Constance but by several popes, without any positive result. By direction of Pope Martin V, John of Capistrano drew up statutes which were to serve as a basis for reunion, and they were actually accepted by a general chapter at Assisi in 1430; but the majority of the Conventual houses refused to agree to them, and they remained without effect. Equally unsuccessful were the attempts of the Franciscan Pope Sixtus IV, who bestowed a vast number of privileges on both original mendicant orders, but by this very fact lost the favor of the Observants and failed in his plans for reunion. Julius II succeeded in doing away with some of the smaller branches, but left the division of the two great parties untouched. This division was finally legalized by Leo X, after a general chapter held in Rome in 1517, in connection with the reform movement of the Fifth Lateran Council, had once more declared the impossibility of reunion. Leo X summoned on 11 July 1516 a general chapter to meet at Rome on the feast of Pentecost 31 May 1517. This chapter suppressed all the reformed congregations and annexed them to the Observants; it then declared the Observants an independent order, and separated them completely from the Conventuals. The less strict principles of the Conventuals, permitting the possession of real estate and the enjoyment of fixed revenues, were recognized as tolerable, while the Observants, in contrast to this \"usus moderatus\", were held strictly to their own \"usus arctus\" or \"pauper\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unification.", "content": "All of the groups that followed the Franciscan Rule literally were united to the Observants, and the right to elect the Minister General of the Order, together with the seal of the order, was given to the group united under the Observants. This grouping, since it adhered more closely to the rule of the founder, was allowed to claim a certain superiority over the Conventuals. The Observant general (elected now for six years, not for life) inherited the title of \"Minister-General of the Whole Order of St. Francis\" and was granted the right to confirm the choice of a head for the Conventuals, who was known as \"Master-General of the Friars Minor Conventual\"—although this privilege never became practically operative.  In 1875, the Kulturkampf expelled the majority of the German Franciscans, most of whom settled in North America.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Habit.", "content": "The habit has been gradually changed in colour and certain other details. Its colour, which was at first grey or a medium brown, is now a dark brown. The dress, which consists of a loose sleeved gown, is confined by a white cord, from which is hung, since the fifteenth century, the Seraphic rosary with its seven decades. Sandals are substituted for shoes. Around the neck and over the shoulders hangs the cowl.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Order of Friars Minor (also called the Franciscans, the Franciscan Order, or the Seraphic Order; postnominal abbreviation OFM) is a mendicant Catholic religious order, founded in 1209 by Francis of Assisi. The order adheres to the teachings and spiritual disciplines of the founder and of his main associates and followers, such as Clare of Assisi, Anthony of Padua, and Elizabeth of Hungary, among many others. The Order of Friars Minor is the largest of the contemporary First Orders within the Franciscan movement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972002}
{"src_title": "The Art of Being Right", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Publication.", "content": "In Volume 2, § 26, of his \"Parerga and Paralipomena\", Schopenhauer wrote: The tricks, dodges, and chicanery, to which they [men] resort in order to be right in the end, are so numerous and manifold and yet recur so regularly that some years ago I made them the subject of my own reflection and directed my attention to their purely formal element after I had perceived that, however varied the subjects of discussion and the persons taking part therein, the same identical tricks and dodges always come back and were very easy to recognize. This led me at the time to the idea of clearly separating the merely formal part of these tricks and dodges from the material and of displaying it, so to speak, as a neat anatomical specimen. He \"collected all the dishonest tricks so frequently occurring in argument and clearly presented each of them in its characteristic setting, illustrated by examples and given a name of its own.\" As an additional service, Schopenhauer \"added a means to be used against them, as a kind of guard against these thrusts....\"  However, when he later revised his book, he found \"that such a detailed and minute consideration of the crooked ways and tricks that are used by common human nature to cover up its shortcomings is no longer suited to my temperament and so I lay it aside.\" He then recorded a few stratagems as specimens for anyone in the future who might care to write a similar essay. He also included, in \"Parerga and Paralipomena\", Volume 2, § 26, an outline of what is essential to every disputation.  The \"Manuscript Remains\" left after Schopenhauer's death include a forty–six page section on \"Eristic Dialectics\". It contains thirty–eight stratagems and many footnotes. There is a preliminary discussion about the distinction between logic and dialectics. E. F. J. Payne has translated these notes into English.  A. C. Grayling edited T. Bailey Saunders' English translation in 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "The following lists the 38 stratagems described by Schopenhauer, in the order of their appearance in the book:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Art of Being Right: 38 Ways to Win an Argument (also The Art of Controversy, or Eristic Dialectic: The Art of Winning an Argument; German: \"Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten\"; 1831) is an acidulous, sarcastic treatise written by the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. In it, Schopenhauer examines a total of thirty-eight methods of showing up one's opponent in a debate. He introduces his essay with the idea that philosophers have concentrated in ample measure on the rules of logic, but have not (especially since the time of Immanuel Kant) engaged with the darker art of the dialectic, of controversy. Whereas the purpose of logic is classically said to be a method of arriving at the truth, dialectic, says Schopenhauer, \"...on the other hand, would treat of the intercourse between two rational beings who, because they are rational, ought to think in common, but who, as soon as they cease to agree like two clocks keeping exactly the same time, create a disputation, or intellectual contest.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972003}
{"src_title": "Annibale Bugnini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and ordination.", "content": "Annibale Bugnini was born in Civitella del Lago in Umbria. In 1928 he began his theological studies with the Congregation of the Mission and was ordained a priest on 26 July 1936.  He completed his doctorate in sacred theology at the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas \"Angelicum\" in 1938 with a dissertation entitled \"De liturgia eiusque momento in Concilio Tridentino\".  He spent ten years in parish work in a suburb of Rome. In 1947 Bugnini became involved in the production of the missionary publications of his order and became the first editor of \"Ephemerides Liturgicæ\", a scholarly journal dedicated to the reform of the Catholic liturgy. Starting in 1949, he taught Liturgical Studies at the Pontifical Urban College (now the Pontifical Urban University). He later became a professor at the Pontifical Lateran University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Curial career.", "content": "On 28 May 1948, Pope Pius XII appointed Bugnini Secretary to the Commission for Liturgical Reform, which created a revised rite for the Easter Vigil in 1951 and revised ceremonies for the rest of Holy Week in 1955. The Commission also made changes in 1955 to the rubrics of the Mass and Office, suppressing many of the Church's octaves and a number of vigils, and abolishing the First Vespers of most feasts. In 1960 the Commission modified the Code of Rubrics, which led to new editions of the Roman Breviary in 1961 and of the Roman Missal in 1962.  On 25 January 1959, Pope John XXIII announced his plan to convene the Second Vatican Council. On 6 June 1960 Fr. Bugnini was named Secretary of the Pontifical Preparatory Commission on the Liturgy. This body produced the first drafts of the document that, after many changes, would become the Council's \"Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy\" (1963). When the Council convened in October 1962, the Preparatory Commission was succeeded by the Conciliar Commission on the Sacred Liturgy, on which Bugnini was assigned the role of a \"peritus\" (expert). At the same time, Bugnini was removed from the chair of Liturgy at the Pontifical Lateran University because, in the words of Piero Marini, \"his liturgical ideas were seen as too progressive.\" In his posthumously published memoirs, Second Vatican Council consultant Louis Bouyer called Bugnini “a man as bereft of culture as he was of basic honesty.” The Council and Pope Paul VI approved the Constitution on the Liturgy on 4 December 1963. On 30 January 1964, the Pope appointed Bugnini Secretary of the Council for the Implementation of the Constitution on the Liturgy. Bugnini was appointed the Secretary of the Congregation for Divine Worship by Pope Paul in May 1969. In January 1965, he had become an undersecretary in the Congregation of Rites responsible for causes for beatification and canonization.  On 6 January 1972 Pope Paul named Bugnini Titular Archbishop of Diocletiana and consecrated him as bishop on the following 13 February.  On 16 July 1975 Pope Paul announced the merger of two curial departments to form the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, ending Bugnini's career in the Roman Curia. His personal secretary was Piero Marini, who is now an Archbishop and President of the Pontifical Committee for International Eucharistic Congresses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomatic service.", "content": "On 4 January 1976 Pope Paul named Bugnini pro-nuncio to Iran. Bugnini studied the country, its history, and traditions. The results of his researches appeared in 1981 as \"La Chiesa in Iran\" (The Church in Iran).  In 1979 Bugnini tried unsuccessfully to obtain, in the name of the pope, the release of the American hostages being held at the United States embassy by followers of the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. He met with Khomeini to deliver Pope John Paul II's appeal for the release of the hostages. The 52 Americans were released on 21 January 1981, after 444 days in captivity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Bugnini died of natural causes at the Pope Pius XI Clinic in Rome on 3 July 1982.  His detailed account of the work to which he devoted most of his career, \"The Reform of the Liturgy 1948-1975\", appeared posthumously. An English translation appeared in 1990.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Allegation.", "content": "The oft-repeated allegation of Bugnini's being a Freemason was first made in print by Italian essayist Tito Casini in his book \"Nel Fumo di Satana. Verso l'ultimo scontro\" (Florence: Il carro di San Giovanni, 1976). According to Casini’s anonymous source, Bugnini left a briefcase in a conference room. When someone found it and attempted to identify the owner, incriminating documents were within. English writer Michael Davies traced Pope Paul VI’s sending of Bugnini to Iran as nuncio to this alleged revelation of Bugnini’s Masonic affiliation, though the task of his post-Vatican II congregation had just been completed (\"supra\"). Davies asserted that an unnamed, conservative Cardinal told him in the summer of 1975 that he'd \"seen (or placed) on the pope's desk\" a \"dossier\" containing evidence of Bugnini's Freemason connection.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Annibale Bugnini (14 June 1912 – 3 July 1982) was a Roman Catholic prelate. Ordained in 1936 and named archbishop in 1972, he was secretary of the commission that worked on the reform of the Catholic liturgy that followed the Second Vatican Council. Critics of the changes made to the Catholic Mass and other liturgical practices before and after Vatican II consider him a controversial figure. He held several other posts in the Roman Curia and ended his career as papal nuncio to Iran, where he acted as an intermediary during the Iran hostage crisis of 1979–1981.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972004}
{"src_title": "Prunus laurocerasus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Prunus laurocerasus\" is an evergreen shrub or small to medium-sized tree, growing to tall, rarely to, with a trunk up to 60 cm broad. The leaves are dark green, leathery, shiny, (5–)10–25(–30) cm long and 4–10 cm broad, with a finely serrated margin. The leaves can have the scent of almonds when crushed. The flower buds appear in early spring and open in early summer in erect 7–15 cm racemes of 30–40 flowers, each flower 1 cm across, with five creamy-white petals and numerous yellowish stamens with a sweet smell. The fruit is a small cherry 1–2 cm broad, turning black when ripe in early autumn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Prunus laurocerasus\" is a widely cultivated ornamental plant, used for planting in gardens and parks in temperate regions worldwide. It is often used for hedges, as a screening plant, and as a massed landscape plant. Most cultivars are tough shrubs that can cope with difficult growing conditions, including shaded and dry conditions, and which respond well to pruning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "Over 40 cultivars have been selected, including  The cultivar 'Otto Luyken' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "It has become naturalised widely. In some regions (such as the United Kingdom and the Pacific Northwest of North America), this species can be an invasive plant. Its rapid growth, coupled with its evergreen habit and its tolerance of drought and shade, often allow it to out-compete and kill off native plant species. It is spread by birds, through the seeds in their droppings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The species is found in woods and in shrubbery places as an escape in Northern Ireland and commonly planted in parks and gardens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "The foliage is also used for cut greenery in floristry. According to Dr. Chiranjit Parmar on fruitpedia.com, who has a Ph.D. in horticulture from University of Udaipur, India, \"the fruits are edible, although rather bland and somewhat astringent\". The fruit contain small amounts of hydrogen cyanide; any fruit tasting bitter (which indicates larger concentrations of hydrogen cyanide) should not be eaten. The seed inside the fruit (and the leaves) contain larger concentrations of hydrogen cyanide, and should never be eaten. The toxicity of the seed inside the fruit is similar to the cyanide toxicity of the seeds inside the common fruits apricot and peach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Leaves and seed may cause severe discomfort to humans if ingested. The seeds contained within the cherries are poisonous like the rest of the plant, containing cyanogenic glycosides and amygdalin. This chemical composition is what gives the smell of almonds when the leaves are crushed. Laurel water, a distillation made from the plant, contains prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) and other compounds and is toxic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wood.", "content": "Cherry laurel wood contains a lot of water. It tends to gum up blades while cutting. It tends to split and distort while drying. The freshly cut wood is creamy white and smells of almonds, It turns to orange and brown when dried.  Sections that are large enough in diameter may be used to turn bowls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "\"Prunus lusitanica\", Portuguese laurel, is similar in appearance, but may be distinguished by its sharply toothed leaves and red petioles.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prunus laurocerasus, also known as cherry laurel, common laurel and sometimes English laurel in North America, is an evergreen species of cherry (\"Prunus\"), native to regions bordering the Black Sea in southwestern Asia and southeastern Europe, from Albania and Bulgaria east through Turkey to the Caucasus Mountains and northern Iran.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972005}
{"src_title": "Caesar Baronius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Cesare Baronio was born at Sora in Italy in 1538 as the only child of Camillo Baronio and Porzia Febonia.  He was educated at Veroli and Naples, where he commenced his law studies in October 1556. At Rome, he obtained his doctorate in canon law and civil law. After this, he became a member of the Congregation of the Oratory in 1557 under Philip Neri - future saint - and was ordained to the subdiaconate on 21 December 1560, and later to the diaconate on 20 May 1561. He was then ordained to the priesthood in 1564. He succeeded Neri as superior in 1593.  Pope Clement VIII, whose confessor he was from 1594, elevated him into the cardinalate on 5 June 1596 and also appointed him as the Librarian of the Vatican. Baronio was given the red hat on 8 June and received status as Cardinal-Priest of Santi Nereo e Achilleo on 21 June.  Baronius restored his titular church of Church of Sts Nereus and Achilleus and a procession in 1597 celebrated a transfer to it of relics. He also had work done on the Church of San Gregorio Magno al Celio.  At subsequent conclaves, Baronio was twice considered to be papabile - the conclaves had the elections of Pope Leo XI and Pope Paul V. On each occasion, he was opposed by Spain on account of his work \"On the Monarchy of Sicily\", in which he supported the papal claims against those of the Spanish government.  Baronio died in Santa Maria in Vallicella in Rome on 30 June 1607, and was buried in that same church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Baronius is best known for his \"Annales Ecclesiastici\" undertaken at the request of Philip Neri as an answer to the anti-Catholic history, the \"Magdeburg Centuries\". He began writing this account of the Church after almost three decades of lecturing at Santa Maria in Vallicella.  In the \"Annales\", he treats history in strict chronological order and keeps theology in the background. Lord Acton called it \"the greatest history of the Church ever written\". In the \"Annales\", Baronius coined the term \"Dark Age\" in the Latin form \"saeculum obscurum\", to refer to the period between the end of the Carolingian Empire in 888 and the first inklings of the Gregorian Reform under Pope Clement II in 1046.  Notwithstanding its errors, especially in Greek history in which he had to depend upon secondhand information, the work of Baronius stands as an honest attempt to write history. Sarpi, in urging Casaubon to write a refutation of the \"Annales\", warned him never to accuse or suspect Baronius of bad faith.  He also undertook a new edition of the Roman martyrology (1586), in which he removed some entries implausible for historical reasons. He is also known for saying, in the context of the controversies about the work of Copernicus and Galileo, \"The Bible teaches us how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go.\" This remark, which Baronius probably made in conversation with Galileo, was cited by the latter in his \"Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina\" (1615).  At the time of the Venetian Interdict, Baronius published a pamphlet \"\"Paraenesis ad rempublicam Venetam\"\" (1606). It took a stringent papalist line on the crisis. It was answered by the \"Antiparaenesis ad Caesarem Baronium\" of Niccolò Crasso in the same year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biographies.", "content": "A Latin biography of Baronius by the oratorian Hieronymus Barnabeus (Girolamo Barnabeo or Barnabò) appeared in 1651 as \"Vita Caesaris Baronii\". Another Oratorian, Raymundus Albericus (Raimondo Alberici), edited three volumes of his correspondence from 1759. There are other biographies by Amabel Kerr (1898), and by Generoso Calenzio (\"La vita e gli scritti del cardinale Cesare Baronio\", Rome 1907).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beatification.", "content": "Baronio left a reputation for sanctity, which led Pope Benedict XIV to proclaim him \"Venerable\" (12 January 1745).  In 2007, on the 400th anniversary of his death, the cause for his canonization, which had been stalled since 1745, was reopened by the Procurator General of the Oratory of St Philip Neri.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cesare Baronio (also known as Caesar Baronius; 30 August 1538 – 30 June 1607) was an Italian cardinal and ecclesiastical historian of the Roman Catholic Church. His best-known works are his \"Annales Ecclesiastici\" (\"Ecclesiastical Annals\"), which appeared in 12 folio volumes (1588–1607). Pope Benedict XIV conferred upon him the title of Venerable.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972006}
{"src_title": "Arnold van Gennep", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born in Ludwigsburg, in the Kingdom of Württemberg (since 1871, a part of the German Empire). Since his parents were never married, Van Gennep adopted his Dutch mother's name \"van Gennep\". When he was six, he and his mother moved to Lyons, France, where she married a French doctor who moved the family to Savoy.  Van Gennep is best known for his work regarding rites of passage ceremonies and his significant works in modern French folklore. He is recognized as the founder of folklore studies in France.  He went to Paris to study at the Sorbonne, but was disappointed that the school did not offer the subjects he wanted. So he enrolled at the École des langues orientales to study Arabic and at the École pratique des hautes études for philology, general linguistics, Egyptology, Ancient Arabic, primitive religions, and Islamic culture. This scholarly independence would manifest itself for the remainder of his life. He never held an academic position in France.  From 1912 to 1915 he held the Chair of Ethnography at the University of Neuchâtel in Switzerland but was expelled for expressing doubts about the neutrality of Switzerland during World War I. There he reorganized the museum and organized the first ethnographic conference (1914). In 1922 he toured the United States.  His best-known work is \"Les rites de passage\" (The Rites of Passage, 1909) which includes his vision of rites of passage rituals as being divided into three phases: \"préliminaire\" 'preliminary',' \"liminaire\" 'liminality' (a stage much studied by the anthropologist Victor Turner), and \"postliminaire\" 'post-liminality'.  His major work in French folklore was \"Le Manuel de folklore français contemporain\" (Handbook of Contemporary French Folklore, 1937–1958).  He died in 1957 in Bourg-la-Reine, France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arnold van Gennep, in full Charles-Arnold Kurr van Gennep (23 April 1873 – 7 May 1957) was a Dutch-German-French ethnographer and folklorist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972007}
{"src_title": "Pascual Jordan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family history.", "content": "An ancestor of Pascual Jordan named Pascual Jordan was a Spanish nobleman and cavalry officer who served with the British during and after the Napoleonic Wars. Jordan eventually settled in Hannover, which in those days ruled the United Kingdom. The family name was eventually changed to Jordan (pronounced in the German manner, or ). A family tradition held that the first-born son in each generation be named Pascual. Jordan was raised with a traditional religious upbringing. At age 12 he attempted to reconcile a literal interpretation of the Bible with Darwinian evolution; his teacher of religion convinced him there was no contradiction between science and religion (Jordan would write numerous articles on the relationship between the two throughout his life).  Jordan enrolled in the Technical University of Hannover in 1921 where he studied zoology, mathematics, and physics. As was typical for a German university student of the time, he shifted his studies to another university before obtaining a degree. The University of Göttingen, his destination in 1923, was then at the very zenith of its powers in mathematics and the physical sciences, such as under the guidance of mathematician David Hilbert and the physicist Arnold Sommerfeld. At Göttingen Jordan became an assistant to the mathematician Richard Courant for a time, and then he studied under the physicist Max Born for his doctorate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific work.", "content": "Together with Max Born and Werner Heisenberg, Jordan was a coauthor of an important series of papers on quantum mechanics. He went on to pioneer early quantum field theory before largely switching his focus to cosmology before World War II.  Jordan devised a type of nonassociative algebras, now named Jordan algebras in his honor, in an attempt to create an algebra of observables for quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. Today, von Neumann algebras are also employed for this purpose. Jordan algebras have since been applied in projective geometry, number theory, complex analysis, optimization, and many other fields of pure and applied mathematics, and continue to be used in studying the mathematical and conceptual underpinnings of quantum theory.  In 1966, Jordan published his 182-page work \"Die Expansion der Erde. Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Gravitationshypothese\" (The expansion of the Earth. Conclusions from the Dirac gravitation hypothesis) in which he developed his theory that, according to Paul Dirac's hypothesis of a steady weakening of gravitation throughout the history of the universe, the Earth may have swollen to its current size, from an initial ball of a diameter of only about. This theory could explain why the ductile lower sima layer of the Earth's crust is of a comparatively uniform thickness, while the brittle upper sial layer of the Earth's crust had broken apart into the main continental plates. The continents having to adapt to the ever flatter surface of the growing ball, the mountain ranges on the Earth's surface would, in the course of that, have come into being as constricted folds. Despite the energy Jordan invested in the expanding Earth theory, his geological work was never taken seriously by either physicists or geologists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activities.", "content": "Germany's defeat in the First World War and the Treaty of Versailles had a profound effect on Jordan's political beliefs. While many of his colleagues believed the Treaty to be unjust, Jordan went much further and became increasingly nationalistic and right-wing. He wrote numerous articles in the late 1920s that propounded an aggressive and bellicose stance. He was an anti-communist and was particularly concerned about the Russian Revolution and the rise of the Bolsheviks.  In 1933, Jordan joined the Nazi party, like Philipp Lenard and Johannes Stark, and, moreover, joined an SA unit. He supported the Nazis' nationalism and anti-communism but at the same time, he remained \"a defender of Einstein\" and other Jewish scientists. Jordan seemed to hope that he could influence the new regime; one of his projects was attempting to convince the Nazis that modern physics developed as represented by Einstein and especially the new Copenhagen brand of quantum theory could be the antidote to the \"materialism of the Bolsheviks\". However, while the Nazis appreciated his support for them, his continued support for Jewish scientists and their theories led him to be regarded as politically unreliable.  Jordan enlisted in the Luftwaffe in 1939 and worked as a weather analyst at the Peenemünde rocket center, for a while. During the war he attempted to interest the Nazi party in various schemes for advanced weapons. His suggestions were ignored because he was considered \"politically unreliable\", probably because of his past associations with Jews (in particular: Courant, Born, and Wolfgang Pauli) and the so-called \"Jewish physics\".  Had Jordan not joined the Nazi party, it is conceivable that he could have won a Nobel Prize in Physics for his work with Max Born. Born would go on to win the 1954 Physics Prize with Walther Bothe.  Wolfgang Pauli declared Jordan to be \"rehabilitated\" to the West German authorities some time after the war, allowing him to regain academic employment after a two-year period. He then recovered his full status as a tenured professor in 1953. Jordan went against Pauli's advice, and reentered politics after the period of denazification came to an end under the pressures of the Cold War. He secured election to the Bundestag standing with the conservative Christian Democratic Union. In 1957 Jordan supported the arming of the Bundeswehr with tactical nuclear weapons by the Adenauer government, while the Göttingen Eighteen (which included Born and Heisenberg) issued the Göttinger Manifest in protest. This and other issues were to further strain his relationships with his former friends and colleagues.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernst Pascual Jordan (; 18 October 1902 – 31 July 1980) was a German theoretical and mathematical physicist who made significant contributions to quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. He contributed much to the mathematical form of matrix mechanics, and developed canonical anticommutation relations for fermions. Jordan algebra is employed for and is still used in studying the mathematical and conceptual foundations of quantum theory, and has found other mathematical applications.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972008}
{"src_title": "Dramaturgy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition and history.", "content": "Dramaturgy is a practice-based as well as practice-led discipline invented by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (the author of well known plays such as \"Miss Sara Sampson\", \"Emilia Galotti\", \"Minna von Barnhelm\", and \"Nathan the Wise\") in the 18th century. The Theater of Hamburg engaged him for some years for a position today known as \"dramaturge\". He was first of this kind and described his task as ‘\"dramatic judge\" (\"dramatischer Richter\") who has to be able to tell the difference between the stake the play has or the main actor or the director to make us feel comfortable or not while watching a theatrical performance. From 1767–1770 Lessing wrote and published as result a series of criticisms titled \"Hamburg Dramaturgy (Hamburgische Dramaturgie).\" These works analyzed, criticized and theorized the German theatre, and made Lessing the father of modern dramaturgy.  Based on Lessing's \"Hamburgische Dramaturgie\" (Lessing and Berghahn, 1981) and \"Laokoon\" and Hegel’s \"Aesthetics\" (written 1835–1838), many authors, including Hölderlin, Goethe, Schelling, Thornton Wilder, Arthur Miller, and Tennessee Williams, started to reflect on theater, not only in Germany.,  Gustav Freytag summed up those reflections in his book \"The Technique of the Drama\", which has been translated into English and published in the late 19th century in the USA. Freytag's book is seen as the blueprint for the first Hollywood screenwriting manuals. \"The Technique of Play Writing\" by Charlton Andrews, 1915, refers to European and German traditions of dramaturgy and understanding dramatic composition.  Another important work in the Western theatrical tradition is \"Poetics\" by Aristotle (written around 335 BCE). In this work Aristotle analyzes tragedy. Aristotle considers \"Oedipus Rex\" (c. 429 BCE) as the quintessential dramatic work. He analyzes the relations among character, action, and speech, gives examples of good plots, and examines the reactions the plays provoke in the audience. Many of his \"rules\" are referred to today as \"Aristotelian drama\". In \"Poetics\", Aristotle discusses many key concepts of drama, such as anagnorisis and catharsis.  \"Poetics\" is the earliest surviving Western work of dramatic theory. The earliest non-Western dramaturgic work is probably the Sanskrit work \"Natya Shastra\" (\"The Art of Theatre\"), written around 500 BCE to 500 CE, which describes the elements, forms and narrative elements of the ten major types of ancient Indian dramas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practice.", "content": "Dramaturgy is a comprehensive exploration of the context in which the play resides. The dramaturge is the resident expert on the physical, social, political, and economic environment in which the action takes place, the psychological underpinnings of the characters, the various metaphorical expressions in the play of thematic concerns; as well as on the technical consideration of the play as a piece of writing: structure, rhythm, flow, even individual word choices.  Institutional dramaturges may participate in many phases of play production including casting of the play, offering in-house criticism of productions-in-progress, and informing the director, the cast, and the audience about a play’s history and its current importance. In America, this type of dramaturgy is sometimes known as Production Dramaturgy. Institutional or production dramaturges may make files of materials about a play's history or social context, prepare program notes, lead post-production discussions, or write study guides for schools and groups. These actions can assist a director in integrating textual and acting criticism, performance theory, and historical research into a production before it opens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Copyright.", "content": "Since dramaturgy is defined in a general way and the function of a dramaturge may vary from production to production, the copyright issues regarding it in the United States have very vague borders.  In 1996, there was debate based on the question of the extent to which a dramaturge can claim ownership of a production, such as the case of Jonathan Larson, the author of the musical \"Rent\" and Lynn Thomson, the dramaturge on the production. Thomson claimed that she was a co-author of the work and that she never assigned, licensed or otherwise transferred her rights. She asked that the court declare her a co-author of \"Rent\" and grant her 16 per cent of the author's share of the royalties. Although she made her claim only after the show became a Broadway hit, the case is not without precedent. For instance, 15 per cent of the royalties of \"Angels in America\" go to playwright Tony Kushner's dramaturge. On June 19, 1998, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit affirmed the original court's ruling that Thomson was not entitled to be credited with co-authorship of \"Rent\" and that she was not entitled to royalties. The case was ultimately settled out of court with Thomson receiving an undisclosed sum after she threatened to remove her material from the production.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dramaturgy is the study of dramatic composition and the representation of the main elements of drama on the stage. The term first appears in the eponymous work \"Hamburg Dramaturgy\" (1767–69) by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. Lessing composed this collection of essays on the principles of drama while working as the world's first dramaturge at the Hamburg National Theatre. Dramaturgy is distinct from play writing and directing, although the three may be practiced by one individual. Some dramatists combine writing and dramaturgy when creating a drama. Others work with a specialist, called a dramaturge, to adapt a work for the stage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972009}
{"src_title": "Vaccinium myrtillus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Range.", "content": "\"Vaccinium myrtillus\" is found natively in Continental Northern Europe, the British Isles and Ireland, Iceland and across the Caucasus into northern Asia. It is a non-native introduced species in Western Canada and the Western United States. It occurs in the wild on heathlands and acidic soils. Its berry has been long consumed in the Old World. It is related to the widely cultivated North American blueberry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fruit.", "content": "\"Vaccinium myrtillus\" has been used for nearly 1,000 years in traditional European medicine. \"Vaccinium myrtillus\" fruits have been used in traditional Austrian medicine internally (directly or as tea or liqueur) for treatment of disorders of the gastrointestinal tract and diabetes. Herbal supplements of \"V. myrtillus\" (bilberry) on the market are used for cardiovascular conditions, diabetes, as vision aids, and to treat diarrhea and other conditions. Researchers are interested in bilberry because of its high concentrations of anthocyanins, which may have various health benefits. The United States' National Institutes of Health (NIH) cautions, \"There’s not enough scientific evidence to support the use of bilberry for any health conditions.\"  In cooking, the bilberry fruit is commonly used for the same purposes as the American blueberry, such as pies, cakes, jams, muffins, cookies, sauces, syrups, juices, and candies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leaf.", "content": "In traditional medicine, bilberry leaf is used for different conditions, including diarrhea, scurvy, infections, burns, and diabetes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Confusion between bilberries and American blueberries.", "content": "Since many people refer to \"blueberries\" whether they mean the bilberry (European blueberry) \"Vaccinium myrtillus\" or the American blueberries, there is confusion about the two closely similar fruits. One can distinguish bilberries from their American counterpart by the following differences:  Adding to the confusion is the fact there are also wild American blueberry varieties, sold in stores mainly in the US and Canada. These are uncommon outside of North America. Even more confusion is due to the huckleberry name, which originates from English dialectal names 'hurtleberry' and 'whortleberry' for the bilberry. In the Scandinavian languages \"Vaccinium myrtillus\" is called blåbär (or blåbær), which literally means blueberry. Therefore many Scandinavians erroneously call bilberry blueberry when speaking English. This adds to the confusion.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vaccinium myrtillus is a species of shrub with edible fruit of blue color, commonly called \"bilberry\", \"wimberry\", \"whortleberry\", or European blueberry. It has much in common with the American blueberry (\"Vaccinium cyanococcus\"). It is more precisely called common bilberry or blue whortleberry, to distinguish it from other \"Vaccinium\" relatives. Regional names include blaeberry, urts or hurts (Cornwall & Devon ), hurtleberry, huckleberry, wimberry, whinberry, winberry, blueberry, and fraughan. Chromosome count is 2n =24.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972010}
{"src_title": "Skiing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Skiing has a history of almost five millennia. Although modern skiing has evolved from beginnings in Scandinavia, it may have been practiced more than 100 centuries ago in what is now China, according to an interpretation of ancient paintings. However, this continues to be debated.  The word \"ski\" is one of a handful of words that Norway has exported to the international community. It comes from the Old Norse word \"skíð\" which means \"split piece of wood or firewood\".  Asymmetrical skis were used in northern Finland and Sweden until at least the late 19th century. On one foot, the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and a shorter ski was worn on the other foot for kicking. The underside of the short ski was either plain or covered with animal skin to aid this use, while the long ski supporting the weight of the skier was treated with animal fat in a similar manner to modern ski waxing.  Early skiers used one long pole or spear. The first depiction of a skier with two ski poles dates to 1741.  Troops on continental Europe were equipped with skis by 1747.  Skiing was primarily used for transport until the mid-19th century, but since then has also become a recreation and sport. Military ski races were held in Norway during the 18th century, and ski warfare was studied in the late 18th century. As equipment evolved and ski lifts were developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, two main genres of skiing emerged—Alpine (downhill) skiing and Nordic skiing. The main difference between the two is the type of ski binding (the way in which the ski boots are attached to the skis).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alpine.", "content": "Also called \"downhill skiing\", Alpine skiing typically takes place on a piste at a ski resort. It is characterized by fixed-heel bindings that attach at both the toe and the heel of the skier's boot. Ski lifts, including chairlifts, bring skiers up the slope. Backcountry skiing can be accessed by helicopter, snowcat, hiking and snowmobile. Facilities at resorts can include night skiing, après-ski, and glade skiing under the supervision of the ski patrol and the ski school. Alpine skiing branched off from the older Nordic type of skiing around the 1920s when the advent of ski lifts meant that it was no longer necessary to climb back uphill. Alpine equipment has specialized to the point where it can now only be used with the help of lifts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nordic.", "content": "The Nordic disciplines include cross-country skiing and ski jumping, which both use bindings that attach at the toes of the skier's boots but not at the heels. Cross-country skiing may be practiced on groomed trails or in undeveloped backcountry areas. Ski jumping is practiced in certain areas that are reserved exclusively for ski jumping.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Telemark.", "content": "Telemark skiing is a ski turning technique and FIS-sanctioned discipline, which is named after the Telemark region of Norway. It uses equipment similar to Nordic skiing, where the ski bindings are attached only at the toes of the ski boots, allowing the skier's heel to be raised throughout the turn. However, the skis themselves are often the same width as Alpine skis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Competition.", "content": "The following disciplines are sanctioned by the FIS. Many have their own world cups and are included in the Winter Olympic Games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Equipment used in skiing includes:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technique.", "content": "Technique has evolved along with ski technology and ski geometry. Early techniques included the telemark turn, the stem, the stem Christie, snowplough, and parallel turn.  New parabolic designs like the Elan SCX have enabled the more modern carve turn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "On other surfaces.", "content": "Originally and primarily a winter sport, skiing can also be practiced indoors without snow, outdoors on grass, on dry ski slopes, with ski simulators, or with roller skis. A treadmill-like surface can also be used, to enable skiing while staying in the same place. Sand skiing involves sliding on sand instead of snow, but the skier uses conventional skis, ski poles, bindings and boots.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Skiing is a means of transport using skis to glide on snow. Variations of purpose include basic transport, a recreational activity, or a competitive winter sport. Many types of competitive skiing events are recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and the International Ski Federation (FIS).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972011}
{"src_title": "Hugh of Saint Victor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "As with many medieval figures, little is known about Hugh's early life. He was probably born in the 1090s. His homeland may have been Lorraine, Ypres in Flanders, or the Duchy of Saxony. Some sources say that his birth occurred in the Harz district, being the eldest son of Baron Conrad of Blankenburg. Over the protests of his family, he entered the Priory of St. Pancras, a community of canons regular, where he had studied, located at \"Hamerleve\" or \"Hamersleben\", near Halberstadt.  Due to civil unrest shortly after his entry to the priory, Hugh's uncle, Reinhard of Blankenburg, who was the local bishop, advised him to transfer to the Abbey of Saint Victor in Paris, where he himself had studied theology. He accepted his uncle's advice and made the move at a date which is unclear, possibly 1115–18 or around 1120. He spent the rest of his life there, advancing to head the school.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Hugh wrote many works from the 1120s until his death (Migne, \"Patrologia Latina\" contains 46 works by Hugh, and this is not a full collection), including works of theology (both treatises and \"sententiae\"), commentaries (mostly on the Bible but also including one of pseudo-Dionysius' \"Celestial Hierarchies\"), mysticism, philosophy and the arts, and a number of letters and sermons.  Hugh was influenced by many people, but chiefly by Saint Augustine, especially in holding that the arts and philosophy can serve theology.  Hugh's most significant works include:  Other works by Hugh of St Victor include:  Various other works were wrongly attributed to Hugh in later thought. One such particularly influential work was the \"Exposition of the Rule of St Augustine\", now accepted to be from the Victorine school but not by Hugh of St Victor.  A new edition of Hugh's works has been started. The first publication is: \"Hugonis de Sancto Victore De sacramentis Christiane fidei\", ed. Rainer Berndt, Münster: Aschendorff, 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy and theology.", "content": "The early \"Didascalicon\" was an elementary, encyclopedic approach to God and Christ, in which Hugh avoided controversial subjects and focused on what he took to be commonplaces of Catholic Christianity. In it he outlined three types of philosophy or \"science\" [scientia] that can help mortals improve themselves and advance toward God: theoretical philosophy (theology, mathematics, physics) provides them with truth, practical philosophy (ethics, economics, politics) aids them in becoming virtuous and prudent, and \"mechanical\" or \"illiberal\" philosophy (e.g., carpentry, agriculture, medicine) yields physical benefits. A fourth philosophy, logic, is preparatory to the others and exists to ensure clear and proper conclusions in them. Hugh's deeply mystical bent did not prevent him from seeing philosophy as a useful tool for understanding the divine, or from using it to argue on behalf of faith.  Hugh was heavily influenced by Augustine's exegesis of Genesis. Divine Wisdom was the archetypal form of creation. The creation of the world in six days was a mystery for man to contemplate, perhaps even a sacrament. God's forming order from chaos to make the world was a message to humans to rise up from their own chaos of ignorance and become creatures of Wisdom and therefore beauty. This kind of mystical-ethical interpretation was typical for Hugh, who tended to find Genesis interesting for its moral lessons rather than as a literal account of events.  Along with Jesus, the sacraments were divine gifts that God gave man to redeem himself, though God could have used other means. Hugh separated everything along the lines of \"opus creationis\" and \"opus restaurationis\". \"Opus Creationis\" was the works of the creation, referring to God's creative activity, the true good natures of things, and the original state and destiny of humanity. The \"opus restaurationis\" was that which dealt with the reasons for God sending Jesus and the consequences of that. Hugh believed that God did not have to send Jesus and that He had other options open to Him. Why he chose to send Jesus is a mystery we are to meditate on and is to be learned through revelation, with the aid of philosophy to facilitate understanding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Within the Abbey of St Victor, many scholars who followed him are often known as the 'School of St Victor'. Both Achard and Andrew of St Victor appear to have been direct disciples of Hugh. Others, who probably entered the community too late to be directly educated by Hugh, include Richard of Saint Victor and Godfrey. One of Hugh's ideals that did not take root in St Victor, however, was his embracing of science and philosophy as tools for approaching God.  His works are in hundreds of libraries all across Europe. He is quoted in many other publications after his death, and Bonaventure praises him in \"De reductione artium ad theologiam\".  He was also an influence on the critic Erich Auerbach, who cited this passage from Hugh of St Victor in his essay \"Philology and World Literature\": It is therefore, a source of great virtue for the practiced mind to learn, bit by bit, first to change about in visible and transitory things, so that afterwards it may be able to leave them behind altogether. The person who finds his homeland sweet is a tender beginner; he to whom every soil is as his native one is already strong; but he is perfect to whom the entire world is as a foreign place. The tender soul has fixed his love on one spot in the world; the strong person has extended his love to all places; the perfect man has extinguished his.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hugh of Saint Victor (c. 1096 – 11 February 1141), was a Saxon canon regular and a leading theologian and writer on mystical theology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972012}
{"src_title": "Eadgyth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Edith was born to the reigning English king Edward the Elder by his second wife, Ælfflæd, and hence was a granddaughter of King Alfred the Great. She had an older sister, Eadgifu.  At the request of the East Frankish king Henry the Fowler, who wished to stake a claim to equality and to seal the alliance between the two Saxon kingdoms, her half-brother King Æthelstan sent his sisters Edith and Edgiva to Germany. Henry's eldest son and heir to the throne Otto was instructed to choose whichever one pleased him best. Otto chose Edith, according to Hrotsvitha a woman \"of pure noble countenance, graceful character and truly royal appearance\", and married her in 930. In 936 Henry the Fowler died and his eldest son Otto, Edith's husband, was crowned king at Aachen Cathedral. A surviving report of the ceremony by the medieval chronicler Widukind of Corvey makes no mention of his wife having been crowned at this point, but according to Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg's chronicle, Eadgyth was nevertheless anointed as queen, albeit in a separate ceremony.  As queen consort, Edith undertook the usual state duties of a \"First Lady\": when she turns up in the records it is generally in connection with gifts to the state's favoured monasteries or memorials to holy women and saints. In this respect she seems to have been more diligent than her now widowed and subsequently sainted mother-in-law, Queen Matilda, whose own charitable activities only achieve a single recorded mention from the period of Eadgyth's time as queen. There was probably rivalry between the Benedictine founded at Magdeburg by Otto and Eadgyth in 937, a year after coming to the throne, and Matilda's foundation Quedlinburg Abbey, intended by her as a memorial to her husband, the late King Henry. Edith accompanied her husband on his travels, though not during battles. While Otto fought against the rebellious dukes Eberhard of Franconia and Gilbert of Lorraine in 939, she spent the hostilities at Lorsch Abbey.  Like her brother, Æthelstan, Edith was devoted to the cult of their ancestor Saint Oswald of Northumbria and was instrumental in introducing this cult into Germany after her marriage to the emperor. Her lasting influence may have caused certain monasteries and churches in the Duchy of Saxony to be dedicated to this saint.  Eadgyth's death in 946 at a relatively young age, in her thirties, was unexpected. Otto apparently mourned the loss of a beloved spouse. He married Adelaide of Italy in 951.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Edith and Otto's children were: both buried in St. Alban's Abbey, Mainz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tomb.", "content": "Initially buried in the St Maurice monastery, Edith's tomb since the 16th century has been located in Magdeburg Cathedral. Long regarded as a cenotaph, a lead coffin inside a stone sarcophagus with her name on it was found and opened in 2008 by archaeologists during work on the building. An inscription recorded that it was the body of Eadgyth, reburied in 1510. The fragmented and incomplete bones were examined in 2009, then brought to Bristol, England, for tests in 2010.  The investigations at Bristol, applying isotope tests on tooth enamel, checked whether she was born and brought up in Wessex and Mercia, as written history indicated. Testing on the bones revealed that they are the remains of Eadgyth, from study made of the enamel of the teeth in her upper jaw. Testing of the enamel revealed that the individual entombed at Magdeburg had spent time as a youth in the chalky uplands of Wessex. The bones are the oldest found of a member of English royalty.  Following the tests the bones were re-interred in a new titanium coffin in her tomb at Magdeburg Cathedral on 22 October 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edith of England, also spelt Eadgyth or Ædgyth (, ; 910 – 26 January 946), a member of the House of Wessex, was German queen from 936, by her marriage with King Otto I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972013}
{"src_title": "Ansgar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Ansgar was the son of a noble Frankish family, born near Amiens (present day France). After his mother's early death, Ansgar was brought up in Corbie Abbey, and was educated at the Benedictine monastery in Picardy. According to the \"Vita Ansgarii\" (\"Life of Ansgar\"), when the little boy learned in a vision that his mother was in the company of Mary, mother of Jesus, his careless attitude toward spiritual matters changed to seriousness. His pupil, successor, and eventual biographer Rimbert considered the visions (of which this was the first) to have been Ansgar's main life motivator.  Ansgar was a product of the phase of Christianization of Saxony (present day Northern Germany) begun by Charlemagne and continued by his son and successor, Louis the Pious. In 822 Ansgar became one of many missionaries sent to found the abbey of Corvey (New Corbie) in Westphalia, where he became a teacher and preacher. A group of monks including Ansgar were sent further north to Jutland with the king Harald Klak, who had received baptism during his exile. With Harald's downfall in 827 and Ansgar's companion Autbert having died, their school for the sons of courtiers closed and Ansgar returned to Germany. Then in 829, after the Swedish king Björn at Hauge requested missionaries for his Swedes, King Louis sent Ansgar, now accompanied by friar Witmar from New Corbie as his assistant. Ansgar preached and made converts, particularly during six months at Birka, on Lake Mälaren, where the wealthy widow Mor Frideborg extended hospitality. Ansgar organized a small congregation with her and the king's steward, Hergeir, as its most prominent members.  In 831 Ansgar returned to Louis' court at Worms and was appointed to the Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. This was a new archbishopric, incorporating the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden and with the right to send missions into all the northern lands, as well as to consecrate bishops for them. Ansgar received the mission of evangelizing pagan Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The King of Sweden decided to cast lots as to whether to admit the Christian missionaries into his kingdom. Ansgar recommended the issue to the care of God, and the lot was favorable. Ansgar was consecrated as a bishop in November 831, with the approval of Gregory IV. Before traveling north once again, Ansgar traveled to Rome to receive the pallium directly from the pope's hands, and was formally named legate for the northern lands. Ebbo, Archbishop of Reims had previously received a similar commission, but would be deposed twice before his death in 851, and never actually traveled so far north, so the jurisdiction was divided by agreement, with Ebbo retaining Sweden for himself. For a time Ansgar devoted himself to the needs of his own diocese, which was still missionary territory and had few churches. He founded a monastery and a school in Hamburg. Although intended to serve the Danish mission further north, it accomplished little.  After Louis the Pious died in 840, his empire was divided and Ansgar lost the abbey of Turholt, which Louis had given to endow Ansgar's work. Then in 845, the Danes unexpectedly raided Hamburg, destroying all the church's treasures and books. Ansgar now had neither see nor revenue, and many helpers deserted him. The new king, Louis' third son, Louis the German, did not re-endow Turholt to Ansgar, but in 847 he named the missionary to the vacant diocese of Bremen, where Ansgar moved in 848. However, since Bremen had been suffragan to the Bishop of Cologne, combining the sees of Bremen and Hamburg presented canonical difficulties. After prolonged negotiations, Pope Nicholas I would approve the union of the two dioceses in 864.  Through this political turmoil, Ansgar continued his northern mission. The Danish civil war compelled him to establish good relations with two kings, Horik the Elder and his son, Horik II. Both assisted him until his death; Ansgar was able to secure permission to build a church in Sleswick north of Hamburg and recognition of Christianity as a tolerated religion. Ansgar did not forget the Swedish mission, and spent two years there in person (848–850), averting a threatened pagan reaction. In 854, Ansgar returned to Sweden when king Olof ruled in Birka. According to Rimbert, he was well disposed to Christianity. On a Viking raid to Apuole (current village in Lithuania) in Courland, the Swedes plundered the Curonians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Ansgar was buried in Bremen in 865. His successor as archbishop, Rimbert, wrote the \"Vita Ansgarii\". He noted that Ansgar wore a rough hair shirt, lived on bread and water, and showed great charity to the poor. Adam of Bremen attributed the \"Vita et miracula of Willehad\" (first bishop of Bremen) to Ansgar in \"Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiæ\"; Ansgar is also the reputed author of a collection of brief prayers \"Pigmenta\" (ed. J. M. Lappenberg, Hamburg, 1844). Pope Nicholas I declared Ansgar a saint shortly after the missionary's death. The first actual missionary in Sweden and the Nordic countries (and organizer of the Catholic church therein), Ansgar was later declared \"Patron of Scandinavia\".  Relics are located in Hamburg in two places: St. Mary's Cathedral (Ger.: Domkirche St. Marien) and St. Ansgar's and St. Bernard's Church (Ger.: St. Ansgar und St. Bernhard Kirche). Statues of Bishop Ansgar stand in Hamburg, Copenhagen and Ribe, as well as a stone cross at Birka. A crater on the Moon, Ansgarius, has been named for him. His feast day is 3 February.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visions.", "content": "Although a historical document and primary source written by a man whose existence can be proven historically, the \"Vita Ansgarii\" (\"The Life of Ansgar\") aims above all to demonstrate Ansgar's sanctity. It is partly concerned with Ansgar's visions, which, according to the author Rimbert, encouraged and assisted Ansgar's remarkable missionary feats.  Through the course of this work, Ansgar repeatedly embarks on a new stage in his career following a vision. According to Rimbert, his early studies and ensuing devotion to the ascetic life of a monk were inspired by a vision of his mother in the presence of Mary, mother of Jesus. Again, when the Swedish people were left without a priest for some time, he begged King Horik to help him with this problem; then after receiving his consent, consulted with Bishop Gautbert to find a suitable man. The two together sought the approval of King Louis, which he granted when he learned that they were in agreement on the issue. Ansgar was convinced he was commanded by heaven to undertake this mission and was influenced by a vision he received when he was concerned about the journey, in which he met a man who reassured him of his purpose and informed him of a prophet that he would meet, the abbot Adalhard, who would instruct him in what was to happen. In the vision, he searched for and found Adalhard, who commanded, \"Islands, listen to me, pay attention, remotest peoples\", which Ansgar interpreted as God's will that he go to the Scandinavian countries as \"most of that country consisted of islands, and also, when 'I will make you the light of the nations so that my salvation may reach to the ends of the earth' was added, since the end of the world in the north was in Swedish territory\".  <br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ansgar (8 September 801 – 3 February 865), also known as Anskar, Saint Ansgar, Saint Anschar or Oscar, was Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen in the northern part of the Kingdom of the East Franks. Ansgar became known as the \"Apostle of the North\" because of his travels and the See of Hamburg received the missionary mandate to bring Christianity to Northern Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972014}
{"src_title": "Karl Lamprecht", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Lamprecht was born in Jessen in the Province of Saxony. As a student, he trained in history, political science, economics, and art at the universities of Göttingen, Leipzig, and Munich. Lamprecht taught at the university in Marburg and later at Leipzig, where he founded the \"Institut für Kultur und Universalgeschicht\" center dedicated to comparative world and cultural history.  Lamprecht was employee at the successful edition project “The Chronicles of the German Cities” under the leadership of the well-known and highly reputated German historian Karl von Hegel.  Lamprecht studied German and European social and economic history, particularly of the Middle Ages. He aroused considerable controversy with his loose interdisciplinary methods and focus on broad social, environmental, and even psychological, questions in history. To him, history meant as much the revelation of sociology as of political events.  Lamprecht's ambitious \"Deutsche Geschichte\" (13 vols., 1891-1908) on the whole trajectory of German history sparked a famous \"Methodenstreit\" (methodological dispute) within Germany's academic history establishment, especially Max Weber, who habitually referred to Lamprecht as a mere dilettante. Lamprecht came under criticism from scholars of legal and constitutional history like Friedrich Meinecke and Georg von Below for his lack of methodological rigor and inattention to important political trends and ideologies. As a result, Lamprecht and his students were marginalized by German academia, and interdisciplinary social history remained something of a taboo among German historians for much of the twentieth century. However, during the years of the series' publication, his work enjoyed a wide readership among the nonacademic German community.  He was the chief exponent of the \"Kulturgeschichte\" (“History of Culture”), and believed intensely in the superiority of German culture. Shortly before his death he repudiated, with some indignation, the conception of Germany's part in World War I as having been dictated by “war lords,” and avowed that in regard to it that Germany was united.  Lamprecht died in Leipzig on 10 May 1915 from what appears to have been the result of internal bleeding brought on by a perforated ulcer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "According to Ernst Breisach,  Lamprecht found a much more positive reception for his ideas and methods in France and the United States. In 1904, he was invited to give a series of lectures at Columbia University, which were translated and published in 1905 as \"What is History?\"  Lamprecht's work was a formative influence in the thinking of the French social historian Marc Bloch as well the Annales School. One of his students was Cai Yuanpei, who later served as the chancellor of Beijing University and had an enormous influence on modern Chinese thought.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Gotthard Lamprecht (25 February 1856 – 10 May 1915) was a German historian who specialized in German art and economic history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972015}
{"src_title": "Karl-Maria Kertbeny", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "As a young man, while working as a bookseller's apprentice, Benkert had a close friend who was gay. This young man killed himself after being blackmailed by an extortionist. Benkert later recalled that it was this tragic episode which led him to take a close interest in the subject of homosexuality, following what he called his \"instinctive drive to take issue with every injustice.\"  After a stint in the Hungarian army, Benkert made a living as a journalist and travel writer, and wrote at least twenty-five books on various subjects. In 1847, he legally changed his surname from Benkert to Kertbeny, a Hungarian name with aristocratic associations. He settled in Berlin in 1868, still unmarried at 44. He claimed in his writings to be \"normally sexed\". However, his diaries list a self-censored string of encounters with youths and men (“young barber lad\";\"very much in love with the lad\"; \"I have done it\"), and recurring fear following the arrest of Karl Heinrich Ulrichs with whom he corresponded (\"Awful days!...Horrible nightmares. I have burnt all the dangerous letters\"), which suggest he was secretly homosexual.  He began to write extensively on the issue of homosexuality, motivated, he said, by an \"anthropological interest\" combined with a sense of justice and a concern for the \"rights of man.\" In 1869, he anonymously published a pamphlet entitled \"Paragraph 143 of the Prussian Penal Code of 14 April 1851 and Its Reaffirmation as Paragraph 152 in the Proposed Penal Code for the North German Confederation. An Open and Professional Correspondence to His Excellency Dr., Royal Prussian Minister of Justice\".  A second pamphlet on the same subject soon followed. In his pamphlets, Kertbeny argued that the Prussian sodomy law, Paragraph 143 (which later became Paragraph 175 of the penal code of the German Empire), violated the \"rights of man.\" He advanced the classic liberal argument that consensual sexual acts in private should not be subject to criminal law. Recalling his young friend, he argued strongly that the Prussian law allowed blackmailers to extort money from homosexuals and often drove them to suicide.  Kertbeny also put forward the view that homosexuality was inborn and unchangeable, an argument which would later be called the \"medical model\" of homosexuality. This contradicted the dominant view up to that time, that men committed \"sodomy\" out of mere wickedness. Gay men, he said, were not by nature effeminate, and he pointed out that many of the great heroes of history were gay. With Heinrich Hössli and Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, he was among the first writers to put these now-familiar arguments before the public.  During 1869, in the course of these writings, Kertbeny published the term (in German) \"homosexual\" (which, along with \"heterosexual\", he first used in private correspondence on May 8, 1868), as part of his system for the classification of sexual types, as a replacement for the pejorative terms \"sodomite\" and \"pederast\" that were used in the German- and French-speaking world of his time. In addition, he called the attraction between men and women \"heterosexualism\", masturbators \"monosexualists\", and practitioners of anal intercourse \"pygists\".  After publishing his two important pamphlets, Kertbeny faded from the scene. In 1880, he contributed a chapter on homosexuality to Gustav Jäger's book \"Discovery of the Soul\", but Jäger's publisher decided it was too controversial and omitted it. Nevertheless, Jäger used Kertbeny's terminology elsewhere in the book.  The German sex researcher Richard von Krafft-Ebing, in his \"Psychopathia Sexualis\" (1886), borrowed the terms homosexual and heterosexual from Jäger's book. Krafft-Ebing's work was so influential that these became the standard terms for differences in sexual orientation, superseding Ulrichs' word \"Urning\".  Kertbeny did not live to see the wide acceptance of his terminology or his ideas. He died in Budapest in 1882 at age 58.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gravesite.", "content": "His gravesite was traced in 2001 by sociologist Judit Takács (see the link below) who conducted extensive research on his life. It is located in Kerepesi Cemetery in Budapest, the final resting place of numerous prominent Hungarians of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The gay community set a new tombstone on it, and since 2002 it has been a recurring event at Hungarian gay festivals to place a wreath at his grave.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl-Maria Kertbeny or Károly Mária Kertbeny (born Karl-Maria Benkert) (Vienna, February 28, 1824 – Budapest, January 23, 1882) was an Austrian-born Hungarian journalist, memoirist, and human rights campaigner. He is best known for coining the words \"heterosexual\" and \"homosexual\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972016}
{"src_title": "Wenceslaus II of Bohemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "In 1276 Rudolf I, King of the Romans, placed Ottokar under the ban of the empire and besieged Vienna. This compelled Ottokar in November 1276 to sign a new treaty by which he gave up all claims to Austria and the neighbouring duchies, retaining for himself only Bohemia and Moravia. Ottokar's son Wenceslaus was also betrothed to Rudolph's daughter Judith. It was an uneasy peace. Wenceslaus's father died on 26 August 1278 in the Battle on the Marchfeld shortly before Wenceslaus' seventh birthday.  Before Wenceslaus became of age, the government was handled by Otto V, Margrave of Brandenburg, who is said to have held Wenceslaus captive in several locations. He returned to Bohemia in 1283, at the age of twelve. His mother's second husband, Záviš of Falkenštejn, ruled instead of him for a few years.  On 24 January 1285, Wenceslaus married Judith of Habsburg, daughter of Rudolf I, to whom he had been betrothed since 1276. In 1290, Wenceslaus had Záviš beheaded for alleged treason and began ruling independently.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Bohemia and Poland.", "content": "In 1291, Przemysł II, High Duke of Poland, ceded the sovereign Duchy of Kraków to Wenceslaus. Kraków was associated with the overlordship of Poland, but Przemysł held the other duchies and in 1295 was crowned King of Poland. After Przemysł's death in 1296, Wenceslaus became overlord of Poland and in 1300, and had himself crowned King of Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Silver in Kutná Hora.", "content": "In 1298, silver was discovered at Kutná Hora in Central Bohemia. Wenceslaus took control of the mine by making silver production a royal monopoly and issued the Prague groschen, which became the most popular of the early Groschen-type coins. Kutná Hora was one of the richest European silver strikes ever: between 1300 and 1340 the mine may have produced as much as 20 tons of silver a year.  In 1300, Wenceslaus issued the new royal mining code \"Ius regale montanorum\". This was a legal document that specified all administrative as well as technical terms and conditions necessary for the operation of mines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Crown of Hungary and death.", "content": "Queen Judith died in 1297. Wenceslaus' second wife was Elisabeth Richeza, daughter of King Przemysl II of Poland (1295–1296).  In 1301, Wenceslaus' kinsman Andrew III of Hungary died and the Árpád dynasty became extinct in the male line. Wenceslaus was one of the relatives who claimed the throne, and he accepted it from a party of Hungarians on behalf of his young son, betrothed to Andrew's only child, Elizabeth. On 27 August 1301, his son was crowned in Székesfehérvár as king of Hungary.  At that time the Kingdom of Hungary was split into several de facto principalities, and young Wenceslaus was only accepted as the King of Hungary by the rulers in Upper Hungary (Matthew III Csák), in modern day Burgenland (the Güssings [Kőszegis]) and on territory around the capital, Buda. But the Abas and Matthew Csák switched sides in 1303 and started to support Wenceslaus' rival Charles Robert of Anjou. Consequently, the young Wenceslaus, in Ofen (Buda), became afraid and wrote to his father in Prague for help. His father took a large army and invaded Buda, but having considered the situation, he took his son and the Hungarian crown and returned to Bohemia (1304). Ivan Kőszegi was named to represent Wenceslaus III in Hungary.  Wenceslaus II died on 21 June 1305, at the age of 33, probably of tuberculosis. He was succeeded by his son, Wenceslaus III, the last of the Přemyslid kings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Review of government of Wenceslaus II.", "content": "Wenceslaus II is considered as one of the most important Czech Kings. He built a great empire stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Danube river and established numerous cities, such as Plzeň in 1295. He won for his family three royal crowns (Bohemia, Hungary and Poland). The Kingdom of Bohemia was the largest producer of silver in Europe in his time. He created the penny of Prague, which was an important European currency for centuries.  During his reign, there was great urban development. He planned to build the first university in Central Europe. The power and wealth of the Kingdom of Bohemia gave rise to great respect, but also to the hostility of European royal families. His son King Wenceslaus III was unable to maintain a mighty empire, and soon after the untimely death of Wenceslaus II, his empire began to crumble.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1285 in Eger (Cheb), he married Judith of Habsburg (1271–1297), daughter of Rudolf I of Germany and his wife Gertrude of Hohenberg. She died shortly after their 10th child was born:  In 1300, he married Elisabeth Richeza (1286–1335), daughter of Przemysł II. They had one child:  Wenceslaus has also numerous illegitimate children, including Jan Volek (?? – 27 September 1351), bishop of Olomouc", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wenceslaus II Přemyslid (; ; 27 September 1271 – 21 June 1305) was King of Bohemia (1278–1305), Duke of Cracow (1291–1305), and King of Poland (1300–1305).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972017}
{"src_title": "Godwin's law", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Generalization, corollaries, usage.", "content": "There are many corollaries to Godwin's law, some considered more canonical (by being adopted by Godwin himself) than others. For example, there is a tradition in many newsgroups and other Internet discussion forums that, when a Hitler comparison is made, the thread is finished and whoever made the comparison loses whatever debate is in progress. This principle is itself frequently referred to as Godwin's law.  Godwin's law itself can be abused as a distraction, diversion or even as censorship, fallaciously miscasting an opponent's argument as hyperbole when the comparisons made by the argument are actually appropriate. Mike Godwin himself has also criticized the overapplication of Godwin's law, claiming it does not articulate a fallacy; it is instead framed as a memetic tool to reduce the incidence of inappropriate, hyperbolic comparisons. \"Although deliberately framed as if it were a law of nature or of mathematics,\" Godwin wrote, \"its purpose has always been rhetorical and pedagogical: I wanted folks who glibly compared someone else to Hitler to think a bit harder about the Holocaust.\"  In December 2015, Godwin commented on the Nazi and fascist comparisons being made by several articles about Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump, saying: \"If you're thoughtful about it and show some real awareness of history, go ahead and refer to Hitler when you talk about Trump, or any other politician.\" In August 2017, Godwin made similar remarks on social networking websites Facebook and Twitter with respect to the two previous days' Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, endorsing and encouraging efforts to compare its alt-right organizers to Nazis.  In October 2018, Godwin said on Twitter that it was acceptable to call Brazilian politician Jair Bolsonaro, who had won the first round and later the second round of the presidential election, a \"Nazi\".  In June 2019, after Chris Hayes invoked Godwin's Law in a discussion of whether it was appropriate to call the United States's refugee detention centers \"concentration camps,\" Godwin explicitly stated his belief that the term \"concentration camps\" was appropriate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Godwin's law (or Godwin's rule of Hitler analogies) is an Internet adage asserting that \"as an online discussion grows longer, the probability of a comparison involving Nazis or Hitler approaches 1\". That is, if an online discussion (regardless of topic or scope) goes on long enough, sooner or later someone will compare someone or something to Adolf Hitler or his deeds, the point at which effectively the discussion or thread often ends.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972018}
{"src_title": "Ludwig Senfl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Senfl was probably born in Basel around 1486, and lived in Zürich from 1488 until 1496, when he joined the choir of the Hofkapelle of Emperor Maximilian I in Augsburg. Apart from one brief visit in 1504 he appears never again to have lived in Switzerland.  In 1497 he followed the Hofkapelle to Vienna, and between 1500 and 1504 he probably studied in Vienna for three years, the standard practice for choirboys whose voices had broken, as part of the normal training for the priesthood. During this period he studied with Heinrich Isaac, serving as his copyist by 1509; he is known to have copied much of the older composer's \"Choralis Constantinus\", an enormous work which he was later to complete after Isaac's death.  After a trip to Italy sometime between 1508 and 1510, Senfl returned to the Hofkapelle; the Emperor appointed him to fill Isaac's position as court composer when Isaac died in 1517. In 1518 Senfl lost a toe in a hunting accident; evidently the injury disabled him for up to a year. When the Emperor died in 1519, Senfl was out of a job, and his circumstances altered for the worse: Charles V dismissed most of Maximilian's musicians, and even refused to pay Senfl the annual stipend which had been promised to him in the event of the emperor's death. During the next few years he traveled widely, mainly job-seeking, but he was also active as a composer. He is known to have attended the Diet of Worms in 1521, and, while he never officially became a Protestant, his sympathies evidently were with Luther, and he was later examined by the Inquisition and voluntarily gave up his priesthood. Senfl carried on an extensive correspondence both with Lutheran Duke Albrecht of Prussia and with Martin Luther himself, beginning in 1530.  Eventually Senfl acquired a post in Munich, a place which had high musical standards, a strong need for new music, and which was relatively tolerant of those with Protestant sympathies; he was to remain there for the rest of his life. By 1540 he was ill, judging from his correspondence with Duke Albrecht, and he probably died in early 1543.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and influence.", "content": "Senfl was an eclectic composer, at home both in the worlds of sacred and secular music, and he modeled his style carefully on models provided by the Franco-Flemish composers of the previous generation, especially Josquin des Prez. In particular, he was a gifted melodist, and his lines are warmly lyrical; his music remained popular and influential in Germany through the 17th century.  His sacred music includes masses, motets, vespers settings, and a Magnificat. Technically his music has many archaic features, such as the use of \"cantus firmus\" technique, which was more in vogue in the 15th century; he even occasionally employs isorhythm. However he also has a typically Germanic liking for singable melodic passages in parallel imperfect intervals (3rds and 6ths).  Senfl also wrote numerous German lieder, most of them secular (the handful on sacred texts were written for Duke Albrecht of Prussia). They vary widely in character, from extremely simple settings of a \"cantus firmus\" to contrapuntal tours-de-force such as elaborate canons and quodlibets.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ludwig Senfl (born around 1486, died between December 2, 1542 and August 10, 1543) was a Swiss composer of the Renaissance, active in Germany. He was the most famous pupil of Heinrich Isaac, was music director to the court of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, and was an influential figure in the development of the Franco-Flemish polyphonic style in Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972019}
{"src_title": "Dolomites", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The Dolomites, also known as the \"Pale Mountains\", take their name from the carbonate rock dolomite. This was named after the 18th-century French mineralogist Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu (1750–1801), who was the first to describe the mineral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "During the First World War, the front line between the Italian and Austro-Hungarian forces ran through the Dolomites, where both sides used mines extensively. Open-air war museums are located at Cinque Torri (Five Towers) and Mount Lagazuoi. Many people visit the Dolomites to climb the vie ferrate, protected paths through the minefields that were created during the war.  A number of long-distance footpaths traverse the Dolomites. They are called \"alte vie\" (high paths), and are numbered 1 to 8. The trails take about a week to walk, and are served by numerous \"rifugi\" (huts). The first and the most renowned is the Alta Via 1. Radiocarbon dating has been used in the Alta Badia region to demonstrate a connection between landslide activity and climate change.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The region is commonly divided into the Western and Eastern Dolomites, separated by a line following the Val Badia – Campolongo Pass – Cordevole Valley (Agordino) axis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current classification.", "content": "The Dolomites may be divided into the following ranges:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The Dolomites are renowned for skiing in the winter months and mountain climbing, hiking, cycling, and BASE jumping, as well as paragliding and hang gliding in summer and late spring/early autumn. Free climbing has been a tradition in the Dolomites since 1887, when 17-year-old Georg Winkler soloed the first ascent of the pinnacle Die Vajolettürme. The main centres include: Rocca Pietore alongside the Marmolada Glacier, which lies on the border of Trentino and Veneto, the small towns of Alleghe, Falcade, Auronzo, Cortina d'Ampezzo and the villages of Arabba, Urtijëi and San Martino di Castrozza, as well as the whole of the Fassa, Gardena and Badia valleys.  The Maratona dles Dolomites, an annual single-day road bicycle racing race covering seven mountain passes of the Dolomites, occurs in the first week of July.  Other characteristic places are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dolomites ( ; Ladin: \"Dolomites\"; ; : ) are a mountain range located in northeastern Italy. They form part of the Southern Limestone Alps and extend from the River Adige in the west to the Piave Valley (Pieve di Cadore) in the east. The northern and southern borders are defined by the Puster Valley and the Sugana Valley (Italian: \"Valsugana\"). The Dolomites are nearly equally shared between the provinces of Belluno, South Tyrol and Trentino.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972020}
{"src_title": "Kalmar Union", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Inception.", "content": "The union was the work of Scandinavian aristocracy wishing to counter the influence of the Hanseatic League. More personally, it was achieved by Queen Margaret I of Denmark (1353–1412). She was a daughter of King Valdemar IV and had married King Haakon VI of Norway and Sweden, who was the son of King Magnus IV of Sweden, Norway and Scania. Margaret succeeded in having her son Olaf recognized as heir to the throne of Denmark. In 1376 Olaf inherited the crown of Denmark from his maternal grandfather as King Olaf II, with his mother as guardian; when Haakon VI died in 1380, Olaf also inherited the crown of Norway.  Margaret became regent of Denmark and Norway when Olaf died in 1387, leaving her without an heir. She adopted her great-nephew Eric of Pomerania the same year. The following year, 1388, Swedish nobles called upon her help against King Albert. After Margaret defeated Albert in 1389, her heir Eric was proclaimed King of Norway. Eric was subsequently elected King of Denmark and Sweden in 1396. His coronation was held in Kalmar on 17 June 1397.  One main impetus for its formation was to block German expansion northward into the Baltic region. The main reason for its failure to survive was the perpetual struggle between the monarch, who wanted a strong unified state, and the Swedish and Danish nobility, which did not. Diverging interests (especially the Swedish nobility's dissatisfaction with the dominant role played by Denmark and Holstein) gave rise to a conflict that would hamper the union in several intervals starting in the 1430s. Charles Bonde, for example, was made king of Sweden three times by nationalists there, in 1440, 1464 and 1467.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End and aftermath.", "content": "The Union lost territory when the Northern Isles were pledged by Christian I, in his capacity as King of Norway, as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III of Scotland in 1468. However the money was never paid, so in 1472 the islands were annexed by the Kingdom of Scotland.  The Kalmar union fell apart when Sweden rebelled and became independent on 6 June 1523 and Gustav I of Sweden was elected as king there.  One of the last structures of the Union remained until 1536/1537 when the Danish Privy Council, in the aftermath of the Count's Feud, unilaterally declared Norway to be a Danish province: this did not happen; instead, Norway became a hereditary kingdom in a real union with Denmark. Norway continued to remain a part of the realm of Denmark–Norway under the Oldenburg dynasty for nearly three centuries, until it was transferred to Sweden in 1814. The ensuing union between Sweden and Norway lasted until 1905, when a grandson of both the incumbent king of Denmark and the late king of Sweden was elected king of Norway.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kalmar Union (Danish, Norwegian, and ; ) was a personal union in Scandinavia that from 1397 to 1523 joined under a single monarch the three kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden (then including most of Finland), and Norway, together with Norway's overseas dependencies (then including Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and the Northern Isles). The union was not quite continuous; there were several short interruptions. Legally, the countries remained separate sovereign states, but with their domestic and foreign policies being directed by a common monarch. Gustav Vasa's election as king on 6 June 1523 and his triumphant entry into Stockholm eleven days later marked Sweden's final secession from the Kalmar Union.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972021}
{"src_title": "Maser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The theoretical principles governing the operation of a maser were first described by Joseph Weber of the University of Maryland, College Park at the Electron Tube Research Conference in 1952 in Ottawa, with a summary published in the June 1953 Transactions of the Institute of Radio Engineers Professional Group on Electron Devices, and simultaneously by Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov from Lebedev Institute of Physics at an \"All-Union Conference on Radio-Spectroscopy\" held by the USSR Academy of Sciences in May 1952, subsequently published in October 1954.  Independently, Charles Hard Townes, James P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger built the first ammonia maser at Columbia University in 1953. This device used stimulated emission in a stream of energized ammonia molecules to produce amplification of microwaves at a frequency of about 24.0 gigahertz. Townes later worked with Arthur L. Schawlow to describe the principle of the \"optical maser\", or \"laser\", of which Theodore H. Maiman created the first working model in 1960.  For their research in the field of stimulated emission, Townes, Basov and Prokhorov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technology.", "content": "The maser is based on the principle of stimulated emission proposed by Albert Einstein in 1917. When atoms have been induced into an excited energy state, they can amplify radiation at a frequency particular to the element or molecule used as the masing medium (similar to what occurs in the lasing medium in a laser).  By putting such an amplifying medium in a resonant cavity, feedback is created that can produce coherent radiation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twenty-first century developments.", "content": "In 2012, a research team from the National Physical Laboratory and Imperial College London developed a solid-state maser that operated at room temperature by using optically pumped, pentacene-doped p-Terphenyl as the amplifier medium. It produced pulses of maser emission lasting for a few hundred microseconds.  In 2018, a research team from Imperial College London and University College London demonstrated continuous-wave maser oscillation using synthetic diamonds containing Nitrogen-Vacancy defects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Masers serve as high precision frequency references. These \"atomic frequency standards\" are one of the many forms of atomic clocks. Masers were also used as low-noise microwave amplifiers in radio telescopes, though these have largely been replaced by amplifiers based on FETs.  During the early 1960s, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory developed a maser to provide ultra-low-noise amplification of S-band microwave signals received from deep space probes. This maser used deeply refrigerated helium to chill the amplifier down to a temperature of four kelvin. Amplification was achieved by exciting a ruby comb with a 12.0 gigahertz klystron. In the early years, it took days to chill and remove the impurities from the hydrogen lines. Refrigeration was a two-stage process with a large Linde unit on the ground, and a crosshead compressor within the antenna. The final injection was at through a micrometer-adjustable entry to the chamber. The whole system noise temperature looking at cold sky (2.7 kelvins in the microwave band) was 17 kelvins. This gave such a low noise figure that the Mariner IV space probe could send still pictures from Mars back to the Earth even though the output power of its radio transmitter was only 15 watts, and hence the total signal power received was only -169 decibels with respect to a milliwatt (dBm).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hydrogen maser.", "content": "The hydrogen maser is used as an atomic frequency standard. Together with other kinds of atomic clocks, these help make up the International Atomic Time standard (\"Temps Atomique International\" or \"TAI\" in French). This is the international time scale coordinated by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Norman Ramsey and his colleagues first conceived of the maser as a timing standard. More recent masers are practically identical to their original design. Maser oscillations rely on the stimulated emission between two hyperfine energy levels of atomic hydrogen. Here is a brief description of how they work:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Astrophysical masers.", "content": "Maser-like stimulated emission has also been observed in nature from interstellar space, and it is frequently called \"superradiant emission\" to distinguish it from laboratory masers. Such emission is observed from molecules such as water (HO), hydroxyl radicals (•OH), methanol (CHOH), formaldehyde (HCHO), and silicon monoxide (SiO). Water molecules in star-forming regions can undergo a population inversion and emit radiation at about 22.0 GHz, creating the brightest spectral line in the radio universe. Some water masers also emit radiation from a rotational transition at a frequency of 96 GHz.  Extremely powerful masers, associated with active galactic nuclei, are known as megamasers and are up to a million times more powerful than stellar masers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The meaning of the term \"maser\" has changed slightly since its introduction. Initially the acronym was universally given as \"microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation\", which described devices which emitted in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum.  The principle and concept of stimulated emission has since been extended to more devices and frequencies. Thus, the original acronym is sometimes modified, as suggested by Charles H. Townes, to \"\"molecular\" amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.\" Some have asserted that Townes's efforts to extend the acronym in this way were primarily motivated by the desire to increase the importance of his invention, and his reputation in the scientific community.  When the laser was developed, Townes and Schawlow and their colleagues at Bell Labs pushed the use of the term \"optical maser\", but this was largely abandoned in favor of \"laser\", coined by their rival Gordon Gould. In modern usage, devices that emit in the X-ray through infrared portions of the spectrum are typically called lasers, and devices that emit in the microwave region and below are commonly called \"masers\", regardless of whether they emit microwaves or other frequencies.  Gould originally proposed distinct names for devices that emit in each portion of the spectrum, including \"grasers\" (gamma ray lasers), \"xasers\" (x-ray lasers), \"uvasers\" (ultraviolet lasers), \" lasers\" (visible lasers), \"irasers\" (infrared lasers), \"masers\" (microwave masers), and \"rasers\" (RF masers). Most of these terms never caught on, however, and all have now become (apart from in science fiction) obsolete except for \"maser\" and \"laser\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A maser (, an acronym for microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through amplification by stimulated emission. The first maser was built by Charles H. Townes, James P. Gordon, and Herbert J. Zeiger at Columbia University in 1953. Townes, Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical work leading to the maser. Masers are used as the timekeeping device in atomic clocks, and as extremely low-noise microwave amplifiers in radio telescopes and deep space spacecraft communication ground stations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972022}
{"src_title": "Papal legate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the High Middle Ages, papal legates were often used to strengthen the links between Rome and the many parts of Christendom. More often than not, legates were learned men and skilled diplomats who were not from the country they were accredited to. For example, the Italian-born Guala Bicchieri served as papal legate to England in the early 13th century and played a major role in both the English government and church at the time. By the Late Middle Ages it had become more common to appoint native clerics to the position of legate within their own country, such as Cardinal Wolsey acting as legate to the court of Henry VIII of England. The reason for this switch in policy could be attributed to a change in attitude on the eve of the Reformation; by this point, foreign men representing the papacy would be more likely to reinforce dissent than bring Christendom closer together.  Papal legates often summoned legatine councils, which dealt with church government and other ecclesiastical issues. According to Pope Gregory VII, writing in the \"Dictatus papae\", a papal legate \"presides over all bishops in a council, even if he is inferior in rank, and he can pronounce sentence of deposition against them\". During the Middle Ages, a legatine council was the usual means that a papal legate imposed his directives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomatic ranks.", "content": "There are several ranks of papal legates in diplomacy, some of which are no longer used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Apostolic nuncio.", "content": "The most common form of papal legate today is the apostolic nuncio, whose task it is to strengthen relations between the Holy See and the Catholic Church in a particular country and at the same time to act as the diplomatic representative of the Holy See to the government of that country. An apostolic nuncio is generally equivalent in rank to that of ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary, although in Catholic countries the nuncio often ranks above ambassadors in diplomatic protocol. A nuncio performs the same functions as an ambassador and has the same diplomatic privileges. Under the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, to which the Holy See is a party, a nuncio is an ambassador like those from any other country. The Vienna Convention allows the host state to grant seniority of precedence to the nuncio over others of ambassadorial rank accredited to the same country, and may grant the deanship of that country's diplomatic corps to the nuncio regardless of seniority.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pro-nuncio.", "content": "Pro-nuncio was a term used from 1965 to 1991 for a papal diplomatic representative of full ambassadorial rank accredited to a country that did not accord him precedence over other ambassadors and \"ex officio\" deanship of the diplomatic corps. In those countries, the papal representative's precedence within the corps is exactly on a par with that of the other members of ambassadorial rank, so that he becomes dean only on becoming the senior member of the corps.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Apostolic delegate.", "content": "For countries with which the Holy See has no diplomatic relations, an apostolic delegate is sent to serve as a liaison with the Catholic Church in that country, though not accredited to its government.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "\"Legati\".", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Legatus a latere\".", "content": "This highest rank (literally \"from the (pope's) side\", i.e. \"intimately\" trusted) is normally awarded to a priest of cardinal rank. It is an exceptional investiture and can either be focused or broad in scope. The legate \"a latere\" is the alter ego of the pope, and as such, possesses full plenipotentiary powers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "\"Legatus natus\".", "content": "Literally \"born legate\", i.e. not nominated individually but \"ex officio\", namely a bishop holding this rank as a privilege of his see, e.g. archbishops of Canterbury (pre-Reformation), Prague, Esztergom, Udine, Salzburg, Gniezno and Cologne. The \"legatus natus\" would act as the pope's representative in his province, with a \"legatus a latere\" only being sent in extraordinary circumstances. Although limited in their jurisdiction compared to \"legati a latere\", a \"legatus natus\" was not subordinate to them.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "\"Legatus missus\".", "content": "Literally \"sent legate\", possessing limited powers for the purpose of completing a specific mission. This commission is normally focused in scope and of short duration.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Gubernatorial legates.", "content": "Some administrative (temporal) provinces of the papal states in (mostly central) Italy were governed by a papal legate. This has been the case in Benevento, in Pontecorvo (of Campagna e Marittima/ of Frosinone) and in Viterbo. In four cases, including Bologna, this post was awarded exclusively to Cardinals; the Velletri post was created for Bartolomeo Pacca.  The title could be changed to Apostolic Delegate, as happened in Frosinone (for Pontecorvo) in 1827.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A papal legate or apostolic legate (from the ancient Roman title \"legatus\") is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic Church. He is empowered on matters of Catholic faith and for the settlement of ecclesiastical matters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972023}
{"src_title": "Theater an der Wien", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "The theatre was the brainchild of the Viennese theatrical impresario Emanuel Schikaneder, who is best known as Mozart's librettist and collaborator on the opera \"The Magic Flute\" (1791). Schikaneder's troupe had already been successfully performing for several years in Vienna in the smaller and this is where \"The Magic Flute\" had premiered. As the troupe's performances often emphasized spectacle and scenery, the librettist felt ready to move to a larger and better equipped venue.  He had already been granted an imperial licence to build a new theatre in 1786, but it was only in 1798 that he felt ready to act on this authorization. The building was designed by the architect Franz Jäger in Empire style (it has since been remodeled). Construction was completed in 1801. The theatre has been described as \"the most lavishly equipped and one of the largest theatres of its age.\". The theatre opened on 13 June 1801 with a prologue written by Schikaneder followed by a performance of the opera \"Alexander\" by Franz Teyber. The new theatre proved to be a sensation. Adolf Bäurle, a local critic, wrote \"if Schikaneder and [his partner] Zitterbarth had had the idea... to charge admission simply for looking at the glories of their, Schikaneder would certainly have been able to take in vast sums of money without giving one single performance.\" The \"Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung\" called it the \"most comfortable and satisfactory in the whole of Germany\" (which meant at the time, \"all German-speaking lands\").  In 1807 the theatre was acquired by a group of court nobles that included Count Ferdinand Palffy von Erdöd, who bought it outright in 1813. During the period of his proprietorship, which lasted until 1826, he offered opera and ballet and, to appeal to a wider Viennese audience, popular pantomime and variety acts, losing money in elaborate spectacles until finally he was forced to sell the theatre at auction in 1826.  Only a part of the original building is preserved: the \"\" (Papageno Gate) is a memorial to Schikaneder, who is depicted playing the role of Papageno in \"The Magic Flute\", a role he wrote for himself to perform. He is accompanied by the Three Boys, characters in the same opera.  From 1889 to 1905, Alexandrine von Schönerer was managing director after the lease ended in 1884 between her and the librettist Camillo Walzel.  In the late 19th to early 20th centuries, the theatre experienced a golden age during the flourishing of Viennese operetta, as referenced in the list below.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later history.", "content": "From 1945 to 1955, it was one of the temporary homes of the Vienna State Opera, whose own building had been destroyed by Allied bombing during World War II. However, in 1955, the theatre was closed for safety reasons. It languished unused for several years, and by the early 1960s, the threat had emerged that it would be converted to a parking garage. (This was the same era of \"urban renewal\" that in America nearly destroyed Carnegie Hall).  By 1962 the theatre had a new and successful role as a venue for contemporary musical theatre. Many English-language musicals had their German premieres there. In 1992, the musical \"Elisabeth\" (about Franz Joseph I of Austria's wife, Elisabeth of Bavaria, also known as Sisi), premiered there and ran for six consecutive years until 1998; Elisabeth went on to become the most successful German-language musical to date, returning to the Theater an der Wien for a revival production from 2003 to 2005. The musical \"Cats\" directed and choreographed by Gillian Lynne played successfully for seven years.  Despite its focus on operettas and musicals, the theatre still served as a venue for occasional opera productions, especially during the Vienna Festival seasons, and sometimes co-produced with the Vienna State Opera. Notable productions of the non-standard repertory include: Between 1996 and 2002, Riccardo Muti conducted new productions of the three da Ponte operas of Mozart, based on an original production by Giorgio Strehler.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "In 2006, the 250th anniversary year of Mozart's birth, the presented a series of major Mozart operas, thus initiating its conversion to a full-time venue for opera and other forms of classical music under the direction of. Major musical productions since are now presented at either the Raimund Theater or the Ronacher. The first opera to be given was Mozart's \"Idomeneo\" with Neil Shicoff in the title role and Peter Schneider conducting the new production by Willy Decker. Other members of the cast were Angelika Kirchschlager, Genia Kühmeier, and Barbara Frittoli.  Geyer is quoted as saying that he wishes to \"present cutting edge directors and interesting productions\", and his three main areas of focus are on Baroque opera, contemporary opera, and Mozart.  In recent years, the theatre's seasons have included the following works outside the standard repertoire:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Premieres.", "content": "The has seen the premieres of many works by celebrated composers and playwrights. It was a particularly favorite venue for Ludwig van Beethoven, who actually lived in rooms inside the theatre, at Schikaneder's invitation, during part of the period he was composing his opera \"Fidelio\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The is a historic theatre in Vienna located on the Left Wienzeile in the Mariahilf district. Completed in 1801, the theatre has hosted the premieres of many celebrated works of theatre, opera, and symphonic music. Since 2006, it has served primarily as an opera house, hosting its own company.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972024}
{"src_title": "Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ancestry.", "content": "His father was Christian Augustus (1673–1726) duke and a younger prince of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, prince-bishop of Lübeck, and administrator, during the Great Northern War, of the duchies of Holstein-Gottorp for his relative Charles Frederick.  His mother Albertina Frederica of Baden-Durlach (1682–1755) was a descendant of earlier royal dynasties of Sweden, great-granddaughter of Princess Catherine of Sweden, mother of King Charles X of Sweden. On his mother's side, Adolf Frederick descended from King Gustav Vasa and from Christina Magdalena, a sister of Charles X of Sweden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "From 1727 to 1750 Prince Adolf Frederick was prince-bishop of Lübeck, which meant the rulership of a fief around and including Eutin. After his first cousin Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp died in 1739, Adolf Frederick became administrator of Holstein-Kiel during the minority of the duke's orphan son, then known as Charles Peter Ulrich. Shortly afterwards, the young boy was invited to Russia by his maternal aunt, Empress Elizabeth, who soon declared him her heir; he later became known as Peter III of Russia.  In 1743, Adolf Frederick was elected heir to the throne of Sweden by the Hat faction (Swedish: \"Hattarna\") in order that they might obtain better conditions at the Treaty of Abo from Empress Elizabeth of Russia, who had adopted his nephew as her heir. He succeeded as King Adolf Frederick twelve years later on 25 March 1751.  During his twenty-year reign, Adolf Frederick was little more than a figurehead, the real power being lodged in the hands of the Riksdag of the Estates, often distracted by party strife. Twice he endeavoured to free himself from the tutelage of the estates. The first occasion was in 1756 when, stimulated by his imperious consort Louisa Ulrika of Prussia (sister of Frederick the Great), he tried to regain a portion of the attenuated prerogative through the Coup of 1756 to abolish the rule of the Riksdag of the Estates and reinstate absolute monarchy in Sweden. He nearly lost his throne in consequence. On the second occasion during the December Crisis (1768), under the guidance of his eldest son, Gustav, he succeeded in overthrowing the \"Cap\" (Swedish: \"Mössorna\") senate, but was unable to make any use of his victory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Adolf Frederick died in Stockholm on 12 February 1771 after having consumed a meal consisting of lobster, caviar, sauerkraut, kippers and champagne, which was topped off with 14 servings of his favourite dessert: \"hetvägg\" made of semla and served in a bowl of hot milk.  The king was regarded, both during his time and in later times, as dependent on others, a weak ruler and lacking of any talents. But he was allegedly also a good husband, a caring father, and a gentle master to his servants. His favourite pastime was to make snuffboxes, which he allegedly spent a great deal of time doing. His personal hospitality and friendliness were witnessed by many who deeply mourned him at his death.  Following his death, his son Gustav III seized power in 1772 in a military coup d'état, reinstating absolute rule.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "By his marriage to Princess Louisa Ulrika of Prussia (which took place on 18 August/29 August 1744 in Drottningholm), he had the following children:  With Jeanne Du Londel he had one son:  With Marguerite Morel he had one son who died as a child:  Adolf Frederick may have been the father of Lolotte Forssberg by Ulla von Liewen, but this has however never been confirmed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adolf Frederick or Adolph Frederick (, ; 14 May 171012 February 1771) was King of Sweden from 1751 until his death. He was the son of Christian August of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince of Eutin, and Albertina Frederica of Baden-Durlach.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972025}
{"src_title": "Frederick I of Sweden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Youth.", "content": "He was the son of Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, and Princess Maria Amalia of Courland. In 1692 the young prince made his Grand Tour to the Dutch Republic, in 1695 to the Italian Peninsula and later he studied in Geneva. After this he had a military career, leading the Hessian troops as Lieutenant General in the War of the Spanish Succession on the side of the Dutch. He was defeated in 1703 in the Battle of Speyerbach, but participated the next year in the great victory in the Battle of Blenheim. In 1706 he was again defeated by the French in the Battle of Castiglione. Both in 1716 and 1718 he joined the campaign of Charles XII of Sweden against Norway, and was appointed Swedish Generalissimus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prince consort of Sweden.", "content": "He married his second wife, Princess Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden, in 1715. He was then granted the title Prince of Sweden, with the style \"Royal Highness\" by the estates, and was prince consort there during Ulrika Eleonora's rule as queen regnant from 1718 until her abdication in 1720. He is the only Swedish prince consort there has been to date. Frederick I had much influence during the reign of his spouse.  Some historians have suggested that the bullet which killed his brother-in-law Charles XII of Sweden in 1718 was actually fired by Frederick's aide André Sicre. Charles had been an authoritarian and demanding ruler; one reason the Swedish Estates elected Frederick was because he was taken to be fairly weak, which indeed he turned out to be.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Sweden.", "content": "Frederick succeeded Ulrika Eleonora on the throne upon her abdication in his favor in 1720, elected by the Swedish Estates.  The defeats suffered by Charles XII in the Great Northern War ended Sweden's position as a first-rank European power. Under Frederick, this had to be accepted. Sweden also had to cede Estonia, Ingria and Livonia to Russia in the Treaty of Nystad, in 1721.  Frederick I was a very active and dynamic king at the beginning of his 31-year reign. But after the aristocracy had regained power during the wars with Russia, he became not so much powerless as uninterested in affairs of state. In 1723, he tried to strengthen royal authority, but after he failed, he never had much to do with politics. He did not even sign official documents; instead a stamp of his signature was used. He devoted most of his time to hunting and love affairs. His marriage to Queen Ulrika Eleonora was childless, but he had several children by his mistress, Hedvig Taube.  In 1723 Frederick rewarded the military inventor Sven Åderman with the estate of Halltorps on the island of Öland, for improving the rate of fire of the musket.  As a king, he was not very respected. When he was crowned, it was said of him: \"King Charles we recently buried, King Frederick we crown – suddenly the clock has now passed from twelve to one\". It is said about him, that although a lot of great achievements in the country's development happened during his reign, he never had anything to do with them himself. When he died, Carl Gustaf Tessin said about him: Under the reign of King Frederick, science has developed – he never bothered to read a book. The merchant business has flourished – he has never encouraged it with a single coin. The Stockholm Palace has been built – he has never been curious enough to look at it. Neither did he have anything to do with the founding of the first Swedish speaking theater at Bollhuset during his reign. One of his few important policies was the banning of duels.  On 23 February 1748 Frederick I instituted the three Swedish royal orders of the Seraphim, of the Sword and of the North Star, the three principal Swedish orders of chivalry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel.", "content": "Frederick became Landgrave of Hesse only in 1730, ten years after becoming King of Sweden. He immediately appointed his younger brother William governor of Hesse.  As Landgrave, Frederick is generally not seen as a success. Indeed, he did concentrate more on Sweden, and due to his negotiated, compromise-like ascension to the throne there, he and his court had a very low income. The money for that very expensive court, then, since the 1730s came from wealthy Hesse, and this means that Frederick essentially behaved like an absentee landlord and drained Hessian resources to finance life in Sweden. Also, Frederick's father, Charles I of Hesse-Kassel, had been the state's most successful ruler, rebuilding the state over his decades-long rule by means of economic and infrastructure measures and state reform, as well as tolerance, such as attracting, for economic purposes, the French Huguenots. His brother the governor, who would succeed Frederick as Landgrave William VIII of Hesse-Kassel, though by background a distinguished soldier, was likewise a great success locally. There are very few physical remainders of Frederick in Hesse today; one of them is his large Royal Swedish paraph (FR) over the old door of the University of Marburg's former riding hall, now the Institute of Physical Education.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and issue.", "content": "On 31 May 1700, he married his first wife, Louise Dorothea, Princess of Prussia (1680–1705), daughter of Frederick I of Prussia (1657–1713) and Elizabeth Henrietta of Hesse-Kassel (1661–1683). Louise Dorothea died in childbirth in December 1705.  His second wife, whom he married in 1715, was Ulrika Eleonora, Princess of Sweden, (1688–1741), daughter of Charles XI of Sweden (1655–1697) and of Ulrika Eleonora of Denmark (1656–1693). Ulrika suffered two miscarriages, one in 1715 and another in 1718, after which there are no further recorded pregnancies.  Frederick I had three extramarital children with his mistress Hedvig Taube:  After the death of Hedvig Taube, his official mistress was the noblewoman Catharina Ebba Horn, whom he gave the title and recognition of German-Roman Countess (1745–1748).  Thus, the Hessian line in Sweden ended with him and was followed by that of Holstein-Gottorp. In Hesse-Kassel, he was succeeded by his younger brother William VIII, a famous general.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick I (; 28 April 1676 – 5 April 1751) was prince consort of Sweden from 1718 to 1720, and King of Sweden from 1720 until his death and (as \"Frederick I\") also Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel from 1730. He ascended the throne following the death of his brother-in-law absolutist Charles XII in the Great Northern War, and the abdication of his wife, Charles's sister and successor Ulrika Eleonora, after she had to relinquish most powers to the Riksdag of the Estates and thus chose to abdicate. His powerless reign and lack of legitimate heirs of his own saw his family's elimination from the line of succession after the parliamentary government dominated by pro-revanchist Hat Party politicians ventured into a war with Russia, which ended in defeat and the Russian tsarina Elizabeth getting Adolph Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp instated following the death of the king.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972026}
{"src_title": "Albumin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Function.", "content": "Albumins in general are transport proteins that bind to various ligands and carry them around. Human types include:  The four canonical human albumins are arranged on chromosome 4 region 4q13.3 in a tandem manner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Albumins found in animals can be divided into six subfamilies by phylogeny. The Vitamin-D binding proteins occupy families 1-3. The other albumins are mixed among each other in families 4-6. ECM1 is in family 6.  In addition to their medical use, serum albumins are valued in biotechnology. Bovine serum albumin is usually used, although versions from humans and genetically-modified rice are also used to reduce animal cruelty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other albumin types.", "content": "A few other proteins are also sometimes called albumins. They are not in the same family as vertebrate albumins:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "The 3D structure of human serum albumin has been determined by X-ray crystallography to a resolution of. Albumin is a 65–70 kDa protein.  Albumin comprises three homologous domains that assemble to form a heart-shaped protein. Each domain is a product of two subdomains that possess common structural motifs. The principal regions of ligand binding to human serum albumin are located in hydrophobic cavities in subdomains IIA and IIIA, which exhibit similar chemistry. Structurally, the serum albumins are similar, each domain containing five or six internal disulfide bonds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Forensic uses.", "content": "Worldwide, certain traditional Chinese medicines contain wild bear bile, banned under CITES legislation. Dip sticks, similar to common pregnancy tests, have been developed to detect the presence of bear albumin in traditional medicine products, indicating that bear bile had been used in their creation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terminology.", "content": "Albumin is pronounced ; formed from Latin: \"albumen\" \"(egg) white; dried egg white\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albumin is a family of globular proteins, the most common of which are the serum albumins. All the proteins of the albumin family are water-soluble, moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Albumins are commonly found in blood plasma and differ from other blood proteins in that they are not glycosylated. Substances containing albumins are called \"albuminoids\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972027}
{"src_title": "Narvik (town)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Narvik is named after the old \"Narvik\" farm (\"Narduigh\" – 1567), since the town is built on its ground.  The Old Norse form of the port was probably \"*Knarravík\". The first element is the genitive pluralis of \"knarr\" which means'merchant ship' and the last element is \"vík\" meaning 'inlet'. The name \"Knarravík\" (modern forms \"Knarvik\" or \"Narvik\") is found in several places along the Norwegian coast (and three places in the old Norwegian province of Bohuslän), and it tends to refer to good, natural ports.  The port was once called \"Victoriahavn\" after Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, however Sweden’s Crown Princess Victoria was also honoured.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The history of Narvik as a settlement began in the Bronze Age. Not very much is known about these people, but the Vikings lived in this area.  Narvik was developed as an all-year ice free port for the Swedish Kiruna and Gällivare iron mines. The history of modern Narvik begins in the 1870s, when the Swedish government began to understand the potential of the iron ore mines in Kiruna, Sweden. Obtaining iron ore from Kiruna had one significant problem in that there was no suitable Swedish port. The nearest Swedish port, Luleå, had limitations. It was covered with ice all winter, it is far from Kiruna, and it allows only medium-sized bulk freight vessels. Narvik offered a port which is ice-free thanks to the warm Gulf Stream, and is naturally large, allowing boats of virtually any size to anchor, up to long and deep. The Swedish company \"(Gällivare Aktiebolag)\" built the Iron Ore Line (\"Malmbanan\") to Riksgränsen on the Norway–Sweden border. The Norwegian Ofotbanen railway line connects Narvik to the Swedish border.  Swedish mining corporation LKAB still ships the majority of its ore from Narvik (a total 25 million tons a year). The corporation is still important in the area, both as an employer and landowner, although its influence is not as prominent now as it has been in previous years.  The town of Narvik was established on 1 January 1902 when the village of Narvik received status as a proper town and was separated from the large municipality of Ankenes so it could have its own municipal government. Initially, the town-municipality of Narvik had 3,705 residents. On 1 January 1974, the municipality of Ankenes was merged with the town-municipality of Narvik, forming a new, larger municipality of Narvik.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "The port of Narvik proved to be strategically valuable in the early years of World War II and the town became a focal point of the Norwegian Campaign. In 1939, Germany's war industry depended upon iron ore mined in Kiruna and Malmberget in Sweden. During the summer season, this ore could be sent by cargo ship to Germany through the Baltic Sea via the Swedish port of Luleå on the Gulf of Bothnia. However, when the Gulf of Bothnia froze during the winter, more shipments of the ore needed to be transported through Narvik and, from there, down the west coast of Norway to Germany. The town of Narvik is linked by rail to Sweden, but not to any other towns in Norway. As a result, Narvik serves as a gateway to the ore fields of Sweden that cannot be easily reached from southern Norway via land. Winston Churchill realised that the control of Narvik meant stopping most German imports of iron ore during the winter of 1940. This would be advantageous to the Allies, and it might help shorten the war. Equally as important, later in the war, German submarines and warships based there threatened the allied supply line to the Soviet Union.  Churchill proposed laying a naval minefield in Norwegian territorial waters around Narvik (referred to as \"the Leads\"), or else occupying the town with Allied troops. The Allies hoped that they might be able to use an occupied Narvik as a base from which to secure the Swedish ore fields and/or to send supplies and reinforcements to Finland, then fighting the Finnish Winter War with the Soviet Union. Plans to lay a minefield around Narvik or to seize the town met with debate within the British government – since both plans would mean a violation of Norway's neutrality and sovereignty.  Finally, on 8 April 1940, the British Admiralty launched Operation Wilfred, an attempt to lay anti-shipping minefields around Narvik in Norwegian territorial waters. Coincidentally, Germany launched its invasion of Norway (Operation Weserübung) on the next day. During this invasion, ten German destroyers, each carrying 200 mountain infantry soldiers, were sent to Narvik. The outdated Norwegian coastal defence ships and attempted to resist the invasion, but both Norwegian warships were sunk after a short and uneven battle. The Royal Navy quickly dispatched several ships to Narvik, including the battleship, and during the Battles of Narvik, the British took control of the coast, destroying the German destroyers that had brought the invasion force to Narvik, as well as other German ships in the area.  On 12 April 1940, the first convoys of Allied soldiers were sent under Major-General Pierse Joseph Mackesy to Narvik. The Admiralty urged Mackesy to conduct an assault on Narvik from the sea as soon as possible. However, Mackesy believed that the German harbour defences were too strong for such an invasion to take place. The Admiralty argued that a naval bombardment of Norway would enable the troops to land safely, but General Mackesy refused to subject Norwegian citizens to such a bombardment, and instead he chose to land his troops near Narvik and wait until the snow melted to take over the town.  Coordinated by the Norwegian General Carl Gustav Fleischer, Norwegian, French, Polish, and British forces recaptured Narvik on 28 May 1940. This is also considered the first Allied infantry victory in World War II. However, by that time, the Allies were losing the Battle of France and the evacuation from Dunkirk was underway. Since the Nazi German invasion of France had made Scandinavia largely irrelevant, and since the valuable troops assigned to Narvik were badly needed elsewhere, the Allies withdrew from Narvik on 8 June 1940 in Operation Alphabet. The same day, while operating in the Narvik area, the German battleships and sank the British aircraft carrier during the withdrawal from this battle. Without support from the Allied naval task force, the Norwegians were outnumbered, and they had to lay down their arms in Norway on 10 June 1940. This was not a complete capitulation, since the Norwegians kept on fighting guerrilla operations inland.  Possession of the Ofotfjord was also important to the German Kriegsmarine (navy) since it provided a refuge for warships like the \"pocket battleship\" and the battleship outside the range (at the time) of air attacks from Scotland. Also, possibly U-boats could be based at Narvik.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Narvik is a town and the administrative centre of Narvik Municipality in Nordland county, Norway. The town is located along the Ofotfjorden in the Ofoten region. The town lies on a peninsula located between the Rombaken fjord and the Beisfjorden. The European route E06 highway runs through the Beisfjord Bridge and Hålogaland Bridge crossing the two small fjords surrounding the town.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972028}
{"src_title": "Green algae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cellular structure.", "content": "Green algae have chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll \"a\" and \"b\", giving them a bright green color, as well as the accessory pigments beta carotene (red-orange) and xanthophylls (yellow) in stacked thylakoids. The cell walls of green algae usually contain cellulose, and they store carbohydrate in the form of starch.  All green algae have mitochondria with flat cristae. When present, paired flagella are used to move the cell. They are anchored by a cross-shaped system of microtubules and fibrous strands. Flagella are only present in the motile male gametes of charophytes bryophytes, pteridophytes, cycads and \"Ginkgo\", but are absent from the gametes of Pinophyta and flowering plants.  Members of the class Chlorophyceae undergo closed mitosis in the most common form of cell division among the green algae, which occurs via a phycoplast. By contrast, charophyte green algae and land plants (embryophytes) undergo open mitosis without centrioles. Instead, a 'raft' of microtubules, the phragmoplast, is formed from the mitotic spindle and cell division involves the use of this phragmoplast in the production of a cell plate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "Photosynthetic eukaryotes originated following a primary endosymbiotic event, where a heterotrophic eukaryotic cell engulfed a photosynthetic cyanobacterium-like prokaryote that became stably integrated and eventually evolved into a membrane-bound organelle: the plastid. This primary endosymbiosis event gave rise to three autotrophic clades with primary plastids: the green plants, the red algae and the glaucophytes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution and classification.", "content": "Green algae are often classified with their embryophyte descendants in the green plant clade Viridiplantae (or Chlorobionta). Viridiplantae, together with red algae and glaucophyte algae, form the supergroup Primoplantae, also known as Archaeplastida or Plantae \"sensu lato\". The ancestral green alga was a unicellular flagellate.  The Viridiplantae diverged into two clades. The Chlorophyta include the early diverging prasinophyte lineages and the core Chlorophyta, which contain the majority of described species of green algae. The Streptophyta include charophytes and land plants. Below is a consensus reconstruction of green algal relationships, mainly based on molecular data.  Abdalla, the famous man from Iqa was The basal character of the Mesostigmatophyceae, Chlorokybophyceae and \"spirotaenia\" are only more conventionally basal Streptophytes.  The algae of this paraphyletic group \"Charophyta\" were previously included in Chlorophyta, so green algae and Chlorophyta in this definition were synonyms. As the green algae clades get further resolved, the embryophytes, which are a deep charophyte branch, are included in \"algae\", \"green algae\" and \"Charophytes\", or these terms are replaced by cladistic terminology such as Archaeplastida, Plantae, Viridiplantae or streptophytes, respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Green algae are a group of photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms that include species with haplobiontic and diplobiontic life cycles. The diplobiontic species, such as \"Ulva\", follow a reproductive cycle called alternation of generations in which two multicellular forms, haploid and diploid, alternate, and these may or may not be isomorphic (having the same morphology). In haplobiontic species only the haploid generation, the gametophyte is multicellular. The fertilized egg cell, the diploid zygote, undergoes meiosis, giving rise to haploid cells which will become new gametophytes. The diplobiontic forms, which evolved from haplobiontic ancestors, have both a multicellular haploid generation and a multicellular diploid generation. Here the zygote divides repeatedly by mitosis and grows into a multicellular diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis that germinate to produce a multicellular gametophyte. All land plants have a diplobiontic common ancestor, and diplobiontic forms have also evolved independently within Ulvophyceae more than once (as has also occurred in the red and brown algae).  Diplobiontic green algae include isomorphic and heteromorphic forms. In isomorphic algae, the morphology is identical in the haploid and diploid generations. In heteromorphic algae, the morphology and size are different in the gametophyte and sporophyte.  Reproduction varies from fusion of identical cells (isogamy) to fertilization of a large non-motile cell by a smaller motile one (oogamy). However, these traits show some variation, most notably among the basal green algae called prasinophytes.  Haploid algal cells (containing only one copy of their DNA) can fuse with other haploid cells to form diploid zygotes. When filamentous algae do this, they form bridges between cells, and leave empty cell walls behind that can be easily distinguished under the light microscope. This process is called \"conjugation\" and occurs for example in \"Spirogyra\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sex pheromone.", "content": "Sex pheromone production is likely a common feature of green algae, although only studied in detail in a few model organisms. \"Volvox\" is a genus of chlorophytes. Different species form spherical colonies of up to 50,000 cells. One well-studied species, \"Volvox carteri\" (2,000 – 6,000 cells) occupies temporary pools of water that tend to dry out in the heat of late summer. As their environment dries out, asexual \"V. carteri\" quickly die. However, they are able to escape death by switching, shortly before drying is complete, to the sexual phase of their life cycle that leads to production of dormant desiccation-resistant zygotes. Sexual development is initiated by a glycoprotein pheromone (Hallmann et al., 1998). This pheromone is one of the most potent known biological effector molecules. It can trigger sexual development at concentrations as low as 10M. Kirk and Kirk showed that sex-inducing pheromone production can be triggered experimentally in somatic cells by heat shock. Thus heat shock may be a condition that ordinarily triggers sex-inducing pheromone in nature.  The \"Closterium peracerosum-strigosum-littorale (C. psl)\" complex is a unicellular, isogamous charophycean alga group that is the closest unicellular relative to land plants. Heterothallic strains of different mating type can conjugate to form zygospores. Sex pheromones termed protoplast-release inducing proteins (glycopolypeptides) produced by mating-type (-) and mating-type (+) cells facilitate this process.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Physiology.", "content": "The green algae, including the characean algae, have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the ionic and water permeability of membranes, osmoregulation, turgor regulation, salt tolerance, cytoplasmic streaming, and the generation of action potentials.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The green algae (singular: green alga) are a large, informal grouping of algae consisting of the Chlorophyta and Charophyta/Streptophyta, which are now placed in separate divisions, together with the more basal Mesostigmatophyceae, Chlorokybophyceae and Spirotaenia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972029}
{"src_title": "Tournai", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Tournai is located in the Wallonia Picarde (Picard language) and Romance Flanders region of Belgium, at the southern limit of the Flemish plain, in the basin of the River Scheldt (\"Escaut\" in French, \"Schelde\" in Dutch). Administratively, the town is part of the Province of Hainaut, itself part of Wallonia. It is also a municipality that is part of the French-speaking Community of Belgium. Tournai has its own arrondissements, both administrative and judicial.  Its area of makes it the largest municipality in size in Belgium; it is also the largest in population in Western Hainaut. The municipality of Tournai consists of the former municipalities of Ere, Saint-Maur, Orcq, Esplechin, Froyennes, Froidmont, Willemeau, Ramegnies-Chin, Templeuve, Chercq, Blandain, Hertain, Lamain, Marquain, Gaurain-Ramecroix, Havinnes, Beclers, Thimougies, Barry, Maulde, Vaulx, Vezon, Kain, Melles, Quartes, Rumillies, Mont-Saint-Aubert, Mourcourt and Warchin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "Rocks from the Tournai area date from the Carboniferous Period and have been used to define the Tournaisian Age, a subdivision of the Carboniferous lasting from 359 to 345 million years ago. Tournai stone is a dark limestone which takes a polish and was used particularly in the Romanesque period for sculpted items such as Tournai fonts. It is also hard enough to have been used locally for pavements and kerb-stones. It is sometimes called Tournai marble, though this is geologically inaccurate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Tournai, known as \"Tornacum\", was a place of minor importance in Roman times, a stopping place where the Roman road from Cologne on the Rhine to Boulogne on the coast crossed the river Scheldt. It was fortified under Maximian in the 3rd century AD, when the Roman \"limes\" was withdrawn to the string of outposts along the road. It came into the possession of the Salian Franks in 432. Under king Childeric I, whose tomb was discovered there in 1653, Tournai was the capital of the Frankish empire. In 486, Clovis moved the center of power to Paris. In turn, a native son of Tournai, Eleutherius, became bishop of the newly created bishopric of Tournai, extending over most of the area west of the Scheldt. In 862 Charles the Bald, first king of Western Francia and still to become Holy Roman Emperor, would make Tournai the seat of the County of Flanders.  After the partition of the Frankish empire by the Treaties of Verdun (843) and of Meerssen (870), Tournai remained in the western part of the empire, which in 987 became France. The city participated in 11th-century rise of towns in the Low Countries, with a woollen cloth industry based on English wool, which soon made it attractive to wealthy merchants. An ambitious rebuilding of the cathedral was initiated in 1030. The commune's drive for independence from the local counts succeeded in 1187, and the city was henceforth directly subordinated to the French Crown, as the \"seigneurie de Tournaisis\", as the city's environs are called. The stone over the Scheldt, with defensive towers at either end, was built in 1290, replacing an earlier wooden structure.  During the 15th century, the city's textile trade boomed and it became an important supplier of tapestry. The art of painting flourished too: Jacques Daret, Robert Campin and Rogier van der Weyden all came from Tournai. It was captured in 1513 by Henry VIII of England, making it the only Belgian city ever to have been ruled by England. It was also represented in the 1515 Parliament of England. The city was handed back to French rule in 1519, following the Treaty of London (1518).  In 1521, Emperor Charles V added the city to his possessions in the Low Countries, leading to a period of religious strife and economic decline. During the 16th century, Tournai was a bulwark of Calvinism, but eventually it was conquered by the Spanish governor of the Low Countries, the Duke of Parma, following a prolonged siege in 1581. After the fall of the city, its Protestant inhabitants were given one year to sell their possessions and emigrate, a policy that was at the time considered relatively humane, since very often religious opponents were simply massacred.  One century later, in 1668, the city briefly returned to France under Louis XIV in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. After the end of the War of Spanish Succession in 1713, under terms of the Treaty of Utrecht the former Spanish Netherlands, including Tournai, came into possession of the Austrian Habsburgs. In 1794, France annexed the Austrian Netherlands during the French Revolutionary Wars and Tournai became part of the department of Jemmape. From 1815 on, following the Napoleonic Wars, Tournai formed part of the United Netherlands and after 1830 of newly independent Belgium. Badly damaged in 1940, Tournai has since been carefully restored.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "Tournai is considered to be one of the most important cultural sites in Belgium. The mixed Romanesque- and Gothic-style cathedral of \"Notre Dame de Tournai\" and the belfry, considered the oldest in Belgium, have been designated by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. Inside the cathedral, the \"Châsse de Notre-Dame flamande\", a beautifully ornate 12th-century reliquary, gives witness to Tournai's wealth in the Middle Ages. Other places of interest are the 13th-century Scheldt bridge (\"Pont des Trous\") and the main square (\"Grand Place\"), as well as several old city gates, historic warehouses, and a variety of museums.  On rue Barre-St-Brice are two of the oldest private houses in Europe, dating from between 1175 and 1200 and built in the Romanesque style, while the rue des Jésuites includes a Gothic house from the 13th century.  As in many Belgian cities there are a number of cafés and pubs in the \"Grand Place\". In the middle of the \"Grand Place\" there are a series of water fountains while the circular staircase to the top of the belfry can be climbed.  There are several buildings in the art nouveau style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "A French-speaking Walloon town.", "content": "Tournai is a French-speaking town of Belgium. The local language is \"tournaisien\", a Picard dialect similar to that of other communes of Hainaut and Northern France.  Tournai belongs to Romance Flanders, like Lille, Douai, Tourcoing, and Mouscron. The city of Tournai was one of the greatest cultural and economic centers of the County of Flanders. Some traces can still be seen today:  Although Tournai is in the Flemish cultural area (of the Scheldt), it also possesses some treasures of the Mosan style. Indeed, the two most beautiful shrines of the Cathedral, commissioned by the Bishop of Tournai, were made in the region of Liège by the artist Nicholas of Verdun: the shrines of \"Saint-Eleutherius\" and of \"Our Lady of Flanders\" (13th century). Those shrines testify to the opulence of the towns of Tournai and Liège during the Middle-Ages. The shrine of \"Our Lady of Flanders\" has been called one of the seven wonders of Belgium.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The Faculty of architecture, architectural engineering and urban planning of the University of Louvain (UCLouvain) is located in Tournai.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tournai (, ; (and ) ; ), known in Dutch as Doornik and historically as Dornick in English, is a Walloon municipality of Belgium, southwest of Brussels on the river Scheldt. In the province of Hainaut, Tournai is part of Eurometropolis Lille–Kortrijk–Tournai, which had 2,155,161 residents in 2008.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972030}
{"src_title": "Canton of St. Gallen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The canton of St. Gallen is an artificial construct of various historical territories, defined by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Act of Mediation in 1803. About half of the canton's area corresponds to the acquisitions of the abbey of St. Gallen over centuries.  The city of St. Gallen became independent of the abbey in 1405. At the same time, the abbey lost control of Appenzell. Conversely, the Toggenburg was acquired by the Abbey in 1468.  Both the city and the abbey were associates (\"Zugewandte Orte\") of the Old Swiss Confederacy, but unlike Appenzell never joined as full members.  The territories at Lake Zürich, Walensee and Rheintal remained independent until 1798. In the Helvetic Republic, the northern parts of the modern canton together with Appenzell became the canton of Säntis, while its southern parts together with Glarus became the canton of Linth.  Before the 1798 French invasion, the territory of the modern canton consisted of the free city of St. Gallen, the territories of the Abbey of St. Gallen (including Fürstenland and Toggenburg), the free city of Rapperswil, Pfäfers Abbey, Sargans and the independent lordships (bailiwicks) of Rheintal, Sax-Forstegg, Hohensax, Werdenberg, Windegg and Uznach.  In April 1798, the territories of the later canton of St. Gallen were divided between the cantons of Säntis and Linth of the Helvetic Republic (along with Appenzell, Glarus and parts of Schwyz.  However, the two new Cantons had immediate financial problems and were forced to institute a number of unpopular taxes and laws. The Abbey was secularized on 17 September 1798 and the Prince-Abbot Pankraz Vorster fled to Vienna. The unpopular laws and the closing of the Abbey caused unrest throughout the area. When the War of the Second Coalition broke out in 1799, an Austrian army marched into eastern Switzerland and returned the Prince-Abbot to his throne at the Abbey. However, his victory was short lived. The Austrian and Russian armies were defeated outside Zürich and the French Army returned to St. Gallen driving the Prince-Abbot out.  In 1803, as part of the Act of Mediation, the area joined the Swiss Confederation as the Canton of St. Gallen.  The cantonal constitution of 1803 was revised in 1814. Because of the confessional heterogeneity of the canton's population, the 1814 constitution did unusually organise matters of religion, marriage and education not on a cantonal level but introduced a twofold division (confessional dualism), with separate Protestant and a Catholic assemblies subordinate to the legislative cantonal assembly (Grosser Rat).  The constitution was revised again in 1831, introducing elements of direct democracy. The constitution of 1831 divided the canton into 15 districts (\"Bezirke\"), reduced to 14 in 1918 (fusion of Tablat district with St. Gallen district).  Due to continuing confessional squabbles over the organisation of schools, the canton eventually placed education under its authority in 1861.  The constitution was yet again revised in 1890, with a stronger emphasis on direct democracy.  The 1890 constitution remained in effect, with numerous later changes, until 2001, the date of the latest revision of the cantonal constitution.  In the 2001 constitution, the division into districts was replaced by a division into eight constituencies (\"Wahlkreise\"), effective on 1 January 2003.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The canton is located in the north east of Switzerland. It is bounded to the north by Lake Constance (\"Bodensee\"). To the east lies the Rhine valley. Over the Rhine are Austria (state of Vorarlberg) and Liechtenstein. To the south, the canton of St. Gallen is bounded by the cantons of Graubünden, Glarus and Schwyz. To the west lie the cantons of Zürich and Thurgau.  The two half cantons Appenzell Innerrhoden and Appenzell Ausserrhoden are completely surrounded by lands of the canton of St. Gallen.  The main rivers of the canton are the Rhine, Thur, Linth and Seez. The topography changes from the plains, near river Rhine and Lake Constance, towards the mountainous areas of the Alps in the south (Appenzell Alps and Glarus Alps). About one third () of the canton is wooded, while nearly half is is used for farming. of the farm land is alpine pastures. Of the rest of the canton, is considered unproductive while is filled with housing or roads.  The altitude above the sea-level varies from (the lake of Constance) to (the Ringelspitz). The canton includes portions of the lake of Constance (), of the Walensee (rather over ), and of the lake of Zürich (), and several small lakes wholly within its limits.  The mountains of the canton include part of a thrust fault that was declared a geologic UNESCO world heritage site, under the name Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona, in 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political subdivisions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Constituencies.", "content": "Since 2003 the canton is subdivided into 8 constituencies (\"Wahlkreise\") replacing the districts (\"Bezirke\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Municipalities.", "content": "There are 77 municipalities in the canton ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "88% of the population is German-speaking. The main centres of population are the capital St. Gallen (69,700 inhabitants), Jona (18,100), Wil (17,500) and Gossau (17,000). The majority of the population () is Roman Catholic (52%) while a large minority is Protestant (28%).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Agricultural activity consists predominantly of dairy farming and cattle breeding in the mountainous areas. In the plains fruit and wine production are important, but there is also mixed farming.  Industries of the canton include optical goods, pyrotechnics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals. Tourism plays an important role in the many resorts. There is a thermal spa in Bad Ragaz and another in St. Margrethen and a great number of winter sports facilities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Higher educational institutions include the Hochschule für Technik Rapperswil and the University of St. Gallen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The canton of St. Gallen, also canton of St Gall ( ; dialectally,,, ), is a canton of Switzerland. The capital is St. Gallen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972031}
{"src_title": "Ottokar I of Bohemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Ottokar's parents were Vladislaus II, Duke of Bohemia, and Judith of Thuringia. His early years were passed amid the anarchy that prevailed everywhere in the country. After several military struggles, he was recognized as ruler of Bohemia by Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI in 1192. He was, however, soon overthrown for joining a conspiracy of German princes to bring down the Hohenstaufen dynasty. In 1197, Ottokar forced his brother, Duke Vladislaus III Henry, to abandon Bohemia to him and to content himself with Moravia.  Taking advantage of the civil war in Germany between the Hohenstaufen claimant Philip of Swabia and the Welf candidate Otto IV, Ottokar declared himself King of Bohemia in 1198, being crowned in Mainz. This title was supported by Philip of Swabia, who needed Czech military support against Otto.  In 1199, Ottokar divorced his wife Adelheid of Meissen, a member of the Wettin dynasty, to marry Constance of Hungary, the young daughter of Hungarian King Béla III.  In 1200, with Otto IV in the ascendancy, Ottokar abandoned his pact with Philip of Swabia and declared for the Welf faction. Otto IV and later Pope Innocent III subsequently accepted Ottokar as the hereditary King of Bohemia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Golden Bull of Sicily.", "content": "Ottokar was quickly forced back into Philip's camp by the imperial declaration of a new duke of Bohemia, Děpolt III. Subject to his recognition as duke, Ottokar had to allow his divorced wife to return to Bohemia. Having been completed this condition, he again ranged himself among Philip's partisans and still later was among the supporters of the young King Frederick II. In 1212 Frederick granted the Golden Bull of Sicily to Bohemia. This document recognised Ottokar and his heirs as Kings of Bohemia. The king was no longer subject to appointment by the emperor and was only required to attend Diets close to the Bohemian border. Although a subject of the Holy Roman Empire, the Bohemian king was to be the leading electoral prince of the Holy Roman Empire and to furnish all subsequent emperors with a bodyguard of 300 knights when they went to Rome for their coronation.  Ottokar's reign was also notable for the start of German immigration into Bohemia and the growth of towns in what had until that point been forest lands. In 1226, Ottokar went to war against Duke Leopold VI of Austria after the latter wrecked a deal that would have seen Ottokar's daughter (Saint Agnes of Bohemia) married to Frederick II's son Henry II of Sicily. Ottokar then planned for the same daughter to marry Henry III of England, but this was vetoed by the emperor, who knew Henry to be an opponent of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. The widowed emperor himself wanted to marry Agnes, but by then she did not want to play a role in an arranged marriage. With the help of the pope, she entered a convent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Ottokar was married first in 1178 to Adelheid of Meissen (after 1160 - 2 February 1211), who gave birth to the following children:  In 1199, he married secondly to Constance of Hungary (1181 – 6 December 1240), who gave birth to the following children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ottokar I (; c. 1155 – 1230) was Duke of Bohemia periodically beginning in 1192, then acquired the title King of Bohemia, first in 1198 from Philip of Swabia, later in 1203 from Otto IV of Brunswick and in 1212 from Frederick II. He was a member of the Přemyslid dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972032}
{"src_title": "Wenceslaus III of Bohemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood (1289–1301).", "content": "He was the second son of Wenceslaus II, King of Bohemia and Wenceslaus II's wife, Judith of Habsburg. He was born in Prague on 6 October 1289. His elder brother died before his birth and he was the only son of his parents to survive infancy.  Wenceslaus was still a child when his mother, Judith, died on 18 June 1297. He was betrothed to Elizabeth of Hungary on 12 February 1298. She was the only child of Andrew III of Hungary. Andrew III was the last male member of the House of Árpád, the native royal dynasty of Hungary, but the legitimacy of his rule had not been unanimously acknowledged.  Wenceslaus's father occupied Greater Poland, Kujavia and other regions of Poland in early 1300. After his main opponent, Władysław the Elbow-high, was forced to leave the kingdom, Wenceslaus II was crowned king of Poland in Gniezno in late September 1300. However, Pope Boniface VIII refused to confirm Wenceslaus II's position in Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Hungary and Croatia (1301–1305).", "content": "Andrew III of Hungary died on 14 January 1301, leaving no male heirs. The late king's rival, Charles of Anjou, who was Béla IV of Hungary's great-great-grandson, had regarded himself as the lawful king of Hungary for years. On hearing Andrew III's death, Charles of Anjou hurried to Esztergom where Gregory Bicskei, Archbishop-elect of Esztergom, crowned him king. Being Pope Boniface VIII's candidate for the Hungarian throne, Charles had always been unpopular, because the Hungarian lords feared that they would \"lose their freedom by accepting a king appointed by the Church\", according to the \"Illuminated Chronicle\". Charles's coronation was not performed with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár, as it was required by customary law, but with a provisional crown in Esztergom. Accordingly, the Diet of Hungary declared Charles's coronation invalid on 13 May 1301.  Jan Muskata, Bishop of Cracow, who was Wenceslaus II of Bohemia's advisor, was the first to propose that Wenceslaus II's son and namesake should be elected king of Hungary. The younger Wenceslaus was not only Béla IV of Hungary's great-great-grandson, but also the fiancé of the late Andrew III of Hungary's daughter. Bribed by Wenceslaus II's agents, the majority of the Hungarian lords and prelates decided to offer the crown to the young Wenceslaus and sent a delegation to his father to Bohemia. Wenceslaus II met the Hungarian envoys in Hodonín in August and accepted their offer in his eleven-year-old son's name. Wenceslaus II accompanied his son to Székesfehérvár where John Hont-Pázmány, Archbishop of Kalocsa, crowned the young Wenceslaus king with the Holy Crown on 27 August. Wenceslaus who assumed the name Ladislaus signed all his charters under that name in Hungary.  After Wenceslaus II returned to Bohemia, Jan Muskata became the young king's principal advisor in Hungary. Most lords and prelates accepted the rule of Wenceslaus-Ladislaus. In contrast with their Hungarian peers, the Croatian lords did not acknowledge Wenceslaus-Ladislaus as a lawful king and remained faithful to Charles of Anjou. The latter withdrew to the southern territories of Hungary after Ivan Kőszegi, who was a partisan of Wenceslaus-Ladislaus, captured Esztergom in late August 1301. However, both kings' authority remained nominal because Hungary had meanwhile disintegrated into a dozen provinces, each headed by a powerful lord, or \"oligarch\". The \"Illuminated Chronicle\" writes that the Hungarian lords did not \"grant a castle, or might and power, or royal authority\" either to Wenceslaus-Ladislaus or to Charles of Anjou.  In his letters to Wenceslaus II of Bohemia and Archbishop John of Kalocsa, Pope Boniface VIII emphasized that Wenceslaus-Ladislaus had been crowned without the authorization of the Holy See. The papal legate, Niccolo Boccasini, who came to Hungary in September, started negotiations with the Hungarian prelates to convince them to abandon Wenceslaus-Ladislaus and support Charles of Anjou's case. In an attempt to buy the most powerful lords off, Wenceslaus-Ladislaus granted large estates and high offices to them. Matthew Csák received Nyitra and Trencsén Counties, along with the royal castles and the estates attached to them, in February 1302. Ivan Kőszegi was made Palatine of Hungary before 25 April 1302. In the first half of that year, many prelates (including Stephen, the new Archbishop of Kalocsa) abandoned Wenceslaus-Ladislaus; even Jan Muskata left Hungary.  Taking advantage of the weakened position of his rival, Charles of Anjou attempted to capture Buda, the capital of Wenceslaus-Ladislaus, in September 1302. After laying siege to Buda, Charles of Anjou called upon the burghers to extradite Wenceslaus-Ladislaus. The mainly German citizentry and their major, Werner, remained faithful to the young king and Ivan Kőszegi relieved the city in the same month. After Charles of Anjou withdrew from Buda, the papal legate placed the town under interdict. In response, a local priest excommunicated the pope and all Hungarian prelates. On 31 May 1303, Pope Boniface VIII declared Charles of Anjou the lawful king of Hungary, stating that Wenceslaus-Ladislaus's election had been invalid. Thereafter Albert II of Germany, who was the maternal uncle of both Wenceslaus-Ladislaus and Charles of Anjou, called on Wenceslaus-Ladislaus to withdraw from Hungary.  To strengthen his son's position, Wenceslaus II of Bohemia came to Hungary at the head of a large army in May 1304. He captured Esztergom, but his negotiations with the local lords convinced him that his son's position in Hungary had dramatically weakened. Accordingly, he decided to take Wenceslaus-Ladislaus back to Bohemia. Wenceslaus-Ladislaus did not renounce Hungary and made Ivan Kőszegi governor before leaving for Bohemia in August. He even took the Holy Crown of Hungary with himself to Prague. Charles of Anjou and Rudolf III of Austria invaded Moravia in September, but did not defeat Wenceslaus II's army. In the same months, a member of the Piast dynasty, Władysław the Elbow-high, who had claimed Poland against Wenceslaus II, returned to Poland at the head of Hungarian troops. Before long, he captured many important forts and towns, including Pełczyska, Wiślica, Sandomierz, and Sieradz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Bohemia and Poland (1305–1306).", "content": "Wenceslaus II of Bohemia and Poland died on 21 June 1305. Wenceslaus III succeeded his father in both kingdoms, but his position in Poland was precarious because Władysław the Elbow-high continued his fight for the Polish throne. Wenceslaus realized that he could not preserve his three kingdoms and decided to renounce Hungary. However, instead of acknowledging Charles of Anjou as the lawful king of Hungary, Wenceslaus abandoned his claim to the Hungarian throne in favor of Otto III of Bavaria, who was Béla IV of Hungary's grandson. Wenceslaus handed the Holy Crown of Hungary over to Otto in Brno on 9 October 1305. In the same months, Wenceslaus, who had meanwhile broken his engagement to Elizabeth of Hungary, married Viola of Teschen upon the Bohemian lords' advice.  The sixteen-year-old Wenceslaus led a dissolute life. He was surrounded by a group of young Czech noblemen, to whom he made large land grants. His position in Poland further weakened after Władysław the Elbow-high captured Cracow in early 1306. To forge an alliance against his rival, Wenceslaus granted Gdańsk and Pomorze to Waldemar, Margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal and Herman, Margrave of Brandenburg-Salzwedel as fiefs in July 1306. After deciding to invade Poland, Wenceslaus dismissed his young favorites and made his brother-in-law, Henry of Carinthia, governor. However, Wenceslaus could not invade Poland, because he was stabbed in Olomouc on 4 August 1306. His murder remained an unsolved mystery, because his assassin has not been identified. Wenceslaus was the last king of Bohemia from the native Přemyslid dynasty.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wenceslaus III (,,,, ; 6 October 12894 August 1306) was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1301 and 1305, and King of Bohemia and Poland from 1305. He was the son of Wenceslaus II, King of Bohemia, who was later also crowned king of Poland, and Judith of Habsburg. Still a child, Wenceslaus was betrothed to Elizabeth, the sole daughter of Andrew III of Hungary. After Andrew III's death in early 1301, the majority of the Hungarian lords and prelates elected Wenceslaus king, although Pope Boniface VIII supported another claimant, Charles Robert, a member of the royal house of the Kingdom of Naples.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972033}
{"src_title": "Zander", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and etymology.", "content": "The zander is closely related to perch. Zander are often called pike-perch as they resemble the pike with their elongated body and head, and the perch with their spiny dorsal fin. Zander are not, as is commonly believed, a pike and perch hybrid. In Europe, a second species (\"Sander volgensis\") is limited to rivers in southern Russia and the basin of the Danube. These two species are suspected to hybridize occasionally where they are sympatric, as they produce fertile hybrids in captivity; no natural hybrids are known yet however, and while they are apparently hard to detect, it is suspected that the species are separated by strong prezygotic isolation. It strongly resembles, both in looks and in taste, the closely related American walleye (\"Sander vitreus\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The zander is a common and popular game fish in Europe. It is often eaten, and it may reach of weight, although typical catches are considerably smaller. The IGFA All-Tackle world record zander was caught in Lago Maggiore, Switzerland in June 2016 weighing. Zander reach an average length of with a maximum length of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The zander is very widely distributed across Eurasia, occurring in the drainages of the Caspian, Baltic, Black, Aral, North and Aegean Sea basins. Its northern distribution limit is Finland. It has been introduced to Great Britain, southern Europe, and continental Europe west of the Elbe, Ebro, Tagus and Jucar drainages, as well as to Anatolia, North Africa, Siberia, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan.  Zander inhabit freshwater bodies, preferentially large rivers and eutrophic lakes. They tolerate brackish water and will make use of coastal lakes and estuaries. Individuals living in brackish water habitats migrate upriver (for up to 250 km) for spawning.  In the UK, zander were introduced into the East Anglian fens (large, partly artificial waterways) in the 20th century and spread rapidly, after the release of 97 fingerlings to the Great Ouse Relief Channel in 1963 by the former Great Ouse River Board. British Waterways included zander among a \"dirty dozen\" non-native species most likely to harm native wildlife along rivers in Great Britain.  Their success in establishing themselves is owed to a number of factors, one of which is that they are particularly well adapted to life in the slow-flowing, sparsely vegetated, rather murky waters that comprise so many of the British lowland rivers. Zander thrive in water with rather low visibility, unlike pike, which often dominate the predator fish niche in clear water. However, zander need plenty of oxygen and soon disappear from eutrophic areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use by humans.", "content": "The zander is considered one of the most valuable food fish native to Europe. It is esteemed for its light, firm but tender meat with few bones and a delicate flavour. Although it is not generally bred for food, its adaptability makes zander fishery quite sustainable. Indeed, in some regions release of young zanders is restricted, as natural stocks already provide a sufficient supply for the market, while boosting the population of this large predator would have an adverse effect on the zander's food fishes. Zander is especially well suited for fish fillets. It can also be served whole, baked, smoked or cooked. In some culinary circles, zander is appreciated even more highly than salmon. Even the offals can be cooked into consommé.  In 2004, it was revealed that some restaurants in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area of Minnesota in the United States were serving imported zander instead of the closely related North American walleye (the state fish, and a popular food in the region). While zander and walleye are almost indistinguishable by taste, the restaurants were selling the European fish under the name \"walleye\", which is an illegal practice. An investigation by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration followed.  In Ohio many restaurants were caught using juvenile Zander fillets in the 40 to 80 gram range in place of Lake Erie Yellow Perch. Shortages on the availability of Perch along with skyrocketing prices caused wholesalers and restaurants to use the juvenile Zander also known as Pike Perch fillets.  In Poland, this fish is popular and regarded as a delicacy, but the difficulty in catching it makes it expensive. It is most commonly baked with a trace of butter.  In the Serbian province of Vojvodina, zander has a long tradition in the local cuisine and is considered to be a delicacy. Its usually served baked or fried in a batter along with lemon sauce and potato and onion salad.  In Finland, as a conservation measure, the law regulates the minimum size of zander considered mature enough to be eaten. Zander is popular for its taste and its tendency to be picky with its prey, making it harder to catch than many other fish. Zander also tend to chase their prey before striking. When striking a fishing lure, it fights by pulling backwards, giving the impression that there is a big stone attached to the fishing line. Because the zander is not as good in striking as the pike, it prefers slower, even wounded fish; a lure moving too fast will not catch the zander's attention. On the other hand, anecdotal evidence suggests that zander do not attack lures that are moving too slowly either. In July 2009 in Switzerland, a zander attacked tourists in Lake Maggiore, sending two people to the emergency room; the worst cut inflicted was about 10 centimeters long. The 70-cm 8-kg fish was later caught by the local police who cooked it and offered it to the tourists for the trouble it caused. It is very unusual for zander to attack humans.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The zander (\"Sander lucioperca\") is a species of fish from freshwater and brackish habitats in western Eurasia. It is a popular game fish and has been introduced to a variety of localities outside its native range.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972034}
{"src_title": "Gentoo penguin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The application of \"gentoo\" to the penguin is unclear. \"Gentoo\" was an Anglo-Indian term to distinguish Hindus from Muslims. The English term may have originated from the Portuguese \"gentio\" (\"pagan, gentile\"). Some speculate that the white patch on the bird's head was thought to resemble a turban.  It may also be a variation of another name for this bird, \"Johnny penguin\", \"Johnny\" being in Spanish and sounds vaguely like \"gentoo\". The Johnny rook, a predator, is likely named after the Johnny penguin.  The specific name \"papua\" is a misnomer; in the original description, Johann Reinhold Forster, a naturalist who had circumnavigated the world with Captain James Cook, mistakenly assumed that the species occurred in Papua (New Guinea), the closest gentoos actually being over 6000 km to the south (on Macquarie Island). There are no penguins in New Guinea, however. Others trace the error to a \"possibly fraudulent claim\" in 1776 by French naturalist Pierre Sonnerat, who also alleged a Papuan location for the king penguin despite never having been to the island himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The gentoo penguin is one of three species in the genus \"Pygoscelis\". Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests the genus split from other penguins around 38 million years ago, about 2 million years after the ancestors of the genus \"Aptenodytes\". In turn, the Adelie penguins split off from the other members of the genus around 19 million years ago, and the chinstrap and gentoo finally diverged around 14 million years ago.  Two subspecies of this penguin are recognised: \"Pygoscelis papua papua\" and the smaller \"Pygoscelis papua ellsworthi\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The gentoo penguin is easily recognized by the wide white stripe extending like a bonnet across the top of its head and its bright orange-red bill. It has pale whitish-pink webbed feet and a fairly long tail – the most prominent tail of all penguin species. Chicks have grey backs with white fronts. As the gentoo penguin waddles along on land, its tail sticks out behind, sweeping from side to side, hence the scientific name \"Pygoscelis\", which means \"rump-tailed\". Gentoos reach a height of, making them the third-largest species of penguin after the emperor penguin and the king penguin. Males have a maximum weight of about just before molting, and a minimum weight of about just before mating. For females, the maximum weight is just before molting, but their weight drops to as little as when guarding the chicks in the nest. Birds from the north are on average heavier and taller than the southern birds. Southern gentoo penguins reach in length. They are the fastest underwater swimmers of all penguins, reaching speeds of up to. Gentoos are well adapted to extremely cold and harsh climates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "The breeding colonies of gentoo penguins are located on ice-free surfaces. Colonies can be directly on the shoreline or can be located considerably inland. They prefer shallow coastal areas and often nest between tufts of grass. In South Georgia, for example, breeding colonies are 2 km inland. Whereas in colonies farther inland, where the penguins nest in grassy areas, they shift location slightly every year because the grass will become trampled over time.  Gentoos breed on many sub-Antarctic islands. The main colonies are on the Falkland Islands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, and Kerguelen Islands; smaller colonies are found on Macquarie Island, Heard Islands, Crozet Islands, South Shetland Islands, and the Antarctic Peninsula. The total breeding population is estimated to be over 600,000 birds. Gentoos breed monogamously, and infidelity is typically punished with banishment from the colony. Nests are usually made from a roughly circular pile of stones and can be quite large, high and in diameter. The stones are jealously guarded and their ownership can be the subject of noisy disputes and physical attacks between individuals. They are also prized by the females, even to the point that a male penguin can obtain the favors of a female by offering her a choice stone.  Two eggs are laid, both weighing around. The parents share incubation, changing duty daily. The eggs hatch after 34 to 36 days. The chicks remain in the nests for around 30 days before joining other chicks in the colony and forming crèches. The chicks molt into subadult plumage and go out to sea at around 80 to 100 days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Gentoos live mainly on crustaceans, such as krill, with fish making up only about 15% of the diet. However, they are opportunistic feeders, and around the Falklands are known to take roughly equal proportions of fish (\"Patagonotothen\" sp., \"Thysanopsetta naresi\", \"Micromesistius australis\"), squat lobsters (Munida gregaria), and squid (\"Loligo gahi\", \"Gonatus antarcticus\", \"Moroteuthis ingens\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physiology.", "content": "The gentoos' diet is high in salt as they eat organisms with relatively the same salinity as sea water, and this can lead to complications associated with high sodium concentrations in the body, especially for gentoo chicks. To counteract this, gentoos as well as many other marine bird species have a highly developed salt gland located above their eyes that takes the high concentration of sodium within the body and produces a highly saline-concentrated solution that drips out of the body from the tip of the beak.  Gentoo penguins do not store as much fat as the Adelie penguin, their closest relative: gentoos require less energy investment when hunting because the net gain of energy after hunting is greater in gentoos than Adelies. As embryos, gentoos require a lot of energy in order to develop. Oxygen consumption is high for a developing gentoo embryo. As the embryo grows and requires more oxygen, the amount of consumption increases exponentially until the gentoo chick hatches. By then, the chick is consuming around 1800 mL O per day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Predators.", "content": "In the sea, leopard seals, sea lions, and killer whales are all predators of the gentoo. On land, no predators of full-grown healthy gentoo penguins exist. Skuas and giant petrels regularly kill many chicks and steal eggs; Petrels will kill injured and sick adult gentoos. Various other seabirds, such as the kelp gull and snowy sheathbill, will also snatch chicks and eggs. Skuas on King George Island have been observed attacking and injuring adult gentoo penguins in apparent territorial disputes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": ", the IUCN Red List lists the gentoo as least concern, although rapid declines in some key areas are believed to be driving a moderate overall decline in the species population. Examples include Bird Island, South Georgia, where the population has fallen by two-thirds over 25 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "The Linux distribution Gentoo Linux is named after the Gentoo penguin. This is a nod to the fact that the penguin is the fastest swimming penguin, as Gentoo Linux aims to be a high performance operating system.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The gentoo penguin ( ) (\"Pygoscelis papua\") is a penguin species in the genus \"Pygoscelis\", most closely related to the Adélie penguin (\"P. adeliae\") and the chinstrap penguin (\"P. antarcticus\"). The earliest scientific description was made in 1781 by Johann Reinhold Forster with a type locality in the Falkland Islands. They call in a variety of ways, but the most frequently heard is a loud trumpeting which the bird emits with its head thrown back.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972035}
{"src_title": "Basic English", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design principles.", "content": "Ogden tried to simplify English while keeping it normal for native speakers, by specifying grammar restrictions and a controlled small vocabulary which makes an extensive use of paraphrasing. Most notably, Ogden allowed only 18 verbs, which he called \"operators\". His \"General Introduction\" says \"There are no'verbs' in Basic English\", with the underlying assumption that, as noun use in English is very straightforward but verb use/conjugation is not, the elimination of verbs would be a welcome simplification.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Word lists.", "content": "Ogden's word lists include only word roots, which in practice are extended with the defined set of affixes and the full set of forms allowed for any available word (noun, pronoun, or the limited set of verbs). The 850 core words of Basic English are found in Wiktionary's Basic English word list. This core is theoretically enough for everyday life. However, Ogden prescribed that any student should learn an additional 150-word list for everyday work in some particular field, by adding a list of 100 words particularly useful in a general field (e.g., science, verse, business, etc.), along with a 50-word list from a more specialised subset of that general field, to make a basic 1000-word vocabulary for everyday work and life.  Moreover, Ogden assumed that any student already should be familiar with (and thus may only review) a core subset of around 200 \"international\" words. Therefore, a first-level student should graduate with a core vocabulary of around 1200 words. A realistic general core vocabulary could contain around 2000 words (the core 850 words, plus 200 international words, and 1000 words for the general fields of trade, economics, and science). It is enough for a \"standard\" English level. This 2000 word vocabulary represents \"what any learner should know\". At this level students could start to move on their own.  Ogden's and Voice of America's serve as dictionaries for the Simple English Wikipedia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rules.", "content": "Basic English includes a simple grammar for modifying or combining its 850 words to talk about additional meanings (morphological derivation or inflection). The grammar is based on English, but is much simpler.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Like all international auxiliary languages (or IALs), Basic English may be criticised as inevitably based on personal preferences, and thus, paradoxically, inherently divisive. Moreover, like all natural language based IALs, Basic is subject to criticism as unfairly biased towards the native speaker community.  As a teaching aid for English as a Second Language, Basic English has been criticised for the choice of the core vocabulary and for its grammatical constraints.  In 1944, readability expert Rudolf Flesch published an article in \"Harper's Magazine\", \"How Basic is Basic English?\" in which he claimed, \"It's not basic, and it's not English.\" The essence of his complaint is that the vocabulary is too restricted, and, as a result, the text ends up being awkward and more difficult than necessary. He also argues that the words in the Basic vocabulary were arbitrarily selected, and notes that there had been no empirical studies showing that it made language simpler.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary references.", "content": "In the novel \"The Shape of Things to Come\", published in 1933, H. G. Wells depicted Basic English as the lingua franca of a new elite that after a prolonged struggle succeeds in uniting the world and establishing a totalitarian world government. In the future world of Wells' vision, virtually all members of humanity know this language.  From 1942 to 1944 George Orwell was a proponent of Basic English, but in 1945 he became critical of universal languages. Basic English later inspired his use of Newspeak in \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\".  Evelyn Waugh criticized his own 1945 novel \"Brideshead Revisited\", which he had previously called his magnum opus, in the preface of the 1959 reprint: \"It <nowiki>[</nowiki>World War II<nowiki>]</nowiki> was a bleak period of present privation and threatening disaster—the period of soya beans and Basic English—and in consequence the book is infused with a kind of gluttony, for food and wine, for the splendours of the recent past, and for rhetorical and ornamental language that now, with a full stomach, I find distasteful.\"  In his story \"Gulf\", science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein used a constructed language called Speedtalk, in which every Basic English word is replaced with a single phoneme, as an appropriate means of communication for a race of genius supermen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Basic English is an English-based controlled language created by linguist and philosopher Charles Kay Ogden as an international auxiliary language, and as an aid for teaching English as a second language. Basic English is, in essence, a simplified subset of regular English. It was presented in Ogden's book \"Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar\" (1930). The first work on Basic English was written by two Englishmen, Ivor Richards, University of Harvard, and C.K. Ogden, of Cambridge University, England, working in association.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972036}
{"src_title": "Bartolomeu Dias", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical setting and purposes of the Dias expedition.", "content": "Bartolomeu Dias was a squire of the royal court, superintendent of the royal warehouses, and sailing-master of the man-of-war \"São Cristóvão\" (Saint Christopher). Very little is known of his early life. King John II of Portugal appointed him, on 10 October 1486, to head an expedition to sail around the southern tip of Africa in the hope of finding a trade route to India. Dias was also charged with searching for the lands ruled by Prester John, a fabled Christian priest and ruler of territory somewhere beyond Europe. He left 10 months later in August 1487. In the previous decades Portuguese mariners, most famously Prince Henry the Navigator (whose contribution was more as a patron and sponsor of voyages of discovery than as a sailor), had explored the areas of the Atlantic Ocean off Southern Europe and Western Africa as far as the Cape Verde Islands and modern-day Sierra Leone, and had gained sufficient knowledge of oceanic shipping and wind patterns to enable subsequent voyages of greater distance. In the early 1480s Diogo Cão in two voyages (he died towards the end of the second) had explored the mouth of the Congo River and sailed south of the Equator to present-day Angola and Namibia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Journey.", "content": "\"São Cristóvão\" was piloted by Pêro de Alenquer. A second caravel, the \"São Pantaleão\", was commanded by João Infante and piloted by Álvaro Martins. Dias's brother Pêro Dias was the captain of the square-rigged support ship with João de Santiago as pilot.  The expedition sailed down the west coast of Africa; provisions were picked up on the way at the Portuguese fortress of São Jorge de Mina on the Gold Coast. After sailing south of modern-day Angola, Dias reached the Golfo da Conceicão (Walvis Bay, in modern Namibia) by December. Continuing south, he discovered Angra dos Ilheus, then was hit by a violent storm. Thirteen days later, from the open ocean, he searched the coast again to the east, discovering and using the westerlies winds—the ocean gyre, but finding just ocean. Having rounded the Cape of Good Hope at a considerable distance to the west and southwest, he turned east, and taking advantage of the winds of Antarctica that blow strongly in the South Atlantic, sailed northeast. After 30 days without seeing land, he entered what he named Aguada de São Brás (Bay of Saint Blaise)—later renamed Mossel Bay—on 4 February 1488. Dias's expedition reached its furthest point on 12 March 1488 when it anchored at Kwaaihoek, near the mouth of the Boesmans River, where a padrão—the Padrão de São Gregório—was erected before turning back. Dias wanted to continue to India, but he was forced to turn back when his crew refused to go further and the rest of the officers unanimously favoured returning to Portugal. It was only on the return voyage that he actually discovered the Cape of Good Hope, in May 1488. Dias returned to Lisbon in December of that year, after an absence of 16 months and 17 days.  The discovery of the passage around southern Africa was significant because, for the first time, Europeans could trade directly with India and the Far East, bypassing the overland Euro-Asian route with its expensive European, Middle Eastern and Central Asian middlemen. The official report of the expedition has been lost.  Dias originally named the Cape of Good Hope the Cape of Storms (\"Cabo das Tormentas\"). It was later renamed (by King John II of Portugal) the Cape of Good Hope (\"Cabo da Boa Esperança\") because it represented the opening of a route to the east.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Follow-up voyages.", "content": "After these early attempts, the Portuguese took a decade-long break from Indian Ocean exploration. During that hiatus, it is likely that they received valuable information from a secret agent, Pêro da Covilhã, who had been sent overland to India and returned with reports useful to their navigators.  Using his experience with explorative travel, Dias helped in the construction of the \"São Gabriel\" and its sister ship the \"São Rafael\" that were used in 1498 by Vasco da Gama to sail past the Cape of Good Hope and continue to India. Dias only participated in the first leg of Da Gama's voyage, until the Cape Verde Islands. Two years later he was one of the captains of the second Indian expedition, headed by Pedro Álvares Cabral. This flotilla first reached the coast of Brazil, landing there in 1500, and then continued east to India. Dias perished near the Cape of Good Hope that he presciently had named \"Cape of Storms\". Four ships, including Dias's, encountered a huge storm off the cape and were lost on 29 May 1500. A shipwreck found in 2008 by the Namdeb Diamond Corporation off Namibia was at first thought to be Dias's ship, but recovered coins come from a later time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Dias was married and had two children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bartolomeu Dias (; ; Anglicized: Bartholomew Diaz; c. 1450 – 29 May 1500), a nobleman of the Portuguese royal household, was a Portuguese explorer. He sailed around the southernmost tip of Africa in 1488, the first European to do so, setting up the route from Europe to Asia later on. Dias is the first European during the Age of Discovery to anchor at what is present-day South Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972037}
{"src_title": "Thomas Bach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Thomas Bach was born in 1953 in Würzburg, West Germany. He grew up in Tauberbischofsheim, where he lived with his parents until 1977. Bach earned a doctor of law (Dr. iur. utr.) degree in 1983 from the University of Würzburg. He speaks fluent French, English, Spanish and German.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fencing career.", "content": "Bach is a former foil fencer who competed for West Germany. He won a team gold medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics, as well as silver, gold, and bronze team medals at the 1973, 1977 and 1979 world championships, respectively.  On 11 November 2017, Bach became the first Olympian formally granted the use of the post-nominal letters \"OLY\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "DOSB presidency.", "content": "Bach served as the President of the German Olympic Sports Confederation (DOSB), prior to becoming President of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). He resigned as the head of the DOSB on 16 September 2013, having served as President since 2006. He was replaced by Alfons Hörmann, and remained a member of the DOSB Executive Board. Additionally, he resigned as the head of Ghorfa Arab-German Chamber of Commerce and Industry. Bach will however continue to serve as the head of Michael Weinig AG Company, a company in the industrial woodworking machinery industry that has its headquarters in Bach's hometown of Tauberbischofsheim, Germany  Bach headed Munich's bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics. In the host city election, Munich secured 25 votes as Pyeongchang was elected as host city with 63 votes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "IOC presidency.", "content": "On 9 May 2013, Bach confirmed that he would run for President of the International Olympic Committee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2013 IOC Presidential Election.", "content": "Bach was elected to an eight-year term as IOC President at the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires on 10 September 2013. He secured 49 votes in the final round of voting, giving him the majority needed to be elected. He succeeds Jacques Rogge who served as IOC President from 2001 to 2013. Bach will be eligible to run for second six-year term at the 134th IOC Session in 2019 until 2025.  Bach's successful election came against five other candidates, Sergey Bubka, Richard Carrión, Ng Ser Miang, Denis Oswald and Wu Ching-Kuo. The result of the election was as follows:  Bach officially moved into the IOC presidential office at the IOC headquarters in Lausanne, Switzerland, on 17 September 2013, a week after being elected President.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Olympic Agenda 2020.", "content": "Following his election as IOC President, Bach stated that he wished to change the Olympic bidding process and make sustainable development a priority. He stated that he felt that the current bidding process asks \"too much, too early\". These proposed reforms became known as Olympic Agenda 2020. These forty proposed reforms were all unanimously approved at the 127th IOC Session in Monaco.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Olympic Host City elections.", "content": "The first bidding process over which Thomas Bach presided over as President was the bidding process for the 2022 Winter Olympics. Bids were due in November 2013 and the host city, Beijing was elected to host the 2022 Winter Olympics at the 128th IOC Session in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in July 2015. Lausanne was elected to host the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics during that same session.  During the bidding process for the 2024 Summer Olympics, President Bach proposed a joint awarding of the 2024 and 2028 Summer Olympics after several bidders withdrew. The IOC later approved a plan to award the 2024 Olympics to Paris with Los Angeles securing the right to host the 2028 Olympics. President Bach presided over the election of Paris was elected to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and Los Angeles was elected to host the 2028 Summer Olympics at the 131st IOC Session in Lima, Peru where both cities were unanimously elected.  Milan-Cortina d'Ampezzo was elected to host the 2026 Winter Olympics at the 134th IOC Session in Lausanne, Switzerland. The full IOC membership will elect the host city at the 134th IOC Session in Lausanne, home of the International Olympic Committee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Russian doping.", "content": "One of the biggest challenges President Bach has been faced with as IOC President is having to deal with Russia's state-sponsored doping scandal. This program did begin prior to his presidency, but nonetheless it has become a pressing issue during his tenure. It had been discovered that Russia tampered with the anti-doping lab at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi and that the government had sanctioned doping amongst the Russian Olympic athletes for many years. Speaking at the Opening Ceremonies of the 2018 Winter Olympics, his call to \"respect the rules and stay clean\" was widely interpreted as a reference to the Russian scandal. Bach was harshly criticized for what many see as turning a blind-eye to Russia's state-sponsored Olympic doping effort. Jim Walden, attorney for Dr. Grigory Rodchenkov, called Bach's move to reinstate the Russian Olympic Committee following the 2018 Winter Olympics despite the failed drug tests during the Games, \"weakness in the face of evil\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "COVID-19 pandemic.", "content": "On 5 March 2020 Bloomberg News reported that Bach said \"Neither the word ‘cancellation’ nor the word ‘postponement’ was even mentioned\" regarding the 2020 Summer Olympics to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic at the IOC’s executive board meeting the previous day. On 22 March 2020, the IOC announced that within four weeks a decision would be made on whether Tokyo 2020 will be staged as planned or whether a rescheduling is necessary. Canada announced its withdrawal from the Games later that day, and Australia did the same on 23 March.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Marina Hyde admonished Thomas Bach in \"The Guardian\" for comparing the IOC positively to FIFA with regard to corruption. Also in \"The Guardian\", Owen Gibson accused Bach of hypocrisy for agreeing to be involved with the 2015 European Games hosted in Azerbaijan. Twenty-nine journalists signed an open letter to Bach calling for him to condemn Azerbaijan's jailing of dissenters and attacks on freedom of expression.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas Bach, (born 29 December 1953) is a German lawyer and former Olympic fencer. Bach is the ninth and current President of the International Olympic Committee, and a former member of the German Olympic Sports Confederation Executive Board.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972038}
{"src_title": "Chasuble", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The chasuble originated as a sort of conical poncho, called in Latin a or \"little house\", that was the common outer traveling garment in the late Roman Empire. It was simply a roughly oval piece of cloth, with a round hole in the middle through which to pass the head, that fell below the knees on all sides. It had to be gathered up on the arms to allow the arms to be used freely.  In its liturgical use in the West, this garment was folded up from the sides to leave the hands free. Strings were sometimes used to assist in this task, and the deacon could help the priest in folding up the sides of the vestment. Beginning in the 13th century, there was a tendency to shorten the sides a little. In the course of the 15th and the following century, the chasuble took something like its modern form, in which the sides of the vestment no longer reach to the ankle but only, at most, to the wrist, making folding unnecessary.  At the end of the sixteenth century the chasuble, though still quite ample and covering part of the arms, had become less similar to its traditional shape than to that which prevailed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when the chasuble was reduced to a broad scapular, leaving the whole of the arms quite free, and was shortened also in front and back. Additionally, to make it easier for the priest to join his hands when wearing a chasuble of stiff (lined and heavily embroidered) material, in these later centuries the front was often cut away further, giving it the distinctive shape often called \"fiddleback\". Complex decoration schemes were often used on chasubles of scapular form, especially the back, incorporating the image of the Christian cross or of a saint; and rich materials such as silk, cloth of gold or brocade were employed, especially in chasubles reserved for major celebrations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current usage.", "content": "In the 20th century, there began to be a return to an earlier, more ample, form of the chasuble, sometimes called \"Gothic\", as distinguished from the \"Roman\" scapular form. This aroused some opposition, as a result of which the Sacred Congregation of Rites issued on 9 December 1925 a decree against it, \"De forma paramentorum\" which it explicitly revoked with the declaration \"Circa dubium de forma paramentorum\" of 20 August 1957, leaving the matter to the prudent judgement of local Ordinaries. There exists a photograph of Pope Pius XI wearing the more ample chasuble while celebrating Mass in Saint Peter's Basilica as early as 19 March 1930.  After the Second Vatican Council, the more ample form became the most usually seen form of the chasuble, and the directions of the GIRM quoted above indicate that \"it is fitting\" that the beauty should come \"not from abundance of overly lavish ornamentation, but rather from the material that is used and from the design. Ornamentation on vestments should, moreover, consist of figures, that is, of images or symbols, that evoke sacred use, avoiding thereby anything unbecoming\" (n. 344). Hence, the prevalence today of chasubles that reach almost to the ankles, and to the wrists, and decorated with relatively simple symbols or bands and orphreys. By comparison, \"fiddleback\" vestments were often extremely heavily embroidered or painted with detailed decorations or whole scenes depicted.  Use of scapular \"Roman\" chasubles, whether with straight edges or in \"fiddleback\" form, is sometimes associated with traditionalism. However, some priests prefer them simply on grounds of taste and comfort, while for similar reasons some traditionalist priests prefer ampler chasubles of less stiff material.  Pope Benedict XVI sometimes used chasubles of the transitional style common at the end of the 16th century.  In the Slavic tradition, though not in the Greek, the phelonion, the Byzantine Rite vestment that corresponds to the chasuble, is cut away from the front and not from the sides, making it look somewhat like the western cope.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Catholicism.", "content": "Called in Latin \"casula\", \"planeta\" or \"pænula\", and in early Gallic sources \"amphibalus\". The chasuble is the principal and most conspicuous Mass vestment, covering all the rest. It is described in prayer as the \"yoke of Christ\" and said to represent charity. Nearly all ecclesiologists are now agreed that liturgical costume was simply an adaptation of the secular attire commonly worn throughout the Roman Empire in the early Christian centuries. The priest in discharging his sacred functions at the altar was dressed as in civil life, but the custom probably grew up of reserving for this purpose garments that were newer and cleaner than those used in his daily ministry, and out of this gradually developed the conception of a special liturgical attire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Protestantism.", "content": "Many, but not all, Lutheran and Anglican churches make use of the chasuble.  The chasuble has always been used by the Lutheran denominations of Scandinavia, although in earlier times its use was not directly connected to the communion. German Lutherans used it for the first two hundred years after the Reformation but later replaced it with the Geneva Gown. A variety of practices emerged in North America but by the mid-20th century, the alb and stole became widely customary. More recently, the chasuble has been readopted for Communion services in both Germany and North America.  It is the stole, not the chasuble, that is the priestly vestment. The chasuble was never used by low-church Anglicans and rarely used by high-church Anglicans until the Oxford Movement in the 19th century, and even then not until the second generation of the Oxford Movement.  It is not customary and rarely seen in Protestantism outside of the liturgical churches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In Oscar Wilde's 1895 play \"The Importance of Being Earnest\", Dr. Chasuble is a clergyman who, in the 2002 film adaptation, is seen wearing his namesake vestment.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The chasuble () is the outermost liturgical vestment worn by clergy for the celebration of the Eucharist in Western-tradition Christian churches that use full vestments, primarily in Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches. In the Eastern Orthodox Churches and in the Eastern Catholic Churches, the equivalent vestment is the phelonion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972039}
{"src_title": "Reich Labour Service", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Foundation.", "content": "In the course of the Great Depression, the German government of the Weimar Republic under Chancellor Heinrich Brüning by emergency decree had established the \"Freiwilliger Arbeitsdienst\" ('Voluntary Labour Service', FAD), on 5 June 1931, two years before the Nazi Party (NSDAP) ascended to national power. The state sponsored employment organisation provided services to civic and land improvement projects, from 16 July 1932 it was headed by Friedrich Syrup in the official rank of a \"Reichskommissar\". As the name stated, participating was voluntary as long as the Weimar Republic existed.  The concept was adopted by Adolf Hitler, who upon the Nazi seizure of power in 1933 appointed Konstantin Hierl state secretary in the Reich Ministry of Labour, responsible for FAD matters. Hierl was already a high-ranking member of the NSDAP and head of the party's labour organisation, the \"Nationalsozialistischer Arbeitsdienst\" or NSAD. Hierl developed the concept of a state labour service organisation similar to the \"Reichswehr\" army, with a view to implementing a compulsory service. Meant as an evasion of the regulations set by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, voluntariness initially was maintained after protests by the Geneva World Disarmament Conference.  Hierl's rivalry with Labour Minister Franz Seldte led to the affiliation of his office as a FAD \"Reichskommissar\" with the Interior Ministry under his party fellow Wilhelm Frick. On 11 July 1934, the NSAD was renamed \"Reichsarbeitsdienst\" or RAD with Hierl as its director until the end of World War II. By law issued on 26 June 1935, the RAD was re-established as an amalgamation of the many prior labour organisations formed in Germany during the Weimar Republic, with Hierl appointed as Reich Labour Leader (\"Reichsarbeitsführer\") according to the \"Führerprinzip\". With massive financial support by the German government, RAD members were to provide service for mainly military and to a lesser extent civic and agricultural construction projects. Per Reich Labor Service Act of June 26, 1935 \"(1) The Reich Labor Service is an honorary service to the German people.(2) All young Germans of both sexes are obliged to serve their people in the Reich Labor Service.(3) The Reich Labor Service is to educate the German youth in the spirit of National Socialism to the national community and to the true working attitude, above all to the due respect of manual labor.(4) The Reich Labor Service is intended for the performance of charitable work.[...]", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organisation.", "content": "The RAD was divided into two major sections, one for men (\"Reichsarbeitsdienst Männer - RAD/M\") and the voluntary, from 1939 compulsory, section for young women (\"Reichsarbeitsdienst der weiblichen Jugend - RAD/wJ\").  The RAD was composed of 33 districts each called an \"Arbeitsgau\" (lit. Work District) similar to the \"Gaue\" subdivisions of the Nazi Party. Each of these districts was headed by an \"Arbeitsgauführer\" officer with headquarters staff and a \"Wachkompanie\" (Guard Company). Under each district were between six and eight \"Arbeitsgruppen\" (Work Groups), battalion-sized formations of 1200–1800 men. These groups were divided into six company-sized RAD-Abteilung units.  Conscripted personnel had to move into labour barracks. Each rank and file RAD man was supplied with a spade and a bicycle. A paramilitary uniform was implemented in 1934; beside the swastika brassard, the RAD symbol, an arm badge in the shape of an upward pointing shovel blade, was displayed on the upper left shoulder of all uniforms and great-coats worn by all personnel. Men and women had to work up to 76 hours a week.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War.", "content": "The RAD was classed as \"Wehrmachtgefolge\" (lit. Defence Force Following). Auxiliary forces with this status, while not a part of the Armed Forces themselves, provided such vital support that they were given protection by the Geneva Convention. Some, including the RAD, were militarised.  Just prior to the outbreak of World War II, nearly all the RAD/M's extant RAD-Abteilung units were either incorporated into the Heer's \"Bautruppen\" (Construction troops) as an expedient to rapidly increase their numbers or else in a few cases transferred to the Luftwaffe to form the basis of new wartime construction units for that service. New units were quickly formed to replace them.  During the early war Norwegian and Western campaigns, hundreds of RAD units were engaged in supplying frontline troops with food and ammunition, repairing damaged roads and constructing and repairing airstrips. Throughout the course of the war, the RAD were involved in many projects. The RAD units constructed coastal fortifications (many RAD men worked on the Atlantic Wall), laid minefields, manned fortifications, and even helped guard vital locations and prisoners. The role of the RAD was not limited to combat support functions. Hundreds of RAD units received training as anti-aircraft units and were deployed as RAD Flak Batteries. Several RAD units also performed combat on the eastern front as infantry. As the German defences were devastated, more and more RAD men were committed to combat. During the final months of the war RAD men formed 6 major frontline units, which were involved with serious fighting. On the western front RAD troops were used as reinforcements to the 9th SS Engineer Abt (SS-Captain Moeller) in the fighting to retake the northern end of the Arnhem bridge from British Paratroopers under Col. Frost. This action was during Operation Market-Garden in September 1944. It was noted that the RAD troops had no combat experience. SS-Captain Moeller's report concluded: \"These men were rather skeptical and reluctant at the beginning, which was hardly surprising. But when they were put in the right place they helped us a lot; and in time they integrated completely, becoming good and reliable comrades.\" Losses for these troops were in the hundreds.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Reich Labour Service (\"Reichsarbeitsdienst\"; RAD) was a major organisation established in Nazi Germany as an agency to help mitigate the effects of unemployment on the German economy, militarise the workforce and indoctrinate it with Nazi ideology. It was the official state labour service, divided into separate sections for men and women.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972040}
{"src_title": "Chinstrap penguin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "This species was originally given the scientific name \"Aptenodytes antarctica\" by Johann Reinhold Forster in 1781, thereby placing it in the same genus as the king and emperor penguins. In 1990, Graham Turbott transferred this species into the genus \"Pygoscelis\", together with the Adélie and gentoo penguins. This gave it the new name \"P. antarctica\". However, this is an orthographic error due to the disagreement in Latin grammar between \"antarctica\" and its assigned genus. The corrected form, \"P. antarcticus\", is the currently accepted name for this species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The chinstrap penguin grows to a length of and a weight of, with the weight varying with the time of year. Males are greater in weight and height than females.  The adult chinstrap's flippers are black with a white edge; the inner sides of the flippers are white. The face is white extending behind the eyes, which are reddish brown; the chin and throat are white, as well, while the short bill is black. The strong legs and the webbed feet are pink. Its short, stumpy legs give it a distinct waddle when it walks. The chinstrap penguin's black back and white underside provide camouflage in the form of countershading when viewed from above or below, helping to avoid detection by its predators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Chinstrap penguins have a circumpolar distribution. They breed in Antarctica, Argentina, Bouvet Island, Chile, the Falkland Islands, the French Southern Territories, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Vagrant individuals have been found in New Zealand, the islands of Saint Helena and Tristan da Cunha, and South Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The diet of the chinstrap penguin consists of small fish, krill, shrimp, and squid, for which they swim up to offshore each day to obtain. The chinstrap penguin's tightly packed feathers provide a waterproof coat, enabling it to swim in freezing waters. Additionally, thick blubber deposits and intricate blood vessels in the flippers and legs assist in the preservation of heat.  The main predator of the chinstrap penguin at sea is the leopard seal (\"Hydrurga leptonyx\"). Every year, the leopard seal causes the chinstraps population to decrease by about 5% to 20%. On land, the brown skua (\"Stercorarius antarcticus\"), south polar skua (\"Stercorarius maccormicki\"), and southern giant petrel (\"Macronectes giganteus\") are the primary predators of the penguin. These three species most often prey on eggs and young chinstrap penguins. The Antarctic fur seal is also known to occasionally kill chinstrap penguins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "On land, they build circular nests from stones, and lay two eggs, which are incubated by both the male and the female for shifts around 6 days each. The chicks hatch after around 37 days, and have fluffy grey backs and white fronts. The chicks stay in the nest for 20–30 days before they go to join other chicks in a crèche. Around 50–60 days old, they moult, gaining their adult feathers and go to sea.  Chinstrap penguins are generally considered to be the most aggressive and ill-tempered species of penguin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roy and Silo.", "content": "In 2004, two male chinstrap penguins named Roy and Silo in Central Park Zoo, New York City, formed a pair bond and took turns trying to \"hatch\" a rock, for which a keeper eventually substituted a fertile egg, and the pair subsequently hatched and raised the chick. Penguins by nature hatch eggs and are social creatures. The children's book \"And Tango Makes Three\" was written based on this event.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "The global population of the chinstrap penguins is estimated to be at least eight million. Although it is believed to be decreasing overall, its population is not severely fragmented and in many sites it is increasing or stable.  The chinstrap penguin is primarily threatened by climate change. In several parts of its range, climate change decreases the abundance of krill, which likely makes reproduction less successful. For instance, a 2019 expedition to breeding grounds on Elephant Island show a fifty percent population decline in just under fifty years. Other potential threats include volcanic events and the fishing of krill by humans. Several conservation actions are taking place for this species. Multiple areas where it lives are being monitored for long periods. Conservation actions proposed for the future include more monitoring and researching of its population, range, and behavior. It is listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List as of 2016, due to its large range and population, following five previous assessments of the same status from 2004 to 2012 and three assessments as \"unknown\" from 1988 to 2000.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The chinstrap penguin (\"Pygoscelis antarcticus\") is a species of penguin that inhabits a variety of islands and shores in the Southern Pacific and the Antarctic Oceans. Its name stems from the narrow black band under its head, which makes it appear as if it were wearing a black helmet, making it easy to identify. Other common names include ringed penguin, bearded penguin, and stonecracker penguin, due to its loud, harsh call.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972041}
{"src_title": "Clover", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Several species of clover are extensively cultivated as fodder plants. The most widely cultivated clovers are white clover, \"Trifolium repens\", and red clover, \"Trifolium pratense\". Clover, either sown alone or in mixture with ryegrass, has for a long time formed a staple crop for silaging, for several reasons: it grows freely, shooting up again after repeated mowings; it produces an abundant crop; it is palatable to and nutritious for livestock; it fixes nitrogen, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers; it grows in a great range of soils and climates; and it is appropriate for either pasturage or green composting.  In many areas, particularly on acidic soil, clover is short-lived because of a combination of insect pests, diseases and nutrient balance; this is known as \"clover sickness\". When crop rotations are managed so that clover does not recur at intervals shorter than eight years, it grows with much of its pristine vigor.  Clovers are most efficiently pollinated by bumblebees, which have declined as a result of agricultural intensification. Honeybees can also pollinate clover, and beekeepers are often in heavy demand from farmers with clover pastures. Farmers reap the benefits of increased reseeding that occurs with increased bee activity, which means that future clover yields remain abundant. Beekeepers benefit from the clover bloom, as clover is one of the main nectar sources for honeybees.  \"Trifolium repens\", white or Dutch clover, is a perennial abundant in meadows and good pastures. The flowers are white or pinkish, becoming brown and deflexed as the corolla fades. \"Trifolium hybridum\", alsike or Swedish clover, is a perennial which was introduced early in the 19th century and has now become naturalized in Britain. The flowers are white or rosy, and resemble those of \"Trifolium repens\". \"Trifolium medium\", meadow or zigzag clover, a perennial with straggling flexuous stems and rose-purple flowers, has potential for interbreeding with \"T. pratense\" to produce perennial crop plants.  Other species are: \"Trifolium arvense\", hare's-foot trefoil; found in fields and dry pastures, a soft hairy plant with minute white or pale pink flowers and feathery sepals; \"Trifolium fragiferum\", strawberry clover, with globose, rose-purple heads and swollen calyxes; \"Trifolium campestre\", hop trefoil, on dry pastures and roadsides, the heads of pale yellow flowers suggesting miniature hops; and the somewhat similar \"Trifolium dubium\", common in pastures and roadsides, with smaller heads and small yellow flowers turning dark brown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolism.", "content": "Shamrock, the traditional Irish symbol, which according to legend was coined by Saint Patrick for the Holy Trinity, is commonly associated with clover, although alternatively sometimes with the various species within the genus \"Oxalis\", which are also trifoliate.  Clovers occasionally have four leaflets, instead of the usual three. These four-leaf clovers, like other rarities, are considered lucky. Clovers can also have five, six, or more leaflets, but these are rarer still. The record for most leaflets is 56, set on 10 May 2009. This beat the \"21-leaf clover\", a record set in June 2008 by the same discoverer, who had also held the prior Guinness World Record of 18.  A common idiom is \"to be (or to live) in clover\", meaning to live a carefree life of ease, comfort, or prosperity.  The cloverleaf interchange is named for the resemblance to the leaflets of a (four-leaf) clover when viewed from the air.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "The first extensive classification of \"Trifolium\" was done by Zohary and Heller in 1984. They divided the genus into eight sections: \"Lotoidea, Paramesus, Mistyllus, Vesicamridula, Chronosemium, Trifolium, Trichoecephalum,\" and \"Involucrarium,\" with \"Lotoidea\" placed most basally. Within this classification system, \"Trifolium repens\" falls within section \"Lotoidea\", the largest and least heterogeneous section. \"Lotoidea\" contains species from America, Africa, and Eurasia, considered a clade because of their inflorescence shape, floral structure, and legume that protrudes from the calyx. However, these traits are not unique to the section, and are shared with many other species in other sections. Zohary and Heller argued that the presence of these traits in other sections proved the basal position of \"Lotoidea\", because they were ancestral. Aside from considering this section basal, they did not propose relationships between other sections. Since then, molecular data has both questioned and confirmed the proposed phylogeny from Zohary and Heller. A genus-wide molecular study has since proposed a new classification system, made up of two subgenera, \"Chronosemium\" and \"Trifolium.\" This recent reclassification further divides subgenus \"Trifolium\" into eight sections. The molecular data supports the monophyletic nature of three sections proposed by Zohary and Heller (\"Tripholium, Paramesus,\" and \"Trichoecepalum\"), but not of \"Lotoidea\" (members of this section have since been reclassified into five other sections). Other molecular studies, although smaller, support the need to reorganize \"Lotoidea.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected species.", "content": "The genus \"Trifolium\" currently has 245 recognized species:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clover or trefoil are common names for plants of the genus Trifolium (Latin, \"tres\" \"three\" + \"folium\" \"leaf\"), consisting of about 300 species of flowering plants in the legume or pea family Fabaceae. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution with highest diversity in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, but many species also occur in South America and Africa, including at high altitudes on mountains in the tropics. They are small annual, biennial, or short-lived perennial herbaceous plants. Clover can be evergreen. The leaves are trifoliate (rarely quatrefoiled; see four-leaf clover), cinquefoil, or septfoil, with stipules adnate to the leaf-stalk, and heads or dense spikes of small red, purple, white, or yellow flowers; the small, few-seeded pods are enclosed in the calyx. Other closely related genera often called clovers include \"Melilotus\" (sweet clover) and \"Medicago\" (alfalfa or Calvary clover).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972042}
{"src_title": "Soissons", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Soissons enters written history under its Celtic name (as later borrowed in Latin), Noviodunum, meaning \"new hillfort\". At Roman contact, it was a town of the Suessiones, mentioned by Julius Caesar (\"B. G.\" ii. 12). Caesar (\"B.C.\" 57), after leaving the Axona (modern Aisne), entered the territory of the Suessiones, and making one day's long march, reached Noviodunum, which was surrounded by a high wall and a broad ditch. The place surrendered to Caesar.  From 457 to 486, under Aegidius and his son Syagrius, Noviodunum was the capital of the Kingdom of Soissons, until it fell to the Frankish king Clovis I in 486 after the Battle of Soissons.  Part of the Frankish territory of Neustria, the Soissons region, and the Abbey of Saint-Médard, founded in the 6th century, played an important political part during the rule of the Merovingian kings (A.D. 447–751). After the death of Clovis I in 511, Soissons was made the capital of one of the four kingdoms into which his states were divided. Eventually, the kingdom of Soissons disappeared in 613 when the Frankish lands were amalgamated under Chlothar II.  The 744 Council of Soissons met at the instigation of Pepin the Short and Saint Boniface, the Pope's missionary to pagan Germany, secured the condemnation of the Frankish bishop Adalbert and the Irish missionary Clement.  During the Hundred Years' War, French forces committed a notorious massacre of English archers stationed at the town's garrison, in which many of the French townsfolk were themselves raped and killed. The massacre of French citizens by French soldiers shocked Europe; Henry V of England, noting that the town of Soissons was dedicated to the saints Crispin and Crispinian, claimed to avenge the honour of the saints when he met the French forces at the Battle of Agincourt on Saint Crispin's Day 1415. The town was liberated by French troops under the command of Joan of Arc on July 23, 1429.  Between June 1728 and July 1729 it hosted the Congress of Soissons an attempt to resolve a long-standing series of disputes between the Kingdom of Great Britain and Spain which had spilled over into the Anglo-Spanish War of 1727–1729. The Congress was largely successful and led to the signing of a peace treaty between them.  During World War I, the city came under heavy bombardment. There was mutiny after the disastrous \"Chemin des Dames\" offensive at the Second Battle of the Aisne. A statue erected with images of French soldiers killed in action in 1917 is behind the St Peter's Church, next to the Soissons Courthouse. The town was on the main path of totality for the solar eclipse of August 11, 1999.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "Today, Soissons is a commercial and manufacturing centre with the 12th century Soissons Cathedral and the ruins of St. Jean des Vignes Abbey as two of its most important historical buildings. The nearby Espace Pierres Folles contains a museum, geological trail, and botanical garden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cathedral.", "content": "The Cathédrale Saint-Gervais-et-Saint-Protais de Soissons is constructed in the style of Gothic architecture. The building of the south transept was begun about 1177, and the lowest courses of the choir in 1182. The choir with its original three-storey elevation and extremely tall clerestory was completed in 1211. This was earlier than Chartres, on which the design was supposed to have been based. Work then continued into the nave until the late 13th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Abbey of Notre Dame.", "content": "The former abbey of Notre Dame, former royal abbey, founded in the Merovingian era, famous for its rich treasure of relics, including the \"shoe of the Virgin.\" The abbey was prestigious abbesses like Gisèle, sister of Charlemagne, or Catherine de Bourbon, aunt of Henry IV.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Saint-Médard Abbey.", "content": "The Saint-Médard Abbey was a Benedictine monastery of Soissons whose foundation went back to the sixth century. Today, only the crypt remains.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hôtel de ville.", "content": "Since 1833 the city hall has been housed in a chateau built by architect Jean-François Advyné between 1772 and 1775 at the request of the Intendant Pelletier Mortefontaine on the site of a previous one belonging to the counts of Soissons.  Arsenal: contemporary art exhibitions. UK Monument (1914–1918)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "La passerelle des Anglais Bridge.", "content": "The Gateway Anglais Bridge is a concrete casson built cantilevered from an abutment against-weight with an isostatic central beam of 20.50 m in length. The floor has a width of 3.50 m between railings. The original bridge was destroyed in 1914. It was rebuilt by British soldiers, and logically took the name of the English bridge. Again destroyed during World War II, the bridge was rebuilt in 1950 as a footbridge. The covered market, built in 1908 by architect Albert-Désiré Guilbert (1866–1949).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Soissons () is a commune in the northern French department of Aisne, in the region of Hauts-de-France. Located on the Aisne River, about northeast of Paris, it is one of the most ancient towns of France, and is probably the ancient capital of the Suessiones. Soissons is also the see of an ancient Roman Catholic diocese, whose establishment dates from about 300, and it was the location of a number of church synods called \"Council of Soissons\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972043}
{"src_title": "Salekhard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The settlement of Obdorsk () was founded in 1595, in the place of a Khanty settlement called Polnovat-Vozh (), by Russian settlers after the conquest of Siberia. It was situated on the Ob River, and its name supposedly derives from that. The land around Obdorsk was referred to as Obdorsky krai, or Obdoriya.  The town was often used as a place of exile during the Tsarist and Soviet periods. Among notable people who spent time here were the Doukhobor spiritual leader Pyotr Verigin and Leon Trotsky. The town and nearby area contained three Soviet camps where approximately 6,500 prisoners were held, arrested for their belief in God. At the port of Salekhard, approximately 1,500 prisoners loaded and unloaded goods at the dock, or mined metal ores. About 5,000 prisoners in two camps near Salekhard were assigned to polish diamonds mined from Mir mine.  On December 10, 1930, Obdorsk became the administrative centre of the new Yamal (Nenets) National Okrug. The settlement was renamed Salekhard (from the Nenets \"salja' harad\", meaning \"house on the peninsula\") in 1933, and granted town status in 1938.  The nearest railway station is at Labytnangi on the opposite side of the river Ob. From 1949 to 1953, the Salekhard-Igarka Railway project made an unsuccessful attempt to extend the line to Igarka, claiming the lives of thousands of Gulag prisoners. The section of railway from Salekhard to Nadym was completed and remained in use for some time in the Soviet era, although it was later abandoned. It is currently being rebuilt, along with a long-awaited bridge across the Ob between Labytnangi and Salekhard.  Salekhard was the host city for the 2006 Arctic Council Ministerial Meeting in October 2006.  In April 2014, Rostelecom, a Russian Internet service provider, completed the final stretch of the Nadym-Salekhard optical internet line. That same line stretches for almost 3,500 km (2175 mi).  In summer 2016, after temperatures as high as thawed anthrax infected corpses frozen since 1941 near Salekhard, anthrax spores infected reindeer herds and herders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with one rural locality, incorporated as the town of okrug significance of Salekhard—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the town of okrug significance of Salekhard is incorporated as Salekhard Urban Okrug.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Yamal Airlines has its head office in Salekhard.  By 2015, about from the airport, near the Arctic circle, authorities plan to build a large polar resort \"Center of the Arctic tourism.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Salekhard is located in the Ob river valley and is an important river port of the Russian Far North. The unfinished Salekhard–Igarka Railway was set to provide a rail connection between the Ob river port of Salekhard and the Yenisei river port of Igarka. Currently, the nearest railway is at Labytnangi (on the Salekhard–Igarka Railway), 20 kilometres (12 miles) north-west on the opposite side of the river Ob. The project Northern Latitudinal Railway will provide Salekhard access to railway and a long-awaited bridge across the Ob between Labytnangi and Salekhard, and will further connect Salekhard to the Konosha-Vorkuta railway and other parts of European Russia. For 9–10 months of year, the river is frozen and cars and trucks can cross via the river ice. In the summer a ferry operates, however during the floating of ice, generally shortly before the start and shortly after the end of summer, Salekhard is effectively cut off from the outside world, regarding freight. During these periods, only helicopters are able to reach Salekhard in case of emergency. Native people, mainly the Nenets and Khanty people, always build up stocks of food at home, in the shops, and in the markets during this period, but they still suffer from seasonal price increasing. The city is also served by the Salekhard Airport which is located 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) north of the main city.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Salekhard has a subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification \"Dfc\") with short, mild summers and severely cold winters. Precipitation is moderate, and is significantly greater in summer than in winter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Salekhard is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Salekhard (; Khanty:, \"Pułñawat\";, \"Salja’ harad\") is a city in Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Russia, serving as the okrug's administrative centre. It crosses the Arctic Circle, the main parts being about south and suburbs stretching to the north of the circle. Population:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972044}
{"src_title": "Fence", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "By function.", "content": "A balustrade or railing is a fence to prevent people from falling over an edge, most commonly found on a stairway, landing, or balcony. Railing systems and balustrades are also used along roofs, bridges, cliffs, pits, and bodies of water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legal issues.", "content": "In most developed areas the use of fencing is regulated, variously in commercial, residential, and agricultural areas. Height, material, setback, and aesthetic issues are among the considerations subject to regulation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Required use.", "content": "The following types of areas or facilities often are required by law to be fenced in, for safety and security reasons:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Servitudes are legal arrangements of land use arising out of private agreements. Under the feudal system, most land in England was cultivated in common fields, where peasants were allocated strips of arable land that were used to support the needs of the local village or manor. By the sixteenth century the growth of population and prosperity provided incentives for landowners to use their land in more profitable ways, dispossessing the peasantry. Common fields were aggregated and enclosed by large and enterprising farmers—either through negotiation among one another or by lease from the landlord—to maximize the productivity of the available land and contain livestock. Fences redefined the means by which land is used, resulting in the modern law of servitudes.  In the United States, the earliest settlers claimed land by simply fencing it in. Later, as the American government formed, unsettled land became technically owned by the government and programs to register land ownership developed, usually making raw land available for low prices or for free, if the owner improved the property, including the construction of fences. However, the remaining vast tracts of unsettled land were often used as a commons, or, in the American West, \"open range\" as degradation of habitat developed due to overgrazing and a tragedy of the commons situation arose, common areas began to either be allocated to individual landowners via mechanisms such as the Homestead Act and Desert Land Act and fenced in, or, if kept in public hands, leased to individual users for limited purposes, with fences built to separate tracts of public and private land.  Ownership of a fence on a boundary varies. The last relevant original title deed(s) and a completed seller's property information form may document which side has to put up and has installed any fence respectively; the first using \"T\" marks/symbols (the side with the \"T\" denotes the owner); the latter by a ticked box to the best of the last owner's belief with no duty, as the conventionally agreed conveyancing process stresses, to make any detailed, protracted enquiry. Commonly the mesh or panelling is in mid-position. Otherwise it tends to be on non-owner's side so the fence owner might access the posts when repairs are needed but this is not a legal requirement. Where estate planners wish to entrench privacy a close-boarded fence or equivalent well-maintained hedge of a minimum height may be stipulated by deed. Beyond a standard height planning permission is necessary.  Where a rural fence or hedge has (or in some cases had) an adjacent ditch, the ditch is normally in the same ownership as the hedge or fence, with the ownership boundary being the edge of the ditch furthest from the fence or hedge. The principle of this rule is that an owner digging a boundary ditch will normally dig it up to the very edge of their land, and must then pile the spoil on their own side of the ditch to avoid trespassing on their neighbour. They may then erect a fence or hedge on the spoil, leaving the ditch on its far side. Exceptions exist in law, for example where a plot of land derives from subdivision of a larger one along the centre line of a previously-existing ditch or other feature, particularly where reinforced by historic parcel numbers with acreages beneath which were used to tally up a total for administrative units not to confirm the actual size of holdings, a rare instance where Ordnance Survey maps often provide more than circumstantial evidence namely as to which feature is to be considered the boundary.  On private land in the United Kingdom, it is the landowner's responsibility to fence their livestock in. Conversely, for common land, it is the surrounding landowners' duty to fence the common's livestock out such as in large parts of the New Forest. Large commons with livestock roaming have been greatly reduced by 18th and 19th century Acts for enclosure of commons covering most local units, with most remaining such land in the UK's National Parks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Distinctly different land ownership and fencing patterns arose in the eastern and western United States. Original fence laws on the east coast were based on the British common law system, and rapidly increasing population quickly resulted in laws requiring livestock to be fenced in. In the west, land ownership patterns and policies reflected a strong influence of Spanish law and tradition, plus the vast land area involved made extensive fencing impractical until mandated by a growing population and conflicts between landowners. The \"open range\" tradition of requiring landowners to fence out unwanted livestock was dominant in most of the rural west until very late in the 20th century, and even today, a few isolated regions of the west still have open range statutes on the books. More recently, fences are generally constructed on the surveyed property line as precisely as possible. Today, across the nation, each state is free to develop its own laws regarding fences. In many cases for both rural and urban property owners, the laws were designed to require adjacent landowners to share the responsibility for maintaining a common boundary fenceline. Today, however, only 22 states have retained that provision.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural value of fences.", "content": "The value of fences and the metaphorical significance of a fence, both positive and negative, has been extensively utilized throughout western culture. A few examples include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A fence is a structure that encloses an area, typically outdoors, and is usually constructed from posts that are connected by boards, wire, rails or netting. A fence differs from a wall in not having a solid foundation along its whole length.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972045}
{"src_title": "Thutmose IV", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Thutmose IV was born to Amenhotep II and Tiaa but was not actually the crown prince and Amenhotep II's chosen successor to the throne. Some scholars speculate that Thutmose ousted his older brother in order to usurp power and then commissioned the \"Dream Stele\" in order to justify his unexpected kingship. Thutmose's most celebrated accomplishment was the restoration of the Sphinx at Giza and subsequent commission of the \"Dream Stele\". According to Thutmose's account on the \"Dream Stele\", while the young prince was out on a hunting trip, he stopped to rest under the head of the Sphinx, which was buried up to the neck in sand. He soon fell asleep and had a dream in which the Sphinx told him that if he cleared away the sand and restored it he would become the next Pharaoh. After completing the restoration of the Sphinx, he placed a carved stone tablet, now known as the \"Dream Stele\", between the two paws of the Sphinx. The restoration of the Sphinx, and the text of the \"Dream Stele\" would then be a piece of propaganda on Thutmose's part, meant to bestow legitimacy upon his unexpected kingship. Little is known about his brief ten-year rule. He suppressed a minor uprising in Nubia in his 8th year (attested in his Konosso stela) around 1393 BC and was referred to in a stela as the \"Conqueror of Syria\", but little else has been pieced together about his military exploits. Betsy Bryan, who penned a biography of Thutmose IV, says that Thutmose IV's Konosso stela appears to refer to a minor desert patrol action on the part of the king's forces to protect certain gold-mine routes in Egypt's Eastern Desert from occasional attacks by the Nubians. Thutmose IV's rule is significant because he established peaceful relations with Mitanni and married a Mitannian princess to seal this new alliance. Thutmose IV's role in initiating contact with Egypt's former rival, Mitanni, is documented by Amarna letter EA 29 composed decades later by Tushratta, a Mittanian king who ruled during the reign of Akhenaten, Thutmose IV's grandson. Tushratta states to Akhenaten that:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dates and length of reign.", "content": "Dating the beginning of the reign of Thutmose IV is difficult to do with certainty because he is several generations removed from the astronomical dates which are usually used to calculate Egyptian chronologies, and the debate over the proper interpretation of these observances has not been settled. Thutmose's grandfather Thutmose III almost certainly acceded the throne in either 1504 or 1479, based upon two lunar observances during his reign, and ruled for nearly 54 years. His successor Amenhotep II, Thutmose IV's father, took the throne and ruled for at least 26 years but has been assigned up to 35 years in some chronological reconstructions. The currently preferred reconstruction, after analyzing all this evidence, usually comes to an accession date around 1401 BC or 1400 BC for the beginning of Thutmose IV's reign.  The length of his reign is not as clear as one would wish. He is usually given about nine or ten years of reign. Manetho credits him a reign of 9 years and 8 months. However, Manetho's other figures for the 18th Dynasty are frequently assigned to the wrong kings or simply incorrect, so monumental evidence is also used to determine his reign length. Of all of Thutmose IV's dated monuments, three date to his first regnal year, one to his fourth, possibly one to his fifth, one to his sixth, two to his seventh, and one to his eighth. Two other dated objects, one dated to a Year 19 and another year 20, have been suggested as possibly belonging to him, but neither have been accepted as dating to his reign. The readings of the king's name in these dates are today accepted as referring to the prenomen of Thutmose III—Menkheperre—and not Menkhepe[ru]re Thutmose IV himself. Due to the absence of higher dates for Thutmose IV after his Year 8 Konosso stela, Manetho's figures here are usually accepted. There were once chronological reconstructions which gave him a reign as long as 34–35 years. Today, however, most scholars ascribe him a 10-year reign from 1401 to 1391 BC, within a small margin of error.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monuments.", "content": "Like most of the Thutmoside kings, he built on a grand scale. Thutmose IV completed the eastern obelisk at the Temple of Karnak started by Thutmose III, which, at, was the tallest obelisk ever erected in Egypt. Thutmose IV called it the \"tekhen waty\" or 'unique obelisk.' It was transported to the grounds of the Circus Maximus in Rome by Emperor Constantius II in 357 AD and, later, \"re-erected by Pope Sixtus V in 1588 at the Piazza San Giovanni\" where it is today known as the 'Lateran Obelisk.'  Thutmose IV also built a unique chapel and peristyle hall against the back or eastern walls of the main Karnak temple building. The chapel was intended for people \"who had no right of access to the main [Karnak] temple. It was a 'place of the ear' for the god Amun where the god could hear the prayers of the townspeople.\" This small alabaster chapel and peristyle hall of Thutmose IV has today been carefully restored by French scholars from the \"Centre Franco-Egyptien D'Étude des Temple de Karnak\" (CFEETK) mission in Karnak.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Burial and mummy.", "content": "Thutmose IV was buried in tomb KV43 the Valley of the Kings but his body was later moved to the mummy cache in KV35, where it was discovered by Victor Loret in 1898. An examination of his mummy conducted by Grafton Elliot Smith revealed that he was an extremely emaciated at the time of his death. His height was given as but considering that the feet have been broken off post-mortem, his height in life would have been taller. The forearms are crossed over the chest, right over left. His hair, which is parted in the middle, is about long and dark reddish-brown. His ears are also pierced. Elliot Smith estimated his age to be 25–28 years or possibly older. He was succeeded to the throne by his son, Amenhotep III.  Recently a surgeon at Imperial College London analysed the early death of Thutmose IV and the premature deaths of other Eighteenth Dynasty pharaohs (including Tutankhamun and Akhenaten). He concludes that their early deaths were likely as a result of a familial temporal epilepsy. This would account for both the untimely death of Thutmose IV and also his religious vision described on the Dream Stele, due to this type of epilepsy's association with intense spiritual visions and religiosity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thutmose IV (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis IV, Thothmes in older history works in Latinized Greek; Ancient Egyptian: /\"ḏḥwty.ms\"/ Djehutymes, meaning \"Thoth is born\") was the 8th Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt, who ruled in approximately the 14th century BC. His prenomen or royal name, Menkheperure, means \"Established in forms is Re.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972046}
{"src_title": "Economic policy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types of economic policy.", "content": "Almost every aspect of government has an important economic component. A few examples of the kinds of economic policies that exist include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Macroeconomic stabilization policy.", "content": "Stabilization policy attempts to stimulate an economy out of recession or constrain the money supply to prevent excessive inflation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tools and goals.", "content": "Policy is generally directed to achieve particular objectives, like targets for inflation, unemployment, or economic growth. Sometimes other objectives, like military spending or nationalization are important.  These are referred to as the policy goals: the outcomes which the economic policy aims to achieve.  To achieve these goals, governments use policy tools which are under the control of the government. These generally include the interest rate and money supply, tax and government spending, tariffs, exchange rates, labor market regulations, and many other aspects of government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selecting tools and goals.", "content": "Government and central banks are limited in the number of goals they can achieve in the short term. For instance, there may be pressure on the government to reduce inflation, reduce unemployment, and reduce interest rates while maintaining currency stability. If all of these are selected as goals for the short term, then policy is likely to be incoherent, because a normal consequence of reducing inflation and maintaining currency stability is increasing unemployment and increasing interest rates.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demand-side vs. supply-side tools.", "content": "This dilemma can in part be resolved by using microeconomic supply-side policy to help adjust markets. For instance, unemployment could potentially be reduced by altering laws relating to trade unions or unemployment insurance, as well as by macroeconomic (demand-side) factors like interest rates.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discretionary policy vs policy rules.", "content": "For much of the 20th century, governments adopted discretionary policies like demand management designed to correct the business cycle. These typically used fiscal and monetary policy to adjust inflation, output and unemployment.  However, following the stagflation of the 1970s, policymakers began to be attracted to policy rules.  A discretionary policy is supported because it allows policymakers to respond quickly to events. However, discretionary policy can be subject to dynamic inconsistency: a government may say it intends to raise interest rates indefinitely to bring inflation under control, but then relax its stance later. This makes policy non-credible and ultimately ineffective.  A rule-based policy can be more credible, because it is more transparent and easier to anticipate. Examples of rule-based policies are fixed exchange rates, interest rate rules, the stability and growth pact and the Golden Rule. Some policy rules can be imposed by external bodies, for instance the Exchange Rate Mechanism for currency.  A compromise between strict discretionary and strict rule-based policy is to grant discretionary power to an independent body. For instance, the Federal Reserve Bank, European Central Bank, Bank of England and Reserve Bank of Australia all set interest rates without government interference, but do not adopt rules.  Another type of non-discretionary policy is a set of policies which are imposed by an international body. This can occur (for example) as a result of intervention by the International Monetary Fund.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic policy through history.", "content": "The first economic problem was how to gain the resources it needed to be able to perform the functions of an early government: the military, roads and other projects like building the Pyramids.  Early governments generally relied on tax in kind and forced labor for their economic resources. However, with the development of money came the first policy choice. A government could raise money through taxing its citizens. However, it could now also debase the coinage and so increase the money supply.  Early civilizations also made decisions about whether to permit and how to tax trade. Some early civilizations, such as Ptolemaic Egypt adopted a closed currency policy whereby foreign merchants had to exchange their coin for local money. This effectively levied a very high tariff on foreign trade.  By the early modern age, more policy choices had been developed. There was considerable debate about mercantilism and other restrictive trade practices like the Navigation Acts, as trade policy became associated with both national wealth and with foreign and colonial policy.  Throughout the 19th Century, monetary standards became an important issue. Gold and silver were in supply in different proportions. Which metal was adopted influenced the wealth of different groups in society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The first fiscal policy.", "content": "With the accumulation of private capital in the Renaissance, states developed methods of financing deficits without debasing their coin. The development of capital markets meant that a government could borrow money to finance war or expansion while causing less economic hardship.  This was the beginning of modern fiscal policy.  The same markets made it easy for private entities to raise bonds or sell stock to fund private initiatives.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Business cycles.", "content": "The business cycle became a predominant issue in the 19th century, as it became clear that industrial output, employment, and profit behaved in a cyclical manner. One of the first proposed policy solutions to the problem came with the work of Keynes, who proposed that fiscal policy could be used actively to ward off depressions, recessions and slumps. The Austrian School of economics argues that central banks create the business cycle. After the dominance of monetarismry and neoclassical thought that advised limiting the role of government in the economy in the second half of the twentieth century, the interventionist view has once more dominated the economic policy debate in response to the 2007-2008 financial crisis,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evidence-based policy.", "content": "A recent trend originating from medicine is to justify economic policy decisions with best available evidence. While the previous approaches have been focused on macroeconomic policymaking aimed at sustaining promoting economic development and counteracting recessions, EBP is oriented towards all types of decisions concerned not only with anti-cyclical development but primarily with the growth-promoting policies. To gather evidence for such decisions, economists conduct randomized field experiments. The work of Banerjee, Duflo, and Kremer, the 2019 Noble Prize laureates exemplifies the gold type of evidence. However, the emphasis put on experimental evidence by the movement of evidence-based policy (and evidence-based medicine) results from the narrowly construed notion of intervention, which encompasses only policy decisions concerned with policymaking aimed at modifying causes to influence effects. In contrast to this idealized view of evidence-based policy movement, economic policymaking is a broader term that includes also institutional reforms and actions that do not require causal claims to be neutral under interventions. Such policy decisions can be grounded in, respectively, mechanistic evidence and correlational (econometric) studies.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The economic policy of governments covers the systems for setting levels of taxation, government budgets, the money supply and interest rates as well as the labour market, national ownership, and many other areas of government interventions into the economy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972047}
{"src_title": "Neoboletus luridiformis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "In 1796 Christian Hendrik Persoon described \"Boletus erythropus\", deriving its specific name from the Greek \"ερυθρος\" (\"red\") and \"πους\" (\"foot\"), referring to its red-coloured stalk. During the next 200 years or so, this name was used extensively for the species which is the subject of this article, and which (as well as a red stalk) has red pores. Recently it was discovered however that Persoon's mushroom had orange pores, and was a different species (actually thought to be \"Suillellus queletii\"). So the use of this name for the red-pored mushroom was invalid.  In 1844 Friedrich Wilhelm Gottlieb Rostkovius independently defined the red-pored species under the name \"Boletus luridiformis\". That is now the first valid description of the taxon and is the basis of the current name (the basionym). The significance of the epithet \"luridiformis\" is that it is similar to the previously known fungus \"Boletus luridus\" (now \"Suillellus luridus\").  Genetic analysis published in 2013 showed that \"B. luridiformis\" and many (but not all) red-pored boletes were part of a \"dupainii\" clade (named for \"Boletus dupainii\"), well-removed from the core group of \"Boletus edulis\" and relatives within the Boletineae. This indicated that it needed to be placed in a new genus. It became the type species of the new genus \"Neoboletus\" in 2014.  To avoid confusion, the name \"Boletus erythropus\" should now be avoided if possible (though in theory it still has a legimate meaning as whatever species Persoon originally intended). It is not a valid synonym of \"Neoboletus luridiformis\", and that can be indicated by using the term \"sensu auct.\" in place of the author name (that is, \"Boletus erythropus\" \"sensu auct.\" = \"Neoboletus luridiformis\" (Rostk.) Gelardi, Simonini & Vizzini).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Neoboletus luridiformis is a large solid fungus with a bay-brown hemispherical to convex cap that can grow up to wide, and is quite felty initially. It has small orange-red pores that become rusty with age, and bruise blue to black. The tubes are yellowish-green, and become blue quickly on cutting. The fat, colourful, densely red-dotted yellow stem is 4–12 cm (2–5 in) high, and has no network pattern (reticulation). The flesh stains dark blue when bruised; broken, or cut. There is little smell. The spore dust is olive greenish-brown.  The similar \"Suillellus luridus\" has a network pattern on the stem, and seems to prefer chalky soil. \"Rubroboletus satanas\" also has a stem network, but a very-pale whitish cap. \"Rubroboletus pulcherrimus\" has a reticulate stipe, and is larger in size.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The fungus is common in Europe, growing in deciduous or coniferous woodland in summer and autumn. It is often found in the same places as \"Boletus edulis\". It is also widely distributed in North America, and is especially common under spruce in its range from Northern California to Alaska. In Eastern North America it grows with both soft, and hardwood trees. It seems to prefer acid soils.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity and edibility.", "content": "Mild tasting, \"Neoboletus luridiformis\" is edible after longer cooking (some literature recommends 20 minutes). It is commonly collected in several European countries.  When raw or insufficiently cooked it can cause gastric upset, for the same reason it is not recommended for drying. Caution is advised as it resembles other less edible blue-staining boletes, and should thus be avoided by novice mushroom hunters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Neoboletus luridiformis, also previously known as Boletus luridiformis and (invalidly) as Boletus erythropus, is a fungus of the bolete family, all of which produce mushrooms with tubes and pores beneath their caps. It is found in Northern Europe and North America, and is commonly known as the scarletina bolete, for its red pores (yellow when young).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972048}
{"src_title": "Korsakoff syndrome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "There are seven major symptoms of alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome (amnestic-confabulatory syndrome):  Benon R. and LeHuché R. (1920) described the characteristic signs of alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome with some additional features including: confabulation (false memories), fixation amnesia, paragnosia or false recognition of places, mental excitation, and euphoria.  Thiamine is essential for the decarboxylation of pyruvate, and deficiency during this metabolic process is thought to cause damage to the medial thalamus and mammillary bodies of the posterior hypothalamus, as well as generalized cerebral atrophy. These brain regions are all parts of the limbic system, which is heavily involved in emotion and memory.  AKS involves neuronal loss, that is, damage to neurons; gliosis, which is a result of damage to supporting cells of the central nervous system, and hemorrhage or bleeding also occurs in mammillary bodies. Damage to the medial dorsal nucleus or anterior group of the thalamus (limbic-specific nuclei) is also associated with this disorder. Cortical dysfunction may have arisen from thiamine deficiency, alcohol neurotoxicity, and/or structural damage in the diencephalon.  Originally, it was thought that a lack of initiative and a flat affect were important characteristics of emotional presentation in sufferers. Studies have questioned this, proposing that neither is necessarily a symptom of AKS. Research suggesting that Korsakoff patients are emotionally unimpaired has made this a controversial topic. It can be argued that apathy, which usually characterizes Korsakoff patients, reflects a deficit of emotional \"expressions\", without affecting the \"experience\" or perception of emotion.  AKS causes deficits in declarative memory in most patients, but leaves implicit spatial, verbal, and procedural memory functioning intact. People with AKS have deficits in the processing of contextual information. Context memories refers to the where and when of experiences, and is an essential part of recollection. The ability to store and retrieve this information, such as spatial location or temporal order information, is impaired. Research has also suggested that Korsakoff patients have impaired executive functions, which can lead to behavioral problems and interfere with daily activities. It is unclear, however, which executive functions are affected most. Nonetheless, IQ is usually not affected by the brain damage associated with Korsakoff's syndrome.  At first it was thought that AKS patients used confabulation to fill in memory gaps. However, it has been found that confabulation and amnesia do not necessarily co-occur. Studies have shown that there is dissociation between provoked confabulation, spontaneous confabulation (which is unprovoked), and false memories. That is, patients could be led to believe certain things had happened which actually had not, but so could people without alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Causes.", "content": "Conditions resulting in thiamine deficiency and its effects include chronic alcoholism and severe malnutrition. Alcoholism may co-occur with poor nutrition, which in addition to inflammation of the stomach lining, causes thiamine deficiency. Other causes include dietary deficiencies, prolonged vomiting, eating disorders, and the effects of chemotherapy. It can also occur in pregnant women who have a form of extreme morning sickness known as hyperemesis gravidarum. Mercury poisoning can also lead to Korsakoff's syndrome. Though it does not always co-occur, this disorder can emerge frequently as a consequential result of Wernicke's encephalopathy.  PET scans show that there is a decrease of glucose metabolism in the frontal, parietal and cingulated regions of the brain in Korsakoff's patients. This may contribute to memory loss and amnesia. Structural neuroimaging has also shown the presence of midline diencephalic lesions and cortical atrophy.  Structural lesions of the central nervous system, though rare, can also contribute to symptoms of AKS. Severe damage to the medial dorsal nucleus inevitably results in memory deficit. Additionally, autopsies of patients with AKS have showed lesions in both the midline and anterior thalamus, and thalamic infarctions. Bilateral infarctions to the thalamus can result in Korsakoff-induced amnesia as well. These findings imply damage to anterior thalamic nuclei can result in disruptive memory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Risk factors.", "content": "A number of factors may increase a person's risk to develop alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome. These factors are often related to patients’ general health and their food intake habits.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "AKS is primarily a clinical diagnosis; imaging and lab tests are not necessary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prevention.", "content": "The most effective method of preventing AKS is to avoid B vitamin/thiamine deficiency. In Western nations, the most common causes of such a deficiency are alcoholism and eating disorders. Because these are behavioral-induced causes, alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome is essentially considered a preventable disease. Thus, fortifying foods with thiamine, or requiring companies that sell alcoholic beverages to supplement them with B vitamins in general or thiamine in particular, could avert many cases of AKS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "It was once assumed that anyone suffering from AKS would eventually need full-time care. This is still often the case, but rehabilitation can help regain some, albeit often limited, level of independence. Treatment involves the replacement or supplementation of thiamine by intravenous (IV) or intramuscular (IM) injection, together with proper nutrition and hydration. However, the amnesia and brain damage caused by the disease does not always respond to thiamine replacement therapy. In some cases, drug therapy is recommended. Treatment of the patient typically requires taking thiamine orally for 3 to 12 months, though only about 20 percent of cases are reversible. If treatment is successful, improvement will become apparent within two years, although recovery is slow and often incomplete.  As an immediate form of treatment, a pairing of IV or IM thiamine with a high concentration of B-complex vitamins can be administered three times daily for period of 2–3 days. In most cases, an effective response from patients will be observed. A dose of 1 gram of thiamine can also be administered to achieve a clinical response. In patients who are seriously malnourished, the sudden availability of glucose without proper bodily levels of thiamine to metabolize is thought to cause damage to cells. Thus, the administration of thiamine along with an intravenous form of glucose is often good practice.  Treatment for the memory aspect of AKS can also include domain-specific learning, which when used for rehabilitation is called the method of vanishing cues. Such treatments aim to use patients' intact memory processes as the basis for rehabilitation. Patients who used the method of vanishing cues in therapy were found to learn and retain information more easily.  People diagnosed with AKS are reported to have a normal life expectancy, presuming that they abstain from alcohol and follow a balanced diet. Empirical research has suggested that good health practices have beneficial effects in alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "Rates varies between country, but it is estimated to affect around 12.5% of heavy drinkers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Korsakoff syndrome is an amnestic disorder caused by thiamine (vitamin B) deficiency associated with prolonged ingestion of alcohol. There is a similar condition seen in non-alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome. The syndrome and psychosis are named after Sergei Korsakoff, the Russian neuropsychiatrist who discovered it during the late 19th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972049}
{"src_title": "Bohumín", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The town was first mentioned in a border agreement between Władysław Opolski, the duke of Opole and Racibórz and Ottokar II of Bohemia, in 1256 as \"Bogun\" (today's Old Bohumín). Historical documents regarding the first centuries of the town are scarce. King Louis II granted the town and château of Bohumín to George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach in 1523. The town began to develop during rule by the House of Hohenzollern, although further development of Bogumin was halted by frequent epidemics of bubonic plague and floodings of the Olza. It was officially known in German as \"Oderberg\", and by the end of the 16th century the majority of citizens followed Protestantism. The successor after the Hohenzollerns in 1620 was Lazar Henckel, whose family of bankers and entrepreneurs hailed from Habsburg-ruled Hungary. In 1624 only 138 permanent residents lived in the town. After defeating Maria Theresa of Austria during the Silesian Wars, King Frederick II of Prussia annexed most of Silesia, although Oderberg remained in Austrian Silesia. The town successively became part of the Austrian Empire (1804) and Austria-Hungary (1867).  After the Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. The town became a seat of a legal district at first in Friedek and since 1868 in the Freistadt political district.  At the end of the 19th century a wire and rolling mill was built by German industrialists from Berlin, Albert Hahn and Heinrich Eisner. In 1872 the important Kassa-Oderberg railway line was opened to traffic in a nearby Schönichel (Šunychl), which later outgrew Oderberg; this increased the town's importance and contributed to the Polish - Czechoslovak dispute over Cieszyn Silesia after World War I.  According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the town grew from 1,839 in 1880 to 5,810 in 1910. The dominant language spoken \"colloquially\" shifted through the censuses. In 1880 and 1890 the majority were Polish-speakers (58.1% in 1880 and 64.8% in 1890), followed by German-speakers (34.8% in 1880 and 27.6% in 1890) and Czech-speakers (6.9% in 1880 and 7.6% in 1890). In 1900 and 1910 the majority were German-speakers (52.8% in 1900, 54.5% in 1910), followed by Polish-speakers (41.7% in 1900 and 38.2% in 1910) and Czech-speakers (5.3% in 1900 and 7.3% in 1910). In terms of religion, in 1910 the majority were Roman Catholics (91.7%), followed by Protestants (206 or 3.5%), Jews (129 or 2.2%) and \"others\" (141 or 2.6%).  After the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, the town became part of Czechoslovakia. Following the Munich Agreement, Bohumín and the Zaolzie region were annexed by Poland in October 1938. The town was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. On 1 May 1945 Bohumín was taken by Soviet troops of the 1st Guards Army. After the war it was restored to Czechoslovakia and the remaining German population was expelled westward.  There are few historical buildings remaining in Old Bohumín. It was always small with mostly wooden houses, which burnt down in frequent fires, as did the old town hall with its high tower. An old church still remains however; it was rebuilt in 1850 from its Gothic style to its current form. Another landmark is a tomb of the Henckels, former owners of Bohumín.  The most important landmarks of New Bohumín are the Catholic Heart of Jesus Church from 1896; town hall from 1897–1898; complex of former German schools from 1894–1914; and the Lutheran church from 1901.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Bohumín is one of the most important railway junctions in the Czech Republic. There are lines in the directions of Ostrava ( - Břeclav - Vienna / - Olomouc - Prague), Petrovice u Karviné ( - Katowice), (both built by the Austrian Northern Railway) and Chałupki ( - Racibórz and Wodzisław Śląski). Another important line in the direction of Český Těšín, Žilina, and Košice also originally started here, but was relocated in 1963 and now separates from the line to Petrovice u Karviné in Dětmarovice. There is also an important depot in Bohumín. All trains of the company Czech Railways, RegioJet a LEO Express are standing there. LEO Express also operates a bus line to Polish cities Katowice and Kraków.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Bohumín is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bohumín (; ;, ) is a town in Karviná District, Moravian-Silesian Region, Czech Republic on the border with Poland. The confluence of the Oder (Odra) and Olza rivers is situated just north of the town. The town lies in the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972050}
{"src_title": "Xerocomellus chrysenteron", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "This mushroom was first described and named as \"Boletus communis\" in 1789 by the eminent French botanist Jean Baptiste Francois Pierre Bulliard. Two years later in 1791 it was given the specific epithet \"chrysenteron\" by the same author. The species name coming from the Ancient Greek words \"khrysos\" \"gold\" and \"enteron\" \"innards\". Almost one hundred years later in 1888 Lucien Quelet placed it in the new genus \"Xerocomus\", and retained the \"chrysenteron\" epithet. This binomial was generally accepted for almost another hundred years, until 1985 when Marcel Bon decided to resurrect the former specific epithet \"communis\", which resulted in the binomial \"Xerocomus communis\". It now resides back in the genus \"Boletus\", and sports its 1791 binomial, and authority once again, and is currently known as \"Boletus chrysenteron\" Bull. Recent phylogenetic analysis supports the placement of \"X. chrysenteron\" as the type species of the new genus \"Xerocomellus\", described by Šutara in 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Young specimens of \"X. chrysenteron\" often have a dark, dry surface, and tomentose caps which might easily be mistaken for Bay Boletes \"Imleria badia\". When fully expanded, caps are 4 to 10 cm (1.6–4 in) in diameter with very little substance and thin flesh that turns a blue color when slightly cut or bruised. Caps mature to convex and plane in old age. Cracks in the mature cap reveal a thin layer of light red flesh below the skin. The 10 to 15 mm-diameter stems have no ring, are bright yellow and the lower part is covered in coral-red fibrils and has a constant elliptical to fusiform diameter throughout its length of 4 to 8 cm tall. The cream-colored stem flesh turns blue when cut. \"X. chrysenteron\" has large, yellow, angular pores, and produces an olive brown spore print.  Fruit bodies of \"Xerocomellus chrysenteron \" are also prone to infestation by the bolete eater (\"Hypomyces chrysospermus\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similarities within taxa.", "content": "Macroscopic observation of \"Xerocomellus chrysenteron\" is not sufficient to determine this species with certainty, as many intermediate forms occur between it and other taxa; in particular, some forms of \"B. pruinatus\" and \"Hortiboletus rubellus\" are hardly distinguishable from \"B. chrysenteron\" without the aid of microscopic characters. \"B. porosporus\" is also similar to this species, but it is easily separated on account of the whitish under layer and truncate (chopped off) spores. Also this species is easily confused with \"B. declivitatum\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Xerocomellus chrysenteron\" grows singly or in small groups in hardwood/conifer woods from early fall to mid-winter. It is mycorrhizal with hardwood trees, often beech on well drained soils. It is frequent in parts of the northern temperate zones. The species has been recorded in Taiwan. It has been introduced to New Zealand, where it grows in groups under introduced deciduous trees.  This species may not be as common as once thought, having been often mistaken for the recently recognised \"B.cisalpinus\" Simonini, Ladurner & Peintner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "\"Xerocomellus chrysenteron\" is considered edible but not desirable due to bland flavor and soft texture. The pores are recommended to be removed immediately after mushrooms are picked as they rapidly decay. Young fungi are palatable and suitable for drying, but they become slimy when cooked; mature specimens are rather tasteless and decay quickly.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Xerocomellus chrysenteron, formerly known as Boletus chrysenteron or Xerocomus chrysenteron, is a small, edible, wild mushroom in the family Boletaceae. These mushrooms have tubes and pores instead of gills beneath their caps. It is commonly known as the red cracking bolete.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972051}
{"src_title": "Water resources law", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Waters subject to regulation.", "content": "Water is ubiquitous and does not respect political boundaries. Water resources laws may apply to any portion of the hydrosphere over which claims may be made to appropriate or maintain the water to serve some purpose. Such waters include, but are not limited to:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The history of people's relation to water illustrates varied approaches to the management of water resources. \"Lipit Ishtar and Ur Nammu both contain water provisions, pre-date Hammurabi by at least 250 years, and clearly provide the normative underpinnings on which the Hammurabi Code was constructed.\" The Code of Hammurabi was one of the earliest written laws to deal with water issues, and this code included the administration of water use. The code was developed about 3,800 years ago by King Hammurabi of Babylonia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Difficulties of water rights.", "content": "Water is uniquely difficult to regulate, because laws are designed mainly for land. Water is mobile, its supply varies by year, season, and location, and it can be used simultaneously by many entities. As with property law, water rights can be described as a \"bundle of sticks\" containing multiple, separable activities that can have varying levels of regulation. For instance, some uses of water divert it from its natural course but return most or all of it (e.g. hydroelectric plants), while others consume much of what they take (ice, agriculture), and still others use water without diverting it at all (e.g. boating). Each type of activity has its own needs and can in theory be regulated separately. There are several types of conflict likely to arise: absolute shortages; shortages in a particular time or place, diversions of water that reduce the flow available to others, pollutants or other changes (such as temperature or turbidity) that render water unfit for others' use, and the need to maintain \"in-stream flows\" of water to protect the natural ecosystem.  One theory of history, put forward in Karl August Wittfogel's book \"\", holds that many empires were organized around a central authority that controlled a population through monopolizing the water supply. Such a hydraulic empire creates the potential for despotism, and serves as a cautionary tale for designing water regulations.  Water law involves controversy in some parts of the world where a growing population faces increasing competition over a limited natural supply. Disputes over rivers, lakes and underground aquifers cross national borders. Although water law is still regulated mainly by individual countries, there are international sets of proposed rules such as the Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of International Rivers and the Hague Declaration on Water Security in the 21st Century.  Long-term issues in water law include the possible effects of global warming on rainfall patterns and evaporation; the availability and cost of desalination technology; the control of pollution, and the growth of aquaculture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal models.", "content": "The legal right to use a designated water supply is known as a water right. There are two major models used for water rights. The first is riparian rights, where the owner of the adjacent land has the right to the water in the body next to it. The other major model is the prior appropriations model, the first party to make use of a water supply has the first rights to it, regardless of whether the property is near the water source. Riparian systems are generally more common in areas where water is plentiful, while appropriations systems are more common in dry climates. As water resource law is complex, many areas have a combination of the two models.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Water law by country.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International law.", "content": "The right to use water to satisfy basic human needs for personal and domestic uses has been protected under international human rights law. When incorporated in national legal frameworks, this right is articulated to other water rights within the broader body of water law. The human right to water has been recognized in international law through a wide range of international documents, including international human rights treaties, declarations and other standards.  The human right to water places the main responsibilities upon governments to ensure that people can enjoy \"sufficient, safe, accessible and affordable water, without discrimination\". Most especially, governments are expected to take reasonable steps to avoid a contaminated water supply and to ensure there are no water access distinctions amongst citizens. Today all states have at least ratified one human rights convention which explicitly or implicitly recognizes the right, and they all have signed at least one political declaration recognizing this right.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Canada.", "content": "Under the \"Constitution Act, 1867\", jurisdiction over waterways is divided between the federal and provincial governments. Federal jurisdiction is derived from the powers to regulate navigation and shipping, fisheries, and the governing of the northern territories, which has resulted in the passage of:  Provincial jurisdiction is derived from the powers over property and civil rights, matters of a local and private nature, and management of Crown lands. In Ontario, Quebec and other provinces, the beds of all navigable waters are vested in the Crown, in contrast to English law. All provincial governments also govern water quality through laws on environmental protection and drinking water, such as the \"Clean Water Act\" in Ontario.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "Water law in Australia varies with each state.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tasmania.", "content": "A newly formed Tasmanian Water Corporation has compulsorily acquired all drinking water supply infrastructure without payment and does not have direct accountability", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Water law in the United States.", "content": "In the United States there are complex legal systems for allocating water rights that vary by region. These varying systems exist for both historical and geographic reasons. Water law encompasses a broad array of subjects or categories designed to provide a framework to resolve disputes and policy issues relating to water:  The law governing these topics comes from all layers of law. Some derives from common law principles which have developed over centuries, and which evolve as the nature of disputes presented to courts change. For example, the judicial approach to landowner rights to divert surface waters has changed significantly in the last century as public attitudes about land and water have evolved. Some derives from state statutory law. Some derives from the original public grants of land to the States and from the documents of their origination. Some derives from state, federal and local regulation of waters through zoning, public health and other regulation. Non-federally recognized Indian tribes do not have water rights.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Water law in the European Union.", "content": "For countries within the European Union, water-related directives are important for water resource management and environmental and water quality standards. Key directives include the Urban Waste Water Directive 1992 (requiring most towns and cities to treat their wastewater to specified standards), and the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC, which requires water resource plans based on river basins, including public participation based on Aarhus Convention principles. See Watertime — the international context, Section 2.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Water resources law (in some jurisdictions, shortened to \"water law\") is the field of law dealing with the ownership, control, and use of water as a resource. It is most closely related to property law, and is distinct from laws governing water quality.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972052}
{"src_title": "Hattusa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Surroundings.", "content": "The landscape surrounding the city included rich agricultural fields and hill lands for pasture as well as woods. Smaller woods are still found outside the city, but in ancient times, they were far more widespread. This meant the inhabitants had an excellent supply of timber when building their houses and other structures. The fields provided the people with a subsistence crop of wheat, barley and lentils. Flax was also harvested, but their primary source for clothing was sheep wool. They also hunted deer in the forest, but this was probably only a luxury reserved for the nobility. Domestic animals provided meat.  There were several other settlements in the vicinity, such as the rock shrine at Yazılıkaya and the town at Alacahöyük. Since the rivers in the area are unsuitable for major ships, all transport to and from Hattusa had to go by land.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "Before 2000 BC, the apparently indigenous Hattian people established a settlement on sites that had been occupied even earlier and referred to the site as Hattush. The Hattians built their initial settlement on the high ridge of Büyükkale. The earliest traces of settlement on the site are from the sixth millennium BC. In the 19th and 18th centuries BC, merchants from Assur in Assyria established a trading post there, setting up in their own separate quarter of the city. The center of their trade network was located in Kanesh (Neša) (modern Kültepe). Business dealings required record-keeping: the trade network from Assur introduced writing to Hattusa, in the form of cuneiform.  A carbonized layer apparent in excavations attests to the burning and ruin of the city of Hattusa around 1700 BC. The responsible party appears to have been King Anitta from Kussara, who took credit for the act and erected an inscribed curse for good measure:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Hittite imperial city.", "content": "Only a generation later, a Hittite-speaking king chose the site as his residence and capital. The Hittite language had been gaining speakers at the expense of Hattic for some time. The Hattic \"Hattush\" now became the Hittite \"Hattusa\", and the king took the name of Hattusili, the \"one from Hattusa\". Hattusili marked the beginning of a non-Hattic-speaking \"Hittite\" state and of a royal line of Hittite Great Kings, 27 of whom are now known by name.  After the Kaskians arrived to the kingdom's north, they twice attacked the city to the point where the kings had to move the royal seat to another city. Under Tudhaliya I, the Hittites moved north to Sapinuwa, returning later. Under Muwatalli II, they moved south to Tarhuntassa but assigned Hattusili III as governor over Hattusa. Mursili III returned the seat to Hattusa, where the kings remained until the end of the Hittite kingdom in the 12th century BC. At its peak, the city covered 1.8 km2 and comprised an inner and outer portion, both surrounded by a massive and still visible course of walls erected during the reign of Suppiluliuma I (circa 1344–1322 BC (short chronology)). The inner city covered an area of some 0.8 km2 and was occupied by a citadel with large administrative buildings and temples. The royal residence, or acropolis, was built on a high ridge now known as Büyükkale (Great Fortress).  To the south lay an outer city of about 1 km, with elaborate gateways decorated with reliefs showing warriors, lions, and sphinxes. Four temples were located here, each set around a porticoed courtyard, together with secular buildings and residential structures. Outside the walls are cemeteries, most of which contain cremation burials. Modern estimates put the population of the city between 40,000 and 50,000 at the peak; in the early period, the inner city housed a third of that number. The dwelling houses that were built with timber and mud bricks have vanished from the site, leaving only the stone-built walls of temples and palaces.  The city was destroyed, together with the Hittite state itself, around 1200 BC, as part of the Bronze Age collapse. Excavations suggest that Hattusa was gradually abandoned over a period of several decades as the Hittite empire disintegrated. The site was subsequently abandoned until 800 BC, when a modest Phrygian settlement appeared in the area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery.", "content": "In 1833, the French archaeologist Charles Texier (1802–1871) was sent on an exploratory mission to Turkey, where in 1834 he discovered ruins of the ancient Hittite capital of Hattusa. Ernest Chantre opened some trial trenches at the village then called Boğazköy, in 1893–94. Since 1906, the German Oriental Society has been excavating at Hattusa (with breaks during the two World Wars and the Depression, 1913–31 and 1940–51). Archaeological work is still carried out by the German Archaeological Institute (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut). Hugo Winckler and Theodore Makridi Bey conducted the first excavations in 1906, 1907, and 1911–13, which were resumed in 1931 under Kurt Bittel, followed by Peter Neve (site director 1963, general director 1978–94).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cuneiform royal archives.", "content": "One of the most important discoveries at the site has been the cuneiform royal archives of clay tablets, known as the Bogazköy Archive, consisting of official correspondence and contracts, as well as legal codes, procedures for cult ceremony, oracular prophecies and literature of the ancient Near East. One particularly important tablet, currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, details the terms of a peace settlement reached years after the Battle of Kadesh between the Hittites and the Egyptians under Ramesses II, in 1259 or 1258 BC. A copy is on display in the United Nations in New York City as an example of the earliest known international peace treaties.  Although the 30,000 or so clay tablets recovered from Hattusa form the main corpus of Hittite literature, archives have since appeared at other centers in Anatolia, such as Tabigga (Maşat Höyük) and Sapinuwa (Ortaköy). They are now divided between the archaeological museums of Ankara and Istanbul.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sphinxes.", "content": "A pair of sphinxes found at the southern gate in Hattusa were taken for restoration to Germany in 1917. The better-preserved was returned to Turkey in 1924 and placed on display in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, but the other remained in Germany where it was on display at the Pergamon Museum from 1934, despite numerous requests for its return.  In 2011, threats by Turkish Ministry of Culture to impose restrictions on German archaeologists working in Turkey finally persuaded Germany to return the sphinx, and it was moved to the Boğazköy Museum outside the Hattusa ruins, along with the Istanbul sphinx - reuniting the pair near their original location.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hattusa (also Ḫattuša or Hattusas ; Hittite: \"Ḫa-at-tu-ša\") was the capital of the Hittite Empire in the late Bronze Age. Its ruins lie near modern Boğazkale, Turkey, within the great loop of the Kızılırmak River (Hittite: \"Marashantiya\"; Greek: \"Halys\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972053}
{"src_title": "Lactarius deliciosus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "This was known to Linnaeus who officially described it in Volume Two of his \"Species Plantarum\" in 1753, giving it the name \"Agaricus deliciosus\", the specific epithet deriving from Latin \"deliciosus\" meaning \"tasty\". The Swedish taxonomist allegedly gave the species its epithet after smelling it and presuming it tasted as good as a Mediterranean milk cap highly regarded for its flavor. Dutch mycologist Christian Hendrik Persoon added the varietal epithet \"lactifluus\" in 1801, before English mycologist Samuel Frederick Gray placed it in its current genus \"Lactarius\" in 1821 in his \"The Natural Arrangement of British Plants\".  It is commonly known as saffron milk-cap, red pine mushroom, or simply pine mushroom in English. An alternative North American name is orange latex milky. Its Spanish name varies (níscalo, nícalo, robellón...). Its Catalan name is \"rovelló\" (pl. \"rovellons\"). In the Girona area, it is called a \"pinatell\" (in Catalan) because it is collected near wild pine trees; it is typically harvested in October following the late August rains. Both this and \"Lactarius deterrimus\" are known as Çam melkisi or Çintar in Turkey. In Romania, it is known as \"Rascovi\" and it can be found in the northern regions in autumn season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Lactarius deliciosus\" has a carrot orange cap that is convex to vase shaped, inrolled when young, across, often with darker orange lines in the form of concentric circles. The cap is sticky and viscid when wet, but is often dry. It has crowded decurrent gills and a squat orange stipe that is often hollow, long and thick. This mushroom stains a deep green color when handled. When fresh, the mushroom exudes an orange-red latex or \"milk\" that does not change color.  In North America, this mushroom is often confused with \"Lactarius rubrilacteus\", which stains blue, exudes a red latex, and is also edible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Lactarius deliciosus\" grows under conifers on acidic soils and forms a mycorrhizal relationship with its host tree. It is native to the southern Pyrenees where it grows under Mediterranean pines, as well as throughout the Mediterranean basin in Portugal, Bulgaria, Spain, Greece, Italy, Cyprus, France and elsewhere. Both this fungus and \"L. deterrimus\" are collected and sold in the İzmir Province of southwestern Turkey, and the Antalya Province of the south coast. In the island of Cyprus, large numbers of \"Lactarius deliciosus\" are found in the high altitude \"Pinus nigra\" and \"Pinus brutia\" forests of the Troodos mountain range, where locals hunt them with vigour, as this fungus is highly esteemed among the local delicacies.  After analysing DNA from collections around the world, mycologists Jorinde Nuytinck, Annemieke Verbeken, and Steve Miller have concluded that \"L. deliciosus\" is a distinct European species that differs genetically, morphologically, and ecologically from populations in North America or Central America. It has been reportedly introduced to Chile, Australia and New Zealand, where it grows in \"Pinus radiata\" plantations. Popular places for collecting this mushroom, especially among the Polish community, are around Macedon in Victoria, Mt Crawford in the Adelaide Hills and in the Oberon area in New South Wales, Australia, where they can grow to the size of a dinner plate. Many people of Italian, Polish, Ukrainian and other eastern European ancestry in the states of Victoria and New South Wales, Australia travel to collect these mushrooms after autumn rainfall around Easter time.  \"Lactarius deliciosus\" is also very popular in Russian cuisine, and Siberian pine forests are a favourable habitat of this species. The mushrooms are being collected in August to early October, where they are traditionally fried, salted or pickled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "\"Lactarius deliciosus\" is a widely collected mushroom in the Iberian peninsula. It is used in Spanish cuisine, being probably the most sought after wild mushroom in the country. One recipe recommends they should be lightly washed, fried whole cap down in olive oil with a small amount of garlic and served drenched in raw olive oil and parsley. The same recipe advises that butter should never be used when cooking this mushroom.  Further north and east it is a feature of Provençal cuisine. They are also collected in Poland, where they are traditionally served fried in butter, with cream, or marinated. In Cyprus, saffron milk caps are usually grilled on the charcoal and then dressed in olive oil and lemon or bitter orange, they are sautéed with onions, or sometimes stewed with onions, coriander and red wine. In Russian cuisine these mushrooms are traditionally preserved by salting.  In India, the fungus is one of the ten most widely consumed mushrooms by ethnic tribes of Meghalaya.  In most field guides, the saffron milk cap is considered an excellent mushroom, having 'a crisp texture'. Some authors, however, hold \"Lactarius sanguifluus\" in higher esteem than its pretender, \"Lactarius deliciosus\". Legend has it that when naming the mushroom, Carl Linnaeus had in fact mistaken it with \"Lactarius sanguifluus\", giving it the epithet \"delicious\".  High consumption of \"Lactarius deliciosus\" could cause the urine to discolor to orange/red.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "When grown in liquid culture, the mycelium of \"Lactarius deliciosus\" produces a mixture of fatty acids and various compounds such as chroman-4-one, anofinic acid, 3-hydroxyacetylindole, ergosterol, and cyclic dipeptides.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lactarius deliciosus, commonly known as the saffron milk cap and red pine mushroom, is one of the best known members of the large milk-cap genus \"Lactarius\" in the order Russulales. It is found in Europe and has been accidentally introduced to other countries under conifers and can be found growing in pine plantations. A fresco in the Roman town of Herculaneum appears to depict \"Lactarius deliciosus\" and is one of the earliest pieces of art to illustrate a fungus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972054}
{"src_title": "Koch snowflake", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "The Koch snowflake can be constructed by starting with an equilateral triangle, then recursively altering each line segment as follows:  The first iteration of this process produces the outline of a hexagram.  The Koch snowflake is the limit approached as the above steps are followed indefinitely. The Koch curve originally described by Helge von Koch is constructed using only one of the three sides of the original triangle. In other words, three Koch curves make a Koch snowflake.  A Koch curve–based representation of a nominally flat surface can similarly be created by repeatedly segmenting each line in a sawtooth pattern of segments with a given angle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Perimeter of the Koch snowflake.", "content": "Each iteration multiplies the number of sides in the Koch snowflake by four, so the number of sides after iterations is given by:  If the original equilateral triangle has sides of length, the length of each side of the snowflake after iterations is:  an inverse power of three multiple of the original length. The perimeter of the snowflake after iterations is:  The Koch curve has an infinite length, because the total length of the curve increases by a factor of with each iteration. Each iteration creates four times as many line segments as in the previous iteration, with the length of each one being the length of the segments in the previous stage. Hence, the length of the curve after iterations will be () times the original triangle perimeter and is unbounded, as tends to infinity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Limit of perimeter.", "content": "As the number of iterations tends to infinity, the limit of the perimeter is:  since || > 1.  An -dimensional measure exists, but has not been calculated so far. Only upper and lower bounds have been invented.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Area of the Koch snowflake.", "content": "In each iteration a new triangle is added on each side of the previous iteration, so the number of new triangles added in iteration is:  The area of each new triangle added in an iteration is of the area of each triangle added in the previous iteration, so the area of each triangle added in iteration is:  where is the area of the original triangle. The total new area added in iteration is therefore:  The total area of the snowflake after iterations is:  Collapsing the geometric sum gives:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Limits of area.", "content": "The limit of the area is:  since || < 1.  Thus, the area of the Koch snowflake is of the area of the original triangle. Expressed in terms of the side length of the original triangle, this is:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Solid of revolution.", "content": "The volume of the solid of revolution of the Koch snowflake about an axis of symmetry of the initiating equilateral triangle of unit side is formula_12", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Other properties.", "content": "The Koch snowflake is self-replicating with six smaller copies surrounding one larger copy at the center. Hence, it is an irrep-7 irrep-tile (see Rep-tile for discussion).  The fractal dimension of the Koch curve is ≈ 1.26186. This is greater than that of a line (=1) but less than that of Peano's space-filling curve (=2).  The Koch curve is continuous everywhere, but differentiable nowhere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tessellation of the plane.", "content": "It is possible to tessellate the plane by copies of Koch snowflakes in two different sizes. However, such a tessellation is not possible using only snowflakes of one size. Since each Koch snowflake in the tessellation can be subdivided into seven smaller snowflakes of two different sizes, it is also possible to find tessellations that use more than two sizes at once. Koch snowflakes and Koch antisnowflakes of the same size may be used to tile the plane.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thue–Morse sequence and turtle graphics.", "content": "A turtle graphic is the curve that is generated if an automaton is programmed with a sequence. If the Thue–Morse sequence members are used in order to select program states:  the resulting curve converges to the Koch snowflake.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Representation as Lindenmayer system.", "content": "The Koch curve can be expressed by the following rewrite system (Lindenmayer system):  Here, \"F\" means \"draw forward\", \"-\" means \"turn right 60°\", and \"+\" means \"turn left 60°\".  To create the Koch snowflake, one would use F--F--F (an equilateral triangle) as the axiom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants of the Koch curve.", "content": "Following von Koch's concept, several variants of the Koch curve were designed, considering right angles (quadratic), other angles (Cesàro), circles and polyhedra and their extensions to higher dimensions (Sphereflake and Kochcube, respectively)  Squares can be used to generate similar fractal curves. Starting with a unit square and adding to each side at each iteration a square with dimension one third of the squares in the previous iteration, it can be shown that both the length of the perimeter and the total area are determined by geometric progressions. The progression for the area converges to 2 while the progression for the perimeter diverges to infinity, so as in the case of the Koch snowflake, we have a finite area bounded by an infinite fractal curve. The resulting area fills a square with the same center as the original, but twice the area, and rotated by radians, the perimeter touching but never overlapping itself.  The total area covered at the th iteration is:  while the total length of the perimeter is: which approaches infinity as increases.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Koch snowflake (also known as the Koch curve, Koch star, or Koch island) is a fractal curve and one of the earliest fractals to have been described. It is based on the Koch curve, which appeared in a 1904 paper titled \"On a Continuous Curve Without Tangents, Constructible from Elementary Geometry\" by the Swedish mathematician Helge von Koch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972055}
{"src_title": "Mödlareuth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "In the year 1374 the village was mentioned for the first time in a document of the parish church of Gefell (original spelling: Modelotenreut). Mödlareuth shows up in an urbarium of 1502 that registers the fief ownership in the region. However, no further information is available, not even the detailed location is documented.  In 1810 (see Napoleonic Wars) the Tannbach stream (only around 30 cm wide), which flows through Mödlareuth, became the new border between the Kingdom of Bavaria and the principality of Reuss Junior Line. For 140 years this border made little difference to the local populace. There was just one school and one restaurant, both on the Reuss side, the villagers went to church in the neighboring Bavarian municipality Töpen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cold War.", "content": "In 1945, Thuringia (to which Reuss had belonged since 1920) became part of the Soviet occupation zone, while Bavaria went to the American occupation zone. When the constitutions of West Germany and East Germany were ratified in 1949, the village became divided by the border between two states. A pass was required to cross between the two parts of town.  In 1952, East Germany began to strengthen its western border. Residents of areas close to the border were forced to relocate, including some residents of Mödlareuth. In the case of Mödlareuth a wooden fence almost two metres high was built followed by more complex border fences. After the Berlin Wall was built in 1961, walls were built in other towns on the border as well. The wall separating the two halves of Mödlareuth was built in 1966. From that point on, the East German part of the village was strictly monitored day and night, while on the West German side the wall became a kind of tourist attraction. The Americans nicknamed the place \"Little Berlin\".  In 1983, the then U.S. Vice President George H. W. Bush visited and exclaimed, \"Ich bin ein Mödlareuther!\", an allusion to John F. Kennedy's \"Ich bin ein Berliner\" statement. Bush visited Mödlareuth together with the then Defense Minister of West-Germany Manfred Wörner who later became the seventh Secretary General of NATO., the mayor of Töpen, a nearby village, was also present during the visit.  One month after the fall of the Berlin Wall (November 1989), a pedestrian crossing was opened at Mödlareuth (December 1989). On 17 June 1990, four months before German reunification, the Mödlareuth Wall was knocked down using a bulldozer. A portion has been retained as a memorial and is part of the museum in the village.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mödlareuth today.", "content": "The Thuringian part of the village of Mödlareuth belongs to the town of Gefell, and the Bavarian part to the community of Töpen.  Since 1994, Mödlareuth has had an open-air museum about the border between East and West Germany. It includes a portion of the original wall as well as a rebuilt barrier typical of those on the border at the time.  Although there is free passage between the two parts of the village today, there are still many differences. They have different postal codes and telephone area codes; the residents vote separately and send their children to different schools.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Films.", "content": "\"Here in Mödlareuth, a small village straddling the Iron Curtain, the situation is the same as in many places in the area. The daily military maneuvers take a heavy toll on civilians of both sides, who are under strict government orders to stay put.\"  When Soshkin loses a conventional war with NATO and he loses control of the Soviet Union, he launches a single nuclear missile into the North Sea as a warning. When the Soviet early warning system falls apart, he launches a full scale nuclear attack.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mödlareuth () is a German village situated partly in Bavaria and partly in Thuringia. Between 1949 and 1990, the northern part was in East Germany and the southern part in West Germany. The Thuringian part of the village belongs to Gefell while the Bavarian part belongs to Töpen. It was called \"Little Berlin\" by the Americans because a wall divided it until 1989, like the Berlin Wall divided Berlin. \"Little Berlin\" became a symbol of separation between the West and East by the wall, but also a symbol of reunification. Today the Museum Mödlareuth shows the history of the village and gives information about the political system at that time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972056}
{"src_title": "Camargue horse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Camargue horses are always gray. This means that they have black skin underlying a white hair coat as adult horses. They are born with a hair coat that is black or dark brown in colour, but as they grow to adulthood, their hair coat becomes ever more intermingled with white hairs until it is completely white. They are small horses, generally standing at the withers, and weighing. Despite their small size, they have the strength to carry grown adults. Considered rugged and intelligent, they have a short neck, deep chest, compact body, well-jointed, strong limbs and a full mane and tail.  The head has many similarities to the Barb horse. It is often heavy, square and expressive, with bright, wide-set eyes, a straight profile, flat forehead and well-chiseled cheek bones. The ears are small, short, and set well apart. The forelock is full. The breed has a neck of medium length with an abundant mane. The chest is deep and wide, and the shoulder is powerful and muscular. The withers must be defined but not exaggerated. The Camargue horse has a medium length back, well-supported, and a slightly sloping full croup, well-muscled hindquarters, and a low set, full tail. The Camargue horse has long legs which are well proportioned, strong and resistant, with large knees and hocks. Their hooves are hard and tough, with soles that are large and wide, suited to its original marshy habitat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Registration.", "content": "Since 2003, three registration categories exist to identify Camargue horses:  There exists a strong sense of regionalism in Camargue area, so registration for the horses is treated similarly to an Appellation d'origine contrôlée.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The \"Cavallo del Delta\".", "content": "The Camargue horse was introduced in the 1970s to the Po delta in Italy, where under the name \"Cavallo del Delta\" it is treated as an indigenous breed. In 2011 the registered population numbered 163.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Terminology.", "content": "There is a specific terminology in the Provençal dialect that is used when discussing Camargue horses:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Some researchers believe the Camargue are descended from the ancient Solutré horse hunted during the Upper Paleolithic period. Extensive archeological evidence has been found in the present-day Burgundy region of France. The Camargue breed was appreciated by the Celtic and Roman invaders who entered the Iberian Peninsula. Their genealogy is closely tied with Iberian horses, especially those of the northern part of the peninsula. The original Spanish \"jaca\" was probably a cross between the Celtic pony and the Camargue. It was later improved by crosses with northern European horse types and ultimately with the southern peninsular horse, as the Moors spread their influence toward the Pyrenees.  As a result, the Camargue genes probably penetrated the Americas through the influence of the \"jaca\", the warhorse taken to new lands where hardiness was a requirement. Breeds such as the Chilean horse and Criollo show signs of some characteristics that are common in the Camargue breed. Camargue horses were used on a large scale during the construction of the Suez Canal in the 1860s. In 1976, to preserve the standards and purity of the breed, the French government set breed standards and started registering the main breeders of the Camargue horse. In 1978, they set up the breed stud book. To be registered, foals must be born out of doors and must be seen to suckle from a registered mare as proof of parentage. Foals born inside the defined Camargue region are registered, while those born elsewhere are registered (\"outside the cradle\" or \"birthplace\"). They have the heavy, square heads of primitive horses, but the influence of Arabian, Barb and Thoroughbred blood can also be seen. The \"gardians\" look after the horses, which are rounded up annually for health inspections, branding, and gelding of unsuitable stock.  In England, the only breeding herd is at Valley Farm, in Wickham Market, near Woodbridge, Suffolk. Valley Farm is also the home of the British Camargue Horse Society, which represents the Camargue Breed in Britain by maintaining a stud book for British-bred Camargue Horses and registering ownership of Camargue Horses in Britain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The Camargue horse is the traditional mount of the gardian. It is used for livestock management, particularly of Camargue cattle, and also in competitive Camargue equitation, in traditional activities such as the \"abrivado\" preceding the course camarguaise, and in many gardian games.  Their calm temperament, agility, intelligence and stamina has resulted in these horses being used for equestrian games, dressage, and long-distance riding, which is growing in popularity in France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film portrayal.", "content": "The 1953 children's film \"Crin-Blanc\", English title \"White Mane\", portrayed the horses and the region. A short black-and-white film directed by Albert Lamorisse, director of \"Le ballon rouge\" (1956), \"Crin-blanc\" won the 1953 Prix Jean Vigo and the short film Grand Prix at the 1953 Cannes Film Festival, as well as awards at Warsaw and Rome. In 1960 Denys Colomb Daunant, writer and actor for \"Crin-blanc\", made the documentary \"Le Songe des Chevaux Sauvages\", \"Dream of the Wild Horses\". It featured Camargue horses and slow motion photography, and won the Small Golden Berlin Bear at the 1960 Berlin International Film Festival.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Camargue horse is an ancient breed of horse indigenous to the Camargue area in southern France. Its origins remain relatively unknown, although it is generally considered one of the oldest breeds of horses in the world. For centuries, possibly thousands of years, these small horses have lived wild in the harsh environment of the Camargue marshes and wetlands of the Rhône delta, which covers part of the départements of Gard and Bouches-du-Rhône. There they developed the stamina, hardiness and agility for which they are known today. Traditionally, they live in semi-feral conditions in the marshy land of the region. The Camargue horse is the traditional mount of the \"gardians\", the Camargue \"cowboys\" who herd the black Camargue bulls used for \"courses camarguaises\" in southern France. Camargue horses galloping through water is a popular and romantic image of the region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972057}
{"src_title": "Messina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Founded by Greek colonists in the 8th century BC, Messina was originally called Zancle (), from the Greek meaning \"scythe\" because of the shape of its natural harbour (though a legend attributes the name to King Zanclus). A \"comune\" of its Metropolitan City, located at the southern entrance of the Strait of Messina, is to this day called 'Scaletta Zanclea'. Solinus write that the city of Metauros was established by people from the Zancle.  In the early 5th century BC, Anaxilas of Rhegium renamed it Messene () in honour of the Greek city Messene (See also List of traditional Greek place names). Later, Micythus was the ruler of Rhegium and Zancle, and he also founded the city of Pyxus. The city was sacked in 397 BC by the Carthaginians and then reconquered by Dionysius I of Syracuse.  In 288 BC the Mamertines seized the city by treachery, killing all the men and taking the women as their wives. The city became a base from which they ravaged the countryside, leading to a conflict with the expanding regional empire of Syracuse. Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse, defeated the Mamertines near Mylae on the Longanus River and besieged Messina. Carthage assisted the Mamertines because of a long-standing conflict with Syracuse over dominance in Sicily. When Hiero attacked a second time in 264 BC, the Mamertines petitioned the Roman Republic for an alliance, hoping for more reliable protection. Although initially reluctant to assist lest it encourage other mercenary groups to mutiny, Rome was unwilling to see Carthaginian power spread further over Sicily and encroach on Italy. Rome therefore entered into an alliance with the Mamertines. In 264 BC, Roman troops were deployed to Sicily, the first time a Roman army acted outside the Italian Peninsula. At the end of the First Punic War it was a free city allied with Rome. In Roman times Messina, then known as Messana, had an important pharos (lighthouse). Messana was the base of Sextus Pompeius, during his war against Octavian.  After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city was successively ruled by Goths from 476, then by the Byzantine Empire in 535, by the Arabs in 842, and in 1061 by the Norman brothers Robert Guiscard and Roger Guiscard (later count Roger I of Sicily). In 1189 the English King Richard I (\"\"The Lionheart\"\") stopped at Messina en route to the Holy Land for the Third Crusade and briefly occupied the city after a dispute over the dowry of his sister, who had been married to William the Good, King of Sicily. In 1345 Orlando d'Aragona, illegitimate son of Frederick II of Sicily was the \"strategos\" of Messina.  In 1347, Messina was one of the first points of entry for the black death into Western Europe. Genoese galleys traveling from the infected city of Kaffa carried plague into the Messina ports. Kaffa had been infected via Asian trade routes and siege from infected Mongol armies led by Janibeg; it was a departure point for many Italian merchants who fled the city to Sicily. Contemporary accounts from Messina tell of the arrival of \"Death Ships\" from the East, which floated to shore with all the passengers on board already dead or dying of plague. Plague-infected rats probably also came aboard these ships. The black death ravaged Messina, and rapidly spread northward into mainland Italy from Sicily in the following few months.  In 1548 St. Ignatius founded there the first Jesuit college in the world, which later gave birth to the \"Studium Generale\" (the current University of Messina). The Christian ships that won the Battle of Lepanto (1571) left from Messina: the Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes, who took part in the battle, recovered for some time in the \"Grand Hospital\". The city reached the peak of its splendour in the early 17th century, under Spanish domination: at the time it was one of the ten greatest cities in Europe.  In 1674 the city rebelled against the foreign garrison. It managed to remain independent for some time, thanks to the help of the French king Louis XIV, but in 1678, with the Peace of Nijmegen, it was reconquered by the Spaniards and sacked: the university, the senate and all the privileges of autonomy it had enjoyed since the Roman times were abolished. A massive fortress was built by the occupants and Messina decayed steadily. In 1743, 48,000 died of a second wave of plague in the city.  In 1783, an earthquake devastated much of the city, and it took decades to rebuild and rekindle the cultural life of Messina. In 1847 it was one of the first cities in Italy where Risorgimento riots broke out. In 1848 it rebelled openly against the reigning Bourbons, but was heavily suppressed again. Only in 1860, after the Battle of Milazzo, the Garibaldine troops occupied the city. One of the main figures of the unification of Italy, Giuseppe Mazzini, was elected deputy at Messina in the general elections of 1866. Another earthquake of less intensity damaged the city on 16 November 1894. The city was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake and associated tsunami on the morning of 28 December 1908, killing about 100,000 people and destroying most of the ancient architecture. The city was largely rebuilt in the following year. It incurred further damage from the massive Allied air bombardments of 1943; before and during the Allied invasion of Sicily. Messina, owing to its strategic importance as a transit point for Axis troops and supplies sent to Sicily from mainland Italy, was a prime target for the British and American air forces, which dropped some 6,500 tons of bombs in the span of a few months. These raids destroyed one third of the city, and caused 854 deaths among the population. The city was awarded a Gold Medal of Military Valor and one for Civil Valor by the Italian government in memory of the event and the subsequent effort of reconstruction.  In June 1955, Messina was the location of the Messina Conference of Western European foreign ministers which led to the creation of the European Economic Community. The conference was held mainly in Messina's City Hall building (), and partly in nearby Taormina.  The city is home to a small Greek-speaking minority, which arrived from the Peloponnese between 1533-34 when fleeing from the Ottoman Empire. They were officially recognised in 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Messina has a subtropical mediterranean climate with long, hot summers with low diurnal temperature variation with consistent dry weather. In winter, Messina is rather wet and mild. Diurnals remain low and remain averaging above lows even during winter. It is rather rainier than Reggio Calabria on the other side of the Messina Strait, a remarkable climatic difference for such a small distance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary references.", "content": "Numerous writers set their works in Messina, including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Messina (,, ; ; ; ) is the capital of the Italian Metropolitan City of Messina. It is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, and the 13th largest city in Italy, with a population of more than 231,000 inhabitants in the city proper and about 650,000 in the Metropolitan City. It is located near the northeast corner of Sicily, at the Strait of Messina, opposite Villa San Giovanni on the mainland, and has close ties with Reggio Calabria. According to Eurostat the FUA of the metropolitan area of Messina has, in 2014, 277,584 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972058}
{"src_title": "Gobelins Manufactory", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "It is best known as a royal factory supplying the court of the French monarchs since Louis XIV, and it is now run by the \"Administration générale du Mobilier national et des Manufactures nationales de tapis et tapisseries\" of the French Ministry of Culture. The factory is open for guided tours several afternoons per week by appointment, as well as for casual visits every day except Mondays and some specific holidays. The Galerie des Gobelins is dedicated to temporary exhibitions of tapestries from the French manufactures and furnitures from the Mobilier National, built in the gardens by Auguste Perret in 1937.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Gobelins were a family of dyers who, in the middle of the 15th century, established themselves in the, Paris, on the banks of the Bièvre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comans-La Planche workshop.", "content": "In 1602, Henry IV of France rented factory space from the Gobelins for his Flemish tapestry makers, Marc de Comans and François de la Planche, on the current location of the Gobelins Manufactory adjoining the Bièvre river. In 1629, their sons Charles de Comans and Raphaël de la Planche took over their fathers' tapestry workshops, and in 1633, Charles was the head of the Gobelins manufactory. Their partnership ended around 1650, and the workshops were split into two. Tapestries from this early, Flemish period are sometimes called \"pre-gobelins\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Colbert and Le Brun.", "content": "In 1662, the works in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, with the adjoining grounds, were purchased by Jean-Baptiste Colbert on behalf of Louis XIV and made into a general upholstery factory, in which designs both in tapestry and in all kinds of furniture were executed under the superintendence of the court painter, Charles Le Brun, who served as director and chief designer from 1663-1690. On account of Louis XIV's financial problems, the establishment was closed in 1694, but reopened in 1697 for the manufacture of tapestry, chiefly for royal use. It rivalled the Beauvais tapestry works until the French Revolution, when work at the factory was suspended.  The factory was revived during the Bourbon Restoration and, in 1826, the manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In 1871, the building was partly burned down during the Paris Commune.  The factory is still in operation today as a state-run institution.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical site.", "content": "Today, the manufactory consists of a set of four irregular buildings dating to the seventeenth century, plus the building on the avenue des Gobelins built by Jean-Camille Formigé in 1912 after the 1871 fire. They contain Le Brun's residence and workshops that served as foundries for most of the bronze statues in the park of Versailles, as well as looms on which tapestries are woven following seventeenth century techniques.  The Gobelins still produces some limited amount of tapestries for the decoration of French governmental institutions, with contemporary subjects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fulham connection.", "content": "A branch of the manufactory was established in London probably in the early 18th-century in the area that is now Fulham High Street. Around 1753 it appears to have been taken over by the priest and adventurer, Pierre Parisot, but closed only a few years later.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gobelins Manufactory () is a historic tapestry factory in Paris, France. It is located at 42 avenue des Gobelins, near Les Gobelins métro station in the 13th arrondissement of Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972059}
{"src_title": "Macropodidae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Physical description.", "content": "Although omnivorous kangaroos lived in the past, modern macropods are herbivorous. Some are browsers, but most are grazers and are equipped with appropriately specialised teeth for cropping and grinding up fibrous plants, in particular grasses and sedges. In general, macropods have a broad, straight row of cutting teeth at the front of the mouth, no canine teeth, and a gap before the molars. The molars are large and, unusually, do not appear all at once but a pair at a time at the back of the mouth as the animal ages, eventually becoming worn down by the tough, abrasive grasses and falling out. Like many Macropodiformes, early kangaroos had plagiaulacoids, but these converted into normal molars in more derived species. Most species have four molars and, when the last pair is too worn to be of use, the animals starve to death. The dental formula for macropods is.  Like the eutherian ruminants of the Northern Hemisphere (sheep, cattle, and so on), macropods have specialised digestive systems that use a high concentration of bacteria, protozoans, and fungi in the first chamber of a complex stomach to digest plant material. The details of organisation are quite different, but the end result is somewhat similar, namely feces.  The particular structure-function relationship of the Macropodidae gut and the gut microbiota allows the degradation of lignocellulosic material with a relatively low emission of methane relative to other ruminants. These low emissions are partly explained by the anatomical differences between the macropodid digestive system and that of ruminants, resulting in shorter retention times of particulate digesta within the foregut. This fact might prevent the establishment of methanogenic archaea, which has been found in low levels in tammar wallabies (\"Macropus eugenii\") and eastern grey kangaroo (\"M. giganteus\"). Metagenomic analysis revealed that the foregut of tammar wallabies mainly contains bacteria belonging to the phyla Firmicutes, Bacteroides, and Proteobacteria. Among proteobacteria populations of the Succinivibrionaceae family are overrepresented and may contribute to low methane emissions.  Macropods vary in size considerably, but most have very large hind legs and long, powerfully muscled tails. The term macropod comes from the Greek for \"large foot\" and is appropriate: most have very long, narrow hind feet with a distinctive arrangement of toes. The fourth toe is very large and strong, the fifth toe moderately so; the second and third are fused; and the first toe is usually missing. Their short front legs have five separate digits. Some macropods have seven carpal bones instead of the usual eight in mammals. All have relatively small heads and most have large ears, except for tree-kangaroos, which must move quickly between closely spaced branches. The young are born very small and the pouch opens forward.  The unusual development of the hind legs is optimised for economical long-distance travel at fairly high speed. The greatly elongated feet provide enormous leverage for the strong legs, but the famous kangaroo hop has more: kangaroos and wallabies have a unique ability to store elastic strain energy in their tendons. In consequence, most of the energy required for each hop is provided \"free\" by the spring action of the tendons (rather than by muscular effort). The main limitation on a macropod's ability to leap is not the strength of the muscles in the hindquarters, it is the ability of the joints and tendons to withstand the strain of hopping.  In addition, the hopping action is linked to breathing. As the feet leave the ground, air is expelled from the lungs by what amounts to an internal piston; bringing the feet forward ready for landing fills the lungs again, providing further energy efficiency. Studies of kangaroos and wallabies have demonstrated that, beyond the minimum energy expenditure required to hop at all, increased speed requires very little extra effort (much less than the same speed increase in, say, a horse, a dog, or a human), and also that little extra energy is required to carry extra weight – something that is of obvious importance to females carrying large pouch young.  The ability of larger macropods to survive on poor-quality, low-energy feed, and to travel long distances at high speed without great energy expenditure (to reach fresh food supplies or waterholes, and to escape predators) has been crucial to their evolutionary success on a continent that, because of poor soil fertility and low, unpredictable average rainfall, offers only very limited primary plant productivity.  Gestation in macropods lasts about a month, being slightly longer in the largest species. Typically, only a single young is born, weighing less than at birth. They soon attach themselves to one of four teats inside the mother's pouch. The young leave the pouch after five to 11 months, and are weaned after a further two to six months. Macropods reach sexual maturity at one to three years of age, depending on species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "The evolutionary ancestors of marsupials split from placental mammals during the Jurassic period about 160 million years ago (Mya). The earliest known fossil macropod dates back about 11.61 to 28.4 Mya, either in the Miocene or Late Oligocene, and was uncovered in South Australia. Unfortunately, the fossil could not be identified any further than the family. A Queensland fossil of a species similar to \"Hadronomas\" has been dated at around 5.33 to 11.61 Mya, falling in the Late Miocene or Early Pliocene. The earliest completely identifiable fossils are from around 5.33 Mya.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The two living subfamilies in the family Macropodidae are the Lagostrophinae, represented by a single species, the banded hare-wallaby, and the remainder which make up the subfamily Macropodinae (~60 species).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Macropodidae is a family of marsupials, commonly known as kangaroos, wallabies, tree-kangaroos, wallaroos, pademelons, quokkas, and several other terms. These genera are allied to the suborder Macropodiformes, containing other macropods, and are native to the Australian continent, the mainland and Tasmania, and in New Guinea or nearby islands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972060}
{"src_title": "Uffizi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The building of the Uffizi complex was begun by Giorgio Vasari in 1560 for Cosimo I de' Medici so as to accommodate the offices of the Florentine magistrates, hence the name, \"offices\". The construction was later continued by Alfonso Parigi and Bernardo Buontalenti; it was completed in 1581. The top floor was made into a gallery for the family and their guests and included their collection of Roman sculptures.  The \"cortile\" (internal courtyard) is so long, narrow and open to the Arno at its far end through a Doric screen that articulates the space without blocking it, that architectural historians treat it as the first regularized streetscape of Europe. Vasari, a painter and architect as well, emphasised its perspective length by adorning it with the matching facades' continuous roof cornices, and unbroken cornices between storeys, as well as the three continuous steps on which the palace-fronts stand. The niches in the piers that alternate with columns of the Loggiato filled with sculptures of famous artists in the 19th century.  The Uffizi brought together under one roof the administrative offices and the Archivio di Stato, the state archive. The project was intended to display prime art works of the Medici collections on the piano nobile; the plan was carried out by his son, Grand Duke Francesco I. He commissioned the architect Buontalenti to design the Tribuna degli Uffizi that would display a series of masterpieces in one room, including jewels; it became a highly influential attraction of a Grand Tour. The octagonal room was completed in 1584.  Over the years, more sections of the palace were recruited to exhibit paintings and sculpture collected or commissioned by the Medici. For many years, 45 to 50 rooms were used to display paintings from the 13th to 18th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern times.", "content": "Because of its huge collection, some of the Uffizi's works have in the past been transferred to other museums in Florence—for example, some famous statues to the Bargello. A project was finished in 2006 to expand the museum's exhibition space some 6,000 metres (64,000 ft) to almost 13,000 metres (139,000 ft), allowing public viewing of many artworks that had usually been in storage.  The Nuovi Uffizi (New Uffizi) renovation project which started in 1989 was progressing well in 2015 to 2017. It was intended to modernize all of the halls and more than double the display space. As well, a new exit was planned and the lighting, air conditioning and security systems were updated. During construction, the museum remained open, although rooms were closed as necessary with the artwork temporarily moved to another location. For example, the Botticelli rooms and two others with early Renaissance paintings were closed for 15 months but reopened in October 2016.  The major modernization project, New Uffizi, had increased viewing capacity to 101 rooms by late 2016 by expanding into areas previously used by the Florence State Archive.  The Uffizi hosted over two million visitors in 2016, making it the most visited art gallery in Italy. In high season (particularly in July), waiting times can be up to five hours. Tickets are available on-line in advance, however, to significantly reduce the waiting time. A new ticketing system is currently being tested to reduce queuing times from hours to just minutes. The museum is being renovated to more than double the number of rooms used to display artwork.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Incidents.", "content": "On 27 May 1993, the Sicilian Mafia carried out a car bomb explosion in Via dei Georgofili and damaged parts of the palace, killing five people. The blast destroyed five pieces of art and damaged another 30. Some of the paintings were fully protected by bulletproof glass. The most severe damage was to the Niobe room and classical sculptures and neoclassical interior (which have since been restored), although its frescoes were damaged beyond repair.  In early August 2007, Florence experienced a heavy rainstorm. The Gallery was partially flooded, with water leaking through the ceiling, and the visitors had to be evacuated. There was a much more significant flood in 1966 which damaged most of the art collections in Florence severely, including some of the works in the Uffizi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Key works.", "content": "The collection also contains some ancient sculptures, such as the \"Arrotino\", the \"Two Wrestlers\" and the \"Bust of Severus Alexander\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Uffizi Gallery (;, ) is a prominent art museum located adjacent to the Piazza della Signoria in the Historic Centre of Florence in the region of Tuscany, Italy. One of the most important Italian museums and the most visited, it is also one of the largest and best known in the world and holds a collection of priceless works, particularly from the period of the Italian Renaissance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972061}
{"src_title": "Murad IV", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Murad IV was born on 27 July 1612 to Ahmed I (reign 16031617) and his consort and later wife Kösem Sultan. After his father’s death when he was six years he was confined in the Kafes with his brothers, Suleiman, Kasim, Bayezid and Ibrahim.  Grand Vizier Kemankeş Ali Pasha and Şeyhülislam Yahya Efendi were deposed from their position. They did not stop their words the next day the sultan, the child of the age of 6, was taken to the Eyüp Sultan Mausoleum. The swords of Muhammad and Yavuz Sultan Selim were besieged to him. Five days later he was circumcised.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early reign (1623–32).", "content": "Murad IV was for a long time under the control of his relatives and during his early years as Sultan, his mother, Kösem Sultan, essentially ruled through him. The Empire fell into anarchy; the Safavid Empire invaded Iraq almost immediately, Northern Anatolia erupted in revolts, and in 1631 the Janissaries stormed the palace and killed the Grand Vizier, among others. Murad IV feared suffering the fate of his elder brother, Osman II (1618–22), and decided to assert his power.  At the age of 16 in 1628, he had his brother-in-law (his sister Fatma Sultan's husband, who was also the former governor of Egypt), Kara Mustafa Pasha, executed for a claimed action \"against the law of God\".  After the death of the Grand Vizier Çerkes Mehmed Pasha in the winter of Tokat, Diyarbekir Beylerbeyi Hafez Ahmed Pasha became a vizier and an emperor on 8 February 1625.  The epidemic, which started in the summer of 1625 and called the plague of Bayrampaşa, spread to a threat to the population of Istanbul. On average, a thousand people died every day. The people went to the Okmeydanı, to regent themselves from this plague. The situation was worse in the countryside, but there is no one who sees what looks out of Istanbul.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Absolute rule and imperial policies (1632–1640).", "content": "Murad IV tried to quell the corruption that had grown during the reigns of previous Sultans, and that had not been checked while his mother was ruling through proxy.  Executions were issued to the states, and those who came to Istanbul were executed as Jelali, Jelali being followers of Celali, the leader of the revolt in 1519 in Tokat who lead peasants acting against feudal exploitation. Murad IV shivering and brutal sultan started with this shaking. Ilyas Pasha, who took advantage of the confusion in Istanbul and dominated the Manisa and Balikesir sides, who was taught Şehname, Timurname at night and was caught in the sultan's dreams, was finally caught and brought to Istanbul and executed in front of the Sultan.  Murad IV banned alcohol, tobacco, and coffee in Constantinople. He ordered execution for breaking this ban. He would reportedly patrol the streets and the lowest taverns of Constantinople in civilian clothes at night, policing the enforcement of his command by casting off his disguise on the spot and beheading the offender with his own hands. Rivaling the exploits of Selim the Grim, he would sit in a kiosk by the water near his Seraglio Palace and shoot arrows at any passerby or boatman who rowed too close to his imperial compound, seemingly for sport. He restored the judicial regulations by very strict punishments, including execution, he once strangled a grand vizier for the reason that the official had beaten his mother-in-law.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fire of 1633.", "content": "On 2 September 1633, the big Cibali fire broke out, burning a fifth of the city. The fire that started during that day when a caulker burned the shrub and the ship caulked into the walls. The fire, which spread from three branches to the city. One arm lowered towards the sea. He returned from Zeyrek and walked to Atpazan. Other kollan Büyükkaraman, Küçükkaraman, Sultanmehmet (Fatih), Saraçhane, Sangürz (Sangüzel) districts have been ruined. The sultan could not do anything other than watching sentence viziers, Bostancı and Yeniçeri. The most beautiful districts of Istanbul have been ruined, from the Yeniodas, Mollagürani districts, Fener gate to Sultanselim, Mesihpaşa, Bali Pasha and Lutfi Pasha mosques, Şahı buhan Palace, Unkapam to Atpazarı, Bostanzade houses, Sofular Bazaar. The fire that lasted for 30 hours could be extinguished after the wind sectioned.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War against Safavid Iran.", "content": "Murad IV's reign is most notable for the Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39) against Persia (today Iran) in which Ottoman forces managed to conquer Azerbaijan, occupying Tabriz, Hamadan, and capturing Baghdad in 1638. The Treaty of Zuhab that followed the war generally reconfirmed the borders as agreed by the Peace of Amasya, with Eastern Armenia, Eastern Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Dagestan staying Persian, while Western Armenia, and Western Georgia stayed Ottoman. Mesopotamia was irrevocably lost for the Persians. The borders fixed as a result of the war, are more or less the same as the present border line between Turkey, Iraq and Iran.  During the siege of Baghdad in 1638, the city held out for forty days but was compelled to surrender.  Murad IV himself commanded the Ottoman army in the last years of the war.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relations with the Mughal Empire.", "content": "While he was encamped in Baghdad, Murad IV is known to have met ambassadors of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, Mir Zarif and Mir Baraka, who presented 1000 pieces of finely embroidered cloth and even armor. Murad IV gave them the finest weapons, saddles and Kaftans and ordered his forces to accompany the Mughals to the port of Basra, where they set sail to Thatta and finally Surat.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Murad IV put emphasis on architecture and in his period many monuments were erected. The Baghdad Kiosk, built in 1635, and the Revan Kiosk, built in 1638 in Yerevan, were both built in the local styles. Some of the others include the Kavak Sarayı pavilion; the Meydanı Mosque; the Bayram Pasha Dervish Lodge, Tomb, Fountain, and Primary School; and the Şerafettin Mosque in Konya.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and poetry.", "content": "Murad IV wrote many poems. He used \"Muradi\" penname for his poems. He also liked testing people with riddles. Once he wrote a poemic riddle and announced that whoever came with the correct answer would get a generous reward. Cihadi Bey who was also a poet from Enderun School gave the correct answer and he was promoted.  Murad IV was also a composer. He has a composition called \"Uzzal Peshrev\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Very little is known about the concubines of Murad IV, principally because he did not leave sons who survived his death to reach the throne, but many historians consider Ayşe Sultan as his only consort until the very end of Murad's seventeen-year reign, when a second Haseki appeared in the records. It is possible that Murad had only a single concubine until the advent of the second, or that he had a number of concubines but singled out only two as Haseki.  Murad had several daughters, among whom were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Murad IV died from cirrhosis in Constantinople at the age of 27 in 1640.  Rumours had circulated that on his deathbed, Murad IV ordered the execution of his mentally disabled brother, Ibrahim (reigned 1640–48), which would have meant the end of the Ottoman line. However, the order was not carried out.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In the TV series \"\", Murad IV is portrayed by Cağan Efe Ak as a child, and Metin Akdülger as Sultan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Murad IV (, \"Murād-ı Rābiʿ\"; 27 July 1612 – 8 February 1640) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1623 to 1640, known both for restoring the authority of the state and for the brutality of his methods. Murad IV was born in Constantinople, the son of Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603–17) and Kösem Sultan. He was brought to power by a palace conspiracy in 1623, and he succeeded his uncle Mustafa I (r. 1617–18, 1622–23). He was only 11 when he ascended the throne. His reign is most notable for the Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39), of which the outcome would permanently part the Caucasus between the two Imperial powers for around two centuries, while it also roughly laid the foundation for the current Turkey–Iran–Iraq borders.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972062}
{"src_title": "Narratology", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The origins of narratology lend to it a strong association with the structuralist quest for a formal system of useful description applicable to any narrative content, by analogy with the grammars used as a basis for parsing sentences in some forms of linguistics. This procedure does not however typify all work described as narratological today; Percy Lubbock's work in point of view (\"The Craft of Fiction\", 1921) offers a case in point.  In 1966 a special issue of the journal \"Communications\" proved highly influential, becoming considered a program for research into the field and even a manifesto. It included articles by Barthes, Claude Brémond, Genette, Greimas, Todorov and others, which in turn often referred to the works of Vladimir Propp (1895–1970).  Jonathan Culler (2001) describes narratology as comprising many strands implicitly united in the recognition that narrative theory requires a distinction between \"story,\" a sequence of actions or events conceived as independent of their manifestation in discourse, and \"discourse,\" the discursive presentation or narration of events.' The Russian Formalists first proposed such a distinction, employing the couplet fabula and sujet. A subsequent succession of alternate pairings has preserved the essential binomial impulse, e.g. \"histoire\"/\"discours\", \"histoire\"/\"récit\", \"story\"/\"plot\". The Structuralist assumption that one can investigate fabula and sujet separately gave birth to two quite different traditions: thematic (Propp, Bremond, Greimas, Dundes, et al.) and modal (Genette, Prince, et al.) narratology. The former is mainly limited to a semiotic formalization of the sequences of the actions told, while the latter examines the manner of their telling, stressing voice, point of view, transformation of the chronological order, rhythm and frequency. Many authors (Sternberg, 1993, Ricoeur, 1984, and Baroni, 2007) have insisted that thematic and modal narratology should not be looked at separately, especially when dealing with the function and interest of narrative sequence and plot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Designating work as narratological is to some extent dependent more on the academic discipline in which it takes place than any theoretical position advanced. The approach is applicable to any narrative, and in its classic studies, vis-a-vis Propp, non-literary narratives were commonly taken up. Still the term \"narratology\" is most typically applied to literary theory and literary criticism, as well as film theory and (to a lesser extent) film criticism. Atypical applications of narratological methodologies would include sociolinguistic studies of oral storytelling (William Labov) and in conversation analysis or discourse analysis that deal with narratives arising in the course of spontaneous verbal interaction. It also includes the study of videogames, graphic novels, the infinite canvas, and narrative sculptures linked to topology and graph theory. However, constituent analysis of a type where narremes are considered to be the basic units of narrative structure could fall within the areas of linguistics, semiotics, or literary theory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Narratology in new media.", "content": "Digital-media theorist and professor Janet Murray theorized a shift in storytelling and narrative structure in the twentieth century as a result of scientific advancement in her 1998 book \"Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in Cyberspace\". Murray argues that narrative structures such as the multi-narrative more accurately reflected \"post-Einstein physics\" and the new perceptions of time, process, and change, than the traditional linear narrative. The unique properties of computers are better-suited for expressing these \"limitless, intersecting\" stories or \"cyberdramas.\" These cyberdramas differ from traditional forms of storytelling in that they invite the reader into the narrative experience through interactivity i.e. hypertext fiction and Web soap \"The Spot.\" Murray also controversially declared that video games – particularly role-playing games and life-simulators like \"The Sims\", contain narrative structures or invite the users to create them. She supported this idea in her article \"Game Story to Cyberdrama\" in which she argued that stories and games share two important structures: contest and puzzles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Electronic literature and cybertext.", "content": "Development and exclusive consumption on digital devices and interactivity are key characteristics of electronic literature. This has resulted in varying narrative structures of these interactive media. Nonlinear narratives serve as the base of many interactive fictions. Sometimes used interchangeably with hypertext fiction, the reader or player plays a significant role in the creation of a unique narrative developed by the choices they make within the story-world. Stuart Moulthrop's \"Victory Garden\" is one of the first and most studied examples of hypertext fiction, featuring 1,000 lexias and 2,800 hyperlinks.  In his book \"Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature,\" Espen Aarseth conceived the concept of cybertext, a subcategory of ergodic literature, to explain how the medium and mechanical organization of the text affects the reader's experience: ...when you read from a cybertext, you are constantly reminded of inaccessible strategies and paths not taken, voices not heard. Each decision will make some parts of the text more, and others less, accessible, and you may never know the exact results of your choices; that is, exactly what you missed. The narrative structure or game-worlds of these cybertexts are compared to a labyrinth that invites the player, a term Aarseth deems more appropriate than reader, to play, explore and discover paths within these texts. Two kinds of labyrinths which are referenced by Aarseth are the unicursal labyrinth which holds one single, winding path that leads to a hidden center, and the multicursal labyrinth, synonymous with a maze, which is branching and complex with the path and direction chosen by the player. These concepts help to distinguish between ergodic (unicursal) and nonergodic literature (multicursal). Some works such as Vladimir Nabokov's \"Pale Fire\" have proven to potentially be both depending on the path the reader takes.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Narratology is the study of narrative and narrative structure and the ways that these affect human perception. It is an anglicisation of French \"narratologie\", coined by Tzvetan Todorov (\"Grammaire du Décaméron\", 1969). Its theoretical lineage is traceable to Aristotle (\"Poetics\") but modern narratology is agreed to have begun with the Russian Formalists, particularly Vladimir Propp (\"Morphology of the Folktale\", 1928), and Mikhail Bakhtin's theories of heteroglossia, dialogism, and the chronotope first presented in \"The Dialogic Imagination\" (1975).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972063}
{"src_title": "Samothrace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Antiquity.", "content": "Samothrace was not a state of any political significance in ancient Greece, since it has no natural harbour and most of the island is too mountainous for cultivation: Mount Fengari (literally 'Mt. Moon') rises to. It was, however, the home of the Sanctuary of the Great Gods, site of important Hellenic and pre-Hellenic religious ceremonies. Among those who visited this shrine to be initiated into the island cult were Lysander of Sparta, Philip II of Macedon and Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, father-in-law of Julius Caesar.  The ancient city, the ruins of which are called Palaeopoli (\"old city\"), was situated on the north coast. Considerable remains still exist of the ancient walls, which were built in massive Cyclopean style, as well as of the Sanctuary of the Great Gods, where mysterious rites (Samothracian Mysteries) took place which were open to both slaves and free people (similar to the Eleusinian Mysteries). Demetrios of Skepsis mention the Samothracian Mysteries.  The traditional account from antiquity is that Samothrace was first inhabited by Pelasgians and Carians, and later Thracians. At the end of the 8th century BC the island was colonised by Greeks from Samos, from which the name Samos of Thrace, that later became Samothrace; however, Strabo denies this. The archaeological evidence suggests that Greek settlement was in the sixth century BC.  The Persians occupied Samothrace in 508 BC, it later passed under Athenian control, and was a member of the Delian League in the 5th century BC. It was subjugated by Philip II, and from then till 168 BC it was under Macedonian suzerainty. With the battle of Pydna Samothrace became independent, a condition that ended when Vespasian absorbed the island in the Roman Empire in AD 70.  The island is mentioned in the King James Version of the Bible, with the name \"Samothracia\".  During the Roman and particularly the imperial period, thanks to the interest of the Roman emperors, the radiation of the sanctuary of the Great Gods surpassed Greek borders and Samothrace became an international religious center, where pilgrims flocked from all over the Roman world. Apart from the famous sanctuary, also playing a decisive role in the great development of Samothrace were her two ports, situated on the sea road Troas – Macedonia. Furthermore, an important role was played by her possessions in Perea, which were conceded by the Romans at least during the imperial period, as evidenced by inscriptions of the 1st AD century.  The Book of Acts in the Christian Bible records that the Apostle Paul, on his second missionary journey outside of Palestine, sailed from Troas to Samothrace and spent one night there on his way to Macedonia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Middle Ages to Modern era.", "content": "St. Theophanes died in Samothrace in 818. The Byzantines ruled until 1204, when Venetians took their place, only to be dislodged by a Genoan family in 1355, the Gattilusi. The Ottoman Empire conquered it in 1457 and it was called in Turkish; an insurrection against them by the local population during the Greek War of Independence (1821–1831) led to the massacre of 1,000 inhabitants. The island came under Greek rule in 1913 following the Balkan Wars. It was occupied temporarily by Bulgaria during the Second World War, from 1941 to 1944.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "The modern port town of Kamariotissa is on the north-west coast and provides ferry access to and from points in northern Greece such as Alexandroupoli and Kavala. There is no commercial airport on the island. Other sites of interest on the island include the ruins of Genoese forts, the picturesque \"Chora\" (literally \"village\") and 'Paliapoli' (literally \"Old Town\"), and several waterfalls.  A 2019 article estimated that the current population of goats on the island outnumbered humans by about 15 to 1, resulting in unwanted erosion as a result of overgrazing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "The island's most famous site is the Sanctuary of the Great Gods, Greek \"Hieron ton Megalon Theon\" ; the most famous artifact of which is the 2.5-metre marble statue of Nike, now known as the Winged Victory of Samothrace, dating from about 190 BC. It was discovered in pieces on the island in 1863 by the French archaeologist Charles Champoiseau, and is now—headless—in the Louvre in Paris. The Winged Victory is featured on the island's municipal seal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Province.", "content": "The province of Samothrace () was one of the provinces of the Evros Prefecture. It had the same territory as the present municipality. It was abolished in 2006.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Samothrace (also known as Samothraki,, ) is a Greek island in the northern Aegean Sea. It is a municipality within the Evros regional unit of Thrace. The island is long and is in size and has a population of 2,859 (2011 census). Its main industries are fishing and tourism. Resources on the island include granite and basalt. Samothrace is one of the most rugged Greek islands, with Mt. Saos and its tip Fengari rising to.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972064}
{"src_title": "Delos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Investigation of ancient stone huts found on the island indicate that it has been inhabited since the 3rd millennium BC. Thucydides identifies the original inhabitants as piratical Carians who were eventually expelled by King Minos of Crete. By the time of the Odyssey the island was already famous as the birthplace of the twin gods Apollo and Artemis (although there seems to be some confusion of Artemis' birthplace being either Delos or the island of Ortygia). Indeed, between 900 BC and 100 AD, sacred Delos was a major cult centre, where Dionysus is also in evidence as well as the Titaness Leto, mother of the above-mentioned twin deities. Eventually acquiring Panhellenic religious significance, Delos was initially a religious pilgrimage for the Ionians.  A number of \"purifications\" were performed by the city-state of Athens in an attempt to render the island fit for the proper worship of the gods. The first took place in the 6th century BC, directed by the tyrant Pisistratus who ordered that all graves within sight of the temple be dug up and the bodies moved to another nearby island. In the 5th century BC, during the 6th year of the Peloponnesian war and under instruction from the Delphic Oracle, the entire island was purged of all dead bodies. It was then ordered that no one should be allowed to either die or give birth on the island due to its sacred importance and to preserve its neutrality in commerce, since no one could then claim ownership through inheritance. Immediately after this purification, the first quinquennial festival of the Delian games were celebrated there.  Four years later, all inhabitants of the island were removed to Atramyttium in Asia as a further purification.  After the Persian Wars the island became the natural meeting-ground for the Delian League, founded in 478 BC, the congresses being held in the temple (a separate quarter was reserved for foreigners and the sanctuaries of foreign deities). The League's common treasury was kept here as well until 454 BC when Pericles removed it to Athens.  The island had no productive capacity for food, fiber, or timber, with such being imported. Limited water was exploited with an extensive cistern and aqueduct system, wells, and sanitary drains. Various regions operated agoras (markets).  Strabo states that in 166 BC the Romans converted Delos into a free port, which was partially motivated by seeking to damage the trade of Rhodes, at the time the target of Roman hostility. In 167 or 166 BC, after the Roman victory in the Third Macedonian War, the Roman Republic ceded the island of Delos to the Athenians, who expelled most of the original inhabitants. Roman traders came to purchase tens of thousands of slaves captured by the Cilician pirates or captured in the wars following the disintegration of the Seleucid Empire. It became the center of the slave trade, with the largest slave market in the larger region being maintained here.  The Roman destruction of Corinth in 146 BC allowed Delos to at least partially assume Corinth's role as the premier trading center of Greece. However, Delos' commercial prosperity, construction activity, and population waned significantly after the island was assaulted by the forces of Mithridates VI of Pontus in 88 and 69 BC, during the Mithridatic Wars with Rome. Before the end of the 1st century BC, trade routes had changed; Delos was replaced by Puteoli as the chief focus of Italian trade with the East, and as a cult-centre too it entered a sharp decline. Due to the inadequate natural sources of food and water, and the above history, unlike other Greek islands, Delos did not have an indigenous, self-supporting community of its own. As a result, in later times it was uninhabited.  Since 1872 the École française d'Athènes (\"French School of Athens\") has been excavating the island, the complex of buildings of which compares with those of Delphi and Olympia. In 1990, UNESCO inscribed Delos on the World Heritage List, citing it as the \"exceptionally extensive and rich\" archaeological site which \"conveys the image of a great cosmopolitan Mediterranean port\".  Iamblichus writes that there were Delos Mysteries (similar to the Eleusinian Mysteries).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current population.", "content": "The 2001 Greek census reported a population of 14 inhabitants on the island. The island is administratively a part of the municipality of Mýkonos.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The island of Delos (; ; Attic:, Doric: ), near Mykonos, near the centre of the Cyclades archipelago, is one of the most important mythological, historical, and archaeological sites in Greece. The excavations in the island are among the most extensive in the Mediterranean; ongoing work takes place under the direction of the French School at Athens, and many of the artifacts found are on display at the Archaeological Museum of Delos and the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972065}
{"src_title": "Mykonos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Herodotus mentions Carians as the original inhabitants of the island. Ionians from Athens seem to have followed next in the early 11th century BC. There were many people living on the neighbouring island of Delos, only away, which meant that Mykonos became an important place for supplies and transit. It was, however, during ancient times a rather poor island with limited agricultural resources. Its inhabitants were polytheists and worshipped many gods.  Mykonos came under the control of the Romans during the reign of the Roman Empire and then became part of the Byzantine Empire until the 12th century. In 1204, with the fall of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade, Mykonos was occupied by Andrea Ghisi. The island was ravaged by the Catalans at the end of the 13th century and finally given over to direct Venetian rule in 1390.  In 1537, while the Venetians still reigned, Mykonos was attacked by Hayreddin Barbarossa, the admiral of Suleiman the Magnificent and an Ottoman fleet established itself on the island. The Ottomans, under the leadership of Kapudan Pasha, imposed a system of self-governance comprising a governor and an appointed council of \"syndics\". When the castle of Tinos fell to the Ottomans in 1718, the last of the Venetians withdrew from the region.  Up until the end of the 18th century, Mykonos prospered as a trading centre, attracting many immigrants from nearby islands, in addition to regular pirate raids. In June 1794 the Battle of Mykonos was fought between British and French ships in the island's main harbour.  The Greek Revolution against the Ottoman Empire broke out in 1821 and Mykonos played an important role, led by the national heroine, Manto Mavrogenous. Mavrogenous, a well-educated aristocrat guided by the ideas of the Enlightenment, sacrificed her family's fortune for the Greek cause. Greece became an independent state in 1830. A statue of her sits in the middle of Mando Mavrogenous square in the main town.  As a result of sailing and merchant activity, the island's economy quickly picked up but declined again during the late 19th century and especially after the opening of the Corinth Canal in 1904 and the First World War at the beginning of the 20th century. Many Mykonians left the island to find work in mainland Greece and many foreign countries, especially the United States.  Tourism soon came to dominate the local economy, owing a lot to the important excavations carried out by the French School of Archaeology, which began work in Delos in 1873.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mythology.", "content": "In Greek mythology, Mykonos was named after its first ruler, Mykonos (Μύκονος), the son or grandson of the god Apollo and a local hero. The island is also said to have been the location of the \"Gigantomachy\", the great battle between Zeus and Giants and where Hercules killed the invincible giants having lured them from the protection of Mount Olympus. According to myth, the large rocks all over the island are said to be the petrified corpses of the giants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The island has an area of and rises to an elevation of at its highest point. It is situated east of Athens in the Aegean Sea. The island features no rivers, but numerous seasonal streams two of which have been converted into reservoirs.  The island is composed mostly of granite and the terrain is very rocky with many areas eroded by the strong winds. High quality clay and baryte, which is a mineral used as a lubricant in oil drilling, were mined on the eastern side of Mykonos until the late 1900s.  It produces of water daily, by reverse osmosis of sea water in order to help meet the needs of its population and visitors.  The island has a population of nearly 12,500, most of whom live in the main town of Chora.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Mykonos has a Mediterranean climate. The sun shines for up to 300 days a year. The rainy season lasts from October until March. Vegetation follows the typical pattern for the region and grows around mid-autumn and ends in the beginning of the summer.  Although temperatures can rise as high as in the summer months, average high temperature is around and because of the seasonal cool \"meltemi\" wind, summer days are dry, sunny and pleasant. In the winter, average high temperature is around. The winters in general are mild and wet, with many sunny days still even in mid-winter. Snow is infrequent and doesn't stay long on the ground when it falls.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Villages.", "content": "There are ten villages:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cuisine.", "content": "Local specialities:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "The municipality of Mykonos (officially: ) is a separate regional unit of the South Aegean region, and the sole municipality in the regional unit. As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, the regional unit Mykonos was created out of part of the former Cyclades Prefecture. The municipality, unchanged at the Kallikratis reform, also includes the islands Delos, Rineia and several uninhabited islets. The total area of the municipality is.  The mayors of Mykonos have been:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "There are 10,134 inhabitants (2011) most of whom live in the largest town, Mykonos, also known as \"Chora\" (i.e. \"the Town\" in Greek, a common denomination in Greece when the name of the island itself is the same as the name of the principal town).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "It being a Greek island, the economy of Mykonos is closely linked with the sea. However, with the rise of tourism, it plays a minor role during summer.  The original Neoclassical building underwent refurbishments and expansions in the 1930s and 1960s and the large eastern room was added in 1972. The museum contains artefacts from the neighbouring island Rhenia, including 9th- to 8th-century BC ceramic pottery from the Cyclades and 7th- to 6th-century BC works from other areas in the Aegean. Its most famous item is the large vase produced in Tinos, showing scenes from the fall of Troy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Churches.", "content": "The reason for the abundance of churches is that for a number of years to build a house, the islanders were required to build a church on their land first.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Mykonos Airport is located southeast of the town of Mykonos and it is served by international flights during summer. The flight from Athens to Mykonos takes 25 minutes.  Mykonos is also accessible by boat and ferries. High speed vessels visit daily from the surrounding islands and from Athens.  Taxis, buses or boats are available for transportation. There are three main bus depots in Mykonos. The northern depot is situated behind Remezzo Club above the old Port and provides regular service to Ano Mera, Elia and Kalafatis. A few hundred meters below, at the Old Port, lays another Depot focusing on the northern destinations of Tourlos (New Port) and Agios Stefanos. The southern Bus Depot is at the town \"entrance\", called Fabrika and it provides regular service to Ornos, Agios Yannis, Plati Gialos, Psarou, Paraga, and Paradise Beach. Small boats travel to and from the many beaches. Tour boats go regularly to the nearby island of Delos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "In 2013 the Mykonos Biennale was inaugurated offering theatrical, cultural, cinematic, artistic, and musical productions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "<!---names need to have articles. Bluelined when linked. They will be deleted otherwise Also needs cite to link notable person with Mykonos per", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mykonos (, ; ) is a Greek island, part of the Cyclades, lying between Tinos, Syros, Paros and Naxos. The island has an area of and rises to an elevation of at its highest point. There are 10,134 inhabitants according to the 2011 census, most of whom live in the largest town, Mykonos, which lies on the west coast. The town is also known as \"Chora\" (i.e. \"the Town\" in Greek, following the common practice in Greece when the name of the island itself is the same as the name of the principal town).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972066}
{"src_title": "State Anthem of the Soviet Union", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "The anthem's music was originally composed by Alexander Alexandrov in 1938 for the Hymn of the Bolshevik Party. The opening bars of this song were sampled from one of Alexandrov's previous pieces, \"Life Has Become Better\", which was based on a quote by former Soviet Union General Secretary Joseph Stalin at the First All-Union Meeting of the Stakhanovites on November 17, 1935. The song alludes to Stalin's cult of personality.  Other than \"Life Has Become Better\", the music of the anthem has several possible outside influences. Alexandrov himself has described it as the combination of a march with Russian traditional music, particularly that of \"bylina\" epic songs. The anthem shares several chord progressions with Vasily Kalinnikov's overture \"Bylina, Epic Poem\" (which, as its name indicates, is also inspired by the \"bylina\" tradition). There also exist similarities between Alexandrov's anthem and Robert Schumann's \"Frühlingsfahrt\".  When the Communist International (Comintern) was dissolved in 1943 in order for the Soviet Union to maintain its alliance with the other Allies of World War II, a new composition was needed to replace \"The Internationale\" as the national anthem. A contest was held in mid to late 1943 for a new anthem, and more than 200 entries were submitted. Alexandrov's music was personally chosen by Stalin, who both praised and criticized it. The anthem's lyrics then had to be written. Stalin thought the song should be short, and that it should invoke the Red Army's impending victory over the forces of Germany on the Eastern Front. The poets Sergey Mikhalkov and Gabriel El-Registan were chosen by Stalin's staffers, called to Moscow, and given the task of writing lyrics which referenced not only the Great Patriotic War, but also \"a Country of Soviets\". The first draft was completed overnight.  The anthem was first published on 7 November 1943. It was played for the first time on Soviet radio at midnight on 1 January 1944, and officially adopted on 15 March the same year. The new lyrics had three refrains following three different stanzas. In each refrain, the second line was modified to refer to friendship, then happiness, then glory. Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union's war against Germany were originally invoked in the second and third verses, respectively. Reportedly, Stalin was opposed to including his name in the lyrics but relented after some Politburo members insisted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Stalin era.", "content": "With the process of de-Stalinization after Stalin's death, the lyrics referring to him were considered unacceptable, and from 1956 to 1977 the anthem was performed without lyrics. A notable exception took place at the 1976 Canada Cup ice hockey tournament, where singer Roger Doucet insisted on performing the anthem with lyrics after consultations with Russian studies scholars from Université de Montréal and Soviet team officials. In 1977, to coincide with the 60th anniversary of the October Revolution, revised lyrics, written in 1970 by original author Sergey Mikhalkov, were adopted. The varying refrains were replaced by a uniform refrain after all stanzas, and the line praising Stalin was dropped, as were the lines referring to the Great Patriotic War. Another notable change was the replacement of a line referring to the Soviet national flag with one citing the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in the form of \"\"Partiya Lenina\"\" (\"The party of Lenin\"). These lyrics were also present in the original party anthem at the same place in the melody, but followed by the lyrics \"\"Partiya Stalina\"\" (\"The party of Stalin\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-1991 use.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in the Russian Federation.", "content": "After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Russian Federation adopted a new wordless anthem, the \"Patriotic Song\", although there were suggestions for adopting lyrics. As a result, a few different versions were produced. In late 2000, the current national anthem of Russia was introduced, which uses the music of the Soviet national anthem with new lyrics by Sergei Mikhalkov.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "State Union of Russia and Belarus.", "content": "The same music was used for a proposed anthem for the State Union of Russia and Belarus, entitled \"Derzhavny Soyuz Narodov\" (\"Sovereign Union of Nations\"). Its lyrics were not tied to any specific nationality, and there were official versions in the languages of every Soviet republic and several other Soviet languages; thus it could have been adopted by a broader union. However, it was never officially adopted, and there appear to be no plans to utilize it in any official role.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decommunization.", "content": "In some post-Soviet states which adopted decommunization laws banning Communist symbolism, performing the Soviet anthem is illegal. For example, since 2015, offenders in Ukraine face up to five years in prison. Similar laws were adopted in Latvia and Lithuania.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "The anthem has also been used sometimes for humour and memes related to communism on the Internet.  The variation on the anthem, with comical lyrics, was used during the opening of the second series of the BBC comedy sketch show Harry and Paul, starring Harry Enfield and Paul Whitehouse. The opening montage being a parody of Cold War era Soviet propaganda films, with Enfield and Whitehouse portraying aging Soviet Presidents.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Official translations.", "content": "The anthem has been officially translated into several languages:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lyrics.", "content": "This table shows the anthem's various lyrics. As there were two official lyric versions (in 1944 and 1977), both are included within their sections.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"State Anthem of the Soviet Union\" () was the national anthem of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the regional anthem of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1944 to 1991, replacing \"The Internationale\". Its original lyrics were written by Sergei Mikhalkov (1913–2009) in collaboration with Gabriel El-Registan (1899–1945), and its music composed by Alexander Alexandrov (1883–1946). Following a two decade interval in which the anthem was performed without lyrics a second set of lyrics, also written by Mikhalkov, were adopted in 1977.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972067}
{"src_title": "Edible mushroom", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of mushroom use.", "content": "Mycophagy, the act of consuming mushrooms, dates back to ancient times. Edible mushroom species have been found in association with 13,000-year-old archaeological sites in Chile. Ötzi, the mummy of a man who lived between 3400 and 3100 BCE in Europe, was found with two types of mushroom. The Chinese value mushrooms for supposed medicinal properties as well as for food. Ancient Romans and Greeks, particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes. Food tasters were employed by Roman emperors to ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current culinary use.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercially cultivated.", "content": "Mushroom cultivation has a long history, with over twenty species commercially cultivated. Mushrooms are cultivated in at least 60 countries with China, the United States, Poland, Netherlands, and India being the top five producers in 2013.  A fraction of the many fungi consumed by humans are currently cultivated and sold commercially. Commercial cultivation is important ecologically, as there have been concerns of depletion of larger fungi such as chanterelles in Europe, possibly because the group has grown popular, yet remains a challenge to cultivate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Commercially harvested wild edibles.", "content": "Some species are difficult to cultivate; others (particularly mycorrhizal species) have not yet been successfully cultivated. Some of these species are harvested from the wild, and can be found in markets. When in season they can be purchased fresh, and many species are sold dried as well. The following species are commonly harvested from the wild:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other edible wild species.", "content": "Many wild species are consumed around the world. The species which can be identified \"in the field\" (without use of special chemistry or a microscope) and therefore safely eaten vary widely from country to country, even from region to region. This list is a sampling of lesser-known species that are reported as edible.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nutrients.", "content": "A commonly eaten mushroom is the white mushroom (\"Agaricus bisporus\"). In a 100 gram reference amount, \"Agaricus\" mushrooms provide 22 calories and are 92% water, 3% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 0.3% fat (table). They contain high levels (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid (24–33% DV), with moderate content of phosphorus (table). Otherwise, raw white mushrooms generally have low amounts of essential nutrients (table). Although cooking (by boiling) lowers mushroom water content only 1%, the contents per 100 grams for several nutrients increase appreciably, especially for dietary minerals (table for boiled mushrooms).  The content of vitamin D is absent or low unless mushrooms are exposed to sunlight or purposely treated with artificial ultraviolet light (\"see\" below), even after harvesting and processed into dry powder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vitamin D.", "content": "Mushrooms exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light produce vitamin D before or after harvest by converting ergosterol, a chemical found in large concentrations in mushrooms, to vitamin D. This is similar to the reaction in humans, where vitamin D is synthesized after exposure to sunlight.  Testing showed an hour of UV light exposure before harvesting made a serving of mushrooms contain twice the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's daily recommendation of vitamin D, and 5 minutes of artificial UV light exposure after harvesting made a serving of mushrooms contain four times the FDA's daily recommendation of vitamin D. Analysis also demonstrated that natural sunlight produced vitamin D.  The ergocalciferol, vitamin D, in UV-irradiated mushrooms is not the same form of vitamin D as is produced by UV-irradiation of human or animal skin, fur, or feathers (cholecalciferol, vitamin D). Although vitamin D clearly has vitamin D activity in humans and is widely used in food fortification and in nutritional supplements, vitamin D is more commonly used in dairy and cereal products.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use in traditional medicine.", "content": "Medicinal mushrooms are mushrooms or extracts from mushrooms that are thought to be treatments for diseases, yet remain unconfirmed in mainstream science and medicine, and so are not approved as drugs or medical treatments. Such use of mushrooms therefore falls into the domain of traditional medicine for which there is no high-quality clinical evidence of efficacy.  Preliminary research on mushroom extracts has been conducted to determine if anti-disease properties exist, such as for polysaccharide-K or lentinan. Some extracts have widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as potential adjuvants to radiation treatments and chemotherapy. As of 2019, there is no evidence that consuming mushrooms or mushroom extracts has any effect on human diseases.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety concerns.", "content": "Some wild species are toxic, or at least indigestible, when raw. The safety of consuming Reishi mushrooms has not been adequately demonstrated, as of 2019. Reishi mushrooms may cause side effects including dryness of the mouth or throat, itchiness, rash, stomach upset, diarrhea, headache, or allergic reactions. Failure to identify poisonous mushrooms and confusing them with edible ones has resulted in death.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruit bodies of several species of macrofungi (fungi which bear fruiting structures that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye). They can appear either below ground (hypogeous) or above ground (epigeous) where they may be picked by hand. Edibility may be defined by criteria that include absence of poisonous effects on humans and desirable taste and aroma.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972068}
{"src_title": "Presbyopia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "The first symptoms most people notice are difficulty reading fine print, particularly in low light conditions, eyestrain when reading for long periods, blurring of near objects or temporarily blurred vision when changing the viewing distance. Many extreme presbyopes complain that their arms have become \"too short\" to hold reading material at a comfortable distance.  Presbyopia, like other focal imperfections, becomes less noticeable in bright sunlight when the pupil becomes smaller. As with any lens, increasing the focal ratio of the lens increases depth of field by reducing the level of blur of out-of-focus objects (compare the effect of aperture on depth of field in photography).  The onset of presbyopia varies among those with certain professions and those with miotic pupils. In particular, farmers and homemakers seek correction later, whereas service workers and construction workers seek correction earlier. Scuba divers with interest in underwater photography may notice presbyopic changes while diving before they recognize the symptoms in their normal routines due to the near focus in low light conditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interaction with myopia.", "content": "Many people with near-sightedness can read comfortably without eyeglasses or contact lenses even after age forty. However, their myopia does not disappear and the long-distance visual challenges remain. Myopes considering refractive surgery are advised that surgically correcting their nearsightedness may be a disadvantage after age forty, when the eyes become presbyopic and lose their ability to accommodate or change focus, because they will then need to use glasses for reading. Myopes with astigmatism find near vision better, though not perfect, without glasses or contact lenses when presbyopia sets in, but the more astigmatism, the poorer the uncorrected near vision.  A surgical technique offered is to create a \"reading eye\" and a \"distance vision eye\", a technique commonly used in contact lens practice, known as monovision. Monovision can be created with contact lenses, so candidates for this procedure can determine if they are prepared to have their corneas reshaped by surgery to cause this effect permanently.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mechanism.", "content": "The cause of presbyopia is lens hardening by decreasing levels of -crystallin, a process which may be sped up by higher temperatures. It results in a near point greater than 25 cm (or equivalently, less than 4 diopters).  In optics, the closest point at which an object can be brought into focus by the eye is called the eye's near point. A standard near point distance of 25 cm is typically assumed in the design of optical instruments, and in characterizing optical devices such as magnifying glasses.  There is some confusion over how the focusing mechanism of the eye works. In the 1977 book, \"Eye and Brain\", for example, the lens is said to be suspended by a membrane, the 'zonula', which holds it under tension. The tension is released, by contraction of the ciliary muscle, to allow the lens to become more round, for close vision. This implies the ciliary muscle, which is outside the zonula, must be circumferential, contracting like a sphincter, to slacken the tension of the zonula pulling outwards on the lens. This is consistent with the fact that our eyes seem to be in the'relaxed' state when focusing at infinity, and also explains why no amount of effort seems to enable a myopic person to see farther away.  The ability to focus on near objects declines throughout life, from an accommodation of about 20 dioptres (ability to focus at 50 mm away) in a child, to 10 dioptres at age 25 (100 mm), and levels off at 0.5 to 1 dioptre at age 60 (ability to focus down to 1–2 meters only). The expected, maximum, and minimum amplitudes of accommodation in diopters (D) for a corrected patient of a given age can be estimated using Hofstetter's formulas: expected amplitude (D) = 18.5 - 0.3 × (age in years), maximum amplitude (D) = 25 - 0.4 × (age in years), minimum amplitude (D) = 15 - 0.25 × (age in years).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "In the visual system, images captured by the eye are translated into electric signals that are transmitted to the brain where they are interpreted. As such, in order to overcome presbyopia, two main components of the visual system can be addressed: the optical system of the eye and the visual processing of the brain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Corrective lenses.", "content": "Corrective lenses provide a range of vision correction, some as high as +4.0 diopter. People with presbyopia choose convex lens for reading glasses; specialized preparations of convex lens usually require the services of an optometrist.  Contact lenses can also be used to correct the focusing loss that comes along with presbyopia. Multifocal contact lenses can be used to correct vision for both the near and the far. Some people choose contact lenses to correct one eye for near and one eye for far with a method called monovision.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Surgery.", "content": "Laser surgery has been done to create multifocal corneas. Concerns with this surgery include people's eyes changing with time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The term is from Greek πρέσβυς \"presbys\" meaning \"old\" and ὤψ \"ōps\" meaning \"sight\" ( ὠπός \"ōpos\")).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Eye drops to constrict the pupil are being studied for presbyopia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Presbyopia is a condition associated with the aging of the eye that results in progressively worsening ability to focus clearly on close objects. Symptoms include difficulty reading small print, having to hold reading material farther away, headaches, and eyestrain. Different people will have different degrees of problems. Other types of refractive errors may exist at the same time as presbyopia. Presbyopia is a normal part of the aging process. It occurs due to hardening of the lens of the eye, causing the eye to focus light behind rather than on the retina when looking at close objects. It is a type of refractive error along with nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism. Diagnosis is by an eye examination. Treatment is typically with eyeglasses. The eyeglasses used have higher focusing power in the lower portion of the lens. Off the shelf reading glasses may be sufficient for some. Contact lenses may also occasionally be used. People over 40 are at risk for developing presbyopia and all people become affected to some degree. Around 25% of people (1.8 billion globally) are currently affected. The condition was mentioned as early as the writings of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. Glass lenses first came into use for the problem in the late 13th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972069}
{"src_title": "Cellulite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Causes.", "content": "The causes of cellulite include changes in metabolism, physiology, diet and exercise habits, obesity, sex-specific dimorphic skin architecture, alteration of connective tissue structure, hormonal factors, genetic factors, the microcirculatory system, the extracellular matrix, and subtle inflammatory alterations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hormonal factors.", "content": "Hormones play a dominant role in the formation of cellulite. Estrogen may be the important hormone in the development of cellulite. However, there has been no reliable clinical evidence to support such a claim. Other hormones, including insulin, the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline, thyroid hormones, and prolactin, are all believed to participate in the development of cellulite.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genetic factors.", "content": "There is a genetic element in individual susceptibility to cellulite. Researchers have traced the genetic component of cellulite to particular polymorphisms in the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and hypoxia-inducible factor 1A (HIF1a) genes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Predisposing factors.", "content": "Several factors have been shown to affect the development of cellulite. Sex, ethnicity, biotype, distribution of subcutaneous fat, and predisposition to lymphatic and circulatory insufficiency have all been shown to contribute to cellulite.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lifestyle.", "content": "A high-stress lifestyle will cause an increase in the level of catecholamines, which have also been associated with the development of cellulite.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatments.", "content": "Cellulite is a multifactorial condition and can be resistant to the array of treatments currently available. Aside from 'topical' products (creams, ointments, etc) and injectables (eg collagenase), treatments for cellulite include non-invasive therapy such as mechanical suction or mechanical massage. Energy-based devices include radio frequency with deep penetration of the skin, ultrasound, laser and pulsed-light devices. Combinations of mechanical treatments and energy-based procedures are widely used. More invasive'subcision' techniques utilise a needle-sized micro-scalpel to cut through the causative fibrous bands of connective tissue. Subcision procedures (manual, vacuum-assisted, or laser-assisted) are performed in specialist clinics with patients given local anaesthetic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "Cellulite is thought to occur in 80–90% of post-adolescent females.<ref name=\"doi 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2009.03556.x\"></ref> There appears to be a hormonal component to its presentation. Its existence as a real disorder has been challenged and the prevailing medical opinion is that it is merely the \"normal condition of many women\". It is rarely seen in males, but is more common in males with androgen-deficient states, such as Klinefelter's syndrome, hypogonadism, postcastration states and in those patients receiving estrogen therapy for prostate cancer. The cellulite becomes more severe as the androgen deficiency worsens in these males.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The term was first used in the 1920s by spa and beauty services to promote their services, and began appearing in English-language publications in the late 1960s, with the earliest reference in \"Vogue\" magazine, \"Like a swift migrating fish, the word \"cellulite\" has suddenly crossed the Atlantic.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cellulite is the herniation of subcutaneous fat within fibrous connective tissue that manifests as skin dimpling and nodularity, often on the pelvic region (specifically the buttocks), lower limbs, and abdomen. Cellulite occurs in most postpubescent females. A review gives a prevalence of 85-98% of women, indicating that it is physiologic (caused by the body) rather than pathologic (caused by disease). It can result from a complex combination of factors ranging from hormones to heredity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972070}
{"src_title": "The Cossacks (novel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "\"The Cossacks\" is believed to be somewhat autobiographical, partially based on Tolstoy's experiences in the Caucasus during the last stages of the Caucasian War. Tolstoy had a wild time in his youth, engaging in numerous promiscuous partners, heavy drinking and gambling problems; many argue Tolstoy used his own past as inspiration for the protagonist Olenin.  Disenchanted with his privileged life in Russian society, nobleman Dmitry Andreich Olenin joins the army as a cadet, in the hopes of escaping the superficiality of his daily life. On a quest to find \"completeness,\" he naively hopes to find serenity among the \"simple\" people of the Caucasus. In an attempt to immerse himself in the local culture, he befriends an old man. They drink wine, curse, and hunt pheasant and boar in the Cossack tradition, and Olenin even begins to dress in the manner of a Cossack. He forgets himself and falls in love with the young Maryanka, in spite of her fiancé Lukashka. While spending life as a Cossack, he learns lessons about his own inner life, moral philosophy, and the nature of reality. He also understands the intricacies of human psychology and nature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The young idealist Dmitry Andreich Olenin leaves Moscow, hoping to start a new life in the Caucasus. In the stanitsa, he slowly becomes enamored by the surroundings and despises his previous existence. He befriends the old Cossack Eroshka, who goes hunting with him and finds him a good fellow because of his propensity to drinking. During this time, young Cossack Luka kills a Chechen who is trying to come across the river towards the village to scout the Cossacks and in this way gains much respect. Olenin falls in love with the maid Maryanka, who is to be wed to Luka later in the story. He tries to stop this emotion and eventually convinces himself that he loves both Luka and Maryanka for their simplicity and decides that happiness can only come to a man who constantly gives to others with no thought of self-gratification.  He first gives an extra horse to Luka, who accepts the present yet doesn't trust Olenin on his motives. As time goes on, however, though he gains the respect of the local villagers, another Russian named Beletsky, who is still attached to the ways of Moscow, comes and partially corrupts Olenin's ideals and convinces him through his actions to attempt to win Maryanka's love. Olenin approaches her several times and Luka hears about this from a Cossack, and thus does not invite Olenin to the betrothal party. Olenin spends the night with Eroshka but soon decides that he will not give up on the girl and attempts to win her heart again. He eventually, in a moment of passion, asks her to marry him, which she says she will answer soon.  Luka, however, is severely wounded when he and a group of Cossacks go to confront a group of Chechens who are trying to attack the village, including the brother of the man he killed earlier. Though the Chechens lose after the Cossacks take a cart to block their bullets, the brother of the slain Chechen manages to shoot Luka in the belly when he is close by. As Luka seems to be dying and is being cared for by village people, Olenin approaches Maryanka to ask her to marry him; she angrily refuses. He realizes that \"his first impression of this woman's inaccessibility had been perfectly correct.\" He asks his company commander to leave and join the staff. He says goodbye to Eroshka, who is the only villager who sees him off. Eroshka is emotional towards Olenin but after Olenin takes off and looks back, he sees that Eroshka has apparently already forgotten about him and has gotten back to normal life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "John Hagen stated in 1969 that \"The Cossacks\" is considered Tolstoy’s first masterpiece.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film adaptations.", "content": "Two film adaptations of the book have been made: a 1928 silent film produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and directed by George W. Hill and Clarence Brown; and another version made in 1961 by Soviet filmmaker Vasili Pronin, which premiered at the annual Cannes Film Festival.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cossacks ( [\"Kazaki\"]) is a short novel by Leo Tolstoy, published in 1863 in the popular literary magazine \"The Russian Messenger\". It was originally called Young Manhood. Both Ivan Turgenev and the Nobel prize-winning Russian writer Ivan Bunin gave the work great praise, with Turgenev calling it his favourite work by Tolstoy. Tolstoy began work on the story in August 1853. In August 1857, after having reread the \"Iliad\", he vowed to completely rewrite \"The Cossacks\". In February 1862, after having lost badly at cards he finished the novel to help pay his debts. The novel was published in 1863, the same year his first child was born.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972071}
{"src_title": "Araceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Species in the Araceae are often rhizomatous or tuberous and are often found to contain calcium oxalate crystals or raphides. The leaves can vary considerably from species to species. The inflorescence is composed of a spadix, which is almost always surrounded by a modified leaf called a spathe. In monoecious aroids (possessing separate male and female flowers, but with both flowers present on one plant), the spadix is usually organized with female flowers towards the bottom and male flowers towards the top. In aroids with perfect flowers, the stigma is no longer receptive when the pollen is released, thus preventing self-fertilization. Some species are dioecious.  Many plants in this family are thermogenic (heat-producing). Their flowers can reach up to 45 °C even when the surrounding air temperature is much lower. One reason for this unusually high temperature is to attract insects (usually beetles) to pollinate the plant, rewarding the beetles with heat energy. Another reason is to prevent tissue damage in cold regions. Some examples of thermogenic Araceae are:\" Symplocarpus foetidus\" (eastern skunk cabbage),\" Amorphophallus titanum\" (titan arum),\" Amorphophallus paeoniifolius\" (elephant foot yam), \"Helicodiceros muscivorus\" (dead horse arum lily), and \"Sauromatum venosum\" (voodoo lily). Species such as titan arum and the dead horse arum give off a very pungent smell, often resembling rotten flesh, to attract flies to pollinate the plant. The heat produced by the plant helps to convey the scent further.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "Phylogeny based on the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. F", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "One of the earliest observations of species in the Araceae was conducted by Theophrastus in his work \"Enquiry into Plants\". The Araceae were not recognized as a distinct group of plants until the 16th century. In 1789, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu classified all climbing aroids as \"Pothos\" and all terrestrial aroids as either \"Arum\" or \"Dracontium\" in his book \"Familles des Plantes\".  The first major system of classification for the family was produced by Heinrich Wilhelm Schott, who published \"Genera Aroidearum\" in 1858 and \"Prodromus Systematis Aroidearum\" in 1860. Schott's system was based on floral characteristics, and used a narrow conception of a genus. Adolf Engler produced a classification in 1876, which was steadily refined up to 1920. His system is significantly different from Schott's, being based more on vegetative characters and anatomy. The two systems were to some extent rivals, with Engler's having more adherents before the advent of molecular phylogenetics brought new approaches.  Modern studies based on gene sequences show the Araceae (including the Lemnoideae, duckweeds) to be monophyletic, and the first diverging group within the Alismatales. The APG III system of 2009 recognizes the family, including the genera formerly segregated in the Lemnaceae. The sinking of the Lemnaceae into the Araceae is not universally accepted. For example, the 2010 \"New Flora of the British Isles\" uses a paraphyletic Araceae and a separate Lemnaceae. A comprehensive genomic study of \"Spirodela polyrhiza\" was published in February 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genera.", "content": "\"Anthurium\" and \"Zantedeschia\" are two well-known members of this family, as are \"Colocasia esculenta\" (taro) and \"Xanthosoma roseum\" (elephant ear or ‘ape). The largest unbranched inflorescence in the world is that of the arum \"Amorphophallus titanum\" (titan arum). The family includes many ornamental plants: \"Dieffenbachia\", \"Aglaonema\", \"Caladium\", \"Nephthytis\", and \"Epipremnum\", to name a few. The genera \"Cryptocoryne\", \"Anubias\" and \"Bucephalandra \" are many popular aquarium plants. \"Philodendron\" is an important plant in the ecosystems of the rainforests and is often used in home and interior decorating. \"Symplocarpus foetidus\" (skunk cabbage) is a common eastern North American species. An interesting peculiarity is that this family includes the largest unbranched inflorescence, that of the titan arum, often erroneously called the \"largest flower\" and the smallest flowering plant and smallest fruit, found in the duckweed, \"Wolffia\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Within the Araceae, genera such as \"Alocasia\", \"Arisaema\", \"Caladium\", \"Colocasia\", \"Dieffenbachia\", and \"Philodendron\" contain calcium oxalate crystals in the form of raphides. When consumed, these may cause edema, vesicle formation, and dysphagia accompanied by painful stinging and burning to the mouth and throat, with symptoms occurring for up to two weeks after ingestion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food plants.", "content": "Food plants in the family Araceae include \"Amorphophallus paeoniifolius\" (elephant foot yam), \"Colocasia esculenta\" (kochu, taro, dasheen), \"Xanthosoma\" (cocoyam, tannia), \"Typhonium trilobatum\" and \"Monstera deliciosa\" (Mexican breadfruit). While the aroids are little traded, and overlooked by plant breeders to the extent that the Crop Trust calls them \"orphan crops\", they are widely grown and are important in subsistence agriculture and in local markets. The main food product is the corm, which is high in starch; leaves and flowers also find culinary use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "List of foliage plant diseases (Araceae)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Araceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe or leaf-like bract. Also known as the arum family, members are often colloquially known as aroids. This family of 114 genera and about 3750 known species is most diverse in the New World tropics, although also distributed in the Old World tropics and northern temperate regions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972072}
{"src_title": "Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission.", "content": "The stated mission of SFOR was to \"deter hostilities and stabilise the peace, contribute to a secure environment by providing a continued military presence in the Area Of Responsibility (AOR), target and co-ordinate SFOR support to key areas including primary civil implementation organisations, and progress towards a lasting consolidation of peace, without further need for NATO-led forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure and history.", "content": "SFOR was established in Security Council Resolution 1088 on 12 December 1996. It succeeded the much larger Implementation Force IFOR which was deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina on 20 December 1995 with a one-year mandate. The commanders of the SFOR, who each served one-year terms, were General William W. Crouch, General Eric Shinseki, General Montgomery Meigs, Lt. General Ronald Adams, Lt. General Michael Dodson, Lt. General John B. Sylvester, Lt. General William E. Ward, Major General Virgil Packett and Brigadier General Steven P. Schook.  SFOR operated in support of NATO Operation Joint Guard and Operation Joint Forge.  Troop levels were reduced to approximately 12,000 by the close of 2002, and to approximately 7,000 by the close of 2004. During NATO's 2004 Istanbul Summit the end of the SFOR mission was announced.  It was replaced by the European Union's EUFOR Althea, on 2 December 2004 at NATO HQ, Camp Butmir, Sarajevo, B-H. Operation Joint Forge was succeeded by the EU's Operation Althea.  SFOR was divided into three zones of operation:  The three AOs were known collectively as Multi-National Divisions until the end of 2002 where they were reduced in scope to Multi-National Brigades.  SFOR operated under peace enforcement, not peacekeeping, rules of engagement. For example, it was cleared, in 1997, to neutralise Serb radio-television facilities. During its mandate, SFOR arrested 29 individuals who were charged with war crimes. Those arrested were transferred to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Netherlands. U.S. service members serving in SFOR were awarded the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal and the NATO Medal.  SFOR operated as part of Operation Joint Guard and Operation Joint Forge. As time progressed, the numbers of troops allotted to SFOR declined. On 2 December 2004, SFOR disbanded and its functions were assumed by military units from the European Union organized as European Union Forces (EUFOR).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Air operations.", "content": "Several sequential air operations supported the stabilization efforts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Member forces.", "content": "SFOR operated under the code names Operation Joint Guard (21 December 1996 – 19 June 1998) and Operation Joint Forge (20 June 1998 – 2 December 2004).  NATO nations providing troops included: Non-NATO nations providing troops included:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina (SFOR) was a NATO-led multinational peacekeeping force deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina after the Bosnian war. Although SFOR was led by NATO, several non-NATO countries contributed troops. It was replaced by EUFOR Althea in December 2004.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972073}
{"src_title": "Hermann of Salm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Hermann was a son of Count Giselbert of Luxembourg (1007–1059). His elder brother Conrad inherited the County of Luxemburg and became a faithful supporter of the Salian king Henry IV of Germany in the Investiture Controversy and the civil war of the Great Saxon Revolt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Investiture Controversy.", "content": "The major issue between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV was the appointment of bishops. It was a custom that if a bishop was to die, the emperor would appoint a new bishop based on his ecclesiastical qualifications. Henry, on the other hand, was appointing bishops for political reasons which made Gregory furious and thus prohibited the appointments of investiture by any lay person, including the emperor.  From the 10th century, the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire were elected Kings of the Romans, who expected to be crowned by the Pope as Holy Roman Emperor. However, because Henry believed the papacy should submit to the crown, Pope Gregory had him excommunicated and declared that he was unworthy of being Emperor. Because of this, the church broke off from Henry and supported the election of German anti-kings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Election.", "content": "Upon Henry's humiliating Walk to Canossa, several princes met at Forchheim and had the Swabian duke Rudolf of Rheinfelden elected anti-king in 1077. Henry's and Rudolf's forces met in the 1080 Battle on the Elster, whereby Rudolf died from the wounds he received.  While Henry turned to Italy in order to enforce his coronation in Rome, the Saxon and Swabian nobles led by the deposed Bavarian Duke Welf I elected Hermann as the second anti-king opposed to the Salian monarch in Ochsenfurt, Franconia on 6 August 1081. He immediately entered into an armed conflict with the loyal Hohenstaufen duke Frederick of Swabia and retired to the Saxon lands, where Archbishop Siegfried of Mainz crowned him king in Goslar on 26 December.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military campaigning.", "content": "Unfortunately for Pope Gregory, Hermann was nowhere near as strong a leader as Rudolph and this caused Henry’s power to grow. Henry was crowned Emperor by Antipope Clement III in 1084, leaving Hermann in a very awkward position. He gained broad support by the Saxon nobility, however, his plan to gather an army on the banks of the Danube and march across the Alps into Italy was dashed by the death of his main retainer, Count Otto of Nordheim. When Emperor Henry IV came into Saxony with a large army in 1085, Hermann fled to Denmark.  Little is known of what happened to Hermann after this other than he served as an anti-king under Gregory’s rule. During the revolt of Margrave Egbert II of Meissen, Hermann was able to return to Germany. Once again in alliance with Duke Welf I, he defeated the emperor at the 1086 Battle of Bleichfeld on the River Main, taking Würzburg. Soon after his victory, however, he had to witness Egbert's reconciliation with Emperor Henry and the killing of his ally Bishop Burchard II of Halberstadt. Tired of being a pawn in the hands of the grandees, he retired to his familial estates. King Conrad (III) began his rule after Hermann’s death. He died near the Imperial castle of Cochem later that year of 1088 in an skirmish with his relative Count palatine Henry of Laach, ending the Great Saxon Revolt.  His wife, Countess Sophia of Formbach, left him a son, Otto, who succeeded him in Salm.  According to a legend perpetuated by the Brothers Grimm, Hermann was mocked as \"King Garlic\" by his opponents. First celebrated by local Kalands Brethren, an annual \"Garlic Wednesday\" is held after Pentecost in the region around Halle up to today.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Herman(n) of Salm ( – 28 September 1088), also known as Herman(n) of Luxembourg, the progenitor of the House of Salm, was Count of Salm and elected German anti-king from 1081 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972074}
{"src_title": "Ackermann function", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the late 1920s, the mathematicians Gabriel Sudan and Wilhelm Ackermann, students of David Hilbert, were studying the foundations of computation. Both Sudan and Ackermann are credited with discovering total computable functions (termed simply \"recursive\" in some references) that are not primitive recursive. Sudan published the lesser-known Sudan function, then shortly afterwards and independently, in 1928, Ackermann published his function formula_2 (the Greek letter \"phi\"). Ackermann's three-argument function, formula_3, is defined such that for \"p\" = 0, 1, 2, it reproduces the basic operations of addition, multiplication, and exponentiation as and for \"p\" > 2 it extends these basic operations in a way that can be compared to the hyperoperations:  In \"On the Infinite\", David Hilbert hypothesized that the Ackermann function was not primitive recursive, but it was Ackermann, Hilbert's personal secretary and former student, who actually proved the hypothesis in his paper \"On Hilbert's Construction of the Real Numbers\".  Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson later developed a two-variable version of the Ackermann function that became preferred by many authors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition and properties.", "content": "Ackermann's original three-argument function formula_3 is defined recursively as follows for nonnegative integers \"m\", \"n\", and \"p\":  Of the various two-argument versions, the one developed by Péter and Robinson (called \"the\" Ackermann function by some authors) is defined for nonnegative integers \"m\" and \"n\" as follows:  It may not be immediately obvious that the evaluation of formula_12 always terminates. However, the recursion is bounded because in each recursive application either \"m\" decreases, or \"m\" remains the same and \"n\" decreases. Each time that \"n\" reaches zero, \"m\" decreases, so \"m\" eventually reaches zero as well. (Expressed more technically, in each case the pair (\"m\", \"n\") decreases in the lexicographic order on pairs, which is a well-ordering, just like the ordering of single non-negative integers; this means one cannot go down in the ordering infinitely many times in succession.) However, when \"m\" decreases there is no upper bound on how much \"n\" can increase—and it will often increase greatly.  The Péter-Ackermann function can also be expressed in relation to various other versions of the Ackermann function:  For small values of \"m\" like 1, 2, or 3, the Ackermann function grows relatively slowly with respect to \"n\" (at most exponentially). For, however, it grows much more quickly; even is about 2, and the decimal expansion of is very large by any typical measure.  One interesting aspect of the Ackermann function is that the only arithmetic operations it ever uses are addition and subtraction of 1. Its properties come solely from the power of unlimited recursion. This also implies that its running time is at least proportional to its output, and so is also extremely huge. In actuality, for most cases the running time is far larger than the output; see below.  A single-argument version that increases both \"m\" and \"n\" at the same time dwarfs every primitive recursive function, including very fast-growing functions such as the exponential function, the factorial function, multi- and superfactorial functions, and even functions defined using Knuth's up-arrow notation (except when the indexed up-arrow is used). It can be seen that \"f\"(\"n\") is roughly comparable to \"f\"(\"n\") in the fast-growing hierarchy. This extreme growth can be exploited to show that \"f\", which is obviously computable on a machine with infinite memory such as a Turing machine and so is a computable function, grows faster than any primitive recursive function and is therefore not primitive recursive.  In a category with exponentials, using the isomorphism formula_19 (in computer science, this is called currying), the Ackermann function may be defined via primitive recursion over higher-order functionals as follows:  where is the usual successor function and Iter denotes the functional power operator, defined by primitive recursion as well:  The function formula_22 defined in this way agrees with the Ackermann function formula_23 defined above: formula_24.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example expansions.", "content": "To see how the Ackermann function grows so quickly, it helps to expand out some simple expressions using the rules in the original definition. For example, one can fully evaluate formula_25 in the following way:  To demonstrate how formula_27's computation results in many steps and in a large number:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Table of values.", "content": "Computing the Ackermann function can be restated in terms of an infinite table. First, place the natural numbers along the top row. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left. Then use that number to look up the required number in the column given by that number and one row up. If there is no number to its left, simply look at the column headed \"1\" in the previous row. Here is a small upper-left portion of the table: !! 0! 1! 2! 3! 4! \"n\"! 0! 1! 2! 3! 4  This inverse appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as the disjoint-set data structure and Chazelle's algorithm for minimum spanning trees. Sometimes Ackermann's original function or other variations are used in these settings, but they all grow at similarly high rates. In particular, some modified functions simplify the expression by eliminating the −3 and similar terms.  A two-parameter variation of the inverse Ackermann function can be defined as follows, where formula_46 is the floor function: This function arises in more precise analyses of the algorithms mentioned above, and gives a more refined time bound. In the disjoint-set data structure, \"m\" represents the number of operations while \"n\" represents the number of elements; in the minimum spanning tree algorithm, \"m\" represents the number of edges while \"n\" represents the number of vertices. Several slightly different definitions of exist; for example, is sometimes replaced by \"n\", and the floor function is sometimes replaced by a ceiling.  Other studies might define an inverse function of one where m is set to a constant, such that the inverse applies to a particular row.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use as benchmark.", "content": "The Ackermann function, due to its definition in terms of extremely deep recursion, can be used as a benchmark of a compiler's ability to optimize recursion. The first published use of Ackermann's function in this way was in 1970 by Dragoş Vaida and, almost simultaneously, in 1971, by Yngve Sundblad.  Sundblad's seminal paper was taken up by Brian Wichmann (co-author of the Whetstone benchmark) in a trilogy of papers written between 1975 and 1982.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computability theory, the Ackermann function, named after Wilhelm Ackermann, is one of the simplest and earliest-discovered examples of a total computable function that is not primitive recursive. All primitive recursive functions are total and computable, but the Ackermann function illustrates that not all total computable functions are primitive recursive.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972075}
{"src_title": "Rudolf of Rheinfelden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Rudolf was the son of the Swabian count (\"Graf\") Kuno of Rheinfelden. He was first mentioned in a 1048 deed issued by the Salian emperor Henry III as a count in the Swabian Sisgau on the High Rhine (in present-day Northwestern Switzerland), an estate then held by the Prince-Bishopric of Basel. Rudolf's family had large possessions up to Sankt Blasien Abbey in the Black Forest and down to the Aargau beyond the border with the Kingdom of Burgundy. He probably was related to King Rudolph II of Burgundy (d. 937), the Dukes of Lorraine and the Ottonian dynasty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duke of Swabia.", "content": "When Duke Otto III of Swabia died without male heirs in 1057, Empress Agnes, consort of late Henry III, appointed him Swabian duke and administrator of Burgundy. Rivalling with the Zähringen count Berthold, Rudolf according to Frutolf of Michelsberg had taken advantage of the minority of Agnes' son Henry IV, elected King of the Romans, by kidnapping his sister Matilda of Swabia. Rudolf demanded, and received, Matilda's hand in marriage (1059). In 1061 Berthold received the Duchy of Carinthia instead. When Matilda died in 1060, Rudolf subsequently, in 1066, married Adelaide of Savoy (d. 1079), a daughter of Count Otto of Savoy and Adelaide of Susa. When Adelaide's sister Bertha of Savoy married Henry IV in 1066, Rudolf became brother-in-law to the king twice over.  During Agnes' regency, the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire could further strengthen their position against the Imperial authority. In the 1062 Coup of Kaiserswerth, several princes led by Archbishop Anno II of Cologne even abducted the minor king to enforce the surrender of the Imperial Regalia. When Henry came of age in 1065, he continued the policies of his father against the reluctant Saxon nobility, sparking the Saxon Rebellion in 1073. While other princes like the Carinthian duke Berthold of Zähringen or Duke Welf of Bavaria distanced themselves, Rudolf supported Henry's campaigns in Thuringia, when he was a primary force in the 1075 Battle of Langensalza against the insurgents. However, after the joint victory, Rudolf became estranged to the king and rumours occurred that he was involved in adversarial conspiracies. Empress Agnes repeatedly had to arbitrate between the parties.  Finally when the Investiture Controversy broke out and King Henry was excommunicated by Pope Gregory VII in February 1076, Duke Rudolf met with Berthold, Welf and several other princes in Trebur in order to decide on a course of action and to arrange a new election. Henry, observing the proceedings from his camp in Oppenheim on the other side of the Rhine, had to face a massive loss of support among the German nobles and realized that he had to achieve the lifting of his ban. Pope Gregory agreed to meet with the princes at Augsburg in February 1077.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anti-king.", "content": "Already in January, Henry hastened to see the pope on his way to the Empire from Rome. Duke Rudolf attempted to have the Alpine passes closed, nevertheless the king through wintry weather made his Walk to Canossa, where Gregory, fearing an armed attack by Henry's forces, had found refuge with Matilda of Tuscany. By doing penance, Henry managed to achieve absolution, buying time at the price of his reputation and secular authority. The rebels continued with their plans. Rudolf was elected anti-king on 15 March 1077 at the \"Kaiserpfalz\" in Forchheim, where already Louis the Child and Conrad I of Germany had been crowned. The first anti-king in the history of the Empire, he promised to respect the investiture solely according to canon law, as well as the concept of the elective monarchy. Further claims raised by the princes were rejected as simony by the attendant papal legates.  Rudolf was supported by the Archbishops of Mainz, Salzburg and Magdeburg as well as by the Dukes of Carinthia and Bavaria, the Saxon rebel Otto of Nordheim and possibly also by Duke Magnus of Saxony. He proceeded to Mainz, where on 25 May he was crowned by Archbishop Siegfried I, but soon after was forced to flee to Saxony, when the Mainz citizens revolted. This presented a problem, since the Saxon duchy was cut off from his Swabian homelands by the king's Salian territory. Moreover, the pope avoided taking sides and adopted a waiting attitude. Rudolf was accused of greed, treason and usurpation by Henry's liensmen, while his own support crumbled.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Rudolf gave Swabia to his son Berthold and attempted to rectify his situation by stalking Henry's forces near Würzburg, but to little effect. Meanwhile, he was deprived of Swabia by the \"Hoftag\" diet at Ulm in May, and the king gave the duchy to Frederick of Büren, the first Hohenstaufen ruler.  The next year Henry waged a successful campaign to Bavaria, while Pope Gregory rejected to excommunicate Rudolf. The Battle of Mellrichstadt on 7 August 1078 proved indecisive: though the opposition forces under Otto of Nordheim were victorious, the troops of Berthold and Welf were stuck in a peasants' revolt. Rudolf found it difficult to convince the Saxons to fight beyond their borders; they viewed him as a southerner and distrusted him. He was also frustrated by the apparent reluctance of the pope to recognize his cause. In order to gain and maintain supporters, he was forced to grant large parts of the crown lands, as well as those of the church, to his followers. Nevertheless, things seemed to be improving in 1080. The battle of Flarchheim (27 January 1080) went well in his favor. On 7 March, the pope excommunicated Henry again and recognized Rudolf as king.  Emboldened, Rudolf's forces met Henry's at the White Elster river in the Battle of Elster. The battle, which took place on 14 October 1080, would have been a huge victory for the anti-royalists. However, Rudolf lost his right hand in the battle and was mortally wounded in the abdomen. He withdrew to nearby Merseburg, where he died the next day and was buried. The majority of the support for the rebellion against Henry IV soon evaporated, but the struggle continued on in effect into 1085, with a final flare up in 1088 under Rudolph's successor, the second anti-king, Herman of Luxembourg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "With his second wife, Adelaide, Rudolf had at least four (and perhaps five) children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudolf of Rheinfelden ( – 15 October 1080) was Duke of Swabia from 1057 to 1079. Initially a follower of his brother-in-law, the Salian emperor Henry IV, his election as German anti-king in 1077 marked the outbreak of the Great Saxon Revolt and the first phase of open conflict in the Investiture Controversy between Emperor and Papacy. After a series of armed conflicts, Rudolf succumbed to his injuries after his forces defeated Henry's in the Battle on the Elster.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972076}
{"src_title": "Earless seal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Systematics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "The earliest known fossil earless seal is \"Noriphoca gaudini\" from the late Oligocene or earliest Miocene (Aquitanian) of Italy. Other early fossil phocids date from the mid-Miocene, 15 million years ago in the north Atlantic. Until recently, many researchers believed that phocids evolved separately from otariids and odobenids; and that they evolved from otter-like animals, such as \"Potamotherium\", which inhabited European freshwater lakes. Recent evidence strongly suggests a monophyletic origin for all pinnipeds from a single ancestor, possibly \"Enaliarctos\", most closely related to the mustelids and bears.  Monk seals and elephant seals are believed to have first entered the Pacific through the open straits between North and South America, which only closed in the Pliocene. The various Antarctic species may have either used the same route, or traveled down the west coast of Africa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "In the 1980s and 1990s, morphological phylogenetic analysis of the phocids led to new conclusions about the interrelatedness of the various genera. More recent molecular phylogenetic analyses have confirmed the monophyly of the two phocid subfamilies (Phocinae and Monachinae). The Monachinae (known as the \"southern\" seals), is composed of three tribes; the Lobodontini, Miroungini, and Monachini. The four Antarctic genera \"Hydrurga\", \"Leptonychotes\", \"Lobodon\", and \"Ommatophoca\" are part of the tribe Lobodontini. Tribe Miroungini is composed of the elephant seals. The Monk seals (\"Monachus\" and \"Neomonachus\") are all part of the tribe Monachini. Likewise, subfamily Phocinae (the \"northern\" seals) also includes three tribes; Erignathini (\"Erignathus)\", Cystophorini (\"Cystophora)\", and Phocini (all other phocines). More recently, five species have been split off from \"Phoca\", forming three additional genera.  Alternatively the three monachine tribes have been evaluated to familiar status, which elephant seals and the Antarctic seals are more closely related to the phocines.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External anatomy.", "content": "Adult phocids vary from in length and in weight in the ringed seal to and in land-based members of the Carnivora, although they retain powerful canines. Some species lack molars altogether. The dental formula is: While otariids are known for speed and maneuverability, phocids are known for efficient, economical movement. This allows most phocids to forage far from land to exploit prey resources, while otariids are tied to rich upwelling zones close to breeding sites. Phocids swim by sideways movements of their bodies, using their hind flippers to fullest effect. Their fore flippers are used primarily for steering, while their hind flippers are bound to the pelvis in such a way that they cannot bring them under their bodies to walk on them. They are more streamlined than fur seals and sea lions, so they can swim more effectively over long distances. However, because they cannot turn their hind flippers downward, they are very clumsy on land, having to wriggle with their front flippers and abdominal muscles. Phocid respiratory and circulatory systems are adapted to allow diving to considerable depths, and they can spend a long time underwater between breaths. Air is forced from the lungs during a dive and into the upper respiratory passages, where gases cannot easily be absorbed into the bloodstream. This helps protect the seal from the bends. The middle ear is also lined with blood sinuses that inflate during diving, helping to maintain a constant pressure.  Phocids are more specialized for aquatic life than otariids. They lack external ears and have sleek, streamlined bodies. Retractable nipples, internal testicles, and an internal penile sheath provide further streamlining. A smooth layer of blubber lies underneath the skin. Phocids are able to divert blood flow to this layer to help control their temperatures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Communication.", "content": "Unlike otariids, true seals do not communicate by 'barking'. Instead, they communicate by slapping the water and grunting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Phocids spend most of their time at sea, although they return to land or pack ice to breed and give birth. Pregnant females spend long periods foraging at sea, building up fat reserves, and then return to the breeding site to use their stored energy to nurse pups. However, the common seal displays a reproductive strategy similar to that used by otariids, in which the mother makes short foraging trips between nursing bouts.  Because a phocid mother's feeding grounds are often hundreds of kilometers from the breeding site, she must fast while lactating. This combination of fasting with lactation requires the mother to provide large amounts of energy to her pup at a time when she is not eating (and often, not drinking). Mothers must supply their own metabolic needs while nursing. This is a miniature version of the humpback whales' strategy, which involves fasting during their months-long migration from arctic feeding areas to tropical breeding/nursing areas and back.  Phocids produce thick, fat-rich milk that allows them to provide their pups with large amounts of energy in a short period. This allows the mother to return to the sea in time to replenish her reserves. Lactation ranges from five to seven weeks in the monk seal to just three to five days in the hooded seal. The mother ends nursing by leaving her pup at the breeding site to search for food (pups continue to nurse if given the opportunity). \"Milk stealers\" that suckle from unrelated, sleeping females are not uncommon; this often results in the death of the mother's pup, since a female can only feed one pup.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Growth and maturation.", "content": "The pup's diet is so high in calories, it builds up a fat store. Before the pup is ready to forage, the mother abandons it, and the pup consumes its own fat for weeks or even months while it matures. Seals, like all marine mammals, need time to develop the oxygen stores, swimming muscles, and neural pathways necessary for effective diving and foraging. Seal pups typically eat no food and drink no water during the period, although some polar species eat snow. The postweaning fast ranges from two weeks in the hooded seal to 9–12 weeks in the northern elephant seal. The physiological and behavioral adaptations that allow phocid pups to endure these remarkable fasts, which are among the longest for any mammal, remain an area of active study and research.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feeding strategy.", "content": "Phocids make use of at least four different feeding strategies: suction feeding, grip, and tear feeding, filter feeding, and pierce feeding. Each of these feeding strategies is aided by a specialized skull, mandible, and tooth morphology. However, despite morphological specialization, most phocids are opportunistic and employ multiple strategies to capture and eat prey. For example, the leopard seal, \"Hydrurga leptonyx\", uses grip and tear feeding to prey on penguins, suction feeding to consume small fish, and filter feeding to catch krill.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The earless seals, phocids or true seals are one of the three main groups of mammals within the seal lineage, Pinnipedia. All true seals are members of the family Phocidae. They are sometimes called crawling seals to distinguish them from the fur seals and sea lions of the family Otariidae. Seals live in the oceans of both hemispheres and, with the exception of the more tropical monk seals, are mostly confined to polar, subpolar, and temperate climates. The Baikal seal is the only species of exclusively freshwater seal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972077}
{"src_title": "Skiathos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The island has a north to southwestern axis and is about long and wide on average. The coastline is indented with inlets, capes and peninsulas. The southeast and southwest parts have gentler slopes and that is where most settlements and facilities are located. The terrain is more rugged on the north coast, with the highest peak at on mount Karafiltzanaka ().  The main town is Skiathos (pop. 4,883 in 2011), in the eastern part of the island. Other main settlements are Kalyvia (312), Troullos (158), Χanemos (143), Koukounaries (119), and Achladias (118).  The Municipality of Skiathos includes the islets of Tsougria, Tsougriaki, Maragos, Arkos, Troulonisi and Aspronisi. The municipality has an area of 49.898 km. They are scattered a few kilometres off the southeast coastline and are clearly visible from the town and the beaches. The island of Skopelos is visible from Skiathos with the more distant islands of Euboea and Skyros visible under very clear weather conditions. The main paved road runs along the southeastern stretch of the island with several narrow dirt roads branching off towards the interior and the northern coast. Farmland exists around the major settlements on the island.  Despite its small size, Skiathos with its many beaches and wooded landscape is a popular tourist destination. It has over 60, mostly sandy, beaches scattered around the coastline. Some of these are Troulos, Vromolimnos, Koukounaries, Asselinos, Megali Ammos and Mandraki.  Much of the island is wooded with Aleppo Pine and a small Stone Pine forest at the Koukounaries location where there is a lagoon and a popular beach. The island's forests are concentrated on the southwest and northern parts, but the presence of pine trees is prevalent throughout the island.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In Ancient times, the island played a minor role during the Persian Wars. In 480 BC, the fleet of the Persian King Xerxes was hit by a storm and was badly damaged on the rocks of the Skiathos coast. Following this the Greek fleet blockaded the adjacent seas to prevent the Persians from invading the mainland and supplying provisions to the army facing the 300 Spartans defending the pass at Thermopylae. The Persian fleet was defeated there at Artemisium and finally destroyed at the Battle of Salamis a year later. Skiathos then became part of the Delian League. The city was destroyed by Philip V of Macedon in 200 BC.  In 1207 the Ghisi brothers captured the island and built the Bourtzi, a small Venetian-styled fortress similar to the Bourtzi in Nafplio, on an islet just out of Skiathos Town, to protect the capital from the pirates. But the Bourtzi was ineffective in protecting the population and in the mid-14th century the inhabitants moved the capital from the ancient site that lay where modern Skiathos Town is to Kastro (the Greek word for castle), located on a high rock, overlooking a steep cliff above the sea at the northernmost part of the island. The island returned to Byzantine control in the 1270s, and remained in Byzantine hands until after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when it passed to the Republic of Venice. Like the rest of the Northern Sporades, Skiathos was conquered by the Ottoman admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1538.  In 1704 monks from Athos built the Evangelistria Monastery, which played a part on the Greek War of Independence as a hide-out for Greek rebels. The first flag of Greece was created and hoisted in the Evangelistria Monastery in Skiathos in 1807, where several prominent military leaders (including Theodoros Kolokotronis and Andreas Miaoulis) had gathered for consultation concerning an uprising, and they were sworn to this flag by the local bishop.  After the War of Independence and demise of piracy in the Aegean, Kastro became less important. In 1830s, the island's capital was moved to the original site — where it still remains. Today, the ruins of Kastro are a tourist attraction.  During the 19th century Skiathos became an important shipbuilding centre in the Aegean due to the abundance of pine forests on the island. The pine woods of the island were then almost obliterated. This was brought to a halt though, due to the emergence of steamboats. A small shipwright remains north of Skiathos Town, which still builds traditional Greek caiques.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "There is a regular boat service to the island and the rest of the Sporades islands with departures from Volos and Agios Konstantinos. The boats are operated mainly by Hellenic Seaways using its high-speed Flying Cat vessels as well as conventional ferries.  Skiathos International Airport is at the northeast of the island next to a lagoon and a lowland isthmus separating the island from the peninsula of Lazareta. As of summer 2011, Skiathos airport is served by Olympic Air flights from both Athens and Thessaloniki, while foreign airlines provide charter flights from a range of airports in European countries such as the United Kingdom, France, Austria, the Netherlands, Italy, Cyprus and Scandinavian countries. During the winter 2013/14, work began to expand the airport, with a runway extension and increased hard standing for parked aircraft.  The modern major road runs along the eastern and southern coast. Narrower roads, some paved and some dirt, reach the interior and the northwest coastline. There is regular, and during tourist season, very frequent bus transit from the main town to the Koukounaries beach in the southwest.  There are three bus routes on the island. The core route is from the main town to Koukounaries beach which travels along the south coast of the island. There are in total 26 bus stops, with Koukounaries Beach being the last stop, number 26. This route operates a fleet of five coaches as frequently as five times an hour during the summer peak season throughout the day, but is significantly reduced during the winter. The second route departs from Skiathos Town, to the Monastery of Evangelistria at an hourly daily schedule and the third bus route to Xanemos on the north coast with up to six round trips daily, both operated using mini-buses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In cinema.", "content": "Skiathos and its neighbour Skopelos were the filming locations of the 2008 film \"Mamma Mia!\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Skiathos (,, ;, ; and ) is a small Greek island in the northwest Aegean Sea. Skiathos is the westernmost island in the Northern Sporades group, east of the Pelion peninsula in Magnesia on the mainland, and west of the island of Skopelos.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972078}
{"src_title": "Russula", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Christian Hendrik Persoon first circumscribed the genus \"Russula\" in his 1796 work \"Observationes Mycologicae\", and considered the defining characteristics to be the fleshy fruit bodies, depressed cap, and equal gills. He reduced it to the rank of tribe in the genus \"Agaricus\" in 1801. Elias Fries similarly regarded \"Russula\" as a tribe of \"Agaricus\" in his influential \"Systema Mycologicum\" (1821), but later (1825) raised it to the rank of genus in the \"Systema Orbis Vegetabilis\". Around the same time, Samuel Frederick Gray also recognized \"Russula\" as a genus in his 1821 work \"The Natural Arrangement of British Plants\". The name \"Russula\" is derived from the Latin word \"russus\", meaning \"red\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Identification.", "content": "Like the genus \"Lactarius\", russulas have a distinctive flesh consistency, which is also reflected in the appearance of the gills and stipe, and normally makes them immediately recognizable. They have no trace of a veil (no ring, or veil remnants on the cap). The gills are brittle except in a few cases, and cannot be bent parallel with the cap without breaking. Hence the genus \"Russula\" is sometimes known colloquially as \"brittle gills\". They have splitting gills and do not exude a milky substance at cut surfaces, contrary to the genus \"Lactarius\". Presence of large spherical cells,'sphaerocysts', in the stipe is an important characteristic feature to distinguish the members of Russulaceae from other mushrooms. In \"Russula\", the stipe breaks like the flesh of an apple, while in most other families it only breaks into fibres. The spore powder varies from white to cream, or even orange.  While it is relatively easy to identify a sample mushroom as belonging to this genus, it is a significant challenge to distinguish member species of \"Russula\". This task often requires microscopic characteristics, and subtle subjective distinctions, such as the difference between a \"mild to bitter\" and a \"mild to acrid\" flavor. Moreover, the exact phylogenetic relationships of these mushrooms have yet to be resolved in the professional mycological community, and may ultimately depend on DNA sequencing analysis.  The following characteristics are often important in identifying individual species:  Despite the difficulty in positively identifying collected specimens, the possibility to spot the toxic species by their acrid taste makes some of the mild species, such as \"R. cyanoxantha\" and \"R. vesca\", popular edible mushrooms. \"Russula\" is mostly free of deadly poisonous species, and mild-tasting ones are all edible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "All \"Russula\" species are ectomycorrhizal symbionts with higher plants and trees, and the genus has a collectively diverse host range. Some species are cosmopolitan and capable of forming associations with one or more hosts in a range of habitats, while others are more constrained in either host or habitat or both. The mycoheterotrophic plant \"Monotropa uniflora\" associates with a small range of fungal hosts, all of them members of Russulaceae, including 18 species of \"Russula\".  Russula fruit bodies provide a seasonal food source for slugs, squirrels and deer.  Some russulas can bioaccumulate high levels of toxic metals from their environment. For example, \"Russula atropurpurea\" is capable of concentrating zinc, a property attributed to the presence of metallothionein-like peptides in the mushroom. \"Russula nigricans\" can accumulate lead to a level up to five times more concentrated than the soil it grows in, while \"R. ochroleuca\" concentrates environmental mercury.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "Humans collect several species of \"Russula\" for food. There is a cultural divide toward interpretation of \"Russula\" edibility. In general, North American field guides tend to list mostly non-edible species and advise caution when consuming any member of the genus. In contrast, European field guides have a more favorable opinion and list more edible species.  In the Pacific Northwest region of North America, only \"Russula brevipes\" parasitized with \"Hypomyces lactifluorum\"—known as lobster mushroom—is collected commercially. Several \"Russula\" species are sold in the markets of Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park (central Mexico): \"R. brevipes\", \"R. cyanoxantha\", \"R. mexicana\" and \"R. olivacea\". In Tlaxcala, wild species sold in market include \"R. alutacea\", \"R. cyanoxantha\", \"R. delica\", \"R. mariae\", \"R. olivacea\", \"R. romagnesia\", and \"R. xerampelina\".  In Madagascar, species collected from introduced eucalypt forests include \"Russula madecassense\", \"Russula prolifica\", and several other species of minor importance, including some that have not yet been officially described. \"Russula\" is the most commonly consumed and economically important mushroom genus in Madagascar, particularly \"Russula prolifica\" and \"Russula edulis\". This and other edible Russula are typically stripped of their cap cuticle before selling to make them more similar in appearance to the \"Agaricus bisporus\". In Tanzania, \"Russula cellulata\" and \"Russula ciliata\" are sometimes used as food.  \"Russula cyanoxantha\" is a popular edible throughout Asia, Europe, and the Pacific. In Finland, commonly eaten species include (but are not limited to) \"Russula vinosa\", \"Russula vesca, Russula paludosa, Russula decolorans, Russula xerampelina\" and \"Russula claroflava.\"  In Thailand, russulas collected by locals and sold in roadsides and local markets include \"Russula alboareolata\", \"Russula lepida\", \"Russula nigricans\", \"Russula virescens\", and \"Russula xerampelina\". Edible russulas in Nepal include \"Russula flavida\" and \"Russula chlorides\". The tropical Chinese species \"Russula griseocarnea\", misidentified as the European \"R. vinosa\" until 2009, is commercially collected as food and medicine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "The main pattern of toxicity seen among \"Russula\" species to date has been gastrointestinal symptoms in those with a spicy (acrid) taste when eaten raw or undercooked; many of these are red-capped species such as \"R. emetica\", \"R. sardonia\" and \"R. nobilis\". The Asian species \"Russula subnigricans\" has been the cause of several fatal cases of rhabdomyolysis in Japan. Several active agents have been isolated from the species, including russuphelin A and cycloprop-2-ene carboxylic acid.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Natural products.", "content": "Despite the large number of species, the secondary metabolites of \"Russula\" have not been well investigated, especially compared to \"Lactarius\". \"Russula foetens\" was shown to produce the marasmane sesquiterpenes Lactapiperanol A and Lactapiperanol E. A novel lectin with potent in vitro antitumor activity was isolated from \"Russula rosea\", the first lectin reported from a \"Russula\". This mushroom is also the source of the sesquiterpenes rulepidanol and rulepidadienes A and B. \"Russula nigricans\" contains the compound nigricanin, the first ellagic acid derivative isolated from higher fungi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequestrate species.", "content": "The description of \"Russula\" was changed in 2007 when molecular analysis revealed that several sequestrate species formerly classified in \"Macowanites\" (syn. \"Elasmomyces\") were shown to lie within \"Russula\". The type species of \"Macowanites\", \"Macowanites agaricinus\", was transferred and several new species were added: \"Russula albidoflava\", \"R. albobrunnea\", \"R. brunneonigra\", \"R. galbana\", \"R. pumicoidea\", \"R. reddellii\", \"R. reddellii\", \"R. sinuata\", and \"R. variispora\". The genus names \"Gymnomyces\" and \"Martellia\", formerly used for sequestrate species, are now accepted synonyms of \"Russula\", The genus \"Cystangium\" is also probably a synonym of \"Russula\" but is still in use.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Around 750 worldwide species of ectomycorrhizal mushrooms compose the genus Russula. They are typically common, fairly large, and brightly colored – making them one of the most recognizable genera among mycologists and mushroom collectors. Their distinguishing characteristics include usually brightly coloured caps, a white to dark yellow spore print, brittle, attached gills, an absence of latex, and absence of partial veil or volva tissue on the stem. Microscopically, the genus is characterised by the amyloid ornamented spores and flesh (trama) composed of spherocysts. Members of the related genus \"Lactarius\" have similar characteristics but emit a milky latex when their gills are broken. The genus was described by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1796.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972079}
{"src_title": "Hakan Yakin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Yakin was born in Basel, Switzerland, to Turkish parents. He grew up and went to school in suburban Münchenstein, Basel-Landschaft, just outside Basel, and close to the borders of France and Germany. He is the younger brother of international football player Murat Yakin, also a former member of the Swiss national football team, who currently works as a manager. His elder half-brother Ertan Irizik is also a former football professional. Yakin's surname is based on the Turkish word \"Yakın\" (meaning \"close\", \"adjacent\"), however as he is a Swiss resident and citizen, the name which he uses is \"Yakin\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club career.", "content": "As a child Yakin played in the youth teams of his local side FC Concordia Basel. He signed his first professional contract with hometown club FC Basel in January 1995. He played his League debut for Basel on 12 April 1995 in the 1994–95 season in the match against Lausanne Sports. He was brought on in the 60th minute as replacement for Alexandre Rey and with his first touch of the ball, just 18 seconds later, he scored the goal to make it 3–0, a header (final score 5–0).  After two and a half years in Basel he transferred to Grasshopper Club Zürich, with manager Christian Gross, but could not establish himself, making most of his appearances as substitute, and he was loaned to FC St. Gallen for the second half of the 1997–98 season. He moved immediately into the starting eleven and so the loan was prolonged, before he returned to the Grasshoppers.  During January 2001 he transferred back to Basel. At the end of the 2001–02 season Yakin won the national Double with Basel and a year later won the Swiss Cup again. He recalls the 2002–03 Champions League Group B match on 12 November 2002 against Liverpool in St. Jakob-Park as the \"match of his life\". The game was drawn 3–3 and Yakin gave all three assists as Basel cruised to a 3–0 half-time lead as they qualified, one point above Liverpool, for the 2002–03 UEFA Champions League second group stage. His career was then overshadowed by some trouble regarding his club transfers, as his engagements outside Switzerland (Paris Saint-Germain, VfB Stuttgart, and Galatasaray) were not accompanied by luck. In 2005–06, Yakin returned to Switzerland, joining BSC Young Boys. In July 2008, Yakin signed a contract with Qatar champions Al-Gharafa, for a salary of around €2.5 million per year.  In March 2009, it was reported that Yakin had been training with the Grasshopper Club Zürich Under-21 side, coached by his brother Murat, in a bid to get fit. Yakin then signed a contract on 25 June 2009 in his homeland Switzerland with FC Luzern, running through to 30 June 2011. In summer 2011 his brother Murat became his manager at FC Luzern.  During the mid-season break in January 2012 Yakin transferred to AC Bellinzona in the Challenge League, the second tier of Swiss football. He played his team debut on 26 February in the 2–0 home win against Stade Nyonnais. He scored his first two goals for the club in the 3–2 away win against Aarau on 9 April 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Yakin was capped 87 times for Switzerland, the first coming in 2000. He was offered Turkish nationality before being called up to the Swiss squad, but turned it down for personal reasons. He has played in UEFA Euro 2004, UEFA Euro 2008, and both the 2006 FIFA World Cup and the 2010 FIFA World Cup with his country.  On 11 June 2008, he scored the opening goal in the 32nd minute of Switzerland's second Euro 2008 Group A match against Turkey, giving them a 1–0 lead and he refused to celebrate after the goal as a respect for his family's birth country. However, he missed another chance shortly afterward as Turkey scored two second-half goals, resulting in Switzerland's becoming the first team to be mathematically eliminated from their own tournament within five days of its beginning. However, in Switzerland's final group match against Portugal on 15 June, Yakin added two second-half goals, the second a penalty kick, to secure their first ever win at the UEFA European Championship, 2–0. Yakin finished the tournament as joint-second highest goalscorer with Lukas Podolski, Roman Pavlyuchenko, and Semih Şentürk with three goals each, behind David Villa's four goals.  Under new national team coach, Ottmar Hitzfeld, Yakin participated in seven of Switzerland's ten qualifying matches for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, starting twice, and making five substitute appearances, scoring one goal in Switzerland's opening qualifier against Israel. He announced his retirement from the Swiss national team on 4 October 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Grasshoppers  Basel  Galatasaray  Young Boys", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Hakan Yakin (; born 22 February 1977) is a Swiss former footballer who played as a forward or midfielder. He was a member of the Swiss national team for eleven years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972080}
{"src_title": "Parliamentary group", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "International terms.", "content": "Parliamentary groups correspond to \"caucuses\" in the United States Congress and the Parliament of Canada. A parliamentary group is sometimes called the \"parliamentary wing\" of a party, as distinct from its \"organisational wing\".  The term or equivalent applies to a number of countries, including: Australia (\"party room\"); Austria (\"Club\"); Belgium (\"fractie\"/\"fraction\"/\"Fraktion\"); Brazil and Portugal (\"grupo parlamentar\" or \"bancadas\"); Germany (\"Fraktion\"); Italy (\"gruppo\"), Finland (eduskuntaryhmä/\"riksdagsgrupp\"); the Netherlands (\"fractie\"); Switzerland (\"fraction\"/\"Fraktion\"/\"frazione\"); and Romania (\"grup parlamentar\"), which all have recognized multiparty systems.  The political groups of the European Parliament are similar to other parliamentary groups. They are more regulated than other kinds of parliamentary groups: to gain financial support or to join committees, each parliamentary group must consist of no less than 25 MEPs from seven different EU member states.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with party.", "content": "Generally, parliamentary groups have some independence from the wider party organisations. It is often thought improper for elected MPs to take instructions solely from non-elected party officials or from the small subset of the electorate represented by party members. In any case, the exigencies of government, the need to cooperate with other members of the legislature and the desire to retain the support of the electorate as a whole often preclude strict adherence to the wider party's wishes. The exact relationship between the parliamentary party and the party varies between countries, and also from party to party. For example, in some parties, the parliamentary and organisational leadership will be held by the same person or people, whether \"ex officio\" or not; other parties maintain a sharp distinction between the two offices. Nevertheless, in almost all cases, the parliamentary leader is the public face of the party, and wields considerable influence within the organisational wing, whether or not he or she has any official position there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leadership.", "content": "A parliamentary group is typically led by a parliamentary group leader or chairperson, though some parliamentary groups have two or more \"co-leaders\". If the parliamentary group is represented in the legislature, the leader is almost always chosen from among the sitting members; if the leader does not yet have a seat in the legislature, a sitting member of the group may be expected to resign to make way for him or her. If the party is not represented in the legislature for the time being, the leader will often be put forward at a general election as the party's candidate for their most winnable seat. In some parties, the leader is elected solely by the members of the parliamentary group; in others, some or all members of the wider party participate in the election. Parliamentary groups often have one or more whips, whose role is to support the leadership by enforcing party discipline.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United Kingdom Parliamentary Groups.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "APPGs.", "content": "In the United Kingdom Parliament there exist associations of MPs called \"all-party parliamentary groups\", which bring together members of different parliamentary groups who wish to involve themselves with a particular subject. This term is in a sense the opposite of the term 'parliamentary group', which designates a group that includes only members of the same party or electoral fusion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Parliamentary Friendship Groups.", "content": "One special kind of parliamentary groups are the Parliamentary Friendship Groups, also called Inter-Parliamentary Friendship Groups or Friendship Parliamentary Groups or Parliamentary Group of Friendship [and Cooperation].  \"Parliamentary Friendship\" groups are groups of congresspeople/members of parliament who voluntarily organise themselves to promote parliamentary relations between their own Parliament and another country's (or even a region's group of countries') parliament(s), and, in a broader scope, to foster the bilateral relations between said countries. Parliamentary friendship groups play an important role in New Zealand’s engagement in inter-parliamentary relations, with group members often called upon to participate and host meetings for visiting delegations from the other part, as well as often being invited by the other country's parliament to visit it.  Friendship Groups do not speak for the Government of their own country, or even for the whole of the Parliament/Congress to which they belong, as they are usually self-regulating and self-fulfilling.  Parliamentary Friendship Groups are active in the national congresses/parliaments of countries such as Armenia, Australia, Brazil, Germany, Israel, Laos, New Zealand, Pakistan, Peru, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, South Korea, Switzerland, and the United States, among many others.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A parliamentary group, parliamentary party, or parliamentary caucus is a group consisting of members of the same political party or electoral fusion of parties in a legislative assembly such as a parliament or a city council.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972081}
{"src_title": "Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Pappenheim was born in the little town of Treuchtlingen, a secondary seat of his family, the ruling Lords of Pappenheim on the Altmühl in Bavaria, a free lordship of the empire \"(see: Pappenheim (state)\", from which the ancient family to which he belonged derived its name. He was the second son of Veit zu Pappenheim, Lord of Treuchtlingen and Schwindegg, and his second wife Maria Salome von Preysing-Kopfsburg.  He was educated at Altdorf and Tübingen, and subsequently traveled in southern and central Europe, mastering the various languages, and seeking knightly adventures. His stay in these countries led him eventually to adopt the Roman Catholic faith in 1614, to which he devoted the rest of his life. At the outbreak of the great war he abandoned the legal and diplomatic career on which he had embarked, and in his zeal for the faith took service in Poland. The experience gained in the service in the Polish army (especially in the way of fighting cavalry) will soon be able to take advantage of fighting on the side of the Catholic League.  He soon became a lieutenant-colonel, and displayed great courage and ability at the battle of the White Mountain near Prague (8 November 1620), where he was left for dead on the field. In the following year he fought against Ernst, Graf von Mansfield in western Germany, and, in 1622, became colonel of a regiment of cuirassiers. In 1623, as an ardent friend of Spain, the ally of his sovereign and the champion of his faith, he raised troops for the Italian war and served with the Spaniards in Lombardy and the Grisons. It was his long and heroic defence of the post of Riva on the Lake of Garda which first brought him conspicuously to the front. In 1626, Maximilian I of Bavaria, the head of the League, recalled him to Germany and entrusted him with the suppression of a peasant rebellion which had broken out in Upper Austria. Pappenheim swiftly carried out his task, encountering a most desperate resistance, but always successful; and in a few weeks he had crushed the rebellion with ruthless severity (i.e. Gmünden, Vöcklabruck and Wolfsegg, 15–30 November 1626).  After this he served with Tilly against Christian IV of Denmark, and besieged and took Wolfenbüttel. His hopes of obtaining the sovereignty and possessions of the evicted prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel were, after a long intrigue, definitively disappointed. In 1628 he was made a count of the empire. The siege and storm of Magdeburg followed, and Pappenheim, like Tilly, has been accused of the most savage cruelty in this massacre. So much could not be said of his tactics at the battle of Breitenfeld, the loss of which was not a little due to the impetuous cavalry general, who was never so happy as when leading a great charge of horse. The retreat of the imperialists from the lost field he covered, however, with care and skill, and subsequently he won great glory by his operations on the lower Rhine and the Weser in rear of the victorious army of Gustavus Adolphus. Much-needed reinforcements for the king of Sweden were constantly detained by Pappenheim's small and newly raised force in the north-west.  His operations were far-ranging and his restless activity dominated the country from Stade to Kassel, and from Hildesheim to Maastricht. Being now a field marshal in the imperial service, he was recalled to join Wallenstein, and assisted the generalissimo in Saxony against the Swedes; but, was again despatched towards Cologne and the lower Rhine. In his absence a great battle became imminent, and Pappenheim was hurriedly recalled. He appeared with his horsemen in the midst of the battle of Lützen (16 November 1632). His furious attack was for the moment successful. As Rupert at Marston Moor sought Cromwell as his worthiest opponent, so now Pappenheim sought Gustavus. At about the same time as the king was killed, Pappenheim received a mortal wound in another part of the field. He died later the same day or early the next morning en route to Leipzig, where his body was embalmed at the Pleissenburg fortress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "His name forms the key part of the Czech, Flemish, Dutch, Scandinavian, and German colloquialism \"I know my Pappenheims\" (\"ich kenne meine Pappenheimer\"). It is used to imply tongue-in-cheek that someone has, is or will be acting in a way that is completely expected. The sentence originally held a positive connotation and referred to the determination of Pappenheim's horsemen. Friedrich Schiller used the modified sentence \"Daran erkenn' ich meine Pappenheimer\" in his \"Wallenstein\" trilogy.  There is a military march, the Papenheimer Marsch, ostensibly written by Michael Haydn, younger brother of Franz Joseph Haydn.  The form of rapier called the Pappenheimer, is named after him.  In Polish military terminology, \"pappenheimer\" refers to a type of helmet worn by heavy cavalry during the Thirty Years' War.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim (29 May 1594 – 17 November 1632) was a field marshal of the Holy Roman Empire in the Thirty Years' War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972082}
{"src_title": "Pennine Alps", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Italian side is drained by the rivers Dora Baltea, Sesia and Toce, tributaries of the Po. The Swiss side is drained by the Rhône.  The Great St Bernard Tunnel, under the Great St Bernard Pass, leads from Martigny, Switzerland to Aosta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "The main chain (watershed between the Mediterranean Sea and Adriatic Sea) runs from west to east on the border between Italy (south) and Switzerland (north). From Mont Vélan, the first high summit east of St Bernard Pass, the chain rarely goes below 3000 metres and contains many four-thousanders such as Matterhorn or Monte Rosa. The valleys are quite similar on both side of the border, being generally oriented perpendicular to the main chain and descending progressively into the Rhône Valley on the north and the Aosta Valley on the south. Unlike many other mountain ranges, the higher peaks are often located outside the main chain and found themselves between the northern valleys (Grand Combin, Weisshorn, Mischabel, Weissmies).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Peaks.", "content": "The chief peaks of the Pennine Alps are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Glaciers.", "content": "Main glaciers:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passes.", "content": "The chief passes of the Pennine Alps are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nature conservation.", "content": "Some regional nature parks, like the \"Parco Naturale Alta Valsesia\" (6,511 ha - Piedmont, IT), the \"Riserva Naturale Mont Mars\" (390 ha - Aosta Valley, IT) and the \"Regional park of Binn valley\" (15,891 ha - Valais, CH), have been established on both sides of the main water divide.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pennine Alps (,,, ), also known as the \"Valais Alps\", are a mountain range in the western part of the Alps. They are located in Switzerland (Valais) and Italy (Piedmont and the Aosta Valley).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972083}
{"src_title": "Otto of Freising", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Otto was born in Klosterneuburg as the fifth son of Leopold III, margrave of Austria, by his wife Agnes, daughter of the emperor Henry IV. By her first husband, Frederick I of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, Agnes was the mother of the German king Conrad III and grandmother of the emperor Frederick I. Otto's sister, Judith or Ita, was married to Marquess William V of Montferrat. Otto was thus related to the most powerful families in Germany and northern Italy.  The records of his life are scanty and the dates somewhat uncertain. He studied in Paris, where he took an especial interest in philosophy. He is said to have been one of the first to introduce the philosophy of Aristotle into Germany, and served as provost of a new foundation in Austria.  Having entered the Cistercian order, Otto convinced his father to found Heiligenkreuz Abbey in 1133, thus bringing literacy and sophisticated agriculture (including wine making) to the region that would become Vienna. He became abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Morimond in Burgundy about 1136, and soon afterwards was elected bishop of Freising. This diocese, and indeed the whole of Bavaria, was then disturbed by the feud between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufen, and the church was in a deplorable condition; but a great improvement was brought about by the new bishop in both ecclesiastical and secular matters.  In 1147 Otto took part in the disastrous Second Crusade. The section of the crusading army led by the bishop was decimated, but Otto reached Jerusalem and returned to Bavaria in 1148 or 1149. He enjoyed the favour of Conrad's successor Frederick I, was probably instrumental in settling the dispute over the duchy of Bavaria in 1156, and was present at the famous diet of Besançon in 1157. Still retaining the habit of a Cistercian monk, he died at Morimond on 22 September 1158. In 1857 a statue of the bishop was erected at Freising.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Otto is most remembered for two important historical works.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Chronica de duabus civitatibus\".", "content": "The first of these is his \"Chronica sive Historia de duabus civitatibus\" (\"Chronicle or history of the two cities\"), a historical and philosophical work in eight books, which follows to some extent the lines laid down by Augustine and Orosius. Written during the time of the civil war in Germany (1143–1145), it contrasts Jerusalem and Babel, the heavenly and the earthly kingdoms, and also contains much valuable information about the history of his own time. The chronicle, which was held in very high regard by contemporaries, covers the years up until 1146, and from this date until 1209 it was continued by Otto, abbot of St Blasius (d. 1223). In the \"Chronica\", Otto reports a meeting he had with Bishop Hugh of Jabala, who told him of a Nestorian Christian king in the east named Prester John. It was hoped this monarch would bring relief to the crusader states. This is the first documented mention of Prester John.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Gesta Friderici Imperatoris\".", "content": "Better known is Otto's \"Gesta Friderici imperatoris\" (\"Deeds of Emperor Frederick\"), written at the request of Frederick I and prefaced by a letter from the emperor to the author. The \"Gesta\" comprises four books, the first two of which were written by Otto and the remaining two, or parts of them, by his pupil Ragewin or Rahewin. It has been argued that the third book and the early part of the fourth were also the work of Otto. Beginning with the quarrel between Pope Gregory VII and the emperor Henry IV, the first book takes the history down to the death of Conrad III in 1152. It is not confined to German affairs, as the author digresses to tell of the preaching of Bernard of Clairvaux, of his zeal against the heretics, and of the condemnation of Pierre Abélard; he also discourses on philosophy and theology. The second book opens with the election of Frederick I in 1152 and deals with the history of the first five years of his reign, especially in Italy, in some detail. From this point (1156) the work is continued by Ragewin. Otto's Latin is excellent, and in spite of a slight partiality for the Hohenstaufen, and some minor inaccuracies, the \"Gesta\" has been described as a \"model of historical composition.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Otto of Freising (; c. 1114 – 22 September 1158) was a German churchman and chronicler. He was Otto I Bishop of Freising as from 1138.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972084}
{"src_title": "Kara Mustafa Pasha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Born to Albanian parents in Merzifon, Mustafa was educated in the household of Köprülü Mehmed Pasha and married into the powerful Köprülü family. In 1659, he became governor of Silistria and subsequently held a number of important posts. Within ten years, he was acting as deputy for his brother-in-law, the grand vizier Köprülüzade Fazıl Ahmed Pasha when absent from the Sultan's court.  He served as a commander of ground troops in a war against Poland, negotiating a settlement with Jan Sobieski in 1676 that added the province of Podolia to the empire. The victory enabled the Ottomans to transform the Cossack regions of the southern Ukraine into a protectorate. When his brother-in-law Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed Pasha died that same year, Mustafa succeeded him as grand vizier.  Kara Mustafa led several successful campaigns into Ukraine, attempting to shore up the position of the Cossack state of Right-Bank Ukraine, then an Ottoman vassal. He established Ottoman garrisons in many of Ukraine's cities, and conquered the traditional Cossack capital of Chyhyryn, which had been under Russian occupation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle of Vienna.", "content": "In 1683, he launched a campaign northward into Austria in a last effort to expand the Ottoman Empire after more than 150 years of war. By mid-July, his 100,000-man army had besieged Vienna (guarded by 10,000 Habsburg soldiers), following in the footsteps of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1529. By September, he had taken a portion of the walls and appeared to be on his way to victory.  But on 12 September 1683, a Polish army under King Jan Sobieski took advantage of dissent within the Ottoman military command and poor disposition of his troops, winning the Battle of Vienna with a devastating flank attack led by Sobieski's Polish Winged Hussars. The Ottomans retreated into Hungary, much of which was subsequently conquered by the Habsburgs and their Holy League allies.  The defeat cost Mustafa his position, and ultimately, his life. On 25 December 1683, Kara Mustafa was executed in Belgrade at the order of Mehmed IV. He suffered death by strangulation with a silk cord, which was the method of capital punishment inflicted on high-ranking persons in the Ottoman Empire. His last words were, \"Am I to die?\" and \"As God pleases.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "\"The Foundation of Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha\" was one of the largest foundations ever founded both in Ottoman Empire and Turkey. According to the official records, it was last managed by the descendants of Kara Mustafa Pasha. The last few managers of the foundation were Mustafa Pasha's descendant Ahmed Asım Bey (born 1844), his son Mehmed Nebil Bey (born 1888) (also known as Merzifonlu Karamustafaoğlu or Merzifonlu Karamustafapaşaoğlu), and his son, the Turkish painter Doğan Yılmaz Merzifonlu Karamustafaoğlu, better known as Yılmaz Merzifonlu (1928–2010), until 1976. The \"Merzifonlu Karamustafaoğlu\" family name ended with the marriage of Yılmaz Merzifonlu's only daughter, Abide Tuğçe Mit. Kara Mustafa Pasha's family and descendant tree can be found via Turkey's Directorate General of Foundations.  Kara Mustafa Pasha's legacy in modern Turkey is mixed. Whereas historians describe him either as a capable tactician or reckless commander, Kemal Atatürk held a sympathetic view of the man. It is said that, while attending a lecture at an Ankara institution in 1933, at which a professor spoke disparagingly of Kara Mustafa Pasha, Atatürk spoke up in favour of Kara Mustafa, arguing that marching an army of 173,000 men from Constantinople to Vienna, the \"cathedral of Europe\", was a colossal undertaking for any commander, and that the only other person who came close to such a feat was Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In media.", "content": "In the 2012 Polish and Italian historical drama film \"September Eleven 1683\" about the Battle of Vienna, Kara Mustafa Pasha is portrayed by Italian actor Enrico Lo Verso.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha (, ; \"Mustafa Pasha the Courageous of Merzifon\"; 1634/1635 – 25 December 1683) was an Ottoman military commander and Grand Vizier, who was a central character in the Ottoman Empire's last attempts at expansion into both Central and Eastern Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972085}
{"src_title": "Commemorative coin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Subcategories.", "content": "Commemorative coins can be seen as being of one of three types:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Historically, the coins issued by any state have always reflected the current political or economic situation. Many ancient and pre-modern coins certainly commemorate events in contemporary times. For instance, Roman coins often have references to military campaigns and the defeat of foreign powers. These reverse types often symbolically represent the subordination of recently conquered territories to Roman authority. Such coins are examples of ancient political propaganda. The Roman Empire may be represented by a proud warrior 'raising' an undersized figure, representing the defeated enemy.  Throughout history, coins have commonly been issued on special occasions, without necessarily citing that occasion explicitly. In some cases, emergency money have been issued under unfavourable conditions, such as a city under siege. Such emergency coins were issued in Vienna in 1529, while the city was besieged by the troops of the Ottoman Empire. Due to the conditions at the time, such coins are frequently minted on square flans, rather than round ones (it was easier and quicker to produce a square flan than a round one). European square coins of this era are known by their German name 'klippe'. Coins might also be issued with the specific purpose of financing a military campaign, or for the payment of tribute or war indemnity by a feudal lord to his sovereign.  During recent centuries, specially prepared coins have been issued to proclaim the coronation of a new monarch. Such coins are known as 'largesse' coins. This type of coins were issued in India during the Mughal era (the 'nisar' coinage), and in Europe in the age of absolutism. In Europe, such coins were scattered from the royal chariot, to achieve attention and applause from the public. In Sweden, coins of this type were issued as late as 1873 (known as 'kastpenning').  During the era of the formation of the European nation states, the issuance of special coins explicitly commemorating various events became increasingly common. These coins were frequently devised to establish a public notion of nationhood, and also to honor the ruling monarch and his dynasty. During the economically exhaustive Napoleonic wars, a one sixth rigsdaler was issued in Denmark from voluntary contributions from the public, intended to finance the creation of a new fleet. Another notable coin is the Prussian thaler of 1871, commemorating the victory of the Franco-Prussian war, opening the gates for the Prussian king to be crowned as Emperor of the unified German nation. After the (political and monetary) unification of Germany, some German states continued issuing separate coins on special occasions, such as the jubilee of a ruling monarch. The issuance of these royal jubilee coins became common throughout Europe in the late 19th and early 20th century. In some cases, these became collector items already at the time of their minting.  Before World War II, commemorative coins were always made of precious metals. The base metal coins were probably not considered appropriate for, or worthy of, honoring the nation or the ruling dynasty. However, during the 20th century, the use of precious metals for circulating currency became increasingly scarce. World War I and the world economic crisis of the 1930s brought about temporary or permanent abolition of the convertibility of bank notes to silver and gold coins. Gradually, the issuance of precious metal coins became increasingly restricted, and definitively abandoned about 1970. While the commemoratives of these decades continued to be issued predominantly in precious metals, their use as circulating currency became scarce or ceased entirely. Thus, the commemoratives developed into a separate class of coins with no immediately recognisable link to the coins and notes used in everyday transactions. This class of coins were collectors items, or in some cases objects for economic investment.  When West Germany replaced the silver 5 mark coin with a copper-nickel one in 1975, the silver 5 mark commemoratives also reverted to copper-nickel (in 1979). Already in 1965, the Soviet Union issued a copper-nickel-zinc rouble commemorating the victory in World War II. This, and the next four commemorative roubles, were issued in several millions of copies, and circulated as regular currency.  In the United Kingdom, before decimalisation of the money system in 1971, the usual commemorative coin was a crown, or five shilling piece. These were issued to mark coronations of monarchs; one was also issued on the occasion of the death of Winston Churchill. Some decimal crowns (worth 25 pence) were issued, but since 1990 the £5 has been the usual non circulating commemorative coin. Other denominations such as the 50 pence and £2 are issued as circulating commemoratives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Significance of non-circulating commemoratives.", "content": "Many countries issue large quantities of non-circulating legal tender purely for seigniorage as a profit making exercise. The events that these coins commemorate are often chosen based on a perceived market, rather than events of significance to the country. Technology developed for non circulating coins has moved to circulation issues - coloured coins were first issued as non circulating legal tender, but Canada has issued coloured commemorative coins into circulation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Commemorative coins by area:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Commemorative coins are coins issued to commemorate some particular event or issue with a distinct design with reference to the occasion on which they were issued. Many coins of this category serve as collectors items only, although some countries are also issuing commemorative coins for regular circulation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972086}
{"src_title": "Seborrhoeic dermatitis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Seborrhoeic dermatitis' symptoms appear gradually, and usually the first signs are flaky skin and scalp. Symptoms occur most commonly anywhere on the skin of the scalp, behind the ears, on the face, and in areas where the skin folds. Flakes may be yellow, white or grayish. Redness and flaking may also occur on the skin near the eyelashes, on the forehead, around the sides of the nose, on the chest, and on the upper back.  In more severe cases, yellowish to reddish scaly pimples appear along the hairline, behind the ears, in the ear canal, on the eyebrows, on the bridge of the nose, around the nose, on the chest, and on the upper back.  Commonly, patients experience mild redness, scaly skin lesions and in some cases hair loss. Other symptoms include patchy scaling or thick crusts on the scalp, red, greasy skin covered with flaky white or yellow scales, itching, soreness and yellow or white scales that may attach to the hair shaft.  Seborrhoeic dermatitis can occur in infants younger than three months and it causes a thick, oily, yellowish crust around the hairline and on the scalp. Itching is not common among infants. Frequently, a stubborn diaper rash accompanies the scalp rash.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Causes.", "content": "The cause of seborrhoeic dermatitis has not been fully clarified. The condition is thought to be due to a local inflammatory response to colonization by \"Malassezia\" fungi species in sebum-producing skin areas including the scalp, face, chest, back, underarms, and groin. This is based on observations of high counts of \"Malassezia\" species in skin affected by seborrhoeic dermatitis and on the effectiveness of antifungals in treating the condition. Such species of \"Malassezia\" include \"M. furfur\" (formerly \"P. ovale\"), \"M. globosa\", \"M. restricta\", \"M. sympodialis\", and \"M. slooffiae\". Although \"Malassezia\" appears to be the central predisposing factor in seborrhoeic dermatitis, it is thought that other factors are necessary for the presence of \"Malassezia\" to result in the pathology characteristic of the condition. This is based on the fact that high counts of \"Malassezia\" in the skin alone do not result in seborrhoeic dermatitis. Besides antifungals, the effectiveness of anti-inflammatory drugs, which reduce inflammation, and antiandrogens, which reduce sebum production, provide further insights into the pathophysiology of seborrhoeic dermatitis. Eunuchs, owing to their low androgen levels and small sebaceous glands, do not develop seborrheic dermatitis.  In addition to the presence of \"Malassezia\", genetic, environmental, hormonal, and immune-system factors are necessary for and/or modulate the expression of seborrhoeic dermatitis. The condition may be aggravated by illness, psychological stress, fatigue, sleep deprivation, change of season, and reduced general health. In children and babies, excessive vitamin A intake or issues with Δ-desaturase enzymes have been correlated with increased risk. Seborrhoeic dermatitis-like eruptions are also associated with vitamin B deficiency. Those with immunodeficiency (especially infection with HIV) and with neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease (for which the condition is an autonomic sign) and stroke are particularly prone to it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medications.", "content": "A variety of different types of medications are able to reduce symptoms of seborrhoeic dermatitis. These include certain antifungals, anti-inflammatory agents like corticosteroids and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antiandrogens, and antihistamines, among others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Antifungals.", "content": "Regular use of an over-the-counter or prescription antifungal shampoo or cream may help those with recurrent episodes. The topical antifungal medications ketoconazole and ciclopirox have the best evidence. It is unclear if other antifungals are equally effective as this has not been sufficiently studied. Antifungals that have been studied and found to be effective in the treatment of seborrhoeic dermatitis include ketoconazole, fluconazole, miconazole, bifonazole, sertaconazole, clotrimazole, flutrimazole, ciclopirox, terbinafine, butenafine, selenium sulfide, and lithium salts such as lithium gluconate and lithium succinate. Topical climbazole appears to have little effectiveness in the treatment of seborrhoeic dermatitis. Systemic therapy with oral antifungals including itraconazole, fluconazole, ketoconazole, and terbinafine is effective.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Anti-inflammatory treatments.", "content": "Topical corticosteroids have been shown to be effective in short-term treatment of serborrhoeic dermatitis, and are as effective or more effective than antifungal treatment with azoles. There is also evidence for the effectiveness of calcineurin inhibitors like tacrolimus and pimecrolimus as well as lithium salt therapy.  Oral immunosuppressive treatment, such as with prednisone, has been used in short courses as a last resort in seborrhoeic dermatitis due to its potential side effects.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Antiandrogens.", "content": "Seborrhoea is recognized as an androgen-sensitive condition – that is, it is caused or aggravated by androgen sex hormones such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone – and is a common symptom of hyperandrogenism (e.g., that seen in polycystic ovary syndrome). In addition, seborrhoea, as well as acne, are commonly associated with puberty due to the steep increase of androgen levels at that time.  In accordance with the involvement of androgens in seborrhoea, antiandrogens, such as cyproterone acetate, spironolactone, flutamide, and nilutamide, are highly effective in alleviating the condition. As such, they are used in the treatment of seborrhoea, particularly severe cases. While beneficial in seborrhoea, effectiveness may vary with different antiandrogens; for instance, spironolactone (which is regarded as a relatively weak antiandrogen) has been found to produce a 50% improvement after three months of treatment, whereas flutamide has been found to result in an 80% improvement within three months. Cyproterone acetate is similarly more potent and effective than spironolactone, and results in considerable improvement or disappearance of acne and seborrhoea in 90% of patients within three months.  Systemic antiandrogen therapy are generally used to treat seborrhoea only in women, and not in men, as these medications can result in feminization (e.g., gynecomastia), sexual dysfunction, and infertility in males. In addition, antiandrogens theoretically have the potential to feminize male fetuses in pregnant women, and for this reason, are usually combined with effective birth control in sexually active women who can or may become pregnant.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Antihistamines.", "content": "Antihistamines are used primarily to reduce itching, if present. However, research studies suggest that some antihistamines have anti-inflammatory properties.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Phototherapy.", "content": "Another potential option is natural and artificial UV radiation since it can curb the growth of \"Malassezia\" yeast Some recommend photodynamic therapy using UV-A and UV-B laser or red and blue LED light to inhibit the growth of \"Malassezia\" fungus and reduce seborrhoeic inflammation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "Seborrhoea affects 1 to 5% of the general population. It is slightly more common in men, but affected women tend to have more severe symptoms. The condition usually recurs throughout a person's lifetime. Seborrhoea can occur in any age group but usually starts at puberty and peaks in incidence at around 40 years of age. It can reportedly affect as many as 31% of older people. Severity is worse in dry climates.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Seborrhoeic dermatitis, also known as seborrhoea, is a long-term skin disorder. Symptoms include red, scaly, greasy, itchy, and inflamed skin. Areas of the skin rich in oil-producing glands are often affected including the scalp, face, and chest. It can result in social or self-esteem problems. In babies, when the scalp is primarily involved, it is called cradle cap. Dandruff is a milder form of the condition without inflammation. The cause is unclear but believed to involve a number of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors include poor immune function, Parkinson disease, and alcoholic pancreatitis. The condition may worsen with stress or during the winter. The \"Malassezia\" yeast is believed to play a role. It is not a result of poor hygiene. Diagnosis is typically based on the symptoms. The typical treatment is antifungal cream and anti-inflammatory agents. Specifically, ketoconazole or ciclopirox are effective. It is unclear if other antifungals, such as miconazole, are equally effective as they have been poorly studied. Other options may include salicylic acid, coal tar, benzoyl peroxide, and phototherapy. The condition is most common in infants within the 3 first months or in adults aged 30 to 70 years. In adults between 1% and 10% of people are affected. Males are more often affected than females. Up to 70% of babies may be affected at some point in time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972087}
{"src_title": "German Emperor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "German Empire (1848–49).", "content": "In the wake of the revolutions of 1848 and during the German Empire (1848–49), King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title \"Emperor of the Germans\" () by the Frankfurt Parliament in 1849, but declined it as \"not the Parliament's to give\". Frederick William believed that only the German princes had the right to make such an offer, in accordance with the traditions of the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Creation.", "content": "The title was carefully chosen by Otto von Bismarck, Minister President of Prussia and Chancellor of the North German Confederation, after discussion which continued until the proclamation of King William I of Prussia as emperor at the Palace of Versailles during the Siege of Paris. William accepted this title grudgingly on 18 January, having preferred \"Emperor of Germany\" (). However, that would have signaled a territorial sovereignty unacceptable to the South German monarchs, as well as a claim to lands outside his reign (Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg, etc.).  \"Emperor of the Germans\", as had been proposed at the Frankfurt Parliament in 1849, was ruled out by William as he considered himself a king who ruled by divine right and chosen \"By the Grace of God\", not by the people in a popular monarchy. But more in general, William was unhappy about a crown that looked artificial (like Napoléon's), having been created by a constitution. He was afraid that it would overshadow the Prussian crown.  Since 1867, the presidency \"(Bundespräsidium)\" of the North German Confederation had been a hereditary office of the kings of Prussia. The new constitution of 1 January 1871, following Reichstag and Bundesrat decisions on 9/10 December, transformed the North German Confederation () into the German Empire (). This empire was a federal monarchy; the emperor was head of state and president of the federated monarchs (the kings of Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, the grand dukes of Baden, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Hesse, among others, as well as the principalities, duchies and of the free cities of Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen).  Under the imperial constitution, the empire was a federation of states under the permanent presidency of the King of Prussia. Thus, the imperial crown was directly tied to the Prussian crown—something Wilhelm II discovered in the aftermath of World War I. He erroneously believed that he ruled the empire in personal union with Prussia. With the war's end, he conceded that he could not remain emperor, but initially thought he could at least retain his Prussian crown. However, his last chancellor, Prince Max of Baden, knew this was legally impossible, and announced William's abdication of both thrones on 9 November, two days before the Armistice. Realizing his situation was untenable, William went into exile in the Netherlands later that night. It was not until 28 November that William formally gave up all claim to \"the throne of Prussia and to the German imperial throne connected therewith.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Full titles.", "content": "The German Emperors had an extensive list of titles and claims that reflected the geographic expanse and diversity of the lands ruled by the House of Hohenzollern.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wilhelm I.", "content": "His Imperial and Royal Majesty Wilhelm I, By the Grace of God, German Emperor and King of Prussia; Margrave of Brandenburg, Burgrave of Nuremberg, Count of Hohenzollern; sovereign and supreme Duke of Silesia and of the County of Glatz; Grand Duke of the Lower Rhine and of Posen; Duke of Saxony, of Westphalia, of Angria, of Pomerania, Lunenburg, Holstein and Schleswig, of Magdeburg, of Bremen, of Guelders, Cleves, Jülich and Berg, Duke of the Wends and the Kassubes, of Crossen, Lauenburg and Mecklenburg; Landgrave of Hesse and Thuringia; Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia; Prince of Orange; Prince of Rügen, of East Friesland, of Paderborn and Pyrmont, of Halberstadt, Münster, Minden, Osnabrück, Hildesheim, of Verden, Cammin, Fulda, Nassau and Moers; Princely Count of Henneberg; Count of Mark, of Ravensberg, of Hohenstein, Tecklenburg and Lingen, of Mansfeld, Sigmaringen and Veringen; Lord of Frankfurt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Frederick III.", "content": "His Imperial and Royal Majesty Frederick III, By the Grace of God, German Emperor and King of Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg, Burgrave of Nuremberg, Count of Hohenzollern, Duke of Silesia and of the County of Glatz, Grand Duke of the Lower Rhine and of Posen, Duke of Saxony, of Angria, of Westphalia, of Pomerania and of Lunenburg, Duke of Schleswig, of Holstein and of Crossen, Duke of Magdeburg, of Bremen, of Guelderland and of Jülich, Cleves and Berg, Duke of the Wends and the Kashubians, of Lauenburg and of Mecklenburg, Landgrave of Hesse and in Thuringia, Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia, Prince of Orange, of Rugen, of East Friesland, of Paderborn and of Pyrmont, Prince of Halberstadt, of Münster, of Minden, of Osnabrück, of Hildesheim, of Verden, of Kammin, of Fulda, of Nassau and of Moers, Princely Count of Henneberg, Count of the Mark, of Ravensberg, of Hohenstein, of Tecklenburg and of Lingen, Count of Mansfeld, of Sigmaringen and of Veringen, Lord of Frankfurt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wilhelm II.", "content": "His Imperial and Royal Majesty Wilhelm II, By the Grace of God, German Emperor and King of Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg, Burgrave of Nuremberg, Count of Hohenzollern, Duke of Silesia and of the County of Glatz, Grand Duke of the Lower Rhine and of Posen, Duke of Saxony, of Angria, of Westphalia, of Pomerania and of Lunenburg, Duke of Schleswig, of Holstein and of Crossen, Duke of Magdeburg, of Bremen, of Guelderland and of Jülich, Cleves and Berg, Duke of the Wends and the Kashubians, of Lauenburg and of Mecklenburg, Landgrave of Hesse and in Thuringia, Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia, Prince of Orange, of Rugen, of East Friesland, of Paderborn and of Pyrmont, Prince of Halberstadt, of Münster, of Minden, of Osnabrück, of Hildesheim, of Verden, of Kammin, of Fulda, of Nassau and of Moers, Princely Count of Henneberg, Count of the Mark, of Ravensberg, of Hohenstein, of Tecklenburg and of Lingen, Count of Mansfeld, of Sigmaringen and of Veringen, Lord of Frankfurt.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The German Emperor ( ) was the official title of the head of state and hereditary ruler of the German Empire. A specifically chosen term, it was introduced with the 1 January 1871 constitution and lasted until the official abdication of Wilhelm II on 28 November 1918. The Holy Roman Emperor is sometimes also called \"German Emperor\" when the historical context is clear, as derived from the Holy Roman Empire's official name of \"Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation\" from 1512.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972088}
{"src_title": "Treaty of Campo Formio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "Campo Formio, now called Campoformido, is a village west of Udine in historical Friuli region in north-eastern Italy, in the middle between Austrian headquarters in Udine and Bonaparte's residence. The French commander resided at Villa Manin, the country mansion of Ludovico Manin, the last Doge of Venice, near Codroipo. The treaty was signed in an old house in the main square of the village, property of Bertrando Del Torre, a local merchant.  On 18 January 1798, Austrian troops entered Venice, and three days later, they held an official reception at the Doge's Palace, where Ludovico Manin was a guest of honour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terms.", "content": "Beyond the usual clauses of \"firm and inviolable peace\", the treaty transferred a number of Austrian territories into French hands. Lands ceded included the Austrian Netherlands (most of modern Belgium). Territories of the Republic of Venice were divided between the two states: certain islands in the Mediterranean, including Corfu and other Venetian possessions in the Ionian Sea were turned over to the French, while the city of Venice with Terraferma (Venetian mainland), Venetian Istria, Venetian Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor region were turned over to the Habsburg emperor. Austria recognized the Cisalpine Republic and the newly created Ligurian Republic, formed of Genoese territories, as independent powers.  In addition, the states of the Kingdom of Italy formally ceased to owe fealty to the Holy Roman Emperor, finally ending the formal existence of that Kingdom (the Kingdom of Italy), which, as a personal holding of the Emperor, had existed \"de jure\" but not \"de facto\" since at least the 14th century.  The treaty also contained secret clauses signed by Napoleon and representatives of the Austrian emperor, which divided up certain other territories, made Liguria independent and agreed to the extension of the borders of France up to the Rhine, the Nette, and the Roer. Free French navigation was guaranteed on the Rhine, the Meuse and the Moselle. The French Republic had been expanded into areas that had never before been under French control.  The treaty was composed and signed after five months of negotiations. It was basically what had been agreed earlier at the Treaty of Leoben in April 1797, but the negotiations had been spun out by both parties for a number of reasons. During the negotiating period the French had to crush a royalist coup in September. That was used as a cause for the arrest and deportation of royalist and moderate deputies in the Directory.  Napoleon's biographer, Felix Markham, wrote \"the partition of Venice was not only a moral blot on the peace settlement but left Austria a foothold in Italy, which could only lead to further war.\" In fact, the Peace of Campo Formio, though it reshaped the map of Europe and marked a major step in Napoleon's fame, was only a respite. One consequence was the Peasants War, which erupted in the Southern Netherlands in 1798 following the French introduction of conscription.  As a result of the treaty, Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette, a prisoner from the French Revolution, was released from Austrian captivity.  By passing Venetian possessions in Greece, such as the Ionian Islands, to French rule, the treaty had an effect on later Greek history neither intended nor expected at the time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Treaty of Campo Formio (today Campoformido) was signed on 17 October 1797 (26 Vendémiaire VI) by Napoleon Bonaparte and Count Philipp von Cobenzl as representatives of the French Republic and the Austrian monarchy, respectively. The treaty followed the armistice of Leoben (18 April 1797), which had been forced on the Habsburgs by Napoleon's victorious campaign in Italy. It ended the War of the First Coalition and left Great Britain fighting alone against revolutionary France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972089}
{"src_title": "Temple of Edfu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Edfu was one of several temples built during the Ptolemaic Kingdom, including the Dendera Temple complex, Esna, the Temple of Kom Ombo, and Philae. Its size reflects the relative prosperity of the time. The present temple, which was begun \"on 23 August 237 BC, initially consisted of a pillared hall, two transverse halls, and a barque sanctuary surrounded by chapels.\" The building was started during the reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes and completed in 57 BC under Ptolemy XII Auletes. It was built on the site of an earlier, smaller temple also dedicated to Horus, although the previous structure was oriented east-west rather than north-south as in the present site. A ruined pylon lies just to the east of the current temple; inscriptional evidence has been found indicating a building program under the New Kingdom rulers Ramesses I, Seti I and Ramesses II.  A naos of Nectanebo II, a relic from an earlier building, is preserved in the inner sanctuary, which stands alone while the temple's barque sanctuary is surrounded by nine chapels.  The temple of Edfu fell into disuse as a religious monument following Theodosius I's persecution of pagans and edict banning non-Christian worship within the Roman Empire in 391. As elsewhere, many of the temple's carved reliefs were razed by followers of the Christian faith which came to dominate Egypt. The blackened ceiling of the hypostyle hall, visible today, is believed to be the result of arson intended to destroy religious imagery that was then considered pagan.  Over the centuries, the temple became buried to a depth of 12 metres (39 ft) beneath drifting desert sand and layers of river silt deposited by the Nile. Local inhabitants built homes directly over the former temple grounds. Only the upper reaches of the temple pylons were visible by 1798, when the temple was identified by a French expedition. In 1860 Auguste Mariette, a French Egyptologist, began the work of freeing Edfu temple from the sands.  The Temple of Edfu is nearly intact and a very good example of an ancient Egyptian temple. The Temple of Edfu's archaeological significance and high state of preservation has made it a centre for tourism in Egypt and a frequent stop for the many riverboats that cruise the Nile. In 2005, access to the temple was revamped with the addition of a visitor center and paved carpark. A sophisticated lighting system was added in late 2006 to allow night visits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious significance.", "content": "The temple of Edfu is the largest temple dedicated to Horus and Hathor of Dendera. It was the center of several festivals sacred to Horus. Each year, \"Hathor travelled south from her temple at Denderah to visit Horus at Edfu, and this event marking their sacred marriage was the occasion of a great festival and pilgrimage.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence on British architecture.", "content": "The Temple of Edfu provides the model for Temple Works in Holbeck, Leeds. The courtyard columns at Edfu are closely copied in the frontage of the Works.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Temple of Edfu is an Egyptian temple located on the west bank of the Nile in Edfu, Upper Egypt. The city was known in the Hellenistic period in and in Latin as \"Apollonopolis Magna\", after the chief god Horus, who was identified as Apollo under the \"interpretatio graeca\". It is one of the best preserved shrines in Egypt. The temple was built in the Ptolemaic Kingdom between 237 and 57 BC. The inscriptions on its walls provide important information on language, myth and religion during the Hellenistic period in Egypt. In particular, the Temple's inscribed building texts \"provide details [both] of its construction, and also preserve information about the mythical interpretation of this and all other temples as the Island of Creation.\" There are also \"important scenes and inscriptions of the Sacred Drama which related the age-old conflict between Horus and Seth.\" They are translated by the German Edfu-Project.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972090}
{"src_title": "Frederick Schomberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Descended from an old family of the Electorate of the Palatinate, he was born at Heidelberg, the son of \"Graf\" Hans Meinard von Schönberg (1582–1616) and Anne, daughter of The 5th Baron Dudley and Theodosia Harington. An orphan within a few months of his birth, he was educated by various family friends, among whom was Frederick V, Elector Palatine, in whose service his father had been. He began his military career under Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, and passed (1634) into the service of Sweden, entering that of France in 1635. His family, and the allied house of the Saxon Schönbergs, had already attained eminence in France with Henri de Schomberg and Charles de Schomberg, both marshals of France.  After a time he retired to his family estate at Geisenheim on the Rhine, but in 1639 he re-entered the Dutch States Army, in which, apparently, apart from a few intervals at Geisenheim, he remained until about 1650. He then rejoined the French army as a general officer (\"maréchal de camp\"), served under Turenne in the campaigns against Condé, and became a lieutenant-general in 1665, receiving this rapid promotion perhaps partly owing to his relationship with Charles de Schomberg, duc d'Halluin.  After the peace of the Pyrenees (1659), the independence of Portugal was threatened by Spain, and Schomberg was sent as military adviser to Lisbon with the secret approval of Charles II of England. Louis XIV of France, in order not to infringe the treaty just made with Spain, deprived Schomberg of his French officers. Schomberg thus took command of the English brigade which consisted of three regiments in total 3,000 men. Many of these were ex Royalist and New Model Army troops from the Civil War. After many difficulties in the three first campaigns resulting from the opposition of Portuguese officers, the Portuguese commander António Luís de Meneses, 1st Marquis of Marialva, together with Schomberg won the victory of Montes Claros on 17 June 1665 over the Spaniards under Luis de Benavides Carrillo, Marquis of Caracena.  After participating with his army in the revolution which deposed the reigning king Afonso VI of Portugal in favour of his brother Dom Pedro, and ending the war with Spain, Schomberg returned to France, became a naturalised Frenchman and bought the lordship of Coubert near Paris. He had been rewarded by the king of Portugal, in 1663, with the rank of Grandee, the title of count of Mértola and a pension of f 5000 a year. In 1673 he was brought by Charles II to England to take command of the newly formed Blackheath Army, which was planned to take part in an invasion of the Dutch Republic during the Third Anglo-Dutch War. However the army did not go into action before the Treaty of Westminster established peace, and was disbanded by the King following Parliamentary pressure.  He therefore again entered the service of France. His first operations in Catalonia were unsuccessful owing to the disobedience of subordinates and the rawness of his troops. On 19 June 1674, he was dealt a defeat at the Battle of Maureillas by Francisco de Tutavilla y del Rufo, but he retrieved the failure by retaking Fort de Bellegarde in 1675. For this he was made a marshal, being included in the promotion that followed the death of Turenne. The tide had now turned against the Huguenots, and Schomberg's merits had been long ignored on account of his adherence to the Protestant religion. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) forced him to leave his adopted country.  Ultimately he became general-in-chief of the forces of the Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, and at Berlin he was the acknowledged leader of the thousands of Huguenot refugees there. Soon afterwards, with the Electors consent, he joined the Prince of Orange on his expedition to England in 1688, the Glorious Revolution, as second in command to the prince. The following year he was made a Knight of the Garter, was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance, was created Duke of Schomberg, and received from the House of Commons a vote of £100,000 to compensate him for the loss of his French estates, of which Louis had deprived him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ireland.", "content": "In July 1689 William appointed him commander-in-chief of the expedition that he undertook to drive James II out of Ireland. Before departing to Ireland, Schomberg took his leave from parliament on 16 July 1689. On 20 July Schomberg arrived at Chester where the expedition's troops were gathering. Sailing with a fleet from Hoylake, he landed on 13 August 1689 at Ballyholme Bay near Bangor. He made the passage on the royal yacht Cleveland. He then marched over Bangor and Belfast to Carrickfergus, which had a Jacobite garrison. He began the siege of Carrickfergus on 20 August. The town surrendered on 28 August. Thereafter he marched unopposed through a country desolated before him to Dundalk, but, as the bulk of his forces were raw and undisciplined as well as inferior in numbers to the enemy Irish Army, he deemed it imprudent to risk a battle, and entrenching himself at Dundalk declined to be drawn beyond the circle of his defences. Shortly afterwards pestilence broke out, and when he retired to winter quarters in Ulster his forces were more shattered than if they had sustained a severe defeat.  His conduct was criticized in ill-informed quarters, but the facts justified his inactivity, and he gave what was said at the time to be a \"striking example of his generous spirit\" in placing at William of Orange's disposal for military purposes the £100,000 recently granted to him. ln the spring he began the campaign with the capture of Charlemont, but no advance southward was made until William arrived with reinforcements. At the Battle of the Boyne (1 July 1690), Schomberg gave his opinion against the determination of William to cross the river in face of the opposing army. After riding through the river to rally his men, he was wounded twice in the head by sabre cuts, and was shot in the neck by Cahir O'Toole of Ballyhubbock and instantly killed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "His eldest son Charles Schomberg, the second duke in the English peerage, died in the year 1693 of wounds received at the Battle of Marsaglia. His other son was Meinhardt Schomberg, 3rd Duke of Schomberg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Burial and Inscription.", "content": "He was buried in St Patricks Cathedral, Dublin, where there is a monument to him, erected in 1731. On the monument is a Latin inscription by Jonathan Swift, which reads:  The English translation:  The village of Schomberg, Ontario is named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Hermann von Schönberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg, 1st Count of Mertola, (French: \"Frédéric-Armand\"; Portuguese: \"Armando Frederico\"; 6 December 1615 – 1 July 1690) was a Marshal of France and a General in the English and Portuguese Army. He was killed at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972091}
{"src_title": "Ross seal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and evolution.", "content": "The Ross seal shares a recent common ancestor with three other extant Antarctic seals, which are together known as the lobodontine seals. The other species are the crabeater seal (\"Lobodon carcinophaga\"), leopard seal (\"Hydrurga leptonyx\") and Weddell seal (\"Leptonychotes weddelli\"). These species, collectively belonging to the seal tribe Lobodontini, share teeth adaptations, including lobes and cusps useful for straining smaller prey items out of the water column. The ancestral Lobodontini likely diverged from its sister clade, \"Mirounga\" (elephant seals) in the late Miocene to early Pliocene, when they migrated southward and diversified rapidly in relative isolation around Antarctica. However, the only fossils of Ross seals so far known date from much later, during the early Pleistocene of New Zealand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Ross seals reach a length of about and weight of ; females are slightly larger at. A molecular genetic based technique has been established to confirm the sex of individuals in the laboratory. Pups are about 1 m and 16 kg at birth. The coat is colored dark-brown in the dorsal area and silvery-white beneath. At the onset of the Antarctic winter, the coat fades gradually to become light brown. At close range, the Ross seal can be easily identified by its large eyes, which are up to 7 cm in diameter.  The Ross seal is able to produce a variety of complex twittering and siren-like sounds that are performed on ice and underwater, where they carry for long distances. The underwater siren sound can be composed of two harmonically unrelated superimposed tones that are pulsed with the same rhythm. Uniquely, the vocalizations, whether on ice or in water, are made with a closed mouth - emitting no air. The purpose of these sounds is unknown, though their distinctive nature and long range are likely to facilitate either encounters or avoidance of individuals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range and population status.", "content": "Although its close relatives Weddell seals, crabeater seals and leopard seals are ubiquitous in Antarctic waters, the Ross seal is an uncommon and relatively unknown animal, considered to be the least common pack ice seal. It almost never leaves the Antarctic Ocean, with the very rare exception of stray animals found around subantarctic islands, and uniquely, off the south coast of Australia. Nonetheless, its distribution is circumpolar, with individuals found in low densities - usually singly - in very thick pack ice in all regions of the continent.  The total Ross seal population is estimated at around 130,000 individuals, but there is great uncertainty in this estimate (reported 95% confidence intervals range from 20,000 to 227,000). Thus, very little is known about trends in the population. A genetic survey did not detect evidence of a recent, sustained genetic bottleneck in this species, which suggests that populations do not appear to have suffered a detectable and sustained decline in the recent past.  Interactions with humans have been limited. They have been collected historically by Antarctic expeditions and for scientific collections. Their range does not generally overlap with commercial fishing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding and reproductive behavior.", "content": "Ross seal feeds primarily on squid and fish, primarily Antarctic silverfish, in the pelagic zone. Ross seals are presumed to be preyed upon by killer whales (\"Orcinus orca\") and leopard seals, large predators that share their Antarctic habitat, though there are no documented observations of predation.  Females give birth to their young on the ice in November. Pups are nursed for only four weeks before weaning. Mating is thought to occur underwater shortly after the pup is weaned, but has never been observed. Ross seals mature sexually at approximately three years of age, and are thought to live around 20 years in the wild.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ross seal (\"Ommatophoca rossii\") is a true seal (family Phocidae) with a range confined entirely to the pack ice of Antarctica. It is the only species of the genus \"Ommatophoca\". First described during the Ross expedition in 1841, it is the smallest, least abundant and least well known of the Antarctic pinnipeds. Its distinctive features include disproportionately large eyes, whence its scientific name (\"Ommato-\" meaning \"eye\", and \"phoca\" meaning \"seal\"), and complex, trilling and siren-like vocalizations. Ross seals are brachycephalic, as they have a short broad muzzle and have the shortest fur of any other seal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972092}
{"src_title": "Liquid manure", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Amy Bogaard, an archaeobotanist at the University of Oxford, suspects that even as early as the Stone Age farmers had noticed the improved fertility of manured land. Her team investigated European digs for crops of cereals such as wheat and barley, as well as pulses such as peas and lentils. Modern-day scholars think that the Babylonian Chronicles and Egyptian hieroglyphs report manuring practices, while Pliny the Elder and Seneca the Younger describe similar Roman and barbarous Teuton practices.  The Sallows photograph (dated 1906) in the Gallery shows a rear three-quarter view of a farmer driving a team of horses pulling a manure spreader in Huron County, Ontario.  The photograph in front of a barn (from 1941) shows how people in Iowa preserved the fertility of their land. A manure spreader is loaded and operated, which was not a usual or necessary practice on American farms of that era. No farmer had enough barnyard manure for all his tillage. This operator, however, puts all he has on the land and believes that it is worth his while to do so, since it acts to make a good crop better.  A gussied-up John Deere horse drawn manure spreader, located on display at Canton Power Equipment (46600 Ford Road, Canton, Michigan) in 2012, is shown in the full-colour modern digital photograph.  Current American fertilizer practice is relatively recent and dates back to the Post–World War II economic expansion era, when petroleum first began to be applied to agriculture. Once powerful internal combustion engines, such as the diesel 4-cylinder 105 horse-power contained in the Fendt tractor depicted in the gallery, allowed farmers to haul heavy steel tanks on twin-axle trailers rated for five metric tonnes around their fields, to liquefy the unfermented manure became feasible and a new commodity was born. As shown in the headline photograph from a 2009 Belgian trade show, liquid manure allows placement near the plant root and makes for a more efficient process. Of course, this necessitates large on-farm storage tanks, as seen at the end of the gallery.  By 2016, the hire of professional liquid manure applicators was commonplace, at least in Manitoba. The professional liquid manure spreaders had expensive professional liquid manure spreading equipment, and they were regulated by government to meet a rigorous set of standards. A professor said that for large livestock operations, \"to rent the services of manure management planners and custom applicators\" was most efficient, and any livestock facility with more than 300 animals must file an updated annual manure management plan with the regulator. Another fellow made nice coin on extracting phosphorus and nitrogen from liquid manure. He proposed the use of centrifuges to concentrate the nutrients.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in disease transmission.", "content": "Since at least 1982, health authorities have recognised that the organism, which has been responsible for significant numbers of human deaths, spreads through fecal transmission. The strain's low infectious dose, survival under adverse conditions, and potential for extreme disease severity prompt scientific attention. Radish, alfalfa sprouts, green onions as well as leafy green vegetables like lettuce, spinach are prone to be disease vectors, particularly when they are exposed to the pathogen just prior to harvest. In 1998, the Food and Drug Administration published the \"Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables\". Particular attention is paid to CAFOs because they are the source of most of the liquid manure that is spread on fields of vegetables. Rainwater runoff from these CAFOs was identified in the fatal Walkerton E. coli outbreak as the contaminant of municipal wellwater used for human consumption. Because of the relative infancy of industrial-scale vegetable fertilization by liquid manure, the process had not yet been nailed down by the year 2007, and included:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A development of the 20th-century Agribusiness age, liquid manure is used as an alternative to fermented manure. Manure in both forms is used as a nutrient-enriched fertilizer for plants, because farm animals excrete most of the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium that is present in the food they consume.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972093}
{"src_title": "Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Von Tschirnhaus was born in Kieslingswalde (now Sławnikowice in western Poland) and died in Dresden, Saxony.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Von Tschirnhaus attended the Gymnasium at Görlitz. Thereafter he studied mathematics, philosophy, and medicine at the University of Leiden. He traveled considerably in France, Italy, and Switzerland, and served in the army of Holland (1672–1673). During his travels he met Baruch de Spinoza and Christiaan Huygens in the Netherlands, Isaac Newton in England, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (with whom he maintained a lifelong correspondence) in Paris. He became a member of the Académie Royale des Sciences in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The mathematician.", "content": "The Tschirnhaus transformation, by which he removed certain intermediate terms from a given algebraic equation, is well known. It was published in the scientific journal \"Acta Eruditorum\" in 1683.  In 1682, Von Tschirnhaus worked out the theory of catacaustics and showed that they were rectifiable. This was the second case in which the envelope of a moving line was determined. One of the catacaustics of a parabola still is known as Tschirnhausen cubic.  In 1696, Johann Bernoulli posed the problem of the brachistochrone to the readers of Acta Eruditorum. Tschirnhaus was one of only five mathematicians to submit a solution. Bernoulli published these contributions (including Tschirnhaus') along with his own in the journal in May of the following year.  Von Tschirnhaus produced various types of lenses and mirrors, some of them are displayed in museums. He erected a large glass works in Saxony, where he constructed burning glasses of unusual perfection and carried on his experiments (1687–1688).  His work \"Medicina mentis sive artis inveniendi praecepta generali\" (1687) combines methods of deduction with empiricism and shows him to be philosophically connected to the Enlightenment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Tschirnhaus was for many years forgotten as a philosopher and the studies treating the subject often discuss Tschirnhaus' connection to other philosophers and scientists at the time. During his time at the University of Leiden he started correspondence with Spinoza and later also Leibniz. Tschirnhaus was one of the first to get a copy of Spinoza's masterpiece Ethics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inventor of porcelain.", "content": "After he returned home to Saxony, von Tschirnhaus initiated systematic experiments, using mixtures of various silicates and earths at different temperatures to develop porcelain, which at the time was available only as a costly import from China and Japan. As early as 1704, he showed “porcelan” to Leibniz’s secretary. He proposed the establishment of a porcelain factory to Augustus II of Poland, Elector of Saxony, but was denied. Also in 1704, von Tschirnhaus became the supervisor of Johann Friedrich Böttger, a nineteen-year-old alchemist who claimed to be able to make gold. Böttger only reluctantly and under pressure started to participate in Tschirnhaus’ work by 1707. The use of kaolin (from Schneeberg, Saxony) and alabaster advanced the work, so that August II named him the director of the porcelain factory he intended to establish. The Elector ordered payment of 2,561 thalers to von Tschirnhaus, but the recipient requested postponement until the factory was producing. When Von Tschirnhaus died suddenly, on 11 October 1708, the project came to a halt.  Three days after Von Tschirnhaus’s death, there was a burglary at his house and, according to a report by Böttger, a small piece of porcelain was stolen. This report suggests that Böttger himself recognized that Von Tschirnhaus already knew how to make porcelain, a key piece of evidence that Von Tschirnhaus and not Böttger was the inventor. Work resumed on 20 March 1709, by which time Melchior Steinbrück had arrived to assess the dead man’s estate, which included the notes about making porcelain, and had met with Böttger. On 28 March 1709, Böttger went to August II and announced the invention of porcelain. Böttger now was nominated to head the first European manufactory for porcelain. Steinbrück became an inspector and married Böttger’s sister.  Contemporary testimonies of knowledgeable people indicate that Tschirnhaus invented porcelain. In 1719, for example, Samuel Stölzel of the porcelain factory of Meissen went to Vienna with the still-secret recipe and confirmed that it had been invented by Von Tschirnhaus and not by Böttger. In that same year, the General Secretary of the Meissen factory also indicated that the invention was not Böttger's “but by the late Herr von Tschirnhaus[,] whose written science” was handed to Böttger “by the inspector Steinbrück.” Nevertheless, Böttger’s name became closely associated with the invention.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus (or Tschirnhauß, ; 10 April 1651 – 11 October 1708) was a German mathematician, physicist, physician, and philosopher. He introduced the Tschirnhaus transformation and is considered by some to have been the inventor of European porcelain, an invention long accredited to Johann Friedrich Böttger but others claim porcelain had been made by English manufacturers at an even earlier date.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972094}
{"src_title": "Tiradentes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early Life.", "content": "Tiradentes was born on the Fazenda do Pombal, near the village of Santa Rita do Rio Abaixo, at the time disputed territory between the towns of São João del-Rei and São José del Rey, in the Captaincy of Minas Gerais.  Joaquim José da Silva Xavier was the fourth of seven children of Portuguese born Domingos da Silva Santos and of Brazilian born Antônia da Encarnação Xavier.  Although by no means an aristocrat, Tiradantes did not come from a poor family as evidenced by his mother's inventory, which was opened in 1756. It states that there were 35 slaves on the large fazenda of Pombal, where they also worked as miners. A porch provided external access to an oratory, and there were slave quarters and communal kitchens. A large and valuable quantity of mining equipment was also listed in the inventory.  In 1755 after the death of his mother, he went with his father and brothers to the town of São José. Two years later, when he was 11 years old, his father died. With the premature death of his parents, his family soon lost its property due to debt. Having received no regular education, he entered under the tutelage of his uncle and godfather Sebastião Ferreira Leitão, who was a dentist. He worked as a peddler and a miner, and he became a partner in a pharmacy in Vila Rica. He dedicated himself to pharmaceutical practices and dentistry, which earned him the nickname \"Tiradentes\". \"Tiradentes\" means \"tooth puller\", a pejorative denomination adopted during the trial against him. According to Brother Raimundo de Penaforte, Tiradentes \"adorned his mouth with new teeth which he made himself that seemed natural\". He also occasionally worked as a doctor in light of knowledge about medicinal plants acquired with his cousin, Brother José Mariano da Conceição Veloso, a celebrated botanist of the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political ideas.", "content": "Tiradentes used knowledge he acquired about minerals while working as a miner to enter the public service as a terrain surveyor.  He later joined the Minas Gerais Dragoon Regiment, where he was given command of a detachment and sent on missions to cities along \"Caminho Novo\", a road between Vila Rica (then capital of Minas Gerais) and Rio de Janeiro through which gold was sent to the coast, ultimately to be shipped to Portugal.  Over time, witnessing the transit of goods along Caminho Novo, Tiradentes started to perceive the massive exportation of gold and other valuable resources to the metropolis as exploitation to which Brazilians were subjected. He also grew dissatisfied with his relatively low rank (not a member of the local aristocracy, he was systematically overlooked for promotion and never rose above \"alferes\", the lowest officer rank at the time) and a later dismissal from his commanding post. His trips to Rio put him in contact with people who had lived in Europe and brought liberal ideas from there.  In 1788, Tiradentes met José Alvares Maciel, a son of Vila Rica's army's commandant who had just returned from England. Contrasting British industrial progress with Brazilian colonial poverty, the two decided to create a group of freedom aspirants. Led by clerics and other Brazilians with some social presence, like Cláudio Manuel da Costa, Tomás Antônio Gonzaga (both public servants and renowned writers) and Alvarenga Peixoto (eminent businessman), the group propagated their ideas among the people.  At the time, Portugal's demand for gold was high. However, productivity of Brazilian mines was declining. The colony was failing to meet the \"quinto\" – the quota of gold demanded by the Crown – and pressure from the metropolis rose. This culminated in the creation of the \"derrama\", a heavily confiscatory tribute that, in turn, further stirred seditious sentiments.  Influenced by the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the American Revolution, Tiradentes joined a number of like-minded citizens in the Inconfidência Mineira, a revolutionary movement. They envisioned an independent Brazilian republic, with São João del Rei as its capital and the conversion of Vila Rica to a university town. The proposed flag for the new republic had a green triangle over a white background, surrounded by the Latin motto \"Libertas Quae Sera Tamen\" (\"Freedom, Even If It Be Late\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery, trial and execution.", "content": "Tiradentes's plan was to take to the streets of Vila Rica and proclaim a Brazilian Republic on the day of the \"derrama\", in February 1789, when tax was due to Portugal and the sentiment of revolt among Brazilians would be stronger. Joaquim Silvério dos Reis, one of the conspirators, exposed the plot in exchange for a tax waiver. The governor of Minas Gerais cancelled the \"derrama\" and ordered the imprisonment of the rebels.  A trial was carried, lasting almost three years. Tiradentes was sentenced to death, along with ten other \"inconfidentes\". Queen Maria I of Portugal later commuted the sentences of capital punishment to perpetual banishment for all convicts, except those whose activities involved aggravated circumstances. Such was the case of Tiradentes, who took full responsibility for the movement.  He was imprisoned in Rio, then hanged on April 21, 1792. Afterwards, his body was quartered and the pieces were sent to Vila Rica, to be displayed in places where he used to propagate his liberal ideas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National hero.", "content": "Tiradentes began to be considered a national hero by the republicans in the late 19th century. After the institution of the Republic, in 1889, the anniversary of his death became a national holiday.  His moniker, \"Tiradentes\", became the namesake of a city in the state of Minas Gerais, of city squares in Belo Horizonte, Curitiba, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Ouro Preto, as well as of a major avenue in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joaquim José da Silva Xavier (; November 12, 1746 – April 21, 1792), known as Tiradentes (), was a leading member of the Brazilian revolutionary movement known as Inconfidência Mineira, whose aim was full independence from Portuguese colonial power and creation of a Brazilian republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972095}
{"src_title": "Eared seal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Evolution and taxonomy.", "content": "Along with the Phocidae and Odobenidae, the two other members of Pinnipedia, Otаriidae are descended from a common ancestor most closely related to modern bears. Debate remains as to whether the phocids diverged from the otariids before or after the walrus.  Otariids arose in the Miocene (15-17 million years ago) in the North Pacific, diversifying rapidly into the Southern Hemisphere, where most species now live. The earliest known fossil is \"Eotaria crypta\" from southern California, while the genus \"Callorhinus\" (northern fur seal) has the oldest fossil record of any living otariid, extending to the middle Pliocene. It probably arose from the extinct fur seal genus \"Thalassoleon\".  Traditionally, otariids had been subdivided into the fur seal (Arctocephalinae) and sea lion (Otariinae) subfamilies, with the major distinction between them being the presence of a thick underfur layer in the former. Under this categorization, the fur seals comprised two genera: \"Callorhinus\" in the North Pacific with a single representative, the northern fur seal (\"C. ursinus\"), and eight species in the Southern Hemisphere under the genus \"Arctocephalus\"; while the sea lions comprise five species under five genera. Recent analyses of the genetic evidence suggests that \"Callorhinus ursinus\" is in fact more closely related to several sea lion species. Furthermore, many of the Otariinae appear to be more phylogenetically distinct than previously assumed; for example, the Japanese sea lion (\"Zalophus japonicus\") is now considered a separate species, rather than a subspecies of the California sea lion (\"Zalophus californius\"). In light of this evidence, the subfamily separation has been removed entirely and the family Otariidae has been organized into seven genera with 16 species and two subspecies. Nonetheless, because of morphological and behavioral similarities among the \"fur seals\" and \"sea lions\", these remain useful categories when discussing differences between groups of species. Compared to sea lions, fur seals are generally smaller, exhibit greater sexual dimorphism, eat smaller prey and go on longer foraging trips; and, of course, there is the contrast between the coarse short sea lion hair and the fur seal's fur.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anatomy and appearance.", "content": "Otariids have proportionately much larger foreflippers and pectoral muscles than phocids, and have the ability to turn their hind limbs forward and walk on all fours, making them far more maneuverable on land. They are generally considered to be less adapted to an aquatic lifestyle, since they breed primarily on land and haul out more frequently than true seals. However, they can attain higher bursts of speed and have greater maneuverability in the water. Their swimming power derives from the use of flippers more so than the sinuous whole-body movements typical of phocids and walruses.  Otariids are further distinguished by a more dog-like head, sharp, well-developed canines, and the aforementioned visible external pinnae. Their postcanine teeth are generally simple and conical in shape. The dental formula for eared seals is:. Sea lions are covered with coarse guard hairs, while fur seals have a thick underfur, which has historically made them the objects of commercial exploitation.  Male otariids range in size from the 70-kg (150-lb) Galápagos fur seal, smallest of all pinnipeds, to the over 1,000-kg (2,200-lb) Steller sea lion. Mature male otariids weigh two to six times as much as females, with proportionately larger heads, necks, and chests, making them the most sexually dimorphic of all mammals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "All otariids breed on land during well-defined breeding seasons. Except for the Australian sea lion, which has an atypical 17.5 month breeding cycle, they form strictly annual aggregations on beaches or rocky substrates, often on islands. All species are polygynous; i.e. successful males breed with several females. In most species, males arrive at breeding sites first and establish and maintain territories through vocal and visual displays and occasional fighting. Females typically arrive on shore a day or so before giving birth. While considered social animals, no permanent hierarchies or statuses are established on the colonies. The extent to which males control females or territories varies between species. Thus, the northern fur seal and the South American sea lion tend to herd specific harem-associated females, occasionally injuring them, while the Steller sea lion and the New Zealand sea lion control spatial territories, but do not generally interfere with the movement of the females.  Otariids are carnivorous, feeding on fish, squid and krill. Sea lions tend to feed closer to shore in upwelling zones, feeding on larger fish, while the smaller fur seals tend to take longer, offshore foraging trips and can subsist on large numbers of smaller prey items. They are visual feeders. Some females are capable of dives of up to 400 m (1,300 ft).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "Family Otariidae  Although the two subfamilies of otariids, the Otariinae (sea lions) and Arctocephalinae (fur seals), are still widely used, recent molecular studies have demonstrated that they may be invalid. Instead, they suggest three clades within the family; one consisting of the northern sea lions (\"Eumetopias\" and \"Zalophus\"), one of the northern fur seal (\"Callorhinus\") and its extinct relatives, and the third of all the remaining Southern Hemisphere species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An eared seal or otariid or otary is any member of the marine mammal family Otariidae, one of three groupings of pinnipeds. They comprise 15 extant species in seven genera (another species became extinct in the 1950s) and are commonly known either as sea lions or fur seals, distinct from true seals (phocids) and the walrus (odobenids). Otariids are adapted to a semiaquatic lifestyle, feeding and migrating in the water, but breeding and resting on land or ice. They reside in subpolar, temperate, and equatorial waters throughout the Pacific and Southern Oceans and the southern Indian and Atlantic Oceans. They are conspicuously absent in the north Atlantic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972096}
{"src_title": "Andrea Doria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Doria was born at Oneglia from the ancient Genoese family, the Doria di Oneglia branch of the old Doria, de Oria or de Auria family. His parents were related: Ceva Doria, co-lord of Oneglia, and Caracosa Doria, of the Doria di Dolceacqua branch. Orphaned at an early age, he became a soldier of fortune, serving first in the papal guard and then under various Italian princes.  In 1503, he fought in Corsica in the service of the Genoese Navy, at that time under French vassalage, and he took part in the rising of Genoa against the French, whom he compelled to evacuate the city. From that time onwards, he became famous as a naval commander. For several years he scoured the Mediterranean in command of the Genoese fleet, waging war on the Turks and the Barbary pirates and defeating them at Pianosa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wars between France and the Holy Roman Empire.", "content": "In the meanwhile Genoa had been recaptured by the French, and in 1522 by the armies of the Holy Roman Emperor. But Doria joined the French or popular faction and entered the service of King Francis I of France, who made him captain-general; in 1524 he relieved Marseille, which was besieged by the Imperials, and later helped to place his native city once more under French domination. His ships, under the command of his nephew, Filippino Doria crushed a Spanish squadron on April 28, 1528 at the Battle of Capo d'Orso.  Dissatisfied with his treatment at the hands of Francis, who was mean about payment, he resented the king's behavior in connection with Savona, which he delayed handing back to the Genoese as he had promised. Consequently, on the expiration of Doria's contract he entered the service of Emperor Charles V (June 1528).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Re-establishment of the Genoese Republic.", "content": "Doria ordered his nephew Filippino, who was then blockading Naples in alliance with a French army, to withdraw; Doria then sailed for Genoa where, with the help of some leading citizens, he expelled the French and re-established the republic under imperial protection. He reformed the constitution in an aristocratic sense, most of the nobility being Imperialists, and put an end to the factions which divided the city, by creating 28 Alberghi or \"clans\". The 28 Alberghi that formed this new ruling class included the Cybo, Doria, Fieschi, Giustiniani, Grimaldi, Imperiale, Pallavicino, and Spinola families.  He refused offers to take the lordship of Genoa and even the dogeship, but accepted the position of \"perpetual censor\", and exercised predominant influence in the councils of the republic until his death. The title \"censor\" in this context was modeled on its meaning in the Roman Republic, \"i.e.\", a highly respected senior public official (see Roman censor), rather than its modern meaning having to do with censorship. He was given two palaces, many privileges, and the title of (Liberator and Father of His Country).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As imperial admiral.", "content": "As imperial admiral, he commanded several expeditions against the Ottoman Empire between 1530 and 1541. He captured Koroni and Patras, and co-operated with the emperor himself in the capture of Tunis (1535). Charles found him an invaluable ally in the wars with Francis I, and through him extended his domination over the whole of Italy.  In February 1538, Pope Paul III succeeded in assembling a Holy League (comprising the Papal States, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, the Republic of Venice, and the Maltese Knights) against the Ottomans, but Hayreddin Barbarossa defeated its combined fleet, commanded by Andrea Doria, at the Battle of Preveza in September 1538. This victory secured Turkish dominance over the eastern Mediterranean for the next 33 years, until the Battle of Lepanto in 1571.  Doria accompanied Charles V on the ill-fated Algiers expedition of 1541, of which he disapproved, and which ended in disaster. For the next five years he continued to serve the emperor in various wars, in which he was generally successful and always active, although now over seventy years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "After the Peace of Crépy between Francis and Charles in 1544, Doria hoped to end his days in quiet. However, his great wealth and power, as well as the arrogance of his nephew and heir Giannettino Doria, had made him many enemies, and in 1547 the Fieschi conspiracy to dislodge his family from power took place. Giannettino was killed, but the conspirators were defeated, and Doria showed great vindictiveness in punishing them, seizing many of their fiefs for himself. He was also implicated in the murder of Pier Luigi Farnese, duke of Parma and Piacenza, who had helped Fieschi.  Other conspiracies followed, of which the most important was that of Giulio Cybo (1548), but all failed. Although Doria was ambitious and harsh, he was a patriot and successfully opposed Emperor Charles's repeated attempts to have a citadel built in Genoa and garrisoned by Spaniards; neither blandishments nor threats could win him over to the scheme.  Nor did age lessen his energy, for in 1550, aged 84, he again put to sea to confront the Barbary pirates, but with no great success. In 1552 the Ottoman fleet under the command of Turgut Reis defeated the Spanish-Italian fleet of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria in the Battle of Ponza (1552). War between France and the Empire having broken out once more, the French seized Corsica in the Invasion of Corsica (1553), then administered by the Genoese Bank of Saint George. Doria was again summoned, and he spent two years (1553–1555) on the island fighting the French with varying fortune.  He returned to Genoa for good in 1555, and being very old and infirm, he gave over the command of the galleys to his great-nephew Giovanni Andrea Doria, the son of Giannettino Doria, who conducted an expedition against Tripoli, but proved even more unsuccessful than his great-uncle had been at Algiers, barely escaping with his life after losing the Battle of Djerba against the Turkish fleet of Piyale Pasha and Turgut Reis. Andrea Doria left his estates to Giovanni Andrea. The family of Doria-Pamphili-Landi is descended from Giovanni Andrea Doria and bears his title of Prince of Melfi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ships.", "content": "Several ships were named in honour of the Admiral:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paintings and commemorations.", "content": "A painted sheepskin for \"The Magnificent and Excellent Andrea Doria\" hangs at The Breakers in Newport, RI, US.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andrea Doria (; 30 November 146625 November 1560) was an Italian \"\" and admiral of the Republic of Genoa. Originally serving France, he ended his collaboration with Francis I in 1528 and became the Imperial admiral of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in 1529. Having obtained the restoration of the Republic of Genoa from the Emperor in 1530, he continued to serve the Habsburgs for the duration of the Italian Wars. Doria commanded several Catholic expeditions against the Ottoman Empire: he captured Koroni, Patras (1532), and Tunis (1535), but failed to capture Preveza (1538) and Algiers (1541). Doria's last campaign took place in the 1550s, during a war fought to retain Corsica in Genoese hands against a Franco-Ottoman alliance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972097}
{"src_title": "Hannah Szenes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Szenes was born on July 17, 1921, to an assimilated Jewish family in Hungary. Her father, Béla, a journalist and playwright, died when Hannah was six years old. She continued to live with her mother, Kathrine, and her brother, György.  She enrolled in a Protestant private school for girls that also accepted Catholic and Jewish pupils; however those of the Catholic and Jewish faith had to pay double and three times the amount Protestants paid. After her mother thought it is too expensive, Szenes was let to pay only double amount, considering her as a \"Gifted Student\". This, along with the realization that the situation of the Jews in Hungary was becoming precarious, prompted Szenes to embrace Zionism, and she joined \"Maccabea\", a Hungarian Zionist students organization.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imigration to Nahalal.", "content": "Szenes graduated in 1939 and decided to emigrate to what was then the British Mandate of Palestine in order to study in the Girls' Agricultural School at Nahalal. In 1941, she joined Kibbutz Sdot Yam and then joined the Haganah, the paramilitary group that laid the foundation of the Israel Defense Forces.  In 1943, she enlisted in the British Women's Auxiliary Air Force as an Aircraftwoman 2nd Class. Later the same year, she was recruited into the Special Operations Executive (SOE) and was sent to Egypt for parachute training.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arrest and torture.", "content": "On March 14, 1944, she and colleagues Yoel Palgi and Peretz Goldstein were parachuted into Yugoslavia and joined a partisan group. After landing, they learned the Germans had already occupied Hungary, so the men decided to call off the mission as too dangerous.  Szenes continued on and headed for the Hungarian border. At the border, she and her companions were arrested by Hungarian gendarmes, who found her British military transmitter, used to communicate with the SOE and other partisans. She was taken to a prison, stripped, tied to a chair, then whipped and clubbed for three days. She lost several teeth as a result of the beating.  The guards wanted to know the code for her transmitter so they could find out who the parachutists were and trap others. Transferred to a Budapest prison, Szenes was repeatedly interrogated and tortured, but only revealed her name and refused to provide the transmitter code, even when her mother was also arrested. They threatened to kill her mother if she did not cooperate, but she refused.  While in prison, Szenes used a mirror to flash signals out of the window to prisoners in other cells and communicated using large cut-out letters that she placed in her cell window one at a time and by drawing the Magen David in the dust.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial and execution.", "content": "She was tried for treason in Hungary on October 28, 1944. There was an eight-day postponement to give the judges more time to find a verdict, followed by another postponement, this one because of the appointment of a new Judge Advocate. She was executed by a firing squad on November 7, 1944.  She kept diary entries until her last day. One of them read: \"In the month of July, I shall be twenty-three/I played a number in a game/The dice have rolled. I have lost,\" and another: \"I loved the warm sunlight.\"  Her diary was published in Hebrew in 1946. Her remains were brought to Israel in 1950 and buried in the cemetery on Mount Herzl, Jerusalem. Her tombstone was brought to Israel in November 2007 and placed in Sdot Yam.  During the trial of Rudolf Kastner, Hannah's mother testified that during the time her daughter was imprisoned, Kastner's people had advised her not to obtain a lawyer for her daughter. Further, she recalled a conversation with Kastner after the war, telling him, \"I don't say that you could have saved my daughter Hannah, but that you didn't try – it makes it harder for me that nothing was done.\"  After the Cold War, a Hungarian military court officially exonerated her. Her kin in Israel were informed on November 5, 1993.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poetry, songs and plays.", "content": "Szenes was a poet and playwright, writing both in Hungarian and Hebrew. The following are four of her better known poems. The best known of these is \"A Walk to Caesarea\", commonly known as \"Eli, Eli\" (\"My God, My God\"). The well-known melody was composed by David Zahavi. Many singers have sung it, including Ofra Haza, Regina Spektor, and Sophie Milman. It was used to close some versions of the film \"Schindler's List\":  <poem> \"My God, My God, I pray that these things never end\", \"The sand and the sea,\" \"The rustle of the waters,\" \"Lightning of the Heavens,\" \"The prayer of Man.\"</poem> <poem> </poem>  Another of her poems begins,  <poem> \"A voice called, and I went.\" \"I went, for a voice called.\" </poem> The following lines are from the last poem she wrote, \"Ashrei Hagafrur\", after she was parachuted into a partisan camp in Yugoslavia:  <poem>  \"Blessed is the match consumed in kindling flame.\" \"Blessed is the flame that burns in the secret fastness of the heart.\" \"Blessed is the heart with strength to stop its beating for honour's sake.\" \"Blessed is the match consumed in kindling flame.\"</poem>  The following lines were found in Hannah's death cell after her execution:  <poem> \"One—two—three... eight feet long,\" \"Two strides across, the rest is dark...\" \"Life hangs over me like a question mark.\"  \"One—two—three... maybe another week,\" \"Or next month may still find me here,\" \"But death, I feel, is very near.\"  \"I could have been twenty-three next July;\" \"I gambled on what mattered most,\" \"The dice were cast. I lost.\"</poem", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hannah Szenes (often anglicized as Hannah Senesh or Chanah Senesh; ; ; July 17, 1921November 7, 1944) was a poet and a Special Operations Executive (SOE) member. She was one of 37 Jewish SOE recruits from Mandate Palestine parachuted by the British into Yugoslavia during the Second World War to assist anti-Nazi forces and ultimately in the rescue of Hungarian Jews about to be deported to the German death camp at Auschwitz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972098}
{"src_title": "German-speaking Community of Belgium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The area known today as the East Cantons consists of the German-speaking Community and the municipalities of Malmedy and Waimes (), which belong to the French Community of Belgium. The East Cantons were part of the Rhine Province of Prussia in Germany until 1920 (as the counties (') of Eupen and Malmedy), but were annexed by Belgium following Germany's defeat in World War I and the subsequent Treaty of Versailles. Thus they also became known as the ', \"redeemed cantons\". The peace treaty of Versailles demanded the \"questioning\" of the local population. People who were unwilling to become Belgians and wanted the region to remain a part of Germany were required to register themselves along with their full name and address with the Belgian military administration, headed by Herman Baltia, and many feared reprisals or even expulsion for doing so.  In the mid-1920s, there were secret negotiations between Germany and the kingdom of Belgium that seemed to be inclined to sell the region back to Germany as a way to improve Belgium's finances. A price of 200 million gold marks has been mentioned. At this point, the French government, fearing for the complete postwar order, intervened at Brussels and the Belgian-German talks were called off.  The new cantons had been part of Belgium for just 20 years when, in 1940, they were retaken by Germany in World War II. The majority of people of the east cantons welcomed this as they considered themselves German. Following the defeat of Germany in 1945, the cantons were once again annexed by Belgium, and as a result of alleged collaboration with Nazi Germany an attempt was made to de-Germanize the local population by the Belgian and Walloon authorities.  In the early 1960s, Belgium was divided into four linguistic areas, the Dutch-speaking Flemish area, the French-speaking area, the bilingual capital of Brussels, and the German-speaking area of the east cantons. In 1973, three communities and three regions were established and granted internal autonomy. The legislative Parliament of the German-speaking Community, \", was set up. Today the German-speaking Community has a fair degree of autonomy, especially in language and cultural matters, but it still remains part of the region of predominantly French-speaking Wallonia. There has been much argument in the past few years that the German-speaking Community should also become its own region, which is an ongoing process with the permanent transfer with the previous accord of some competences concerning social policy, conservation of sites and monuments, environment protection policy, transport, the financing of municipalities, among other things from the Walloon Region. One of the proponents of full regional autonomy for the German-speaking Community is Karl-Heinz Lambertz, the minister-president from 1999 to 2014. Especially regional autonomy for spatial planning, city building and housing should be considered, according to the government of the German-speaking Community.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "The territory of the German-speaking Community is bounded on the north by the Belgium-Germany-Netherlands border tripoint, on the east by Germany and on the south by Luxembourg, and on the west by the territory of the French-speaking Community of Belgium.  Within Belgium, the German-speaking Community exercises its political powers on the German-speaking territory, which comprises nine municipalities. Eupen is the seat of the government, the parliament and the administrative centre.  The municipalities of Malmedy and Weismes belong to the territorial community of the French Community of Belgium. The German minority has its own rights there. Occasionally, the nine German-speaking communities, together with the communities of Malmedy and Weismes, are historically called East Belgium or East Cantons because of their common political past, formerly also as Eupen-Malmedy-St. Gallen.  In March 2017, the government of the German-speaking community decided to market the area in the future as East Belgium. Analogous to South Tyrol (officially: Autonomous Region of Bolzano - South Tyrol), the name of the German-speaking Community of Belgium will continue to be used on official documents, on the external presentation, on the Internet and on the official posters of the ministry, the government and the parliament.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "The German-speaking Community has its own government, which is appointed for five years by its own parliament. The Government is headed by a Minister-President, who acts as the \"prime minister\" of the Community, and is assisted by the Ministry of the German-speaking Community. The 2014–2019 government is formed by four Ministers:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Municipalities.", "content": "The German-speaking Community consists of nine municipalities, listed in the table below. Numbers on the map to the right correspond to the \"Map #\" column in the table below.  ( = comparable to previous year).  The population figures are those on 1 January 2017 (compare to a total of 73,675 on 1 January 2007). The municipalities are grouped into two cantons, namely the Canton of Eupen in the north and the Canton of Sankt Vith in the south. The wider region is included in the Arrondissement of Verviers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "In 2007, 73,675 inhabitants (86.3 inhabitants / km) lived in the area of the German-speaking community. However, the population density in the canton of Eupen (north) and the canton of St. Vith (south) is very different:  The North-South demographic gap is particularly evident when comparing the North and South of the community:  By comparison, the population density is 346,7 in Belgium, 204,0 in Wallonia and 452,4 in Flanders. Men represent 49.72% with a slightly lower proportion of the total population of the German-speaking community, women are in the majority with 50.28%.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flag and coat of arms.", "content": "In 1989, there was a call for proposals for a flag and arms of the Community. In the end the coat of arms of the Community was designed by merging elements of the arms of the Duchy of Limburg and the Duchy of Luxembourg, to which the two parts of the community had historically belonged.  A decree adopted on 1 October 1990 and published on 15 November 1990 prescribed the arms, the flag, the colours as well as the Day of the German-speaking Community of Belgium, which was to be celebrated annually on 15 November.  The coat of arms, in heraldic blazon, is: \"Arms: Argent, a lion rampant gules between nine cinquefoils azure. Crest: A royal crown.\" The flag shows a red lion together with nine blue cinquefoils on a white field. The colours of the German-speaking Community are white and red in a horizontal position.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The German-speaking Community of Belgium (, DG; ; ) or Eastern Belgium (; ; ) is one of the three federal communities of Belgium. Covering an area of within the province of Liège () in Wallonia, it includes nine of the eleven municipalities of East Cantons (). Traditionally speakers of Low Dietsch, Ripuarian, and Moselle Franconian varieties, the local population numbers over 77,000—about 0.70% of the national total.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972099}
{"src_title": "Wiener Werkstätte", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The enterprise evolved from the Vienna Secession, founded in 1897 as a progressive alliance of artists and designers. From the start, the Secession had placed special emphasis on the applied arts, and its 1900 exhibition surveying the work of contemporary European design workshops prompted the young architect Josef Hoffmann and his artist friend Koloman Moser to consider establishing a similar enterprise. Finally in 1903, with backing from the industrialist Fritz Wärndorfer, the Wiener Werkstätte began operations in three small rooms; it soon expanded to fill a three-story building with separate, specially designed facilities for metalwork, leatherwork, bookbinding, woodworking and a paint shop. The range of product lines also included; leather goods, enamel, jewellery, postcards and ceramics. The Wiener Werkstätte even had a millinery department.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "Beginning with the 14th Exhibition of the Vienna Sezession in 1902, the radical distinctiveness of certain Viennese artists began to emerge, setting a foundation for the widespread Modernist movement; this became known as Wiener-Werkstätte-Stil (literally, the Vienna Workshops Style). Among the innovators were the Austrian designers Gisela Falke von Lilienstein and Else Unger, and the Viennese architect Josef Hoffmann. The latter's cubist sculpture created in 1902 marked a break into independence for many Viennese artists. His works from this period are especially remarkable when one considers that the term \"cubism\" only found its way into the art lexicon around 1907 to describe the work of Pablo Picasso.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Most of the objects produced in the Wiener Werkstatte were stamped with a number of different marks: the trademark of the Wiener Werkstatte, the monogram of the designer and that of the craftsman, who created it. The Wiener Werkstatte had about 100 employees in 1905, of whom 37 were masters of their trade.  The seat of the venture was in Neustiftgasse 32–34, where a new building was adapted to their requirements. Eventually the project exhausted Wärndorfer's fortune. The circle of customers of the Wiener Werkstatte and Josef Hoffmann mainly consisted of artists and Jewish upper middle class supporters of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Several branches of the workshop were opened in Karlsbad 1909, Marienbad, Zürich 1916/17, New York 1922, Berlin 1929. In architectural commissions such as the Sanatorium Purkersdorf and the Palais Stoclet in Brussels, the Wiener Werkstätte was able to realize its ideal of the Gesamtkunstwerk (total artwork), a coordinated environment in which everything down to the last detail was consciously designed as an integral part of the whole project.  For several years, beginning in 1904, the Wiener Werkstätte had its own carpentry workshop. Josef Hoffmann designed a furniture line noted for its simple forms for the firm of Jacob & Josef Kohn. But only few pieces of furniture were made there. Most of the furniture known as Wiener Werkstätte Furniture were made by cabinet-makers as: Portois & Fix, Johann Soulek, Anton Herrgesell, Anton Pospisil, Friedrich Otto Schmidt and Johann Niedermoser. Some historians now believe that there are no existing original products of the Wiener Werkstätte Furniture division.  From 1905, the Wiener Werkstatte produced handpainted and printed silks. The Backhausen firm was responsible for the machine-printed and woven textiles. In 1907, the Wiener Werkstätte took over distribution for the Wiener Keramik, a ceramics workshop headed by Michael Powolny and Berthold Löffler. And in the same year Moser, embittered by the financial squabbling, left the Wiener Werkstätte, which subsequently entered a new phase, both stylistically and economically.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansion.", "content": "The founding of textile and fashion divisions in 1909 and 1910 brought a further shift in the Wiener Werkstätte's emphasis—away from the architectural and toward the ephemeral. After a close brush with bankruptcy in 1913, Wärndorfer left to America and the following year Otto Primavesi, a banker from Moravia, took over as chief financier and patron.  During and immediately following the First World War the Wiener Werkstatte was influenced by a new generation of artists and craftsmen, especially Dagobert Peche, who became creative director in 1915, and the director of the Zürich branch in 1917. Peche's playfully theatrical aesthetic reimagined decorative motifs of the Baroque and Rococo in a modern way. After the war, material shortages encouraged experimentation with less durable, less expensive materials such as wood, ceramics and papier-mâché. One of the ceramics contributors was Walter Bosse. The original, grand Gesamtkunstwerk vision became diluted and submerged by the Kunstgewerbliches—the artsy-craftsy.  At the beginning of the 1920s, Philipp Hausler attempted to eliminate the \"bad habits\" and \"extravagances\" which devoured so much money by broadening the workshop's base. The WW artists, however, insisted upon their accustomed exclusivity, and Hausler left in 1925.\" Attempts to expand the workshop's scope—adding such items as wallpaper to its limited program of industrial licenses, and establishing branches in Berlin, New York and Zurich—were not particularly successful. The Werkstätte's financial situation grew desperate due to the effects of the war and the onset of the worldwide Depression in 1929. In the 1932 it was compelled to declare bankruptcy and closed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "With its avant-garde, artistic, yet timeless designs, the Wiener-Werkstaette-Stil influenced generations of architects and designers in the 20th century. The Bauhaus in Germany, Art Deco in America from 1920 to 1940, Scandinavian design from 1940-1960 (see for example Arne Jacobsen), as well as Italian design (see Mario Bellini) between 1960 and 1980, were all strongly influenced by the Wiener Werkstätte.  A work representative is the Stoclet Palace in Brussels, which is considered a \"Gesamtkunstwerk\" of the company.  The chocolate company Altmann & Kühne uses many of the designs of the company for its chocolate boxes, as does Demel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Wiener Werkstätte (engl.: \"Vienna Workshop\"), established in 1903 by the graphic designer and painter Koloman Moser, the architect Josef Hoffmann and the patron Fritz Waerndorfer, was a productive cooperative of artisans in Vienna, Austria. The Werkstätte brought together architects, artists and designers working in ceramics, fashion, silver, furniture and the graphic arts. It is regarded as a pioneer of modern design, and its influence can be seen in later styles such as Bauhaus and Art Deco.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972100}
{"src_title": "HotSpot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Java HotSpot Performance Engine was released on April 27, 1999, built on technologies from an implementation of the programming language Smalltalk named Strongtalk, originally developed by Longview Technologies, which traded as Animorphic. The Longview virtual machine was based on the Self virtual machine, with an interpreter replacing the fast-and-dumb first compiler. When Sun cancelled the Self project, two key people, Urs Hölzle and Lars Bak left Sun to start Longview. In 1997, Sun Microsystems purchased Animorphic.  Shortly after acquiring Animorphic, Sun decided to write a new just-in-time (JIT) compiler for the Java virtual machine. This new compiler would give rise to the name \"HotSpot\", derived from the software's behavior: as it runs Java bytecode, as with the Self VM, HotSpot continually analyzes the program's performance for \"hot spots\" which are executed often or repeatedly. These are then targeted for optimizing, leading to high-performance execution with a minimum of overhead for less performance-critical code. In one report, the JVM beat some C++ or C code in some benchmarks.  Initially available as an add-on for Java 1.2, HotSpot became the default Sun JVM in Java 1.3.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "JRE (originally from Sun, now from Oracle) features two virtual machines, one called \"Client\" and the other \"Server\". The Client version is tuned for quick loading. It makes use of interpretation. The Server version loads more slowly, putting more effort into producing highly optimized JIT compilations to yield higher performance. Both VMs compile only often-run methods, using a configurable invocation-count threshold to decide which methods to compile.  Tiered compiling, an option introduced in Java 7, uses both the client and server compilers in tandem to provide faster startup time than the server compiler, but similar or better peak performance. Starting in Java 8, tiered compilation is the default for the server VM.  HotSpot is written in C++. In 2007, Sun estimated it comprised approximately 250,000 lines of source code. Hotspot provides:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "JVM flags.", "content": "HotSpot supports many command-line arguments for options of the virtual machine execution. Some are standard and must be found in any conforming Java virtual machine; others are specific to HotSpot and may not be found in other JVMs (options that begin with -X or -XX are non-standard).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "License.", "content": "On 13 November 2006, the HotSpot JVM and the Java Development Kit (JDK) were licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) version 2. This is the code that became part of Java 7.).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Supported platforms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Maintained by Oracle.", "content": "As with the entire Java Development Kit (JDK), HotSpot is supported by Oracle Corporation on Windows, Linux, macOS, and Solaris. Supported instruction set architectures (ISAs) are IA-32, x86-64, ARMv7 VFP, ARMv8 and SPARC (Solaris only).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ports by third parties.", "content": "Ports are also available by third parties for various other Unix operating systems. Several different hardware architectures are supported, including x86, PowerPC, and SPARC (Solaris only).  Porting HotSpot is difficult as the code, while mostly written in C++, contains much assembly language. To remedy this, the IcedTea project has developed a generic port of the HotSpot interpreter called \"zero-assembler Hotspot\" (or \"zero\"), with almost no assembly code. This port is intended for easy adaptation of the interpreter component of HotSpot to any Linux processor architecture. The code of \"zero-assembler Hotspot\" is used for all the non-x86 architecture ports of HotSpot (PowerPC, Itanium (IA-64), S390 and ARM) since version 1.6.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "HotSpot, released as Java HotSpot Performance Engine, is a Java virtual machine for desktop and server computers, maintained and distributed by Oracle Corporation. It features improved performance via methods such as just-in-time compilation and adaptive optimization.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972101}
{"src_title": "Iconodulism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In contrary to the moderate or respectful adoration, various forms of latria of icons (\"iconolatry\") were also starting to appear, mainly in popular worship. Since veritable (full) adoration was reserved for God only, such attitude towards icons as objects was seen as a form of idolatry. In reaction to that, the idolatric misuse of icons was criticized and by the beginning of the 8th century some radical forms of criticism (\"iconoclasm\") were also starting to emerge, advocating not only against adoration of icons, but also against any form of adoration and use of icons in religious life.  The iconoclastic controversy emerged in the Byzantine Empire and lasted during the 8th and the 9th centuries. The most famous \"iconodules\" (proponents of the veneration of icons) during that time were saints John of Damascus and Theodore the Studite. The controversy was instigated by Byzantine Emperor Leo III in 726, when he ordered the removal of the image of Christ above the Chalke Gate of the imperial palace in Constantinople. A wider prohibition of icons followed in 730. St. John of Damascus argued successfully that to prohibit the use of icons was tantamount to denying the incarnation, the presence of the Word of God in the material world. Icons reminded the church of the physicality of God as manifested in Jesus Christ.  Kissing and respected worship (; ), incense and candles for icons was established by the Second Council of Nicaea (Seventh Ecumenical Council) in 787. The Council decided that icons should not be destroyed, as was advocated and practiced by the iconoclasts, nor veritable (full) worshiped or adored (; ), as was practiced by iconolatrists, but they need to be kissed and they need to respected worship as symbolic representations of God, angels or saints. Such position was approved by Pope Adrian I, but due to some bad translations of conciliar acts from Greek into Latin, a controversy arose in Frankish kingdom, resulting in the creation of Libri Carolini. The last outburst of iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire was overcome at the Council of Constantinople in 843, which reaffirmed the adoration of icons in an event celebrated as the Feast of Orthodoxy.  The Council of Trent (XIX Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church) in 1563 confirmed iconodulism. But this Council, unlike the Council of Nicaea, used a different expression in relation to the icons: «honor and veneration» (). Its decree also reads as follows: «we kiss, and before which we uncover the head, and prostrate ourselves, we adore Christ; and we venerate the saints, whose similitude they bear» ().", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Iconodulism (also Iconoduly or Iconodulia) designates the religious service to icons (kissing and honourable veneration, incense, and candlelight). The term comes from Neoclassical Greek εἰκονόδουλος (\"eikonodoulos\") ← ( – \"icon (image)\" + – \"servant\"), meaning \"one who is serves images (icons)\". It is also referred to as Iconophilism (also Iconophily or Iconophilia ← – \"icon (image)\" + – \"love\") designating a positive attitude towards the religious use of icons. In the history of Christianity, Iconodulism (or Iconophilism) was manifested as a moderate position, between two extremes: Iconoclasm (radical opposition to the use of icons) and Iconolatry (idolatric veritable (full) adoration of icons).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972102}
{"src_title": "Non-inertial reference frame", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Avoiding fictitious forces in calculations.", "content": "In flat spacetime, the use of non-inertial frames can be avoided if desired. Measurements with respect to non-inertial reference frames can always be transformed to an inertial frame, incorporating directly the acceleration of the non-inertial frame as that acceleration as seen from the inertial frame. This approach avoids use of fictitious forces (it is based on an inertial frame, where fictitious forces are absent, by definition) but it may be less convenient from an intuitive, observational, and even a calculational viewpoint. As pointed out by Ryder for the case of rotating frames as used in meteorology:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Detection of a non-inertial frame: need for fictitious forces.", "content": "That a given frame is non-inertial can be detected by its need for fictitious forces to explain observed motions. For example, the rotation of the Earth can be observed using a Foucault pendulum. The rotation of the Earth seemingly causes the pendulum to change its plane of oscillation because the surroundings of the pendulum move with the Earth. As seen from an Earth-bound (non-inertial) frame of reference, the explanation of this apparent change in orientation requires the introduction of the fictitious Coriolis force.  Another famous example is that of the tension in the string between two spheres rotating about each other. In that case, prediction of the measured tension in the string based upon the motion of the spheres as observed from a rotating reference frame requires the rotating observers to introduce a fictitious centrifugal force.  In this connection, it may be noted that a change in coordinate system, for example, from Cartesian to polar, if implemented without any change in relative motion, does not cause the appearance of fictitious forces, despite the fact that the form of the laws of motion varies from one type of curvilinear coordinate system to another.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fictitious forces in curvilinear coordinates.", "content": "A different use of the term \"fictitious force\" often is used in curvilinear coordinates, particularly polar coordinates. To avoid confusion, this distracting ambiguity in terminologies is pointed out here. These so-called \"forces\" are non-zero in all frames of reference, inertial or non-inertial, and do \"not\" transform as vectors under rotations and translations of the coordinates (as all Newtonian forces do, fictitious or otherwise).  This incompatible use of the term \"fictitious force\" is unrelated to non-inertial frames. These so-called \"forces\" are defined by determining the acceleration of a particle within the curvilinear coordinate system, and then separating the simple double-time derivatives of coordinates from the remaining terms. These remaining terms then are called \"fictitious forces\". More careful usage calls these terms \"generalized fictitious forces\" to indicate their connection to the generalized coordinates of Lagrangian mechanics. The application of Lagrangian methods to polar coordinates can be found here.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relativistic point of view.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Frames and flat spacetime.", "content": "If a region of spacetime is declared to be Euclidean, and effectively free from obvious gravitational fields, then if an accelerated coordinate system is overlaid onto the same region, it can be said that a \"uniform fictitious field\" exists in the accelerated frame (we reserve the word gravitational for the case in which a mass is involved). An object accelerated to be stationary in the accelerated frame will \"feel\" the presence of the field, and they will also be able to see environmental matter with inertial states of motion (stars, galaxies, etc.) to be apparently falling \"downwards\" in the field along curved trajectories as if the field is real.  In frame-based descriptions, this supposed field can be made to appear or disappear by switching between \"accelerated\" and \"inertial\" coordinate systems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "More advanced descriptions.", "content": "As the situation is modeled in finer detail, using the general principle of relativity, the concept of a \"frame-dependent\" gravitational field becomes less realistic. In these Machian models, the accelerated body can agree that the apparent gravitational field is associated with the motion of the background matter, but can also claim that the motion of the material as if there is a gravitational field, causes the gravitational field - the accelerating background matter \"drags light\". Similarly, a background observer can argue that the forced acceleration of the mass causes an apparent gravitational field in the region between it and the environmental material (the accelerated mass also \"drags light\"). This \"mutual\" effect, and the ability of an accelerated mass to warp lightbeam geometry and lightbeam-based coordinate systems, is referred to as frame-dragging.  Frame-dragging removes the usual distinction between accelerated frames (which show gravitational effects) and inertial frames (where the geometry is supposedly free from gravitational fields). When a forcibly-accelerated body physically \"drags\" a coordinate system, the problem becomes an exercise in warped spacetime for all observers.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A non-inertial reference frame is a frame of reference that is undergoing acceleration with respect to an inertial frame. An accelerometer at rest in a non-inertial frame will, in general, detect a non-zero acceleration. While the laws of motion are the same in all inertial frames, in non-inertial frames, they vary from frame to frame depending on the acceleration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972103}
{"src_title": "Glacier Express", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "The completion of the final portion of the FO in 1926 opened up the Cantons of Valais and Graubünden to further tourist development. In particular, a pathway was laid for the introduction of \"Kurswagen\" (through coaches) between Brig and Chur, and between Brig and St. Moritz.  In early June 1930, the then Visp–Zermatt Bahn was extended to Brig by the opening of a metre gauge line along the Rhone Valley between Visp and Brig. For the first time, it was feasible to operate through coaches all the way from Zermatt to St. Moritz and return. On, the first train of such coaches set out from Zermatt to St. Moritz, under the name \"Glacier Express\". The new train's name honoured the Rhone Glacier, which is near Gletsch, on the Furka Pass.  Until 1982, the Glacier Express operated only in the summer months, because the Furka Pass and the Oberalp Pass were both snowed over in winter. Initially, the train was made up of first to third class salon and passenger coaches, supplied by all three of the participating railway companies. Between Chur and Disentis/Mustér, passengers could enjoy a hot lunch in a Mitropa dining car. From 1933, the Glacier Express through coaches were attached to normal passenger trains between Brig and Zermatt.  In the earliest years of the Glacier Express, electric locomotives were used to haul the Glacier Express on the BVZ and the RhB, but steam locomotives were used on the FO. That changed in 1941-1942, when overhead catenary was installed on the FO, enabling completely electric operation for the full length of the route. However, no through trains were operated between 1943 and 1946, due to World War II.  Upon the resumption of daily through trains in 1948, the dining car service was extended from Disentis/Mustér to the top of the Oberalp Pass. Between the 1950s and the 1970s, both the BVZ and the RhB introduced new locomotive classes that, when attached to the Glacier Express, enabled reductions in schedule times. Meanwhile, the dining car service was extended further, to Andermatt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Year-round operations.", "content": "In 1981 a Glacier Express era came to an end, with the final closure for the winter of the FO line over the Furka Pass and through the Furka Summit Tunnel, between Oberwald and Gletsch. In June 1982, that FO line was replaced by the newly opened Furka Base Tunnel. As a consequence, the Glacier Express not only became disconnected from its namesake Rhone Glacier, but also could now, for the first time, be operated on a year-round basis.  At that time, the BVZ, FO and RhB took the opportunity to relaunch the Glacier Express as a tourist attraction. Promotional material focused on the train's status as \"the slowest express train in the world\", covering, 91 tunnels, and over 291 bridges. A special promotional wine glass on a sloping base emphasised the steepness of some parts of the route. Passenger numbers rose from in 1982 to over in 1983, and to just over in 1984.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent developments.", "content": "In 1985 the Glacier Express timetable was completely revised. Between 1986 and 1993, the BVZ and the FO invested nearly 40 million Swiss francs in constructing 18 new first class panorama cars for the train. By 2005 more than passengers were travelling on the Glacier Express each year.  In 2006 a few scenes of the documentary film \"The Alps\" were shot inside the train, and further new panorama cars were added to the Glacier Express passenger car fleet. On 7 July 2008, the Albula Railway and the Bernina Railway were jointly recorded in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, under the name \"Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes\". Currently, the Glacier Express is especially popular with tourists from Germany, Japan, and, increasingly, India.  In 2013 the direct service to Davos was discontinued because of decreasing passenger numbers and unfavourable economic circumstances.  In 2018, two additional summer services were introduced. Each morning one service departs from Zermatt to Chur, and one service departs from St. Moritz to Brig. These services then travel back in the afternoon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010 derailment.", "content": "On 23 July 2010 a Glacier Express train derailed near Fiesch on the Matterhorn Gotthard Bahn line. One passenger was killed and 42 were injured. The accident was blamed on human error.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Itinerary.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Albula line.", "content": "Shortly after leaving St. Moritz station () in Graubünden, the train passes Samedan and Bever on the high Engadin plateau. There it continues in the \"Val Bever\" before entering the Albula Tunnel at under the Albula Pass. After the tunnel, the train passes through Preda, the first station in the \"Albula Valley\" and continues toward Bergün/Bravuogn. Between these two villages the train has to go through many spirals because of the high difference of altitude within a short distance ( for ).  After another spiral, the train reaches Filisur at the end of the valley at (). From there, the train passes on the Landwasser Viaduct, the most emblematic landmark of the railway line and continues toward Thusis () where it reaches the Posterior Rhine and follows it to the city of Chur ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Oberalp section.", "content": "From Chur the train follows back the course of the Rhine through the gorge of Ruinaulta and climbs slowly the valley toward Ilanz (), Disentis/Mustér () and Sedrun (). From Sedrun the line becomes steeper to finally reach its summit, the Oberalp Pass at. From there the train enters the Canton of Uri in Central Switzerland and continues down to Andermatt ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Furka section.", "content": "From Andermatt the train goes forward in the valley called Urseren passing the villages of Hospental () and Realp (). From there the train enters the Furka Base Tunnel, leaving the old railway line which climbs the Furka Pass (operated today by the Furka Cogwheel Steam Railway), to emerge in Oberwald () in the Goms Valley, in the Canton of Valais. The train then continues toward Brig, following the course of the Rhone, and passes along the villages of Ulrichen (), Münster-Geschinen () and Fiesch (), before going through another spiral.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mattertal line.", "content": "From Brig () the train continues to Visp (), then enters the valley of Mattertal and goes up, passing the villages of Stalden (), St. Niklaus () and Randa (), where a spectacular debris avalanche completely disconnected the railway and road in 1991. Täsch () is an important station as it is the end of the open road, and therefore a terminal for motorists. After a steeper section the train finally arrives in Zermatt at, after nearly 8 hours of travel.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Glacier Express (GEX) is an \"express\" train connecting railway stations of the two major mountain resorts of Zermatt and St. Moritz via Andermatt in the central Swiss Alps. The train is not an \"express\" in the sense of being a high-speed train, but rather, in the sense that it provides a one-seat ride for an 8-hours-long end-to-end journey, and omits stops made by local trains. The Glacier Express is known as the slowest express train in the world. As St. Moritz and Zermatt are home to two well-known mountains, the Glacier Express is also said to travel from Matterhorn to Piz Bernina.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972104}
{"src_title": "Spread spectrum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Telecommunications.", "content": "Spread spectrum generally makes use of a sequential noise-like signal structure to spread the normally narrowband information signal over a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal. Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI).  Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these techniques are forms of spread spectrum. The first two of these techniques employ pseudorandom number sequences—created using pseudorandom number generators—to determine and control the spreading pattern of the signal across the allocated bandwidth. Wireless standard IEEE 802.11 uses either FHSS or DSSS in its radio interface.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invention of frequency hopping.", "content": "The idea of trying to protect and avoid interference in radio transmissions dates back to the beginning of radio wave signaling. In 1899 Guglielmo Marconi experimented with frequency-selective reception in an attempt to minimize interference. The concept of Frequency-hopping was adopted by the German radio company Telefunken and also described in part of a 1903 US patent by Nikola Tesla. Radio pioneer Jonathan Zenneck's 1908 German book \"Wireless Telegraphy\" describes the process and notes that Telefunken was using it previously. It saw limited use by the German military in World War I, was put forward by Polish engineer Leonard Danilewicz in 1929, showed up in a patent in the 1930s by Willem Broertjes (, issued Aug. 2, 1932), and in the top-secret US Army Signal Corps World War II communications system named SIGSALY.  During World War II, Golden Age of Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr and avant-garde composer George Antheil developed an intended jamming-resistant radio guidance system for use in Allied torpedoes, patenting the device under US Patent 2,292,387 \"Secret Communications System\" on August 11, 1942. Their approach was unique in that frequency coordination was done with paper player piano rolls - a novel approach which was never put into practice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clock signal generation.", "content": "Spread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some synchronous digital systems, especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) that these systems generate. A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a clock signal and, because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum. In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency (the desired clock frequency) and its harmonics. Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of the FCC in the United States, JEITA in Japan and the IEC in Europe).  Spread-spectrum clocking avoids this problem by using one of the methods previously described to reduce the peak radiated energy and, therefore, its electromagnetic emissions and so comply with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations.  It has become a popular technique to gain regulatory approval because it requires only simple equipment modification. It is even more popular in portable electronics devices because of faster clock speeds and increasing integration of high-resolution LCD displays into ever smaller devices. As these devices are designed to be lightweight and inexpensive, traditional passive, electronic measures to reduce EMI, such as capacitors or metal shielding, are not viable. Active EMI reduction techniques such as spread-spectrum clocking are needed in these cases.  However, spread-spectrum clocking, like other kinds of dynamic frequency change, can also create challenges for designers. Principal among these is clock/data misalignment, or clock skew. Consequently, an ability to disable spread-spectrum clocking in computer systems is considered useful.  Note that this method does not reduce total radiated energy, and therefore systems are not necessarily less likely to cause interference. Spreading energy over a larger bandwidth effectively reduces electrical and magnetic readings within narrow bandwidths. Typical measuring receivers used by EMC testing laboratories divide the electromagnetic spectrum into frequency bands approximately 120 kHz wide. If the system under test were to radiate all its energy in a narrow bandwidth, it would register a large peak. Distributing this same energy into a larger bandwidth prevents systems from putting enough energy into any one narrowband to exceed the statutory limits. The usefulness of this method as a means to reduce real-life interference problems is often debated, as it is perceived that spread-spectrum clocking hides rather than resolves higher radiated energy issues by simple exploitation of loopholes in EMC legislation or certification procedures. This situation results in electronic equipment sensitive to narrow bandwidth(s) experiencing much less interference, while those with broadband sensitivity, or even operated at other higher frequencies (such as a radio receiver tuned to a different station), will experience more interference.  FCC certification testing is often completed with the spread-spectrum function enabled in order to reduce the measured emissions to within acceptable legal limits. However, the spread-spectrum functionality may be disabled by the user in some cases. As an example, in the area of personal computers, some BIOS writers include the ability to disable spread-spectrum clock generation as a user setting, thereby defeating the object of the EMI regulations. This might be considered a loophole, but is generally overlooked as long as spread-spectrum is enabled by default.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In telecommunication and radio communication, spread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g., an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal) generated with a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural interference, noise, and jamming, to prevent detection, to limit power flux density (e.g., in satellite down links), and to enable multiple-access communications.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972105}
{"src_title": "Panzer III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Professor Henrich Focke, through his development of the Fw 186, and through the efforts of producing the C.19 and C.30 autogyros under licence, came to the conclusion that the limitations of autogyros could be eliminated only by an aircraft with a powered rotor, the helicopter. He and engineer Gerd Achgelis started the design for this helicopter in 1932. A free-flying model, built in 1934 and propelled by a small two-stroke engine, brought the promise of success. Today, the model can be seen in the Deutsches Museum in Munich.  On 9 February 1935, Focke received an order for the building of a prototype, which was designated the Fw 61; Focke referred to it as the F 61. Roluf Lucht of the technical office of the RLM extended the order for a second aircraft on 19 December 1935. The airframe was based on that of a well-tried training aircraft, the Focke-Wulf Fw 44 \"Stieglitz\".  Using rotor technology licensed from the Cierva Autogiro Company, a single radial engine drove twin rotors, set on tubular steel outriggers to the left and right of the fuselage. Each main rotor consisted of three articulated and tapered blades, driven by the engine through gears and shafts. Longitudinal and directional control was achieved using cyclic pitch and asymmetric rotor lift. The counter-rotation of the two rotors solved the problem of torque-reaction as also shown by Louis Bréguet. The small horizontal-axis propeller directly driven by the engine was purely to provide the necessary airflow to cool the engine during low speed or hovering flight and provided negligible forward thrust.  Only two aircraft were produced. The first prototype, the V 1 D-EBVU, had its first free flight on 26 June 1936 with Ewald Rohlfs at the controls. By early 1937, the second prototype, V 2 D-EKRA, was completed and flown for its first flight. On 10 May 1937, it accomplished its first autorotation landing with the engine turned off.  Focke-Achgelis began work on a two-seat sports version of the Fw 61, the Fa 224, which would have used an Argus As 10C engine and had greater performance. However, the Fa 224 never left the drawing board at the outbreak of WW2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "In February 1938, the Fw 61 was demonstrated by Hanna Reitsch indoors at the \"Deutschlandhalle\" sports stadium in Berlin, Germany. It subsequently set several records for altitude, speed and flight duration culminating, in June 1938, with an altitude record of 3,427 m (11,243 ft), breaking the unofficial altitude record of the TsAGI 1-EA single lift-rotor helicopter from the Soviet Union set in August 1932, and a straight line flight record of 230 km (143 mi).  Neither of these machines appear to have survived World War II, although a replica is on display at the Hubschraubermuseum in Bückeburg, Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Panzerkampfwagen III, commonly known as the Panzer III, was a medium tank developed in the 1930s by Germany, and was used extensively in World War II. The official German ordnance designation was Sd.Kfz. 141. It was intended to fight other armoured fighting vehicles and serve alongside and support similar Panzer IV which was originally designed for infantry support. However, as the Germans faced the formidable T-34, more powerful anti-tank guns were needed, and since the Panzer IV had more development potential with a larger turret ring, it was redesigned to mount the long-barrelled 7.5 cm KwK 40 gun. The Panzer III effectively swapped roles with the Panzer IV, as from 1942 the last version of Panzer III mounted the 7.5 cm KwK 37 L/24 that was better suited for infantry support. Production of the Panzer III ceased in 1943. Nevertheless, the Panzer III's capable chassis provided hulls for the Sturmgeschütz III assault gun until the end of the war.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972106}
{"src_title": "The Christian Community", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Practice.", "content": "The Christian Community does not require its members to conform to any specific teaching or behaviour. Seven sacraments are celebrated within the Community: the Eucharist, generally called the \"Act of Consecration of Man\", and six other sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, Marriage, The Last Anointing, Sacramental Consultation (replacing Confession), and Ordination. There is also a special Sunday service for children of school age.  Rituals and sacraments are the same wherever they are celebrated. Services are generally celebrated in the language of the country in which they celebrated. The Act of Consecration of Man lasts approximately one hour. Sunday services are longer than weekday services because they contain a sermon in addition to holy communion. For the sacramental wine used in communion non-fermented grape juice is used rather than alcoholic wine. Three Christmas services are celebrated, one on December 24 (at midnight) and two on December 25. There are also added prayers for different liturgical seasons of the year.  Some chapels have an organ, and occasionally the organ has quarter tones in addition to the conventional (equal temperament) tuning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tenets.", "content": "The Christian Community practices a complete freedom of teaching. The Priests may exert this freedom of teaching, provided that they do not contradict the sacraments which they celebrate. There is no official theology, nor articles of belief. Whatever is taught or written is a personal view.  Basic tenets of some priests of the Christian Community are 1) free will, 2) reincarnation and 3) focus on Christ. For example, Jesus of Nazareth is seen as merely a physical vessel that enabled the spiritual being called Christ to influence the world.  The ideology of some priests of the Christian Community could be summarized with the following points:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Christian Community () is a Christian denomination. It was founded in 1922 in Switzerland by a group of mainly Lutheran theologians and ministers led by Friedrich Rittelmeyer, inspired by Rudolf Steiner, the Austrian philosopher and founder of anthroposophy. Christian Community congregations exist as financially independent groups with regional and international administrative bodies overseeing their work. There are approximately 100,000 worldwide. The international headquarters are in Berlin, Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972107}
{"src_title": "Lateral thinking", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Methods.", "content": "Lateral thinking has to be distinguished from critical thinking. Critical thinking is primarily concerned with judging the true value of statements and seeking errors whereas lateral thinking focuses more on the \"movement value\" of statements and ideas. A person uses lateral thinking to move from one known idea to new ideas. Edward de Bono defines four types of thinking tools:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Random Entry Idea Generating Tool.", "content": "The thinker chooses an object at random, or a noun from a dictionary and associates it with the area they are thinking about. De Bono exemplifies this through the randomly-chosen word, \"nose\", being applied to an office photocopier, leading to the idea that the copier could produce a lavender smell when it was low on paper.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Provocation Idea Generating Tool.", "content": "A provocation is a statement that we know is wrong or impossible but used to create new ideas. De Bono gives an example of considering river pollution and setting up the provocation, \"the factory is downstream of itself\", causing a factory to be forced to take its water input from a point downstream of its output, an idea which later became law in some countries. Provocations can be set up by the use of any of the provocation techniques—wishful thinking, exaggeration, reversal, escape, distortion, or arising. The thinker creates a list of provocations and then uses the most outlandish ones to move their thinking forward to new ideas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Movement Techniques.", "content": "The purpose of movement techniques is to produce as many alternatives as possible in order to encourage new ways of thinking about both problems and solutions. The production of alternatives tends to produce many possible solutions to problems that seemed to only have one possible solution. One can move from a provocation to a new idea through the following methods: extract a principle, focus on the difference, moment to moment, positive aspects or special circumstances.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Challenge.", "content": "A tool which is designed to ask the question, \"Why?\", in a non-threatening way: why something exists or why it is done the way it is. The result is a very clear understanding of \"Why?\", which naturally leads to new ideas. The goal is to be able to challenge anything at all, not those that are problematic. For example, one could challenge the handles on coffee cups: The reason for the handle seems to be that the cup is often too hot to hold directly; perhaps coffee cups could be made with insulated finger grips, or there could be separate coffee-cup holders similar to beer holders, or coffee shouldn't be so hot in the first place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Concept Formation.", "content": "Ideas carry out concepts. This tool systematically expands the range and number of concepts in order to end up with a very broad range of ideas to consider.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disproving.", "content": "Based on the idea that the majority is always wrong (as suggested by Henrik Ibsen and by John Kenneth Galbraith), take anything that is obvious and generally accepted as \"goes without saying\", question it, take an opposite view, and try to convincingly disprove it. This technique is similar to de Bono's \"Black Hat\" of \"Six Thinking Hats\", which looks at identifying reasons to be cautious and conservative.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fractionation.", "content": "The purpose of fractionation is to create alternative perceptions of problems and solutions by taking the commonplace view of the situation and break it into multiple alternative situations in order to break away from the fixed view and see the situation from different angles, thus being able to generate multiple possible solutions that can be synthesized into more comprehensive answers.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lateral thinking is a manner of solving problems using an indirect and creative approach via reasoning that is not immediately obvious. It involves ideas that may not be obtainable using only traditional step-by-step logic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972108}
{"src_title": "Automotive industry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The automotive industry began in the 1860s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in total automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, and the U.S. automobile industry produced over 90% of them. At that time the U.S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U.S. produced about 75 percent of world's auto production. In 1980, the U.S. was overtaken by Japan and then became world's leader again in 1994. In 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U.S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U.S. production, with 10.3 million units, while Japan was in third place with 9.9 million units. From 1970 (140 models) over 1998 (260 models) to 2012 (684 models), the number of automobile models in the U.S. has grown exponentially.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, damage or cause of injury. In the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the automobiles themselves, implies that there is no risk of damage.  Safety in the automotive industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other motor vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international, in order to be accepted on the market. The standard ISO 26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety.  In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle, the maker can request to return either a batch or the entire production run. This procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production-related or stem from the raw material.  Product and operation tests and inspections at different stages of the value chain are made to avoid these product recalls by ensuring end-user security and safety and compliance with the automotive industry requirements. However, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over of gasoline and diesel fuel yearly. The automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicted that, by 2014, one-third of world demand would be in the four BRIC markets (Brazil, Russia, India and China). Meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the younger generations of people (in highly urbanized countries) no longer want to own a car anymore, and prefer other modes of transport. Other potentially powerful automotive markets are Iran and Indonesia. Emerging auto markets already buy more cars than established markets. According to a J.D. Power study, emerging markets accounted for 51 percent of the global light-vehicle sales in 2010. The study, performed in 2010 expected this trend to accelerate. However, more recent reports (2012) confirmed the opposite; namely that the automotive industry was slowing down even in BRIC countries. In the United States, vehicle sales peaked in 2000, at 17.8 million units.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World motor vehicle production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "By country.", "content": "The OICA counts over 50 countries which assemble, manufacture or disseminate automobiles. Of that figure, only 14 countries (boldfaced in the list below) currently possess the capability to design original production automobiles from the ground up.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "By manufacturer.", "content": "This is a list of the 15 largest manufacturers by production volume in 2017, according to OICA.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Company relationships.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stake holding.", "content": "It is common for automobile manufacturers to hold stakes in other automobile manufacturers. These ownerships can be explored under the detail for the individual companies.  Notable current relationships include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Top vehicle manufacturing groups by volume.", "content": "The table below shows the world's 10 largest motor vehicle manufacturing groups, along with the marques produced by each one. The table is ranked by 2016 production figures from the International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers (OICA) for the parent group, and then alphabetically by marque. Joint ventures are not reflected in this table. Production figures of joint ventures are typically included in OICA rankings, which can become a source of controversy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The automotive industry comprises a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles. It is one of the world's largest economic sectors by revenue. The automotive industry does not include industries dedicated to the maintenance of automobiles following delivery to the end-user, such as automobile repair shops and motor fuel filling stations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972109}
{"src_title": "Adolf Loos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Loos was born on 10 December 1870 in Brno, in the Margraviate of Moravia region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, today the eastern part of the Czech Republic. His father, a German stonemason, died when Loos was nine years old. Young Adolf Loos had inherited his father's hearing impairment and was significantly handicapped by it throughout his life. His mother continued to carry on the stonemason business after her husband's death. Loos attended several Gymnasium schools, a technical school in Liberec and graduated 1889 from a technical school in Brno. He later studied at Dresden University of Technology. He left one year later without completing his study.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "At age 23, Loos traveled to the United States and stayed there for three years from 1893–96. While in the United States, he mainly lived with relatives in the Philadelphia area, supported himself with odd jobs and also visited other cities such as the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, St. Louis and New York. Loos returned to Vienna in 1896 and made it his permanent residence. He was a prominent figure in the city and a friend of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Arnold Schönberg, Peter Altenberg and Karl Kraus.  Inspired by his years in the New World he devoted himself to architecture. After briefly associating himself with the Vienna Secession in 1896, he rejected the style and advocated a new, plain, unadorned architecture. A utilitarian approach to use the entire floor plan completed his concept. Loos's early commissions consisted of interior designs for shops and cafés in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architectural theory.", "content": "Loos authored several polemical works. In \"Spoken into the Void\", published in 1900, he attacked the Vienna Secession, at a time when the movement was at its height.  In his essays, Loos used provocative catchphrases and is noted for the essay/manifesto entitled \"Ornament and Crime\", given in a lecture in 1910 and first published in 1913. He explored the idea that the progress of culture is associated with the deletion of ornament from everyday objects, and that it was therefore a crime to force craftsmen or builders to waste their time on ornamentation that served to hasten the time when an object would become obsolete (design theory). Loos' stripped-down buildings influenced the minimal massing of modern architecture, and stirred controversy. Although noted for the lack of ornamentation on their exteriors, the interiors of many of Loos's buildings are finished with rich and expensive materials, notably stone, marble and wood, displaying natural patterns and textures in flat planes, executed in first rate craftsmanship. The distinction is not between complicated and simple, but between \"organic\" and superfluous decoration.  Loos was also interested in the decorative arts, collecting sterling silver and high quality leather goods, which he noted for their plain yet luxurious appeal. He also enjoyed fashion and men's clothing, designing the famed Kníže of Vienna, a haberdashery. His admiration for the fashion and culture of England and America can be seen in his short-lived publication \"Das Andere\", which ran for just two issues in 1903 and included advertisements for 'English' clothing. In 1920, he had a brief collaboration with Frederick John Kiesler - architect, theater and art-exhibition designer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loos House and other projects.", "content": "From 1904 on, he was able to carry out big projects; the most notable was the so-called \"Looshaus\" (built from 1910–12), originally for the Viennese tailor Goldman and Salatsch, for whom Loos had designed a store interior in 1898, and situated right across from the Habsburg city residence Hofburg Palace. The house, today located at the address Michaelerplatz 3, Vienna, and under monument preservation, was criticized by its contemporaries. The facade was dominated by rectilinear window patterns and a lack of stucco decoration and awnings, which earned it the nickname \"House without Eyebrows\"; Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria was said to have despised the modern building so much that he avoided leaving the Hofburg Palace through a main gate in its vicinity. His work also includes the store of the men's fashion house Knize (built 1909–13), Am Graben 13, Café Museum (built 1899), Operngasse 7, Vienna, and the \"American Bar\" (built 1907–08), Kärntnerstrasse 10, Vienna.  Loos visited the island of Skyros in 1904 and was influenced by the cubic architecture of the Greek islands. When the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed after World War I Loos was awarded Czechoslovakian citizenship by President Masaryk. His main place of residence remained in Vienna. During the First Austrian Republic Loos became interested in public projects. He designed several housing projects for the City of Vienna, which was then nicknamed Red Vienna. From 1924–28 Loos lived in Paris. He taught at the Sorbonne and was contracted to build a house for Tristan Tzara, which was completed 1925 on Avenue Junot 15, Paris. In 1928 he returned to Vienna.  Loos had an admiration for classical architecture, which is reflected in his writings and his entry to the 1922 Chicago Tribune competition. Loos' submission was a massive doric column.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Private life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages.", "content": "Loos was married three times. In July 1902, he married drama student. The marriage ended three years later in 1905. In 1919, he married 20-year-old Austrian-born Elsie Altmann, a dancer and operetta star and daughter of Adolf Altmann and Jeannette Gruenblatt. They divorced seven years later in 1926. In 1929 he married writer and photographer Claire Beck. She was the daughter of his clients Otto and Olga Beck, and 35 years his junior. They were divorced on 30 April 1932. Following their divorce, Claire Loos wrote \"Adolf Loos Privat\", a literary work of snapshot-like vignettes about Loos's character, habits and sayings, published by the Johannes-Presse in Vienna in 1936. The book was intended to raise funds for Loos's tomb.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Poor health.", "content": "All his life, Loos suffered from a hearing impairment. When he was a child, he was deaf. He only acquired partial hearing at the age of 12. In 1918 Loos was diagnosed with cancer. His stomach, appendix and part of his intestine were removed. By the time he was 50 he was nearly deaf.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Child abuse.", "content": "In 1928 Loos was disgraced by a pedophilia scandal in Vienna. He had commissioned young girls, aged 8 to 10, from poor families to act as models in his studio. The indictment stated that Loos had exposed himself and forced his young models to participate in sexual acts. He was found partially guilty in a court decision of 1928. In 2008 the original case record was rediscovered and confirmed the accusation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Adolf Loos exhibited early signs of dementia around the time of his court proceedings. A few months before his death he suffered a stroke. He died aged 62 on 23 August 1933 in Kalksburg near Vienna. Loos's body was taken to Vienna's Zentralfriedhof to rest among the great artists and musicians of the city, including Schoenberg, Altenberg and Kraus, some of his closest friends and associates.  Through his writings and his groundbreaking projects in Vienna, Loos was able to influence other architects and designers, and the early development of Modernism. His careful selection of materials, passion for craftsmanship and use of 'Raumplan'—the considered ordering and size of interior spaces based on function—are still admired.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adolf Franz Karl Viktor Maria Loos (; 10 December 1870 – 23 August 1933) was an Austrian architect and influential European theorist of modern architecture. His essay \"Ornament and Crime\" advocated smooth and clear surfaces in contrast to the lavish decorations of the fin de siècle, as well as the more modern aesthetic principles of the Vienna Secession, exemplified in his design of Looshaus, Vienna. Loos became a pioneer of modern architecture and contributed a body of theory and criticism of Modernism in architecture and design and developed the \"Raumplan\" (literally \"spatial plan\") method of arranging interior spaces, exemplified in Villa Müller in Prague.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972110}
{"src_title": "Beat (acoustics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mathematics and physics of beat tones.", "content": "This phenomenon is best known in acoustics or music, though it can be found in any linear system: \"According to the law of superposition, two tones sounding simultaneously are superimposed in a very simple way: one adds their amplitudes\". If a graph is drawn to show the function corresponding to the total sound of two strings, it can be seen that maxima and minima are no longer constant as when a pure note is played, but change over time: when the two waves are nearly 180 degrees out of phase the maxima of one wave cancel the minima of the other, whereas when they are nearly in phase their maxima sum up, raising the perceived volume.  It can be proven with the help of a sum-to-product trigonometric identity (see List of trigonometric identities) that the envelope of the maxima and minima form a wave whose frequency is half the difference between the frequencies of the two original waves. Consider two sine waves of unit amplitude:  If the two original frequencies are quite close (for example, a difference of approximately twelve hertz), the frequency of the cosine of the right side of the expression above, that is, is often too low to be perceived as an audible tone or pitch. Instead, it is perceived as a periodic variation in the amplitude of the first term in the expression above. It can be said that the lower frequency cosine term is an \"envelope\" for the higher frequency one, i.e. that its amplitude is modulated. The frequency of the modulation is, that is, the average of the two frequencies. It can be noted that every second burst in the modulation pattern is inverted. Each peak is replaced by a trough and vice versa. However, because the human ear is not sensitive to the phase of a sound, only its amplitude or intensity, only the magnitude of the envelope is heard. Therefore, subjectively, the frequency of the envelope seems to have twice the frequency of the modulating cosine, which means the audible beat frequency is:  This can be seen on the adjacent diagram. A physical interpretation is that when the two waves are in phase and they interfere constructively. When it is zero, they are out of phase and interfere destructively. Beats occur also in more complex sounds, or in sounds of different volumes, though calculating them mathematically is not so easy.  For a human ear to hear beat phenomena, the ratio of frequencies should be less than formula_4 or else the brain perceives them as two different frequencies.  Beating can also be heard between notes that are near to, but not exactly, a harmonic interval, due to some harmonic of the first note beating with a harmonic of the second note. For example, in the case of perfect fifth, the third harmonic (i.e. second overtone) of the bass note beats with the second harmonic (first overtone) of the other note. As well as with out-of tune notes, this can also happen with some correctly tuned equal temperament intervals, because of the differences between them and the corresponding just intonation intervals: see Harmonic series (music)#Harmonics and tuning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Binaural beats.", "content": "A binaural beat is an auditory illusion perceived when two different pure-tone sine waves, both with frequencies lower than 1500 Hz, with less than a 40 Hz difference between them, are presented to a listener dichotically (one through each ear).  For example, if a 530 Hz pure tone is presented to a subject's right ear, while a 520 Hz pure tone is presented to the subject's left ear, the listener will perceive the auditory illusion of a third tone, in addition to the two pure-tones presented to each ear. The third sound is called a binaural beat, and in this example would have a perceived pitch correlating to a frequency of 10 Hz, that being the difference between the 530 Hz and 520 Hz pure tones presented to each ear.  Binaural-beat perception originates in the inferior colliculus of the midbrain and the superior olivary complex of the brainstem, where auditory signals from each ear are integrated and precipitate electrical impulses along neural pathways through the reticular formation up the midbrain to the thalamus, auditory cortex, and other cortical regions.  Some potential benefits of binaural beats therapy may include: reduced stress, reduced anxiety, increased focus, increased concentration, increased motivation, increased confidence, and deeper meditation. However, research is inconclusive about the clinical benefits of binaural beat therapy, hence it is best not to replace traditional treatments for stress and anxiety with this type of intervention until conclusive evidence is presented. Binaural beat therapy is today (2020) not part of standard care for any condition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Musicians commonly use interference beats objectively to check tuning at the unison, perfect fifth, or other simple harmonic intervals. Piano and organ tuners even use a method involving counting beats, aiming at a particular number for a specific interval.  The composer Alvin Lucier has written many pieces that feature interference beats as their main focus. Italian composer Giacinto Scelsi, whose style is grounded on microtonal oscillations of unisons, extensively explored the textural effects of interference beats, particularly in his late works such as the violin solos \"Xnoybis\" (1964) and \"L'âme ailée / L'âme ouverte\" (1973), which feature them prominently (note that Scelsi treated and notated each string of the instrument as a separate part, so that his violin solos are effectively quartets of one-strings, where different strings of the violin may be simultaneously playing the same note with microtonal shifts, so that the interference patterns are generated). Composer Phill Niblock's music is entirely based on beating caused by microtonal differences.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In acoustics, a beat is an interference pattern between two sounds of slightly different frequencies, \"perceived\" as a periodic variation in volume whose rate is the difference of the two frequencies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972111}
{"src_title": "South Georgia Island", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Island of South Georgia is said to have been first sighted in 1675 by Anthony de la Roché, a London merchant, and was named \"Roche Island\" on a number of early maps. It was sighted by a commercial Spanish ship named \"León\" operating out of Saint-Malo on 28 June or 29 June 1756.  Commercial sealing was conducted on the island between 1786 and 1913. During that period 131 sealing visits are recorded, eight of which ended when the vessel was wrecked. Modern industrial sealing associated with whaling stations was carried out between 1909 and 1964. Sealing era relics include iron trypots, hut ruins, graves and inscriptions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Argentine occupation.", "content": "On 19 March 1982, a group of Argentinians arrived at Leith Harbour and raised the Argentine flag on the island. On 3 April, the second day of the Falklands War, Argentine naval forces formally annexed the island. South Georgia was retaken by British forces on 25 April during Operation Paraquet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography and fauna.", "content": "The island is classified as an ET or polar tundra climate on the Köppen-Geiger classification system. It has no tree cover, and there is generally snow on the island during the winter months (April–November). The terrain is mountainous, with a central ridge and many fjords and bays along the coast. Additionally, South Georgia is a breeding ground for elephant seals, fur seals, and king penguins. The island is home to the South Georgia Pintail and the South Georgia Pipit, the only known habitat for these birds.  The island's topography includes a stepped sequence of flat surfaces interpreted as wave-cut platforms formed when sea level was higher relative to the island. At sea level strandflats have been described.  In 2018, the island was declared free of invasive rodents after a multiyear extermination effort.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "South Georgia () is an island in the southern Atlantic Ocean that is part of the British Overseas territory of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The main settlement is Grytviken. South Georgia is 167.4 kilometres (104 mi) long and 1.4 to 37 km (0.9 to 23.0 miles) wide. It is about 830 km (520 mi) northeast of Coronation Island and 550 km (340 mi) northwest from Zavodovski Island, the nearest South Sandwich island.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972112}
{"src_title": "Theodosius II", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Theodosius was born in 401 as the only son of Emperor Arcadius and his Frankish-born wife Aelia Eudoxia. Already in January 402 he was proclaimed co-Augustus by his father, thus becoming the youngest person ever to bear this title in Roman history. In 408, his father died and the seven-year-old boy became Emperor of the Eastern half of the Roman Empire.  According to Procopius, the Sasanian king Yazdegerd I (399-420) was appointed by Arcadius as the guardian of Theodosius, whom Yazdegerd treated as his own child, sending a tutor to raise him and warning that enmity toward him would be taken as enmity toward Persia.  Government was at first by the Praetorian Prefect Anthemius, under whose supervision the Theodosian land walls of Constantinople were constructed.  In 414, Theodosius' older sister Pulcheria was proclaimed Augusta and assumed the regency. By 416 Theodosius was declared Augustus in his own right and the regency ended, but his sister remained a strong influence on him. In June 421, Theodosius married Aelia Eudocia, a woman of Greek origin. The two had a daughter named Licinia Eudoxia. A separation ultimately occurred between the imperial couple, with Eudocia's establishment in Jerusalem where she favoured monastic Monophysitism and Pulcheria reassuming an influential role with the support of the eunuch Chrysaphius.  Theodosius' increasing interest in Christianity, fuelled by the influence of Pulcheria, led him to go to war against the Sassanids (421–422), who were persecuting Christians; the war ended in a stalemate, when the Romans were forced to accept peace as the Huns menaced Constantinople.  In 423, the Western Emperor Honorius, Theodosius' uncle, died and the \"primicerius notariorum\" Joannes was proclaimed Emperor. Honorius' sister Galla Placidia and her young son Valentinian fled to Constantinople to seek Eastern assistance and after some deliberation in 424 Theodosius opened the war against Joannes. On 23 October 425, Valentinian III was installed as Emperor of the West with the assistance of the \"magister officiorum\" Helion, with his mother acting as regent. To strengthen the ties between the two parts of the Empire, Theodosius' daughter Licinia Eudoxia was betrothed to Valentinian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "University and Law Code.", "content": "In 425, Theodosius founded the University of Constantinople with 31 chairs (15 in Latin and 16 in Greek). Among the subjects were law, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music and rhetoric.  In 429, Theodosius appointed a commission to collect all of the laws since the reign of Constantine I, and create a fully formalized system of law. This plan was left unfinished, but the work of a second commission that met in Constantinople, assigned to collect all of the general legislations and bring them up to date, was completed; their collection was published as the \"Codex Theodosianus\" in 438. The law code of Theodosius II, summarizing edicts promulgated since Constantine, formed a basis for the law code of Emperor Justinian I, the \"Corpus Juris Civilis\", in the following century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wars with the Huns, Vandals, and Persians.", "content": "The war with Persia proved indecisive, and a peace was arranged in 422 without changes to the \"status quo\". The later wars of Theodosius were generally less successful.  The Eastern Empire was plagued by raids by the Huns. Early in Theodosius II's reign Romans used internal Hun discord to overcome Uldin's invasion of the Balkans. The Romans strengthened their fortifications and in 424 agreed to pay 350 pounds of gold to encourage the Huns to remain at peace with the Romans. In 433 with the rise of Attila and Bleda to unify the Huns, the payment was doubled to 700 pounds.  When Roman Africa fell to the Vandals in 439, both Eastern and Western Emperors sent forces to Sicily, intending to launch an attack on the Vandals at Carthage, but this project failed. Seeing the Imperial borders without significant forces, the Huns and Sassanid Persia both attacked and the expeditionary force had to be recalled. During 443 two Roman armies were defeated and destroyed by the Huns. Anatolius negotiated a peace agreement; the Huns withdrew in exchange for humiliating concessions, including an annual tribute of 2,100 Roman pounds (ca. 687 kg) of gold. In 447 the Huns went through the Balkans, destroying among others the city of Serdica (Sofia) and reaching Athyra (Büyükçekmece) on the outskirts of Constantinople.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theological disputes.", "content": "During a visit to Syria, Theodosius met the monk Nestorius, who was a renowned preacher. He appointed Nestorius Archbishop of Constantinople in 428. Nestorius quickly became involved in the disputes of two theological factions, which differed in their Christology. Nestorius tried to find a middle ground between those who, emphasizing the fact that in Christ God had been born as a man, insisted on calling the Virgin Mary \"Theotokos\" (\"birth-giver of God\"), and those who rejected that title because God, as an eternal being, could not have been born. Nestorius suggested the title \"Christotokos\" (\"birth-giver of Christ\") as a compromise, but it did not find acceptance with either faction. He was accused of separating Christ's divine and human natures, resulting in \"two Christs\", a heresy later called Nestorianism. Though initially supported by the emperor, Nestorius found a forceful opponent in Archbishop Cyril of Alexandria. At the request of Nestorius, the emperor called a council, which convened in Ephesus in 431. This council affirmed the title \"Theotokos\" and condemned Nestorius, who returned to his monastery in Syria and was eventually exiled to a remote monastery in Egypt.  Almost twenty years later, the theological dispute broke out again, this time caused by the Constantinopolitan abbot Eutyches, whose Christology was understood by some to mingle Christ's divine and human nature into one. Eutyches was condemned by Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople but found a powerful friend in Cyril's successor Dioscurus of Alexandria. Another council was convoked in Ephesus in 449, later deemed a \"robber synod\" by Pope Leo I because of its tumultuous circumstances. This council restored Eutyches and deposed Flavian, who was mistreated and died shortly afterwards. Leo of Rome and many other bishops protested against the outcome, but the emperor supported it. Only after his death in 450 would the decisions be reversed at the Council of Chalcedon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Theodosius died in 450 as the result of a riding accident. In the ensuing power struggle, his sister Pulcheria, who had recently returned to court, won out against the eunuch Chrysaphius. She married the general Marcian, thereby making him Emperor.  Like Constantine the Great and several of his successors, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the \"De Ceremoniis\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Theodosius II (; ; 10 April 401 – 28 July 450), commonly surnamed Theodosius the Younger, or Theodosius the Calligrapher, was the Eastern Roman Emperor for most of his life, taking the throne as an infant in 402 and ruling as the Eastern Empire's sole emperor after the death of his father Arcadius in 408. He is mostly known for promulgating the Theodosian law code, and for the construction of the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople. He also presided over the outbreak of two great Christological controversies, Nestorianism and Eutychianism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972113}
{"src_title": "Cytokine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery.", "content": "Interferon-alpha, an interferon type I, was identified in 1957 as a protein that interfered with viral replication. The activity of interferon-gamma (the sole member of the interferon type II class) was described in 1965; this was the first identified lymphocyte-derived mediator. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) was identified simultaneously in 1966 by John David and Barry Bloom.  In 1969, Dudley Dumonde proposed the term \"lymphokine\" to describe proteins secreted from lymphocytes and later, proteins derived from macrophages and monocytes in culture were called \"monokines\". ln 1974, Stanley Cohen published an article describing the production of MIF in virus-infected allantoic membrane and kidney cells, showing its production is not limited to immune cells. This led to his proposal of the term cytokine. Ogawa described the early acting growth factors, intermediate acting growth factors and late acting growth factors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Difference from hormones.", "content": "Classic hormones circulate in nanomolar (10 M) concentrations that usually vary by less than one order of magnitude. In contrast, some cytokines (such as IL-6) circulate in picomolar (10 M) concentrations that can increase up to 1,000 times during trauma or infection. The widespread distribution of cellular sources for cytokines may be a feature that differentiates them from hormones. Virtually all nucleated cells, but especially endo/epithelial cells and resident macrophages (many near the interface with the external environment) are potent producers of IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α. In contrast, classic hormones, such as insulin, are secreted from discrete glands such as the pancreas. The current terminology refers to cytokines as immunomodulating agents.  A contributing factor to the difficulty of distinguishing cytokines from hormones is that some immunomodulating effects of cytokines are systemic rather than local. For instance, to accurately utilize hormone terminology, cytokines may be autocrine or paracrine in nature, and chemotaxis, chemokinesis and endocrine as a pyrogen. Essentially, cytokines are not limited to their immunomodulatory status as molecules.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nomenclature.", "content": "Cytokines have been classed as lymphokines, interleukins, and chemokines, based on their presumed function, cell of secretion, or target of action. Because cytokines are characterised by considerable redundancy and pleiotropism, such distinctions, allowing for exceptions, are obsolete.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structural.", "content": "Structural homogeneity has been able to partially distinguish between cytokines that do not demonstrate a considerable degree of redundancy so that they can be classified into four types:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Functional.", "content": "A classification that proves more useful in clinical and experimental practice outside of structural biology divides immunological cytokines into those that enhance cellular immune responses, type 1 (TNFα, IFN-γ, etc.), and type 2 (TGF-β, IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, etc.), which favor antibody responses. A key focus of interest has been that cytokines in one of these two sub-sets tend to inhibit the effects of those in the other. Dysregulation of this tendency is under intensive study for its possible role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disorders. Several inflammatory cytokines are induced by oxidative stress. The fact that cytokines themselves trigger the release of other cytokines and also lead to increased oxidative stress makes them important in chronic inflammation, as well as other immunoresponses, such as fever and acute phase proteins of the liver (IL-1,6,12, IFN-a). Cytokines also play a role in anti-inflammatory pathways and are a possible therapeutic treatment for pathological pain from inflammation or peripheral nerve injury. There are both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines that regulate this pathway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Receptors.", "content": "In recent years, the cytokine receptors have come to demand the attention of more investigators than cytokines themselves, partly because of their remarkable characteristics and partly because a deficiency of cytokine receptors has now been directly linked to certain debilitating immunodeficiency states. In this regard, and also because the redundancy and pleomorphism of cytokines are, in fact, a consequence of their homologous receptors, many authorities think that a classification of cytokine receptors would be more clinically and experimentally useful.  A classification of cytokine receptors based on their three-dimensional structure has, therefore, been attempted. Such a classification, though seemingly cumbersome, provides several unique perspectives for attractive pharmacotherapeutic targets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cellular effects.", "content": "Each cytokine has a matching cell-surface receptor. Subsequent cascades of intracellular signaling then alter cell functions. This may include the upregulation and/or downregulation of several genes and their transcription factors, resulting in the production of other cytokines, an increase in the number of surface receptors for other molecules, or the suppression of their own effect by feedback inhibition. The effect of a particular cytokine on a given cell depends on the cytokine, its extracellular abundance, the presence and abundance of the complementary receptor on the cell surface, and downstream signals activated by receptor binding; these last two factors can vary by cell type. Cytokines are characterized by considerable redundancy, in that many cytokines appear to share similar functions. It seems to be a paradox that cytokines binding to antibodies have a stronger immune effect than the cytokine alone. This may lead to lower therapeutic doses.  It has been shown that inflammatory cytokines cause an IL-10-dependent inhibition of T-cell expansion and function by up-regulating PD-1 levels on monocytes which leads to IL-10 production by monocytes after binding of PD-1 by PD-L. Adverse reactions to cytokines are characterized by local inflammation and/or ulceration at the injection sites. Occasionally such reactions are seen with more widespread papular eruptions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roles in health and disease.", "content": "Cytokines are often involved in several developmental processes during embryonic development. Cytokines are crucial for fighting off infections and in other immune responses. However, they can become dysregulated and pathological in inflammation, trauma, sepsis, and hemorrhagic stroke.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adverse effects.", "content": "Adverse effects of cytokines have been linked to many disease states and conditions ranging from schizophrenia, major depression and Alzheimer's disease to cancer. Normal tissue integrity is preserved by feedback interactions between diverse cell types mediated by adhesion molecules and secreted cytokines; disruption of normal feedback mechanisms in cancer threatens tissue integrity.  Over-secretion of cytokines can trigger a dangerous cytokine storm syndrome. Cytokine storms may have been the cause of severe adverse events during a clinical trial of TGN1412. Cytokine storms are also suspected to be the main cause of death in the 1918 \"Spanish Flu\" pandemic. Deaths were weighted more heavily towards people with healthy immune systems, because of their ability to produce stronger immune responses, with dramatic increases in cytokine levels. Another example of cytokine storm is seen in acute pancreatitis. Cytokines are integral and implicated in all angles of the cascade resulting in the systemic inflammatory response syndrome and multi organ failure associated with this intra-abdominal catastrophe. In the COVID-19 pandemic, some deaths from COVID-19 have been attributable to cytokine release storms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical use as drugs.", "content": "Some cytokines have been developed into protein therapeutics using recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant cytokines being used as drugs as of 2014 include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cytokines are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–20 kDa) important in cell signaling. Cytokines are peptides and cannot cross the lipid bilayer of cells to enter the cytoplasm. Cytokines have been shown to be involved in autocrine, paracrine and endocrine signaling as immunomodulating agents. Their definite distinction from hormones is still part of ongoing research.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972114}
{"src_title": "Echinococcus multilocularis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Human alveolar echinococcosis is characterized by a lengthy incubation period of 5 to 15 years in immunocompetent individuals. The progression of disease is potentiated in immunocompromised patients. Following the ingestion of the eggs of \"E. multilocularis\", the metacestode (larval) stage of the parasite typically embeds in the liver. As the disease progresses, the larval stage proliferates exogenously within the tissue, behaving similar to hepatic neoplasia. Patients with human alveolar echinococcosis typically present with headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain. Jaundice is rare, but hepatomegaly is a common physical finding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "The life cycle of \"E. multilocularis\" involves a primary or definitive host and a secondary or intermediate host, each harboring different life stages of the parasite.  Foxes, coyotes, domestic dogs, and other canids are the definitive hosts for the adult stage of the parasite. Cats may also be involved. The head of the tapeworm attaches to the intestinal mucosa by hooks and suckers. It then produces hundreds of microscopic eggs, which are dispersed through the feces.  Wild rodents such as mice serve as the intermediate host. Beavers may also be affected; and reintroduction of beavers from affected areas is a cause for concern. Eggs ingested by rodents develop in the liver, lungs and other organs to form multilocular cysts. The life cycle is completed after a fox or canine consumes a rodent infected with cysts. Larvae within the cyst develop into adult tapeworms in the intestinal tract of the definitive host.  Humans can become an aberrant intermediate host by accidentally ingesting eggs of \"E. multilocularis\" when handling infected animals or consuming contaminated food, vegetable, and water.  Except in rare cases where infected humans are eaten by canines, humans are a dead-end or incidental host (an aberrant intermediate host that does not allow transmission to the definitive host) for \"E. multilocularis\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "The adult parasite is a small tapeworm that is 3- 6mm long, and lives in the small intestine of canines. The segmented worm contains a scolex with suckers and hooks that enable attachment to the mucosal wall, since tapeworms do not have a digestive tract. A short neck connects the head to three proglottids, the body segment of the worm which contains the eggs to be excreted in the feces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Serological and imaging tests are commonly used to diagnose this disease. Since the serological tests for alveolar echinococcosis only indicate exposure to the parasite and not ongoing infection, visualization of the parasitic mass is required to confirm the diagnosis. Frequently used serological tests include antibody tests, ELISA and indirect hemaglutination (IHA). Also, an intradermal allergic reaction test (Casoni test) has also been used to diagnose patients. Imaging tests include: X-rays, CT scans, MRI, and ultrasound. Histology is another important diagnostic tool to use. In the past, the PAS staining technique has proven beneficial in helping determine if infections are caused by Echinococcus multiocularis. More recently, a new immunohistochemistry technique that uses a monoclonal antibody (Em2G11) has provided professionals with more accuracy and precision in diagnosing Echinococcus multiocularis and distinguishing it from other species like Echinococcus granulosus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disease staging.", "content": "Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a highly lethal helminthic disease in humans, caused by the larval form of the parasitic tapeworm \"E. multilocularis\". The disease represents a serious public threat in China, Siberia, and central Europe. However, since the 1990s, the prevalence of the disease seems to be increasing in Europe, not only in the historically endemic areas but its neighboring regions. AE primarily affects the liver by inducing a hepatic disorder similar to liver cancer, therefore becoming extremely dangerous and difficult to diagnose. If the infection metastasizes, it may spread to any other organ and could be lethal if not treated. The most common treatment for AE is to surgically remove the parasite. Since it is difficult and not always possible to remove the entire parasite, medicine such as Albendazole is utilized to keep the cyst from growing back.  Guided by the Tumor-Node-Metastasis (TNM) system of liver cancer, the European Network for Concerted Surveillance of Alveolar Echinococcosis and the World Health Organization Informal Working Group on Echinococcosis, a clinical classification system has been proposed. This classification system has been designated as the \"PNM\" system (P = parasitic mass, N = involvement of neighboring organs, M = metastasis). The system was developed by a retrospective analysis of records from 97 patients treated in France and Germany (2 treatment centers). Amongst other characteristics, the system takes into consideration the localization of the parasite in the liver, the extent of lesion involvement, regional involvement, and metastasis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "If no specific therapy is initiated, in 94% of patients the disease is fatal within 10–20 years following diagnosis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "The incidence of human infestation with \"E. multilocularis\" and disease is increasing in urban areas, as wild foxes (an important reservoir species of the sylvatic cycle) are migrating to urban and suburban areas and gaining closer contact with human populations. Also, restocking fox enclosures for fox hunting with infected animals spreads the disease. Children, health care workers and domestic animals are at risk of ingesting the eggs after coming into contact with the feces of infected wild foxes. Even with the improvement of health in developed/industrialized countries, the prevalence of alveolar echinococcosis (AE) did not decrease. On the contrary, incidents of AE have now also been registered in eastern European countries and sporadic incidences in other European countries.  The disease has extended its range in Europe in the last few decades. Still the infection is fairly rare. Between 1982 and 2000 a total of 559 cases were reported throughout Europe.  Recent findings indicate that \"E. multilocularis\" is likely expanding its range in the central region of the United States and Canada and that invasions of European strains might have occurred; the endemic presence of the parasite in urban areas and a total of 16 human cases in Alberta, Canada have been reported. The first human case in Alberta was diagnosed in 2013. In one case, the infection caused a grapefruit sized tumour in the lung, kidney and diaphragm, which had to surgically removed. Because of the significant difficulty in diagnosising an infection caused by Echinococcus multiocularis, it is suspected that this parasite if often misdiagnosed. Several studies that have been done since the 1950s in North America and indicate a higher prevalance of Echinococcus multiocularis than previously thought. However, due to limited knowledge about the parasite, it is often not monitored in wild or domestic animals; this monitoring will become crucial to the control of the parasite in the future as it continues to spread.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Echinococcus multilocularis is a small cyclophyllid tapeworm found extensively in the northern hemisphere. \"E. multilocularis,\" along with other members of the \"Echinococcus\" genus (especially \"E. granulosus\"), produce diseases known as echinococcosis. Unlike \"E. granulosus,\" \"E. multilocularis\" produces many small cysts (also referred to as locules) that spread throughout the internal organs of the infected animal. The resultant disease is called Alveolar echinococcosis, and is caused by ingesting the eggs of \"E. multilocularis.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972115}
{"src_title": "Intertropical Convergence Zone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Meteorology.", "content": "The ITCZ was originally identified from the 1920s to the 1940s as the \"Intertropical Front\" (\"ITF\"), but after the recognition in the 1940s and the 1950s of the significance of wind field convergence in tropical weather production, the term \"Intertropical Convergence Zone\" (\"ITCZ\") was then applied.  The ITCZ appears as a band of clouds, usually thunderstorms, that encircle the globe near the Equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, the trade winds move in a southwestward direction from the northeast, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they move northwestward from the southeast. When the ITCZ is positioned north or south of the Equator, these directions change according to the Coriolis effect imparted by Earth's rotation. For instance, when the ITCZ is situated north of the Equator, the southeast trade wind changes to a southwest wind as it crosses the Equator. The ITCZ is formed by vertical motion largely appearing as convective activity of thunderstorms driven by solar heating, which effectively draw air in; these are the trade winds. The ITCZ is effectively a tracer of the ascending branch of the Hadley cell and is wet. The dry descending branch is the horse latitudes.  The location of the ITCZ gradually varies with the seasons, roughly corresponding with the location of the thermal equator. As the heat capacity of the oceans is greater than air over land, migration is more prominent over land. Over the oceans, where the convergence zone is better defined, the seasonal cycle is more subtle, as the convection is constrained by the distribution of ocean temperatures. Sometimes, a double ITCZ forms, with one located north and another south of the Equator, one of which is usually stronger than the other. When this occurs, a narrow ridge of high pressure forms between the two convergence zones.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ITCZ over oceans vs. land.", "content": "The ITCZ is commonly defined as an equatorial zone where the trade winds converge. Rainfall seasonality is traditionally attributed to the north–south migration of the ITCZ, which follows the sun. Although this is largely valid over the equatorial oceans, the ITCZ and the region of maximum rainfall can be decoupled over the continents. The equatorial precipitation over land is not simply a response to just the surface convergence. Rather, it is modulated by a number of regional features such as local atmospheric jets and waves, proximity to the oceans, terrain-induced convective systems, moisture recycling, and spatiotemporal variability of land cover and albedo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "South Pacific convergence zone.", "content": "The South Pacific convergence zone (SPCZ) is a reverse-oriented, or west-northwest to east-southeast aligned, trough extending from the west Pacific warm pool southeastwards towards French Polynesia. It lies just south of the equator during the Southern Hemisphere warm season, but can be more extratropical in nature, especially east of the International Date Line. It is considered the largest and most important piece of the ITCZ, and has the least dependence upon heating from a nearby land mass during the summer than any other portion of the monsoon trough. The southern ITCZ in the southeast Pacific and southern Atlantic, known as the SITCZ, occurs during the Southern Hemisphere fall between 3° and 10° south of the equator east of the 140th meridian west longitude during cool or neutral El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) patterns. When ENSO reaches its warm phase, otherwise known as El Niño, the tongue of lowered sea surface temperatures due to upwelling off the South American continent disappears, which causes this convergence zone to vanish as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effects on weather.", "content": "Variation in the location of the intertropical convergence zone drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and warm seasons of higher latitudes. Longer term changes in the intertropical convergence zone can result in severe droughts or flooding in nearby areas.  In some cases, the ITCZ may become narrow, especially when it moves away from the equator; the ITCZ can then be interpreted as a front along the leading edge of the equatorial air. There appears to be a 15 to 25-day cycle in thunderstorm activity along the ITCZ, which is roughly half the wavelength of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO).  Within the ITCZ the average winds are slight, unlike the zones north and south of the equator where the trade winds feed. As trans-equator sea voyages became more common, sailors in the eighteenth century named this belt of calm \"the doldrums\" because of the calm, stagnant, or inactive winds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in tropical cyclone formation.", "content": "Tropical cyclogenesis depends upon low-level vorticity as one of its six requirements, and the ITCZ fills this role as it is a zone of wind change and speed, otherwise known as horizontal wind shear. As the ITCZ migrates to tropical - subtropical latitudes and even beyond (Shandong province of the People's Republic of China) during the respective hemisphere's summer season, increasing Coriolis force makes the formation of tropical cyclones within this zone more possible. Surges of higher pressure from high latitudes can enhance tropical disturbances along its axis. In the north Atlantic and the northeastern Pacific oceans, tropical waves move along the axis of the ITCZ causing an increase in thunderstorm activity, and clusters of thunderstorms can develop under weak vertical wind shear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hazards.", "content": "Thunderstorms along the Intertropical Convergence Zone played a role in the loss of Air France Flight 447, which left Rio de Janeiro–Galeão International Airport on Sunday, 31 May 2009, at about 7:00 p.m. local time (6:00 p.m. EDT or 10:00 p.m. UTC) and had been expected to land at Charles de Gaulle Airport near Paris on Monday, 1 June 2009, at 11:15 a.m. (5:15 a.m. EDT or 9:15 a.m. UTC). The aircraft crashed with no survivors while flying through a series of large ITCZ thunderstorms, and ice forming rapidly on airspeed sensors was the precipitating cause for a cascade of human errors which ultimately doomed the flight. Most aircraft flying these routes are able to avoid the larger convective cells without incident.  In the Age of Sail, to find oneself becalmed in this region in a hot and muggy climate could mean death when wind was the only effective way to propel ships across the ocean. Calm periods within the doldrums could strand ships for days or weeks. Even today, leisure and competitive sailors attempt to cross the zone as quickly as possible as the erratic weather and wind patterns may cause unexpected delays.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "The doldrums are notably described in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem \"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner\" (1798).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms because of its monotonous, windless weather, is the area where the northeast and southeast trade winds converge. It encircles Earth near the thermal equator, though its specific position varies seasonally. When it lies near the geographic Equator, it is called the near-equatorial trough. Where the ITCZ is drawn into and merges with a monsoonal circulation, it is sometimes referred to as a monsoon trough, a usage more common in Australia and parts of Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972116}
{"src_title": "Salm family", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The noble family possibly descended from Count Palatine Wigeric of Lotharingia (d. before 923), the founder of the Ardennes-Verdun dynasty. His presumable son Sigfried (d. 997) appeared as first Count of Luxembourg about 950. Sigfried's grandson Giselbert (d. 1059), is documented as a Count of Salm in 1036 and as Count of Luxembourg in 1047. When he divided his estates among his heirs, his younger son Hermann received the County of Salm and thereby became the progenitor of the comital dynasty. During the Great Saxon Revolt, he even was elected German anti-king in opposition to King Henry IV in 1081, however, he remained isolated until his death in 1088.  In 1163, Hermann's grandson Count Henry I of Salm (d. before 1174) again divided the estates among his son Henry II and his daughter Elizabeth, who had married Frederick II, Count of Vianden. Henry II received the County of Upper Salm in the Vosges, while Elizabeth and Frederick II founded the comital line of Lower Salm in the Ardennes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lower Salm.", "content": "The descendants of Elizabeth and Frederick became extinct in 1416. Their possessions were inherited by the Lords of Reifferscheid, who resided at Reifferscheid Castle. The succession arrangement was challenged by the Raugraves, however, they had to accept a 1456 judgement by the Luxembourg councillor Antoine I de Croÿ. The \"Salm-Reifferscheid\" line was later divided into the branches of \"Salm-Reifferscheid-Bedburg/Krautheim\",\"Salm-Reifferscheidt-Raitz\" and \"Salm-Reifferscheid-Dyck\" (extinct in 1888).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Upper Salm.", "content": "The Counts of Upper Salm resided at Château de Salm in Alsace, where they had to compete with the neighbouring Prince-Bishops of Strasbourg and the Dukes of Lorraine. In 1475, half of the estates were inherited by the Rhinegraves; the remaining half passed to the Lorraine dukes in 1600.  The Rhinegraves began to call themselves Counts of Salm too, they were raised to princes in 1623. Their line included several cadet branches ruling over minor principalities such as Salm-Salm, Salm-Horstmar, and Salm-Kyrburg. In the German Mediatisation of 1803, the Princes of Salm-Salm and Salm-Kyrburg received the southwestern estates of the former Prince-Bishopric of Münster with the Lordship of Anholt and ruled the newly established Principality of Salm jointly as a condominium.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable members.", "content": "Aming its notable members were the counts of Lower Salm in the Ardennes, advocati of the abbaye Saint-Pierre at Senones, counts of Upper Salm in the Vosges mountains, governors of Nancy, marshals of Lorraine, marshals of Bar, princes of the Holy Roman Empire and sovereign princes of the Principality of Salm-Salm:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salm was a Lotharingian noble family originating from Salmchâteau in the Ardennes (present-day Belgium) and ruling Salm. The dynasty is above all known for the experiences of the Upper Salm branch which came to be located at Château de Salm in the Vosges mountain range and over time came to rule over a principality whose capital was Badonviller then Senones.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972117}
{"src_title": "House of Mecklenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The family was established by Pribislav, an Obotrite (Slavic) prince who converted to Christianity and accepted the suzerainty of Saxon Duke Henry the Lion (r. 1142–1180), his fallen father's enemy, and became the Lord of Mecklenburg (derived from \"Mikla Burg\", \"big fortress\", their main fortress). The Obotrites were subsequently Germanized. The main branch of the house was elevated in 1347 to ducal rank.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coats of arms.", "content": "Each field in the coat of arm symbolizes one of the seven high lordly dominions of the state of Mecklenburg: upper-left quarter: Duchy of Mecklenburg, upper-right quarter: Lordship of Rostock, middle-left quarter divided in two: Principality of Schwerin, middle inescutcheon: County of Schwerin, middle-right quarter: Principality of Ratzeburg, lower-left quarter: Lordship of Stargard, and lower-right quarter: Principality of Wenden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Claims to Swedish throne.", "content": "The Dukes of Mecklenburg pursued from the 14th century a claim to inheritance in Sweden. The Duke of Mecklenburg was a descendant and the heir of two women whom legends tied to Scandinavian royal houses:  The Sverker dynasty had long been extinct, having lost the throne ultimately to Eric XI. The male dynasty of Eric X was already extinct, and issue of his other daughters had been sidestepped by Birger Jarl, the husband of his daughter (the only one still alive in 1250), Ingeborg Eriksdotter of Sweden. Birger took great care to secure the kingship for his own sons.  The Dukes of Mecklenburg's claim to the Swedish throne became reality during a brief reign: Henry II's son Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg (1318–79), married a kinswoman, a Scandinavian heiress named Euphemia of Sweden and Norway (born 1317 and died 1370). The couple's second son duke Albert III deposed his uncle from the Swedish throne, and ascended as king.  Margaret I of Denmark chose Eric of Pomerania as her heir. Eric descended from the elder brother of Albert III. Monarchs of the Kalmar union were all cognatic descendants of the House of Mecklenburg.  The agnatic House of Mecklenburg, descended from Euphemia's youngest son Magnus I, Duke of Mecklenburg, continued to keep their claim to the throne, and occasionally stirred the situation in Scandinavia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Claims to Norway.", "content": "The Kingdom of Norway (872–1397) was the only medieval Scandinavian realm whose kingship was hereditary, not elective. Already when Olav IV of Norway was young and his mother Margaret was regent, the Dukes of Mecklenburg advanced their claims.  The Dukes of Mecklenburg's claim to the Norwegian throne was based on their descent from Euphemia of Sweden, granddaughter of Haakon V of Norway.  When Olav IV died in 1387, Norway was without a monarch but under the regency of Margaret. She soon chose an heir, Eric of Pomerania, whose mother Maria of Mecklenburg had been Euphemia's eldest granddaughter.  When Eric's nephew king Christopher died (before the death of the deposed Eric III of Norway), after some hiatus another magnate, Christian VIII of Oldenburg, descended in the female line from Euphemia and the Mecklenburg family (Euphemia's daughter's great-grandson), was chosen as king of Norway in 1450, this time passing over his cousin and male-line rival, Duke Henry the Fat of Mecklenburg.  The Dukes of Mecklenburg continued to regard themselves as the rightful heirs to the throne of Norway but they were unable to gain the kingdom from the Oldenburgs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern states in Mecklenburg.", "content": "Around 1711, a treaty was signed between the Dukes of Mecklenburg and the Elector of Brandenburg through which the elector was recognized as the next heir of Mecklenburg after the male lines of the genealogical house of Mecklenburg. Thereby the electors, later kings of Prussia, regarded themselves as having become members of the House of Mecklenburg and started to use its titles, e.g. Duke of Mecklenburg, among their own titulary.  The legality of that treaty concession has been, and still is under discussion, because not all of the then agnates of the House participated in the deed, and at least one of them was then underage.  In the 17th and 18th centuries, the duchy was divided several times between agnates of the ducal house. Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Güstrow and Mecklenburg-Strelitz were typical partition principalities. Until the late 18th century, most parts had returned to the senior branch (Schwerin), after which the patrimony was divided in two states until the very end of monarchy in Germany:  These were elevated to grand duchies by recognition of the Congress of Vienna. In 1918, less than a year before the elimination of the monarchy, the main line of Strelitz became extinct and the then Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin stepped in as regent, but succession unclarities (there was a junior Strelitz branch living in Russia) were not solved until the small monarchies both were dissolved to republics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "House of Mecklenburg today.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "House of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.", "content": "The House of Mecklenburg-Schwerin became extinct in the male line on 31 July 2001 with the death of Hereditary Grand Duke Frederick Francis of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the eldest son and heir of the last reigning Grand Duke, Frederick Francis IV.  The remaining members of the House of Mecklenburg-Schwerin are the daughters of Duke Christian Ludwig, the second son of Frederick Francis IV, the Duchesses Donata (born 1956) and Edwina (born 1960).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.", "content": "With the extinction of Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz is now the only surviving branch of the Grand Ducal house in the male line. The current head of this house is Borwin, Duke of Mecklenburg. His grandfather was Count Georg of Carlow, the morganatic son of Duke George Alexander of Mecklenburg (1859–1909). Georg was adopted in 1928 by his uncle Duke Charles Michael of Mecklenburg, the head of the House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. He then assumed the title and style of \"\"His Serene Highness\" The Duke of Mecklenburg\", which was confirmed by the head of the Imperial House of Russia, Grand Duke Cyril Vladimirovich on 18 July 1929 and recognised on 23 December by Grand Duke Friedrich Franz IV of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He succeeded his uncle as head of the house on 6 December 1934 and was granted the style of \"Highness\" on 18 December 1950.  In addition to Duke Borwin, the current members of the House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz are his wife Duchess Alice (née Wagner; born 1959); their children Duchess Olga (born 1988), the Dukes Alexander (born 1991) and Michael (born 1994); and his sisters, the Duchesses Elisabeth Christine (born 1947), Marie Catherine (born 1949) and Irene (born 1952).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The House of Mecklenburg, also known as Nikloting, is a North German dynasty that ruled until 1918 in the Mecklenburg region, being among the longest-ruling families of Europe. Queen Juliana of the Netherlands (1909-2004), former Queen of the Netherlands (1948-1980), was an agnatic member of this house.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972118}
{"src_title": "Arthur Upfield", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Upfield was born in Gosport, Hampshire, England, on 1 September 1890. His father was a draper. In 1911, after he did poorly in examinations towards becoming a real estate agent, Upfield's father sent him to Australia.  With the outbreak of World War I, he joined the First Australian Imperial Force on 23 August 1914. He sailed from Brisbane on 24 September 1914 to Melbourne. At the time of sailing he had the rank of Driver and was with the 1st Light horse Brigade Train (5 Company ASC [Army Service Corps]). In Melbourne he was at a camp for several weeks before sailing to Egypt. He fought at Gallipoli and in France and married an Australian nurse, Ann Douglass, in Egypt in 1915. He was discharged in England on 15 October 1919. Before returning to Australia, Ann gave birth to their only child, James Arthur, born 8 February 1920.  For most of the next 20 years he travelled throughout the outback, working at a number of jobs and learning about Aboriginal cultures. A contributor of an article 'Coming Down with Cattle' to the first edition of \"Walkabout\" magazine, he later used the knowledge and material he had gathered in his books.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Upfield created the character of Detective Inspector Napoleon Bonaparte, based on a man known as \"Tracker Leon\", whom he said he had met in his travels. Leon was supposedly a half-caste employed as a tracker by the Queensland Police. He was also said to have read Shakespeare and a biography of Napoleon, and to have received a university education. However, there is no evidence that any such person ever existed. The novels featuring Bony, as the detective was also known, were far more successful than any other writings by Upfield.  Late in life Upfield became a member of the Australian Geological Society, involved in scientific expeditions. He led a major expedition in 1948 to northern and western parts of Australia, including the Wolfe Creek Crater, which was a setting for his novel \"The Will of the Tribe\" published in 1962.  After living at Bermagui, New South Wales, Upfield moved to Bowral. Upfield died at Bowral on 12 February 1964. His last work, \"The Lake Frome Monster\", published in 1966, was completed by J.L. Price and Dorothy Stange.  In 1957, Jessica Hawke published a biography of the author entitled \"Follow My Dust!\". It is generally held, however, that this was written by Upfield himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Upfield's novels were held in high regard by some fellow writers. In 1987, H.R.F. Keating included \"The Sands of Windee\" in his list of the 100 best crime and mystery books ever published. J.B. Priestley wrote of Upfield: \"If you like detective stories that are something more than puzzles, that have solid characters and backgrounds, that avoid familiar patterns of crime and detection, then Mr Upfield is your man.\" Others have found Upfield's prose stilted. Much of the appeal of Upfield's stories lies in the depiction of outback Australian life in the 1930s through into the 1950s. His grandson, William Arthur Upfield holds his grandfather's copyright, and the trademark 'Bony', keeping the works in print.  The American mystery novelist Tony Hillerman praised Upfield's works. In his introduction to the posthumous 1984 reprint of Upfield's \"A Royal Abduction\", he described the seduction in his youth of Upfield's descriptions of both the harsh outback areas, and \"the people who somehow survived upon them.... When my own Jim Chee of the Navaho Tribal Police unravels a mystery because he understands the ways of his people, when he reads the signs in the sandy bottom of a reservation arroyo, he is walking in the tracks Bony made 50 years ago.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Television series.", "content": "From 1972 to 1973, Fauna Productions (also responsible for \"Skippy the Bush Kangaroo\") produced a 26-episode television series. After a long search for a half-white, half-Aborigine actor, the producers chose English actor Jon Finch for the role of Detective Inspector Napoleon Bonaparte. When he suddenly became unavailable, Fauna's John McCallum flew to London in panic and was lucky enough to audition New Zealand actor James Laurenson on his last day there. Offered the lead role, Laurenson hurriedly flew to Australia, reading \"Bony\" books all the way over.  The series was called\" Boney,\" partly to make the pronunciation of the name obvious, and partly because that had been Upfield's original intention – a publisher's misprint on the first novel had renamed the character. Most of the episodes were based directly on one of the novels, but there were some adaptations. Two original scripts were not directly based on any novel; five novels were not adapted for television, effectively \"reserving\" them in case a third series was produced. At the time, many of the books were reprinted with the spelling altered to \"Boney\" on the covers (although retaining the original in the text), and featuring a photo from the relevant episode.  \"Bony \"was also a 1990 telemovie and later a 1992 spin-off TV series (using the original \"Bony\" spelling). However, the series was criticised for casting Bony as a white man (played by Cameron Daddo), under the tutelage of \"Uncle Albert\", an elderly Aborigine played by Burnum Burnum.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Arthur William Upfield (1 September 1890 – 12 February 1964) was an English-Australian writer, best known for his works of detective fiction featuring Detective Inspector Napoleon \"Bony\" Bonaparte of the Queensland Police Force, a half-caste Aborigine. His books were the basis for a 1970s Australian television series entitled \"Boney\", as well as a 1990 telemovie and a 1992 spin-off TV series.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972119}
{"src_title": "AIESEC", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "\"AIESEC\" was originally a French acronym for \"Association internationale des étudiants en sciences économiques et commerciales\" (English: International Association of Students in Economic and Commercial Sciences). The full name is no longer officially used, as members can now be graduate and undergraduate from any university background.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Founding.", "content": "The idea behind AIESEC started in 1948, when representatives from schools across Europe exchanged information about various programs and schools that specialized in business and economics. Students were carrying out internships in other countries. Mostly on their own initiative but it came to a standstill with the onslaught of World War II.  In 1944, the neutral Scandinavian countries were still exchanging students. In Stockholm, Bertil Hedberg, an official at the Stockholm School of Economics, and students Jaroslav Zich (of Czechoslovakia), Jean Choplin (of France) and Stanislas Callens (of Belgium) founded \"AIESEC\". This was the predecessor of AIESEC, which was officially founded in 1948. At the time, the organization's stated mission was “to expand the understanding of a nation by expanding the understanding of the individuals, changing the world one person at a time.”  At the time of AIESEC's founding at the conclusion of the 1940s, Europe was in the midst of recovery from the war that dealt grave losses to its population. Factories and enterprises were in desperate need of executives, managers and leaders. The continent needed more than just business development, however; the war had severely damaged relations between European nations, and many members of the community felt steps needed to be taken to address this problem.  AIESEC was formed to address both of these concerns. Students from seven nations: Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Netherlands, Norway and Sweden came together in March 1949 for the first International Congress of AIESEC in Stockholm. The founders composed a constitution for the new organization and defined a purpose: \"AIESEC is an independent, non-political, and international organization which has as its purpose to establish and promote the friendly relations between the members.\"  In the first year of AIESEC's existence, 89 students were exchanged among the member nations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Global expansion.", "content": "The organization grew exponentially in the following years, with more than 1,000 exchanges took place in 1955 alone. In the following few years, AIESEC quickly became global by establishing its first North American member, the United States, in 1957, and its first South American and African members, Colombia, Venezuela, and South Africa in 1958.  For the first years of its existence, AIESEC had no central governing body, but was instead managed jointly by a Presiding Country Committee composed of the National Committee Presidents of each member nation. As the organization grew, a central governing body was created and led by democratically elected Secretary General. Morris Wolff, from the United States, was chosen as the first Secretary General in 1960, and established the first permanent international office for AIESEC in Geneva, Switzerland. Over the following decade, AIESEC expanded to eastern Asia, Australia, and deeper within Europe, Africa, North America, and South America, having a presence in 43 countries by 1969.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "As of 2019, AIESEC has made itself present in 120 countries and is considered a success in terms of globalism implementation. AIESEC annually offers over 40,000 leadership positions and delivers over 500 power conferences to its select leadership over 100,000 students. It is present in over 2,400 universities in its 120 member countries and its international socialist program that enables over 27,500 students and recent graduates the opportunity to work for the cause in another country. AIESEC receives support from over 8,000 third party organizations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Programmes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campus involvement.", "content": "AIESEC provides a platform for young people in different universities and colleges, by going on an international internship and/or by joining various local chapters. These young individuals can develop their leadership potential by working and leading international teams. Associate membership opportunities allow young people to work with various NGO partners of AIESEC, and represent their country as a part of campus ambassador program. The organizations products are Global Talent, Global Entrepreneur, and Global Volunteer.  Each year members have an opportunity to live and work in a foreign country. Participants can choose to work in areas of management, technology, education, or development; helping to build one's corporate skills.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conferences.", "content": "AIESEC hosts over 500 conferences every year that range in length and demographic scope. The purpose of conferences are to bring the international community of AIESEC members together to enhance their professional skills, provide networking opportunities, and work on organizational strategy. Topics of interest the organization focuses on include: leadership, sustainable development, entrepreneurship, innovation, corporate social responsibility, and youth impact on modern society.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Global Volunteer.", "content": "\" AIESEC is a global network of people that simply believe that youth leadership is not an option, but our responsibility.\"The \"Global Volunteer\" portfolio in AIESEC is an international volunteer program which allows youth aged 18–29 to contribute to the United Nations' sustainable development goals of 2030. The Global Volunteering programs are short-term in nature and provide youth with opportunities to travel abroad and work for Non-profit organizations with a special focus of second and third world countries. Projects include teaching, promoting HIV/AIDS awareness, working in human rights, environmental sustainability, leadership development and more. Since AIESEC is a non-profit organization, the exchange participants are to bear all expenses associated with travel including airfare, medical insurance, and transportation. Some of AIESEC's projects will provide food and accommodation. AIESEC's partnership with the United Nations seeks to tap the undiscovered potential of the youth globally and allow them to create a long-lasting impact to boost the international community.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Global Entrepreneur.", "content": "\"Global Entrepreneur\" is a global internship opportunity at a startup for young people who seek to develop themselves and their career. They are usually short term in nature and involve working in startup projects. Global youth unemployment has become one of the top challenges faced by the youth today. AIESEC contributes to this issue through its Global Entrepreneur program, where a young person works abroad with entrepreneurs in a startup, accelerator or incubator to advance their goals and grow; thus developing an entrepreneurial stint through a global opportunity allowing yourself to expand your network and develop on a personal and professional level.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "YouthSpeak.", "content": "YouthSpeak Initiative is a youth movement powered by AIESEC. AIESEC believes that the society needs the young people of the world to take action on the UN goals for 2030, and AIESEC serves as a platform for youth empowerment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "In July 2015 AIESEC was recognized for the 9th time on the WorldBlu list of \"Most Freedom Centred Workplaces.\" An organization makes it onto the WorldBlu List through a rigorous Freedom at WorkTM assessment process completed by employees. The assessment evaluates the overall design of an organization along a fear-based to freedom-centred continuum in three core areas: leadership, individual performance and systems and processes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Members.", "content": "As of 2015, AIESEC is found in 127 countries and territories worldwide, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alumni.", "content": "AIESEC's alumni include a wide range of individuals, professionals, entrepreneurs, business people, politicians and a Nobel Prize winner. This is a non exhaustive list of notable AIESEC alumni:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "AIESEC is an international youth-run, non-governmental and not-for-profit organization that provides young people with leadership development, cross-cultural internships, and global volunteer exchange experiences. The organization focuses on empowering young people to make a Progressive social impact. The AIESEC network includes approximately 44,280 members in 127 countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972120}
{"src_title": "Gorch Fock (1933)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and details.", "content": "The German school ship \"Niobe\", a three-masted barque, capsized on 26 July 1932 in the Baltic Sea near Fehmarn due to a sudden squall, killing 69. The loss prompted the German Navy to order a new training vessel built. The contract went to the shipyard of Blohm & Voss in Hamburg, where construction began on 2 December 1932. She was completed in only 100 days. On 3 May 1933 the ship was launched and named \"Gorch Fock\" in honor of German writer Johann Kinau who wrote under the pseudonym \"Gorch Fock\". Kinau had died in the 1916 Battle of Jutland aboard the cruiser.  Commissioned by the German Navy on 26 June 1933, \"Gorch Fock\" is a three-masted barque. She has square sails on the fore and main masts, and is gaff rigged on the mizzen. The steel hull has a sparred length of, a width of and a draught of. She has a displacement at full load of 1510 tons. Her main mast stands high above deck and she carries 23 sails totalling. She is equipped with an auxiliary engine of.  The training ship was designed to be robust and safe against capsizing. More than 300 tons of steel ballast in the keel give her a righting moment large enough to bring her back in the upright position even when she heels over to nearly a 90°.  \"Gorch Fock\" served as a training vessel for the German Reichsmarine prior to World War II. During the war, she was a stationary office ship in Stralsund, until she was officially reactivated on 19 April 1944. On 1 May 1945, the crew scuttled her in shallow waters off Rügen in an attempt to avoid her capture by the Soviets, who already had fired at her for 45 minutes with tanks.  The Soviets ordered Stralsund-based company \"B. Staude Schiffsbergung\" to raise and salvage her, which after some difficulties was done in 1947 at a cost of 800,000 Reichsmark (equivalent to million euros). She was under restoration between 1948 and 1950. She was then named \"Tovarishch\" (Russian for \"Comrade\") in 1951 and put into service as a training vessel. Her new home port was Odessa. She participated in many Tall Ships' Races and cruised far and wide on the seven seas. She made a voyage around the world in 1957 and won the Operation Sail race twice, in 1974 and 1976.  After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, \"Tovarishch\" sailed under the Ukrainian flag (home port Kherson) until 1993, when she needed repairs and was deactivated for lack of funds. In 1995, she sailed from Kherson to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where private sponsors wanted to have her repaired. This failed because of the high costs, and in 1999, the ship was transported to Wilhelmshaven, where she stayed in dock for four years until finally transferred to Stralsund in 2003. On 29 November 2003 the ship was re-christened \"Gorch Fock\".  As of 2011 the ship is in poor but stable condition. There is about six million dollars worth of restoration work required to bring this ship back to sailing condition. The museum had a dismal tourist season resulting in a fifty thousand dollar loss in revenue from previous years. This has forced a layoff of five workers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sister ships.", "content": "The design of \"Gorch Fock\" proved highly successful. She was the first of a series of five sister ships built by Blohm & Voss, and a number of South American school ships are also based on the same design. Of the three original sister ships, only is an exact replica of \"Gorch Fock\". \"Horst Wessel\" and are longer, and all three have slightly more powerful auxiliary engines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "USCGC \"Eagle\" (ex \"Horst Wessel\").", "content": "\"Horst Wessel\" was launched in 1936—the growing Reichsmarine needed more school ships. Her home port was Kiel. At the end of World War II, she became one of several war reparations and was assigned to the United States After some repairs in Wilhelmshaven and Bremerhaven, she was sailed by her German crew including the Captain together with American sailors to her new home port of New London, Connecticut. Since then, she has sailed under the name for the United States Coast Guard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Sagres\" (ex \"Albert Leo Schlageter\").", "content": "\"Albert Leo Schlageter\" was launched on 30 October 1937. She was confiscated by the United States after World War II and then sold to Brazil, where she sailed as a school ship under the name \"Guanabara\". In 1961, the Portuguese Navy bought her to replace the previous school ship \"Sagres\" (which was later transferred to Hamburg, where she is a museum ship under her original name \"Rickmer Rickmers\"). The Portuguese named her also. She still sails as of 2015, having completed a circumnavigation on 24 December 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Mircea\".", "content": "was built by Blohm & Voss for the Romanian Navy. She was launched in 1938 and has always sailed under the Romanian flag (except for a short period after World War II, when she was confiscated by the Soviet Union). She is the only one of the sister ships that is truly identical to \"Gorch Fock\". She was overhauled at the Blohm & Voss shipyards in Hamburg in 1966, and she still sails.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Herbert Norkus\".", "content": "Named after the Hitler Youth martyr Herbert Norkus, another ship of the \"Gorch Fock\" design—with the same dimensions as \"Horst Wessel\"—was begun at the Blohm & Voss shipyard. However, the unfinished ship had to be launched prematurely on 7 November 1939 because the slipway had to be cleared to build submarines. The hull stayed in the harbor of Hamburg throughout World War II. It was damaged in a bomb raid in 1945, and instead of being sold to Brazil as had been considered, ended up being filled with gas grenades and sunk in the Skagerrak in 1947.  The yards, which had been prepared, but not yet mounted, and the tackle, which had not yet been rigged, were later used for \"Gorch Fock\" built in 1958.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Gorch Fock\".", "content": "As Germany had lost all of its training vessels as war reparations after World War II, the West German Bundesmarine decided in 1957 to have a new training ship built following the plans for \"Gorch Fock\". The new ship was a modernized rebuild of \"Horst Wessel\". Coincidentally, her design had been influenced by another shipwreck: whereas the 1933 \"Gorch Fock\" was built in response to the \"Niobe\" disaster, the plans of \"SSS Gorch Fock\" were altered somewhat after the sinking of in 1957.  The modern-day was launched on 23 August 1958 and commissioned on 17 December of that year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Latin American ships.", "content": "A number of similar ships have been built by the Astilleros Celaya S.A. shipyard in Bilbao for Latin American Navies, possibly following the Blohm & Voss design. The hulls and rigging of these ships are very similar, the main differences are in the superstructure and they also have larger tanks for both diesel and water, and they are also longer. These ships are (1967, Colombia), (1976, Ecuador), (1979, Venezuela), and (1982, Mexico).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gorch Fock I, (ex Tovarishch, ex Gorch Fock) is a German three-mast barque, the first of a series built as school ships for the German Reichsmarine in 1933.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972121}
{"src_title": "Bong", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"bong\" is an adaptation of the Thai word \"bong\" or \"baung\" (, ), which refers to a cylindrical wooden tube, pipe, or container cut from bamboo, and which also refers to the bong used for smoking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Excavations of a kurgan in Russia in 2013 revealed that Scythian tribal chiefs used gold bongs 2400 years ago to smoke cannabis and opium. The kurgan was discovered when construction workers were clearing land for the construction of a power line. The use of a water pipe for smoking was introduced in China during the late Ming Dynasty (16th century), along with tobacco, through Persia and the Silk Road. By the Qing Dynasty, it became the most popular method to smoke tobacco, but became less popular since the Republic era. While typically employed by commoners, the water pipe is known to have been preferred by Empress Dowager Cixi over snuff bottles or other methods of intake. According to the Imperial Household Department, she was buried with at least three water pipes; some of her collections can be seen in the Palace Museum.  The water pipe employed since the Qing dynasty can be divided into two types: the homemade bamboo bong commonly made and used by country people, and a more elegant metal version employed by Chinese merchants, urbanites, and nobility. Metal utensils are typically made out of bronze or brass, the nobility version of silver and decorated with jewels. Typically, the metal version is made out of the following components: During a smoking session, the user may keep all equipment inside the rack and just hold the entire assembly (rack, pipe, and container) in one hand, lighting the bowl with a slow-burning paper wick (纸煤) lit over a coal stove. Unlike in North America and the Southern Hemisphere, the water pipe is typically employed by older generations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "The water can trap some heavier particles and water-soluble molecules, preventing them from entering the smoker's airways. The mechanics of a bong are compared to those of a laboratory gas washing bottle. The user puts their mouth at the top and places the cannabis in the tube, as shown in the picture.  Bongs are often either glass or plastic that use a bowl, stem, and water to produce smoke. Most glass bongs are made from heat resistant borosilicate glass, allowing the bong to withstand repeated use and heat exposure without breaking. After the bowl has been packed and water has been inserted into the bong, the substance is lit and the smoke is drawn through water to produce a smoother smoke than other methods of smoking do. To smoke a bong, the smoker must inhale in the bong so bubbles containing smoke begin to come from the stem. Once the bong has a fair amount of smoke built up, either the carb is uncovered or the stem is separated from the bong, allowing the remaining smoke to be inhaled.  However, a 2000 NORML-MAPS cannabis study found that \"water pipes filter out more psychoactive THC than they do other tars, thereby requiring users to smoke more to reach their desired effect\". In the study, smoke from cannabis supplied by the NIDA was drawn through a number of smoking devices and analyzed. This study looked at the tar to cannabinoid ratio in the gas in output by various bongs, as well as unfiltered and filtered joints, and vaporizers. The results showed that only vaporizers produced a better tar to cannabinoid ratio than unfiltered joints, but that within the cannabinoids produced, even vaporizers warped the ratio of THC (the psychoactive component of the smoke) to CBN (capable of producing medical benefits but is not psychoactive) in favor of CBN. This showed an unfiltered joint had the best tar to THC ratio of all, and bongs were actually seriously detrimental in this respect.  MAPS also reviewed a study that examined the effects and composition of water-filtered and non-filtered cannabis and tobacco smoke. It found that when alveolar macrophages were exposed to unfiltered smoke, their ability to fight bacteria was reduced, unlike exposure to water-filtered smoke. It also found substantial epidemiological evidence of a lower incidence of carcinoma among tobacco smokers who used water-pipes, as opposed to cigarettes, cigars, and regular pipes. \"It appears that water filtration can be effective in removing components from cannabis smoke that are known toxicants... The effectiveness of toxicant removal is related to the smoke's water contact area.\"  Specially designed water pipes, incorporating particulate filters and gas-dispersion frits, would likely be most effective in this regard; the gas-dispersion frit serves to break up the smoke into very fine bubbles, thereby increasing its water-contact area.\" These frits are commonly referred to as diffuser for the way that they diffuse (or disperse) the smoke as it exits the downstem, and usually consist of small holes or slats at the end of the downstem. This study suggests that a bong's smoke is less harmful than unfiltered smoke.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World's Biggest Bong.", "content": "The world's largest bong was created by Jerome Baker Designs (company) in 2018 over the 4/20 weekend. The bong, dubbed \"Bongzilla,\" was so large it had to be created in multiple pieces, and was assembled at the Cannabition museum in downtown Las Vegas Arts District. The bong is 24-feet high and weighs 800 pounds.  To take a hit out of “Bongzilla”, “someone will have to stand at the top of a staircase as a partner below lights the weed with a blowtorch and sends smoke curling through the massive pipe,” reported American weekly magazine Newsweek Harris called the bong “a giant metaphor.”", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal issues.", "content": "In the United States, under the Federal Drug Paraphernalia Statute, which is part of the Controlled Substances Act, it is illegal to sell, transport through the mail, transport across state lines, import, or export drug paraphernalia.  In countries where marijuana and hashish are illegal, some retailers specify that bongs are intended for use with tobacco in an attempt to circumvent laws against selling drug paraphernalia. While technically 'bong' does not mean a device used for smoking mainly cannabis, drug-related connotations have been formed with the word itself (partly due to punning with Sanskrit \"bhangah\" \"hemp\"). Thus for fear of the law many head shops will not serve customers who use the word \"bong\" or \"bongs\", or any other word typically associated with illegal drug use.  Some brand name bong manufacturers (notably RooR) have sought to curb the counterfeit market for their products by suing stores accused of selling fake merchandise.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A bong (also known as a water pipe, billy, bing, or moof) is a filtration device generally used for smoking cannabis, tobacco, or other herbal substances. In the bong shown in the photo, the gas flows from the lower port on the left to the upper port on the right.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972122}
{"src_title": "Rued Langgaard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Copenhagen, Rued Langgaard was the only son of composer and Royal Chamber musician Siegfried Langgaard (1852–1914) and Emma Langgaard (née Foss, 1861–1926), both of whom were pianists. At the age of five Rued began taking piano lessons with his mother, and later with his father and a private teacher. His talent emerged quickly, and at seven he was able to play Schumann's \"Davidsbündlertänze\" and Chopin's mazurkas. By then he had begun to compose short pieces for the piano and play the organ. At 10 he began to study the organ under Gustav Helsted, organist at the Jesuskirken in Valby, and the violin under Chr. Petersen, formerly of the Royal Orchestra.  At the age of 11 he made his first public appearance as an organist and improviser on the organ at a concert at the Frederikskirken (Marmorkirken) in Copenhagen. When he was 12, he started to study music theory under C. F. E. Horneman and, later, Vilhelm Rosenberg.  Langgaard's first compositions, 2 piano pieces and 2 songs, were published when he was 13, and around that time he was taught counterpoint by the celebrated composer Carl Nielsen for about a month. A year later, his choral work \"Musae triumphantes\" was performed at a concert in Copenhagen, marking his public debut as a composer. During his teen years he continued composing and travelled with his parents around Christmas and New Year's Eve, meeting conductors Arthur Nikisch and Max Fiedler.  At 18, Langgaard served as assistant organist at the Frederikskirken (Marmorkirken) in Copenhagen. The following year (1913) his \"Symphony No. 1 \"Mountain Pastorals\"\" received its first performance at a concert in Berlin with the Berlin Philharmonic under the baton of Max Fiedler.  His father died in 1914, and from 1915 to 1917 he was assistant organist at the Garnisons Kirke in Copenhagen. From 1917 onward he applied without success for the post of organist at a large number of churches in Copenhagen. In 1922 a young woman named Valborg Constance Olivia Tetens (she was known as Constance) moved in with Rued Langgaard and his mother in Copenhagen. A year after his mother died in 1926, Langgaard married Constance Tetens.  Although Langgaard was given a state grant from the age of 30, his works and job applications were almost continually rejected by the establishment. Only at the age of 46 did he manage to obtain a permanent job, as the organist at the cathedral in Ribe, the oldest town in Denmark, situated in southwest Jutland. Just shy of his 59th birthday, Rued Langgaard died in Ribe, still unrecognized as a composer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Rued Langgaard composed in a late Romantic style, emphatically dramatic and endowed with colossal mood swings. Unquestionably, he was influenced by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss and, like Strauss, he was a master of orchestration. He was a prolific composer for the large orchestra, writing 16 symphonies as well as other orchestral works.  \"Music of the Spheres\" is his best-known and most radical work. It is a symphonic work of great complexity, calling for a large orchestra including organ and a piano on which the strings are played directly rather than via the keys, choir, and a supporting (distant) orchestra including a soprano voice. It was composed during World War I, but only performed twice (in Germany in 1921–1922) during Langgaard's lifetime and lay dormant for almost 50 years before being rediscovered. When it was rediscovered in the late 1960s, it was considered remarkably modern and reflective of the pathfinding style in which Langgaard composed. In 2010 \"Music of the Spheres\" received its British premiere at The Proms, conducted by Thomas Dausgaard.  His unorthodox style and sense of drama extended to the titles of his compositions. His fourth and sixth symphonies are known as the \"Leaf Fall\" and \"Heaven Storming\". His symphonies Nos. 13 and 16 are named \"Faithlessness\" and \"Deluge of Sun\", respectively. Examples of descriptive names for individual movements are \"Wireless Caruso and Compulsive Energy\" and \"Daddies rushing off to the Office\" (in symphony No. 14, \"The Morning\").  His total production of over 400 works included more than 150 songs, works for piano, organ, and an opera entitled \"Antikrist\" (\"The Antichrist\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected works.", "content": "BVN refers to the numbering of works in: Bendt Viinholt Nielsen: Rued Langgaards Kompositioner (Rued Langgaard's Compositions. An Annotated Catalogue of Works. With an English Introduction). Odense University Press, 1991.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "In recent years, many of his works have been recorded, including recordings by Danacord of his complete symphonies on seven CDs. This cycle, with the Artur Rubinstein Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Ilya Stupel, was followed by a second cycle recorded by Dacapo with the Danish National Symphony Orchestra under the baton of Thomas Dausgaard. Both cycles have had their share of critical recognition.  Other works of Langgaard currently available on CD include \"Music of the Spheres\", \"Messis\" (Organ drama in three evenings), \"Antichrist\" (Church opera in six scenes), \"Duo Lys Pa Himlen\", piano concertos, \"The End of Time\", and various works for solo instruments.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rued Langgaard (; born Rud Immanuel Langgaard; 28 July 1893 – 10 July 1952) was a late-Romantic Danish composer and organist. His then-unconventional music was at odds with that of his Danish contemporaries but was recognized 16 years after his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972123}
{"src_title": "Aristippus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Aristippus, the son of Aritades, was born in Cyrene, Ancient Libya, c. 435 BCE. He came to Greece to be present at the Olympic games, where he asked Ischomachus about Socrates, and by his description was filled with so ardent a desire to see Socrates, that he went to Athens for the purpose, and remained with him almost up to the time of his execution in 399. Diodorus dates him to 366, which agrees very well with the facts known about him, and with the statement that Lais, the courtesan with whom he was intimate, was born in 421.  Though a disciple of Socrates, Aristippus wandered very far both in principle and practice from the teaching and example of his great master. He lived luxuriously, was happy to seek sensual gratification and the company of the notorious Lais. He also took money for his teaching, the first of Socrates' disciples to do so and even told Socrates that he resided in a foreign land in order to escape the trouble of involving himself in the politics of his native city. He passed part of his life at the court of Dionysius I of Syracuse or Dionysius the Younger, and is also said to have been taken prisoner by Artaphernes, the satrap who drove the Spartans from Rhodes in 396. He appears, however, at last to have returned to Cyrene, and there he spent his old age.  In Book VI of \"De architectura\", Vitruvius describes Aristippus: It is related of the Socratic philosopher Aristippus that, being shipwrecked and cast ashore on the coast of the Rhodians, he observed geometrical figures drawn thereon, and cried out to his companions: \"Let us be of good cheer, for I see the traces of man.\" With that he made for the city of Rhodes, and went straight to the gymnasium. There he fell to discussing philosophical subjects, and presents were bestowed upon him, so that he could not only fit himself out, but could also provide those who accompanied him with clothing and all other necessaries of life. When his companions wished to return to their country, and asked him what message he wished them to carry home, he bade them say this: that children ought to be provided with property and resources of a kind that could swim with them even out of a shipwreck.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "The anecdotes which are told of Aristippus (there are many in Diogenes Laërtius) by no means give us the notion of a person who was the mere slave of his passions, but rather of one who took a pride in extracting enjoyment from all circumstances of every kind, and in controlling adversity and prosperity alike. They illustrate and confirm the two statements of Horace, that to observe the precepts of Aristippus is \"to endeavour to adapt circumstances to myself, not myself to circumstances\" and that, \"every complexion of life, every station and circumstance sat gracefully upon him.\" Thus when reproached for his love of bodily indulgences, he answered, that \"it is not abstinence from pleasures that is best, but mastery over them without ever being worsted\". When Dionysius, provoked at some of his remarks, ordered him to take the lowest place at table, he said, \"You wish to dignify the seat\". His statement \"wise people, even though all laws were abolished, would still lead the same life\" is a quote sometimes, and erroneously, attributed to the comic poet Aristophanes. Whether Aristippus was a prisoner to a satrap, grossly insulted and even spit upon by a tyrant, enjoying the pleasures of a banquet, or reviled for faithlessness to Socrates by his fellow-pupils, he maintained the same calm temper. He seemed insulting to Xenophon and Plato, as seen from the \"Memorabilia\", where he maintains a discussion against Socrates in defense of voluptuous enjoyment, and from the \"Phaedo\", where his absence at the death of Socrates, though he was only at Aegina, 200 stadia from Athens, is doubtless mentioned as a reproach. Aristotle, too, calls him a sophist, and notices a story of Plato's speaking to him, with rather undue vehemence, and of his replying with calmness.  Aristippus imparted his doctrine to his daughter Arete who, in turn, imparted it to her son, Aristippus the Younger, who is said to have reduced it to a system. Diogenes Laërtius, on the authority of Sotion and Panaetius, gives a long list of books whose authorship is ascribed to Aristippus, though he also states that according to Sosicrates of Rhodes, Aristippus never wrote anything. Some letters attributed to him are forgeries. Although his dubious reputation has survived into modern times, his philosophy of ethical hedonism, as its name implies, was not entirely amoral. He admonished his students to never harm others, and cautioned that the pursuit of pleasure ought to be moderated by moral self-restraint.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"On Ancient Luxury\".", "content": "One work attributed to \"Aristippus\" in ancient times was a scandalous work entitled \"On Ancient Luxury\" (or \"On the Luxury of the Ancients\"; ). This work, judging by the quotations preserved by Diogenes Laërtius, was filled with spicy anecdotes about philosophers and their supposed taste for courtesans or boys. Thus the author supports his claims for Plato's various erotic relationships through his quotation of epigrams attributed to the philosopher, and makes an extreme allegation that Periander committed incest with his own mother. That this work cannot have been written by Aristippus of Cyrene has long been realised, not least because the author mentions Theophrastus who lived a generation after Aristippus. The name may have been adopted by the writer to suggest a connection with the hedonistic philosopher.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Aristippus of Cyrene (; ; c. 435 – c. 356 BCE) was the founder of the Cyrenaic school of Philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates, but adopted a very different philosophical outlook, teaching that the goal of life was to seek pleasure by circumstances to oneself and by maintaining proper control over both adversity and prosperity. His outlook came to be called \"ethical hedonism.\" Among his pupils was his daughter Arete.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972124}
{"src_title": "Social policy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest example of direct intervention by government in human welfare dates back to Umar ibn al-Khattāb's rule as the second caliph of Islam in the 6th century. He used \"zakat\" collections and also other governmental resources to establish pensions, income support, child benefits, and various stipends for people of the non-Muslim community.  In the West, proponents of scientific social planning such as the sociologist Auguste Comte, and social researchers, such as Charles Booth, contributed to the emergence of social policy in the first industrialised countries following the Industrial Revolution. Surveys of poverty exposing the brutal conditions in the urban slum conurbations of Victorian Britain supplied the pressure leading to changes such as the decline and abolition of the poor law system and Liberal welfare reforms. Other significant examples in the development of social policy are the Bismarckian welfare state in 19th century Germany, social security policies in the United States introduced under the rubric of the New Deal between 1933 and 1935, and the National Health Service Act 1946 in Britain.  Social policy in the 21st century is complex and in each state it is subject to local and national governments, as well as supranational political influence. For example, membership of the European Union is conditional on member states' adherence to the Social Chapter of European Union law", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Social policy aims to improve human welfare and to meet human needs for education, health, housing and economic security. Important areas of social policy are wellbeing and welfare, poverty reduction, social security, justice, unemployment insurance, living conditions, animal rights, pensions, health care, social housing, family policy, social care, child protection, social exclusion, education policy, crime and criminal justice, urban development, and labor issues.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States social policy.", "content": "The United States was a pioneer in generous social spending (relative to comparable countries), as it provided substantial social spending for Civil War veterans and their families. However, the United States would go on to lag behind other advanced industrial democracies in social spending.  Religious, racial, ideological, scientific and philosophical movements and ideas have historically influenced American social policy, for example, John Calvin and his idea of pre-destination and the Protestant Values of hard work and individualism. Moreover, Social Darwinism helped mold America's ideas of capitalism and the \"survival of the fittest\" mentality. The Catholic Church's social teaching has also been considerably influential to the development of social policy.  United States politicians who have favored increasing government observance of social policy often do not frame their proposals around typical notions of welfare or benefits; instead, in cases like \"Medicare\" and \"Medicaid\", President Lyndon Johnson presented a package called the Great Society that framed a larger vision around poverty and quality of life. Insurance has been a growing policy topic, and a recent example of health care law as social policy is the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act formed by the 111th U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama, a Democrat, on March 23, 2010.  Moreover, former president Franklin D. Roosevelt's ground breaking New Deal is a paragon example of Social Policy that focused predominantly on a program of providing work and stimulating the economy through public spending on projects, rather than on cash payment. The programs were in response to the Great Depression affecting the United States in the 1930s.  An American education policy proposal from a Republican president is the No Child Left Behind Act. This Act took effect on January 8, 2002, and was put in place to raise standards in education so different individuals can have better educational outcomes. The No Child Left Behind Act requires every state to assess students on basic skills to receive federal funding. However, this Act did not create a national standard since each state develops their own set of standards and assessments. Critics of most all social policies point toward a depiction of a welfare state on the make of a Hobbesian Leviathan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Social policy is policy usually within a governmental or political setting, such as the welfare state and study of social services.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972125}
{"src_title": "Crown of Saint Wenceslas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Jewels.", "content": "The St. Wenceslas Crown is made of 21 to 22 carat (88 to 92%) gold and decorated with precious stones and pearls. It contains a total of 19 sapphires, 44 spinels, 1 ruby, 30 emeralds and 20 pearls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "Unlike many other European royal treasures, the St. Wenceslas Crown is not normally displayed to the public, and only a replica is shown. Along with the other Bohemian crown jewels, it is kept in a chamber within St. Vitus Cathedral accessible by a door in the St. Wenceslas Chapel. The exact location of the chamber is not known to the general public. The entrance to the jewels is locked by seven locks whose keys are held by the President of the Czech Republic, the Chair of the Chamber of Deputies of the Parliament, the Chair of the Senate of the Parliament, the Prime Minister, the Mayor of Prague, the Archbishop of Prague, and the Dean of the Metropolitan Chapter of St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague. The jewels are only taken from the chamber and displayed for periods of several days on notable occasions approximately once every five years. The crown was exhibited in May 2016 to mark the 700th anniversary of the birth of Charles IV, and in May 2013, celebrating the inauguration of a new Czech president.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legend.", "content": "An old Czech legend says that any usurper who places the crown on his head is doomed to die within a year, as the Crown is the personal property of St. Wenceslas and may only be worn by a rightful Bohemian king during his coronation. During World War II, Reinhard Heydrich, the Deputy Protector of Bohemia and Moravia, is said to have secretly \"crowned\" himself while inspecting St. Vitus' Cathedral, and was assassinated less than a year later by the Czech resistance. Although there is no evidence proving that Heydrich did so, the legend is widely believed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Crown of Saint Wenceslas is a crown forming part of the Bohemian Crown Jewels, made in 1347. The eleventh king of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV, from the House of Luxembourg, had it made for his coronation, dedicating it to the first patron saint of the country St. Wenceslas and bequeathed it as a state crown for the coronation of (future) Bohemian kings. On the orders of Charles IV the new royal crown was deposited in St. Vitus Cathedral, however, it was later transferred to Karlštejn Castle. It was used for the last time for the coronation of Ferdinand V in 1836.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972126}
{"src_title": "European Law Students' Association", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Five law students from Austria, Hungary, Poland and West Germany founded ELSA on 4 May 1981.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "ELSA is organized into local member groups active at university level (Local Group), national member groups active on a national level (National Group), and ELSA International active on an international level.  Membership of ELSA for individual law students is possible through the Local Groups (for instance ELSA Leiden). The Local Groups are member of a National Group (for instance ELSA the Netherlands). The National Groups are part of the international ELSA network, which is managed by ELSA International with headquarters in Brussels, Belgium. ELSA International consists of the International Board, the ELSA International Team, and the Auditors of ELSA.  The International Board is the supreme executive body of the association. Its members are elected at an International Council Meeting (ICM) (which consists of all the National Groups) for a one-year period. The International Board's responsibilities include the overall co-ordination of the organisation as a whole including the support of member groups both locally and nationally. The International Board also co-ordinates and develops ELSA's collaboration with various international organisations and institutions, governments, law firms, and companies across Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Institutional relations.", "content": "ELSA has gained consultative status with several United Nations bodies. In 1994, ELSA was granted Consultative Status in Category C in UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), and in 1997 ELSA obtained Special Consultative Status with ECOSOC (United Nations Economic and Social Council). In addition UNCITRAL (United Nations Commission on International Trade Law) is inviting ELSA delegations to participate in their sessions.  ELSA was part of the Diplomatic Conference of 1998 in Rome where the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted to establish the International Criminal Court. ELSA participated with a delegation as an NGO represented by an observer.  In 2000, ELSA was granted Participatory Status with the Council of Europe. This cooperation was further widened with the signing of a Human Rights Partnership between Council of Europe and ELSA in 2008.  Furthermore, ELSA has a co-operation agreement with UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). In October 2005, ELSA obtained Observer Status with WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization).  Since 2002, ELSA organizes the John H. Jackson Moot Court Competition (formerly known as ELSA Moot Court Competition) with the support of the WTO. The final round is held at the WTO headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ELSA Network.", "content": "ELSA has members and observers in Albania, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta, Moldova, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine and the United Kingdom.  Furthermore, ELSA co-operates with other student organisations across the world, for instance the Asian Law Students' Association (ALSA) in Asia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European Law Students' Association (ELSA) is an international, independent, non-political, non-profit, non-governmental organisation run by and for law students. ELSA-activities comprise a large variety of academic and professional events that are organised to fulfill the stated vision of ELSA.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972127}
{"src_title": "Svetovid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The forms \"Sventevith\" and \"Zvantewith\" show that the name derives from the word \"svętъ\", meaning \"sacred\". The second stem is sometimes reconstructed as \"vit\" = \"lord, ruler, winner\".  The name recorded in chronicles of contemporary Christian monks is Svantevit, which, if we assume it was properly transcribed, could be an adjective meaning approx. \"Dawning One\" (\"svantev\", \"svitanje\" = \"dawning, raising of the Sun in the morning\" + \"it\", adjective suffix), implying either a connection with the \"Morning Star\" or with the Sun itself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternative names.", "content": "Beyond the names above referenced, Svetovid can also be known as Svitovyd (Ukrainian), Svyatovit (alternative name in Ukrainian), Svyentovit (alternative name in Ukrainian), Svetovid (Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian and Bosnian, and alternative name in Bulgarian), Suvid (alternative name in Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian), Svantevit (Wendish, alternative name in Ukrainian and possibly the original proto-Slavic name), Svantevid (alternative name in Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian), Svantovit (Czech and Slovak), Svantovít (Czech), Svantovid (alternative name in Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian), Swantovít, Sventovit, Zvantevith (Latin and alternative name in Serbian and Croatian), Świętowit (Polish), Sutvid, Svevid, and Vid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Worship.", "content": "One of the inhabitants of the Rügen island in the Baltic Sea were the Slavic tribe of the Rujani, whose name was cognate of the island's. According to various chronicles (i.e. Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus and Chronica Slavorum by Helmold), the temple at Jaromarsburg contained a giant wooden statue of Svantevit depicting him with four heads (or one head with four faces) and a horn of abundance. Each year the horn was filled with fresh mead.  The temple was also the seat of an oracle in which the chief priest predicted the future of his tribe by observing the behaviour of a white horse identified with Svantevit and casting dice (horse oracles have a long history in this region, being already attested in the writings of Tacitus). The temple also contained the treasury of the tribe and was defended by a group of 300 mounted warriors which formed the core of the tribal armed forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "David Leeming identifies the four heads as Rujevit, representing autumn and east, Porevit, representing summer and south, Iarovit, representing spring and west, and Bialobog, representing winter and north.  Some interpretations claim that Svetovit was another name for Radegast, while another states that he was a fake god, a Wendish construction based on the name St. Vitus. However, the common practice of the Christian Church was to replace existing pagan deities and places of worship with analogous persons and rituals of Christian content, so it seems more likely that Saint Vitus was created to replace the original Svanto-Vit. According to a common interpretation, Svantevit was a Rugian counterpart of the pan-Slavic Perun.  In Croatia, on the island of Brač, the highest peak is called Vid's Mountain. In the Dinaric Alps there is a peak called \"Suvid\" and a Church of St. Vid. Among the Serbs, the cult of Svetovid is partially preserved through the Feast of St. Vitus, \"Vidovdan\", one of the most important annual events in Serbian Orthodox Christian tradition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The science fiction story \"Delenda Est\" by Poul Anderson depicts an alternate history world where Carthage defeated Rome, Christianity never arose and in the 20th century, Svantevit is still a main deity of a major European power called Littorn (that is, Lithuania). A devotee of this god, in the story, is called Boleslav Arkonsky – a name evidently derived from the above-mentioned temple at Arkona.  An installation on the 2019 LUMA Projection Arts Festival was based on Svetovid.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Svetovid, Svantovit or Sventovit is a Slavic deity of war, fertility and abundance primarily venerated on the island of Rügen into the 12th century. He is often considered a local Rugian variant of the pan-Slavic god Perun.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972128}
{"src_title": "Politeness", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "Anthropologists Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson identified two kinds of politeness, deriving from Erving Goffman's concept of face:  Some cultures seem to prefer one of these kinds of politeness over the other. In this way politeness is culturally bound.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "During the Enlightenment era, a self-conscious process of the imposition of polite norms and behaviours became a symbol of being a genteel member of the upper class. Upwardly mobile middle class bourgeoisie increasingly tried to identify themselves with the elite through their adopted artistic preferences and their standards of behaviour. They became preoccupied with precise rules of etiquette, such as when to show emotion, the art of elegant dress and graceful conversation and how to act courteously, especially with women. Influential in this new discourse was a series of essays on the nature of politeness in a commercial society, penned by the philosopher Lord Shaftesbury in the early 18th century. Shaftesbury defined politeness as the art of being pleasing in company: Periodicals, such as \"The Spectator\", founded as a daily publication by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele in 1711, gave regular advice to its readers on how to be a polite gentleman. Its stated goal was \"to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality...to bring philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffeehouses\" It provided its readers with educated, topical talking points, and advice in how to carry on conversations and social interactions in a polite manner.  The art of polite conversation and debate was particularly cultivated in the coffeehouses of the period. Conversation was supposed to conform to a particular manner, with the language of polite and civil conversation considered to be essential to the conduct of coffeehouse debate and conversation. The concept of 'civility' referred to a desired social interaction which valued sober and reasoned debate on matters of interest. Established rules and procedures for proper behaviour as well as conventions, were outlined by gentleman's clubs, such as Harrington's Rota Club. Periodicals, including \"The Tatler\" and \"The Spectator\", infused politeness into English coffeehouse conversation, as their explicit purpose lay in the reformation of English manners and morals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Techniques.", "content": "Some studies have shown that women are more likely to use politeness formulas than men, though the exact differences are not clear. Most current research has shown that gender differences in politeness use are complex, since there is a clear association between politeness norms and the stereotypical speech of middle class white women, at least in the UK and US. It is therefore unsurprising that women tend to be associated with politeness more and their linguistic behaviour judged in relation to these politeness norms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Linguistic devices.", "content": "Besides and additionally to the above, many languages have specific means to show politeness, deference, respect, or a recognition of the social status of the speaker and the hearer. There are two main ways in which a given language shows politeness: in its lexicon (for example, employing certain words in formal occasions, and colloquial forms in informal contexts), and in its morphology (for example, using special verb forms for polite discourse). The T-V distinction is a common example in Western languages. Some languages have complex politeness systems, such as Korean speech levels and honorific speech in Japanese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism of the theory.", "content": "Brown and Levinson's theory of politeness has been criticised as not being universally valid, by linguists working with East-Asian languages, including Japanese. Matsumoto and Ide claim that Brown and Levinson assume the speaker's volitional use of language, which allows the speaker's creative use of face-maintaining strategies toward the addressee. In East Asian cultures like Japan, politeness is achieved not so much on the basis of volition as on discernment (\"wakimae\", finding one's place), or prescribed social norms. \"Wakimae\" is oriented towards the need for acknowledgment of the positions or roles of all the participants as well as adherence to formality norms appropriate to the particular situation.  Japanese is perhaps the most widely known example of a language that encodes politeness at its very core. Japanese has two main levels of politeness, one for intimate acquaintances, family and friends, and one for other groups, and verb morphology reflects these levels. Besides that, some verbs have special hyper-polite suppletive forms. This happens also with some nouns and interrogative pronouns. Japanese also employs different personal pronouns for each person according to gender, age, rank, degree of acquaintance, and other cultural factors. See Honorific speech in Japanese, for further information.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Politeness is the practical application of good manners or etiquette so as not to offend others. It is a culturally defined phenomenon, and therefore what is considered polite in one culture can sometimes be quite rude or simply eccentric in another cultural context.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972129}
{"src_title": "Ring (jewellery)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient India.", "content": "Rings and other types of jewelry including necklaces, rings, bracelets, earrings, bangles and pendants have been discovered from the 3rd millennium BC Indus Valley Civilization. Factories of small beads have been discovered in Lothal, India.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ancient Near East.", "content": "Finger rings have been found in tombs in Ur dating back to circa 2500 BC. The Hittite civilization produced rings, including signet rings, only a few of which have been discovered. People in Old Kingdom Egypt wore a variety of finger rings, of which a few examples have been found, including the famous scarab design. Rings became more common during the Egyptian Middle Kingdom, containing increasingly complex designs. Egyptians made not only metal rings but rings from faience, some of which were used as new year gifts. Native styles were superseded by Greek and Roman fashions during the Ptolemaic dynasty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Archaic and classical Greek.", "content": "Archaic Greek rings were to some extent influenced by Egyptian rings, although they tended to be less substantial and were not generally used as working signet rings. As gold was not locally available, rings made in the eastern colonies tended to be made from silver and bronze, while Etruscans used gold.  The classical period showed a shift away from bronze to a wider adoption of silver and gold. The most typical design of the period involved a lozenge bezel mounting an intaglio device. Over time, the bezel moved towards a more circular form.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roman Rings.", "content": "During the early and middle imperial era (first two centuries AD), a typical Roman ring consisted of a thick hoop that tapered directly into a slightly wider bezel. An engraved oval gem would be embedded within the bezel with the top of the gem only rising slightly above the surrounding ring material. Such rings are known as Henig II and III/Guiraud 2 in formal academic parlance or simply as Roman rings to modern jewellers. In general, Roman rings became more elaborate in the third and fourth centuries AD.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "High and Late Middle Ages in Europe.", "content": "During this period, it was fashionable for multiple rings to be worn on each hand and each finger. Rings during this period were mostly made from copper-based alloys, silver or gold. Gems became common after 1150, along with the belief that certain gems had the power to help or protect the wearer in various ways. Engraved rings were produced using Lombardic script until around 1350, when it was replaced by Gothic script. Some of the inscriptions were devotional, others romantic in nature. For romantic inscriptions, French was the language of choice. An increasing use of contracts and other documents requiring formal seals meant that signet rings became more important from the 13th century onwards.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ring location.", "content": "Each finger had a symbolic association or meaning (most of which were lost in antiquity and varied with culture) for the placement of a ring, significant to observers.  The fourth digit or ring finger of the left hand has become the customary place to wear betrothal, engagement and wedding rings in much of the world, though in certain countries the right hand finger is used. This custom was practically established as norm during World War II.  The use of the fourth finger of the left hand (the 'ring finger') is associated with an old belief that the left hand's ring finger is connected by a vein directly to the heart: the \"vena amoris\", or vein of love. This idea was in vogue in the 16th and 17th century England, when Henry Swinburne referred to it in his book about marriage. It can be traced to ancient Rome, when Aulus Gellius cited Appianus as saying that the ancient Egyptians had found a fine nerve linking the fourth finger to the heart.  Occasionally rings have been re-purposed to hang from bracelets or necklaces.  The signet ring is traditionally worn on the left pinky or little finger.  A birthstone ring and/or \"birthday\" stone ring is customarily worn on the first finger of the right hand and indicates respectively the month and day of the week in and on which the bearer was born.  Amulet rings, meaningful for various purposes from protection (pentacle rings) to augmenting personal attributes (wisdom, confidence, social status etc.), are worn on various fingers, often depending on the intent of the ring's design or attributes of the stone inset. Although it has been thought that amulet rings worn on specific fingers for specific purposes enhanced their powers, most people simply wear them on any finger on which they fit.  Thumb rings were originally worn to protect the thumb from injuries caused by the launching of arrows and are a sign of an archer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "While the ISO standard defines ring size in terms of the inner circumference (measured in millimeters), various countries still use traditional sizing systems. Sizing beads, which functionally reduce the ring size, are small metal beads added to the inner surface of a ring to hold it in place against the finger; they have the advantage of being easily added or removed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Styles.", "content": "After several thousand years of ring manufacture, the total number of styles produced is vast. Even cataloging the rings of a single civilization, such as the Romans, presents a major challenge. As a result, the following list should be considered to be very limited.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Wearing a ring can in some cases be a safety concern, when the ring is made of a material stronger than the hand, fully encircles the digit, and catches onto an immovable object. This can result in serious injury (degloving), amputation, or Ring avulsion. Some recommend specifically not to use a ring while operating machinery or playing sports.  If a ring catches on rotating machinery, or the ring of a falling person catches on a stationary object, the wearer may suffer injury. For these reasons, some workplaces require employees to remove their rings temporarily while performing certain tasks or when in certain areas of a workplace. Despite the ring's symbolic appeal as a solid band around the finger, modern jewelers are sometimes known to modify rings such that, at worst, they only tear the flesh of the wearer's finger in cases like those above-mentioned. Such \"breakaway\" modifications have not yet achieved popularity as standard designs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A ring is a round band, usually of metal, worn as ornamental jewellery. The term \"ring\" by itself always denotes jewellery worn on the finger; when worn as an ornament elsewhere, the body part is specified within the term, e.g., earrings, neck rings, arm rings, and toe rings. Rings always fit snugly around or in the part of the body they ornament, so bands worn loosely, like a bracelet, are not rings. Rings may be made of almost any hard material: wood, bone, stone, metal, glass, gemstone or plastic. They may be set with gemstones (diamond, ruby, sapphire or emerald) or with other types of stone or glass.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972130}
{"src_title": "Passacaglia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The term passacaglia (; ; Italian: \"passacaglia\", \"passacaglio\", \"passagallo\", \"passacagli\", \"passacaglie\") derives from the Spanish \"pasar\" (to walk) and \"calle\" (street). It originated in early 17th-century Spain as a strummed interlude between instrumentally accompanied dances or songs. Despite the form's Spanish roots (confirmed by references in Spanish literature of the period), the first written examples of passacaglias are found in an Italian source dated 1606. These pieces, as well as others from Italian sources from the beginning of the century, are simple, brief sequences of chords outlining a cadential formula.  The passacaglia was redefined in the late 1620s by Italian composer Girolamo Frescobaldi, who transformed it into a series of continuous variations over a bass (which itself may be varied). Later composers adopted this model, and by the nineteenth century the word came to mean a series of variations over an ostinato pattern, usually of a serious character. A similar form, the chaconne, was also first developed by Frescobaldi. The two genres are closely related, but since \"composers often used the terms chaconne and passacaglia indiscriminately [...] modern attempts to arrive at a clear distinction are arbitrary and historically unfounded\".  In early scholarship, attempts to formally differentiate between the historical chaconne and passacaglia were made, but researchers often came to opposite conclusions. For example, Percy Goetschius held that the chaconne is usually based on a harmonic sequence with a recurring soprano melody, and the passacaglia was formed over a ground bass pattern, whereas Clarence Lucas defined the two forms in precisely the opposite way. More recently, however, some progress has been made toward making a useful distinction for the usage of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, when some composers (notably Frescobaldi and François Couperin) deliberately mixed the two genres in the same composition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composers.", "content": "Some examples are the organ passacaglias of Dieterich Buxtehude, Johann Pachelbel, Sigfrid Karg-Elert, Johann Caspar Kerll, Daniel Gregory Mason, Georg Muffat, Gottlieb Muffat, Johann Kuhnau, Juan Bautista Cabanilles, Bernardo Pasquini, Max Reger, Ralph Vaughan Williams (\"Passacaglia on B–G–C\", 1933), and Leo Sowerby.  Passacaglias for lute have been composed by figures such as Alessandro Piccinini, Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger, Sylvius Leopold Weiss, Esaias Reusner, Count Logy, Robert de Visée, Jacques Bittner, Philipp Franz Lesage De Richee, Gleitsmann, Dufaut, Gallot, Denis Gaultier, Ennemond Gaultier, and Roman Turovsky-Savchuk, a passacaglia for bandura by Julian Kytasty, and for baroque guitar by Paulo Galvão, Santiago de Murcia, Francesc Guerau, Gaspar Sanz, and Marcello Vitale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Baroque.", "content": "One of the best known examples of the passacaglia in Western classical music is the \"Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor, BWV 582\", for organ by Johann Sebastian Bach. The French clavecinists, especially Louis Couperin and his nephew François Couperin, used a variant of the form—the \"passecaille en rondeau\"—with a recurring episode between the variations. Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber's \"Passacaglia\", the last piece of the monumental \"Rosary Sonatas\", is one of the earliest known compositions for solo violin. The central episode of Claudio Monteverdi's madrigal \"Lamento della Ninfa\" is a passacaglia on a descending tetrachord. The first two movements of the fourth sonata from Johann Heinrich Schmelzer's \"Sonatæ unarum fidium\" are passacaglias on a descending tetrachord, but in uncharacteristic major. The fourth movement of Luigi Boccherini's \"Quintettino No. 6, Op. 30\", (also known as \"Musica notturna delle strade di Madrid\") is titled \"Passacalle\".  Other examples of \"passacaille\" include \"Les plaisirs ont choisi\" from Jean-Baptiste Lully's opera \"Armide\" (1686) and Dido's lament, \"When I am Laid in Earth\" from Henry Purcell's \"Dido and Aeneas\", the aria \"Piango, gemo, sospiro\" by Antonio Vivaldi, or \"Usurpator tiranno\" and \"Stabat Mater\" by Giovanni Felice Sances, et al.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Romantic.", "content": "Nineteenth-century examples include the C-minor passacaglia for organ by Felix Mendelssohn, and the finale of Josef Rheinberger's Eighth Organ Sonata. Notable passacaglias by Johannes Brahms can be found in the last movement of his \"Fourth Symphony\", which many musicians place among Brahms' finest compositions. Composed by Brahms to conform to the strict metrics of classical dance, British conductor Constant Lambert called the piece \"grimly intellectual\". In Brahms's \"Variations on a Theme by Haydn\", the bass repeats the same harmonic pattern throughout the piece. The last movement of George Frideric Handel's \"Harpsichord Suite in G minor (HWV 432)\" is a passacaglia which has become well known as a duo for violin and viola, arranged by the Norwegian violinist Johan Halvorsen. The first movement of Hans Huber's Piano Concerto No. 3, Op. 113 (1899) is a passacaglia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Contemporary.", "content": "The passacaglia proved an enduring form throughout the twentieth century and beyond. In mid-century, one writer stated that \"despite the inevitable lag in the performance of new music, there are more twentieth-century passacaglias in the active repertory of performers than baroque works in this form\". Three composers especially identified with the passacaglia are Benjamin Britten, Dmitri Shostakovich, and Paul Hindemith. In his operas, Britten often uses a passacaglia to create the climactic moment of the drama. Examples are found in \"Peter Grimes\", \"Billy Budd\", \"The Turn of the Screw\", \"Death in Venice\", and even in the comic opera \"Albert Herring\". Britten also employed the form in smaller vocal forms, such as the Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings (1943) and \"The Holy Sonnets of John Donne\" (1945) for voice and piano, as well as in purely instrumental compositions, notably in the second and third Cello suites, the second and third string quartets, the Cello Symphony, and the \"Nocturnal after John Dowland\" for guitar. Shostakovich restricted his use of the passacaglia to instrumental forms, the most notable examples being found in his Tenth String Quartet, Second Piano Trio, Eighth and Fifteenth Symphonies, and First Violin Concerto. Hindemith employed the form to conclude his 1938 ballet, \"Nobilissima Visione\", and it is also found in his early Sonata for viola solo, Op. 11, No. 5 (1919) and the second movement of the song cycle \"Das Marienleben\" (1948), as well as in later works such as the Fifth String Quartet and the Octet for winds and strings. Igor Stravinsky used the form for the central movement of his Septet (1953), a transitional work between his neoclassical and serial periods.  Especially important examples of the form are found in the output of the Second Viennese School. Anton Webern's Opus 1 is a Passacaglia for Orchestra, Arnold Schoenberg included a passacaglia movement, \"Nacht\", in \"Pierrot Lunaire\", and Alban Berg, like Britten, used a passacaglia operatically, in act 1, scene 4 of \"Wozzeck\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The passacaglia (; ) is a musical form that originated in early seventeenth-century Spain and is still used today by composers. It is usually of a serious character and is often, but not always, based on a bass-ostinato and written in triple metre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972131}
{"src_title": "Walter Röhrl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Röhrl grew up as the youngest of three children of a stonemason in Regensburg. His parents separated when he was ten years old. From then on he lived with his mother. After leaving school he completed a commercial education at Bishop's Ordinariate Regensburg. At the age of 16, Röhrl began working for the commercial director of a company that legally represented the Bishop of Regensburg along with 6 further Bishops in Bavaria, and skied in his spare time. In time he became a qualified ski instructor and a keen driver, and became the chauffeur to the commercial director, covering up to 120,000 kilometres annually. Some unqualified reports have stated he was once the Bishop's own driver, but this has been acknowledged as untrue. Having also now been active in sports like skiing, Röhrl was invited to drive his first rally in 1968.  Röhrl was a World Rally Championship favourite throughout the 1970s and 1980s, winning the Monte Carlo Rally four times with four different marques. His co-driver for many years was Christian Geistdörfer. His Fiat 131 Abarth carried him to the 1980 title, clinched with his victory in that year's San Remo rally, but it was arguably his equivalent success in 1982 that impressed most of all, with Röhrl fending off audacious four-wheel drive opposition, led by Audi's resurgent Michèle Mouton, to take the title, by virtue of consistency, in his increasingly outmoded rear-drive Opel Ascona 400. It was also during this time that he won the African Rally Championship, in 1982. However, shortly after winning the championship he was fired from the team by team manager Tony Fall because he disliked competing in the RAC rally (the rally he had little success in). Röhrl had already had severe arguments with Tony Fall about publicity activities for the team sponsor, tobacco company Rothmans. Röhrl, as a strict nonsmoker, simply refused to do any filming for Rothmans publicity spots, claiming that he had been hired as a driver, not an actor, and that he could not see any sense in promoting tobacco as a nonsmoker anyway.  In 1983, he joined Lancia to pilot the new, rear-wheel drive Lancia 037, before finally changing his machinery, in 1984, to the four-wheel drive Audi Quattro, an automobile actually produced in his home state of Bavaria.  In 1987 Röhrl set up a new record in the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb for being the first driver to cover the 14.42 miles (19.99 km) long mountain track to the Pikes Peak in less than 11 minutes. In his 600 hp (440 kW) Audi Sport Quattro S1 E2 he did the famed American hillclimb in 10 minutes and 47.850 seconds to reach Pikes Peak on the road which at that time was mainly covered with gravel.  Despite being selective in his choice of top-level events (he declined to do the famed 1000 Lakes Rally in Finland due to his dislike of jumps and cars getting airborne), he did the RAC Rally in Britain only once more after 1979 and he only did the Swedish Rally twice, despite finishing 3rd in 1982) albeit during a time when this was a less unusual occurrence for top-line drivers in the championship, Rohrl still scored 14 WRC victories in his career.  Röhrl was also successful in road racing events, and was called \"Genius on Wheels\" by Niki Lauda. In the 1992 24 Hours Nürburgring race which saw fog and heavy rain in the night, he hardly slowed down, anticipating the corners by timing. The race was nevertheless interrupted for hours.  In Italy, he was elected \"Rallye driver of the century\". In France he was elected \"Rallye driver of the millennium\" in November 2000. A jury out of 100 worldwide motorsports experts meeting in Italy elected him \"Best Rallye driver ever\".  In recent years, he has been retained as the senior test driver for Porsche road cars, famously setting quick laptimes for them testing round the famous Nürburgring Nordschleife, for example with the Porsche Carrera GT.  Röhrl was expected to make his competitive return to the Nürburgring 24 hour race in 2010 at the wheel of a Porsche 911 GT3 RS. However, he was forced to withdraw from the event due to a back injury. It was to be his first 24-hour race in 17 years, since his last start in 1993. In 2011, Röhrl was inducted into the Rally Hall of Fame along with Hannu Mikkola and in July 2016 was inducted into Germany's Sports Hall of Fame.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Walter Röhrl (born 7 March 1947) is a German rally and auto racing driver, with victories for Fiat, Opel, Lancia and Audi as well as Porsche, Ford and BMW.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972132}
{"src_title": "Eros", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The Greek ἔρως, meaning \"desire,\" comes from ἔραμαι \"to desire, love\", of uncertain etymology. R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cult and depiction.", "content": "Eros appears in ancient Greek sources under several different guises. In the earliest sources (the cosmogonies, the earliest philosophers, and texts referring to the mystery religions), he is one of the primordial gods involved in the coming into being of the cosmos. In later sources, however, Eros is represented as the son of Aphrodite, whose mischievous interventions in the affairs of gods and mortals cause bonds of love to form, often illicitly. Ultimately, in the later satirical poets, he is represented as a blindfolded child, the precursor to the chubby Renaissance Cupid, whereas in early Greek poetry and art, Eros was depicted as a young adult male who embodies sexual power, and a profound artist.  A cult of Eros existed in pre-classical Greece, but it was much less important than that of Aphrodite. However, in late antiquity, Eros was worshiped by a fertility cult in Thespiae. In Athens, he shared a very popular cult with Aphrodite, and the fourth day of every month was sacred to him (also shared by Herakles, Hermes and Aphrodite).  Eros was one of the Erotes, along with other figures such as Himeros and Pothos, who are sometimes considered patrons of homosexual love between males. Eros is also part of a triad of gods that played roles in homoerotic relationships, along with Heracles and Hermes, who bestowed qualities of beauty (and loyalty), strength, and eloquence, respectively, onto male lovers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Primordial god.", "content": "According to Hesiod's \"Theogony\" (c. 700 BC), one of the most ancient of all Greek sources, Eros (the god of love) was the fourth god to come into existence, coming after Chaos, Gaia (the Earth), and Tartarus (the abyss).  Homer does not mention Eros. However, Parmenides (c. 400 BC), one of the pre-Socratic philosophers, makes Eros the first of all the gods to come into existence.  The Orphic and Eleusinian Mysteries featured Eros as a very original god, but not quite primordial, since he was the child of Night (Nyx). Aristophanes (c. 400 BC), influenced by Orphism, relates the birth of Eros:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Son of Aphrodite and Ares.", "content": "In later myths, he was the son of the deities Aphrodite and Ares: it is the Eros of these later myths who is one of the erotes. Eros was depicted as often carrying a lyre or bow and arrow. He was also depicted accompanied by dolphins, flutes, roosters, roses, and torches.  [Hera addresses Athena:] “We must have a word with Aphrodite. Let us go together and ask her to persuade her boy [Eros], if that is possible, to loose an arrow at Aeetes’ daughter, Medea of the many spells, and make her fall in love with Jason...” (Apollonius of Rhodes, \"Argonautica\" 3. 25 ff – a Greek epic of the 3rd century BC)  \"He [Eros] smites maids’ breasts with unknown heat, and bids the very gods leave heaven and dwell on earth in borrowed forms.\" (Seneca, \"Phaedra\" 290 ff.)  \"Once, when Venus’ son [Eros] was kissing her, his quiver dangling down, a jutting arrow, unbeknown, had grazed her breast. She pushed the boy away. In fact the wound was deeper than it seemed, though unperceived at first. [And she became] enraptured by the beauty of a man [Adonis].\" (Ovid, \"Metamorphoses\" 10. 525 ff.)  \"Eros drove Dionysos mad for the girl <nowiki>[</nowiki>Aura<nowiki>]</nowiki> with the delicious wound of his arrow, then curving his wings flew lightly to Olympus. And the god roamed over the hills scourged with a greater fire.” (Nonnus, \"Dionysiaca\" 48. 470 ff – a Greek epic of the 5th century AD)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eros and Psyche.", "content": "The story of Eros and Psyche has a longstanding tradition as a folktale of the ancient Greco-Roman world long before it was committed to literature in Apuleius' Latin novel, \"The Golden Ass\". The novel itself is written in a picaresque Roman style, yet Psyche retains her Greek name. Eros and Aphrodite are called by their Latin names (Cupid and Venus), and Cupid is depicted as a young adult, rather than a child.  The story tells of the quest for love and trust between Eros and Psyche. Aphrodite was jealous of the beauty of mortal princess Psyche, as men were leaving her altars barren to worship a mere human woman instead, and so she commanded her son Eros, the god of love, to cause Psyche to fall in love with the ugliest creature on earth. But instead, Eros falls in love with Psyche himself and spirits her away to his home. Their fragile peace is ruined by a visit from Psyche's jealous sisters, who cause Psyche to betray the trust of her husband. Wounded, Eros leaves his wife, and Psyche wanders the Earth, looking for her lost love. Eventually, she approaches Aphrodite and asks for her help. Aphrodite imposes a series of difficult tasks on Psyche, which she is able to achieve by means of supernatural assistance.  After successfully completing these tasks, Aphrodite relents and Psyche becomes immortal to live alongside her husband Eros. Together they had a daughter, Voluptas or Hedone (meaning physical pleasure, bliss).  In Greek mythology, Psyche was the deification of the human soul. She was portrayed in ancient mosaics as a goddess with butterfly wings (because psyche was also the Ancient Greek word for 'butterfly'). The Greek word psyche literally means \"soul, spirit, breath, life or animating force\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Greek mythology, Eros (, ;, \"Desire\") is the Greek god of love and sex. His Roman counterpart was Cupid (\"desire\"). In the earliest account, he is a primordial god, while in later accounts he is described as one of the children of Aphrodite and Ares and, with some of his siblings, was one of the Erotes, a group of winged love gods.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972133}
{"src_title": "Altair", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nomenclature.", "content": "\"α Aquilae\" (Latinised to \"Alpha Aquilae\") is the star's Bayer designation. The traditional name \"Altair\" has been used since medieval times. It is an abbreviation of the Arabic phrase \"An-nisr Al-ta'ir\" \"\".  In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN, which included \"Altair\" for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical characteristics.", "content": "Along with β Aquilae and γ Aquilae, Altair forms the well-known line of stars sometimes referred to as the \"Family of Aquila\" or \"Shaft of Aquila\".  Altair is a type-A main sequence star with about 1.8 times the mass of the Sun and 11 times its luminosity. Altair rotates rapidly, with a rotational period of about 9 hours; for comparison, the equator of the Sun makes a complete rotation in a little more than 25 days. Its rapid rotation forces Altair to be oblate; its equatorial diameter is over 20 percent greater than its polar diameter.  Satellite measurements made in 1999 with the Wide Field Infrared Explorer showed that the brightness of Altair fluctuates slightly, varying by just a few thousandths of a magnitude with several different periods less than 2 hours. As a result, it was identified in 2005 as a Delta Scuti variable star. Its light curve can be approximated by adding together a number of sine waves, with periods that range between 0.8 and 1.5 hours. It is a weak source of coronal X-ray emission, with the most active sources of emission being located near the star's equator. This activity may be due to convection cells forming at the cooler equator.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rotational effects.", "content": "The angular diameter of Altair was measured interferometrically by R. Hanbury Brown and his co-workers at Narrabri Observatory in the 1960s. They found a diameter of 3milliarcseconds. Although Hanbury Brown et al. realized that Altair would be rotationally flattened, they had insufficient data to experimentally observe its oblateness. Altair was later observed to be flattened by infrared interferometric measurements made by the Palomar Testbed Interferometer in 1999 and 2000. This work was published by G. T. van Belle, David R. Ciardi and their co-authors in 2001.  Theory predicts that, owing to Altair's rapid rotation, its surface gravity and effective temperature should be lower at the equator, making the equator less luminous than the poles. This phenomenon, known as gravity darkening or the von Zeipel effect, was confirmed for Altair by measurements made by the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer in 2001, and analyzed by Ohishi et al. (2004) and Peterson et al. (2006). Also, A. Domiciano de Souza et al. (2005) verified gravity darkening using the measurements made by the Palomar and Navy interferometers, together with new measurements made by the VINCI instrument at the VLTI.  Altair is one of the few stars for which a direct image has been obtained. In 2006 and 2007, J. D. Monnier and his coworkers produced an image of Altair's surface from 2006 infrared observations made with the MIRC instrument on the CHARA array interferometer; this was the first time the surface of any main-sequence star, apart from the Sun, had been imaged. The false-color image was published in 2007. The equatorial radius of the star was estimated to be 2.03 solar radii, and the polar radius 1.63 solar radii—a 25% increase of the stellar radius from pole to equator. The polar axis is inclined by about 60° to the line of sight from the Earth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology, mythology, and culture.", "content": "The term \"Al Nesr Al Tair\" appeared in Al Achsasi al Mouakket's catalogue, which was translated into Latin as \"Vultur Volans\". This name was applied by the Arabs to the asterism of Altair, β Aquilae, and γ Aquilae and probably goes back to the ancient Babylonians and Sumerians, who called Altair \"the eagle star\". The spelling \"Atair\" has also been used. Medieval astrolabes of England and Western Europe depicted Altair and Vega as birds.  The Koori people of Victoria also knew Altair as \"Bunjil\", the wedge-tailed eagle, and β and γ Aquilae are his two wives the black swans. The people of the Murray River knew the star as \"Totyerguil\". The Murray River was formed when \"Totyerguil\" the hunter speared \"Otjout\", a giant Murray cod, who, when wounded, churned a channel across southern Australia before entering the sky as the constellation Delphinus.  In Chinese, the asterism consisting of Altair, β Aquilae, and γ Aquilae is known as \"Hé Gǔ\" (; lit. \"river drum\"). The Chinese name for Altair is thus \"Hé Gǔ èr\" (; lit. \"river drum two\", meaning the \"second star of the drum at the river\"). However, Altair is better known by its other names: \"Qiān Niú Xīng\" () or \"Niú Láng Xīng\" (), translated as the \"cowherd star\". These names are an allusion to a love story, \"The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl\", in which Niulang (represented by Altair) and his two children (represented by β Aquilae and γ Aquilae) are separated from respectively their wife and mother Zhinu (represented by Vega) by the Milky Way. They are only permitted to meet once a year, when magpies form a bridge to allow them to cross the Milky Way.  The people of Micronesia called Altair \"Mai-lapa\", meaning \"big/old breadfruit\", while the Māori people called this star \"Poutu-te-rangi\", meaning \"pillar of heaven\".  In Western astrology, the star Altair was ill-omened, portending danger from reptiles.  This star is one of the asterisms used by Bugis sailors for navigation, called \"bintoéng timoro\", meaning \"eastern star\"  Japan Airlines's Starjet 777-200 JA8983 was named Altair.  Altair Airlines was a regional airline that operated out of Philadelphia from 1966 to 1982.  NASA announced \"Altair\" as the name of the Lunar Surface Access Module (LSAM) on December 13, 2007. The Russian-made Beriev Be-200 Altair seaplane is also named after the star.  The Altair 8800 was one of the first microcomputers intended for home use.  Altair is the name of three United States navy ships:, and USNS Altair (T-AKR-291).  The Chevron 136,000-DWT Suezmax oil tanker originally named \"Condoleezza Rice\" (1993) was renamed \"Altair Voyager (2001)\".  One of the tankers attacked and damaged in the June 2019 Gulf of Oman incident was named \"Front Altair\".  \"Altair\" is the name of a 1919 poem by Karle Wilson Baker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visual companions.", "content": "The bright primary star has the multiple star designation WDS 19508+0852A and has three faint visual companion stars, WDS 19508+0852B, C, and D. Component B is not physically close to A but merely appears close to it in the sky.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Altair, designation α Aquilae (Latinised to Alpha Aquilae, abbreviated Alpha Aql, α Aql), is the brightest star in the constellation of Aquila and the twelfth brightest star in the night sky. It is currently in the G-cloud—a nearby interstellar cloud, an accumulation of gas and dust. Altair is an A-type main sequence star with an apparent visual magnitude of 0.77 and is one of the vertices of the Summer Triangle asterism (the other two vertices are marked by Deneb and Vega). It is 16.7 light-years (5.13 parsecs) from the Sun and is one of the closest stars visible to the naked eye.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972134}
{"src_title": "Châlons-en-Champagne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Châlons is conjectured to be the site of several battles including the Battle of Châlons fought in 274 between Roman Emperor Aurelian and Emperor Tetricus I of the Gallic Empire. The Catalaunian Fields was the site of the battle of Châlons in 451 which turned back the westward advance of Attila.  It is the setting of the last operetta of Johann Strauss II, \"Die Göttin der Vernunft (The Goddess of Reason)\", (1897).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The Gare de Châlons-en-Champagne railway station is served by the TGV network with service to and from Paris Gare de l'Est. Other destinations are Reims, Saint-Dizier, Nancy, Bar-le-Duc and Verdun. Additionally, Châlons is connected with the Champagne-TGV station, near Reims, with high speed trains going to Lille, Nantes, Rennes and Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport.  Châlons is located at the intersection of two major axes:  Châlons is also served by an international airport devoted to shipping (Châlons Vatry Airport ), ranking third in France with almost 60,000 tonnes of freight passing through each year.  Local transportation is provided by SITAC BUS buses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "ESPE Basket Châlons-en-Champagne is a Châlons' basketball team. A temporary firing range was used for some shooting events at the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Châlons-en-Champagne is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Camp de Mourmelon.", "content": "The \"Camp de Mourmelon\" (formerly known as \"Camp de Châlons\") is a military camp of circa 10,000 hectares located near Mourmelon-le-Grand north. It was created at the behest of Napoleon III and opened 30 August 1857 during the Second French Empire.  The initial purpose was simply for practising military manoeuvres, but it quickly turned into a showcase of the French Imperial Army, a theatrical propaganda display, where French citizens could meet the army and watch parades. Each year the camp was transformed into a town of tents and wooden chalets.  The camp survived the fall of the Second Empire in 1870, but changed into a training camp and a departure point for troops engaging in overseas operations.  The camp is used for military manoeuvres, and cavalry training, along with the neighbouring, 2,500 hectare, \"Camp de Moronvillers\". Firing of live ordnance (rockets, missiles) is prohibited.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Births.", "content": "Châlons-en-Champagne was the birthplace of:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deaths.", "content": "Châlons-en-Champagne was the death place of:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Châlons-en-Champagne () is a city in the Grand Est region of France. It is the capital of the department of Marne, despite being only a quarter the size of the city of Reims.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972135}
{"src_title": "Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Rudolf was born at Schloss Laxenburg, a castle near Vienna, as the son of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Empress Elisabeth. Influenced by his tutor Ferdinand von Hochstetter (who later became the first superintendent of the Imperial Natural History Museum), Rudolf became very interested in natural sciences, starting a mineral collection at an early age. After his death, large portions of his mineral collection came into the possession of the University for Agriculture in Vienna.  In 1877 the Count of Bombelles was master of the young prince. Bombelles was the former custodian of his aunt Empress Charlotte of Mexico.  Rudolf was raised together with his older sister Gisela and the two were very close. At the age of six, Rudolf was separated from his sister as he began his education to become a future Emperor of Austria. This did not change their relationship and Gisela remained close to him until she left Vienna upon her marriage to Prince Leopold of Bavaria.  In contrast with his deeply conservative father, Rudolf held liberal views, that were closer to those of his mother. Nevertheless, his relationship with her was, at times, strained.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "In Vienna, on 10 May 1881, Rudolf married Princess Stéphanie of Belgium, a daughter of King Leopold II of the Kingdom of Belgium, at the Augustinian Church in Vienna. Although their marriage was initially a happy one, by the time their only child, the Archduchess Elisabeth, was born on 2 September 1883, the couple had drifted apart, and he found solace in drink and other female companionship. Rudolf started having many affairs, and wanted to write to Pope Leo XIII about the possibility of annulling his marriage to Stéphanie, but the Emperor forbade it. In 1886, the spouses were diagnosed with gonorrhea, which rendered Stéphanie sterile.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Affairs and suicide.", "content": "In 1886, Rudolf bought Mayerling, a hunting lodge. In late 1888, the 30-year-old Crown Prince met the 17-year-old Marie \"Freiin\" von Vetsera, known by the more fashionable Anglophile name Mary, and began an affair with her. On 30 January 1889, he and the young \"Freiin\" (Baroness) were discovered dead in the lodge as a result of an apparent joint suicide. As suicide would prevent him from being given a church burial, Rudolf was officially declared to have been in a state of \"mental unbalance\", and he was buried in the Imperial Crypt (\"Kapuzinergruft\") of the Capuchin Church in Vienna. Vetsera's body was smuggled out of Mayerling in the middle of the night and secretly buried in the village cemetery at Heiligenkreuz. The Emperor had Mayerling converted into a penitential convent of Carmelite nuns and endowed a chantry so that daily prayers would eternally be said by the nuns for the repose of Rudolf's soul.  Vetsera's private letters were discovered in a safe deposit box in an Austrian bank in 2015, and they revealed that she was preparing to commit suicide alongside Rudolf, out of love.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effect of Rudolf's death.", "content": "Rudolf's death plunged his mother into despair. She wore black or pearl grey, the colours of mourning, for the rest of her life and spent more and more time away from the imperial court in Vienna. Empress Elisabeth was murdered while abroad in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1898 by an Italian anarchist, Luigi Lucheni.  Politically, Rudolf's death left Franz Joseph without a direct male heir. Franz-Joseph's younger brother, Archduke Karl Ludwig, was next in line to the Austro-Hungarian throne, though it was falsely reported that he had renounced his succession rights. In any case, his death in 1896 from typhoid made his eldest son, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the new heir presumptive. In 1914, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand precipitated World War I. Emperor Franz-Joseph died in November 1916 and was succeeded by his grandnephew, Karl I of Austria. The demands of American President Woodrow Wilson forced Emperor Karl to renounce involvement in state affairs in Vienna in early November 1918. As a result, the Austro-Hungarian Empire ceased to exist and a republic came into being without revolution. Karl and his family went into exile in Switzerland after spending a short time at Castle Eckarstau.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria (21 August 1858 – 30 January 1889), was the only son and third child of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Elisabeth of Bavaria. He was heir apparent to the Imperial throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from birth. In 1889, he died in a suicide pact with his mistress, Mary \"Freiin\" von Vetsera, at the Mayerling hunting lodge. The ensuing scandal made international headlines. He was named after the first Habsburg King of Germany, Rudolf I, who assumed the throne in 1273.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972136}
{"src_title": "Maria Laach Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First Benedictine foundation.", "content": "Founded in 1093 as a priory of Affligem Abbey (in modern Belgium) by the first Count Palatine of the Rhine Heinrich II von Laach and his wife Adelheid von Orlamünde-Weimar, widow of Hermann II of Lotharingia, Laach became an independent house in 1127, under its first abbot, Gilbert. Affligem itself had been founded by Hermann. Although the abbey was founded by a prominent (although perennially excommunicated) member of the imperial party (Investiture Controversy), Affligem became soon after a prominent member of the Cluniac reform movement.  The abbey developed as a centre of study during the 12th century. The 13th-century abbots Albert (1199–1217) and Theoderich II (1256–1295) added significantly to the buildings and architectural decoration, including the monumental tomb of the founder.  In common with most other German Benedictine houses, Laach declined during the 14th century in terms of its spiritual and monastic life, a tendency which was reversed only in the late 15th century, under the influence of the reforming Bursfelde Congregation, which the abbey joined, supported against a certain resistance within the abbey by Abbot Johannes V von Deidesheim (1469–1491).  The consequent improvement in discipline led to a fruitful literary period in the abbey's history, prominent in which were Jakob Siberti, Tilman of Bonn and Benedict of Munstereifel, but principally Prior Johannes Butzbach (d. 1526). Although much of his work, both published and unpublished, survives, his chronicle of the abbey is unfortunately lost.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secularisation and the Jesuits.", "content": "Laach Abbey was dissolved in the secularisation of 1802. The premises became the property, first of the occupying French, and then in 1815 of the Prussian State.  In 1820 the buildings were acquired by the Society of Jesus, who established a place of study and scholarship here. Of particular note were Fathers Gerhard Schneemann, Theodor Granderath and Florian Reiss, who produced a number of important works: the \"Collectio lacensis\" (\"Acta et decreta sacrorum conciliorum recentiorum\", 7 volumes, Freiburg, 1870–1890); the \"Philosophia lacensis\", a collection of learned books on the different branches of philosophy (logic, cosmology, psychology, theodicy, natural law) and published at Freiburg, 1880–1900; and, perhaps best-known, the \"Stimmen aus Maria-Laach\" (\"\"Voices from Maria Laach\"\"), appearing from 1865, at first as individual pamphlets defending against liberalism within the Roman Catholic church, and from 1871 as a regular periodical. The Jesuits were obliged to leave during the \"\"Kulturkampf\"\" of the 1870s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second Benedictine foundation.", "content": "The Benedictines of the Beuronese Congregation moved into the monastery in 1892, and it was raised into an abbey the following year. The restoration of the church, at that time still the property of Prussia, was inaugurated by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1897.  In the first half of the twentieth century Maria Laach played a leading role in the Liturgical Movement.  The abbey structure dates from between 1093 and 1177, with a \"paradisium\" added around 1225 and is considered a prime example of Romanesque architecture of the Staufen period. Despite its long construction time the well-preserved basilica with its six towers is considered to be one of the most beautiful Romanesque buildings in Germany.  Due to a considerable reduction of the lake level in the early 19th century, serious and unexpected structural damages to the church vaults and roofs were detected. Three important renovation campaigns took place - the first in the 1830s to repair the structural damages including the removal of the \"paradisium's\" upper storey (it had an upper storey at that time for accommodation facilities), the second in the 1880s including repairs after a serious fire in the southern round tower in 1885, and the third in the 1930s. Many former changes to the buildings carried out in Gothic (e.g. steep tower roofs) and Baroque style (e.g. wider windows) have been re-altered to Romanesque style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversial relations with the Nazi regime.", "content": "The Maria Laach Abbey has been at the center of a controversy over its relations with the Nazi regime between 1933 and 1945. In particular, Heinrich Böll depicted (in \"Billiards at Half-past Nine\") a Benedictine monastery whose monks actively and voluntarily collaborated with the Nazis, and is generally considered to have had Maria Laach in mind.  In 2004 researcher Marcel Albert published a work ( translated under the title \"The Maria Laach Benedictine Abbey and National Socialism\"). In reviewing the book, Dr. Mark Edward Ruff of Saint Louis University wrote:  In its closing chapters, the book shows that the abbey cultivated a positive relationship to Adenauer and the CDU after 1945, but retained its monarchist beliefs. However, the post-war parts of the book are less extensive, and this part of the monastery's history seems to await further research.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Basilius Ebel.", "content": "Born Henri Ebel in 1896 as son of a wine-producing family from Alsace, and later a significant scholar of his times, Dr. Basilius Ebel became abbot of St. Matthias' Abbey in Trier in 1939 and provided a sanctuary to Jews whom he admitted among the monks. In 1941, his abbey was confiscated by the Gestapo and he himself was exiled to Maria Laach where he became abbot from 1946 to 1966. Under his leadership, Maria Laach became an important centre of reconciliation between Christians and Jews.  On the scholarly side, he should be remembered for publishing a 12th-century Alemannic hymnal and for the restoration of the Maria Laach basilica to its original style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable features.", "content": "The abbey church of Maria Laach is considered a masterpiece of German Romanesque architecture, with its multiple towers, large westwork with arcaded gallery, and unique west porch.  The east end has a round apse flanked by twin square towers. Over the transept crossing is a broad cupola with cone-shaped roof. The monumental west façade includes a west choir with apse flanked by round twin towers and a square central tower.  The Paradise, a single-story, colonnaded west porch surrounding a small courtyard, was added in about 1225. It recalls the architecture of Early Christian basilicas. Its capitals are richly carved with human and mythical figures. The imaginative mason is known as the Laacher Samson-Meister or \"Master of the Laach Samson\", whose carvings are also found in Cologne and elsewhere. The Lion Fountain in the courtyard was added in 1928.  Notable features of the interior include the tomb of the founder Pfalzgraf Heinrich II (dating from 1270), 16th-century murals, a Late Romanesque baldachino in the apse, and interesting modern decorations such as mosaics from c. 1910 and stained glass windows from the 1950s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Laach Abbey (in German: \"Abtei Maria Laach\", in Latin: \"Abbatia Maria Lacensis\" or \"Abbatia Maria ad Lacum\") is a Benedictine abbey situated on the southwestern shore of the Laacher See (Lake Laach), near Andernach, in the Eifel region of the Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. It is a member of the Beuronese Congregation within the Benedictine Confederation. The abbey was built in the 11th-12th centuries and was originally known as \"Abtei Laach\" (\"Abbatia Lacensis\" or \"Laach Abbey\", meaning the \"Lake Abbey\") until 1862 when the Jesuits added the name \"Maria\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972137}
{"src_title": "Summis desiderantes affectibus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Witches and the Church.", "content": "Belief in witchcraft is ancient. in the Hebrew Bible states: \"Let there not be found among you anyone who immolates his son or daughter in the fire, nor a fortune-teller, soothsayer, charmer, diviner, or caster of spells, nor one who consults ghosts and spirits or seeks oracles from the dead.\"  Pope Gregory VII wrote to Harald III of Denmark in 1080 forbidding witches to be put to death upon presumption of their having caused storms or failure of crops or pestilence. According to Herbert Thurston, the fierce denunciation and persecution of supposed sorceresses which characterized the cruel witchhunts of a later age, were not generally found in the first thirteen hundred years of the Christian era.  The early Church distinguished between \"white\" and \"black\" magic. The former was generally dealt with through confession, repentance, and charitable work assigned as penance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dominican Inquisition origin.", "content": "The bull was written in response to the request of Dominican Inquisitor Heinrich Kramer for explicit authority to prosecute witchcraft in Germany, after he was refused assistance by the local ecclesiastical authorities, who maintained that as the letter of deputation did not specifically mention where the inquisitors may operate, they could not legally exercise their functions in their areas. The bull sought to remedy this jurisdictional dispute by specifically identifying the dioceses of Mainz, Köln, Trier, Salzburg, and Bremen.  Innocent's Bull enacted nothing new. Its direct purport was to ratify the powers already conferred upon Kramer (also known as \"Henry Institoris\") and James Sprenger to deal with witchcraft as well as heresy, and it called upon the Bishop of Strasburg (then Albert of Palatinate-Mosbach) to lend the inquisitors all possible support. Some scholars view the bull as \"clearly political\", motivated by jurisdictional disputes between the local German Catholic priests and clerics from the Office of the Inquisition who answered more directly to the pope.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Content.", "content": "The bull recognized the existence of witches:\"Many persons of both sexes, unmindful of their own salvation and straying from the Catholic Faith, have abandoned themselves to devils, incubi and succubi, and by their incantations, spells, conjurations, and other accursed charms and crafts, enormities and horrid offences, have slain infants yet in the mother's womb, as also the offspring of cattle, have blasted the produce of the earth, the grapes of the vine, the fruits of the trees, nay, men and women, beasts of burthen, herd-beasts, as well as animals of other kinds, vineyards, orchards, meadows, pasture-land, corn, wheat, and all other cereals; these wretches furthermore afflict and torment men and women, beasts of burthen, herd-beasts, as well as animals of other kinds, with terrible and piteous pains and sore diseases, both internal and external; they hinder men from performing the sexual act and women from conceiving,...they blasphemously renounce that Faith which is theirs by the Sacrament of Baptism, and at the instigation of the Enemy of Mankind they do not shrink from committing and perpetrating the foulest abominations and filthiest excesses to the deadly peril of their own souls,...the abominations and enormities in question remain unpunished not without open danger to the souls of many and peril of eternal damnation.\"  It gave approval for the Inquisition to proceed \"correcting, imprisoning, punishing and chastising\" such persons \"according to their deserts\". The bull essentially repeated Kramer's view that an outbreak of witchcraft and heresy had occurred in the Rhine River valley, specifically in the bishoprics of Mainz, Cologne, and Trier, as well as in Salzburg and Bremen, including accusations of certain acts.  The bull urged local authorities to cooperate with the inquisitors and threatened those who impeded their work with excommunication. Despite this threat, the bull failed to ensure that Kramer obtained the support he had hoped for, causing him to retire and to compile his views on witchcraft into his book \"Malleus Maleficarum\", which was published in 1487. The \"Malleus\" professed, in part fraudulently, to have been approved by the University of Cologne, and it was sensational in the stigma it attached to witchcraft as a worse crime than heresy and in its notable animus against women.  \"Summis desiderantes affectibus\" was published as part of the preface of the book, implying papal approval for the work. However, the \"Malleus Maleficarum\" received an official condemnation by the Church three years later, and Kramer's claims of approval are seen by modern scholars as misleading.  The bull, which synthesized the spiritual and the secular crimes of witchcraft, is often viewed as opening the door for the witchhunts of the early modern period. However, its similarities to previous papal documents, emphasis on preaching, and lack of dogmatic pronouncement complicate this view.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Summis desiderantes affectibus (Latin for \"desiring with supreme ardor\"), sometimes abbreviated to \"Summis desiderantes\" was a papal bull regarding witchcraft issued by Pope Innocent VIII on 5 December 1484.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972138}
{"src_title": "Charles I of Württemberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Charles was born on 6 March 1823 in Stuttgart as the son of King William I and his third wife Pauline Therese (1800–1873). As the king's eldest son he became Crown Prince of Württemberg.  He studied in Berlin and Tübingen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and King of Württemberg.", "content": "On 13 July 1846 Karl married Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaievna of Russia, the daughter of Tsar Nicholas I and Charlotte of Prussia. (Charlotte was a daughter of Frederick William III of Prussia and of Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; she took the name Alexandra Feodorovna upon her marriage into the Russian imperial family.) Karl acceded to the throne of Württemberg upon his father's death in 1864.  The couple had no children, perhaps because of Karl's homosexuality. Karl became the object of scandal several times for his closeness with various men - most notoriously with the American Charles Woodcock, a former chamberlain whom Karl elevated to Baron Savage in 1888. Karl and Charles became inseparable, going so far as to appear together in public dressed identically. The resulting outcry forced Karl to renounce his favorite. Woodcock returned to America, and Karl found private consolation some years later with the technical director of the royal theater, Wilhelm George.  In 1870, Olga and Karl adopted Olga's niece Vera Konstantinovna, the daughter of her brother Grand Duke Konstantin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "He sided with Austria in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, but after the battle of Sadowa concluded a secret military treaty with Prussia, and took part on her side in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–'71, joining the new German Empire at the close of 1870.  He died, childless, in Stuttgart on 6 October 1891, and was succeeded as King of Württemberg by his sister's son, William II. He is buried, together with his wife, in the Old Castle in Stuttgart.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "For Karl's homosexuality and other familiar issues:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles (; 6 March 1823 – 6 October 1891) was King of Württemberg, from 25 June 1864 until his death in 1891.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972139}
{"src_title": "Bernd Rosemeyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "His father owned an auto & moto garage and repair shop \"Rosemeyer & Co sur Bahnhofstraße\", where young Rosemeyer worked on motorcycles and cars. Having started by racing motorbikes, Rosemeyer became a member of the Auto Union racing team with hardly any experience in racing cars. This was later considered a benefit as he was not yet used to the handling of traditional layout race cars. The Ferdinand Porsche-designed mid-engined Silver Arrows of Auto Union were fast, but hard to drive, and only he, Tazio Nuvolari and to a lesser extent Hans Stuck truly mastered the machines. Rosemeyer was also a very skilled mechanic, so, like Hermann Lang of Mercedes, he was able to give good technical feedback to Dr. Porsche and development engineer Eberan von Eberhorst to further develop the Auto Union cars and set his cars up for races to make them quicker and easier to drive.  In only his second ever Grand Prix, at the daunting Nürburgring, Rosemeyer took the lead from the great Rudolf Caracciola and was almost in sight of the finish line when he missed a gear and was overtaken. However, in subsequent years he made up for this mistake by winning three consecutive races at the Nürburgring, one famously in thick fog. Later in 1935 he won his first Grand Prix at the Brno Masaryk Circuit in Czechoslovakia.  Whilst on the podium in 1935 at the Czechoslovakian Grand Prix he was introduced to the famous aviator Elly Beinhorn. Their celebrity relationship was too good an opportunity to miss for the Nazi Party. Rosemeyer and Beinhorn were exalted and instrumentalized by the Nazi Party to the ideal German celebrity couple of that time.  Several sensational Grand Prix motor racing victories in 1936 and 1937 (also in the Vanderbilt Cup in the USA) made him popular not only in Germany. He won the European driving championship in 1936. Of the twelve Grand Prix contested in 1937 between Mercedes and Auto Union, Rosemeyer won four of Auto Union's five victories against Mercedes's formidable new W125. Rosemeyer's superlative performances that year cemented him alongside Rudolf Caracciola and Tazio Nuvolari as three of the greatest drivers of 1930's Grand Prix racing.  His marriage to Beinhorn added even more celebrity hype. It also made it possible for him to learn to fly a private plane. Before a testing session, he once used a now-defunct airfield next to the \"Flugplatz\" section of the Nürburgring as a landing strip, and rolled his plane to the pits via the race track - in the opposite direction.  His son Bernd, Jr. was born in November 1937, only ten weeks before his death.  Rosemeyer considered 13 to be his lucky number. He was married on 13 July 1936. 13 days later he won the German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring. His last Nürburgring victory came on 13 June 1937. His last race victory came at his 13th start of the 1937 season at Donington Park.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fatal record attempt.", "content": "Rosemeyer was killed during a land speed record attempt on \"a regular traffic route\" on the Autobahn between Frankfurt and Darmstadt on 28 January 1938.  Competing for the record against Rudolf Caracciola, Rosemeyer went out later in the day in his Auto Union streamliner, setting a new class record of 432 km/h (268 mph). In an effort to raise the record still higher, despite a report that wind was picking up, Rosemeyer took the streamliner again. After two preliminary runs he was on his third and final attempt at 11:47, when the car suddenly went out of control. Whether caught by a gust of wind or by an unforeseen aerodynamic effect, it skidded to the left onto the median, then right and off the highway, where it went airborne and collided with a bridge embankment. Rosemeyer was thrown out of the car as it somersaulted through the air; he died at the roadside.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memorial.", "content": "The Rosemeyer memorial is south of Frankfurt at the Rosemeyer layby (German: \"Bernd-Rosemeyer-Parkplatz\") on the southbound side of A5 motorway at kilometer marker 508. At the south end of the layby a footpath leads west into the forest, where the memorial is located at.  Audi honoured the 100th anniversary of Rosemeyer's birth by placing a wreath at the memorial.  Audi built a concept car, the Audi Rosemeyer, which combined elements of modern design with styling strongly resembling the former Auto Unions \"Silver Arrows\" Grand Prix racers, namely their 16-cylinder car driven by Rosemeyer, after which the car is named.  There is also a bronze memorial situated next to the entrance to the Donington Park Museum in Leicestershire.  Bernd Rosemeyer is buried in the Waldfriedhof Dahlem on Hüttenweg in Berlin.  In his birthplace of Lingen (Ems), Bahnhofstraße, where the racer grew up, was renamed by the Nazi Party in his honor as \"Bernd-Rosemeyer-Straße\" in 1938. In addition, the city is the home of Motorsport Club \"MSC Bernd Rosemeyer Lingen e.V. im ADAC\", founded in 1964. The namesake \"Autohaus Rosemeyer\" at Lindenstraße 7 closed its doors on 30 November 2003. ! colspan=\"3\" style=\"background:#9f6;\"| Sporting achievements", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bernd Rosemeyer (14 October 1909 – 28 January 1938) was a German racing driver and a member of the SS. He held the rank of a Hauptsturmführer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972140}
{"src_title": "Ramesses I", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Originally called Pa-ra-mes-su, Ramesses I was of non-royal birth, being born into a noble military family from the Nile delta region, perhaps near the former Hyksos capital of Avaris. He was a son of a troop commander called Seti. His uncle Khaemwaset, an army officer, married Tamwadjesy, the matron of the Harem of Amun, who was a relative of Huy, the viceroy of Kush, an important state post. This shows the high status of Ramesses' family. Ramesses I found favor with Horemheb, the last pharaoh of the tumultuous Eighteenth dynasty, who appointed the former as his Vizier. Ramesses also served as the High Priest of Set – as such, he would have played an important role in the restoration of the old religion following the Amarna heresy of a generation earlier, under Akhenaten.  Horemheb himself had been a nobleman from outside the immediate royal family, who rose through the ranks of the Egyptian army to serve as the royal advisor to Tutankhamun and Ay and, ultimately, Pharaoh. Since Horemheb had no surviving children, he ultimately chose Ramesses to be his heir in the final years of his reign presumably because Ramesses I was both an able administrator and had a son (Seti I) and a grandson (the future Ramesses II) to succeed him and thus avoid any succession difficulties.  Upon his accession, Ramesses assumed a \"prenomen\", or royal name. When transliterated, the name is \"mn-pḥty-rʿ\", which is usually interpreted as Menpehtyre, meaning \"Established by the strength of Ra\". However, he is better known by his \"nomen\", or personal name. This is transliterated as \"rʿ-ms-sw\", and is usually realised as Ramessu or Ramesses, meaning 'Ra bore him'. Already an old man when he was crowned, Ramesses appointed his son, the later pharaoh Seti I, to serve as the Crown Prince and chosen successor. Seti was charged with undertaking several military operations during this time–in particular, an attempt to recoup some of Egypt's lost possessions in Syria. Ramesses appears to have taken charge of domestic matters: most memorably, he completed the second pylon at Karnak Temple, begun under Horemheb.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Ramesses I enjoyed a very brief reign, as evidenced by the general paucity of contemporary monuments mentioning him: the king had little time to build any major buildings in his reign and was hurriedly buried in a small and hastily finished tomb. The Egyptian priest Manetho assigns him a reign of 16 months, but this pharaoh certainly ruled Egypt for a minimum of 17 months based on his highest known date which is a Year 2 II Peret day 20 (Louvre C57) stela which ordered the provision of new endowments of food and priests for the temple of Ptah within the Egyptian fortress of Buhen. Jürgen von Beckerath observes that Ramesses I died just 5 months later—in June 1290 BC—since his son Seti I succeeded to power on III Shemu day 24. Ramesses I's only known action was to order the provision of endowments for the aforementioned Nubian temple at Buhen and \"the construction of a chapel and a temple (which was to be finished by his son) at Abydos.\" The aged Ramesses was buried in the Valley of the Kings. His tomb, discovered by Giovanni Belzoni in 1817 and designated KV16, is small in size and gives the impression of having been completed with haste. Joyce Tyldesley states that Ramesses I's tomb consisted of a single corridor and one unfinished room whose Seti I, his son and successor, later built a small chapel with fine reliefs in memory of his deceased father Ramesses I at Abydos. In 1911, John Pierpont Morgan donated several exquisite reliefs from this chapel to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rediscovery and repatriation.", "content": "A mummy currently believed to be that of Ramesses I was stolen from Egypt and displayed in a private Canadian museum for many years before being repatriated. The mummy's identity cannot be conclusively determined, but is most likely to be that of Ramesses I based on CT scans, X-rays, skull measurements and radio-carbon dating tests by researchers at Emory University, as well as aesthetic interpretations of family resemblance. Moreover, the mummy's arms were found crossed high across his chest which was a position reserved solely for Egyptian royalty until 600 BC.  The mummy had been stolen by the Abu-Rassul family of grave robbers and brought to North America around 1860 by Dr. James Douglas. It was then placed in the Niagara Museum and Daredevil Hall of Fame in Niagara Falls Ontario, Canada. The mummy remained there, its identity unknown, next to other curiosities and so-called freaks of nature for more than 130 years. When the owner of the museum decided to sell his property, Canadian businessman William Jamieson purchased the contents of the museum and, with the help of Canadian Egyptologist Gayle Gibson, identified their great value. In 1999, Jamieson sold the Egyptian artifacts in the collection, including the various mummies, to the Michael C. Carlos Museum at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia for US $2 million. The mummy was returned to Egypt on October 24, 2003 with full official honors and is on display at the Luxor Museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The 1956 motion picture \"The Ten Commandments\", directed by Cecil B. DeMille, depicts Ramesses I (portrayed by Ian Keith) as the pharaoh who orders the elimination of the first-born of every Hebrew slave family in Egypt, leading to the scenario of future prophet Moses being sheltered by Bithiah, who in the film is said to be the daughter of Ramesses I and sister of Seti I.  In the 2000 animated musical film \"\", by DreamWorks Animation, Ramesses I is depicted as the pharaoh who has his dreams interpreted by Joseph and who appoints Joseph to the office of Vizier when his foresight and administrative skills prevent Egypt from being ruined by famine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Menpehtyre Ramesses I (or Ramses) was the founding pharaoh of ancient Egypt's 19th dynasty. The dates for his short reign are not completely known but the time-line of late 1292–1290 BC is frequently cited as well as 1295–1294 BC. While Ramesses I was the founder of the 19th dynasty, his brief reign mainly serves to mark the transition between the reign of Horemheb, who had stabilized Egypt in the late 18th dynasty, and the rule of the powerful pharaohs of his own dynasty, in particular his son Seti I, and grandson Ramesses II, who would bring Egypt to the height of its imperial power.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972141}
{"src_title": "Land consolidation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Land consolidation has existed in Europe for many centuries. In France, the first modern land consolidation took place in Rouvres-en-Plaine in 1707. The practice of private land consolidation began to be visible in the Paris Basin during the nineteenth century. Subsequently, it was usually done with the support of the public authorities. A law of 16 June 1824 authorized the exchange of land between individuals in order to fight against the fragmentation of agricultural parcels and to improve productivity. The concept spread more widely in Europe and the USA in the early 20th century. In the Netherlands the first land consolidation was in 1916 when 3659 plots were reduced to 500. In 1919, however, a further attempt to reduce fragmentation broke down against the opposition of one of the owners. This led to the Land Consolidation Act in 1924 which permitted land consolidation to continue without the cooperation of a small number of the owners. In Spain legal provision on land consolidation was not promulgated until December 20, 1952, but it was enthusiastically received by farmers. Similarly, in Germany legislation was passed in the 1950s as part of an overhaul of German agriculture. Land consolidation, known as Flurbereinigung, made possible landscapes being reshaped, for example with respect to construction of access roads. The process particularly benefitted the wine industry.  Following the collapse of communism in the former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc countries of Europe in 1991, state farms were frequently divided into fragmented parcels. Land was often returned to former owners who, by this time, were elderly, or given in joint ownership to heirs of an original owner. This resulted in a large number of absentee landowners residing in urban areas. In other cases, decollectivization resulted in households receiving several fragmented parcels of different qualities of arable land. Thus the need for consolidation was quickly recognised.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Different approaches.", "content": "More recently there have been attempts to promote land consolidation in developing countries. Approaches used include increasing the average size of farms into viable commercial units through sale or lease; consolidation to reduce fragmentation of smallholder plots; and cooperative farming, where farmers retain ownership of their land but farm it jointly. China has been particularly active in promoting consolidation, which involves issuance of land certificates that confirm a person’s entitlement to land, thus permitting sale and lease of land rights. To facilitate the process, land transfer service centers have been set up by local governments to collect information on who is looking to lease out; provide potential clients with information on location, area, major land characteristics, and suggested price of land to be leased out; prepare a formal land contract; and be responsible for contract dispute mediation.  In many countries individual smallholders’ land is distributed among many small fragments. This increases production costs by requiring time for farmers to move between fragments and makes use of machinery almost impossible. A response to this is to restructure land holdings while ensuring that farmers retain the same amount of land. In Uttar Pradesh in India a government program led to field boundaries being straightened and land areas as much as possible being reshaped in rectangular form. This improved ease of cultivation, particularly plowing, and lessened disputes due to unclear border demarcations and encroachments. In the Dinh Hoa commune of Vietnam, land consolidation has also been carried out in order to reduce the number of plots owned by individual farm households, thereby increasing the average size of a plot without changing the total farmland area of each household. This is done with the involvement of the local government and the smallholders. The move has resulted in reduced labour costs and increased mechanization, and has also permitted some restructuring of irrigation systems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Difficulties.", "content": "Successful consolidation has to overcome competing interests of the farmers. There may be objections regarding the initial inventory of ownership, the boundaries between land, and the value attached to different parcels. Consolidation cannot simply involve re-allocating land while ensuring that everyone gets the same amount, as the quality of the land re-allocated has to be taken into account and an owner should not be worse off after consolidation than before. Consolidation programs should aim at ensuring that an owner’s holding after consolidation is equal in value to the original holding; if the value of the holding is less it may sometimes be necessary to pay financial compensation. However, soil quality is not the only factor in valuation as the value of a parcel can be affected by its position relative to roads, water supply, farm buildings and farmers’ homes, as well as the value of trees or vines already planted on the land. Mediation arrangements to resolve these problems are essential. It is important to include respected farmers in the land valuation teams together with valuation experts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Land consolidation is a planned readjustment and rearrangement of fragmented land parcels and their ownership. It is usually applied to form larger and more rational land holdings. Land consolidation can be used to improve rural infrastructure and to implement developmental and environmental policies (improving environmental sustainability and agriculture).<ref name=\"10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.07.008\">", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972142}
{"src_title": "Wols", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Alfred Otto Wolfgang Schulze was born in Berlin in 1913 into a wealthy family; his father was a high-ranking civil servant and patron of the arts who maintained friendships with many prominent artists of the period, including Otto Dix. In 1919, the family moved to Dresden, where consequently he found his love for art in 1927. In 1924, Schulze was given a still camera, an event that, along with the death of his father in 1929, became one of the defining moments of his life. In 1930 he began to pursue an apprenticeship with his camera at the Reiman-Schule, the Berlin school of applied art. He was a multifaceted man who was capable of teaching German, painting, and capturing photographs of portrait landscape. After abandoning school, Schulze pursued several interests, including ethnography before moving to Paris in 1932 on the advice of László Moholy-Nagy. After visiting Germany in 1933, he decided not to return, instead traveling to Barcelona, Majorca, and Ibiza, where he worked odd jobs, including a stint as a taxicab driver and a German tutor.  In 1936, he received official permission to live in Paris with the help of Fernand Léger; as an army deserter, Schulze had to report to the Paris police on a monthly basis. Beginning in 1937, he actively worked on his photographs, which were shown in many of Paris's most prestigious galleries. He befriended luminaries of the period, including Max Ernst and Jacques Prévert. As a German national, Schulze (like Ernst) was interned at the start of World War II, but he managed to escape and hide in Cassis near Marseilles, where he passed the time drawing and painting in watercolor. In 1942 he fled from the Germans to the safety of Montelimar.  He spent most of the war trying to emigrate to the United States, an unsuccessful and costly enterprise that may have driven him to alcoholism. Upon his return to Paris, after the hype from the war had died down, he had his first exhibition of watercolors in December 1945 at the Galerie René Drouin, where despite the lack of commercial success he made an impression on the circle of intellectuals around the gallery. These included Jean Paulhan, Francis Ponge, Georges Limbour and André Malraux. The small works were displayed in light boxes. A second exhibition in the same gallery two years later saw greater recognition. His paintings represented a rejection of figuration and abstraction, and a projection into a metaphysical plane. In the years following the war, Schulze concentrated on painting and etching. His health declined severely towards the end of the 1940s; in 1951 he died of food poisoning at the Hotel Montalembert in Paris, after releasing himself from hospital against medical advice. After his death his works were shown at the Kassel documenta (1955), documenta II (1959) and documenta III (1964).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artistic style.", "content": "Wols' painting style, as early as 1946–47 (\"Untitled\", 1946–47, \"Yellow Composition\", 1946–7; Berlin, Neue N.G., \"It's All Over The City\", 1947), was informal, gestural, with the paint applied in layers by means of dripping and with scratching into the surface. This new development in art proved influential, earning him the praise of artists such as Georges Mathieu and critics such as Michel Tapié, who coined the term \"Art autre\" (the Other Art) to describe the new style.  Wols was noted for his etchings and for his use of stains (\"taches\") of color dabbed onto the canvas (as exemplified by his painting \"Composition\", c. 1950). His painted work contains figurative elements as well as free improvisations and abstract elements. Spontaneity and immediateness determine the creative work of Wols, who never underwent any formal artistic training. Randomness (initially inspired by the Surrealist psychic Automatism) plays an important role in his unstructured compositions. In later years Wols was particularly interested in the combination of powerful brushstrokes with a relief-like painted surface structure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "His inspiration to become an artist derived from the work of the artists Paul Klee, Otto Dix and George Grosz. His advisor Moholy-Nagy instructed him to pursue his artistic endeavours in Paris. His encounters with Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir awakened a lively interest in the philosophy of Existentialism.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Wols was the pseudonym of Alfred Otto Wolfgang Schulze (27 May 1913, Berlin1 September 1951, Paris), a German painter and photographer predominantly active in France. Though broadly unrecognized in his lifetime, he is considered a pioneer of lyrical abstraction, one of the most influential artists of the Tachisme movement. He is the author of a book on art theory entitled \"Aphorismes de Wols\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972143}
{"src_title": "Battle of Suomussalmi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Course of battle.", "content": "On November 30, 1939, the Soviet 163rd Rifle Division crossed the border between Finland and the Soviet Union and advanced from the north-east towards the village of Suomussalmi. The Soviet objective was to advance to the city of Oulu, effectively cutting Finland in half. This sector had only one Finnish battalion (Er.P 15), which was placed near Raate, outside Suomussalmi.  Suomussalmi was taken with little resistance on December 7 (only two incomplete companies of covering forces led a holding action between the border and Suomussalmi), but the Finns destroyed the village before this, to deny the Soviets shelter, and withdrew to the opposite shore of lakes Niskanselkä and Haukiperä.  The first extensive fight started on December 8, when Soviet forces began to attack across the frozen lakes to the west. Their attempt failed completely. The second part of Soviet forces led the attack to the northwest on Puolanka, that was defended by the Er.P 16 (lit. 16th detached battalion), that had just arrived. This attempt also failed.  On December 9, the defenders were reinforced with a newly founded regiment (JR 27). Colonel Hjalmar Siilasvuo was given the command of the Finnish forces and he began immediate counter-measures to regain Suomussalmi. The main forces advanced on Suomussalmi, but failed to take the village, suffering serious losses.  On December 24, Soviet units counterattacked, but failed to break through the surrounding Finnish forces.  Reinforced with two new regiments (JR 64 and JR 65), the Finns again attacked on December 27. This time, they took the village, and the Soviets retreated in panic over the surrounding frozen lakes. A large part of them managed to reach the Russian border along the Kiantajärvi lake.  During this time, the Soviet 44th Rifle Division had advanced from the east towards Suomussalmi. It was entrenched on the road between Suomussalmi and Raate and got caught up in the retreat of the other Soviet forces.  Between January 4 and January 8, 1940, the 44th Rifle Division was divided into isolated groups and destroyed by the Finnish troops (in a tactic known as motti), leaving much heavy equipment for the Finnish troops.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outcome.", "content": "The battle resulted in a major victory for the Finns. If the Soviet Union had captured the city of Oulu, the Finns would have had to defend the country on two fronts and an important rail link to Sweden would have been severed. The battle also gave a decisive boost to the morale of the Finnish army.  In addition, Finnish forces on the Raate-Suomussalmi road captured a large amount of military supplies, including tanks (43), field guns (71), trucks (260), horses (1,170), anti-tank guns (29) and other weapons, which were greatly needed by the Finnish army.  Alvar Aalto sculpted a memorial for the Finnish soldiers who died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "The Battle of Suomussalmi is often cited as an example of how a small force, properly led and fighting in familiar terrain, can defeat a vastly numerically superior enemy. Factors which contributed to the Finnish victory included:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Suomussalmi was a battle fought between Finnish and Soviet forces in the Winter War. The action took place from around December 7, 1939, to January 8, 1940. The outcome was a Finnish victory against superior forces. Suomussalmi is considered the clearest, most important, and most significant Finnish victory in the northern half of Finland. In Finland, the battle is still seen today as a symbol of the entire Winter War itself.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972144}
{"src_title": "Boat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Boats have served as transportation since the earliest times. Circumstantial evidence, such as the early settlement of Australia over 40,000 years ago, findings in Crete dated 130,000 years ago, and in Flores dated to 900,000 years ago, suggest that boats have been used since prehistoric times. The earliest boats are thought to have been dugouts, and the oldest boats found by archaeological excavation date from around 7,000–10,000 years ago. The oldest recovered boat in the world, the Pesse canoe, found in the Netherlands, is a dugout made from the hollowed tree trunk of a \"Pinus sylvestris\" that was constructed somewhere between 8200 and 7600 BC. This canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands. Other very old dugout boats have also been recovered. Rafts have operated for at least 8,000 years. A 7,000-year-old seagoing reed boat has been found in Kuwait. Boats were used between 4000 and 3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean.  Boats played an important role in the commerce between the Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamia. Evidence of varying models of boats has also been discovered at various Indus Valley archaeological sites. Uru craft originate in Beypore, a village in south Calicut, Kerala, in southwestern India. This type of mammoth wooden ship was constructed solely of teak, with a transport capacity of 400 tonnes. The ancient Arabs and Greeks used such boats as trading vessels.  The historians Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo record the use of boats for commerce, travel, and military purposes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Boats can be categorized into three main types:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The hull is the main, and in some cases only, structural component of a boat. It provides both capacity and buoyancy. The keel is a boat's \"backbone\", a lengthwise structural member to which the perpendicular frames are fixed. On most boats a deck covers the hull, in part or whole. While a ship often has several decks, a boat is unlikely to have more than one. Above the deck are often lifelines connected to stanchions, bulwarks perhaps topped by gunnels, or some combination of the two. A cabin may protrude above the deck forward, aft, along the centerline, or covering much of the length of the boat. Vertical structures dividing the internal spaces are known as bulkheads.  The forward end of a boat is called the bow, the aft end the stern. Facing forward the right side is referred to as starboard and the left side as port.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Building materials.", "content": "Until the mid-19th century most boats were made of natural materials, primarily wood, although reed, bark and animal skins were also used. Early boats include the bound-reed style of boat seen in Ancient Egypt, the birch bark canoe, the animal hide-covered kayak and coracle and the dugout canoe made from a single log.  By the mid-19th century, many boats had been built with iron or steel frames but still planked in wood. In 1855 ferro-cement boat construction was patented by the French, who coined the name \"ferciment\". This is a system by which a steel or iron wire framework is built in the shape of a boat's hull and covered over with cement. Reinforced with bulkheads and other internal structure it is strong but heavy, easily repaired, and, if sealed properly, will not leak or corrode.  As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats, and the Bessemer process (patented in 1855) cheapened the cost of steel, steel ships and boats began to be more common. By the 1930s boats built entirely of steel from frames to plating were seen replacing wooden boats in many industrial uses and fishing fleets. Private recreational boats of steel remain uncommon. In 1895 WH Mullins produced steel boats of galvanized iron and by 1930 became the world's largest producer of pleasure boats.  Mullins also offered boats in aluminum from 1895 through 1899 and once again in the 1920s, but it wasn't until the mid-20th century that aluminium gained widespread popularity. Though much more expensive than steel, aluminum alloys exist that do not corrode in salt water, allowing a similar load carrying capacity to steel at much less weight.  Around the mid-1960s, boats made of fiberglass (aka \"glassfibre\") became popular, especially for recreational boats. Fiberglass is also known as \"GRP\" (glass-reinforced plastic) in the UK, and \"FRP\" (for fiber-reinforced plastic) in the US. Fiberglass boats are strong, and do not rust, corrode, or rot. Instead, they are susceptible to structural degradation from sunlight and extremes in temperature over their lifespan. Fiberglass structures can be made stiffer with sandwich panels, where the fiberglass encloses a lightweight core such as balsa or foam.  Cold moulding is a modern construction method, using wood as the structural component. In cold moulding very thin strips of wood are layered over a form. Each layer is coated with resin, followed by another directionally alternating layer laid on top. Subsequent layers may be stapled or otherwise mechanically fastened to the previous, or weighted or vacuum bagged to provide compression and stabilization until the resin sets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Propulsion.", "content": "The most common means of boat propulsion are as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buoyancy.", "content": "A boat displaces its weight in water, regardless whether it is made of wood, steel, fiberglass, or even concrete. If weight is added to the boat, the volume of the hull drawn below the waterline will increase to keep the balance above and below the surface equal. Boats have a natural or designed level of buoyancy. Exceeding it will cause the boat first to ride lower in the water, second to take on water more readily than when properly loaded, and ultimately, if overloaded by any combination of structure, cargo, and water, sink.  As commercial vessels must be correctly loaded to be safe, and as the sea becomes less buoyant in brackish areas such as the Baltic, the Plimsoll line was introduced to prevent overloading.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European Union classification.", "content": "Since 1998 all new leisure boats and barges built in Europe between 2.5m and 24m must comply with the EU's Recreational Craft Directive (RCD). The Directive establishes four categories that permit the allowable wind and wave conditions for vessels in each class:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A boat is a watercraft of a large range of types and sizes, but generally smaller than a ship, which is distinguished by its larger size, shape, cargo or passenger capacity, or its ability to carry boats.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972145}
{"src_title": "Ahmad ibn Fadlan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "Ahmad ibn Fadlan was described as an Arab in contemporaneous sources. However, the \"Encyclopedia of Islam\" and Richard N. Frye add that nothing can be said with certainty about his origin, his ethnicity, his education, or even the dates of his birth and death.  Primary sources documents and historical texts reveal that Ahmad Ibn Fadlan was a \"faqih\", an expert in Islamic jurisprudence and faith, in the court of the Abbasid Caliph Al-Muqtadir. It appears certain from his writing that prior to his departure on his historic mission, he had already been serving for some time in the court of al-Muqtadir. Other than the fact that he was both a traveler and a theologian in service of the Abbasid Caliphate, little is known about Ahmad Ibn Fadlan prior to 921 and his self-reported travels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The embassy.", "content": "Ibn Fadlan was sent from Baghdad in 921 to serve as the secretary to an ambassador from the Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir to the iltäbär (vassal-king under the Khazars) of the Volga Bulgaria, Almış.  On 21 June 921 (11 \"safar\" AH 309), a diplomatic party led by Susan al-Rassi, a eunuch in the caliph's court, left Baghdad. Primarily, the purpose of their mission was to explain Islamic law to the recently converted Bulgar peoples living on the eastern bank of the Volga River in what is now Russia. (These were the Volga Bulgars; another group of Bulgars had moved westward in the 6th century, invading the country that today bears their name and became Christians.) Additionally, the embassy was sent in response to a request by the king of the Volga Bulgars to help them against their enemies, the Khazars. Ibn Fadlan served as the group's religious advisor and lead counselor for Islamic religious doctrine and law.  Ahmad Ibn Fadlan and the diplomatic party utilized established caravan routes toward Bukhara, now part of Uzbekistan, but instead of following that route all the way to the east, they turned northward in what is now northeastern Iran. Leaving the city of Gurgan near the Caspian Sea, they crossed lands belonging to a variety of Turkic peoples, notably the Khazar Khaganate, Oghuz Turks on the east coast of the Caspian, the Pechenegs on the Ural River and the Bashkirs in what is now central Russia, but the largest portion of his account is dedicated to the Rus, i.e. the Varangians (Vikings) on the Volga trade route. All told, the delegation covered some 4000 kilometers (2500 mi).  Ibn Fadlan's envoy reached the Volga Bulgar capital on 12 May 922 (12 \"muharram\" AH 310). When they arrived, Ibn Fadlan read aloud a letter from the caliph to the Bulgar Khan and presented him with gifts from the caliphate. At the meeting with the Bulgar ruler, Ibn Fadlan delivered the caliph's letter, but was criticized for not bringing with him the promised money from the caliph to build a fortress as defense against enemies of the Bulgars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ethnographic writing.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manuscript tradition.", "content": "For a long time, only an incomplete version of the account was known, transmitted as quotations in the geographical dictionary of Yāqūt (under the headings Atil, Bashgird, Bulghār, Khazar, Khwārizm, Rūs), published in 1823 by Christian Martin Frähn.  Only in 1923 was a manuscript discovered by Zeki Validi Togan in the Astane Quds Museum, Mashhad, Iran. The manuscript, Razawi Library MS 5229, dates from the 13th century (7th century Hijra) and consists of 420 pages (210 folia). Besides other geographical treatises, it contains a fuller version of Ibn Fadlan's text (pp. 390–420). Additional passages not preserved in MS 5229 are quoted in the work of the 16th century Persian geographer Amīn Rāzī called \"Haft Iqlīm\" (\"Seven Climes\").  Neither source seems to record Ibn Fadlān's complete report. Yāqūt offers excerpts, and several times claims that Ibn Fadlān also recounted his return to Bagdad, but does not quote such material. Meanwhile, the text in Razawi Library MS 5229 breaks off part way through describing the Khazars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Account of the Volga Bulgars.", "content": "One noteworthy aspect of the Volga Bulgars that Ibn Fadlan focused on was their religion and the institution of Islam in these territories. The Bulgar king had invited religious instruction as a gesture of homage to the Abbasids in exchange for financial and military support, and Ibn Fadlan's mission as a \"faqih\" was one of proselytization as well as diplomacy.  For example, Ibn Fadlan details in his encounter that the Volga Bulgar Khan commits an error in his prayer exhortations by repeating the prayer twice. One scholar calls it an \"illuminating episode\" in the text where Ibn Fadlan expresses his great anger and disgust over the fact that the Khan and the Volga Bulgars in general are practicing some form of imperfect and doctrinally unsound Islam. In general, Ibn Fadlan recognized and judged the peoples of central Eurasia he encountered by the possession and practice of Islam, along with their efforts put forth to utilize, implement, and foster Islamic faith and social practice in their respective society. Consequently, many of the peoples and societies to Ibn Fadlan were \"like asses gone astray. They have no religious bonds with God, nor do they have recourse to reason\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Account of the Rus'.", "content": "A substantial portion of Ibn Fadlan's account is dedicated to the description of a people he called the \"Rūs\" (روس) or \"Rūsiyyah\". Western scholarship has generally assumed that he was describing Volga Vikings, the North Germanic tribes travelling the Volga trade route, though the identification of the people Ibn Fadlān describes is uncertain. The Rūs appear as traders who set up shop on the river banks nearby the Bolğar camp. They are described as having bodies tall as (date) palm-trees, with blond hair and ruddy skin. Each is tattooed from \"the tips of his toes to his neck\" with dark blue or dark green \"designs\" and all men are armed with an axe, sword and long knife.  Ibn Fadlan describes the Rus as \"perfect\" physical specimens and the hygiene of the \"Rūsiyyah\" as disgusting and shameless, especially regarding to sex (which they perform openly even in groups), and considers them vulgar and unsophisticated. In that, his account contrasts with that of the Persian traveler Ibn Rustah, whose impressions of the Rus were more favourable, although it has been attributed to a possibly intentional mistranslation with the original texts being more in line with Ibn Fadlan's narrative. He also describes in great detail the funeral of one of their chieftains (a ship burial involving human sacrifice). Some scholars believe that it took place in the modern Balymer complex.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Appearances in popular culture.", "content": "Ibn Fadlān is a major character in Michael Crichton's 1976 novel \"Eaters of the Dead\", which draws heavily in its opening passages on Ibn Fadlān's writing. Correspondingly, Ibn Fadlān is a character in the 1999 film adaptation of the novel, \"The Thirteenth Warrior\", played by Antonio Banderas.  Ibn Fadlān's journey is also the subject of the 2007 Syrian TV series \"Saqf al-Alam\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ibn Fadlan (, \"Aḥmad ibn Faḍlān ibn al-ʿAbbās ibn Rāšid ibn Ḥammād\", 921–22) was a 10th-century Arab Muslim traveler, famous for his account of his travels as a member of an embassy of the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad to the king of the Volga Bulgars, known as his \"Risala\" (\"account\" or \"journal\"). His account is most notable for providing a detailed description of the Volga Vikings, including an eyewitness account of a ship burial.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972146}
{"src_title": "MP3 player", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Digital audio player.", "content": "In 1981, Kane Kramer filed for a UK patent for the IXI, the first Digital Audio Player. UK patent 2115996 was issued in 1985, and U.S. Patent 4,667,088 was issued in 1987. The player was as big as a credit card and had a small LCD screen, navigation and volume buttons and would have held at least 8MB of data in a solid-state bubble memory chip with a capacity of 31⁄2 minutes' worth of audio. Plans were made for a 10-minute stereo memory card and the system was at one time fitted with a hard drive which would have enabled over an hour of recorded digital music. Later Kramer set up a company to promote the IXI and five working prototypes were produced with 16-bit sampling at 44.1 kilohertz with the pre-production prototype being unveiled at the APRS Audio/Visual trade exhibition in October 1986. However, in 1988 Kramer's failure to raise the £60,000 required to renew the patent meant it entering the public domain, but he still owns the designs.  In 1987 a German research institute, part of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, started the research program for coding music with the high quality and low bit-rate sampling at its institute. The project was controlled by an expert in mathematics and electronics, Karlheinz Brandenburg.  The Listen Up Player was released in 1996 by Audio Highway. It could store up to an hour of music, but despite getting an award at CES only 25 copies were made.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "MP3 player.", "content": "MP3 was introduced as an audio coding standard in 1994. It was based on several audio data compression techniques, including the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), FFT and psychoacoustic methods.  In 1997, the world's first MP3 player, the MPMan F10, was developed by a South Korean company SaeHan Information Systems. The world's first car audio hard drive-based MP3 player was also released in 1997 by MP32Go and was called the MP32Go Player. It consisted of a 3GB IBM 2.5\" hard drive that was housed in a trunk-mounted enclosure connected to the car's radio system. It retailed for $599 and was a commercial failure. The first handheld portable MP3 player released on the American market was the Eiger Labs F10, a 32MB imported version of the MPMan F10 that appeared in the summer of 1998. It was a very basic unit and wasn't user-expandable, though owners could upgrade the memory to 64MB by sending the player back to Eiger Labs with a check for $69.00 plus $7.95 shipping.  Another early MP3 player needed was the Rio PMP300 from Diamond Multimedia, introduced in September 1998. The Rio was a big success during the Christmas 1998 season as sales significantly exceeded expectations, spurring interest and investment in digital music. The RIAA soon filed a lawsuit alleging that the device abetted illegal copying of music, but Diamond won a legal victory on the shoulders of \"Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios\" and MP3 players were ruled legal devices. Eiger Labs and Diamond and went on to establish a new segment in the portable audio player market and the following year saw several new manufacturers enter this market.  Other early MP3 portables include Sensory Science's Rave MP2100, the I-Jam IJ-100 and the Creative Labs Nomad. These portables were small and light, but only held enough memory to hold around 7 to 20 songs at normal 128kbit/s compression rates. They also used slower parallel port connections to transfer files from PC to player, necessary as most PCs then used the Windows 95 and NT operating systems, which did not support the then newer USB connections, at least well. As more users migrated to Windows 98 by 2000, all players went USB.  In 1999 the Personal Jukebox (PJB-100) designed by Compaq and released by Hango Electronics Co from had 4.8GB, which held about 1,200 songs, and invented what would be called the jukebox segment of digital music portables. This segment eventually became the dominant type of digital music player.  Also at the end of 1999 the first in-dash MP3 player appeared. The Empeg Car and Rio Car (renamed after it was acquired by SONICblue and added to its Rio line of MP3 products) offered players in several capacities ranging from 5GB to 28GB. The unit didn't catch on as SONICblue had hoped, though, and was discontinued in the fall of 2001.  There are several types of MP3 players:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Generally speaking, MP3 players are portable, employing internal or replaceable batteries and headphones, and may be connected to car and home stereos via a wireless connection such as bluetooth. Some MP3 players also include FM radio tuners.  Many MP3 players can encode directly to MP3 or other digital audio format directly from a line in audio signal (radio, voice, etc.).  Devices such as CD players can be connected to the MP3 player (using the USB port) in order to directly play music from the memory of the player without the use of a computer.  Modular MP3 keydrive players are composed of two detachable parts: the head (or reader/writer) and the body (the memory). They can be independently obtained and upgradable (one can change the head or the body; i.e. to add more memory).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An MP3 player is an electronic device that can play MP3 digital audio files. It is a type of digital audio player (DAP), or portable media player. Most players play more than the MP3 file format, such as Windows Media Audio (WMA), Advanced Audio Coding (AAC), Vorbis, FLAC, Speex and Ogg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972147}
{"src_title": "Alfred Schnittke", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Schnittke's father, (1914–1975), was Jewish and born in Frankfurt. He moved to the Soviet Union in 1927 and worked as a journalist and translator from the Russian language into German. His mother, Maria Iosifovna Schnittke (née Vogel, 1910–1972), was a Volga German born in Russia. Schnittke's paternal grandmother, Tea Abramovna Katz (1889–1970), was a philologist, translator, and editor of German-language literature. Alfred Schnittke was born in Engels in the Volga-German Republic of the Russian SFSR. He began his musical education in 1946 in Vienna, where his father had been posted. It was in Vienna, Schnittke's biographer Alexander Ivashkin writes, where \"he fell in love with music which is part of life, part of history and culture, part of the past which is still alive.\" \"I felt every moment there,\" the composer wrote, \"to be a link of the historical chain: all was multi-dimensional; the past represented a world of ever-present ghosts, and I was not a barbarian without any connections, but the conscious bearer of the task in my life.\" Schnittke's experience in Vienna \"gave him a certain spiritual experience and discipline for his future professional activities. It was Mozart and Schubert, not Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninoff, whom he kept in mind as a reference point in terms of taste, manner and style. This reference point was essentially Classical... but never too blatant.\"  In 1948, the family moved to Moscow. Schnittke completed his graduate work in composition at the Moscow Conservatory in 1961 and taught there from 1962 to 1972. Evgeny Golubev was one of his composition teachers. Thereafter, he earned his living chiefly by composing film scores, producing nearly 70 scores in 30 years. Schnittke converted to Christianity and possessed deeply held mystic beliefs, which influenced his music.  Schnittke and his music were often viewed suspiciously by the Soviet bureaucracy. His First Symphony was effectively banned by the Composers' Union. After he abstained from a Composers' Union vote in 1980, he was banned from travelling outside the USSR. On 21 July 1985, Schnittke suffered a stroke that left him in a coma. He was declared clinically dead on several occasions, but recovered and continued to compose. In 1990, Schnittke left the Soviet Union and settled in Hamburg, West Germany. His health remained poor, however. He suffered several more strokes before his death on 3 August 1998, in Hamburg, at the age of 63. He was buried, with state honors, at the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow, where many other prominent Russian composers, including Dmitri Shostakovich, are interred.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Schnittke's early music shows the strong influence of Dmitri Shostakovich, but after the visit of the Italian composer Luigi Nono to the USSR, he took up the serial technique in works such as \"Music for Piano and Chamber Orchestra\" (1964). However, Schnittke soon became dissatisfied with what he termed the \"puberty rites of serial self-denial.\" He created a new style which has been called \"polystylism\", where he juxtaposed and combined music of various styles past and present. He once wrote, \"The goal of my life is to unify serious music and light music, even if I break my neck in doing so.\" His first concert work to use the polystylistic technique was the second violin sonata, \"Quasi una sonata\" (1967–1968). He experimented with techniques in his film work, as shown by much of the sonata appearing first in his score for the 1968 animation short \"\". He continued to develop the polystylistic technique in works such as the epic First Symphony (1969–1972) and First Concerto Grosso (1977). Other works were more stylistically unified, such as his piano quintet (1972–1976), written in memory of his recently deceased mother.  In the 1980s, Schnittke's music began to become more widely known abroad, thanks in part to the work of émigré Soviet artists such as the violinists Gidon Kremer and Mark Lubotsky. Despite constant illness, he produced a large amount of music, including important works such as the Second (1980) and Third (1983) String Quartets and the String Trio (1985); the \"Faust Cantata\" (1983), which he later incorporated in his opera \"Historia von D. Johann Fausten\"; the ballet \"Peer Gynt\" (1985–1987); the Third (1981), Fourth (1984) and Fifth (1988) Symphonies (the last of which is also known as the Fourth Concerto Grosso) and the Viola (1985) and First Cello (1985–1986) concertos. This period was also marked by a turn in Schnittke and his music to Christian themes, exemplified in his deeply spiritual unaccompanied choral works, the Concerto for Mixed Chorus (1984-1985) and the Penitential Psalms (1988), and alluded to in various others works, including the Fourth Symphony and the Faust Cantata.  The Ninth Symphony was first performed on 19 June 1998 in Moscow in a version deciphered – but also 'arranged' – by Gennady Rozhdestvensky, who conducted the premiere. After hearing a tape of the performance, Schnittke indicated he wanted it withdrawn. After he died, though, others worked to decipher the score. Nikolai Korndorf died before he could complete the task, which was continued and completed by Alexander Raskatov. In Raskatov's version, the three orchestral movements of Schnittke's symphony may be followed by a choral fourth, which is Raskatov's own \"Nunc Dimittis (in memoriam Alfred Schnittke)\". This version was premiered in Dresden, Germany, on June 16, 2007. Andrei Boreyko also has a version of the symphony.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfred Garrievich Schnittke (, Alfred Garriyevich Shnitke; 24 November 1934 – 3 August 1998) was a Soviet and German composer. Schnittke's early music shows the strong influence of Dmitri Shostakovich. He developed a polystylistic technique in works such as the epic Symphony No. 1 (1969–1972) and his first concerto grosso (1977). In the 1980s, Schnittke's music began to become more widely known abroad with the publication of his second (1980) and third (1983) string quartets and the String Trio (1985); the ballet \"Peer Gynt\" (1985–1987); the third (1981), fourth (1984), and fifth (1988) symphonies; and the viola concerto (1985) and first cello concerto (1985–1986). As his health deteriorated, Schnittke's music started to abandon much of the extroversion of his polystylism and retreated into a more withdrawn, bleak style.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972148}
{"src_title": "Johann Joachim Quantz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Quantz was born as Hanß Jochim Quantz in Oberscheden, near Göttingen, in the Electorate of Hanover. His father, Andreas Quantz, was a blacksmith who died when Hans was not yet 11; on his deathbed, he begged his son to follow in his footsteps. Nevertheless, from 1708 to 1713 he began his musical studies as a child with his uncle Justus Quantz, a town musician in Merseburg; he also studied for a time with a cousin's husband, the organist Johann Friedrich Kiesewetter. From 1714 on, Quantz studied composition extensively and pored over scores of the masters to adopt their style.  In 1716 he joined the town band in Dresden, where in 1717 he studied counterpoint with Jan Dismas Zelenka. In March 1718 he was appointed oboist in the newly formed Dresden Polish Chapel of August II, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. As it became clear that he couldn't advance as an oboist in the Polish Chapel, Quantz decided to pursue the flute, studying briefly in 1719 with Pierre-Gabriel Buffardin, principal flute in the Royal Orchestra. He became good friends with Johann Georg Pisendel, concertmaster of the Royal Orchestra, who greatly influenced his style.  Between 1724 and 1727 Quantz completed his education by doing a \"Grand Tour\" of Europe as a flutist. He studied counterpoint with Francesco Gasparini in Rome, met Alessandro Scarlatti in Naples, befriended the flutist Michel Blavet in Paris, and in London was encouraged by Handel to remain there. In 1728 Quantz accompanied August II on a state visit to Berlin. The Queen of Prussia was impressed and wanted to hire him. Though August II refused, he allowed Quantz to travel to Berlin as often as he was asked to. That year the Crown Prince, Frederick II of Prussia (Frederick the Great), decided to study the flute and Quantz became his teacher for several visits a year. Quantz later told writer Friedrich Nicolai that he once had to hide in a closet during an outburst of Frederick's domineering father, who disapproved of his son's musical studies. Until 1741 Quantz remained at the Saxon Court in Dresden. He married Anna Rosina Carolina Schindler in 1737; the marriage was not happy, and it was generally known in Berlin that Quantz's wife tyrannized him.  When Frederick II became King of Prussia in 1740, Quantz finally accepted a position as flute teacher, flute maker and composer at the court in Berlin. He joined that court in December 1741 and stayed there for the rest of his career. He made flutes from at least 1739 and was an innovator in flute design, adding a second key (D#, in addition to the standard Eb) to help with intonation, for example.  As well as writing hundreds of sonatas and concertos, mainly for the flute, he is known today as the author of \"Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu spielen\" (1752) (titled \"On Playing the Flute\" in English), a treatise on traverso flute playing. It is a valuable source of reference regarding performance practice and flute technique in the 18th century.  Quantz remained at Frederick's court at Potsdam until his death in 1773. A biography appeared in 1755 in Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg's \"Historisch-kritischen Beyträgen zur Aufnahme der Musik\"; another, in Italian, followed in 1762. His grandnephew, Albert Quantz, published a full-length biography in 1877.  Few of Quantz's works were published during his lifetime. Most of them are for transverse flute, including more than 200 sonatas, around 300 concertos, including several for two flutes; around 45 trio sonatas (mostly for 2 flutes or flute and violin, with continuo); 6 quartets for flute, violin, viola and continuo; various flute duets and flute trios; and unaccompanied caprices and fantasias for flute.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of works.", "content": "The thematic catalog for Quantz's works was published by Horst Augsbach. 'QV' stands for 'Quantz Verzeichnis', and 'Anh.' for 'Anhang' (\"supplement\") when the authenticity of the works is in doubt. A number of additional works have been discovered or come to light since its publication.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Joachim Quantz (; 30 January 1697 – 12 July 1773) was a German flutist, flute maker and Baroque music composer. He composed hundreds of flute sonatas and concertos, and wrote \"On Playing the Flute\", a treatise on flute performance. His works were known and appreciated by Bach and Mozart.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972149}
{"src_title": "Adverbial", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The form of adverbials.", "content": "In English, adverbials most commonly take the form of adverbs, adverb phrases, temporal noun phrases or prepositional phrases. Many types of adverbials (for instance: reason and condition) are often expressed by clauses. An adverbial is a construction which modifies or describes verbs. When an adverbial modifies a verb, it changes the meaning of that verb. Word groups, which are also considered to be adverbials, can also modify verbs: for example, a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, a finite clause or a non-finite clause. Prepositional phrase in a sentence may be adverbial; that is, it modifies a verb.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of adverbials that form sentence elements.", "content": "Adverbials are typically divided into four classes:  Adverbial complements (i.e. obligatory adverbial) are adverbials that render a sentence ungrammatical and meaningless if removed.  Adjuncts: These are part of the core meaning of the sentence, but if omitted still leave a meaningful sentence.  Conjuncts: These link two sentences together.  Disjuncts: These make comments on the meaning of the rest of the sentence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distinguishing an adverbial from an adjunct.", "content": "All verb- or sentence-modifying adjuncts are adverbials, but some adverbials are not adjuncts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other types of adverbials.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Directional and locative particles.", "content": "Prepositions (\"in\", \"out\", etc.) may be used adverbially to indicate direction or location.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Negators.", "content": "In some models of grammar negators such as \"not\" and \"never\" are considered adverbs and their function that of negating adverbial.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Expletives.", "content": "Often ignored, expletives may take up many adverbial syntactic functions. Pragmatically and semantically, they often serve as intensifiers, boosting the content of the clause they appear in.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In grammar, an adverbial (abbreviated ) is a word (an adverb) or a group of words (an adverbial phrase or an adverbial clause) that modifies or more closely defines the sentence or the verb. (The word \"adverbial\" itself is also used as an adjective, meaning \"having the same function as an adverb\".) Look at the examples below:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972150}
{"src_title": "Egyptian goose", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The Egyptian goose is believed to be most closely related to the shelducks (genus \"Tadorna\") and their relatives, and is placed with them in the subfamily Tadorninae. It is the only extant member of the genus \"Alopochen\", which also contains closely related prehistoric and recently extinct species. mtDNA cytochrome \"b\" sequence data suggest that the relationships of \"Alopochen\" to \"Tadorna\" need further investigation.  The generic name is based on Greek ἀλώπηξ (\"alōpēx\"), \"fox\", and χήν (\"chēn\") \"goose\", referring to the ruddy colour of its back. The species name \"aegyptius\" is from the Latin \"Aegyptius\", \"Egyptian\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "It swims well, and in flight looks heavy, more like a goose than a duck, hence the English name. It is long.  The sexes of this species are identical in plumage but the males average slightly larger. There is a fair amount of variation in plumage tone, with some birds greyer and others browner, but this is not sex- or age-related. A large part of the wings of mature birds is white, but in repose the white is hidden by the wing coverts. When it is aroused, either in alarm or aggression, the white begins to show. In flight or when the wings are fully spread in aggression, the white is conspicuous.  The voices and vocalisations of the sexes differ, the male having a hoarse, subdued duck-like quack which seldom sounds unless it is aroused. The male Egyptian goose attracts its mate with an elaborate, noisy courtship display that includes honking, neck stretching and feather displays. The female has a far noisier raucous quack that frequently sounds in aggression and almost incessantly at the slightest disturbance when tending her young.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "This species breeds widely in Africa except in deserts and dense forests, and is locally abundant. They are found mostly in the Nile Valley and south of the Sahara. While not breeding, it disperses somewhat, sometimes making longer migrations northwards into arid regions of the Sahel. It spread to Great Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany and Italy where there are self-sustaining populations which are mostly derived from escaped ornamental birds. Escapes have also bred on occasion in other places, such as Texas, Florida, California, and New Zealand.  The British population dates back to the 18th century, though only formally added to the British list in 1971. In Britain, it is found mainly in East Anglia, where it breeds at sites with open water, short grass and suitable nesting locations (either islands, holes in old trees or amongst epicormic shoots on old trees). During the winter they are widely dispersed within river valleys where they feed on short grass and cereals. In the United Kingdom in 2009, it was officially declared a non-native species. Accordingly, Egyptian geese in Britain may be shot without special permission if they cause problems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "This is a largely terrestrial species, which will also perch readily on trees and buildings. Egyptian geese typically eat seeds, leaves, grasses, and plant stems. Occasionally, they will eat locusts, worms, or other small animals. Until the goslings are a few weeks old, and strong enough to graze, they feed largely on small aquatic invertebrates, especially freshwater plankton. As a result, if anoxic conditions lead to the production of botulinum toxin, and it gets passed up the food chain via worms and insect larvae insensitive to the toxin, entire clutches of goslings feeding on such prey may die. The parents, who do not eat such organisms to any significant extent, generally remain unaffected.  Both sexes are aggressively territorial towards their own species when breeding and frequently pursue intruders into the air, attacking them in aerial \"dogfights\". Egyptian geese have been observed attacking aerial objects such as drones that enter their habitat as well. Neighbouring pairs may even kill another's offspring for their own offsprings' survival as well as for more resources.  This species will nest in a large variety of situations, especially in holes in mature trees in parkland. The female builds the nest from reeds, leaves and grass, and both parents take turns incubating eggs. Egyptian geese usually pair for life. Both the male and female care for the offspring until they are old enough to care for themselves. Such parental care however, does not include foraging for the young, who, being precocial, forage for themselves.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Egyptian goose (\"Alopochen aegyptiaca\") is a member of the duck, goose, and swan family Anatidae. It is native to Africa south of the Sahara and the Nile Valley.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972151}
{"src_title": "Intervertebral disc", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "Intervertebral discs consist of an outer fibrous ring, the annulus fibrosus disci intervertebralis, which surrounds an inner gel-like center, the nucleus pulposus. The \"annulus fibrosus\" consists of several layers (laminae) of fibrocartilage made up of both type I and type II collagen. Type I is concentrated toward the edge of the ring, where it provides greater strength. The stiff laminae can withstand compressive forces. The fibrous intervertebral disc contains the \"nucleus pulposus\" and this helps to distribute pressure evenly across the disc. This prevents the development of stress concentrations which could cause damage to the underlying vertebrae or to their endplates. The nucleus pulposus contains loose fibers suspended in a mucoprotein gel. The nucleus of the disc acts as a shock absorber, absorbing the impact of the body's activities and keeping the two vertebrae separated. It is the remnant of the notochord.  There is one disc between each pair of vertebrae, except for the first cervical segment, the \"atlas\". The \"atlas\" is a ring around the roughly cone-shaped extension of the \"axis\" (second cervical segment). The axis acts as a post around which the atlas can rotate, allowing the neck to swivel. There are 23 discs in the human spine: 6 in the neck (cervical) region, 12 in the middle back (thoracic) region, and 5 in the lower back (lumbar) region Discs are named by the vertebral body above and below. For example, the disc between the fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae is designated \"C5-6\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "During development and at birth, vertebral discs have some vascular supply to the cartilage endplates and the annulus fibrosus. These quickly deteriorate leaving almost no direct blood supply in healthy adults.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Intervertebral disc space.", "content": "The intervertebral disc space is typically defined on an X-ray photograph as the space between adjacent vertebrae. In healthy patients, this corresponds to the size of the intervertebral disc. The size of the space can be altered in pathological conditions such as discitis (infection of the intervertebral disc).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "The intervertebral disc functions to separate the vertebrae from each other and provides the surface for the shock-absorbing gel of the nucleus pulposus. The nucleus pulposus of the disc functions to distribute hydraulic pressure in all directions within each intervertebral disc under compressive loads. The nucleus pulposus consists of large vacuolated notochord cells, small chondrocyte-like cells, collagen fibrils, and aggrecan, a proteoglycan that aggregates by binding to hyaluronan. Attached to each aggrecan molecule are glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains of chondroitin sulfate and keratan sulfate. Increasing the amount of negatively charged aggrecan increases oncotic pressure, resulting in a shift of extracellular fluid from the outside to the inside of the nucleus pulposus. The amount of glycosaminoglycans (and hence water) decreases with age and degeneration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical significance.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Herniation.", "content": "A spinal disc herniation, commonly referred to as a slipped disc, can happen when unbalanced mechanical pressures substantially deform the annulus fibrosus, allowing part of the nucleus to obtrude. These events can occur during peak physical performance, during traumas, or as a result of chronic deterioration, typically accompanied with poor posture and has been associated with a \"Propionbacterium acnes\" infection. Both the deformed annulus and the gel-like material of the nucleus pulposus can be forced laterally or posteriorly, distorting local muscle function and putting pressure on the nearby nerve. This can give the symptoms typical of nerve root entrapment. These symptoms can vary between paresthesia, numbness, chronic and/or acute pain, either locally or along the dermatome served by the entrapped nerve, loss of muscle tone and decreased homeostatic performance. The disc is not physically slipped; it bulges, usually in just one direction. Risk of Cauda Equina.  Another kind of herniation, of the nucleus pulposus, can also happen as a result of the formation of Schmorl's nodes on the intervertebral disc. This is referred to as \"vertical disc herniation\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Degeneration.", "content": "Before age 40, approximately 25% of people show evidence of disc degeneration at one or more levels. Beyond age 40, more than 60% of people show evidence of disc degeneration at one or more levels on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). These degenerative changes are a normal part of the ageing process and do not correlate to pain.  One effect of aging and disc degeneration is that the nucleus pulposus begins to dehydrate and the concentration of proteoglycans in the matrix decreases, thus limiting the ability of the disc to absorb shock. This general shrinking of disc size is partially responsible for the common decrease in height as humans age. The annulus fibrosus also becomes weaker with age and has an increased risk of tearing. In addition, the cartilage endplates begin thinning, fissures begin to form, and there is sclerosis of the subchondral bone. Since the fissures are formed in the annulus fibrosus due to osteo-arthritic bones or degeneration in general, the inner nucleus pulposus can seep out and put pressure on any number of vertebral nerves. A herniated disc can cause mild to severe pain such as sciatica and treatment for herniated discs range from physical therapy to surgery. Other degeneration of the vertebral column includes diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) which is the calcification or ossification of the ligaments surrounding the vertebrae. This degeneration causes stiffness and sometimes even curvature in the lumbar and thoraco-lumbar spinal region. Burgeoning evidence suggests that long-term running may mitigate age-related degeneration within lumbar intervertebral discs", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scoliosis.", "content": "While this may not cause pain in some people, in others it may cause chronic pain. Other spinal disorders can affect the morphology of intervertebral discs. For example, patients with scoliosis commonly have calcium deposits (ectopic calcification) in the cartilage endplate and sometimes in the disc itself. Herniated discs are also found to have a higher degree of cellular senescence than non-herniated discs. In addition to scoliosis, which is the lateral 'S' curvature of the spine, the fused vertebrae can also experience other abnormalities such as kyphosis (hunchback) which shows in old age, or lordosis (swayback), which is often present in pregnancy and obesity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Historically, \"annulus\" is a misspelling of the Latin \"anulus\", the Latin word for \"little ring\" and the diminutive of the Latin \"anus\" (a ring).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An intervertebral disc (or intervertebral fibrocartilage) lies between adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column. Each disc forms a fibrocartilaginous joint (a symphysis), to allow slight movement of the vertebrae, to act as a ligament to hold the vertebrae together, and to function as a shock absorber for the spine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972152}
{"src_title": "BIND", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Key features.", "content": "BIND 9 is intended to be fully compliant with the IETF DNS standards and draft standards. Important features of BIND 9 include: TSIG, nsupdate, IPv6, RNDC (remote name daemon control), views, multiprocessor support, Response Rate Limiting (RRL), DNSSEC, and broad portability. RNDC enables remote configuration updates, using a shared secret to provide encryption for local and remote terminals during each session.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Database support.", "content": "While earlier versions of BIND offered no mechanism to store and retrieve zone data in anything other than flat text files, in 2007 BIND 9.4 DLZ provided a compile-time option for zone storage in a variety of database formats including LDAP, Berkeley DB, PostgreSQL, MySQL, and ODBC.  BIND 10 planned to make the data store modular, so that a variety of databases may be connected. In 2016 ISC added support for the 'dyndb' interface, contributed by RedHat, with BIND version 9.11.0.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Security.", "content": "Security issues that are discovered in BIND 9 are patched and publicly disclosed in keeping with common principles of open source software. A complete list of security defects that have been discovered and disclosed in BIND9 is maintained by Internet Systems Consortium, the current authors of the software.  The BIND 4 and BIND 8 releases both had serious security vulnerabilities. Use of these ancient versions, or any un-maintained, non-supported version is strongly discouraged. BIND 9 was a complete rewrite, in part to mitigate these ongoing security issues. The downloads page on the ISC web site clearly shows which versions are currently maintained and which are end of life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Originally written by four graduate students at the Computer Systems Research Group at the University of California, Berkeley (UCB), BIND was first released with Berkeley Software Distribution 4.3BSD. Paul Vixie started maintaining it in 1988 while working for Digital Equipment Corporation., the Internet Systems Consortium maintains, updates, and writes new versions of BIND.  BIND was written by Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle and Songnian Zhou in the early 1980s at the University of California, Berkeley as a result of a DARPA grant. The acronym \"BIND\" is for \"Berkeley Internet Name Domain\", from a technical paper published in 1984.  Versions of BIND through 4.8.3 were maintained by the Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) at UC Berkeley.  In the mid-1980s, Paul Vixie of DEC took over BIND development, releasing versions 4.9 and 4.9.1. Vixie continued to work on BIND after leaving DEC. BIND Version 4.9.2 was sponsored by Vixie Enterprises. Vixie eventually founded the ISC, which became the entity responsible for BIND versions starting with 4.9.3.  BIND 8 was released by ISC in May 1997.  Version 9 was developed by Nominum, Inc. under an ISC outsourcing contract, and the first version was released 9 October 2000. It was written from scratch in part to address the architectural difficulties with auditing the earlier BIND code bases, and also to support DNSSEC (DNS Security Extensions). The development of BIND 9 took place under a combination of commercial and military contracts. Most of the features of BIND 9 were funded by UNIX vendors who wanted to ensure that BIND stayed competitive with Microsoft's DNS offerings; the DNSSEC features were funded by the US military, which regarded DNS security as important. BIND 9 was released in September 2000.  In 2009, ISC started an effort to develop a new version of the software suite, called BIND10. In addition to DNS service, the BIND10 suite also included IPv4 and IPv6 DHCP server components. In April 2014, with the BIND10 release 1.2.0 the ISC concluded its development work of the project and renamed the project to \"Bundy\", moving the source code repository to GitHub for further development by outside public efforts.. ISC discontinued its involvement in the project due to cost-cutting measures. The development of DHCP components was split off to become a new Kea project.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "BIND (, or named (pronounced \"name-dee\":, short for \"name daemon\"), is an implementation of the Domain Name System (DNS) of the Internet. It performs both of the main DNS server roles, acting as an authoritative name server for domains, and acting as a recursive resolver in the network. As of 2015, it is the most widely used domain name server software, and is the \"de facto\" standard on Unix-like operating systems.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972153}
{"src_title": "Catherine Pavlovna of Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ekaterina was born in St. Petersburg and named after her grandmother, Catherine the Great. Described as beautiful and vivacious, she had a happy childhood and her education was carefully supervised by her mother. Ekaterina received the best education and constantly furthered her education through reading new literary publications and personal contacts with various outstanding persons. Known as Katya in the family, she was very close to her siblings, particularly her eldest brother Tsar Alexander I. Throughout her life she would maintain a close relationship with him. It was said that she was Alexander's favorite sister and one of the few persons he loved unconditionally. His letters to her are expressed in phrases like \"\"I am yours, heart and soul, for life\",\" \"\"I think that I love you more with each day that passes\",\" and \"\"to love you more than I do is impossible\".\" Although Paul and Maria Feodorovna were initially disappointed at the birth of a fourth daughter, Ekaterina later became her mother's favorite daughter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First marriage.", "content": "While the Napoleonic Wars were still in progress, the childless Napoléon I arranged his divorce from his beloved but aged wife Empress Joséphine, in order to marry a princess of high birth, get connected to royalty and beget the much desired heir. While the divorce itself did not happen until 1810, Napoleon was on the lookout for a new wife for some years previous to that, and seriously considered Ekaterina as a candidate - in addition to everything else, such a marriage would also provide strategic advantage by drawing the Russians to his side. The matter was broached or hinted at by the French delegation, at the behest of Talleyrand, at a meeting between them and the Russians at Erfurt in 1808. Ekaterina's family was utterly horrified, and the Dowager Empress immediately arranged a marriage for her daughter to her nephew, Duke George of Oldenburg.  Thus, Ekaterina was married to her first cousin Duke George of Oldenburg on 3 August 1809. George was the second son of Peter, Duke of Oldenburg and his wife, Duchess Friederike of Württemberg. The couple resided in Tver, where George had been appointed governor general. Catherine lived a lavish court life and entertained with balls, grand dinners and similar events in the pattern of the Imperial court, to create \"a Small Saint Petersburg\" in Tver. The couple were quickly blessed with two sons: Peter George (b. 1810) and Konstantin Friedrich Peter (b. 1812). Although the match had been arranged by their families, Ekaterina was devoted to her husband, and the marriage was harmonious. It was said that he was not handsome but Ekaterina cared for him deeply, and his death in 1812, due to typhoid fever, was a very severe shock to her. They had been married barely three years, and Ekaterina, now the mother of two infant sons, was only 24 years old.  While residing in Tver with George, Ekaterina supported N.M. Karamzin to write his later famous historical work. Tsar Alexander adopted reactionary ideas from a patriotic group which she dominated. In 1812, some conspirators who planned to depose Tsar Alexander had the ambitions to put her on the throne as Empress Catherine III. In 1812, she supported the suggestion to summon a national militia, and formed a special regiment of chasseurs which took part in many of the great battles of the era.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "Following the death of her husband, Ekaterina spent much of the next few years with her siblings, especially her brother the Tsar with whom she had a very close relationship. During 1813-1815, she travelled to England with her brother Tsar Alexander I to meet the Prince Regent. She was again with her brother during the Congress of Vienna in 1815. She was not without influence upon his political acts during these trips. She also promoted the marriage between her youngest sister Anna and William II of the Netherlands during this time.  In England, Ekaterina met the Crown Prince William of Württemberg. It was love at first sight for the couple. However, William was married to princess Caroline Augusta of Bavaria; he took the drastic step of divorcing her. The background to this turn of events is that William and Caroline Augusta had hastily married each other in order to avoid a political marriage devised by Napoleon. They had never got on with each other, and both of them claimed, at the time of seeking an annulment, that their marriage had never been consummated. The annulment was duly granted by the papacy on grounds of non-consummation. Shortly afterwards (in 1816), Caroline Augusta married Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor and became Empress Consort of Austria.  Very early in the year 1816, Ekaterina was married to the newly divorced William. The wedding was held in Saint Petersburg. The couple was immediately blessed with a daughter, Marie Frederikke Charlotte, who was born on 30 October 1816, perchance the very day on which Ekaterina's father-in-law, Frederick I of Wurttemberg, died. The day therefore marked her husband's accession as king, and Ekaterina, now Queen Katharina of Württemberg, became active in charity works in her adopted homeland. She established numerous institutions for the benefit of the public. She supported elementary education and organized a charity foundation during the hunger of 1816. In 1818, she gave birth to another daughter, Sophie Frederike Mathilde, who would marry Ekaterina's nephew William III of Orange and become Queen of the Netherlands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In January 1819, six months after the birth of her youngest child, Ekaterina died at Stuttgart of erysipelas complicated by pneumonia. She was barely thirty years old, and left behind four children, dispersed across two different families, the eldest of whom was barely eight years old. After her death, her surviving husband built Württemberg Mausoleum in Rotenberg, Stuttgart, dedicated to her memory. William later married again; his next wife was his first cousin, Princess Pauline of Württemberg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Ekaterina had two sons with Duke George of Oldenburg (9 May 1784 – 27 December 1812):  With the King of Württemberg, she had the following children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna of Russia (; 21 May 1788 [OS 10 May 1788] – 9 January 1819) later Queen Catharina Pavlovna of Württemberg, was the fourth daughter of Tsar Paul I of Russia and Duchess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg. She became the Queen of Württemberg upon her marriage to her first cousin Crown Prince William who eventually became King William I of Württemberg in 1816.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972154}
{"src_title": "Karmiel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1956, about of land in the area that is now Karmiel, owned by residents of the nearby Israeli Arab villages of Deir al-Asad, Bi'ina and Nahf, were declared \"closed areas\" by Israeli authorities. This area, near the main road between Acre and Safed, had been an important marble quarrying site. In 1961, the Israeli authorities expropriated the land to build Karmiel. The villagers offered \"equally good land\" in the area, but when Moshe Sneh (Maki) and Yusef Khamis (Mapam) brought the case to the Knesset on behalf of the villagers, the Knesset established that there was no such land. According to the Haredi newspaper She'arim, about (394 lots) were confiscated by a court order on 4 March 1963, at the request of the Israel Development Authority. However, the land was rocky, uninhabited and unfit for agriculture. In 1964, when local Arabs applied for permission to move into the town, Minister of Housing Yosef Almogi replied that \"Karmiel was not built to solve the problems for the people in the surrounding area.\" In February 1965, 400 protesters marched from Tel Aviv to protest against \"discrimination of a group of our citizens\". Representatives went to a local police station, informing the police that they were staying in the area without permission. Eventually, the perceived leaders were arrested and tried before a military tribunal.  Karmiel was one of the first cities in Israel to be established according to an urban master plan. It was built as part of the Central Galilee Development Project. Work began in 1963, and the official inauguration ceremony took place in October 1964. The first 16 families moved in at that time. A tender for the construction of Karmiel's main roads was issued in 1963, and Mekorot built a water pipe network connecting Karmiel, Rameh, Sha'ab and other nearby villages. In 1972, Karmiel was granted development town status, which bolstered its growth due to government-provided economic incentives to attract young couples.  In 1981, Karmiel was awarded the Beautiful Israel prize and the Kaplan Prize for Management and Services. Karmiel achieved city status on November 20, 1986. The first mayor was Baruch Venger, followed by Adi Eldar, who has remained in this position until today. Some 18,000 new immigrants settled in Karmiel between 1990 and 2002. In the 2000s, some SLA families were resettled in Karmiel following the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon.  During the Second Lebanon War in 2006, Hezbollah fired 180 Katyusha rockets into Karmiel and the neighboring villages, leading to casualties and damage to buildings, roads, and cars.  In the 2010s, Israeli-Arab families began moving to Karmiel to improve their quality of life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Karmiel is located on the Acre–Safed road, on the northern edge of the Lower Galilee. It lies in Emek Beit HaKerem and its elevation is. The Hilazon Stream passes slightly to the south of Karmiel. Its tributaries, the Shezor and Shagor Streams pass through Karmiel on the east and north, respectively. Karmiel sits on the Shagor mountain range, which stretches from Mount Hazon in the east (, next to Maghar) to Mount Gilon in the west (, at Gilon). Western Karmiel was built on the Karmi (362 m) and Makosh (315 m) mountains. Work on a new railway line linking Haifa and Karmiel began in 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": ", the city encompasses an area of about 24,000 dunams (24 km2) with a population of about 50,000 residents approximately 40% of whom are immigrants from 75 countries. The city also receives significant internal migration of Haredi families. Since 1990, 16,000 immigrants have arrived in Karmiel, the majority of whom are from the Former Soviet Union. According to the national master plan, by 2020 Karmiel will have a population of approximately 120,000 residents. Since 1980, six new neighborhoods have been developed and populated, and a technical college has been serving the community since 1989., work is underway to create a further neighborhood on Mount Karmi on Karmiel's western fringe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local government.", "content": "Adam Tal was the first official head of the group that founded Karmiel in 1964. Avraham Argov replaced him and was himself replaced in 1968 by Baruch Venger, who headed the municipality of Karmiel until his death in office on November 22, 1988. His successor was Adi Eldar, who was re-elected several times. In November 2018, Moshe Kuninsky was elected mayor of Karmiel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Today there are four high schools, four junior high schools, a vocational training center, nine state-run elementary schools, one state-run religious school (including high school), an independent education elementary school, a school for gifted children and an educational farm, many kindergartens, nursery schools and daycare centers, as well as a network of community youth and sports centers and the international ORT Braude College of Engineering with a student body of 3,500 studying computers, electronics, industrial administration, biotechnology and other subjects. A biotechnology research and development center will also open at the college.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health care.", "content": "In 2011, a Terem emergency care clinic was opened in Karmiel. The clinic is under the medical management of Dr. Walid Assadi and is open seven days a week, including Sabbath and holidays. Israel's four national health funds all maintain clinics in the city. In addition, Karmiel has dental clinics, eye clinics, and private clinics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The city is known for the Karmiel Dance Festival, a yearly event since 1988. The festival is usually held for 3 days and nights in July, and includes dance performances, workshops, and open dance sessions. The festival began as a celebration of Israeli folk dance, but today it features many different dance forms from all around the globe, and attracts thousands of dancers and hundreds of thousands of spectators from many countries.  \"Nitzotz-Machanayim\" is a community center which caters to the Russian-speaking population of Karmiel. It is one of a number of similar centers in Israel which operate in the framework of the Machanayim \"Communities\" project. Rabbi Eli Talberg is the director of Natzotz-Machanyim, which is located on the first floor of \"Kikar Ha’Ir\" (often called \"The Old Mall\"). Activities include a Beit-Midrash, conversion classes, Hebrew classes, a youth club, a women's club, and additional workshops and activities for all ages. The community also organizes regular educational tours throughout Israel and participates in sporting and social events with other branches of the Communities project.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environmental protection.", "content": "Karmiel was the first Israeli city to receive ISO 9002 certification for the quality of its services. It is one of the few Israeli cities with ISO 1410 certification for environmental standards. Karmiel has enacted by-laws to protect the environment and prevent pollution, and become a center for clean industries and advanced technology enterprises that abide by these standards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parks and gardens.", "content": "The Holocaust Memorial Park is located at the entrance to the city. The bronze sculptures were made by Jewish sculptor and artist Nicky Imber (1920-1996). The sculptures are separated into three groups: Holocaust, wondering and hope; which represent the story of the Jewish people from the time of the Holocaust to the return to the holy land.  The Karmiel Quarries Park is a 12.4-acre park developed on the site of a defunct limestone quarry. One section of the park is a sculpture garden. An amphitheater on the grounds of the park hosts local events and incorporates a drainage system that collects rainfall which is later used for watering greenery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karmiel (, \"lit.\" \"God's vineyards\") is a city in northern Israel. Established in 1964 as a development town, Karmiel is located in the Beit HaKerem Valley which divides upper and lower Galilee. The city is located south of the Acre-Safed road, from Safed and from Ma'alot-Tarshiha and from Acre. In Karmiel had a population of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972155}
{"src_title": "Ernst Cassirer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Breslau in Silesia (modern-day southwest Poland), into a Jewish family, Cassirer studied literature and philosophy at the University of Marburg (where he completed his doctoral work in 1899 with a dissertation on René Descartes's analysis of mathematical and natural scientific knowledge entitled [\"Descartes' Critique of Mathematical and Scientific Knowledge\"]) and at the University of Berlin (where he completed his habilitation in 1906 with the dissertation [\"The Problem of Knowledge in Philosophy and Science in the Modern Age: Volume I\"]).  Politically, Cassirer supported the liberal German Democratic Party (DDP). After working for many years as a at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin, Cassirer was elected in 1919 to the philosophy chair at the newly founded University of Hamburg, where he lectured until 1933, supervising amongst others the doctoral theses of Joachim Ritter and Leo Strauss. Because he was Jewish, he left Germany after the Nazis came to power in 1933.  After leaving Germany he taught for a couple of years at the University of Oxford, before becoming a professor at Gothenburg University. When Cassirer considered Sweden too unsafe, he applied for a post at Harvard University, but was rejected because thirty years earlier he had rejected a job offer from them. In 1941 he became a visiting professor at Yale University, then moved to Columbia University in New York City, where he lectured from 1943 until his death in 1945.  Cassirer died of a heart attack in April 1945 in New York City. His grave is located in Westwood, New Jersey, on the Cedar Park Beth-El Cemeteries in the graves of the Congregation Habonim. His son, Heinz Cassirer, was also a Kantian scholar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Donald Phillip Verene, who published some of Cassirer's papers kept at Yale University, gave this overview of his ideas: \"Cassirer as a thinker became an embodiment of Kantian principles, but also of much more, of an overall movement of spirit stretching from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, and on to Herder’s conception of history, Goethe’s poetry, Wilhelm von Humboldt’s study of the Kavi language, Schelling’s, Hegel’s \"Phenomenology of Spirit\", and Vischer’s conception of the aesthetic symbol, among many others. Cassirer’s own position is born through a mastery of the whole development of this world of the humanistic understanding, which included the rise of the scientific world view — a mastery evident both in his historical works and in his systematic philosophy.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of science.", "content": "Cassirer's first major published writings were a history of modern thought from the Renaissance to Kant. In accordance with his Marburg neo-Kantianism he concentrated upon epistemology. His reading of the scientific revolution, in books such as \"The Individual and the Cosmos in Renaissance Philosophy\" (1927), as a \"Platonic\" application of mathematics to nature, influenced historians such as E. A. Burtt, E. J. Dijksterhuis, and Alexandre Koyré.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philosophy of science.", "content": "In \"Substance and Function\" (1910), he writes about late nineteenth-century developments in physics including relativity theory and the foundations of mathematics. In \"Einstein's Theory of Relativity\" (1921) he defended the claim that modern physics supports a neo-Kantian conception of knowledge. He also wrote a book about Quantum mechanics called \"Determinism and Indeterminism in Modern Physics\" (1936).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philosophy of symbolic forms.", "content": "At Hamburg Cassirer discovered the Library of the Cultural Sciences founded by Aby Warburg. Warburg was an art historian who was particularly interested in ritual and myth as sources of surviving forms of emotional expression. In \"Philosophy of Symbolic Forms\" (1923–29) Cassirer argues that man (as he put it in his more popular 1944 book \"Essay on Man\") is a \"symbolic animal\". Whereas animals perceive their world by instincts and direct sensory perception, humans create a universe of symbolic meanings. Cassirer is particularly interested in natural language and myth. He argues that science and mathematics developed from natural language, and religion and art from myth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Cassirer–Heidegger debate.", "content": "In 1929 Cassirer took part in a historically significant encounter with Martin Heidegger in Davos. Cassirer argues that while Kant's \"Critique of Pure Reason\" emphasizes human temporality and finitude, he also sought to situate human cognition within a broader conception of humanity. Cassirer challenges Heidegger's relativism by invoking the universal validity of truths discovered by the exact and moral sciences.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Philosophy of the Enlightenment\".", "content": "Cassirer believed that reason's self-realization leads to human liberation. Mazlish (2000), however, notes that Cassirer in his \"The Philosophy of the Enlightenment\" (1932) focuses exclusively on ideas, ignoring the political and social context in which they were produced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Logic of the Cultural Sciences\".", "content": "In \"The Logic of the Cultural Sciences\" (1942) Cassirer argues that objective and universal validity can be achieved not only in the sciences, but also in practical, cultural, moral, and aesthetic phenomena. Although inter-subjective objective validity in the natural sciences derives from universal laws of nature, Cassirer asserts that an analogous type of inter-subjective objective validity takes place in the cultural sciences.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Myth of the State\".", "content": "Cassirer's last work, \"The Myth of the State\" (1946), was published posthumously; at one level it is an attempt to understand the intellectual origins of Nazi Germany. Cassirer sees Nazi Germany as a society in which the dangerous power of myth is not checked or subdued by superior forces. The book discusses the opposition of logos and mythos in Greek thought, Plato's Republic, the medieval theory of the state, Machiavelli, Thomas Carlyle's writings on hero worship, the racial theories of Arthur de Gobineau, and Hegel. Cassirer claimed that in 20th-century politics there was a return, with the passive acquiescence of Martin Heidegger, to the irrationality of myth, and in particular to a belief that there is such a thing as destiny. Of this passive acquiescence, Cassirer says that in departing from Husserl's belief in an objective, logical basis for philosophy, Heidegger attenuated the ability of philosophy to oppose the resurgence of myth in German politics of the 1930s.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ernst Alfred Cassirer (; ; July 28, 1874 – April 13, 1945) was a German philosopher. Trained within the Neo-Kantian Marburg School, he initially followed his mentor Hermann Cohen in attempting to supply an idealistic philosophy of science.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972156}
{"src_title": "Allophone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of concept.", "content": "The term \"allophone\" was coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf circa 1929. In doing so, he placed a cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory. The term was popularized by George L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complementary and free-variant allophones and assimilation.", "content": "Whenever a user's speech is vocalized for a given phoneme, it is slightly different from other utterances, even for the same speaker. That has led to some debate over how real and how universal phonemes really are (see phoneme for details). Only some of the variation is significant, by being detectable or perceivable, to speakers.  There are two types of allophones, based on whether a phoneme must be pronounced using a specific allophone in a specific situation or whether the speaker has the unconscious freedom to choose the allophone that is used.  If a specific allophone from a set of allophones that correspond to a phoneme must be selected in a given context, and using a different allophone for a phoneme would cause confusion or make the speaker sound non-native, the allophones are said to be \"complementary\". The allophones then complement each other, and one of them is not used in a situation in which the usage of another is standard. For complementary allophones, each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context and may be involved in a phonological process.  In other cases, the speaker can freely select from \"free variant\" allophones on personal habit or preference, but free variant allophones are still selected in the specific context, not the other way around.  Another example of an allophone is assimilation, in which a phoneme is to sound more like another phoneme. One example of assimilation is consonant voicing and devoicing, in which voiceless consonants are voiced before and after voiced consonants, and voiced consonants are devoiced before and after voiceless consonants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Allotone.", "content": "An allotone is a tonic allophone, such as the neutral tone in Standard Mandarin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English.", "content": "There are many allophonic processes in English: lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, and retraction.  Because the choice among allophones is seldom under conscious control, few people realize their existence. English-speakers may be unaware of the differences among six allophones of the phoneme : unreleased as in \"cat\", aspirated as in \"top\", glottalized as in \"button\", flapped as in American English \"water\", nasalized flapped as in \"winter\", and none of the above as in \"stop\". However, they may become aware of the differences if, for example, they contrast the pronunciations of the following words:  A flame that is held before the lips while those words are spoken flickers more for the aspirated \"nitrate\" than for the unaspirated \"night rate.\" The difference can also be felt by holding the hand in front of the lips. For a Mandarin-speaker, for whom and are separate phonemes, the English distinction is much more obvious than for an English-speaker, who has learned since childhood to ignore the distinction.  Allophones of English may be noticed if the 'light' of \"leaf\" is contrasted with the 'dark' of \"feel\". Again, the difference is much more obvious to a Turkish-speaker, for whom and are separate phonemes, than to an English speaker, for whom they are allophones of a single phoneme.  These descriptions are more sequentially broken down in the next section.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rules for English Consonant Allophones.", "content": "Peter Ladefoged, a renowned phonetician, clearly explains the consonant allophones of English in a precise list of statements to illustrate the language behavior. Some of these rules apply to all the consonants of English; the first item on the list deals with consonant length, items 2 through 18 apply to only selected groups of consonants, and the last item deals with the quality of a consonant. These descriptive rules are as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other languages.", "content": "There are many examples for allophones in languages other than English. Typically, languages with a small phoneme inventory allow for quite a lot of allophonic variation: examples are Hawaiian and Toki Pona. Here are some examples (the links of language names go to the specific article or subsection on the phenomenon):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Representing a phoneme with an allophone.", "content": "Since phonemes are abstractions of speech sounds, not the sounds themselves, they have no direct phonetic transcription. When they are realized without much allophonic variation, a simple broad transcription is used. However, when there are complementary allophones of a phoneme, the allophony becomes significant and things then become more complicated. Often, if only one of the allophones is simple to transcribe, in the sense of not requiring diacritics, that representation is chosen for the phoneme.  However, there may be several such allophones, or the linguist may prefer greater precision than that allows. In such cases, a common convention is to use the \"elsewhere condition\" to decide the allophone that stands for the phoneme. The \"elsewhere\" allophone is the one that remains once the conditions for the others are described by phonological rules.  For example, English has both oral and nasal allophones of its vowels. The pattern is that vowels are nasal only before a nasal consonant in the same syllable; elsewhere, they are oral. Therefore, by the \"elsewhere\" convention, the oral allophones are considered basic, and nasal vowels in English are considered to be allophones of oral phonemes.  In other cases, an allophone may be chosen to represent its phoneme because it is more common in the languages of the world than the other allophones, because it reflects the historical origin of the phoneme, or because it gives a more balanced look to a chart of the phonemic inventory.  An alternative, which is commonly used for archiphonemes, is to use a capital letter, such as /N/ for [m], [n], [ŋ].  In rare cases, a linguist may represent phonemes with abstract symbols, such as dingbats, to avoid privileging any particular allophone.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In phonology, an allophone (; from the Greek, \"állos\", \"other\" and, \"phōnē\", \"voice, sound\") is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds, or \"phones\", or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, in English, (as in \"stop\" ) and the aspirated form (as in \"top\" ) are allophones for the phoneme, while these two are considered to be different phonemes in some languages such as Thai and Hindi. On the other hand, in Spanish, (as in \"dolor\" ) and (as in \"nada\" ) are allophones for the phoneme, while these two are considered to be different phonemes in English.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972157}
{"src_title": "Theatines", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Foundation.", "content": "The order was founded by Saint Cajetan (Gaetano dei Conti di Thiene), Paolo Consiglieri, Bonifacio da Colle, and Giovanni Pietro Carafa (afterwards Pope Paul IV). Carafa was Bishop of Chieti; Chieti (Theate) is a city of the Abruzzi in Central Italy, from which the congregation adopted its specific name, to distinguish it from other congregations (Barnabites, Somaschi, Caracciolini, etc.) modelled upon it. The Theatines combined the pursuit of evangelical perfection traditional among religious orders with apostolic service generally expected of diocesan clergy. It was Caraffa who wrote the constitutions of the order.  Cajetan consecrated his order to the Cross, which he adopted as its emblem, and the foundation took place on the feast of the Finding of the Holy Cross, May 3, 1524. It was approved on June 24 of that year, by Pope Clement VII in the Brief \"Exponi Nobis\". On September 14, feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, Cajetan and his companions made solemn profession before the papal altar of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, in the presence of Mgr. Giovanni Battista Bonziano, Bishop of Caserta, a special papal delegate. Caraffa was chosen the first General.  The chief object of the order was to recall the clergy to an edifying life and the laity to the practice of virtue. They founded oratories (among them the celebrated \"Divino Amore\") and hospitals, devoted themselves to preaching the Gospel, and reformed lax morals. They were exclusive, aristocratic, and formidably austere. They wore the simple black cassock of the local clergy and maintained a modest lifestyle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Growth.", "content": "The prohibition on both owning property and soliciting alms tended to limit applicants to members of the aristocracy, and so they remained relatively few in number. In 1546 they were briefly joined with the Somaschi Fathers, but as the object of the respective orders differed, they separated in 1555. In 1527 their house in Rome was sacked by the army of Charles V, and the Roman community sought refuge in Venice.  They founded many beautiful churches, among them that of Sant'Andrea della Valle in Rome, a gift of Costanza Piccolomini D'Aragona, Duchess of Amalfi. This church is a masterpiece of Carlo Maderno and contains several paintings by Domenichino. The Theatines still operate the church.  In France, through the efforts of Cardinal Mazarin, they built the Church of St. Anne la Royale opposite the Louvre in 1644. In Spain, under Philip II, the Theatine Cardinal Paolo Burali d'Arezzo, filled various embassies at the command of the viceroy of Naples. In Portugal, John IV, in 1648, gave the Theatines a splendid house and college for the education of noble youth. In England, under Henry VIII, Thomas Goldwell, Bishop of St. Asaph, entered the order of Theatines. In Bavaria, the Theatine Church St. Kajetan was built from 1663 to 1690, founded by Elector Ferdinand Maria.  The Theatines were the first to found papal missions in: Golconda (in present-day India), Ava (Burma), Peru, Mingrelia (Georgia), founded by Andrea Borromeo, the East Indies, (the history of which was written by the Theatine Bartolomeo Ferro - \"\"Missioni Teatine nelle Indie Orientali\"\"), Arabia, and Armenia. In 1626 Theatines went to Persia.  Theatine manuscripts dating from 1530 until the end of the 18th century show there were missions established in a number of other countries also. By 1700 the Theatines numbered 1400.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decline of the Order.", "content": "By the end of the eighteenth century, decline had set in, exacerbated by political upheavals. General suppression of religious orders affected the Theatines more significantly because the order historically acquired no possessions and so had no institutional infrastructure.  Pope Pius X had a hand in attempts at revival, calling upon the services of Cardinal José de Calasanz Félix Santiago Vives y Tutó. The papal Motu Proprio \"Auspicato\", of December 15, 1909, decreed the union of the Congregation of the Regular Theatine Clergy with the youthful Spanish Congregation of the Holy Family founded at Barcelona by Josep Manyanet y Vives, but the two groups were separated again in 1916. In 1910, the Theatines were amalgamated with the Congregation of Saint Alphonsus Liguori, which had been founded in Mallorca in 1867.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "According to the \"Annuario Pontificio\", as of 31 December 2014, the Theatines had 34 houses and numbered 170 members, of whom 139 were priests. The Theatines are present in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, the Netherlands, Spain, and the United States of America, where they maintain a flourishing mission at Durango, Colorado.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prominent members.", "content": "The Order has numbered among its members It has also furnished one pope, Paul IV (Giovanni Pietro Carafa), 250 bishops, archbishops, and papal legates, and several cardinals.  Among noted nineteenth-century Theatines was the Sicilian Father Gioacchino Ventura dei baroni di Raulica, a philosopher, littérateur, and orator. One of his most celebrated works being his funeral oration on the death of Daniel O'Connell. The astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi (1746-1826), professor of mathematics and astronomy in Palermo, Sicily, discoverer of the first asteroid, Ceres, in 1801, became a Theatine at the age of 19.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Theatines or the Congregation of Clerics Regular of the Divine Providence are a religious order of the Catholic Church, with the post-nominal initials \"C.R.\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972158}
{"src_title": "Classical archaeology", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cultures discussed.", "content": "Classical archaeology in its strictest, most traditional sense applies only to the study of Classical Athenian culture and the culture of the Roman Republic and Empire. However, over the course of the last century, the field has expanded to include discussions of the elaborate mosaic of cultures that produced the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome. Classical archaeologists interested in Greece frequently discuss Crete and the Minoan civilization present on that island during the Bronze Age. They also discuss the Helladic and Geometric periods, as well as occasionally discussing the Neolithic period as it pertains to Greece. Even during the Classical period, it is completely untrue to say that Greece had one true culture - a great deal of regional variation was present, and much of the study of Greek archaeology lies in examination of these regional differences. Greek archaeology covers the Hellenistic period as well, frequently compelling the classical archaeologist to examine the Greek influences present in all the areas that were part of Alexander the Great's empire, including much of the Middle East and Egypt.  Classical archaeologists interested in Roman civilization discuss the influence of the Etruscans and other early cultures present on the Italic Peninsula. They also discuss the subcultures present within the Roman Republic and Empire based on regional differences, and any discussion of the later empire requires at least a partial segue into the Byzantine Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Excavations.", "content": "While inspired by ancient texts and sometimes using them to interpret artifacts, classical archaeology would not exist without ancient artifacts. Though much of classical archaeology (like any kind of archaeology) is performed by scholars in their studies, the most vibrant and crucial parts of classical archaeology are the archaeological excavations, more commonly known as \"digs.\" Excavation techniques at first were modelled after excavations in Egypt and the Near East and searched for large artifacts and walls without much care for the delicate remains that might have existed in the ground around these artifacts. Many of the earliest sites still cannot be dated in a satisfying manner because the stratigraphy, soil layers with embedded artifacts used to determine the age of a site, was completely stripped away. Early excavations also often failed to record the items they found in sufficient detail, making it difficult to date artifacts, determine precisely where they were found, or establish a connection between objects that may have been found together. Over time, excavation techniques have greatly improved and the amount of information gleaned from each excavation is exponentially greater than that recorded in early excavations. While excavation reports now take many years to compile due to the level of detail included and analyzed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Classical archaeology is the archaeological investigation of the Mediterranean civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Nineteenth-century archaeologists such as Heinrich Schliemann were drawn to study the societies they had read about in Latin and Greek texts. Many universities and foreign nations maintain excavation programs and schools in the area-such is the enduring appeal of the region's archaeology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972159}
{"src_title": "Warsaw radio mast", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "The Warsaw radio mast was a guyed steel lattice mast of equilateral triangular cross section, with a face width of. The vertical steel tubes forming the vertices of the mast had a diameter of 245 millimetres (10 in); the thickness of the walls of these tubes varied between 8–34 mm (0.31–1.33 in) depending on height. The mast consisted of 86 elements, each of which had a length of. The mast had 3 arrays of guy wires, each array attached to the mast at 5 levels:,,,, and above ground. Each guy was fixed on a separate anchor block at the ground and was in diameter. To prevent the guy wires from interfering with the radio transmissions, the guys were insulated at regular intervals. The weight of guys and insulators used to anchor the mast was. An elevator and separate protected ladders were installed in the interior of the mast to facilitate access to the various mast components, including the aircraft warning lamps. The elevator had a maximum speed of and required 30 minutes for a trip from the bottom of the structure to the top.  In the lower half of the mast, there was a vertical steel tube, attached to the mast's outer structure with large insulators. This tube was grounded at the bottom, and connected electrically to the mast structure by an adjustable metal bar at a height of when the tower transmitted on 227 kHz longwave and at a height of when it switched to 225 kHz on 1 February 1988. This technique allowed adjusting the impedance of the mast for the transmitter and worked by applying a direct current ground at a point of low radio frequency voltage, to conduct static charge to ground without diminishing the radio energy. Static electrical charge can build up to high values, even at times of no thunderstorm activity, when such tall structures are insulated from ground. Use of this technique provides better lightning protection than using just a spark gap at the mast base, as it is standard at most mast radiators insulated against ground.  The mast was equipped in 16 levels with air traffic warning lights with 200 watts power. At the top there was a flashing beacon consisting of two lamps with 1000 watts power.  A special overhead radio frequency transmission line was used to transfer the signal from the transmitter building to the mast. The transmitter building had a volume of and was approximately from the mast. The transmitter consisted of two 1,000 kilowatt units built by Brown Boveri and Cie. An atomic clock was used to generate the transmission frequency in order to provide a very accurate, stable signal source which could be used as a frequency standard by anyone within signal range. The station, which had an area of 65 hectares (161 acres), also had a lattice tower of rectangular cross-section close to the transmitter building. This tower was used to provide a radio link for programme feeds from the studio, which ran from the Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw via a radio relay tower at Wiejca.  To supply power to the station a 110 kV substation was built. The substation was over-engineered due to the strategic importance of the station as Poland's central transmitter. Although the power consumption of the transmitting station was large (estimated 6,000 kW), the substation was capable of supplying much more than was required. Six small towers were erected around the periphery of the station's grounds in order to support aircraft warning lamps where the guy ropes were located.  The official name of the facility was \"Radiofoniczny Ośrodek Nadawczy w Konstantynowie\" (Radiophonic Transmission Center Konstantynow), \"Radiowe Centrum Nadawcze w Konstantynowie\" (Radio Transmission Center Konstantynow) or \"Warszawska Radiostacja Centralna (WRC) w Gąbinie\" (Warsaw Central Radio Station Gabin). It broadcast Polskie Radio's Program I.  Approximately ten years after completion of the mast, inspections revealed structural damage caused by wind-induced oscillations at the mast, the backstay insulators and the guys. Repair work was very difficult and replacement of the mast by a stronger construction of the same height was considered. This was not realized as a result of Poland's economic situation. In 1988 the mast was repainted, but this could not be done to the desired extent, as there was not enough paint available.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collapse.", "content": "At 16:00 UTC on 8 August 1991 a catastrophic failure led to the collapse of the mast. The mast first bent and then snapped at roughly half its height. The helix building and the transmitter building (including the transmitter devices in it) were not damaged. The construction coordinator and the division chief of the company which built and maintained the mast were found liable for the collapse, and both were sentenced to two years in prison.  Since the collapse of the Warsaw radio mast, the tallest structure in Poland has been the FM radio and TV transmission mast at Olsztyn-Pieczewo, measuring", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Replacement.", "content": "After the collapse of the radio mast at Konstantynów, the Polish broadcasting company used the old Raszyn transmitter with its mast near Warsaw, which had been used since 1978 for daytime transmissions of a second Polish broadcasting service programme in the longwave range on the frequency AM-LW 198 kHz, for transmissions on AM-LW 225 kHz with a power of 500 kilowatts. It is not possible to transmit from Raszyn on AM-LW (long wave) 198 kHz/1515 meters and 225 kHz/1333 meters simultaneously, so the transmissions on the second longwave frequency AM-LW (long wave) 198 kHz had to be discontinued until either a second longwave broadcasting transmitting facility was built in Poland or a special frequency switch, which would allow transmissions on both frequencies, was installed at the Raszyn transmitter. The latter, simpler solution would have decreased the effectiveness and reliability of both transmitters and was therefore found unacceptable.  Because the Polish longwave transmitters are of special importance to Polish people abroad, as early as April 1992 the Polish government planned to rebuild the mast at Konstantynów. In September 1995 the Polish government was set to rebuild the mast. Although refurbishment of the old foundations, which could be reused, had already started, the rebuilding of the mast was cancelled due to protests by local residents, who claimed that radiation from the mast was a health hazard. While the accuracy of these claims has not been verified, a new site for the transmitter was sought. Several other locations were considered, but due to the continuing resistance of nearby inhabitants (backed by the Solidarity trade union), planned mast height and transmitter range were both greatly reduced, and an old military site just southeast of Solec Kujawski was chosen. There, a new longwave transmission facility was built in 1998–1999, with a transmitter of 1200 kW output power for the frequency AM-LW (long wave) 225 kHz. This facility, which was inaugurated on 4 September 1999, uses one 330 metre (1083 ft) and one 289 metre (948 ft) grounded top-fed masts as aerials.  After the inauguration of the transmitter at Solec Kujawski, the transmitter at Raszyn was again used for transmitting on the frequency AM-LW (long wave) 198 kHz for the programme Radio Parliament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current state.", "content": "Except for the mast and the radio frequency transmission line that led to it, nearly all components of the facility remain in place, unused and slowly deteriorating.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Warsaw Radio Mast was a telecommunications tower located near the town of Gąbin, central Poland, and the world's tallest structure at from 1974 until its collapse on 8 August 1991. It was the second tallest structure ever built, being surpassed as the tallest by the Burj Khalifa tower in the United Arab Emirates, completed in 2009.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972160}
{"src_title": "Prosopis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Phytochemistry.", "content": "\"Prosopis\" species have been found to contain 5-hydroxytryptamine, apigenin, isorhamnetin-3-diglucoside, l-arabinose, quercetin, tannin, and tryptamine.  The tannins present in \"Prosopis\" species are of the pyrogallotannin and pyrocatecollic types. The tannins are mainly found in the bark and wood while their concentration in the pods is low.  Some species, such as \"P. africana\" or \"P. velutina\", produce a gum (mesquite gum).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As an introduced and invasive species.", "content": "The species \"Prosopis pallida\" was introduced to Hawaii in 1828 and now dominates many of the drier coastal parts of the islands, where it is called the kiawe tree and is a prime source of monofloral honey production.  In Australia, invasive \"Prosopis\" species are causing severe economic and environmental damage. With their thorns and many low branches, \"Prosopis\" shrubs form impenetrable thickets which prevent cattle from accessing watering holes, etc. They also take over pastoral grasslands and suck up scarce water. \"Prosopis\" species cause land erosion due to loss of grassland that are habitats for native plants and animals. \"Prosopis\" thickets also provide shelter for feral animals such as pigs and cats.  For more information on invasiveness of mesquite species, see \"Prosopis glandulosa\" and \"Prosopis juliflora\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eradication.", "content": "Eradicating \"Prosopis\" is difficult because the plant's bud regeneration zone can extend down to below ground level; the tree can regenerate from a piece of root left in the soil. Some herbicides are not effective or only partially effective against mesquite. Spray techniques for removal, while effective against short-term regrowth, are expensive, costing more than $70/acre ($170/hectare) in the USA. Removing large trees requires tracked equipment; costs can approach $2,000 per acre. In Australia, several techniques are used to remove \"Prosopis\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prosopis is a genus of flowering plants in the pea family, Fabaceae. It contains around 45 species of spiny trees and shrubs found in subtropical and tropical regions of the Americas, Africa, Western Asia, and South Asia. They often thrive in arid soil and are resistant to drought, on occasion developing extremely deep root systems. Their wood is usually hard, dense and durable. Their fruits are pods and may contain large amounts of sugar. The generic name means \"burdock\" in late Latin and originated in the Greek language.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972161}
{"src_title": "Kiosk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Etymological data points to the Middle Persian word \"kōšk\" 'palace, portico' as the origin, via Turkish \"köşk\" 'pavilion' and French \"kiosque\" or Italian \"chiosco\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History and origins.", "content": "A kiosk is an open summer-house or pavilion usually having its roof supported by pillars with screened or totally open walls. As a building type, it was first introduced by the Seljuks as a small building attached to the main mosque, which consisted of a domed hall with open arched sides. This architectural concept gradually evolved into a small yet grand residence used by Ottoman sultans, the most famous examples of which are quite possibly the Tiled Kiosk (\"Çinili Köşk\" in Turkish) and Baghdad Kiosk (\"Bağdat Köşkü\" in Turkish). The former was built in 1473 by Mehmed II (\"the Conqueror\") at the Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, and consists of a two storey building topped with a dome and having open sides overlooking the gardens of the palace. The Baghdad Koshk was also built at the Topkapı Palace in 1638–39, by Sultan Murad IV. The building is again domed, offering direct views onto the gardens and park of the Palace as well as the architecture of the city of Istanbul. Sultan Ahmed III (1703–1730) also built a glass room of the Sofa Kiosk at the Topkapı Palace incorporating some Western elements, such as the gilded brazier designed by Duplessis père, which was given to the Ottoman ambassador by King Louis XV of France.  The first English contact with Turkish Kiosk came through Lady Wortley Montagu (1689–1762), the wife of the English ambassador to Istanbul, who in a letter written on 1 April 1717 to Anne Thistlethwayte, mentions a \"chiosk\" describing it as \"\"raised by 9 or 10 steps and enclosed with gilded lattices\"\". European monarchs adopted the building type. Stanisław Leszczyński, king of Poland and father-in-law of Louis XV, built kiosks for himself based on his memories of his captivity in Turkey. These kiosks were used as garden pavilions serving coffee and beverages but later were converted into band stands and tourist information stands decorating most European gardens, parks and high streets.  Conservatories were in the form of corridors connecting the Pavilion to the stables and consisting of a passage of flowers covered with glass and linked with orangery, a greenhouse, an aviary, a pheasantry and hothouses. The influence of Muslim and Islamo-Indian forms appears clearly in these buildings and particularly in the pheasantry where its higher part is an adaptation of the kiosks found on the roof of Allahabad Palace, as illustrated by Thomas Daniell. Today's conservatories incorporate many elements of Islamic architecture, although modern art forms have shifted from the classical art forms that were used in earlier times.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Small shops and cafés.", "content": "In the Western hemisphere and in English-speaking countries, a \"kiosk\" is also a booth with an open window on one side. Some vendors operate from kiosks (see mall kiosk), selling small, inexpensive consumables such as newspapers, magazines, lighters, street maps, cigarettes, live and frozen fishing bait and confections.  In Australia, the word is commonly used for small buildings that are used to dispense mainly take-away food and drinks, on beaches, in shopping arcades or in parks. Since the 21st century, many of these have been upgraded and serve fancier food and barista-made coffee.  An information kiosk (or information booth) dispenses free information in the form of maps, pamphlets, and other literature, and/or advice offered by an attendant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interactive kiosks.", "content": "An electronic kiosk (or computer kiosk or interactive kiosk) houses a computer terminal that often employs custom kiosk software designed to function while preventing users from accessing system functions. Indeed, \"kiosk mode\" describes such a mode of software operation. Computerized kiosks may store data locally, or retrieve it from a computer network. Some computer kiosks provide a free, informational public service, while others serve a commercial purpose (see mall kiosk). Touchscreens, trackballs, computer keyboards, and pushbuttons are all typical input devices for interactive computer kiosk. Touchscreen kiosks are commercially used as industrial appliances, reducing lines, eliminating paper, improving efficiency and service. Their uses are unlimited from refrigerators to airports, health clubs, movie theaters and libraries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Historically, a kiosk () was a small garden pavilion open on some or all sides common in Persia, the Indian subcontinent, and in the Ottoman Empire from the 13th century onward. Today, several examples of this type of kiosk still exist in and around the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, and they can be seen in Balkan countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972162}
{"src_title": "Trans Europ Express", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The network was set up in 1957 following an idea of F.Q. den Hollander, then president-director of the Dutch national railway company (NS). TEE was a network jointly operated by the railways of West Germany (DB), France (SNCF), Switzerland (SBB-CFF-FFS), Italy (FS) and the Netherlands. Although some trains passed through Belgium from the beginning, the Belgian national railway company (NMBS/SNCB) joined the program only in 1964. Luxembourg (CFL) also joined at a later date.  The idea was for a network of fast and comfortable transnational trains that would be attractive to businessmen and other regular travellers. All trains were first-class-only and required payment of a special supplement over the normal first-class ticket price, the amount of which depended on the distance covered. Where possible, TEE trains' schedules were timed to allow a business traveller to make a round trip (return journey) within a single day and also have time for business activity at the destination. Each train was named, and all were expresses, stopping only at major cities. Some of the named trains had already existed for some years before creation of the TEE network and were simply newly designated as Trans-Europe Expresses in 1957 or later. For example, the \"Settebello\" had been in operation since 1953 and the \"Rheingold\" since 1951 (as a revival of a pre-World War II train). The network was launched in 1957 with trains serving 13 different routes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "Initially, the system was a completely diesel network. Because of the many different kinds of electrical specifications (voltages and current types – alternating current and direct current) used in the different countries it was thought at that time that use of diesel-hauled trains or diesel multiple-unit trainsets would greatly speed up border crossing. Moreover, at that time many border crossing sections were not yet electrified. The German DB built the streamlined DB Class VT 11.5, while the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB) and the Dutch NS developed the RAm / DE, both diesel trains. However, the creation of the international TEE network provided impetus for the development of special electric trainsets and electric locomotives, capable of operating at two or more different voltages. The DB used the 160 km/h E 10.12 and the 200 km/h DB Class 103, among other types. The SBB developed its RAe TEE II electric trainset, which was designed for four different railway electrification systems, and this type entered service in 1961. Belgian National Railways introduced its Type 150 locomotives (now called Class 15) in 1962, capable of handling three different voltages, followed by the four-voltage Type 160 (Class 16) in 1966 and Class 18 in 1973. Meanwhile, France's SNCF also developed and introduced ten quadruple-voltage locomotives, its Class CC 40100, between 1964 and 1970.  By 1975, all but two (\"L'Arbalète\" and \"Bavaria\") of the 43 TEE trains were electrically powered, and most were locomotive-hauled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modification of service.", "content": "Originally the idea was to promote only international routes as TEE routes. This idea was abandoned in 1965 with the introduction of the French \"Le Mistral\" and the German \"Blauer Enzian\". Later, TEE trains serving single countries were also introduced on other routes in France and Germany as well as in Italy, but most TEE routes continued to be international.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Growth.", "content": "The network grew in the course of the years, adding three more countries: Spain (RENFE), Denmark (DSB) and Austria (ÖBB). The system reached furthest in 1974. However, of these three only RENFE became a TEE member; the other two countries had TEEs running through them but the rail administrations were never members. In the late 1970s, the TEE network comprised 39 different named trains, serving 31 routes. A few routes had more than one TEE train concurrently; for example, the Paris–Brussels route had four TEEs, running at different times of the day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contraction and end.", "content": "From the late 1970s onward, gradually more and more Trans-Europe Express trains were replaced by other trains giving a similar kind of service but also carrying 2nd class. Business travellers used air travel more and more. In 1979 DB completely restructured the network with the coming of the new national InterCity services, resulting in successively fewer TEE services and more InterCity services in the course of time. The introduction of the TGV service in France in 1981, and its subsequent expansion, along with expansion of high-speed rail lines in other European countries led to still more TEEs' being replaced by domestic high-speed trains.  After 1984 most services were abandoned, leaving only some national services in (mostly) Italy and France and very few international services. Most trains were replaced by a new international intercity network with the name EuroCity which provides both 1st and 2nd class service. The EuroCity network began operating on 31 May 1987, and with effect from that date the last remaining international Trans-Europe Express trains were redesignated or withdrawn, except the \"Gottardo\" (reclassified as EuroCity in September 1988), but in name, the TEE designation continued to be used for a few domestic trains operating entirely within France until 1 June 1991. In September 1993 certain former TEE trains operating non-stop journeys between Brussels and Paris (or vice versa), which had been converted to EuroCity and offered both first- and second-class coaches, were rebranded as Trans-Europe Expresses, but remaining two-class trains. This was during a transition of Paris–Brussels express services to a new TGV alignment, and initially included the trains \"Brabant\", \"Île de France\", \"Rubens\" and \"Watteau\", all four serving the route in both directions. However, by 1995 the only TEE-branded trains remaining were the northbound \"Île de France\" (train 85) and southbound \"Watteau\" (train 88), the opposing-direction trains carrying the same names having already been converted to TGV stock (and designation), and these last two TEEs were replaced by TGV trains with effect from 29 May 1995, once again ending the formal use of the Trans-Europ Express name. These few Paris–Brussels (or vice versa) expresses, operated 1993–1995, were the only TEE-designated trains ever to carry second-class carriages (they were in effect EuroCity services). A few trains continued to utilise TEE branded coaches until 1 June 1996, but the trains themselves were no longer classified as TEEs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural References.", "content": "The railway service was the subject of a 1977 album by German electronic music group Kraftwerk, the music of which has been sampled multiple times and has thus engrained the railway reference in a variety of musical genres.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Trans Europ Express, or Trans-Europe Express (TEE), is a former international first-class railway service in western and central Europe that was founded in 1957 and ceased in 1995. At the height of its operations, in 1974, the TEE network comprised 45 trains, connecting 130 different cities, from Spain in the west to Austria in the east, and from Denmark to Southern Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972163}
{"src_title": "Stevia rebaudiana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"S. rebaudiana\" has been used over centuries by the Guaraní people of Brazil and Paraguay, who called it \"kaʼa heʼẽ\" (\"sweet herb\"), to sweeten the local yerba mate tea, as medicine, and as a \"sweet treat\".  In 1899, botanist Moisés Santiago Bertoni first described the plant as growing in eastern Paraguay, and observed its sweet taste.  In 1931, chemists M. Bridel and R. Lavielle isolated the glycosides stevioside and rebaudioside that give the leaves their sweet taste. The exact structures of the aglycone steviol and its glycoside were published in 1955.  Based on the JECFA (Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives) declaration, safe consumption of steviol glycosides for humans is determined to be 4 mg per kg body weight per day. It was also agreed by the European Commission in 2011 for use in food in European countries. Steviol glycosides have also been accepted in the US as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe).  Stevia leaf and raw extracts are not treated as GRAS and their import into the US is not allowed for usage as sweeteners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The flowers are white with light purple accents and no fragrance. Plants produce fruit which is ribbed spindle-shaped. Stevia prefers sandy-like soil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Begun in the 1960s, commercial cultivation has spread to Japan, Southeast Asia and the US, but also in mildly tropical climates in hilly areas of Nepal or India (Assam region). The plant prefers warm, moist and sunny conditions. The plant cannot survive frost during the winter and therefore greenhouses are used to grow stevia in Europe.  \"Stevia rebaudiana\" is found in the wild in semiarid habitats ranging from grassland to mountain terrain, do produce seeds, but only a small percentage of the seeds germinate.  \"Stevia rebaudiana\" has been grown on an experimental basis in Ontario, Canada since 1987 to determine the feasibility of commercial cultivation. Duke University researchers developed a strategic plan to assist farmers and exporters in Paraguay to compete in the global market for stevia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a sweetener.", "content": "When extracts of its leaves are processed into a powder, stevia is used as a sugar substitute in most of the developed world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stevia rebaudiana is a plant species in the genus \"Stevia\" of the sunflower family (Asteraceae). It is commonly known as candyleaf, sweetleaf or sugarleaf.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972164}
{"src_title": "Mary of Burgundy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Mary of Burgundy was born in Brussels at the ducal castle of Coudenberg, to Charles the Bold, then known as the Count of Charolais, and his wife Isabella of Bourbon. Her birth, according to the court chronicler Georges Chastellain, was attended by a clap of thunder ringing from the otherwise clear twilight sky. Her godfather was Louis, Dauphin of France, in exile in Burgundy at that time; he named her for his mother Marie of Anjou. Reactions to the child were mixed: the baby's grandfather, Duke Philip the Good, was unimpressed, and \"chose not to attend the [baptism] as it was only for a girl\", whereas her grandmother Isabella of Portugal was delighted at the birth of a granddaughter. Her illegitimate aunt Anne was assigned to be responsible for Mary's education and assigned Jeanne de Clito to be her Governess, Jeanne remained a constant friend to Mary later in life and was one of her most constant companions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heiress presumptive.", "content": "Philip the Good died in 1467 and Mary's father assumed control of the Burgundian State. Since her father had no living sons at the time of his accession, Mary became his heir presumptive. Her father controlled a vast and wealthy domain made up of the Duchy of Burgundy, the Free County of Burgundy, and the majority of the Low Countries. As a result, her hand in marriage was eagerly sought by a number of princes. The first proposal was received by her father when she was only five years old, in this case to marry the future King Ferdinand II of Aragon. Later she was approached by Charles, Duke of Berry; his older brother, King Louis XI of France, was intensely annoyed by Charles's move and attempted to prevent the necessary papal dispensation for consanguinity.  As soon as Louis succeeded in producing a male heir who survived infancy, the future King Charles VIII of France, Louis wanted him to be the one to marry Mary, even though he was thirteen years younger than Mary was. Nicholas I, Duke of Lorraine, was a few years older than Mary and controlled a duchy that lay alongside Burgundian territory, but his plan to combine his domain with hers was ended by his death in battle in 1473.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Mary assumed the rule of her father's domains upon his defeat in battle and death on 5 January 1477. King Louis XI of France seized the opportunity to attempt to take possession of the Duchy of Burgundy proper and also the regions of Franche-Comté, Picardy and Artois.  The king was anxious that Mary should marry his son Charles and thus secure the inheritance of the Low Countries for his heirs, by force of arms if necessary. Burgundy, fearing French military power, sent an embassy to France to negotiate a marriage between Mary and the six-year-old Dauphin (later King Charles VIII), but returned home without a betrothal; the French king's demands of cession of territories to the French crown were deemed unacceptable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Great Privilege.", "content": "Mary was compelled to sign a charter of rights known as the Great Privilege in Ghent on 10 February 1477 on the occasion of her formal recognition as her father's heir (the \"Joyous Entry\"). Under this agreement, the provinces and towns of Flanders, Brabant, Hainaut, and Holland recovered all the local and communal rights that had been abolished by the decrees of the dukes of Burgundy in their efforts to create a centralised state on the French model out of their disparate holdings in the Low Countries. In particular, the Parliament of Mechelen (established formally by Charles the Bold in 1470) was abolished and replaced with the pre-existing authority of the Parliament of Paris, which was considered an amenable counterweight to the encroaching centralisation undertaken by both Charles the Bold and Philip the Good. The duchess also had to undertake not to declare war, make peace, or raise taxes without the consent of these provinces and towns and only to employ native residents in official posts.  Such was the hatred of the people for the old regime that in spite of the duchess's entreaties, two of her father's most influential councilors, the Chancellor Hugonet and the Sire d'Humbercourt, were executed in Ghent after it was discovered that they were in correspondence with the king of France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Mary soon made her choice among the many suitors for her hand by selecting Archduke Maximilian of Austria, the future Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, who became her co-ruler. The marriage took place at Ghent on 19 August 1477. Mary's marriage into the House of Habsburg initiated two centuries of contention between France and the Habsburgs, a struggle that climaxed with the War of the Spanish Succession in the years 1701–1714.  In the Netherlands, affairs now went more smoothly; the French aggression was temporarily checked, and internal peace was in large measure restored.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "In 1482, a falcon hunt in the woods near Wijnendale Castle was organised by Adolph of Cleves, Lord of Ravenstein, who lived in the castle. Mary loved riding and was hunting with Maximilian and knights of the court when her horse tripped, threw her in a ditch, and then landed on top of her, breaking her back. She died several weeks later on 27 March from internal injuries, having made a detailed will. She was buried in the Church of Our Lady in Bruges on 3 April, 1482.  Her two-year-old daughter, Margaret of Austria, was sent in vain to France, to marry the Dauphin, in an attempt to please Louis XI and persuade him not to invade the territories owned by Mary.  Louis was swift to re-engage hostilities with Maximilian and forced him to agree to the Treaty of Arras of 1482, by which Franche-Comté and Artois passed for a time to French rule, only to be recovered by the Treaty of Senlis of 1493, which established peace in the Low Countries. Mary's marriage into the House of Habsburg proved to be a disaster for France because the Burgundian inheritance later brought it into conflict with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Mary's son Philip succeeded to her dominions under the guardianship of his father.  Her children were as follows:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mary (; ; 13 February 1457 – 27 March 1482), Duchess of Burgundy, reigned over the Burgundian State, now mainly in France and the Low Countries, from 1477 until her death in a riding accident at the age of 25.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972165}
{"src_title": "Billa (supermarket)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Billa in Europe.", "content": "Billa operates stores in these 6 European countries: Billa also had locations in Italy, Croatia, Hungary, Poland and Romania but all of those had since been sold to other supermarket chains. In 2002, all 21 Billa stores in Hungary were sold to Spar. In 2009, all 14 Billa stores in Poland were sold to E.Leclerc. In 2016, all 86 Billa stores in Romania were sold to Carrefour. The same year, all 62 Billa stores in Croatia were sold to Spar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Billa in Bulgaria.", "content": "The company opened its first supermarket in Bulgaria in 2000 and has since then expanded to cover 35 Bulgarian cities, operating a total of 119 supermarkets as of September 2016.  In June 2006, the roof of one of the stores in Sofia collapsed during a storm. There were no injuries reported. There was an investigation to determine the reason for the poor quality of the construction work and whether the same problems are present at other Billa stores in the country, with 11 people eventually going to court.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Billa in the Czech Republic.", "content": "The first Billa supermarket in the Czech Republic was opened in Stránského Street, Brno, on 26 October 1991. The company now has 215 stores in the country and employs more than 6,000 staff. Billa stores, which have an average sales area of 900 m, place particular emphasis on fresh products such as delicacies, pastries, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, meat, and chilled products.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Billa in Romania.", "content": "Billa was owned by Rewe Group, which also operates XXL, Penny Market and Selgros outlets in Romania. The company used the tagline \"Billa zilnic - Cel mai bun pentru mine\" (\"Billa daily - The best for me\") and opened its first store in Bucharest in 1999. Since then, Billa has turned into one of the most well represented supermarket chains, with 87 stores (as of September 2016) in Romania. In 2015, all Billa stores were sold to Carrefour Group, and by the end of 2017 will be rebranded into Carrefour Market.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Billa in Russia.", "content": "Rewe Group operates 151 stores 'Billa' in Russia (most of them in Moscow). The company opened its first supermarket in Russia in 2004 and has since then expanded to cover Moscow and a few cities around it.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "BILLA () is an Austrian supermarket chain that operates throughout Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe. The company, which was founded by Karl Wlaschek in 1953, is currently owned by Germany's REWE Group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972166}
{"src_title": "Fir", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Leaves.", "content": "Firs can be distinguished from other members of the pine family by the unique attachment of their needle-like leaves to the twig by a base that resembles a small suction cup. The leaves are significantly flattened, sometimes even looking like they are pressed, as in \"A. sibirica\".  The leaves have two whitish lines on the bottom, each of which is formed by wax-covered stomatal bands. In most species, the upper surface of the leaves is uniformly green and shiny, without stomata or with a few on the tip, visible as whitish spots. Other species have the upper surface of leaves dull, gray-green or bluish-gray to silvery (glaucous), coated by wax with variable number of stomatal bands, and not always continuous. An example species with shiny green leaves is \"A. alba\", and an example species with dull waxy leaves is \"A. concolor\".  The tips of leaves are usually more or less notched (as in \"A. firma\"), but sometimes rounded or dull (as in \"A. concolor\", \"A. magnifica\") or sharp and prickly (as in \"A. bracteata\", \"A. cephalonica\", \"A. holophylla\"). The leaves of young plants are usually sharper.  The way they spread from the shoot is very diverse, only in some species comb-shaped, with the leaves arranged on two sides, flat (\"A. alba\")", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cones.", "content": "Firs differ from other conifers in having erect, cylindrical cones long that disintegrate at maturity to release the winged seeds.  In contrast to spruces, even large fir cones do not hang, but are raised like candles.  Mature cones are usually brown, young in summer can be green, for example:  or purple and blue, sometimes very dark:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Section \"Abies\".", "content": "Section \"Abies\" is found in central, south, and eastern Europe and Asia Minor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Section \"Balsamea\".", "content": "Section \"Balsamea\" is found in northern Asia and North America, and high mountains further south.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Section \"Grandis\".", "content": "Section \"Grandis\" is found in western North America to Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador, in lowlands in the north, moderate altitudes in south.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Section \"Momi\".", "content": "Section \"Momi\" is found in east and central Asia and the Himalaya, generally at low to moderate altitudes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Section \"Amabilis\".", "content": "Section \"Amabilis\" is found in the Pacific Coast mountains in North America and Japan, in high rainfall areas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Section \"Pseudopicea\".", "content": "Section \"Pseudopicea\" is found in the Sino – Himalayan mountains at high altitudes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Section \"Oiamel\".", "content": "Section \"Oiamel\" is found in central Mexico at high altitudes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Section \"Nobilis\".", "content": "Section \"Nobilis\" (western U.S., high altitudes)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Section \"Bracteata\".", "content": "Section \"Bracteata\" (California coast)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Section \"Incertae sedis\".", "content": "Section \"Incertae sedis\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses and ecology.", "content": "Wood of most firs is considered unsuitable for general timber use and is often used as pulp or for the manufacture of plywood and rough timber. Because this genus has no insect or decay resistance qualities after logging, it is generally recommended in construction purposes for indoor use only (e.g. indoor drywall on framing). Fir wood left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12 to 18 months, depending on the type of climate it is exposed to.  Nordmann fir, noble fir, Fraser fir and balsam fir are popular Christmas trees, generally considered to be the best for this purpose, with aromatic foliage that does not shed many needles on drying out. Many are also decorative garden trees, notably Korean fir and Fraser fir, which produce brightly coloured cones even when very young, still only tall. Other firs can grow anywhere between tall. Fir Tree Appreciation Day is June 18.  \"Abies religiosa\"—sacred fir, is the overwinter host for the monarch butterfly (\"Danaus plexippus\"). This insect species migrates from central and north United States and south Canada to Central Mexico (Michoacán and Estado de Mexico). During the fall migration, monarchs cover thousands of miles, with a corresponding multi-generational return north. The western North American population of monarchs west of the Rocky Mountains often migrates to sites in southern California but has been found in overwintering Mexican sites as well. Firs are used as food plants by the caterpillars of some Lepidoptera species, including \"Chionodes abella\" (recorded on white fir), autumnal moth, conifer swift (a pest of balsam fir), the engrailed, grey pug, mottled umber, pine beauty and the tortrix moths \"Cydia illutana\" (whose caterpillars are recorded to feed on European silver fir cone scales) and \"C. duplicana\" (on European silver fir bark around injuries or canker).  \"Abies spectabilis\" or Talispatra is used in Ayurveda as an antitussive (cough suppressant) drug.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Philips, Roger. \"Trees of North America and Europe\", Random House, Inc., New York, 1979.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Firs (Abies) are a genus of 48–56 species of evergreen coniferous trees in the family Pinaceae. They are found through much of North and Central America, Europe, Asia, and North Africa, occurring in mountains over most of the range. Firs are most closely related to the genus \"Cedrus\" (cedar). Douglas firs are not true firs, being of the genus \"Pseudotsuga\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972167}
{"src_title": "Emmerich Kálmán", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Kálmán was born Imre Koppstein in Siófok, then in Austria-Hungary, on the southern shore of Lake Balaton, to a Jewish family. Kálmán initially intended to become a concert pianist, but because of early-onset arthritis, he focused on composition instead. He studied music theory and composition at the National Hungarian Royal Academy of Music (then the Budapest Academy of Music), where he was a fellow student of Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály under Hans Kössler.  His early symphonic poems \"Saturnalia\" and \"Endre es Johanna\" were well-received, although he failed to achieve publication. He also composed piano music and wrote many songs: a song cycle on poems by Ludwig Jacobowski and a song collection published under the title \"Dalai\".  However, the popularity of his humorous cabaret songs led him towards the composition of operettas. His first great success was \"Tatárjárás\" – \"Ein Herbstmanöver\" in German, meaning \"Autumn maneuver\", although the English title is \"The Gay Hussars\", which was first staged at the in Budapest, on 22 February 1908. Thereafter he moved to Vienna, where he achieved worldwide fame through his operettas \"Der Zigeunerprimas\", \"Die Csárdásfürstin\", \"Gräfin Mariza\", and \"Die Zirkusprinzessin\".  Kálmán and Franz Lehár were the leading composers of what has been called the \"Silver Age\" of Viennese operetta during the first quarter of the 20th century. He became well known for his fusion of Viennese waltz with Hungarian csárdás. Even so, polyphonically and melodically, Kálmán was a devoted follower of Giacomo Puccini, while in his orchestration methods he employed principles characteristic of Tchaikovsky's music.  Despite his Jewish origins he was one of Adolf Hitler's favorite composers. After the Anschluss, he rejected Hitler's offer to become an 'honorary Aryan' and was forced to move first to Paris, then to the United States, settling in California in 1940.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Last years and death.", "content": "Following his emigration, performances of his works were prohibited in Nazi Germany. He emigrated back to Vienna from New York in 1949 before moving in 1951 to Paris, where he died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "In 1958 a West German biopic \"The Csardas King\" was made of his life, starring Gerhard Riedmann in the lead role.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emmerich Kálmán (; 24 October 1882 – 30 October 1953) was an Hungarian composer of operettas and a prominent figure in the development of Viennese operetta in the 20th century. Among his most popular works are \"Die Csárdásfürstin\" (1915) and \"Gräfin Mariza\" (1924). Influences on his compositional style include Hungarian folk music (such as the csárdás), the Viennese style of precursors such as Johann Strauss II and Franz Lehár, and, in his later works, American jazz. As a result of the \"Anschluss,\" Kálmán and his family fled to Paris and then to the United States. He eventually returned to Europe in 1949 and died in Paris in 1953.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972168}
{"src_title": "Robert Stolz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Stolz was born of musical parents in Graz. His father was a conductor and a composer, his mother a concert pianist, and he was the great-nephew of the soprano Teresa Stolz. At the age of seven, he toured Europe as a pianist, playing Mozart. He studied at the Vienna Conservatory with Robert Fuchs and Engelbert Humperdinck. From 1899 he held successive conducting posts at Maribor (then called Marburg), Salzburg and Brno before succeeding Artur Bodanzky at the Theater an der Wien in 1907. There he conducted, among other pieces, the first performance of Oscar Strauss's \"Der tapfere Soldat\" (\"The Chocolate Soldier\") in 1908, before leaving in 1910 to become a freelance composer and conductor. Meanwhile, he had begun to compose operettas and individual songs and had a number of successes in these fields.  After serving in the Austrian Army in World War I, Stolz devoted himself mainly to cabaret, and moved to Berlin in 1925. Around 1930, he started to compose music for films, such as the first German sound film \"Zwei Herzen im Dreivierteltakt\" (\"Two Hearts in Waltz Time\"), of which the title-waltz rapidly became a popular favourite. Some earlier Stolz compositions, such as \"Adieu, mein kleiner Gardeoffizier\" from his operetta \"Die lustigen Weiber von Wien\", became known to wider audiences through the medium of film, after it was interpolated into Im weißen Rößl (The White Horse Inn).  The rise of Nazi Germany led Stolz to return to Vienna, where his title-song for the film \"Ungeküsst soll man nicht schlafen gehn\" was a hit. He remained active in Berlin as well. He used to travel by car between the two cities, so he smuggled Jews and political refugees across the German-Austrian border in the trunk of his limousine. He managed to do so 21 times. Then came the Anschluss, and he moved again, first to Zürich and then to Paris, where in 1939 he was interned as an enemy alien. With the help of friends he was released and in 1940 made his way to New York. In America, Stolz achieved fame with his concerts of Viennese music, starting with \"A Night in Vienna\" at Carnegie Hall. As a result, he received many invitations to compose music for shows and films, and he received two Academy Awards nominations: \"Waltzing in the Clouds\" for \"Spring Parade\" was nominated for Best Original Song in 1941, and his score for \"It Happened Tomorrow\" was nominated for Best Dramatic or Comedy Picture Score in 1945.  In 1946 Stolz returned to Vienna, where he lived for the rest of his life. In the 1960s and 1970s he made numerous recordings of operettas by composers such as Johann Strauss, Franz Lehár, Emmerich Kálmán, and Leo Fall, whom he had known previously.  In 1952, he began to compose for the Vienna Ice Revue. He dedicated his first of 19 ice operettas (\"Eternal Eve\") to European Champion Eva Pawlik. In 1970, to mark his 90th birthday, he was made an Honorary Citizen of Vienna. He was also awarded Vienna's Grand Medal of Honour, being only the second musician ever to be so honoured (after Richard Strauss). He also appeared on a series of commemorative Austrian postage stamps.  In later years he used a baton inherited from Franz Lehár, which had been originally owned by Johann Strauss and contained Strauss's initials engraved in silver.  After his death in Berlin in 1975, Robert Stolz received the honour of a lying-in-state in the foyer of the Vienna State Opera House. He was buried near Johannes Brahms and Johann Strauss II in Vienna's Zentralfriedhof, and a statue to him was erected in the Wiener Stadtpark. A street is named after him - just off the Opernring in Vienna, close to the State Opera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages.", "content": "Robert Stolz was married five times. His first and second wives (Grete Holm and Franzi Ressel), were singers. His third wife was Josephine Zernitz and the fourth was named Lilli. His fifth wife Yvonne Louise Ulrich, called \"Einzi\" (1912-2004) or \"die Einzige\", for her role assisting German and Austrian artists in exile in Paris during the Second World War, was his manager until his death. She had one daughter from her first marriage, whom Robert Stolz adopted: Clarissa. Robert Stolz's grandchildren are French writer and entrepreneur and financier Nick Henry-Stolz.  Comprehensive list on IMDB Robert Stolz", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Elisabeth Stolz (25 August 188027 June 1975) was an Austrian songwriter and conductor as well as a composer of operettas and film music.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972169}
{"src_title": "Volksempfänger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The original Volksempfänger VE301 model was presented on August 18, 1933, at the 10. Große Deutsche Funkausstellung in Berlin. The VE301 was available at a readily affordable price of 76 German Reichsmark (equivalent to two weeks' average salary), and a cheaper 35 Reichsmark model (which was even sold on an installment plan), the DKE38 (sometimes called \"Goebbels-Schnauze\" – \"Goebbels' snout\" – by the general public) fitted with a multisection tube, was also later produced, along with a series of other models under the Volksempfänger, Gemeinschaftsempfänger, KdF (Kraft durch Freude), DKE (Deutscher Kleinempfänger) and other brands. The \"Volksempfänger\" was designed to be produced as cheaply as possible, as a consequence they generally lacked shortwave bands and did not follow the practice, common at the time, of marking the approximate dial positions of major European stations on its tuning scale. Only German and (after 1938) Austrian stations were marked and cheaper models only listed arbitrary numbers. Sensitivity was limited to reduce production costs further; so long as the set could receive Deutschlandsender and the local Reichssender, it was considered sensitive enough, although foreign stations could be received after dark with an external antenna, particularly as stations such as the BBC European service increased transmission power during the course of the war.  Listening to foreign stations became a criminal offence in Nazi Germany when the war began, while in some occupied territories, such as Poland, all radio listening by non-German citizens was outlawed (later in the war this prohibition was extended to a few other occupied countries coupled with mass seizures of radio sets). Penalties ranged from fines and confiscation of radios to, particularly later in the war, sentencing to a concentration camp or capital punishment. Nevertheless, such clandestine listening was widespread in many Nazi-occupied countries and (particularly later in the war) in Germany itself. The Germans also attempted radio jamming of some enemy stations with limited success.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical.", "content": "First introduced in 1933, the \"Volksempfänger\" Model VE301 used a tuned radio frequency (TRF) circuit, an economical radio receiver design common during the 1920s. The radio set was capable of reception on two bands: \"Langwelle\" (long wave) from 150 to 350 kilohertz, and \"Mittelwelle\" (medium wave) from 550 to 1700 kilohertz. The glass tuning dial was imprinted with the names of German and Austrian cities corresponding to the frequencies of broadcast stations located in them. The set employed three vacuum tubes: RGN 1064, RES 164, and AF7. Three different VE301 models were produced to suit differing power supply requirements: batteries, alternating current (AC) mains, or direct current (DC) mains. Variations in AC line current were accommodated by moving a wire on the power transformer to select 110 volt, 130 volt, or 220 volt current. Three antenna jacks were provided for antennas of differing lengths, used to optimize reception on the different frequency bands. \"Volksempfänger\" models produced between 1933 and 1937 used an inexpensive metal reed type speaker. The 1938 models (VE301 Dyn) added an audio output transformer and featured a more modern electrodynamic loudspeaker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effects.", "content": "Much has been said about the efficiency of the \"Volksempfänger\" as a propaganda tool. Most famously, Hitler's architect and Minister for Armaments and War Production, Albert Speer, said in his final speech at the Nuremberg trials:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Utility receiver.", "content": "The \"Volksempfänger\" \"people's radio\" concept has been compared to the Utility Radio or \"Civilian Receiver\" produced by Britain between 1944 and 1945. Unlike the \"Volksempfänger\", the Utility Radio was produced primarily to remedy a shortage of consumer radio sets caused by the British radio industry's switch from civilian to military radio production. These Utility Radios followed a standardized and government approved design, and were built by a consortium of manufacturers using standard components.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Volksempfänger (, \"people's receiver\") was a range of radio receivers developed by engineer Otto Griessing at the request of Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972170}
{"src_title": "Geta (emperor)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Geta was the younger son of Septimius Severus by his second wife Julia Domna. Geta was born in Rome, at a time when his father was only a provincial governor at the service of Emperor Commodus.  Conflicts between Geta and Caracalla were constant and often required the mediation of their mother. To appease his younger son, Septimius Severus gave Geta the title of \"Augustus\" in 209.  During the campaign against the Britons in the early 3rd century AD, imperial propaganda promoted the image of a happy family that shared the responsibilities of rule. Septimius Severus entrusted Julia Domna with the role of counsellor, Caracalla acted as the emperor's second in command, and administrative and bureaucratic duties were Geta's responsibility. In reality, however, the rivalry and antipathy between the brothers did not abate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Joint Emperor.", "content": "When Septimius Severus died in Eboracum in early 211, Caracalla and Geta were proclaimed joint emperors and returned to Rome. It is said that on the journey from England to Rome the two brothers kept well away from each other, not once lodging in the same house or sharing a common meal.  Their joint rule was a failure. The Imperial Palace in Rome was divided into two separate sections, and neither allowed the servants of the other into his own. They only met in the presence of their mother, and with a strong military guard, being in constant fear of assassination. The historian Herodian asserted that the brothers decided to split the empire in two halves, when, by the end of 211, the situation had become unbearable. Caracalla tried unsuccessfully to murder Geta during the festival of Saturnalia (17 December). Finally, on the 26th of December, Caracalla had his mother arrange a peace meeting with his brother in his mother's apartments, thus depriving Geta of his bodyguards, and then had him murdered in her arms by centurions.  Caracalla ordered the damnation of his memory, which was thoroughly carried out, as is clear from the archaeological record. Reportedly, Caracalla was thereafter tormented by guilt over his deed, but sought to expiate it by adding to this crime the proscription of all his brother's former followers. Cassius Dio stated that around 20,000 men and women were killed or proscribed on this charge during this time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portrait.", "content": "Very few marble portraits attributable to Geta survive to date, presumably due to the very thorough damnatio memoriae which resulted in the erasing of his images. However Roman coins with his image are plentiful, and can reflect how his father Septimius Severus and later Geta himself wanted him to be seen by the Roman people (and especially the Roman military).  Images of Geta and his older brother Caracalla cannot be well distinguished until the death of the father. Both sons were supposed to be presented as equally suitable heirs to the throne, showing thus more \"depth\" to the dynasty.  On his coins, Caracalla, who became Augustus in 198, was shown with a wreath of laurels, while Geta remained bareheaded until he himself became Augustus in 209. Between 209 and their father's death in February 211, both brothers were shown as equally mature young men with a short full beard, ready to take over the empire. Between the death of Septimus Severus and the assassination of Geta, Caracalla's portraits did not change, while Geta was depicted with a long beard with hanging hairs, much like his father, a strong indication of Geta's efforts to be seen as the \"true\" successor of his father.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Geta (; fully: Publius or Lucius Septimius Geta; 7 March 189 – 26 December 211) was Roman emperor with his father Septimius Severus and older brother Caracalla from 209, when he was named Augustus like his brother, who had held the title since 198. Severus died in 211, and although he intended for his sons to rule together, they proved incapable of sharing power, culminating with the murder of Geta in December of that year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972171}
{"src_title": "Australian and New Zealand Army Corps", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Original formation.", "content": "Plans for the formation began in November 1914 while the first contingent of Australian and New Zealand troops were still in convoy bound for, as they thought, Europe. However, following the experiences of the Canadian Expeditionary Force encamped on Salisbury Plain, where there was a shortage of accommodation and equipment, it was decided not to subject the Australians and New Zealanders to the English winter, and so they were diverted to Egypt for training before moving on to the Western Front in France. The British Secretary of State for War, Horatio Kitchener, appointed General William Birdwood, an officer of the British Indian Army, to the command of the corps and he furnished most of the corps staff from the Indian Army as well. Birdwood arrived in Cairo on 21 December 1914 to assume command of the corps.  It was originally intended to name the corps the Australasian Army Corps, this title being used in the unit diary in line with the common practice of the time which often saw New Zealanders and Australians compete together as Australasia in sporting events. However, complaints from New Zealand recruits led to adoption of the name Australian and New Zealand Army Corps. The administration clerks found the title too cumbersome so quickly adopted the abbreviation A. & N.Z.A.C. or simply ANZAC. Shortly afterwards it was officially adopted as the codename for the corps, but it did not enter common usage amongst the troops until after the Gallipoli landings.  At the outset, the corps comprised two divisions; the Australian Division, composed of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Australian Infantry Brigades and the New Zealand and Australian Division, composed of the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade and 4th Australian Infantry Brigade. The 2nd and 3rd Australian Light Horse Brigades were assigned as corps level troops, belonging to neither division.  Despite being synonymous with Australia and New Zealand, ANZAC was a multi-national body: in addition to the many British officers in the corps and division staffs, the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps contained, at various points, the 7th Brigade of the Indian Mountain Artillery, Ceylon Planters Rifle Corps troops, the Zion Mule Corps, several battalions from the Royal Naval Division, the British 13th (Western) Division, one brigade of the British 10th (Irish) Division and the 29th Indian Brigade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later formations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "Following the evacuation of Gallipoli in December 1915, the Australian and New Zealand units reassembled in Egypt. The New Zealand contingent expanded to form their own division; the New Zealand Division. The First Australian Imperial Force underwent a major reorganisation resulting in the formation of two new divisions; the 4th and 5th divisions. (The Australian 3rd Division was forming in Australia and would be sent directly to England and then to France.) These divisions were reformed into two corps: I ANZAC Corps and II ANZAC Corps. I ANZAC Corps, under the command of General Birdwood, departed for France in early 1916. II ANZAC Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Alexander Godley, followed soon after.  In January 1916, the 4th (ANZAC) Battalion, Imperial Camel Corps, was formed with Australian and New Zealand troops. The 1st and 3rd Battalions were Australian, while the 2nd Battalion was British. Then in March 1916, the ANZAC Mounted Division with three Australian and one New Zealand brigade, was formed for service in Egypt and Palestine. There was also the 1st (ANZAC) Wireless Signal Squadron, which served with the British expeditionary force in Mesopotamia in 1916–1917.  In early 1916, the Australian and, to a lesser extent, New Zealand governments sought the creation of an Australian and New Zealand Army, which would have included the New Zealand Division and all of the Australian infantry divisions, but this did not occur.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "During World War II, the Australian I Corps HQ moved to Greece in April 1941. As the corps also controlled the New Zealand 2nd Division (along with Greek and British formations), it was officially renamed ANZAC Corps in April. The Battle of Greece was over in weeks and the corps HQ left Greece on 23–24 April, with the name \"ANZAC Corps\" no longer being used.  Some troops evacuated to Alexandria, but the majority were sent to Crete to reinforce its garrison against an expected air and sea German invasion. Australians and New Zealanders were respectively deployed around the cities of Rethymno and Chania in western Crete with a smaller Australian force being positioned in Heraklion. The invasion began the morning of 20 May and, after the fierce Battle of Crete, which lasted ten days, Crete fell to the Germans. Most of the defenders of Chania withdrew across the island to the south coast and were evacuated by the Royal Navy from Sfakia. Many others evaded capture for several months, hiding in the mountains with generous assistance from the local Cretan population. Others who were captured and transported to Axis POW camps in mainland Europe were able to escape en route via Yugoslavia. Those who escaped found refuge with Chetniks and Yugoslav Partisans until they were either repatriated or recaptured by Axis forces.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other conflicts.", "content": "During the Vietnam War, two companies from the Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment were integrated into Royal Australian Regiment battalions. These integrated battalions had the suffix (ANZAC) added to their name (for example, 4 RAR became the 4RAR/NZ (ANZAC) Battalion). An ANZAC battalion served as one of the infantry battalions of the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF) from early March 1968 until its withdrawal in December 1971. Due to the rotation of forces there were a total of five combined battalions of this period.  The ANZAC Battle Group was the official designation of Australian and New Zealand units deployed to Timor Leste as part of Operation Astute. The battle group was established in September 2006.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) was a First World War army corps of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force. It was formed in Egypt in December 1914, and operated during the Gallipoli campaign. General William Birdwood commanded the corps, which primarily consisted of troops from the First Australian Imperial Force and 1st New Zealand Expeditionary Force, although there were also British and Indian units attached at times throughout the campaign. The corps disbanded in 1916, following the Allied evacuation of the Gallipoli peninsula and the formation of I ANZAC Corps and II ANZAC Corps. The corps was reestablished, briefly, in the Second World War during the Battle of Greece in 1941.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972172}
{"src_title": "Michael Walzer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Born to a Jewish family on March 3, 1935, Walzer graduated \"summa cum laude\" from Brandeis University in 1956 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history. He then studied at the University of Cambridge on a Fulbright Fellowship (1956–1957) and completed his doctoral work at Harvard University, earning his Doctor of Philosophy degree in government under Samuel Beer in 1961.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Michael Walzer is usually identified as one of the leading proponents of the communitarian position in political theory, along with Alasdair MacIntyre and Michael J. Sandel. Like Sandel and MacIntyre, Walzer is not completely comfortable with this label. However, he has long argued that political theory must be grounded in the traditions and culture of particular societies, and has long opposed what he sees to be the excessive abstraction of political philosophy. His most important intellectual contributions include \"Just and Unjust Wars\" (1977), a revitalization of just war theory that insists on the importance of \"ethics\" in wartime while eschewing pacifism; the theory of \"complex equality\", which holds that the metric of just equality is not some single material or moral good, but rather that egalitarian justice demands that each good be distributed according to its social meaning, and that no good (like money or political power) be allowed to dominate or distort the distribution of goods in other spheres; and an argument that justice is primarily a moral standard within particular nations and societies, not one that can be developed in a universalized abstraction.  In \"On Toleration\", he describes various examples of (and approaches to) toleration in various settings, including multinational empires such as Rome; nations in past and current-day international society; \"consociations\" such as Switzerland; nation-states such as France; and immigrant societies such as the United States. He concludes by describing a \"post-modern\" view, in which cultures within an immigrant nation have blended and inter-married to the extent that toleration becomes an intra-familial affair.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Employment.", "content": "Walzer was first employed in 1962 in the politics department at Princeton University. He stayed there until 1966, when he moved to the government department at Harvard. He taught at Harvard until 1980, when he became a permanent faculty member in the School of Social Science at the Institute for Advanced Study. In spring 2014, he taught at Harvard Law School as Caroline Zelaznik Gruss and Joseph S. Gruss Visiting Professor in Talmudic Civil Law.  In 1971, Walzer taught a semester-long course at Harvard with Robert Nozick called \"Capitalism and Socialism\". The course was a debate between the two philosophers: Nozick's side is delineated in \"Anarchy, State, and Utopia\" (1974), and Walzer's side is expressed in his \"Spheres of Justice\" (1983), in which he argues for \"complex equality\".  Walzer is a member of the editorial board of the \"Jewish Review of Books\" and an Advisory Editor at \"Fathom\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "In April 2008, Walzer received the prestigious Spinoza Lens, a bi-annual prize for ethics in the Netherlands. He has also been honoured with an emeritus professorship at the prestigious Institute for Advanced Study. He was elected to a Fellowship of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences in 1971, and to a Corresponding Fellowship of the British Academy in 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Walzer is married to Judith Borodovko Walzer. They are parents of two daughters: Sarah Esther Walzer (born 1961) and Rebecca Leah Walzer (born 1966). His grandchildren are Joseph and Katya Barrett, and Jules and Stefan Walzer-Goldfeld.  Walzer is the older brother of historian Judith Walzer Leavitt.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michael Laban Walzer (; born 1935) is a prominent American political theorist and public intellectual. A professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) in Princeton, New Jersey, he is co-editor of \"Dissent,\" an intellectual magazine that he has been affiliated with since his years as an undergraduate at Brandeis University. He has written books and essays on a wide range of topics—many in political ethics—including just and unjust wars, nationalism, ethnicity, Zionism, economic justice, social criticism, radicalism, tolerance, and political obligation. He is also a contributing editor to \"The New Republic\". To date, he has written 27 books and published over 300 articles, essays, and book reviews in \"Dissent\", \"The New Republic\", \"The New York Review of Books\", \"The New Yorker\", \"The New York Times\", \"Harpers\", and many philosophical and political science journals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972173}
{"src_title": "Rub' al Khali", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terrain.", "content": "The desert is long, and wide. Its surface elevation varies from in the southwest to around sea level in the northeast. The terrain is covered with sand dunes with heights up to, interspersed with gravel and gypsum plains. The sand is of a reddish-orange color due to the presence of feldspar.  There are also brackish salt flats in some areas, such as the Umm al Samim area on the desert's eastern edge. Ali Al-Naimi reports that the sand dunes don't drift. He goes on to say,  Sand blows off the surface, of course, but the essential shape of the dunes remains intact, probably due to the moisture leaching up into the base of the dunes from the surrounding sabkhas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lake beds.", "content": "Along the middle length of the desert there are a number of raised, hardened areas of calcium carbonate, gypsum, marl, or clay that were once the site of shallow lakes. These lakes existed during periods from 6,000 to 5,000 years ago and 3,000 to 2,000 years ago. The lakes are thought to have formed as a result of \"cataclysmic rainfall\" similar to present-day monsoon rains and most probably lasted for only a few years. However, lakes in the Mundafen area in the southwest of the Rub' al Khali show evidence of lasting longer, up to 800 years, due to increased runoff from the Tuwaiq Escarpment.  Evidence suggests that the lakes were home to a variety of flora and fauna. Fossil remains indicate the presence of several animal species, such as hippopotamus, water buffalo, and long-horned cattle. The lakes also contained small snails, ostracods, and when conditions were suitable, freshwater clams. Deposits of calcium carbonate and opal phytoliths indicate the presence of plants and algae. There is also evidence of human activity dating from 3,000 to 2,000 years ago, including chipped flint tools, but no actual human remains have been found.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The region is classified as \"hyper-arid\", with annual precipitation generally less than, and daily mean relative humidity of about 52% in January and 15% in June–July. Daily maximum temperatures average in July and August, reaching peaks of. The daily minimum average is in January and February, although frosts have been recorded. Daily extremes of temperature are considerable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biodiversity.", "content": "Fauna includes arachnids (e.g. scorpions) and rodents, while plants live throughout the Empty Quarter. As an ecoregion, the Rub' al Khali falls within the Arabian Desert and East Saharo-Arabian xeric shrublands. The Asiatic cheetahs, once widespread in Saudi Arabia, are regionally extinct from the desert.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Oil.", "content": "The Shaybah oil field was discovered in 1968. South Ghawar, the largest oil field in the world, extends southward into the northernmost parts of the Empty Quarter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Desertification has increased through recent millennia. Before desertification made the caravan trails leading across the Rub' al Khali so difficult, the caravans of the frankincense trade crossed now virtually impassable stretches of wasteland, until about 300AD. It has been suggested that Ubar or Iram, a lost city, region or people, depended on such trade. The archaeological remains include a fortification/administration building, walls and bases of circular pillars. The traces of camel tracks, unidentifiable on the ground, appear in satellite images.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "People.", "content": "Today the inhabitants of the Empty Quarter are members of various local tribes – for example, the Al Murrah tribe has the largest area mainly based between Al-Ahsa and Najran. The Banu Yam and Banu Hamdan (in Yemen and the Najran region of southern Saudi Arabia), and the Bani Yas (in the United Arab Emirates). A few road links connect these tribal settlements to the area's water resources and oil production centers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Expeditions.", "content": "The first documented journeys by non-resident explorers were made by British explorers Bertram Thomas and St. John Philby in the early 1930s. Between 1946 and 1950, Wilfred Thesiger crossed the area several times and mapped large parts of the Empty Quarter including the mountains of Oman, as described in his 1959 book \"Arabian Sands\".  In June 1950, a US Air Force expedition crossed the Rub' al Khali from Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, to central Yemen and back in trucks to collect specimens for the Smithsonian Institution and to test desert survival procedures.  In 1999, Jamie Clarke became the first Westerner to cross the Empty Quarter of Arabia in fifty years. His team of six, guided by three Bedouin, spent 40 days crossing the desert with a caravan of 13 camels.  On 25 February 2006, a scientific excursion organized by the Saudi Geological Survey began to explore the Empty Quarter. The expedition consisted of 89 environmentalists, geologists, and scientists from Saudi Arabia and abroad. Various types of fossilized creatures as well as meteorites were discovered in the desert. The expedition discovered 31 new plant species and plant varieties, as well as 24 species of birds that inhabit the region, which fascinated scientists as to how they have survived under the harsh conditions of the Empty Quarter.  In 2012, Alastair Humphreys and Leon McCarron pulled a specially designed cart from Salalah to Dubai. They produced a documentary film about their journey and how it compared to those of Wilfred Thesiger.  In March 2012, Hajar Ali made the first known crossing of the Rub' al Khali by a woman.  On 4 February 2013, a South African team including Alex Harris, Marco Broccardo, and David Joyce became the first people to cross the border close to Oman of the Empty Quarter unsupported and on foot, in a journey which started in Salalah and lasted 40 days, eventually ending in Dubai. The team only made use of three water stops along the journey, and pulled a specially designed cart which housed all the supplies necessary for the entire expedition.  In 2013, from 18 February to 28 March, South Korean explorer Young-Ho Nam led a team (Agustin Arroyo Bezanilla, Si-Woo Lee) on a crossing through the Empty Quarter on foot from Salalah, Oman, to Liwa Oasis in the UAE Emirate of Abu Dhabi. The crossing was performed with permission from the governments of Oman and UAE. Dewan Ruler's Representative for Western Region, Emirate of Abu Dhabi recognized it as the world's first on-foot crossing of the Empty Quarter following the border of Oman and ending in UAE.  In 2018, the first all female walking expedition named \"her faces of change\" led by British Janey McGill who was accompanied by the first Omani females in modern times to walk the Oman Empty Quarter, Baida Al Zadjali and Atheer Al Sabri, set off on the 22nd of December 2018 after receiving formal approval from the government of Oman. The team was supported by two cars for supplies driven by Tariq Al Zadjali (Omani) and Mark Vause-Jones (British) and filmmaker Matthew Milan from the United States of America. The expedition started from Al Hashman in the Dohafar Governate of Oman crossing through Burkana, Maqshin, and Al Sahma in Al Wusta Region continuing through Abu Al Tabool, Um Al Sameem ending at Ibri fort in Al Dhahira region of Oman. The total distance walked by the team was 758 km in 28 days ending the expedition on 18.01.2019.  In 2020, Italian extreme desert explorer Max Calderan completed Rub' al Khali exploration on foot for the first time ever. He crossed in 18 days, crossing the widest area of Rub' al Khali from west to east.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Rub' al Khali (;, the \"Empty Quarter\") is the sand desert (erg) encompassing most of the southern third of the Arabian Peninsula. The desert covers some (the area of long. 44°30′−56°30′E, and lat. 16°30′−23°00′N) including parts of Saudi Arabia, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. It is part of the larger Arabian Desert.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972174}
{"src_title": "Gesine Schwan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Born in Berlin on 22 May 1943, Schwan was baptized in the Roman Catholic faith as the daughter of \"Oberschulrat\" (Senior School Inspector) Hans R. Schneider. During the Third Reich dictatorship her parents were members of the passive resistance, offering protection to a Jewish girl by hiding her. After World War II, the family engaged actively in the reconciliation of.  In 1969, Schwan married her first husband, Professor Alexander Schwan, with whom she had two children and who died in 1989. In 2004, Gesine Schwan celebrated her second wedding with longtime companion Peter Eigen in Berlin. He is a former World Bank manager as well as a founder and current Chair of the Advisory Council of Transparency International. Schwan is very engaged in German and Polish mutual understanding and therefore supports, in numerous ways, the work of the Freya von Moltke Stiftung for the New Kreisau. She has given numerous presentations on this topic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "In 1962, Schwan graduated (\"Abitur\") from the bilingual Französisches Gymnasium, a German-French secondary school in Berlin. In the same year, she began her studies in history, philosophy, romance languages, and political science at the Free University of Berlin and later at University of Freiburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "After research stays in Warsaw and Kraków, she obtained her Ph.D. in 1970 from FU Berlin for a dissertation on the Polish philosopher Leszek Kołakowski. After that, she became assistant professor at the same university. Here, she continued her works on the critique of Marx for which she received the \"habilitation\" in 1975.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professorship.", "content": "Schwan was appointed full professor at the Department of Political Science at FU Berlin in 1977. At the time, her research fields encompassed \"political theory, philosophy, psychology, and culture\" as well as \"theories of democracy and socialism\". In 1980/81, she had a research stay at the Wilson Center for Scholars in the USA; another research stay in 1984 at the Robinson College at Cambridge University; in 1998, she was visiting professor at the New School for Social Research in New York. From 1993–1995, she was dean of the Political Science Faculty at FU Berlin.  In 1999, Gesine Schwan competed for the post of president of FU Berlin, but was defeated by Peter Gaehtgens. In the same year, she was elected as the president of Viadrina European University in Frankfurt (Oder).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Schwan belongs to the German tradition of social democratic opposition to Karl Marx's theories. In September 1974, she was one of the founding members of the \"Seeheimer Kreis\", a conservative think tank within the SPD. She became a member of the SPD \"Grundwertekommission\" (Commission for Fundamental Values) in 1977. In 1984, she was removed from this position after criticizing the party's \"Ostpolitik\" as cooperating too closely with communist governments, while not engaging enough with dissidents. Rather she sought for support and dialog with those Eastern Europeans who would dare to criticize their governments. Schwan was reinstated in the \"Grundwertekommission\" in 1996. Since 2002, she has presided over the \"German-Polish Forum\" together with Janusz Reiter. In November 2004, the German government under Gerhard Schröder appointed her to the newly created office of the co-ordinator for cooperation with Poland (her counterpart on the Polish side was then Irena Lipowicz). She retained this position when the government changed and became headed by Christian Democrat Angela Merkel. In February 2009, she criticized Schröder for being too uncritical towards Vladimir Putin and too insensitive about Polish concerns about closer German-Russian ties.  On 15 September 2010, Schwan supported the new initiative Spinelli Group in the European Parliament, which was founded to reinvigorate the strive for federalisation of the European Union (EU). Other prominent supporters are: Jacques Delors, Daniel Cohn-Bendit, Guy Verhofstadt, Jo Leinen, Andrew Duff, and Elmar Brok.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidential elections.", "content": "On 23 May 2004, Schwan was the SPD candidate for the German presidential election. She received 589 votes in the \"Bundesversammlung\" (Federal Assembly) but was defeated by Horst Köhler who won 604 votes from the 1205 delegates. On 26 May 2008, SPD chairman Kurt Beck announced Schwan's renewed nomination for the upcoming presidential elections in 2009. Once again she competed with Horst Köhler, who announced his renewed candidacy on 22 May 2008. In the event Köhler was re-elected to a second term over Schwan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later political career.", "content": "In the 2019 SPD leadership election, Schwan announced her intention to run for the position as the party's co-chair, together with Ralf Stegner.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "Ahead of the 2009 presidential election, Schwan was criticized by the Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records, Marianne Birthler, for statements on the political regime of East Germany. Reportedly, several electors from the Green Party refused to vote for Schwan due to her statements regarding the communist state.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gesine Schwan (born 22 May 1943) is a German political science professor and member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany. The party has nominated her twice as a candidate for the federal presidential elections. On 23 May 2004, she was defeated by the Christian Democrat Horst Köhler. On 23 May 2009, Köhler beat her again to win his second term.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972175}
{"src_title": "Perpignan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "Perpignan is located in the center of the Roussillon plain, 13 km west of the Mediterranean coast. It is the southernmost of the cities of metropolitan France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hydrography.", "content": "Perpignan is crossed by the largest river in Roussillon, the Têt, and by one of its tributaries, the Basse. Floods have occurred, as in 1892 when the rising of the Têt in Perpignan destroyed 39 houses, leaving more than 60 families homeless.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Perpignan experiences a Mediterranean climate (Köppen \"Csa\") similar to much of the Mediterranean coastline of France.  The motorway A9 connects Perpignan with Barcelona and Montpellier.  Perpignan is served by the Gare de Perpignan railway station, which offers connections to Paris, Barcelona, Toulouse, and several regional destinations. Salvador Dalí proclaimed it to be the \"Cosmic Centre of the Universe\" after experiencing a vision of cosmogonic ecstasy there in 1963.  The nearest airport is Perpignan–Rivesaltes Airport.  The name of Perpignan appears in 927 as \"Perpinianum\", followed in 959 by \"Villa Perpiniano\", \"Pirpinianum\" in the 11th century, \"Perpiniani\" in 1176. \"Perpenyà\", which appears in the 13th century, is the most common form until the 15th century, and was still used in the 17th century. It probably derives from the Roman name \"Perpennius\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Though settlement in the area goes back to Roman times, the medieval town of Perpignan seems to have been founded around the beginning of the 10th century. Soon Perpignan became the capital of the counts of Roussillon. Historically, it was part of the region known as Septimania. In 1172 Count Girard II bequeathed his lands to the Counts of Barcelona. Perpignan acquired the institutions of a partly self-governing commune in 1197. French feudal rights over Roussillon were given up by Louis IX in the Treaty of Corbeil.  When James I the Conqueror, king of Aragon and count of Barcelona, founded the Kingdom of Majorca in 1276, Perpignan became the capital of the mainland territories of the new state. The succeeding decades are considered the golden age in the history of the city. It prospered as a centre of cloth manufacture, leather work, goldsmiths' work, and other luxury crafts. King Philippe III of France died there in 1285, as he was returning from his unsuccessful crusade against the Aragonese Crown.  In 1344 Peter IV of Aragon annexed the Kingdom of Majorca and Perpignan once more became part of the County of Barcelona. A few years later it lost approximately half of its population to the Black Death. It was attacked and occupied by Louis XI of France in 1463; a violent uprising against French rule in 1473 was harshly put down after a long siege, but in 1493 Charles VIII of France, wishing to conciliate Castile in order to free himself to invade Italy, restored it to Ferdinand II of Aragon.  Again besieged and captured by the French during the Thirty Years' War in September 1642, Perpignan was formally ceded by Spain 17 years later in the Treaty of the Pyrenees, and from then on remained a French possession.  Perpignan is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "More than 10 000 students from 2 to 12 years old attend 61 preschools and primary schools in the city. Perpignan also has 26 highschools.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population and society.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Events.", "content": "Since 2004, the free three-day \"Guitares au Palais\" is held each year in the last weekend of August in the Palace of the Kings of Majorca. The festival has a broad mainstream focus with pop-related music as well as traditional acoustic guitar music and alternative music. The festival has attracted international guests like Caetano Veloso (2007), \"Rumberos Catalans\", Pedro Soler, Bernardo Sandoval, Peter Finger, and Aaron and Bryce Dessner (2008).  Each September, Perpignan hosts the internationally-renowned Visa pour l'Image festival of photojournalism. Free exhibitions are mounted in the Couvent des Minimes, Chapelle des Dominicaines and other buildings in the old town.  In 2008, Perpignan became Capital of Catalan Culture. In Perpignan many street name signs are in both French and Catalan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "Like the rest of the south of France, Perpignan is a rugby stronghold: their rugby union side, USAP Perpignan, is a regular competitor in the global elite Heineken Cup and seven times champion of the French Top 14 (most recently in 2009). A Perpignan-based rugby league club plays in Northern Hemisphere's Super League under the name Catalans Dragons. The Dragons' games in Perpignan against the Northern English-based sides are usually very popular with British rugby fans, with thousands of them descending on the city on the day of the game, including lots of vacationing rugby fans travelling up from the Spanish Costa Brava joining the ones who came directly from home.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Traditional commerce was in wine, olive oil, corks (the cork oak \"Quercus suber\" grows in Perpignan's mild climate), wool, leather, and iron. In May 1907 it was a seat of agitation by southern producers for government enforcement of wine quality following a collapse in prices. JOB rolling papers are currently manufactured in Perpignan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sites of interest.", "content": "The Cathedral of St. John the Baptist was begun in 1324 and finished in 1509.  The 13th century Palace of the Kings of Majorca sits on the high citadel, surrounded by ramparts, reinforced for Louis XI and Charles V, which were updated in the 17th century by Louis XIV's military engineer Vauban.  The walls surrounding the town, which had been designed by Vauban, were razed in 1904 to accommodate urban development. The main city door, the \"Castillet\" is a small fortress built in the 14th century, which has been preserved. It had also been used as a prison until the end of the 19th century.  The Hôtel Pams is a lavishly-decorated mansion designed for Jules Pams that illustrates the artistic taste of the wealthy bourgeois at the turn of the 20th century.  Les Halles de Vauban are a new addition to the banks of the city's canal. Opened in November 2017 the indoor markets are privately owned and cost €1.5 million. Split over 2 locations, vendors offer fresh fruit and vegetables, bread, flowers, cheese etc. There is a bar and central eating court with a range of tapas, burgers, omelettes and food from around the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people linked to Perpignan.", "content": "Following a visit in 1963, the Catalan surrealist artist Salvador Dalí declared the city's railway station the centre of the Universe, saying that he always got his best ideas sitting in its waiting room. Dalí's painting \"La Gare de Perpignan\" commemorates his vision of \"cosmogonic ecstasy\" there on September 19, 1963. He followed that up some years later by declaring that the Iberian Peninsula rotated precisely at Perpignan station 132 million years ago – an event the artist invoked in his 1983 painting \"Topological Abduction of Europe – Homage to René Thom\". Above the station is a monument in Dali's honour, and across the surface of one of the main platforms is painted, in big letters, «perpignan centre du monde» (French for \"perpignan centre of the world\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Perpignan (,, ; ) is the prefecture of the Pyrénées-Orientales department in Southwest France, and the centre of the metropolitan area Perpignan Mediterranée Métropole. Perpignan was the capital of the former province and County of Roussillon (\"Rosselló\" in Catalan) and continental capital of the Kingdom of Majorca in the 13th and 14th centuries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972176}
{"src_title": "Cutlery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word cutler derives from the Middle English word 'cuteler' and this in turn derives from Old French 'coutelier' which comes from 'coutel'; meaning knife (modern French: couteau). The word's early origins can be seen in the Latin word 'culter' (knife).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metallic.", "content": "Sterling silver is the traditional material from which good quality cutlery is made. Historically, silver had the advantage over other metals of being less chemically reactive. Chemical reactions between certain foods and the cutlery metal can lead to unpleasant tastes. Gold is even less reactive than silver, but the use of gold cutlery was confined to the exceptionally wealthy, such as monarchs.  Steel was always used for more utilitarian knives, and pewter was used for some cheaper items, especially spoons. From the nineteenth century, electroplated nickel silver (EPNS) was used as a cheaper substitute for sterling silver.  In 1913, the British metallurgist Harry Brearley discovered stainless steel by chance, bringing affordable cutlery to the masses. This metal has come to be the predominant one used in cutlery. An alternative is melchior, corrosion-resistant nickel and copper alloy, which can also sometimes contain manganese and nickel-iron.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plastic.", "content": "Plastic cutlery is made for disposable use, and is frequently used outdoors for camping, excursions, and barbecues for instance. Plastic cutlery is also commonly used at fast-food or take-away outlets and provided with airline meals in economy class. Plastic is also used for children's cutlery. It is often thicker and more durable than disposable plastic cutlery.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Wooden.", "content": "Wooden disposable cutlery is available as a popular biodegradable alternative. Bamboo and maple wood are a few popular choice of wood.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Edible.", "content": "Edible cutlery is made from dried grains. These are made primarily with rice, millets or wheat. Since rice cultivation needs a lot of water, manufacturers market millet based products as more environment friendly. The batter is baked in moulds which hardens it. Some manufacturers offer an option of flavoured cutlery. Edible cutlery decomposes in about a week if disposed.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Industry.", "content": "At Sheffield the trade of cutler became divided, with allied trades such as razormaker, awlbladesmith, shearsmith and forkmaker emerging and becoming distinct trades by the 18th century.  Before the mid 19th century when cheap mild steel became available due to new methods of steelmaking, knives (and other edged tools) were made by welding a strip of steel on to the piece of iron that was to be formed into a knife, or sandwiching a strip of steel between two pieces of iron. This was done because steel was then a much more expensive commodity than iron. Modern blades are sometimes laminated, but for a different reason. Since the hardest steel is brittle, a layer of hard steel may be laid between two layers of a milder, less brittle steel, for a blade that keeps a sharp edge well, and is less likely to break in service.  After fabrication, the knife had to be sharpened, originally on a grindstone, but from the late medieval period in a blade mill or (as they were known in the Sheffield region) a cutlers wheel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disposable cutlery.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Plastic.", "content": "Introduced for convenience purposes (lightweight, no cleanup after the meal required), disposable cutlery made of plastic has become a huge worldwide market. Along with other disposable tableware (paper plates, plastic table covers, disposable cups, paper napkins, etc.), these products have become essential for the fast food and catering industry. The products are emblematic of throw-away societies and the cause of millions of tons of non-biodegradable plastic waste. The European Union will be banning such plastic products from 2021 as part of the European Plastics Strategy.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Wooden.", "content": "As an ecofriendly alternative to non-degradable plastic, wooden cutlery is gaining popularity. Some manufacturers coat their products in food-safe plant oils, waxes and lemon juice for a longer shelf life making these safe for human consumption. Cutlery is then cured for a few days before leaving the manufacturing plant.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Edible.", "content": "Edible cutlery is gaining popularity as an eco-friendly alternative to non-decomposing plastic. Bakey's based in Hyderabad, India is a popular edible cutlery manufacturer established by a former scientist. At Bakey's millet based dough is poured into metallic moulds and baked at for about 28 minutes which hardens it.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Manufacturing centres.", "content": "Traditional centres of cutlery-making include:  Edible cutlery manufacturing centers:", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Cutlery includes any hand implement used in preparing, serving, and especially eating food in Western culture. A person who makes or sells cutlery is called a cutler. The city of Sheffield in England has been famous for the production of cutlery since the 17th century and a train – the \"Master Cutler\" – running from Sheffield to London was named after the industry. Bringing affordable cutlery to the masses, stainless steel was developed in Sheffield in the early 20th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972177}
{"src_title": "Edict of Restitution", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "This lack of decisive or effective authority along with the Protestant view of the legal interpretation as well as the value of the land and the characteristic dislike for all things Catholic led several princes to secularize the Catholic church lands under the treaty established and customary practice of \"cuius regio, eius religio\". This usually occurred when a Catholic head of the church converted to Protestantism.  The Peace of Augsburg, signed in 1555, had confirmed the result of the Diet of Speyer (1526) which had, by agreeing to disagree, ended with this principle as a prime result. With that principle confirmed by the Treaty at Augsburg, the violence of that earlier day between the Lutherans and the Catholics in Germany ended—at least for the generation, until renewed tensions brought about the Thirty Years' War.  Behind all this were the inheritance practices in Europe as a whole and in particular the German states within the Holy Roman Empire. Land and control over it was a source of both power and wealth, and the noble families sought to control as much land within the extended family as was possible, for example by appointing younger sons prince-bishops or prince-abbots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Edict.", "content": "The \"Edict of Restitution\" was an attempt to ensure that the \"Ecclesiastical Reservation\" of the Augsburg treaty was retroactively enforced. It had a tremendously polarizing effect causing the approximately 1,800 states of the Holy Roman Empire to shatter into disparate blocks of opposed interests.  If fully effected, it would have affected the already secularized archbishoprics of Bremen and Magdeburg, 12 bishoprics and over 100 religious houses around the German states. The Edict resulted in a great transfer of power and property away from the Protestants to the Catholics, and in effect broadened a divisive religious struggle into that plus a dynastic struggle for power, as seen from the viewpoint of many smaller German princes, who might otherwise have stayed neutral.  Other states were greatly affected when the mercenary armies marched through neutral states or ravaged them in the course of their foraging expeditions. Thousands of Protestants fled to Protestant controlled states, generally broadening the war, and central Germany was ravaged repeatedly, by some estimates losing between 25% and 50% of its pre-war population because the competing armies continually took the food—the majority of civilian deaths being caused by the twin side-effects of famine, and deaths from endemic diseases under populations weakened by famine.  The greatest impact was in northeast Germany. It was here that Ferdinand's power was at its weakest. Ferdinand appointed Imperial administrators to take over the secularized states and cities, re-establishing Imperial authority in an area that had been free of Imperial rule for nearly 100 years. Ferdinand's actions were not well received by the princes. It was a move that alarmed the French and led to the French intervention in the war.  The German princes could do nothing. They had seen the Coalition destroyed. Wallenstein had a massive army of 134,000 troops in the field to enforce Imperial authority.  Wallenstein disliked the Edict as it trespassed into the region he considered his own but he played his part for the emperor to the full. He stated that \"he would teach the Electors manners. They must be dependent on the emperor, not the emperor on them.\" The response of the princes was to rally behind Maximillian of Bavaria to pressure Ferdinand into dismissing Wallenstein.  Their chance came in 1630 when Ferdinand called a meeting of the Electors in Regensburg because he wanted his son, Ferdinand III, elected King of the Romans. According to the law, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was selected by a vote from the Electorate of German princes. Therefore, Ferdinand needed their cooperation to approve his son as successor. Ferdinand also hoped to persuade the Electors to approve greater Imperial involvement in the European wars.  John George I of Saxony and George William of Brandenburg (both Protestant) stayed away to protest the Edict of Restitution. Those Electors present realized that they had little to gain from additional involvement in the wars. However, Maximillian still asked Ferdinand for the dismissal of Wallenstein.  To win over the Electors, Ferdinand sacked Wallenstein in August 1630 though Wallenstein argued that he was allowed to resign to save face. The dismissal of the most powerful military figure in Europe was a major victory for the Electors and Regensburg must be seen as a defeat for Ferdinand.  All of this was overshadowed in July 1630—Gustavus Adolphus landed in Pomerania with 4,000 men in response to the persecution of the Protestants. Without Wallenstein, Ferdinand had to turn to Maximillian and Tilly to stop the new threat.  In 1635 the Edict of Restitution was effectively revoked, with the terms of the Peace of Prague. Twenty two theologians led by Cardinal Dietrichstein : the majority Dominicans and capuchins led by Don Diego Quiroga voted in favour of repeal. A minority of Jesuits led by Fr Lamormaini voted against. \"It would not be displeasing to God\" for the Edict to be decided in the best interest of peace (ie it was left to temporal powers to decide).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Edict of Restitution, passed eleven years into the Thirty Years' War on March 6, 1629, following Catholic successes at arms, was a belated attempt by Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor to restore the religious and territorial situations reached in the Peace of Augsburg (1555), whose \"Ecclesiastical Reservation\" had impeded the secularization of Catholic church lands after 1555, as no further Catholic church lands could legally be transferred to Protestant control. However, for several decades weak emperors had been unable to enforce the \"Ecclesiastical Reservation\" against Protestant encroachments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972178}
{"src_title": "Gerbil", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Behavior.", "content": "Gerbils are social animals, and live in groups in the wild. They rely on their sense of smell to identify other members of their clan, so it is important to use what is commonly referred to as the \"split tank method\" when introducing gerbils from separate litters. Gerbils are known to attack and often kill those carrying an unfamiliar scent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As pets.", "content": "Gerbils were first introduced to the pet industry in 1964. These were Mongolian gerbils (\"Meriones unguiculatus\"). Their value as pets was soon appreciated and they are now found in pet shops throughout the United Kingdom and the United States.  However, due to the threat they pose to indigenous ecosystems and existing agricultural operations, it is illegal to purchase, import, or keep a gerbil as a pet in the U.S. state of California. It is also illegal to import the animal into New Zealand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Housing in captivity.", "content": "A common misunderstanding when purchasing a home for pet gerbils is they can live in housing designed for hamsters and mice. This is not correct, as they need to be able to dig tunnel systems, rather than have them created for them. The commonly plastic structure of hamster and mouse cages is inappropriate for gerbils due to their ability to gnaw through it very quickly. Plastic can cause serious health issues for the animal if ingested, therefore many owners refrain from having any plastic in the tank and rely entirely on wooden toys. Information from gerbil societies from throughout the globe is conflicting with regards to tank sizing. However, a common minimum given appears to be per gerbil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mating.", "content": "Gerbils will mate for several hours, in frequent short bursts followed by short chases, when the female allows the male to catch her. Once he catches her, the female will squeak and make flick motions to get the male off her. Males will not attack females except in rare circumstances, which may also include them having been separated from their original mates, or widowed. A female may attack a male, but usually he is more than a match for her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reasons for popularity.", "content": "The several reasons for the popularity of gerbils as household pets include: The animals are typically not aggressive, and they rarely bite unprovoked or without stress. They are small and easy to handle, since they are sociable creatures that enjoy the company of humans and other gerbils. Gerbils also have adapted their kidneys to produce a minimum of waste to conserve body fluids, which makes them very clean with little odor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health concerns.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teeth problems.", "content": "Misalignment of incisors due to injury or malnutrition may result in overgrowth, which can cause injury to the roof of the mouth. Symptoms include a dropped or loss of appetite, drooling, weight loss, or foul breath. The teeth must be clipped by a veterinarian regularly for as long as required.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trauma.", "content": "Common injuries are caused by gerbils being dropped or falling, often while inside of a hamster ball, which can cause broken limbs or a fractured spine (for which there is no cure).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Neglect.", "content": "A common problem for all small rodents is neglect, which can cause the gerbils to not receive adequate food and water, causing serious health concerns, including dehydration, starvation, stomach ulcers, eating of bedding material, and cannibalism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Epilepsy.", "content": "Between 20 and 50% of all pet gerbils have the seizure disorder epilepsy. The seizures are thought to be caused by fright, handling, or a new environment. The attacks can be mild to severe, but do not typically appear to have any long-term effects, except for rare cases where death results from very severe seizures. A way to prevent a gerbil from having a seizure is to refrain from blowing in the animal's face (often used to \"train\" the pet not to bite). This technique is used in a lab environment to induce seizures for medical research.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tumors.", "content": "Tumors, both benign and malignant, are fairly common in pet gerbils, and are most common in females over the age of two. Usually, the tumors involve the ovaries, causing an extended abdomen, or the skin, with tumors most often developing around the ears, feet, midabdomen, and base of the tail, appearing as a lump or abscess. The scent gland (positioned on the abdomen) should be checked regularly; a veterinarian can operate on the lump where possible.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tail sloughing.", "content": "Gerbils can lose their tails due to improper handling, being attacked by another animal, or getting their tails stuck. The first sign is a loss of fur from the tip of the tail, then, the skinless tail dies off and sloughs, with the stump usually healing without complications.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tyzzer's disease.", "content": "The most common infectious disease in gerbils is Tyzzer's disease, a bacterial disease, which stress can make animals more susceptible to. It produces symptoms such as ruffled fur, lethargy, hunched posture, poor appetite, diarrhoea, and often death. It quickly spreads between gerbils in close contact.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deafness and inner ear problems.", "content": "A problem with the inner ear can be spotted by a gerbil leaning to one side quite obviously. The fluids in the ears affect balance. However, this does not appear to affect the gerbils too much, which have an attitude of just getting on with things, and getting used to their conditions. Gerbils with \"extreme white spotting\" colouring are susceptible to deafness; this is thought to be due to the lack of pigmentation in and around the ear.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Captive-bred gerbils.", "content": "Many color varieties of gerbils are available in pet shops today, generally the result of years of selective breeding.  Over 20 different coat colors occur in the Mongolian gerbil, which has been captive-bred the longest.  Another species of gerbil has also been recently introduced to the pet industry: the fat-tailed gerbil, or duprasi. They are smaller than the common Mongolian gerbils, and have long, soft coats and short, fat tails, appearing more like a hamster. The variation on the normal duprasi coat is more gray in color, which may be a mutation, or it may be the result of hybrids between the Egyptian and Algerian subspecies of duprasi.  White spotting has been reported in not only the Mongolian gerbil, but also the pallid gerbil and possibly Sundervall's Jird.  A long-haired mutation, a grey agouti or chinchilla mutation, white spotting, and possibly a dilute mutation have also appeared in Shaw's jirds, and white spotting and a dilute mutation have shown up in bushy-tailed jirds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "SUBFAMILY GERBILLINAE", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A gerbil is a small mammal of the subfamily Gerbillinae in the order Rodentia. Once known as desert rats, the gerbil subfamily includes about 110 species of African, Indian, and Asian rodents, including sand rats and jirds, all of which are adapted to arid habitats. Most are primarily active during the day, making them diurnal (but some species, including the common household pet, exhibit crepuscular behavior), and almost all are omnivorous. Gerbils are related to mice and rats; they all belong to the family Muridae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972179}
{"src_title": "Bull Terrier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Bull Terrier's most recognizable feature is its head, described as 'egg-shaped head', when viewed from the front; the top of the skull is almost flat. The profile curves gently downwards from the top of the skull to the tip of the nose, which is black and bent downwards at the tip, with well-developed nostrils. The lower jaw is deep and strong. The unique triangular eyes are small, dark, and deep-set. Bull Terriers are the only dogs that have triangular eyes. The body is full and round, with strong, muscular shoulders. The tail is carried horizontally. They are either white, red, fawn, black, brindle, or a combination of these.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "Bull Terriers can be both independent and stubborn and for this reason are not considered suitable for an inexperienced dog owner. A Bull Terrier has an even temperament and is amenable to discipline. Although obstinate, the breed is described by the Bull Terrier Club as particularly good with people. Early socialisation will ensure that the dog will get along with other dogs and animals. Their personality is described as courageous, full of spirit, with a fun-loving attitude, a children-loving dog and a perfect family member. Although the breed has been a target of breed-specific legislation, a 2008 study in Germany did not find that Bull Terriers had any significant temperament difference from Golden Retrievers in overall temperament researches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "All puppies should be checked for deafness, which occurs in 20.4% of pure white Bull Terriers and 1.3% of colored Bull Terriers and is difficult to notice, especially in a relatively young puppy. Many Bull Terriers have a tendency to develop skin allergies. Insect bites, such as those from fleas, and sometimes mosquitoes and mites, can produce a generalised allergic response of hives, rash, and itching. This problem can be stopped by keeping the dog free of contact from these insects, but this is definitely a consideration in climates or circumstances where exposure to these insects is inevitable. A UK breed survey puts their median lifespan at 10 years and their mean at 9 years (1 s.f., RSE = 13.87% 2 d. p.), with a good number of dogs living to 10–15 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "At the start of the 19th century the \"bull and terrier\" breeds were developed to satisfy the needs for vermin control and animal-based blood sports. The \"bull and terriers\" were based on the Old English Bulldog (now extinct) and Old English Terriers with possible other terriers. This new breed combined the speed and dexterity of lightly built terriers with the dour tenacity of the Bulldog, which was a poor performer in most combat situations, having been bred almost exclusively for fighting bulls and bears tied to a post. Many breeders began to breed bulldogs with terriers, arguing that such a mixture enhances the quality of fighting. Despite the fact that a cross between a bulldog and a terrier was of high value, very little or nothing was done to preserve the breed in its original form. Due to the lack of breed standards—breeding was for performance, not appearance—the \"bull and terrier\" eventually divided into the ancestors of \"Bull Terriers\" and \"Staffordshire Bull Terriers\", both smaller and easier to handle than the progenitor.  In the mid-19th century James Hinks started breeding \"bull and terriers\" with \"English White Terriers\" (now extinct), looking for a cleaner appearance with better legs and nicer head. In 1862, Hinks entered a dam called \"Puss\" sired by his white Bulldog called \"Madman\" into the Bull Terrier Class at the dog show held at the Cremorne Gardens in Chelsea. Originally these dogs did not yet have the now-familiar \"egg face\", but kept the stop in the skull profile. The dog was immediately popular and breeding continued, using Dalmatian, Spanish Pointer, and Whippet to increase elegance and agility; and Borzoi and Rough Collie to reduce the stop. Hinks wanted his dogs white, and bred specifically for this. The first modern Bull Terrier is now recognised as \"Lord Gladiator\", from 1917, being the first dog with no stop at all.  Due to medical problems associated with all-white breeding, Ted Lyon among others began introducing colour, using Staffordshire Bull Terriers in the early 20th century. Coloured Bull Terriers were recognised as a separate variety (at least by the AKC) in 1936. Brindle is the preferred colour, but other colours are welcome.  Along with conformation, specific behaviour traits were sought.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bull Terrier is a breed of dog in the terrier family. There is also a miniature version of this breed which is officially known as the Miniature Bull Terrier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972180}
{"src_title": "Seqenenre Tao", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Reign.", "content": "New Kingdom literary tradition states that Seqenenre Tao came into contact with his Hyksos contemporary in the north, Apepi or Apophis. The tradition took the form of a tale, nowadays called \"The Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenre\", in which the Hyksos king Apepi sent a messenger to Seqenenre in Thebes to demand that the Theban hippopotamus pool be done away with, for the noise of these beasts was such that he was unable to sleep in far-away Avaris. Perhaps the only historical information that can be gleaned from the tale is that Egypt was a divided land, the area of direct Hyksos control being in the north, but the whole of Egypt paying tribute to the Hyksos kings.  Seqenenre Tao participated in active diplomatic posturing, which went beyond simply exchanging insults with the Asiatic ruler in the North. He seems to have led military skirmishes against the Hyksos and, judging from the vicious head wounds on his mummy in the Cairo Museum, may have died during one of them.  His son and successor Wadjkheperre Kamose, the last ruler of the seventeenth dynasty at Thebes, is credited with launching a successful campaign in the Theban war of liberation against the Hyksos, although he is thought to have died in the campaign. His mother, Ahhotep I, is thought to have ruled as regent after the death of Kamose and continued the warfare against the Hyksos until Ahmose I, the second son of Seqenenre Tao and Ahhotep I, was old enough to assume the throne and complete the expulsion of the Hyksos and the unification of Egypt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monumental construction.", "content": "The relatively short length of the reign of Seqenenre Tao did not allow for the construction of many monumental structures, but it is known that he had built a new palace made of mud brick at Deir el-Ballas. On an adjacent hillside overlooking the river, the foundations of a building were found that almost certainly was a military observation post.  A relatively large amount of pottery known as Kerma-ware was found at the site, indicating that a large number of Kerma Nubians were resident at the site. It is thought that they were there as allies of the pharaoh in his wars against the Hyksos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mummy.", "content": "Seqenenre's mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri cache, revealed in 1881. He was interred along with those of later, eighteenth and nineteenth dynasty leaders, Ahmose I (his second son to be pharaoh), Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses IX.  The mummy was unwrapped by Eugène Grébaut when  A vivid description provides an account of the injury that was done to the pharaoh at his death: The wound on his forehead was probably caused by a Hyksos axe and his neck wound was probably caused by a dagger while he was prone. There are no wounds on his arms or hands, which suggests he was not able to defend himself.  Until 2009 the main hypotheses have been that he died either in a battle against the Hyksos or was killed while sleeping. A reconstruction of his death by Egyptologist Garry Shaw and archaeologist and weapons expert Robert Mason suggested a third, which they saw as the likeliest, that Seqenenre was executed by the Hyksos king. Garry Shaw also analysed the arguments for the competing hypotheses and other physical, textual and statistical evidence concluding \"that the most likely cause of Seqenenre’s death is ceremonial execution at the hands of an enemy commander, following a Theban defeat on the battlefield.\"  His mummy appears to have been hastily embalmed. X-rays that were taken of the mummy in the late-1960s show that no attempt had been made to remove the brain or to add linen inside the cranium or eyes, both normal embalming practice for the time. In the opinion of James E. Harris and Kent Weeks who undertook the forensic examination at the time the x-rays were taken, his mummy is the worst preserved of all the royal mummies held at the Egyptian Museum, and they noted that a \"foul, oily smell filled the room the moment the case in which his body was exhibited was opened\", which is likely due to the poor embalming process and the absence of the use of absorbing natron salts, leaving some bodily fluids in the mummy at the time of burial.  He is the earliest royal mummy on display in the recently revamped (2006) Royal Mummies Hall at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Seqenenre Tao (also Seqenera Djehuty-aa or Sekenenra Taa), called 'the Brave', ruled over the last of the local kingdoms of the Theban region of Egypt in the Seventeenth Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. He probably was the son and successor to Senakhtenre Ahmose and Queen Tetisheri. The dates of his reign are uncertain, but he may have risen to power in the decade ending in 1560 BC or in 1558 BC (based on the probable accession date of his son, Ahmose I, the first ruler of the eighteenth dynasty, see Egyptian chronology). With his queen, Ahhotep I, Seqenenre Tao fathered two pharaohs, Kamose, his immediate successor who was the last pharaoh of the seventeenth dynasty, and Ahmose I who, following a regency by his mother, was the first pharaoh of the eighteenth. Seqenenre Tao is credited with starting the opening moves in a war of revanchism against Hyksos incursions into Egypt, which saw the country completely liberated during the reign of his son Ahmose I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972181}
{"src_title": "Citroën Xantia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Xantia replaced the earlier Citroën BX (which straddled both small and large family car segments), and maintained the high level of popularity of that model, but brought the car more into the mainstream to compete harder with its rivals, such as the Ford Mondeo, Nissan Primera, Rover 600, Toyota Carina E and Opel Vectra/Vauxhall Cavalier.  The car was built from November 1992 to October 2002 in France, totalling almost ten years, including the facelift in December 1997.  It signalled that Citroën had learned from the reception given to the staid Citroën ZX, introduced two years earlier, and criticised by contemporary journalists for its lack of traditional Citroën flair, in engineering and design. Citroën addressed these concerns in the Xantia.  The Xantia also used the traditional Citroën hydropneumatic suspension system, which was pioneered by the older DS. It was initially only available as a hatchback (notchback) (Berline), but an estate (station wagon) (Break) version, built by Heuliez, appeared in September 1995.  Inline with PSA Group policy, the Peugeot 406, launched two years later, used the same floorpan, core structure and engines as the Xantia. The Hydractive suspension system was not carried over, and the 406 utilised a more traditional spring suspension.  Sales in the United Kingdom were strong, and even though it was never able to match the volume of British favourites, such as the Ford Mondeo or Vauxhall Vectra, the car did help Citroën establish a strong foothold in the business car market in the United Kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Suspension.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hydractive.", "content": "From an engineering perspective, the Xantia's biggest advance was the suspension. From launch, the more expensive models were available with an enhanced version of the XM's Hydractive, Hydractive II or H2, computer controlled version of the hydropneumatic self-leveling suspension. This used extra suspension spheres to allow a soft ride in normal conditions, but taut body control during hard braking, acceleration or cornering.  These models feature an innovation first seen on the ZX, and then subsequently fitted to the facelifted XM, a programmed self steer rear axle. On sweeping curves and tight bends alike, the rear wheels turn in line with the front wheels, sharpening responses and adding to driver pleasure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Activa active anti roll bars.", "content": "In 1994, the Activa technology was introduced, which is an extension to the Hydractive II suspension, where two additional spheres and two hydraulic cylinders are used together with computer control to eliminate body roll completely. This technology is more broadly known as active suspension, and the Xantia Activa has exceptional road holding comparable to true sports cars. It employs active anti-roll bars.  In the magazine \"Teknikens Värld's\" moose test, published in Swedish, the 1999 V6 Activa still holds the record speed through the manoeuvre, faster than the McLaren 675LT.  United Kingdom models of the Activa came fitted with a XU10 2 litre turbocharged engine also fitted to the Citroën XM 2.0CT and Peugeot 605 SRi. It produced 150 bhp and 171 lb ft of torque and was a 'low-blow' type for smooth power delivery rather than outright bhp.  The Xantia was the last Citroën vehicle to use a common hydraulic circuit for suspension, brakes and steering like the pioneering Citroën DS. It was also the last Citroën car that used the green LHM hydraulic fluid. Later cars, such as the C5, used LDS instead.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Engines.", "content": "Power came from the familiar PSA XU series petrol engines, this time in 1.6, 1.8 and 2.0 displacements, a 2.0 16 valve version for the Xantia VSX, a turbocharged 2.0 engine, from 1995 onwards, a 1.8 16 valve and a 2.0 16 valve engine. In 1997, a 3.0 V6 engine was offered as top of the line. This engine was also offered with the Activa suspension system, a rare version with less than 2600 built.  The popular XUD turbodiesel units in 1.9 (turbocharged:, low pressure turbo:, or not: 71 hp) displacement proved to be the best selling engine.  The biggest diesel was a 2.1 TD with. In 1998, PSA introduced the HDi direct injection turbodiesel (in two versions:, and intercooled 109 PS). For an economical diesel engine, the HDi offered the kind of throttle response normally seen in a gasoline engine and quiet high speed cruising at a top speed of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chinese production.", "content": "The Citroën Xantia, along with the Citroën XM were assembled by the firm of CKD in Huizhou, Guangdong province. This venture lasted for only two years from 1996 to 1997, and production numbers were extremely low. The cars were imported to China more or less fully assembled with only minor additions done in China as a way to avoid the high import tariffs on cars that existed at the time. Both cars were badged as XM.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Citroën Xantia, pronounced \"Zan–ti–a\" is a large family car (D) produced by the French automaker Citroën, and designed by Bertone. Presented to the press in December 1992, the car was produced between 1992 and 2001, with a facelift in the end of 1997. Citroën sold over 1.2 million Xantias during its nine years of production.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972182}
{"src_title": "Eumenes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Eumenes was a native of Cardia in the Thracian Chersonese, although he was suspected to be Scythian. At a very early age, he was employed as a private secretary by Philip II of Macedon and after Philip's death (336 BC) by Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied into Asia. After Alexander's death (323 BC), Eumenes took command of a large body of Greek and Macedonian soldiers fighting in support of Alexander's son, Alexander IV.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Satrap of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia (323-319 BC).", "content": "In the ensuing division of the empire in the Partition of Babylon (323 BC), Cappadocia and Paphlagonia were assigned to Eumenes; but as they were not yet subdued, Leonnatus and Antigonus were charged by Perdiccas with securing them for him. Antigonus, however, ignored the order, and Leonnatus vainly attempted to induce Eumenes to accompany him to Europe and share in his far-reaching designs. Eumenes joined Perdiccas, who installed him in Cappadocia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle of the Hellespont (321 BC).", "content": "When Craterus and Antipater, having subdued Greece in the Lamian War, determined to pass into Asia and overthrow the power of Perdiccas, their first blow was aimed at Cappadocia. Craterus and Neoptolemus, the satrap of Armenia, were completely defeated by Eumenes in the Battle of the Hellespont in 321. Neoptolemus was killed, and Craterus died of his wounds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After the death of Perdiccas.", "content": "After the murder of Perdiccas in Egypt by his own soldiers (320), the Macedonian generals condemned Eumenes to death, assigning Antipater and Antigonus as his executioners. In 319 BC, Antigonus marched his army into Cappadocia and, in a lightning campaign, drove Eumenes to Nora, a strong fortress on the border between Cappadocia and Lycaonia. Here Eumenes held out for more than a year until the death of Antipater threw his opponents into disarray.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Second War of the Diadochi.", "content": "Antipater had left the regency to his friend Polyperchon instead of his son Cassander. Cassander, therefore, allied himself with Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy, while Eumenes allied himself with Polyperchon. He was able to escape from Nora through trickery and, after gathering a small army, he marched into Cilicia where he made an alliance with Antigenes and Teutamos, the commanders of the Macedonian Silver Shields and the Hypaspists. Eventually Eumenes secured control over these men by playing on their loyalty to, and superstitious awe of, Alexander. He used the royal treasury at Kyinda to recruit an army of mercenaries to add to his own troops and the Macedonians of Antigenes and Teutamos.  In 317 BC, Eumenes left Cilicia and marched into Syria and Phoenicia, and began to raise a naval force on behalf of Polyperchon. When it was ready he sent the fleet west to reinforce Polyperchon, but it was met by Antigonus's fleet off the coast of Cilicia, and the fleet of Eumenes changed sides.  Meanwhile, Antigonus had settled his affairs in Asia Minor and marched east to take out Eumenes before he could do further damage. Eumenes somehow had advance knowledge of this and marched out of Phoenica, through Syria into Mesopotamia, with the idea of gathering support in the upper satrapies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eumenes in the East.", "content": "Eumenes gained the support of Amphimachos, the satrap of Mesopotamia, then marched his army into Northern Babylonia, where he put them into winter quarters. During the winter he negotiated with Seleucus, the satrap of Babylonia, and Peithon, the satrap of Media, seeking their help against Antigonus. Unable to sway Seleucus and Peithon, Eumenes left his winter quarters early and marched on Susa, a major royal treasury, in Susiana. In Susa, Eumenes sent letters to all the satraps to the north and east of Susiana, ordering them in the kings' names to join him with all their forces. When the satraps joined Eumenes he had a considerable force, with which he could look forward with some confidence to doing battle against Antigonus. Eumenes then marched southeastwards into Persia, where he picked up additional reinforcements.  Antigonus, meanwhile, had reached Susa and left Seleucus there to besiege the place, while he himself marched after Eumenes. At the river Kopratas, Eumenes surprised Antigonus during the crossing of the river and killed or captured 4,000 of his men. Antigonus, faced with disaster, decided to abandon the crossing and turned back northward, marching up into Media, threatening the upper satrapies. Eumenes wanted to march westward and cut Antigonus's supply lines, but the satraps refused to abandon their satrapies and forced Eumenes to stay in the east.  In the late summer of 316 BC, Antigonus moved southward again in the hope of bringing Eumenes to battle and ending the war quickly. Eventually, the two armies met in southern Media and fought the indecisive Battle of Paraitakene. Antigonus, whose casualties were more numerous, force marched his army to safety the next night. During the winter of 316-315 BC, Antigonus tried to surprise Eumenes in Persis by marching his army across a desert and catching his enemy off guard; unfortunately, he was observed by some locals who reported it to his opponents. A few days later both armies drew up for battle. The Battle of Gabiene was as indecisive as the previous battle at Parataikene. According to Plutarch and Diodorus, Eumenes had won the battle but lost control of his army's baggage camp thanks to his ally Peucestas' duplicity or incompetence. In addition to all the loot of the Silver Shields (treasure accumulated over 30 years of successful warfare including gold, silver, gems and other booty), the soldiers' women and children were taken and Eumenes' army wished to negotiate their return.  Teutamus, one of their commanders, sent the request to Antigonus who responded by demanding they give him Eumenes. The Silver Shields complied, arrested Eumenes and his officers, and handed them over. The war was thus at an end. Eumenes was placed under guard while Antigonus held a council to ponder his fate. Antigonus, supported by his son Demetrius, was disinclined to kill Eumenes, but most of the council insisted that he execute Eumenes and so it was decided.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Antigonus, according to Plutarch, starved Eumenes for three days, but finally sent an executioner to dispatch him when the time came for him to move his camp. Eumenes' body was given to his friends, to be burnt with honor, and his ashes were conveyed in a silver urn to his wife and children.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Despite Eumenes' undeniable skills as a general, he never commanded the full allegiance of the Macedonian officers in his army and died as a result. He was an able commander who did his utmost to maintain the unity of Alexander's empire in Asia, but his efforts were frustrated by generals and satraps both nominally under his command and under that of his enemies. Eumenes was hated and despised by many fellow commanders—certainly for his successes and supposedly for his non-Macedonian (in the tribal sense) background and prior office as Royal Secretary. Eumenes has been seen as a tragic figure, a man who seemingly tried to do the right thing but was overcome by a more ruthless enemy and the treachery of his own soldiers.  Historie is an award-winning historical fiction manga series that tells the life story of Eumenes, in a fictional way.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Pharnabazus III, Persian satrap of Phrygia, was his brother-in-law, as Eumenes married Artonis, the daughter of Persian satrap Artabazus II and sister of Pharnabazus III.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eumenes of Cardia (; ; c. 362316 BC) was a Greek general and satrap. He participated in the Wars of the Diadochi as a supporter of the Macedonian Argead royal house. He was executed after the Battle of Gabiene in 316 BC.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972183}
{"src_title": "Umeå", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first written mention of Umeå is from the 14th century. The northern parts of Sweden, including the counties of Västerbotten and Norrbotten, were mostly settled by nomadic Sami people before this time but not necessarily forming any permanent settlement in the city's exact location. The name is believed to be derived from the Old Norse word \"Úma\" which means \"roaring\". The name of the town would therefore mean \"\"The Roaring River\"\".  The coast came to be permanently settled by Germanic peoples moving upwards on the Bothnian Bay by boat, hence the Germanic names of towns and villages on the Westrobothnian coast. Some Kven people had permanent settlements in northern Westrobothnia (Piteå and Luleå) but were gradually assimilated with the Germanic tribes, although some Finnish names of lakes and villages survived. Southern Westrobothnia (Umeå and Skellefteå) has been a permanent Germanic settlement since at least the 14th century, but probably since the Viking ages or earlier.  Umeå in its first form was a parish with a wooden church and trade post located in the section of town now known as Backen (or Kyrkbacken). Its location near the coast and on a river was probably one of the reasons that people chose to settle there.  For the next couple of centuries, Umeå was a place consisting of scattered parishes, where merchandise originating with the Sami people was traded, and was the last inhabited place before the northern wilderness took over. However, no real city was built at the location selected by the king, and it lost its town privileges in the 1590s.  In 1622, a city was again founded by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. In 1638, it had about 40 houses. It suffered from Russian attacks in 1714 and in 1720 when it was burnt to the ground during the Russian Pillage of 1719-1721. At the close of the Finnish War in 1809 the Russian army under Barclay de Tolly took Umeå and held it from June to August.  In 1874 the town improved the plans for its structure after it became a government requirement. Umeå had already started making these changes when on 25 June 1888, a fire devastated the eastern parts of Umeå and at least 2,300 of the 3,000 inhabitants became homeless. In the restoration following the fire, almost 3,000 silver birch trees were planted along wide avenues to prevent future fires from spreading. For this reason Umeå is sometimes known as \"Björkarnas Stad\", the \"City of Birches\". The name of the Umeå ice-hockey team, Björklöven, means \"The Birch Leaves\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Umeå is situated on the inlet of the Gulf of Bothnia at the mouth of the Ume River, in the south of Västerbotten. Umeå is about north of Stockholm and about south of the Arctic Circle. It is the largest city north of the Stockholm-Uppsala region, and is sometimes referred to as the regional centre of northern Sweden.  The nearby community of Holmsund serves as its port. From here a ferry line connects it with the neighbouring city of Vaasa (Swedish: \"Vasa\") in Finland. The near connections to Finland affects the population of the city - several Sweden Finns live in Umeå.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The climate of Umeå is bordering on a humid continental and a subarctic climate, with short and fairly warm summers. Winters are lengthy and freezing but usually milder than in areas at the same latitude with a more continental climate.  Average January temperature is about, July is. Considering its proximity to a major water body and its latitude, summers are warmer than would be expected. The record high of was recorded on 23 July 2014, during a very warm summer in Sweden. The record low of was recorded on 15 February 1978.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Umeå (,,, ; ; ; Ume Sami: ; ; ) is a city in northeast Sweden. It is the seat of Umeå Municipality and the capital of Västerbotten County.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972184}
{"src_title": "Queen Silvia of Sweden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood and parentage.", "content": "Silvia Renate Sommerlath was born in Heidelberg, Germany, on 23 December 1943, the only daughter of Alice (née Soares de Toledo) and Walther Sommerlath. Her father was German and her mother was Brazilian.  She has two older brothers: Ralf (born 1929) and Walther (born 1934) Sommerlath. They were represented at the 2010 wedding of Victoria, Crown Princess of Sweden, and Daniel Westling and the wedding of Princess Madeleine in 2013. Her third brother, Jörg Sommerlath, died in 2006. The Mother-Child House Jörg Sommerlath in Berlin, operated by Queen Silvia's World Childhood Foundation, is named after him.  She attended high school in Düsseldorf, graduating in 1963; and she attended the Munich School of Interpreting from 1965 to 1969, majoring in Spanish.  She has some fluency in Swedish Sign Language, a national sign language used by the deaf community in Sweden. A trained interpreter, Swedish is actually her sixth language. She speaks her native German, her mother's language of Portuguese, as well as French, Spanish, and English.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "During the 1972 Summer Olympics where she was employed as a hostess, Silvia Sommerlath met Crown Prince Carl Gustaf. In a later interview, the King explained how it just \"clicked\" when they met. After the death of King Gustaf VI Adolf on 15 September 1973, Carl XVI Gustaf succeeded to the throne.  He and Silvia announced their engagement on 12 March 1976 and were married three months later, on 19 June in Stockholm Cathedral (\"Storkyrkan Cathedral\") in Stockholm. It was the first marriage of a reigning Swedish monarch since 1797. The wedding was preceded, the evening before, by a Royal Variety Performance, where the Swedish musical group ABBA performed \"Dancing Queen\" for the very first time, as a tribute to Sweden's future queen.  The King and Queen of Sweden have three children and seven grandchildren:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Father's alleged Nazi links.", "content": "In July 2002, the Queen became the unwelcome subject of international curiosity when an article published in the syndicalist newspaper Arbetaren reported that German state archives record that the queen's father, Walther Sommerlath, joined the Nazi party's foreign wing, the NSDAP/AO, in 1934, when he was living in Brazil and working for a German steel company. In December 2010, Queen Silvia wrote a letter of complaint to Jan Scherman, the CEO of TV4, the network that had aired a documentary about her father's alleged Nazi past.  Queen Silvia commissioned a report from World War II expert Erik Norberg, a choice which was criticized due to Norberg having ties to the royal family. In his report, Norberg argued that the Queen's father had in fact helped the owner of the steel-fabrication plant, a Jewish businessperson, escape from Germany by taking over the factory. In a December 2011 interview for Channel 1 with Sweden's public service broadcaster Sveriges Television, Silvia called media's handling of the information about her father \"character assassination\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charity involvement.", "content": "Queen Silvia established Mentor International in 1994 in collaboration with the World Health Organization. Her vision was to offer mentoring as inspiration, empowerment, and motivation for young people to make healthy life choices and view their futures more positively. Mentor's work has been recognized by the United Nations Office on Drugs & Crime, the Organization of American States, and the Council of Europe. She is now an honorary board member of Mentor Foundation.  She was also a co-founder of the World Childhood Foundation in 1999, having been inspired by her work as Patron of the first World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children held in Stockholm. She has also been involved in the Global Child Forum, which she helped initiate, as a keynote speaker in several forums.  Her commitment to the work with dementia and the care of the elderly at the end of life is also well known and respected. On her initiative, Silviahemmet was established in Stockholm. It works to educate hospital personnel in how to work with people suffering from dementia, and also initiates research in the area.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Queen Silvia of Sweden (born Silvia Renate Sommerlath on 23 December 1943) is the spouse of King Carl XVI Gustaf and mother of the heir apparent to the throne, Crown Princess Victoria. In 2011, Silvia became the longest-serving queen of Sweden, a record previously held by Sophia of Nassau.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972185}
{"src_title": "Ingeborg of Denmark, Queen of France", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Ingeborg was married to Philip II Augustus of France on 15 August 1193 after the death of Philip's first wife Isabelle of Hainaut (d. 1190). Her marriage brought a large dowry from her brother King Canute VI of Denmark. Stephen of Tournai described her as \"\"very kind, young of age but old of wisdom\".\" At the marriage, she was renamed Isambour. On the day after his marriage to Ingeborg, King Philip changed his mind, wished to obtain a separation and attempted to send her back to Denmark. Outraged, Ingeborg fled to a convent in Soissons, from where she protested to Pope Celestine III.  Three months after the wedding, Philip summoned an ecclesiastical council in Compiègne and had it draw a false family tree to show that he and Ingeborg would have been related through Philip's first wife. Contemporary Canon law stated that a man and a woman could not marry if they shared an ancestor within the last seven generations. The council therefore declared the marriage void.  Ingeborg protested again and the Danes sent a delegation to meet Pope Celestine III. They convinced him that the spurious family tree was false but the pope merely declared the annulment invalid and prohibited Philip from marrying again. Philip ignored the Pope's verdict. Ingeborg spent the next 20 years in virtual imprisonment in various French castles. In one stage she spent more than a decade in the castle of Étampes southwest of Paris. Her brother Knud VI and his advisers continually worked against the annulment. Contemporary sources also indicate that many of Philip's advisers in France supported Ingeborg.  Political reasons for this royal marriage are disputed, but Philip probably wanted to gain better relations with Denmark because the countries had been on different sides in the schism of the future succession to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire. Possibly he also wanted more allies against the rival Angevin dynasty. As a dowry, he had asked for the support of the Danish fleet for a year and the right to any remaining claims Denmark had to the throne of England. Ingeborg's brother Knud VI agreed only to a dowry of 10.000 silver marks. Marriage had been negotiated through Philip's adviser Bernard of Vincennes and Guillaume, the abbot of the Danish monastery of Æbelholt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Her defence.", "content": "Pope Celestine defended the Queen, but was able to do little for her. Indeed, Philip asked Pope Celestine III for an annulment on the grounds of non-consummation “per maleficium,” impotence caused by sorcery. (Historians have presented many theories for the alleged lack of consummation from temporary impotence to bouts of sweating sickness). Philip had not reckoned with Ingeborg, however; she insisted that the marriage \"had\" been consummated, and that she was his wife and the rightful Queen of France.  The Franco-Danish churchman William of Æbelholt (c. 1127 – 1203) intervened in the case of Philip Augustus who was attempting to repudiate Ingeborg. The genealogy of the Danish kings which William drew up on this occasion to disprove the alleged impediment of consanguinity and two books of his letters, some of which deal with this affair, have come down to us.  Philip married Agnes of Merania in June 1196. However, in 1198 new Pope Innocent III declared that this new marriage was void because the previous marriage was still valid. He ordered Philip to dismiss Agnes and take Ingeborg back. Ingeborg had written to him, stating abuse and isolation and claiming thoughts of suicide because of harsh treatment.  Philip's response was to lock Ingeborg away in the Château d'Étampes in Essonne. Locked up in a tower, Ingeborg was a prisoner. Food was irregular and sometimes insufficient. No one was allowed to visit her, except for one occasion when two Danish chaplains were allowed to visit. Philip, meanwhile, brought Agnes back, and continued to live with her, producing a second child, a son. For these offences, Philip was excommunicated in 1200, and the kingdom was placed under an interdict. When the king did not comply, Pope Innocent III placed France under interdict in 1199 until September 1200 when Philip said he would obey. He later reneged on that promise. Agnes died the following year.  In 1201 Philip asked the Pope to declare his children legitimate and the Pope complied to gain his political support. However, later that year Philip again asked for an annulment, claiming that Ingeborg had tried to bewitch him in the wedding night and thus made him unable to consummate the marriage. So he asked for divorce on the grounds of witchcraft. This attempt failed as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reconciliation and later life.", "content": "Philip reconciled with Ingeborg in 1213, not out of altruism but because he wished to press his claims to the throne of the Kingdom of England through his ties to the Danish crown. Later, on his deathbed in 1223, he is said to have told his son Louis VIII to treat her well. Later both Louis VIII and Louis IX acknowledged Ingeborg as a legitimate queen. After this time, Ingeborg spent most of her time in a priory of Saint-Jean-de-l’Ile which she had founded. It was close to Corbeil on an island in Essonne. She survived her husband by more than 14 years. Ingeborg of Denmark died in either 1237 or 1238 and was buried in the Church of the Order of St John in Corbeil (\"Église de l'ordre de Saint-Jean à Corbeil\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ingeborg of Denmark (; 1174 – 29 July 1237) was Queen of France by marriage to Philip II of France. She was a daughter of Valdemar I of Denmark and Sofia of Minsk.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972186}
{"src_title": "Grapefruit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The evergreen grapefruit trees usually grow to around tall, although they may reach. The leaves are glossy, dark green, long (up to ), and thin. It produces white four-petaled flowers. The fruit is yellow-orange skinned and generally, an oblate spheroid in shape; it ranges in diameter from. The flesh is segmented and acidic, varying in color depending on the cultivars, which include white, pink, and red pulps of varying sweetness (generally, the redder varieties are the sweetest). The 1929 U.S. Ruby Red (of the Redblush variety) has the first grapefruit patent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The genetic origin of the grapefruit is a hybrid mix. One ancestor of the grapefruit was the Jamaican sweet orange (\"Citrus sinensis\"), itself an ancient hybrid of Asian origin; the other was the Indonesian pomelo (\"C. maxima\"). One story of the fruit's origin is that a certain \"Captain Shaddock\" brought pomelo seeds to Jamaica and bred the first fruit, although it probably originated as a naturally occurring hybrid between the two plants some time after they had been introduced there. The hybrid fruit, then called \"the forbidden fruit\", was first documented in 1750 by a Welshman, Rev. Griffith Hughes, who described specimens from Barbados in \"The Natural History of Barbados\". Currently, the grapefruit is said to be one of the \"Seven Wonders of Barbados\".  The grapefruit was brought to Florida by Count Odet Philippe in 1823 in what is now known as Safety Harbor. Further crosses have produced the tangelo (1905), the Minneola tangelo (1931), and the oroblanco (1984).  The grapefruit was known as the \"shaddock\" or \"shattuck\" until the nineteenth century. Its current name alludes to clusters of the fruit on the tree, which often appear similar to that of grapes. Botanically, it was not distinguished from the pomelo until the 1830s, when it was given the name \"Citrus paradisi.\" Its true origins were not determined until the 1940s. This led to the official name being altered to \"Citrus × paradisi,\" the \"×\" identifying its hybrid origin. An early pioneer in the American citrus industry was Kimball Atwood, a wealthy entrepreneur who founded the Atwood Grapefruit Company in the late nineteenth century. The Atwood Grove became the largest grapefruit grove in the world, with a yearly output of 80,000 boxes of fruit. It was there that pink grapefruit was first discovered in 1906.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ruby Red.", "content": "The 1929 Ruby Red (or \"Redblush\") patent was associated with real commercial success, which came after the discovery of a red grapefruit growing on a pink variety. Using radiation to trigger mutations, new varieties were developed to retain the red tones which typically faded to pink. The Rio Red variety is the current (2007) Texas grapefruit with registered trademarks Rio Star and Ruby-Sweet, also sometimes promoted as \"Reddest\" and \"Texas Choice\". The Rio Red is a mutation bred variety that was developed by treatment of bud sticks with thermal neutrons. Its improved attributes of mutant variety are fruit and juice color, deeper red, and wide adaptation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Star Ruby.", "content": "The Star Ruby is the darkest of the red varieties. Developed from an irradiated Hudson grapefruit, it has found limited commercial success because it is more difficult to grow than other varieties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "The varieties of Texas and Florida grapefruit include: Oro Blanco, Ruby Red, Pink, Rio Star, Thompson, White Marsh, Flame, Star Ruby, Duncan, and Pummelo HB.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "In 2018, world production of grapefruits (combined with pomelos) was 9.4 million tonnes, led by China with 53% of the world total. Secondary producers were Vietnam and the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Colors and flavors.", "content": "Grapefruit varieties are differentiated by the flesh color of fruit they produce. Common varieties are red, white, and pink pulp colors. Flavors range from highly acidic and somewhat sour to sweet and tart, resulting from composition of sugars (mainly sucrose), organic acids (mainly citric acid), and monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes providing aromas.  Grapefruit mercaptan, a sulfur-containing terpene, is one of the aroma compounds influencing taste and odor of grapefruit, compared with other citrus fruits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Drug interactions.", "content": "Grapefruit and grapefruit juice have been found to interact with numerous drugs and in many cases, to result in adverse direct and/or side effects (if dosage is not carefully adjusted.)  This happens in two very different ways. In the first, the effect is from bergamottin, a natural furanocoumarin in both grapefruit flesh and peel that inhibits the CYP3A4 enzyme (among others from the P450 enzyme family responsible for metabolizing 90% of drugs). The action of the CYP3A4 enzyme itself is to metabolize many medications. If the drug's breakdown for removal is lessened, then the level of the drug in the blood may become too high or stay too long, leading to adverse effects. On the other hand, some drugs must be broken down to become active, and inhibiting CYP3A4 may lead to reduced drug effects.  The other effect is that grapefruit can block the absorption of drugs in the intestine. If the drug is not absorbed, then not enough of it is in the blood to have a therapeutic effect. Each affected drug has either a specific increase of effect or decrease.  One whole grapefruit, or a glass of of grapefruit juice may cause drug overdose toxicity. Typically, drugs that are incompatible with grapefruit are so labeled on the container or package insert. People taking drugs should ask their health care provider or pharmacist questions about grapefruit and drug interactions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "Raw grapefruit is 90% water, 8% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, raw grapefruit provides 33 calories and is a rich source of vitamin C (40% of the Daily Value), with no other micronutrients in significant content.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Citric acid.", "content": "Grapefruit juice contains about half the citric acid of lime or lemon juice, and about 50% more citric acid than orange juice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Grapefruit sweets.", "content": "In Costa Rica, especially in Atenas, grapefruit are often cooked to remove their sourness, rendering them as sweets; they are also stuffed with \"dulce de leche\", resulting in a dessert called \"toronja rellena\" (stuffed grapefruit). In Haiti, grapefruit is used primarily for its juice (\"jus de Chadèque\"), but also is used to make jam (\"confiture de Chadèque\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parasites.", "content": "Grapefruits are one of the most common hosts for fruit flies like \"A. suspensa\", which will lay their eggs in overripe or spoiled grapefruits. The larvae of these flies will then consume the fruit in order to gain nutrients until they can proceed into the pupae stage. This parasitism has led to millions in economic costs for nations in Central America and Southern North America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Grapefruit has also been investigated in cancer medicine pharmacodynamics. Its inhibiting effect on the metabolism of some drugs may allow smaller doses to be used, which can help to reduce costs.  In aromatherapy, the fruity aroma of grapefruit is believed to have an uplifting and stimulating effect on the mind, inhaling the aroma of grapefruit can be used to help combat tiredness or mental exhaustion.  Lifestyle magazines and websites sometimes recommend grapefruit as a stain remover for porcelain and enamel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grapefruit relatives.", "content": "Grapefruit is a pomelo backcross, a hybrid of pomelo × sweet orange, with sweet orange itself being a pomelo × mandarin hybrid.  The grapefruit is a parent to many hybrids:  The grapefruit's cousins include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The grapefruit (\"Citrus × paradisi\") is a subtropical citrus tree known for its relatively large sour to semi-sweet, somewhat bitter fruit. Grapefruit is a citrus hybrid originating in Barbados as an accidental cross between the sweet orange (\"C. sinensis\") and pomelo (or shaddock; \"C. maxima\"), both of which were introduced from Asia in the seventeenth century. When found, it was nicknamed the \"forbidden fruit\". Frequently, it is misidentified as the very similar parent species, pomelo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972187}
{"src_title": "Talk show", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Subgenres.", "content": "There are several major formats of talk shows. Generally, each subgenre predominates during a specific programming block during the broadcast day.  These formats are not absolute; some afternoon programs have similar structures to late-night talk shows. These formats may vary across different countries or markets. Late night talk shows are especially significant in the United States. Breakfast television is a staple of British television. The daytime talk format has become popular in Latin America as well as the United States.  Talk-radio host Howard Stern also hosted a talk show that was syndicated nationally in the USA, then moved to satellite radio's Sirius. The tabloid talk show genre, pioneered by Phil Donahue but popularized by Oprah Winfrey was extremely popular during the last two decades of the 20th century.  Politics are hardly the only subject of American talk shows, however. Other radio talk show subjects include \"Car Talk\" hosted by NPR and \"Coast to Coast AM\" hosted by Art Bell and George Noory which discusses topics of the paranormal, conspiracy theories, fringe science, and the just plain weird. Sports talk shows are also very popular ranging from high-budget shows like \"The Best Damn Sports Show Period\" to Max Kellerman's original public-access television cable TV show \"Max on Boxing\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Talk shows have been broadcast on television since the earliest days of the medium. Joe Franklin, an American radio and television personality, hosted the first television talk show. The show began in 1951 on WJZ-TV (later WABC-TV) and moved to WOR-TV (later WWOR-TV) from 1962 to 1993.  NBC's \"The Tonight Show\" is the world's longest-running talk show; having debuted in 1954, it continues to this day. The show underwent some minor title changes until settling on its current title in 1962, and despite a brief foray into a more news-style program in 1957 and then reverting that same year, it has remained a talk show. Ireland's \"The Late Late Show\" is the second-longest running talk show in television history, and the longest running talk show in Europe, having debuted in 1962.  Steve Allen was the first host of \"The Tonight Show\", which began as a local New York show, being picked up by the NBC network in 1954. It in turn had evolved from his late-night radio talk show in Los Angeles. Allen pioneered the format of late night network TV talk shows, originating such talk show staples as an opening monologue, celebrity interviews, audience participation, and comedy bits in which cameras were taken outside the studio, as well as music, although the series' popularity was cemented by second host Jack Paar, who took over after Allen had left and the show had ceased to exist. TV news pioneer Edward R. Murrow hosted a talk show entitled \"Small World\" in the late 1950s and since then, political TV talk shows have predominantly aired on Sunday mornings.  Syndicated daily talk shows began to gain more popularity during the mid-1970s and reached their height of popularity with the rise of the tabloid talk show. Morning talk shows gradually replaced earlier forms of programming — there were a plethora of morning game shows during the 1960s and early to mid-1970s, and some stations formerly showed a morning movie in the time slot that many talk shows now occupy.  Current late night talk shows such as \"The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, Conan\" and \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\" have aired featuring celebrity guests and comedy sketches. Syndicated daily talk shows range from tabloid talk shows, such as \"Jerry Springer\" and \"Maury\" to celebrity interview shows like \"Live with Kelly and Ryan\", \"The Better Show\", \"The Wendy Williams Show\", \"Steve Wilkos\", \"The Ellen DeGeneres Show\" and \"The Kelly Clarkson Show\" to industry leader \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" which popularized the former genre and has been evolving towards the latter. On November 10, 2010, Oprah Winfrey invited several of the most prominent American talk show hosts - Phil Donahue, Sally Jessy Raphael, Geraldo Rivera, Ricki Lake, and Montel Williams - to join her as guests on her show. The 1990s in particular saw a spike in the number of \"tabloid\" talk shows, most of which were short-lived and are now replaced by a more universally appealing \"interview\" or \"lifestyle TV\" format.  Talk shows have more recently started to appear on Internet radio. Also, several Internet blogs are in talk show format including the Baugh Experience.  The current world record for the longest talk show is held by Rabi Lamichhane from Nepal by staying on air for 62 hours from April 11 to 13, 2013 breaking the previous record set by two Ukrainians by airing the show for 52 hours in 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Talk shows around the world.", "content": "Rabi Lamichhane from Nepal holds the present world record for longest ever talk show.  In Japan, panel shows — called \"tooku bangumi\" (トーク番組)in Japanese — are very commonplace, accounting for about 30% of daytime and prime-time programming on the four main television stations. Due to language and cultural differences, Japanese TV stations could not freely use syndicated programs (mostly from Europe and North America) and therefore turned to panel shows, which could be produced cheaply and easily, to fill time during daytime programming.  Japanese panel shows are distinct in generally not employing regular panelists but instead having a panel made up of different freelance comedians and celebrities each program, although the program is generally hosted by the same compere. Talk shows evolved in tandem with the Japanese variety show and it is very common for talk shows to borrow variety elements, typically by having celebrity guests attempt some kind of amusingly incongruous activity. Often, one of the guests will be a gaijin tarento (foreign talent) in order to provide comedy or to comment on matters related to Western culture. Comedic material is commonly written and rehearsed before tapings with or without a live audience.  Korean and Taiwanese talk shows have used the panel format similar to Japanese programs and rely on famous celebrities and comedic banter than topics. Their programs often shorten interviews from lengthy tapings.  In Brazil, Jô Soares inaugurated the genre with Jô Soares Onze e Meia (\"Jô Soares Eleven Thirty\") from 1988 to 1999. In 2000, Soares took his show's format to Rede Globo, where it was then called Programa do Jô, and hosts the program until the present day. Jô's main competitors are Danilo Gentili and Fábio Porchat. Weesibe Bbiri on Delta TV Uganda, hosted by Moses Wamala", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A talk show or chat show is a television programming or radio programming genre structured around the act of spontaneous conversation. In a talk show, one person (or group of people) discusses various topics put forth by a talk show host. The tone of the show is shaped by the host personality, which also defines the \"trademark\" of the show.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972188}
{"src_title": "Maltese (dog)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Maltese had been recognized as a FCI breed under the patronage of Italy in 1954, at the annual meeting in Interlaken, Switzerland. The current FCI standard is dated November 27, 1989, and the latest translation from Italian to English is dated April 6, 1998.  The American Kennel Club recognized the breed in 1888, its latest standard being from March 10, 1964. Parti-colour and solid colour dogs were accepted in the show ring from 1902 until 1913 in England, and as late as 1950 in Victoria, Australia. However, white Maltese were required to be pure white. Coloured Maltese could be obtained from the south of France.  Little is known about the origin and spread of the Maltese dog. It probably did not originate from the island of Malta, the town of Melita in Italy, nor the island of Melita in the Adriatic, but from spitz-type dogs in south-central Europe, where it may at first have resembled the modern Pomeranian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Melitaie.", "content": "The Maltese dog was a lapdog favoured by both the ancient Greeks and Romans, especially their children, and appears on amphorae with the word Μελιταιε (Melitaie). References to the dog can also be found in Ancient Greek and Roman literature. Aristotle mentions the dog around 370 BC. Early writers attribute its origin to Melita, however there were two islands named Melita at that time with one being in the Mediterranean and the other being in the Adriatic sea near Dalmatia, which confuses where the dog originated from. Strabo wrote about the \"Canes Melitei\" that came not from Malta but from a town named Melita in Sicily, which is in contrast to English writers who give Malta, as the place of origin, considering that Melite is also the old name of Mdina, former capital of Malta.  Pliny suggests the dog as having taken its name from the Adriatic island Méléda, however Strabo, in the early first century AD, identifies the breed as originating from the Mediterranean island of Malta.  During the first century, the Roman poet Martial wrote descriptive verses to a lap dog named \"Issa\" owned by his friend Publius. It is proposed that Issa was a Maltese dog, and various sources link Martial's friend Publius with the Roman Governor Publius of Malta, though others do not identify him.  John Caius, physician to Queen Elizabeth I, also claimed that Callimachus was referring to the island of Melita \"in the Sicilian strait\" (Malta). This claim is often repeated, especially by English writers. The dog's links to Malta are mentioned in the writings of Abbé Jean Quintin d'Autun, Secretary to the Grand Master of the Knights of Malta Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, in his work \"Insulae Melitae Descriptio\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "Characteristics include slightly rounded skulls, with a finger-wide dome, a black button nose and brown eyes. The body is compact with the length equaling the height and the tail is almost always curled. The drop ears with (sometimes) long hair, and eyes surrounded by darker skin pigmentation (called a \"halo\"), gives Maltese their expressive look. Lacking exposure to a lot of sunlight, their noses can fade and become pink or light brown in color. This is often referred to as a \"winter nose\" and many times will become black again with increased exposure to the sun. The Maltese's paws are very sensitive to touch. The coat is long and silky and lacks an undercoat. Some Maltese can have curly hair (especially behind their ears), but this is considered a fault. The colour of the coat is pure white. A pale ivory tinge is permitted on the ears. In some standards, a pure white coat with slight lemon markings is tolerated.  The Maltese does not shed, and is therefore a good choice for people with dog allergies. They can exhibit signs of tear-staining. Some people prefer their dogs to have the coat short, clipped to a few centimetres in length.  Adult Maltese range from roughly. The international FCI standard specifies a weight of ; the American Kennel Club calls for a somewhat lighter weight of, with preferred, They are usually tall.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The Maltese is kept as for companionship, for ornament or for showing. It is ranked 59th of 79 breeds assessed for intelligence by Stanley Coren.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Abandonment.", "content": "In 2004, an Australia-wide (not including Tasmania) research project carried out in conjunction with the RSPCA found Maltese owners were the most likely to surrender their dogs to a shelter, citing the tendency of Maltese to bark constantly, and were Australia's most abandoned dog breed. Data released in 2010 by the Korean National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service show 1,208 Maltese abandoned between January and August 2010, making it the most abandoned breed in Seoul, South Korea.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Maltese is a breed of dog in the toy group. It is thought to have originated in south-central Europe from dogs of spitz type. Despite the name, it has no verified historic or scientific connection to the island of Malta.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972189}
{"src_title": "Linocut", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Although linoleum is a floor covering that dates to the 1860s, the linocut printing technique was used first by the artists of Die Brücke in Germany between 1905 and 1913, where it had been similarly used for wallpaper printing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technique.", "content": "Since the material being carved has no directional grain and does not tend to split, it is easier to obtain certain artistic effects with lino than with most woods, although the resultant prints lack the often angular grainy character of woodcuts and engravings. Lino is generally diced, much easier to cut than wood, especially when heated, but the pressure of the printing process degrades the plate faster and it is difficult to create larger works due to the material's fragility.  Linocuts can also be achieved by the careful application of arts on the surface of the lino. This creates a surface similar to a soft ground etching and these caustic-lino plates can be printed in either a relief, intaglio or a viscosity printing manner.  Colour linocuts can be made by using a different block for each colour as in a woodcut, as the artists of the Grosvenor School frequently did, but, as Pablo Picasso demonstrated, such prints can also be achieved using a single piece of linoleum in what is called the'reductive' print method. Essentially, after each successive colour is imprinted onto the paper, the artist then cleans the lino plate and cuts away what will not be imprinted for the subsequently applied colour.  Due to ease of use, linocut is widely used in schools to introduce children to the art of printmaking, using it to complete many tasks in the art lesson rather than going straight for the pencil and eraser; similarly, non-professional artists often cut lino rather than wood for printing. Nevertheless, in the contemporary art world the linocut is an established professional print medium, because of its extensive use by the artists of the Grosvenor School, followed by Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Emergence of the technique in America.", "content": "In 1911 “linoleum art” was first displayed in New York City by the Czech émigré Vojtěch Preissig. In his publications on linocuts (1926-29) the respected American printmaker, Pedro Joseph de Lemos, simplified the methods for art schools and introduced new techniques for color linocuts, including the printing of the key block first. The first large-scale colour linocuts made by an American artist were created ca. 1943–45 by Walter Inglis Anderson, and exhibited at the Brooklyn Museum in 1949. Today, linocut is a popular technique among street artists and street art-related fine art.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Linocut, also known as lino print, lino printing or linoleum art, is a printmaking technique, a variant of woodcut in which a sheet of linoleum (sometimes mounted on a wooden block) is used for a relief surface. A design is cut into the linoleum surface with a sharp knife, V-shaped chisel or gouge, with the raised (uncarved) areas representing a reversal (mirror image) of the parts to show printed. The linoleum sheet is inked with a roller (called a brayer), and then impressed onto paper or fabric. The actual printing can be done by hand or with a printing press.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972190}
{"src_title": "Cassius Dio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Lucius Cassius Dio was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator and member of the gens Cassia, who was born and raised at Nicaea in Bithynia. Byzantine tradition maintains that Dio's mother was the daughter or sister of the Greek orator and philosopher, Dio Chrysostom; however, this relationship has been disputed. Lucius is often identified as Dio's \"praenomen\", but a Macedonian inscription, published in 1970, reveals the abbreviation, \"Cl.\", presumably Claudius. Although Dio was a Roman citizen, he wrote in Greek. Dio always maintained a love for his hometown of Nicaea, calling it \"his home\", as opposed to his description of his villa in Italy (\"my residence in Italy\").  For the greater part of his life, Dio was a member of the public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna following the death of Septimius Severus; he became a suffect consul in approximately the year 205. Dio was also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia. Severus Alexander held Dio in the highest esteem and reappointed him to the position of consul, even though his caustic nature irritated the Praetorian Guards, who demanded his life. Following his second consulship, while in his later years, Dio returned to his native country, where he eventually died.  Dio was either the grandfather or great-grandfather of Cassius Dio, consul in 291.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Roman History\".", "content": "Dio published a \"Roman History\" (, \"\"), in 80 books, after twenty-two years of research and labour. The books cover a period of approximately 1,400 years, beginning with the tales from Roman mythology of the arrival of the legendary Aeneas in Italy (c. 1200 BC) and the founding of Rome by his descendant Romulus (753 BC); as well as the historic events of the republican and imperial eras through 229 AD. The work is one of only three written Roman sources that document the British revolt of AD 60–61 led by Boudica. Until the first century BC, Dio provides only a summary of events; after that period, his accounts become more detailed. From the time of Commodus (ruled AD 180–192), Dio is very circumspect in his conveyance of the events that he witnessed.  The version of Dio's work that survives today is quite composite since his history does not survive in its entirety: The first 21 books have been partially reconstructed based on fragments from other works as well as the epitome of Zonaras who used Dio's \"Roman History\" as a main source. Scholarship on this part of Dio's work is scarce but the importance of the Early Republic and Regal period to Dio's overall work has recently been underlined. Books 22-35 are sparsely covered by fragments. The books that follow, Books 36 through 54, are nearly all complete; they cover the period from 65 BC to 12 BC, or from the eastern campaign of Pompey and the death of Mithridates to the death of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Book 55 contains a considerable gap, while Books 56 through 60 (which cover the period from AD 9 through 54) are complete and contain events from the defeat of Varus in Germany to the death of Claudius. Of the 20 subsequent books in the series, there remain only fragments and the meager abridgement of John Xiphilinus, a monk from the 11th century. The abridgment of Xiphilinus, as now extant, commences with Book 35 and continues to the end of Book 80: it is a very indifferent performance and was made by order of the emperor Michael VII Doukas. The last book covers the period from 222 to 229 (the first half of the reign of Alexander Severus). Dio's work has often been deprecated as unreliable and lacking any overall political aim. Recently, however, this Roman historian has received a thorough reevaluation and his complexity and sophisticated political and historical interpretations have been highlighted.  The fragments of the first 36 books, as they have been collected, consist of four kinds:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary style.", "content": "Dio attempted to emulate Thucydides in his writing style. Dio's style, where there appears to be no corruption of the text, is generally clear though full of Latinisms. Dio's writing was underpinned by a set of personal circumstances whereby he was able to observe significant events of the Empire in the first person, or had direct contact with the key figures who were involved.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lucius Cassius Dio (; c. 155 – c. 235) or Dio Cassius (Greek: Δίων Κάσσιος) was a Roman statesman and historian of Greek and Roman origin. He published 80 volumes of history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the subsequent founding of Rome (753 BC), the formation of the Republic (509 BC), and the creation of the Empire (31 BC), up until 229 AD. Written in ancient Greek over 22 years, Dio's work covers approximately 1,000 years of history. Many of his 80 books have survived intact, or as fragments, providing modern scholars with a detailed perspective on Roman history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972191}
{"src_title": "Lucien Bonaparte", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Lucien Bonaparte's rise during the French Revolution, unlike Napoleon Bonaparte's other siblings, was not based on familial connections or nepotism. This was one of the issues that caused friction between Lucien and Napoleon in the early years of the 19th century, as their political differences deepened. Both Lucien and Napoleon had a very keen interest in historical antiquity as youngsters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth.", "content": "Lucien was born in Ajaccio, Corsica in 1775, and was educated in mainland France, at the College d'Autun, the military school in Brienne, and at seminary in Aix-en-Provence. In 1769 the Corsican Republic had been conquered by French forces and annexed into France. Lucien's father Carlo Bonaparte had been a strong supporter of Corsican patriots under Pasquale Paoli, but later switched to become a supporter of French rule.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Revolutionary activities.", "content": "A 14-year-old Lucien returned to Corsica at the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 and became an outspoken speaker in the Jacobin Club at Ajaccio, where he renamed himself \"Brutus\". An ally of Maximilien Robespierre before and during the Reign of Terror, he was briefly imprisoned (at Aix-en-Provence) after the coup of 9 Thermidor on 27 July 1794, which deposed Robespierre and led to Robespierre's execution the following day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "President of the Council of Five Hundred.", "content": "As president of the Council of Five Hundred — which he removed to the suburban security of Saint-Cloud — Lucien Bonaparte was crucial with a combination of bravado and disinformation to the \"coup d'état\" of 18 Brumaire (date based on the French Revolutionary Calendar) in which Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the government of the Directory to replace it by the Consulate on 9 November 1799. Lucien mounted a horse and galvanized the grenadiers by pointing a sword at his brother and swearing to run him through if he ever betrayed the principles of \"Liberté, égalité, fraternité\". The following day Lucien arranged for Napoleon's formal election as First Consul.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Diplomacy.", "content": "Napoleon made him Minister of the Interior under the Consulate, which enabled Lucien to falsify the results of the plebiscite but which brought him into competition with Joseph Fouché, the chief of police, who showed Napoleon a subversive pamphlet that was probably written by Lucien, and effected a breach between the brothers. Lucien was sent as ambassador to the court of Charles IV of Spain, (November, 1800), where his diplomatic talents won over the Bourbon royal family and, perhaps as importantly, the minister Manuel de Godoy.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Falling out with the Emperor.", "content": "Though he was a member of the \"Tribunat\" in 1802 and was made a senator of the First French Empire, Lucien came to oppose many of Napoleon's ideas. In 1804, with Lucien disliking Napoleon's intention to declare himself as Emperor of the French and to marry Lucien off to a Bourbon Spanish princess, the Queen of Etruria, Lucien spurned all imperial honours and went into self-imposed exile, living initially in Rome, where he bought the Villa Rufinella in Frascati.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In 1809, Napoleon increased pressure on Lucien to divorce his wife and return to France, even having their mother write a letter encouraging him to abandon her and return. With the whole of the Papal States annexed to France and the Pope imprisoned, Lucien was a virtual prisoner in his Italian estates, requiring permission of the Military Governor to venture off his property. He attempted to sail to the United States to escape his situation but was captured by the British. When he disembarked in Britain, he was greeted with cheers and applause by the crowd, many of whom saw him as anti-Napoleon.  The government permitted Lucien to settle comfortably with his family at Ludlow, and later at Thorngrove House in Grimley, Worcestershire, where he worked on a heroic poem on Charlemagne. Napoleon, believing Lucien had deliberately gone to Britain and thus a traitor, had Lucien omitted from the Imperial almanacs of the Bonapartes from 1811 until his 1814 abdication.  Lucien returned to France following his brother's abdication in April 1814. Lucien continued to Rome where on 18 August 1814 he was made Prince of Canino, Count of Apollino, and Lord of Nemori by Pope Pius VII and Prince of Musignano on 21 March 1824 by Pope Leo XII.  In the Hundred Days after Napoleon's return to France from exile in Elba, Lucien rallied to his brother's cause, and they joined forces once again during Napoleon's brief return to power. His brother made him a French Prince and included his children into the Imperial Family, but this was not recognized by the Bourbons after Napoleon's second abdication. Subsequently, Lucien was proscribed at the Restoration and deprived of his \"fauteuil\" at the Académie française. In 1836 he wrote his \"Mémoires\". He died in Viterbo, Italy, on 29 June 1840, of stomach cancer, the same disease that claimed his father, his sister Pauline and his brother Napoleon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Academic activities.", "content": "Lucien Bonaparte was the inspiration behind the Napoleonic reconstitution of the dispersed Académie française in 1803, where he took a seat. He collected paintings in \"la maison de campagne\" at Brienne, was a member of Jeanne Françoise Julie Adélaïde Récamier's salon and wrote a novel, \"La Tribu indienne.\" He was an amateur archeologist, establishing excavations at his property in Frascati which produced a complete statue of Tiberius, and at Musignano which rendered a bust of Juno. Bonaparte owned a parcel which had once formed part of Cicero's estate called Tusculum, and was much given to commenting on the fact. In 1825, Bonaparte excavated the so-called Tusculum portrait of Julius Caesar at the Tusculum's forum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriages and children.", "content": "His first wife was his landlord's daughter, Christine Boyer (3 July 1771 – 14 May 1800), the illiterate sister of an innkeeper of Saint-Maximin-la-Sainte-Baume, and by her he had four children:  His second wife was Alexandrine de Bleschamp (23 February 1778 – 12 July 1855), widow of Hippolyte Jouberthon, known as \"Madame Jouberthon\", and by her he had ten children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lucien Bonaparte, Prince Français, 1st Prince of Canino and Musignano (born Luciano Buonaparte; 21 May 1775 – 29 June 1840), the third surviving son of Carlo Bonaparte and his wife Letizia Ramolino, was a French statesman, who served as the final President of the Council of Five Hundred at the end of the French Revolution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972192}
{"src_title": "Six Thinking Hats", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Underlying principles.", "content": "The premise of the method is that the human brain thinks in a number of distinct ways which can be deliberately challenged, and hence planned for use in a structured way allowing one to develop tactics for thinking about particular issues. De Bono identifies six distinct directions in which the brain can be challenged. In each of these directions the brain will identify and bring into conscious thought certain aspects of issues being considered (e.g. gut instinct, pessimistic judgement, neutral facts). None of these directions is a completely natural way of thinking, but rather how some of us already represent the results of our thinking.  Since the hats do not represent natural modes of thinking, each hat must be used for a limited time only. Also, some will feel that using the hats is unnatural, uncomfortable or even counterproductive and against their better judgement.  A compelling example presented is sensitivity to \"mismatch\" stimuli. This is presented as a valuable survival instinct, because, in the natural world: the thing that is out of the ordinary may well be dangerous. This mode is identified as the root of negative judgement and critical thinking.  Colored hats are used as metaphors for each direction. Switching to a direction is symbolized by the act of putting on a colored hat, either literally or metaphorically. This metaphor of using an imaginary hat or cap as a symbol for a different thinking direction was first mentioned by De Bono as early as 1971 in his book \"Lateral Thinking for Management\" when describing a brainstorming framework. These metaphors allow for a more complete and elaborate segregation of the thinking directions. The six thinking hats indicate problems and solutions about an idea the thinker may come up with.  Similarly, \"The Five Stages of Thinking\" method—a set of tools corresponding to all six thinking hats—first appears in his CoRT Thinking Programme in 1973:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Strategies and programs.", "content": "Having identified the six modes of thinking that can be accessed, distinct programs can be created. These are sequences of hats which encompass and structure the thinking process toward a distinct goal. A number of these are included in the materials provided to support the franchised training of the six hats method; however it is often necessary to adapt them to suit an individual purpose. Also, programs are often \"emergent\", which is to say that the group might plan the first few hats then the facilitator will see what seems to be the right way to go.  Sequences always begin and end with a blue hat; the group agrees together how they will think, then they do the thinking, then they evaluate the outcomes of that thinking and what they should do next. Sequences (and indeed hats) may be used by individuals working alone or in groups. Example programs are shown below, each hat is typically used for approximately 2 minutes at a time – although at the start of a process an extended white hat session is common to get everyone onto the same page, and the red hat is recommended to be used for a very short period to get a visceral gut reaction – about 30 seconds, and in practice often takes the form of dot-voting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "Speedo researchers are said to have tried the six thinking hats in the creation of swimsuits. \"They tried the \"Six Thinking Hats\" method of brainstorming, a green hat for creative ways to attack a problem, a black one to look at the feasibility of those ideas.\"  Typically, a project will begin with an extended white hat action, as facts are assembled. Thereafter each hat is used for a few minutes at a time only, except the red hat which is limited to a very short 30 seconds or so to ensure that it is an instinctive gut reaction, rather than a form of judgement. This pace is believed to have a positive impact on the thinking process, in accordance with Malcolm Gladwell's theories on \"blink\" thinking.  De Bono believed that the key to a successful use of the Six Thinking Hats methodology was the deliberate focusing of the discussion on a particular approach as needed during the meeting or collaboration session. For instance, a meeting may be called to review a particular problem and to develop a solution for the problem. The Six Thinking Hats method could then be used in a sequence to first explore the problem, then develop a set of solutions, and to finally choose a solution through critical examination of the solution set.  The meeting may start with everyone assuming the Blue hat to discuss how the meeting will be conducted and to develop the goals and objectives. The discussion may then move to Red hat thinking in order to collect opinions and reactions to the problem. This phase may also be used to develop constraints for the actual solution such as who will be affected by the problem and/or solutions. Next the discussion may move to the (Yellow then) Green hat in order to generate ideas and possible solutions. Next the discussion may move between White hat thinking as part of developing information and Black hat thinking to develop criticisms of the solution set.  Because everyone is focused on a particular approach at any one time, the group tends to be more collaborative than if one person is reacting emotionally (Red hat) while another person is trying to be objective (White hat) and still another person is being critical of the points which emerge from the discussion (Black hat). The hats aid individuals in addressing problems from a variety of angles, and focus individuals on deficiencies in the way that they approach problem solving.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Six Thinking Hats was written by Dr. Edward de Bono. \"Six Thinking Hats\" and the associated idea parallel thinking provide a means for groups to plan thinking processes in a detailed and cohesive way, and in doing so to think together more effectively.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972193}
{"src_title": "Oberbaum Bridge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The bridge is built on the former boundary of the municipal area with its rural environs, where an excise wall was built in 1732. A wooden drawbridge was built as part of the wall; it served as a gate to the city. The name \"Oberbaumbrücke\" stemmed from the heavy tree trunk, covered in metal spikes, that was used as a boom to block the river at night to prevent smuggling. (\"Baum\" means tree or wooden beam in German; thus the name means something like \"Upper [Upstream] Tree Bridge\"; there was another tree-trunk barrier at the western end of the contemporary city limits, close to today's Unterbaumstraße (lit. in.)  By 1879 the wooden bridge had been modified greatly. At 154 meters it was Berlin's longest, but was no longer adequate to the amount of traffic crossing it. Plans began to be drawn up for a new stone construction. The Siemens & Halske company, which was planning to build the Berlin U-Bahn (subway), insisted on a combined crossing for road vehicles, pedestrians, and the new rail line.  The new bridge opened in 1896 after two years of construction, in time for the Berlin Trades Exhibition. The architect and government official Otto Stahn (1859–1930) designed it in the North German Brick Gothic style of a city gate with many decorative elements, such as pointed arches, cross vaults, and coats of arms. The two towers were inspired by the Middle Gate Tower (\"Mitteltorturm\") in the northern Brandenburg city of Prenzlau. Although purely cosmetic, they served as a reminder that the site was once Berlin’s river gateway.  In 1902 the first segment of the U-Bahn opened. Its inaugural journey, carrying 19 passengers, ran from Stralauer Tor, at the eastern end of the bridge, to Potsdamer Platz. Stralauer Tor was dismantled after being damaged in a 1945 air raid, but its four sandstone-clad support posts can still be seen.  After Berlin absorbed several other municipalities in 1920, the Oberbaum Bridge became the crossing between the new boroughs of Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg. In April 1945 the Wehrmacht blew up the middle section of the bridge in an attempt to stop the Red Army from crossing it. After the war ended, Berlin was divided into four sectors. The Oberbaum Bridge crossed between the American and Soviet sectors. Until the mid-1950s, pedestrians, motor vehicles, and the city tramway were able to cross the bridge without difficulty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Border crossing.", "content": "When the Berlin Wall was built in 1961 the bridge became part of East Berlin's border with West Berlin; as all the waters of the River Spree were within the Friedrichshain limits, the East German fortifications extended up to the shoreline on the Kreuzberg side. As a result, the West Berlin U-Bahn line was forced to terminate at Schlesisches Tor. Beginning on 21 December 1963, the Oberbaum Bridge was used as a pedestrian border crossing for West Berlin residents only.  Three brief openings of the bridge occurred by the summer of 1966. A permanent opening for pedestrians came with the 1972 Four Power Agreement for Berlin. A building for the East Berlin control authorities was built directly on the eastern bank of the Spree, across the street from the Oberbaumbrücke. The part of the subway viaduct crossing the Stralauer Allee at the bridge was completely demolished. The towers were demolished in the 1970s. Since the border on the Kreuzberg shore (Gröbenufer) ran along the Spree, several children from Kreuzberg drowned on the Oberbaum bridge because rescue personnel from west side could not reach them, and this was prohibited from the east side. In response to this an agreement on rescue operations in the event of accidents in Berlin's border waters was signed on October 29, 1975. In 1976, an emergency call column was installed on the southern bridgehead, after whose activation drowning help was provided.  The coat of arms of the district Friedrichshain–Kreuzberg with the Oberbaumbrücke The Oberbaum Bridge, which formed part of the Friedrichshain coat of arms since 1991, was also included in the coat of arms of the new Berlin district of Friedrichshain–Kreuzberg after the district merger.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Berlin Wall.", "content": "After the removal of the Berlin Wall in 1989, and German reunification the following year, the bridge was rebuilt and restored to the former appearance, albeit with a new steel middle section designed by the Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava. Reconstruction began in January 1992, with the war-damaged parts of the bridge rebuilt. It opened to pedestrians and traffic on 9 November 1994, the fifth anniversary of the opening of the Berlin Wall. The U-Bahn line to Warschauer Straße station was reopened a year later.  Since 1997, a neon installation entitled \"Stone – Paper – Scissors\" by Thorsten Goldberg has adorned the bridge. Its two elements are engaged in a constant game of rock, paper, scissors, suggesting the arbitrariness of immigration decisions, both during the Cold War and for today's asylum seekers and poverty migrants.  Since the creation of the unified Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg borough in 2001, the Oberbaum Bridge no longer crosses a jurisdictional boundary.  In April 2019 the Oberbaum Bridge was blockaded as part of an international series of protests organised by Extinction Rebellion.  The bridge was used as the location for the defection of Karla to George Smiley and British intelligence in the book and mini series, Smiley's People.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Oberbaum Bridge () is a double-deck bridge crossing Berlin's River Spree, considered one of the city's landmarks. It links Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg, former boroughs that were divided by the Berlin Wall, and has become an important symbol of Berlin’s unity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972194}
{"src_title": "Karlstad", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "On Karlstad's largest islet, there was a place of counsel called Tingvalla in the medieval age, which had roots from the Viking Age before 1000 AD. It was also used as a market place. Karlstad was granted its city charter on March 5, 1584, by the Swedish Duke Charles, who would later be crowned King Charles IX of Sweden. The city derives its name from the King – Karlstad literally means \"Charles' city\". The Duke also granted Karlstad the right as a governmental seat in the region, and gave it a substantial amount of land.  The Duke built his own house in the city, which is referred to as \"Kungsgården\" (\"The King's Manor\"). Karlstad's Cathedral was built on the location Kungsgården in 1724–1730 by Christian Haller.  Then most significant coup d'état in modern Swedish history had its beginning in Karlstad. During the night of 7 March 1809, major general Georg Adlersparre used the part of the western army that was stationed in Värmland to occupy Karlstad. From there officially proclaimed a revolution, and during 9 March, he and his soldiers began their march toward the capital to end the reign of king Gustav IV Adolf.  Karlstad has suffered four major fires. Only the cathedral and a few houses remained after the last fire on July 2, 1865. Karlstad was thereafter rebuilt according to a grid pattern with wide streets surrounded by trees.  In 1905, the agreement to dissolve the union between Norway and Sweden was negotiated and signed in Karlstad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "The official language, Swedish, is the native language of a big majority and also spoken by most people in Karlstad. Immigration has also established five notable minority languages:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Several upper secondary schools (gymnasium) offer the most common range of courses usually available throughout Sweden, including the IB Diploma Programme. The majority of students in Värmland need to commute or move to Karlstad for their upper secondary education. Tertiary education is offered by Karlstad University, which was granted university status in 1999.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "Värmlands Folkblad and Nya Wermlands-Tidningen are both located in Karlstad, with county-wide circulations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports and recreation.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Winter sports.", "content": "Ice hockey is a highly popular spectator sport in Karlstad. The most popular club is Färjestad BK. The team plays in the \"Swedish Hockey League\" (SHL, highest level) and their home arena is Löfbergs Arena. The club has won the Swedish Championship several times, most recently in 2011, and is the most successful ice hockey club in Sweden since the foundation of Elitserien (Swedish Hockey League since 2013) in 1975. Several other ice hockey clubs exist and Karlstad is also represented in the 1st Division of ice hockey (3rd highest level) by the team Skåre BK. The 2010 Men's World Inline Hockey Championships was also hosted by Karlstad, with Löfbergs Arena as the primary site of the tournament.  Traditionally, bandy has been the most popular winter sport in Karlstad, and the city is the home of two of the historically most successful clubs in Sweden, IF Boltic and IF Karlstad-Göta. Boltic reached 10 Swedish finals in a row from 1979 to 1988. They won the first 7 and the one in 1988. They also won in 1995. In 2000, the two clubs merged into BS BolticGöta, which is now the major bandy club in Karlstad. After a successful season in \"Allsvenskan\" 2009/2010 the team qualified for \"Elitserien\", but was again relegated for the 2011/2012 season. The home arena, Tingvalla Ice Stadium, built in 1967, is claimed to be one of Europe's largest artificially frozen areas and is currently awaiting a decision by the municipality to eventually become renovated and transformed into an indoor ice rink. Afghans living in Karlstad has taken a liking to the sport and set up an Afghanistan national bandy team, which is based in the city.  Karlstad is a regular host of start, finish and special stages for the Swedish Rally. The competition has world championship status and is held annually in Värmland.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Summer sports.", "content": "Several football clubs exist, and the highest-ranking team is QBIK. The club was founded in 1978, and entered the premier division of women's football, \"Damallsvenskan\", in 2005. The team currently plays in the 1st Division (2nd highest level), but has several players in the Swedish national team. Their home ground is Tingvalla IP, and recently, the facility is also becoming the home ground for the football team Karlstad BK, that plays in the men's Division 1 Norra (3rd highest level), having gained promotion following a successful 2010 season. The third highest-ranking football team is Carlstad United. The club was founded in 1998 by an alliance of seven local football clubs, with the aim of providing Karlstad with an elite football team. The club was accepted by the Swedish Football Association (SvFF) in 1999 and the team is currently playing in the men's Division 2 Norra Götaland (4th highest level). FBK Karlstad play in Division 3 Västra Svealand.  American football is also played on Tingvalla IP. The Carlstad Crusaders play in \"Superserien\", the highest level and since the founding of the club in 1990, the team has attended eight finals, winning its first championship in 2010.  Karlstad is also famous for athletics. The club IF Göta has a number of international athletes and host the annual athletics meet Götagalan. There is an outdoor athletics track at Tingvalla IP and an indoor track (200 m) in Våxnäshallen.  Another prominent sports club in Karlstad is OK Tyr, one of the largest orienteering clubs in Sweden. OK Tyr won Tiomila in 1989 and 1990.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Public facilities.", "content": "Public sports facilities in Karlstad include Klarälvsbanan, a cycle path on a former railway line running north from Karlstad to Hagfors. It is popular with cyclists, inlines skaters and roller skiers.  There is also a large number of open-air beaches and bathing spots by Vänern, smaller lakes and Klarälven in the municipality, and a indoor municipal swimming pool.  Many wood-chip jogging trails, some of which are lit, can be found in the city outskirts. During wintertime, several are used for cross-country skiing.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Karlstad has a humid continental climate (\"Dfb\") with influence from the surrounding waters of Vänern and the inflow from the Atlantic Ocean. It has large differences between seasons and is moderately influenced by both marine and land airflows. The highest recorded temperature since 1901 is 34.0°C (93.2°F) in July 1933 and the lowest is -36.0°C (-32.8°F) from February 1966.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Karlstad (, ) is a city, the seat of Karlstad Municipality, the capital of Värmland County, and the largest city in the province Värmland in Sweden. The city had 61,492 inhabitants in 2015 with 90,882 inhabitants in the wider municipality in 2017, and is the 21st biggest municipality in Sweden. Karlstad has a university and a cathedral.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972195}
{"src_title": "Paul Verlaine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Metz, Verlaine was educated at the \"Lycée Impérial Bonaparte\" (now the Lycée Condorcet) in Paris and then took up a post in the civil service. He began writing poetry at an early age, and was initially influenced by the Parnassien movement and its leader, Leconte de Lisle. Verlaine's first published poem was published in 1863 in \"La Revue du progrès\", a publication founded by poet Louis-Xavier de Ricard. Verlaine was a frequenter of the salon of the Marquise de Ricard (Louis-Xavier de Ricard's mother) at 10 Boulevard des Batignolles and other social venues, where he rubbed shoulders with prominent artistic figures of the day: Anatole France, Emmanuel Chabrier, inventor-poet and humorist Charles Cros, the cynical anti-bourgeois idealist Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, Théodore de Banville, François Coppée, Jose-Maria de Heredia, Leconte de Lisle, Catulle Mendes and others. Verlaine's first published collection, \"Poèmes saturniens\" (1866), though adversely commented upon by Sainte-Beuve, established him as a poet of promise and originality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage and military service.", "content": "Mathilde Mauté became Verlaine's wife in 1870. At the proclamation of the Third Republic in the same year, Verlaine joined the 160th battalion of the \"Garde nationale\", turning Communard on 18 March 1871.  He became head of the press bureau of the Central Committee of the Paris Commune. Verlaine escaped the deadly street fighting known as the Bloody Week, or \"Semaine Sanglante\", and went into hiding in the Pas-de-Calais.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relationships with Rimbaud and Létinois.", "content": "Verlaine returned to Paris in August 1871, and, in September, he received the first letter from Arthur Rimbaud, who admired his poetry. He urged Rimbaud to come to Paris, and by 1872, he had lost interest in Mathilde, and effectively abandoned her and their son, preferring the company of his new lover. Rimbaud and Verlaine's stormy affair took them to London in 1872. In Brussels in July 1873 in a drunken, jealous rage, he fired two shots with a pistol at Rimbaud, wounding his left wrist, though not seriously injuring the poet. As an indirect result of this incident, Verlaine was arrested and imprisoned at Mons, where he underwent a re-conversion to Roman Catholicism, which again influenced his work and provoked Rimbaud's sharp criticism.  The poems collected in \"Romances sans paroles\" (1874) were written between 1872 and 1873, inspired by Verlaine's nostalgically colored recollections of his life with Mathilde on the one hand and impressionistic sketches of his on-again off-again year-long escapade with Rimbaud on the other. \"Romances sans paroles\" was published while Verlaine was imprisoned. Following his release from prison, Verlaine again traveled to England, where he worked for some years as a teacher, teaching French, Latin and Greek, and drawing at a grammar school in Stickney in Lincolnshire. From there he went to teach in nearby Boston, before moving to Bournemouth. While in England he produced another successful collection, \"Sagesse\". He returned to France in 1877 and, while teaching English at a school in Rethel, fell in love with one of his pupils, Lucien Létinois, who inspired Verlaine to write further poems. Verlaine was devastated when Létinois died of typhus in 1883.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final years.", "content": "Verlaine's last years saw his descent into drug addiction, alcoholism, and poverty. He lived in slums and public hospitals, and spent his days drinking absinthe in Paris cafés. However, the people's love for his art was able to resurrect support and bring in an income for Verlaine: his early poetry was rediscovered, his lifestyle and strange behaviour in front of crowds attracted admiration, and in 1894 he was elected France's \"Prince of Poets\" by his peers.  His poetry was admired and recognized as ground-breaking, and served as a source of inspiration to composers. Gabriel Fauré composed many mélodies, such as the song cycles \"Cinq mélodies \"de Venise\"\" and \"La bonne chanson\", which were settings of Verlaine's poems. Claude Debussy set to music \"Clair de lune\" and six of the \"Fêtes galantes\" poems, forming part of the \"mélodie\" collection known as the \"Recueil Vasnier\"; he also made another setting of Clair de lune, and the poem inspired his Suite bergamasque. Reynaldo Hahn set several of Verlaine's poems as did the Belgian-British composer Poldowski (daughter of Henryk Wieniawski).  His drug dependence and alcoholism caught up with him and took a toll on his life. Paul Verlaine died in Paris at the age of 51 on 8 January 1896; he was buried in the Cimetière des Batignolles (he was first buried in the 20th division, but his grave was moved to the 11th division—on the roundabout, a much better location—when the Boulevard Périphérique was built).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "Much of the French poetry produced during the \"fin de siècle\" was characterized as \"decadent\" for its lurid content or moral vision. In a similar vein, Verlaine used the expression \"poète maudit\" (\"cursed poet\") in 1884 to refer to a number of poets like Stéphane Mallarmé, Arthur Rimbaud, Aloysius Bertrand, Comte de Lautréamont, Tristan Corbière or Alice de Chambrier, who had fought against poetic conventions and suffered social rebuke or were ignored by the critics. But with the publication of Jean Moréas' \"Symbolist Manifesto\" in 1886, it was the term symbolism which was most often applied to the new literary environment. Along with Verlaine, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, Paul Valéry, Albert Samain and many others began to be referred to as \"Symbolists.\" These poets would often share themes that parallel Schopenhauer's aesthetics and notions of will, fatality and unconscious forces, and used themes of sex (such as prostitutes), the city, irrational phenomena (delirium, dreams, narcotics, alcohol), and sometimes a vaguely medieval setting.  In poetry, the symbolist procedure—as typified by Verlaine—was to use subtle suggestion instead of precise statement (rhetoric was banned) and to evoke moods and feelings through the magic of words and repeated sounds and the cadence of verse (musicality) and metrical innovation.  Verlaine described his typically decadent style in great detail in his poem \"Art Poétique,\" describing the primacy of musicality and the importance of elusiveness and \"the Odd.\" He spoke of veils and nuance and implored poets to \"Keep away from the murderous Sharp Saying, Cruel Wit, and Impure Laugh.\" It is with these lyrical veils in mind that he concluded by suggesting that a poem should be a \"happy occurrence.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portraits.", "content": "Numerous artists painted Verlaine's portrait. Among the most illustrious were Henri Fantin-Latour, Antonio de la Gándara, Eugène Carrière, Gustave Courbet, Frédéric Cazalis, and Théophile-Alexandre Steinlen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Verlaine's \"Complete Works\" are available in critical editions from the Bibliothèque de la Pléiade.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul-Marie Verlaine (; ; 30 March 1844 – 8 January 1896) was a French poet associated with the Symbolist movement and the Decadent movement. He is considered one of the greatest representatives of the \"fin de siècle\" in international and French poetry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972196}
{"src_title": "Inversion (meteorology)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Normal atmospheric conditions.", "content": "Usually, within the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) the air near the surface of the Earth is warmer than the air above it, largely because the atmosphere is heated from below as solar radiation warms the Earth's surface, which in turn then warms the layer of the atmosphere directly above it, e.g., by thermals (convective heat transfer). Air temperature also decreases with an increase in altitude because higher air is at lower pressure, and lower pressure results in lower temperature, following the ideal gas law and adiabatic lapse rate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Causes.", "content": "Given the right conditions, the normal vertical temperature gradient is inverted such that the air is colder near the surface of the Earth. This can occur when, for example, a warmer, less-dense air mass moves over a cooler, denser air mass. This type of inversion occurs in the vicinity of warm fronts, and also in areas of oceanic upwelling such as along the California coast in the United States. With sufficient humidity in the cooler layer, fog is typically present below the inversion cap. An inversion is also produced whenever radiation from the surface of the earth exceeds the amount of radiation received from the sun, which commonly occurs at night, or during the winter when the angle of the sun is very low in the sky. This effect is virtually confined to land regions as the ocean retains heat far longer. In the polar regions during winter, inversions are nearly always present over land.  A warmer air mass moving over a cooler one can \"shut off\" any convection which may be present in the cooler air mass. This is known as a capping inversion. However, if this cap is broken, either by extreme convection overcoming the cap, or by the lifting effect of a front or a mountain range, the sudden release of bottled-up convective energy like the bursting of a balloon can result in severe thunderstorms. Such capping inversions typically precede the development of tornadoes in the Midwestern United States. In this instance, the \"cooler\" layer is actually quite warm, but is still denser and usually cooler than the lower part of the inversion layer capping it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subsidence inversion.", "content": "An inversion can develop aloft as a result of air gradually sinking over a wide area and being warmed by adiabatic compression, usually associated with subtropical high-pressure areas. A stable marine layer may then develop over the ocean as a result. As this layer moves over progressively warmer waters, however, turbulence within the marine layer can gradually lift the inversion layer to higher altitudes, and eventually even pierce it, producing thunderstorms, and under the right circumstances, tropical cyclones. The accumulated smog and dust under the inversion quickly taints the sky reddish, easily seen on sunny days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences.", "content": "Temperature inversion stops atmospheric convection (which is normally present) from happening in the affected area and can lead to the air becoming stiller and murky from the collection of dust and pollutants that are no longer able to be lifted from the surface. This can become a problem in cities where many pollutants exist. Inversion effects occur frequently in big cities, but also in smaller cities. These cities are closely surrounded by hills and mountains, or on plains which are surrounded by mountain chains, which makes an inversion trap the air in the city. During a severe inversion, trapped air pollutants form a brownish haze that can cause respiratory problems. The Great Smog of 1952 in London, England, is one of the most serious examples of such an inversion. It was blamed for an estimated 11,000 to 12,000 deaths.  Sometimes the inversion layer is at a high enough altitude that cumulus clouds can condense but can only spread out under the inversion layer. This decreases the amount of sunlight reaching the ground and prevents new thermals from forming. As the clouds disperse, sunny weather replaces cloudiness in a cycle that can occur more than once a day.  As the temperature of air increases, the index of refraction of air decreases, a side effect of hotter air being less dense. Normally this results in distant objects being shortened vertically, an effect that is easy to see at sunset where the sun is visible as an oval. In an inversion, the normal pattern is reversed, and distant objects are instead stretched out or appear to be above the horizon, leading to the phenomenon known as a Fata Morgana or mirage.  Inversions can magnify the so-called \"green flash\"—a phenomenon occurring at sunrise or sunset, usually visible for a few seconds, in which the sun's green light is isolated due to dispersion. The shorter wavelength is refracted most, so it is the first or last light from the upper rim of the solar disc to be seen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Electromagnetic radiation (radio and television).", "content": "Very high frequency radio waves can be refracted by inversions, making it possible to hear FM radio or watch VHF low-band television broadcasts from long distances on foggy nights. The signal, which would normally be refracted up and away from the ground-based antenna, is instead refracted down towards the earth by the temperature-inversion boundary layer. This phenomenon is called tropospheric ducting. Along coast lines during Autumn and Spring, due to multiple stations being simultaneously present because of reduced propagation losses, many FM radio stations are plagued by severe signal degradation causing them to sound scrambled.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sound.", "content": "When an inversion layer is present, if a sound or explosion occurs at ground level, the sound wave is refracted by the temperature gradient (which affects sound speed) and returns towards the ground. The sound, therefore, travels much better than normal. This is noticeable in areas around airports, where the sound of aircraft taking off and landing often can be heard at greater distances around dawn than at other times of day, and inversion thunder which is significantly louder and travels further than when it is produced by lightning strikes under normal conditions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shock waves.", "content": "The shock wave from an explosion can be reflected by an inversion layer in much the same way as it bounces off the ground in an air-burst and can cause additional damage as a result. This phenomenon killed three people in the Soviet RDS-37 nuclear test when a building collapsed.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In meteorology, an inversion, also known as a temperature inversion, is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude. It almost always refers to an inversion of the thermal lapse rate. Normally, air temperature decreases with an increase in altitude. During an inversion, warmer air is held above cooler air; the normal temperature profile with altitude is inverted.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972197}
{"src_title": "Dynamic rope", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rope types.", "content": "Dynamic climbing ropes are classified into three categories: Single ropes, twin ropes, and half ropes (also referred to as 'double ropes').  Both twin and half ropes have the advantage of redundancy, as well as allowing a rappel along the full length of the climbing rope (by tying both ropes together), so that climbers can descend from a long multipitch route with fewer rappels than with a single rope. Some ropes are 'triple rated', meeting the standards for all three rope types, so they can be used in each configuration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Length and diameters.", "content": "Dynamic ropes used for rock climbing come in a variety of lengths and diameters, with the most common lengths being,,. Lengths will vary depending on rope maintenance and age, and there are even ropes as long as 80 meters for specialized ascents on routes that would normally require a multi-pitch climbing attempt due to being only slightly longer than a standard rope length. Rope diameters are generally between 8.3mm and 11.5mm, with the different diameters used for slightly different purposes. Sport and multi-pitch trad climbers often value thinner ropes because they are lighter, and have less rope drag. Thinner ropes also run more smoothly through belay devices, especially assisted braking devices or 'tube-style' devices operated in 'guide mode', which can be tedious to pull thicker or stiffer rope through. Lighter, thinner ropes, however, have less strength than a thicker rope and will sustain fewer hard falls. Note that some belay devices are better suited for different rope diameters. This is particularly relevant with assisted braking devices, such as the Petzl Grigri (which, for example, works best with a 9.4-10.3 mm thick line) or the Faders SUM. Users must make sure to read the instructions for the device carefully to ensure safety and recognize any limitations to rope diameter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standards and testing.", "content": "All modern rock climbing dynamic ropes rated by the UIAA must meet certain standards and pass testing for Construction, Sheath Slippage, Static Elongation, Impact Force on first fall, and Number of falls held. The force rating indicates the maximum amount of force the rope can deliver to a falling climber, measured in kilonewtons (kN), under test conditions designed to simulate a hard fall; typical climbing ropes range from 9kN up to an Arborist's 24kN. The force rating is often misunderstood by climbers, because all other climbing gear is rated by the breaking strength (in kN) of the material. Whereas a higher rating (indicating greater strength) is desired for other gear, for dynamic ropes a lower rating is generally desired, as this indicates it would give a'soft catch' that is less likely to injure the climber or break or dislodge protection or anchors.  Unlike most climbing equipment, dynamic ropes do not have a rated tensile breaking strength. Instead, the strength of a rope is tested by the number of standard test falls a rope can sustain before breaking. The test falls use an 80 kg weight for single ropes (55 kg for half ropes), and a fall factor of 1.7 (4 meter fall on 2.3 meters of rope). This tests simulates a very hard fall that would rarely occur. When climbing, it is possible to produce a fall factor as high as 2, however, real-world climbing situations include additional shock absorbing elements which are not included in the test standard, such as the body of both the climber and belayer, elasticity of their harnesses and anchor materials, and friction between the rope and the belay device, and any protection pieces. Single ropes must sustain at least 5 such falls before breaking, and a rope that can sustain more than 9 falls is considered a'multifall' rope. In practice, climbing ropes rarely if ever break due to a fall alone- all documented rope failures involve the rope being cut or damaged, for example by abrasion against a sharp rock edge. Ropes are especially vulnerable to being cut while they are weighted with the body of the climber, and moving over a sharp edge (for example if a following climber is resting his weight on the rope, or using the rope for assistance, while swinging or traversing under a roof, while being belayed from above). In general, thicker ropes will be stronger and more durable, and have a higher fall rating.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rope care and maintenance.", "content": "Modern ropes are made from nylon and don't require a great deal of maintenance. Ropes that are frequently used are often inspected for cuts, abrasions, or frayed areas; any cut or fraying that passes into the core of the rope is cause for concern. Ropes can also be washed to clean them of any extensive dirt or grime.  Every fall lessens the amount of impact a rope can later absorb, and hard falls can seriously compromise the strength of a rope, without showing obvious signs of wear. One definition of a 'hard fall' is a long fall (> 10–15 meters) with a fall factor greater than one. Manufacturers often recommended that ropes be retired if they sustain an extremely hard fall, even if they do not show outward signs of wear.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A dynamic rope is a specially constructed, somewhat elastic rope used primarily in rock climbing, ice climbing, and mountaineering. This'stretch' is what makes it 'dynamic', in contrast to a static rope that has very low elongation under load. Greater stretch allows a dynamic rope to absorb the energy of a sudden load such as from a fall more slowly, reducing the peak force and therefore the chance of catastrophic failure. Kernmantle ropes are the most common type of dynamic rope, and nylon has replaced all natural materials such as hemp (Manila rope) since 1945 for durability and strength.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972198}
{"src_title": "Faceted classification", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "There are two primary types of classification used for information organization: enumerative and faceted. An enumerative classification contains a full set of entries for all concepts. A faceted classification system uses a set of semantically cohesive categories that are combined as needed to create an expression of a concept. In this way, the faceted classification is not limited to already defined concepts. While this makes the classification quite flexible, it also makes the resulting expression of topics complex. To the extent possible, facets represent \"clearly defined, mutually exclusive, and collectively exhaustive aspects of a subject. The premise is that any subject or class can be analyzed into its component parts (i.e., its aspects, properties, or characteristics).\" Some commonly used general-purpose facets are time, place, and form.  There are few purely faceted classifications; the best known of these is the Colon Classification of S. R. Ranganathan, a general knowledge classification for libraries. Some other faceted classifications are specific to special topics, such as the Art and Architecture Thesaurus and the faceted classification of occupational safety and health topics created by D. J. Foskett for the International Labour Organization.  Many library classifications combine the enumerative and faceted classification techniques. The Dewey Decimal Classification, the Library of Congress Classification, and the Universal Decimal Classification all make use of facets at various points in their enumerated classification schedules. The allowed facets vary based on the subject area of the classification. These facets are recorded as tables that represent recurring types of subdivisions within subject areas. There are general facets that can be used wherever appropriate, such as geographic subdivisions of the topic. Other tables are applied only to specific areas of the schedules. Facets can be combined to create a complex subject statement.  Daniel Joudrey and Arlene Taylor describe faceted classification using an analogy: “If one thinks of each of the faces of a cut and polished diamond as a facet of the whole, one can picture a classification notation that has small notations standing for subparts of the whole topic, which are pieced together to create a complete classification notation.\"  Faceted classifications exhibit many of the same problems as classifications based on a hierarchy. In particular, some concepts could belong in more than one facet, so their placement in the classification may appear to be arbitrary to the classifier. It also tends to result in a complex notation because each facet must be distinguishable as recorded.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retrieval.", "content": "Search in systems with faceted classification can enable a user to navigate information along multiple paths corresponding to different orderings of the facets. This contrasts with traditional taxonomies in which the hierarchy of categories is fixed and unchanging. It is also possible to use facets to filter search results to more quickly find desired results.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples of faceted classifications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Colon classification for library materials.", "content": "The Colon Classification developed by S. R. Ranganathan is an example of general faceted classification designed to be applied to all library materials. In the Colon Classification system, a book is assigned a set of values from each independent facet. This facet formula uses punctuation marks and symbols placed between the facets to connect them. Colon classification was named after its use of the colon as the primary symbol in its notation.  Ranganathan stated that hierarchical classification schemes like the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) or the Library of Congress Subject Headings are too limiting and finite to use for modern classification and that many items can pertain information to more than one subject. He organized his classification scheme into 42 classes. Each class can be categorized according to particular characteristics, that he called facets. Ranganathan said that there are five fundamental categories that can be used to demonstrate the facets of a subject: personality, material, energy, space and time. He called this the PMEST formula:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Universal Decimal Classification.", "content": "Another example of a faceted classification scheme is the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC), the UDC is considered to be a complex multilingual classification that can be used in all fields of knowledge. The Universal Decimal Classification scheme was created at the end of the nineteenth century by Belgian bibliographers Paul Otlet and Henri la Fontaine. The goal of their system was to create an index that would be able to record knowledge even if it is stored in non-conventional ways including materials in notebooks and ephemera. They also wanted their index to organize material systematically instead of alphabetically.  The UDC has an overall taxonomy of knowledge that is extended with a number of facets, such as language, form, place and time. Each facet has its own symbol in the notation, such as: \"=\" for language; \"-02\" for materials, \"[...]\" for subordinate concepts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Faceted Classification for Occupational Safety and Health.", "content": "D. J. Foskett, a member of the Classification Research Group in London, developed classification of occupational safety and health materials for the library of the International Labour Organization. After a study of the literature in the field, he created the classification with the following facets:  Notation was solely alphabetic, with the sub-facets organized hierarchically using extended codes, such as \"g Industrial equipment and processes\", \"ge Machines\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Art and Architecture Thesaurus (AAT).", "content": "While not strictly a classification system, the AAT uses facets similar to those of Ranganathan's Colon Classification:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Comparison between faceted and single hierarchical classification.", "content": "Hierarchical classification refers to the classification of objects using one \"single\" hierarchical taxonomy. Faceted classification may actually employ hierarchy in one or more of its facets, but allows for the use of more than one taxonomy to classify objects.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A faceted classification is a classification scheme used in organizing knowledge into a systematic order. A faceted classification uses semantic categories, either general or subject-specific, that are combined to create the full classification entry. Many library classification systems use a combination of a fixed, enumerative taxonomy of concepts with subordinate facets that further refine the topic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972199}
{"src_title": "Apache Ant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Ant (\"Another Neat Tool\") was conceived by James Duncan Davidson while preparing Sun Microsystems's reference JSP and Servlet engine, later Apache Tomcat, for release as open-source. A proprietary version of Make was used to build it on the Solaris platform, but in the open-source world, there was no way of controlling which platform was used to build Tomcat; so Ant was created as a simple platform-independent tool to build Tomcat from directives in an XML \"build file\". Ant (version 1.1) was officially released as a stand-alone product on July 19, 2000.  Several proposals for an Ant version 2 have been made, such as AntEater by James Duncan Davidson, Myrmidon by Peter Donald and Mutant by Conor MacNeill, none of which were able to find large acceptance with the developer community.  At one time (2002), Ant was the build tool used by most Java development projects. For example, most open source Java developers included codice_1 files with their distribution. Because Ant made it trivial to integrate JUnit tests with the build process, Ant made it easy for willing developers to adopt test-driven development, and even extreme programming.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extensions.", "content": "WOProject-Ant is just one of many examples of a task extension written for Ant. These extensions are installed by copying their codice_3 files into ant's codice_4 directory. Once this is done, these task extensions can be invoked directly in the typical codice_1 file. The WOProject extensions allow WebObjects developers to use ant in building their frameworks and apps, instead of using Apple's Xcode suite.  codice_6 provides a collection of tasks such as conditional statements and operations on properties as well as other useful tasks.  codice_7 implements tasks and types for networking, Swing user interfaces, JSON processing and other.  Other task extensions exist for Perforce,.NET Framework, EJB, and filesystem manipulations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "Below is listed a sample codice_1 file for a simple Java \"Hello, world\" application. It defines four targets - codice_9, codice_10, codice_11 and codice_12, each of which has an associated description. The codice_12 target lists the codice_11 target as a dependency. This tells Ant that before it can start the codice_12 target it must first complete the codice_11 target. <?xml version=\"1.0\"?> <project name=\"Hello\" default=\"compile\"> </project> Within each target are the actions that Ant must take to build that target; these are performed using built-in tasks. For example, to build the codice_17 target Ant must first create a directory called codice_18 (which Ant will do only if it does not already exist) and then invoke the Java compiler. Therefore, the tasks used are codice_19 and codice_20. These perform a similar task to the command-line utilities of the same name.  Another task used in this example is named codice_12: <jar destfile=\"hello.jar\"> This Ant task has the same name as the common Java command-line utility, JAR, but is really a call to the Ant program's built-in JAR/ZIP file support. This detail is not relevant to most end users, who just get the JAR they wanted, with the files they asked for.  Many Ant tasks delegate their work to external programs, either native or Java. They use Ant's own and tasks to set up the command lines, and handle all the details of mapping from information in the build file to the program's arguments and interpreting the return value. Users can see which tasks do this (e.g.,,, ), by trying to execute the task on a system without the underlying program on the path, or without a full Java Development Kit (JDK) installed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portability.", "content": "One of the primary aims of Ant was to solve Make's portability problems. The first portability issue in a Makefile is that the actions required to create a target are specified as shell commands which are specific to the platform on which Make runs. Different platforms require different shell commands. Ant solves this problem by providing a large amount of built-in functionality that is designed to behave the same on all platforms. For example, in the sample codice_1 file above, the \"clean\" target deletes the codice_18 directory and everything in it. In a Makefile this would typically be done with the command: codice_24 is a Unix-specific command unavailable in some other environments. Microsoft Windows, for example, would use: In an Ant build file the same goal would be accomplished using a built-in command:  A second portability issue is a result of the fact that the symbol used to delimit elements of file system directory path components differs from one platform to another. Unix uses a forward slash (/) to delimit components whereas Windows uses a backslash (\\). Ant build files let authors choose their favorite convention: forward slash or backslash for directories; semicolon or colon for path separators. It converts each to the symbol appropriate to the platform on which it executes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Limitations.", "content": "There exist myriad third-party Ant extensions (called \"antlibs\") that provide much of the missing functionality. Also, the Eclipse integrated development environment (IDE) can build and execute Ant scripts, while the NetBeans IDE uses Ant for its internal build system. As both these IDEs are very popular development platforms, they can simplify Ant use significantly. (As a bonus, Ant scripts generated by NetBeans can be used outside that IDE as standalone scripts.)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Apache Ant is a software tool for automating software build processes which originated from the Apache Tomcat project in early 2000. It was a replacement for the Make build tool of Unix, and was created due to a number of problems with Unix's make. It is similar to Make but is implemented using the Java language, requires the Java platform, and is best suited to building Java projects.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972200}
{"src_title": "Solar constant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Calculation.", "content": "Solar irradiance is measured by satellites above Earth's atmosphere, and is then adjusted using the inverse square law to infer the magnitude of solar irradiance at one Astronomical Unit (AU) to evaluate the solar constant. The approximate average value cited, 1.3608 ± 0.0005 kW/m2, which is 81.65 kJ/m2 per minute, is equivalent to approximately 1.951 calories per minute per square centimeter, or 1.951 langleys per minute.  Solar output is nearly, but not quite, constant. Variations in total solar irradiance (TSI) were small and difficult to detect accurately with technology available before the satellite era (±2% in 1954). Total solar output is now measured as varying (over the last three 11-year sunspot cycles) by approximately 0.1%; see solar variation for details.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical measurements.", "content": "In 1838, Claude Pouillet made the first estimate of the solar constant. Using a very simple pyrheliometer he developed, he obtained a value of 1.228 kW/m2, close to the current estimate.  In 1875, Jules Violle resumed the work of Pouillet and offered a somewhat larger estimate of 1.7 kW/m2 based, in part, on a measurement that he made from Mont Blanc in France.  In 1884, Samuel Pierpont Langley attempted to estimate the solar constant from Mount Whitney in California. By taking readings at different times of day, he tried to correct for effects due to atmospheric absorption. However, the final value he proposed, 2.903 kW/m2, was much too large.  In 1954 the solar constant was evaluated as 2.00 cal/min/cm ± 2%. Current results are about 2.5 percent lower.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to other measurements.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Solar irradiance.", "content": "The actual direct solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere fluctuates by about 6.9% during a year (from 1.412 kW/m2 in early January to 1.321 kW/m2 in early July) due to the Earth's varying distance from the Sun, and typically by much less than 0.1% from day to day. Thus, for the whole Earth (which has a cross section of 127,400,000 km2), the power is 1.730×10 W (or 173,000 terawatts), plus or minus 3.5% (half the approximately 6.9% annual range). The solar constant does not remain constant over long periods of time (see Solar variation), but over a year the solar constant varies much less than the solar irradiance measured at the top of the atmosphere. This is because the solar constant is evaluated at a fixed distance of 1 Astronomical Unit (AU) while the solar irradiance will be affected by the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit. Its distance to the Sun varies annually between 147.1·10 km at perihelion and 152.1·10 km at aphelion. In addition, several long term (tens to hundreds of millennia) cycles of subtle variation the Earth's orbit (Milankovich cycles) affect the solar irradiance and isolation (but not the solar constant).  The Earth receives a total amount of radiation determined by its cross section (π·R2), but as it rotates this energy is distributed across the entire surface area (4·π·R2). Hence the average incoming solar radiation, taking into account the angle at which the rays strike and that at any one moment half the planet does not receive any solar radiation, is one-fourth the solar constant (approximately 340 W/m2). The amount reaching the Earth's surface (as insolation) is further reduced by atmospheric attenuation, which varies. At any given moment, the amount of solar radiation received at a location on the Earth's surface depends on the state of the atmosphere, the location's latitude, and the time of day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Apparent magnitude.", "content": "The solar constant includes all wavelengths of solar electromagnetic radiation, not just the visible light (see Electromagnetic spectrum). It is positively correlated with the apparent magnitude of the Sun which is −26.8. The solar constant and the magnitude of the Sun are two methods of describing the apparent brightness of the Sun, though the magnitude is based on the Sun's visual output only.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Sun's total radiation.", "content": "The angular diameter of the Earth as seen from the Sun is approximately 1/11,700 radians (about 18 arcseconds), meaning the solid angle of the Earth as seen from the Sun is approximately 1/175,000,000 of a steradian. Thus the Sun emits about 2.2 billion times the amount of radiation that is caught by Earth, in other words about 3.846×10 watts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Past variations in solar irradiance.", "content": "Space-based observations of solar irradiance started in 1978. These measurements show that the solar constant is not constant. It varies with the 11-year sunspot solar cycle. When going further back in time, one has to rely on irradiance reconstructions, using sunspots for the past 400 years or cosmogenic radionuclides for going back 10,000 years. Such reconstructions show that solar irradiance varies with distinct periodicities. These cycles are: 11 years (Schwabe), 88 years (Gleisberg cycle), 208 years (DeVries cycle) and 1,000 years (Eddy cycle).  Over billions of years, the Sun is gradually expanding, and emitting more energy from the resultant larger surface area. The unsolved question of how to account for the clear geological evidence of liquid water on the Earth billions of years ago, at a time when the sun's luminosity was only 70% of its current value, is known as the faint young Sun paradox.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations due to atmospheric conditions.", "content": "At most about 75% of the solar energy actually reaches the earth's surface, as even with a cloudless sky it is partially reflected and absorbed by the atmosphere. Even light cirrus clouds reduce this to 50%, stronger cirrus clouds to 40%. Thus the solar energy arriving at the surface with the sun directly overhead can vary from 550 W/m2 with cirrus clouds to 1025 W/m2 with a clear sky.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The solar constant (G) is a flux density measuring mean solar electromagnetic radiation (solar irradiance) per unit area. It is measured on a surface perpendicular to the rays, one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (roughly the distance from the Sun to the Earth).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972201}
{"src_title": "Alexander II of Scotland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born at Haddington, East Lothian, the only son of the Scottish king William the Lion and Ermengarde of Beaumont. He spent time in England (John of England knighted him at Clerkenwell Priory in 1213) before succeeding to the kingdom on the death of his father on 4 December 1214, being crowned at Scone on 6 December the same year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Scots.", "content": "In 1215, the year after his accession, the clans Meic Uilleim and MacHeths, inveterate enemies of the Scottish crown, broke into revolt; but loyalist forces speedily quelled the insurrection. In the same year Alexander joined the English barons in their struggle against John of England, and led an army into the Kingdom of England in support of their cause. This action led to the sacking of Berwick-upon-Tweed as John's forces ravaged the north.  The Scottish forces reached the south coast of England at the port of Dover where in September 1216, Alexander paid homage to the pretender Prince Louis of France for his lands in England, chosen by the barons to replace King John. But King John having died, the Pope and the English aristocracy changed their allegiance to his nine-year-old son, Henry, forcing the French and the Scots armies to return home.  Peace between Henry III, Louis of France, and Alexander followed on 12 September 1217 with the Treaty of Kingston. Diplomacy further strengthened the reconciliation by the marriage of Alexander to Henry's sister Joan of England on 18 June or 25 June 1221.  In 1222 Jon Haraldsson, the last native Scandinavian to be Jarl of Orkney, was indirectly implicated in the burning of Bishop Adam at his hall at Halkirk by local farmers when this part of Caithness was still part of the Kingdom of Norway. A contemporary chronicler, Boethius the Dane blamed Haraldsson for the bishop's death. After the Jarl swore oaths to his own innocence, Alexander took the opportunity to assert his claims to the mainland part of the Orkney jarldom. He visited Caithness in person, and hanged the majority of the farmers while mutilating the rest. His actions were applauded by Pope Honorius III, and a quarter of a century later, he was continuing to receive commendation from the Vatican, as in the reward of a bull from Celestine IV.  During the same period, Alexander subjugated the hitherto semi-independent district of Argyll (much smaller than the modern area by that name, it only comprised Craignish, Ardscotnish, Glassary, Glenary, and Cowal; Lorn was a separate province, while Kintyre and Knapdale were part of Suðreyar). Royal forces crushed a revolt in Galloway in 1235 without difficulty; nor did an invasion attempted soon afterwards by its exiled leaders meet with success. Soon afterwards a claim for homage from Henry of England drew forth from Alexander a counter-claim to the northern English counties. The two kingdoms, however, settled this dispute by a compromise in 1237. This was the Treaty of York, which defined the boundary between the two kingdoms as running between the Solway Firth (in the west) and the mouth of the River Tweed (in the east).  Alexander's first wife Joan of England died in March 1238 in Essex, and was buried in Dorset. Alexander married his second wife, Marie de Coucy, the following year on 15 May 1239. Together they had one son, the future Alexander III, born in 1241.  A threat of invasion by Henry in 1243 for a time interrupted the friendly relations between the two countries; but the prompt action of Alexander in anticipating his attack, and the disinclination of the English barons for war, compelled him to make peace next year at Newcastle.  Alexander now turned his attention to securing the Western Isles, which were still part of the Norwegian domain of Suðreyjar. He repeatedly attempted negotiations and purchase, but without success. Alexander set out to conquer these islands but died on the way in 1249. This dispute over the Western Isles, also known as the Hebrides, was not resolved until 1266 when Magnus VI of Norway ceded them to Scotland along with the Isle of Man.  The English chronicler Matthew Paris in his \"Chronica Majora\" described Alexander as red-haired:  [King John] taunted King Alexander, and because he was red-headed, sent word to him, saying,'so shall we hunt the red fox-cub from his lairs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Alexander attempted to persuade Ewen, the son of Duncan, Lord of Argyll, to sever his allegiance to Haakon IV of Norway. When Ewen rejected these attempts, Alexander sailed forth to compel him, but on the way he suffered a fever at the Isle of Kerrera in the Inner Hebrides. He died there in 1249 and was buried at Melrose Abbey.  He was succeeded by his son, the seven-year-old Alexander III of Scotland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Alexander II had two wives:  1. Joan of England, (22 July 12104 March 1238), was the eldest legitimate daughter and third child of John of England and Isabella of Angoulême. She and Alexander II married on 21 June 1221, at York Minster. Alexander was 23. Joan was 11. They had no children. Joan was Alexander's 3rd cousin, their closest common ancestor being Henry I of England. Joan died in Essex in 1238, and was buried at Tarant Crawford Abbey in Dorset.  2. Marie de Coucy, who became mother of Alexander III of Scotland. She was Alexander's third cousin once removed by their common ancestor Hugh, Count of Vermandois.  He also had an illegitimate daughter Marjorie, who married Alan Durward.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fictional portrayals.", "content": "Alexander II has been depicted in historical novels:  The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio. Day the Second: Third Story.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexander II (Mediaeval Gaelic: '; Modern Gaelic: '; 24 August 11986 July 1249) was King of Scotland from 1214 until his death. He concluded the Treaty of York (1237) which defined the boundary between England and Scotland, virtually unchanged today.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972202}
{"src_title": "Vasili III of Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Foreign affairs.", "content": "Vasili III continued the policies of his father Ivan III and spent most of his reign consolidating Ivan's gains. Vasili annexed the last surviving autonomous provinces: Pskov in 1510, appanage of Volokolamsk in 1513, principalities of Ryazan in 1521 and Novgorod-Seversky in 1522.  Vasili also took advantage of the difficult position of Sigismund of Poland to capture Smolensk, the great eastern fortress of Lithuania (siege started 1512, ended in 1514), chiefly through the aid of the rebel Lithuanian, Prince Mikhail Glinski, who provided him with artillery and engineers. The loss of Smolensk was an important injury inflicted by Russia on Lithuania in the course of the Russo-Lithuanian Wars and only the exigencies of Sigismund compelled him to acquiesce in its surrender (1522).  In 1521 Vasili received an emissary of the neighboring Iranian Safavid Empire, sent by Shah Ismail I whose ambitions were to construct an Irano-Russian alliance against the common enemy, the Ottoman Empire.  Vasili was equally successful against the Crimean Khanate. Although in 1519 he was obliged to buy off the Crimean khan, Mehmed I Giray, under the very walls of Moscow, towards the end of his reign he established Russian influence on the Volga. In 1531–32 he placed the pretender Cangali khan on the throne of Khanate of Kazan.  Basil was the first grand-duke of Moscow who adopted the title of tsar and the double-headed eagle of the Byzantine Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Domestic affairs.", "content": "Regarding internal policy, Vasili III enjoyed the support of the Church in his struggle with the feudal opposition. In 1521, metropolitan Varlaam was banished for refusing to participate in Vasili's fight against an appanage prince, Vasili Ivanovich Shemyachich. Rurikid princes Vasili Shuisky and Ivan Vorotynsky were also sent into exile. The diplomat and statesman, Ivan Bersen-Beklemishev, was executed in 1525 for criticizing Vasili's policies. Maximus the Greek (publicist), Vassian Patrikeyev (statesman) and others were sentenced for the same reason in 1525 and 1531. During the reign of Vasili III, the landownership of the gentry increased, while authorities actively tried to limit immunities and privileges of boyars and the nobility.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family life.", "content": "By 1526 when he was 47 years old, Vasili had been married to Solomonia Saburova for over 20 years with no heir to his throne being produced. Conscious of her husband's disappointment, Solomonia tried to remedy this by consulting sorcerers and going on pilgrimages. When this proved unsuccessful, Vasili consulted the boyars, announcing that he did not trust his two brothers to handle Russia's affairs.  The boyars suggested that he take a new wife, and despite much opposition from the clergy, he divorced his barren wife and married Princess Elena Glinskaya, the daughter of a Serbian princess and niece of his friend Michael Glinski. Not many of the boyars approved of his choice, as Elena was of Catholic upbringing. Vasili was so smitten that he defied Russian social norms and trimmed his beard to appear younger. After three days of matrimonial festivity, the couple consummated their marriage, though initially it appeared that Elena was as sterile as Solomonia. The Russian populace began to suspect this was a sign of God's disapproval of the marriage. However, to the great joy of Vasili and the populace, the new tsaritsa gave birth to a son, who would succeed him as Ivan IV. Three years later, a second son, Yuri, was born. According to a story, Solomonia Saburova also bore a son in the convent where she had been confined, just several months after the controversial divorce.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Whilst out hunting on horseback near Volokolamsk, Vasili felt a great pain in his right hip, the result of an abscess. He was transported to the village of Kolp, where he was visited by two German doctors who were unable to stop the infection with conventional remedies. Believing that his time was short, Vasili requested to be returned to Moscow, where he was kept in the Saint Joseph Cathedral along the way. By 25 November 1533, Vasili reached Moscow and asked to be made a monk before dying. Taking on the name Varlaam, Vasili died at midnight, 4 December 1533.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vasili III Ivanovich (, also Basil; 26 March 14793 December 1533) was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1505 to 1533. He was the son of Ivan III Vasiliyevich and Sophia Paleologue and was christened with the name Gavriil (Гавриил). He had three brothers: Yuri, born in 1480, Simeon, born in 1487 and Andrei, born in 1490, as well as five sisters: Elena (born and died in 1474), Feodosiya (born and died in 1475), another Elena (born 1476), another Feodosiya (born 1485) and Eudoxia (born 1492). He is sometimes mockingly referred to as Vasili the Adequate due to his rule taking place between those of Ivan the Great and his son Ivan the Terrible, as well as the relative uneventfulness of his reign.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972203}
{"src_title": "Croatian kuna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and etymology.", "content": "During Roman times, in the provinces of upper and lower Pannonia (today Hungary and Slavonia), taxes were collected in the then highly valued marten skins. Hence the Croatian word \"marturina\" (\"tax\"), which derived from the Medieval Latin word for \"marten\" \"martus\", which came from Proto-Germanic \"*marþuz\" through Old Dutch and Old French (modern Croatian for \"marten\": \"kuna\"). The kuna was a currency unit in several Slavic states, most notably Kievan Rus and its successors until the early 15th century. It was equal to (later ) gryvna of silver. The plural form of kuna in the Croatian language is \"kune\".  It has no relation to the various Slavic currencies named \"koruna\" (translated as \"kruna\" in Croatian) which means \"crown\".  In the Middle Ages, many foreign monies were used in Croatia, but since at least 1018 a local currency was in use. Between 1260 and 1380, Croatian Viceroys issued a marten-adorned silver coin called the banovac. However, the diminishing autonomy of Croatia within the Croatian-Hungarian Kingdom led to the gradual disappearance of that currency in the 14th century.  The idea of a kuna currency reappeared in 1939 when Banovina of Croatia, an autonomous province established within Kingdom of Yugoslavia, planned to issue its own money, along with the Yugoslav dinar. In 1941, when the Ustaše regime formed the Independent State of Croatia, they introduced the Independent State of Croatia kuna. This currency remained in circulation until 1945, when it – along with competing issues by the communist Partisans – disappeared with the establishment of FPR Yugoslavia and was replaced by the Yugoslav dinar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern currency.", "content": "The modern kuna was introduced on May 30, 1994, starting a period of transition from the Croatian dinar, introduced in 1991, which ended on December 31, 1994. One kuna was equivalent to 1000 dinars at a fixed exchange rate. The kuna was pegged to the German mark from the start. With the replacement of the mark by the euro, the kuna's peg effectively switched to the euro.  The choice of the name \"kuna\" was controversial because the same currency name had been used by the Independent State of Croatia kuna, but this was dismissed as a red herring, since the same name was also in use during the Banovina of Croatia and by the ZAVNOH. An alternative proposal for the name of the new currency was \"kruna\" (crown), divided into 100 \"banica\" (viceroy's wife), but this was deemed too similar to the Austro-Hungarian krone and found inappropriate for the country which is a republic, even though the Czech Republic and, until 2008, Slovakia have used currencies called \"crown\".  The self-proclaimed Serbian entity Republic of Serbian Krajina did not use the kuna or the Croatian dinar. Instead, they issued their own Krajina dinar until the region was reintegrated into Croatia in 1995.  A long-time policy of the Croatian National Bank has been to keep the fluctuations of the kuna's exchange rate against the euro (or, previously, the mark) within a relatively stable range. Since the introduction of the euro in 1999, the exchange rate between the two currencies rarely fluctuated to a substantial degree, remaining at a near constant 7.4:1 (HRK to EUR) rate. Croatia joined the European Union on 1 July 2013 and it obliged to join the European Monetary System once the conditions for transition are met. The kuna is expected to be replaced by the euro, even though the initial time estimate of standard four years after joining the European Union proved too short.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coins.", "content": "In 1994, coins were introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 lipa (Croatian word for linden or tilia tree), 1, 2, 5 and 25 kuna. The coins are issued in two versions: one with the name of the plant or animal in Croatian (issued in odd years), the other with the name in Latin (issued in even years). Overall more coins have been minted with Croatian names than with names in Latin.  Due to their low value, 1 and 2 lipa coins are rarely used. Since 2009, these coins are no longer minted, but the Croatian National Bank has stated that it had no plans for withdrawing them, and the 1 and 2 lipa coins are still minted as non-circulating.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemorative coins.", "content": "Commemorative coins of the Croatian kuna have been issued since 1994.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Banknotes.", "content": "The notes were designed by Miroslav Šutej and Vilko Žiljak, and all feature prominent Croatians on front and architectural motifs on back. The geometric figures at lower left on front (except the 5-kuna note) are intaglio printed for recognition by the blind people. To the right of the coat of arms on front is a microprinted version of the Croatian national anthem, Lijepa naša domovino (\"Our Beautiful Homeland\"). The overall design is reminiscent of Deutsche Mark banknotes of the fourth series.  The first series of notes was dated 31 October 1993. The 5, 10 and 20 kuna notes from this series were withdrawn on 1 April 2007, and the 50, 100 and 200 kuna notes were withdrawn on 1 January 2010, but remain exchangeable at the HNB in Zagreb.  New series of notes with similar designs but improved security features were released in 2001, 2004, 2012 and 2014.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The kuna is the currency of Croatia, in use since 1994 (sign: kn; code: HRK). It is subdivided into 100 lipa. The kuna is issued by the Croatian National Bank and the coins are minted by the Croatian Monetary Institute. The plural form of the kuna in Croatian is kune.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972204}
{"src_title": "Electorate of Mainz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The episcopal see was established in ancient Roman times in the city of Mainz, which had been a Roman provincial capital, Moguntiacum. The first bishops before the 4th century have legendary names, beginning with Crescens. The first verifiable Bishop of Mainz was Martinus in 343. The ecclesiastical and secular importance of Mainz dates from the accession of St. Boniface to the see in 747. Boniface was previously an archbishop though without an assigned see, but that ecclesiastical status did not immediately devolve upon the see itself until his successor Lullus; during his reign Mainz became an archdiocese, in 781. Another early bishop of Mainz was Aureus of Mainz.  The territory of the Electorate included several non-contiguous blocks of territory: lands near Mainz on both the left and right banks of the Rhine; territory along the Main River above Frankfurt (including the district of Aschaffenburg); the Eichsfeld region in Lower Saxony and Thuringia; and the territory around Erfurt in Thuringia.  As was generally the case in the Holy Roman Empire, the territory of a prince-bishopric or archbishopric differed from that of the corresponding diocese or archdiocese, which was the purely spiritual jurisdiction of the prince-bishop or archbishop. During the early modern age, the archdiocese of Mainz (see map below) was the largest ecclesiastical province of Germany, covering Mainz and 10 suffragant dioceses.  In 1802, Mainz lost its archiepiscopal character. In the secularizations that accompanied the \"\" (German mediatization) of 1803, the seat of the elector, Karl Theodor von Dalberg, was moved to Regensburg, and the electorate lost its left bank territories to France, its right bank areas along the Main below Frankfurt to Hesse-Darmstadt and the Nassau princes, and Eichsfeld and Erfurt to the Kingdom of Prussia. Dalberg retained the Aschaffenburg area as the Principality of Aschaffenburg. In 1810 Dalberg merged Aschaffenburg, Frankfurt, Wetzlar, Hanau, and Fulda, to form the new Grand Duchy of Frankfurt in 1810. Dalberg resigned in 1813 and in 1815 the Congress of Vienna divided his territories between the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Electorate of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), the Grand Duchy of Hesse and the Free City of Frankfurt.  The modern Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz was founded in 1802 when Mainz lost its archdiocese status and its territory west of the Rhine River became a mere diocese within the territory of France. In 1814 its jurisdiction was extended over the territory of Hesse-Darmstadt. Since then it has had two cardinals and via various concordats was allowed to retain the medieval tradition of the cathedral chapter electing a successor to the bishop.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Electorate of Mainz ( or ', ), previously known in English as Mentz and by its French name Mayence, was one of the most prestigious and influential states of the Holy Roman Empire. In the Roman Catholic hierarchy, the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz was the Primate of Germany ('), a purely honorary dignity that was unsuccessfully claimed from time to time by other archbishops. There were only two other ecclesiastical Prince-electors in the Empire: the Electorate of Cologne and the Electorate of Trier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972205}
{"src_title": "Battle of Kolín", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Frederick II of Prussia had won a bloody battle against Austria and was now besieging Prague. Austrian Marshal Daun arrived too late to participate in the Battle of Prague, but picked up 16,000 men who escaped from the battle. With this army he slowly moved to relieve Prague, forcing the Prussian forces to split.  Frederick took 34,000 of his men to intercept Daun. Daun knew that the Prussian forces were too weak to both besiege Prague and keep him away from Prague for a longer time (or to fight the Austrian army reinforced by the Prague garrison), so his Austrian forces took defensive positions on hills near Kolín. Frederick was forced to attack the Austrians, who were waiting on the defensive with a force of 35,160 infantry, 18,630 cavalry and 154 guns. The battlefield of Kolín consisted of gently rolling hill slopes.  Frederick's plan was to envelop the Austrian right wing with most of his army. Along the Austrian lines (Prussian right wing and center) he kept only enough troops to hide the concentration on the Prussian left wing. The Prussian main force would turn right toward the Austrians to attack their right flank. The Prussian left wing would locally outnumber the Austrians. After the Austrian right wing was defeated the battle would be decided.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "Frederick's main force turned toward the Austrians too early and attacked their defensive positions frontally instead of outflanking them. Austrian Croatian light infantry (Grenzers) played an important role in this; harassing the regular Prussian infantry under Generals Christopher Hermann von Manstein and Joachim Christian von Tresckow, they provoked them into a premature attack.  The disunited Prussian columns blundered into a series of uncoordinated attacks, each against superior numbers. By the afternoon, after about five hours of fighting, the Prussians were disoriented and Daun's troops were driving them back. Prussian cuirassiers under Oberst Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz (promoted to major-general on that day) finally showed up. There were many charges and counter-charges on the Křečhoř Hill. The first Guard battalion under General Friedrich Bogislav von Tauentzien saved the Prussian army from a worse fate, covering the Prussian retreat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "The battle was Frederick's first defeat in this war, and forced him to abandon his intended march on Vienna, raise his siege of Prague, and fall back on Litoměřice. The Austrians, reinforced by the 48,000 troops in Prague, followed them, 100,000 strong, and, falling on Prince August Wilhelm of Prussia, who was retreating eccentrically (for commissariat reasons) at Zittau, inflicted a severe check upon him. The king was compelled to abandon Bohemia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Kolín on 18 June 1757 saw 44,000 Austrians under Count von Daun defeat 32,000 Prussians under Frederick the Great during the Third Silesian War (Seven Years' War). The Prussians lost nearly 14,000 men, while the Austrians lost 8,000 men.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972206}
{"src_title": "Malinois dog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Malinois is a medium-to-large and square-proportioned dog in the sheepdog family. The Malinois has a short mahogany coat with black markings. It has black erect ears and a black muzzle. It has a square build in comparison to the German Shepherd.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat and colour.", "content": "Due to its history as a working dog (i.e., being bred for function over form), the Malinois can vary greatly in appearance. The acceptable colours of pure-bred Malinois are a base colour fawn to mahogany and tan with a black mask and black ears with some degree of black tipping on the hairs, giving an overlay appearance. The colour tends to be lighter with less black agouti or overlay on the dog's underside, breeching, and inner leg. White markings are also allowed on the tips of the toes and the chest. A Belgian malinois may have a longer and darker hair coat than the typical malinois, but may still be referred to as a Belgian malinois.  The other varieties of Belgian Shepherd are distinguished by their coats and colours: the Tervuren is the same colour as the Malinois but has long hair, the wire-coated Laekenois is fawn and lacks the black mask and ears, and the Groenendael (registered as Belgian Sheepdog by the American Kennel Club) has long hair and is solid black. When the Malinois was first bred, the four breeds would usually be cross bred; this would result in Malinois with longer hair, or even a darker coat. Today the four breeds are considered different breeds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "Males are about, while females are about at the withers. Female Malinois average ; males are heavier at.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "Well-raised and trained Malinois are usually active, intelligent, friendly, protective, alert, and hard-working. Belgian Malinois exhibit energy levels that are among the highest of all dog breeds. A typical Malinois will have puppy-like energy until the age of three, though it is not uncommon for them to exhibit this energy level until the age of five. Many have excessively high prey drive. Some may be excessively exuberant or playful, especially when young.  They can be destructive or develop neurotic behaviours if not provided enough stimulation and exercise. This often causes problems for owners who are unfamiliar with the breed and are not prepared to provide the exercise they require or a job for them to do. They are medium-sized, strong dogs that require consistent obedience training, and enjoy being challenged with new tasks. They are known to be very easy to train, due to their high drive for rewards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Working dog.", "content": "In Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and other European countries, as well as in the United States, Canada, Australia and Hong Kong, the Malinois is bred primarily as a working dog for personal protection, detection, police work, search and rescue, and sport work like Schutzhund. The United States Secret Service and Royal Australian Air Force use the breed along with other working lines such as Dutch Shepherd, and also GSD. In the United States Armed Forces, German shepherds lead the way, but close behind follows the Belgian Malinois.  In India, the ITBP and National Security Guard (NSG) commando unit have inducted Malinois breed into its K-9 unit.  Malinois dogs are used by the Oketz, the K-9 unit of the Israel Defense Forces. Malinois are a suitable size to be picked up by their handlers when required, while still being large enough to control human aggressors.  In 2011, United States Navy SEALs used a Belgian Malinois war dog named \"Cairo\" in Operation Neptune Spear, in which Osama bin Laden was killed.  In 2014, two Belgian Malinois dogs, Jordan and Hurricane, were used to stop a man who jumped over a fence at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue.  Belgian Malinois have also been called a \"game changer\" in the fight against rhino poaching in South Africa's Kruger National Park, where one dog, K9 Killer, has been responsible for more than 100 arrests.  In 2019, a male Belgian Malinois, Conan, was used during the Barisha raid to chase Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "Malinois can compete in dog agility trials and in dock diving, flyball, herding, obedience, showmanship, and tracking events, and are one of the most popular breeds used in protection sports such as the Schutzhund. In America, herding is a popular activity.  Herding instincts can be measured at noncompetitive herding tests. In 2011, the AKC awarded 39 new herding titles to Belgian Malinois.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "The average lifespan of the Belgian Malinois is 10–12 years. Notable health problems prevalent to the Malinois include cataracts, epilepsy, thyroid disease, progressive retinal atrophy, and hip dysplasia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable dogs.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dickin Medal recipients.", "content": "Awarded the Dickin Medal for conspicuous gallantry or devotion to duty while serving in military conflict", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PDSA Gold medal recipients.", "content": "Awarded the PDSA Gold Medal for animal bravery:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Malinois is a medium-to-large breed of dog, sometimes classified as a variety of the Belgian Shepherd dog rather than as a separate breed. The name \"Malinois\" is derived from Malines, the French name for the breed's Flemish city of origin, Mechelen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972207}
{"src_title": "Peritoneum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Layers.", "content": "The peritoneum is one continuous sheet, forming two layers and a potential space between them: the peritoneal cavity.  The outer layer, the parietal peritoneum, is attached to the abdominal wall and the pelvic walls. The tunica vaginalis, the serous membrane covering the male testis, is derived from the vaginal process, an outpouching of the parietal peritoneum.  The inner layer, the visceral peritoneum, is wrapped around the visceral organs, located inside the intraperitoneal space for protection. It is thinner than the parietal peritoneum. The mesentery is a double layer of visceral peritoneum that attaches to the gastrointestinal tract. There are often blood vessels, nerves, and other structures between these layers. The space between these two layers is technically outside of the peritoneal sac, and thus not in the peritoneal cavity.  The potential space between these two layers is the peritoneal cavity, filled with a small amount (about 50 mL) of slippery serous fluid that allows the two layers to slide freely over each other.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "Peritoneal folds are omenta, mesenteries and ligaments; they connect organs to each other or to the abdominal wall. There are two main regions of the peritoneal cavity, connected by the omental foramen.  The mesentery is the part of the peritoneum through which most abdominal organs are attached to the abdominal wall and supplied with blood and lymph vessels and nerves.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other ligaments and folds.", "content": "In addition, in the pelvic cavity there are several structures that are usually named not for the peritoneum, but for the areas defined by the peritoneal folds:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Classification of abdominal structures.", "content": "The structures in the abdomen are classified as intraperitoneal, retroperitoneal or infraperitoneal depending on whether they are covered with visceral peritoneum and whether they are attached by mesenteries (mensentery, mesocolon).  Structures that are \"intraperitoneal\" are generally mobile, while those that are \"retroperitoneal\" are relatively fixed in their location.  Some structures, such as the kidneys, are \"primarily retroperitoneal\", while others such as the majority of the duodenum, are \"secondarily retroperitoneal\", meaning that structure developed intraperitoneally but lost its mesentery and thus became retroperitoneal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "The peritoneum develops ultimately from the mesoderm of the trilaminar embryo. As the mesoderm differentiates, one region known as the lateral plate mesoderm splits to form two layers separated by an intraembryonic coelom. These two layers develop later into the visceral and parietal layers found in all serous cavities, including the peritoneum.  As an embryo develops, the various abdominal organs grow into the abdominal cavity from structures in the abdominal wall. In this process they become enveloped in a layer of peritoneum. The growing organs \"take their blood vessels with them\" from the abdominal wall, and these blood vessels become covered by peritoneum, forming a mesentery.  Peritoneal folds develop from the ventral and dorsal mesentery of the embryo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clinical significance.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Peritoneal dialysis.", "content": "In one form of dialysis, called peritoneal dialysis, a glucose solution is sent through a tube into the peritoneal cavity. The fluid is left there for a prescribed amount of time to absorb waste products, and then removed through the tube. The reason for this effect is the high number of arteries and veins in the peritoneal cavity. Through the mechanism of diffusion, waste products are removed from the blood.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Peritonitis.", "content": "Peritonitis is the inflammation of the peritoneum. It is more commonly associated to infection from a punctured organ of the abdominal cavity. It can also be provoked by the presence of fluids that produce chemical irritation, such as gastric acid or pancreatic juice. Peritonitis causes fever, tenderness, and pain in the abdominal area, which can be localized or diffuse. The treatment involves rehydration, administration of antibiotics, and surgical correction of the underlying cause. Mortality is higher in the elderly and if present for a prolonged time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Primary peritoneal carcinoma.", "content": "Primary peritoneal cancer is a cancer of the cells lining the peritoneum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Peritoneum\" is derived from Greek περιτόναιον \"peritonaion\" \"peritoneum, abdominal membrane\" via Latin. In Greek, περί \"peri\" means \"around,\" while τείνω \"teino\" means \"to stretch\"; thus, \"peritoneum\" means \"stretched over.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The peritoneum is the serous membrane forming the lining of the abdominal cavity or coelom in amniotes and some invertebrates, such as annelids. It covers most of the intra-abdominal (or coelomic) organs, and is composed of a layer of mesothelium supported by a thin layer of connective tissue. This peritoneal lining of the cavity supports many of the abdominal organs and serves as a conduit for their blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972208}
{"src_title": "Income statement", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Usefulness and limitations of income statement.", "content": "Income statements may help investors and creditors determine the past financial performance of the enterprise, predict the future performance, and assess the capability of generating future cash flows using the report of income and expenses.  However, information of an income statement has several limitations:  Guidelines for statements of comprehensive income and income statements of business entities are formulated by the International Accounting Standards Board and numerous country-specific organizations, for example the FASB in the U.S..  Names and usage of different accounts in the income statement depend on the type of organization, industry practices and the requirements of different jurisdictions.  If applicable to the business, summary values for the following items should be included in the income statement:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operating section.", "content": "\"Expenses\" recognised in the income statement should be analysed either by nature (raw materials, transport costs, staffing costs, depreciation, employee benefit etc.) or by function (cost of sales, selling, administrative, etc.). (IAS 1.99) If an entity categorises by function, then additional information on the nature of expenses, at least, – depreciation, amortisation and employee benefits expense – must be disclosed. (IAS 1.104) The major exclusive of costs of goods sold, are classified as operating expenses. These represent the resources expended, except for inventory purchases, in generating the revenue for the period. Expenses often are divided into two broad sub classicifications selling expenses and administrative expenses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Irregular items.", "content": "They are reported separately because this way users can better predict future cash flows - irregular items most likely will not recur. These are reported net of taxes.  Cumulative effect of changes in accounting policies (principles) is the difference between the book value of the affected assets (or liabilities) under the old policy (principle) and what the book value would have been if the new principle had been applied in the prior periods. For example, valuation of inventories using LIFO instead of weighted average method. The changes should be applied retrospectively and shown as adjustments to the \"beginning\" balance of affected components in Equity. All comparative financial statements should be restated. (IAS 8)  However, changes in estimates (e.g., estimated useful life of a fixed asset) only requires prospective changes. (IAS 8)  No items may be presented in the income statement as extraordinary items under IFRS regulations, but are permissible under US GAAP. (IAS 1.87) \"Extraordinary items\" are both unusual (abnormal) and infrequent, for example, unexpected natural disaster, expropriation, prohibitions under new regulations. [Note: natural disaster might not qualify depending on location (e.g., frost damage would not qualify in Canada but would in the tropics).]  Additional items may be needed to fairly present the entity's results of operations. (IAS 1.85)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disclosures.", "content": "Certain items must be disclosed separately in the notes (or the statement of comprehensive income), if material, including: (IAS 1.98)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Earnings per share.", "content": "Because of its importance, earnings per share (EPS) are required to be disclosed on the face of the income statement. A company which reports any of the irregular items must also report EPS for these items either in the statement or in the notes.  formula_1  There are two forms of EPS reported:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sample income statement.", "content": "The following income statement is a very brief example prepared in accordance with IFRS. It does not show all possible kinds of accounts, but it shows the most usual ones. Please note the difference between IFRS and US GAAP when interpreting the following sample income statements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bottom line.", "content": "“Bottom line” is the net income that is calculated after subtracting the expenses from revenue. Since this forms the last line of the income statement, it is informally called “bottom line.” It is important to investors as it represents the profit for the year attributable to the shareholders.  After revision to IAS 1 in 2003, the Standard is now using profit or loss for the year rather than \"net profit or loss\" or \"net income\" as the descriptive term for the bottom line of the income statement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Requirements of IFRS.", "content": "On 6 September 2007, the International Accounting Standards Board issued a revised \"IAS 1: Presentation of Financial Statements\", which is effective for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2009.  A business entity adopting IFRS must include:  All non-owner changes in equity (i.e., \"comprehensive income\" ) shall be presented in either in the statement of comprehensive income (or in a separate income statement and a statement of comprehensive income). Components of comprehensive income may not be presented in the statement of changes in equity.  \"Comprehensive income\" for a period includes profit or loss (net income) for that period and other comprehensive income recognised in that period.  All items of income and expense recognised in a period must be included in profit or loss unless a Standard or an Interpretation requires otherwise. (IAS 1.88) Some IFRSs require or permit that some components to be excluded from profit or loss and instead to be included in other comprehensive income. (IAS 1.89)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Items and disclosures.", "content": "The statement of comprehensive income should include: (IAS 1.82)  The following items must also be disclosed in the statement of comprehensive income as allocations for the period: (IAS 1.83)  \"No\" items may be presented in the statement of comprehensive income (or in the income statement, if separately presented) or in the notes as \"extraordinary items\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "An income statement or profit and loss account (also referred to as a profit and loss statement (P&L), statement of profit or loss, revenue statement, statement of financial performance, earnings statement, statement of earnings, operating statement, or statement of operations) is one of the financial statements of a company and shows the company's revenues and expenses during a particular period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972209}
{"src_title": "Monstrance", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Liturgical context.", "content": "In the Catholic tradition, at the moment of consecration the elements (called \"gifts\" for liturgical purposes) are transformed (literally transubstantiated) into the body and blood of Christ. Catholic doctrine holds that the elements are not only spiritually transformed, but are (substantially) transformed into the body and blood of Christ. Although the elements retain the appearance, or \"accidents,\" of bread and wine, they become the body and blood of Christ. The presence of Jesus in the Eucharist is known as the doctrine of the Corporeal Presence within the Roman Catholic tradition. Other Christians (notably in the Anglican Church, Old Catholic Church, and Lutheran Church) accept the doctrine of the Real Presence, whilst rejecting transubstantiation as a philosophical concept (\"cf\". sacramental union). Owing to these beliefs, the consecrated elements are given the same adoration and devotion that Christians of these traditions accord to Christ himself.  Within churches of these traditions the reserved sacrament serves as a focal point of religious devotion. In many of them, during Eucharistic adoration, the celebrant displays the sacrament in the monstrance, typically on the altar. When not being displayed, the reserved sacrament is locked in a tabernacle (more common in Roman Catholicism) or aumbry (more common in the other traditions mentioned).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use and design.", "content": "In the service of Benediction, (the priest blesses the people with the Eucharist displayed in the monstrance. This blessing differs from the priest's blessing, as it is seen to be the blessing by Christ rather than that of the individual priest. The exposition of the monstrance during Benediction is traditionally accompanied by chanting or singing of the hymn \"Tantum Ergo\".  Monstrances are usually elaborate in design; most are carried by the priest. Others may be much larger fixed constructions, typically for displaying the host in a special side chapel, often called the \"Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament\". For portable designs, the preferred form is a sunburst on a stand, usually topped by a cross.  Medieval monstrances were more varied in form than contemporary ones. Those used for relics, and occasionally for the host, typically had a crystal cylinder in a golden stand, and those usually used for hosts had a crystal window in a flat-faced golden construction, which could stand on its base. The monstrance was most often made of silver-gilt or other precious metal, and highly decorated. In the center of the sunburst, the monstrance normally has a small round glass the size of a Host, through which the Blessed Sacrament can be seen. Behind this glass is a round container made of glass and gilded metal, called a lunette, which holds the Host securely in place. When not in the monstrance, the Host in its luna is placed in a special standing container, called a standing \"pyx\", in the Tabernacle. Before the current design, earlier \"little shrines\" or reliquaries of various shapes and sizes were used.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A monstrance, also known as an ostensorium (or an ostensory), is the vessel used in Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, High Church Lutheran and Anglican churches for the more convenient exhibition of some object of piety, such as the consecrated Eucharistic host during Eucharistic adoration or Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. It is also used as reliquary for the public display of relics of some saints. The word \"monstrance\" comes from the Latin word \"monstrare\", while the word \"ostensorium\" came from the Latin word \"ostendere\". Both terms, meaning \"to show\", are used for vessels intended for the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament, but \"ostensorium\" has only this meaning.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972210}
{"src_title": "Batoidea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Anatomy.", "content": "Batoids are flat-bodied, and, like sharks, are cartilaginous marine fish, meaning they have a boneless skeleton made of a tough, elastic cartilage. Most batoids have five ventral slot-like body openings called gill slits that lead from the gills, but the Hexatrygonidae have six. Batoid gill slits lie under the pectoral fins on the underside, whereas a shark's are on the sides of the head. Most batoids have a flat, disk-like body, with the exception of the guitarfishes and sawfishes, while most sharks have a spindle-shaped body. Many species of batoid have developed their pectoral fins into broad flat wing-like appendages. The anal fin is absent. The eyes and spiracles are located on top of the head. Batoids have a ventrally located mouth and can considerably protrude their upper jaw (palatoquadrate cartilage) away from the cranium to capture prey. The jaws have euhyostylic type suspension, which relies completely on the hyomandibular cartilages for support. Bottom-dwelling batoids breathe by taking water in through the spiracles, rather than through the mouth as most fishes do, and passing it outward through the gills.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Batoids reproduce in a number of ways. As is characteristic of elasmobranchs, batoids undergo internal fertilization. Internal fertilization is advantageous to batoids as it conserves sperm, does not expose eggs to consumption by predators, and ensures that all the energy involved in reproduction is retained and not lost to the environment. All skates and some rays are oviparous (egg laying) while other rays are ovoviviparous, meaning that they give birth to young which develop in a womb but without involvement of a placenta.  The eggs of oviparous skates are laid in leathery egg cases that are commonly known as mermaid's purses and which often wash up empty on beaches in areas where skates are common.  Capture-induced premature birth and abortion (collectively called capture-induced parturition) occurs frequently in sharks and rays when fished. Capture-induced parturition is rarely considered in fisheries management despite being shown to occur in at least 12% of live bearing sharks and rays (88 species to date).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Most species live on the sea floor, in a variety of geographical regions – mainly in coastal waters, although some live in deep waters to at least. Most batoids have a cosmopolitan distribution, preferring tropical and subtropical marine environments, although there are temperate and cold-water species. Only a few species, like manta rays, live in the open sea, and only a few live in freshwater, while some batoids can live in brackish bays and estuaries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "Most batoids have developed heavy, rounded teeth for crushing the shells of bottom-dwelling species such as snails, clams, oysters, crustaceans, and some fish, depending on the species. Manta rays feed on plankton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Batoids belong to the ancient lineage of cartilaginous fishes. Fossil denticles (tooth-like scales in the skin) resembling those of today's chondrichthyans date at least as far back as the Ordovician, with the oldest unambiguous fossils of cartilaginous fish dating from the middle Devonian. A clade within this diverse family, the Neoselachii, emerged by the Triassic, with the best-understood neoselachian fossils dating from the Jurassic. The oldest confirmed ray is \"Antiquaobatis\", from the Pliensbachian of Germany. The clade is represented today by sharks, sawfish, rays and skates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The classification of batoids is currently undergoing revision; however, molecular evidence refutes the hypothesis that skates and rays are derived sharks. Nelson's 2006 \"Fishes of the World\" recognizes four orders. The Mesozoic Sclerorhynchoidea are basal or \"incertae sedis\"; they show features of the Rajiformes but have snouts resembling those of sawfishes. However, evidence indicates they are probably the sister group to sawfishes. Phylogenetic tree of Batoidea:  Order Torpediniformes  Order Rhinopristiformes  Order Rajiformes  Order Myliobatiformes", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differences between sharks and rays.", "content": "All sharks and rays are cartilaginous fishes, contrasting with bony fishes. Many rays are adapted for feeding on the bottom. Guitarfishes are somewhat between sharks and rays, displaying characteristics of both (though they are classified as rays).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Batoidea is a superorder of cartilaginous fishes commonly known as rays. They and their close relatives, the sharks, comprise the subclass Elasmobranchii. Rays are the largest group of cartilaginous fishes, with well over 600 species in 26 families. Rays are distinguished by their flattened bodies, enlarged pectoral fins that are fused to the head, and gill slits that are placed on their ventral surfaces.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972211}
{"src_title": "Arnold Odermatt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Odermatt was born in Oberdorf, canton Nidwalden, Switzerland. He joined the Nidwalden Police in 1948. He was forced to give up his original career as a bakery and pastry chef on health grounds. As the policeman Arnold Odermatt first appeared with his Rolleiflex at the scene of an accident – to provide photos to complement the police report, people found this rather disconcerting. At that time, photography was anything other than an independent means of providing the police with evidence.  A colleague observed Arnold Odermatt as he took pictures for the force and was suspicious. He was ordered to report to his commander immediately. Odermatt managed to convince his superiors of the pioneering work he was doing. They allowed him to convert an old toilet in an observation post in Stans into a makeshift darkroom. When the observation post was moved into another building several years later, Switzerland’s first police photographer was given his own laboratory.  Arnold Odermatt's biggest role model was the famous Magnum photographer Werner Bischof. He met him once by chance, as he was on security duty on the Bürgenstock and wanted to photograph Charlie Chaplin. Odermatt's own style was characterised by sobriety and authenticity. The spartan linguistic expression of his police reports can also be found in Odermatt’s images. His craftsmanship is beyond question, nothing of note is missed by his photographic eye. In KARAMBOLAGE, his most famous series of work, you can’t see the maimed victims but you do see the ethereal, surreal sculptures of scrap metal. With the softness and melancholy of Jacques Tati, he looks at the consequences of speed and the hectic nature of modern times.  For 40 years, Arnold Odermatt captured the daily work of the Nidwalden police force. It was only rarely that the local press, the court or an insurance company were interested in his photos. It was only when his son, the film and theatre director Urs Odermatt, showed the photos in for the first time at a solo exhibition in Frankfurt am Main that the art scene first became interested in his work. After the inspiring exhibition, the photo book 'Meine Welt' followed. Suddenly the everyday observations from the central Swiss province had gained the same status as those of his well-travelled predecessor, Werner Bischof.  At an early stage in his police career, when Arnold used the camera to catalogue traffic accidents, this was a revolutionary innovation in the Swiss police. If Arnold Odermatt were to turn up at a crime scene with his camera today, he could expect to be told that photography was not for him, but was instead the job of a specially trained police photographer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Films.", "content": "In the 1960s Arnold Odermatt documented the early construction of the Swiss motorways in Acheregg and the Lopper tunnel, with extensive photos and 16mm black-and-white film footage. In 1991 Urs Odermatt put all of this historical film material together in the documentary film Lopper.  In the 1990s, working as a stills photographer, during filming, Arnold Odermatt worked on the feature films Rotlicht!, Gekauftes Glück und Wachtmeister Zumbühl by Urs Odermatt.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arnold Odermatt (born 25 May 1925) is a Swiss police photographer whose work spanned more than 40 years. Originally trained as a baker, he was a photographer for the Nidwalden district police from 1948 until his retirement in 1990. He is best known for his eerily beautiful black and white photographs of the aftermaths of motor vehicle accidents. Odermatt joined the police in 1948 and rose to become a lieutenant, chief of the transport police and deputy chief inspector of the Nidwaldner District Police before he retired.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972212}
{"src_title": "Eleanor of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Eleanor was born in 1498 at Leuven, the eldest child of Philip of Austria and Joanna of Castile, who would later become co-sovereigns of Castile. Her father was also the son of the reigning Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and his deceased consort Mary of Burgundy, while her mother was the daughter of the Catholic Monarchs; namely Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. Her siblings were Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I, Queen Isabella of Denmark, Queen Mary of Hungary and Queen Catherine of Portugal. She was named after her paternal great-grandmother, Eleanor of Portugal, Holy Roman Empress.  When she was a child, Eleanor's relatives tried to marry her to the future King of England, Henry VIII, to whom she was betrothed. However, when Henry's father died and he became King, Henry decided to marry Eleanor's aunt, Catherine of Aragon, who was the widow of King Henry's older brother, Arthur, Prince of Wales. Her relatives also tried to marry her to the French Kings Louis XII or Francis I or to the Polish King Sigismund I, but nothing came of these plans. Eleanor was also proposed as a marriage candidate for Antoine, Duke of Lorraine, in 1510.  In 1517 Eleanor may have had a love affair with Frederick II, Elector Palatine. Her brother King Charles, who had succeeded their elderly grandfather King Ferdinand as King of Spain the year before, once discovered her reading a love letter from Frederick. Charles forced Eleanor and Frederick to swear in front of an attorney that they were not secretly married, after which he expelled Frederick from court. She followed her brother to Spain in 1517.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen of Portugal.", "content": "Eleanor married her uncle by marriage, King Manuel I of Portugal, after a proposed marriage with her cousin, the future King John III of Portugal, did not occur. Her brother Charles arranged the marriage between Eleanor and the King of Portugal to avoid the possibility of Portuguese assistance for any rebellion in Castile. Manuel had previously been married to two of Eleanor's maternal aunts, Isabella of Aragon and Maria of Aragon.  Manuel and Eleanor married on 16 July 1518. They had two children: the Infante Charles (born 18 February 1520 – died 15 April 1521) and the Infanta Maria (born 8 June 1521, and who was later one of the richest princesses of Europe). She became a widow on 13 December 1521, when Manuel died of the plague. As Queen Dowager of Portugal, Eleanor returned to the court of Charles in Spain. Eleanor's sister Catherine later married Eleanor's stepson, King John III of Portugal.  In July 1523, Eleanor was engaged to Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, in an alliance between Charles and Bourbon against France, but the marriage never took place. In 1526, Eleanor was engaged to King Francis I of France during his captivity in Spain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen of France.", "content": "In 1529, by the treaty called \"La Paz de las Damas\" (\"The Ladies' Peace\"), it was stipulated that the marriage should take place. She was married to Francis on 4 July 1530. They had no children.  Eleanor left Spain in the company of her future stepsons, who were now to be released having been held hostage by her brother. The group met Francis at the border, where Eleanor and Francis were married, and then departed for an official entrance to Bordeaux. Eleanor was crowned Queen of France in Saint-Denis on 31 May 1531. She was dressed in purple velvet at her coronation. Eleanor was ignored by Francis, who seldom performed his marital obligations and preferred his lover Anne de Pisseleu d'Heilly. At the official entrance of Eleanor to Paris, Francis displayed himself openly to the public in a window with his lover Anne for a period of two hours.  Queen Eleanor performed as the queen of France at official occasions, such as at the wedding between her stepson Henry and Catherine de' Medici in 1533. She also performed charity and was praised for this. She also took her stepdaughters, Madeleine and Margaret, into her household to raise them further.  As the French queen, Eleanor did not have any political power; however, she was used as a contact between France and the Holy Roman Empire. Queen Eleanor was present at the peace negotiations between Francis and Charles in Aigues-Mortes in 1538. In 1544, she was given the task of entering peace negotiations with Charles and their sister Mary. In November 1544, she visited Charles in Brussels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "As a queen dowager, Eleanor left France for Brussels in 1548. She witnessed the abdication of Charles in October 1555 and left for Spain with him and their sister Mary in August 1556. She lived with her sister in Jarandilla de la Vera, where they often visited their brother, who retired to a monastery nearby. In 1558, she met her daughter Maria in Badajoz for the first time in 28 years. Eleanor died in 1558 on the return trip from Badajoz.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Eleanor of Austria (15 November 1498 – 25 February 1558), also called Eleanor of Castile, was born an Archduchess of Austria and Infanta of Castile from the House of Habsburg, and subsequently became Queen consort of Portugal (1518–1521) and of France (1530–1547). She also held the Duchy of Touraine (1547–1558) in dower. She is called \"Leonor\" in Spanish and Portuguese and \"Eléonore\" or \"Aliénor\" in French.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972213}
{"src_title": "Racewalking", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rules.", "content": "There are only two rules that govern racewalking. The first dictates that the athlete's back toe cannot leave the ground until the heel of the front foot has touched. Violation of this rule is known as \"loss of contact.\" The second rule requires that the supporting leg must straighten from the point of contact with the ground and remain straightened until the body passes directly over it. These rules are judged by the unaided human eye. Athletes regularly lose contact for a few milliseconds per stride, which can be caught on film, but such a short flight phase is said to be undetectable to the human eye.  Athletes stay low to the ground by keeping their arms pumping low, close to their hips. If one sees a racewalker's shoulders rising, it may be a sign that the athlete is losing contact with the ground. What appears to be an exaggerated swivel to the hip is, in fact, a full rotation of the pelvis. Athletes aim to move the pelvis forward and to minimize sideways motion in order to achieve maximum forward propulsion. Speed is achieved by stepping quickly with the aim of rapid turnover. This minimizes the risk of the feet leaving the ground. Strides are short and quick, with pushoff coming forward from the ball of the foot, again to minimize the risk of losing contact with the ground. World-class racewalkers (male and female) can average under four and five minutes per kilometre in a 20-km racewalk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distances.", "content": "Races have been walked at distances as short as —at the 1920 Summer Olympics—and as long as 100 km (62.1 mi). The men's world record for the 50-mile race walk is held by Israeli Shaul Ladany, whose time of 7:23:50 in 1972 beat the world record that had stood since 1935. The modern Olympic events are the 20 km (12.4 mi) race walk (men and women) and 50 km (31 mi) race walk (men only). One example of a longer racewalking competition is the annual Paris-Colmar which is 450 to 500 km. Indoor races are 3000 m and 5000 m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Judges.", "content": "There are judges on the course to monitor form. Three judges submitting \"red cards\" for violations results in disqualification. There is a scoreboard placed on the course so competitors can see their violation status. If the third violation is received, the chief judge removes the competitor from the course by showing a red paddle. For monitoring reasons, races are held on a looped course or on a track so judges get to see competitors several times during a race. A judge could also \"caution\" a competitor that he or she is in danger of losing form by showing a paddle that indicates either losing contact or bent knees. No judge may submit more than one card for each walker and the chief judge may not submit any cards; it is his or her job only to disqualify the offending walker. Disqualifications are routine at the elite level, such as the famous case of Jane Saville, disqualified within sight of a gold medal in front of her home crowd in the 2000 Summer Olympics, or Yet Lyu, disqualified 20 meters before the finish line at the 2017 World Championships in Athletics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beginnings.", "content": "Racewalking developed as one of the original track and field events of the first meeting of the English Amateur Athletics Association in 1880. The first racewalking codes came from an attempt to regulate rules for popular 19th-century long-distance competitive walking events, called pedestrianism. Pedestrianism had developed, like footraces and horse racing, as a popular working class British and American pastime, and a venue for wagering. Walkers organised the first English amateur walking championship in 1866, which was won by John Chambers, and judged by the \"fair heel and toe\" rule. This rather vague code was the basis for the rules codified at the first Championships Meeting in 1880 of the Amateur Athletics Association in England, the birth of modern athletics. With football (soccer), cricket, and other sports codified in the 19th century, the transition from professional pedestrianism to amateur racewalking was, while relatively late, part of a process of regularisation occurring in most modern sports at this time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Olympics.", "content": "Racewalking is an Olympic athletics (track and field) event with distances of 20 kilometres for both men and women and 50 kilometres for men only. Racewalking first appeared in the modern Olympics in 1904 as a half-mile walk in the 'all-rounder,' the precursor to the 10-event decathlon. In 1908, stand-alone 1,500m and 3,000m racewalks were added, and—excluding 1924—there has been at least one racewalk (for men) in every Olympics since. The women's racewalk became an Olympic event only in 1992, following years of active lobbying by female internationals. A World Cup in racewalking is held biennially, and racewalk events appear in the World Athletics Championships, the Commonwealth Games and the Pan American Games, among others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Race Walking Challenge.", "content": "Since 2003, the IAAF has organised the IAAF Race Walking Challenge, an annual worldwide competition series in which elite athletes accumulate points for the right to compete in the IAAF Race Walking Challenge Final and to share over US$200,000 of prize money. The series of televised events takes place in several countries each year including Mexico, Spain, Russia and China.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "High school.", "content": "Racewalking is sometimes included in high school indoor and outdoor track meets, the rules often more relaxed. The distances walked tend to be relatively short, with the 1500 m being the most commonly held event. Racing also occurs at 3 km, 5 km and 10 km, with records kept and annual rankings published.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Top performers.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Women.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20 km.", "content": "As of June 2019", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "50 km.", "content": "The women's 50 km walk is a new event, having been controversially added to the World Athletics Championships for the first time in 2017.  As of May 2019:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In Malcolm in the Middle season 4 episode 'Malcolm holds his tongue' Hal gets into the sport and exposes his local park rival as 'nothing but a common jogger' by proving that both of his feet leave the ground at once every 4th step.  Racewalking is sometimes derided as a contrived or \"artificial\" sport.  In the 1966 film \"Walk, Don't Run\", Jim Hutton plays a racewalker competing in the Tokyo Olympics. Cary Grant and Samantha Eggar co-star.  In 1992 long-time Olympic commentator Bob Costas compared it to \"a contest to see who can whisper the loudest\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Racewalking, or race walking, is a long-distance discipline within the sport of athletics. Although it is a foot race, it is different from running in that one foot must appear to be in contact with the ground at all times. This is assessed by race judges. Typically held on either roads or on running tracks, common distances range from up to 100 kilometres (62.1 mi).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972214}
{"src_title": "Classical swine fever", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Clinical signs.", "content": "Swine fever causes fever, skin lesions, convulsions, Splenic Infarctions and usually (particularly in young animals) death within 15 days.  The disease has acute and chronic forms, and can range from severe, with high mortality, to mild or even unapparent.  In the acute form of the disease, in all age groups, there is fever, huddling of sick animals, loss of appetite, dullness, weakness, conjunctivitis, constipation followed by diarrhoea, and an unsteady gait. Several days after the onset of clinical signs, the ears, abdomen and inner thighs may show a purple discoloration. Animals with acute disease die within 1-2 weeks. Severe cases of the disease appear very similar to African swine fever. With low virulence strains, the only expression may be poor reproductive performance and the birth of piglets with neurologic defects such as congenital tremor  The signs are indistinguishable from those of African swine fever.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Immunization.", "content": "A small fraction of the infected pigs may survive and are rendered immune. Artificial immunization procedures were first developed by Marion Dorset.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "The disease is endemic in much of Asia, Central and South America, and parts of Europe and Africa. It was believed to have been eradicated in the United Kingdom by 1966 (according to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs), but an outbreak occurred in East Anglia in 2000. On January 31, 1978 USDA Secretary Bob Bergland declared that the United States was free of the disease. Other regions believed free of CSF include Australia, Canada (1962), Ireland, New Zealand, and Scandinavia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Virus.", "content": "The infectious agent responsible is a virus CSFV (previously called hog cholera virus) of the genus \"Pestivirus\" in the family \"Flaviviridae\". CSFV is closely related to the ruminant pestiviruses that cause bovine viral diarrhoea and border disease.  The effect of different CSFV strains varies widely, leading to a wide range of clinical signs. Highly virulent strains correlate with acute, obvious disease and high mortality, including neurological signs and hemorrhages within the skin.  Less virulent strains can give rise to subacute or chronic infections that may escape detection, while still causing abortions and stillbirths. In these cases, herds in high-risk areas are usually serologically tested on a thorough statistical basis.  Infected piglets born to infected but subclinical sows help maintain the disease within a population. Other signs can include lethargy, fever, immunosuppression, chronic diarrhoea, and secondary respiratory infections. The incubation period of CSF ranges from 2 to 14 days, but clinical signs may not be apparent until after 2 to 3 weeks. Preventive state regulations usually assume 21 days as the outside limit of the incubation period. Animals with an acute infection can survive 2 to 3 months before their eventual death.  Eradicating CSF is problematic. Current programmes revolve around rapid detection, diagnosis, and slaughter. This may possibly be followed by emergency vaccination (ATCvet codes: for the inactivated viral vaccine, for the live vaccine). Vaccination is only used where the virus is widespread in the domestic pig population and/or in wild or feral pigs. In the latter case, a slaughter policy alone is usually impracticable. Instead, countries within the EU have implemented hunting restrictions designed to limit the movement of infected boars, as well as using marker and emergency vaccines to inhibit the spread of infection. Possible sources for maintaining and introducing infection include the wide transport of pigs and pork products, as well as endemic CSF within wild boar and feral pig populations.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Classical swine fever (CSF) or hog cholera (also sometimes called pig plague based on the German word ) is a highly contagious disease of swine (Old World and New World pigs). It is mentioned as a potential bioweapon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972215}
{"src_title": "Rogue state", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the term.", "content": "As early as July 1985, President Ronald Reagan stated that \"we are not going to tolerate... attacks from outlaw states by the strangest collection of misfits, looney tunes, and squalid criminals since the advent of the Third Reich,\" but it fell to the Clinton administration to elaborate on this concept. In the 1994 issue of \"Foreign Affairs\", U.S. National Security Advisor Anthony Lake labelled five nations as \"rogue states\": North Korea, Cuba, Iran, Libya under Muammar Gaddafi, and Ba'athist Iraq. He described these regimes as \"recalcitrant and outlaw states that not only choose to remain outside the family [of democratic nations] but also assault its basic values\". In theory, to be classified as a \"rogue state\", a state had to do the following: seek to obtain weapons of mass destruction, support terrorism, and severely abuse its own citizens. While four of the listed countries met all these conditions, Cuba, though known from repressing it citizens and its vocal criticism of the United States, was put on the list solely because of the political influence of the Cuban-American community and specifically that of the Cuban American National Foundation (pre-Jorge Mas Santos), whereas Syria and Pakistan avoided being added to the list because the United States hoped that Damascus could play a constructive role in the Arab-Israeli peace process, and because Washington had long maintained close relations with Islamabad—a vestige of the Cold War.  Three other nations, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Sudan and the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, were treated as \"rogue states\" as well. The US State Department at times labelled Yugoslavia as a \"rogue state\" because its leader, Slobodan Milošević, had been accused of violating the rights of his nation's citizens, including but not limited to attempted genocide in Croatia and orchestrating the Srebrenica massacre in eastern Bosnia.  The United States employed several tools to isolate and punish \"rogue states\". Tough unilateral economic sanctions, often at congressional behest, were imposed on or tightened against Iran, Libya, Cuba, Sudan, and Afghanistan. After the conclusion of the Gulf War in 1991, the United States selectively used airpower against Iraq for years during the Iraqi no-fly zones to force them in complying with various United Nations Security Council resolutions regarding disarmament (i.e., Resolution 687) and human rights (i.e., Resolution 688). Cruise missiles were fired at Afghanistan and Sudan in retaliation for terrorist attacks against U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in August 1998. In March 1999, NATO launched a massive air-bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in response to the Yugoslav Army's crackdown on ethnic Albanian separatists in the province of Kosovo.  In the last six months of the Clinton administration, U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright announced that the term \"rogue state\" would be abolished in June 2000, in favour of the term \"states of concern\", as three of the nations listed as \"rogue states\" (Libya, Iran, and North Korea) no longer met the conditions established to define a \"rogue state\".  Libya was removed from the State Sponsors of Terrorism list in 2006 after achieving success through diplomacy. Relations with Libya also became more mutual following the eight month Libyan Civil War in 2011, which resulted in the National Transitional Council ousting longtime Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi from power.  In 2015, after the US reopened its embassy in Cuba and restarted diplomatic relations with the Cuban government, Cuba was removed from the list of State sponsors of terrorism and was no longer referred to as a \"rogue state\".  More recently, the Donald Trump administration labelled Venezuela a \"rogue state\" due to its gross human rights violations, economic collapse and rampant excess deaths, anti-American stances and its reported involvement in international drug trafficking. During the 2017 UN general assembly, UN ambassador Nikki Haley called Venezuela a global threat and a \"dangerous narco-state\". Some figures of the Venezuelan government, like Vice-president Tareck el Aissami and minister of defense Vladimir Padrino López, were permanently banned from entering US territory, due to their involvement with human rights abuses and drug cartels. Later in the year, the US government banned all high ranking Venezuelan government officials from entering US territory. Currently, due to the 2019 Venezuelan presidential crisis, Nicolas Maduro's government (which controls Venezuela \"de facto\") is not recognized as legitimate by the United States or any other state in the Western Hemisphere, with the exceptions of Cuba, Dominica, Nicaragua, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Suriname.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later terms.", "content": "In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, the Bush administration returned to using a similar term. The concept of \"rogue states\" was replaced by the Bush administration with the \"Axis of Evil\" concept (gathering Iraq, Iran, and North Korea). U.S. President George W. Bush first spoke of this \"Axis of Evil\" during his January 2002 State of the Union Address. More terms, such as \"Beyond the Axis of Evil\" and \"Outposts of Tyranny\", would follow suit.  As the U.S. government remains the most active proponent of the expression \"rogue state\", the term has received much criticism from those who disagree with U.S. foreign policy. Both the concepts of \"rogue states\" and the \"Axis of Evil\" have been criticized by certain scholars, including philosopher Jacques Derrida and linguist Noam Chomsky, who considered it more or less a justification of imperialism and a useful word for propaganda. Some critics charge that \"rogue state\" merely means any state that is generally hostile to the U.S., or even one that opposes the U.S. without necessarily posing a wider threat. Others, such as author William Blum, have written that the term is also applicable to the U.S. and Israel. In his \"\", Blum makes the case that the United States defines itself as a rogue state through its foreign policy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage by and against Turkey.", "content": "In 23 February 1999, Turkish President Süleyman Demirel described Greece as a \"rogue state\" because of its alleged support to PKK. Demirel said that: \"Greece serves as a sanctuary for members of the PKK seeking shelter and provides training facilities and logistics to the terrorists.\"  On June 28, 2012, after the shooting down of a Turkish warplane by the Syrian Army during the Syrian Civil War, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan declared Syria to be a \"rogue state\".  Commentator Robert Ellis, writing in the British newspaper \"The Independent\" in 2016, wrote that Turkey under President Recep Tayyip Erdogan risks \"being regarded as a rogue state\" due to its increasingly authoritarian government, the deterioration of the human rights in the country, the Turkish government's involvement in Syria and its alleged support of terrorist groups.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States as a rogue state.", "content": "Some critics of US foreign policy describe America as a rogue state. William Blum's 2000 book \"Rogue State: A Guide to the World's Only Superpower\" suggests that US-led interventions around the world during and after the Cold War have threatened the world's peace. Noam Chomsky has also described the US as a rogue state after the assassination of Qassim Suleimani. Its nuclear proliferation and large numbers of nuclear warheads (the second most in the world), sponsorship of terrorist or guerilla groups to overthrow opposing governments especially in Latin America, violations of human rights in war time are all characteristic of a rogue state. Some commentators have also criticised the Trump administration as authoritarian.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rogue state or outlaw state is a term applied by some international theorists to states they consider threatening to the world's peace. This means being seen to meet certain criteria, such as being ruled by authoritarian or totalitarian governments that severely restrict human rights, sponsoring terrorism and seeking to proliferate weapons of mass destruction. The term is used most by the United States (though the US State Department officially stopped using the term in 2000), and in his speech at the United Nations (UN) in 2017, Donald Trump reiterated this phrase. However, it has been applied by other countries as well.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972216}
{"src_title": "Fortified church", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Belarus.", "content": "Although many fortified churches in various styles existed in the lands of Belarus, only a handful survived until the present. The most famous include Christian Orthodox churches in Muravanka, and Synkavichy, as well as Catholic fortified churches in Kamai and Ishkold'. In addition to Christian churches Belarus also has the ruins of several fortified synagogues, of which the Chief Synagogue in Bykhaw is most notable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "France.", "content": "About 65 fortified churches are found in the Thiérache region of France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "Several fortified churches have been preserved, especially in the German states of Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse. Examples are the churches of Kleinbreitenbach in Plaue, Kößlarn, Grafengehaig, Großrückerswalde, Mittelsaida, Büchenbach/Erlangen, Kriegenbrunn/Erlangen, Morsbach/Künzelsau, Espendfeld/Arnstadt, Finkenbach-Gersweiler, \"St. Wolfgang\" in Rothenburg, and the fortified church of Wenkbach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ireland.", "content": "Several fortified churches survive from the medieval period, including Hospital Church (Knights Hospitaller), Taghmon Church, Old St. Mary's Church, Clonmel and St Finian's Church, Newcastle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poland.", "content": "A rare surviving example of a fortress church used for defensive purposes is the Church of St. Andrew in Kraków, one of the oldest and best preserved Romanesque buildings in Poland. Located at ul. Grodzka street, it was built by a medieval Polish statesman Palatine Sieciech in 1079–1098. St. Andrew was the only Romanesque church in Kraków to withstand the Mongol attack of 1241. Along the lower part of the broader section of its façade are small openings that served as defensive windows during military siege.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portugal.", "content": "Some medieval fortified churches, monasteries, and cathedrals survive in Portugal. These buildings were built either in Romanesque or Gothic styles. Romanesque examples are the Lisbon Cathedral and the Old Cathedral of Coimbra. Gothic examples are the Church of Leça do Balio and the Guarda Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romania.", "content": "The southeastern Transylvania region in Romania has among the highest numbers of existing fortified churches from the 13th to 16th centuries. More than 150 villages in the area count various types of fortified churches, seven of them being included in the UNESCO World Heritage under the name of \"Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Slovenia.", "content": "During the Ottoman-Habsburg Wars from the late 15th to the late 17th century, the Slovene Lands were subjected to constant Ottoman raids, which reached their peak in the late 15th and early 16th century. During that period, around 300 village churches were fortified in the territory of present-day Slovenia, with another 50 in the neighboring area of southern Carinthia.  They were known as \"tabors\" (which in modern Slovene means \"camp\"). A dozen of such churches remain today, the most famous of which are the Holy Trinity Church in Hrastovlje, Mount Saint Mary near Ljubljana, and Podbrezje in Upper Carniola.  In some cases, entire villages were fortified. Remaining examples are Šmartno in the Gorizia Hills, and Štanjel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "There are medieval fortified churches near the Anglo-Scottish border, where defence was an important consideration until the 17th century when the two states were united in personal union. All Saints Church, Boltongate in Cumbria is an example. Also in Cumbria, St Michael's Church, Burgh by Sands has a defensive tower, and originally had two.  Defensive towers can also be found on the England–Wales border, for instance, St Michael's Church, Garway.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A fortified church is a church that is built to serve a defensive role in times of war. Such churches were specially designed to incorporate military features, such as thick walls, battlements, and embrasures. Others, such as the Ávila Cathedral were incorporated into the town wall. Monastic communities, such as Lérins Abbey, are often surrounded by a wall, and some churches, such as St. Arbogast in Muttenz, Switzerland, have an outer wall as well. Churches with additional external defences such as curtain walls and wall towers are often referred to more specifically as fortress churches or \"Kirchenburgen\" (literally \"church castles\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972217}
{"src_title": "Ferdinand von Wrangel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Wrangel was born in Pskov, into the noble Baltic German Wrangel family and was a distant nephew of Generalfeldmarschall Friedrich von Wrangel. He graduated from the Naval Cadets College in 1815. He participated in Vasily Golovnin's world cruise on the ship \"Kamchatka\" in 1817–1819.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kolymskaya expedition.", "content": "He was appointed in 1820 to command the Kolymskaya expedition to explore the Russian polar seas. Sailing from St. Petersburg, he arrived at Nizhnekolymsk on 2 November 1820, and early in 1821 journeyed to Cape Shelagskiy on sledges drawn by dogs. He sailed afterward up Kolyma River, advancing about 125 miles into the interior, through territory inhabited by the Yakuts. On 10 March 1822, he resumed his journey northward, and traveled 46 days on the ice, reaching 72° 2' north latitude. He left Nizhnekolymsk on 1 November 1823, and returned to St. Petersburg on 15 August 1824.  He established that north of the Kolyma River and Cape Shelagsky there was an open sea, not dry land, as people thought. Together with Fyodor Matyushkin and P. Kuzmin, Wrangel described the Siberian coastline from the Indigirka River to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay in the Chukchi Sea. (See Northeast Passage.) His expedition made a valuable research in glaciology, geomagnetics, and climatology and also collected data about natural resources and native population of that remote area.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Krotky\" world voyage.", "content": "Having been promoted to commander, Wrangel led the Russian world voyage on the ship \"Krotky\" in 1825–1827.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Governor of Russian Alaska.", "content": "He was appointed chief manager of the Russian-American Company in 1829, effectively governor of its settlements in North America (present day Alaska). Wrangel was the first of a series of bachelor appointees to the office of governor who had to find a wife before assuming the duties in America, the Russian American Company rules having been changed in 1829. Prior to his departure for Russia's American colonies, he was married to Elisabeth Theodora Natalie Karoline de Rossillon, daughter of Baron Wilhelm de Rossillon.  He traveled to his post early in 1829, by way of Siberia and Kamchatka. After thoroughly reforming the administration, he introduced the cultivation of the potato, opened and regulated the working of several mines, and urged upon the home government the organization of a fur company. He promoted investment, and sent out missionaries. He began a survey of the country, opened roads, built bridges and government buildings. He made geographical and ethnographical observations, which he embodied in a memoir to the navy department. Recalled in 1834, he returned by way of the Isthmus of Panama and the United States, where he visited several cities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Admiral.", "content": "Wrangel was promoted to rear admiral in 1837, and made director of the ship-timber department in the navy office, which he held for twelve years. He became vice-admiral in 1847, but resigned in 1849, and temporarily severed his connection with the navy to assume the presidency of the newly reorganized Russian-American Company. Wrangel had been a member of the board of directors of the Russian-American Company from 1840 to 1849.  In 1854 he re-entered active service and was made chief director of the hydrographical department of the navy. He was the Minister of the Navy 1855–1857.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement and death.", "content": "Wrangel retired in 1864. He opposed the sale of Alaska to the United States in 1867. Wrangel wrote the book \"Journey along the northern coastline of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean\" and other books about the peoples of northwestern America.  He lived in his last years in Ruil (\"Roela\" in Estonian) in the eastern part of Estonia. He had bought the manor in 1840. He died in Dorpat, Livonia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "An account of the physical observations during his first journey was published in German (Berlin, 1827), and also in German extracts from Wrangel's journals, \"Reise laengs der Nordküste von Sibirien und auf dem Eismeere in den Jahren 1820-1824\" (2 vols., Berlin, 1839), which was translated into English as \"Wrangell's Expedition to the Polar Sea\" (2 vols., London, 1840). The complete report of the expedition appeared as \"Otceschewie do Sjewernym beregam Sibiri, po Ledowitomm More\" (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1841), and was translated into French with notes by Prince Galitzin, under the title \"Voyage sur les côtes septentrionales de la Sibérie et de la mer glaciale\" (2 vols., 1841). From the French version of the complete report an English one was made under the title \"A Journey on the Northern Coast of Siberia and the Icy Sea\" (2 vols., London, 1841). The book influenced Charles Darwin's thinking on animal navigation, leading him to propose that humans and animals possess an innate ability for dead reckoning. Darwin wrote:  Wrangel also published:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferdinand Friedrich Georg Ludwig Freiherr von Wrangel (, tr. ; – ) was a Baltic German explorer and seaman in the Imperial Russian Navy, Honorable Member of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences, a founder of the Russian Geographic Society. He is best known as chief manager of the Russian-American Company, in fact governor of the Russian settlements in present-day Alaska.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972218}
{"src_title": "Miele", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Miele's first products were a cream separator, butter churn, and tub washing machine, under the \"Meteor\" brand. Carl Miele supervised manufacturing personally, and Reinhard Zinkann apprenticed and handled finances and sales.  In 1927, Miele started the production of vacuum cleaners. In 1929, the first electric dishwasher in Europe was produced. From 1930, motorcycles were built. In 1932, Miele was the largest centrifuge factory in Europe. During World War II, Miele produced control units for torpedoes of the German Kriegsmarine.  The Miele trademark was used very early on and appeared on all machines, nameplates, printed materials and advertising produced by the company. From the mid-1920s, a recognition feature of the logo has been a sloping dash used as the dot on the \"i\".  The trademark has remained unchanged apart from three minor alterations to reflect contemporary tastes. A survey by the \"Süddeutsche Zeitung\", one of Germany's leading daily newspapers, found that the \"i\" alone was sufficient to identify the Miele brand.  Miele exports products to global markets and is represented in 47 countries. Their expansion into the United States came in 1983, when they established corporate headquarters in Somerset, New Jersey. In 1999, they relocated to the new headquarters in Princeton, which was designed by the Driehaus Prize winner Michael Graves. Products are manufactured in Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic and Romania and shipped to the United States, where there are showrooms in ten states.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "Miele produces domestic appliances including laundry appliances; vacuum cleaners; dishwashers; rotary irons; built-in convection, steam, and speed ovens; hobs (cooker hoods, cook tops); free-standing and built-in refrigerators, freezers, and wine coolers; and coffee systems. The company also produces commercial laundry equipment including wet cleaning machines, lab glassware washers, dental disinfectors, and medical equipment washers.  In 2007, Miele was given an award for being the most successful company in Germany that year, beating the previous year's winner Google, which placed second, and Porsche, which came in third.  Rankings for this Best Brands prize are the result of market research covering key criteria such as current economic market success and brand recognition and popularity among consumers. Miele was recognized as Best Company and also achieved a top-five place in the category Best Product Brand. Miele was honored as Best Domestic Appliance Brand in the UK by Which? in 2007 and again in 2008, being only one of two brands to win twice in a row. They have since won again in 2010.  In North America, Miele is marketed as a high-end major appliance brand. It competes against brands such as Küppersbusch, Sub-Zero, Wolf & Cove, Gaggenau, Fagor, Viking Range, Dacor, Asko, JennAir, and Thermador.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Slogans.", "content": "Miele's slogan in German is \"immer besser\" which literally translates to \"always better\" but can also mean \"better and better.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Miele ( ; ) is a German manufacturer of high-end domestic appliances and commercial equipment, headquartered in Gütersloh, Ostwestfalen-Lippe. The company was founded in 1899 by Carl Miele and Reinhard Zinkann, and has always been a family-owned and run company.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972219}
{"src_title": "Paternoster lift", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Peter Ellis installed the first elevators that could be described as paternoster lifts in Oriel Chambers in Liverpool in 1868. Another was used in 1876 to transport parcels at the General Post Office in London. In 1877, British engineer Peter Hart obtained a patent on the first paternoster. In 1884, the engineering firm of J & E Hall of Dartford, Kent, installed its first \"Cyclic Elevator\", using Hart's patent, in a London office block.  The newly built Dovenhof in Hamburg was inaugurated in 1886. The prototype of the Hamburg office buildings equipped with the latest technology also had a paternoster. This first system outside of Great Britain already had the technology that would later become common, but was still driven by steam power like the English systems.  The highest paternoster lift in the world was located in Stuttgart in the 16 floor Tagblatt tower, which was completed in 1927.  Paternosters were popular throughout the first half of the 20th century because they could carry more passengers than ordinary elevators. They were more common in continental Europe, especially in public buildings, than in the United Kingdom. They are relatively slow elevators, typically travelling at about 30 cm per second (approx. 1 ft per second), to facilitate getting on and off.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Paternoster elevators are only intended for transporting people; accidents have occurred when paternosters were misused for transporting bulky items such as ladders or library trolleys. The risk involved is estimated to be thirty times higher than conventional elevators; a representative of the Union of Technical Inspection Associations stated that Germany saw an average of one death per year prior to 2002, at which point many paternosters were made inaccessible to the general public.  The construction of new paternosters is no longer allowed in many countries because of the high risk of accident for people who cannot use the lift properly. In 2012, an 81-year-old man was killed when he fell into the shaft of a paternoster in the Dutch city of The Hague. Elderly people, disabled people, and children are the most in danger of being crushed or losing a limb.  In September 1975, the paternoster in Newcastle University's Claremont Tower was taken out of service after a passenger was killed when a car left its guide rail at the top of its journey and forced the two cars ascending behind it into the winding room above. In October 1988, a second non-fatal accident occurred in the same lift. A conventional lift was installed in its place in 1989–1990.  In West Germany, new paternoster installations were banned in 1974, and there was an attempt to shut down all existing installations in 1994. However, there was a wave of popular resistance to the ban at that time, and to another prospective ban in 2015., Germany has 231 paternosters.  In April 2006, Hitachi announced plans for a modern paternoster-style elevator with computer-controlled cars and standard elevator doors to alleviate safety concerns. A prototype was revealed. In 2009, Solon received special permission to build a brand new paternoster in its Berlin headquarters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving examples.", "content": "Many paternoster lifts have been shut down, but there are surviving examples still in use:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Finland.", "content": "The following locations have paternosters:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The paternoster lift at Amsterdam police headquarters in Marnixstraat is frequently seen in the Thames Television television detective series \"Van der Valk\", shot between 1972 and 1992.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A paternoster (,, or ) or paternoster lift is a passenger elevator which consists of a chain of open compartments (each usually designed for two persons) that move slowly in a loop up and down inside a building without stopping. Passengers can step on or off at any floor they like. The same technique is also used for filing cabinets to store large amounts of (paper) documents or for small spare parts. The much smaller belt manlift which consists of an endless belt with steps and rungs but no compartments is also sometimes called a paternoster.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972220}
{"src_title": "Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "PEFC was founded in 1999 as an international umbrella organization providing independent assessment, endorsement and recognition of national forest certification systems. Its founding was inspired by the 1992 UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, and the specific requirements of small, family-owned and community forests.  In 2000, PEFC made its first endorsements of the national standards used by Finland, Sweden, Norway, Germany and Austria. In 2004 it endorsed its first non-European national standards, used by Australia and Chile. As a concequence PEFC changed its name from \"Pan European Forest Certification\" to \"Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification Schemes\".  The endorsement of the Canadian standard in 2005 made PEFC the world’s largest resource of certified wood, with more than 100 million hectares of certified forest area. Three years later, PEFC certified area grew to 200 million hectares, which is equivalent to two-thirds of the total area certified against credible forest certification globally.  Today, PEFC is the world’s largest forest certification system and the certification system of choice for small forest owners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sustainable forest management criteria.", "content": "PEFC International is the only international forest certification scheme that bases its criteria on internationally accepted intergovernmental conventions and guidelines, thereby linking its sustainability benchmark criteria with existing governmental processes. This includes:  PEFC requires adherence to all eight core ILO conventions, even in countries which have not ratified them. These conventions are", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National forest certification systems.", "content": "PEFC only recognize forests certified to standards that have been reviewed and endorsed by PEFC.  National forest certification systems that wish to be recognized by are required to set standards keeping with the requirements of ISO/IEC Guide 59:1994 Code of good practice for standardization. National standard must be developed by so-called National Governing Bodies, and meet requirements for transparency, consultation and decision-making by consensus. These guidelines also outline processes for revising and amending standards, and provide those who utilise the standard with the security of future certainty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Endorsements.", "content": "All PEFC-endorsed standards have been subjected to rigorous public review during their development. National forest certification systems wanting to obtain PEFC endorsement are subject to an independent assessment to ensure that it meets the many PEFC requirements for the standards development process, public review and forest management requirements. The consultant’s report is reviewed by an independent Panel of Experts and the PEFC Board, and if satisfactory, the new standard is approved by the PEFC members as a PEFC-endorsed standard. To ensure the independence of the certification bodies, they are not accredited by PEFC itself, but by a national accreditation agency.  In line with its commitment to transparency, PEFC makes its entire documentation of national forest certification system, including the independent assessments, publicly available. Information about all issued certificates, including information about suspended, withdrawn and expired certificates, is publicly available on the PEFC website.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Countries.", "content": "Countries with PEFC endorsed national certification systems include: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Gabon, Germany, Indonesia, India, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay and Viet Nam.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criticism and alternative certification schemes.", "content": "Forest Stewardship Council is the main alternative forest certification system. Mutual recognition of FSC and PEFC certified material in the chain of custody has not yet happened. However, FSC and PEFC use the same forest management standard in countries such as the United Kingdom, Switzerland and Norway; Malaysia has submitted its timber certification scheme for PEFC endorsement that is largely based on FSC principles and criteria.  Several environmental non-governmental organisations, such as The Wilderness Society, Greenpeace and FERN have criticised the PEFC. Greenpeace does not believe alternatives to the FSC, including PEFC, can ensure responsible forest management.  In debates around forest certification schemes like PEFC, the forest-political background of critics such as Greenpeace and Robin Wood should be taken into consideration. In critical discussions, comparisons are mostly made between PEFC and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), which was founded on the initiative of the big international environmental NGOs Greenpeace and WWF.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) is an international, non-profit, non-governmental organization which promotes sustainable forest management through independent third party certification. It is considered the certification system of choice for small forest owners.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972221}
{"src_title": "First aid kit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Format.", "content": "First aid kits can be assembled in almost any type of container, and this will depend on whether they are commercially produced or assembled by an individual. Standard kits often come in durable plastic boxes, fabric pouches or in wall mounted cabinets. The type of container will vary depending on the purpose, and they range in size from wallet-sized through to large box.  It is recommended that all kits are in a clean, waterproof container to keep the contents safe and aseptic. Kits should also be checked regularly and restocked if any items are damaged or are out of date.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) sets a standard for first aid kits of being green, with a white cross, in order to make them easily recognizable to anyone requiring first aid. The ISO only endorse the use of the green background and white cross, and this has been adopted as a standard across many countries and regions, including the entire EU. First aid kits are sometimes marked (by an individual or organization) with a red cross on white background, but use of this symbol by anyone but the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) or associated agency is illegal under the terms of the First Geneva Convention, which designates the red cross as a protected symbol in all countries signatory to it. One of the few exceptions is in North America, where despite the passing of the First Geneva convention in 1864, and its ratification in the United States in 1881, Johnson & Johnson has used the red cross as a mark on its products since 1887 and registered the symbol as a U.S. trademark for medicinal and surgical plasters in 1905.  Some first aid kits may also feature the Star of Life, normally associated with emergency medical services, but which are also used to indicate that the service using it can offer an appropriate point of care. Though not supported by the ISO, a white cross on red background is also widely recognized as a first aid symbol. However, for very small medical institutions and domestic purposes, the white cross on a plain green background is preferred.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contents of first aid.", "content": "Commercially available first aid kits available via normal retail routes have traditionally been intended for treatment of minor injuries only. Typical contents include adhesive bandages, regular strength pain medication, gauze and low grade disinfectant.  Specialized first aid kits are available for various regions, vehicles or activities, which may focus on specific risks or concerns related to the activity. For example, first aid kits sold through marine supply stores for use in watercraft may contain seasickness remedies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Airway, Breathing and Circulation.", "content": "First aid treats the ABCs as the foundation of good treatment. For this reason, most modern commercial first aid kits (although not necessarily those assembled at home) will contain a suitable infection barrier for performing artificial respiration as part of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, examples include:  Advanced first aid kits may also contain items such as:  Some first aid kits, specifically those used by event first aiders and emergency services, include bottled oxygen for resuscitation and therapy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Common Items.", "content": "The common kits used in the school may contain:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trauma injuries.", "content": "Trauma injuries, such as bleeding, bone fractures or burns, are usually the main focus of most first aid kits, with items such as bandages and dressings being found in the vast majority of all kits.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal protective equipment.", "content": "The use of personal protective equipment or PPE will vary by the kit, depending on its use and anticipated risk of infection. The adjuncts to artificial respiration are covered above, but other common infection control PPE includes:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medication.", "content": "Medication can be a controversial addition to a first aid kit, especially if it is for use on members of the public. It is, however, common for personal or family first aid kits to contain certain medications. Dependent on scope of practice, the main types of medicine are life saving medications, which may be commonly found in first aid kits used by paid or assigned first aiders for members of the public or employees, painkillers, which are often found in personal kits, but may also be found in public provision and lastly symptomatic relief medicines, which are generally only found in personal kits.  Life saving  Pain killers  Symptomatic relief  Topical medications", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Improvised uses.", "content": "Besides the regular uses for first aid kits, they can be helpful in wilderness or survival situations. First aid kits can make up a part of a survival kit or a mini survival kit in addition to other tools.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Workplace of first aid kit.", "content": "In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires all job sites and workplaces to make available first aid equipment for use by injured employees While providing regulations for some industries such as logging  in general the regulation lack specifics on the contents of the first aid kit. This is understandable, as the regulation covers every means of employment, and different jobs have different types of injuries and different first-aid requirements. However, in a non-mandatory section,  as the basis for the \"suggested\" minimum contents of a first aid kit. Another source for modern first aid kit information is United States Forest Service Specification 6170-6, which specifies the contents of several different-sized kits, intended to serve groups of differing size.  In general, the type of first aid facilities required in a workplace are determined by many factors, such as:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historic first aid kits.", "content": "As the understanding of first aid and lifesaving measures has advanced, and the nature of public health risks has changed, the contents of first aid kits have changed to reflect prevailing understandings and conditions. For example, earlier US Federal specifications for first aid kits included incision/suction-type snakebite kits and mercurochrome antiseptic. There are many historic components no longer used today, of course; some notable examples follow. As explained in the article on snakebite, the historic snakebite kit is no longer recommended. Mercurochrome was removed in 1998 by the US FDA from the generally recognized as safe category due to concerns over its mercury content. Another common item in early 20th century first aid kits, picric acid gauze for treating burns, is today considered a hazardous material due to its forming unstable and potentially explosive picrates when in contact with metal. Examples of modern additions include the CPR face shields and specific body-fluid barriers included in modern kits, to assist in CPR and to help prevent the spread of bloodborne pathogens such as HIV.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A first aid kit is a collection of supplies and equipment that is used to give medical treatment. There is a wide variation in the contents of first aid kits based on the knowledge and experience of those putting it together, the differing first aid requirements of the area where it may be used and variations in legislation or regulation in a given area.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972222}
{"src_title": "Inflection point", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "Inflection points in differential geometry are the points of the curve where the curvature changes its sign.  For example, the graph of the differentiable function has an inflection point at (\"x\", \"f\"(\"x\")) if and only if its first derivative, \"f′\", has an isolated extremum at \"x\". (This is not the same as saying that \"f\" has an extremum). That is, in some neighborhood, \"x\" is the one and only point at which \"f′\" has a (local) minimum or maximum. If all extrema of \"f′\" are isolated, then an inflection point is a point on the graph of \"f\" at which the tangent crosses the curve.  A \"falling point of inflection\" is an inflection point where the derivative is negative on both sides of the point; in other words, it is an inflection point near which the function is decreasing. A \"rising point of inflection\" is a point where the derivative is positive on both sides of the point; in other words, it is an inflection point near which the function is increasing.  For an algebraic curve, a non singular point is an inflection point if and only if the intersection number of the tangent line and the curve (at the point of tangency) is greater than 2. The principal result is that the set of the inflection points of an algebraic curve coincides with the intersection set of the curve with the Hessian curve.  For a smooth curve given by parametric equations, a point is an inflection point if its signed curvature changes from plus to minus or from minus to plus, i.e., changes sign.  For a smooth curve which is a graph of a twice differentiable function, an inflection point is a point on the graph at which the second derivative has an isolated zero and changes sign.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "A necessary but not sufficient condition.", "content": "If the second derivative, \"f\"(\"x\") exists at \"x\", and \"x\" is an inflection point for \"f\", then \"f\"(\"x\") = 0, but this condition is not sufficient for having a point of inflection, even if derivatives of any order exist. In this case, one also needs the lowest-order (above the second) non-zero derivative to be of odd order (third, fifth, etc.). If the lowest-order non-zero derivative is of even order, the point is not a point of inflection, but an \"undulation point\". However, in algebraic geometry, both inflection points and undulation points are usually called \"inflection points\". An example of an undulation point is \"x\" = 0 for the function \"f\" given by \"f\"(\"x\") = \"x\".  In the preceding assertions, it is assumed that \"f\" has some higher-order non-zero derivative at \"x\", which is not necessarily the case. If it is the case, the condition that the first nonzero derivative has an odd order implies that the sign of \"f\"(\"x\") is the same on either side of \"x\" in a neighborhood of \"x\". If this sign is positive, the point is a \"rising point of inflection\"; if it is negative, the point is a \"falling point of inflection\".  Inflection points sufficient conditions:  1) A sufficient existence condition for a point of inflection is:  2) Another sufficient existence condition requires \"f′′\"(\"x\" + ε) and \"f′′\"(\"x\" − \"ε\") to have opposite signs in the neighborhood of \"x\" (Bronshtein and Semendyayev 2004, p. 231).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Categorization of points of inflection.", "content": "Points of inflection can also be categorized according to whether \"f′\"(\"x\") is zero or not zero.  A stationary point of inflection is not a local extremum. More generally, in the context of functions of several real variables, a stationary point that is not a local extremum is called a saddle point.  An example of a stationary point of inflection is the point (0,0) on the graph of \"y\" = \"x\". The tangent is the \"x\"-axis, which cuts the graph at this point.  An example of a non-stationary point of inflection is the point (0,0) on the graph of \"y\" = \"x\" + \"ax\", for any nonzero \"a\". The tangent at the origin is the line \"y\" = \"ax\", which cuts the graph at this point.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Functions with discontinuities.", "content": "Some functions change concavity without having points of inflection. Instead, they can change concavity around vertical asymptotes or discontinuities. For example, the function formula_1 is concave for negative and convex for positive, but it has no points of inflection because 0 is not in the domain of the function.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In differential calculus and differential geometry, an inflection point, point of inflection, flex, or inflection (British English: inflexion) is a point on a smooth plane curve at which the curvature changes of sign. In particular, in the case of the graph of a function, it is a point where the function changes from being concave (concave downward) to convex (concave upward), or vice versa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972223}
{"src_title": "Mezzotint", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The mezzotint printmaking method was invented by the German amateur artist Ludwig von Siegen (1609–). His earliest mezzotint print dates to 1642 and is a portrait of Countess Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg. This was made by working from light to dark. The rocker seems to have been invented by Prince Rupert of the Rhine, a famous cavalry commander in the English Civil War, who was the next to use the process, and took it to England. Sir Peter Lely saw the potential for using it to publicise his portraits, and encouraged a number of Dutch printmakers to come to England. Godfrey Kneller worked closely with John Smith, who is said to have lived in his house for a period; he created about 500 mezzotints, some 300 copies of portrait paintings.  British mezzotint collecting was a great craze from about 1760 to the Great Crash of 1929, also spreading to America. The main area of collecting was British portraits; hit oil paintings from the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition were routinely, and profitably, reproduced in mezzotint throughout this period, and other mezzotinters reproduced older portraits of historical figures, or if necessary, made them up. The favourite period to collect was roughly from 1750 to 1820, the great period of the British portrait. There were two basic styles of collection: some concentrated on making a complete collection of material within a certain scope, while others aimed at perfect condition and quality (which declines in mezzotints after a relatively small number of impressions are taken from a plate), and in collecting the many \"proof states\" which artists and printers had obligingly provided for them from early on. Leading collectors included William Eaton, 2nd Baron Cheylesmore and the Irishman John Chaloner Smith.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dark to light method.", "content": "This became the most common method. The whole surface (usually) of a metal, usually copper, plate is roughened evenly, manually with a rocker, or mechanically. If the plate were printed at this point it would show as solid black. The image is then created by selectively burnishing areas of the surface of the metal plate with metal tools; the smoothed parts will print lighter than those areas not smoothed by the burnishing tool. A burnisher has a smooth, round end, which flattens the minutely protruding points comprising the roughened surface of the metal printing plate. Areas smoothed completely flat will not hold ink at all; such areas will print \"white,\" that is, without ink. By varying the degree of smoothing, mid-tones between black and white can be created, hence the name \"mezzo-tinto\" which is Italian for \"half-tone\" or \"half-painted\". This is called working from \"dark to light\", or the \"subtractive\" method.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Light to dark method.", "content": "Alternatively, it is possible to create the image directly by only roughening a blank plate selectively, where the darker parts of the image are to be. This is called working from \"light to dark\", or the \"additive\" method. The first mezzotints by Ludwig von Siegen were made in this way. Especially in this method, the mezzotint can be combined with other intaglio techniques, such as engraving, on areas of the plate not roughened, or even with the dark to light method.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Printing.", "content": "Printing the finished plate is the same for either method, and follows the normal way for an intaglio plate; the whole surface is inked, the ink is then wiped off the surface to leave ink only in the pits of the still rough areas below the original surface of the plate. The plate is put through a high-pressure printing press next to a sheet of paper, and the process repeated.  Because the pits in the plate are not deep, only a small number of top-quality impressions (copies) can be printed before the quality of the tone starts to degrade as the pressure of the press begins to smooth them out. Perhaps only one or two hundred really good impressions can be taken.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Detailed technique.", "content": "Plates can be mechanically roughened; one way is to rub fine metal filings over the surface with a piece of glass; the finer the filings, the smaller the grain of the surface. Special roughening tools called 'rockers' have been in use since at least the eighteenth century. The method commonly in use today is to use a steel rocker approximately five inches wide, which has between 45 and 120 teeth per inch on the face of a blade in the shape of a shallow arc, with a wooden handle projecting upwards in a T-shape. Rocked steadily from side to side at the correct angle, the rocker will proceed forward creating burrs in the surface of the copper. The plate is then moved – either rotated by a set number of degrees or through 90 degrees according to preference – and then rocked in another pass. This is repeated until the plate is roughened evenly and will print a completely solid tone of black.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tone.", "content": "Mezzotint is known for the luxurious quality of its tones: first, because an evenly, finely roughened surface holds a lot of ink, allowing deep solid colors to be printed; secondly because the process of smoothing the plate with burin, \"burnisher\" and \"scraper\" allows fine gradations in tone to be developed. The scraper is a triangular ended tool, and the burnisher has a smooth round end – not unlike many spoon handles.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mezzotint is a printmaking process of the intaglio family, technically a drypoint method. It was the first tonal method to be used, enabling half-tones to be produced without using line- or dot-based techniques like hatching, cross-hatching or stipple. Mezzotint achieves tonality by roughening a metal plate with thousands of little dots made by a metal tool with small teeth, called a \"rocker\". In printing, the tiny pits in the plate retain the ink when the face of the plate is wiped clean. This technique can achieve a high level of quality and richness in the print.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972224}
{"src_title": "Cytokinin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mode of action.", "content": "The ratio of auxin to cytokinin plays an important role in the effect of cytokinin on plant growth. Cytokinin alone has no effect on parenchyma cells. When cultured with auxin but no cytokinin, they grow large but do not divide. When cytokinin is added, the cells expand and differentiate. When cytokinin and auxin are present in equal levels, the parenchyma cells form an undifferentiated callus. More cytokinin induces growth of shoot buds, while more auxin induces root formation.  Cytokinins are involved in many plant processes, including cell division and shoot and root morphogenesis. They are known to regulate axillary bud growth and apical dominance. The \"direct inhibition hypothesis\" posits that these effects result from the cytokinin to auxin ratio. This theory states that auxin from apical buds travels down shoots to inhibit axillary bud growth. This promotes shoot growth, and restricts lateral branching. Cytokinin moves from the roots into the shoots, eventually signaling lateral bud growth. Simple experiments support this theory. When the apical bud is removed, the axillary buds are uninhibited, lateral growth increases, and plants become bushier. Applying auxin to the cut stem again inhibits lateral dominance.  While cytokinin action in vascular plants is described as pleiotropic, this class of plant hormones specifically induces the transition from apical growth to growth via a three-faced apical cell in moss protonema. This bud induction can be pinpointed to differentiation of a specific single cell, and thus is a very specific effect of cytokinin.  Cytokinins have been shown to slow aging of plant organs by preventing protein breakdown, activating protein synthesis, and assembling nutrients from nearby tissues. A study that regulated leaf senescence in tobacco leaves found that wild-type leaves yellowed while transgenic leaves remained mostly green. It was hypothesized that cytokinin may affect enzymes that regulate protein synthesis and degradation.  Cytokinin signaling in plants is mediated by a two-component phosphorelay. This pathway is initiated by cytokinin binding to a histidine kinase receptor in the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. This results in the autophosphorylation of the receptor, with the phosphate then being transferred to a phosphotransfer protein. The phosphotransfer proteins can then phosphorylate the type-B response regulators (RR) which are a family of transcriptions factors. The phosphorylated, and thus activated, type-B RRs regulate the transcription of numerous genes, including the type-A \"RR\"s. The type-A RRs negatively regulate the pathway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biosynthesis.", "content": "Adenosine phosphate-isopentenyltransferase (IPT) catalyses the first reaction in the biosynthesis of isoprene cytokinins. It may use ATP, ADP, or AMP as substrates and may use dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) or hydroxymethylbutenyl pyrophosphate (HMBPP) as prenyl donors. This reaction is the rate-limiting step in cytokinin biosynthesis. DMADP and HMBDP used in cytokinin biosynthesis are produced by the methylerythritol phosphate pathway (MEP).  Cytokinins can also be produced by recycled tRNAs in plants and bacteria. tRNAs with anticodons that start with a uridine and carrying an already-prenylated adenosine adjacent to the anticodon release on degradation the adenosine as a cytokinin. The prenylation of these adenines is carried out by tRNA-isopentenyltransferase.  Auxin is known to regulate the biosynthesis of cytokinin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Because cytokinin promotes plant cell division and growth, produce farmers use it to increase crops. One study found that applying cytokinin to cotton seedlings led to a 5–10% yield increase under drought conditions.  Cytokinins have recently been found to play a role in plant pathogenesis. For example, cytokinins have been described to induce resistance against \"Pseudomonas syringae\" in \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" and \"Nicotiana tabacum\". Also in context of biological control of plant diseases cytokinins seem to have potential functions. Production of cytokinins by \"Pseudomonas fluorescens\" G20-18 has been identified as a key determinant to efficiently control the infection of \"A. thaliana\" with \"P. syringae.\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cytokinins (CK) are a class of plant growth substances (phytohormones) that promote cell division, or cytokinesis, in plant roots and shoots. They are involved primarily in cell growth and differentiation, but also affect apical dominance, axillary bud growth, and leaf senescence. Folke Skoog discovered their effects using coconut milk in the 1940s at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972225}
{"src_title": "Wes Montgomery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Montgomery was born in Indianapolis, Indiana. According to NPR, the nickname \"Wes\" was a child's abbreviation of his middle name, Leslie. The family was large, and the parents split up early in the lives of the children. Montgomery and his brothers moved to Columbus, Ohio, with their father and attended Champion High School. His older brother Monk dropped out of school to sell coal and ice, gradually saving enough money to buy his brother Wes a four-string tenor guitar from a pawn shop in 1935. Although Montgomery spent many hours with the guitar, he discounted this time later in life, saying he had to start over when he got his first six-string several years later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "He and his brothers returned to Indianapolis. In 1943 Montgomery found work as a welder and got married. At a dance with his wife, he heard a Charlie Christian record for the first time. This motivated him to buy a six-string guitar the next day. For nearly a year, night and day, he tried to imitate Christian and teach himself the guitar. Although he hadn't intended to become a musician, he felt obligated to learn after buying the guitar. He received no formal instruction and couldn't read music. By the age of twenty he was performing in clubs in Indianapolis at night, copying Christian's solos, while working during the day, first at a milk company. In 1948, when Lionel Hampton was on tour in Indianapolis, he was looking for a guitarist, and after hearing Montgomery play like Christian he hired him.  Montgomery spent two years with the Hampton band. Fear kept him from flying with the rest of the band, so he drove from city to city, town to town, while musicians marveled at his stamina. When arriving at a club, the first thing he did was call home to his wife and family. He was given the opportunity to play with Charles Mingus, Milt Buckner, and Fats Navarro, but not the opportunity he hoped for, and he returned to Indianapolis a better player, though tired and discouraged. He resumed performing at local clubs, this time with the Eddie Higgins Trio and the Roger Jones Quintet, playing with Eddie Higgins, Walter Perkins, and Leroy Vinnegar. He joined his brothers Buddy and Monk and vibraphonist Alonzo \"Pookie\" Johnson in the Johnson/Montgomery Quintet, somewhat in the style of George Shearing. The band auditioned for Arthur Godfrey and recorded sessions with Quincy Jones. After a residency at a club from 1955 to 1957, Montgomery and his brothers went west.  Buddy and Monk Montgomery formed The Mastersounds and signed a contract with Dick Bock at Pacific Jazz. Montgomery joined them for a recording session in 1957 that included Freddie Hubbard. Some of the songs were released by Pacific Jazz on the album \"The Montgomery Brothers and Five Others\", while others showed up on \"Fingerpickin'\" (Pacific Jazz, 1958). The Mastersounds remained in California when Montgomery returned to Indianapolis to work in his trio with organist Melvin Rhyne.  He worked as a welder during the day to support his wife and six children, then performed at two clubs at night until well into the morning. He was a smoker who had blackouts while trying to maintain this busy schedule. During one performance, the audience included Cannonball Adderley, George Shearing, and Lennie Tristano. Adderley was so impressed by Montgomery's guitar playing that he persuaded Orrin Keepnews to sign him to Riverside. Keepnews was also persuaded by a gushing review written by Gunther Schuller. In New York City Montgomery recorded \"A Dynamic New Sound, the Wes Montgomery Trio\", his first album as a leader after twenty years as a musician. In 1960 he recorded \"The Incredible Jazz Guitar of Wes Montgomery\" with Al Heath, Percy Heath, and Tommy Flanagan.  He joined his brothers in California to perform as the Montgomery Brothers for the Monterey Jazz Festival. The Mastersounds had broken up, and Buddy and Monk had signed with Fantasy and recorded (with Wes) \"The Montgomery Brothers\", followed by \"Groove Yard\". Montgomery recorded another album as a leader, \"So Much Guitar\", then while visiting his brothers had a chance to perform with the John Coltrane band in San Francisco. In 1961, work was getting harder to find. A tour in Canada led to the album \"The Montgomery Brothers in Canada\", then the band broke up. Montgomery returned to Indianapolis to work in his trio with Rhyne. Keepnews sent him back to California to record a live album with Johnny Griffin, Wynton Kelly, Paul Chambers, and Jimmy Cobb. Their performance became the album \"Full House\". This was followed by \"Fusion!\", his first album with a string section.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Montgomery died of a heart attack on June 15, 1968, while at home in Indianapolis.  His grandson is actor Anthony Montgomery, who played Travis Mayweather on \"\".  On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Wes Montgomery among hundreds of artists whose recorded master tapes were reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire. Montgomery's recordings for the Verve Records label are owned by Universal Music Group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technique.", "content": "According to jazz guitar educator Wolf Marshall, Montgomery often approached solos in a three-tiered manner: he would begin the progression with single note lines, derived from scales or modes; after a fitting number of sequences, he would play octaves for a few more sequences, finally culminating with block chords. He used mostly superimposed triads and arpeggios as the main source for his soloing ideas and sounds.  Instead of using a guitar pick, Montgomery plucked the strings with the fleshy part of his thumb, using down strokes for single notes and a combination of up strokes and down strokes for chords and octaves. He developed this technique not for technical reasons but for the benefit of his neighbors. He worked long hours as a machinist before his music career began and practiced late at night. To keep neighbors from complaining, he played quietly by using his thumb.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Praise for Wes Montgomery.", "content": "In 1982, Bob James and Earl Klugh collaborated on a duet album and recorded the song \"Wes\" as a tribute to Montgomery on \"Two of a Kind\" album. Pat Martino released \"Remember: A Tribute to Wes Montgomery\" in 2006.  Jazz guitarist Bobby Broom said that on \"A Dynamic New Sound\" in 1959, Montgomery \"introduced a brand new approach to playing the guitar... The octave technique... and his chord melody and chord soloing playing still is today unmatched\". Broom modeled his guitar-organ trio after Montgomery's.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As leader.", "content": "Posthumous  With Buddy Montgomery and Monk Montgomery", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "John Leslie \"Wes\" Montgomery (March 6, 1923 – June 15, 1968) was an American jazz guitarist. One of the most influential guitarists of the twentieth century, Montgomery was known for an unusual technique of plucking the strings with the side of his thumb and his extensive use of octaves, which gave him a distinctive sound.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972226}
{"src_title": "Arms race", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pre-First World War naval arms race.", "content": "From 1897 to 1914, a naval arms race between the United Kingdom and Germany took place. British concern about rapid increase in German naval power resulted in a costly building competition of \"Dreadnought\"-class ships. This tense arms race lasted until 1914, when the war broke out. After the war, a new arms race developed among the victorious Allies, which was temporarily ended by the Washington Naval Treaty.  In addition to the British and Germans, contemporaneous but smaller naval arms races also broke out between Russia and the Ottoman Empire; the Ottomans and Greece; France and Italy; the United States and Japan; and Brazil, Argentina, and Chile.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nuclear arms race.", "content": "During the Cold War, an intense period between the Soviet Union and the United States and some other countries. This was one of the main causes that began the cold war, and perceived advantages of the adversary by both sides (such as the \"missile gap\" and “bomber gap”) led to large spending on armaments and the stockpiling of vast nuclear arsenals. Proxy wars were fought all over the world (e.g. in the Middle East, Korea, Vietnam) in which the superpowers' conventional weapons were pitted against each other. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, tensions decreased and the nuclear arsenal of both countries were reduced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "An evolutionary arms race is a system where two populations are evolving in order to continuously one-up members of the other population. This concept is related to the Red Queen's Hypothesis, where two organisms co-evolve to overcome each other but each fails to progress relative to the other interactant.  In technology, there are close analogues to the arms races between parasites and hosts, such as the arms race between computer virus writers and antivirus software writers, or spammers against Internet service providers and E-mail software writers.  More generically, the term is used to describe any competition where there is no absolute goal, only the relative goal of staying ahead of the other competitors in rank or knowledge. An arms race may also imply futility as the competitors spend a great deal of time and money, yet with neither side gaining an advantage over the other.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An arms race occurs when two or more nations participate in interactive or competitive increases in \"persons under arms\" as well as \"war material\". Simply defined as a competition between two or more states to have superior armed forces; a competition concerning production of weapons, the growth of a military, and the aim of superior military technology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972227}
{"src_title": "Alois Senefelder", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Actor, playwright.", "content": "Born Aloys Johann Nepomuk Franz Senefelder in Prague, then Imperial city (\"Reichsstadt\") of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, where his actor father was appearing on stage. He was educated in Munich and won a scholarship to study law at Ingolstadt. The death of his father in 1791 forced him to leave his studies to support his mother and eight siblings, and he became an actor and wrote a successful play \"Connoisseur of Girls\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery, development of lithography.", "content": "Problems with the printing of his play \"Mathilde von Altenstein\" caused him to fall into debt, and unable to afford to publish a new play he had written, Senefelder experimented with a novel etching technique using a greasy, acid resistant ink as a resist on a smooth fine-grained stone of Solnhofen limestone. He then discovered that this could be extended to allow printing from the flat surface of the stone alone, the first planographic process in printing.  He joined with the André family of music publishers and gradually brought his technique into a workable form, perfecting both the chemical processes and the special form of printing press required for using the stones. He called it \"stone printing\" or \"chemical printing\", but the French name \"lithography\" became more widely adopted. And with the composer Franz Gleißner he started a publishing firm in 1796 using lithography.  The value of the new cheap and exact reproduction process was recognized early by land surveying offices across Europe. Senefelder was appointed 1809 to be the Inspector of a new Institution set up for this purpose in Bavaria called the \"Lithographic Institute\" (Lithographische Anstalt) in Munich. Similar Institutions were subsequently set up under his supervision in Berlin, Paris, London and Vienna.  He secured patent rights across Europe and publicized his findings in 1818 in \"Vollstandiges Lehrbuch der Steindruckerei\" which was translated in 1819 into French and English. \"A Complete Course of Lithography\" combined Senefelder's history of his own invention with a practical guide to lithography, and remained in print as recently as 1977 (Da Capo Press).  Senefelder was also able to exploit the potential of lithography as a medium for art. Unlike previous printmaking techniques, such as engraving, that required advanced craft skills, lithography facilitated greater accuracy and textural variety, because the artist could now draw directly onto the plate with familiar pens. As early as 1803 André published in London a portfolio of artists lithographs, entitled \"Specimens of Polyautography\".  In 1837, lithography had been further developed to allow full colour printing from multiple plates, and chromolithography was the most important technique in colour printing until the introduction of process colour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards, legacy.", "content": "Senefelder was decorated by King Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria and a statue of him stands in the town of Solnhofen, where lithographic stone is still quarried. A statue of Alois Senefelder by sculptor Rudolf Pohle was erected in 1892 in what was then known as Thusneldaplatz in Berlin. The name of the square was changed to Senefelderplatz in 1894. An U-Bahn station named Senefelderplatz was opened in 1913.  Alois Senefelder's contribution ranks alongside William Ged's invention of stereotyping, Friedrich Koenig's steam press and Ottmar Mergenthaler's linotype machine in its innovative effect. It made printing more affordable and available to more people, and was important in art and newspaper printing. Senefelder lived to see his process become widely adopted both for art printmaking and as the dominant method of pictorial reproduction in the printing industry. He died in Munich, where he is buried in the Alter Südfriedhof.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Alois Senefelder (6 November 177126 February 1834) was a German actor and playwright who invented the printing technique of lithography in the 1790s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972228}
{"src_title": "Stocking", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Historically, even though the word \"sock\" is at least as ancient in origin, what men normally wore were often referred to as stockings, probably especially when referring to longer hose. The word \"stock\" used to refer to the bottom \"stump\" part of the body, and by analogy the word was used to refer to the one-piece covering of the lower trunk and limbs of the 15th century—essentially tights consisting of the \"upper-stocks\" (later to be worn separately as knee breeches) and \"nether-stocks\" (later to be worn separately as \"stockings\"). (See Hose.)  Before the 1590s, stockings were made of woven cloth. The first knitting machines were for making stockings. The stockings themselves were made of cotton, linen, wool or silk. A polished cotton called lisle was common, as were those made in the town of Balbriggan.  Before the 1920s, stockings, if worn, were worn for warmth. In the 1920s, as hemlines of dresses rose and central heating was not widespread, women began to wear flesh-colored stockings to cover their exposed legs. Those stockings were sheer, first made of silk or rayon (then known as \"artificial silk\") and after 1940 of nylon.  The introduction of nylon in 1939 by chemical company DuPont began a high demand for stockings in the United States with up to 4 million pairs being purchased in one day. Nylon stockings were cheap, durable, and sheer compared to their cotton and silk counterparts. When America entered World War II, DuPont ceased production of nylon stockings and retooled their factories to produce parachutes, airplane cords, and rope. This led to a shortage and the creation of a black market for stockings. At the end of the war DuPont announced that the company would return to producing stockings, but could not meet demand. This led to a series of disturbances in American stores known as the nylon riots until DuPont was able to ramp up production.  A precursor of pantyhose made an appearance in the 1940s and 1950s, when film and theater productions had stockings sewn to the briefs of actresses and dancers, according to actress-singer-dancer Ann Miller and seen in popular films such as \"Daddy Long Legs\". Today, stockings are commonly made using knitted wool, silk, cotton or nylon (see hosiery). The introduction of commercial pantyhose in 1959 gave an alternative to stockings, and the use of stockings declined dramatically. A main reason for this was the trend towards higher hemlines on dresses (see minidress). In 1970, U.S. sales of pantyhose exceeded stockings for the first time, and has remained this way ever since. Beginning in 1987, sales of pantyhose started a slight decline due to the newly invented hold-ups, but still remain the most sold kind of hosiery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Benefits and drawbacks.", "content": "Stockings are still sometimes preferred to pantyhose in North American English, for a number of reasons. These may include the perception that stockings, and the associated use of garters, lace, high fashion, appliqué and the exposure of the thigh, are more aesthetically pleasing, or sexually attractive and alluring than pantyhose.  Both nylon stockings and pantyhose in being sheer share the advantage of being quick-drying compared to pants. Spare pairs are also easy to carry if they are ruined. If laddered they can be replaced 'one at a time' which provides a cost advantage over tights.  However, stockings have a drawback in colder weather, because more skin is exposed to the cold compared to pantyhose. Also, pantyhose do not require garters or garter belts, and do not need to be adjusted as much, whilst also leaving a smoother line under form-fitting clothing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Support.", "content": "Stockings can be held up in one of three ways:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terminology.", "content": "In modern usage, \"stocking\" specifically refers to the form of hosiery configured as two pieces, one for each leg (except for American and Australian English, where the term can also be a synonym for pantyhose). The terms \"hold-ups\" and \"thigh highs\" refer to stockings that stay up through the use of built-in elastic, while the word \"stockings\" is the general term or refers to the kind of stockings that need a suspender belt (garter belt, in American English), and are quite distinct from tights or pantyhose (American English).  Other terms used with stockings include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stockings (also known as hose, especially in a historical context) are close-fitting, variously elastic garments covering the leg from the foot up to the knee or possibly part or all of the thigh. Stockings vary in color, design, and transparency. Today, stockings are primarily worn for fashion and aesthetics, usually in association with mid-length or short skirts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972229}
{"src_title": "Ernst Heinkel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Grunbach, today a part of Remshalden. As a young man he became an apprentice machinist at a foundry. Heinkel studied at the Technical Academy of Stuttgart, where he initially became interested in aviation through a fascination with Zeppelins, and in 1909 attended an international airshow in Frankfurt am Main. He determined flight was the future of transportation, and the following year, he built his first aircraft, working from a set of plans by Henri Farman. Heinkel crashed the plane in 1911 and suffered severe injuries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Albatros Flugzeugwerke.", "content": "Soon afterwards, he gained employment at Luft-Verkehrs Gesellschaft (LVG), who were building Farman aircraft. From there, he went to Albatros. Heinkel claimed post-war to have designed the Albatros B.II, a successful reconnaissance and trainer aircraft used during the early stages of the First World War, but its main designer was in fact Robert Thelen. His planes were used by the Austro-Hungarian army and Germany's \"Kaiserliche Marine\" during the war. After leaving the Albatros, Heinkel designed several land- and seaplanes for the Hansa-Brandenburg company starting in 1914.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heinkel-Flugzeugwerke.", "content": "In 1921, Heinkel was appointed head designer of the recently re-established Caspar-Werke, but soon left after a dispute over ownership of a design. In 1922 he established the Heinkel-Flugzeugwerke company at Warnemünde. Due to the restrictions placed on German aircraft manufacturing by the Treaty of Versailles, Heinkel looked overseas for contracts, with some seaplane designs being licence-built in Sweden and working on catapult-launched seaplanes for the Imperial Japanese Navy. He installed a similar catapult on the ocean liner Bremen for launching mail planes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versailles Treaty violations.", "content": "Between 1921-1924, the Japanese government placed several orders with Heinkel's company, and helped him skirt the Versailles Treaty, which banned the construction of military aircraft in Germany, by informing the company of facility inspections by allied commissions in advance. Japan was part of the inspection commission. Heinkel hid his aircraft in dunes behind his plant and were never discovered during inspections. Heinkel noted in his memoirs that his company's relationship with Japan in the 1920s led to decades of cooperation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1933-1945.", "content": "After Adolf Hitler came to power, designs by Heinkel's firm formed a vital part of the Luftwaffe's growing strength in the years leading up to the Second World War. This included the Heinkel He 59, the Heinkel He 115 and the Heinkel He 111. He was designated a Wehrwirtschaftführer (~ defence industry leader) by the German government for his commitment to rearmament.  Heinkel was passionate about high-speed flight, and was keen on exploring alternative forms of aircraft propulsion. He donated aircraft to Wernher von Braun who was investigating rocket propulsion for aircraft, as well as sponsoring the research of Hans von Ohain into turbojet engines, leading to the flight of the Heinkel He 178, the first aircraft to fly solely under turbojet power by Erich Warsitz on August 27, 1939.  Heinkel had been a critic of Hitler's regime concerning being forced to fire Jewish designers and staff in 1933, however, he was a member of the Nazi party, awarded the German National Prize for Art and Science in 1938, one of the rarest honors of the German government, and he used forced Jewish labor starting in 1941, in which his company was considered a \"model for slave labor.\"  In 1942 the government \"nationalised\" the Heinkel works. In practice, this meant that Heinkel was detained until he sold his controlling interest in his factories to Hermann Göring. Heinkel moved to Vienna and started a new design bureau and corporate offices in Vienna's Schwechat suburb, establishing manufacturing facilities in Zwölfaxing and Floridsdorf as the \"Heinkel-Sud\" complex for his firm, the original Rostock-\"Marienhe\" plant (today's Rostock-Schmarl neighborhood) becoming the \"Heinkel-Nord\" facility. It was at the \"Heinkel-Sud\" offices that Dr. Heinkel worked on the Heinkel He 274 four-engined high-altitude heavy bomber design - as one of the trio of proposals for aircraft designs to succeed his firm's failed Heinkel He 177A heavy bomber — until the war ended.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "With Germany forbidden from manufacturing aircraft by the Allies, Heinkel used his company's facilities to build private transportation. In 1953 Heinkel began production of the Tourist scooter, followed by the Perle moped in 1954. In 1956 he introduced the Heinkel Kabine bubble car. Bubble car and moped production ceased shortly after the restriction on aircraft manufacture was lifted, but scooter production continued until 1965. In 1959, Heinkel's company was sued by Edmund Bartl for being enriched by slave labor during World War II, however, the German Supreme Court dismissed his claims for filing too late and ordered Bartl to pay court costs and attorney's fees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and Legacy.", "content": "Ernst Heinkel died in 1958 in Stuttgart. His autobiography, \"Stürmisches Leben\", was published in 1956 and translated into English as \"He1000\" in its British edition and \"Stormy Life: Memoirs of a Pioneer of the Air Age\" in its US edition.  In 1981, Heinkel was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dr. Ernst Heinkel (24 January 1888 – 30 January 1958) was a German aircraft designer, manufacturer, Wehrwirtschaftsführer in the Third Reich, and member of the Nazi party. His company Heinkel Flugzeugwerke produced the Heinkel He 178, the world's first turbojet aircraft and jet plane, and the Heinkel He 176, the first rocket aircraft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972230}
{"src_title": "Mohamed Farrah Aidid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Aidid was born in 1934 in Mudug, Italian Somaliland. He was educated in Rome and Moscow and served in the Italian colonial police force in the 1950s. He later joined the Somali National Army.  Aideed was a highly qualified officer and quirky person who was selected to study advanced post graduate military science at the M. V. Frunze Military Academy (Военная академия им. М. В. Фрунзе) in the Soviet Union, an elite institution reserved for the most qualified officers of the Warsaw Pact armies and their allies.  In 1969, a few days after the assassination of Somalia's second president Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke, a military junta led by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre staged a bloodless coup d'état. Aidid was one of many officers serving at the central command of the Army at the time of the putsch. He quickly fell out of favour with the new regime's leaders and was subsequently detained along with Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed. Aidid was eventually released from prison six years afterwards to take part in the 1977–78 war against Ethiopia over the disputed Ogaden region.  He later served as an advisor to President Barre and as Somalia's ambassador to India, before finally being appointed intelligence chief.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United Somali Congress.", "content": "After fallout from the unsuccessful Ogaden campaign of the late 1970s, the Barre administration began arresting government and military officials under suspicion of participation in the abortive 1978 coup d'état. Most of the people who had allegedly helped plot the putsch were summarily executed. However, several officials managed to escape abroad and started to form the first of various dissident groups dedicated to ousting Barre's regime by force.  By the late 1980s, Barre's regime had become increasingly unpopular. The State took an increasingly hard line, and insurgencies, encouraged by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration, sprang up across the country. This eventually led to the outbreak of the civil war, the gradual breakup of the Somali Armed Forces, and the toppling of Barre's government on 26 January 1991. Many of the opposition groups subsequently began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed the ouster of Barre's regime. Armed factions led by United Somali Congress (USC) commanders General Aidid and Ali Mahdi Mohamed, in particular, clashed as each sought to exert power over the capital. However, Aidid failed to attract many Somali leaders and intellectuals to the USC's cause, including fellow Frunze graduate General Abdullahi Ahmed Irro, who opted instead to remain politically neutral.  United Nations Security Council Resolution 733 and UN Security Council Resolution 746 led to the creation of the UNOSOM I after the dissolution of the central government. United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on December 3, 1992, which approved a coalition led by the United States. Forming the Unified Task Force (UNITAF), the alliance was tasked with assuring security until humanitarian efforts were transferred to the UN. Landing in 1993, the UN peacekeeping coalition started the two-year United Nations Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) primarily in the south.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crimes of USC.", "content": "Upon capturing Mogadishu from the Somali National Army, USC militia men set on a rampage in what was described as a clan cleansing, according to eye witnesses and survivor reports, USC militia men would systematically target Somalis based on their clans. Individuals were hunted down, tortured, mutilated, and expressing joy at being able to gang-rape their female relatives in front of them. From what was supposed to be a take over of the capital city, now became to what was motivated as a deep personal, clan based hatred and resentment. Extreme brutality such as torture, rape, looting of properties were all part of the clan cleansing campaign.  Gang rape was a terrorizing factor and a systematic approach in driving out populations, this was heavily carried out by the USC, there are accounts of eight girls who were abducted from their homes the night before, had been cut with knives and raped all night. They were left and found the following morning at 5.30am where the girls could barely move.  The harrowing rape cases that were reported led the militia leader Aidid to issue a public apology, in a video that was posted shows Aidid apologizing for some of the mass rapes carried out by his militia men. This apology can be seen as acceptance and acknowledgement of the crimes his militiamen committed on the Somali People.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidency declaration.", "content": "Aidid subsequently declared himself President of Somalia in June 1995. However, his declaration received no international recognition, as his rival Ali Mahdi Muhammad had already been elected interim president at a conference in Djibouti and recognized as such by the international community.  Consequently, Aidid's faction continued its quest for hegemony in the south. In September 1995, militia forces loyal to him attacked the city of Baidoa, killing 10 local residents and capturing at least 20 foreign aid workers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On July 24, 1996, Aidid and his men clashed with the forces of former allies Ali Mahdi Muhammad and Osman Ali Atto. Atto was a former supporter and financier of Aidid, and of the same subclan. Atto is alleged to have masterminded the defeat of Aidid. Aidid suffered a gunshot wound in the ensuing battle. He later died from a heart attack on August 2, either during or after surgery to treat his injuries.  Other officers allegedly targeted by Atto include General Talan. In its 2000 Country Report for Somalia, the U.S. Department of State asserted that the killing of Yusuf Tallan, a former general under the Barre regime, was connected to Osman Ali Atto \"because of Atto's business deals in the north and the possibility of a deal between Somaliland President Egal and Atto in order to destabilize the south.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "During the events leading up to the civil war, Aidid's wife Khadiga Gurhan sought asylum in Canada in 1989, moving the couple's four children with her. Local media shortly afterwards alleged that she had returned to Somalia for a five-month stay while still receiving welfare payments. Gurhan admitted in an interview to collecting welfare and having briefly traveled to Somalia in late 1991. However, it was later brought to light that she had been granted landed immigrant status in June 1991, thereby making her a legal resident of Canada. Additionally, Aidid's rival President Barre had been overthrown in January of that year. This altogether ensured that Gurhan's five-month trip would not have undermined her initial 1989 claim of refugee status. An official probe by Canadian immigration officials into the allegations also concluded that she had obtained her landing papers through normal legal processes.  Hussein Mohamed Farrah, son of General Aidid, emigrated to the United States when he was 17 years old. Staying 16 years in the country, he eventually became a naturalized citizen and later a United States Marine who served in Somalia. Two days after his father's death, the Somali National Alliance declared Farrah as the new President, although he too was not internationally recognized as such.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mohamed Farrah Hassan Aidid (; December 15, 1934 – August 2, 1996) was a Somali warlord and militia leader. A former general and diplomat, he was the chairman of the United Somali Congress (USC) and later led the Somali National Alliance (SNA). Along with other armed opposition groups, they drove out President Mohamed Siad Barre's socialist regime from Somalia's capital Mogadishu during the Somali Civil War that broke out in the early 1990s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972231}
{"src_title": "Revolutionary Communist League (France)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "It was founded in 1974, after its forerunner the Communist League (Ligue Communiste) was banned in 1973. The Communist League was itself founded in 1969 after the Revolutionary Communist Youth (Jeunesses Communistes Révolutionnaires), which was banned in 1968, had merged with Pierre Frank's Internationalist Communist Party. The group included members of other Trotskyist tendencies who were able to organise openly within its ranks to gain support for their views.  Its official spokespersons were Alain Krivine, Roseline Vachetta, who are former members of the European Parliament, and Olivier Besancenot who was the party's candidate for the presidential elections in 2002 and 2007.  A major issue in the party's latter years was the possibility and conditions of electoral alliances with other left wing forces, such as the fellow Trotskyist party Lutte Ouvrière. In the past the two had at times run joint candidates (for example in the last regional and European elections), and at times ran separately (for example in the 2002 and 2007 presidential elections).  In a situation where massive campaigns against government policy have brought millions into the streets, but established political parties have lost a lot of credibility, the idea of unifying the radical Left in an electoral alliance was much discussed. There were for example talks for an alliance with the French Communist Party, after both parties worked together on the victorious campaign of the 'No' in the 2005 French referendum on the Constitution of the European Union. Relations between the two parties had been improving since Marie-George Buffet took over the leadership of the PCF.  LCR militants openly worked within left-wing groups such as ATTAC and the Solidaires Unitaires Démocratiques trade unions, although both are independent from political parties (and have members from other political backgrounds).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dissolution.", "content": "The Revolutionary Communist League was the leading force in the creation of the New Anticapitalist Party, launched in June 2008, which was intended to unify the parties and movements of the far left.  On 5 February 2009, 87,1% of party members voted to dissolve the Revolutionary Communist League, with 11.5% voting against. The dissolution was intended solely to enable the LCR to become the New Anticapitalist Party. Alain Krivine, who had been one of the party's founders, said: \"We're not dissolving, as such. We'll continue the revolutionary struggle, with a tool that's much better suited for it than the LCR.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidential elections (2002 and 2007).", "content": "In France's 2002 presidential election, the LCR's candidate Olivier Besancenot won 4.25% of the vote. Thus the far left (LCR, Lutte Ouvrière and Parti des travailleurs) gained a total of more than 10%. The run-off election provided voters with only a choice between the right-wing Chirac and the far-right Le Pen. The left in its vast majority voted for Chirac. The LCR did not call for abstention: the LCR campaigned to \"minimize the vote to Le Pen\". The LCR campaign was run under the slogan \"Beat Le Pen on the streets and in the ballot box\". A minority within the LCR were opposed to this slogan, believing that it amounted to a call to vote for Chirac.  For the 2007 French presidential election, the LCR's candidate was again Olivier Besancenot, gaining around 4.1% at the first round. As he fell under the 5% barrier, the state did not cover the campaign's expenses above 800,000 euros. However, as the party spent approximatively this sum, according to Pierre-François Grond, a member of the direction, it will not be financially affected by Besancenot's lower score.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Revolutionary Communist League (, \"LCR\") was a Trotskyist political party in France. It was the French section of the Fourth International (Post-Reunification). It published the weekly newspaper \"Rouge\" and the journal \"Critique communiste\". Established in 1974, it became the leading party of the far-left in the 2000s. It officially abolished itself on 5 February 2009 to merge with smaller factions of the far-left and form a New Anticapitalist Party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972232}
{"src_title": "Saw", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Saws were at first serrated materials such as flint, obsidian, sea shells and shark teeth. In ancient Egypt, open (unframed) saws made of copper are documented as early as the Early Dynastic Period, circa 3,100–2,686 BC. Many copper saws were found in tomb No. 3471 dating to the reign of Djer in the 31st century BC. Saws have been used for cutting a variety of materials, including humans (\"see\" Death by sawing). Models of saws have been found in many contexts throughout Egyptian history. Particularly useful are tomb wall illustrations of carpenters at work that show sizes and the use of different types. Egyptian saws were at first serrated, hardened copper which cut on both pull and push strokes. As the saw developed, teeth were raked to cut only on the pull stroke and set with the teeth projecting only on one side, rather than in the modern fashion with an alternating set. Saws were also made of bronze and later iron. In the Iron Age, frame saws were developed holding the thin blades in tension. The earliest known sawmill is the Roman Hierapolis sawmill from the third century AD and was for sawing stone.  According to Chinese legend, the saw was invented by Lu Ban. In Greek mythology, as recounted by Ovid, Talos, the nephew of Daedalus, invented the saw. In archeological reality, saws date back to prehistory and most probably evolved from Neolithic stone or bone tools. \"[T]he identities of the axe, adz, chisel, and saw were clearly established more than 4,000 years ago.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manufacture of saws by hand.", "content": "Once mankind had learned how to use iron, it became the preferred material for saw blades of all kinds; some cultures learned how to harden the surface (\"case hardening\" or \"steeling\"), prolonging the blade's life and sharpness. Steel, made of iron with moderate carbon content and hardened by quenching hot steel in water, was used as early as 1200 BC. By the end of the 17th century European manufacture centred on Germany, (the Bergisches Land) in London, and the Midlands of England. Most blades were made of steel (iron carbonised and re-forged by different methods). In the mid 18th century a superior form of completely melted steel (\"crucible cast\") began to be made in Sheffield, England, and this rapidly became the preferred material, due to its hardness, ductility, springiness and ability to take a fine polish. A small saw industry survived in London and Birmingham, but by the 1820s the industry was growing rapidly and increasingly concentrated in Sheffield, which remained the largest centre of production, with over 50% of the nation's saw makers. The US industry began to overtake it in the last decades of the century, due to superior mechanisation, better marketing, a large domestic market, and the imposition of high tariffs on imports. Highly productive industries continued in Germany and France. Early European saws were made from a heated sheet of iron or steel, produced by flattening by several men simultaneously hammering on an anvil (Barley ibid p11) After cooling, the teeth were punched out one at a time with a die, the size varying with the size of the saw. The teeth were sharpened with a triangular file of appropriate size, and set with a hammer or a wrest (Moxon, ibid). By the mid 18th century rolling the metal was usual, the power for the rolls being supplied first by water, and increasingly by the early 19th century by steam engines. The industry gradually mechanized all the processes, including the important grinding the saw plate \"thin to the back\" by a fraction of an inch, which helped the saw to pass through the kerf without binding (Moxon, ibid, p95). The use of steel added the need to harden and temper the saw plate, to grind it flat, to smith it by hand hammering and ensure the springiness and resistance to bending deformity, and finally to polish it (Barley ibid pp5–22). Most hand saws are today entirely made without human intervention, with the steel plate supplied ready rolled to thickness and tensioned before being cut to shape by laser. The teeth are shaped and sharpened by grinding and are flame hardened to obviate (and actually prevent) sharpening once they have become blunt. A large measure of hand finishing remains to this day for quality saws by the very few specialist makers reproducing the 19th century designs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pit saws.", "content": "A pit saw was a two-man rip saw. In parts of early colonial North America, it was one of the principal tools used in shipyards and other industries where water-powered sawmills were not available. It was so-named because it was typically operated over a saw pit, either at ground level or on trestles across which logs that were to be cut into boards. The pit saw was \"a strong steel cutting-plate, of great breadth, with large teeth, highly polished and thoroughly wrought, some eight or ten feet in length\" with either a handle on each end or a frame saw. A pit-saw was also sometimes known as a whipsaw. It took 2-4 people to operate. A \"pit-man\" stood in the pit, a \"top-man\" stood outside the pit, and they worked together to make cuts, guide the saw, and raise it. Pit-saw workers were among the most highly paid laborers in early colonial North America.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Types of saws.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hand saws.", "content": "Hand saws typically have a relatively thick blade to make them stiff enough to cut through material. (The pull stroke also reduces the amount of stiffness required.) Thin-bladed handsaws are made stiff enough either by holding them in tension in a frame, or by backing them with a folded strip of steel (formerly iron) or brass (on account of which the latter are called \"back saws.\") Some examples of hand saws are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Back saws.", "content": "\"Back saws,\" so called because they have a thinner blade backed with steel or brass to maintain rigidity, are a subset of hand saws. Back saws have different names depending on the length of the blade; tenon saw is often used as a generic name for all the sizes of woodworking backsaw. Some examples are:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Frame saws.", "content": "A class of saws for cutting all types of material; they may be small or large and the frame may be wood or metal.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Types of blades and blade cuts.", "content": "Most blade teeth are made either of tool steel or carbide. Carbide is harder and holds a sharp edge much longer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Materials used for saws.", "content": "There are several materials used in saws, with each of its own specifications.  Plainsawing: Lumber that will be used in structures is typically plainsawn (also called flatsawn), a method of dividing the log that produces the maximum yield of useful pieces and therefore the greatest economy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Quarter sawing: This sawing method produces edge-grain or vertical grain lumber, in which annual growth rings run more consistently perpendicular to the pieces' wider faces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Salaman, R A, Dictionary of Woodworking Tools, revised edition 1989", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A saw is a tool consisting of a tough blade, wire, or chain with a hard toothed edge. It is used to cut through material, very often wood though sometimes metal or stone. The cut is made by placing the toothed edge against the material and moving it forcefully forth and less forcefully back or continuously forward. This force may be applied by hand, or powered by steam, water, electricity or other power source. An abrasive saw has a powered circular blade designed to cut through metal or ceramic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972233}
{"src_title": "Maroboduus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name \"Maroboduus\" can be broken down into two Celtic elements, \"māro-\" meaning \"great\" (cf. Welsh \"mawr\", Irish \"mór\"), and \"bodwos\" meaning \"raven\" (cf. Irish \"badhbh\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "Maroboduus was born into a noble family of the Marcomanni. As a young man, he lived in Italy and enjoyed the favour of the Emperor Augustus. The Marcomanni had been beaten utterly by the Romans in 10 BC. About 9 BC, Maroboduus returned to Germania and became ruler of his people. To deal with the threat of Roman expansion into the Rhine-Danube basin, he led the Marcomanni to the area later known as Bohemia to be outside the range of the Roman influence. There, he took the title of king and organized a confederation of several neighboring Germanic tribes. He was the first documented ruler of Bohemia.  Augustus planned in 6 AD to destroy the kingdom of Maroboduus, which he considered to be too dangerous for the Romans. The future emperor Tiberius commanded 12 legions to attack the Marcomanni, but the outbreak of a revolt in Illyria, and the need for troops there, forced Tiberius to conclude a treaty with Maroboduus and to recognize him as king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War with Arminius and death.", "content": "His rivalry with Arminius, the Cheruscan leader who inflicted the devastating defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest on the Romans under Publius Quinctilius Varus in 9 AD, prevented a concerted attack on Roman territory across the Rhine in the north (by Arminius) and in the Danube basin in the south (by Maroboduus).  However, according to the first-century AD historian Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Arminius sent Varus's head to Maroboduus, but the king of the Marcomanni sent it to Augustus. In the revenge war of Tiberius and Germanicus against the Cherusci, Maroboduus stayed neutral.  In 17 AD, war broke out between Arminius and Maroboduus, and after an indecisive battle, Maroboduus withdrew into the hilly forests of Bohemia, in 18 AD. In the next year, Catualda, a young Marcomannic nobleman living in exile among the Gutones, returned, perhaps by a subversive Roman intervention, and defeated Maroboduus. The deposed king had to flee to Italy, and Tiberius detained him 18 years in Ravenna. There, Maroboduus died in 37 AD. Catualda was, in turn, defeated by the Hermunduri Vibilius, after which the realm was ruled by the Quadian Vannius. Vannius was himself also deposed by Vibilius, in coordination with his nephews Vangio and Sido, who then ruled as Roman client kings.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maroboduus (died AD 37), was a king of the Marcomanni, who were Germanic Suebian people. He spent part of his youth in Rome, and returning, found his people under pressure from invasions by the Roman empire between the Rhine and Elbe. He led them into the forests of Bohemia, near to the Quadi who already lived nearby, and established a large alliance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972234}
{"src_title": "Faculty (division)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The medieval University of Bologna, which served as a model for most of the later medieval universities in Europe, had four faculties: students began at the Faculty of Arts, graduates from which could then continue at the higher Faculties of Theology, Law, and Medicine. The privilege to establish these four faculties was usually part of medieval universities’ charters, but not every university could do so in practice.  The \"Faculty of Arts\" took its name from the seven liberal arts: the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy). In German, Scandinavian, Slavic and related universities, it would more often be called the \"Faculty of Philosophy\". The degree of Magister Artium (Master of Arts) derives its name from the Faculty of Arts, while the degree of Doctor Philosophiae (Doctor of Philosophy) derives its name from the Faculty of Philosophy, German name of the same faculty. Whether called \"Faculty of Arts\" or \"Faculty of Philosophy\", it taught a range of subjects with general and fundamental applicability.  The higher \"Faculty of Law\" and \"Faculty of Medicine\" were intended, much like today, for specialized education required for professions. The \"Faculty of Theology\" was the most prestigious, as well as least common in the first 500 years—and generally one that popes sought most to control. Although also \"professional\" education for clergy, theology (until the Enlightenment) was also seen as the ultimate subject at universities, named \"The Queen of the Sciences\", and often set the example for the other faculties.  The number of faculties has usually multiplied in modern universities, both through subdivisions of the traditional four faculties and through the absorption of academic disciplines that developed within originally vocational schools, in areas such as engineering or agriculture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Arts.", "content": "A Faculty of Arts is a university division teaching in areas traditionally classified as \"liberal arts\" for academic purposes (from Latin, \"worthy of a free person\", and, \"art or principled practice\"), generally including creative arts, writing, philosophy, and humanities.  A traditional division of the teaching bodies of medieval universities (the others being Law, Medicine and Theology), the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank but also the largest (the higher faculties admitted only Arts graduates). Instead of \"Arts\", this faculty often had the name \"Philosophy\". Nowadays this is still a common name for faculties teaching humanities (e.g.,), ).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Classics.", "content": "A Faculty of Classics may be focused on ancient history and ancient literature. The title may refer to the following faculties:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Commerce.", "content": "Faculty of Commerce examples include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Economics.", "content": "Faculty of Economics (\"Ekonomski fakultet\" in most South Slavic languages) may refer to, amongst others:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Education.", "content": "Faculty of Education examples include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Engineering.", "content": "Faculty of Engineering examples include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Graduate Studies.", "content": "The title, Faculty of Graduate Studies, refers not to a specific area of study, but to a Graduate school. Examples include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Humanities.", "content": "A Faculty of Humanities is a university faculty teaching humanities.  Examples include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Information Technology.", "content": "A Faculty of Information Technology is a university faculty teaching information technology.  Examples include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Law.", "content": "A Faculty of Law is a university faculty teaching law, or a law school faculty.  Examples include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Management Studies.", "content": "A Faculty of Management Studies is a university division teaching management studies.  Examples include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Music.", "content": "In English-speaking academia, Faculty of Music normally refers to a university department, especially at Oxford and Cambridge (UK). In the US, the use of 'faculty' often relates to academic and teaching staff.  Examples include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Natural Sciences.", "content": "Faculty of Natural Sciences examples include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Philosophy.", "content": "A Faculty of Philosophy is a university faculty teaching philosophy.  In the universities of continental Europe, the Faculty of Arts has more often been named the equivalent of \"Faculty of Philosophy\" (e.g.,, ). Nowadays this is a common name for the faculties teaching humanities.  Examples include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Faculty of Political Science.", "content": "Faculty of Political Science examples include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A faculty is a division within a university or college comprising one subject area or a group of related subject areas, possibly also delimited by level (e.g. undergraduate). In American usage such divisions are generally referred to as colleges (e.g., \"college of arts and sciences\") or schools (e.g., \"school of business\"), but may also mix terminology (e.g., Harvard University has a \"faculty of arts and sciences\" but a \"law school\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972235}
{"src_title": "Rifling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Bofill was raised in a Catalan bourgeois family. His father, named Emilio Bofill, was a builder and developer, a Republican, and liberal and a progressive who was vehemently against Francisco Franco’s regime. Ricardo's mother, Maria Levi, was an Italian Jew who functioned as the matriarchal pillar of the family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "During his adolescence, Ricardo Bofill studied at the Lycée français de Barcelone. He spent much of his youth traveling throughout Spain, spending a significant amount of time in Andalusia, where he discovered Spanish vernacular architecture. In 1957, he attended the. While there, like many students of the time, he began developing strong Marxist ideals. During a demonstration, he was arrested and expelled from the university and Spain. Ricardo Bofill fled Barcelona in 1958 for Geneva, where he attended the to complete his education.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ricardo Bofill Taller de Arquitectura.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "In 1963, Ricardo Bofill joined his family business, forming a multidisciplinary, multitalented team consisting of architects, engineers, planners, sociologists, writers, movie makers, and philosophers. Bofill revived the characteristic craftsmanship of traditional Catalan architecture. Later on, he began to deal with local urban-planning problems within the Spanish political and social level. The necessity to approach large-scale projects led Bofill's team to conceive a ridged yet organic methodology based on the geometric formation of elements in space. Such was developed in a theoretical manner with the project The City in Space, and realized with the construction of Walden 7.  Projects like Muralla Roja in 1973 and Xanadu in 1971 are renowned for their adherence to Critical Regionalism and can be seen as Ricardo Bofill's reaction against the modernist architectural tendencies and the politics of the time in Spain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "La Fabrica.", "content": "The conversion of the abandoned cement factory from the late 19th century into RBTA's studios and Ricardo Bofill's personal residence began with a process of destruction, demolishing pieces of the structures to reveal hidden forms. The factory lies directly next to Walden 7, in Sant Just Desvern, Spain.  The remaining eight silos were transformed into offices, a model-making laboratory, archives, a library, a gigantic space known as \"The Cathedral\", used for meetings, exhibitions, concerts, and professional activities of the architect. Above the Cathedral lie Ricardo's residence, green roofs and terraces. The entire complex was planted with lush gardens to create the effect of an oasis within the industrial area.  The renovation project, which began in 1973, incorporates various architectural languages; Catalan Civic Gothic style and Surrealist elements and is an early example of European Postmodernism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "French period.", "content": "As a result of the economic crisis and the tense political situation in Spain, Ricardo began focusing elsewhere. In 1971, Ricardo formed a complementary team in Paris, in response to the demands of various projects for the French “New Towns”. During this phase, Bofill introduced in his proposals symbolic elements directly related to the French monumental architecture. La Petite Cathédrale and are examples of these inhabited monuments.  In France, Ricardo Bofill's name is largely associated with the project of. In 1974, Ricardo Bofill won the French Ministry of Culture’s competition for “le trou des Halles” along with ten other teams. The concept of Bofill's scheme was “a monument within the city”, a green area with architectural character as per French tradition, a place in the heart of Paris where people could meet. Despite being considered the winner of the competition, and beginning construction of the project, enormous controversy ensued when the mayor of Paris, Jacques Chirac, decided to raze Bofill's project, and imposed the construction of the scheme by architect Jean Willerval.  From 1979 on, the activities of Bofill's Taller de Arquitectura took place mainly in France, focusing primarily on social housing, with the simultaneous construction of four projects: Les Arcades du Lac and Le Viaduc in Saint Quentin-en-Yvelines Building; Le Palais d’Abraxas, Le Théâtre and L’Arc in Marne-la-Vallée; Les Echelles du Baroque in the XIVième district in Paris; as well as Antigone in Montpellier.  Bofill's design studies for precast concrete units contributed in the 1980s, to the Taller's affirmation of the validity of classical forms and geometry in contemporary architecture. Today, Ricardo is seen as one of the founding European Postmodernists. In the 1990s, the inclusion of glass and steel amongst the materials used in his projects is simply the outcome of a process marked by the study of and research into forms and materials, as seen in the BNP Paribas Headquarters and Parfums Christian Dior Headquarters in Paris, and United Airlines Headquarters in Chicago.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Current company.", "content": "In 2000, Bofill centralized El Taller's activities to its headquarters, La Fabrica, in the outskirts of Barcelona. As always, Ricardo Bofill Taller de Arquitectura is a family business. His two sons, Ricardo E. Bofill, acting as President, and Pablo Bofill, serving as CEO, help lead a diverse team. Together with his two partner architects, Peter Hodgkinson and Jean- Pierre Carniaux, Bofill's Taller continues the spirit and philosophy that motivated his team in the early 1960s to approach international projects from the large scale of urban design contributing to a new \"integrated urbanism”, which include the schemes for Luxembourg's Place de l’Europe, New Castellana in Madrid, Boston Central Artery, Moscow Agglomeration's City Expansion and large infrastructures for public transport, such as the Barcelona Airport's Terminal 1 and 2.  El Taller has continued to create sports, cultural, and retail facilities in Europe and Asia; both social and Class A residential buildings, from Senegal to Stockholm, from Beijing to Paris; office buildings and headquarters of leading companies in the United States, France, and Spain. One of the formative postmodern architects, Bofill still utilizes classical composition to resolve the monotony of pre-fabrication, as seen in the Hague's in Russia. But Ricardo Bofill cannot be typecast, as the W Hotel in Barcelona and Polytechnic University Mohammed VI are proof of his diverse architectural abilities.  While Ricardo Bofill Taller de Arquitectura works on all types of projects, from master plans to luxury residences, the core of its business and interest remains in social housing, which it continues to design across the world.  terrace.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Films.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Circles\", 1968.", "content": "Technical Information Presented at Festival de Tours, France, 1968", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Schizo\", 1970.", "content": "Technical Information  Presented at 48 Mostra Cinematografica Internazionale di Venezia, Sala Volpi, 1991.  Presented in a museum space for the first time as part of the exhibition Subversive Practices, this work has remained virtually unknown, with few public screenings, for almost forty years. Its original subtitle – A Fictitious Report on the Architecture of the Brain – does not just refer to the process-based methodology characteristics of conceptual practices and “information art” but also indicates the type of activities carried out by the Taller de Arquitectura. This multidisciplinary platform was created in 1960 by Ricardo Bofill. Its collaborators included poets such as José Agustin Goytisolo, politicians like Salvador Clotas, artists like Daniel Argimon and Joan Ponç, actresses like Serena Vergano, and, lastly, architects such as Anna Bofill, Peter H. Hodgkinson, Ramón Collado, Xavier Bagué, and Manuel Nuñez Yanovsky. The film is a study of the relationship between art and madness and describes the horror of the human condition – a mere instant between nothingness and nothingness. The piece is an experimental documentary on the structure of a brain, reflecting the disquiet of an artist and his distorted vision of the world.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ricardo Bofill Leví () (born 5 December 1939) is a Spanish architect, who, since 1963, continues to lead the international architectural and urban design practice Ricardo Bofill Taller de Arquitectura. Ricardo Bofill was born into a family of builders in 1939 in Barcelona. He studied at the Barcelona University School of Architecture and graduated from the School of Geneva. At the age of 17, Ricardo Bofill designed his first project, a summer home in Ibiza, and by 23, became lead architect of el Taller. Over fifty years later, Bofill still leads Ricardo Bofill Taller de Arquitectura, with over 1000 projects to date in over 50 countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972236}
{"src_title": "Christine (novel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "Arnie, a nerdy high school student, and his friend Dennis notice a dilapidated 1958 Plymouth Fury being sold by an elderly man with a back brace, Roland D. LeBay, who named the car \"Christine\". Despite Dennis' reservations, Arnie buys Christine for $250. While Arnie finishes the paperwork, Dennis sits inside Christine and has a vision of the car and the surroundings as they existed when the car was new, 20 years earlier. Frightened, Dennis decides he dislikes Christine. Arnie brings Christine to a do-it-yourself garage run by Will Darnell, suspected of using the garage as a front for illicit operations. As Arnie restores the car, he stops wearing his glasses and his acne clears up, but he also becomes withdrawn, humorless and cynical. When LeBay dies, Dennis meets his younger brother, George, who reveals LeBay's history of anger and violent behavior. George reveals that LeBay's young daughter choked to death on a hamburger in the back seat of the car and that LeBay's wife subsequently committed suicide in its front seat by carbon monoxide poisoning.  Dennis observes that Arnie is taking on many of LeBay's personality traits and has begun dressing like a 1950s greaser. Dennis also sees that Arnie has become close to Darnell, even acting as a courier in Darnell's smuggling operations. When Arnie is almost finished restoring Christine, he begins dating an attractive student named Leigh. Arnie's parents force him to keep Christine in an airport parking lot. Soon afterward, Clarence \"Buddy\" Repperton, a bully who blames Arnie for his expulsion from school, learns where Christine is being kept and vandalizes the car with help from his gang. Arnie, aware of Christine's ability to repair herself, pushes her through Darnell's garage until enough of the damage is undone for her to run, and then drives her through the junkyard until she is fully restored. Arnie strains his back in the process and begins wearing a back brace, as LeBay did. During a date with Arnie, Leigh nearly chokes to death on a hamburger and is saved only by the intervention of a hitchhiker. Leigh notices that Christine's dashboard lights seemed to become glaring green eyes, watching her during the incident, and that Arnie only half-heartedly tried to save her. Believing she and Christine are competing for Arnie's affection, Leigh vows to never get into the car again. Several inexplicable car-related deaths occur around town. The victims include Darnell, Buddy and all but one of his accomplices in the vandalism. The police link Christine to each of the murders, but no evidence is found on the car. A detective named Rudy Junkins becomes suspicious of Arnie despite his airtight alibis. Christine, possessed by LeBay's vengeful spirit, is committing these murders independently and then repairing herself.  Leigh and Dennis begin a relationship while unearthing details of Christine and LeBay's past. Dennis speculates that LeBay sacrificed his daughter and wife to make Christine a receptacle for his spirit. They compare Arnie's signatures from before and after his purchase of Christine with LeBay's. Arnie stumbles upon Leigh and Dennis being intimately close in Dennis' car, sending him into a rage. Soon after, Junkins is killed in a car crash. Suspecting they are next, Dennis and Leigh devise a plan to destroy the car and save Arnie. While Arnie is visiting a college, Dennis and Leigh lure Christine to the garage and batter her to pieces using a septic tanker truck. Dennis witnesses LeBay's spirit attempting to make him stop before the wreckage is crushed. Dennis learns that Arnie and his mother were both killed in a highway accident, while Christine earlier killed Arnie's father. Witness accounts lead Dennis to believe that LeBay's spirit, tied to Arnie through Christine, fled the Plymouth and attempted to repossess Arnie, but Arnie fought him to a draw, resulting in the wreck. Four years later, Dennis and Leigh have ended their relationship. He reads about a car accident in Los Angeles, in which a drive-in theater employee — the last surviving member of Buddy's gang — was killed by a car that smashed through a cinderblock wall. Dennis speculates that Christine may have rebuilt herself and is setting out to kill everyone who stood against her, saving him for last.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christine is a horror novel by American writer Stephen King, published in 1983. It tells the story of a car (a 1958 Plymouth Fury) apparently possessed by supernatural forces. A film adaptation, directed by John Carpenter, was released in December of the same year; this adaptation starred Keith Gordon, John Stockwell, Alexandra Paul and Harry Dean Stanton. In April 2013, PS Publishing released \"Christine\" in a limited 30th Anniversary Edition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972237}
{"src_title": "Arsenic trioxide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical.", "content": "Arsenic trioxide is used to treat a type of cancer known as acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). It may be used both in cases that are unresponsive other agents, such as all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) or as part of the initial treatment of newly diagnosed cases. This initial treatment may include combination therapy of arsenic trioxide with all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA).  Effectiveness appears similar to Realgar/Indigo naturalis, which can be taken by mouth and is less expensive but is less available.  In the 1970s, Chinese researcher Zhang Tingdong and colleagues discovered this use. It was approved for leukemia treatment in the United States in 2000. University of Hong Kong developed a liquid form of arsenic trioxide that can be given by mouth. Organoarsenic compounds, such as feed additives (roxarsone) and medication (neosalvarsan), are derived from arsenic trioxide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manufacturing.", "content": "Industrial uses include usage as a precursor to forestry products, in colorless glass production, and in electronics. Being the main compound of arsenic, the trioxide is the precursor to elemental arsenic, arsenic alloys, and arsenide semiconductors. Bulk arsenic-based compounds sodium arsenite and sodium cacodylate are derived from the trioxide.  A variety of applications exploit arsenic's toxicity, including the use of the oxide as a wood preservative. Copper arsenates, which are derived from arsenic trioxide, are used on a large scale as a wood preservative in the U.S. and Malaysia, but such materials are banned in many parts of the world. This practice remains controversial. In combination with copper(II) acetate, arsenic trioxide gives the vibrant pigment known as Paris green used in paints and as a rodenticide. This application has been discontinued.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alternative medicine.", "content": "Despite the well known toxicity of arsenic, arsenic trioxide was used in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is known as \"pi-shuang\" (. In homeopathy, it is called arsenicum album. Some discredited patent medicines, e.g., Fowler's solution, contained derivatives of arsenic oxide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicology.", "content": "Arsenic trioxide is readily absorbed by the digestive system: toxic effects are also well known upon inhalation or upon skin contact. Elimination is rapid at first (half-life of 1–2 days), by methylation to monomethylarsonic acid and dimethylarsonic acid, and excretion in the urine, but a certain amount (30–40% in the case of repeated exposure) is incorporated into the bones, muscles, skin, hair and nails (all tissues rich in keratin) and eliminated over a period of weeks or months.  The first symptoms of acute arsenic poisoning by ingestion are digestive problems: vomiting, abdominal pains, diarrhea often accompanied by bleeding. Sub-lethal doses can lead to convulsions, cardiovascular problems, inflammation of the liver and kidneys and abnormalities in the coagulation of the blood. These are followed by the appearance of characteristic white lines (Mees' lines) on the nails and by hair loss. Lower doses lead to liver and kidney problems and to changes in the pigmentation of the skin. Even dilute solutions of arsenic trioxide are dangerous on contact with the eyes.  The poisonous properties are well known and the subject of an extensive literature.  Chronic arsenic poisoning is known as arsenicosis. This disorder affects workers in smelters, in populations whose drinking water contains high levels of arsenic (0.3–0.4 ppm), and in patients treated for long periods with arsenic-based pharmaceuticals. Similarly, studies on workers exposed in copper foundries in the U.S., Japan and Sweden indicate a risk of lung cancer 6–10 times higher for the most exposed workers compared with the general population. Long-term ingestion of arsenic trioxide either in drinking water or as a medical treatment can lead to skin cancer. Reproductive problems (high incidences of miscarriage, low birth weight, congenital deformations) have also been indicated in one study of women exposed to arsenic trioxide dust as employees or neighbours of a copper foundry.  In Austria, there lived the so-called \"arsenic eaters of Styria\", who ingested doses far beyond the lethal dose of arsenic trioxide without any apparent harm. Arsenic is thought to enable strenuous work at high altitudes, e.g. in the Alps.  In the U.S., the OSHA 1910.1018 occupational permissible exposure limit for inorganic arsenic compounds in breathing zone air is 0.010 mg/m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production and occurrence.", "content": "Arsenic trioxide can be generated via routine processing of arsenic compounds including the oxidation (combustion) of arsenic and arsenic-containing minerals in air. Illustrative is the roasting of orpiment, a typical arsenic sulfide ore. Most arsenic oxide is, however, obtained as a volatile by-product of the processing of other ores. For example, arsenopyrite, a common impurity in gold- and copper-containing ores, liberates arsenic trioxide upon heating in air. The processing of such minerals has led to numerous cases of poisonings. Only in China are arsenic ores intentionally mined.  In the laboratory, it is prepared by hydrolysis of arsenic trichloride:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties and reactions.", "content": "Arsenic trioxide is an amphoteric oxide, and its aqueous solutions are weakly acidic. Thus, it dissolves readily in alkaline solutions to give arsenites. It is less soluble in acids, although it will dissolve in hydrochloric acid.  With anhydrous HF and HCl, it gives AsF and the trichloride:  Only with strong oxidizing agents such as ozone, hydrogen peroxide, and nitric acid does it yield arsenic pentoxide, or its corresponding acid: In terms of its resistance to oxidation, arsenic trioxide differs from phosphorus trioxide, which readily combusts to phosphorus pentoxide.  Reduction gives elemental arsenic or arsine () depending on conditions: This reaction is used in the Marsh test.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "In the liquid and gas phase below 800 °C, arsenic trioxide has the formula and is isostructural with. Above 800 °C significantly dissociates into molecular, which adopts the same structure as. Three forms (polymorphs) are known in the solid state: a high temperature ( > 110 °C) cubic, containing molecular, and two related polymeric forms. The polymers, which both crystallize as monoclinic crystals, feature sheets of pyramidal units that share O atoms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Society and culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cost.", "content": "In the United Kingdom it costs the NHS £292 a dose as of 2018. In the United States this amount costs about US$508 as of 2019. With initial treatment being 60 days the cost for a course of treatment is £17,520 and US$30,000 respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Environmental effects.", "content": "Smelting and related ore processing often generate arsenic trioxide, which poses a risk to the environment. For example, the Giant Mine in Canada processed substantial amounts of arsenopyrite-contaminated gold ores.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Arsenic trioxide, sold under the brand name Trisenox among others, is an inorganic compound and medication. As an industrial chemical, major uses include in the manufacture of wood preservatives, pesticides, and glass. As a medication it is used to treat a type of cancer known as acute promyelocytic leukemia. For this use it is given by injection into a vein. Common side effects include vomiting, diarrhea, swelling, shortness of breath, and headaches. Severe side effects may include APL differentiation syndrome and heart problems. Use during pregnancy or breastfeeding may harm the baby. Arsenic trioxide has the formula. How it works in cancer is not entirely clear. Arsenic trioxide was approved for medical use in the United States in 2000. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system. Approximately 50,000 tonnes are produced a year. In the United Kingdom it costs the NHS £292 a dose as of 2018. In the United States this amount costs about US$508 as of 2019. Due to its toxicity a number of countries have regulations around its manufacture and sale.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972238}
{"src_title": "Buxus sempervirens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Buxus sempervirens\" is an evergreen shrub or small tree growing up to 1 to (3 to ) tall, with a trunk up to in diameter (exceptionally to 10 m tall and 45 cm diameter). Arranged in opposite pairs along the stems, the leaves are green to yellow-green, oval, 1.5–3 cm long, and 0.5–1.3 cm broad. The hermaphrodite flowers are inconspicuous but highly scented, greenish-yellow, with no petals, and are insect pollinated; the fruit is a three-lobed capsule containing 3-6 seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The species typically grows on soils derived from chalk, limestone, usually as an understorey in forests of larger trees, most commonly associated with European beech (\"Fagus sylvatica\") forests, but also sometimes in open dry montane scrub, particularly in the Mediterranean region. Box Hill, Surrey is named after its notable box population, which comprises the largest area of native box woodland in England.  The species is locally naturalised in parts of North America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "In Britain, four Roman burials featured coffins containing sprays of the evergreen box, a practice unattested elsewhere in Europe. Box leaves have also been found from several towns, villas and farmsteads in Roman Britain, indicating ornamental planting.  Box remains a very popular ornamental plant in gardens, being particularly valued for topiary and hedges because of its small leaves, evergreen nature, tolerance of close shearing, and scented foliage. The scent is not to everyone's liking: the herbalist John Gerard found it \"evill and lothsome\" and Daniel Defoe recounts that at Hampton Court Palace Queen Anne had the box hedging removed because she found its odour offensive.  In the American South, it has sometimes been called \"rich man's hedge,\" and was often used to anchor the landscape plantings on either side of the front door of a house. The scent, most pungent on warm summer days, is not found disagreeable by all, despite its having been likened to cat urine. Several cultivars have been selected, including 'Argenteo-variegata' and 'Marginata' with variegated foliage; such \"gilded box\" received a first notice in John Parkinson's \"Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris\" (1629). 'Vardar Valley', a slow-growing particularly hardy semi-dwarf cultivar, was selected in 1935 by the American botanist Edward Anderson in the upper Vardar valley and sent to the Arnold Arboretum for evaluation.  The following varieties and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pests and diseases.", "content": "A pest which spreads through \"Buxus sempervirens\" is \"Cydalima perspectalis\", the box tree moth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timber.", "content": "Slow growth of box renders the wood (\"boxwood\") very hard (possibly the hardest in Europe) and heavy, and free of grain produced by growth rings, making it ideal for cabinet-making, the crafting of flutes and oboes, engraving, marquetry, woodturning, tool handles, mallet heads and as a substitute for ivory. The British wood-engraver Thomas Bewick pioneered the use of boxwood blocks for wood-engraving.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medicinal plant.", "content": "The leaves were formerly used in place of quinine, and as a fever reducer. \"Buxus sempervirens\" is a medicinal plant used to treat many diseases. It contains steroidal alkaloids such as cyclobuxine. It also contains flavonoids.  \"B. sempervirens\" wasn’t known for its medical use until the beginning of the 1600s. After this it was found that the leaves (containing alkaloids, oils and tannin), the bark (containing chlorophyll, wax, resin, lignin and minerals) and the oil from the wood had a medical effect. It then was used to treat gout, urinary tract infections, intestinal worms, chronic skin problems, syphilis, hemorrhoids, epilepsy, headache and piles, but also had the reputation of curing leprosy, rheumatism, HIV, fever and malaria. For treating malaria it was used as a substitute for quinine, but because of the side effects and the fact that there are better medicinal alternatives than \"B. sempervirens\" it is normally not used any more to treat these diseases.  Homoeopathy still made use of the leaves against rheumatism, HIV and fever by brewing tea from them. In Turkey, where the plant is called \"Adi şimşir\", this tea (one glass a day) is still consumed for antihelminthic, diaphoretic, and cholagogue purposes. Also, the leaves from \"B. sempervirens\" were used as an auburn hair dye. The plant Buxus sempervirens has been well investigated chemically. During late 1980s, Dildar Ahmed while working on his PhD thesis under the supervision of Prof Atta-ur-Rahman, isolated a number of steroidal alkaloids from the leaves of the plant. A new system of nomenclature for buxus alkaloids was also proposed based on buxane nucleus. He also isolated a flavonoid glycoside, and named it galactobuxin based on the fact that it contains a galactose ring.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Buxus sempervirens, the common box, European box, or boxwood, is a species of flowering plant in the genus \"Buxus\", native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and southwest Asia, from southern England south to northern Morocco, and east through the northern Mediterranean region to Turkey. \"Buxus colchica\" of western Caucasus and \"B. hyrcana\" of northern Iran and eastern Caucasus are commonly treated as synonyms of \"B. sempervirens\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972239}
{"src_title": "Zurab Zhvania", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Zhvania was born in Tbilisi into the family of Besarion Zhvania, an ethnic Georgian, and Rema Antonova, of mixed Jewish Armenian ancestry, both physicists working at the Tbilisi Institute of Physics. In 1985 he graduated from the Faculty of Biology of the Tbilisi State University. He worked at the university through 1992. In 1993 he married Nino Kadagidze, who owned a book store with English language books in Tbilisi. They had a son and two daughters: Elisabeth, Besarion and Anna. Zhvania spoke English, German and Russian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Zhvania entered national politics in 1988. Between 1988 and 1990, Georgia's Green Party, which Zhvania co-chaired, was one of a number of opposition groups that took part in the country's drive to regain its independence. In September 1991 his party joined the opposition to the government of the first post-Soviet President of Georgia, Zviad Gamsakhurdia. Gamsakhurdia's violent overthrow in January 1992 resulted in Eduard Shevardnadze, the former Soviet foreign minister, coming to power a few months later.  Shevardnadze established the Union of Citizens of Georgia to provide a moderate centre-right grouping for reformist democrats. Zhvania joined the UGC in 1995, entering the Georgian parliament in the same year, and recruited other reformists to the party, notably Mikheil Saakashvili. In 1993, Zhvania became general secretary of Shevardnadze's party. On 25 November 1995, after the party's victory at the election, he was elected as chairman of the Georgian parliament.  However, Zhvania fell out with Shevardnadze over a corruption scandal and resigned as speaker on 1 November 2001. He and Saakashvili also left Shevardnadze's party. In 2002, he established and chaired a new party, called the United Democrats.  Zhvania had a wife and three children, and in addition to his native Georgian, he spoke Armenian, Hebrew, English, German, and Russian. Zurab Zhvania is the only Georgian Prime Minister to have died while in office.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "November elections.", "content": "The parliamentary elections of 2 November 2003 were widely condemned by local and international observers as being grossly rigged by the government. In response, Zhvania and other opposition figures called for mass protests against Shevardnadze. Two weeks of massive popular protests followed, forcing Shevardnadze's resignation on 23 November. He was replaced on an interim basis by Zhvania's successor as parliamentary speaker, Nino Burjanadze. Zhvania himself became a minister in the transitional government prior to fresh presidential elections held on 4 January 2004, which were won by Saakashvili.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime minister.", "content": "In February 2004 according to the proposal of President Saakashvili Zhvania was elected as Prime Minister by the Parliament of Georgia. He led a young reformist cabinet with 15 members with an average age of 35 years. With his cabinet Zhvania was seen as a moderate counterweight to the \"radical\" attitudes of President Saakashvili. He also was a key figure in the talks on the separatist republics of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Controversial was Zhvania's role during the privatisations in Georgia, when he took over all final decisions, while the competent ministers of economy had to be changed three times within two years. Experts also criticized his role in the sale of the port of Batumi and of 16 ships of the Georgian Black Sea fleet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Circumstances.", "content": "Zhvania died early in the morning of 3 February 2005 from what officials claimed was carbon monoxide poisoning, due to an inadequately ventilated gas heater. He was in a rented apartment with Raul Usupov, deputy governor of Georgia's Kvemo Kartli region, at the time. Usupov also died.  Guards entered the house after there was no word from Zhvania for several hours to find him in an armchair and Usupov in the kitchen. Details of the incident are still limited, although officials have said there was a gas-powered heating stove in the main room of the house, where a table was set up with a backgammon set lying open upon it.  Immediately after the incident, live on Rustavi-2 television, Georgia's Interior Minister Vano Merabishvili said there was no reason to suspect foul play. Bodies were taken to the coroner's office, where a preliminary examination showed both died from carbon monoxide poisoning. There were reports of serious technical violations when the gas heaters were installed, with officials saying there was no ventilation in the apartment.  However, Zhvania's family members have questioned the official version of the death, with Goga Zhvania having said that he was sure that his brother was assassinated. In March 2006 interview with the Washington Post Georgia's ex-president Eduard Shevardnadze also said that he believed Zhvania was murdered.  In addition, Irakli Okruashvili has also stated in his scandalous speech in Imedi TV, that Zhvania's corpse was moved to the house, but who actually moved the corpse he said he was not going to talk about that any longer that day.  According to some reports Mikheil Machavariani, Deputy Chairman of the Parliament of Georgia, was one of the last people who spoke with Zurab Zhvania the night before his death.  President Mikheil Saakashvili, at an emergency Cabinet meeting, said, \"In Zurab Zhvania, Georgia has lost a great patriot, who devoted his entire life to serving the motherland. Zurab's death is a great blow to Georgia and to me personally. I lost a very close friend, a reliable adviser and a great ally. I want to call on you all to be strong, because there is no greater responsibility than loyal service to our country and our people.\" Rabbi Mikhailashvili stated, \"The Jewish community mourns the sudden loss of Zurab Zhvania. As a Jew, he had a close relationship to the Jewish community in Georgia.\" As of March 2014 Mikheil Saakashvili was wanted by the Georgian Prosecutor's office for questioning in an investigation carried out for the purpose of establishing circumstances surrounding Zhvania's death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bodyguard trials and aftermath.", "content": "Years after the incident, Zhvania's death remains at the center of Georgia's political life. In 2015, several of Zhvania's bodyguards were convicted of neglect after they admitted that on the day of Zhvania's death they had left him alone, at his own request. According to the bodyguards, Zhvania maintained a secret apartment and went to unspecified meetings there, sometimes disguised in a beard. When the security personnel entered the apartment to check on Zhvania, they found his body naked along with the naked Raul Usupov. The bodyguards admitted to tampering with the scene in order to erase any traces that the two men have had sex, so as to \"keep his [Zhvania’s] name clean\". Zhvania's family members deny allegations of homosexuality and instead insist that it was a staged murder by unspecified persons. When asked about homosexuals, Zhvania's brother Gogla stated that he finds homosexuals disgusting and that if Zhvania was one of them, it would be a disgrace to his family, though Gogla maintained that it was not the case.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Zurab Zhvania (; 9 December 1963 – 3 February 2005) was a Georgian politician, who served as Prime Minister of Georgia and Speaker of the Parliament of Georgia. Zhvania began his political career at young age, making his first political steps as a member of Green Party, in the beginning of 90s. In 1992 Zhvania was elected chairman of Eastern European Green's and was first Eastern European to serve at the post. In 1993 Zhvania made first serious steps in Georgian politics as he was elected as General Secretary of Citizen's Union. From that point Zhvania served important role in Georgian politics until his death in 2005. 1995 he became the chairman of parliament and maintained the post until his resignation in 1999, which was followed with discharge of other ministers, whom Zhvania suspected in Corruption. From 1993 till 2003 Zhvania remained in opposition fighting against Shevardandze's government. In 2003, Zhvania united with other opposition leaders, mainly Burdjanadze and Saakashvili, held non-violent protests against the government. Protests ended with resignation of Shevardnadze and election of Saakashvili as the president. Zhvania became prime minister and served the post until his death in 2005.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972240}
{"src_title": "Introit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally, the entrance of the priest who was to celebrate Mass was accompanied by the singing of a whole psalm, with Gloria Patri (doxology). While the psalm was at first sung responsorially, with an antiphon repeated by all at intervals, while a solo singer chanted the words of the psalm, it was soon sung directly by two groups of singers alternating with each other, and with the antiphon sung only at the beginning and the end, as is the usual way of chanting the psalms in the Liturgy of the Hours. The change to this manner of singing the psalm has been attributed to Pope Celestine I (422–432). Pope Gregory I (590–604), after whom Gregorian chant is named, composed several antiphons for singing with the Entrance psalm.  If singing of the psalm was not completed by the time the Entrance procession arrived at the altar, the singers moved directly to the Gloria Patri and the final repetition of the antiphon. In time only the opening verse of the psalm was kept, together with the Gloria Patri, preceded and followed by the antiphon, the form of the Introit in Tridentine Mass Roman Missals, which explicitly indicate this manner of singing the Introit.  The 1970 revision of the Roman Missal explicitly envisages singing the entire psalm associated with the antiphon, but does not make it obligatory. In contemporary Catholic usage, the introit corresponds to the Entrance Antiphon and is sung or recited audibly throughout by the faithful.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Text and liturgical use.", "content": "The antiphons of most Introits are taken from Psalms, though many come from other parts of Scripture. In some rare cases the antiphon is not from Scripture: \"Salve, sancta parens\", from the Christian poet Sedulius, is the antiphon used in the Tridentine form of the Roman Rite for common Masses of the Blessed Virgin Mary; the 1970 revision kept a Mass formula of the Blessed Virgin with that antiphon, but provided several alternatives.  The words of the antiphons are related to the theme of the feastday or celebration and most frequently have something in common with the liturgical readings of the Mass.  In the Tridentine Mass the Introit is no longer the first text used in the Mass. In Low Mass, the priest reads it only after the Prayers at the Foot of the Altar. Until 1908, even in sung Mass the choir began the Introit only after the priest had begun those prayers, but Pope Pius X restored the old arrangement whereby the Introit accompanied the entrance procession of the priest with the ministers. The Tridentine Mass has the priest read the Introit in the Missal even when it is also sung by the choir. It also has him make the sign of the cross, when reading it, a relic of the time when Mass began with it.  Since the 1970 revision of the Roman Missal, the Entrance chant begins as the priest enters. Its purpose is to open the celebration, foster the unity of those who have been gathered, turn their thoughts to the mystery of the celebration, and accompany the procession. If there is no singing at the Entrance, the antiphon in the Missal is recited either by the faithful, or by some of them, or by a lector; otherwise, it is recited by the priest himself, who may even adapt it as an introductory explanation.  If another rite immediately precedes Mass, such as the Palm Sunday procession or the various ceremonies that precede Mass at the Easter Vigil, Mass begins with the collect; there is no Entrance at that point and so no Entrance chant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical setting.", "content": "In the musical idiom of Gregorian chant, Introits normally take the form antiphon-verse-antiphon-doxology-antiphon. In the Tridentine Missal, this form was, with very few exceptions, reduced to antiphon-verse-doxology-antiphon.  For example, the Tridentine Missal presents the Introit of the Fourth Sunday of Advent as follows:  Introits, like Offertories and Communions, are believed to have evolved from simpler reciting tones. Introit melodies show this musical parentage most clearly, and are often anchored around two reciting notes which may be repeated or percussed. The melodies are mostly \"neumatic\", dominated by neumes with two or three notes per syllable, although syllabic and melismatic passages also occur.  The Introits of Old Roman chant share many similarities with their Gregorian cousins, and often include a repeated extra verse that fell out of use in the Gregorian repertory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use of the incipit.", "content": "In the same way as Church documents are referred to by their incipit (their first words in Latin), Mass formulas are known by the incipit of their Introit, which is the first text in the formula. Thus a Mass for the dead is referred to a \"Requiem\" Mass, and the three Christmas Day Masses have been called \"Dominus dixit\", \"Lux fulgebit\" and \"Puer natus\". So too, Gaudete Sunday is a name for the third Sunday in Advent, Laetare Sunday for the fourth Sunday in Lent, and Quasimodo Sunday for the Octave or Second Sunday of Easter, because of the incipit of the Entrance antiphons of those Sundays.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Anglican liturgy.", "content": "In the Anglican Communion, Introit is the name given to the hymn or metrical psalm which is sung at the start of a service, a tradition which dates back to the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Introit (from Latin: \"introitus\", \"entrance\") is part of the opening of the liturgical celebration of the Eucharist for many Christian denominations. In its most complete version, it consists of an antiphon, psalm verse and \"Gloria Patri\", which are spoken or sung at the beginning of the celebration. It is part of the Proper of the liturgy: that is, the part that changes over the liturgical year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972241}
{"src_title": "Evapotranspiration", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Water cycle.", "content": "Evapotranspiration is a significant water loss from drainage basins. Types of vegetation and land use significantly affect evapotranspiration, and therefore the amount of water leaving a drainage basin. Because water transpired through leaves comes from the roots, plants with deep reaching roots can more constantly transpire water. Herbaceous plants generally transpire less than woody plants because they usually have less extensive foliage. Conifer forests tend to have higher rates of evapotranspiration than deciduous forests, particularly in the dormant and early spring seasons. This is primarily due to the enhanced amount of precipitation intercepted and evaporated by conifer foliage during these periods. Factors that affect evapotranspiration include the plant's growth stage or level of maturity, percentage of soil cover, solar radiation, humidity, temperature, and wind. Isotope measurements indicate transpiration is the larger component of evapotranspiration.  Through evapotranspiration, forests may reduce water yield, except in unique ecosystems called cloud forests, and rainforests.  Trees in cloud forests collect the liquid water in fog or low clouds onto their surface, which drips down to the ground. These trees still contribute to evapotranspiration, but often collect more water than they evaporate or transpire.  In rainforests, water yield is increased (compared to cleared land in the same climatic zone) as evapotranspiration increases humidity within the forest (a portion of which returns quickly as precipitation experienced at ground level as rain). The density of the vegetation reduces temperatures at ground level (thereby reducing losses due to surface evaporation), and reduces wind speed (thereby reducing the loss of airborne moisture). The combined effect results in increased surface stream flows and a higher ground water table whilst the rainforest is preserved. Clearing of rainforests frequently leads to desertification as ground level temperatures increase, vegetation cover is lost or intentionally destroyed by clearing and burning, soil moisture is reduced by wind, and soils are easily eroded by high wind and rainfall events.  In areas that are not irrigated, actual evapotranspiration is usually no greater than precipitation, with some buffer in time depending on the soil's ability to hold water. It will usually be less because some water will be lost due to percolation or surface runoff. An exception is areas with high water tables, where capillary action can cause water from the groundwater to rise through the soil matrix to the surface. If potential evapotranspiration is greater than the actual precipitation, then soil will dry out, unless irrigation is used.  Evapotranspiration can never be greater than PET, but can be lower if there is not enough water to be evaporated or plants are unable to transpire readily.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Estimating evapotranspiration.", "content": "Evapotranspiration can be measured or estimated using several methods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Indirect methods.", "content": "Pan evaporation data can be used to estimate lake evaporation, but transpiration and evaporation of intercepted rain on vegetation are unknown. There are three general approaches to estimate evapotranspiration indirectly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Catchment water balance.", "content": "Evapotranspiration may be estimated by creating an equation of the water balance of a drainage basin. The equation balances the change in water stored within the basin (\"S\") with inputs and outgoes:  formula_1  The input is precipitation (\"P\") and the outputs are evapotranspiration (which is to be estimated), streamflow (\"Q\"), and groundwater recharge (\"D\"). If the change in storage, precipitation, streamflow, and groundwater recharge are all estimated, the missing flux, ET, can be estimated by rearranging the above equation as follows:  formula_2", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Energy balance.", "content": "A third methodology to estimate the actual evapotranspiration is the use of the energy balance.  formula_3  where λE is the energy needed to change the phase of water from liquid to gas, R is the net radiation, G is the soil heat flux and H is the sensible heat flux. Using instruments like a scintillometer, soil heat flux plates or radiation meters, the components of the energy balance can be calculated and the energy available for actual evapotranspiration can be solved.  The SEBAL and METRIC algorithms solve the energy balance at the earth's surface using satellite imagery. This allows for both actual and potential evapotranspiration to be calculated on a pixel-by-pixel basis. Evapotranspiration is a key indicator for water management and irrigation performance. SEBAL and METRIC can map these key indicators in time and space, for days, weeks or years.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Experimental methods for measuring evapotranspiration.", "content": "One method for measuring evapotranspiration is with a weighing lysimeter. The weight of a soil column is measured continuously and the change in storage of water in the soil is modeled by the change in weight. The change in weight is converted to units of length using the surface area of the weighing lysimeter and the unit weight of water. evapotranspiration is computed as the change in weight plus rainfall minus percolation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eddy covariance.", "content": "The most direct method of measuring evapotranspiration is with the eddy covariance technique in which fast fluctuations of vertical wind speed are correlated with fast fluctuations in atmospheric water vapor density. This directly estimates the transfer of water vapor (evapotranspiration) from the land (or canopy) surface to the atmosphere.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Hydrometeorological equations.", "content": "The most general and widely used equation for calculating reference ET is the Penman equation. The Penman-Monteith variation is recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization and the American Society of Civil Engineers. The simpler Blaney-Criddle equation was popular in the Western United States for many years but it is not as accurate in regions with higher humidities. Other solutions used includes Makkink, which is simple but must be calibrated to a specific location, and Hargreaves. To convert the reference evapotranspiration to actual crop evapotranspiration, a crop coefficient and a stress coefficient must be used. Crop coefficients as used in many hydrological models usually change along the year to accommodate to the fact that crops are seasonal and, in general, plants behave differently along the seasons: perennial plants mature over multiple seasons, and stress responses can significantly depend upon many aspects of plant condition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Potential evapotranspiration.", "content": "Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is the amount of water that would be evaporated and transpired by a specific crop or ecosystem if there were sufficient water available. This demand incorporates the energy available for evaporation and the ability of the lower atmosphere to transport evaporated moisture away from the land surface. Potential evapotranspiration is higher in the summer, on less cloudy days, and closer to the equator, because of the higher levels of solar radiation that provides the energy for evaporation. Potential evapotranspiration is also higher on windy days because the evaporated moisture can be quickly moved from the ground or plant surface, allowing more evaporation to fill its place.  Potential evapotranspiration is expressed in terms of a depth of water, and can be graphed during the year (see figure).  Potential evapotranspiration is usually measured indirectly, from other climatic factors, but also depends on the surface type, such as free water (for lakes and oceans), the soil type for bare soil, and the vegetation. Often a value for the potential evapotranspiration is calculated at a nearby climate station on a reference surface, conventionally short grass. This value is called the reference evapotranspiration, and can be converted to a potential evapotranspiration by multiplying with a surface coefficient. In agriculture, this is called a crop coefficient. The difference between potential evapotranspiration and precipitation is used in irrigation scheduling.  Average annual potential evapotranspiration is often compared to average annual precipitation, P. The ratio of the two, P/PET, is the aridity index.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's land and ocean surface to the atmosphere. Evaporation accounts for the movement of water to the air from sources such as the soil, canopy interception, and waterbodies. Transpiration accounts for the movement of water within a plant and the subsequent loss of water as vapor through stomata in its leaves. Evapotranspiration is an important part of the water cycle. An element (such as a tree) that contributes to evapotranspiration can be called an evapotranspirator.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972242}
{"src_title": "Second Intermediate Period of Egypt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End of the Middle Kingdom.", "content": "The 12th Dynasty of Egypt came to an end at the end of the 19th century BC with the death of Queen Sobekneferu (1806–1802 BC). Apparently she had no heirs, causing the 12th dynasty to come to a sudden end, and, with it, the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom; it was succeeded by the much weaker 13th Dynasty. Retaining the seat of the 12th dynasty, the 13th dynasty ruled from Itjtawy (\"Seizer-of-the-Two-Lands\") for most of its existence, switching to Thebes in the far south possibly since the reign of Merneferre Ay.  The 13th dynasty is notable for the accession of the first formally recognised Semitic-speaking king, Khendjer (\"Boar\"). The 13th Dynasty proved unable to hold on to the entire territory of Egypt however, and a provincial ruling family of Western Asian descent in Avaris, located in the marshes of the eastern Nile Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the 14th Dynasty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hyksos rule.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "15th dynasty.", "content": "The 15th Dynasty dates approximately from 1650 to 1550 BC. Known rulers of the Fifteenth Dynasty are as follows:  The 15th Dynasty of Egypt was the first Hyksos dynasty. It ruled from Avaris but did not control the entire land. The Hyksos preferred to stay in northern Egypt since they infiltrated from the northeast. The names and order of their kings is uncertain. The Turin King list indicates that there were six Hyksos kings, with an obscure Khamudi listed as the final king of the 15th Dynasty.  Some scholars argue there were two Apophis kings named Apepi I and Apepi II, but this is primarily due to the fact there are two known prenomens for this king: Awoserre and Aqenenre. However, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt maintains in his study of the Second Intermediate Period that these prenomens all refer to one man, Apepi, who ruled Egypt for 40 or more years. This is also supported by the fact that this king employed a third prenomen during his reign: Nebkhepeshre. Apepi likely employed several different prenomens throughout various periods of his reign. This scenario is not unprecedented, as later kings, including the famous Ramesses II and Seti II, are known to have used two different prenomens in their own reigns.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "16th dynasty.", "content": "The 16th Dynasty ruled the Theban region in Upper Egypt for 70 years.  Of the two chief versions of Manetho's \"Aegyptiaca\", Dynasty XVI is described by the more reliable Africanus (supported by Syncellus) as \"shepherd [\"hyksos\"] kings\", but by Eusebius as Theban.  Ryholt (1997), followed by Bourriau (2003), in reconstructing the Turin canon, interpreted a list of Thebes-based kings to constitute Manetho's Dynasty XVI, although this is one of Ryholt's \"most debatable and far-reaching\" conclusions. For this reason other scholars do not follow Ryholt and see only \"insufficient\" evidence for the interpretation of the 16th Dynasty as Theban.  The continuing war against Dynasty XV dominated the short-lived 16th dynasty. The armies of the 15th dynasty, winning town after town from their southern enemies, continually encroached on the 16th dynasty territory, eventually threatening and then conquering Thebes itself. In his study of the second intermediate period, the egyptologist Kim Ryholt has suggested that Dedumose I sued for a truce in the latter years of the dynasty, but one of his predecessors, Nebiryraw I, may have been more successful and seems to have enjoyed a period of peace in his reign.  Famine, which had plagued Upper Egypt during the late 13th dynasty and the 14th dynasty, also blighted the 16th dynasty, most evidently during and after the reign of Neferhotep III.  From Ryholt's reconstruction of the Turin canon, 15 kings of the dynasty can now be named, five of whom appear in contemporary sources. While they were most likely rulers based in Thebes itself, some may have been local rulers from other important Upper Egyptian towns, including Abydos, El Kab and Edfu. By the reign of Nebiriau I, the realm controlled by the 16th dynasty extended at least as far north as Hu and south to Edfu. Not listed in the Turin canon (after Ryholt) is Wepwawetemsaf, who left a stele at Abydos and was likely a local kinglet of the Abydos Dynasty.  Ryholt gives the list of kings of the 16th dynasty as shown in the table below. Others, such as Helck, Vandersleyen, Bennett combine some of these rulers with the Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt. The estimated dates come from Bennett's publication.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Abydos dynasty.", "content": "The Abydos Dynasty may have been a short-lived local dynasty ruling over part of Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in Ancient Egypt and was contemporary with the 15th and 16th Dynasties, approximately from 1650 to 1600 BC. The existence of an Abydos Dynasty was first proposed by Detlef Franke and later elaborated on by Egyptologist Kim Ryholt in 1997. The existence of the dynasty may have been vindicated in January 2014, when the tomb of the previously unknown pharaoh Seneb Kay was discovered in Abydos. The dynasty tentatively includes four rulers: Wepwawetemsaf, Pantjeny, Snaaib, and Seneb Kay.  The royal necropolis of the Abydos Dynasty was found in the southern part of Abydos, in an area called Anubis Mountain in ancient times. The rulers of the Abydos Dynasty placed their burial ground adjacent to the tombs of the Middle Kingdom rulers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "17th dynasty.", "content": "Around the time Memphis and Itj-tawy fell to the Hyksos, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes declared its independence from Itj-tawy, becoming the 17th Dynasty. This dynasty would eventually lead the war of liberation that drove the Hyksos back into Asia. The Theban-based 17th Dynasty restored numerous temples throughout Upper Egypt while maintaining peaceful trading relations with the Hyksos kingdom in the north. Indeed, Senakhtenre Ahmose, the first king in the line of Ahmoside kings, even imported white limestone from the Hyksos-controlled region of Tura to make a granary door at the Temple of Karnak. However, his successors — the final two kings of this dynasty — Seqenenre Tao and Kamose are traditionally credited with defeating the Hyksos in the course of the wars of liberation. With the creation of the 18th Dynasty around 1550 BC the New Kingdom period of Egyptian history begins with Ahmose I, its first pharaoh, completing the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt and placing the country, once again, under centralised administrative control.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when Ancient Egypt fell into disarray for a second time, between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. The concept of a \"Second Intermediate Period\" was coined in 1942 by German Egyptologist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972243}
{"src_title": "Djedefre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Djedefre married his brother Kawab's widow, Hetepheres II, who was sister to both of them, and who perhaps married a third brother of theirs, Khafre, after Djedefre's death. Another queen, Khentetenka is known from statue fragments in the Abu Rowash mortuary temple. Known children of Djedefre are:  The French excavation team led by Michel Vallogia found the names of two other possible children of Djedefre in the pyramid complex:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "The Turin King List credits him with a rule of eight years, but the highest known year referred to during this reign appears to be the year of his 11th cattle count. The anonymous year of the 11th count date presumably of Djedefre was found written on the underside of one of the massive roofing-block beams which covered Khufu's southern boat-pits by Egyptian work crews. Miroslav Verner notes that in the work crew's mason marks and inscriptions, \"either Djedefra's throne name or his Golden Horus name occur exclusively.\" Verner writes that the current academic opinion regarding the attribution of this date to Djedefre is disputed among Egyptologists: Rainer Stadelman, Vassil Dobrev, Peter Janosi favour dating it to Djedefre whereas Wolfgang Helck, Anthony Spalinger, Jean Vercoutter and W.S. Smith attribute this date to Khufu instead on the assumption \"that the ceiling block with the date had been brought to the building site of the boat pit already in Khufu's time and placed in position [only] as late as during the burial of the funerary boat in Djedefre's time.\"  The German scholar Dieter Arnold, in a 1981 MDAIK paper noted that the marks and inscriptions of the blocks from Khufu's boat pit seem to form a coherent collection relating to the different stages of the same building project realised by Djedefre's crews. Verner stresses that such marks and inscriptions usually pertained to the breaking of the blocks in the quarry, their transportation, their storage and manipulation in the building site itself.: \"In this context, the attribution of just a single inscription—and what is more, the only one with a date—on all the blocks from the boat pit to somebody other than Djedefra does not seem very plausible.\"  Verner also notes that the French-Swiss team excavating Djedefre's pyramid have discovered that this king's pyramid was really finished in his reign. According to Vallogia, Djedefre's pyramid largely made use of a natural rock promontory which represented circa 45% of its core; the side of the pyramid was 200 cubits long and its height was 125 cubits. The original volume of the monument of Djedefre, hence, approximately equalled that of Menkaura's own pyramid. Therefore, the argument that Djedefre enjoyed a short reign because his pyramid was unfinished is somewhat discredited. This means that Djedefre likely ruled Egypt for a minimum of 11 years if the cattle count was annual, or 22 years if it was biennial; Verner, himself, supports the shorter, 11-year figure and notes that \"the relatively few monuments and records left by Djedefra do not seem to favour a very long reign\" for this king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pyramid complex.", "content": "Djedefre continued the move north in the location of pyramids by building his (now ruined) pyramid at Abu Rawash, some to the north of Giza. It is the northernmost part of the Memphite necropolis.  While Egyptologists previously assumed that his pyramid at this heavily denuded site was unfinished upon his death, more recent excavations from 1995 to 2005 have established that it was indeed completed. The most recent evidence indicates that its current state is the result of extensive plundering in later periods while \"the king's statues [were] smashed as late as the 2nd century AD.\"  Some believe that the sphinx of his wife, Hetepheres II, which was part of Djedefre's pyramid complex, was the first sphinx created. In 2004, evidence that Djedefre was responsible for the building of the Sphinx at Giza in the image of his father was reported by the French Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev.  Due to the poor condition of Abu Rawash, only small traces of his mortuary complex have been found. Only the rough ground plan of his mud brick mortuary temple was able to be traced—with some difficulty—\"in the usual place on the east face of the pyramid.\" His pyramid causeway proved to run from north to south rather than the more conventional east to west, while no valley temple has been found.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Djedefre (also known as Djedefra and Radjedef – Modern Greek: Ρετζεντέφ) was an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) of the 4th Dynasty during the Old Kingdom. He is well known by the Hellenized form of his name Rhatoisēs (Ῥατοίσης) by Manetho. Djedefre was the son and immediate throne successor of Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza; his mother is not known for certain. He is the king who introduced the royal title \"Sa-Rê\" (meaning “Son of Ra”) and the first to connect his cartouche name with the sun god Ra.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972244}
{"src_title": "Friesian horse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Breed characteristics.", "content": "The Friesian breed is most often recognised by its black coat colour, however, colour alone is not the only distinguishing characteristic; Friesians are occasionally chestnut as some bloodlines do carry the \"red\" ('e\") gene. In the 1930s, chestnuts and bays were seen. Friesians rarely have white markings of any kind; most registries allow only a small star on the forehead for purebred registration. To be accepted as breeding stock by the FPS studbook (\"Friesch Paarden Stamboek\"), a stallion must pass a rigorous approval process.  The Friesian stands on average about, although it may vary from at the withers, and mares or geldings must be at least to qualify for a \"star-designation\" pedigree. Horses are judged at an inspection, or \"keuring\", by Dutch judges, who decide whether the horse is worthy of star designation. The breed has powerful overall conformation and good bone structure, with what is sometimes called a \"Baroque\" body type. Friesians have long, arched necks and well-chiseled, short-eared, \"Spanish-type\" heads. They have powerful, sloping shoulders, compact, muscular bodies with strong, sloping hindquarters and low-set tails. Their limbs are comparatively short and strong. A Friesian horse also has a long, thick mane and tail, often wavy, and \"feather\"—long, silky hair on the lower legs—deliberately left untrimmed. The breed is known for a brisk, high-stepping trot. The Friesian is considered willing, active, and energetic, but also gentle and docile. A Friesian tends to have great presence and to carry itself with elegance. Today, there are two distinct conformation types—the \"baroque\" type, which has the more robust build of the classical Friesian, and the modern, \"sport horse\" type, which is finer-boned. Both types are common, though the modern type is currently more popular in the show ring than is the baroque Friesian. However, conformation type is considered less important than correct movement.  The chestnut colour is generally not accepted for registration for stallions, though it is sometimes allowed for mares and geldings. A chestnut-coloured Friesian that competes is penalised. However, discoloration from old injuries or a black coat with fading from the sun is not penalised. The chestnut allele, a recessive genetic trait in the Friesian, does exist; in the 1990s, two mares gave birth to chestnut foals. The Friesch Paarden Stamboek began to attempt breeding out the chestnut colour in 1990, and today stallions with genetic testing indicating the presence of the chestnut or \"red\" gene, even if heterozygous and masked by black colour, are not allowed registration with the FPS. The American Friesian Association, which is not affiliated to the KFPS, allows horses with white markings and/or chestnut colour to be registered if purebred parentage can be proven. In 2014 there were eight stallion lines known to still carry the chestnut gene.  There are four genetic disorders acknowledged by the industry that may affect horses of Friesian breeding: dwarfism, hydrocephalus, a tendency for aortic rupture, and megaesophagus. There are genetic tests for the first two conditions. The Friesian is also among several breeds that may develop equine polysaccharide storage myopathy. Approximately 0.25% of Friesians are affected by dwarfism, which results in horses with a normal-sized head, a broader chest than normal, an abnormally long back and very short limbs. It is a recessive condition. Additionally, the breed has a higher-than-usual rate of digestive system disorders, and a greater tendency to have insect bite hypersensitivity. Like some other draught breeds, they are prone to a skin condition called verrucous pastern dermatopathy and may be generally prone to having a compromised immune system. Friesian mares have a very high 54% rate of retained placenta after foaling. Some normal-sized Friesians also have a propensity toward tendon and ligament laxity which may or may not be associated with dwarfism. The relatively small gene pool and inbreeding are thought to be factors behind most of these disorders.<ref name=Boerma", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Friesian (also Frizian) is a horse breed originating in Friesland, in the Netherlands. Although the conformation of the breed resembles that of a light draught horse, Friesians are graceful and nimble for their size. It is believed that during the Middle Ages, ancestors of Friesian horses were in great demand as war horses throughout continental Europe. Through the Early Middle Ages and High Middle Ages, their size enabled them to carry a knight in armour. In the Late Middle Ages, heavier, draught type animals were needed. Though the breed nearly became extinct on more than one occasion, the modern day Friesian horse is growing in numbers and popularity, used both in harness and under saddle. Most recently, the breed is being introduced to the field of dressage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972245}
{"src_title": "Commodification", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The earliest use of the word \"commodification\" in English attested in the \"Oxford English Dictionary\" dates from 1975. Use of the concept of commodification became common with the rise of critical discourse analysis in semiotics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business and economics.", "content": "The word \"commodification\", which describes assignment of economic value to something not previously considered in economic terms, is sometimes also used to describe the transformation of the market for a unique, branded product into a market based on undifferentiated products.  These two concepts are fundamentally different and the business community more commonly uses commoditization to describe the transformation of the market to undifferentiated products through increased competition, typically resulting in decreasing prices. While in economic terms, commoditization is closely related to and often follows from the stage when a market changes from one of monopolistic competition to one of perfect competition, a product essentially becomes a commodity when customers perceive little or no value difference between brands or versions.  Commoditization can be the desired outcome of an entity in the market, or it can be an unintentional outcome that no party actively sought to achieve. (For example, see Xerox#Trademark.)  Consumers can benefit from commoditization, since perfect competition usually leads to lower prices. Branded producers often suffer under commoditization, since the value of the brand (and ability to command price premiums) can be weakened.  However, false commoditization can create substantial risk when premier products do have substantial value to offer, particularly in health, safety and security. Examples are counterfeit drugs and generic network services (loss of 911).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commodification and commoditization.", "content": "The terms \"commodification\" and \"commoditization\" are sometimes used synonymously, particularly in the sense of this article, to describe the process of making commodities out of anything that was not used to be available for trade previously; compare anthropology usage.  However, other authors distinguish them (as done in this article), with \"commodification\" used in social contexts to mean that a non-commercial good has become commercial, typically with connotations of \"corrupted by commerce\", while \"commoditization\" is used in business contexts to mean when the market for an existing product has become a commodity market, where products are interchangeable and there is heavy price competition. In a quip: \"Microprocessors are commoditized. Love is commodified.\"  The difference between the terms of commodification (Marxist political theory) and commoditization (business theory) has been drawn by James Surowiecki (1998) and Douglas Rushkoff (2005). In particular, Rushkoff argued that the words \"commodification\" and \"commoditization\" were used to describe the two different processes of the assignment of value to a social good, and the movement towards undifferentiated competition, respectively:  \"Commodification\" (beginning early 1950s) is used to describe the process by which something which does not have an economic value is assigned a value and hence how market values can replace other social values. It describes a modification of relationships, formerly untainted by commerce, into commercial relationships in everyday use.  \"Commoditization\" (early 1990s in business theory) is the process by which goods that have economic value and are distinguishable in terms of attributes (uniqueness or brand) end up becoming simple commodities in the eyes of the market or consumers. It is the movement of a market from differentiated to undifferentiated price competition and from monopolistic to perfect competition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural commodification.", "content": "American author and feminist bell hooks (Gloria Jean Watkins) refers to cultural commodification as \"eating the other\". By this, she means that cultural expressions revolutionary or post modern, can be sold to the dominant culture. Any messages of social change are not marketed for their messages but used as a mechanism to acquire a piece of the \"primitive\". Any interests in past historical culture almost always have a modern twist. According to Mariana Torgovnick:  What is clear now is that the West's fascination with the primitive has to do with its own crises in identity, with its own need to clearly demarcate subject and object even while flirting with other ways of experiencing the universe.  Hooks states that marginalized groups are seduced by this concept because of \"the promise of recognition and reconciliation\".  When the dominant culture demands that the Other be offered as sign that progressive political change is taking place, that the American Dream can indeed be inclusive of difference, it invites a resurgence of essentialist cultural nationalism.  Socialist movements are losing their voices on change because members of the \"movement\" are not promoting the message but participating in a fashion statement. Activists' hard works are marketable to the masses without accountability. An example of commodification is the colors red, black, and green, which are the colors of the African Liberation Army (ALA). For people of African descent these colors represent red (the innocent bloodshed of Africans), black (African people) and green (stolen land of Africa). These colors are marketed worldwide on all types of apparel and clothes.  Digital commodification is when a business or corporation uses information from an online community without their knowledge for profit. The commodification of information allows a higher up authority to make money rather than a collaborative system of free thoughts.  Commodification of indigenous cultures refers to \"areas in the life of a community which prior to its penetration by tourism have not been within the domain of economic relations regulated by criteria of market exchange” (Cohen 1988, 372). An example of this type of cultural commodification can be described through viewing the perspective of Hawaiian cultural change since the 1950s. A Hawaiian Luau, which was once a traditional performance reserved for community members and local people, but through the rise of tourism, this tradition has lost part of its cultural meaning and is now mostly a \"for profit\" performance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Marxist theory.", "content": "The Marxist understanding of \"commodity\" is distinct from its meaning in business. Commodity played a key role throughout Karl Marx's work; he considered it a cell-form of capitalism and a key starting point for an analysis of this politico-economic system. Marx extensively criticized the social impact of commodification under the name commodity fetishism and alienation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Polanyi, Karl. \"The Self-Regulating Market,\" \"Economics as a Social Science\", 2nd edn, 2004.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Within a capitalist economic system, commodification is the transformation of goods, services, ideas, nature, personal information and people into commodities or objects of trade. A commodity at its most basic, according to Arjun Appadurai, is \"anything intended for exchange,\" or any object of economic value.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972246}
{"src_title": "Moesia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "In ancient geographical sources, Moesia was bounded to the south by the Haemus (Balkans) and Scardus (Šar) mountains, to the west by the Drinus (Drina) river, on the north by the Donaris (Danube) and on the east by the Euxine (Black Sea).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The region was inhabited chiefly by Thracians, Dacians (Thraco-Dacians), Illyrian and Thraco-Illyrian peoples. The name of the region comes from Moesi, Thraco-Dacian peoples who lived there before the Roman conquest.  Parts of Moesia belonged to the polity of Burebista, a Getae king who established his rule over a large part of the northern Balkans between 82 BC and 44 BC. He led plunder and conquest raids across Central and Southeastern Europe, subjugating most of the neighbouring tribes. After his assassination in an inside plot, the empire was divided into several smaller states.  In 75 BC, C. Scribonius Curio, proconsul of Macedonia, took an army as far as the Danube and gained a victory over the inhabitants, who were finally subdued by M. Licinius Crassus, grandson of the triumvir and later also proconsul of Macedonia during the reign of Augustus c. 29 BC. The region, however, was not organized as a province until the last years of Augustus' reign; in 6 AD, mention is made of its governor, Caecina Severus (Cassius Dio lv. 29). As a province, Moesia was under an imperial consular legate (who probably also had control of Achaea and Macedonia).  In 86 AD the Dacian king Duras ordered his troops to attack Roman Moesia. After this attack, the Roman emperor Domitian personally arrived in Moesia and reorganized it in 87 AD into two provinces, divided by the river Cebrus (Ciabrus): to the west Moesia Superior - Upper Moesia, (meaning up river) and to the east Moesia Inferior - Lower Moesia (also called \"Ripa Thracia\"), (from the Danube river's mouth and then upstream). Each was governed by an imperial consular legate and a procurator.  The chief towns of Upper Moesia in the Principate were: Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminacium (sometimes called municipium Aelium; modern Kostolac), Remesiana (Bela Palanka), Bononia (Vidin), Ratiaria (Archar) and Skupi (modern Skopje); of Lower Moesia: Oescus (colonia Ulpia, Gigen), Novae (near Svishtov, the chief seat of Theodoric the Great), Nicopolis ad Istrum (Nikup; really near the river Yantra), Marcianopolis (Devnya), Tyras (Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi), Olvia, Odessus (Varna) and Tomis (Constanţa; to which the poet Ovid was banished). The last two were Greek towns which formed a pentapolis with Istros, Mesembria (Nessebar) and Apollonia (Sozopol).  From Moesia, Domitian began planning future campaigns into Dacia and by 87 he started a strong offensive against Dacia, ordering General Cornelius Fuscus to attack. Therefore, in the summer of 87, Fuscus led five or six legions across the Danube. The campaign against the Dacians ended without a decisive outcome, and Decebalus, the Dacian King, had brazenly flouted the terms of the peace (89 AD) which had been agreed on at the war's end.  Emperor Trajan later arrived in Moesia, and he launched his first military campaign into the Dacian Kingdom c. March–May 101, crossing to the northern bank of the Danube River and defeating the Dacian army near Tapae, a mountain pass in the Carpathians (see Second Battle of Tapae). Trajan's troops were mauled in the encounter, however, and he put off further campaigning for the year to heal troops, reinforce, and regroup. During the following winter, King Decebalus launched a counter-attack across the Danube further downstream, but this was repulsed. Trajan's army advanced further into Dacian territory and forced King Decebalus to submit to him a year later.  Trajan returned to Rome in triumph and was granted the title \"Dacicus\". The victory was celebrated by the Tropaeum Traiani. However, Decebalus in 105 undertook an invasion against Roman territory by attempting to stir up some of the tribes north of the river against the empire. Trajan took to the field again and after building with the design of Apollodorus of Damascus his massive bridge over the Danube, he conquered part of Dacia in 106 (see also Second Dacian War).  Sometime around 272, at the Moesian city of Naissus or Nissa (modern Niš in Serbia), future emperor Constantine I was born.  After the abandonment of Roman Dacia to the Goths by Aurelian (270–275) and the transfer of the Roman citizens from the former province to the south of the Danube, the central portion of Moesia took the name of \"Dacia Aureliana\" (later divided into \"Dacia Ripensis\" and \"Dacia Mediterranea\").  During administrative reforms of Emperor Diocletian (284–305), both of the Moesian provinces were reorganized. Moesia Superior was divided in two, northern part forming the province of Moesia Prima including cities Viminacium and Singidunum, while the southern part was organised as the new province of Dardania with cities Scupi and Ulpiana. At the same time, Moesia Inferior was divided into Moesia Secunda and Scythia Minor. Moesia Secunda's main cities included Marcianopolis (Devnya), Odessus (Varna), Nicopolis (Nikopol), Abrittus (Razgrad), Durostorum (Silistra), Transmarisca (Tutrakan), Sexaginta Prista (Ruse) and Novae (Svishtov), all in Bulgaria today.  As a frontier province, Moesia was strengthened by stations and fortresses erected along the southern bank of the Danube, and a wall was built from Axiopolis to Tomi as a protection against the Scythians and Sarmatians. The garrison of Moesia Secunda included Legio I Italica and Legio XI Claudia, as well as independent infantry units, cavalry units, and river flotillas. The Notitia Dignitatum lists its units and their bases as of the 390s CE. Units in Scythia Minor included Legio I Iovia and Legio II Herculia.  After 238 AD, Moesia was frequently invaded or raided by the Dacian Carpi, and the East Germanic tribe of the Goths, who invaded Moesia in 250. Hard-pressed by the Huns, the Goths again crossed the Danube during the reign of Valens (376) and with his permission settled in Moesia. After they settled, quarrels soon took place, and the Goths under Fritigern defeated Valens in a great battle near Adrianople. These Goths are known as Moeso-Goths, for whom Ulfilas made the Gothic translation of the Bible.  The Slavs allied with the Avars invaded and destroyed much of Moesia in 583–587 in the Avar–Byzantine wars. Moesia was settled by Slavs during the 7th century. Bulgars, arriving from Old Great Bulgaria, conquered Lower Moesia by the end of the 7th century. During the 8th century the Byzantine Empire lost also Upper Moesian territory to the First Bulgarian Empire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Moesia (; Latin: \"Moesia\", ) was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans south of the Danube River. It included most of the territory of modern-day Central Serbia, Kosovo and the northern parts of the modern North Macedonia (Moesia Superior), Northern Bulgaria, Romanian Dobrudja and Southern Ukraine (Moesia Inferior).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972247}
{"src_title": "Confederation of African Football", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "CAF's anthem.", "content": "On 18 September 2007 the CAF launched a competition for all African composers to create its Anthem. The CAF anthem is a musical composition, without lyrics, which and reflect the cultural patrimony and African music. The duration of the anthem is 74 seconds. The chosen anthem was first published to the site on 16 January 2008. The usage of the anthem and its composer are still unknown.  Announced 18 September 2007", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current leaders.", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CAF members and zones.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional zones.", "content": "CAF National League", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Competitions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CAF competitions.", "content": "National teams:  Clubs:  Inter Continental:  Regional:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "The main competition for men's national teams Africa Cup of Nations, started in 1957. In 2009, the CAF started organising another competition for men's national teams, the African Nations Championship composed exclusively of national players playing in the national championship. CAF also runs national competitions at Under-20 and Under-17 levels. For women's national teams, CAF operates the Africa Women Cup of Nations for senior national sides and the African U-20 Women's World Cup qualification at under-20 level, since 2008 there is an African U-17 Cup of Nations for Women for under-17 sides.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "CAF also runs the two main club competitions in Africa: the CAF Champions League was first held in 1964, and was known as the African Cup of Champions Clubs (or just African Cup) until 1997; and the CAF Confederation Cup, for national cup winners and high-placed league teams, was launched by CAF in 2004 as a successor to the African Cup Winners' Cup (begun in 1975). A third competition, the CAF Cup, started in 1992 and was absorbed into the CAF Confederation Cup in 2004.  The CAF Super Cup, which pits the winners of the Champions League against the winners of the CAF Confederation Cup (previously the winners of the Cup Winners' Cup), came into being in 1992.  The Afro-Asian Club Championship was jointly organised with AFC between the winners of the CAF Champions League and the winners of the AFC Champions League. The last Afro-Asian Club Championship took place in 1998.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sponsors.", "content": "In October 2004, MTN has contracted a four-year deal to sponsor African football's major competitions. This agreement, which worthed US$12.5 million, was the biggest sponsorship deal in African sporting history at that time.  In July 2009, Orange has signed an eight-year deal to sponsor African football's major competitions. Terms of the deal were not disclosed but CAF previous year put a value of €100 million for a comprehensive and long-term package of its competitions when it opened tenders for a new sponsor. The deal included the African Nations Cup, the CAF Champions League, the CAF Confederation Cup, the CAF Super Cup, the African Nations Championship and the African Youth Championship.  In July 2016, Total replaced Orange as the main sponsor and has secured an eight-year sponsorship package from the Confederation of African Football (CAF) for a value of €950 million to support ETof its principal competitions, including the CAF Champions League, renamed Total CAF Champions League.  The CAF current main sponsors are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rankings.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Men's national teams.", "content": "Rankings are calculated by FIFA. Last updated 24 October 2019", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Women's national teams.", "content": "Rankings are calculated by FIFA.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CAF overall ranking of African clubs titles.", "content": "The following clubs are the top 10 clubs in CAF competitions.  \"Update as of 21 February 2015 in chronological order.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CAF overall ranking of African clubs.", "content": "Rankings are calculated by the CAF based on points gathered by African teams throughout their participation in international club tournaments organized by either the FIFA, Harrison Campbell, or the CAF since the establishment of the first African Cup of Champions Clubs in 1964.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beach soccer national teams.", "content": "Rankings are calculated by Beach Soccer Worldwide (BSWW). Top ten, last updated 12 March 2018", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Major tournaments.", "content": "For each tournament, the flag of the host country and the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "FIFA Women's World Cup.", "content": "Teams are sorted by number of appearances.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CAF Best Footballers of the Century.", "content": "The voting to select the best of the century refers to three categories: male player, goalkeeper and female player and is obtained from five different steps. The resulting best players and goalkeepers were honored during the \"World Football Gala 1999\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CAF Golden Jubilee Best Players poll.", "content": "In 2007 CAF published the list of top 30 African players who played in the period from 1957 to 2007, as part of the celebration of CAF's 50th anniversary, ordered according to an online poll.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CAF resolutions.", "content": "Awards:  Qualifications:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International Top Goal Scorers.", "content": "This table is for players with more than 30 goals. Players in bold are still active at international level", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Confederation of African Football or CAF () is the administrative and controlling body for African association football. CAF represents the national football associations of Africa, runs continental, national, and club competitions, and controls the prize money, regulations and media rights to those competitions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972248}
{"src_title": "Crocus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name of the genus is derived from the Greek κρόκος (\"krokos\"). This, in turn, is probably a loan word from a Semitic language, related to Hebrew כרכום \"karkōm\", Aramaic ܟܟܘܪܟܟܡܡܐ \"kurkama\", and Arabic \"kurkum\", which mean \"saffron\" (\"Crocus sativus\"), \"saffron yellow\" or turmeric (see \"Curcuma\"). The word ultimately traces back to the Sanskrit \"kunkumam\" () for \"saffron\". The English name is a learned 16th-century adoption from the Latin, but Old English already had \"croh\" \"saffron\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Cultivation and harvesting of Crocus sativus for saffron was first documented in the Mediterranean, notably on the island of Crete. Frescos showing them are found at the Knossos site on Crete, as well as from the comparably aged Akrotiri site on Santorini.  The first crocus seen in the Netherlands, where crocus species are not native, were from corms brought back in the 1560s from Constantinople by the Holy Roman Emperor's ambassador to the Sublime Porte, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq. A few corms were forwarded to Carolus Clusius at the botanical garden in Leiden. By 1620, the approximate date of Ambrosius Bosschaert's painting (\"illustration, below\"), new garden varieties had been developed, such as the cream-colored crocus feathered with bronze at the base of the bouquet, similar to varieties still on the market. Bosschaert, working from a preparatory drawing to paint his composed piece spanning the whole of spring, exaggerated the crocus so that it passes for a tulip, but its narrow, grass-like leaves give it away.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The cup-shaped, solitary, salverform flower tapers off into a narrow tube. Their colors vary enormously, although lilac, mauve, yellow, and white are predominant. The grass-like, ensiform leaf shows generally a white central stripe along the leaf axis. The leaf margin is entire.  A crocus has three stamens, while a similar-looking toxic plant, \"Colchicum\", sometimes popularly referred to as \"autumn crocus\", has six stamens. In addition, crocus have one style, while \"Colchicum\" have three.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Crocuses are distributed across central and southern Europe, North Africa, Middle East, and Central Asia to western China.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "The taxonomic classification proposed by Brian Mathew in 1982 was based mainly on three character states: The seven species discovered since then have been integrated into this classification.  Molecular analysis carried out at the University of Copenhagen suggests this classification should be reviewed. In particular, the DNA data suggest there are no grounds for isolating \"C. banaticus\" in its own subgenus \"Crociris\", though it is a unique species in the genus. Because it has a prophyll at the base of the pedicel, it therefore would fall within section \"Crocus\", although its exact relationship to the rest of the subgenus remains unclear.  Another anomalous species, \"C. baytopiorum\", should now be placed in a series of its own, series \"Baytopi\". \"C. gargaricus\" subsp. \"herbertii\" has been raised to species status, as \"C. herbertii\". Perhaps most surprisingly, autumn-flowering \"C. longiflorus\", the type species of series \"Longiflori\" (long regarded by Mathew as \"a disparate assemblage\"), now seems to lie within series \"Verni\". In addition, the position of \"C. malyi\" is currently unclear.  DNA analysis and morphological studies suggest further that series \"Reticulati\", \"Biflori\" and \"Speciosi\" are \"probably inseparable\". \"C. adanensis\" and \"C. caspius\" should probably be removed from \"Biflori\"; \"C. adanensis\" falls in a clade with \"C. paschei\" as a sister group to the species of series \"Flavi\"; \"C. caspius\" appears to be sister to the species of series \"Orientales\".  The study shows \"no support for a system of sections as currently defined\", although, despite the many inconsistencies between Mathew's 1982 classification and the current hypothesis, \"the main assignment of species to the sections and series of that system is actually supported\". The authors state, \"further studies are required before any firm decisions about a hierarchical system of classification can be considered\" and conclude \"future re-classification is likely to involve all infrageneric levels, subgenera, sections and series\".  Below is the classification proposed by Brian Mathew in 1982, adapted in accordance with the above findings:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Autumn crocus.", "content": "Some species, known as \"autumn crocus\", flower in late summer and autumn, often before their leaves appear. They should not be confused with a different genus of autumn-flowering plants, \"Colchicum\". Autumn-flowering species of crocus include: \"C. laevigatus\" has a long flowering period which starts in late autumn or early winter and may continue into February.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "About 30 of the species are cultivated, including \"Crocus sativus\" for saffron production. The varieties cultivated for decoration mainly represent five species: \"C. vernus\", \"C. chrysanthus\", \"C. flavus\", \"C. sieberi\", and \"C. tommasinianus\". Among the first flowers to bloom in spring, crocuses are popular with gardeners. Their flowering time varies from the late winter \"C. tommasinianus\" to the later large hybridized and selected Giant \"Dutch crocuses\" (\"C. vernus\"). Crocus flowers and leaves are protected from frost by a waxy cuticle; in areas where snow and frost occasionally occur in the early spring, it is not uncommon to see early flowering crocuses blooming through a light late snowfall.  Most crocus species and hybrids should be planted in a sunny position, in gritty (sandy), well-drained soil, although a few prefer shadier sites in moist soil. Some are suitable for naturalising in grass. The corms should be planted about 3 to 4 cm deep; in heavy soils, a quantity of sharp grit should be worked in to improve drainage.  Some crocuses, especially \"C. tommasinianus\" and its selected forms and hybrids (such as 'Whitewell Purple' and 'Ruby Giant'), seed prolifically and are ideal for naturalising. They can, however, become weeds in rock gardens, where they will often appear in the middle of choice, mat-forming alpine plants, and can be difficult to remove.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "Though some true crocuses bloom with the fall (autumnal) rains, after summer's heat and drought, the name autumn crocus is often used as a common name for \"Colchicum\", which is in its own family (Colchicaceae) in the lily order Liliales, and which has six stamens; it is also known as meadow saffron, though unlike true saffron, the plant is toxic.  The prairie crocus or pasque flower (\"Pulsatilla nuttalliana\") belongs to the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metaphorical use.", "content": "The financial community sometimes refers to companies or economic sectors that rise early after an economic downturn as \"crocuses\" in reference to the flower's ability to thrive in the late winter or early spring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Crocus or Krokus () was a mortal youth who, because he was unhappy with his love affair with Smilax, was turned by the gods into a plant bearing his name, the crocus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "The crocus flower was used as one of the elements in the emblem of the 2019 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Poland; it was unveiled on 14 December 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Crocus (English plural: crocuses or croci) is a genus of flowering plants in the iris family comprising 90 species of perennials growing from corms. Many are cultivated for their flowers appearing in autumn, winter, or spring. The spice saffron is obtained from the stigmas of \"Crocus sativus\", an autumn-blooming species. Crocuses are native to woodland, scrub, and meadows from sea level to alpine tundra in North Africa and the Middle East, central and southern Europe, in particular Krokos, Greece, on the islands of the Aegean, and across Central Asia to Xinjiang Province in western China.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972249}
{"src_title": "Dissociation (psychology)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Dissociation in community samples is most commonly measured by the Dissociative Experiences Scale. The \"DSM-IV\" considers symptoms such as depersonalization, derealization and psychogenic amnesia to be core features of dissociative disorders. However, in the normal population, dissociative experiences that are not clinically significant are highly prevalent with 60% to 65% of the respondents indicating that they have had some dissociative experiences. The SCID-D is a structured interview used to assess and diagnose dissociation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trauma.", "content": "Dissociation has been described as one of a constellation of symptoms experienced by some victims of multiple forms of childhood trauma, including physical, psychological, and sexual abuse. This is supported by studies which suggest that dissociation is correlated with a history of trauma.  Dissociation appears to have a high specificity and a low sensitivity to having a self-reported history of trauma, which means that dissociation is much more common among those who are traumatized, yet at the same time there are many people who have suffered from trauma but who do not show dissociative symptoms.  Adult dissociation when combined with a history of child abuse and otherwise interpersonal violence-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been shown to contribute to disturbances in parenting behavior, such as exposure of young children to violent media. Such behavior may contribute to cycles of familial violence and trauma.  Symptoms of dissociation resulting from trauma may include depersonalization, psychological numbing, disengagement, or amnesia regarding the events of the abuse. It has been hypothesized that dissociation may provide a temporarily effective defense mechanism in cases of severe trauma; however, in the long term, dissociation is associated with decreased psychological functioning and adjustment.  Other symptoms sometimes found along with dissociation in victims of traumatic abuse (often referred to as \"sequelae to abuse\") include anxiety, PTSD, low self-esteem, somatization, depression, chronic pain, interpersonal dysfunction, substance abuse, self-harm and suicidal ideation or actions. These symptoms may lead the victim to present the symptoms as the source of the problem.  Child abuse, especially chronic abuse starting at early ages, has been related to high levels of dissociative symptoms in a clinical sample, including amnesia for abuse memories. It has also been seen that girls who suffered abuse during their childhood had higher reported dissociation scores than did boys who reported dissociation during their childhood. A non-clinical sample of adult women linked increased levels of dissociation to sexual abuse by a significantly older person prior to age 15, and dissociation has also been correlated with a history of childhood physical and sexual abuse. When sexual abuse is examined, the levels of dissociation were found to increase along with the severity of the abuse.  A 2012 review article supports the hypothesis that current or recent trauma may affect an individual's assessment of the more distant past, changing the experience of the past and resulting in dissociative states.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Psychoactive substances.", "content": "Psychoactive drugs can often induce a state of temporary dissociation. Substances with dissociative properties include ketamine, nitrous oxide, alcohol, tiletamine, amphetamine, dextromethorphan, MK-801, PCP, methoxetamine, salvia, muscimol, atropine, ibogaine, and minocycline.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "French philosopher and psychologist Pierre Janet (1859–1947) is considered to be the author of the concept of dissociation. Contrary to some conceptions of dissociation, Janet did not believe that dissociation was a psychological defense.  Psychological defense mechanisms belong to Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, not to Janetian psychology. Janet claimed that dissociation occurred only in persons who had a constitutional weakness of mental functioning that led to hysteria when they were stressed. Although it is true that many of Janet's case histories described traumatic experiences, he never considered dissociation to be a defense against those experiences. Quite the opposite: Janet insisted that dissociation was a mental or cognitive deficit. Accordingly, he considered trauma to be one of many stressors that could worsen the already-impaired \"mental efficiency\" of a hysteric, thereby generating a cascade of hysterical (in today's language, \"dissociative\") symptoms.  Although there was great interest in dissociation during the last two decades of the nineteenth century (especially in France and England), this interest rapidly waned with the coming of the new century. Even Janet largely turned his attention to other matters.  There was a sharp peak in interest in dissociation in America from 1890 to 1910, especially in Boston as reflected in the work of William James, Boris Sidis, Morton Prince, and William McDougall. Nevertheless, even in America, interest in dissociation rapidly succumbed to the surging academic interest in psychoanalysis and behaviorism.  For most of the twentieth century, there was little interest in dissociation. Despite this, a review of 76 previously published cases from the 1790s to 1942 was published in 1944, describing clinical phenomena consistent with that seen by Janet and by therapists today. In 1971, Bowers and her colleagues presented a detailed, and still quite valid, treatment article. The authors of this article included leading thinkers of their time – John G. Watkins (who developed ego-state therapy) and Zygmunt A. Piotrowski (famed for his work on the Rorschach test). Further interest in dissociation was evoked when Ernest Hilgard (1977) published his neodissociation theory in the 1970s. During the 1970s and 1980s an increasing number of clinicians and researchers wrote about dissociation, particularly multiple personality disorder.  Carl Jung described pathological manifestations of dissociation as special or extreme cases of the normal operation of the psyche. This structural dissociation, opposing tension, and hierarchy of basic attitudes and functions in normal individual consciousness is the basis of Jung's \"Psychological Types\". He theorized that dissociation is a natural necessity for consciousness to operate in one faculty unhampered by the demands of its opposite.  Attention to dissociation as a clinical feature has been growing in recent years as knowledge of post-traumatic stress disorder increased, due to interest in dissociative identity disorder, and as neuroimaging research and population studies show its relevance.  Historically the psychopathological concept of dissociation has also another different root: the conceptualization of Eugen Bleuler that looks into dissociation related to schizophrenia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "When receiving treatment, patients are assessed to discover their level of functioning. Some patients might be higher functioning than others. This is taken into account when creating a patient's potential treatment targets. To start off treatment, time is dedicated to increasing a patient's mental level and adaptive actions in order to gain a balance in both their mental and behavioral action. Once this is achieved, the next goal is to work on removing or minimizing the phobia made by traumatic memories, which is causing the patient to dissociate. The final step of treatment includes helping patients work through their grief in order to move forward and be able to engage in their own lives. This is done with the use of new coping skills attained through treatment.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dissociation is any of a wide array of experiences from mild detachment from immediate surroundings to more severe detachment from physical and emotional experiences. The major characteristic of all dissociative phenomena involves a detachment from reality, rather than a loss of reality as in psychosis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972250}
{"src_title": "John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and children.", "content": "John Cicero was the eldest son of Elector Albert III Achilles of Brandenburg with his first wife Margaret of Baden. As his father then ruled as Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (from 1457 also as Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach), he was born at the Hohenzollern residence of Ansbach in Franconia, where he spent his childhood years until in 1466 he received the call to Brandenburg as presumed heir by his uncle Elector Frederick II. He joined him in the War of the Succession of Stettin with the Pomeranian dukes, until Frederick resigned in 1470 and was succeeded by John's father, who in 1473 appointed him regent of the Brandenburg lands. After the Pomeranian struggle he also had to deal with the inheritance conflict upon the 1476 death of the Piast duke Henry XI of Głogów, husband of his half-sister Barbara.  On 25 August 1476 in Berlin John married Margaret of Wettin, a daughter of Landgrave William III of Thuringia with Anne, Duchess of Luxembourg. Their children were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rule.", "content": "John succeeded his father as elector in 1486, while the Franconian possessions of the Hohenzollern dynasty passed to his younger brothers Frederick I and Siegmund. He decreed that the \"Stadtschloss\" in Berlin, erected at the behest of his uncle Frederick II, should serve as the permanent residence of the Brandenburg electors, the beginning of the city's history as a state capital. He also implemented an excise tax on beer in 1488, which sparked several disturbances, mainly in the towns of the Altmark region.  In 1490 John was able to purchase the former Lusatian territory around Zossen, acknowledged by the Bohemian king Vladislaus II, and maintained the succession claims of the Hohenzollern dynasty to the Pomeranian lands held by the House of Griffins. He died in 1499 from pleural effusion at Arneburg Castle and was succeeded by his eldest son Joachim I. John was the first of the Hohenzollern electors to be buried in Brandenburg, first at Lehnin Abbey, later transferred to Berlin Cathedral by order of his grandson Joachim II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John II (; 2 August 1455 – 9 January 1499) was Elector of Brandenburg from 1486 until his death, the fourth of the House of Hohenzollern. After his death he received the posthumous cognomen Cicero, after the Roman orator of the same name, but the elector's eloquence and interest in the arts is debatable.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972251}
{"src_title": "Oratorio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"oratorio\" comes from the Latin verb orare, to pray. Hence oratory. The musical composition was \"named from the kind of musical services held in the church of the Oratory of St. Philip Neri in Rome (\"Congregazione dell'Oratorio\") in the latter half of the 16th cent.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1600, origins.", "content": "Although medieval plays such as the Ludus Danielis, and Renaissance dialogue motets such as those of the Oltremontani had characteristics of an oratorio, the first oratorio is usually seen as Emilio de Cavalieri's \"Rappresentatione di Anima, et di Corpo\". Monteverdi composed \"Il Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda\" which can be considered as the first secular oratorio.  The origins of the oratorio can be found in sacred dialogues in Italy. These were settings of Biblical, Latin texts and musically were quite similar to motets. There was a strong narrative, dramatic emphasis and there were conversational exchanges between characters in the work. Giovanni Francesco Anerio's \"Teatro harmonico spirituale\" (1619) is a set of 14 dialogues, the longest of which is 20 minutes long and covers the conversion of St. Paul and is for four soloists: Historicus (narrator), tenor; St. Paul, tenor; Voice from Heaven, bass; and Ananias, tenor. There is also a four-part chorus to represent any crowds in the drama. The music is often contrapuntal and madrigal-like. Philip Neri's Congregazione dell'Oratorio featured the singing of spiritual laude. These became more and more popular and were eventually performed in specially built oratories (prayer halls) by professional musicians. Again, these were chiefly based on dramatic and narrative elements. Sacred opera provided another impetus for dialogues, and they greatly expanded in length (although never really beyond 60 minutes long). Cavalieri's \"Rappresentatione di Anima, et di Corpo\" is an example of one of these works, but technically it is not an oratorio because it features acting and dancing. It does, however contain music in the monodic style. The first oratorio to be called by that name is Pietro della Valle's \"Oratorio della Purificazione\", but due to its brevity (only 12 minutes long) and the fact that its other name was \"dialogue\", we can see that there was much ambiguity in these names.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1650–1700.", "content": "During the second half of the 17th century, there were trends toward the secularization of the religious oratorio. Evidence of this lies in its regular performance outside church halls in courts and public theaters. Whether religious or secular, the theme of an oratorio is meant to be weighty. It could include such topics as Creation, the life of Jesus, or the career of a classical hero or Biblical prophet. Other changes eventually took place as well, possibly because most composers of oratorios were also popular composers of operas. They began to publish the librettos of their oratorios as they did for their operas. Strong emphasis was soon placed on arias while the use of the choir diminished. Female singers became regularly employed, and replaced the male narrator with the use of recitatives.  By the mid-17th century, two types had developed:  Lasting about 30–60 minutes, \"oratori volgari\" were performed in two sections, separated by a sermon; their music resembles that of contemporary operas and chamber cantatas.  The most significant composers of \"oratorio latino\" were in France Marc-Antoine Charpentier, 34 works, and in Italy Giacomo Carissimi, whose \"Jephte\" is regarded as the first masterpiece of the genre. Like most other Latin oratorios of the period, it is in one section only.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Late baroque.", "content": "In the late baroque oratorios increasingly became \"sacred opera\". In Rome and Naples Alessandro Scarlatti was the most noted composer. In Vienna the court poet Metastasio produced annually a series of oratorios for the court which were set by Caldara, Hasse and others. Metastasio's best known oratorio libretto \"La passione di Gesù Cristo\" was set by at least 35 composers from 1730–90. In Germany the middle baroque oratorios moved from the early-baroque \"Historia\" style Christmas and Resurrection settings of Heinrich Schütz, to the Passions of J. S. Bach, oratorio-passions such as \"Der Tod Jesu\" set by Telemann and Carl Heinrich Graun. After Telemann came the galante oratorio style of C. P. E. Bach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Georgian Britain.", "content": "The Georgian era saw a German-born monarch and German-born composer define the English oratorio. George Frideric Handel, most famous today for his \"Messiah\" (1741), also wrote other oratorios based on themes from Greek and Roman mythology and Biblical topics. He is also credited with writing the first English language oratorio, \"Esther\". Handel's imitators included the Italian Lidarti who was employed by the Amsterdam Jewish community to compose a Hebrew version of \"Esther\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Victorian era.", "content": "Britain continued to look to Germany for its composers of oratorio. The Birmingham Festival commissioned various oratorios including Felix Mendelssohn's \"Elijah\" in 1846, later performed in German as \"Elias\". German composer Georg Vierling is noted for modernizing the secular oratorio form.  John Stainer's \"The Crucifixion\" (1887) became the stereotypical battlehorse of massed amateur choral societies. Edward Elgar tried to revive the genre around the turn of century with the composition of \"The Light of Life (Lux Christi)\", \"The Dream of Gerontius\", \"The Apostles\" and \"The Kingdom\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twentieth-century.", "content": "Oratorio returned haltingly to public attention with Igor Stravinsky's \"Oedipus Rex\" in Paris (1927), William Walton's \"Belshazzar's Feast\" in Leeds (1931), Paul Hindemith's \"Das Unaufhörliche\" in Berlin (1931), Arthur Honegger's \"Le Roi David\" and \"Jeanne d'Arc au bûcher\" in Basel (1938), and Franz Schmidt's \"The Book with Seven Seals\" (\"Das Buch mit sieben Siegeln\") in Vienna (1938). Michael Tippett's oratorio \"A Child of Our Time\" (first performance, 1944) engages with events surrounding the Second World War. Postwar oratorios include Dmitri Shostakovich's \"Song of the Forests\" (1949), Sergei Prokofiev's \"On Guard for Peace\" (1950), Vadim Salmanov's \"Twelve\" (1957), Krzysztof Penderecki's \"St. Luke Passion\" (1966), Hans Werner Henze's \"Das Floß der Medusa\" (1971), René Clemencic's \"Kabbala\" (1992), and Osvaldo Golijov's \"La Pasión según San Marcos\" (2000). Mauricio Kagel composed \"Sankt-Bach-Passion\", an oratorio about Bach's life, for the tercenary of his birth in 1985.  Oratorios by popular musicians include Léo Ferré's \"La Chanson du mal-aimé\" (1954 and 1972), based on Guillaume Apollinaire's poem of the same name, and Paul McCartney's \"Liverpool Oratorio\" (1991).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twenty-first century.", "content": "When Dudley Buck composed his oratorio \"The Light of Asia\" in 1886, it became the first in the history of the genre to be based on the life of Buddha. Several late 20th and early 21st-century oratorios have since been based on Buddha's life or have incorporated Buddhist texts. These include Somei Satoh's 1987 \"Stabat Mater\", Dinesh Subasinghe's 2010 \"Karuna Nadee\", and Jonathan Harvey's 2011 \"Weltethos\". The 21st century also saw a continuation of Christianity-based oratorios with John Adams's \"El Niño\" and \"The Gospel According to the Other Mary\". Other religions represented include Ilaiyaraaja's \"Thiruvasakam\" (based on the texts of Hindu hymns to Shiva). Secular oratorios composed in the 21st century include Nathan Currier's \"Gaian Variations\" (based on the Gaia hypothesis), Richard Einhorn's \"The Origin\" (based on the writings of Charles Darwin), Jonathan Mills' \"Sandakan Threnody\" (based on the Sandakan Death Marches), and Neil Hannon's \"To Our Fathers in Distress\". The oratorio \"Laudato si'\", composed in 2016 by Peter Reulein on a libretto by Helmut Schlegel, includes the full Latin text of the Magnificat, expanded by writings of Clare of Assisi, Francis of Assisi and Pope Francis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Oratorios usually contain:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An oratorio () is a large musical composition for orchestra, choir, and soloists. Like most operas, an oratorio includes the use of a choir, soloists, an instrumental ensemble, various distinguishable characters, and arias. However, opera is musical theatre, while oratorio is strictly a concert piece – though oratorios are sometimes staged as operas, and operas are sometimes presented in concert form. In an oratorio the choir often plays a central role, and there is generally little or no interaction between the characters, and no props or elaborate costumes. A particularly important difference is in the typical subject matter of the text. Opera tends to deal with history and mythology, including age-old devices of romance, deception, and murder, whereas the plot of an oratorio often deals with sacred topics, making it appropriate for performance in the church. Protestant composers took their stories from the Bible, while Catholic composers looked to the lives of saints, as well as to Biblical topics. Oratorios became extremely popular in early 17th-century Italy partly because of the success of opera and the Catholic Church's prohibition of spectacles during Lent. Oratorios became the main choice of music during that period for opera audiences.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972252}
{"src_title": "Wieland Wagner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Wieland Wagner was the elder of two sons of Siegfried and Winifred Wagner, grandson of composer Richard Wagner, and great-grandson of composer Franz Liszt through Wieland's paternal grandmother.  In 1941, he married the dancer and choreographer Gertrud Reissinger. They had four children: Iris (b. 1942 d 2014 ), Wolf Siegfried (b. 1943), Nike (b. 1945) and Daphne (b. 1946). Their son Wolf married Marie Eleanore von Lehndorff-Steinort, sister of fashion model Veruschka, whose father was involved in the July 20 plot to assassinate Hitler.  Late in his life, Wieland had a love affair with the much younger Anja Silja, one of the singers he had recruited for Bayreuth.  In 1965, he was awarded the Pour le Mérite.  He died of lung cancer in October 1966.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Wieland Wagner is credited as an initiator of Regietheater through ushering in a new modern style to Wagnerian opera as a stage director and designer, substituting a symbolic for a naturalist staging and focusing on the psychology of the drama.  Wieland began his directorial career before World War II, working on operas by his father and grandfather. His innovative approach did not become clear until after the war. His design for the 1937 Bayreuth production of \"Parsifal\", for example, was conservative, though it did have film projections during the transformation scenes. When the Bayreuth Festival reopened after the war in 1951, Wieland and his brother Wolfgang became festival directors in place of their mother, whose association with Adolf Hitler had made her unacceptable. (Wieland's own past was, however, suppressed.) The revolutionary productions evoked extreme views both for and against.  Wieland's long-lasting 1951 production of \"Parsifal\" included many features with which he later would be identified. Post-war austerity and his own interest - influenced by Adolphe Appia - in lighting effects led to the use of round minimalist sets lit from above.  Wieland's first post-war \"Siegfried\" represented Fafner with a 30 ft statue of a dragon belching fire. In his later production of the opera he instead used pairs of giant eyes, which were picked out in turn from the back-projected forest, to suggest the movements of a huge creature stretching halfway down the Bayreuth hill.  Wieland's 1956 \"\"Mastersingers\" without Nuremberg\" was the symbolic culmination of his campaign to move away from naturalism in Wagner production with the medieval town represented by the cobbled shape of a street and, above the stage, a ball suggestive of a flowering tree.  Wieland's minimalism extended beyond the stage furniture and props. The performer of Gunther, for example, was expected to sing leaning forward in Act 1 of \"Götterdämmerung\" until he felt his authority challenged by Hagen and sat up straight. It is hard to imagine a greater contrast with traditional operatic acting.  Although Wieland is best remembered for productions of his grandfather's works at Bayreuth, he was often asked to work elsewhere in Germany and Europe. For example, he produced \"Tannhäuser\" and \"Der fliegende Holländer\" in Copenhagen, the \"Ring\" in Naples, Stuttgart and Cologne, and Beethoven's \"Fidelio\" in Stuttgart, London, Paris and Brussels.  Wieland's wife Gertrud collaborated with him to develop his interpretations of the operas and devise stage movement for the solo singers and chorus. Trained in modern dance, she is credited in the Bayreuth programs with choreography for \"Parsifal\", \"Tannhäuser\", and \"Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg\", but in fact she assisted him in all of his Bayreuth productions and many that he staged elsewhere, sometimes taking rehearsals on her own. This was not revealed until after Wieland's death, and Wolfgang Wagner claims in his memoirs that it's not true. But biographer Renate Schostack recounts many particulars of this collaboration, as does the daughter of Wieland and Gertrud, Nike Wagner.  The great love of his life was the German soprano Anja Silja. Only twenty years old, she took over as Senta in 1960 in Bayreuth when Leonie Rysanek cancelled, and created a sensation. Blessed with a strong, agile, youthful and gleaming voice, and with an extraordinary talent for acting, she embodied Wieland's ideals. She sang Elsa in \"Lohengrin\", Elisabeth and Venus in \"Tannhäuser\" and Eva in \"Meistersinger\" at Bayreuth. Elsewhere, he cast her as Isolde, Brünnhilde, Richard Strauss's Elektra, and Salome, and Alban Berg's Lulu and Marie in \"Wozzeck\". She even sang Desdemona in Verdi's \"Otello\" in Wieland's production.  Among the other celebrated singers who worked with Wieland were Hans Hotter, George London, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Eberhard Wächter, Thomas Stewart, Theo Adam, Josef Greindl, Jerome Hines, Wolfgang Windgassen, Ramón Vinay, Jess Thomas, Jon Vickers, Martha Mödl, Astrid Varnay, Régine Crespin, Rita Gorr, Leonie Rysanek, Birgit Nilsson, Jean Madeira, Grace Hoffman, Franz Crass, Victoria de los Ángeles, Grace Bumbry, Christa Ludwig, Martti Talvela, Carlos Alexander, Isabel Strauß, James King, Claude Heater, Ticho Parly, Dame Gwyneth Jones, and Fritz Wunderlich. Wieland wanted great actors, but he also wanted the singers to execute his plans faithfully.  Conductors with whom he collaborated were Hans Knappertsbusch, Clemens Krauss, Joseph Keilberth, André Cluytens, Pierre Boulez, Herbert von Karajan, Erich Leinsdorf, Heinz Tietjen, Lorin Maazel, Wolfgang Sawallisch, Karl Böhm, Bruno Maderna, and Thomas Schippers.  Wieland Wagner's life and work are discussed in Tony Palmer's 2011 film, \"The Wagner Family\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Associations with Hitler and Nazism.", "content": "Winifred Wagner's close friendship with Hitler meant that, as a teenager and young man, Wieland knew the dictator as \"Uncle Wolf\". In 1938 he joined the Nazi Party on Hitler's personal insistence. From September 1944 to April 1945 he held a sinecure at the Institut für physikalische Forschung in Bayreuth, founded by his brother-in-law Bodo Lafferentz, which was a satellite of the Flossenbürg concentration camp devoted to research and development of an improved guidance system of the V-2 rocket bomb. This enabled him to avoid being called into the Wehrmacht for the final defense of Germany. At the Institut he built models of stage sets and developed new stage lighting systems with the assistance of prisoner Hans Imhof, an electrical technician. At his denazification hearing in Bayreuth, on December 10, 1948, he was classified as a \"Mitläufer\" (follower), the fourth and lowest category, and fined DM100 plus the court costs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wieland Wagner (5 January 1917 – 17 October 1966) was a German opera director, grandson of Richard Wagner. As co-director of the Bayreuth Festival when it re-opened after World War II, he was noted for innovative new stagings of the operas, departing from the naturalistic scenery and lighting of the originals. His wartime involvement in the development of the V-2 rocket was kept secret for many years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972253}
{"src_title": "Julius von Payer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and military career.", "content": "Born in Schönau, Bohemia, his father Franz Anton Rudolf Payer was a retired officer of the Austrian Uhlans who died when Julius was only fourteen. His mother was Bladine, née John. Payer attended the \"k.k.\" cadet school in Łobzów near Kraków, Galicia (present-day Poland). Between 1857 and 1859 he studied at the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt.  From 1859, Payer served as a sub-lieutenant with the Austrian 36th infantry regiment in Verona, Venetia. He participated in the disastrous Battle of Solferino on 24 June 1859 and was honoured for his service. After promotion to the rank of lieutenant first class, he was posted to the garrison of Chioggia, Venetia in 1864. On 24 June 1866 he served the Battle of Custoza, seizing two guns, for which he was decorated and elevated to the rank of senior lieutenant.  Since 1863 Payer was assigned as a history and geography teacher to the cadet school in Eisenstadt, Hungary and to the Theresian Military Academy. In 1868 the Austro-Hungarian Minister of War appointed him a general staff officer at the \"k.k.\" Military Geographic Institute in Vienna, where he worked with August von Fligely.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alpine exploration.", "content": "In 1862 Payer had started exploratory tours of the Tyrolean Alps and the High Tauern range in his free time. After 1864 he explored the Adamello-Presanella Group and the Ortler Alps, making more than 60 first ascents. In 1864 he was, with his guide Giovanni Caturani, the first to climb Adamello (3,554 m) and missed making the first ascent of the Presanella (3,558 m) by just three weeks. All his explorations in the Ortler massif (from 1865 to 1868) were guided by from Sulden. Together, often accompanied by a porter, they ascended almost all significant unclimbed summits, including the Hoher Angelus (3,521 m), Vertainspitze (3,545 m), Palon de la Mare (3,703 m), Monte Zebru (3,735), and Monte Cevedale (3,769 m). Their new approach to the Ortler (3,905 m) became the normal route of ascent ever since.  His tours resulted in creating a detailed topographical map at a scale 1:56,000. Due to his achievements, Payer was transferred to the Austrian Military Geographic Institute. When in 1875, the first Alpine club hut above 3000 m was built on the normal route to the Ortler, it was named \"\" in his honor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Polar expedition.", "content": "In 1868 he was invited by the German geographer August Petermann to participate in the 2nd German North Polar Expedition as a topographer. Travelling to the coast of East Greenland on the \"Germania\" under Captain Carl Koldewey in 1869-1870, they reached as far north as Shannon Island. In 1871 he participated in the preliminary Austro-Hungarian expedition to Novaya Zemlya, with Karl Weyprecht.  From 1872-1874 Payer led the Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition with Karl Weyprecht, who was Commander at sea, while Payer was Commander at shore. During this voyage he made the discovery of Franz Joseph Land, however upon his return to Vienna many critics voiced doubts about its existence and about the experiences of other participants in the expedition. Payer could have proven his statements using testimonies, diaries and sketches, however his efforts were thwarted, including his promotion to Captain. In 1874 he resigned from the army because of political maneuvers against him and his brother officers' doubts about his discovery and his sledge journeys. He was awarded 44 Austro-Hungarian gulden on 1 October 1874 for the discovery of Franz Joseph Land (about equal to the monthly salary of a Sub-lieutenant at the time). He was also awarded the 1975 Royal Geographical Societys Patron's Gold Medal.  However, on 24 October 1876 he was elevated to the Austrian nobility which entitled him and his descendants to the style of \"Ritter von\" in the case of male and \"von\" in the case of female offspring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1877 Ritter von Payer married the ex-wife of a banker from Frankfurt am Main. They later had two children, Jules and Alice.  From 1877-1879 he studied painting at the Städelsches Institut in Frankfurt / Main. From 1880-1882 he continued his study of art at the Akademie der bildenden Künste in München.  From 1884-1890 he worked as a painter in Paris.  In 1890 he divorced his wife, returned to Vienna and founded a painting school for ladies.  In 1895 he planned a trip for painting to Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord in northeastern (Greenland).  In 1912 he planned (at the age of seventy) an expedition in a submarine to the North Pole.  He died in Veldes, in historic Upper Carniola, today part of Slovenia, in 1915.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Named after Julius von Payer.", "content": "Besides the Payerhütte mentioned above and several streets in Vienna, the main island of Franz Josef Land (Payer Island), the Payer Mountains in Antarctica and Payer Land in eastern Greenland have been named after Julius von Payer.  The southern satellite camp for the PolAres MARS2013 analog mission by the OeWF, approximately 80 km south of the base camp near Erfoud, Morocco, was named \"Station Payer\" during February 2013, after the main base camp had been called \"Camp Weyprecht\" during the landing ceremony in the morning of February 11, 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Julius Johannes Ludovicus Ritter von Payer (2 September 1841, – 29 August 1915), ennobled Ritter von Payer in 1876, was an officer of the Austro-Hungarian Army, mountaineer, arctic explorer, cartographer, painter, and professor at the Theresian Military Academy. He is chiefly known for the Austro-Hungarian North Pole expedition in 1872–74 and the discovery of Franz Josef Land.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972254}
{"src_title": "Populus nigra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The black poplar is a medium- to large-sized deciduous tree, reaching 20–30 m, and rarely 40 m tall. Normally, their trunks achieve up to 1.5 m in diameter, but some unusual individual trees in France have grown old enough to have much larger trunks – more than 3 meters DBH. Their leaves are diamond-shaped to triangular, 5–8 cm long and 6–8 cm broad, and green on both surfaces.  The species is dioecious, male and female flowers are on different plants, with flowers in catkins and pollination achieved by the wind. The black poplar grows in low-lying areas of moist ground. Like most other pioneer species, the tree is characterized by rapid growth and is able to quickly colonize open areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "Three subspecies are established and some botanists distinguish a fourth:  The subspecies \"P. n. betulifolia\" is one of the rarest trees in Great Britain and Ireland, with only about 7,000 trees known, of which only about 600 have been confirmed as female.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "Several cultivars have also been selected, these being propagated readily by cuttings:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Black poplar has a large distribution area throughout Europe and is also found in northern Africa and central and west Asia. The distribution area extends from the Mediterranean in the south to around 64° latitude in the north and from the British Isles in the west to Kazakhstan and China in the east. The distribution area also includes the Caucasus and large parts of the Middle East.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Populus nigra, the black poplar, is a species of cottonwood poplar, the type species of section \"Aigeiros\" of the genus \"Populus\", native to Europe, southwest and central Asia, and northwest Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972255}
{"src_title": "Bush dog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Adult bush dogs have soft long brownish-tan fur, with a lighter reddish tinge on the head, neck and back and a bushy tail, while the underside is dark, sometimes with a lighter throat patch. Younger individuals, however, have black fur over their entire bodies. Adults typically have a head-body length of, with a tail. They have a shoulder height of and weigh. They have short legs relative to their body, as well as a short snout and relatively small ears.  The teeth are adapted for its carnivorous habits. Uniquely for an American canid, the dental formula is for a total of 38 teeth. The bush dog is one of three canid species (the other two being the dhole and the African wild dog) with trenchant heel dentition, having a single cusp on the talonid of the lower carnassial tooth that increases the cutting blade length. Females have four pairs of teats and both sexes have large scent glands on either side of the anus. Bush dogs have partially webbed toes, which allow them to swim more efficiently.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "\"Speothos\" has a diploid chromosome number of 74, and so it is unable to produce fertile hybrids with other canids.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Bush dogs are found from Costa Rica in Central America and through much of South America east of the Andes, as far south as central Bolivia, Paraguay and southern Brazil. They primarily inhabit lowland forests up to elevation, wet savannas and other habitats near rivers, but may also be found in drier cerrado and open pasture. The historic range of this species may have extended as far north as Costa Rica where the species may still be found in suitable habitat. New, repeated observations of bush dog groups has been recorded in east-central (Barbilla National Park) and south-eastern (La Amistad International Park) Costa Rica, and a substantial portion of the Talamanca Mountains up to 120 km to the north-northwest and at elevations up to 2,119 m. There are three recognised subspecies:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "Bush dogs are carnivores and hunt during the day. Their typical prey are pacas, agouti and capybaras, all large rodents. Although they can hunt alone, bush dogs are usually found in small packs. The dogs can bring down much larger prey, including peccaries and rheas, and a pack of six dogs has even been reported hunting a tapir. When hunting paca, part of the pack chases it on land and part wait for it in the water, where it often retreats.  Bush dogs appear to be the most gregarious South American canid species. They use hollow logs and cavities such as armadillo burrows for shelter. Packs consist of a single mated pair and their immediate relations, and have a home range of. Only the adult pair breed, while the other members of the pack are subordinate, and help with rearing and guarding any pups. Packmates keep in contact with frequent whines, perhaps because visibility is poor in the undergrowth where they typically hunt. While eating large prey, parents position themselves at either ends of the animal, making it easier for the pups to disembowel it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Bush dogs mate throughout the year; oestrus lasts up to twelve days and occurs every 15 to 44 days. Like many other canids, bush dog mating includes a copulatory tie, during which the animals are locked together. Urine-marking plays a significant role in their pre-copulatory behavior.  Gestation lasts from 65 to 83 days and normally results in the birth of a litter of three to six pups, although larger litters of up to 10 have been reported. The young are born blind and helpless and initially weigh. The eyes open after 14 to 19 days and the pups first emerge from the nativity den shortly thereafter. The young are weaned at around four weeks and reach sexual maturity at one year. They can live for up to 10 years in captivity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The bush dog (\"Speothos venaticus\") is a canid found in Central and South America. In spite of its extensive range, it is very rare in most areas except in Suriname, Guyana and Peru; it was first identified by Peter Wilhelm Lund from fossils in Brazilian caves and was believed to be extinct. The bush dog is the only living species in the genus Speothos, and genetic evidence suggests that its closest living relative is the maned wolf of central South America or the African wild dog. The species is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972256}
{"src_title": "LilyPond", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The LilyPond project was started in 1996 by Han-Wen Nienhuys and Jan Nieuwenhuizen, after they decided to abandon work on MPP (MusiXTeX PreProcessor), a project they began collaborating on in 1995. Its name was inspired both by the Rosegarden project and an acquaintance of Nienhuys and Nieuwenhuizen named Suzanne, a name that means lily in Hebrew (שׁוּשָׁן).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Version 1.0.", "content": "LilyPond 1.0 was released on July 31, 1998, highlighting the development of a custom music font, Feta, and the complete separation of LilyPond from MusiXTeX.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Version 2.0.", "content": "LilyPond 2.0 was released on September 24, 2003, announcing a simplified syntax model and a much more complete set of facilities for notating various styles of music.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "LilyPond is mostly written in C++ and uses Scheme (interpreted by GNU Guile) as its extension language, allowing for user customization. It has a relatively large codebase; as of March 10, 2017, the source includes over 600,000 lines of C++, 140,000 lines of Scheme, and 120,000 lines of Python code.  It uses a simple text notation for music input, which LilyPond interprets and processes in a series of stages. In the final stage, music notation is output to PDF (via PostScript) or other graphical formats, such as SVG or PNG. LilyPond can also generate MIDI files that correspond to the music notation output.  LilyPond is a text-based application, so it does not contain its own graphical user interface to assist with score creation. (However, a text-editor based \"LilyPad\" GUI for Windows and MacOS is included by default on these systems.) It does, however, have a flexible input language that strives to be simple, easing the learning curve for new users. LilyPond adheres to the WYSIWYM paradigm; the workflow for typesetting music notation with LilyPond is similar to that of preparing documents with LaTeX.  LilyPond supports experimental musical notation. Its guitar facilities support alternative tunings, such as major-thirds tuning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Software features.", "content": "LilyPond's primary goal is to produce output comparable to professionally engraved scores instead of output that looks mechanical and computer-generated. An essay from the LilyPond website, written by LilyPond developers, explains some typographical issues addressed by LilyPond:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview of input syntax.", "content": "The native input language for LilyPond is comprehensive, and consists of many commands needed for expressing any sort of articulation, dynamic, meter, etc. It is similar to that of TeX. The ability to embed Scheme code within a LilyPond source file permits arbitrary extensions to the input language and assists with algorithmic composition. Some general syntactic features are listed below.  LilyPond's interface with Pango requires the input character encoding to be UTF-8. One benefit of this is that more than one language can be included in the same source file.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example of LilyPond input file.", "content": "\\version \"2.19.82\"  \\include \"english.ly\"  \\header {  \\paper {  \\score {", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "More complex output.", "content": "Lilypond can also create extensively customised output. An example is the short extract of the Stockhausen piano piece below.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collaboration with other projects.", "content": "Several graphical scorewriters—such as Rosegarden, NoteEdit, Canorus, Denemo, and TuxGuitar—can export files directly to LilyPond format. Other graphical applications serve as front ends to LilyPond, including Frescobaldi and the LilyPondTool plugin for jEdit. Denemo integrates the PDF output of LilyPond in its display, allowing some editing operations on the final typeset score.  The Mutopia Project, which distributes free content sheet music, uses LilyPond to typeset its music, as does Musipedia, a collaborative music encyclopedia.  Emacs' org-mode contains support for embedding LilyPond scores into documents.  OOoLilyPond, a LibreOffice extension provides support for calling LilyPond to embed scores into documents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Integration into MediaWiki.", "content": "Lilypond is available in MediaWiki via the code. This, for example, transforms the notation  <score sound=\"1\">\\relative c' { f d f a d f e d cis a cis e a g f e }</score>  into  <score sound=\"1\" lang=\"lilypond\">\\relative c' { f d f a d f e d cis a cis e a g f e }</score>  The above excerpt is a simplified version of Solfeggio in C Minor by C.P.E. Bach. More complex scores, including lyrics, are also possible within MediaWikis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Integration into text using lilypond-book.", "content": "Integration of lilypond musical elements into various document formats (both TeX-based systems such as LaTeX and Texinfo, and also DocBook and HTML pages) is natively supported through the companion program lilypond-book, developed and maintained by the LilyPond community. This allows users to embed musical elements within texts, such as musicology, song booklets, work sheets for teaching, and school examinations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Integration into LaTeX.", "content": "For integration into the LaTeX document preparation system, \"ly\"LuaTeX has been developed as a LuaLaTeX package to embed musical elements within texts. It includes features for matching layout and appearance of the musical elements with the surrounding text document. Music elements may consist of music symbols, song lyrics, guitar chords diagrams, lead sheets, music excerpts, guitar tablatures, or multi-page scores.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Comparison to other scorewriters.", "content": "Finale and Sibelius are two proprietary scorewriters often compared to LilyPond. Andrew Hawryluk, a LilyPond user, wrote a series of articles comparing output quality between Finale and LilyPond.  Another scorewriter with comparable features to LilyPond is SCORE, but SCORE relies on manual positioning more than Lilypond does.  See also Comparison of scorewriters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "LilyPond is a computer program and file format for music engraving. One of LilyPond's major goals is to produce scores that are engraved with traditional layout rules, reflecting the era when scores were engraved by hand.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972257}
{"src_title": "Lamian War", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "In 324 BC, Alexander the Great had the Exiles Decree proclaimed in Greece. The effect of this decree was that citizens of Greek cities that had previously been exiled would be able to return to their cities of origin. Though this affected many of the cities of Greece, two regions where this had a major effect were Athens and the Aetolian League. This was a problem for the Aetolians as they had previously occupied the city of Oeniadae and evicted the original inhabitants of the city, settling it with their own citizens. Similarly, the Athenians had taken over and colonized the island of Samos. The outcome of the decree was that the Aetolians and Athenians would be required to surrender control of these occupied territories. The hostility to Macedonian suzerainty was compounded by a grain shortage in Greece, worsened by the fact the Alexander was requisitioning supplies for his campaigns in the East.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outbreak of war.", "content": "The death of Alexander in 323 BC left Macedon in the midst of a succession crisis, with no universally accepted successor to the throne. While awaiting the birth of the child of Alexander, a regency headed by Perdiccas was formed for the yet unborn child and the mentally deficient brother of Alexander, Philip III. News of his death was considered by the Athenians as an opportunity to shatter the Macedonian hegemony. After vigorous debate in the ecclesia, it was determined – despite the opposition of prominent individuals such as Demades and Phocion – that Athens would wage war against Macedon.  Making use of the 5,000 talents that had been seized from Harpalus, the treasurer of Alexander who had fled to Athens, the Athenians sent the commander Leosthenes to Taenarum with the aim of engaging mercenaries. Leosthenes was given the order by the ecclesia to make it appear that he was engaging the mercenaries on his own behalf, so as to give Athens additional time to prepare for the upcoming war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battles.", "content": "The total anti-Macedonian force at the outset of the war appears to have been 25,000 strong and was composed of up to 10,000 Athenians, 12,000 Aetolians, and various contingents of mercenary forces. The Athenian forces commanded by Leosthenes had some initial successes defeating the Boeotians at Plataea.  Antipater, commander of the Macedonian forces in Europe, meanwhile scrambled to assemble Macedonian troops, most of which were engaged in Asia or in transit to or from that continent. He set out against the Athenians with an initial force of some 13,000 troops, with messages sent to various commanders to bring reinforcements.  The Thessalians originally sided with Antipater, but were quickly persuaded to join the Athenians as allies. Together, they defeated Antipater at Thermopylae. The defeated Macedonians fled to the fortified city of Lamia, where they were besieged by the Athenians as Antipater waited for reinforcements to arrive from Asia. The Athenians and their allies, despite their early successes, were bogged down in their siege of Lamia. The well-walled town proved impregnable to the Athenians, and their commander Leosthenes was mortally wounded during a sallying forth from the city by the Macedonians who sought to harass their ditch-digging besiegers. His death prompted the Athenians to retreat.  That year Hypereides pronounced the funeral oration over the dead including his friend Leosthenes. Antiphilus was appointed as his replacement. Soon after the Athenian retreat from the walls of Lamia, Macedonian reinforcements (20,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry) arrived from Asia under the command of Leonnatus. The Athenian naval fleet had been defeated at the Battle of Amorgos (322 BC).  Once the Macedonians had control of the sea, Leonnatus was able to transfer troops from Asia to Europe. Though the Athenians defeated Leonnatus and his reinforcements at an unknown location in Thessaly, Antipater was able to escape from Lamia. Combined with the remnants of the defeated army and with further forces brought from Asia by Craterus, the Macedonians finally defeated the Athenian coalition in 322 at the Battle of Crannon in central Thessaly. Together they beat back the weary Athenians in a long series of cavalry and hoplite engagements. Although the allied forces were not routed, the outcome was decisive enough to compel the Athenians and their allies to sue for peace on Antipater’s terms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outcome.", "content": "Earlier, Antipater made peace treaties with the defeated cities separately on generous terms, in order to disband the Greek alliance against Macedonia. The Athenians and Aetolians were left on their own. The Athenians were forced to dissolve their democracy and establish a plutocratic system in its stead, whereby only the 9,000 richest citizens were left in exclusive possession of the city. The 12,000 poorest men, or 60% of the entire citizenship, were permanently exiled.  Many other Greek cities met a similar fate. Antipater often installed in each a subservient oligarchy and a Macedonian garrison, and executed democrats and champions of self-determination.  Hypereides was condemned to death, fled, and was probably captured and killed in Euboea. Demosthenes committed suicide to avoid being captured and tortured by Macedonian exile hunters.  George Grote considers the outcome of the Lamian War a calamitous tragedy, marking the extinction of an \"autonomous Hellenic world.\" It extinguished free speech in Greece and dispersed the Athenian Demos to distant lands. Nevertheless, the war, in spite of its disastrous result, was a \"glorious effort for the recovery of Grecian liberty, undertaken under circumstances which promised a fair chance of success.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lamian War, or the Hellenic War (323–322 BC) was fought by a coalition of cities including Athens and the Aetolian League against Macedon and its ally Boeotia. The war broke out after the death of the King of Macedon, Alexander the Great, and was part of a series of attempts to challenge Macedonian hegemony over mainland Greece.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972258}
{"src_title": "Vatican Radio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1930s.", "content": "Vatican Radio began broadcasting with the callsign HVJ on two shortwave frequencies using 10 kilowatts (kW) of power on 12 February 1931, with the pontificial message \"Omni creaturae\" of Pope Pius XI. Also in attendance was Guglielmo Marconi and Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli, who would become Pope Pius XII. Its first director was physicist Giuseppe Gianfranceschi, who was also the president of the Accademia dei Nuovi Lincei.  In 1933, a permanent microwave link was established between the Vatican Palace and the summer residence of the papacy, Castel Gandolfo.  In 1936, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) recognized Vatican Radio as a \"special case\" and authorized its broadcasting without any geographical limits. On 25 December 1937 a Telefunken 25 kW transmitter and two directional antennas were added. Vatican Radio broadcast over 10 frequencies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Following a December 1939 report from Cardinal August Hlond of Poznań detailing the oppression of the Catholic Church in Poland, Pope Pius XII decided, among other measures, to use Vatican Radio to provide \"information regarding the condition of the church in Poland.\" The German broadcast on 21 January 1940 compared German activities to \"what the Communists imposed on Spain in 1936\"; the English service noted the attacks on the Church were not limited to the Soviets.  During World War II, Vatican Radio's news broadcasts were (like all foreign broadcasts) banned in Germany. During the war, the radio service operated in four languages.  While some critics have said Pope Pius XII was too quiet regarding the Holocaust, Jacques Adler examined the transcripts of wartime broadcasts over the Vatican Radio. Adler argues that it exposed Nazi persecution of the Church and opposed collaboration with Nazism. It appealed to Catholics to remain true to their faith's injunctions: to defend the sanctity of life and the unity of humankind. In so doing the Pope pursued a policy of spiritual resistance to Nazi ideology and racism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1940s and 1950s.", "content": "In 1948, services expanded to 18 languages.  Because of space purposes, the Holy See acquired a 400-hectare area located 18 kilometres north of Rome at Santa Maria di Galeria (GC: ). The Italian Republic granted the site extraterritorial status in 1952.  In 1957, a new broadcasting center was placed into operation, with a Philips 100 kW shortwave transmitter, two 10 kW shortwave transmitters, and one 120 kW mediumwave transmitter, with 21 directional and one omnidirectional antenna. The next phase involved two 100 kW transmitters aimed at Africa and Oceania, a 250 kW mediumwave transmitter for Europe, and a 500 kW transmitter for the Far East and Latin America.  Radio Vaticana was one of 23 founding broadcasting organisations of the European Broadcasting Union in 1950.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2000s.", "content": "In the 21st century, Vatican Radio has experimented with digital transmission technologies (DRM, T-DAB, T-DMB) and has used electronic newsletters, podcasts, and other new technologies to distribute its programming. Vatican Radio and CTV began their own YouTube channel in 2010, operating in four languages, and operates six Twitter accounts.  In May 2009 it was announced that Vatican Radio would begin broadcasting commercial advertisements for the first time in July. The decision was made so as to meet the radio's rising costs, namely 21.4m euros a year. All advertisements would have to meet \"high moral standards\". Vatican Radio stopped transmitting short- and medium-wave broadcasts to North America, South America, and Europe on Sunday 1 July 2012. The Vatican Press Office closed Vatican Information Service in August 2012.  In 2014 Michael Gannon, from Ireland, became the first person with Down Syndrome to work at any Vatican office, which he did as an intern at Vatican Radio.  As of 2016, Vatican Radio had a staff of 355 people who produce more than 66 hours of daily programming in 45 languages on air, and 38 languages on the website. Programs are broadcast via short wave, medium wave, FM and satellite.  Vatican Radio has been losing between €20 and €30 million annually. With its absorption into the Curia's Secretariat for Communications on 1 January 2017 Vatican Radio director Msgr. Dario Viganò has indicated that he plans to pare down short-wave radio operations and institute cost control measures in the service's other broadcast operations.  On 24 March 2017, Vatican Radio made its final English-language shortwave transmission to Asia after 59 years of service. Vatican Radio's English Service for Asia has then continued online.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Television.", "content": "During the 1930s, the station made experimental television broadcasts. However, apart from a brief experimental revival in the 1950s, it was not until the 1990s that a regular'satellite' television service began. The programs of TV2000 include programming from Vatican Television Center.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transmitters.", "content": "The signals are transmitted from a large shortwave and medium-wave transmission facility for Radio Vatican. The Santa Maria di Galeria Transmitter was established in 1957 and it is an extraterritorial area in Italy belonging to the Holy See. Vatican Radio's interval signal is a well-known sound on shortwave radio.  One aerial for the medium wave frequency 1530 kHz which consists of four grounded freestanding towers arranged in a square, which carry wires for a medium wave aerial on horizontal crossbars. The direction of this aerial can be changed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Radiation controversy.", "content": "The Santa Maria di Galeria transmitter site is the subject of a dispute between the station and some local residents who claim the non-ionising radiation from the site has affected their health and a study by cancer specialist Dr. Andrea Micheli has suggested that electromagnetic radiation from the antennas has caused excess risk of leukaemia and lymphomas in children. These claims are not accepted by the station and are not peer reviewed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vatican Radio (; ) is the official broadcasting service of Vatican City. Set up in 1931 by Guglielmo Marconi, today its programs are offered in 47 languages, and are sent out on short wave, DRM, medium wave, FM, satellite and the Internet. Since its inception, Vatican Radio has been maintained by the Jesuit Order. Vatican Radio preserved its independence during the rise of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Following the outbreak of World War II, a week after Pope Pius XII ordered the programming, Vatican Radio broadcast the news that Poles and Jews were being rounded up and forced into ghettos.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972259}
{"src_title": "Photoresistor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design considerations.", "content": "Photoresistors are less light-sensitive devices than photodiodes or phototransistors: the two latter components are true semiconductor devices, while a photoresistor is an active component that does not have a PN-junction. The photoresistivity of any photoresistor may vary widely depending on ambient temperature, making them unsuitable for applications requiring precise measurement of or sensitivity to light photons.  Photoresistors also exhibit a certain degree of latency between exposure to light and the subsequent decrease in resistance, usually around 10 milliseconds. The lag time when going from lit to dark environments is even greater, often as long as one second. This property makes them unsuitable for sensing rapidly flashing lights, but is sometimes used to smooth the response of audio signal compression.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Photoresistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios, alarm devices (as the detector for a light beam), nightlights, outdoor clocks, solar street lamps, and solar road studs, etc.  Photoresistors can be placed in streetlights to control when the light is on. Ambient light falling on the photoresistor causes the streetlight to turn off. Thus energy is saved by ensuring the light is only on during hours of darkness.  Photoresistors or LDRs are also used in laser-based security systems to detect the change in the light intensity when a person/object passes through the laser beam.  They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent or neon lamp, or light-emitting diode to control gain reduction. A common usage of this application can be found in many guitar amplifiers that incorporate an onboard tremolo effect, as the oscillating light patterns control the level of signal running through the amp circuit.  The use of CdS and CdSe photoresistors is severely restricted in Europe due to the RoHS ban on cadmium.  Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light-dependent resistors) are used for the mid-infrared spectral region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A photoresistor (acronymed LDR for Light Decreasing Resistance, or light-dependent resistor, or photo-conductive cell) is a passive component that decreases resistance with respect to receiving luminosity (light) on the component's sensitive surface. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increase in incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits and light-activated and dark-activated switching circuits acting as a resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can have a resistance as high as several megaohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors may react substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972260}
{"src_title": "Kazakh language", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geographic distribution.", "content": "The Kazakstani language (often called Qazaqsha) has its speakers (mainly Kazakhs) spread over a vast territory from the Tian Shan to the western shore of the Caspian Sea. Kazakh is the official state language of Kazakhstan, with nearly 10 million speakers (based on information from the CIA World Factbook on population and proportion of Kazakh speakers).  In China, nearly two million ethnic Kazakhs and Kazakh speakers reside in the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture of Xinjiang.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing system.", "content": "The oldest known written records of languages closely related to Kazakh were written in the Old Turkic alphabet, though it is not believed that any of these varieties were direct predecessors of Kazakh. Modern Kazakh, going back approximately one thousand years, was written in the Arabic script until 1929, when Soviet authorities introduced a Latin-based alphabet, and then a Cyrillic alphabet in 1940.  Nazarbayev first brought up the topic of using the Latin alphabet instead of the Cyrillic alphabet as the official script for Kazakh in Kazakhstan in October 2006. A Kazakh government study released in September 2007 said that a switch to a Latin script over a 10- to 12-year period was feasible, at a cost of $300 million. The transition was halted temporarily on 13 December 2007, with President Nazarbayev declaring: \"For 70 years the Kazakhstanis read and wrote in Cyrillic. More than 100 nationalities live in our state. Thus we need stability and peace. We should be in no hurry in the issue of alphabet transformation.\" However, on 30 January 2015, the Minister of Culture and Sports Arystanbek Mukhamediuly announced that a transition plan was underway, with specialists working on the orthography to accommodate the phonological aspects of the language. In presenting this strategic plan in April 2017, Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev described the twentieth century as a period in which the \"Kazakh language and culture have been devastated\".  Nazarbayev ordered Kazakh authorities to create a Latin Kazakh alphabet by the end of 2017, so written Kazakh could return to a Latin script starting in 2018., Kazakh is written in Cyrillic in Kazakhstan and Mongolia, Kazakh is written in Latin in Kazakhstan, while more than one million Kazakh speakers in China use an Arabic-derived alphabet similar to the one that is used to write Uyghur.  On 26 October 2017, Nazarbayev issued Presidential Decree 569 for the change to a finalized Latin variant of the Kazakh alphabet and ordered that the government's transition to this alphabet be completed by 2025, a decision taken to emphasise Kazakh culture after the era of Soviet rule and to facilitate the use of digital devices. But the initial decision to use a novel orthography employing apostrophes, which make the use of many popular tools for searching and writing text difficult, has generated controversy.  The alphabet was revised the following year by Presidential Decree 637 of 19 February 2018 and the use of apostrophes was discontinued and replaced with the use of diacritics and digraphs. However, many citizens state that the officially introduced alphabet needs much improvements. Moreover, Kazakh became the second Turkic language to use the \"ch\" and \"sh\" digraphs after the Uzbek government adapted them in their version of the Latin alphabet. In October 2019, President Tokayev expressed his concerns about all three versions of Latin alphabet and asked linguists to propose a more thoughtful version without haste. A new version of the alphabet, elaborated by the Baitursynov Institute of Linguistics and specialists from the official working group on script transition, was proposed in November 2019, using breves, umlauts and cedillas instead of accents and digraphs and introducing spelling changes to stick more accurately to Kazakh phonology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phonology.", "content": "Kazakh exhibits tongue-root vowel harmony, with some words of recent foreign origin (usually of Russian or Arabic origin) as exceptions. There is also a system of rounding harmony which resembles that of Kyrgyz, but which does not apply as strongly and is not reflected in the orthography.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consonants.", "content": "The following chart depicts the consonant inventory of standard Kazakh; many of the sounds, however, are allophones of other sounds or appear only in recent loan-words. The 18 consonant phonemes listed by Vajda are without parentheses—since these are phonemes, their listed place and manner of articulation are very general, and will vary from what is shown. The phonemes,, and only occur in recent borrowings, mostly from Russian.  In the table, the elements left of a divide are voiceless, while those to the right are voiced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vowels.", "content": "Kazakh has a system of 12 phonemic vowels, 3 of which are diphthongs. The rounding contrast and generally only occur as phonemes in the first syllable of a word, but do occur later allophonically; see the section on harmony below for more information. Moreover, the sound has been included artificially due to the influence of Arabic, Persian and, later, Tatar languages during the Islamic period. The letter \"e\" is often palatalised due to Russian influence.  According to Vajda, the front/back quality of vowels is actually one of neutral versus retracted tongue root.  Phonetic values are paired with the corresponding character in Kazakh's Cyrillic and current Latin alphabets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Morphology and syntax.", "content": "Kazakh is generally verb-final, though various permutations on SOV (subject–object–verb) word order can be used, for example, due to topicalization. Inflectional and derivational morphology, both verbal and nominal, in Kazakh, exists almost exclusively in the form of agglutinative suffixes. Kazakh is a nominative-accusative, head-final, left-branching, dependent-marking language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pronouns.", "content": "There are eight personal pronouns in Kazakh:  The declension of the pronouns is outlined in the following chart. Singular pronouns exhibit irregularities, while plural pronouns don't. Irregular forms are highlighted in bold.  In addition to the pronouns, there are several more sets of morphemes dealing with person.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tense, aspect and mood.", "content": "Kazakh may express different combinations of tense, aspect and mood through the use of various verbal morphology or through a system of auxiliary verbs, many of which might better be considered light verbs. The present tense is a prime example of this; progressive tense in Kazakh is formed with one of four possible auxiliaries. These auxiliaries \"otyr\" (sit), \"tur\" (stand), \"júr\" (go) and \"jat\" (lie), encode various shades of meaning of how the action is carried out and also interact with the lexical semantics of the root verb: telic and non-telic actions, semelfactives, durative and non-durative, punctual, etc. There are selectional restrictions on auxiliaries: motion verbs, such as бару (go) and келу (come) may not combine with \"otyr\". Any verb, however, can combine with \"jat\" (lie) to get a progressive tense meaning.  While it is possible to think that different categories of aspect govern the choice of auxiliary, it is not so straightforward in Kazakh. Auxiliaries are internally sensitive to the lexical semantics of predicates, for example, verbs describing motion:  In addition to the complexities of the progressive tense, there are many auxiliary-converb pairs that encode a range of aspectual, modal, volitional, evidential and action- modificational meanings\".\" For example, the pattern -yp kórý, with the auxiliary verb kórý (see), indicates that the subject of the verb attempted or tried to do something (compare the Japanese てみる \"temiru\" construction).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Annotated text with gloss.", "content": "From the first stanza of \"Meniń Qazaqstanym\" (\"My Kazakhstan\"), the national anthem of Kazakhstan:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kazakh or Kazak (Latin: or, Cyrillic: or, Arabic: or,, ), is a Turkic language of the Kipchak branch spoken in Central Asia. It is closely related to Nogai, Kyrgyz and Karakalpak. Kazakh is the official language of Kazakhstan and a significant minority language in the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture in Xinjiang, China and in the Bayan-Ölgii Province of Mongolia. Kazakh is also spoken by many ethnic Kazakhs through the former Soviet Union (some 472,000 in Russia according to the 2010 Russian Census), Germany, Iran, Turkey and Afghanistan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972261}
{"src_title": "Camelidae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Camelids are large, strictly herbivorous animals with slender necks and long legs. They differ from ruminants in a number of ways. Their dentition show traces of vestigial central incisors in the incisive bone, and the third incisors have developed into canine-like tusks. Camelids also have true canine teeth and tusk-like premolars, which are separated from the molars by a gap. The musculature of the hind limbs differs from those of other ungulates in that the legs are attached to the body only at the top of the thigh, rather than attached by skin and muscle from the knee upwards. Because of this, camelids have to lie down by resting on their knees with their legs tucked underneath their bodies. They have three-chambered stomachs, rather than four-chambered ones; their upper lips are split in two, with each part separately mobile; and, uniquely among mammals, their red blood cells are elliptical. They also have a unique type of antibodies, which lack the light chain, in addition to the normal antibodies found in other mammals. These so-called heavy-chain antibodies are being used to develop single-domain antibodies with potential pharmaceutical applications.  Camelids do not have hooves; rather, they have two-toed feet with toenails and soft foot pads (Tylopoda is Greek for \"padded foot\"). Most of the weight of the animal rests on these tough, leathery sole pads. The South American camelids, adapted to steep and rocky terrain, can move the pads on their toes to maintain grip. Many fossil camelids were unguligrade and probably hooved, in contrast to all living species.  Camelids are behaviorally similar in many ways, including their walking gait, in which both legs on the same side are moved simultaneously. Consequently, camelids large enough for human beings to ride have a typical swaying motion.  Dromedary camels, bactrian camels, llamas, and alpacas are all induced ovulators.  The three Afro-Asian camel species have developed extensive adaptations to their lives in harsh, near-waterless environments. Wild populations of the Bactrian camel are even able to drink brackish water, and some herds live in nuclear test areas.  Comparative table of the seven extant species in the family Camelidae:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Camelids are unusual in that their modern distribution is almost the inverse of their area of origin. Camelids first appeared very early in the evolution of the even-toed ungulates, around 45 million years ago during the middle Eocene, in present-day North America. Among the earliest camelids was the rabbit-sized \"Protylopus\", which still had four toes on each foot. By the late Eocene, around 35 million years ago, camelids such as \"Poebrotherium\" had lost the two lateral toes, and were about the size of a modern goat.  The family diversified and prospered, but remained confined to the North American continent until only about two to three million years ago, when representatives arrived in Asia, and (as part of the Great American Interchange that followed the formation of the Isthmus of Panama) South America. A high arctic camel from this time period has been documented in the far northern reaches of Canada.  The original camelids of North America remained common until the quite recent geological past, but then disappeared, possibly as a result of hunting or habitat alterations by the earliest human settlers, and possibly as a result of changing environmental conditions after the last ice age, or a combination of these factors. Three species groups survived: the dromedary of northern Africa and southwest Asia; the Bactrian camel of central Asia; and the South American group, which has now diverged into a range of forms that are closely related, but usually classified as four species: llamas, alpacas, guanacos, and vicuñas. Camelids were domesticated by early Andean peoples and remain in use today.  Fossil camelids show a wider variety than their modern counterparts. One North American genus, \"Titanotylopus\", stood 3.5 m at the shoulder, compared with about 2 m of the largest modern camelids. Other extinct camelids included small, gazelle-like animals, such as \"Stenomylus\". Finally, a number of very tall, giraffe-like camelids were adapted to feeding on leaves from high trees, including such genera as \"Aepycamelus\" and \"Oxydactylus\".  Whether the wild Bactrian camel (\"Camelus ferus\") is in fact a distinct species or a subspecies (\"Camelus bactrianus ferus\") is still debated. The divergence date is 0.7 million years ago, long before the start of domestication.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific classification.", "content": "Family Camelidae", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extinct genera.", "content": "The newly discovered giant Syrian camel has yet to be officially described.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Camelids are members of the biological family Camelidae, the only currently living family in the suborder Tylopoda. The extant members of this group are: dromedary camels, Bactrian camels, wild Bactrian camels, llamas, alpacas, vicuñas, and guanacos. Camelids are even-toed ungulates classified in the order Cetartiodactyla, along with pigs, whales, deer, cattle, antelope, and many others.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972262}
{"src_title": "Saalfeld", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is situated in the valley of the Saale River north of the Thuringian Highland, south of the German cultural centre Weimar. Saalfeld station is currently served by Intercity-Express trains running from Berlin to Munich.  Saalfeld has 28,000 inhabitants. Together with neighbouring Rudolstadt and Bad Blankenburg, Saalfeld forms a tri-city area with a population of about 70,000.  The local mountain is the Kulm, which is 481.9 metres above sea level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Saalfeld is one of the historic towns of Thuringia, possibly founded by the 7th century around a Thuringii (Gothic) fortress today called Hoher Schwarm or \"Sorbenburg\" (Sorbs' Castle). The area was first mentioned in an 899 deed. Kitzerstein Castle standing on an eminence above the Saale River, was said to have been originally erected by the German King Henry the Fowler, although the present-day building was not built before the 16th century. In 1012 the last Ottonian emperor Henry II ceded the former Carolingian \"Kaiserpfalz\" to Count Palatine Ezzo of Lotharingia, whose daughter Richeza bequested it to the Archbishops of Cologne.  According to the local chronicler Lambert of Hersfeld, Archbishop Anno II of Cologne in 1071 established a Benedictine abbey here, which quickly became an ecclesiastical centre in eastern Thuringia but was destroyed during the German Peasants' War in 1526. A Franciscan monastery was established about 1250, which also was dissolved during the Protestant Reformation. The Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick Barbarossa had ordered the layout of an Imperial city, parts of its medieval walls and bastions are preserved up to today. Nevertheless, the citizens in 1208 had to receive town privileges from the hands of the Counts of Schwarzburg as their feudal lords.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "House of Wettin.", "content": "In 1389 the town finally was acquired by Landgrave Balthasar of Thuringia, a member of the House of Wettin. Saalfeld's economy prospered from surrounding mines, transport on the Saale River as well as from fishing (expressed by the barbels in the town's coat of arms). The Wettin rulers had the Gothic Saint John hall church erected at the site of a Romanesque predecessor building until 1514. The Gothic town hall was completed in 1537. The ruling dynasty reached its height of importance, when in 1423 all Wettin lands including the Thuringian estates were incorporated into the Electorate of Saxony (Upper Saxony).  However, already in 1485 Elector Ernest of Saxony agreed on the Leipzig partition with his younger brother Duke Albert III. Ernest retained the southern Thuringian estates with Saalfeld; his grandson John Frederick I lost the electoral dignity in the 1547 Capitulation of Wittenberg ending the Schmalkaldic War, along with all his possessions outside of Thuringia. Confirmed by Emperor Maximilian II at the 1570 Diet of Speyer, John Frederick's Ernestine descendants only retained the duchies of Saxe-Weimar and (from 1572) Saxe-Coburg-Eisenach. Upon the death of Duke Frederick William I of Saxe-Weimar in 1602, Saalfeld passed to the newly established Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, from 1673 Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.", "content": "After several blazes in the early 16th century, Saalfeld had been rebuilt in a lavish Renaissance style. In 1675 Duke Albert V of Saxe-Coburg upon his accession chose the town as his residence and from 1677 onwards had Saalfeld Castle erected on the site of the destroyed Benedictine abbey, which in 1680 fell to his younger brother John Ernest IV. After Albert's death in 1699, John Ernest also claimed Saxe-Coburg and called himself a duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.  The Castle, which has been renovated and is today the town administrative building, was home to four generations of the Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld branch. Until 1825, Saalfeld remained one of two capitals of the duchy, together with Coburg, its Franconian sister town to the south. The 4th Duke Ernest Frederick (1724–1800) was the last to be born in Saalfeld; in 1764, he moved the capital from Saalfeld to Coburg, where in 1805 his son and heir Duke Francis (1750–1806) would buy Rosenau Castle as his residence.  Francis' children were linked to many of Europe's royal families: His daughter Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1786–1861) by her marriage with Prince Edward became the mother of Queen Victoria. Her brother Duke Ernest III of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1784–1844) was the father of Queen Victoria's husband, Prince Consort Albert. This line continues unbroken from Queen Victoria through to Queen Elizabeth II today. At about the same period, their brother Duke Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1790–1865) became the ancestor of the royal House of Belgium in 1831, while their sister Princess Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1781–1860) married Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia. Other descendants of Duke Francis include Wilhelm II, German Emperor, Alexandra, Empress consort of Russia, Victoria, Queen consort of Spain, Ferdinand II, King consort of Portugal, Carlota, Empress consort of Mexico, Ferdinand I, King of Bulgaria, Sofía, Queen consort of Spain, Princess of Greece and Denmark, Maud, Queen consort of Norway, and Marie, Queen consort of Romania.  During the time of Duke Ernest III in 1826, the neighbouring ducal line of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg became extinct. Ernest received the former Saxe-Gotha but in exchange had to give up Saalfeld in favour of his Ernestine cousin Duke Bernhard II of Saxe-Meiningen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern times.", "content": "On 10 October 1806 a united Prussian and Saxon contingent met with a corps of the French Grande Armée under Marshall Jean Lannes at the Battle of Saalfeld, whereby Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia was killed. The opening of the Leipzig-Probstzella railway further boosted the town's development. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, Saalfeld became part of the newly established Free State of Thuringia. As a railway junction and garrison town of the \"Wehrmacht\" armed forces from 1936, it was strongly affected by strategic bombing during World War II.  Upon the post-war division of Germany, Saalfeld was an Inner-German border station on the Saal Railway—one of two routes that could be taken by trains between Leipzig/Halle and Nuremberg. As a border station its steam locomotive shed assumed extra importance as Saalfeld essentially became the southern terminus of DDR train services. Due to the continued use of steam locomotives in East Germany after the end of steam working in West Germany, the area became a mecca for railway enthusiasts for some years. However, despite being very close to the Inner German border to the south, it was only accessible by a very roundabout route.  In July 2018 the former municipalities of Saalfelder Höhe and Wittgendorf were merged into Saalfeld. The former municipalities Reichmannsdorf and Schmiedefeld were merged into Saalfeld in January 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Traditionally, Saalfeld was known for its silver mines. Today, Saalfeld has a number of prosperous industries, including the manufacture of machinery, bricks, paint, malt, cigars, hosiery, chocolate and vinegar. Other industries are brewing, printing and iron-founding, and there are ochre and iron mines in the area.  Tourism and recreation-related activities make up a significant part of the local economy. Saalfeld is located in the mountainous forests of Thuringia, a province well known for its winter sports, supplying half of the gold medals for overall medal table winner Germany in the 2006 and 2010 Winter Olympics.  Saalfeld is a popular base for hikers taking on the mountainous 168 km Rennsteig ridge, Germany's legendary hiking trail and other nearby outdoor options including hiking, skiing, fishing, hunting, rock climbing, sailing and many other sports.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saalfeld () is a town in Germany, capital of the Saalfeld-Rudolstadt district of Thuringia. It is best known internationally as the ancestral seat of the Saxe-Coburg and Gotha branch of the Saxon House of Wettin, which was renamed the House of Windsor during their British reign in 1917.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972263}
{"src_title": "Hummingbird hawk-moth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The hummingbird hawk-moth is distributed throughout the northern Old World from Portugal to Japan, but it breeds mainly in warmer climates (southern Europe, North Africa, and points east). Three generations are produced in a year in Spain.  It is a strong flier, dispersing widely in the summer. However it rarely survives the winter in northern latitudes (e.g. north of the Alps in Europe, north of the Caucasus in Russia).  Moths in the genus \"Hemaris\" of the family Sphingidae are known as \"hummingbird moths\" in the US, and \"bee moths\" in Europe, which sometimes causes confusion between this species and the North American genus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "Two or more broods are produced each year. The adult may be encountered at any time of the year, especially in the south of the range, where there may be three or four broods. It overwinters as an adult in a crevice among rocks, trees, and buildings. On very warm days it may emerge to feed in mid-winter. Unlike other moths, they have no sexual dimorphism in the size of their antennal lobes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ova.", "content": "The glossy pale green ova (eggs) are spherical with a diameter. They are said to look like the flower buds of the host plant \"Galium\", and that is where the female lays them. They hatch 6 to 8 days after laying. Up to 200 eggs may be laid by one female, each on a separate plant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Larvae.", "content": "Newly hatched larvae are clear yellow, and in the second instar assume their green coloration. The larva is green with two grey stripes bordered in cream along the sides and with a horn at the rear end typical of sphingids. The horn is purplish red, changing to blue with an orange tip in the last instar. They feed fully exposed on the top of the host plant and rest in among a tangle of stems. Although dependent on warmth and sun, the larval stage can be as rapid as 20 days.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pupae.", "content": "The pupae are pale brownish with a prominent, keeled proboscis, and two sharp spines at the end of the cremaster. They are enclosed in loose silken cocoons among the host plant debris or on the ground among leaf litter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adults.", "content": "The forewings are brown, with black wavy lines across them, while the hindwings are orange with a black edge. The abdomen is quite broad, with a fan-tail of setae at the end. The wingspan is.  In the southern parts of its range, the hummingbird hawk-moth is highly active even when temperatures are high, and thoracic temperatures above have been measured. This is among the highest recorded for hawk-moths, and near the limit for insect muscle activity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "Its long proboscis (25–28 mm) and its hovering behavior, accompanied by an audible humming noise, make it look remarkably like a hummingbird while feeding on flowers. Like hummingbirds, it feeds on flowers which have tube-shaped corollae. It should not be confused with the moths called hummingbird moths in North America, genus \"Hemaris\", members of the same family and with similar appearance and behavior. The resemblance to hummingbirds is an example of convergent evolution. It flies during the day, especially in bright sunshine, but also at dusk, dawn, and even in the rain, which is unusual for even diurnal hawkmoths. \"M. stellatarum\" engages in free hovering flight, which allows more maneuverability and control than fixed-wing flight, despite high energetic cost. Like many large insects, it relies upon Johnston's organs for body positioning information.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vision.", "content": "The hummingbird hawkmoth's visual abilities have been studied extensively, and they have demonstrated a relatively good ability to learn colours. They have a trichromatic visual system, and are most sensitive to wavelength in the range of 349-521 nm. They have been shown to discriminate a wavelength difference as small as 1-2 nm between sources. This discrimination is even more precise than \"Apis mellifera\", or the western honey bee. Among other flower visitors, their visual system is similar to \"Papilio xuthus\", or the Asian swallowtail butterfly, and \"Deilephila elpenor\", the nocturnal elephant hawkmoth. Their food preference is based mainly on visual identification, while \"D. elpenor\" preference relies upon olfactory identification. Compared to \"D. elpenor\", \"M. stellatarum\" have a much smaller number of ommatidia, but a larger optic lobe volume to provide more visual processing tissue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and host plants.", "content": "Hummingbird hawk-moths can be easily seen in gardens, parks, meadows, bushes, and woodland edge, where the preferred food plants grow (honeysuckle, red valerian and many others).  Their larvae usually feed on bedstraws or madders (\"Rubia\") but have been recorded on other Rubiaceae and \"Centranthus\", \"Stellaria\", and \"Epilobium\".  Adults are particularly fond of nectar-rich flowers with a long and narrow calyx, since they can then take advantage of their long proboscis and avoid competition from other insects. Flowers with longer tubes typically present the feeding animal a higher nectar reward. Proboscis length is thought to have been evolutionarily impacted by the length of flower feeding tubes. Examples of such plants include \"Centranthus\", \"Jasminum\", \"Buddleia\", \"Nicotiana\", \"Primula\", \"Viola\", \"Syringa\", \"Verbena\", \"Echium\", \"Phlox\", and \"Stachys\". They are reported to trap-line, that is, to return to the same flower beds at about the same time each day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "Hummingbird hawk-moths have been seen as a lucky omen. In particular, a swarm of the moths was seen flying across the English Channel on D-Day, the day of the Normandy landings in the Second World War. These moths, along with other moths, are in the family Sphingidae because their larvae were thought to resemble the Egyptian Sphinx.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The hummingbird hawk-moth (\"Macroglossum stellatarum\") is a species of moth. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of \"Systema Naturae\". As of 2018, its entire genome and mitogenome have been sequenced.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972264}
{"src_title": "Systemic therapy (psychotherapy)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Systemic therapy has its roots in family therapy, or more precisely family systems therapy as it later came to be known. In particular, systemic therapy traces its roots to the Milan school of Mara Selvini Palazzoli, but also derives from the work of Salvador Minuchin, Murray Bowen, Ivan Boszormenyi-Nagy, as well as Virginia Satir and Jay Haley from MRI in Palo Alto. These early schools of family therapy represented therapeutic adaptations of the larger interdisciplinary field of systems theory which originated in the fields of biology and physiology.  Early forms of systemic therapy were based on cybernetics. In the 1970s this understanding of systems theory was central to the structural (Minuchin) and strategic (Haley, Selvini Palazzoli) schools of family therapy which would later develop into systemic therapy. In the light of postmodern critique, the notion that one could control systems or say objectively \"what is\" came increasingly into question. Based largely on the work of anthropologists Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead, this resulted in a shift towards what is known as \"second order cybernetics\" which acknowledges the influence of the subjective observer in any study, essentially applying the principles of cybernetics to cybernetics – examining the examination.  As a result, the focus of systemic therapy (ca. 1980 and forward) has moved away from a modernist model of linear causality and understanding of reality as objective, to a postmodern understanding of reality as socially and linguistically constructed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Praxis.", "content": "This has a direct impact on the praxis of systemic therapy which approaches problems practically rather than analytically, i.e. it does not attempt to determine past causes, as does the psychoanalytic approach, nor does it assign diagnosis, \"Who is sick, who is a victim\". Rather, systemic therapy seeks to identify stagnant patterns of behavior in groups of people such as a family, and address those patterns directly, irrespective of analysis of cause. A key point here of this postmodern perspective then is not a denial of absolutes but the humble recognition by the therapist that they do not hold the capacity to change people or systems; the systemic therapist's role is rather to help systems to change themselves by introducing creative \"nudges\":  \"\"Systemic therapy neither attempts a 'treatment of causes' nor of symptoms; rather it gives living systems nudges that help them to develop new patterns together, taking on a new organizational structure that allows growth.\"\" Thus systemic therapy differs from analytic forms of therapy, including psychoanalytic or psychodynamic forms of family therapy (for example the work of ), in its focus on practically addressing current relationship patterns rather than analyzing causes, such as subconscious impulses or childhood trauma. Systemic therapy also differs from family systems therapy in that it addresses other living systems (i.e. groups of people) in addition to the family, for example businesses. In addition to families and business, the systemic approach is increasingly being implemented in the fields of education, politics, psychiatry, social work, and family medicine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In psychotherapy, systemic therapy seeks to address people not only on the individual level, as had been the focus of earlier forms of therapy, but also as people in relationships, dealing with the interactions of groups and their interactional patterns and dynamics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972265}
{"src_title": "Nazi UFOs", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early claims.", "content": "In World War II, the so-called \"foo fighters\", a variety of unusual and anomalous aerial phenomena, were witnessed by both Axis and Allied personnel. While some foo fighter reports were dismissed as the misperceptions of troops in the heat of combat, others were taken seriously, and leading scientists such as Luis Alvarez began to investigate them. In at least some cases, Allied intelligence and commanders suspected that foo fighters reported in the European theater represented advanced German aircraft or weapons, particularly given that Germans had already developed such technological innovations as V-1 and V-2 rockets and the first operational jet-powered Me 262 fighter planes, and that a minority of foo fighters seemed to have inflicted damage to allied aircraft.  Similar sentiments regarding German technology resurfaced in 1947 with the first wave of flying saucer reports after Kenneth Arnold's widely reported close encounter with nine crescent-shaped objects moving at a high velocity. Personnel of Project Sign, the first U.S. Air Force UFO investigation group, noted that the advanced flying wing aeronautical designs of the German Horten brothers were similar to some UFO reports. In 1959, Captain Edward J. Ruppelt, the first head of Project Blue Book (Project Sign's follow-up investigation) wrote: While these early speculations and reports were limited primarily to military personnel, the earliest assertion of German flying saucers in the mass media appears to have been an article which appeared in the Italian newspaper \"Il Giornale d'Italia\" in early 1950. Written by Professor Giuseppe Belluzzo, an Italian scientist and a former Italian Minister of National Economy under the Mussolini regime, it claimed that \"types of flying discs were designed and studied in Germany and Italy as early as 1942\". Belluzzo also expressed the opinion that \"some great power is launching discs to study them\".  The Bell UFO was among the first flying objects to be connected with the Nazis. It apparently had occult markings on it and it was also rumoured to have been very similar to a Wehrmacht document about a vertical take off aircraft. It is directly related to the supposed crash of a bell-shaped object that occurred in Kecksburg, Pennsylvania, USA on December 9, 1965. The same month, German engineer Rudolf Schriever gave an interview to German news magazine \"Der Spiegel\" in which he claimed that he had designed a craft powered by a circular plane of rotating turbine blades in diameter. He said that the project had been developed by him and his team at BMW's Prague works until April 1945, when he fled Czechoslovakia. His designs for the disk and a model were stolen from his workshop in Bremerhaven-Lehe in 1948 and he was convinced that Czech agents had built his craft for \"a foreign power\". In a separate interview with \"Der Spiegel\" in October 1952 he said that the plans were stolen from a farm he was hiding in near Regen on 14 May 1945. There are other discrepancies between the two interviews that add to the confusion. However, many skeptics have doubted that such a Bell UFO was actually designed or ever built.  In 1953, when Avro Canada announced that it was developing the VZ-9-AV Avrocar, a circular jet aircraft with an estimated speed of, German engineer Georg Klein claimed that such designs had been developed during the Nazi era. Klein identified two types of supposed German flying disks:  Aeronautical engineer Roy Fedden remarked that the only craft that could approach the capabilities attributed to flying saucers were those being designed by the Germans towards the end of the war. Fedden (who was also chief of the technical mission to Germany for the Ministry of Aircraft Production) stated in 1945:  Fedden also added that the Germans were working on a number of very unusual aeronautical projects, though he did not elaborate upon his statement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later claims.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Morning of the Magicians\".", "content": "\"Le Matin des Magiciens\" (\"The Morning of the Magicians\"), a 1960 book by Louis Pauwels and Jacques Bergier, made many spectacular claims about the Vril Society of Berlin. Several years later writers, including Jan van Helsing, Norbert-Jürgen Ratthofer, and Vladimir Terziski, have built on their work, connecting the Vril Society with UFOs. Among their claims, they imply that the society may have made contact with an alien race and dedicated itself to creating spacecraft to reach the aliens. In partnership with the Thule Society and the Nazi Party, the Vril Society developed a series of flying disc prototypes. With the Nazi defeat, the society allegedly retreated to a base in Antarctica and vanished into the hollow Earth to meet up with the leaders of an advanced race inhabiting inner Earth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ernst Zündel's marketing ploy.", "content": "When German Holocaust denier Ernst Zündel started Samisdat Publishers in the 1970s, he initially catered to the UFOlogy community, which was then at its peak of public acceptance. His books claimed that flying saucers were Nazi secret weapons launched from an underground base in Antarctica, from which the Nazis hoped to conquer the Earth and possibly the planets. Zündel also sold (for $9999) seats on an exploration team to locate the polar entrance to the hollow earth. Some who interviewed Zündel claim that he privately admitted it was a deliberate hoax to build publicity for Samisdat, although he still defended it as late as 2002.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Miguel Serrano's book.", "content": "In 1978, Miguel Serrano, a Chilean diplomat and Nazi sympathizer, published, in which he claimed that Adolf Hitler was an Avatar of Vishnu and was, at that time, communing with Hyperborean gods in an underground Antarctic base in New Swabia. Serrano predicted that Hitler would lead a fleet of UFOs from the base to establish the Fourth Reich. In popular culture, this alleged UFO fleet is referred to as the \"Nazi flying saucers from Antarctica\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Richard Chase.", "content": "According to a 1979 interview conducted by FBI agent Robert Ressler, imprisoned serial killer Richard Chase believed or claimed to believe due to his schizophrenia that Nazi UFOs had extorted him into committing his murders under threat to his own life. Chase further claimed that prison officials in league with the Nazis were poisoning his food, and he asked Ressler to provide him with a radar gun, with which he could apprehend his enemies. On December 26, 1980, Chase was found dead in his cell. An autopsy found that he committed suicide with an overdose of prescribed antidepressants that he had saved over several weeks.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In ufology, conspiracy theory, science fiction, and comic book stories, claims or stories have circulated linking UFOs to Nazi Germany. The German UFO theories describe supposedly successful attempts to develop advanced aircraft or spacecraft prior to and during World War II, and further assert the post-war survival of these craft in secret underground bases in Antarctica, South America, or the United States, along with their creators. According to these theories and fictional stories, various potential code-names or sub-classifications of Nazi UFO craft such as \"Rundflugzeug\", \"Feuerball\", \"Diskus\", \"Haunebu\", \"Hauneburg-Gerät\", \"V7\", \"Vril\", \"Kugelblitz\" (not related to the self-propelled anti-aircraft gun of the same name), \"Andromeda-Gerät\", \"Flugkreisel\", \"Kugelwaffe\", and \"Reichsflugscheibe\" have all been referenced.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972266}
{"src_title": "Thermal insulation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "Thermal conductivity \"k\" is measured in watts-per-meter per kelvin (W·m·K or W/m/K). This is because heat transfer, measured as power, has been found to be (approximately) proportional to From this, it follows that the power of heat loss formula_4 is given by formula_5  Thermal conductivity depends on the material and for fluids, its temperature and pressure. For comparison purposes, conductivity under standard conditions (20 °C at 1 atm) is commonly used. For some materials, thermal conductivity may also depend upon the direction of heat transfer. The act of insulation is accomplished by encasing an object in material with low thermal conductivity in high thickness. Decreasing the exposed surface area could also lower heat transfer, but this quantity is usually fixed by the geometry of the object to be insulated.  Multi-layer insulation is used where radiative loss dominates, or when the user is restricted in volume and weight of the insulation (e.g. Emergency Blanket, radiant barrier)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Insulation of cylinders.", "content": "For insulated cylinders, a \"critical radius\" must be reached. Before the critical radius is reached, any added insulation increases heat transfer. The convective thermal resistance is inversely proportional to the surface area and therefore the radius of the cylinder, while the thermal resistance of a cylindrical shell (the insulation layer) depends on the ratio between outside and inside radius, not on the radius itself. If the outside radius of a cylinder is increased by applying insulation, a fixed amount of conductive resistance (equal to 2*pi*k*L(Tin-Tout)/ln(Rout/Rin)) is added. However, at the same time, the convective resistance is reduced. This implies that adding insulation below a certain critical radius actually increases the heat transfer. For insulated cylinders, the critical radius is given by the equation  This equation shows that the critical radius depends only on the heat transfer coefficient and the thermal conductivity of the insulation. If the radius of the insulated cylinder is smaller than the critical radius for insulation, the addition of any amount of insulation will increase heat transfer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clothing and natural animal insulation in birds and mammals.", "content": "Gases possess poor thermal conduction properties compared to liquids and solids and thus make good insulation material if they can be trapped. In order to further augment the effectiveness of a gas (such as air), it may be disrupted into small cells, which cannot effectively transfer heat by natural convection. Convection involves a larger bulk flow of gas driven by buoyancy and temperature differences, and it does not work well in small cells where there is little density difference to drive it, and the high surface-to-volume ratios of the small cells retards gas flow in them by means of viscous drag.  In order to accomplish small gas cell formation in man-made thermal insulation, glass and polymer materials can be used to trap air in a foam-like structure. This principle is used industrially in building and piping insulation such as (glass wool), cellulose, rock wool, polystyrene foam (styrofoam), urethane foam, vermiculite, perlite, and cork. Trapping air is also the principle in all highly insulating clothing materials such as wool, down feathers and fleece.  The air-trapping property is also the insulation principle employed by homeothermic animals to stay warm, for example down feathers, and insulating hair such as natural sheep's wool. In both cases the primary insulating material is air, and the polymer used for trapping the air is natural keratin protein.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Buildings.", "content": "Maintaining acceptable temperatures in buildings (by heating and cooling) uses a large proportion of global energy consumption. Building insulations also commonly use the principle of small trapped air-cells as explained above, e.g. fiberglass (specifically glass wool), cellulose, rock wool, polystyrene foam, urethane foam, vermiculite, perlite, cork, etc. For a period of time, Asbestos was also used, however, it caused health problems.  When well insulated, a building:  Window insulation film can be applied in weatherization applications to reduce incoming thermal radiation in summer and loss in winter.  In industry, energy has to be expended to raise, lower, or maintain the temperature of objects or process fluids. If these are not insulated, this increases the energy requirements of a process, and therefore the cost and environmental impact.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mechanical systems.", "content": "Space heating and cooling systems distribute heat throughout buildings by means of pipes or ductwork. Insulating these pipes using pipe insulation reduces energy into unoccupied rooms and prevents condensation from occurring on cold and chilled pipework.  Pipe insulation is also used on water supply pipework to help delay pipe freezing for an acceptable length of time.  Mechanical insulation is commonly installed in industrial and commercial facilities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Refrigeration.", "content": "A refrigerator consists of a heat pump and a thermally insulated compartment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spacecraft.", "content": "Launch and re-entry place severe mechanical stresses on spacecraft, so the strength of an insulator is critically important (as seen by the failure of insulating tiles on the Space Shuttle Columbia, which caused the shuttle airframe to overheat and break apart during reentry, killing the astronauts onboard). Re-entry through the atmosphere generates very high temperatures due to compression of the air at high speeds. Insulators must meet demanding physical properties beyond their thermal transfer retardant properties. Examples of insulation used on spacecraft include reinforced carbon-carbon composite nose cone and silica fiber tiles of the Space Shuttle. See also Insulative paint.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Automotive.", "content": "Internal combustion engines produce a lot of heat during their combustion cycle. This can have a negative effect when it reaches various heat-sensitive components such as sensors, batteries, and starter motors. As a result, thermal insulation is necessary to prevent the heat from the exhaust from reaching these components.  High performance cars often use thermal insulation as a means to increase engine performance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Factors influencing performance.", "content": "Insulation performance is influenced by many factors, the most prominent of which include:  It is important to note that the factors influencing performance may vary over time as material ages or environmental conditions change.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calculating requirements.", "content": "Industry standards are often rules of thumb, developed over many years, that offset many conflicting goals: what people will pay for, manufacturing cost, local climate, traditional building practices, and varying standards of comfort. Both heat transfer and layer analysis may be performed in large industrial applications, but in household situations (appliances and building insulation), airtightness is the key in reducing heat transfer due to air leakage (forced or natural convection). Once airtightness is achieved, it has often been sufficient to choose the thickness of the insulating layer based on rules of thumb. Diminishing returns are achieved with each successive doubling of the insulating layer. It can be shown that for some systems, there is a minimum insulation thickness required for an improvement to be realized.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer (i.e., the transfer of thermal energy between objects of differing temperature) between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative influence. Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes and materials.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972267}
{"src_title": "Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Ferdinand was born in Naples and grew up amidst many of the monuments erected there by his father which can be seen today; the Palaces of Portici, Caserta and Capodimonte.  Ferdinand was his parents' third son, his elder brother Charles was expected to inherit Naples and Sicily. When his father ascended the Spanish throne in 1759 he abdicated Naples in Ferdinand's favor in accordance with the treaties forbidding the union of the two crowns. A regency council presided over by the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci was set up. The latter, an able, ambitious man, wishing to keep the government as much as possible in his own hands, purposely neglected the young king's education, and encouraged him in his love of pleasure, his idleness and his excessive devotion to outdoor sports.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Ferdinand's minority ended in 1767, and his first act was the expulsion of the Jesuits. The following year he married Archduchess Maria Carolina, daughter of Empress Maria Theresa. By the marriage contract the queen was to have a voice in the council of state after the birth of her first son, and she was not slow to avail herself of this means of political influence.  Tanucci, who attempted to thwart her, was dismissed in 1777. The Englishman Sir John Acton, who in 1779 was appointed director of marine, won Maria Carolina's favour by supporting her scheme to free Naples from Spanish influence, securing \"rapprochement\" with Austria and Great Britain. He became practically and afterward actually prime minister. Although not a mere grasping adventurer, he was largely responsible for reducing the internal administration of the country to a system of espionage, corruption and cruelty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French Occupation and the Parthenopaean Republic.", "content": "Although peace was made with France in 1796, the demands of the French Directory, whose troops occupied Rome, alarmed the king once more, and at his wife's instigation he took advantage of Napoleon's absence in Egypt and of Nelson's victories to go to war. He marched with his army against the French and entered Rome (29 November), but on the defeat of some of his columns he hurried back to Naples, and on the approach of the French, fled on 23 December 1798 aboard Nelson's ship to Palermo, Sicily, leaving his capital in a state of anarchy.  The French entered the city in spite of the fierce resistance of the \"lazzaroni\", and with the aid of the nobles and bourgeoisie established the Parthenopaean Republic (January 1799). When, a few weeks later the French troops were recalled to northern Italy, Ferdinand sent a hastily assembled force, under Cardinal Ruffo, to reconquer the mainland kingdom. Ruffo, with the support of British artillery, the Church, and the pro-Bourbon aristocracy, succeeded, reaching Naples in May 1800, and the Parthenopaean Republic collapsed. After some months King Ferdinand returned to the throne.  The king, and above all the queen, were particularly anxious that no mercy should be shown to the rebels, and Maria Carolina (a sister of the executed Marie Antoinette) made use of Lady Hamilton, Nelson's mistress, to induce Nelson to carry out her vengeance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Third Coalition.", "content": "The king returned to Naples soon afterwards, and ordered a few hundred who had collaborated with the French executed. This stopped only when the French successes forced him to agree to a treaty which included amnesty for members of the French party. When war broke out between France and Austria in 1805, Ferdinand signed a treaty of neutrality with the former, but a few days later he allied himself with Austria and allowed an Anglo-Russian force to land at Naples (see Third Coalition). The French victory at the Battle of Austerlitz on 2 December enabled Napoleon to dispatch an army to southern Italy. Ferdinand fled to Palermo (23 January 1806), followed soon after by his wife and son, and on 14 February 1806 the French again entered Naples. Napoleon declared that the Bourbon dynasty had forfeited the crown, and proclaimed his brother Joseph King of Naples and Sicily. But Ferdinand continued to reign over the latter kingdom (becoming the first King of Sicily in centuries to actually reside there) under British protection.  Parliamentary institutions of a feudal type had long existed in the island, and Lord William Bentinck, the British minister, insisted on a reform of the constitution on English and French lines. The king indeed practically abdicated his power, appointing his son Francis as regent, and the queen, at Bentinck's insistence, was exiled to Austria, where she died in 1814.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restoration.", "content": "After the fall of Napoleon, Joachim Murat, who had succeeded Joseph Bonaparte as king of Naples in 1808, was dethroned in the Neapolitan War, and Ferdinand returned to Naples. By a secret treaty he had bound himself not to advance further in a constitutional direction than Austria should at any time approve; but, though on the whole he acted in accordance with Metternich's policy of preserving the \"status quo\", and maintained with but slight change Murat's laws and administrative system, he took advantage of the situation to abolish the Sicilian constitution, in violation of his oath, and to proclaim the union of the two states into the kingdom of the Two Sicilies (12 December 1816).  Ferdinand was now completely subservient to Austria, an Austrian, Count Nugent, being even made commander-in-chief of the army. For the next four years he reigned as an absolute monarch within his domain, granting no constitutional reforms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1820 revolution.", "content": "The suppression of liberal opinion caused an alarming spread of the influence and activity of the secret society of the Carbonari, which in time affected a large part of the army. In July 1820 a military revolt broke out under General Guglielmo Pepe, and Ferdinand was terrorised into signing a constitution on the model of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. On the other hand, a revolt in Sicily, in favour of the recovery of its independence, was suppressed by Neapolitan troops.  The success of the military revolution at Naples seriously alarmed the powers of the Holy Alliance, who feared that it might spread to other Italian states and so lead to a general European conflagration. The Troppau Protocol of 1820 was signed by Austria, Prussia and Russia, although an invitation to Ferdinand to attend the adjourned Congress of Laibach (1821) was issued at which he failed to distinguish himself. He had twice sworn to maintain the new constitution but was hardly out of Naples before he repudiated his oaths and, in letters addressed to all the sovereigns of Europe, declared his acts to have been null and void. Metternich had no difficulty in persuading the king to allow an Austrian army to march into Naples \"to restore order\".  The Neapolitans, commanded by General Pepe, made no attempt to defend the difficult defiles of the Abruzzi, and were defeated at Rieti (7 March 1821). The Austrians entered Naples.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Following the Austrian victory, the Parliament was dismissed and Ferdinand suppressed the Liberals and Carbonari. The victory was used by Austria to force its grasp over Naples' domestic and foreign policies. Count Charles-Louis de Ficquelmont was appointed as the Austrian ambassador to Naples, practically administrating the country as well as managing the occupation and strengthening Austrian influence over Neapolitan elites.  Ferdinand died in Naples in January 1825. He was the last surviving child of Charles III.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferdinand I (12 January 1751 – 4 January 1825), was the King of the Two Sicilies from 1816, after his restoration following victory in the Napoleonic Wars. Before that he had been, since 1759, Ferdinand IV of the Kingdom of Naples and Ferdinand III of the Kingdom of Sicily. He was also King of Gozo. He was deposed twice from the throne of Naples: once by the revolutionary Parthenopean Republic for six months in 1799 and again by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1805.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972268}
{"src_title": "Proterozoic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The Proterozoic record.", "content": "The geologic record of the Proterozoic Eon is more complete than that for the preceding Archean Eon. In contrast to the deep-water deposits of the Archean, the Proterozoic features many strata that were laid down in extensive shallow epicontinental seas; furthermore, many of those rocks are less metamorphosed than there are Archean ones, and many are unaltered. Studies of these rocks have shown that the eon continued the massive continental accretion that had begun late in the Archean Eon. The Proterozoic Eon also featured the first definitive supercontinent cycles and wholly modern mountain building activity (orogeny).  There is evidence that the first known glaciations occurred during the Proterozoic. The first began shortly after the beginning of the Proterozoic Eon, and evidence of at least four during the Neoproterozoic Era at the end of the Proterozoic Eon, possibly climaxing with the hypothesized Snowball Earth of the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The accumulation of oxygen.", "content": "One of the most important events of the Proterozoic was the accumulation of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. Though oxygen is believed to have been released by photosynthesis as far back as Archean Eon, it could not build up to any significant degree until mineral sinks of unoxidized sulfur and iron had been exhausted. Until roughly 2.3 billion years ago, oxygen was probably only 1% to 2% of its current level. The Banded iron formations, which provide most of the world's iron ore, are one mark of that mineral sink process. Their accumulation ceased after 1.9 billion years ago, after the iron in the oceans had all been oxidized.  Red beds, which are colored by hematite, indicate an increase in atmospheric oxygen 2 billion years ago. Such massive iron oxide formations are not found in older rocks. The oxygen buildup was probably due to two factors: exhaustion of the chemical sinks, and an increase in carbon burial, which sequestered organic compounds that would have otherwise been oxidized by the atmosphere.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subduction processes.", "content": "The Proterozoic Eon was a very tectonically active period in the Earth's history. The late Archean Eon to Early Proterozoic Eon corresponds to a period of increasing crustal recycling, suggesting subduction. Evidence for this increased subduction activity comes from the abundance of old granites originating mostly after 2.6 Ga. The occurrence of eclogite, (a type of metamorphic rock created by high pressure, > 1 GPa), is explained using a model that incorporates subduction. The lack of eclogites that date to the Archean Eon suggests that conditions at that time did not favor the formation of high grade metamorphism and therefore did not achieve the same levels of subduction as was occurring in the Proterozoic Eon. As a result of remelting of basaltic oceanic crust due to subduction, the cores of the first continents grew large enough to withstand the crustal recycling processes.  The long-term tectonic stability of those cratons is why we find continental crust ranging up to a few billion years in age. It is believed that 43% of modern continental crust was formed in the Proterozoic, 39% formed in the Archean, and only 18% in the Phanerozoic. Studies by Condie (2000) and Rino et al. (2004) suggest that crust production happened episodically. By isotopically calculating the ages of Proterozoic granitoids it was determined that there were several episodes of rapid increase in continental crust production. The reason for these pulses is unknown, but they seemed to have decreased in magnitude after every period.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tectonic history (supercontinents).", "content": "Evidence of collision and rifting between continents raises the question as to what exactly were the movements of the Archean cratons composing Proterozoic continents. Paleomagnetic and geochronological dating mechanisms have allowed the deciphering of Precambrian Supereon tectonics. It is known that tectonic processes of the Proterozoic Eon resemble greatly the evidence of tectonic activity, such as orogenic belts or ophiolite complexes, we see today. Hence, most geologists would conclude that the Earth was active at that time. It is also commonly accepted that during the Precambrian, the Earth went through several supercontinent breakup and rebuilding cycles (Wilson cycle).  In the late Proterozoic (most recent), the dominant supercontinent was Rodinia (~1000–750 Ma). It consisted of a series of continents attached to a central craton that forms the core of the North American Continent called Laurentia. An example of an orogeny (mountain building processes) associated with the construction of Rodinia is the Grenville orogeny located in Eastern North America. Rodinia formed after the breakup of the supercontinent Columbia and prior to the assemblage of the supercontinent Gondwana (~500 Ma). The defining orogenic event associated with the formation of Gondwana was the collision of Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia forming the Pan-African orogeny.  Columbia was dominant in the early-mid Proterozoic and not much is known about continental assemblages before then. There are a few plausible models that explain tectonics of the early Earth prior to the formation of Columbia, but the current most plausible hypothesis is that prior to Columbia, there were only a few independent cratons scattered around the Earth (not necessarily a supercontinent, like Rodinia or Columbia).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "The first advanced single-celled, eukaryotes and multi-cellular life, preserved as the Francevillian Group Fossils, roughly coincides with the start of the accumulation of free oxygen. This may have been due to an increase in the oxidized nitrates that eukaryotes use, as opposed to cyanobacteria. It was also during the Proterozoic that the first symbiotic relationships between mitochondria (found in nearly all eukaryotes) and chloroplasts (found in plants and some protists only) and their hosts evolved.  The blossoming of eukaryotes such as acritarchs did not preclude the expansion of cyanobacteria; in fact, stromatolites reached their greatest abundance and diversity during the Proterozoic, peaking roughly 1200 million years ago.  The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2,400 million years ago; these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis.  Classically, the boundary between the Proterozoic and the Phanerozoic eons was set at the base of the Cambrian Period when the first fossils of animals, including trilobites and archeocyathids, as well as the animal-like \"Caveasphaera\", appeared. In the second half of the 20th century, a number of fossil forms have been found in Proterozoic rocks, but the upper boundary of the Proterozoic has remained fixed at the base of the Cambrian, which is currently placed at 541 Ma.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Proterozoic () is a geological eon spanning the time from the appearance of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere to just before the proliferation of complex life (such as trilobites or corals) on the Earth. The name Proterozoic combines the two forms of ultimately Greek origin: \"protero-\" meaning \"former, earlier\", and \"-zoic\", a suffix related to \"zoe\" \"life\". The Proterozoic Eon extended from 2500 mya to 541 mya (million years ago), and is the most recent part of the Precambrian \"supereon.\" The Proterozoic is the longest eon of the Earth's geologic time scale and it is subdivided into three geologic eras (from oldest to youngest): the Paleoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic, and Neoproterozoic. The well-identified events of this eon were the transition to an oxygenated atmosphere during the Paleoproterozoic; several glaciations, which produced the hypothesized Snowball Earth during the Cryogenian Period in the late Neoproterozoic Era; and the Ediacaran Period (635 to 541 Ma) which is characterized by the evolution of abundant soft-bodied multicellular organisms and provides us with the first obvious fossil evidence of life on earth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972269}
{"src_title": "Henry Grey, 3rd Earl Grey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Grey was the eldest son of Prime Minister Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, by his wife The Honorable Mary Ponsonby, daughter of William Ponsonby, 1st Baron Ponsonby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "He entered parliament in 1826, under the title of Viscount Howick, as Whig member for Winchelsea, and then briefly for Higham Ferrers before settling for a northern constituency. Northumberland in 1831 was followed by North Northumberland after the Great Reform Act 1832. He remained in the parliaments dominated by his party and later by Lord Melbourne as Prime Minister.  On the accession of the Whigs to power in 1830, when his father became prime minister, he was made Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. This gave him responsibility for Britain's colonial possessions and laid the foundation of his intimate acquaintance with colonial questions. He belonged at the time to the more advanced party of colonial reformers, sharing the views of Edward Gibbon Wakefield on questions of land and emigration, and resigned in 1834 from dissatisfaction that slave emancipation was made gradual instead of immediate. In 1835 he entered Lord Melbourne's cabinet as Secretary at War, and effected some valuable administrative reforms, especially by suppressing malpractices detrimental to the troops in India. After the partial reconstruction of the ministry in 1839, he again resigned, disapproving of the more advanced views of some of his colleagues.  These repeated resignations gave him a reputation for crotchetiness, which he did not decrease by his disposition to embarrass his old colleagues by his action on free trade questions in the session of 1841.  After being returned unopposed at the first three general elections in Northern division of Northumberland, Howick was defeated at the 1841 general election. He returned to the Commons after a few months absence, when he was elected for the borough of Sunderland at by-election in September 1841.  During the exile of the Liberals from power he went still farther on the path of free trade, and anticipated Lord John Russell's declaration against the corn laws. When, on Sir Robert Peel's resignation in December 1845, Lord John Russell was called upon to form a ministry, Howick, who had become Earl Grey by the death of his father in the preceding July, refused to enter the new cabinet if Lord Palmerston were foreign secretary. He was greatly censured for perverseness, and particularly when in the following July he accepted Lord Palmerston as a colleague without remonstrance. His conduct, nevertheless, afforded Lord John Russell an escape from an embarrassing situation.  Becoming colonial secretary in 1846, he found himself everywhere confronted with arduous problems, which in the main he encountered with success. His administration formed an epoch. He was the first minister to proclaim that the colonies were to be governed for their own benefit and not for the mother countries; the first systematically to accord them self-government so far as then seemed possible; the first to introduce free trade into their relations with Great Britain and Ireland. The concession by which colonies were allowed to tax imports from the mother-country \"ad libitum\" was not his; he protested against it, but was overruled. In the West Indies he suppressed, if he could not overcome, discontent; in Ceylon he put down rebellion; in New Zealand he suspended the constitution he had himself accorded, and yielded everything into the hands of Sir George Grey. The least successful part of his administration was his treatment of the convict question at the Cape of Good Hope, which seemed an exception to his rule that the colonies were to be governed for their own benefit and in accordance with their own wishes, and subjected him to a humiliating defeat.  In 1848 Grey was elected to the New South Wales Legislative Council representing the City of Melbourne despite never visiting the colony; his seat was declared vacant in 1850 due to his non-attendance. This election was a protest against rule from Sydney and in 1850 Grey introduced the Australian Colonies Government Act which separated the district from New South Wales to become the colony of Victoria.  After his retirement he wrote a history and defence of his colonial policy in the form of letters to Lord John Russell (\"Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell's Administration\", 1853). He resigned with his colleagues in 1852. No room was found for him in the Coalition Cabinet of 1853, and although during the Crimean struggle public opinion pointed to him as the fittest man as minister for war, he never again held office. During the remainder of his long life he exercised a vigilant criticism on public affairs. In 1858 he wrote a work (republished in 1864) on parliamentary reform; in 1888 he wrote another on the state of Ireland; and in 1892 one on the United States tariff. In his latter years he was a frequent contributor of weighty letters to The Times on land, tithes, currency and other public questions. His principal parliamentary appearances were when he moved for a committee on Irish affairs in 1866, and when in 1878 he passionately opposed the policy of the Beaconsfield cabinet in India. He nevertheless supported Lord Beaconsfield at the dissolution, regarding William Ewart Gladstone's accession to power with much greater alarm. He was a determined opponent of Gladstone's Home rule policy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Grey married on 9 August 1832, to Maria, daughter of Sir Joseph Copley, 3rd Baronet of Sprotborough. They had no children. She died in September 1879. Lord Grey survived her by fifteen years and died on 9 October 1894, aged 91. He was succeeded in the earldom by his nephew, Albert Grey (born 1851). The suburb of Howick in Auckland, New Zealand, is named after the earl.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry George Grey, 3rd Earl Grey (28 December 18029 October 1894), known as Viscount Howick from 1807 until 1845, was an English statesman.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972270}
{"src_title": "Magister militum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Establishment and development of the Command.", "content": "The title of \"magister militum\" was created in the 4th century, when Emperor Constantine the Great deprived the praetorian prefects of their military functions. Initially two posts were created, one as head of the foot troops, as the \"magister peditum\" (\"Master of the Infantry\"), and one for the more prestigious horse troops, the \"magister equitum\" (\"Master of the Cavalry\"). The latter title had existed since Republican times, as the second-in-command to a \"Roman dictator\".  Under Constantine's successors, the title was also established at a territorial level: \"magistri peditum\" and \"magistri equitum\" were appointed for every praetorian prefecture (\"per Gallias\", \"per Italiam\", \"per Illyricum\", \"per Orientem\"), and, in addition, for Thrace and, sometimes, Africa. On occasion, the offices would be combined under a single person, then styled \"magister equitum et peditum\" or \"magister utriusque militiae\" (\"master of both forces\").  As such they were directly in command of the local mobile field army of the \"comitatenses\", composed mostly of cavalry, which acted as a rapid reaction force. Other \"magistri\" remained at the immediate disposal of the Emperors, and were termed \"in praesenti\" (\"in the presence\" of the Emperor). By the late 4th century, the regional commanders were termed simply \"magister militum\".  In the Western Roman Empire, a \"commander-in-chief\" evolved with the title of \"magister utriusque militiae\". This powerful office was often the power behind the throne and was held by Stilicho, Flavius Aetius, Ricimer, and others. In the East, there were two senior generals, who were each appointed to the office of \"magister militum praesentalis\".  During the reign of Emperor Justinian I, with increasing military threats and the expansion of the Eastern Empire, three new posts were created: the \"magister militum per Armeniam\" in the Armenian and Caucasian provinces, formerly part of the jurisdiction of the \"magister militum per Orientem\", the \"magister militum per Africam\" in the reconquered African provinces (534), with a subordinate \"magister peditum\", and the \"magister militum Spaniae\" (ca. 562).  In the course of the 6th century, internal and external crises in the provinces often necessitated the temporary union of the supreme regional civil authority with the office of the \"magister militum\". In the establishment of the exarchates of Ravenna and Carthage in 584, this practice found its first permanent expression. Indeed, after the loss of the eastern provinces to the Muslim conquest in the 640s, the surviving field armies and their commanders formed the first \"themata\".  Supreme military commanders sometimes also took this title in early medieval Italy, for example in the Papal States and in Venice, whose Doge claimed to be the successor to the Exarch of Ravenna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later, less formal use of the term.", "content": "By the 12th century, the term was being used to describe a man who organized the military force of a political or feudal leader on his behalf. In the \"Gesta Herwardi\", the hero is several times described as \"magister militum\" by the man who translated the original Early English account into Latin. It seems possible that the writer of the original version, now lost, thought of him as the 'hereward' – the supervisor of the military force. That this later use of these terms was based on the classical concept seems clear.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Magister militum (Latin for \"Master of the Soldiers\", plural \"magistri militum\") was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine the Great. The term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander, the emperor remaining the supreme commander) of the Empire. In Greek sources, the term is translated either as \"strategos\" or as \"stratelates\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972271}
{"src_title": "Otto Schmidt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born in the town of Mogilev in the Russian Empire, in what is now Belarus. His father was a descendant of German settlers in Courland, while his mother was a Latvian. In 1912-13 while in university he published a number of mathematical works on group theory which laid foundation for Krull–Schmidt theorem.  In 1913, Schmidt married Vera Yanitskaia and graduated from the University of Kiev, where he worked as a privat-docent starting from 1916. After the October Revolution of 1917, he was a board member at several People's Commissariats (narkomats)such as Narkomprod from 1918 to 1920 (\"Narodnyi Komissariat Prodovolstviya\", or People's Commissariat for Supplies), People's Commissariat for Finance from 1921 to 1922 (\"Narodnyi Komissariat Finansov\", or People's Commissariat for Finances). Schmidt was one of the chief proponents of developing the higher education system, publishing, and science in Soviet Russia.  He worked at \"Narkompros\" (People's Commissariat for Education), the State Scientific Board at the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, and the Communist Academy. He was Chair of the Foreign Literature Committee from October 1921. Following the Litkens Commission Schmidt was also employed as the director of the State Publishing House (Gosizdat) from 1921 to 1924, and chief editor of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia from 1924 to 1941. From 1923 he was a professor at the Second Moscow State University and later at the Moscow State University, and from 1930 to 1932, Schmidt was the head of the Arctic Institute.  From 1932–1939, he was appointed head of Glavsevmorput' (\"Glavnoe upravlenie Severnogo Morskogo Puti\") – an establishment that oversaw all commercial operations on the Northern Sea Route. From 1939 to 1942, Schmidt became a vice-president of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, where he organized the Institute of Theoretical Geophysics (he was its director until 1949). Otto Schmidt was a founder of the Moscow Algebra School, which he directed for many years.  In the mid-1940s, Schmidt suggested a new cosmogonical hypothesis on the formation of the Earth and other planets of the Solar system, which he continued to develop together with a group of Soviet scientists until his death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arctic.", "content": "Schmidt was an explorer of the Arctic. In 1929 and 1930, he led expeditions on the steam icebreaker \"Georgy Sedov\", establishing the first scientific research station on the Franz Josef Land, exploring the northwestern parts of the Kara Sea and western coasts of Severnaya Zemlya, and discovering a few islands.  In 1932, Schmidt's expedition on the steam icebreaker \"Sibiryakov\" with Captain Vladimir Voronin made a non-stop voyage from Arkhangelsk to the Pacific Ocean without wintering for the first time in history.  From 1933 to 1934, Schmidt led the voyage of the steamship \"Cheliuskin\", also with Captain Vladimir Voronin, along the Northern Sea Route. In 1937, he supervised an airborne expedition that established a drift-ice station \"North Pole-1\". In 1938, he was in charge of evacuating its personnel from the ice.  Otto Schmidt was a member of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of the first convocation (1938 -1946).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The authorities awarded Otto Schmidt three Orders of Lenin, three other orders and many medals. Schmidt Island in the Kara Sea, Cape Schmidt on the coastline of the Chukchi Sea in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, as well as the Institute of Earth Physics at the Soviet Academy of Sciences, among other places, bear Schmidt's name.  A minor planet, 2108 Otto Schmidtdiscovered in 1948 by Soviet astronomer Pelageya Shajncommemorates him.  The icebreaker \"\" originally bore the name \"Otto Yulyevich Schmidt\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otto Yulyevich Shmidt (Born Otto Friedrich Julius Schmidt; ; – 7 September 1956), better known as Otto Schmidt, was a Soviet scientist, mathematician, astronomer, geophysicist, statesman, academician, Hero of the USSR (27 June 1937), and member of the Communist Party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972272}
{"src_title": "Commerson's dolphin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Population and distribution.", "content": "Two disjunct subspecies of the dolphin are found in geographically disparate areas separated by 130° of longitude and about ; it is not known why they are thus distributed. Global populations are unknown, but the species is accepted to be locally common.  The main subspecies, \"C.c.commersonii\", is found inshore in various inlets in Argentina including Puerto Deseado, in the Strait of Magellan and around Tierra del Fuego, and near the Falkland Islands (Las Malvinas). A survey in 1984 estimated there to be 3,400 individuals in the Strait of Magellan.  Dolphins of the second subspecies, \"C.c.kerguelenensis\", were discovered in the 1950s. They reside near the Kerguelen Islands in the southern part of the Indian Ocean, and prefer shallow waters.  In 2004, a vagrant individual of unconfirmed origin was sighted on South Africa's Agulhas Bank, a location from the Kerguelen Islands and from South America. Though the Kerguelen Islands are closer, such a journey would require swimming against the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "C.c.commersonii.", "content": "The \"commersonii\" subspecies has a black head, dorsal fin, and fluke, with a white throat and body. The demarcation between the two colours is very clear-cut. This stocky creature is one of the smallest of all cetaceans, growing to around 1.5 m (5 ft). A mature female caught off of southern Patagonia, at 23 kg (51 lb) and 1.36 m (4.5 ft), may be the smallest adult cetacean on record. Its appearance resembles that of a porpoise, but its conspicuous behaviour is typical of a dolphin. The dorsal fin has a long, straight leading edge which ends in a curved tip. The trailing edge is typically concave, but not falcate. The fluke has a notch in the middle. This dolphin has no rostrum.  Sexes are easily distinguished by the different shape of the black blotch on the belly — it is shaped like a teardrop in males but is more rounded in females. Females reach breeding age at six to 9 years. Males reach sexual maturity at about the same age. Mating occurs in the spring and summer and calving occurs after a gestation period of 11 months during the spring and summer. The Commerson's dolphin has been known to live up to eighteen years in the wild, while in captivity the oldest individual was at least 33 years old at the time of death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"C.c.kerguelenensis\".", "content": "Dolphins of the \"kerguelenensis\" subspecies tend to be larger than those of \"C.c.commersonii\", and differ in patterning in that they are dark grey instead of black, and light grey instead of white, except ventrally. The demarcation between areas of the pattern is also less clearly demarcated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "Commerson's dolphin is very active. It is often seen swimming rapidly on the surface and leaping from the water. It also spins and twists as it swims and may surf on breaking waves when very close to the shore. It will bow-ride and swim behind fast-moving boats. It is also known to swim upside-down, which is thought to improve the visibility of its prey.  This dolphin feeds on a mix of coastal and pelagic fish and squid. Those in the South American subpopulation supplement their diets with crustaceans. Individuals have been recorded as entering the Santa Cruz River to forage there during low tide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The IUCN lists Commerson's dolphin as Least Concern in its Red List of Threatened Species. The proximity of the dolphin to the shore makes accidental killing in gillnets a common occurrence. The dolphin was killed for use as crab bait by some Argentinian and Chilean fishermen in the 1970s and 1980s, but this practice has since been curtailed.  The Commerson's dolphin population of South America is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). It is listed on Appendix II as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Captivity.", "content": "These dolphins have been known to be displayed in a few aquariums.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Commerson's dolphin (\"Cephalorhynchus commersonii\"), also referred to by the common names jacobita, skunk dolphin, piebald dolphin or panda dolphin, is a small oceanic dolphin of the genus \"Cephalorhynchus\". Commerson's dolphin has two geographically-isolated but locally-common subspecies. The principal subspecies, \"C.c.commersonii\", has sharply-delineated black-and-white patterning and is found around the tip of South America. The secondary subspecies, \"C.c.kerguelenensis\", is larger than \"C.c.commersonii\", has a less-sharply delineated dark and light grey patterning with a white ventral band, and is found around the Kerguelen Islands in the Indian Ocean.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972273}
{"src_title": "Vincennes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Marquis de Sade was imprisoned in Vincennes fortress in 1777, where he remained until February 1784 although he escaped for a little over a month in 1778. Thereafter Vincennes fortress was closed and de Sade transferred to the Bastille.  In 1821, the noted French poet, Alfred de Vigny, wrote his poem, \"La Prison,\" which details the last days of the Man in the Iron Mask at Vincennes.  The ministers of Charles X were imprisoned at the fortress of Vincennes after the July Revolution.  A test was conducted in 1849 on Claude-Étienne Minié's invention the Minié ball which would prove successful and years later be adopted by the French army.  On the morning of 15 October 1917, famous femme fatale Mata Hari was executed for espionage by a French firing squad at Vincennes.  In 1929, the commune of Vincennes lost about half of its territory when the city of Paris annexed the Bois de Vincennes, a large part of which belonged to the commune of Vincennes.  Vincennes was also the site of some famous European colonial expositions in the 20th century in which fairs were held to showcase artifacts from former European colonies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "The city is famous for its castle, the Château de Vincennes, and its park, the Bois de Vincennes hosting the only larger zoo in Paris, Paris Zoological Park (though these two are now within the limits of the City of Paris). It also features a large military fort, now housing various army services. This fort and an adjoining plain known as the \"Polygon\" has historically been an important proving ground for French armaments.  The city is also home to the Service Historique de la Défense (SHD), which holds the archival records of the French Armed Forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art.", "content": "In 1933 Georges Saupique was commissioned to work on one of three \"dessus-de-porte\" to be placed above the doors of the new Vincennes' town hall \"salle des fêtes\". His composition involved allegorical figures representing commerce and industry supporting the Vincennes' coat of arms", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Porcelain.", "content": "In the old royal château, a porcelain manufactory was established in 1740, specializing in imitations of Meissen porcelain and naturalistic flowers, which were incorporated into bouquets under the direction of Parisian \"marchands-merciers\". The Vincennes porcelain factory continued until 1756, when the production was transferred to new buildings at Sèvres, initiating the career of world-famous Sèvres porcelain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Vincennes is served by two stations on Paris Métro Line 1: Bérault and Château de Vincennes.  Vincennes is also served by Vincennes station on Paris RER line A.  The public transport network also includes 11 bus lines : 46, 56, 112, 114, 115, 118, 124, 210, 215, 318 and 325.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Vincennes is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The commune has eight public preschools, six public elementary schools, and three private schools contracted by the state.  There are three public junior high schools, Collège Hector-Berlioz, Collège Saint-Exupéry, and Collège Françoise-Giroud; as well as a contracted private junior high school, Notre-Dame de la Providence.  Public senior high schools/sixth-form colleges:  Private senior high schools/sixth-form colleges:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vincennes University.", "content": "In 1970 the \"University of Paris VIII\" was established in Vincennes as France's first major experiment in open admissions education, as a result of the academic reforms which followed the student risings of 1968. Intended to lessen the French university system's traditional emphasis on formal and elitist schooling, the school (generally known simply as \"Vincennes\") admitted students without the usual entrance requirement of the \"baccalaureat\" degree and introduced courses such as the History of Cinema, Sexology, and Third World Economics. Enrollments peaked at 32,000 with more than 40% of students holding full-time jobs off the campus. However problems associated with political unrest and alleged widespread drug usage among the student body led to the resignation of the Vincennes University President and the relocation of the campus to Saint-Denis by the French Government in 1980.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vincennes () is a commune in the Val-de-Marne department in the eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the centre of Paris. It is one of the most densely populated municipalities in Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972274}
{"src_title": "Heat shield", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Principles of operation.", "content": "Heat shields protect structures from extreme temperatures and thermal gradients by two primary mechanisms. Thermal insulation and radiative cooling, which respectively isolate the underlying structure from high external surface temperatures, while emitting heat outwards through thermal radiation. To achieve good functionality the three attributes required of a heat shield are low thermal conductivity (high thermal resistance), high emissivity and good thermal stability (refractoriness). Porous ceramics with high emissivity coatings (HECs) are often employed to address these three characteristics, owing to the good thermal stability of ceramics, the thermal insulation of porous materials and the good radiative cooling effects offered by HECs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Automotive.", "content": "Due to the large amounts of heat given off by internal combustion engines, heat shields are used on most engines to protect components and bodywork from heat damage. As well as protection, effective heat shields can give a performance benefit by reducing the under-bonnet temperatures, therefore reducing the intake temperature. Heat shields vary widely in price, but most are easy to fit, usually by stainless steel clips or high temperature tape. There are two main types of automotive heat shield: As a result, a heat shield is often fitted by both amateur and professional personnel during a phase of engine tuning.  Heat shields are also used to cool engine mount vents. When a vehicle is at higher speed there is enough ram air to cool the under hood engine compartment, but when the vehicle is moving at lower speeds or climbing a gradient there is a need of insulating the engine heat to get transferred to other parts around it, e.g. Engine Mounts. With the help of proper thermal analysis and use of heat shields, the engine mount vents can be optimised for the best performances.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aircraft.", "content": "Some aircraft at high speed, such as the Concorde and SR-71 Blackbird, must be designed considering similar, but lower, overheating to what occurs in spacecraft. In the case of the Concorde the aluminum nose allowed to reach a maximum operating temperature of 127 °C (which is 180 °C higher than the ambient air outside which is below zero); the metallurgical consequences associated with the peak temperature were a significant factor in determining the maximum aircraft speed.  Recently new materials have been developed that could be superior to '' RCC. The prototype SHARP (Slender Hypervelocity Aerothermodynamic Research Probe) is based on materials Ultra-high-temperature ceramics,(UHTC), such as zirconium diboride (ZrB) and hafnium diboride (HfB). The thermal protection system based on these materials would allow to reach a speed of Mach number 7 at sea level, Mach 11 at 35000 meters and significant improvements for vehicles designed for Hypersonic speed. The materials used have thermal protection characteristics in a temperature range from 0 °C to + 2000 °C, with melting point at over 3500 °C. They are also structurally more resistant than RCC, so they do not require additional reinforcements, and are very efficient in re-irradiating the absorbed heat. NASA funded (and subsequently discontinued) a research and development program in 2001 for testing this protection system through the University of Montana.  The European Commission funded a research project, C3HARME, under the NMP-19-2015 call of Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development in 2016 (still ongoing) for the design, development, production and testing of a new class of ultra-refractory ceramic matrix composites reinforced with silicon carbide fibers and Carbon fibers suitable for applications in severe aerospace environments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spacecraft.", "content": "Spacecraft that land on a planet with an atmosphere, such as Earth, Mars, and Venus, currently do so by entering the atmosphere at high speeds, depending on air resistance rather than rocket power to slow them down. A side effect of this method of atmospheric re-entry is aerodynamic heating, which can be highly destructive to the structure of an unprotected or faulty spacecraft. An aerodynamic heat shield consists of a protective layer of special materials to dissipate the heat. Two basic types of aerodynamic heat shield have been used:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Passive cooling.", "content": "Passive cooled protectors are used to protect spaceships during atmospheric entry to absorb heat peaks and subsequently irradiate stored heat to the atmosphere. Early versions included a substantial amount of metals such as titanium, beryllium and copper. This greatly increased the mass of the vehicle. Heat absorption and ablative systems became preferable. In modern vehicles, however, they can be found, but instead of metal, Reinforced carbon–carbon material is used (also called \" RCC \" \" Reinforced carbon-carbon \" or \" carbon-carbon \"). This material constitutes the thermal protection system of the nose and the front edges of the Space Shuttle and was proposed for the vehicle X-33. Carbon is the most refractory material known with a sublimation temperature (for graphite) of 3825 °C. These characteristics make it a material particularly suitable for passive cooling, but with the disadvantage of being very expensive and fragile. Some spacecraft also use a heat shield (in the conventional automotive sense) to protect fuel tanks and equipment from the heat produced by a large rocket engine. Such shields were used on the Apollo Service Module and Lunar Module descent stage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Industry.", "content": "Heat shields are often affixed to semi-automatic or automatic rifles and shotguns as barrel shrouds in order to protect the user's hands from the heat caused by firing shots in rapid succession. They have also often been affixed to pump-action combat shotguns, allowing the soldier to grasp the barrel while using a bayonet.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A heat shield is designed to protect an object from overheating by dissipating, reflecting or simply absorbing heat. The term is most often used in reference to exhaust heat management and to systems for dissipation of heat due to friction.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972275}
{"src_title": "1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane is a non-flammable gas used primarily as a \"high-temperature\" refrigerant for domestic refrigeration and automobile air conditioners. These devices began using 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane in the early 1990s as a replacement for the more environmentally harmful R-12 and retrofit kits are available to convert units that were originally R-12-equipped. Other uses include plastic foam blowing, as a cleaning solvent, a propellant for the delivery of pharmaceuticals (e.g. bronchodilators), wine cork removers, gas dusters, such as Dust-Off, and in air driers for removing the moisture from compressed air. 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane has also been used to cool computers in some overclocking attempts. It is the refrigerant used in plumbing pipe freeze kits. It is also commonly used as a propellant for airsoft airguns. The gas is often mixed with a silicone-based lubricant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aspirational and niche applications.", "content": "1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane is also being considered as an organic solvent suitable for extraction of flavor and fragrance compounds, as a possible alternative to other organic solvents and supercritical carbon dioxide. It can also be used as a solvent in organic chemistry, both in liquid and supercritical fluid. It is used in the resistive plate chamber particle detectors in the Large Hadron Collider. It is also used for other types of particle detectors, e.g. some cryogenic particle detectors. It can be used as an alternative to sulfur hexafluoride in magnesium smelting as a shielding gas.  1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane is also being considered as an alternative to sulfur hexafluoride as a dielectric gas. Its arc-quenching properties are poor, but its dielectric properties are fairly good.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Climate change considerations.", "content": "1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane is subject to use restrictions due to its contribution to climate change. It has a global warming potential of 1300.  The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has proposed 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane to be best replaced by a new fluorochemical refrigerant HFO-1234yf (CFCF=CH) in automobile air-conditioning systems. California may also prohibit the sale of canned 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane to individuals to avoid non-professional recharge of air conditioners. A ban had been in place in Wisconsin since October 1994 under ATCP 136 prohibiting sales of container sizes holding less than 15 lbs of 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, but this restriction applied only when the chemical was intended to be a refrigerant. However, the ban was lifted in Wisconsin in 2012. During the time that it was active, this Wisconsin-specific ban contained loopholes. For example, it was legal for a person to purchase gas duster containers with any amount of the chemical because in that instance the chemical is neither intended to be a refrigerant nor is HFC-134a included in the § 7671a listing of class I and class II substances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane first appeared in the early 1990s as a replacement for dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12), which has ozone depleting properties. It has insignificant ozone depletion potential (ozone layer), significant global warming potential (100-yr GWP of 1430) and negligible acidification potential (acid rain). Because of its high GWP, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane is due to be banned from use in the European Union, starting with cars in 2011 and due to be banned completely by 2030.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production and reactions.", "content": "Tetrafluoroethane is typically made by reacting trichloroethylene with hydrogen fluoride:  It reacts with butyllithium to give trifluorovinyl lithium:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Mixtures with air of the gas 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane are not flammable at atmospheric pressure and temperatures up to 100 °C (212 °F). However, mixtures with high concentrations of air at elevated pressure and/or temperature can be ignited. Contact of 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane with flames or hot surfaces in excess of 250 °C (482 °F) may cause vapor decomposition and the emission of toxic gases including hydrogen fluoride and carbonyl fluoride. 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane itself has an of 1,500 g/m in rats, making it relatively non-toxic, apart from the dangers inherent to inhalant abuse. Its gaseous form is denser than air and will displace air in the lungs. This can result in asphyxiation if excessively inhaled. This is what contributes to most deaths by inhalant abuse.  Aerosol cans containing 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, when inverted, become effective freeze sprays. Under pressure, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane is compressed into a liquid, which upon vaporization absorbs a significant amount of thermal energy. As a result, it will greatly lower the temperature of any object it contacts as it evaporates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical use.", "content": "For its medical uses, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane has the generic name norflurane. It is used as propellant for some metered dose inhalers. It is considered safe for this use. In combination with pentafluoropropane, it is used as a topical vapocoolant spray for numbing boils before curettage. It has also been studied as a potential inhalational anesthetic, but it is nonanaesthetic at doses used in inhalers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (also known as norflurane (INN), R-134a, Freon 134a, Forane 134a, Genetron 134a, Florasol 134a, Suva 134a, or HFC-134a) is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) and haloalkane refrigerant with thermodynamic properties similar to R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane) but with insignificant ozone depletion potential and a significantly lower global warming potential (1,430, compared to R-12's GWP of 10,900). It has the formula CHFCF and a boiling point of −26.3 °C (−15.34 °F) at atmospheric pressure. R-134a cylinders are colored light blue. Attempts at phasing out its use as a refrigerant with substances that have lower global warming potential, such as HFO-1234yf, are underway.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972276}
{"src_title": "César Baldaccini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was a French sculptor, born in 1921 of Italian parents from Tuscany in the working-class neighbourhood of la Belle-de-Mai in Marseilles. His father was a cooper and bar owner. After studying at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Marseilles (1935-9) he went on to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris (1943-8). He began making sculptures by welding together pieces of scrap metal in 1952 and first made his reputation with solid welded sculptures of insects, various kinds of animals and nudes.  His first one-man exhibition was at the Galerie Lucien Durand, Paris, 1954.  His early work used soldered and welded metal as well as junk materials, and by 1960 César was considered one of France's leading sculptors. In that year, on a visit to a scrap merchant in search of metal, he saw a hydraulic crushing machine in operation, and decided to experiment with it in his sculpture. He astonished his followers by showing three crushed cars at a Paris exhibition. It was for these 'Compressions' that César became renowned. César selected particular cars for crushing, mixing elements from differently coloured vehicles. In this way he could control the surface pattern and colour scheme of the piece.  Later the same year he joined the Nouveaux Réalistes (New Realists) - Arman, Klein, Raysse, Tinguely, Pierre Restany and others who found their inspiration in urban life.  In 1965, he started to work with plastics, first with plastic moulds of human imprints, then from 1966 by pouring expanded polyurethane, which was allowed to expand and solidify. He gave up making welded-metal sculpture in 1966 and organised a series of Happenings from 1967–1970, in which he produced expansions in the presence of an audience. His later works also included sculptures made out of molten crystal.  In 1995, he was asked to paint a McLaren F1 GTR that participated in the famous 24 Hours of Le Mans. The car Chassis GTR5 is still in the livery created by César, and represents the only 'Art Car\" based on the iconic Mclaren.  He is the creator of the César du cinéma trophy, which is awarded to the best in French cinema.  He was made \"Chevalier\" (Knight) of the Légion d'honneur on 22 January 1978 and promoted \"Officier\" (Officer) in 1993.  He married Rosine and had one daughter Anna. He died in Paris in December 1998. Following his death there was an extended dispute over his will between his widow and daughter on the one hand and Stéphanie Busuttil, his companion at the time of his death, on the other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works on public display.", "content": "Examples of César's work can be seen in the permanent collection of le Centre national d'art et de culture Georges-Pompidou (\"Bas relief\",\" Tortue\", \"le Diable\") and the Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris (Facel Véga). He also designed his own grave at the Montparnasse Cemetery, on the esplanade de La Défense (\"Le Pouce\"), in Marseille on the avenue de Hambourg near the MAC and the Bonneveine Centre (\"Le Pouce Géant\").  One of his most iconic pieces, \"Conserve expansion - Martial Raysse\" (1970-1972), is at the Museo Cantonale d'Arte in Lugano.  \"The Flying Frenchman\" was installed in Hong Kong in the early 1990s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "César (born Cesare Baldaccini, 1 January 1921 – 6 December 1998), also occasionally referred to as César Baldaccini, was a noted French sculptor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972277}
{"src_title": "Heart valve", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "The heart valves and the chambers are lined with endocardium. Heart valves separate the atria from the ventricles, or the ventricles from a blood vessel. Heart valves are situated around the fibrous rings of the cardiac skeleton. The valves incorporate flaps called leaflets or cusps, similar to a duckbill valve or flutter valve, which are pushed open to allow blood flow and which then close together to seal and prevent backflow. The mitral valve has two cusps, whereas the others have three. There are nodules at the tips of the cusps that make the seal tighter.  The pulmonary valve has left, right, and anterior cusps. The aortic valve has left, right, and posterior cusps. The tricuspid valve has anterior, posterior, and septal cusps; and the mitral valve has just anterior and posterior cusps.  The valves of the human heart can be grouped in two sets:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Atrioventricular valves.", "content": "These are the mitral and tricuspid valves, which are situated between the atria and the ventricles and prevent backflow from the ventricles into the atria during systole. They are anchored to the walls of the ventricles by chordae tendineae, which prevent the valves from inverting.  The chordae tendineae are attached to papillary muscles that cause tension to better hold the valve. Together, the papillary muscles and the chordae tendineae are known as the subvalvular apparatus. The function of the subvalvular apparatus is to keep the valves from prolapsing into the atria when they close. The subvalvular apparatus has no effect on the opening and closure of the valves, however, which is caused entirely by the pressure gradient across the valve. The peculiar insertion of chords on the leaflet free margin, however, provides systolic stress sharing between chords according to their different thickness.  The closure of the AV valves is heard as lub, the first heart sound (S1). The closure of the SL valves is heard as dub, the second heart sound (S2).  The mitral valve is also called the bicuspid valve because it contains two leaflets or cusps. The mitral valve gets its name from the resemblance to a bishop's mitre (a type of hat). It is on the left side of the heart and allows the blood to flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle.  During diastole, a normally-functioning mitral valve opens as a result of increased pressure from the left atrium as it fills with blood (preloading). As atrial pressure increases above that of the left ventricle, the mitral valve opens. Opening facilitates the passive flow of blood into the left ventricle. Diastole ends with atrial contraction, which ejects the final 30% of blood that is transferred from the left atrium to the left ventricle. This amount of blood is known as the end diastolic volume (EDV), and the mitral valve closes at the end of atrial contraction to prevent a reversal of blood flow.  The tricuspid valve has three leaflets or cusps and is on the right side of the heart. It is between the right atrium and the right ventricle, and stops the backflow of blood between the two.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semilunar valves.", "content": "The aortic and pulmonary valves are located at the base of the aorta and the pulmonary trunk respectively. These are also called the \"semilunar valves\". These two arteries receive blood from the ventricles and their semilunar valves permit blood to be forced into the arteries, and prevent backflow from the arteries into the ventricles. These valves do not have chordae tendineae, and are more similar to the valves in veins than they are to the atrioventricular valves. The closure of the semilunar valves causes the second heart sound.  The aortic valve, which has three cusps, lies between the left ventricle and the aorta. During ventricular systole, pressure rises in the left ventricle and when it is greater than the pressure in the aorta, the aortic valve opens, allowing blood to exit the left ventricle into the aorta. When ventricular systole ends, pressure in the left ventricle rapidly drops and the pressure in the aorta forces aortic valve to close. The closure of the aortic valve contributes the A2 component of the second heart sound.  The pulmonary valve (sometimes referred to as the pulmonic valve) lies between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery, and has three cusps. Similar to the aortic valve, the pulmonary valve opens in ventricular systole, when the pressure in the right ventricle rises above the pressure in the pulmonary artery. At the end of ventricular systole, when the pressure in the right ventricle falls rapidly, the pressure in the pulmonary artery will close the pulmonary valve. The closure of the pulmonary valve contributes the P2 component of the second heart sound. The right heart is a low-pressure system, so the P2 component of the second heart sound is usually softer than the A2 component of the second heart sound. However, it is physiologically normal in some young people to hear both components separated during inhalation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "In the developing heart, the valves between the atria and ventricles, the bicuspid and the tricuspid valves, develop on either side of the atrioventricular canals. The upward extension of the bases of the ventricles causes the canal to become invaginated into the ventricle cavities. The invaginated margins form the rudiments of the lateral cusps of the AV valves. The middle and septal cusps develop from the downward extension of the septum intermedium.  The semilunar valves (the pulmonary and aortic valves) are formed from four thickenings at the cardiac end of the truncus arteriosus. These thickenings are called endocardial cushions. The truncus arteriosus is originally a single outflow tract from the embryonic heart that will later split to become the ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk. Before it has split, four thickenings occur. There are anterior, posterior, and two lateral thickenings. A septum begins to form between what will later become the ascending aorta and pulmonary tract. As the septum forms, the two lateral thickenings are split, so that the ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk have three thickenings each (an anterior or posterior, and half of each of the lateral thickenings). The thickenings are the origins of the three cusps of the semilunar valves. The valves are visible as unique structures by the ninth week. As they mature, they rotate slightly as the outward vessels spiral, and move slightly closer to the heart.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Physiology.", "content": "In general, the motion of the heart valves is determined using the Navier–Stokes equation, using boundary conditions of the blood pressures, pericardial fluid, and external loading as the constraints. The motion of the heart valves is used as a boundary condition in the Navier–Stokes equation in determining the fluid dynamics of blood ejection from the left and right ventricles into the aorta and the lung.  The pressure drop, formula_1, across an open heart valve relates to the flow rate, Q, through the valve:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A heart valve is a one-way valve that normally allows blood to flow in only one direction through the heart. The four valves are commonly represented in a mammalian heart that determines the pathway of blood flow through the heart. A heart valve opens or closes incumbent on differential blood pressure on each side.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972278}
{"src_title": "Valerian (emperor)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins and rise to power.", "content": "Unlike many of the would-be emperors and rebels who vied for imperial power during the Crisis of the Third Century of the Roman Empire, Valerian was of a noble and traditional senatorial family. Details of his early life are sparse, except for his marriage to Egnatia Mariniana, with whom he had two sons: later emperor Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus and Valerianus Minor.  He was Consul for the first time either before 238 AD as a \"Suffectus\" or in 238 as an \"Ordinarius\". In 238 he was \"princeps senatus\", and Gordian I negotiated through him for senatorial acknowledgement for his claim as emperor. In 251 AD, when Decius revived the censorship with legislative and executive powers so extensive that it practically embraced the civil authority of the emperor, Valerian was chosen censor by the Senate, though he declined to accept the post. During the reign of Decius he was left in charge of affairs in Rome when that prince left for his ill-fated last campaign in \"Illyricum\". Under Trebonianus Gallus he was appointed \"dux\" of an army probably drawn from the garrisons of the German provinces which seems to have been ultimately intended for use in a war against the Persians. However, when Trebonianus Gallus had to deal with the rebellion of Aemilianus in 253 AD it was to Valerian he turned for assistance in crushing the attempted usurpation. Valerian headed south but was too late: Gallus was killed by his own troops, who joined Aemilianus before Valerian arrived. The Raetian soldiers then proclaimed Valerian emperor and continued their march towards Rome. Upon his arrival in late September, Aemilianus's legions defected, killing Aemilianus and proclaiming Valerian emperor. In Rome, the Senate quickly acknowledged Valerian, not only for fear of reprisals but also because he was one of their own.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rule and fall.", "content": "Valerian's first act as emperor on October 22, 253, was to appoint his son Gallienus as a caesar. Early in his reign, affairs in Europe went from bad to worse, and the whole West fell into disorder. In the East, Antioch had fallen into the hands of a Sassanid vassal and Armenia was occupied by Shapur I (Sapor). Valerian and Gallienus split the problems of the empire between them, with the son taking the West, and the father heading East to face the Persian threat.  In 254, 255, and 257, Valerian again became \"Consul Ordinarius.\" By 257, he had recovered Antioch and returned the province of Syria to Roman control. The following year, the Goths ravaged Asia Minor. In 259, Valerian moved on to Edessa, but an outbreak of plague killed a critical number of legionaries, weakening the Roman position, and the town was besieged by the Persians. At the beginning of 260, Valerian was decisively defeated in the Battle of Edessa, and he arranged a meeting with Shapur to negotiate a peace settlement. The truce was betrayed by Shapur, who seized Valerian and held him prisoner for the remainder of his life. Valerian's capture was a tremendous defeat for the Romans.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Persecution of Christians.", "content": "While fighting the Persians, Valerian sent two letters to the Senate ordering that firm steps be taken against Christians. The first, sent in 257, commanded Christian clergy to perform sacrifices to the Roman gods or face banishment. The second, the following year, ordered the execution of Christian leaders. It also required Christian senators and equites to perform acts of worship to the Roman gods or lose their titles and property, and directed that they be executed if they continued to refuse. It also decreed that Roman matrons who would not apostatize should lose their property and be banished, and that civil servants and members of the Imperial household who would not worship the Roman gods should be reduced to slavery and sent to work on the Imperial estates. This indicates that Christians were well-established at that time, some in very high positions.  The execution of Saint Prudent at Narbonne is taken to have occurred in 257. Prominent Christians executed in 258 included Pope Sixtus II (6 August), Saint Romanus Ostiarius (9 August) and Saint Lawrence (10 August). Others executed in 258 included the saints Denis in Paris, Pontius in Cimiez, Cyprian in Carthage and Eugenia in Rome. In 259 Saint Patroclus was executed at Troyes and Saint Fructuosus at Tarragona. When Valerian's son Gallienus became Emperor in 260, the decree was rescinded.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death in captivity.", "content": "Eutropius, writing between 364 and 378 AD, stated that Valerian \"was overthrown by Shapur king of Persia, and being soon after made prisoner, grew old in ignominious slavery among the Parthians.\" An early Christian source, Lactantius, thought to be virulently anti-Persian, thanks to the occasional persecution of Christians by some Sasanian monarchs, maintained that, for some time prior to his death, Valerian was subjected to the greatest insults by his captors, such as being used as a human footstool by Shapur when mounting his horse. According to this version of events, after a long period of such treatment, Valerian offered Shapur a huge ransom for his release. In reply, according to one version, Shapur was said to have forced Valerian to swallow molten gold (the other version of his death is almost the same but it says that Valerian was killed by being flayed alive) and then had Valerian skinned and his skin stuffed with straw and preserved as a trophy in the main Persian temple. It was further alleged that it was only after a later Persian defeat against Rome that his skin was given a cremation and burial. The captivity and death of Valerian has been frequently debated by historians without any definitive conclusion.  According to the modern scholar Touraj Daryaee, contrary to the account of Lactantius, Shapur I sent Valerian and some of his army to the city of Bishapur or Gundishapur where they lived in relatively good conditions. Shapur used the remaining soldiers in engineering and development plans. \"Band-e Kaisar\" (Caesar's dam) is one of the remnants of Roman engineering located near the ancient city of Susa. In all the stone carvings on Naghshe-Rostam, in Iran, Valerian is represented holding hands with Shapur I, a sign of submission. According to the early Persian Muslim scholar Abu Hanifa Dinawari, Shapur settled the prisoners of war in Gundishapur and released Valerian, as promised, after the construction of Band-e Kaisar.  It has been alleged that the account of Lactantius is coloured by his desire to establish that persecutors of the Christians died fitting deaths; the story was repeated then and later by authors in the Roman Near East fiercely hostile to Persia.  The joint rule of Valerian and Gallienus was threatened several times by usurpers. Nevertheless, Gallienus held the throne until his own assassination in 268 AD.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular fiction.", "content": "Valerian appears in Harry Sidebottom's historical fiction series of novels \"Warrior of Rome\".  He also appears in Anthony Hecht's poem \"Behold the Lilies of the Field\" in the collection \"The Hard Hours\".  He is referenced in Evelyn Waugh's \"Helena\": \"Do you know what has happened to the Immortal Valerian?...They have him on show in Persia, stuffed.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Valerian (; ; 193/195/200260 or 264), also known as Valerian the Elder, was Roman Emperor from 22 October 253 AD to spring 260 AD. He was taken captive by the Persian Emperor, Shapur I, after the Battle of Edessa, becoming the first Roman emperor to be captured as a prisoner of war, causing shock and instability throughout the Roman Empire. The unprecedented event and the unknown fate of the captured emperor generated a variety of different reactions and \"new narratives about the Roman Empire in diverse contexts\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972279}
{"src_title": "Leah Rabin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Leah Rabin was born Leah Schloßberg in Königsberg, East Prussia, Germany (now Kaliningrad, Russia), to an upper-middle-class family of Russian-born parents. Immediately after Adolf Hitler's election as Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Schloßberg emigrated with her family to Mandate Palestine. Her father had bought a piece of property near Binyamina on his first trip to the area in 1927. She met her future husband, Yitzhak Rabin, at school. They married in 1948, the year of Israel's independence.  Yitzhak became Prime Minister in 1974 following Golda Meir's resignation, but in 1977 a US Dollar bank account (illegal at that time in Israel) held by Leah was exposed by \"Haaretz\" journalist Dan Margalit. As a result, her husband decided to take responsibility, resigned from office. This came to be known as the Dollar Account affair.  Rabin supported the peace efforts of her husband in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and worked further for a solution after his assassination. She wrote a book about her memories of her husband, which was released in 1997, under the name \"Rabin: Our Life, His Legacy\".  Rabin supported Shimon Peres in the elections of 1996, calling people to vote for him so that her husband's death \"would not be in vain.\" She also expressed her disappointment after he lost the elections to Benjamin Netanyahu. In the election of 1999 she supported Ehud Barak. However, during Barak's term as prime minister she changed her opinions about him. She was especially disturbed by the fact that he was negotiating a territorial compromise in Jerusalem.  Leah Rabin was diagnosed with lung cancer and died in Rabin Medical Center in Petah Tikva in 2000 at the age of 72 and was buried in Mount Herzl in Jerusalem beside her husband Yitzhak Rabin, a few days after the fifth anniversary of her husband's assassination.  The couple's daughter, Dalia was later a Knesset member for the Centre Party, New Way and the Labour Party, serving as Deputy Minister of Defense.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leah Rabin (, née Schloßberg; 8 April 1928 – 12 November 2000) was the widow of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, who was assassinated in 1995.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972280}
{"src_title": "Winch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest literary reference to a winch can be found in the account of Herodotus of Halicarnassus on the Persian Wars (\"Histories\" 7.36), where he describes how wooden winches were used to tighten the cables for a pontoon bridge across the Hellespont in 480 BC. Winches may have been employed even earlier in Assyria. By the 4th century BC, winch and pulley hoists were regarded by Aristotle as common for architectural use (\"Mech\". 18; 853b10-13).  The yacht \"Reliance\", American defender of the 1903 America's Cup, was the first racing boat to be fitted with modern winches below decks. The \"Reliance's\" competitors relied on muscle power using topside mounted capstans and windlasses, which would soon be replaced in most applications by winches, including on fishing boats, where they are used to bring in the fishing nets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vehicle recovery.", "content": "The main feature that legally distinguishes a tow truck from a conventional truck in many jurisdictions is the presence of a winch, which is used to either extract disabled or immobilized vehicles, or to load them onto flatbed/tilt and load type tow trucks. These may be electrically or hydraulically powered from a power take-off, and is wound with a wire cable and equipped with a hook. Snatch blocks may be used to change direction or increase the pulling power and a variety of specialized hooks may be attached to the main hook, including hooks which attach to specific parts of the car. J-hooks, which look somewhat like blunt meat hooks are used to hook around axles. Mini-J hooks can be used if there is a tow loop provided, and R and T hooks are designed to hook into slots cut by the manufacturer in the underside of the frame on many cars. Axle straps may also be used, when there are few other places to attach. Off-road vehicles will often similarly carry a winch, since tow trucks are often unable to get close enough to them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aircraft use.", "content": "Gliders are often launched using a winch mounted on a trailer or heavy vehicle. This method is widely used at many European gliding clubs, as an inexpensive alternative to aerotowing. The engine is usually a gas/petrol, LPG or diesel, though hydraulic fluid engines and electrical motors are also used. The winch pulls in of high-tensile steel wire or a synthetic fibre cable, attached at the other end to the glider. The cable is released at a height of about after a short, steep climb.  Search and Rescue helicopters are often equipped with winches to avoid having to get the helicopter dangerously close to obstacles, or into ocean troughs, allowing rescue teams to be lowered and evacuees to be extricated while the helicopter hovers overhead. Helicopter winches are also used for heli-logging and for airlifting oversized cargo, such as vehicles and other aircraft, although the winch in these cases is only used to reduce the hazards to flying with an loose cable hanging below the helicopter.  Stationary balloons, such as the barrage balloons used during the Second World War to discourage marauding aircraft, and the Kite balloons used during the First World War for artillery spotting are usually tethered with a winch, which can be used to lower the balloon, either to relocate it, or to bring it down quickly to prevent it being shot down by enemy aircraft. Larger man carrying kites often used winches to raise and lower them.  Towed gunnery targets, used to train anti-aircraft gunners, and both fighter pilots and aircraft gunners, are run out behind the target tug aircraft for practice, and winched in for take-off and landing.  Before advances were made in antennas in the 1950s, radio aerials were quite long, and needed to be winched out for use, and winched back in for landing. Failure to do so would then damage the aerial, as happened to Amelia Earhart on one of the legs of her last flight.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theatre.", "content": "Winches are frequently used as elements of backstage mechanics to move scenery in large theatrical productions. They are often embedded in the stage floor and used to move large set pieces on and off.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wakeskate winch.", "content": "Wakeskate winching is a sport where a person on a waterski or snowboard is propelled across the water with a winch. The winch consists of a gas-powered engine, spool, rope, frame, and sometimes a simple transmission. The person being towed walks (or swims) away from the winch, while extending the rope. When the winch is engaged, it pulls the boarder in at a speed ranging from. The winch may be mounted to a vehicle, set into the ground by stakes, or tied to a tree. The cable may also be run through pulleys mounted offshore so that it pulls the person away from where the winch is located, and multiple pulleys may be used to multiply the force applied by a small but high revving motor instead of using a transmission.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Winch types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lever winch.", "content": "Lever winches are winches that use self-gripping jaws instead of spools to move rope or wire through the winch. Powered by moving a handle back and forth, they allow one person to move objects several tons in weight.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Snubbing winch.", "content": "This is a vertical spool with a ratchet mechanism similar to a conventional winch, but with no crank handle or other form of drive. The line is wrapped around the spool and can be tightened or reeled in by pulling the tail line. The winch takes the load once the pull is stopped with little operator tension needed to hold it. These also allow controlled release of the tension by the operator using the friction of the line around the ratcheted spool. They are used on small sailing boats and dinghies to control sheets and other lines, and in larger applications to supplement and relieve tension on the primary winches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Air winch.", "content": "An air winch, sometimes known as an air hoist or air tugger, is an air-powered version of a winch. It is commonly used for the lifting and the suspension of materials. In the oil and gas, construction, and maritime industries, air winches are frequently preferred to electric, diesel, and hydraulic winches because of their durability, versatility, and safety.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A winch is a mechanical device that is used to pull in (wind up) or let out (wind out) or otherwise adjust the tension of a rope or wire rope (also called \"cable\" or \"wire cable\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972281}
{"src_title": "Philip V of Macedon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "The son of Demetrius II and Chryseis, Philip was nine years old at his father's death in 229 BC. He had an elder paternal half sister called Apame. His cousin, Antigonus Doson, administered the kingdom as regent until his death in 221 BC when Philip was seventeen years old.  On his ascent to the throne, Philip quickly showed that while he was young, this did not mean that Macedon was weak. In the first year of his rule, he pushed back the Dardani and other tribes in the north of the kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Social War.", "content": "In the Social War (220–217 BC), the Hellenic League of Greek states was assembled at Philip V’s instigation in Corinth. He then led the Hellenic League in battles against Aetolia, Sparta and Elis. In this way he was able to increase his own authority amongst his own ministers. His leadership during the Social War made him well-known and respected both within his own kingdom and abroad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Macedonian War.", "content": "After the Peace of Naupactus in 217 BC, Philip V tried to replace Roman influence along the eastern shore of the Adriatic, forming alliances or lending patronage to certain island and coastal provinces such as Lato on Crete. He first tried to invade Illyria from the sea, but with limited success. His first expedition in 216 BC had to be aborted, while he suffered the loss of his whole fleet in a second expedition in 214 BC. A later expedition by land met with greater success when he captured Lissus in 212 BC.  In 215 BC, he entered into a treaty with Hannibal, the Carthaginian general then in the middle of an invasion of Roman Italy. Their treaty defined spheres of operation and interest, but achieved little of substance or value for either side. Philip became heavily involved in assisting and protecting his allies from attacks from the Spartans, the Romans and their allies.  Rome's alliance with the Aetolian League in 211 BC effectively neutralised Philip's advantage on land. The intervention of Attalus I of Pergamum on the Roman side further exposed Philip's position in Macedonia. Philip was able to take advantage of the withdrawal of Attalus from the Greek mainland in 207 BC, along with Roman inactivity and the increasing role of Philopoemen, the strategos of the Achaean League. Philip and his troops sacked Thermum, the religious and political centre of Aetolia. His troops destroyed 2,000 statues and hauled away vast sums of treasure which included some fifteen thousand shields and suits of arms the Aetolians had decorated their stoas with. These shields were the armor taken from the enemies of the Aetolians during their previous military victories and included the shields of the Gauls who had raided Greece in the 3rd century BC. Philip V took immense sums of gold and treasures and then burned down temples and public buildings of the Aetolians. Philip was able to force the Aetolians to accept his terms in 206 BC. The following year he was able to conclude the Peace of Phoenice with Rome and its allies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansion in the Aegean.", "content": "Following an agreement with the Seleucid king Antiochus III to capture Egyptian held territory from the boy king Ptolemy V, Philip was able to gain control of Egyptian territory in the Aegean Sea and in Anatolia. This expansion of Macedonian influence created alarm in a number of neighbouring states, including Pergamum and Rhodes. Their navies clashed with Philip’s off Chios and Lade (near Miletus) in 201 BC. At around the same time, the Romans were finally the victors over Carthage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second Macedonian War.", "content": "In 200 BC, with Carthage no longer a threat, the Romans declared war on Macedon, arguing that they were intervening to protect the freedom of the Greeks. After campaigns in Macedonia in 199 BC and Thessaly in 198 BC, Philip and his Macedonian forces were decisively defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC. The war also proved the superiority of the Roman legion over the Greek phalanx formation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alliance with Rome.", "content": "The resulting peace treaty between Philip V and the Romans confined Philip to Macedonia and required him to pay 1000 talents indemnity, surrender most of his fleet and provide a number of hostages, including his younger son Demetrius. After this, Philip cooperated with the Romans and sent help to them in their fight against the Spartans under King Nabis in 195 BC. Philip also supported the Romans against Antiochus III (192–189 BC).  In return for his help when Roman forces under Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus and his brother Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus moved through Macedon and Thrace in 190 BC, the Romans forgave the remaining indemnity that he had to pay and his son Demetrius was freed. Philip then focused on consolidating power within Macedon. He reorganised the country's internal affairs and finances, mines were reopened, and a new currency was issued.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final years.", "content": "However, Rome continued to be suspicious of Philip's intentions. Accusations by Macedon's neighboring states, particularly Pergamon, led to constant interference from Rome. Feeling the threat growing that Rome would invade Macedon and remove him as king, he tried to extend his influence in the Balkans by force and diplomacy. However, his efforts were undermined by the pro-Roman policy of his younger son Demetrius, who was encouraged by Rome to consider the possibility of succession ahead of his older brother, Perseus. This eventually led to a quarrel between Perseus and Demetrius which forced Philip to decide reluctantly to execute Demetrius for treason in 180 BC. This decision had a severe impact on Philip's health and he died a year later at Amphipolis.  He was succeeded by his eldest son Perseus, who ruled as the last king of Macedon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philip V (; 238–179 BC) was king (Basileus) of the ancient Kingdom of Macedonia from 221 to 179 BC. Philip's reign was principally marked by an unsuccessful struggle with the emerging power of the Roman Republic. He would lead Macedon against Rome in the First and Second Macedonian Wars, losing both but allying with Rome in the Roman-Seleucid War towards the end of his reign.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972282}
{"src_title": "Hippopotamidae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Hippopotamuses are large mammals, with short, stumpy legs, and barrel-shaped bodies. They have large heads, with broad mouths, and nostrils placed at the top of their snouts. Like pigs, they have four toes, but unlike pigs, all of the toes are used in walking. Hippopotamids are unguligrade, although, unlike most other such animals, they have no hooves, instead using a pad of tough connective tissue on each foot. Their stomachs have three chambers, but they are not true ruminants.  The living species are smooth-skinned and lack both sebaceous glands and sweat glands. The outer epidermis is relatively thin, so hippos dehydrate rapidly in dry environments.  Both the incisors and canines are large and tusk-like, although the canine tusks are by far the larger. The tusks grow throughout life. The postcanine teeth are large and complex, suited for chewing the plant matter that comprises their diets. The number of incisors varies even within the same species, but the general dental formula is given in the table below:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "The hippopotamids are descended from the anthracotheres, a family of semiaquatic and terrestrial artiodactyls that appeared in the late Eocene, and are thought to have resembled small- or narrow-headed hippos. The hippos split off from the anthracotheres some time during the Miocene. After the appearance of the hippopotamids, the remaining anthracotheres went into a decline brought about by a combination of climatic change and competition with their descendants, until the last genus, \"Merycopotamus\", died out in the early Pliocene of India.  There were once many species of hippopotamid, but only two survive today: \"Hippopotamus amphibius\", and \"Choeropsis liberiensis\". They are the last survivors of two major evolutionary lineages, the hippos proper and the pygmy hippos, respectively; these lineages could arguably be considered subfamilies, but their relationship to each other - apart from being fairly distant relatives - is not well resolved.  The enigmatic Miocene \"Kenyapotamus\" is insufficiently known to be assigned a place in the hippo phylogeny with any degree of certainty. In addition, the genus \"Hexaprotodon\", in a sense now restricted to an extinct group of animals once living around the northern and northeastern Indian Ocean, which formerly included most ancient hippos, has turned out to be paraphyletic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analogous structures.", "content": "The lower canine teeth of hippopotamids are similar in function and structure to the tusks of elephants. While hippopotamids and elephants are only very distantly related within the Mammalia, the lower canine teeth of both groups are long and have a slight curve, and species of both families use this structure when fighting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "The systematics and taxonomy used here mostly follows the review of Boisserie (2005).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hippopotamuses are stout, naked-skinned, and semiaquatic artiodactyl mammals, possessing three-chambered stomachs and walking on four toes on each foot. While they resemble pigs physiologically, their closest living relatives are the cetaceans. Hippopotamuses are the only living members of the family Hippopotamidae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972283}
{"src_title": "AGM-88 HARM", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The AGM-88 can detect, attack and destroy a radar antenna or transmitter with minimal aircrew input. The proportional guidance system that homes in on enemy radar emissions has a fixed antenna and seeker head in the missile's nose. A smokeless, solid-propellant, booster-sustainer rocket motor propels the missile at speeds over Mach 2.0. The HARM missile was a program led by the U.S. Navy, and it was first carried by the A-6E, A-7, and F/A-18A/B aircraft, and then it equipped the EA-6B aircraft. RDT&E for use on the F-14 aircraft was begun, but not completed. The U.S. Air Force (USAF) put the HARM onto the F-4G Wild Weasel aircraft, and later on specialized F-16s equipped with the HARM Targeting System (HTS). The HTS pod, used by the USAF only, allows F-16s to detect and automatically target radar systems with HARMs instead of relying on the missile's sensors alone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deployment.", "content": "The HARM missile was approved for full production in March 1983, obtained initial operating capability (IOC) on the A-7E Corsair II in late 1983 and then deployed in late 1985 with VA-46 aboard the aircraft carrier USS \"America\". In 1986, the first successful firing of the HARM from an EA-6B was performed by VAQ-131. It was soon used in combat—in March 1986 against a Libyan SA-5 site in the Gulf of Sidra, and then during Operation Eldorado Canyon in April. HARM was used extensively by the Navy, Marine Corps, and the Air Force in Operation Desert Storm during the Persian Gulf War of 1991.  During the Gulf War, the HARM was involved in a friendly fire incident when the pilot of an F-4G Wild Weasel escorting a B-52 bomber mistook the latter's tail gun radar for an Iraqi AAA site. (This was after the tail gunner of the B-52 had targeted the F-4G, mistaking it for an Iraqi MiG.) The F-4 pilot launched the missile and then saw that the target was the B-52, which was hit. It survived with shrapnel damage to the tail and no casualties. The B-52 was subsequently renamed \"In HARM's Way\".  \"Magnum\" is spoken over the radio to announce the launch of an AGM-88. During the Gulf War, if an aircraft was illuminated by enemy radar a bogus \"Magnum\" call on the radio was often enough to convince the operators to power down. This technique would also be employed in Serbia during air operations in 1999.  In 2013 President Obama offered the AGM-88 to Israel for the first time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AGM-88E AARGM.", "content": "The newest upgrade, the \"AGM-88E Advanced Antiradiation Guided Missile (AARGM),\" features the latest software, enhanced capabilities intended to counter enemy radar shutdown, and passive radar using an additional active millimeter-wave seeker. It was released in November 2010, and it is a joint venture by the US Department of Defense and the Italian Ministry of Defense, produced by Orbital ATK.  In November 2005, the Italian Ministry of Defense and the U.S. Department of Defense signed a Memorandum of Agreement on the joint development of the AGM-88E AARGM missile. Italy was providing $20 million of developmental funding as well as several million dollars worth of material, equipment, and related services. The Italian Air Force was expected to buy up to 250 missiles for its Tornado ECR aircraft. A flight test program was set to integrate the AARGM onto Tornado ECR's weapon system.  The U.S. Navy demonstrated the AARGM's capability during Initial Operational Test and Evaluation (IOT&E) in spring 2012 with live firing of 12 missiles. Aircrew and maintenance training with live missiles was completed in June.  The Navy authorized Full-Rate Production (FRP) of the AARGM in August 2012, with 72 missiles for the Navy and nine for the Italian Air Force to be delivered in 2013. A U.S. Marine Corps F/A-18 Hornet squadron will be the first forward-deployed unit with the AGM-88E.  In September 2013, ATK delivered the 100th AARGM to the U.S. Navy. The AGM-88E program is on schedule and on budget, with Full Operational Capability (FOC) planned for September 2014. The AGM-88E was designed to improve the effectiveness of legacy HARM variants against fixed and relocatable radar and communications sites, particularly those that would shut down to throw off anti-radiation missiles, by attaching a new seeker to the existing Mach 2-capable rocket motor and warhead section, adding a passive anti-radiation homing receiver, satellite and inertial navigation system, a millimeter-wave radar for terminal guidance, and the ability to beam up images of the target via a satellite link just seconds before impact.  This model of the HARM will be integrated onto the F/A-18C/D, F/A-18E/F, EA-18G, and Tornado ECR aircraft, and later on the F-35 (externally).  In September 2015, the AGM-88E successfully hit a mobile ship target in a live-fire test, demonstrating the missile's ability to use antiradiation homing and millimeter-wave radar to detect, identify, locate, and engage moving targets.  In December 2019, the German Air Force ordered the AARGM.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AGM-88F HCSM.", "content": "Although the US Navy/Marine Corps chose the Orbital ATK-produced AGM-88E AARGM, Raytheon developed its own update of the HARM called the AGM-88F HCSM (HARM Control Section Modification), tested in conjunction with and ultimately for the US Air Force. It incorporates similar upgrade features as the AARGM, and although it is not yet listed for export, existing HARM users have shown interest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AGM-88G AARGM-ER.", "content": "The Navy's FY 2016 budget included funding for an extended range AARGM-ER that uses the existing guidance system and warhead of the AGM-88E with a solid integrated rocket-ramjet for double the range. Development funding will last to 2020. In September 2016, Orbital ATK unveiled its extended-range AARGM-ER, which incorporates a redesigned control section and -diameter rocket motor for twice the range and internal carriage on the Lockheed Martin F-35A and F-35C Lightning II. Internal carriage on the F-35B isn't possible due to internal space limitations. The U.S. Navy awarded Orbital ATK a contract for AARGM-ER development in January 2018. The USAF has formally joined the AARGM-ER program, and is involved in internal F-35A/F-35C integration work.  The AARGM-ER would serve as the basis for the land-attack Stand in Attack Weapon (SiAW).  In June 2020, the US Navy conducted first captive carry flight test of the AARGM-ER on a Super Hornet at NAS Patuxent River, Maryland to evaluate integration and structural characteristics of the destruction/suppression of enemy air-defences (DEAD/SEAD) air-to-surface missile.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The AGM-88 HARM (High-speed Anti-Radiation Missile) is a tactical, air-to-surface anti-radiation missile designed to home in on electronic transmissions coming from surface-to-air radar systems. It was originally developed by Texas Instruments as a replacement for the AGM-45 Shrike and AGM-78 Standard ARM system. Production was later taken over by Raytheon Corporation when it purchased the defense production business of Texas Instruments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972284}
{"src_title": "Halothane", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medical uses.", "content": "It is a potent anesthetic with a MAC of 0.74%. Its blood/gas partition coefficient of 2.4 makes it an agent with moderate induction and recovery time. It is not a good analgesic and its muscle relaxation effect is moderate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Side effects.", "content": "Side effects include irregular heartbeat, decreased effort to breathe, and liver problems. It appears to be safe in porphyria. It is unclear whether use during pregnancy is harmful to the baby, and it is not generally recommended for use during a C-section. Halothane is a chiral molecule that is used as a racemic mixture. In rare cases, repeated exposure to halothane in adults was noted to result in severe liver injury. This occurred in about one in 10,000 exposures. The resulting syndrome was referred to as halothane hepatitis, and is thought to result from the metabolism of halothane to trifluoroacetic acid via oxidative reactions in the liver. About 20% of inhaled halothane is metabolized by the liver and these products are excreted in the urine. The hepatitis syndrome had a mortality rate of 30% to 70%. Concern for hepatitis resulted in a dramatic reduction in the use of halothane for adults and it was replaced in the 1980s by enflurane and isoflurane. By 2005, the most common volatile anesthetics used were isoflurane, sevoflurane, and desflurane. Since the risk of halothane hepatitis in children was substantially lower than in adults, halothane continued to be used in pediatrics in the 1990s as it was especially useful for inhalation induction of anaesthesia. However, by 2000, sevoflurane, excellent for inhalation induction, had largely replaced the use of halothane in children.  Halothane sensitises the heart to catecholamines, so it is liable to cause cardiac arrhythmia, occasionally fatal, particularly if hypercapnia has been allowed to develop. This seems to be especially problematic in dental anaesthesia.  Like all the potent inhalational anaesthetic agents, it is a potent trigger for malignant hyperthermia. Similarly, in common with the other potent inhalational agents, it relaxes uterine smooth muscle and this may increase blood loss during delivery or termination of pregnancy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occupational safety.", "content": "People can be exposed to halothane in the workplace by breathing it in as waste anaesthetic gas, skin contact, eye contact, or swallowing it. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 2 ppm (16.2 mg/m) over 60 minutes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pharmacology.", "content": "Halothane activates GABA and glycine receptors. It also acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist, inhibits nACh and voltage-gated sodium channels, and activates 5-HT and twin-pore K channels. It does not affect the AMPA or kainate receptors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical and physical properties.", "content": "Chemically, halothane is an alkyl halide (not an ether like many other anesthetics). The structure has one stereocenter, so (\"R\")- and (\"S\")-optical isomers occur.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synthesis.", "content": "The commercial synthesis of halothane starts from trichloroethylene, which is reacted with hydrogen fluoride in the presence of antimony trichloride at 130 °C to form 2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane. This is then reacted with bromine at 450 °C to produce halothane.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related substances.", "content": "Attempts to find anesthetics with less metabolism led to halogenated ethers such as enflurane and isoflurane. The incidence of hepatic reactions with these agents is lower. The exact degree of hepatotoxic potential of enflurane is debated, although it is minimally metabolized. Isoflurane is essentially not metabolized and reports of associated liver injury are quite rare. Small amounts of trifluoroacetic acid can be formed from both halothane and isoflurane metabolism and possibly accounts for cross sensitization of patients between these agents.  The main advantage of the more modern agents is lower blood solubility, resulting in faster induction of and recovery from anaesthesia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Halothane was first synthesized by C. W. Suckling of Imperial Chemical Industries in 1951 in Widnes and was first used clinically by M. Johnstone in Manchester in 1956. It became popular as a nonflammable general anesthetic replacing other volatile anesthetics such as trichloroethylene, diethyl ether and cyclopropane. In many parts of the world it has been largely replaced by newer agents since the 1980s but is still widely used in developing countries because of its lower cost.  Halothane was given to many millions of adult and pediatric patients worldwide from its introduction in 1956 through the 1980s. Its properties include cardiac depression at high levels, cardiac sensitization to catecholamines such as norepinephrine, and potent bronchial relaxation. Its lack of airway irritation made it a common inhalation induction agent in pediatric anesthesia. Its use in developed countries has been mostly replaced by newer anesthetic agents such as sevoflurane. It is no longer commercially available in the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Society and culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Availability.", "content": "It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system. As of 2014, the wholesale cost in the developing world was 22 to 52 USD for a 250 mL bottle. It is available as a volatile liquid, at 30, 50, 200, and 250 ml per container but in many developed nations is not available having been displaced by newer agents. It is the only inhalational anesthetic containing bromine, which makes it radiopaque. It is colorless and pleasant-smelling, but unstable in light. It is packaged in dark-colored bottles and contains 0.01% thymol as a stabilizing agent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ozone depletion.", "content": "Halothane is an ozone depleting substance with an ODP of 1.56 and it is calculated to be responsible for 1% of total stratospheric ozone layer depletion.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Halothane sold under the brand name Fluothane among others, is a general anesthetic. It can be used to start or maintain anaesthesia. One of its benefits is that it does not increase the production of saliva, which can be particularly useful in those who are difficult to intubate. It is given by inhalation. Side effects include an irregular heartbeat, decreased effort to breathe, and liver problems. Like all volatile anesthetics, it should not be used in people with a personal or family history of malignant hyperthermia. It appears to be safe in porphyria. It is unclear whether use during pregnancy is harmful to the baby, and it is not generally recommended for use during a C-section. Halothane is a chiral molecule that is used as a racemic mixture. Halothane was discovered in 1955. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. As of 2014, the wholesale cost in the developing world is about 22 to 52 USD for a 250 mL bottle. Its use in developed countries has been mostly replaced by newer anesthetic agents such as sevoflurane. It is no longer commercially available in the United States. Halothane also contributes to ozone depletion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972285}
{"src_title": "Eugène de Beauharnais", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and Career.", "content": "Eugène's first campaign was in the Vendée, where he fought at Quiberon. However, within a year his mother Joséphine had arranged his return to Paris. In the Italian campaigns of 1796–1797, Eugène served as aide-de-camp to his stepfather, whom he also accompanied to Egypt. In Egypt, Eugène was wounded during the Siege of Acre (1799) and returned to France with Napoleon in the autumn of 1799, helping to bring about the reconciliation of the General and his mother, who had become estranged due to the extramarital affairs of both. During the Coup of Brumaire, Eugène accompanied Napoleon to Saint-Cloud, where the legislative assemblies were brought into submission.  When Napoleon became First Consul following Brumaire, Eugène became a captain in the \"Chasseurs à Cheval\" of the Consular Guard. With his squadron took part in the Battle of Marengo where, though half his men fell, he led charge after charge.  By a decree of 1 February 1805 Eugène was created Arch-Chancellor of State the French Empire.  As commander of the Imperial Guard (successor to the Consular Guard), Eugène preceded his step-father to Milan ahead of Napoleon's coronation as King of Italy on 26 May 1805. Napoleon had originally intended to place his brother Joseph on the Italian throne and then, after Joseph's refusal, his nephew Napoléon Charles, the son of Louis Bonaparte and Eugène's sister, Hortense. However, both Joseph and Louis refused and so Napoleon instead placed the Iron Crown upon his own head. During the coronation Napoleon handed the royal ring and mantle to his stepson and on 7 June 1805 announced Eugène's appointment as Viceroy of Italy to the Italian Legislative Assembly.  During the War of the Fifth Coalition, Eugène was put in command of the Army of Italy, with some highly competent generals like Grenier, Charpentier and the future marshal MacDonald accompanying him as advisers and officers. In April 1809 he fought and lost the Battle of Sacile against the Austrian army of the Archduke John, but Eugène's troops won the rematch at the Battle of the Piave in May and the Battle of Raab in June. After the Battle of Aspern-Essling, Napoleon recalled the Army of Italy to Austria. After joining the main army on the island of Lobau in the Danube, Eugène took part in the Battle of Wagram.  Napoleon considered making Eugene regent of France during the Russian campaign but ultimately decided against this. During the campaign, Eugène again commanded the Army of Italy (IV Corps) with which he fought in the Battle of Borodino and the Battle of Maloyaroslavets. After Napoleon and then Joachim Murat had left the retreating army, Eugène took command of the remnants and led it back to Germany in 1813.  During the campaign of 1813, Eugène fought in the Battle of Lützen. Napoleon then sent him back to Italy, where he organised the defence against the Austrians, holding out on the Mincio until the abdication in 1814. After the fall of Napoleon in 1814, Eugène retired to Munich and at the behest of his father-in-law King Maximilian of Bavaria, did not get involved with Napoleon and France again.  Eugène de Beauharnais died on 21 February 1824 in Munich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status and titles.", "content": "On 14 June 1804 he was made an official member of the imperial family as \"His Imperial Highness\", French Prince (\"Prince français\") Eugène de Beauharnais. By a statute of 5 June 1805 the Emperor added \"Viceroy of Italy\" to his titles.  Eugène was adopted by Napoleon on 12 January 1806, though excluded from succession to the French Empire. On 16 February 1806, Eugène was declared heir presumptive to the Kingdom of Italy, in the absence of a second son of Napoleon. On 20 December 1807 he was given the title of \"Prince de Venise\" (\"Prince of Venice\"), a title created on 30 March 1806, when the Venetian Province taken from Austria in 1805 was united to Bonaparte's Kingdom of Italy.  In 1810, Napoleon used his influence over Karl von Dalberg, Archbishop of Regensburg and Grand Duke of Frankfurt, to name Eugène as constitutional heir of the grand duchy. Von Dalberg abdicated on 26 October 1813 due to Frankfurt's imminent conquest by the allied armies, and Eugène became nominal grand duke until Frankfurt was occupied by the allies in December of that same year.  A further imperial sinecure was \"Archichancelier d'État de l'Empire de France\" (\"Archchancellor of State of the Empire of France\").  He was an active Freemason and was involved in setting up the Grand Orient of Italy and its Supreme Council.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "On 14 January 1806, two days after his adoption by Napoleon, Eugène married Princess Augusta Amalia Ludovika Georgia of Bavaria (1788–1851), eldest daughter of Napoleon's ally, King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. On 14 November 1817, his father-in-law made him Duke of Leuchtenberg and Prince of Eichstätt.  Eugène and Augusta had seven children:  A biography by Carola Oman, \"Napoleon's Viceroy, Eugène de Beauharnais\", appeared in 1966.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eugène Rose de Beauharnais, Duke of Leuchtenberg (; 3 September 1781 – 21 February 1824) was the first child and only son of Alexandre de Beauharnais and Joséphine Tascher de la Pagerie, first wife of Napoleon I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972286}
{"src_title": "Peace of Prague (1635)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Thirty Years War began in 1618 when Frederick, Protestant ruler of the Palatinate, accepted the crown of Bohemia. Many Germans remained neutral, viewing it as an inheritance dispute, and with Bavarian support, Emperor Ferdinand quickly suppressed the Bohemian Revolt. Troops under Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria, invaded the Palatinate in 1622 and sent Frederick into exile. However, depriving a hereditary prince of his lands changed both the nature and extent of the war.  Christian IV of Denmark invaded Northern Germany in support of his fellow Protestants, until defeated and forced to withdraw in 1629. Success led Ferdinand to pass the Edict of Restitution, requiring any property transferred since 1552 restored to its original owner, in nearly every case, the Catholic Church. By effectively undoing the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, it forced moderate Protestants like John George of Saxony and George William of Brandenburg into opposition. This increased after 1627 by having a large Imperial army based on their lands, whose rarely paid troops simply took what they wanted.  Conflicts in 17th century Europe often drew in foreign participants, because of the rivalry between the Bourbon kings of France, and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Habsburg territories in the Spanish Netherlands, Franche-Comté, and the Pyrenees blocked French expansion, and made it vulnerable to invasion. As a result, the Catholic Bourbons supported Habsburg opponents, irrespective of religion, including the Ottomans, Dutch, and Danes.  In 1630, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden invaded Pomerania with French money, and support from Saxony and Brandenburg-Prussia. After his death at Lützen in 1632, Sweden formed the Heilbronn League; composed of smaller Protestant states and funded by France, the League won a series of victories, until defeated at Nördlingen in 1634.  This re-established a military balance, while also highlighting differences between the Heilbronn members. Sweden sought to preserve its grip on the lucrative Baltic trade, and retain their post-1630 acquisition of Swedish Pomerania. To strengthen their borders in the Rhineland and the Low Countries, France supported the Dutch, Swedish competitors in the Baltic, and Maximilian of Bavaria, a leader of the anti-Swedish Catholic League. Their German allies wanted to restore the territorial position of 1618, which implied reversing French and Swedish gains.  After 1632, Ferdinand accepted Catholicism could not be re-imposed by force and opened discussions on amending the Edict of Restitution in February 1633, eighteen months before Nördlingen. The execution of Imperial commander Wallenstein in February 1634 removed a major obstacle, since he had become an independent agent. With the Lutheran states of Denmark-Norway and Hesse-Darmstadt acting as mediators, the two parties agreed a preliminary draft in November 1634, known as the 'Pirnaer Noteln'. Although subject to many corrections and revisions, this was the basis of the 1635 agreement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terms.", "content": "The treaty was a bilateral agreement between Ferdinand and John George, with other states joining later. Negotiations were held in Prague Castle, site of the Defenestration that began the war in 1618, and took eight days. Its terms included the following;", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Many others subsequently joined the treaty, some of whom received minor concessions; Brandenburg-Prussia was confirmed as holder of Farther Pomerania, previously a possession of the last Duke Bogislaw XIV. Those who joined included Bavaria, Hesse-Darmstadt, the dukes of Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Gotha and Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and Archbishops of Mainz and Cologne.  In 1623, Saxony occupied the Bohemian crown lands of Lower and Upper Lusatia, in return for their support during the Bohemian Revolt. Under the \"Traditionsrezess\" annex of 1636, Ferdinand ceded both territories in perpetuity, plus the towns of Jüterbog, Dahme and Burg Querfurt. John George also received the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, after agreeing not to secularise them; these were transferred to Brandenburg-Prussia in 1648.  While Ferdinand continued the Counter-Reformation in his own lands, it is generally agreed the Peace of Prague ended it as an internal religious conflict, and established the principle of \"cuius regio, eius religio\". By renouncing their right to create alliances and handing over control of armed forces, the Imperial estates in return acknowledged the supremacy of the Emperor.  However, these principles were not universally followed and hostilities continued, including a bitter civil war between Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse-Kassel, as well as foreign intervention. On 19 May 1635, France declared war on Spain; despite joining the Peace, Bernard of Saxe-Weimar and his army were employed by France against Spanish possessions in Lorraine and the Rhineland. In 1642, Sweden won a resounding victory at Second Breitenfeld, over-running Saxony and capturing Prague. This prompted many German states to fight on, hoping to improve their position and peace was not finally achieved until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Peace of Prague, \"Pražský mír\" (Czech), \"Prager Frieden\" (German), signed on 30 May 1635, ended Saxony's participation in the Thirty Years War. The terms would later form the basis of the 1648 Peace of Westphalia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972287}
{"src_title": "Angelica archangelica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description and distribution.", "content": "During its first year it grows only leaves, but during its second year, its fluted stem can reach a height of 2.5 meters (just over 8 feet), and the root is used in flavoring preparations. Its leaves consist of numerous small leaflets divided into three principal groups, each of which is again subdivided into three lesser groups. The edges of the leaflets are finely toothed or serrated. The flowers, which blossom in July, are small and numerous, yellowish or greenish, are grouped into large, globular umbels which bear pale yellow, oblong fruits. \"Angelica\" grows only in damp soil, preferably near rivers or deposits of water.  \"Angelica archangelica\" grows wild in Russia, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland, mostly in the northern parts of the countries. It is cultivated in France, mainly in the Marais Poitevin, a marsh region close to Niort in the department Deux-Sèvres. Commercially available sources of angelica are often sourced from Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Germany and Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use and history.", "content": "From the 10th century on, angelica was cultivated as a vegetable and medicinal plant, and achieved popularity in Scandinavia in the 12th century and is used especially in Sami culture. Angelica is a shamanic medicine among the Saami or Laplanders.  It is used to flavor liqueurs or aquavits, (\"e.g.\", Chartreuse, Bénédictine, Vermouth, and Dubonnet), omelettes and trout, and as jam. The long bright-green stems are also candied and used as food decoration. Angelica is unique among the Umbelliferae for its pervading aromatic odor, a pleasant perfume entirely different from fennel, parsley, anise, caraway, or chervil. It has been compared to musk and to juniper. \"Angelica archangelica\" roots are among the most common botanicals used in gin distillation, often used in concert with juniper berries and coriander as a chief aromatic characteristic for gin. They are also used in absinthes, aquavits, and bitters, in addition to culinary uses such as jams and omelettes. The hollow stems of \"Angelica archangelica\" may be eaten. The stems are picked clean of their leaves, crystallized in sugar syrup and colored green as cake decoration or as candy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The essential oil content of angelica root varies based on the age of the roots. Generally, the roots have high levels of terpenes, including α-pinene and β-phellandrene. Studies have found upwards of over eighty different aroma compounds present in samples. Of particular interest to perfumers and aroma chemists is Cyclopentadecanolide, which although present in small quantities (< 1% in roots, <.5% in seeds), it's primarily responsible for angelica root's distinctive musky aroma and was originally found in the roots.  Though the essential oil yield of Angelica seeds are slightly higher, it's the roots which are generally preferred for culinary and aroma uses.  Angelica seeds have a similar chemical composition to the roots, including α-pinene, β-pinene, camphene, myrcene, β-phellandrene, limonene, caryophyllene, borneol, carvone and others.  Both the seeds and roots contain coumarins and furocoumarins. Among these are 2′-angeloyl-3′-isovaleryl vaginate, archangelicin, oxypeucedanin hydrate, bergapten, byakangelicin angelate, imperatorin, isoimperatorin, isopimpinellin, 8-[2-(3-methylbutroxy)-3-hydroxy-3-methylbutoxy]psoralen, osthol, ostruthol, oxypeucedanin, phellopterin, psoralen and xanthotoxin, can be isolated from a chloroform extract of the roots of \"A. archangelica\" as well as several heraclenol derivatives. The water root extract of \"A. archangelica subsp. litoralis\" contains adenosine, coniferin, the two dihydrofurocoumarin glycosides apterin and 1′-O-β-d-glycopyranosyl-(S)-marmesin (marmesinin), 1′-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(2S, 3R)-3-hydroxymarmesin and 2′-β-d-glucopyranosyloxymarmesin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Archangelica comes from the Greek word \"arkhangelos\" (=arch-angel), due to the belief that it was the archangel Michael who told of its use as a medicine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Angelica archangelica, commonly known as garden angelica, wild celery, and Norwegian angelica, is a biennial plant from the family Apiaceae, a subspecies of which is cultivated for its sweetly scented edible stems and roots. Like several other species in Apiaceae, its appearance is similar to several poisonous species (\"Conium\", \"Heracleum\", and others), and should not be consumed unless it has been identified with absolute certainty. Synonyms include \"Archangelica officinalis\" Hoffm. and \"Angelica officinalis\" Moench.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972288}
{"src_title": "Euglenid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "Euglenoids are distinguished mainly by the presence of a type of cell covering called a pellicle. Within its taxon, the pellicle is one of the euglenoids' most diverse morphological features. The pellicle is composed of proteinaceous strips underneath the cell membrane, supported by dorsal and ventral microtubules. This varies from rigid to flexible, and gives the cell its shape, often giving it distinctive striations. In many euglenids, the strips can slide past one another, causing an inching motion called metaboly. Otherwise, they move using their flagella.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The euglenids were first defined by Otto Bütschli in 1884 as the flagellate order Euglenida, as an animal. Botanists subsequently created the algal division Euglenophyta; thus, they were classified as both animals and plants, as they share characteristics with both. Conflicts of this nature are exemplary of why the kingdom Protista was adopted. However, they retained their double-placement until the flagellates were split up, and both names are still used to refer to the group. Their chlorophylls are not masked with accessory pigments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "The classification of euglenids is still variable, as groups are being revised to conform with their molecular phylogeny. Classifications have fallen in line with the traditional groups based on differences in nutrition and number of flagella; these provide a starting point for considering euglenid diversity. Different characteristics of the euglenids' pellicles can provide insight into their modes of movement and nutrition.  As with other Euglenozoa, the primitive mode of nutrition is phagocytosis. Prey such as bacteria and smaller flagellates is ingested through a cytostome, supported by microtubules. These are often packed together to form two or more rods, which function in ingestion, and in \"Entosiphon\" form an extendable siphon. Most phagotrophic euglenids have two flagella, one leading and one trailing. The latter is used for gliding along the substrate. In some, such as \"Peranema\", the leading flagellum is rigid and beats only at its tip.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Osmotrophic euglenoids.", "content": "Osmotrophic euglenids are euglenids which have undergone osmotrophy.  Due to a lack of characteristics that are useful for taxonomical purposes, the origin of osmotrophic euglenids is unclear, though certain morphological characteristics reveal a small fraction of osmotrophic euglenids is derived from phototrophic and phagotrophic ancestors.  A prolonged absence of light or exposure to harmful chemicals may cause atrophy and absorption of the chloroplasts without otherwise harming the organism. A number of species exists where a chloroplast's absence was formerly marked with separate genera such as \"Astasia\" (colourless \"Euglena\") and \"Hyalophacus\" (colourless \"Phacus\"). Due to the lack of a developed cytostome, these forms feed exclusively by osmotrophic absorption.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Although euglenids share several common characteristics with animals, which is why they were originally classified as so, no evidence has been found of euglenids ever using sexual reproduction. This is one of the reasons they could no longer be classified as animals.  For euglenids to reproduce, asexual reproduction takes place in the form of binary fission, and the cells replicate and divide during mitosis and cytokinesis. This process occurs in a very distinct order. First, the basal bodies and flagella replicate, then the cytostome and microtubules (the feeding apparatus), and finally the nucleus and remaining cytoskeleton. Once this occurs, the organism begins to cleave at the basal bodies, and this cleavage line moves towards the center of the organism until two separate euglenids are evident. Because of the way that this reproduction takes place and the axis of separation, it is called longitudinal cell division or longitudinal binary fission.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Euglenids (euglenoids, or euglenophytes, formally Euglenida/Euglenoida, ICZN, or Euglenophyceae, ICBN) are one of the best-known groups of flagellates, which are excavate eukaryotes of the phylum Euglenophyta and their cell structure is typical of that group. They are commonly found in freshwater, especially when it is rich in organic materials, with a few marine and endosymbiotic members. Many euglenids feed by phagocytosis, or strictly by diffusion. A monophyletic group consisting of the mixotrophic Rapaza viridis (1 species) and the two groups Eutreptiales (24 species) and Euglenales (983 species) have chloroplasts and produce their own food through photosynthesis. This group is known to contain the carbohydrate paramylon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972289}
{"src_title": "Flag of Georgia (country)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The current flag was used by the Georgian patriotic movement following the country's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. By the late 1990s, the design had become widely known as the Georgian historical national flag as vexillologists had pointed out the red-on-white Jerusalem cross shown as the flag of Tbilisi in a 14th-century map by Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano.  A majority of Georgians, including the influential Catholicos-Patriarch of the Georgian Orthodox Church, supported the restoration of the flag and in 1999 the Parliament of Georgia passed a bill to change the flag. However, it was not endorsed by the President, Eduard Shevardnadze. It was adopted in the early 2000s by the main opposition party, the United National Movement led by Mikheil Saakashvili, as a symbol of popular resistance to Shevardnadze's rule.  The flag was adopted by Parliament on 14 January 2004. Saakashvili formally endorsed it via Presidential Decree No. 31 signed on 25 January, following his election as President. 14 January is annually marked as a Flag Day in Georgia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The national flag of Georgia, as described in the decree:  The Georgian national flag is a white rectangle, with in its central portion a large red cross touching all four sides of the flag. In the four corners there are four \"bolnur-katskhuri\" crosses (Also refer as Georgian Crosses aside with Grapevine cross) of the same colour (as the large cross).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Previous flags.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early Georgian states.", "content": "The first Georgian flag design came about during the era of the early Georgian state, the Principality of Iberia which had a red cross against a white background, similar to the flag of England. The subsequent Principality of Tao-Klarjeti shared this same flag. The flag of the Kingdom of Abkhazia had 4 green strips in a dextral position on the right side, while the left side contained the cross seen on the current Georgian flag.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medieval Georgian flags.", "content": "The white flag with the single red St. George's cross was supposedly used by King Vakhtang I in the 5th century. According to tradition, Queen Tamar (d. 1213) used a flag with a dark red cross and a star in a white field. In the 1367 map by Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano, the flag of \"Tifilis\" (Tbilisi) is shown as a Jerusalem cross (a large cross with smaller crosses in each quarter). According to D. Kldiashvili (1997), the Jerusalem cross might have been adopted during the reign of King George V.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collapse of Kingdom of Georgia.", "content": "After the collapse of the Kingdom of Georgia, its successor states adopted their own flags, with most of them using animals as their representative symbols.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (1762–1801).", "content": "The kingdom was formed through the unification of Kartli and Kakheti. The flag had a white cross against a black background. The country lost its independence in 1801 to annexation by the Russian Empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (1918).", "content": "While not technically a Georgian flag, this flag is of importance as Georgia was one of the founding countries of the federation. The Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic's flag was a tricolour design, with a top band of dark yellow, a middle band of black, and a bottom band of red.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Democratic Republic of Georgia (1918–1921).", "content": "During Georgia's brief existence as an independent state as the Democratic Republic of Georgia from 1918 to 1921, a flag consisting of a dark red field with black and white bands in the canton was adopted. The design resulted from a national flag-designing contest won by the painter Iakob Nikoladze. It was abolished by the Soviet Union following the 1921 incorporation of Georgia into the USSR.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1991).", "content": "During the Soviet period, Georgia adopted several variants of the red Soviet flag incorporating either the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic's name, or a red hammer and sickle with a star in a blue sun in the canton and a blue bar in the upper part of flag. The flag of the Georgian SSR was abolished by the Georgian government in November 1990 shortly before it declared independence from the Soviet Union.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Georgia (1991–2004).", "content": "The previous flag used by the Democratic Republic of Georgia from 1918 to 1921 was revived on 8 December 1991, by the Supreme Council of the Republic of Georgia. However, it lost popularity thereafter as it became associated with the chaotic and violent period around the collapse of the Soviet Union. The wine-red colour symbolises the good times in the past and the future, while the black represents Russian rule, and the white represents hope for peace.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The flag of Georgia (), also known as the Five Cross Flag (), is one of the national symbols of Georgia. Originally a banner of the medieval Kingdom of Georgia, it was brought back to popular use in the late 20th and early 21st centuries during periods of the Georgian national revival. Prior to obtaining its official status in 2004, the flag was popularised by the United National Movement and served as one of the most recognisable symbols of the Rose Revolution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972290}
{"src_title": "Siege tower", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ancient use.", "content": "The oldest known siege towers were used by the armies of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 9th century BC, under Ashurnasirpal II (r. 884 BC – 859 BC). Reliefs from his reign, and subsequent reigns, depict siege towers in use with a number of other siege works, including ramps and battering rams.  Centuries after they were employed in Assyria, the use of the siege tower spread throughout the Mediterranean. The biggest siege towers of antiquity, such as the \"Helepolis\" (meaning \"\"The Taker of Cities\"\") of the siege of Rhodes in 305 BC, could be as high as 135 feet and as wide as 67.5 feet. Such large engines would require a rack and pinion to be moved effectively. It was manned by 200 soldiers and was divided into nine stories; the different levels housed various types of catapults and ballistae. Subsequent siege towers down through the centuries often had similar engines.  But this huge tower was defeated by the defenders by flooding the ground in front of the wall, creating a moat that caused the tower to get bogged in the mud. The siege of Rhodes illustrates the important point that the larger siege towers needed level ground. Many castles and hill-top towns and forts were virtually invulnerable to siege tower attack simply due to topography. Smaller siege towers might be used on top of siege-mounds, made of earth, rubble and timber mounds in order to overtop a defensive wall. The remains of such a siege-ramp at Masada, for example, has survived almost 2,000 years and can still be seen today.  On the other hand, almost all the largest cities were on large rivers, or the coast, and so did have part of their circuit wall vulnerable to these towers. Furthermore, the tower for such a target might be prefabricated elsewhere and brought dismantled to the target city by water. In some rare circumstances, such towers were mounted on ships to assault the coastal wall of a city: at the siege of Cyzicus during the Third Mithridatic War, for example, towers were used in conjunction with more conventional siege weapons.  One of the oldest references to the mobile siege tower in Ancient China was a written dialogue primarily discussing naval warfare. In the Chinese \"Yuejueshu\" (Lost Records of the State of Yue) written by the later Han Dynasty author Yuan Kang in the year 52 AD, Wu Zixu (526 BC – 484 BC) purportedly discussed different ship types with King Helü of Wu (r. 514 BC – 496 BC) while explaining military preparedness. Before labeling the types of warships used, Zixu said:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medieval and later use.", "content": "With the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West into independent states, and the Eastern Roman Empire on the defensive, the use of siege towers reached its height during the medieval period. Siege towers were used when the Avars laid siege unsuccessfully to Constantinople in 626, as the \"Chronicon Paschale\" recounts:  At this siege the attackers also made use of \"sows\" – mobile armoured shelters which were used throughout the medieval period, and allowed workers to fill in moats with protection from the defenders (thus levelling the ground for the siege towers to be moved to the walls). However, the construction of a sloping talus at the base of a castle wall (as was common in Crusader fortification) could have reduced the effectiveness of this tactic to an extent.  Siege towers also became more elaborate during the medieval period; at the Siege of Kenilworth Castle in 1266, for example, 200 archers and 11 catapults operated from a single tower. Even then, the siege lasted almost a year, making it the longest siege in all of English history. They were not invulnerable either, as during the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, Ottoman siege towers were sprayed by the defenders with Greek fire.  Siege towers became vulnerable and obsolete with the development of large cannon. They had only ever existed to get assaulting troops over high walls and towers and large cannon also made high walls obsolete as fortification took a new direction. However, later constructions known as battery-towers took on a similar role in the gunpowder age; like siege-towers, these were built out of wood on-site for mounting siege artillery. One of these was built by the Russian military engineer Ivan Vyrodkov during the siege of Kazan in 1552 (as part of the Russo-Kazan Wars), and could hold ten large-calibre cannon and 50 lighter cannons. Likely, it was a development of the gulyay-gorod (that is a mobile fortification assembled on wagons or sleds from prefabricated wall-sized shields with holes for cannons). Later battery towers were often used by the Ukrainian Cossacks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern parallels.", "content": "On 1 March 2007, police officers entered Ungdomshuset in Copenhagen, Denmark by being lifted to the upper levels of an illegally occupied structure using small boom cranes for a purpose similar to that for which siege towers were constructed. The officers were placed in containers that crane operators raised and placed against the structure's windows, enabling the officers to gain access to the structure.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A siege tower or breaching tower (or in the Middle Ages, a belfry) is a specialized siege engine, constructed to protect assailants and ladders while approaching the defensive walls of a fortification. The tower was often rectangular with four wheels with its height roughly equal to that of the wall or sometimes higher to allow archers to stand on top of the tower and shoot arrows into the fortification. Because the towers were wooden and thus flammable, they had to have some non-flammable covering of iron or fresh animal skins.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972291}
{"src_title": "Vizsla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Vizsla is a short-coated hunting dog of distinguished appearance and bearing. Robust, but rather lightly built, they are lean dogs that have defined muscles.  Various breeds are often mistaken for Vizslas and vice versa are commonly mistaken for other breeds. Redbone Coonhounds, Weimaraners and Rhodesian Ridgebacks are most commonly mixed up. The body structure of a Vizsla is very similar in appearance to a Weimaraner and a Redbone Coonhound, though the Vizsla is typically leaner with a more defined musculature. However, Weimaraners and Rhodesian Ridgebacks are larger than Vizslas.  The nose of the Vizsla will always have a reddish color that blends with the coat color. Black, brown, light pink, or another color nose is an indication of another breed. A Vizsla's eye and nail color should also blend with the coat color.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Color and coats.", "content": "The standard coat is a solid golden rust color in several shadings. The coat could also be described as a copper-brown color, russet gold, and dark sandy gold. Solid, dark, mahogany red and pale yellow are considered faults and a disqualification in competitions. Small areas of white on the fore-chest, neck, or tail are permissible but not preferred. Some variations in the Vizsla coat color along their back (saddle-type marks) are typical.  The American Kennel Club (AKC) breed standards for the Vizsla states that the coat should be short, smooth, dense, and close-lying, without a woolly undercoat. The Vizsla is not suited to being kept outside since, unlike most other breeds, it does not have an undercoat. They are self-cleaning dogs and rarely need to be bathed, if ever. They have little noticeable \"dog smell\" detectable by humans. After several forays into lakes and streams they will develop an aroma that is a weaker version of the 'wet dog' smell. A quick bath and this odor will vanish.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "The Vizsla is a medium-sized dog, The average height and weight:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Tail.", "content": "The American breed standard does call for the tail to be docked to two-thirds of its original length. Breed standards in countries where docking is banned, such as the United Kingdom, do not allow this. The Vizsla holds its tail horizontal to the ground and wags it vigorously while charging through rough scrub and undergrowth.  The docked tail of the Vizsla is significantly longer than that of other dogs with traditionally docked tails such as the Weimaraner, Dobermann, Boxer, and Australian Shepherd. Since the tail is docked when the puppy is less than three days old, this longer dock can result in some variation in tail length among Vizsla dogs from different breeding programs.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "Vizslas are very high energy, gentle-mannered, loyal, caring, and very affectionate. They quickly form close bonds with their owners, children, and even strangers. Often, they are referred to as \"velcro\" dogs because of their loyalty and affection. Vizslas will cry or whine when they feel neglected or are otherwise unhappy. Some will bark at strangers if they feel that they are invading the \"pack\" space. They are very good guard dogs when trained to be so.  They are natural hunters with an excellent ability to take training. Not only are they great pointers, but they are excellent retrievers as well. They will retrieve on land and in the water making the most of their natural instincts. However, they must be trained gently and without harsh commands or strong physical correction, as they have sensitive temperaments and can be easily damaged if trained too harshly. However the owner must show quiet authority in training, otherwise the dog is likely to take over the training session.  Vizslas are excellent swimmers. Some may need a little motivation to get in the water but as they get used to it they will love it. Like all hunting dogs, Vizslas require a great deal of exercise to remain healthy and happy.  The Vizsla thrives on attention, exercise, and interaction. They are intelligent dogs and need a lot of mental stimulation when young. If left alone for long hours, they can be bored and become destructive. With proper socialization and training, Vizslas are very gentle dogs that can be great around children. The Vizsla wants to be close to its owner as much as possible.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "A Vizsla Club of America survey puts the average lifespan of the Vizsla at 9.15 years. The Vizsla is considered to be a robust dog but some localized breeding programs using a small number of dogs have led to heritable illnesses in some offspring including: Responsible breeders do not select dogs for breeding if they have such inherent problems. Vizslas can also suffer from hypothyroidism, dwarfism, persistent right aortic arch, tricuspid valve dysplasia, and progressive retinal atrophy. Major risks include epilepsy and lymphosarcoma. Vizslas can also be prone to skin and food allergies.  Unlike many other dogs, Vizslas do not have an undercoat. Therefore, they are unsuited for living outdoors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first written reference to the Vizsla dog breed has been recorded in the \"Illustrated Vienna Chronicle\" prepared on order of King Louis I of Hungary by the Carmelite Friars in 1357.  As companions of the early warlords and barons, Vizsla blood was preserved pure for centuries by the land-owning aristocracy who guarded them jealously and continued to develop the hunting ability of these \"yellow-pointers\". Records of letters and writings show the high esteem in which the Vizsla was held.  The Vizsla has survived the Turkish occupation (1526–1696), the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, World War I, World War II and the Hungarian People's Republic. However, Vizslas faced and survived several near-extinctions in their history, including being overrun by English Pointers and German Shorthaired Pointers in the 1800s (Boggs, 2000:19) and again to near-extinction after World War II. A careful search of Hungary and a poll of Hungarian sportsmen revealed only about a dozen Vizslas of the true type still alive in the country. From that minimum stock, the breed rose to prominence once again. The various \"strains\" of the Vizsla have become somewhat distinctive as individuals bred stock that suited their hunting style. Outside Hungary, vizslas are commonly bred in Romania, Austria, Slovakia, and Serbia.  The Vizsla started arriving in the United States at the close of World War II. As interest in and devotion to the breed began to increase, owners formed the Vizsla Club of America in order to gain AKC recognition. As a result of registering foundation stock with the AKC, Vizsla owners were able to obtain official recognition on 25 November 1960, as the Vizsla became the 115th breed recognized by the American Kennel Club.  The Vizsla was used in development of other breeds, most notably the Weimaraner, Wirehaired Vizsla and German Shorthaired Pointer breeds. There is much conjecture about those same breeds, along with other pointer breeds, being used to reestablish the Vizsla breed at the end of the 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vizsla in the UK.", "content": "Approximately 4,520 Vizsla puppies are registered with the Kennel Club of Great Britain (KC) each year, making the breed one of the top 50 most popular. The number is steadily rising year after year as more people recognize the breed. There are two breed clubs for the Vizsla in Britain, The Hungarian Vizsla Club and The Hungarian Vizsla Society. The winner of the Best In Show award at Crufts 2010 was a Vizsla named Hungargunn Bear It'n Mind.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Vizsla () is a dog breed from Hungary and belongs to the FCI group 7 (Pointer group). The Hungarian or Magyar Vizsla are sporting dogs and loyal companions. The Vizsla's medium size is one of the breed's most appealing characteristics. As a hunter of fowl and upland game, the Vizsla has held a prominent position among sporting dogs – that of household companion and family dog.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972292}
{"src_title": "Panama hat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Beginning in the early to mid-1600s, hat weaving evolved as a cottage industry along the Ecuadorian coast as well as in small towns throughout the Andean mountain range. Hat weaving and wearing grew steadily in Ecuador through the 17th and 18th centuries.  In 1835, Manuel Alfaro arrived in Montecristi to make his name and fortune in Panama hats. He set up a Panama hat business with his main objective being exportation. Cargo ships from Guayaquil and Manta were filled with his merchandise and headed to the Gulf of Panama. His business prospered as more and more Gold Rush prospectors arrived and passed through Panama needing a hat for the sun.  One of the first towns to start weaving the hats in the Andes is Principal, part of the Chordeleg Canton in the Azuay province. Straw hats woven in Ecuador, like many other 19th and early 20th century South American goods, were shipped first to the Isthmus of Panama before sailing for their destinations in Asia, the rest of the Americas and Europe, subsequently acquiring a name that reflected their point of international sale—\"panama hats\"—rather than their place of domestic origin.  The term was being used by at least 1834. The popularity of the hats increased in the mid-19th century when many miners of the California Gold Rush traveled to California via the Isthmus of Panama and Pacific Mail Steamship Company. In 1906, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt visited the construction site of the Panama Canal and was photographed wearing a Panama hat, which further increased the hats' popularity. Although the Panama hat continues to provide a livelihood for thousands of Ecuadorians, fewer than a dozen weavers capable of making the finest \"Montecristi superfinos\" remain. Production in Ecuador is dwindling, due to economic problems in Ecuador and competition from Chinese hat producers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tamsui hat.", "content": "The tamsui hat was a straw hat made in Formosa (now Taiwan) to directly compete with the Panama in the early 20th century. Tamsui hats were made from \"Pandanus odoratissimus\" fibre, which grew plentifully on the island. As they retained their whiteness, were washable, and could be folded and carried about without damage, Tamsui hats replaced the rather costlier Panama in East Asia in the early 20th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quality.", "content": "The two main processes in the creation of a Panama hat are weaving and blocking. The two most common types of weaves are the \"Cuenca\" and \"Brisa.\" The \"Cuenca\" weave has the appearance of a herringbone pattern and utilizes slightly more straw than the \"Brisa\" weave. The \"Brisa\" weave has the appearance of small diamonds/squares. This type of weave is less intricate but perceived as finer than the \"Cuenca\" weave by some as it is lighter. Other types of weaves include the \"Crochet, Fancy,\" \"Torcido\", and \"New Order.\"  The quality of a Panama hat is defined by the tightness of the weave. The fine weave of the hat was ideal for protection against the tropical sun. Historically, to measure the tightness of the weave, a simple square tool that looks like a frame for a one-inch picture was used. The aperture of this frame was 25 mm, or about 1 inch. The regulator would set this frame one inch from the edge of the hat's brim edge, and then count the peaks of the cross weaves, called \"carerra,\" moving in a parallel direction. The tighter the weave, the more \"carerras\" were counted. That number would be multiplied by two and reconciled against a grading chart. A highly refined grade 20 would consist of 16 \"carerras\".The price of these hats depends on the time and quality that a weaver put in to the hat. A master weaver could take as long as eight months to weave a single hat. Weavers could sell a single hat to buyers for $200. Once the hat is sold to a buyer it then would pass through more people who would \"finish the brim, shape it, remove imperfections, bleach the straw, and add interior and exterior brands.\" After this one hat has been through at least six people it can then be sold outside of Ecuador for $450 to $10,000. The best hats can sell for up to fifty times more than what one weaver is paid for eight months of labor.  The best quality hats are known as \"Montecristis\", after the town of Montecristi, where they are produced. The rarest and most expensive Panama hats are hand-woven with up to 3000 weaves per square inch. In February 2014, Simon Espinal, an Ecuadorian 47-year-old Panama hat weaver considered to be among the best at his craft, set a world record by creating a Panama hat with four thousand weaves per inch that took eight months to handcraft from beginning to end.  According to popular lore, a \"superfino\" Panama hat can hold water, and, when rolled up, pass through a wedding ring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "Despite their name, Panama hats have never been made in Panama. They originated in Ecuador where they are made to this day. Historically, throughout Central and South America, people referred to Panama hats as “Jipijapa,” “Toquilla,” or “Montecristi” hats at the time (the latter two phrases are still in use today). Their designation as Panama hats originates in the 1850s, when Ecuadorian hat makers emigrated to Panama, where they were able to achieve much greater trade volumes.Ecuador's low tourism and international trade levels during the 1850s prompted hat makers to take their crafts to the busy trade center of Panama. There, the hat makers were able to sell more hats than they ever could in Ecuador. The hats were sold to gold prospectors traveling through Panama to California during the historic Californian Gold Rush. Travelers would tell people admiring their hats that they bought them in Panama. So, the hats quickly became known as “Panama hats.”  Soon after at the 1855 World's Fair in Paris, Panama hats were featured for the first time on a global scale. However, the Fair’s catalog did not mention Ecuador as its country of origin. It listed this type of hat as a “cloth hat” even though it was clearly not made out of cloth.  The name \"Panama hat\" was further reinforced by President Theodore Roosevelt's trip to oversee the construction of the Panama Canal. Roosevelt used his natural ability to drum up publicity by posing for a series of photos at the Panama Canal construction site in 1906. Photographic technology was relatively new at the time, and President Roosevelt was not shy about using the press to his advantage. Photos of his visit showed a strong, rugged leader dressed crisply in light-colored suits sporting Ecuadorian-made straw Panama hats.  The Panama Hat Trail, by Tom Miller, Univ. of Arizona Press", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Panama hat, also known as an Ecuadorian hat or a toquilla straw hat, is a traditional brimmed straw hat of Ecuadorian origin. Traditionally, hats were made from the plaited leaves of the \"Carludovica palmata\" plant, known locally as the \"toquilla palm\" or \"jipijapa palm\", although it is a palm-like plant rather than a true palm.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972293}
{"src_title": "Rolfing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Conceptual basis.", "content": "Ida Rolf described the body as organized around an axis perpendicular to the earth, parallel to the pull of gravity, and she believed the function of the body was optimal when it was organized in that way. She saw the body as continuously in a struggle with gravity; in her view, gravity tends to shorten fascia, leading to disorder of the body's arrangement around its axis and creating imbalance, inefficiency in movement, and pain. Rolfers aim to lengthen the fascia in order to restore the body's arrangement around its axis and facilitate improved movement. Rolf also discussed this in terms of \"energy\" and said:  Rolfers make a life study of relating bodies and their fields to the earth and its gravity field, and we so organize the body that the gravity field can reinforce the body's energy field. This is our primary concept.  The manipulation is sometimes referred to as a type of bodywork, or as a type of massage. Some osteopaths were influenced by Rolf, and some of her students became teachers of massage, including one of the founders of myofascial release.  Rolf claimed to have found an association between emotions and the soft tissue, writing \"although rolfing is not primarily a psychotherapeutic approach to the problems of humans\", it does constitute an \"approach to the personality through the myofascial collagen components of the physical body\". She claimed Rolfing could balance the mental and emotional aspects of subjects, and that \"the amazing psychological changes that appeared in Rolfed individuals were completely unexpected\". Rolfers suggest their manipulations can cause the release of painful repressed memories. Rolfers also hold that by manipulating the body they can bring about changes in personality; for example, teaching somebody to walk with confidence will make them a more confident person. The connection between physical structure and psychology has not been proven by scientific studies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technique.", "content": "Rolfers posit that they manipulate the body's fascial layers. Rolfing also uses a combination of active and passive movement retraining.  Rolfing is typically performed in a progression of 10 sessions, sometimes called \"the recipe\". The first three sessions of the protocol focus on superficial tissues, the next four focus on deeper tissues and specifically the pelvis, and the final sessions address the whole body.  A session typically lasts between 60 and 90 minutes. The recipient wears undergarments. Positions for the work include lying on a table, sitting, and standing.  Rolfing treatments are sometimes painful. For adults, there may be moments of intense sensation during a treatment or soreness afterward. However, the technique can be done gently enough for children and the elderly. Rolf believed fascia tightens as a protective mechanism, and therefore thought an aggressive approach could be counter-productive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effectiveness and reception.", "content": "In 2015 the Australian Government's Department of Health published a review of 17 alternative therapies, including Rolfing, which concluded no clear evidence of effectiveness was found. Accordingly, in 2017, the Australian government named Rolfing as a practice that would not qualify for insurance subsidy, saying this step would \"ensure taxpayer funds are expended appropriately and not directed to therapies lacking evidence\".  The American Cancer Society says the deep soft tissue manipulations such as those used in Rolfing are a concern if practiced on people with cancer near tumor sites.  Proponents of Rolfing claim it can be used to alleviate pain. However, Rolfing's focus on appropriate \"alignment\" of structures of the body does not reflect modern science about pain.  In 2010 \"The New York Times\" reported that Rolfing was enjoying a \"resurgence\" following an endorsement from Mehmet Oz on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\".  Because of its dependence on vitalistic concepts and its unevidenced propositions about the connection between physical manipulation and psychology, Rolfing is classified as a pseudoscience, and its practice has been characterized as quackery.  Writing for Science-Based Medicine, lawyer Jann Bellamy writes that in the United States of America the public are inadequately protected from bodywork practices such as Rolfing because of the lack of independent oversight; instead regulation is carried out within a \"closed loop\" system by such bodies as the National Certification Board for Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Ida Rolf began working on clients in New York City in the 1940s with the premise that the human structure could be organized \"in relation to gravity\". She developed structural integration with one of her sons and by the 1950s she was teaching her work across the United States. In the mid-1960s she began teaching at Esalen Institute, where she gathered a loyal following of students and practitioners. Esalen was the epicenter of the Human Potential Movement, allowing Rolf to exchange ideas with many of their leaders, including Fritz Perls. Rolf incorporated a number of ideas from other areas including osteopathic manipulation, cranial osteopathy, hatha yoga, and the general semantics of Alfred Korzybski. In 1971 she founded the Rolf Institute of Structural Integration. The school has been based in Boulder, Colorado, since 1972, and as of 2010 included five institutes worldwide.  Since Rolf's death, the field of Structural Integration has fragmented into various schools. Of these schools, the Rolf Institute is the only one with the use of the trademarked terms \"Rolfing\" and \"Certified Rolfer\". Other schools of Structural Integration certify \"Practitioners of the Rolf Method of Structural Integration\" including the Guild for Structural Integration, Hellerwork Structural Integration, Aston Patterning, SOMA, KMI, and a dozen other Structural Integration schools. A professional membership organization exists called the International Association of Structural Integration, which has certified practitioners by exam since 2007.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rolfing () is a form of alternative medicine originally developed by Ida Rolf (1896–1979) as Structural Integration. It is typically delivered as a series of ten hands-on physical manipulation sessions sometimes called \"the recipe\". It is based on Rolf's ideas about how the human body's \"energy field\" can benefit when aligned with the Earth's gravitational field. Practitioners combine superficial and deep manual therapy with movement prompts. The process is sometimes painful. It is not known whether Rolfing is safe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972294}
{"src_title": "Wasserkuppe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The German name is derived from \"Wasenkuppe, Asenberg\" or \"Weideberg\" and means \"Pasture mountain\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Wasserkuppe lies in the administrative district Fulda north of Gersfeld. Other villages nearby are Poppenhausen ( west - south west) and Wüstensachsen ( east, part of Ehrenberg, Hesse). It is part of the Rhön Biosphere Reserve.  The Wasserkuppe sources the spring of the river Fulda (the western source of the Weser) and the river Lütter which joins the Fulda after.  The other peaks near the Wasserkuppe are Abtsrodaer Kuppe (north, NN), (east, NN) and Pferdskopf (south west, NN).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aeronautical development.", "content": "Students from the Darmstadt University of Technology, then known as \"Technische Hochschule Darmstadt\", began flying gliders from the Wasserkuppe as early as 1911, but interest in gliding in Germany increased greatly after 1918 when the Treaty of Versailles restricted the production or use of powered aircraft in the nation. From 1920 onwards, annual gliding competitions were held, leading to records being set and broken for height, distance and duration of unpowered flight. In 1922 became the first glider pilot to use an updraft rising along a mountain slope to stay aloft for a lengthy period. He then founded the world's first glider pilot school at the Wasserkuppe.  The first competition was organised by Oskar Ursinus, who also built the first clubhouse on the Wasserkuppe in 1924 to replace the shipping containers that enthusiasts were using as accommodation up to that point. By 1930, the competition had become an international event, drawing pilots from all over Europe and even the United States.  Also in 1924 'Rhönvater' (Rhön father) Oskar Ursinus convinced the then secretary of air transport for the ministry of transportation to turn the new gliding club into a state funded research organization. This started the Rhön-Rossitten Gesellschaft and as a result, the Wasserkuppe now had a gliding school, workshops for building gliders and a funded research facility. Alexander Lippisch was appointed as the managing director of the new society.  Virtually every German aeronautical engineer and test pilot of note during the 1920s and 1930s spent time building, testing, and flying aircraft at the Wasserkuppe, including the Günter brothers, Wolf Hirth, the Horten brothers, Robert Kronfeld, Hans Jacobs, Heini Dittmar, Alexander Lippisch, Willy Messerschmitt, Hanna Reitsch, Peter Riedel, and Alexander Schleicher. Beverley Shenstone, who was later a key part of the design team for the Spitfire, flew gliders at Wasserkuppe in 1930. This period saw great advances in new technologies such as flying wings and rocket-powered flights.  In the 1930s the \"Ehrenhalle\" (Hall of Honor) was constructed in the Lilienthal Haus, with heavy bronze doors opening into a large hall with a stained glass window. The centerpiece is a larger-than-life bronze figure of Otto Lilienthal lying on an (empty) tomb. It is a memorial to all pilots who have died in aviation accidents. The inscription on the memorial is Lilienthal's famous last words: \"Opfer müssen gebracht werden\" roughly meaning: \"Sacrifices must be made.\"  During the Third Reich, gliding activities became largely controlled by the state, and for Hitler Youth pilots and their instructors, proficiency in gliding was viewed as the first step towards the Luftwaffe. Sailplane research was also nationalised under the \"Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug\" (DFS — German Research Institute for Sailplane Flight).  Following World War II, a US Air Force base, radar station, and surveillance station were established there but when restrictions on German aviation were lifted in 1951, gliding soon returned to the Wasserkuppe where it has remained popular since. Beginning in the 1970s, the newer sport of hang gliding has also found a home there. Following the reunification of Germany and demise of the Soviet Union, the surveillance and radar installations were removed in the 1990s.  In 1970, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the first competition, the \"Deutsches Segelflugmuseum\" (German Sailplane Museum) was opened on the plateau, with Neil Armstrong a guest of honour at the ceremony. The museum gained a new building in 1987. The Wasserkuppe is also the home of the \"Oldtimer Segelflugclub\" (OSC – Oldtimer Gliding Club), dedicated (as its name suggests) to flying vintage sailplanes.  Next to the long tradition of sailplanes the Wasserkuppe has become a sports and weekend centre offering a wide selection of activities. Paragliding as well as Snowkiting is offered. In winter the area is used by skiers and snowboarders.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The is a mountain within the German state of Hesse. It is a large plateau formation at an elevation of and is the highest peak in the Rhön Mountains. Great advances in sailplane development took place on the mountain during the interwar period, driven by annual contests. Near the summit there is still an airfield used by gliding clubs and pilots of light aircraft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972295}
{"src_title": "March on Rome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Context.", "content": "In March 1919, Benito Mussolini founded the first \"Italian Combat Leagues\" (\"Fasci Italiani di Combattimento\") at the beginning of the \"two red years\" (\"biennio rosso\"). Mussolini suffered a defeat in the election of November 1919 mainly due to his attempt to \"out-socialist the socialists\" at the ballot box. But in the general election of 1921, Mussolini was elected to Parliament.  Fascists used militia squads, the Squadrismo, also known as the \"Blackshirts\" due to their uniform. In August 1920, the militia was used to break the general strike which had started at the Alfa Romeo factory in Milan. In November 1920, after the assassination of Giulio Giordani (a right-wing municipal councillor in Bologna), the Blackshirts were active in violent suppression of the socialist movement (which included a strong anarcho-syndicalist component), especially in the Po Valley.  Trade unions were dissolved while left-wing mayors resigned. The fascists, included on Giovanni Giolitti's \"National Union\" lists at the May 1921 elections, then won 35 seats. Mussolini withdrew his support from Giolitti and his Italian Liberal Party (PLI) and attempted to work out a temporary truce with the Italian Socialist Party by signing a \"Pact of Pacification\" in summer 1921. This provoked protest with more radical members of the Fascist movement, the Blackshirt \"Squadristi\" and their leaders, the \"Ras\" (\"Dukes\", from an Ethiopian term). In July 1921, Giolitti attempted without success to dissolve the \"squadristi\". The contract with the socialists was nullified during the Third Fascist Congress on November 7–10, 1921, where Mussolini negotiated a nationalist program and renamed his political party the National Fascist Party, which boasted \"2,200 fasci and 320,000 members\" by late 1921. In August, an anti-fascist general strike was triggered, but failed to rally the Italian People's Party (\"Partito Popolare Italiano\") and was repressed by the fascists. A few days before the march, Mussolini consulted with the U.S. Ambassador Richard Washburn Child about whether the U.S. government would object to Fascist participation in a future Italian government. Child encouraged him to go ahead. When Mussolini learned that Prime Minister Luigi Facta had given Gabriele d'Annunzio the mission to organize a large demonstration on 4 November 1922 to celebrate the national victory during the war, he decided on the March to accelerate the process and sidestep any possible competition..", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "March.", "content": "The \"quadrumvirs\" leading the Fascist Party, General Emilio De Bono, Italo Balbo (one of the most famous \"ras\"), Michele Bianchi and Cesare Maria de Vecchi, organized the March, while the \"Duce\" was waiting in Milan. He did not participate in the march, though he allowed pictures to be taken of him marching along with the Fascist marchers, and he comfortably went to Rome the next day. Generals Gustavo Fara and Sante Ceccherini assisted to the preparations of the March of 18 October. Other organizers of the march included the Marquis Dino Perrone Compagni and Ulisse Igliori.  On 24 October 1922, Mussolini declared before 60,000 people at the Fascist Congress in Naples: \"Our program is simple: we want to rule Italy.\" Meanwhile, the Blackshirts, who had occupied the Po plain, took all strategic points of the country. On 26 October, the former prime minister Antonio Salandra warned current Prime Minister Luigi Facta that Mussolini was demanding his resignation and that he was preparing to march on Rome. However, Facta did not believe Salandra and thought that Mussolini would govern quietly at his side. To meet the threat posed by the bands of fascist troops now gathering outside Rome, Luigi Facta (who had resigned but continued to hold power) ordered a state of siege for Rome. Having had previous conversations with the King about the repression of fascist violence, he was sure the King would agree. However, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the military order. On 29 October, the King handed power to Mussolini, who was supported by the military, the business class, and the right-wing.  The march itself was composed of fewer than 30,000 men, but the King in part feared a civil war since the \"squadristi\" had already taken control of the Po plain and most of the country, while Fascism was no longer seen as a threat to the establishment. Mussolini was asked to form his cabinet on 29 October 1922, while some 25,000 Blackshirts were parading in Rome. Mussolini thus legally reached power, in accordance with the Statuto Albertino, the Italian Constitution. The March on Rome was not the seizure of power which Fascism later celebrated but rather the precipitating force behind a transfer of power within the framework of the constitution. This transition was made possible by the surrender of public authorities in the face of fascist intimidation. Many business and financial leaders believed it would be possible to manipulate Mussolini, whose early speeches and policies emphasized free market and laissez faire economics. This proved overly optimistic, as Mussolini's corporatist view stressed total state power over businesses as much as over individuals, via governing industry bodies (\"corporations\") controlled by the Fascist party, a model in which businesses retained the responsibilities of property, but few if any of the freedoms. By 1934 Mussolini claimed to have nationalized \"three-fourths of the Italian economy, industrial and agricultural\", more than any other nation except the Soviet Union.  Mussolini pretended to be willing to take a subalternate ministry in a Giolitti or Salandra cabinet, but then demanded the presidency of the Council. Fearing a conflict with the fascists, the ruling class thus handed power to Mussolini, who went on to install the dictatorship after the 10 June 1924 assassination of Giacomo Matteotti – who had finished writing \"The Fascisti Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination\" – executed by Amerigo Dumini, accused of being the leader of the \"Italian Ceka\", however there is no evidence for such an organization existing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The March on Rome () was an organized mass demonstration in October 1922, which resulted in Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party (\"Partito Nazionale Fascista\", or PNF) ascending to power in the Kingdom of Italy (\"Regno d'Italia\"). In late October 1922, Fascist Party leaders planned an insurrection, to take place on 28 October. When fascist troops entered Rome, Prime Minister Luigi Facta wished to declare a state of siege, but this was overruled by King Victor Emmanuel III. On the following day, 29 October 1922, the King appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister, thereby transferring political power to the fascists without armed conflict.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972296}
{"src_title": "Stirling's approximation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Derivation.", "content": "Roughly speaking, the simplest version of Stirling's formula can be quickly obtained by approximating the sum  with an integral:  The full formula, together with precise estimates of its error, can be derived as follows. Instead of approximating, one considers its natural logarithm, as this is a slowly varying function:  The right-hand side of this equation minus  is the approximation by the trapezoid rule of the integral  and the error in this approximation is given by the Euler–Maclaurin formula:  where is a Bernoulli number, and is the remainder term in the Euler–Maclaurin formula. Take limits to find that  Denote this limit as. Because the remainder in the Euler–Maclaurin formula satisfies  where big-O notation is used, combining the equations above yields the approximation formula in its logarithmic form:  Taking the exponential of both sides and choosing any positive integer, one obtains a formula involving an unknown quantity. For, the formula is  The quantity can be found by taking the limit on both sides as tends to infinity and using Wallis' product, which shows that. Therefore, one obtains Stirling's formula:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "An alternative derivation.", "content": "An alternative formula for using the gamma function is (as can be seen by repeated integration by parts). Rewriting and changing variables, one obtains Applying Laplace's method one has which recovers Stirling's formula: In fact, further corrections can also be obtained using Laplace's method. For example, computing two-order expansion using Laplace's method yields and gives Stirling's formula to two orders:  A complex-analysis version of this method is to consider formula_24 as a Taylor coefficient of the exponential function formula_25, computed by Cauchy's integral formula as  where denotes the Stirling numbers of the first kind. From this one obtains a version of Stirling's series  which converges when.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions suitable for calculators.", "content": "The approximation  and its equivalent form  can be obtained by rearranging Stirling's extended formula and observing a coincidence between the resultant power series and the Taylor series expansion of the hyperbolic sine function. This approximation is good to more than 8 decimal digits for with a real part greater than 8. Robert H. Windschitl suggested it in 2002 for computing the gamma function with fair accuracy on calculators with limited program or register memory.  Gergő Nemes proposed in 2007 an approximation which gives the same number of exact digits as the Windschitl approximation but is much simpler:  or equivalently,  An alternative approximation for the gamma function stated by Srinivasa Ramanujan (Ramanujan 1988) is  for. The equivalent approximation for has an asymptotic error of and is given by  The approximation may be made precise by giving paired upper and lower bounds; one such inequality is", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Estimating central effect in the binomial distribution.", "content": "In computer science, especially in the context of randomized algorithms, it is common to generate random bit vectors that are powers of two in length. Many algorithms producing and consuming these bit vectors are sensitive to the population count of the bit vectors generated, or of the Manhattan distance between two such vectors. Often of particular interest is the density of \"fair\" vectors, where the population count of an \"n\"-bit vector is exactly formula_35. This amounts to the probability that an iterated coin toss over many trials leads to a tie game.  Stirling's approximation to formula_36, the central and maximal binomial coefficient of the binomial distribution, simplifies especially nicely where formula_37 takes the form of formula_38, for an integer formula_39. Here we are interested in how the density of the central population count is diminished compared to formula_40, deriving the last form in decibel attenuation:  This simple approximation exhibits surprising accuracy:  Binary diminishment obtains from dB on dividing by formula_43.  As a direct fractional estimate:  Once again, both examples exhibit accuracy easily besting 1%:  Interpreted at an iterated coin toss, a session involving slightly over a million coin flips (a binary million) has one chance in roughly 1300 of ending in a draw.  Both of these approximations (one in log space, the other in linear space) are simple enough for many software developers to obtain the estimate mentally, with exceptional accuracy by the standards of mental estimates.  The binomial distribution closely approximates the normal distribution for large formula_37, so these estimates based on Stirling's approximation also relate to the peak value of the probability mass function for large formula_37 and formula_48, as specified for the following distribution: formula_49.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The formula was first discovered by Abraham de Moivre in the form  De Moivre gave an approximate rational-number expression for the natural logarithm of the constant. Stirling's contribution consisted of showing that the constant is precisely formula_51.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, Stirling's approximation (or Stirling's formula) is an approximation for factorials. It is a good approximation, leading to accurate results even for small values of. It is named after James Stirling, though it was first stated by Abraham de Moivre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972297}
{"src_title": "Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life account.", "content": "Archduke Ferdinand of Austria was the second son of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and Anna of Bohemia and Hungary. He was a younger brother of Emperor Maximilian II. At the behest of his father, he was put in charge of the administration of Bohemia in 1547. He also led the campaign against the Turks in Hungary in 1556.  In 1557 he was secretly married to Philippine Welser, daughter of a patrician from Augsburg, with whom he had several children. The marriage was only accepted by Emperor Ferdinand I in 1559 under the condition of secrecy. The children were to receive the name \"of Austria\" but would only be entitled to inherit if the House of Habsburg became totally extinct in the male line, and thus the marriage had many qualities of a morganatic marriage. The sons born of this marriage received the title Margrave of Burgau, after the Margraviate of Burgau, an ancient Habsburg possession in Further Austria. The younger of the sons, who survived their father, later received the princely title of \"Fürst zu Burgau\".  After his father's death in 1564, Ferdinand became the ruler of Tirol and other Further Austrian possessions under his father's will. However, he remained governor of Bohemia in Prague until 1567 according to the wishes of his brother Maximilian II.  In his own lands, Ferdinand made sure that the Catholic counter-reformation would prevail. He also was instrumental in promoting the Renaissance in central Europe and was an avid collector of art. He accommodated his world-famous collections in a museum built specifically for that purpose, making Ambras Castle Innsbruck the oldest museum in the world, and as the only Renaissance Kunstkammer of its kind to have been preserved at its original location, the Chamber of Art and Curiosities at Ambras Castle Innsbruck represents an unrivalled cultural monument. The collection was started during Ferdinand's time in Bohemia and he subsequently moved it to Tyrol. In particular, the Chamber of Art and Curiosities, the gallery of portraits, and the collection of armor were very expensive, leading Ferdinand to incurred a high level of debt. Part of collections remained in Innsbruck, and part ultimately was moved to the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.  After the death of his wife Philippine in 1580, he married Anna Caterina Gonzaga, a daughter of William I, Duke of Mantua, in 1582.  Archduke Ferdinand died on 24 January 1595. Since his sons from the first marriage were not entitled to the inheritance, and the second produced only surviving daughters, Tirol was reunified with the other Habsburg lands. His daughter from the Mantuan marriage to Anna Caterina (later Anna Juliana) became Holy Roman Empress Anna, consort of Emperor Mathias, who received his Further Austrian inheritance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "He and his first wife Philippine Welser were parents of four children:  On 14 May 1582, Ferdinand married his niece Anne Catherine. She was a daughter of William I, Duke of Mantua, and Eleonora of Austria, younger sister of Ferdinand. They were parents to three daughters:  He had at least two illegitimate children:  –With Anna von Obrizon:  –With Johanna Lydl von Mayenburg:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferdinand II, Archduke of Further Austria (Linz, 14 June 1529 – 24 January 1595, Innsbruck) was ruler of Further Austria and since 1564 Imperial count of Tirol. The son of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, he was married to Philippine Welser in his first marriage. In his second marriage to Anna Juliana Gonzaga, he was the father of Anna of Tyrol, future Holy Roman Empress.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972298}
{"src_title": "Drag and drop", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Actions.", "content": "The basic sequence involved in drag and drop is:  Dragging requires more physical effort than moving the same pointing device without holding down any buttons. Because of this, a user cannot move as quickly and precisely while dragging (see Fitts' law). However, drag-and-drop operations have the advantage of thoughtfully chunking together two operands (the object to drag, and the drop location) into a single action. Extended dragging and dropping (as in graphic design) can stress the mousing hand.  A design problem appears when the same button selects and drags items. Imprecise movement can cause an attempt to select an object to register as a dragging motion.  Another problem is that the target of the dropping can be hidden under other objects. The user would have to stop the dragging, make both the source and the target visible and start again. In classic Mac OS the top-of-screen menu bar served as a universal \"drag cancel\" target. This issue has been dealt with in Mac OS X with the introduction of Exposé.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Mac OS.", "content": "Drag and drop, called click and drag at the time, was used in the original Macintosh to manipulate files (for example, copying them between disks or folders.). System 7 added the ability to open a document in an application by dropping the document icon onto the application's icon.  In System 7.5, drag and drop was extended to common clipboard operations like copying or moving textual content within a document. Content could also be dragged into the filesystem to create a \"clipping file\" which could then be stored and reused.  For most of its history Mac OS has used a single button mouse with the button covering a large portion of the top surface of the mouse. This may mitigate the ergonomic concerns of keeping the button pressed while dragging.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In OS/2.", "content": "The Workplace Shell of OS/2 uses dragging and dropping extensively with the secondary mouse button, leaving the primary one for selection and clicking. Its use like that of other advanced Common User Access features distinguished native OS/2 applications from platform-independent ports.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In HTML.", "content": "The HTML5 working draft specification includes support for drag and drop. HTML5 supports different kinds of dragging and dropping features including: Based on needed action, one of the above types can be used. Note that when an HTML element is dragged for moving its current position, its ID is sent to the destination parent element; so it sends a text and can be considered as the first group.  Google's web-based e-mail application Gmail supports drag-and-drop of images and attachments in the latest Google Chrome browser and Apple's Safari (5.x). And Google Image search supports drag & drop.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "On a touch screen.", "content": "Touch screen interfaces also include drag and drop, or more precisely, long press, and then drag, e.g. on the iPhone or Android home screens.  iOS 11 implements a drag-and-drop feature which allows the user to touch items (and tap with other fingers to drag more) within an app or between apps on iPads. On iPhones, the functionality is only available within the same app that the user started the drag.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In end-user programming.", "content": "Drag and drop is considered an important program construction approach in many end-user development systems. In contrast to more traditional, text-based programming languages, many end-user programming languages are based on visual components such as tiles or icons that are manipulated by end users through drag-and-drop interfaces. AgentSheets, a programming environment for kids, introduced the modern notion of drag and drop blocks programming providing 4 core affordances: 1) Blocks that are end-user composable, 2) blocks are end-user editable, 3) blocks can be nested to represent tree structures, 4) blocks are arranged geometrically to define syntax. Drag and drop is also featured in many shader editing programs for graphics tools, such as Blender. Drag and drop also features in some video game engines, including Unreal Engine, GameMaker Studio, Construct 2 and, with expansion, Unity (game engine).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "A common example is dragging an icon on a virtual desktop to a special trashcan icon to delete a file.  Further examples include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer graphical user interfaces, drag and drop is a pointing device gesture in which the user selects a virtual object by \"grabbing\" it and dragging it to a different location or onto another virtual object. In general, it can be used to invoke many kinds of actions, or create various types of associations between two abstract objects.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972299}
{"src_title": "Evaporite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formation of evaporite rocks.", "content": "Although all water bodies on the surface and in aquifers contain dissolved salts, the water must evaporate into the atmosphere for the minerals to precipitate. For this to happen, the water body must enter a restricted environment where water input into this environment remains below the net rate of evaporation. This is usually an arid environment with a small basin fed by a limited input of water. When evaporation occurs, the remaining water is enriched in salts, and they precipitate when the water becomes supersaturated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evaporite depositional environments.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marine evaporites.", "content": "Marine evaporites tend to have thicker deposits and are usually the focus of more extensive research. They also have a system of evaporation. When scientists evaporate ocean water in a laboratory, the minerals are deposited in a defined order that was first demonstrated by Usiglio in 1884. The first phase of the experiment begins when about 50% of the original water depth remains. At this point, minor carbonates begin to form. The next phase in the sequence comes when the experiment is left with about 20% of its original level. At this point, the mineral gypsum begins to form, which is then followed by halite at 10%, excluding carbonate minerals that tend not to be evaporites. The most common minerals that are generally considered to be the most representative of marine evaporites are calcite, gypsum and anhydrite, halite, sylvite, carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite, and kainite. Kieserite (MgSO) may also be included, which often will make up less than four percent of the overall content. However, there are approximately 80 different minerals that have been reported found in evaporite deposits (Stewart, 1963; Warren, 1999), though only about a dozen are common enough to be considered important rock formers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Non-marine evaporites.", "content": "Non-marine evaporites are usually composed of minerals that are not common in marine environments because in general the water from which non-marine evaporite precipitates has proportions of chemical elements different from those found in the marine environments. Common minerals that are found in these deposits include blödite, borax, epsomite, gaylussite, glauberite, mirabilite, thenardite and trona. Non-marine deposits may also contain halite, gypsum, and anhydrite, and may in some cases even be dominated by these minerals, although they did not come from ocean deposits. This, however, does not make non-marine deposits any less important; these deposits often help to paint a picture into past Earth climates. Some particular deposits even show important tectonic and climatic changes. These deposits also may contain important minerals that help in today's economy. Thick non-marine deposits that accumulate tend to form where evaporation rates will exceed the inflow rate, and where there is sufficient soluble supplies. The inflow also has to occur in a closed basin, or one with restricted outflow, so that the sediment has time to pool and form in a lake or other standing body of water. Primary examples of this are called \"saline lake deposits\". Saline lakes includes things such as perennial lakes, which are lakes that are there year-round, playa lakes, which are lakes that appear only during certain seasons, or any other terms that are used to define places that hold standing bodies of water intermittently or year-round. Examples of modern non-marine depositional environments include the Great Salt Lake in Utah and the Dead Sea, which lies between Jordan and Israel.  Evaporite depositional environments that meet the above conditions include:  The most significant known evaporite depositions happened during the Messinian salinity crisis in the basin of the Mediterranean.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evaporitic formations.", "content": "Evaporite formations need not be composed entirely of halite salt. In fact, most evaporite formations do not contain more than a few percent of evaporite minerals, the remainder being composed of the more typical detrital clastic rocks and carbonates. Examples of evaporite formations include occurrences of evaporite sulfur in Eastern Europe and West Asia.  For a formation to be recognised as evaporitic it may simply require recognition of halite pseudomorphs, sequences composed of some proportion of evaporite minerals, and recognition of mud crack textures or other textures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic importance of evaporites.", "content": "Evaporites are important economically because of their mineralogy, their physical properties in-situ, and their behaviour within the subsurface.  Evaporite minerals, especially nitrate minerals, are economically important in Peru and Chile. Nitrate minerals are often mined for use in the production on fertilizer and explosives.  Thick halite deposits are expected to become an important location for the disposal of nuclear waste because of their geologic stability, predictable engineering and physical behaviour, and imperviousness to groundwater.  Halite formations are famous for their ability to form diapirs, which produce ideal locations for trapping petroleum deposits.  Halite deposits are often mined for use as salt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major groups of evaporite minerals.", "content": "This is a chart that shows minerals that form the marine evaporite rocks, they are usually the most common minerals that appear in this kind of deposit.  Evaporite minerals start to precipitate when their concentration in water reaches such a level that they can no longer exist as solutes.  The minerals precipitate out of solution in the reverse order of their solubilities, such that the order of precipitation from sea water is:  The abundance of rocks formed by seawater precipitation is in the same order as the precipitation given above. Thus, limestone (calcite) and dolomite are more common than gypsum, which is more common than halite, which is more common than potassium and magnesium salts.  Evaporites can also be easily recrystallized in laboratories in order to investigate the conditions and characteristics of their formation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Evaporite () is the term for a water-soluble mineral sediment that results from concentration and crystallization by evaporation from an aqueous solution. There are two types of evaporite deposits: marine, which can also be described as ocean deposits, and non-marine, which are found in standing bodies of water such as lakes. Evaporites are considered sedimentary rocks and are formed by chemical sediments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972300}
{"src_title": "Killing of Peter Fechter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Peter Fechter was born on 14 January 1944, in Berlin, Germany, during the final years of World War II. Fechter was the third of four children, and raised in the Weißensee district of Berlin. His father was a mechanical engineer and his mother was a saleswoman. Fechter finished school at the age of 14, and graduated as a bricklayer. After World War II had ended, Weißensee was located in the Soviet occupation zone of Berlin when the city was divided during the Allied Occupation, with the Soviet zone later becoming East Berlin in East Germany. Fechter's eldest sister had married and now lived in West Berlin, where she was regularly visited by her parents and siblings. On 13 August 1961, the East German authorities abruptly closed the border and began construction of the Berlin Wall, effectively separating Fechter and his family from his sister in West Berlin. Fechter's colleague, Helmut Kulbeik, later stated that he and Fechter had been contemplating defecting to West Berlin for a while, and that they had also explored the border installations, but no concrete planning was ever made at the time. Shortly after, Fechter was denied a legally sanctioned trip to West Germany by his company, despite receiving good judgement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 17 August 1962, around one year after the construction of the Berlin Wall, Fechter and Helmut Kulbeik attempted to flee from East Germany. The plan was to hide in a carpenter's workshop near the wall on Zimmerstrasse and, after observing the border guards from there, to jump out of a window into the \"death-strip\" (a strip running between the main wall and a parallel fence which they had recently started to construct), run across it, and climb over the two metre (6.5 ft) wall topped with barbed wire into the Kreuzberg district of West Berlin near Checkpoint Charlie.  Their plan was initially successful as both Fechter and Kulbeik reached the final wall, but as they began to climb the East German border guards fired at them. Although Kulbeik succeeded in crossing over the wall, Fechter was shot in the pelvis while still climbing, in plain view of hundreds of witnesses. He fell back into the death-strip on the East German side, where he remained in view of West German onlookers, including journalists. Despite his screams, Fechter received no medical assistance from the East German side, and could not be tended to by those on the West side. West Berlin police threw him bandages, which he could not reach, and he bled to death after approximately one hour. As a result of his death, hundreds in West Berlin formed a spontaneous demonstration, shouting \"Murderers!\" at the border guards. The lack of medical assistance for Peter Fechter was attributed to mutual fear: Western bystanders were apparently prevented at gunpoint from assisting him, although according to a report in \"Time\" magazine, a second lieutenant of the US Army on the scene received specific orders from the US Commandant in West Berlin to stand firm and do nothing. It also emerged during the trial that any aid attempt from the West had indeed been made impossible, but according to a report from forensic pathologist Otto Prokop, \"Fechter had no chance of survival. The shot in the right hip had caused severe internal injuries.\" Likewise, the head of the East German border platoon stated that he was afraid to intervene, because of an incident just three days earlier when an East German soldier Rudi Arnstadt had probably been shot by a Western federal policeman. Nonetheless, the East German border soldiers did retrieve Peter Fechter's body an hour after he had died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial.", "content": "In March 1997, seven years after the reunification of Germany and 35 years after Fechter's death, two former East German guards, Rolf Friedrich and Erich Schreiber, faced manslaughter charges for Fechter's death. Both admitted to the shooting after an intense investigation. They were both convicted and sentenced to 20 and 21 months' imprisonment on probation. Due to a lack of conclusive evidence, the court was unable to determine which of three gunmen (one of whom had already died) had fired the fatal bullet. After pleading guilty to the crime, during sentencing, both guards apologized for killing Fechter, saying that if they could take it back, they would, and that they were honestly remorseful for their actions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemoration.", "content": "A cross was placed on the western side near the spot where Fechter was shot and bled to death. At the invitation of Willy Brandt, the mayor of West Berlin, the Yale Russian Chorus sang a German translation of Mozart's Ave Verum Corpus near the site in the week following the shooting. On the first anniversary, a wreath was placed there by Willy Brandt and US major general James Polk.  The story of Peter Fechter was the headline of American news magazine \"Time\" in August 1962. In this article was used the noun \"Wall of Shame\" (Mauer der Schande), and this became a synonym for the wall. After German reunification in 1990, the Peter-Fechter-Stelle memorial was constructed on Zimmerstrasse, at the precise spot where he had died on the Eastern side, and this has been a focal point for some of the commemorations regarding the wall. The shooting has also been the subject of documentaries on German television. Cornelius Ryan dedicated his book \"The Last Battle\" to the memory of Fechter. Composer Aulis Sallinen wrote an orchestral work \"Mauermusik\" to commemorate Fechter. In 2007, artist Mark Gubb was commissioned by the Institute of Contemporary Arts to create a performance based on the death of Peter Fechter. The performance was a one-hour live piece that was later recorded and screened at the ICA with a discussion panel at the end consisting of the artist, and actor Dominik Danielewicz who played the part of Peter Fechter. The 1972 ballad \"Libre\" (\"Free\") – a recording famous in all Ibero-America – by Spanish singer Nino Bravo, remembers this event. In 2012 Canadian playwright Jordan Tannahill's play \"Peter Fechter: 59 Minutes\", a poetic re-imagining of the final hour of Fechter's life, was produced in Canada and Berlin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Fechter (14 January 1944 – 17 August 1962) was a German bricklayer who became the twenty-seventh known person to die at the Berlin Wall. Fechter was 18 years old when he was shot and killed by East German border guards while trying to cross over to West Berlin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972301}
{"src_title": "Jörmungandr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sources.", "content": "The major sources for myths about Jörmungandr are the \"Prose Edda\", the skaldic poem \"Húsdrápa\", and the Eddic poems \"Hymiskviða\" and \"Völuspá\". Other sources include kennings in other skaldic poems. For example, in \"Þórsdrápa\", \"faðir lögseims\", \"father of the sea-thread\", is used as a kenning for Loki. There are also image stones from ancient times depicting the story of Thor fishing for Jörmungandr.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stories.", "content": "There are three preserved myths detailing Thor's encounters with Jörmungandr:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifting the cat.", "content": "In one story, Thor encounters the giant king Útgarða-Loki and has to perform deeds for him, one of which is a challenge of Thor's strength. Útgarða-Loki goads Thor into lifting the serpent disguised by magic in the form of a magic colossal cat. Thor grabs the cat around the middle of its belly but is unable to lift such a monstrous creature as Jörmungandr. He manages to raise the cat high enough for only one of its paws to lift from off the floor. Útgarða-Loki expresses how the result was expected and later explains his deception. He acknowledges Thor's lifting of the cat as an impressive deed as he stretched the serpent to where it almost reached the sky. Many watching became fearful when they saw one paw lift off the ground. If Thor had managed to lift the cat completely from the ground, he would have altered the boundaries of the universe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Thor's fishing trip.", "content": "Jörmungandr and Thor meet again when Thor goes fishing with the giant Hymir. When Hymir refuses to provide Thor with bait, Thor strikes the head off Hymir's largest ox to use as his bait. They row to a point where Hymir often sat and caught flat fish and where he drew up two whales. Thor demands to go further out to sea and does so despite Hymir's protest.  Thor then prepares a strong line and a large hook and baits it with the ox head, which Jörmungandr bites. Thor pulls the serpent from the water, and the two face one another, Jörmungandr dribbling poison and blood. Hymir goes pale with fear. As Thor grabs his hammer to kill the serpent, the giant cuts the line leaving the serpent to sink beneath the waves and returns to its original position encircling the earth. In earlier Scandinavian versions of the myth, Thor successfully captures and kills the serpent by striking it on the head.  This encounter with Thor shows to have been one of the most popular motifs in Norse art. Four picture stones that have been believed to have been linked with the myth are the Altuna Runestone, Ardre VIII image stone, the Hørdum stone, and the Gosforth Cross. A stone slab that may be a portion of a second cross at Gosforth also shows a scene of a man fishing for a serpent-like creature using an ox head. These stones did not agree on the myth's conclusion as some had displayed scenes of the serpent escaping by the giant and some of its death. The Ardre VIII stone depicts a man entering a house where an ox is standing, and another scene showing two men using a spear to fish. The image on this stone is dated to the 8th or 9th century. If the stone was correctly interpreted as a depiction of this myth, it would demonstrate that the same of a similar version of the myth remained unchanging for a period of about 500 years prior to the recording of the version in the \"Prose Edda\" around the year 1220.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ragnarök.", "content": "One sign for the coming of Ragnarök is the violent unrest of the sea as Jörmungandr releases its tail from its mouth and thrashes its way onto land. Fenrir will set ablaze one half of the world with fire while Jörmungandr sprays poison to fill the skies and seas of the other half. Fenrir and Jörmungandr will then join the sons of Muspell into the plain of Vigrid. Here is where the last meeting between the serpent and Thor is predicted to occur. Thor will become occupied with battling the serpent and is unable to help others as they fight their own battles. He will eventually kill Jörmungandr but will fall dead after walking nine paces, having been poisoned by the serpent's deadly venom.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "John Lindow draws a parallel between Jörmungandr's biting of its own tail and the binding of Fenrir, as part of a recurring theme of the bound monster in Norse mythology, where an enemy of the gods is bound but destined to break free at Ragnarok.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eponym.", "content": "Asteroid 471926 Jörmungandr was named after the mythological sea serpent. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 25 September 2018 ().", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Norse mythology, Jörmungandr (, pronounced, meaning \"huge monster\"), also known as the Midgard (World) Serpent (), is a sea serpent, the middle child of the giantess Angrboða and Loki. According to the \"Prose Edda\", Odin took Loki's three children by Angrboða—the wolf Fenrir, Hel, and Jörmungandr—and tossed Jörmungandr into the great ocean that encircles Midgard. The serpent grew so large that it was able to surround the earth and grasp its own tail. As a result, it received the name of the Midgard Serpent or World Serpent. When it releases its tail, Ragnarök will begin. Jörmungandr's arch-enemy is the thunder-god, Thor. It is an example of an ouroboros.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972302}
{"src_title": "Lubań", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Situated north of the Jizera Mountains on the western shore of the Kwisa River, Lubań is part of the historic Upper Lusatia region. It is located about east of Zgorzelec/Görlitz and about northwest of Jelenia Góra. From 1975–1998 it was part of the former Jelenia Góra Voivodeship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Lubań probably is at the site of a small settlement established by the West Slavic Milceni tribe in the 9th and 10th century, whose lands up to the Kwisa River from 927 on were gradually conquered by the German king Henry the Fowler and incorporated into the \"marca Geronis\" in 939. In 965 the ill-defined Milceni territory became part of the Imperial Margraviate of Meissen. From 1002 to 1031 the area was part of Poland. In 1156 Emperor Frederick Barbarossa vested his ally, the Přemyslid duke Vladislaus II of Bohemia with the territory around Bautzen (\"Budissin\"), then called \"Milsko\", and after the 15th century called \"Upper Lusatia\".  Like several other city foundings under the rule of the Přemyslid dynasty, owing to its favourable location on the historic Via Regia trade route close to the border with the Duchy of Silesia of fragmented Poland, Lubań expanded rapidly in the course of the German \"Ostsiedlung\". In 1220 or 1268 (the second date is more probable) it is documented as a town with Magdeburg rights. Since about 1253 Upper Lusatia temporarily had been under the rule of the Ascanian margraves John I and Otto III of Brandenburg. By the end of the 13th century Luban's first brewery was founded by the Franciscans and cloth production flourished thanks to Flemish settlers. In 1297, a clothiers' uprising took place, which was brutally suppressed. Its two leaders were beheaded at the market square.  In 1319 the town became part of the Duchy of Jawor of fragmented Poland under the Piast Duke Henry I of Jawor along with lands up to the town of Görlitz. He built a new town hall, whose ruins can be seen today (Kramarska Tower). In 1320, he founded a Magdalene monastery in Lubań. He appointed a separate wójt for the town, which to that point administratively was subordinate to the wójt of Görlitz. Henry ruled the town for eighteen years, before he finally ceded it to his brother-in-law King John of Bohemia.  The centre of the medieval town was a square marketplace with perpendicular streets, leading to four gates: Zgorzelecka/Görlitzer Tor to the west, Bracka/Brüdertor, built in 1318 together with stone curtains by Duke Henry of Jawor, to the south, Mikołajska/Nikolaitor to the east and Nowogrodziecka/Naumburger Tor to the north. The first mayor of the town was Nikolaus Hermann, and Lubań received its own seal.  Under the rule of the Bohemian (Czech) Crown, Lubań on 10 August 1346 established the Lusatian League, together with the towns of Görlitz (Zgorzelec), Löbau (\"Lubij\"), Zittau (\"Żytawa\"), Bautzen (\"Budziszyn\") and Kamenz (\"Kamieniec Łużycki\"). Twice however, in 1427 and 1431, the Hussites completely demolished the town; it was quickly rebuilt. In its history, the town has repeatedly suffered great fires, which often ruined the whole town. Many inhabitants died as a result of plagues. In 1437 Bohemian King Sigismund exempted the town from taxes for 15 years.  In 1469 it became part of Hungary. In 1490 it became again part of the Kingdom of Bohemia, now ruled by the Jagiellonian dynasty, and after 1526 by the House of Habsburg. In 1498 Bohemian King Vladislaus II established an annual eight-day fair. In the 15th and 16th century brewing prospered, with local beer being popular throughout Lusatia and Silesia, it was even served in the famous \"Świdnica Cellar\" in Wrocław.  According to the 1635 Peace of Prague, the Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand II in his capacity as Bohemian king passed Lusatia with the town to the Electorate of Saxony. As a result of the Thirty Years' War, the local economy collapsed, and in 1659, 1670 and 1696 the town was hit by fires. Prosperity came with the Polish-Saxon Union, when from 1697 to 1706 and from 1709 to 1763 the Saxon electors Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III were also kings of Poland. The town prospered due to linen and cloth production as well as trade in Polish oxen. On June 25, 1697, a few days before being elected King of Poland, Augustus II visited the town. During his rule, the \"Dom pod Okrętem\" (\"House under the Ship\") was built. In 1734 a ceremonial illumination of the town took place in honor of King Augustus III of Poland.  Following the Napoleonic wars, in 1815 the Lusatian territory around Lauban and Görlitz was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia after the Vienna Congress and incorporated into the Province of Silesia. In 1865 and 1866 Lauban obtained railway connections with Görlitz and Jelenia Góra (then \"Hirschberg\"). From 1871 to 1945 the town was part of Germany. During World War I, the Germans established a large prisoner-of-war camp in the town, whose first prisoners, from September 1914, were soldiers of Imperial Russia, including Poles and Georgians conscripted into the Russian army (large parts of Polish and Georgian lands were under Russian rule before regaining independence in 1918). From 1915, French soldiers as well as political prisoners and common criminals were also imprisoned there. Aleksandra Szczerbińska, the future wife of the leader of interwar Poland Józef Piłsudski, was imprisoned there in 1916. Józef Piłsudski and Aleksandra Piłsudska are today commemorated in Lubań with a memorial stone. During World War II, Germans created numerous forced labor camps in the town, the largest of which was \"Wohnheimlager GEMA\", in which Polish and Russian women were imprisoned. Polish and Russian women were imprisoned also in other camps, as well as Russians, Hungarians, Frenchmen, Latvians and Ukrainians.  Lauban was the site of one of the last Nazi German victories in World War II. After it was taken in the Upper Silesian Offensive by the Red Army on 16 February 1945, the Wehrmacht successfully retook the town in a counterattack on 8 March 1945. After the war, the town fell to Poland as part of the so-called Recovered Territories. In 1945–46, the totality of the native population was expelled, and Polish new-settlers found a new home here.  In 1992–2004 the marketplace was renovated. Streets were paved and town houses around the Kramarska Tower were rebuilt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "There are following workplaces in Lubań:  There are also following notable companies:  In terms of entertainment and consumption, the town offers clubs, restaurants, swimming pools, a cinema and even a small modern shopping centre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Lubań is the hub of culture in Lubań County. The town has its House of Culture. There is also a regional museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Lubań has five kindergartens, five primary schools, and three secondary schools. \"Zespół Szkół Ponadpodstawowych im. Adama Mickiewicza w Lubaniu\" is ranked amongst the best secondary schools in the entire \"Lower Silesian Voivodeship\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health care.", "content": "Lubań has a hospital named Łużyckie Centrum Medyczne im. Lucjana Kopcia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Lubań has a bus station and a train station. Since 2011 a public transportation system functions in the town.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Places of interest.", "content": "Points of interest in Lubań include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Lubań is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lubań (; ) is a town in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship in southwest Poland. It is the administrative seat of Lubań County and also of the smaller Gmina Lubań (although it is not part of the territory of the latter, as the town is a separate urban gmina in its own right).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972303}
{"src_title": "Sukhoi T-4", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1963, the Soviet government held a request for proposal among the aircraft design bureaus, with the aim of developing an aircraft analogous to the North American XB-70 Valkyrie. The Sukhoi design, with its high cruise speed of was favored over the designs submitted by Yakovlev and Tupolev and after a preliminary design review in June 1964, the building of a prototype was authorized. Development of the T-4 required massive research effort to develop the technologies necessary, including the manufacturing technologies to machine and weld the materials necessary to withstand sustained Mach 3 flight. Nearly 600 patents or inventions are attributed to the program. The first flying prototype was finally completed in the autumn of 1971. Work continued on an additional three airframes (one for static testing) through 1975. In 1974, the Ministry of Aviation Industry ordered work suspended on the T-4 project, which was officially scrapped on 19 December 1975.  The T-4 had intake ramps similar to the XB-70, was made largely from titanium and stainless steel, and featured a quadruple-redundant fly-by-wire control system but also employed a mechanical system as a backup. The aircraft's droop nose lowered to provide visibility during takeoff and landing. A periscope was used for forward viewing when the nose was retracted, and could be employed at speeds of up to. Drogue parachutes were used in addition to conventional wheel brakes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first T-4, designated \"101\", first flew on 22August 1972. The test pilot was Vladimir Ilyushin, son of famed aircraft designer, Sergei Ilyushin, and navigator Nikolai Alfyorov. Testing continued to 19January 1974. The T-4 flew only ten times for a total 10 hours and 20 minutes. It is believed to have reached at least Mach1.3 at an altitude of using four Kolesov RD36-41 engines. These engines each produced thrust with afterburners. The aircraft was designed to achieve speeds of up to Mach3.0 with nine tons of weapons (two MKB Raduga Kh-45 missiles) under the wings, but the program was cancelled before the full performance of the aircraft could be reached..", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aircraft on display.", "content": "One T-4 survives. Aircraft \"101\" is on display at the Central Air Force Museum in Monino near Moscow. The serial numbers of the prototypes were \"101\" to \"106\". Only \"101\" and \"102\" were built, while other additional prototypes \"103\" and \"104\" were under construction, and \"105\" and \"106\" only existed on draft charts. Only the \"101\" completed all the test flights and flew the last test flight before the project was canceled on 22 January 1974. The rest of the prototypes were scrapped.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sukhoi T-4, or \"Aircraft 100\", or \"Project 100\", or \"Sotka\" was a Soviet high-speed reconnaissance, anti-ship and strategic bomber aircraft that did not proceed beyond the prototype stage. It is sometimes called the Su-100.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972304}
{"src_title": "Macrobiotic diet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Conceptual basis.", "content": "The macrobiotic diet is associated with Zen Buddhism and is based on the idea of balancing yin and yang. The diet proposes 10 plans which are followed to reach a supposedly ideal yin:yang ratio of 5:1. The diet was popularized by George Ohsawa in the 1930s and subsequently elaborated by his disciple Michio Kushi. Medical historian Barbara Clow writes that, in common with many other types of quackery, macrobiotics takes a view of illness and of therapy which conflicts with mainstream medicine.  Macrobiotics emphasizes locally grown whole grain cereals, pulses (legumes), vegetables, edible seaweed, fermented soy products, and fruit combined into meals according to the ancient Chinese principle of balance known as yin and yang. Whole grains and whole-grain products such as brown rice and buckwheat pasta (soba), a variety of cooked and raw vegetables, beans and bean products, mild natural seasonings, fish, nuts and seeds, mild (non-stimulating) beverages such as bancha twig tea, and fruit are recommended.  Some macrobiotic proponents stress that yin and yang are relative qualities that can only be determined in a comparison. All food is considered to have both properties, with one dominating. Foods with yang qualities are considered compact, dense, heavy, and hot, whereas those with yin qualities are considered expansive, light, cold, and diffuse. However, these terms are relative; \"yangness\" or \"yinness\" is only discussed in relation to other foods.  Brown rice and other whole grains such as barley, millet, oats, quinoa, spelt, rye, and teff are considered by macrobiotics to be the foods in which yin and yang are closest to being in balance. Therefore, lists of macrobiotic foods that determine a food as yin or yang generally compare them to whole grains.  Nightshade vegetables, including tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, and eggplant; also, spinach, beets, and avocados are not recommended or are used sparingly in macrobiotic cooking, as they are considered extremely yin. Some macrobiotic practitioners also discourage the use of nightshades because of the alkaloid solanine which is thought to affect calcium balance. Some proponents of a macrobiotic diet believe that nightshade vegetables can cause inflammation in the body and osteoporosis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practices.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "Some general guidelines for the Japanese-style macrobiotic diet are the following (it is also said that a macrobiotic diet varies greatly, depending on geographical and life circumstances):  Fish and seafood, seeds and nuts, seed and nut butters, seasonings, sweeteners, fruits, and beverages may be enjoyed occasionally, two to three times per week. Other naturally-raised animal products may be included if needed during dietary transition or according to individual needs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kitchenware.", "content": "Cooking utensils should be made from certain materials such as wood or glass, while some materials including plastic, copper, and non-stick coatings are to be avoided. Electric ovens should not be used.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Japanese popularity and influence.", "content": "The macrobiotic way of eating was developed and popularized by the Japanese. During the Edo period in Japan peasants were not allowed to eat meat and had a diet based on staples of rice and soybeans. According to some macrobiotic advocates, a majority of the world population in the past ate a diet based primarily on grains, vegetables, and other plants. Because the macrobiotic diet was developed in Japan, Japanese foods that are thought to be beneficial for health are incorporated by most modern macrobiotic eaters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cancer.", "content": "The American Cancer Society recommends \"low-fat, high-fiber diets that consist mainly of plant products\"; however, they urge people with cancer not to rely on a dietary program as an exclusive or primary means of treatment. Cancer Research UK states, \"There is no scientific evidence to prove that a macrobiotic diet can treat or cure cancer or any other disease\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "The macrobiotic diet is a type of fad diet. Most macrobiotic diets are not nutritionally sound.  Fish provides vitamin B in a macrobiotic diet, as bioavailable B analogues have not been established in any natural plant food, including sea vegetables, soya, fermented products, and algae. Although plant-derived foods do not naturally contain B, some are fortified during processing with added B and other nutrients. Vitamin A, as its precursor beta-carotene, is available from plants such as carrots and spinach. Adequate protein is available from grains, nuts, seeds, beans, and bean products. Sources of Omega-3 fatty acids are discussed in the relevant article, and include soy products, walnuts, flax seeds, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, and fatty fish. Riboflavin along with most other B vitamins are abundant in whole grains. Iron in the form of non-heme iron in beans, sea vegetables and leafy greens is sufficient for good health; detailed information is in the USDA database.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complications.", "content": "One of the earlier versions of the macrobiotic diet that involved eating only brown rice and water has been linked to severe nutritional deficiencies and even death. Strict macrobiotic diets that include no animal products may result in nutritional deficiencies unless they are carefully planned. The danger may be worse for people with cancer, who may have to contend with unwanted weight loss and often have increased nutritional and caloric requirements. Relying on this type of treatment alone and avoiding or delaying conventional medical care for cancer may have serious health consequences.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Children may also be particularly prone to nutritional deficiencies resulting from a macrobiotic diet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pregnancy.", "content": "Macrobiotic diets have not been tested in women who are pregnant or breast-feeding, and the most extreme versions may not include enough of certain nutrients for normal fetal growth.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A macrobiotic diet (or macrobiotics) is a fad diet based on ideas about types of food drawn from Zen Buddhism. The diet attempts to balance the supposed yin and yang elements of food and cookware. Major principles of macrobiotic diets are to reduce animal products, eat locally grown foods that are in season, and consume meals in moderation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972305}
{"src_title": "Botfly", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "General.", "content": "A botfly, also written bot fly, bott fly or bot-fly in various combinations, is any fly in the family Oestridae. Their lifecycles vary greatly according to species, but the larvae of all species are internal parasites of mammals. Largely according to species, they also are known variously as warble flies, heel flies, and gadflies. The larvae of some species grow in the flesh of their hosts, while others grow within the hosts' alimentary tracts.  The word \"bot\" in this sense means a maggot. A warble is a skin lump or callus such as might be caused by an ill-fitting harness, or by the presence of a warble fly maggot under the skin. The human botfly, \"Dermatobia hominis\", is the only species of botfly whose larvae ordinarily parasitise humans, though flies in some other families episodically cause human myiasis and are sometimes more harmful.  \"Cuterebra fontinella\", the mouse botfly, parasitizes small mammals all around North America.  The botfly will hijack a mosquito to inject the host with the eggs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family Oestridae.", "content": "The Oestridae now are generally defined as including the former families Oestridae, Cuterebridae, Gasterophilidae, and Hypodermatidae as subfamilies.  The Oestridae, in turn, are a family within the superfamily Oestroidea, together with the families Calliphoridae, Rhinophoridae, Sarcophagidae, and Tachinidae.  Of families of flies causing myiasis, the Oestridae include the highest proportion of species whose larvae live as obligate parasites within the bodies of mammals. Roughly 150 species are known worldwide. Most other species of flies implicated in myiasis are members of related families, such as blow-flies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infestation.", "content": "Botflies deposit eggs on a host, or sometimes use an intermediate vector such as the common housefly, mosquitoes, and, in the case of \"D. hominis\", a species of tick. After mating, the female botfly captures the phoretic insect by holding onto its wings with her legs. She then makes the slip—attaching 15 to 30 eggs onto the insect's abdomen, where they incubate. The fertilized female does this over and over again to distribute the 100 to 400 eggs she produces in her short lifespan of only 8-9 days. Larvae from these eggs, stimulated by the warmth and proximity of a large mammal host, drop onto its skin and burrow underneath. Intermediate vectors are often used, since a number of animal hosts recognize the approach of a botfly and flee.  Eggs are deposited on animal skin directly, or the larvae hatch and drop from the eggs attached to the intermediate vector; the body heat of the host animal induces hatching upon contact or immediate proximity. Some forms of botfly also occur in the digestive tract after ingestion by licking.  Myiasis can be caused by larvae burrowing into the skin (or tissue lining) of the host animal. Mature larvae drop from the host and complete the pupal stage in soil. They do not kill the host animal, thus they are true parasites.  The equine botflies present seasonal difficulties to equestrian caretakers, as they lay eggs on the insides of horses' front legs, on the cannon bone and knees and sometimes on the throat or nose, depending on the species. These eggs, which look like small, yellow drops of paint, must be carefully removed during the laying season (late summer and early fall) to prevent infestation in the horse. When a horse rubs its nose on its legs, the eggs are transferred to the mouth and from there to the intestines, where the larvae grow and attach themselves to the stomach lining or the small intestine. The attachment of the larvae to the tissue produces a mild irritation, which results in erosions and ulcerations at the site. Removal of the eggs (which adhere to the host's hair) is difficult, since the bone and tendons are directly under the skin on the cannon bones; eggs must be removed with a sharp knife (often a razor blade) or rough sandpaper and caught before they reach the ground. The larvae remain attached and develop for 10–12 months before they are passed out in the feces. Occasionally, horse owners report seeing botfly larvae in horse manure. These larvae are cylindrical in shape and are reddish orange in color. In one to two months, adult botflies emerge from the developing larvae and the cycle repeats itself. Botflies can be controlled with several types of dewormers, including dichlorvos, ivermectin, and trichlorfon.  In cattle, the lesions caused by these flies can become infected by \"Mannheimia granulomatis\", a bacterium that causes lechiguana, characterized by rapid-growing, hard lumps beneath the skin of the animal. Without antibiotics, an affected animal will die within 3-11 months.  \"Dermatobia hominis\", the human botfly, occasionally uses humans to host its larvae. The larva, because of its spines, can pose an extremely painful subepidermal condition. The fastest way to remove a botfly is by putting a generous amount of iodine in the hole. The botfly will react immediately by poking out of the hole. Another removal method is to use the tree sap of the \"matatorsalo\", found in Costa Rica, which is reputed to kill the larva, yet leave its body in the skin. Additionally, one can attempt to seal the breathing hole of the larva with nail polish or petroleum jelly; after a day, with a clinical professional, the breathing hole is enlarged and the larva is removed with forceps. Squeezing the larvae out is not recommended, as it can cause the larvae to rupture; its bodily fluids have been known to cause severe anaphylactic shock. Use of adhesive tape can work, but carries additional risk of infection because portions of the larva's breathing tube can be broken off by the tape and make the remainder of the body difficult to remove.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As human food.", "content": "In cold climates supporting reindeer or caribou-reliant populations, large quantities of \"Hypoderma tarandi\" (caribou warble fly) maggots are available to human populations during the butchery of animals.  The sixth episode of season one of the television series \"Beyond Survival\", titled \"The Inuit – Survivors of the Future\", features survival expert Les Stroud and two Inuit guides hunting caribou on the northern coast of Baffin Island near Pond Inlet, Nunavut, Canada. Upon skinning and butchering of one of the animals, numerous larvae (presumably \"H. tarandi\", although not explicitly stated) are apparent on the inside of the caribou pelt. Stroud and his two Inuit guides eat (albeit somewhat reluctantly) one larva each, with Stroud commenting that the larva \"tastes like milk\" and was historically commonly consumed by the Inuit people.  Copious art dating back to the Pleistocene in Europe confirms their consumption in premodern times, as well.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Botflies, also known as warble flies, heel flies, and gadflies, are a family of flies technically known as the Oestridae. Their larvae are internal parasites of mammals, some species growing in the host's flesh and others within the gut. \"Dermatobia hominis\" is the only species of botfly known to parasitize humans routinely, though other species of flies cause myiasis in humans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972306}
{"src_title": "Pastry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "Different kinds of pastries are made by utilizing the natural characteristics of wheat flour and certain fats. When wheat flour is mixed with water and kneaded into plain dough, it develops strands of gluten, which are what make bread tough and elastic. In a typical pastry, however, this toughness is unwanted, so fat or oil is added to slow down the development of gluten. Pastry flour can also be used, since it typically has a lower level of protein than all-purpose or bread flours.  Lard or suet work well because they have a coarse, crystalline structure that is very effective. Using unclarified butter does not work well because of its water content; clarified butter, or ghee, which is virtually water-free, is better, but shortcrust pastry using only butter may develop an inferior texture. If the fat is melted with hot water or if liquid oil is used, the thin oily layer between the grains offers less of an obstacle to gluten formation and the resulting pastry is tougher.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The European tradition of pastry-making is often traced back to the shortcrust era of flaky doughs that were in use throughout the Mediterranean in ancient times. In the ancient Mediterranean, the Romans, Greeks and Phoenicians all had filo-style pastries in their culinary traditions. In the plays of Aristophanes, written in the 5th century BC, there is mention of sweetmeats, including small pastries filled with fruit. Roman cuisine used flour, oil and water to make pastries that were used to cover meats and fowls during baking in order to keep in the juices, but the pastry was not meant to be eaten. A pastry that was meant to be eaten was a richer pastry that was made into small pastries containing eggs or little birds and that were often served at banquets. Greeks and Romans both struggled in making a good pastry because they used oil in the cooking process, and oil causes the pastry to lose its stiffness.  In the medieval cuisine of Northern Europe, pastry chefs were able to produce nice, stiff pastries because they cooked with shortening and butter. Some incomplete lists of ingredients have been found in medieval cookbooks, but no full, detailed versions. There were stiff, empty pastries called coffins or 'huff paste', that were eaten by servants only and included an egg yolk glaze to help make them more enjoyable to consume. Medieval pastries also included small tarts to add richness.  It was not until about the mid-16th century that actual pastry recipes began appearing. These recipes were adopted and adapted over time in various European countries, resulting in the myriad pastry traditions known to the region, from Portuguese \"pastéis de nata\" in the west to Russian \"pirozhki\" in the east. The use of chocolate in pastry-making in the west, so commonplace today, arose only after Spanish and Portuguese traders brought chocolate to Europe from the New World starting in the 16th century. Many culinary historians consider French pastry chef Antonin Carême (1784–1833) to have been the first great master of pastry making in modern times.  Pastry-making has a strong tradition in many parts of Asia. Chinese pastry is made from rice, or different types of flour, with fruit, sweet bean paste or sesame-based fillings. The mooncakes are part of Chinese Mid Autumn Festival traditions, while cha siu bao, steamed or baked pork buns, are a regular savory dim sum menu item. In the 19th century, the British brought western-style pastry to the far east, though it would be the French-influenced Maxim in the 1950s that made western pastry popular in Chinese-speaking regions starting with Hong Kong. The term \"western cake\" (西餅) is used to refer to western pastry, otherwise Chinese pastry is assumed. Other Asian countries such as Korea prepare traditional pastry-confections such as tteok, hangwa, and yaksik with flour, rice, fruits, and regional specific ingredients to make unique desserts. Japan also has specialized pastry-confections better known as mochi and manjū. Pastry-confections that originate in Asia are clearly distinct from those that originate in the west, which are generally much sweeter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pastry chefs.", "content": "Pastry chefs use a combination of culinary ability and creativity for baking, decoration, and flavoring with ingredients. Many baked goods require a lot of time and focus. Presentation is an important aspect of pastry and dessert preparation. The job is often physically demanding, requiring attention to detail and long hours. Pastry chefs are also responsible for creating new recipes to put on the menu, and they work in restaurants, bistros, large hotels, casinos and bakeries. Pastry baking is usually done in an area slightly separate from the main kitchen. This section of the kitchen is in charge of making pastries, desserts, and other baked goods.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pastry is a dough of flour, water and shortening (solid fats, including butter) that may be savoury or sweetened. Sweetened pastries are often described as \"bakers' confectionery\". The word \"pastries\" suggests many kinds of baked products made from ingredients such as flour, sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and eggs. Small tarts and other sweet baked products are called pastries. Common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches, croissants, and pasties.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972307}
{"src_title": "Selection cutting", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Confusing term.", "content": "\"Selection cutting\" is often (sometimes deliberately) confused with \"selective\" cutting, a term synonymous with the practice of highgrading (the removal of the most economically profitable trees in a forest, often with a disregard for the future of the residual stand). Often the latter term is used by foresters or loggers to imply the former (which has a generally positive connotation in forestry circles) and mislead landowners into stripping their woodlot of its most valuable timber. Used correctly, the term'selection cutting','selection system', or'selection silviculture' implies the implementation of specific silvicultural techniques—usually either'single tree selection', 'group selection' or a combination of the two—to create an uneven-aged or all-aged condition in a forest stand, one more akin to a late successional or 'climax' condition.  Partly as a result of such confusion, the term \"Plenterwald\", which is the German term for selection cutting, is being more commonly used as the standard term in English. Increasingly, especially in Britain, Ireland and elsewhere in Europe, the term Continuous Cover Forestry (CCF) has been adopted to embrace an approach to stand management that most often employs selection systems to achieve a permanently irregular stand structure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Single-tree selection.", "content": "The most common type of selection system is single-tree selection, in which scattered individual trees of multiple age classes, whose canopies are not touching, are harvested. This type of selection system generally produces small canopy openings especially conducive to the establishment and growth of shade tolerant tree species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group selection.", "content": "Another variation of selection silviculture is group selection. Under this system, a number of 'groups', or small openings created by the removal of several adjacent trees, are created in complement to the harvest of scattered individual trees. If the groups created are large enough, and if seed-bed conditions are favorable, this can allow species which are intolerant of shade to regenerate. Group selection is designed to mimic larger, multi-tree mortality events, which in some environments may represent natural disturbance regimes.  The maximum size of a group (before it becomes a patch, or clearcut) is debatable. Some say it may be up to 2 acres (0.8 hectares) in size, whereas others limit it to a maximum of 0.5 acres (0.1 hectares).  In any case Plenterwald can operate in a small areas of 1/3 - 1/2 hectare, whereas other systems need a bigger area. Behind this is the philosophical idea that a stand should be balanced (that is equal amounts of land cover for each age class) in the same way that a forest would be balanced under a clear cut régime (that is stands collectively are balanced on yield flow). The reasoning is based on the Normalwald concept, which is a model of a forest over 100 years that will produce an amount of money that is consistent over time with treatments being consistent over time rather than big expenses or big profits at one time and low expenses and low profits at another.  Care need to be taken to avoid epicormic shoots growing on trunks of surrounding trees such that they lead to knotty wood, if timber production is desired. It is also challenging to visualize the groups with cuttings over time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementing A Selection System.", "content": "In North America, trees are selected for harvest in a selection system with reference to the Arbogast Method (named after the method's creator). This is also known as the BDq\" method. Under this method, a harvest is specified by defining a residual basal area (B), a maximum diameter (D), and a q-ratio (q\"). The q-ratio is the ratio of the number of trees in a diameter class to the number of trees in the next larger class. Typically diameter classes are either 4 centimeters or 2 inches.  When the Q is plotted on semi-log paper it gives a straight slope for uneven aged stands. However, in reality this slope can be seen to vary from what is called an S-curve in old growth forests to cut off the older trees giving a reverse-J curve in a managed stand. The curve is also an ideal curve and there may be variations to some extent, particularly in earlier number of trees where there are many more seedlings and saplings than the model Q-ratio would suggest.  Given the BDq, a curve representing the state of the residual stand is computed. This curve is compared to the inventory data from a stand, specifically the curve of the diameter classes of the trees in the stand against the number of trees in each diameter (age) class. Diameter is used as a surrogate for age and thus called an age class even though strictly it should be a size class. The comparison of these two curves tells the forester how many trees of each age-class should remain in the stand. Surplus trees are marked for harvest. If there are too few trees in a class, the forester will determine if it is necessary to reduce the removal of trees from neighboring classes to maintain an ideal q-ratio.  The goal of the use of a BDq curve is to ensure the continued development of trees in each age class, and the continued availability of mature timber to harvest on a relatively short cutting cycle (8–15 years). Longer cutting cycles may be used depending on species mix, silvicultural goals and if the aim is amenity or economic forestry in respect to the land.  Following this method with well performed forest inventories should see the right amount of cutting. However, reality has shown about a third of forests are overcut and a third are undercut. It appears that the model also departs from reality in many cases, and so cannot be solely relied on. The judgement of an experienced forester is also needed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Selection cutting, also known as selection system, is the silvicultural practice of harvesting trees in a way that moves a forest stand towards an uneven-aged or all-aged condition, or'structure'. Using stocking models derived from the study of old growth forests, '\"Selection cutting\"', also known as'selection system', or'selection silviculture', manages the establishment, continued growth and final harvest of multiple age classes (usually three, but 5 or even 10 are possible) of trees within a stand. A closely related approach to forest management is Continuous Cover Forestry (CCF), which makes use of selection systems to achieve a permanently irregular stand structure.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972308}
{"src_title": "Saint Florian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "St. Florian was born around 250 AD in the ancient Roman city of Aelium Cetium, present-day Sankt Pölten, Austria. He joined the Roman Army and advanced in the ranks, rising to commander of the imperial army in the Roman province of Noricum. In addition to his military duties, he was also responsible for organizing and leading firefighting brigades. Florian organized and trained an elite group of soldiers whose sole duty was to fight fires.  During the Diocletianic Persecution of Christians, reports reached Rome that St. Florian was not enforcing the proscriptions against Christians in his territory. Aquilinus was sent to investigate these reports. When Aquilinus ordered Florian to offer sacrifice to the Roman gods in accordance with Roman religion, Florian refused. Florian was sentenced to be burned at the stake. Standing on the funeral pyre, Florian is reputed to have challenged the Roman soldiers to light the fire, saying \"If you wish to know that I am not afraid of your torture, light the fire, and in the name of the Lord I will climbe onto it.\" Apprehensive of his words, the soldiers did not burn Florian, but executed him by drowning him in the Enns River with a millstone tied around his neck.  His body was later retrieved by Christians and buried at an Augustinian monastery near Lorch. Later a woman named Valeria had a vision in which she saw him; Florian, in this vision, declared his intent to be buried in a more appropriate location.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Saint Florian is very widely venerated in Central Europe. The Austrian town of Sankt Florian is named after him. According to legend, his body was interred at St. Florian's Priory, around which the town grew up. His body, recovered and was eventually removed to the Augustinian Abbey of St. Florian, near Linz, Austria.  Saint Florian was adopted as patron saint of Poland in 1184, when Pope Lucius III consented to the request of Prince Casimir II to send relics of Florian to that country. Kraków thus claims some of his relics.  A statue of Florian by Josef Josephu was unveiled in Vienna in 1935. It stood at the main firehouse of Vienna, in the city's main square, Am Hof. After the firehouse was bombed in 1945 during World War II the statue was moved on to the Fire Brigade Museum (\"Wiener Feuerwehrmuseum\").  Seeking the sponsorship of a helpful saint was and still is a part of the namegiving practice in Catholic areas. In the southern, Catholic parts of the German Empire (mainly present Bavaria and Austria), peasants regularly have used the name, Florian, as one of the given names for at least one of their male children: to secure the saints patronage against fire. Hence the given name is still widespread in these areas. In Austria and Germany, fire services use \"Florian\" in radio communications as universal call sign for fire stations and fire trucks. The call sign \"Florentine\" for firefighting-related, hand held radio equipment is also derived, somewhat inaccurately, from that usage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patronage.", "content": "St. Florian is the patron of Austria; also firefighters, chimney sweeps, and brewers. He is invoked against fires, floods, lightning, and the pains of purgatory.  A famous St. Florian's Church is located in Kraków. His veneration has been particularly intense since 1528, when a fire burned the neighborhood without destroying the church.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "St. Florian's cross.", "content": "The St. Florian's cross is a widely used symbol of firefighting, especially in the United States.  The St. Florian's cross is sometimes confused with the Maltese cross. The Maltese cross is a sharp eight-pointed cross, whereas the St. Florian's has rounded arcs between the four points. The use of St. Florian's symbol derives from the traditional belief that the saint himself was involved in firefighting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In contemporary culture.", "content": "The \"Florian Principle\" (known in German language areas as \"Sankt-Florians-Prinzip\") is named after a somewhat ironic prayer to Saint Florian: \"\"O heiliger Sankt Florian, verschon' mein Haus, zünd' and're an\"\", equivalent to \"O Holy St. Florian, please spare my house, set fire to another one\". This saying is used in German much like the English \"not in my back yard\", when the speaker wants to point out that some person tries to get out of an unpleasant situation by an action that will put others in that very same situation.  The name Florian is considered synonymous with fireman in the German speaking world. In some cases call for a fireman will actually be spoken as calls for Florian.  The protagonist in Felix Salten’s novel \"Florian: The Emperor’s Stallion\" was named after Saint Florian, as the animal was born on 4 May in Lipizza, Austria.  Alfred Schnittke's Symphony No. 2, is subtitled \"St. Florian\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Florian (; 250 – 304 AD) was a Christian holy man, and the patron saint of Linz, Austria; chimney sweeps; soapmakers, and firefighters. His feast day is 4 May. St. Florian is also the patron of Upper Austria, jointly with Saint Leopold.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972309}
{"src_title": "Swiss cuisine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Food and dishes.", "content": "There are many regional dishes in Switzerland. One example is Zürcher Geschnetzeltes, thin strips of veal with mushrooms in a cream sauce served with Rösti. Italian cuisine is popular in contemporary Switzerland, particularly pasta and pizza. Foods often associated with Switzerland include particular types of cheese and milk chocolate. Swiss cheeses, in particular Emmental cheese, Gruyère, Vacherin, and Appenzeller, are famous Swiss products. The most popular cheese dishes are fondue and raclette. Both these dishes were originally regional dishes, but were popularized by the Swiss Cheese Union to boost sales of cheese.  Rösti is a popular potato dish that is eaten all over Switzerland. It was originally a breakfast food, but this has been replaced by the muesli, which is commonly eaten for breakfast and in Switzerland goes by the name of \"Birchermüesli\" (\"Birchermiesli\" in some regions). For breakfast and dinner many Swiss enjoy sliced bread with butter and jam. There is a wide variety of bread rolls available in Switzerland. Bread and cheese is a popular dish for dinner.  Tarts and quiches are also traditional Swiss dishes. Tarts in particular are made with all sorts of toppings, from sweet apple to onion.  In the Italian-speaking part of Switzerland, the Ticino area, one will find a type of restaurant unique to the region. The Grotto is a rustic eatery, offering traditional food ranging from pasta to homemade meat specialties. Popular dishes are Luganighe and Luganighetta, a type of artisan sausages. Authentic grottoes are old wine caves re-functioned into restaurants. Due to their nature they are mostly found in or around forests and built against a rocky background. Typically, the facade is built from granite blocks and the outside tables and benches are made of the same stone as well. Grottoes are popular with locals and tourists alike, especially during the hot summer months.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Haute cuisine\".", "content": "In the 2005 Michelin Guide, Switzerland ranked 2nd worldwide in terms of stars awarded per capita.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beverages.", "content": "Rivella, a carbonated Swiss drink based on lactose, is one of the most popular drinks in Switzerland. Apple juice, both still and sparkling, is popular in many areas of Switzerland, and is also produced in the form of apple cider. The chocolate drink Ovomaltine (known in the USA as \"Ovaltine\") originates in Switzerland and enjoys ongoing popularity, particularly with young people. Aside from being a beverage, the powder is also eaten sprinkled on top of a slice of buttered bread. Wine is produced in many regions of Switzerland, particularly the Valais, the Vaud, the Ticino and the canton of Zurich. Riesling X Sylvaner is a common white wine produced in German-speaking parts of the country, while Chasselas is the most common white wine in the French-speaking parts of the country. Pinot noir is the most popular red grape in both the French-speaking and the German-speaking part, while this position is held by Merlot in the Italian-speaking part.  Absinthe is being distilled officially again in its Val-de-Travers birthplace, in the Jura region of Switzerland, where it originated. Long banned by a specific anti-Absinthe article in the Swiss Federal Constitution, it was legalized again in 2005, with the adoption of the new constitution. Now Swiss absinthe is also exported to many countries, with Kübler and La Clandestine Absinthe amongst the first new brands to emerge. Wine and beer can legally be purchased by youths of 16 or more years of age. Spirits and beverages containing distilled alcohol (including wine coolers like Bacardi Breezer) can be bought at 18.  Damassine is a liqueur produced by distillation of the Damassine prune from the Damassinier tree and is produced in the canton of Jura.  Bon Pere William is a famous regional Swiss brandy produced from pears, alcohol 43% by volume. It is usually paired with fondue or raclette dishes or taken after dinner, sometimes poured in coffee with dessert. Some bottles are available with the full size pear inside the bottle, grown with the bud placed in the bottle. There are many other types of regional brandies made from local fruit, the most popular being cherries (kirschwasser).  Switzerland has the seventh highest per capita coffee consumption worldwide.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Swiss cuisine bears witness to many regional influences, including from French, German and Italian cuisines and also features many dishes specific to Switzerland. Switzerland was historically a country of farmers, so traditional Swiss dishes tend not to be plain despite being made from basic ingredients, such as potatoes and cheese.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972310}
{"src_title": "Romanian Greek Catholic Church", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Following the Habsburg conquest of Transylvania in 1687, Metropolitan Atanasie Anghel entered into full communion with the See of Rome by the Act of Union of 1698, that was formalized by a synod of bishops on September 4, 1700.  By entering into the Union, Atanasie and the other bishops, along with their respective dioceses, accepted the supreme authority of the Pope, while at the same time being granted the right to keep their own Greek Byzantine liturgical rite. A Diploma issued by the Emperor Leopold I declared that Transylvania's Romanian Orthodox Church is one with the Roman Catholic Church. Transylvanian Romanians were therefore encouraged to convert to Catholicism and join the newly created Greek-Catholic Church, while being able to retain the Byzantine rite, if at the same time they accepted four doctrinal points promulgated by the Council of Florence (1431 and 1445): the supreme authority of the Pope over the entire church; the existence of Purgatory; the Filioque clause; and the validity of the use of unleavened bread in the celebration of the Eucharist in the Latin Church (Eastern Orthodox had contended that Roman Catholic use of unleavened bread was erroneous).  The step undertaken by Metropolitan Atanasie Anghel and his Holy Synod obtained for the ethnic Romanians of Transylvania (then part of the Habsburg Monarchy) equal rights with those of the other Transylvanian nations, which were part of the Unio Trium Nationum: the Hungarian nobility, the Transylvanian Saxons, and the Székely. This event coincided with the arrival of the Jesuits in Transylvania, who attempted to align this province more closely with Western Europe. However, most Romanians were not willing to convert, and this in turn led to the formation of Romanian Orthodox movements that advocated for freedom of worship for the entire Transylvanian population – most notable the movements led by Visarion Sarai, Nicolae Oprea Miclăuş, and Sofronie of Cioara, under the influence of the dominant Serbian Church.  In 1721, the Bishop's Residence was moved from Alba Iulia to Făgăraș, and eventually to Blaj (1737). Following this change, Blaj became a center of learning and national awakening for all Romanians..  In 1761, Petru Pavel Aron (1709–1764), the Bishop of Făgăraș and head of the Romanian Greek Catholic Church, translated \"Biblia Vulgata\" into Romanian. While the Romanian Orthodox kept Church Slavonic as the official liturgical language till 1863, the Romanian Church United with Rome has been using the Romanian vernacular ever since its inception. In the 19th century, during a time when the Hungarian government was pursuing a Magyarization policy in Transylvania, the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church, with the aid of the Transylvanian School \"(Școala Ardeleană)\" and the Transylvanian Memorandum, played a prominent role in resisting ethnic assimilation attempts. Moreover, many leading figures of the Romanian emancipation movement in Transylvania, such as Simion Bărnuțiu and Iuliu Maniu, began their careers as lay servants of the Greek-Catholic Church.  Additional Greek-Catholic Eparchies were eventually set up at Oradea (1777), as well as Gherla and Lugoj (1853); Blaj, under the title of Eparchy of Alba Iulia and Făgăraș, became the Metropolitan (i.e. Archiepiscopal) See. On December 16, 2005, the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church was elevated to the rank of Major Archiepiscopal Church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Persecution under Communism.", "content": "After assuming political power in 1948, the Communist regime, rooted in Marxist–Leninist atheism, deposed all 12 bishops of the Greek-Catholic Church on Stalin's orders. Moreover, on October 21, 1948, the 250th anniversary of the Romanian Greek Catholic Union with the Roman Catholic Church, the regime arranged for the \"voluntary\" and \"spontaneous\" transfer of all members of the Greek-Catholic Church (decree 358/1948), that numbered some 1,500,000 at the time, to the Romanian Orthodox Church; furthermore, the property rights over many of the Greek-Catholic Church's possessions, including its four cathedrals, were transferred to the Romanian Orthodox Church, while the remainder of those properties were confiscated by the State.  The Greek-Catholic bishops, along with many of their priests, were accused by the newly installed Communist authorities of \"antidemocratic activity\". After refusing to give up their ties with the \"reactionary\" Holy See, they were imprisoned. At about the same time, the Orthodox Church was being \"purged\" of priests hostile to the Communist regime. Following this purge, the Orthodox hierarchy enjoyed good relations with the Communist authorities for the remainder of the Communist Rule of Romania.  Iuliu Hossu, Bishop of Cluj, turned down a proposal of the Romanian Orthodox Patriarch, Iustinian Marina, to convert to Orthodoxy and be named Orthodox Archbishop of Iaşi and metropolitan of Moldavia, and thereby become the official successor of the Romanian Orthodox Patriarch himself. Consequently, Hossu remained under house arrest. Year after year, he sent Memorandums to the President of the Republic, requesting that the country's laws and international agreements be observed with regard to the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church. In 1969, Pope Paul VI asked Hossu to accept an appointment to the cardinalate. As Hossu was reluctant to leave his people, the Pope created him a Cardinal only \"\"in pectore\"\", i.e. without publishing the fact, that was only revealed on March 5, 1973, three years after Bishop Hossu's death.  Another remarkable Romanian Greek-Catholic ecclesiastic of the time was Alexandru Todea (1912–2002). Secretly (in pectore) consecrated as a titular bishop on November 19, 1950, he was arrested and the following year he received a sentence of life in prison. He was granted amnesty in 1964. On March 14, 1990, after the fall of the Communist regime, he was appointed Archbishop of Făgăraș and Alba Iulia, and was created a Cardinal the following year.  After more than 40 years of clandestine existence, the Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek-Catholic re-emerged publicly, in the wake of the Romanian Revolution. Normative act 9/31, passed on December 31, 1989, repealed Decree 358/1948 (that outlawed the Greek-Catholic Church) as repugnant and bringing grave prejudice upon the Romanian State.  Only after much struggle and considerable delays, some of the Church's properties, in particular the cathedrals of Cluj, Blaj, Lugoj, and Oradea, were restored to their rightful owner. However, much of the original property remains in Romanian Orthodox or government hands, as the persecution started in 1948 has led to a marked reduction in the numbers of Romanian Greek Catholic faithful. After 40 years of Communist rule and forced assimilation into the regime-approved Orthodox Church, numerous Romanian cradle Greek-Catholics remained in the Romanian Orthodox Church, at least on paper, and it is unclear how many of these nominal Orthodox members remain crypto-Catholic, especially in northern Transylvania where most Greek Catholics lived (as shown on the maps to the right). Other Greek Catholic Romanians switched to the Roman Catholic church, and now account for the second-largest group in that denomination after Hungarians. The Romanian Catholic Church United with Rome is still undergoing a process of recovery from the wounds inflicted by the Communist rulers and the forced merger.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Property issues since the fall of Communism.", "content": "Since the fall of Communism, Church leaders have claimed that the Romanian Greek-Catholic Community is facing a cultural and religious wipe-out: the Greek-Catholic churches are allegedly being destroyed by representatives of the Romanian Orthodox Church, whose actions allegedly enjoy not only the acceptance, but also the support of the Romanian authorities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hierarchy.", "content": "Ecclesiastical Province of Fagaras and Alba Iulia Immediately subject to the Holy See", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Romanian Greek Catholic Church or Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek-Catholic () is a sui iuris Eastern Catholic Church, in full union with the Roman Catholic Church. It has the rank of a Major Archiepiscopal Church and it uses the Byzantine liturgical rite in the Romanian language. It is part of the Major Archiepiscopal Churches of the Catholic Church that are not distinguished with a patriarchal title.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972311}
{"src_title": "Lake Garda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The northern part of the lake is narrower, surrounded by mountains, the majority of which belong to the Gruppo del Baldo. The shape is typical of a moraine valley, probably having been formed under the action of a Paleolithic glacier. Although traces of the glacier's actions are evident today, in more recent years it has been hypothesised that the glacier occupied a previously existing depression, created by stream erosion 5 to 6 million years ago.  The lake has numerous small islands and five main ones, the largest being Isola del Garda where in 1220 St. Francis of Assisi founded a monastery, in its place now stands a nineteenth-century building in the Venetian Gothic style. Nearby to the south is Isola San Biagio, also known as the Isola dei Conigli (\"Island of the Rabbits\"). Both are offshore of San Felice del Benaco, on the lake's western side. The three other main islands are Isola dell'Olivo, Isola di Sogno, and Isola di Trimelone, all farther north near the eastern side. The main tributary is the Sarca River, others include the Ponale River (fed by Lago di Ledro), the Varone/Magnone River (via the Cascate del Varone) and various streams from both mountain sides, while the only outlet is the Mincio River (, at Peschiera). The subdivision is created by the presence of a fault submerged between Sirmione and Punta San Vigilio which is almost a natural barrier that hampers the homogenization between the water of the two zones.  If the water level of the Adige river is too high, excess water is diverted to the lake through the Mori-Torbole tunnel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The particularly mild climate favours the growth of some hardy Mediterranean plants, including the olive tree, parasol pine, mediterranean cypress, chinese windmill palm and Canary Island Date Palm. Some hardy Citrus trees, such as hardy lemons and satsuma can also be found, which are extremely rare at this latitude (46° North). This greatly favoured the development of tourism since the end of the second world war. In ancient times, poets like Catullus wrote about \"Lacus Benacus\" with its mild climate vivified by the winds. The lake is oriented from north to south towards the Po Valley, so many winds typical of the lake are the result of a difference between lower and higher altitude temperatures. Due to this, winds are generated that descend from the mountains to the plains in the morning and go back to the mountains in the afternoon. The bottleneck formed by the lake basin affects the timing of the winds, many of which happen on a regular daily basis. The winds are all named, most in regional Italian dialect so a single wind may have different names.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "\"Salmo carpio\", also known as the carpione (\"carpione del Garda\" or \"Lake Garda carpione\") is a rare salmonid fish endemic to Lake Garda. It has been introduced to a number of other lakes in Italy and elsewhere but unsuccessfully in all cases. The population in Lake Garda has been strongly declining, and is considered critically endangered (IUCN 3.1). The main threats are due to overfishing, pollution and possibly competition from introduced species such as Coregonus and other Salmonidae.  Adult lake trout outside the mating season are silvery with very few black spots on the body and almost none on the head. During the mating season some males develop a dark mottled body coloration. Garda lake trout reach a length of up to 50 centimeters. They live primarily in depths of. They feed on zooplankton and bottom-dwelling crustaceans in summer. Males and females reach sexual maturity at two or three years. The mating takes place every one to two years. The spawning takes place in depth in the vicinity of underwater springs. The maximum age is five years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Towns and villages on the lake.", "content": "The ancient fortified town of Sirmione, located on the south of the lake, is one particularly popular destination, home to the Virgilio & Catullo Spa Complexes, as well as numerous restaurants, bars, hotels, fashion stores and a market. The picturesque Scaliger castle dates from the 13th century. The Roman poet Catullus had a villa here, and visitors can see a ruined Roman spa named the Grotte di Catullo (Grottoes of Catullus) although there is no evidence linking him to this particular building. The sulfur springs at the tip of the peninsula have a reputation for healing catarrhal conditions, particularly those involving the ear. Another popular town is the town of Garda. Garda is approximately from the more popular town of Verona. Garda's economy is based on tourism. Nearby, there is Gardaland, one of the most famous theme parks in Italy. At the northern end of the lake, the towns of Riva and Torbole are famous for winds that attract people who sail, windsurf & kiteboard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ferry.", "content": "Infrequent ferry services connect major towns on the eastern and western shores of Lake Garda. The services run in a zig-zag manner from Desenzano del Garda to Riva del Garda, via Peschiera del Garda, Salò, Garda and Malcesine. One express ferry, on which bicycles are not allowed, operates per day: journey time from Riva del Garda to Peschiera takes 2 hours.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rail.", "content": "Railway stations with direct bus links include Rovereto (to Riva del Garda), Verona (to Garda), Peschiera del Garda (to Garda) and Desenzano del Garda (to Salò).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bus.", "content": "Buses are faster alternatives to ferry services. On Lake Garda's eastern coast (provinces of Verona and Trentino), ATV (Verona Transport Company) provides at least five daily bus routes between Verona and Garda, with one route extending beyond Garda to Riva del Garda. Trentino Transporti provides daily bus routes between Riva del Garda and Rovereto or Trento.  On Lake Garda's western coast (Brescia province), SAIA (Brescia Mobilità) provides regular bus services between Desenzano and Salò.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lake Garda ( or ; ; ; ) is the largest lake in Italy. It is a popular holiday location in northern Italy, about halfway between Brescia and Verona, and between Venice and Milan on the edge of the Dolomites. Glaciers formed this alpine region at the end of the last Ice Age. The lake and its shoreline are divided between the provinces of Verona (to the south-east), Brescia (south-west), and Trento (north). The name Garda, which the lake has been seen referred to in documents dating to the eighth century, comes from the town of the same name. It is the evolution of the Germanic word \"warda\", meaning \"place of guard\" or \"place of observation\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972312}
{"src_title": "Panzer VIII Maus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The basic design known as the \"VK 100.01\" / \"Porsche Type 205\" was suggested by Ferdinand Porsche to Adolf Hitler in June 1942, who subsequently approved it. Work on the design began in earnest; the first prototype, to be ready in 1943 was initially to receive the name \"Mammut\" (Mammoth). This was reportedly changed to \"Mäuschen\" (Little Mouse) in December 1942 and finally to \"Maus\" (Mouse) in February 1943, which became the most common name for this tank. The \"Maus\" was designed from the start to use the \"electric transmission\" design which Ferdinand Porsche had used in the VK 4501 (P), his unsuccessful attempt to win the production contract for the Tiger. The initial powerplant was the Daimler-Benz MB 509 gasoline engine, an adaptation of Germany's largest displacement (at 44.5 litres/2,717 in3) inverted V12 aircraft engine, the Daimler-Benz DB 603, and later changed to the Daimler-Benz MB 517 diesel engine. This drove an electrical generator, and their combined length occupied the central/rear two-thirds of the Maus' hull, cutting off the forward driver's compartment in the hull from direct access to the turret from within the tank. Each 1.1 metre-wide track, which used the same basic \"contact shoe\" and \"connector link\" design format as the Henschel-built Tiger II, was driven by its own electric motor mounted within the upper rear area of each hull side. Each set of tracks had a suspension design containing a total of 24 road wheels per side, in six bogie sets, staggered to be spread over the entire width of the track.  Due to the return \"run\" of the uniquely 110 cm-wide wide tracks used being completely enclosed within the fixed outer side armor panels that defined its overall hull width, with the inner vertical lengthwise walls of the hull used to mount the suspension components, a narrow lengthwise \"tub\" remained between the hull's inner armored walls, under and to the rear of the turret to house the engine and generator of the tank's powertrain.  The armour was substantial: the hull front was thick, the sides and rear of the hull were up to. The turret armour was even thicker, the turret front was up to and the sides and rear. The gun mantlet was, and combined with the turret armour behind, the protection level at that section was even higher.  The initial plan for the \"Maus\" was for the prototype to have been completed by mid-1943, with monthly production scheduled to run at ten vehicles per month after delivery of the prototype. The work on the \"Maus\" would be divided between Krupp, responsible for the chassis, armament and turret and Alkett, who would be responsible for final assembly. The \"Maus\" tank was originally designed to weigh approximately 100 tons and be armed with a 128 mm main gun and a 75 mm co-axial secondary gun. Additional armament options were studied including various versions of 128 mm, 150 mm, and 170 mm guns. In January 1943 Hitler himself insisted that the armament be a 128 mm main gun with a coaxial 75 mm gun. The 128 mm PaK 44 anti-tank field artillery piece of 1943 that Krupp adapted for arming the \"Maus\" as the \"Kampfwagenkanone (KwK) 44\" retained, in parallel to the Porsche project, its original anti-tank \"Panzerabwehrkanone\" family designation of PaK 44 when mounted in the casemate-style Jagdtiger tank destroyer.  By May 1943, a wooden mockup of the final \"Maus\" configuration was ready and presented to Hitler, who approved it for mass production, ordering a first series of 150. At this point, the estimated weight of the \"Maus\" was 188 tons. However, there is a story that concerns the main armament of the \"Maus\" being changed by Hitler who said that the 128 mm gun looked like a 'toy gun' when compared to the tank, causing the 128 mm to be replaced by a 150 mm gun.  In his book \"Panzer Leader\", Heinz Guderian wrote: This lack of close combat armament was later addressed with the addition of a \"nahverteidigungswaffe\" (short-range defensive ordnance) mounted in the turret roof, a MG 34 machine gun with 1,000 rounds mounted coaxially with the main weapons in the turret, and three pistol ports for submachine guns in the sides and rear of the turret. Future planned modifications included provisions for a MG 151/20 cannon for anti-aircraft defense mounted in the turret roof.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "V1.", "content": "The first, turretless prototype (V1) was assembled by Alkett in December 1943. Tests started the same month, with a mockup turret fitted of the same weight as the real turret. In June 1944 the production turret, with armament, was used for tests.  The \"Maus\" was too heavy to cross bridges. As a result, an alternative system was developed, where the \"Maus\" would instead ford the rivers it needed to cross. Due to its size it could ford relatively deep streams, but for deeper ones it was to submerge and drive across the river bottom. The solution required tanks to be paired up. One \"Maus\" would supply electrical power to the crossing vehicle via a cable until it reached the other side. The crew would receive air through a large snorkel, which was long enough for the tank to go under water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "V2.", "content": "In March 1944 the second prototype, the V2, was delivered. It differed in many details from the V1 prototype. In mid-1944, the V2 prototype was fitted with a powerplant and the first produced \"Maus\" turret. This turret was fitted with a 128 mm KwK 44 L/55 gun, a coaxial 75 mm KwK 44 L/36.5 gun and a coaxial 7.92 mm MG 34. The V1 prototype was supposed to be fitted with the second produced turret, but this never happened.  By July 1944, Krupp was in the process of producing four more \"Maus\" hulls, but they were ordered to halt production and scrap these. Krupp stopped all work on it in August 1944. Meanwhile, the V2 prototype started tests in September 1944, fitted with a Daimler-Benz MB 517 diesel engine, new electric steering system and a Skoda Works-designed running gear and tracks.  There was also a special railroad carriage made for transporting the \"Maus\" prototypes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Capture.", "content": "The working \"Maus\" prototypes remained at Kummersdorf after being tested at Böblingen. Maus V2 was ordered to Wünsdorf to protect the OKH; probably V1 was ordered there, too, as support for the V2 if it drove into mud or to help with diving through rivers (where it would have served as generator unit for V2). V2 ended at the Hindenburgplatz, in front of the bunker Maybach I, where it was destroyed by placing charges in the engine and fighting compartments. Because it had ammunition stowed under the turret, it was damaged more extensively than V1, with the turret being more or less intact. Maus V1 did not reach this area.  After the war, the Soviet Commander of Armored and Mechanized troops ordered the hull of V1 to be mated with the turret of V2. The Soviets used six German FAMO-built 18t German half-tracks, the largest half-track vehicles that Germany built in the war years, to pull the 55-ton turret off the destroyed hull. The combined V1 hull/V2 turret vehicle was completed in Germany and sent back to the USSR for further testing. It arrived there on 4 May 1946. When further testing was completed, the vehicle was taken over by the Kubinka Tank Museum for storage, where it is now on display.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Panzerkampfwagen VIII Maus (\"Mouse\") was a German World War II super-heavy tank completed in late 1944. It is the heaviest fully enclosed armoured fighting vehicle ever built. Five were ordered, but only two hulls and one turret were completed, the turret being attached, before the testing grounds were captured by advancing Soviet military forces.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972313}
{"src_title": "Arsphenamine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Arsphenamine was first synthesized in 1907 in Paul Ehrlich's lab by Alfred Bertheim. The antisyphilitic activity of this compound was discovered by Sahachiro Hata in 1909, during a survey of hundreds of newly synthesized organic arsenical compounds. Ehrlich had theorized that by screening many compounds, a drug could be discovered that would have anti-microbial activity but not kill the human patient. Ehrlich's team began their search for such a \"magic bullet\" among chemical derivatives of the dangerously toxic drug atoxyl. This project was the first organized team effort to optimize the biological activity of a lead compound through systematic chemical modifications, the basis for nearly all modern pharmaceutical research.  Arsphenamine was used to treat the disease syphilis because it is toxic to the bacterium \"Treponema pallidum\", a spirochete that causes syphilis.  Arsphenamine was originally called \"606\" because it was the sixth in the sixth group of compounds synthesized for testing; it was marketed by Hoechst AG under the trade name \"Salvarsan\" in 1910. Salvarsan was the first organic antisyphilitic, and a great improvement over the inorganic mercury compounds that had been used previously. It was distributed as a yellow, crystalline, hygroscopic powder that was highly unstable in air. This significantly complicated administration, as the drug had to be dissolved in several hundred milliliters of distilled, sterile water with minimal exposure to air to produce a solution suitable for injection. Some of the side effects attributed to Salvarsan, including rashes, liver damage, and risks of life and limb, were thought to be caused by improper handling and administration. This caused Ehrlich, who worked assiduously to standardize practices, to observe, \"the step from the laboratory to the patient's bedside... is extraordinarily arduous and fraught with danger.\"  Ehrlich's laboratory developed a more soluble (but slightly less effective) arsenical compound, Neosalvarsan (neoarsphenamine), which was easier to prepare, and it became available in 1912. Less severe side-effects such as nausea and vomiting were still common. An additional problem was that both Salvarsan and Neosalvarsan had to be stored in sealed vials under a nitrogen atmosphere to prevent oxidation. These arsenical compounds were supplanted as treatments for syphilis in the 1940s by penicillin.  After leaving Ehrlich's laboratory, Hata continued parallel investigation of the new medicines in Japan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Salvarsan has long been assumed to have an As=As double bond, akin to the N=N linkage in azobenzene. However, in 2005, in an extensive mass spectrometric analysis led by Professor Brian Nicholson of the University of Waikato, the arsenic–arsenic bonds in Salvarsan were shown to be single bonds rather than double bonds. Presumed to consist of RAs=AsR molecules, i.e. (RAs), Salvarsan was found to actually contain a mixture of cyclo-(RAs) and cyclo-(RAs) species, where R is the 3-amino-4-hydroxyphenyl moiety. According to Nicholson, these cyclic species slowly release an oxidised species, RAs(OH), that is likely responsible for Salvarsan's antisyphilis properties.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arsphenamine, also known as Salvarsan or compound 606, is a drug that was introduced at the beginning of the 1910s as the first effective treatment for syphilis, and was also used to treat African trypanosomiasis. This organoarsenic compound was the first modern antimicrobial agent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972314}
{"src_title": "Assessment centre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "An early example of assessment is the story of Gideon selecting the most suitable Israelite warriors:  In modern times, the German army introduced assessment techniques for selecting its officers in the 1930s. Psychologist was appointed to head the army's laboratory and introduced leadership tests. These were terminated in 1941 after too many favoured candidates had failed them.  Assessment centres were created in World War II to select officers and are still commonly used in military recruitment today. Examples include the Admiralty Interview Board of the Royal Navy and the War Office Selection Board of the British Army. After World War 2, The OSS type of assessment center was essentially abandoned in The United States except for some internal use in intelligence gathering operations by the CIA. The British Civil Service Selection Board and Australians identified participants still used it for selection on their military college. Also, South Africans used the technique to identify supervisors in gold mines. Assessment centers specifically applied for industrial usage can be traced back to the early 1950s and the pioneering work of Robert K Greenleaf and Douglas W. Bray of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T). Douglas W. Bray as a director of human resources at AT&T, directed a study that lasted over 20 years and followed the careers of young business managers as they progressed up the telephone company rankings. This study showed that the assessment center method could successfully predict organizational achievement and was later implemented throughout AT&T and later on adopted by many other companies: IBM, Standard Oil (Ohio) and Sears for example.  In 1975, the first guidelines on the use of assessment centers was created as a statement of the considerations believed to be most important for all users of the assessment center method. The guidelines ensure the integrity of the process, the validity of the data, qualifications of assessors, and the rights of the participants. The guidelines have since been revised several times to reflect current legality issues, global insights, and technological advances in the field. The most current version of the Guidelines and Ethical Considerations for Assessment Center Operations was endorsed by the 38th International Congress on Assessment Methods in Alexandria, Virginia in October 2014. Today, The ACM is used by organizations all over the world in both private and public sectors to better select of employees and identifying their development in different areas.  AT&T created a building for recruitment of staff in the 1950s. This was called The Assessment Centre and was influential on subsequent personnel methods in other businesses.  Other companies use this method to recruit for their graduate programmes by assessing the personality and intellect of potential employees who have recently graduated from university and have nil or limited work history. The big four accountancy firms conduct assessment centre days to recruit their trainees. 68% of employers in the UK and USA now use some form of assessment centre as part of their recruitment/promotion process. In recent years companies have been set up to support assessment centre coaching.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Purpose.", "content": "Assessment center is not just a building for assessing a job candidate, it is a process of evaluation of behaviour based on multiple evaluation including: job related simulations, interviews or psychological tests.  The ultimate reason for having an assessment centre in any organization is to gather all relevant information under a standardized conditions about an individual's capabilities to perform a given task. Assessment centers are often the method of choice for selecting senior leaders in government and municipal jobs, including police chief and fire captains.  During the process of assessing candidates, series of exercises that are designed to simulate the condition of a given job are given to the candidate to do. This helps the assessor to determine if the candidate possesses the necessary skill and behaviour needed for the job.  The assessment center method provides a sort of wide-ranging, multidimensional assessment that has a strong record of both research significance and practical effectiveness to be accepted by participants and decision-makers alike. In essence, the purpose of assessment centre is to examine the skills and psychological state of an individual in order to determine his or her performance.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An assessment center is a process where candidates are examined to determine their suitability for specific types of employment, especially management or military command. The candidates' personality and aptitudes are determined by techniques including interviews, group exercises, presentations, examinations and psychometric testing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972315}
{"src_title": "La Défense", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "La Défense is named after the statue \"La Défense de Paris\" by Louis-Ernest Barrias, which was erected in 1883 to commemorate the soldiers who had defended Paris during the Franco-Prussian War.  In September 1958, The (EPAD) buildings (of which the Esso Tower was the very first) were built and began to slowly replace the city's factories, shanties, and even a few farms. The Center of New Industries and Technologies (CNIT) was built and first used in 1958. These \"first generation\" skyscrapers were all very similar in appearance, limited to a height of. In 1966, the Nobel Tower was the first office skyscraper built in the area. In 1970, the RER line A railway was opened from La Défense to Étoile. In 1974, a contract for a Défense-Cergy high-speed hovercraft train was signed and soon abandoned.  In the early 1970s, in response to great demand, a second generation of buildings began to appear, but the economic crisis in 1973 nearly halted all construction in the area. A third generation of towers began to appear in the early 1980s. The biggest shopping centre in Europe (at the time), the \"Quatre Temps\", was created in 1981. In 1982, the EPAD launched the \"Tête Défense\" competition to find a monument to complete the \"Axe historique\", which eventually led to the construction of Grande Arche at the west end of the quarter. During the same period, hotels were constructed, the CNIT was restructured, and in 1992, Line 1 of the Paris Métro was extended to La Défense, which made the area readily accessible to even more of the city.  On Bastille Day 1990, French electronic composer Jean Michel Jarre staged an ambitious concert at the site, using the Grande Arche and three of the area's towers as projection screens, and building a pyramidal stage above the road. The free concert, titled simply Paris la Defense, attracted two million spectators, stretching all the way back to the Arc de Triomphe. This beat Jarre's own previous world record for the largest attendance for a musical concert. After Jean Michel Jarre, German DJ Sash! and the singer La Trec have set at La Défense the videoclip for their song \"Stay\" in 1997.  After a stagnation in new development in the mid-1990s, La Défense is once again expanding and is now the largest purpose-built business district in Europe.  Important corporations headquartered at La Défense include Neuf Cegetel, Société Générale, Total, Aventis, Areva, and Arcelor. The tallest skyscraper, the Tour First belongs to AXA, constructed in 1974. It is high, has 50 floors, and is the highest inhabited building in the Paris area (a title previously held by the Tour Montparnasse, which was the tallest inhabited building until the Tour First was renovated between 2007 and 2011, bringing it to its current height from a previous ; the tallest structure in Paris is the Eiffel Tower).  On 9 September 2008, La Défense celebrated its 50th anniversary with a huge fireworks display.  In December 2005,, CEO & Chairman of EPAD (La Defense Management & Development Office) announced an ambitious 9-year development plan called.This important modernisation plan has to give a new dimension to the district and focuses on four main axes: regenerate outdated skyscrapers, allow new buildings, improve the balance between offices and residential housing and make the transport of local employees from their homes to La Défense easier. There are 3 aims: building of offices within demolition/rebuilding projects, building of offices within new projects, and building of housing.  The government confirmed in July 2006 this plan which has to be carried out around 2015. It is justified by the strong estate pressure, which plays in favour of building new skyscrapers near Paris. Those constructions have also the advantage to be more economical than little buildings. But it will have to overcome some difficulties: French economy faces a short-term slowdown; the government tries to balance tertiary sector employment in the whole region again, because La Défense today concentrates a major part of those jobs; and traffic is already saturated in the district, while it would need huge investments to extend transport infrastructures.  It launched high-profile international competitions and/or construction greenlight of several key tall sustainable development-style skyscrapers such as Tour Signal, Tour Phare, Hermitage Plaza, and Tour Generali. During said December 2005 Press Conference, EPAD released to the public an elaborate 3D animation film titled \"La Défense 2016\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Open-air museum.", "content": "Besides the representative architecture, the area also houses an open-air museum with 70 statues and pieces of modern art, including the following works:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "La Défense () is a major business district located three kilometres west of the city limits of Paris. It is part of the Paris metropolitan area in the Île-de-France region, located in the department of Hauts-de-Seine in the communes of Courbevoie, La Garenne-Colombes, Nanterre, and Puteaux.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972316}
{"src_title": "Laki", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "1783 eruption.", "content": "On 8 June 1783, a 25 km (15.5 mi) long fissure with 130 craters opened with phreatomagmatic explosions because of the groundwater interacting with the rising basalt magma. Over a few days the eruptions became less explosive, Strombolian, and later Hawaiian in character, with high rates of lava effusion. This event is rated as 4 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index, but the eight-month emission of sulfuric aerosols resulted in one of the most important climatic and socially repercussive events of the last millennium.  The eruption, also known as the Skaftáreldar (\"Skaftá fires\") or Síðueldur produced an estimated of basalt lava, and the total volume of tephra emitted was. Lava fountains were estimated to have reached heights of. The gases were carried by the convective eruption column to altitudes of about.  The eruption continued until 7 February 1784, but most of the lava was ejected in the first five months. One study states that the event \"occurred as ten pulses of activity, each starting with a short-lived explosive phase followed by a long-lived period of fire-fountaining\". Grímsvötn volcano, from which the Laki fissure extends, was also erupting at the time, from 1783 until 1785. The outpouring of gases, including an estimated 8 million tons of hydrogen fluoride and an estimated 120 million tons of sulfur dioxide, gave rise to what has since become known as the \"Laki haze\" across Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences in Iceland.", "content": "The consequences for Iceland, known as the Móðuharðindin or \"Mist Hardships\", were disastrous. An estimated 20–25% of the population died in the famine and fluoride poisoning after the fissure eruptions ensued. (Some sources specify a death toll of 9,000 people.) Approximately 80% of sheep, 50% of cattle and 50% of horses died because of dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis from the 8 million tons of hydrogen fluoride that were released. The livestock deaths were primarily caused by eating the contaminated grass; the subsequent famine claimed many of the human lives that were lost.  The parish priest and dean of Vestur-Skaftafellssýsla, Jón Steingrímsson (1728–1791), grew famous because of the \"eldmessa\" (\"fire sermon\") that he delivered on 20 July 1783. The people of the small settlement of Kirkjubæjarklaustur were worshipping while the village was endangered by a lava stream, which ceased to flow not far from town, with the townsfolk still in church.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consequences in monsoon regions.", "content": "There is evidence that the Laki eruption weakened African and Indian monsoon circulations, leading to between less daily precipitation than normal over the Sahel of Africa, resulting in, among other effects, low flow in the River Nile. The resulting famine that afflicted Egypt in 1784 cost it roughly one-sixth of its population. The eruption was also found to have affected the southern Arabian Peninsula and India.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consequences in Europe.", "content": "An estimated 120,000,000 long tons of sulfur dioxide was emitted, about three times the total annual European industrial output in 2006 (but delivered to higher altitudes, hence more persistent), and equivalent to six times the total 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption. This outpouring of sulfur dioxide during unusual weather conditions caused a thick haze to spread across western Europe, resulting in many thousands of deaths throughout the remainder of 1783 and the winter of 1784.  The summer of 1783 was the hottest on record and a rare high-pressure zone over Iceland caused the winds to blow to the south-east. The poisonous cloud drifted to Bergen in Denmark–Norway, then spread to Prague in the Kingdom of Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) by 17 June, Berlin by 18 June, Paris by 20 June, Le Havre by 22 June, and Great Britain by 23 June. The fog was so thick that boats stayed in port, unable to navigate, and the sun was described as \"blood coloured\".  Inhaling sulfur dioxide gas causes victims to choke as their internal soft tissue swells – the gas reacts with the moisture in lungs and produces sulfurous acid. The local death rate in Chartres was up by 5% during August and September, with more than 40 dead. In Great Britain, the east of England was most affected. The records show that the additional deaths were among outdoor workers; the death rate in Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire and the east coast was perhaps two or three times the normal rate. It has been estimated that 23,000 British people died from the poisoning.  The weather became very hot, causing severe thunderstorms with large hailstones that were reported to have killed cattle, until the haze dissipated in the autumn. The winter of 1783–1784 was very severe; the naturalist Gilbert White in Selborne, Hampshire, reported 28 days of continuous frost. The extreme winter is estimated to have caused 8,000 additional deaths in the UK. During the spring thaw, Germany and Central Europe reported severe flood damage.  The meteorological impact of Laki continued, contributing significantly to several years of extreme weather in Europe. In France, the sequence of extreme weather events included a surplus harvest in 1785 that caused poverty for rural workers, as well as droughts, bad winters and summers. These events contributed significantly to an increase in poverty and famine that may have contributed to the French Revolution in 1789. Laki was only one factor in a decade of climatic disruption, as Grímsvötn was erupting from 1783 to 1785, and there may have been an unusually strong El Niño effect from 1789 to 1793.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consequences in North America.", "content": "In North America, the winter of 1784 was the longest and one of the coldest on record. It was the longest period of below-zero temperatures in New England, with the largest accumulation of snow in New Jersey, and the longest freezing over of Chesapeake Bay, where Annapolis, Maryland is, then the capital of the United States; the weather delayed Congressmen in coming to Annapolis to vote for the Treaty of Paris, which formally ended the American Revolutionary War. A huge snowstorm hit the South; the Mississippi River froze at New Orleans and there were reports of ice floes in the Gulf of Mexico.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Contemporary reports.", "content": "Gilbert White recorded his perceptions of the event at Selborne, Hampshire, England:  Benjamin Franklin recorded his observations in America in a 1784 lecture:  According to contemporary records, Hekla did not erupt in 1783; its previous eruption was in 1766. The Laki fissure eruption was to the east and the Grímsvötn volcano was erupting about north east. Katla, only south east, was still renowned after its spectacular eruption 28 years earlier in 1755.  Sir John Cullum of Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, England, recorded his observations on 23 June 1783 (the same date on which Gilbert White noted the onset of the unusual atmospheric phenomena), in a letter to Sir Joseph Banks, then President of the Royal Society:  Sir John goes on to describe the effect of this \"frost\" on trees and crops:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Laki or Lakagígar (\"Craters of Laki\") is a volcanic fissure in the western part of Vatnajökull National Park, Iceland, not far from the volcanic fissure of Eldgjá and the small village of Kirkjubæjarklaustur. The fissure is properly referred to as Lakagígar, while Laki is a mountain that the fissure bisects. Lakagígar is part of a volcanic system centered on the volcano Grímsvötn and including the volcano Thordarhyrna. It lies between the glaciers of Mýrdalsjökull and Vatnajökull, in an area of fissures that run in a southwest to northeast direction.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972317}
{"src_title": "Erotic spanking", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and literature.", "content": "\"See also: Spanking literature\" One of the earliest depictions of erotic spanking is found in the Etruscan Tomb of the Whipping from the fifth century BC.  Spanking was a constant focus of erotica produced during the Victorian era.  Interest in sexual gratification received from giving, receiving and witnessing spanking began to increase during the 19th century (particularly within France and the United Kingdom). Interest was not only confined to spanking literature, but the development of photography during 19th century resulted in the beginning of the creation of spanking photography. In the context of literature, this growing demand caused the publication of numerous limited edition spanking novels (although, while the term novel is/was used many of these works from this time and subsequently can be instead classified as novellas).  This interest for spanking (both in regards to literature and photography) followed into the next century, with the early 20th century being considered the \"Golden Age\" of spanking literature. This period of spanking literature is marked by three notable characteristics. First, greater audiences were reached with the availability of less expensive editions and greater print runs. Second, many of the spanking novels contained numerous illustrations (many of which have fallen under public domain and are easily available online). Third, this period saw a gradual increase in the output and publication of spanking literature, growing particularly within the 1920s and peaking within the 1930s. Much of the output of spanking literature during this period was by French publishers, writers and illustrators. Similarly, within the context of spanking photography, France was also the home to the creation of much content, with the most notable studios being the Biederer Studio and the Ostra Studio. This \"Golden Age\" of spanking literature (and French spanking photography) came to an end as a result of the Second World War, more specifically due to the German occupation of France between 1940 and 1944 and later the enforcement of censorship laws. A somewhat notable exception to the decline of spanking literature during this period was John Willie's bondage \"Bizarre\" magazine (published between 1946 and 1959).  Of the many French works from the \"Golden Age\" few at the time were translated into other languages within which spanking literature was popular, namely English and German, but beginning during the mid-1960s a number of these French works were translated into English and published, along with these works being republished in French and older British works also being republished. The occurrence of this was facilitated by the availability of mass-produced paperbacks and changes in censorship laws.  According to Dan Savage, journalist Jillian Keenan is \"America's most prominent spanking fetishist\" today. She has written about erotic spanking for the \"New York Times\", \"Slate\", and \"Pacific Standard\". In her \"Slate\" article, Keenan criticized the use of spanking as a punishment for children, while acknowledging that children and adolescents who experience sexual pleasure while being beaten may go on to enjoy the fetish of sadomasochism as adults. Keenan has argued that spanking fetishism is a form of sexual orientation, which should not be considered a mental illness.  Routine corporal punishment of women by their husbands, including spanking, does still exist in some parts of the world. However, today, spanking of an adult tends to be confined to erotic spanking. A controversial subculture known as Christian domestic discipline (CDD) promotes spanking of wives by their husbands as a form of punishment; some describe CDD as a form of abuse and controlling behavior, but others consider it a type of erotic spanking. Christian conservative radio host Bryan Fischer said to the \"Huffington Post\" that it was a \"horrifying trendbizarre, twisted, unbiblical and un-Christian\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practice.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implements.", "content": "A spanking may be carried out with the use of a bare or gloved hand, or with any of a variety of implements, including a paddle, tawse, strap, hairbrush, feather duster or belt. Other popular implements are canes, riding crops, whips, switches, birches, sneakers, phonebooks, rolled-up catalogs or newspapers, rulers or martinets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Costume.", "content": "A spank skirt or spanking skirt has an additional opening in back designed to expose the buttocks. While the name \"spank skirt\" suggests that the wearer could be spanked \"bare bottom\" without removing or repositioning the skirt, this item may be worn for reasons other than spanking, for instance, exposure. Considered fetish wear, spank skirts are typically tight-fitting and made of fetishistic materials (such as leather, PVC or latex). Regardless of the gender of the wearer, spank skirts are usually considered female attire. The male gender role equivalent might be motorcycle chaps.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Apparatus.", "content": "A spanking bench or spanking horse is a piece of furniture used to position a spankee on, with or without restraints. They come in many sizes and styles, the most popular of which is similar to a sawhorse with a padded top and rings for restraints. The 19th-century British dominatrix Mrs. Theresa Berkley became famous for her invention of the Berkley Horse, a similar form of BDSM apparatus. A spanking bench is on permanent display at the Leather Archives and Museum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Further reading", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erotic spanking is the act of spanking another person for the sexual arousal or gratification of either or both parties. It is considered part of BDSM. It may involve very light and brief spanking or much more extensive spanking, including the use of implements such as whips or paddles. Activities range from a spontaneous smack on bare buttocks during a sexual activity, to occasional sexual roleplay, such as ageplay, or domestic discipline and may involve the use of a hand or a variety of spanking implements, such as a spanking paddle or cane.</onlyinclude> Erotic spankings are commonly combined with other forms of sexual foreplay. The most common type of erotic spanking is administered on the bare buttocks. For safety, erotic spanking should take care to avoid the tailbone and hipbones.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972318}
{"src_title": "Podzol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Term.", "content": "Podzol means \"under-ash\" and is derived from the Russian под (pod) + зола́ (zola); the full form is \"подзо́листая по́чва\" (podzolistaya pochva, \"under-ashed soil\"). The term was first given in middle of 1875 by Vasily Dokuchaev. It refers to the common experience of Russian peasants of plowing up an apparent under-layer of ash (leached or E horizon) during first plowing of a virgin soil of this type.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Podzols can occur on almost any parent material but generally derive from either quartz-rich sands and sandstone or sedimentary debris from magmatic rocks, provided there is high precipitation. Most Podzols are poor soils for agriculture due to the sandy portion, resulting in a low level of moisture and nutrients. Some are sandy and excessively drained. Others have shallow rooting zones and poor drainage due to subsoil cementation. A low pH further compounds issues, along with phosphate deficiencies and aluminum toxicity. The best agricultural use of Podzols is for grazing, although well-drained loamy types can be very productive for crops if lime and fertilizer are used.  The E horizon (or Ae in Canadian soil classification system), which is usually thick, is low in Fe and Al oxides and humus. It is formed under moist, cool and acidic conditions, especially where the parent material, such as granite or sandstone, is rich in quartz. It is found under a layer of organic material in the process of decomposition, which is usually thick. In the middle, there is often a thin horizon of. The bleached soil horizon goes over into a red or red-brown horizon (so-called Podzolic B). The colour is strongest in the upper part, and change at a depth of progressively to the part of the soil that is mainly not affected by processes; that is the parent material. The soil profiles are designated by the letters A (topsoil), E (eluviated soil), B (subsoil) and C (parent material).  In some Podzols, the E horizon is absent—either masked by biological activity or obliterated by disturbance. Podzols with little or no E horizon development are often classified as brown Podzolic soils, also called Umbrisols or Umbrepts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geographic distribution.", "content": "Podzols cover about worldwide and are usually found under sclerophyllous woody vegetation. By extent Podzols are most common in temperate and boreal zones of the northern hemisphere but they can also be found in other settings including both temperate rainforests and tropical areas.  In South America Podzols occur beneath \"Nothofagus betuloides\" forests in Tierra del Fuego.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Podzolization.", "content": "Podzolization (or Podsolization) is complex soil formation process by which dissolved organic matter and ions of iron and aluminium, released through weathering of various minerals, form organo-mineral complexes (chelates) and are moved from the upper parts of the soil profile and deposit in the deeper parts of soil. Through this process, the eluvial horizon becomes bleached and of ash-grey colour. The complexes move with percolating water further down to illuviated horizons which are commonly coloured brown, red or black as they accumulate and consist of cemented sesquioxides and/or organic compounds. The podzolization is a typical soil formation process in Podzols.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preconditions.", "content": "Podzolization usually occurs under forest or heath vegetation and is common in cool and humid climates as these climates inhibit the activity of soil microbes in the topsoil. Overall, podzolization happens where the decomposition of organic matter is inhibited and as a result, acidic organic surface (mor) layers build up. Under these, typically acidic conditions, nutrient deficiency further hampers the microbial degradation of organic complexing agents. Medium to coarse textured soils with base-poor parent material (usually rich in quartz) also promote podzolization, as they encourage percolating water flow.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Key steps.", "content": "The soil-forming process of podzolization can be broken down into two main steps:  In the topsoil of acidic soils, organic matter (mostly from plant litter, the humus layer and root exudates) together with Al- and Fe-ions, form organo-mineral complexes. These soluble chelates then relocate with percolating water from the A (or E horizon) to the B-horizon. As a result of this, the E horizon (or Ae horizon in the Canadian system of soil classification) is left bleached and ash-grey in colour, while the B horizon becomes enriched with relocated organo-mineral complexes. The colour of B horizon is consequently red, brown or black, depending on the dominance of metal ions or organic matter. Usually, the boundary between the B and eluvial Ae (or E) horizon is very distinct, and sometimes a hardpan (or Ortstein) can form, as the relocated Fe and Al and organic matter increase mineral particles, cementing them into this compacted layer.  There are several reasons why these organo-mineral complexes immobilize in the B horizon: If during the eluviation process more Al- or Fe-ions bind to the organic compounds, the complex can flocculate as the solubility of it decreases with increasing metal to carbon ratio. Apart from that, a higher pH (or higher Ca content) in the lower soil horizons can result in the breakdown of metal-humus complexes. In the lower soil layers, the organic complexing agents can be degraded by functioning microorganism. Already established complexes in the B horizon can act as a filter, as they adsorb the traveling complexes from the upper soil horizons. A decreased water conductivity due to higher clay content can also result in the early flocculation of organo-mineral complexes.  The relocated substances can sometimes separate in the illuvial horizons. Then, organic substances are mostly enriched in the uppermost part of the illuvial horizon, whereas Fe- and Al-oxides are mostly found in the lower parts of the illuvial horizon.  Podzolization also promotes the relocation of some nutrients (Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo and P) that sometimes brings them closer to plant roots.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In different soil classification systems.", "content": "The term Podzols is used in the \"World Reference Base for Soil Resources\" (WRB) and in many national soil classification systems (in some of them, spelled Podsols).  The \"USDA soil taxonomy\" and the \"Chinese soil taxonomy\" call these soils Spodosols.  The \"Canadian system of soil classification\" matches Podzols with soils under the Podzolic order (e.g. Humo-Ferric Podzol).  The \"Australian Soil Classification\" uses the term Podosols.  The \"Brazilian Soil Classification System\" calls them Espodossolos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "Podzol in soil profile", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In soil science, podzols are the typical soils of coniferous or boreal forests. They are also the typical soils of eucalypt forests and heathlands in southern Australia. In Western Europe, podzols develop on heathland, which is often a construct of human interference through grazing and burning. In some British moorlands with podzolic soils, cambisols are preserved under Bronze Age barrows (Dimbleby, 1962).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972319}
{"src_title": "Sleeping pad", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manually inflated.", "content": "Closely related to the air mattress, a pad of this type requires an external pressure source to inflate, typically in the form of a pump or by blowing orally. Convection of the air inside the mattress reduces the amount of insulation it provides. More complicated mattresses reduce convection by partitioning the internal cavities, or by filling the cavities with material to trap the air such as down feathers or synthetic insulation. Manually inflated pads have the advantage of offering good thickness and a great deal of comfort while being lightweight and able to pack to a small size.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Self-inflating.", "content": "An extension on the conventional manually inflated mattress, this type is capable of self-inflation due to the open-cell foam that fills the internal cavity. For many years this design was protected by various patents held by Cascade Designs and they were an unusual and premium item. But since these patents expired many other manufacturers are now producing this type of mattress and they are now commonplace. These mattresses are lightweight and pack to a small size, which make them popular amongst hikers and campers. A self-inflating mat typically measures 183x51x3.8 cm, weighs about 700 g, and packs to about 28x16 cm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Foam.", "content": "Closed-cell foam is used to produce mats that can be used without requiring any inflation. Closed-cell foam pads are lighter and more durable than their self-inflating counterparts, as they are constructed of fewer materials and not susceptible to damage from accidental puncture. Many may also be trimmed to size should the user choose to do so. However, they are generally not as comfortable as manually inflated and self-inflating mats because they are thinner, and may also take up more space in a pack, depending on the materials used. Variations include textured or shaped foam to increase the unrolled volume and/or change the stiffness of the mattress. This can also be used to trap the air within ridges or an egg-carton type of texture.  Open-cell foam, although comfortable, is rarely used in the outdoors due to its ability to absorb water (like a sponge) and its air cells are crushed in use reducing its insulation capacity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Color.", "content": "Color and reflectivity have no impact on a pad's insulating ability. Just like with clothing and sleeping bags, the interior color (flat black, shiny silver, white, or orange) makes no difference in warmth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Insulation / ratings.", "content": "A sleeping pads's warmth is characterized by R-value. But unlike sleeping bags' EN 13537 test standard and widely accepted recommendations, sleeping pad R-values lacks a simple mapping and label for 'how much warmth' a consumer should expect. Combining various standards and various authors' research, an approximate R-value to temperature chart follows:  Same as EN 13537, a \"standard man\" is assumed to be 25 years old, with a height of 1.73 m and a weight of 73 kg; a \"standard woman\" is assumed to be 25 years old, with a height of 1.60 m and a weight of 60 kg. The sleeping bag and pad system (above, below, and sides) should provide the same insulation value all around a person, but cost, size, weight, comfort, and lack-of-knowledge often lead persons to reduce the R-value to below their personal'recommended R-value'. Since the pad and bag work together, a 'warmer' bag can compensate the a 'thin' pad and a 'thick pad' for a 'cold' bag. Highly heat-conductive surfaces (e.g. concrete, granite) require more insulation for the same temperature than insulating ground surfaces (e.g.snow, dry moss, loose soil, wood, etc.). More heat is lost downward when sleeping on one's stomach vs sleeping one's side (due to reduced contact area and cooler body parts in contact). Most persons can 'feel the cold ground' at approximately half the'recommended R-values'.  Sleeping pads R-values range from 1 to more than 10. A few category examples follow:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In camping, a ground pad, sleeping pad, thermal pad, sleeping mat, or roll mat is lightweight pad, common among hikers, backpackers and budget travelers, often used in conjunction with a sleeping bag. Its purpose is to provide padding and thermal insulation. All types currently available use air as their primary form of insulation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972320}
{"src_title": "Örebro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Örebro received its Royal Charter and city privileges not later than 1404.  The name \"Örebro\" refers to a bridge (') crossing the river Svartån where the city is located. The prefix'is derived from \"\" 'gravel (bank)'. The location became a natural seat of commerce in the Scandinavian Middle Ages and is mentioned in print in the 13th century. Old buildings from the early days include the foundations of the city church, a building which has undergone several modifications. The natural center of the city is otherwise the magnificent Örebro Castle, situated on an islet in the Svartån, and dividing the town into a northern and a southern part. This castle was constructed during the stewardship of Birger Jarl during the early 13th century and then modified and enlarged during the reign of King Gustav Vasa in the 1560s. The Örebro Synod was held here in 1529.  Notable events in Örebro's history include the national diet meeting at Örebro in 1810, where Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte was elected crown prince of Sweden.  Although a trade town, Örebro remained small until the second half of the 19th century, when it grew rapidly as a center of the national shoe-manufacturing industry (see: History of Närke).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Örebro, like the rest of the area close to Mälardalen, has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) that is made milder by the proximity to water and the Gulf Stream which makes it interchangeable with oceanic climates. Summer temperatures occasionally exceed albeit not yearly, and temperatures above are rare in winter, although frost-free nights sometimes occur. July high temperatures range from to depending on weather patterns, with a 2002–2014 mean high of around. During cold winters, Örebro receives plenty of snowfall. Örebro is far more prone than coastal areas to really harsh frosts with temperatures approaching or below happening almost every winter according to SMHI statistics. The station's setting in a rural location might skew temperatures somewhat compared to the urban area which is also at a slightly lower elevation and nearer Hjälmaren. Especially when considering overnight lows this could render a small urban heat island effect in the city centre.  However, the climate is very variable from year to year. For example, December 2010 was record cold with a daily mean of, whilst December 2006 only a few years before had a mean of. The warmest month on record is in July 2018 and the coldest on record is in January 1987. Örebro is often without snow cover for large parts of the winter months when daytime temperatures hover just above freezing – an exceptional feature for an inland area north of the 59th parallel.  The highest ever recorded temperature was set on 7 August 1975 during an intense heatwave with, which is a very high temperature for such northerly parallels. During the 21st century, the record heat is set on 8 August 2018. The lowest recorded temperature in recorded history was set in February 1966 with. Several monthly records have been set in the 2010s according to official SMHI statistics, namely the record highs of March, May, July, October, November, December as well as the coldest December temperature and month on record, that was set in 2010. The November record high of 2014 was associated with extremely unseasonal thunderstorms. Humidity is high for most parts of the year, but adequately lower during summer months. In spite of this summer is generally the time that gets the most precipitation due to clashes between hot and cool continental air systems causing heavy thunderstorm rainfall. In 2015, a reading was recorded around the winter solstice, another record and a very warm reading for an inland area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sites of interest.", "content": "Örebro's old town, Wadköping, is located on the banks of the \"Svartån\" (black stream). It contains many 18th and 19th century wooden houses, along with museums and exhibitions. The water tower of Örebro, named \"Svampen\" (The Mushroom), is a popular destination as an outlook tower. In 1971, a replica of the tower was built in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Örebro has hosted a contemporary art exhibition called Open Art on four occasions: in 2008, 2009, 2011 and 2013. In 2013, the exhibition featured works by 90 artists from Sweden and many other countries throughout the world. The fifth edition of the exhibition is planned for the summer of 2015.  Örebro University is one of Sweden's most recent, being upgraded from \"högskola\" (university college) in 1999. It currently has around 16,000 students and a staff of 1,100. The institution is regarded as one of the top 351–400 universities in the world. The university is also named among the world's top 100 young universities (number 62) in the 2018 THE Young University Rankings.  Gustavsvik, the largest water park in the Nordic countries, is located just a kilometer south of central Örebro. With more than 700,000 visitors per year, it is one of the most popular tourist and leisure establishments in Sweden. Only Liseberg, Gröna Lund and Skansen are more popular. In the summer the manor of Karlslund is a very popular place to visit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other sports.", "content": "Karlslunds IF is a multi-sports club specialising in American Football, Bandy, Baseball/Softball, Bowling, Football, Gymnastics, Skiing and Swimming.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Örebro is twinned with", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Örebro (, ) is a city with 124,027 inhabitants, the seat of Örebro Municipality and the capital of Örebro County in Sweden. It is the sixth largest city in Sweden and one of the largest inland hubs of the country. It is located near the lake of Hjälmaren, although a few kilometres inland along the small river Svartån.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972321}
{"src_title": "Rafflesia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The plant has no stems, leaves or roots. It is a holoparasite of vines in the genus \"Tetrastigma\" (Vitaceae), spreading its absorptive organ, the haustorium, inside the tissue of the vine. The only part of the plant that can be seen outside the host vine is the five-petalled flower. In some species, such as \"Rafflesia arnoldii\", the flower may be over in diameter, and weigh up to. A \"Rafflesia\" that flowered in West Sumatra in 2019 was measured to be almost in diameter, the largest flower ever recorded – wider than the flower reported as the largest in 2017. Even one of the smallest species, \"R. baletei\", has diameter flowers.  The flowers look and smell like rotting flesh, hence its local names which translate to \"corpse flower\" or \"meat flower\" (see below). The foul odor attracts insects such as flies, which transport pollen from male to female flowers. Most species have separate male and female flowers, but a few have hermaphroditic flowers. Little is known about seed dispersal. However, tree shrews and other forest mammals eat the fruits and disperse the seeds.  \"Rafflesia\" is the official state flower of Indonesia, where it is known as \"puspa langka\" (rare flower) or \"padma paksasa\" (giant flower), of Sabah state in Malaysia, and of Surat Thani Province in Thailand. In Thailand, \"Rafflesia\" can be observed in Khao Sok National Park where the flowers are numbered and monitored by the park rangers.  \"Rafflesia\" are also remarkable for showing a large horizontal transfer of genes from their host plants. This is well known among bacteria, but not higher organisms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The name \"corpse flower\" applied to \"Rafflesia\" can be confusing because this common name also refers to the titan arum (\"Amorphophallus titanum\") of the family Araceae. Moreover, because \"Amorphophallus\" has the world's largest unbranched inflorescence, it is sometimes mistakenly credited as having the world's largest flower. Both \"Rafflesia\" and \"Amorphophallus\" are flowering plants, but they are only distantly related. \"Rafflesia arnoldii\" has the largest \"single\" flower of any flowering plant, at least in terms of weight. \"Amorphophallus titanum\" has the largest \"unbranched\" inflorescence, while the talipot palm (\"Corypha umbraculifera\") forms the largest \"branched\" inflorescence, containing thousands of flowers; the talipot is monocarpic, meaning the individual plants die after flowering. The flower is sometimes called the \"monster flower\" for its parasitic tendencies and foul odor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Comparison of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of \"Rafflesia\" with other angiosperm mtDNA indicated this parasite evolved from photosynthetic plants of the order Malpighiales. Another study from that same year confirmed this result using both mtDNA and nuclear DNA sequences, and showed the three other groups traditionally classified in Rafflesiaceae were unrelated. A more recent study more specifically found \"Rafflesia\" and its relatives to be embedded within the family Euphorbiaceae, which is surprising, as members of that family typically have very small flowers. According to their analysis, the rate of flower size evolution was more or less constant throughout the family except at the origin of Rafflesiaceae, where the flowers rapidly evolved to become much larger before reverting to the slower rate of change.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bornean species.", "content": "Species native to Borneo include \"Rafflesia arnoldii\", \"Rafflesia cantleyi\", \"Rafflesia hasseltii\", \"Rafflesia keithii\", \"Rafflesia kerrii\", \"Rafflesia pricei\", and \"Rafflesia tengku-adlinii\". \"R. arnoldii\" boasts the world's largest single bloom. Some endemic Borneon species, such as \"R. keithii\", begin blooming at night and start to decompose only two to three days later. The time from bud emergence to flowering is six to nine months. Male and female flowers must be open simultaneously for pollination to occur, hence successful pollination and fruit production are quite rare. In addition to habitat loss, these reproductive limitations are contributing factors to why many species are endangered. \"R. keithii\" is found along the eastern slopes of Mount Kinabalu in the Lohan Valley of Sabah. \"Rafflesia tuan-mudae\" is endemic to only Gunung Gading National Park in Sarawak.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mindanao (Philippines) species.", "content": "The Mindanao species is known as \"Rafflesia schadenbergiana\", after the naturalist Alexander Schadenberg, who first discovered the species at the foothills of Mount Apo in 1882. With a flower of nearly a meter, it is close to the size of a 7 year old child when seated. On Mindanao, the species has been seen in Davao del Sur, South Cotabato and Mount Kitanglad in Bukidnon. Second, \"Rafflesia mira\" and \"Rafflesia magnifica\" are two names for a single species. Both were discovered at Mount Candalaga in Maragusan, Compostela Valley. The two forms differ in size measurements in which the scientific description of Magnifica came from measurements of flowers in full bloom while that of Mira was from photographs of nearly dead samples. The medium-sized Mira and Magnifica flowers measure about half a meter and they have round or elliptic perigone wart. The third species on Mindanao is the \"Rafflesia mixta\" which is found so far only in the town of Mainit, Surigao del Norte. It shows a combination of three features of Philippine \"Rafflesia\", namely: the shape and size of the conical process in \"Rafflesia schadenbergiana\", the floral size and sparsely distributed perigone warts of \"R. speciosa\", and the overall resemblance, floral size, faint scent, diaphragm and ramenta morphology of \"R. mira\". Fourth, is \"Rafflesia verrucosa\" which is found only in Mount Kampalili in Davao Oriental Province.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loss of the chloroplast genome.", "content": "Research published in the journal \"Molecular Biology and Evolution\" revealed that one Philippine Rafflesia species from the island of Luzon, \"Rafflesia lagascae\" (formerly described as \"R. manillana\"), has lost the genome of its chloroplast and it is speculated that the loss happened due to the parasitic lifestyle of the plant.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Rafflesia is a genus of parasitic flowering plants in the family Rafflesiaceae. It contains approximately 28 species (including four incompletely characterized species as recognized by Willem Meijer in 1997), all found in Southeast Asia, mainly in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines. It was first discovered by French surgeon and naturalist Louis Deschamps in Java between 1791 and 1794, but his notes and illustrations, seized by the British in 1803, were not available to western science until 1861. It was later found in the Indonesian rainforest in Bengkulu, Sumatra by an Indonesian guide working for Joseph Arnold in 1818, and named after Sir Stamford Raffles, the leader of the expedition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972322}
{"src_title": "Phone (phonetics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "In the context of spoken languages, a phone is an unanalyzed sound of a language. A phone is a speech segment that possesses distinct physical or perceptual properties and serves as the basic unit of phonetic speech analysis. Phones are generally either vowels or consonants.  A phonetic transcription (based on phones) is enclosed within square brackets ([ ]) rather than the slashes (/ /) of a phonemic transcription (based on phonemes). Phones (and often phonemes also) are commonly represented by using symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).  For example, the English word \"spin\" consists of four phones, [s], [p], [ɪ] and [n], and the word thus has the phonetic representation [spɪn]. The word \"pin\" has three phones; in that word, the initial sound is aspirated and so can be represented as [ph]; the word's phonetic representation would then be [phɪn]. (The precise features that are shown in a phonetic representation depend on whether a narrow or broad transcription is being used and the features that the writer wishes to draw attention in a particular context.)  When phones are considered to be realizations of the same phoneme, they are called allophones of that phoneme (more information on the methods of making such assignments can be found under phoneme). In English, for example, [p] and [ph] are considered allophones of a single phoneme, which is written /p/. The phonemic transcriptions of those two words is thus /spɪn/ and /pɪn/, and aspiration no longer being shown since it is not distinctive.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In phonetics and linguistics, a phone is any distinct speech sound or gesture, regardless of whether the exact sound is critical to the meanings of words.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972323}
{"src_title": "Xvid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In January 2001, DivXNetworks founded \"OpenDivX\" as part of Project Mayo which was intended to be a home for open source multimedia projects. OpenDivX was an open-source MPEG-4 video codec based on a stripped down version of the MoMuSys reference MPEG-4 encoder. The source code, however, was placed under a restrictive license and only members of the DivX Advanced Research Centre (DARC) had write access to the project's CVS. In early 2001, DARC member Sparky wrote an improved version of the encoding core called encore2. This was updated several times before, in April, it was removed from CVS without warning. The explanation given by Sparky was \"\"We (our bosses) decided that we are not ready to have it in public yet.\"\"  In July 2001, developers started complaining about a lack of activity in the project; the last CVS commit was several months old, bugfixes were being ignored, and promised documentation had not been written. Soon after, DARC released a beta version of their closed-source commercial DivX 4 codec, which was based on encore2, saying that \"\"what the community really wants is a Winamp, not a Linux.\"\" It was after this that a fork of OpenDivX was created, using the latest version of encore2 that was downloaded before it was removed. Since then, all the OpenDivX code has been replaced and Xvid has been published under the GNU General Public License.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patent issues.", "content": "As an implementation of MPEG-4 Part 2, Xvid uses many patented technologies. For this reason, Xvid 0.9.x versions were not licensed in countries where these software patents are recognized. With the 1.0.x releases, a GNU GPL v2 license is used with no explicit geographical restriction. However, the legal usage of Xvid may still be restricted by local laws.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sigma Designs controversy.", "content": "In July 2002, Sigma Designs released an MPEG-4 video codec called the REALmagic MPEG-4 Video Codec. Before long, people testing this new codec found that it contained considerable portions of Xvid code. Sigma Designs was contacted and confirmed that a programmer had based REALmagic on Xvid, but assured that all GPL code would be replaced to avoid copyright infringement. When Sigma Designs released the supposedly rewritten REALmagic codec, the Xvid developers immediately disassembled it and concluded that it still contained Xvid code, only rearranged in an attempt to disguise its presence. The Xvid developers decided to stop work and go public to force Sigma Designs to respect the terms of the GPL. After articles were published in Slashdot and The Inquirer, in August 2002 Sigma Designs agreed to publish their source code.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing Xvid encoded files.", "content": "Xvid is not a video format; it is a program for compressing to and decompressing from (hence the name \"codec\") the MPEG-4 ASP format. Since Xvid uses MPEG-4 Advanced Simple Profile (ASP) compression, video encoded with Xvid is MPEG-4 ASP video (not \"Xvid video\"), and can therefore be decoded with all ASP-compliant decoders. This includes a large number of media players and decoders based on libavcodec (such as MPlayer, VLC, ffdshow or Perian)., xvid.com carries binaries for using the codec.  Xvid encoded files can be written to a CD or DVD and played in some (but not all) DivX compatible DVD players and media players. However, Xvid can optionally encode video with advanced MPEG-4 features that most DivX Certified set-top players do not support. Files encoded with global motion compensation, Qpel, MPEG quantization, multiple B-frames or files that exceed the Video buffering verifier limitations may not play back properly on DivX Certified hardware devices.  For example, Xvid specifies three warp points for its implementation of global motion compensation as opposed to the single warp point implementation of DivX. Enabling some of the more advanced encoding features can compromise player compatibility. Some issues exist with the custom quantization matrices used in tools such as AutoGK that automate encoding with Xvid. This can (depending on the decoder chipset of the set-top player in question) produce videos that have unstable playback and artifacts. However, most recent model DivX compatible DVD players have improved support for custom quantization matrices.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Xvid (formerly \"XviD\") is a video codec library following the MPEG-4 video coding standard, specifically MPEG-4 Part 2 Advanced Simple Profile (ASP). It uses ASP features such as b-frames, global and quarter pixel motion compensation, lumi masking, trellis quantization, and H.263, MPEG and custom quantization matrices.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972324}
{"src_title": "Grímsvötn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Jökulhlaup.", "content": "Eruptions in the caldera regularly cause glacial outbursts known as jökulhlaup. Eruptions melt enough ice to fill the Grímsvötn caldera with water, and the pressure may be enough to suddenly lift the ice cap, allowing huge quantities of water to escape rapidly. Consequently, the Grímsvötn caldera is monitored very carefully.  When a large eruption occurred in 1996, geologists knew well in advance that a glacial burst was imminent. It did not occur until several weeks after the eruption finished, but monitoring ensured that the Icelandic ring road (Hringvegur) was closed when the burst occurred. A section of road across the Skeiðará sandur was washed away in the ensuing flood, but no one was hurt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1998 and 2004 eruptions.", "content": "A week-long eruption occurred at Grímsvötn starting on 28 December 1998, but no glacial burst occurred. In November 2004, a week-long eruption occurred. Volcanic ash from the eruption fell as far away as mainland Europe and caused short-term disruption of airline traffic into Iceland, but again no glacial burst followed the eruption.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2011 eruption.", "content": "Harmonic tremors were recorded twice around Grímsvötn on 2 and 3 October 2010, possibly indicating an impending eruption. At the same time, sudden inflation was measured by GPS in the volcano, indicating magma movement under the mountain. On 1 November 2010 meltwater from the Vatnajökull glacier was flowing into the lake, suggesting that an eruption of the underlying volcano.  On 21 May 2011 at 19:25 UTC, an eruption began, with high plumes accompanied by multiple earthquakes. The ash cloud from the eruption rose to, and is so far 10 times larger than the 2004 eruption, and the strongest in Grímsvötn in the last 100 years. Disruption to air travel in Iceland commenced on 22 May, followed by Greenland, Scotland, Norway, Svalbard and a small part of Denmark on subsequent days. On 24 May the disruption spread to Northern Ireland and to airports in northern England. The cancellation of 900 out of 90,000 European flights in the period 23–25 May was much less widespread than the 2010 disruption after the Eyjafjallajökull eruption.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bacteria in the subglacial lakes.", "content": "In 2004, a community of bacteria was detected in water of the Grímsvötn lake under the glacier, the first time that bacteria have been found in a subglacial lake. The lakes never freeze because of the volcanic heat. The bacteria can also survive at low concentrations of oxygen. The site is a possible analogue for life on the planet Mars, because there are also traces of volcanism and glaciers on Mars and thus the findings could help identify how to look for life on Mars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future trends.", "content": "Studies indicate that volcanic activity in Iceland rises and falls so that the frequency and size of eruptions in and around the Vatnajökull ice cap varies with time. It is believed that the four eruptions between 1996 and 2011 could mark the beginning of an active period, during which an eruption in Grímsvötn in Vatnajökull may be expected every 2–7 years. Parallel volcanic activity in nearby Bárðarbunga is known to be associated with increased activity in Grímsvötn. Seismic activity has been increasing in the area in recent years, indicating the entry of magma.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Grímsvötn (; \"vötn\" = \"waters\", singular: ) is a volcano located in Vatnajökull National Park, Iceland. It is in the highlands of Iceland at the northwestern side of the Vatnajökull ice cap. The caldera is at, at an elevation of. Beneath the caldera is the magma chamber of the Grímsvötn volcano.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972325}
{"src_title": "Koloman Moser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Vienna, he studied at the Wiener Akademie and the Kunstgewerbeschule, where he also taught from 1899.  His designs in architecture, furniture, jewellery, graphics, and tapestries helped characterise the work of this era. Moser drew upon the clean lines and repetitive motifs of classical Greek and Roman art and architecture in reaction to the Baroque decadence of his turn-of-the-century Viennese surroundings.  In 1901/1902, he published a portfolio titled \"Die Quelle \"(\"The Source\") of elegant graphic designs for such things as tapestries, fabrics, and wallpaper.  In 1903, Moser and his colleague Josef Hoffmann founded Wiener Werkstätte, whose studios and artisans produced a number of aesthetically and functionally designed household goods, including glassware, flatware, silverware, rugs and textiles. In 1904, he created the Apse mosaic and glass windows for the Kirche am Steinhof in Vienna, and designed the decoration of the Medallion House of the Linke Wienzeile Buildings for architect Otto Wagner.  In 1905, together with the Klimt group, he separated from the Vienna Secession. The same year, he married Editha (Ditha) Mautner von Markhof, the daughter to one of Austria's great industry fortunes.  In 1907 Moser, due to internal conflicts and as his plans for reorganising the Werkstätte (to cope with financial problems) weren't realised, withdrew from the Wiener Werkstätte.  Koloman was one of the designers for Austria's leading art journal \"Ver Sacrum\". This art journal paid great attention to design and was designed mainly by Moser, Gustav Klimt and Josef Hoffmann. His design for the cover of one edition of the art journal was later plagiarized by well known street artist and designer, Shepard Fairey.  One of Moser's most prominent designs used in a building (The Steinhof Church) was selected as a main motif of one of the most famous euro collectors coins: the Austrian 100 euro Steinhof Church commemorative coin, minted on 9 November 2005. On the reverse of the coin, the Koloman Moser stained glass window over the main entrance can be seen. In the centre of the window is God the Father seated on a throne. The window is flanked with a pair of bronze angels in Jugendstil style, originally designed by Othmar Schimkowitz.  On 3 May 2010 Swann Galleries auctioned the third volume in Moser's three-volume series \"Die Quelle,\" containing 30 sumptuous decorations for flat surfaces, such as tapestries, wallpaper and fabrics, in the original portfolio. Each plate was double sided, with a colour design on one side and a black-and-white design on the other. It sold for an auction record price of $12,600.  To commemorate the centennial of his death, the Museum of Applied Arts Vienna (MAK) is honoring Koloman Moser with one of the most comprehensive solo shows to date (19 December 2018 – 22 April 2019).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Koloman Moser (; 30 March 1868 – 18 October 1918) was an Austrian artist who exerted considerable influence on twentieth-century graphic art and one of the foremost artists of the Vienna Secession movement and a co-founder of Wiener Werkstätte.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972326}
{"src_title": "Valerian (herb)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Valerian has been used as a medicinal herb since at least the time of ancient Greece and Rome. Hippocrates described its properties, and Galen later prescribed it as a remedy for insomnia. In medieval Sweden, it was sometimes placed in the wedding clothes of the groom to ward off the \"envy\" of the elves. In the 16th century, the Anabaptist reformer Pilgram Marpeck prescribed valerian tea for a sick woman.  John Gerard's \"Herball\", first published in 1597, states that his contemporaries found Valerian \"excellent for those burdened and for such as be troubled with croup and other like convulsions, and also for those that are bruised with falls.\" He says that the dried root was valued as a medicine by the poor in the north of England and the south of Scotland, so that \"no broth or pottage or physicall meats be worth anything if Setewale [Valerian] be not there.\"  The seventeenth century astrological botanist Nicholas Culpeper thought the plant was \"under the influence of Mercury, and therefore hath a warming faculty.\" He recommended both herb and root, and said that \"the root boiled with liquorice, raisons and aniseed is good for those troubled with cough. Also, it is of special value against the plague, the decoction thereof being drunk and the root smelled. The green herb being bruised and applied to the head taketh away pain and pricking thereof.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology and common names.", "content": "The name of the herb is derived from the personal name \"Valeria\" and the Latin verb \"valere\" (to be strong, healthy). Other names used for this plant include garden valerian (to distinguish it from other \"Valeriana\" species), garden heliotrope (although not related to \"Heliotropium\"), setwall and all-heal (which is also used for plants in the genus \"Stachys\"). Red valerian, often grown in gardens, is also sometimes referred to as \"valerian\", but is a different species (\"Centranthus ruber\"), from the same family but not very closely related.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Valerian extract.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biochemical composition.", "content": "Known compounds detected in valerian that may contribute to its method of action are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Potential mechanism.", "content": "Because of valerian's historical use in traditional medicine for diverse purposes, such as for sedation or pain relief, laboratory research has been directed at the GABA receptor, a class of receptors on which benzodiazepines act. Valeric acidwhich is responsible for the typical odor of mostly older valerian roots, does not have any sedative properties. Valproic acid, a widely prescribed anticonvulsant is a derivative of valeric acid.  Valerian also contains isovaltrate, which has been shown to be an inverse agonist for adenosine A receptor sites. This action likely does not contribute to the herb's possible sedative effects, which would be expected from an agonist, rather than an inverse agonist, at this particular binding site. Hydrophilic extractions of the herb commonly sold over the counter, however, probably do not contain significant amounts of isovaltrate. Valerenic acid in valerian stimulates serotonin receptors as a partial agonist, including 5-HT which is implicated in the sleep-wake cycle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "The chief constituent of valerian is a yellowish-green to brownish-yellow oil present in the dried root, varying in content from 0.5 to 2.0%. This variation in quantity may be determined by location; a dry, stony soil yields a root richer in oil than moist, fertile soil. The volatile oils that form the active ingredient are pungent, somewhat reminiscent of well-matured cheese. Though some people remain partial to the earthy scent, others find it unpleasant, comparing the odor to that of unwashed feet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medicinal use.", "content": "Although valerian is a common traditional medicine used for treating insomnia, there is no good evidence it is effective for this purpose. Valerian is not helpful in treating restless leg syndrome or anxiety. There is insufficient evidence for efficacy and safety of valerian for anxiety disorders.  The European Medicines Agency (EMA) approved the health claim that valerian can be used as a traditional herbal medicine to relieve mild nervous tension and to aid sleep; EMA stated that although there is insufficient evidence from clinical studies, its effectiveness as a dried extract is considered plausible.<br><br> A 2005 review of published clinical studies describes some support for valerian as a treatment for insomnia. Valerian for Sleep: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Oral forms, use, and adverse effects.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Oral forms.", "content": "Oral forms are available in both standardized and unstandardized forms. Standardized products may be preferable considering the wide variation of the chemicals in the dried root, as noted above. When standardized, it is done so as a percentage of valerenic acid or valeric acid.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Adverse effects.", "content": "Because the compounds in valerian produce central nervous system depression, they should not be used with other depressants, such as ethanol (drinking alcohol), benzodiazepines, barbiturates, opiates, kava, or antihistamine drugs. Although no liver problems are normally encountered with valerian use, there have been case studies in which hepatotoxicity has been observed in apparently hypersensitive individuals following short-term use (e.g. one month).  As an unregulated product, the concentration, contents, and potential contaminants in valerian preparations cannot be easily determined. Because of this uncertainty and the potential for toxicity in the fetus and hepatotoxicity in the mother, valerian use is discouraged during pregnancy.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Effect on cats.", "content": "Valerian root is a cat attractant in a way similar to catnip.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Floral symmetry.", "content": "Valerian is unusual in having flowers with \"handedness\", that is, having neither radial nor bilateral symmetry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weed.", "content": "Valerian is considered an invasive species in many jurisdictions, including the US state of Connecticut where it is officially banned, and in New Brunswick, Canada where it is listed as a plant of concern.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Valerian (\"Valeriana officinalis\", Caprifoliaceae) is a perennial flowering plant native to Europe and Asia. In the summer when the mature plant may have a height of, it bears sweetly scented pink or white flowers that attract many fly species, especially hoverflies of the genus \"Eristalis\". It is consumed as food by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, including the grey pug.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972327}
{"src_title": "Eurasian hobby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and systematics.", "content": "The first formal description of the Eurasian hobby was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his \"Systema Naturae\" under the present binomial name \"Falco subbuteo\". The genus name \"falco\" derives from Late Latin \"falx\", \"falcis\", a sickle, referring to the claws of the bird. The species name \"subbuteo\" is from Latin \"sub\", \"near to\" and \"buteo\", \" buzzard\". The species' English name comes from Old French \"hobé\" or \"hobet\". It became the trademark for the Subbuteo games company after its creator, who was an ornithologist, was refused permission to register \"Hobby\".  Currently two subspecies are recognized:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Adults are slate-grey above with a dark crown and two short black moustachial stripes. The throat is unstreaked white, thighs and undertail coverts are unstreaked rufous and rest of the underparts are whitish with black streaks. Close views enable the red \"trousers\" and vent to be seen. Sexes are similar. Juveniles are generally much browner, with scaled upper parts and streaked buffy thighs and undertail coverts.  The hobby has a distinct first-summer plumage.  This falcon is in length with a wingspan of and a weight of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and status.", "content": "This species breeds across Africa, Europe and Asia. It is a long-distance migrant, wintering in Africa and Asia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "It is a bird of open country such as farmland, marshes, taiga and savannah. They are widespread in lowlands with scattered small woods. It is an elegant bird of prey, appearing sickle-like in flight with its long pointed wings and square tail, often resembling a swift when gliding with folded wings. It is fast and powerful in flight and will take large insects, such as dragonflies, which it transfers from talons to beak and eats while soaring slowly in circles. It also captures small bats and small birds in flight. Its speed and aerobatic skills enable it to take swallows and even swifts on the wing, and barn swallows or house martins have a characteristic \"hobby\" alarm call. It is known to harass swallows while they are roosting and dispersing from roosts. When not breeding, it is crepuscular, hawking principally in the mornings and evenings. While on migration, they may move in small groups.  Hobbies nest in old nests of crows and other birds. The tree selected is most often one in a hedge or on the extreme edge of a spinney, from where the bird can observe intruders from a considerable distance. It lays 2–4 eggs. Incubation is said to take 28 days and both parents share in this duty, though the female does the greater part.  It is a very bold and courageous bird and was used in falconry, trained to hawk birds like quails, larks, hoopoes, drongos, etc.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Eurasian hobby (\"Falco subbuteo\"), or just simply hobby, is a small, slim falcon. It belongs to a rather close-knit group of similar falcons often considered a subgenus \"Hypotriorchis\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972328}
{"src_title": "Pedanius Dioscorides", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "A native of Anazarbus, Cilicia, Asia Minor, Dioscorides likely studied medicine nearby at the school in Tarsus, which had a pharmacological emphasis, and he dedicated his medical books to Laecanius Arius, a medical practitioner there. Though he says he served in the Roman army, his pharmacopeia refers almost solely to plants found in the Greek-speaking eastern Mediterranean, making it unlikely that he served in campaigns (or traveled) outside that region. The name Pedanius is Roman, suggesting that an aristocrat of that name sponsored him to become a Roman citizen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"De Materia Medica\".", "content": "Between AD 50 and 70 Dioscorides wrote a five-volume book in his native Greek, (Peri hules iatrikēs), known in Western Europe more often by its Latin title \"De Materia Medica\" (\"On Medical Material\"), which became the precursor to all modern pharmacopeias.  In contrast to many classical authors, Dioscorides' works were not \"rediscovered\" in the Renaissance, because his book had never left circulation; indeed, with regard to Western materia medica through the early modern period, Dioscorides' text eclipsed the Hippocratic corpus. In the medieval period, \"De Materia Medica\" was circulated in Greek, as well as Latin and Arabic translation. While being reproduced in manuscript form through the centuries, it was often supplemented with commentary and minor additions from Arabic and Indian sources. Ibn al-Baitar's commentary on Dioscorides' \"Materia Medica\", entitled “Tafsīr Kitāb Diāsqūrīdūs”, has been used by scholars to identify many of the flora mentioned by Dioscorides. A number of illustrated manuscripts of \"De Materia Medica\" survive. The most famous of these is the lavishly illustrated \"Vienna Dioscurides\", produced in Constantinople in 512/513 AD. Densely illustrated Arabic copies survive from the 12th and 13th centuries, while Greek manuscripts survive today in the monasteries of Mount Athos.  \"De Materia Medica\" is the prime historical source of information about the medicines used by the Greeks, Romans, and other cultures of antiquity. The work also records the Dacian, Thracian, Roman, ancient Egyptian and North African (Carthaginian) names for some plants, which otherwise would have been lost. The work presents about 600 plants in all, although the descriptions are sometimes obscurely phrased, leading to comments such as: \"Numerous individuals from the Middle Ages on have struggled with the identity of the recondite kinds\", while some of the botanical identifications of Dioscorides' plants remain merely guesses.  \"De Materia Medica\" formed the core of the European pharmacopeia through the 19th century, suggesting that \"the timelessness of Dioscorides' work resulted from an empirical tradition based on trial and error; that it worked for generation after generation despite social and cultural changes and changes in medical theory\".  The plant genus \"Dioscorea\", which includes the yam, was named after him by Linnaeus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "In Voltaire's Candide, the title character's injuries received at the hands of the Bulgarian army, into which he had been conscripted, are healed using \"emollients taught by Dioscorides.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pedanius Dioscorides (, ; 40–90 AD) was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of \"De materia medica\" (, On Medical Material) —a 5-volume Greek encyclopedia about herbal medicine and related medicinal substances (a pharmacopeia), that was widely read for more than 1,500 years. He was employed as a physician in the Roman army.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972329}
{"src_title": "Right-hand rule", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Curve orientation and normal vectors.", "content": "In vector calculus, it is often necessary to relate the normal to a surface to the curve bounding it. For a positively-oriented curve bounding a surface, the normal to the surface is defined such that the right thumb points in the direction of, and the fingers curl along the orientation of the bounding curve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coordinates.", "content": "Coordinates are usually right-handed.  For right-handed coordinates the right thumb points along the Z axis in the positive direction and the curl of the fingers represents a motion from the first or X axis to the second or Y axis. When viewed from the top or Z axis the system is counter-clockwise.  For left-handed coordinates the left thumb points along the Z axis in the positive direction and the curled fingers of the left hand represent a motion from the first or X axis to the second or Y axis. When viewed from the top or Z axis the system is clockwise.  Interchanging the labels of any two axes reverses the handedness. Reversing the direction of one axis (or of all three axes) also reverses the handedness. (If the axes do not have a positive or negative direction then handedness has no meaning.) Reversing two axes amounts to a 180° rotation around the remaining axis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rotations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "A rotating body.", "content": "In mathematics, a rotating body is commonly represented by a vector along the axis of rotation. The length of the vector gives the speed of rotation and the direction of the axis gives the direction of rotation according to the right-hand rule: right fingers curled in the direction of rotation and the right thumb pointing in the positive direction of the axis. This allows some easy calculations using the vector cross product. No part of the body is moving in the direction of the axis arrow. By coincidence, if the thumb is pointing north, Earth rotates in a prograde direction according to the right-hand rule. This causes the Sun, Moon, and stars to appear to revolve westward according to the left-hand rule.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Helices and screws.", "content": "A helix is a curved line formed by a point rotating around a center while the center moves up or down the Z-axis. Helices are either right- or left-handed, curled fingers giving the direction of rotation and thumb giving the direction of advance along the Z-axis. The threads of a screw are a helix and therefore screws can be right- or left-handed. The rule is this: if a screw is right-handed (most screws are) point your right thumb in the direction you want the screw to go and turn the screw in the direction of your curled right fingers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electromagnetics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ampère's right-hand grip rule.", "content": "Ampère's right-hand grip rule (also called \"right-hand screw rule\", \"coffee-mug rule\" or the \"corkscrew-rule\") is used either when a vector (such as the Euler vector) must be defined to represent the rotation of a body, a magnetic field, or a fluid, or vice versa, when it is necessary to define a rotation vector to understand how rotation occurs. It reveals a connection between the current and the magnetic field lines in the magnetic field that the current created.  André-Marie Ampère, a French physicist and mathematician, for whom the rule was named, was inspired by Hans Christian Ørsted, another physicist who experimented with magnet needles. Ørsted observed that the needles swirled when in the proximity of an electric current-carrying wire, and concluded that electricity could create magnetic fields.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Application.", "content": "This rule is used in two different applications of Ampère's circuital law:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cross products.", "content": "The cross product of two vectors is often taken in physics and engineering. For example, in statics and dynamics, torque is the cross product of lever length and force, while angular momentum is the cross product of linear momentum and distance. In electricity and magnetism, the force exerted on a moving charged particle when moving in a magnetic field B is given by:  The direction of the cross product may be found by application of the right hand rule as follows:  For example, for a positively charged particle moving to the North, in a region where the magnetic field points West, the resultant force points up.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "The right hand rule is in widespread use in physics. A list of physical quantities whose directions are related by the right-hand rule is given below. (Some of these are related only indirectly to cross products, and use the second form.)", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In mathematics and physics, the right-hand rule is a common mnemonic for understanding orientation of axes in three-dimensional space. Most of the various left- and right-hand rules arise from the fact that the three axes of three-dimensional space have two possible orientations. One can see this by holding one's hands outward and together, palms up, with the fingers curled, and the thumb out-stretched. If the curl of the fingers represents a movement from the first or \"x\"-axis to the second or \"y\"-axis, then the third or \"z\"-axis can point along either thumb. Left- and right-hand rules arise when dealing with coordinate axes, rotation, spirals, electromagnetic fields, mirror images, and enantiomers in mathematics and chemistry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972330}
{"src_title": "Eric XIV of Sweden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Eric XIV was born at Tre Kronor castle, at 9 o'clock on the morning of 13 December 1533. Before the age of two, he lost his mother. In 1536, his father, Gustav Vasa, married Margaret Leijonhufvud (1516–1551), a Swedish noblewoman.  Eric's first teacher was the learned German Georg Norman, whose services were shortly thereafter needed elsewhere within the Swedish state. He was replaced by French Calvinist Dionysius Beurraeus (1500–67). Dionysius taught both Eric and his half-brother John, and seems to have been appreciated by both. Eric was very successful in foreign languages and mathematics. He was also an informed historian, a good writer and familiar with astrology.  When Eric started to appear in public, he was referred to as \"chosen king\" () and after the meeting of parliament in Stockholm in 1560, he received the title of \"hereditary king\" (). In 1557, Eric was assigned the fiefdoms of Kalmar, Kronoberg and Öland. He took up residence in the city of Kalmar.  Against his father's wishes, Eric entered into marriage negotiations with the future Queen Elizabeth I of England and pursued her for several years. Tensions between Eric and his father grew. Eric also made unsuccessful marriage proposals to, among others, Mary, Queen of Scots (1542–87), Renata of Lorraine (1544–1602), Anna of Saxony (1544–77) and Christine of Hesse (1543–1604).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rule.", "content": "The news of his father's death reached Eric as he was on the point of embarking for England to press his suit for the hand of Queen Elizabeth. Back in Stockholm he summoned a Riksdag, which met at Arboga on 15 April 1561. There he adopted the royal propositions known as the \"Arboga articles\", considerably curtailing the authority of the royal dukes, John and Charles, in their respective provinces. He was crowned as Eric XIV, but was not necessarily the 14th king of Sweden named Eric. He and his brother Charles adopted regnal numbers according to Johannes Magnus's partly fictitious history of Sweden. There had, however, been at least six earlier Swedish kings with the name of Eric, as well as pretenders about whom very little is known.  From the start of his reign, Eric was in opposition to the Swedish nobility. He chose as a close adviser Göran Persson (1530–68), who had narrowly escaped execution under Eric's father. Persson was also opposed to the nobility and a determined opponent of Eric's half-brother, later John III of Sweden (1537–92). John was the Duke of Finland and was married to a Polish princess, against Eric's wishes, which made him friendly with Poland. John pursued an expansionist policy in Livonia (now Estonia and Latvia), in breach of the Arboga articles, which led to contention between the brothers. In 1563, John was seized by an army sent to Finland, and tried for high treason by Eric's order.  Unlike his father, who had been satisfied with ruling an independent state, Eric tried to expand his influence in the Baltic region and in Estonia, beginning the process that resulted in Sweden becoming a great power in the 17th century. This expansionism resulted in a clash with his cousin, Frederick II of Denmark (1534–88). Most of Eric XIV's reign was then dominated by the Livonian War and the Scandinavian Seven Years' War against Denmark (1563–70), during which he successfully repelled most Danish attempts at conquest, but was unable to keep his own acquisitions.  From 1563 onwards, his insanity became pronounced; his rule became even more arbitrary and marked by violence. His suspicion of the nobility led him to suspicions of the Sture family, then headed by Svante Stensson Sture, who was married to Gustav's sister-in-law. He first acted against the family in 1566, accusing Svante's son Nils of treason, but commuted the sentence and instead sent Nils to Lorraine, supposedly to arrange a marriage with the princess Renata. However, Eric had determined to marry his mistress Karin Månsdotter and in 1567, on Nils's return and suspicious of high treason, he killed several members of the family in the so-called Sture Murders, Eric himself stabbing Nils Svantesson Sture. The King probably thought of the killing as an execution rather than murder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Downfall.", "content": "After the Sture homicides, John was imprisoned and Eric's conflict with the nobility came to its climax. Early in 1568 Eric seemed to recover his reason, and attempted to reconcile with John on the condition that the latter recognized Eric's marriage with Karin Månsdotter. This marriage was solemnized in July, Karin crowned Queen, and their infant son Gustav pronounced Prince-royal. However, in the fall of 1568, asserting Eric's insanity, the dukes and the nobles rebelled, and after some resistance Eric was imprisoned by his brother Duke John, who took power on 30 September. Jöran Persson was assigned much of the blame for the actions directed against the nobility during Eric XIV's reign and was executed shortly after John III had incarcerated Eric, who was legally dethroned in January 1569 by the Riksdag.  For the next seven years the ex-king was a source of anxiety to the new government. Three rebellions, with the object of releasing and reinstating him, had to be suppressed, and Eric was held as a prisoner in many different castles in both Sweden and Finland. He died in prison in Örbyhus Castle: according to a tradition starting with Johannes Messenius, his final meal was a poisoned bowl of pea soup. A document signed by his brother, John III of Sweden, and a nobleman, Bengt Bengtsson Gylta (1514–74), gave Eric's guards in his last prison authorization to poison him if anyone tried to release him. His body was later exhumed and modern forensic analysis revealed evidence of lethal arsenic poisoning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and descendants.", "content": "Eric XIV had several relationships before his marriage. With Agda Persdotter he had four daughters:  With Karin Jacobsdotter:  Eric XIV finally married Karin Månsdotter (1550–1612) on 4 July 1568; their children were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eric XIV in literature.", "content": "The life of Eric XIV is the subject of an 1899 play by Swedish playwright August Strindberg (1849–1912). The love story of Eric XIV and Karin Månsdotter is the subject of a 1942 historical novel by Mika Waltari.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eric XIV (; 13 December 153326 February 1577) was King of Sweden from 1560 until he was deposed in 1568. Eric XIV was the oldest son of Gustav I (1496–1560) and Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg (1513–35). He was also ruler of Estonia, after its conquest by Sweden in 1561.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972331}
{"src_title": "Pergamon Museum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "By the time the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum on Museum Island (today the Bodemuseum) had opened in 1904, it was clear that the edifice was not large enough to host all of the art and archaeological treasures being excavated under German supervision. Excavations were underway in the areas of ancient Babylon, Uruk, Assur, Miletus, Priene and ancient Egypt, and objects from these sites could not be properly displayed within the existing German museum system. Wilhelm von Bode, director of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum, initiated plans to build a new museum nearby to accommodate ancient architecture, German post-antiquity art, and Middle Eastern and Islamic art.  Alfred Messel began a design for the large three-wing building in 1906. After his death in 1909 his friend Ludwig Hoffman took charge of the project and construction began in 1910, continuing during the First World War (1918) and the great inflation of the 1920s. The completed building was opened In 1930.  The Pergamon Museum was severely damaged during the air attacks on Berlin at the end of the Second World War. Many of the display objects had been stored in safe places, and some of the large exhibits were walled in for protection. In 1945, the Red Army collected all of the loose museum items, either as war booty or to rescue them from looting and fires then raging in Berlin. Not until 1958 were most of the objects returned to East Germany. Significant parts of the collection remain in Russia. Some are currently stored in the Pushkin Museum in Moscow and the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg. The return of these items has been arranged in a treaty between Germany and Russia but, as of June 2003, is blocked by Russian restitution laws.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibition.", "content": "Among the pieces the museum displays are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Antiquity Collection \"(Antikensammlung)\".", "content": "The collection goes back to the prince-electors, or \"Kurfürsten\", of Brandenburg, who collected objects from antiquity; the collection began with an acquisition to the collection by a Roman archaeologist in 1698. It first became accessible (in part) to the public in 1830, when the Altes Museum was opened. The collection expanded greatly with the excavations in Olympia, Samos, Pergamon, Miletus, Priene, Magnesia, Cyprus and Didyma.  This collection is divided between the Pergamon Museum and the Altes Museum.  The collection contains sculpture from the archaic to Hellenistic ages as well as artwork from Greek and Roman antiquity: architecture, sculptures, inscriptions, mosaics, bronzes, jewelry and pottery.  The main exhibits are the Pergamon Altar from the 2nd century BC, with a 113 meters (371 ft) long sculptural frieze depicting the struggle of the gods and the giants, and the Gate of Miletus from Roman antiquity.  As Germany was divided following the Second World War, so was the collection. The Pergamon Museum was reopened in 1959 in East Berlin, while what remained in West Berlin was displayed in Schloss Charlottenburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Islamic Art Museum \"(Museum für Islamische Kunst)\".", "content": "When the Bode Museum was opened in 1904, a section for Islamic art was created and later included in the Pergamon Museum (1950).  Besides Islamic artwork from the 8th to the 19th century ranging from Spain to India, the main attraction is the Mshatta facade, which originates from an unfinished early Islamic desert palace located south of Amman in present-day Jordan. It was a gift from the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II to Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany. Parts of the eastern portion of the facade and the ruins of the structure of which it formed a part remain in Jordan.  Another unique exhibition is the Aleppo room. This area of the museum features a reception room from a broker's home in Aleppo, Syria, that was commissioned during the Ottoman Period.  The Islamic Art Museum also regularly hosts temporary exhibitions of modern art from the Islamic world, such as the 2008 \"Turkish Delight\" (contemporary Turkish design) and \"Naqsh\" (Gender in Iranian Art and Society).  In 2008 part of the Keir Collection of Edmund de Unger, formerly housed in his home in Ham, Surrey, was placed on long-term loan to the Museum for an initial period of 15 years. One of the most important post-war private collections of Islamic art, it covers the entire Islamic world from medieval times to the eighteenth century and includes carpets, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, bookbindings, ceramics, metalware and rock crystal objects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Middle East Museum \"(Vorderasiatisches Museum)\".", "content": "The Middle East Museum exhibition displays objects found by German archeologists and others from the areas of Assyrian, Sumerian and Babylonian culture. Additionally there are historical buildings, reliefs and lesser cultural objects and jewelry.  The main display is the Ishtar Gate and the Processional Way of Babylon together with the throne room facade of Nebuchadnezzar II.  The Vorderasiatisches Museum also displays the Meissner fragment from the Epic of Gilgamesh.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plans.", "content": "The comprehensive plan for Museum Island includes an expansion of the Pergamon Museum, with connections to the Neues Museum, Bodemuseum, Alte Nationalgalerie and a new visitor centre, the James Simon Gallery.  An architectural competition in 2000 was won by Oswald Mathias Ungers from Cologne. The Pergamon Museum will be redeveloped according to his plan, which controversially proposes large alterations to buildings unchanged since 1930. The current entrance building in the Court of Honor will be replaced with a fourth wing, and an underground walk (\"Archäologische Promenade\", archeologic walk) will connect four of the five museums.  Since the end of September 2014 the museum is partially closed for renovation. The hall containing Pergamon Altar will remain closed to the general public. Initially the reopening was scheduled for 2019. In November 2016 it was revealed that the renovation would not be finished before 2023 and estimated project costs would almost double to 477 million euros. Two pump houses built in the ground during the initial construction between 1910 and 1930 had been discovered causing rising costs and delays. At least 60 million euros of the increased costs are directly due to the fact that construction costs had risen since the original estimate 10 years ago. Also it was announced that a temporary exhibition space will be built opposite Museum Island, a short distance from Pergamon Museum. It will house a panorama of the ancient city by the Berlin-based artist Yadegar Asisi, a 3D reconstruction of the famous Pergamon altar by the Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics Research and parts of the altar including the Telephos Frieze. The temporary building is scheduled to open in the spring of 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pergamon Museum () is situated on the Museum Island in Berlin. The building was designed by Alfred Messel and Ludwig Hoffmann and was constructed over a period of twenty years, from 1910 to 1930. The Pergamon Museum houses monumental buildings such as the Pergamon Altar, the Ishtar Gate of Babylon, the Market Gate of Miletus reconstructed from the ruins found in Anatolia, as well as the Mshatta Facade.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972332}
{"src_title": "United Left (Spain)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Following the electoral failure of the PCE in the 1982 (from 10% to 4%), PCE leaders believed that the PCE alone could no longer effectively challenge the electoral hegemony of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) on the left. With this premise, the PCE began developing closer relations with other left-wing groups, with the vision of forming a broad left coalition. IU slowly improved its results, reaching 9% in 1989 (1,800,000 votes) and nearly 11% in 1996 (2,600,000 votes). The founding organizations were: Communist Party of Spain, Progressive Federation, Communist Party of the Peoples of Spain, PASOC, Carlist Party, Humanist Party, Unitarian Candidacy of Workers, and Republican Left.  In contrast to the PCE prior to the formation of IU, which pursued a more moderate political course, the new IU adopted a more radical strategy and ideology of confrontation against the PSOE. IU generally opposed cooperating with the PSOE, and identified it as a \"right-wing party\", no different from the People's Party (PP).  After achieving poor results in the 1999 local and European elections, IU decided to adopt a more conciliatory attitude towards the PSOE, and agreed to sign an electoral pact with the PSOE for the upcoming general election in 2000. They also adopted a universal policy in favor of cooperating with the PSOE at local level.  Following the election of Cayo Lara as leader in 2008, however, the party has shifted back towards a more confrontational attitude towards the PSOE.  IU currently has around 70,000 members.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "United Left (, IU) is a political coalition that was organized in 1986, bringing together several left-wing and far-left political organizations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972333}
{"src_title": "Cloud chamber", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Invention.", "content": "Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (1869–1959), a Scottish physicist, is credited with inventing the cloud chamber. Inspired by sightings of the Brocken spectre while working on the summit of Ben Nevis in 1894, he began to develop expansion chambers for studying cloud formation and optical phenomena in moist air. Very rapidly he discovered that ions could act as centers for water droplet formation in such chambers. He pursued the application of this discovery and perfected the first cloud chamber in 1911. In Wilson's original chamber the air inside the sealed device was saturated with water vapor, then a diaphragm was used to expand the air inside the chamber (adiabatic expansion), cooling the air and starting to condense water vapor. Hence the name expansion cloud chamber is used. When an ionizing particle passes through the chamber, water vapor condenses on the resulting ions and the trail of the particle is visible in the vapor cloud. Wilson, along with Arthur Compton, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927 for his work on the cloud chamber. This kind of chamber is also called a pulsed chamber because the conditions for operation are not continuously maintained. Further developments were made by Patrick Blackett who utilised a stiff spring to expand and compress the chamber very rapidly, making the chamber sensitive to particles several times a second. A cine film was used to record the images.  The diffusion cloud chamber was developed in 1936 by Alexander Langsdorf. This chamber differs from the expansion cloud chamber in that it is continuously sensitized to radiation, and in that the bottom must be cooled to a rather low temperature, generally colder than. Instead of water vapor, alcohol is used because of its lower freezing point. Cloud chambers cooled by dry ice or Peltier effect thermoelectric cooling are common demonstration and hobbyist devices; the alcohol used in them is commonly isopropyl alcohol or methylated spirit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure and operation.", "content": "Diffusion-type cloud chambers will be discussed here. A simple cloud chamber consists of the sealed environment, a warm top plate and a cold bottom plate (See Fig. 2). It requires a source of liquid alcohol at the warm side of the chamber where the liquid evaporates, forming a vapor that cools as it falls through the gas and condenses on the cold bottom plate. Some sort of ionizing radiation is needed.  Methanol, isopropanol, or other alcohol vapor saturates the chamber. The alcohol falls as it cools down and the cold condenser provides a steep temperature gradient. The result is a supersaturated environment. As energetic charged particles pass through the gas they leave ionization trails. The alcohol vapor condenses around gaseous ion trails left behind by the ionizing particles. This occurs because alcohol and water molecules are polar, resulting in a net attractive force toward a nearby free charge. The result is a misty cloud-like formation, seen by the presence of droplets falling down to the condenser. When the tracks are emitted radially outward from a source, their point of origin can easily be determined. (See Fig. 3, for example.)  Just above the cold condenser plate there is a volume of the chamber which is sensitive to ionization tracks. The ion trail left by the radioactive particles provides an optimal trigger for condensation and cloud formation. This sensitive volume is increased in height by employing a steep temperature gradient, and stable conditions. A strong electric field is often used to draw cloud tracks down to the sensitive region of the chamber and increase the sensitivity of the chamber. The electric field can also serve to prevent large amounts of background \"rain\" from obscuring the sensitive region of the chamber, caused by condensation forming above the sensitive volume of the chamber, thereby obscuring tracks by constant precipitation. A black background makes it easier to observe cloud tracks. Typically, a tangential light source is needed. This illuminates the white droplets against the black background. Often the tracks are not apparent until a shallow pool of alcohol is formed at the condenser plate.  If a magnetic field is applied across the cloud chamber, positively and negatively charged particles will curve in opposite directions, according to the Lorentz force law; strong-enough fields are difficult to achieve, however, with small hobbyist setups.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other particle detectors.", "content": "The bubble chamber was invented by Donald A. Glaser of the United States in 1952, and for this, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1960. The bubble chamber similarly reveals the tracks of subatomic particles, but as trails of bubbles in a superheated liquid, usually liquid hydrogen. Bubble chambers can be made physically larger than cloud chambers, and since they are filled with much-denser liquid material, they reveal the tracks of much more energetic particles. These factors rapidly made the bubble chamber the predominant particle detector for a number of decades, so that cloud chambers were effectively superseded in fundamental research by the start of the 1960s.  A spark chamber is an electrical device that uses a grid of uninsulated electric wires in a chamber, with high voltages applied between the wires. Energetic charged particles cause ionization of the gas along the path of the particle in the same way as in the Wilson cloud chamber, but in this case the ambient electric fields are high enough to precipitate full-scale gas breakdown in the form of sparks at the position of the initial ionization. The presence and location of these sparks is then registered electrically, and the information is stored for later analysis, such as by a digital computer.  Similar condensation effects can be observed as Wilson clouds, also called condensation clouds, at large explosions in humid air and other Prandtl–Glauert singularity effects.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A cloud chamber, also known as a Wilson cloud chamber, is a particle detector used for visualizing the passage of ionizing radiation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972334}
{"src_title": "Adjara", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Chondrus crispus\" is a relatively small sea alga, reaching up to a little more than 20 cm in length. It grows from a discoid holdfast and branches four or five times in a dichotomous, fan-like manner. The morphology is highly variable, especially the broadness of the thalli. The branches are 2–15 mm broad and firm in texture, and the color ranges from light to dark green, dark red, purple, brown, yellowish, and white. The gametophytes (see below) often show a blue iridescence at the tip of the fronds and fertile sporophytes show a spotty pattern. \"Mastocarpus stellatus\" (Stackhouse) Guiry is a similar species which can be readily distinguished by its strongly channelled and often somewhat twisted thalli. The cystocarpic plants of \"Mastocarpus\" show reproductive papillae quite distinctively different from \"Chondrus\". When washed and sun-dried for preservation, it has a yellowish, translucent, horn-like aspect and consistency.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Chondrus crispus\" is common all around the shores of Ireland and can also be found along the coast of Europe including Iceland, the Faroe Islands. western Baltic Sea to southern Spain. It is found on the Atlantic coasts of Canada and recorded from California in the United States to Japan. However, any distribution outside the Northern Atlantic needs to be verified. There are also other species of the same genus in the Pacific Ocean, for example, \"C. ocellatus\" Holmes, \"C. nipponicus\" Yendo, \"C. yendoi\" Yamada \"et\" Mikami, \"C. pinnulatus\" (Harvey) Okamura and \"C. armatus\" (Harvey) Yamada \"et\" Mikami.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Chondrus crispus\" is found growing on rock from the middle intertidal zone into the subtidal zone, all the way to the ocean floor. It is able to survive with minimal sunlight.  \"C. crispus\" is susceptible to infection from the oomycete \"Pythium porphyrae\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "\"C. crispus\" is an industrial source of carrageenan, which is commonly used as a thickener and stabilizer in milk products such as ice cream and processed foods, including lunch meat. In Europe, it is indicated as E407 or E407b. It may also be used as a thickener in calico printing and paper marbling, and for fining beer or wine. Irish moss is frequently used with \"Mastocarpus stellatus\" (\"Gigartina mamillosa\"), \"Chondracanthus acicularis \" (\"G. acicularis\"), and other seaweeds, which are all commonly found growing together. Carragheen and agar-agar are also used in Asia for gelatin-like desserts, such as almond jelly. Presently, the major source of carrageenan is tropical seaweeds of the genera \"Kappaphycus\" and \"Eucheuma\".  In Ireland and parts of Scotland (where it is also known as \"(An) Cairgean\" in Scottish Gaelic), it is boiled in milk and strained, before sugar and other flavourings such as vanilla, cinnamon, brandy, or whiskey are added. The end product is a kind of jelly similar to pannacotta, tapioca, or blancmange. Similarly, in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, \"Gracilaria\" spp. are boiled with cinnamon and milk to make a thick drink called Irish moss that is believed to be an aphrodisiac. In Venezuela it has been used for generations as a home remedy for sore throat and chest congestion, boiled in milk and served with honey before bed.  Irish moss is commonly used as a clarifying agent or finings in the process of brewing (beer), particularly in homebrewing. A small amount is added to the kettle or \"copper\", where it is boiled with the wort, attracting proteins and other solids, which are then removed from the mixture after cooling along with the copper finings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life history.", "content": "Irish moss undergoes an alternation of generation lifecycle common in many species of algae (see figure below). The two distinct stages are the sexual haploid gametophyte stage and the asexual diploid sporophyte stage. In addition, a third stage - the carposporophyte - is formed on the female gametophyte after fertilization. The male and female gametophytes produce gametes which fuse to form a diploid carposporophyte, which forms carpospores, which develops into the sporophyte. The sporophyte then undergoes meiosis to produce haploid tetraspores (which can be male or female) that develop into gametophytes. The three stages (male, female, and sporophyte) are difficult to distinguish when they are not fertile; however, the gametophytes often show a blue iridescence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific interest.", "content": "\"C. crispus\", compared to most other seaweeds, is well-investigated scientifically. It has been used as a model species to study photosynthesis, carrageenan biosynthesis, and stress responses. The nuclear genome was sequenced in 2013. The genome size is 105 Mbp and is coding for 9,606 genes. It is characterised by relatively few genes with very few introns. The genes are clustered together, with normally short distances between genes and then large distances between groups of genes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adjara ( \"Ač’ara\" ), officially known as the Autonomous Republic of Adjara ( \"Ač’aris Avt’onomiuri Resp’ublik’a\" ), is a historical, geographic and political-administrative region of Georgia. Located in the country's southwestern corner, Adjara lies on the coast of the Black Sea near the foot of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, north of Turkey. It is an important tourist destination and includes Georgia's second-largest city of Batumi as its capital. About 350,000 people live on its 2,880 km.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972335}
{"src_title": "Toothpick", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Known in all cultures, the toothpick is not just the oldest instrument for dental cleaning, but predates the arrival of early modern humans, for the skulls of Neanderthals, as well as Homo sapiens, show clear signs of teeth picked with a tool. Toothpicks made of bronze have been found as burial objects in prehistoric graves in Northern Italy and in the East Alps. In 1986, researchers in Florida discovered the 7500-year-old remains of ancient Native Americans and discovered small grooves between many of the molar teeth. One of the researchers, Justin Martin of Concordia University Wisconsin, said \"The enamel on teeth is quite tough, so they must have used the probes quite rigorously to make the grooves.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Materials and manufacture.", "content": "There are delicate, artistic examples made of silver in antiquity, as well as from mastic wood with the Romans.  In the 17th century, toothpicks were luxury objects and like jewelry, were artfully stylized using precious metal and set with expensive stones.  The first toothpick-manufacturing machine was developed in 1869, by Marc Signorello. Another was patented in 1872, by Silas Noble and J. P. Cooley.  Wooden toothpicks are cut from birch wood. Logs are first spiral cut into thin sheets, which are then cut, chopped, milled and bleached (to lighten) into the individual toothpicks. Plastic toothpicks, also called dental pics, are still made in America in Georgia, by Armond's Manufacturing. The Mayo Clinic recommends using a dental pic in lieu of a wooden toothpick to clean one's teeth, as they clean more effectively and one does not risk injuring the gums. Nowadays other means of dental hygiene are preferred such as dental floss, toothbrushes, and oral irrigators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Further reading", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A toothpick is a small thin stick of wood, plastic, bamboo, metal, bone or other substance with at least one and sometimes two pointed ends to insert between teeth to remove detritus, usually after a meal. Toothpicks are also used for festive occasions to hold or spear small appetizers (like cheese cubes or olives) or as a cocktail stick, and can be decorated with plastic frills or small paper umbrellas or flags.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972336}
{"src_title": "Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and charism.", "content": "The Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate were founded in 1816 in Aix-en-Provence by Eugene de Mazenod. Born into the French minor nobility, his family were forced to flee to Italy during the French Revolution. There he experienced years of family instability, poverty, and danger. The family was forced to flee successively to Turin, Venice, Naples, and Palermo. Returning to France as a young man, he entered the Seminary of St. Sulpice and was ordained in 1811.  On January 25, 1816, Father Eugene de Mazenod and four companions came together to preach missions in Provençal. The first members of this society were known as \"Missionaries of Provence\". They received the title of \"Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate\" and approbation as a congregation under simple vows in a Brief of Leo XII dated 17 February 1826.  The congregation was established to renew the Church in France after the French Revolution. Their focus was primarily to(1) Revive the spirit of faith among rural and industrial populations by means of missions and retreats, in which devotion to the Sacred Heart and to Mary Immaculate is recommended as a supernatural means of regeneration. \"He hath sent me to preach the Gospel to the poor,\" has been adopted as the device of the congregation.<br> (2) Care of young men's societies, Catholic clubs.<br> (3) Formation of clergy in seminaries.  However, the work of the congregation soon developed and the charism of the Oblates is that they \"...are not specialised, except in facing urgent needs....It was enough for bishops to come to our Founder and say to him: \"I do not have anybody\" for him to act, re-examine his manpower, cut personnel here and there, and release 2 or 3 men for these new needs. And that continues today still. You see, it is a question of passion, of missionary concern.  The ancient sanctuary of St. Martin of Tours was re-excavated and revived by Oblate Fathers under Cardinal Guibert in 1862.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vows.", "content": "As members of a religious congregation, the Missionaries Oblates of Mary Immaculate embrace the evangelical counsels, taking the three traditional religious vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. Poverty means that all possessions are held in common and that no member may accumulate wealth. Chastity, abstaining from sexual activity, is intended to make the religious totally available for religious service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious formation.", "content": "The congregation’s Rule of 1853 makes a statement which still applies: \"Whoever wishes to become one of us must have an ardent desire for his own perfection, and be enflamed with the love for Our Lord Jesus Christ and his Church and a burning zeal for the salvation of souls.\"  In the initial stages, those interested in joining the congregation have several meetings with an OMI priest, usually with visits to a community. Young adults aged 18 and over meet regularly to share their experiences of God and what God may be calling them to become. During this time the members of the congregation share what it is like to be a priest or religious brother. Those who are enquiring about entering the congregation are strongly encouraged to attend Mass as often as possible, to read the Sacred Scriptures especially the Gospel accounts, and to regularly spend time in prayer in order to better discern their vocation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Postulancy/Pre-novitiate.", "content": "This is a 1-2 year experience of living in an OMI community, sharing in many aspects of the life of the congregation. During this time the postulants participate in the prayer life of a community, share more deeply with others, and become involved in one or more of the congregation’s apostolates. Essentially, it is an extended period of discernment for the postulants and an opportunity for the congregation to assess the strengths of the candidates and possible areas requiring growth. For those straight out of high school it is possible, in some provinces, to begin working on an undergraduate degree.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Novitiate.", "content": "Next follows the novitiate which is the time for preparing to take the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. The novices are given the opportunity for longer periods of prayer and spiritual reading as well as silence in order to reflect on the vocation God is offering and nature of their response. The spiritual development of the novice is of particular focus, especially through spiritual direction. During the novitiate the history and Constitutions of the Congregation are studied in depth. A simple profession is made at the end of the novitiate and the person officially becomes a member of the Congregation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-novitiate/Scholasticate.", "content": "After the novitiate, the new members of the congregation continue their studies. In the Philippines this normally involves a 4-year theology degree, followed by a missionary year abroad, although a student may make a request to study at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome. In Canada, studies are undertaken at Saint Paul University in Ottawa, Ontario. Scholastics from four provinces in Southern Africa (Central, Lesotho, Natal, and Northern) study at the congregation’s scholasticate in the small town of Hilton in KwaZulu-Natal or at the international scholasticate in Rome.  Vows are renewed annually; after three years a member may request final vows. According to canon law, temporary vows may be renewed for a longer period but not exceeding nine years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Missions.", "content": "Pope Pius XI (1857-1939) was so impressed by the courage of the Oblates that he referred to them as “specialists in the most difficult missions of the Church.” Indeed, regarding their ministry the Oblates declare:We fulfill our task in healing the world by understanding its evolutionary character, by critically engaging its contemporary spirit, and by meeting its new needs in new ways. We seek out and immerse ourselves in the lives of the most abandoned in their many faces and voices, and struggle with those most affected by conflicts. With Gospel values we dialogue with peoples of different cultures, faiths, and religions, in the search for an integral transformation of society; we work with others to safeguard human dignity, nurture family, foster harmony, promote a culture of peace, and respond to the calls of justice and integrity of creation.  The Oblates work in parishes, Catholic schools, retreat centres, and among indigenous peoples, emphasizing issues of justice and peace. The Oblates are active on five continents. They maintain a presence at a number of Marian Shrines including Lourdes, Our Lady of Snows, in Belleville, Illinois, Notre-Dame de Pontmain, France, and in Loreto, Italy.  In the UK and Ireland the Oblates work through parishes and Centres of Mission in London, Edinburgh, Anglesey and Dublin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate (OMI) is a missionary religious congregation in the Catholic Church. It was founded on January 25, 1816, by Saint Eugène de Mazenod, a French priest born in Aix-en-Provence in the south of France on August 1, 1782. The congregation was given recognition by Pope Leo XII on February 17, 1826. The congregation is composed of priests and brothers usually living in community; oblate means a person dedicated to God or God’s service. Their traditional salutation is \"Laudetur Iesus Christus\" (\"Praised be Jesus Christ\"), to which the response is \"Et Maria Immaculata\" (\"And Mary Immaculate\"). In 2016, there were 3,924 members.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972337}
{"src_title": "Breadth-first search", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Pseudocode.", "content": "Input: A graph and a \"starting vertex\" of  Output: Goal state. The \"parent\" links trace the shortest path back to", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "More details.", "content": "This non-recursive implementation is similar to the non-recursive implementation of depth-first search, but differs from it in two ways:  If is a tree, replacing the queue of this breadth-first search algorithm with a stack will yield a depth-first search algorithm. For general graphs, replacing the stack of the iterative depth-first search implementation with a queue would also produce a breadth-first search algorithm, although a somewhat nonstandard one.  The \"Q\" queue contains the frontier along which the algorithm is currently searching.  Nodes can be labelled as discovered by storing them in a set, or by an attribute on each node, depending on the implementation.  Note that the word \"node\" is usually interchangeable with the word \"vertex\".  The \"parent\" attribute of each node is useful for accessing the nodes in a shortest path, for example by backtracking from the destination node up to the starting node, once the BFS has been run, and the predecessors nodes have been set.  Breadth-first search produces a so-called \"breadth first tree\". You can see how a \"breadth first tree\" looks in the following example.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "The following is an example of the breadth-first tree obtained by running a BFS on German cities starting from \"Frankfurt\":", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Time and space complexity.", "content": "The time complexity can be expressed as formula_1, since every vertex and every edge will be explored in the worst case. formula_2 is the number of vertices and formula_3 is the number of edges in the graph. Note that formula_4 may vary between formula_5 and formula_6, depending on how sparse the input graph is.  When the number of vertices in the graph is known ahead of time, and additional data structures are used to determine which vertices have already been added to the queue, the space complexity can be expressed as formula_7, where formula_2 is the cardinality of the set of vertices. This is in addition to the space required for the graph itself, which may vary depending on the graph representation used by an implementation of the algorithm.  When working with graphs that are too large to store explicitly (or infinite), it is more practical to describe the complexity of breadth-first search in different terms: to find the nodes that are at distance from the start node (measured in number of edge traversals), BFS takes time and memory, where is the \"branching factor\" of the graph (the average out-degree).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Completeness.", "content": "In the analysis of algorithms, the input to breadth-first search is assumed to be a finite graph, represented explicitly as an adjacency list or similar representation. However, in the application of graph traversal methods in artificial intelligence the input may be an implicit representation of an infinite graph. In this context, a search method is described as being complete if it is guaranteed to find a goal state if one exists. Breadth-first search is complete, but depth-first search is not. When applied to infinite graphs represented implicitly, breadth-first search will eventually find the goal state, but depth-first search may get lost in parts of the graph that have no goal state and never return.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "BFS ordering.", "content": "An enumeration of the vertices of a graph is said to be a BFS ordering if it is the possible output of the application of BFS to this graph.  Let formula_9 be a graph with formula_10 vertices. Recall that formula_11 is the set of neighbors of formula_12. For formula_13 be a list of distinct elements of formula_14, for formula_15, let formula_16 be the least formula_17 such that formula_18 is a neighbor of formula_12, if such a formula_17 exists, and be formula_21 otherwise.  Let formula_22 be an enumeration of the vertices of formula_14. The enumeration formula_24 is said to be a BFS ordering (with source formula_25) if, for all <math>1, formula_18 is the vertex formula_27 such that formula_28 is minimal. Equivalently, formula_24 is a BFS ordering if, for all formula_30 with formula_31, there exists a neighbor formula_32 of formula_33 such that <math>m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Breadth-first search can be used to solve many problems in graph theory, for example:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Breadth-first search (BFS) is an algorithm for traversing or searching tree or graph data structures. It starts at the tree root (or some arbitrary node of a graph, sometimes referred to as a'search key'), and explores all of the neighbor nodes at the present depth prior to moving on to the nodes at the next depth level.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972338}
{"src_title": "Twelve Tribes of Israel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biblical (Torah) narrative.", "content": "The tribes of Israel are described in the books of the Torah (Pentateuch), accounts written in the 8th–6th centuries BCE in Hebrew.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tribes.", "content": "The Israelites were the twelve sons of the biblical patriarch Jacob. Jacob also had one daughter, Dinah, whose descendants were not recognized as a separate tribe.  The sons of Jacob were born in Padan-aram from different mothers, as follows: lists the twelve tribes:  Jacob elevated the descendants of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons of Joseph and his Egyptian wife Asenath) to the status of full tribes in their own right due to Joseph receiving a double portion after Reuben lost his birth right because of his transgression with Bilhah.  In the biblical narrative, the period from the conquest of Canaan under the leadership of Joshua until the formation of the first Kingdom of Israel, passed with the tribes forming a loose confederation, described in the Book of Judges. Modern scholarship has called into question the beginning, middle, and end of this picture and the account of the conquest under Joshua has largely been abandoned. The Bible's depiction of the 'period of the Judges' is widely considered doubtful. The extent to which a united Kingdom of Israel ever existed is also a matter of ongoing dispute.  Living in exile in the sixth century BCE, the prophet Ezekiel has a vision for the restoration of Israel, of a future utopia in which the twelve tribes of Israel are living in their land again.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Land allotment.", "content": "The Land of Israel was divided into twelve sections corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel. However, the tribes receiving land differed from the biblical tribes. The Tribe of Levi had no land appropriation but had six Cities of Refuge under their administration as well as the Temple in Jerusalem. There was no land allotment for the Tribe of Joseph, but Joseph's two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, received their father's land portion.  Thus the tribes receiving an allotment were:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In Christianity.", "content": "In the Christian New Testament, the twelve tribes of Israel are referred to twice in the gospels and twice in the Book of Revelation. In Matthew, paralleled by Luke, Jesus anticipates that in the Kingdom of God, his followers will \"sit on [twelve] thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel\". The Epistle of James is addressed to the twelve tribes who are dispersed abroad.<ref", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the Hebrew Bible, the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Tribes of Israel ( \"šəḇāṭîm Yiśrā’êl\") descended from the 12 sons of the patriarch Jacob (who was later named Israel) and his two wives, Leah and Rachel, and two concubines, Zilpah and Bilhah.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972339}
{"src_title": "Rolandas Paksas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life, education and non-political career.", "content": "Paksas was born in Telšiai to Feliksas and Elena. In 1974, he finished Zemaites High School and continued studies at the Vilnius Civil Engineering Institute (now Vilnius Gediminas Technical University). Paksas received a degree in civil engineering in 1979. In 1984, he graduated Leningrad Civil Aviation Academy.  From 1992 to 1997, Rolandas Paksas was the President of the construction company \"\"Restako\"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mayor of Vilnius and Prime Minister.", "content": "Paksas, a former member of Communist Party of Lithuania (LKP) and its successor leftist Democratic Labour Party (LDDP) in 1995 switched his political orientation in favour of conservative right Homeland Union (Lithuanian Conservatives). In 1997 Paksas was elected to Vilnius City Council and became the Mayor of the Vilnius city municipality. Paksas also served as chairman of the Vilnius branch of the Homeland Union (Lithuanian Conservatives).  In May 1999, Vagnorius stepped down and President Valdas Adamkus asked Paksas to become the Prime Minister. The Conservatives had 68 of the Seimas' 138 seats and were part of an 81-member coalition with the Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party.  In June 1999, he became Prime Minister, heading the ninth Government after independence. Five months later, he resigned because of a disagreement over the sale of Mažeikių Nafta, a major Lithuanian oil refining company, to a US oil company. He then served as Special Assignments envoy to Adamkus.  After leaving Homeland Union Paksas joined Liberal Union of Lithuania and in April 2000, he became the Mayor of the Vilnius city municipality again. In 2000, he was elected as the Prime Minister in the eleventh Cabinet and served from November 2000 to June 2001. In March 2002, Paksas was elected as a chairman of his newly founded Liberal Democratic Party.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "President of Lithuania.", "content": "On 5 January 2003, he was elected President of Lithuania, after a surprise win over the incumbent Valdas Adamkus in a runoff. In the first round of elections, Paksas finished second with 19.7% of vote but, in the runoff, he gathered 54.9%. His platform included pledges to reduce poverty and income disparities, introduce the death penalty for drug traffickers, and move Lithuania towards a more market-based economy.  On 26 February 2003 his term as a President began. During his term, concerns arose that he had ties to the Russian mafia. Yuri Borisov, president of the aviation company Avia Baltika, had donated $400,000 to his campaign, and was given Lithuanian citizenship by Paksas' decree. This decree was later ruled to be unconstitutional by Constitutional Court of Lithuania. Paksas' connections were investigated by the Department of Security. In early 2004, the Seimas started impeachment proceedings against him. On 31 March 2004 the Constitutional Court of Lithuania found him guilty of violating the constitution and his oath of office. On 6 April 2004, the Parliament (Seimas) voted on three charges: that he had leaked classified information about his investigation to Borisov; that he had improperly restored Borisov's citizenship; and that he had interfered in a privatization transaction. The vote passed, effectively removing Paksas from the presidency.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-impeachment legal proceedings.", "content": "Paksas expressed an intent to run in the June presidential election that was to replace him. In response, on 4 May the Seimas passed a constitutional amendment barring impeached persons from standing for the presidency for five years following impeachment. Following an appeal by Paksas supporters, the Constitutional Court of Lithuania ruled the amendment unconstitutional, holding instead that persons who had violated the constitution or failed to uphold their oaths of office could never again hold public offices that required an oath.  The District Court of Vilnius found Paksas not guilty of disclosing classified information (state secrets). This decision was reversed in 2005 by the Court of Appeals of the Republic of Lithuania, on the basis that the District Court had not linked all the supporting evidence. The Appeals Court, while finding Paksas guilty of a criminal act, did not impose a penalty, stating that Paksas's departure from public service meant that he no longer posed a threat.  In 2011, the European Court of Human Rights found the lifetime prohibition for Paksas to be elected to the parliament to be disproportionate and thus in violation of the European Convention on Human Rights.  In September of 2018 Paksas suspended his membership in the Order and Justice party But he will not be allowed to run for president or become the speaker of the Parliament citing that he does not want to be associated with party decisions anymore as his reason for leaving.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Rolandas Paksas is married to Laima Paksienė and has two children; Inga and Mindaugas. He is also a former member of both Soviet and Lithuanian national aerobatic teams, and a skilled stunt pilot who currently performs around the world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rolandas Paksas (; born 10 June 1956) is a Lithuanian politician who was President of Lithuania from 2003 to 2004. He was previously Prime Minister of Lithuania in 1999 and again from 2000 to 2001, and he also served as Mayor of Vilnius from 1997 to 1999 and again from 2000 to 2001. He has led Order and Justice from 2004 to 2016 and has been a Member of the European Parliament from 2009 to 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972340}
{"src_title": "Lothar von Trotha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Lothar von Trotha belonged to a prominent Saxon noble family. He was married twice; on 15 October 1872 he married Bertha Neumann, who died in 1905. Following his retirement from the service, on 19 May 1912, he married Lucy Goldstein-Brinckmann (1881–1958), a second marriage for both, Lucy came from a family of converted Jews living in Frankfurt; in London. Trotha had two sons, who died without descendants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Born in Magdeburg, the capital of the Province of Saxony, Trotha joined the Prussian Army in 1865 and fought in the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian Wars, for which he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class. He married Bertha Neumann on 15 October 1872.  He was commander of the Lauenburgisches Jäger Bataillon Nr. 9 for two years in Ratzeburg before he was deployed to Africa in 1894.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Colonial service.", "content": "In 1894 Trotha was appointed commander of the colonial forces in German East Africa and was ruthlessly successful in suppressing uprisings there, including the Wahehe Rebellion. While temporarily posted to Imperial China as Brigade Commander of the East Asian Expedition Corps, he was involved in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion. On 3 May 1904 he was appointed Commander in Chief of German South West Africa and was directed to crush the native Herero rebellion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In German South West Africa.", "content": "Trotha arrived in South West Africa on 11 June 1904, when the war against the Herero had been raging for five months. The German command up to that time had not had much success against the Herero guerrilla tactics. Initially, he too suffered losses.  In October 1904 General von Trotha devised a new battle plan to end the uprisings. At the Battle of Waterberg, he issued orders to encircle the Herero on three sides so that the only escape route was into the waterless Omaheke-Steppe, a western arm of the Kalahari Desert. The Herero fled into the desert and Trotha ordered his troops to poison water holes, erect guard posts along a 150-mile line and shoot on sight any Herero, be they man, woman or child, who attempted to escape. To make his attitude to the Herero absolutely clear, Trotha then issued the \"Vernichtungsbefehl\", or extermination order:  I, the great general of the German soldiers, send this letter to the Hereros. The Hereros are German subjects no longer. They have killed, stolen, cut off the ears and other parts of the body of wounded soldiers, and now are too cowardly to want to fight any longer. I announce to the people that whoever hands me one of the chiefs shall receive 1,000 marks, and 5,000 marks for Samuel Maherero. The Herero nation must now leave the country. If it refuses, I shall compel it to do so with the 'long tube' (cannon). Any Herero found inside the German frontier, with or without a gun or cattle, will be executed. I shall spare neither women nor children. I shall give the order to drive them away and fire on them. Such are my words to the Herero people.\"<ref", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "General Adrian Dietrich Lothar von Trotha (3 July 1848 – 31 March 1920) was a German military commander during the European new colonial era. As a brigade commander of the East Asian Expedition Corps, he was involved in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in Imperial China on behalf of the Eight-Nation Alliance. He later served as governor of German South West Africa and Commander in Chief of its colonial forces, in which role he suppressed a native rebellion during the Herero Wars. He was widely condemned for his brutality in the Herero Wars, particularly for his role in the genocide that led to the near-extermination of the Herero.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972341}
{"src_title": "C. S. Forester", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Forester was born in Cairo and moved with his mother to London after a family breakup at an early age, where he was educated at Alleyn's School and Dulwich College. He began to study medicine at Guy's Hospital but left without completing his degree. He wore glasses and was of slender physique; he failed his Army physical and was told that there was no chance that he would be accepted, even though he was of good height and somewhat athletic. He began writing seriously around 1921 using his pen name.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second World War.", "content": "Forester moved to the United States during the Second World War, where he worked for the British Ministry of Information and wrote propaganda to encourage the US to join the Allies. He eventually settled in Berkeley, California. He met Roald Dahl in 1942 while living in Washington, D.C., and Forester encouraged him to write about his experiences in the RAF. According to Dahl's autobiography \"Lucky Break\", Forester asked him about his experiences as a fighter pilot, and this prompted Dahl to write his first story \"A Piece of Cake\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "Forester wrote many novels, but he is best known for the 12-book Horatio Hornblower series depicting a Royal Navy officer during the Napoleonic Wars. He began the series with Hornblower fairly high in rank in the first novel that he wrote, which was published in 1937. But high demand for more stories led him to fill in Hornblower's life story, and he wrote novels detailing his rise from the rank of midshipman. The last completed novel was published in 1962. Hornblower's fictional feats were based on real events, but Forester wrote the body of the works carefully to avoid entanglements with real world history, so that Hornblower is always off on another mission when a great naval battle occurs during the Napoleonic Wars.  Forester's other novels include \"The African Queen\" (1935) and \"The General\" (1936); Peninsular War novels in \"Death to the French\" (published in the United States as \"Rifleman Dodd\") and \"The Gun\" (filmed as \"The Pride and the Passion\" in 1957); and seafaring stories that did not involve Hornblower, such as \"Brown on Resolution\" (1929), \"The Captain from Connecticut\" (1941), \"The Ship\" (1943), and \"Hunting the Bismarck\" (1959), which was used as the basis of the screenplay for the film \"Sink the Bismarck!\" (1960). Several of his works were filmed, including \"The African Queen\" (1951), directed by John Huston. Forester is also credited as story writer for several movies not based on his published fiction, including \"Commandos Strike at Dawn\" (1942).  He wrote several volumes of short stories set during the Second World War. Those in \"The Nightmare\" (1954) were based on events in Nazi Germany, ending at the Nuremberg trials. Stories in \"The Man in the Yellow Raft\" (1969) followed the career of the destroyer USS \"Boon\", while many of those in \"Gold from Crete\" (1971) followed the destroyer HMS \"Apache\". The last of the stories in \"Gold from Crete\" was \"If Hitler had invaded England\", which offers an imagined sequence of events starting with Hitler's attempt to implement Operation Sea Lion, and culminating in the early military defeat of Nazi Germany in the summer of 1941. His non-fiction seafaring works include \"The Age of Fighting Sail\" (1956), an account of the sea battles between Great Britain and the United States in the War of 1812.  Forester also published the crime novels \"Payment Deferred\" (1926) and \"Plain Murder\" (1930), as well as two children's books. \"Poo-Poo and the Dragons\" (1942) was created as a series of stories told to his son George to encourage him to finish his meals. George had mild food allergies which kept him feeling unwell, and he needed encouragement to eat. \"The Barbary Pirates\" (1953) is a children's history of early 19th-century pirates.  Forester appeared as a contestant on the television quiz program \"You Bet Your Life\" hosted by Groucho Marx, in an episode broadcast on 1 November 1956. A previously unknown novel of Forester's entitled \"The Pursued\" was discovered in 2003 and published by Penguin Classics on 3 November 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He married Kathleen Belcher in 1926 and they had two sons, John and George Forester. The couple divorced in 1945. In 1947, he married Dorothy Foster. John Forester wrote a two-volume biography of his father, including many elements of Forester's life which only became clear to his son after his death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Sternlicht, Sanford V., \"C.S. Forester and the Hornblower saga\" (Syracuse University Press, 1999)  Van der Kiste, John, \"C.S. Forester's Crime Noir: A view of the murder stories\" (KDP, 2018)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cecil Louis Troughton Smith (27 August 1899 – 2 April 1966), known by his pen name Cecil Scott \"C. S.\" Forester, was an English novelist known for writing tales of naval warfare, such as the 12-book Horatio Hornblower series depicting a Royal Navy officer during the Napoleonic wars. The Hornblower novels \"A Ship of the Line\" and \"Flying Colours\" were jointly awarded the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction in 1938. His other works include \"The African Queen\" (1935, filmed in 1951 by John Huston), and \"The Good Shepherd\" (1955, filmed in 2020 as the movie Greyhound starring Tom Hanks).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972342}
{"src_title": "Sigismund, Archduke of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Sigismund (or \"Siegmund\", sometimes also spelled \"Sigmund\") was born at the Tyrolean court in Innsbruck; his parents were the Further Austrian duke Frederick IV of Austria and his second wife, a daughter of the Welf duke Frederick I of Brunswick-Lüneburg. A minor upon his father's death in 1439, the Inner Austrian duke Frederick V, Sigismund's first cousin, acted as regent until 1446. Frederick, elected King of the Romans (as \"Frederick IV\") in February 1440, exploited all opportunities to extend his influence over the Further Austrian lands. He also interfered in the Old Zürich War in order to regain the former Habsburg territories lost to the Swiss Confederacy, while the Tyrolean nobles urged him to cede the rule to Sigismund.  The mines of Tyrol remained an important source of revenue for Frederick and not until 1446, upon the end of his regency, Sigismund could accede to rulership over the Further Austrian (\"Vorderösterreich\") possessions, which also included the Swabian territories of the Sundgau in southern Alsace, the Breisgau, and numerous smaller estates. His cousin had planned to marry him off to the French princess Radegonde, a daughter of King Charles VII the Victorious, however, she died in 1444 and Sigismund married Princess Eleanor of Scotland, the daughter of the Stewart king James I, in 1449.  Sigismund was able to acquire large parts of the former County of Bregenz (in present-day Vorarlberg) in 1451 and further estates in the Großwalsertal and Kleinwalsertal. Nevertheless, he had to cope with claims raised by Frederick's brother, Archduke Albert VI of Austria, and temporarily had to cede the rule over several Further Austrian territories to him. For much of his reign, he was engaged in disputes with Nicholas of Cusa, then Prince-bishop of Brixen and raised to Cardinal in 1449, for the control of the Tyrolean Eisack, Puster and Inn valleys. Sigismund sided with Nicholas' opponent Gregory of Heimburg and in 1460, when he marched against the bishop's residence at Bruneck Castle, he was excommunicated by Pope Pius II. Nicholas fled to Todi in the Papal States, but fell ill and died in 1464, before the archduke surrendered in order to receive the papal pardon.  In 1469, Sigismund sold several of his Swabian lands on the Rhine river, including the Alsace landgraviate, the County of Pfirt (\"Ferrette\"), the Breisgau and further cities, to the Burgundian Duke Charles the Bold. Sources are unclear, whether he sold them due to his debts he had accumulated owing to his luxurious lifestyle, or just \"rented\" them because he wanted to have them protected better against the expansion of the Swiss Confederacy. In turn, he extended his Vorarlberg possessions, purchasing the County of Sonnenberg in 1474 and, together with the Swiss (with whom he had concluded a peace treaty in Konstanz) and the Alsatian cities, he sided against Duke Charles of Burgundy in the Battle of Héricourt.  In 1477, his cousin Frederick, crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1452, elevated him to Archduke. Three years later, Princess Eleanor died, and 1484, Sigismund married the 16-year-old Catherine of Saxony, daughter of the Wettin duke Albert III of Saxony. He had no offspring from either marriage.  In the later years of the 1470s and early 1480s Sigismund issued a decree that instituted a radical coinage reformation that eventually led up to the creation of the world's first really large and heavy silver coin in nearly a millennium, the guldengroschen, which the Habsburgs in Bohemia developed later into the thaler. This coin was the ancestor of many of the major European coin denominations to come later and also of the US dollar. Using new mining methods and technology, the largely quiescent silver mines in Tirol were brought back into production and soon numerous surrounding states were re-opening old mines and minting similar coins. This production of large coinage exploded as silver from Spain's colonies in the Americas flooded the European economy. It is from these reforms in part that Sigismund acquired the nickname of \"der Münzreiche\", or \"rich in coin\".  Sigismund was easily swayed by the bad advice of his council and in March 1487 entered into a pointless war with the Republic of Venice, sometimes called the War of Rovereto. Tyrolean forces quickly seized silver mines in the Valsugana valley owned by Venice, and in April 1487 Sigismund outraged Venice further when he imprisoned 130 Venetian merchants traveling to the fair at Bozen (modern Bolzano) and confiscated their goods. Tyrol stormed the Pass of Calliano and later besieged the castle at Rovereto using a massive bombard, one of the earliest times such a large piece had been used in warfare. The war continued through summer but ended with no decisive victory for either side. One notable casualty of the conflict was the condottiero Roberto Sanseverino d'Aragona.  By 1490 the opposition of Tyrolean nobles compelled Sigismund to hand over the rulership to Frederick's son Archduke Maximilian I, who later succeeded his father as Holy Roman Emperor. Whether Sigismund voluntarily handed over power to Maximilian or was strongly coerced by the latter is not clear. With Sigismund's death in 1496, the Tyrolean branch of the Habsburg Leopoldian line became extinct, leaving Archduke Maximilian as sole heir to all the dynasty's possessions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "<br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sigismund (26 October 1427 – 4 March 1496), a member of the House of Habsburg, was Duke of Austria from 1439 (elevated to Archduke in 1477) until his death. As a scion of the Habsburg Leopoldian line, he ruled over Further Austria and the County of Tyrol from 1446 until his resignation in 1490.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972343}
{"src_title": "Hysteria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The word hysteria originates from the Greek word “uterus,” \"hystera\"\".\" The oldest record of hysteria dates back to 1900 B.C. when Egyptians recorded behavioral abnormalities in adult women on medical papyrus. The Egyptians attributed the behavioral disturbances to a wandering uterus—thus later dubbing the condition hysteria. To treat hysteria Egyptian doctors prescribed various medications. For example, doctors put strong smelling substances on the patients’ vulvas to encourage the uterus to return to its proper position. Another tactic was to smell or swallow unsavory herbs to encourage the uterus to flee back to the lower part of the female’s stomach.  The ancient Greeks accepted the ancient Egyptians’ explanation for hysteria; however, they included in their definition of hysteria the inability to bear children or the failure to marry. Ancient Romans also attributed hysteria to an abnormality in the womb; however, discarded the traditional explanation of a wandering uterus. Instead, the ancient Romans credited hysteria to a disease of the womb or a disruption in reproduction (i.e. a miscarriage, menopause, etc.). Hysteria theories from the ancient Egyptians, ancient Greeks, and ancient Romans were the basis of the Western understanding of hysteria.  Between the fifth and thirteenth centuries, however, the increasing influence of Christianity in the Latin West altered medical and public understanding of hysteria. St. Augustine's writings suggested that human suffering resulted from sin, and thus, hysteria became perceived as satanic possession. With the shift in perception of hysteria came a shift in treatment options. Instead of admitting patients to a hospital, the church began treating patients through prayers, amulets, and exorcisms. Furthermore, during the medieval and Renaissance periods many patients of hysteria were prosecuted as witches and underwent interrogations, torture, and execution.  However, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries activists and scholars worked to change the perception of hysteria back to a medical condition. Particularly, French physician Charles Lepois insisted that hysteria was a malady of the brain. In addition, in 1697, English physician Thomas Sydenham theorized that hysteria was an emotional condition, instead of a physical condition. Many physicians followed Lepois and Sydenham's lead and hysteria became disassociated with the soul and the womb. During this time period science started to focalize hysteria in the central nervous system. As doctors developed a greater understanding of the human nervous system, the neurological model of hysteria was created, which further propelled the conception of hysteria as a mental disorder.  In 1859 Paul Briquet defined hysteria as a chronic syndrome manifesting in many unexplained symptoms throughout the body's organ systems. What Briquet described became known as Briquet's syndrome, or Somatization disorders, in 1971. Over a ten year period, Briquet conducted 430 case studies of patients with hysteria. Following Briquet, Jean-Martin Charcot studied women in an asylum in France and used hypnosis as treatment. He also mentored Pierre Janet, another French psychologist, who studied five of hysteria's symptoms (anesthesia, amnesia, abulia, motor control diseases, and character change) in depth and proposed that hysteria symptoms occurred due to a lapse in consciousness. Both Charcot and Janet inspired Sigmund Freud's work. Freud theorized hysteria stemmed from childhood sexual abuse or repression, and was also one of the first to apply hysteria to men.  During the 20th century, as psychiatry advanced in the West, anxiety and depression diagnoses began to replace hysteria diagnoses in Western countries. For example, from 1949 to 1978 annual admissions of hysteria patients in England and Wales decreased by roughly two thirds. With the decrease of hysteria patients in Western cultures came an increase in anxiety and depression patients. Although declining in the West, in Eastern countries such as Sudan, Egypt, and Lebanon hysteria diagnoses remained consistent. Theories for why hysteria diagnoses began to decline vary, but many historians infer that World War II, westernization, and migration shifted Western mental health expectations. Twentieth century western societies expected depression and anxiety manifest itself more in post World War II generations and displaced individuals; and thus, individuals reported or were diagnosed accordingly. In addition, medical advancements explained aliments that were previously attributed to hysteria such as epilepsy or infertility. After a gradual decline in diagnoses and reports, in 1980 hysteria was removed from the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), which had included hysteria as a mental disorder from its second publication in 1968.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical symptoms.", "content": "Historically, the symptoms of hysteria have a large range.  For example:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable figures.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jean-Martin Charcot.", "content": "In the late nineteenth century, French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, attempted to tackle what he referred to as, \"the great neurosis\" or hysteria. Charcot theorized that hysteria was a hereditary, physiological disorder. He believed hysteria impaired areas of the brain which provoked the physical symptoms displayed in each patient. While Charcot believed hysteria was hereditary, he also thought that environmental factors such as stress could trigger hysteria in an individual.  Charcot published over 120 case studies of patients who he diagnosed with hysteria, including Marie \"Blanche\" Whittman. Whittman was referred to as the \"Queen of Hysterics,\" and remains the most famous patient of hysteria. To treat his patients, Charcot used hypnosis, which he determined was only successful when used on hysterics. Using patients as props, Charcot executed dramatic public demonstrations of hysterical patients and his cures for hysteria, which many suggest produced the hysterical phenomenon. Furthermore, Charcot noted similarities between demon possession and hysteria, and thus, he concluded \"demonomania\" was a form of hysteria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sigmund Freud.", "content": "In 1896 Sigmund Freud, Austrian psychiatrist, published \"The Aetiology of Hysteria.\" The paper explains how Freud believes his female patients' neurosis, which he labels hysteria, resulted from sexual abuse as children. Freud named the concept of physical symptoms resulting from childhood trauma: hysterical conversion. Freud hypothesized that in order to cure hysteria the patient must relive the experiences through imagination in the most vivid form while under light hypnosis. However, Freud later changed his theory. His new theory claimed that his patients imagined the instances of sexual abuse, which were instead repressed childhood fantasies. By 1905 Freud retracted the theory of hysteria resulting from repressed childhood fantasies. Freud was also one of the first noted psychiatrist to attribute hysteria to men. He diagnosed himself with hysteria--writing he feared his work exacerbated his condition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern perceptions.", "content": "For the most part, hysteria does not exist as a medical diagnosis in Western culture and has been replaced by other diagnoses such as conversion or functional disorders. The term \"hysterical\", applied to an individual, can mean that they are emotional, irrationally upset, or frenzied. When applied to a situation that does not involve panic, hysteria means that situation is uncontrollably amusing (the connotation being that it invokes hysterical laughter). Hysteria can also impact groups, medically and colloquially referred to as mass hysteria or mass psychogenic illness. Instances of mass hysteria have been recorded throughout history and continue to occur today.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hysteria colloquially means ungovernable emotional excess and can refer to a temporary state of mind or emotion; however, beginning in 1900 B.C., hysteria was considered a diagnosable physical illness in females and then in the 1500s shifted to a mental illness. Many influential psychiatrists such as Sigmund Freud and Jean-Martin Charcot dedicated research to hysteria patients. Currently, most doctors practicing Western medicine do not accept hysteria as a medical diagnosis. The blanket diagnosis of hysteria has been fragmented into myriad medical categories such as epilepsy, histrionic personality disorder, conversion disorders, dissociative disorders, or other medical conditions. Furthermore, social deviances, such as deciding not to wed, are no longer considered psychological disorders.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972344}
{"src_title": "1924 Winter Olympics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Highlights.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Day 2.", "content": "The first gold medal awarded in the Olympic Winter Games was won by Charles Jewtraw of the United States in the 500-meter speed skate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Day 4.", "content": "Sonja Henie, at just eleven years old, skates in the ladies' figure skating competition. Although she finishes last, she becomes popular with fans. Henie went on to take gold at the next three Winter Olympics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Day 6.", "content": "The figure skater Gillis Grafström was the first one to successfully defend his Summer Olympics title at the Winter Olympics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Day 8.", "content": "The Canadian ice hockey team (Toronto Granites) finished their qualifying round with three wins, scoring a total of 85 goals against Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden without surrendering even a single goal against.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Day 10.", "content": "Finding themselves in the same situation as Gillis Grafström, the Canadian ice-hockey team is the last ever to successfully defend its Summer Olympics title at the Winter Olympics. Canada would dominate ice hockey in early Olympic competition, winning six of the first seven gold medals awarded.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Epilogue.", "content": "At the closing of the games a prize was awarded for a sport that did not lend itself very well for tournaments: Pierre de Coubertin presented a prize for 'alpinisme' (mountaineering) to Charles Granville Bruce, the leader of the expedition that tried to climb Mount Everest in 1922.  For the first time in the history of the modern Olympics, the host country, in this case, France, failed to win any gold medals, finishing with three bronze medals. This feat would later occur at the next Winter Olympics in St. Moritz where Switzerland won only a single bronze medal, the lowest ever output by a host nation at an Olympics. Later host nations to finish without gold medals included Canada at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal and 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary and Yugoslavia at the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo.  In 1925, the IOC decided to organize Olympic Winter Games every four years, independent of the Olympic Games proper, and recognized the International Winter Sports Week as the first Olympic Winter games in retrospect.  In 1974 the final individual medal of Chamonix 1924 was presented. Anders Haugen, who until then had been recorded as finishing fourth in the ski jumping event, received a bronze medal. After fifty years an error had been discovered in the score of Thorleif Haug.  In 2006, the IOC confirmed that the awarded medals to 1924 curling teams were official. The IOC verified that curling was officially part of the program, after the \"Glasgow Herald\" newspaper filed a claim on behalf of the families of the team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Events.", "content": "Medals were awarded in 16 events contested in 5 sports (9 disciplines). Many sources do not list curling and the military patrol, or list them as demonstration events. However, no such designation was made in 1924. In February 2006 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) ruled that curling was a full part of the Olympic program, and have included the medals awarded in the official count.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Participating nations.", "content": "Athletes from 16 nations competed in the first Winter Olympic Games. Germany was banned from competing in the games, and instead hosted a series of games called Deutsche Kampfspiele.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees.", "content": "<noinclude>  Other Olympic Games celebrated in France", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 1924 Winter Olympics, officially known as the I Olympic Winter Games (), were a winter multi-sport event which was held in 1924 in Chamonix, France. Originally held in association with the 1924 Summer Olympics, the sports competitions were held at the foot of Mont Blanc in Chamonix, and Haute-Savoie, France between January 25 and February 5, 1924. The Games were organized by the French Olympic Committee, and were originally reckoned as the \"International Winter Sports Week.\" With the success of the event, it was retroactively designated by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as the I Olympic Winter Games.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972345}
{"src_title": "Franz Xaver Messerschmidt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born February 6th 1736 in the southwestern town of Wiesensteig, located in the region of the Swabian Jura Germany. Messerschmidt grew up in the Munich home of his uncle, the sculptor Johann Baptist Straub, who became his first master. He spent two years in Graz, in the workshop of his other maternal uncle, the sculptor Philipp Jakob Straub. At the end of 1755 he matriculated at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, and became a pupil of Jacob Schletterer. Graduated, he got work at the imperial arms collection. Here, in the building's salon in 1760-63 he made his first known works of art, the bronze busts of the imperial couple and reliefs representing the heir of the crown and his wife. With these works he joined the Late Baroque art of courtly representation, which was under the determining influence of Balthasar Ferdinand Moll. To this trend belong two other, larger than lifesize tin statues representing the imperial couple, commissioned by Maria Theresa of Austria and executed between 1764 and 1766. Besides some other portraits he also made works with a religious subject. A number of statues commissioned by the Princess of Savoy have survived as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Maturity.", "content": "The Baroque period of his oeuvre ended in 1769 with a bust of the court physician Gerard van Swieten, commissioned by the Empress. At the same time his first early Neo-Classic works appeared, made—characteristically—for the Academy. To these and later works he applied many experiences gained in 1765 during a study trip to Rome. One of these early, severe heads from the years 1769-70, influenced by Roman republican portraits, represents the well-known doctor Franz Anton Mesmer. At about the same time, in 1770-72 Messerschmidt began to work on his so-called character heads, which it has been argued (notably by Ernst Kris) were connected with certain paranoid ideas and hallucinations from which, at the beginning of the seventies, the master began to suffer. Messerschmidt found himself increasingly at odds with his milieu. His situation worsened to such an extent, that in 1774, when he applied for the newly-vacant office of a leading professor at the Academy, where he had been teaching since 1769, instead of getting it he was expelled from teaching. In a letter to the Empress, Count Kaunitz praised Messerschmidt's abilities, but suggested that the nature of his illness (referred to as a \"confusion in the head\") would make such an appointment detrimental to the institution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Bitter, he left Vienna, moved to his native village, Wiesensteig, and from there in the same year, following an invitation, to Munich. Here he waited two years for a promised commission and for a permanent employment at the Court. In 1777 he went to Pressburg (now Bratislava) where his brother, Johann Adam worked as a sculptor. Here he spent the last six years of his life almost in retirement, on the outskirts of the town. He dedicated himself primarily to his character heads.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The heads.", "content": "In 1781, German author Friedrich Nicolai visited Messerschmidt at his studio in Pressburg and subsequently published a transcript of their conversation. Nicolai's account of the meeting is a valuable resource, as it is the only contemporary document that details Messerschmidt's reasoning behind the execution of his character heads. Messerschmidt devised a series of pinches he administered to his right lower rib. Observing the resulting facial expressions in a mirror, Messerschmidt then set about recording them in marble and bronze. His intention, he told Nicolai, was to represent the 64 \"canonical grimaces\" of the human face using himself as a template.  During the course of the discussion, Messerschmidt went on to explain his interest in necromancy and the arcane, and how this also inspired his character heads. Messerschmidt was a keen disciple of Hermes Trismegistus (Nicolai noted that among the few possessions that littered Messerschmidt's workshop was a copy of an illustration featuring Trismegistus) and abided by his teachings regarding the pursuit of \"universal balance\": a forerunner to the principles of the Golden ratio. As a result, Messerschmidt claimed that his character heads had aroused the anger of \"the Spirit of Proportion\", an ancient being who safe-guarded this knowledge. The spirit visited him at night, and forced him to endure humiliating tortures. One of Messerschmidt's most famous heads (\"The Beaked\") was apparently inspired by one of these encounters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Xaver Messerschmidt (February 6, 1736 – August 19, 1783) was a German-Austrian sculptor most famous for his \"character heads\", a collection of busts with faces contorted in extreme facial expressions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972346}
{"src_title": "Blues rock", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Blues rock can be characterized by bluesy improvisation, the twelve-bar blues, extended boogie jams typically focused on the electric guitar player, and often a heavier, riff-oriented sound and feel to the songs than found in typical Chicago-style blues. Blues rock bands \"borrow[ed] the idea of an instrumental combo and loud amplification from rock & roll\". It is also often played at a fast tempo, again distinguishing it from the blues.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Instrumentation.", "content": "The core blues rock sound is created by the electric guitar, bass guitar and drums. The electric guitar is usually amplified through a tube guitar amplifier or using an overdrive effect. Two guitars are commonplace in blues rock bands: one guitarist focused on rhythm guitar, playing riffs and chords as accompaniment; and the other focused on lead guitar, playing melodic lines and solos.  While 1950s-era blues bands sometimes used the upright bass, the blues rock bands of the 1960s used the electric bass, which was easier to amplify to loud volumes. Keyboard instruments, such as the piano and Hammond organ, are also occasionally used. As with the electric guitar, the sound of the Hammond organ is typically amplified with a tube amplifier, which gives a growling, \"overdriven\" sound quality to the instrument.  Vocals also typically play a key role, although the vocals may be equal in importance or even subordinate to the lead guitar playing. As well, a number of blues rock pieces are instrumental-only. Sometimes bands also included a Richter-tuned harmonica or \"harp\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Blues rock pieces often follow typical blues structures, such as twelve-bar blues, sixteen-bar blues, etc. They also use the I-IV-V progression, though there are exceptions, some pieces having a \"B\" section, while others remain on the I. The Allman Brothers Band's version of \"Stormy Monday\", which uses chord substitutions based on Bobby \"Blue\" Bland's 1961 rendition, adds a solo section where \"the rhythm shifts effortlessly into an uptempo 6/8-time jazz feel\". The key is usually major, but can also be minor, such as in \"Black Magic Woman\".  One notable difference is the frequent use of a straight eighth-note or rock rhythm instead of triplets usually found in blues. An example is Cream's \"Crossroads\". Although it was adapted from Robert Johnson's \"Cross Road Blues\", the bass \"combines with drums to create and continually emphasize continuity in the regular metric drive\". Cream also uses some of the lyrics from \"Traveling Riverside Blues\" to create their own interpretation of the song.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Rock and blues have historically always been closely linked, with driving rhythms and electric guitar techniques such as distortion and power chords already used by 1950s blues guitarists, particularly Memphis bluesmen such as Joe Hill Louis, Willie Johnson and Pat Hare. Characteristics that blues rock adopted from electric blues include its dense texture, basic blues band instrumentation, rough declamatory vocal style, heavy guitar riffs, string-bending blues-scale guitar solos, strong beat, thick riff-laden texture, and posturing performances. Precursors to blues rock included the Chicago blues musicians Elmore James, Albert King, and Freddie King, who began incorporating rock and roll elements into their blues music during the late 1950s to early 1960s.  1963 marked the appearance of American rock guitar soloist Lonnie Mack, whose idiosyncratic, fast-paced electric blues guitar style came to be identified with the advent of blues rock as a distinct genre. His instrumentals from that period were recognizable as blues or rhythm and blues tunes, but he relied heavily upon fast-picking techniques derived from traditional American country and bluegrass genres. The best-known of these are the 1963 \"Billboard\" hit singles \"Memphis\" and \"Wham!\". Around the same time, the Paul Butterfield Blues Band was formed. Fronted by blues harp player and singer Paul Butterfield, it included two members from Howlin' Wolf's touring band, bassist Jerome Arnold and drummer Sam Lay, and later two electric guitarists, Mike Bloomfield and Elvin Bishop. In 1965, its debut album, \"The Paul Butterfield Blues Band\" was released. AllMusic's Michael Erlewine commented, \"Used to hearing blues covered by groups like the Rolling Stones, that first album had an enormous impact on young (and primarily White) rock players.\" The second album \"East West\" (1966) introduced extended soloing – the 13 minute instrumental title track included jazz and Indian raga influences – that served as a model for psychedelic and acid rock. In 1965, avid blues collectors Bob Hite and Alan Wilson formed Canned Heat. Their early recordings focused heavily on electric versions of Delta blues songs, but soon began exploring long musical improvisations (\"jams\") built around John Lee Hooker songs. Other popular mid-1960s groups, such as the Doors and Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin, also adapted songs by blues artists to include elements of rock. Butterfield, Canned Heat, and Joplin performed at the Monterey (1967) and Woodstock (1969) festivals.  In the UK, several musicians honed their skills in a handful of British blues bands, primarily those of Cyril Davies and Alexis Korner. While the early British rhythm and blues groups, such as the Rolling Stones, the Yardbirds, and the Animals, incorporated American R&B, rock and roll, and pop, John Mayall took a more distinctly electric blues approach. In 1966, he released \"Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton\", the first of several influential blues rock albums. When Eric Clapton left Mayall to form Cream, they created a hybrid style with blues, rock, and jazz improvisation, which was the most innovative to date. British band Fleetwood Mac initially played traditionally-oriented electric blues, but soon evolved. Their guitarist Peter Green, who was Clapton's replacement with Mayall, brought many innovations to their music.  The electric guitar playing of Jimi Hendrix (a veteran of many American rhythm and blues and soul groups from the early-mid-1960s) and his power trios, the Jimi Hendrix Experience and Band of Gypsys, had a broad and lasting influence on the development of blues rock, especially for guitarists. Clapton continued to explore several musical styles and contributed to bringing blues rock into the mainstream. In the late 1960s, Jeff Beck, with his band the Jeff Beck Group, developed blues rock into a form of heavy rock. Jimmy Page, who replaced Beck in the Yardbirds, followed suit with Led Zeppelin and became a major force in the 1970s heavy metal scene. Other blues rock musicians in the 1970s include Dr. Feelgood, Rory Gallagher and Robin Trower.  Beginning in the early 1970s, American bands such as Aerosmith fused blues with a hard rock edge. Blues rock grew to include Southern rock bands, like the Allman Brothers Band, ZZ Top and Lynyrd Skynyrd, while the British scene, except for the advent of groups such as Status Quo and Foghat, became focused on heavy metal innovation.  Blues rock had a rebirth in the early 1990s–2000s, with many artists such as Gary Moore, Tedeschi Trucks Band, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, Gary Clark Jr., Susan Tedeschi, the White Stripes, Jack White, Walter Trout, John Mayer, Blues Traveler, the Black Crowes, the Black Keys, Jeff Healey, Gov't Mule, Clutch, the Jon Spencer Blues Explosion Joe Bonamassa, and Guy Forsyth.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Blues rock is a fusion genre combining elements of blues and rock. It is mostly an electric ensemble-style music with instrumentation similar to electric blues and rock: electric guitar, electric bass guitar, and drums, sometimes with keyboards and harmonica. From its beginnings in the early to mid-1960s, blues rock has gone through several stylistic shifts and along the way it inspired and influenced hard rock, Southern rock, and early heavy metal. Blues rock continues to be an influence in the 2020s, with performances and recordings by popular artists.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972347}
{"src_title": "Geomarketing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geo marketing software.", "content": "Geolocation software is used to display data that can be linked to a geographic region or area. It can be used to:  Some of the software used includes Geoconcept Sales&Marketing Portal, MapInfo, ArcGIS (ESRI), RegioGraph (GfK), WIGeoWeb (WIGeoGIS) assorted open source like Mapwindow, DIVA (which while normally used for bio-diversity creates very visually pleasing density maps), GRASS (which works in Linux and Windows environments) GeoEdge (tracking local ads and pages). Several other software are available. Indeed, Google Earth provides an excellent set of images that are always useful.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications for Geo.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Different content by choice.", "content": "Location-based social media marketing uses geo-specific tools to draw imaginary perimeters that will display all of the social content posted by users in that particular area. A typical example for different web content by location is the FedEx website at FedEx.com where users have the choice to select their country geo —location first and are then presented with different site or article content depending on their selection.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Automated different content.", "content": "Individuals can deliver different content in internet marketing, through paid or organic search results, based on the geographical geolocation of the targeted audiences.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other applications.", "content": "We can define the geo-marketing as a strategy and mechanism that provides valuable information that helps in the process of making business decisions using geographical information. The functions of this to search and evaluate marketing opportunities, analyzing geographical information such as location residential areas, topography, it also analyzes demographic information such as age, genre, annual income and lifestyle. This information can be segmented as primary data and sub-segmented as secondary data; in addition, it helps us to develop successful promotional campaigns achieving our marketing goals. This also works with retail chain stores in the sales industry, real estate, and renewable energy, among others.  With geomarketing, the general data of a company changes to be more specific regarding their customers and market trends. This allows companies to use secondary data wisely, providing excellent results at low cost compared with traditional market research methods. All data is acquired accurately with GPS equipment and geographical information software, once the data is acquired, this information is processed by professionals in the field.  Geomarketing has helped companies to acquire valuable information such as transit behaviors, most visited places or areas, etc., this information will help these companies to deliver the right message (or promotion), at the right time and place. Most companies use their mobile apps to obtain this information. Mobile apps became more sophisticated using GPS, Bluetooth, and also social networks to obtain their market information, this information helps to improve their promotional campaigns. According to comScore, about 60 percent of all Internet activities in the U.S. originates from mobile devices and about half of total Internet traffic flows through mobile apps.  One example of Geo Location is Google Maps - you can search in Google Maps Restaurants near me and it will show different options around your location. One important factor that companies (in this case restaurants) is that they must be sure to optimize their business in Google's directory list.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In marketing, geomarketing (also called marketing geography) is a discipline that uses geolocation (geographic information) in the process of planning and implementation of marketing activities. It can be used in any aspect of the marketing mix – the product, price, promotion, or place (geo targeting). Market segments can also correlate with location, and this can be useful in targeted marketing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972348}
{"src_title": "Great cormorant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and etymology.", "content": "The long white-breasted cormorant \"P. c. lucidus\" found in sub-Saharan Africa, has a white neck and breast. It is often treated as a full species, \"Phalacrocorax lucidus\" (e.g., ).  In addition to the Australasian and African forms, \"Phalacrocorax carbo novaehollandiae\" and \"P. c. lucidus\" mentioned above, other geographically distinct subspecies are recognised, including \"P. c. sinensis\" (western Europe to east Asia), \"P. c. maroccanus\" (north-western Africa), and \"P. c. hanedae\" (Japan).  Some authors treat all these as allospecies of a \"P. carbo\" superspecies group.  In New Zealand, the subspecies \"P. c. novaehollandiae\" is known as the black shag or by its Māori name; \"kawau\". The syntype is in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The great cormorant is a large black bird, but there is a wide variation in size in the species' wide range. Weight is reported to vary from to. Males are typically larger and heavier than females, with the nominate race (\"P. c. carbo\") averaging about 10% larger in linear measurements than the smallest race in Europe (\"P. c. sinensis\"). The lightest average weights cited are in Germany (\"P. c. sinensis\"), where 36 males averaged and 17 females averaged. The highest come from Prince Edward Island in Canada (\"P. c. carbo\"), where 11 males averaged and 11 females averaged. Length can vary from and wingspan from. They are tied as the second largest extant species of cormorant after the flightless cormorant, with the Japanese cormorant averaging at a similar size. In bulk if not in linear dimensions, the Blue-eyed shag species complex of the Southern Oceans are scarcely smaller at average. It has a longish tail and yellow throat-patch. Adults have white patches on the thighs and on the throat in the breeding season. In European waters it can be distinguished from the common shag by its larger size, heavier build, thicker bill, lack of a crest and plumage without any green tinge. In eastern North America, it is similarly larger and bulkier than double-crested cormorant, and the latter species has more yellow on the throat and bill and lack the white thigh patches frequently seen on great cormorants. Great cormorants are mostly silent, but they make various guttural noises at their breeding colonies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "A very rare variation of the great cormorant is caused by albinism. The \"Phalacrocorax carbo\" albino suffers from poor eyesight and/or hearing, thus it rarely manages to survive in the wild.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "This is a very common and widespread bird species. It feeds on the sea, in estuaries, and on freshwater lakes and rivers. Northern birds migrate south and winter along any coast that is well-supplied with fish.  In Serbia, the cormorant lives in Vøjvodìñâ. However, after 1945 many artificial lakes were formed in Serbia; some of them became potential habitats for cormorants. Currently, on the Lake Ćelije, formed in 1980, there is a resident colony of cormorants, who nest there and are present throughout the year, except January–February 1985 and February 2012 when the lake surface was completely frozen.  The type subspecies, \"P. c. carbo\", is found mainly in Atlantic waters and nearby inland areas: on western European coasts and east across the Palearctic to Siberia and to North Africa, the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland; and on the eastern seaboard of North America, though in America it breeds only in the north of its range, in the Canadian maritime provinces. The subspecies \"P. c. novaehollandiae\" is found in Australian waters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "The great cormorant often nests in colonies near wetlands, rivers, and sheltered inshore waters. Pairs will use the same nest site to breed year after year. It builds its nest, which is made from sticks, in trees, on the ledges of cliffs, and on the ground on rocky islands that are free of predators.  This cormorant lays a clutch of three to five eggs that measure on average. The eggs are a pale blue or green, and sometimes have a white chalky layer covering them. These eggs are incubated for a period of about 28 to 31 days.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "The great cormorant feeds on fish caught through diving. This bird feeds primarily on wrasses, but it also takes sand smelt, flathead and common soles. The average weight of fish taken by great cormorants increased with decreasing air and water temperature, being 30 g during summer, 109 g during a cold winter and 157 g during the cold winter (all values for non-breeding birds). Cormorants consume all fish of appropriate size that they are able to catch in summer and noticeably select for larger, mostly torpedo-shaped fish in winter. Thus, the winter elevation of foraging efficiency described for cormorants by various researchers is due to capturing larger fish not due to capturing more fish. In some freshwater systems, the losses of fish due to overwintering great cormorants were estimated to be up to 80 kg per ha each year (e.g. Vltava River, Czech Republic).  This cormorant forages by diving and capturing its prey in its beak. The duration of its dives is around 28 seconds, with the bird diving to depths of about. About 60% of dives are to the benthic zone and about 10% are to the pelagic zone, with the rest of the dives being to zones in between the two. Studies suggest that their hearing has evolved for underwater usage, possibly aiding their detection of fish. These adaptations also have a cost on their hearing ability in air which is of lowered sensitivity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relationships with humans.", "content": "Many fishermen see in the great cormorant a competitor for fish. Because of this, it was hunted nearly to extinction in the past. Thanks to conservation efforts, its numbers increased. At the moment, there are about 1.2 million birds in Europe (based on winter counts; late summer counts would show higher numbers). Increasing populations have once again brought the cormorant into conflict with fisheries. For example, in Britain, where inland breeding was once uncommon, there are now increasing numbers of birds breeding inland, and many inland fish farms and fisheries now claim to be suffering high losses due to these birds. In the UK each year, some licences are issued to cull specified numbers of cormorants in order to help reduce predation; it is, however, still illegal to kill a bird without such a licence.  Cormorant fishing is practised in China, Japan, and elsewhere around the globe. In it, fishermen tie a line around the throats of cormorants, tight enough to prevent swallowing the larger fish they catch, and deploy them from small boats. The cormorants catch fish without being able to fully swallow them, and the fishermen are able to retrieve the fish simply by forcing open the cormorants' mouths, apparently engaging the regurgitation reflex.  In Norway, the cormorant is a traditional game bird. Each year around 10,000 cormorants are shot to be eaten. In North Norway, cormorants are traditionally seen as semi-sacred. It is regarded as good luck to have cormorants gather near your village or settlement. An old legend states that for people who die far out at sea, whose bodies are never recovered, spend eternity on the island Utrøst – which can only occasionally be found by mortals. The inhabitants of Utrøst can only visit their homes in the shape of cormorants.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The great cormorant (\"Phalacrocorax carbo\"), known as the black shag in New Zealand and formerly also known as the great black cormorant across the Northern Hemisphere, the black cormorant in Australia, and the large cormorant in India, is a widespread member of the cormorant family of seabirds. The genus name is Latinised Ancient Greek, from φαλακρός (\"phalakros\", \"bald\") and κόραξ (\"korax\", \"raven\"), and \"carbo\" is Latin for \"charcoal\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972349}
{"src_title": "Giorgio Perlasca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Giorgio Perlasca was born in Como and grew up in Maserà, province of Padua, Italy. During the 1920s, he became a supporter of Fascism, fighting in East Africa during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, and in the Spanish Civil War for the Nationalist \"Corpo Truppe Volontarie\". As a gratitude safe conduct for his service in Spain, he was awarded a diplomatic mission from Francisco Franco.  Perlasca grew disillusioned with Fascism, in particular due to Benito Mussolini's alliance with Nazism and adoption of the Italian Racial Laws, that came into force in 1938.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In World War II.", "content": "During the initial phase of World War II, he worked at procuring supplies for the Italian Army in the Balkans. He was later appointed as an official delegate of the Italian government with diplomatic status and sent to Eastern Europe with the mission of buying meat for the Italian army fighting on the Russian front. On 8 September 1943, Italy surrendered to the Allied forces. Italians had to choose whether to join Benito Mussolini's newly formed Italian Social Republic, which was fascist, or stay loyal to the King and join the Allies' side. Perlasca chose the latter.  In Budapest, he was arrested and confined to a castle reserved for diplomats. After a few months, he used a medical pass that allowed him to travel within Hungary and he requested political asylum at the Spanish Embassy. He took advantage of his status as a veteran of the Spanish war. He adopted the first name of \"Jorge\" and, since Spain was neutral in the war, he became a free man.  Perlasca worked with the Spanish Chargé d'Affaires, Ángel Sanz Briz, and other diplomats of neutral states to smuggle Jews out of Hungary. The system he devised consisted of furnishing 'protection cards' which placed Jews under the guardianship of various neutral states. He helped Jews find refuge in protected houses under the control of various embassies, which had extraterritorial conventions that gave them an equivalent to sovereignty. They could provide asylum for Jews.  When Sanz Briz was removed from Hungary to Switzerland in November 1944, he invited Perlasca to accompany him to safety. However, Perlasca chose to remain in Hungary. The Hungarian government ordered the Spanish Embassy building and the extraterritorial houses where the Jews took refuge to be cleared out. Perlasca immediately made the false announcement that Sanz Briz was due to return from a short leave, and that he had been appointed his deputy for the meantime. Throughout the winter, Perlasca was active in hiding, shielding and feeding thousands of Jews in Budapest. He continued issuing safe conduct passes (initiated by Sanz Briz), on the basis of a Spanish law passed in 1924 that granted citizenship to Jews of Sephardic origin (descendants of Iberian Jews expelled from Spain in the late 15th century).  In December 1944, Perlasca rescued two boys from being herded onto a freight train in defiance of a German lieutenant colonel on the scene. The Swedish diplomat-rescuer Raoul Wallenberg, also present there, later told Perlasca that the officer who had challenged him was Adolf Eichmann. During 45 days period from 1 December 1944 to 16 January 1945, Perlasca helped save more than 5,000 Jews, about four times more than saved by Oskar Schindler.  According to Perlasca, he also prevented the execution of a plan to demolish the Budapest Ghetto with around 60,000 people in it, as the Nazis had done in Warsaw. While Perlasca was posing as the Spanish consul-general, he learned of the intentions of the SS and Arrow Cross to destroy the ghetto. Shocked and incredulous, he asked for a direct hearing with the Hungarian interior minister, Gábor Vajna, and threatened him with legal and economic measures against the \"3,000 Hungarian citizens\" (in fact, a much smaller number) declared by Perlasca as residents of Spain, unless he withdrew the plan. Perlasca also offered to help Vajna and his family escape from Hungary before the advancing Soviet Army reached Budapest. The plan to raze the Budapest Ghetto was subsequently cancelled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After the war.", "content": "After the war, Perlasca returned to Italy. He did not talk about his actions in Hungary to anyone, including his family, and lived a quiet, humble life. In 1987, a group of Hungarian Jews whom he had saved finally found him after searching for him for 42 years in Spain. There was publicity at the time, and Perlasca became noted for his heroic deeds. Enrico Deaglio wrote an account of his remarkable heroism, \"Banality of Goodness,\" (2002), which became a bestseller. The book was adapted as a made-for-TV film, \"Perlasca – Un eroe Italiano\" (2005), by the RAI national television corporation.  Giorgio Perlasca died of a heart attack in 1992.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "Budapest 1944-45: L’incredibile storia dei “Giusti” nel corso della tragedia della Shoah (Attualità e storia Amazon)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giorgio Perlasca (31 January 1910, in Como – 15 August 1992, in Padua) was an Italian businessman and former fascist who, with the collaboration of official diplomats, posed as the Spanish consul-general to Hungary in the winter of 1944, and saved 5,218 Jews from deportation to Nazi extermination camps in eastern Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972350}
{"src_title": "Minesweeper (video game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Minesweeper\" has a very basic gameplay style. In its original form, mines are scattered throughout a board. This board is divided into cells, which have three states: uncovered, covered and flagged. A covered cell is blank and clickable, while an uncovered cell is exposed, either containing a number (the mines adjacent to it), or a mine. When a cell is uncovered by a player click, and if it bears a mine, the game ends. A flagged cell is similar to a covered one, in the way that mines are not triggered when a cell is flagged, and it is impossible to lose through the action of flagging a cell. However, flagging a cell implies that a player thinks there is a mine underneath, which causes the game to deduct an available mine from the display.  In order to win the game, players must logically deduce where mines exist through the use of the numbers given by uncovered cells. To win, all non-mine cells must be uncovered. At this stage, the timer is stopped. Commonly all mine cells are also flagged, but this is not required.  When a player left-clicks on a cell, the game will uncover it. If there are no mines adjacent to that particular cell, the mine will display a blank tile or a \"0\", and all adjacent cells will automatically be uncovered. Right-clicking on a cell will flag it, causing a flag to appear on it. Note that flagged cells are still covered, and a player can click on it to uncover it, like a normal covered cell (in many implementations, one must first unflag it, by right-clicking it again).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "\"Minesweeper\" has its origins in the earliest mainframe games of the 1960s and 1970s. The earliest ancestor of Minesweeper was Jerimac Ratliff's \"Cube\". The basic gameplay style became a popular segment of the puzzle video game genre during the 1980s, with such titles as \"Mined-Out\" (Quicksilva, 1983), \"Yomp\" (Virgin Interactive, 1983), and \"Cube\". \"Cube\" was succeeded by \"Relentless Logic\" (or \"RLogic\" for short), by Conway, Hong, and Smith, available for MS-DOS as early as 1985; the player took the role of a private in the United States Marine Corps, delivering an important message to the U.S. Command Center. \"RLogic\" had greater similarity to \"Minesweeper\" than to \"Cube\" in concept, but a number of differences exist:  The gameplay mechanics of \"Minesweeper\" are included in a variety of other software titles, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and variants.", "content": "Versions of \"Minesweeper\" are frequently bundled with operating systems and GUIs, including Minesweeper for OS/2, \"Minesweeper\" in Windows, \"KMines\" in KDE (Unix-like OSes), GNOME Mines in GNOME and MineHunt in Palm OS. Many clones can be found on the Internet.  Variants of the basic game generally have differently shaped minefields, in either two or three dimensions, and may have more than one mine per cell. For example, X11-based XBomb adds triangular and hexagonal grids, and \"Professional Minesweeper\" for Windows includes these and others. There are also variants for more than one player, in which the players compete against each other.  The HP-48G graphing calculator includes a variation on the theme called \"Minehunt\", where the player has to move safely from one corner of the playfield to the other. The only clues given are how many mines are in the squares surrounding the player's current position.  The Voltorb Flip game in the non-Japanese releases of \"Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver\" is a variation of \"Minesweeper\" and \"Picross\". A logic puzzle variant of minesweeper, suitable for playing on paper, starts with some squares already revealed. The player cannot reveal any more squares, but must instead mark the remaining mines correctly. Unlike the usual form of minesweeper, these puzzles usually have a unique solution. These puzzles appeared under the name \"tentaizu\" (天体図), Japanese for a star map, in Southwest Airlines' magazine \"Spirit\" in 2008–2009.  In the game \"Minecraft\", the 2015 April Fool's update \"The Love and Hugs Update\" added \"Minescreeper\". It is a near exact copy of \"Minesweeper\", except, instead of avoiding the mines, the player must avoid hidden Creepers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Computational complexity.", "content": "In 2000, Richard Kaye published a proof that it is NP-complete to determine whether a given grid of uncovered, correctly flagged, and unknown squares, the labels of the foremost also given, has an arrangement of mines for which it is possible within the rules of the game. The argument is constructive, a method to quickly convert any Boolean circuit into such a grid that is possible if and only if the circuit is satisfiable; membership in NP is established by using the arrangement of mines as a certificate. If, however, a minesweeper board is already guaranteed to be consistent, solving it is not known to be NP-complete, but it has been proven to be co-NP-complete.  Kaye also proved that infinite \"Minesweeper\" is Turing-complete.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rules.", "content": "The first click will never be a mine. It will clear the map and place numbers on the grid. The numbers reflect the number of mines touching a square.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Minesweeper is a single-player puzzle video game. The objective of the game is to clear a rectangular board containing hidden \"mines\" or bombs without detonating any of them, with help from clues about the number of neighboring mines in each field. The game originates from the 1960s, and has been written for many computing platforms in use today. It has many variations and offshoots.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972351}
{"src_title": "Marsilius of Padua", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Marsilius was born in Padua, an important Italian city, circa 1275-1280. He probably studied medicine at the University of Padua and later went to the University of Paris, where he became a devoted admirer of Aristotle, whom he called 'the divine philosopher\". He served as rector of the University of Paris in 1313.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political theory and later years.", "content": "Marsilius wrote \"Defensor pacis\" in 1324. This treatise was written in the context of a power struggle between Pope John XXII and Louis of Bavaria (or Ludwig of Bavaria), the elected candidate for Holy Roman Emperor. Louis' policies in the Italian peninsula, where the Empire had important territories, threatened papal territorial sovereignty. In 1323 Louis had sent an army to Italy to protect Milan against the powerful Kingdom of Naples. Naples, along with France, was a strong ally of John XXII. John excommunicated Louis and demanded that he relinquish his claim to the imperial crown. Louis responded to John XXII with fresh provocations.  In \"Defensor pacis\", Marsilius sought to demonstrate, by arguments from reason (in \"Dictio I\" of the text) and by argument from authority (in \"Dictio II\") the independence of the Holy Roman Empire from the Papacy and the emptiness of the prerogatives alleged to have been usurped by the Roman pontiffs. A number of Marsilius's views were declared to be heretical by Pope John XXII in 1327.  Most of \"Defensor pacis\" is devoted to theology. Relying heavily on Scripture, Marsilius seeks to show that Jesus did not claim to possess any temporal power and that he did not intend his church to exercise any. On the contrary, Scripture teaches that the church should be thoroughly subordinate to the state in both secular and spiritual matters. All authority in the church lies with the whole body of the faithful, the secular ruler who acts as the people's representative, and general councils called by the secular ruler. Some of Marsilius's arguments on these themes had a marked influence during the Reformation.  Today, Marsilius's \"Defensor pacis\" is best remembered not for its theology but for its political philosophy and legal theory. Marsilius agrees with Aristotle that the purpose of government is the rational fulfillment of humans' natural desire for a \"sufficient life\". However, he goes beyond Aristotle in embracing a form of republicanism that views the people as the only legitimate source of political authority. Sovereignty lies with the people, and the people should elect, correct, and, if necessary, depose its political leaders. Democracy, Marsilius argues, is the best form of government because it tends to produce the wisest laws, protects the common benefit, promotes \"sufficiency of life\", and produces laws that are most likely to be obeyed.  Marsilius and John of Jandun, who has sometimes been credited as a co-author of \"Defensor pacis\", left France for Louis' court in Bavaria. Louis admitted Marsilius and John to his circle. Others were also under his protection, including Michael of Cesena and the philosopher William of Ockham, an advocate of an early form of church and state separation. In 1326, Marsilius accompanied Louis to Italy, where he preached or circulated written attacks against the pope. The Lord of Milan Galeazzo I Visconti, suspected of conspiring with John XXII, was deposed and Louis was crowned King of Italy in Milan in 1327.  In January 1328 Louis entered Rome and had himself crowned emperor by the aged senator Sciarra Colonna, called \"captain of the Roman people\". Three months later, Louis published a decree declaring \"Jacque de Cahors\"—Pope John XXII—deposed on grounds of heresy. He then installed the Franciscan Pietro Rainalducci as Nicholas V. Nicholas was deposed upon Louis's departure from Rome in 1329.  In Bavaria, as imperial vicar, Marsilius persecuted the clergy who had remained faithful to John XXII. In recompense for his services, he was appointed archbishop of Milan, and John of Jandun obtained from Louis IV the bishopric of Ferrara.  Marsilius also composed a treatise \"De translatione [Romani] imperii\", which some authorities consider is a rearrangement of a similar work by Landolfo Colonna called \"De jurisdictione imperatoris in causa matrimoniali\". This work, and Marsilius's variation, sought to justify the exclusive jurisdiction of the emperor in matrimonial affairs: Louis of Bavaria had recently annulled the marriage of the son of the King of Bohemia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Marsilius died in Munich around 1342, still unreconciled to the Church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Some authorities consider \"Defensor pacis\" one of the most important political and religious works of fourteenth-century Europe. In the \"Defensor minor\", Marsilius completed and elaborated on different points in the doctrine laid down in the \"Defensor pacis\". He dealt here with problems concerning ecclesiastical jurisdiction, penance, indulgences, crusades and pilgrimages, vows, excommunication, the general church council, marriage and divorce, and unity with the Greek Orthodox Church. In this work he even more clearly articulates imperial supremacy over the Church.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marsilius of Padua (Italian: \"Marsilio\" or \"Marsiglio da Padova\"; born \"Marsilio dei Mainardini\" or \"Marsilio Mainardini\"; c. 1275 – c. 1342) was an Italian scholar, trained in medicine, who practiced a variety of professions. He was also an important 14th-century political figure. His political treatise \"Defensor pacis\" (The Defender of Peace), an attempt to refute papalist claims to a \"plenitude of power\" in affairs of both church and state, is seen by some authorities as the most revolutionary political treatise written in the later Middle Ages. It is one of the first examples of a trenchant critique of caesaropapism in Western Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972352}
{"src_title": "Požarevac", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "In Serbian, the city is known as \"Požarevac\" (Пожаревац), in Romanian as \"Pojarevaţ\", in Turkish as \"Pasarofça\", in German as \"Passarowitz\", and in Hungarian as \"Pozsarevác\".  The name means \"fire-town\" in Serbian (In this case, the word \"fire\" is used in the sense of a disaster).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient times.", "content": "In ancient times, the area was inhabited by Thracians, Dacians, and Celts. There was a city at this locality known as \"Margus\" in Latin after the Roman conquest in the first century BC.  In 435, the city of Margus, under the Eastern Roman Empire, was the site of a treaty between the Byzantine Empire and the Hun leaders Attila and Bleda.  One pretext for the Hun invasion of the Eastern Roman Empire in 442 was that the Bishop of Margus had crossed the Danube to ransack and desecrate the royal Hun graves on the north bank of the Danube. When the Romans discussed handing over the Bishop, he slipped away and betrayed the city to the Huns, who then sacked the city and went on to invade as far as the gates of Constantinople itself.  After the fall of the Hunnic Empire, the area was again controlled by the Eastern Roman Empire. In the 6th century, it was briefly controlled by the Kingdom of the Gepids. Since the 6th century, the area was populated by Slavs, but the Eastern Roman Empire held a nominal control over the region until the 8th century when Balkan Slavs achieved de facto independence from the Eastern Empire. It was also ruled by Avar Khaganate before their demolition by Charlemagne. The area was subsequently included into the Bulgarian Empire and was alternately ruled by the Bulgarian Empire, the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary until the 13th century.  In the 13th century, the area was ruled by independent local Slavic-Bulgarian rulers, Drman and Kudelin. It was subsequently included into the Kingdom of Syrmia, ruled by Serbian king Stefan Dragutin and into the Kingdom of Serbia and Serbian Empire ruled by Stefan Dušan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "A Bronze Age figurine \"The Idol of Kličevac\" was found in a grave in the village of Kličevac. It was destroyed during World War I.  The National Museum in Belgrade and Požarevac has some 40,000 items found in Viminacium, of which over 700 are of gold and silver. Among them are many invaluable rarities.  In June 2008, a Triballian (Thracian) grave was found with ceramics (urns). These date from the first millennium BC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern city.", "content": "The modern town of Požarevac was first mentioned in the 14th century under the name \"Puporače\"; it first being mentioned under its present-day name in 1476. The town became part of Moravian Serbia and Serbian Despotate, until the Ottoman conquest in 1459. During Ottoman administration, it was part of the Sanjak of Smederevo. It was occupied by Austrian Empire between 1688 and 1690.  In 1718, Požarevac was the site of the signing of the Treaty of Požarevac, with the town then falling under Habsburg control and becoming part of the Habsburg Kingdom of Serbia (from 1718 to 1739). After 1739, the town reverted to Ottoman control except final Austrian occpation between 1789 and 1791. During the First Serbian Uprising (1804-1813), the town was part of the Karađorđe's Serbia. At the end of the uprising in 1813, the town came briefly once more under direct Ottoman control. However, following the Second Serbian Uprising from 1815, the town then became part of the autonomous Ottoman Principality of Serbia. Požarevac was the second capital of the Serbian prince, Miloš Obrenović with the first regular state court in Serbia being established here in 1821. Since 1878, Požarevac became part of the independent Principality of Serbia and since 1882 as part of the Kingdom of Serbia.  Following the end of the First World War in 1918, the town was part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929). From 1929 to 1941, Požarevac was part of the Danube Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. During the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, from 1941 to 1944, it was part of the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia. From 1944, Požarevac became part of the new socialist Serbia within socialist Yugoslavia. And from 1992, the town became part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (renamed as Serbia and Montenegro in 2003). Since 2006 it has been part of the Republic of Serbia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Municipalities and settlements.", "content": "The City of Požarevac includes two city municipalities:  These include the following settlements: In the 2008 reform of Serbian local government, Požarevac received the status of a city and the town of Kostolac became the seat of the second city municipality. Požarevac is the smallest Serbian city consisting of two municipalities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "As of 2011, the city of Požarevac has a total population of 75,334 inhabitants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnic groups.", "content": "The ethnic composition of the municipal area of the city of Požarevac:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Seats in the municipality parliament won in the 2016 local elections:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Požarevac is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Požarevac (, ) is a city and the administrative center of the Braničevo District in eastern Serbia. It is located between three rivers: Danube, Great Morava and Mlava. As of 2011, the city has a population of 44,183 inhabitants, while the city administrative area has 75,334 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972353}
{"src_title": "Henri, Count of Chambord", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Henri d'Artois was born on 29 September 1820, in the Pavillon de Marsan, a portion of the Tuileries Palace that still survives in the compound of the Louvre Palace in Paris. His father, the \"duc de Berry\", had been assassinated seven months before his birth.  At birth, Henri was given the title of \"duc de Bordeaux.\" Because of his birth after his father's death, when the senior male line of the House of Bourbon was on the verge of extinction, Henri was named \"Dieudonné\" (\"God-given\"). Royalists called him \"the miracle child\". Louis XVIII was overjoyed, bestowing 35 royal orders to mark the occasion. Henri's birth was a major setback for Duke of Orleans' ambitions to ascend the French throne. During his customary visit to congratulate the newborn's mother, the duke made such offensive remarks about the baby's appearance that the lady holding him was brought to tears.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pretender monarch.", "content": "On 2 August 1830, in response to the July Revolution, Henri's grandfather, Charles X, abdicated, and twenty minutes later Charles' elder son Louis Antoine, \"duc d'Angoulême\", himself renounced his rights, in favour of the young \"duc de Bordeaux\". Charles X urged his cousin Louis Philippe of Orléans, as \"Lieutenant général du royaume\", to proclaim Henri as \"Henry V, King of France\". Louis Philippe requested the \"duc de Bordeaux\" to be brought in Paris to have his rights recognized. The duchess of Berry was denied to escort her son, therefore both the grand-father and the mother refused to leave the child in France. As a consequence, after seven days, a period in which legitimist monarchists considered that Henri had been the rightful monarch of France, the National Assembly decreed that the throne should pass to Louis Philippe, who was proclaimed King of the French on 9 August.  Henri and his family left France and went into exile on 16 August 1830. While some French monarchists recognized him as their sovereign, others disputed the validity of the abdications of his grandfather and of his uncle. Still others recognised the \"July Monarchy\" of Louis Philippe. With the death of his 79-year-old grandfather in 1836 and of his uncle in 1844, young Henri became the genealogically senior claimant to the French throne. His supporters were called \"Legitimists\" to distinguish them from the \"Orléanists\", the supporters of the family of Louis Philippe.  Henri, who preferred the courtesy title of comte de Chambord (from the château de Chambord, which had been presented to him by the Restoration government, and which was the only significant piece of personal property of which he was allowed to retain ownership upon his exile), continued his claim to the throne throughout the July Monarchy of Louis Philippe, the Second Republic, the Second Empire of Napoléon III, and the Third Republic.  In November 1846, the \"comte de Chambord\" married his second cousin Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Este, daughter of Duke Francis IV of Modena and Princess Maria Beatrice of Savoy. The couple had no children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hope.", "content": "In the early 1870s, as the Second Empire collapsed following its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War at the battle of Sedan on 1 September 1870, the royalists became a majority in the National Assembly. The Orléanists agreed to support the aging \"comte de Chambord\"'s claim to the throne, with the expectation that at his childless death he would be succeeded by their own claimant, Philippe d'Orléans, comte de Paris. Henri was then pretender for both Legitimists and Orléanists, and the restoration of monarchy in France seemed a close possibility. However, Henri insisted that he would accept the crown only on condition that France abandon its tricolour flag and return to the use of the white \"fleur de lys\" flag. He rejected a compromise, whereby the \"fleur-de-lys\" would be the new king's personal standard, and the tricolour would remain the national flag.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Defeat.", "content": "A temporary Third Republic was established, to wait for Henri's death and his replacement by the more liberal Comte de Paris. By the time this occurred in 1883, public opinion had however swung behind the Republic as the form of government which, in the words of the former President Adolphe Thiers, \"divides us least\". Thus, Henri could be mockingly hailed by republicans such as Georges Clemenceau as \"the French Washington\" — the one man without whom the Republic could not have been founded.  Henri died on 24 August 1883 at his residence in Frohsdorf, Austria, at the age of sixty-two, bringing the Louis XV male-only line to an end. He was buried in his grandfather Charles X's crypt in the church of the Franciscan Kostanjevica Monastery in Gorizia, then Austria, now in Slovenian city of Nova Gorica. His personal property, including the château de Chambord, was left to his nephew, Robert I, Duke of Parma (son of Henri's late sister).  Henri's death left the Legitimist line of succession distinctly confused. On one hand, Henri himself had accepted that the head of the \"Maison de France\" (as distinguished from the \"Maison de Bourbon\") would be the head of the Orléans line, i.e. the Comte de Paris. This was accepted by many Legitimists, and was the default on legal grounds; the only surviving Bourbon line more senior was the Spanish branch, which had renounced its right to inherit the throne of France as a condition of the Treaty of Utrecht. However, many if not most of Henri's supporters, including his widow, chose to disregard his statements and this law, arguing that no one had the right to deny to the senior direct-male-line male Bourbon to be the head of the \"Maison de France\" and thus the legitimate King of France; the renunciation of the Spanish branch is under this interpretation illegitimate and therefore void. Thus these Legitimists settled on Juan, Count of Montizón, the Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne (the Salic law having been suspended in Spain, the actual king, Alfonso XII, was not the senior descendant in the male line), as their claimant to the French crown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancestry.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patrilineal descent.", "content": "Henri's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son.  Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations - which means that if Henri were to choose an historically accurate house name it would be Robertian, as all his male-line ancestors have been of that house.  Henri is a member of the House of Bourbon, a branch of the Capetian dynasty and of the Robertians.  Henri's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. It follows the Bourbon, Kings of France, and the Counts of Paris and Worms. This line can be traced back more than 1,200 years from Robert of Hesbaye to the present day, through Kings of France & Navarre, Spain and Two-Sicilies, Dukes of Parma and Grand-Dukes of Luxembourg, Princes of Orléans and Emperors of Brazil. It is one of the oldest in Europe.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Prince Henri, Count of Chambord (; 29 September 1820 – 24 August 1883) was disputedly King of France from 2 to 9 August 1830 as Henry V, although he was never officially proclaimed as such. Afterwards, he was the Legitimist pretender to the throne of France from 1844 until his death in 1883.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972354}
{"src_title": "Saint-Malo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Population.", "content": "The population, in 2012, was 44,620 – though this can increase to up to 200,000 in the summer tourist season. With the suburbs included, the metropolitan area's population is approximately 153,000 (2011).  The population of the commune more than doubled in 1968 with the merging of three communes: Saint-Malo, Saint-Servan (population 14,963 in 1962) and Paramé (population 8,811 in 1962).  Inhabitants of Saint-Malo are called \"Malouins\" in French.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Founded by Gauls in the 1st century BC, the ancient town on the site of Saint-Malo was known as the Roman Reginca or Aletum. By the late 4th century AD, the Saint-Servan district was the site of a major Saxon Shore promontory fort that protected the Rance estuary from seaborne raiders from beyond the frontiers. According to the \"Notitia Dignitatum\", the fort was garrisoned by the \"militum Martensium\" under a \"dux\" (commander) of the \"Tractus Armoricanus and Nervicanus\" section of the \"litus Saxonicum\". During the decline of the Western Roman Empire, Armorica (modern-day Brittany) rebelled from Roman rule under the Bagaudae and in the 5th and 6th centuries received many Celtic Britons fleeing instability across the Channel. The modern Saint-Malo traces its origins to a monastic settlement founded by Saint Aaron and Saint Brendan early in the sixth century. Its name is derived from a man said to have been a follower of Brendan the Navigator, Saint Malo or Maclou, an immigrant from what is now Wales.  Saint-Malo is the setting of Marie de France's poem \"Laüstic,\" an 11th-century love story. The city had a tradition of asserting its autonomy in dealings with the French authorities and even with the local Breton authorities. From 1590 to 1593, Saint-Malo declared itself to be an independent republic, taking the motto \"not French, not Breton, but Malouin.\"  Saint-Malo became notorious as the home of the corsairs, French privateers and sometimes pirates. In the 19th century, this \"piratical\" notoriety was portrayed in Jean Richepin's play \"Le flibustier\" and in César Cui's eponymous opera. The corsairs of Saint-Malo not only forced English ships passing up the Channel to pay tribute but also brought wealth from further afield. Jacques Cartier lived in, and sailed from, Saint-Malo to the Saint Lawrence River, visiting the villages of Stadacona and Hochelaga that would later become the sites of present-day Quebec City and Montreal respectively. As the first European to encounter these sites and learning the local word “Kanata” (meaning a group of houses), Cartier is credited as the discoverer of Canada.  Inhabitants of Saint-Malo are called \"Malouins\" in French. From this came the Spanish name for the \"Islas Malvinas\", the archipelago known in English as the Falkland Islands. Islas Malvinas derives from the 1764 name \"Îles Malouines\", given to the islands by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville. Bougainville, who founded the archipelago's first settlement, named the islands after the inhabitants of Saint-Malo, the point of departure for his ships and colonists.  In 1758, the Raid on Saint-Malo saw a British expedition land, intending to capture the town. However, the British made no attempt on Saint-Malo and instead occupied the nearby town of Saint-Servan, where they destroyed 30 privateers before departing.  In World War II, during fighting in late August and early September 1944, the historic walled city of Saint-Malo was almost totally destroyed by American shelling and bombing as well as British naval gunfire. The beaches of nearby Dinard had been heavily fortified against possible Allied commando raids. Artillery at the two locations provided mutual support. The fortification complex was garrisoned by more than twelve thousand German troops from different services and units as well as stragglers from other battles in the Cotentin. About eight thousand Germans were in Saint-Malo itself when the battle began.  Colonel Andreas von Aulock, the German commander, refused to surrender when asked to do so by the town’s authorities. He said he “would defend St. Malo to the last man even if the last man had to be himself.”  The first American attack was launched by the 83rd Infantry Division on 5 August 1944. German positions at Chateauneuf quickly fell. Cancale was abandoned and occupied by the Americans on the 6th. In the same way and on the same day, Dinan fell to Free French forces. The Germans shortened their lines and drew closer to the ancient citadel at St. Servan-sur-Mer, now reinforced with concrete.  Effective German artillery emplacements on the island of Cezembre were out of reach of American ground forces. German garrisons on the Channel Islands of Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney were able to use small craft to bring in water and remove the wounded from the battle.  On 13 August, the walled city was on fire and a short truce was declared to allow French civilians to flee the city. Outlying German positions at St. Ideuc and La Varde fell to infantry attacks. This fighting ended resistance on the north shore of the peninsula. Only the citadel remained. Surrounded by American artillery and under frequent air attack, this last holdout surrendered on the afternoon of 17 August.  Cezembre surrendered on 2 September when the three-hundred-man garrison ran out of drinking water. The Americans had taken more than ten thousand prisoners during the two-week fight, von Aulock among them.  Saint-Malo was rebuilt over a 12-year period from 1948 to 1960.  Saint-Malo is a subprefecture of the Ille-et-Vilaine. The commune of Saint-Servan was merged, together with Paramé, and became the commune of Saint-Malo in 1967.  Saint-Malo was the site of an Anglo-French summit in 1998 that led to a significant agreement regarding European defence policy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Saint-Malo is part of Ille-et-Vilaine's 7th constituency, and is currently represented in the National Assembly by Republicans Member of Parliament, Gilles Lurton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Schools.", "content": "Schools include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Saint-Malo has a terminal for ferry services with daily departures to Portsmouth operated by Brittany Ferries and services on most days Poole in England via the Channel Islands operated by Condor Ferries. It also has a railway station, Gare de Saint-Malo, offering direct TGV service to Rennes, Paris and several regional destinations. There is a bus service provided by Keolis. The town is served by the Dinard–Pleurtuit–Saint-Malo Airport around to the south.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sites of interest.", "content": "Now inseparably attached to the mainland, Saint-Malo is the most visited place in Brittany. Sites of interest include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "Saint-Malo was the birthplace of:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Saint-Malo is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Much of the action in Anthony Doerr's 2014 award-winning novel, \"All the Light We Cannot See\", occurs in Saint-Malo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint-Malo (,, ; Gallo: \"Saent-Malô\"; ) is a historic French port in Ille-et-Vilaine, Brittany on the English Channel coast.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972355}
{"src_title": "Hamani Diori", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Youth.", "content": "Born in Soudouré, near the capital, Niamey, Diori was the son of a public health officer in the French colonial administration. He attended William Ponty Teachers' Training College in Dakar, Senegal, and worked as a teacher in Niger from 1936 to 1938, then became a Hausa and Djerma foreign language instructor at the Institute of Study Abroad, in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Independence struggle.", "content": "In 1946, while working as the headmaster of a school in Niger’s capital city of Niamey, he became one of the founders of the Nigerien Progressive Party (PPN), a regional branch of the African Democratic Rally (RDA). Later that year, he was elected to the French National Assembly. In the 1951 election, Diori was defeated by his cousin and political rival Djibo Bakary. He was again elected to the assembly in 1956, and was chosen deputy-speaker.  In 1958, after a referendum that granted Niger self-government, Diori became president of the provisional government. He then became Prime Minister of the republic in 1959. During this period, the French government banned all political parties except the PPN, effectively making Niger a one-party state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditionalist coalition.", "content": "Niger gained independence from France on 3 August 1960 and Diori was elected president by the country's national assembly in November 1960. Organizing a powerful coalition of Hausa, Fula, and (most prominently) Djerma leaders, including chiefs and traditionalists, in support of Niger’s independence referendum, Diori gained French favor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First president.", "content": "Soon after independence, Diori made the PPN to be the only legally permitted party. His government favored the maintenance of traditional social structures and the retention of close economic ties with France. From the early 1960s, he ruled through a small number of pre-independence figures who sat on the PPN Politburo and largely bypassed even the cabinet. In addition to being both president of the republic and president of the PPN, Diori directly led a number of Ministries. From 1960 to 1963 he served as his own defence minister and foreign minister, and again took over the Foreign Ministry from 1965 to 1967. Most prominent, and perhaps most powerful, among Diori's advisers was writer and President of the National Assembly of Niger, Boubou Hama, who one writer has called the \"eminence grise\" behind Diori's rule. The National Assembly of Niger met in largely ceremonial yearly sittings to ratify government positions. Traditional notables, elected as parliamentary representatives, often unanimously endorsed government proposals. As president of the PPN, Diori was the only candidate for president of the republic, and as such was re-elected unopposed in 1965 and 1970.  He gained worldwide respect for his role as a spokesman for African affairs and as a popular arbitrator in conflicts involving other African nations. Domestically, however, his administration was rife with corruption, and the government was unable to implement much-needed reforms or to alleviate the widespread famine brought on by the Sahelian drought of the early 1970s. Increasingly criticized at home for his negligence in domestic matters, Diori put down a coup in December 1963, which occurred concurrently with a border dispute with the Republic of Dahomey. He also narrowly escaped assassination in 1965. Faced with an attempted military coup and attacks by members of Sawaba, he used French advisers and troops to strengthen his rule. Close links with France lead to student and union protests against what they described as \"French neocolonialism\". However, his relationship with France suffered when his government voiced dissatisfaction with the level of investment in uranium production when Georges Pompidou visited Niger in 1972.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unrest and fall.", "content": "Widespread civil disorder followed allegations that some government ministers were misappropriating stocks of food aid and accused Diori of consolidating power. Diori limited cabinet appointments to fellow Djerma, family members, and close friends. In addition, he acquired new powers by declaring himself the minister of foreign and defense affairs. On 15 April 1974, Lieutenant colonel Seyni Kountché led a military coup that ended Diori's rule. He was imprisoned for six years. After his release in 1980, he remained under house arrest until 1987.  After being released from house arrest, he moved to Morocco, where he died on 23 April 1989 at the age of 72.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hamani Diori (6 June 1916 – 23 April 1989) was the first President of the Republic of Niger. He was appointed to that office in 1960, when Niger gained independence. Although corruption was a common feature of his administration, he gained international respect for his role as a spokesman for African affairs and as a popular arbitrator in conflicts. His rule ended with a coup in 1974.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972356}
{"src_title": "Russian roulette", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "According to Andrew Clarke, the first trace of Russian roulette can be found in the story \"The Fatalist\" of 1840, part of the collection \"A Hero of Our Time\" by Mikhail Lermontov, a Russian poet and writer. In the story the protagonist of the novel, Grigory Alexandrovich Pechorin, says there is no predestination and proposes a bet emptying about twenty gold pieces onto the table. A lieutenant of the dragons of the tsar of Serbian origin, Vulič, with passion for gambling, accepts the challenge and randomly takes one of the various-caliber pistols from its nail, cocks it and pours powder on the shelf. Nobody knows if the pistol is loaded or not. Vulič asks: \"Gentlemen! Who will pay 20 gold pieces for me?\", putting the muzzle of the pistol to his forehead. Then he asks Gregory to throw a card in the air and when this card touches the ground, he shoots. Fortunately, nothing happens, because the blow fails, but when Vulič cocks the pistol again, and aims it at the service cap hanging over the window, a shot rings out and smoke fills the room.  The game spread among Russian garrison officials, becoming a foolish courage challenge. It became a way to alleviate the boredom of the long hours in distant garrisons; it also became an undertaking that, in the eyes of its players, superseded the duel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The term \"Russian roulette\" was possibly first used in a 1937 short story of the same name by Georges Surdez:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Drinking games.", "content": "There is a drinking game based on Russian roulette. The game involves six shot glasses filled by a non-player. Five are filled with water, the sixth with vodka. Among some groups, low quality vodka is preferred as it makes the glass representing the filled chamber less desirable. The glasses are arranged in a circle, and players take turns choosing a glass to take a shot from at random.  There is also a game called \"Beer Hunter\" (titled after the Russian roulette scenes in the film \"The Deer Hunter\"). In this game, six cans of beer are placed between the participants. One can is vigorously shaken, and the cans are scrambled. The participants take turns opening the cans of beer right under their noses; the person who opens the shaken can (and sprays beer up their nose) is deemed the loser.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Russian roulette (, \"russkaya ruletka\") is a lethal game of chance in which a player places a single round in a revolver, spins the cylinder, places the muzzle against their head, and pulls the trigger in hopes that the loaded chamber doesn't align with the primer percussion mechanism and the barrel, causing the weapon to discharge. \"Russian\" refers to the supposed country of origin, and \"roulette\" to the element of risk-taking and the spinning of the revolver's cylinder, which is reminiscent of a spinning roulette wheel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972357}
{"src_title": "Dyeing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word dye is from Middle English \"deie\" and from Old English \"dag\" and \"dah\". The first known use of the word dye was before the 12th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest dyed flax fibers have been found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia and date back to 34,000 BC. More evidence of textile dyeing dates back to the Neolithic period at the large Neolithic settlement at Çatalhöyük in southern Anatolia, where traces of red dyes, possibly from ocher, an iron oxide pigment derived from clay, were found. In China, dyeing with plants, barks, and insects has been traced back more than 5,000 years. Early evidence of dyeing comes from Sindh province in Pakistan, where a piece of cotton dyed with a vegetable dye was recovered from the archaeological site at Mohenjo-daro (3rd millennium BCE). The dye used in this case was madder, which, along with other dyes such as indigo, was introduced to other regions through trade. Natural insect dyes such as Cochineal and kermes and plant-based dyes such as woad, indigo and madder were important elements of the economies of Asia and Europe until the discovery of man-made synthetic dyes in the mid-19th century. The first synthetic dye was William Perkin's mauveine in 1856, derived from coal tar. Alizarin, the red dye present in madder, was the first natural pigment to be duplicated synthetically in 1869, a development which led to the collapse of the market for naturally grown madder. The development of new, strongly colored synthetic dyes followed quickly, and by the 1870s commercial dyeing with natural dyestuffs was disappearing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Methods.", "content": "Dyes are applied to textile goods by dyeing from dye solutions and by printing from dye pastes and the Methods that are included are direct application and yarn dyeing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selection of dyes.", "content": "Selection of the appropriate dye is important because any given dye is not applicable on every type of fiber. Furthermore, resistance to washing, rubbing and light differ among dyes. The choice of dye depends on the objective in dyeing and which material is to be dyed. For example, indigo dyes have poor wash and rubbing fastness on denim (cotton), so they are used to produce washed-down effects on that fabric. In contrast, vat or reactive dyes are applied on cottons to achieve excellent washing fastness.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Direct application.", "content": "The term \"direct dye application\" stems from some dyestuff having to be either fermented as in the case of some natural dye or chemically reduced as in the case of synthetic vat and sulfur dyes before being applied. This renders the dye soluble so that it can be absorbed by the fiber since the insoluble dye has very little substantivity to the fiber. Direct dyes, a class of dyes largely for dyeing cotton, are water-soluble and can be applied directly to the fiber from an aqueous solution. Most other classes of synthetic dye, other than vat and surface dyes, are also applied in this way.  The term may also be applied to dyeing without the use of mordants to fix the dye once it is applied. Mordants were often required to alter the hue and intensity of natural dyes and improve color fastness. Chromium salts were until recently extensively used in dyeing wool with synthetic mordant dyes. These were used for economical high color fastness dark shades such as black and navy. Environmental concerns have now restricted their use, and they have been replaced with reactive and metal complex dyes that do not require mordant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Yarn dyeing.", "content": "There are many forms of yarn dyeing. Common forms are the package form and the hanks form. Cotton yarns are mostly dyed at package form, and acrylic or wool yarn are dyed at hank form. In the continuous filament industry, polyester or polyamide yarns are always dyed at package form, while viscose rayon yarns are partly dyed at hank form because of technology.  The common dyeing process of cotton yarn with reactive dyes at package form is as follows:  After this process, the dyed yarn packages are packed and delivered.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History of garment dyeing.", "content": "Garment dyeing is the process of dyeing fully fashioned garments subsequent to manufacturing, as opposed to the conventional method of manufacturing garments from pre-dyed fabrics.  Up until the mid-1970s the method was rarely used for commercial clothing production. It was used domestically, to overdye old, worn and faded clothes, and also by resellers of used or surplus military clothing. The first notable industrial use of the technique was made by Benetton, which garment dyed its Shetland wool knitwear.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complex garment dyeing.", "content": "In the mid-1970s the Bologna clothing designer Massimo Osti began experimenting with the garment dyeing technique. His experimentation over the next decade, led to the pioneering of not just the industrial use of traditional garment dyeing (dyeing simple cotton or wool garments) but, more importantly, the technique of “complex garment dyeing” which involved dyeing fully fashioned garments which had been constructed from multiple fabric or fiber types (e.g. a jacket made from both nylon and cotton, or linen, nylon and polyurethane coated cotton) in the same bath.  Up until its development by Massimo Osti (for his clothing brand C.P. Company), this technique had never been successfully industrially applied in any context. The complexity lay in developing both a practical and chemical understanding of how each fabric responded differently to the dye, how much it would shrink, how much color it would absorb, developing entirely new forms of quality control to verify possible defects in fabric before dyeing etc.  Beyond the industrial advantages of the technique (purchasing fabric in one color, white or natural, you may produce as many colors as you wish etc.), the artistic advantages of the technique were considerable and in many ways paved the way for the creation of the clothing style today known as Italian Sportswear. These advantages included The disadvantages included: Today, whilst garment dyeing is a diffusely employed as an industrial technique around the globe, predominantly in the production of vintage style cotton garments and by fast fashion suppliers, complex garment dyeing is still practiced almost exclusively in Italy, by a handful of premium brands and suppliers who remain committed to the art.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Removal of dyes.", "content": "If things go wrong in the dyeing process, the dyer may be forced to remove the dye already applied by a process called \"stripping\" or discharging. This normally means destroying the dye with powerful reducing agents such as sodium hydrosulfite or oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide or sodium hypochlorite. The process often risks damaging the substrate (fiber). Where possible, it is often less risky to dye the material a darker shade, with black often being the easiest or last option.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dyeing is the application of dyes or pigments on textile materials such as fibers, yarns, and fabrics with the goal of achieving color with desired color fastness. Dyeing is normally done in a special solution containing dyes and particular chemical material. Dye molecules are fixed to the fiber by absorption, diffusion, or bonding with temperature and time being key controlling factors. The bond between dye molecule and fiber may be strong or weak, depending on the dye used. Dyeing and printing are different applications; in printing, color is applied to a localized area with desired patterns. In dyeing, it is applied to the entire textile.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972358}
{"src_title": "Gianna Nannini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Nannini was born in Siena on 14 July 1956. She is the older sister of former Formula One racing driver Alessandro Nannini. She studied piano and composition in Milan in the late 1970s and obtained a degree in Philosophy from the University of Siena in 1994. The following year she took part in a protest organized by Greenpeace at the French embassy in Rome against the decision of the French government to pursue nuclear experiments at Mururoa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical career.", "content": "Nannini scored her first domestic hit in 1979 with the single \"America\" and the album \"California\", which became a success in several European countries. Her international breakthrough happened in 1984 with the release of her sixth album, the Conny Plank-produced \"Puzzle\", which peaked in the top 10 in the Italian, German, Austrian and Swiss charts. The first single from the album, \"Fotoromanza\", was supported by a music video directed by Michelangelo Antonioni, and went on to win many musical awards. Nannini embarked on a long European tour to support the album, culminating in a headlining gig at the Montreux Jazz Festival.  In 1986, her song \"Bello e impossibile\" was a European hit in Italy, Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Her 1987 compilation album \"Maschi e Altri\" sold over a million copies.  In 2004, she released the greatest hits album \"Perle\", where a number of her most renowned songs were rearrangemed with the support of musicians such as Christian Lohr on piano (who also had a co-producer credit), and a string quartet composed of Vincenzo di Donna (first violin), Luigi de Maio (second violin), Gerardo Morrone (viola) and Antonio di Franca (violoncello). With this orchestra Nannini went on a European tour from 2004 to 2005.  The album \"Grazie\" was released in February 2006, and peaked at number one of the Italian hit-parade with the single \"Sei nell'anima\".  In April 2007, Nannini released \"Pia come la canto io\", a collection of songs produced by Wil Malone and originally intended for a rock opera based on the medieval Tuscan character Pia de' Tolomei (briefly mentioned in Dante's Purgatorio) that would eventually be performed in 2008 after eleven years of gestation.  An acoustic version of her song \"Meravigliosa Creatura\" (from \"Perle\") has been used in a 2008 advertisement commercial for the Fiat Bravo directed by Matthias Zentner. Fiat would later include another Gianna Nannini song, \"Aria\", in a subsequent Fiat Bravo ad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duets.", "content": "In 1987 she performed with Sting and Jack Bruce the \"Three Penny Opera\" by Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill at the Schauspielhaus in Hamburg. In 1990, she and Edoardo Bennato sang \"Un'estate italiana\", the official song of the Football World Cup 1990 composed by Giorgio Moroder. In September 2006, she recorded the single \"Ama Credi E Vai\" with Andrea Bocelli. Nannini was also featured on Einstürzende Neubauten member Alexander Hacke's solo album \"Sanctuary\", on the track \"Per Sempre Butterfly\". In 2008 she duetted with the Italian rapper Fabri Fibra in his videoclip version of the song \"In Italia\". She also sang the song \"Aria\" with the Macedonian vocalist Toše Proeski.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In August 2010, at the age of 54, she announced that she was pregnant. Nannini's pregnancy was prominently featured on the cover of \"Vanity Fair\", where she was portraited wearing a T-shirt with the inscription ‘God is a Woman’. On 26 November 2010 at 12 AM Nannini's daughter Penelope Jane Charlotte was born at the Madonnina Clinic in Milan. In 2017, Nannini decided to move to London with her partner, Carla. In her 2017 autobiography, entitled \"Cazzi miei\", she revealed she was ready for a civil union with Carla, explaining she felt Italian laws could not give her any warranty about Penelope's future in the case of her (Nannini's) death.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gianna Nannini (; born 14 June 1956) is an Italian recording artist and singer-songwriter. Among her songs, \"Bello e impossibile\" (1986) was an international hit in Austria, Germany, Italy and Switzerland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972359}
{"src_title": "Königsberg Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The site of the castle was originally an Old Prussian fort known as \"Tuwangste\" near the Pregel River at an important waypoint in Prussian territory. Nearby were three Prussian villages, later known as Löbenicht, Sackheim, and Tragheim. After conquering the area in 1255, the Teutonic Knights constructed a provisionary wooden and earthworks fort in place of the Prussian one. By 1257, a new stone Ordensburg castle was being constructed. The castle was greatly enlarged and refortified in several stages between the 16th to 18th centuries.  The fortress, later designated a castle, was the residence of the Grandmasters of the Teutonic Order and later residence for Prussian rulers.  The 1815 \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" refers to \"the magnificent palace in which is a hall 83.5 m long and 18 m broad without pillars to support it, and a handsome library. The gothic tower of the castle is very high (100 m) and has 284 steps to the top, from where a great distance can be seen\". This extensive building, enclosed in a large quadrangle and situated almost in the center of the city, was formerly a seat of the Teutonic Order. It was altered and enlarged from the 16th to 18th centuries. The west wing contained the Schloßkirche, or palace church, where Frederick I was crowned in 1701 and William I in 1861. The arms emblazoned upon the walls and columns were those of members of the Order of the Black Eagle. Above the church was the 83 m long and 18 m high Moscowiter-Saal, one of the largest halls in the German Reich.  Until the latter part of World War II, the apartments of the Hohenzollerns and the Prussia Museum (north wing, ) were open to the public daily. Among other things, the museum accommodated 240,000 exhibits of the \"Prussian collection\", a collection of the Königsberg State and University Library, as well as many paintings by the artist Lovis Corinth. In 1926, Friedrich Lahrs led an excavation of the castle courtyard. During World War II, various pieces of captured Russian art were stored there, possibly including parts of the Amber Room. An extensive collection of provincial archives was also housed there. Also the \"Blutgericht\", a wine selling tavern, was situated within the castle. An image of Hans von Sagan was used as the castle's weathervane.  Following the bombing of Königsberg by the Allies in the Second World War in 1944, the castle completely burnt down. However, the thick walls were able to withstand both the aerial bombing and Soviet artillery, as well as urban fighting in April 1945, allowing the ruins of the castle to stay standing. The largely demolished Königsberg became part of the Soviet Union and was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946.  Kaliningrad was to be rebuilt as a model town on the remains of Königsberg, without reminders of the German past left standing. Leonid Brezhnev consequently ordered that the remains of the castle be disposed of so they would no longer stand as a reminder of \"Prussian militarism\". Despite protests from students and intellectuals from Kaliningrad, the ruins of the castle were blown up on Brezhnev's personal orders in 1968. However, the ruins of the nearby Königsberg Cathedral, which included the tomb of Immanuel Kant, were left standing, and in the late 1990s and early years of the 21st century were rebuilt and restored.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current situation.", "content": "Today Kaliningrad is still part of Russia. The centre square of Kaliningrad resides on the site of the castle, which despite its name, actually lies to the southeast of the town centre. Adjacent to the centre square on the filled-in moat is the \"House of Soviets\", which in 1960 was intended to be the central administration building. Continuation of development was stopped in the 1980s as the massive building gradually sank into the structurally unsound soil stemming from the collapse of tunnels in the old castle's subterranean levels. Many people call this the \"Revenge of the Prussians\" or \"The Monster\". The outside of the building was finally completed pending a visit by President Putin in 2005. The inside remains unfinished.  The current Kaliningrad city administration debated whether to rebuild the castle with the financial assistance of the Russian Department of Culture. In contrast to the Königsberger Dom, there would be the difficult task of erecting the castle from scratch, so plans were dropped for the time being. Instead, the centre square is cobbled.  In June 2010, the regional Minister of Culture, Mikhail Andreyev, announced that a referendum on the reconstruction of the castle would be held in the city of in March 2011. Previously, it had been intended to hold the referendum in October 2010, but budgetary pressures caused a delay. Since September 2001, the German magazine \"Der Spiegel\" has financed the excavation of parts of the castle's cellar, which was carried out with the Kaliningrad Art History Museum. It is hoped that various buried treasures of the previous castle museum are uncovered, and possibly the rest of the Amber Room. During the Second World War the Amber Room was transferred by Germany to Königsberg where it was installed in one of the halls of the Castle. Here its traces were lost. So far, thousands of articles have been discovered. In June 2005, an occult silver casket with medals and amulets was found, causing a sensation among experts. It is planned that after completion of the excavation, parts of the castle's vaults will be made accessible as an open-air museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Königsberg Castle (, ) was a castle in Königsberg, Germany (since 1946 Kaliningrad, Russia), and was one of the landmarks of the East Prussian capital Königsberg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972360}
{"src_title": "Spiš Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Spiš Castle was built in the 12th century on the site of an earlier castle. It was the political, administrative, economic and cultural center of Szepes County of the Kingdom of Hungary. Before 1464, it was owned by the kings of Hungary, afterward (until 1528) by the Zápolya family, the Thurzó family (1531–1635), the Csáky family (1638–1945), and (since 1945) by the state of Czechoslovakia then Slovakia.  Originally a Romanesque stone castle with fortifications, a two-story Romanesque palace and a three-nave Romanesque-Gothic basilica were constructed by the second half of the 13th century. A second extramural settlement was built in the 14th century, by which the castle area was doubled. The castle was completely rebuilt in the 15th century; the castle walls were heightened and a third extramural settlement was constructed. A late Gothic chapel was added around 1470. The Zápolya clan performed late Gothic transformations, which made the upper castle into a comfortable family residence, typical of late Renaissance residences of the 16th and 17th centuries. The last owners of the Spiš Castle, the Csáky family, abandoned the castle in the early 18th century because they considered it too uncomfortable to live in. They moved to the newly built nearby village castles/palaces in Hodkovce near Žehra and Spišský Hrhov.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decline and reconstruction.", "content": "In 1780, the castle was destroyed in a fire. The cause of the blaze is unknown, but there are a few theories. One is that the Csáky family purposely burned it down to reduce taxes as at the time additional taxes applied to roofed buildings. Another is that it was struck by lightning, which started the fire. A third is that some soldiers in the castle were making moonshine and in the process accidentally started the fire. Whatever the case, after the fire, the castle was no longer occupied and began to fall into disrepair.  The castle was partly reconstructed in the second half of the 20th century, and extensive archaeological research was carried out on the site. The reconstructed sections house displays of the Spiš Museum, and artifacts such as torture devices formerly used in the castle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Jayden R. likes Xiclali J A from treeview. ----Xochitl ;)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The ruins of Spiš Castle (, ; ; ) in eastern Slovakia form one of the largest castle sites in Central Europe. The castle is situated above the town of Spišské Podhradie and the village of Žehra, in the region known as Spiš (,,, ). It was included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites in 1993 (together with the adjacent locations of Spišská Kapitula, Spišské Podhradie and Žehra). This is one of the biggest European castles by area (41,426 m2).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972361}
{"src_title": "Sunday school", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "The first recorded Sunday school opened in 1751 in St Mary's Church, Nottingham. Hannah Ball made another early start, founding a school in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire,in 1769. However, the pioneer of Sunday schools is commonly said to be Robert Raikes, editor of the \"Gloucester Journal\", who in 1781, after prompting from William King (who was running a Sunday School in Dursley), recognised the need of children living in the Gloucester slums; the need also to prevent them from taking up crime.. He opened a school in the home of a Mrs Meredith, operating it on a Sunday - the only day that the boys and girls working in the factories could attend. Using the Bible as their textbook, the children learned to read and write.  In 18th-century England, education was largely reserved for a weathly, male minority and was not compulsory. The wealthy educated their children privately at home, with hired governesses or tutors for younger children. The town-based middle class may have sent their sons to grammar schools, while daughters were left to learn what they could from their mothers or from their fathers' libraries. The children of factory workers and farm labourers received no formal education, and typically worked alongside their parents six days a week, sometimes for more than 13 hours a day.  By 1785 over 250,000 children throughout England attended schools on Sundays. In 1784 many new schools opened, including the interdenominational Stockport Sunday School, which financed and constructed a school for 5,000 scholars in 1805. In the late-19th century this was accepted as being the largest in the world. By 1831 it was reported that attendance at Sunday schools had grown to 1.2 million. Robert Raikes's schools were seen as the precursors of the English state education system.  The first Sunday school in London opened at Surrey Chapel under Rowland Hill. By 1831 1,250,000 children in Great Britain, or about 25 per cent of the eligible population, attended Sunday schools weekly. The schools provided basic lessons in literacy alongside religious instruction.  In 1833, \"for the unification and progress of the work of religious education among the young\", the Unitarians founded their Sunday School Association, as \"junior partner\" to the British and Foreign Unitarian Association, with which it eventually set up offices at Essex Hall in Central London.  The work of Sunday schools in the industrial cities was increasingly supplemented by \"ragged schools\" (charitable provision for the industrial poor), and eventually by publicly funded education under the terms of the Elementary Education Act 1870. Sunday schools continued alongside such increasing educational provision, and new forms also developed such as the Socialist Sunday Schools movement, which began in the United Kingdom in 1886.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ireland.", "content": "The earliest recorded Sunday school programme in Ireland goes back to 1777 when Roman Catholic priest Daniel Delany - later (1787) Bishop Daniel Delany of Kildare and Leighlin - started a school in Tullow, County Carlow. This was a very sophisticated system which involved timetables, lesson plans, streaming, and various teaching activities. This system spread to other parishes in the diocese. By 1787 in Tullow alone there were 700 students, boys and girls, men and women, and 80 teachers. The primary intent of this Sunday School system was the teaching of the Catholic faith; the teaching of reading and writing became necessary to assist in this. With the coming of Catholic Emancipation in Ireland (1829) and the establishment of the National Schools system (1831), which meant that the Catholic faith could be taught in school, the Catholic Sunday School system became unnecessary.  The Church of Ireland Sunday School Society was founded in 1809. The Sabbath School Society of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland was founded in 1862.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "The American Sunday school system was first begun by Samuel Slater in his textile mills in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in the 1790s. Notable 20th-century leaders in the American Sunday School movement include: Clarence Herbert Benson, Henrietta Mears, founder of Gospel Light, Dr. Gene A. Getz, Howard Hendricks, Lois E. LeBar, Lawrence O. Richards and Elmer Towns.  Philanthropist Lewis Miller was the inventor of the \"Akron Plan\" for Sunday schools, a building layout with a central assembly hall surrounded by small classrooms, conceived with Methodist minister John Heyl Vincent and architect Jacob Snyder.  John Heyl Vincent collaborating was Baptist layman B. F. Jacobs, who devised a system to encourage Sunday school work, and a committee was established to provide the International Uniform Lesson Curriculum, also known as the \"Uniform Lesson Plan\". By the 1800s 80% of all new members were introduced to the church through Sunday school.  In 1874, interested in improving the training of Sunday school teachers for the Uniform Lesson Plan, Miller and Vincent worked together again to found what is now the Chautauqua Institution on the shores of Chautauqua Lake, New York.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Form.", "content": "In Evangelical churches, during worship service, children and young people receive an adapted education, in Sunday school, in a separate room.  Historically, Sunday schools were held in the afternoons in various communities, and were often staffed by workers from varying denominations. Beginning in the United States in the early 1930s, and Canada in the 1940s, the transition was made to Sunday mornings. Sunday school often takes the form of a one-hour or longer Bible study which can occur before, during, or after a church service. While many Sunday schools are focused on providing instruction for children (especially those sessions occurring during service times), adult Sunday-school classes are also popular and widespread (see RCIA). In some traditions, the term \"Sunday school\" is too strongly associated with children, and alternate terms such as \"Adult Electives\" or \"religious education\" are used instead of \"Adult Sunday school\". Some churches only operate Sunday school for children concurrently with the adult worship service. In this case, there is typically no adult Sunday school.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publishers.", "content": "In Great Britain an agency was formed called the Religious Tract Society which helped provide literature for the Sunday School. In the United States the American Sunday School Union was formed (headquartered in Philadelphia) for the publication of literature. This group helped pioneer what became known as the International Sunday School Lessons. The \"Sunday School Times\" was another periodical they published for the use of Sunday schools.  LifeWay Christian Resources, Herald and Banner Press, David C Cook, and Group Publishing are among the widely available published resources currently used in Sunday schools across the country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teachers.", "content": "Sunday school teachers are usually lay people who are selected for their role in the church by a designated coordinator, board, or a committee. Normally, the selection is based on a perception of character and ability to teach the Bible rather than formal training in education. Some Sunday school teachers, however, do have a background in education as a result of their occupations. Some churches require Sunday school teachers and catechists to attend courses to ensure that they have a sufficient understanding of the faith and of the teaching process to educate others. Other churches allow volunteers to teach without training; a profession of faith and a desire to teach is all that is required in such cases.  It is also not uncommon for Roman Catholic or Protestant pastors (church ministers) to teach such classes themselves. Some well-known public figures who teach, or have taught, Sunday school include astronaut Ron Garan, comedian Stephen Colbert, novelist John Grisham, and former U.S. president Jimmy Carter.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Sunday school is an educational institution, usually (but not always) Christian in character. Sunday school classes usually precede a Sunday church service and are used to provide catechesis to Christians, especially children and teenagers, and oftentimes adults as well. Churches of many Christian denominations have classrooms attached to the church used for this purpose. Many Sunday school classes operate on a set curriculum, with some teaching attendees a catechism. Members often receive certificates and awards for participation, as well as attendance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972362}
{"src_title": "Wetterstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Neighbouring ranges.", "content": "The Wetterstein borders on the following other mountain ranges of the Alps: In the \"AVE\", the Alpine Club classification of the Eastern Alps, the Wetterstein and the Mieming range are classed as a single group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Boundaries.", "content": "The River Loisach forms the boundary of the range to the west and north, from the Ehrwald Basin to Garmisch-Partenkirchen. To the northeast the boundary runs from Garmisch-Partenkirchen to Mittenwald along the Kankerbach and Kranzbach streams and the Isar river. To the east the Isar forms the boundary from Mittenwald to Scharnitz. South of Scharnitz it continues along the Drahnbach stream to Seestadeln. To the south the boundary extends from Ehrwald along the Gaisbach stream and over the Ehrwalder Alm to the Gaistal valley (Leutascher Ache) and continues via Leutasch-Oberweidach and past the Simmelberg to the north to the Drahnbach.  The saddle between the Kankerbach and the Kranzbach (the Loisach – Isar watershed) links the Wetterstein with the Bavarian Prealps. The saddle near the Ehrwalder Alm is the link between the Wetterstein and Mieming Chain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subgroups.", "content": "SOIUSA officially divides the \"Wettersteingebirge\" into two groups and eight subgroups:  The Alpine Club Guide divides the range based on access:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Peaks.", "content": "The 10 highest summits of the Wetterstein are: There are over 150 named summits in the Wetterstein with spot heights. Amongst the best known are (in order of height): The Zugspitze is very frequently climbed using various routes and the Alpspitze summit, too, is a popular destination that can be reached on several different routes. The ridge of Jubiläumsgrat is a high alpine climbing route that links these two summits. The climbing along the Blassenkamm ridge over the tops of the Innere, Mittlere and Äußere Höllentalspitze has sections that are classified as UIAA grade III-.  The region around the Oberreintal Hut and the south side of the Schüsselkarspitze and Scharnitzspitze are well known for alpine climbing routes of all levels up the solid, limestone slabs. The south side above the Gaistal is markedly quieter than the north side.  For climbers, the mountains north of Leutasch are very interesting, especially the Oberreintal-Schrofen, the Scharnitzspitze and the Schüsselkarspitze. On the south faces of these three border mountains are alpine climbing routes aplenty. In recent years several alpine classics were renovated by Heinz Zak. This has attracted ever more climbers to the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fauna.", "content": "The combination of alms and rugged rocky terrain is not only unique in the German Alpine region, but also offers habitats for several species of animal, such as chamois, Alpine marmots, Alpine choughs, Alpine salamanders, adders, golden eagles and many species of marten.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Huts.", "content": "The German Alpine Club maintains six managed Alpine Club huts in the Wetterstein mountains with overnight accommodation: the Münchner Haus (2,962 m), the Meiler Hut (2,366 m), the Knorr Hut (2,052 m), the Kreuzeckhaus (also: Adolf Zoeppritz Haus, 1,652 m), the Höllentalanger Hut (1,379 m) and the Reintalanger Hut (1,366 m). In addition, are the privately run Schachenhaus (1,866 m) and the Wiener Neustädter Hut (2,209 m, maintained by the Austrian Tourist Club) offer food, refuge and accommodation for mountaineers and hikers. The Munich Branch of the German Alpine Club has rented the Waxenstein Hut (also Alpl Hut or Aiple Hut) since 1920 and operates it as self-catered accommodation. In the Oberreintalkar lies the Oberreintal Hut, which is the meeting point for Wetterstein climbers (a self-catering hut although drinks are sold by the proprietor). In winter the Stuiben Hut is used as a self-catering hut for ski tourers and snowshoe trekkers. In addition there are several privately owned huts in the Wetterstein mountains. Of these, the Kreuzjochhaus stands out because of its idyllic setting, which offers one of the best panoramas in the Bavarian Alps in the summer and is located in the middle of the Garmisch-Partenkirchen ski region in the winter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Long-distance paths.", "content": "The Via Alpina, a cross-border long-distance path with five stages through the whole of the Alps, also runs through the Wetterstein. The Red Way of the Via Alpina (\"Rote Weg der Via Alpina\") runs through the Wetterstein in three stages:  Stage 15 of the North Alpine long-distance path 01 (Limestone Alp Way) runs through the Wetterstein in two route variations.  From Scharnitz over the Hoher Saddle to Leutasch-Ahrn both variations are combined. In Ahrn the long-distance path forks into a high alpine and an easier variant. The high alpine variant runs via the Meiler Hut into the Reintal valley and continues to the summit of the Zugspitze. From there it descends to Ehrwald. The easier variant runs through the Leutascher Achental valley via the Ehrwalder Alm and also ends at Ehrwald.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Klettersteigs.", "content": "There are the following klettersteigs (sometimes abbreviated to \"Steig\") in the Wetterstein:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lifts.", "content": "Several large cable cars and lifts link to the summit regions and high skiing areas: The Bavarian Zugspitze Railway (a metre gauge rack railway from Garmisch to the Zugspitzplatt), the Eibsee Cable Car (from the Eibsee to the Zugspitzplatt), the Tyrolean Zugspitze Cable Car (from Ehrwald to the Zugspitzplatt) and the Ehrwalder Almbahn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "Those not interested in a climbing tour or multi-day summit tour, can hike the Partnach Gorge, the Leutasch Gorge or the Höllental Gorge in a day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wetterstein Tunnel.", "content": "For many years there were discussions about a project to build a railway tunnel between the Tyrolean village of Telfs and the Bavarian town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen. The tunnel would have had a total length of 22 kilometres and would have enabled the journey time of trunk services between Munich Central Station and Innsbruck Central Station to be cut to 90 minutes. The project was assessed in 2013 to cost €2.2 B to build. A tunnel through the Wetterstein would save trains one hour in travelling between Munich and Landeck or Vorarlberg and relieve both the line from Munich via Rosenheim to Innsbruck and the route from Munich to Lindau. By bypassing Garmisch and moving the south portal of the tunnel east of Telfs-Sagl the tunnel would be just under 25 kilometres in length.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Wetterstein mountains (), colloquially called Wetterstein, is a mountain group in the Northern Limestone Alps within the Eastern Alps. It is a comparatively compact range located between Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Mittenwald, Seefeld in Tirol and Ehrwald along the border between Germany (Bavaria) and Austria (Tyrol). Zugspitze, the highest peak is at the same time the highest mountain in Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972363}
{"src_title": "Ruslan Ponomariov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Ponomariov was born in Horlivka in Ukraine. He was taught to play chess by his father at the age of 5. At 9 he became a first category player, and in September 1993 he moved to Kramatorsk. Here Ponomariov attended the A. V. Momot Chess School and was trained by Boris Ponomariov. In 1994 he placed third in the World Under-12 Championship at the age of ten. In 1996 he won the European Under-18 Championship at the age of just twelve, and the following year won the World Under-18 Championship. In 1998, at the age of fourteen, he was awarded the Grandmaster title, making him the youngest ever player at that time to hold the title. In 1999, he was a member of the Ukrainian national youth team, which won the U-16 Chess Olympiad in Artek, Ukraine.  Among Ponomariov's notable later results are first place at the Donetsk Zonal tournament in 1998, 5/7 score in the European Club Cup 2000 (including a victory over then-FIDE World Champion Alexander Khalifman), joint first with 71⁄2/9 at Torshavn 2000, 81⁄2/11 for Ukraine in the 2001 Chess Olympiad in Istanbul, winning gold medal on board 2, and first place with 7/10 in the 2001 Governor's Cup in Kramatorsk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "FIDE World Chess Champion 2002.", "content": "In 2002 he beat his fellow countryman Vassily Ivanchuk in the final of the FIDE World Chess Championship 2002 by a score of 41⁄2-21⁄2 to become FIDE World Champion at the age of 18, the first teenager and youngest person to do so.  In the same year he finished second in the very strong Linares tournament, behind Garry Kasparov. His result in the strong 2003 Corus tournament at Wijk aan Zee was not as good – despite having the third highest Elo rating, he finished only joint eleventh out of fourteen players with 6/13, and at Linares the same year he finished only fifth out of seven with 51⁄2/12.  There were plans for him to play a fourteen-game match against Kasparov in Yalta in September 2003, the winner of which would go on to play the winner of a match between Vladimir Kramnik and Péter Lékó as part of the so-called \"Prague Agreement\" to reunify the World Chess Championship (from 1993 until 2006 there were two world chess championships). However, this was called off by FIDE on the grounds that Ponomariov failed to sign the contract in time. The latter always alleged lack of equality in the contract for both contenders.  Ponomariov remained FIDE champion until Rustam Kasimdzhanov won the FIDE World Chess Championship 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-championship career.", "content": "On Ponomariov's 20th birthday, October 11, 2003, he became the first high-profile player to forfeit a game because of his mobile phone ringing during play. This happened in round one of the European Team Chess Championship in Plovdiv, Bulgaria, when Ponomariov was playing Black against Swedish GM Evgenij Agrest.  In 2004, Ponomariov won the gold medal at the 2004 Chess Olympiad held in Calvià, Spain, with the Ukrainian team.  In 2005 he won the 15th edition of the \"Ciudad de Pamplona\" tournament. He also won a rapid tournament in Odessa, Ukraine, and the Golden Blitz Cup in Moscow. Finally, that year he reached the 2005 Chess World Cup final against Levon Aronian, who won the final.  In 2006 he shared first place with Aronian and Peter Leko in the Tal Memorial tournament in Moscow.  In 2009 he shared first place with Hikaru Nakamura at the Donostia Chess Festival in San Sebastian, Spain. The latter won the tie-break blitz games 2–0. Ponomariov got one more second place by tie-break that year in the 2009 Chess World Cup, where he reached the final against Israeli Boris Gelfand. After four classic games, four rapid games, and two blitz games with a drawn score, Gelfand finally won in one last set of two blitz games.  In July 2010 Ponomariov won the prestigious Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting in Dortmund, one point ahead of Lê Quang Liêm from Vietnam. In September of that year, Ukraine won the gold once more at the 2010 Chess Olympiad in Khanty-Mansiysk with players Vassily Ivanchuk, Ruslan Ponomariov, Pavel Eljanov, Zahar Efimenko, and Alexander Moiseenko.  In February 2011, after occupying an unfortunate last place at the World Blitz Championship in November 2010 in Moscow, Ponomariov showed great improvement at the strong Aeroflot Blitz held in the same city by reaching second place, just half a point behind Shakhriyar Mamedyarov.  In June 2011 he won the 80th Ukrainian Chess Championship, the strongest ever in the country, with 81⁄2/11 and a performance rating of 2853.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ruslan Olegovich Ponomariov (, \"Ruslan Olehovych Ponomar'ov\"; born 11 October 1983) is a Ukrainian chess grandmaster. He was FIDE World Chess Champion from 2002 to 2004. He won the Ukrainian Chess Championship in 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972364}
{"src_title": "Universal Time", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Universal Time and standard time.", "content": "Prior to the introduction of standard time, each municipality throughout the clock-using world set its official clock, if it had one, according to the local position of the Sun (see solar time). This served adequately until the introduction of rail travel in Britain, which made it possible to travel fast enough over long distances to require continuous re-setting of timepieces as a train progressed in its daily run through several towns. Greenwich Mean Time, the mean solar time on the Prime Meridian at Greenwich, England, was established to solve this problem: all clocks in Britain were set to this time regardless of local solar noon. Chronometers or telegraphy were used to synchronize these clocks.  Standard time was originally proposed by Scottish-Canadian Sir Sandford Fleming at a meeting of the Canadian Institute in Toronto on 8 February 1879. He suggested that standard time zones could be used locally, but they were subordinate to his single world time, which he called Cosmic Time. The proposal divided the world into twenty-four time zones, each one covering 15 degrees of longitude. All clocks within each zone would be set to the same time as the others, but differed by one hour from those in the neighboring zones. The local time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich was announced as the recommended base reference for world time on 22 October 1884 at the end of the International Meridian Conference. This location was chosen because by 1884 two-thirds of all nautical charts and maps already used it as their prime meridian. The conference did not adopt Fleming's time zones because they were outside the purpose for which it was called, which was to choose a basis for universal time (as well as a prime meridian).  During the period between 1848 and 1972, all of the major countries adopted time zones based on the Greenwich meridian.  In 1935, the term \"Universal Time\" was recommended by the International Astronomical Union as a more precise term than Greenwich Mean Time, because GMT could refer to either an astronomical day starting at noon or a civil day starting at midnight. In some countries, the term \"Greenwich Mean Time\" persists in common usage to this day in reference to civil timekeeping.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Measurement.", "content": "Based on the rotation of the Earth, time can be measured by observing celestial bodies crossing the meridian every day. Astronomers found that it was more accurate to establish time by observing stars as they crossed a meridian rather than by observing the position of the Sun in the sky. Nowadays, UT in relation to International Atomic Time (TAI) is determined by Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) observations of distant quasars, a method which can determine UT1 to within 15 microseconds or better.  The rotation of the Earth and UT are monitored by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS). The International Astronomical Union also is involved in setting standards, but the final arbiter of broadcast standards is the International Telecommunication Union or ITU.  The rotation of the Earth is somewhat irregular and also is very gradually slowing due to tidal acceleration. Furthermore, the length of the second was determined from observations of the Moon between 1750 and 1890. All of these factors cause the modern mean solar day, on the average, to be slightly longer than the nominal 86,400 SI seconds, the traditional number of seconds per day. As UT is thus slightly irregular in its rate, astronomers introduced Ephemeris Time, which has since been replaced by Terrestrial Time (TT). Because Universal Time is determined by the Earth's rotation, which drifts away from more precise atomic-frequency standards, an adjustment (called a leap second) to this atomic time is needed since () 'broadcast time' remains broadly synchronised with solar time. Thus, the civil broadcast standard for time and frequency usually follows International Atomic Time closely, but occasionally step (or \"leap\") in order to prevent them from drifting too far from mean solar time.  Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB), a form of atomic time, is now used in the construction of the ephemerides of the planets and other solar system objects, for two main reasons. First, these ephemerides are tied to optical and radar observations of planetary motion, and the TDB time scale is fitted so that Newton's laws of motion, with corrections for general relativity, are followed. Next, the time scales based on Earth's rotation are not uniform and therefore, are not suitable for predicting the motion of bodies in our solar system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions.", "content": "There are several versions of Universal Time:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adoption in various countries.", "content": "The table shows the dates of adoption of time zones based on the Greenwich meridian, including half-hour zones.  Apart from Nepal Standard Time (UTC+05:45), the Chatham Standard Time Zone (UTC+12:45) used in New Zealand's Chatham Islands and the officially unsanctioned Central Western Time Zone (UTC+8:45) used in Eucla, Western Australia and surrounding areas, all time zones in use are defined by an offset from UTC that is a multiple of half an hour, and in most cases a multiple of an hour.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Universal Time (UT) is a time standard based on Earth's rotation. There are several versions of Universal Time, which differ by up to a few seconds. The most commonly used are Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) and UT1 (see ). All of these versions of UT, except for UTC, are based on Earth's rotation relative to distant celestial objects (stars and quasars), but with a scaling factor and other adjustments to make them closer to solar time. UTC is based on International Atomic Time, with leap seconds added to keep it within 0.9 second of UT1.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972365}
{"src_title": "Jean-Michel Jarre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life, influences, and education.", "content": "Jean-Michel Jarre was born in Lyon on 24 August 1948, to Francette Pejot, a French Resistance member and concentration camp survivor, and composer Maurice Jarre. When Jarre was five, his parents separated and his father moved to the United States, leaving him with his mother. He did not see his father again until reaching the age of 18. For the first eight years of his life, Jarre spent six months each year at his maternal grandparents' flat on the Cours de Verdun, in the Perrache district of Lyon. Jarre's grandfather", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1970s.", "content": "In 1971 Jarre was commissioned by choreographer Norbert Schmucki to perform a ballet called \"AOR\" (in Hebrew, \"the light\"), at the Palais Garnier. He also composed music for ballet, theatre, advertisements and television programs, as well as music and lyrics for artists like Patrick Juvet and Christophe. Jarre composed the soundtrack for \"Les Granges Brûlées\" and in 1972 wrote music for the International Festival of Magic. That year he also released his first solo album, \"Deserted Palace\", and from 1973–74 wrote music for Françoise Hardy and Gérard Lenorman, and wrote lyrics for Christophe and directed Christophe's Olympia show.  Jarre's 1976 low-budget solo album \"Oxygène\", recorded at his home studio, made him famous internationally. It comprises six numbered synthesiser tracks that make strong use of melody, rather than rhythm or dissonance. A Scully eight-track recorder was used to record instruments like the Eminent 310 (with an Electro-Harmonix \"Small Stone\" phaser on its string pads) and the Korg Minipops drum machine. Liberal use of echo was used on the various sound effects generated by the VCS3 synthesiser. Jarre's ARP 2600 synthesiser, previously used on his collaborations with Christophe, also featured, as did his EMS VCS 3.  \"Oxygène\" initially proved difficult", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1980–1984.", "content": "By the time \"Les Chants Magnétiques\" was released on 20 May 1981, \"Oxygène\" and \"Équinoxe\" had achieved global sales of about 6 million units. In its first two months the new album sold a reported 200,000 units in France alone. The album uses sounds from the Fairlight CMI, a new instrument of which Jarre was an early pioneer. Its digital technology allowed him to continue his earlier sonic experimentation in new ways.  The album's release coincided with Jarre's first", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1985–1989.", "content": "In 1985, Jarre was invited by the musical director of the Houston Grand Opera to perform a concert celebrating Texas's 150th anniversary on 5 April 1986. Although he was busy with other projects and was at first unimpressed by the proposal, on a later visit to the city, he was immediately impressed by the visual grandeur of the city's skyline and agreed to perform. Also, 1985 marked the 25th anniversary of the foundation of the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center; and NASA asked Jarre to integrate the anniversary into the concert.  \"Rendez-Vous\" was created over a period of about two months and, as with \"Zoolook\", contains elements of his album \"Musique pour Supermarché\". Its three movements represent", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1990s.", "content": "In 1990 Jarre released \"En Attendant Cousteau\" (Waiting for Cousteau), inspired by the French oceanographer Jacques-Yves Cousteau. On Bastille Day 1990 he performed a concert at La Défense in Paris, attended by a record-breaking audience of about two million people, again beating his earlier world record. He later promoted a concert near the Pyramids of Teotihuacan in Mexico, to be held during the solar eclipse of 11 July 1991. However, with only weeks to go, important equipment had not arrived and the sinking in the Atlantic Ocean of", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2000s.", "content": "Jarre released his first vocal album, \"Métamorphoses\", in 2000. It was mixed on an early version of Pro Tools, a digital audio workstation designed to record, edit and play back digital audio. \"Métamorphoses\" marked a departure from Jarre's earlier work. Sound effects used include radio interference from mobile phones, and Macintalk, a Macintosh program used to generate lyrics on the track \"Love, Love, Love\". Contributors included Laurie Anderson, who had also appeared on \"Zoolook\", Natacha Atlas and Sharon Corr.  It was followed in 2001 by \"Interior Music\", created for use by the audio-visual company Bang & Olufsen, and which did not receive a commercial release. The same year he composed, with Francis Rimbert arrangements, the music for the short-lived French channel Match TV, and contributed music to the soundtrack of the film \"Who wants to be a Star\".  In 2002 he released \"Sessions 2000\", a set of experimental", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010–2014.", "content": "On 1 March 2010, Jean-Michel Jarre started the second leg of his 2009–10 Indoors tour; on 10 June, he was presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award by Mojo magazine.  On 30 May 2011, \"Essentials & Rarities\", a double-CD set, was released. This was the last Jarre work to be released by Disques Dreyfus. The \"Essentials\" disc is a compilation of some of his most famous works. The \"Rarities\" disc includes pieces", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2015–2019.", "content": "In Spring 2015, Jarre released the first music from a new studio album, released in October 2015, following around four years of work. The album, \"\" (working title: \"E-Project\"), comprises a number of collaborations with other artists. The first of these to be released was the collaboration with Gesaffelstein entitled \"Conquistador\", followed by \"Glory\", with M83. The track was also featured as part of the soundtrack of a short film entitled EMIC. Other collaborations on the album include \"Zero Gravity\", with the late Edgar Froese and Tangerine Dream (with a remix by Above and Beyond); Vince Clarke for \"Automatic\" (parts 1 and 2); Armin van Buuren for \"Stardust\", John Carpenter for \"\"A Question of Blood\"\", Little Boots for \"If..!\" and Pete Townshend for \"Travelator, Pt. 2\". The album became Jarre's first album in over", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Jarre is fluent in French and English and understands Spanish.  He has been married four times. He was married to Flore Guillard from 20 January 1975 until 1977; their daughter Émilie Charlotte was born in 1975 or 1976 and became a fashion model. He met his second wife Charlotte Rampling at a dinner party in St Tropez in 1976. Both were in failing marriages, and they each obtained a divorce (Rampling was married to New Zealander Bryan Southcombe). The two married, Jarre gaining custody of his daughter Émilie Charlotte, and Rampling her son Barnaby. Together they have a son, David.  Jarre and Rampling", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public engagement.", "content": "On 5 October 2016, Democracy in Europe Movement", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "An asteroid, 4422 Jarre, has been named", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "As of 2004, Jarre", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography, soundtracks, documentaries.", "content": "Jarre composed for movies and also participated in documentaries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Michel André Jarre (; born 24 August 1948) is a French composer, performer and record producer. He is a pioneer in the electronic, ambient and new-age genres, and is known for organising outdoor spectacles featuring his music, vast laser displays, large projections and fireworks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972366}
{"src_title": "Menelaus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ascension and reign.", "content": "Although early authors, such as Aeschylus refer in passing to Menelaus’ early life, detailed sources are quite late, post-dating 5th-century BC Greek tragedy. According to these sources, Menelaus' father, Atreus, had been feuding with his brother Thyestes over the throne of Mycenae. After a back-and-forth struggle that featured adultery, incest, and cannibalism, Thyestes gained the throne after his son Aegisthus murdered Atreus. As a result, Atreus’ sons, Menelaus and Agamemnon, went into exile. They first stayed with King Polypheides of Sicyon, and later with King Oeneus of Calydon. But when they thought the time was ripe to dethrone Mycenae’s hostile ruler, they returned. Assisted by King Tyndareus of Sparta, they drove Thyestes away, and Agamemnon took the throne for himself.  When it was time for Tyndareus’ stepdaughter Helen to marry, many kings and princes came to seek her hand. Among the contenders were Odysseus, Menestheus, Ajax the Great, Patroclus, and Idomeneus. Most offered opulent gifts. Tyndareus would accept none of the gifts, nor would he send any of the suitors away for fear of offending them and giving grounds for a quarrel. Odysseus promised to solve the problem in a satisfactory manner if Tyndareus would support him in his courting of Tyndareus’s niece Penelope, the daughter of Icarius. Tyndareus readily agreed, and Odysseus proposed that, before the decision was made, all the suitors should swear a most solemn oath to defend the chosen husband in any quarrel. Then it was decreed that straws were to be drawn for Helen’s hand. The suitor who won was Menelaus (Tyndareus, not to displease the mighty Agamemnon offered him another of his daughters, Clytaemnestra). The rest of the suitors swore their oaths, and Helen and Menelaus were married, Menelaus becoming a ruler of Sparta with Helen after Tyndareus and Leda abdicated the thrones. Menelaus and Helen had a daughter Hermione as supported, for example, by Sappho, while some variations of the myth suggest they had three sons as well: Aithiolas, Maraphius, and Pleisthenes.  Their supposed palace (ἀνάκτορον) has been discovered (the excavations started in 1926 and continued until 1995) in Pellana, Laconia, to the north-west of modern (and classical) Sparta. Other archaeologists consider that Pellana is too far away from other Mycenaean centres to have been the \"capital of Menelaus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trojan War.", "content": "According to legend, in return for awarding her a golden apple inscribed \"to the fairest,\" Aphrodite promised Paris the most beautiful woman in all the world. After concluding a diplomatic mission to Sparta during the latter part of which Menelaus was absent to attend the funeral of his maternal grandfather Catreus in Crete, Paris ran off to Troy with Helen despite his brother Hector's prohibition. Invoking the oath of Tyndareus, Menelaus and Agamemnon raised a fleet of a thousand ships and went to Troy to secure Helen's return; the Trojans refused, providing a \"casus belli\" for the Trojan War.  Homer's \"Iliad\" is the most comprehensive source for Menelaus’s exploits during the Trojan War. In Book 3, Menelaus challenges Paris to a duel for Helen’s return. Menelaus soundly beats Paris, but before he can kill him and claim victory, Aphrodite spirits Paris away inside the walls of Troy. In Book 4, while the Greeks and Trojans squabble over the duel’s winner, Athena inspires the Trojan Pandarus to shoot Menelaus with his bow and arrow. However, Athena never intended for Menelaus to die and she protects him from the arrow of Pandarus. Menelaus is wounded in the abdomen, and the fighting resumes. Later, in Book 17, Homer gives Menelaus an extended \"aristeia\" as the hero retrieves the corpse of Patroclus from the battlefield.  According to Hyginus, Menelaus killed eight men in the war, and was one of the Greeks hidden inside the Trojan Horse. During the sack of Troy, Menelaus killed Deiphobus, who had married Helen after the death of Paris.  There are four versions of Menelaus’ and Helen’s reunion on the night of the sack of Troy:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After the war.", "content": "Book 4 of the \"Odyssey\" provides an account of Menelaus’ return from Troy and his homelife in Sparta. When visited by Odysseus’ son Telemachus, Menelaus recounts his voyage home. As happened to many Greeks, Menelaus' homebound fleet was blown by storms to Crete and Egypt where they were becalmed, unable to sail away. They trapped Proteus and forced him to reveal how to make the voyage home. After their homecoming, Menelaus and Helen’s marriage is strained; Menelaus continually revisits the losses of the Trojan War, particularly as he and Helen have no male heir. Menelaus is fond of Megapenthes and Nicostratus, his sons by slave women. According to Euripides’ \"Helen\", Menelaus is reunited with Helen after death, on the Isle of the Blessed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In vase painting.", "content": "Menelaus appears in Greek vase painting in the 6th to 4th centuries BC, such as: Menelaus’s reception of Paris at Sparta; his retrieval of Patroclus’s corpse; and his reunion with Helen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Greek tragedy.", "content": "Menelaus appears as a character in a number of 5th-century Greek tragedies: Sophocles’ \"Ajax\", and Euripides’ \"Andromache\", \"Helen\", \"Orestes\", \"Iphigenia at Aulis\", and \"The Trojan Women\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Greek mythology, Menelaus (;, \"Menelaos\", from μένος \"vigor, rage, power\" and λαός \"people,\" \"wrath of the people\") was a king of Mycenaean (pre-Dorian) Sparta, the husband of Helen of Troy, and the son of Atreus and Aerope. According to the \"Iliad\", Menelaus was a central figure in the Trojan War, leading the Spartan contingent of the Greek army, under his elder brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae. Prominent in both the \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\", Menelaus was also popular in Greek vase painting and Greek tragedy, the latter more as a hero of the Trojan War than as a member of the doomed House of Atreus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972367}
{"src_title": "Video game genre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In Tom Hirschfeld's 1981 book \"How to Master the Video Games\", he divides the included games into broad categories in the table of contents: \"Space Invaders\"-type, \"Asteroids\"-type, maze, reflex, and miscellaneous. The first two of these correspond to the still-used genres of fixed shooter and multidirectional shooter. Maze is also a modern genre.  Chris Crawford attempted to classify video games in his 1984 book \"The Art of Computer Game Design\". In this book, Crawford primarily focused on the player's experience and activities required for gameplay. Here, he stated that \"the state of computer game design is changing quickly. We would therefore expect the taxonomy presented [in this book] to become obsolete or inadequate in a short time.\" Since then, among other genres, the platformer and 3D shooter genres, which hardly existed at the time, have gained in popularity. As hardware capabilities have increased, new genres have become possible, with examples being increased memory, the move from 2D to 3D, new peripherals, online functionalities, and location-based mechanics.  The video game industry expanded in the 1990s and both smaller and independent publishers had little chance of surviving. Because of this, game developers settled more into set genres that larger publishers and retailers could use for marketing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition.", "content": "Due to \"direct and active participation\" of the player, video game genres differ from literary and film genres. Though one could state that \"Space Invaders\" is a science fiction video game, author Mark J.P. Wolf wrote that such a classification \"ignores the fundamental differences and similarities which are to be found in the player's experience of the game.\" In contrast to the visual aesthetics of games, which can vary greatly, it is argued that it is interactivity characteristics that are common to all games.  Like film genres, the names of video game genres have come about generally as a common understanding between the audience and the producers. Descriptive names of genres take into account the goals of the game, the protagonist and even the perspective offered to the player. For example, a first-person shooter is a game that is played from a first-person perspective and involves the practice of shooting. Whereas \"shooter game\" is a genre name, \"first-person shooter\" and \"third-person shooter\" are common subgenres of the shooter genre. Other examples of such prefixes are real-time, turn based, top-down and side-scrolling. Genre names are not fixed and may change over time because of the nature of audience-producer agreement on genre naming. One of the best known examples of such changes is with the waning of \"\"Doom\" clones\", initially used for games like 1993's \"Doom\", into \"first-person shooters\" over the next several years with the latter becoming most predominate for the genre by around 2000.  The target audience, underlying theme or purpose of a game are sometimes used as a genre identifier, such as with \"Christian game\" and \"serious game\" respectively. However, because these terms do not indicate anything about the gameplay of a video game, these are not considered genres.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In practice.", "content": "Video game genres vary in specificity, with popular video game reviews using genre names varying from \"action\" to \"baseball\". In this practice, basic themes and more fundamental characteristics are used alongside each other.  A game may combine aspects of multiple genres in such a way that it becomes hard to classify under existing genres. For example, because \"Grand Theft Auto III\" combined shooting, driving and roleplaying in an unusual way, it was hard to classify using existing terms. The term \"Grand Theft Auto\" clone has been used to describe games mechanically similar to \"Grand Theft Auto III\". Similarly, the term roguelike has been developed for games that share similarities with \"Rogue\".  Elements of the role-playing genre, which focuses on storytelling and character growth, have been implemented in many different genres of video games. This is because the addition of a story and character enhancement to an action, strategy or puzzle video game does not take away from its core gameplay, but adds an incentive other than survival to the experience.  In addition to gameplay elements, some games may be categorized by other schemes, those these are typically not used as genres:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popularity.", "content": "According to some analysts, the percentage of each broad genre in the best-selling physical games worldwide is broken down as follows. The most popular genres are shooter, action, role-playing and sports, with platformer and racing having both declined in the last decade. Puzzle games have declined when measured by sales, however, on mobile, where the majority of games are free-to-play, this genre remains the most popular worldwide.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A video game genre is a classification assigned to a video game based primarily on its gameplay (type of interaction) rather than visual or narrative features. A video game genre is normally defined by a set of gameplay challenges considered independently of setting or game-world content, unlike works of fiction that are expressed through other media, such as films or books. For example, a shooter game is still a shooter game, regardless of where or when it takes place.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972368}
{"src_title": "Cluniac Reforms", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In the early 10th century, Western monasticism, which had flourished several centuries earlier with St Benedict of Nursia, was experiencing a severe decline due to unstable political and social conditions resulting from the nearly continuous Viking raids, widespread poverty and, especially, the dependence of abbeys on the local nobles who controlled all that belonged to the territories under their jurisdiction.  The impetus for the reforms lay in abuses thought to be a result of secular interference in the monasteries and of the Church's tight integration with the feudal and manorial systems. Since a Benedictine monastery required land, it needed the patronage of a local lord. However, the lord would often demand rights and assert prerogatives that interfered with the operation of the monastery. Patrons normally retained a proprietary interest and expected to install their kinsmen as abbots. Local aristocrats often established churches, monasteries, and convents that they then considered as family property, taking revenues from them, and leaving the monks that remained subsisting in poverty.  Some monasteries were established by feudal lords with the intention of retiring there at some point. The Benedictine Rule, in these monasteries, was modified to schedule matins when it would not interrupt sleep and expanded the vegetarian diet. Monks in these houses wore richer, warmer clothing and were free to disregard the rules pertaining to fasting. The Cluny reform was an attempt to remedy these practices in the hope that a more independent abbot would better enforce the Rule of Saint Benedict.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cluny Abbey.", "content": "William I, Duke of Aquitaine (935–963) had acquired a piece of land in Burgundy. In 910 he founded Cluny Abbey and asked Abbot Berno of Baume Abbey to preside. The Abbot of Cluny retained authority over the daughter houses his order founded. By the twelfth century, the Congregation of Cluny included more than a thousand monasteries.  Berno had established St. Peter's monastery at Gigny and Baume Abbey on the rule as interpreted by Benedict of Aniane, who had sought to restore the primitive strictness of the monastic observance wherever it had been relaxed. The rule focused on prayer, silence, and solitude.  Among the most notable supporters of the Cluniac reforms were Pope Urban II, Lambert of Hersfeld, and Richard of Verdun. The reforms encouraged the Church in the West to be more attentive to business and led the papacy to attempt to assert control over the Eastern Church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Result.", "content": "During its height (\"c.\" 950–c.1130), the Cluniac movement was one of the largest religious forces in Europe. At least as significantly as their political consequences, the reforms demanded greater religious devotion. The Cluniacs supported the Peace of God, and promoted pilgrimages to the Holy Lands. An increasingly rich liturgy stimulated demand for altar vessels of gold, fine tapestries and fabrics, stained glass, and polyphonic choral music to fill the Romanesque churches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Cistercian Order.", "content": "In 1075 Robert de Molesme, a Benedictine monk from Cluny Abbey, had obtained the permission of Pope Gregory VII to found a monastery at Molesme in Burgundy. At Molesme, Robert tried to restore monastery practice to the simple and severe character of the original Rule of Saint Benedict, called \"Strict Observance\". Being only partly successful in this at Molesme, Robert in 1098 led a band of 21 monks from their abbey at Molesme to establish a new monastery. The monks acquired a plot of marsh land just south of Dijon called Cîteaux (\"Latin:\" \"Cistercium\") and set about building a new monastery there which became Cîteaux Abbey, the mother Abbey of the newly founded Cistercian Order.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cluniac Reforms (also called the Benedictine Reform) were a series of changes within medieval monasticism of the Western Church focused on restoring the traditional monastic life, encouraging art, and caring for the poor. The movement began within the Benedictine order at Cluny Abbey, founded in 910 by William I, Duke of Aquitaine (875–918). The reforms were largely carried out by Saint Odo (c. 878 – 942) and spread throughout France (Burgundy, Provence, Auvergne, Poitou), into England (the English Benedictine Reform), and through much of Italy and Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972369}
{"src_title": "Aragonite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Occurrence.", "content": "The type location for aragonite is Molina de Aragón in the Province of Guadalajara in Castilla-La Mancha, Spain, for which it was named in 1797. The mineral is not (as often assumed) named for the region of Aragon: Molina de Aragón is located in the historic region of Castile, albeit only 25 kilometers away from the border with Aragon. Aragonite is found in this locality as cyclic twins inside gypsum and marls of the Keuper facies of Triassic. This type of aragonite deposits are very common in Spain, and there are also some in France and Morocco.  An aragonite cave, the Ochtinská Aragonite Cave, is situated in Slovakia. In the US, aragonite in the form of stalactites and \"cave flowers\" (anthodite) is known from Carlsbad Caverns and other caves. Massive deposits of oolitic aragonite sand are found on the seabed in the Bahamas.  Aragonite is the high pressure polymorph of calcium carbonate. As such, it occurs in high pressure metamorphic rocks such as those formed at subduction zones.  Aragonite forms naturally in almost all mollusk shells, and as the calcareous endoskeleton of warm- and cold-water corals (Scleractinia). Several serpulids have aragonitic tubes. Because the mineral deposition in mollusk shells is strongly biologically controlled, some crystal forms are distinctively different from those of inorganic aragonite. In some mollusks, the entire shell is aragonite; in others, aragonite forms only discrete parts of a bimineralic shell (aragonite plus calcite). The nacreous layer of the aragonite fossil shells of some extinct ammonites forms an iridescent material called ammolite.  Aragonite also forms in the ocean and in caves as inorganic precipitates called marine cements and speleothems, respectively. Aragonite is not uncommon in serpentinites where high Mg in pore solutions apparently inhibits calcite growth and promotes aragonite precipitation.  Aragonite is metastable at the low pressures near the Earth's surface and is thus commonly replaced by calcite in fossils. Aragonite older than the Carboniferous is essentially unknown. It can also be synthesized by adding a calcium chloride solution to a sodium carbonate solution at temperatures above or in water-ethanol mixtures at ambient temperatures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical properties.", "content": "Aragonite is thermodynamically unstable at standard temperature and pressure, and tends to alter to calcite on scales of 10 to 10 years. The mineral vaterite, also known as μ-CaCO, is another phase of calcium carbonate that is metastable at ambient conditions typical of Earth's surface, and decomposes even more readily than aragonite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "In aquaria, aragonite is considered essential for the replication of reef conditions. Aragonite provides the materials necessary for much sea life and also keeps the pH of the water close to its natural level, to prevent the dissolution of biogenic calcium carbonate.  Aragonite has been successfully tested for the removal of pollutants like zinc, cobalt and lead from contaminated wastewaters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one of the three most common naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate, (the other forms being the minerals calcite and vaterite). It is formed by biological and physical processes, including precipitation from marine and freshwater environments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972370}
{"src_title": "Wladimir Köppen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Wladimir Koppen was born in St. Petersburg, Russia, and lived there until he was 20 years old. He died in Graz, Nazi Germany. Köppen's grandfather was one of several German doctors invited to Russia by Empress Catherine II to improve sanitation and was later personal physician to the tsar. His father, Peter von Köppen (1793–1864), was a noted geographer, historian and ethnographer of ancient Russian cultures and an important contributor to intellectual exchanges between western European slavists and Russian scientists. He attended secondary school in Simferopol, Crimea, and began his studies of botany in 1864 at the University of St. Petersburg.  He frequently traveled to his family's estate on the Crimean coast from St. Petersburg and to and from Simferopol, in the interior of the peninsula. The floral and geographical diversity of the Crimean peninsula, as well as the starker geographical transitions between the capital and his home, did much to awaken an interest in the relationship between climate and the natural world. In 1867, he transferred to the University of Heidelberg and in 1870 he defended his doctorate dissertation on the effects of temperature on plant growth at the University of Leipzig. He served in the Prussian ambulance corps in the Franco-Prussian War and later worked at the Central Physical Observatory in St. Petersburg.  He identified five major climatic groups, which correspond with the five main vegetation groups:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career and contributions.", "content": "Köppen was a principal founder of modern climatology and meteorology. Between 1850 and 1860, Köppen contributed to Seewart's sailing handbooks for the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans by studying ship reports over the winds of different oceans. Between 1872 and 1873 Köppen was employed in the Russian meteorological service as an assistant where he helped prepare the daily synoptic weather map. In 1875, he moved back to Germany and became the chief of the new Division of Marine Meteorology at the German naval observatory (Deutsche Seewarte) based in Hamburg. There, he was responsible for establishing a weather forecasting service for the northwestern part of Germany and the adjacent sea areas. After four years of service, he was able to move on to his primary interest fundamental research, and left the meteorological office.  Köppen began a systematic study of the climate and also experimented with balloons to obtain data from upper layers of the atmosphere. In 1884, he published the first version of his map of climatic zones in which the seasonal temperature ranges were plotted. It led to the development of the Köppen climate classification system around 1900, which he kept improving for the rest of his life. The full version of his system appeared first in 1918; after several modifications, the final version was published in 1936.  Apart from the description of various climate types, he was acquainted with paleoclimatology as well. In 1924, he and his son-in-law Alfred Wegener published a paper called \"Die Klimate der Geologischen Vorzeit\" (The climates of the geological past) providing crucial support to the Milanković theory on ice ages. Also, in 1911 he co-wrote \"The Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere\", a textbook that became very popular.  Towards the end of his life, Köppen cooperated with the German climatologist Rudolf Geiger to produce a five-volume work, \"Handbuch der Klimatologie\" (Handbook of Climatology). It was never completed, but several parts, three of them by Köppen, were published. After Köppen's death in 1940, Geiger continued to work on modifications to the climate classification system.  Köppen was a prolific scientist, producing more than 500 papers, and he retained his intellectual curiosity and wide range of interests throughout his life. In 1890, he co-authored the first cloud atlas. Alongside scientific pursuits, he was actively involved in social questions, devoting much time and energy to such problems of land-use and school reform and nutrition for the underprivileged. He was a strong advocate for the use of Esperanto in the cause of world peace, translating several of his publications into Esperanto.  He had a wife, Marie, and five children including daughter Else. Marie's sister Sophie and her children moved in with the Köppens in 1888.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wladimir Peter Köppen (;, \"Vladimir Petrovich Kyoppen\"; 25 September 1846 – 22 June 1940) was a Russian-German geographer, meteorologist, climatologist and botanist. After studies in St. Petersburg, he spent the bulk of his life and professional career in Germany and Austria. His most notable contribution to science was the development of the Köppen climate classification system, which, with some modifications, is still commonly used. Köppen made significant contributions to several branches of science.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972371}
{"src_title": "Pelmeni", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ingredients.", "content": "The dough is made from flour and water, sometimes adding a small portion of eggs.  The filling can be minced meat (pork, lamb, beef, fish or any other kind of meat, venison being particularly traditional for colder regions) or mushrooms. The mixing together of different kinds of meat is also popular. The traditional Udmurt recipe requires a mixture of 45% beef, 35% mutton, and 20% pork. Various spices, such as black pepper and diced onions as well as garlic, are mixed into the filling. They are commonly topped with sour cream, mayonnaise, dill, red onions or vinegar, all of which are traditional to the region and can be produced in the Siberian climate.  Adding small amounts of cabbage, tomato and horseradish as well right into the mince is common for certain regions.  It is really critical to remember that the temperature and humidity will affect the dough consistency and stability.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin and history.", "content": "The first mention of a dish similar to dumplings comes from ancient Greece, but the Ural region seems to be the origin place of the pelmeni. The word pelmeni is derived from \"pel'n'an\"' (пельнянь)—literally \"ear bread\" in the native Finno-Ugric Komi and Udmurt languages. It is unclear when pelmeni entered the cuisines of the indigenous Siberian people and when they first appeared in Russian cuisine. One theory suggests pelmeni, or stuffed boiled dumplings in general, originated in Siberia, possibly a simplified adaptation of the Chinese jiaozi (in some dialects it is called Bāomiàn \"包面\"). Another theory suggests that pelmeni were carried by the Mongols to Siberia and the Urals, from where they gradually spread as far as Eastern Europe. Pelmeni became especially popular by Russian hunters.  Pelmeni are particularly good means of quickly preserving meat during long Siberian winter, especially eliminating the need to feed livestock during the long winter months. Thus, despite their Uralic origin, pelmeni were much influenced by the Siberian way of cooking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differences.", "content": "Pelmeni belong to the family of dumplings, and are related to Ukrainian \"varenyky\" and Polish \"pierogi\". In the United States and Canada, the term \"pierogi\" or \"perogies\" is often used to describe all kinds of Eastern European dumplings, regardless of the shape, size, or filling. Pelmeni are also similar to Mongolian \"bansh\", Chinese \"jiaozi\" (Cantonese \"gaau\") or Chinese \"húndùn\" (Cantonese wonton). They are cousins to the Turkish and Kazakh \"manti\", the Nepalese and Tibetan \"momo\", the Uyghur and Uzbek \"chuchvara\", the Korean \"mandu\", the Japanese \"gyoza\", and the Italian \"tortellini\" and Swabian \"Maultaschen\". Somewhat similar are the fried or baked \"empanadas\" encountered in Hispanic-influenced cultures.  The most important difference between pelmeni, \"varenyky\", and \"pierogi\" is the thickness of the dough shell—in pelmeni and vareniki this is as thin as possible, and the proportion of filling to dough is usually higher. Pelmeni are never served with a sweet filling, which distinguishes them from \"vareniki\" and Polish \"pierogi\", which sometimes are. Also, the fillings in pelmeni are usually raw, while the fillings of \"vareniki\" and \"pierogi\" are typically precooked.  The main difference between pelmeni and momos is their size—a typical pelmeni is about in diameter, whereas momos are often at least twice that size.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional differences.", "content": "In Siberia, pelmeni are traditionally frozen outdoors in the winter and treated as preserved food. Hunters or explorers heading into the taiga would carry sacks of frozen pelmeni with their provisions as easily cooked, nonperishable food. Pelmeni can be stored frozen for a long time and they are prepared immediately before eating by boiling in salted water until they float, and then two to five minutes more. Regional differences exist in the boiling of pelmeni. In the Urals, they are always boiled in water, while in Siberia they are boiled in salted water or sometimes meat or chicken broth. The cooked pelmeni are served on their own or topped with melted butter or smetana (sour cream). Mustard, horseradish, tomato sauce, and vinegar are popular, as well. The people of the Russian Far East generally add soy sauce. Some recipes suggest frying pelmeni after boiling until they turn golden brown. Pelmeni can also be served in a clear soup, although in Siberia this is considered in poor taste and pelmeni are carefully strained before serving. In Tatar cuisine, \"Pilmän\" (the Tatar equivalent of pelmeni) are a traditional dish, where they have always been served with clear soup and added dill or other freshly cut herbs. Pelmeni are also a part of the Polish cuisine.  Packed frozen, pelmeni can be found in Russian and Ukrainian food stores, as well as everywhere Russian communities exist. Packets of frozen pelmeni are usually labeled \"Siberian pelmeni\" because of the Siberian practice of storing and transporting pelmeni in frozen form. Store-bought pelmeni are made on industrial machinery, much of which is made by Italian companies such as Arienti and Cattaneo, Ima, Ostoni, Zamboni, etc. These pelmeni usually weigh around 15 grams (1⁄2 oz) each and look like a larger version of tortellini, which is why, for industrial production, Italian pasta machines are commonly used. Pelmeni are also commonly made at home. The easiest (if somewhat laborious) way is simply to make them by hand; many cooks use specialized \"pelmeni makers\" (, \"pelmennitsa\"), which are essentially molds that resemble muffin pans or ravioli molds, allowing one to quickly make a few dozen pelmeni out of two sheets of dough and a quantity of ground meat.  In modern Russian and Ukrainian culture, and also in the Baltic states and Poland, store-bought pelmeni are considered a kind of convenience food and are associated with students' or bachelors' lifestyles, much like instant ramen, etc., while home-made pelmeni remain perceived as nutritious and healthy food.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pelmeni (; —plural, пельмень —singular) are dumplings of Russian cuisine that consist of a filling wrapped in thin, unleavened dough.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972372}
{"src_title": "Tomi Ungerer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ungerer was born in Strasbourg in Alsace, France, the youngest of four children to Alice (Essler) and Theo Ungerer. The family moved to Logelbach, near Colmar, after the death of Tomi's father, Theodore—an artist, engineer, and astronomical clock manufacturer—in 1936. Ungerer also lived through the German occupation of Alsace when the family home was requisitioned by the Wehrmacht.  As a young man, Ungerer was inspired by the illustrations appearing in \"The New Yorker\" magazine, particularly the work of Saul Steinberg. In 1957, the year after he moved to the U.S., Harper & Row published his first children's book, \"The Mellops Go Flying\", and his second, \"The Mellops Go Diving for Treasure\"; by the early 1960s he had created at least ten children's picture books with Harper, plus a few others, and had illustrated some books by other writers. He also did illustration work for publications including \"The New York Times\", Esquire, \"Life\", \"Harper's Bazaar\", \"The Village Voice\", and for television during the 1960s, and began to create posters denouncing the Vietnam War.  Maurice Sendak called \"Moon Man\" (1966) \"easily one of the best picture books in recent years.\" After \"\", subtitled \"With Due Respect to Hans Christian Andersen, the Grimm Brothers, and the Honorable Ambrose Bierce\" in 1974, he ceased writing children's books, focusing instead on adult-level books, many of which focused on sexuality. He eventually returned to children's literature with \"Flix\" 1998. Ungerer donated many of the manuscripts and artwork for his early children's books to the Children's Literature Research Collection at the Free Library of Philadelphia.  One consistent theme in Ungerer's illustrations is his support for European construction, beginning with Franco-German reconciliation in his home region of Alsace, and in particular European values of tolerance and diversity. In 2003, he was named Ambassador for Childhood and Education by the 47-nation Council of Europe.  In 2007, his home town dedicated a museum to him, the \"Musée Tomi Ungerer/Centre international de l’illustration\".  Ungerer divided his time between Ireland, where he and his wife had moved in 1976, and Strasbourg. In addition to his work as a graphic artist and 'drawer', he was also a designer, toy collector and \"archivist of human absurdity.\"  A biographical documentary film, \"\", was produced in 2012. The film was featured at the 2013 Palm Springs International Film Festival. In 2015–2016, the Kunsthaus Zurich and the Museum Folkwang in Essen devoted a large exhibition to Ungerer's artistic oeuvre and in particular his collages. A comprehensive book has been published by Philipp Keel from Diogenes with essays by Tobias Burg, Cathérine Hug and Thérèse Willer.  Ungerer died on 9 February 2019 in Cork, Ireland, aged 87.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Tomi Ungerer described himself first and foremost as a story teller and satirist. Prevalent themes in his work include political satire (such as drawings and posters against the Vietnam War and against animal cruelty), eroticism, and imaginative subjects for children's books. Ungerer's publications are held by the German National Library, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "The biennial Hans Christian Andersen Award conferred by the International Board on Books for Young People is the highest recognition available to a writer or illustrator of children's books. Ungerer received the illustration award in 1998.  Ungerer received the 2014 \"Lifetime Achievement of the Year\" award at the Sexual Freedom Awards. In 2018, he was made a commander of the Legion of Honour.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Thomas \"Tomi\" Ungerer (28 November 1931 – 9 February 2019) was an Alsatian artist and writer. He published over 140 books ranging from children's books to adult works and from the fantastic to the autobiographical. He was known for sharp social satire and witty aphorisms. Ungerer is also famous as a cartoonist and designer of political posters and film posters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972373}
{"src_title": "Wardriving", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"War driving\" originated from wardialing, a method popularized by a character played by Matthew Broderick in the film \"WarGames\", and named after that film. War dialing consists of dialing every phone number in a specific sequence in search of modems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "\"Warbiking\" or \"warcycling\" is similar to wardriving, but is done from a moving bicycle or motorcycle. This practice is sometimes facilitated by mounting a Wi-Fi enabled device on the vehicle.  \"Warwalking\", or \"warjogging\", is similar to wardriving, but is done on foot rather than from a moving vehicle. The disadvantages of this method are slower speed of travel (but leading to discovery of more infrequently discovered networks) and the absence of a convenient computing environment. Consequently, handheld devices such as pocket computers, which can perform such tasks while users are walking or standing, have dominated this practice. Technology advances and developments in the early 2000s expanded the extent of this practice. Advances include computers with integrated Wi-Fi, rather than CompactFlash (CF) or PC Card (PCMCIA) add-in cards in computers such as Dell Axim, Compaq iPAQ and Toshiba pocket computers starting in 2002. More recently, the active Nintendo DS and Sony PSP enthusiast communities gained Wi-Fi abilities on these devices. Further, many newer smartphones integrate Wi-Fi and Global Positioning System (GPS).  \"Warrailing\", or \"Wartraining\", is similar to wardriving, but is done on a train or tram rather than from a slower more controllable vehicle. The disadvantages of this method are higher speed of travel (resulting in less discovery of more infrequently discovered networks) and often limited to major roads with a higher traffic.  \"Warkitting\" is a combination of wardriving and rootkitting. In a warkitting attack, a hacker replaces the firmware of an attacked router. This allows them to control all traffic for the victim, and could even permit them to disable TLS by replacing HTML content as it is being downloaded. Warkitting was identified by Tsow, Jakobsson, Yang, and Wetzel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mapping.", "content": "Wardrivers use a Wifi-equipped device together with a GPS device to record the location of wireless networks. The results can then be uploaded to websites like WiGLE, openBmap or Geomena where the data is processed to form maps of the network neighborhood. There are also clients available for smartphones running Android that can upload data directly. For better range and sensitivity, antennas are built or bought, and vary from omnidirectional to highly directional.  The maps of known network IDs can then be used as a geolocation system—an alternative to GPS—by triangulating the current position from the signal strengths of known network IDs. Examples include Place Lab by Intel, Skyhook, Navizon by Cyril Houri, SeekerLocate from Seeker Wireless, openBmap and Geomena. Navizon and openBmap combines information from Wi-Fi and cell phone tower maps contributed by users from Wi-Fi-equipped cell phones. In addition to location finding, this provides navigation information, and allows for the tracking of the position of friends, and geotagging.  In December 2004, a class of 100 undergraduates worked to map the city of Seattle, Washington over several weeks. They found 5,225 access points; 44% were secured with WEP encryption, 52% were open, and 3% were pay-for-access. They noticed trends in the frequency and security of the networks depending on location. Many of the open networks were clearly intended to be used by the general public, with network names like \"Open to share, no porn please\" or \"Free access, be nice.\" The information was collected into high-resolution maps, which were published online. Previous efforts had mapped cities such as Dublin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal and ethical considerations.", "content": "Some portray wardriving as a questionable practice (typically from its association with piggybacking), though, from a technical viewpoint, everything is working as designed: many access points broadcast identifying data accessible to anyone with a suitable receiver. It could be compared to making a map of a neighborhood's house numbers and mail box labels.  While some may claim that wardriving is illegal, there are no laws that specifically prohibit or allow wardriving, though many localities have laws forbidding unauthorized access of computer networks and protecting personal privacy. Google created a privacy storm in some countries after it eventually admitted systematically but surreptitiously gathering WiFi data while capturing video footage and mapping data for its Street View service. It has since been using Android-based mobile devices to gather this data.  Passive, listen-only wardriving (with programs like Kismet or KisMAC) does not communicate at all with the networks, merely logging broadcast addresses. This can be likened to listening to a radio station that happens to be broadcasting in the area or with other forms of DXing.  With other types of software, such as NetStumbler, the wardriver actively sends probe messages, and the access point responds per design. The legality of active wardriving is less certain, since the wardriver temporarily becomes \"associated\" with the network, even though no data is transferred. Most access points, when using default \"out of the box\" security settings, are intended to provide wireless access to all who request it. The war driver's liability may be reduced by setting the computer to a static IP, instead of using DHCP, preventing the network from granting the computer an IP address or logging the connection.  In the United States, the case that is usually referenced in determining whether a network has been \"accessed\" is \"State v. Allen\". In this case, Allen had been wardialing in an attempt to get free long-distance calling through Southwestern Bell's computer systems. When presented with a password protection screen, however, he did not attempt to bypass it. The court ruled that although he had \"contacted\" or \"approached\" the computer system, this did not constitute \"access\" of the company's network.  There are also homebrew wardriving applications for handheld game consoles that support Wi-Fi, such as sniff jazzbox/wardive for the Nintendo DS/Android, Road Dog for the Sony PSP, WiFi-Where for the iPhone, G-MoN, Wardrive, Wigle Wifi for Android, and WlanPollution for Symbian NokiaS60 devices. There also exists a mode within \"\" for the Sony PSP (wherein the player is able to find new comrades by searching for wireless access points) which can be used to wardrive. \"Treasure World\" for the DS is a commercial game in which gameplay wholly revolves around wardriving.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wardriving is the act of searching for Wi-Fi wireless networks by an attacker usually in a moving vehicle, using a laptop or smartphone. Software for wardriving is freely available on the internet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972374}
{"src_title": "Werner Forssmann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Forssmann was born in Berlin on 29 August 1904. Upon graduating from, he entered the University of Berlin to study medicine, passing the State Examination in 1929.  He hypothesized that a catheter could be inserted directly into the heart, for such applications as directly delivering drugs, injecting radiopaque dyes, or measuring blood pressure. The fear at the time was that such an intrusion into the heart would be fatal. To prove his point, he decided to try the experiment on himself.  In 1929, while working in Eberswalde, he performed the first human cardiac catheterization. He ignored his department chief and persuaded the operating-room nurse in charge of the sterile supplies, Gerda Ditzen, to assist him. She agreed, but only on the promise that he would do it on her rather than on himself. However, Forssmann tricked her by restraining her to the operating table and pretending to locally anaesthetise and cut her arm whilst actually doing it on himself. He anesthetized his own lower arm in the cubital region and inserted a urinary catheter into his antecubital vein, threading it partly along before releasing Ditzen (who at this point realised the catheter was not in her arm) and telling her to call the X-ray department. They walked some distance to the X-ray department on the floor below where under the guidance of a fluoroscope he advanced the catheter the full 60 cm into his right ventricular cavity. This was then recorded on X-Ray film showing the catheter lying in his right atrium.  The head clinician at Eberswalde, although initially very annoyed, recognized Werner's discovery when shown the X-rays; he allowed Forssmann to carry out another catheterization on a terminally ill woman whose condition improved after being given drugs in this way. An unpaid position was created for Forssmann at the Berliner Charité Hospital, working under Ferdinand Sauerbruch, although once Sauerbruch saw his paper, he was dismissed for continuing without his approval. Sauerbruch commented, \"You certainly can't begin surgery in that manner\". Facing such disciplinary action for self-experimentation, he was initially forced to leave the Charité, but was later re-instated until again being forced to leave in 1932 for not meeting scientific expectations. His surgical skills were noted, however, and he was recommended to another hospital where he worked for a while before leaving in 1933 after marrying Dr. Elsbet Engel, a specialist in urology there. Finding it difficult to get a job with his reputation, he quit cardiology and took up urology. He then went on to study urology under Karl Heusch at the in Berlin. Later, he was appointed Chief of the Surgical Clinic at both the City Hospital at Dresden-Friedrichstadt and the in Berlin.  From 1932 to 1945, he was a member of the Nazi Party. At the start of World War II, he became a medical officer. In the course of his service, he rose to the rank of Major, until he was captured and put into a U.S. POW camp. Upon his release in 1945, he worked as a lumberjack and then as a country medic in the Black Forest with his wife. In 1950, he began practice as a urologist in Bad Kreuznach.  During the time of his imprisonment, his paper was read by André Frédéric Cournand and Dickinson W. Richards. They developed ways of applying his technique to heart disease diagnosis and research. In 1954, he was given the Leibniz Medal of the German Academy of Sciences. In 1956, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Cournand, Richards, and Forßmann.  After winning the Nobel Prize, he was given the position of Honorary Professor of Surgery and Urology at the University of Mainz. In 1961, he became an honorary professor at the National University of Córdoba. In 1962, he became a member of the Executive Board of the German Society of Surgery. He also became a member of the American College of Chest Physicians, honorary member of the Swedish Society of Cardiology, the, and the German Child Welfare Association.  He and Elsbet had six children: Klaus Forßmann in 1934, Knut Forßmann in 1936, Jörg Forßmann in 1938, Wolf Forßmann in 1939 (who was first to isolate the atrial natriuretic peptide), Bernd Forßmann in 1940 (who helped develop the first clinical lithotriptor), and Renate Forßmann in 1943.  He died in Schopfheim, Germany of heart failure on 1 June 1979. His wife died in 1993.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Werner Theodor Otto Forßmann (Forssmann in English; 29 August 1904 – 1 June 1979) was a physician from Germany who shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Medicine (with Andre Frederic Cournand and Dickinson W. Richards) for developing a procedure that allowed cardiac catheterization. In 1929, he put himself under local anesthesia and inserted a catheter into a vein of his arm. Not knowing if the catheter might pierce a vein, he put his life at risk. Forssmann was nevertheless successful; he safely passed the catheter into his heart.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972375}
{"src_title": "Lower Lorraine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "It was created out of the former Middle Frankish realm of Lotharingia under King Lothair II, that had been established in 855. Lotharingia was divided for much of the later ninth century, reunited under Louis the Younger by the 880 Treaty of Ribemont and upon the death of East Frankish king Louis the Child in 911 it joined West Francia under King Charles the Simple. It then formed a duchy in its own right, and about 925 Duke Gilbert declared homage to the German king Henry the Fowler, an act which King Rudolph of France was helpless to revert. From that time on Lotharingia (or Lorraine) remained a German stem duchy, the border with France did not change throughout the Middle Ages.  In 959 King Henry's son Duke Bruno the Great divided Lotharingia into two duchies: Lower and Upper Lorraine (or Lower and Upper Lotharingia) and granted Count Godfrey I of Mons (Hainaut) the title of a Duke of Lower Lorraine. Godfrey's lands were to the north (lower down the Rhine river system), while Upper Lorraine was to the south (further up the river system). Both duchies formed the western part of the Holy Roman Empire established by Bruno's elder brother Emperor Otto I in 962.  Both Lotharingian duchies took very separate paths thereafter: Upon the death of Godfrey's son Duke Richar, Lower Lorraine was directly ruled by the Emperor, until in 977 Otto II enfeoffed Charles, the exiled younger brother of King Lothair of France. Lower and Upper Lorraine were once again briefly reunited under Gothelo I from 1033 to 1044. After that, the Lower duchy was quickly marginalised, while Upper Lorraine came to be known as simply the Duchy of Lorraine.  Over the next decades the significance of the Duchy of Lower Lorraine diminished and furthermore was affected by the conflict between Emperor Henry IV and his son Henry V: In 1100 Henry IV had enfeoffed Count Henry of Limburg, who Henry V, having enforced the abdication of his father, immediately deposed and replaced by Count Godfrey of Louvain. Upon the death of Duke Godfrey III in 1190, his son Duke Henry I of Brabant inherited the ducal title by order of Emperor Henry VI at the Diet of Schwäbisch Hall. Thereby the Duchy of Lower Lorraine finally lost its territorial authority, while the remnant Imperial fief held by the Dukes of Brabant was later called the Duchy of Lothier (or Lothryk).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Successor states.", "content": "After the territorial power of the duchy was shattered, many fiefdoms came to independence in its area. The most important ones of these were:  The following successor states remained under the authority of the titular dukes of Lower Lorraine (Lothier):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Duchy of Lower Lorraine, or Lower Lotharingia (also referred to as \"Lothier\" or \"Lottier\" in titles), was a stem duchy established in 959, of the medieval Kingdom of Germany, which encompassed almost all of the modern Netherlands (including Friesland), central and eastern Belgium, Luxemburg, the northern part of the German Rhineland province and the eastern parts of France's Nord-Pas de Calais region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972376}
{"src_title": "Norway lemming", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Norway lemming has a bold pattern of black and yellow-brown, which is variable between individuals. It grows to a size of 155 mm. The tail is very short (10 – 19 mm). It weighs up to 130 g. The dental formula is 1/1, 0/0, 3/3.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "The Norway lemming has a dramatic three- to four-year population cycle, in which the species' population periodically rises to unsustainable levels, leading to high mortality, which causes the population to crash again.  The Norway lemming spends the winter in nests under the snow. When the spring thaws begin and the snow starts to collapse, they must migrate to higher ground, where the snow is still firm enough for safety, or, more commonly, to lower ground, where they spend the summer months. In autumn, they must time their movement back to sheltered higher ground carefully, leaving after alpine snow cover is available for their burrows and nests, and before the lowlands are made uninhabitable by frost and ice.  When the seasons are particularly good (short winters without unexpected thaws or freezes, and long summers), the Norway lemming population can increase exponentially: they reach sexual maturity less than a month after birth, and breed year-round if conditions are right, producing a litter of six to eight young every three to four weeks. Being solitary creatures by nature, the stronger lemmings drive the weaker and younger ones off long before a food shortage occurs. The young lemmings disperse in random directions looking for vacant territory. Where geographical features constrain their movements and channel them into a relatively narrow corridor, large numbers can build up, leading to social friction, distress, and eventually a mass panic can follow, where they flee in all directions. Lemmings do migrate, and in vast numbers sometimes, but noion of a deliberate march into the sea is false.  According to genetic research, the Norwegian lemming survived the Pleistocene glaciation in western Europe, inhabiting various refugia which were not covered by ice. Alternatively, some researchers have contended the Norwegian lemming populations had arisen from ancestors of the present-day brown lemming (\"Lemmus sibiricus\"), moving in after glaciers receded.  When confronted with a predator, Norway lemmings do not try to run away, attacking the predator or intruder, instead. They have also been known to attack approaching humans. With their colorful body and brave behavior, it has been suggested that they belong to aposematic species", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Norway lemming, also Norwegian lemming (\"Lemmus lemmus\") is a common species of lemming found in northern Fennoscandia. It is the only vertebrate species endemic to the region. The Norway lemming dwells in tundra and fells, and prefers to live near water. Adults feed primarily on sedges, grasses and moss. They are active at both day and night, alternating naps with periods of activity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972377}
{"src_title": "Shiitake", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and naming.", "content": "The fungus was first described scientifically as \"Agaricus edodes\" by Miles Joseph Berkeley in 1877. It was placed in the genus \"Lentinula\" by David Pegler in 1976. The fungus has acquired an extensive synonymy in its taxonomic history:  The mushroom's Japanese name is composed of, for the tree \"Castanopsis cuspidata\" that provides the dead logs on which it is typically cultivated, and. The specific epithet \"\" is the Latin word for \"edible\".  It is also commonly called \"sawtooth oak mushroom\", \"black forest mushroom\", \"black mushroom\", \"golden oak mushroom\", or \"oakwood mushroom\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and distribution.", "content": "Shiitake grow in groups on the decaying wood of deciduous trees, particularly shii, chestnut, oak, maple, beech, sweetgum, poplar, hornbeam, ironwood, mulberry, and chinquapin. Its natural distribution includes warm and moist climates in southeast Asia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation history.", "content": "The earliest written record of shiitake cultivation is seen in the \"Records of Longquan County\" () compiled by He Zhan () in 1209 during the Han dynasty in China. The 185-word description of shiitake cultivation from that literature was later crossed-referenced many times and eventually adapted in a book by a Japanese horticulturist in 1796, the first book on shiitake cultivation in Japan. Han The Japanese cultivated the mushroom by cutting shii trees with axes and placing the logs by trees that were already growing shiitake or contained shiitake spores. Before 1982, the Japan Islands' variety of these mushrooms could only be grown in traditional locations using ancient methods. A 1982 report on the budding and growth of the Japanese variety revealed opportunities for commercial cultivation in the United States.  Shiitake are now widely cultivated all over the world, and contribute about 25% of total yearly production of mushrooms. Commercially, shiitake mushrooms are typically grown in conditions similar to their natural environment on either artificial substrate or hardwood logs, such as oak.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "In a 100 gram amount, raw shiitake mushrooms provide 34 kilocalories and are 90% water, 7% carbohydrates, 2% protein and less than 1% fat (table for raw mushrooms). Raw shiitake mushrooms are rich sources (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of B vitamins and contain moderate levels of some dietary minerals (table). When dried to about 10% water, the contents of numerous nutrients increase substantially.  Like all mushrooms, shiitakes produce vitamin D2 upon exposure of their internal ergosterol to ultraviolet B (UVB) rays from sunlight or broadband UVB fluorescent tubes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Fresh and dried shiitake have many uses in the cuisines of East Asia. In Japan, they are served in miso soup, used as the basis for a kind of vegetarian \"dashi\", and as an ingredient in many steamed and simmered dishes. In Chinese cuisine, they are often sautéed in vegetarian dishes such as Buddha's delight.  One type of high-grade shiitake is called in Japanese and'in Chinese, literally \"winter mushroom\". Another high-grade of mushroom is called'() in Chinese, literally \"flower mushroom\", which has a flower-like cracking pattern on the mushroom's upper surface. Both of these are produced at lower temperatures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dermatitis.", "content": "Rarely, consumption of raw or slightly cooked shiitake mushrooms may cause an allergic reaction called \"shiitake dermatitis\", including an erythematous, micro-papular, streaky pruriginous rash that occurs all over the body including face and scalp, appearing about 24 hours after consumption, possibly worsening by sun exposure and disappearing after 3 to 21 days. This effect – presumably caused by the polysaccharide, lentinan – is more common in Asia, but may be growing in occurrence in Europe as shiitake consumption increases. Thorough cooking may eliminate the allergenicity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "There is research investigating the use of shiitake mushrooms in production of organic fertilizer and compost from hardwood.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The shiitake (; Lentinula edodes) is an edible mushroom native to East Asia, which is cultivated and consumed in many Asian countries. It is considered a medicinal mushroom in some forms of traditional medicine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972378}
{"src_title": "Luise Rinser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Luise Rinser was born on 30 April 1911 in Pitzling, a constituent community of Landsberg am Lech, in Upper Bavaria. The house in which she was born still exists. She was educated at a Volksschule in Munich, where she scored high marks in her exams. After the exams, she worked as an assistant in various schools in Upper Bavaria, where she learned the reformed pedagogical methods of Franz Seitz, who influenced her teaching and writing.  During these years, she wrote her first short stories for the journal \"Herdfeuer.\" Although she refused to join the Nazi Party, after 1936 she belonged to the NS-Frauenschaft and until 1939 she also belonged to the Teachers' Association. In 1939, she gave up teaching and got married.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imprisonment.", "content": "In 1944, she was denounced by a Nazi 'friend' for undermining military morale and was imprisoned; the end of the war stopped the legal proceedings against her, which would probably have concluded with a death sentence for treason. She described her experiences in the Traunstein women's prison in her \"Prison Journal\" (\"Gefängnistagebuch\") of 1946. The inmates of the prison were not just political dissidents. She shared her life there with common thieves, sex offenders, vagrants and Jehovah's witnesses. Being among such people was a new experience for Rinser, with her middle-class background. The prisoners had to contend with filth, stench and disease. Starvation was rampant.  Rinser herself managed to survive by helping herself to what she could pilfer in the breadcrumb factory where she was placed. She discovered for the first time how the under-privileged and the downtrodden lived and survived. She also discovered herself. The book became a bestseller and the English-speaking world discovered her through the English translation, \"Prison Journal.\" In 1947, Rinser changed her views about the usefulness of the book when she compared her experiences in Traunstein to what had taken place in Nazi concentration camps. However, the book was reissued twenty years later.  She described herself in an ode to Adolf Hitler as opposed to the Nazis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Her first husband and the father of her two sons, the composer and choir director Horst Günther Schnell, died on the Russian Front. After his death, she married the communist writer Klaus Herrmann. This marriage was annulled around 1952. From 1945 to 1953, she was a freelance writer for the newspaper \"Neue Zeitung München\", and took up residence in Munich.  In 1954, she married the composer Carl Orff, and they divorced in 1960. She formed a close friendship with the Korean composer Isang Yun, with the abbot of a monastery, and with the theologian Karl Rahner. In 1959, she moved to Rome, and later from 1965 onwards she lived in Rocca di Papa, near Rome, where she was recognised as an honored resident in 1986. Afterwards, she lived at her apartment in Munich (Unterhaching) where she died on 17 March 2002.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political activities.", "content": "Rinser kept herself active in political and social discussions in Germany. She supported Willy Brandt in his 1971-72 campaign and demonstrated with the writers Heinrich Böll, Günter Grass and many others against the deployment of Pershing II missiles in Germany. She became a sharp critic of the Catholic Church without ever leaving it and was an accredited journalist at the Second Vatican Council. She also criticized, in open letters, the prosecution of Andreas Baader, Gudrun Ensslin and others, and wrote to Ensslin's father: \"Gudrun has a friend in me for life.\".  In 1984, she was proposed by the Greens as a candidate for the office of President of Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Travel.", "content": "In 1972, she travelled to the Soviet Union, the United States, Spain, India, Indonesia, South Korea, North Korea, and Iran. She saw the Revolutionary leader Ruhollah Khomeini as \"a shining model for the states of the Third World.\" – Japan, Colombia and many other countries. She stood up vociferously for the abolition of the Abortion paragraph in its current form. She also served as a leading voice for the Catholic left in Germany.  Between 1980 and 1992, she traveled to North Korea 11 times, where she met with North Korean leader Kim Il Sung 45 times. She wrote about her travels in her book \"\", in which she approvingly described North Korea as a \"farm-loving country owned by a farmer father\" and a model example of \"socialism with a human face\" where crime, poverty, and prison camps are unknown and praised the minimal environmental impact of its rationed economy. On her 1981 trip, she was accompanied by Rudolf Bahro, who also found much to admire in North Korea, saying that \"It is a lot of crap to put Hitler, Stalin, and Kim Il Sung in the same bag. I believe that [Kim] is, in fact, a great man\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Posthumous revelations.", "content": "Rinser died in 2002. Contrary to what she had said and written about herself and what others had written about her previously, the biography \"Luise Rinser – Ein Leben in Widersprüchen \" (Luise Rinser – A Life of Contradictions), published in 2011 by the spanish author Murillo exposed her as an 'early' ambitious Nazi. As a schoolteacher, she had herself denounced her Jewish headmaster to further her own career. Murillo says, \"She lied to all of us.\" Her son, Christoph Rinser, collaborated with Murillo in researching this 'authorised' biography.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Luise Rinser (30 April 1911 – 17 March 2002) was a German writer, best known for her novels and short stories.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972379}
{"src_title": "Hlučín Region", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Archaeological finds suggest that the area was inhabited since 4500 - 2500 BC.  The medieval bishoprics of Olomouc and Wrocław both attempted to control it. In the end, Olomouc won the dispute and the area became part of the March of Moravia. In 1269, Hlučín belonged to the lands that were split off Moravia by King Ottokar II of Bohemia as the Duchy of Opava, ruled by his illegitimate son Duke Nicholas I. Differences in culture, traditions, and economic development from the rest of Moravia grew during the time, mainly caused by Germanisation in the course of the Ostsiedlung. From 1526 onwards, the Duchy of Troppau together with the Lands of the Bohemian Crown was part of the Habsburg Monarchy.  The history of Hlučínsko as an entity began with the Treaty of Breslau signed on 11 June 1742 between King Frederick II of Prussia and Empress Maria Theresa of Austria. In 1740, Prussia started the First Silesian War and conquered most of Silesia. According to the terms of the treaty, the Duchy of Troppau was partitioned; while the lands south of the Opava River remained with Austrian Silesia, the northern part around Hlučín fell to Prussia and was incorporated into the Province of Silesia in 1815.  With Prussia part of the German Empire from 1871 onwards, the area after the German defeat in World War I became the site of an international dispute, as it was inhabited by a majority of Czech-speaking people. On February 4, 1920, Hlučínsko was handed over without a referendum to Czechoslovakia, according to Art. 83 of the Treaty of Versailles, though surveys suggested that its people felt more as Upper Silesians, and mostly would have preferred to join the Weimar Republic. Minor border corrections followed in the next few years.  Even though the German-speakers of the region were officially protected in their rights by the Czechoslovak state, repressions regarding language policy and schooling in German were instituted. The enforcement of a Czech identity on the citizens rather raised public opposition.  On 1 October 1938, Hlučínsko was occupied by Nazi Germany as a part of areas lost by Czechoslovakia in accordance with the Munich Agreement. However, as distinct from other lost Czechoslovakian domains, it was not attached to the \"Reichsgau\" Sudetenland, but again to the Prussian Province of Silesia (Upper Silesia from 1941). After the Second World War, Hlučínsko, like the rest of the Sudetenland, returned to Czechoslovakia, but, different from the rest of the millions of German-speakers in the country, the region was spared a mass expulsion, and only 3000 citizens had to emigrate. In the 1993 dissolution, it became part of the Czech Republic. Today, a sizeable fraction of the region's citizens are bi-nationals also having a German citizenship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Municipalities.", "content": "Towns are shown in bold.  Bělá (Bielau) - Bohuslavice (Buslawitz) - Bolatice (Bolatitz) - Darkovice (Groß Darkowitz) - Dolní Benešov (Beneschau) - Hať (Haatsch) - Hlučín (Hultschin) - Hněvošice (Schreibersdorf) - Chlebičov (Klebsch) - Chuchelná (Kuchelna) - Kobeřice (Köberwitz) - Kozmice (Kosmütz) - Kravaře (Deutsch Krawarn) - Ludgeřovice (Ludgierzowitz) - Markvartovice (Markersdorf) - Oldřišov (Odersch) - Píšť (Pyschcz / Sandau) - Rohov (Rohow) - Služovice (Schlausewitz)- Strahovice (Strandorf) - Sudice (Zauditz) - Šilheřovice (Schillersdorf) - Štěpánkovice (Schepankowitz) - Třebom (Thröm) - Velké Hoštice (Groß Hoschütz) - Vřesina (Wreschin) - Závada (Zawada bei Beneschau)  These municipalities cooperate in microregion Sdružení obcí Hlučínska since 1992.  Also, the former municipalities of Malé Hoštice (Klein Hoschütz), now district of Opava, and Hošťálkovice (Hoschialkowitz), Lhotka (Ellguth), Petřkovice (Petershofen), Koblov (Koblau) and Antošovice (Antoschowitz), now districts or parts of Ostrava, once belonged to the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attractions.", "content": "Hlučínsko lies between the Beskids (east) and Hrubý Jeseník (west). The Opava River flows through Hlučínsko. The area attracts tourists, especially for its cycle trails. Many historical buildings, unique architecture, and folk customs are found there.  Its main attractions are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hlučín Region ( (familiarly \"Prajzsko\"),, ) is a historically significant part of Czech Silesia, today a part of the Moravian-Silesian Region in the Czech Republic, named after its largest town Hlučín. Its area is and in 2001, it had about 73,914 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972380}
{"src_title": "1968 Summer Olympics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Host city selection.", "content": "On October 18, 1963, at the 60th IOC Session in Baden-Baden, West Germany, Mexico City finished ahead of bids from Detroit, Buenos Aires and Lyon to host the Games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Olympic torch relay.", "content": "The 1968 torch relay recreated the route taken by Christopher Columbus to the New World, journeying from Greece through Italy and Spain to San Salvador Island, Bahamas, and then on to Mexico. American sculptor James Metcalf, an expatriate in Mexico, won the commission to forge the Olympic torch for the 1968 Summer Games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "South Africa.", "content": "South Africa was provisionally invited to the Games, on the understanding that all segregation and discrimination in sport would be eliminated by the 1972 Games. However, African countries and African American athletes promised to boycott the Games if South Africa was present, and Eastern Bloc countries threatened to do likewise. In April 1968 the IOC conceded that \"it would be most unwise for South Africa to participate\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tlatelolco massacre.", "content": "Responding to growing social unrest and protests, the government of Mexico had increased economic and political suppression, against labor unions in particular, in the decade building up to the Olympics. A series of protest marches in the city in August gathered significant attendance, with an estimated 500,000 taking part on August 27. President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz ordered the occupation of the National Autonomous University of Mexico in September, but protests continued. Using the prominence brought by the Olympics, students gathered in Plaza de las Tres Culturas in Tlatelolco to call for greater civil and democratic rights and showed disdain for the Olympics with slogans such as \"¡No queremos olimpiadas, queremos revolución!\" (\"We don't want Olympics, we want revolution!\").  Ten days before the start of the Olympics, the government ordered the gathering in Plaza de las Tres Culturas to be broken up. Some 5000 soldiers and 200 tankettes surrounded the plaza. Hundreds of protesters and civilians were killed and over 1000 were arrested. At the time, the event was portrayed in the national media as the military suppression of a violent student uprising, but later analysis indicates that the gathering was peaceful prior to the army's advance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Black Power salute.", "content": "On October 16, 1968, African American sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos, the gold and bronze medalists in the men's 200-meter race, took their places on the podium for the medal ceremony wearing black socks without shoes and human rights badges, lowered their heads and each defiantly raised a black-gloved fist as the \"Star Spangled Banner\" was played, in solidarity with the Black Freedom Movement in the United States. Both were members of the Olympic Project for Human Rights. International Olympic Committee (IOC) president Avery Brundage deemed it to be a domestic political statement unfit for the apolitical, international forum the Olympic Games were intended to be. In response to their actions, he ordered Smith and Carlos suspended from the US team and banned from the Olympic Village. When the US Olympic Committee refused, Brundage threatened to ban the entire US track team. This threat led to the expulsion of the two athletes from the Games.  Peter Norman, the Australian sprinter who came second in the 200 m race, also wore an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge during the medal ceremony. Norman was the one who suggested that Carlos and Smith wear one glove each. His actions resulted in him being ostracized by Australian media and a reprimand by his country's Olympic authorities. He was not sent to the 1972 games, despite several times making the qualifying time, though opinion differ over whether that was due to the 1968 protest. When Australia hosted the 2000 Summer Olympics, he had no part in the opening ceremony, though the significance of that is also debated. In 2006, after Norman died of a heart attack, Smith and Carlos were pallbearers at Norman's funeral.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Věra Čáslavská.", "content": "In another notable incident in the gymnastics competition, while standing on the medal podium after the balance beam event final, in which Natalia Kuchinskaya of the Soviet Union had controversially taken the gold, Czechoslovakian gymnast Věra Čáslavská quietly turned her head down and away during the playing of the Soviet national anthem. The action was Čáslavská's silent protest against the recent Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. Her protest was repeated when she accepted her medal for her floor exercise routine when the judges changed the preliminary scores of the Soviet Larisa Petrik to allow her to tie with Čáslavská for the gold. While Čáslavská's countrymen supported her actions and her outspoken opposition to communism (she had publicly signed and supported Ludvik Vaculik's \"Two Thousand Words\" manifesto), the new regime responded by banning her from both sporting events and international travel for many years and made her an outcast from society until the fall of communism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "The 1968 Summer Olympic program featured 172 events in the following 18 sports:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demonstration sports.", "content": "The organizers declined to hold a judo tournament at the Olympics, even though it had been a full-medal sport four years earlier. This was the last time judo was not included in the Olympic games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Participating National Olympic Committees.", "content": "East Germany and West Germany competed as separate entities for the first time at a Summer Olympiad, and would remain so through 1988. Barbados competed for the first time as an independent country. Also competing for the first time in a Summer Olympiad were British Honduras (now Belize), Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (as Congo-Kinshasa), El Salvador, Guinea, Honduras, Kuwait, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Sierra Leone, and the United States Virgin Islands. Singapore returned to the Games as an independent country after competing as part of the Malaysian team in 1964. Suriname and Libya actually competed for the first time (in 1960 and 1964, respectively, they took part in the Opening Ceremony, but their athletes withdrew from the competition.)  <div class=\"center\" >", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Boycotting countries.", "content": "North Korea withdrew from the 1968 Games because of two incidents that strained its relations with the IOC. First, the IOC had barred North Korean track and field athletes from the 1968 Games because they had participated in the rival Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO) in 1966. Secondly, the IOC had ordered the nation to compete under the name \"North Korea\" in the 1968 Games, whereas the country itself would have preferred its official name: \"Democratic People's Republic of Korea\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medal count.", "content": "These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1968 Games. Host Mexico won 9 medals in total.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1968 Summer Olympics (Spanish: \"Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1968\"), officially known as the Games of the XIX Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event held in Mexico City, Mexico, from October 12 to the 27th.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972381}
{"src_title": "CPT symmetry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The CPT theorem appeared for the first time, implicitly, in the work of Julian Schwinger in 1951 to prove the connection between spin and statistics. In 1954, Gerhart Lüders and Wolfgang Pauli derived more explicit proofs, so this theorem is sometimes known as the Lüders–Pauli theorem. At about the same time, and independently, this theorem was also proved by John Stewart Bell. These proofs are based on the principle of Lorentz invariance and the principle of locality in the interaction of quantum fields. Subsequently, Res Jost gave a more general proof in the framework of axiomatic quantum field theory.  Efforts during the late 1950s revealed the violation of P-symmetry by phenomena that involve the weak force, and there were well-known violations of C-symmetry as well. For a short time, the CP-symmetry was believed to be preserved by all physical phenomena, but that was later found to be false too, which implied, by CPT invariance, violations of T-symmetry as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derivation of the CPT theorem.", "content": "Consider a Lorentz boost in a fixed direction \"z\". This can be interpreted as a rotation of the time axis into the \"z\" axis, with an imaginary rotation parameter. If this rotation parameter were real, it would be possible for a 180° rotation to reverse the direction of time and of \"z\". Reversing the direction of one axis is a reflection of space in any number of dimensions. If space has 3 dimensions, it is equivalent to reflecting all the coordinates, because an additional rotation of 180° in the \"x-y\" plane could be included.  This defines a CPT transformation if we adopt the Feynman–Stueckelberg interpretation of antiparticles as the corresponding particles traveling backwards in time. This interpretation requires a slight analytic continuation, which is well-defined only under the following assumptions:  When the above hold, quantum theory can be extended to a Euclidean theory, defined by translating all the operators to imaginary time using the Hamiltonian. The commutation relations of the Hamiltonian, and the Lorentz generators, guarantee that Lorentz invariance implies rotational invariance, so that any state can be rotated by 180 degrees.  Since a sequence of two CPT reflections is equivalent to a 360-degree rotation, fermions change by a sign under two CPT reflections, while bosons do not. This fact can be used to prove the spin-statistics theorem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences and implications.", "content": "The implication of CPT symmetry is that a \"mirror-image\" of our universe — with all objects having their positions reflected through an arbitrary point (corresponding to a parity inversion), all momenta reversed (corresponding to a time inversion) and with all matter replaced by antimatter (corresponding to a charge inversion) — would evolve under exactly our physical laws. The CPT transformation turns our universe into its \"mirror image\" and vice versa. CPT symmetry is recognized to be a fundamental property of physical laws.  In order to preserve this symmetry, every violation of the combined symmetry of two of its components (such as CP) must have a corresponding violation in the third component (such as T); in fact, mathematically, these are the same thing. Thus violations in T symmetry are often referred to as CP violations.  The CPT theorem can be generalized to take into account pin groups.  In 2002 Oscar Greenberg published an apparent proof that CPT violation implies the breaking of Lorentz symmetry. If correct, this would imply that any study of CPT violation also includes Lorentz violation. However, Chaichian \"et al\" later disputed the validity of Greenberg's result. Greenberg replied that the model used in their paper meant that their \"proposed objection was not relevant to my result\".  The overwhelming majority of experimental searches for Lorentz violation have yielded negative results. A detailed tabulation of these results was given in 2011 by Kostelecky and Russell.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charge, parity, and time reversal symmetry is a fundamental symmetry of physical laws under the simultaneous transformations of charge conjugation (C), parity transformation (P), and time reversal (T). CPT is the only combination of C, P, and T that is observed to be an exact symmetry of nature at the fundamental level. The CPT theorem says that CPT symmetry holds for all physical phenomena, or more precisely, that any Lorentz invariant local quantum field theory with a Hermitian Hamiltonian must have CPT symmetry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972382}
{"src_title": "Jenůfa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "The plot depends on a tangled set of village relationships. Before the opera begins, the mill-owner Grandmother Buryja's two sons have both married twice, fathered children, and died. Their wives have also died, except for the Kostelnička (widow of the churchwarden), the younger son's second wife and Jenůfa's stepmother. Custom dictates that only Števa, the elder son's child by his first marriage, will inherit the mill, leaving his half-brother Laca and cousin Jenůfa to earn their livings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act 1.", "content": "Jenůfa, Laca, and Grandmother Buryja wait for Števa to return home. Jenůfa, in love with Števa and secretly pregnant with his child, worries that he may have been drafted into the army. Laca, in love with Jenůfa, expresses bitterness against his half-brother's favored position at home. As he complains he plays with a knife and, finding it blunt, gives it to the mill foreman to be sharpened.  The foreman informs the family that Števa has not been drafted, to Jenůfa's relief and Laca's increased frustration. The others leave, and Jenůfa waits to greet Števa. He appears with a group of soldiers, drunk and boasting of his prowess with the girls. He calls for music and drags the miserable Jenůfa into dancing with him.  Then Kostelnička steps into this rowdy scene, silences the musicians and, shocked by Števa's behavior, forbids him to marry Jenůfa until he can stay sober for one full year. The soldiers and the family leave Števa and Jenůfa alone, and she begs him to love her, but he, unaware of her pregnancy, gives her casual answers and leaves.  Laca returns, as bitter as ever. He attempts to goad Jenůfa into criticizing Števa, but she takes her lover's side despite everything. Laca rages that Števa would never even look at her if it weren't for her rosy cheeks, then slashes her across the cheek with his knife.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 2.", "content": "Months later, it is winter. The baby has been born, but Števa has not yet come to visit his child. Jenůfa's face is still disfigured, but she is happy in her love for the baby. While Jenůfa sleeps, the Kostelnička summons Števa and demands that he take responsibility. He answers that while he will provide money in secret, no one must know the baby is his. His love for Jenůfa died when Laca spoiled her beauty, and he is now engaged to marry Karolka, the mayor's pretty daughter.  Števa leaves, and Laca enters. He still doesn't know the truth about the baby, and when the Kostelnička tells him, his first reaction is disgust at the thought of taking Števa's child under his wing. Fearful that Jenůfa will be left with no one to marry, Kostelnička hastily lies that the baby is dead. Laca leaves, and the Kostelnička is faced with the necessity of making the lie true. She wraps the baby in a shawl and leaves the house.  Jenůfa wakes up and says a prayer for her child's future, but the Kostelnička, returning, tells her that the baby died while she slept. Laca appears and comforts Jenůfa gently, asking that they spend the rest of their lives together. Seeing the tenderness of the couple, the Kostelnička tries to convince herself that she has acted for the best.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 3.", "content": "It is now spring, and Laca and Jenůfa's wedding day. All seems right again, except that the Kostelnička is a nervous wreck. Števa and Karolka visit, and a chorus of village girls sings a wedding song. Just then, screams are heard. The body of the baby has been discovered in the mill-stream under the melting ice. Jenůfa immediately says that the baby is hers, and in her grief appears guilty of the murder. The village is ready to exact immediate justice against Jenůfa, but the Kostelnička calms them and says that the crime is hers. Hearing the whole story, Jenůfa forgives her stepmother. The crowd takes the Kostelnička off to jail. Jenůfa and Laca are left alone. Jenůfa asks Laca to leave her, as she cannot expect him to marry her now. He replies that he will not leave her, and that he wishes to spend the rest of his life with her.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Její pastorkyňa (\"Her Stepdaughter\"; commonly known as Jenůfa ) is an opera in three acts by Leoš Janáček to a Czech libretto by the composer, based on the play \"Její pastorkyňa\" by Gabriela Preissová. It was first performed at the National Theatre, Brno on 21 January 1904. Composed between 1896 and 1902, it is among the first operas written in prose.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972383}
{"src_title": "Cieszyn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is situated on the Olza river, a tributary of the Oder River, which forms the border with the Czech Republic. It is located within the western Silesian Foothills north of the Silesian Beskids and Mt. Czantoria Wielka, a popular ski resort. Cieszyn is the heart of the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia, the southeasternmost part of Upper Silesia. Until the end of World War I in 1918 it was a seat of the Dukes of Teschen.  In 1920 Cieszyn Silesia was divided between the two newly created states of Poland and Czechoslovakia, with the smaller western suburbs of Teschen becoming part of Czechoslovakia as a new town called Český Těšín. The larger part of the town joined Poland as Cieszyn. Three bridges connect the twin towns. After Poland and the Czech Republic joined the European Union and its passport-free Schengen zone, border controls were abolished and residents of both the Polish and Czech part could move freely across the border. The combined population of Polish and Czech parts of the city is 61,201 inhabitants. Cieszyn is the southern terminus of the Polish National road 1 leading to Gdańsk on the Baltic coast.  The town combines both Polish and Old–Austrian peculiarities in the style of its buildings. Because of several major fires and subsequent reconstructions (the last one in the late 18th century), the picturesque old town is sometimes called \"Little Vienna\". The only relic of the ancient castle is a square tower, dating from the 14th century and 11th century romanesque chapel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The area has been populated by Slavic peoples since at least the 7th century. According to legend, in 810 three sons of a prince – Bolko, Leszko and Cieszko, met here after a long pilgrimage, found a spring, and decided to found a new settlement. They called it Cieszyn, from the words \"cieszym się\" (\"I'm happy\"). This well can be found at \"ulica Trzech Braci\" (\"Three Brothers Street\"), just west of the town square.  The town was the capital of the Duchy of Teschen since 1290, which was ruled by Piast dynasty until 1653 and by the Habsburg Dynasty of Austria until 1918. It was in Teschen that Maria Theresa and Frederick II on in May 1779 signed the Teschen Peace Treaty, which put an end to the War of the Bavarian Succession. In the 19th century Teschen was known for its ethnic, religious and cultural diversity, containing mostly German, Polish, Jewish and Czech communities. There was also a small Hungarian community in the town consisting mostly of officers and clerks.  The town was divided in July 1920, by the Spa Conference, a body formed by the Versailles Treaty, leaving a Polish minority on the Czechoslovak side. Its smaller western suburbs became what is now the town of Český Těšín in the Czech Republic. During the interwar period two villages were merged into Cieszyn: Błogocice in 1923 and Bobrek in 1932. After 1920 many ethnic Germans left the town, while many Poles from the Czechoslovakian part of the region moved in. According to the Polish census of 1921, Cieszyn had 15,268 inhabitants, of whom 9,241 (60.5%) were Poles, 4,777 (31.2%) were Germans, 1014 (6.6%) were Jews, and 195 (1.3%) were Czechs. The census from 1931 indicated 14,707 inhabitants, of whom 12,145 (82.7%) were Poles, while the rest consisted mostly of Germans and Jews (in 1937 estimated to be 12 and 8% respectively).  Cieszyn and Český Těšín were merged again in October 1938 when Poland annexed the Zaolzie area together with Český Těšín. In 1939 Cieszyn Silesia was occupied by German forces and during World War II it was part of Nazi Germany. Almost the entire Jewish community was murdered by the Nazis.  After World War II, the border between Poland and Czechoslovakia was restored to that of 1920. Most Germans fled or were expelled and were replaced with Poles expelled from the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union. Signs of the former German presence in the town were removed by a special committee.  On 19 July 1970, five firefighters from Cieszyn died when a bridge they were on fell into the Olza River, due to heavy flooding. In 1977, Boguszowice, Gułdowy, Kalembice, Krasna, Mnisztwo, Pastwiska were amalgamated with Cieszyn and Marklowice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Since the 18th century Cieszyn Silesia has been an important centre of Polish Protestantism when the Jesus Church was built as the only one in Upper Silesia. Currently Cieszyn is also the site of the Cieszyn Summer Film Festival, one of the most influential film festivals in Poland. There is also an earlier established Czech-Polish-Slovak film festival.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry.", "content": "Cieszyn is an important centre of the electromechanical industry. It is also the site of the \"Olza Cieszyn\" sweets factory (where the famous Prince Polo wafers are made) and the Brackie Browar, where Żywiec Porter is brewed. The main source of income for many citizens is trade with the nearby Czech Republic and retail trade associated with transit across the two bridges over the Olza to Český Těšín. In the past, the city was home to many furniture factories.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Cieszyn is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cieszyn (; ; ; ) is a border town in southern Poland on the east bank of the Olza River, and the administrative seat of Cieszyn County, Silesian Voivodeship. The town has 34,513 inhabitants (as of 2019), and lies opposite Český Těšín in the Czech Republic's Karviná District, Moravian-Silesian Region. Both towns belonged to the historical region of Austrian Silesia and formerly as one town composed the capital of the region of Cieszyn Silesia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972384}
{"src_title": "Rubia tinctorum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The common madder can grow up to 1.5 m in height. The evergreen leaves are approximately 5–10 cm long and 2–3 cm broad, produced in whorls of 4–7 starlike around the central stem. It climbs with tiny hooks at the leaves and stems. The flowers are small (3–5 mm across), with five pale yellow petals, in dense racemes, and appear from June to August, followed by small (4–6 mm diameter) red to black berries. The roots can be over a metre long, up to 12 mm thick and the source of red dyes known as rose madder and Turkey red. It prefers loamy soils (sand and clay soil) with a constant level of moisture. Madder is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the hummingbird hawk moth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "It has been used since ancient times as a vegetable red dye for leather, wool, cotton and silk. For dye production, the roots are harvested after two years. The outer red layer gives the common variety of the dye, the inner yellow layer the refined variety. The dye is fixed to the cloth with help of a mordant, most commonly alum. Madder can be fermented for dyeing as well (\"Fleurs de garance\"). In France, the remains were used to produce a spirit.  The roots contain the acid ruberthyrin. By drying, fermenting, or a treatment with acids, this is changed to sugar, alizarin and purpurin, which were first isolated by the French chemist Pierre Jean Robiquet in 1826. Purpurin is normally not coloured, but is red when dissolved in alkaline solutions. Mixed with clay and treated with alum and ammonia, it gives a brilliant red colourant (madder lake).  The pulverised roots can be dissolved in sulfuric acid, which leaves a dye called \"garance\" (the French name for madder) after drying. Another method of increasing the yield consisted of dissolving the roots in sulfuric acid after they had been used for dyeing. This produces a dye called \"garanceux\". By treating the pulverized roots with alcohol, colorin was produced. It contained 40–50 times the amount of alizarin of the roots.  The chemical name for the pigment is alizarin, of the anthraquinone-group, and was used to make the alizarine ink in 1855 by Professor Leonhardi of Dresden, Germany. In 1869, the German chemists Graebe and Liebermann synthesised artificial alizarin, which was produced industrially from 1871 onwards, effectively ending the cultivation of madder. In the 20th century, madder was only grown in some areas of France.  The plant's roots contain several polyphenolic compounds, such as 1,3-Dihydroxyanthraquinone (purpuroxanthin), 1,4-Dihydroxyanthraquinone (quinizarin), 1,2,4-Trihydroxyanthraquinone (purpurin) and 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone (alizarin). This last compound gives it its red colour to a textile dye known as Rose madder. It was also used as a colourant, especially for paint, that is referred to as madder lake. The substance was also derived from another species, \"Rubia cordifolia\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Early evidence of dyeing comes from India where a piece of cotton dyed with madder has been recovered from the archaeological site at Mohenjo-daro (3rd millennium BCE). In Sanskrit, this plant is known by the name Manjishtha. It was used by hermits to dye their clothes saffron. Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder (De Re Natura) mention the plant (which the Romans called rubia passiva). In Viking Age levels of York, remains of both woad and madder have been excavated. The oldest European textiles dyed with madder come from the grave of the Merovingian queen Arnegundis in Saint-Denis near Paris (between 565 and 570 AD). In the \"Capitulare de villis\" of Charlemagne, madder is mentioned as \"warentiam\". The herbal of Hildegard of Bingen mentions the plant as well. The red coats of the British Redcoats were dyed with madder, after earlier being dyed with cochineal.. Madder is mentioned in the talmud (e.g., tractate Sabbath 61b) where the madder plant is termed \"puah\" in Arameic and translated into old French by Rashi (loc cit).  Turkey red was a strong, very fast red dye for cotton obtained from madder root via a complicated multistep process involving \"sumac and oak galls, calf's blood, sheep's dung, oil, soda, alum, and a solution of tin.\" Turkey red was developed in India and spread to Turkey. Greek workers familiar with the methods of its production were brought to France in 1747, and Dutch and English spies soon discovered the secret. A sanitized version of Turkey red was being produced in Manchester by 1784, and roller-printed dress cottons with a Turkey red ground were fashionable in England by the 1820s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Folk medicine.", "content": "According to Culpeper's herbal, the plant is \"\"an herb of Mars\"\" and \"\"hath an opening quality, and afterwards to bind and strengthen\"\". The root was recommended in the treatment of yellow jaundice, obstruction of the spleen, the melancholy humour, palsy, sciatica, and of bruises. The leaves were advised for women “\"that have not their courses\"” and for the treatment of freckles and other discolorations of the skin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Risks.", "content": "Madder root may cause birth defects and miscarriages in humans when taken internally.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Rubia tinctorum, the rose madder or common madder or dyer's madder, is a herbaceous perennial plant species belonging to the bedstraw and coffee family Rubiaceae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972385}
{"src_title": "Group representation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Branches of group representation theory.", "content": "The representation theory of groups divides into subtheories depending on the kind of group being represented. The various theories are quite different in detail, though some basic definitions and concepts are similar. The most important divisions are:  Representation theory also depends heavily on the type of vector space on which the group acts. One distinguishes between finite-dimensional representations and infinite-dimensional ones. In the infinite-dimensional case, additional structures are important (e.g. whether or not the space is a Hilbert space, Banach space, etc.).  One must also consider the type of field over which the vector space is defined. The most important case is the field of complex numbers. The other important cases are the field of real numbers, finite fields, and fields of p-adic numbers. In general, algebraically closed fields are easier to handle than non-algebraically closed ones. The characteristic of the field is also significant; many theorems for finite groups depend on the characteristic of the field not dividing the order of the group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definitions.", "content": "A representation of a group \"G\" on a vector space \"V\" over a field \"K\" is a group homomorphism from \"G\" to GL(\"V\"), the general linear group on \"V\". That is, a representation is a map such that  Here \"V\" is called the representation space and the dimension of \"V\" is called the dimension of the representation. It is common practice to refer to \"V\" itself as the representation when the homomorphism is clear from the context.  In the case where \"V\" is of finite dimension \"n\" it is common to choose a basis for \"V\" and identify GL(\"V\") with, the group of \"n\"-by-\"n\" invertible matrices on the field \"K\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "Consider the complex number \"u\" = e which has the property \"u\" = 1. The cyclic group \"C\" = {1, \"u\", \"u\"} has a representation ρ on C given by:  This representation is faithful because ρ is a one-to-one map.  Another representation for \"C\" on C, isomorphic to the previous one, is σ given by:  The group \"C\" may also be faithfully represented on R by τ given by:  where", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reducibility.", "content": "A subspace \"W\" of \"V\" that is invariant under the group action is called a \"subrepresentation\". If \"V\" has exactly two subrepresentations, namely the zero-dimensional subspace and \"V\" itself, then the representation is said to be irreducible; if it has a proper subrepresentation of nonzero dimension, the representation is said to be reducible. The representation of dimension zero is considered to be neither reducible nor irreducible, just like the number 1 is considered to be neither composite nor prime.  Under the assumption that the characteristic of the field \"K\" does not divide the size of the group, representations of finite groups can be decomposed into a direct sum of irreducible subrepresentations (see Maschke's theorem). This holds in particular for any representation of a finite group over the complex numbers, since the characteristic of the complex numbers is zero, which never divides the size of a group.  In the example above, the first two representations given (ρ and σ) are both decomposable into two 1-dimensional subrepresentations (given by span{(1,0)} and span{(0,1)}), while the third representation (τ) is irreducible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Generalizations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Set-theoretical representations.", "content": "A \"set-theoretic representation\" (also known as a group action or \"permutation representation\") of a group \"G\" on a set \"X\" is given by a function ρ : \"G\" → \"X\", the set of functions from \"X\" to \"X\", such that for all \"g\", \"g\" in \"G\" and all \"x\" in \"X\":  where formula_11 is the identity element of \"G\". This condition and the axioms for a group imply that ρ(\"g\") is a bijection (or permutation) for all \"g\" in \"G\". Thus we may equivalently define a permutation representation to be a group homomorphism from G to the symmetric group S of \"X\".  For more information on this topic see the article on group action.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Representations in other categories.", "content": "Every group \"G\" can be viewed as a category with a single object; morphisms in this category are just the elements of \"G\". Given an arbitrary category \"C\", a \"representation\" of \"G\" in \"C\" is a functor from \"G\" to \"C\". Such a functor selects an object \"X\" in \"C\" and a group homomorphism from \"G\" to Aut(\"X\"), the automorphism group of \"X\".  In the case where \"C\" is Vect, the category of vector spaces over a field \"K\", this definition is equivalent to a linear representation. Likewise, a set-theoretic representation is just a representation of \"G\" in the category of sets.  When \"C\" is Ab, the category of abelian groups, the objects obtained are called \"G\"-modules.  For another example consider the category of topological spaces, Top. Representations in Top are homomorphisms from \"G\" to the homeomorphism group of a topological space \"X\".  Two types of representations closely related to linear representations are:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In the mathematical field of representation theory, group representations describe abstract groups in terms of bijective linear transformations (i.e. automorphisms) of vector spaces; in particular, they can be used to represent group elements as invertible matrices so that the group operation can be represented by matrix multiplication. Representations of groups are important because they allow many group-theoretic problems to be reduced to problems in linear algebra, which is well understood. They are also important in physics because, for example, they describe how the symmetry group of a physical system affects the solutions of equations describing that system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972386}
{"src_title": "Max Bill", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Bill was born in Winterthur. After an apprenticeship as a silversmith during 1924–1927, Bill took up studies at the Bauhaus in Dessau under many teachers including Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee and Oskar Schlemmer from 1927 to 1929, after which he moved to Zurich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art and design.", "content": "After working on graphic designs for the few modern buildings being constructed, he built his first work, his own house and studio (1932–3) in Zurich-Höngg. From 1937 onwards he was a prime mover behind the Allianz group of Swiss artists.  Bill is widely considered the single most decisive influence on Swiss graphic design beginning in the 1950s with his theoretical writing and progressive work. His connection to the days of the Modern Movement gave him special authority. As an industrial designer, his work is characterized by a clarity of design and precise proportions. Examples are the elegant clocks and watches designed for Junghans, a long-term client. Among Bill's most notable product designs is the \"\"Ulmer Hocker\"\" of 1954, a stool that can also be used as a shelf element, a speaker's desk, a tablet or a side table. Although the stool was a creation of Bill and Ulm school designer Hans Gugelot, it is often called \"\"Bill Hocker\"\" because the first sketch on a cocktail napkin was Bill's work.  As a designer and artist, Bill sought to create forms which visually represent the New Physics of the early 20th century. He sought to create objects so that the new science of form could be understood by the senses: that is as a concrete art. Thus Bill is not a rationalist – as is typically thought – but rather a phenomenologist. One who understands embodiment as the ultimate expression of a concrete art. In this way he is not so much extending as re-interpreting Bauhaus theory. Yet curiously Bill's critical interpreters have not really grasped this fundamental issue. He made spare geometric paintings and spherical sculptures, some based on the Möbius strip, in stone, wood, metal and plaster. His architectural work included an office building in Germany, a radio studio in Zurich, and a bridge in eastern Switzerland.  He continued to produce architectural designs, such as those for a museum of contemporary art (1981) in Florence and for the Bauhaus Archive (1987) in Berlin. In 1982 he also entered a competition for an addition to the Neue Nationalgalerie in Berlin, built to a design by Mies van der Rohe. \"Pavillon-Skulptur (1979–83)\", a large granite sculpture, was installed adjacent to the Bahnhofstrasse, Zürich in 1983. As is often the case with modern art in public places, the installation generated some controversy. \"Endlose Treppe\" (1991), a sculpture made of North American granite, was designed for the philosopher Ernst Bloch.  In 1982 he was awarded the Sir Misha Black award and was added to the College of Medallists.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teaching.", "content": "In 1944, Bill became a professor at the Kunstgewerbeschule Zürich. In 1953, alongside Inge Aicher-Scholl and Otl Aicher, he founded the Ulm School of Design (German: \"Hochschule für Gestaltung - HfG Ulm\") in Ulm, Germany, a design school initially created in the tradition of the Bauhaus and which later developed a new design education approach integrating art and science. The school was notable for its inclusion of semiotics as a field of study. The school closed in 1968. Faculty and students included Tomás Maldonado, Otl Aicher, Josef Albers, Johannes Itten, John Lottes, Walter Zeischegg, and Peter Seitz.  Bill was a professor at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg and chair of Environmental Design from 1967 to 1974. In 1973 he became an associate member of the Royal Flemish Academy of Science, Literature and Fine Art in Brussels. In 1976 he became a member of the Berlin Academy of Arts. In addition to his teaching, Bill wrote and lectured extensively on art, architecture and design, appearing at symposiums and design conferences around the world. In particular, he wrote books about Le Corbusier, Kandinsky, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and artistic theory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exhibitions.", "content": "Bill executed many public sculptures in Europe and exhibited extensively in galleries and museums, including a retrospective at the Kunsthaus Zürich in 1968–69. He had his first exhibition in the United States at the Staempfli Gallery in New York City in 1963 and was the subject of retrospectives at the Albright-Knox Art Gallery in Buffalo and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 1974, and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City in 1988. He participated in documentas I (1955), II (1959), and III (1964). In 1993, he received the Praemium Imperiale for sculpture, awarded by the Emperor of Japan.  Bill is credited with having been \"the spark that lighted the fuse of Brazil's artistic revolution\" and the country's \"movement toward concrete art\" with his 1951 retrospective at the São Paulo Museum of Modern Art. He strongly influenced Brazilian artists like Franz Weissmann.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private life.", "content": "After a liaison with Nusch Éluard, Bill married the cellist and photographer Binia Mathilde Spoerri in January 1931. She died in 1988. From 1974 he was living together with art historian Angela Thomas; they married in 1991.  Bill was also involved in politics. He was elected to the Zurich municipal council in 1961. From 1967 to 1971, he served as a member of the Swiss National Council.  Bill died en route to a hospital after collapsing from a heart attack at Berlin Tegel Airport. He was 85 and lived in Zumikon, a Zürich suburb.  In 1996, Jakob Bill, the son of Max, founded the Swiss Max Bill Foundation (\"max, binia + jakob bill stiftung\") and implemented the idea of his father. The purpose of the foundation is to collect and take care of the works in possession of the Bill family, as well as the promotion of scientific research.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Max Bill (22 December 1908 – 9 December 1994) was a Swiss architect, artist, painter, typeface designer, industrial designer and graphic designer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972387}
{"src_title": "Encapsulation (computer programming)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Meaning.", "content": "In object-oriented programming languages, and other related fields, encapsulation refers to one of two related but distinct notions, and sometimes to the combination thereof:  Some programming language researchers and academics use the first meaning alone or in combination with the second as a distinguishing feature of object-oriented programming, while some programming languages that provide lexical closures view encapsulation as a feature of the language orthogonal to object orientation.  The second definition is motivated by the fact that in many object-oriented languages, and other related fields, the components are not hidden automatically and this can be overridden; thus, information hiding is defined as a separate notion by those who prefer the second definition.  The features of encapsulation are supported using classes in most object-oriented languages, although other alternatives also exist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Encapsulation and inheritance.", "content": "The authors of \"Design Patterns\" discuss the tension between inheritance and encapsulation at length and state that in their experience, designers overuse inheritance. They claim that inheritance often breaks encapsulation, given that inheritance exposes a subclass to the details of its parent's implementation. As described by the Yo-yo problem, overuse of inheritance and therefore encapsulation, can become too complicated and hard to debug.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Information hiding.", "content": "Under the definition that encapsulation \"can be used to hide data members and member functions\", the internal representation of an object is generally hidden from view outside of the object's definition. Typically, only the object's own methods can directly inspect or manipulate its fields. Hiding the internals of the object protects its integrity by preventing users from setting the internal data of the component into an invalid or inconsistent state. A supposed benefit of encapsulation is that it can reduce system complexity, and thus increase robustness, by allowing the developer to limit the interdependencies between software components.  Some languages like Smalltalk and Ruby only allow access via object methods, but most others (e.g., C++, Delphi or Java) offer the programmer a degree of control over what is hidden, typically via keywords like codice_1 and codice_2. ISO C++ standard refers to codice_3, codice_2 and codice_1 as \"access specifiers\" and that they do not \"hide any information\". Information hiding is accomplished by furnishing a compiled version of the source code that is interfaced via a header file.  Almost always, there is a way to override such protection – usually via reflection API (Ruby, Java, C#, etc.), sometimes by mechanism like name mangling (Python), or special keyword usage like codice_6 in C++.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Restricting data fields.", "content": "Languages like C++, C#, Java, PHP, Swift, and Delphi offer ways to restrict access to data fields.  Below is an example in C# that shows how access to a data field can be restricted through the use of a codice_2 keyword:  class Program {  Below is an example in Java: public class Employee {  Encapsulation is also possible in non-object-oriented languages. In C, for example, a structure can be declared in the public API via the header file for a set of functions that operate on an item of data containing data members that are not accessible to clients of the API with the codice_8 keyword.  // Header file \"api.h\"  struct Entity; // Opaque structure with hidden members  // API functions that operate on 'Entity' objects extern struct Entity * open_entity(int id); extern int process_entity(struct Entity *info); extern void close_entity(struct Entity *info); // extern keywords here are redundant, but don't hurt. // extern defines functions that can be called outside the current file, the default behavior even without the keyword Clients call the API functions to allocate, operate on, and deallocate objects of an opaque data type. The contents of this type are known and accessible only to the implementation of the API functions; clients cannot directly access its contents. The source code for these functions defines the actual contents of the structure:  // Implementation file \"api.c\"  struct Entity {  // API function implementations struct Entity * open_entity(int id)  int process_entity(struct Entity *info)  void close_entity(struct Entity *info)", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Name mangling.", "content": "Below is an example of Python, which does not support variable access restrictions. However, the convention is that a variable whose name is prefixed by an underscore should be considered private. class Car(object): redcar = Car() redcar.drive() # This will print 'Maximum speed is 200.'  redcar._maxspeed = 10 redcar.drive() # This will print 'Maximum speed is 10.'", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "In object-oriented programming (OOP), encapsulation refers to the bundling of data with the methods that operate on that data, or the restricting of direct access to some of an object's components. Encapsulation is used to hide the values or state of a structured data object inside a class, preventing unauthorized parties' direct access to them. Publicly accessible methods are generally provided in the class (so-called \"getters\" and \"setters\") to access the values, and other client classes call these methods to retrieve and modify the values within the object.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972388}
{"src_title": "Georgy Lvov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Pre-Revolution.", "content": "Prince Lvov was born in Dresden, Germany, and descended from the sovereign Rurik dynasty princes of Yaroslavl. His family moved home to Popovka in the Aleksin district of Tula Governorate from Germany soon after his birth. He graduated from the University of Moscow with a degree in law, then worked in the civil service until 1893. During the Russo-Japanese War he organized relief work in the East and in 1905 joined the liberal Constitutional Democratic Party. A year later he won election to the First Duma, and was nominated for a ministerial position. He became chairman of the All-Russian Union of Zemstvos in 1914, and in 1915 he became a leader of the Union of Zemstvos as well as a member of Zemgor, a joint committee of the Union of Zemstvos and the Union of Towns that hecember 1916, after Prince Lvov's tirades at the Congress of Zemstvos, the Voluntary Organisations would allow no one to work for the government unless thelped supply the military and tend to the wounded from World War I. In Deir collaboration were purchased by political concessions.  He married Countess Julia Alexeievna Bobrinskaya (1867–1903), great-great-granddaughter of Grigory Orlov and Catherine the Great, without issue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "During the first Russian Revolution and the abdication of Nicholas II, emperor of Russia, Lvov was made head of the provisional government founded by the Duma on 2 March. Unable to rally sufficient support, he resigned in July 1917 in favour of his Minister of War, Alexander Kerensky.  After the October Revolution he settled in Tyumen. In the winter of 1917 he was arrested and transferred to Yekaterinburg. Three months later, Lvov and two other prisoners (Lopukhin and Prince Golitsyn) were released before the court under a written undertaking not to leave the place. The local war commissar, Filipp Goloshchekin, intended to execute Lvov and the other prisoners, but was ordered not to by Isaac Steinberg, the People's Commissar for Justice, a Left-Socialist Revolutionary while they were still in coalition with the Bolsheviks. Lvov immediately left Yekaterinburg, made his way to Omsk, occupied by the anti-Bolshevik Czechoslovak Legion. The Provisional Siberian Government, headed by Pyotr Vologodsky, was formed in Omsk and instructed Lvov to leave for the United States (since it was believed that this country was capable of providing the fastest and most effective assistance to anti-Bolshevik forces) to meet with President Woodrow Wilson and other statesmen to inform them on the aims of the anti-Soviet forces and receiving assistance from former allies of Russia in the First World War. In October 1918 he came to the United States but was late as in November of the same year the First World War ended and preparations began for the peace conference in Paris, where the centre of world politics moved.  Having failed to achieve any practical results in the USA, Lvov returned to France, where in 1918–1920 he was at the head of the Russian political meeting in Paris. He was at the source of the labor exchanges system to help Russian emigrants, transferred to their disposal the funds of Zemgor, stored in the National Bank of the United States. Later he left politics, living in Paris in poverty, working at handicraft and writing his memoirs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memorials.", "content": "There is a memorial to Prince Lvov in Aleksin as well as a small exhibition on him in the town museum. In Popovka there is another memorial opposite his local church and a plaque on the wall of the local school he founded. He died in Boulogne-sur-Seine and is buried in Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery in France.  A relative of his by the name of Prince Andre Nikita Lwoff (1901–1933), variously described as either Georgy Lvov's son or nephew, is buried in the old cemetery in Menton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Lvov wrote an autobiography, 'Воспоминания' (\"Memories\"), while in exile and a biography was also written in 1932 by Tikhon Polner entitled 'Жизненный путь князя Георгія Евгеніевича Львова. Личность. Взгляды. Условія дѣятельности' (\"The Life Course of Prince Georgy Yevgenievich Lvov. Personality. Views. Conditions of Activity\"). Neither has been translated but both have been reprinted and are still available in Russian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes.", "content": "Note on transliteration: An older French form, Lvoff, is used on his tombstone. Georgy can be written as Georgi and is sometimes seen in its translated form, George or Jorge.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prince Georgy Yevgenyevich Lvov (; 7/8 March 1925) was a Russian statesman and the first post-imperial prime minister of Russia, from 15 March to 21 July 1917.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972389}
{"src_title": "Askja", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The region is only accessible for a few months of the year. Being situated in the rain shadow to the northeast of the Vatnajökull glacier, the area receives only about 450 mm of rainfall annually. The area was used during training for the Apollo program to prepare astronauts for the lunar missions. Their main objective in Askja was to study geology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eruptions.", "content": "Askja was virtually unknown until the tremendous eruption which started on March 29, 1875. Especially in the eastern fjords of Iceland, the ashfall was heavy enough to poison the land and kill livestock. Ash, or tephra from this eruption was wind-blown to Norway, Sweden, Germany and Poland. The eruption triggered a substantial wave of emigration from Iceland. Another less well-known eruption, called Askja-S, occurred in the early Holocene, ca 11,000 years ago. Tephra from this eruption has been found in south-east Sweden, Northern Ireland and north Norway and recently as far south as Romania, which makes it one of the most far-travelled Icelandic tephras. The last eruption of Askja was in 1961.  The outer caldera of Askja, representing a prehistoric eruption, is about 50 km2, and there is evidence of other later caldera-forming events within it. The main crater floor lies at about 1,100 m.  In June 2010, Volcano expert Hazel Rymer said seismic activity was increasing at Askja and that an eruption could be around the corner The increased earthquake activity is located to the northeast of the central volcano, in the direction of Herðubreið. It was ruled out that any activity from Eyjafjallajökull was responsible for the increase in activity at Askja. The news came as scientists continue to watch Katla.  In early April 2012 it was noted that the lake in the caldera was totally clear of ice, which usually does not happen until in June or July in a normal year. It is believed that increased geothermal activity in the volcano is heating the lake. Travel in the area was restricted until further research could be carried out.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Öskjuvatn lake.", "content": "Öskjuvatn is a large lake that fills much of the smaller caldera resulting from the 1875 eruption. Its surface lies about 50 m below the level of the main caldera floor and covers about 12 km2. When the lake originally formed it was warm, but today it is frozen over for most of the year. Öskjuvatn is the second deepest lake in Iceland at 220 m deep.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Missing scientists.", "content": "In 1907, the German scientists Walter von Knebel and Max Rudloff visited Askja to study the caldera. While exploring Öskjuvatn in a small boat, they disappeared without a trace. Von Knebel's fiancée Ina von Grumbkow led an expedition to search for them, but no indication of what happened to them was ever found. Recent observations on the effects of a landslide, on 21 July 2014, has led to renewed speculation that the scientists were killed by a similar sudden event, a massive wave similar to the one estimated to be 30 meters high seen in 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights and tourism in the area.", "content": "In the Dyngjufjöll mountains which surround the Askja caldera can be found the impressive \"Drekagil\", the canyon of dragons. Not far from Askja, there are two other interesting volcanic systems: Herðubreið and Kverkfjöll.  Askja is a popular tourist destination. There are two mountain huts and a campsite at Dreki, by Drekagil, which is about 100 km by a 4x4 F-road, from the Icelandic ring-road. The road continues 8 km up from Dreki into the Askja caldera. It is a walk of about 2.5 km from the car park to Öskjuvatn and Víti. The roads are usually only open for about three to four months, from late June until early October.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Askja () is an active volcano situated in a remote part of the central highlands of Iceland. The name Askja refers to a complex of nested calderas within the surrounding Dyngjufjöll mountains, which rise to, \"askja\" meaning \"box\" or \"caldera\" in Icelandic", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972390}
{"src_title": "Simone Signoret", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Signoret was born Simone Henriette Charlotte Kaminker in Wiesbaden, Germany, to André and Georgette (Signoret) Kaminker, as the eldest of three children, with two younger brothers. Her father, a pioneering interpreter who worked in the League of Nations, was a French-born army officer from a Polish Jewish family, who brought the family to Neuilly-sur-Seine on the outskirts of Paris. Her mother, Georgette, from whom she acquired her stage name, was a French Catholic.  Signoret grew up in Paris in an intellectual atmosphere and studied English, German and Latin. After completing secondary school during the Nazi occupation, Simone was responsible for supporting her family and forced to take work as a typist for a French collaborationist newspaper, \"Les nouveaux temps\", run by Jean Luchaire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "During the German occupation of France, Signoret mixed with an artistic group of writers and actors who met at the Café de Flore in the Saint-Germain-des-Prés quarter. By this time, she had developed an interest in acting and was encouraged by her friends, including her lover, Daniel Gélin, to follow her ambition. In 1942, she began appearing in bit parts and was able to earn enough money to support her mother and two brothers as her father, who was a French patriot, had fled the country in 1940 to join General De Gaulle in England. She took her mother's maiden name for the screen to help hide her Jewish roots.  Signoret's sensual features and earthy nature led to type-casting and she was often seen in roles as a prostitute. She won considerable attention in \"La Ronde\" (1950), a film which was banned briefly in New York as immoral. She won further acclaim, including an acting award from the British Film Academy, for her portrayal of another prostitute in Jacques Becker's \"Casque d'or\" (1951). She appeared in many notable films in France during the 1950s, including \"Thérèse Raquin\" (1953), directed by Marcel Carné, \"Les Diaboliques\" (1954), and \"The Crucible\" (\"Les Sorcières de Salem\"; 1956), based on Arthur Miller's \"The Crucible\". In 1958, Signoret acted in the English independent film, \"Room at the Top\" (1959), which won her numerous awards including the Best Female Performance Prize at Cannes and the Academy Award for Best Actress. She was the only French cinema actress to receive an Oscar until Juliette Binoche in 1997 (Supporting Actress) and Marion Cotillard in 2008 (Best Actress), and the first woman to win the award appearing in a foreign film. She was offered films in Hollywood, but turned them down, continuing to work in France and England—notably opposite Laurence Olivier in \"Term of Trial\" (1962)—until 1965. Earning another Oscar nomination for her work on what would be Vivien Leigh's final film—Columbia Pictures' \"Ship of Fools\", also starring Lee Marvin—Signoret appeared in a few other Hollywood films before returning to France in 1969.  In 1962, Signoret translated Lillian Hellman's play \"The Little Foxes\" into French for a production in Paris that ran for six months at the Theatre Sarah-Bernhardt. She played the Regina role as well. Hellman was displeased with the production, although the translation was approved by scholars selected by Hellman.  Signoret's one attempt at Shakespeare, performing Lady Macbeth opposite Alec Guinness at the Royal Court Theatre in London in 1966 proved to be ill-advised, with some harsh critics; one referred to her English as \"impossibly Gallic\".  Signoret was never concerned with glamour, ignored sexist and ageist insults and continued giving finely etched performances. She won more acclaim for her portrayal of a weary madam in \"Madame Rosa\" (1977) and as an unmarried sister who unknowingly falls in love with her paralyzed brother via anonymous correspondence in \"\" (1980). She was in many movies up to her death in 1985.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Signoret's memoirs, \"Nostalgia Isn't What It Used To Be\", were published in 1978. She also wrote a novel, \"Adieu Volodya\", published in 1985, the year of her death.  Signoret first married filmmaker Yves Allégret (1944–49), with whom she had a daughter Catherine Allégret, herself an actress. Her second marriage was to the Italian-born French actor Yves Montand in 1951, a union which lasted until her death. They had no children.  Signoret died of pancreatic cancer in Autheuil-Authouillet, France, aged 64. She was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris and Yves Montand was later buried next to her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Television award.", "content": "Emmy Awards", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Simone Signoret (; 25 March 192130 September 1985) was a French cinema actress often hailed as one of France's greatest film stars. She became the second French person to win an Academy Award, for her role in \"Room at the Top\" (1959).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972391}
{"src_title": "Helmuth Plessner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life & career.", "content": "He was Chairman from 1953-1959 of the \"Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie\".  In 1959 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plessner's material(ist) \"a priori\".", "content": "Plessner developed a philosophical biology and anthropology which amounted to a hermeneutics of nature. According to Plessner, life expresses itself, and part of this expression is in terms of sentient lifeforms. In expressing itself through the human senses, it provides the (material) \"a priori\" constituents of perception (to replace Kant's cognitive idealism of \"a priori\" categories and intuitions produced by transcendental subjectivity as the filter through which we spontaneously order experience of the world). In other words, the formal qualities that make up our consciousness \"a priori\" — given as the conditions through which we experience things — conditions such as time, space, causality and number, and, indeed, the laws of physics, however we may then conceptualize them, are given to us both in our own physical nature, and in the physical nature of the environments we inhabit, through our growth from and interactions within these environments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The three categories of nature's \"a priori\" and the \"eccentricity\" of human intentionality.", "content": "From Husserl and Scheler, Plessner adapted the idea of the intentionality of consciousness away from the need for a transcendental ego or apperception and instead grounds it in the behaviour (in the broadest sense of the term) of environmentally interactive organisms as a realizing of borders that represents the point where the impulses or growth of organisms meet with their environments, are realized in the act of self-positioning. These are the scopes of action and understanding that define consciousness and which at the same time ground it in the material world of nature. In terms of plants, their self-expression is utterly open—their borders are defined by only very simple forms of feedback, and the plant has no ability to express intentional preferences regarding its environment; animals, on the other hand, are aware of their own borders and are constantly pressed back within them, thus exhibiting a closed kind of intentionality trapped by its own borders, this is the limit of their expression; finally, humans alternate between open and closed intentionality — we \"are\" these borders, but also, we \"have\" them, and the limits of these borders of human action, influence and being Plessner described as the \"eccentricity\" of human intentionality in its environmental relations and determination. For Plessner, our own subjectivity can be understood in terms of the expressive \"a priori\" in nature, and our experience of and relationship to it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wiesbadener Helmuth Plessner Preis.", "content": "The city of Wiesbaden has created an award in honor of Helmuth Plessner in 2014. It serves to promote and appreciate excellent scientists and intellectuals who have worked and work in reference to Plessner. It is awarded every three years and is donated with 20,000 euros. The first prizewinner is Michael Tomasello.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Helmuth Plessner (4 September 1892, Wiesbaden – 12 June 1985, Göttingen) was a German philosopher and sociologist, and a primary advocate of \"philosophical anthropology\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972392}
{"src_title": "Issyk-Kul", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Issyk-Kul Lake is long, up to wide, and its area is. It is the second-largest mountain lake in the world behind Lake Titicaca in South America. It is at an altitude of, and reaches in depth.  About 118 rivers and streams flow into the lake; the largest are the Djyrgalan and Tyup. It is fed by springs, including many hot springs, and snow melt. The lake has no current outlet, but some hydrologists hypothesize that the lake's water filters deep underground into the Chu River. The bottom of the lake contains the mineral monohydrocalcite: one of the few known lacustrine deposits.  The lake's southern shore is dominated by the ruggedly beautiful Teskey Ala-Too Range of the Tian Shan mountains. The Kungey Alatau of the Tian Shan runs parallel to the north shore.  The lake water's salinity is approx. 0.6% – compared to 3.5% salinity of typical seawater – and, although the lake level is still currently some 8 metres (26 ft) higher than in medieval times, its level now drops by approximately per year due to water diversion.  Administratively, the lake and the adjacent land are within Issyk-Kul Region of Kyrgyzstan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "During the Soviet era, the lake became a popular vacation resort, with numerous sanatoria, boarding houses and vacation homes along its northern shore, many concentrated in and around the town of Cholpon-Ata. These fell on hard times after the break-up of the USSR, but now hotel complexes are being refurbished and simple private bed-and-breakfast rentals are being established for a new generation of health and leisure visitors.  The city of Karakol (formerly Przhevalsk, after the Russian explorer Przhevalsky, who died there) is the administrative seat of Issyk-Kul Region of Kyrgyzstan. It is near the east tip of the lake and is a good base for excursions into the surrounding area. Its small old core contains an impressive wooden mosque, built without metal nails by the Dungan people, and a wooden Orthodox church that was used as a stable during Soviet times (see state atheism).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Issyk-Kul Lake was a stopover on the Silk Road, a land route for travelers from the Far East to Europe. The great Chinese Buddhist scholar-monk Xuanzang passed by this lake and noted the details in the classic travelogue \"Great Tang Records on the Western Regions\" in the 7th century. The Lake was once owned by the Qing Dynasty of China and was ceded to Russia – along with the surrounding territory – after the Treaty of Tarbagatai. Many historians believe that the lake was the point of origin for the Black Death that plagued Europe and Asia during the early and mid-14th century. The lake's status as a byway for travelers allowed the plague to spread across these continents via medieval merchants who unknowingly carried infested vermin along with them. The lake level is some higher than in medieval times. Divers have found the remains of submerged settlements in shallow areas around the lake. In December 2007, a report was released by a team of Kyrgyz historians, led by Vladimir Ploskikh, vice president of the Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences, that archaeologists have discovered the remains of a 2500-year-old advanced civilization at the bottom of the Lake. The data and artifacts obtained suggest that the ancient city was a metropolis in its time. The discovery consisted of formidable walls, some stretching for and traces of a large city with an area of several square kilometers. Other findings included Scythian burial mounds eroded over the centuries by waves, and numerous well-preserved artifacts, including bronze battleaxes, arrowheads, self-sharpening daggers, objects discarded by smiths, casting molds, and money.  Articles identified as the world's oldest extant coins were found underwater, with gold wire rings used as small change and a large hexahedral goldpiece. Also found was a bronze cauldron with a level of craftsmanship that is today achieved by using an inert gas environment.  In 1916 the monastery at Issyk-Kul was attacked by Kyrgyz rebels, and seven monks were killed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environment.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Specially protected areas.", "content": "The first nature reserve in Kyrgyzstan, Issyk-Kul State Reserve was established in 1948 to protect unique nature landscapes and waterfowl at Issyk-Kul. In 1975, it was acknowledged as a Ramsar site. Biosphere Reserve Issyk-Kul covered by UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves was established in year 2000 within the administrative borders of Issyk-Kul Region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fish.", "content": "The lake contains highly endemic fish biodiversity, and some of the species, including four endemics, are seriously endangered. In recent years catches of all species of fish have declined markedly, due to a combination of over-fishing, heavy predation by two of the introduced species (the Pike perch and the Rainbow trout), and the cessation of lake restocking with juvenile fish from hatcheries. At least four commercially targeted endemic fish species are sufficiently threatened to be included in the Red Book of the Kyrgyz Republic: Schmidt's dace (\"Leuciscus schmidti\"), Issyk-Kul dace (\"Leuciscus bergi\"), marinka (\"Schizothorax issyk-kuli\"), and sheer or naked osman (\"Diptychus dybovskii\"). Seven other endemic species are almost certainly threatened as by-catch or are indirectly impacted by fishing activity and changes to the structure and balance of the lake's fish population.  Sevan trout, a fish endemic to Lake Sevan in Armenia, was introduced into Issyk-Kul in the 1970s. While this fish is an endangered species in its \"home\" lake, it has a much better chance to survive in Lake Issyk-Kul where it has ravaged the indigenous species.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Creation legend.", "content": "In pre-Islamic legend, the king of the Ossounes had donkey's ears. He would hide them, and had his barbers killed to hide his secret. One barber yelled the secret into a well, but he did not cover the well afterwards. As a result, the well water rose and flooded the kingdom. The kingdom is today under the waters of Issyk-Kul. According to the legend, this is how the lake was formed. Other legends say that four drowned cities lie at the bottom of the lake. Substantial archaeological finds indicating the presence of an advanced civilization in ancient times have been made in shallow waters of the lake.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russian Navy test site.", "content": "During the Soviet period, the Soviet Navy operated an extensive facility at the lake's east end, where submarine and torpedo technology was evaluated. In March 2008, Kyrgyz newspapers reported that around the Karabulan Peninsula on the lake would be leased for an indefinite period to the Russian Navy, which is planning to establish new naval testing facilities as part of the 2007 bilateral Agreement on Friendship, Cooperation, Mutual Help, and Protection of Secret Materials. The Russian military will pay $4.5 million annually to lease the area. India also plans to invest in the facility to test all types of torpedoes such as heavy weight torpedoes and those that have thermal navigation system. Another advantage that works for the testing center is that the torpedoes fired can also be recovered allowing scientists to make physical verification of a torpedo structure for further study. India is also planning to use the torpedo test facility to test the autonomous underwater vehicle being developed by NSTL. For this, India has proposed to engage local companies with know-how in torpedo technology to further co-develop the facility.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lakeside towns.", "content": "Towns and some villages around the lake, listed clockwise from the lake's western tip:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Issyk-Kul (also Ysyk Köl, Issyk-Kol:,,, ;, ) is an endorheic lake in the northern Tian Shan mountains in eastern Kyrgyzstan. It is the seventh deepest lake in the world, the tenth largest lake in the world by volume (though not in surface area), and the second largest saline lake after the Caspian Sea. Issyk-Kul means \"warm lake\" in the Kyrgyz language; although it is surrounded by snow-capped peaks, it never freezes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972393}
{"src_title": "Hans von Bülow", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Bülow was born in Dresden, to members of the prominent Bülow family. From the age of nine, he was a student of Friedrich Wieck (the father of Clara Schumann). However, his parents insisted that he study law instead of music, and they sent him to Leipzig. There he met Franz Liszt, and on hearing some music of Richard Wagner—specifically, the premiere of \"Lohengrin\" in 1850—he decided to ignore the dictates of his parents and make himself a career in music instead. He studied the piano in Leipzig with the famous pedagogue Louis Plaidy. He obtained his first conducting job in Zurich, on Wagner's recommendation, in 1850.  Bülow had a strongly acerbic personality and a loose tongue; this alienated many musicians whom he worked with. He was dismissed from his Zurich job for this reason, but at the same time he was beginning to win renown for his ability to conduct new and complex works without a score. In 1851, he became a student of Liszt, marrying his daughter Cosima in 1857. They had two daughters: Daniela, born in 1860 and Blandina, born in 1863. During the 1850s and early 1860s he was active as a pianist, conductor, and writer, and became well known throughout Germany as well as Russia. In 1857, he premiered Liszt's Piano Sonata in B minor in Berlin.  In 1864 he became the Hofkapellmeister in Munich, and it was at this post he achieved his principal renown. He conducted the premieres of two Wagner operas, \"Tristan und Isolde\" and \"Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg\", in 1865 and 1868 respectively; both were immensely successful. Meanwhile, however, Cosima had been carrying on an affair with Richard Wagner and gave birth to their daughter Isolde in 1865. Two years later, they had another daughter, Eva. Although Cosima and Wagner's affair was now open knowledge, Bülow still refused to grant his wife a divorce. Finally, she gave birth to one final child––a son, Siegfried––and it was only then that the conductor at last relented. Their divorce was finalized in 1870, after which Cosima and Wagner married. Bülow never spoke to Wagner again and he did not see his former wife for 11 years afterwards, although he apparently continued to respect the composer on a professional level, as he still conducted his works and mourned Wagner's death in 1883. In July 1882 he married the actress Marie Schanzer.  In 1867 Bülow became director of the newly reopened Königliche Musikschule in Munich. He taught piano there in the manner of Liszt. He remained as director of the Conservatory until 1869. Bülow's students in Berlin included Asger Hamerik and Joseph Pache.  In addition to championing the music of Wagner, Bülow was a supporter of the music of both Brahms and Tchaikovsky. He was the soloist in the world premiere of the Tchaikovsky Piano Concerto No. 1 in B-flat minor in Boston in 1875. He was also a devotee of Frédéric Chopin's music; he came up with epithets for all of Chopin's Opus 28 Preludes, but these have generally fallen into disuse. On the other hand, the D-flat major Prelude No. 15 is widely known by his title, the \"Raindrop.\"  He was the first to perform (from memory) the complete cycle of Beethoven's piano sonatas, and with Sigmund Lebert, he co-produced an edition of the sonatas.  For the winter season of 1877–1878 he was appointed as conductor of the orchestral subscription concerts presented at the newly opened St Andrew's Hall in Glasgow by Glasgow Choral Union, touring with their orchestra to repeat these programmes in other Scottish cities. Among the works he conducted there was the recently revised version of Brahms Symphony No 1.  From 1878 to 1880 he was Hofkapellmeister in Hanover but was forced to leave after fighting with a tenor singing the \"Knight of the Swan [\"Schwan\"]\" role in \"Lohengrin\"; Bülow had called him the \"Knight of the Swine [\"Schwein\"]\". In 1880 he moved to Meiningen where he took the equivalent post, and where he built the Meiningen Court Orchestra into one of the finest in Germany; among his other demands, he insisted that the musicians learn to play all their parts from memory.  It was during his five years in Meiningen that he met Richard Strauss (though the meeting actually took place in Berlin). His first opinion of the young composer was not favorable, but he changed his mind when he was confronted with a sample of Strauss's \"Serenade\". Later on, he used his influence to give Strauss his first regular employment as a conductor. Like Strauss, Bülow was attracted to the ideas of Max Stirner, whom he reputedly had known personally. In April 1892 Bülow closed his final performance with the Berlin Philharmonic (where he had been serving as Principal Conductor since 1887) with a speech \"exalting\" the ideas of Stirner. Together with John Henry Mackay, Stirner's biographer, he placed a memorial plaque at Stirner's last residence in Berlin.  Some of his orchestral innovations included the addition of the five-string bass and the pedal timpani; the pedal timpani have since become standard instruments in the symphony orchestra. His accurate, sensitive, and profoundly musical interpretations established him as the prototype of the virtuoso conductors who flourished at a later date. He was also an astute and witty musical journalist.  In the late 1880s he settled in Hamburg, but continued to tour, both conducting and performing on the piano.  Bülow suffered from chronic neuralgiforme headaches, which were caused by a tumor of the cervical radicular nerves. After about 1890 his mental and physical health began to fail, and he sought a warmer, drier climate for recovery; he died in a hotel in Cairo, Egypt at the age of 64, only ten months after his final concert performance.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Guido Freiherr von Bülow (January 8, 1830February 12, 1894) was a German conductor, virtuoso pianist, and composer of the Romantic era. As one of the most distinguished conductors of the 19th century, his activity was critical for establishing the successes of several major composers of the time, especially Richard Wagner and Johannes Brahms. Alongside Carl Tausig, Bülow was perhaps the most prominent of the early students of Hungarian virtuoso pianist, conductor and composer Franz Liszt—therein performed the first public performance of Liszt's Sonata in B minor in 1857. He became acquainted with, fell in love and eventually married Liszt's daughter Cosima, who later left him for Wagner. Noted for his interpretation of the works of Ludwig van Beethoven, he was one of the earliest European musicians to tour the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972394}
{"src_title": "Yotvata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "Located approximately 40 km north of the Red Sea, Yotvata is the first, biggest, and most prosperous Kibbutz in Hevel Eilot Regional Council. Being relatively far from major urban centers (41 kilometers north of Eilat and 130 kilometers south of Dimona), it is the center of the region, where most regional facilities are based: regional school, regional council offices, community center, sports center, movies and concerts hall and local airfield.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Establishment.", "content": "Yotvata started in 1951 as a Nahal settlement named Ein Radian. In 1957 it was established as the first kibbutz in the southern Arabah region by Ihud HaKvutzot VeHaKibbutzim. The kibbutz is named after an Israelite encampment mentioned in Numbers 33:34 and Deuteronomy 10:7: \"...from there they went to Gudgodah, and then to Jotbatha, a land of streaming water.\" Althme debates over the exact location of the biblical Yotvata (some say that it is closer to the Red Sea near Taba), the idea of a desert oasis for Israelis was in the founders' mind; the local oasis was the Ein Radian wellspring.  The founders, a small group of men and women 20 years of age and just out of the military service, decided to pursue a life of pioneering and built their home in the desert. They had massive challenges presented by the desert: the burning sun, the heat, shortage of water, salty land and water, limited transportation and no secure source of income. They started making all kinds of agricultural trials growing grapes, pomegranates and vegetables; they raised cattle and chickens - all with little success. The dates plantation proved more suitable to the arid conditions.  And then came the initiative to found a dairy that would provide milk to Eilat, which was expected to grow rapidly. Breeding milking cows in the desert was considered an impossible mission. In 1962 the dairy was founded, with four cows, the member who led the vision and the operation was \"Ori Horazo (1939-1966)\". The members tried to get funds from the Jewish Agency, but failed. Eventually, they received funding from the Israeli Trade and Industry Minister, Pinhas Sapir. In the first year, the dairy produced 500,000 liters of milk. By 2008, it was producing 62 million liters a year and controlled 63% of the Israeli dairy beverages market (making NIS400 million a year), and 49% of the fortified milk market (making NIS 250 million a year). It employed 130 workers and had 700 cows. The dairies of Kibbutz Yahel, Lotan, and Ketura provide milk for Yotvata.  In 1960 the first children of the community were born, and six years later the school opened with three first graders; today there are 200 kids in the kibbutz, and 600 students from all of the region communities attend Maale Shaharut School (from 1st to 12th grades) in Yotvata.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "Judging by the numerous historic forts surrounding the Kibbutz, Yotvata's location was a strategic one:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy and community.", "content": "Yotvata is a cooperative community, where most adult residents work on the kibbutz in production, services or education. The revenues are equally distributed among the members regardless of their position, along the idea of \"each one gives as much as he can and gets as much as he needs\". Most of daily affairs are conducted communally - education, holidays, dining (three meals a day conducted in the commune dining-room are giving the community more relaxed time to get together) and more.  Yotvata Dairy is a milk products factory which provides the kibbutz with its main source of income and occupies the highest number of members.  Agriculture ranks second in terms of income but perhaps first in importance to the community character and pride. Agriculture branches are irrigated land (onions, potatoes, corn, animal feed, garlic and pumpkins), plantations (dates and mangos) and a big and modern dairy farm.  There is also a big road stop shop on the Arabah Road providing refreshments for travelers.  Other small branches are a picturesque horse stable that lies in the date plantation east to the kibbutz and few artistic studios.  All members take turns contributing to the kibbutz service branches - kitchen, dining-room, laundry, security, etc.  The kibbutz gets all its drinking and irrigation water from aquifer wells in the Arabah valley.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attractions.", "content": "Yotvata Hai-Bar Nature Reserve is dedicated to reintroducing extinct species mentioned in the Bible, as well as other endangered desert animals, to the wild. It has three parts: a park for herbivorous animals; the Predators Center that displays reptiles, small desert animals and large predators; and the Desert Night Life Exhibition Hall to observe nocturnal animals during their active hours.  15 km south of Yotvata lies Timna valley, where the sandstone and calcareous rock formations present some breathtaking desert features such as the Solomon's Pillars, Mushrooms, Arches and more. Timna is also known for its ancient copper mines.  The area provides many great desert walks including canyons, roman routes, sand dunes, fossil hunting, rock-climbing and more.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yotvata (, ) is a kibbutz in southern Israel. Located on the Arabah road in the southern Negev, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hevel Eilot Regional Council. In it had a population of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972395}
{"src_title": "Tomás de Torquemada", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Torquemada was born on October 14, 1420, either in Valladolid, in the Kingdom of Castile, or in the nearby village of Torquemada. He came from a family of conversos (converts from Judaism); his uncle, Juan de Torquemada, was a celebrated theologian and cardinal, whose grandmother was a \"conversa.\" The 15th Century chronicler Hernando del Pulgar, a contemporary to de Torquemada and himself a \"converso\", recorded that Tomás de Torquemada's uncle, Juan de Torquemada, had an ancestor, Álvar Fernández de Torquemada, who was married to a first-generation \"conversa\".  Torquemada entered the local San Pablo Dominican monastery at a very young age. As a zealous advocate of church orthodoxy, he earned a solid reputation for learning, piety, and austerity. As a result, he was promoted to prior of the monastery of Santa Cruz at Segovia. Around this time, he met the young Princess Isabella I, and the two immediately established religious and ideological rapport. For a number of years, Torquemada served as her regular confessor and personal advisor. He was present at Isabella's coronation in 1474, remained her closest ally and supporter and even advised her to marry King Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469 to consolidate their kingdoms and form a power base he could draw on for his own purposes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Establishment of the Holy Office of the Inquisition.", "content": "Torquemada deeply feared the Marranos and Moriscos as a menace to Spain's welfare by both their increasing religious influence and their economic domination of Spain. The Crown of Aragon had Dominican inquisitors almost continuously throughout much of the 14th and the 15th centuries. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella petitioned Pope Sixtus IV to grant their request for a Holy Office to administer an inquisition in Spain. The Pope granted their request and established the Holy Office for the Propagation of the Faith in late 1478.  The papal bull gave the sovereigns full powers to name inquisitors. Rome retained the right to formally appoint the royal nominees. Henry Charles Lea observed that the Spanish Inquisition in both Castile and Aragon remained firmly under Ferdinand's direction throughout the joint reign.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Grand Inquisitor.", "content": "The Pope went on to appoint a number of inquisitors for the Spanish Kingdoms in early 1482, including Torquemada. A year later he was named Grand Inquisitor of Spain, which he remained until his death in 1498. In the fifteen years under his direction, the Spanish Inquisition grew from the single tribunal at Seville to a network of two dozen Holy Offices. As Grand Inquisitor, Torquemada reorganized the Spanish Inquisition (originally based in Castile in 1478), establishing tribunals in Sevilla, Jaén, Córdoba, Ciudad Real and (later) Saragossa. His quest was to rid Spain of all heresy. The Spanish chronicler Sebastián de Olmedo called him \"the hammer of heretics, the light of Spain, the savior of his country, the honor of his order.\"  Torquemada saw that the condemned were made to wear a sanbenito, a penitential garment worn over clothing, bearing a design that specified the type of penitence, if any. One type, worn by those sentenced to death, had designs of hell's flames or sometimes demons, dragons and/or snakes on it. Another type had a cross and was worn instead of imprisonment and then hung in the parish church.  The Treaty of Granada (1491), as negotiated at the final surrender of the Muslim state of Al-Andalus, clearly mandated protection of religious rights, but this was reversed just over 3 months later by the Alhambra Decree of March 31, 1492. Under the new Decree, approximately 40,000 Jews were expelled from Spain with only their personal possessions. Approximately 50,000 other Jews received a Christian baptism to remain in Spain. Many of them, derogatorily dubbed \"Marranos\" by the Old Christian majority, secretly kept some of their Jewish traditions. They were one of the chief targets of the Inquisition, but it also pursued anyone who would criticize it.  There are various estimates of the number of victims of the Spanish Inquisition during Torquemada's reign as Grand Inquisitor. Hernando del Pulgar, Queen Isabella's secretary, wrote that 2,000 executions took place throughout the entirety of her reign, which extended well beyond Torquemada's death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "During his final years, Torquemada's failing health, coupled with widespread complaints, caused Pope Alexander VI to appoint four assistant inquisitors in June 1494 to restrain the Spanish Inquisition. After fifteen years as Spain's Grand Inquisitor, Torquemada died in the monastery of St. Thomas Aquinas in Ávila on September 16, 1498, and was interred there. His tomb was ransacked in 1832, only two years before the Inquisition was finally disbanded. His bones were allegedly stolen and ritually incinerated in the same manner as an \"auto-da-fé\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Tomás de Torquemada (October 14, 1420 – September 16, 1498), also anglicized as Thomas of Torquemada, was a Castilian Dominican friar and first Grand Inquisitor in Spain's movement to homogenize religious practices with those of the Catholic Church in the late 15th century, otherwise known as the Spanish Inquisition, which resulted in the expulsion from Spain of thousands of people of Jewish and Muslim faith and heritage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972396}
{"src_title": "Charles Hermite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Hermite was born in Dieuze, Moselle, on 24 December 1822, with a deformity in his right foot that would impair his gait throughout his life. He was the sixth of seven children of Ferdinand Hermite and his wife, Madeleine née Lallemand. Ferdinand worked in the drapery business of Madeleine's family while also pursuing a career as an artist. The drapery business relocated to Nancy in 1828, and so did the family. Hermite obtained his secondary education at Collège de Nancy and then, in Paris, at Collège Henri IV and at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand. He read some of Joseph-Louis Lagrange's writings on the solution of numerical equations and Carl Friedrich Gauss's publications on number theory.  Hermite wanted to take his higher education at École Polytechnique, a military academy renowned for excellence in mathematics, science, and engineering. Tutored by mathematician Eugène Charles Catalan, Hermite devoted a year to preparing for the notoriously difficult entrance examination. In 1842 he was admitted to the school. However, after one year the school would not allow Hermite to continue his studies there because of his deformed foot. He struggled to regain his admission to the school, but the administration imposed strict conditions. Hermite did not accept this, and he quit the École Polytechnique without graduating.  In 1842, \"Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques\" published Hermite's first original contribution to mathematics, a simple proof of Niels Abel's proposition of concerning the impossibility of an algebraic solution to equations of the fifth degree.  A correspondence with Carl Jacobi, begun in 1843 and continued the next year, resulted in the insertion, in the complete edition of Jacobi's works, of two articles by Hermite, one concerning the extension to Abelian functions of one of the theorems of Abel on elliptic functions, and the other concerning the transformation of elliptic functions.  After spending five years working privately towards his degree, in which he befriended eminent mathematicians Joseph Bertrand, Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, and Joseph Liouville, he took and passed the examinations for the baccalauréat, which he was awarded in 1847. He married Joseph Bertrand's sister, Louise Bertrand, in 1848.  In 1848, Hermite returned to the École Polytechnique as \"répétiteur and examinateur d'admission\". In 1856 he contracted smallpox. Through the influence of Augustin-Louis Cauchy and of a nun who nursed him, he resumed the practice of his Catholic faith. In July 1848, he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences. In 1869, he succeeded Jean-Marie Duhamel as professor of mathematics, both at the École Polytechnique, where he remained until 1876, and at the University of Paris, where he remained until his death. From 1862 to 1873 he was lecturer at the École Normale Supérieure. Upon his 70th birthday, he was promoted to grand officer in the French Legion of Honour.  Hermite died in Paris on 14 January 1901, aged 78.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contribution to mathematics.", "content": "An inspiring teacher, Hermite strove to cultivate admiration for simple beauty and discourage rigorous minutiae. His correspondence with Thomas Stieltjes testifies to the great aid he gave those beginning scientific life. His published courses of lectures have exercised a great influence. His important original contributions to pure mathematics, published in the major mathematical journals of the world, dealt chiefly with Abelian and elliptic functions and the theory of numbers. During 1858 he solved the equation of the fifth degree by elliptic functions; and during 1873 he proved \"e\", the base of the natural system of logarithms, to be transcendental. This last was used by Ferdinand von Lindemann to prove during 1882 the same for π.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "The following is a list of his works:  \"This article incorporates text from the public-domain Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Hermite () FRS FRSE MIAS (24 December 1822 – 14 January 1901) was a French mathematician who did research concerning number theory, quadratic forms, invariant theory, orthogonal polynomials, elliptic functions, and algebra.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972397}
{"src_title": "Christian Dietrich Grabbe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Detmold, the son of a prison officer, he began to write plays in the age of sixteen, while attending the \"Gymnasium\". A scholarship awarded by Princess Pauline enabled him to study law at the universities of Leipzig and Berlin, where he became acquainted with Heinrich Heine. After graduating in 1823, he unsuccessfully applied as a theatre director.  Grabbe returned to Detmold, he passed the final \"Staatsexamen\" and tried to find an employment as a legal officer, though also to no avail. Finally in 1826 he was appointed to act as a military legal advisor, initially without remuneration. From 1831 he increasingly suffered from alcoholism. After his fiancée turned away from him, he married his beloved Louise Christina Clostermeier in 1833, but the marriage quickly turned out to be unhappy. The next year Grabbe quit and left Detmold for Frankfurt, where he also fell out with his publisher.  He proceeded to Düsseldorf, where he temporarily worked at the Altes Theater with Karl Leberecht Immermann. Grabbe returned to Detmold in 1836 as a broken man, his wife filed for divorce. He died from general paresis in the same year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "With Georg Büchner, Grabbe was one of the principal German dramatists of his time. His debut \"Herzog Theodor von Gothland\" overtaxed contemporary critics by its all-pervasive nihilism. Influenced by Shakespeare and the \"Sturm und Drang\" movement, his plays were very ambitious, with crowd scenes and rapid scene changes that challenged the technical capacity of the theaters of the time. He resolved the strict forms of the classical drama in a loose series of scenes that were a precursor of the realist drama. His plays \"Napoleon oder Die hundert Tage\" or \"Hannibal\" reveal a realistic, heterogeneous concept of history.  After his death, he was at first forgotten, but his work was rediscovered by the Naturalist and Expressionist dramatists. He was honored by the Nazis as a great national poet, based on occasional antisemitic statements (particularly in \"Aschenbrödel\"), and on his nationalistic portrayal of German history, like \"Die Hermannsschlacht\" on the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. In the 1930s, numerous streets were named after him.  The city of Detmold awards the Christian-Dietrich-Grabbe Prize for new dramatic literature since 1994 in association with the \"Grabbe-Gesellschaft\" literary society and the \"Landesverband Lippe\" municipal association.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christian Dietrich Grabbe (11 December 1801 – 12 September 1836) was a German dramatist of the \"Vormärz\" era. He wrote many historical plays conceiving a disillusioned and pessimistic world view, with some shrill scenes. Heinrich Heine saw him as one of Germany's foremost dramatists, calling him \"a drunken Shakespeare\" and Sigmund Freud described Grabbe as \"an original and rather peculiar poet.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972398}
{"src_title": "Oymyakon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "It is named after the Oymyakon River, whose name reportedly comes from the Even word \"kheium\", meaning \"unfrozen patch of water; place where fish spend the winter\". However, another source states that the Even word \"heyum\" (hэjум) (\"kheium\" may be a misspelling) means \"frozen lake\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Oymyakon has two main valleys beside it. These valleys trap wind inside the town and create the colder climate. The temperatures here are extremely cold throughout the year, and it snows frequently. Schools are closed if it is colder than.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "During World War II, an airfield was built in the district of Aeroport, for the Alaska-Siberian (ALSIB) air route, used to ferry American Lend-Lease aircraft to the Eastern Front.  Over the last few decades, the population of Oymyakon has shrunk significantly. The village had a peak population of roughly 2,500 inhabitants, but that number has decreased to fewer than 900 in 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "With an extreme subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification \"Dfd/Dwd\"), Oymyakon is known as one of the places considered the Northern Pole of Cold, the other being the town of Verkhoyansk, located away by air. The ground is permanently frozen (continuous permafrost).  There is a monument built around the town square commemorating a reading in January 1924 of. This was shown on the Australian program \"60 Minutes\" in a 2012 documentary. On February 6, 1933, a temperature of was recorded at Oymyakon's weather station. This was the coldest officially recorded temperature in the Northern Hemisphere. Only Antarctica has recorded lower official temperatures (the lowest being, recorded at Vostok Station on 21 July 1983).  The weather station is in a valley between Oymyakon and Tomtor. The station is at above sea level and the surrounding mountains at, causing cold air to pool in the valley: in fact, recent studies show that winter temperatures in the area \"increase\" with altitude by as much as.  Some years the temperature drops below in late September and may remain below freezing until mid-April. In Oymyakon sometimes the average minimum temperature for December, January, and February remains below. Sometimes summer months can also be quite cold, but June and July are the only months where the temperature has never dropped below. Oymyakon and Verkhoyansk are the only two permanently inhabited places in the world that have recorded temperatures below for every day in January.  Oymyakon has never recorded an above-freezing temperature between October 25 and March 17.  Although winters in Oymyakon are long and extremely cold, summers are mild to warm, sometimes hot. The warmest month on record is July 2010 with an average temperature of. In June, July and August temperatures over are not rare during the day. On July 28, 2010, Oymyakon recorded a record high temperature of, yielding a temperature range of. Verkhoyansk, Yakutsk, and Fort Vermilion, Canada are the only other known places in the world that have a temperature amplitude higher than.  The climate is quite dry, but as average monthly temperatures are below freezing for seven months of the year, substantial evaporation occurs only in summer months. Summers are much wetter than winters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Oymyakon (, ;, \"Öymököön\", ) is a rural locality (a \"selo\") in Oymyakonsky District of the Sakha Republic, Russia, located along the Indigirka River, northwest of Tomtor on the Kolyma Highway. It is one of the coldest permanently inhabited settlements on Earth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972399}
{"src_title": "Tepui", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Morphology.", "content": "These table-top mountains are the remains of a large sandstone plateau that once covered the granite basement complex between the north border of the Amazon Basin and the Orinoco, between the Atlantic coast and the Rio Negro. This area is part of the remnants of the supercontinent Gondwana. Throughout the course of the history of Earth, the plateau was eroded, and the tepuis were formed from the remaining monadnocks.  There are 115 such mesas in the Gran Sabana in the south-east of Venezuela on the border with Guyana and Brazil, where the highest concentration of tepuis is found. The precipitous mountains tower over the surrounding area by up to.  Tepuis range in elevation from. The total surface area of all 115 tepuis is approximately 5000 km2, or the size of Trinidad. Because of their great age, some tepuis exhibit surface features and caves typical of karst topography, formed in more water-soluble rocks such as limestone. Caves here include the Abismo Guy Collet, the deepest quartzite cave in the world. Some of the mesas are pocked with giant sinkholes up to in diameter and with sheer walls up to deep. These sinkholes are formed when the roofs of tunnels carved by underground rivers collapse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "The plateaus of the tepuis are completely isolated from the ground forest, making them ecological islands. The altitude causes them to have a different climate from the ground forest. The top presents cool temperatures with frequent rainfall, while the bases of the mountains have a tropical, warm and humid climate. The isolation has led to the presence of endemic flora and fauna through evolution over millennia of a different world of animals and plants, cut off from the rest of the world by the imposing rock walls. Some tepui sinkholes contain species that have evolved in these \"islands within islands\" that are unique to that sinkhole. The tepuis are often referred to as the Galápagos Islands of the mainland, having a large number of unique plants and animals not found anywhere else in the world. The floors of the mesas are poor in nutrients, which has led to a rich variety of carnivorous plants, such as drosera and most species of heliamphora, as well as a wide variety of orchids and bromeliads. The weathered, craggy nature of the rocky ground means no layers of humus are formed.  It has been hypothesized that endemics on tepuis represent relict fauna and flora that underwent vicariant speciation when the plateau got fragmented over geological time. However, recent studies suggest that tepuis are not as isolated as originally believed. For example, an endemic group of treefrogs, \"Tepuihyla\", have diverged after the tepuis were formed, that is, speciation followed colonization from the lowlands.  The tepuis, also known as 'islands above the rainforest', are a challenge for researchers, as they are home to a high number of new species that have yet to be described. A few of these mountains are cloaked by thick clouds almost the whole year round. Their surfaces could previously only be photographed by helicopter radar equipment.  Many tepuis are in the Canaima National Park in Venezuela, which has been classified as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected tepuis.", "content": "A few of the most notable of the 60 tepuis:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "The hypothesis that endemic fauna and flora of tepuis represent remnants of ancient species was an inspiration to Arthur Conan Doyle's novel \"The Lost World\" (1912), which was set on a tepui.  In the 1990 film \"Arachnophobia\", a new species of spider with a highly potent, deadly venom that lives in social colonies and is the implied apex predator of its environment is discovered in a sinkhole enclosed by a tepui in the Venezuelan rainforest, also alluding to the unique ecological conditions of tepuis.  Much of the story of 2009 Pixar–Disney film \"Up\" takes place among the tepuis. The film also includes depictions of the numerous rock formations and an Angel Falls-like waterfall called \"Paradise Falls\".  Steve Backshall was part of the first expedition to successfully climb Mount Upuigma. The expedition was part of the program \"Lost Land of the Jaguar\" on BBC One in 2008. On the summit they discovered an endemic species of frog and mouse, and also footprints of an unidentified mammal.  In the novel \"The 6th Extinction\" (2014) by James Rollins, a tepui in the north of Brazil was featured as a secret lair for the villain Dr. Cutter Elwes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A tepui, or tepuy (), is a table-top mountain or mesa found in the Guiana Highlands of South America, especially in Venezuela and western Guyana. The word tepui means \"house of the gods\" in the native tongue of the Pemon, the indigenous people who inhabit the Gran Sabana.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972400}
{"src_title": "Saponin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structural variety and biosynthesis.", "content": "The aglycone (glycoside-free) portions of the saponins are termed sapogenins. The number of saccharide chains attached to the sapogenin/aglycone core can varygiving rise to another dimension of nomenclature (monodesmosidic, bidesmosidic, etc.)as can the length of each chain. A somewhat dated compilation has the range of saccharide chain lengths being 1–11, with the numbers 2–5 being the most frequent, and with both linear and branched chain saccharides being represented. Dietary monosaccharides such as -glucose and -galactose are among the most common components of the attached chains.  The lipophilic aglycone can be any one of a wide variety of polycyclic organic structures originating from the serial addition of 10-carbon (C10) terpene units to compose a C30 triterpene skeleton, often with subsequent alteration to produce a C27 steroidal skeleton. The subset of saponins that are steroidal have been termed saraponins. Aglycone derivatives can also incorporate nitrogen, so some saponins also present chemical and pharmacologic characteristics of alkaloid natural products. The figure at right above presents the structure of the alkaloid phytotoxin solanine, a monodesmosidic, branched-saccharide steroidal saponin. (The lipophilic steroidal structure is the series of connected six- and five-membered rings at the right of the structure, while the three oxygen-rich sugar rings are at left and below. Note the nitrogen atom inserted into the steroid skeleton at right.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "Saponins have historically been understood to be plant-derived, but they have also been isolated from marine organisms such as sea cucumber. Saponins are indeed found in many plants, and derive their name from the soapwort plant (genus \"Saponaria\", family Caryophyllaceae), the root of which was used historically as a soap. Saponins are also found in the botanical family Sapindaceae, including its defining genus \"Sapindus\" (soapberry or soapnut) and the horse chestnut, and in the closely related families Aceraceae (maples) and Hippocastanaceae). It is also found heavily in \"Gynostemma pentaphyllum\" (\"Gynostemma\", Cucurbitaceae) in a form called gypenosides, and ginseng or red ginseng (\"Panax\", Araliaceae) in a form called ginsenosides. Saponins are also found in the unripe fruit of Manilkara zapota (also known as sapodillas), resulting in highly astringent properties. Within these families, this class of chemical compounds is found in various parts of the plant: leaves, stems, roots, bulbs, blossom and fruit. Commercial formulations of plant-derived saponins, e.g., from the soap bark (or soapbark) tree, \"Quillaja saponaria\", and those from other sources are available via controlled manufacturing processes, which make them of use as chemical and biomedical reagents. In China, the rhizomes (tubers) of \"Dioscorea zingiberensis\" C.H. Wright also produces steroidal saponins (TSS) as part of a treatment for cardiovascular disease.  Uses plant Gogo (bark) \"Entada phaseoloides\" as control. The positive result shows a honeycomb froth that is higher than 2 cm that persists for 10 minutes or longer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Test.", "content": "Blood Agar Media (BAM): Is an agar cup semi-quantitative method that shows positive result of hemolytic halos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in plant ecology and impact on animal foraging.", "content": "In plants, saponins may serve as anti-feedants, and to protect the plant against microbes and fungi. Some plant saponins (e.g. from oat and spinach) may enhance nutrient absorption and aid in animal digestion. However, saponins are often bitter to taste, and so can reduce plant palatability (e.g., in livestock feeds), or even imbue them with life-threatening animal toxicity. Some saponins are toxic to cold-blooded organisms and insects at particular concentrations. Further research is needed to define the roles of these natural products in their host organisms, which have been described as \"poorly understood\" to date.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnobotany.", "content": "Most saponins, which readily dissolve in water, are poisonous to fish. Therefore, in ethnobotany, they are primarily known for their use by indigenous people in obtaining aquatic food sources. Since prehistoric times, cultures throughout the world have used fish-killing plants, mostly those containing saponins, for fishing.  Although prohibited by law, fish-poison plants are still widely used by indigenous tribes in Guyana.  On the Indian subcontinent, the Gondi people are known for their use of poison-plant extracts in fishing.  Many of California's Native American tribes traditionally used soaproot, (genus \"Chlorogalum\") and/or the root of various yucca species, which contain saponin, as a fish poison. They would pulverize the roots, mixing in water to create a foam, and then add the suds to a stream. This would kill, or incapacitate, the fish, which could be gathered easily from the surface of the water. Among the tribes using this technique were the Lassik, the Luiseño, and the Mattole.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research and uses.", "content": "The amphipathic nature of saponins gives them activity as surfactants with potential ability to interact with cell membrane components, such as cholesterol and phospholipids, possibly making saponins useful for development of cosmetics and drugs. Saponins have also been used as adjuvants in development of vaccines, such as Quil A, an extract from the bark of \"Quillaja saponaria\". This makes them of interest for possible use in subunit vaccines and vaccines directed against intracellular pathogens. In their use as adjuvants for manufacturing vaccines, toxicity associated with sterol complexation remains a concern.  While saponins are promoted commercially as dietary supplements and are used in traditional medicine, there is no high-quality clinical evidence that they have any beneficial effect on human health. Quillaja is toxic when consumed in large amounts, involving possible liver damage, gastric pain, diarrhea, or other adverse effects.  The plant Çöven, Gypsophila \"simonii\" is widely distributed throughout Çankırı, where it is a native species, and Turkey. In this study, chemical and physical properties of unripe saponins obtained by extraction from the roots of Gypsophila \"simonii\", an endemic plant, were isolated and investigated. Purified aglycones recovered from acid hydrolysis of the saponins were separated by reversed chromatography on a thin layer of silica gel. Phytochemical tests showed the presence of terpenoids in the crude extracts.  Saponins are used for their effects on ammonia emissions in animal feeding.  Dioscin, the saponin from Dioscorea spp. remains an important source for diosgenin, which is then utilized in the semi-synthetic or biosynthetic production of progesterone and corticosteroids.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saponins a class of chemical compounds found in particular abundance in various plant species. More specifically, they are amphipathic glycosides grouped phenomenologically by the soap-like foam they produce when shaken in aqueous solutions, and structurally by having one or more hydrophilic glycone moieties combined with a lipophilic triterpene or steroid derivative.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972401}
{"src_title": "Fenugreek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Fenugreek is believed to have been brought into cultivation in the Near East. It is uncertain which wild strain of the genus \"Trigonella\" gave rise to domesticated fenugreek. Charred fenugreek seeds have been recovered from Tell Halal, Iraq (carbon dated to 4000 BC), and Bronze Age levels of Lachish and desiccated seeds from the tomb of Tutankhamen. Cato the Elder lists fenugreek with clover and vetch as crops grown to feed cattle.  In one first-century A.D. recipe, the Romans flavoured wine with fenugreek. In the 1st century AD, in Galilee, it was grown as a staple food, as Josephus mentions it in his book, the \"Wars of the Jews\". The plant is mentioned in the 2nd-century compendium of Jewish Oral Law (Mishnah) under its Hebrew name \"tiltan\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The English name derives via Middle French \"fenugrec\" from Latin \"faenugraecum\", \"faenum Graecum\" meaning \"Greek hay\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "India is a major producer, with fenugreek production in India derived from numerous states. Rajasthan accounts for over 80% of India's output.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Fenugreek is used as a herb (dried or fresh leaves), spice (seeds), and vegetable (fresh leaves, sprouts, and microgreens). Sotolon is the chemical responsible for the distinctive maple syrup smell of fenugreek.  Cuboid-shaped, yellow- to amber-coloured fenugreek seeds are frequently encountered in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, used both whole and powdered in the preparation of pickles, vegetable dishes, dal, and spice mixes such as \"panch phoron\" and \"sambar\" powder. They are often roasted to reduce inherent bitterness and to enhance flavour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cooking.", "content": "Fresh fenugreek leaves are an ingredient in some curries, such as with potatoes in cuisines of the Indian subcontinent to make \"aloo methi\" (\"potato fenugreek\") curry. Sprouted seeds and fenugreek greens are used in salads. When harvested as greens, fenugreek is known as \"samudra methi\" in Maharashtra, especially in and around Mumbai, where it is often grown in sandy tracts near the sea, hence the name \"samudra\", \"ocean\" in Sanskrit. \"Samudra methi\" is also grown in dry river beds in the Gangetic plains. When sold as a vegetable, the young plants are harvested with their roots still attached and sold in small bundles in the markets and bazaars. Any remaining soil is washed off to extend their shelf life.  In Turkish cuisine, fenugreek seeds are used for making a paste known as \"çemen\". Cumin, black pepper, and other spices are added into it, especially to make \"pastırma\".  In Iranian cuisine, fenugreek leaves are called \"shanbalileh\". They are one of several greens incorporated into the herb stew \"ghormeh sabzi\", the herb frittata kuku sabzi and a soup known as \"eshkeneh\".  In Georgian cuisine, a related species—\"Trigonella caerulea\" called \"blue fenugreek\"—is used.  In Egyptian cuisine, fenugreek is known by the Arabic name \"hilba\" or \"helba\" حلبة. Seeds are boiled to make a drink that is consumed at home, as well as in coffee shops. Peasants in Upper Egypt add fenugreek seeds and maize to their pita bread to produce \"aish merahrah\", a staple of their diet. Basterma, a cured dried beef, has its distinctive flavour from the fenugreek used as a coating.  Fenugreek is used in Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisine. The word for fenugreek in Amharic is \"abesh\" (or \"abish\"), and the seed is used in Ethiopia as a natural herbal medicine in the treatment of diabetes.  Yemenite Jews following the interpretation of Rabbi Shelomo Yitzchak (Rashi) believe fenugreek, which they call \"hilbah\", \"hilbeh, hilba, helba\", or\" halba\" \"חילבה\", to be the Talmudic \"rubia\" \"רוביא\". When the seed kernels are ground and mixed with water they greatly expand; hot spices, turmeric and lemon juice are added to produce a frothy relish eaten with a sop. The relish is also called \"hilbeh\"; it is reminiscent of curry. It is eaten daily and ceremonially during the meal of the first and/or second night of the Jewish New Year, Rosh Hashana.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nutritional profile.", "content": "In a 100 g amount, fenugreek seeds provide of food energy and contain 9% water, 58% carbohydrates, 23% protein and 6% fat, with calcium at 40% of the Daily Value (DV, table). Fenugreek seeds (per 100 g) are a rich source of protein (46% DV), dietary fiber, B vitamins, and dietary minerals, particularly manganese (59% DV) and iron (262% DV) (table).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Risks and side effects.", "content": "Although once a folk remedy for an insufficient milk supply when nursing, there is no good evidence that fenugreek is effective or safe for this use. Fenugreek may affect uterine contractions and be unsafe for women with hormone-sensitive cancers. Fenugreek is likely not safe for use during pregnancy as it may have abortifacient effects.  Some people are allergic to fenugreek, including those with peanut allergies or chickpea allergies. Fenugreek seeds can cause diarrhea, dyspepsia, abdominal distention, flatulence, perspiration, and a maple-like smell to sweat, urine or breast milk. There is a risk of hypoglycemia particularly in people with diabetes, and it may interfere with the activity of anti-diabetic drugs. Because of the high content of coumarin-like compounds in fenugreek, it may interfere with the activity and dosing of anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs.  Fenugreek sprouts, cultivated from a single specific batch of seeds imported from Egypt into Germany in 2009, were implicated as the source of the of in Germany and France. Identification of a common producer and a single batch of fenugreek seeds was evidence for the origin of the outbreaks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dietary supplement.", "content": "Fenugreek dietary supplements are manufactured from powdered seeds into capsules, loose powders, teas, and liquid extracts in many countries. Powders may also be used as a topical medication or dressing for skin wounds or eczema. There is no evidence these products have any clinical effectiveness.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Animal feed.", "content": "Fenugreek is sometimes used as animal feed. It provides a green fodder palatable to ruminants. The seeds are also used to feed fish, domestic rabbits and ruminants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food additive.", "content": "Fenugreek seeds and leaves contain the molecule sotolone, which imparts the aroma of fenugreek and curry in high concentrations, and maple syrup or caramel in lower concentrations. Fenugreek is used as a flavoring agent in imitation maple syrup or tea, and as a dietary supplement.  A mysterious odor of maple syrup – the maple syrup event occurring in New York City in 2005 – was eventually traced to a nearby New Jersey factory of a food additives company processing fenugreek seeds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Constituents of fenugreek seeds include flavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, vitamins, and saponins; the most prevalent alkaloid is trigonelline and coumarins include cinnamic acid and scopoletin. Research into whether fenugreek reduces biomarkers in people with diabetes and with pre-diabetic conditions is of limited quality. As of 2016, there was no high-quality evidence for whether fenugreek is safe and effective to relieve dysmenorrhea.  Because research on potential biological effects of consuming fenugreek has provided no high-quality evidence for health or anti-disease effect, fenugreek is not approved or recommended for clinical use by any governmental health agency.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fenugreek (; \"Trigonella foenum-graecum\") is an annual plant in the family Fabaceae, with leaves consisting of three small obovate to oblong leaflets. It is cultivated worldwide as a semiarid crop. Its seeds and leaves are common ingredients in dishes from the Indian subcontinent. Also used in traditional medicine, fenugreek can increase the risk for serious medical side effects, though its culinary use (in smaller quantities) is usually believed to be safe. Fenugreek is not approved or recommended for clinical use by any governmental health agency.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972402}
{"src_title": "Theodor Innitzer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Innitzer was born in Neugeschrei (Nové Zvolání), part of the town Weipert (Vejprty) in Bohemia, at that time Austria-Hungary, (now Czech Republic). He was the son of a passamentier Wilhelm Innitzer in Vejprty, House Nr. 362, later a textile factory worker, and his wife Maria born Seidl, daughter of a mining clerk. After completing the minimum mandatory school, Innitzer became an apprentice in a textile factory. The dean of his home parish supported the young Theodor, which allowed him to attend a gymnasium (1890–1892 Communal-Gymnasium), and Staatsgymnasium (1892–1898) in Kaaden (Kadaň).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activity and assessment.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Anschluss.", "content": "Innitzer's role in early 20th century Austrian history remains disputed, because of his involvement in politics. After initially offering support to the Anschluss, Innitzer became a critic of the Nazis and was subject to violent intimidation from them.  This assessment stems from his cooperation with the Austro-fascist government of Engelbert Dollfuß and Kurt Schuschnigg from 1934 to 1938, which based many of its economic and social policies on the teachings of the Catholic Church. He and the other Austrian Catholic bishops signed a declaration endorsing the Anschluss, set up by Gauleiter Josef Bürckel, and signed by Innitzer with \"Heil Hitler!\". Without the bishops' consent the Nazi regime disseminated this statement throughout the German Reich. Upon hearing of this act, Pope Pius XI ordered Cardinal Innitzer to sign a clarification, which was then published in \"L'Osservatore Romano\".  Vatican Radio had recently broadcast a vehement denunciation of the Nazi action, and Cardinal Pacelli (soon to become Pope Pius XII) ordered Innitzer to report to the Vatican. Before meeting with Pius XI, Innitzer met with Pacelli, who had been outraged by Innitzer's statement. He made it clear that Innitzer needed to retract and was made to sign a new statement, issued on behalf of all the Austrian bishops, which provided: \"The solemn declaration of the Austrian bishops... was clearly not intended to be an approval of something that was not and is not compatible with God's law\". The Vatican newspaper also reported that the bishops' earlier statement had been issued without the approval of the Holy See, with the fairly neutral Pope Pius XI disagreeing totally with Innitzer.  In the subsequent months Germany had cancelled the concordat between itself and the Holy See and prohibited Church institutions and Catholic newspapers. Following the Anschluss, the Nazi regime proceeded to repress the Catholic Church - arresting clergy, closing schools and institutions. Innitzer protested, at first privately, and later publicly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nazi intimidation.", "content": "In April 1938, in honour of Hitler’s birthday, Cardinal Innitzer had ordered that all Austrian churches fly the swastika flag, ring bells, and pray for Hitler. Despite this Innitzer called a day of prayer in the Cathedral of St. Stephen of Vienna for October 7, 1938, which was attended by almost 9,000 parishioners, mostly young people. In the sermon Innitzer declared that \"we must confess our faith in our Führer, for there is just one Führer: Jesus Christ\", which greatly angered the Nazi leaders: about 100 Nazis, among them many older members of the Hitler Youth, ransacked the archbishop's residence the very next day. In Britain, the \"Catholic Herald\" provided the following contemporary account on 14 October 1938:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Innitzer's ambiguous relationship with the Nazi regime brought him a lot of criticism after World War II (he was referred to as the \"Heil Hitler Cardinal\"). During the War Innitzer was critical of the anti-Semitic and racist policies of the Nazis towards the Austrian Jews and also the Catholic gypsies of the Austrian countryside.  He openly, though moderately, supported the war effort against the Soviet Union, however. Years before, he had campaigned against Soviet policies. In 1933, based on data collected by undercover investigation and photographs, Innitzer sought to raise awareness in the West of the many deaths by hunger and even cases of cannibalism that were occurring in the Ukraine and the North Caucasus at that time.  In October 1944 Innitzer preached in the parish of Vienna- Reindorf, which also included members of the NSDAP local group who listened and wrote a report about it. In their report, they criticized that Innitzer's speech was “cleverly demoralized”. Thereby, statements like the following are thought: “You don't know what will come. It is possible that Vienna will also become a theater of war. ”However, Innitzer attributed the war to God directly; he saw it as a punishment for misconduct by the people. Innitzer also expressed his regret for the low participation in church life: children grow up without communion and confession, have no religious instruction at school, there are no more seminaries, and only one sixth of the Catholics go to Holy Mass. Such indications can also be understood as indirect criticism of the National Socialist government, since their measures have suppressed the church's influence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Theodor Cardinal Innitzer died in Vienna, Austria on 9 October 1955.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kardinal Innitzer Prize.", "content": "The Archdiocese of Vienna annually awards the Kardinal-Innitzer-Preis to scientists and scholars, which is named in honor of Innitzer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "In the 1963 movie \"The Cardinal\", Innitzer was played by Josef Meinrad in scenes interpreting the events of the Anschluss including the statement and the sacking of the residence.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theodor Innitzer (25 December 1875 – 9 October 1955) was Archbishop of Vienna and a cardinal of the Catholic Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972403}
{"src_title": "Basionym", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Use in botany.", "content": "The term \"basionym\" is used in botany only for the circumstances where a previous name exists with a useful description, and the \"International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants\" does not require a full description with the new name. A basionym must therefore be legitimate. Basionyms are regulated by the code's articles 6.10, 7.3, 41, and others.  When a current name has a basionym, the author or authors of the basionym are included in parentheses at the start of the author citation. If a basionym is later found to be illegitimate, it becomes a replaced synonym and the current name's author citation must be changed so that the basionym authors do not appear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Combinatio nova\".", "content": "The basionym of the name \"Picea abies\" (the Norway spruce) is \"Pinus abies\". The species was originally named \"Pinus abies\" by Carl Linnaeus and so the author citation of the basionym is simply \"L.\" Later on, botanist Gustav Karl Wilhelm Hermann Karsten decided this species should not be grouped in the same genus (\"Pinus\") as the pines, so he transferred it to the genus \"Picea\" (the spruces). The new name \"Picea abies\" is \"combinatio nova\", a new combination (abbreviated \"comb. nov.\"). With author citation, the current name is \"\"Picea abies\" (L.) Karst.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Status novus\".", "content": "In 1964, the subfamily name Pomoideae, which had been in use for the group within family Rosaceae that have pome fruit like apples, was no longer acceptable under the code of nomenclature because it is not based on a genus name. Claude Weber did not consider the family name Malaceae to be taxonomically appropriate, so he created the name Maloideae at the rank of subfamily, referring to the original description of the family, and using the same type. This change of rank from family to subfamily is an example of \"status novus\" (abbreviated \"stat. nov.\"), also called a \"name at new rank\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In the scientific name of organisms, basionym or basyonym means the original name on which a new name is based; the author citation of the new name should include the authors of the basionym in parentheses. The term original combination or protonym is used in the same way in zoology. Bacteriology uses a similar term, basonym, spelled without an \"i\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972404}
{"src_title": "François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "François Henri de Montmorency was born at Paris. His father, the François de Montmorency-Bouteville, had been executed six months before his birth for participating in a duel against the Marquis de Beuvron. His aunt, Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency, Princess of Condé, took charge of him and educated him with her son, the Duke of Enghien. The young Montmorency (or Bouteville as he was then called) attached himself to his cousin, and shared his successes and reverses throughout the troubles of the Fronde. He returned to France in 1659 and was pardoned, and Condé, then much attached to the, Montmorency's sister, contrived the marriage of his adherent and cousin to the greatest heiress in France, Madeleine de Luxembourg, Princess of Tingry and heiress of the Luxembourg dukedom (1661), after which he was created Duke of Luxembourg and peer of France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Luxembourg as general.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War of Devolution and the Franco-Dutch War.", "content": "At the opening of the War of Devolution (1667–68), Condé, and consequently Luxembourg, had no command, but during the second campaign he served as Condé's lieutenant general in the conquest of Franche-Comté. During the four years of peace which followed, Luxembourg cultivated the favour of Louvois, and in 1672 held a high command against the Dutch during the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678). He defeated a counterattack by the forces of Prince William III of Orange at Woerden but was blocked by the Dutch Water Line. On 27 December the inundations were frozen over and he began to cross over the ice, but a sudden thaw cut his force in half. Retreating, de Luxembourg found the fortress town of Bodegraven abandoned by its garrison and ordered the entire civilian population to be burned alive with their houses. The Dutch anti-French propaganda quickly exploited this massacre and when de Luxembourg bragged to Louis XIV that he had roasted any Dutchman he could find in the town, he was surprised to find that some at court considered such cruelties unnecessary. In 1673 he made his famous retreat from Utrecht to Maastricht with only 20,000 men in face of 70,000, an exploit which placed him in the first rank of generals. In 1674 he was made captain of the Garde du Corps, and in 1675 Marshal of France.  In 1676 he was placed at the head of the army of the Rhine replacing Condé, who was in bad health. However, he could not relieve the siege of Philippsburg. This fortress had been invested by Imperial troops under Charles V, Duke of Lorraine on 1 May and fell on 17 September. In 1677 he stormed Valenciennes; and in 1678 he defeated the Prince of Orange, who attacked him at St Denis after the signature of the Peace of Nijmegen. His reputation was now high and it is reputed that he quarrelled with Louvois, who managed to involve him in the \"affair of the poisons\" and get him sent to the Bastille. Rousset in his \"Histoire de Louvois\" has shown that this quarrel is probably apocryphal. Luxembourg doubtlessly spent some months of 1680 in the Bastille, but on his release took up his post at court as \"capitaine des gardes\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War of the Grand Alliance 1688-97.", "content": "By 1690, during the War of the Grand Alliance, Luxembourg was entrusted with the command of King Louis' army in the Spanish Netherlands, superseding Louis de Crevant, Duke of Humières. On 1 July 1690 he won a great victory over William's allied commander, the Prince of Waldeck, at Fleurus. In the following year he was again victorious at Leuze on 18 September 1691.  In the next campaign he covered the king's 1692 Siege of Namur, and defeated William at Steenkerque in 1692; and on 29 July 1693 he won his greatest victory over his old adversary at Neerwinden, after which he was called \"le tapissier de Nôtre Dame\" from the number of captured colours that he sent to the cathedral. He was received with enthusiasm at Paris by all but the king, who looked coldly on a relative and adherent of the Condés. St-Simon describes in the first volume of his \"Memoirs\" how, instead of ranking as eighteenth peer of France according to his patent of 1661, he claimed through his wife to be duc de Piney of an old creation of 1571, which would place him second on the roll. The affair is described with St-Simon's usual interest in the peerage, and was chiefly checked through his assiduity.  In the campaign of 1694, Luxembourg did little in Flanders, except conducting a famous march from Vignamont to Tournai in face of the enemy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On his return to Versailles for the winter he fell ill, and died. In his last moments he was attended by the famous Jesuit priest Bourdaloue, who said on his death, \"I have not lived his life, but I would wish to die his death.\" Luxembourg was considered immoral, even in those times, but as a general he was Condé's grandest pupil. Though slothful like Condé in the management of a campaign, at the moment of battle he seemed seized with happy inspirations, against which no ardour of William's and no steadiness of Dutch or English soldiers could stand. His death and Catinat's disgrace close the second period of the military history of the reign of Louis XIV, and Catinat and Luxembourg, though inferior to Condé and Turenne, were far superior to Tallard and Villeroi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reputation.", "content": "St-Simon said of Luxembourg:...in his final calculations no one was ever more conscientious than M. de Luxembourg; no one more brilliant, prudent and far-sighted in the face of the enemy or in battle. He had daring and confidence, and at the same time a cool-headedness that allowed him to observe and foresee in the midst of the fiercest cannonade, in dangerously critical moments. That was when he was truly great. At all other times he was idleness itself; no exercise, except where absolutely necessary; gambling; conversing with intimates; every night a small supper party; nearly always with the same company, and, if they happened to be near a town, an agreeable mingling of the sexes. He was distinguished for a pungent wit. One of his retorts referred to his deformity. \"I never can beat that cursed humpback\", William was reputed to have said of him. \"How does he know I have a hump?\" retorted Luxembourg, \"he has never seen my back.\" He left four sons, the youngest of whom was a marshal of France as Marechal de Montmorency.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "On 17 March 1661 François-Henri de Montmorency married Madeleine de Clermont-Tonnerre, duchess of Luxembourg, princess of Tingry, comtess of Ligny, baronness of Dangu, and had 5 children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, Duke of Piney-Luxembourg, called Luxembourg, (8 January 1628 – 4 January 1695) was a French general, marshal of France, famous as the comrade and successor of the great Condé.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972405}
{"src_title": "Mahonia aquifolium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The specific epithet \"aquifolium\" denotes \"sharp-leafed\" (as in \"Ilex aquifolium\", the common holly), referring to the spiny foliage.  The common name is often, and always in the United Kingdom, left unhyphenated as \"Oregon grape\", though doing so invites confusion with the true grapes. Some authors avoid this confusion by using \"Oregon grape-holly\" or \"Oregon holly-grape\" as a vernacular name for any species of \"Mahonia\". It is also occasionally printed as \"Oregongrape\".  \"Mahonia aquifolium\" is not closely related to either the true holly (\"Ilex aquifolium\") or the true grape (\"Vitis vinifera\" cv.).  Several common species of Oregon-grape are known, and many have numerous cultivars. Among these are tall Oregon grape (\"Mahonia aquifolium\"); Cascade, low, dull, or dwarf Oregon grape (\"M. nervosa\"); and creeping Oregon grape (\"M. repens\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Mahonia aquifolium\" grows to tall by wide, with pinnate leaves up to long, each leaf made up of spiny leaflets. The leathery leaves resemble those of holly and the stems and twigs have a thickened, corky appearance. The flowers, borne in dense clusters in late spring, are yellow, and are followed by spherical dark dusty blue berries, which give rise to the common name \"Oregon grape\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Some authors place \"Mahonia\" in the barberry genus, \"Berberis\". The Oregon-grape is not related to true grapes, but gets its name from the purple clusters of berries whose color and slightly dusted appearance are reminiscent of grapes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Mahonia aquifolium\" is a native plant in the North American West from Southeast Alaska to Northern California, and eastern Alberta to central New Mexico, often occurring in the understory of Douglas fir forests (although other forest types contain the species) and in brushlands in the Cascades, Rockies, and northern Sierras.  In some areas outside its native range, \"M. aquifolium\" has been classified as an invasive exotic species that may displace native vegetation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Mahonia aquifolium\" is a popular subject in shady or woodland plantings. It is valued for its striking foliage and flowers, which often appear before those of other shrubs. It is resistant to summer drought, tolerates poor soils, and does not create excessive leaf litter. Its berries attract birds.  Numerous cultivars and hybrids have been developed, of which the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The small purplish-black fruits, which are quite tart and contain large seeds, are included in smaller quantities in the traditional diets of Pacific Northwest aboriginal peoples, mixed with salal or another sweeter fruit. Today, they are sometimes used to make jelly, alone or mixed with salal. Oregon-grape juice can be fermented to make wine, similar to European barberry wine folk traditions, although it requires an unusually high amount of sugar. The berries can also be eaten raw after the season's first frosts.  The inner bark of the larger stems and roots of Oregon grape yields a yellow dye; the berries give purple dye. As the leaves of Oregon grape are holly-like and resist wilting, the foliage is sometimes used by florists for greenery and a small gathering industry has been established in the Pacific Northwest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Herbal medicine.", "content": "Some Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau use Oregon grape for indigestion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemical constituents.", "content": "\"Mahonia aquifolium\" contains 5'-methoxyhydnocarpin (5'-MHC), a multidrug resistance pump inhibitor, which works to decrease bacterial resistance \"in vitro\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Oregon-grape is the state flower of Oregon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mahonia aquifolium, the Oregon grape, is a species of flowering plant in the family Berberidaceae, native to western North America. It is an evergreen shrub growing to tall by wide, with pinnate leaves consisting of spiny leaflets, and dense clusters of yellow flowers in early spring, followed by dark bluish-black berries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972406}
{"src_title": "Golden mole", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics and affinities.", "content": "Like most burrowing mammals with similar habits, the Chrysochloridae have short legs with powerful digging claws, very dense fur that repels dirt and moisture, and toughened skin, particularly on the head. Their eyes are non-functional and covered with furred skin. The external ears are just tiny openings. In particular, golden moles bear a remarkable resemblance to the marsupial moles of Australia, family Notoryctidae, which they resemble so suggestively that at one time, the marsupial/placental divide not withstanding, some argued that they were related. Considerations that influenced the debate might have included the view that the Chrysochloridae are very primitive placentals and the fact that they have many mole-like specializations similar to specializations in marsupial moles. The rhinarium is a greatly enlarged, dry leathery pad that protects their nostrils while the animal digs. In this respect too, they resemble the marsupial moles. Some authors claim their primary sense is of touch, and they are particularly sensitive to vibrations which may indicate approaching danger. Note below however, the observations on the malleus in the middle ear.  The species range in size from about 8 to about 20 cm. They have muscular shoulders and the forelimbs are radically adapted for digging; all the toes on the forefeet have been reduced, except for a large, pick-like third claw on the third toe. The fifth digit is absent and the first and fourth digits are vestigial. The adaptations of the hind feet are less dramatic, they retain all five toes and are webbed as an adaptation to efficient backward shovelling of soil loosened by the front claws.  At one time the Chrysochloridae were regarded as primitive. Supporting arguments included: that they were thought to have originated in Gondwana, that they had a low resting metabolic rate, and they could switch off thermoregulation when inactive. Like the tenrecs, they possess a cloaca, and males lack a scrotum. However, such points are no longer regarded as strongly suggestive of golden moles as undeveloped \"reptilian mammals\"; some are seen rather as adaptations to regional climatic conditions. Going into a torpor when resting or during cold weather enables them to conserve energy and reduce urgent requirements for food. Similarly, they have developed particularly efficient kidneys and most species do not need to drink water at all; in fact they tend to drown easily if they fall into water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habits and ecology.", "content": "Most species of Chrysochloridae live almost exclusively underground in their respectively preferred environments, beneath either grassveld, forest, swamps, deserts, or mountainous terrain. However, \"Chrysospalax\" species tend to forage above ground in leaf litter in forests or in meadows. \"Eremitalpa\" species such as Grant's golden mole live in the sandy Namib desert, where they cannot form tunnels because the sand collapses. Instead during the day, when they must seek shelter, they \"swim\" through the loose sand, using their broad claws to paddle, and dive down some 50 cm to where it is bearably cool. There they enter a state of torpor, thus conserving energy. At night they emerge to forage on the surface rather than wasting energy shifting sand. Their main prey are termites that live under isolated grass clumps, and they might travel for 6 kilometres a night in search of food. They seek promising clumps by listening for wind-rustled grass-root stresses and termites' head-banging alarm signals, neither of which can be heard easily above ground, so they stop periodically and dip their heads under the sand to listen.  Most other species construct both foraging superficial burrows and deeper permanent burrows for residence. Residential burrows are relatively complex in form, and may penetrate as far as a metre below ground and include deep chambers for use as bolt-holes, and other chambers as latrines. They push excavated soil up to the surface as mole-hills, or compact it into the tunnel walls. They feed on small insects and earthworms or small vertebrates such as lizards or burrowing snakes. They depend on their sense of hearing to locate much of their prey, and the cochleas of a number of golden mole species have been found to be long and highly coiled, which may indicate a greater ecological dependence on low frequency auditory cues than we see in Talpid moles.  Some species also have hypertrophied middle ear ossicles, in particular the malleus, which apparently is adapted towards the detection of seismic vibrations. In this respect there is some apparent convergent evolution to burrowing reptiles in the family Amphisbaenidae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Females give birth to one to three hairless young in a grass-lined nest within the burrow system. Breeding occurs throughout the year. The adults are solitary, and their burrowing territory may be aggressively defended from intruders, especially where resources are relatively scarce.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status.", "content": "Of the 21 species of golden mole, no fewer than 11 are threatened with extinction. The primary causes are sand mining, poor agricultural practices, increasing urbanisation, and predation by domestic cats and dogs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The taxonomy of the Chrysochloridae is undergoing a review in the light of new genetic information. They have traditionally been listed with the shrews, hedgehogs and a grab-bag of small, difficult-to-place creatures as part of the order Insectivora. Some authorities retain this classification, at least for the time being. Others group the golden moles with the tenrecs in a new order, which is sometimes known as Tenrecomorpha, while others call it Afrosoricida and reserve Tenrecomorpha for the family Tenrecidae.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Golden moles are small insectivorous burrowing mammals endemic to Southern Africa, where their Afrikaans names are gouemolle or kruipmolle (singular \"gouemol\" or \"kruipmol\"). They comprise the family Chrysochloridae and as such they are taxonomically distinct from the true moles, family Talpidae, and other mole-like families, all of which, to various degrees, they resemble as a result of evolutionary convergence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972407}
{"src_title": "Baden bei Wien", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Baden is located at the mouth of the Schwechat River's St Helena Valley (') in the Vienna Woods (') range. It takes its name from the area's 13 hot springs, which vary in temperature from and contain lime sulphate. They lie for the most part at the foot of Mt Calvary (\"; ).  The highest point in the area is the Iron Gate (' or '), whose can be ascended in about three hours.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The celebrity of Baden dates back to the days of the Romans, who knew it by the name of'or '. Some ruins are still visible. The settlement was mentioned as Padun in a deed from 869. The nearby abbey of Heiligenkreuz's Romanesque church was constructed in the 11th century; it subsequently served as the burial place for members of the Babenberg family. The castle Rauheneck was constructed on the right bank of the river at the entrance to the valley in the 12th century; the castle Rauhenstein was built on the opposite bank at the same time. The town received its legal privileges in 1480. Although repeatedly sacked by Hungarians and Turks, it soon flourished again each time. The town was largely destroyed by a fire in 1812 but was excellently rebuilt in a Biedermeier style according to plans by architect Joseph Kornhäusel, it is therefore sometimes referred to as the \"Biedermeierstadt\". Archduke Charles, the victor of Aspern, constructed the Château Weilburg at the foot of Rauheneck between 1820 and 1825. In the 19th century, it was connected to the railway running between Vienna and Graz, which led to thousands of Viennese visiting each year to take the waters, including members of the imperial family, who constructed extensive villas nearby. The town boasted a theater, military hospital, and casino. The composer Ludwig van Beethoven stayed a number of times in Baden and his residences still form local tourist spots. The location at Rathausgasse 10 now forms a museum open to the public. Mayerling, a hunting lodge about up the valley, was the site of Crown Prince Rudolf's murder-suicide in 1889. Its primary export in the 19th century were steel razors, which were reckoned of excellent quality.  The City Theater (') was built in 1909 by Ferdinand Fellner. By the time of the First World War, Baden was Vienna's principal resort: came each year, double the town's local population. In addition to a modern \"Curehouse\" ('), there were 15 separate bathing establishments and several parks. During the war, Baden served as a temporary seat of the Austro-Hungarian high command. A new casino in 1934 made the town the premier resort throughout Austria. The Château Weilburg was destroyed during World War II. After World War II, Baden served as the headquarters of Soviet forces within occupied Austria until 1955.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Baden can be reached by the Süd Autobahn (A2). It has two rail stations: the Baden railway station for S-Bahn and regional trains, and the local Badner Bahn tram-train.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "Kurt Staska (ÖVP) was Baden's Bürgermeister as a result of elections of 2015, but he resigned at the end of 2016 and Stefan Szirucsek became the new Bürgermeister (Mayor). His deputy is Helga Krismer from the Greens.  City council () consists of 41 seats:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baden (German for \"Baths\"; Central Bavarian: \"Bodn\"), unofficially distinguished from other Badens as Baden bei Wien (Baden near Vienna), is a spa town in Austria. It serves as the capital of Baden District in the state of Lower Austria. Located about south of Vienna, the municipality consists of cadastral areas Baden, Braiten, Gamingerhof, Leesdorf, Mitterberg, Rauhenstein, and Weikersdorf.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972408}
{"src_title": "Mieszko IV Tanglefoot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Mieszko was the second son of Władysław II the Exile and Agnes of Babenberg. From 1146, after the deposition of his father, Mieszko and his family mainly lived in the town of Altenburg in Saxony, which was granted as a temporary possession to Władysław II by Agnes's half-brother King Conrad III of Germany. During his time in exile, Mieszko studied in Michaelsberg and Bamberg.  The exile for the deposed high duke turned out to be permanent; he died in Altenburg in 1159. His sons continued the fight to recover their inheritance, and finally three years later, in 1163, and thanks to the intervention of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Mieszko and his older brother Bolesław I the Tall returned to Silesia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duke of Racibórz.", "content": "Mieszko and Bolesław I the Tall co-ruled the Duchy of Wrocław during the period 1163–1173. At first, their rule did not extend over the major Silesian cities, which remained under the control of Bolesław IV the Curly, then the high duke of Poland. The brothers retook them in the year 1165, taking advantage of Bolesław IV's involvement in a crusade against the Prussians.  Eventually, Mieszko began efforts to obtain his own Duchy, in part because his older brother Bolesław took all the government into his hands and left little participation for Mieszko there. In 1172, Mieszko began an open rebellion against his brother. He also supported Bolesław's eldest son, Jarosław, who was forced to become a priest thanks to the intrigues of his stepmother Christina, who wished for her sons to be the only heirs. The rebellion was a complete surprise to Bolesław, who was forced to escape to Erfurt, Germany. However, the intervention of the Emperor favored the return of Bolesław soon afterwards, but he was forced to give separate lands to both Mieszko (who received the towns of Racibórz and Cieszyn) and Jarosław (who received Opole).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bytom and Oświęcim.", "content": "In 1177 Mieszko supported his uncle and namesake Mieszko III the Old when he had to fight to maintain his rule over the Duchy of Kraków. This renewed the disputes between him and Bolesław I the Tall, who wished to obtain the Duchy and with this the Seniorate. However, Bolesław suffered an unexpected defeat by Mieszko and his own son Jarosław, who distracted him from his advance over Kraków. In his place was his younger uncle and ally, Casimir II the Just, who captured the city and was proclaimed the new High Duke of Poland. Mieszko III the Old found himself in exile in Racibórz and it seemed that a war between Mieszko Tanglefoot and Casimir II the Just was now just a matter of time. Casimir II, however, went a different route, and in order to gain the favor of the Duke of Racibórz, gave him the towns of Oświęcim and Bytom (with the fortress of Oświęcim, Bytom, Mikołów, Siewierz and Pszczyna, although some historians estimate that these fortress had belonged to Mieszko only since 1179). On the other hand, Bolesław the Tall suffered a further diminution of his authority when he was compelled to give Głogów to his youngest brother Konrad, who had recently returned from Germany and claimed his part over the Silesian inheritance.  In 1195 Mieszko and his nephew Jarosław supported Mieszko III the Old in his new attempt to recover Kraków and the Seniorate. The death of Casimir II the Just and the minority of his sons gave them the opportunity to attack and regain control over Lesser Poland. However, Kraków and the nobility of Sandomierz, led by the voivode Nicholas, had other plans and decided to support Casimir II's eldest son, Leszek the White. Both sides clashed in the bloody Battle of Mozgawa (Mozgawą) near Jędrzejów (13 September 1195), where Mieszko III was seriously injured and his son Bolesław of Kuyavia died. The Silesian troops, led by Mieszko and Jarosław, arrived to the battlefield too late, soon after Mieszko III withdrew to Kalisz. Over the forces of the Count palatine, who also arrived to help Leszek's troops, the Silesians obtained a great victory; however, because Mieszko III was not present, this victory only brought them benefits in terms of prestige and the ransoms obtained from captured Sandomierz nobles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duke of Opole.", "content": "On 22 March 1201 Jarosław of Opole died. The Duchy of Opole was then inherited by his father Bolesław the Tall, with whom the late duke had recently reconciled. However, Bolesław died only nine months later, on 7/8 December 1201, leaving all his lands to only surviving son, Henry the Bearded.  Mieszko was determined to obtain Opole and made a surprise attack at the beginning of 1202. The Duke managed to obtain Opole, which was from then on definitively joined to his lands. Despite this victory, Mieszko wanted additional territories, but this was against the wishes of the Church, which strongly supported Henry I the Bearded. Thanks to the intervention of Henryk Kietlicz, Archbishop of Gniezno, and Cyprian, Bishop of Wroclaw, Henry I maintained his frontiers, but he had to pay 1000 pieces of silver to his supporters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "High Duke of Poland.", "content": "On 9 June 1210, a papal bull was decreed by Pope Innocent III, under which all of the seniorate rulers (included High Duke Leszek the White) were deposed and excommunicated. The bull demanded that the Piast princes adhere to the testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth, which proposed that the most senior of the Piast dukes is the ruler in the seniorate. Strangely, in the bull an unnamed duke of Silesia (who was assumed to be Henry the Bearded, because he actually used that title) was exempted from the ban. The country was full of consternation, because nobody knew who had real power.  Archbishop Henryk Ketlicz decided to call the, where he tried to find a solution to this delicate issue. At the convention, in addition to the hierarchy of the Church, Henry I the Bearded and the other junior dukes attended. Leszek the White, wanting to ensure the support of the Church, along with other Piast princes, then gave a great privilege, which ensured the integrity of territorial possession of the bishops (the privilege was not signed by Henry I and Władysław III Spindleshanks, but they did comply with the provisions established there). Mieszko, however, was not present in Borzykowa; with the support of the Gryfici family, he decided to lead his army and march into Kraków, where the confusion among the citizens left him in total control over the capital without fighting. This was the zenith of Mieszko's career, as he died less than one year later, on 16 May 1211. According to Jan Długosz, he was probably buried in the Cathedral of Kraków (Wawel Cathedral). Only after Mieszko's death could Leszek the White return to Kraków without major difficulties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "By 1178, Mieszko married Ludmila (died after 20 October 1210), whose origins are unknown. Her name indicates that she may have a Bohemian origin, probably a member of the Přemyslid dynasty. According to the majority of historians, she could be the daughter of, Duke of Olomouc, by his wife. There are also minority hypotheses that put her as a daughter of Duke Soběslav I of Bohemia; ; or, son of Otto III Detleb (who would be her brother according to the majority opinion).  Mieszko and Ludmila had five children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mieszko IV Tanglefoot () (ca. 1130 – 16 May 1211) was Duke of Kraków and High Duke of Poland from 9 June 1210 until his death one year later. He was also Duke of Silesia from 1163 to 1173 (with his brother as co-ruler), Duke of Racibórz from 1173, and Duke of Opole from 1202.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972409}
{"src_title": "Neubaufahrzeug", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "During the 1920s and 1930s, a number of countries experimented with very large, multi-turreted tanks. The British built a single example of the Vickers A1E1 Independent in 1926. This inspired the Soviet T-35, which was built in limited numbers from 1933.  Development of the \"Neubaufahrzeug\" started in 1933 when the then Reichswehr gave a contract for the development of a \"Großtraktor\" (\"heavy tractor\") to both Rheinmetall and Krupp. \"Großtraktor\" was a codename for the development of a heavy tank, Germany being still forbidden to develop tanks under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The technical details of the Vickers A1E1 Independent were then available to the Germans as they were amongst the information sold to them by a British officer, Norman Baillie-Stewart, who acted as a German spy before his arrest in 1933.  Although the Neubaufahrzeug came after the Großtraktor, and they are not the same tank, the Rheinmetall and Krupp designs resembled each other to a large extent, the main difference being the weapons placement. Each had a main turret armed with a 75 mm KwK L/24 main gun and secondary 37 mm KwK L/45. Rheinmetall's design mounted the second gun above the 75 mm KwK L/24, while the Krupp design had it mounted next to the 75 mm KwK L/24. Both designs had a secondary turret mounted to the front and the rear of the main turret. These turrets were slightly adapted Panzer I turrets, with the standard machine gun armament.  Rheinmetall's design was designated PzKpfw NbFz V (\"PanzerKampfwagen NeubauFahrzeug V\"), and the Krupp design PzKpfw NbFz VI. It was intended that these designs would fulfill the role of heavy tank in the armored forces, but the design proved to be too complex and unreliable for this role. Nevertheless, development continued in order for the nascent German military to gain experience with multi-turreted tanks.  In 1934 Rheinmetall built two mild steel prototypes, both with their own turret design. Three more prototypes were built with proper armor and the Krupp turret in 1935 and 1936.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Combat history.", "content": "Though these tanks were never placed in production, they provided a propaganda tool for Nazi Germany, for example being shown at the International Automobile Exposition in Berlin in 1939.  This propaganda role was extended with the German invasion of Norway, when \"Panzer Abteilung z.b.V. 40\" (\"zur besonderen Verwendung\" - \"for special purpose\") was formed for supporting the invasion of Norway, and the three Neubaufahrzeuge were assigned to that unit. One vehicle was assigned to \"Kampfgruppe Fischer\" advancing north through the Østerdalen Valley, while the other two were assigned to \"Kampfgruppe Pellengahr\" advancing up the Gudbrand Valley. The one assigned to \"Kampfgruppe Fischer\" was immobilized with mechanical problems on its way to Lillehammer, while one of the two assigned to Kampfgruppe Pellengahr also had mechanical problems just north of Lillehammer. Only one tank actually made it to the front; it was immediately put in action with the German force advancing up the Gudbrand Valley with other elements of \"Panzer Abteilung z.b.V. 40\".  The Neubaufahrzeuge first saw combat against British and Norwegian positions on April 22, near the small town of Balberg at the far south end of the Gudbrand Valley. The British Expeditionary Force was equipped with 0.55 inch calibre Boys Anti-tank rifles that easily penetrated the Neubaufahrzeug. After dozens of hits, including one that killed a crew member, the tank retreated and the crew was hesitant to advance further. Other German units pushed further through, flanking the British forces and forcing them to retreat.  It is unclear what happened to the tanks after the Norway campaign, but none of them survived the war. The surviving vehicles were ordered to be scrapped in 1941, and this took place in 1942 according to documents captured by the British in 1945. The dates when the vehicles were scrapped are unclear, but it is thought that the beginning of the construction of the \"Sturer Emil\" prototypes dates from the same time.  According to contemporary German sources, three NbFz were attached to the 1st Panzer Army and destroyed in battle with Soviet BT-7 tanks in present-day Ukraine in June 1941.  The last known surviving Neubaufahrzeug was used by a Lehr instruction unit in late 1944 as a target for training the Volkssturm in the use of the Panzerschreck 43 and other anti-tank weapons.  All that survives of these tanks is a small number of running gear parts, preserved in the \"Gudbrandsdal Krigsminnesamling\" (Gudbrand Valley War Memorial collection), at Kvam in Norway.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The German Neubaufahrzeug (German for \"new-build vehicle\"—a cover name) series of tank prototypes were a first attempt to create a heavy tank for the Wehrmacht after Adolf Hitler had come to power. Multi-turreted, heavy and slow, they were not considered successful, which led to only five being produced. These were primarily used for propaganda purposes, though three took part in the Battle of Norway in 1940.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972410}
{"src_title": "Nakajima Ki-44", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Nakajima began development of the Ki-44 in 1940 as a pure interceptor with emphasis being placed on airspeed and rate of climb rather than maneuverability. The Japanese Army Air Force specification called for a maximum speed of 600 km/h (370 mph) at 4,000 m (13,130 ft), to be attained in five minutes. A set of Ki-43-like \"butterfly\" combat flaps was fitted for improved maneuverability. Armament consisted of a pair of 7.7 mm (.303 in) and a pair of 12.7 mm (.50 in) machine guns.  The engine selected for the new interceptor was Nakajima's Ha-41 (a development of the Nakajima Ha-5) 14-cylinder double-row radial, originally intended for bomber aircraft. Although the Ha-41 was not the ideal choice due to its large-diameter cross section, the design team was able to marry this engine to a much smaller fuselage with a narrow cross section. At 1,260 mm in diameter, the Ha-41 was 126 mm larger in diameter than the 1,144 mm Nakajima Sakae (used in the Mitsubishi A6M \"Zero\" and Nakajima Ki-43 \"Hayabusa\"). However, the Sakae was only 27.8L in displacement and 1,000 hp, while the Ha-41 was 37.5L and made 1,260 hp (1,440 in the later Ha-109 version). In any case, since the Sakae wasn't powerful enough, the only alternative available was the Mitsubishi Kinsei, which was slightly smaller than the Ha-41 in diameter, five liters smaller in displacement, and was less powerful. Unfortunately, this was already in demand for many other aircraft, so the Ha-41 was chosen as the best powerplant. In order to achieve its design goals, the wing area was relatively small leading to a high wing loading and a comparatively high landing speed that could be daunting to the average Japanese pilot, who was more used to aircraft with a low wing loading like the Ki-44's predecessors, the Ki-43 and Ki-27.  The first Ki-44 prototype flew in August 1940 and the initial test flights were generally encouraging, with handling considered acceptable considering the high wing loading. Problems encountered included a high landing speed and poor forward visibility during taxiing due to the large radial engine.  A second pre-production batch of 40 aircraft were ordered, which featured four 12.7mm machine guns, a relocated air cooler and main gear doors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Nakajima Ki-44 at one point equipped 12 \"sentai\" (\"groups/wings\") of the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force: \"9, 22, 23, 29, 47, 59, 64, 70, 85, 87, 104\" and \"246\" \"Sentai\". The Manchukuo Air Force also operated some Ki-44s.  Pre-production Ki-44 aircraft and two of the prototypes were turned over to the Army for service trials on 15 September 1941. The type commenced operations when nine aircraft were received by an experimental unit, \"47th Chutai\" \"\"Kawasemi Buntai\"\" (\"Kingfisher Flight, 47th Squadron\"), commanded by Major Toshio Sakagawa at Saigon, Indochina in December 1941.  The Ki-44 also saw significant action with \"87th Sentai\" in the air defense role, while based at Palembang, Sumatra. Other units equipped with the Ki-44 during the early part of the war were stationed in China, Burma, The Philippines and Korea.  Later in the war, the type saw action in an air defense role over the home islands – mainly around Japan's large industrial cities. \"47 Chutai\", after it was transferred to air defense roles in Japan, was expanded to become \"47 Sentai\".  The Ki-44-II \"Otsu\" (also known as the Ki-44-IIb) could be armed with a Ho-301 40 mm autocannon. While this was a relatively high-caliber weapon, it used caseless ammunition with a low muzzle velocity and short range, which was effective only in close attacks. Some of these aircraft were used against USAAF bombers by a special \"Shinten Seiku Tai\" (air superiority unit), comprising at least four aircraft, that was part of \"47th Sentai\", based at Narimasu airfield in Tokyo. Pilots from such units attempted to shoot down B-29s and, once their ammunition was expended, to ram them – effectively a suicide attack. While the concept appeared straightforward, ramming a B-29 at high altitudes was difficult to achieve in practice.  By the end of the war, Ki-44 variants were being replaced by the Nakajima Ki-84 \"Hayate\", which was regarded as vastly superior – in aspects other than maintenance and reliability.  During 1946–49, both sides in the Chinese Revolution operated Ki-44s surrendered or abandoned by Japanese units. Air units of the People's Liberation Army obtained aircraft formerly belonging to \"22\" and \"85 Sentai\", which had disbanded in Chosen. Some of these aircraft were reportedly flown by Japanese veterans. Within the Republic of China Air Force 18th Squadron (12th Fighter Group) was equipped with Ki-44s formerly of \"9th Sentai\", which had disbanded in Nanking, and \"29th Sentai\", which had disbanded at Formosa and they saw action in. Following the retreat of the Nationalists the People's Liberation Army Air Force (formed in 1949) used the Ki-44 until the early 1950s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Survivors.", "content": "No complete surviving examples of the Ki-44 exist. However a wing center section is preserved at the Northwestern Polytechnical University Aviation Museum, at Xi'an in China.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "Total production: 1,227", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nakajima Ki-44 \"Shoki\" (鍾馗, \"Demon\") was a single-seat fighter-interceptor developed by the Nakajima Aircraft Company and operated by the Imperial Japanese Army from 1942 to 1945 during World War II. Its official designation is Army Type 2 Single-Seat Fighter (二式単座戦闘機) and its Allied reporting name was Tojo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972411}
{"src_title": "John of Capistrano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "As was the custom of this time, John is denoted by the village of Capestrano, in the Diocese of Sulmona, in the Abruzzi region, Kingdom of Naples. His father had come to Italy with the Angevin court of Louis I of Anjou, titular King of Naples. He studied law at the University of Perugia.  In 1412, King Ladislaus of Naples appointed him Governor of Perugia, a tumultuous and resentful papal fief held by Ladislas as the pope's champion, in order to effectively establish public order. When war broke out between Perugia and the Malatestas in 1416, John was sent as ambassador to broker a peace, but Malatesta threw him in prison. It was during this imprisonment that he began to think more seriously about his soul. He decided eventually to give up the world and become a Franciscan Friar, owing to a dream he had in which he saw St. Francis and was warned by the saint to enter the Franciscan Order. He had married before the war, but asserted the marriage was never consummated and received permission to take holy orders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Friar and preacher.", "content": "Together with James of the Marches, John entered the Order of Friars Minor at Perugia on 4 October 1416. Along with James, he studied theology at Fiesole, near Florence, under St. Bernardine of Siena. He soon gave himself up to the most rigorous asceticism, violently defending the ideal of strict observance and orthodoxy, following the example set by Bernardine. From 1420 onwards, he preached with great effect in numerous cities and eventually became well known. He was ordained in 1425.  Unlike most Italian preachers of repentance in the 15th century, John was effective in northern and central Europe—in German states of Holy Roman Empire, Bohemia, Moravia, Austria, Hungary, Croatia and the Kingdom of Poland. The largest churches could not hold the crowds, so he preached in the public squares—at Brescia in Italy, he preached to a crowd of 126,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reformer.", "content": "When he was not preaching, John was writing tracts against heresy of every kind. This facet of his life is covered in great detail by his early biographers, Nicholas of Fara, Christopher of Varese and Girlamo of Udine. While he was thus evangelizing, he was actively engaged in assisting Bernardine of Siena in the reform of the Franciscan Order, largely in the interests of a more rigorous discipline in the Franciscan communities. Like Bernardine, he strongly emphasized devotion to the Holy Name of Jesus, and, together with that saint, was accused of heresy on this account. In 1429, these Observant friars were called to Rome to answer charges of heresy, and John was chosen by his companions to speak for them. They were both acquitted by the Commission of Cardinals appointed to judge the accusations.  He was frequently deployed to embassies by Popes Eugene IV and Nicholas V: in 1439, he was sent as legate to Milan and Burgundy, to oppose the claims of the Antipope Felix V; in 1446, he was on a mission to the King of France; in 1451 he went at the request of the emperor as Apostolic Nuncio to Austria. During the period of his nunciature, John visited all parts of the Empire, preaching and combating the heresy of the Hussites; he also visited Poland at the request of Casimir IV Jagiellon. As legate, or inquisitor, he prosecuted the last Fraticelli of Ferrara, the Jesuati of Venice, the Crypto-Jews of Sicily, Moldavia and Poland, and, above all, the Hussites of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia; his aim in the last case was to make talks impossible between the representatives of Rome and the Bohemians, for every attempt at conciliation seemed to him to be conniving at heresy.  John, in spite of this tireless life, found time to work—both during the lifetime of his mentor, Bernardine, and afterwards—on the reform of the Order of Friars Minor. He also upheld, in his writings, speeches and sermons, theories of papal supremacy rather than the theological wranglings of councils (see Conciliar Movement). John, together with his teacher, Bernardine, his colleague, James of the Marche, and Albert Berdini of Sarteano, are considered the four great pillars of the Observant reform among the Friars Minor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anti-Jewish incitement.", "content": "John was known as the \"Scourge of the Jews\" for his inciting of antisemitic violence. Like some other Franciscans, he ranged over a broad area on both sides of the Alps, and his preaching to mass open-air congregations often led to pogroms. In 1450 the Franciscan \"Jew-baiter\" arranged a forced disputation at Rome with a certain Gamaliel called \"Synagogæ Romanæ magister\". Between 1451 and 1453, his fiery sermons against Jews persuaded many southern German regions to expel their entire Jewish population, and in Silesia, then Kingdom of Bohemia, at Wroclaw many were burned at the stake.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The soldier saint.", "content": "After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Empire, under Sultan Mehmed II, threatened Christian Europe. That following year Pope Callixtus III sent John, who was already aged seventy, to preach a Crusade against the invading Turks at the Imperial Diet of Frankfurt. Gaining little response in Bavaria and Austria, he decided to concentrate his efforts in Hungary. John succeeded in gathering together enough troops to march onto Belgrade, which at that time was under siege by Turkish forces. In the summer of 1456, these troops, together with John Hunyadi, managed to raise the siege of Belgrade; the old and frail friar actually led his own contingent into battle. This feat earned him the moniker of 'the Soldier Priest'.  Although he survived the battle, John fell victim to the bubonic plague, which flourished in the unsanitary conditions prevailing among armies of the day. He died on 23 October 1456 at the nearby town of Ilok (now a Croatian border town on the Danube).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sainthood and feast day.", "content": "The year of John of Capistrano's canonization is variously given as 1690, by Pope Alexander VIII or 1724 by Pope Benedict XIII. In 1890, his feast day was included for the first time in the General Roman Calendar and assigned to 28 March. In 1969, Saint Pope Paul VI moved his feast day to 23 October, the day of his death. Where Mass and the Office are said according to the 1962 Roman Missal and its concomitant calendar, his feast day is still kept on March 28.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eponym.", "content": "As a Franciscan reformer preaching simplicity, John became the eponym of two Spanish missions founded by the Franciscan friars in the north of the then-Spanish Americas: Mission San Juan Capistrano in today's Southern California and Mission San Juan Capistrano just outside the city center of today's San Antonio in Texas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patron saint.", "content": "He is patron saint of military chaplains and jurists.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint John of Capistrano (\"Italian\": San Giovanni da Capestrano, \"Hungarian\": Kapisztrán János, \"Polish\": Jan Kapistran, \"Croatian\": Ivan Kapistran\", Serbian\": Јован Капистран, Jovan Kapistran) (24 June 1386 – 23 October 1456) was a Franciscan friar and Catholic priest from the Italian town of Capestrano, Abruzzo. Famous as a preacher, theologian, and inquisitor, he earned himself the nickname 'the Soldier Saint' when in 1456 at age 70 he led a crusade against the invading Ottoman Empire at the siege of Belgrade with the Hungarian military commander John Hunyadi.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972412}
{"src_title": "Hypocaust", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Roman operation.", "content": "Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths and other public buildings in Ancient Rome, but their use in homes was limited due to their high cost. The ruins of Roman hypocausts have been found throughout Europe (for example in Italy, England, Spain, France, Switzerland and Germany) and in Africa as well.  The ceiling of the hypocaust was raised above the ground by pillars, called pilae stacks, supporting a layer of tiles, followed by a layer of concrete, then the floor tiles of the rooms above. Hot air and smoke from the furnace would circulate through this enclosed area and then up through clay or tile flues in the walls of the rooms above to outlets in the roof, thereby heating the floors and walls of the rooms above. These tile flues were referred to as \"caliducts\".  Rooms intended to be the warmest were located nearest to the furnace below, the heat output of which was regulated by adjusting the amount of wood fed to the fire. It was expensive and labour-intensive to run a hypocaust, as it required constant attention to the fire and a lot of fuel, so it was a feature usually encountered only in large villas and public baths.  Vitruvius describes their construction and operation in his work \"De architectura\" in about 15 BC, including details about how fuel could be conserved by building the hot room (caldarium) for men next to that for women, with both adjacent to the tepidarium, so as to run the public baths efficiently. He also describes a device for adjusting the heat by a bronze ventilator in the domed ceiling.  Remains of many Roman hypocausts have survived throughout Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Non-Roman analogues.", "content": "Excavations at Mohenjo-daro in what is now Pakistan have unearthed what is believed to be a hypocaust lined with bitumen-coated bricks. If it fulfilled a similar role, the structure would pre-date the earliest Roman hypocaust by as much as 2000 years.  In 1984–1985, in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, excavations in the ancient settlement of Dzalisi uncovered a large castle complex, featuring a well-preserved hypocaust built between 200–400 BC.  Dating back to 1000 BC, Korean houses have traditionally used \"ondol\" to provide floor heating on similar principles as the hypocaust, drawing smoke from a wood fire typically used for cooking. Ondol heating was common in Korean homes until the 1960s, by which time dedicated ondol installations were typically used to warm the main room of the house, burning a variety of fuels such as coal and biomass.  On a smaller scale, in Northern China the Kang bed-stove has a long history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After the Romans.", "content": "With the decline of the Roman Empire, the hypocaust fell into disuse, especially in the western provinces. In Britain, from c.400 until c.1900, it was thought that central heating did not exist, and hot baths were rare. However, an evolution of the hypocaust was used in some monasteries in calefactories, or warming rooms, which were heated via underground fires, as in the Roman hypocaust, but retained heat via granite stones. In Eastern Europe, the development of radiant ceramic or stone stoves were also used. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Roman system was adopted for the heating of Hispano-Islamic (Al Andalus) baths (hammams). A derivation of hypocaust, the gloria, was in use in Castile until the arrival of modern heating. After the fuel (mainly wood) was reduced to ashes, the air intake was closed to keep hot air inside and to slow combustion.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A hypocaust () is a system of central heating in a building that produces and circulates hot air below the floor of a room, and may also warm the walls with a series of pipes through which the hot air passes. This air can warm the upper floors as well. The word derives from the Ancient Greek meaning \"under\" and, meaning \"burnt\" (as in \"caustic\"). The earliest reference to such a system suggests that the temple of Ephesus in 350 BC was heated in this manner, although Vitruvius attributes its invention to Sergius Orata in c. 80 BC. Its invention improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of modern central heating.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972413}
{"src_title": "Pär Lagerkvist", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography and works.", "content": "Lagerkvist was born in Växjö (Småland). He received a traditional religious education – he would later say, with little exaggeration, that he \"had had the good fortune to grow up in a home where the only books known were the Bible and the Book of Hymns\". In his teens he broke away from Christian beliefs, but, unlike many other writers and thinkers in his generation, he did not become vehemently critical of religious beliefs as such. Though he was politically a socialist for most of his life, he never indulged in the idea that \"religion is the opium of the people\". Much of his writing is informed by a lifelong interest in man and his symbols and gods, and in the position of Man (both as individual and mankind) in a world where the Divine is no longer present, no longer speaking.  In his early years Lagerkvist supported modernist and aesthetically radical views, as shown by his manifesto \"Ordkonst och bildkonst\" (\"Word Art and Picture Art\", 1913) and the play \"Den Svåra Stunden\" (\"The Difficult Hour\").  One of the author's earliest works is \"Ångest\" (\"Anguish\", 1916), a violent and disillusioned collection of poems. His anguish was derived from his fear of death, the World War, and personal crisis. He tried to explore how a person can find a meaningful life in a world where a war can kill millions for very little reason. \"Anguish, anguish is my heritage / the wound of my throat / the cry of my heart in the world.\" (\"Anguish\", 1916.) \"Love is nothing. Anguish is everything / the anguish of living.\" (\"Love is nothing\", 1916.) This pessimism, however, slowly faded, as testified by his subsequent works, \"Det eviga leendet\" (\"The Eternal Smile\", 1920), the autobiographical novel \"Gäst hos verkligheten\" (\"Guest of Reality\", 1925) and the prose monologue \"Det besegrade livet\" (\"The defeated Life\", 1927), in which the faith in man is predominant. From \"The Eternal Smile\" on, his style largely abandoned the expressionist pathos and brusque effects of his early works and there was a strong striving for simplicity, classical precision and clean telling, sometimes appearing close to naivism. The content, however, was never truly naive. A Swedish critic remarked that \"Lagerkvist and John the Evangelist are two masters at expressing profound things with a highly restricted choice of words\".  Ten years after \"Ångest\", Lagerkvist married for the second time, a union which was to provide a pillar of safety in his life until the death of his wife forty years later. \"Hjärtats sånger\" (\"Songs of the Heart\") (1926) appeared at this time, bearing witness to his pride and love for his consort. This collection is much less desperate in its tone than \"Ångest\", and established him as one of the foremost Swedish poets of his generation.  His prose novella \"Bödeln\" (\"The Hangman\", 1933), later adapted for the stage (\"The Hangman\", 1933; play, 1934), shows his growing concern with the totalitarianism and brutality that began to sweep across Europe in the years prior to World War II. Nazism was one of the main targets of the work and \"Der Stürmer\" responded with a very dismissive review. Criticism against Fascism is also present in the play \"Mannen utan själ\" (\"The Man Without a Soul\", 1936).  Lagerkvist's 1944 novel \"Dvärgen\" (\"The Dwarf\"), a searching, ironic tale about evil, was the first to bring him positive international attention outside of the Nordic countries. The work was followed in 1949 by the unusual, lyrical play \"Låt människan leva\" (\"Let Man Live\").  \"Barabbas\" (1950), which was immediately hailed as a literary masterpiece (by fellow Nobel laureate André Gide, among others) is probably Lagerkvist's most famous work. The novel is based on a Biblical story. Jesus of Nazareth was sentenced to die by the Roman authorities immediately before the Jewish Passover, when it was customary for the Romans to release someone convicted of a capital offense. When the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate offers to free either Jesus or Barabbas (a convicted thief and murderer), a Jerusalem mob demands the release of Barabbas, who later watches Jesus as he bears the cross to Golgotha, witnesses the crucifixion, and then spends the rest of his life trying to understand why he was chosen to live rather than Jesus. A movie based upon the novel was filmed in 1961, with Anthony Quinn playing the title role.  Lagerkvist died in Stockholm in 1974 at the age of 83, his wife having died in 1967.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Prose and Poetry  Theatre", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pär Fabian Lagerkvist (23 May 1891 – 11 July 1974) was a Swedish author who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1951.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972414}
{"src_title": "Portulaca oleracea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Purslane has an extensive distribution, assumed to be mostly anthropogenic, extending from North Africa and Southern Europe through the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent to Malesia and Australasia. The species status in the Americas is uncertain. In general, it is often considered an exotic weed, but there is evidence that the species was in Crawford Lake deposits (Ontario) in 1350–1539, suggesting that it reached North America in the pre-Columbian era. Scientists suggested that the plant was already eaten by native Americans, who spread its seeds. How it reached the Americas is currently unknown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Purslane has smooth, reddish, mostly prostrate stems and the leaves, which may be alternate or opposite, are clustered at stem joints and ends. The yellow flowers have five regular parts and are up to wide. Depending upon rainfall, the flowers appear at any time during the year. The flowers open singly at the center of the leaf cluster for only a few hours on sunny mornings. The tiny seeds are formed in a pod, which opens when the seeds are mature. Purslane has a taproot with fibrous secondary roots and is able to tolerate poor compacted soils and drought.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metabolism.", "content": "\"P. oleracea\" is one of very few plants able to utilize both CAM and C4 photosynthesis pathways, for a long time believed to be incompatible with each other despite biochemical similarities. P. oleracea will switch from C4 to CAM pathways during times of drought and there is transcription regulation and physiological evidence for C4-CAM hybrid photosynthesis during mild drought.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Purslane is widely used in East Mediterranean countries. Archaeobotanical finds are common at many prehistoric sites. In historic contexts, seeds have been retrieved from a protogeometric layer in Kastanas, as well as from the Samian Heraion dating to seventh century BC. In the fourth century BC, Theophrastus names purslane, (), as one of the several summer pot herbs that must be sown in April (\"Enquiry into Plants\" 7.1.2). As \"Portulaca\" it figures in the long list of comestibles enjoyed by the Milanese given by Bonvesin de la Riva in his \"Marvels of Milan\" (1288).  In antiquity, its healing properties were thought so reliable that Pliny the Elder advised wearing the plant as an amulet to expel all evil (\"Natural History\" 20.210).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary.", "content": "Purslane may be eaten as a leaf vegetable. William Cobbett noted that it was \"eaten by Frenchmen and pigs when they can get nothing else. Both use it in salad, that is to say, raw\". It has a slightly sour and salty taste and is eaten throughout much of Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Mexico. The stems, leaves and flower buds are all edible. Purslane may be used fresh as a salad, stir-fried, or cooked as spinach is, and because of its mucilaginous quality it also is suitable for soups and stews. The sour taste is due to oxalic and malic acid, the latter of which is produced through the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway that is seen in many xerophytes (plants living in dry conditions), and is at its highest when the plant is harvested in the early morning.  Aboriginal Australians use the seeds of purslane to make seedcakes. Greeks, who call it () or (), use the leaves and the stems with feta cheese, tomato, onion, garlic, oregano, and olive oil. They add it in salads, boil it, or add it to casseroled chicken. In Turkey, besides being used in salads and in baked pastries, it is cooked as a vegetable similar to spinach, or is mixed with yogurt to form a tzatziki variant. In Egypt, it is also cooked like spinach as a vegetable dish, but not in salads.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Companion plant.", "content": "As a companion plant, purslane provides ground cover to create a humid microclimate for nearby plants, stabilising ground moisture. Its deep roots bring up moisture and nutrients that those plants can use, and some, including corn, will follow purslane roots down through harder soil that they cannot penetrate on their own.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "Raw purslane is 93% water, 3% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, purslane supplies 20 calories, and rich amounts (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin E (81% DV) and vitamin C (25% DV), with moderate content (11-19% DV) of several dietary minerals (table).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Portulaca oleracea (common purslane, also known as verdolaga, red root, or pursley) is an annual succulent in the family Portulacaceae, which may reach in height.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972415}
{"src_title": "Chrétien de Troyes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Little is known of his life, but he seems to have been from Troyes or at least intimately connected with it. Between 1160 and 1172 he served (perhaps as herald-at-arms, as Gaston Paris speculated) at the court of his patroness Marie of France, Countess of Champagne, daughter of King Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine, who married Count Henry I of Champagne in 1164. Later, he served the court of Philippe d'Alsace, Count of Flanders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Chrétien's works include five major poems in rhyming eight-syllable couplets. Four of these are complete: \"Erec and Enide\" (c. 1170); \"Cligès\" (c. 1176); \"Yvain, the Knight of the Lion\"; and \"Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart\", the latter two written simultaneously between 1177 and 1181. \"Yvain\" is generally considered Chrétien's most masterful work. Chrétien's final romance was \"Perceval, the Story of the Grail\", written between 1181 and 1190, but left unfinished, though some scholars have disputed this. It is dedicated to Philip, Count of Flanders, to whom Chrétien may have been attached in his last years. He finished only 9,000 lines of the work, but four successors of varying talents added 54,000 additional lines in what are known as the Four Continuations. Similarly, the last thousand lines of \"Lancelot\" were written by Godefroi de Leigni, apparently by arrangement with Chrétien. In the case of \"Perceval\", one continuer says the poet's death prevented him from completing the work; in the case of \"Lancelot\", no reason is given. This has not stopped speculation that Chrétien did not approve of \"Lancelot\"s adulterous subject (in which case he seems unlikely to have invented Lancelot).  There are also several lesser works, not all of which can be securely ascribed to Chrétien. \"Philomela\" is the only one of his four poems based on Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\" that has survived. Two short-lyric chansons on the subject of love are also very likely his, but the attribution of the pious romance \"Guillaume d'Angleterre\" to him is now widely doubted. It has also been suggested that Chrétien might be the author of two short verse romances titled \"Le Chevalier à l'épée\" and \"La Mule sans frein\", but this theory has not found much support. Chrétien names his treatments of Ovid in the introduction to \"Cligès\", where he also mentions his work about King Mark and Iseult. The latter is presumably related to the legend of Tristan and Iseult, though Tristan is not named. Chrétien's take on Tristan has not survived, though in the introduction of Cligès, Chrétien himself says that his treatment of Tristan was not well received, possibly explaining why it does not survive. Chrétien's works are written in vernacular Old French, although it is marked by traits of the regional Champenois dialect (which is still fairly similar to the \"standard\" French of Paris).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources and influence.", "content": "The immediate and specific sources for his romances are uncertain, as Chrétien speaks in the vaguest way of the materials he used. Geoffrey of Monmouth or Wace might have supplied some of the names, but neither author mentioned Erec, Lancelot, Gornemant and many others who play an important role in Chrétien's narratives. One is left to guess about Latin or French literary originals which are now lost, or upon continental lore that goes back to a Celtic source in the case of Béroul, an Anglo-Norman who wrote around 1150. For his \"Perceval, the Story of the Grail\", the influence of the story is clearly tied to the story of Saint Galgano (Galgano Guidotti) who died in 1180–1181 and was canonized in 1185: a knight struck by god's vision, planted his sword in the ground that immediately solidified (kept in Abbey San Galgano). However, Chrétien found his sources immediately at hand, without much understanding of its primitive spirit, but appreciating it as a setting for the ideal society dreamed of, although not realized, in his own day. And Chrétien's five romances together form the most complete expression from a single author of the ideals of French chivalry. Though so far there has been little critical attention paid to the subject, it is not inaccurate to say that Chrétien was influenced by the changing face of secular and canonical law in the 12th century. This is particularly relevant for his \"Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart\", which makes repeated use of the customary law prevalent in Chrétien's day.  William Wistar Comfort praised de Troyes' \"significance as a literary artist and as the founder of a precious literary tradition [which] distinguishes him from all other poets of the Latin races between the close of the Empire and the arrival of Dante.\" Chrétien's writing was very popular, as evidenced by the high number of surviving copies of his romances and their many adaptations into other languages. Three of Middle High German literature's finest examples, Wolfram von Eschenbach's \"Parzival\" and Hartmann von Aue's \"Erec\" and \"Iwein\", were based on \"Perceval\", \"Erec\", and \"Yvain\"; the Three Welsh Romances associated with the \"Mabinogion\" (\"Peredur, son of Efrawg\", \"Geraint and Enid\", and \"Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain\") are derived from the same trio. Especially in the case of \"Peredur\", however, the connection between the Welsh romances and their source is probably not direct and has never been satisfactorily delineated. Chrétien also has the distinction of being the first writer to mention the Holy Grail (\"Perceval\"), Camelot (\"Lancelot\"), and the love affair between Queen Guinevere and Lancelot (\"Lancelot\"), subjects of household recognition even today.  There is a specific Classical influence in Chrétien's romances, the likes of which (the \"Iliad\", the \"Aeneid\", the \"Metamorphoses\") were \"translated into the Old French vernacular during the 1150s\". Foster Guyer argues that specifically \"Yvain, the Knight of the Lion\" contains definite Ovidian influence: \"Yvain was filled with grief and showed the Ovidian love symptoms of weeping and sighing so bitterly that he could scarcely speak. He declared that he would never stay away a full year. Using words like those of Leander in the seventeenth of Ovid's Epistles he said: 'If only I had the wings of a dove/to fly back to you at will/Many and many a time I would come'.\"  Chrétien has been termed \"the inventor of the modern novel\". Karl Uitti argues: \"With [Chrétien's work] a new era opens in the history of European story telling... this poem reinvents the genre we call narrative romance; in some important respects it also initiates the vernacular novel.\" A \"story\" could be anything from a single battle scene, to a prologue, to a minimally cohesive tale with little to no chronological layout. Uitti argues that \"Yvain\" is Chrétien's \"most carefully contrived romance... It has a beginning, a middle, and an end: we are in no doubt that Yvain's story is over.\" This very method of having three definite parts, including the build in the middle leading to the climax of the story, is in large part why Chrétien is seen to be a writer of novels five centuries before novels, as we know them, existed.  \"This article incorporates material from an essay by W. W. Comfort, published in 1914.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chrétien de Troyes ( ; 1135?–1185?, 1160–1191) was a French poet and trouvère known for his writing on Arthurian subjects, and for possibly originating the character of Lancelot. Chrétien's works, including \"Erec and Enide\", \"Lancelot\", \"Perceval\", and \"Yvain\", represent some of the best-regarded of medieval literature. His use of structure, particularly in \"Yvain\", has been seen as a step towards the modern novel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972416}
{"src_title": "German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Leopoldina was founded in the imperial city of Schweinfurt on 1 January 1652 under the Latin name sometimes translated into English as \"Academy of the Curious as to Nature.\" It was founded by four local physicians- Johann Laurentius Bausch, the first president of the society, Johann Michael Fehr, Georg Balthasar Metzger, and Georg Balthasar Wohlfarth; and was the only academy like it at the time making it the oldest academy of science in Germany. The archives of Leopoldina are some of the oldest in the world based on the fact that the records date back to the 17th century. These records will provide a window into the German sciences of the last 350 years.  In 1670 the society began to publish the Ephemeriden or Miscellanea Curiosa, one of the earliest scientific journals and one which had a particularly strong focus on medicine and related aspects of natural philosophy, such as botany and physiology. It was recognized by Emperor Leopold I who raised it to an academy in 1677, and then declared it an Imperial Academy in 1687, naming it Sacri Romani Imperii Academia Caesareo-Leopoldina Naturae Curiosorum and allowing it to carry his name.  At first, the society conducted its business by correspondence and was located wherever the president was working. After Schweinfurt, the Academy was rooted in many places before it was permanently located in Halle in 1878. Following Schweinfurt in chronological order: Nuremberg, Augsburg, Altdorf, Erfurt, Halle, Nuremberg, Erlangen, Bonn, Jena, Dresden, and finally Halle.  There were many efforts during years of national prosperity to elevate the Academy to the status of a 'national institute,' but all such early efforts failed. In those times the Academy was not on the nation's agenda at a political or academic level. Later, however,its members began to enrich the Academy with an obligation to be present at its proceedings so as to improve their public standing. Thus they began to hold regular monthly meetings, even in the challenging conditions of 1924, which had to be attended by all local members.  When Adolf Hitler became Germany's Chancellor in 1933, the Leopoldina started to exclude its Jewish members. Albert Einstein was one of the first victims,and more than 70 followed until 1938. Eight of them were murdered by the Nazis over the course of World War II. Nevertheless, the Leopoldina did not suffer as much influence from the Nazi regime as other German academies, thanks to the president of the Leopoldina at the time, Emil Abderhalden. While Jewish members were certainly expelled, the president of the Leopoldina made sure it did not go to the lengths that other academies went to at the time. He resisted the Nazi pressures by reorganizing Sections of the Academy and introducing a new series 'Biographies of German Natural Scientists' in 1932.  After Word War II, Halle became part of East Germany. During this time, the German Democratic Republic shut down all societies, leading the members of the Leopoldina to meet unofficially and in private. Efforts were made to reestablish the Academy, however. An edition of Goethe's 'The Works of Science' began to be edited under the Academy's name in 1947, and lectures started again in 1948. However, the Academy was not officially reopened until 1952. This reopening came just in time for the Academy to celebrate its tercentenary.  After reopening, the Leopoldina successfully resisted attempts from the German Democratic Republic to reconstitute the Academy as a specifically East German institute and continued to think of itself as an institution for the whole of Germany. This was greatly affected by the building of the Berlin Wall in August of 1961. The Academy was able to stay independent of national politics, which allowed it to bridge East and West Germany through scientific ideas. The yearly meeting of the Academy was planned for October of that year in West Germany; invitations had been sent out in June announcing that they would be discussing energy; but less than two months later letters of cancellation were sent out, stating that members living in the GDR would not be given permission to travel.  In 1991, after German reunification, the Leopoldina was granted the status of a non-profit organisation. It is funded jointly by the German government and the government of the state of Saxony-Anhalt. A new section was also created for the history of culture with the emphasis on medicine and the natural sciences.  In November 2007, German science minister Annette Schavan announced the renaming of the Leopoldina to \"German Academy of Sciences\" (\"Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften\"), and said that \"due to its international prestige, the Leopoldina is predestined to represent Germany within the circle of international academies.\" Karsten Jedlitschka says that the Academy was named the first national science Academy in Germany in February of 2008. As the German Academy of Sciences, it is a counterpart to the rights and responsibilities of institutions such as Britain's Royal Society and the United States' National Academy of Science. As the national academy, the Leopoldina will act as a consulting service on matters of science and science related policy for the German government, including parliament and social and political organizations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "The Leopoldina is the first and foremost academic society in Germany to advise the German government on a variety of scientific matters, for instance on climate change and disease control.  The Leopoldina gives conferences and lectures and continues to publish the \"Ephemeriden\" under the name \"Nova Acta Leopoldina\". It issues various medals and awards, offers grants and scholarships and elects new members to itself. The Academy also maintains a library and an archive and it also researches its own history and publishes another journal, \"Acta Historica Leopoldina\" devoted to this subject.  Consistently with its national preeminence, it also collaborates extensively with other learned societies in international exchanges of ideas and policy recommendations. Details of such initiatives are included on its multilingual website.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Apart from being a fellow, excellence can also be rewarded by receiving one of the following honours:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Membership.", "content": "Three quarters of the members are from German-speaking countries (Germany, Austria, Switzerland) and one quarter from about 30 other nations. The election to membership of the Leopoldina is the highest academic honour awarded by an institution in Germany. Some laureates are also fellows of the Leopoldina.  Among the most noted of fellows are for instance:  Members might also attribute discoveries and success to the academy. For example, the asteroid 893 Leopoldina is named in its honor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leadership.", "content": "At the head of the Academy there is a Presidium, elected by the Senate, consisting of the President, acting as the chair, four Vice Presidents, and other members at large. These position terms are five years long and can only be held twice by the same person. The Senate of the Academy currently consists of 39 members representing different sections and disciplines of science, as well as representatives from Switzerland and Austria. Senate members serve for four years and can only be re-elected once. The latest President of the Academy, Dr. Gerald Haug, from Berlin, became the Academy's 27th president when he took office on March 1st, 2020.  Past presidents of the Leopoldina with time and place of office:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The German National Academy of Natural Sciences Leopoldina (), short Leopoldina, is the national academy of Germany, and is located in Halle (Saale). Founded on January 1, 1652, based on academic models in Italy, it was originally named the \"Academia Naturae Curiosorum\" until 1687 when Emperor Leopold I raised it to an academy and named it after himself. It was since known under the German name \"Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina\" until 2007, when it was declared to be Germany's National Academy of Sciences. The Leopoldina has a claim to be the oldest continuously existing learned society in the world. The validity of the claim depends in part on how certain definitional and historical questions are answered.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972417}
{"src_title": "Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born at Wiener Neustadt on 5 January, 1614, he was the sixth of seven children born to Emperor Ferdinand II (1578-1637) and his first wife, Maria Anna of Bavaria (1574–1616). His elder brother became Emperor Ferdinand III (1608–1657).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "As a younger son, Leopold was educated for the church, although he was never formally a member of the clergy. To provide him an income, he held various Prince-Bishoprics within the Holy Roman Empire, despite not being a member of the clergy. They included Halberstadt (1628–1648), Passau (1625–1662), Breslau (1656–1662), Olmütz (1637–1662) and Strasbourg (1626–1662).  He was also appointed to the Bishopric of Halberstadt in 1627, Magdeburg in 1629 and Bremen in 1635. All three were in the Protestant north, where the infrastructure of the Catholic church had long since disappeared; he never exercised power and all three were secularised in 1648.  During his lifetime, the Habsburg rulers of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire faced the 1568 to 1648 Dutch Revolt, the 1618 to 1648 Thirty Years War and other conflicts, including the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659). Despite his reluctance, Ferdinand made him Imperial commander in 1639, largely due to lack of reliable subordinates; he resigned following a disastrous defeat at Second Breitenfeld in 1642, a battle fought against the advice of his generals.  He was re-appointed after another Imperial defeat at the 1645 Battle of Jankau, then Governor of the Spanish Netherlands in 1647. In that role, he helped negotiate an end to the war in the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia; the Franco-Spanish war continued, obliging him to remain in Brussels until 1656.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art collection.", "content": "While in Brussels, he employed David Teniers the Younger as keeper of his collection, spending immense sums on works by Frans Snyders, Peter Snayers, Daniel Seghers, Peter Franchoys, Frans Wouters, Jan van den Hoecke, Pieter Thijs, Jan van de Venne and others. He also acquired a number of Italian masters, purchased from the sale of collections owned by Bartolomeo della Nave and Charles I. His most prized pieces engraved in the book \"Theatrum Pictorium\", which is often called the first \"art catalogue\".  When the tomb of Childeric I, an early Merovingian king, was discovered in 1653 by a mason doing repairs in the church of Saint-Brice in Tournai, it was Leopold Wilhelm who had the find published in Latin. On his return to Vienna in 1656, his collection relocated to the Hofburg Palace, where Jan Anton van der Baren, a Flemish priest and artist, served as director. The collection was bequeathed to his nephew Leopold I, and is now part of the collections of the \"Kunsthistorisches Museum\" in Vienna.  He played an active role in court politics and was close to his stepmother, Eleonora of Mantua (1598-1655), who shared his interest in Italian art and was a prominent supporter of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. Although suggested as a candidate to replace Ferdinand as Holy Roman Emperor in 1657, he ensured his nephew Leopold I was elected when he reached 18 in July 1658.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria (5 January 1614 – 20 November 1662), younger brother of Emperor Ferdinand III, was an Austrian soldier, administrator and patron of the arts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972418}
{"src_title": "Millencolin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The original lineup, consisting of Šarčević (vocals & bass), Ohlsson (guitar), and Färm (drums), released their first demo tape, \"Goofy\", in early 1993. Soon afterwards, Larzon joined the band to play drums, allowing Färm to perform as the second guitarist. In the summer of 1993, they recorded a second demo tape, \"Melack\". The band sent the tape to Burning Heart Records, a new record label formed earlier that year. They signed Millencolin to do a CD single, which culminated in the release of \"Use Your Nose\" in November 1993. Success of the single prompted Burning Heart to sign the band to release a full album. In July 1994, the band released \"Skauch\", initially planned to be a single for their new album. However, the band decided to record four cover songs as well and released it as an EP instead. They put out their first major release, \"Tiny Tunes\", in 1994. The recording and mixing of the album took two weeks. Legal trouble with Warner Brothers over the title and cover artwork of the album led the band to re-release it in 1996 under the name \"Same Old Tunes\".  Millencolin continued to tour and in 1995 brought out their second full-length album \"Life on a Plate\". This coincided with Millencolin beginning to tour outside of Scandinavia. At the end of 1995, the US record company Epitaph wanted to release \"Life on a Plate\" in the US, and the band agreed. They then toured further afield, touring Japan, Australia, Brazil and Canada, and played as part of the 1997 Warped Tour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Pennybridge Pioneers\" and mainstream success.", "content": "Further albums \"For Monkeys\" and compilation \"The Melancholy Collection\" followed, but the band's popularity increased in 2000 with the release of \"Pennybridge Pioneers\", an album with more of a rock influence than the band's previous skate punk/ska punk sound. The recording took six weeks and they started their first major worldwide tour. Millencolin played in Wellington, New Zealand, followed by an Australian tour. This led to an early release of the album in Australia and New Zealand. Millencolin wrote on tour and released \"Home from Home\" in 2002. In 2003, the band received the \"Best Swedish Rock\" award from the Swedish Hit Awards.  \"Kingwood\", released in March 2005, marked the band's return to a faster and more traditional punk rock sound, collaborating it with their recently founded rock sound, and completed a world tour in follow up of the album. The album debuted at No. 2 in the Swedish chart.  On October 22, 2007 the band entered the studio to start writing and recording songs for their seventh album \"Machine 15\".  The band has hosted a skateboard contest at their own skatepark in Örebro, Sweden named the Millencolin Open. They say they started this annual contest because skateboarding is what brought them together and now they have the chance to make something good of their town and of skateboarding.  Šarčević released his second solo album entitled \"Roll Roll and Flee\", whilst Färm promoted his side-project Franky Lee.  They wrote and released a single dedicated to their hometown football club Örebro SK titled \"Örebro\" in 2009. It was played in the stadium for the first time on May 11, 2009 in the home game vs Hammarby Fotboll.  In 2010, they toured in Canada and South America, where they played \"Pennybridge Pioneers\" in its entirety. They also played the 2011 Soundwave Festival in Australia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Millencolin 20 Year Festival.", "content": "In 2012 Millencolin held their own festival to celebrate 20 years as a band. The \"Millencolin 20 Year Festival\" was a two-day open-air festival at Brunnsparken, Örebro, Sweden on the 8 and 9 June 2012. Millencolin closed both nights by doing two exclusive sets from the band's entire 20-year long career with different songs each night. In addition to Millencolin, several other international and national bands also played on stage. A temporary festival site was built, including a huge catering tent with food and drinks. In addition, WESC presented a skate contest, which also featured several pro skaters. There was also a camp for festival-goers, five minutes away from the festival and complete with its own waterpark.  The band had announced on Facebook earlier that a limited edition \"yellow bird\" toy would be available at the festival, but due to a delay in production the sale of these items was only possible on future tours. A limited edition (500 copies only) vinyl release of \"Carry You\" single (from the compilation album \"The Melancholy Connection\") was available for sale at the festival.  In April 2012, No Fun At All announced that they would no longer be appearing at Millencolin 20 Year Festival due their disbandment. As a result, Canadian trio Danko Jones were invited to join the festival lineup.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Millencolin is a punk rock band that was formed in October 1992 by Nikola Šarčević, Mathias Färm, and Erik Ohlsson in Örebro, Sweden. In early 1993, drummer Fredrik Larzon joined the band. The name Millencolin is derived from the skateboard trick \"melancholy\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972419}
{"src_title": "Armoured personnel carrier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The genesis of the armoured personnel carrier was on the Western Front of World War I. In the later stage of the war, Allied tanks could break through enemy lines, but the infantry following—who were needed to consolidate the gains—still faced small arms and artillery fire. Without infantry support, the tanks were isolated and more easily destroyed. In response, the British experimented with carrying machine-gun crews in the Mark V* tank, but it was found that the conditions inside the tanks rendered the men unfit for combat. Britain therefore designed the first purpose-built armoured troop transport, the Mark IX, but the war ended before it could be put to use.  During World War II, half-tracks like the American M3 and German Sd.Kfz. 251 played a role similar to post-war APCs. British Commonwealth forces relied on the full-tracked Universal Carrier. Over the course of the war, APCs evolved from simple armoured cars with transport capacity to purpose-built vehicles. Obsolete armoured vehicles were also repurposed as APCs, such as the various \"Kangaroos\" converted from M7 Priest self-propelled guns and from Churchill, M3 Stuart and Ram tanks.  During the Cold War, more specialized APCs were developed. The United States introduced a series of them, including successors to the wartime Landing Vehicle Tracked; but the most prolific was the M113 armored personnel carrier, of which more than 80,000 were produced. Western nations have since retired most M113s, replacing them with newer APCs, many of these wheeled. The Soviet Union produced the BTR-40, BTR-152, BTR-60, BTR-70, BTR-80 in large numbers. Czechoslovakia and Poland together developed the universal amphibious OT-64 SKOT. A cold war example of a \"Kangaroo\" is the heavily armoured Israeli Achzarit, converted from captured T-55s tanks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "By convention, they are not intended to take part in direct-fire battle, but are armed for self-defence and armoured to provide protection from shrapnel and small arms fire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mobility.", "content": "An APC is either wheeled or tracked, or occasionally a combination of the two, as in a half-track.  Wheeled vehicles are typically faster on road and less expensive, however have higher ground pressure which decreases mobility offroad and makes them more likely to become stuck in soft terrains such as mud, snow or sand.  Tracked vehicles typically have lower ground pressure and more maneuverability off-road. Due to the limited service life of their treads, and the wear they cause on roads, tracked vehicles are typically transported over long distances by rail or trucks.  Many APCs are amphibious, meaning they are able to traverse bodies of water. To move in water they will often have propellers or water jets, or be propelled by their tracks. Preparing the APC to operate amphibiously usually comprises checking the integrity of the hull and folding down a trim vane in front. Water traverse speed varies greatly between vehicles and is much less than ground speed. The maximum swim speed of the M113 is 3.6 mph (5.8 km/h), about 10% its road speed, and the AAVP-7 can swim at 8.2 mph (13.2 km/h).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Protection.", "content": "Armoured personnel carriers are typically designed to protect against small arms and artillery fire. Some designs have more protection; the Israeli IDF Namer has as much armour as Merkava main battle tank. Armour is usually composed of steel or aluminium. They will also use bulletproof glass.  Many APCs are equipped with CBRN protection, which is intended to provide protection from weapons of mass destruction like poison gas and radioactive/nuclear weapons.  Generally APCs will be lighter and less armoured than tanks or IFVs, often being open topped and featuring doors and windows, as seen in the French VAB.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Weaponry.", "content": "Armoured personnel carriers are designed primarily for transport and are lightly armed. They may be unarmed, or armed with some combination of light, medium, heavy machine guns, or automatic grenade launchers.  In Western nations, APCs are frequently armed with the 50 calibre M2 Browning machine gun, 7.62mm FN MAG, or 40mm Mk 19 grenade launcher. In former Eastern bloc nations, the KPV, PKT and NSV machine guns are common options.  In \"open top\" mounts the gunner sticks out of the vehicle and operates a gun on a pintle or ring mount. A ring mount allows the gun to traverse 360 degrees, a pintle mount has a limited field of fire. It can be preferable to an enclosed gunner because it allows a greater field of view and communication using shouts and hand signals. However, the gunner is poorly protected and at risk of injury in the event of vehicle rollover. During the Vietnam War, M113 gunners often suffered heavy casualties.  Enclosed vehicles are equipped with turrets that allow the crew to operate the weapons system while protected by the vehicle's armour. The Soviet BTR-60 has an enclosed turret mounted with a KPV heavy machine gun with a PKT coaxial machine gun. The American AAVP machine gun in a fully enclosed turrets. The AAVP7 mounts an M2 and a Mk 19 grenade launcher in a turret. Turrets typically have optics which make them more accurate.  More recently, APCs have been equipped remote weapon systems. The baseline Stryker carries an M2 on a Protector remote weapons system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medical use.", "content": "APCs may be used as armoured ambulances, to conduct evacuations of wounded personnel. These vehicles are equipped with stretchers and medical supplies.  According to article 19 of the Geneva Conventions, \"mobile medical units of the Medical Service may in no circumstances be attacked, but shall at all times be respected and protected by the Parties to the conflict\". Although article 22 allows them to carry defensive weaponry, they are typically unarmed. Under Article 39, the emblem of the medical service \"shall be displayed... on all equipment employed in the Medical Service.\" As such, armoured ambulances are marked with ICRC recognized symbols.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infantry fighting vehicle.", "content": "The infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) is a derivative of the APC. Various classes of infantry fighting vehicles may be deployed alongside tanks and APCs, in armoured and mechanized forces. The fundamental difference between an APC and IFV, is the role they are designed to serve. The CFE treaty stipulates an infantry fighting vehicle is an APC with a cannon in excess of 20 mm, and with this additional firepower the vehicle is more involved in combat, providing fire support to dismounted infantry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Infantry mobility vehicle.", "content": "\"Infantry mobility vehicle\" (IMV) is a new name for the old concept of an armoured car, with an emphasis on mine resistance. They are primarily used to protect passengers in unconventional theatres of war.  The South African Casspir was first built in the late 1970s. In the 21st century, they gained favour in the post-Soviet geopolitical climate. Identical to earlier Humvees in design and function, the uparmoured M1114 is a clear example of this. The addition of armour grants protection to passengers. M1114s have been largely replaced by purpose-built MRAP vehicles.  IMVs generally feature a v-shaped underbelly designed to deflect mine blasts outwards, with additional crew protection features such as four-point seat belts, and seats suspended from the roof or sides of the vehicle. Many feature a remote weapon system. Usually four-wheel drive, these IMVs are distinct from 8-, 6-, and 4-wheeled APCs (such as the VAB), being closer in appearance to civilian armoured money transporters.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "An armoured personnel carrier (APC) is a broad type of armoured, military vehicles designed to transport personnel and equipment in combat zones. They are sometimes referred to colloquially as \"battle taxis\" or \"battle buses\". Since World War I, APCs have become a very common piece of military equipment around the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972420}
{"src_title": "Inselberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inselberg.", "content": "The word \"inselberg\" is a loan word from the German word \"Inselberg\", which has the literal meaning of \"island mountain\". The name was coined in 1900 by geologist Wilhelm Bornhardt (1864–1946) to describe the abundance of such features found in eastern Africa. At that time, the term applied only to arid landscape features. However, the term inselberg has since been used to describe a broader geography and range of rock features, leading to confusion about the precise definition of the term. In a 1973 study examining the use of the term, one researcher found that the term had been used for features in savannah climates 40% of the time, arid or semi-arid climates 32% of the time, humid-subtropical and arctic 12% of the time, and 6% each in humid-tropical and Mediterranean climates. As recently as 1972, the term has been defined as \"steep-sided isolated hills rising relatively abruptly above gently sloping ground\". This definition includes such features as buttes; conical hills with rectilinear sides typically found in arid regions; regolith-covered concave-convex hills; rock crests over regolith slopes; rock domes with near vertical sides; tors (koppies) formed of large boulders but with solid rock cores. Thus, the terms monadnock and inselberg may not perfectly match, though some authors have explicitly argued these terms are in fact completely synonymous.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Monadnock.", "content": "\"Monadnock\" is an originally Native American term for an isolated hill or a lone mountain that stands above the surrounding area, typically by surviving erosion. Geologists took the name from Mount Monadnock in southwestern New Hampshire. It is thought to derive from the Abenaki language, from either \"menonadenak\" (smooth mountain) or \"menadena\" (isolated mountain). In this context, \"monadnock\" is used to describe a mountain that rises from an area of relatively flat and/or lower terrain. For instance, Mount Monadnock rises above its surrounding terrain and stands, at, nearly higher than any mountain peak within.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "Inselbergs are common in eroded and weathered shields. The presence of an inselberg typically indicates the existence of a nearby plateau or highland, or their remnants. This is especially the case for inselbergs composed of sedimentary rock, which will display the same stratigraphic units as this nearby plateau. However once exposed, the inselbergs are destroyed by marginal collapse of joint blocks and exfoliation sheets. This process leaves behind tors perched at their summits and, over time, a talus-bordered residual known as a \"castle koppie\" appears. By this association various inselberg fields in Africa and South America are assumed to be the vestiges of eroded etchplains.  Clusters of inselbergs, called inselberg fields and inselberg plains, occur in various parts of the world. These areas include Tanzania, the Anti-Atlas of Morocco, Northeast Brazil, Namibia, the interior of Angola, and the northern portions of Finland and Sweden.  The classification of Anthony Young (1969) distinguishes six types of inselbergs; buttes, conical hills, convex-concave hills, rock crest over regolith-covered slope, rock dome (sugarloaf) and kopje or tor.  Volcanic or other processes may give rise to a body of rock resistant to erosion, inside a body of softer rock such as limestone, which is more susceptible to erosion. When the less resistant rock is eroded away to form a plain, the more resistant rock is left behind as an isolated mountain. The strength of the uneroded rock is often attributed to the tightness of its jointing.  Inselbergs can be reshaped by ice sheets much the same way as roches moutonnées. In northern Sweden, examples of this type of inselberg are called \"flyggbergs\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The inselbergs of Eastern Africa tend to be a refuge for life in the Serengeti of Tanzania and Kenya. Where the soil is too thin or hard to support tree life in large areas, soil trapped by inselbergs can be dense with trees while the surrounding land contains only short grass. Hollows in the rock surfaces provide catchments for rainwater. Many animals have adapted to the use of inselbergs, including the lion, the hyrax, and an abundance of bird and reptile life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An inselberg or monadnock () is an isolated rock hill, knob, ridge, or small mountain that rises abruptly from a gently sloping or virtually level surrounding plain. In Southern Africa a similar formation of granite is known as a koppie, an Afrikaans word (\"little head\") from the Dutch diminutive word \"kopje\". If the inselberg is dome-shaped and formed from granite or gneiss, it can also be called a bornhardt, though not all bornhardts are inselbergs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972421}
{"src_title": "Charles II, Archduke of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "A native of Vienna, he was the third son of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Anne of Bohemia and Hungary, daughter of King Vladislaus II of Hungary and his wife Anne of Foix-Candale. In 1559 and again from 1564–1568 there were negotiations for a marriage between Charles and Elizabeth I of England. Emperor Ferdinand I expected Elizabeth to promise in the proposed marriage treaty that Charles, as her widower, would succeed her if she died childless. The negotiations dragged on until Queen Elizabeth decided that she would not marry the Archduke; religion was the main obstacle to the match, apart from the Queen's character. In 1563, Charles was also a suitor of Mary, Queen of Scots, with her uncle Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine, advising her to marry Charles in order to obtain assistance in governing Scotland. Mary, however, disagreed, as did Charles's older brother Maximilian.  Unlike his brother, Emperor Maximilian II, Charles was a religious Catholic and promoted the Counter-Reformation, e.g. by inviting the Jesuits to his territory. However, in 1572, he had to make significant concessions to the Inner Austrian Estates in the Religious Pacifications of Graz, and 1578 and the Libellum of Bruck. In practice, this resulted in tolerance towards Protestantism.  As the Inner Austrian line had to bear the major burden of the wars against the Turks, the fortress of Karlstadt/Karlovac in Croatia was founded in 1579 and named after him. Charles is also remembered as a benefactor of the arts and sciences. In particular, the composer Orlando di Lasso was one of his protégés, as was the music theorist Lodovico Zacconi.  In 1573, Charles founded the Akademisches Gymnasium in Graz, the oldest secondary school in Styria. In 1580, Charles founded a stud for horses of Andalusian origin in Lipica, Slovenia, thereby playing a leading role in the creation of the Lipizzan breed. In 1585, Charles founded the University of Graz, which is named Karl-Franzens-Universität after him.  He died at Graz in 1590.  Charles' mausoleum in Seckau Abbey, in which other members of the Habsburg family are also buried, is one of the most important edifices of the early Baroque in the South-Eastern Alps. It was built from 1587 onwards by Alessandro de Verda and completed by Sebastiano Carlone by 1612.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "In Vienna on 26 August 1571 Charles married his niece Maria Anna of Bavaria. They had fifteen children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles II Francis of Austria () (3 June 1540 – 10 July 1590) was an Archduke of Austria and ruler of Inner Austria (Styria, Carniola, Carinthia and Gorizia) from 1564. He was a member of the House of Habsburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972422}
{"src_title": "Peter, King of Hungary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Before 1038.", "content": "Peter was born in Venice, the only son of Doge Otto Orseolo. His mother was a sister of Stephen I, the first King of Hungary; historian Gyula Kristó suggests that he was born in 1010 or 1011. The Venetians rose up and deposed Otto Orseolo in 1026. Peter did not follow his father, who fled to the Byzantine court in Constantinople; he instead went to Hungary, where his uncle appointed him commander of the royal army.  Emeric, Stephen's only son to survive infancy, died in an accident in 1031. Stephen's cousin Vazul had the strongest claim to the throne, but the King overlooked him and named Peter as his heir. On Stephen's order, Vazul was blinded shortly thereafter and his three sonsLevente, Andrew and Béla exiled, which strengthened Peter's right of succession. The King asked Peter to take an oath respecting the property of his wife, Queen Giselle, suggesting that Peter's relationship with his aunt was tense.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First rule (1038–1041).", "content": "Peter succeeded King Stephen I, who died on 15 August 1038, and adopted an active foreign policy. Hungarian troops plundered Bavaria in 1039 and 1040, and invaded Bohemia in 1040 to assist Duke Bretislav I against Holy Roman Emperor Henry III. Hungarian chronicles recount that Peter preferred the company of Germans (\"who roared like wild beasts\") and Italians (\"who chattered and twittered like swallows\"), which made him unpopular among his subjects. He introduced new taxes, seized Church revenue and deposed two bishops.  Audaciously, Peter confiscated Queen Giselle's property and took her into custody. She sought help from Hungarian lords, who blamed one of Peter's favorites (Budo) for the monarch's misdeeds and demanded that Budo be put on trial. When the King refused, the lords seized and murdered his unpopular advisor and deposed the monarch in 1041. They elected a new king, Samuel Aba, who was a brother-in-law or another nephew of King Stephen I.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exile (1041–1044).", "content": "Peter first fled to Austria, seeking the protection of his brother-in-law, Margrave Adalbert. He approached Emperor Henry III for help against Samuel Aba. The new Hungarian monarch invaded Austria in February 1042, but Adalbert routed Aba's troops. Henry III launched his first expedition against Hungary in early 1042. His forces advanced north of the Danube to the river Garam (Hron, Slovakia). The Emperor planned to restore Peter, but the locals were strongly opposed. Accordingly, the Emperor appointed another (unnamed) member of the Hungarian royal family to administer the territories.  The Emperor returned to Hungary in the early summer of 1044, and was joined in his advance by many Hungarian lords. The decisive battle was fought on 5 June at Ménfő (near Győr), where Samuel Aba's forces were defeated. Although Aba escaped from the battlefield, Peter's supporters soon captured and killed him.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second rule (1044–1046).", "content": "Following Samuel Aba's death, Emperor Henry entered Székesfehérvár and restored Peter. Peter introduced Bavarian law in his realm, which suggests that Hungary became an imperial fief. He accepted the Emperor's suzerainty on Whitsun 1045, giving his royal lance to his overlord (who returned to Hungary). A number of plots to overthrow Peter indicate that he remained unpopular. Two of King Stephen I's maternal cousins (Bolya and Bonyha) conspired against Peter in 1045, but the King had them arrested, tortured and executed. Bishop Gerard of Csanád invited Vazul's exiled sons to the country. An uprising by pagan commoners ended Peter's second rule in 1046. Peter planned to flee again to the Holy Roman Empire, but Vazul's son Andrew (who had returned to Hungary) invited him to a meeting at Székesfehérvár. The deposed king soon realised that Andrew's envoys actually wanted to arrest him. He fled to a fortified manor at Zámoly, but his opponent's supporters seized it and captured him three days later. All 14th-century Hungarian chronicles attest that Peter was blinded, which caused his death. However, the near-contemporary Cosmas of Prague relates that Judith of Schweinfurt, widow of Duke Bretislaus I of Bohemia who was expelled by her son, fled to Hungary and married Peter about 1055 \"as an insult to\" her son \"and all the Czechs\". If the latter report is reliable, Peter survived the ordeal and died during the late 1050s. He was buried in the cathedral of Pécs. His original tomb was excavated in June 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "The name and family of Peter's wife are unknown, but Gyula Kristó suggests that she was of German origin. Historians debate the validity of Cosmas of Prague's report of Peter's second marriage to the widowed Judith of Schweinfurt. Lisa Wolverton, the chronicle's translator, says that Cosmas misinterpreted his sources (which describe the marriage of Judith of Swabia to King Solomon of Hungary). On the other hand, Kristó writes that Cosmas's report may suggest that Peter survived his blinding. The following family tree presents Peter the Venetian's ancestors and his relatives who are mentioned in the article:  \"*A Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian woman.\"<br>\"**Samuel Aba might have been Géza's grandson instead of his son-in-law.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Orseolo, or Peter the Venetian (; 1010 or 1011 – 1046, or late 1050s), was King of Hungary twice. He first succeeded his uncle, King Stephen I, in 1038. His favoritism towards his foreign courtiers caused an uprising which ended with his 1041 deposition. Peter was restored in 1044 by Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor. He accepted the Emperor's suzerainty during his second reign, which ended in 1046 after a pagan uprising. Hungarian chronicles are unanimous that Peter was executed by order of his successor, Andrew I, but the chronicler Cosmas of Prague's reference to his alleged marriage around 1055 suggests that he may also have survived his second deposition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972423}
{"src_title": "Lusatian culture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The Lusatian culture developed as the preceding Trzciniec culture experienced influences from the Tumulus culture of the Middle Bronze Age, essentially incorporating the local communities into the socio-political network of Iron Age Europe. It forms part of the Urnfield systems found from eastern France, southern Germany and Austria to Hungary and the Nordic Bronze Age in northwestern Germany and Scandinavia. It is followed by the Billendorf culture of the Early Iron Age in the West. In Poland, the Lusatian culture is taken to span part of the Iron Age as well (there is only a terminological difference) and is succeeded in Montelius VIIbc in northern ranges around the mouth of Vistula by the Pomeranian culture spreading south.  'Lusatian-type' burials were first described by the German pathologist and archaeologist Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902). The name refers to the Lusatia area in eastern Germany (Brandenburg and Saxony) and western Poland. Virchow identified the pottery artifacts as 'pre-Germanic' but refused to speculate on the ethnic identity of their makers. The Polish archeologist Józef Kostrzewski, who starting in 1934 conducted extensive excavations of a Lusatian settlement of Biskupin, hypothesized that the Lusatian culture was a predecessor of later cultures which belonged to the early Slavs. Modern archeologists, such as and, hold the view that at that time, the ethnic geography of Bronze Age central-Europe included peoples whose languages and ethnic identity we simply do not know.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Burial was by cremation; inhumations are rare. The urn is usually accompanied by numerous—up to 40—secondary vessels. Metal grave gifts are sparse, but there are numerous hoards (e.g., Kopaniewo, Pomerania) that contain rich metalwork, both bronze and gold (hoard of Eberswalde, Brandenburg). Graves containing moulds, like at Bataune, Saxony or tuyeres attest to the production of bronze tools and weapons at the village level. The 'royal' tomb of Seddin, Brandenburg, Germany, covered by a large earthen barrow, contained Mediterranean imports like bronze-vessels and glass beads. Cemeteries can be quite large and contain thousands of graves.  Well known settlements include Biskupin in Poland, and Buch near Berlin. There are both open villages and fortified settlements (\"burgwall\" or \"grod\") on hilltops or in swampy areas. The ramparts were constructed of wooden boxes filled with soil or stones.  The economy was mainly based on arable agriculture, as is attested by numerous storage pits. Wheat (emmer) and six-row barley formed the basic crops, together with millet, rye and oats, peas, broad beans, lentils, and gold of pleasure (Camelina sativa). Flax was grown, and remains of domesticated apples, pears, and plums have been found. Cattle and pigs were the most important domestic animals, followed by sheep, goats, horses, and dogs. Pictures on Iron Age urns from Silesia attest horse riding, but horses were used to draw chariots as well. Hunting was practiced, as bones of red and roe deer, boar, bison, elk, hare, fox, and wolf attest, but did not provide much of the meat consumed. The numerous frog bones found at Biskupin may indicate that frogs' legs were eaten as well.  Hoards in swampy areas are considered by some archaeologists (Hänsel) as 'gifts for the Gods'. Human bones in 5 m deep sacrificial pits in Lossow (Brandenburg) might point to human sacrifice and possible ritual cannibalism.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lusatian culture existed in the later Bronze Age and early Iron Age (1300 BC – 500 BC) in most of today's Poland and parts of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, eastern Germany, and western Ukraine. It covers the Periods Montelius III (early Lusatian culture) to V of the Northern-European chronological scheme.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972424}
{"src_title": "Abolhassan Banisadr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Banisadr was born on 22 March 1933 in Hamadān. His father was an ayatollah and close to Ruhollah Khomeini. He studied finance and economics at the Sorbonne. In 1972, Banisadr's father died and he attended the funeral in Iraq where he first met Ayatollah Khomeini.  Banisadr had participated in the anti-Shah student movement during the early 1960s and was imprisoned twice, and was wounded during an uprising in 1963. He then fled to France. He later joined the Iranian resistance group led by Khomeini, becoming one of his hard-liners advisors. Banisadr returned to Iran together with Khomeini as the revolution was beginning in February 1979. He wrote a book on Islamic finance, \"Eghtesad Tohidi,\" which roughly translates as \"The Economics of Monotheism.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Following the Iranian Revolution, Banisadr became deputy minister of finance on 4 February 1979 and was in office until 27 February 1979. He also became a member of the revolutionary council when Bazargan and others left the council to form the interim government. After the resignation of the interim finance minister Ali Ardalan on 27 February 1979, he was appointed finance minister by then prime minister Mehdi Bazargan. On 12 November 1979, Banisadr was appointed foreign minister to replace Ebrahim Yazdi in the government that was led by Council of the Islamic Revolution when the interim government resigned.  Banisadr was elected to a four-year term as president on 25 January 1980, receiving 78.9 percent of the vote in the election, and was inaugurated on 4 February. Khomeini remained the Supreme Leader of Iran with the constitutional authority to dismiss the president. The inaugural ceremonies were held at the hospital where Khomeini was recovering from a heart ailment.  Banisadr was not an Islamic cleric; Khomeini had insisted that clerics should not run for positions in the government. In August and September 1980, Banisadr survived two helicopter crashes near the Iran–Iraq border. During the Iran–Iraq War, Banisadr was appointed acting commander-in-chief by Khomeini on 10 June 1981.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impeachment.", "content": "The Majlis (Iran's Parliament) impeached Banisadr in his absence on 21 June 1981, allegedly because of his moves against the clerics in power, in particular Mohammad Beheshti, then head of the judicial system. Khomeini himself appears to have instigated the impeachment, which he signed the next day. According to Katzman, Banisadr believed the clerics should not directly govern Iran and was perceived as supporting the People's Mujahedin of Iran.  Even before Khomeini had signed the impeachment papers, the Revolutionary Guard had seized the Presidential buildings and gardens, and imprisoned writers at a newspaper closely tied to Banisadr. Over the next few days, they executed several of his closest friends, including Hossein Navab, Rashid Sadrolhefazi and Manouchehr Massoudi. Ayatollah Hussein-Ali Montazeri was among the few people in the government in support of Banisadr, but he was soon stripped of his powers.  At the same time, the Iranian government outlawed all political parties, except the Islamic Republican Party. Government forces arrested and imprisoned members of other parties, such as the People's Mujahedin, Fadaian Khalq, Tudeh, and Paikar.  Banisadr went into hiding for a few days before his removal, and hid in Tehran, protected by the People's Mujahedin (PMOI). He attempted to organize an alliance of anti-Khomeini factions to retake power, including the PMOI, KDP, and the Fedaian Organisation (Minority), while eschewing any contact with monarchist exile groups. He met numerous times while in hiding with PMOI leader Massoud Rajavi to plan an alliance, but after the execution on 27 July of PMOI member Mohammadreza Saadati, Banisadr and Rajavi concluded that it was unsafe to remain in Iran. In Banisadr's view, this impeachment was a \"coup d'état\" against democracy in Iran. In order to settle the political differences in the country, President Banisadr had asked for a referendum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flight and exile.", "content": "When Banisadr was impeached on 21 June 1981 he had fled and had been hiding in western Iran. On 29 July, Banisadr and Massoud Rajavi were smuggled aboard an Iranian Air Force Boeing 707 piloted by Colonel Behzad Moezzi. It followed a routine flight plan before deviating out of Iranian groundspace to Turkish airspace and eventually landing in Paris.  Banisadr and Rajavi found political asylum in Paris, conditional on abstaining from anti-Khomeini activities in France. This restriction was effectively ignored after France evacuated its embassy in Tehran. Banisadr, Rajavi and the Kurdish Democratic Party set up the National Council of Resistance of Iran in Paris in October 1981. However, Banisadr soon fell out with Rajavi, accusing him of ideologies favouring dictatorship and violence. Furthermore, Banisadr opposed the armed opposition as initiated and sustained by Rajavi, and sought support for Iran during the war with Iraq.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"My Turn to Speak\".", "content": "In 1991, Banisadr released an English translation of his 1989 text \"My Turn to Speak: Iran, the Revolution and Secret Deals with the U.S.\"<ref name=\"Foreign Affairs; Winter 1991/92\"></ref> In the book, Banisadr alleged covert dealings between the Ronald Reagan presidential campaign and leaders in Tehran to prolong the Iran hostage crisis before the 1980 United States presidential election. He also claimed that Henry Kissinger plotted to set up a Palestinian state in the Iranian province of Khuzestan and that Zbigniew Brzezinski conspired with Saddam Hussein to plot.  Lloyd Grove of \"The Washington Post\" wrote: \"The book is not what normally passes for a bestseller. Cobbled together from a series of interviews conducted by French journalist Jean-Charles Deniau, it is never merely direct when it can be enigmatic, never just simple when it can be labyrinthine.\" In a review for \"Foreign Affairs\", William B. Quandt described the book as \"a rambling, self-serving series of reminiscences\" and \"long on sensational allegations and devoid of documentation that might lend credence to Bani-Sadr's claims.\" \"Kirkus Reviews\" called it \"an interesting — though frequently incredible and consistently self-serving-memoir\" and said \"frequent sensational accusations render his tale an eccentric, implausible commentary on the tragic folly of the Iranian Revolution.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Views.", "content": "Banisadr, in a 2008 interview with the Voice of America on the 29th anniversary of the revolution, claimed that Khomeini is directly responsible for the violence originated from the Muslim world and that the promises Khomeini made in exile were broken after the revolution. In July 2009, Banisadr publicly denounced the Iranian government's conduct after the disputed presidential election: \"Khamenei ordered the fraud in the presidential elections and the ensuing crackdown on protesters.\" He said the government was \"holding on to power solely by means of violence and terror\" and accused its leaders of amassing wealth for themselves, to the detriment of other Iranians.  In published articles on the 2009 Iranian presidential election protests, he ascribed the unusually-open political climate before the election to the government's great need to prove its legitimacy. However, he said the government had lost all legitimacy. The spontaneous uprising had cost the government its political legitimacy, and Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei's threats led to the violent crackdown, which cost the government its religious legitimacy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Banisadr lives in Versailles, near Paris, in a villa closely guarded by French police. Banisadr's daughter, Firoozeh, married Massoud Rajavi in Paris following their exile. They later divorced and the alliance between him and Rajavi also ended.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Seyyed Abolhassan Banisadr (; ; born 22 March 1933) is an Iranian politician. He was the first President of Iran after the 1979 Iranian Revolution abolished the monarchy, serving from 4 February 1980 until he was impeached by parliament on 20 June 1981. Prior to his presidency, he was the minister of foreign affairs in the interim government. He has resided for many years in France where he co-founded the National Council of Resistance of Iran. At age, Banisadr is currently the oldest living former Iranian President.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972425}
{"src_title": "Florian Geyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Florian Geyer was born around 1490 at Geyer Castle in Giebelstadt, Lower Franconia. After the deaths of his father Dietrich (in 1492) and of his two older brothers, Florian Geyer inherited the family castle and fortune. In 1512 and 1513, he was a guest at the court of King Henry VIII in England, where he may have been exposed to the reformist ideas of John Wycliffe and the Lollards. In 1517, after refusing to pay 350-year-old interest claims from Neumünster Collegiate Church, Geyer was excommunicated.  In 1519, Geyer served under Casimir Margrave of Brandeburg-Kulmbach in the army of the Swabian League against Ulrich Duke of Württemberg and Götz von Berlichingen in Möckmühl. Later that year Brandeburg-Kulmbach sent Geyer to his brother Albrecht Duke of Brandenburg-Prussia, then Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, to support him in the Polish-Teutonic War (1519–1521). Geyer negotiated the truce which ended it. He remained in Brandenburg-Prussia's service until 1523, travelling to various European courts on diplomatic missions.  In 1523, Geyer accompanied Martin Luther on a visit to Wittenberg in Brandenburg-Prussia. If not already sympathetic to the Protestant reformation, Geyer was probably won over to Luther's ideals at this meeting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "German Peasants' War.", "content": "When the German Peasants' War broke out in 1524, Florian Geyer, together with a handful of low-ranking knights and several hundred hastily-trained peasant militiamen, established the Black Company (often called the Black Host or Black Band), which was possibly the only heavy cavalry division in European history to fight on the side of a peasant revolution. By checking Imperial and Protestant knights on the battlefield, the Black Company allowed preacher Thomas Müntzer and his infantry to score a string of victories in Thuringia. Geyer is reputed to have had the words \"Nulla crux, nulla corona\" (\"Neither cross nor crown\") scratched on the blade of his sword. All sides credited him with the wanton destruction of cathedrals and castles, and summary executions of the lords and priests contained therein. These destructions played a part in causing Martin Luther to side with the princes, calling on them to slaughter the rebellious peasants.  As the Peasants' War dragged on, many of the rebel peasants returned home, and most of the knights who, alongside Geyer, had joined Müntzer deserted or defected. Müntzer himself was defeated at the Battle of Frankenhausen and executed shortly afterwards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Conflicting accounts place Geyer with the company, or alone in Rothingen in the aftermath of the Battle of Frankenhausen. The Black Company was falsely informed of victory at Frankenhausen, and ambushed outside of Ingolstadt. They managed to regroup, retreat, and fortify the town's castle and cathedral. The cathedral was burned with no survivors, and the castle was taken after three assaults. A portion of the Black Company broke free, only to be encircled again in nearby woodlands. If Geyer had been leading the Black Company through the Battle of Ingolstadt, he barely escaped with his life. Geyer may, however, have been stranded at Rothingen the entire time while waiting for an escort from the Black Company, which was only to be barred from entering the town. The later attempts to stamp out memory of the uprising have obscured these details.  Whether or not Geyer was at Ingolstadt, he was one of the last survivors. In the night from 9 to 10 June 1525 he was contacted in Würzburg by two servants of his brother-in-law Wilhelm von Grumbach, who had the stated their intention of helping him rekindle the Peasants' War. While traveling together, they stabbed Geyer to death in the Gramschatz Forest near Würzburg. The location of his remains is unknown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The family of Florian Geyer died out in the early 18th century and their castle in Giebelstadt passed into other hands, but is still the site of the annual \"Florian Geyer Festspiele\".  Geyer was heralded as a communist revolutionary in Friedrich Engels' \"The Peasant War in Germany\" (1850). In this work, Engels asserts that the war was primarily a class struggle over control of farms and mines, which subverted the Biblical language and metaphors commonly understood by peasants. In this spirit, a regiment of the Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic, Grenzregiment 3 \"Florian Geyer\", was named after him.  Geyer was also the hero of one of Gerhart Hauptmann's major plays, the historical drama \"Florian Geyer\" (1896), and the inspiration for the German folk song, \"\" (\"We are Geyer's Black Band\"), which has been adopted by union movements as a rousing anthem.  Geyer was also considered a heroic figure by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist Party. The 8th SS Cavalry Division \"Florian Geyer\" was named after him in March 1944, during World War II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Florian Geyer von Giebelstadt (also spelled \"Geier\"; \"c\". 1490 – 10 June 1525) was a German nobleman, diplomat, and knight. He became widely known for leading peasants during the German Peasants' War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972426}
{"src_title": "Paul Barras", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Descended from a noble family of Provence, he was born at Fox-Amphoux, in today's Var \"département\". At the age of sixteen, he entered the regiment of Languedoc as a \"gentleman cadet\". In 1776, he embarked for French India.  Shipwrecked on his voyage, he still managed to reach Pondicherry in time to contribute to the defence of that city during the Second Anglo-Mysore War. Besieged by British forces, the city surrendered on 18 October 1778; after the French garrison was released, Barras returned to France. He took part in a second expedition to the region in 1782/83, serving in the fleet of the renowned Admiral Pierre André de Suffren. Afterwards, he spent several years back home in France at leisure in relative obscurity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National Convention.", "content": "At the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789, he advocated the democratic cause, and became one of the administrators of the Var. In June 1792 he took his seat in the high national court at Orléans. Later in that year, on the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars, Barras became commissioner to the French Army, which was facing the forces of Sardinia in the Italian Peninsula, and entered the National Convention as a deputy for the Var.  In January 1793, he voted with the majority for the execution of King Louis XVI. However, he was mostly absent from Paris on missions to the regions of the south-east of France. During this period, he made the acquaintance of Napoleon Bonaparte at the siege of Toulon (his later clash with Napoleon made him downplay the latter's abilities as a soldier: he noted in his \"Memoirs\" that the siege had been carried out by 30,000 men against a minor royalist defending force, whereas the real number was 12,000; he also sought to minimize the share taken by Bonaparte in the capture of the city). When Barras became Director, he gave Napoleon position of general in the battalion of Italians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thermidor and the Directory.", "content": "In 1794, Barras sided with the men who sought to overthrow Maximilien Robespierre's faction. The Thermidorian Reaction of 27 July 1794 made him rise to prominence. In the next year, when the Convention felt threatened by the malcontent National Guards of Paris, it appointed Barras to command the troops engaged in its defence. His nomination of Bonaparte led to the adoption of violent measures, ensuring the dispersion of royalists and other malcontents in the streets near the Tuileries Palace, remembered as the \"13 Vendémiaire\" (5 October 1795). Subsequently, Barras became one of the five Directors who controlled the executive of the French Republic.  Owing to his intimate relations with Joséphine de Beauharnais, Barras helped to facilitate a marriage between her and Bonaparte. Some of his contemporaries alleged that this was the reason behind Barras' nomination of Bonaparte to the early in the year 1796. Bonaparte's success gave the Directory unprecedented stability, and when, in the summer of 1797, the royalist and surviving Girondist opposition again met the government with resistance, Bonaparte sent General Augereau, a Jacobin, to repress their movement in the Coup of 18 Fructidor (4 September 1797).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Downfall and later life.", "content": "Barras was alleged to have dozens of mistresses and male lovers, the latter often having a dubious social standing. While the corruption of his administration was extraordinary even for France. Barras's alleged immorality in public and private life is often cited as a major contribution to the fall of the Directory, and the creation of the Consulate. In any case, Bonaparte met little resistance during his 18 Brumaire coup of November 1799. At the same time, Barras is seen as a supporter of the change, one left aside by the First Consul when the latter reshaped the government of France.  Since he had amassed a large fortune, Barras spent his later years in luxury. Napoleon had him confined to the Château de Grosbois (Barras's property), then exiled to Brussels and Rome, and ultimately, in 1810, interned in Montpellier; set free after the fall of the Empire, he died in Chaillot (nowadays in Paris), and was interred in Père Lachaise Cemetery. Although a partisan of the Second Restoration, Barras was kept in check during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X (and his \"Memoirs\" were censored after his death).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul François Jean Nicolas, vicomte de Barras () (30 June 1755 – 29 January 1829), commonly known as Paul Barras, was a French politician of the French Revolution, and the main executive leader of the Directory regime of 1795–1799.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972427}
{"src_title": "Coup of 18 Brumaire", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Context.", "content": "After Habsburg-controlled Austria declared war on France on 12 March 1799, emergency measures were adopted and the pro-war Jacobin faction triumphed in the April election. With Napoleon and the republic's best army engaged in the Egypt and Syria campaign, France suffered a series of reverses on the battlefield in the spring and summer of 1799. The Coup of 30 Prairial VII (18 June) ousted the Jacobins and left Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, a member of the five-man ruling Directory, the dominant figure in the government. France's military situation improved following the Second Battle of Zurich, fought on 25–26 September. As the prospect of invasion receded, the Jacobins feared a revival of the pro-peace Royalist faction. When Napoleon returned to France on 9 October, both factions hailed him as the country's savior.  Dazzled by Napoleon's campaign in the Middle East, the public received him with an ardor that convinced Sieyès he had found the general indispensable to his planned coup. However, from the moment of his return, Napoleon plotted a coup within the coup, ultimately gaining power for himself rather than Sieyès.  Probably the weightiest possible obstacles to a coup were in the army. Some generals, such as Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, honestly believed in republicanism; others, such as Jean Bernadotte, believed themselves capable of governing France. Napoleon worked on the feelings of all, keeping secret his own intentions.  Before the coup, troops were conveniently deployed around Paris. The plan was, first, to persuade the Directors to resign, then, second, to get the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred (the upper and lower houses of the legislature) to appoint a pliant commission that would draw up a new constitution to the plotters' specifications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Events of 18 Brumaire, Year VIII.", "content": "On the morning of 18 Brumaire, Lucien Bonaparte falsely persuaded the Councils that a Jacobin coup was at hand in Paris, and induced them to depart for the safety of the suburban Château de Saint-Cloud. Napoleon was charged with the safety of the two Councils and given command of all available local troops.  Later that morning, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès and Roger Ducos resigned as Directors. The now former 1797–1799 2nd Minister of Foreign Affairs Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, a close ally of Napoleon, pressured Director Paul Barras to do the same.  The resignation of three of the five Directors on day one of the coup prevented a quorum and thus practically abolished the five man Directory, but the two Jacobin Directors, Louis-Jérôme Gohier and Jean-François-Auguste Moulin, continued to protest furiously. Both men were arrested on day two by Napoleon's ally General Jean Victor Marie Moreau, and by the following day they were compelled to give up their resistance.  In contrast to the Directory, the two Councils were not yet intimidated and continued meeting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Events of 19 Brumaire.", "content": "By the following day, the deputies had for the most part realized that they were facing an attempted coup rather than being protected from a Jacobin rebellion. Faced with their recalcitrance, Napoleon stormed into the chambers, escorted by a small force of grenadiers. While perhaps unplanned, this proved to be the coup within the coup: from this point, this was a military affair.  Napoleon found the Ancients resistant \"despite a massive show of military strength.\" He met with heckling as he addressed them with such \"home truths\" as, \"the Republic has no government\" and, most likely, \"the Revolution is over.\" One deputy called out, \"And the Constitution?\" Napoleon replied, referring to earlier parliamentary coups, \"The Constitution! You yourselves have destroyed it. You violated it on 18 Fructidor; you violated it on 22 Floreal; you violated it on 30 Prairial. It no longer has the respect of anyone.\" Napoleon's reception by the Council of Five Hundred was even more hostile. His grenadiers entered just as the legality of Barras's resignation was being challenged by the Jacobins in the chamber. Upon entering, Napoleon was first jostled, then outright assaulted. By some accounts, he came close to fainting. It was not Napoleon himself, but his brother Lucien, President of the Council, who called upon the grenadiers to defend their leader. Napoleon escaped, but only through the use of military force.  A motion was raised in the Council of Five Hundred to declare Napoleon an outlaw. At this point, Lucien Bonaparte apparently slipped out of the chamber and told the soldiers guarding the Councils that the majority of the Five Hundred were being terrorized by a group of deputies brandishing daggers. According to Michael Rapport, \"He pointed to Napoleon's bloody, pallid face as proof. Then, in a theatrical gesture, he seized a sword and promised to plunge it through his own brother's heart if he were a traitor.\" Lucien ordered the troops to expel the violent deputies from the chamber. Grenadiers under the command of General Joachim Murat marched into the Orangerie and dispersed the Council. This was effectively the end of the Directory.  The Ancients passed a decree that adjourned the Councils for three months, appointed Napoleon, Sieyès, and Ducos provisional consuls, and named the Corps législatif. Some tractable members of the Five Hundred, rounded up afterwards, served to give these measures the confirmation of their House. Thus the Directory and the Councils came to an end.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Completion of the coup.", "content": "The Directory was crushed, but the coup within the coup was not yet complete. The use of military force had certainly strengthened Napoleon's hand \"vis à vis\" Sieyès and the other plotters. With the Council routed, the plotters convened two commissions, each consisting of twenty-five deputies from the two Councils. The plotters essentially intimidated the commissions into declaring a provisional government, the first form of the Consulate with Napoleon, Sieyès, and Ducos as Consuls. The lack of reaction from the streets proved that the revolution was, indeed, over. \"A shabby compound of brute force and imposture, the 18th Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, nay applauded, by the French nation. Weary of revolution, men sought no more than to be wisely and firmly governed.\" Resistance by Jacobin officeholders in the provinces was quickly crushed. Twenty Jacobin deputies were exiled, and others were arrested. The commissions then drew up the \"short and obscure Constitution of the Year VIII\", the first of the constitutions since the Revolution without a Declaration of Rights.  Bonaparte thus completed his coup within a coup by the adoption of a constitution under which the First Consul, a position he was sure to hold, had greater power than the other two. In particular, he appointed the Senate and the Senate interpreted the constitution. The Sénat conservateur allowed him to rule by decree, so the more independent Conseil d'État and Tribunat were relegated to unimportant roles. It led ultimately to the rise of the First French Empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception by Karl Marx.", "content": "In 1852, Karl Marx wrote \"The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon\" about a much later event, the coup d'état of 1851 against the Second Republic by Napoleon III, who was Napoleon's nephew. Marx considered Louis Napoleon a trifling politician compared to his world-conquering uncle, as expressed in Marx's oft-quoted opening \"bon mot\": \"Hegel remarks somewhere that all great world-historic facts and personages appear, so to speak, twice. He forgot to add: the first time as tragedy, the second time as farce.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Coup of 18 Brumaire brought General Napoleon Bonaparte to power as First Consul of France and in the view of most historians ended the French Revolution. This bloodless \"coup d'état\" overthrew the Directory, replacing it with the French Consulate. This occurred on 9 November 1799, which was 18 Brumaire, Year VIII under the French Republican Calendar.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972428}
{"src_title": "Habitus (sociology)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The concept of habitus has been used as early as Aristotle but in contemporary usage was introduced by Marcel Mauss and later Maurice Merleau-Ponty. However, it was Pierre Bourdieu who turned it into a cornerstone of his sociology, and used it to address the sociological problem of agency and structure: the habitus is shaped by structural position and generates action, thus when people act and demonstrate agency they simultaneously reflect and reproduce social structure. Bourdieu elaborated his theory of the habitus while borrowing ideas on cognitive and generative schemes from Noam Chomsky and Jean Piaget dependency on history and human memory. For instance, a certain behaviour or belief becomes part of a society's structure when the original purpose of that behaviour or belief can no longer be recalled and becomes socialized into individuals of that culture.  Loïc Wacquant wrote that habitus is an old philosophical notion, originating in the thought of Aristotle, whose notion of \"hexis\" (\"state\") was translated into \"habitus\" by the Medieval Scholastics. Bourdieu first adapted the term in his 1967 postface to Erwin Panofsky's \"Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism\". The term was earlier used in sociology by Norbert Elias in \"The Civilizing Process\" (1939) and in Marcel Mauss's account of \"body techniques\" (). The concept is also present in the work of Max Weber, Gilles Deleuze, and Edmund Husserl.  Mauss defined habitus as those aspects of culture that are anchored in the body or daily practices of individuals, groups, societies, and nations. It includes the totality of learned habits, bodily skills, styles, tastes, and other non-discursive knowledges that might be said to \"go without saying\" for a specific group (Bourdieu 1990:66-67)—in that way it can be said to operate beneath the level of rational ideology.  According to Bourdieu, habitus is composed of:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Non-sociological uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary criticism.", "content": "The term has also been adopted in literary criticism, adapting from Bourdieu's usage of the term. For example, Joe Moran's examination of authorial identities in \"Star Authors: Literary Celebrity in America\" uses the term in discussion of how authors develop a habitus formed around their own celebrity and status as authors, which manifests in their writing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use in literary theory.", "content": "Bourdieu's principle of habitus is interwoven with the concept of structuralism in literary theory. Peter Barry explains, \"in the structuralist approach to literature there is a constant movement away from interpretation of the individual literary work and a parallel drive towards understanding the larger structures which contain them\" (2009, p. 39). There is therefore a strong desire to understand the larger influencing factors which makes an individual literary work. As Bourdieu explains, habitus \"are structured structures, generative principles of distinct and distinctive practices – what the worker eats, and especially the way he eats it, the sport he practices and the way he practices it, his political opinions and the way he expresses them are systematically different from the industrial proprietor's corresponding activities / habitus are also structuring structures, different classifying schemes classification principles, different principles of vision and division, different tastes. Habitus make different differences; they implement distinctions between what is good and what is bad, what is right and what is wrong, between what is distinguished and what is vulgar, and so on, but they are not the same. Thus, for instance, the same behaviour or even the same good can appear distinguished to one person, pretentious to someone else, and cheap or showy to yet another\" (Bourdieu, 1996). As a result, habitus may be employed in literary theory in order to understand those larger, external structures which influence individual theories and works of literature.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Body habitus.", "content": "Body habitus (or \"bodily habitus\") is the medical term for physique, and is categorized as either endomorphic (relatively short and stout), ectomorphic (relatively long and thin) or mesomorphic (muscular proportions). In this sense, habitus has in the past been interpreted as the physical and constitutional characteristics of an individual, especially as related to the tendency to develop a certain disease. For example, \"Marfanoid bodily habitus\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In sociology, Habitus () comprises socially ingrained habits, skills and dispositions. It is the way that individuals perceive the social world around them and react to it. These dispositions are usually shared by people with similar backgrounds (such as social class, religion, nationality, ethnicity, education and profession). The habitus is acquired through imitation (\"mimesis\") and is the reality in which individuals are socialized, which includes their individual experience and opportunities. Thus, the habitus represents the way group culture and personal history shape the body and the mind; as a result, it shapes present social actions of an individual.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972429}
{"src_title": "Tennis Court Oath", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Before the Revolution, French society—aside from royalty—was divided into three estates. The First Estate comprised the clergy; the Second Estate was the nobility. The rest of France—some 98 per cent of the population—was the Third Estate, which ranged from very wealthy city merchants to impoverished rural farmers. The three estates met from time to time in the Estates General, a legislative assembly.  The third Estate comprised the overwhelming majority of the French population but the structure of the Estates-General was such that the Third Estate comprised a bare majority of the delegates. A simple majority was sufficient—as long as delegates' votes were cast together. The First and Second Estates preferred to divide the vote; a proposal might need to receive approval from each Estate or there might be two \"houses\" of the Estates-General (one for the first two Estates, and one for the Third) and a bill would need to be passed by both houses. Either way, the First and Second Estates could exercise a veto over proposals enjoying widespread support among the Third Estate, such as reforms that threatened the privileges of the nobility and clergy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oath.", "content": "The deputies' fears, even if wrong, were reasonable and the importance of the oath goes above and beyond its context. The oath was a revolutionary act and an assertion that political authority derived from the people and their representatives rather than from the monarchy. Their solidarity forced Louis XVI to order the clergy and the nobility to join the Third Estate in the National Assembly to give the illusion that he controlled the National Assembly. This oath was vital to the Third Estate as a protest that led to more power in the Estates General, every governing body thereafter.  An English-language translation of the oath reads: The National Assembly, Considering that it has been called to establish the constitution of the realm, to bring about the regeneration of public order, and to maintain the true principles of monarchy; nothing may prevent it from continuing its deliberations in any place it is forced to establish itself; and, finally, the National Assembly exists wherever its members are gathered.  Decrees that all members of this Assembly immediately take a solemn oath never to separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require until the constitution of the realm is established and fixed upon solid foundations; and that said oath having been sworn, all members and each one individually confirms this unwavering resolution with his signature.  We swear never to separate ourselves from the National Assembly, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require until the constitution of the realm is drawn up and fixed upon solid foundations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Significance and aftermath.", "content": "The Oath signified for the first time that French citizens formally stood in opposition to Louis XVI and the National Assembly's refusal to back down forced the king to make concessions. It was foreshadowed by and drew considerably from the 1776 United States Declaration of Independence, especially the preamble. The Oath also inspired a wide variety of revolutionary activities in the months afterwards, ranging from rioting in the French countryside to renewed calls for a written constitution. It reinforced the Assembly's strength, and although the King attempted to thwart its effect, Louis was forced to relent and on 27 June 1789 he formally requested that voting occur based on head counts, not each estates' power. The Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789) preceded the abolition of feudalism (4 August 1789) and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (26 August 1789).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "On 20 June 1789, the members of the French Third Estate took the Tennis Court Oath (), vowing \"not to separate and to reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the Constitution of the kingdom is established\". It was a pivotal event in the French Revolution. The Estates-General had been called to address the country's fiscal and agricultural crisis, but they had become bogged down in issues of representation immediately after convening in May 1789, particularly whether they would vote by order or by head (which would increase the power of the Third Estate, as they outnumbered the other two estates by a large margin).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972430}
{"src_title": "Shallot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "Shallots probably originated in Central or Southwest Asia, travelling from there to India and the eastern Mediterranean. The name \"shallot\" comes from Ashkelon, an ancient Canaanite city, where people in classical Greek times believed shallots originated.  The name \"shallot\" is also used for the Persian shallot \"(A. stipitatum)\", from the Zagros Mountains in Iran and Iraq. The term \"shallot\" is further used for the French red shallot (\"Allium cepa\" var. \"aggregatum\", or the \"A. cepa\" Aggregatum Group) and the French gray shallot or griselle (\"Allium oschaninii\"), a species referred to as \"true shallot\"; it grows wild from Central to Southwest Asia. The name \"shallot\" is also used for a scallion in New South Wales, Australia and among English-speaking people in Quebec while the term \"French shallot\" refers to the plant referred to on this page. Anglophone Quebecers and British English speakers stress the second syllable of \"shallot\", as \"shall-OH\" and \"shall-OT\" respectively (Australians and New Zealanders also say \"shall-OT\"), while other varieties of English pronounce it as \"SHALL-ət\".  The term \"eschalot\", derived from the French word \"échalote\", can also be used to refer to the shallot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description and cultivation.", "content": "Like garlic, shallots are formed in clusters of offsets with a head composed of multiple cloves. The skin colour of shallots can vary from golden brown to gray to rose red, and their off-white flesh is usually tinged with green or magenta.  Shallots are extensively cultivated for culinary uses, propagated by offsets. In some regions (\"long-season areas\"), the offsets are usually planted in autumn (September or October in the Northern Hemisphere). In some other regions, the suggested planting time for the principal crop is early spring (typically in February or the beginning of March in the Northern Hemisphere).  In planting, the tops of the bulbs should be kept a little above ground, and the soil surrounding the bulbs is often drawn away when the roots have taken hold. They come to maturity in summer, although fresh shallots can now be found year-round in supermarkets. Shallots should not be planted on ground recently manured. Shallots suffer damage from leek moth larvae, which mine into the leaves or bulbs of the plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary uses.", "content": "Shallots are used in cooking. They may be pickled. Finely-sliced deep-fried shallots are used as a condiment in Asian cuisine, often served with porridge. As a species of \"Allium\", shallots taste somewhat like a common onion, but have a milder flavor. Like onions, when sliced, raw shallots release substances that irritate the human eye, resulting in production of tears.  Fresh shallots can be stored in cool, dry area (0 to 4 °C, 32 to 40 °F, 60 to 70% RH) for six months or longer. Chopped, dried shallots are available.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "In Europe, the Pikant, Atlas, and Ed's Red types of shallots are the most common. In parts of southern France, the grey type is grown widely.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Asia.", "content": "Shallots are the traditional choice for many dishes in Sri Lankan cuisine, including pol sambola, lunu miris and many meat, fish and vegetable dishes.  In most Indian cuisines, the distinction between onions and shallots is weak; larger varieties of shallot are sometimes confused with small red onions and used interchangeably. Indeed, most parts of India use the regional name for onion interchangeably with shallot (Maharashtra, for instance, where both are called \"kanda\"). The southern regions of India distinguish shallots from onions in recipes more often, especially the much loved tiny varieties (about the width of a finger); these are widely used in curries and different types of \"sambar\", a lentil-based dish. Shallots pickled in red vinegar are common in many Indian restaurants, served along with sauces and papad on the condiments tray. Indians also use it as a home remedy for sore throats, mixed with jaggery or sugar. In Nepal, shallots are used as one of the ingredients for making \"momo\". In Kashmir shallots are widely used in preparation of Wazwan Kashmiri cuisine, as they add distinct flavor and prevent curry from becoming black, which is common with onions.  In Iran shallots are used in various ways, the most common being grated shallot mixed into dense yogurt, a combination served in almost every restaurant when one orders grills or kebabs. Shallots are also used to make different types of \"torshi\" (ترشی), a sour Iranian side dish consisting of a variety of vegetables under vinegar, eaten with main dishes in small quantities. Shallot is also pickled—called \"shour\" (شور) in Persian—along with other vegetables to be served as \"torshi\".  In Southeast Asian cuisines, such as those of Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Brunei, both shallots and garlic are often used as elementary spices. Raw shallots can also accompany cucumbers when pickled in mild vinegar solution. They are also often chopped finely, then fried until golden brown, resulting in tiny crispy shallot chips called \"bawang goreng\" (fried shallots) in Indonesian, which can be bought ready-made from groceries and supermarkets. Shallots enhance the flavor of many Southeast Asian dishes, such as fried rice variants. Crispy shallot chips are also used in southern Chinese cuisine. In Indonesia, shallots are sometimes made into pickles that are added to several traditional foods; the pickles' sourness is thought to increase the appetite.  The tubular green leaves of the plant can also be eaten and are very similar to the leaves of spring onions and chives.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The shallot is a type of onion, specifically a botanical variety of the species \"Allium cepa\". The shallot was formerly classified as a separate species, \"A. ascalonicum\", a name now considered a synonym of the currently accepted name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972431}
{"src_title": "Roger Milla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born in the Cameroonian capital of Yaoundé, he moved constantly as a child because of his father's railroad job. He signed for his first club in Douala as a 13-year-old. At 18, he won his first league championship with Léopard Douala. In 1976, by which time he had moved to Tonnerre Yaoundé, he was named African Footballer of the Year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Moving to France.", "content": "In 1977, he was lured to Europe by the French club Valenciennes. There he scored 6 goals in 28 league games over 2 seasons. In 1979 he joined AS Monaco scoring twice in 17 league games in one season.  The next year, he joined Bastia where he scored 35 goals in 113 league appearances for the first team. He next moved to Saint-Etienne in 1984 scoring 31 times in 59 league games. He then starred for Montpellier from 1986 to 1989, where he later went on to become a member of the club's coaching staff after retiring from French football.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "After leaving France in 1987 Milla moved to Réunion in the Indian Ocean where he played for JS Saint-Pierroise. He then returned to Tonnerre in Cameroon for four seasons. He closed out his playing days with two clubs in Indonesia from after the 1994 World Cup to 1996.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Milla was capped 77 times for the national team, scoring 43 goals. Milla made his first appearance for Cameroon in 1973 versus Zaire in a World Cup qualifier. He was a member of Cameroon's team at the 1982 FIFA World Cup, having a goal disallowed against Peru in their first match. Cameroon went out with three draws from their three first-round games. Two years later, he was part of the squad competing at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, California.  In 1988, at the age of 36, Milla celebrated his retirement from international football with a jubilee in Cameroon. However, in 1990, he received a phone call from the President of Cameroon Paul Biya, who pleaded with him to come out of international retirement and rejoin the national team. He agreed, and went to Italy with the \"Indomitable Lions\" for the 1990 World Cup, where he would cause a sensation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1990 World Cup.", "content": "38-year-old Milla emerged as one of the tournament's major stars. He scored four goals in Italy, celebrating each one with a dance around the corner flag that has become a popular goal celebration ever since. Two of his goals came against Romania in Cameroon's second game, and two more came in extra time against Colombia in the last 16 to carry Cameroon to the quarter-finals, the furthest an African team had ever advanced at the World Cup (Senegal matched this feat in 2002, as did Ghana in 2010). In the quarter-final match against England, Milla confirmed his super-sub legend by entering in the second half with Cameroon trailing 1–0 and drawing a penalty and then setting up a goal for Ekeke to give Cameroon a 2–1 lead, before England later scored two penalties, to win 3–2 after extra time. Due to his performances in Italy, he was once again named African Footballer of the Year.  His second goal celebration against Colombia was the subject of the 2010 World Cup Coca-Cola advertisement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1994 World Cup.", "content": "Milla returned to the 1994 FIFA World Cup at the age of 42, being the oldest player ever to appear in a World Cup until the 2014 tournament when Colombia's Faryd Mondragón entered in a group stage match versus Japan being 43 years and 3 days old, setting a new record. Mondragon's record in turn was beaten by Essam El Hadary in 2018. Cameroon were knocked out in the group stages; however, Milla scored a goal against Russia, setting a record as the oldest goalscorer in a World Cup tournament, breaking the record he had set in 1990. His final international appearance came in a friendly against South Africa in December 1994.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-playing career.", "content": "He is now an itinerant ambassador for African causes. In 2004, he was named to the FIFA 100, a list of the 125 greatest living footballers selected by Pelé in conjunction with FIFA's centenary celebrations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Léopards Douala  Tonnerre Yaoundé  Monaco  Bastia  Montpellier  Cameroon  Individual  Orders", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albert Roger Miller (born 20 May 1952), known as Roger Milla, is a Cameroonian former professional footballer who played as a forward. He was one of the first African players to be major stars on the international stage. He played in three World Cups for the Cameroon national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972432}
{"src_title": "History of Czechoslovakia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Political history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical background to 1918.", "content": "The creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918 was the culmination of a struggle for ethnic identity and self-determination that had simmered within the multi-national empire ruled by the Austrian Habsburg family in the 19th century. The Czechs had lived primarily in Bohemia since the 6th century, and German immigrants had settled the Bohemian periphery since the 13th century. After 1526, Bohemia came under the control of the House of Habsburg as their scions first became the elected rulers of Bohemia, then the hereditary rulers of the country. Following the Battle of White Mountain in 1620,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The First Republic (1918–1938).", "content": "The independence of Czechoslovakia was officially proclaimed in Prague on 28 October 1918 in Smetana Hall of the Municipal House, a physical setting strongly associated with nationalist feeling. The Slovaks officially joined the state two days later in the town of Martin. A temporary constitution was adopted, and Tomáš Masaryk was declared president on 14 November. The Treaty of St. Germain, signed in September 1919, formally recognized the new republic. Ruthenia was later added to the Czech lands and Slovakia by the Treaty of Trianon in June 1920. There were also various border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia due to the anexion of Zaolzie region.  The new state was characterized by problems with its ethnic diversity, the separate histories of the Czech and Slovak peoples and their greatly differing religious, cultural, and social traditions. The Germans and Magyars (Hungarians) of Czechoslovakia openly agitated against the territorial settlements. Nevertheless, the new republic saw the passage of a number", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Second Republic (1938–1939).", "content": "Although Czechoslovakia was the only central European country to remain a parliamentary democracy during the entire period 1918 to 1938, it faced problems with ethnic minorities such as Hungarians, Poles and Sudeten Germans, the most important of which was the country's large German population. The Germans constituted 3 to 3.5 million out of 14 million of the interwar population of Czechoslovakia and were largely concentrated in the Bohemian and Moravian border regions known as the \"Sudetenland\" in German. Some members of this minority, which was predominantly sympathetic to Germany, attempted to undermine the new Czechoslovak state.  Adolf Hitler's rise in Nazi Germany in", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second World War.", "content": "Beneš and other Czechoslovak exiles in London organized a Czechoslovak Government-in-Exile and negotiated to obtain international recognition for the government and a renunciation of the Munich Agreement. The government was recognized by the government of the United Kingdom with the approval of Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax on 18 July 1940. In July and December 1941, the Soviet Union and United States also recognized the exiled government, respectively.  Czechoslovak military units fought alongside Allied forces. In December 1943, Beneš's government concluded a treaty with the", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Third Republic (1945–1948) and the Communist takeover (1948).", "content": "The Third Republic came into being in April 1945. Its government, installed at Košice on 4 April, then moved to Prague in May, was a National Front coalition in which three socialist parties—the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ), the Czechoslovak Social democratic Party, and the Czechoslovak National Socialist Party—predominated. Certain non-socialist parties were included in the coalition, among them the Catholic People's Party (in Moravia) and the Democratic Party of Slovakia.  Following Nazi Germany's surrender, some 2.9 million ethnic Germans", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1948–1989).", "content": "In February 1948, the Communists took power in the 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état, and Edvard Beneš inaugurated a new cabinet led by Klement Gottwald. Czechoslovakia was declared a \"people's democracy\" (until 1960) – a preliminary step towards socialism and, ultimately, communism. Bureaucratic centralism under the direction of KSČ leadership was introduced. Dissident elements were purged from all levels of society, including the Roman Catholic Church. The ideological principles of Marxism-Leninism and socialist realism pervaded cultural and intellectual life.  The economy was committed to comprehensive central planning and the abolition of private ownership of capital. Czechoslovakia became a satellite state of the Soviet Union; it was a founding member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) in 1949 and of the Warsaw Pact in 1955. The attainment of Soviet-style command socialism became the government's avowed policy.  Slovak autonomy was constrained; the Communist Party of Slovakia (KSS) was reunited with the KSČ (Communist Party of Czechoslovakia), but retained its own identity. Following the Soviet example, Czechoslovakia began emphasizing the rapid development of heavy industry. Although Czechoslovakia's industrial growth of 170 percent between 1948 and 1957 was impressive, it was far exceeded by that of Japan (300 percent) and the Federal Republic of Germany (almost 300 percent) and more than equaled by Austria and Greece.  Beneš refused to sign the Communist Constitution of 1948 (the Ninth-of-May Constitution) and resigned from the presidency; he was succeeded by Klement Gottwald. Gottwald died in March 1953. He was", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Democratic Czechoslovakia (1989–1992).", "content": "A coalition government, in which the Communist Party had a minority of ministerial positions, was formed in December 1989. The first free elections in Czechoslovakia since 1946 took place in June 1990 without incident and with more than 95% of the population voting. As anticipated, Civic Forum and Public Against Violence won landslide victories in their respective republics and gained a comfortable majority in the federal parliament. The parliament undertook substantial steps toward securing", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dissolution of Czechoslovakia.", "content": "By 1992, Slovak calls for greater autonomy effectively blocked the daily functioning of the federal government. In the election of June 1992, Klaus's Civic Democratic Party won handily in the Czech lands on a platform of economic reform. Vladimír Mečiar's Movement for a Democratic Slovakia emerged as the leading party in Slovakia, basing its appeal on fairness to Slovak demands for autonomy. Federalists, like Havel, were unable to contain the trend toward the split. In July", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economic history.", "content": "At the time of the communist takeover, Czechoslovakia was devastated by WWII. Almost 1 million people, out of a prewar population of 15 million, had been killed. An additional 3 million Germans were expelled in 1946. In 1948, the government began to stress heavy industry over agricultural and consumer goods and services. Many basic industries and foreign trade, as well as domestic wholesale trade, had been nationalized before the communists took power. Nationalization of most of the retail trade was completed in 1950–1951.  Heavy industry received major economic support during the 1950s. Although the labor force was traditionally skilled and efficient, inadequate incentives for", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "From creation to dissolution – overview.", "content": "N/A", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "With the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy at the end of World War I, the independent country of Czechoslovakia (Czech, Slovak: Československo) was formed as a result of the critical intervention of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, among others.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972433}
{"src_title": "Blowfish (cipher)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The algorithm.", "content": "Blowfish has a 64-bit block size and a variable key length from 32 bits up to 448 bits. It is a 16-round Feistel cipher and uses large key-dependent S-boxes. In structure it resembles CAST-128, which uses fixed S-boxes.  The adjacent diagram shows Blowfish's encryption routine. Each line represents 32 bits. There are five subkey-arrays: one 18-entry P-array (denoted as K in the diagram, to avoid confusion with the Plaintext) and four 256-entry S-boxes (S0, S1, S2 and S3).  Every round \"r\" consists of 4 actions: The F-function splits the 32-bit input into four eight-bit quarters, and uses the quarters as input to the S-boxes. The S-boxes accept 8-bit input and produce 32-bit output. The outputs are added modulo 2 and XORed to produce the final 32-bit output (see image in the upper right corner).  After the 16th round, undo the last swap, and XOR L with K18 and R with K17 (output whitening).  Decryption is exactly the same as encryption, except that P1, P2,..., P18 are used in the reverse order. This is not so obvious because xor is commutative and associative. A common misconception is to use inverse order of encryption as decryption algorithm (i.e. first XORing P17 and P18 to the ciphertext block, then using the P-entries in reverse order).  Blowfish's key schedule starts by initializing the P-array and S-boxes with values derived from the hexadecimal digits of pi, which contain no obvious pattern (see nothing up my sleeve number). The secret key is then, byte by byte, cycling the key if necessary, XORed with all the P-entries in order. A 64-bit all-zero block is then encrypted with the algorithm as it stands. The resultant ciphertext replaces P and P. The same ciphertext is then encrypted again with the new subkeys, and the new ciphertext replaces P and P. This continues, replacing the entire P-array and all the S-box entries. In all, the Blowfish encryption algorithm will run 521 times to generate all the subkeys - about 4KB of data is processed.  Because the P-array is 576 bits long, and the key bytes are XORed through all these 576 bits during the initialization, many implementations support key sizes up to 576 bits. The reason for that is a discrepancy between the original Blowfish description, which uses 448-bit keys, and its reference implementation, which uses 576-bit keys. The test vectors for verifying third party implementations were also produced with 576-bit keys. When asked which Blowfish version is the correct one, Bruce Schneier answered: \"The test vectors should be used to determine the one true Blowfish\".  Another opinion is that the 448 bits limit is present to ensure that every bit of every subkey depends on every bit of the key, as the last four values of the P-array don't affect every bit of the ciphertext. This point should be taken in consideration for implementations with a different number of rounds, as even though it increases security against an exhaustive attack, it weakens the security guaranteed by the algorithm. And given the slow initialization of the cipher with each change of key, it is granted a natural protection against brute-force attacks, which doesn't really justify key sizes longer than 448 bits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blowfish in pseudocode.", "content": "uint32_t P[18]; uint32_t S[4][256];  uint32_t f (uint32_t x) {  void encrypt (uint32_t & L, uint32_t & R) {  void decrypt (uint32_t & L, uint32_t & R) {", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blowfish in practice.", "content": "Blowfish is a fast block cipher, except when changing keys. Each new key requires the pre-processing equivalent of encrypting about 4 kilobytes of text, which is very slow compared to other block ciphers. This prevents its use in certain applications, but is not a problem in others.  In one application Blowfish's slow key changing is actually a benefit: the password-hashing method (crypt $2, i.e. bcrypt) used in OpenBSD uses an algorithm derived from Blowfish that makes use of the slow key schedule; the idea is that the extra computational effort required gives protection against dictionary attacks. \"See\" key stretching.  Blowfish has a memory footprint of just over 4 kilobytes of RAM. This constraint is not a problem even for older desktop and laptop computers, though it does prevent use in the smallest embedded systems such as early smartcards.  Blowfish was one of the first secure block ciphers not subject to any patents and therefore freely available for anyone to use. This benefit has contributed to its popularity in cryptographic software.  bcrypt is a password hashing function which, combined with a variable number of iterations (work \"cost\"), exploits the expensive key setup phase of Blowfish to increase the workload and duration of hash calculations, further reducing threats from brute force attacks.  bcrypt is also the name of a cross-platform file encryption utility developed in 2002 that implements Blowfish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weakness and successors.", "content": "Blowfish's use of a 64-bit block size (as opposed to e.g. AES's 128-bit block size) makes it vulnerable to birthday attacks, particularly in contexts like HTTPS. In 2016, the SWEET32 attack demonstrated how to leverage birthday attacks to perform plaintext recovery (i.e. decrypting ciphertext) against ciphers with a 64-bit block size. The GnuPG project recommends that Blowfish not be used to encrypt files larger than 4 GB due to its small block size.  A reduced-round variant of Blowfish is known to be susceptible to known-plaintext attacks on reflectively weak keys. Blowfish implementations use 16 rounds of encryption, and are not susceptible to this attack. Nevertheless, Bruce Schneier has recommended migrating to his Blowfish successor, Twofish.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Blowfish is a symmetric-key block cipher, designed in 1993 by Bruce Schneier and included in many cipher suites and encryption products. Blowfish provides a good encryption rate in software and no effective cryptanalysis of it has been found to date. However, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) now receives more attention, and Schneier recommends Twofish for modern applications.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972434}
{"src_title": "Feistel cipher", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical.", "content": "Feistel networks were first seen commercially in IBM's Lucifer cipher, designed by Horst Feistel and Don Coppersmith in 1973. Feistel networks gained respectability when the U.S. Federal Government adopted the DES (a cipher based on Lucifer, with changes made by the NSA). Like other components of the DES, the iterative nature of the Feistel construction makes implementing the cryptosystem in hardware easier (particularly on the hardware available at the time of DES's design).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theoretical work.", "content": "Many modern and also some old symmetric block ciphers are based on Feistel networks (e.g. GOST 28147-89 block cipher), and the structure and properties of Feistel ciphers have been extensively explored by cryptographers. Specifically, Michael Luby and Charles Rackoff analyzed the Feistel cipher construction, and proved that if the round function is a cryptographically secure pseudorandom function, with K used as the seed, then 3 rounds are sufficient to make the block cipher a pseudorandom permutation, while 4 rounds are sufficient to make it a \"strong\" pseudorandom permutation (which means that it remains pseudorandom even to an adversary who gets oracle access to its inverse permutation).  Because of this very important result of Luby and Rackoff, Feistel ciphers are sometimes called Luby–Rackoff block ciphers. Further theoretical work has generalized the construction somewhat, and given more precise bounds for security.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction details.", "content": "Let formula_1 be the round function and let formula_2 be the sub-keys for the rounds formula_3 respectively.  Then the basic operation is as follows:  Split the plaintext block into two equal pieces, (formula_4, formula_5)  For each round formula_6, compute  Where formula_9 means XOR. Then the ciphertext is formula_10.  Decryption of a ciphertext formula_10 is accomplished by computing for formula_12  Then formula_15 is the plaintext again.  One advantage of the Feistel model compared to a substitution–permutation network is that the round function formula_16 does not have to be invertible.  The diagram illustrates both encryption and decryption. Note the reversal of the subkey order for decryption; this is the only difference between encryption and decryption.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unbalanced Feistel cipher.", "content": "Unbalanced Feistel ciphers use a modified structure where formula_4 and formula_5 are not of equal lengths. The Skipjack cipher is an example of such a cipher. The Texas Instruments digital signature transponder uses a proprietary unbalanced Feistel cipher to perform challenge–response authentication.  The Thorp shuffle is an extreme case of an unbalanced Feistel cipher in which one side is a single bit. This has better provable security than a balanced Feistel cipher but requires more rounds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "The Feistel construction is also used in cryptographic algorithms other than block ciphers. For example, the optimal asymmetric encryption padding (OAEP) scheme uses a simple Feistel network to randomize ciphertexts in certain asymmetric key encryption schemes.  A generalized Feistel algorithm can be used to create strong permutations on small domains of size not a power of two (see format-preserving encryption).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feistel networks as a design component.", "content": "Whether the entire cipher is a Feistel cipher or not, Feistel-like networks can be used as a component of a cipher's design. For example, MISTY1 is a Feistel cipher using a three-round Feistel network in its round function, Skipjack is a modified Feistel cipher using a Feistel network in its G permutation, and Threefish (part of Skein) is a non-Feistel block cipher that uses a Feistel-like MIX function.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List of Feistel ciphers.", "content": "Feistel or modified Feistel:  Generalised Feistel:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In cryptography, a Feistel cipher is a symmetric structure used in the construction of block ciphers, named after the German-born physicist and cryptographer Horst Feistel who did pioneering research while working for IBM (USA); it is also commonly known as a Feistel network. A large proportion of block ciphers use the scheme, including the Data Encryption Standard (DES). The Feistel structure has the advantage that encryption and decryption operations are very similar, even identical in some cases, requiring only a reversal of the key schedule. Therefore, the size of the code or circuitry required to implement such a cipher is nearly halved.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972435}
{"src_title": "Markus Söder", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career in Bavarian politics.", "content": "Söder has been a member of the Landtag, the state parliament of Bavaria, since 1994. From 2003 to 2007 he was secretary general of the CSU party; in this capacity, he worked closely with then Minister-President and party chairman Edmund Stoiber. During his time in office, he was also part of the CDU/CSU team in the negotiations with the SPD on a coalition agreement following the 2005 federal elections, which paved the way to the formation of Chancellor Angela Merkel’s first government.  Söder has since been member of the Beckstein, Seehofer I and II cabinets. From 2007 to 2008 he was Bavaria's State Minister for Federal and European Affairs, the successor office of Foreign Minister of Bavaria, and from 2008 to 2011 State Minister for Environment and Health.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "State Minister of Finance, 2011–2018.", "content": "As finance minister in the state government of Minister-President Horst Seehofer, Söder was also one of the state’s representatives at the Bundesrat, where he served on the Finance Committee.  During his time in office, Söder was put in charge of overseeing the restructuring process of ailing state-backed lender BayernLB in a bid to win approval for an aid package from the European Commission. In 2014, he pushed BayernLB to sell its Hungarian MKB unit to that country's government, ending an ill-fated investment that had cost it a total of 2 billion euros ($2.7 billion) in losses over 20 years. In 2015, Söder and his Austrian counterpart Hans Jörg Schelling agreed a provisional deal that settled the two governments’ array of legal disputes stemming from the collapse of the Carinthian regional bank Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank International. Under the memorandum of understanding, Austria would pay €1.23 billion to Bavaria. All legal cases relating to the dispute would also be dropped.  Also in 2012, Söder and Minister-President Horst Seehofer filed a lawsuit in the Federal Constitutional Court, asking the judges to back their call for an overhaul of the German system of financial transfers from wealthier states (such as Bavaria) to the country's weaker economies. On Söder's initiative, Bavaria became the first regional government in Volkswagen's home country to take legal action against the carmaker for damages caused by its emissions-test cheating scandal. At the time, Söder argued that the state's pension fund for civil servants had lost as much as 700,000 euros ($780,000) as a consequence of the scandal.  When Seehofer came under pressure after the CSU had suffered heavy losses in the 2017 national elections, he decided to remain party chairman but agreed to hand over leadership of Bavaria to Söder.  In March 2018, lawmakers formally elected Söder as new Minister-President to replace Horst Seehofer, who had become German interior minister in Chancellor Angela Merkel’s new cabinet. He received 99 of the 169 state deputies’ votes, with 64 voting against – a better result than Seehofer when he began his final term in 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minister-President of Bavaria, 2018–present.", "content": "In January 2019, CSU delegates elected Söder to replace Seehofer as their leader with an 87.4 percent majority at a party conference. He was the sole candidate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Role in national politics.", "content": "Söder was a CSU delegate to the Federal Convention for the purpose of electing the President of Germany in 1999, 2004, 2009, 2010, 2012 and 2017.  In the negotiations to form a coalition government of the Christian Democrats (CDU together with the Bavarian CSU) and the Free Democratic Party (FDP) following the 2009 federal elections, Söder was part of the CDU/CSU delegation in the working group on health policy, led by Ursula von der Leyen and Philipp Rösler.  In the negotiations to form a \"Grand Coalition\" of the Christian Democrats and the Social Democrats (SPD) following the 2013 federal elections, Söder was part of the CDU/CSU delegation in the working groups on financial policy and the national budget, led by Wolfgang Schäuble and Olaf Scholz, and on bank regulation and the Eurozone, led by Herbert Reul and Martin Schulz.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political positions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European integration.", "content": "During the Greek government-debt crisis, Söder was among the most vocal in calling for Greece to leave the Eurozone. By 2012, he said in an interview: \"Athens must stand as an example that this Eurozone can also show teeth.\"  In early 2018, Söder reiterated his opposition against any expansion of the eurozone to include countries like Bulgaria and Romania; the introduction of Eurobonds; and the creation of a European finance minister post.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Domestic policy.", "content": "In 2012, under Söder's leadership, Bavaria pledged €500,000 ($687,546) in public funding for the Munich-based Institute for Contemporary History (IfZ) to produce a critical, annotated version of Adolf Hitler’s \"Mein Kampf\" for publication in 2015 when the copyright expired. Söder said at the time that the publication would aim to \"demystify\" Hitler's manifesto. By 2013, however, the Bavarian state government ended its funding for the project.  Throughout the European migrant crisis, Söder has sharply criticized the migrant policies of Angela Merkel several times. He warned of a \"huge security gap\" that remained because the whereabouts of hundred thousands of migrants was still unclear and he strongly doubted that the integration of so many people could succeed. In Söder's view, the Germans didn't want a multicultural society. Refugees should return to their home countries whenever possible. The dictum \"Wir schaffen das\" (\"We make it\") of Chancellor Merkel was \"not the right signal\", instead he suggested \"Wir haben verstanden\" (\"We have understood\").  In 2018, Söder's government enacted the \"Kreuzpflicht\", an obligation to display crosses at the entrance of public buildings. Söder has stated that the crosses are not to be seen as Christian symbols, but as symbols of Bavarian cultural identity.  During his campaign for the 2018 state elections, Söder appealed to traditionalists while also seeking to enhance Bavaria's high-tech \"laptops and Lederhosen\" reputation with a promise of a new space programme for the state and more high-speed internet access.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Foreign policy.", "content": "In his capacity as Minister-President, Söder has made several foreign trips, including for meetings with President Sahle-Work Zewde of Ethiopia (2019) and President Vladimir Putin of Russia (2020).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Söder has been married to Karin Baumüller since 1999; Baumüller is one of the owners of Nuremberg-based Baumüller Group, a leading manufacturer of electric automation and drive systems. The couple have three children. In addition, Söder has a daughter from an earlier relationship.  Söder is a Protestant. He is also known for his extravagant costumes during the carnival season which have included Shrek and Marilyn Monroe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Markus Söder (born 5 January 1967) is a German politician serving as Minister President of Bavaria since 2018 and Leader of the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU) since 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972436}
{"src_title": "Fell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The English word \"fell\" comes from Old Norse \"fell\" and \"fjall\" (both forms existed). It is cognate with Danish \"fjeld\", Faroese \"fjall\" and \"fjøll\", Icelandic \"fjall\" and \"fell\", Norwegian \"fjell\" with dialects \"fjøll\", \"fjødd\", \"fjedd\", \"fjedl\", \"fjill\", \"fil(l)\", and \"fel\", and Swedish \"fjäll\", all referring to mountains rising above the alpine tree line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "British Isles.", "content": "In Northern England, especially in the Lake District and in the Pennine Dales, the word \"fell\" originally referred to an area of uncultivated high ground used as common grazing usually on common land and above the timberline. Today, generally, \"fell\" refers to the mountains and hills of the Lake District and the Pennine Dales.  Names that originally referred to grazing areas have been applied to these hilltops. This is the case with Seathwaite Fell, for example, which would be the common grazing land used by the farmers of Seathwaite. The fellgate marks the road from a settlement onto the fell (see photograph for example), as is the case with the Seathwaite Fell. In other cases the reverse is true; for instance, the name of Wetherlam, in the Coniston Fells, though understood to refer to the mountain as a whole, strictly speaking refers to the summit; the slopes have names such as Tilberthwaite High Fell, Low Fell and Above Beck Fells. The word \"fell\" is also used in the names of various breeds of livestock, bred for life on the uplands, such as Rough Fell sheep, Fell Terriers and Fell ponies.  It is also found in many place names across the North of England, often attached to the name of a community; thus the township of Cartmel Fell.  In northern England, there is a Lord of the Fells – this ancient aristocratic title being associated with the Lords of Bowland.  Groups of cairns are a common feature on many fells, often marking the summit – there are fine examples on Wild Boar Fell in Mallerstang Dale, Cumbria, and on Nine Standards Rigg just outside Kirkby Stephen, Cumbria.  As the most mountainous region of England, the Lake District is the area most closely associated with the sport of fell running, which takes its name from the fells of the district. \"Fellwalking\" is also the term used locally for the activity known in the rest of Great Britain as hillwalking.  The word \"fell\" also enjoys limited use in Scotland, with for example the Campsie Fells in Central Scotland, to the North East of Glasgow. One of the most famous examples of the use of the word \"fell\" in Scotland is Goat Fell, the highest point on the Isle of Arran. Criffel and the nearby Long Fell in Galloway may be seen from the northern Lake District of England. Peel Fell in the Kielder Forest is situated on the border between the Scottish Borders to the North and the English county of Northumberland to the South.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fennoscandia.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Norway.", "content": "In Norway, \"fjell\", in common usage, is generally interpreted as simply a summit or area of greater altitude than a hill, which leads to a great deal of local variation in what is defined as a \"fjell\". Fjell is mostly used about areas above the forest line. Distinct summits can be referred to as \"et fjell\" (a mountain). High plateaus (\"vidde\" landscape) such as Hardangervidda are also regarded as fjell. Professor of geography at the University of Bergen, Anders Lundeberg, has summed up the problem by stating, \"There simply is no fixed and unambiguous definition of \"fjell\".\" Ivar Aasen defined \"fjell\" as a \"tall \"berg\"\", primarily referring to a \"berg\" that reaches an altitude where trees don't grow, lower \"berg\" are referred to as \"berg\", \"ås\" (hill, ridge) or \"hei\" (moor, heathland). The fixed expression \"til fjells\" refers to mountains (or uplands) as a collective rather than a specific location or specific summit (the \"s\" in \"til fjells\" is an old genitive form remaining only in fixed expressions). According to Ivar Aasen, \"berg\" refers to cliffs, bedrock and notable elevations of the surface underpinned by bedrock; \"berg\" also refers to the substance of bedrock. For all practical purposes, \"fjell\" can be translated as \"mountain\" and the Norwegian language has no other commonly used word for mountain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sweden.", "content": "In Sweden, \"fjäll\" refers to any mountain or upland high enough that forest will not naturally survive at the top, in effect a mountain tundra. \"Fjäll\" is primarily used to describe mountains in the Nordic countries, but also more generally to describe mountains shaped by massive ice sheets, primarily in Arctic and subarctic regions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Finland.", "content": "In Finnish, the mountains characteristic of the region of Lapland are called \"tunturi\" (plural: \"tunturit\"), i.e. \"fell\". A \"tunturi\" is a hill high enough that its top is above the tree line and has alpine tundra. In Finnish, the geographical term \"vuori\" is used for mountains recently uplifted and with jagged terrain featuring permanent glaciers, while \"tunturi\" refers to the old, highly eroded, gently shaped terrain without glaciers, as found in Finland. They are round inselbergs rising from the otherwise flat surroundings. The tree line can be at a rather low altidude, such as 600 m in Enontekiö, owing to the high latitude. The fells in Finnish Lapland form vestiges of the Karelides mountains, formed two billion years ago. Also, the term \"tunturi\" is also generally used to refer to treeless plains at high altitudes in far north regions. The term \"tunturi\", originally a word limited to far-Northern dialects of Finnish and Karelian, is a loan from Sami, compare Proto-Sami \"*tuontër\", South Sami \"doedtere\", Northern Sami \"duottar\", Inari Sami \"tuodâr\" \"uplands, mountains, tundra\", Kildin Sami \"tūndâr\", which means \"uplands, treeless mountain tract\" and is cognate with Finnish \"tanner\" \"hard ground\". From this Sami word, the word \"tundra\" is borrowed, as well, through the Russian language. Hills that are over 50 m high, but do not reach the tree line are referred to as \"vaara\", while the general term for hills including hills of 50 m or less is \"mäki\". In place names, however, \"tunturi\", \"vaara\" and \"vuori\" are used inconsistently, e.g. Rukatunturi is technically a \"vaara\", as it lacks alpine tundra.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Förfjäll.", "content": "The term \"förfjäll\" (literally \"fore-fell\") is used in Sweden and Finland to denote mountainous zones lower and less dissected than the fell proper. However, its more pronounced relief, its often higher amount of plateaux, and its coherent valley systems distinguishes the \"förfjäll\" also from the undulating hilly terrain (\"bergkullsterräng\") and the plains with residual hills (\"bergkullslätt\"). Generally, the \"förfjäll\" do not surpass 1000 m ASL. As a geomorphic unit, the \"förfjäll\" extends across Sweden as a 650-km-long and 40- to 80-km-broad belt from Dalarna in the south to Norrbotten in the north.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A fell (from Old Norse \"fell\", \"fjall\", \"mountain\") is a high and barren landscape feature, such as a mountain range or moor-covered hills. The term is most often employed in Fennoscandia, the Isle of Man, parts of Northern England, and Scotland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972437}
{"src_title": "Tracy Chapman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Chapman was born in Cleveland, Ohio. Her parents divorced when she was four years of age. She was raised by her mother, who bought her music-loving three-year-old daughter a ukulele despite having little money. Chapman began playing the guitar and writing songs at age eight. She says that she may have been first inspired to play the guitar by the television show \"Hee Haw\". Chapman's family received welfare. In her native Cleveland, school desegregation efforts led to racial unrest and even riots; Chapman has stated that she experienced frequent bullying and racially motivated assaults as a child.  Raised as a Baptist, Chapman attended an Episcopal high school and was accepted into the program A Better Chance, which sponsors students at college preparatory high schools away from their home community. She graduated from Wooster School in Connecticut, then attended Tufts University, graduating with a B.A. degree in Anthropology and African studies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Chapman made her major-stage debut as an opening act for women's music pioneer Linda Tillery at Boston's Strand Theater on May 3, 1985. Another Tufts student, Brian Koppelman, heard Chapman playing and brought her to the attention of his father, Charles Koppelman. Koppelman, who ran SBK Publishing, signed Chapman in 1986. After Chapman graduated from Tufts in 1987, he helped her to sign a contract with Elektra Records. At Elektra, she released \"Tracy Chapman\" (1988). The album was critically acclaimed, and she began touring and building a fanbase. \"Fast Car\" began its rise on the U.S. charts soon after she performed it at the televised Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute concert in June 1988; it became a number 6 pop hit on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 for the week ending August 27, 1988. \"Rolling Stone\" ranked the song number 167 on their 2010 list of \"The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time\". It is the highest-ranking song on the \"Rolling Stone\" list that was both performed and solely written by a female artist. \"Talkin' 'bout a Revolution\", the follow-up to \"Fast Car\", charted at number 75 and was followed by \"Baby Can I Hold You\", which peaked at number 48. The album sold well, going multi-platinum and winning three Grammy Awards, including an honor for Chapman as Best New Artist. Later in 1988, Chapman was a featured performer on the worldwide Amnesty International Human Rights Now! Tour.  Chapman's follow-up album, \"Crossroads\" (1989), was less commercially successful than her debut had been, but it still achieved platinum status. By 1992's \"Matters of the Heart\", Chapman was playing to a small but devoted audience. Her fourth album, \"New Beginning\" (1995), proved successful, selling over three million copies in the U.S. The album included the hit single \"Give Me One Reason\", which won the 1997 Grammy for Best Rock Song and became Chapman's most successful single to date, peaking at Number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100. Following a four-year hiatus, her fifth album, \"Telling Stories\", was released in 2000. Its hit single, \"Telling Stories\", received heavy airplay on European radio stations and on Adult Alternative and Hot AC stations in the United States. Chapman toured Europe and the United States in 2003 in support of her sixth album, \"Let It Rain\" (2002).  To support her seventh studio album, \"Where You Live\" (2005), Chapman toured major U.S. cities in October and toured Europe over the remainder of the year. The \"Where You Live\" tour was extended into 2006; the 28-date European tour featured summer concerts in Germany, Italy, France, Sweden, Finland, Norway, the UK, Russia and more. On June 5, 2006, she performed at the 5th Gala of Jazz in Lincoln Center, New York, and in a session at the 2007 TED (Technology Entertainment Design) conference in Monterey, California.  Chapman was commissioned by the American Conservatory Theater to compose music for its production of Athol Fugard's \"Blood Knot\", a play on apartheid in South Africa, staged in early 2008.  Atlantic Records released Chapman's eighth studio album, \"Our Bright Future\" (2008). Chapman made a 26-date solo tour of Europe. She returned to tour Europe and selected North American cities during the summer of 2009. She was backed by Joe Gore on guitars, Patrick Warren on keyboards, and Dawn Richardson on percussion.  Chapman was appointed a member of the 2014 Sundance Film Festival U.S. Documentary jury.  Chapman performed Ben E. King's \"Stand By Me\" on one of the final episodes of the \"Late Show with David Letterman\" in April 2015. The performance became a viral hit and was the focus of various news articles including some by \"Billboard\" and \"The Huffington Post\".  On November 20, 2015, Chapman released \"Greatest Hits\", consisting of 18 tracks including the live version of \"Stand by Me\", the album is Chapman's first global compilation release.  In October 2018, Chapman sued the rapper Nicki Minaj over copyright infringement, alleging that Minaj had sampled her song \"Baby Can I Hold You\" without permission. Chapman's lawsuit requested an injunction to prevent Minaj releasing the song \"Sorry\" and stated that she had \"repeatedly denied\" permission for \"Baby Can I Hold You\" to be sampled. Chapman had previously expressed her reservations about being sampled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social activism.", "content": "Chapman is a politically and socially active musician. In a 2009 interview with American radio network NPR, she said, \"I'm approached by lots of organizations and lots of people who want me to support their various charitable efforts in some way. And I look at those requests and I basically try to do what I can. And I have certain interests of my own, generally an interest in human rights.\" She has performed at numerous socially aware events, and continues to do so. In 1988, she performed in London as part of a worldwide concert tour to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights with Amnesty International. The same year Chapman also performed in the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute, an event which raised money for South Africa's Anti-Apartheid Movement and seven children's charities. In 2004, Chapman performed (and rode) in the AIDS/LifeCycle event.  Chapman has also been involved with Cleveland's elementary schools. A music video produced by Chapman that highlights significant achievements in African-American history has become an important teaching tool in Cleveland Public Schools. Chapman also agreed to sponsor a \"Crossroads in Black History\" essay contest for high school students in Cleveland and other cities.  Chapman received an honorary doctorate from Saint Xavier University in Chicago in 1997. In 2004, Chapman was given an honorary doctorate in Fine Arts by her alma mater, Tufts University, recognizing her commitment to social activism.  Chapman often performs at and attends charity events such as Make Poverty History, amfAR, and AIDS/LifeCycle, to support social causes. She identifies as a feminist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Although Chapman has never publicly disclosed her sexual orientation, writer Alice Walker has stated that she and Chapman were in a romantic relationship during the mid-1990s. Chapman maintains a strong separation between her personal and professional life. \"I have a public life that's my work life and I have my personal life,\" she said. \"In some ways, the decision to keep the two things separate relates to the work I do.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tracy Chapman (born March 30, 1964) is an American singer-songwriter, known for her hits \"Fast Car\" and \"Give Me One Reason\", along with other singles \"Talkin' 'bout a Revolution\", \"Baby Can I Hold You\", \"Crossroads\", \"New Beginning\", and \"Telling Stories\". She is a multi-platinum and four-time Grammy Award–winning artist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972438}
{"src_title": "Loft", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Loft and attic.", "content": "In U.S usage a loft is an upper room or story in a building, mainly in a barn, directly under the roof, used for storage (as in most private houses). In this sense it is roughly synonymous with attic, the major difference being that an attic typically constitutes an entire floor of the building, while a loft covers only a few rooms, leaving one or more sides open to the lower floor. In British usage, lofts are usually just a roof space accessed via a hatch and loft ladder, while attics tend to be rooms immediately under the roof accessed via a staircase. Lofts may have a specific purpose, e.g. an \"organ loft\" in a church, or to sleep in (sleeping loft). In barns a hayloft is often larger than the ground floor as it would contain a year's worth of hay.  An attic or loft can often be converted to form functional living accommodation (see loft conversion).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Loft apartment.", "content": "Loft apartments are apartments that are generally built from former industrial buildings. When industrial developments are developed into condominiums instead of apartments, they may be called loft condominiums. The general term warehouse-to-loft conversions may sometimes be used for development of industrial buildings into apartments and condominiums. \"Loft-style\" may also refer simply to developments where a street-level business occupies the first floor while apartment \"lofts\" are placed \"above\" the first floor.  Sometimes, loft apartments are one component of municipal urban renewal initiatives that also include renovation of industrial buildings into art galleries and studio space as well as promotion of a new part of the city as an \"arts district\".  Originally popular with artists, they are now highly sought-after by other bohemians and hipsters, and the gentrification of the former manufacturing sectors of medium to large cities is now a familiar pattern. One such sector is Manhattan's Meatpacking District. The adoption of the Adaptive Reuse Ordinance (2001) in the City of Los Angeles (primarily the Arts District) is another example of such legislation to encourage the conversion of no longer economically viable industrial and commercial buildings to residential loft communities. Such is the demand for these spaces that real estate developers have taken to creating ready-made \"lofts\" in urban areas that are gentrifying or that seem primed to do so. While some of these units are created by developers during the renovation of old buildings, a number of them are included in the floor plans of brand new developments. Both types of pre-fab loft offer buyers or renters proximity to urban amenities afforded by traditional lofts, but without perceived safety risks of living in economically depressed formerly industrial areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industrial/hard loft.", "content": "Real estate industry distinguishes between two kinds of lofts. \"Hard lofts\" are former industrial buildings converted to residential or live/work use. Many of these conversions retain open ceilings with exposed beams, electrical wiring and HVAC ducts instead of modern suspended ceilings or sheetrock ceilings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soft loft.", "content": "\"Soft lofts\" are loft-style residential buildings built entirely anew. They are open-concept spaces with high ceilings, large windows, brickwork and cement ceilings. Soft lofts can be warmer and have modern finishes but lack the history of hard lofts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other lofts.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial loft.", "content": "A commercial loft refers to upper storey space, usually in a commercial or industrial building with higher ceilings; a second storey area for storage or offices above may be added within the original space used by a previous business occupant, effectively becoming a mezzanine area within the commercial loft space. Such adaptation of loft space, can result in better operating efficiencies for ongoing light industrial, commercial and work/live use.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Live/work loft.", "content": "A Live/work loft is a residential unit located in a commercially zoned building that has either been issued a certificate of residential occupancy or meets specific criteria making it eligible for the protection of loft laws, which vary state by state. In New York State, a live/work loft must meet the following criteria:  Loft Law was designed to protect artists and other entrepreneurs working from home. To qualify for the Loft Law protection, the unit must be primarily residential with the commercial purpose being clearly incidental to the residential use; utilising no more than 49% of the total space; with no more than 3 employees; and be carried on by the actual occupant of the unit.  Historically, loft residents consisted of artists and other artisans taking advantage of cheap rents, large spaces and load-bearing floors. Loft residences were illegal and loft dwellers resided under commercial leases, forgoing basic residential rights such as hot water and sanitation. To relieve their plight, many state legislatures enacted loft laws.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mould loft.", "content": "A long building at a shipyard with a considerable floor area on which the lines produced by a naval architect can be laid off in their full dimensions. After that the full-size drawings can be copied with the aid of wooden moulds to which, in turn, the steel frames or, in the case of wooden vessels, the hull moulds, are fashioned (see lofting).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rigging loft.", "content": "An elevated area or gallery in a shipyard where workers stand while fitting rigging.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Parachute loft.", "content": "A large, open, high ceilinged space where parachute riggers re-pack parachutes into parachute containers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sail loft.", "content": "A large open space used by sailmakers to make sails. The floor has to be big enough to lay out the sail as the canvas is marked and cut ready for sewing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Church architecture.", "content": "Some churches have a choir loft, where the singers stand or sit during services. Sometimes the church organ is located in an organ loft, which may or may not have space for musicians apart from the organist. Churches may also contain triforiums with projecting watching-lofts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loft conversions.", "content": "It is fairly common to convert all or part of a home into a loft to create an extra room in order to prevent needing to move to a new house. The most common additions are an extra bedroom or study. The attic area of a building tends to be unused, but when converted can add a large amount of floor space.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pigeon loft.", "content": "Housing for domestic pigeons are often called pigeon lofts. Pigeon lofts consist of a large cage or aviary and sometimes a nest box. They were a traditional amenity, now usually abandoned or repurposed in the palaces of nobility and commercial buildings that predate telegraphy.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A loft can be an upper story or attic in a building, directly under the roof (U.S usage) or just a storage space under the roof usually accessed by a ladder (British usage). A loft apartment refers to large adaptable open space, often converted for residential use (a converted loft) from some other use, often light industrial. Adding to the confusion, some converted lofts include upper open loft areas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972439}
{"src_title": "Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Count of Maurepas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "He was born at Versailles, of a family of administrative nobility, the son of Jérôme Phélypeaux, secretary of state for the marine and the royal household. Under the guidance of his father, his grandfather and his cousin Louis Phélypeaux, marquis de La Vrillière, Jean-Frederic was trained from childhood to be secretary of state to the king of France. Jean-Frederic had right en survivance to the position of secretary of state, under Philippe II, as his father Jerome had purchased the office with the right of inheritance.  In 1718 at the age of 17, Jean became the minister of the royal household and Comte de Maurepas under the guardianship of his cousin La Vrillière. Shortly after he married the daughter of his cousin, Marie-Jeanne. Five years later on the 16th of August he began his duties as ministre de la marine to Louis XV administering the navy, colonies and seaborne trade. In 1738 he was promoted to the council of state, and in time aided the king, alongside several other ministers in making significant political decisions. Jean continued his administrative career after the death of his guardian, and was ministre de la marine until April 23, 1749, when he was removed in a coup.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political rising.", "content": "Skilled in military and naval strategy, Maurepas enabled the French navy to regain previously lost prestige and France was once again recognized as a maritime power. One way that he improved the French reputation was by focusing on the defense of France's sprawling empire in the New World, especially in the 1730s and 1740s. His defense plans were aided by information on British naval manoeuvres, lists of what ships were coming to North America and detailed memoirs of ship construction. Jean-Frederic obtained this information through maintaining an intelligence service that was considered one of the most efficient in Europe. This was only made possible due to the drastic funding increases he managed to obtain for the Troupes de la Marine. The typical budget appropriated to the marine from the mid-1720s to mid-1730s was 9 million livres; in 1739, however, Jean-Frederic managed to obtain a budget of 19.2 million livres. In the following years he acquired budgets of 20 million livres in 1740, 26 million in 1741 and 27 million in 1742. Over his career as administrator he held the positions of chamberlain of the royal household, minister of the marine, and director of the secret service, fulfilling his duties with efficiency and precision.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political decline.", "content": "In 1749, Maurepas was removed by a coup led by Duke of Richelieu, putting an end to his period of immense success. He was exiled from Paris for an epigram against Madame de Pompadour, and went to Bourges and then onto Pontchartrain. In 1774, he was appointed to minister of state to Louis XVI, as well as chief adviser, holding both positions until 1781. He gave Turgot the direction of finance, placed Lamoignon-Malesherbes over the royal household and made Vergennes minister for foreign affairs. At the outset of his new career he showed his weakness by recalling to their functions, in deference to popular clamour, the members of the old Parlement ousted by Maupeou, thus reconstituting the most dangerous enemy of the royal power. This step, and his intervention on behalf of the American states, helped to pave the way for the French Revolution.  Jealous of his personal ascendancy over Louis XVI, he intrigued against Turgot, whose disgrace in 1776 was followed after six months of disorder by the appointment of Jacques Necker. In 1781 Maurepas deserted Necker as he had done Turgot, and he died at Versailles on 21 November 1781.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Maurepas is credited with contributions to the collection of facetiae known as the \"Etrennes de la Saint Jean\" (2nd ed., 1742). Four volumes of \"Memoires de Maurepas\", purporting to be collected by his secretary and edited by J.L.G. Soulavie in 1792, included information on the North American colonies, the fall of Louisbourg, trade in the Caribbean, the censorship of books and administration. He also recorded extensive information on all naval matters including naval construction, navigation sailing instructions and fighting at sea. The collection of memoirs is now in the possession of Cornell University.  Lake Maurepas, Louisiana, USA was named for him, showing his surviving influence on the New World.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, 1st Count of Maurepas (9 July 1701 – 21 November 1781) was a French statesman and Count of Maurepas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972440}
{"src_title": "Tornio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The delta of the Torne river has been inhabited since the end of the last ice age, and there are currently (1995) 16 settlement sites (\"boplatsvallar\") known in the area, similar to those found in Vuollerim (c. 6000–5000 BC). The Swedish part of the region is not far from the oldest permanent settlement site found in Scandinavia. A former hypothesis that this region was uninhabited and \"colonised\" from the Viking Age onward has now been abandoned.  The church spire at Tornio was one of the landmarks used by de Maupertuis in his measurements. The church was constructed in 1686 by Matti Joosepinpoika Härmä.  Until the 19th century, inhabitants of the surrounding countryside spoke Finnish, and Kemi Sami, a language of the Eastern Sami group similar to Finnish, while those of the town were mainly Swedish-speaking.  The name 'Tornio' is an old Finnish word meaning war spear: the city is named after the river. To Swedish it was borrowed as \"Torneå\" after \"Torne å\", an alternative name of the river.  The town received its charter from the King of Sweden in 1621 and was officially founded on the island of Suensaari (possibly named after one of the main landowners of the past). The charter was granted in recognition of Tornio being the hub of all trade in Lapland throughout the 16th century. It was the largest merchant town in the North at the time and for some years ranked as the richest town in the Swedish realm. Despite the lively trade with Lapland and overseas, the population of the town remained stable for hundreds of years at little over 500.  During the 18th century Tornio was visited by several expeditions from Central Europe which came to explore the Arctic. The most notable expedition (1736–1737) was led by a member of the Académie française, Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, who came to take meridian arc measurements along the Meänmaa which would show that the globe is flattened towards the poles.  The Lapland trade on which Tornio depended started to decline in the 18th century, and the harbour had to be moved downriver twice as a result of the rising of the land (post-glacial rebound), which made the river too shallow for navigation. However, the greatest blow to the wealth of the town came in the last war between Sweden and Russia in 1808, which saw the Russians capture and annexe Finland. The border was drawn through the deepest channel of the Muonio and Tornio rivers, splitting Lapland into two parts, with deleterious effects on trade. Tornio ended up on the Russian side of the border by special request of the Russian czar. The Swedes developed the village of Haaparanta (present day Haparanda) on their side of the border, to balance the loss of Tornio, and Tornio became unilingually Finnish.  During the Russian period Tornio was a sleepy garrison town. Trade only livened up during the Crimean War and the First World War, when Tornio became an important border crossing for goods and people. During the First World War Tornio and Haparanda had the only rail link connecting the Russians to their Western allies.  After the independence of Finland in 1917 Tornio lost its garrison and experienced further decline. although its population increased steadily. The town played no role of importance in the Finnish Civil War, but was the scene of some fierce street fighting at the onset of the Lapland War between Finland and Nazi Germany. The rapid liberation of the town by Finnish forces probably saved it from being burned down like so many other towns in Lapland. As a result, the beautiful wooden church from 1686 can still be admired today.  After World War II, the town created new employment built on the success of the local Lapin Kulta brewery and the Outokumpu stainless steel mill. Tourism based on the border has also been a growing industry. The town is a centre of education for Western Lapland with a vocational college and a university of applied sciences.  Tornio and Haparanda have a history as twin cities, and are currently set to merge under the names TornioHaparanda and HaparandaTornio. A new city centre is under construction on the international border and several municipal services are shared. The towns also share a common golf course, situated astride the border. The new IKEA store in Haparanda has signposting in Finnish as well as in Swedish, and all prices are signposted in two currencies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Tornion Palloveikot, or just ToPV, is a bandy club which play in the Bandyliiga and has become Finnish bandy champions several times. They play their home matches in Haparanda, just on the other side of the Swedish border, which was the venue for games at the 2001 Bandy World Championship.  Teemu Tainio, footballer, was born in Tornio.  Jesse Puljujärvi, ice hockey player, lived his childhood in Tornio.  Ville Pokka, ice hockey player, was born and raised in Tornio.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Tornio has a subarctic climate (Dfc) that is slightly tempered in winter by its proximity to the sea, but retains warm continental summers that are quite short. The weatherbox is from neighbouring city Haparanda and operated by Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. Despite the fact that Tornio experiences polar day between 15 and 27 June (13 days) it does not experience polar night.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "A break of gauge occurs at Tornio between the Finnish and Swedish railway systems. A bogie exchange and variable gauge axle track gauge changing facility are provided. Tornio has a passenger service provided from Tornio-East station by Finnish Railways VR three days a week overnight.  Kemi-Tornio Airport is located in Kemi, about south-east from Tornio city centre.  Highway 29 (part of the European route E8) between Keminmaa and Tornio is the world's northernmost motorway. Tornio is also the northern terminus of European Route E4.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin cities.", "content": "Tornio's closest economic and cultural ties are with its immediate neighbour:  Tornio also has links with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tornio (; ) is a city and municipality in Lapland, Finland. The city forms a cross-border twin city together with Haparanda on the Swedish side. The municipality covers an area of, of which is water. The population density is, with a total population of (). It borders the Swedish municipality of Haparanda (in ).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972441}
{"src_title": "François Christophe de Kellermann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "François Christophe de Kellermann came from a Saxon family, which was long settled in Strasbourg and ennobled. He was the only son of a family living in the French province of Alsace. His father was François de Kellermann (or Johann Christoph Edler von Kellermann) and his mother, Baroness Marie Magdalene von Dyhrn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career prior to the Revolution.", "content": "The fifteen-year-old François Kellermann entered the French Army as a cadet volunteer with a hussar regiment: the \"Régiment de Loweridath\". He was commissioned as an ensign in the \"Royal-Bavière\" infantry regiment and promoted to captain in 1758 in the course of the Seven Years' War. On one occasion he distinguished himself by capturing 300 prisoners, while leading a small cavalry detachment. In 1771 Kellermann saw active service in Poland, becoming a chevalier of the Order of Saint-Louis. A further promotion to \"capitaine-commandant\" followed in 1776 before he became major in the Hussars of Conflans (\"Hussards de Conflans\") three years later. Kellermann became brigadier-general in 1784, and in the following year \"marechal-de-camp\". While a number of Napoleon's marshals served in the Royal army prior to the Revolution, Kellermann was the only one to have reached such senior rank under the former regime.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revolutionary career.", "content": "In 1789 Kellermann enthusiastically embraced the cause of the French Revolution, and in 1791 became general of the army in Alsace. In April 1792 he was made a lieutenant-general, and in August of the same year there came to him the opportunity of his lifetime. He rose to the occasion, and his victory over the Prussians at the Battle of Valmy, in Goethe's words, \"opened a new era in the history of the world\". Napoleon later commented that: \"I think I'm the boldest general that ever lived, but I daren't take post on that ridge with windmill at Valmy (where Kellermann took position) in 1793\".  Transferred to the army on the Moselle, Kellermann was accused by General Adam Custine of neglecting to support his operations on the Rhine; but he was acquitted at the bar of the National Convention in Paris, and placed at the head of the army of the Alps and of Italy, in which position he showed himself a careful commander and excellent administrator.  Shortly afterwards he received instructions to reduce Lyons, then in revolt against the Convention, but shortly after the surrender he was imprisoned in Paris for thirteen months. Once more honourably acquitted, he was reinstated in his command, and did good service in maintaining the south-eastern border against the Austrians until his army was merged into that of General Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imperial career.", "content": "Kellermann was then sixty-two years of age, still physically equal to his work, but the young generals who had come to the front in the previous two years represented the new spirit and the new art of war, and Kellermann's active career came to an end. But the hero of Valmy was never forgotten. When Napoleon came to power Kellermann was named successively senator (1800), president of the Senate (1801), honorary Marshal of France (19 May 1804), and title of Duke of Valmy (1808).  In his service to the First French Empire, Kellermann was frequently employed in the administration and training of the army. He also took control of the line of communications and the command of reserve troops, and his long and wide experience made him one of Napoleon's most valuable assistants. In 1814 he voted for the deposition of the emperor and became a peer under the royal government of Louis XVIII. After the \"Hundred Days\" he sat in the Chamber of Peers and voted with the Liberals.  Marshal Kellermann died in Paris on 23 September 1820, and is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery.  His son François Étienne de Kellermann, 2nd Duke of Valmy, also fought for Napoleon and was promoted to cavalry general after the Battle of Marengo. Kellermann's grandson was the politician François Christophe Edmond de Kellermann.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François-Étienne-Christophe Kellermann or de Kellermann, 1st Duke of Valmy (; 28 May 1735 – 23 September 1820) was a French military commander, later the Général d'Armée, a Marshal of the Empire and a freemason. Marshal Kellermann served in varying roles throughout the entirety of two epochal conflicts, the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. Kellermann is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 3.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972442}
{"src_title": "Pearl Harbor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Pearl Harbor was originally an extensive shallow embayment called \"Wai Momi\" (meaning, “Waters of Pearl”) or \"Puuloa\" (meaning, “long hill”) by the Hawaiians. Puuloa was regarded as the home of the shark goddess, Kaahupahau, and her brother (or son), Kahiuka, in Hawaiian legends. According to tradition, Keaunui, the head of the powerful Ewa chiefs, is credited with cutting a navigable channel near the present Puuloa saltworks, by which he made the estuary, known as \"Pearl River,\" accessible to navigation. Making due allowance for legendary amplification, the estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is; but Keaunui is typically given the credit for widening and deepening it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nineteenth century.", "content": "During the early nineteenth century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The interest of United States in the Hawaiian Islands grew as a result of its whaling, shipping and trading activity in the Pacific. As early as 1820, an \"Agent of the United States for Commerce and Seamen\" was appointed to look after American business in the Port of Honolulu. These commercial ties to the American continent were accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. American missionaries and their families became an integral part of the Hawaiian political body.  Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu. In most cases, the commanding officers carried letters from the U.S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper \"Polynesian\", printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U.S. establish a naval base in Hawaii for protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, remarked in 1840 that \"... my opinion is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States.\"  From the conclusion of the Civil War, to the purchase of Alaska, to the increased importance of the Pacific states, the projected trade with countries in Asia and the desire for a duty-free market for Hawaiian staples, Hawaiian trade expanded. In 1865, the North Pacific Squadron was formed to embrace the western coast and Hawaii. in the following year was assigned to cruise among the islands, \"a locality of great and increasing interest and importance.\" This vessel surveyed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands toward Japan. As a result, the United States claimed Midway Island. The Secretary of the Navy was able to write in his annual report of 1868, that in November 1867, 42 American flags flew over whaleships and merchant vessels in Honolulu to only six of other nations. This increased activity caused the permanent assignment of at least one warship to Hawaiian waters. It also praised Midway Island as possessing a harbor surpassing Honolulu's. In the following year, Congress approved an appropriation of $50,000 on March 1, 1869, to deepen the approaches to this harbor. After 1868, when the Commander of the Pacific Fleet visited the islands to look after American interests, naval officers played an important role in internal affairs. They served as arbitrators in business disputes, negotiators of trade agreements and defenders of law and order. Periodic voyages among the islands and to the mainland aboard U.S. warships were arranged for members of the Hawaiian royal family and important island government officials. When King Lunalilo died in 1873, negotiations were underway for the cession of Pearl Harbor as a port for the duty-free export of sugar to the U.S. With the election of King Kalākaua in March 1874, riots prompted landing of sailors from USS \"Tuscarora\" and. The British warship,, also landed a token force. During the reign of King Kalākaua the United States was granted exclusive rights to enter Pearl Harbor and to establish \"a coaling and repair station.\"  Although this treaty continued in force until August 1898, the U.S. did not fortify Pearl Harbor as a naval base. As it had for 60 years, the shallow entrance constituted a formidable barrier against the use of the deep protected waters of the inner harbor.  The United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom signed the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 as supplemented by Convention on December 6, 1884. This treaty was ratified in 1887. On January 20, 1887, the United States Senate allowed the Navy the exclusive right to maintain a coaling and repair station at Pearl Harbor. (The US took possession on November 9 that year). The Spanish–American War of 1898 and the desire for the United States to have a permanent presence in the Pacific both contributed to the decision.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Naval presence (1899–present).", "content": "Following the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, the United States Navy established a base on the island in 1899. On December 7, 1941, the base was attacked by the Imperial Japanese Navy airplanes and midget submarines, causing the American entry into World War II. There was no meaningful plan for the air defense of Hawaii, for American commanders had no understanding of the capabilities and proper employment of air power. As it was, had the Pacific Fleet acted on the war warnings it undoubtedly would have sortied and been at sea on December 7, where the major ships would have been sunk in deep water, making salvage impossible. Shortly after the devastating Japanese surprise attack at Pearl Harbor two American military commanders, Lt. Gen. Walter Short and Adm. Husband Kimmel, were demoted of their full ranks. The two American commanders later sought to restore their reputations and full ranks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-World War II.", "content": "Over the years, Pearl Harbor remained a main base for the US Pacific Fleet after World War II along with Naval Base San Diego. In 2010, the Navy and the Air Force merged their two nearby bases; Pearl Harbor joined with Hickam Air Force Base to create Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam.  In December 2016, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe made a joint visit to Pearl Harbor with US President Barack Obama. This trip marked the 75th anniversary of the attack, and was the first official visit by a sitting Japanese leader.  In December 2019, A US Navy sailor killed two civilian workers and wounded another, before shooting himself at the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It has been long visited by the Naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands is now a United States Navy deep-water naval base. It is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. The U.S. government first obtained exclusive use of the inlet and the right to maintain a repair and coaling station for ships here in 1887. The attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7, 1941, was the immediate cause of the United States' entry into World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972443}
{"src_title": "Jane Campion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Campion was born in Wellington, New Zealand, the second daughter of Edith Campion (née Beverley Georgette Hannah), an actress, writer, and heiress; and Richard M. Campion, a teacher, and theatre and opera director. Her maternal great-grandfather was Robert Hannah, a well-known shoe manufacturer for whom Antrim House was built. Her father came from a family engaged in the Exclusive Brethren Christian evangelical movement. Along with Jane's sister Anna, a year and a half her senior, and brother, Michael, seven years her junior, Campion grew up in the world of New Zealand theatre. Their parents founded the New Zealand Players. Jane initially rejected the idea of a career in the dramatic arts, and graduated instead with a Bachelor of Arts in Anthropology from Victoria University of Wellington in 1975.  In 1976, she enrolled in the Chelsea Art School in London, and traveled throughout Europe. She earned a graduate diploma in visual arts (painting) from the Sydney College of the Arts at the University of Sydney in 1981. Campion's later film work was shaped in part by her art school education; she has, even in her mature career, cited painter Frida Kahlo and sculptor Joseph Beuys as influences.  Campion's dissatisfaction with the limitations of painting led her to filmmaking and the creation of her first short, \"Tissues,\" in 1980. In 1981, she began studying at the Australian Film, Television and Radio School, where she made several more short films and graduated in 1984.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Campion's first short film, \"Peel\" (1982), won the Short Film \"Palme d'Or\" at the 1986 Cannes Film Festival, and other awards followed for the shorts \"Passionless Moments\" (1983), \"A Girl's Own Story\" (1984), and \"After Hours\" (1984). After leaving the Australian Film and Television School, she directed an episode for ABC's light entertainment series \"Dancing Daze\" (1986), which led to her first TV film, \"Two Friends\" (1986), produced by Jan Chapman.  Her feature debut, \"Sweetie\" (1989), won international awards. Further recognition came with \"An Angel at My Table\" (1990), a biographical and psychological portrayal of the New Zealand writer Janet Frame. Widespread recognition followed with \"The Piano\" (1993), which won the Palme d'Or at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival, Best Director from the Australian Film Institute, and an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay in 1994. At the 66th Academy Awards, Campion was the second woman ever to be nominated for Best Director.  Campion's subsequent work has tended to polarize opinion. \"The Portrait of a Lady\" (1996), based on the Henry James novel, featured Nicole Kidman, John Malkovich, Barbara Hershey and Martin Donovan. \"Holy Smoke!\" (1999) teamed Campion again with Harvey Keitel, this time with Kate Winslet as the female lead. \"In the Cut\" (2003), an erotic thriller based on Susanna Moore's bestseller, provided Meg Ryan an opportunity to depart from her more familiar onscreen persona. Her 2009 film \"Bright Star,\" a biographical drama about poet John Keats (played by Ben Whishaw) and his lover Fanny Brawne (Abbie Cornish), was shown at the Cannes Film Festival. In an interview with Jan Lisa Huttner, Campion discussed how she focused on Fanny's side of the story, pointing out that only two of the film's scenes did not feature her.  Campion created, wrote and directed the TV mini-series \"Top of the Lake\", which received near universal acclaim, won numerous awards—including, for its lead actress Elisabeth Moss, a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film and a Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Movie/Miniseries—and was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie. Campion was also nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Dramatic Special.  She was the head of the jury for the Cinéfondation and Short Film sections at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival and the head of the jury for the main competition section of the 2014 Cannes Film Festival.  When Canadian filmmaker Xavier Dolan received the Prix du Jury for his film \"Mommy\", he said that Campion's \"The Piano\" \"...made me want to write roles for women—beautiful women with soul, will and strength, not victims or objects.\" Campion responded by rising from her seat to give him a hug.  In 2014 it was announced that Campion was nearing a deal to direct an adaptation of Rachel Kushner's novel \"The Flamethrowers\".  In 2015 Campion confirmed that she would co-direct and co-write a second season of \"Top of the Lake\" with the story moved to Sydney and Harbour City, Hong Kong, and with Elisabeth Moss reprising her role as Robin Griffin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1992, she married Colin David Englert, an Australian who worked as a second unit director on \"The Piano\". Their first child, a son named Jasper, was born in 1993 but lived for only 12 days. Their second child, a daughter named Alice Englert, was born in 1994; she is an actress. The couple divorced in 2001.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "From the beginning of her career, Campion's work has received high praise from critics all around. In V.W. Wexman's \"Jane Campion: Interviews\", critic David Thomson describes Campion \"as one of the best young directors in the world today.\" Similarly, in Sue Gillett's \"More Than Meets The Eye: The Mediation of Affects in Jane Campion's 'Sweetie',\" Campion's work is described as \"perhaps the fullest and truest way of being faithful to the reality of experience\"; by utilizing the \"unsayable\" and \"unseeable,\" she manages to catalyze audience speculation. Campion's films tend to gravitate around themes of gender politics, such as seduction and female sexual power. This has led some to label Campion's body of work as feminist. However, Rebecca Flint Marx argues, \"while not inaccurate, [the feminist label] fails to fully capture the dilemmas of her characters and the depth of her work.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Campion was appointed a Dame Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit in the 2016 New Year Honours, for services to film.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dame Elizabeth Jane Campion (born 30 April 1954) is a New Zealand screenwriter, producer, and director. She is the second of five women ever nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director and the first and only female filmmaker to receive the Palme d'Or, which she received for the acclaimed film \"The Piano\" (1993), for which she also won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972444}
{"src_title": "Alfred Kubin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Kubin was born in Bohemia in the town of Leitmeritz, Austro-Hungarian Empire (now Litoměřice). From 1892 to 1896, he was apprenticed to the landscape photographer Alois Beer, although he learned little. In 1896, he attempted suicide on his mother's grave, and his short stint in the Austrian army the following year ended with a nervous breakdown. In 1898, Kubin began a period of artistic study at a private academy run by the painter Ludwig Schmitt-Reutte, before enrolling at the Munich Academy in 1899, without finishing his studies there. In Munich, Kubin discovered the works of Odilon Redon, Edvard Munch, James Ensor, Henry de Groux, and Félicien Rops. He was profoundly affected by the prints of Max Klinger, and later recounted: \"Here a new art was thrown open to me, which offered free play for the imaginative expression of every conceivable world of feeling. Before putting the engravings away I swore that I would dedicate my life to the creation of similar works\". The aquatint technique used by Klinger and Goya influenced the style of his works of this period, which are mainly ink and wash drawings of fantastical, often macabre subjects. Kubin produced a small number of oil paintings in the years between 1902 and 1910, but thereafter his output consisted of pen and ink drawings, watercolors, and lithographs. In 1911, he became associated with the \"Blaue Reiter\" group, and exhibited with them in the \"Galerie Der Sturm\" in Berlin in 1913. After that time, he lost contact with the artistic avant-garde.  Kubin is considered an important representative of Symbolism and Expressionism and is noted for dark, spectral, symbolic fantasies, often assembled into thematic series of drawings. Like Oskar Kokoschka and Albert Paris Gütersloh, Kubin had both artistic and literary talent. He illustrated the works of Edgar Allan Poe, E.T.A. Hoffmann, and Fyodor Dostoevsky, among others. Kubin also illustrated the German fantasy magazine \"Der Orchideengarten\".  From 1906 until his death, he lived a withdrawn life in a small castle on a 12th-century estate in Zwickledt, Upper Austria. In 1938, at the Anschluss of Austria and Nazi Germany, his work was declared entartete Kunst or \"degenerate art,\" but he managed to continue working during World War II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Other Side\".", "content": "Kubin's only written work was \"Die andere Seite\" () (1908), a fantastic novel set in an oppressive imaginary land. The novel has an atmosphere of claustrophobic absurdity similar to the writings of Franz Kafka, who admired the book. The illustrations for the book were originally intended for \"The Golem\" by Gustav Meyrink, but as that book was delayed, Kubin instead worked his illustrations into his own novel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfred Leopold Isidor Kubin (10 April 1877 – 20 August 1959) was an Austrian printmaker, illustrator, and occasional writer. Kubin is considered an important representative of Symbolism and Expressionism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972445}
{"src_title": "Simplicius Simplicissimus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot overview.", "content": "The novel is told from the perspective of its protagonist Simplicius, a rogue or picaro typical of the picaresque novel, as he traverses the tumultuous world of the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War. Raised by a peasant family, he is separated from his home by foraging dragoons and is adopted by a hermit living in the forest, who teaches him to read and introduces him to religion. The hermit also gives Simplicius his name because he was so simple that he did not know what his own name was. After the death of the hermit, Simplicius must fend for himself. He is conscripted at a young age into service, and from there embarks on years of foraging, military triumph, wealth, prostitution, disease, bourgeois domestic life, and travels to Russia, France, and to an alternative world inhabited by mermen. The novel ends with Simplicius turning to a life of hermitage himself, denouncing the world as corrupt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception and legacy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary criticism.", "content": "The novel is considered by some to contain autobiographic elements, inspired by Grimmelshausen's experience in the war. It has been reported that as a child Grimmelshausen was kidnapped by Hessian and Croatian troops where he eventually served as a musketeer. The historian Robert Ergang, however, draws upon Gustav Könnecke's \"Quellen und Forschungen zur Lebensgeschichte Grimmelshausens\" to assert that \"the events related in the novel \"Simplicissimus\" could hardly have been autobiographical since [Grimmelshausen] lived a peaceful existence in quiet towns and villages on the fringe of the Black Forest and that the material he incorporated in his work was not taken from actual experience, but was either borrowed from the past, collected from hearsay, or created by a vivid imagination.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adaptions.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literary adaptions.", "content": "The adventures of Simplicissimus became so popular that they were reproduced by authors in other European countries. \"Simplicissimus\" was recreated in French, English, and Turkish. A Hungarian \"Simplicissimus\" (\"Ungarischer oder Dacianischer Simplicissimus\") was published in 1683. The author remained anonymous but is now generally considered to be Breslau-born Daniel Speer.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Opera.", "content": "20th-century composer Karl Amadeus Hartmann wrote the anti-war opera \"Simplicius Simplicissimus\" for chamber orchestra in the mid-1930s, with contributions to the libretto by his teacher Hermann Scherchen. It opens: It was first performed in 1948; Hartmann scored it for full orchestra in 1956. The chamber version (properly \"Des Simplicius Simplicissimus Jugend\") was revived by the Stuttgart State Opera in 2004.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "TV series.", "content": ", a historically dramatised TV series based on the book was produced by ZDF in 1975.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Comic strip.", "content": "The story was adapted into a newspaper comic strip by Raymond Lavigne and Gilbert Bloch in 1954.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Cultural legacy.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Town mascot: \"Jägerken von Soest\".", "content": "\"The Hunter of Soest\" () is one of the aliases Simplicius uses in the novel. The city of Soest developed this into the local mascot (the little hunter of Soest) in 1976. Every year a citizen is selected, who then gets to represent the town and charitable projects of his choice in costume.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "\"Simplicissimus House\" in Renchen.", "content": "The is a museum in the town of Renchen. It opened in 1998 and focuses on the reception of Grimmelshausen's works in modern art.  Right in front of it stands a 1977 bronze statue by Giacomo Manzù, showing Simplicius in his \"Hunter of Soest\" character.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Literary references.", "content": "Grimmelshausen's Simplicissimus is used throughout John le Carré's novel \"A Perfect Spy\" (1986) as Magnus Pym's permanent key for one-time pad coding. More importantly, Pym's own life is represented as a picaresque: a boy dragged along in his father's career of frauds, and a man in the British intelligence service, making up lies and exaggerations about his life.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "English translations include: 'Simplicius Simplicissimus' J.J.C.von Grimmelshausen translated and foreword by George Schulz-Behrend 1976. 'The Adventure of Simplicicius Simplicissimus' (Studies in German Literature, Linguistics and Culture) George Schulz-Behrend 1993.  The German text is publicly available through Project Gutenberg: \"Simplicius Simplicissimus\".  PDFs of the original German-language edition, bearing the date 1669 but probably published (according to Dünnhaupt) already in 1668, may be downloaded from the Badische Landesbibliothek Karlsruhe and from the Herzog-August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Simplicius Simplicissimus () is a picaresque novel of the lower Baroque style, written in 1668 by Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen and probably published the same year (although bearing the date 1669). Inspired by the events and horrors of the Thirty Years' War which devastated Germany from 1618 to 1648, it is regarded as the first adventure novel in the German language and the first German novel masterpiece.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972446}
{"src_title": "Lithium-ion battery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battery versus cell.", "content": "A \"cell\" is a basic electrochemical unit that contains the electrodes, separator, and electrolyte.  A \"battery\" or \"battery pack\" is a collection of cells or cell assemblies, with housing, electrical connections, and possibly electronics for control and protection.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anode and cathode electrodes.", "content": "For rechargeable cells, the term \"anode\" (or \"negative electrode\") designates the electrode where \"oxidation\" is taking place during the \"discharge cycle\"; the other electrode is the cathode (or positive electrode). During the \"charge cycle\", the positive electrode becomes the anode and the negative electrode becomes the cathode. For most lithium-ion cells, the lithium-oxide electrode is the positive electrode; for titanate lithium-ion cells (LTO), the lithium-oxide electrode is the negative electrode.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "Lithium batteries were proposed by British chemist and co-recipient of the 2019 Nobel prize for chemistry M. Stanley Whittingham, now at Binghamton University, while working for Exxon in the 1970s. Whittingham used titanium(IV) sulfide and as the electrodes. However, this rechargeable lithium battery could never be made practical. Titanium disulfide was a poor choice, since it has to be synthesized under completely sealed conditions, also being quite expensive (~$1,000 per kilogram for titanium disulfide raw material in 1970s). When exposed to air, titanium disulfide reacts to form hydrogen sulfide compounds, which have an unpleasant odour and are toxic to most animals. For this, and other reasons, Exxon discontinued development of Whittingham's lithium-titanium disulfide battery. Batteries with metallic lithium electrodes presented safety issues, as lithium metal reacts with water, releasing flammable hydrogen gas. Consequently, research moved to develop batteries in which, instead of metallic lithium, only lithium compounds are present, being capable of accepting and releasing lithium ions.  Reversible intercalation in graphite and intercalation into cathodic oxides was discovered during 1974–76 by J. O. Besenhard at TU Munich. Besenhard proposed its application in lithium cells. Electrolyte decomposition and solvent co-intercalation into graphite were severe early drawbacks for battery life.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Commercialization and advances.", "content": "The performance and capacity of lithium-ion batteries increased as development progressed.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery (abbreviated as LIB) is a type of rechargeable battery. Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used for portable electronics and electric vehicles and are growing in popularity for military and aerospace applications. A prototype Li-ion battery was developed by Akira Yoshino in 1985, based on earlier research by John Goodenough, Stanley Whittingham, Rachid Yazami and Koichi Mizushima during the 1970s1980s, and then a commercial Li-ion battery was developed by a Sony and Asahi Kasei team led by Yoshio Nishi in 1991.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972447}
{"src_title": "Brown adipose tissue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location and classification.", "content": "The presence of brown adipose tissue in adult humans was discovered during FDG-PET scans to detect metastatic cancers. Using these scans and data from human autopsies, several brown adipose tissue depots have been identified. In infants, brown adipose tissue depots include, but are not limited to: interscapular, supraclavicular, suprarenal, pericardial, para-aortic and around the pancreas, kidney and trachea. These deposits gradually get more white fat-like during adulthood. In adults, the depots that are most often detected in FDG-PET scans are the supraclavicular, paravertebral, mediastinal, para-aortic and suprarenal ones. It remains to be determined whether these depots are 'classical' brown adipose tissue or beige/brite fat.  Brown fat in humans in the scientific and popular literature refers to two cell populations defined by both anatomical location and cellular morphology. Both share the presence of small lipid droplets and numerous iron-rich mitochondria, giving the brown appearance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Brown fat cells come from the middle embryo layer, mesoderm, also the source of myocytes (muscle cells), adipocytes, and chondrocytes (cartilage cells).  The classic population of brown fat cells and muscle cells both seem to be derived from the same population of stem cells in the mesoderm, paraxial mesoderm. Both have the intrinsic capacity to activate the myogenic factor 5 (Myf5) promoter, a trait only associated with myocytes and this population of brown fat. Progenitors of traditional white fat cells and adrenergically induced brown fat do not have the capacity to activate the Myf5 promoter. Both adipocytes and brown adipocyte may be derived from pericytes, the cells which surround the blood vessels that run through white fat tissue. Notably, this is not the same as the presence of Myf5 protein, which is involved in the development of many tissues.  Additionally, muscle cells that were cultured with the transcription factor PRDM16 were converted into brown fat cells, and brown fat cells without PRDM16 were converted into muscle cells.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "The mitochondria in a eukaryotic cell utilize fuels to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This process involves storing energy as a proton gradient, also known as the proton motive force (PMF), across the mitochondrial inner membrane. This energy is used to synthesize ATP when the protons flow across the membrane (down their concentration gradient) through the ATP synthase enzyme; this is known as chemiosmosis.  In endotherms, body heat is maintained by signaling the mitochondria to allow protons to run back along the gradient without producing ATP (proton leak). This can occur since an alternative return route for the protons exists through an uncoupling protein in the inner membrane. This protein, known as uncoupling protein 1 (thermogenin), facilitates the return of the protons after they have been actively pumped out of the mitochondria by the electron transport chain. This alternative route for protons uncouples oxidative phosphorylation and the energy in the PMF is instead released as heat.  To some degree, all cells of endotherms give off heat, especially when body temperature is below a regulatory threshold. However, brown adipose tissue is highly specialized for this non-shivering thermogenesis. First, each cell has a higher number of mitochondria compared to more typical cells. Second, these mitochondria have a higher-than-normal concentration of thermogenin in the inner membrane.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infants.", "content": "In neonates (newborn infants), brown fat makes up about 5% of the body mass and is located on the back, along the upper half of the spine and toward the shoulders. It is of great importance to avoid hypothermia, as lethal cold is a major death risk for premature neonates. Numerous factors make infants more susceptible to cold than adults:  Heat production in brown fat provides an infant with an alternative means of heat regulation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adults.", "content": "It was believed that after infants grow up, most of the mitochondria (which are responsible for the brown color) in brown adipose tissue disappear, and the tissue becomes similar in function and appearance to white fat. In rare cases, brown fat continues to grow, rather than involuting; this leads to a tumour known as a hibernoma. More recent research has shown that brown fat is related not to white fat, but to skeletal muscle.  Studies using positron emission tomography scanning of adult humans have shown that brown adipose tissue is still present in most adults in the upper chest and neck (especially paravertebrally). The remaining deposits become more visible (increasing tracer uptake, meaning more metabolically active) with cold exposure, and less visible if an adrenergic beta blocker is given before the scan. These discoveries could lead to new methods of weight loss, since brown fat takes calories from normal fat and burns it. Scientists have been able to stimulate brown fat growth in mice. One study of APOE knock out mice showed cold exposure could promote atherosclerotic plaque growth and instability. The study mice were subjected to sustained low temperatures of 4 °C for 8 weeks which may have caused a stress condition, due to rapid forced change rather than a safe acclimatisation, that can be used to understand the effect on adult humans of modest reductions of ambient temperature of just 5 to 10 °C. Furthermore, several newer studies have documented the substantial benefits of cold exposure in multiple species including humans, for example researchers concluded that \"activation of brown adipose tissue is a powerful therapeutic avenue to ameliorate hyperlipidaemia and protect from atherosclerosis\" and that brown fat activation reduces plasma triglyceride and cholesterol levels and attenuates diet-induced atherosclerosis development.  Long term studies of adult humans are needed to establish a balance of benefit and risk, in combination with historical research of living conditions of recent human generations prior to the current increase of poor health related to excessive accumulation of white fat. Pharmacological approaches using β3-adrenoceptor agonists have been shown to enhance glucose metabolic activity of brown adipose tissue in rodents.  Additionally research has shown:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other animals.", "content": "The interscapular brown adipose tissue is commonly and inappropriately referred to as the \"hibernating gland\". Whilst believed by many to be a type of gland, it is actually a collection of adipose tissues lying between the scapulae of rodentine mammals. Composed of brown adipose tissue and divided into two lobes, it resembles a primitive gland, regulating the output of a variety of hormones. The function of the tissue appears to be involved in the storage of medium to small lipid chains for consumption during hibernation, the smaller lipid structure allowing for a more rapid path of energy production than glycolysis.  In studies where the interscapular brown adipose tissue of rats were lesioned, it was demonstrated that the rats had difficulty regulating their normal body-weight.  The longest-lived small mammals, bats (30 years) and naked mole rats (32 years), all have remarkably high levels of brown adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue activity. Furthermore, in ectotherms that span a wide range of latitudes, the within-species longevity is correlated with how far from the equator an individual lives suggesting that cooler environments lead to increased brown adipose tissue activation and increased lifespan across a wide range of species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Brown adipose tissue (BAT) or brown fat makes up the adipose organ together with white adipose tissue (or white fat). Brown adipose tissue is found in almost all mammals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972448}
{"src_title": "Dresdner SC", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "On 30 April 1898, former members of the Dresden English Football Club and of the Neue Dresdner FC (founded in 1893 by former DEFC members and now SpVgg Dresden-Löbtau 1893) founded the Dresdner Sport-Club. Until sports historian Andreas Wittner uncovered the earlier history of the DFC, it was thought to have been founded only in 1890. Early on, \"DSC\" made regular appearances in regional finals and captured several titles. They were a dominant side in the Mitteldeutschen Verbandsliga: from 1925 to 1930 they lost only two of the ninety games they played.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The 30s and 40s.", "content": "\"Dresdner's\" performance slipped for a time, but the club re-emerged as a strong side in the Gauliga Sachsen, one of sixteen top flight divisions established in the re-organization of German football under the Third Reich. They captured the Tschammerpokal – the predecessor of today's German Cup in 1940 and 1941, and followed up with national titles in 1943 and 1944. The club won all 23 games they played during the 1942/43 season, scoring 152 goals and conceding only 16. Their 4:0 win over \"Luftwaffen SV Hamburg\" in Berlin's Olympiastadion made them the last holders of the Viktoria trophy, symbolic of German football supremacy since it was first awarded to \"VfB Leipzig\" in 1903. That trophy was secreted by a Dresden supporter to a bank safe deposit box in what would become East Germany and remained hidden away for decades before finally being returned to the German Football Association (Deutscher Fussball Bund or German Football Association).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post World War II.", "content": "After World War II, all existing sports clubs and other organizations were banned by the Allied occupation authorities in an attempt to create a disconnect from the recent Nazi past. In early 1946, the club was re-constituted as \"SG Friedrichstadt\" and then slipped into oblivion after a fateful appearance in the 1950 East German final. That match, against Soviet-sponsored \"Horch Zwickau\", would be the end of the side which was regarded as being too bourgeois by the communist authorities. \"Zwickau\" played a viciously physical game and, abetted by the referee who refused the homeside substitutions and eventually reduced \"Friedrichstadt\" to an 8-man squad, \"won\" the match 5:1. Unhappy \"Dresdner/Friedrichstadt\" fans invaded the field several times, and at game's end, badly beat a \"Zwickau\" player. Mounted police were called in to restore order. Within weeks, orders came to dismantle the club and send the players to \"BSG Tabak Dresden\". Most of the players instead fled to the west to play for \"Hertha BSC\". What happened to \"Dresdner/Friedrichstadt\" would become commonplace in East Germany as highly placed politicians or bureaucrats manipulated clubs for their own purposes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dissolution.", "content": "At this point the history of the club becomes quite convoluted, with a number of sides laying claim to some part of the heritage of \"Dresdner SC\":  The \"new\" \"Dresdner SC\" was formed at the time of German re-unification, beginning play in the 1991–92 season. They reached the third-tier Regionalliga in 1998, and finished second in the 1999–2000, and supplanting Dynamo Dresden as the top team in the city. They were relegated in 2003, though, which prompted an insolvency and a gradual drop to the local amateur leagues. Since 2012 the club has been playing in the tier seven Landesklasse.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Famous players.", "content": "Helmut Schön played for \"Dresdner/Friedrichstadt\" and would go on to become one of West Germany's most exceptional managers and, in an historical aside, also coached Saarland's World Cup side in 1954.  Richard Hofmann, nicknamed \"King Richard\", scored 24 goals in 25 games for the German national team from 1927 to 1933 He also was one of the integral players in the DSC's cup and championship wins, but was never considered for the national team after 1933 for political reasons.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dresdner Sportclub 1898 e.V., known simply as Dresdner SC, is a German multisport club playing in Dresden, Saxony. Founded on 30 April 1898, the club was a founding member of the German Football Association (Deutscher Fussball Bund or German Football Association) in 1900. The origins of the club go back still further to the predecessor side \"Dresden English Football Club\" formed in 1874 by expatriate Englishmen as Germany's first football club and possibly the earliest in continental Europe: \"Dresdener SC\" was organized by one-time German members of the \"EFC\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972449}
{"src_title": "Alexios IV Angelos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prince in exile.", "content": "The young Alexios was imprisoned in 1195 when Alexios III overthrew Isaac II in a coup. In 1201, two Pisan merchants were employed to smuggle Alexius out of Constantinople to the Holy Roman Empire, where he took refuge with his brother-in-law Philip of Swabia, King of Germany.  According to the contemporary account of Robert of Clari it was while Alexius was at Swabia's court that he met with Marquis Boniface of Montferrat, Philip's cousin, who had been chosen to lead the Fourth Crusade, but had temporarily left the Crusade during the siege of Zara in 1202 to visit Philip. Boniface and Alexios allegedly discussed diverting the Crusade to Constantinople so that Alexios could be restored to his father's throne. Montferrat returned to the Crusade while it wintered at Zara and he was shortly followed by Prince Alexios's envoys who offered to the Crusaders 10,000 Byzantine soldiers to help fight in the Crusade, maintain 500 knights in the Holy Land, the service of the Byzantine navy (20 ships) in transporting the Crusader army to Egypt, as well as money to pay off the Crusaders' debt to the Republic of Venice with 200,000 silver marks. Additionally, he promised to bring the Greek Orthodox Church under the authority of the pope. The Venetians and most of the Leaders were in favour of the plan; however, some were not, and there were defections, including Simon of Montfort. In 1202 the fleet arrived at Constantinople. Alexios was paraded outside the walls, but the citizens were apathetic, as Alexios III, though a usurper and illegitimate in the eyes of the westerners, was an acceptable emperor for the Byzantine citizens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Emperor.", "content": "On 18 July 1203 the Crusaders launched an assault on the city, and Alexios III immediately fled into Thrace. The next morning the Crusaders were surprised to find that the citizens had released Isaac II from prison and proclaimed him emperor, despite the fact that he had been blinded to make him ineligible to rule. The Crusaders could not accept this, and forced Isaac II to proclaim his son Alexios IV co-emperor on 1 August.  Despite Alexios' grand promises, Isaac, the more experienced and practical of the two, knew that the Crusaders' debt could never be repaid from the imperial treasury. Alexios, however, had apparently not grasped how far the empire's financial resources had fallen during the previous fifty years. Alexios did manage to raise half the sum promised (100,000 silver marks), by appropriating treasures from the church and by confiscating the property of his enemies. He then attempted to defeat his uncle Alexios III, who remained in control of Thrace. The sack of some Thracian towns helped Alexios' situation a little, but meanwhile hostility between the restive Crusaders and the inhabitants of Constantinople was growing.  In December 1203 violence exploded between the citizens of Constantinople and the Crusaders. Enraged mobs seized and brutally murdered any foreigner they could lay hands upon, and the Crusaders felt that Alexios had not fulfilled his promises to them. Alexios refused their demands, and is quoted as saying, \"\"I will not do any more than I have done.\"\" While relations with the Crusaders were deteriorating, Alexios had become deeply unpopular with the Greek citizenry, and with his own father. Blinded and nearly powerless, Isaac II resented having to share the throne with his son; he spread rumours of Alexios' supposed sexual perversity, alleging he kept company with \"\"depraved men\"\". The chronicler Nicetas Choniates dismissed Alexios as \"\"childish\"\" and criticized his familiarity with the Crusaders and his lavish lifestyle. At the beginning of January 1204, Alexios IV retaliated against the Crusaders by setting fire to 17 ships filled with inflammable materials and sending them against the Venetian fleet, but the attempt failed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deposition and death.", "content": "At the end of January 1204, the populace of Constantinople rebelled and tried to proclaim a rival emperor Nicholas Canabus who took sanctuary in the bowels of the Hagia Sophia. Alexios IV attempted to reach a reconciliation with the Crusaders, entrusting the anti-western courtier Alexios Doukas Murzuphlus with a mission to gain Crusader support. However, Alexios Doukas imprisoned both Alexios IV and his father on the night of 27–28 January 1204. Isaac II died soon afterwards, possibly of old age or from poison, and Alexios IV was strangled on 8 February. Alexios Doukas was proclaimed emperor as Alexios V. During Alexios IV's brief reign, the empire's territories along the Black Sea coast declared independence, leading to the Byzantine successor state known as the Empire of Trebizond. The volatile situation in Constantinople at the time ensured that the empire had neither the resources nor wherewithal to maintain control of Trebizond, resulting in a de facto recognition of its Independence, although de jure it remained an Imperial possession.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Alexios IV is mentioned in the \"Map of the Seven Knights\" episode of the 5th season of the \"Grimm\" TV series. He is mentioned as a pro-Crusader.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexios IV Angelos or Alexius IV Angelus () (c. 1182 – 8 February 1204) was Byzantine Emperor from August 1203 to January 1204. He was the son of Emperor Isaac II Angelus and his first wife, an unknown Palaiologina, who became a nun with the name Irene. His paternal uncle was his predecessor Emperor Alexios III Angelus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972450}
{"src_title": "Conflict theories", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In classical sociology.", "content": "Of the classical founders of social science, conflict theory is most commonly associated with Karl Marx (1818–1883). Based on a dialectical materialist account of history, Marxism posited that capitalism, like previous socioeconomic systems, would inevitably produce internal tensions leading to its own destruction. Marx ushered in radical change, advocating proletarian revolution and freedom from the ruling classes. At the same time, Karl Marx was aware that most of the people living in capitalist societies did not see how the system shaped the entire operation of society. Just as modern individuals see private property (and the right to pass that property on to their children) as natural, many of the members in capitalistic societies see the rich as having earned their wealth through hard work and education, while seeing the poor as lacking in skill and initiative. Marx rejected this type of thinking and termed it \"false consciousness\", the use of misdirection by the ruling class to obfuscate the exploitation intrinsic to the relationship between the proletariat and the ruling class. Marx wanted to replace this false consciousness with something Friedrich Engels termed \"class consciousness\", the workers' recognition of themselves as a class unified in opposition to capitalists and ultimately to the capitalist system itself. In general, Marx wanted the proletarians to rise up against the capitalists and overthrow the capitalist system.  Two early conflict theorists were the Polish-Austrian sociologist and political theorist Ludwig Gumplowicz (1838–1909) and the American sociologist and paleontologist Lester F. Ward (1841–1913). Although Ward and Gumplowicz developed their theories independently they had much in common and approached conflict from a comprehensive anthropological and evolutionary point-of-view as opposed to Marx's rather exclusive focus on economic factors.  Gumplowicz, in \"Grundriss der Soziologie\" (\"Outlines of Sociology\", 1884), describes how civilization has been shaped by conflict between cultures and ethnic groups. Gumplowicz theorized that large complex human societies evolved from the war and conquest. The winner of a war would enslave the losers; eventually a complex caste system develops. Horowitz says that Gumplowicz understood conflict in all its forms: \"class conflict, race conflict and ethnic conflict\", and calls him one of the fathers of conflict theory.  Ward directly attacked and attempted to systematically refute the elite business class' laissez-faire philosophy as espoused by the hugely popular social philosopher Herbert Spencer. Ward's \"Dynamic Sociology\" (1883) was an extended thesis on how to reduce conflict and competition in society and thus optimize human progress. At the most basic level Ward saw human nature itself to be deeply conflicted between self- and altruism, between emotion and intellect, and between male and female. These conflicts would be then reflected in society and Ward assumed there had been a \"perpetual and vigorous struggle\" among various \"social forces\" that shaped civilization. Ward was more optimistic than Marx and Gumplowicz and believed that it was possible to build on and reform present social structures with the help of sociological analysis.  Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) saw society as a functioning organism. Functionalism concerns \"the effort to impute, as rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom, or practice, its effect on the functioning of a supposedly stable, cohesive system,\" The chief form of social conflict that Durkheim addressed was crime. Durkheim saw crime as \"a factor in public health, an integral part of all healthy societies.\" The collective conscience defines certain acts as \"criminal.\" Crime thus plays a role in the evolution of morality and law: \"[it] implies not only that the way remains open to necessary changes but that in certain cases it directly prepares these changes.\"  Max Weber's (1864–1920) approach to conflict is contrasted with that of Marx. While Marx focused on the way individual behaviour is conditioned by social structure, Weber emphasized the importance of \"social action,\" i.e., the ability of individuals to affect their social relationships.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern approaches.", "content": "C. Wright Mills has been called the founder of \"modern conflict theory\". In Mills's view, social structures are created through conflict between people with differing interests and resources. Individuals and resources, in turn, are influenced by these structures and by the \"unequal distribution of power and resources in the society.\" The power elite of American society, (i.e., the military–industrial complex) had \"emerged from the fusion of the corporate elite, the Pentagon, and the executive branch of government.\" Mills argued that the interests of this elite were opposed to those of the people. He theorized that the policies of the power elite would result in \"increased escalation of conflict, production of weapons of mass destruction, and possibly the annihilation of the human race.\"  Gene Sharp (1928-2018) was a professor emeritus of political science at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. He is known for his extensive writings on nonviolent struggle, which have influenced numerous anti-government resistance movements around the world. In 1983 he founded the Albert Einstein Institution, a non-profit organization devoted to studies and promotion of the use of nonviolent action in conflicts worldwide. Sharp's key theme is that power is not monolithic; that is, it does not derive from some intrinsic quality of those who are in power. For Sharp, political power, the power of any state—regardless of its particular structural organization—ultimately derives from the subjects of the state. His fundamental belief is that any power structure relies upon the subjects' obedience to the orders of the ruler or rulers. If subjects do not obey, leaders have no power. Sharp has been called both the \"Machiavelli of nonviolence\" and the \"Clausewitz of nonviolent warfare.\" Sharp's scholarship has influenced resistance organizations around the world. Most recently the protest movement that toppled President Mubarak of Egypt drew extensively on his ideas, as well as the youth movement in Tunisia and the earlier ones in the Eastern European colour revolutions that had previously been inspired by Sharp's work.  A recent articulation of conflict theory is found in Canadian sociologist Alan Sears' book \"A Good Book, in Theory: A Guide to Theoretical Thinking\" (2008):  Although Sears associates the conflict theory approach with Marxism, he argues that it is the foundation for much \"feminist, post-modernist, anti-racist, and lesbian-gay liberationist theories.\"  Conflict theory has three assumptions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Conflict theory is most commonly associated with Marxism, but as a reaction to functionalism and the positivist method, it may also be associated with a number of other perspectives, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Conflict theory has been criticised for being too politicised by its association with Marx and its widespread use by advocates in numerous causes and movements. Critics also argue it downplays unity in society while taking a negative view of society as one filled with conflicts, tension and coercion.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Conflict theories are perspectives in sociology and social psychology that emphasize a materialist interpretation of history, dialectical method of analysis, a critical stance toward existing social arrangements, and political program of revolution or, at least, reform. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro-level analysis of society.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972451}
{"src_title": "Nitric oxide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Reactions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "With di- and triatomic molecules.", "content": "Upon condensing to a liquid, nitric oxide dimerizes to dinitrogen dioxide, but the association is weak and reversible. The N–N distance in crystalline NO is 218 pm, nearly twice the N–O distance.  Since the heat of formation of ·NO is endothermic, NO can be decomposed to the elements. Catalytic converters in cars exploit this reaction:  When exposed to oxygen, nitric oxide converts into nitrogen dioxide:  This conversion has been speculated as occurring via the ONOONO intermediate.  In water, nitric oxide reacts with oxygen and water to form nitrous acid (HNO). The reaction is thought to proceed via the following stoichiometry:  Nitric oxide reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to form the nitrosyl halides, such as nitrosyl chloride:  With NO, also a radical, NO combines to form the intensely blue dinitrogen trioxide:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organic chemistry.", "content": "The addition of a nitric oxide moiety to another molecule is often referred to as nitrosylation. Nitric oxide reacts with acetone and an alkoxide to a \"diazeniumdiolate\" or \"nitrosohydroxylamine\" and methyl acetate:  This reaction, which was discovered around 1898, remains of interest in nitric oxide prodrug research. Nitric oxide can also react directly with sodium methoxide, forming sodium formate and nitrous oxide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coordination complexes.", "content": "Nitric oxide reacts with transition metals to give complexes called metal nitrosyls. The most common bonding mode of nitric oxide is the terminal linear type (M−NO). Alternatively, nitric oxide can serve as a one-electron pseudohalide. In such complexes, the M−N−O group is characterized by an angle between 120° and 140°. The NO group can also bridge between metal centers through the nitrogen atom in a variety of geometries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production and preparation.", "content": "In commercial settings, nitric oxide is produced by the oxidation of ammonia at 750–900 °C (normally at 850 °C) with platinum as catalyst in the Ostwald process:  The uncatalyzed endothermic reaction of oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N), which is effected at high temperature (>2000 °C) by lightning has not been developed into a practical commercial synthesis (see Birkeland–Eyde process):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Laboratory methods.", "content": "In the laboratory, nitric oxide is conveniently generated by reduction of dilute nitric acid with copper:  An alternative route involves the reduction of nitrous acid in the form of sodium nitrite or potassium nitrite:  The iron(II) sulfate route is simple and has been used in undergraduate laboratory experiments. So-called NONOate compounds are also used for nitric oxide generation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Detection and assay.", "content": "Nitric oxide concentration can be determined using a chemiluminescent reaction involving ozone. A sample containing nitric oxide is mixed with a large quantity of ozone. The nitric oxide reacts with the ozone to produce oxygen and nitrogen dioxide, accompanied with emission of light (chemiluminescence): which can be measured with a photodetector. The amount of light produced is proportional to the amount of nitric oxide in the sample.  Other methods of testing include electroanalysis (amperometric approach), where ·NO reacts with an electrode to induce a current or voltage change. The detection of NO radicals in biological tissues is particularly difficult due to the short lifetime and concentration of these radicals in tissues. One of the few practical methods is spin trapping of nitric oxide with iron-dithiocarbamate complexes and subsequent detection of the mono-nitrosyl-iron complex with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR).  A group of fluorescent dye indicators that are also available in acetylated form for intracellular measurements exist. The most common compound is 4,5-diaminofluorescein (DAF-2).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environmental effects.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acid rain deposition.", "content": "Nitric oxide reacts with the hydroperoxy radical (HO) to form nitrogen dioxide (NO), which then can react with a hydroxyl radical (OH) to produce nitric acid (HNO): Nitric acid, along with sulfuric acid, contributes to acid rain deposition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ozone depletion.", "content": "·NO participates in ozone layer depletion. Nitric oxide reacts with stratospheric ozone to form O and nitrogen dioxide:  This reaction is also utilized to measure concentrations of ·NO in control volumes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Precursor to NO.", "content": "As seen in the Acid deposition section, nitric oxide can transform into nitrogen dioxide (this can happen with the hydroperoxy radical, HO, or diatomic oxygen, O). Symptoms of short-term nitrogen dioxide exposure include nausea, dyspnea and headache. Long-term effects could include impaired immune and respiratory function.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biological functions.", "content": "NO is a gaseous signaling molecule. It is a key vertebrate biological messenger, playing a role in a variety of biological processes. It is a known bioproduct in almost all types of organisms, ranging from bacteria to plants, fungi, and animal cells.  Nitric oxide, known as an endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), is biosynthesized endogenously from -arginine, oxygen, and NADPH by various nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzymes. Reduction of inorganic nitrate may also serve to make nitric oxide. One of the main enzymatic targets of nitric oxide is guanylyl cyclase. The binding of nitric oxide to the haem region of the enzyme leads to activation, in the presence of iron. Nitric oxide is highly reactive (having a lifetime of a few seconds), yet diffuses freely across membranes. These attributes make nitric oxide ideal for a transient paracrine (between adjacent cells) and autocrine (within a single cell) signaling molecule. Once nitric oxide is converted to nitrates and nitrites by oxygen and water, cell signaling is deactivated.  The endothelium (inner lining) of blood vessels uses nitric oxide to signal the surrounding smooth muscle to relax, thus resulting in vasodilation and increasing blood flow. Sildenafil (Viagra) is a common example of a drug that uses the nitric oxide pathway. Sildenafil does not produce nitric oxide, but enhances the signals that are the downstream of the nitric oxide pathway by protecting cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) from degradation by cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) in the corpus cavernosum, allowing for the signal to be enhanced, and thus vasodilation. Another endogenous gaseous transmitter, hydrogen sulfide (HS) works with NO to induce vasodilatation and angiogenesis in a cooperative manner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occupational safety and health.", "content": "In the U.S., the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for nitric oxide exposure in the workplace as 25 ppm (30 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 25 ppm (30 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 100 ppm, nitric oxide is immediately dangerous to life and health.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nitric oxide (nitrogen oxide or nitrogen monoxide) is a colorless gas with the formula. It is one of the principal oxides of nitrogen. Nitric oxide is a free radical, i.e., it has an unpaired electron, which is sometimes denoted by a dot in its chemical formula (·N=O or ·NO). Nitric oxide is also a heteronuclear diatomic molecule, a historic class that drew researches which spawned early modern theories of chemical bonding.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972452}
{"src_title": "Xavier Naidoo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Born and raised in Mannheim to South African parents of Indian, German and Irish descent, Naidoo worked in several jobs in the food and music industries before relocating to the United States in the early 1990s, where he released his first full-length English-language album \"Seeing Is Believing\" under his stage name Kobra in 1994. He currently resides in Heidelberg in his native Germany.  After working as a backing vocalist for the Rödelheim Hartreim Projekt and 3P label mates Sabrina Setlur and Illmat!c, Naidoo released his first German language album \"Nicht von dieser Welt\" in 1998, for which he won an ECHO Award and an MTV Europe Music Award. Selling more than one million copies in total, it produced six singles, including \"Seine Straßen\" and \"Sie sieht mich nicht\", the latter of which served as the theme song for \"Astérix & Obélix Take on Caesar\" (1999). After his highly publicized departure from 3P, his third studio album \"Zwischenspiel – Alles für den Herrn\" was released in 2002. It spawned the top five hit singles \"Wo willst du hin?\" and \"Abschied nehmen\" and led to a collaboration with Wu-Tang Clan member and producer RZA, with whom he released his first number-one single \"Ich kenne nichts (das so schön ist wie du)\" in 2003.  Known for his soulful voice and his Christian lyrics, he has collaborated with several famous artists such as Deborah Cox and Swiss artist Stress. Naidoo was with Söhne Mannheims (Sons of Mannheim) earlier before he became famous, after his popularity increased he went back to the band and wanted to help them to become famous too, which worked. Nowadays he switches back and forth with doing some solo music or recording an album and going on tour with Söhne Mannheims. He joined groups like Brothers Keepers and the charity project (Signs of the Times) in early 2013  In 2012, he also collaborated in Xavas, a duo formation with Kool Savas, a Turkish-German rapper in the album \"Gespaltene Persönlichkeit\". The two had already worked together on a number of other releases.  In 2013, Xavier released \"Eye Opener\" on the vocal collaboration album \"Features\" by Kris Menace.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eurovision Song Contest invitation and withdrawal.", "content": "On 19 November 2015, Naidoo was announced as the German representative in the Eurovision Song Contest 2016. His entry was due to be chosen from six competing entries in a national final in February.  However, his selection proved controversial. Naidoo's right wing political views, coupled with homophobic lyrics in his 2012 song (featuring Kool Savas) \"Wo sind sie jetzt\", led to calls for his selection to be reconsidered. Within a day, an online petition had gathered nearly 15,000 signatories. Claudia Roth, a vice-president of the Bundestag for the German Green Party, also criticised the decision, citing the poor timing, with right wing political causes gaining popularity in the wake of the migrant crisis. On 21 November, it was revealed by the German broadcaster, NDR, that Germany had withdrawn the singer's participation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political views.", "content": "Xavier Naidoo has blamed the Rothschild family for Germany's 20th century history and has spoken at a meeting of the \"Reichsbürgerbewegung\", the right-wing movement that seeks to restore Germany's pre-1918 borders, denies the legal existence of the Federal Republic of Germany and claims Germany is a country occupied by enemy, foreign forces. During the event he also denied the official account of the September 11 attacks, stating that \"simply put, whoever believes what was reported about this event is not seeing clearly\".  Naidoo gave similar opinions in a live interview on ARD Morgenmagazin, public service breakfast television in 2015.  In March 2020 two video clips of Naidoo were released on social media, showing him singing one of his songs in the aftermath of the anti-migrant 2018 Chemnitz protests with altered lyrics. In these he stated about the migrants who recently arrived in Germany: \"Your daughters, your children shall suffer; Shall have to undress next to wolves in the gym; While you stand around placidly doing nothing\" and \"Far and wide, not a man in sight, who can save this country yet\". Naidoo was subsequently fired by the TV-station RTL where he worked as a judge on the casting show Deutschland sucht den Superstar.  Naidoo also propagates climate change denial. He claims the Fridays For Future movement is orchestrated by the Antichrist. According to Naidoo the proof is to be found in the name of the movement, which abbreviates to \"FFF\", the letter \"F\" being the sixth in the alphabet, therefore symbolizing the Number of the Beast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical themes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethos.", "content": "Naidoo's music has been claimed to feature a utopian, pan-theistic ideology through which he expressed his own political anxieties and stances. Although he explores Christian, Muslim, and Rastafarian modes of living, his work has been asserted to be strongly grounded in Old Testament narratives and apocalyptic sentiments. Applying these to situations faced specifically in a \"Black German\" context, Naidoo has called for solutions not from the state, but from cross-cultural spiritual collectives. For example, in the lyrics and video for \"Seine Strassen\", the power of the state in terms of protection and surveillance is said to pale in comparison to higher spiritual powers.  However his lyrics have also featured anti-Semitic slurs and homophobic sentiments. His 2012 song \"Wo sind\" implied that homosexuals were paedophiles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mixed German and Asian identity.", "content": "Although Naidoo does not engage directly with his own mixed German and Asian identity in his music, he was integral to the formation of an Afro-German presence in German popular culture. Specifically, his work with Glashaus can be said to have originated a distinctly Afro-German form of R&B, one which addressed the issues faced by Black Germans without invoking Black Germans specifically. Not only did Naidoo experiment with sounds from around the Black Diaspora, notably working with RZA, but was also a member of Brothers Keepers, an explicitly Afro-German and explicitly political collective. As lead singer on \"Adriano\", one of Brothers Keepers' most well-known songs, he has been seen to stand with the Afro-German collective and setting the tone for their message.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Xavier Kurt Naidoo (born 2 October 1971), also known by his stage name Kobra, is a German soul and R&B singer/songwriter, record producer, and occasional actor. He is a founding member of the German band Söhne Mannheims, and started two record labels, Beats Around the Bush and Naidoo Records. Naidoo also has a successful solo career. His debut album \"Nicht von dieser Welt\" (1998) has sold over 1 million records, and all his next six albums \"Zwischenspiel – Alles für den Herrn\" (2002), \"Telegramm für X\" (2005), \"Alles kann besser werden\" (2009), \"Danke für's Zuhören\" (2012), \"Bei meiner Seele\" (2013) und \"Nicht von dieser Welt 2\" (2016) reached number 1 on the German album charts. Most of his songs are in German, however, he has also released a couple of English songs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972453}
{"src_title": "Vladimir II Monomakh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "He was the son of Vsevolod I (married in 1046) by a relative of Byzantine emperor Constantine IX Monomachos, from whom Vladimir obtained his sobriquet. Contemporary Byzantine naming practice allowed the adoption of a maternal surname if the mother's family was perceived to be of a more exalted origin than that of the father.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "In his famous \"Instruction\" (also known as \"The Testament\") to his own children, Monomakh mentions that he conducted 83 military campaigns and 19 times made peace with the Polovtsi. At first he waged war against the steppe jointly with his cousin Oleg, but after Vladimir was sent by his father to rule Chernigov and Oleg made peace with the Polovtsi to retake that city from him, they parted company. Since that time, Vladimir and Oleg were bitter enemies who would often engage in internecine wars. The enmity continued among their children and more distant posterity.  From 1094, his chief patrimony was the southern town of Pereyaslav, although he also controlled Rostov, Suzdal, and other northern provinces (see Principality of Pereyaslavl). In these lands he founded several towns, notably his namesake, Vladimir, the future capital of Russia. In order to unite the princes of Rus' in their struggle against the Great Steppe, Vladimir initiated three princely congresses, the most important being held at Lyubech in 1097 and Dolobsk in 1103.  In 1107 he defeated Boniak, a Cuman khan who led an invasion on Kievan Rus'. When Sviatopolk II died in 1113, the Kievan populace revolted and summoned Vladimir to the capital. The same year he entered Kiev to the great delight of the crowd and reigned there until his death in 1125. As may be seen from his \"Instruction\", he promulgated a number of reforms in order to allay the social tensions in the capital. These years saw the last flowering of Ancient Rus, which was torn apart 10 years after his death.  Vladimir Monomakh is buried in the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. Succeeding generations often referred to his reign as the golden age of that city. Numerous legends are connected with Monomakh's name, including the transfer from Constantinople to Rus of such precious relics as the Theotokos of Vladimir and the Vladimir/Muscovite crown called Monomakh's Cap.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and children.", "content": "Vladimir married three times. Some sources cite his first wife as Gytha of Wessex, daughter of Harold of England who had fallen at Hastings in 1066 and of Edith Swannesha. Problems exist in that none of the sources citing this are contemporary, and none of the Russian sources cite the name of his first wife as the daughter of Harold Godwinson. They had at least five children:  The following daughter has been attributed to either the first or the second wife:  Vladimir's second wife, Eufimia, is considered to have been a Byzantine noblewoman. The \"Primary Chronicle\" and the \"Testament of Vladimir Monomakh\" record her date of death as 7 May 1107. However the \"Chronicle\" does not mention her name. This marriage produced at least six children:  Vladimir's third marriage is thought to have been to a daughter of Aepa Ocenevich, Khan of the Cumans. Her paternal grandfather was Osen. Her people belonged to the Kipchaks, a confederation of pastoralists and warriors of Turkic origin.  However the \"Primary Chronicle\" identifies Aepa as father-in-law to Yuri Dolgoruki, with Vladimir negotiating the marriage in name of his son. Whether father and son married sisters or the identity of intended groom was misidentified remains unclear.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vladimir II Monomakh (Old East Slavic: Володимѣръ Мономахъ, \"Volodimer Monomakh\"; Christian name: \"Vasiliy\", or \"Basileios\") (26 May 1053 – 19 May 1125) reigned as Grand Prince of Kievan Rus' from 1113 to 1125.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972454}
{"src_title": "Johann Georg Hamann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hamann was born on August 27, 1730 in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia). Initially he studied theology at the University of Königsberg, but became a clerk in a mercantile house and afterward held many small public offices, devoting his leisure to reading philosophy.) His first publication was a study in political economy about a dispute on nobility and trade. He wrote under the \"nom de plume\" of “the Magus of the North” (). Hamann was a believer in the Enlightenment until a mystical experience in London in 1758.  His translation of David Hume into German is considered by most scholars as the one that Hamann's friend, Immanuel Kant, also from Königsberg, had read and referred to as inspiration for awakening from \"dogmatic slumber\". Hamann and Kant held each other in mutual respect, although Hamann once declined an invitation by Kant to co-write a physics textbook for children. Hamann also introduced Kant to the work of Rousseau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Hamann was a lutenist, having studied this instrument with Timofey Belogradsky (a student of Sylvius Leopold Weiss), a Ukrainian virtuoso then living in Königsberg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philosophical views.", "content": "His distrust of autonomous, disembodied reason and the Enlightenment (\"I look upon logical proofs the way a well-bred girl looks upon a love letter\" was one of his many witticisms) led him to conclude that faith in God was the only solution to the vexing problems of philosophy.  One of Kant's biographers compared him with Hamann:  In Hamann's own terms Kant was a \"Platonist\" about reason, believing it disembodied, and Hamann an \"Aristotelian\" who believed it was embodied. Hamann was greatly influenced by Hume. This is most evident in Hamann's conviction that faith and belief, rather than knowledge, determine human actions. Also, Hamann asserted that the efficacy of a concept arises from the habits it reflects rather than any inherent quality it possesses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Hamann's writings consist of small essays. They display two striking tendencies. The first is their brevity, in comparison with works by his contemporaries. The second is their breadth of allusion and delight in extended analogies. For example, his work \"Golgatha and Scheblimini! By a Preacher in the Wilderness\" (1784) was directed against Moses Mendelssohn's \"Jerusalem, or on Religious Might and Judaism\" (1782). His work was also significantly reactive; rather than advance a “position” of his own, his principal mode of thinking was to respond to others' work.  Hamann famously used the image of Socrates, who often proclaimed to know nothing, in his \"Socratic Memorabilia\", an essay in which Hamann critiques the Enlightenment's dependence on reason. In \"Aesthetica in nuce\", Hamann counters the Enlightenment by emphasizing the importance of aesthetic experience and the role of genius in intuiting nature.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "Fragments of his writings were published by Cramer, under the title of \"Sibyllinische Blätter des Magus aus Norden\" (1819), and a complete edition by Roth (7 vols., 1821–25, with a volume of additions and explanations by Wiener, 1843). \"Hamann's des Magus in Norden Leben und Schriften\", edited by Gildemeister, was published in 5 vols., 1857–68, and a new edition of his \"Schriften und Briefen\", edited by Petri, in 4 vols., 1872-74.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "God.", "content": "Hamann argued that the communicatio idiomatum, namely, the communication of divine messages through material embodiments, applies not just to Christ, but should be generalised to cover all human action: \"This communicatio of divine and human idiomatum is a fundamental law and the master-key of all our knowledge and of the whole visible economy.\" Hamann believed all of creation were signs from God for us to interpret.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reason is language.", "content": "His most notable contributions to philosophy were his thoughts on language, which have often been considered as a forerunner to the linguistic turn in analytic philosophy such as Wittgenstein's. He famously said that \"Reason is language\" (\"Vernunft ist Sprache\"). Hamann thought the bridge between Kant's noumenal and phenomenal realms was language, with its noumenal meaning and phenomenal letters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Hamann was one of the precipitating forces for the Counter-Enlightenment. He was, moreover, a mentor to Herder and an admired influence on Goethe, Jacobi, Hegel, Kierkegaard, Lessing, and Mendelssohn. Roman Catholic theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar devoted a chapter to Hamann in his volume, \"Studies in Theological Styles: Lay Styles\" (Volume III in the English language translation of \"The Glory of the Lord\" series). Most recently, Hamann's influence can be found in the work of the theologians Oswald Bayer (Lutheran), John Milbank (Anglican), and David Bentley Hart (Orthodox). Finally, in Charles Taylor's important summative work, \"The Language Animal: The Full Shape of the Human Linguistic Capacity\" (Taylor, 2016), Hamann is given credit, along with Wilhelm von Humboldt and Herder, for inspiring Taylor's \"HHH\" approach to the philosophy of language, emphasizing the creative power and cultural specificity of language.  However, recent scholarship, such as that by Bayer, contradicts the usual interpretation by people such as historian of ideas Isaiah Berlin, and describes Hamann as a \"radical Enlightener\" who vigorously opposed dogmatic rationalism in matters of philosophy and faith. Bayer views him as less the proto-Romantic that Herder presented, and more a premodern-postmodern thinker who brought the consequences of Lutheran theology to bear upon the burgeoning Enlightenment and especially in reaction to Kant.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Georg Hamann (; ; August 27, 1730 – June 21, 1788) was a German Lutheran philosopher from Königsberg known as “the Wizard of the North” who was one of the leader figures of post-Kantian philosophy. His work was used by his student J. G. Herder as the main support of the \"Sturm und Drang\" movement, and is associated with the Counter-Enlightenment and Romanticism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972455}
{"src_title": "Constantine II (emperor)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "The eldest son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, Constantine II was born in Arles in February 316 and raised as a Christian. On 1 March 317, he was made Caesar. In 323, at the age of seven, he took part in his father's campaign against the Sarmatians. At age ten, he became commander of Gaul, following the death of his half-brother Crispus. An inscription dating to 330 records the title of \"Alamannicus\", so it is probable that his generals won a victory over the Alamanni. His military career continued when Constantine I made him field commander during the 332 campaign against the Goths.  Following the death of his father in 337, Constantine II initially became emperor jointly with his brothers Constantius II and Constans, with the Empire divided between them and their cousins, the \"Caesars\" Dalmatius and Hannibalianus. This arrangement barely survived Constantine I’s death, as his sons arranged the slaughter of most of the rest of the family by the army. As a result, the three brothers gathered together in Pannonia and there, on 9 September 337, divided the Roman world among themselves. Constantine, proclaimed \"Augustus\" by the troops received Gaul, Britannia and Hispania. He was soon involved in the struggle between factions rupturing the unity of the Christian Church. The Western portion of the Empire, under the influence of the Popes in Rome, favored Catholicism over Arianism, and through their intercession they convinced Constantine to free Athanasius, allowing him to return to Alexandria. This action aggravated Constantius II, who was a committed supporter of Arianism.  Constantine was initially the guardian of his younger brother Constans, whose portion of the empire was Italia, Africa and Illyricum. Constantine soon complained that he had not received the amount of territory that was his due as the eldest son. Annoyed that Constans had received Thrace and Macedonia after the death of Dalmatius, Constantine demanded that Constans hand over the African provinces, to which he agreed in order to maintain a fragile peace. Soon, however, they began quarreling over which parts of the African provinces belonged to Carthage, and thus Constantine, and which belonged to Italy, and therefore Constans.  Further complications arose when Constans came of age and Constantine, who had grown accustomed to dominating his younger brother, would not relinquish the guardianship. In 340 Constantine marched into Italy at the head of his troops. Constans, at that time in Dacia, detached and sent a select and disciplined body of his Illyrian troops, stating that he would follow them in person with the remainder of his forces. Constantine was engaged in military operations and was killed in an ambush outside Aquileia. Constans then took control of his deceased brother's realm.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Constantine II (; January/February 316 – 340) was Roman Emperor from 337 to 340. Son of Constantine the Great and co-emperor alongside his brothers, his attempt to exert his perceived rights of primogeniture led to his death in a failed invasion of Italy in 340.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972456}
{"src_title": "Anne Desclos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Rochefort, Charente-Maritime, France to a bilingual family, Desclos began reading in French and English at an early age. After completing her studies at the Sorbonne, she worked as a journalist until 1946 when she joined Gallimard Publishers as the editorial secretary for one of its imprints where she began using the pen name of Dominique Aury.  An avid reader of English literature, Desclos either translated or introduced to readers in France such renowned authors as Algernon Charles Swinburne, Evelyn Waugh, Virginia Woolf, T. S. Eliot, F. Scott Fitzgerald and numerous others. She became a critic and was made a member of the jury for several prominent literary awards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Desclos' lover and employer Jean Paulhan, a fervent admirer of the Marquis de Sade, had made the remark to her that no woman was capable of writing an erotic novel. To prove him wrong, Desclos wrote a graphic, sadomasochistic novel that was published under the pseudonym Pauline Réage in June 1954. Titled \"Histoire d'O\" (\"Story of O\"), with a sympathetic preface by Jean Paulhan which nevertheless did not reveal her identity, it was an enormous, though controversial, commercial success. The book caused much speculation as to the identity of the author. Many doubted that it was a woman, let alone the demure, intellectual, and almost prudish persona displayed in Dominique Aury's writings. Many well-known male writers were alternately suspected to be the author, including André Malraux and Henri de Montherlant.  In addition, the book's graphic content sparked so much controversy that the following March the government authorities brought obscenity charges against the publisher and its mysterious author that were thrown out of court in 1959. However, a publicity ban and a restriction on the book's sale to minors was imposed by the judge. Following the lifting of the publicity ban in 1967, the conclusion to \"Story of O\" was published under the title \"Retour à Roissy\" using the pseudonym of Pauline Réage. However, according to her recent biography by Angie David, Desclos did not write this second novel. In 1975, she did a long interview about erotic books with author Régine Deforges, published by \"Story of O\" editor Jean-Jacques Pauvert, yet at the time her authorship was still unknown. An English-language edition of the interview was released in the United States in 1979 by Viking Press.  Eventually, Desclos publicly admitted that she was the author of \"The Story of O\" in 1994, 40 years after the book was published, in an interview with \"The New Yorker\". She also explained the pseudonym of Pauline Réage: she chose the first name in homage to Pauline Bonaparte and Pauline Roland and she randomly picked up the name of Réage on a topographic map.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Documentaries.", "content": "\"Writer of O\", a 2004 documentary film by Pola Rapaport, mixed interviews with re-enactments of certain scenes from the book. In the documentary, the real author of \"Story of O\", Dominique Aury (actually a pen name of Desclos), talks about the book \"A Girl in Love\". This book was written about how \"Story of O\" was written.  A documentary was also made for BBC Radio 4 entitled \"The Story of O: The Vice Francaise\", presented by Rowan Pelling, former editor of the \"Erotic Review\", which looked at the history of the book and its author Desclos.  \"\", a documentary by filmmaker Maya Gallus, featured the final interview with 90-year-old Dominique Aury (a pen name of Desclos) before she died. In the film, she recounts the extraordinary love story behind \"Story of O\" and marvels that she has reached such a grand age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Desclos had a long-term relationship with her employer Jean Paulhan, the director of the prestigious \"Nouvelle Revue Française\", who was 23 years her senior. She was actively bisexual at times in her life. She notoriously had a liaison with historian and novelist Édith Thomas, who may have been an inspiration for the character of Anne-Marie in \"Story of O\". She had a son from a brief marriage in her early twenties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "\"See also: Legacy of Story of O\"  In 2007, the National Leather Association International inaugurated awards for excellence in SM/fetish/leather writing. The categories include the Pauline Reage (a pen name of Desclos) award for fiction novel.  In 2020, Desclos was inducted into the Leather Hall of Fame.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anne Cécile Desclos (23 September 1907 – 27 April 1998) was a French journalist and novelist who wrote under the pseudonyms Dominique Aury and Pauline Réage, and is best known for her erotic novel \"Histoire d'O\" (\"Story of O\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972457}
{"src_title": "Constans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Constans was born c. 323. He was the third and youngest son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, his father's second wife. He was educated at the court of his father at Constantinople under the tutelage of the poet Aemilius Magnus Arborius.  On 25 December 333, Constantine I elevated Constans to the rank of \"Caesar\" at Constantinople. Constans became engaged to Olympias, the daughter of the Praetorian Prefect Ablabius, but the marriage never came to pass. With Constantine’s death in 337, Constans and his two brothers, Constantine II and Constantius II, divided the Roman world among themselves and disposed of virtually all relatives who could possibly have a claim to the throne. The army proclaimed them \"Augusti\" on September 9, 337. Almost immediately, Constans was required to deal with a Sarmatian invasion in late 337, in which he won a resounding victory. Constans was initially under the guardianship of Constantine II. The original settlement assigned Constans the praetorian prefecture of Italy, which included Northern Africa. Constans was unhappy with this division, so the brothers met at Viminacium in 338 to revise the boundaries. Constans managed to extract the prefecture of Illyricum and the diocese of Thrace, provinces that were originally to be ruled by his cousin Dalmatius, as per Constantine I’s proposed division after his death. Constantine II soon complained that he had not received the amount of territory that was his due as the eldest son.  Annoyed that Constans had received Thrace and Macedonia after the death of Dalmatius, Constantine demanded that Constans hand over the African provinces, which he agreed to do in order to maintain a fragile peace. Soon, however, they began quarreling over which parts of the African provinces belonged to Carthage, and thus Constantine, and which belonged to Italy, and therefore Constans. This led to growing tensions between the two brothers, which were only heightened by Constans finally coming of age and Constantine refusing to give up his guardianship. In 340 Constantine II invaded Italy. Constans, at that time in Dacia, detached and sent a select and disciplined body of his Illyrian troops, stating that he would follow them in person with the remainder of his forces. Constantine was eventually trapped at Aquileia, where he died, leaving Constans to inherit all of his brother’s former territories – Hispania, Britannia and Gaul.  Constans began his reign in an energetic fashion. In 341-42, he led a successful campaign against the Franks, and in the early months of 343 he visited Britain. The source for this visit, Julius Firmicus Maternus, does not provide a reason, but the quick movement and the danger involved in crossing the channel in the winter months suggests it was in response to a military emergency, possibly to repel the Picts and Scots.  Regarding religion, Constans was tolerant of Judaism and promulgated an edict banning pagan sacrifices in 341. He suppressed Donatism in Africa and supported Nicene orthodoxy against Arianism, which was championed by his brother Constantius. Although Constans called the Council of Serdica in 343 to settle the conflict, it was a complete failure, and by 346 the two emperors were on the point of open warfare over the dispute. The conflict was only resolved by an interim agreement which allowed each emperor to support their preferred clergy within their own spheres of influence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Homosexuality.", "content": "The Roman historian Eutropius says Constans \"indulged in great vices,\" in reference to his homosexuality, and Aurelius Victor stated that Constans had a reputation for scandalous behaviour with \"handsome barbarian hostages.\" Nevertheless, Constans did sponsor a decree alongside Constantius II that ruled that marriage based on \"unnatural\" sex should be punished meticulously. John Boswell argues that the decree outlawed homosexual marriages only, rather than homosexual activity more generally. However, it was likely the case that Constans promulgated the legislation under pressure from the growing band of Christian leaders, in an attempt to placate public outrage at his own perceived indecencies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In the final years of his reign, Constans developed a reputation for cruelty and misrule. Dominated by favourites and openly preferring his select bodyguard, he lost the support of the legions. In 350, the general Magnentius declared himself emperor at Augustodunum with the support of the troops on the Rhine frontier and, later, the western provinces of the Empire. Constans was enjoying himself nearby when he was notified of the elevation of Magnentius. Lacking any support beyond his immediate household, he was forced to flee for his life. As he was trying to reach Hispania, supporters of Magnentius cornered him in a fortification in \"Helena\" (now Elne) in the eastern Pyrenees of southwestern Gaul, where he was killed after seeking sanctuary in a temple. An alleged prophecy at his birth had said Constans would die \"in the arms of his grandmother\". His place of death happens to have been named after Helena, mother of Constantine and his own grandmother, thus realizing the prophecy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Constans (Flavius Julius Constans Augustus; c. 323 – 350) or Constans I () was Roman Emperor from 337 to 350. He defeated his brother Constantine II in 340, but anger in the army over his personal life (homosexuality) and favouritism towards his barbarian bodyguards led the general Magnentius to rebel, resulting in the assassination of Constans in 350.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972458}
{"src_title": "Lebesgue measure", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "Given a subset formula_1, with the length of interval formula_2 given by formula_3, the Lebesgue outer measure formula_4 is defined as  The Lebesgue measure is defined on the Lebesgue \"σ\"-algebra, which is the collection of all sets formula_6 which satisfy the \"Carathéodory criterion\" which requires that for every formula_7,  For any set in the Lebesgue \"σ\"-algebra, its Lebesgue measure is given by its Lebesgue outer measure formula_9.  Sets that are not included in the Lebesgue \"σ\"-algebra are not Lebesgue-measurable. Such sets do exist (e.g. Vitali sets), i.e., the Lebesgue \"σ\"-algebra is strictly contained in the power set of formula_10.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Intuition.", "content": "The first part of the definition states that the subset formula_6 of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals formula_12 covers formula_6 in the sense that when the intervals are combined together by union, they contain formula_6. The total length of any covering interval set can easily overestimate the measure of formula_6, because formula_6 is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in formula_6. The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit formula_6 most tightly and do not overlap.  That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets formula_19 of the real numbers using formula_6 as an instrument to split formula_19 into two partitions: the part of formula_19 which intersects with formula_6 and the remaining part of formula_19 which is not in formula_6: the set difference of formula_19 and formula_6. These partitions of formula_19 are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets formula_19 of the real numbers, the partitions of formula_19 cut apart by formula_6 have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of formula_19, then the outer Lebesgue measure of formula_6 gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set formula_6 must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when formula_6 is used as a \"mask\" to \"clip\" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue-measurable.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "The Lebesgue measure on R has the following properties:  All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows:  The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being \"σ\"-finite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Null sets.", "content": "A subset of R is a \"null set\" if, for every ε > 0, it can be covered with countably many products of \"n\" intervals whose total volume is at most ε. All countable sets are null sets.  If a subset of R has Hausdorff dimension less than \"n\" then it is a null set with respect to \"n\"-dimensional Lebesgue measure. Here Hausdorff dimension is relative to the Euclidean metric on R (or any metric Lipschitz equivalent to it). On the other hand, a set may have topological dimension less than \"n\" and have positive \"n\"-dimensional Lebesgue measure. An example of this is the Smith–Volterra–Cantor set which has topological dimension 0 yet has positive 1-dimensional Lebesgue measure.  In order to show that a given set \"A\" is Lebesgue-measurable, one usually tries to find a \"nicer\" set \"B\" which differs from \"A\" only by a null set (in the sense that the symmetric difference (\"A\" − \"B\") formula_53(\"B\" − \"A\") is a null set) and then show that \"B\" can be generated using countable unions and intersections from open or closed sets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction of the Lebesgue measure.", "content": "The modern construction of the Lebesgue measure is an application of Carathéodory's extension theorem. It proceeds as follows.  Fix. A box in R is a set of the form where, and the product symbol here represents a Cartesian product. The volume of this box is defined to be  For \"any\" subset \"A\" of R, we can define its outer measure \"λ\"*(\"A\") by:  We then define the set \"A\" to be Lebesgue-measurable if for every subset \"S\" of R,  These Lebesgue-measurable sets form a \"σ\"-algebra, and the Lebesgue measure is defined by for any Lebesgue-measurable set \"A\".  The existence of sets that are not Lebesgue-measurable is a consequence of a certain set-theoretical axiom, the axiom of choice, which is independent from many of the conventional systems of axioms for set theory. The Vitali theorem, which follows from the axiom, states that there exist subsets of R that are not Lebesgue-measurable. Assuming the axiom of choice, non-measurable sets with many surprising properties have been demonstrated, such as those of the Banach–Tarski paradox.  In 1970, Robert M. Solovay showed that the existence of sets that are not Lebesgue-measurable is not provable within the framework of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory in the absence of the axiom of choice (see Solovay's model).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relation to other measures.", "content": "The Borel measure agrees with the Lebesgue measure on those sets for which it is defined; however, there are many more Lebesgue-measurable sets than there are Borel measurable sets. The Borel measure is translation-invariant, but not complete.  The Haar measure can be defined on any locally compact group and is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure (R with addition is a locally compact group).  The Hausdorff measure is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure that is useful for measuring the subsets of R of lower dimensions than \"n\", like submanifolds, for example, surfaces or curves in R and fractal sets. The Hausdorff measure is not to be confused with the notion of Hausdorff dimension.  It can be shown that there is no infinite-dimensional analogue of Lebesgue measure.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of \"n\"-dimensional Euclidean space. For \"n\" = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n\"-dimensional volume, n\"-volume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue-measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue-measurable set \"A\" is here denoted by \"λ\"(\"A\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972459}
{"src_title": "Masinissa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Masinissa was the son of the chieftain Gaia of a Numidian tribal group, the Massylii. He was brought up in Carthage, an ally of his father. At the start of the Second Punic War, Masinissa fought for Carthage against Syphax, the king of the Masaesyli of western Numidia (present day Algeria), who had allied himself with the Romans. Masinissa, then about 17 years old, led an army of Numidian troops and Carthaginian auxiliaries against Syphax's army and won a decisive victory (215-212 BC). He was betrothed to the daughter of the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal Gisgo. After his victory over Syphax, Masinissa commanded his skilled Numidian cavalry against the Romans in Spain, where he was involved in the Carthaginian victories of Castulo and Ilorca in 211 BC. After Hasdrubal Barca departed for Italy, Masinissa was placed in command of all the Carthaginian cavalry in Spain, where he fought a successful guerrilla campaign against the Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio (Scipio Africanus) throughout 208 and 207, while Mago Barca and Hasdrubal Gisgo levied and trained new forces. In c.206 BC, with fresh reinforcements, Mago and Hasdrubal Gisgo—supported by Masinissa's Numidian cavalry—met Scipio at the Battle of Ilipa, where Carthage's power over Hispania was forever broken in arguably Scipio Africanus's most brilliant victory.  When Gaia died in 206 BC, his son Masinissa and his brother Oezalces quarreled about the inheritance, and Syphax was able to conquer considerable parts of the eastern Numidia. Meanwhile, with the Carthaginians having been driven from Hispania, Masinissa concluded that Rome was winning the war against Carthage and therefore decided to defect to Rome. He promised to assist Scipio in the invasion of Carthaginian territory in Africa. This decision was aided by the move by Scipio Africanus to free Masinissa's nephew, Massiva, whom the Romans had captured when he had disobeyed his uncle and ridden into battle. Having lost the alliance with Masinissa, Hasdrubal started to look for another ally, which he found in Syphax, who married Sophonisba, Hasdrubal's daughter, who until the defection had been betrothed to Masinissa. The Romans supported Masinissa's claim to the Numidian throne against Syphax, who was nevertheless successful in driving Masinissa from power until Scipio invaded Africa in 204. Masinissa joined the Roman forces and participated in the victorious Battle of the Great Plains (203).  At the Battle of Bagbrades (203), Scipio overcame Hasdrubal and Syphax and, while the Roman general concentrated on Carthage, Gaius Laelius and Masinissa followed Syphax to Cirta, where he was captured and handed over to Scipio. After the defeat of Syphax, Masinissa married Syphax's wife Sophonisba, but Scipio, suspicious of her loyalty, demanded that she be taken to Rome and appear in the triumphal parade. To save her from such humiliation, Masinissa sent her poison, with which she killed herself. Masinissa was now accepted as a loyal ally of Rome, and was confirmed by Scipio as the king of the Massylii.  At the Battle of Zama, Masinissa commanded the cavalry (6,000 Numidian and 3,000 Roman) on Scipio's right wing, Scipio delayed the engagement long enough to allow for Masinissa to join him. With the battle hanging in the balance, Masinissa's cavalry, having driven the fleeing Carthaginian horsemen away, returned and immediately fell onto the rear of the Carthaginian lines. This decided the battle and at once Hannibal's army began to collapse. The Second Punic War was over and for his services Masinissa received the kingdom of Syphax, and became king of Numidia.  Masinissa was now king of both the Massylii and the Masaesyli. He showed unconditional loyalty to Rome, and his position in Africa was strengthened by a clause in the peace treaty of 201 between Rome and Carthage prohibiting the latter from going to war even in self-defense without Roman permission. This enabled Masinissa to encroach on the remaining Carthaginian territory as long as he judged that Rome wished to see Carthage further weakened.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "With Roman backing, Masinissa established his own kingdom of Numidia, west of Carthage, with Cirta — present day Constantine — as its capital city. All of this happened in accordance with Roman interest, as they wanted to give Carthage more problems with its neighbours. Masinissa’s chief aim was to build a strong and unified state from the semi-nomadic Numidian tribes. To that end, he introduced Carthaginian agricultural techniques and forced many Numidians to settle as peasant farmers. Masinissa and his sons possessed large estates throughout Numidia, to the extent that Roman authors attributed to him, quite falsely, the sedentarization of the Numidians. Major towns included Capsa, Thugga (modern Dougga), Bulla Regia and Hippo Regius.  All through his reign, Masinissa extended his territory, and he was cooperating with Rome when, towards the end of his life, he provoked Carthage to go to war against him. Any hopes he may have had of extending his rule right across North Africa were dashed, however, when a Roman commission headed by the elderly Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Elder) came to Africa about 155 BC to decide a territorial dispute between Masinissa and Carthage. Animated probably by an irrational fear of a Carthaginian revival, but possibly by suspicion of Masinissa’s ambitions, Cato thenceforward advocated, finally with success, the destruction of Carthage. Based on descriptions from Livy, the Numidians began raiding around seventy towns in the southern and western sections of Carthage's remaining territory. Outraged with their conduct, Carthage went to war against them, in defiance of the Roman treaty forbidding them to make war on anyone, thus precipitating the Third Punic War (149–146 BC). Masinissa showed his displeasure when the Roman army arrived in Africa in 149 BC, but he died early in 148 BC without a breach in the alliance. Ancient accounts suggest Masinissa lived beyond the age of 90 and was apparently still personally leading the armies of his kingdom when he died.  After his death, Micispa succeeded to the throne, Micipsa had two sons, Hiempsal I and Adherbal, who took the power for a short period before being overthrown by their cousin Jughurta. Some of his descendants were the elder Juba I of Numidia (85 BC–46 BC) and younger Juba II (52 BC–AD 24).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Masinissa, or Masensen, (\"c.\"238 BC – 148 BC)—also spelled Massinissa and Massena—was the first King of Numidia. During his younger years, before he was king, he fought in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), first against the Romans as an ally of Carthage and later switching sides (206 BC). With Roman support, he united the eastern and western Numidian tribes and founded the Kingdom of Numidia. He is well-known for his role as a Roman ally in the Battle of Zama (202 BC) and as husband of Sophonisba, a Carthaginian noblewoman whom he allowed to poison herself to avoid being paraded in a triumph in Rome.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972460}
{"src_title": "Wildlife garden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Habitats.", "content": "Building a successful garden suitable for local wildlife is best accomplished through the use of multiple three-dimensional habitats with diverse structures that provide places for animals to nest and hide. Wildlife gardens may contain a range of habitats, including: Log piles – Preferably located in a shady area, a pile of logs is a sanctuary for insects and other invertebrates, as well as reptiles and amphibians. The organic structure is a shelter for both protection and breeding. In addition to logs, garden debris may also be added around the garden to be used as a natural mulch, fertilizer, weed control, soil amendment, and habitat for arthropod predators. Bird feeding stations and bird houses – A place for birds to eat and take shelter will increase the number of birds in the garden, which play a key role in biological pest control. Not only will food and shelter increase the survival rate of birds, but it will also ensure that they are healthy enough for a successful breeding season. Bug boxes and bee hotels – Bundles of hollow stems (elderberry, Joe-Pye weed, bamboo) can be hung up as an alternate place of shelter and breeding for beneficial insects, such as the Mason bee, which are valuable pollinators. Sources of water – A water feature, such as a pond, has the potential to support a large biodiversity of wildlife. To maximize the amount of wildlife attracted to the water feature, it should consist of ranging depths. Shallow areas are used by birds to drink and by insects and amphibians to lay eggs. Deeper areas provide habitat for aquatic insects and a place for amphibians, or even fish to swim. Pollinators – Flowers rich in nectar will attract bees and butterflies into the garden, which is of particular importance given the dramatic reduction in pollinator populations in the US, Europe and elsewhere. Wildflower meadows are an alternative option for lawns in the garden and will serve as a sanctuary for pollinators. However, pollinating plants should not be confused with plants suitable for butterfly breeding. Plant diversity – The garden should include a range of plant types to act as different habitats. A balance between ground cover, shrub, understory, and canopy species will allow different sized wildlife shelters that fit their individual needs. It is particularly important to use species that are native to the area or state, as native plants will more reliably be suited to insects and other invertebrates than many non-native plants; increased variety of insects is valuable both for its own sake and for birds and other predators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Choice of plants.", "content": "Although some exotics may also be included, as discussed in the previous section, wild gardens usually mostly feature a variety of native species. Generally, these will be a part of the pre-existing natural ecology of an area, making them easier to grow than most exotic species. Choosing native plants comes with an array of benefits for both plant and animal diversity, especially the ability to support native insect and fungal populations.  Ornamental plants on the market tend to lean toward “pest-free” plants, making it hard for native insects to adapt, and ultimately reducing their food supply. Decreases in insect populations due to excessive ornamental planting will discourage bird populations from inhabiting the particular area.  Invasive species can always prove problematic in the garden due to the absence of natural predators and their ability to reproduce rapidly. Without any measures of control, invasive species can easily overtake native species in the garden. Addressing invasive plants can be done a variety of ways; however, to ensure the least amount of damage to the surrounding ecosystem, this is best done by cutting down the plant, followed by painting its stem with an herbicide, such as Roundup. The debris from the invasive species can be piled and used as a home for smaller critters. In Australia, it has been found that invasive species such as Lantana (\"Lantana camara\") can also provide refuge for bird species such as the superb fairywren (\"Malurus cyaneus\") and silvereye (\"Zosterops lateralis\"), in the absence of native plant equivalents. Careful thought about how to balance invasive species management with what is best for urban biodiversity is needed for the best outcome in your garden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the Netherlands.", "content": "Wildlife gardens in the Netherlands are called \"heemtuinen\". The first was created in 1925: Thijsse's Hof (Garden of Thijsse) in Bloemendaal, near Haarlem. It was gifted to Jac. P. Thijsse on the occasion of his 60th anniversary, and still exists today. The garden gives a display of about 800 plants native to the dune region of South Kennemerland, in which the garden is situated. It is said to be one of the oldest wildlife gardens of its sort in the world.  Nowadays some 25 wildlife gardens exist in the Netherlands.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A wildlife garden (or wild garden) is an environment created by a gardener that serves as a sustainable haven for surrounding wildlife. Wildlife gardens contain a variety of habitats that cater to native and local plants, birds, amphibians, reptiles, insects, mammals and so on. Establishing a garden that emulates the environment before the residence was built and/or renders the garden similar to intact wild areas nearby (rewilding) will allow natural systems to interact and establish an equilibrium, ultimately minimizing the need for gardener maintenance and intervention. Wildlife gardens can also play an essential role in biological pest control, and also promote biodiversity, native plantings, and generally benefit the wider environment.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972461}
{"src_title": "Piano Sonata No. 14 (Beethoven)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The first edition of the score is headed \"Sonata quasi una fantasia\", a title this work shares with its companion piece, Op. 27, No. 1. Grove Music Online translates the Italian title as \"sonata in the manner of a fantasy\". The title could also be interpreted to imply \"...as though improvised\".  The name \"Moonlight Sonata\" comes from remarks made by the German music critic and poet Ludwig Rellstab. In 1832, five years after Beethoven's death, Rellstab likened the effect of the first movement to that of moonlight shining upon Lake Lucerne. Within ten years, the name \"Moonlight Sonata\" (\"\"Mondscheinsonate\"\" in German) was being used in German and English publications. Later in the nineteenth century, the sonata was universally known by that name.  Many critics have objected to the subjective, romantic nature of the title \"Moonlight\", which has at times been called \"a misleading approach to a movement with almost the character of a funeral march\" and \"absurd\". Other critics have approved of the sobriquet, finding it evocative or in line with their own interpretation of the work. \"Gramophone\" founder Compton Mackenzie found the title \"harmless\", remarking that \"it is silly for austere critics to work themselves up into a state of almost hysterical rage with poor Rellstab\", and adding, \"what these austere critics fail to grasp is that unless the general public had responded to the suggestion of moonlight in this music Rellstab's remark would long ago have been forgotten.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Form.", "content": "Although no direct testimony exists as to the specific reasons why Beethoven decided to title both the Op. 27 works as \"Sonata quasi una fantasia\", it may be significant that the layout of the present work does not follow the traditional movement arrangement in the Classical period of fast–slow–[fast]–fast. Instead, the sonata possesses an end-weighted trajectory, with the rapid music held off until the third movement. In his analysis, German critic Paul Bekker states: \"The opening sonata-allegro movement gave the work a definite character from the beginning... which succeeding movements could supplement but not change. Beethoven rebelled against this determinative quality in the first movement. He wanted a prelude, an introduction, not a proposition.”  The sonata consists of three movements:  \\new Staff \\relative c' {", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "I. Adagio sostenuto.", "content": "\\key cis \\minor » </score>  The first movement, in C minor, is written in modified sonata-allegro form. The movement opens with an octave in the left hand and a triplet figuration in the right. A melody that Hector Berlioz called a \"lamentation\", mostly by the left hand, is played against an accompanying ostinato triplet rhythm, simultaneously played by the right hand. The movement is played \"pianissimo\" or \"very quietly\", and the loudest it gets is \"piano\" or \"quietly\".  The adagio sostenuto has made a powerful impression on many listeners; for instance, Berlioz said of it that it \"is one of those poems that human language does not know how to qualify\". Beethoven's student Carl Czerny called it \"a nocturnal scene, in which a mournful ghostly voice sounds from the distance\". The movement was very popular in Beethoven's day, to the point of exasperating the composer himself, who remarked to Czerny, \"Surely I've written better things.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "II. Allegretto.", "content": "#(set-global-staff-size 17) »</score>  The second movement is a relatively conventional scherzo and trio with the first section of the Scherzo not repeated. It is a seeming moment of relative calm written in D major, the more easily notated enharmonic equivalent of C major, the parallel major of the first movement's key, C minor. Franz Liszt is said to have described the second movement as \"a flower between two chasms\". The slight majority of the movement is in \"piano\", but a handful of \"sforzandos\" and \"forte-piano\"s helps to maintain the movement's cheerful disposition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "III. Presto agitato.", "content": "#(set-global-staff-size 17) »</score>  The stormy final movement (C minor), in sonata form, is the weightiest of the three, reflecting an experiment of Beethoven's (also carried out in the companion sonata Opus 27, No. 1 and later on in Opus 101), namely, placement of the most important movement of the sonata last. The writing has many fast arpeggios/broken chords, strongly accented notes, and fast alberti bass sequences that fall both into the right and left hands at various times. An effective performance of this movement demands lively and skillful playing, great stamina, and is significantly more demanding technically than the 1st and 2nd movements.  Of the final movement, Charles Rosen has written \"it is the most unbridled in its representation of emotion. Even today, two hundred years later, its ferocity is astonishing.\"  Beethoven's heavy use of \"sforzando\" notes, together with just a few strategically located \"fortissimo\" passages, creates the sense of a very powerful sound in spite of the predominance of \"piano\" markings throughout.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beethoven's pedal mark.", "content": "At the opening of the first movement, Beethoven included the following direction in Italian: \"Si deve suonare tutto questo pezzo delicatissimamente e senza sordino\" (\"This whole piece ought to be played with the utmost delicacy and without damper[s]\"). The way this is accomplished (both on today's pianos and on those of Beethoven's day) is to depress the sustain pedal throughout the movement – or at least to make use of the pedal throughout, but re-applying it as the harmony changes.  The modern piano has a much longer sustain time than the instruments of Beethoven's time, so that a steady application of the sustain pedal creates a dissonant sound. In contrast, performers who employ a historically based instrument (either a restored old piano or a modern instrument built on historical principles) are more able to follow Beethoven's direction literally.  For performance on the modern piano, several options have been put forth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "The C minor sonata, particularly the third movement, is held to have been the inspiration for Frédéric Chopin's \"Fantaisie-Impromptu\", and that the \"Fantaisie-Impromptu\" was actually a tribute to Beethoven. It manifests the key relationships of the sonata's three movements, chord structures, and even shares some passages. Ernst Oster writes: \"With the aid of the \"Fantaisie-Impromptu\" we can at least recognize what particular features of the C minor Sonata struck fire in Chopin. We can actually regard Chopin as our teacher as he points to the coda and says, 'Look here, this is great. Take heed of this example!'... The \"Fantaisie-Impromptu\" is perhaps the only instance where one genius discloses to us – if only by means of a composition of his own – what he actually hears in the work of another genius.\"  Carl Bohm composed a piece for violin and piano called \"Meditation\", Op. 296, in which he adds a violin melody over the unaltered first movement of Beethoven's sonata.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Moonlight Sonata Adagio sostenuto played by Armen Ghazaryan Formal analysis of Beethoven's \"Moonlight Sonata\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Piano Sonata No. 14 in C minor \"\"Quasi una fantasia\", Op. 27, No. 2, popularly known as the Moonlight Sonata\", is a piano sonata by Ludwig van Beethoven. It was completed in 1801 and dedicated in 1802 to his pupil, Countess Giulietta Guicciardi.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972462}
{"src_title": "Karl-Otto Koch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Koch was born in Darmstadt, Grand Duchy of Hesse on August 2, 1897. His father worked in a local registrar's office and died when Karl was eight years old. After completing elementary school in 1912, Koch attended Mittelschule and completed a commercial apprenticeship.  In 1916, he volunteered to join the army and fought on the Western Front until he was later captured by the British. Koch spent the rest of the war as a POW and returned to Germany in 1919. As a soldier, he conducted himself well and was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class, the Observer's Badge and the Wound Badge in Black. Following World War I, Koch worked as a commercial manager, an authorized signatory and insurance agent and became unemployed in 1932 (he had served a prison sentence in 1930 for embezzlement and forgery). In 1931, Karl-Otto Koch joined the Nazi Party and the \"Schutzstaffel\" (SS).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service with the SS.", "content": "Koch served with several \"SS-Standarten\" (Thirty fifth SS Regiment Kassel, SS Special Detachment Saxony). In 1934, he took command of the Sachsenburg Concentration Camp. Briefly, he was the officer in charge of the Esterwegen Concentration Camp guard unit, officer in charge of the preventive custody camp in the Lichtenburg Concentration Camp, and the adjutant at Dachau Concentration Camp. On 13 June 1935, he became commander of the Columbia concentration camp in Berlin-Tempelhof and, in April 1936, he was assigned to the concentration camp at Esterwegen. Four months later, he was moved to Sachsenhausen. Within a few years (September 1937) he advanced to SS-Standartenführer (colonel)..  On 1 August 1937, he was given command of the new Buchenwald concentration camp. He remained at Buchenwald until September 1941, when he was transferred to the Majdanek concentration camp for POWs near Lublin, Poland. That was largely due to an investigation based on allegations of his improper conduct at Buchenwald, which included corruption, fraud, embezzlement, drunkenness, sexual offences and a murder. Koch commanded the Majdanek camp for only one year; he was relieved from his duties after 86 Soviet POWs escaped from the camp in August 1942. Koch was charged with criminal negligence and transferred to Berlin, where he worked at the SS Personnel Main Office and as a liaison between the SS and the German Post Office.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prosecution and death.", "content": "Koch's actions at Buchenwald first caught the attention of SS-Obergruppenführer Josias, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont in 1941. In glancing over the death list of Buchenwald, Josias had stumbled across the name of Walter Krämer, a head hospital orderly at Buchenwald, which he recognized because Krämer had successfully treated him in the past. Josias investigated the case and found out that Koch, in a position as the Camp Commandant, had ordered Krämer and Karl Peix, a hospital attendant, killed as \"political prisoners\" because they had treated him for syphilis and he feared it might be discovered. Waldeck also received reports that a certain prisoner had been shot while attempting to escape.  By that time, Koch had been transferred to the Majdanek concentration camp in Poland, but his wife, Ilse, was still living at the Commandant's house in Buchenwald. Waldeck ordered a full-scale investigation of the camp by Georg Konrad Morgen, an SS officer who was an SS-judge in the SS Court Main Office. Throughout the investigation, more of Koch's orders to kill prisoners at the camp were revealed, as well as embezzlement of property stolen from prisoners.  A charge of incitement to murder was lodged by Prince Waldeck and Morgen against Koch, to which were later added charges of embezzlement. Other camp officials were charged, including Koch's wife. The trial resulted in Koch being sentenced to death for disgracing both himself and the SS. Koch was executed by firing squad on 5 April 1945, one week before American allied troops arrived to liberate the camp.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Koch first married in 1924 and had one son; however, this marriage ended in divorce in 1931, due to his infidelity. On May 25, 1936 Koch married Ilse Koch (née Margarete Ilse Köhler), with whom he had a son and two daughters. Ilse later became known as \"The Witch of Buchenwald\" (\"Die Hexe von Buchenwald\"), usually rendered in English as \"The Bitch of Buchenwald.\" When Koch was transferred to Buchenwald, Ilse was appointed an \"Oberaufseherin\" (overseer) by the SS and thus had an active, official role in the atrocities committed there. She was known for extreme cruelty towards prisoners.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl-Otto Koch (; 2 August 1897 – 5 April 1945) was a mid-ranking commander in the \"Schutzstaffel\" (SS) of Nazi Germany who was the first commandant of the Nazi concentration camps at Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen. From September 1941 until August 1942, he served as the first commandant of the Majdanek concentration camp in occupied Poland, stealing vast amounts of valuables and money from murdered Jews. His wife, Ilse Koch, also took part in the crimes at Buchenwald and Majdanek.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972463}
{"src_title": "Constantius III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Constantius was born in Naissus, Moesia at an unknown date. Constantius served as a general under Honorius, rising to the rank of \"Magister militum\" (Master of the Soldiers) by 411.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Revolt of Constantine III.", "content": "In 411 Constantius was sent by Honorius to put down the revolt of Constantine III, who had declared himself emperor in Britain in 407. Constantius thereafter led his soldiers to Arles, the capital and residence of Constantine. Upon arriving, he defeated the army of Gerontius, a general who was rebelling against Constantine, before besieging the city.  Constantine refused to surrender, hoping to last until the return of his general Edobichus, who was raising troops in northern Gaul. Edobichus did return to Arles, however he was swiftly defeated by Constantius. Constantine soon after lost much of the remainder of his forces, as his army which had been guarding the Rhine chose to support the usurper Jovinus instead, forcing Constantine to surrender. Despite Constantius' assurances that Constantine would be able to safely retire to a clerical office, Constantius had him imprisoned, and further had him beheaded during his return to Ravenna, in either August or September 411. Honorius' remaining rivals were soon defeated, with Gerontius committing suicide in Hispania, and Jovinus being defeated by Athaulf, king of the Visigoths. Despite this, Honorius was unable to regain control of Britain, nor was any Roman after him. This view was opposed by J. B. Bury 1920, German scholar Ralf Scharf, and John Hester Ward among others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Campaigns.", "content": "Constantius initiated a campaign against the Visigoths in northern Hispania in 416, blockading them in order to starve them and force their submission. Soon after, the Visigoth king, Wallia, surrendered to Rome, agreeing to: return Galla Placidia, the sister of Honorius, who had been captured by Alaric 412, and been forced into marriage with Athaulf, who was by this time dead; to wage war against the Vandals and other barbarians who the Romans were still in conflict with, in exchange for food supplies. Constantius then continued to campaign against various tribal groups, regaining control of much of Hispania and Gaul by 420.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "During this time period, generals played a critical role in ensuring the continued reign of Roman Emperors, especially Western Roman Emperors. Constantius' position of \"Magister militum\" and his skill as a commander allowed him to gain huge influence over the Western Roman Empire, comparable to the earlier Stilicho. For this reason, Honorius bestowed many honors upon Constantius, such as appointing him consul three times: in 414, alongside Constans; in 417, alongside Honorius; and in 420, alongside Theodosius II. In order to further ensure Constantius' loyalty, Honorius arranged the betrothal of his sister, Galla Placidia, to Constantius in 417. Later, on 8 February 421, Honorius made Constantius co-Western Emperor under himself. Constantius reigned as co-emperor only seven months before dying on 2 September 421, in Ravenna. Constantius was succeeded by Honorius, who ruled alone until his death in 423, whereupon Valentinian III, Constantius' son, assumed the throne, with Galla Placidia serving as regent.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Constantius III (Latin: \"Flavius Constantius Augustus\") was Western Roman Emperor in 421, from 8 February until his death on 2 September. He earned his position as Emperor due to his capability as a general under Honorius, achieving the rank of \"Magister militum\" by 411. That same year, he was sent to suppress the revolt of Constantine III, a Roman general who declared himself emperor. Constantius led his army to Arles in Gaul, the capital of Constantine III, and defeated Gerontius, a general rebelling against Constantine, before himself besieging Arles. After defeating a relief force led by Edobichus, Constantius convinced Constantine to surrender, promising safe retirement, but betrayed and beheaded him as soon as he surrendered. Constantius then went on to lead campaigns against various barbarian groups in Hispania and Gaul, recovering much of both for the Western Roman Empire. Constantius was proclaimed Western Roman Emperor by Honorius on 8 February 421. He reigned for seven months before dying on 2 September 421.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972464}
{"src_title": "Marcion of Sinope", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Epiphanius records in his \"Panarion\" that Marcion was born the son of a bishop in Pontus in modern-day Turkey. Rhodo and Tertullian, young men in Marcion's old age, described him as a \"mariner\" and a \"ship-master\" respectively. Some time in the late 130s CE, Marcion traveled to Rome, joined the Roman church, and made a large donation of 200,000 sesterces to the congregation there. Conflicts with the church of Rome arose and he was eventually excommunicated in 144 CE, his donation being returned to him. After his excommunication, he returned to Asia Minor, where he continued to lead his many church congregations and teach the Gospel of Marcion.  According to Christian sources, Marcion's teacher was the Simonian Cerdo. Irenaeus writes that \"a certain Cerdo, originating from the Simonians, came to Rome under Hyginus... and taught that the one who was proclaimed as God by the Law and the Prophets is not the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ\" (\"Against Heresies\", 1, 27, 1). Also, still according to them, Marcion and the Gnostic Valentinus were companions in Rome.  In 394, Epiphanius claimed that after beginnings as an ascetic, Marcion seduced a virgin and was accordingly excommunicated by his father, prompting him to leave his home town. This account has been doubted by many scholars, who instead think (as Bart D. Ehrman stated) that \"seduction of a virgin\" was a metaphor for his corruption of the Christian Church, with the Church portrayed as the undefiled virgin. \"Marcion, it appears, has become the victim of the historicisation of such a metaphor, even though it contradicts the otherwise firm tradition of his strict sexual probity\". Similarly doubtful is Tertullian's claim in \"The Prescription Against Heretics\" (written ca. 200) that Marcion professed repentance, and agreed to the conditions granted to him—that he should receive reconciliation if he restored to the Church those whom he had led astray—but that he was prevented from doing so by his death.  The Marcionite church expanded greatly within Marcion's lifetime, becoming a major rival to the emerging Catholic church. After his death, it retained its following and survived Christian controversy and imperial disapproval for several centuries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teachings.", "content": "Study of the Hebrew scriptures, along with received writings circulating in the nascent Church, led Marcion to conclude that many of the teachings of Jesus were incompatible with the actions of Yahweh, the belligerent god of the Hebrew Bible. Marcion responded by developing a ditheistic system of belief around the year 144. This notion of two gods—a higher transcendent one and a lower world creator and ruler—allowed Marcion to reconcile his perceived contradictions between Christian Old Covenant theology and the Gospel message proclaimed by the New Testament.  In contrast to other leaders of the nascent Christian Church, however, Marcion declared that Christianity was in complete discontinuity with Judaism and entirely opposed to the Tanakh. Marcion did not claim that the Jewish scriptures were false. Instead, he asserted that they were to be read in an absolutely literal manner, thereby developing an understanding that Yahweh was not the same god spoken of by Jesus. For example, Marcion argued that the Genesis account of Yahweh walking through the Garden of Eden asking where Adam was, had proved Yahweh inhabited a physical body and was without universal knowledge, attributes wholly incompatible with the Heavenly Father professed by Jesus.  According to Marcion, the god of the Old Testament, whom he called the Demiurge, the creator of the material universe, is a jealous tribal deity of the Jews, whose law represents legalistic reciprocal justice and who punishes mankind for its sins through suffering and death. In contrast, the god that Jesus professed is an altogether different being, a universal god of compassion and love who looks upon humanity with benevolence and mercy. Marcion also produced a book titled \"Antitheses\", which is no longer extant, contrasting the Demiurge of the Old Testament with the Heavenly Father of the New Testament.  Marcion held Jesus to be the son of the Heavenly Father but understood the incarnation in a docetic manner, i.e. that Jesus' body was only an imitation of a material body, and consequently denied Jesus' physical and bodily birth, death, and resurrection.  Marcion was the first to introduce a Christian canon. His canon consisted of only eleven books, grouped into two sections: the \"Evangelikon\", a shorter version of the Gospel of Luke, and the \"Apostolikon\", a selection of ten epistles of Paul the Apostle, which were also slightly shorter than the canonical text. Early Christians such as Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Epiphanius claimed that Marcion's editions of Luke and the Pauline epistles were intentionally edited by Marcion to match his theological views, and many modern scholars agree. However, some scholars argue that Marcion's texts were not substantially edited by him, and may in some respects represent an earlier version of these texts than the canonical versions. Like the Gospel of Mark, the gospel used by Marcion did not contain elements relating to Jesus' birth and childhood. Interestingly, it did contain some Jewish elements, and material that challenged Marcion's ditheism—a fact that was exploited by early Christians in their polemics against Marcion.  The centrality of the Pauline epistles in Marcion's canon reflects the fact that Marcion considered Paul to be the correct interpreter and transmitter of Jesus' teachings, in contrast to the Twelve Disciples and the early Jerusalem church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gnosticism.", "content": "Marcion is sometimes described as a Gnostic philosopher. In some essential respects, Marcion proposed ideas which aligned well with Gnostic thought. Like the Gnostics, he believed that Jesus was essentially a divine spirit who appeared to human beings in human form, but did not actually take on a fleshly human body.  However, Marcionism conceptualizes God in a way which cannot be reconciled with broader Gnostic thought. For Gnostics, some human beings are born with a small piece of God's soul lodged within their spirit (akin to the notion of a Divine Spark). God is thus intimately connected to and part of his creation. Salvation lies in turning away from the physical world (which Gnostics regard as an illusion) and embracing the godlike qualities within oneself. Marcion, by contrast, held that the Heavenly Father (the father of Jesus Christ) was an utterly alien god; he had no part in making the world, nor any connection with it.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marcion of Sinope (; Greek: ; 85 – c. 160) was an important figure in early Christianity. Marcion preached that the god who sent Jesus into the world was a different, higher deity than the creator god of Judaism. He considered himself a follower of Paul the Apostle, who he believed to have been the only true apostle of Jesus Christ.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972465}
{"src_title": "Johannes Hevelius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "According to the Polish Academy of Sciences (1975) the origin of the name goes back to the surname Hawke, a historical alternative spelling for the English word hawk, which changed into \"Hawelke\" or \"Hawelecke\". In Poland he is known as \"Jan Heweliusz\", According to Patrick Moore \"Hevelius\" is a Latinised version of the name \"Hewelcke\" other versions of the name include Hewel, Hevel, Hevelke or Hoefel, Höwelcke, Höfelcke. According to Feliks Bentkowski (1814), during his early years he also signed as Hoefelius. Along with the Latinized version of his name, Ludwig Günther-Fürstenwalde (1903) also reports Hevelius' signature as \"Johannes Höffelius Dantiscanus\" in 1631 and \"Hans Höwelcke\" in 1639.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hevelius' father was Abraham Hewelke (1576–1649), his mother Kordula Hecker (1576–1655). They were German-speaking Lutherans, wealthy brewing merchants of Bohemian origin. As a young boy, Hevelius was sent to Gądecz (Gondecz) where he studied the Polish language.  Hevelius brewed the famous Jopen beer, which also gave its name to the \"Jopengasse\"/\"Jopejska\" Street, after 1945 renamed as Piwna Street (Beer Street), where St. Mary's Church is located.  After \"gymnasium\" (secondary school), where he was taught by Peter Crüger, Hevelius in 1630 studied jurisprudence at Leiden, then travelled in England and France, meeting Pierre Gassendi, Marin Mersenne and Athanasius Kircher. In 1634 he settled in his native town, and on 21 March 1635 married Katharine Rebeschke, a neighbour two years younger who owned two adjacent houses. The following year, Hevelius became a member of the beer-brewing guild, which he led from 1643 onwards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Astronomy.", "content": "Throughout his life, Hevelius took a leading part in municipal administration, becoming town councillor in 1651; but from 1639 on, his chief interest was astronomy. In 1641 he built an observatory on the roofs of his three connected houses, equipping it with splendid instruments, ultimately including a large Keplerian telescope of focal length, with a wood and wire tube he constructed himself. This may have been the longest \"tubed\" telescope before the advent of the tubeless aerial telescope.  The observatory was known by the name \"Sternenburg\" (; ) or \"Star Castle\". This private observatory was visited by Polish Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga on 29 January 1660. As a subject of the Polish kings, Hevelius enjoyed the patronage of four consecutive kings of Poland, and his family was raised to the position of nobility by the King of Poland Jan Kazimierz in 1660, who previously visited his observatory in 1659. While the noble status was not ratified by the Polish Sejm Hevelius's coat of arms includes the distinctive Polish royal crown. The Polish King John III Sobieski who regularly visited Hevelius numerous times in years 1677–1683 released him from paying taxes connected to brewing and allowed his beer to be sold freely outside the city limits. In May 1679 the young Englishman Edmond Halley visited him as emissary of the Royal Society, whose fellow Hevelius had been since 1664. The Royal Society considers him one of the first German fellows. Małgorzata Czerniakowska (2005) writes that \"Jan Heweliusz was the first Pole to be inducted into the Royal Society in London. This important event took place on 19th March 1664\". Hevelius considered himself as being citizen of the Polish world (\"civis Orbis Poloniae\") and stated in a letter dated from 9 January 1681 that he was \"Civis orbis Poloni, qui in honorem patriae suae rei Literariae bono tot labores molestiasque, absit gloria, cum maximo facultatum suarum dispendio perduravit\"-\"citizen of Polish world who, for glory of his country and for the good of science, worked so much, and while not boasting much, executed his work with most effort per his abilities\" Halley had been instructed by Robert Hooke and John Flamsteed to persuade Hevelius to use telescopes for his measurements, yet Hevelius demonstrated that he could do well with only quadrant and alidade. He is thus considered the last astronomer to do major work without the use of a telescope.  Hevelius made observations of sunspots, 1642–1645, devoted four years to charting the lunar surface, discovered the Moon's libration in longitude, and published his results in \"Selenographia, sive Lunae descriptio\" (1647), a work which entitles him to be called \"the founder of lunar topography\".  He discovered four comets, in 1652, 1661 (probably Ikeya-Zhang), 1672 and 1677. These discoveries led to his thesis that such bodies revolve around the Sun in parabolic paths.  A complex halo phenomenon was observed by many in the city on 20 February 1661, and was described by Hevelius in his \"Mercurius in Sole visus Gedani\" the following year.  Katharine, his first wife, died in 1662, and a year later Hevelius married Elisabeth Koopmann, the young daughter of a merchant family. The couple had four children. Elisabeth supported him, published two of his works after his death, and is considered the first female astronomer. His observatory, instruments and books were destroyed by fire on 26 September 1679. The catastrophe is described in the preface to his \"Annus climactericus\" (1685). He promptly repaired the damage enough to enable him to observe the great comet of December 1680. He named the constellation \"Sextans\" in memory of this lost instrument. In late 1683, in commemoration of the victory of Christian forces led by Polish King John III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna, he invented and named the constellation \"Scutum Sobiescianum\" (Sobieski's Shield), now called Scutum. This constellation first occurred publicly in his star atlas \"Firmamentum Sobiescianum\", that was printed in his own house at lavish expense, and he himself engraved many of the printing plates.  His health had suffered from the shock of the 1679 fire and he died on his 76th birthday, 28 January 1687. Hevelius was buried in St. Catherine's Church in his hometown.  Descendants of Hevelius live in Urzędów in Poland where they support local astronomy enthusiasts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johannes Hevelius (in German also known as \"Hevel\"; ; – 28 January 1687) was a councillor and mayor of Danzig (Gdańsk), Kingdom of Poland. As an astronomer, he gained a reputation as \"the founder of lunar topography\", and described ten new constellations, seven of which are still used by astronomers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972466}
{"src_title": "Propolis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Purpose.", "content": "For centuries, beekeepers assumed that bees sealed the beehive with propolis to protect the colony from the elements, such as rain and cold winter drafts. However, 20th-century research revealed that bees not only survive, but also thrive, with increased ventilation during the winter months throughout most temperate regions of the world.  Propolis properties may include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "The composition of propolis varies from hive to hive, from district to district, and from season to season. Normally, it is dark brown in color, but it can be found in green, red, black, and white hues, depending on the sources of resin found in the particular hive area. Honey bees are opportunists, gathering what they need from available sources, and detailed analyses show that the chemical composition of propolis varies considerably from region to region, along with the vegetation. In northern temperate climates, for example, bees collect resins from trees, such as poplars and conifers (the biological role of resin in trees is to seal wounds and defend against bacteria, fungi and insects). \"Typical\" northern temperate propolis has approximately 50 constituents, primarily resins and vegetable balsams (50%), waxes (30%), essential oils (10%), and pollen (5%). Propolis also contains persistent lipophilic acaricides, a natural pesticide that deters mite infestations.  In neotropical regions, in addition to a large variety of trees, bees may also gather resin from flowers in the genera \"Clusia\" and \"Dalechampia\", which are the only known plant genera that produce floral resins to attract pollinators. \"Clusia\" resin contains polyprenylated benzophenones. In some areas of Chile and Argentina Andean valleys, propolis contains viscidone, a terpene from \"Baccharis\" shrubs, and in Brazil and Paraguay, naphthoquinone epoxide has recently been isolated from red propolis, and prenylated acids such as 4-hydroxy-3,5-diprenyl cinnamic acid have been documented. An analysis of propolis from Henan, China found sinapinic acid, isoferulic acid, caffeic acid, and chrysin, with the first three compounds demonstrating antibacterial properties. Also, Brazilian red propolis, largely derived from \"Dalbergia ecastaphyllum\" plant resin, has high relative percentages of the isoflavonoids 3-hydroxy-8,9-dimethoxypterocarpan and medicarpin. Other flavonoids commonly present include galangin and pinocembrin. Caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) is also a component of some varieties of propolis from New Zealand.  Occasionally, worker bees will even gather various caulking compounds of human manufacture, when the usual sources are more difficult to obtain. The properties of the propolis depend on the exact sources used by each individual hive; therefore any potential medicinal properties that may be present in one hive's propolis may be absent from another's, or from another sample in the same hive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional medicine and research.", "content": "Propolis has been used in traditional medicine. There is insufficient evidence to rate the effectiveness of propolis for any condition.  The propolis made by some Brazilian bees is under preliminary research for the potential development of new drugs associated with control of \"Candida albicans\" and immunomodulatory effects. Studies have suggested propolis may be effective treatment for allergic rhinitis by inhibiting histamine release.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical instruments.", "content": "Propolis is used by some string instrument makers (violin, viola, cello and bass) as a varnish ingredient. A tincture of propolis may be used to seal the surface of newly made violin family bridges, and may be used in the maintenance of the bores of pan flute tubes. Propolis was purportedly used by Antonio Stradivari in the varnish of his instruments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "Propolis is used by some chewing gum manufacturers to make propolis gum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Car wax.", "content": "Propolis is used to bring about a chemical reaction to convert fats and oils into automobile wax during application.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Propolis or bee glue is a resinous mixture that honey bees produce by mixing saliva and beeswax with exudate gathered from tree buds, sap flows, or other botanical sources. It is used as a sealant for unwanted open spaces in the hive. Propolis is used for small gaps (approximately or less), while larger spaces are usually filled with beeswax. Its color varies depending on its botanical source, with dark brown as the most common. Propolis is sticky at and above, while at lower temperatures it becomes hard and brittle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972467}
{"src_title": "Theresa, Countess of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Birth and marriage.", "content": "Teresa was the illegitimate daughter of King Alfonso VI of León and Castile by Jimena Muñoz. In 1093, her father married her to a French nobleman, Henry of Burgundy, nephew of Queen Constance, a brother of the Duke of Burgundy, a descendant of the kings of France in the male line. Henry was providing military assistance to his father-in-law against the Muslims on the Portuguese march.  In the first months of 1096, Henry and his cousin Raymond of Burgundy, husband of Queen Urraca, reached an agreement whereby each swore under oath that Raymond would give Henry the kingdom of Toledo and one-third of the royal treasury after King Alfonso's death and, if that was not possible, Henry would receive the kingdom of Galicia, while Henry, in turn, promised to support his cousin Raymond in securing all of the king's dominions and two-thirds of the treasury. King Alfonso, however, after becoming aware of this covenant, appointed Henry governor of all the land between the Minho River and Santarém, governed until then by Raymond, thereby limiting his son-in-law's government to Galicia. The two cousins then, instead of being allies, became rivals, each vying to obtain the king's favor. Upon the death of King Alfonso, Henry and Teresa continued governing these lands south of the Minho and extending to the Mondego river and valley, and later, in December 1111, under the reign of Queen Urraca, were also governing Zamora.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Struggle with sister.", "content": "At first, Teresa and Henry were vassals of her father, but Alfonso VI died in 1109, leaving his legitimate daughter, Queen Urraca of Castile as the heir to the throne. Henry invaded León, hoping to add it to his lands. When he died in 1112, Teresa was left to deal with the military and political situation. She took on the responsibility of government, and occupied herself at first mainly with her southern lands, that had only recently been reconquered from the Moors as far as the Mondego River. In recognizing her victory in defending Coimbra, she was called \"Queen\" by Pope Paschal II and in light of this recognition, she appears in her documents as \"Daughter of Alphonso and elected by God\", explicitly being called queen in an 1117 document, leading some to refer to her as the first monarch of Portugal.  In 1116, in an effort to expand her power, Teresa fought her half-sister, Queen Urraca. They fought again in 1120, as she continued to pursue a larger share in the Leonese inheritance, and allied herself as a widow to the most powerful Galician nobleman for that effect. This was Fernando Pérez, Count of Trava, who had rejected his first wife to openly marry her, and served her on her southern border of the Mondego. In 1121, she was besieged and captured at Lanhoso, on her northern border with Galicia, while fighting her sister Urraca. A negotiated peace was coordinated with aid from the Archbishops of Santiago de Compostela and Braga. The terms included that Teresa could go free only if she held the County of Portugal as a vassal of the Kingdom of León as she had received it initially.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rebellions.", "content": "By 1128, the Archbishop of Braga and the main Portuguese feudal nobles had had enough of her persistent Galician alliance, which the first feared could favour the ecclesiastical pretensions of his new rival, the Galician Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela, Diego Gelmírez, who had just started to assert his pretensions to an alleged discovery of relics of Saint James in his town, as his way to gain power and riches over the other cathedrals in the Iberian Peninsula.  The Portuguese nobles and warlords rebelled, and the Queen was deposed after a short civil war. Her son and heir, Afonso, defeated Teresa's troops at the Battle of São Mamede near Guimarães and led her, along with the Count of Traba and their children, into exile in the 'kingdom' of Galicia, near the Portuguese border, where the Traba had founded the monastery of Toxos Outos. Teresa died soon afterwards in 1130. She was succeeded by her son, who would eventually lead Portugal into becoming a fully independent kingdom, and later, nation state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "By Henry, Count of Portugal, Teresa had:  She had two daughters with count Fernando Pérez de Traba:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theresa (Portuguese: \"Teresa\"; Galician-Portuguese: \"Tareja\" or \"Tareixa\"; Latin: \"Tarasia\") (1080 – 11 November 1130) was Countess and Queen of Portugal. She rebelled against vassalic ties with her half-sister Urraca and was recognised as Queen by Pope Paschal II in 1116. After being captured she was forced to accept 'Portugal's vassalage to the Kingdom of León in 1121, although she was allowed to keep her royal title. Her political alliance and amorous liaison with Galician nobleman Fernando Pérez de Traba led to her being ousted by her son, Afonso Henriques, who with the support of the Portuguese nobility and clergy, defeated her at the Battle of São Mamede in 1128.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972468}
{"src_title": "Madame Tussauds", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "Marie Tussaud was born as Marie Grosholtz in 1761 in Strasbourg, France. Her mother worked for Philippe Curtius in Bern, Switzerland, who was a physician skilled in wax modeling. Curtius taught Tussaud the art of wax modelling beginning when she was a child. He moved to Paris and took his young apprentice, then only 6 years old, with him.  Grosholtz created her first wax sculpture in 1777 of Voltaire. At the age of 17, she became the art tutor to Madame Elizabeth, the sister of King Louis XVI of France, at the Palace of Versailles. During the French Revolution, she was imprisoned for three months and awaiting execution, but was released after the intervention of an influential friend. Other famous people whom she modelled included Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Benjamin Franklin. During the Revolution, she made models of many prominent victims.  Grosholtz inherited Curtius's vast collection of wax models following his death in 1794. For the next 33 years she travelled around Europe with a touring show from the collection. She married Francois Tussaud in 1795 and took his surname. She renamed her show as Madame Tussaud's. In 1802, she accepted an invitation from Paul Philidor, a lantern and phantasmagoria pioneer, to exhibit her work alongside his show at the Lyceum Theatre, London. She did not fare particularly well financially, with Philidor taking half of her profits.  She was unable to return to France because of the Napoleonic Wars, so she traveled throughout Great Britain and Ireland exhibiting her collection. From 1831, she took a series of short leases on the upper floor of \"Baker Street Bazaar\" (on the west side of Baker Street, Dorset Street, and King Street). This site was later featured in the Druce-Portland case sequence of trials of 1898–1907. This became Tussaud's first permanent home in 1836.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "By 1835, Marie Tussaud had settled down in Baker Street, London and opened a museum. One of the main attractions of her museum was the Chamber of Horrors. The name is often credited to a contributor to \"Punch\" in 1845, but Tussaud appears to have originated it herself, using it in advertising as early as 1843.  This part of the exhibition included victims of the French Revolution and newly created figures of murderers and other criminals. Other famous people were added, including Lord Nelson and Sir Walter Scott.  Some sculptures still exist that were made by Marie Tussaud herself. The gallery originally contained some 400 different figures, but fire damage in 1925, coupled with German bombs in 1941, severely damaged most of such older models. The casts themselves have survived, allowing the historical waxworks to be remade, and these can be seen in the museum's history exhibit. The oldest figure on display is that of Madame du Barry, the work of Curtius from 1765 and part of the waxworks left to Grosholtz at his death. Other faces from the time of Tussaud include Robespierre and George III. In 1842, she made a self-portrait, which is now on display at the entrance of her museum. She died in her sleep on 16 April 1850. By 1883, the restricted space and rising cost of the Baker Street site prompted her grandson Joseph Randall to commission construction of a building at the museum's current location on Marylebone Road. The new exhibition galleries were opened on 14 July 1884 and were a great success. But Randall had bought out his cousin Louisa's half share in the business in 1881, and that plus the building costs resulted in his having too little capital. He formed a limited company in 1888 to attract fresh capital but it had to be dissolved after disagreements between the family shareholders. In February 1889 Tussaud's was sold to a group of businessmen, led by Edwin Josiah Poyser.  The first wax sculpture of a young Winston Churchill was made in 1908; a total of ten have been made since. The first overseas branch of Madame Tussauds was opened in Amsterdam in 1970.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ownership changes.", "content": "In 2005, Madame Tussauds was sold to a company in Dubai, Dubai International Capital, for £800m (US$1.5bn). In May 2007 The Blackstone Group purchased The Tussauds Group from then-owner Dubai International Capital for US$1.9 billion; the company was merged with Blackstone's Merlin Entertainments and operation of Madame Tussauds was taken over by Merlin. After the Tussauds acquisition, Dubai International Capital gained 20% of Merlin Entertainment. The Tussauds Group as a separate entity ceased to exist.  On 17 July 2007, as part of the financing for the Tussauds deal, Merlin sold the freehold of Madame Tussauds to private investor Nick Leslau and his investment firm Prestbury under a sale and leaseback agreement. Although the attraction sites are owned by Prestbury, they are operated by Merlin based on a renewable 35-year lease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent status.", "content": "Madame Tussaud's wax museum became a major tourist attraction in London. Until 2010 it incorporated the London Planetarium in its west wing. A large animated dark ride, \"The Spirit of London\", opened in 1993. Today's wax figures at Tussauds include historical and royal figures, film stars, sports stars, and famous murderers. It has been known since 2007 as \"Madame Tussauds\" museums (no apostrophe).  In July 2008, Madame Tussauds' Berlin branch became embroiled in controversy when a 41-year-old German man brushed past two guards and decapitated a wax figure depicting Adolf Hitler. This was believed to be an act of protest against showing the ruthless dictator alongside sports heroes, movie stars, and other historical figures. The statue has since been repaired, and the perpetrator has admitted that he attacked the statue to win a bet. The original model of Hitler was unveiled in Madame Tussauds London in April 1933; it was frequently vandalised and a 1936 replacement had to be carefully guarded. In January 2016, the statue of Adolf Hitler was removed from the London museum in response to an open letter sent by a staff writer of \"The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles\", followed by significant support for its removal from social media.  The first Madame Tussauds in India opened in New Delhi on 1 December 2017. Its operator, Merlin Entertainments, planned an investment of 50 million pounds over the next 10 years. It features over 50 wax models, including political and entertainment figures such as Ariana Grande, Amitabh Bachchan, Salman Khan, Katrina Kaif, Sachin Tendulkar, Kim Kardashian, Tom Cruise, Leonardo DiCaprio, Scarlett Johansson, Angelina Jolie, Asha Bhosle, Kapil Dev, and Mary Kom.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Celebrity poses with their wax figures.", "content": "Many times celebrities pose like their wax figures as pranks and publicity stunts.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Madame Tussauds (, ) is a wax museum in London; it has smaller museums in a number of other major cities. It was founded by wax sculptor Marie Tussaud. It used to be spelled as \"Madame Tussaud's\"; the apostrophe is no longer used. Madame Tussauds is a major tourist attraction in London, displaying the waxworks of famous and historical figures, as well as popular film and television characters from famous actors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972469}
{"src_title": "Cox's Orange Pippin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description and uses.", "content": "'Cox's Orange Pippin' is highly regarded due to its excellent flavour and attractive appearance. The apples are of medium size, orange-red in colour, deepening to bright red and mottled with carmine over a deep yellow background. The flesh is very aromatic, yellow-white, fine-grained, crisp, and very juicy. Cox's flavour is sprightly subacid, with hints of cherry and anise, becoming softer and milder with age. When ripe apples are shaken, the seeds make a rattling sound as they are only loosely held in the apple's flesh.  One of the best in quality of the English dessert apples, Cox's Orange Pippin may be eaten out of hand or sliced. Cox's Orange Pippin is often blended with other varieties in the production of cider.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "According to the Institute of Food Research, Cox's Orange Pippin accounts for over 50% of the UK acreage of dessert apples. The tree is a moderate grower and is annually productive. However, it can be difficult to grow in many environments, and tends to be susceptible to diseases such as scab, mildew, and canker, so it is rarely grown commercially in North America. Cox's Orange Pippin is also grown in Belgium and in the Netherlands, countries with a climate similar to that of England. A number of sports of Cox's Orange Pippin have been discovered over subsequent years and propagated. These retain \"Cox\" in their names, e.g., Cherry Cox, Crimson Cox, King Cox, and Queen Cox. In addition to the cultivation of Cox sports, apple breeders have hybridised Cox with other varieties to improve vigour, disease resistance, and yield, while attempting to retain the unique qualities of Cox's flavour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descendant cultivars.", "content": "Cultivar name (female parent × male parent)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cox's Orange Pippin, in Britain often referred to simply as Cox, is an apple cultivar first grown in 1830, at Colnbrook in Buckinghamshire, England, by the retired brewer and horticulturist Richard Cox. Though the parentage of the cultivar is unknown, Ribston Pippin seems a likely candidate. The variety was introduced for sale by the 1850s by Charles Turner, and grown commercially from the 1860s, particularly in the Vale of Evesham in Worcestershire, and later in Kent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972470}
{"src_title": "Elizabeth of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "Born in 1271 into the royal house of Aragon, Elizabeth was the daughter of \"Infante\" Peter (later King Peter III) and his wife Constance of Sicily and the sister of three kings: Alfonso II and James II of Aragon and Frederick III of Sicily.  Elizabeth showed an early enthusiasm for her faith. She said the full Divine Office daily, fasted and did other penance, as well as attended twice-daily choral Masses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Her marriage to King Denis of Portugal was arranged in 1281 when she was 10 years old, receiving the towns of Óbidos, Abrantes and Porto de Mós as part of her dowry. It was only in 1288 that the wedding was celebrated, when Denis was 26 years old, while Elizabeth was 17. Denis, a poet and statesman, was known as the \"Rei Lavrador\" (), because he planted a large pine forest near Leiria to prevent the soil degradation that threatened the region.  Elizabeth quietly pursued the regular religious practices of her youth and was devoted to the poor and sick. Such a life was taken as a reproach to many around her and caused ill will in some quarters. Eventually, her prayer and patience succeeded in converting her husband, who had been leading what she considered a sinful life.  Elizabeth took an active interest in Portuguese politics and was a decisive conciliator during the negotiations concerning the Treaty of Alcañices, signed by Denis and Fernando IV of Castile in 1297 (which fixed the borders between the two countries). In 1304, the Queen and Denis returned to Spain to arbitrate between Fernando IV of Castile and James II of Aragon, brother of Elizabeth.  She had two children:  Elizabeth would serve as intermediary between her husband and Afonso, during the Civil War between 1322 and 1324. The Infante greatly resented the king, whom he accused of favoring the king's illegitimate son, Afonso Sanches. Repulsed to Alenquer, which supported the Infante, Denis was prevented from killing his son through the intervention of the Queen. As legend holds, in 1323, Elizabeth, mounted on a mule, positioned herself between both opposing armies on the field of Alvalade in order to prevent the combat. Peace returned in 1324, once the illegitimate son was sent into exile, and the Infante swore loyalty to the king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dowager Queen.", "content": "After Denis' death in 1325, Elizabeth retired to the monastery of the Poor Clare nuns, now known as the Monastery of Santa Clara-a-Velha (which she had founded in 1314) in Coimbra. She joined the Third Order of St. Francis, devoting the rest of her life to the poor and sick in obscurity. During the great famine in 1293, she donated flour from her cellars to the starving in Coimbra. She was also known for being modest in her dress and humble in conversation, for providing lodging for pilgrims, distributing small gifts, paying the dowries of poor girls, and educating the children of poor nobles. She was a benefactor of various hospitals (Coimbra, Santarém and Leiria) and of religious projects (such as the Trinity Convent in Lisbon, chapels in Leiria and Óbidos, and the cloister in Alcobaça.  She was called to act once more as a peacemaker in 1336, when Afonso IV marched his troops against King Alfonso XI of Castile, to whom he had married his daughter Maria, and who had neglected and ill-treated her. In spite of age and weakness, the Queen-dowager insisted on hurrying to Estremoz, where the two kings' armies were drawn up. She again stopped the fighting and caused terms of peace to be arranged. But the exertion brought on her final illness. As soon as her mission was completed, she took to her bed with a fever from which she died on 4 July, in the castle of Estremoz. She earned the title of \"Peacemaker\" on account of her efficacy in solving disputes.  Although Denis' tomb was located in Odivelas, Elizabeth was buried in the Convent of Santa Clara in Coimbra, in a magnificent Gothic sarcophagus. After frequent flooding by the Mondego River in the 17th century, the Poor Clares moved her mortal remains to the Monastery of Santa Clara-a-Nova (also in Coimbra). Her body was transferred to the main chapel, where it was buried in a sarcophagus of silver and crystal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sainthood.", "content": "She was beatified in 1526 and canonized by Pope Urban VIII on 25 May 1625. Her feast was inserted in the General Roman Calendar for celebration on 4 July. In the year 1694 Pope Innocent XII moved her feast to 8 July, so it would not conflict with the celebration of the Octave of Saints Peter and Paul, Apostles. In 1955, Pope Pius XII abolished this octave. The 1962 Roman Missal changed the rank of the feast from \"Double\" to \"Third-Class Feast\". The 1969 revision of the Calendar classified the celebration as an optional memorial and restored it to 4 July. Her feast is also kept on the Franciscan Calendar of Saints. Since the establishment in 1819 of the Diocese of San Cristóbal de La Laguna (Canary Islands, Spain), Saint Elizabeth is the co-patron of the diocese and of its cathedral pursuant to the papal bull issued by Pope Pius VII. In the United States her memorial has been transferred to 5 July since 4 July is the date of the independence of that nation, a national holiday.  St. Elizabeth is usually depicted in royal garb with a dove or an olive branch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "She was the subject of a 1947 Portuguese-Spanish film, \"The Holy Queen\", in which she was played by Maruchi Fresno. In Portuguese popular culture, she is commonly associated with a \"miracle of the roses\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elizabeth of Aragon, more commonly known as Saint Elizabeth of Portugal, T.O.S.F. (1271 – 4 July 1336; \"Elisabet\" in Catalan, \"Isabel\" in Aragonese, Portuguese and Spanish), was queen consort of Portugal, a tertiary of the Franciscan Order and is venerated as a saint of the Catholic Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972471}
{"src_title": "Nakajima Ki-43", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Ki-43 was designed by Hideo Itokawa, who would later become famous as a pioneer of Japanese rocketry. The Ki-43 prototype was produced in response to a December 1937 specification for a successor to the popular fixed-gear Nakajima Ki-27 \"Nate\". The specification called for a top speed of 500 km/h (311 mph), a climb rate of 5,000 m (16,400 ft) in five minutes and a range of 800 km (500 mi). Maneuverability was to be at least as good as that of Ki-27.  When first flown in early January 1939, the Ki-43 prototype was a disappointment. Japanese test pilots complained that it was less maneuverable than the Ki-27 \"Nate\" and not much faster. In order to solve these problems, Nakajima produced a series of progressively modified prototypes through 1939 and 1940. These changes involved a major weight saving program, a slimmer fuselage with the tail surfaces moved further aft and a new canopy. Crucially, the 11th prototype introduced the unique differential \"butterfly\" maneuvering Fowler flaps, which dramatically improved performance in tight turns. The 13th prototype combined all these changes, and tests of this aircraft resulted in an instruction for Nakajima to place the Ki-43 into production, the Ki-27 jigs being transferred to the Mansyu factory at Harbin in Japanese occupied Manchukuo.  The Ki-43 (Oscar) was initially produced in November 1939, given the designation Ki-43-I. Deliveries from Nakajima's Ota factory commenced in February 1941. In addition to outstanding maneuverability, the Ki-43-I had an impressive rate of climb due to its light weight. Power was provided by the Nakajima Ha-25 engine turning a two-bladed, two-position variable-pitch metal propeller. Top speed was 495 km/h (308 mph) at 4,000 m (13,160 ft). The Ki-43 was equipped with two synchronized cowling machine guns in various configurations, with either two 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 89 machine guns, one 12.7 mm (.50 in) Ho-103 machine gun and one 7.7 mm (.303 in) gun, or two 12.7 mm (.50 in) Ho-103 guns; the aircraft was given various sub-designations to reflect these differences. The configuration that appears to have been most prevalent at the outset of the war was the first configuration with two 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 89 machine guns, while as the war progressed the heavier combinations gained popularity and the version with the heaviest armament was sometimes given the designation Ki-43-Ic. The Ho-103 was often loaded with explosive ammunition to increase target effect; its penetrative effect against later Allied aircraft armor appears to have been marginal. Prototypes for the Ki-43-II flew in February 1942. The Ha-25 engine was upgraded with the 2-stage supercharger, thus becoming the more powerful Nakajima Ha-115 engine, which was installed in a longer-chord cowling. The new engine turned a three-bladed propeller. The wing structure, which had suffered failures in the Ki-43-I, was strengthened and equipped with racks for drop tanks or bombs. The Ki-43-II was also fitted with a 13 mm armor plate for the pilot's head and back, and the aircraft's fuel tanks were coated in rubber to form a crude self-sealing tank. This was later replaced by a 3-layer rubber bladder, 8mm core construction; with 2mm oil-proof lamination. The bladder proved to be highly resistant against 7.7mm bullets, but was not as effective against larger calibers. The pilot also enjoyed a slightly taller canopy and a reflector gunsight in place of the earlier telescopic gunsight. Nakajima commenced production of the Ki-43-II at its Ota factory in November 1942. Production was also started at the Tachikawa Hikoki KK and the 1st Army Air Arsenal (Tachikawa Dai-Ichi Rikugun Kokusho), also at Tachikawa. Although Tachikawa Hikoki successfully managed to enter into large-scale production of the Ki-43, the 1st Army Air Arsenal was less successful – hampered by a shortage of skilled workers, it was ordered to stop production after 49 Ki-43s were built. Nakajima eventually ceased production in mid-1944 in favor of the Ki-84 \"Hayate\", but the Tachikawa Hikoki continued to produce the Ki-43.  Tachikawa also produced the Ki-43-III, which utilized the more powerful Nakajima Army Type 1 Ha-115-II engine. Maximum speed increased to 576 km/h (358 mph). Tachikawa produced 2124 Ki-43-II and -III aircraft between April 1944 and the end of the war. Total production of all versions amounted to 5,919 aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Ki-43 was the most widely used Army fighter, and equipped 30 \"sentai\" FR,(flight regiment) and 12 \"chutais\" IS,(independent squadrons). The first unit equipped with the Ki 43-I was the 59th FR at Hankow Airfield, during June–August 1941 and began operational sorties over Hengyang on 29 October 1941. The second unit to re-equip with the new Aircraft was the 64th FR, from August to November 1941.  The first version, Ki-43-I, entered service in 1941, the Ki-43-II in December 1942, the Ki-43-II-\"Kai\" in June 1943, and the Ki-43-IIIa in summer 1944. The aircraft fought in China, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, New Guinea, the Philippines, South Pacific islands and the Japanese home islands.  Like the Zero, the Ki-43 initially enjoyed air superiority in the skies of Malaya, Netherlands East Indies, Burma and New Guinea. This was partly due to the better performance of the Oscar and partly due to the relatively small numbers of combat-ready Allied fighters, mostly the Curtiss P-36 Hawk, Curtiss P-40, Brewster Buffalo, Hawker Hurricane and Curtiss-Wright CW-21 in Asia and the Pacific during the first months of the war. As the war progressed, however, the fighter suffered from the same weaknesses as the slower, fixed-gear Ki-27 \"Nate\" predecessor to the \"Oscar\", and the more advanced naval A6M Zero; light armor and less-than-effective self-sealing fuel tanks, which caused high casualties in combat. Its armament of two machine guns also proved inadequate against the more heavily armored Allied aircraft. As newer Allied aircraft were introduced, such as the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, Lockheed P-38 Lightning, North American P-51 Mustang, Vought F4U Corsair, Grumman F6F Hellcat and late-model Supermarine Spitfire/Seafire, the Japanese were forced into a defensive war and most aircraft were flown by inexperienced pilots. However, even near the end, the Oscar's excellent maneuverability could still gain advantage over rash Allied pilots. From October to December 1944, 17 Ki-43s were shot down in air combat; their pilots claimed seven C-47s, five B-24 Liberators, two Spitfires, two Beaufighters, two Mosquitoes, two F4U Corsairs, two B-29 Superfortresses, one F6F Hellcat, one P-38, and one B-25. Like most Japanese combat types, many \"Hayabusas\" were at the end expended in \"kamikaze\" strikes.  The Ki-43 also served in an air defense role over Formosa, Okinawa and the Japanese home islands. Some examples were supplied to the pro-Japanese regimes of Thailand, Manchukuo and Wang Jingwei Government as well. The Thai units sometimes fought against the USAAF in southern China.  \"Hayabusas\" were well liked in the JAAF because of the pleasant flight characteristics and excellent maneuverability, and almost all JAAF fighter aces claimed victories with Hayabusa in some part of their career. At the end of the war, most \"Hayabusa\" units received Ki-84 \"Hayate\" \"Frank\" fighters, but some units flew the \"Hayabusa\" to the end of the war. The top-scoring \"Hayabusa\" pilot was Sergeant Satoshi Anabuki with 39 confirmed victories, almost all scored with the Ki-43.  After the war, some captured examples served in limited numbers in the French Air Force in Indochina against Viet Minh rebels.  Ki-43s abandoned in the Netherlands East Indies were taken over by the newly declared Indonesian government and put into service during the fight against Dutch forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Not included: Not included:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nakajima Ki-43 \"Hayabusa\" (隼, \"Peregrine Falcon\", \"Army Type 1 Fighter\" (一式戦闘機)) was a single-engine land-based tactical fighter used by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force in World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972472}
{"src_title": "Sambucus nigra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Elderberry is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing to tall and wide, rarely reaching tall. The bark, light grey when young, changes to a coarse grey outer bark with lengthwise furrowing, lenticels prominent. The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, 10–30 cm long, pinnate with five to seven (rarely nine) leaflets, the leaflets 5–12 cm long and 3–5 cm broad, with a serrated margin. The young stems are hollow.  The hermaphroditic flowers have five stamens, which are borne in large, flat corymbs 10–25 cm diameter in late spring to mid-summer, the individual flowers are ivory white, 5–6 mm diameter, with five petals; they are pollinated by flies.  The fruit is a glossy, dark purple to black berry 3–5 mm diameter, produced in drooping clusters in late autumn; they are an important food for many fruit-eating birds, notably blackcaps. In subtropical areas of North America, fruit may be borne in July as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are several other closely related species, native to Asia and North America, which are similar, and sometimes treated as subspecies of \"Sambucus nigra\". The blue or Mexican elderberry, \"Sambucus mexicana\", is now generally treated as one or two subspecies of \"Sambucus nigra\" subsp. \"canadensis\" and \"Sambucus nigra\" subsp. \"caerulea\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Hedges, waste-ground roadsides, and woods are the typical habitats for the species. \"S. nigra\" is recorded as very common in Ireland in hedges as scrub in woods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Some selections and cultivars have variegated or coloured leaves and other distinctive qualities, and are grown as ornamental plants.  The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary uses.", "content": "The dark blue or purple berries are mildly poisonous in their raw state. Unripe berries, the seeds of the fruit, and all green parts of the plant are poisonous, containing cyanogenic glycosides (Vedel & Lange 1960). The berries are edible after cooking and may be used to make jam, jelly, chutney, and Pontack sauce. In Scandinavia and Germany, soup made from the elderberry (e.g. the German \"Fliederbeersuppe\") is a traditional meal.  Commonly, the flowerheads are used in infusions, giving a drink in Northern Europe and the Balkans. These drinks are sold commercially as elderflower cordial. In Europe, the flowers are made into a syrup or cordial (in Romanian: Socată, in Swedish: fläder(blom)saft, in Danish: hyldeblomstsaft / hyldedrik), which is diluted with water before drinking. The popularity of this traditional drink recently has encouraged some commercial soft drink producers to introduce elderflower-flavoured drinks (Fanta Shokata, Freaky Fläder). The flowers also may be dipped into a light batter and then fried to make elderflower fritters.  Both flowers and berries may be made into elderberry wine. In Hungary, an elderberry brandy is made that requires 50 kg of fruit to produce 1 litre of brandy. In south-western Sweden, it is traditional to make a snaps liqueur flavoured with elderflower. Elderflowers are used in liqueurs such as St-Germain, and in a mildly alcoholic sparkling elderflower 'champagne', although a more alcoholic home-made version can be made. In Beerse, Belgium, a variety of jenever called \"beers vlierke\" is made from the berries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "This plant is used as a medicinal plant by native peoples and herbalists. Extracts of the flowers and fruits are used in bronchitis, cough, upper respiratory cold infections, and fever, and have recently been shown to reduce the incidence of cold, as well as shorten the duration of cold and flu symptoms. Topical extracts of the leaves and bark are also used.  \"Sambucus nigra\" fruits and flowers have been used in traditional Austrian medicine – internally (fruits as tea, jelly, juice, or syrup; flowers as tea or syrup) for treatment of disorders of the respiratory tract, mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and skin, and for viral infections, fever, colds, and influenza. The first book about the medicinal properties of the plant was written by German physician Martin Blochwich in the 1620s.  The dried corollas and stamens of \"Sambucus nigra\" L. (Sambucus, \"British Pharmaceutical Codex\", 1949) have been used as a vehicle for eye and skin lotions, while the fruits are used to promote urination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diseases.", "content": "Like other elderberries, \"Sambucus nigra\" is subject to elder whitewash fungus and jelly ear fungus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wildlife value.", "content": "Elder rates as fair to good forage for animals such as mule deer, elk, sheep, and small birds. It is classified as nesting habitat for many birds, including hummingbirds, warblers, and vireos. Ripe elderberries are a favorite food for migrating band-tailed pigeons in northern California, which may sometimes strip an entire bush in a short time. It is also a larval host to the spring azure.  It is good cover for large and small mammals as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poisonous to mammals.", "content": "Except for the flowers and ripe berries (but including the ripe seeds), all parts of the plant are poisonous to mammals, containing the cyanogenic glycoside sambunigrin (CHNO, CAS number 99-19-4). The bark contains calcium oxalate crystals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "The strong-smelling foliage was used in the past, tied to a horse's mane, to keep flies away while riding.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sambucus nigra is a species complex of flowering plants in the family Adoxaceae native to most of Europe and North America. Common names include elder, elderberry, black elder, European elder, European elderberry, and European black elderberry. It grows in a variety of conditions including both wet and dry fertile soils, primarily in sunny locations. Elder is cited as a poisonous plant for mammals, and as a weed in certain habitats.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972473}
{"src_title": "Hat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "While there are not many official records of hats before 3,000 BC, they probably were commonplace before that. The 27,000-to-30,000-year-old Venus of Willendorf figurine may depict a woman wearing a woven hat. One of the earliest known confirmed hats was worn by a Bronze Age man (nicknamed Ötzi) whose body (including his hat) was found frozen in a mountain between Austria and Italy, where he'd been since around 3250 BC. He was found wearing a bearskin cap with a chin strap, made of several hides stitched together, essentially resembling a Russian fur hat without the flaps.  One of the first pictorial depictions of a hat appears in a tomb painting from Thebes, Egypt, which shows a man wearing a conical straw hat, dated to around 3200 BC. Hats were commonly worn in ancient Egypt. Many upper-class Egyptians shaved their heads, then covered it in a headdress intended to help them keep cool. Ancient Mesopotamians often wore conical hats or ones shaped somewhat like an inverted vase.  Other early hats include the Pileus, a simple skull-like cap; the Phrygian cap, worn by freed slaves in Greece and Rome (which became iconic in America during the Revolutionary War and the French Revolution, as a symbol of the struggle for liberty against the Monarchy); and the Greek petasos, the first known hat with a brim. Women wore veils, kerchiefs, hoods, caps and wimples.  Like Ötzi, the Tollund Man was preserved to the present day with a hat on, probably having died around 400 BC in a Danish bog, which mummified him. He wore a pointed cap made of sheepskin and wool, fastened under the chin by a hide thong.  St. Clement, the patron saint of felt hatmakers, is said to have discovered felt when he filled his sandals with flax fibers to protect his feet, around 800 AD.  In the Middle Ages, hats were a marker of social status and used to single out certain groups. The 1215 Fourth Council of the Lateran required that all Jews identify themselves by wearing the Judenhat (\"Jewish hat\"), marking them as targets for anti-Semitism. The hats were usually yellow and were either pointed or square.  In the Middle Ages, hats for women ranged from simple scarves to elaborate hennin, and denoted social status. Structured hats for women similar to those of male courtiers began to be worn in the late 16th century. The term'milliner' comes from the Italian city of Milan, where the best quality hats were made in the 18th century. Millinery was traditionally a woman's occupation, with the milliner not only creating hats and bonnets but also choosing lace, trimmings and accessories to complete an outfit.  In the first half of the 19th century, women wore bonnets that gradually became larger, decorated with ribbons, flowers, feathers, and gauze trims. By the end of the century, many other styles were introduced, among them hats with wide brims and flat crowns, the flower pot and the toque. By the middle of the 1920s, when women began to cut their hair short, they chose hats that hugged the head like a helmet.  The tradition of wearing hats to horse racing events began at the Royal Ascot in Britain, which maintains a strict dress code. All guests in the Royal Enclosure must wear hats. This tradition was adopted at other horse racing events, such as the Kentucky Derby in the United States.  Extravagant hats were popular in the 1980s, and in the early 21st century, flamboyant hats made a comeback, with a new wave of competitive young milliners designing creations that include turban caps, trompe-l'oeil-effect felt hats and tall headpieces made of human hair. Some new hat collections have been described as \"wearable sculpture.\" Many pop stars, among them Lady Gaga, have commissioned hats as publicity stunts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Famous hatmakers.", "content": "One of the most famous London hatters is James Lock & Co. of St James's Street. The shop claims to be the oldest operating hat shop in the world. Another was Sharp & Davis of 6 Fish Street Hill. In the late 20th century, museums credited London-based David Shilling with reinventing hats worldwide. Notable Belgian hat designers are Elvis Pompilio and Fabienne Delvigne (Royal warrant of appointment holder), whose hats are worn by European royals. Philip Treacy OBE is an award-winning Irish milliner whose hats have been commissioned by top designers and worn at royal weddings. In North America, the well-known cowboy-hat manufacturer Stetson made the headgear for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Texas Rangers. John Cavanagh was one of the notable American hatters. Italian hat maker Borsalino has covered the heads of Hollywood stars and the world's rich and famous.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "The Philippi Collection is a collection of religious headgear assembled by a German entrepreneur, Dieter Philippi, located in Kirkel. The collection features over 500 hats, and is currently the world's largest collection of clerical, ecclesiastical and religious head coverings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Styles.", "content": "This is a short list of some common and iconic examples of hats. There is a longer version at List of hat styles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "Hat sizes are determined by measuring the circumference of a person's head about above the ears. Inches or centimeters may be used depending on the manufacturer. Felt hats can be stretched for a custom fit. Some hats, like hard hats and baseball caps, are adjustable. Cheaper hats come in \"standard sizes\", such as small, medium, large, extra large: the mapping of measured size to the various \"standard sizes\" varies from maker to maker and style to style, as can be seen by studying various catalogues, such as Hammacher Schlemmer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A hat is a head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. In the past, hats were an indicator of social status. In the military, hats may denote nationality, branch of service, rank or regiment. Police typically wear distinctive hats such as peaked caps or brimmed hats, such as those worn by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Some hats have a protective function. As examples, the hard hat protects construction workers' heads from injury by falling objects and a British police Custodian helmet protects the officer's head, a sun hat shades the face and shoulders from the sun, a cowboy hat protects against sun and rain and an ushanka fur hat with fold-down earflaps keeps the head and ears warm. Some hats are worn for ceremonial purposes, such as the mortarboard, which is worn (or carried) during university graduation ceremonies. Some hats are worn by members of a certain profession, such as the Toque worn by chefs. Some hats have religious functions, such as the mitres worn by Bishops and the turban worn by Sikhs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972474}
{"src_title": "Vital record", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "United States.", "content": "In the United States, vital records are typically maintained at both the county and state levels. In the United Kingdom and numerous other countries vital records are recorded in the civil registry. In the United States, vital records are public and in most cases can be viewed by anyone in person at the governmental authority. Copies can also be requested for a fee.<ref name=\"Wisconsin Register of Deeds Association Vital Records Fee/Application\"></ref> There are two types of copies: certified and uncertified. Certified copies are official copies that can be used as identification whereas uncertified copies do not contain the governmental authority's seal and often are marked that they should not be used for identification. There may be additional restrictions in place on who can actually request a certified copy, such as immediate family or someone with written authorization. Certified copies are usually much more expensive than uncertified copies. Some states have started making vital records available online for free. Vital records that are online typically are 90 or more years old and assume the person listed in the record is no longer alive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "Various European countries are members of an International Commission on Civil Status which provides a mutually recognized convention on the coding of entries appearing in civil status documents, with common codes and translation tables between the language of the member states. They also provide an English unofficial translation.  In the fields of Records Management and Archival Science, the term vital record is used to mean \"records, regardless of medium, which are essential to the organization in order to continue with its business-crucial functions both during and after a disaster. They need not be permanent, might be active or inactive, originals or copies.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Challenges.", "content": "In the past 10 years, there has been an overall increase in global birth registration rates of children under five from 58 percent to 65 percent. However, more than 100 developing countries still do not have functioning systems that can support efficient registration of births and other life events like marriages and death. Around the world, almost 230 million children under the age of five are not registered. Sub-Saharan Africa is home to 85 million of these children, while 135 million live in Asia and the Pacific. Progress with death registration has been much slower globally. In countries in most need of CRVS, up to 80 percent of deaths that occur outside health facilities and two-thirds of all deaths globally are not counted.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vital records are records of life events kept under governmental authority, including birth certificates, marriage licenses (or marriage certificates), and death certificates. In some jurisdictions, vital records may also include records of civil unions or domestic partnerships.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972475}
{"src_title": "Inês de Castro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Inês was the natural daughter of Pedro Fernández de Castro, Lord of Lemos and Sarria, and his noble Portuguese mistress Aldonça Lourenço de Valadares. Her family descended both from the Galician and Portuguese nobilities. She was also well connected to the Castilian royal family, by illegitimate descent. Her stepmother was Infanta Beatrix of Portugal, the youngest daughter of Afonso of Portugal, Lord of Portalegre and Violante Manuel. Her grandmother was Violante Sánchez de Castile, Lady of Uzero, the illegitimate daughter of Sancho IV of Castile. Her great-great grandfather was Rodrigo Alfonso de León, Lord of Aliger, the illegitimate son of Alfonso IX of León. She was also legitimately descended from Infanta Sancha Henriques of Portugal, the daughter of Henry, Count of Portugal.  Inês came to Portugal in 1340 as a maid of Constance of Castile, recently married to Peter, the heir apparent to the Portuguese throne. The prince fell in love with her and started to neglect his lawful wife, endangering the already feeble relations with Castile. Moreover, Peter's love for Inês brought the exiled Castilian nobility very close to power, with Inês's brothers becoming the prince's friends and trusted advisors. King Afonso IV of Portugal, Peter's father, disliked Inês's influence on his son and waited for their mutual infatuation to wear off, but it did not.  Constance of Castile died in 1345. Afonso IV tried several times to arrange for his son to be remarried, but Pedro refused to take a wife other than Inês, who was not deemed eligible to be queen. Peter's legitimate son, future King Ferdinand I of Portugal, was a frail child, whereas Peter and Inês's illegitimate children were thriving; this created even more discomfort among the Portuguese nobles, who feared the increasing Castilian influence over Peter. Afonso IV banished Inês from the court after Constance's death, but Peter remained with her declaring her as his true love. After several attempts to keep the lovers apart, Afonso IV ordered Inês's death. Pêro Coelho, Álvaro Gonçalves, and Diogo Lopes Pacheco went to the Monastery of Santa Clara-a-Velha in Coimbra, where Inês was detained, and killed her, decapitating her in front of her small child. When Peter heard of this he sought out the killers and managed to capture two of them in 1361. He executed them publicly by ripping their hearts out, claiming they didn't have one after having pulverized his own heart. Peter became king of Portugal in 1357 (Peter I of Portugal). He then stated that he had secretly married Inês, who was consequently the lawful queen, although his word was, and still is, the only proof of the marriage. During the 1383–85 Crisis of royal succession in Portugal, João das Regras produced evidence that allegedly established that Pope Innocent IV had refused Peter's request to recognize his marriage to Inês and legitimize his children by her, the elder of whom, John, Duke of Valencia de Campos would have a strong potential claim to the throne of Portugal. By negating these children's claimed legitimacy, João das Regras strengthened the claim of another illegitimate child of Peter I of Portugal: John, Master of Aviz, who ultimately took the throne and ruled as John I of Portugal.  Some sources say that after Peter became king of Portugal, he had Inês' body exhumed from her grave and forced the entire court to swear allegiance to their new queen: \"The king [Peter] caused the body of his beloved Inês to be disinterred, and placed on a throne, adorned with the diadem and royal robes. and required all the nobility of the kingdom to approach and kiss the hem of her garment, rendering her when dead that homage which she had not received in her life...\" Some modern sources characterize the story of the Inês' post-mortem coronation is a \"legend.\" and it is most likely a myth, since the story only appeared in 1577 in Jerónimo Bermúdez' play \"Nise Laureada.\" She was later buried at the Monastery of Alcobaça where her coffin can still be seen, opposite Peter's so that, according to the legend, at the Last Judgment Peter and Inês can look at each other as they rise from their graves. Both marble coffins are exquisitely sculpted with scenes from their lives and a promise by Peter that they would be together \"até ao fim do mundo\" (until the end of the world).  Inês de Castro and Peter I had the following children, who were legitimized by Peter I on 19 March 1361:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inês de Castro in literature and music.", "content": "Inês de Castro's story is immortalized in several plays and poems in Portuguese, such as \"The Lusíadas\" by Luís de Camões (canto iii, stanzas 118-135), and Spanish, such as \"Nise lastimosa\" and \"Nise laureada\" (1577) by Jerónimo Bermúdez, \"Reinar despues de morir\" by Luís Vélez de Guevara, as well as by the comtesse de Genlis (Inès de Castro, 1826), and in a play by French playwright Henry de Montherlant called \"La Reine morte\" (\"The Dead Queen\"). \"Inês de Castro\" is a novel by Maria Pilar Queralt del Hierro () in Spanish and Portuguese.  Plays written in English include Aphra Behn's \"Agnes de Castro, or, the Force of Generous Love\" (1688); and Catharine Trotter Cockburn's \"Agnes de Castro\" (1695). Mary Russell Mitford also wrote a drama from the story entitled \"Inez de Castro.\"  Felicia Hemans' poem \"The Coronation of Inez de Castro\" first appeared in The New Monthly Magazine in 1828.  She is a recurring figure in Ezra Pound's \"The Cantos\". She appears first at the end of Canto III, in the lines \"Ignez da Castro murdered, and a wall/Here stripped, here made to stand\".  There have been over 20 operas and ballets created about Inês de Castro. Operas from the 18th and 19th centuries include:  In modern times, Inês de Castro has continued to inspire operatic works, including:  In addition, Portuguese composer Pedro Camacho (born 1979) composed the Requiem to Inês de Castro, first performed on March 28, 2012 in New Cathedral of Coimbra on the occasion of 650 years of the transportation of Ines de Castro's body from Coimbra to Alcobaça Monastery. Christopher Bochman, with the Lisbon Youth Orchestra, has produced an opera \"Corpo E Alma\" (Body and Soul) focusing on Pedro's transition from a sensual to a spiritual love following her death, drawing on various aspects of the tale.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Inês de Castro (; in Castilian: Inés; 1325 – 7 January 1355) was a Galician noblewoman best known as lover and posthumously-recognized wife of King Peter I of Portugal. The dramatic circumstances of her relationship with Peter (at the time Prince of Portugal), which was forbidden by his father King Afonso IV, her murder at the orders of Afonso, Peter's bloody revenge on her killers, and the legend of the coronation of her exhumed corpse by Peter, have made Inês de Castro a frequent subject of art, music, and drama through the ages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972476}
{"src_title": "Ferdinand I of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Ferdinand was born in Coimbra, the second but eldest surviving son of Peter I and his wife, Constanza Manuel. On the death of Peter of Castile in 1369, Ferdinand, as great-grandson of Sancho IV by his grandmother Beatrice, laid claim to the vacant Castilian throne. The kings of Aragon and Navarre, and later John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, who had married Peter of Castile's eldest daughter, Constance, also claimed the throne.  The throne was held by his second cousin Henry of Trastámara (Henry II of Castile), Peter of Castile's illegitimate brother, who had defeated him in the Castilian Civil War in 1366 and assumed the crown. After one or two indecisive campaigns, all parties were ready to accept the mediation of Pope Gregory XI. The conditions of the treaty, ratified in 1371, included a marriage between Ferdinand and Leonora of Castile. But before the union could take place Ferdinand had become passionately attached to Leonor Telles de Meneses, the wife of one of his own courtiers. Having procured a dissolution of her previous marriage, he lost no time in making Leonor his queen.  This conduct, although it raised a serious insurrection in Portugal, did not at once result in a war with Henry. However, the outward concord was soon disturbed by intrigues with John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, brother of Edward the Black Prince, who entered into a secret treaty with Ferdinand for the expulsion of Henry from his throne. The war which followed was unsuccessful; and peace was again made in 1373.  On the death of Henry in 1379, the Duke of Lancaster once more put forward his claims, and again found an ally in Portugal. According to the Continental annalists, the English proved as offensive to their allies as to their enemies in the field. So Ferdinand made a peace for himself at Badajoz in 1382. It stipulated that Beatrice, Ferdinand's daughter and heiress, would marry King John I of Castile, and thus secure the ultimate union of the two crowns.  Ferdinand left no male heir when he died, probably from poisoning, at Lisbon on 22 October 1383, and the direct Burgundian line, which had been in possession of the throne since the days of Count Henry (about 1112), became extinct. The stipulations of the treaty of Badajoz were set aside, and John, Grand Master of the order of Aviz, Ferdinand's illegitimate brother, claimed the throne. This led to a period of war and political indefinition known as the 1383-1385 Crisis. John became the first king of the House of Aviz in 1385.  Ferdinand's spectacular ornate tomb can be found on display at the Carmo Archaeological Museum in Lisbon. His body was destroyed during the Invasions of Portugal, when he was still buried in Santarém, and was never recovered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and descendants.", "content": "Fernando married Leonor Teles de Meneses, formerly the wife of the nobleman João Lourenço da Cunha, Lord of Pombeiro, and daughter of Martim Afonso Telo de Meneses.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferdinand I (; 31 October 1345 – 22 October 1383), sometimes called the Handsome (\"o Formoso\") or occasionally the Inconstant (\"o Inconstante\"), was the King of Portugal from 1367 until his death in 1383. His death led to the 1383–85 crisis, also known as the Portuguese interregnum.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972477}
{"src_title": "Anemone nemorosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Anemone nemorosa\" is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant less than in height. The compound basal leaves are palmate or ternate (divided into three lobes). They grow from underground root-like stems called rhizomes and die back down by mid summer (summer dormant).  The plants start blooming in spring, March to May in the British Isles soon after the foliage emerges from the ground. The flowers are solitary, held above the foliage on short stems, with a whorl of three palmate or palmately-lobed leaflike bracts beneath. The flowers are diameter, with six or seven (and on rare occasions eight to ten) tepals (petal-like segments) with many stamens. In the wild the flowers are usually white but may be pinkish, lilac or blue, and often have a darker tint on the backs of the tepals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "The yellow wood anemone (\"Anemone ranunculoides\") is slightly smaller, with yellow flowers and usually without basal leaves.  Wood sorrel \"Oxalis acetosella\", which grows in similar shaded places, can be readily distinguished by its ternate and clover-like leaves and smaller flowers with 5 white petals and 5 sepals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pollination.", "content": "The flowers are pollinated by insects, especially hoverflies. The seeds are achenes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medicinal uses.", "content": "The plant contains poisonous chemicals that are toxic to animals including humans, but it has also been used as a medicine. All parts of the plant contain protoanemonin, which can cause severe skin and gastrointestinal irritation, bitter taste and burning in the mouth and throat, mouth ulcers, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and hematemesis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Common in shady woods.  This species spreads very slowly in UK forests, by as little as six feet per century, so it is often used as an indicator for ancient woodland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Common in the British Isles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "Many cultivars have been selected for garden use, The \"RHS Plant Finder 2008–2009\" lists 70 cultivars of \"Anemone nemorosa\" sold by nurseries in the UK. Some of the most widely available are:  Those marked are recipients of the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.  \"Anemone\" × \"lipsiensis\", a hybrid between \"A. nemorosa\" and \"A. ranunculoides\", has pale yellow flowers; \"A.\" × \"lipsiensis\" 'Pallida' is the best-known result of this cross. It has also been awarded the AGM.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anemone nemorosa, the wood anemone, is an early-spring flowering plant in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae, native to Europe. Other common names include windflower, thimbleweed, and smell fox, an allusion to the musky smell of the leaves. It is a herbaceous perennial plant growing tall.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972478}
{"src_title": "Mercy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "\"Mercy\" can be defined as \"compassion or forbearance shown especially to an offender or to one subject to one's power\"; and also \"a blessing that is an act of divine favor or compassion.\" \"To be at someone's mercy\" indicates a person being \"without defense against someone.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Law and ethics.", "content": "In a judicial context mercy is often termed \"clemency\". It is a sovereign prerogative that resides in the executive and is entirely discretionary. John Locke defined it as \"the power to act according to discretion, for the public good, without the prescription of the Law, and sometimes even against it.\" The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit explained that \"The very nature of clemency is that it is grounded solely in the will of the dispenser of clemency. He need give no reasons for granting it or for denying it.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Christianity.", "content": "Hebrews 4:16 says, \"So let us confidently approach the throne of grace to receive mercy and to find grace for timely help.\" Grace and mercy are similar in that both are free gifts of God and both are dispensed absent any merit on the part of the recipient. Grace is the favor of God, a divine assistance. Grace is what one receives that they do not deserve while mercy is what one receives when they do \"not\" get that which they deserve.  An emphasis on mercy appears in the New Testament, for example in the Magnificat and Benedictus (Song of Zechariah), in Luke's Gospel, and in the Beatitudes in : \"Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy\". In Apostle Paul refers to the mercy of God in terms of salvation: \"God, being rich in mercy... even when we were dead through our sins, made us alive together with Christ\".  Psalm 117 calls upon all nations to praise the Lord, and that on account of his \"merciful kindness\". This is quoted by the Apostle Paul in Romans 15:11 to show that God has now fulfilled this prophecy and promise through Jesus Christ, who has been merciful in giving his life as a sacrifice for his people, both Jew and Gentile. Thus St Peter writes in 1 Peter 2:9,10:  This devotional element of mercy as part of the Christian tradition was echoed by Saint Augustine who called mercy \"ever ancient, ever new\". The Works of Mercy (seven corporal and seven spiritual works) are part of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roman Catholicism.", "content": "In the encyclical \"Dives in misericordia\" (\"Rich in Mercy\") Pope John Paul II examines the role of mercy—both God's mercy, and also the need for human mercy. He sees in the Parable of the Prodigal Son () \"the essence of the divine mercy\". Having squandered his patrimony, justice would dictate that the prodigal should only expect to be received back as a hireling. The figure of the father is analogous to God as Father, who goes beyond the requirements of justice to welcome his son with compassion.  The Catechism of the Catholic Church emphasizes the importance of the Works of Mercy (item 2447) and in Roman Catholic teachings, the mercy of God flows through the work of the Holy Spirit. Roman Catholic liturgy includes frequent references to mercy, e.g., as in \"Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison\": Lord have mercy, Christ have mercy.  Mercy has also been an important subject of Christian iconography. Since the Middle Ages, many representations in art encouraged people to practice the works of mercy and, as the art historian Ralf van Bühren explains using the example of Caravaggio, helped \"the audience to explore mercy in their own lives\".  In the 20th century, there was new focus on mercy in the Roman Catholic Church, partly due to the Divine Mercy devotion. The primary focus of the Divine Mercy devotion is the merciful love of God and the desire to let that love and mercy flow through one's own heart towards those in need of it. Pope John Paul II was a follower of the Divine Mercy devotion, due to Saint Mary Faustina Kowalska (1905–1938), who is known as the \"Apostle of Mercy\".  A number of Roman Catholic shrines are specifically dedicated to Divine Mercy, e.g. the Basilica of Divine Mercy in Krakow Poland, and the National Shrine of The Divine Mercy (Stockbridge, Massachusetts). During the dedication of the Basilica of Divine Mercy John Paul II quoted and called mercy the \"greatest attribute of God Almighty\".  The first \"World Apostolic Congress on Mercy\" was held in Rome in April 2008 and was inaugurated by Pope Benedict XVI.  On 11 April 2015, at St. Peter's Basillica, in a Papal Bull of Indiction entitled \"Misericordiae Vultus\" (\"The Face of Mercy\"), Pope Francis proclaimed a Special and Extraordinary Holy Year Jubilee Year of Mercy, from December 8, 2015: Solemnity of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, until November 21, 2016: the Solemnity of Our Lord Jesus Christ the King. The theme of the Extraordinary Jubilee is taken from Luke 6:36, \"Merciful, Like the Father\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Islam.", "content": "In Islam the title \"Most Merciful\" (al-Rahman) is one of the names of Allah and Compassionate (al-Rahim), is the most common name occurring in the Quran. Rahman and Rahim both derive from the root Rahmat, which refers to tenderness and benevolence. As a form of mercy, the giving of alms (zakat) is the fourth of the Five Pillars of Islam and one of the requirements for the faithful.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Judaism.", "content": "The Hebrew word for mercy is \"Rachamim\" which is always in plural form so that it literally means \"mercies\". \"Mercy includes showing kindness to those who don’t deserve it, and forgiving those that deserve punishment.\"  Mercy is one of the defining characteristics of God. Exodus 34:6 says: \"The Lord, the Lord, a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness.\" This is also emphasized in the context of the Babylonian exile in Isaiah: \"For the Lord has comforted his people, and will have compassion on his suffering ones. But Zion said, 'The Lord has forsaken me, my Lord has forgotten me.' Can a woman forget her nursing child, or show no compassion for the child of her womb? Even these may forget, yet I will not forget you.\" (Isaiah 49:13-15) Also: \"It is good to pray and fast, to be merciful and just.\" (Tobit 12:8)  When David, because of his sin, was told to choose between a three-year famine, pursuit by his enemies for three months, or a three-day pestilence, he chose the pestilence saying, \"Let us fall by the hand of God, for he is most merciful; but let me not fall by the hand of man.\" Psalm 103:8 praises God for his mercy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other religions and beliefs.", "content": "Kwan Yin the bodhisattva of mercy and compassion, is one of the best known and most venerated Bodhisattva in Asia.  Karuṇā (often translated as \"compassion\") is part of the beliefs of both Buddhism and Jainism. Karuṇā is present in all schools of Buddhism and in Jainism it is viewed as one of the reflections of universal friendship.  The spiritual teacher Meher Baba described God as being \"all-merciful and eternally benevolent\" in his O Parvardigar prayer, and he held that we can approach God through the \"invocation of His mercy.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mercy (Middle English, from Anglo-French \"merci\", from Medieval Latin \"merced-\", \"merces\", from Latin, \"price paid, wages\", from \"merc-\", \"merxi\" \"merchandise\") is benevolence, forgiveness, and kindness in a variety of ethical, religious, social, and legal contexts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972479}
{"src_title": "Dave Navarro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Disadvantages.", "content": "The maximum range of astronomy by radar is very limited, and is confined to the Solar System. This is because the signal strength drops off very steeply with distance to the target, the small fraction of incident flux that is reflected by the target, and the limited strength of transmitters. The distance to which the radar can detect an object is proportional to the square root of the object's size, due to the one-over-distance-to-the-fourth dependence of echo strength. Radar could detect something ~1 km across a large fraction of an AU away, but at 8-10 AU, the distance to Saturn, we need targets at least hundreds of kilometers wide. It is also necessary to have a relatively good ephemeris of the target before observing it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Moon is comparatively close and was detected by radar soon after the invention of the technique in 1946. Measurements included surface roughness and later mapping of shadowed regions near the poles.  The next easiest target is Venus. This was a target of great scientific value, since it could provide an unambiguous way to measure the size of the astronomical unit, which was needed for the nascent field of interplanetary spacecraft. In addition such technical prowess had great public relations value, and was an excellent demonstration to funding agencies. So there was considerable pressure to squeeze a scientific result from weak and noisy data, which was accomplished by heavy post-processing of the results, utilizing the expected value to tell where to look. This led to early claims (from Lincoln Laboratory, Jodrell Bank, and Vladimir A. Kotelnikov of the USSR) which are now known to be incorrect. All of these agreed with each other and the conventional value of AU at the time,.  The first unambiguous detection of Venus was made by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on 10 March 1961. JPL established contact with the planet Venus using a planetary radar system from 10 March to 10 May 1961. Using both velocity and range data, a new value of was determined for the astronomical unit. Once the correct value was known, other groups found echos in their archived data that agreed with these results.  The following is a list of planetary bodies that have been observed by this means:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Asteroids and comets.", "content": "Radar provides the ability to study the shape, size and spin state of asteroids and comets from the ground. Radar imaging has produced images with up to 7.5-meter resolution. With sufficient data, the size, shape, spin and radar albedo of the target asteroids can be extracted.  Only 19 comets have been studied by radar, including 73P/Schwassmann-Wachmann. There have been radar observations of 612 Near-Earth asteroids and 138 Main belt asteroids as of early 2016. By 2018, this had grown to 138 Main-Belt Asteroids, 789 Near-Earth Asteroids, also at that time 20 comets had been observed.  Many bodies are observed during their close flyby of Earth.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Radar astronomy is a technique of observing nearby astronomical objects by reflecting microwaves off target objects and analyzing the reflections. This research has been conducted for six decades. Radar astronomy differs from radio astronomy in that the latter is a passive observation and the former an active one. Radar systems have been used for a wide range of solar system studies. The radar transmission may either be pulsed or continuous.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972480}
{"src_title": "Spotted flycatcher", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The spotted flycatcher was described by the German naturalist Peter Simon Pallas in 1764 and given the binomial name \"Motacilla striata\". The genus name \"Muscicapa\" comes from the Latin \"musca\", a fly and \"capere\", to catch. The specific epithet \"striata\" is from the Latin \"striatus\" meaning striated.  There are five recognised subspecies all of which winter in southern Africa. The breeding range is given below.  Two other subspecies were previously recognised, \"M. s. tyrrhenica\" and \"M. s. balearica\". However, a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2016 found that they were genetically similar to each other but significantly different from the other spotted flycatcher subspecies. The authors proposed that these insular subspecies should be considered as a separate species. The International Ornithologists' Union has split the species and it is known as the Mediterranean flycatcher, while other taxonomic authorities still consider it to be conspecific.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The spotted flycatcher is a small slim bird, around in length, with a weight of. It has dull grey-brown upperparts and off-white underparts. The crown, throat and breast are streaked with brown while the wings and tail feathers are edged with paler thin margins. The subspecies \"M. s. tyrrhenica\" has paler and warmer plumage on the upperparts, with more diffuse markings on the head and breast. The sexes are alike. Juveniles have ochre-buff spots above and scaly brown spots below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "Spotted flycatchers hunt from conspicuous perches, making sallies after passing flying insects, and often returning to the same perch. Their upright posture is characteristic.  Most passerines moult their primary flight feathers in sequence beginning near the body and proceeding outwards along the wing. The spotted flycatcher is unusual in replacing the outer flight feathers before those nearer the body.  The flycatcher's call is a thin, drawn out soft and high pitched \"\", slightly descending in pitch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "They are birds of deciduous woodlands, parks and gardens, with a preference for open areas amongst trees. They build an open nest in a suitable recess, often against a wall, and will readily adapt to an open-fronted nest box. 4-6 eggs are laid.  Most European birds cannot discriminate between their own eggs and those of other species. The exception to this are the hosts of the common cuckoo, which have had to evolve this skill as a protection against that nest parasite. The spotted flycatcher shows excellent egg recognition, and it is likely that it was once a host of the cuckoo, but became so good at recognising the intruder's eggs that it ceased to be victimised. A contrast to this is the dunnock, which appears to be a recent cuckoo host, since it does not show any egg discrimination.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Predation.", "content": "A study conducted at two different locations in southern England found that one third of nests were predated. The Eurasian jay (\"Garrulus glandarius\") was the most common aerial predator, consuming both eggs and chicks. The domestic cat (\"Felis catus\") predated a small fraction of the nests.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The spotted flycatcher (\"Muscicapa striata\") is a small passerine bird in the Old World flycatcher family. It breeds in most of Europe and in the Palearctic to Siberia, and is migratory, wintering in Africa and south western Asia. It is declining in parts of its range.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972481}
{"src_title": "87 Sylvia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery and naming.", "content": "Sylvia was discovered by N. R. Pogson on May 16, 1866, from Madras (Chennai), India. Antonio Paluzie-Borrell, writing in Paul Herget's \"The Names of the Minor Planets\" (1955), mistakenly states that the name honors Sylvie Petiaux-Hugo Flammarion, the first wife of astronomer Camille Flammarion. In fact, in the article announcing the discovery of the asteroid, Pogson explained that he selected the name in reference to Rhea Silvia, mother of Romulus and Remus (\"MNRAS\", 1866).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical characteristics.", "content": "Sylvia is very dark in color and probably has a very primitive composition. The discovery of its moons made possible an accurate measurement of the asteroid's mass and density. Its density was found to be very low (around 1.2 times the density of water), indicating that the asteroid is porous to very porous; from 25% to as much as 60% of it may be empty space, depending on the details of its composition. However, the mineralogy of the X-type asteroids is not known well enough to constrain this further. Either way, this suggests a loose rubble pile structure. Sylvia is also a fairly fast rotator, turning about its axis every 5.18 hours (giving an equatorial rotation velocity of about 230 km/h or 145 mph). The short axis is the rotation axis. Direct images indicate that Sylvia's pole points towards ecliptic coordinates (β, λ) = (+62.6°, 72.4°) with only a 0.5° uncertainty, which gives it an axial tilt of around 29.1°. Sylvia's shape is strongly elongated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Satellite system.", "content": "Sylvia has two orbiting satellites. They have been named (87) Sylvia I Romulus and (87) Sylvia II Remus, after Romulus and Remus, the children of the mythological Rhea Silvia.  Romulus, the first moon, was discovered on February 18, 2001, from the Keck II telescope by Michael E. Brown and Jean-Luc Margot. Remus, the second moon, was discovered over three years later on August 9, 2004, by Franck Marchis of UC Berkeley, and Pascal Descamps, Daniel Hestroffer, and Jérôme Berthier of the Observatoire de Paris, France.  The orbital properties of the satellites are listed in this table. The orbital planes of both satellites and the equatorial plane of the primary asteroid are all well-aligned; all planes are aligned within about 1 degree of each other, suggestive of satellite formation in or near the equatorial plane of the primary.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sylvia (minor planet designation: 87 Sylvia) is the 8th-largest asteroid in the asteroid belt. It is the parent body of the Sylvia family and member of Cybele group located beyond the core of the belt (see minor-planet groups). Sylvia was the first asteroid known to possess more than one moon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972482}
{"src_title": "Geranium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The genus name is derived from the Greek (\"géranos\") or (\"geranós\") ‘crane’. The English name ‘cranesbill’ derives from the appearance of the fruit capsule of some of the species. Species in the genus \"Geranium\" have a distinctive mechanism for seed dispersal. This consists of a beak-like column which springs open when ripe and casts the seeds some distance. The fruit capsule consists of five cells, each containing one seed, joined to a column produced from the centre of the old flower. The common name ‘cranesbill’ comes from the shape of the unsprung column, which in some species is long and looks like the bill of a crane. However, many species in this genus do not have a long beak-like column.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Confusion with \"Pelargonium\".", "content": "Confusingly, \"geranium\" is also the common name of members of the genus \"Pelargonium\", which are also in the family Geraniaceae and are widely grown as horticultural bedding plants. Linnaeus originally included all the species in one genus, \"Geranium\", but they were later separated into two genera by Charles L’Héritier in 1789. Other former members of the genus are now classified in \"Erodium\", including the plants known as filarees in North America.  The term \"hardy geranium\" is often applied to horticultural \"Geranium\"s to distinguish them from the \"Pelargonium\"s, which are not winter-hardy in temperate horticulture. However, not all \"Geranium\" species are winter-hardy (see below).  The shape of the flowers offers one way of distinguishing between the two genera \"Geranium\" and \"Pelargonium\". \"Geranium\" flowers have five very similar petals, and are thus radially symmetrical (actinomorphic), whereas \"Pelargonium\" (and also \"Erodium\") flowers have two upper petals which are different from the three lower petals, so the flowers have a single plane of symmetry (zygomorphic).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "A number of geranium species are cultivated for horticultural use and for pharmaceutical products. Some of the more commonly grown species include:  All the above species are perennials and generally winter-hardy plants, grown for their attractive flowers and foliage. They are long-lived and most have a mounding habit, with palmately lobed foliage. Some species have spreading rhizomes. They are normally grown in part shade to full sun, in well-draining but moisture retentive soils, rich in humus. Other perennial species grown for their flowers and foliage include: \"G. argenteum\", \"G. eriostemon\", \"G. farreri\", \"G. nodosum\", \"G. procurrens\", \"G. pylzowianum\", \"G. renardii\", \"G. traversii\", \"G. tuberosum\", \"G. versicolor\", \"G. wallichianum\" and \"G. wlassovianum\". Some of these are not winter-hardy in cold areas and are grown in specialized gardens like rock gardens. \"Geranium\" 'Johnson's Blue' is a hybrid between \"G. himalayense\" (southwestern China), with \"G. pratense\" (European meadow cranesbill).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "The following hybrid cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (other cultivars are dealt with under their species name - see above):-", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Geranium is a genus of 422 species of annual, biennial, and perennial plants that are commonly known as geraniums or cranesbills. They are found throughout the temperate regions of the world and the mountains of the tropics, but mostly in the eastern part of the Mediterranean region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972483}
{"src_title": "Franz Vranitzky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "As the son of a foundryman, Vranitzky was born into humble circumstances in Vienna's 17th district. He attended the Realgymnasium Geblergasse and studied economics, graduating in 1960. He financed his studies teaching Latin and English and as a construction worker.  As a young man, Vranitzky played basketball and was a member of Austria's national team, which in 1960 unsuccessfully tried to qualify for the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome.  In 1962 he joined the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ).  In 1962, Vranitzky married Christine Christen, with whom he fathered two children.  Vranitzky began his career in 1961 at Siemens-Schuckert, but within the year switched to the Oesterreichische Nationalbank, Austria’s central bank. In 1969, he received a doctorate in International business studies. The following year, Hannes Androsch, minister of finance under Chancellor Bruno Kreisky, appointed him economic and financial advisor. Vranitzky served as deputy director of the Creditanstalt-Bankverein (1976–1981), briefly as its director general and as director general of the Österreichische Länderbank (1981–1984).  In 1984, Vranitzky joined the SPÖ-Freedom Party (FPÖ) government coalition under Chancellor Fred Sinowatz as minister of finance. He was criticized for receiving multiple compensations from his various functions in government-run businesses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chancellor of Austria.", "content": "In the presidential elections of 1986, Chancellor Sinowatz vociferously opposed Kurt Waldheim, the candidate of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) opposition. The former UN Secretary General's campaign for office caused international controversy due to allegations about his role as a German army officer in World War II. When Waldheim was elected on 8 June, Sinowatz resigned from the government, proposing Vranitzky as his successor.  Vranitzky entered his new office on 16 June 1986. At first he continued the government coalition with the Freedom Party. On 13 September 1986, however, radical FPÖ politician Jörg Haider was elected chairman of his party, ousting the moderate Vice Chancellor Norbert Steger. Vranitzky ended cooperation with his coalition partner and had parliament dissolved.  In the subsequent elections on 23 November 1986, the SPÖ remained the strongest party. In January 1987, Vranitzky formed a government, based on a \"grand coalition\" with the second-largest party, the Christian democrat ÖVP, with Alois Mock serving as vice-chancellor and foreign minister. In 1988, Vranitzky also succeeded Fred Sinowatz as chairman of his party.  Until 1992, Austria's foreign policy had to deal with the repercussions of the Waldheim controversy, as the Austrian president was shunned in some diplomatic circles. The United States regarded Waldheim as a persona non grata, thereby barring him from entering the country in 1987, while Israel had recalled its ambassador after Waldheim's election. Vranitzky managed to normalise Austria's relations with both countries and frequently stepped in to perform diplomatic duties commonly assigned to the president.  On 8 July 1991, in a speech in parliament, Vranitzky acknowledged a share in the responsibility for the pain brought, not by Austria as a state, but by citizens of this country, upon other people and peoples\", thereby departing from the hitherto official portrayal of Austria as \"Hitler's first victim.\"  After the end of the Cold War, Vranitzky focused on furthering relations with the nations of Eastern Europe and membership in the European Union, of which Vranitzky and his foreign minister, Alois Mock, were strong advocates. After a referendum on 12 June 1994 resulted in 66% in favour of EU membership, Austria joined the European Union in January 1995. Austria's military neutrality, which had been espoused during the Cold War, was reaffirmed in the process.  In party politics, Vranitzky kept his distance from Jörg Haider's Freedom Party - a stance the latter decried as a \"policy of exclusion.\" In the election of 1990, Vranitzky's coalition government was confirmed when the Social Democrat vote remained stable while the ÖVP lost 17 seats, mainly to the FPÖ. The 1994 election saw heavy losses by both coalition parties, which nonetheless remained the two largest parties, while FPÖ and others made further gains. Vranitzky renewed the coalition with the ÖVP, which after May 1995 was led by foreign minister Wolfgang Schüssel. Later in the year, the grand coalition broke apart over budget policy, leading to the elections of December 1995, which however only saw slight changes in favor of SPÖ and ÖVP. Vranitzky and Schüssel resumed their coalition in March 1996.  In January 1997, Vranitzky resigned as Chancellor and as party chairman. He was succeeded in both positions by his minister of finance, Viktor Klima.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later activities.", "content": "After leaving office, Vranitzky served as Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe representative for Albania from March to October 1997, before returning into the banking sector, as political consultant to the WestLB bank. In December, he was elected to the board of governors of automotive supplier Magna. He later occupied the same position for the tourism company TUI and Magic Life hotels.  In June 2005, he donated one of his kidneys to his wife Christine, who suffered from chronic kidney failure.  He actively supported his party's frontrunner Alfred Gusenbauer in the 2006 elections. During the campaign it was revealed, that in 1999, Vranitzky had received a million Austrian schillings as a consultant to the BAWAG bank, which was then under public scrutiny. It was alleged that the payment was made without any service in return and that it constituted an \"indirect party funding\". Vranitzky denounced the allegations.  Vranitzky chairs the quarterly \"Vranitzky colloquia\", organised by the study group WiWiPol, which discusses economic topics and their impact on Austria and Europe. He is a former member of the Steering Committee of the Bilderberg Group.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Vranitzky (born 4 October 1937) is an Austrian politician. A member of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ), he was Chancellor of Austria from 1986 to 1997.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972484}
{"src_title": "Idrisid dynasty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Religion.", "content": "Inscriptions on the Idrissid dirham, which promote the dynasty's lineage tracing back to Ali, indicate the dynasty's \"Zaidiyyah\" Shia alignment. Some academics have described them as a Sunni Muslim dynasty. The Idrisids were opponents of the Abbasid Caliphate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The founder of the dynasty was Idris ibn Abdallah (788–791), who traced his ancestry back to Ali ibn Abi Talib and his wife Fatimah, daughter of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. After the Battle of Fakhkh, near Mecca, between the Abbasids and supporters of the descendants of the prophet Muhammad, Idris ibn Abdallah fled to the Maghreb. He first arrived in Tangier, the most important city of Morocco at the time, and by 788 he had settled in Volubilis.  The powerful Awraba Berbers of Volubilis (or Walili as the Berbers called it) took him in and made him their 'imam' (religious leader). The Awraba tribe had supported Kusayla in his struggle against the Ummayad armies in the 670s and 680s. By the second half of the 8th century they had settled in northern Morocco, where their leader Ishak had his base in the Roman town of Volubilis. By this time the Awraba were already Muslim, but lived in an area where most tribes were either Christian, Jewish, Khariji or pagan. The Awraba seem to have welcomed a Sharifi imam as a way to strengthen their political position. Idris I, who was very active in the political organization of the Awraba, began by asserting his authority and working toward the subjugation of the Christian and Jewish tribes. In 789 he founded a settlement south east of Volubilis, called \"Medinat Fas\". In 791 Idris I was poisoned and killed by an Abbasid agent. Even though he left no male heir, shortly after his death, his wife Lalla Kanza bint Uqba al-Awrabi, bore him his only son and successor, Idris II. Idris' loyal Arab ex-slave and companion Rashid brought up the boy and took on himself the regency of the state, on behalf of the Awraba. In 801 Rashid was killed by the Abbasids. In the following year, at the age of 11 years, Idris II was proclaimed imam by the Awraba.  Even though he had spread his authority across much of northern Morocco, as far west as Tlemcen, Idris I had been completely dependent on the Awraba leadership. Idris II began his rule with the weakening of Awraba power by welcoming Arab settlers in Walili and by appointing two Arabs as his \"vizier\" and \"qadi\". Thus he transformed himself from a protégé of the Awraba into their sovereign. The Awraba leader Ishak responded by plotting against his life with the Aghlabids of Tunisia. Idris reacted by having his former protector Ishak killed, and in 809 moved his seat of government from the Awraba dominated Walili to Fes, where he founded a new settlement named Al-'Aliya. Idriss II (791–828) developed the city of Fez, established earlier by his father as a Berber market town. Here he welcomed two waves of Arab immigration: one in 818 from Cordoba and another in 824 from Aghlabid Tunisia, giving Fes a more Arab character than other Maghrebi cities. When Idris II died in 828, the Idrisid state spanned from western Algeria to the Sous in southern Morocco and had become the leading state of Morocco, ahead of the principalities of Sijilmasa, Barghawata and Nekor.  The dynasty would decline following Idriss II's death and under his son and successor Muhammad (828–836) the kingdom was divided amongst seven of his brothers, whereby eight Idrisid statelets formed in Morocco and Algeria. Muhammad himself came to rule Fes, with only nominal power over his brothers. During this time Islamic and Arabic culture gained a stronghold in the towns and Morocco profited from the trans-Saharan trade, which came to be dominated by Muslim (mostly Berber) traders.  Even so, the Islamic and Arabic culture only made its influence felt in the towns, with the vast majority of Morocco's population still using the Berber languages and often adhering to Islamic heterodox and heretical doctrines. The Idrisids were principally rulers of the towns and had little power over the majority of the country's population. The Idrisid family in turn was heavily berberised, with its members aligning itself with the Zenata tribes of Morocco. Already in the 870s the family was described by Ibn Qutaybah as being berberised in customs. By the 11th century this process had developed to such an extent, that the family was fully integrated in the Berber societies of Morocco. In the 11th century the Hammudid family arose among these Berber Idrisids, which was able to gain power in several cities of northern Morocco and southern Spain. In 868 the Berber Khariji tribes of Madyuna, Ghayata and Miknasa of the Fes region formed a common front against the Idrisids. From their base in Sefrou they were able to defeat and kill the Idrisid Ali ibn Umar and occupy Fes. His brother Yahya was able to retake the city in 880 and establish himself as the new ruler. The Idrisids attacked the Kharijis of Barghawata and Sijilmasa, and the Sunnis of Nekor multiple times, but were never able to include these territories in their state.  In 917 the Miknasa and its leader Masala ibn Habus, acting on behalf of their Fatimid allies, attacked Fes and forced Yahya ibn Idris to recognize Fatimid suzerainty, before deposing him in 921. Hassan I al-Hajam managed to wrest control of Fez from 925 until 927 but he was the last of the dynasty to hold power there. From Fes, the Miknasa began a violent hunt across Morocco for members of the Idrisid family, seeking to exterminate them. Most of the Idrisids settled among the Jbala tribes in North-west Morocco where they were protected by the reluctance of tribal elders to have the local descendants of Muhammad's family be wiped out. In the Jbala region they had a stronghold in the fortress of Hajar an-Nasar, from where they tried to restore their power base, until the last Idrisid made the mistake of switching allegiances back to the Fatimids, and was deposed and executed in 985 by the Cordobans.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Idrisids ( \"\") were a Moroccan Muslim dynasty of Morocco, ruling from 788 to 974. Named after the founder Idriss I, the great grandchild of Hasan ibn Ali, the Idrisids are considered to be the founders of the first Moroccan state.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972485}
{"src_title": "Vorwerk (company)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The beginnings — Barmer Teppichfabrik Vorwerk & Co.", "content": "In 1883, the Barmer Teppichfabrik Vorwerk & Co was founded by the brothers Carl (1847–1907) and Adolf Vorwerk. That very same year, the brothers parted ways again and Carl Vorwerk continued to run the company. The firm initially manufactured high-quality carpets and upholstery fabrics, and later also the looms used to make them – first under an English patent, and then under an improved proprietary patent.  Carl Vorwerk’s son, Carl jr. (1878–1904), was to be his successor as company director, but he died just a few months after taking the helm in 1903. Thus, upon the death of the company founder in 1907, his son-in-law, August Mittelsten Scheid (1871–1955), became sole managing partner. Under his leadership, the company diversified following the First World War, taking up the production of gear units and electric motors for gramophones as its military research efforts halted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kobold and direct sales.", "content": "As radio grew in popularity in the 1920s, gramophone sales dropped precipitously. This dire situation gave rise to the birth of the “Vorwerk Kobold” in 1929: chief engineer Engelbert Gorissen developed out of a gramophone motor a high-performance electric upright vacuum cleaner. On 25 May 1930, a patent was granted for the Kobold “Model 30”. At first, sales of what was at the time a completely unknown appliance in Germany were very poor, despite the relatively modest price of 20 Reichsmarks. Only when direct sales were launched in 1930 – the brainchild of Werner Mittelsten Scheid (1904-1953), a son of the company founder – did the product meet with success. By 1935, 100,000 “Kobolds” had been sold, by 1937 half a million and by 1953 one million. Already before the Second World War, in 1938, the first foreign sales organization was established: Vorwerk Folletto in Italy.  During World War II, the main plant in Wuppertal-Barmen was severely damaged in a May 1943 bombing, after which August Mittelsten Scheid’s sons, Werner and Erich Mittelsten Scheid, jointly took over management of the firm. The sales organization, which had held the company above water during the war years by selling various products, discontinued operations that year.  After the war was over, production and sales were rebuilt, first in Germany, and then in Europe and overseas. By 1955, 2,000 Vorwerk sales representatives were once again underway. Sole managing partner – following the death of his brother in 1953 – was Erich Mittelsten Scheid.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further diversification.", "content": "In 1969, Dr. Jörg Mittelsten Scheid, Werner’s son, succeeded his uncle as head of the family business. Three years later, Günter Busch and Bernd Balders became the first managing partners who were not members of the founding family.  While up to the end of the 1960s the company focused mainly on the production and sale of vacuum cleaners, carpets and upholstery fabrics, ever since that time it has continually diversified, initially into the services sector. Vorwerk was co-founder of the akf bank in 1968; in 1970 the in-house data processing department brought forth the ZEDA Gesellschaft für Datenverarbeitung und EDV-Beratung mbH & Co. KG; and the founding of Hygienic Service Gebäudereinigung und Umweltpflege GmbH in 1974 was the germ cell that led to the Hectas Facility Services division. At the same time, the company was also expanding its range of household products. This included the launch of the Thermomix food processor in 1971, followed by Vorwerk Fitted Kitchens in 1974.  The company kicked off the 21st century with a number of new acquisitions and restructuring projects. In 2001, Vorwerk purchased the Lux Asia Pacific direct sales organization from the Swedish Electrolux group, thus consolidating its position on the Asian market. The next year saw the introduction of the “Feelina” ironing system, and the year after that the spin-off of the company’s data processing services: ZEDA was sold to T-Systems in 2003. The final coup was the acquisition of American cosmetic manufacturer Jafra Cosmetics in May 2004.  At the end of 2005, Jörg Mittelsten Scheid left the board. Since January 2013, corporate management at Vorwerk has been in the hands of: Walter Muyres (Managing Partner), Reiner Strecker (Managing Partner) and Frank van Oers (Managing Partner).  In 2017, Vorwerk acquired robotic vacuum manufacturer Neato Robotics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Company overview.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Company structure.", "content": "The consolidated Vorwerk group encompasses over 27 companies worldwide, which are divided into eight main fields of business.  as well as sales companies in Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Spain, Czech Republic, Poland, Russia, Portugal, China, Taiwan, Mexico, Japan, Switzerland, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Hungary, United States of America, Brazil, Dominican Republic, India, Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam, Singapore, Malaysia.  as well as additional sales companies in Mexico, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Netherlands, Brazil, Indonesia  as well as additional sales companies in Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, Australia, Vietnam, Malaysia.  as well as additional subsidiaries in Germany, Austria, Netherlands, Czech Republic, Poland, Belgium, Greece  as well as additional subsidiaries in Spain", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Corporate management.", "content": "Advisory board for the managing partners:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Key figures.", "content": "In 2011, Vorwerk Group reported revenue of EUR 2.367 billion. Direct sales were the main drivers with an increase in revenue worldwide of 5 percent. The share of business volume outside of Germany was 67 percent and direct sales accounted for as much as 83 percent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "The most tradition-steeped products in the range are the carpets and carpeting, the only business field in which Vorwerk has been active consistently since its founding in 1883. But Vorwerk is known chiefly for the production and sales of vacuum cleaners and accessories, and Division Kobold is the company’s biggest moneymaker today. Vorwerk Fitted Kitchens, the Thermomix kitchen appliance and the Feelina ironing system round out the portfolio in the household realm. New since the takeover of Jafra in 2004 are skin and body care products as well as cosmetics and perfume.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Company sites:  Other sites:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vorwerk is an international diversified corporate group headquartered in Wuppertal, Germany. The main business is the direct distribution of various products like household appliances (e.g. Kobold vacuum cleaners), fitted kitchens and cosmetics. Vorwerk was founded in 1883.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972486}
{"src_title": "Ernest Gellner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Gellner was born in Paris to Anna, née Fantl, and Rudolf, a lawyer, an urban intellectual German-speaking Austrian Jewish couple from Bohemia (which, since 1918, was part of the newly established Czechoslovakia). Julius Gellner was his uncle. He was brought up in Prague, attending a Czech language primary school before entering the English-language grammar school. This was Franz Kafka's tricultural Prague: antisemitic but \"stunningly beautiful\", a city he later spent years longing for.  In 1939, when Gellner was 13, the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany persuaded his family to leave Czechoslovakia and move to St Albans, just north of London, where Gellner attended St Albans Boys Modern School, now Verulam School (Hertfordshire). At the age of 17, he won a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford as a result of what he called \"Portuguese colonial policy\", which involved keeping \"the natives peaceful by getting able ones from below into Balliol.\" At Balliol, he studied Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) and specialised in philosophy. He interrupted his studies after one year to serve with the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade, which took part in the Siege of Dunkirk (1944–45), and then returned to Prague to attend university there for half a term.  During this period, Prague lost its strong hold over him: foreseeing the communist takeover, he decided to return to England. One of his recollections of the city in 1945 was a communist poster saying: \"Everyone with a clean shield into the Party\", ostensibly meaning that those whose records were good during the occupation were welcome. In reality, Gellner said, it meant exactly the opposite:  He returned to Balliol College in 1945 to finish his degree, winning the John Locke prize and taking first class honours in 1947. The same year, he began his academic career at the University of Edinburgh as an assistant to Professor John Macmurray in the Department of Moral Philosophy. He moved to the London School of Economics in 1949, joining the sociology department under Morris Ginsberg. Ginsberg admired philosophy and believed that philosophy and sociology were very close to each other.  Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse had preceded Ginsberg as Martin White Professor of Sociology at the LSE. Hobhouse's \"Mind in Evolution\" (1901) had proposed that society should be regarded as an organism, a product of evolution, with the individual as its basic unit, the subtext being that society would improve over time as it evolved, a teleological view that Gellner firmly opposed.  Gellner's critique of linguistic philosophy in \"Words and Things\" (1959) focused on J. L. Austin and the later work of Ludwig Wittgenstein, criticizing them for failing to question their own methods. The book brought Gellner critical acclaim. He obtained his Ph.D. in 1961 with a thesis on \"Organization and the Role of a Berber Zawiya\" and became Professor of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method just one year later. \"Thought and Change\" was published in 1965, and in \"State and Society in Soviet Thought\" (1988), he examined whether Marxist regimes could be liberalized.  He was elected to the British Academy in 1974. He moved to Cambridge in 1984 to head the Department of Anthropology, holding the William Wyse chair and becoming a fellow of King's College, Cambridge, which provided him with a relaxed atmosphere where he enjoyed drinking beer and playing chess with the students. Described by the \"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography\" as \"brilliant, forceful, irreverent, mischievous, sometimes perverse, with a biting wit and love of irony\", he was famously popular with his students, was willing to spend many extra hours a day tutoring them, and was regarded as a superb public speaker and gifted teacher.  His \"Plough, Sword and Book\" (1988) investigated the philosophy of history, and \"Conditions of Liberty\" (1994) sought to explain the collapse of socialism. In 1993, he returned to Prague, now rid of communism, and to the new Central European University, where he became head of the Center for the Study of Nationalism, a program funded by George Soros, the American billionaire philanthropist, to study the rise of nationalism in the post-communist countries of eastern and central Europe. On 5 November 1995, after returning from a conference in Budapest, he suffered a heart attack and died at his flat in Prague, one month short of his 70th birthday.  Gellner was noted for his questionable sense of humour. His daughter, Sarah Gellner, revealed that one of her father's favourite jokes was \"Rape, rape, rape, all summer long\", and that \"If there was one thing Dad disliked more than feminists, it was homosexual men.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Words and Things\".", "content": "With the publication in 1959 of \"Words and Things\", his first book, Gellner achieved fame and even notoriety among his fellow philosophers, as well as outside the discipline, for his fierce attack on ordinary language philosophy (or \"linguistic philosophy\", Gellner's preferred phrase). Ordinary language philosophy, in one form or another, was the dominant approach at Oxbridge at the time (although the philosophers themselves denied that they were part of any unified school). He first encountered the strong ideological hold of linguistic philosophy while at Balliol:  \"Words and Things\" is fiercely critical of the work of Ludwig Wittgenstein, J. L. Austin, Gilbert Ryle, Antony Flew, P. F. Strawson and many others. Ryle refused to have the book reviewed in the philosophical journal \"Mind\" (which he edited), and Bertrand Russell (who had written an approving foreword) protested in a letter to \"The Times\". A response from Ryle and a lengthy correspondence ensued.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social anthropology.", "content": "In the 1950s, Gellner discovered his great love of social anthropology. Chris Hann, director of the Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, writes that following the hard-nosed empiricism of Bronisław Malinowski, Gellner made major contributions to the subject over the next 40 years, ranging from \"conceptual critiques in the analysis of kinship to frameworks for understanding political order outside the state in tribal Morocco (\"Saints of the Atlas\", 1969); from sympathetic exposition of the works of Soviet Marxist anthropologists to elegant syntheses of the Durkheimian and Weberian traditions in western social theory; and from grand elaboration of 'the structure of human history' to path-breaking analyses of ethnicity and nationalism (\"Thought and Change\", 1964; \"Nations and Nationalism\", 1983)\". He also developed a friendship with the Moroccan-French sociologist Paul Pascon, whose work he admired.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nationalism.", "content": "In 1983, Gellner published \"Nations and Nationalism\". For Gellner, \"nationalism is primarily a political principle that holds that the political and the national unit should be congruent\". Gellner argues that nationalism appeared and became a sociological necessity only in the modern world. In previous times (\"the agro-literate\" stage of history), rulers had little incentive to impose cultural homogeneity on the ruled. But in modern society, work becomes technical; one must operate a machine, and to do so, one must learn. There is a need for impersonal, context-free communication and a high degree of cultural standardisation.  Furthermore, industrial society is underlined by the fact that there is perpetual growth: employment types vary and new skills must be learned. Thus, generic employment training precedes specialised job training. On a territorial level, there is competition for the overlapping catchment areas (such as Alsace-Lorraine). To maintain its grip on resources and its survival and progress, the state and culture must for these reasons be congruent. Nationalism, therefore, is a necessity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernest André Gellner (9 December 1925 – 5 November 1995) was a British-Czech philosopher and social anthropologist described by \"The Daily Telegraph\", when he died, as one of the world's most vigorous intellectuals, and by \"The Independent\" as a \"one-man crusader for critical rationalism\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972487}
{"src_title": "Guido of Arezzo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Guido was a Benedictine monk from the Italian city-state of Arezzo. Recent research has dated his \"Micrologus\" to 1025 or 1026; since Guido stated in a letter that he was thirty-four when he wrote it, his birthdate is presumed to be around 991 or 992. His early career was spent at the monastery of Pomposa, on the Adriatic coast near Ferrara. While there, he noted the difficulty that singers had in remembering Gregorian chants.  He came up with a method for teaching the singers to learn chants in a short time, and quickly became famous throughout north Italy. However, around 1025 he attracted the hostility of the other monks at the abbey who resisted his musical innovations, prompting him to move to Arezzo, a town which had no abbey, but which did have a large group of cathedral singers, whose training Bishop Tedald invited him to conduct.  While at Arezzo, he developed new techniques for teaching, such as staff notation and the use of the \"ut–re–mi–fa–sol–la\" (do–re–mi–fa–so–la) mnemonic (solmization). The ut–re–mi-fa-sol-la syllables are taken from the initial syllables of each of the first six half-lines of the first stanza of the hymn \"Ut queant laxis\", whose text is attributed to the Italian monk and scholar Paulus Diaconus (though the musical line either shares a common ancestor with the earlier setting of Horace's \"\" (\"Odes\" 4.11), recorded in the Montpellier manuscript H425, or may have been taken from it). Giovanni Battista Doni is known for having changed the name of note \"Ut\" (C), renaming it \"Do\" (in the \"Do Re Mi...\" sequence known as solfège). A seventh note, \"Si\" (from the initials for \"Sancte Iohannes,\" Latin for St. John the Baptist) was added shortly after to complete the diatonic scale. In anglophone countries, \"Si\" was changed to \"Ti\" by Sarah Glover in the nineteenth century so that every syllable might begin with a different letter (this also freed up Si for later use as Sol-sharp). \"Ti\" is used in tonic sol-fa and in the song \"Do-Re-Mi\".  The \"Micrologus\", written at the cathedral at Arezzo and dedicated to Tedald, contains Guido's teaching method as it had developed by that time. Soon it had attracted the attention of Pope John XIX, who invited Guido to Rome. Most likely he went there in 1028, but he soon returned to Arezzo, due to his poor health. It was then that he announced in a letter to Michael of Pomposa (\"\") his discovery of the \"ut–re–mi\" musical mnemonic. Little is known of him after this time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Guidonian hand.", "content": "Guido is credited with the invention of the Guidonian hand, a widely used mnemonic system where note names are mapped to parts of the human hand. However, only a rudimentary form of the Guidonian hand is actually described by Guido, and the fully elaborated system of natural, hard, and soft hexachords cannot be securely attributed to him.  In the 12th century, a development in teaching and learning music in a more efficient manner had arisen. Guido of Arezzo's alleged development of the Guidonian hand, more than a hundred years after his death, allowed for musicians to label a specific joint or fingertip with the gamut (also referred to as the hexachord in the modern era). Using specific joints of the hand and fingertips transformed the way one would learn and memorize solmization syllables. Not only did the Guidonian hand become a standard use in preparing music in the 12th century, its popularity grew more widespread well into the 17th and 18th century. The knowledge and use of the Guidonian hand would allow a musician to simply transpose, identify intervals, and aid in use of notation and the creation of new music. Musicians were able to sing and memorize longer sections of music and counterpoint during performances and the amount of time spent diminished dramatically.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "A monument to him was erected in his native Arezzo. He is one of the famous Tuscans honored by a statue in the Loggiato of the Uffizi in Florence.  The computer music notation system GUIDO music notation is named after him and his invention.  The \"International Guido d'Arezzo Polyphonic Contest\" (Concorso Polifónico Guido d'Arezzo) is named after him.  Francisco Valls' controversial \"Missa Scala Aretina\" took its name from Guido Aretinus' scale.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Guido of Arezzo (also Guido Aretinus, Guido Aretino, Guido da Arezzo, Guido Monaco, Guido d'Arezzo,Guido Monaco Pomposiano, or Guy of Arezzo also Guy d'Arezzo) (991/992 – after 1033) was an Italian music theorist of the Medieval era. He is regarded as the inventor of modern staff notation that replaced neumatic notation. His text, the \"Micrologus\", was the second most widely distributed treatise on music in the Middle Ages (after the writings of Boethius).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972488}
{"src_title": "Terezín", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is located in North Bohemia, along the Ohře River, near its confluence with the Elbe River at Litoměřice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "On 10 January 1780, the Habsburg emperor Joseph II ordered the erection of the fortress, named \"Theresienstadt\" after his mother Empress Maria Theresa. In the times of Austria–Prussia rivalry, it was meant to secure the bridges across the Ohře and Elbe Rivers against Prussian troops invading the Bohemian lands from neighbouring Saxony. Simultaneously, Josefov Fortress (\"Josephstadt\") was erected near Jaroměř as a protection against Prussian attacks.  Construction of Theresienstadt started at the westernmost cavalier on 10 October 1780 and lasted ten years. The fortress consisted of a citadel, the \"Small Fortress\" (\"Kleine Festung\"), to the east of the Ohře, and a walled town, the \"Main Fortress\" (\"Große Festung\"), to the west. The total area of the fortress was 3.89 km2. In peacetime it held 5,655 soldiers, and in wartime around 11,000 soldiers could be placed here. Trenches and low-lying areas around the fortress could be flooded for defensive purposes. Garrison church in the Main Fortress was designed by Heinrich Hatzinger, Julius D’Andreis and Franz Joseph Fohmann.  The fortress was never under direct siege. During the Austro-Prussian War, on 28 July 1866, part of the garrison attacked and destroyed an important railway bridge near Neratovice (rail line Turnov - Kralupy nad Vltavou) that was shortly before repaired by the Prussians. This attack occurred two days after Austria and Prussia had agreed to make peace, but the Theresienstadt garrison was ignorant of the news.  During the second half of the 19th century, the fortress was also used as a prison. During World War I, the fortress was used as a political prison camp. Many thousand supporters of Russia (Ukrainian Russophiles from Galicia and Bukovina) were placed by Austro-Hungarian authorities in the fortress. Gavrilo Princip, who assassinated Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria and his wife, died there of tuberculosis in 1918.  With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, the town became part of the newly formed state of Czechoslovakia. It was located in an area with a high proportion of ethnic German population, known as the Sudetenland. Nazi Germany used this population of ethnic Germans as a rationale for expansion of the borders of the Fatherland. In 1938 it annexed the Sudetenland. It then followed in 1939 by occupying the rest of Bohemia and Moravia part of Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terezín during World War II.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theresienstadt concentration camp.", "content": "After the Munich Agreement in September 1938 and following the occupation of the Czech lands in March 1939, with the existing prisons gradually filled up as a result of the Nazi terror, the Prague Gestapo Police prison was set up in the Small Fortress (see History) in 1940. The first inmates arrived on 14 June 1940. By the end of the war 32,000 prisoners of whom 5,000 were women passed through the Small Fortress. These were primarily Czechs, later other nationals, for instance citizens of the former Soviet Union, Poles, Germans, and Yugoslavs. Most of the prisoners were arrested for various acts of resistance to the Nazi regime; among them were the family members and supporters of the assassins of Reinhard Heydrich. Many prisoners were later sent to concentration camps such as Mauthausen. The Jewish Ghetto was created in 1941.  By 1940, Germany assigned the Gestapo to adapt Terezín, better known by the German name Theresienstadt, as a ghetto and concentration camp. Considerable work was done in the next two years to adapt the complex for the dense overcrowding that inmates would be subjected to. It held primarily Jews from Czechoslovakia, as well as tens of thousands of Jews deported chiefly from Germany and Austria, as well as hundreds from the Netherlands and Denmark. More than 150,000 Jews were sent there, including 15,000 children.  Although it was not an extermination camp, about 33,000 died in the ghetto. This was mostly due to the appalling conditions arising out of extreme population density, malnutrition and disease. About 88,000 inhabitants were deported to Auschwitz and the other extermination camps. As late as the end of 1944, the Germans were still deporting Jews to the death camps. At the end of the war, there were 17,247 survivors of Theresienstadt (including some who had survived the death camps).  Part of the fortification (\"Small Fortress\") served as the largest Gestapo prison in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. It was on the other side of the river from the ghetto and operated separately. Around 90,000 people went through it, and 2,600 died there.  The complex was taken over for operation by the International Red Cross on 2 May 1945, with the Commandant and SS guards fleeing within the next two days. Some were later captured. The camp and prison were liberated on 9 May 1945 by the Soviet Army.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Terezín after World War II.", "content": "After the German surrender the small fortress was used as an internment camp for ethnic Germans. The first prisoners arrived on 10 May 1945. On 29 February 1948 the last German prisoners were released and the camp was officially closed.  Among the interned Germans were former Nazis like Heinrich Jöckel, the former commander of Terezín and other SS members. A great group of internees was arrested because of their German nationality, among them young boys and elderly people.  In the first phase of the camp lasting until July 1945 mortality was high due to diseases, malnutrition and incidents of simple outright murder. Commander of the camp in that period was Stanislav Franc. He was guided by a spirit of revenge and tolerated whimsical mistreatment of the prisoners by the guards.  In July 1945 the camp shifted under the control of the Czech ministry for domestic affairs. The new commander appointed was Otakar Kálal. From then on the inmates were gradually transferred to Germany and Terezín was increasingly used as a hub for the forced migration of Germans from the Czech lands into Germany proper.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Terezín today.", "content": "After the related war uses, such as for holding ethnic Germans to be expelled, the government retained a military garrison until 1996. The troops' departure and closing down of related operations had a negative effect on the local economy of the small town.  Terezín is still trying to develop a more diverse economy; some people think its history can attract heritage tourism. In 2002, the fortress, which was in a deteriorated condition, was listed in the 2002 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund. The organization called for a comprehensive conservation plan, while providing funding for emergency repairs from American Express. In 2002 the city was struck by floods during which the crematorium was damaged. A conservation plan was eventually developed in cooperation with national authorities. According to the Fund, a long-term conservation plan was conceived, which includes further repairs, documentation, and archaeological research.  In mid-April 2008, 327 bronze grave markers were stolen from the Jewish cemetery; another 700 were stolen the following week. The high price of metal encouraged the vandalizing thieves. Some grave markers were recovered.  Terezín is noted for its production of furniture and knitwear, as well as for manufacturing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Terezín is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Terezín (; ) is a former military fortress composed of citadel and adjacent walled garrison town of Litoměřice District, in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972489}
{"src_title": "Guided bus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Precursor to Guided Busways.", "content": "The kerb-guided bus (KGB) guidance mechanism is a development of the early flangeways, pre-dating railways. The Gloucester and Cheltenham Tramroad of 1809 therefore has a claim to be the earliest guided busway. Earlier flangeways existed, but were not for passenger carrying.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern guided busways.", "content": "There are a few examples of guided buses around the world constructed since 1980.  The first modern guided busway system was opened in 1980 in Essen, Germany. This was initially a demonstration track, but it was periodically expanded and is still in operation as of 2019.  The first guided busway in the United Kingdom was in Birmingham, the Tracline 65, long, experimentally in 1984. It has since been removed. Several guided busways have been planned or built in the United Kingdom.  Based on the experience in Essen, in 1986 the South Australian Government opened the Adelaide O-Bahn Busway. This is a 12-kilometer guided busway and is still in operation as of 2019.  In Mannheim, Germany, from May 1992 to September 2005 a guided busway shared the tram alignment for a few hundred metres, which allowed buses to avoid a congested stretch of road where there was no space for an extra traffic lane. It was discontinued, as the majority of buses fitted with guide wheels were withdrawn for age reasons. There are no plans to convert newer buses.  The Nagoya Guideway Bus in Nagoya, opened in March 2001 and is the only guided bus line in Japan.  The Cambridgeshire Guided Busway between Cambridge and St Ives, at, is the world's longest guided busway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rubber-tyred trams (trolleybuses).", "content": "Guided buses are to be distinguished from rubber-tyred systems that cannot run other than along a dedicated trackway, or under fixed overhead power lines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Guidance systems.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Optical guidance.", "content": "Optical guidance relies on the principles of image processing. A camera in the front of the vehicle scans the bands of paint on the ground representing the reference path. The signals obtained by the camera are sent to an onboard computer, which combines them with dynamic parameters of the vehicle (speed, yaw rate, wheel angle). The calculator transmits commands to the guidance motor located on the steering column of the vehicle to control its path in line with that of the reference.  Optical guidance is a means of approaching light rail performance with a fast and economical set-up. It enables buses to have precision-docking capabilities as efficient as those of light rail and reduces dwell times, making it possible to drive the vehicle to a precise point on a platform according to an accurate and reliable trajectory. The distance between the door steps and the platform is optimized not to exceed. Level boarding is then possible, and there is no need to use a mobile ramp for people with mobility impairments.  The Optiguide system, an optical guidance device developed by Siemens Transportation Systems SAS, has been in revenue service since 2001 in Rouen and Nîmes (only at stations), France, and has been fitted to trolleybuses in Castellon (Spain) since June 2008.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Magnetic guidance.", "content": "Other experimental systems have non-mechanical guidance, such as sensors or magnets buried in the roadway. In 2004, Stagecoach Group signed a deal with Siemens AG to develop an optical guidance system for use in the UK. Two bus lines in Eindhoven, Netherlands, are used by Phileas vehicles. Line 401 from Eindhoven station to Eindhoven Airport is long, consists largely of concrete bus lanes and has about 30 Phileas stop platforms. Line 402 from Eindhoven station to Veldhoven branches off from line 401 and adds another of bus lanes and about 13 stops.  Some years ago the regional authority for urban transport in the Eindhoven region (SRE) decided to discontinue use of the magnetic guidance system. In 2014 the manufacturer, APTS, was declared bankrupt.  The Douai region in France is developing a public transport network with dedicated infrastructure. The length of the lines will be. The first stage is a line of from Douai via Guesnain to Lewarde, passing close to Waziers, Sin-le-Noble, Dechy and Lambres-lez-Douai. 39 stop platforms will be provided with an average distance between the stops of. A number of stops will be placed on the right-hand side of each lane. Central stops between both lanes will be placed at locations with limited space at the right side. This requires vehicle to have doors on both sides.  On 3 November 2005, a licence and technology transfer agreement was signed between Advanced Public Transport Systems (APTS) and the Korea Railroad Research Institute (KRRI). KRRI was to develop the Korean version of Phileas vehicle by May 2011.  Since June 2013, 3 miles (1.5 miles each way) of the Emerald Express (EmX) BRT in Eugene, Oregon has used magnetic guidance in revenue service on an especially curvy section of the route that also entails small radius S-curves required for docking. The driver controls braking and acceleration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kerb guidance.", "content": "On kerb-guided buses (KGB) small guide wheels attached to the bus engage vertical kerbs on either side of the guideway. These guide wheels push the steering mechanism of the bus, keeping it centralised on the track. Away from the guideway, the bus is steered in the normal way. The start of the guideway is funnelled from a wide track to guideway width. This system permits high-speed operation on a narrow guideway and precise positioning at boarding platforms, facilitating access for the elderly and disabled. As guide wheels can be inexpensively attached to, and removed from, almost any standard model of bus, kerb guided busway systems are not tied to particular specialised vehicles or equipment suppliers. Characteristically, operators contracted to run services on kerb-guided busways will purchase or lease the vehicles, as second-hand vehicles (with guide wheels removed) have a ready resale market.  The kerb-guided system maintains a narrow track while still enabling buses to pass one another at speed. Consequently, kerb-guided track can be fitted into former double-track rail alignments without the requirement for additional land-take that might have been necessary were a disused railway to be converted into a public highway. Examples include the Cambridgeshire Guided Busway and Leigh-Salford-Manchester Bus Rapid Transit; in both schemes, it has proved possible to provide space for a wide multi-user path for leisure use alongside the kerb-guided double track, all within the boundaries of the disused railway route. Both the Cambridgeshire and Leigh-Salford-Manchester schemes have reported greatly increased levels of patronage (both on the buses themselves and the adjacent paths), high levels of modal transfer of travellers from private car use, and high levels of passenger satisfaction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Examples of guided busways.", "content": "Tram-like guided busways include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Guided buses are buses capable of being steered by external means, usually on a dedicated track or roll way that excludes other traffic, permitting the maintenance of schedules even during rush hours. Unlike trolleybuses or rubber-tired trams, for part of their routes guided buses are able to share road space with general traffic along conventional roads, or with conventional buses on standard bus lanes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972490}
{"src_title": "Saadi dynasty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The Banu Zaydan claimed descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad through the line of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Fatima Zahra (Muhammad's daughter). They came from Tagmadert in the valley of the Draa River. The family's village of origin in the Draa was Tidzi (a qsar, some 10 km north of Zagora). They claimed Sharifian origins through an ancestor from Yanbu and rendered Sufism respectable in Morocco. The name Saadi or Saadian derives from \"sa'ada\" meaning happiness or salvation. Others think it derives from the name Bani Zaydan or that it was given to the Bani Zaydan (shurafa of Tagmadert) by later generations and rivals for power, who tried to deny their Hassanid descent by claiming that they came from the family of Halimah Saadiyya, Muhammad's wet nurse. Their putative ancestor is Zaydan Ibn Ahmed a Sharif from Yanbu. The most famous sultan of the Saadi was Ahmad al-Mansur (1578–1603), builder of the El Badi Palace in Marrakech and contemporary of Elizabeth I. One of their most important achievements was defeating the Portuguese at the Battle of Ksar El Kebir, and defending the country against the Ottomans. Before they conquered Marrakech, they had Taroudannt as their capital city.  The Saadian Tombs were rediscovered in 1917 and can be seen in Marrakech.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rulers.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1554–1659: Saadian sultans of Morocco.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1603–27: Succession war.", "content": "Main Saadian rulers, based in Marrakesh:  Splinter faction based in Fes, with only local power:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Descendants.", "content": "After the fall of the banu zaydan dynasty, their last sultan Abdullah ibn Muhammad retired with his family in the Draa desert, the very place from where, many years ago his Great-grandfather Mohamed Al Qaim had raised as the chief leader of the sultanate. Nowadays, his descendants live in the region of Draa, far from the glory of their prestigious ancestors who ruled Morocco.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Saadi dynasty or Saadian dynasty ( \"as-saʿdiyyūn\") was an Arab Moroccan dynasty, which ruled Morocco from 1549 to 1659.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972491}
{"src_title": "Lennart Torstensson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "He was born at Forstena manor in Västergötland. His parents were Märta Nilsdotter Posse and Torsten Lennartsson, of the noble house Forstena, who was supporter of King Sigismund and, for a while, the commandant of Älvsborg fortress. Young Lennart's parents fled to exile in the year of his birth because his father had confessed to being loyal to the deposed Sigismund. Lennart was taken care of by relatives - his father returned to Sweden only when Lennart was around twenty. His paternal uncle Anders Lennartsson was Lord High Constable of Sweden and trusted by Duke Charles, but he fell at the Battle of Kircholm in 1605.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "At the age of fifteen he became one of the pages of the young King Gustavus Adolphus and was allowed to observe the Livonian War, such as the conquest of Riga in 1621. At the age of twenty, he made his grand tour, getting to know foreign countries. In January 1626, he was at the battle of Wallhof as an ensign. He also served during the Prussian campaigns of 1628 and 1629.  It is told that at one battle Gustavus Adolphus sent Torstensson with an order to one of the officers. On his way Torstensson noticed that the enemy had changed position and altered the King's orders. Gustavus noticed the new development. When Torstensson returned he told Gustavus what he had done. The King first raised his hand as if to strike Torstensson but changed his mind and said, \"Lennart, this could have cost you your life, but maybe you are better suited to be a general than a page at the royal court\".  Shortly thereafter, in 1629 Torstensson was put in charge of the Swedish artillery, which under his guidance contributed greatly to the victories of Breitenfeld and Lech. The same year he was taken prisoner at Alte Veste and imprisoned for nearly a year at Ingolstadt. Under Johan Banér he served at the Battle of Wittstock on the left wing of the combined army of Banér and Field Marshal Alexander Leslie. He also served with distinction during the defence of Pomerania in 1637 and 1638, as well as at the Battle of Chemnitz and the raid into Bohemia in 1639. Illness, contracted during his imprisonment, compelled him to return to Sweden in 1641, where he was made a member of the Privy Council.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Field Marshal.", "content": "The sudden death of Banér in May 1641 recalled Torstensson to Germany as generalissimo of the Swedish forces and Governor General of Pomerania. He was at the same time promoted to the rank of Field Marshal. In 1642 he marched through Brandenburg and Silesia into Moravia, taking all the principal fortresses on his way. On returning through Saxony he crushed the imperial army at the second Battle of Breitenfeld on October 23, 1642.  In 1643 Torstensson invaded Moravia for the second time, but was suddenly recalled to invade Denmark, when his rapid and unexpected intervention paralysed the Danish defence on the land side, though Torstenson's own position in Jutland was for a time precarious owing to the skilful handling of the Danish fleet by Christian IV of Denmark. In 1644 he led his army for the third time into the heart of Germany and routed the imperials at the battle of Jüterbog on November 23. At the beginning of January 1645 he broke into Bohemia, and the victory of Jankau on February 24, 1645 laid open before him the road to Vienna. Yet, though one end of the Danube bridge actually fell into his hands, his exhausted army was unable to penetrate any further and, in December the same year, Torstensson, crippled by gout, was forced to resign his command and returned to Sweden in the early summer of 1646.  In 1647 he was created a count. From 1648 to 1651 he ruled all the western provinces of Sweden, as Governor-General. On his death at Stockholm on April 7, 1651 he was buried in the Riddarholm Church, the Pantheon of Sweden.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Assessment.", "content": "Torstensson was remarkable for the extraordinary and incalculable rapidity of his movements, though very frequently he had to lead the army in a litter, as his bodily infirmities would not permit him to mount his horse. He was often considered the most scientific artillery officer and most successful engineer in the Swedish army.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Torstensson was married in 1633 to Baroness Beata De la Gardie (1612–1680), daughter of the Privy Councillor Johan De la Gardie (1582–1640) and Katarina Kristersdotter Oxenstierna (-1625). They had a son, Anders Torstenson, who also served as a Privy Councillor and Governor-General of Estonia.  In 1653, after Torstensson's death, his widow, Beata De la Gardie married Per Brahe the Younger.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lennart Torstensson, Count of Ortala, Baron of Virestad (17 August 1603 – 7 April 1651), was a Swedish Field Marshal and military engineer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972492}
{"src_title": "Anathema (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years:\"\"Serenades\"\" and \"\"The Silent Enigma\"\".", "content": "Anathema formed in 1990 as a doom metal band, initially going by the name Pagan Angel. In November of that year, the band recorded their first demo, entitled \"An Iliad of Woes\". This demo caught the attention of several bands and labels from the English metal scene. At the beginning of 1991, the band gained a lot of attention with the release of their second demo entitled \"All Faith Is Lost\", resulting in a four-album deal with Peaceville Records. Their first release under the label was \"The Crestfallen\" EP in November 1992. They took the material from that album on the road, touring with Cannibal Corpse.  \"Serenades\", Anathema's debut LP, attracted a lot of mainstream attention, propelling their \"Sweet Tears\" music video onto the MTV playlist. Anathema's first European tour was in 1994, and was closely followed by gigs at the Independent Rock Festival in Brazil.  In May 1995, vocalist Darren White parted with the band, eventually forming The Blood Divine. Rather than recruiting a new vocalist, the band decided that guitarist Vincent Cavanagh should assume White's role. This new formation debuted by touring with Cathedral in the United Kingdom, and released \"The Silent Enigma\" soon after to rave reviews. It also showed the band starting to take a direction akin to Gothic metal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mid 1990s:\"\"Eternity\"\", \"\"Alternative 4\"\" and \"\"Judgement\"\".", "content": "The next member to leave the band was drummer John Douglas, who departed in the summer of 1997. He was replaced by Shaun Steels, formerly of Solstice, who would also later play drums for My Dying Bride. The release of \"Eternity\" came in 1996, relying more on atmospheric sounds, and starting the transition to clean vocals; the album \"Judgement\" would later consolidate this style. A European tour followed the album's release.  \"Alternative 4\" was released in 1998. During this time the band underwent many line-up changes. Bassist/keyboardist/songwriter Duncan Patterson quit due to musical differences and was replaced by Dave Pybus of Dreambreed, a band which Duncan had played bass for during a short period, and not long after this Martin Powell (who had played keyboards and violin for My Dying Bride previously) joined the band for live performances. Finally, founding drummer John Douglas returned to the drums in place of Steels.  In June 1999, the album \"Judgement\" was released, marking Anathema's complete shift from the doom metal genre, focusing instead on slower and more experimental songs. This new sound has been likened to artists such as Pink Floyd, Jeff Buckley, and to a lesser extent, Radiohead. Their songs continued to express a feeling of depression and, more often than not, desperation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2000s:\"\"A Fine Day to Exit\"\" and \"\"A Natural Disaster\"\".", "content": "In 2000 Martin Powell switched positions with Cradle of Filth's keyboardist Les Smith, who came to be an integral member of Anathema.  Shortly before the release of \"A Fine Day to Exit\", Dave Pybus announced his departure from the band and later joined Cradle of Filth. He was replaced by touring bassist George Roberts, and later by Jamie Cavanagh.  In March 2002, Daniel Cavanagh announced his departure from the band, joining Duncan Patterson's band Antimatter. However, he later rejoined Anathema in 2003 for the release of \"A Natural Disaster\", and started their European tour. This accelerated the changes in Anathema's tone, towards the atmospheric and progressive, as exhibited in album tracks \"Flying\" and \"Violence\".  Upon the closing of their label Music for Nations after its purchase by Sony BMG, Anathema found itself without a record label, despite having completed an extensive tour of the UK with popular Finnish rock band HIM in April 2006. During their search for a new label, the band have adopted a more 'DIY' approach to music release, embracing the internet and releasing songs via their own website, for which fans may donate a monetary sum of their own choice. Despite the obvious lack of label-based tour support, the band continues to play dates across Europe, guitarist Danny Cavanagh also playing the odd low-key acoustic concert.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010s:\"\"We're Here Because We're Here\"\" and \"\"Weather Systems\"\".", "content": "On 20 March 2010, Anathema announced on their website and Facebook page the release date of their next album. \"We're Here Because We're Here\" was released on 31 May 2010 on the Kscope label. John Douglas' sister Lee Douglas joined the band in the capacity of a vocalist during the recording of this album. She had previously performed on the two previous albums as a guest vocalist.  On 6 July 2011, it was announced on the band's official page that their album of re-interpretations, \"Falling Deeper\", would be released on 5 September 2011. The album was a follow-up to \"Hindsight\" and contained new orchestral versions of songs from the past, as well as a version of \"Everwake\" featuring the vocals of Anneke van Giersbergen. On 12 September 2011, Les Smith's departure due to \"creative and musical differences\" was announced on the band's website.  On 16 April 2012, the band's ninth studio album, \"Weather Systems\", was released via Kscope. The album entered the UK album charts at No. 50 and the German album charts at No. 19.  On 8 November 2012, Daniel Cavanagh announced on Anathema's official website that Daniel Cardoso was joining in a full-time permanent basis, as a key element of the band. Cardoso and John Douglas both switch positions of keyboardist and drummer respectively.  On 2 December 2012, Anathema announced their first concert in India. Anathema has performed at IIT Madras as part of the Saarang Rock Show on 12 January 2013.  The band's live album, named \"Universal\", was released as a double vinyl album on 24 June 2013. The album is a recording of a special one-off gig at the ancient Roman theatre of Philippopolis in 2012, where the band were joined by the Plovdiv Philharmonic Orchestra. The set was released on Blu-ray, DVD and CD under the name \"Universal\", with an alternate track order, on 17 September 2013. The band performed on drummer Mike Portnoy's Progression Nation at Sea tour aboard the Norwegian Cruise Line ship \"Pearl\" that sailed from the Port of Miami on 18 February 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"\"Distant Satellites\"\" and \"\"The Optimist\"\".", "content": "On 28 March 2014, the band announced their upcoming studio album would be called \"Distant Satellites\". The album came out on 9 June 2014 on the Kscope label, and was produced by Christer-André Cederberg in Oslo, Norway. Several tracks were mixed by Steven Wilson (of Porcupine Tree). Different from previous albums is the use of more electronica on this album. The album was released in four different versions: CD, vinyl, Media Book, and a Deluxe version. The band toured the album starting 22 May in Istanbul, Turkey, continuing throughout Europe and travelling to Australia for the first time to perform three dates during August 2014.  Following the success of their short Australian tour, an acoustic tour was announced for New Zealand and Australia in 2015. Daniel, Vincent and Lee performed these show without the other band members. Later that year, the band released an acoustic live album and video entitled \"A Sort of Homecoming\", consisting in the record of a concert at the band's hometown Liverpool Cathedral.  At the end of August 2019, it was announced that Anathema would be leaving the Kscope record label and had signed a new deal with Mascot Label Group. Anathema plans to release their 12th studio album in 2020.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anathema are a British rock band from Liverpool. The line-up consists of the multi instrumentalist brothers, Vincent and Daniel Cavanagh, drummer/keyboardist John Douglas, singer Lee Douglas, and keyboardist/bassist Daniel Cardoso since November 2012.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972493}
{"src_title": "Upper Egypt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Upper Egypt is between the Cataracts of the Nile above modern-day Aswan, downriver (northwards) to the area of El-Ayait, which places modern-day Cairo in Lower Egypt. The northern (downriver) part of Upper Egypt, between Sohag and El-Ayait, is also known as Middle Egypt.  In Arabic, inhabitants of Upper Egypt are known as Sa'idis and they generally speak Sai'idi Egyptian Arabic.  In ancient Egypt, Upper Egypt was known as \"tꜣ šmꜣw\", literally \"the Land of Reeds\" or \"the Sedgeland\" It was divided into twenty-two districts called nomes. The first nome was roughly where modern-day Aswan is and the twenty-second was at modern Atfih just to the south of Cairo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Predynastic Egypt.", "content": "The main city of prehistoric Upper Egypt was Nekhen, whose patron deity was the vulture goddess Nekhbet.  By about 3600 BC, Neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile had based their culture on the raising of crops and the domestication of animals. Shortly after 3600 BC, Egyptian society began to grow and increase in complexity. A new and distinctive pottery, which was related to the Levantine ceramics, appeared during this time. Extensive use of copper became common during this time. The Mesopotamian process of sun-drying adobe and architectural principles—including the use of the arch and recessed walls for decorative effect—became popular during this time.  Concurrent with these cultural advances, a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, occurred. At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt also underwent a unification process. Warfare between Upper and Lower Egypt occurred often. During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies on the Delta and merged both the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Egypt under his single rule.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dynastic Egypt.", "content": "For most of pharaonic Egypt's history, Thebes was the administrative center of Upper Egypt. After its devastation by the Assyrians, its importance declined. Under the Ptolemies, Ptolemais Hermiou took over the role of Upper Egypt's capital city. Upper Egypt was represented by the tall White Crown \"Hedjet\", and its symbols were the flowering lotus and the sedge.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medieval Egypt.", "content": "In the 11th century, large numbers of pastoralists, known as Hilalians, fled Upper Egypt and moved westward into Libya and as far as Tunis. It is believed that degraded grazing conditions in Upper Egypt, associated with the beginning of the Medieval Warm Period, were the root cause of the migration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th-century Egypt.", "content": "In the 20th-century Egypt, the title Prince of the Sa'id (meaning \"Prince of Upper Egypt\") was used by the heir apparent to the Egyptian throne.  Although the Kingdom of Egypt was abolished after the Egyptian revolution of 1952, the title continues to be used by Muhammad Ali, Prince of the Sa'id.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Upper Egypt and Coptic language.", "content": "Upper Egypt is known to contain a few remaining villages, where the historical Coptic language, the latest phase of the Egyptian language, has been revived and reconstructed as a spoken language.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List of rulers of prehistoric Upper Egypt.", "content": "The following list may not be complete (there are many more of uncertain existence):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Upper Egypt ( \"\", shortened to,, ) is the strip of land on both sides of the Nile that extends between Nubia and downriver (northwards) to Lower Egypt. It is the southernmost portion of Egypt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972494}
{"src_title": "Raynaud syndrome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "The condition can cause localized pain, discoloration (paleness), and sensations of cold and/or numbness.  When exposed to cold temperatures, the blood supply to the fingers or toes, and in some cases the nose or earlobes, is markedly reduced; the skin turns pale or white (called pallor) and becomes cold and numb. These events are episodic, and when the episode subsides or the area is warmed, the blood flow returns, and the skin color first turns red (rubor), and then back to normal, often accompanied by swelling, tingling, and a painful \"pins and needles\" sensation. All three color changes are observed in classic Raynaud's. However, not all patients see all of the aforementioned color changes in all episodes, especially in milder cases of the condition. The red flush is due to reactive hyperemia of the areas deprived of blood flow.  In pregnancy, this sign normally disappears due to increased surface blood flow. Raynaud's has occurred in breastfeeding mothers, causing nipples to turn white and painful.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Causes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Primary.", "content": "Raynaud's disease, or primary Raynaud's, is diagnosed if the symptoms are idiopathic, that is, if they occur by themselves and not in association with other diseases. Some refer to primary Raynaud's disease as \"being allergic to coldness\". It often develops in young women in their teens and early adulthood. Primary Raynaud's is thought to be at least partly hereditary, although specific genes have not yet been identified.  Smoking increases frequency and intensity of attacks, and a hormonal component exists. Caffeine, estrogen, and nonselective beta-blockers are often listed as aggravating factors, but evidence that they should be avoided is not solid.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Secondary.", "content": "Raynaud's phenomenon, or secondary Raynaud's, occurs secondary to a wide variety of other conditions.  Secondary Raynaud's has a number of associations:  Raynaud's can precede these other diseases by many years, making it the first presenting symptom. This may be the case in the CREST syndrome, of which Raynaud's is a part.  Patients with secondary Raynaud's can also have symptoms related to their underlying diseases. Raynaud's phenomenon is the initial symptom that presents for 70% of patients with scleroderma, a skin and joint disease.  When Raynaud's phenomenon is limited to one hand or one foot, it is referred to as unilateral Raynaud's. This is an uncommon form, and it is always secondary to local or regional vascular disease. It commonly progresses within several years to affect other limbs as the vascular disease progresses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mechanism.", "content": "Its pathophysiology includes hyperactivation of the sympathetic nervous system causing extreme vasoconstriction of the peripheral blood vessels, leading to tissue hypoxia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Distinguishing Raynaud's disease (primary Raynaud's) from phenomenon (secondary Raynaud's) is important. Looking for signs of arthritis or vasculitis, as well as a number of laboratory tests, may separate them. If suspected to be secondary to systemic sclerosis, one tool which may help aid in the prediction of systemic sclerosis is thermography.  A careful medical history will seek to identify or exclude possible secondary causes.  To aid in the diagnosis of Raynaud's phenomenon, multiple sets of diagnostic criteria have been proposed. Table 1 below provides a summary of these various diagnostic criteria.  Recently, International Consensus Criteria were developed for the diagnosis of primary Raynaud's phenomenon by a panel of experts in the fields of rheumatology and dermatology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management.", "content": "Secondary Raynaud's is managed primarily by treating the underlying cause, and as primary Raynaud's, avoiding triggers, such as cold, emotional and environmental stress, vibrations and repetitive motions, and avoiding smoking (including passive smoking) and sympathomimetic drugs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medications.", "content": "Medications can be helpful for moderate or severe disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alternative medicine.", "content": "Evidence does not support the use of alternative medicine, including acupuncture and laser therapy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prognosis.", "content": "The prognosis of primary Raynaud syndrome is often very favorable, with no mortality and little morbidity. However, a minority develops gangrene. The prognosis of secondary Raynaud is dependent on the underlying disease, and how effective blood flow-restoring maneuvers are.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Raynaud syndrome, also known as Raynaud's phenomenon, is a medical condition in which spasm of arteries cause episodes of reduced blood flow. Typically, the fingers, and less commonly the toes, are involved. Rarely, the nose, ears, or lips are affected. The episodes result in the affected part turning white and then blue. Often, numbness or pain occurs. As blood flow returns, the area turns red and burns. The episodes typically last minutes, but can last several hours. Episodes are often triggered by cold or emotional stress. Primary Raynaud's, aka idiopathic, means that it is spontaneous and unrelated to another disease. Secondary Raynaud's occurs as a result of another condition. Secondary Raynaud's can occur due to a connective-tissue disorder, such as scleroderma or lupus, injuries to the hands, prolonged vibration, smoking, thyroid problems, and certain medications, such as birth control pills. Diagnosis is typically based on the symptoms. The primary treatment is avoiding the cold. Other measures include the discontinuation of nicotine or stimulant use. Medications for treatment of cases that do not improve include calcium channel blockers and iloprost. Little evidence supports alternative medicine. Severe disease may rarely be complicated by skin sores or gangrene. About 4% of people have the condition. Onset of the primary form is typically between ages 15 and 30 and occurs more frequently in females. The secondary form usually affects older people. Both forms are more common in cold climates. It is named after the French physician Maurice Raynaud, who described the condition in 1862.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972495}
{"src_title": "Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Hochberg heir.", "content": "Since the descendants of Charles Frederick's first marriage to Karoline Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt were at first plentiful, no one expected the Hochberg children of his second wife to be anything except a family of counts with blood ties to the grand ducal family, but lacking dynastic rights. Count Leopold von Hochberg was born in Karlsruhe, and with no prospects of advancement in Baden, followed a career as an officer in the French army.  The situation of both the grand duchy and the Hochberg children became objects of international interest as it became apparent that the Baden male line descended from Karl Frederick's first wife was likely to die out. One by one, the males of the House of Baden expired without leaving male descendants. By 1817, there were only two males left, the reigning Grand Duke Charles I, a grandson of Charles Frederick's, and his childless uncle Prince Louis. Both of Charles's sons died in infancy. Baden's dynasty seemed to face extinction, casting the country's future in doubt.  Unbeknownst to those outside of the court at Baden, upon the 24 November 1787 wedding of then-Margrave Charles Frederick to Luise Karoline Geyer von Geyersberg, he and the three sons of his first marriage signed a declaration which reserved decision on the title and any succession rights of sons to be born of the marriage. Although Luise Karoline's children were not initially legally recognised as of dynastic rank, on 20 February 1796 their father clarified in writing (subsequently co-signed by his elder sons) that the couple's sons were eligible to succeed to the margravial throne in order of male primogeniture after extinction of the male issue of his first marriage. The Margrave further declared that his marriage to their mother must \"in no way be seen as morganatic, but rather as a true equal marriage\".  On 10 September 1806, after the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire and the assumption of full sovereignty, Charles Frederick confirmed the dynastic status of the sons of his second marriage. This act was, yet again, signed by his three eldest sons, but was not promulgated.  On 4 October 1817, as neither Grand Duke Charles nor the other sons from his grandfather's first marriage had surviving male descendants, Charles proceeded to confirm the succession rights of his hither-to morganatic half-uncles, elevating each to the title Prince and Margrave of Baden, and the style of \"Highness\". He asked the princely congress in Aachen on 20 November 1818, just weeks before his death, to confirm the succession rights of these sons of his step-grandmother, still known as Countess Luise von Hochberg.  But this proclamation of Baden's succession evoked international challenges. The Congress of Vienna had, in 1815, recognised the claims of Bavaria and Austria to parts of Baden which it allocated to Charles Frederick in the Upper Palatinate and the Breisgau, anticipating that upon his imminent demise those lands would cease to be part of the Grand Duchy. Moreover, the Wittelsbach king of Bavaria, Maximilian I Joseph, was married to Grand Duke Charles's eldest sister, Caroline of Baden. The female most closely related to the last male of a German dynasty often inherited in such circumstances, in accordance with Semi-Salic succession law. As a result, Maximilian had a strong claim to Baden under the customary rules of inheritance, as well as his claims under a post–Congress of Vienna treaty of 16 April 1816.  Nonetheless, in 1818 Charles granted a constitution to the nation, the liberality of which made it popular with the people of Baden and which included a clause securing the succession rights of the offspring of Luise Karoline Geyer von Geyersberg. Another dispute was resolved by Baden's agreement to cede a portion of the county of Wertheim, already enclaved within Bavaria, to that kingdom.  To further improve the status of Prince Leopold, his half-brother the new Grand Duke Louis I arranged for him to marry his great-niece, Sophie, daughter of former King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden by Grand Duke Charles's sister, Frederica. Since Sophie was a granddaughter of Leopold's oldest half-brother, Charles Louis, this marriage united the descendants of his father's (Grand Duke Charles Frederick's) two wives. Sophie's undoubted royal blood would help to offset the stigma of Leopold's morganatic birth.  Finally, on 10 July 1819, a few months after Charles's death, the Great Powers of Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia joined with Bavaria and Baden in the 1819 Treaty of Frankfurt which recognized the succession rights of the former Hochberg morganatic line.  When Louis I died on 30 March 1830, he was the last male of the House of Baden not descended from the morganatic marriage of Charles Frederick and Luise Karoline Geyer von Geyersberg. Leopold von Hochberg now succeeded as the fourth Grand Duke of Baden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Leopold was interested in the liberal ideas of his time, granted concessions to his subjects in 1848, and in the spring of 1849 declined to oppose the movement (see Revolutions of 1848 in the German states) which finally broke down all barriers and forced him to flee from the country on the night of 13 May. In August, he was reinstated by the troops of Prussia and the German Confederation. He acted with the greatest forbearance after regaining his power. During the last years of his reign, he admitted his son Frederick, who later succeeded him, to a share in the government. He died in Karlsruhe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "On 25 July 1819, Leopold married in Karlsruhe his half-grand-niece Sophie of Sweden (21 May 1801 – 6 July 1865). Sophia and Leopold had the following children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titulature.", "content": "The title and rank of Leopold and the other children of Grand Duke Charles Frederick by his second, morganatic wife, Luise Karoline Geyer von Geyersberg was initially ambiguous as stipulated in his parents' marriage contract (co-signed by his dynastic half-brothers at their father's behest), the daughters at least bearing their mother's (inaccurately attributed) baronial title, while only legally acquiring the title of \"Reichsgraf von Hochberg\" from 1796 when she was granted that rank by the Holy Roman Emperor. Leopold and his full siblings were not officially elevated to the title of \"margrave\" until 1817 when they were publicly de-morganitised. But their father had, in fact, allowed its use for his morganatic children at his own court in Karlsruhe at least from his assumption of the grand ducal crown in 1806, simultaneously according the princely title to the dynastic sons of his first marriage. However, from 1817 his male-line descendants of both marriages were internationally recognised as entitled to the princely prefix, which all used henceforth.  The title of \"Margrave of Baden\" has been borne as a title of pretence by Leopold's seniormost descendant and heir, each as the head of the House of Zähringen, since the death of the last reigning Grand Duke, Frederick II, in 1928.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leopold (29 August 1790 – 24 April 1852) succeeded in 1830 as the Grand Duke of Baden, reigning until his death in 1852.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972496}
{"src_title": "Barnabites", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Establishment of the Order.", "content": "Second in seniority of the orders of regular clerics (the Theatines being first), the Barnabites were founded in Milan, by Anthony Mary Zaccaria, Barthélemy Ferrari, and. The region was then suffering severely from the wars between Charles V and Francis I, and Zaccaria saw the need for radical reform of the Church in Lombardy, afflicted by problems typical for that era: dioceses without a bishop, clergy with inadequate theological formation, a decrease in religious practice, and monasteries and convents in decline.  It was approved by Pope Clement VII in the brief \"Vota per quae vos\" in 1533. Later approvals gave it the status of a Religious Order, but it is still normally referred to as a congregation. Both the date and the vocation place it among the Orders associated with the Counter-Reformation. Zaccaria's holiness moved many to reform their lives but it also moved many to oppose him. Twice his community had to undergo official religious investigation, and twice it was exonerated.  The order was given the name of \"Regular Clerics of St. Paul\" (Clerici Regulares Sancti Pauli). In 1538 the grand old monastery of Saint Barnabas by the city wall of Milan was given to the congregation as their main seat, and thenceforth they were known the popular name of \"Barnabites\". After the death of Zaccaria in 1539, the congregation was favored and protected by Archbishop Charles Borromeo of Milan and later by Francis de Sales because of their successful missionary work in Upper Italy. Charles Borromeo presided, in 1579, as Cardinal Protector, over the commission which wrote the Constitutions of the Order. The General Chapters of the Order were regularly held at Milan until the reign of Pope Alexander VII (1655–67), who ordered them to convene in Rome. Pope Innocent XI (1676–89), however, finally decreed that they should be held in Rome and Milan alternately.  These assemblies of the Provincial Superiors were held every three years for the election of a new Superior General, whose term of office was limited to that period, only one re-election being allowed to each incumbent of the office.  The Society started pastoral activity among the working classes and in monasteries. In the early 17th century, the Barnabites gradually entered the field of education – work which was to remain a mark of their apostolate. They entered France under Henry IV in 1608, and Austria under Ferdinand II in 1626.  The present Constitution is an updated version dated 1983, which takes into account the changes from the Second Vatican Council. There is a female branch of Religious Sisters, the Angelic Sisters of St. Paul, found by Anthony Mary Zaccaria, and an organization for lay people, the Laity of St. Paul, originally called the Married of St. Paul and sometimes referred to in North America as the Oblates of St. Paul.  As of July 24, 2012, the new Superior General is a Brazilian, the Very Rev. Francisco Chagas Santos da Silva.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Character of the Order.", "content": "As indicated by the official name of the order, the work of the Barnabites is inspired by St. Paul the Apostle. In an address in 2000, to the institutes General Chapter, Pope John Paul II noted, \"[I]n pointing out the ideal of religious and apostolic life to his spiritual sons, St Anthony Mary Zaccaria emphasized charity.\"  The members of the Order make, in addition to the three standard religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, a fourth vow never to strive for any office or position of dignity, or to accept such otherwise than under a command of the Holy See.  The focus of the goals of the Barnabite Order, besides preaching in general, catechizing, hearing confessions, giving missions, ministrations in hospitals and prisons, and the education of youth, includes also a particular devotion to the thorough study and exposition of St. Paul's Epistles. Their habit is the black soutane which formed the usual garb of Milanese secular priests in the time of Borromeo. He himself was not a member, but is venerated by the Barnabites as a secondary patron saint of their Order.  The first missions undertaken by the Order were in Italy, France, the former Duchy of Savoy, Austria and Bohemia. In the 18th century they started missions in China and Brazil. Today, they serve in 16 countries. Among these is Afghanistan, where they have run the Afghan Catholic Mission since 1933, interrupted only while the Taliban regime was in power.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Barnabite saints.", "content": "Three Barnabites are counted among the canonized saints: Anthony Maria Zaccaria, Alexander Sauli and Francis Bianchi, while some others are being investigated for possible canonization, including the Venerable Karl Schilling, the only post-Reformation Norwegian to be officially considered for sainthood, and the Italian physician and priest Vittorio De Marino. Vincenzo Sangermano was a Barnabite who was a missionary in Burma and wrote multiple books about the Burmese people.  The Order has also numbered several cardinals, the first of these being Giacomo Antonio Morigia, one of its founders, raised to the cardinalate in 1699.  John Bellarini, who was the Visitor of the Order and twice held the office of Assistant Superior General, was also a noted theologian who wrote a number of works including an influential commentary on the Council of Trent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Barnabites, formally the Clerics Regular of Saint Paul (), are a religious order of clerics regular founded in 1530 in the Catholic Church. They may use the postnominal initials of simply \"B.\" or \"C.R.S.P.\". Associated to the members of the Order are the Angelic Sisters of St. Paul and the lay members of the Barnabite lay movement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972497}
{"src_title": "Tahar Ben Jelloun", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Tahar Ben Jelloun was born in Morocco in December 1944. As a child, he attended an Arabic-French bilingual elementary school. He then studied in the Lycée Regnault in Tangier, Morocco, until he was 18 years old. He studied philosophy at Mohammed V University in Rabat.  After having been a philosophy professor in Morocco, he joined the group who ran the literary magazine \"Souffles\" in the mid-1960s, and he wrote many pieces for the cultural magazine. He later participated in the student rebellion against \"the repressive and violent acts\" of the Moroccan police. In 1966, he was then forced into military camp as his punishment.  Five years later, his first poems were published in \"Hommes sous linceul de silence\" (1971). Shortly thereafter he moved to Paris, France, and in 1972 began writing for \"Le Monde\". He received his doctorate in social psychiatry in 1975.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing career.", "content": "Ben Jelloun's 1985 novel \"L’Enfant de Sable\" (translated as \"The Sand Child\") brought widespread attention. In 1987 he received the Prix Goncourt for his novel \"La Nuit Sacrée\" (\"The Sacred Night\"), making him the first Maghreb author to receive the award.  His 1996 novel \"Les raisins de la galère\" (Eng. \"The Fruits of Hard Work\") is a reflection on racism and traditional Muslim ideas about women's place. The protagonist, Nadia (a young French women of Algerian origin), fights racism and exclusion to find her place in French society.  In 1993 he received the journalistic award \"Golden Doves for Peace\" issued by the Italian Research Center Archivio Disarmo. Ben Jelloun was awarded the International Dublin Literary Award for \"Cette aveuglante absence de lumière\" (\"This Blinding Absence of Light\") in 2004. In 2005 he received the Prix Ulysse for his entire body of his work.  In September 2006, Ben Jelloun was awarded a special prize for \"peace and friendship between people\" at the Lazio between Europe and the Mediterranean Festival. On 1 February 2008, Nicolas Sarkozy awarded him the Cross of Grand Officer of the Légion d'honneur.  In Africa, his novel \"Le mariage de plaisir\" was shortlisted for the GPLA 2016 (Belles-Lettres Category).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tahar Ben Jelloun (; born in Fes, French protectorate in Morocco, 1 December 1944) is a Moroccan writer. The entirety of his work is written in French, although his first language is Arabic. He became known for his 1985 novel \"L’Enfant de Sable\" (\"The Sand Child\"). Today he lives in Paris, France, and continues to write. He has been nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972498}
{"src_title": "Johannes Zukertort", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and non-chess achievements.", "content": "Zukertort was born 7 September 1842 in Lublin, Congress Poland, Russian Empire as Jan Hermann Cukiertort. He said that his mother was the Baroness Krzyżanowska (Krzyzanovska). His father was a Christian Protestant missionary of Jewish origin. The Christian mission among the Jewish population in Russian-occupied Poland was considered an illegal activity. Therefore, the Zukertort family emigrated to Prussia. He was educated at the gymnasium of Breslau, and in 1866 at the University of Breslau, from which he graduated in medicine in 1866. As a member of the medical corps of the German army he saw service in 1866, and again during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870–71.  Zukertort is widely believed to have embellished his biography. In an account of his life for the \"Eastern Daily Press\" in 1872 many claims were made on his behalf: aristocratic descent, fluency in nine languages (fourteen, according to other sources), and proficiency in swordsmanship, dominoes and whist; it was also stated that he had played 6,000 games of chess with Adolf Anderssen, fought in numerous battles and was awarded seven medals besides the Order of the Red Eagle and the Iron Cross of the German Army. He also found time to get an M.D. at Breslau in 1865 and work on the staff of Otto von Bismarck's private organ the \"Allgemeine Zeitung\" in addition to writing two chess books and working as the editor of a chess magazine for several years. \"The Oxford Companion to Chess\" comments, \"There is some truth in the last sentence: he was co-author of the books, co-editor of the chess magazine.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chess career.", "content": "Zukertort learned to play chess in Breslau when he was about 19. Entering a tournament in that city, and receiving the odds of the queen, he lost every game, whereupon he took up the study of Bilguer's \"Handbuch\", with the result that in 1862 he won games from the leading German chess player Adolf Anderssen at the odds of a knight. Zukertort studied with Anderssen and within a very few years he became one of the strongest players in Germany.  Among many other notable matches that Zukertort played with Anderssen, he defeated him in 1866, lost in 1868 by a score of eight wins, three losses, one draw, and finally defeated him convincingly (5–2; no draws) in a match in 1871. In 1867 he moved to Berlin and in 1872 to London. In that year, he played Wilhelm Steinitz in London, losing 9–3 (7 losses, 1 win, 4 draws).  Although Zukertort lost both his matches against Steinitz, he proved that he was superior to other opponents throughout the late 1870s and early 1880s. During this period top-class tournaments were rare and Zukertort's best performances were mostly in matches, notably against Anderssen in 1871 and Joseph Henry Blackburne in 1881 (6 wins, 2 losses, 5 draws). Nonetheless Zukertort was one of the most successful tournament players of his time: third place behind Steinitz and Blackburne at London, 1872; first place at Cologne and second at Leipzig in 1877; tied for first with Simon Winawer at the Paris 1878 chess tournament and beat Winawer in the playoff; second at Berlin in 1881, behind Blackburne; tied for fourth at Vienna in 1882; first at London in 1883, 3 points ahead of Steinitz. The 1878 win in Paris led to some suggestion that Zukertort was the world's leading player, although Steinitz did not compete.  Zukertort's win in the London 1883 chess tournament was his most significant success: he won his games against most of the world's leading players, scoring 22/26, and he finished 3 points ahead of Steinitz, who was second with 19/26. This tournament established that Steinitz and Zukertort were clearly the best two players in the world, and led to the World Chess Championship match between these two.  The 1886 World Chess Championship match lasted from 11 January to 29 March 1886. After building up a 4–1 lead Zukertort wilted, lost four of the last five games and lost the match by 121⁄2–71⁄2.  After this defeat, Zukertort's health suffered and he was a greatly weakened player for the remaining two years of his life. Diagnoses of his ailments include rheumatism, coronary heart disease, kidney problems, and arteriosclerosis. His results after the 1886 match declined steeply: seventh at London and third at Nottingham in 1886; fifteenth at Frankfurt and fourth at London in 1887; lost a match in 1887 against Blackburne (1 win, 5 losses, and 8 draws); and seventh at London in 1888.  Poor health and lack of physical stamina appeared to be one of Zukertort's two long-term weaknesses: some commentators attributed to illness the severity of his defeat in the 1872 match against Steinitz; aside from the aforementioned tournaments, in the 1883 London tournament he won 22 of his first 23 games, enough to give him an uncatchable lead, but lost his last three games. His other weakness was that, while no one had greater attacking flair, Zukertort never approached Steinitz' understanding of positional play, and Steinitz often outmaneuvered him fairly simply.  Unlike the majority of attacking players, Zukertort preferred openings such as and that are closed or semi-closed and offered the possibility of transpositions—in fact in the early 1880s 1.Nf3 was known as \"Zukertort's Opening\", 40 years before it became known as the Réti Opening.  In his prime Zukertort also excelled at blindfold chess. In 1876, he played sixteen games simultaneously while blindfolded, winning eleven, drawing four, and losing only one.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Zukertort died 20 June 1888, in London from a cerebral haemorrhage after playing a game in a tournament at Simpson's Divan, which he was leading at the time. He is buried in Brompton Cemetery in London.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trivia.", "content": "It is said that Steinitz and Zukertort, present at the same dinner party, both rose in response to a toast to the \"greatest chess-player in the world\". Research by Edward G. Winter suggests that this story has been embellished.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johannes Hermann Zukertort (Polish: \"Jan Hermann Cukiertort\"; 7 September 1842 – 20 June 1888) was a leading Polish-German-British chess master. He was one of the leading world players for most of the 1870s and 1880s, and lost to Wilhelm Steinitz in the World Chess Championship 1886, which is generally regarded as the first World Chess Championship match. He was also defeated by Steinitz in 1872 in an unofficial championship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972499}
{"src_title": "Regensburger Domspatzen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and organization.", "content": "The Domspatzen, literally \"Cathedral Sparrows\", trace their origins back to the year 976 when bishop Wolfgang of Regensburg founded a cathedral school that – among other things – instructed boys to sing in the liturgy. It is the oldest choir in the world. The boys choir has seen various ups and downs during its history of more than a thousand years. In the 20th century, however, the Domspatzen became world-famous, especially through the achievement of the two directors who were to shape them over the course of 70 years: Theobald Schrems (Domkapellmeister 1924 to 1964) and Georg Ratzinger (1964–1994).  Schrems laid the foundations that enabled the choir’s success by giving the Domspatzen their current institutional makeup: a boarding school for boys aged 10–19, a private secondary school with emphasis on musical education, and the choir at the center of the structure. In this way the boys can practise singing together and learn under the same roof, which allows for greater efficiency and thus also helps to avoid exhaustion of the students. Ratzinger oversaw the choir becoming a stable concert presence and consolidated and enhanced its quality. Since 1994, Roland Büchner has been Domkapellmeister; the first layman after centuries of conductors from the clergy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Corporal punishment and sexual abuse scandals.", "content": "In the wake of worldwide scandals, cases of sexual abuse at the choir school became public in March 2010, some of them dating back to 1958. The two named perpetrators both died in 1986. Former choir director Georg Ratzinger has denied knowledge of sexual abuse. The case has taken additional prominence because Georg Ratzinger is the brother of Pope Benedict XVI. A report in 2017 stated that at least 547 boys were victims of physical abuse, sexual abuse or both between the years 1945 and 1992. Current Bishop Rudolf Voderholzer announced plans to offer victims compensation of between 5,000 and 20,000 euros ($5,730 US and $22,930) each by the end of the year. The report faulted Ratzinger \"in particular for 'looking away' or for failing to intervene.\" The report also stated that former Bishop Gerhard Ludwig Müller, whom Pope Benedict XVI later named Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, bears \"clear responsibility for the strategic, organizational and communicative weaknesses\" for his poor efforts to investigate claims of past abuse when they surfaced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings and tours.", "content": "The choir has made numerous recordings (e.g. Bach's \"Christmas Oratorio\", his \"Motets\", \"Psalmen Davids\" by Heinrich Schütz, and Handel's \"Messiah\". It made concert tours throughout the world, including the United States, Scandinavia, Canada, Taiwan, Japan, Ireland, Poland, Hungary and the Vatican, in addition to an annual tour in Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performances.", "content": "The choir performed in honor of Queen Elizabeth II on the occasion of her State Visit to Germany in 1978, and at Pope John Paul II’s visit to Munich in 1980. They also gave a concert in Bonn for the state guests at the NATO summit in 1982 under the auspices of then German president Karl Carstens. In 2006 they gave a concert in the Vatican City for Pope Benedict XVI, the brother of the former Domkapellmeister Georg Ratzinger. The main purpose of the choir, however, remains the music in the liturgy of St Peter's, where the religious services of Holy Week constitute the prime event of the liturgical, and thus also the musical year.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Regensburger Domspatzen (literally: Regensburg Cathedral Sparrows) is the cathedral choir at the Regensburg Cathedral in Regensburg, Bavaria, Germany. The boys' choir dates back to 976, and consists of boys and young men only. They perform in liturgy and concert, and have made international tours and recordings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972500}
{"src_title": "Irmfried Eberl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Irmfried Eberl was born in Bregenz, Austria on 8 September 1910. He joined the Nazi Party on 8 December 1931 while still a medical student at the University of Innsbruck. Eberl graduated from the medical program in 1933 and gained his doctorate a year later. After February 1935 he served as an assistant physician. Trained and practising as a psychiatrist, he was a firm supporter of the mass murder of people with mental disorders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Killing of disabled persons.", "content": "When the T-4 Euthanasia Program commenced, Eberl was a willing participant. On 1 February 1940, at 29 years old, Eberl became the medical director of the killing facility at Brandenburg. In autumn 1941 he assumed the same position at Bernburg Euthanasia Centre. Despite not being formally ordered to take part, psychiatrists such as Eberl were at the center of each stage of justifying, planning and carrying out the mass murder of those with mental disorders, and constituted the connection to the later annihilation of Jews and other \"undesirables\" in the Holocaust.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treblinka death camp.", "content": "When public outcry against Action T-4 forced its abandonment in Germany, Eberl found himself out of work. This did not last long, as the Nazi leadership made the decision to use the Action T-4 personnel to murder much larger numbers of people in Poland, using variations of the methods used in the T-4 killings. Eberl was first transferred to Chełmno extermination camp for a brief stint. On 11 July 1942, Eberl was transferred to command of Treblinka as part of Operation Reinhard. Eberl's poor management of the camp soon proved to be disastrous in the opinion of his colleague Willi Mentz; although historians point out that the number of transports that were coming in also reflected the high command's wildly unrealistic expectations of Treblinka's ability to \"process\" these prisoners.  SS-\"Unterscharführer\" Willi Mentz, an SS officer at Treblinka, testified of Eberl's leadership:  According to SS-\"Unterscharführer\" Hans Hingst:  Eberl was dismissed from Treblinka on 26 August 1942, for incompetence in disposing of the bodies of the thousands of people who had been killed, and was replaced by Franz Stangl, who was previously the commandant of Sobibor extermination camp. Eberl was also relieved of his duty because he was not killing people in an efficient and timely enough manner, and because he was not properly concealing the mass murder from locals. For instance, the stench from decomposition of unburied bodies was such that it could be smelled from the camp, such as at the nearby village of Treblinka, Masovian Voivodeship, which in turn would make it self-evident that unnatural numbers of deaths were happening nearby, causing concern among locals. The Nazi leadership wished to avoid any inconveniences to their operations that would result from local outcries. Eberl was apparently part of a ring at the camp that was stealing the possessions of the people whom they had murdered and sending them back to cohorts at Hitler's Chancellery in Berlin. This last activity had been expressly forbidden by Himmler, as he wanted this property to be contributed to the German war effort.  In 1970, Stangl, then in prison for his own crimes, described Treblinka when he first came to the death camp while it was still under Eberl's command:  Eberl was sent back to Bernburg Euthanasia Centre for a short spell afterwards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Apprehension and suicide.", "content": "In 1944 he joined the Wehrmacht for the remainder of the war. After the war ended, Eberl continued to practise medicine in Blaubeuren. He found himself a widower following his second wife's death. Eberl was arrested in January 1948, and hanged himself the following month to avoid trial.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Irmfried Eberl (8 September 1910 – 16 February 1948) was an Austrian psychiatrist and medical director of the euthanasia institutes in Brandenburg and Bernburg, who helped set up and was the first commandant of the Treblinka extermination camp where he worked as SS-\"Obersturmführer\" from 11 July 1942 until his dismissal on 26 August 1942. He was arrested after the end of the war in January 1948. Eberl hanged himself the following month to avoid trial.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972501}
{"src_title": "Phaedrus (fabulist)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "A recent statement of the few facts that past scholars have tried to deduce from autobiographical hints given by Phaedrus in his poems has summarised them as follows: He was born in Macedonia, probably in Pydna, about 15 BCE, came to Rome as a slave and was freed by Augustus. He probably had some teaching function between then and the time of Tiberius, under whom the first book of his poems appeared. Envious competitors interpreted the morals of some fables as being critical of the regime and he was tried by Sejanus, probably at the time of the latter’s fall. In the prologue to his third book, we find Phaedrus pleading with a certain Eutychus to intercede on his behalf. Surviving the turbulent times into old age, possibly under Caligula and Claudius, he produced two more books and died towards the middle of the first century CE.  There is, however, no evidence to support any of this and certain facts conflict with the traditional account. What Phaedrus had to say about himself might as plausibly be reinterpreted to prove that he was born in Rome and spent the whole of his life there as a free citizen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Phaedrus is now recognized as the first writer to compile entire books of fables in Latin, retelling the Aesopic tales in \"senarii\", a loose iambic metre. The dates of composition and publication are unknown. However, Seneca the Younger, writing between 41 and 43 CE, recommended in a letter to Claudius' freedman Polybius that he turn his hand to Latinising Aesop, ‘a task hitherto not attempted by Roman genius’ (\"Ad Polybium\" 8.3). This suggests that nothing was known of Phaedrus’ work at that date. By the mid-80s Martial was imitating him and mentions his mischievous humour (\"improbi jocos Phaedri\"). The next reference is a homage by his fellow fabulist Avianus near the start of the 5th century, who claims the five books of fables as one of his sources in the dedication of his own work.  A 9th century manuscript of the fables of Phaedrus was only discovered in France towards the end of the 16th century. This was published in 1596 by Pierre Pithou as \"Fabularum Aesopiarum libri quinque\" and was followed by two more editions before century’s end. Near the beginning of the 18th century, a manuscript of the 15th-century bishop Niccolò Perotti was discovered at Parma containing sixty-four fables of Phaedrus, of which some thirty were previously unknown. These new fables were first published in 1808, and their versions were afterwards superseded by the discovery of a much better preserved manuscript of Perotti in the Vatican Library, published in 1831. Scholars realised that Phaedrus’ work had also served as the basis for Mediaeval fable collections that went by the name of Romulus and at the start of the 20th century the Swedish scholar Carl Magnus Zander (1845-1923) reconstructed 30 additional fables from their prose recensions there.  What had survived of Phaedrus’ five books in Pithou's manuscript was of unequal length and seemed to indicate that material has been lost. This was supported by the apology in the prologue to the first book for including talking trees, of which there are no examples in the text that survives although there was one in the Perotti appendix. In fact only 59 out of 94 in the Pithou manuscript were even animal fables. The author’s aim at the start was to follow Aesop in creating a work that “moves one to mirth and warns with wise advice”. As the work progressed, however, he widened his focus and now claimed to be “refining” Aesopic material and even adding to it. In later books we find tales of Roman events well after the time of Aesop such as “Tiberius and the slave” (II.5) and “Augustus and the accused wife” (III.9), as well as the poet’s personal reply to envious detractors (IV.21); there are also anecdotes in which Aesop figures from the later biographical tradition (II.3; III.3; IV.5; and items 9 and 20 in Perotti’s appendix). Finally he makes a distinction between matter and manner in the epilogue to the fifth book, commenting that He also claims a place in the Latin literary tradition by echoing well-known and respected writers. It is to be noticed, however, that where Phaedrus and the slightly earlier poet Horace adapted the same fable to satirical themes, they often used different versions of it. In Horace a crow (\"cornicula\") is the subject of The Bird in Borrowed Feathers; in Phaedrus it is a jackdaw (\"graculus\"). In the case of The Horse that Lost its Liberty, Phaedrus has it disputing with a boar and Horace with a stag. Neither do they agree in their account of The Frog and the Ox. Horace follows the story found in Greek sources; the frog’s motivation is different in Phaedrus, and it is his version that Martial follows later. Moreover, in following the model of Aesop, the enfranchised slave, Phaedrus' satire is sharper and restores “the ancient function of the fable as a popular expression against the dominant classes”. Another commentator points out that “the Aesopian fable has been a political creature from its earliest origins, and Phaedrus, (who was La Fontaine’s model), though more openly subversive, has claims to be the first proletarian satiric poet”.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "The fables of Phaedrus soon began to be published as school editions, both in the original Latin and in prose translation. Since the 18th century there have also been four complete translations into English verse. The first was by Christopher Smart into octosyllabic couplets (London 1753). Brooke Boothby’s “The Esopean Fables of Phedrus” were included in his \"Fables and Satires\" (Edinburgh, 1809) and also used octosyllables but in a more condensed manner: It was followed by the Reverend Frederick Toller’s \"A poetical version of the fables of Phædrus\" (London, 1854). These were translated more diffusely into irregular verses of five metrical feet and each fable was followed by a prose commentary. The most recent translation by P. F. Widdows also includes the fables in the Perotti appendix and all are rendered into a free version of Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse.  Phaedrus versions were translated individually by a variety of other poets into different languages. A small selection in various poetic forms appeared in the \"Poems & Translations\" (London 1769) of Ashley Cowper (1701–88). There were many more poems distinctively styled in La Fontaine's Fables; others followed by Ivan Krylov in Russian; Gregory Skovoroda and Leonid Hlibov in Ukrainian; and a more complete collection by Volodymyr Lytvynov in 1986.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gaius Julius Phaedrus (; ; Phaîdros) was a 1st-century CE Roman fabulist and the first versifier of a collection of Aesop's fables into Latin. Few facts are known about him for certain and there was little mention of his work during late antiquity. It was not until the discovery of a few imperfect manuscripts during and following the Renaissance that his importance emerged, both as an author and in the transmission of the fables.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972502}
{"src_title": "Château d'If", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Island.", "content": "Île d'If measures and is located west of the Old Port of Marseille. The entire island is heavily fortified; high ramparts with gun platforms surmount the cliffs that rise steeply from the surrounding ocean. Apart from the fortress, the island is uninhabited.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fortress.", "content": "The \"château\" is a square, three-story building long on each side, flanked by three towers with large gun embrasures. It was built in 1524–31 on the orders of King Francis I, who, during a visit in 1516, saw the island as a strategically important location for defending the coastline from sea-based attacks.  The castle's principal military value was as a deterrent; it never had to fight off an actual attack. The closest that it came to a genuine test of strength was in July 1531, when Holy Roman Emperor Charles V made preparations to attack Marseille. However, he abandoned the invasion plan.  This might have been fortunate, given the weaknesses identified by military engineer Vauban in a scathing report in 1701: \"The fortifications look like the rock, they are fully rendered, but very roughly and carelessly, with many imperfections. The whole having been very badly built and with little care... All the buildings, very crudely done, are ill made.\"  The embalmed body of general Jean Baptiste Kléber was repatriated to France after his assassination in Cairo in 1800. Napoleon, fearing that his tomb would become a symbol to Republicanism, ordered that the body stay at the château. It remained there for 18 years until Louis XVIII granted Kléber a proper burial in his native Strasbourg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prison.", "content": "The isolated location and dangerous offshore currents of the Château d'If made it an ideal escape-proof prison, very much like the island of Alcatraz in California in more recent times. Its use as a dumping ground for political and religious detainees soon made it one of the most feared and notorious jails in France. Over 3,500 Huguenots (French Calvinists) were sent to Château d'If, as was Gaston Crémieux, a leader of the Paris Commune, who was shot there in 1871.  The island became internationally famous in the 19th century when Alexandre Dumas used it as a setting for \"The Count of Monte Cristo\", published to widespread acclaim in 1844. In the novel, the main character Edmond Dantès (a commoner who later purchases the noble title of Count) and his mentor, Abbé Faria, were both imprisoned in it. After fourteen years, Dantès makes a daring escape from the castle, becoming the first person ever to do so and survive. In reality, no one is known to have done this. The modern Château d'If maintains a roughly hewn dungeon in honour of Dantès as a tourist attraction.  As was common practice in those days, prisoners were treated differently according to their class and wealth. The poorest were placed at the bottom, being confined perhaps twenty or more to a cell in windowless dungeons under the castle. However, the wealthiest inmates were able to pay for their own private cells (or \"pistoles\") higher up, with windows, a garderobe and a fireplace.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The château today.", "content": "The château's use as a prison ceased at the end of the 19th century. It was demilitarized and opened to the public on 23 September 1890. It can be reached by boat from Marseille's old port. Its fame comes from the setting for Dumas' novel, \"The Count of Monte Cristo\". This fame has made the prison a popular tourist destination.  Mark Twain visited the château in July 1867 during a months-long pleasure excursion. He recounts his visit in his book, \"The Innocents Abroad\". He says a guide took his party into the prison, which was not yet open to the public, and inside the cells, one of which he says housed the \"Iron Mask\". There is a sign at the château that says \"Prison dite de l'Homme au Masque de Fer\" (\"Said to be the prison of the Man in the Iron Mask\"), but this is likely only legend since the famed Man in the Iron Mask was never held at the Château d'If.  The Château d'If is listed as a \"monument historique\" by the French Ministry of Culture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable prisoners.", "content": "Contrary to common belief, the Marquis de Sade was not a prisoner at the château.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Château d'If is a fortress (later a prison) located on the island of If, the smallest island in the Frioul archipelago situated in the Mediterranean Sea about offshore in the Bay of Marseille in southeastern France. It is famous for being one of the settings of Alexandre Dumas' adventure novel \"The Count of Monte Cristo\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972503}
{"src_title": "Joensuu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The city of Joensuu, founded by the Czar Nicholas I of Russia in 1848, is the regional centre and the capital of North Karelia. During the 19th century Joensuu was a city of manufacture and commerce. When in 1860 the city received dispensation rights to initiate commerce, former restrictions against industry were removed and the local sawmills began to prosper and expand. Water traffic was improved by the building and opening of the Saimaa Canal in 1856. Consequently, a lively commerce between the regions of North Karelia, St. Petersburg and Central Europe was enabled. At the end of the 19th century Joensuu was one of the largest harbour cities in Finland.  Throughout the centuries Karelian traders have plied the Pielisjoki River. The river has always been the lively heart of the city. Canals – completed by 1870 – increased the river traffic. Thousands of steamboats, barges and logging boats sailed along the river during the golden age of river traffic. The Pielisjoki River has also been an important log raft route, providing wood for the sawmills and for the entire lumber industry.  During the last few decades, the formerly modest agrarian town has developed into a vital centre of the province. Success in regional annexations, the establishment of the province of Karelia and investments in education have been the most decisive actions in this development.  The municipality of Pielisensuu was consolidated with Joensuu in 1954. At the beginning of 2005, the municipalities of Kiihtelysvaara and Tuupovaara were consolidated with Joensuu. At the beginning of 2009 the municipalities of Eno and Pyhäselkä were consolidated with Joensuu. After the most recent consolidations, there are approximately 73,000 inhabitants in the Joensuu municipal area.  The University of Joensuu (now part of the University of Eastern Finland since January 2010.) has, in twenty-five years, expanded to eight faculties. The university is one of the mainstays for the vitality of the city and so for all North Karelia. Diversified international cooperation in science, industry and commerce benefits the whole region.  The proximity of the eastern border has been an important factor in the history of the city. The Republic of Karelia is once again a significant area for cooperation with nearby regions in Russia. Export companies in Joensuu continue the pre-revolutionary traditions in foreign trade.  Joensuu offers varied cultural activities. A series of events – Ilosaarirock festival, Joensuu Music Winter, Festival of Visual Culture Viscult, Gospel festivals – and the unspoilt environment increase the attractiveness of the city.  Joensuu is sometimes referred to as the Forest Capital of Europe, mainly because the European Forest Institute is based there. Other forestry research and educational facilities are also based in Joensuu.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Joensuu is a city of students. The University of Eastern Finland (UEF) has one of its three main campuses in Joensuu and the University of Applied Sciences Karelia has two Joensuu campuses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distances to other cities.", "content": "Distances from Joensuu to other major cities in Finland: Joensuu has a railway station and a bus station, which offers intercity connections to Helsinki and local connections to several other places. Numbered bus service is available to all parts of Joensuu (Route maps, Timetables). Note, that if you want to catch a bus, you have to wave at the driver - the bus does not stop automatically. Joensuu also has an airport, with flights to Helsinki.  Joensuu is located along the Blue Highway, which is an international tourist route from Mo i Rana, Norway to Pudozh, Russia via Sweden.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "The city is known for its basketball club Kataja, which plays in the Finnish first-tier league Korisliiga. Other championship level clubs of Joensuu include Josba (floorball), Mutalan Riento (volleyball), the world leading orienteering club Kalevan Rasti (orienteering) and Joensuun Prihat (women's volleyball). The ice hockey team Jokipojat plays in the Finnish second-tier league Mestis, and their home arena is the Mehtimäki Ice Hall. The local football club Jippo plays in the Finnish second Division. Finnish baseball enjoys popularity as well and the local team, Joensuun Maila, plays in the top division Superpesis.  Notable sportspeople from Joensuu include Jukka Keskisalo, the European champion in 2006 at 3000m St., and Aki Parviainen, the world champion of Javelin throw in 1999; biathlete Kaisa Mäkäräinen, who won three overall World Cup titles in the 2010–11, 2013–14 and 2017–18 seasons; 1983 WRC champion Hannu Mikkola; 2013 GRC champion and current World RX driver Toomas Heikkinen; and NHL ice hockey players Urho Vaakanainen and Juuso Riikola.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Joensuu has a subarctic climate (Köppen: \"Dfc\") due to its high latitude and inland position. Being quite far inland, Joensuu has a more continental climate than most of Finland. As a result, Joensuu can be prone to temperature extremes both in winter and summer. For example, Joensuu is on average warmer than Dublin or Manchester in July, and colder than Moscow in January. Winters are long, cold and snowy. Summers however, bring frequent temperatures above and thunderstorms occur typically on 10–15 days per year. An all-time record of on July 29, 2010, is also the Finnish nationwide heat record. The coldest temperature ever recorded in Joensuu was on December 10, 1955. In winter, the snowcover is reliable and on average 50–70 cm deep. Annually, Joensuu experiences on average 24 days with temperatures or colder while temperature below is observed about once per year. Annual total precipitation averages at 589 mm, with about 225 mm of it falling in the form of snow.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Friendship cities.", "content": "Joensuu is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joensuu (; lit. \"river's mouth\"; Karelian: \"Jovensuu\") is a city and municipality in North Karelia. It was founded in 1848. The population of Joensuu is (), and the economic region of Joensuu has a population of 115,000. The nearest major city, Kuopio in North Savonia, is located to the west. As is typical of cities in Eastern Finland, Joensuu is monolingually Finnish.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972504}
{"src_title": "Hanno the Navigator", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Expedition.", "content": "Carthage dispatched Hanno at the head of a fleet of 60 ships to explore and colonize the northwestern coast of Africa. He sailed through the straits of Gibraltar, founded or repopulated seven colonies along the African coast of what is now Morocco, and explored significantly farther along the Atlantic coast of the continent. Hanno encountered various indigenous peoples on his journey and met with a variety of welcomes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gorillai.", "content": "At the terminus of Hanno's voyage, the explorer found an island heavily populated with what were described as hirsute (hairy) and savage people. Attempts to capture the men failed, but three of the women were taken. These were so ferocious that they were killed, and their skins preserved for transport home to Carthage. The skins were kept in the Temple of Juno (Tanit or Astarte) on Hanno's return and, according to Pliny the Elder, survived until the Roman destruction of Carthage in 146 BC, some 350 years after Hanno's expedition. The interpreters travelling with Hanno called the people \"Gorillai\" (in the Greek text ). When the American physician and missionary Thomas Staughton Savage and naturalist Jeffries Wyman first described gorillas in the 19th century, the apes were named \"Troglodytes gorilla\" after the description in Hanno.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Periplus account.", "content": "The primary source for Hanno's expedition is a Greek \"periplus\", supposedly a translation of a tablet Hanno is reported to have hung up on his return to Carthage in the temple of Ba'al Hammon, whom Greek writers identified with Kronos. The full title translated from Greek is \"The Voyage of Hanno, commander of the Carthaginians, round the parts of Libya beyond the Pillars of Heracles, which he deposited in the Temple of Kronos\".  In the fifth century, the text was translated into a rather mediocre Greek. It was not a complete rendering; several abridgments were made. The abridged translation was copied several times by Greek and Greek-speaking Roman clerks. Currently, there are only two copies, dating back to the ninth and the fourteenth centuries.  The first of these manuscripts is known as the Palatinus Graecus 398 and can be studied in the University Library of Heidelberg. The other text is in the Codex Vatopedinus 655, found in the Vatopedi monastery in Mount Athos, Greece, and dated to the beginning of the 14th century; the codex is divided between the British Library and the French Bibliothèque Nationale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient authors' accounts.", "content": "The text was known to Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, and Arrian of Nicomedia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Herodotus' account.", "content": "The Greek historian Herodotus (c. 480 – 425 BC) gives a story based probably upon Hanno's original report.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pliny the Elder's account.", "content": "According to Pliny the Elder, Hanno started his journey at the same time that Himilco started to explore the European Atlantic coast. Pliny reports that Hanno actually managed to circumnavigate the African continent, from Gades to Arabia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arrian's account.", "content": "Arrian mentions Hanno's voyage at the end of his \"Anabasis of Alexander\" VIII (Indica):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern analysis of the route.", "content": "A number of modern scholars have commented upon Hanno's voyage. In many cases, the analysis has been to refine information and interpretation of the original account. William Smith points out that the complement of personnel totalled 30,000, and that the core mission included the intent to found Carthaginian (or in the older parlance 'Libyophoenician') towns.  Harden reports a general consensus that the expedition reached at least as far as Senegal. Some agree he could have reached Gambia. However, Harden mentions disagreement as to the farthest limit of Hanno's explorations: Sierra Leone, Cameroon, or Gabon. He notes the description of Mount Cameroon, a volcano, more closely matches Hanno's description than Guinea's Mount Kakulima. Warmington prefers Mount Kakulima, considering Mount Cameroon too distant.  Warmington suggests that difficulties in reconciling the account's specific details with present geographical understanding are consistent with classical reports of Carthaginian determination to maintain sole control of trade into the Atlantic. The historian Raymond Mauny, in his 1955 article \"La navigation sur les côtes du Sahara pendant l'antiquité\", argued that the ancient navigators (Hannon, Euthymène, Scylax, etc.) could not have sailed south in the Atlantic farther than Cape Bojador. He pointed out that antique geographers knew of the Canary Islands but nothing further south. Ships with square sails, without stern rudder, might navigate south, but the winds and currents throughout the year would prevent the return trip from Senegal to Morocco. Oared ships might be able to achieve the return northward, but only with very great difficulties. Mauny assumed that Hanno did not get farther than the Drâa. He attributed artifacts found on Mogador Island to the expedition described in the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax and notes that no evidence of Mediterranean trade further south had yet been found. The author ends by suggesting archaeological investigation of the islands along the coast, such as Cape Verde, or the île de Herné (Dragon Island near Dakhla, Western Sahara) where ancient adventurers may have been stranded and settled.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hanno the Navigator (, ';, \"Hannōn\") was a Carthaginian explorer of the sixth or fifth century BC, best known for his naval exploration of the western coast of Africa. The only source of his voyage is a Greek \"periplus\". According to some modern analyses of his route, Hanno's expedition could have reached as far south as Gabon; however, others have taken him no further than southern Morocco.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972505}
{"src_title": "Common quail", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a small, round bird, essentially streaked brown with a white eyestripe, and, in the male, a white chin. As befits its migratory nature, it has long wings, unlike the typically short-winged gamebirds. It measures roughly and weighs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habits.", "content": "This is a terrestrial species, feeding on seeds and insects on the ground. It is notoriously difficult to see, keeping hidden in crops, and reluctant to fly, preferring to creep away instead. Even when flushed, it keeps low and soon drops back into cover. Often the only indication of its presence is the distinctive \"wet-my-lips\" repetitive song of the male. The call is uttered mostly in the mornings, evenings and sometimes at night. It is a strongly migratory bird, unlike most game birds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "Upon attaining an age of 6–8 weeks, this quail breeds on open arable farmland and grassland the west Palearctic including most of Europe, laying 6-12 eggs in a ground nest. The eggs take from 16–18 days to hatch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "This species was first described by Linnaeus in his \"Systema naturae\" in 1758 as \"Tetrao coturnix\". The Eurasian subspecies, \"C. c. coturnix\", overwinters southwards in Africa's Sahel and India. The populations on Madeira and the Canary Islands belong to the nominate subspecies. The African subspecies, \"C. c. africana\", described by Temminck and Schlegel in 1849, is known as the African quail. It overwinters in Africa, some moving northwards from South Africa. The common quails of Madagascar and the Comoros belong to the same African subspecies, although those found around Ethiopia make up a different subspecies, the Abyssinian quail, \"C. c. erlangeri\" (Zedlitz, 1912). The fairly numerous population of the Cape Verde islands belong to a separate subspecies, \"C. c. inopinata\", (described by Hartert in 1917), while those on the Azores belong to subspecies \"C. c. conturbans\" (Hartert, 1920).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Utilization.", "content": "It is heavily hunted as game on passage through the Mediterranean area. This species over recent years has seen an increase in its propagation in the United States and Europe. However, most of this increase is with hobbyists.  In 1537, Queen Jane Seymour, third wife of Henry VIII, then pregnant with the future King Edward VI, developed an insatiable craving for quail, and courtiers and diplomats abroad were ordered to find sufficient supplies for the Queen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poisoning.", "content": "If they have eaten certain plants, although which plants is still in debate, the meat from quail can be poisonous, with one in four who consume poisonous flesh becoming ill with coturnism, which is characterized by muscle soreness, and which may lead to kidney failure.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The common quail (\"Coturnix coturnix\"), or European quail, is a small ground-nesting game bird in the pheasant family Phasianidae. \"Coturnix\" is the Latin for this species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972506}
{"src_title": "Johann Jakob Bachofen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born into a wealthy Basel family active in the silk industry, Bachofen studied in Basel and in Berlin under August Boeckh, Karl Ferdinand Ranke and Friedrich Carl von Savigny as well as in Göttingen. After completing his doctorate in Basel, he studied for another two years in Paris, London and Cambridge. He was called to the Basel chair for Roman law in 1841, but he retired early in 1845, and published most of his works as a private scholar. Bachofen is buried at the \"Wolfgottesacker\" cemetery in Basel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Das Mutterrecht\".", "content": "Bachofen's 1861 \"Das Mutterrecht\" proposed four phases of cultural evolution which absorbed each other:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "There was little initial reaction to Bachofen’s theory of cultural evolution, largely because of his impenetrable literary style, but eventually, along with furious criticism, the book inspired several generations of ethnologists, social philosophers, and even writers: Lewis Henry Morgan; Friedrich Engels, who drew on Bachofen for \"The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State\"; Thomas Mann; Jane Ellen Harrison, who was inspired by Bachofen to devote her career to mythology; Walter Benjamin; Erich Fromm; Robert Graves; Rainer Maria Rilke; Joseph Campbell; Otto Gross; Erich Neumann and opponents such as Julius Evola.  Friedrich Engels analysed Bachofen's views as follows:  Emile Durkheim credited Bachofen with upsetting the \"old conception\" that the father must be \"the essential element of the family\". Before Bachofen, Durkheim claims that \"no one had dreamed that there could be a family organization of which the paternal authority was not the keystone\".  A selection of Bachofen's writings was translated as \"Myth, Religion and Mother Right\" (1967). A fuller edited English edition in several volumes is being published.  As has been noted by Joseph Campbell in \"Occidental Mythology\" and others, Bachofen's theories stand in radical opposition to the Aryan origin theories of religion, culture and society, and both Campbell and writers such as Evola have suggested that Bachofen's theories only adequately explain the development of religion among the pre-Aryan cultures of the Mediterranean and the Levant, and possibly Southern Asia, but that a separate, patriarchal development existed among the Aryan tribes which conquered Europe and parts of Asia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Johann Jakob Bachofen (22 December 1815 – 25 November 1887) was a Swiss antiquarian, jurist, philologist, anthropologist, and professor for Roman law at the University of Basel from 1841 to 1845.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972507}
{"src_title": "Aggro Berlin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The label was founded on 1 January 2001 by Berlin rappers Specter, Spaiche and Halil. The first signed artists were Sido and B-Tight. Later, the label also signed Bushido. The same year it released EP \"Das Mic und Ich\" by A.i.d.S (formerly Royal TS) on the label, which was the first release of Aggro Berlin. In 2002 released the two samplers \"Aggro Ansage Nr. 1\" and \"Aggro Ansage Nr. 2\", which contains tracks by its signed artists. Fler was also featured on the second sampler, but he had not yet signed on to the label. Bushido and Fler released, in the same year, the collabo album, entitled \"Carlo, Cokxxx, Nutten\".  In 2003 Aggro Berlin released Bushido's debut album \"Vom Bordstein bis zur Skyline\", which was indexed by BPjM (Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons).  Later, in 2004, Sido's debut album, \"Maske\" sold more than 100,000 copies in less than a month. In September of that year, the rapper won a prestigious German music award for \"Best Newcomer\", but his album had been indexed.  In June 2004 Bushido left the label and signed with Universal.  G-Hot's contract ran out in Autumn 2006. After the song \"Keine Toleranz\" (No Tolerance) appeared on the internet in July 2007, Aggro Berlin renounced any further business association with him. The song, which featured Boss A, discriminates against homosexuals and calls to kill homosexuals. It was not officially released by any label and G-Hot stated that it had been recorded many years prior to its leak and was never intended to be released.  According to Sido and Fler in an interview with the German hip-hop magazine Juice, Aggro Berlin has not been a fully independent label since October 2007 but now collaborates with Universal Records.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aggro Berlin was a German hip-hop independent record label based in Berlin, Germany that existed from 1 January 2001 until 1 April 2009. Three artists; Sido, Tony D and Kitty Kat were signed with the label at the time of its closure. Since the end of 2007 it used to be a sub-label of Universal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972508}
{"src_title": "Hafsid dynasty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The ancestor of the dynasty was Abu Hafs Umar ibn Yahya al-Hintati, a Berber from the Hintata tribal confederation which belonged to the greater Masmuda confederation of Morocco. He was a member of the council of ten and a close companion of Ibn Tumart. His original Berber name was \"Faskat u-Mzal Inti\", which later was changed to \"Abu Hafs Umar ibn Yahya al-Hintati\" (also known as \"Umar Inti\") since it was a tradition of Ibn Tumart to rename his close companions once they had adhered to his religious teachings. His son Abu Muhammad Abd al-Wahid ibn Abi Hafs, was appointed by the Almohad caliph Muhammad an-Nasir as governor of Ifriqiya (present day Tunisia), where he ruled from 1207 to 1221  The Hafsids as governors on behalf of the Almohads faced constant threats from Banu Ghaniya who were descendants of Almoravid princes which the Almohads had defeated and replaced as a ruling dynasty. The Hafsids were Ifriqiya governors of the Almohads until 1229, when they declared independence. After the split of the Hafsids from the Almohads under Abu Zakariya (1228–1249), Abu Zakariya organised the administration in Ifriqiya (the Roman province of Africa in modern Maghreb; today's Tunisia, eastern Algeria and western Libya) and built Tunis up as the economic and cultural centre of the empire. At the same time, many Muslims from Al-Andalus fleeing the Spanish \"Reconquista\" of Castile and Aragon were absorbed. He also conquered the Kingdom of Tlemcen in 1242 and made the Abdalwadids his vassals. His successor Muhammad I al-Mustansir (1249–1277) took the title of \"Caliph\".  He extended the boundaries of his State by subjugating the central Maghreb, going so far as to impose his overlordship over the Kingdom of Tlemcen, northern Morocco and the Nasrids of Granada Spain. The Hafsids become completely independent in 1264. The successor of Abû Zakariya' Yahya, Abu'Abd Allah Muhammad al-Mustansir, proclaimed himself Caliph in 1256 and continued the policies of his father. It was during his reign that the failed Eighth Crusade took place, led by St. Louis. After landing at Carthage, the King died of dysentery in the middle of his army decimated by disease in 1270.  In the 14th century the empire underwent a temporary decline. Although the Hafsids succeeded for a time in subjugating the empire of the Abdalwadids of Tlemcen, between 1347 and 1357 they were twice conquered by the Marinids of Morocco. The Abdalwadids however could not defeat the Bedouin; ultimately, the Hafsids were able to regain their empire. During the same period plague epidemics caused a considerable fall in population, further weakening the empire. Under the Hafsids, commerce with Christian Europe grew significantly, however piracy against Christian shipping grew as well, particularly during the rule of Abd al-Aziz II (1394–1434). In 1429, the Hafsids attacked the island of Malta, and took 3000 slaves although they did not conquer the island. The profits were used for a great building programme and to support art and culture. However, piracy also provoked retaliation from Aragon and Venice, which several times attacked Tunisian coastal cities. Under Utman (1435–1488) the Hafsids reached their zenith, as the caravan trade through the Sahara and with Egypt was developed, as well as sea trade with Venice and Aragon. The Bedouins and the cities of the empire became largely independent, leaving the Hafsids in control of only Tunis and Constantine.  In the 16th century the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire-supported Corsairs. The Ottomans conquered Tunis in 1534 (see \"Conquest of Tunis (1534)\") and held it for one year, driving out the Hafsid ruler Muley Hassan. A year later the King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor Charles I and V seized Tunis, drove the Ottomans out and restored Muley Hassan as a Hapsburg tributary (see \"Conquest of Tunis (1535)\"). Due to the Ottoman threat, the Hafsids were vassals of Spain after 1535. The Ottomans again conquered Tunis in 1569 and held it for four years. Don Juan of Austria recaptured it in 1573. The Ottomans reconquered Tunis in 1574, and Muhammad VI, the last Caliph of the Hafsids, was brought to Constantinople and was subsequently executed due to his collaboration with Spain and the desire of the Ottoman Sultan to take the title of Caliph as he now controlled Mecca and Medina. The Hafsid lineage survived the Ottoman massacre by a branch of the family being taken to the Canary Island of Tenerife by the Spanish.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hafsids ( \"al-Ḥafṣiyūn\") were a Sunni Muslim dynasty of Berber descent who ruled Ifriqiya (western Libya, Tunisia, and eastern Algeria) from 1229 to 1574.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972509}
{"src_title": "Hardangervidda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography and geology.", "content": "The plateau is the largest peneplain (eroded plain) in Europe, covering an area of about at an average elevation of. The highest point on the plateau is the Sandfloegga, which reaches a height of. The landscape of the Hardangervidda is characterised by barren, treeless moorland interrupted by numerous pools, lakes, rivers and streams. There are significant differences between the west side, which is dominated by rocky terrain and expanses of bare rock, and the east side, which is much flatter and more heavily vegetated. The climate also varies between the two sides: it is considerably wetter on the west side than on the east, with over per year recorded in some parts. The prominent peak of Hårteigen is visible across much of the plateau.  Much of the Hardangervidda's geology is extremely ancient. The rolling fells of the Hardangervidda are the remnants of mountains that were worn down by the action of glaciers during the ice ages. The bedrock is mainly of Precambrian and Cambro-Silurian origin.  The area of Hardangervidda was once part of the Sub-Cambrian peneplain before it was thrusted-over by the nappes of the Caledonian orogeny in Paleozoic times. Much later, in the Miocene epoch, the modern flatness of Hardangervidda took form as a peneplain formed at sea level. Then in Early Pliocene times Hardangervidda and the whole of southern Scandinavian Mountains were uplifted more than thousand meters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "The whole of the Hardangervidda is above the tree line. Its alpine climate enables the presence of many species of arctic animals and plants further south than anywhere else in Europe. Its wild reindeer herds are among the largest in the world, with some 15,000 animals recorded in 1996 and about 8,000 in 2008. They migrate across the plateau during the year, moving from their winter grazing lands on the east side of the Hardangervidda, where they graze on lichen, to their breeding grounds in the more fertile west of the plateau. On August 26, 2016, 323 were killed by lightning, prompting a Norwegian Environment Agency discussion on whether to leave so many corpses in the open.  The varying climate of the plateau has a marked effect on the flora, which is richer on the wetter west side than in the drier east; much of the plateau is covered by coarse grasses, mosses (especially sphagnum) and lichens.  Ciclosporin, an immunosuppressant drug widely used in organ transplantation to prevent rejection was initially isolated from the fungus \"Tolypocladium inflatum\" (\"Beauveria nivea\"), found in a soil sample obtained in 1969 from Hardangervidda.  In the Holocene climatic optimum (Stone Age) 9,000–5,000 years ago, the regional climate was warmer, and large parts of Hardangervidda were wooded; pine logs can still be found preserved in bogs well above today's treeline. With the predicted warming, Hardangervidda could again be largely wooded ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visitor centres.", "content": "The national park has two visitor centres on the plateau: the Hardangervidda Natursenter (Nature Centre) in Eidfjord, and the Hardangervidda Nasjonalparksenter (National Park Centre) in Tinn at Skinnarbu, near the lake Møsvatnet, the town Rjukan and the mountain village Rauland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human settlement.", "content": "The Hardangervidda has been occupied for thousands of years; several hundred nomadic Stone Age settlements have been found in the area, most likely related to the migration of the reindeer. Ancient trails cross the plateau, linking western and eastern Norway. One example is the \"Nordmannsslepa\" linking Eidfjord and Veggli in the Numedal valley with Hol and Uvdal. It is still a key transit route between Oslo and Bergen. The Bergen Line and the main Norwegian National Road 7 cross the plateau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National park.", "content": "In 1981, much of the Hardangervidda was designated a national park, Norway's largest at. The park's boundaries stretch from Numedal and Uvdal in the east and Røvelseggi and Ullensvang in the west. The Norwegian Mountain Touring Association (DNT) maintains a comprehensive network of huts and paths across the plateau. It is a popular destination for hiking, climbing and fishing, and in winter for cross-country skiing from hut to hut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "Norwegian music projects Ildjarn and Nidhogg combined their talents to produce two ambient albums, one titled 'Hardangervidda Part I' (2003) and the other 'Hardangervidda Part II' (2003), inspired entirely by this zone.  The final two acts of the play \"When We Dead Awaken\" () by Henrik Ibsen, are set in a mountain health resort in Hardangervidda.  Location shooting for the Hoth sequences in The Empire Strikes Back took place on the Hardangerjøkulen glacier.  The title theme of the Norwegian film O'Horten, by Norwegian composer Kaada, is titled Across the Hardanger Mountain Plateau and features a train crossing the area.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hardangervidda () is a mountain plateau (Norwegian: \"vidde\") in central southern Norway, covering parts of Vestland, Vestfold og Telemark, and Viken counties. It is the largest plateau of its kind in Europe, with a cold year-round alpine climate, and one of Norway's largest glaciers, Hardangerjøkulen, is situated here. Much of the plateau is protected as part of Hardangervidda National Park. Hardangervidda is a popular tourist and leisure destination, and it is ideal for many outdoor activities.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972510}
{"src_title": "Heike Drechsler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Drechsler was born in Gera, Bezirk Gera, East Germany (now Thuringia, Germany). As a teenager she was active in the Free German Youth (FDJ) and in 1984 she was elected to the Volkskammer of East Germany.  Initially a very competitive long jumper early in her career as a teenager, Drechsler made a transition into the world of elite sprinting in 1986 at the age of 21. She married Andreas Drechsler in July 1984 and competed as \"Heike Drechsler\" from then on. She was coached by Erich Drechsler, her father-in-law.  In addition to her Olympic success, Drechsler won two World Championships in the long jump (1983 and 1993), as well as gold medals in the long jump and the 200 m sprint in the World Indoor Championships 1987. She also had numerous successes in European and German championships. Drechsler's greatest rival in the long jump was Jackie Joyner-Kersee, with whom she was also very good friends.  In 1986, Drechsler twice equalled Marita Koch's 200 metres sprint (21.71 seconds) world record and set two long jump world records and equalled one in 1985 and 1986., she had more than four hundred long jump competitions with results over seven meters, more than any other female athlete.  According to an article written by Ron Casey (an Australian statistician), in 1986 Drechsler made significant improvements to her 100 m and 200 m times. In one season she went from an 11.75-second 100 m to 10.91 seconds. Her 200 m time improved from 23.19 seconds to 21.71 seconds (equaling the world record) in the 1986 season.  Her 21.71 second performance for 200 m was run into a head wind of −0.8 m/s. By comparison, Marita Koch's 21.71 second runs in 1979 and 1984 had tail winds of +0.7 m/s and +0.3 m/s respectively.  Drechsler's 200 m performance of 21.71 seconds into a head wind (−0.8 m/s) is one of the fastest ever run by a woman in the history of track and field.  In October 1986, she was awarded a Star of People's Friendship in gold (second class) for her sporting success. Several German websites, including her own, claim that Heike Drechsler was voted \"Athlete of the Century\" in 1999 by the IAAF. This is not quite correct: she was put on the \"shortlist\", but the award was given to Fanny Blankers-Koen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal records.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Long jump.", "content": "1983: in Bratislava / (Juniors)<br> 1985: in East Berlin<br> 1986: in Tallinn<br> 1988: in Neubrandenburg<br> 1992: in Sestriere  Drechsler's 1992 jump in Sestriere was made with a tailwind of 2.1 meters per second, just 0.1 m/s over the allowable level of 2.0 m/s to be considered a world record; it was also performed at an altitude of greater than 1000 meters above sea level, which is the level beyond which marks are designated to have been achieved \"at altitude.\" The jump is 11 cm longer than the current world record.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "200 metres.", "content": "1986: 21.71 seconds in Jena<br> 1986: 21.71 seconds in Stuttgart", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Heptathlon.", "content": "1981: 5891 Points (Junior)<br> 1994: 6741 Points in Talence", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Doping allegations.", "content": "There were many accusations of drug use while she competed for East Germany. She has never failed a drug test during her career; however, all East German athletes competing abroad were tested before departure to avoid getting caught. In 2001, the BBC claimed she has admitted to unknowingly taking prohibited substances in the early 1980s under orders from her team doctors.  In 1991, after the fall of East Germany, Brigitte Berendonk and Werner Franke found several theses and dissertations quoting former GDR doping researchers in the Military Medical Academy Bad Saarow (MMA). The basis of the work reconstructed state-organized doping practices involving many well-known GDR athletes, including Heike Drechsler. Indications were that Heike Drechsler used high doses of Oral Turinabol plus more testosterone ester injections before competitions from 1982 to 1984. In 1993, Drechsler challenged Brigitte Berendonk, accusing her of lying in a lawsuit. In the case, the full annual dosage schedules, and charts of the development of sport performance as a function of the dosage amount, were released. Drechsler lost the lawsuit. However, Drechsler continued to win titles after the DDR time (after 1989), when she started for the merged German team and was tested regularly.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heike Gabriela Drechsler (; née Daute; born 16 December 1964) is a German former track and field athlete who represented East Germany and later Germany. One of the most successful long jumpers of all-time, she is a former world record holder and ranks third on the all-time list with her legal best of 7.48 metres in 1988. Her marginally wind-assisted jump of 7.63 metres (+2.1) in 1992 at altitude in Sestriere, is still the furthest a woman has ever long jumped. She is the only woman who has won two Olympic gold medals in the long jump, winning in 1992 and 2000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972511}
{"src_title": "Coptic alphabet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Coptic alphabet has a long history, going back to the Hellenistic period, when the Greek alphabet was used to transcribe Demotic texts, with the aim of recording the correct pronunciation of Demotic. During the first two centuries of the Common Era, an entire series of magical texts were written in what scholars term \"Old Coptic\", Egyptian language texts written in the Greek alphabet. A number of letters, however, were derived from Demotic, and many of these (though not all) are used in \"true\" Coptic writing. With the spread of Christianity in Egypt, by the late 3rd century, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was lost, as well as Demotic slightly later, making way for a writing system more closely associated with the Christian church. By the 4th century, the Coptic alphabet was \"standardised\", particularly for the Sahidic dialect. (There are a number of differences between the alphabets as used in the various dialects in Coptic.) Coptic is not generally used today except by the members of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria to write their religious texts. All the Gnostic codices found in Nag Hammadi used the Coptic alphabet.  The Old Nubian alphabet—used to write Old Nubian, a Nilo-Saharan language —is written mainly in an uncial Greek alphabet, which borrows Coptic and Meroitic letters of Demotic origin into its inventory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Form.", "content": "The Coptic alphabet was the first Egyptian writing system to indicate vowels, making Coptic documents invaluable for the interpretation of earlier Egyptian texts. Some Egyptian syllables had sonorants but no vowels; in Sahidic, these were written in Coptic with a line above the entire syllable. Various scribal schools made limited use of diacritics: some used an apostrophe as a word divider and to mark clitics, a function of determinatives in logographic Egyptian; others used diereses over and to show that these started a new syllable, others a circumflex over any vowel for the same purpose.  The Coptic alphabet's glyphs are largely based on the Greek alphabet, another help in interpreting older Egyptian texts, with 24 letters of Greek origin; 6 or 7 more were retained from Demotic, depending on the dialect (6 in Sahidic, another each in Bohairic and Akhmimic). In addition to the alphabetic letters, the letter ϯ stood for the syllable or.  As the Coptic alphabet is simply a typeface of the Greek alphabet, with a few added letters, it can be used to write Greek without any transliteration schemes. Latin equivalents would include the Icelandic alphabet (which likewise has added letters), or the Fraktur alphabet (which has distinctive forms). While initially unified with the Greek alphabet by Unicode, a proposal was later accepted to separate it, with the proposal noting that Coptic is never written using modern Greek letter-forms (unlike German, which may be written with Fraktur or Roman Antiqua letter-forms), and that the Coptic letter-forms have closer mutual legibility with the Greek-based letters incorporated into the separately encoded Cyrillic alphabet than with the forms used in modern Greek.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alphabet table.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Letters derived from Demotic.", "content": "In Old Coptic, there were a large number of Demotic Egyptian characters, including some logograms. They were soon reduced to half a dozen, for sounds not covered by the Greek alphabet. The following letters remained:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unicode.", "content": "In Unicode, most Coptic letters formerly shared codepoints with similar Greek letters, but a disunification was accepted for version 4.1, which appeared in 2005. The new Coptic block is U+2C80 to U+2CFF. Most fonts contained in mainstream operating systems use a distinctive Byzantine style for this block. The Greek block includes seven Coptic letters (U+03E2–U+03EF highlighted below) derived from Demotic, and these need to be included in any complete implementation of Coptic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diacritics and punctuation.", "content": "These are also included in the Unicode specification.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Combining diacritics.", "content": "These are codepoints applied after that of the character they modify.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Macrons and overlines.", "content": "Coptic uses to indicate syllabic consonants, for example.  Coptic abbreviations use to draw a continuous line across the remaining letters of an abbreviated word. It extends from the left edge of the first letter to the right edge of the last letter. For example,.  A different kind of overline uses,, and to distinguish the spelling of certain common words or to highlight proper names of divinities and heroes. For this the line begins in the middle of the first letter and continues to the middle of the last letter. A few examples:,,.  Coptic numerals are indicated with letters of the alphabet such as for 1. Sometimes numerical use is indicated with a continuous line above using as in for 1,888 (where \"\" is 1,000 and \"\" is 888). Multiples of 1,000 can be indicated by a continuous double line above using as in for 1,000.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Coptic alphabet is the script used for writing the Coptic language. The repertoire of glyphs is based on the Greek alphabet augmented by letters borrowed from the Egyptian Demotic and is the first alphabetic script used for the Egyptian language. There are several Coptic alphabets, as the Coptic writing system may vary greatly among the various dialects and subdialects of the Coptic language.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972512}
{"src_title": "Marguerite Duras", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Duras was born Marguerite Donnadieu on April 4, 1914, in Gia-Dinh (near to Saigon), Cochinchina, French Indochina (now Vietnam); she was the only daughter of two teachers who had responded to a campaign by the French government encouraging French people to settle in the colony.  Duras's father fell ill soon after their arrival and returned to France, where he died. After his death, her mother remained in Indochina with her three children. The family lived in relative poverty after her mother made a bad investment in an isolated property and area of rice farmland in Cambodia. See, e.g. \"Un Barrage contre le Pacifique\".  At 17, Duras went to France, her parents' native country, where she began studying for a degree in mathematics. She soon abandoned this to concentrate on political science, then law. After completing her studies, through 1941, she worked for the French government in the Ministry of the Colonies; in the 1930s she also changed her name to Marguerite Duras. In 1939, she married the writer Robert Antelme.  During World War II, from 1942 to 1944, Duras worked for the Vichy government in an office that allocated paper quotas to publishers and in the process operated a \"de facto\" book-censorship system. She also became an active member of the PCF (the French Communist Party) and a member of the French Resistance as a part of a small group that also included François Mitterrand, who later became President of France and remained a lifelong friend of Duras. Her husband, Antelme, was deported to Buchenwald in 1944 for his involvement in the Resistance, and barely survived the experience (weighing on his release, according to Duras, just 38 kg). She nursed him back to health, but they divorced once he recovered his health.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Duras was the author of many novels, plays, films, interviews, essays, and works of short fiction, including her best-selling, highly fictionalized autobiographical work \"L'Amant\" (1984), translated into English as \"The Lover\", which describes her youthful affair with a Chinese man. It won the Prix Goncourt in 1984. The story of her adolescence also appears in three other books: \"The Sea Wall\", \"Eden Cinema\" and \"The North China Lover\". A film version of \"The Lover\", produced by Claude Berri and directed by Jean-Jacques Annaud, was released to great success in 1992. Duras's novel \"The Sea Wall\" was first adapted into the 1958 film \"This Angry Age\" by René Clément, and again in 2008 by Cambodian director Rithy Panh as \"The Sea Wall\".  Other major works include \"Moderato Cantabile\" (1958), which was the basis of the 1960 film \"Seven Days... Seven Nights\"; \"Le Ravissement de Lol V. Stein\" (1964); and her play \"India Song\", which Duras herself later directed as a film in 1975. She was also the screenwriter of the 1959 French film \"Hiroshima mon amour\", which was directed by Alain Resnais. Duras's early novels were fairly conventional in form, and were criticized for their \"romanticism\" by fellow writer Raymond Queneau; however, with \"Moderato Cantabile\", she became more experimental, paring down her texts to give ever-increasing importance to what was not said. She was associated with the \"nouveau roman\" French literary movement, although she did not belong definitively to any one group. She was noted for her command of dialogue.  In 1971, Duras signed the Manifesto of the 343, which publicly announced she had an abortion.  Many of her works, such as \"Le Ravissement de Lol V. Stein\" and \"L'Homme assis dans le couloir\" (1980), deal with human sexuality.  Towards the end of her life, Duras published a short, 54-page autobiographical book as a goodbye to her readers and family. The very last entry was written on August 1, 1995 and read \"\"I think it is all over. That my life is finished. I am no longer anything. I have become an appalling sight. I am falling apart. Come quickly. I no longer have a mouth, no longer a face\". Duras died at her home in Paris on March 3, 1996, aged 81.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal Life.", "content": "While married to Robert Antelme, Duras acted on her belief that fidelity was absurd. She created a \"menage a trois\" when she started an affair with Dionys Mascolo, who fathered one of her sons.  During the final two decades of Duras’ life, she experienced various health issues. Starting in 1980 she was hospitalized for the first time from a combination of alcohol and tranquilizers. She was also undergoing various detoxification procedures to help her recover from her alcohol addiction. After being hospitalized in October of 1988 she fell into a coma that lasted until June of 1989.  Paralleling her health issues in the 1980s, Duras began having a relationship with a homosexual actor named Yann Andréa. Yann Andréa would help Duras through her various health issues. Duras would later detail these interactions and companionship in her final book \"Yann Andréas Steiner\".  Sadly Duras’ health would continue to decline into the 1990s. Resulting in her death on March 3rd 1996.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marguerite Donnadieu (4 April 1914 – 3 March 1996), known as Marguerite Duras (), was a French novelist, playwright, screenwriter, essayist, and experimental filmmaker. Her script for the film \"Hiroshima mon amour\" (1959) earned her a nomination for Best Original Screenplay at the Academy Awards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972513}
{"src_title": "August Kubizek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "August was born in Linz, Austria, the only surviving child to parents of Czech and Sudeten-German origin. He was baptized Catholic at the St. Matthias Church where his parents had married the previous year. His father Michael Kubíček (also born in Linz) was an upholsterer while his mother Maria Panholzer-Bláhová was born illegitimate in Rosenberg an der Moldau, legitimized by her stepfather when she was 14. His sisters Maria, Therese and Karoline died in early childhood. Kubizek later wrote that this was a striking parallel between his own life and that of Adolf Hitler, whose mother had lost four children prematurely. As the surviving sons of grief-stricken mothers, August and Adolf could not help but feel they had been spared or \"chosen\" by fate.  Kubizek and Hitler first met while competing for standing room in the Landestheater in Linz. Because of their shared passion for the operas of Richard Wagner, they quickly became close friends and later roommates in Vienna while both sought admission into college. The two shared a small room in Stumpergasse 31/2 door 17 in the sixth district of Vienna from 22 February to early July 1908.  As the only son of a self-employed upholsterer, August was expected to someday take over his father's business, but he secretly harboured dreams of becoming a conductor. With Adolf's encouragement, he devoted more and more of his time to this passion, completing all the musical training available to him in Linz. However, to achieve his goal of being an orchestral conductor, he would require higher education in music which was offered only in Vienna. It was an 18-year-old Adolf Hitler who successfully persuaded Kubizek's father to let his son go to the metropolis to attend the conservatory. As Kubizek wrote, this was something that changed the course of his life for good.  He was immediately accepted into the Vienna Conservatory where he quickly made a name for himself. Hitler, however, was twice denied entrance into Vienna's art academy, a fact which he kept hidden from his friend for some time. In 1908, Hitler abruptly broke off the friendship and drifted into homelessness. Kubizek completed his studies in 1912 and was hired as conductor of the orchestra in Marburg on the Drau, Austria (Maribor, in Slovenia, after 1918). He was later offered a position at the Stadttheater in Klagenfurt, but this job and his musical career were cut short by the beginning of World War I. Before leaving for the front, he married Anna Funke (7 October 1887 – 4 October 1976), a violinist from Vienna with whom he had three sons: Augustin, Karl Maria and Rudolf.  From August 1914 until November 1918, Kubizek served as a reservist in Regiment 2 of the Austro-Hungarian Infantry. In the Carpathian winter campaign of 1915, he was wounded at Eperjes in Hungary (now Prešov in Slovakia) and later evacuated to Budapest in an ambulance train. After months of convalescence, he returned to the front and was attached to a mechanised corps in Vienna. After the war, Kubizek accepted a position as an official in the municipal council of Eferding, Upper Austria and music became his hobby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later contact with Hitler.", "content": "After seeing Hitler on the front page of the \"Münchner Illustrierte\" (circa 1920), Kubizek followed his friend's career with some interest, although he did not attempt to contact him until 1933 when he wrote to congratulate him on having become Chancellor of Germany. On 4 August of that year, Kubizek received an unexpected reply from Hitler, who wrote to his old friend \"Gustl\" saying, \"I should be very glad... to revive once more with you those memories of the best years of my life.\" Thirty years after Hitler had broken off contact with Kubizek, the two friends were reunited on 9 April 1938 during one of Hitler's visits to Linz. The two spoke for over an hour at the Hotel Weinzinger and Hitler offered Kubizek the conductorship of an orchestra, which Kubizek politely refused. Upon learning of his friend's three sons, Hitler insisted on financing their educations at the Anton Bruckner Conservatory in Linz. Hitler later invited Kubizek to attend the Bayreuth festival as his guest in 1939 and again in 1940, experiences described by Kubizek as \"the happiest hours of my earthly existence\".  In 1938, Kubizek was hired by the Nazi Party to write two short propaganda booklets called \"Reminiscences\" about his youth with Hitler. In one episode, Kubizek said that Hitler had a great love for a girl named \"Stefanie\" and wrote her many love poems but never sent them. Hitler biographer John Toland noted that when Stefanie learned she had been an early subject of Hitler's affection, she was stunned.  Kubizek saw Hitler for the last time on 23 July 1940, although as late as 1944, Hitler sent Kubizek's mother a food basket for her 80th birthday. Hitler told Kubizek: \"This war will set us back many years in our building programme. It is a tragedy. I did not become Chancellor of the Greater German Reich to fight wars.\" Hitler was speaking after the successful campaigns in Poland and France that he as Führer had led.  When the tide began to turn against Hitler, Kubizek, who had avoided politics all his life, became a member of the Nazi Party in 1942 as a gesture of loyalty to his friend.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life, imprisonment and memoirs.", "content": "In December 1945, Kubizek gathered the collection of keepsakes given to him by Hitler during their youth and concealed them carefully in the basement of his house in Eferding. He was arrested by American forces shortly afterwards and held at Glasenbach, where he was imprisoned and interrogated by the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Command. His home was searched, but the Hitler correspondence and drawings were not found. He was released on 8 April 1947.  In 1951, Kubizek, who had rejected other post-war offers for his memoirs, agreed to publish \"Adolf Hitler, mein Jugendfreund\" (\"Adolf Hitler, My Childhood Friend\") through the Leopold Stocker Verlag. The original manuscript, written in 1943 at the behest of Martin Bormann, had been only 150 pages long. However, after communications answering questions from the Hitler biographer Franz Jetzinger, his new extended version had 352 pages and included several pictures, many of which showed postcards and sketches given to Kubizek by Hitler when young, between the years 1906 and 1908. The book is divided into three parts and consists of a prologue, 24 chapters and an epilogue.  It caused a stir when it was released in 1953 and was later translated into several languages. In the epilogue, Kubizek wrote, \"Even though I, a fundamentally unpolitical individual, had always kept aloof from the political events of the period which ended forever in 1945, nevertheless no power on earth could compel me to deny my friendship with Adolf Hitler.\"  Kubizek's second wife and widow, Pauline (1906–2001), was credited with having provided the Stocker Verlag with additional photographs for the book's fourth edition in 1975.  On 8 January 1956, Kubizek was named the first honorary member of the Musikverein in Eferding. He died on 23 October 1956, aged 68, in Linz and is buried in Eferding, Upper Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Kubizek is portrayed by Rupert Grint in the short 2017 movie \"Adolf Hitler: The Artist\" in which Hitler calls him \"Gustl\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "August (\"Gustl\") Friedrich Kubizek (3 August 1888 – 23 October 1956) was an Austrian musical conductor best known for being a close friend of Adolf Hitler, when both were in their late teens. He later wrote about their friendship in his book \"The Young Hitler I Knew\" (1955).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972514}
{"src_title": "German Alpine Club", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The German Alpine Club was founded as on 9 May 1869 in Munich by 36 former members of the Austrian Alpine Club around the Ötztal curate Franz Senn, in order to promote the tourist development of the Eastern Alps by the erection of mountain huts, hiking trails, and via ferratas. The association enjoyed a large clientele from the beginning, with a number of 1070 members after only 10 months. The German and the Austrian societies merged in 1873 to form the German and Austrian Alpine Club (DÖAV). Already in the late 19th century, the association's policies were increasingly characterized by nationalism and antisemitism. In 1899 the Brandenburg section amended an \"Aryan paragraph\" to exclude non-Christian members, followed by the Vienna section in 1905 and the Alpine corporations of Vienna and Munich in 1907 and 1910. After World War I, the Jewish associates like Viktor Frankl and Fred Zinnemann (adding up to about one third of the membership) were banned in most of the sections and in turn established a separate \"Donauland\" section insisting on their DÖAV fellowship. The \"Donauland\" members were officially ousted in 1924. Jews were even banned from visiting the DÖAV mountain huts.  Upon the 1938 Austrian \"Anschluss\" to Nazi Germany, the DÖAV was renamed \"Deutscher Alpenverein\" (DAV) under the leadership of Arthur Seyss-Inquart and incorporated as mountaineering division of the \"Nationalsozialistischer Reichsbund für Leibesübungen\" (National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise) organization. After World War II, the DAV was dissolved by the Allied authorities. Its assets were held by the Austrian Alpine Club as trustee.  The German Alpine Club was re-established in 1952. It joined the organization in 1992. After leaving the Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme in 2008, mainly due to differences in respecting both competitions and recreational sports, the German and Austrian Alpine Clubs rejoined the Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme in 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "The DAV is an umbrella organization of 358 legally independent regional sections with a total of around 1,3 million members. Every section is a registered voluntary association (\"Eingetragener Verein\", e.V.) in its own right; it exclusively admits to membership. The collective body of the sections is represented by the general assembly, association council, and presidium.  Main task of the Club is the maintenance of mountain huts. The sections currently provide 321 alpine club huts to hikers and mountaineers, as well as 207 indoor climbing gyms. The DAV publishes Alpine Club maps and the \"Alpine Club Guides\" in cooperation with Bergverlag Rother, organises hillwalks and alpine style tours, has mountaineering equipment available and arranges collective insurances. It also runs the Alpine Museum on Prater Island in Munich. In recent years, the Club's policies have turned to habitat conservation of fauna and flora of the Alps.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The German Alpine Club (, DAV for short) is the world's largest climbing association, and the eighth-largest sports union in Germany. The Club is a member of the German Olympic Sports Confederation, and the responsible body for sport and competition climbing, hiking, mountaineering, hill walking, ice climbing, mountain expeditions, as well as ski mountaineering.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972515}
{"src_title": "Koper", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The Italian name of the city was anciently spelled as \"Capo d'Istria\", and as such reported on maps and sources in other European languages. Modern names of the city include:,,.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Koper began as a settlement built on an island in the southeastern part of the Gulf of Koper in the northern Adriatic. Called \"Insula Caprea\" (Goat Island) or \"Capro\" by Roman settlers, it developed into the city of Aegida, which was mentioned by the Roman author Pliny the Elder in his \"Naturalis Historia (Natural History) (iii. 19. s. 23).  In 568, Roman citizens of nearby Tergeste (modern Trieste) fled to Aegida due to an invasion of the Lombards. In honour of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian II, the town was renamed \"Justinopolis\". Later, Justinopolis was under both Lombard and Frankish rule and was briefly occupied by Avars in the 8th century.  Since at least the 8th century (and possibly as early as the 6th century) Koper was the seat of a diocese. One of Koper's bishops was the Lutheran reformer Pier Paolo Vergerio. In 1828, it was merged into the Diocese of Trieste.  Trade between Koper and Venice has been recorded since 932. In the war between Venice and the Holy Roman Empire, Koper was on the German side, and as a result was awarded with town rights, granted in 1035 by Emperor Conrad II. After 1232, Koper was under the Patriarch of Aquileia, and in 1278 it joined the Republic of Venice. It was at this time that the city walls and towers were partly demolished.  In 1420, the Patriarch of Aquileia ceded his remaining possessions in Istria to the Republic, consolidating Venetian power in Koper.  Koper grew to become the capital of Venetian Istria and was renamed \"Caput Histriae\" 'head of Istria' (from which stems its modern Italian name, \"Capodistria\").  The 16th century saw the population of Koper fall drastically, from its high of between 10,000 and 12,000 inhabitants, due to repeated plague epidemics. When Trieste became a free port in 1719, Koper lost its monopoly on trade, and its importance diminished further.  According to the 1900 census, 7,205 Italian, 391 Slovenian, 167 Croatian, and 67 German inhabitants lived in Koper.  Assigned to Italy after World War I, at the end of World War II it was part of the Zone B of the Free Territory of Trieste, controlled by Yugoslavia. Most of the Italian inhabitants left the city by 1954, when the Free Territory of Trieste formally ceased to exist and Zone B became part of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In 1977, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Koper was separated from the Diocese of Trieste.  With Slovenian independence in 1991, Koper became the only commercial port in Slovenia. The University of Primorska is based in the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Koper's 15th-century Praetorian Palace is located on the city square. It was built from two older 13th-century houses that were connected by a loggia, rebuilt many times, and then finished as a Venetian Gothic palace. Today, it is home to the city of Koper's tourist office.  The city's Cathedral of the Assumption was built in the second half of the 12th century and has one of the oldest bells in Slovenia (from 1333), cast by Master Jakob in Venice. The upper terrace is periodically open and offers a great view of the Bay of Trieste. In the middle of it hangs the Sacra Conversatione painting from 1516, one of the best Renaissance paintings in Slovenia, made by Vittore Carpaccio.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Koper has a humid subtropical climate (\"Cfa\"). There is an adequate amount of rainfall in Koper, even in the driest month. This climate is considered to be Cfa according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. The average temperature in Koper is. The average annual rainfall is.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "Italian was once the main language in the town, spoken by 92% of the population in 1900, but this number decreased sharply after Slovenian Istria was incorporated into Yugoslavia in 1954 and many ethnic Italians left the town. Today, Italian is mainly used as a second language by the Slovene-speaking majority.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Port of Koper.", "content": "\"Full article: Port of Koper\"  First established during the Roman Empire, the port of Koper has played an important role in the development of the area. It is among the largest in the region and is one of the most important transit routes for goods heading from Asia to central Europe. In contrast with other European ports, which are managed by port authorities, the activities of the Port of Koper comprise the management of the free zone area, the management of the port area, and the role of terminal operator.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and cities.", "content": "Koper is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Koper () (, ) is the fifth largest city in Slovenia. Located in the Istrian region in southwestern part of the country, approximately five kilometres () south of the border with Italy and 20 kilometres () from Trieste, Koper is the largest coastal city in the country. It is bordered by the satellite towns of Izola and Ankaran. With a unique ecology and biodiversity, it is considered an important natural resource. The city's Port of Koper is the major contributor to the economy of the Municipality of Koper. With only one percent of Slovenia having a coastline, the influence that the Port of Koper also has on tourism was a factor in Ankaran deciding to leave the municipality in a referendum in 2011 to establish its own. The city is a destination for a number of Mediterranean cruising lines. Koper is the main urban centre of the Slovenian Istria, with a population of about 25,000. Ales Brzan is the current mayor, serving since 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972516}
{"src_title": "Ethyl acetate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production.", "content": "In 2004, an estimated 1.3 million tonnes were produced worldwide. The combined annual production in 1985 of Japan, North America, and Europe was about 400,000 tonnes. The global ethyl acetate market was valued at $3.3 billion in 2018.  Ethyl acetate is synthesized in industry mainly via the classic Fischer esterification reaction of ethanol and acetic acid. This mixture converts to the ester in about 65% yield at room temperature: The reaction can be accelerated by acid catalysis and the equilibrium can be shifted to the right by removal of water.  It is also prepared in industry using the Tishchenko reaction, by combining two equivalents of acetaldehyde in the presence of an alkoxide catalyst:  Silicotungstic acid is used to manufacture ethyl acetate by the alkylation of acetic acid by ethylene:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Ethyl acetate is used primarily as a solvent and diluent, being favored because of its low cost, low toxicity, and agreeable odor. For example, it is commonly used to clean circuit boards and in some nail varnish removers (acetone is also used). Coffee beans and tea leaves are decaffeinated with this solvent. It is also used in paints as an activator or hardener. Ethyl acetate is present in confectionery, perfumes, and fruits. In perfumes, it evaporates quickly, leaving only the scent of the perfume on the skin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Laboratory uses.", "content": "In the laboratory, mixtures containing ethyl acetate are commonly used in column chromatography and extractions. Ethyl acetate is rarely selected as a reaction solvent because it is prone to hydrolysis, transesterification, and condensations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Occurrence in wines.", "content": "Ethyl acetate is the most common ester in wine, being the product of the most common volatile organic acid – acetic acid, and the ethyl alcohol generated during the fermentation. The aroma of ethyl acetate is most vivid in younger wines and contributes towards the general perception of \"fruitiness\" in the wine. Sensitivity varies, with most people having a perception threshold around 120 mg/L. Excessive amounts of ethyl acetate are considered a wine fault.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Ethyl acetate hydrolyses to give acetic acid and ethanol. Bases accelerate the hydrolysis, which is subject to the Fischer equilibrium mentioned above. In the laboratory, and usually for illustrative purposes only, ethyl esters are typically hydrolyzed in a two-step process starting with a stoichiometric amount of a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide. This reaction gives ethanol and sodium acetate, which is unreactive toward ethanol:  Under anhydrous conditions, strong bases induce the Claisen condensation to give ethyl acetoacetate:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "The for rats is 5620 mg/kg, indicating low toxicity. Given that the chemical is naturally present in many organisms, there is little risk of toxicity.  In the field of entomology, ethyl acetate is an effective asphyxiant for use in insect collecting and study. In a killing jar charged with ethyl acetate, the vapors will kill the collected insect quickly without destroying it. Because it is not hygroscopic, ethyl acetate also keeps the insect soft enough to allow proper mounting suitable for a collection.  Overexposure to ethyl acetate may cause irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat. Severe overexposure may cause weakness, drowsiness, and unconsciousness. Humans exposed to a concentration of 400 ppm in 1.4 mg/L ethyl acetate for a short time were affected by nose and throat irritation. Ethyl acetate is an irritant of the conjunctiva and mucous membrane of the respiratory tract. Animal experiments have shown that, at very high concentrations, the ester has central nervous system depressant and lethal effects; at concentrations of 20,000 to 43,000 ppm (2.0–4.3%), there may be pulmonary edema with hemorrhages, symptoms of central nervous system depression, secondary anemia and liver damage. In humans, concentrations of 400 ppm cause irritation of the nose and pharynx; cases have also been known of irritation of the conjunctiva with temporary opacity of the cornea. In rare cases exposure may cause sensitization of the mucous membrane and eruptions of the skin. The irritant effect of ethyl acetate is weaker than that of propyl acetate or butyl acetate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ethyl acetate (systematically ethyl ethanoate, commonly abbreviated EtOAc, ETAC or EA) is the organic compound with the formula, simplified to. This colorless liquid has a characteristic sweet smell (similar to pear drops) and is used in glues, nail polish removers, and in the decaffeination process of tea and coffee. Ethyl acetate is the ester of ethanol and acetic acid; it is manufactured on a large scale for use as a solvent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972517}
{"src_title": "Nuno Álvares Pereira", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Nuno Álvares Pereira was born on 24 June 1360 in Flor da Rosa, near Crato, central Portugal, the illegitimate son of Dom Álvaro Gonçalves Pereira, Prior of Crato and Iria Gonçalves do Carvalhal. His grandfather was Dom Gonçalo (Gonçalves) Pereira, 97th Archbishop of Braga (1326–1349). He was descended from the oldest Portuguese and Galician nobility.  About a year after his birth, the child was legitimized by royal decree and so was able to receive a knightly education typical of the offspring of the noble families of the time.  At 13 years of age he became page to Queen Leonor. At age 16, he married Leonor de Alvim, a rich young widow, daughter of João Pires de Alvim and wife Branca Pires Coelho and childless widow of Vasco Gonçalves Barroso. Three children were born to the union, two boys who died early in life, and a girl, Beatrice, who would eventually marry Afonso, first Duke of Bragança, son of King João I.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military life.", "content": "Nuno began military service in 1373, when he was only 13, and helped stop an invasion from Castile. However, according to his own words, his first military campaigns were no more than skirmishes on the borders of Portugal. He was an impetuous and brave young man who soon showed himself to be an excellent leader.  When King Fernando I of Portugal died in 1383, his only heir was Beatrice, married to king John I of Castile. In order to preserve Portuguese independence, the nobles supported the claim of King Fernando's step-brother John, Master of Aviz to the throne. John was a natural son of Peter I of Portugal. After his first victory over the Castilians, in the Battle of Atoleiros (April 1384), João of Aviz named Nuno Álvares Pereira Protector and second Constable of Portugal (\"Condestável do Reino\"), in practice supreme commander of Portugal’s armies, and third Count of Ourém. He was only 24 years old.  Nuno used guerilla tactics trying to dislodge the Castilian army besieging Lisbon in 1384 but plague finally drove them away.  In April 1385, João of Aviz was recognized as king by the kingdom assembly (the \"Cortes\") as John I. This triggered an invasion of the country by Juan I of Castile, in support of his wife's rights to the throne. Nuno Álvares Pereira was engaged against the northern cities loyal to the Castilians. During this time of war, he fed the hungry populations of his Castilian opposition at his own expense. On 14 August 1385, at Aljubarrota he led 6,500 volunteers to victory against a Castilian force of over 30,000, thus ending the threat of annexation. He attributed the victory to the Blessed Virgin, whose name, Maria, was inscribed on his sword. Dedicated to Mary, he fasted on Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays. The banner he chose as his personal standard bore the image of the cross, of Mary and of the saintly knights James and George. At his own expense he built numerous churches and monasteries, among which was the Carmelite church in Lisbon and the church of Our Lady of Victories at Batalha.  After the 1383-1385 Crisis, Álvares Pereira received from John I the titles of second Count of Arraiolos and seventh Count of Barcelos, which, along with the previous one, were the only three countdoms existing at the time and which had been taken from nobles who had taken the part of Castile. He was also made the 38th \"Mordomo-Mór\" (Major Majordomo) of the Realm.  Not wanting to give the enemy room to manoeuvre, John I and his supreme general took the offensive and raided several Castilian towns, defeating once again a much larger Castilian army at the Battle of Valverde. He continued to watch out for Juan I of Castile, until his death in 1390. When hostilities ended, he gave the bulk of his wealth to the veterans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious life.", "content": "After the death of his wife, he became a Carmelite friar (he joined the Order in 1423) at the Carmo Convent (Lisbon) which he had founded in fulfilment of a vow, and took the name of Friar Nuno of Saint Mary (). There he lived until his death on 1 November of 1431. He was noted for his prayer, his practise of penance and his filial devotion to the Mother of God. Nuno suffered from debilitating arthritis.  During the last year of his life, King John I went to visit and embrace him for the last time. He wept for he considered Nuno Álvares Pereira his closest friend, the one who had put him on the throne and saved his country's independence.  Nuno Álvares Pereira's tomb was lost in the famous 1755 Lisbon earthquake. His epitaph read:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Nuno was beatified on 23 January 1918 by Pope Benedict XV. He was celebrated liturgically on 1 April as an obligatory memorial by the Order of Carmelites and as an optional memorial by the Order of Discalced Carmelites.  He had been on the point of being canonised by decree in 1940 by Pope Pius XII. According to a recent statement by the postulator general of the Carmelite Order, his canonisation was postponed for diplomatic reasons (the Portuguese ambassador indicated that the time was not right).  On 3 July 2008 Pope Benedict XVI signed two decrees in Rome, promulgating the heroic virtues of Nuno and the authenticity of a miracle that had already been previously confirmed as such by medical and theological commissions. By this act, the pope formally canonised Friar Nuno de Santa Maria Álvares Pereira. The public celebration of his canonisation took place on 26 April 2009 in Saint Peter's Square in the Vatican City. The Carmelites now celebrate St Nuno on 6 November; the date also appointed for his feast in Portugal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Blessed Nuno Society is a mission society and prayer apostolate officially recognized by the Catholic Church as a diocesan Private Association of the Christian Faithful and affiliated with, the Catholic Diocese of Duluth, Minnesota.  Nuno Álvares Pereira had a daughter by his marriage to Leonor de Alvim, Beatriz Pereira de Alvim, who later became the wife of Afonso, first Duke of Braganza. Therefore, Nuno Álvares Pereira was, through the female line, the ancestor of the House of Braganza which became the Portuguese royal house in the 17th century, ruling the Kingdom of Portugal (1640–1910), the Kingdom of Brazil (1815–1822) and the Empire of Brazil (1822–1889).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "D. Nuno Álvares Pereira, O. Carm. (; 24 June 1360 – 1 November 1431), also spelled Nun'Álvares Pereira, 7th Count of Barcelos, 3rd Count of Ourém and 2nd Count of Arraiolos, was a Portuguese general of great success who had a decisive role in the 1383-1385 Crisis that assured Portugal's independence from Castile. He later became a mystic and was beatified by Pope Benedict XV, in 1918, and canonised by Pope Benedict XVI in 2009.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972518}
{"src_title": "Sheikh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and meaning.", "content": "The word in Arabic stems from a triliteral root connected with age and aging:, \"shīn-yā'-khā\"'. The title carries the meaning leader, elder, or noble, especially in the Arabian Peninsula within the Tribes of Arabia, where \"shaikh\" became a traditional title of a Bedouin tribal leader in recent centuries. Due to the cultural impact of Arab civilization, and especially through the spread of Islam, the word has gained currency as a religious term or general honorific in many other parts of the world as well, notably in Muslim cultures in Africa and Asia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sufi term.", "content": "In Sufism, the word \"Sheikh\" is used to represent a \"wali\" who initiates a particular \"tariqa\" which leads to Muhammad, although many saints have this title added before their names out of respect from their followers. Two prominent examples are Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani, who initiated the Qadiriyya order, and Shaikh Ahmad al-Tijani, who initiated the Tijaniyyah sufi order.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional usage.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arabian Peninsula.", "content": "In the Arabian Peninsula, the title is used for royalty, such as kings, princes, and princesses. For example, it was the term used in the West to refer to the leaders of Kuwait's ruling Al-Sabah dynasty, and in UAE Al-Nahyan dynasty and Al Maktoum dynasty. The same applies to all the Arab states of the Persian Gulf countries. The term is used by almost every male and female (Sheikha) member of all the Gulf royal houses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lebanon.", "content": "In Mount Lebanon, the title had the same princely and royal connotation as in the Arabian peninsula until the Ottoman invasion in 1516 since it represented an indigenous autonomous \"sui iuris\" ruler or tribal chief. An example of an ancient families that holds the title of \"sui iuris\" sheikh is the Al-Chemor family ruling since 1211 CE in Koura and Zgharta until 1747 CE, the Boudib Family (descendants of the Hashemite Family) who were Ehdenian rulers of Jebbeh since 1471 CE until 1759 CE. Descendants of this royal family now live in Miziara, Mexico and Nigeria, and the Abu Harmoush family which ruled the Chouf region until the Battle of Ain Dara in 1711 CE. After the Ottoman rule and the implementation of the Iltizam system, the title gained a noble instead of royal connotation since it was bestowed by a higher authority, in this case the Ottoman appointed Emir who was nothing more than a mültezim or tax collector for the empire. Some very influential Maronite families—who had the title bestowed upon them in chronological order—are El Hachem of Akoura (descendants of the Hashemite Family, since 1523), El-Khazen (since 1545), Hubaysh of Kisrawan, and Douaihy of Zgharta. Other families who are nowadays addressed or known as \"Sheikhs\" were not traditionally rulers of provinces, but instead they were high-ranking officials at the service of the Emir at that time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Maghreb.", "content": "In the Maghreb, during the Almohad dynasty, the caliph was also counseled by a body of shaykhs. They represented all the different tribes under their rules, including Arabs, (Bedouins), Andalusians and Berbers and were also responsible for mobilizing their kinsmen in the event of war.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Horn of Africa.", "content": "In the Muslim parts of the Horn of Africa, Sheikh is often used as a noble title. In Somali society, it is reserved as an honorific for senior Muslim leaders and clerics (\"wadaad\"), and is often abbreviated to \"Sh\". Famous local Sheikhs include Abdirahman bin Isma'il al-Jabarti, an early Muslim leader in northern Somalia; Abadir Umar Ar-Rida, the patron saint of Harar; Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, Sheikh of the riwaq in Cairo who recorded the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt; Abd Al-Rahman bin Ahmad al-Zayla'i, scholar who played a crucial role in the spread of the Qadiriyyah movement in Somalia and East Africa; Shaykh Sufi, 19th century scholar, poet, reformist and astrologist; Abdallah al-Qutbi, polemicist, theologian and philosopher best known for his five-part \"Al-Majmu'at al-mubaraka\" (\"The Blessed Collection\"); and Muhammad Al-Sumaalee, teacher in the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca who influenced many of the prominent Islamic scholars of today.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "South Asia.", "content": "In South Asia it is not an ethnic title but an occupational title generally attributed to Muslim trading families with rarely any Arab lineage. After the advent of Islam in South Asia, (Brahmins, Rajputs, Khatris, Kayasthas and vaishya) tribes also converted to Islam and adopted the title.In Punjab, Pakistan the Hindu Brahmins, Kshatriya, Rathores, Bhattis, Chauhans, manihar and other Rajput converted by different Ismaili Pirs to Islam. Ismaili Pirs gave the new converts of Punjab the hereditary title of Shaikh as well as the Muslims who immigrated from Central Asia and settled in Punjab adopted this title.  Distinguished Sindhi Shaikhs include Imtiaz Shaikh, MPA Shikarpur and Special Advisor to PM and Former Provincial Minister and Bureaucrat, Sindh; Shaikh Ayaz, Sindhi poet of Pakistan; Najmudddin Shaikh, Former Foreign Secretary, Pakistan; Ghulam Shabir Shaikh, Former IGP Sindh, Pakistan; Dr. Abdul Hafeez Shaikh, Federal Finance Minister, Pakistan; Muhammad Ayub Shaikh, Chairman Employees' Old Age Benefits Institution], Pakistan; Maqbool Shaikh, Former Provincial Minister for Food and Health, Sindh; Faraz Shaikh, Chairman Sindh Naujawan Shaikh Ittehad, Sindh; Faryaz Nisar Shaikh, Vice Chairman Sindh Naujawan Shaikh Ittehad, Sindh; Imam Bux Shaikh, Former General Secretary Peoples Students Federation Karachi, Former General Secretary Peoples Engineers Forum Sindh, Famous Student Leader of Pakistan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Southeast Asia.", "content": "In Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia, Sheikhs are respected by local Muslims. In Indonesia, the term is usually spelled \"Syech\", and this is usually attributed to elderly alims. Higher knowledgeable people of Islamic studies in Indonesia are usually referred to as \"Ustad\" or \"Kyai\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Iran.", "content": "From the perspective of Iran (which includes Islamic view, too), the word or title of Sheikh possesses diverse meanings, among the individuals who are aged, wise, scientist; and totally it has been a honorable title who was/is used for the elders/learned (scholars), such as: Sheikh al-Rayees Abu Ali Sina, Sheikh Mufid, Sheikh Morteza Ansari, etc. In the past, the ones (Islamic scholars) who were from the Islamic prophet Muhammad's offspring/descendants, were called Sayyid/Seyyed instead of Sheikh.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "For women.", "content": "Historically, female scholars in Islam were referred to as \"shaykhah\" (Arabic: ) (alt. \"shaykhat\"). Notable \"shaykha\" include the 10th-century Shaykhah Fakhr-un-Nisa Shuhdah and 18th-century scholar Al-Shaykha Fatima al-Fudayliyya.  A daughter or wife or mother of a sheikh is also called a \"shaykhah\". Currently, the term \"shaykhah\" is commonly used for women of ruling families, in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf with the exception of Oman.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sheikh (, ; ', mostly pronounced, plural')—also transliterated Sheik, Sheyikh, Shaykh, Shayk, Cheikh, Shekh, Shaik and Shaikh—is an honorific title in the Arabic language. It commonly designates the ruler of a tribe or a royal family member, who inherited the title from his father. \"Sheikh\" is given to a royal male at birth and the related title \"Sheikha\" is given to a royal female at birth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972519}
{"src_title": "Ísafjörður", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "According to the Landnámabók (the book of settlement), Skutulsfjördur was first settled by Helgi Magri Hrólfsson in the 9th century. In the 16th century, the town grew as it became a trading post for foreign merchants. Witch trials were common around the same time throughout the Westfjords, and many people were banished to the nearby peninsula of Hornstrandir, now a national nature reserve. The town of Ísafjörður was granted municipal status in 1786.  The former Danish trading post \"Neðstikaupstaður\", established in the 18th century, contains the oldest collection of timber frame houses in Iceland. These include \"Krambúð\" (1757), \"Faktorshús\" (1765), \"Tjöruhúsið\" (1781), and the site of the Westfjords Heritage Museum \"Turnhúsið\" (1784).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography and climate.", "content": "The Westfjords are known to be the coolest area in Iceland at sea level. Ísafjörður has a tundra climate (Köppen climate classification: ET), closely bordering on either a dry-summer subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification: Dsc) or a cold-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csc), depending on if you use the 0°C isotherm or the -3°C isotherm. The climate is characterised by cold winters and cool summers. The warmest month is July with the mean temperature of ; the wettest is November with of precipitation. The climate has significantly warmed in recent years due to the effects of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation.  As the rest of Iceland, Ísafjörður experiences high winds and very few clear days throughout all the year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "The town is connected by road and a road tunnel to Bolungarvík which lies to the northwest, and to the village of Súðavík to the east. The partly one-lane Vestfjarðagöng (Vestfirðir Tunnel), completed in 1996, leads to the towns of Flateyri and Suðureyri, and to the western parts of the Westfjords. Ísafjörður has an airport with regular flights to Reykjavík.  Fishing has been the main industry in Ísafjörður, and the town has one of the largest fisheries in Iceland. A severe decline in the fishing industry for a variety of reasons, such as fishing restrictions in the early 1980s, and a decline in the fish population, has led the inhabitants to seek work elsewhere, leading to a decline in the town's population. The harbor also serves ferries to nearby settlements as well as larger cruise ships for tourists visiting the area. The tourist industry is growing; it is a major access point to the nature reserve on the Hornstrandir Peninsula, an uninhabited wilderness area to which ferries run weekly during summer.  Despite its size, small population, and historical isolation from the rest of the country, the town has a relatively urban atmosphere. Ísafjörður has a school of music, as well as a hospital. The older former hospital building now accommodates a cultural center with a library and showrooms. Recently, the small town has become known in the country as a center for alternative music outside of Iceland. A yearly festival, Aldrei fór ég suður, provides a platform for local musicians and bands from around Iceland and even from overseas. A university center, Háskólasetur Vestfjarða, which acts as a distance learning center for the 7000 residents of the Westfjords, was established in March 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Ísafjörður is the home to the University Centre of the Westfjords. The University Centre offers three master's degree programs. One in Coastal & Marine Management, one in Coastal Communities and Regional Development and another in Marine Innovation. Students graduate from the University of Akureyri.  The only gymnasium located in the Westfjords, Menntaskólinn á Ísafirði, is in Ísafjörður. The students range from 16 to 20 years of age, as is traditional in Icelandic gymnasium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business.", "content": "Major employers in the region include Hraðfrystihúsið-Gunnvör, 3X technology, Klofningur, and Íslandssaga. Ísafjörður is also the base of several noteworthy start-up companies including Fossadalur and Kerecis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The town hosts varied and widely popular events, in the realms of both culture and outdoor recreation. These events include, but are not limited to:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Annual music festivals.", "content": "Aldrei fór ég suður – Ísafjörður Rock Festival  In 2002, Ísafjörður's own Mugison (a.k.a. Örn Elías Guðmundsson) and his father organized the first Aldrei fór ég suður Music Festival as a free concert to support the burgeoning music community in Ísafjörður. The event has been established as an annual festival in mid April. The name \"Aldrei fór ég suður\" (I never went south) is taken from a Bubbi Morthens song of the same name, and may refer to a movement among young Icelanders to establish cultural events outside Reykjavík, and draw attention back to the nation's roots in the countryside. The festival's subtitle is \"\"rokkhátið alþýðunnar\"\" or \"rock festival for the people.\"  Við Djúpið Music Festival  Since 2001, the Við Djúpið Music Festival has offered master classes and concerts with nationwide and worldwide known artists, such as Erling Blöndal Bengtsson, cellist and Vovka Ashkenazy, pianist as well as the Pacifica Quartet, Evan Ziporyn, clarinetist, composer, and a member of the band Bang on a Can gave a master class and concert in Ísafjörður during Við Djúpið 2007 and among performers at the 2008 festival where Pekka Kuusisto, violinist with Simon Crawford-Phillips, pianist and Håkon Austbø, pianist.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Ísafjörður is the home of Íþróttafélagið Vestri and Knattspyrnufélagið Hörður multi-sports clubs. Vestri fields departments in basketball, football, volleyball and bicycling. Its men's and women's basketball teams have played in the top-tier basketball leagues in the country while its men's volleyball team was promoted to the top-tier division in 2019.  Knattspyrnufélagið Hörður was originally a football club but has fielded other departments, most prominently in handball, track & field, skiing and Icelandic wrestling.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ísafjörður (pronounced, meaning \"ice fjord\" or \"fjord of ice\", ice in plural genitive) is a town in the northwest of Iceland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972520}
{"src_title": "International Electrotechnical Commission", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first International Electrical Congress took place in 1881 at the International Exposition of Electricity, held in Paris. At that time the International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units was agreed to.  The International Electrotechnical Commission held its inaugural meeting on 26 June 1906, following discussions among the British Institution of Electrical Engineers, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, and others, which began at the 1900 Paris International Electrical Congress, and continued with Colonel R. E. B. Crompton playing a key role. In 1906, Lord Kelvin was elected as the first President of the International Electrotechnical Commission.  The IEC was instrumental in developing and distributing standards for units of measurement, particularly the gauss, hertz, and weber. It also first proposed a system of standards, the Giorgi System, which ultimately became the SI, or Système International d’unités (in English, the International System of Units).  In 1938, it published a multilingual international vocabulary to unify terminology relating to electrical, electronic and related technologies. This effort continues, and the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (the on-line version of which is known as the \"Electropedia\") remains an important work in the electrical and electronic industries.  The CISPR (\"Comité International Spécial des Perturbations Radioélectriques\") – in English, the International Special Committee on Radio Interference – is one of the groups founded by the IEC.  Currently, 86 countries are IEC members while another 87 participate in the Affiliate Country Programme, which is not a form of membership but is designed to help industrializing countries get involved with the IEC. Originally located in London, the Commission moved to its current headquarters in Geneva in 1948.  It has regional centres in Africa [(Nairobi, Kenya)], Asia-Pacific (Singapore), Latin America (São Paulo, Brazil) and North America (Boston, United States).  Today, the IEC is the world's leading international organization in its field, and its standards are adopted as national standards by its members. The work is done by some 10,000 electrical and electronics experts from industry, government, academia, test labs and others with an interest in the subject.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "IEC standards.", "content": "IEC standards have numbers in the range 60000–79999 and their titles take a form such as \"IEC 60417: Graphical symbols for use on equipment\". Following the Dresden Agreement with CENELEC the numbers of older IEC standards were converted in 1997 by adding 60000, for example IEC 27 became IEC 60027. Standards of the 60000 series are also found preceded by EN to indicate that the IEC standard is also adopted by CENELEC as a European standard; for example IEC 60034 is also available as EN 60034.  The IEC cooperates closely with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). In addition, it works with several major standards development organizations, including the IEEE with which it signed a cooperation agreement in 2002, which was amended in 2008 to include joint development work.  Standards developed jointly with ISO such as ISO/IEC 26300 (\"Open Document Format for Office Applications (OpenDocument) v1.0\"), ISO/IEC 27001 (\"Information technology, Security techniques, Information security management systems, Requirements\"), and CASCO ISO/IEC 17000 series, carry the acronym of both organizations. The use of the ISO/IEC prefix covers publications from ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 - Information Technology, as well as conformity assessment standards developed by ISO CASCO and IEC CAB (Conformity Assessment Board). Other standards developed in cooperation between IEC and ISO are assigned numbers in the 80000 series, such as IEC 82045–1.  IEC standards are also being adopted by other certifying bodies such as BSI (United Kingdom), CSA (Canada), UL & ANSI/INCITS (United States), SABS (South Africa), SAI (Australia), SPC/GB (China) and DIN (Germany). IEC standards adopted by other certifying bodies may have some noted differences from the original IEC standard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Membership and participation.", "content": "The IEC is made up of members, called national committees, and each NC represents its nation's electrotechnical interests in the IEC. This includes manufacturers, providers, distributors and vendors, consumers and users, all levels of governmental agencies, professional societies and trade associations as well as standards developers from national standards bodies. National committees are constituted in different ways. Some NCs are public sector only, some are a combination of public and private sector, and some are private sector only. About 90% of those who prepare IEC standards work in industry.  IEC Member countries include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Full members.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Associate members (limited voting and managerial rights).", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Affiliates.", "content": "In 2001 and in response to calls from the WTO to open itself to more developing nations, the IEC launched the Affiliate Country Programme to encourage developing nations to become involved in the Commission's work or to use its International Standards. Countries signing a pledge to participate in the work and to encourage the use of IEC Standards in national standards and regulations are granted access to a limited number of technical committee documents for the purposes of commenting. In addition, they can select a limited number of IEC Standards for their national standards' library. Countries as of 2011 participating in the Affiliate Country Programme are:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC; in French: \"Commission électrotechnique internationale\") is an international standards organization that prepares and publishes international standards for all electrical, electronic and related technologies – collectively known as \"electrotechnology\". IEC standards cover a vast range of technologies from power generation, transmission and distribution to home appliances and office equipment, semiconductors, fibre optics, batteries, solar energy, nanotechnology and marine energy as well as many others. The IEC also manages four global conformity assessment systems that certify whether equipment, system or components conform to its international standards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972521}
{"src_title": "Common rail", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The common rail system prototype was developed in the late 1960s by Robert Huber of Switzerland, and the technology was further developed by Dr. Marco Ganser at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, later of Ganser-Hydromag AG (est.1995) in Oberägeri.  The first successful use in a production vehicle began in Japan by the mid-1990s. Dr. Shohei Itoh and Masahiko Miyaki of the Denso Corporation, a Japanese automotive-parts manufacturer, developed the common rail fuel system for heavy-duty vehicles and turned it into practical use on their ECD-U2 common rail system mounted on the Hino Ranger truck and sold for general use in 1995. Denso claims the first commercial high-pressure common rail system in 1995.  Modern common rail systems, although working on the same principle, are governed by an engine control unit, which opens each injector electrically rather than mechanically. This was extensively prototyped in the 1990s with collaboration between Magneti Marelli, Centro Ricerche Fiat, and Elasis. After research and development by the Fiat Group, the design was acquired by the German company Robert Bosch GmbH for completion of development and refinement for mass production. In hindsight, the sale appeared to be a strategic error for Fiat, as the new technology proved to be highly profitable. The company had little choice but to sell Bosch a licence, as it was in a poor financial state at the time and lacked the resources to complete development on its own. In 1997, they extended its use for passenger cars. The first passenger car to use the common rail system was the 1997 model Alfa Romeo 156 2.4-L JTD, and later that same year, Mercedes-Benz introduced it in their W202 model.  Common rail engines have been used in marine and locomotive applications for some time. The Cooper-Bessemer GN-8 (\"circa\" 1942) is an example of a hydraulically operated common rail diesel engine, also known as a modified common rail.  Vickers pioneered the use of common rail injection in submarine engines. Vickers engines with the common rail fuel system were first used in 1916 in the G-class submarines. It used four plunger pumps to deliver a pressure up to every 90° of rotation to keep the fuel pressure adequately constant in the rail. Fuel delivery to individual cylinders could be shut off by valves in the injector lines. Doxford Engines used a common rail system in their opposed-piston marine engines from 1921 to 1980, where a multicylinder reciprocating fuel pump generated a pressure around, with the fuel being stored in accumulator bottles. Pressure control was achieved by an adjustable pump discharge stroke and a \"spill valve\". Camshaft-operated mechanical timing valves were used to supply the spring-loaded Brice/CAV/Lucas injectors, which injected through the side of the cylinder into the chamber formed between the pistons. Early engines had a pair of timing cams, one for ahead running and one for astern. Later engines had two injectors per cylinder, and the final series of constant-pressure turbocharged engines was fitted with four injectors per cylinder. This system was used for the injection of both diesel and heavy fuel oil (600cSt heated to a temperature near 130°C).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "The common rail system is suitable for all types of road cars with diesel engines, ranging from city cars (such as the Fiat Panda) to executive cars (such as the Audi A8). The main suppliers of modern common rail systems are Robert Bosch GmbH, Delphi, Denso, and Siemens VDO (now owned by Continental AG).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acronyms and branding used.", "content": "The automotive manufacturers refer to their common rail engines by their own brand names:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Principles.", "content": "Solenoid or piezoelectric valves make possible fine electronic control over the fuel-injection time and quantity, and the higher pressure that the common rail technology makes available provides better fuel atomisation. To lower engine noise, the engine's electronic control unit can inject a small amount of diesel just before the main injection event (\"pilot\" injection), thus reducing its explosiveness and vibration, as well as optimising injection timing and quantity for variations in fuel quality, cold starting, and so on. Some advanced common rail fuel systems perform as many as five injections per stroke.  Common rail engines require a very short to no heating-up time, depending on the ambient temperature, and produce lower engine noise and emissions than older systems.  Diesel engines have historically used various forms of fuel injection. Two common types include the unit-injection system and the distributor/inline-pump systems. While these older systems provide accurate fuel quantity and injection timing control, they are limited by several factors:  In common rail systems, a high-pressure pump stores a reservoir of fuel at high pressure — up to and above. The term \"common rail\" refers to the fact that all of the fuel injectors are supplied by a common fuel rail which is nothing more than a pressure accumulator where the fuel is stored at high pressure. This accumulator supplies multiple fuel injectors with high-pressure fuel. This simplifies the purpose of the high-pressure pump in that it only needs to maintain a target pressure (either mechanically or electronically controlled). The fuel injectors are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically activated, a hydraulic valve (consisting of a nozzle and plunger) is mechanically or hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at the desired pressure. Since the fuel pressure energy is stored remotely and the injectors are electrically actuated, the injection pressure at the start and end of injection is very near the pressure in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a square injection rate. If the accumulator, pump, and plumbing are sized properly, the injection pressure and rate will be the same for each of the multiple injection events.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Common rail direct fuel injection is a direct fuel injection system for diesel engines. It features a high-pressure (over ) fuel rail feeding solenoid valves, as opposed to a low-pressure fuel pump feeding unit injectors (or pump nozzles). Third-generation common rail diesels now feature piezoelectric injectors for increased precision, with fuel pressures up to.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972522}
{"src_title": "Ivan I of Moscow", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ivan was the son of the Prince of Moscow Daniil Aleksandrovich.  After the death of his elder brother Yury, Ivan inherited the Principality of Moscow. Ivan participated in the struggle to get the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir which could be obtained with the approval of a khan of the Golden Horde. The main rivals of the princes of Moscow in this struggle were the princes of Tver – Mikhail, Dmitry the Terrible Eyes, and Alexander II, all of whom obtained the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir and were deprived of it. All of them were murdered in the Golden Horde. In 1328 Ivan Kalita received the approval of khan Muhammad Ozbeg to become the Grand Duke of Vladimir with the right to collect taxes from all Russian lands.  According to the Russian historian Kluchevsky, the rise of Moscow under Ivan I Kalita was determined by three factors. The first one was that the Moscow principality was situated in the middle of other Russian principalities; thus, it was protected from any invasions from the East and from the West. Compared to its neighbors, Ryazan principality and Tver principality, Moscow was less often devastated. The relative safety of the Moscow region resulted in the second factor of the rise of Moscow – an influx of working and tax-paying people who were tired of constant raids and who actively relocated to Moscow from other Russian regions. The third factor was a trade route from Novgorod to the Volga river.  According to Baumer Öz Beg Khan took a fateful decision when he abandoned the former policy of divide and rule by making the new grand prince responsible for collecting and passing on all the tribute and taxes from all the Russian cities. Ivan delivered these exactions punctually, so further strengthening his position of privilege. In this way he laid the foundations for Moscow's future as a regional great power.  Ivan Kalita intentionally pursued the policy of relocation of people to his principality by an invitation of people from other places and by purchase of Russian people captured by Mongols during their raids. He managed to eliminate all the thieves in his lands, thus ensuring the safety of traveling merchants. Internal peace and order together with the absence of Mongolian raids to the Moscow principality was mentioned in Russian chronicles as “great peace, silence, and relief of Russian land.  Ivan made Moscow very wealthy by maintaining his loyalty to the Horde (hence, the nickname \"Kalita\", or the Moneybag). He used this wealth to give loans to neighbouring Russian principalities. These cities gradually fell deeper and deeper into debt, a condition that would allow Ivan's successors to annex them. The people called Ivan the ‘gatherer of the Russian lands’. He bought lands around Moscow, and very often the poor owners sold their lands willingly. Some of them kept the right to rule in their lands on behalf of Ivan Kalita. In one way or another a number of cities and villages joined the Moscow principality – Uglich in 1323, the principality of Belozero in 1328–1338, the principality of Galich in 1340. Ivan's greatest success, however, was convincing the Khan in Sarai that his son, Simeon The Proud, should succeed him as the Grand Duke of Vladimir; from then on, the important position almost always belonged to the ruling house of Moscow. The Head of the Russian Church – Metropolitan Peter, whose authority was extremely high, moved from Vladimir to Moscow to Prince Ivan Kalita.  Following a Lithuanian raid on the town of Torzhok in 1335 (as part of the Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars), Ivan retaliated by burning the towns of Osechen and Riasna.  Ivan died in Moscow, 31 March 1340 or 1341. He was buried 1 April in the Church of the Archangel Michael. Ivan had built the church and was also the first person to be buried there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Under Ivan Kalita, Moscow was actively growing, and his residence on the Borovitsky hill became the main part of the city. Erection of either wooden or white-stone constructions was started in the Kremlin. A number of churches were built: in 1326–1327 the Assumption Cathedral, in 1329 the Church of Ivan of the Ladder (John Climacus), in 1330 the Cathedral of the Saviour on the Bor (Forest), and in 1333 the Cathedral of Archangel Michael, where Ivan Kalita and his descendants were buried. Between 1339 and 1340, Ivan Kalita erected a new, bigger oaken fortress on the Borovitsky hill.  In Ivan’s will “the golden cap” was mentioned for the first time; this cap is identified with the well-known Monomakh’s crown, the main crown of Russian sovereigns.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ivan I Daniilovich Kalita (Russian: Ива́н I Даниилович Калита; 1 November 1288 – 31 March 1340 or 1341) was Grand Duke of Moscow from 1325 and Vladimir from 1332.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972523}
{"src_title": "Vladislav Ardzinba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Vladislav Ardzinba was born in the village of Lower Eshera, Sukhumi District, Abkhaz ASSR, Georgian SSR, Soviet Union. After graduating from the Historical Department of the Sukhumi Pedagogical Institute, Ardzinba studied at the Tbilisi State University where he received a doctoral degree. He then worked for eighteen years in Moscow specialising in ancient Middle Eastern civilizations under Yevgeniy Primakov, then head of the Institute of Oriental Studies in Moscow, and later Russian foreign and Prime Minister. He then returned to Sukhumi and he served there as the director of the Abkhazian Institute of Language, Literature and History from 1987 until 1989, when he was elected a Deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union from Gudauta. From there, he was involved closely with national issues, including Abkhazia, and quickly emerged as one of the most active proponents of the Abkhaz secessionist cause. While a deputy to the USSR Supreme Soviet, Ardzinba forged close ties with the hardliners in Moscow, particularly with the parliamentary chairman Anatoly Lukyanov and other members of the hardline communist groups in Moscow that were responsible for the August 1991 coup attempt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict.", "content": "He was a member of the first parliament to be elected democratically in the Soviet Union in 1989.  On 4 December 1990, Ardzinba was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Abkhazia. Ardzinba, a charismatic but excitable figure popular among the Abkhaz was believed by Georgians to have helped to instigate the violence of July 1989. Ardzinba managed to consolidate his power relatively quickly and reneged on pre-election promises to increase the representation of Georgians in Abkhazia's autonomous structures; since then, Ardzinba tried to rule Abkhazia relatively single-handedly, but avoided, for the time being, overt conflict with the central authorities in Tbilisi. In mid-1991, he negotiated and accepted the Georgian concession on the reform of the electoral law that granted the Abkhaz wide over-representation in the Supreme Soviet. However, Ardzinba created the Abkhazian National Guard that was mono-ethnically Abkhaz, and initiated a practice of replacing ethnic Georgians in leading positions with Abkhaz. As the Georgian-Abkhaz tensions rose, Ardzinba's rhetoric mounted, as he claimed in late July 1992 that \"Abkhazia is strong enough to fight Georgia.\"  In August 1992, a Georgian military force ousted Ardzinba and his group from Sukhumi when Abkhazian militants seized government buildings. They took shelter in Gudauta, a home to the Soviet-era Russian military base. Ardzinba benefited from his contacts with the Russian hardliner circles and military leaders to garner critical support in the war against the Georgian government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "After the hostilities ended in 1994 and the bulk of the Georgian population was forced out of Abkhazia, the Abkhazian parliament elected Ardzinba to the presidency, a move that was condemned by Georgia and the United Nations as illegal. He won the first direct polls on 3 October 1999, without an opponent and was re-elected as president of Abkhazia. He installed an autocratic regime and remained politically untouchable until his health seriously deteriorated in 2003. He once stated that independence from Georgia is not negotiable, and he has tried to align the state with Russia, whose political and economic support was essential to the republic. As a leader of the Abkhaz side he met the two successive Russian presidents, Boris Yeltsin and Vladimir Putin, as well as a President of Georgia, Eduard Shevardnadze.  Under his rule, human rights records were extremely poor as most of the pre-war Georgian population of Abkhazia were deprived the right to return, and those who remained were subjected to systematic ethnic cleansing. Ardzinba aroused some further criticism from the international community after issuing a decree banning Jehovah's Witnesses in 1995.  During the last years of his presidency Ardzinba faced criticism for both failing to bring stability to Abkhazia and his increasingly low public profile. He had not appeared in public since 2002. As a result, the role of governing the state had been increasingly left to Prime Minister Raul Khajimba.  He had been in extremely poor health and underwent treatment in Moscow for some time. Despite increasing calls from the opposition (particularly the Amtsakhara movement) for him to resign he had stated that he would finish his term, which was supposed to end in October 2004, but in fact did not end until 12 February 2005, due to disputes over the election of his successor. There were also calls for him to be impeached. However, although the Abkhaz Constitution allows for impeachment, the process would likely have not been completed before the end of his term, so no serious steps were taken to bring it about. He was unable to run for a third term due to constitutional restrictions, and it is unlikely that his health would have enabled him to do so even if this was allowed.  He was replaced by the winner of the presidential election of 12 January 2005, Sergei Bagapsh. A previous election had been held in late 2004 after the murder of opposition leader Garri Aiba, but the result was controversial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "By 2010, Ardzinba's health was in decline and had been for some time. Ardzinba died on 4 March 2010, at the age of 64. He was in the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow at the time. He had been escorted there the previous week. The cause of death was not released to the public. He is survived by his wife and daughter. The President of Abkhazia, Sergei Bagapsh, paid tribute: \"His service to the Abkhaz people was boundless\". Three days of mourning were declared in Abkhazia in remembrance of Ardzinba.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vladislav Ardzinba (, ; 14 May 1945 – 4 March 2010) was the first \"de facto\" President of Abkhazia. A historian by education, Ardzinba led Abkhazia to \"de facto\" independence in the 1992–1993 War with Georgia, but its \"de jure\" independence from Georgia remained internationally unrecognised during Ardzinba's two terms as President from 1994 to 2005.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972524}
{"src_title": "Per Olov Enquist", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Enquist was born and raised in, a village in present-day Skellefteå Municipality, Västerbotten. He was the only son of a single mother, who became a widow when he was half a year old. In his youth, he was a promising athlete with a high jump personal best of 1.97 meters. He studied at Uppsala University, receiving a degree in the history of literature.  During his time in Uppsala he started writing, his first novel \"Kristallögat\" being published in 1961, and became a newspaper journalist. Enquist won the Nordic Council's Literature Prize in 1968 for \"Legionärerna\", his account of Sweden's deportation of Baltic-country soldiers at the end of the second world war which also became his international breakthrough. He would write several more books based on true events, including \"Kapten Nemos bibliotek\" (1991) about where two newly-born boys were accidentally switched, \"Livläkarens besök\" (1999), \"Lewis resa\" (2001) about Pentecostalist Lewi Pethrus, and \"Boken om Blanche och Marie\" (2004) about Marie Curie and mental patient Blanche Wittman. Enquist's first stage play was \"Tribadernas natt\" (1975), a story about Swedish author August Strindberg, his soon-to-be ex-wife Siri von Essen, and von Essen's presumed lover.  Awards for his writing have included the Dobloug Prize in 1988, the Selma Lagerlöf Prize in 1997, and the Italian Flaiano Prize in 2002. Besides books and stage plays, Enquist also wrote screenplays for motion pictures, including \"Pelle Erövraren\" (1987) and \"Hamsun\" (1996), and at the 27th Guldbagge Awards in 1993, Enquist was nominated for the award for Best Screenplay for the film \"\". He also received the Independent Foreign Fiction Prize as well as the Nelly Sachs Prize in 2003 for \"Livläkarens besök\", based on the true story of Johann Friedrich Struensee, who was the mentally ill Danish King Christian VII's physician, and his political machinations and relationship with Christian's wife Caroline Matilda in the 1770s. \"Livläkarens besök\" also became the first of two books Enquist wrote that were awarded the August Prize, the other being his 2008 autobiography \"Ett annat liv\". Enquist was awarded the Austrian State Prize for European Literature in 2009 and the Swedish Academy's Nordic Prize in 2010.  Enquist died on 25 April 2020 after a prolonged struggle with cancer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Per Olov Enquist, also known as P. O. Enquist, (23 September 1934 – 25 April 2020) was a Swedish author. He had worked as a journalist, playwright and novelist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972525}
{"src_title": "Pointillism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Technique.", "content": "The technique relies on the ability of the eye and mind of the viewer to blend the color spots into a fuller range of tones. It is related to Divisionism, a more technical variant of the method. Divisionism is concerned with color theory, whereas pointillism is more focused on the specific style of brushwork used to apply the paint. It is a technique with few serious practitioners today and is notably seen in the works of Seurat, Signac and Cross. However, see also Andy Warhol's early works and Pop Art.  From 1905 to 1907, Robert Delaunay and Jean Metzinger painted in a Divisionist style with large squares or 'cubes' of color: the size and direction of each gave a sense of rhythm to the painting, yet color varied independently of size and placement. This form of Divisionism was a significant step beyond the preoccupations of Signac and Cross. In 1906, the art critic Louis Chassevent recognized the difference and, as art historian Daniel Robbins pointed out, used the word \"cube\" which would later be taken up by Louis Vauxcelles to baptize Cubism. Chassevent writes:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practice.", "content": "The practice of Pointillism is in sharp contrast to the traditional methods of blending pigments on a palette. Pointillism is analogous to the four-color CMYK printing process used by some color printers and large presses that place dots of cyan, magenta, yellow and key (black). Televisions and computer monitors use a similar technique to represent image colors using Red, Green, and Blue (RGB) colors.  If red, blue, and green light (the additive primaries) are mixed, the result is something close to white light (see Prism (optics)). Painting is inherently subtractive, but Pointillist colors often seem brighter than typical mixed subtractive colors. This may be partly because subtractive mixing of the pigments is avoided, and because some of the white canvas may be showing between the applied dots.  The painting technique used for Pointillist color mixing is at the expense of the traditional brushwork used to delineate texture.  The majority of Pointillism is done in oil paint. Anything may be used in its place, but oils are preferred for their thickness and tendency not to run or bleed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Common uses of Pointillism.", "content": "Pointillé is commonly used for intricate binding of hand-made book covers in the seventeenth century, the decoration of metallic arms and armor, and for the decoration of hand-finished firearms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Pointillism also refers to a style of 20th-century music composition. Different musical notes are made in seclusion, rather than in a linear sequence, giving a sound texture similar to the painting version of Pointillism. This type of music is also known as punctualism or klangfarbenmelodie.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pointillism () is a technique of painting in which small, distinct dots of color are applied in patterns to form an image.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972526}
{"src_title": "Paul Signac", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Paul Signac was born in Paris on 11 November 1863. He followed a course of training in architecture before, at the age of 18, deciding to pursue a career as a painter, after attending an exhibit of Monet's work. He sailed on the Mediterranean Sea, visiting the coasts of Europe and painting the landscapes he encountered. In later years, he also painted a series of watercolors of French harbor cities.  In 1884 he met Claude Monet and Georges Seurat. He was struck by the systematic working methods of Seurat and by his theory of colors and he became Seurat's faithful supporter, friend, and heir with his description of Neo-Impressionism and Divisionism method. Under Seurat's influence he abandoned the short brushstrokes of Impressionism to experiment with scientifically-juxtaposed small dots of pure color, intended to combine and blend not on the canvas, but in the viewer's eye, the defining feature of Pointillism.  Many of Signac's paintings are of the French coast. He loved to paint the water. He left the capital each summer, to stay in the south of France in the village of Collioure or at St. Tropez, where he bought a house and invited his friends.  Paul Signac, Albert Dubois-Pillet, Odilon Redon, and Georges Seurat were among the founders of the Société des Artistes Indépendants. The association began in Paris 29 July 1884 with the organization of massive exhibitions, embracing as their motto, \"Neither jury nor awards\" (\"Sans jury ni récompense\"). \"The purpose of Société des Artistes Indépendants—based on the principle of abolishing admission jury—is to allow the artists to present their works to public judgement with complete freedom\". For the following three decades their annual exhibitions flourished and set the trends in art of the early twentieth century.  In 1886 Signac met Vincent van Gogh in Paris. During 1887 the two artists regularly went to Asnières-sur-Seine together, where they painted such subjects as river landscapes and cafés. Initially, van Gogh chiefly admired Signac's loose painting technique. In March 1889, Signac visited van Gogh at Arles. The next year he made a short trip to Italy, seeing Genoa, Florence, and Naples.  In 1888, Signac discovered anarchist ideas by reading Elisee Reclus, Kropotkin, and Jean Grave, who all developed the ideas of anarchist communism. With his friends Angrand Cross, Maximilien Luce, and Camille Pissarro he contributed to Jean Grave's paper, \"Les Temps Nouveaux\" (New Times). Signac loved sailing and began to travel in 1892, sailing a small boat to almost all the ports of France, to the Netherlands, and on the Mediterranean Sea as far as Constantinople, basing his boat at St. Tropez, which he later would make popular to other artists. From his various ports of call, Signac brought back vibrant, colorful watercolors, sketched rapidly from nature. From these sketches, he painted large studio canvases that are carefully composed of small, mosaic-like squares of color quite different from the tiny, variegated dots introduced and used by Seurat. Signac experimented with various media. As well as oil paintings and watercolors he made etchings, lithographs, and many pen-and-ink sketches composed of small, laborious dots.  The Neo-Impressionists influenced the next generation: Signac inspired Henri Matisse and André Derain in particular, thus playing a decisive role in the evolution of Fauvism.  Having prospered well, his financial support of the arts was considerable. As donations, he sent regular cheques and made a gift of his works for five lotteries between 1895 and 1912. Signac's 1893 painting, \"In the Time of Harmony\" originally was entitled, \"In the Time of Anarchy\", but political repression targeting the anarchists in France at this time forced him to change the title before the work could be accepted by a gallery. At the 1905 Salon des Indépendants, Henri Matisse exhibited the proto-Fauve painting \"Luxe, Calme et Volupté\". The brightly colored composition was painted in 1904 after a summer spent working in St. Tropez on the French Riviera alongside the neo-Impressionist painters Henri-Edmond Cross and Paul Signac. The painting is Matisse's most important work in which he used the Divisionist technique advocated by Signac, which Matisse had adopted in 1898 after reading Signac's essay, \"d'Eugène Delacroix au Néo-Impressionnisme\". Signac purchased the work after the 1905 Salon des Indépendants. In 1908 Signac was elected president of the Twenty-fourth Salon des Indépendants.  As president of the Société des Artistes Indépendants, from 1908 until his death, Signac encouraged younger artists by exhibiting the controversial works of the Fauves and the Cubists. He was the first patron to buy a painting by Matisse.  Signac served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the \"Prix Blumenthal\", a grant given between 1919 and 1954 to painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "On 7 November 1892, Signac married Berthe Roblès at the town hall of the 18th arrondissement of Paris. The witnesses at the wedding were Alexandre Lemonier, Maximilien Luce, Camille Pissarro, and Georges Lecomte.  In November 1897, the Signacs moved to a new apartment in the \"Castel Béranger\", which was built by Hector Guimard. A little later, in December of the same year, they acquired a house in Saint-Tropez named, \"La Hune\", where the painter had a vast studio constructed that he inaugurated on 16 August 1898.  In September 1913, Signac rented a house at Antibes, where he took up residence with Jeanne Selmersheim-Desgrange. She gave birth to their daughter, Ginette, on 2 October 1913. Meanwhile, Signac left \"La Hune\" and the \"Castel Beranger\" apartment to Berthe and they remained friends for the rest of his life. On 6 April 1927, Signac formally adopted Ginette. His granddaughter, Françoise Cachin, was an art historian.  Paul Signac died from sepsis in Paris on 15 August 1935 at the age of 71. His body was cremated and was interred three days later, on 18 August, at the Père Lachaise Cemetery.  Some of Paul Signac's his well-known paintings are: \"In the Time of Harmony\", \"Femmes au puits\", \"Port St. Tropez\", \"The Papal Palace\", and \"The Demolisher\".  In 2010, a previously unknown painting by Signac was discovered at a hotel that was preparing an exhibition of its many paintings. The in Volendam possesses approximately 1,400 works of art. Apparently, Signac used this painting to pay for his stay there in 1894. Valued now at €100,000, the untitled harbour scene \"used to hang off a rusty nail in the lobby\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Author.", "content": "Signac wrote several important works on the theory of art, among them, \"From Eugène Delacroix to Neo-Impressionism\", published in 1899. It is a monograph devoted to Johan Barthold Jongkind (1819–1891), and was published in 1927. He also authored several introductions to the catalogues of art exhibitions and many other writings yet to be published.  Politically, he was an anarchist, as were many of his friends, including Félix Fénéon and Camille Pissarro.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul Victor Jules Signac (,, ; 11 November 1863 – 15 August 1935) was a French Neo-Impressionist painter who, working with Georges Seurat, helped develop the Pointillist style.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972527}
{"src_title": "Jobst of Moravia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Jobst was presumably born in 1354 in the Moravian residence of Brno, the eldest son of Margrave John Henry, younger brother of Emperor Charles IV, first cousin of King Charles V of France and cousin-in-law of both King Richard II of England and King Louis I of Hungary.  Designated heir upon his father's death in 1375, he ruled the Margraviate of Moravia, often quarreling with his younger brother Prokop and the Bishops of Olomouc. In 1388 Jobst received the Duchy of Luxembourg, given in pawn by his cousin King Wenceslaus, son of late Emperor Charles IV. The same year, Jobst also became Prince-elector of Brandenburg, pawned by Wenceslaus' younger brother Sigismund, who focused on his rule over the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1394 Jobst joined a rebellion of Bohemian nobles around Boček II of Poděbrady against Wenceslaus, whom he had arrested at Prague Castle and later taken into custody by the Austrian Starhemberg dynasty at Wildberg. Peace was made at the instigation of Wenceslaus' brothers Sigismund and John of Görlitz; however, once released, the king had Jobst expelled from Prague. Sigismund and Jobst signed a mutual inheritance treaty in 1401, but later again fell out with each other.  After the death of King Rupert of Germany in 1410, Jobst was elected successor by four of the seven prince-electors on 1 October, opposing his cousin Sigismund who had already been elected by three electors on 10 September. The deciding vote came from his cousin Wenceslaus in his capacity as King of Bohemia, however, though Jobst had the greater support among the electors he died on 18 January 1411–possibly poisoned–, clearing the way for Sigismund's election as King of the Romans and his later coronation as Holy Roman Emperor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Jobst married twice, without issue:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles.", "content": "King of the Romans, Margrave of Moravia, Lusatia and Brandenburg, Elector of Brandenburg, Duke of Luxembourg,Vicarius of Italy, Vicarius of the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jobst of Moravia ( or \"Jošt Lucemburský\"; or \"Jodokus von Mähren\"; c. 1354 – 18 January 1411), a member of the House of Luxembourg, was Margrave of Moravia from 1375, Duke of Luxembourg and Elector of Brandenburg from 1388 as well as elected King of Germany (King of the Romans) from 1410 until his death. Jobst was an ambitious and versatile ruler, who in the early 15th century dominated the ongoing struggles within the Luxembourg dynasty and around the German throne.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972528}
{"src_title": "Agnes of Poitou", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "She was the daughter of the Ramnulfid duke William V of Aquitaine (d. 1030) and Agnes of Burgundy. She thereby was the sister of Duke William VI of Aquitaine, Duke Odo of Gascony, Duke William VII, and Duke William VIII of Aquitaine. Her maternal grandparents were Count Otto-William of Burgundy and Ermentrude of Rheims, daughter of Renaud of Roucy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Agnes married King Henry III of Germany in November 1043 at the Imperial Palace Ingelheim. She was his second wife after Gunhilda of Denmark, who had died, possibly from malaria, in 1038. This marriage helped to solidify the Empire's relationships with the princely houses in the west. King Henry was able to improve his position versus the French royal dynasty and to exert his influence in the Duchy of Burgundy. Agnes, like her husband, was of profound piety, her family had founded Cluny Abbey and Abbot Hugh the Great was godfather of her son Henry IV.  Their children were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role as regent.", "content": "After her husband's death on 5 October 1056, Agnes served as regent on behalf of her young son, Henry IV. Henry III had secured the election of his son as King of the Romans on his deathbed. Agnes, aided by Hugh of Cluny and Pope Victor II, also Bishop of Eichstätt, tried to continue her husband's politics and to reinforce the rule of the Salian dynasty. However, despite being related to kings of Italy and Burgundy, she was a controversial leader.  In order to forge alliances, she would give away three German duchies: already on Christmas 1056, the Ezzonid scion Conrad III, a nephew of Count palatine Ezzo of Lotharingia, received the princeless Duchy of Carinthia.  The next year she enfeoffed Rudolf of Rheinfelden with Swabia, appointed him administrator of Burgundy and offered him the hand of her daughter Matilda. According to the medieval chronicler Frutolf of Michelsberg, Rudolf had possibly abducted her and extorted the betrothment. However, the late Henry III had promised the Swabian duchy to Berthold of Zähringen, who in turn had to be compensated with Carinthia upon Conrad's death in 1061.  At the same time, while German forces interfered in the fratricidal struggle of King Andrew I and Béla I of Hungary, Agnes ceded the Duchy of Bavaria to Count Otto of Nordheim. He reached a settlement with Hungary by enforcing the coronation of Andrew's son Solomon but later became a bitter rival of her son Henry IV.  Though initially a follower of the Cluniac Reforms, Agnes opposed the contemporary papal reform movement, and took the side of Italian dissidents who did as well. Things had worsened after the death of Pope Victor II in 1057: his successor Stephen IX, who was unable to take actual possession of Rome due to the Roman aristocracy's election of an antipope, Benedict X, sent Hildebrand of Sovana and Anselm of Lucca (respectively, the future Popes Gregory VII and Alexander II) to Germany to obtain recognition from dowager empress Agnes in her role as regent.  Though Stephen died before being able to return to Rome, Agnes' help was instrumental in letting Hildebrand depose the Antipope and with Agnes' support replace him by the Bishop of Florence, Nicholas II. However, on Easter 1059 Nicholas issued the papal bull \"In nomine Domini\" establishing the cardinals as the sole electors of the pope, detrimental to the interests of the emperor and the temporal empire.  When Pope Alexander II was elected on 30 September 1061, Agnes refused to acknowledge him and had Antipope Honorius II elected; a schism that did not end until Pentecost 1064. The empress' candidate could not prevail against the Roman Curia; in consequence, Agnes retired from politics, leaving the regency to her confidant Bishop Henry II of Augsburg.  Bishop Henry did not receive wide acceptance due to his awkward and haughty manners, not least with a view to rumours about his relationship with the Empress as rendered by the chronicler Lambert of Hersfeld. Moreover, the fact that the heir to the throne was raised by common \"ministeriales\" led to anger with the princes. In 1062, young Henry IV was abducted by a group of men, including Archbishop Anno II of Cologne and Otto of Nordheim, in a conspiracy to remove Agnes from the throne, referred to as the Coup of Kaiserswerth. Henry was brought to Cologne, and despite jumping overboard from a board to escape, he was recaptured. Agnes resigned as regent, as ransom, and Anno together with the archbishops Siegfried of Mainz and Adalbert of Bremen took her place. According to Frutolf of Michelsberg she retired to Fruttuaria Abbey after the dethroning. When Henry IV reached the age of majority, Agnes moved to Rome where her arrival in 1065 is documented by Peter Damian. Agnes went on to act as a mediator and peacemaker between her son and the papacy. She died in Rome on 14 December 1077 and is buried at St. Peter's Basilica.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Agnes is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece \"The Dinner Party\", being represented as one of the 999 names on the \"Heritage Floor.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agnes of Poitou, also called Agnes of Aquitaine or Empress Agnes ( – 14 December 1077), a member of the House of Poitiers, was German queen from 1043 and Holy Roman Empress from 1046 until 1056. From 1056 to 1061 she acted as Regent of the Holy Roman Empire during the minority of her son Henry IV.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972529}
{"src_title": "Turnera diffusa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "Damiana is an ingredient in a traditional Mexican liqueur, which is sometimes used in lieu of triple sec in margaritas. Mexican folklore claims that it was used in the \"original\" margarita. The damiana margarita is popular in the Los Cabos region of Mexico.  Damiana was included in several 19th-century patent medicines, such as Pemberton's French Wine Coca. The leaves were omitted from that product's non-alcoholic counterpart, Coca-Cola.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phytochemistry.", "content": "Damiana contains damianin; tetraphyllin B; gonzalitosin I; arbutin; tricosan-2-one; acacetin; p-cymene; β-sitosterol; 1,8-cineole; apigenin; α-pinene; β-carotene; β-pinene; tannins; thymol; and hexacosanol. In total, 22 flavonoids, maltol glucoside, phenolics, seven cyanogenic glycosides, monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, the polyterpene ficaprenol-11, fatty acids, and caffeine have been found in the genus \"Turnera\".  As of 2006, damiana's constituents have not been identified for their effects attributed to the whole herb. Damiana's anxiolytic properties might be due to apigenin.  The extract from damiana has been found to suppress aromatase activity, including the isolated compounds pinocembrin and acacetin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"T. diffusa\" is a host plant for the Mexican Fritillary (\"Euptoieta hegesia\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Misidentification in commerce.", "content": "Viable plant and seed material sold as \"T. diffusa\" from both private and commercial sources largely turns out to be misidentified \"Turnera ulmifolia\" (a.k.a. \"False Damiana\"), a closely related species. This widespread issue has been noted by the scientific community, and has created much confusion among both amateur and professional horticulturists alike. While \"T. ulmifolia\" is similar in appearance, its chemical constituents and ethnobotanical uses are distinctly different. Mature stems of \"T. diffusa\" are woody, with small, grayed green leaves 13 to 16 mm long, 4.5 to 5.5 mm wide, obtuse at the apex, and strongly aromatic when crushed. \"T. ulmifolia\" is differentiated by herbaceous stems, larger blue-green leaves that are strongly dentate with a pointed apex, and only weakly aromatic.  One scientific study however, demonstrated this confusion being mostly associated with horticultural commerce, and does not extend appreciably to commercial herbal products, most of which exhibit constituents that can be definitively traced to \"T. diffusa\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Turnera diffusa, known as damiana, is a shrub native to southern Texas in the United States, Central America, Mexico, South America, and the Caribbean. It belongs to the family Passifloraceae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972530}
{"src_title": "Slag", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ore smelting.", "content": "In nature, iron, copper, lead, nickel and other metals are found in impure states called ores, often oxidized and mixed in with silicates of other metals. During smelting, when the ore is exposed to high temperatures, these impurities are separated from the molten metal and can be removed. Slag is the collection of compounds that are removed. In many smelting processes, oxides are introduced to control the slag chemistry, assisting in the removal of impurities and protecting the furnace refractory lining from excessive wear. In this case, the slag is termed \"synthetic\". A good example is steelmaking slag: quicklime and magnesite are introduced for refractory protection, neutralising the alumina and silica separated from the metal, and assist in the removal of sulfur and phosphorus from the steel. Ferrous and non-ferrous smelting processes produce different slags. The smelting of copper, lead and bauxite in non-ferrous smelting, for instance, is designed to remove the iron and silica that often occurs with those ores, and separates them as iron-silicate-based slags. Slag from steel mills in ferrous smelting, on the other hand, is designed to minimize iron loss and so mainly contains oxides of calcium, silicon, magnesium, and aluminium. Any sandy component or quartz component of the original ore automatically carries through the smelting process as silicon dioxide.  As the slag is channeled out of the furnace, water is poured over it. This rapid cooling, often from a temperature of around, is the start of the granulating process. This process causes several chemical reactions to take place within the slag, and gives the material its cementitious properties.  The water carries the slag in its slurry format to a large agitation tank, from where it is pumped along a piping system into a number of gravel based filter beds. The filter beds then retain the slag granules, while the water drains away and is returned to the system.  When the filtering process is complete, the remaining slag granules, which now give the appearance of coarse beach sand, can be scooped out of the filter bed and transferred to the grinding facility where they are ground into particles that are finer than Portland cement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient uses.", "content": "During the Bronze Age of the Mediterranean there were a vast number of differential metallurgical processes in use. A slag by-product of such workings was a colorful, glassy, vitreous material found on the surfaces of slag from ancient copper foundries. It was primarily blue or green and was formerly chipped away and melted down to make glassware products and jewelry. It was also ground into powder to add to glazes for use in ceramics. Some of the earliest such uses for the by-products of slag have been found in ancient Egypt.  Historically, the re-smelting of iron ore slag was common practice, as improved smelting techniques permitted greater iron yields—in some cases exceeding that which was originally achieved. During the early 20th century, iron ore slag was also ground to a powder and used to make agate glass, also known as slag glass.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern uses.", "content": "Ground granulated slag is often used in concrete in combination with Portland cement as part of a blended cement. Ground granulated slag reacts with a calcium byproduct created during the reaction of Portland cement to produce cementitious properties. Concrete containing ground granulated slag develops strength over a longer period, leading to reduced permeability and better durability. Since the unit volume of Portland cement is reduced, this concrete is less vulnerable to alkali-silica and sulfate attack.  This previously unwanted recycled product is used in the manufacture of high-performance concretes, especially those used in the construction of bridges and coastal features, where its low permeability and greater resistance to chlorides and sulfates can help to reduce corrosive action and deterioration of the structure. The slag can also be used to create fibers used as an insulation material called \"slag wool\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Basic slag.", "content": "Basic slag is a co-product of steelmaking, and is typically produced either through the blast furnace - oxygen converter route or the electric arc furnace - ladle furnace route. To flux the silica produced during steelmaking, limestone and/or dolomite are added, as well as other types of slag conditioners such as calcium aluminate or fluorspar. The major components of these slags therefore include the oxides of calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, and aluminum, with lesser amounts of manganese, phosphorus, and others depending on the specifics of the raw materials used.  Because of the slowly released phosphate content in phosphorus-containing slag, and because of its liming effect, it is valued as fertilizer in gardens and farms in steel making areas. However, the most important application is construction.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Slag is the glass-like by-product left over after a desired metal has been separated (i.e., smelted) from its raw ore. Slag is usually a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide. However, slags can contain metal sulfides and elemental metals. While slags are generally used to remove waste in metal smelting, they can also serve other purposes, such as assisting in the temperature control of the smelting, and minimizing any re-oxidation of the final liquid metal product before the molten metal is removed from the furnace and used to make solid metal. In some smelting processes, such as ilmenite smelting to produce titanium dioxide, the slag is the valuable product instead of the metal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972531}
{"src_title": "Michel Barnier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Barnier was born at La Tronche in the French Alps, into a Gaullist family in 1951. His father was a leather and textiles craftsman. In his youth, Barnier was a scout and choirboy. Barnier graduated from the ESCP business school in 1972.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National politics.", "content": "Barnier served on the staff of various Gaullist ministers in the 1970s, before being elected in 1978, aged 27, to the French National Assembly as deputy for the Department of Savoie representing the neo-Gaullists, Rally for the Republic (RPR), serving until 1993.  Together with Jean-Claude Killy he organised the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville as co-president of the COJO (\"Comité d'Organisation des Jeux Olympiques\").  Barnier first joined the French Cabinet as Minister of the Environment following the Right's landslide victory in the 1993 legislative election. In 1995, Jacques Chirac appointed him secretary of state for European affairs, serving as such until the defeat of the presidential majority in the 1997 legislative election. Barnier then served as a European Commissioner for Regional Policy in the Prodi Commission from 1999 until 31 March 2004. Then he served as Foreign Minister of France in Jean-Pierre Raffarin's government until 5 June 2005 when Dominique de Villepin replaced him with Philippe Douste-Blazy. He considered he was unjustly sanctioned for the victory of the \"No\" in the French referendum over the European Constitution.  In March 2006, Barnier was elected vice president of the European People's Party (EPP) for a three-year term. Under Nicolas Sarkozy's presidency, upon the reshuffle of the French cabinet, caused by the resignation of Alain Juppé after the 2007 French legislative election, he re-joined the French Cabinet as Minister of Agriculture.  In 2016, the French investigating judge Sabine Kheris requested that the case of Michel Barnier, Dominique de Villepin and Michèle Alliot-Marie be referred to the Court of Justice of the Republic. These former ministers were suspected of having allowed the exfiltration of the mercenaries responsible for the attack on the Bouaké camp in 2004, killing nine French soldiers. The operation was allegedly intended to justify a response operation against the Laurent Gbagbo government in the context of the 2004 crisis in Ivory Coast.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "European politics.", "content": "Barnier worked in 2006 as a special adviser to José Manuel Barroso, the then President of the European Commission, and presented a report to the Council of Ministers proposing the creation of a European civil-protection force. In 2006–2007, he served as member of the Amato Group, a group of high-level European politicians unofficially working on rewriting the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe into what became known as the Treaty of Lisbon following its rejection by French and Dutch voters.  Barnier led the UMP list in Ile-de-France for the 2009 European Parliament election. In February 2010 he was confirmed as European Commissioner for Internal Market and Services. In charge of European banking system reform, he argued for a \"coherent single market with intelligent rules that apply everywhere\".  He was twice appointed Acting Commissioner for Industry and Entrepreneurship in Antonio Tajani's stead, from 19 April 2014 to 25 May 2014 while he was on electoral campaign leave for the 2014 elections to the European Parliament and from 1 July 2014 to 16 July 2014 after he took up his seat.  As European Commissioner for Internal Market and Services, Barnier handled many important issues, such as the reform of the financial sector (40 pieces of legislation between 2010 and 2014), the banking union (starting with the Single Supervisory Mechanism) and the digital single market.  From 2015, Barnier served as unpaid special adviser on European defence policy to President of the European Commission Jean-Claude Juncker.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Brexit negotiator.", "content": "On 27 July 2016, he was announced as the European Commission's chief negotiator with the United Kingdom over leaving the European Union, under of the Treaty on European Union. Commenting on the appointment, Juncker said: \"I wanted an experienced politician for this difficult job.\"  For the 2020 Trade deal negotiation between the UK and EU, Barnier is the main negotiator, who received his negotiating mandate from the European Council on 25 February 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Timeline.", "content": "European Commission  European Commissioner for Internal Market and Services 2010–2014  European Commissioner for Regional Policy 1999–2004  French Government  Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries 2007–2009  Minister of Foreign Affairs 2004–2005  Minister of European Affairs 1995–1997  Minister of the Environment 1993–1995  Electoral mandates  European Parliament  Member of European Parliament 2009–2010 (resignation)  National Assembly of France  Member of the National Assembly of France for Savoie 1978–1993 (became minister in 1993). Elected in 1978, reelected in 1981, 1986, 1988, 1993.  Senate of France  Senator of Savoie. Elected in 1995, but remains minister 1997–1999 (resignation; became European commissioner in 1999).  General Council  President of the General Council of Savoie 1982–1999 (resignation; became European commissioner in 1999). Reelected in 1985, 1988, 1992, 1994, 1998.  General councillor of Savoie 1973–1999 (resignation, became European commissioner in 1999). Reelected in 1979, 1985, 1992, 1998.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michel Bernard Barnier (born 9 January 1951) is a French politician serving as the European Commission's Head of Task Force for Relations with the United Kingdom (UK Task Force/UKTF) since November 2019. He previously served as Chief Negotiator - Task Force for the Preparation and Conduct of the Negotiations with the United Kingdom under Article 50 TEU (Task Force 50/TF50) from October 2016 to November 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972532}
{"src_title": "Aero Spacelines Super Guppy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The first, the Super Guppy, or \"SG\", was built directly from the fuselage of a C-97J Turbo Stratocruiser, the military version of the 1950s Boeing 377 Stratocruiser passenger plane. The fuselage was lengthened to, and ballooned out to a maximum inside diameter of, the length of the cargo compartment being. The floor of the cargo compartment was still only wide, as necessitated by the use of the Stratocruiser fuselage. In addition to the fuselage modifications, the Super Guppy used Pratt & Whitney T-34-P-7WA turboprop engines for increased power and range, and modified wing and tail surfaces. It could carry a load of and cruise at. The second version was officially known as the Super Guppy Turbine (SGT), although it used turboprop engines like the first Super Guppy. This variant used Allison 501-D22C turboprops. Unlike the previous Guppy, the main portion of its fuselage was constructed from scratch. By building from scratch, Aero Spacelines was able to widen the floor of the cargo compartment to. The overall cargo-compartment length was increased to, and the improved fuselage and engines allowed for a maximum load of. These design improvements, combined with a pressurized crew cabin that allowed for higher-altitude cruising, allowed the SGT to transport more cargo than its predecessors. The SGT retained only the cockpit, wings, tail, and main landing gear of the 377. The nose gear was taken from a Boeing 707 and rotated 180 degrees. This dropped the front of the aircraft slightly, leveling the cargo-bay floor and simplifying loading operations.  In the early 1970s, the two Super Guppy Turbines were used by Airbus to transport aeroplane parts from decentralised production facilities to the final assembly plant in Toulouse. In 1982 and 1983, two additional Super Guppy Turbines were built by Union de Transports Aériens Industries in France after Airbus bought the right to produce the aircraft. The four Super Guppies have since been replaced by the Airbus Beluga, capable of carrying twice as much cargo by weight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aircraft.", "content": "All Super Guppies remain either in service or on display.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Aero Spacelines Super Guppy is a large, wide-bodied cargo aircraft that is used for hauling outsize cargo components. It was the successor to the Pregnant Guppy, the first of the Guppy aircraft produced by Aero Spacelines. Five were built in two variants, both of which were colloquially referred to as the \"Super Guppy\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972533}
{"src_title": "Clodius Albinus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Albinus was born in Hadrumetum, Africa Province (Sousse, Tunisia) to an aristocratic Roman family of the Ceionia gens. His father, Ceionius, said his son received the name of Albinus because of the extraordinary whiteness of his complexion. Showing a disposition for military life, he entered the army when very young and served with distinction, especially in 175 during the rebellion of Avidius Cassius against Emperor Marcus Aurelius. His merit was acknowledged by the Emperor in two letters in which he calls Albinus an African, who resembled his countrymen but little, and who was praiseworthy for his military experience and the gravity of his character. The Emperor likewise declared that without Albinus the legions (in Bithynia) would have gone over to Avidius Cassius, and that he intended to have him chosen consul.  The Emperor Commodus gave Albinus a command in Gallia Belgica and afterwards in Britain. A false rumor having been spread that Commodus had died, Albinus denounced the man before his soldiers in Britain, calling Commodus a tyrant, and maintaining that it would be useful to the Roman Empire to restore to the senate its ancient dignity and power. The Senate was very pleased with these sentiments, but not so the Emperor, who sent Junius Severus to relieve Albinus of his command. Despite this, Albinus kept his command until after the murders of Commodus and his successor Pertinax in 193.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Septimius Severus and Albinus.", "content": "After Pertinax was assassinated, the praetorian prefect Aemilius Laetus and his men, who had arranged the murder, \"sold\" the imperial throne to wealthy senator Didius Julianus, effectively crowning him emperor, but a string of mutinies by the troops in the provinces and the sudden assassination of Julianus meant the next Emperor was far from decided. Immediately afterwards, Pescennius Niger was proclaimed Emperor by the legions in Syria; Septimius Severus by the troops in Illyricum and Pannonia; and Albinus by the armies in Britain and Gaul.  In the civil war that followed, Albinus was initially allied with Septimius Severus, who had captured Rome. Albinus added the name Septimius to his own, and accepted the title of Caesar from him; the two shared a consulship in 194. Albinus remained effective ruler of much of the western part of the Empire, with support from three British legions and one Spanish. When Didius Julianus was put to death by order of the Senate, who dreaded the power of Septimius Severus, the latter turned his arms against Pescennius Niger. After the defeat and death of Niger in 194, and the complete discomfiture of his adherents, especially after the fall of Byzantium in 196, Severus resolved to make himself the absolute master of the Roman Empire. Albinus, seeing the danger of his position, prepared for resistance. He narrowly escaped being assassinated by a messenger of Severus, after which he put himself at the head of his army, which is said to have consisted of 150,000 men.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Albinus declares himself emperor.", "content": "In autumn 196, Albinus received word that Severus had appointed his elder son Caracalla as his successor with the title of Caesar and convinced the Senate to declare Albinus himself an official enemy of Rome. Now with nothing to lose, Albinus mobilized his legions in Britannia, proclaimed himself Emperor (\"Imperator Caesar Decimus Clodius Septimius Albinus Augustus\") and crossed from Britain to Gaul, bringing a large part of the British garrison with him. He defeated Severus' legate Virius Lupus, and was able to lay claim to the military resources of Gaul, but although he made Lugdunum the headquarters of his forces, he was unable to win the allegiance of the Rhine legions.  On 19 February 197 Albinus met Severus' army at the Battle of Lugdunum. After a hard-fought battle, with 150,000 troops on each side according to Dio Cassius, Albinus was defeated and killed himself, or was captured and executed on the orders of Severus. Severus had his naked body laid out on the ground before him, so that he could ride his horse over it, in a final act of humiliation. Albinus' wife and sons were initially pardoned by Severus, he appeared to change his mind almost immediately afterwards, for as the dead Albinus was beheaded, so were they. Albinus' headless body was thrown into the Rhône, together with the corpses of his murdered family. Severus sent his head to Rome as a warning to his supporters; with it he sent an insolent letter, in which he mocked the senate for their loyalty to Albinus. The town of Lugdunum was plundered, and the adherents of Albinus were cruelly persecuted by Severus.  He had one son, or perhaps two, who were executed with their mother by order of Severus. It is said that he wrote a treatise on agriculture and a collection of Milesian tales.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clodius Albinus (\"Decimus Clodius Ceionius Septimius Albinus Augustus\"; c. 150 – 19 February 197) was a Roman general, senator and usurper who claimed the imperial title several times between 193 and 197. He was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain and Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) after the murder of Pertinax in 193 (known as the \"Year of the Five Emperors\"), and who proclaimed himself emperor again in 196, before his final defeat the following year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972534}
{"src_title": "Ribonuclease", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Function.", "content": "All organisms studied contain many RNases of two different classes, showing that RNA degradation is a very ancient and important process. As well as cleaning of cellular RNA that is no longer required, RNases play key roles in the maturation of all RNA molecules, both messenger RNAs that carry genetic material for making proteins, and non-coding RNAs that function in varied cellular processes. In addition, active RNA degradation systems are a first defense against RNA viruses, and provide the underlying machinery for more advanced cellular immune strategies such as RNAi.  Some cells also secrete copious quantities of non-specific RNases such as A and T1. RNases are, therefore, extremely common, resulting in very short lifespans for any RNA that is not in a protected environment. It is worth noting that all intracellular RNAs are protected from RNase activity by a number of strategies including 5' end capping, 3' end polyadenylation, and folding within an RNA protein complex (ribonucleoprotein particle or RNP).  Another mechanism of protection is ribonuclease inhibitor (RI), which comprises a relatively large fraction of cellular protein (~0.1%) in some cell types, and which binds to certain ribonucleases with the highest affinity of any protein-protein interaction; the dissociation constant for the RI-RNase A complex is ~20 fM under physiological conditions. RI is used in most laboratories that study RNA to protect their samples against degradation from environmental RNases.  Similar to restriction enzymes, which cleave highly specific sequences of double-stranded DNA, a variety of endoribonucleases that recognize and cleave specific sequences of single-stranded RNA have been recently classified.  RNases play a critical role in many biological processes, including angiogenesis and self-incompatibility in flowering plants (angiosperms). Many stress-response toxins of prokaryotic toxin-antitoxin systems have been shown to have RNase activity and homology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "RNase specificity.", "content": "The active site looks like a rift valley where all the active site residues create the wall and bottom of the valley. the rift is very thin and the small substrate fits perfectly in the middle of the active site, which allows for perfect interaction with the residues. It actually has a little curvature to the site which the substrate also has. Although, usually most of exo- and endoribonucleases are not sequenced specific, recently CRISPR/Cas system natively recognizing and cutting DNA was engineered to cleave ssRNA in a sequence-specific manner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "RNase contamination during RNA extraction.", "content": "The extraction of RNA in molecular biology experiments is greatly complicated by the presence of ubiquitous and hardy ribonucleases that degrade RNA samples. Certain RNases can be extremely hardy and inactivating them is difficult compared to neutralizing DNases. In addition to the cellular RNases that are released, there are several RNases that are present in the environment. RNases have evolved to have many extracellular functions in various organisms. For example, RNase 7, a member of the RNase A superfamily, is secreted by human skin and serves as a potent antipathogen defence. In these secreted RNases, the enzymatic RNase activity may not even be necessary for its new, exapted function. For example, immune RNases act by destabilizing the cell membranes of bacteria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ribonuclease (commonly abbreviated RNase) is a type of nuclease that catalyzes the degradation of RNA into smaller components. Ribonucleases can be divided into endoribonucleases and exoribonucleases, and comprise several sub-classes within the EC 2.7 (for the phosphorolytic enzymes) and 3.1 (for the hydrolytic enzymes) classes of enzymes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972535}
{"src_title": "Emil Hácha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Emil Hácha was born on 12 July 1872 in the South Bohemian town of Trhové Sviny.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Judicial career.", "content": "He graduated from a secondary school in Budweis and then applied for the law faculty at the University of Prague. After finishing his studies in 1896 (JUDr.) he worked for the Country Committee of the Kingdom of Bohemia in Prague (a self-government body with quite limited power). Shortly after the outbreak of World War I, he became a judge at the Supreme Administrative Court in Vienna (the court was responsible for Cisleithania). He met there.  After the Treaty of Versailles, Pantůček became President of the Supreme Administrative Court of the Republic of Czechoslovakia in Prague, and Hácha became a judge (1918) and Deputy President (1919) of the court.  After Pantůček's death in 1925 he was chosen by T. G. Masaryk as his successor, becoming first President of the Supreme Administration Court.  He became one of the most notable lawyers in Czechoslovakia, a specialist in English common law and international law. He was also a translator of English literature (most notably \"Three Men in a Boat\" by Jerome K. Jerome), collector of art and a poet. His book \"Omyly a přeludy\" (\"Errors and Delusions\") was published in 1939 anonymously, then later under his own name in 2001. He also became a member of the Legislative Council.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President of Czechoslovakia.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second Czechoslovak Republic.", "content": "Following the Munich Agreement, Hácha was nominated as successor to Edvard Beneš on 30 November 1938 as President of Czechoslovakia. He was nominated because of his Catholicism, conservatism and lack of involvement in any of the governments that had led to the partition of the country.  The short era of his presidency before the German occupation is known as the Second Czechoslovak Republic and was marked by the shift from democracy to authoritarian state with the Enabling act giving previously unusual powers to the president and government and restricting the powers of the parliament.  After the secession of Slovakia and Ruthenia, British Ambassador to Czechoslovakia Basil Newton advised President Hácha to meet with Hitler. When Hácha first arrived in Berlin, he first met with the German Foreign Minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop prior to meeting with Hitler. Von Ribbentrop testified at the Nuremberg trials that during this meeting Hácha had told him that \"he wanted to place the fate of the Czech State in the Führer's hands.\"  In the evening of 14 March 1939, Hitler summoned President Hácha to the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. Hitler deliberately kept him waiting for hours, while Hitler watched a film. Wilhelm Keitel in his memoirs recalled that when Hácha arrived Hitler said that \"he was going to let the old gentleman rest and recover for two hours\" which was incomprehensible to Keitel. Finally, at 1:30 a.m., on 15 March 1939, Hitler saw the President. He told Hácha that as they were speaking, the German army was about to invade Czechoslovakia.  Hitler then gave the Czech President two options: cooperate with Germany, in which case the \"entry of German troops would take place in a tolerable manner\" and \"permit Czechoslovakia a generous life of her own, autonomy and a degree of national freedom...\" or face a scenario in which \"resistance would be broken by force of arms, using all means.\" Minutes of the conversation noted that for Hácha this was the most difficult decision of his life, but believed that in only a few years this decision would be comprehensible and in 50 years would probably be regarded as a blessing. According to Joachim Fest, Hácha suffered a heart attack induced by Göring's threat to bomb the capital and by four o'clock he contacted Prague, effectively \"signing Czechoslovakia away\" to Germany. Göring acknowledged making the threat to the British ambassador to Germany, Neville Henderson, but said that the threat came as a warning because the Czech government, after already agreeing to German occupation, couldn't guarantee that the Czech army would not fire on the advancing Germans. Göring however doesn't mention that Hácha had a heart attack because of his threat.  The French Ambassador Robert Coulondre reported that according to an unnamed, considered a reliable source by Coulondre, by half past four, Hácha was \"in a state of total collapse, and kept going only by means of injections.\" Coulondre described the scene at the Reich Chancellory:\"The German ministers [Göring and Ribbentrop] were pitiless. They literally hunted Dr. Hácha and M. Chvalkovsky round the table on which the documents were lying, thrusting them continually before them, pushing pens into their hands, incessantly repeating that if they continued in their refusal, half of Prague would lie in ruins from bombing within two hours, and that this would be only the beginning. Hundreds of bombers were waiting the order to take off, and they would receive that order at six in the morning if the signatures were not forthcoming\". However, Hitler's interpreter Paul Schmidt, who was present during the meeting, in his memoirs denied such turbulent scenes ever taking place with the Czechoslovak President. Historian Jean Ancel noted that Schmidt's memoirs are not a reliable source of information as he consistently downplayed and ignored the criminal policies of the Nazi regime as well his own role in them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.", "content": "After the occupation of the remnants of Czechoslovakia on 16 March, Hácha retained his office as President, but was forced to swear an oath to Hitler, who appointed Konstantin von Neurath as \"Protector of Bohemia and Moravia\". During his time as President of the Protectorate, Hácha also signed into law legislation modeled after the Nazi Nuremberg Laws that discriminated against Czech Jews. He dissolved the parliament, replacing it with the National Partnership.  Hácha's situation changed on 29 September 1941 when Reinhard Heydrich was appointed Deputy Protector of Bohemia and Moravia, as Neurath had been considered not harsh enough by Hitler. Hácha lost all remaining influence over the matters in his country and became a puppet. Many of his colleagues and friends were arrested (including the Prime Minister Alois Eliáš) and shot or sent to concentration camps.  After the death of Heydrich, the new Deputy Protector was Kurt Daluege. Hitler had originally planned to execute 10,000 Czechs in reprisal for the murder of Heydrich and warned Hácha that if another such incident occurred, \"we should have to consider deporting the whole Czech population\". This threat was made at Heydrich's funeral.  On 9 May 1945, Prague was liberated by the Red Army during the Prague Offensive. Emil Hácha was arrested on 13 May and transferred immediately to Pankrác Prison. He died in prison on 27 June under mysterious circumstances, with many historians entertaining the possibility of assassination, a suspicion shared by the Hácha family. After his death, he was buried at first in an unmarked grave at the Vinohrady Cemetery, but now there is a marker on his grave.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal.", "content": "In 1902, Hácha married Marie Háchová, née Klaus (born 17 April 1873 in Prague, died 6 February 1938 in Prague). They had a daughter, Milada. Marie died ten months before Hácha became president.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emil Dominik Josef Hácha (12 July 1872 – 27 June 1945) was a Czech lawyer, the third President of Czechoslovakia from 1938 to 1939. From March 1939, his country was under the control of the Germans and was known as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972536}
{"src_title": "Kim Ki-duk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Kim Ki-duk was born on December 20, 1960 in Bonghwa, North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. He studied fine arts in Paris from 1990 to 1993. After returning to South Korea, Kim began his career as a screenwriter and won the first prize in a scenario contest held by Korean Film Council in 1995. In the following year, Kim made his debut as a director with a low budget movie titled \"Crocodile\" (1996). The film received sensational reviews from movie critics in South Korea. Kim has said that his international breakthrough occurred with The Isle at the Toronto International Film Festival. His 2000 film \"Real Fiction\" was entered into the 23rd Moscow International Film Festival.  In 2004, he received Best Director awards at two different film festivals, for two different films. At the Berlin International Film Festival, he was awarded for \"Samaritan Girl\" (2004), and at the Venice Film Festival he won for \"3-Iron\" (also 2004). In 2011, his documentary film \"Arirang\" received an award for best film in the Un Certain Regard category from the Cannes Film Festival. In 2012, his film \"Pieta\" received the Golden Lion award at the Venice Film Festival, the first Korean film to receive a \"best film\" honor at one of the top three international film festivals - Venice, Berlin and Cannes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "The British Board of Film Classification delayed the release of Kim Ki-duk's \"The Isle\" (2000) in the United Kingdom because of instances of animal cruelty in the film. Concerning scenes in which a frog is skinned after being beaten to death and fish are mutilated, the director stated, \"We cooked all the fish we used in the film and ate them, expressing our appreciation. I've done a lot of cruelty on animals in my films. And I will have a guilty conscience for the rest of my life.\"  To a U.S. interviewer who suggested that scenes such as these are \"very disturbing and [seem] to place an obstacle to the films reception, or... distribution, to other countries\", Kim said, \"Yes, I did worry about that fact. But the way I see it, the food that we eat today is no different. In America you eat beef, pork, and kill all these animals. And the people who eat these animals are not concerned with their slaughter. Animals are part of this cycle of consumption. It looks more cruel onscreen, but I don't see the difference. And yes, there's a cultural difference, and maybe Americans will have a problem with it - but if they can just be more sensitive to what is acceptable in different countries I'd hope they wouldn't have too many issues with what's shown on-screen.\"  Another controversy surrounds the director’s alleged misogyny as represented in his films, decried by feminists in his home country as being “dangerous penis fascism.”", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sexual assault allegations.", "content": "In 2017, an anonymous actress came forward with allegations that she had been assaulted by Kim on the set of his film \"Moebius\". She claimed that he had hit her several times before pressuring her to participate in a sex scene she had not previously agreed to. In 2018, at least three women accused Kim of sexual assault. Kim filed false accusations and defamation suits against the accusers.  In January 2019, the court ordered Kim to pay a $4,450 (KRW 5 million) fine for the assault, but dismissed the sexual assault charge for lack of evidence. Kim subsequently sued the actress for false accusation. The following month, Kim filed a lawsuit against a women’s rights group over “damages” caused by the group against him.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kim Ki-duk ( ; born December 20, 1960) is a South Korean filmmaker noted for his idiosyncratic art-house cinematic works. His films have received many distinctions in the festival circuit, making him one of the most important contemporary Asian film directors. Major festival awards include Golden Lion at 69th Venice International Film Festival for \"Pietà\", Silver Lion for Best Director at 61st Venice International Film Festival for \"3-Iron\", Silver bear for Best Director at 54th Berlin International Film Festival for \"Samaria\" and Un Certain Regard prize at 2011 Cannes Film Festival for \"Arirang\". His most widely known feature is \"Spring, Summer, Fall, Winter... and Spring\" (2003), included in film critic Roger Ebert's Great Movies. Two of his films served as official submissions for Academy award for best foreign language film as South Korean entries. He has given scripts to several of his former assistant directors including Juhn Jai-hong (\"Beautiful\" and \"Poongsan\") and Jang Hoon (\"Rough Cut\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972537}
{"src_title": "Louis-Alexandre Berthier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Berthier was born on 20 November 1753 at Versailles to Lieutenant-colonel Jean-Baptiste Berthier (1721–1804), an officer in the Corps of Topographical Engineers, and his first wife (married in 1746) Marie Françoise L'Huillier de La Serre. He was the eldest of five children, with the three brothers also serving in the French Army, two becoming generals during the Napoleonic Wars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "As a boy, Berthier was instructed in the military art by his father, an officer of the \"Corps de genie\" (Engineer Corps). At the age of seventeen, he entered the army, serving successively in the staff, the engineers, and the Prince of Lambesq's dragoons. In 1780, Berthier went to North America with General Rochambeau, and on his return, having attained the rank of colonel, he was employed in various staff posts and in a military mission to Prussia. During the French Revolution, as chief of staff of the Versailles National Guard, he protected the aunts of Louis XVI from popular violence, and aided their escape in 1791.  In 1792, Berthier was at once made chief of staff to Marshal Lückner, and he bore a distinguished part in the Argonne campaign of Generals Dumouriez and Kellermann. He served with great credit in the Vendéan War of 1793–1795, and the next year was made a general of division and chief of staff (\"major-général\") to the Army of Italy, which Bonaparte had recently been appointed to command. He played an important role in the Battle of Rivoli, relieving General Joubert when the latter was attacked by the Austrian general Jozsef Alvinczi. His power of work, accuracy and quick comprehension, combined with his long and varied experience and his complete mastery of detail, made Berthier the ideal chief of staff. In this capacity, Berthier was Napoleon's most valued assistant for the rest of his career.  Berthier accompanied Napoleon throughout the campaign of 1796, and was left in charge of the army after the Treaty of Campo Formio. He was in this post in 1798 when he entered Italy, invaded the Vatican, organized the Roman Republic, and took the pope Pius VI as prisoner back to Valence where, after a torturous journey under Berthier's supervision, the pope died, dealing a major blow to the Vatican's political power which, however, did not prove as ephemeral as that of the First French Empire.  After this, Berthier joined his chief in Egypt, serving there until Napoleon's return. He assisted in the Coup of 18 Brumaire (9 November 1799), afterwards becoming Minister of War for a time. During the Battle of Marengo, Berthier was the nominal head of the Army of Reserve, but the first consul accompanied the army and he acted in reality, as always, as chief of staff to Napoleon.  Lest one think that this was a relatively safe job,a contemporary subordinate staff officer, Brossier, reports that at the Battle of Marengo: At the close of the campaign, he was employed in civil and diplomatic business. This included a mission to Spain in August 1800, which resulted in the retrocession of Louisiana to France by the Treaty of San Ildefonso on 1 October 1800, and led to the Louisiana Purchase.  When Napoleon deposed King Frederick William III of Prussia from the principality of Neuchâtel, Berthier was appointed its ruler. This lasted until 1814 and also brought him the title of sovereign prince in 1806.  When Napoleon became emperor, Berthier was at once made a Marshal of the Empire. He took part in the campaigns of Austerlitz, Jena, and Friedland. He was made Duke of Valangin in 1806 and Sovereign Prince of Neuchâtel that same year, and Vice-Constable of the Empire in 1807.  In 1808, he served in the Peninsular War, and in 1809, served in the Austrian theatre during the War of the Fifth Coalition, after which he was given the title of Prince of Wagram. He was with Napoleon in Russia in 1812, and took part in the extremely unusual council of war on whether to proceed, being one of several who advised against an advance on Moscow which Napoleon (encouraged by Joachim Murat also blamed by many for the horse-killing pace of the march into Russia) decided on. Berthier is said to have burst into tears at the decision. He served in Germany in 1813, and France in 1814, fulfilling, until the fall of the French Empire, the functions of \"major-général\" of the \"Grande Armée\".  Following Napoleon's first abdication, Berthier retired to his 600-acre (2.4 km2) estate, and resumed his hobbies of falconry and sculpture. He made peace with Louis XVIII in 1814 and accompanied the king on his solemn entry into Paris. During Napoleon's short exile on Elba, he informed Berthier of his projects. Berthier was much perplexed as to his future course and, being unwilling to commit to Napoleon, fell under the suspicion both of his old leader and of Louis XVIII.  On Napoleon's return to France, Berthier withdrew to Bamberg, where he died a few weeks later on 1 June 1815 in a fall from an upstairs window. The manner of his death is uncertain. According to some accounts, he was assassinated by members of a secret society, while others say that, maddened by the sight of Russian troops marching to invade France, he threw himself from his window and was killed.  The loss of Berthier's skills at Waterloo was keenly felt by Napoleon, as he later stated succinctly:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Character assessment.", "content": "Berthier was an immensely skilled chief of staff, but he was not a great field commander. When he was in temporary command in 1809, the French army in Bavaria underwent a series of reverses. Despite the fact that his merit as a general was completely overshadowed by the genius of Napoleon, Berthier was nevertheless renowned for his excellent organising skills and being able to understand and carry out the emperor's directions to the minutest detail. General Paul Thiébault said of him in 1796:  No one could have better suited General Bonaparte, who wanted a man capable of relieving him of all detailed work, to understand him instantly and to foresee what he would need.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "In 1796, Berthier fell in love with the Marquise Visconti, who was to be his mistress for the duration of the First French Empire, despite the emperor's disapproval. And even when Napoleon forced him to marry a Bavarian princess, the Duchess Maria Elisabeth, in 1808, Berthier made it so that his mistress and wife could get on and live under the same roof, to the emperor's fury.  On 9 March 1808, Berthier married Elisabeth who was the only daughter of Duke Wilhelm in Bavaria and Countess Palatine Maria Anna of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld-Rappolstein, the sister of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria, and a relative of the Russian emperor through the Wittelsbach line on the Bavarian side and Prussian (Mecklenburg) side of her lineage.  They had one son and two daughters :", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "Berthier is mentioned and/or appears in several of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Brigadier Gerard stories, including \"How the Brigadier Was Tempted by the Devil\" (1895) and in Leo Tolstoy's \"War and Peace\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis-Alexandre Berthier (20 November 1753 – 1 June 1815), 1st Prince of Wagram, Sovereign Prince of Neuchâtel, was a Marshal of the Empire doubling as Minister of War and chief of staff to Napoleon. Born into a military family, he served in the French Army and survived suspicion of monarchism during the Reign Of Terror, before a rapid rise in the ranks during the French Revolutionary Wars. Although a key supporter of the coup against the Directory that gave Napoleon supreme power, and present for his greatest victories, Berthier strongly opposed the progressive stretching of lines of communication during the Russian campaign. Allowed to retire by the restored Bourbon regime, he died of unnatural causes shortly before the Battle of Waterloo. Berthier's reputation as a superb operational organiser remains strong among current historians.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972538}
{"src_title": "Matthias Gallas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "On the general outbreak of hostilities in Germany, Gallas, as colonel of an infantry regiment, distinguished himself, especially at the battle of Stadtlohn (1623). In 1630 he was serving as \"General-Feldwachtmeister\" under Count Collalto in Italy, and was mainly instrumental in the capture of Mantua in the War of Mantuan Succession. Made count of the Empire for this service, he returned to Germany for the campaign against Gustavus Adolphus. In command of a corps of Wallenstein's army, he covered Bohemia against the Swedes in 1631-1632, and served at the Alte Veste near Nuremberg, and at Lützen. Further good service against Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar commended General Gallas to the notice of the emperor, who made him lieutenant-general in his own army.  Upon being approached by Joachim Friedrich von Blumenthal at the Emperor Ferdinand's behest, he became one of the chief conspirators against Wallenstein, and after the tragedy of Eger was appointed to the command of the army which Wallenstein had formed and led. At the great battle of Nördlingen (23 August 1634) in which the army of Sweden was almost annihilated, Gallas commanded the victorious Imperial forces. His next command was in Lorraine, but even the Moselle valley had suffered so much from the ravages of war that his army perished of want.  On 17 July 1635, Gallas tried in vain to conquer the Palatine town of Deux-Ponts, being defended by Reinhold von Rosen. A further try in October of the same year succeeded in contrast. This time the village was defended by French troops. By reason of a confirmation of free retreat the French disposed the town to the Imperial-Catholic troops to looting.  Still more was this the case in northern Germany, where Gallas commanded against the Swedish general Banér in 1637 and 1638. At first driving the Swedes before him, in the end he made a complete failure of the campaign, lost his command, and was subject to much ridicule.  It was, however, rather the indiscipline of his men (the baneful legacy of Wallenstein's methods) than his own faults which brought about his disastrous retreat across North Germany, and at a moment of crisis he was recalled to endeavour to stop Torstensson's victorious advance, only to be shut up in Magdeburg, whence he escaped with the barest remnant of his forces. Once more relieved of his command, he was again recalled to make head against the Swedes in 1645 (after their victory at Jankow). Before long, old and warworn, he resigned his command, and died in 1647 at Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assessment.", "content": "Gallas's \"ineffectiveness severely damaged the Habsburg cause in the latter stages of the Thirty Years’ War\". His army had earned for itself the reputation of being the most cruel and rapacious force even in the Thirty Years' War, and his \"Merode Bruder\" have survived in the word \"marauder\". Like many other generals of that period, he had acquired much wealth and great territorial possessions (the latter mostly his share of Wallenstein's estates). Although Gallas was victorious in the first of the battles of Nördlingen (1634), carelessness and drunkenness thereafter marred his conduct of the war. He later became known as the “destroyer of armies,” especially after his disastrous campaigns of 1637, 1638, and 1644, each of which resulted in the annihilation of his troops.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Gallas was the founder of the Austrian family of Clam-Gallas, which furnished many distinguished soldiers to the Imperial army.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Matthias Gallas, Graf von Campo und Herzog von Lucera (Count of Campo, Duke of Lucera) (Matteo Gallasso; 1584 in Trento – 1647 in Vienna), was an Austrian soldier, who first saw service in Flanders, then in Savoy with the Spaniards, and subsequently joined the forces of the Catholic League as captain during the Thirty Years' War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972539}
{"src_title": "DRB Class 52", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Over 6,700 locomotives of DRB Class 52 type were built across Europe for use on the Eastern Front during the Second World War. Thus it was one of the most numerous steam locomotives in the world. To achieve such numbers, the German locomotive manufacturers were merged into the \"Gemeinschaft Grossdeutscher Lokomotivhersteller\" (GGL), which was a subdivision of the \"Hauptausschuss Schienenfahrzeuge\" (HAS) founded in 1942. Key HAS figures were the Reichsminister for munition and armament, Albert Speer and the Reich transport minister, Julius Dorpmüller.  The GGL included the following locomotive manufacturers (including an approximate number of Class 52s produced):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engine design.", "content": "The class 52 was a simplified version of the prewar Reichsbahn class 50 locomotive (produced 1938-1942). The simplified design of the class 52 was intended to reduce the man-hours and skills needed to manufacture it and to adapt to wartime shortages of strategic materials. Additional design changes gave the locomotives and their crew better protection against the cold. Between 1942 and the end of the war in May 1945 over 6,300 class 52 locomotives were built. Additional locomotives were built post-war, giving a class total of probably 6719 units, delivered by seventeen manufacturers. The Class 42 was a larger version of the Class 52, but was produced in small numbers.  In the early postwar years class 52s were used by many European countries, the largest user being the Soviet Union, which had more than 2,100 of them, designated class TE (, from \"Trophy, equivalent to E-class\"). Poland had more than a thousand and East Germany had about 800. The type was also widespread among other eastern European nations. Western European countries replaced them with more modern locomotives as soon as possible, with the exception of Austria where they were used until 1976. The simplicity and effectiveness, plus the large production total, meant that many eastern European countries were slow to withdraw these \"Kriegslokomotiven.\" Poland used them into the early 1990s; Turkey and Bosnia were also late users of the type.  Wagner had wanted locomotives which were long-lasting and easy to maintain, and unlike British engineers did not consider a high power-to-weight ratio a priority. The resulting \"Kriegslokomotive\" had a low axleload of 15 tons and could haul 40 percent more freight than the old Prussian locomotives they replaced. The class 52 could haul 1,200 tons at 65 km/h (40 mph) without significant strain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Countries using the engine.", "content": "Following the invasion of Poland in September 1939 Nazi Germany disbanded the Polish State Railways (PKP). Polish rail officials were either executed in mass shootings or imprisoned, and some 8,000 managerial positions were staffed with German officials. Former Polish companies began producing German engines BR44, BR50 and BR86 as early as 1940, some using forced labor. By 1944, the factories in Poznań and Chrzanów were producing the redesigned \"Kriegslok\" BR52 locomotives for the Eastern Front. These locomotives were made almost entirely of steel; the use of more expensive, non-ferrous metals was dropped in view of the engines' expected lifespan. After the war, some 1,200 class 52s remained in reconstituted Poland. Another 200 were acquired from the Soviet Union in 1962-64. The class 52, designated Ty2, began to be phased out in the 1980s; its last regular use was in 1999.  Some 100 were built for Romanian State Railways, becoming class 150.1000 engines. Over 150 were in use by the Bulgarian State Railways as class 15. Turkish Republic Railways built 10 for forming the TCDD 56501 Class. Turkish Railways acquired 43 additional loc's at the end of the war, these had previously been on hire.  The Deutsche Reichsbahn (DR) in East Germany had 200 machines reconstructed to the new DR Class 52.80.  74 locomotives were sent to occupied Norway during World War II and were confiscated following the war. The Norwegian classification was class 63, and was nicknamed \"Stortysker\" (\"big German\"). One engine, restored by the Norwegian Railway Club, is preserved at the Norwegian Railway Museum in Hamar.  The ČSD Czechoslovak state railways used hundreds of 52s post-war, some left behind by the Germans after 1945, some being rebuilt by the Škoda Works in Plzeň. They bore designation class ČSD 555; several dozen were subsequently adapted, as the 555.3, to burn mazut fuel oil, a large surplus of which was generated in synthetic fuel plants in occupied Czechoslovakia from brown coal. The 555.3 differed visibly by having a lid on the smokestack to slow down cooling of the lining of the flue passage, to prevent cracking.  The Hungarian State Railways (MÁV) acquired 100 type 52s from the Soviet Union in 1963. They were designated class 520 and used into the 1980s. Others were used by Yugoslavia before that country's dissolution in the 1990s.  A few were still in industrial service in Bosnia in late 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "Several Class 52s have been preserved in operating condition. One is at the Nene Valley Railway in Peterborough, England. Another one is in service with the Franconian Museum Railway in Bavaria, Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Deutsche Reichsbahn's Class 52 is a German steam locomotive built in large numbers during the Second World War. It was the most produced type of the so-called \"Kriegslokomotiven\" or \"Kriegsloks\" (war locomotives). The Class 52 was a wartime development of the pre-war DRG Class 50, using fewer parts and less expensive materials to speed production. They were designed by Richard Wagner who was Chief Engineer of the Central Design Office at the Locomotive Standards Bureau of the DRG. About a dozen classes of locomotive were referred to as \"Kriegslokomotiven\"; however, the three main classes were the Class 52, 50 and 42.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972540}
{"src_title": "Yucca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The natural distribution range of the genus \"Yucca\" (49 species and 24 subspecies) covers a vast area of the Americas. The genus is represented throughout Mexico and extends into Guatemala (\"Yucca guatemalensis\"). It also extends to the north through Baja California in the west, northwards into the southwestern United States, through the drier central states as far north as southern Alberta in Canada (\"Yucca glauca\" ssp. \"albertana\").  Yucca is also native to some of the Caribbean Islands, northward to the coastal lowlands and dry beach scrub of the coastal areas of the southeastern United States, along the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic States from coastal Texas to Maryland.  Yuccas have adapted to an equally vast range of climatic and ecological conditions. They are to be found in rocky deserts and badlands, in prairies and grassland, in mountainous regions, in light woodland, in coastal sands (\"Yucca filamentosa\"), and even in subtropical and semitemperate zones, although these are generally arid to semi-arid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Yuccas have a very specialized, mutualistic pollination system, being pollinated by yucca moths (family Prodoxidae); the insect transfers the pollen from the stamens of one plant to the stigma of another, and at the same time lays an egg in the flower; the moth larva then feeds on some of the developing seeds, always leaving enough seed to perpetuate the species. Certain species of the yucca moth have evolved antagonistic features against the plant and do not assist in the plants pollination efforts while continuing to lay their eggs in the plant for protection.  Yucca species are the host plants for the caterpillars of the yucca giant-skipper (\"Megathymus yuccae\"), ursine giant-skipper (\"Megathymus ursus\"), and Strecker's giant-skipper (\"Megathymus streckeri\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "Species of yucca have adapted to a wide variety of climates in mountains, coastal sand, grasslands and prairies as well as rocky badlands and deserts. Most species of yucca have thick, waxy skins to prevent loss of water through evaporation. They frequently store water in thick roots. Some yuccas store water in thick, fleshy leaves. Some desert plants have an oily coating on their leaves or pads that traps moisture, thereby reducing water loss. Some species drop their leaves during drought to prevent the loss of water through transpiration. Dead leaves of yucca collecting against the trunk of the trees help protect it from the sun. The channeled leaves of a yucca direct dew and rainfall water to their roots. Yuccas are said to be \"fire adapted\"; that is, they grow and spread vigorously after wildfires.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Yuccas are widely grown as ornamental plants in gardens. Many species also bear edible parts, including fruits, seeds, flowers, flowering stems, and more rarely roots. References to yucca root as food often arise from confusion with the similarly pronounced, but botanically unrelated, yuca, also called cassava or manioc (\"Manihot esculenta\"). Roots of soaptree yucca (\"Yucca elata\") are high in saponins and are used as a shampoo in Native American rituals. Dried yucca leaves and trunk fibers have a low ignition temperature, making the plant desirable for use in starting fires via friction. The stem (when dried) that sports the flowers is often used in collaboration with a sturdy piece of cedar for making primitive fire. In rural Appalachian areas, species such as \"Yucca filamentosa\" are referred to as \"meat hangers\". The tough, fibrous leaves with their sharp-spined tips were used to puncture meat and knotted to form a loop with which to hang meat for salt curing or in smoke houses. The fibers can be used to make cordage be it sewing thread or rope.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gastronomy.", "content": "The flower petals are eaten. The petals are blanched for just 5 minutes, and then cooked \"a la mexicana\" (with tomato, onion, chile) or in \"tortitas con salsa\" (egg-battered patties with green or red sauce). Reproductive organs are removed before blanching because they are too bitter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Yuccas are widely grown as architectural plants providing a dramatic accent to landscape design. They tolerate a range of conditions, but are best grown in full sun in subtropical or mild temperate areas. In gardening centres and horticultural catalogues they are usually grouped with other architectural plants such as cordylines and phormiums.  Joshua trees (\"Yucca brevifolia\") are protected by law in some states. A permit is needed for wild collection. As a landscape plant, they can be killed by excessive water during their summer dormant phase, so are avoided by landscape contractors.  Several species of yucca can be grown outdoors in temperate climates, including:-", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolism.", "content": "The yucca flower is the state flower of New Mexico. No species name is given in the citation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": ", the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families recognizes 49 species of \"Yucca\" and a number of hybrids: A number of other species previously classified in \"Yucca\" are now classified in the genera \"Dasylirion\", \"Furcraea\", \"Hesperaloe\", \"Hesperoyucca\", and \"Nolina\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "In the years from 1897 to 1907, Carl Ludwig Sprenger created and named 122 \"Yucca\" hybrids.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yucca is a genus of perennial shrubs and trees in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Agavoideae. Its 40–50 species are notable for their rosettes of evergreen, tough, sword-shaped leaves and large terminal panicles of white or whitish flowers. They are native to the hot and dry (arid) parts of the Americas and the Caribbean.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972541}
{"src_title": "Coffea arabica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first written record of coffee made from roasted coffee beans (botanical seeds) comes from Arab scholars, who wrote that it was useful in prolonging their working hours. The Arab innovation in Yemen of making a brew from roasted beans, spread first among the Egyptians and Turks, and later on found its way around the world. Other scholars believe that the coffee plant was introduced from Yemen, based on a Yemeni tradition that slips of both coffee and \"qat\" were planted at 'Udein' ('the two twigs') in Yemen in pre-Islamic times.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "Wild plants grow between tall, and have an open branching system; the leaves are opposite, simple elliptic-ovate to oblong, long and broad, glossy dark green. The flowers are white, 10–15 mm in diameter and grow in axillary clusters. The seeds are contained in a drupe (commonly called a \"cherry\") 10–15 mm in diameter, maturing bright red to purple and typically contains two seeds, often called coffee beans.  \"Coffea arabica\" is the only polyploid species of the genus \"Coffea,\" as it carries 4 copies of the 11 chromosomes (44 total) instead of the 2 copies of diploid species. Specifically, \"Coffea arabica\" is itself the result of a hybridization between the diploids \"Coffea canephora\" and \"Coffea eugenioides,\" thus making it an allotetraploid, with \"two\" copies of two different genomes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Arabica coffee production in Indonesia began in 1699 through the spread of Yemen's trade. Indonesian coffees, such as Sumatran and Java, are known for heavy body and low acidity. This makes them ideal for blending with the higher acidity coffees from Central America and East Africa. Endemic to the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia. \"Coffea arabica\" is now rare in Ethiopia, while many populations appear to be of mixed native and planted trees. It is commonly used as an understorey shrub. It has also been recovered from the Boma Plateau in South Sudan. \"Coffea arabica\" is also found on Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya, but it is unclear whether this is a truly native or naturalised occurrence. The species is widely naturalised in areas outside its native land, in many parts of Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia, China, and assorted islands in the Caribbean and in the Pacific.  The conservation of the genetic variation of \"C. arabica\" relies on conserving healthy populations of wild coffee in the Afromontane rainforests of Yemen. Genetic research has shown coffee cultivation is threatening the genetic integrity of wild coffee because it exposes wild genotypes to cultivars. Nearly all of the coffee that has been cultivated over the past few centuries originated with just a handful of wild plants from Yemen, and today the coffee growing on plantations around the world contains less than 1% of the diversity contained in the wild in Yemen alone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and use.", "content": "\"Coffea arabica\" accounts for 60% of the world's coffee production.  \"C. arabica\" takes approximately seven years to mature fully, and it does best with 1.0–1.5 meters (about 40–59 inches) of rain, evenly distributed throughout the year. It is usually cultivated between 1,300 and 1,500 m altitude, but there are plantations that grow it as low as sea level and as high as 2,800 m.  The plant can tolerate low temperatures, but not frost, and it does best with an average temperature between. Commercial cultivars mostly only grow to about 5 m, and are frequently trimmed as low as 2 m to facilitate harvesting. Unlike \"Coffea canephora,\" \"C. arabica\" prefers to be grown in light shade.  Two to four years after planting, \"C. arabica\" produces small, white, highly fragrant flowers. The sweet fragrance resembles the sweet smell of jasmine flowers. Flowers opening on sunny days result in the greatest numbers of berries. This can be problematic and deleterious, however, as coffee plants tend to produce too many berries; this can lead to an inferior harvest and even damage yield in the following years, as the plant will favor the ripening of berries to the detriment of its own health.  On well-kept plantations, overflowering is prevented by pruning the tree. The flowers only last a few days, leaving behind only the thick, dark-green leaves. The berries then begin to appear. These are as dark green as the foliage, until they begin to ripen, at first to yellow and then light red and finally darkening to a glossy, deep red. At this point, they are called \"cherries\", which fruit they then resemble, and are ready for picking.  The berries are oblong and about 1 cm long. Inferior coffee results from picking them too early or too late, so many are picked by hand to be able to better select them, as they do not all ripen at the same time. They are sometimes shaken off the tree onto mats, which means ripe and unripe berries are collected together.  The trees are difficult to cultivate and each tree can produce from 0.5 to 5.0 kg of dried beans, depending on the tree's individual character and the climate that season. The most valuable part of this cash crop are the beans inside. Each berry holds two locules containing the beans. The coffee beans are actually two seeds within the fruit; sometimes, a third seed or one seed, a peaberry, grows in the fruit at tips of the branches. These seeds are covered in two membranes; the outer one is called the \"parchment coat\" and the inner one is called the \"silver skin\".  On Java, trees are planted at all times of the year and are harvested year round. In parts of Brazil, however, the trees have a season and are harvested only in winter. The plants are vulnerable to damage in such poor growing conditions as cold or low pH soil, and they are also more vulnerable to pests than the \"C. robusta\" plant.  The coffee tree was first brought to Hawaii in 1813, and it began to be extensively grown by about 1850. It was formerly more widely grown than at present, especially in Kona, and it persists after cultivation in many areas. In some valleys, it is a highly invasive weed. In the Udawattakele and Gannoruwa Forest Reserves near Kandy, Sri Lanka, coffee shrubs are also a problematic invasive species.  It is expected that a medium-term depletion of indigenous populations of \"C. arabica\" may occur, due to projected global warming, based on IPCC modelling. Climate change—rising temperatures, longer droughts, and excessive rainfall—appears to threaten the sustainability of arabica coffee production, leading to attempts to breed new cultivars for the changing conditions.  Gourmet coffees are almost exclusively high-quality mild varieties of arabica coffee, and among the best known arabica coffee beans in the world are those from Jamaican Blue Mountain, Colombian Supremo, Tarrazú, Costa Rica, Guatemalan Antigua, and Ethiopian Sidamo. Espresso typically is made from a blend of \"arabica\" and \"robusta\" beans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Coffea arabica\" was first described scientifically by Antoine de Jussieu, who named it \"Jasminum arabicum\" after studying a specimen from the Botanic Gardens of Amsterdam. Linnaeus placed it in its own genus \"Coffea\" in 1737.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Strains.", "content": "One strain of \"Coffea arabica\" naturally contains very little caffeine. While beans of normal \"C. arabica\" plants contain 12 mg of caffeine per gram of dry mass, these mutants contain only 0.76 mg of caffeine per gram, but with taste similar to normal coffee.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Coffea arabica (), also known as the Arabian coffee, \"coffee shrub of Arabia\", \"mountain coffee\" or \"arabica coffee\", is a species of \"Coffea\". It is believed to be the first species of coffee to be cultivated, and is the dominant cultivar, representing about 60% of global production. Coffee produced from the (less acidic, more bitter, and more highly caffeinated) robusta bean (\"C. canephora\") makes up most of the remaining coffee production. Arabica coffee was first found in Yemen and documented by the 12th century. Coffea arabica is called \"būna\" in Arabic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972542}
{"src_title": "Moses Hess", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Moses (Moshe) Hess was born in Bonn, which was under French rule at the time. In his French-language birth certificate, his name is given as \"Moïse\"; he was named after his maternal grandfather. His father was an ordained rabbi, but never practiced this profession. Hess received a Jewish religious education from his grandfather, and later studied philosophy at the University of Bonn, but never graduated.  He married a poor Catholic seamstress, Sibylle Pesch, \"in order to redress the injustice perpetrated by society\". Although they remained happily married until Hess' death, Sibylle may have had an affair with Friedrich Engels while he was smuggling her from Belgium to France to be reunited with her husband. The incident may have precipitated Hess' split from the Communist movement.  Hess was an early proponent of socialism, and a precursor to what would later be called Zionism. As correspondent for the, a radical newspaper founded by liberal Rhenish businessmen, he lived in Paris. He was a friend and collaborator of Karl Marx (who also worked on the ) and Friedrich Engels. Hess introduced Engels, the future famous communist, to the communism of the early 1840s.  But Marx and Engels would become known for their fickle and pugnacious approach to fellow socialists who showed insufficient agreement with their own form of socialism. By the late 1840s, they had fallen out with Hess. They mocked him, first behind his back and later openly. The work of Hess was also criticized in part of \"The German Ideology\" by Marx and Engels.  Hess fled to Belgium and Switzerland temporarily following the suppression of the 1848 commune. He would also go abroad during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71.  Hess died in Paris in 1875. As he requested, he was buried in the Jewish cemetery of Cologne. In 1961, he was re-interred in the Kinneret Cemetery in Israel along with other Socialist-Zionists such as Nachman Syrkin, Ber Borochov, and Berl Katznelson.  Moshav Kfar Hess was named in his honour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Views and opinions.", "content": "Hess became reluctant to base all history on economic causes and class struggle (as Marx and Engels did), and he came to see the struggle of races, or nationalities, as the prime factor of history.  According to George Litcheim, Hess, who differed from Marx on a number of issues, still testified in a letter to Alexander Herzen that what he and Herzen were writing about \"resembles a neat sketch drawn on paper, whereas Marx's judgment upon these events [European upheavals] is as it were engraved with iron force in the rock of time\" (Paraphrased by George Lichtheim, \"A Short History of Socialism\", 1971 p. 80).  From 1861 to 1863, he lived in Germany, where he became acquainted with the rising tide of German antisemitism. It was then that he reverted to his Jewish name Moses (after apparently going by Moritz Hess) in protest against Jewish assimilation. He published \"\" in 1862. Hess interprets history as a circle of race and national struggles. He contemplated the rise of Italian nationalism and the German reaction to it, and from this he arrived at the idea of Jewish national revival, and at his prescient understanding that the Germans would not be tolerant of the national aspirations of others and would be particularly intolerant of the Jews. His book calls for the establishment of a Jewish socialist commonwealth in Palestine, in line with the emerging national movements in Europe and as the only way to respond to antisemitism and assert Jewish identity in the modern world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scholarly work.", "content": "Hess's \"Rome and Jerusalem: The Last National Question\" went unnoticed in his time, as most German Jews preferred cultural assimilation. His work did not stimulate political activity or discussion. When Theodor Herzl first read \"Rome and Jerusalem\" he wrote that \"since Spinoza Jewry had no bigger thinker than this forgotten Moses Hess.\" He said he might not have written (\"The Jewish State\") if he had known \"Rome and Jerusalem\" beforehand. Vladimir Ze'ev Jabotinsky honored Hess in \"The Jewish Legion in the World War\" as one of the people that made the Balfour declaration possible, along with Herzl, Walter Rothschild and Leon Pinsker.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Moses (Moshe) Hess (January or June 21, 1812 – April 6, 1875) was a French-Jewish philosopher and a founder of Labor Zionism. His socialist theories, predicated on racial struggle, led to conflict with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. A devoted Spinozist, Hess was profoundly influenced by Spinoza's life and philosophy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972543}
{"src_title": "Manuel I of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Manuel's mother was the granddaughter of King John I of Portugal, whereas his father was the second surviving son of King Edward of Portugal and the younger brother of King Afonso V of Portugal.  In 1495, Manuel succeeded his first cousin, King John II of Portugal, who was also his brother-in-law, as husband to Manuel's sister, Eleanor of Viseu.  Manuel grew up amidst conspiracies of the Portuguese upper nobility against King John II. He was aware of many people being killed and exiled. His older brother Diogo, Duke of Viseu, was stabbed to death in 1484 by the king himself.  Manuel thus would have had every reason to worry when he received a royal order in 1493 to present himself to the king, but his fears were groundless: John II wanted to name him heir to the throne after the death of his son Prince Afonso and the failed attempts to legitimise Jorge, Duke of Coimbra, his illegitimate son. As a result of this stroke of luck, Manuel was nicknamed \"the Fortunate\", and succeeded on John's death in 1495.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imperial expansion.", "content": "Manuel would prove a worthy successor to his cousin John II for his support of Portuguese exploration of the Atlantic Ocean and development of Portuguese commerce. During his reign, the following achievements were realized:  1498 – The discovery of a maritime route to India by Vasco da Gama. <br> 1500 – The discovery of Brazil by Pedro Álvares Cabral.<br> 1501 – The discovery of Labrador by Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real.<br> 1505 – The appointment of Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of India.<br> 1503–1515 – The establishment of monopolies on maritime trade routes (\"mare clausum\") to the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf by Afonso de Albuquerque.  The capture of Malacca in modern-day Malaysia in 1511 was the result of a plan by Manuel I to thwart the Muslim trade in the Indian Ocean by capturing Aden, blocking trade through Alexandria, capturing Ormuz to block trade through the Persian Gulf and Beirut, and capturing Malacca to control trade with China.  All these events made Portugal wealthy from foreign trade as it formally established a vast overseas empire. Manuel used the wealth to build a number of royal buildings (in the \"Manueline\" style) and to attract scientists and artists to his court.  Commercial treaties and diplomatic alliances were forged with Ming dynasty of China and the Persian Safavid dynasty. Pope Leo X received a monumental embassy from Portugal during his reign designed to draw attention to Portugal's newly acquired riches to all of Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Judicial reform.", "content": "In Manuel's reign, royal absolutism was the method of government. The Portuguese Cortes (the assembly of the kingdom) met only three times during his reign, always in Lisbon, the king's seat.  He reformed the courts of justice and the municipal charters with the crown, modernizing taxes and the concepts of tributes and rights. During his reign, the laws in force in the kingdom of Portugal were recodified with the publication of the Manueline Ordinations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Portuguese Inquisition.", "content": "Manuel was a very religious man and invested a large amount of Portuguese income to send missionaries to the new colonies, among them Francisco Álvares, and sponsor the construction of religious buildings, such as the Monastery of Jerónimos. Manuel also endeavoured to promote another crusade against the Turks.  His relationship with the Portuguese Jews started out well. At the outset of his reign, he released all the Jews who had been made captive during the reign of John II. Unfortunately for the Jews, he decided that he wanted to marry Infanta Isabella of Aragon, then heiress of the future united crown of Spain (and widow of his nephew Prince Afonso). Her parents Ferdinand and Isabella had expelled the Jews in 1492 and would never marry their daughter to the king of a country that still tolerated their presence. In the marriage contract, Manuel I agreed to persecute the Jews of Portugal.  In December 1496, it was decreed that all Jews either convert to Christianity or leave the country without their children. However, those expelled could only leave the country in ships specified by the king. When those who chose expulsion arrived at the port in Lisbon, they were met by clerics and soldiers who tried to use coercion and promises in order to baptize them and prevent them from leaving the country.  This period of time technically ended the presence of Jews in Portugal. Afterwards, all converted Jews and their descendants would be referred to as \"New Christians\", and they were given a grace period of thirty years in which no inquiries into their faith would be allowed; this was later extended to end in 1534.  During the course of the Lisbon massacre of 1506, people invaded the Jewish Quarter and murdered thousands of accused Jews; the leaders of the riot were executed by Manuel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Isabella died in childbirth in 1498, thus putting a damper on Portuguese ambitions to rule in Spain, which various rulers had harbored since the reign of King Ferdinand I (1367–1383). Manuel and Isabella's young son, Miguel da Paz, was named Prince of Asturias, Prince of Portugal, and Prince of Girona, making him heir apparent of Castile, Portugal, and Aragon until his death in 1500, at the age of two years, ended the ambitions of the Catholic Monarchs and Manuel.  Manuel's next wife, Maria of Aragon, was his first wife's younger sister. Two of their sons later became kings of Portugal. Maria died in 1517 but the two sisters were survived by an older sister, Joanna of Castile, who was born in 1479 and had married the Archduke Philip (Maximilian I's son) and had a son, Charles V who would eventually inherit Spain and the Habsburg possessions.  Manuel I was awarded the Golden Rose by Pope Julius II in 1506 and by Pope Leo X in 1514. Manuel I became the first individual to receive more than one Golden Rose after Emperor Sigismund von Luxembourg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In December 1521, while Lisbon was dealing with an outbreak of the Black Plague, Manuel and his court were quarantined inside Ribeira Palace. Beginning on the 4th of December, Manuel began displaying symptoms of an intense fever, which incapacitated Manuel by the 11th. He died two days later, on 13 December 1521, at the age of 52, being succeeded by his son, John III of Portugal, as king.  The day after his death, on 14 December, his body transported to the Belém district of Lisbon, in a black velvet-draped coffin, followed by masses of mourners. He was provisionally buried at Restelo Church, while the royal pantheon of the House of Aviz was funished inside Jerónimos Monastery. His coffin was buried by four of the most prominent nobles of the kingdom, the Duke of Braganza, the Duke of Coimbra, and the, in a private ceremony attended only by the royal family and the Portuguese nobility. His remains were transferred to Jerónimos Monastery only in 1551, along with his second wife Maria of Aragon.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Manuel I (; 31 May 146913 December 1521), known as the Fortunate (), was King of Portugal from 1495 to 1521. A member of the House of Aviz, Manuel was Duke of Beja and Viseu prior to succeeding his cousin, John II of Portugal, as monarch. Manuel ruled over a period of intensive expansion of the Portuguese Empire owing to the numerous Portuguese discoveries made during his reign. His sponsorship of Vasco da Gama led to the Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India in 1498, resulting in the creation of the Portuguese India Armadas, which guaranteed Portugal's monopoly on the spice trade. Manuel began the Portuguese colonization of the Americas and Portuguese India, and oversaw the establishment of a vast trade empire across Africa and Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972544}
{"src_title": "Hannelore Kohl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "She was born in Berlin and christened Johanna Klara Eleonore Renner. Her father Wilhelm Renner who joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in 1933, became an engineer, business executive, Wehrwirtschaftsführer at Hugo Schneider AG and also headed the employment office that developed the anti-tank weapon Panzerfaust. Later, she chose the portmanteau \"Hannelore\" to be used as her first name.  In the days following Germany's defeat in World War II, at the age of 12, Hannelore Kohl was \"one of the girls battered and defiled by Stalin's soldiers\", multiple times raped by multiple Soviet soldiers and then thrown out of a window In addition to the obvious psychological impact, the attacks left her with a fractured vertebra and back pain for the rest of her life. In order to help others with similar injuries, in 1983 she founded the Kuratorium ZNS, a foundation that helps those with trauma-induced injuries to the central nervous system, and became its president.  Hannelore Kohl had trained as an interpreter of English and French, which she spoke fluently. She had to end her studies in 1952, when her father died, and worked for some years as a foreign-language secretary. She later utilized her fluency in English and French in personal diplomacy alongside her husband, who spoke no foreign languages.  On 5 July 2001, Hannelore was found dead at age 68 in her Ludwigshafen home. She had apparently committed suicide with an overdose of sleeping pills, after years of suffering from what she had claimed to be a very rare and painful photo allergy induced by an earlier penicillin treatment that had forced her to avoid practically all sunlight for years. Hannelore's biographer,, cited \"medical experts to support his theory that the bizarre light allergy of her later years may have been a psychosomatic reaction to the suppressed traumas of the war.\" In 2005, the Kuratorium ZNS was renamed ZNS - Hannelore Kohl Stiftung in her honor.  Kohl's collection of German-style cooking recipes, \"Kulinarische Reise durch Deutsche Länder\" (\"Culinary Journey through German Regions\"), was published in 1996.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johanna Klara Eleonore \"Hannelore\" Kohl (née Renner) (7 March 1933 – 5 July 2001) was the first wife of German Chancellor Helmut Kohl. She met him for the first time at a prom in Ludwigshafen, Germany in 1948, when she was 15 years old, and they became engaged in 1953. They were married from 1960 until her death in 2001, including during his entire political career. They were the parents of Walter Kohl and Peter Kohl.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972545}
{"src_title": "Jonsdorf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1539 Jonsdorf was first mentioned in a document which showed the selling of land to ten new settlers by the monastery of Oybin. In 1547 the whole land of Oybin had been sold to the city of Zittau by Maximilian the Second.  In 1580 Hieronymus Richter established the first sandstone quarry inside the rock formations surrounding Jonsdorf to produce millstones. Some decades later, in 1667, the city-council of Zittau decided to found some additional quarries in the district between Jonsdorf and Waltersdorf. The production of millstone ended in 1917.  In the next years the two villages grew. After cutting down a forest between the villages of old and new Jonsdorf in 1731, both parts of the villages were unified. The construction of a church in Jonsdorf started in the same year.  Like many other villages and towns in Upper Lusatia, Jonsdorf established a special kind of industry in the 18th and 19th century - the weaving of linen. The first touristic development in the village started in 1841 when Karl Linke opened the first cold water cure house \"(Kaltwasseranstalt)\" applying hydrotherapy. The spa-tourism became more and more important in the years later. In 1890 a narrow-gauge railway link was opened between Zittau and Jonsdorf and helped the village to flourish.  After the end of World War II and the arrival of expelled Sudeten Germans from Bohemia, a small development programme was set up that included the construction of an icedome and a forest theatre in the 1950s. In 1984 a new school was opened. New projects after the reunification of Germany improved the economical structure even further. A leisure centre with an ice rink went into operation in 1996, and in 2004 a butterfly house \"(Schmetterlingshaus)\" was opened.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "The most important sights of the village are the mountains and rock formations that surround it, which often have very bizarre shapes. The village itself offers some special institution out of the cure-tradition for example a park. There are also some of the old timber-frame houses \"(Umgebindehäuser)\" that offer some wonderful views with their jolly colors and the flowers that surround them.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The community of Jonsdorf is located in the south of the Kreis Görlitz in the southeast of the German federal state of Saxony. It is embedded into a valley of the Zittau Mountains, part of the Lusatian Mountains.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972546}
{"src_title": "Sněžka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Sněžka was one of the first European mountains visited by many tourists. This was mainly due to the relatively minor technical difficulties of the ascent and the fact that since the sixteenth century, many resort visitors flocked to the nearby Cieplice Śląskie-Zdrój and the highly visible Sněžka, visually dominant over all Krkonoše was for them an important attraction.  The first historical account of an ascent to the peak is in 1456, by an unknown Venetian merchant searching for precious stones. The first settlements on the mountain soon appeared, being primarily mining communities, tapping into its deposits of copper, iron and arsenic. The mining shafts, totalling in length, remain to this day.  The first recorded German name was \"Riseberg\" (\"giant mountain\", cf. \"Riesengebirge\", \"Giant Mountains\"), mentioned by Georg Agricola in 1546. Fifteen years later the name \"Riesenberg\" appears on Martin Helwig's map of Silesia. The German name later changed to \"Riesenkoppe\" (\"giant top\") and finally to \"Schneekoppe\" (\"snow top\", \"snowy head\").  In Czech, the mountain was initially called \"Pahrbek Sněžný\" (\"snow hill\"); later \"Sněžka\", with the eventual name \"Sněžovka\", meaning \"snowy\" or \"snow-covered\", which was adopted in 1823. An older Polish name for the mountain was \"Góra Olbrzymia\", meaning \"giant mountain\".  The first building on the mountaintop was the Chapel of Saint Lawrence (\"Laurentiuskapelle\"), built ca. 1665–1681 by the Silesian noble Schaffgotsch family to mark their dominion, serving also as an inn for a brief period of time. The territory including the mines were the property of the Schaffgotsch family until 1945. The so-called \"Prussian hut\" (\"Preußische Baude\") was built on the Silesian (now Polish) side in 1850, followed by the \"Bohemian hut\" (\"Česká bouda\") on the Bohemian (now Czech) side in 1868, both built with the purpose of providing lodging. The Prussian hut was rebuilt twice after fires (1857 and 1862), and the (after 1945) \"Polish hut\" was finally demolished in 1967. The Bohemian hut fell into disrepair after 1990 and was demolished in 2004.  A wooden weather station was built on the mountaintop ca. 1900, being the only weather station in Central Europe remaining intact after World War II. It was demolished in the 1980s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "One side of the mountain is in the Czech Republic; the other belongs to Poland. The area is very popular in summer with tourists from the Czech Republic, Poland, and Germany, who enjoy hiking in the alpine environment unique to this area.  On the Polish side a disc-shaped observatory with a weather station and restaurant was built in 1974, and the St. Lawrence Chapel. On the Czech side are a post office, and a chairlift station, connecting the peak with the town of Pec pod Sněžkou at the base of the mountain.  Although the mountain is the highest natural peak in the Czech Republic, the actual highest point is the top of the television transmitter on Praděd, reaching 1,652 metres (1,491+162 m). If the Polish observatory is taken into account, Sněžka peaks at 1,620 metres.  In 2004 a new post office and observation platform replaced an old post office and the remains of the Bohemian hut, which had been closed since the 1980s.  In March 2009 the Polish observatory suffered serious damage to the upper disc as a result of extreme weather and structural failure. The upper disc's floor broke, though a fast response from the Technical University of Wrocław saved the remaining disc from taking any further damage. The restaurant and meteo offices were reopened soon after the construction team had finished clearing the debris and securing what was left of the observatory. After detailed inspection it was determined that no further damage should occur and the building was restored to its previous state. The upper disc was restored to its 1974 design (with contemporary improvements), skipping certain \"improvements\" made in 1980s and 1990s which were suspected to contribute to the structural failure of March 2009.  The old chairlift to the top of Sněžka was replaced by a new cable car system. Since February 2014, the four-person cabins in two sections have carried 250 visitors per hour from the Czech city Pec pod Sněžkou.  There are many marked tourist routes from the Polish side to the summit, mainly from the city of Karpacz. It is possible to take a chairlift from Karpacz to Kopa (1377 m a.s.l.) which significantly shortens the way to the summit.  Śnieżka belongs to the Crown of Europe, Crown of Polish Mountains and Crown of Sudetes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Due to high altitude the climate is maritime polar (Köppen: \"ET\") not far from a continental subpolar climate (\"Dfc\"). The difference should be at least 6 °C lower on annual average compared to the weather station in the plains.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sněžka or Śnieżka (in Czech and Polish respectively, \"Schneekoppe\" in German) is a mountain on the border between the Czech Republic and Poland, the most prominent point of the Silesian Ridge in the Krkonoše mountains. At, its summit is the highest point in the Czech Republic, in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in the Krkonoše and in the entire Sudetes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972547}
{"src_title": "Mary Read", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Mary Read was born in the Kingdom of England in 1685. Her mother had married a sailor and had a son. After her husband disappeared at sea, Mary's mother became pregnant after an extramarital love affair. Read's mother attempted to hide the pregnancy by going to live with friends in the country. Shortly thereafter, her son died, and she gave birth to Mary. In financial distress, her mother decided to disguise Mary as her dead son, in order to receive monetary support from her late husband's mother. The grandmother was apparently fooled, and mother and daughter lived on the inheritance into Mary's teen years. Dressed as a boy, Read found work as a foot-boy, and, then, employment on a ship.  She later joined the British military, which was allied with Dutch forces against the French (this could have been during the Nine Years War or during the War of the Spanish Succession). Read, in male disguise, proved herself through battle, but fell in love with a Flemish soldier. When they married, she used their military commission and gifts from intrigued brethren in arms to acquire an inn named \"De drie hoefijzers\" (\"The Three Horseshoes\") near Breda Castle in The Netherlands.  Upon her husband's early death, Read resumed male dress and military service in the Netherlands. With peace, there was no room for advancement, so she quit and boarded a ship bound for the West Indies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Becoming a pirate.", "content": "Read's ship was taken by pirates, whom she willingly joined. She accepted the King's pardon c. 1718–1719, then took a commission to privateer, but joined the crew in mutiny. In 1720 she joined pirate John \"Calico Jack\" Rackham and his companion, Anne Bonny, who both believed her to be a man. On 22 August 1720, the three stole an armed sloop named \"William\" from port in Nassau. Scholars are uncertain how female pirates like Read and Bonny concealed their sex in a male-dominated environment. Some scholars, however, have theorized that the wearing of breeches by female pirates may have been either a method of hiding their identity or simply as practical clothing that solidified their working place on board the ship among the other seamen.  When Bonny told Read that she was a woman (apparently because she was attracted to her), Read revealed that she too was a woman. To abate the jealousy of her lover, Rackham, who suspected romantic involvement between the two, Bonny told him that Read was a woman. Speculation over the relationship between Bonny and Read led to images depicting the two in battle together.  A victim of the pirates, Dorothy Thomas, left a description of Read and Bonny: They \"wore men's jackets, and long trousers, and handkerchiefs tied about their heads: and... each of them had a machete and pistol in their hands and they cursed and swore at the men to murder her [Dorothy Thomas].\" Thomas also recorded that she knew that they were women, \"from the largeness of their breasts.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capture and imprisonment.", "content": "On 15 November 1720 pirate hunter, Captain Jonathan Barnet, took Rackham's crew by surprise, while they hosted a rum party with another crew of Englishmen at Negril Point off the west coast of the Colony of Jamaica. After a volley of fire disabled the pirate vessel, Rackham's crew and their \"guests\" fled to the hold, leaving only the women and one other to fight Barnet's boarding party (it is also possible that Rackham and his crew were too drunk to fight). Allegedly, Read angrily shot into the hold, killing one, and wounding others, when the men would not come up and fight with them. Barnet's crew eventually overcame the women. Rackham surrendered, requesting \"quarter\".  Rackham and his crew were arrested and brought to trial in what is now Spanish Town, Jamaica, where they were sentenced to hang for acts of piracy, as were Read and Bonny. However, the women claimed they were both \"quick with child\" (known as \"pleading the belly\"), and received temporary stays of execution.  Read died of a violent fever while in prison. Her 28 April 1721 burial is in the records of St. Catherine's church in Jamaica. There is no record of the burial of her baby, suggesting that she may have died while pregnant.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mary Read (1685 – 28 April 1721), also known as Mark Read, was an English pirate. She and Anne Bonny are two of the most famed female pirates of all time, and among the few women known to have been convicted of piracy during the early 18th century, at the height of the \"Golden Age of Piracy\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972548}
{"src_title": "Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born at Lamarche in the Vosges in 1764, son of Charles Perrin and wife Marie Anne Floriot, paternal grandson of Charles Perrin and wife Gabrielle Guerin, born in 1696, and great-grandson of Pierre Perrin and wife Anne Louvière. At the age of 17 he enlisted in the artillery regiment in Grenoble as a private soldier, and after ten years' service he applied for and received his discharge because of his disgust at the manners revolutionary army and settled at Valence. Soon afterwards he joined the local volunteers, and distinguishing himself in the war on the Alpine frontier, in less than a year he had risen to the command of a battalion. In Drôme, Valence, on 16 May 1791 he married Jeanne Josephine Muguet, by whom he had issue which was extinct in the male line by 1917.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Revolutionary Wars.", "content": "For his bravery at the siege of Toulon in 1793 he was raised to the rank of général de brigade. He afterwards served for some time with the army of the Eastern Pyrenees, and in the Italian campaign of 1796–1799 he so acquitted himself at Mondovì, Rovereto and Mantua that he was promoted to be general of the division.  After commanding for some time the forces in the department of Vendée, he was again deployed to Italy, where he performed well in service against the papal troops, and took an important part in the battle of Marengo. In 1802 he was made governor of the colony of Louisiana for a short time, in 1803 he commanded the Batavian army, and afterwards he acted for eighteen months (1805–1806) as French plenipotentiary at Copenhagen. In that year he married for a second time in June at's-Hertogenbosch to Julie Vosch van Avesaat (1781–1831), by whom he had an only daughter who died unmarried and without issue.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "On the outbreak of hostilities with Prussia (the War of the Fourth Coalition) he joined the V Army Corps under Marshal Jean Lannes as chief of the general staff. He distinguished himself at the battles of Saalfeld and Jena, and at Friedland he commanded the I Corps in such a manner that Napoleon made him a Marshal of France.  After the peace of Tilsit he became governor of Berlin, and in 1808 he was created duke of Belluno (the title was extinguished in 1853). In the same year he was sent to Spain, where he took a prominent part in the Peninsular War (especially against Blake at the Battle of Espinosa, and later at the battles of Talavera, Barrosa and Cádiz), until his appointment in 1812 to a corps command in the invasion of Russia. At first his corps was posted in the east Prussia but it was later moved up to Smolensk support the invading forces. from Here his most important service was in protecting the retreating army at the crossing of the Berezina River.  He took an active part in the wars of 1813–1814, until in February 1814 he arrived too late at Montereau-sur-Yonne. The result was a scene of violent recrimination and his supersession by the emperor, who transferred his command to Gérard. Thus wounded in his \"amour-propre\", Victor now transferred his allegiance to the Bourbon dynasty, and in December 1814 received from Louis XVIII the command of the second military division. In 1815, on the return of Napoleon from exile in Elba Victor accompanied the king to Ghent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Bourbon Restoration.", "content": "When the second restoration followed the Battle of Waterloo he was made a peer of France. He became president of a commission which inquired into the conduct of the officers during the Hundred Days, and dismissed Napoleon's sympathizers. In 1821 he was appointed war minister and held this office for two years. In 1830 he was major-general of the royal guard, and after the July Revolution of that year he retired altogether into private life. He died in Paris on 1 March 1841. His papers for the period 1793–1800 have been published (Paris, 1846).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He married firstly in May 1791 Jeanne-Josephine Muguet and had four children:  He married secondly in June 1803 Julie Vosch van Avesaet (1781–1831) and had a daughter:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evaluation.", "content": "Victor had mixed military talents. He was an excellent organizer and tactician. During his time in Spain he destroyed entire Spanish armies with Cannae like envelopments and even fought Wellington to a virtual tactical draw at Talavera. However he was a timid strategist often afraid of taking risks. Nevertheless, he recognized new developments in warfare and implemented them throughout his career. At the Beresina River in 1812, he made excellent use of reverse slope defenses showing that he learned something from Wellington.  On the contrary in his book “Napoleon and His Marshals” MacDonell calls Victor a stupid soldier. He claims the closest Victor ever came to victory is when he changed his name from Perrin into Victor. Dunn-Pattison says of him “Not specially dowered by fortune with talents for war” but does praise his courage and sense of honor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Claude Victor-Perrin, 1st Duke of Belluno (7 December 1764 – 1 March 1841) was a French soldier and military commander during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. He was made a Marshal of the Empire in 1807 by Napoleon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972549}
{"src_title": "American Staffordshire Terrier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Some varieties of bull and terrier from England and Ireland began to find their way into America as early as 1850. Some dogs became very famous for their dog fighting skills. Already developed as an American dog, such dogs became a new breed, which was recognized by the United Kennel Club (UKC) in February 1898 as the American Pit Bull Terrier. On June 10, 1936, about 50 UKC registered Pit Bull Terrier dogs were accepted for registration in the American Kennel Club (AKC) Stud Book with a new breed name and a new purpose, belonging to the AKC terrier group. The name \"Staffordshire Terrier\" was chosen, with the claim that the ancestors of the breed originally came from Staffordshire County in England. The name of the breed was revised January 1, 1969, to \"American Staffordshire Terrier\" to distinguish it from the British Staffordshire Bull Terrier, a separate breed from the Bull-type terrier group, recognized in England in 1935.  The AKC opened the AmStaff Stud Book to UKC dogs for a few more times until the 1970s. Since then, only dogs with AKC registration were to be bred together, if the offspring was to be registered. This fact, along with the breed selection based entirely on conformation through decades, has transformed the American Staffordshire Terrier into a new different breed, separated from the American Pit Bull Terrier.  The breed's popularity began to decline in the United States following World War II.  In 2017 the American Kennel Club ranked the American Staffordshire Terrier as the 83rd most popular purebred in the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "According to the American Kennel Club \"The American Staffordshire Terrier, known to their fans as AmStaffs, are smart, confident, good-natured companions. Their courage is proverbial. A responsibly bred, well-socialized AmStaff is a loyal, trustworthy friend to the end.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "According to AKC's published breed standard which was approved June 10, 1936, the \"American Staffordshire Terrier should give the impression of great strength for his size, a well put-together dog, muscular, but agile and graceful, keenly alive to his surroundings. He should be stocky, not long-legged or racy in outline. His courage is proverbial.\" His head should be medium in length with a broad skull, a distinct stop, and pronounced muscles in the cheek. The ears should be set high on their head and can be cropped or uncropped, but the latter is preferred. Height and weight should be in proportion. A height of about at shoulders for the male and for the female is to be considered preferable. The nose should always be black. Many coat colors are accepted. However, dogs with liver or black-and-tan coat, and dogs with more than 80% white are discouraged.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "Their life expectancy is generally 12 years with good care. The breed may be vulnerable to skin allergies, urinary tract infections (UTI), and autoimmune diseases. Spondylosis and osteoarthritis are common in older dogs. Other notable issues may include: congenital heart disease, elbow dysplasia, hip dysplasia, luxating patella, thyroid dysfunction, and cerebellar ataxia.  American Staffordshire Terrier pups should not be weaned before they are 8–10 weeks old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breed-specific legislation.", "content": "Worldwide, the American Staffordshire Terrier has often been included in breed bans that target pit bull type dogs and/or fighting dog breeds. Such breed-specific legislation may range from outright bans on possession to restrictions and conditions of ownership.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popularity.", "content": "In 2017, the breed was the 8th most popular dog according to Australian National Kennel Council. According to Société Centrale Canine it is the 6th most popular dog in France. According to American Kennel Club, it was the 83rd most popular dog in 2017.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The American Staffordshire Terrier, also known as the AmStaff, is a medium-sized, short-coated American dog breed. The height of an American Staffordshire Terrier is 17-19 inches tall and weighs 40-70 pounds. The American Kennel Club describes the breed as \"confident, smart and good-natured.\" American Staffordshire Terriers are similar to American Pit Bull Terriers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972550}
{"src_title": "Flagellant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Flagellation (from Latin \"flagellare\", to whip) was quite a common practice amongst the more fervently religious throughout antiquity.  Following the example of the Benedictine monk Peter Damian in the 11th century, flagellation became a form of penance in the Catholic Church and its monastic orders. The 11th-century zealot Dominicus Loricatus repeated the entire Psalter twenty times in one week, accompanying each psalm with a hundred lash-strokes to his back. The distinction of the Flagellants was to take this self-mortification into the cities and other public spaces as a demonstration of piety.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spread in the 14th century.", "content": "The first recorded incident was in Central Italy in Perugia, in 1259, the year after severe crop damage and famine throughout Europe. From Perugia the phenomenon seemed to spread across Northern Italy and into Austria. Other incidents are recorded in 1296, 1333-34 (the Doves), notably at the time of the Black Death (1349), and 1399. The practice peaked during the Black Death. Spontaneously Flagellant groups arose across Northern and Central Europe in 1349, including in England. However, enthusiasm for the movement diminished as suddenly as it arose. When they preached that mere participation in their processions cleaned sins, the Pope banned the movement in January 1261.  Initially the Catholic Church tolerated the Flagellants and individual monks and priests joined in the early movements. By the 14th century, the Church was less tolerant and the rapid spread of the movement was alarming. Clement VI officially condemned them in a bull of October 20, 1349 and instructed Church leaders to suppress the Flagellants. This position was reinforced in 1372 by Gregory XI who associated the Flagellants with other heretical groups, notably the Beghards. They were accused of heresies including doubting the need for the sacraments, denying ordinary ecclesiastical jurisdiction and claiming to work miracles.  The Inquisition was active against any revival of the movement in the 15th century, but action against the flagellants was often taken by the local princes. In 1414, 80–90 followers of Konrad Schmid were burned in Thuringia, in Germany, even though they had recanted. Three hundred were burnt in one day in 1416, also in Thuringia. Other trials where the accused were condemned as Flagellants were recorded as late as the 1480s. The practice of flagellation within the bounds of the Catholic Church continued as an accepted form of penance.  Rulers like Catherine de' Medici and France's King Henry III supported Flagellants but Henry IV banned them. Flagellant orders like \"Hermanos Penitentes\" (Spanish 'Penitential Brothers') also appeared in colonial Spanish America, even against the specific orders of Church authorities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In Italy.", "content": "The first recorded cases of mass popular flagellation occurred in Perugia, in 1259. The prime cause of the Perugia episode is unclear, but it followed an outbreak of an epidemic and chroniclers report how mania spread throughout almost all the people of the city. Thousands of citizens gathered in great processions, singing and with crosses and banners, they marched throughout the city whipping themselves. It is reported that surprising acts of charity and repentance accompanied the marchers. However, one chronicler noted that anyone who did not join in the flagellation was accused of being in league with the devil. They also killed Jews and priests who opposed them. Marvin Harris links them to the Messianic preaching of Gioacchino da Fiore.  Similar processions occurred across Northern Italy, with groups up to 10,000 strong processing in Modena, Bologna, Reggio and Parma. Although certain city authorities refused the Flagellant processions entry.  A similar movement arose again in 1399, again in Northern Italy in the form of the White Penitents or \"Bianchi\" movement. This rising is said to have been started by a peasant who saw a vision. The movement became known as the \"laudesi\" from their constant hymn singing. At its peak, a group of over 15,000 adherents gathered in Modena and marched to Rome, but the movement rapidly faded when one of its leaders was burned at the stake by order of Boniface IX.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "In Germany.", "content": "The German and Low Countries movement, the Brothers of the Cross, is particularly well documented - they wore white robes and marched across Germany in 33.5 day campaigns (each day referred to a year of Jesus's earthly life) of penance, only stopping in any one place for no more than a day. They established their camps in fields near towns and held their rituals twice a day. The ritual began with the reading of a letter, claimed to have been delivered by an angel and justifying the Flagellants' activities. Next, the followers would fall to their knees and scourge themselves, gesturing with their free hands to indicate their sin and striking themselves rhythmically to songs, known as \"Geisslerlieder\", until blood flowed. Sometimes the blood was soaked up in rags and treated as a holy relic. Originally members were required to receive permission to join from their spouses and to prove that they could pay for their food. However, some towns began to notice that sometimes Flagellants brought plague to towns where it had not yet surfaced. Therefore, later they were denied entry. They responded with increased physical penance.  In Germany they claimed they could resurrect emperor Frederick II, who would bring an age of social justice.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Modern flagellants.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roman Catholic.", "content": "Modern processions of hooded Flagellants are still a feature of various Mediterranean Catholic countries, mainly in Spain, Italy and some former colonies, usually every year during Lent. They also occur in the Philippines during Holy Week. For example, in the commune of Guardia Sanframondi in Campania, Italy, such parades are organized once every seven years. In Italy, members of the Flagellant movement were called \"disciplinati\", while \"laudesi\" never practiced flagellation, but met together in their own chapel to sing \"laudi\" (canticles) in honour of the Blessed Virgin, but which gradually assumed a dramatic form and grew into a theatrical form known as \"rappresentazioni sacre\". A play in the Roman dialect of the 14th century, edited by Vattasso (Studi e Testi, no. 4, p. 53), explicitly bears the title lauda.  Some Roman Catholics in Philippines practice flagellation as a form of devout worship, sometimes in addition to self-crucifixion", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Los hermanos penitentes.", "content": "In English, \"the penitent brothers.\" This is a semi-secret society of flagellants among the Hispanic Roman Catholics of Colorado and New Mexico.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Other religions.", "content": "Unrelated practices exist in non-Roman Catholic traditions, including actual flagellation amongst some Shiites (commemorating the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Flagellants are practitioners of an extreme form of mortification of their own flesh by whipping it with various instruments. Most notably, Flagellantism was a 14th-century movement, consisting of radicals in the Catholic Church. It began as a militant pilgrimage and was later condemned by the Catholic Church as heretical. The followers were noted for including public flagellation in their rituals. This was a common practice during the Black Death, or the Great Plague.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972551}
{"src_title": "Manolo Blahnik", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Blahnik was born in Santa Cruz de la Palma, in the Canary Islands (Spain), to a Czech father and Spanish mother. His father left Prague in the 1930s to avoid rising fascism; his grandparents disappeared in the 1950s after the Communists took charge. His mother's family owned a banana plantation in the island city of Santa Cruz de la Palma, where he grew up alongside his sister, Evangelina. He was homeschooled when he was a child. After he grew up, he attended a Swiss boarding school. Later, his parents wanted him to be a diplomat and enrolled him at the University of Geneva majoring in Politics and Law. However, Blahnik changed his majors to Literature and Architecture. In 1965, he got his degree and moved to Paris to study art at the École des Beaux-Arts and Stage Set Design at the Louvre Art School, all while working at a vintage clothing shop. In 1969, he moved to London to work as a buyer at fashion boutique \"Feathers\" and wrote for \"L’Uomo Vogue\", an Italian men's version of \"Vogue\".  In 1969, Blahnik had a chance to meet Diana Vreeland, the editor-in-chief of \"U.S Vogue\", while he was traveling in New York. He then presented his portfolio of fashions and set designs to Vreeland, at which point she looked him straight in the eye and said, \"Young man, make things, make accessories, make shoes.\" She admired his shoe sketches and advised him to concentrate on designing footwear. Blahnik followed her advice and worked on designing shoes.  In 1971, Ossie Clark invited him to create shoes for his runway show, he also designed shoes for other London fashion designers, such as Jean Muir and Zandra Rhodes. From 1971, Blahnik was selling Manolo Blahnik shoes for Zapata. With a loan of £2,000, Blahnik bought the Zapata Shoe Company from its owner and opened his own boutique. In 1974, Blahnik became the second man ever to be featured on the cover of \"U.K. Vogue\" (after Helmut Berger).  In 1977, Blahnik created his first American collection. These were sold in 1978 through Bloomingdales. Blahnik opened his first boutique in the US in 1979.  Manolo Blahnik's flagship store remains in Old Church Street in the Chelsea district of London.  Blahnik's boutiques are located in London, New York, Geneva, Madrid, Barcelona, Moscow, Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Doha, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Seoul, Singapore, Tokyo, and Taipei. Bloomingdales (for which he created his first American collection), Nordstrom, Neiman Marcus, Barneys, Bergdorf Goodman and Saks Fifth Avenue carry his line in the United States and newly opened in Dubai Mall. The company has signed a long-term deal with the shoewear retailer Kurt Geiger to operate Manolo Blahnik boutiques.  In 2000, Blahnik, together with Neiman Marcus, launched the first commercial virtual reality online showroom featuring 3D models of his shoes. The entire collection was sold out online within three weeks.  Blahnik was elevated to the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame in 1987. In 2007, Blahnik was appointed as an honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his service to the British fashion industry.  Blahnik currently resides in Bath, United Kingdom and was awarded an honorary degree from Bath Spa University in July 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early development.", "content": "One of Blahnik's greatest inspirations was his mother. She studied fashion magazines and interpreted the latest fashion trend on her clothing. Blahnik and his family often travelled to Paris and Madrid ordering clothes. His mother was always dissatisfied with the shoes from their hometown, so she made her own. She learned the rudiments of her craft from a local Canary Island cobbler and as a boy, Blahnik loved to watch his mother when she made beautiful shoes. He has inherited his mother's love for brocade and satin fabrics and recounted how, as a boy, he found a trunk filled with shoes by the famous Russian, Pierre Yantorny all made from silks, antique lace and brocades trimmed with delicate buckles. All were light, elegant and feminine; attributes Blahnik later brought to his own designs.  When Blahnik was attending university he lived with his aunt and uncle. Meanwhile, his aunt deeply influenced his fashion sense and style. He refined his tastes and learned to appreciate the beauty of luxury, art, and happiness and beauty. Blahnik recalled that according to his aunt, \"happiness was having the single most elegant handbag ever made, in every color available.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shoes.", "content": "Blahnik never studied shoemaking formally. He learned the skills by visiting shoe factories and talking to pattern cutters, technicians and machine operators. At first, he designed men's footwear, but he immediately found that men's shoe design limited his imagination and lacked the element of fashion so made focus on woman shoes. When mainstream shoe style was still dominated by clunky platforms in the 1970s, he revived the sleek stiletto heel, which has since become a classic. Also, he dislikes wedges and believes in the power of heels and the sex appeal they convey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film: Manolo: The Boy Who Made Shoes for Lizards.", "content": "Blahnik is the subject of the 2017 documentary film: \"Manolo: The Boy Who Made Shoes for Lizards,\" written and directed by Michael Roberts", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honours.", "content": "Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA)  British Fashion Council  Honors", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Manuel \"Manolo\" Blahnik Rodríguez (; born 27 November 1942), is a Spanish fashion designer and founder of the eponymous high-end shoe brand.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972552}
{"src_title": "Kubb", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "It is often claimed that the game dates back to the Viking Age and has survived since then on the Swedish island of Gotland, although there is no evidence of this. The (Society (of) Gotland Games), formed in 1912, does not list kubb as one of the traditional games from Gotland. The earliest mention of a kubb-like game comes from the second edition of the Swedish Encyclopedia “Nordisk familjebok” (the Nordic familybook) in 1911. It's there called \"Kägelkrig\" (Skittles war) and is described as a variation of skittles and played with a ball. The game in its modern conception became popular in the late 1980s when commercial kubb sets were first manufactured.  The key feature of the game (opposing teams throwing) is shared by the games kyykkä and bunnock, both of which come from Karelia or neighbouring areas. The game has now gained international interest, and an annual World Championship has been held since 1995 on Gotland. Large kubb tournaments now occur throughout Europe and the United States of America. Belgium alone held over 50 tournaments in 2012.  On December 13, 2011, Eau Claire, Wisconsin declared itself to be the 'Kubb Capital of North America'. The city has hosted the U.S. National Kubb Championship since 2007, and is home to Kubbnation Magazine and many clubs and leagues, including the Eau Claire Kubb League, which is the largest weekly kubb league in the world. In addition, kubb sets are in the local schools, with some schools having kubb units in physical education classes and kubb clubs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Game pieces.", "content": "There are typically twenty-three game pieces used in kubb:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Setup.", "content": "According to the US Championship Rules and World Championship Rules, kubb is played on a rectangular pitch 5 metres by 8 metres. Corner stakes are placed so that a rectangle is formed. The center stakes are placed in the middle of the sidelines (long edges of the rectangle), which divides the pitch into two halves. No other markers are required to demarcate the field's boundaries, although markings that do not interfere with game play are allowed (such as chalk lines). The king is placed upright in the center of the pitch, and the kubbs are placed on the baselines (short edges of the rectangle), five kubbs on each side equidistant from each other. Kubbs starting the game on the baseline are referred to as base kubbs. The baseline should run through the center of the kubbs. For young children, the 8-meter pitch length can be shortened.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rulesets.", "content": "Two official tournament rulesets available for kubb are the World Championship Rules and the U.S. National Championship Rules.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Play overview.", "content": "Kubb is played between two teams, which may consist of only one person per team.  There are two phases for each team's turn:  If a kubb is thrown out of play, \"i.e.\", outside the boundary markers or not beyond the middle line (Note: after being raised, at least half of the kubb must be in the field of play to be considered in play), then one more attempt is given. If this also goes out, the kubb becomes a \"punishment kubb\" and can be placed anywhere in the target half by the opposing team as long as it is at least one baton length from a corner marker or the King. If a thrown kubb knocks over an existing baseline or field kubb, then the field kubbs are raised at the location where they rest, and baseline kubbs are raised at their original location.  Play then changes hands, and Team B throws the batons at Team A's kubbs, but must first knock down any standing field kubbs. If a baseline kubb is knocked down before all remaining field kubbs, the baseline kubb is returned to its upright position. (Field kubbs that right themselves due to the momentum of the impact are considered knocked down. Also kubbs are considered knocked down if they end up tilting and relying on a game piece for support.) Again, all kubbs that are knocked down are thrown back over onto the opposite half of the field and then stood.  If either team does not knock down all field kubbs before their turn is over, the kubb closest to the centerline now represents the opposite team's baseline, and throwers may step up to that line to throw at their opponent's kubbs. This rule applies only to throwing the batons at the opposite team's field and baseline kubbs; fallen kubbs are thrown from the original baseline, as are attempts to knock over the king.  Play continues in this fashion until a team is able to knock down all kubbs on one side, from both the field and the baseline. If that team still has batons left to throw, they now attempt to knock over the king. If a thrower successfully topples the king, his team has won the game.  If at any time during the game the king is knocked down by a baton or kubb, the throwing team immediately loses the game.  In tournaments, winners are typically determined by playing best out of three.  For informal play between players of widely differing abilities, such as an adult and a child, it is permissible to shorten the length of the pitch. Another option is for both players to play on the same team and keep switching sides during play.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tournaments.", "content": "The Kubb World Championship is held annually on the island of Gotland, Sweden. The U.S. Championship is held annually in Eau Claire, WI.  Tournaments in the U.S. have exploded since 2007, especially in the Midwest. In 2016, the U.S. tournament list includes over 40 tournaments. The majority of tournaments are located in Minnesota and Wisconsin.  In 2013, the U.S. Midwest Championship was re-introduced. The annual tournament travels throughout the Midwest.  European tournaments are held in Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Czech Republic, the U.K. and Italy. Most countries have their own national championship tournament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kubb (pronounced in Swedish or in Gutnish) is a lawn game where the objective is to knock over wooden blocks (\"kubbs\") by throwing wooden batons (\"kastpinnar\") at them. Kubb can be described as a combination of bowling and horseshoes. Play takes place on a small rectangular playing field, known as a \"pitch\". \"Kubbs\" are placed at both ends of the pitch, and the \"king\", a larger wooden block, is placed in the middle of the pitch. Some rules vary from country to country and from region to region, but the ultimate objective of the game is to knock over the \"kubbs\" on the opposing side of the pitch, and then to knock over the \"king\", before the opponent does. Games can last from five minutes to well over an hour. The game can be played on a variety of surfaces such as grass, sand, concrete, snow, or even ice.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972553}
{"src_title": "Haguenau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Haguenau dates from the beginning of the 12th century, when Duke Frederick II the One-Eyed (1090 – 6 April 1147) of Swabia erected a hunting lodge on an island in the Moder River. The medieval King and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa fortified the settlement and gave it town rights, important for further development, in 1154. On the site of the hunting lodge he founded an imperial palace he regarded as his favourite residence. In this palace were preserved the \"Crown Jewels of the Holy Roman Empire\", i.e. the jewelled imperial crown, sceptre, imperial orb, and sword of Charlemagne.  Richard of Cornwall, King of the Romans, made it an imperial city in 1257. Subsequently, through Rudolph I of Germany (House of Habsburg) Haguenau became the seat of the of Hagenau, the German imperial advocate in Lower Alsace. In the 14th century, it housed the executive council of the Decapole, a defensive and offensive association of ten Alsatian towns against external aggression, economic expansion and related political instability. In the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Alsace was ceded to France, which had repeatedly invaded and looted the region in the past. In 1673 King Louis XIV had the fortifications as well as the remains of the king's palace razed in order to extinguish German traditions. Haguenau was recaptured by German troops in 1675, but was taken again by the French two years later, when it was nearly destroyed by fire set by looting French troops.  In 1793 Prussians and Austrians had occupied Lower Alsace from the Lauter to Moder to support the Royalists and before the year's end were driven back over the border by the French Revolutionary Army, causing the “great flight”.  In 1871, Haguenau was ceded to the German Empire upon its victory in the Franco-Prussian War; the community was made part of Alsace-Lorraine, with its Germanic spelling–\"Hagenau\"–restored.  The Haguenau Airport was built in 1916 by the German military to train fighter and bomber pilots to fight in the First World War.  Hagenau was part of the briefly independent Republic of Alsace-Lorraine after World War I, before being returned to France in 1919.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second World War.", "content": "In the Second World War, Germany retook the town in 1940. In November 1944 the area surrounding Haguenau was under the control of the 256th Volksgrenadier Division under the command of General Gerhard Franz.  On 1 December 1944, the 314th Infantry Regiment of the 79th Division, XV Corps, 7th U.S. Army, moved into the area near Haguenau, and on 7 December the regiment was given the assignment to take it and the town forest just north that included German ammunition dumps. The attack began at 0645, 9 December, and sometime during the night of 10 December and the early morning of 11 December the Germans withdrew under the cover of darkness leaving the town proper largely under American control.  Before they withdrew, the Germans demolished bridges, useful buildings, and even the town park. However, as experienced by Haguenau throughout its history, the Germans came back and retook the town in late January. Most of the inhabitants fled with the assistance of the U.S. Army. The Americans launched an immediate counterattack to retake the town. The 313th Infantry Regiment of the 79th Division was relieved by the 101st Airborne Division on 5 February 1945. The 36th Infantry Division would relieve the 101st on 23 February 1945. On March 15 the Allied Operation Undertone, a combined effort of the U.S. Seventh and French 1st Armies of the U.S. Sixth Army Group was launched to drive the Germans back along a 75 km line from Saarbrücken to Haguenau. The last German soldier was not cleared out of the town until March 19, 1945, after house-to-house fighting.  Much of the town had been destroyed despite the Allied reluctance to use artillery to clear out the Germans. Technical Sergeant Morris E. Crain, Company E, 141st Infantry Regiment, 36th Infantry Division was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for providing covering fire for his men on 13 March 1945.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The town has a well balanced economy. Centuries of troubled history in the buffer lands between France and Germany have given Haguenau a rich historical and cultural heritage which supports a lively tourist trade. There is also a thriving light manufacturing sector centred on the industrial zone to the west of the town. Here the presence nearby of significant retail developments testifies to Haguenau's importance as a regional commercial centre. The recent extension of the ring road has improved access to the commercial and industrial zones and reduced the traffic congestion which used to be a frequent challenge for vehicle drivers using the road which follows the line of the old town walls on the western side of town.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "In spite of the extensive destruction Haguenau suffered during the many wars experienced by Alsace, especially the Thirty Years War, the French conquest in 1677 and the Second World War, it still possesses monuments from nine centuries, even if nothing is left of arguably the most prestigious of them, Frederick I Barbarossa's imperial palace (\"Kaiserpfalz\").  Medieval Haguenau retains three gates from its former fortification, the \"Tour des Chevaliers\" (Tower of the knights), the \"Tour des Pêcheurs\" (Tower of the fishermen) and the \"Porte de Wissembourg\" (Wissembourg gate), two fairly large Gothic churches, Saint-Georges and Saint-Nicolas, an ancient water-mill and the old custom-house (\"Ancienne Douane\"). Both Saint-Georges and Saint-Nicolas Church have lost many of their artistic treasures over the centuries, especially their medieval stained glass windows and outside sculptures. Still, both display to this day some fine liturgical furniture (altars, choir stalls, organ cases, church tabernacles, calvaries...). Saint-Nicolas has become the receptacle for the baroque wooden decoration of the church of the destroyed Neubourg Abbey nearby.  French Baroque and classicism has bequeathed the town several buildings, among which the former hospital and the current town hall. The Synagogue (1820) is a fine example of French Neo-classicism, as is the theatre (\"Théâtre municipal\") (1846). The large Hop hall (\"Halle au houblon\") is a good example of historicism in architecture. It was built by the French in 1867 and extended twice by the Germans, in 1881 and 1908.  The Basilica of Our Lady in the locality of Marienthal is a vast Gothic Revival sanctuary (1863–1866). It keeps two early 15th-century statues, and a host of sculptures from around 1519.  Haguenau's streets are adorned by attractive fountains, the medieval Saint-Georges fountain, the 18th-century Bee fountain (\"Fontaine aux abeilles\") and the 1825 Dolphin fountain (\"Fontaine aux dauphins\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Higher education.", "content": "The \"Institut universitaire de technologie de Haguenau\" (IUT) was founded in 2006. It is a branch of the University of Strasbourg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns.", "content": "Haguenau is twinned with Landau (Germany).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "Episode eight of the TV Second World War miniseries \"Band of Brothers\" is set in Haguenau.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Haguenau (, ; Alsatian: \"Hàwenau\" or \"Hàjenöi\"; and historically in English: \"Hagenaw\") is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department of France, of which it is a sub-prefecture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972554}
{"src_title": "Alte Pinakothek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The building.", "content": "King Ludwig I of Bavaria ordered Leo von Klenze to erect a new building for the gallery for the Wittelsbach collection in 1826. The Alte Pinakothek was the largest museum in the world and structurally and conceptually well advanced through the convenient accommodation of skylights for the cabinets. Even the Neo-Renaissance exterior of the Pinakothek clearly stands out from the castle-like museum type common in the early 19th century. It is closely associated with the function and structure of the building as a museum. Very modern in its day, the building became exemplary for museum buildings in Germany and in Europe after its inauguration in 1836, and thus became a model for new galleries like the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, and galleries in Rome, Brussels and Kassel.  The museum building was severely damaged by bombing in World War II but was reconstructed and reopened to the public on 7 June 1957, with President Theodor Heuss attending. Director Ernst Buckner oversaw the rebuilding project, ensuring that the building remained true to its original architecture. The ornate, pre-war interior, including the large loggia facing the south façade in the upper floor, was not restored. A new wall covering was created in 2008 for the rooms on the upper floor of the Alte Pinakothek with a woven and dyed silk from Lyon. The new color scheme of green and red draws on the design of the rooms dating back to the time of construction of the Alte Pinakothek, and was predominant until the 20th century. Already for King Ludwig I and his architect Leo von Klenze, the use of a wall covering alternately in red and green represented the continuation of a tradition that dates back to the exhibition of the old masters of the late 16th century in many of the major art galleries of Europe (Florence, London, Madrid, St. Petersburg, Paris, Vienna).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Wittelsbach collection was begun by Duke Wilhelm IV (1508–1550) who ordered important contemporary painters to create several history paintings, including \"The Battle of Alexander at Issus\" of Albrecht Altdorfer. Elector Maximilian I (1597–1651) commissioned in 1616 four hunt paintings from Peter Paul Rubens and acquired many other paintings, especially the work of Albrecht Dürer. He even obtained \"The Four Apostles\" in the year 1627 due to pressure on the Nuremberg city fathers. A few years later however 21 paintings were confiscated and moved to Sweden during the occupation of Munich in the Thirty Years war. Maximilian's grandson Maximilian II Emanuel (1679–1726) purchased a large number of Dutch and Flemish paintings when he was Governor of the Spanish Netherlands. So he bought for example in 1698 in Antwerp from Gisbert van Colen 12 pictures of Peter Paul Rubens and 13 of Van Dyck, with the pictures of Rubens from the personal estate of the artist which were therefore not intended for sale. Under Max Emanuel's successors, the purchases were largely discontinued due to the tight budget.  Also Max Emanuel's cousin Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine (1690–1716) collected Netherlandish paintings. He ordered from Peter Paul Rubens \"The Big Last Judgment\" and received Raphael's \"Canigiani Holy Family\" as a dowry of his wife. Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria (1742–1799) had a strong preference for Netherlandish paintings as well, among other paintings he acquired Rembrandt's \"The Holy Family\". By the late 18th century a large number of the paintings were displayed in Schleissheim Palace, and accessible to the public. After the reunion of Bavaria and the Electorate of the Palatinate in 1777, the galleries of Mannheim, Düsseldorf and Zweibrücken were moved to Munich, in part to protect the collections during the wars which followed the French revolution. Even though 72 paintings including \"The Battle of Alexander at Issus\" were taken to Paris in 1800 by the invading armies of Napoleon I (1769–1821), who was a noted admirer of Alexander the Great. The Louvre held it until 1804, when Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France and took it for his own use. When the Prussians captured the Château de Saint-Cloud in 1814 as part of the War of the Sixth Coalition, they supposedly found the painting hanging in Napoleon's bathroom. Most of the paintings have not been returned.  With the secularisation many paintings from churches and former monasteries entered into state hands. King Ludwig I of Bavaria collected especially Early German and Early Dutch paintings but also masterpieces of the Italian renaissance. In 1827 he acquired the collection Boisserée with 216 Old German and Old Dutch masters; in 1828, the king managed to also purchase the collection of the Prince Wallerstein, with 219 Upper German and Upper Swabian paintings. In 1838 Johann Georg von Dillis issued the first catalogue.  After the times of King Ludwig I the acquisitions almost ended. Only from 1875 the directors Franz von Reber and Hugo von Tschudi secured important new acquisitions, such as the \"Madonna of the Carnation\" of Leonardo da Vinci and \"The Disrobing of Christ\" of El Greco.  The predilection of the Wittelsbach rulers for some painters made the collection quite strong in those areas but neglected others. Since the 1960s the Pinakothek has filled some of these gaps: for example, a deficit of 18th-century paintings was addressed by the integration into the collection of works loaned from two Bavarian banks. Among these paintings were Nicolas Lancret's \"The Bird Cage\" and François Boucher's \"Madame Pompadour\".  In April 1988, the serial vandal Hans-Joachim Bohlmann splashed acid on three paintings by Albrecht Dürer, namely \"Lamentation for Christ\", \"Paumgartner Altar\" and inflicting damage estimated at 35 million euros. In 1990 Dierick Bouts' \"Ecce agnus dei\" was acquired.  On 5 August 2014, the museum rejected a request by a descendant of the banker Carl Hagen for the repatriation of Jacob Ochtervelt's \"Das Zitronenscheibchen\" (\"The Lemon Slice\") on the grounds that it had been unlawfully acquired as a result of Nazi persecution. An investigation by the museum established that it had been lawfully purchased at the time for a fair price and that the Hagen family's interest extended only to a security on the painting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collection.", "content": "The museum is under the supervision of the Bavarian State Painting Collections which also owns an expanded collection of several thousand European paintings from the 13th to 18th centuries. Especially its collection of Early Italian, Old German, Old Dutch and Flemish paintings is one of the most important in the world.  More than 800 of these paintings are exhibited at the Old Pinakothek. Due to limited space in the building, some associated galleries throughout Bavaria such as the baroque galleries in Schleissheim Palace and Neuburg Palace additionally have works by the Old Masters on display. From 2014 through 2017, wings of the museum were sequentially closed for renovation, and the artworks in closed sections were unavailable for viewing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "Selected pieces:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Alte Pinakothek (, \"Old Pinakothek\") is an art museum located in the Kunstareal area in Munich, Germany. It is one of the oldest galleries in the world and houses a significant collection of Old Master paintings. The name Alte (Old) Pinakothek refers to the time period covered by the collection—from the fourteenth to the eighteenth century. The Neue Pinakothek, re-built in 1981, covers nineteenth-century art, and Pinakothek der Moderne, opened in 2002, exhibits modern art. All three galleries are part of the Bavarian State Painting Collections, an organization of the Free state of Bavaria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972555}
{"src_title": "Entente Cordiale", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The French term \"Entente Cordiale\" (usually translated as \"cordial agreement\" or \"cordial understanding\") comes from a letter written in 1843 by the British Foreign Secretary Lord Aberdeen to his brother, in which he mentioned \"a cordial, good understanding\" between the two nations. This was translated into French as \"Entente Cordiale\" and used by Louis Philippe I in the French Chamber that year. When used today the term almost always denotes the \"second\" Entente Cordiale, that is to say, the written and partly secret agreement signed in London between the two powers on 8 April 1904.  The agreement was a change for both countries. France had been isolated from the other European powers, mostly as a result of the efforts of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck to estrange France from potential allies, as it was thought that France might seek revenge for its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. Britain had maintained a policy of \"splendid isolation\" on the European continent for nearly a century, intervening in continental affairs only when it was considered necessary to protect British interests and to maintain the continental balance of power. The situation for both countries changed in the last decade of the 19th century.  The change had its roots in a British loss of confidence after the Second Boer War, and a growing fear that the country was isolated in the face of a potentially aggressive Germany. As early as March 1881, the French statesman Léon Gambetta and the Prince of Wales, Albert Edward, met at the Château de Breteuil to discuss an alliance against Germany. The Scramble for Africa prevented the countries from coming to terms, however. On the initiative of Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, there were three rounds of British-German talks between 1898 and 1901. The UK decided not to join the Triple Alliance, broke off the negotiations with Berlin, and revived the idea of a British-French alliance. When the Russo-Japanese War was about to erupt, France and the UK found themselves on the verge of being dragged into the conflict on the side of their respective allies. France was firmly allied with Russia, while the UK had recently signed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. In order to avoid going to war, both powers \"shucked off their ancient rivalry\" and resolved their differences in Africa, the Americas, Asia, and the Pacific. Toward this end, French foreign minister Théophile Delcassé, and Lord Lansdowne, the British Foreign Secretary, negotiated an agreement on colonial matters, and Lord Lansdowne and Paul Cambon, the French Ambassador to the UK, signed the resulting convention on 8 April 1904.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Documents signed.", "content": "The Entente was composed of three documents:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "It is unclear what exactly the \"Entente\" meant to the British Foreign Office. For example, in early 1911, following French press reports contrasting the virility of the Triple Alliance with the moribund state of the \"Entente\", Eyre Crowe minuted: \"The fundamental fact of course is that the \"Entente\" is not an alliance. For purposes of ultimate emergencies it may be found to have no substance at all. For the \"Entente\" is nothing more than a frame of mind, a view of general policy which is shared by the governments of two countries, but which may be, or become, so vague as to lose all content.\"  The Triple Alliance collapsed when Italy remained neutral at the outbreak of World War I, while the Entente endured.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemoration.", "content": "The 100th anniversary of the Entente Cordiale in 2004 was marked by a number of official and unofficial events, including a state visit to France in April by Queen Elizabeth II, and a return visit by President Chirac in November. British troops (the band of the Royal Marines, the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment, the Grenadier Guards and the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery) also led the Bastille Day parade in Paris for the first time, with the Red Arrows flying overhead.  At both London Waterloo International and Paris Gare du Nord, the flags of the Great Britain and of France were depicted connected with the words 'Entente cordiale' superimposed on posters. Some French political leaders had complained about the name \"Waterloo\" for the destination of trains from Paris because the British terminus is named after the 1815 battle in which a British-led alliance defeated Napoleon's army, and in 1998 French politician Florent Longuepée wrote to British Prime Minister Tony Blair demanding, without success, that the name be changed. In November 2007 St Pancras International became the new London terminus for the Eurostar service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Entente Cordiale Scholarships.", "content": "The name \"Entente Cordiale\" is used for the Entente Cordiale Scholarships scheme, a selective Franco-British scholarship scheme which was announced on 30 October 1995 by British Prime Minister John Major and French President Jacques Chirac at an Anglo-French summit in London. It provides funding for British and French students to study for one academic year on the other side of the Channel. The scheme is administered by the French embassy in London for British students, and by the British Council France and the UK embassy in Paris for French students. Funding is provided by the private sector and foundations. The scheme aims to foster mutual understanding and to promote exchanges between the British and French leaders of tomorrow. The programme was initiated by Sir Christopher Mallaby, British ambassador to France between 1993 and 1996.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Entente Cordiale () (English: Cordial Agreement) was a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom and the French Republic which saw a significant improvement in Anglo-French relations. Beyond the immediate concerns of colonial expansion addressed by the agreement, the signing of the Entente Cordiale marked the end of almost a thousand years of intermittent conflict between the two states and their predecessors, and replaced the \"modus vivendi\" that had existed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 with a more formal agreement. The Entente Cordiale was the culmination of the policy of Théophile Delcassé, France's foreign minister from 1898, who believed that a Franco-British understanding would give France some security against any German system of alliances in Western Europe. Credit for the success of the negotiation belongs chiefly to Paul Cambon, France's ambassador, and to the British foreign secretary Lord Lansdowne.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972556}
{"src_title": "Gudrun Pausewang", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Pausewang was born in Wichstadtl (now Mladkov), Eastern Bohemia, a member of the German minority in Czechoslovakia. Her father was Siegfried Pausewang, and she was the eldest of six siblings. After the Nazis annexed the area, she became a Jungmädel at age 10 and remained in the organisation until age 17. Her father died in World War II, and her mother fled with the children to the West settling in Wiesbaden. Pausewang studied pedagogy and taught in German primary schools \"(Volksschule)\", then from 1956 for Germany's foreign school services in South America, in Chile, Venezuela and Columbia. She returned to Germany with her son in 1972. She lived in Schlitz, Hesse, where she taught until her retirement in 1989, and where she wrote most of her novels. After her retirement, she achieved her Ph.D. with a dissertation entitled \"\"Vergessene Jugendschriftsteller der Erich-Kästner-Generation\" (\"Forgotten young-adult writers of Erich Kästner's generation).  Pausewang wrote around 100 novels. In 2011, she named as her four main topics:  She wrote her novel \"Die Wolke\" (literally: \"The Cloud\") in 1987, after the Chernobyl disaster, using information that the organisation \"Ärzte gegen den Atomtod\" (Physicians against nuclear death) had published at the end of the 1970s. In 1988, it was awarded the Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis, the Kurd Laßwitz Award and the Deutscher Science Fiction Preis in the category Best Novel. It was translated as \"Fall-Out\" by Patricia Crampton and published in 1994. She wrote in 2011, after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, that she was determined to take her readers serious regardless of age, and she wanted to warn of dangers of her time.\"  Her novel \"Dark Hours\" was included in the New York Public Library's 2007 list of Books for the Teen Age Reader, and in the Texas Library Association's 2007–2008 \"Tayshas\" High School Reading List, and received the Silver Medal in Juvenile/Young Adult Fiction from the Independent Publisher Book Awards. Pausewang was awarded the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany. Several schools were named after her, and she received the Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis for her life's work in 2017. Her books \"Die Wolke\" and \"Die letzten Kinder von Schewenhorn\" became part of required reading in schools.  From 2016, she lived in a senior citizens' home in Baunach, where she died on 23 January 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Publications by Gudrung Pausewang (Gudrun Wilcke) are held by the German National Library, including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gudrun Pausewang (3 March 1928 – 23 January 2020), less commonly known by her married name, Gudrun Wilcke, was a German author of children's and young adult literature. She was known for books such as \"The Last Children of Schewenborn\" and \"Die Wolke\" (translated as \"Fall-Out\") which were made part of German school canons. Among her primary topics were work for peace and protection of the environment, namely warning of the dangers of nuclear energy. Her books have been translated into English and received international recognition and awards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972557}
{"src_title": "Bar (music)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Bar.", "content": "Originally, the word \"bar\" came from the vertical lines drawn through the staff to mark off metrical units and not the bar-like (i.e., rectangular) dimensions of a typical measure of music. In British English, these vertical lines are called \"bar\", too, but often the term \"bar line\" is used in order to make the distinction clear. A \"double bar line\" (or \"double bar\") can consist of two single bar lines drawn close together, separating two sections within a piece, or a bar line followed by a thicker bar line, indicating the end of a piece or movement. Note that \"double bar\" refers not to a type of \"bar\" (i.e., measure), but to a type of \"bar line\". Another term for the bar line denoting the end of a piece of music is \"music end\".  A \"repeat sign\" (or, \"repeat bar line\") looks like the music end, but it has two dots, one above the other, indicating that the section of music that is before is to be repeated. The beginning of the repeated passage can be marked by a \"begin-repeat sign\"; if this is absent the repeat is understood to be from the beginning of the piece or movement. This begin-repeat sign, if appearing at the beginning of a staff, does not act as a bar line because no bar is before it; its only function is to indicate the beginning of the passage to be repeated.  In music with a regular meter, bars function to indicate a periodic accent in the music, regardless of its duration. In music employing mixed meters, bar lines are instead used to indicate the beginning of rhythmic note groups, but this is subject to wide variation: some composers use dashed bar lines, others (including Hugo Distler) have placed bar lines at different places in the different parts to indicate varied groupings from part to part.  Igor Stravinsky said of bar lines:  Bars and bar lines also indicate grouping: rhythmically of beats within and between bars, within and between phrases, and on higher levels such as meter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest barlines, used in keyboard and vihuela music in the 15th and 16th centuries, didn't reflect a regular meter at all but were only section divisions, or in some cases marked off every beat.  Barlines began to be introduced into ensemble music in the late 16th century but continued to be used irregularly for a time. Not until the mid-17th century were barlines used in the modern style with every measure being the same length, and they began to be associated with time signatures.  Modern editions of early music that was originally notated without barlines sometimes use a mensurstrich as a compromise.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hypermeasure.", "content": "A hypermeasure, large-scale or high-level measure, or measure-group is a metric unit in which, generally, each regular measure is one beat (actually hyperbeat) of a larger meter. Thus a beat is to a measure as a measure/hyperbeat is to a hypermeasure. Hypermeasures must be larger than a notated bar, perceived as a unit, consist of a pattern of strong and weak beats, and along with adjacent hypermeasures, which must be of the same length, create a sense of hypermeter. The term was coined by Edward T. Cone in \"Musical Form and Musical Performance\" (New York: Norton, 1968), and is similar to the less formal notion of a phrase.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In musical notation, a bar (or measure) is a segment of time corresponding to a specific number of beats in which each beat is represented by a particular note value and the boundaries of the bar are indicated by vertical bar lines. Dividing music into bars provides regular reference points to pinpoint locations within a musical composition. It also makes written music easier to follow, since each bar of staff symbols can be read and played as a batch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972558}
{"src_title": "Der Freischütz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "The reception of \"Der Freischütz\" surpassed Weber's own hopes and it quickly became an international success, with productions in Vienna the same year followed by Dresden, Leipzig, Hamburg, Munich, Karlsruhe, Königsberg, Prague, other German centres, Riga and Copenhagen. 1824 saw productions in four London theatres in four different adaptations, as well as the French premiere at the Théâtre de l'Odéon as \"Robin des Bois\".  A version in French with recitatives was prepared by Hector Berlioz together with an orchestration of Weber's Invitation to the Dance for an interlude in a production at the Paris Opera in 1841. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky criticised Berlioz's arrangement in the Bolshoi Theatre production of 1873 as \"utterly incongruous\", \"tasteless\" and \"silly\" because it intermitted the rustic opera by a completely urban piece of music. In 1879 he again criticised a performance in Paris: Berlioz's arrangement again underlay the production at the Paris Opéra-Comique in 2011.  His orchestration of \"Invitation à la valse\" soon became a concert piece in its own right.  Also Weber's overture and the \"Huntsmen's Chorus\" from act 3 (\"With princely enjoyment and manly employment\") are often performed as concert pieces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act 1.", "content": "At a shooting contest, the assistant forester Max loses to a peasant, Kilian, who is proclaimed \"King of marksmen\" (Chorus: \"Viktoria! Der Meister soll leben\"—\"Victory! Long live the master\"). Kilian mocks him good-naturedly (\"Schaut der Herr mich an als König\"—\"Let him gaze on me as king\").  Max wants to marry his bride Agathe, daughter of the head forester Kuno. For this, he has to prove his marksmanship and score in a shooting probe before Ottokar, the sovereign prince, on the following day.  As Max has had ill luck for several days, he muses his dismal prospects of losing Agathe by failing the shooting test (Trio of Kuno, Kaspar, and Max; chorus: \"O diese Sonne\"—\"O this sun\"). Left alone, in deep melancholy he recalls happy days (Aria: \"Durch die Wälder, durch die Auen\"—\"Through the forests, through the meadows\").  Kaspar, the first assistant forester, tries to imbue Max with wine and courage (\"Hier im ird'schen Jammerthal\"—\"Here in this vale of tears\"). He had wooed formerly for Agathe but she had chosen Max. This marriage would make Max also heir of Kuno. For this reset behind Max, the second assistant, Kaspar seeks revenge from all three. He hands Max his gun and Max, to his own astonishment, hits an eagle soaring at a great height. Kaspar explains that the gun had been loaded with his last magic bullet.  He persuades Max to meet him at midnight in the terrible Wolf's Glen to cast seven more of the magic bullets. (Six hit, but the seventh belongs to the Evil One who can guide it wherever he pleases.) He warns Max not to tell a soul about their purpose so as not to endanger them. Left alone, Kaspar triumphs and boasts of his insidiousness (Aria: \"Schweig! damit dich Niemand warnt\"—\"Silence, let no one warn him\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 2.", "content": "\"Agathe's chamber\"  At the moment when Max shoots the magic bullet, a picture of Agathe's ancestor hanging on the wall falls to the floor, slightly wounding her. Agathe's cousin and companion Ännchen refastens the hook (Duet: \"Schelm, halt fest!\"—\"Rogue, hold fast!\"). She endeavours to cheer Agathe with jests (Ännchen: \"Kommt ein schlanker Bursch gegangen\"—\"Comes a pretty boy this path\"). Agathe, still hesitative, tells of her meeting with the hermit. He had indicated a danger from which his white consecrated roses shall protect her.  Left alone Agathe awaits Max with the news of his success (Recitative and aria: \"Wie nahte mir der Schlummer...Leise, leise\"—\"How did slumber approach me...Low, low\"). Max arrives, acknowledging that while he has not been the victor, he has killed an eagle. Though the night is falling he has to leave again to bring in a stag which he had shot in the Wolf's Glen (Trio: \"Wie? Was? Entsetzen!\"—\"How? What? Oh, horror!\").  \"The Wolf's Glen at night\"  As the bell chimes twelve Kaspar calls upon Samiel, the Black Huntsman, for assistance in casting the magic bullets. Having already sold his own soul, which is due the next day, Kaspar offers Max’s soul in exchange of a prolongation by three more years. Agathe is to be killed by Max's magic bullet, despair will then make him the Devil's, him - and the father. Samiel agrees ambiguously: \"So be it - By the gates of hell! Tomorrow he or you!\"  As Max arrives the spirit of his mother warns him to abandon the project. But Samiel conjures up Agathe, seemingly drowning herself in despair whereupon Max plunges into the glen. With demoniacal noise, the casting of the bullets begins.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 3.", "content": "\"The meeting of the marksmen\"  Having split the seven bullets between them, Max has used three during the hunt in the morning. Kaspar spoils his third on a fox. Thus Max's remaining bullet is the seventh, the Devil's bullet.  \"Agathe's chamber\"  Agathe is praying (Aria: \"Und ob die Wolke sie verhülle\"—\"Through clouds obscure\"), her doubts having returned owing to a dream of ill omen where she was a white dove which Max shot. Ännchen tries to cheer her with a spooky tale (Aria: \"Einst träumte meiner sel'gen Base\"—\"My deceased cousin had a dream\"). The bridesmaids bring the box with the bridal wreath (Song: \"Wir winden dir den Jungfern-Kranz\"—\"We wind round thee the bridal wreath\"). But as they open it they find a funeral wreath. Recalling the hermit's promise that the white roses will protect her, Agathe proposes to twine them to the bridal wreath. \"The shooting probe\"  Prince Ottokar awaits Max at his tent (Chorus of foresters: \"Was gleicht wohl auf Erden\"—\"What excels the pleasures of the chase\"). As probe Max is ordered to shoot the dove pointed out to him. Max takes aim, fires and Agathe, who has just entered the scene, falls as if hit (Finale: \"Schaut, o schaut\"—\"See, oh see\"). But her bridal wreath and the hermit behind her have deflected the bullet. It strikes Kaspar. Agathe revives from her faint and Kaspar, seeing a holy hermit by her side, realizes that he has failed. Samiel grasps him instead of Max, whereupon Kaspar expires cursing hell and heaven.  Prince Ottokar orders the corpse to be thrown into the Wolf's Glen. Then he demands and receives explanation from Max who confesses to shooting with magic bullets. Regardless of pleas from Kuno, Agathe, peasants, and huntsmen, the infuriated Prince forbids the marriage and banishes Max from the country.  The hermit appeases (Aria: Wer legt auf ihn so strengen Bann! Ein Fehltritt, ist er solcher Büssung wert?—\"Who lays so strict a sentence upon him? An error, is it worthy of such atonement?\"). Only love of Agathe and fear of losing her had caused Max to stray from a life that was formerly without fault. Who is to raise the first stone? Who does not look into his own heart? After a faultless probationary year Max should marry Agathe. To the exuberant joy of all the Prince accepts this judgement. After the probation he himself will place the hand of Agathe in that of Max.  In the end all join in a prayer of thanks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Instrumentation.", "content": "The opera is scored for a standard-sized orchestra composed of:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes  Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": ", Op. 77, J. 277, (usually translated as \"The Marksman\" or \"The Freeshooter\" is a German opera with spoken dialogue in three acts by Carl Maria von Weber with a libretto by Friedrich Kind. It premiered on 18 June 1821 at the Schauspielhaus Berlin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972559}
{"src_title": "Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Barclay de Tolly was a descendant of the Scottish Clan Barclay, with roots in Towie (Towy or Tolly; ) in Aberdeenshire. He was born in, Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (present-day Pamūšis, Šiauliai County, Lithuania) and raised in Beckhof, Livonia, Russian Empire (now part of Estonia). The commonly accepted birth date of 27 December 1761 is actually the day of his baptism in the Lutheran church of the town Zaumel. He was a German-speaking descendant of a Scottish family, as his ancestor Peter Barclay had settled in Livonia in the 17th century.  From 1765, the young Barclay de Tolly grew up in St. Petersburg and was raised by his aunt. Gregory Fremont-Barnes and Todd Fisher, who are amongst the world's leading Napoleonic-era scholars, state that this was a common occurrence amongst the German Protestants, and it gave the young man an exposure to higher society unavailable in the Baltic provinces. His grandfather Wilhelm Barclay de Tolly served as the mayor of Riga, while his father Bogdan Barclay de Tolly (1734–1781) served in the Russian army before being admitted into the ranks of the Russian nobility by the Tsar.  The future field marshal started his active service in the Imperial Russian Army in 1776, and he would spend the rest of his life with the military. He had two brothers who also served in the Russian army, Axel Heinrich Barclay de Tolly, a Major General of Engineers, and Erich Johann Barclay de Tolly, a Major of Artillery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service history.", "content": "Barclay was enlisted in the Pskov Carabineer Regiment on 13 May 1776, and he achieved the rank of a cornet by May 1778. In the same year, he joined the Imperial jaeger regiments, and joined alongside the rest of his unit the army of Prince Potemkin. In 1788–1789, during the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792, Barclay served against the Turks, under the command of Victor Amadeus of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym. During this campaign, he distinguished himself in the taking of Ochakov and Akkerman.  In 1789, he was transferred to the Finnish front during the Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790, and four years later, he fought against the Poles. He was a lieutenant colonel by 1794 after serving as aide-de-camp to various senior officers in several campaigns. In that year, he was appointed commander of the Estland Jaeger Corps, and three years later commander of the 4th Jaeger Regiment, becoming its chief in 1799, soon after being promoted to general major for his service in the Polish Campaign of 1794.  In the war of 1806 against Napoleon, Barclay took a distinguished part in the Battle of Pultusk (December 1806) and was wounded at the Battle of Eylau (7 February 1807), where his conduct won him promotion to the rank of lieutenant general. After a period of convalescence, Barclay returned to the army and in 1808 commanded operations against the Swedes during the Finnish War. In 1809, he successfully marched over the frozen Gulf of Bothnia, which allowed him to surprise the enemy and seize Umeå in Sweden. For this exploit, immortalized by the Russian poet Baratynsky, he was made full general and Governor-General of Finland. A year later, he became Minister of War, retaining the post until 1813.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Napoleon's invasion.", "content": "During Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, Barclay assumed the supreme command of the 1st Army of the West, the largest of the Russian armies facing Napoleon. He used a strategy of retreat leaving behind scorched earth from the beginning of the campaign in order to draw the French supply lines deep into Russian territory and retreated to the village of Tsaryovo-Zaimishche between Moscow and Smolensk, although some consider the strategy merely an confluence of diverse circumstances and not attributable to the will of one man.  Nevertheless, the Russians keenly opposed the appointment of a foreigner as commander-in-chief. His rivals spread rumors of his being Napoleon's agent, and the populace condemned him as a coward. Barclay was forced by his subordinates and the Tsar to engage Napoleon at Smolensk (17–18 August 1812). Napoleon forced Barclay to retreat when he threatened Barclay's only escape route. After losing the Holy City of Smolensk, the outcry of officers and civilians grew to a point where the Tsar could no longer ignore it. He appointed Kutuzov, previously a general at the battle of Austerlitz, as the over-all commander of the Russian forces. Barclay remained General of the 1st Army of the West.  Barclay commanded the right flank at the Battle of Borodino (7 September 1812) with great valour and presence of mind and during the celebrated council at Fili advised Kutuzov to surrender unfortified Moscow to the enemy. His illness made itself known at that time and he was forced to leave the army soon afterwards.  After Napoleon was driven from Russia, the eventual success of Barclay's tactics made him a romantic hero, misunderstood by his contemporaries and rejected by the court. His popularity soared, and his honour was restored by the tsar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign campaigns.", "content": "Barclay was re-employed in the field and took part in the German Campaign of 1813 and the French Campaign of 1814, which ended the War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814). After Kutuzov's death, he once again became commander-in-chief of the Russian forces at the Battle of Bautzen (21 May 1813), and in this capacity he served at Dresden (26–27 August 1813), Kulm (29–30 August 1813) and Leipzig (16–19 October 1813). In the latter battle, he commanded a central part of the Allied forces so effectively that the tsar bestowed upon him the title of count.  Barclay took part in the invasion of France in 1814 and commanded the taking of Paris, receiving the baton of a Field Marshal in reward. In 1815 he again served as commander-in-chief of the Russian army, which after the Hundred Days occupied France, and he was created a prince at the close of the war.  As his health grew worse, he left the military and settled down in his Jõgeveste manor (German exonym: \"Beckhof\", Polish: \"Tepelshof\") (nowadays Southern Estonia). Barclay de Tolly died at Insterburg (Chernyakhovsk), East Prussia, on 26 May 1818 (14 May, Old Style) on his way from his Livonian manor to Germany, where he wanted to renew his health. His and his wife Helene Auguste Eleonore von Smitten's remains were embalmed and put into the mausoleum built to a design by Apollon Shchedrin and Vasily Demut-Malinovsky in 1832 in Jõgeveste (in Helme, Estonia). A grand statue of him was erected in front of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg at the behest of Emperor Nicholas I. He is also commemorated by a modern statue in Riga, a full-size bronze-mounted statue by Vladimir Surovtsev in Chernyakhovsk, a bust monument in Tartu, and the so-called \"Barclay's leaning house\" in Tartu (which was acquired by his widow after his death).  After the extinction of the Barclay de Tolly princely line with his son Magnus on 29 October 1871 (17 October, Old Style), Alexander II allowed the field marshal's sister's grandson through female lineage, Alexander von Weymarn, to assume the title of Prince Barclay de Tolly-Weymarn on 12 June 1872 (31 May, Old Style).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prince Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly (; – ) was a Baltic German field marshal and Minister of War of the Russian Empire during Napoleon's invasion in 1812 and the War of the Sixth Coalition. Barclay implemented a number of reforms during this time that improved supply system in the army, doubled the number of army troops, and implemented new combat training principles. He was also the Governor-General of Finland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972560}
{"src_title": "Beat music", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The exact origins of the terms 'beat music' and 'Merseybeat' are uncertain. The \"beat\" in each, however, derived from the driving rhythms which the bands had adopted from their rock and roll, rhythm and blues and soul music influences, rather than the Beat Generation literary movement of the 1950s. As the initial wave of rock and roll subsided in the later 1950s, \"big beat\" music, later shortened to \"beat\", became a live dance alternative to the balladeers like Tommy Steele, Marty Wilde, and Cliff Richard who were dominating the charts. The German anthropologist and music critic Ernest Borneman, who lived in England from 1933 to 1960, claimed to have coined the term in a column in \"Melody Maker\" magazine to describe the British imitation of American Rock'n'Roll, Rhythm & Blues and Skiffle bands.  The name \"Mersey Beat\" was used for a Liverpool music magazine founded in 1961 by Bill Harry. Harry claims to have coined the term \"based on a policeman's beat and not that of the music\". The band the Pacifics were renamed the Mersey Beats in February 1962 by Bob Wooler, MC at the Cavern Club, and in April that year they became the Merseybeats. With the rise of the Beatles in 1963, the terms Mersey sound and Merseybeat were applied to bands and singers from Liverpool, the first time in British pop music that a sound and a location were linked together. The equivalent scenes in Birmingham and London were described as Brum beat and the Tottenham Sound respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The most distinctive characteristic of beat music was its strong beat, using the backbeat common to rock and roll and rhythm and blues, but often with a driving emphasis on all the beats of 4/4 bar. The rhythm itself—described by Alan Clayson as \"a changeless four-four offbeat on the snare drum\"—was developed in the clubs in Hamburg, West Germany, where many English groups, including the Beatles, performed in the early 1960s and where it was known as the \"mach schau\" (make show) beat. The 8/8 rhythm was flexible enough to be adopted for songs from a range of genres. In addition, according to music writer Dave Laing,  \"[T]he chord playing of the rhythm guitar was broken up into a series of separate strokes, often one to the bar, with the regular plodding of the bass guitar and crisp drumming behind it. This gave a very different effect from the monolithic character of rock, in that the beat was given not by the duplication of one instrument in the rhythm section by another, but by an interplay between all three. This flexibility also meant that beat music could cope with a greater range of time-signatures and song shapes than rock & roll had been able to\".  Beat groups usually had simple guitar-dominated line-ups, with vocal harmonies and catchy tunes. The most common instrumentation of beat groups featured lead, rhythm and bass guitars plus drums, as popularized by the Beatles, the Searchers, and others. Beat groups—even those with a separate lead singer—often sang both verses and choruses in close harmony, resembling doo wop, with nonsense syllables in the backing vocals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Emergence.", "content": "In the late 1950s, a flourishing culture of groups began to emerge, often out of the declining skiffle scene, in major urban centres in the UK like Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham and London. This was particularly true in Liverpool, where it has been estimated that there were around 350 different bands active, often playing ballrooms, concert halls and clubs. Liverpool was perhaps uniquely placed within Britain to be the point of origin of a new form of music. Commentators have pointed to a combination of local solidarity, industrial decline, social deprivation, and the existence of a large population of Irish origin, the influence of which has been detected in Beat music. It was also a major port with links to America, particularly through the Cunard Yanks, which made for much greater access to American records and instruments like guitars, which could not easily be imported due to trade restrictions. As a result, Beat bands were heavily influenced by American groups of the era, such as Buddy Holly and the Crickets (from which group the Beatles derived their name, combining it with a pun on the beat in their music), and to a lesser extent by British rock and roll groups such as the Shadows.  After the national success of the Beatles in Britain from 1962, a number of Liverpool performers were able to follow them into the charts, including Gerry & The Pacemakers, the Searchers, and Cilla Black. The first act who were not from Liverpool or managed by Brian Epstein to break through in the UK were Freddie and the Dreamers, who were based in Manchester, a short distance away, as were Herman's Hermits and the Hollies.  Outside of Liverpool many local scenes were less influenced by rock and roll and more by the rhythm and blues and later directly by the blues. These included bands from Birmingham who were often grouped with the beat movement, the most successful being the Spencer Davis Group and the Moody Blues. Similar blues influenced bands who broke out from local scenes to national prominence were the Animals from Newcastle and Them from Belfast. From London, the term \"Tottenham Sound\" was largely based around the Dave Clark Five, but other London-based British rhythm and blues and rock bands who benefited from the beat boom of this era included the Rolling Stones, the Kinks and the Yardbirds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "British Invasion.", "content": "The Beatles' appearance on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" soon after led to chart success. During the next two years, the Animals, Petula Clark, the Dave Clark Five, the Rolling Stones, Donovan, Peter and Gordon, Manfred Mann, Freddie and the Dreamers, The Zombies, Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders, Herman’s Hermits, and the Troggs would have one or more number one singles in America.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Freakbeat.", "content": "Freakbeat is a subgenre of rock and roll music developed mainly by harder-driving British groups, often those with a mod following during the Swinging London period of the mid to late 1960s. Freakbeat bridges \"British Invasion mod/R&B/pop and psychedelia\". The term was coined by English music journalist Phil Smee. Allmusic writes that \"freakbeat\" is loosely defined, but generally describes the more obscure but hard-edged artists of the British Invasion era such as the Creation, the Pretty Things or Denny Laine's early solo work. Other bands often mentioned as Freakbeat are the Action, the Move, the Smoke, the Sorrows, and Wimple Winch.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decline.", "content": "By 1967 beat music was beginning to sound out of date, particularly compared with the \"harder edged\" blues rock that was beginning to emerge.  Most of the groups that had not already disbanded by 1967, like the Beatles, moved into different forms of rock music and pop music, including psychedelic rock and eventually progressive rock.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "Beat was a major influence on the American garage rock and folk rock movements, and would be a source of inspiration for subsequent rock music subgenres, including Britpop in the 1990s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Beat music, British beat, or Merseybeat (after bands from Liverpool and nearby areas beside the River Mersey) is a popular music genre, influenced by American rock and roll, British skiffle, and traditional pop music, that developed in the United Kingdom in the early 1960s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972561}
{"src_title": "Memory segmentation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Hardware implementation.", "content": "In a system using segmentation, computer memory addresses consist of a segment id and an offset within the segment. A hardware memory management unit (MMU) is responsible for translating the segment and offset into a physical address, and for performing checks to make sure the translation can be done and that the reference to that segment and offset is permitted.  Each segment has a length and set of permissions (for example, \"read\", \"write\", \"execute\") associated with it. A process is only allowed to make a reference into a segment if the type of reference is allowed by the permissions, and if the offset within the segment is within the range specified by the length of the segment. Otherwise, a hardware exception such as a segmentation fault is raised.  Segments may also be used to implement virtual memory. In this case each segment has an associated flag indicating whether it is present in main memory or not. If a segment is accessed that is not present in main memory, an exception is raised, and the operating system will read the segment into memory from secondary storage.  Segmentation is one method of implementing memory protection. Paging is another, and they can be combined. The size of a memory segment is generally not fixed and may be as small as a single byte.  Segmentation has been implemented in several different ways on different hardware, with or without paging. Intel x86 memory segmentation does not fit either model and is discussed separately below, and also in greater detail in a separate article.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Segmentation without paging.", "content": "Associated with each segment is information that indicates where the segment is located in memory— the \"segment base\". When a program references a memory location the offset is added to the segment base to generate a physical memory address.  An implementation of virtual memory on a system using segmentation without paging requires that entire segments be swapped back and forth between main memory and secondary storage. When a segment is swapped in, the operating system has to allocate enough contiguous free memory to hold the entire segment. Often memory fragmentation results if there is not enough contiguous memory even though there may be enough in total.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Segmentation with paging.", "content": "Instead of an actual memory location the segment information includes the address of a page table for the segment. When a program references a memory location the offset is translated to a memory address using the page table. A segment can be extended simply by allocating another memory page and adding it to the segment's page table.  An implementation of virtual memory on a system using segmentation with paging usually only moves individual pages back and forth between main memory and secondary storage, similar to a paged non-segmented system. Pages of the segment can be located anywhere in main memory and need not be contiguous. This usually results in a reduced amount of input/output between primary and secondary storage and reduced memory fragmentation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Burroughs Corporation B5000 computer was one of the first to implement segmentation, and \"perhaps the first commercial computer to provide virtual memory\" based on segmentation. The later B6500 computer also implemented segmentation; a version of its architecture is still in use today on the Unisys ClearPath Libra servers.  The GE-645 computer, a modification of the GE-635 with segmentation and paging support added, was designed in 1964 to support Multics.  The Intel iAPX 432, begun in 1975, attempted to implement a true segmented architecture with memory protection on a microprocessor.  The 960MX version of the Intel i960 processors supported load and store instructions with the source or destination being an \"access descriptor\" for an object, and an offset into the object, with the access descriptor being in a 32-bit register and with the offset computed from a base offset in the next register and from an additional offset and, optionally, an index register specified in the instruction. An access descriptor contains permission bits and a 26-bit object index; the object index is an index into a table of object descriptors, giving an object type, an object length, and a physical address for the object's data, a page table for the object, or the top-level page table for a two-level page table for the object, depending on the object type.  Prime, Stratus, Apollo, IBM System/38, and IBM AS/400 computers use memory segmentation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "x86 architecture.", "content": "The memory segmentation used by early x86 processors, beginning with the Intel 8086, does not provide any protection. Any program running on these processors can access any segment with no restrictions. A segment is only identified by its starting location; there is no length checking. The segment starting address granularity is 16 bytes and the offset is 16 bits, supporting segment sizes up to 64 KiB, so segments can (and often do) overlap and each physical address can be denoted by 4096 different segment–offset pairs (allowing for address offset wrap-around).  Segmentation in the Intel 80286 and later provides protection: with the introduction of the 80286, Intel retroactively named the sole operating mode of the previous x86 CPU models \"real mode\" and introduced a new \"protected mode\" with protection features. For backward compatibility, all x86 CPUs start in \"real mode\" with no memory protection, fixed 64 KiB segments, and only 20-bit (1024 KiB) addressing. An 80286 or later processor must be switched into another mode by software in order to use its full address space and advanced MMU features.  The Intel 80386 and later processors also support paging; in those processors, the segment table, rather than pointing to a page table for the segment, contains the segment address in \"linear memory\". Addresses in linear memory are then mapped to physical addresses using a separate page table, if paging is enabled.  The x86-64 architecture does not use segmentation in long mode (64-bit mode). In a x86-64 architecture it is considered legacy and most x86-64-based modern system software don't use memory segmentation. Instead they handle programs and their data by utilizing memory-paging which also serves as a way of memory protection. Though most x86-64 implementations still support it for backward compatibility reasons. Four of the segment registers: CS, SS, DS, and ES are forced to 0, and the limit to 2. The segment registers FS and GS can still have a nonzero base address. This allows operating systems to use these segments for special purposes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Memory segmentation is a computer (primary) memory management technique of division of a computer's primary memory into segments or sections. In a computer system using segmentation, a reference to a memory location includes a value that identifies a segment and an offset (memory location) within that segment. Segments or sections are also used in object files of compiled programs when they are linked together into a program image and when the image is loaded into memory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972562}
{"src_title": "Duchy of Franconia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "It stretched along the valley of the River Main from its confluence with the Upper Rhine up to the Bavarian March of the Nordgau, in the areas of the present-day Bavarian region of Franconia, the adjacent southern parts of the Free State of Thuringia, northern Baden-Württemberg (i.e. Rhine-Neckar and Heilbronn-Franken) and Hesse. It also included several \"Gaue\" on the left bank of the Rhine around the cities of Mainz, Speyer and Worms comprising present-day Rhenish Hesse and the Palatinate region.  Located in the centre of what was to become the German kingdom about 919, it bordered the stem Duchy of Saxony in the north, Austrasian Lorraine (Upper and Lower Lorraine) in the west, the Duchy of Swabia in the southwest and the Duchy of Bavaria in the southeast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The duchy evolved during the decline of the Carolingian Empire, when it was a part of the core Frankish realm of Austrasia (i.e. \"Eastern Francia\"), and got its form when the northwestern parts of Austrasia became a new realm called Lotharingia.  Unlike the other stem duchies, Franconia did not evolve into a stable political entity, though the local Salian counts held large estates in the western parts (Rhenish Franconia). In 906 the Conradine relative Count Conrad the Younger in the Lahngau is mentioned as a \"dux Franconiae\". Upon the extinction of the East Frankish Carolingians in 911, he was elected the first German king and was succeeded as Franconian duke by his younger brother Eberhard. However, the Conradines did not prevail against the rising Saxon Ottonians: In 919 Duke Henry of Saxony succeeded Conrad as German king and the Franconian stem duchy was seized by Henry's son King Otto I after an unsuccessful revolt of Duke Eberhard was shattered at the 939 Battle of Andernach. King Otto did not appoint a new duke of Franconia, and the duchy was fragmented into several counties and bishoprics, which reported to the German kings directly.  The Salian counts in Rhenish Franconia were sometimes mentioned as Franconian dukes and they became Germany's royal and imperial dynasty in 1024. In 1093 their Franconian territories were granted as a fief to the palatine count of Aachen, which would evolve into the important German principality of Electoral Palatinate (\"Kurpfalz\"). With the advancement of Count Conrad the Red, Rhenish Franconia became the heartland of the Salian dynasty, which provided four emperors in the 11th and 12th centuries: Conrad II, Henry III, Henry IV, and Henry V. It contained the cities of Mainz, Speyer and Worms, the latter two being the administrative centres of countships within the hands of the Salian descendants of Conrad the Red. These counts were sometimes referred to as the Dukes of Franconia.  Emperor Conrad II was last to bear the ducal title. When he died in 1039, Rhenish Franconia was governed as a constellation of small states, like the cities of Frankfurt, Speyer and Worms, the Prince-bishoprics of Mainz, Speyer, and Worms, as well as the Landgraviate of Hesse, then part of Thuringia. Alongside these powerful entities were many smaller, petty states. In 1093, Emperor Henry IV gave the Salian territories in Rhenish Franconia as a fief to Henry of Laach, the count palatine of Lower Lorraine at Aachen. His lands would evolve into the important principality of Electoral Palatinate. While Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1168 granted the ducal title to the prince-bishops of Würzburg in Eastern Franconia, Rhenish Franconia was divided and extinguished. Its territories became part of the Imperial Upper Rhenish Circle in 1500.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dukes.", "content": "In 1168 the duchy of Franconia was bestowed by the Emperor Frederick I on the Bishopric of Würzburg. The bishops continued to rule until the bishopric was secularized in 1803 and absorbed into the Electorate of Bavaria. When the Grand Duchy of Würzburg, the Archbishopric of Mainz and most other parts of Franconia became part of the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1814, the kings assumed the ducal title. The present head of the House of Wittelsbach, Franz, Duke of Bavaria (born 1933) is still traditionally styled as \"His Royal Highness the Duke of Bavaria, Duke in Swabia and Franconia, Count Palatine of the Rhine\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Duchy of Franconia () was one of the five stem duchies of East Francia and the medieval Kingdom of Germany emerging in the early 10th century. The word Franconia, first used in a Latin charter of 1053, was applied like the words Francia, France, and \"Franken\", to a portion of the land occupied by the Franks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972563}
{"src_title": "Siegfried Wagner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Siegfried Wagner was born in 1869 to Richard Wagner and his future wife Cosima (née Liszt), at Tribschen on Lake Lucerne in Switzerland. Through his mother, he was a grandson of Franz Liszt, from whom he received some instruction in harmony. Some youthful compositions date from about 1882. After he completed his secondary education in 1889, he studied with Wagner's pupil Engelbert Humperdinck, but was more strongly drawn to a career as an architect and studied architecture in Berlin and Karlsruhe.  In 1892 he undertook a trip to Asia with a friend, the English composer Clement Harris. During the voyage he decided to abandon architecture and commit himself to music. Reputedly, it was also Harris who first aroused his homoerotic impulses. While on board, he sketched his first official work, the symphonic poem \"Sehnsucht\", inspired by the poem of the same name by Friedrich Schiller. This piece was not completed until just before the concert in which Wagner conducted it in London on 6 June 1895. Though his works are numerous, none entered the standard repertory.  He made his conducting debut as an assistant conductor at Bayreuth in 1894; in 1896 he became associate conductor, sharing responsibility for conducting the \"Ring Cycle\" with Felix Mottl and Hans Richter, who had conducted its premiere 20 years earlier. In 1908 he took over as Artistic Director of the Bayreuth Festival in succession to his mother, Cosima.  Wagner was bisexual. For years, his mother urged him to marry and provide the Wagner dynasty with heirs, but he fought off her increasingly desperate urgings.  Around 1913, pressure on him increased due to the Harden–Eulenburg affair (1907–1909), in which the journalist Maximilian Harden accused several public figures, most notably Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg-Hertefeld, a friend of Kaiser Wilhelm II, of homosexuality. In this climate, the family found it suitable to arrange a marriage with a 17-year-old Englishwoman, Winifred Klindworth, and at the Bayreuth Festival of 1914 she was introduced to the then-45-year-old Wagner. The two married on 22 September 1915.  The couple had four children:  Though the marriage provided for the dynastic succession, the hope that it would also bring an end to his homosexual encounters and the associated costly scandals was disappointed, as Wagner remained sexually active with other men. , one of Siegfried's biographers, asserted that Siegfried had sired an illegitimate son, Walter Aign (1901–1977); several recent authors, such as Frederic Spotts and Brigitte Hamann, have taken it up.  Wagner died in Bayreuth in 1930, having outlived his mother by only four months. Since his two sons were still only adolescents, he was succeeded at the helm of the Bayreuth Festival by his widow Winifred.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operas.", "content": "See List of operas by Siegfried Wagner", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Siegfried Helferich Richard Wagner (6 June 18694 August 1930) was a German composer and conductor, the son of Richard Wagner. He was an opera composer and the artistic director of the Bayreuth Festival from 1908 to 1930.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972564}
{"src_title": "Jean-Pierre Melville", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Jean-Pierre Grumbach was born in 1917 in Paris, France, the son of Berthe and Jules Grumbach. His family were Alsatian Jews.  After the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Grumbach entered the French Resistance to oppose the German Nazis who occupied the country. He adopted the nom de guerre Melville after the American author Herman Melville, a favourite of his.  When he returned from the war, he applied for a license to become an assistant director but was refused. Without this support, he decided to direct his films by his own means, and continued to use Melville as his stage name. He became an independent film-maker and owned his own studio, rue Jenner, in Paris 13ème.  He became well known for his minimalist film noir crime dramas, such as \"Le Doulos\" (1962), \"Le Samouraï\" (1967) and \"Le Cercle rouge\" (1970), starring major actors such as Alain Delon (probably the definitive \"Melvillian\" actor), Jean-Paul Belmondo and Lino Ventura. Influenced by American cinema, especially gangster films of the 1930s and 1940s, he used accessories such as weapons, clothes (trench coats), and fedora hats, to shape a characteristic look in his movies.  Melville ultimately became so identified with the style that \"The New Yorker\"'s Anthony Lane wrote the following about a 2017 retrospective of his films: \"This is how you should attend the forthcoming retrospective of Jean-Pierre Melville movies at Film Forum: Tell nobody what you are doing. Even your loved ones—especially your loved ones—must be kept in the dark. If it comes to a choice between smoking and talking, smoke. Dress well but without ostentation. Wear a raincoat, buttoned and belted, regardless of whether there is rain. Any revolver should be kept, until you need it, in the pocket of the coat. Finally, before you leave home, put your hat on. If you don’t have a hat, you can’t go.\"  Melville's independence and \"reporting\" style of film-making (he was one of the first French directors to use real locations regularly) were a major influence on the French New Wave film movement. Jean-Luc Godard used him as a minor character in his seminal New Wave film \"Breathless\". When Godard was having difficulty editing the film, Melville suggested that he just cut directly to the best parts of a shot. Godard was inspired and the film's innovative use of jump cuts have become part of its fame.  Although a friend of left-wing ideologues such as Yves Montand, Melville referred to himself as \"an extreme individualist\" and \"a right-wing anarchist\" in terms of politics.  In 1963 he was invited as one of the jury at the 13th Berlin International Film Festival.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Melville died on 2 August 1973 from a stroke while dining with writer Philippe Labro at the Hôtel PLM Saint-Jacques restaurant in Paris. He was 55 years old. Melville was then writing his next film, \"Contre-enquête\", a spy thriller for producer Jacques-Éric Strauss with Yves Montand in the lead. Melville had apparently already scripted the first 200 shots for the film. After Melville's death, Labro took over the project, hoping to finish writing and direct it himself, but he eventually dropped it to film \"Le hasard et la violence\" (1974), also starring Montand and for producer Strauss.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Code Name Melville\".", "content": "Produced in 2008, the 76-minute-long feature documentary \"Code Name Melville\" (original French title: \"Sous le nom de Melville\") reveals the importance of Jean-Pierre Melville's personal experience in the French Resistance during World War II to his approach to filmmaking.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Pierre Melville (; born Jean-Pierre Grumbach; 20 October 1917 – 2 August 1973) was a French filmmaker and actor. While with the French Resistance during World War II, he adopted the nom de guerre Melville as a tribute to his favorite American author, Herman Melville. He kept it as his stage name once the war was over. Spiritual father of the French New Wave, he has influenced new generations of filmmakers in Asia (John Woo, Ringo Lam, Johnnie To, Takeshi Kitano), in Europe (Aki Kaurismäki, Rainer Werner Fassbinder), and in America (Michael Mann, Walter Hill, Quentin Tarantino, William Friedkin, Jim Jarmusch).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972565}
{"src_title": "Richard von Krafft-Ebing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Krafft-Ebing was born in 1840 in Mannheim, Germany, studied medicine at the University of Heidelberg, where he specialized in psychiatry. He later practiced in psychiatric asylums. After leaving his work in asylums, he pursued a career in psychiatry, forensics, and hypnosis.  He died in Graz in 1902. He was recognized as an authority on deviant sexual behavior and its medicolegal aspects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Principal work.", "content": "Krafft-Ebing's principal work is \"Psychopathia Sexualis: eine Klinisch-Forensische Studie\" (Sexual Psychopathy: A Clinical-Forensic Study), which was first published in 1886 and expanded in subsequent editions. The last edition from the hand of the author (the twelfth) contained a total of 238 case histories of human sexual behaviour.  Translations of various editions of this book introduced to English such terms as \"sadist\" (derived from the brutal sexual practices depicted in the novels of the Marquis de Sade), \"masochist\", (derived from the name of Leopold von Sacher-Masoch), \"homosexuality\", \"necrophilia\", and \"anilingus\".  \"Psychopathia Sexualis\" is a forensic reference book for psychiatrists, physicians, and judges. Written in an academic style, its introduction noted that, to discourage lay readers, the author had deliberately chosen a scientific term for the title of the book and that he had written parts of it in Latin for the same purpose.  \"Psychopathia Sexualis\" was one of the first books about sexual practices that studied homosexuality/bisexuality. It proposed consideration of the mental state of sex criminals in legal judgements of their crimes. During its time, it became the leading medico–legal textual authority on sexual pathology.  The twelfth and final edition of \"Psychopathia Sexualis\" presented four categories of what Krafft-Ebing called \"cerebral neuroses\":  The term \"hetero-sexual\" is used, but not in chapter or section headings. The term \"bi-sexuality\" appears twice in the 7th edition, and more frequently in the 12th.  There is no mention of sexual activity with children in Chapter III, \"General Pathology\", where the \"cerebral neuroses\" (including sexuality the paraesthesias) are covered. Various sexual acts with children are mentioned in Chapter IV, \"Special Pathology\", but always in the context of specific mental disorders, such as dementia, epilepsy, and paranoia, never as resulting from its own disorder. However, Chapter V on sexual crimes has a section on sexual crimes with children. This section is brief in the 7th edition, but is expanded in the 12th to cover \"Non-Psychopathological Cases\" and \"Psychopathological Cases\", in which latter subsection the term \"paedophilia erotica\" is used.  Krafft-Ebing considered procreation the purpose of sexual desire and that any form of recreational sex was a perversion of the sex drive. \"With opportunity for the natural satisfaction of the sexual instinct, every expression of it that does not correspond with the purpose of naturei.e., propagation,must be regarded as perverse.\" Hence, he concluded that homosexuals suffered a degree of sexual perversion because homosexual practices could not result in procreation. In some cases, homosexual libido was classified as a moral vice induced by the early practice of masturbation. Krafft-Ebing proposed a theory of homosexuality as biologically anomalous and originating in the embryonic and fetal stages of gestation, which evolved into a \"sexual inversion\" of the brain. In 1901, in an article in the \"Jahrbuch für sexuelle Zwischenstufen\" (Yearbook for Intermediate Sexual Types), he changed the biological term from \"anomaly\" to \"differentiation\".  Although the primary focus is on sexual behavior in men, there are sections on \"Sadism in Woman\", \"Masochism in Woman\", and \"Lesbian Love\". Several of the cases of sexual activity with children were committed by women.  Krafft-Ebing’s conclusions about homosexuality are now largely forgotten, partly because Sigmund Freud’s theories were more interesting to physicians (who considered homosexuality to be a psychological problem) and partly because he incurred the enmity of the Austrian Catholic Church when he psychologically associated martyrdom (a desire for sanctity) with hysteria and masochism.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing (1840–1902; full name Richard Fridolin Joseph Freiherr Krafft von Festenberg auf Frohnberg, genannt von Ebing) was an Austro–German psychiatrist and author of the foundational work \"Psychopathia Sexualis\" (1886).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972566}
{"src_title": "Aegisthus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Aegisthus was the son of Thyestes and Thyestes' own daughter Pelopia, an incestuous union motivated by his father's rivalry with the house of Atreus for the throne of Mycenae. Aegisthus murdered Atreus in order to restore his father to power, ruling jointly with him only to be driven from power by Atreus' son Agamemnon. In other version, Aegisthus was the sole surviving son of Thyestes after Atreus killed his brother's children and served them to Thyestes in a meal.  While Agamemnon lay siege to Troy, his estranged queen Clytemnestra took Aegisthus as a lover. The couple killed Agamemnon upon the king's return, making Aegisthus king of Mycenae once more. Aegisthus ruled for seven more years before his death at the hands of Agamemnon's son Orestes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mythology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Thyestes felt he had been deprived of the Mycenean throne unfairly by his brother, Atreus. The two battled back and forth several times. In addition, Thyestes had an affair with Atreus' wife, Aerope. In revenge, Atreus killed Thyestes' sons and served them to him unknowingly. After realizing he had eaten his own sons' corpses, Thyestes asked an oracle how best to gain revenge. The advice was to father a son with his own daughter, Pelopia, and that son would kill Atreus.  Thyestes raped Pelopia after she performed a sacrifice, hiding his identity from her. When Aegisthus was born, his mother abandoned him, ashamed of his origin, and he was raised by shepherds and suckled by a goat, hence his name Aegisthus (from, male goat). Atreus, not knowing the baby's origin, took Aegisthus in and raised him as his own son.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death of Atreus.", "content": "In the night in which Pelopia had been raped by her father, she had taken from him his sword which she afterwards gave to Aegisthus. When she discovered that the sword belonged to her own father, she realised that her son was the product of incestuous intercourse. In despair, she killed herself. Atreus in his enmity towards his brother sent Aegisthus to kill him; but the sword which Aegisthus carried was the cause of the recognition between Thyestes and his son, and the latter returned and slew his uncle Atreus, while he was offering a sacrifice on the seacoast. Aegisthus and his father now took possession of their lawful inheritance from which they had been expelled by Atreus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Power struggle over Mycenae.", "content": "Aegisthus and Thyestes thereafter ruled over Mycenae jointly, exiling Atreus' sons Agamemnon and Menelaus to Sparta, where King Tyndareus gave the pair his daughters, Clytemnestra and Helen, to take as wives. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra and Chrysothemis.  After the death of Tyndareus, Meneleaus became king of Sparta. He used the Spartan army to drive out Aegisthus and Thyestes from Mycenae and place Agamemnon on the throne. Agamemnon extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful ruler in Greece. After Helen's abduction to Troy, Agamemnon was forced to sacrifice his own daughter Iphigenia in order to appease the gods before setting off for Ilium. While Agamemnon was away fighting in the Trojan War, Clytemnestra turned against her husband and took Aegisthus as a lover. Upon Agamemnon's return to Mycenae, Aegisthus and Clytemnestra worked together to kill Agamemnon with certain accounts recording Aegisthus committing the murder while others record Clytemnestra herself exacting revenge on Agamemnon for his murder of Iphigenia.  Following Agamemnon's death, Aegisthus reigned over Mycenae for seven years. He and Clytemnestra had a son, Aletes, and two daughters, Erigone and Helen. In the eighth year of his reign Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, returned to Mycenae and avenged the death of his father by killing Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. The impiety of matricide was such that Orestes was forced to flee from Mycenae, pursued by the Furies. Aletes became king until Orestes returned several years later and killed him. Orestes later married Aegisthus' daughter Erigone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "Homer gives no information about Aegisthus' back-story. We learn from him only that, after the death of Thyestes, Aegisthus ruled as king at Mycenae and took no part in the Trojan expedition. While Agamemnon was absent on his expedition against Troy, Aegisthus seduced Clytemnestra, and was so wicked as to offer up thanks to the gods for the success with which his criminal exertions were crowned. In order not to be surprised by the return of Agamemnon, he sent out spies, and when Agamemnon came, Aegisthus invited him to a repast at which he had him treacherously murdered.  In Aeschylus's \"Oresteia\", Aegisthus is a minor figure. In the first play, \"Agamemnon\", he appears at the end to claim the throne, after Clytemnestra herself has killed Agamemnon and Cassandra. Clytemnestra wields the axe she has used to quell dissent. In \"The Libation Bearers\" he is killed quickly by Orestes, who then struggles over having to kill his mother. Aegisthus is referred to as a \"weak lion\", plotting the murders but having his lover commit the deeds. According to Johanna Leah Braff, he \"takes the traditional female role, as one who devises but is passive and does not act.\" Christopher Collard describes him as the foil to Clytemnestra, his brief speech in \"Agamemnon\" revealing him to be \"cowardly, sly, weak, full of noisy threats - a typical 'tyrant figure' in embryo.\"  Aeschylus's portrayal of Aegisthus as a weak, implicitly feminised figure, influenced later writers and artists who often depict him as an effeminate or decadent individual, either manipulating or dominated by the more powerful Clytemnestra. He appears in Seneca's \"Agamemnon\", enticing her to murder. In Richard Strauss's and Hugo von Hofmannsthal's opera, \"Elektra\" his voice is \"a decidedly high-pitched tenor, punctuated by irrational upward leaps, that rises to high pitched squeals during his death colloquy with Elektra.\" In the first production he was depicted as \"an epicene...with long curly locks and rouged lips, half-cringing, half-posturing seductively.\"  An ancient tomb in Mycenae is fancifully known as the 'Tomb of Aigisthus'. It dates from around 1470 BC.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aegisthus (; ; also transliterated as Aigisthos, ) was a figure in Greek mythology. Aegisthus is known from two primary sources of Greek mythology. The first is Homer's \"Odyssey\", believed to have been first written down by Homer at the end of the 8th century BC, and the second from Aeschylus's \"Oresteia\", written in the 5th century, BC.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972567}
{"src_title": "La Spezia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "La Spezia and its province have been settled since prehistoric times. In Roman times the most important centre was Luni, not far from Sarzana. As the capital of the short-lived Niccolò Fieschi Signoria in the period between 1256 and 1273, La Spezia was inevitably linked with Genoese vicissitudes. After the fall of the Republic of Genoa, an independent state until 1797, La Spezia grew, developed and changed, though along lines similar to Liguria's capital Genoa. This Ligurian influence can still be seen in the urban layout as well as in the types of buildings and decorations. This is notable in the carrugio, the narrow street that divides the Old Town into two. It is called Via del Prione, taking its name from the \"pietrone\" or large stone, in local dialect prione, where public announcements were once read out.  Walking landwards from the sea it is possible to see partly hidden, but still evident, traces of history: engraved stones, capitals, and portals in fourteenth century sandstone, double lancet windows vaguely reminiscent of the future renaissance style of mannerism, baroque pediments, and decorations similar to those adorning the portals of the palaces once belonging to the Doria family and the Princes of Massa.  La Spezia developed substantially after 1861 when the great naval arsenal there was commissioned by the Royal government. In September 1943, after the Italian capitulation to the Allies, it was the departure port for the Italian Navy when it was ordered to steam into British hands at Malta. The Germans arrived too late to stop the departure of the fleet. During the war Italian troopships also left from La Spezia, including the \"Kaiser Franz Josef\", a trans-Atlantic liner launched in Trieste in 1911 for the Austrian Lloyd company, which Italy had confiscated in 1919. It was sunk in La Spezia harbour in 1944.  After the liberation, La Spezia became the point of departure for survivors from Nazi concentration camps. From the summer of 1945 to the spring of 1948 more than 23,000 Jewish displaced persons managed to leave Italy clandestinely for the Palestine Mandate. After lengthy vicissitudes, the ships \"Fede\", \"Fenice\", and \"Komemiut\" managed to evacuate everyone from the Golfo di La Spezia, to the extent that on Israeli maps, La Spezia is called \"Shàar Zion\", in Hebrew “Gateway to Zion”.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "La Spezia has a borderline humid subtropical (\"Cfa\") and Mediterranean climate (\"Csa\"), since only one month receives less than. The city enjoys hot summers, chilly damp winters and very changeable and rainy autumns and springs. The average temperatures of the coldest month (January) are minimum and maximum. In the hottest month (July) they are minimum and maximum. Average annual precipitation is, more than twice that in London. Snow is extremely uncommon. Heavy snowfalls are exceptional events: only in 1985 was a snowfall of more than recorded. Another big snowfall occurred during the night of 18 December 2009, with approximately of snow and temperatures as low as in the following nights.  In winter nights, if the sky is clear, temperatures may fall below zero, usually reaching about. Conversely, in summer, especially during sunny days, the temperature can easily exceed, and sometimes it reaches. Furthermore, the sensation of heat in summer is increased by the high humidity.  Because of its topography, the city is not exposed to winds from the north, which lap western Liguria, but to those from the southeast. These may bring heavy rain and they can reach, in rare cases causing the blocking of the port. The only northern wind reaching the city is the north-eastern Grecale, common during incursions of Arctic air, when the cold air flowing over the warmer Tyrrhenian sea triggers the formation of low pressures, draining the colder and heavier air trapped in the Po Valley, behind the Apennine Mountains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Today, La Spezia is the chief Italian naval base and arsenal and the base for a navigation school. It is also a commercial port, with shipyards and industries producing machinery, metal products, and refined petroleum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Since 2002, a university named \"G. Marconi\" has had its headquarters in La Spezia.  The Distretto Ligure delle Tecnologie Marine (DLTM) is a research hub in La Spezia, Italy, focused on blue economy. It's a partnership of more than 20 entities including Fincantieri, Leonardo S.p.A., Intermarine, Rina Service, Consorzio Tecnomar, Autorità portuale, CNR, Camera di Commercio and University of Genoa and one of the five of innovation and research hub in Liguria  Both the \"G. Marconi\" pole and the DLTM are hosted in the old building of the Bruno Falcomatà hospital since December 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "La Spezia is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "La Spezia (,, ; in the local Spezzino dialect) is the capital city of the province of La Spezia and is located at the head of the Gulf of La Spezia in the southern part of the Liguria region of Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972568}
{"src_title": "Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The Basilica overlooks the river Main in Franconia. It sits on a hillside, and on the hillside opposite is \"Schloss Banz\", a former Baroque abbey. Together they are known as the \"Goldene Pforte\" or golden portal, an entryway to the historic Franconian towns of Coburg, Kronach, Kulmbach and Bayreuth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legend.", "content": "In the fall of 1445, young shepherd Hermann Leicht saw a crying child in a field near a Cistercian monastery in Langheim. As he bent down to pick up the child, it abruptly disappeared. A short time later, the child reappeared in the same spot along with two floating lights and Hermann reported it to the Cisterians. The next summer, he saw the child a third time. This time, the child bore a red cross on its chest and was accompanied by other figures. The child said they were the fourteen helpers and would help others if a chapel was erected for them. The two lights descended and the vision disappeared, after which the healing miracles began.  The Cistercian brothers to whom the land belonged erected a chapel, which immediately attracted pilgrims. An altar was consecrated as early as 1448. Pilgrimages to the Vierzehnheiligen continue to the present day between May and October.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The mercy altar of the Vierzehnheiligen.", "content": "The fourteen saints represented in the altar are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The high altar of Vierzehnheiligen.", "content": "The central scene of the unobstructed and towering high altar is a larger-than-life painting showing the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The statues depict her spouse Joseph, her father Joachim, and David and Zachariah.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pulpit.", "content": "Free floating white putti bear the pulpit ornamented with the golden reliefs of the Evangelists surrounded by shellwork. The pulpit tester (sound board) is made of rays in a spherical shape.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (German: Basilika Vierzehnheiligen) is a church located near the town of Bad Staffelstein near Bamberg, in Bavaria, southern Germany. The late Baroque-Rococo basilica, designed by Balthasar Neumann, was constructed between 1743 and 1772. It is dedicated to the Fourteen Holy Helpers, a group of saints venerated together in the Catholic Church, especially in Germany at the time of the Black Death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972569}
{"src_title": "Casimir III the Great", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The Great King.", "content": "He was born on 30 April 1310 in Kowal, Kuyavia. He had two brothers who died in infancy and three sisters: Kunegunda, Elżbieta, and Jadwiga. When Casimir attained the throne in 1333, his position was in danger, as his neighbours did not recognise his title and instead called him \"king of Kraków\". The kingdom was depopulated and exhausted by war, and the economy was ruined. In 1335, in the Treaty of Trentschin, Casimir was forced to relinquish his claims to Silesia \"in perpetuity\".  Casimir rebuilt and his kingdom became prosperous and wealthy, with great prospects for the future. He waged many victorious wars and doubled the size of the kingdom, mostly through addition of lands in modern-day Ukraine (then called the Duchy of Halych). Casimir built extensively during his reign, ordering the construction of over 40 castles, including many castles along the Trail of the Eagle's Nests, and he reformed the Polish army.  At the Sejm in Wiślica, on 11 March 1347, Casimir introduced reforms to the Polish judicial system and sanctioned civil and criminal codes for Great and Lesser Poland, earning the title \"the Polish Justinian\". He founded the University of Kraków, the oldest Polish University, and he organized a meeting of kings in Kraków in 1364 at which he exhibited the wealth of the Polish kingdom. Casimir is the only king in Polish history to both receive and retain the title of \"Great\", as Bolesław I is more commonly known as \"the Brave\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Succession.", "content": "In 1355, in Buda, Casimir designated his nephew Louis I of Hungary as his successor should he produce no male heir, just as his father had with Charles I of Hungary to gain help against Bohemia. In exchange Casimir gained a favourable Hungarian attitude, needed in disputes with the hostile Teutonic Order and the Kingdom of Bohemia. At the time Casimir was 45 years old, and so producing a son did not seem unreasonable (he already had a few children).  Casimir left no legal son, however, begetting five daughters instead. He tried to adopt his grandson, Casimir IV, Duke of Pomerania, in his last will. The child had been born to his second daughter, Elisabeth, Duchess of Pomerania, in 1351. This part of the testament was invalidated by Louis I of Hungary, however, who had traveled to Kraków quickly after Casimir died (in 1370) and bribed the nobles with future privileges. Casimir III also had a son-in-law, Louis VI of Bavaria, Margrave and Prince-elector of Brandenburg, who was considered a possible successor, but he was deemed ineligible as his wife, Casimir's daughter Cunigunde, had died in 1357 without issue. Thus King Louis I of Hungary became successor in Poland. Louis was proclaimed king upon Casimir's death in 1370, though Casimir's sister Elisabeth (Louis's mother) held much of the real power until her death in 1380.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Society under the reign of Casimir.", "content": "Casimir was facetiously named \"the Peasants' King\". He introduced the codes of law of Greater and Lesser Poland as an attempt to end the overwhelming superiority of the nobility. During his reign all three major classes — the nobility, priesthood, and bourgeoisie — were more or less counterbalanced, allowing Casimir to strengthen his monarchic position. He was known for siding with the weak when the law did not protect them from nobles and clergymen. He reportedly even supported a peasant whose house had been demolished by his own mistress, after she had ordered it to be pulled down because it disturbed her enjoyment of the beautiful landscape.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with Jews.", "content": "On 9 October 1334, Casimir confirmed the privileges granted to Jews in 1264 by Bolesław V the Chaste. Under penalty of death, he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of enforced Christian baptism, and he inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of Jewish cemeteries. While Jews had lived in Poland since before his reign, Casimir allowed them to settle in Poland in great numbers and protected them as \"people of the king\". Casimir's legendary Jewish mistress Esterka remains unconfirmed by direct historical evidence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationships and children.", "content": "Casimir III was married four times:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aldona of Lithuania.", "content": "On 30 April or 16 October 1325, Casimir married Aldona of Lithuania. She was also known as Anna, possibly a baptismal name. She was a daughter of Grand Duke Gediminas of Lithuania and Jewna. They had two children: Aldona died on 26 May 1339. Casimir remained a widower for two years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adelheid of Hesse.", "content": "On 29 September 1341, Casimir married his second wife, Adelaide of Hesse. She was a daughter of Henry II, Landgrave of Hesse, and Elizabeth of Meissen. They had no children. Casimir started living separately from Adelaide soon after the marriage. Their loveless marriage lasted until 1356, when he declared himself divorced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Christina Rokiczana.", "content": "After Casimir \"divorced\" Adelaide he married his mistress Christina Rokiczana, the widow of Miklusz Rokiczani, a wealthy merchant. Her own origins are unknown. Following the death of her first husband she had entered the court of Bohemia in Prague as a lady-in-waiting. Casimir brought her with him from Prague and convinced the abbot of the Benedictine abbey of Tyniec to marry them. The marriage was held in a secret ceremony but soon became known. Queen Adelaide renounced it as bigamous and returned to Hesse. Casimir continued living with Christine despite complaints by Pope Innocent VI on behalf of Queen Adelaide. This marriage lasted until 1363–64 when Casimir again declared himself divorced. They had no children.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hedwig of Żagań.", "content": "In about 1365, Casimir married his fourth wife Hedwig of Żagań. She was a daughter of Henry V of Iron, Duke of Żagań and Anna of Mazovia. They had three children:  As Adelheid was still alive (and possibly Christina as well), the marriage to Hedwig was also considered bigamous. Because of this, the legitimacy of his three young daughters was disputed. Casimir managed to have Anna and Kunigunde legitimated by Pope Urban V on 5 December 1369. Jadwiga the younger was legitimated by Pope Gregory XI on 11 October 1371 (after Casimir's death).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Title and style.", "content": "Casimir's full title was: \"Casimir by the grace of God king of Poland and Russia (Ruthenia), lord and heir of the land of Kraków, Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, Pomerania (Pomerelia)\". The title in Latin was: \"Kazimirus, Dei gratia rex Polonie et Russie, nec non Cracovie, Sandomirie, Siradie, Lancicie, Cuiavie, et Pomeranieque Terrarum et Ducatuum Dominus et Heres.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Casimir III the Great (; 30 April 1310 – 5 November 1370) reigned as the King of Poland from 1333 to 1370. He was the third son of Władysław I the Elbow-high and Jadwiga of Kalisz, and the last Polish king from the Piast dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972570}
{"src_title": "Dogger Bank", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The bank extends over about, and is about in extent. The water depth ranges from, about shallower than the surrounding sea.  The bank is an important fishing area, with cod and herring being caught in large numbers. It gives its name to the Dogger sea area used in the BBC Radio 4 Shipping Forecast. Several shipwrecks lie on the bank.  Dogger Bank has been identified as an oceanic environment that exhibits high primary productivity throughout the year in the form of phytoplankton. As such, it has been proposed by various groups to designate the area a Marine Nature Reserve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "Geologically, the feature is most likely a moraine, formed during the Pleistocene. At differing times during the last glacial period it was either joined to the mainland or an island. The bank was part of a large landmass, now known as Doggerland, which connected Britain to the European mainland until it was flooded some time after the end of the last glacial period.  Fishing trawlers working the area have dredged up large amounts of moorpeat, remains of mammoth and rhinoceros, and occasionally Palaeolithic hunting artefacts.  The 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake took place below the bank, measuring 6.1 on the Richter scale and was the largest earthquake ever recorded in the United Kingdom. Its hypocentre was beneath the bank, and the quake was felt in countries all around the North Sea, causing damage across eastern England.  South of Dogger Bank is the Cleaver Bank.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wind farm and wind power hub.", "content": "The Dogger Bank is an attractive location for offshore wind farms because it is far away from shore, avoiding complaints about the visual impact of wind turbines, yet the water is shallow enough for traditional fixed foundation wind turbine designs. Fixed-foundation wind turbines are economically limited to maximum water depths of ; at greater water depths new floating wind turbine designs are required, which currently cost significantly more to build.  In January 2010, a licence to develop a wind farm on Dogger Bank was granted to Forewind Ltd, a consortium of developers. Originally projected to develop up to 9 gigawatts of power as part of a planned nine zone project of 32 gigawatts, the plan was later scaled down to a 7.2-gigawatt installation in agreement with the area's owner Crown Estates.  Construction was scheduled to start around 2014 at the earliest, but has been repeatedly postponed.  Dutch, German, and Danish electrical grid operators are cooperating in a project to build a North Sea Wind Power Hub complex on one or more artificial islands to be constructed on Dogger Bank as part of a European system for sustainable electricity. At the North Seas Energy Forum in Brussels on 23 March 2017, Energinet.dk will sign a contract to work with the German and Dutch branches of TenneT; thereafter a feasibility study will be produced.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dogger Bank (Dutch: \"Doggersbank\", German: \"Doggerbank\", Danish: \"Doggerbanke\") is a large sandbank in a shallow area of the North Sea about off the east coast of England.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972571}
{"src_title": "Permeability (electromagnetism)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Explanation.", "content": "In electromagnetism, the auxiliary magnetic field H represents how a magnetic field B influences the organization of magnetic dipoles in a given medium, including dipole migration and magnetic dipole reorientation. Its relation to permeability is  where the permeability, \"μ\", is a scalar if the medium is isotropic or a second rank tensor for an anisotropic medium.  In general, permeability is not a constant, as it can vary with the position in the medium, the frequency of the applied magnetic field, humidity, temperature, and other parameters. In a nonlinear medium, the permeability can depend on the strength of the magnetic field. Permeability as a function of frequency can take on real or complex values. In ferromagnetic materials, the relationship between B and H exhibits both non-linearity and hysteresis: B is not a single-valued function of H, but depends also on the history of the material. For these materials, it is sometimes useful to consider the \"incremental permeability\" defined as  This definition is useful in local linearizations of non-linear material behaviour, for example in a Newton–Raphson iterative solution scheme that computes the changing saturation of a magnetic circuit.  Permeability is the inductance per unit length. In SI units, permeability is measured in henries per metre (H⋅m = J/(A⋅m) = N⋅A). The auxiliary magnetic field H has dimensions current per unit length and is measured in units of amperes per metre (A⋅m). The product \"μ\"H thus has dimensions inductance times current per unit area (H⋅A/m). But inductance is magnetic flux per unit current, so the product has dimensions magnetic flux per unit area, that is, magnetic flux density. This is the magnetic field B, which is measured in webers (volt-seconds) per square-metre (V⋅s/m), or teslas (T).  B is related to the Lorentz force on a moving charge \"q\":  The charge \"q\" is given in coulombs (C), the velocity \"v\" in meters per second (m/s), so that the force \"F\" is in newtons (N):  H is related to the magnetic dipole density. A magnetic dipole is a closed circulation of electric current. The dipole moment has dimensions current times area, units ampere square-metre (A⋅m), and magnitude equal to the current around the loop times the area of the loop. The H field at a distance from a dipole has magnitude proportional to the dipole moment divided by distance cubed, which has dimensions current per unit length.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relative permeability and magnetic susceptibility.", "content": "Relative permeability, denoted by the symbol formula_5, is the ratio of the permeability of a specific medium to the permeability of free space \"μ\":  where formula_7 4 × 10 N⋅A is the magnetic permeability of free space. In terms of relative permeability, the magnetic susceptibility is  The number \"χ\" is a dimensionless quantity, sometimes called \"volumetric\" or \"bulk\" susceptibility, to distinguish it from \"χ\" (\"magnetic mass\" or \"specific\" susceptibility) and \"χ\" (\"molar\" or \"molar mass\" susceptibility).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diamagnetism.", "content": "\"Diamagnetism\" is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition of an externally applied magnetic field, thus causing a repulsive effect. Specifically, an external magnetic field alters the orbital velocity of electrons around their nuclei, thus changing the magnetic dipole moment in the direction opposing the external field. Diamagnets are materials with a magnetic permeability less than \"μ\" (a relative permeability less than 1).  Consequently, diamagnetism is a form of magnetism that a substance exhibits only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. It is generally a quite weak effect in most materials, although superconductors exhibit a strong effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paramagnetism.", "content": "\"Paramagnetism\" is a form of magnetism which occurs only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials are attracted to magnetic fields, hence have a relative magnetic permeability greater than one (or, equivalently, a positive magnetic susceptibility).  The magnetic moment induced by the applied field is \"linear\" in the field strength and rather \"weak\". It typically requires a sensitive analytical balance to detect the effect. Unlike ferromagnets, paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the absence of an externally applied magnetic field, because thermal motion causes the spins to become \"randomly oriented\" without it. Thus the total magnetization will drop to zero when the applied field is removed. Even in the presence of the field, there is only a small \"induced\" magnetization because only a small fraction of the spins will be oriented by the field. This fraction is proportional to the field strength and this explains the linear dependency. The attraction experienced by ferromagnets is non-linear and much stronger so that it is easily observed, for instance, in magnets on one's refrigerator.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gyromagnetism.", "content": "For gyromagnetic media (see Faraday rotation) the magnetic permeability response to an alternating electromagnetic field in the microwave frequency domain is treated as a non-diagonal tensor expressed by:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Values for some common materials.", "content": "The following table should be used with caution as the permeability of ferromagnetic materials varies greatly with field strength. For example, 4% Si steel has an initial relative permeability (at or near 0 T) of 2,000 and a maximum of 35,000 and, indeed, the relative permeability of any material at a sufficiently high field strength trends toward 1 (at magnetic saturation).  A good magnetic core material must have high permeability.  For \"passive\" magnetic levitation a relative permeability below 1 is needed (corresponding to a negative susceptibility).  Permeability varies with a magnetic field. Values shown above are approximate and valid only at the magnetic fields shown. They are given for a zero frequency; in practice, the permeability is generally a function of the frequency. When the frequency is considered, the permeability can be complex, corresponding to the in-phase and out of phase response.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complex permeability.", "content": "A useful tool for dealing with high frequency magnetic effects is the complex permeability. While at low frequencies in a linear material the magnetic field and the auxiliary magnetic field are simply proportional to each other through some scalar permeability, at high frequencies these quantities will react to each other with some lag time. These fields can be written as phasors, such that  where formula_11 is the phase delay of formula_12 from formula_13.  Understanding permeability as the ratio of the magnetic flux density to the magnetic field, the ratio of the phasors can be written and simplified as  so that the permeability becomes a complex number.  By Euler's formula, the complex permeability can be translated from polar to rectangular form,  The ratio of the imaginary to the real part of the complex permeability is called the loss tangent,  which provides a measure of how much power is lost in material versus how much is stored.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of the resistance of a material against the formation of a magnetic field, otherwise known as distributed inductance in transmission line theory. Hence, it is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is typically represented by the (italicized) Greek letter \"μ\". The term was coined in September 1885 by Oliver Heaviside. The reciprocal of magnetic permeability is magnetic reluctivity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972572}
{"src_title": "Yakuts", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Culture.", "content": "The Yakuts engage in animal husbandry, traditionally having focused on rearing horses, mainly the Yakutian horse, reindeer and the \"Sakha Ynagha\" (Yakutian cow), a hardy kind of cattle known as Yakutian cattle which is well-adapted to the harsh local weather.  Certain rock formations named Kigilyakh, as well as places such as Ynnakh Mountain, are held in high esteem by Yakuts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin and history.", "content": "The ancestors of Yakuts were Kurykans who migrated from Yenisey river to Lake Baikal and were subject to a certain Mongolian admixture prior to migration in the 7th century. The Yakuts originally lived around Olkhon and the region of Lake Baikal. Beginning in the 13th century they migrated to the basins of the Middle Lena, the Aldan and Vilyuy rivers under the pressure of the rising Mongols. The northern Yakuts were largely hunters, fishermen and reindeer herders, while the southern Yakuts raised cattle and horses.  In the 1620s the Tsardom of Muscovy began to move into their territory and annexed or settled down on it, imposed a fur tax and managed to suppress several Yakut rebellions between 1634 and 1642. The tsarist brutality in collection of the pelt tax (\"yasak\") sparked a rebellion and aggression among the Yakuts and also Tungusic-speaking tribes along the River Lena in 1642. The voivode Peter Golovin, leader of the tsarist forces, responded with a reign of terror: native settlements were torched and hundreds of people were killed. The Yakut population alone is estimated to have fallen by 70 percent between 1642 and 1682, mainly because of smallpox and other infectious diseases. In the 18th century the Russians reduced the pressure, gave Yakut chiefs some privileges, granted freedom for all habitats, gave them all their lands, sent Eastern Orthodox missions, and educated the Yakut people regarding agriculture. The discovery of gold and, later, the building of the Trans-Siberian Railway, brought ever-increasing numbers of Russians into the region. By the 1820s almost all the Yakuts claimed to have converted to the Russian Orthodox church, but they retained (and still retain) a number of shamanist practices. Yakut literature began to rise in the late 19th century, and a national revival occurred in the early 20th century.  In 1922, the new Soviet government named the area the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The last conflict of the Russian Civil War, known as the Yakut Revolt, occurred here when Cornet Mikhail Korobeinikov, a White Russian officer, led an uprising and a last stand against the Red Army.  In the late 1920s through the late 1930s, Yakut people were systematically persecuted, when Joseph Stalin launched his collectivization campaign. It is possible that hunger and malnutrition during this period resulted in a decline in the Yakut total population from 240,500 in 1926 to 236,700 in 1959. By 1972, the population began to recover.  The majority of Yakut males belong to Haplogroup N-Tat, with the observed frequency in most samples of Yakuts being approximately 90% (Central Yakut 86%, Yakut 89%, Vilyuy Yakut 93%, Yakut 94%). However, a sample of Yakut males from northern Yakutia has revealed a somewhat lower frequency of this haplogroup (Northern Yakut 47/66 = 71% N-TAT). The remainder of the Yakut Y-DNA pool consists of members of haplogroup C-M217 (approximately 4.0%, including members of the C-M48 and C-M407 subclades), haplogroup R1a-M17 (approximately 3.5%, including members of the R1a-M458 subclade), and haplogroup N-P43 (approximately 2.1%), with sporadic instances of haplogroup I1-M253, haplogroup R1b-M269, haplogroup J2, and haplogroup Q.  A majority of Yakut people belong to mtDNA haplogroup C (75/164 = 45.7% Central Yakut, 60/148 = 40.5% Northern Yakut, 40/111 = 36.0% Vilyuy Yakut) or haplogroup D (54/164 = 32.9% Central Yakut, 33/111 = 29.7% Vilyuy Yakut, 38/148 = 25.7% Northern Yakut), with subclades D5a2a2 (57/423 = 13.48%), C4a1c (47/423 = 11.11%), C4a2 (35/423 = 8.27%), C4b1 (33/423 = 7.80%), and C5b1b (19/423 = 4.49%) being particularly well represented. Minor mtDNA haplogroups of Eastern Eurasian origin include haplogroup G (22/423 = 5.20%, including 19/423 = 4.49% G2a and 3/423 = 0.71% G1b), haplogroup F (19/423 = 4.49%, including 13/423 = 3.07% F1b and 6/423 = 1.42% F2b1), haplogroup M13a1b (15/423 = 3.55%), haplogroup A (8/423 = 1.89%), haplogroup Y1a (5/423 = 1.18%), haplogroup B (5/423 = 1.18%), haplogroup Z3 (4/423 = 0.95%), and haplogroup M7 (3/423 = 0.71%). A minority of Yakuts (42/423 = 9.93%) belong to mtDNA haplogroups of Western Eurasian origin, including haplogroup H (15/423 = 3.55%), haplogroup W (6/423 = 1.42%), haplogroup J1c5 (6/423 = 1.42%), haplogroup T2 (5/423 = 1.18%), haplogroup HV1a1a (5/423 = 1.18%), haplogroup R1b2a (2/423 = 0.47%), haplogroup U5b1b1a (2/423 = 0.47%), and haplogroup U4d2 (1/423 = 0.24%).  Currently, Yakuts form a large plurality of the total population within the vast Sakha Republic. According to the 2010 Russian census, there were a total of 466,492 Yakuts residing in the Sakha Republic during that year, or 49.9% of the total population of the Republic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "According to the 2010 census, some 87% of the Yakuts in the Sakha Republic are fluent in the Yakut (or Sakha) language, while 90% are fluent in Russian. The Sakha/Yakut language belongs to the North Siberian of the Siberian Turkic languages. It is most closely related to the Dolgan language, and also to a lesser extent related to Tuvan and Shor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cuisine.", "content": "The cuisine of Sakha prominently features the traditional drink kumis, dairy products of cow, mare, and reindeer milk, sliced frozen salted fish stroganina (\"строганина\"), loaf meat dishes (\"oyogos\"), venison, frozen fish, thick pancakes, and \"salamat\"—a millet porridge with butter and horse fat. \"Kuerchekh\" [Куэрчэх] or \"kierchekh\", a popular dessert, is made of cow milk or cream with various berries. \"Indigirka\" is a traditional fish salad. This cuisine is only used in Yakutia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Yakuts, or the Sakha (, \"sakha\",, \"sakhalar\"), are a Turkic ethnic group who mainly live in the Republic of Sakha in the Russian Federation, with some extending to the Amur, Magadan, Sakhalin regions, and the Taymyr and Evenk Autonomous Districts. The Yakut language belongs to the Siberian branch of the Turkic languages. The Russian word yakut was taken from Evenk jeko. The Yakuts call themselves sakha or urangai sakha in some old chronicles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972573}
{"src_title": "STS-2", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Crew.", "content": "Engle had been the original selection as Lunar Module Pilot for Apollo 17, but was bumped in favor of Harrison Schmitt when it became clear that the mission would be the last lunar landing. As a consequence, both Engle and Truly were rookies during STS-2 (Engle had flown the X-15 above and so had earned USAF astronaut wings, but was still considered a NASA rookie), constituting the first all-rookie crew since Skylab 4. Engle and Truly had also served as one of the two Shuttle crews during the ALT program in 1977.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission summary.", "content": "The second Space Shuttle mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 12 November 1981, with liftoff occurring at 10:10 am EST, 7 months after STS-1. The planned launch time of 7:30 am was delayed while a faulty data transmitting unit on \"Columbia\" was replaced with one from new, which had been shipped overnight from Palmdale, California where \"Challenger\" was still under construction.  Originally, the launch had been set for 9 October, but it was delayed by a nitrogen tetroxide spill during the loading of the forward Reaction Control System tanks. The spill necessitated the removal, decontamination and reapplication of over 300 thermal tiles. The tiles could be reached from platforms at Launch Complex 39A, allowing the work to take place without destacking \"Columbia\" and returning it to the Orbiter Processing Facility. It was next scheduled for 4 November, but was again scrubbed when high oil pressures were discovered in two of the three Auxiliary Power Units (APU) that controlled the orbiter's hydraulic system. That issue was attributed to hydrazine seepage contaminating the lubrication system in the APUs.  The flight marked the first time an orbital crewed space vehicle had been re-flown with a second crew. Prior to launch, \"Columbia\" spent 103 days in the Orbiter Processing Facility. It again carried the DFI package, as well as the OSTA-l payload (named for the NASA Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications), which consisted of a number of remote-sensing instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet in the payload bay. These instruments, including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), successfully carried out remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions. In addition, the Canadian-built \"Canadarm\" Remote Manipulator System (RMS) was successfully operated in all its various operating modes for the first time.  During the mission, the Mission Control Center was visited by President Ronald Reagan. He was supposed to visit during STS-1, but was forced to cancel due to an assassination attempt on 30 March 1981.  Although the STS-2 mission had been planned for a duration of five days, with a few hours a day spent testing the Canadarm, the flight was cut short when one of the three fuel cells that produced electricity and drinking water failed. The mission was shortened to two days, and the Canadarm tests were canceled. The crew stayed awake during a scheduled sleep period and tested the arm anyway, working during the Loss-Of-Signal (LOS) periods when they were not in contact with Mission Control. The deorbit and reentry phase of this mission differed from STS-1, in that while the first shuttle entry was flown as a \"middle of the road\" test of the automatic guidance, the success of that mission allowed for the STS-2 crew to explore the stability margins of the vehicle's performance. Twenty-nine planned Programmed Test Inputs (PTIs) were manually flown in the Control Stick Steering (CSS) mode, with Engle making use of his past experience in the X-15. These PTIs provided useful data for subsequent engineering modifications. Contrary to the interviewer's assertion in a JSC Oral history conversation with Engle, he hand flew manoeuvres throughout the entire entry speed range, but not for the entire duration. As a consequence of STS-1 entry anomalies, the first roll manoeuvre was flown manually and the elevon scheduling was adjusted to offload the body flap.  Chase 1 crewed by astronauts \"Hoot\" Gibson and Kathy Sullivan escorted \"Columbia\" on final approach. Landing took place on Runway 23 at Edwards Air Force Base at 1:23 pm PST, 14 November, after a 37-orbit flight which covered a total of over the course of 2 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes and 13 seconds.  Despite the truncated flight, more than 90 percent of the mission's objectives were achieved. Moreover, modifications of the water sound suppression system at the pad, to absorb the solid rocket booster overpressure wave during launch, were effective; no tiles were lost and only 12 were damaged. \"Columbia\" was flown back to the Kennedy Space Center on 25 November 1981.  STS-2 was the first Space Shuttle flight where O-ring blow-by was observed. After the damage was discovered, another O-ring was intentionally damaged to a further degree. It was then put through a flight simulation at three times the flight pressure. It survived the test, and was endorsed as flightworthy. This same problem would occur on fourteen more Shuttle flights, before contributing to the loss of orbiter \"Challenger\" in 1986.  STS-2 was the last shuttle flight to have its external fuel tank (ET) painted white. In an effort to reduce the Shuttle's overall weight, STS-3 and all subsequent missions used an unpainted tank, saving approximately of launch weight. This lack of paint gave the ET a distinctive orange-brown color, which eventually became emblematic of the Space Shuttle. Decades later some questioned if the white paint might have prevented the ice-soaked foam shedding issue that led to the loss of \"Columbia\" nearly two decades later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Experiments or tests.", "content": "STS-2 payloads or experiments:  They also tested the OMS engines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission insignia.", "content": "The patch notes the names of the mission's two crew members, and includes an image of a bald eagle, the national bird of the United States, decorated with the colors of the US flag.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wake-up calls.", "content": "NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Gemini program, and first used music to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter \"Columbia\". The mission launched on 12 November 1981 and landed two days later on 14 November. STS-2 marked the first time that a crewed, reusable orbital vehicle returned to space. This mission tested the Shuttle Imaging Radar as part of the OSTA-1 payload, along with a wide range of other experiments including the Shuttle robotic arm, commonly known as Canadarm. Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP). One of the feats accomplished was various tests on the OMS including starting and restarting the engines while in orbit and various adjustments to its orbit. The OMS tests also help adjust the Shuttle's orbit for use of the radar. During the mission, President Reagan called the crew of STS-2 from Mission Control in Houston.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972574}
{"src_title": "Prunus spinosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Prunus spinosa\" is a large deciduous shrub or small tree growing to tall, with blackish bark and dense, stiff, spiny branches. The leaves are oval, long and broad, with a serrated margin. The flowers are about in diameter, with five creamy-white petals; they are produced shortly before the leaves in early spring, and are hermaphroditic and insect-pollinated. The fruit, called a \"sloe\", is a drupe in diameter, black with a purple-blue waxy bloom, ripening in autumn and harvested – traditionally, at least in the UK – in October or November after the first frosts. Sloes are thin-fleshed, with a very strongly astringent flavour when fresh.  Blackthorn usually grows as a bush but can grow to become a tree to a height of 6 m. Its branches usually grow forming a tangle.  \"Prunus spinosa\" is frequently confused with the related \"P. cerasifera\" (cherry plum), particularly in early spring when the latter starts flowering somewhat earlier than \"P. spinosa\". They can be distinguished by flower colour, pure white in \"P. spinosa\", creamy white in \"P. cerasifera\". They can also be distinguished in winter by the shrubbier habit with stiffer, wider-angled branches of \"P. spinosa\"; in summer by the relatively narrower leaves of \"P. spinosa\", more than twice as long as broad; and in autumn by the colour of the fruit skin purplish black in \"P. spinosa\" and yellow or red in \"P. cerasifera\".  \"Prunus spinosa\" has a tetraploid (2\"n\"=4\"x\"=32) set of chromosomes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The specific name \" is a Latin term indicating the pointed and thornlike spur shoots characteristic of this species. The common name \"\" is due to the thorny nature of the shrub, and possibly its very dark bark: it has a much darker bark, than the white-thorn (hawthorn), to which it is contrasted.  The word commonly used for the fruit, \"\", comes from Old English ', cognate with Old High German ', ', and Modern German '. Other cognate forms are Frisian and Middle Low German ', Middle Dutch '; Modern Dutch '; Modern Low German '/', '; Danish \".  The names related to'sloe' come from the common Germanic root '. Compare Old Slavic, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Ukrainian and Russian (\"sliva\", Ukr. \"slyva\"), West Slavic / Polish '; plum of any species, including sloe '—root present in other Slavic languages, e.g. Croatian/Serbian'/.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The foliage is sometimes eaten by the larvae of Lepidoptera, including the small eggar moth, emperor moth, willow beauty, white-pinion spotted, common emerald, November moth, pale November moth, mottled pug, green pug, brimstone moth, feathered thorn, brown-tail, yellow-tail, short-cloaked moth, lesser yellow underwing, lesser broad-bordered yellow underwing, double square-spot, black hairstreak, brown hairstreak, hawthorn moth (\"Scythropia crataegella\") and the case-bearer moth \"Coleophora anatipennella\". Dead blackthorn wood provides food for the caterpillars of the concealer moth \"Esperia oliviella\".  The pocket plum gall of the fruit caused by the fungus \"Taphrina pruni\" produces an elongated and flattened gall, devoid of a stone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic uses and consumption.", "content": "The shrub, with its savage thorns, is traditionally used in Britain and other parts of northern Europe to make a \"cattle-proof\" hedge.  The fruit is similar to a small damson or plum, suitable for preserves, but rather and for eating, unless it is picked after the first few days of autumn frost. This effect can be reproduced by freezing harvested sloes.  The juice is used in the manufacture of fake port wine, and used as an to impart roughness to genuine port, into the 20th century. In rural Britain a liqueur, sloe gin, is made by infusing gin with sloes and sugar. Vodka can also be infused with sloes.  In Navarre, Spain, a popular liqueur called \"\" is made with sloes. In France a similar liqueur called or \"épinette\" or \"troussepinette\" is made from the young shoots in spring. In Italy, the infusion of spirit with the fruits and sugar produces a liqueur called \"bargnolino\" (or sometimes \"prunella\"). In France, \"eau de vie de prunelle[s]\" is made in regions such as the Alsace and \"vin d'épine\" is an infusion of early shoots of blackthorn macerated with sugar in wine. Wine made from fermented sloes is made in Britain, and in Germany and other central European countries.  Sloes can also be made into jam, chutney, and used in fruit pies. Sloes preserved in vinegar are similar in taste to Japanese \"umeboshi\". The juice of the fruits dyes linen a reddish colour that washes out to a durable pale blue.  Blackthorn makes an excellent fire wood that burns slowly with a good heat and little smoke. The wood takes a fine polish and is used for tool handles and canes. Straight blackthorn stems have traditionally been made into walking sticks or clubs (known in Ireland as a shillelagh). In the British Army, blackthorn sticks are carried by commissioned officers of the Royal Irish Regiment; this is a tradition also in Irish regiments in some Commonwealth countries.  The leaves resemble tea leaves, and were used as an adulterant of tea.  Shlomo Yitzhaki, a Talmudist and Tanakh commentator of the High Middle Ages, writes that the sap (or gum) of \"P. spinosa\" (which he refers to as the ) was used as an ingredient in the making of some inks used for manuscripts.  The fruit stones have been found in Swiss lake dwellings. Early human use of sloes as food is evidenced in the case of a 5,300-year-old human mummy (nick-named Ötzi), discovered in the Ötztal Alps along the Austrian-Italian border in 1991: a sloe was found near the remains, evidently with the intent to eat it before the man died.  A \"sloe-thorn worm\" used as fishing bait is mentioned in the 15th-century work, \"The Treatyse of Fishing with an Angle\", by Juliana Berners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Figurative usage.", "content": "In Middle English, \"slō\" has been used to denote something of trifling value.  The expression \"\" for a person with dark eyes comes from the fruit, and is first attested in A. J. Wilson's 1867 novel \"Vashti\".  The flowering of the blackthorn may have been associated with the ancient Celtic celebration of Imbolc, traditionally celebrated on February 1 in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prunus spinosa, called blackthorn or sloe, is a species of flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae. It is native to Europe, western Asia, and locally in northwest Africa. It is also locally naturalised in New Zealand, Tasmania and eastern North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972575}
{"src_title": "Brassica nigra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is an upright plant, with large stalked leaves. They are covered with hairs or bristles at the base, but on the stem smoother. It can reach up to tall or even up to in moist fertile soil. It blooms in summer, from May (in the UK) onwards. The flowers have four yellow petals, which are twice as long as the sepals. Each stem has around four flowers at the top, forming a ring around the stem. Later, the plant forms long seed pods, that contain four rounded seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "It was formally described by Karl Koch in \"Deutschl. Fl.\" (or Deutschlands Flora) ed.3 on page 713 in 1833. This was based on a description by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus.  The Latin specific epithet \"nigra\" is derived from the Latin word for black. This is due to the black seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "It is native to tropical regions of North Africa, temperate regions of Europe and parts of Asia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "It is found in North Africa, within Algeria, Egypt, Eritrea, Libya, Ethiopia, Morocco and Tunisia. Within Asia it is found in Afghanistan, Armenia, the Caucasus, China (in the provinces of Gansu, Jiangsu, Qinghai, Xinjiang and Xizang), Cyprus, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey. In eastern Europe, it is found within Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine. In middle Europe, it is in Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland. In northern Europe, in Ireland and United Kingdom. In southeastern Europe, within Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia. Also in southwestern Europe, it is found in France and Spain.  It was introduced to the Pacific coast of North America and is considered an invasive species.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "More than 2,000 years ago, the plant was used as a condiment, it was mentioned by the Roman author Columella in the 1st century A.D. The plant leaves were also pickled in vinegar. In 13th century France the seeds were ground and used. They were mixed with partially fermented grape juice to create \"mout-ardent\" (or burning must). This became later \"moutarde\", now called mustard in English.  A spice is generally made from ground seeds of the plant, with the seed coats removed. The small (1 mm) seeds are hard and vary in color from dark brown to black. They are flavorful, although they have almost no aroma. The seeds are commonly used in Indian cuisine, for example in curry, where it is known as \"rai\". The seeds are usually thrown into hot oil or ghee, after which they pop, releasing a characteristic nutty flavor. The seeds have a significant amount of fatty oil, mainly oleic acid. This oil is used often as cooking oil in India, it is called \"sarson ka tel\".  In Ethiopia, where it is cultivated as a vegetable in Gondar, Harar and Shewa, the shoots and leaves are consumed cooked and the seeds used as a spice. Its Amharic name is \"senafitch\".  Black mustard is thought to be the seed mentioned by Jesus in the Parable of the Mustard Seed.  Since the 1950s, black mustard has become less popular as compared to brown mustard, because some cultivars of brown mustard have seeds that can be mechanically harvested in a more efficient manner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Folk medicine.", "content": "In the UK, the plant was used to make \"hot mustard baths\", which would aid people with colds. Ground seeds of the plant mixed with honey are widely used in eastern Europe as cough suppressant. In Eastern Canada, the use of \"mouche de moutarde\" to treat respiratory infections was popular before the advent of modern medicine. It consisted in mixing ground mustard seeds with flour and water, and creating a cataplasm with the paste. This cataplasm was put on the chest or the back and left until the person felt a stinging sensation. Mustard poultice could also be used to aid muscular pains.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Similar plants.", "content": "Despite their similar common names, black mustard and white mustard (genus \"Sinapis\") are not closely related. Black mustard belongs to the same genus as cabbage and turnips.  \"B. nigra\" also resembles \"Hirschfeldia incana\", or hoary mustard, (formerly \"Brassica geniculata\"), which is a perennial plant.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Brassica nigra, or black mustard, is an annual plant cultivated for its black or dark brown seeds, which are commonly used as a spice. It is native to tropical regions of North Africa, temperate regions of Europe, and parts of Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972576}
{"src_title": "White mustard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "White mustard is an annual, growing to 70 cm high with stalkless pinnate leaves, similar to \"Sinapis arvensis\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Most common in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, it can be found worldwide. It has been found as far north as Greenland, and naturalized throughout Great Britain and Ireland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary uses.", "content": "The yellow flowers of the plant produce hairy seed pods, with each pod containing roughly a half dozen seeds. These seeds are harvested just prior to the pods becoming ripe and bursting.  White mustard seeds are hard round seeds, usually around in diameter, with a color ranging from beige or yellow to light brown. They can be used whole for pickling or toasted for use in dishes. When ground and mixed with other ingredients, a paste or more standard condiment can be produced. \"Sinapis alba\" is used to make the commonplace yellow table mustard, with additional yellow coloring provided by turmeric in some formulations.  The seeds contain sinalbin, which is a thioglycoside responsible for their pungent taste. White mustard has fewer volatile oils and the flavor is considered to be milder than that produced by black mustard seeds.  In Greece, the plant's leaves can be eaten during the winter, before it blooms. Greeks call it \"vrouves (βρούβα)\" or \"lapsana (λαψάνα)\". The blooming season of this plant (February–March) is celebrated with the Mustard Festival, a series of festivities in the wine country of California (Napa and Sonoma Counties).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "White mustard is commonly used as a cover and green manure crop in Europe (between UK and Ukraine). A large number of varieties exist, e.g. in Germany, Netherlands, mainly differing in lateness of flowering and resistance against white beet-cyst nematode (\"Heterodera schachtii\"). Farmers prefer late-flowering varieties, which do not produce seeds, as they may become weeds in the subsequent year. Early vigour is important to cover the soil quickly to suppress weeds and protect the soil against erosion. In rotations with sugar beets, suppression of the white beet-cyst nematode is an important trait. Resistant white mustard varieties reduce nematode populations by 70-90%.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "White mustard (\"Sinapis alba\") is an annual plant of the family Brassicaceae. It is sometimes also referred to as \"Brassica alba\" or \"B. hirta\". Grown for its seeds, used to make the condiment mustard, as fodder crop, or as a green manure, it is now widespread worldwide, although it probably originated in the Mediterranean region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972577}
{"src_title": "Siege of Rhodes (1522)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Setting.", "content": "The Knights of St. John, or Knights Hospitallers, had captured Rhodes in the early 14th century after the loss of Acre, the last Crusader stronghold in Palestine in 1291. From Rhodes, they became an active part of the trade in the Aegean sea, and at times harassed Turkish shipping in the Levant to secure control over the eastern Mediterranean. A first effort by the Ottomans to capture the island, in 1480, was repulsed by the Order, but the continuing presence of the knights just off the southern coast of Anatolia was a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion.  Since the previous siege the fortress had received many upgrades from the new school of \"trace italienne\", which made it much more formidable in resisting artillery. In the most exposed land-facing sectors, these included a thickening of the main wall, doubling of the width of the dry ditch, coupled with a transformation of the old counterscarp into massive outworks (tenailles), the construction of bulwarks around most towers, and caponiers enfilading the ditch. Gates were reduced in number, and the old battlement parapets were replaced with slanting ones suitable for artillery fights. A team of masons, labourers, and slaves did the construction work, the Muslim slaves were charged with the hardest labor.  In 1521, Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam was elected Grand Master of the Order. Expecting a new Ottoman attack on Rhodes, he continued to strengthen the city's fortifications, work that had begun after the Ottoman invasion of 1480 and the earthquake of 1481, and called upon the Order's knights elsewhere in Europe to come to the island's defence. The rest of Europe ignored his request for assistance, but Sir John Rawson, Prior of the Order's Irish House, came alone. The city was protected by two and, in some places three, rings of stone walls and several large bastions. The defence of the walls and bastions was assigned in sections to the different \"Langues\" into which the knights had been organized since 1301. The harbour entrance was blocked by a heavy iron chain, behind which the Order's fleet was anchored.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasion.", "content": "When the Turkish invasion force of 400 ships arrived on Rhodes on 26 June 1522, they were commanded by Çoban Mustafa Pasha. Sultan Suleiman himself arrived with the army of 100,000 men on 28 July to take personal charge.  The Turks blockaded the harbour and bombarded the town with field artillery from the land side, followed by almost daily infantry attacks. They also sought to undermine the fortifications through tunnels and mines. The artillery fire was slow in inflicting serious damage to the massive walls, but after five weeks, on 4 September, two large gunpowder mines exploded under the bastion of England, causing a portion of the wall to fall and to fill the moat. The attackers immediately assaulted this breach and soon gained control of it, but a counterattack by the English brothers under Fra' Nicholas Hussey and Grand Master Villiers de L'Isle-Adam succeeded in driving them back again. Twice more the Turks assaulted the breach that day, but each time the English brothers, aided by German brothers, held the gap.  On 24 September, Mustafa Pasha ordered a new massive assault, aimed mainly at the bastions of Spain, England, Provence, and Italy. After a day of furious fighting, during which the bastion of Spain changed hands twice, Suleiman eventually called off the attack. He sentenced Mustafa Pasha, his brother-in-law, to death for his failure to take the city, but eventually spared his life after other senior officials had pleaded with him for mercy. Mustafa's replacement, Ahmed Pasha, was an experienced siege engineer, and the Turks now focused their efforts on undermining the ramparts and blowing them up with mines while maintaining their continuous artillery barrages. The regularity of the locations where the mines were detonated under the walls (which generally rest on rock) has led to the suggestion that the Turkish miners may have taken advantage of culverts under the Hellenistic city which lies beneath the medieval city of Rhodes.  Another major assault at the end of November was repelled, but both sides were now exhausted—the Knights because they were reaching the end of their capacity to resist and no relief forces could be expected to arrive in time, the Turks because their troops were increasingly demoralized and depleted by combat fatalities and disease spreading through their camps. Suleiman offered the citizens peace, their lives, and food if they surrendered; the alternative would be death or slavery if the Turks were compelled to take the city by force. Pressed by the townspeople, Villiers de L'Isle-Adam agreed to negotiate. A truce was declared for 11–13 December to allow negotiations, but when the locals demanded further assurances for their safety, Suleiman was angered and ordered the bombardment and assaults to resume. The bastion of Spain fell on 17 December. With most of the walls now destroyed, it was merely a matter of time before the city would have to surrender, and on 20 December, after several days of pressure from the town's people, the Grand Master asked for a fresh truce.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End.", "content": "On 22 December, the representatives of the city's Latin and Greek inhabitants accepted Suleiman's terms, which were generous. The knights were given twelve days to leave the island and would be allowed to take with them their weapons and any valuables or religious icons they desired. Islanders who wished to leave could do so at any time within a three-year period. No church would be desecrated or turned into a mosque. Those remaining on the island would be free of Ottoman taxation for five years.  On 1 January 1523, the remaining knights and soldiers marched out of the town, with banners flying, drums beating, and in battle armour. They boarded the 50 ships which had been made available to them and sailed to Crete (a Venetian possession), accompanied by several thousand civilians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The siege of Rhodes ended with an Ottoman victory. The conquest of Rhodes was a major step towards Ottoman control over the eastern Mediterranean and greatly eased their maritime communications between Constantinople and Cairo and the Levantine ports. Later, in 1669, from this base Ottoman Turks captured Venetian Crete.  The Knights Hospitaller initially moved to Sicily, but, in 1530, obtained the islands of Malta and Gozo and the North African port city of Tripoli in fief from Emperor Charles V.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Siege of Rhodes of 1522 was the second and ultimately successful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to expel the Knights of Rhodes from their island stronghold and thereby secure Ottoman control of the Eastern Mediterranean. The first siege in 1480 had been unsuccessful.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972578}
{"src_title": "Frederick II, Duke of Swabia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Frederick II was the eldest son of Duke Frederick I of Swabia and his wife Agnes of Waiblingen, a daughter of the Salian emperor Henry IV. He succeeded his father in 1105 and together with his brother Conrad continued the extension and consolidation of the Hohenstaufen estates. Frederick had numerous castles erected along the Rhine river and in the Alsace region.  The Hohenstaufen brothers supported King Henry V in the conflict with his father Emperor Henry IV; Frederick also accompanied him on his campaign against King Coloman of Hungary in 1108. In 1110 he and Henry V embarked on an expedition to Italy, where in Rome Henry enforced his coronation by Pope Paschal II. In turn, the emperor appointed Conrad Duke of Franconia and both brothers German regents when he left for his second Italian campaign in 1116. On the other hand, the rise of the Hohenstaufens began to upset rivalling princes like Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, who loathed the supporters of Henry V.  About 1120 Frederick married Judith, a daughter of Duke Henry IX of Bavaria and member of the powerful House of Welf. Their first son Frederick was born in 1122.  Upon the death of Emperor Henry V in 1125, the Salian dynasty became extinct. Frederick II, Henry's nephew, stood for election as King of the Romans with the support of his younger brother Conrad and several princely houses. However, he lost in the tumultuous round of elections, led by Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, to the Saxon duke Lothair II. Frederick at first rendered homage to the new king, however, he refused the feudal oath and insisted on the inheritance of the Salian family estates along the Middle Rhine.  At the 1125 \"Hoftag\" diet in Regensburg, the king officially requested the surrender of the Salian possessions. After he imposed an Imperial ban on the Hohenstaufens, a conflict erupted between Frederick and his supporters, and Lothair: encouraged by Archbishop Adalbert and several princes, the king occupied Hohenstaufen lands in Upper Lorraine and Alsace. However, an attack by Welf forces on the Swabian core territory failed, like the siege of Nuremberg by Lothair in 1127. Frederick relieved the siege and moreover gained the support from his brother Conrad, who had just returned from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. During the fighting, Frederick lost an eye, whereafter he was no longer eligible as German king.  In December 1127 Conrad declared himself King of the Romans, while the next year Duke Frederick II occupied the Salian city of Speyer. The attempt of Duke Henry X of Bavaria to capture his brother-in-law Frederick during the negotiations failed. However, afterwards the supporters of Lothair won a number of victories both in Germany and in Italy. Speyer (1129), Nuremberg (1130) and Ulm (1134) were captured; moreover Frederick's consort Judith of Bavaria died in 1130. His second wife, Agnes of Saarbrücken, was a niece of his old enemy Adalbert of Mainz; Frederick married her about 1132.  After Lothair was crowned emperor in 1133, Frederick saw himself stuck between the Saxon and Bavarian forces. He eventually submitted to him in the spring of 1135 at Bamberg. Both were finally reconciled and Emperor Lothair renounced further attacks against the Hohenstaufens. After Lothair's death in 1137 and the following election of Conrad as King of the Romans, Frederick supported his brother in the struggle with the Welfs. According to Otto of Freising, Frederick was \"so faithful a knight to his sovereign and so helpful a friend to his uncle that by valor he supported the tottering honor of the realm, fighting manfully against its foes...\"  Duke Frederick II died in 1147 at Alzey. He was buried at the Benedictine abbey of Walburg in Alsace. His son Frederick succeeded him as Swabian duke and was elected German king (as Frederick Barbarossa) in 1152.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "With Judith of Bavaria (1103- 22 February 1131), daughter of Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria: With Agnes of Saarbrücken (d. ), daughter of Frederick, Count of Saarbrücken:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick II (1090 – 6 April 1147), called the One-Eyed, was Duke of Swabia from 1105 until his death, the second from the Hohenstaufen dynasty. His younger brother Conrad was elected King of the Romans in 1138.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972579}
{"src_title": "Klaksvík", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first settlement at Klaksvík dates back to Viking times, but it was not until the 20th century that the district merged to form a large, modern Faroese town that became a cultural and commercial centre for the Northern Isles and the Faroe Islands as a whole.  Klaksvík is located between two inlets lying back to back. It has an important harbour with fishing industry and a modern fishing fleet. Originally, four farms were located where Klaksvík is now. In time, they grew into four villages: Vágur, Myrkjanoyri, Gerðar and Uppsalir; which finally merged to form the town of Klaksvík in 1938. What triggered the development of the town was the establishment of a centralized store for all the northern islands on the location.  The brewery Föroya Bjór in Klaksvík is a Faroese family brewery, founded in 1888. The ram has been the symbol of the brewery since the early beginning. Since August 2007, when Restorffs Bryggjarí went out of business, Föroya Bjór has been the only producer of beer and soft drinks in the Faroe Islands.  With the opening of the Leirvík sub-sea tunnel, the Norðoyatunnilin in April 2006, Klaksvík gained a physical link with the mainland of the Faroe Islands and can now be considered one of its key ports. Several developments are under way to exploit this symbiosis, including a new industrial park located by the tunnel entrance. Klaksvík is home to Summarfestivalurin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Christianschurch.", "content": "Christianskirkjan, built in 1963, is the first one in modern times in Scandinavia to be built in Norse style. The roof construction is the same as that found in the Viking halls, and which has survived in Faroese smoke rooms (kitchens) and village churches. This open roof construction has proved to be especially suitable for church buildings, as the acoustics in this church are better than in others of a similar size. The church is dedicated to the memory of the sailors who lost their lives during World War II. Hanging from the ceiling is an old 8-man rowing-boat, from Viðareiði, it was used to transport the priest between villages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Klaksvík used to be an isolated town until 2006 when the Norðoyatunnilin opened. A frequent bus service now links the town to Tórshavn, while smaller services operate to Fuglafjørður, Kunoy and Viðareiði. Also it has remained the ferry port for Kalsoy. Since 2014, a city bus (Bussleiðin) connects the outlying parts with the city center, and taxis offer additional services. The bus services and the ferry to Kalsoy are operated by Strandfaraskip Landsins, the public transport company of the Faroe Islands. There is a helipad which mainly has flights to isolated islands like Fugloy and Svínoy, as well as to Tórshavn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns - Sister cities.", "content": "Klaksvik is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "These are some of the sporting associations in Klaksvík: The local football club is KÍ. The local gymnastics club is Klaksvíkar Fimleikafelag. In handball there are two clubs, one for men and another for women. The women's handball club is Stjørnan. The men's handball club is Team Klaksvík.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Klaksvík is the second largest town of the Faroe Islands behind Tórshavn. The town is located on Borðoy, which is one of the northernmost islands (the Norðoyar). It is the administrative centre of Klaksvík municipality.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972580}
{"src_title": "McCoy Tyner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Tyner was born in Philadelphia, as the oldest of three children of Jarvis and Beatrice (Stevenson) Tyner. He was encouraged to study piano by his mother. He began studying the piano at age 13 and within two years music had become the focal point in his life. He studied at West Philadelphia Music School and later at the Granoff School of Music. During his teens he led his own group, the Houserockers.  When he was 17, he converted to Islam through the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and changed his name to Sulieman Saud. Tyner played professionally in Philadelphia becoming part of its modern jazz scene. His neighbors in the city included musicians Richie Powell and Bud Powell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1960, Tyner joined The Jazztet led by Benny Golson and Art Farmer. Six months later, he joined the quartet of John Coltrane that included Jimmy Garrison and Elvin Jones. He worked with the band during its extended run at the Jazz Gallery, replacing Steve Kuhn. Coltrane had known Tyner for a while growing up in Philadelphia. He recorded the pianist's composition \"The Believer\" on January 10, 1958; it became the title track of Prestige's 1964 album \"The Believer\" issued as a John Coltrane record. He played on Coltrane's \"My Favorite Things\" (1961) for Atlantic. The band toured almost non-stop between 1961 and 1965, recording the albums \"Coltrane \"Live\" at the Village Vanguard\" (1962), \"Ballads\" (1963), \"Live at Birdland\" (1964), \"Crescent\" (1964), \"A Love Supreme\" (1964), and \"The John Coltrane Quartet Plays\" (1965), all for Impulse!.  While in Coltrane's group, he recorded albums in a piano trio. In late 1962 and the first half of 1963, Tyner was asked by producer Bob Thiele to record more straightforward jazz albums as a leader. These albums included \"Reaching Fourth\" (1963), \"Today and Tomorrow\" (1964), and \"McCoy Tyner Plays Ellington\" (1965). Reviewing the album in 2017, Marc Myers of JazzWax said, \"...the finest of these straightforward piano recordings was \"Nights of Ballads & Blues\". Tyner's playing is exciting and exceptional on all of the tracks... On the album, he exhibits a reserved elegance and tenderness that reveals the other side of his personality—a lover of melody and standards. In this regard, there are traces of Oscar Peterson in his playing. Perhaps Thiele was using Tyner to take a bite out of Peterson's vast and successful early-'60s share of the jazz market.\" He also appeared as a sideman on many Blue Note albums of the 1960s, although he was often credited as \"etc.\" on the cover of these albums to respect his contract with Impulse!.  Tyner's playing style developed in close contact with Coltrane. His style of piano is comparable to Coltrane's maximalist style on saxophone. Writing in 2019, Sami Linna at the University of the Arts Helsinki, noted that Coltrane described the two different directions in his playing as: \"playing chordally (vertically) or melodically (horizontally)\". Linna suggests: \"Tyner would eventually find a way of dealing with the two directions simultaneously, in a manner that was supportive and complementary yet original and slightly different from Coltrane's approach.\" After 1960 Coltrane did not hire anyone at the piano if Tyner was not available; between Tyner joining the group (around the end of May 1960) and leaving (in December 1965), there was nobody else at the piano accompanying Coltrane.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-Coltrane.", "content": "Tyner's involvement with Coltrane came to an end in 1965. Coltrane's music was becoming much more atonal and free; he had also augmented his quartet with percussion players who threatened to drown out both Tyner and Jones: \"I didn't see myself making any contribution to that music... All I could hear was a lot of noise. I didn't have any feeling for the music, and when I don't have feelings, I don't play\". In 1966, Tyner rehearsed with a new trio and embarked on a career as a bandleader.  After leaving Coltrane's group, Tyner produced a series of post-bop albums released by Blue Note from 1967 to 1970. These included \"The Real McCoy\" (1967), \"Tender Moments\" (1967), \"Time for Tyner\" (1968), \"Expansions\" (1968) and \"Extensions\" (1970). He signed with Milestone and recorded such albums as \"Sahara\" and \"Echoes of a Friend\" (1972), \"Enlightenment\" (1973), and \"Fly with the Wind\" (1976), which included flautist Hubert Laws, drummer Billy Cobham, and a string orchestra.  His music for Blue Note and Milestone often took the music of the Coltrane quartet as a starting point. Tyner also incorporated African and East Asian elements in his music. On \"Sahara\" he played koto in addition to piano, flute, and percussion. These albums have been cited as examples of innovative jazz from the 1970s that was neither fusion nor free jazz. On \"Trident\" (1975) Tyner played the harpsichord and celeste, instruments heard rarely in jazz. During the 1980s and 1990s, Tyner worked in a trio that included Avery Sharpe on bass and Louis Hayes, then Aaron Scott, on drums. He made solo albums for Blue Note, starting with \"Revelations\" (1988) and culminating in \"Soliloquy\" (1991). After signing with Telarc, he recorded with several trios that included Charnett Moffett on bass and Al Foster on drums. In 2008, he toured with a quartet of Gary Bartz, Gerald L. Cannon, and Eric Gravatt.  On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed McCoy Tyner among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.  Tyner is considered to be one of the most influential jazz pianists of the late 20th century, an honor he earned during and after his time with Coltrane. Tyner, who was left-handed, played with a low bass left hand in which he raised his arm high above the keyboard for an emphatic attack. His right-hand soloing was detached and staccato. His melodic vocabulary was rich, ranging from raw blues to complexly superimposed pentatonic scales; his approach to chord voicing (most characteristically by fourths) influenced contemporary jazz pianists, such as Chick Corea.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "Tyner was named a 2002 NEA Jazz Master by the National Endowment for the Arts. He won five Grammy Awards, for \"The Turning Point\" and \"Journey\" and best instrumental jazz album for \"Illuminations\", \"Infinity\", and \"\".  Tyner was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music at the Sala dei Notari during the Umbria Jazz Festival. Tyner was a judge for the 6th, 10th and 11th annual Independent Music Awards (IMAs).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On March 6, 2020, Tyner died at his home in northern New Jersey, at the age of 81. His family released a statement on Twitter.  He is survived by his ex-wife, Aisha Tyner, their son Nurudeen, known as Deen, his brother and sister, Jarvis Tyner and Gwendolyn-Yvette Tyner, and three grandchildren. His younger brother Jarvis is the former executive vice-chairman of the Communist Party USA.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfred McCoy Tyner (December 11, 1938 – March 6, 2020) was an American jazz pianist known for his work with the John Coltrane Quartet and a long solo career. He was an NEA Jazz Master and a five-time Grammy winner. Not a player of electric keyboards and synthesizers, he was committed to acoustic instrumentation. Tyner, who was widely imitated, was one of the most recognizable and most influential pianists in jazz history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972581}
{"src_title": "Taenia saginata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"T. saginata\" is the largest of species in the genus \"Taenia\". An adult worm is normally 4 to 10 m in length, but can become very large; specimens over 22 m long are reported. Typical of cestodes, its body is flattened dorsoventrally and heavily segmented. It is entirely covered by a tegument. The body is white in colour and consists of three portions: scolex, neck, and strobila. The scolex has four suckers, but they have no hooks. Lack of hooks and a rostellum is an identifying feature from other \"Taenia\" species. The rest of the body proper, the strobila, is basically a chain of numerous body segments called proglottids. The neck is the shortest part of the body, and consists of immature proglottids. The midstrobila is made of mature proglottids that eventually lead to the gravid proglottids, which are at the posterior end. An individual can have as many as 1000 to 2000 proglottids.  \"T. saginata\" does not have a digestive system, mouth, anus, or digestive tract. It derives nutrients from the host through its tegument, as the tegument is completely covered with absorptive hair-like microtriches. It is also an acoelomate, having no body cavity. The inside of each mature proglottid is filled with muscular layers and complete male and female reproductive systems, including the tubular unbranched uterus, ovary, genital pore, testes, and vitelline gland. In the gravid proglottid, the uterus contains up to 15 side branches filled with eggs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Intermediate host.", "content": "Cattle acquire the embryonated eggs, the oncospheres, when they eat contaminated food. Oncospheres enter the duodenum, the anterior portion of the small intestine, and hatch there under the influence of gastric juices. The embryonic membranes are removed, liberating free hexacanth (\"six-hooked\") larvae. With their hooks, they attach to the intestinal wall and penetrate the intestinal mucosa into the blood vessels. The larvae can move to all parts of the body by the general circulatory system, and finally settle in skeletal muscles within 70 days. Inside the tissue, they cast off their hooks and instead develop a protective cuticular shell, called the cyst. Thus, they become fluid-filled cysticerci. Cysterci can also form in lungs and liver. The inner membrane of the cysticercus soon develops numerous protoscolices (small scolices) that are invertedly attached to the inner surface. The cysticercus of \"T. saginata\" is specifically named \"cysticercus bovis\" to differentiate from that of \"T. solium\", \"cysticercus cellulosae\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definitive host.", "content": "Humans contract infective cysticerci by eating raw or undercooked meat. Once reaching the jejunum, the inverted scolex becomes evaginated to the exterior under stimuli from the digestive enzymes of the host. Using the scolex, it attaches to the intestinal wall. The larva mature into adults about 5 to 12 weeks later. Adult worms can live about 25 years in the host. Usually, only a single worm is present at time, but multiple worms are also reported. In each mature proglottid, self-fertilisation produces zygotes, which divide and differentiate into embryonated eggs called oncospheres. With thousands of oncospheres, the oldest gravid proglottids detach. Unlike in other \"Taenia\", gravid proglottids are shed individually. In some cases, the proglottid ruptures inside the intestine, and the eggs are released. The free proglottids and liberated eggs are removed by peristalsis into the environment. On the ground, the proglottids are motile and shed eggs as they move. These oncospheres in an external environment can remain viable for several days to weeks in sewage, rivers, and pastures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "The disease is relatively common in Africa, some parts of Eastern Europe, the Philippines, and Latin America. This parasite is found anywhere where beef is eaten, including countries such as the United States, with strict federal sanitation policies. In the US, the incidence of infection is low, but 25% of cattle sold are still infected. The total global infection is estimated to be between 40 and 60 million. It is most prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symptoms.", "content": "\"T. saginata\" infection is usually asymptomatic, but heavy infection often results in weight loss, dizziness, abdominal pain, diarrhea, headaches, nausea, constipation, chronic indigestion, and loss of appetite. Intestinal obstruction in humans can be alleviated by surgery. The tapeworm can also expel antigens that can cause an allergic reaction in the individual. It is also a rare cause of ileus, pancreatitis, cholecystitis, and cholangitis.. \"Taenia saginata\" has been reported as a cause of gallbladder perforation if left untreated in some cases..\"Taenia saginata\" adult worms can live in the host for up to 25 years and most infections will last 2 to 3 years without treatment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "The basic diagnosis is done from a stool sample. Feces are examined to find parasite eggs. The eggs look like other eggs from the family Taeniidae, so it is only possible to identify the eggs to the family, not to the species level. Since it is difficult to diagnose using eggs alone, looking at the scolex or the gravid proglottids can help identify it as \"Taenia saginata\". Proglottids sometimes trickle down the thighs of infected humans and are visible with unaided eye, so can aid with identification. Observation of scolex help distinguish between \"T. saginata\", \"T. solium\" and \"T. asiatica\". When the uterus is injected with India ink, its branches become visible. Counting the uterine branches enables some identification (\"T. saginata\" uteri have 12 or more branches on each side, while other species such as \"T. solium\" only have five to 10).  Differentiation of the species of \"Taenia\", such as \"T. solium\" and \"T. asiatica\", is notoriously difficult because of their close morphological resemblance, and their eggs are more or less identical. Identification often requires histological observation of the uterine branches and PCR detection of ribosomal 5.8S gene. The uteri of \"T. saginata\" stem out from the center to form 12 to 20 branches, but in contrast to its closely related \"Taenia\" species, the branches are much less in number and comparatively thicker; in addition, the ovaries are bilobed and testes are twice as many.  Eosinophilia and elevated IgE levels are chief hematological findings. Also Ziehl–Neelsen stain can be used to differentiate between mature \"T. saginata\" and \"T. solium\", in most cases \"T. saginata\" will stain while \"T. solium\" will not, but the method is not strictly reliable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Taenaisis is easily treated with praziquantel (5–10 mg/kg, single-administration) or niclosamide (adults and children over 6 years: 2 g, single-administration after a light breakfast, followed after 2 hours by a laxative; children aged 2–6 years: 1 g; children under 2 years: 500 mg). Albendazole is also highly effective for treatment of cattle infection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prevention.", "content": "Adequate cooking at for 5 minutes of beef viscera destroys cysticerci. Refrigeration, freezing at for 9 days or long periods of salting is lethal to cysticerci. Inspection of beef and proper disposal of human excreta are also important measures.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Taenia saginata (synonym Taeniarhynchus saginatus), commonly known as the beef tapeworm, is a zoonotic tapeworm belonging to the order Cyclophyllidea and genus \"Taenia\". It is an intestinal parasite in humans causing taeniasis (a type of helminthiasis) and cysticercosis in cattle. Cattle are the intermediate hosts, where larval development occurs, while humans are definitive hosts harbouring the adult worms. It is found globally and most prevalently where cattle are raised and beef is consumed. It is relatively common in Africa, Europe, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Latin America. Humans are generally infected as a result of eating raw or undercooked beef which contains the infective larvae, called cysticerci. As hermaphrodites, each body segment called proglottid has complete sets of both male and female reproductive systems. Thus, reproduction is by self-fertilisation. From humans, embryonated eggs, called oncospheres, are released with faeces and are transmitted to cattle through contaminated fodder. Oncospheres develop inside muscle, liver, and lungs of cattle into infective cysticerci.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972582}
{"src_title": "Antonio da Correggio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Antonio Allegri was born in Correggio, a small town near Reggio Emilia. His date of birth is uncertain (around 1489). His father was a merchant. Otherwise little is known about Correggio's early life or training. It is, however, often assumed that he had his first artistic education from his father's brother, the painter Lorenzo Allegri.  In 1503–1505 he was apprenticed to Francesco Bianchi Ferrara in Modena, where he probably became familiar with the classicism of artists like Lorenzo Costa and Francesco Francia, evidence of which can be found in his first works. After a trip to Mantua in 1506, he returned to Correggio, where he stayed until 1510. To this period is assigned the \"Adoration of the Child with St. Elizabeth and John\", which shows clear influences from Costa and Mantegna. In 1514 he probably finished three tondos for the entrance of the church of Sant'Andrea in Mantua, and then returned to Correggio, where, as an independent and increasingly renowned artist, he signed a contract for the Madonna altarpiece in the local monastery of St. Francis (now in the Dresden Gemäldegalerie).  One of his sons, Pomponio Allegri, became an undistinguished painter. Both father and son occasionally referred to themselves using the Latinized form of the family name, Laeti.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works in Parma.", "content": "By 1516, Correggio was in Parma, where he spent most of the remainder of his career. Here, he befriended Michelangelo Anselmi, a prominent Mannerist painter. In 1519 he married Girolama Francesca di Braghetis, also of Correggio, who died in 1529. From this period are the \"Madonna and Child with the Young Saint John\", \"Christ Leaving His Mother\" and the lost \"Madonna of Albinea\".  Correggio's first major commission (February–September 1519) was the ceiling decoration of a private chamber of the mother-superior (abbess Giovanna Piacenza) of the convent of St. Paul in Parma, now known as Camera di San Paolo. Here he painted an arbor pierced by oculi opening to glimpses of playful cherubs. Below the oculi are lunettes with images of statues in feigned monochromic marble. The fireplace is frescoed with an image of Diana. The iconography of the scheme is complex, combining images of classical marbles with whimsical colorful \"bambini\".  He then painted the illusionistic \"Vision of St. John on Patmos\" (1520–21) for the dome of the church of San Giovanni Evangelista. Three years later he decorated the dome of the Cathedral of Parma with a startling \"Assumption of the Virgin\", crowded with layers of receding figures in Melozzo's perspective (\"sotto in su\", from down to up). These two works represented a highly novel illusionistic \"sotto in su\" treatment of dome decoration that would exert a profound influence upon future fresco artists, from Carlo Cignani in his fresco \"Assumption of the Virgin\", in the cathedral church of Forlì, to Gaudenzio Ferrari in his frescoes for the cupola of \"Santa Maria dei Miracoli\" in Saronno, to Pordenone in his now-lost fresco from Treviso, and to the baroque elaborations of Lanfranco and Baciccio in Roman churches. The massing of spectators in a vortex, creating both narrative and decoration, the illusionistic obliteration of the architectural roof-plane, and the thrusting perspective towards divine infinity, were devices without precedent, and which depended on the extrapolation of the mechanics of perspective. The recession and movement implied by the figures presage the dynamism that would characterize Baroque painting.  Other masterpieces include \"The Lamentation\" and \"The Martyrdom of Four Saints\", both at the Galleria Nazionale of Parma. The \"Lamentation\" is haunted by a lambency rarely seen in Italian painting prior to this time. The \"Martyrdom\" is also remarkable for resembling later Baroque compositions such as Bernini's \"Truth\" and Ercole Ferrata's \"Death of Saint Agnes\", showing a gleeful saint entering martyrdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mythological series based on Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\".", "content": "Aside from his religious output, Correggio conceived a now-famous set of paintings depicting the \"Loves of Jupiter\" as described in Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\". The voluptuous series was commissioned by Federico II Gonzaga of Mantua, probably to decorate his private Ovid Room in the Palazzo Te. However, they were given to the visiting Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and thus left Italy within years of their completion.  \"Leda and the Swan\" – acquired by Frederick the Great in 1753; now in Staatliche Museen of Berlin – is a tumult of incidents: in the centre Leda straddles a swan, and on the right, a shy but satisfied maiden. \"Danaë\", now in Rome's Borghese Gallery, depicts the maiden as she is impregnated by a curtain of gilded divine rain. Her lower torso semi-obscured by sheets, Danae appears more demure and gleeful than Titian's 1545 version of the same topic, where the rain is more accurately numismatic. The picture once called \"Antiope and the Satyr\" is now correctly identified as \"Venus and Cupid with a Satyr\".  \"Ganymede Abducted by the Eagle\" depicts the young man aloft in literal amorous flight. Some have interpreted the conjunction of man and eagle as a metaphor for the evangelist John; however, given the erotic context of this and other paintings, this seems unlikely. This painting and its partner, the masterpiece of \"Jupiter and Io\", are in Kunsthistorisches Museum of Vienna. \"Ganymede Abducted by the Eagle\", one of the four mythological paintings commissioned by Federico II Gonzaga, is a proto-Baroque work due to its depiction of movement, drama, and diagonal compositional arrangement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Returning to his home town in later years, Correggio died there suddenly on 5 March, 1534. The following day he was buried in San Francesco in Correggio near his youthful masterpiece, the 'Madonna di San Francesco', housed today in Dresden. The precise location of his tomb is now unknown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evaluation.", "content": "Correggio was remembered by his contemporaries as a shadowy, melancholic and introverted character. An enigmatic and eclectic artist, he appears to have emerged from no major apprenticeship. In addition to the influence of Costa, there are echoes of Mantegna's style in his work, and a response to Leonardo da Vinci, as well. Correggio had little immediate influence in terms of apprenticed successors, but his works are now considered to have been revolutionary and influential on subsequent artists. A half-century after his death Correggio's work was well known to Vasari, who felt that he had not had enough \"Roman\" exposure to make him a better painter. In the 18th and 19th centuries, his works were often noted in the diaries of foreign visitors to Italy, which led to a reevaluation of his art during the period of Romanticism. The flight of the Madonna in the vault of the cupola of the Cathedral of Parma inspired many scenographical decorations in lay and religious palaces during those centuries.  Correggio's illusionistic experiments, in which imaginary spaces replace the natural reality, seem to prefigure many elements of Mannerist, Baroque and Rococo stylistic approaches. He appears to have fostered artistic grandchildren, for example, Giovannino di Pomponio Allegri (1521–1593). Correggio had no direct disciples outside of Parma, where he was influential on the work of Giovanni Maria Francesco Rondani, Parmigianino, Bernardo Gatti, Francesco Madonnina, and Giorgio Gandini del Grano.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antonio Allegri da Correggio (August 1489 – March 5, 1534), usually known as just Correggio (,,, ), was the foremost painter of the Parma school of the High Italian Renaissance, who was responsible for some of the most vigorous and sensuous works of the 16th century. In his use of dynamic composition, illusionistic perspective and dramatic foreshortening, Correggio prefigured the Baroque art of the 17th century and the Rococo art of the 18th century. He is considered a master of chiaroscuro.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972583}
{"src_title": "Nino Rota", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Rota was born Giovanni Rota Rinaldi on 3 December 1911, into a musical family in Milan. Rota was a renowned child prodigy—his first \"oratorio\", \"L'infanzia di San Giovanni Battista\", was written at age 11 and performed in Milan and Paris as early as 1923; his three-act lyrical comedy after Hans Christian Andersen, \"Il Principe Porcaro\", was composed when he was just 13 and published in 1926. He studied at the Milan conservatory there under Giacomo Orefice and then undertook serious study of composition under Ildebrando Pizzetti and Alfredo Casella at the Santa Cecilia Academy in Rome, graduating in 1930.  Encouraged by Arturo Toscanini, Rota moved to the United States where he lived from 1930 to 1932. He won a scholarship to the Curtis Institute of Philadelphia, where he was taught conducting by Fritz Reiner and had Rosario Scalero as an instructor in composition. Returning to Milan, he wrote a thesis on the Renaissance composer Gioseffo Zarlino. Rota earned a degree in literature from the University of Milan, graduating in 1937, and began a teaching career that led to the directorship of the Liceo Musicale in Bari, a title he held from 1950 until 1978.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film scores.", "content": "Nino Rota wrote the score for the film \"The Glass Mountain\" in 1949. Notable was the singing of Tito Gobbi, one of the world's greatest baritones. The film won a number of awards.  In his entry on Rota in the 1988 edition of \"The Concise Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Composers and Musicians\", music scholar Nicolas Slonimsky described him as \"brilliant\" and stated that his musical style:  Furthermore, one of his compositional habits in particular came up for disapproving remarks: his penchant for pastiche of various past styles, which quite often turned into outright quotation of his own earlier music or even others' music. One of the most noticed examples of such incorporation is his use of the \"Larghetto\" from Dvorák's \"Serenade for Strings in E major\" as a theme for a character in Fellini's \"La Strada\".  During the 1940s, Rota composed scores for more than 32 films, including Renato Castellani's \"\" (1944). His association with Fellini began with \"Lo sceicco bianco (The White Sheik)\" (1952), followed by \"I vitelloni\" (1953) and \"La strada (The Road)\" (1954). They continued to work together for decades, and Fellini recalled:  The relationship between Fellini and Rota was so strong that even at Fellini's funeral Giulietta Masina, Fellini's wife, asked trumpeter Mauro Maur to play Rota's \"Improvviso dell'Angelo\" in the Basilica di Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri in Rome.  Rota's score for Fellini's \"81⁄2\" (1963) is often cited as one of the factors which makes the film cohesive. His score for Fellini's \"Juliet of the Spirits\" (1965) included a collaboration with Eugene Walter on the song, \"Go Milk the Moon\" (cut from the final version of the film), and they teamed again for the song \"What Is a Youth?\", part of Rota's score for Franco Zeffirelli's \"Romeo and Juliet\".  The American Film Institute ranked Rota's score for \"The Godfather\" #5 on their list of the greatest film scores. After being nominated for an Academy Award for this score, the nomination was later revoked when it was discovered that Rota recycled a theme from a previous score, one he wrote two decades prior for the film \"Fortunella\" and thus no longer considered original despite being played differently. The nomination was then given to Charlie Chaplin and two co-authors for their score featured in \"Limelight\", a 21-year-old film that had just become eligible because it had not been screened in Los Angeles until 1972, which went on to win the award. His score for \"War and Peace\" was also nominated for the list. In all, Rota wrote scores to more than 150 films.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orchestral, chamber and choral music.", "content": "Rota wrote numerous concerti and other orchestral works as well as piano, chamber and choral music, much of which has been recorded and released on CD. After his death from heart failure in 1979, Rota's music was the subject of Hal Willner's 1981 tribute album \"Amarcord Nino Rota\", which featured several at the time relatively unknown but now famous jazz musicians. Gus Van Sant used some of Rota's music in his 2007 film \"Paranoid Park\" and director Michael Winterbottom used several Rota selections in the 2005 film \"Tristram Shandy: A Cock and Bull Story\". Danny Elfman frequently cites Nino Rota as a major influence (particularly on his scores for the Pee-Wee films). Director Mario Monicelli filmed a documentary \"Un amico magico: il maestro Nino Rota\" which featured interviews with Franco Zeffirelli and Riccardo Muti (a student under Rota at Bari Conservatory), and was followed by a German documentary \"Nino Rota - Un maestro della musica\". Both explored film and concert sides of the composer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operas.", "content": "His 1955 opera \"Il cappello di paglia di Firenze\" (\"The Florentine Straw Hat\") is an adaptation of the play by Eugène Labiche and was presented by the Santa Fe Opera in 1977. In 2005 his opera \"Aladino e la lampada magica\" (\"Aladdin and the Magical Lamp\"), with Cosmin Ifrim in the title role, was performed in German translation at the Vienna State Opera and released on DVD. \"Il cappello di paglia di Firenze\" and \"Aladino e la lampada magica\" are regularly staged in Europe as are many symphonic and chamber titles  Written for a radio production by RAI in 1950, his short opera, \"I due timidi\" (\"The Two Timid Ones\"), was presented by the Santa Fe Opera as part of their pre-season \"One-Hour Opera\" program in May/June 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and death.", "content": "Rota had one daughter, Nina Rota, from a relationship with pianist Magda Longari. He died, age 67, from a coronary thrombosis in Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quotations.", "content": "Federico Fellini recalls his first chance meeting with Rota:  A critic conversing with Nino Rota at the age of eleven just prior to a performance of his oratorio, \"The Childhood of St. John the Baptist\", in 1923:  On his friendship with Igor Stravinsky:  Nino Rota reflecting on the unhappiness of others:  Federico Fellini on Nino Rota:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giovanni Rota Rinaldi (; 3 December 1911 – 10 April 1979), better known as Nino Rota (), was an Italian composer, pianist, conductor and academic who is best known for his film scores, notably for the films of Federico Fellini and Luchino Visconti. He also composed the music for two of Franco Zeffirelli's Shakespeare films, and for the first two films of Francis Ford Coppola's \"Godfather\" trilogy, receiving the Academy Award for Best Original Score for \"The Godfather Part II\" (1974).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972584}
{"src_title": "Marian apparition", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Examples.", "content": "Each Marian apparition is often associated with one or more titles given to Mary, often based on the location of the apparition, such as Our Lady of Pontmain in Pontmain, France. Others are named using a title which Mary applies to herself during the alleged apparition, as in the case of The Lady of All Nations.  Some Marian apparitions have only one purported seer, such as Our Lady of Lourdes. Other apparitions have multiple seers; in the case of Our Lady of Fatima, there were only three seers of the apparition itself, but miraculous phenomena was reported by a crowd of approximately 70,000 people, and even by others located miles away. In other cases, the entirety of a large group of people claims to see Mary, as in the case of Our Lady of La Vang. Some modern mass apparitions, witnessed by hundreds of thousands, have also been photographed, such as Our Lady of Zeitoun.  Most alleged apparitions involve the verbal communication of messages, but others are silent, such as the apparition of Our Lady of Knock.  Some apparitions are one-time events, such as Our Lady of La Salette. Others recur over an extended period of time, such as Our Lady of Laus, whose seer claimed 54 years of appearances. Public, serial apparitions (in which a seer not only says that they have experienced a vision, but that they expect it will reoccur, causing people to gather to observe) appear to be a relatively recent phenomenon; up until about the seventeenth century, most reported apparitions happened when the individual was alone, or at least no one else was aware of its occurrence.  Physical contact is hardly ever reported as part of Marian apparitions. In rare cases, a physical artifact is reportedly left behind, such as the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe, which is said to have been miraculously imprinted on the cloak of St. Juan Diego.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assessment by the Catholic Church.", "content": "The Catholic Church believes that it is possible for actually-supernatural Marian apparitions to occur, but also believes that many claimed apparitions are fabricated by the seer or the result of something other than divine intervention. For this reason, the Catholic Church has a formal evaluation process established for assessing claimed apparitions.  In 1978, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith promulgated the currently-used investigation guidelines in a document entitled \"Norms of the Congregation for Proceeding in Judging Alleged Apparitions and Revelations,\" better known as, a shortening of its Latin title. Investigations into alleged apparitions can be carried out by the local ordinary (i.e. diocesan bishop), the national episcopal conference, or the Holy See. Apparitions are evaluated on multiple criteria, including the sincerity and moral uprightness of the seers, the theological accuracy of the messages, and positive spiritual fruits resulting from the apparition event.  Occasionally, an ecclesial authority will decide not to investigate the veracity of an apparition in itself, but will approve the religious practices that have grown around the alleged apparition, such as by authorizing public veneration connected with the apparition, or by granting a request contained in the apparition messages. Pope Leo XIII, for example, authorized the use of a scapular described in the messages of Our Lady of Pellevoisin, but did not pass judgment on the supernatural character of the apparition itself.  Even if a Catholic bishop approves an apparition, belief in the apparition is never required of the Catholic faithful. The Catholic faith is rooted in so-called Public Revelation, which ended with the death of the last living Apostle. A Marian apparition, on the other hand, is considered private revelation, which may emphasize some facet of the received public revelation for a specific purpose, but can never add anything new to the deposit of faith.  In the Catholic Church, approval of a Marian apparition is relatively rare. The majority of investigated apparitions are rejected as fraudulent or otherwise false. Recently rejected apparition claims include those of \"Our Lady of Surbiton,\" denounced as fraudulent in 2007, and those associated with Holy Love Ministries in Elyria, Ohio, condemned in 2009. Some whose apparition claims are rejected proceed to break away from the Catholic Church and found splinter groups, as in the case of the Mariavite Church, the Palmarian Catholic Church, and the Fraternité Notre-Dame.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural impact.", "content": "Marian apparitions, particularly those that are officially approved, often have a widespread impact on Christian piety and on the broader culture. Apparitions can become an engrained part of national identity, as Our Lady of Guadalupe is for the majority-Catholic population of Mexico.  In many cases, apparition seers report a request from Mary for the construction of a shrine on the spot of the apparition. Such Marian shrines often become popular sites of pilgrimage. The most-visited Marian shrine in the world is the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City, which draws 10 million pilgrims each year. Other popular apparition-related Marian pilgrimage sites include the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima in Portugal (6-8 million per year) and the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes in France (5 million annually).  Apparitions often lead to the establishment of Marian confraternities, movements, and societies that seek to heed and spread the messages of a particular apparition, such as the Blue Army of Our Lady of Fátima.  Occasionally, apparitions will introduce prayers that become incorporated into widespread Catholic practice, as in the case of the Fátima prayers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Marian apparition is a reported supernatural appearance by Mary, the mother of Jesus, or a series of related such appearances over a period of time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972585}
{"src_title": "Agaricus campestris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "This species was originally noted and named in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus as \"Agaricus campestris\". It was placed in the genus \"Psalliota\" by Lucien Quelet in 1872. Some variants have been isolated over the years, a few of which now have species status, for example, \"Agaricus bernardii\" Quel. (1878), \"Agaricus bisporus\" (J.E. Lange) Imbach (1946), \"Agaricus bitorquis\" (Quel.) Sacc. (1887), \"Agaricus cappellianus\" Hlavacek (1987), and \"Agaricus silvicola\" (Vittad.) Peck (1872). Some were so similar they did not warrant even varietal status, while others have retained it. \"Agaricus campestris\" var. \"equestris\" (F.H.Moller) Pilat (1951) is still valid. \"A. campestris\" var. \"isabellinus\" (F.H.Moller) Pilat (1951), and \"A. campestris\" var. \"radicatus\", are possibly still valid too.  The Latin specific epithet \"campestris\" means \"of the fields\". Common names given to the fungus include \"meadow mushroom\", \"pink bottom\", and \"field mushroom\".  An analysis of ribosomal DNA of a limited number of members of the genus showed \"A. campestris\" to be an early offshoot in the genus and sister taxon to \"A. cupreobrunneus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The cap is white, may have fine scales, and is in diameter; it is first hemispherical in shape before flattening out with maturity. The gills are initially pink, then red-brown and finally a dark brown, as is the spore print. The tall stipe is predominantly white and bears a single thin ring. The taste is mild. The white flesh bruises a dingy reddish brown, as opposed to yellow in the inedible (and somewhat toxic) \"Agaricus xanthodermus\" and similar species. The thick-walled, elliptical spores measure 5.5–8.0 μm by 4–5 μm. Cheilocystidia are absent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "Several species may be confused with \"Agaricus campestris\". \"Lepiota naucina\", \"Amanita virosa\" and similar, closely related species, are morbidly toxic. \"Agaricus hondensis\" is toxic and \"Agaricus xanthodermus\" (\"the yellow stainer\") causes gastrointestinal problems. \"Agaricus arvensis\", the horse mushroom, is an excellent edible. White \"Clitocybe\" species that also grow on lawns, and in grassy places may be dangerous to eat.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Agaricus campestris\" is found in fields and grassy areas after rain from late summer onwards worldwide. It is often found on lawns in suburban areas. Appearing in small groups, in fairy rings, or solitary. Owing to the demise of horse-drawn vehicles, and the subsequent decrease in the number of horses on pasture, the old \"white outs\" of years gone by are becoming rare events. This species is rarely found in woodland.  The mushroom has been reported from Asia, Europe, northern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and North America (including Mexico).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "Although tasty and edible, this mushroom is not commercially cultivated on account of its fast maturing and short shelf-life. Culinary uses of the meadow mushroom include eating it sauteed or fried, in sauces, or even sliced raw and included in salads. In flavor and texture, this mushroom is similar to the white button mushroom available in grocery stores in the United States. Among the similar species mentioned above, there have been cases (in fact the most common cause of fatal fungus poisoning in France) where the deadly toxic destroying angel (\"Amanita bisporigera\") has been consumed by individuals who mistook it for this species. The edibility of specimens collected from lawns is uncertain because of possible contamination with pesticides or other chemicals.  It is nearly identical (except microscopically) to the edible species \"Agaricus andrewii\" and \"A. solidipes\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Research into fungal dressings for the treatment of ulcers, and bed sores, using fungal mycelial filaments, is ongoing. In the past, slices of \"A. campestris\" were applied to scalds and burns in parts of Scotland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bioactive properties.", "content": "Water extracts of \"A. campestris\" have been shown to enhance the secretion of insulin, and to have insulin-like effects on glucose metabolism \"in vitro\", although the mechanism is not understood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "British Checklist", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agaricus campestris is a widely eaten gilled mushroom closely related to the cultivated button mushroom \"Agaricus bisporus\". It is commonly known as the field mushroom or, in North America, meadow mushroom.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972586}
{"src_title": "Louis Botha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Louis Botha was born in Greytown, Natal, South Africa one of 13 children born to Louis Botha Senior (26 March 1827 – 5 July 1883) and Salomina Adriana van Rooyen (31 March 1829 – 9 January 1886). He briefly attended the school at Hermannsburg before his family relocated to the Orange Free State. The name Louis runs throughout the family, with every generation since General Louis Botha having the eldest son named Louis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Boer War.", "content": "Louis Botha led \"Dinuzulu's Volunteers\", a group of Boers that had supported Dinuzulu against Zibhebhu in 1884.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politician.", "content": "Botha later became a member of the parliament of Transvaal in 1897, representing the district of Vryheid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second Boer War.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early battles.", "content": "In 1899, Louis Botha fought in the Second Boer War, initially joining the Krugersdorp Commando, continuing to fight under Lucas Meyer in Northern Natal, and later as a general commanding and leading Boer forces impressively at Colenso and Spion Kop. On the death of P. J. Joubert, he was made commander-in-chief of the Transvaal Boers, where he demonstrated his abilities again at Belfast-Dalmanutha. After the battle at the Tugela, Botha granted a twenty-four-hour armistice to General Buller to enable him to bury his dead.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Capture of Winston Churchill.", "content": "Winston Churchill revealed that General Botha was the man who captured him at the ambush of a British armoured train on 15 November 1899. also claims that Botha captured Churchill at train ambush 15 November 1899. Churchill was not aware of the man's identity until 1902, when Botha travelled to London seeking loans to assist his country's reconstruction, and the two met at a private luncheon. The incident is also mentioned in Arthur Conan Doyle's book, \"The Great Boer War\", published in 1902. But more recent sources claim that Field-Cornet Sarel Oosthuizen was in fact the Boer-soldier who, at gunpoint, captured Churchill. Another version claims that the unit to capture Churchill was the Italian Volunteer Legion and its commander, Camillo Ricchiardi.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later campaigns.", "content": "After the fall of Pretoria in June 1900, Louis Botha led a concentrated guerrilla campaign against the British together with Koos de la Rey and Christiaan de Wet. The success of his measures was seen in the steady resistance offered by the Boers to the very close of the three-year war.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Role after the Boer War.", "content": "Botha was prominent in efforts to achieve a peace with the British, representing the Boers at the peace negotiations in 1902, and was signatory to the Treaty of Vereeniging. In the period of reconstruction under British rule, Botha went to Europe with de Wet and de la Rey to raise funds to enable the Boers to resume their former avocations. Botha, who was still looked upon as the leader of the Boer people, took a prominent part in politics, advocating always measures which he considered as tending to the maintenance of peace and good order and the re-establishment of prosperity in the Transvaal. His war record made him prominent in the politics of Transvaal and he was a major player in the postwar reconstruction of that country, founding with Jan Smuts the Het Volk Party in the Transvaal Colony in 1904, which served as a springboard to campaign for responsible self-government for the colony.  After the grant of self-government to the Transvaal on 6 December 1906 and the success of his Het Volk Party at the first elections in February 1907, Botha was called upon by Lord Selborne to form a government as Prime Minister on 4 March 1907, and in the spring of the same year he took part in the conference of colonial premiers held in London. During his visit to England on this occasion General Botha declared the wholehearted adhesion of the Transvaal to the British Empire, and his intention to work for the welfare of the country regardless of (intra-white) racial differences.  In 1911, together with another Boer war hero, Jan Smuts, he formed the South African Party, or SAP. Widely viewed as too conciliatory with Britain, Botha faced revolts from within his own party and opposition from James Barry Munnik Hertzog's National Party. He was a South African Freemason. When South Africa obtained dominion status in 1910, Botha became the first Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "After the First World War started, he sent troops to take German South-West Africa, a move unpopular among Boers, which provoked the Boer Revolt.  At the end of the War he briefly led a British Empire military mission to Poland during the Polish-Soviet War. He argued that the terms of the Versailles Treaty were too harsh on the Central Powers, but signed the treaty. Botha was unwell for most of 1919. He was plagued by fatigue and ill-health that arose from his robust waist-line. That he was fat is certain as related in the marvellous account of Lady Mildred Buxton asking General Van Deventer if he was bigger than Botha, to which Van Deventer replied: “I am longer, he is thicker.” (In Afrikaans thicker literally means fatter, and does not differentiate between long and tall)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "General Louis Botha died of heart failure at his home following an attack of Spanish influenza on 27 August 1919 in the early hours of the morning. He was 56. His wife Annie was at home and was joined by Engelenburg who had acted as a private secretary to Botha. Botha was laid to rest in Heroes' Acre, Pretoria.  Of Botha, Winston Churchill wrote in \"Great Contemporaries\", \"The three most famous generals I have known in my life won no great battles over a foreign foe. Yet their names, which all begin with a 'B', are household words. They are General Booth, General Botha and General Baden-Powell...\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "Sculptor Raffaello Romanelli created the equestrian statue of Botha that stands in front of the South African Parliament building.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis Botha (; 27 September 1862 – 27 August 1919) was a South African politician who was the first Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa—the forerunner of the modern South African state. A Boer war hero during the Second Boer War, he would eventually fight to have South Africa become a British Dominion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972587}
{"src_title": "Nymphaea alba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It grows in water that is deep and likes large ponds and lakes.  The leaves can be up to in diameter and take up a spread of per plant. The flowers are white and they have many small stamens inside.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "It was first published and described by Carl Linnaeus in his book 'Species Plantarum', on page 510 in 1753.  The red variety (\"Nymphaea alba\" f. \"rosea\") is cultivated from lake Fagertärn (\"Fair tarn\") in the forest of Tiveden, Sweden, where they were discovered in the early 19th century. The discovery led to a large-scale exploitation which nearly made it extinct in the wild before it was protected.  \"Nymphaea candida\" J. Presl is sometimes considered a subspecies of \"N. alba\" (\"N. alba\" L. subsp. \"candida\" (J. Presl) Korsh.).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "They are found all over Europe and in parts of North Africa and the Middle East in fresh water. In Africa, it is found in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. In temperate Asia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Siberia, Iran, Iraq, Israel and Turkey. It is found in tropical Asia, within the Indian provinces of Jammu and Kashmir. Lastly, within Europe, it is found in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russian Federation, Ukraine Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, Switzerland, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, France, Portugal and Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phytochemistry.", "content": "It contains the active alkaloids nupharine and nymphaeine, and is a sedative and an aphrodisiac/anaphrodisiac depending on sources. Although roots and stalks are used in traditional herbal medicine along with the flower, the petals and other flower parts are the most potent. Alcohol can be used to extract the active alkaloids, and it also boosts the sedative effects. The root of the plant was used by monks and nuns for hundreds of years as an anaphrodisiac, being crushed and mixed with wine. In the earliest printed medical textbooks, authors maintained this use, though warning against consuming large and frequent doses.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nymphaea alba, also known as the European white water lily, white water rose or white nenuphar, is an aquatic flowering plant of the family Nymphaeaceae. It is native to North Africa, temperate Asia, Europe and Tropical Asia (India).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972588}
{"src_title": "Tommaso Campanella", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Stignano (in the county of Stilo) in the province of Reggio di Calabria in Calabria, southern Italy, Campanella was a child prodigy. Son of a poor and illiterate cobbler, he entered the Dominican Order before the age of fourteen, taking the name of fra' Tommaso in honour of Thomas Aquinas. He studied theology and philosophy with several masters.  Early on, he became disenchanted with the Aristotelian orthodoxy and attracted by the empiricism of Bernardino Telesio (1509–1588), who taught that knowledge is sensation and that all things in nature possess sensation. Campanella wrote his first work, \"Philosophia sensibus demonstrata\" (\"Philosophy demonstrated by the senses\"), published in 1592, in defence of Telesio.  In 1590 he was in Naples where he was initiated in astrology; astrological speculations would become a constant feature in his writings. Campanella's heterodox views, especially his opposition to the authority of Aristotle, brought him into conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities. Denounced to the Inquisition, he was arrested in Padua in 1594 and cited before the Holy Office in Rome, he was confined in a convent until 1597.  After his liberation, Campanella returned to Calabria, where he was accused of leading a conspiracy against the Spanish rule in his hometown of Stilo. Campanella's aim was to establish a society based on the community of goods and wives, for on the basis of the prophecies of Joachim of Fiore and his own astrological observations, he foresaw the advent of the Age of the Spirit in the year 1600. Betrayed by two of his fellow conspirators, he was captured and incarcerated in Naples, where he was tortured on the rack. Even from the confinement of the jail, Campanella managed to influence the intellectual history of the early seventeenth century, by maintaining epistolary contacts with European philosophers and scientists, Neapolitan cultural circles, and Caravaggio's commissioners. Finally, Campanella made a full confession and would have been put to death if he had not feigned madness and set his cell on fire. He was tortured further (a total of seven times) and then, crippled and ill, was sentenced to life imprisonment. Campanella spent twenty-seven years imprisoned in Naples, in various fortresses. During his detention, he wrote his most important works: \"The Monarchy of Spain\" (1600), \"Political Aphorisms\" (1601), \"Atheismus triumphatus\" (\"Atheism Conquered\", 1605–1607), \"Quod reminiscetur\" (1606?), \"Metaphysica\" (1609–1623), \"Theologia\" (1613–1624), and his most famous work, \"The City of the Sun\" (originally written in Italian in 1602; published in Latin in Frankfurt (1623) and later in Paris (1638).  He defended Galileo Galilei in his first trial with his work \"The Defense of Galileo\" (written in 1616, published in 1622). During the time before his second trial, 25 September, 1632, Campanella wrote to Galileo that: To my great disgust I have heard that wrathful theologians of the Congregation aim to prohibit the Dialogues of Your Excellency, and [that] no one will be present who understands mathematics or recondite things. Be aware that while Your Excellency does state that it was appropriate to prohibit the theory of the earth's motion, you are not obliged to believe that the reasons of those who contradicted you are good. This is a theological rule, and is proved by the second Council of Nicaea which decreed that \"Angelorum imagines depingi debent, quam‘am vere corporei sunt\" (Images of angels must be depicted as they are in the flesh): while the decree is valid, the reasoning behind it is not, since all scholars today say angels are incorporeal. There are many other fundamental reasons. I fear violence from people who do not understand this. Our Pope makes a lot of noise against this and speaks as the Pope, but you haven't heard about that, nor can think about it. In my opinion Your Excellency should write to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, that since they are putting Dominicans, Jesuits, Theatines, and secular priests who are against your books in this council, they should also admit Father Castelli and me.  Campanella was finally released from prison in 1626, through Pope Urban VIII, who personally interceded on his behalf with Philip IV of Spain. Taken to Rome and held for a time by the Holy Office, Campanella was restored to full liberty in 1629. He lived for five years in Rome, where he was Urban's advisor in astrological matters.  In 1634, however, a new conspiracy in Calabria, led by one of his followers, threatened fresh troubles. With the aid of Cardinal Barberini and the French Ambassador de Noailles, he fled to France, where he was received at the court of Louis XIII with marked favour. Protected by Cardinal Richelieu and granted a liberal pension by the king, he spent the rest of his days in the convent of Saint-Honoré in Paris. His last work was a poem celebrating the birth of the future Louis XIV (\"Ecloga in portentosam Delphini nativitatem\").  Campanella's \"De sensu rerum et magia\" (1620) partly inspired the first fully-fledged it-narrative in English, Charles Gildon's \"The Golden Spy\" (1709).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tommaso Campanella (; 5 September 1568 – 21 May 1639), baptized Giovanni Domenico Campanella, was a Dominican friar, Italian philosopher, theologian, astrologer, and poet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972589}
{"src_title": "Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "In 1990, the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo, an autonomous province of Serbia within Yugoslavia, had undergone the Anti-bureaucratic revolution by Slobodan Milošević's government which resulted in the reduction of its powers, effectively returning it to its constitutional status of 1971–74. The same year, its Albanian majority—as well as the Republic of Albania—supported the proclamation of an independent Republic of Kosova. Following the end of the Kosovo War 1999, and as a result of NATO intervention, Serbia and the federal government no longer exercised \"de facto\" control over the territory.  In February 2008, the Republic of Kosovo declared independence. While Serbia has not recognised Kosovo's independence, in the Brussels agreement of 2013, it abolished all its institutions in the Autonomous Province. Kosovo's independence is currently recognized by 97 UN member states. In 2013, the Serbian government announced it was dissolving the Serb minority assemblies it had created in northern Kosovo, in order to allow the integration of the Kosovo Serb minority into the general population of Kosovo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Constitutional changes were made in Yugoslavia in 1990. The parliaments of all Yugoslavian republics and provinces, which until then had MPs only from the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, were dissolved and multi-party elections were held within them. Kosovar Albanians refused to participate in the elections so they held their own unsanctioned elections instead. As election laws required (and still require) turnout higher than 50%, a parliament in Kosovo could not be established.  The new constitution abolished the individual provinces' official media, integrating them within the official media of Serbia while still retaining some programs in the Albanian language. The Albanian-language media in Kosovo were suppressed. Funding was withdrawn from state-owned media, including those in the Albanian language in Kosovo. The constitution made the creation of privately owned media possible, however their operation was very difficult because of high rents and restrictive laws. State-owned Albanian language television or radio was also banned from broadcasting from Kosovo. However, privately owned Albanian media outlets appeared; of these, probably the most famous is \"Koha Ditore\", which was allowed to operate until late 1998 when it was closed after publishing a calendar glorifying ethnic Albanian separatists.  The constitution also transferred control over state-owned companies to the Yugoslav central government. In September 1990, up to 123,000 Albanian workers were dismissed from their positions in government and media, as were teachers, doctors, and civil servants, provoking a general strike and mass unrest. Some of those who were not sacked quit in sympathy, refusing to work for the Serbian government. Although the sackings were widely seen as a purge of ethnic Albanians, the government maintained that it was removing former communist directors.  Albanian educational curriculum textbooks were withdrawn and replaced by new ones. The curriculum was (and still is, as this is the curriculum used for Albanians in Serbia outside Kosovo) identical to its Serbian counterpart and that of all other nationalities in Serbia except that it had education on and in the Albanian language. Education in Albanian was withdrawn in 1992 and re-established in 1994. At the Priština University, which was seen as a centre of Kosovo Albanian cultural identity, education in the Albanian language was abolished and Albanian teachers were also dismissed in large numbers. Albanians responded by boycotting state schools and setting up an unofficial parallel system of Albanian-language education.  Kosovo Albanians were outraged by what they saw as an attack on their rights. Following mass rioting and unrest from Albanians as well as outbreaks of inter-communal violence, in February 1990, a state of emergency was declared and the presence of the Yugoslav Army and police was significantly increased to quell the unrest.  Unsanctioned elections were held in 1992, which overwhelmingly elected Ibrahim Rugova as \"president\" of a self-declared Republic of Kosova; Serb authorities rejected the election results, and tried to capture and prosecute those who had voted. In 1995, thousands of Serb refugees from Croatia were settled in Kosovo, which further worsened relations between the two communities.  Albanian opposition to the sovereignty of Yugoslavia and especially Serbia had previously surfaced in rioting (1968 and March 1981) in the capital Pristina. Rugova initially advocated non-violent resistance, but later opposition took the form of separatist agitation by opposition political groups and armed action from 1996 by the \"Kosovo Liberation Army\" (\"Ushtria Çlirimtare e Kosovës\", or UÇK) whose activities led to the Kosovo War ending with the 1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the eventual creation of the UN Kosovo protectorate (UNMIK).  In 2003, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was renamed the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro (Montenegro left the federation in 2006 and recognised Kosovo's independence in 2008).  Violent 2004 unrest in Kosovo broke out on 17 March 2004. Kosovo Albanians, numbering over 50,000, took part in wide-ranging attacks on the Kosovo Serb minority. It was the largest violent incident in Kosovo since the Kosovo War of 1998–1999. According to reports by news sources in Serbia, during the unrest, civilians were killed, thousands of Serbs were forced to leave their homes. In Serbia the events were also called the March Pogrom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics and government.", "content": "Since 1999, the Serb-inhabited areas of Kosovo have been governed as a \"de facto\" independent region from the Albanian-dominated government in Pristina. They continue to use Serbian national symbols and participate in Serbian national elections, which are boycotted in the rest of Kosovo; in turn, they boycott Kosovo's elections. The municipalities of Leposavić, Zvečan and Zubin Potok are run by local Serbs, while the Kosovska Mitrovica municipality had rival Serbian and Albanian governments until a compromise was agreed in November 2002.  The Serb areas have united into a community, the \"Union of Serbian Districts and District Units of Kosovo and Metohija\" established in February 2003 by Serbian delegates meeting in North Mitrovica, which has since served as the \"de facto\" \"capital.\" The Union's president is Dragan Velić. There is also a central governing body, the Serbian National Council for Kosovo and Metohija (SNV). The President of SNV in North Kosovo is Dr Milan Ivanović, while the head of its Executive Council is Rada Trajković.  Local politics are dominated by the Serbian List for Kosovo and Metohija. The Serbian List was led by Oliver Ivanović, an engineer from Kosovska Mitrovica.  In February 2007 the Union of Serbian Districts and District Units of Kosovo and Metohija has transformed into the Serbian Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija presided by Marko Jakšić. The Assembly strongly criticised the secessionist movements of the Albanian-dominated PISG Assembly of Kosovo and demanded unity of the Serb people in Kosovo, boycott of EULEX and announced massive protests in support of Serbia's sovereignty over Kosovo. On 18 February 2008, day after Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence, the Assembly declared it \"null and void\".  Also, there was a Ministry for Kosovo and Metohija within the Serbian government, with Goran Bogdanović as Minister for Kosovo and Metohija. In 2012, that ministry was downgraded to the Office for Kosovo and Metohija, with Aleksandar Vulin as the head of the new office. However, in 2013, Aleksandar Vulin post was raised into being a Minister without portfolio in charge of Kosovo and Metohija.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative divisions.", "content": "Five Serbian Districts are in the territory of Kosovo, comprising 28 municipalities and 1 city. In 2000, UNMIK created 7 new districts and 30 municipalities. Serbia does not exercise sovereignty over this polity. For the UNMIK districts and the districts of Kosovo, see Districts of Kosovo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija, commonly known as Kosovo and Metohija or Kosovo for short and abbreviated as KiM or Kosmet, refers to the region of Kosovo as defined in the Constitution of Serbia. The territory of the province is disputed between Serbia and the self-proclaimed Republic of Kosovo, the latter of which has \"de facto\" control. The region had functioned as part of Serbia (mainly while Serbia had been part of a Yugoslav state) for most of the period between 1912 and 1999.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972590}
{"src_title": "Geranium sanguineum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The genus name is derived from the Greek γέρανος (\"géranos\"), meaning crane, with reference to the appearance of the fruit capsule. The specific Latin name \"sanguineum\" refers to the red color assumed by the leaves in Autumn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The biological form of \"Geranium sanguineum\" is hemicryptophyte, as its overwintering buds are situated just below the soil surface and the floral axis is more or less erect with a few leaves. It has a thick rhizome. The stems are prostrate to ascending, well developed, very branched and hairy. This plant reaches on average in height. The petiolate leaves have five lobes (or segments), each segment is tripartite in large teeth. The flowers have a diameter of 2.5 to 4 cm. and are purple The flowering period extends from May through October. The flowers are hermaphrodite and pollinated by insects (entomophily). The most common flower visitors are Syrphidae and Hymenoptera, but also butterflies and Coleoptera. The fruit is a schizocarp that breaks up into five mericarps when ripe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Geranium sanguineum\" is native to Europe and temperate Asia. It is widespread in most of Europe up to Caucasus. In the north-east of Ireland it is a rare garden escape.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The typical habitat of this species is grassland, sand dunes and open woodland on calcareous soils, including rocky slopes. It prefers calcareous soils with neutral pH, with low nutritional value, at an altitude of above sea level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "It is cultivated as a garden subject, and a number of different cultivars exist. The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Geranium sanguineum, common names bloody crane's-bill or bloody geranium, is a species of hardy flowering herbaceous perennial plant in the cranesbill family Geraniaceae. It is also the county flower of Northumberland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972591}
{"src_title": "Charles-Michel de l'Épée", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Charles-Michel de l'Épée was born to a wealthy family in Versailles, the seat of political power in what was then the most powerful kingdom of Europe. He studied to be a Catholic priest.  L'Épée then turned his attention toward charitable services for the poor, and, on one foray into the slums of Paris, he had a chance encounter with two young deaf sisters who communicated using a sign language. L'Épée decided to dedicate himself to the education and salvation of the deaf, and, in 1760, he founded a school. In line with emerging philosophical thought of the time, the Abbé de l'Épée came to believe that deaf people were capable of language and concluded that they should be able to receive the sacraments and thus avoid going to hell. He began to develop a system of instruction of the French language and religion. In the early 1760s, his shelter became the world's first free school for the deaf, open to the public.  Though L'Épée's original interest was in religious education, his public advocacy and development of a kind of \"Signed French\" enabled deaf people to legally defend themselves in court for the first time.  L'Épée died at the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, and his tomb is in the Church of Saint Roch in Paris. Two years after his death, the National Assembly recognised him as a \"Benefactor of Humanity\" and declared that deaf people had rights according to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. In 1791, the Institution Nationale des Sourds-Muets à Paris, which L'Épée had founded, began to receive government funding. It was later renamed the Institut St. Jacques and then renamed again to its present name: Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris. His methods of education have spread around the world, and the Abbé de l'Épée is seen today as one of the founding fathers of deaf education.  After L'Épée's death, he was succeeded by the Abbé Roch-Ambroise Cucurron Sicard, who became the new head of the school.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Instructional Method of Signs (\"signes méthodiques\").", "content": "The Instructional Method of Signs is an educational method that emphasised using gestures or hand signs, based on the principle that \"the education of deaf mutes must teach them through the eye of what other people acquire through the ear.\" He recognised that there was already a signing deaf community in Paris but saw their language (now known as Old French Sign Language) as primitive. Although he advised his (hearing) teachers to learn the signs (lexicon) for use in instructing their deaf students, he did not use their language in the classroom. Instead, he developed an idiosyncratic gestural system using some of this lexicon, combined with other invented signs to represent all the verb endings, articles, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs of the French language.  In English, the Abbé de L'Épée's system has been known as \"Methodical Signs\" and \"Old Signed French\" but is perhaps better translated by the phrase \"systematised signs\". While L'Épée's system laid the philosophical groundwork for the later developments of Manually Coded Languages such as Signed English, it differed somewhat in execution. For example, the word \"croire\" (\"believe\") was signed using five separate signs—four with the meanings \"know\", \"feel\", \"say\", and \"not see\" and one that marked the word as a verb (Lane, 1980:122). The word \"indéchiffrable\" (\"unintelligible\") was also produced with a chain of five signs: interior-understand-possible-adjective-not. However, like Manually Coded Languages, L'Épée's system was cumbersome and unnatural to deaf signers. A deaf pupil of the school (and later teacher), Laurent Clerc, wrote that the deaf never used the \"signes méthodiques\" for communication outside the classroom, preferring their own community language (French Sign Language).  Although L'Épée reportedly had great success with this educational method, his successes were questioned by critics who thought his students were aping his gestures rather than understanding the meaning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Educational legacy.", "content": "What distinguished the Abbé de L'Épée from educators of the deaf before him, and ensured his place in history, is that he allowed his methods and classrooms to be available to the public and other educators. As a result of his openness as much as his successes, his methods would become so influential that their mark is still apparent in deaf education today. L'Épée also established teacher-training programmes for foreigners who would take his methods back to their countries and who established numerous deaf schools around the world. Laurent Clerc, a deaf pupil of the Paris school, went on to co-found the first school for the deaf in North America and brought with him the sign language that formed the basis of modern American Sign Language, including the signs of the ASL alphabet.  Some deaf schools in Germany and the UK that were contemporaries of the Abbé de l'Épée's Paris School used an oralist approach emphasising speech and lip reading, in contrast to his belief in manualism. Their methods were closely guarded secrets, and they saw Épée as a rival. The oralism vs. manualism debate still rages to this day. Oralism is sometimes called the German method, and manualism the French method in reference to those times.  The Paris school still exists, though it now uses French Sign Language in class rather than Épée's methodical signs. Located in rue Saint-Jacques in Paris, it is one of four national deaf schools—the others being in Metz, Chambéry, and Bordeaux.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Myths.", "content": "Even now, L'Épée is commonly described as the inventor of sign language or as having \"taught the deaf to sign\". In fact, he was taught to sign by the deaf. L'Épée categorised and recorded French signs so they could be taught to others in order to be used in education, especially about the Christian faith.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tribute.", "content": "On 24 November 2018, Google Doodle commemorated his 306th birthday.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Abbé Charles-Michel de l'Épée (; 24 November 1712 – 23 December 1789) was a philanthropic educator of 18th-century France who has become known as the \"Father of the Deaf\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972592}
{"src_title": "Turbo-folk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and characteristics.", "content": "Turbo-folk music emerged as a subculture in the countryside during the 1970s before migrating to the city in the 80s and eventually reaching further expansion in the 90s during the regime of Slobodan Milošević, Yugoslav wars, inflation and political isolation.  The term, coined by musician Rambo Amadeus, refers to every folk music based song featuring elements of electronic, dance, pop, hip-hop or other genres not related to true Serbian traditional music. Turkish and Greek folk music have also had great influences, with often cases of plagiarism without consequences due to the political situation in Yugoslavia. Songs were primarily composed by acclaimed rock and pop musicians such as Milić Vukašinović, Goran Bregović and Kornelije Kovač with lyrics mainly written by Marina Tucaković. Most of the tracks involve themes of love, mainly adultery and sex, then materialism, alcohol and vice.  The visual image also went through changes and was heading towards MTV aesthetics. Music videos and editorials were mostly directed by former art photographer Dejan Milićević, who himself stated Baroque as his main inspiration. Turbo-folk was predominantly broadcast on RTV Palma and RTV Pink.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performers and popularity.", "content": "The record in sales is held by Lepa Brena, who has sold over 40 million records and held some of the biggest concerts on the Balkans, making her the most successful Bosnian singer to date. Brena was also considered to be the symbol of former Yugoslavia, the country's unity and power, and after the breakup of the federation, of so-called \"yugo-nostalgia\". At the time the only \"rival\" Lepa Brena had was Vesna Zmijanac. Zmijanac and Brena were considered the biggest stars in Yugoslavia. Recognised as one of the most popular Yugoslavian singers, Zmijanac was dubbed the sex-symbol, fashionista and gay icon of the eighties  Among various turbo-folk singers in the nineties, arguably the biggest star of the decade was Dragana Mirković, who has sold more than 10 million records. She was at the time signed to Južni Vetar, alongside other popular singers like Mile Kitić, Sinan Sakić and Šemsa Suljaković. Arguably one of the most famous Ex-Yugoslavian artists, Zorica Brunclik is known for her singing voice, fashion style and bright pink hair. Sometimes she and folk singer Snežana Đurišić are labeled as the queens of new folk music.  However, Svetlana Ceca Ražnatović and Aca Lukas dominated in the late nineties and early two thousands acquiring enormous popularity despite their controversies. Ceca was married to Željko Ražnatović Arkan, war criminal and commander of the Serb Volunteer Guard, while Lukas is known for his troublesome lifestyle involving drug addictions and gambling problems. Both singers were arrested during the operation \"Sablja\" in 2003. Nevertheless, today they are both considered as the biggest stars on the Balkans. Because of her popularity, Ceca is considered as the \"Serbian mother\". She also holds the record for the biggest concert made by a Serbian singer. Her concert \"Ušće 2013\" was attended by more than 150 000 people. Jelena Karleuša also rose to prominence in the mid nineties, recognized for her highly sexual image and provocative work. During this period, Croatia also had their own pop-folk stars like Severina and Magazin with its lead singer Jelena Rozga.  In the 2000s, the single-person dominated scene was replaced by diverse performers who remained popular for at least a year. New music and its performers were labeled as pop-folk performers. Serbian record label Grand Production signed almost every singer in the country, taking monopoly over the music industry with significant media space for its TV shows, music festivals and magazines. Grand was held responsible for the success of the most of, at the time, popular acts like Seka Aleksić, Indira Radić, Saša Matić, Goga Sekulić, Stoja, Dara Bubamara, Aco Pejović, Viki Miljković, Sanja Đorđević, Jana, Dejan Matić and many more. At the beginning of the 2000s popular singers Viki Miljković and Indira Radić became one of the biggest stars in the country. In 2006 Indira Radić received the award for the largest number of concerts held. In 2005 with her album \"Mahi, mahi\" Viki Miljković became one of the most successful and popular singers at the time. Every single song on her album became an enormous hit throughout the Balkans. Popular reality singing competition \"Zvezde Granda\" also created many raising stars of pop-folk, such as Milica Todorović, Tanja Savić, Milan Stanković, Rada Manojlović and Milica Pavlović, whose careers were managed by Grand. The stars that emerged in later seasons were Aleksandra Prijović, Katarina Grujić and Andreana Čekić.  Pop-folk is a music genre dominated by Ana Bekuta and Neda Ukraden. Both of them are hugely popular with their careers lasting for decades. Ana Bekuta is a big star in Serbia, while Neda Ukraden is more successful on the Balkan music scene.  In the 2010s, pop-folk embraced even more pop influence and would often infuse electronic or hip-hop, leaning toward club music. Previously an underground hip-hop duo, Elitni Odredi gained enormous popularity after they had commercialized their sound by adding folk music. They were the pioneers of digital age in Serbian music, avoiding mainstream media, while using YouTube as their main platform. Bosnian singer Maya Berović, who saw moderate success in the 2000s, reached the zenith of her career when she collaborated with rappers Jala Brat and Buba Corelli on her 2017 album \"Viktorijina tajna\", which was a mixture of contemporary R&B and pop-folk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Although very popular, turbo-folk is described as pseudo-folklore, while often linking it to Serbian involvement in Bosnian and Croatian conflicts during the nineties. This left-wing section of Serbian and Croatian society explicitly viewed this music as vulgar, almost pornographic kitsch, glorifying crime, moral corruption and nationalist xenophobia. In addition to making a connection between turbofolk and \"war profiteering, crime & weapons cult, rule of force and violence\", in her book \"Smrtonosni sjaj\" (Deadly Splendor) Belgrade media theorist Ivana Kronja refers to its look as \"aggressive, sadistic and pornographically eroticised iconography\". Along the same lines, British culture theorist Alexei Monroe calls the phenomenon \"porno-nationalism\". However, turbo-folk was equally popular amongst the South Slavic nations during the brutal wars of the 1990s, reflecting perhaps the common cultural sentiments of the warring sides.  The resilience of a turbo-folk culture and musical genre, often referred to as the \"\"soundtrack to Serbia’s wars\"\", was and to a certain extent still is, actively promoted and exploited by pro-government commercial TV stations, most notably on Pink and Palma TV-channels, which devote significant amount of their broadcasting schedule to turbo-folk shows and music videos.  Others, however, feel that this neglects the specific social and political context that brought about turbo-folk, which was, they say, entirely different from the context of contemporary western popular culture. In their opinion, turbo-folk served as a dominant paradigm of the \"militant nationalist\" regime of Slobodan Milošević, \"fully controlled by regime media managers\". John Fiske feels that during that period, turbo-folk and its close counterpart Serbian eurodance had the monopoly over the officially permitted popular culture, while, according to him, in contrast, Western mass media culture of the time provided a variety of music genre, youth styles, and consequently ideological positions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Turbo-folk (in recent years referred to as pop-folk or popular folk) is an umbrella term for contemporary pop music made in the West Balkans, that initially developed during the 1980s and 1990s, with similar music styles in Greece (Skyladiko), Bulgaria (Chalga), Romania (Manele) and Albania (Tallava). It's a fusion genre of popular music blending Serbian folk music with other genres such as pop, rock, electronic or even hip-hop.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972593}
{"src_title": "Arado Ar 196", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1933, the \"Kriegsmarine\" looked for a standardized shipboard observation seaplane. After a brief selection period, the \"Reichsluftfahrtministerium\" (German Air Ministry, RLM) decided on the Heinkel He 60 biplane. This was one of a line of developments of a basic biplane airframe that appeared as a number of floatplanes, trainers, and fighters. Deliveries started in a matter of months.  By 1935, it was found that the He 60's performance was lacking and the RLM asked Heinkel to design its replacement. The result was the He 114. The first prototype was powered by the Daimler-Benz DB 600 inline engine, but it was clear that supplies of this engine would be limited and the production versions turned to the BMW 132 radial engine instead.  The plane proved to have only slightly better performance than the He 60, and its sea-handling was poor. Rushed modifications resulted in a series of nine prototypes in an attempt to solve some of the problems, but they did not help much. The Navy gave up, and the planes were eventually sold off to Romania, Spain and Sweden.  In October 1936, the RLM asked for a He 114 replacement. The only stipulations were that it would use the BMW 132, and they wanted prototypes in both twin-float and single-float configurations. Designs were received from Dornier, Gotha, Arado and Focke-Wulf. Heinkel declined to tender, contending that the He 114 could still be made to work.  With the exception of the Arado low-wing monoplane design, all were conventional biplanes. This gave the Arado better performance than any of the others, and the RLM ordered four prototypes. The RLM was conservative by nature, so they also ordered two of the Focke-Wulf Fw 62 designs as a backup. It quickly became clear that the Arado would work effectively, and only four prototypes of the Fw 62 were built.  The Ar 196 prototypes were all delivered in summer 1937, V1 (which flew in May) and V2 with twin floats as A models, and V3 and V4 on a single float as B models. Both versions demonstrated excellent water handling and there seemed to be little to decide, one over the other. Since there was a possibility of the smaller outrigger floats on the B models \"digging in\", the twin-float A model was ordered into production. A single additional prototype, V5, was produced in November 1938 to test final changes.  Ten A-0s were delivered in November and December 1938, with a single 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 15 machine gun at the rear seat for defence. Five similarly equipped B-0s were also delivered to land-based squadrons. This was followed by 20 A-1 production models starting in June 1939, enough to equip the surface fleet.  Starting in November, production switched to the heavier land-based A-2 model. It added shackles for two 50 kg (110 lb) bombs, two 20 mm MG FF cannon in the wings, and a 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 machine gun in the cowling. The A-4 replaced it in December 1940, strengthening the airframe, adding another radio, and switching props to a VDM model. The apparently misnumbered A-3, which had additional strengthening of the airframe, replaced the A-4. The final production version was the A-5 from 1943, which changed radios and cockpit instruments, and switched the rear gun to the much-improved MG 81Z. Overall, 541 Ar 196s (15 prototypes and 526 production models) were built before production ended in August 1944, about 100 of these from SNCA and Fokker plants.  The Ar 196C was a proposed aerodynamically-refined version. The Ar 196C project was cancelled in 1941.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The plane was loved by its pilots, who found that it handled well both in the air and on the water. With the loss of the German surface fleet, the A-1s were added to coastal squadrons and continued to fly reconnaissance missions and submarine hunts into late 1944. Two notable operations were the capture of, and the repeated interception of RAF Armstrong-Whitworth Whitley bombers. Although it was no match for a fighter, it was considerably better than its Allied counterparts, and generally considered the best of its class. Owing to its good handling on water, the Finnish Air Force utilized Ar 196s just for transporting and supplying special forces patrols behind enemy lines, landing on small lakes in remote areas. Several fully equipped soldiers were carried in the fuselage.  Two Arado Ar 196s were brought to Penang in Japanese-occupied Malaya aboard the auxiliary cruisers \"Thor\" and \"Michel\" in the early 1940s. In March of 1944, along with a Japanese Aichi E13A, these seaplanes formed the newly-created East Asia Naval Special Service to assist both the German Monsun Gruppe and Japanese naval forces in the area. The aircraft were painted in Japanese livery and were operated by Luftwaffe pilots under the command of Oberleutnant Ulrich Horn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arado in Allied hands.", "content": "The first Arado Ar 196 to fall into allied hands was an example belonging to the German cruiser, which was captured in Lyngstad, Eide, by a Norwegian Marinens Flyvebaatfabrikk M.F.11 seaplane of the Trøndelag naval district on 8 April 1940, at the dawn of the Norwegian Campaign. After being towed to Kristiansund by the torpedo boat, it was used against its former owners, flying with Norwegian markings. At 03:30 on 18 April, the Arado was evacuated to the UK by a Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service pilot. The plane was shortly thereafter crashed by a British pilot while on transit to the Helensburgh naval air base for testing. At the end of the war, at least one Arado Ar 196 was left at a Norwegian airfield and kept in use as a liaison aircraft by the Royal Norwegian Air Force for a year on the West coast.  During 1944-45, Soviet forces captured numerous Arados along the Baltic coast of Poland and Germany. At Dassow a spare parts depot was recovered also. After repairs, thirty-seven Arado Ar 96 aircraft fitted with Soviet radio equipment were integrated into the aviation element of the Soviet Border Guard. They were sent to Baltic, Black Sea and Pacific coastal areas, serving until 1955.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aircraft on display.", "content": "The Aircraft Historical Museum, Sola, Norway, has on display an Ar 196 A-2 fuselage frame raised from the wreck of the German cruiser Blücher in Oslofjord.  Another aircraft is known to lie in the Jonsvatnet, a lake near Trondheim in Norway. A number of wartime German aircraft have been recovered from the lake, but the Ar 196 remains undisturbed as its crew were killed when it crashed there in 1940 and it has the status of a War Grave.  A wrecked Arado Ar 196 A-3, believed to be D1 + EH, was snagged by a fishing trawler off the island of Irakleia in 1982 at a depth of 91 meters. It was towed out of the fishing lanes to shallower waters (about 11 meters). The upside-down plane, with fuselage and wings mostly intact, has become a popular spot for Scuba diving.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Arado Ar 196 was a shipboard reconnaissance low-wing monoplane aircraft built by the German firm of Arado starting in 1936. The next year it was selected as the winner of a design contest and became the standard aircraft of the \"Kriegsmarine\" (German navy) throughout World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972594}
{"src_title": "Antonín Novotný", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Antonín Novotný was born in Letňany, Austria-Hungary, now part of Prague, Czech Republic. The Novotný family was working class in social origin and he worked from an early age as a blacksmith.  Novotný was a charter member of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (CPC) at its founding in 1921. He became a professional Communist Party functionary in 1929.  In 1935, Novotný was selected as a delegate to the 7th World Congress of Comintern. He was made a regional party secretary in Prague in 1937 and made secretary and editor of the CPC's newspaper in the South Moravian Region in 1938.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II years.", "content": "With the coming of World War II and occupation of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in 1939, the CPC was outlawed and forced into an underground existence. Novotný served as one of the leaders of the CPC in the underground movement in Prague. Novotný was finally arrested by the German secret police, the Gestapo, in September 1941 and was immediately deported to the Mauthausen concentration camp.  Novotný managed to survive his concentration camp experience and was liberated by American troops on 5 May 1945.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war political rise.", "content": "After the war, Novotný returned to Czechoslovakia and resumed his activity in the Czech Communist Party. He was elected a member of the governing Central Committee of the CPC in 1946. He was promoted to the Secretariat of the Central Committee in September 1951 and became one of the party's top leaders on the CPC's Politburo following the arrest of Rudolf Slánský for alleged \"Titoism\" in November of that same year.  Novotný was formally appointed as Deputy Prime Minister in February 1953. After the death of party leader Klement Gottwald in March 1953, Novotný became a leading candidate in the succession struggle, ultimately winning out in September 1953 when he was named First Secretary of the party—effectively making him the leader of Czechoslovakia.  While President Antonín Zápotocký and Prime Minister Viliam Široký wanted a less repressive way of governing, the hardliner Novotný was able to outflank them because he had the backing of the Soviet Union. In late 1953, at a meeting in Moscow, Zápotocký and Široký were told to adhere to the principles of \"collective leadership\" — in other words, abandon power to Novotný.  In the Czechoslovakia of Novotný, people continued to face strict government regulations in the arts and media, although they had loosened dramatically since Stalin's death in 1953 and the subsequent De-Stalinisation programmes of 1956. His quasi-authoritarian practices led to mounting calls for a new form of socialism over the unsatisfactory pace of change that would include the accountability, proper elections, and responsibility of leaders to society. Novotný's administration, however, still remained centralised for 10 years. During these years society evolved, seen through events such as the Czechoslovak film miracle. Following the death of Zápotocký in 1957, Novotný was named as President of the republic, further consolidating his grip on power. Three years later, he replaced the superficially democratic Ninth-of-May Constitution with a new constitution that was a fully Communist document.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Events of 1968.", "content": "While Novotný was forced to adopt some reforms due to popular pressure in the 1960s, these efforts were half-hearted at best. Growing public dissatisfaction caused Novotný to lose his grip on power. The reason for this was the excessive imprisoning and killing of innocents who protested against the communist regime. He was forced to resign as party leader in January 1968 and was replaced by a reformer, Alexander Dubček. In March 1968, he was ousted as president and in May he resigned from the Central Committee of CPC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In 1971, during the period of normalization (Czechoslovakia), he was reelected to the Central Committee. However, his political influence was minimal and he was too ill to be a strong force in the Gustáv Husák administration.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Antonín Josef Novotný (10 December 1904 – 28 January 1975) was First Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia from 1953 to 1968, and also held the post of President of Czechoslovakia from 1957 to 1968. An ardent hardliner, Novotný was forced to yield the reins of power to Alexander Dubček during the short-lived reform movement of 1968.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972595}
{"src_title": "Imatra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "An Art Nouveau or Jugend style castle, currently known as Imatran Valtionhotelli, was built near the rapids in 1903 as a hotel for tourists from the Russian Imperial capital Saint Petersburg.  During the Continuation War, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim met with Adolf Hitler in secrecy near the town for the former's 75th birthday.  Imatra was founded in 1948 on the territory of three municipalities – Jääski, Ruokolahti and Joutseno. Finland ceded 11% of its territory to the Soviet Union after the Winter War. Jääski lost 85% of its territory and it was decided that a new municipality, Imatra, should be established on the remaining 15% of Jääski and some areas of Ruokolahti and Joutseno. This is why the Imatra coat of arms has three flashes – in honour of those previous municipalities that granted areas to it. It gained its municipal charter in 1971.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "PaSa Bandy is a bandy club in Imatra.  Imatra is the birthplace of National Hockey League players Jussi Markkanen and Petteri Nokelainen.  In motorsport history, Imatra is best known for its road races (former TT-race) from 1963 to 1986. From 1962 to 1982 it was the home of the Finnish motorcycle Grand Prix. Racing on the Imatra road circuit ended after fatal accident during the 1986 European Championship event. Racing resumed in 2016 as an event.  There is an annual indoor rowing race at Imatra, which attracts competitors from across Finland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — Sister cities.", "content": "Imatra is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Imatra is a town and municipality in eastern Finland. Imatra is dominated by Lake Saimaa, the Vuoksi River and the border with Russia. On the other side of the border, away from the centre of Imatra, lies the Russian town of Svetogorsk. St Petersburg is situated to the southeast, Finland's capital Helsinki is away and Lappeenranta, the nearest Finnish town, is away. Imatra belongs to the administrative province of Southern Finland and the region of South Karelia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972596}
{"src_title": "Statistical classification", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Relation to other problems.", "content": "Classification and clustering are examples of the more general problem of pattern recognition, which is the assignment of some sort of output value to a given input value. Other examples are regression, which assigns a real-valued output to each input; sequence labeling, which assigns a class to each member of a sequence of values (for example, part of speech tagging, which assigns a part of speech to each word in an input sentence); parsing, which assigns a parse tree to an input sentence, describing the syntactic structure of the sentence; etc.  A common subclass of classification is probabilistic classification. Algorithms of this nature use statistical inference to find the best class for a given instance. Unlike other algorithms, which simply output a \"best\" class, probabilistic algorithms output a probability of the instance being a member of each of the possible classes. The best class is normally then selected as the one with the highest probability. However, such an algorithm has numerous advantages over non-probabilistic classifiers:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Frequentist procedures.", "content": "Early work on statistical classification was undertaken by Fisher, in the context of two-group problems, leading to Fisher's linear discriminant function as the rule for assigning a group to a new observation. This early work assumed that data-values within each of the two groups had a multivariate normal distribution. The extension of this same context to more than two-groups has also been considered with a restriction imposed that the classification rule should be linear. Later work for the multivariate normal distribution allowed the classifier to be nonlinear: several classification rules can be derived based on different adjustments of the Mahalanobis distance, with a new observation being assigned to the group whose centre has the lowest adjusted distance from the observation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bayesian procedures.", "content": "Unlike frequentist procedures, Bayesian classification procedures provide a natural way of taking into account any available information about the relative sizes of the different groups within the overall population. Bayesian procedures tend to be computationally expensive and, in the days before Markov chain Monte Carlo computations were developed, approximations for Bayesian clustering rules were devised.  Some Bayesian procedures involve the calculation of group membership probabilities: these can be viewed as providing a more informative outcome of a data analysis than a simple attribution of a single group-label to each new observation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Binary and multiclass classification.", "content": "Classification can be thought of as two separate problems – binary classification and multiclass classification. In binary classification, a better understood task, only two classes are involved, whereas multiclass classification involves assigning an object to one of several classes. Since many classification methods have been developed specifically for binary classification, multiclass classification often requires the combined use of multiple binary classifiers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feature vectors.", "content": "Most algorithms describe an individual instance whose category is to be predicted using a feature vector of individual, measurable properties of the instance. Each property is termed a feature, also known in statistics as an explanatory variable (or independent variable, although features may or may not be statistically independent). Features may variously be binary (e.g. \"on\" or \"off\"); categorical (e.g. \"A\", \"B\", \"AB\" or \"O\", for blood type); ordinal (e.g. \"large\", \"medium\" or \"small\"); integer-valued (e.g. the number of occurrences of a particular word in an email); or real-valued (e.g. a measurement of blood pressure). If the instance is an image, the feature values might correspond to the pixels of an image; if the instance is a piece of text, the feature values might be occurrence frequencies of different words. Some algorithms work only in terms of discrete data and require that real-valued or integer-valued data be \"discretized\" into groups (e.g. less than 5, between 5 and 10, or greater than 10).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Linear classifiers.", "content": "A large number of algorithms for classification can be phrased in terms of a linear function that assigns a score to each possible category \"k\" by combining the feature vector of an instance with a vector of weights, using a dot product. The predicted category is the one with the highest score. This type of score function is known as a linear predictor function and has the following general form:  where X is the feature vector for instance \"i\", β is the vector of weights corresponding to category \"k\", and score(X, \"k\") is the score associated with assigning instance \"i\" to category \"k\". In discrete choice theory, where instances represent people and categories represent choices, the score is considered the utility associated with person \"i\" choosing category \"k\".  Algorithms with this basic setup are known as linear classifiers. What distinguishes them is the procedure for determining (training) the optimal weights/coefficients and the way that the score is interpreted.  Examples of such algorithms are", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Algorithms.", "content": "In unsupervised learning, classifiers form the backbone of cluster analysis and in supervised or semi-supervised learning, classifiers are how the system characterizes and evaluates unlabeled data. In all cases though, classifiers have a specific set of dynamic rules, which includes an interpretation procedure to handle vague or unknown values, all tailored to the type of inputs being examined.  Since no single form of classification is appropriate for all data sets, a large toolkit of classification algorithms have been developed. The most commonly used include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evaluation.", "content": "Classifier performance depends greatly on the characteristics of the data to be classified. There is no single classifier that works best on all given problems (a phenomenon that may be explained by the no-free-lunch theorem). Various empirical tests have been performed to compare classifier performance and to find the characteristics of data that determine classifier performance. Determining a suitable classifier for a given problem is however still more an art than a science.  The measures precision and recall are popular metrics used to evaluate the quality of a classification system. More recently, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves have been used to evaluate the tradeoff between true- and false-positive rates of classification algorithms.  As a performance metric, the uncertainty coefficient has the advantage over simple accuracy in that it is not affected by the relative sizes of the different classes.  Further, it will not penalize an algorithm for simply \"rearranging\" the classes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application domains.", "content": "Classification has many applications. In some of these it is employed as a data mining procedure, while in others more detailed statistical modeling is undertaken.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In machine learning and statistics, classification is the problem of identifying to which of a set of categories (sub-populations) a new observation belongs, on the basis of a training set of data containing observations (or instances) whose category membership is known. Examples are assigning a given email to the \"spam\" or \"non-spam\" class, and assigning a diagnosis to a given patient based on observed characteristics of the patient (sex, blood pressure, presence or absence of certain symptoms, etc.). Classification is an example of pattern recognition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972597}
{"src_title": "Michal Kováč", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kováč was born in the village of Ľubiša in then Czechoslovakia in 1930. He graduated from the present-day University of Economics in Bratislava and was a bank employee of the Státní banka československá and of other banks. As such, he spent some years in London and in Cuba in the 1960s. During the Normalization he was subject to some persecution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "During and after the Velvet Revolution, from 12 December 1989 to 17 May 1991 (when he resigned) Kováč was the Finance Minister of the Slovak (Socialist) Republic.  In early 1991, he was one of the founders and the vice-chairman of the Movement for a Democratic Slovakia. As such, he was elected as a deputy to the Federal Assembly of Czechoslovakia in 1990. After the 1992 election he served as the Chairman of the Federal Assembly from 25 June to 31 December 1992. He played an important role in the process of the preparation of the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President (1993–98).", "content": "Kováč was elected president by the National Council of Slovakia in February 1993 (because he was a candidate of the biggest parliamentary party—the Movement for a Democratic Slovakia) and inaugurated on 2 March 1993. He soon became a strong opponent of Prime Minister Vladimír Mečiar and by giving a critical presidential address to parliament in March 1994, Kováč significantly contributed to the deposition of the then Mečiar government and the creation of the Moravčík government (which only lasted until the next parliamentary election in the autumn of 1994).  In 1995 the Mečiar-Kováč conflict intensified and the Movement for a Democratic Slovakia cancelled Kováč's (formal) membership in the party. In August 1995 Kováč's son, who had been accused of financial crimes by German authorities (the accusation was later withdrawn), was apparently kidnapped and taken to Austria. The president, opposition parties and Austrian court accused the Slovak intelligence service (SIS) and the government of having organized this kidnapping. The investigation of new secret intelligence service director Mitro and Slovak police after collapse of Meciar's regime in the end of 1998 confirmed the participation of the SIS on this kidnap but the Slovak justice rejected the trial with its suspected actors because of an amnesty (also called self-amnesty) issued by Vladimir Meciar on 3 March 1998.  Kováč's term ended on 2 March 1998. His candidature in the first direct 1999 Slovak presidential election was unsuccessful. He was not very visible in Slovakian politics after this time and appeared only at a few symbolic events.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health and death.", "content": "On 10 July 2008 the Slovak media reported that Kováč probably suffered from Parkinson's disease. The former president did not confirm this information but admitted that he had some health problems.  On 5 October 2016, Kováč died from complications of Parkinson's disease in Bratislava, aged 86.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michal Kováč (5 August 1930 – 5 October 2016) was the first President of Slovakia, having served from 1993 through 1998.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972598}
{"src_title": "Arch of Titus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Based on the style of sculptural details, Domitian's favored architect Rabirius, sometimes credited with the Colosseum, may have executed the arch. Without contemporary documentation, however, attributions of Roman buildings on basis of style are considered shaky.  The medieval Latin travel guide \"Mirabilia Urbis Romae\" noted the monument, writing: \"the arch of the Seven Lamps of Titus and Vespasian; [where Moses' candlestick is having seven branches, with the Ark, at the foot of the Cartulary Tower\"].  During the Middle Ages, the Frangipani family added a second story to the vault, converting it into a fortified tower; beam holes from the construction remain in the panels. Pope Paul IV (papacy 1555–1559) made it the place of a yearly oath of submission.  It was one of the first buildings sustaining a modern restoration, starting with Raffaele Stern in 1817 and continued by Valadier under Pius VII in 1821, with new capitals and with travertine masonry, distinguishable from the original marble. The restoration was a model for the country side of Porta Pia.  At an unknown date, a local ban on Jews walking under the arch was placed on the monument by Rome's Chief Rabbinate; this was rescinded on the foundation of the State of Israel in 1948, and at a Hanukkah event in 1997 the change was made public. The arch was never mentioned in Rabbinic literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The arch is large with both fluted and unfluted columns, the latter being a result of 19th-century restoration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "The Arch of Titus measures: 15.4 meters (50 ft) in height, 13.5 meters (44 ft) in width, 4.75 meters (15.5 ft) in depth. The inner archway is 8.3 (27 ft) meters in height, and 5.36 (17.5 ft) in width.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decorative sculpture.", "content": "The spandrels on the upper left and right of the arch contain personifications of victory as winged women. Between the spandrels is the keystone, on which there stands a female on the east side and a male on the west side.  The soffit of the axial archway is deeply coffered with a relief of the apotheosis of Titus at the center. The sculptural program also includes two panel reliefs lining the passageway within the arch. Both commemorate the joint triumph celebrated by Titus and his father Vespasian in the summer of 71.  The south inner panel depicts the spoils taken from the Temple in Jerusalem. The golden candelabrum or Menorah is the main focus and is carved in deep relief. Other sacred objects being carried in the triumphal procession are the Gold Trumpets, the fire pans for removing the ashes from the altar, and the Table of Shewbread. These spoils were likely originally colored gold, with the background in blue. In 2012 the Arch of Titus Digital Restoration Project discovered remains of yellow ochre paint on the menorah relief.  The north inner panel depicts Titus as \"triumphator\" attended by various \"genii\" and lictors, who carry fasces. A helmeted Amazonian, Valour, leads the quadriga or four horsed chariot, which carries Titus. Winged Victory crowns him with a laurel wreath. The juxtaposition is significant in that it is one of the first examples of divinities and humans being present in one scene together. This contrasts with the panels of the Ara Pacis, where humans and divinities are separated.  The sculpture of the outer faces of the two great piers was lost when the Arch of Titus was incorporated in medieval defensive walls. The attic of the arch was originally crowned by more statuary, perhaps of a gilded chariot. The main inscription used to be ornamented by letters made of perhaps silver, gold or some other metal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inscriptions.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Original inscription.", "content": "The original inscription is attached to the east side of the Arch. It is written in Roman square capitals and reads:  SENATVS<br> POPVLVSQVE·ROMANVS<br> DIVO·TITO·DIVI·VESPASIANI·F(ILIO)<br> VESPASIANO·AVGVSTO (Senatus Populusque Romanus divo Tito divi Vespasiani filio Vespasiano Augusto), which means  \"The Senate and the Roman people (dedicate this) to the deified Titus Vespasian Augustus, son of the deified Vespasian.\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "1821 inscription.", "content": "The opposite side of the Arch of Titus received new inscriptions after it was restored during the pontificate of Pope Pius VII by Giuseppe Valadier in 1821. The restoration was intentionally made in travertine to differentiate between the original and the restored portions.  The inscription reads:  INSIGNE · RELIGIONIS · ATQVE · ARTIS · MONVMENTVM<br> VETVSTATE · FATISCENS<br> PIVS · SEPTIMVS · PONTIFEX · MAX(IMVS)<br> NOVIS · OPERIBVS · PRISCVM · EXEMPLAR · IMITANTIBVS<br> FVLCIRI · SERVARIQVE · IVSSIT<br> ANNO · SACRI · PRINCIPATVS · EIVS · XXIIII (Insigne religionis atque artis, monumentum, vetustate fatiscens: Pius Septimus, Pontifex Maximus, novis operibus priscum exemplar imitantibus fulciri servarique iussit. Anno sacri principatus eius XXIV), which means (This) monument, remarkable in terms of both religion and art, <br> had weakened from age: <br> Pius the Seventh, Supreme Pontiff, <br> by new works on the model of the ancient exemplar <br> ordered it reinforced and preserved. <br> • In the 24th year of his sacred rulership. •", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Architectural influence.", "content": "Works modelled on, or inspired by, the Arch of Titus include, chronologically:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Arch of Titus (; ) is a 1st-century AD honorific arch, located on the Via Sacra, Rome, just to the south-east of the Roman Forum. It was constructed in 81 AD by the Emperor Domitian shortly after the death of his older brother Titus to commemorate Titus's official deification or \"consecratio\" and the victory of Titus together with their father, Vespasian, over the Jewish rebellion in Judaea. The arch contains panels depicting the triumphal procession celebrated in 71 AD after the Roman victory culminating in the fall of Jerusalem, and provides one of the few contemporary depictions of artifacts of Herod's Temple. It became a symbol of the Jewish diaspora, and the menorah depicted on the arch served as the model for the menorah used as the emblem of the state of Israel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972599}
{"src_title": "Gaucho", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "There are several hypotheses concerning the origin of the term. It may derive from the Spanish term, in turn derived from a Turkish low-rank military term Chiaus (), through Arabic which became broadly applied to any guard/watcher or aide. The first recorded use of the term dates to Argentine independence in 1816. Another scenario indicates the word may derive from the Portuguese, which was designated to the inhabitants of the vast regions of and in the 18th century or the Portuguese that points to an instrument used by the gauchos to trap and hamstring cattle. The 18th century chronicler speaks of when it mentions the gauchos or as poorly dressed men.  Another plausible origin is from a South American indigenous language, such as Mapudungun (\"vagrant\", \"wanderer\"), (\"friend\"), or Quechua (\"vagabond\", \"poor person”) which means the state of being lonely in the wilderness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Horsemanship.", "content": "An essential attribute of a gaucho was that he was a skilled horseman. \"He has taken his first lessons in riding before he is well able to walk\". Without a horse the gaucho himself felt unmanned. The naturalist William Henry Hudson (who was born on the Pampas of Buenos Aires province) recorded that the gauchos of his childhood used to say that a man without a horse was a man without legs. He described meeting a blind gaucho who was obliged to beg for his food yet behaved with dignity and went about on horseback. Richard W. Slatta, the author of a scholarly work about gauchos, notes that the gaucho used horses to collect, mark, drive or tame cattle, to draw fishing nets, to hunt ostriches, to snare partridges, to draw well water, and even − with the help of his friends − to ride to his own burial.  By reputation the quintessential gaucho caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas could throw his hat on the ground and scoop it up while galloping his horse, without touching the saddle with his hand. For the gaucho, the horse was absolutely essential to his survival for, said Hudson: \"he must every day traverse vast distances, see quickly, judge rapidly, be ready at all times to encounter hunger and fatigue, violent changes of temperature, great and sudden perils\".  A popular \"copla\" was: It was the gaucho's passion to own all his steeds in matching colours. Hudson recalled: The gaucho, from the poorest worker on horseback to the largest owner of lands and cattle, has, or had in those days, a fancy for having all his riding-horses of one colour. Every man as a rule had his tropilla — his own half a dozen or a dozen or more saddle-horses, and he would have them all as nearly alike as possible, so that one man had chestnuts, another browns, bays, silver- or iron-greys, duns, fawns, cream-noses, or blacks, or whites, or piebalds.  The caudillo El Chacho Peñalosa described the low point of his life as \"In Chile − and on foot!\" (\"En Chile y a pie\".)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The gaucho plays an important symbolic role in the nationalist feelings of this region, especially that of Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The epic poem \"Martín Fierro\" by José Hernández (considered by some the national epic of Argentina) used the gaucho as a symbol against corruption and of Argentine national tradition, pitted against Europeanising tendencies. Martín Fierro, the hero of the poem, is drafted into the Argentine military for a border war, deserts, and becomes an outlaw and fugitive. The image of the free gaucho is often contrasted to the slaves who worked the northern Brazilian lands. Further literary descriptions are found in Ricardo Güiraldes' \"Don Segundo Sombra\". Like the North American cowboys, as discussed in Richard W. Slatta, \"Cowboys of the Americas\", gauchos were generally reputed to be strong, honest, silent types, but proud and capable of violence when provoked. The gaucho tendency to violence over petty matters is also recognized as a typical trait. Gauchos' use of the famous \"facón\" (large knife generally tucked into the rear of the gaucho sash) is legendary, often associated with considerable bloodletting. Historically, the facón was typically the only eating instrument that a gaucho carried.  Also like the cowboy, as shown in Richard W. Slatta, \"Cowboys of the Americas\", gauchos were and remain proud and great horseriders. Typically, a gaucho's horse constituted most of what he owned in the world. During the wars of the 19th century in the Southern Cone, the cavalries on all sides were composed almost entirely of gauchos. In Argentina, gaucho armies such as that of Martín Miguel de Güemes, slowed Spanish advances. Furthermore, many caudillos relied on gaucho armies to control the Argentine provinces.  The gaucho diet was composed almost entirely of beef while on the range, supplemented by \"yerba mate\" (\"erva-mate\" in Portuguese), an herbal infusion made from the leaves of a South American tree, a type of holly rich in caffeine and nutrients.  Gauchos dressed quite distinctly from North American cowboys, and used \"bolas\" or \"boleadoras\" - in Portuguese \"boleadeiras\" - (three leather bound rocks tied together with approximately three feet long leather straps) in addition to the familiar \"North American\" lariat or riata. The typical gaucho outfit would include a \"poncho\" (which doubled as a saddle blanket and as sleeping gear), a \"facón\" (large knife), a \"rebenque\" (leather whip), and loose-fitting trousers called \"bombachas\", belted with a \"tirador\", or a \"chiripá\", a loincloth. During winters, gauchos wore heavy wool ponchos to protect against cold.  Their tasks were basically to move the cattle between grazing fields, or to market sites such as the port of Buenos Aires. The \"yerra\" consists of branding the animal with the owner’s sign. The taming of animals was another of their usual activities. Taming was a trade especially appreciated throughout Argentina and competitions to domesticate wild foal remained in force at festivals. The majority of Gauchos were illiterate and considered as countrymen.  Gauchos also drank a typical drink called mate, traditionally prepared in a hollowed-out gourd and sipped through a mate metal straw called a bombilla. The water for mate was heated (without boiling) on a stove in a kettle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern influences.", "content": "\"Gauchito\" (a boy in the Argentine colors and a gaucho hat) was the mascot for the 1978 FIFA World Cup.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A gaucho () or gaúcho () is a skilled horseman, reputed to be brave and unruly. The gaucho is a national symbol in Argentina and Uruguay, but is also a strong culture in Paraguay and southern Brazil. Gauchos became greatly admired and renowned in legends, folklore and literature and became an important part of their regional cultural tradition. Beginning late in the 19th century, after the heyday of the gauchos, they were celebrated by South American writers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972600}
{"src_title": "Syngnathidae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description and biology.", "content": "Syngnathids are found in temperate and tropical seas across the world. Most species inhabit shallow, coastal waters, but a few are known from the open ocean, especially in association with sargassum mats. They are characterised by their elongated snouts, fused jaws, the absence of pelvic fins, and by thick plates of bony armour covering their bodies. The armour gives them a rigid body, so they swim by rapidly fanning their fins. As a result, they are relatively slow compared with other fishes, but are able to control their movements with great precision, including hovering in place for extended periods.  Uniquely, after syngnathid females lay their eggs, the male then fertilizes and carries the eggs during incubation, using one of several methods. Male seahorses have a specialized ventral pouch to carry the eggs, male sea dragons attach the eggs to their tails, and male pipefish may do either, depending on their species. The most fundamental difference between the different lineages of the family Syngnathidae is the location of male brood pouch. The two locations are on the tail (Urophori) and on the abdomen (Gastrophori). There is also variation in Syngnathid pouch complexity with brood pouches ranging from simple ventral gluing areas to fully enclosed pouches. In species with more developed, enclosed pouches it has been demonstrated that males directly provide their brood with not only nutrients but also immunity to pathogens. Syngnathids with more developed brood pouches are also known to be able to partially or completely abort a brood from a female with low fitness.  A wide variety of mate choice and mating competition has been observed in Syngnathidae. For example, \"Hippocampus fuscus\" exhibits conventional sex roles of males competing for female access while \"Corythoichthys haematopterus\" is completely sex role reversed. Most conventional sex role syngnathids are monogamous whereas sex role reversed species mostly exhibit polygamous behavior.  Seahorses and pipefish also have a unique feeding mechanism, known as elastic recoil feeding. Although the mechanism is not well understood, seahorses and pipefish appear to have the ability to store energy from contraction of their epaxial muscles (used in upward head rotation), which they then release, resulting in extremely fast head rotation to accelerate their mouths towards unsuspecting prey.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Syngnathidae is a family of fish which includes seahorses, pipefishes, and seadragons. The name is derived from Greek, σύν (\"syn\"), meaning \"together\", and γνάθος (\"gnathos\"), meaning \"jaw\". This fused jaw trait is something the entire family has in common.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972601}
{"src_title": "Paul Gottlieb Nipkow", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Beginnings.", "content": "Nipkow was born in Lauenburg (now Lębork) in the Prussian province of Pomerania, now part of Poland. While at school in neighbouring Neustadt (now Wejherowo), in the province of West Prussia, Nipkow experimented in telephony and the transmission of moving pictures. After graduation, he went to Berlin in order to study science. He studied physiological optics with Hermann von Helmholtz, and electro-physics with Adolf Slaby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nipkow disk.", "content": "While still a student he conceived an \"electric telescope\", mainly known for the idea of using a spiral-perforated disk (Nipkow disk), to divide a picture into a linear sequence of points. Accounts of its invention state that the idea came to him while sitting alone at home with an oil lamp on Christmas Eve, 1883. Alexander Bain had transmitted images telegraphically in the 1840s but the Nipkow disk improved the encoding process.  He applied to the imperial patent office in Berlin for a patent covering an \"electric telescope\" for the \"electric reproduction of illuminating objects\", in the category \"electric apparatuses\". This was granted on 15 January 1885, retroactive to January 6, 1884. It is not known whether Nipkow ever attempted a practical realization of this disk but one may assume that he himself never constructed one. The patent lapsed after 15 years owing to lack of interest. Nipkow took up a position as a designer at an institute in Berlin-Buchloh and did not continue work on the broadcasting of pictures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First TV systems.", "content": "The first television broadcasts used an optical-mechanical picture scanning method, the method that Nipkow had helped create with his disk; he could claim credit for the invention. Nipkow recounted his first sight of television at a Berlin radio show in 1928: \"The televisions stood in dark cells. Hundreds stood and waited patiently for the moment at which they would see television for the first time. I waited among them, growing ever more nervous. Now for the first time, I would see what I had devised 45 years ago. Finally, I reached the front row; a dark cloth was pushed to the side, and I saw before me a flickering image, not easy to discern.\" The system demonstrated was from the company Telefunken.  From the early 1930s, total electronic picture scanning, based on the work of Manfred von Ardenne, became increasingly prevalent and Nipkow's invention was no longer essential to further development of television.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Paul Nipkow\" Transmitter.", "content": "The world's first public television station, started in Berlin in 1935, was named Fernsehsender \"Paul Nipkow\" after Nipkow – the \"spiritual father\" of the core element of first-generation television technology. He became honorary president of the \"television council\" of the \"Imperial Broadcasting Chamber\". Nipkow's glory was used by Hitler the Nazi government as a tool of nationalist scientific propaganda. Nipkow died in Berlin in 1940 two days after his 80th birthday and had an official ceremony organised by the Nazi government.  In one of the last episodes of the British spy drama series \"Secret Army\", Nipkow is credited with being the sole inventor of television by as he unveils the closed-circuit TV surveillance cameras and monitors he has set up at Gestapo headquarters in Brussels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "SCHMIDT, Claus-Dietrich, \"Paul Nipkow. Erfinder des Fernsehens (1860–1940). Sein Leben in den technischen Fortschritt\", Lebork Museum, 2009. The only detailed biography on Nipkow.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow (22 August 1860 – 24 August 1940) was a German technician and inventor. He invented the Nipkow disk, which laid the foundation of television, since his disk was a fundamental component in the first televisions. Hundreds of stations experimented with television broadcasting using his disk in the 1920s and 1930s, until it was superseded by all-electronic systems in the 1940s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972602}
{"src_title": "Bobbin lace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "A will of 1493 by the Milanese Sforza family mentions lace created with twelve bobbins.  Bobbin lace evolved from passementerie or braid-making in 16th-century Italy. Genoa was famous for its braids, hence it is not surprising to find bobbin lace developed in the city. It traveled along with the Spanish troops through Europe. Coarse \"passements\" of gold and silver-wrapped threads or colored silks gradually became finer, and later bleached linen yarn was used to make both braids and edgings.  The making of bobbin lace was easier to learn than the elaborate cutwork of the 16th century, and the tools and materials for making linen bobbin lace were inexpensive. There was a ready market for bobbin lace of all qualities, and women throughout Europe soon took up the craft which earned a better income than spinning, sewing, weaving or other home-based textile arts. Bobbin lace-making was established in charity schools, almshouses, and convents.  In the 17th century, the textile centers of Flanders and Normandy eclipsed Italy as the premiere sources for fine bobbin lace, but until the coming of mechanization hand-lacemaking continued to be practiced throughout Europe, suffering only in those periods of simplicity when lace itself fell out of fashion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Bobbin lace may be made with coarse or fine threads. Traditionally it was made with linen, silk, wool, or, later, cotton threads, or with precious metals. Today it is made with a variety of natural and synthetic fibers and with wire and other filaments.  Elements of bobbin lace may include toile or \"toilé\" (clothwork), \"réseau\" (the net-like ground of continuous lace), fillings of part laces, tapes, gimp, picots, tallies, ribs and rolls. Not all styles of bobbin lace include all these elements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional types.", "content": "Many styles of lace were made in the heyday of lacemaking (approximately the 16th–18th centuries) before machine-made lace became available.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contemporary laces.", "content": "The advent of machine-made lace at first pushed lace-makers into more complicated designs beyond the capabilities of early machines, then simpler designs so they could compete on price, and finally pushed them out of business almost entirely.  The resurgence of lace-making is a recent phenomenon and is mostly done as a hobby. Lacemaking groups still meet in regions as varied as Devonshire, England and Orange County, California. In the European towns where lace was once a major industry, especially in Belgium, England, Spain (Camariñas and Almagro), northern and centre Portugal, France and Slovenia lacemakers still demonstrate the craft and sell their wares, though their customer base has shifted from the wealthy nobility to the curious tourist.  Still new types of lace are being developed such as the 3D Rosalibre and a colored version of Milanese lace by borrowing rolls from Duchesse lace to store various shades and colors. Other artists are giving grounds a major role by distorting and varying stitches, pin distances and thread sizes or colours. The variations are explored by experimentation and mathematics and algorithms. The lace maintaining its shape without stiffening is no longer a requirement. Inspiring journals, guilds and foundations show that old techniques with a new twist can challenge young people to create works that can definitely classify as art. A Dutch design graduate in 2006 discovered bobbin lace was a technique to make a fancy fence. The first fences became museum pieces. The fences are now produced in Bangalore by concrete rebar plaiters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tools.", "content": "The major tools to make bobbin lace are a pillow, bobbins, pins and prickings. The part laces also require a crochet hook, very fine types of lace require very fine hooks. There are different types of pillows and bobbins linked to areas, eras and type of lace.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bobbins.", "content": "Bobbins, which are traditionally made of wood or bone, are used to hold the thread. They come in different shapes, often associated with certain types of lace. The parts of a bobbin are the neck, which is where the thread is wound, a head, where thread is hitched to keep it from coming unwound, and the shank, which is used as a handle. Bobbins from England may also have a beaded spangle at the end of the shank, which makes the bobbin heavier and helps with tensioning the thread. Bobbins are usually 3 1/2 - 4 inches long, though they may be shorter or longer. Bobbins are wound and used in pairs.  There are many types of bobbins, including:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Types of pillow.", "content": "The pillows must be firm, or otherwise the pins will wobble. The pillows were traditionally stuffed with straw, but nowadays polystyrene (styrofoam) is generally used.  An early type of pillow can be seen in The Lace-Maker by Caspar Netscher. The pillow has a wooden frame, and is slightly sloping. The lace-maker rests it on her lap. The bolster or cylindrical pillow was much cheaper to make as it is just a fabric bag stuffed with straw. It was used in Bedfordshire lace. It needs a stand as it does not have a flat bottom. Usually the bolster had the pattern pinned round the cylinder, so by turning the pillow, the lace could be as long as was needed. However, Maltese lacemakers used the pillow the other way. They had a long thin pillow, which they rested against something. Then they worked the lace down the length of the pillow.  This problem (of the lace needing to be longer than the pillow) is solved in a different way by the roller pillow, which has a small roller, for working the lace, set into a larger area, where the bobbins are laid. This means that the pattern can be pinned round the roller, but the pillow has a flat bottom.  The cheapest modern pillow is domed and made of polystyrene (styrofoam). It is often called a cookie pillow, because of its shape. Another modern pillow is a block pillow, with a frame which holds covered polystyrene blocks. The blocks can be moved around as the lace progresses, to keep the lace being worked on at the centre of the pillow.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lacemaking organizations.", "content": "Lacemaking is considered a folk art with technique and materials varying widely across the globe. Most lacemakers belong to regional guilds within their country of origin. Guilds can be devoted to one kind of lace, often that which developed locally, or may include makers of all kinds. In the United States, most guilds are organized within chapters of the International Organization of Lace, which also includes Canadian lace guilds. Internationally, the \"Organisation Internationale de la Dentelle au Fuseau et à l'Aiguille\" (International Bobbin and Needle Lace Organization) is the primary governing and networking body for lacemakers. OIDFA organizes annual global congresses, regional fairs, and local gatherings to promote the appreciation and knowledge of lacemaking.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bobbin lace is a lace textile made by braiding and twisting lengths of thread, which are wound on bobbins to manage them. As the work progresses, the weaving is held in place with pins set in a lace pillow, the placement of the pins usually determined by a pattern or pricking pinned on the pillow.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972603}
{"src_title": "Arno Breker", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Breker was born in Elberfeld, in the west of Germany, the son of stonemason Arnold Breker. He began to study architecture, along with stone-carving and anatomy. At age 20 he entered the Düsseldorf Academy of Arts where he concentrated on sculpture, studying under Hubert Netzer and Wilhelm Kreis. He first visited Paris in 1924, shortly before finishing his studies. There he met with Jean Cocteau, Jean Renoir, Pablo Picasso, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, and Alfred Flechtheim. In 1927 he moved to Paris, which he thereafter considered to be his home, in the same year he had an exhibition with Alf Bayrle. Breker was quickly accepted by the art dealer Alfred Flechtheim. He also established close relationships with important figures in the art world, including Charles Despiau, Isamu Noguchi, Maurice de Vlaminck and André Dunoyer de Segonzac, all of whom he later portrayed. He travelled to North Africa, producing lithographs which he published under the title \"Tunisian Journey\". He also visited Aristide Maillol, who was later to describe Breker as \"Germany's Michelangelo\".  In 1932, he was awarded a prize by the Prussian Ministry of Culture, which allowed him to stay in Rome for a year. In 1934 he returned to Germany on the advice of Max Liebermann. At this time Alfred Rosenberg, editor of the Nazi newspaper \"Völkischer Beobachter\", actually denounced some of Breker's work as degenerate art. However, Breker was supported by many Nazi leaders, especially Adolf Hitler. Even Rosenberg later hailed his sculptures as expressions of the \"mighty momentum and will power” (“Wucht und Willenhaftigkeit”) of Nazi Germany. He took commissions from the Nazis from 1933 through 1942, for example participating in a show of his work in occupied Paris in 1942, where he met Jean Cocteau, who appreciated his work. He maintained personal relationships with Albert Speer and with Hitler. In 1936 he won the commission for two sculptures representing athletic prowess, intended for the 1936 Olympic games, one representing a Decathlete (“Zehnkämpfer”) and the other The Victress (“Die Siegerin”). In 1937 he married Demetra Messala (Δήμητρα Μεσσάλα), a Greek model. The same year, Breker joined the Nazi Party and was made \"official state sculptor\" by Hitler, given a large property and provided a studio with forty-three assistants. Hitler also exempted him from military service. His twin sculptures \"The Party\" and \"The Army\" held a prominent position at the entrance to Albert Speer's new Reich Chancellery.  The neoclassical nature of his work, with titles like \"Comradeship\", \"Torchbearer\", and \"Sacrifice\", typified Nazi ideals, and suited the characteristics of Nazi architecture. On closer inspection, though, the proportions of his figures, the highly colouristic treatment of his surfaces (the strong contrasts between dark and light accents), and the melodramatic tension of their musculatures perhaps invites comparison with the Italian Mannerist sculptors of the 16th century. This Mannerist tendency to Breker's neoclassicism may suggest closer affinities to concurrent expressionist tendencies in German Modernism than is acknowledged.  Until the fall of the Third Reich, Breker was a professor of visual arts in Berlin. While nearly all of his sculptures survived World War II, more than 90% of his public work was destroyed by the allies after the war. In 1946, Breker was offered a commission by Joseph Stalin but he refused and stated \"One dictatorship is sufficient for me\". In 1948 Breker was designated as a \"fellow traveller\" of the Nazis and fined, upon which he returned to Düsseldorf. The latter city remained his base, with periods of residence in Paris. During this time he worked as an architect. However, he continued to receive commissions for sculptures, producing a number of works in his familiar classical style, working for businesses and individual patrons. He also produced many portrait sculptures. In 1970 he was commissioned by the king of Morocco to produce work for the United Nations Building in Casablanca, but the work was destroyed. Many other works followed, including portraits of Anwar Sadat and Konrad Adenauer. Breker's rehabilitation continued, culminating in plans for the creation of a Breker museum, funded by the Bodenstein family, who set aside Schloss Nörvenich (between Aachen and Cologne) for the purpose. The Arno Breker Museum was inaugurated in 1985.  Breker's rehabilitation led to backlashes from anti-Nazi activists, including controversy in Paris when some of his works were exhibited at the Centre Georges Pompidou in 1981. In the same year anti-Breker demonstrations accompanied an exhibition in Berlin. Breker's admirers insisted that he had never been a supporter of Nazi ideology (despite being a member of the Nazi Party), but had simply accepted their patronage.  Breker's last major work was a monumental sculpture of Alexander the Great intended to be located in Greece.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and family.", "content": "Arno Breker was married twice. His first wife, Demetra Messala, was a Greek model. She died in 1956 in a car accident. He remarried in 1958 to Charlotte Kluge. They had two children, Gerhart (1959) and Carola (1962). Breker remained married to Kluge until his death in 1991.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes  Further reading", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arno Breker (19 July 1900 – 13 February 1991) was a German architect and sculptor who is best known for his public works in Nazi Germany, where they were endorsed by the authorities as the antithesis of degenerate art. One of his better known statues is \"Die Partei\", representing the spirit of the Nazi Party that flanked one side of the carriage entrance to Albert Speer's new Reich Chancellery.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972604}
{"src_title": "Trojan Horse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Literary accounts.", "content": "According to Quintus Smyrnaeus, Odysseus thought of building a great wooden horse (the horse being the emblem of Troy), hiding an elite force inside, and fooling the Trojans into wheeling the horse into the city as a trophy. Under the leadership of Epeius, the Greeks built the wooden horse in three days. Odysseus's plan called for one man to remain outside the horse; he would act as though the Greeks had abandoned him, leaving the horse as a gift for the Trojans. An inscription was engraved on the horse reading: \"For their return home, the Greeks dedicate this offering to Athena\". Then they burned their tents and left to Tenedos by night. Greek soldier Sinon was \"abandoned\" and was to signal to the Greeks by lighting a beacon. In Virgil's poem, Sinon, the only volunteer for the role, successfully convinces the Trojans that he has been left behind and that the Greeks are gone. Sinon tells the Trojans that the Horse is an offering to the goddess Athena, meant to atone for the previous desecration of her temple at Troy by the Greeks and ensure a safe journey home for the Greek fleet. Sinon tells the Trojans that the Horse was built to be too large for them to take it into their city and gain the favor of Athena for themselves.  While questioning Sinon, the Trojan priest Laocoön guesses the plot and warns the Trojans, in Virgil's famous line \"Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes\" (\"I fear Greeks, even those bearing gifts\"), Danai ( \"Danaos\") or Danaans (Homer's name for the Greeks) being the ones who had built the Trojan Horse. However, the god Poseidon sends two sea serpents to strangle him and his sons Antiphantes and Thymbraeus before any Trojan heeds his warning. According to Apollodorus the two serpents were sent by Apollo, whom Laocoon had insulted by sleeping with his wife in front of the \"divine image\". In the \"Odyssey\", Homer says that Helen of Troy also guesses the plot and tries to trick and uncover the Greek soldiers inside the horse by imitating the voices of their wives, and Anticlus attempts to answer, but Odysseus shuts his mouth with his hand. King Priam's daughter Cassandra, the soothsayer of Troy, insists that the horse will be the downfall of the city and its royal family. She too is ignored, hence their doom and loss of the war. This incident is mentioned in the \"Odyssey\":  The most detailed and most familiar version is in Virgil's \"Aeneid\", Book II (trans. A. S. Kline).  Book II includes Laocoön saying: \"\" (\"Do not trust the horse, Trojans! Whatever it is, I fear the Danaans [Greeks], even those bearing gifts.\")  Well before Virgil, the story is also alluded to in Greek classical literature. In Euripides' play \"Trojan Women\", written in 415 BC, the god Poseidon proclaims: \"For, from his home beneath Parnassus, Phocian Epeus, aided by the craft of Pallas, framed a horse to bear within its womb an armed host, and sent it within the battlements, fraught with death; whence in days to come men shall tell of 'the wooden horse,' with its hidden load of warriors.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Men in the horse.", "content": "Thirty of the Achaeans' best warriors hid in the Trojan horse's womb and two spies in its mouth. Other sources give different numbers: The \"Bibliotheca\" 50; Tzetzes 23; and Quintus Smyrnaeus gives the names of 30, but says there were more. In late tradition the number was standardized at 40. Their names follow:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Factual explanations.", "content": "There has been speculation that the Trojan Horse may have been a battering ram or other sort of siege engine resembling, to some extent, a horse, and that the description of the use of this device was then transformed into a myth by later oral historians who were not present at the battle and were unaware of that meaning of the name. Assyrians at the time used siege machines with animal names, often covered with dampened horse hides to protect against flaming arrows; it is possible that the Trojan Horse was such. Pausanias, who lived in the 2nd century AD, wrote in his book \"Description of Greece\" \"That the work of Epeius was a contrivance to make a breach in the Trojan wall is known to everybody who does not attribute utter silliness to the Phrygians\" where, by Phrygians, he means the Trojans.  Some authors have suggested that the gift might also have been a ship, with warriors hidden inside. It has been noted that the terms used to put men in the horse are those used by ancient Greek authors when describing the embarkation of men on a ship, and that there are analogies between the building of ships by Paris at the beginning of the Trojan saga and the building of the horse at the end; ships are called \"sea-horses\" once in the Odyssey. This view has recently gained support from naval archaeology: ancient text and images show that a Phoenician merchant ship type decorated with a horse head, called \"hippos\" ('horse') by Greeks, became very diffuse in the Levant area around the beginning of the first millennium BC, being used to trade precious metals, and sometimes to pay tribute after the end of a war; it is suggested therefore that the original story viewed the Greek soldiers hiding inside the hull of such a vessel, possibly disguised as a tribute, and that at some time this term was misunderstood in the oral transmission of the story, giving origin to the Trojan horse myth.  A more speculative theory, originally proposed by Fritz Schachermeyr, states that the Trojan Horse is a metaphor for a destructive earthquake that damaged the walls of Troy and allowed the Greeks in. In his theory, the horse represents Poseidon, who as well as being god of the sea was also god of horses and earthquakes. This theory is supported by the fact that archaeological digs have found that Troy VI was heavily damaged in an earthquake, but is hard to square with the mythological claim that Poseidon himself built the walls of Troy in the first place.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient representations.", "content": "Pictorial representations of the Trojan Horse earlier than, or contemporary to, the first literary appearances of the episode can help clarify what was the meaning of the story as perceived by its contemporary audience. There are few ancient (before 480 BC) depictions of the Trojan Horse surviving. The earliest is on a Boeotian fibula dating from about 700 BC. Other early depictions are found on two relief pithoi from the Greek islands Mykonos and Tinos, both generally dated between 675 and 650 BC. The one from Mykonos (see figure) is known as the Mykonos vase. Historian Michael Wood dates the Mykonos vase to the eighth century BC, before the written accounts attributed by tradition to Homer, and posits this as evidence that the story of the Trojan Horse existed before those accounts were written. Other archaic representations of the Trojan horse are found on a Corinthian aryballos dating back to 560 BC (see figure), on a vase fragment to 540 BC (see figure), and on an Etruscan carnelian scarab.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern metaphorical use.", "content": "It is used metaphorically to mean any trick or strategy that causes a target to invite a foe into a securely protected place; or to deceive by appearance, hiding malevolent intent in an outwardly benign exterior; to subvert from within using deceptive means.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Trojan Horse is a story from the Trojan War about the subterfuge that the Greeks used to enter the independent city of Troy and win the war. In the canonical version, after a fruitless 10-year siege, the Greeks constructed a huge wooden horse and hid a select force of men inside, including Odysseus. The Greeks pretended to sail away, and the Trojans pulled the horse into their city as a victory trophy. That night the Greek force crept out of the horse and opened the gates for the rest of the Greek army, which had sailed back under cover of night. The Greeks entered and destroyed the city of Troy, ending the war.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972605}
{"src_title": "One-child policy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "During the period of Mao Zedong's leadership in China, the birth rate fell from 37 per thousand to 20 per thousand. Infant mortality declined from 227 per thousand births in 1949 to 53 per thousand in 1981, and life expectancy dramatically increased from around 35 years in 1948 to 66 years in 1976. Until the 1960s, the government encouraged families to have as many children as possible because of Mao's belief that population growth empowered the country, preventing the emergence of family planning programs earlier in China's development. The population grew from around 540million in 1949 to 940million in 1976. Beginning in 1970, citizens were required to marry at later ages and many were limited to have only two children.  Although China's fertility rate plummeted faster than anywhere else in the world during the 1970s under these restrictions, the Chinese government thought that fertility was still too high, influenced by the global debate over a possible overpopulation crisis suggested by organizations such as the Club of Rome and the Sierra Club. In response, the authorities began encouraging one-child families in 1978, and in 1979 announced that they intended to advocate for one-child families. In 1980, the central government organized a meeting in Chengdu to discuss the speed and scope of one-child restrictions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The one-child policy was originally designed to be a \"One-Generation Policy\". It was enforced at the provincial level and enforcement varied; some provinces had more relaxed restrictions. The one-child limit was most strictly enforced in densely populated urban areas. When this policy was first introduced, 6.1 million families that had already given birth to a child were given the \"One Child Honorary Certificates.\" This was a pledge they had to make to ensure they would not have more children.  Beginning in 1980, the official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allow second children in the case of \"practical difficulties\" (such as cases in which the father was a disabled serviceman) or when both parents were single children, and some provinces had other exemptions worked into their policies as well. In most areas, families were allowed to apply to have a second child if their first-born was a daughter. Furthermore, families with children with disabilities have different policies and families whose first child suffers from physical disability, mental illness, or intellectual disability were allowed to have more children. However, second children were sometimes subject to birth spacing (usually 3 or 4 years). Children born in overseas countries were not counted under the policy if they did not obtain Chinese citizenship. Chinese citizens returning from abroad were allowed to have a second child. Sichuan province allowed exemptions for couples of certain backgrounds. By one estimate there were at least 22 ways in which parents could qualify for exceptions to the law towards the end of the one-child policy's existence. As of 2007, only 36% of the population were subjected to a strict one-child limit. 53% were permitted to have a second child if their first was a daughter; 9.6% of Chinese couples were permitted two children regardless of their gender; and 1.6% – mainly Tibetans – had no limit at all.  Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, a new exception to the regulations was announced in Sichuan for parents who had lost children in the earthquake. Similar exceptions had previously been made for parents of severely disabled or deceased children. People have also tried to evade the policy by giving birth to a second child in Hong Kong, but at least for Guangdong residents, the one-child policy was also enforced if the birth was given in Hong Kong or abroad.  In accordance with China's affirmative action policies towards ethnic minorities, all non-Han ethnic groups are subjected to different laws and were usually allowed to have two children in urban areas, and three or four in rural areas. Han Chinese living in rural towns were also permitted to have two children. Because of couples such as these, as well as those who simply paid a fine (or \"social maintenance fee\") to have more children, the overall fertility rate of mainland China was close to 1.4 children per woman.  On 6 January 2010, the former National Population and Family Planning Commission issued the \"national population development\" 12th five-year plan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "The policy is controversial outside China for many reasons, including accusations of human rights abuses in the implementation of the policy, as well as concerns about negative social consequences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statement of the effect of the policy on birth reduction.", "content": "The Chinese government, quoting Zhai Zhenwu, director of Renmin University's School of Sociology and Population in Beijing, estimates that 400million births were prevented by the one-child policy as of 2011, while some demographers challenge that number, putting the figure at perhaps half that level, according to CNN. Zhai clarified that the 400million estimate referred not just to the one-child policy, but includes births prevented by predecessor policies implemented one decade before, stating that \"there are many different numbers out there but it doesn't change the basic fact that the policy prevented a really large number of births\".  This claim is disputed by Wang Feng, director of the Brookings-Tsinghua Center for Public Policy, and Cai Yong from the Carolina Population Center at University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Wang claims that \"Thailand and China have had almost identical fertility trajectories since the mid 1980s\", and \"Thailand does not have a one-child policy.\" China's Health", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unequal enforcement.", "content": "Corrupted government officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to violate the policy in spite of fines. Filmmaker Zhang Yimou had three children and was subsequently fined 7.48million yuan ($1.2million). For example, between 2000 and 2005, as many as 1,968 officials in Hunan province were found to be violating the policy, according to the provincial family planning commission; also exposed", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Human rights violations.", "content": "The one-child policy has been challenged for violating a human right to determine the size of one's own proper family. According to a 1968 proclamation of the International Conference on Human Rights, \"Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children.\"  According to the UK newspaper \"The Daily Telegraph\", a quota of 20,000 abortions and sterilizations was set for Huaiji County, Guangdong in one year due to reported disregard", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Effect on infanticide rates.", "content": "Sex-selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in China. Nevertheless, the US Department of State, the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and the human rights organization Amnesty International have all declared that infanticide still exists. A writer for the Georgetown Journal of International Affairs wrote, \"The 'one-child' policy has also led to what", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "General:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The one-child policy was part of a birth planning program designed to control the size of the rapidly growing population of the People's Republic of China. Distinct from the family planning policies of most other countries, which focus on providing contraceptive options to help women have the number of children they want, it set a limit on the number of births parents could have, making it the world's most extreme example of population planning. It was introduced in 1979 (after a decade-long two-child policy), modified beginning in the mid 1980s to allow rural parents a second child if the first was a daughter, and then lasted three more decades before the government announced in late 2015 a reversion to a two-child limit. The policy also allowed exceptions for some other groups, including ethnic minorities. Thus, the term \"one-child policy\" has been called a \"misnomer\", because for nearly 30 of the 36 years that it existed (1979–2015), about half of all parents in China were allowed to have a second child.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972606}
{"src_title": "Claudio Arrau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Arrau was born in Chillán, Chile, the son of Carlos Arrau, an ophthalmologist who died when Claudio was only a year old, and Lucrecia León Bravo de Villalba, a piano teacher. He belonged to an old, prominent family of Southern Chile. His ancestor Lorenzo de Arrau, a Spanish engineer, was sent to Chile by King Carlos III of Spain. Through his great-grandmother, María del Carmen Daroch del Solar, Arrau was a descendant of the Campbells of Glenorchy, a Scottish noble family. Arrau was raised as a Catholic, but gave it up in his late teens. Arrau was a child prodigy and he could read music before he could read words, but unlike many virtuosos, there had never been a professional musician in his family. His mother was an amateur pianist and introduced him to the instrument. At the age of 4 he was reading Beethoven sonatas, and he gave his first concert a year later. When Arrau was 6 he auditioned in front of several congressmen and President Pedro Montt, who was so impressed that he began arrangements for Arrau's future education. At age 8, Arrau was sent on a ten-year-long grant from the Chilean government to study in Germany, travelling with his mother and sister Lucrecia. He was admitted to the Stern Conservatory of Berlin where he eventually became a pupil of Martin Krause, who had studied under Franz Liszt. At the age of 11 Arrau could play Liszt's \"Transcendental Etudes\", one of the most difficult works for piano, as well as Brahms's \"Paganini Variations\". Arrau's first recordings were made on Aeolian Duo-Art player piano music rolls. Krause died in his fifth year of teaching Arrau, leaving the 15-year-old student devastated by the loss of his mentor; Arrau did not continue formal study after that point.  In 1935, Arrau gave a celebrated rendition of the entire keyboard works of Johann Sebastian Bach over 12 recitals. In 1936, Arrau gave a complete Mozart keyboard works over 5 recitals, and followed with the complete Schubert and Weber cycles. In 1938, for the first time, Arrau gave the complete Beethoven piano sonatas and concertos in Mexico City. Arrau repeated this several times in his lifetime, including in New York and London. He became one of the leading authorities on Beethoven in the 20th century.  In 1937, Arrau married mezzo-soprano Ruth Schneider (1908–1989), a German national. They had three children: Carmen (1938–2006), Mario (1940–1988) and Christopher (1959). In 1941 the Arrau family emigrated from Germany to the United States, eventually settling in Douglaston, Queens, New York, where Arrau spent his remaining years. He became a dual U.S.-Chilean citizen in 1979.  Arrau died on June 9, 1991, at the age of 88, in Mürzzuschlag, Austria, from complications of emergency surgery performed on June 8 to correct an intestinal blockage. His remains were interred in his native city of Chillán, Chile.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tone and approach to music.", "content": "Daniel Barenboim said that Claudio Arrau had a particular sound with two aspects: first a thickness, full-bodied and orchestral, and second an utterly disembodied timbre, quite spellbinding. Sir Colin Davis said: \"His sound is amazing, and it is entirely his own... no one else has it exactly that way. His devotion to Liszt is extraordinary. He ennobles that music in a way no one else in the world can.\" According to American critic Harold C. Schonberg, Arrau always put \"a decidedly romantic piano tone in his interpretations\".  Arrau was an intellectual and a deeply reflective interpreter. He read widely while travelling, and he learned English, Italian, German, and French in addition to his native Spanish. He became familiar with Jung's psychology in his twenties.  Arrau's attitude toward music was very serious. He preached fidelity to the score, but also the use of imagination. Although he often played with slower and more deliberate tempi from his middle age onward, he had a reputation as a fabulous virtuoso earlier in his career, a reputation supported by recordings he made at this time, such as Balakirev's Islamey and Liszt's Paganini études. However, even late in his career, he often tended to play with less restraint in live concerts than in studio recordings.  Arrau was a man of remarkable fortitude; even towards the end of his life he invariably programmed very large, demanding concerts, including works such as Beethoven's Emperor Concerto and Brahms' Piano Concerto No. 1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contributions.", "content": "Numerous pianists studied with Arrau, including Karlrobert Kreiten, Garrick Ohlsson, Roberto Szidon, Stephen Drury and Roberto Eyzaguirre among others.  He was a frequent recital performer: from age 40 to 60 he averaged 120 concerts a season, with a very large repertoire. At one time or another, he performed the complete keyboard works of Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Chopin; but also programmed such off-the-beaten-path composers as Alkan and Busoni and illuminated obscure corners of the Liszt repertoire. It has been estimated that Arrau's total repertoire would carry him through 76 recital evenings, not counting the 60-odd works with orchestra which he also knew.  Arrau recorded a considerable part of the piano music of Schumann, Chopin and Liszt. He edited the complete Beethoven piano sonatas for the Peters Urtext edition and recorded all of them on the Philips label in 1962–1966. He recorded almost all of them once again in 1984-1990 along with Mozart's complete piano sonatas. He is also famous for his recordings of Schubert, Brahms and Debussy.  Notable recordings:  At the time of his death at age 88 in the midst of a European concert tour, Arrau was working on a recording of the complete works of Bach for keyboard, and was also preparing some pieces of Haydn, Mendelssohn, Reger and Busoni, and Boulez's third piano sonata.  The Robert Schumann Society established the Arrau Medal in 1991. It has been awarded to András Schiff, Martha Argerich and Murray Perahia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Album prizes.", "content": "Brahms 2 Piano Concertos with Carlo Maria Giulini and Philharmonia Orchestra [EMI Recorded in 1960 & 1962]  Beethoven 5 Piano Concertos with Bernard Haitink and Concertgebouw Orchestra [Philips Recorded in 1964]  Schumann Sonate Op.11, Fantasiestücke Op.111 [Philips Recorded in 1967 & 1968]  Brahms 2 Piano Concertos with Bernard Haitink and Concertgebouw Orchestra [Philips Recorded in 1969]  Liszt Complete Concert Paraphrases on Operas by Verdi [Philips Recorded in 1971]  Liszt 12 Etudes d'exécution Transcendente [Philips Recorded in 1974 & 1976]  Liszt 2 Piano Concertos with Sir Colin Davis and London Symphony Orchestra [Philips Recorded in 1979]  Chopin Complete Nocturnes [Philips Recorded in 1977 & 1978]  Chopin Complete Etudes [EMI Recorded in 1956, Remastered in 1987]  Chopin Complete Etudes [EMI Recorded in 1956, Remastered in 1987]  Schumann Piano Concerto, Carnaval & Beethoven Sonata Op.111 [EMI Filmed in 1963, 1961 & 1970]  Liszt Solo Piano Works: Ballade No.2, Jeux d'eaux à la villa d'Este, Vallée d'Obermann... [Philips Recorded in 1969]  Schumann Comprehensive Solo Piano Works [Philips Recorded from 1966 to 1976]  Beethoven 5 Piano Concertos with Sir Colin Davis and Staatskapelle Dresden [Philips Recorded in 1984 & 1987]  Chopin Complete Etudes [EMI Recorded in 1956, Remastered in 1987]  Chopin Complete Etudes [EMI Recorded in 1956, Remastered in 1987]", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Claudio Arrau León (; February 6, 1903June 9, 1991) was a Chilean pianist known for his interpretations of a vast repertoire spanning the baroque to 20th-century composers, especially Bach, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, Schumann, Liszt and Brahms. He is widely considered one of the greatest pianists of the twentieth century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972607}
{"src_title": "Gnome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "The word comes from Renaissance Latin \"gnomus\", which first appears in the \"Ex Libro de Nymphis, Sylvanis, Pygmaeis, Salamandris et Gigantibus, etc\" by Paracelsus, published posthumously in Nysa in 1566 (and again in the Johannes Huser edition of 1589–1591 from an autograph by Paracelsus).  The term may be an original invention of Paracelsus, possibly deriving the term from Latin \"gēnomos\" (itself representing a Greek, literally \"earth-dweller\"). In this case, the omission of the \"ē\" is, as the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) calls it, a blunder. Paracelsus uses \"Gnomi\" as a synonym of \"Pygmæi\" and classifies them as earth elementals. He describes them as two spans high, very reluctant to interact with humans, and able to move through solid earth as easily as humans move through air. The chthonic, or earth-dwelling, spirit has precedents in numerous ancient and medieval mythologies, often guarding mines and precious underground treasures, notably in the Germanic dwarfs and the Greek Chalybes, Telchines or Dactyls.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In Romanticism and modern fairy tales.", "content": "The English word is attested from the early 18th century. Gnomes are used in Alexander Pope's \"The Rape of the Lock\". The creatures from this mock-epic are small, celestial creatures which were prudish women in their past lives, and now spend all of eternity looking out for prudish women (in parallel to the guardian angels in Catholic belief). Other uses of the term \"gnome\" remain obscure until the early 19th century, when it is taken up by authors of Romanticist collections of fairy tales and becomes mostly synonymous with the older word \"goblin\".  Pope's stated source, the French satire (by Nicolas-Pierre-Henri de Montfaucon de Villars, the abbot of Villars) \"Comte de Gabalis\" (1670) describes gnomes as such: \"The Earth is filled almost to the Center with \"Gnomes\" or \"Pharyes\", a People of small Stature, the Guardians of Treasures, of Mines, and of Precious Stones. They are Ingenious, Friends of Men, and easie to be commandded. They furnish the Children of the \"Sages\" with as much Money, as they have need of; and never ask any other Reward of their Services, than the Glory of being Commanded. The \"Gnomides\" or Wives of these \"Gnomes\" or \"Pharyes\", are Little, but very Handson; and their Habit marvellously Curious.\" Villars used the term \"gnomide\" to refer to female gnomes (often \"gnomid\" in English translations). Modern fiction instead uses the word \"gnomess\" to refer to female gnomes.  In 19th-century fiction, the chthonic gnome became a sort of antithesis to the more airy or luminous fairy. Nathaniel Hawthorne in \"Twice-Told Tales\" (1837) contrasts the two in \"Small enough to be king of the fairies, and ugly enough to be king of the gnomes\" (cited after OED). Similarly, gnomes are contrasted to elves, as in William Cullen Bryant's \"Little People of the Snow\" (1877), which has \"let us have a tale of elves that ride by night, with jingling reins, or gnomes of the mine\" (cited after OED).  One of the first movements in Mussorgsky's 1874 work \"Pictures at an Exhibition\", named \"Gnomus\" (Latin for \"The Gnome\"), is written to sound as if a gnome is moving about, his movements constantly changing in speed. Franz Hartmann in 1895 satirized materialism in an allegorical tale entitled \"Unter den Gnomen im Untersberg\". The English translation appeared in 1896 as \"Among the Gnomes: An Occult Tale of Adventure in the Untersberg\". In this story, the \"Gnomes\" are still clearly subterranean creatures, guarding treasures of gold within the Untersberg mountain.  As a figure of 19th-century fairy tales, the term gnome became largely synonymous with other terms for \"little people\" by the 20th century, such as \"goblin\", \"brownie\", \"kobold\", \"leprechaun\", \"Heinzelmännchen\" and other instances of the \"domestic spirit\" type, losing its strict association with earth or the underground world.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Derivative uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Garden gnomes.", "content": "After World War II (with early references, in ironic use, from the late 1930s) the diminutive figurines introduced as lawn ornaments during the 19th century came to be known as garden gnomes. The image of the gnome changed further during the 1960s to 1970s, when the first plastic garden gnomes were manufactured. These gnomes followed the style of the 1937 depiction of the seven dwarves in \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" by Disney. This \"Disneyfied\" image of the gnome was built upon by the illustrated children's book classic \"The Secret Book of Gnomes\" (1976), in the original Dutch \"Leven en werken van de Kabouter\". Garden gnomes share a resemblance to the Scandinavian tomte and nisse, and the Swedish term \"tomte\" can be translated as \"gnome\" in English.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gnome-themed parks.", "content": "Several gnome themed entertainment parks exist. Notable ones are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Garden Gnome Liberationists.", "content": "Garden gnome liberationists such as the Gnome Liberation Front were introduced in France in 1997. They claim that Garden Gnomes deserve the same freedom that any other living creature would have. They are noted to have stolen hundreds of gnomes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gnome parades.", "content": "Gnome parades are held annually at Atlanta's Inman Park Festival. Numerous one-off gnome parades have been held, including in Savannah, Georgia (April 2012) and Cleveland, Ohio (May 2011).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A gnome is a mythological creature and diminutive spirit in Renaissance magic and alchemy, first introduced by Paracelsus in the 16th century and later adopted by more recent authors including those of modern fantasy literature. Its characteristics have been reinterpreted to suit the needs of various story tellers, but it is typically said to be a small humanoid that lives underground.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972608}
{"src_title": "International Data Encryption Algorithm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Operation.", "content": "IDEA operates on 64-bit blocks using a 128-bit key and consists of a series of 8 identical transformations (a \"round\", see the illustration) and an output transformation (the \"half-round\"). The processes for encryption and decryption are similar. IDEA derives much of its security by interleaving operations from different groups — modular addition and multiplication, and bitwise eXclusive OR (XOR) — which are algebraically \"incompatible\" in some sense. In more detail, these operators, which all deal with 16-bit quantities, are:  After the 8 rounds comes a final “half-round”, the output transformation illustrated below (the swap of the middle two values cancels out the swap at the end of the last round, so that there is no net swap):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "The overall structure of IDEA follows the Lai–Massey scheme. XOR is used for both subtraction and addition. IDEA uses a key-dependent half-round function. To work with 16-bit words (meaning 4 inputs instead of 2 for the 64-bit block size), IDEA uses the Lai–Massey scheme twice in parallel, with the two parallel round functions being interwoven with each other. To ensure sufficient diffusion, two of the sub-blocks are swapped after each round.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Key schedule.", "content": "Each round uses 6 16-bit sub-keys, while the half-round uses 4, a total of 52 for 8.5 rounds. The first 8 sub-keys are extracted directly from the key, with K1 from the first round being the lower 16 bits; further groups of 8 keys are created by rotating the main key left 25 bits between each group of 8. This means that it is rotated less than once per round, on average, for a total of 6 rotations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decryption.", "content": "Decryption works like encryption, but the order of the round keys is inverted, and the subkeys for the odd rounds are inversed. For instance, the values of subkeys K1–K4 are replaced by the inverse of K49–K52 for the respective group operation, K5 and K6 of each group should be replaced by K47 and K48 for decryption.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Security.", "content": "The designers analysed IDEA to measure its strength against differential cryptanalysis and concluded that it is immune under certain assumptions. No successful linear or algebraic weaknesses have been reported., the best attack applied to all keys could break IDEA reduced to 6 rounds (the full IDEA cipher uses 8.5 rounds). Note that a \"break\" is any attack that requires less than 2 operations; the 6-round attack requires 2 known plaintexts and 2 operations.  Bruce Schneier thought highly of IDEA in 1996, writing: \"In my opinion, it is the best and most secure block algorithm available to the public at this time.\" (\"Applied Cryptography\", 2nd ed.) However, by 1999 he was no longer recommending IDEA due to the availability of faster algorithms, some progress in its cryptanalysis, and the issue of patents.  In 2011 full 8.5-round IDEA was broken using a meet-in-the-middle attack. Independently in 2012, full 8.5-round IDEA was broken using a narrow-bicliques attack, with a reduction of cryptographic strength of about 2 bits, similar to the effect of the previous bicliques attack on AES; however, this attack does not threaten the security of IDEA in practice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weak keys.", "content": "The very simple key schedule makes IDEA subject to a class of weak keys; some keys containing a large number of 0 bits produce weak encryption. These are of little concern in practice, being sufficiently rare that they are unnecessary to avoid explicitly when generating keys randomly. A simple fix was proposed: XORing each subkey with a 16-bit constant, such as 0x0DAE.  Larger classes of weak keys were found in 2002.  This is still of negligible probability to be a concern to a randomly chosen key, and some of the problems are fixed by the constant XOR proposed earlier, but the paper is not certain if all of them are. A more comprehensive redesign of the IDEA key schedule may be desirable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Availability.", "content": "A patent application for IDEA was first filed in Switzerland (CH A 1690/90) on May 18, 1990, then an international patent application was filed under the Patent Cooperation Treaty on May 16, 1991. Patents were eventually granted in Austria, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, (, filed May 16, 1991, issued June 22, 1994 and expired May 16, 2011), the United States (, issued May 25, 1993 and expired January 7, 2012) and Japan (JP 3225440) (expired May 16, 2011).  MediaCrypt AG is now offering a successor to IDEA and focuses on its new cipher (official release on May 2005) IDEA NXT, which was previously called FOX.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In cryptography, the International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA), originally called Improved Proposed Encryption Standard (IPES), is a symmetric-key block cipher designed by James Massey of ETH Zurich and Xuejia Lai and was first described in 1991. The algorithm was intended as a replacement for the Data Encryption Standard (DES). IDEA is a minor revision of an earlier cipher Proposed Encryption Standard (PES).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972609}
{"src_title": "Photoemission spectroscopy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was developed by Kai Siegbahn starting in 1957 and is used to study the energy levels of atomic core electrons, primarily in solids. Siegbahn referred to the technique as \"electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis\" (ESCA), since the core levels have small chemical shifts depending on the chemical environment of the atom that is ionized, allowing chemical structure to be determined. Siegbahn was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1981 for this work. XPS is sometimes referred to as PESIS (photoelectron spectroscopy for inner shells), whereas the lower-energy radiation of UV light is referred to as PESOS (outer shells) because it cannot excite core electrons.  Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) is used to study valence energy levels and chemical bonding, especially the bonding character of molecular orbitals. The method was developed originally for gas-phase molecules in 1961 by Feodor I. Vilesov and in 1962 by David W. Turner, and other early workers included David C. Frost, J. H. D. Eland and K. Kimura. Later, Richard Smalley modified the technique and used a UV laser to excite the sample, in order to measure the binding energy of electrons in gaseous molecular clusters.  Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) has become the most prevalent electron spectroscopy in condensed matter physics after recent advances in energy and momentum resolution, and widespread availability of synchrotron light sources. The technique is used to map the band structure of crystalline solids, to study quasiparticle dynamics in highly correlated materials, and to measure electron spin polarization.  Two-photon photoelectron spectroscopy (2PPE) extends the technique to optically excited electronic states through the introduction of a pump-and-probe scheme.  Extreme-ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (EUPS) lies in between XPS and UPS. It is typically used to assess the valence band structure. Compared to XPS, it gives better energy resolution, and compared to UPS, the ejected electrons are faster, resulting in less space charge and mitigated final state effects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical principle.", "content": "The physics behind the PES technique is an application of the photoelectric effect. The sample is exposed to a beam of UV or XUV light inducing photoelectric ionization. The energies of the emitted photoelectrons are characteristic of their original electronic states, and depend also on vibrational state and rotational level. For solids, photoelectrons can escape only from a depth on the order of nanometers, so that it is the surface layer which is analyzed.  Because of the high frequency of the light, and the substantial charge and energy of emitted electrons, photoemission is one of the most sensitive and accurate techniques for measuring the energies and shapes of electronic states and molecular and atomic orbitals. Photoemission is also among the most sensitive methods of detecting substances in trace concentrations, provided the sample is compatible with ultra-high vacuum and the analyte can be distinguished from background.  Typical PES (UPS) instruments use helium gas sources of UV light, with photon energy up to 52 eV (corresponding to wavelength 23.7 nm). The photoelectrons that actually escaped into the vacuum are collected, slightly retarded, energy resolved, and counted. This results in a spectrum of electron intensity as a function of the measured kinetic energy. Because binding energy values are more readily applied and understood, the kinetic energy values, which are source dependent, are converted into binding energy values, which are source independent. This is achieved by applying Einstein's relation formula_1. The formula_2 term of this equation is the energy of the UV light quanta that are used for photoexcitation. Photoemission spectra are also measured using tunable synchrotron radiation sources.  The binding energies of the measured electrons are characteristic of the chemical structure and molecular bonding of the material. By adding a source monochromator and increasing the energy resolution of the electron analyzer, peaks appear with full width at half maximum (FWHM) less than 5–8 meV.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Photoemission spectroscopy (PES), also known as photoelectron spectroscopy, refers to energy measurement of electrons emitted from solids, gases or liquids by the photoelectric effect, in order to determine the binding energies of electrons in the substance. The term refers to various techniques, depending on whether the ionization energy is provided by X-ray photons or ultraviolet photons. Regardless of the incident photon beam, however, all photoelectron spectroscopy revolves around the general theme of surface analysis by measuring the ejected electrons.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972610}
{"src_title": "Wilhelmine of Prussia, Margravine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Berlin, Wilhelmine shared the unhappy childhood of her brother, Frederick the Great, whose friend and confidante she remained all her life, with the exception of one short interval. She was fiercely beaten and abused by her governess during her childhood. Wilhelmine later wrote: \"Not a day passed that she [the governess] did not prove upon me the fearful power of her fists.\" The mistreatment continued until the prince's governess finally said to their mother, who had been oblivious to the abuse, that she would not be surprised if Wilhelmine was eventually beaten until she was crippled. After this, the governess was promptly replaced.  Being the eldest daughter in her family, she was early the target of discussions about political marriages. Her mother, Queen Sophia Dorothea, wished her to marry her nephew Frederick, Prince of Wales, but on the British side there was no inclination to make an offer of marriage except in exchange for substantial concessions that Wilhelmine's father would not accept. The fruitless intrigues carried on by Sophia Dorothea to bring about this match played a large part in Wilhelmine's early life. Her father, on the other hand, preferred a match with the House of Habsburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "After much talk of other matches came to nothing, Wilhelmine was eventually married in 1731 to her Hohenzollern kinsman, Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. Frederick had been engaged to Wilhelmine's younger sister, Sophie, but at the last moment King Frederick William I decided to replace her with Wilhelmine. The groom was not consulted in this decision.  This marriage was only accepted by Wilhelmine under threats from her father and with a view to lightening her brother's disgrace. It was initially a happy marriage, but was eventually clouded first by limited financial resources and then by a love affair of the future Margrave with Dorothea von Marwitz, whose rise as an official mistress at the court of Bayreuth was bitterly resented by her brother Frederick the Great and caused an estrangement of some three years between him and Wilhelmine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Margravine.", "content": "When Wilhelmine's spouse came into his inheritance in 1735, the pair set about making Bayreuth a miniature Versailles. Their building projects included the rebuilding of their summer residence (now part of the Hermitage Museum); the rebuilding of the great Bayreuth opera house; the building of a second, new opera house; the building of a theater; and the reconstruction of the Bayreuth palace. The so-called \"Bayreuth Rococo\" style of architecture is renowned even today. The pair also founded the University of Erlangen. All of these ambitious undertakings pushed the court to the verge of bankruptcy.  The margravine made Bayreuth one of the chief intellectual centers of the Holy Roman Empire, surrounding herself with a court of wits and artists that accrued added prestige from the occasional visits of Voltaire and Frederick the Great.  Wilhelmine's brother Frederick granted her an allowance in exchange for troops, following the same procedure with her sisters. With the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, Wilhelmine's interests shifted from dilettantism to diplomacy. Austrian diplomats were trying to influence the court of Bayreuth to take their side against Prussia. In September 1745, during the Silesian war, Wilhelmine met with Maria Theresa of Austria. This almost destroyed her intimate relationship with her brother. In 1750 Wilhelmine visited the Prussian court for several weeks and met famous contemporaries such as Voltaire, Maupertuis and La Mettrie. In June 1754, the siblings met for the last time, after which Frederick swore her his eternal loyalty. She acted as eyes and ears for her brother in southern Germany until her death at Bayreuth on 14 October 1758, the day of Frederick's defeat by the Austrian forces of Leopold Josef Graf Daun at the Battle of Hochkirch. Although Frederick had lost many friends and family to death throughout his life, Wilhelmine's hit him the hardest. He suffered from severe illness for a week following news of Wilhelmine's death and fell into a depression from which he never fully recovered.  On the tenth anniversary of her death, her devastated brother had the Temple of Friendship built at Sanssouci in her memory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "The margravine's memoirs, \"Memoires de ma vie\", written or revised in French between 1748 and her death, are preserved in the Royal Library of Berlin. They were first printed in two forms in 1810: a German translation down to the year 1733 from the firm of Cotta of Tübingen; and a version in French published by Vieweg of Brunswick, and coming down to 1742. There were several subsequent editions, including a German one published at Leipzig in 1908. An English translation was published in Berlin in 1904. For the discussion on the authenticity of these entertaining, though not very trustworthy, memoirs, see G. H. Pertz, \"Uber die Merkwürdigkeiten der Markgrafin\" (1851). See also Arvede Barine, \"Princesses et grandes dames\" (Paris, 1890); E. E. Cuttell, \"Wilhelmine, Margravine of Baireuth\" (London, 2 vols., 1905);'and R. Fester, \"Die Bayreuther Schwester Friedrichs des Grossen\" (Berlin, 1902). Writer William Thackeray recommended the memoirs to \"those who are curious about European Court history of the last age\".  In addition to her other accomplishments, Wilhelmine was also a gifted composer and supporter of music. She was a lutenist, a student of Sylvius Leopold Weiss, and the employer of Bernhard Joachim Hagen.  Keyboard Concerto in G minor  The obbligato flute part could have been played either by her brother or her husband, as both were flautists (and pupils of Quantz). Each movement takes wing from solid and vigorous openings. There is a stubborn insistence about the first tutti's repeated octave jumps, offset by the buoyancy of its striding sequences. She has a Bach-like flair for phrase extensions, which is also evident in the final gavotte where the solo shadows the orchestra and emerges to take the lead. Some of the ideas in the 34 bar slow movement are more son-of-Bach in style; and in the D minor second gavotte, which serves as a central \"trio\" to the first, there is a delicate episode of rather French, languishing descents.  Argenore: opera c. 1740. SEven soloists (3 sop., 1 mezzo-sop., 2 alto, 1 baritone or mezzo-sop.), and orchestra (1 flute, 2 oboes, 2 trumpets, strings, continuo). Performed in 1740 for her husband's birthday.  Cavatinen: short songs; voice, strings, harpsichord.  Flute Sonata: flute & keyboard, c. 1730.  Some chamber music still survives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Wilhelmine's only child was Elisabeth Fredericka Sophie of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, born on August 30, 1732. Described by Casanova as the most beautiful princess in Germany, she was married to Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg, in 1748. She died on 6 April 1780 without surviving children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memoirs.", "content": "An earlier English translation from the French of her memoirs was published in a two volume edition in 1828 by Hunt and Clarke, York St., Covent Garden.  Scribner and Welford published Princess Helena of the United Kingdom's German-to-English translation of Wilhelmine's memoirs in 1887.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Wilhelmine of Prussia (Friederike Sophie Wilhelmine; 3 July 170914 October 1758) was a princess of the German Kingdom of Prussia (the older sister of Frederick the Great) and composer. She was the eldest daughter of Frederick William I of Prussia and Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, and granddaughter of George I of Great Britain. In 1731, she married Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. The baroque buildings and parks built during her reign shape much of the present appearance of the town of Bayreuth, Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972611}
{"src_title": "1972 Winter Olympics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Host city selection.", "content": "Sapporo first won the rights to host the 1940 Winter Olympics, but Japan resigned as the Games' host after its 1937 invasion of China. The 1940 Games were later cancelled. All the cities awarded Games that were cancelled due to war have since hosted the Games (London, Tokyo, Helsinki, Sapporo and Cortina d'Ampezzo).  Sapporo competed with Banff, Lahti, and Salt Lake City. The Games were awarded at the 64th IOC Session in Rome, Italy, on April 26, 1966.  In preparation, the Japanese constructed new largescale facilities at Sapporo and conducted a trial run a full year in advance of the Games. An international sport week was held in February, 1971, to assess the city's preparations as well as \"to test its civic mettle and hospitality\", and this effort was acclaimed by Olympic observers as \"a complete success\". The development of new infrastructure proved to be a huge boon for the Sapporo economy: by the time of the Games, the national government had invested some US$500 million in upgrades, including a new subway. The Games' organizers themselves turned a healthy profit in part because they arranged a record $8.47 million for broadcast rights.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Venues.", "content": "1 New facilities constructed in preparation for the Olympic Games. 2 Existing facilities modified or refurbished in preparation for the Olympic Games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "There were 35 events contested in 6 sports (10 disciplines).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Participating nations.", "content": "35 nations participated in the 1972 Winter Olympics. The Republic of China (commonly known as Taiwan) and the Philippines participated in their first Winter Olympic Games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees.", "content": "<noinclude>", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medal count.", "content": "These are the top eleven nations that won medals at these Games. The host nation Japan finished 11th.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1972 Winter Olympics, officially known as the (French: Les \"XIes Jeux olympiques d'hiver\"), were a winter multi-sport event which was held from February 3 to February 13, 1972, in Sapporo, Hokkaidō, Japan. It was the first Winter Olympics to be held outside Europe and North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972612}
{"src_title": "Edict of Fontainebleau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Edict of Nantes.", "content": "The Edict of Nantes had been issued on 13 April 1598 by Henry IV of France. It had granted the Calvinist Protestants of France (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in the predominantly Catholic state. Through the Edict, Henry had aimed to promote civil unity. The Edict treated some Protestants with tolerance and opened a path for secularism. It offered general freedom of conscience to individuals and many specific concessions to the Protestants, such as amnesty and the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field (including for the state), and to bring grievances directly to the king. It marked the end of the French Wars of Religion which had afflicted France during the second half of the 16th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.", "content": "By the Edict of Fontainebleau, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes and ordered the destruction of Huguenot churches, as well as the closing of Protestant schools. This policy made official the persecution already enforced since the \"dragonnades\" created in 1681 by the king in order to intimidate Huguenots into converting to Catholicism. As a result of the officially sanctioned persecution by the \"dragoons\" who were billeted upon prominent Huguenots, many Protestants — estimates range from 210,000 to 900,000 — left France over the next two decades. They sought asylum in the United Provinces, Sweden, Switzerland, Brandenburg-Prussia, Denmark, Scotland, England, Protestant states of the Holy Roman Empire, the Cape Colony in Africa, and North America. On 17 January 1686, Louis XIV himself claimed that out of a Huguenot population of 800,000 to 900,000, only 1,000 to 1,500 had remained in France.  It has long been said that a strong advocate for persecution of the Protestants was Louis XIV's pious second wife Madame de Maintenon, who was thought to have urged Louis to revoke Henry IV's edict. There is no formal proof of this and these views have now been challenged. Madame de Maintenon was by birth a Catholic but also the grand-daughter of Agrippa d'Aubigné, an unrelenting calvinist. Protestants tried to turn her and any time she took the defence of Protestants she was suspected of relapsing into her family faith. Thus her position line was thin which led people to wrongly believe she advocated persecutions.  The revocation of the Edict of Nantes brought France into line with virtually every other European country of the period (with the brief exception of England, Scotland, Brandenburg-Prussia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), where only the majority state religion was legally tolerated. The experiment of religious tolerance in Europe was effectively ended for the time being.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effects of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.", "content": "The Edict of Fontainebleau is compared by many historians with the 1492 Alhambra Decree, ordering the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain; and with the Expulsion of the Moriscos during 1609-1614. The three are similar both as outbursts of religious intolerance ending periods of relative tolerance, and in their social and economic effects. In practice, the revocation caused France to suffer a kind of early brain drain, as it lost many skilled craftsmen, including key designers such as Daniel Marot. Upon leaving France, Huguenots took with them knowledge of important techniques and styles — which had a significant effect on the quality of the silk, plate glass, silversmithing, watchmaking, and cabinet making industries of those regions to which they relocated. Some rulers, such as Frederick Wilhelm, Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg, who issued the Edict of Potsdam in late October 1685, encouraged the Protestants to seek refuge in their nations. Similarly in 1720 Frederick IV of Denmark invited the French Huguenots to seek refuge in Denmark, which they did in Fredericia and other locations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End of the Edict of Fontainebleau.", "content": "In practice, the stringency of policies outlawing Protestants, opposed by the Jansenists, was relaxed during the reign of Louis XV, especially among discreet members of the upper classes. \"The fact that a hundred years later, when Protestants were again tolerated, many of them were found to be both commercially prosperous and politically loyal indicates that they fared far better than the Catholic Irish\", R.R. Palmer concluded.  By the end of the 18th century, numerous prominent French philosophers and literary men of the day, including Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, were arguing strongly for religious tolerance. Efforts by Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes, minister to Louis XVI, and Jean-Paul Rabaut Saint-Etienne, a spokesman for the Protestant community, together with members of a provincial appellate court or \"parlement\" of the Ancien Régime, were particularly effective in persuading the king to open French society despite concerns expressed by some of his advisors. Thus, on 7 November 1787, Louis XVI signed the Edict of Versailles, known as the edict of tolerance registered in \"parlement\" two and a half months later, on 29 January 1788. This edict offered relief to the main alternative faiths of Calvinist Huguenots, Lutherans, and Jews by giving their followers civil and legal recognition as well as the right to openly form congregations after 102 years of prohibition.  Full religious freedom had to wait two more years, with enactment of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789. The 1787 edict was a pivotal step in eliminating religious strife, however, and it officially ended religious persecution in France. Moreover, when French Revolutionary armies invaded other European countries between 1789 and 1815, they followed a consistent policy of emancipating persecuted or circumscribed religious communities (Roman Catholic in some countries, Protestant in others, Jewish in most).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1985 apology.", "content": "In October 1985, French President François Mitterrand issued a public apology to the descendants of Huguenots around the world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Edict of Fontainebleau (22 October 1685) was an edict issued by Louis XIV of France, also known as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The Edict of Nantes (1598) had granted the Huguenots the right to practice their religion without persecution from the state. Though Protestants had lost their independence in places of refuge under Richelieu on account of their supposed insubordination, they continued to live in comparative security and political contentment. From the outset, religious toleration in France had been a royal, rather than a popular policy. The lack of universal adherence to his religion did not sit well with Louis XIV's vision of perfected autocracy: \"Bending all else to his will, Louis XIV resented the presence of heretics among his subjects.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972613}
{"src_title": "Auguste Piccard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Piccard and his twin brother Jean Felix Piccard were born in Basel, Switzerland on 28 January 1884.  Showing an intense interest in science as a child, he attended the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zürich, and became a professor of physics in Brussels at the Free University of Brussels in 1922, the same year his son Jacques Piccard was born. He was a member of the Solvay Congress of 1922, 1924, 1927, 1930 and 1933.  In 1930, an interest in ballooning, and a curiosity about the upper atmosphere led him to design a spherical, pressurized aluminum gondola that would allow ascent to a great altitude without requiring a pressure suit. Supported by the Belgian \"Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique\" (FNRS) Piccard constructed his gondola.  An important motivation for his research in the upper atmosphere were measurements of cosmic radiation, which were supposed to give experimental evidence for the theories of Albert Einstein, whom Piccard knew from the Solvay conferences and who was a fellow alumnus of ETH.  On 27 May 1931, Auguste Piccard and Paul Kipfer took off from Augsburg, Germany, and reached a record altitude of (9.8 miles). (FAI Record File Number 10634) During this flight, they became the first human beings to enter the stratosphere, and were able to gather substantial data on the upper atmosphere, as well as measure cosmic rays. Piccard and Kipfer are widely considered the first people to visually observe the curvature of the earth.  On 18 August 1932, launched from Dübendorf, Switzerland, Piccard and Max Cosyns made a second record-breaking ascent to. (FAI Record File Number 6590) He ultimately made a total of twenty-seven balloon flights, setting a final record of.  In the mid-1930s, Piccard's interests shifted when he realized that a modification of his high-altitude balloon cockpit would allow descent into the deep ocean. By 1937, he had designed the bathyscaphe, a small steel gondola built to withstand great external pressure. Construction began, but was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II. Resuming work in 1945, he completed the bubble-shaped cockpit that maintained normal air pressure for a person inside the capsule even as the water pressure outside increased to over. Above the heavy steel capsule, a large flotation tank was attached and filled with a low density liquid for buoyancy. Liquids are relatively incompressible and can provide buoyancy that does not change as the pressure increases. And so, the huge tank was filled with gasoline, not as a fuel, but as flotation. To make the now floating craft sink, tons of iron were attached to the float with a release mechanism to allow resurfacing. This craft was named \"FNRS-2\" and made a number of unmanned dives in 1948 before being given to the French Navy in 1950. There, it was redesigned, and in 1954, it took a man safely down.  Piccard and his son, Jacques, built a second bathyscaphe and together they dove to a record-breaking depth of in 1953.  Auguste Piccard died on 24 March 1962 of a heart attack at his home in Lausanne, Switzerland; he was 78 years old.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Auguste Antoine Piccard (28 January 1884 – 24 March 1962) was a Swiss physicist, inventor and explorer, known for his record-breaking helium-filled balloon flights, with which he studied the Earth's upper atmosphere. Auguste was also known for his invention of the first bathyscaphe, \"FNRS-2\", with which he made a number of unmanned dives in 1948 to explore the ocean's depths.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972614}
{"src_title": "Schwerer Gustav", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "In 1934, the German Army High Command (OKH) commissioned Krupp of Essen to design a gun to destroy the forts of the French Maginot Line that were nearing completion. The gun's shells had to punch through seven metres of reinforced concrete or one full metre of steel armour plate, from beyond the range of French artillery. Krupp engineer Erich Müller calculated that the task would require a weapon with a calibre of around 80 cm, firing a projectile weighing 7 tonnes from a barrel 30 metres long. The weapon would have a weight of over 1000 tonnes. The size and weight meant that to be at all movable it would need to be supported on twin sets of railway tracks. In common with smaller railway guns, the only barrel movement on the mount itself would be elevation, traverse being managed by moving the weapon along a curved section of railway line. Krupp prepared plans for calibres of 70 cm, 80 cm, 85 cm, and 1 m.  Nothing further happened until March 1936 when, during a visit to Essen, Adolf Hitler inquired as to the giant guns' feasibility. No definite commitment was given by Hitler, but design work began on an 80 cm model. The resulting plans were completed in early 1937 and approved. Fabrication of the first gun started in mid-1937. Technical complications in the forging of such massive pieces of steel made it apparent that the original completion date of early 1940 could not be met.  Krupp built a test model in late 1939 and sent it to the Hillersleben proving ground for testing. Penetration was tested on this occasion. Firing at high elevation, the 7.1 tonne shell was able to penetrate the specified seven metres of concrete and the one metre armour plate. When the tests were completed in mid-1940 the complex carriage was further developed. Alfried Krupp, after whose father the gun was named, personally hosted Hitler at the Rügenwalde Proving Ground during the formal acceptance trials of the Gustav Gun in early 1941.  Two guns were ordered. The first round was test-fired from the commissioned gun barrel on 10 September 1941 from a makeshift gun carriage at Hillersleben. In November 1941, the barrel was taken to, now Darłowo, Poland, where eight further firing tests were carried out using the 7,100 kilogram armour-piercing (AP) shell out to a range of 37,210 metres.  In combat, the gun was mounted on a specially designed chassis, supported by eight bogies on two parallel railway tracks. Each of the bogies had 5 axles, giving a total of 40 axles (80 wheels). Krupp christened the gun \"Schwerer Gustav\" (Heavy Gustav) after the senior director of the firm, Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach.  The gun could fire a heavy concrete-piercing shell and a lighter high-explosive shell. An extremely-long-range rocket projectile was also planned with a range of 150 km, that would require the barrel being extended to 84 metres.  In keeping with the tradition of the Krupp company, no payment was asked for the first gun. They charged seven million Reichsmark (approximately 24 million USD in 2015) for the second gun, \"Dora\", named after the senior engineer's wife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Schwerer Gustav.", "content": "In February 1942, Heavy Artillery Unit (E) 672 reorganised and went on the march, and \"Schwerer Gustav\" began its long ride to Crimea. The train carrying the gun was of 25 cars, a total length of 1.5 kilometres (0.9 mi). The gun reached the Perekop Isthmus in early March 1942, where it was held until early April. The Germans built a special railway spur line to the Simferopol-Sevastopol railway north of the target. At the end of the spur, they built four semi-circular tracks especially for the Gustav to traverse. Outer tracks were required for the cranes that assembled Gustav.  The siege of Sevastopol was the gun's first combat test. 4,000 men and five weeks were needed to get the gun in firing position; 500 men were needed to fire it. Installation began in early May, and by the 5th of June the gun was ready to fire. The following targets were engaged:  By the end of the siege on 4 July the city of Sevastopol lay in ruins, and 30,000 tons of artillery ammunition had been fired. Gustav had fired 48 rounds and worn out its original barrel, which had already fired around 250 rounds during testing and development. The gun was fitted with the spare barrel and the original was sent back to Krupp's factory in Essen for relining.  The gun was then dismantled and moved to the northern part of the eastern front, where an attack was planned on Leningrad. The gun was placed 30 km (18.6 mi) from the city near the railway station of Taytsy. The gun was fully operational when the attack was cancelled. The gun then spent the winter of 1942/43 near Leningrad.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dora.", "content": "Dora was the second gun produced. It was deployed briefly against Stalingrad, where the gun arrived at its emplacement to the west of the city sometime in mid-August 1942. It was ready to fire on 13 September. It was withdrawn when Soviet forces threatened to encircle the German forces. When the Germans began their long retreat they took \"Dora\" with them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Langer Gustav.", "content": "The Langer Gustav was a long cannon with 52 centimetre (20.5 in) calibre and a 43-metre barrel. It was intended to fire super-long-range rocket projectiles weighing 680 kilograms to a range of 190 kilometres (118 mi). This gave it the range to hit London from Calais, France. It was never completed after being damaged during construction by one of the many RAF bombing raids on Essen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Landkreuzer P. 1500 Monster Project.", "content": "The Monster was to be a 1,500 tonne mobile, self-propelled platform for an 80-cm K (E) gun, along with two 15 cm sFH 18 heavy howitzers, and multiple MG 151 autocannons normally used on combat aircraft. It was deemed impractical, and in 1943 was canceled by Albert Speer. It never left the drawing board and no progress was made. It would have surpassed the Panzer VIII Maus (heaviest tank ever built) and the Landkreuzer P. 1000 Ratte (never built) in weight and size.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Postwar whereabouts.", "content": "On 14 April 1945, one day before the arrival of US troops, Schwerer Gustav was destroyed to prevent its capture. On 22 April 1945, its ruins were discovered in a forest north of Auerbach and about southwest of Chemnitz. In summer 1945 Schwerer Gustav was studied by Soviet specialists and in autumn of the same year was transferred to Merseburg, where the Soviets were gathering German military material. Thereafter, the trail of the gun was lost. In March 1945, \"Dora\" was transferred to Grafenwöhr and was blown up there on 19 April 1945. The debris was discovered by American troops sometime after the discovery of \"Schwerer Gustav's\" ruins. The debris was scrapped in the 1950s.  Part of the third (52 centimetre) gun was found after the war in the Krupp production facilities in Essen.  The world's largest \"Dora ensemble\" is located in the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Schwerer Gustav (English: \"Heavy Gustaf\") was a German railway gun. It was developed in the late 1930s by Krupp in Rügenwalde as siege artillery for the explicit purpose of destroying the main forts of the French Maginot Line, the strongest fortifications in existence at the time. The fully assembled gun weighed nearly, and could fire shells weighing to a range of. The gun was designed in preparation for the Battle of France, but was not ready for action when the battle began, and in any case the Wehrmacht's Blitzkrieg offensive through Belgium rapidly outflanked and isolated the Maginot Line's static defenses, eventually forcing the French to surrender and making their destruction unnecessary. Gustav was later deployed in the Soviet Union during the Battle of Sevastopol, part of Operation Barbarossa, where, among other things, it destroyed a munitions depot located roughly below ground level. The gun was moved to Leningrad, and may have been intended to be used in the Warsaw Uprising like other German heavy siege pieces, but the rebellion was crushed before it could be prepared to fire. Gustav was destroyed by the Germans near the end of the war in 1945 to avoid capture by the Soviet Red Army.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972615}
{"src_title": "Language game (philosophy)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Philosophical Investigations.", "content": "In his work \"Philosophical Investigations\" (1953), Ludwig Wittgenstein regularly referred to the concept of language-games. Wittgenstein rejected the idea that language is somehow separate and corresponding to reality, and he argued that concepts do not need clarity for meaning. Wittgenstein used the term \"language-game\" to designate forms of language simpler than the entirety of a language itself, \"consisting of language and the actions into which it is woven\" (PI 7) and connected by family resemblance (\"Familienähnlichkeit\"). The concept was intended \"to bring into prominence the fact that the speaking of language is part of an activity, or a form of life,\" (PI 23) which gives language its meaning.  Wittgenstein develops this discussion of games into the key notion of a \"language-game\". Wittgenstein introduces the term using simple examples, but intends it to be used for the many ways in which we use language. The central component of language games is that they are uses of language, and language is used in multifarious ways. For example, in one language-game, a word might be used to stand for (or refer to) an object, but in another the same word might be used for giving orders, or for asking questions, and so on. The famous example is the meaning of the word \"game\". We speak of various kinds of games: board games, betting games, sports, \"war games\". These are all different uses of the word \"games\". Wittgenstein also gives the example of \"Water!\", which can be used as an exclamation, an order, a request, or an answer to a question. The meaning of the word depends on the language-game within which it is being used. Another way Wittgenstein puts the point is that the word \"water\" has no meaning apart from its use within a language-game. One might use the word as an order to have someone else bring you a glass of water. But it can also be used to warn someone that the water has been poisoned. One might even use the word as code by members of a secret society.  Wittgenstein does not limit the application of his concept of language games to word-meaning. He also applies it to sentence-meaning. For example, the sentence \"Moses did not exist\" (§79) can mean various things. Wittgenstein argues that independently of use the sentence does not yet'say' anything. It is'meaningless' in the sense of not being significant for a particular purpose. It only acquires significance if we fix it within some context of use. Thus, it fails to say anything because the sentence as such does not yet determine some particular use. The sentence is only meaningful when it is used to say something. For instance, it can be used so as to say that no person or historical figure fits the set of descriptions attributed to the person that goes by the name of \"Moses\". But it can also mean that the leader of the Israelites was not called Moses. Or that there cannot have been anyone who accomplished all that the Bible relates of Moses, etc. What the sentence means thus depends on its context of use.  The term ‘language-game’ is used to refer to:  These meanings are not separated from each other by sharp boundaries, but blend into one another (as suggested by the idea of family resemblance). The concept is based on the following analogy: The rules of language are analogous to the rules of games; thus saying something in a language is analogous to making a move in a game. The analogy between a language and a game demonstrates that words have meaning depending on the uses made of them in the various and multiform activities of human life. (The concept is not meant to suggest that there is anything trivial about language, or that language is \"just a game\".)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "The classic example of a language-game is the so-called \"builder's language\" introduced in §2 of the \"Philosophical Investigations\": Later \"this\" and \"there\" are added (with functions analogous to the function these words have in natural language), and \"a, b, c, d\" as numerals. An example of its use: builder A says \"d — slab — there\" and points, and builder B counts four slabs, \"a, b, c, d...\" and moves them to the place pointed to by A. The builder's language is an activity into which is woven something we would recognize as language, but in a simpler form. This language-game resembles the simple forms of language taught to children, and Wittgenstein asks that we conceive of it as \"a complete primitive language\" for a tribe of builders.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A language-game () is a philosophical concept developed by Ludwig Wittgenstein, referring to simple examples of language use and the actions into which the language is woven. Wittgenstein argued that a word or even a sentence has meaning only as a result of the “rule” of the “game” being played. Depending on the context, for example, the utterance “Water!” could be an order, the answer to a question, or some other form of communication.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972616}
{"src_title": "Ion exchange", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Applications.", "content": "Ion exchange is widely used in the food and beverage industry, hydrometallurgy, metals finishing, chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical technology, sugar and sweetener production, ground- and potable-water treatment, nuclear, softening, industrial water treatment, semiconductor, power, and many other industries.  A typical example of application is preparation of high-purity water for power engineering, electronic and nuclear industries; i.e. polymeric or mineralic insoluble ion exchangers are widely used for water softening, water purification, water decontamination, etc.  Ion exchange is a method widely used in household (laundry detergents and water filters) to produce soft water. This is accomplished by exchanging calcium Ca and magnesium Mg cations against Na or H cations (see water softening). Another application for ion exchange in domestic water treatment is the removal of nitrate and natural organic matter.  Industrial and analytical ion-exchange chromatography is another area to be mentioned. Ion-exchange chromatography is a chromatographical method that is widely used for chemical analysis and separation of ions. For example, in biochemistry it is widely used to separate charged molecules such as proteins. An important area of the application is extraction and purification of biologically produced substances such as proteins (amino acids) and DNA/RNA.  Ion-exchange processes are used to separate and purify metals, including separating uranium from plutonium and the other actinides, including thorium, neptunium, and americium. This process is also used to separate the lanthanides, such as lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praseodymium, europium, and ytterbium, from each other. The separation of neodymium and praseodymium was a particularly difficult one, and those were formerly thought to be just one element didymium - but that is an alloy of the two.  There are two series of rare-earth metals, the lanthanides and the actinides, both of whose families all have very similar chemical and physical properties. Using methods developed by Frank Spedding in the 1940s, ion exchange processes were formerly the only practical way to separate them in large quantities, until the development of the \"solvent extraction\" techniques that can be scaled up enormously..  A very important case of ion-exchange is the PUREX process (Plutonium-URanium Extraction Process), which is used to separate the plutonium-239 and the uranium from americium, curium, neptunium, the radioactive fission products that come from nuclear reactors. Thus the waste products can be separated out for disposal. Next, the plutonium and uranium are available for making nuclear-energy materials, such as new reactor fuel and nuclear weapons.  The ion-exchange process is also used to separate other sets of very similar chemical elements, such as zirconium and hafnium, which is also very important for the nuclear industry. Physically, zirconium is practically transparent to free neutrons, used in building nuclear reactors, but hafnium is a very strong absorber of neutrons, used in reactor control rods. Thus, ion-exchange is used in nuclear reprocessing and the treatment of radioactive waste.  Ion-exchange resins in the form of thin membranes are also used in chloralkali process, fuel cells, and vanadium redox batteries. Ion exchange can also be used to remove hardness from water by exchanging calcium and magnesium ions for sodium ions in an ion-exchange column. Liquid-phase (aqueous) ion-exchange desalination has been demonstrated. In this technique anions and cations in salt water are exchanged for carbonate anions and calcium cations respectively using electrophoresis. Calcium and carbonate ions then react to form calcium carbonate, which then precipitates, leaving behind fresh water. The desalination occurs at ambient temperature and pressure and requires no membranes or solid ion exchangers. The theoretical energy efficiency of this method is on par with electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regenerating wasted water.", "content": "Most ion-exchange systems contain containers of ion-exchange resin that are operated on a cyclic basis.  During the filtration process, water flows through the resin container until the resin is considered exhausted. That happens only when water leaving the exchanger contains more than the maximal desired concentration of the ions being removed. Resin is then regenerated by sequentially backwashing the resin bed to remove accumulated solids, flushing removed ions from the resin with a concentrated solution of replacement ions, and rinsing the flushing solution from the resin. Production of backwash, flushing, and rinsing wastewater during regeneration of ion-exchange media limits the usefulness of ion exchange for wastewater treatment.  Water softeners are usually regenerated with brine containing 10% sodium chloride. Aside from the soluble chloride salts of divalent cations removed from the softened water, softener regeneration wastewater contains the unused 50 – 70% of the sodium chloride regeneration flushing brine required to reverse ion-exchange resin equilibria. Deionizing resin regeneration with sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide is approximately 20–40% efficient. Neutralized deionizer regeneration wastewater contains all of the removed ions plus 2.5–5 times their equivalent concentration as sodium sulfate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "This method is also named as permutit (or)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ion exchange usually describes a processes of purification of aqueous solutions using solid polymeric ion exchange resin. More precisely, the term encompasses a large variety of processes where ions are exchanged between two electrolytes. Aside from its use to purify drinking water, the technique is widely applied for purification and separation of a variety of industrially and medicinally important chemicals. Although the term usually refers to applications of synthetic (man-made) resins, many materials, in particular soil.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972617}
{"src_title": "Sulfur trioxide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Molecular structure and bonding.", "content": "Gaseous SO is a trigonal planar molecule of D symmetry, as predicted by VSEPR theory. SO belongs to the D point group.  In terms of electron-counting formalism, the sulfur atom has an oxidation state of +6 and a formal charge of 0. The Lewis structure consists of an S=O double bond and two S–O dative bonds without utilizing d-orbitals.  The electrical dipole moment of gaseous sulfur trioxide is zero. This is a consequence of the 120° angle between the S-O bonds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical reactions.", "content": "SO is the anhydride of HSO. Thus, the following reaction occurs:  The reaction occurs both rapidly and exothermically, too violently to be used in large-scale manufacturing. At or above 340 °C, sulfuric acid, sulfur trioxide, and water coexist in significant equilibrium concentrations.  Sulfur trioxide also oxidizes sulfur dichloride to yield the useful reagent, thionyl chloride.  SO is a strong Lewis acid readily forming crystalline complexes with pyridine, dioxane, and trimethylamine. These adducts can be used as sulfonating agents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the atmosphere.", "content": "The direct oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in air: does take place, but at 298 K has a ΔG = -141.6 kJ and ΔS = -187.9 J/K, so the reaction proceeds very slowly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In the laboratory.", "content": "Sulfur trioxide can be prepared in the laboratory by the two-stage pyrolysis of sodium bisulfate. Sodium pyrosulfate is an intermediate product:  In contrast, KHSO does not undergo the same reaction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In industry.", "content": "Industrially SO is made by the contact process. Sulfur dioxide, which in turn is produced by the burning of sulfur or iron pyrite (a sulfide ore of iron). After being purified by electrostatic precipitation, the SO is then oxidised by atmospheric oxygen at between 400 and 600 °C over a catalyst. A typical catalyst consists of vanadium pentoxide (VO) activated with potassium oxide KO on kieselguhr or silica support. Platinum also works very well but is too expensive and is poisoned (rendered ineffective) much more easily by impurities.  The majority of sulfur trioxide made in this way is converted into sulfuric acid not by the direct addition of water, with which it forms a fine mist, but by absorption in concentrated sulfuric acid and dilution with water of the produced oleum. It was once produced industrially by heating calcium sulfate with silica.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Sulfur trioxide is an essential reagent in sulfonation reactions. These processes afford detergents, dyes, and pharmaceuticals. Sulfur trioxide is generated in situ from sulfuric acid or is used as a solution in the acid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure of solid SO.", "content": "The nature of solid SO is complex because structural changes are caused by traces of water.  Upon condensation of the gas, absolutely pure SO condenses into a trimer, which is often called \"γ\"-SO. This molecular form is a colorless solid with a melting point of 16.8 °C. It adopts a cyclic structure described as [S(=O)(\"μ\"-O)].  If SO is condensed above 27 °C, then \"α\"-SO forms, which has a melting point of 62.3 °C. \"α\"-SO is fibrous in appearance. Structurally, it is the polymer [S(=O)(\"μ\"-O)]. Each end of the polymer is terminated with OH groups. \"β\"-SO, like the alpha form, is fibrous but of different molecular weight, consisting of an hydroxyl-capped polymer, but melts at 32.5 °C. Both the gamma and the beta forms are metastable, eventually converting to the stable alpha form if left standing for sufficient time. This conversion is caused by traces of water.  Relative vapor pressures of solid SO are alpha < beta < gamma at identical temperatures, indicative of their relative molecular weights. Liquid sulfur trioxide has a vapor pressure consistent with the gamma form. Thus heating a crystal of \"α\"-SO to its melting point results in a sudden increase in vapor pressure, which can be forceful enough to shatter a glass vessel in which it is heated. This effect is known as the \"alpha explosion\".  SO is aggressively hygroscopic. The heat of hydration is sufficient that mixtures of SO and wood or cotton can ignite. In such cases, SO dehydrates these carbohydrates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Along with being a strong oxidizing agent, sulfur trioxide will cause serious burns on both inhalation and ingestion because it is highly corrosive and hygroscopic in nature. SO should be handled with extreme care as it reacts violently with water and produces highly corrosive sulfuric acid. It should also be kept away from organic material due to the strong dehydrating nature of sulfur trioxide and its ability to react violently with such materials.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sulfur trioxide (alternative spelling sulphur trioxide) is the chemical compound with the formula SO, with a relatively narrow liquid range. In the gaseous form, this species is a significant pollutant, being the primary agent in acid rain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972618}
{"src_title": "Myasishchev M-4", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Following World War II, the Soviet Union prioritized developing a long-range strategic bomber capable of delivering atomic weapons. Their first aircraft was the Tupolev Tu-4, a reverse-engineered version of the American B-29 Superfortress. The Tu-4 was only ever a stop-gap solution, as unlike the American strategic bomber force that could operate from bases in allied countries close to the USSR, it lacked the range to reach the continental United States, and experiences in the Korean War demonstrated piston engine bombers were extremely vulnerable to jet fighter interception. With the advancement of Western jet bombers like the B-47 Stratojet and Vickers Valiant, Vladimir Mikhailovich Myasishchev was directed to construct a \"Strategicheskiy Dahlniy Bombardirovshchik\" (SDB/Strategic Long-range Bomber) in spring 1951. The first M-4 (Bison-A) prototype flew on 20 January 1953, and was handed over to state acceptance trials in March 1954, with production beginning later that year. It entered service in 1955, with 34 being built including two prototypes.  The M-4 was made mostly of aircraft aluminum alloys with some steel and magnesium components. It had wings swept at 35-degrees and powered initially by four Mikulin AM-3A engines with a maximum thrust of 85.8 kN (8,750 kgp; 19,290 lbf), but later upgraded to RD-3M-500 turbojets with a maximum thrust of 93.2 kN (9,500 kgp; 20,940 lbf). There were 18 bladder fuel tanks in the fuselage and wings, providing a total fuel capacity of 123,600 liters (32,610 US gallons); this gave the aircraft a range of, although this fell short of the range initially specified. It had a payload of 24 tonnes (26.4 tons) in various configurations. Defensive armament consisted of six AM-23 23 mm cannons with a rate of fire of 1,250 rpm each in a manned twin tail turret with 400 rounds per gun and two twin remote controlled turrets in the top and bottom fuselage with 300 rounds per gun each. The aircraft had a crew of eight: a navigator/bombardier in the nose; pilot and copilot in the cockpit; radar operator/navigator, flight engineer/gunner, radio operator/gunner, and dorsal turret gunner in a compartment behind the cockpit; and a tail gunner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "3M.", "content": "While the M-4 had less range than the Tupolev Tu-95, it had greater speed and payload, sufficient advantages to continue improving on the design. In 1954, approval was granted for a redesign of the M-4, which flew on 27 March 1956 and began state trials in early 1958. The 3M \"Bison-B\" was powered by four Dobrynin RD-7 turbojets, which had the same thrust as the RD-3M but were 25% more fuel efficient; a nose inflight refueling probe was also added to further increase range. The center fuselage was considerably redesigned to reduce weight and improve aerodynamics, and the wings were updated with a wider span and area. 74 Bison-Bs would be built.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tanker.", "content": "From the outset when the M-4's range shortfall became apparent, Myasishchev began investigating inflight refueling. In 1955, the second production aircraft was modified to a hose-&-drogue tanker configuration and the first production aircraft was fitted with an IFR probe above the nose, with two more converted for trials the following year. From the late 1950s, the M-4 fleet was converted to the tanker configuration through the fit of a hose-drum unit (HDU) and fuel tanks in the bomb bay and removal of all defensive armament. Similar conversions were performed to the 3M fleet in the 1970s and 1980s, the 3MS-1 \"Bison-B\" becoming the \"3MS-2\" tanker and the 3MN-1 becoming the \"3MN-2\" tanker.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The M-4 was first displayed to the public in Red Square, on May Day, 1954. The aircraft was a surprise to the United States, which had not known that the Soviets had built a jet bomber. However, it soon became clear that the bomber had an insufficient range to attack the United States and still return to the Soviet Union. Only a few of the original production M-4s were actually put into service. To remedy this problem, the Myasishchev design bureau introduced the 3M, known to the West as the 'Bison-B', which was considerably more powerful than the previous version. This new model first flew in 1955. Among other things, two of the five original gun barbettes were removed to lighten the aircraft.  In July 1955 American observers saw 28 Bisons in two groups during a Soviet air show. The United States government believed that the bomber was in mass production, and the Central Intelligence Agency estimated that 800 would be available by 1960. The display was a hoax; the first group of ten repeated the flyby with eight more. The classified estimates led, however, to American politicians warning of a \"bomber gap\".  This time, it was not the Soviet Air Force (VVS) that wanted the 3M, but rather Naval Aviation (AV-MF). Though it could still not bomb Washington, D.C., the 3M had a sufficient range to fulfill the need for a long-range maritime patrol aircraft. In 1959, the 3M broke numerous world records for payload to height, including to and to.  However, it was thought by the West (and would continue to be thought until 1961) that the 3M was the original M-4, meaning that the capability of the M-4 was vastly overestimated by Western intelligence agencies.  In the early 1960s, the 'Bison-C', with a specialized search radar, was introduced. By this time, many of the original M-4s had been converted to M-4-2 fuel tankers for aerial refueling. Later, 3Ms were converted to 3MS-2 and 3MN-2 tankers as well.  Neither the M-4 nor the 3M ever saw combat, and none were ever converted for low-altitude attack, as many American B-52s were, nor were any ever exported to the Soviet Union's allies.  Production of the Bison aircraft stopped in 1963, by which time 93 of them had been built. The last aircraft, an M-4-2 fuel tanker, was withdrawn from service in 1994.  The three VM-T heavy lift aircraft were converted from 3MN-2 tankers, with very large loads carried piggy-back above the fuselage. The single vertical fin/rudder was replaced with two large rectangular fin/rudders at the tips of the horizontal stabilizers to improve control due to the turbulence caused by the cargo pod.  With the withdrawal of the Myasishchev bombers and tankers the vast majority of the retired airframes were broken up under the terms of the relevant arms limitation treaty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aircraft on display.", "content": "Four aircraft are known to survive:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Myasishchev M-4 \"Molot\" (), USAF/DoD reporting name \"Type 37\", NATO reporting name Bison) was a four-engined strategic bomber designed by Myasishchev and manufactured by the Soviet Union in the 1950s to provide a Long Range Aviation bomber capable of attacking targets in North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972619}
{"src_title": "Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Tomasi was born in Palermo to Giulio Maria Tomasi, Prince of Lampedusa, Duke of Palma di Montechiaro, Baron of Torretta, and Grandee of Spain (1868–1934), and Beatrice Mastrogiovanni Tasca Filangieri di Cutò (1870–1946). He became an only child after the death (from diphtheria) in 1897 of his sister Stefania. He was very close to his mother, a strong personality who influenced him a great deal, especially because his father was rather cold and detached. As a child, he studied in their grand house in Palermo with a tutor (including the subjects of literature and English), with his mother (who taught him French), and with a grandmother who read him the novels of Emilio Salgari. In the little theater of the house in Santa Margherita di Belice, where he spent long vacations, he first saw a performance of \"Hamlet\", performed by a company of travelling players. His cousin was Fulco di Verdura.  Beginning in 1911, he attended the \"liceo classico\" in Rome and later in Palermo. He moved definitively to Rome in 1915 and enrolled in the faculty of jurisprudence. However, that year he was drafted into the army, fought in the lost battle of Caporetto, and was taken prisoner by the Austro-Hungarian Army. He was held in a POW camp in Hungary, but succeeded in escaping and returning to Italy. After being mustered out of the army as a lieutenant, he returned to Sicily, alternately resting there and travelling with his mother, and continuing his studies of foreign literature. It was during this time that he first drafted in his mind the ideas for his future novel \"The Leopard\". Originally his plan was to have the entire novel occur over the course of one day, similar to the famous modernist novel by James Joyce, \"Ulysses\".  In 1932 in Riga he married the daughter of Alice Barbi, Alexandra von Wolff-Stomersee (1894–1982), nicknamed \"Licy\", a Baltic German noblewoman and a student of psychoanalysis. The marriage ceremony was celebrated in the Orthodox church of the Annunciation of Our Most Holy Lady Church, Riga. They first lived with Tomasi's mother in Palermo, but soon the incompatibility between the two women drove Licy back to Riga.  In 1934 Tomasi di Lampedusa's father died, and he inherited his princely title. He was briefly called back to arms in 1940, but, as owner of a hereditary agricultural estate, was soon sent back home to take care of its affairs. He and his mother ultimately took refuge in Capo d'Orlando, where he was reunited with Licy. They survived the war, but their palace in Palermo did not.  After his mother died in 1946, Tomasi returned to live with his wife in Palermo. In 1953 he began to spend time with a group of young intellectuals, one of whom was Gioacchino Lanza Tomasi, a cousin, with whom he developed such a close relationship that, the following year, he legally adopted him.  Tomasi di Lampedusa was often the guest of his cousin, the poet Lucio Piccolo, with whom he travelled in 1954 to San Pellegrino Terme to attend a literary awards ceremony, where he met, among others, Eugenio Montale and Maria Bellonci. It is said that it was upon returning from this trip that he commenced writing \"Il Gattopardo\" (\"The Leopard\"), which was finished in 1956. During his life, the novel was rejected by the two publishers to whom Tomasi submitted it.  In 1957 Tomasi di Lampedusa was diagnosed with lung cancer; he died on July 26 in Rome. Following a requiem in the Basilica del Sacro Cuore di Gesù in Rome, he was buried in the Capuchin cemetery of Palermo. His novel was published the year after his death. had sent it to the writer Giorgio Bassani, who brought it to the attention of the Feltrinelli publishing house. \"Il Gattopardo\" was quickly recognized as a great work of Italian literature. In 1959 Tomasi di Lampedusa was posthumously awarded the prestigious Strega Prize for the novel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "\"Il Gattopardo\" follows the family of its title character, Sicilian nobleman Don Fabrizio Corbera, Prince of Salina, through the events of the Risorgimento. Perhaps the most memorable line in the book is spoken by Don Fabrizio's nephew, Tancredi, urging unsuccessfully that Don Fabrizio abandon his allegiance to the disintegrating Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and ally himself with Giuseppe Garibaldi and the House of Savoy: \"Unless we ourselves take a hand now, they'll foist a republic on us. If we want things to stay as they are, things will have to change.\"  The title is rendered in English as \"The Leopard\", but the Italian word \"gattopardo\" refers to the American ocelot or to the African serval. \"Il gattopardo\" may be a reference to a wildcat that was hunted to extinction in Italy in the mid-19th century – just as Don Fabrizio was dryly contemplating the indolence and decline of the Sicilian aristocracy.  In 1963 \"Il Gattopardo\" was made into a film, directed by Luchino Visconti and starring Burt Lancaster, Alain Delon, and Claudia Cardinale; it won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival.  Tomasi also wrote some lesser-known works: \"I racconti\" (\"Stories\", first published 1961), including the novella \"The Professor and the Siren\", \"Le lezioni su Stendhal\" (\"Lessons on Stendhal\", privately published in 1959, published in book form in 1977), and \"Invito alle lettere francesi del Cinquecento\" (\"Introduction to sixteenth-century French literature\", first published 1970). In 2010, a collection of his letters were published in English as \"Letters from London and Europe\". His perceptive commentaries on English and other foreign literatures make up a greater part of his works by volume than does his fiction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dedication.", "content": "The main-belt asteroid 14846 Lampedusa is named after him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biographical film.", "content": "On the occasion of the 14th edition of the Rome Film Festival, the docufilm \"Die Geburt des Leoparden\", directed by Luigi Falorni, was screened. A journey to discover the life of the last Prince of Lampedusa told by the voices and testimonies of loved ones.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biographical novel.", "content": "In 2019 Canadian novelist Steven Price published a novelized biography of Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa entitled Lampedusa.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa (; December 23, 1896 – July 26, 1957) was an Italian writer and the last Prince of Lampedusa. He is most famous for his only novel, \"Il Gattopardo\" (first published posthumously in 1958), which is set in his native Sicily during the \"Risorgimento\". A taciturn and solitary man, he spent a great deal of his time reading and meditating, and used to say of himself, \"I was a boy who liked solitude, who preferred the company of things to that of people.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972620}
{"src_title": "G protein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "G proteins were discovered when Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell investigated stimulation of cells by adrenaline. They found that when adrenaline binds to a receptor, the receptor does not stimulate enzymes (inside the cell) directly. Instead, the receptor stimulates a G protein, which then stimulates an enzyme. An example is adenylate cyclase, which produces the second messenger cyclic AMP. For this discovery, they won the 1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.  Nobel prizes have been awarded for many aspects of signaling by G proteins and GPCRs. These include receptor antagonists, neurotransmitters, neurotransmitter reuptake, G protein-coupled receptors, G proteins, second messengers, the enzymes that trigger protein phosphorylation in response to cAMP, and consequent metabolic processes such as glycogenolysis.  Prominent examples include (in chronological order of awarding):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "G proteins are important signal transducing molecules in cells. \"Malfunction of GPCR [G Protein-Coupled Receptor] signaling pathways are involved in many diseases, such as diabetes, blindness, allergies, depression, cardiovascular defects, and certain forms of cancer. It is estimated that about 30% of the modern drugs' cellular targets are GPCRs.\" The human genome encodes roughly 800 G protein-coupled receptors, which detect photons of light, hormones, growth factors, drugs, and other endogenous ligands. Approximately 150 of the GPCRs found in the human genome still have unknown functions.  Whereas G proteins are activated by G protein-coupled receptors, they are inactivated by RGS proteins (for \"Regulator of G protein signalling\"). Receptors stimulate GTP binding (turning the G protein on). RGS proteins stimulate GTP hydrolysis (creating GDP, thus turning the G protein off).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diversity.", "content": "All eukaryotes use G proteins for signaling and has evolved a large diversity of G proteins. For instance, humans encode 18 different G proteins, 5 G proteins, and 12 G proteins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Signaling.", "content": "G protein can refer to two distinct families of proteins. Heterotrimeric G proteins, sometimes referred to as the \"large\" G proteins, are activated by G protein-coupled receptors and are made up of alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) subunits. \"\"Small\" G proteins\" (20-25kDa) belong to the Ras superfamily of small GTPases. These proteins are homologous to the alpha (α) subunit found in heterotrimers, but are in fact monomeric, consisting of only a single unit. However, like their larger relatives, they also bind GTP and GDP and are involved in signal transduction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heterotrimeric.", "content": "Different types of heterotrimeric G proteins share a common mechanism. They are activated in response to a conformational change in the GPCR, exchanging GDP for GTP, and dissociating in order to activate other proteins in a particular signal transduction pathway. The specific mechanisms, however, differ between protein types.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Common mechanism.", "content": "Receptor-activated G proteins are bound to the inner surface of the cell membrane. They consist of the G and the tightly associated G subunits. There are many classes of G subunits: Gα (G stimulatory), Gα (G inhibitory), Gα (G other), Gα, and Gα are some examples. They behave differently in the recognition of the effector molecule, but share a similar mechanism of activation.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Activation.", "content": "When a ligand activates the G protein-coupled receptor, it induces a conformational change in the receptor that allows the receptor to function as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that exchanges GDP for GTP – thus turning the GPCR \"on\". The GTP (or GDP) is bound to the G subunit in the traditional view of heterotrimeric GPCR activation. This exchange triggers the dissociation of the G subunit (which is bound to GTP) from the G dimer and the receptor as a whole. However, models which suggest molecular rearrangement, reorganization, and pre-complexing of effector molecules are beginning to be accepted. Both G-GTP and G can then activate different \"signaling cascades\" (or \"second messenger pathways\") and effector proteins, while the receptor is able to activate the next G protein.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Termination.", "content": "The G subunit will eventually hydrolyze the attached GTP to GDP by its inherent enzymatic activity, allowing it to re-associate with G and starting a new cycle. A group of proteins called Regulator of G protein signalling (RGSs), act as GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs), are specific for G subunits. These proteins accelerate the hydrolysis of GTP to GDP, thus terminating the transduced signal. In some cases, the effector \"itself\" may possess intrinsic GAP activity, which then can help deactivate the pathway. This is true in the case of phospholipase C-beta, which possesses GAP activity within its C-terminal region. This is an alternate form of regulation for the G subunit. Such G GAPs do not have catalytic residues (specific amino acid sequences) to activate the G protein. They work instead by lowering the required activation energy for the reaction to take place.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Specific mechanisms.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "G.", "content": "G activates the cAMP-dependent pathway by stimulating the production of cyclic AMP (cAMP) from ATP. This is accomplished by direct stimulation of the membrane-associated enzyme adenylate cyclase. cAMP can then act as a second messenger that goes on to interact with and activate protein kinase A (PKA). PKA can phosphorylate a myriad downstream targets.  The cAMP-dependent pathway is used as a signal transduction pathway for many hormones including:", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "G.", "content": "G inhibits the production of cAMP from ATP. eg. somatostatin, prostaglandins", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "G.", "content": "G stimulates the membrane-bound phospholipase C beta, which then cleaves PIP (a minor membrane phosphoinositol) into two second messengers, IP3 and diacylglycerol (DAG). The Inositol Phospholipid Dependent Pathway is used as a signal transduction pathway for many hormones including:", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Small GTPases.", "content": "Small GTPases, also known as small G-proteins, bind GTP and GDP likewise, and are involved in signal transduction. These proteins are homologous to the alpha (α) subunit found in heterotrimers, but exist as monomers. They are small (20-kDa to 25-kDa) proteins that bind to guanosine triphosphate (GTP). This family of proteins is homologous to the Ras GTPases and is also called the Ras superfamily GTPases.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Lipidation.", "content": "In order to associate with the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane, many G proteins and small GTPases are lipidated, that is, covalently modified with lipid extensions. They may be myristolated, palmitoylated or prenylated.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "G proteins, also known as guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, are a family of proteins that act as molecular switches inside cells, and are involved in transmitting signals from a variety of stimuli outside a cell to its interior. Their activity is regulated by factors that control their ability to bind to and hydrolyze guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to guanosine diphosphate (GDP). When they are bound to GTP, they are 'on', and, when they are bound to GDP, they are 'off'. G proteins belong to the larger group of enzymes called GTPases.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972621}
{"src_title": "Muhammad al-Idrisi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Al-Idrisi was born into the large Hammudid family of North Africa and Al-Andalus, which claimed descent from the Idrisids of Morocco and ultimately the prophet Muhammad.  Al-Idrisi was born in the city of Ceuta, at the time controlled by the Almoravids but now a part of Spain, where his great-grandfather had been forced to settle after the fall of Hammudid Málaga to the Zirids of Granada. He spent much of his early life travelling through North Africa and Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain of the times) and seems to have acquired detailed information on both regions. He visited Anatolia when he was barely 16. He studied in Córdoba.  His travels took him to many parts of Europe including Portugal, the Pyrenees, the French Atlantic coast, Hungary, and Jórvík (now known as York).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tabula Rogeriana.", "content": "Because of conflict and instability in Al-Andalus al-Idrisi joined contemporaries such as Abu al-Salt in Sicily, where the Normans had overthrown Arabs formerly loyal to the Fatimids.  Al-Idrisi incorporated the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Far East gathered by Islamic merchants and explorers and recorded on Islamic maps with the information brought by the Norman voyagers to create the most accurate map of the world in pre-modern times, which served as a concrete illustration of his \"Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq\", (Latin: \"Opus Geographicum\"), which may be translated \"A Diversion for the Man Longing to Travel to Far-Off Places\".  The Tabula Rogeriana was drawn by al-Idrisi in 1154 for the Norman King Roger II of Sicily, after a stay of eighteen years at his court, where he worked on the commentaries and illustrations of the map. The map, with legends written in Arabic, while showing the Eurasian continent in its entirety, only shows the northern part of the African continent and lacks details of the Horn of Africa and Southeast Asia.  For Roger it was inscribed on a massive disc of solid silver, two metres in diameter.  On the geographical work of al-Idrisi, S.P. Scott wrote in 1904:  Al-Idrisi inspired Islamic geographers such as Ibn Battuta, Ibn Khaldun and Piri Reis. His map also inspired Christopher Columbus and Vasco Da Gama.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description of islands in the North Sea.", "content": "Al-Idrisi in his famous \"Tabula Rogeriana\" mentioned \"Irlandah-al-Kabirah\" (Great Ireland). According to him, \"from the extremity of Iceland to that of Great Ireland,\" the sailing time was \"one day.\" Although historians note that both al-Idrisi and the Norse tend to understate distances, the only location this reference is thought to have possibly pointed to, must likely have been in Greenland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description of Chinese trade.", "content": "Al-Idrisi mentioned that Chinese junks carried leather, swords, iron and silk. He mentions the glassware of the city of Hangzhou and labels Quanzhou's silk as the best. In his records of Chinese trade, al-Idrisi also wrote about the Silla Dynasty (one of Korea's historical Dynasties, and a major trade partner to China at the time), and was one of the first Arabs to do so. Al-Idrisi's references to Silla led other Arab merchants to seek Silla and its trade, and contributed to many Arabs' perception of Silla as the ideal East-Asian country.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nuzhat al-Mushtaq.", "content": "As well as the maps, al-Idrisi produced a compendium of geographical information with the title \"Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq fi'khtiraq al-'afaq\". The title has been translated as \"The book of pleasant journeys into faraway lands\" or \"The pleasure of him who longs to cross the horizons\". It has been preserved in nine manuscripts, seven of which contain maps.  The translated title of this work (in the \"pleasure of him...\" form) attracted favourable comment from the team selecting lists of names for features expected to be discovered by the New Horizons probe reconnoitring the Pluto system. The Al-Idrisi Montes is a geographical feature in that system named after him.  In the introduction, al-Idrisi mentions two sources for geographical coordinates: Claudius Ptolemy and \"an astronomer\" that must be Ishaq ibn al-Hasan al-Zayyat; and states that he has cross-checked oral reports from different informers to see if geographical coordinates were consistent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication and translation.", "content": "An abridged version of the Arabic text was published in Rome in 1592 with title: \"De geographia universali or Kitāb Nuzhat al-mushtāq fī dhikr al-amṣār wa-al-aqṭār wa-al-buldān wa-al-juzur wa-al-madā’ in wa-al-āfāq\" which in English would be \"Recreation of the desirer in the account of cities, regions, countries, islands, towns, and distant lands\". This was one of the first Arabic books ever printed. The first translation from the original Arabic was into Latin. The Maronite's Gabriel Sionita and Joannes Hesronita translated an abridged version of the text which was published in Paris in 1619 with the title of \"Geographia nubiensis\". Not until the middle of the 19th century was a complete translation of the Arabic text published. This was a translation into French by Pierre Amédée Jaubert. More recently sections of the text have been translated for particular regions. Beginning in 1970 a critical edition of the complete Arabic text was published.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Andalusian-American contact.", "content": "Al-Idrisi's geographical text, \"Nuzhat al-Mushtaq\", is often cited by proponents of pre-Columbian Andalusian-Americas contact theories. In this text, al-Idrisi wrote the following on the Atlantic Ocean:  This translation by Professor Muhammad Hamidullah is however questionable, since it reports, after having reached an area of \"sticky and stinking waters\", the \"Mugharrarin\" (also translated as \"the adventurers\") moved back and first reached an uninhabited island where they found \"a huge quantity of sheep the meat of which was bitter and uneatable\" and, then, \"continued southward\" and reached the above reported island where they were soon surrounded by barques and brought to \"a village whose inhabitants were often fair-haired with long and flaxen hair and the women of a rare beauty\". Among the villagers, one spoke Arabic and asked them where they came from. Then the king of the village ordered them to bring them back to the continent where they were surprised to be welcomed by Berbers.  Apart from the marvellous and fanciful reports of this history, the most probable interpretation is that the \"Mugharrarin\" reached the Sargasso Sea, a part of the ocean covered by seaweed, which is very close to Bermuda yet one thousand miles away from the American mainland. Then while coming back, they may have landed either on the Azores, or on Madeira or even on the westernmost Canary Island, El Hierro (because of the sheep). Last, the story with the inhabited island might have occurred either on Tenerife or on Gran Canaria, where the \"Mugharrarin\" presumably met members of the Guanche tribe. This would explain why some of them could speak Arabic (some sporadic contacts had been maintained between the Canary Islands and Morocco) and why they were quickly deported to Morocco where they were welcomed by Berbers. Yet, the story reported by Idrisi is an indisputable account of a certain knowledge of the Atlantic Ocean by Andalusians and Moroccans.  Furthermore, al-Idrisi writes an account of eight \"Mugharrarin\" all from the same family who set sail from Lisbon (\"Achbona\") in the first half of that century and navigated in the seaweed rich seas beyond the Azores.  Idrisi describes an island of cormorants with which has been tentatively identified as Corvo, Cape Verde but on weak grounds.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Abu Abdullah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani as-Sabti, or simply al-Idrisi (; ; 1100 – 1165), was an Arab Muslim geographer, cartographer and egyptologist who for some time lived in Palermo, Sicily at the court of King Roger II. Muhammed al-Idrisi was born in Ceuta then belonging to the Almoravids. He created the Tabula Rogeriana, one of the most advanced medieval world maps, used by explorers like Christopher Columbus and Vasco Da Gama for their discoveries and voyages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972622}
{"src_title": "Thuja occidentalis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Common names.", "content": "Common names include:  The name arborvitae is particularly used in the horticultural trade in the United States. It is Latin for \"tree of life\" - due to the supposed medicinal properties of the sap, bark, and twigs. Despite its common names, it is not a true cedar in the genus \"Cedrus\", nor is it related to the Australian white cedar, \"Melia azedarach\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Unlike the closely related western red-cedar (\"Thuja plicata\"), northern white-cedar is only a small or medium-sized tree, growing to a height of tall with a trunk diameter, exceptionally to tall and diameter. The tree is often stunted or prostrate in less favorable locations. The bark is red-brown, furrowed and peels in narrow, longitudinal strips.  Northern white-cedar has fan-like branches and scaly leaves. The foliage forms in flat sprays with scale-like leaves long.  The seed cones are slender, yellow-green, ripening to brown, long and broad, with 6-8 overlapping scales. They contain about 8 seeds each. The branches may take root if the tree falls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Northern white-cedar is native to an area in the southern part of eastern Canada and the adjacent part of the northern United States. It extends from southeastern Manitoba east throughout the Great Lakes region and into Ontario, Québec, New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. There are isolated populations in west-central Manitoba, and to the south in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Ohio, and Illinois and in the Appalachian Mountains of Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia. In Canada, its range reaches the Arctic treeline and the southern tip of Hudson Bay. It grows mainly in places with cooler summers, with an average temperature of in July, and a shorter growing season, from 90 to 180 days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Northern white-cedar grows naturally in wet forests, being particularly abundant in coniferous swamps where other larger and faster-growing trees cannot compete successfully. It also occurs on other sites with reduced tree competition, such as cliffs. Although not currently listed as endangered, wild white-cedar populations are threatened in many areas by high deer numbers; deer find the soft evergreen foliage a very attractive winter food, and strip it rapidly. The largest known specimen is tall and diameter, on South Manitou Island within Leelanau County, Michigan.  Northern white-cedar can be a very long-lived tree in certain conditions, with notably old specimens growing on cliffs where they are inaccessible to deer and wildfire; the oldest known living specimen is just over 1,100 years old, but a dead specimen with over 1,650 growth rings has been found. Despite their age, these very old trees are small and stunted due to the difficult growing conditions. The Witch Tree, a \"T. occidentalis\" growing out of a cliff face on Lake Superior in Minnesota, was described by the French explorer Sieur de la Verendrye as being a mature tree in 1731; it is still alive today. White-cedar specimens found growing on cliff faces in southern Ontario are the oldest trees in Eastern North America and all of Canada, growing to ages in excess of 1,653 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "White-cedar is a tree with important uses in traditional Ojibwe culture. Honored with the name \"Nookomis Giizhik\" (\"Grandmother Cedar\"), the tree is the subject of sacred legends and is considered a gift to humanity for its myriad uses, among them crafts, construction, and medicine. It is one of the four plants of the Ojibwe medicine wheel, associated with the north. White-cedar foliage is rich in Vitamin C and is believed to be the annedda which cured the scurvy of Jacques Cartier and his party in the winter of 1535–1536. Due to the presence of the neurotoxic compound thujone, internal use can be harmful if used for prolonged periods or while pregnant.  Northern white-cedar is commercially used for rustic fencing and posts, lumber, poles, shingles and in the construction of log cabins. White-cedar is the preferred wood for the structural elements, such as ribs and planking, of birchbark canoes and the planking of wooden canoes.  The essential oil within the plant has been used for cleansers, disinfectants, hair preparations, insecticides, liniment, room sprays, and soft soaps. There are some reports that the Ojibwa made a soup from the inner bark of the soft twigs. Others have used the twigs to make teas to relieve constipation and headache.  In the 19th century, \"T. occidentalis\" extract was in common use as an externally applied tincture or ointment for the treatment of warts, ringworm, and thrush. \"An injection of the tincture into venereal warts is said to cause them to disappear.\"  Strips of clear, northern white-cedar wood were used to make the original Au Sable river boats, formerly known as the \"pickup trucks of the Au Sable\". The light, rot resistant wood was preferred but is now commonly replaced by marine grade plywood. Since the plywood is available in lengths of 8 feet, the modern boats are slightly shorter than the older boats which were around 25 feet long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Northern white-cedar, often under the name arborvitae, is widely used as an ornamental tree, particularly for screens and hedges, in gardens, parks and cemeteries. Over 300 cultivars exist, showing great variation in colour, shape and size, with some of the more common ones being: 'Degroot's Spire', 'Ellwangeriana', 'Hetz Wintergreen', 'Lutea', 'Rheingold', 'Smaragd' (a.k.a. 'Emerald Green'), 'Techny', and 'Wareana'. It was introduced into Europe as early as 1540.  The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thuja occidentalis, also known as northern white-cedar, eastern white cedar, or eastern arborvitae, is an evergreen coniferous tree, in the cypress family Cupressaceae, which is native to eastern Canada and much of the north, central and upper Northeastern United States, but widely cultivated as an ornamental plant. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, and the binomial name remains current.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972623}
{"src_title": "Návštěvníci (TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In the 25th century — more precisely, in the year 2484 — people live in a peaceful world. Thus, mankind is horrified when CML (Central Brain of Mankind), the main supercomputer managing the fate of humankind and Earth, announces an upcoming disaster. It has spotted a huge space object on a collision course with Earth. The impact is unavoidable, and the prediction is that a significant part of the Earth will be destroyed.  But there is hope. Professor Filip, biographer of the greatest physicist ever, Adam Bernau, offers a plan to save mankind — a time travel to the past. Adam Bernau was a genius mathematician and physicist of the 20th and 21st centuries, and winner of the Nobel prize. In his memoirs, Bernau stated that in his childhood he wrote down in his notebook a short formula that would allow the moving of whole continents, worlds and planets. This can save the Earth.  Professor Filip selects a four-member team for the trip, and their expedition begins. The expedition plans to spend just a few hours in the past to save the formula from being burned by a fire in Adam Bernau's home, but something goes wrong, and they are forced to spend several weeks. In the end they realize that the so-called formula was just a juvenile imagination of Adam Bernau and they return to the future, taking with them the old Mr Drchlík, who has helped them much in the past. Mr Drchlík notices the Central Brain standing asymmetric and fixes this with a wooden wedge, and suddenly the Central Brain realizes an error in its calculation. The whole expedition had been moot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The series has been released in several other European countries, including Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Miscellaneous.", "content": "The soundtrack of the series was released in 1984 on LP Supraphon 1113 3473H, which also included the soundtrack of \"Létající Čestmír\" (1984), also composed by Karel Svoboda, a series with the German title \"Der fliegende Ferdinand\" (The Flying Ferdinand). The soundtrack was re-issued on CD by Czechoslovak Universal in 2004.  Gadgets and costumes were designed by Theodor Pištěk, later Oscar winner.  The widow of a real professor named Filip sued the creators of the series for alleged profanation of her husband's name. She won, and the main character had to be renamed Professor Richard. This hurt the quality of the sound in the Czech version in the whole series. In the German versions the name was changed to \"Philip\" to avoid changing the dubbing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Návštěvníci (\"The Visitors\") is a Czechoslovak sci-fi TV series filmed between 1981 and 1983 by Czech director Jindřich Polák. The 15 parts were co-produced with television-companies of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany at that time), Switzerland and France. As an additional 16th part for Germany a \"Making of\" was produced under the title \"Besuch bei den Besuchern\" (Visiting the Visitors). In West Germany the series got the title \"Die Besucher\" (The Visitors), in the German Democratic Republic and Australia it was called Expedition Adam 84.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972624}
{"src_title": "Cornus mas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a medium to large deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 5–12 m tall, with dark brown branches and greenish twigs. The leaves are opposite, 4–10 cm long and 2–4 cm broad, with an ovate to oblong shape and an entire margin. The flowers are small (5–10 mm in diameter), with four yellow petals, produced in clusters of 10–25 together in the late winter (between February and March in the UK), well before the leaves appear. The fruit is an oblong red drupe 2 cm long and 1.5 cm in diameter, containing a single seed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fruit.", "content": "The fruits when ripe on the plant bear a resemblance to coffee berries, and ripen in mid- to late summer. The fruit is edible, as used in Eastern Europe, UK, and British Columbia, Canada, but the unripe fruit is astringent. When ripe, the fruit is dark ruby red or a bright yellow. It has an acidic flavor which is best described as a mixture of cranberry and sour cherry; it is mainly used for making jam, makes an excellent sauce similar to cranberry sauce when pitted, and then boiled with sugar and orange, but also can be eaten dried.  In Azerbaijan and Armenia, the fruit is used for distilling vodka, in Austria and German Alps is used for distilling, in Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina it is distilled into rakia. In Turkey and Iran, it is eaten with salt as a snack in summer, and traditionally drunk in a cold drink called \"kızılcık şerbeti\". Cultivars selected for fruit production in Ukraine have fruit up to four centimetres long. It is eaten in Eastern Europe in many ways including as a traditional medicine.  The fruit of \"C. mas\" (together with the fruit of \"C. officinalis\") has a long history of use in traditional Chinese medicine in which it is known as \"\", and used to retain the jing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "The species is also grown as an ornamental plant for its late winter yellow flowers, which open earlier than those of \"Forsythia\". While \"Cornus mas\" flowers are not as large and vibrant as those of the \"Forsythia\", the entire plant can be used for a similar effect in the landscape.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wood.", "content": "The wood of \"C. mas\" is extremely dense and, unlike the wood of most other woody plant species, sinks in water. This density makes it valuable for crafting into tool handles, parts for machines, etc.  \"Cornus mas\" was used from the seventh century BC onward by Greek craftsmen to construct spears, javelins and bows, the craftsmen considering it far superior to any other wood. The wood's association with weaponry was so well known that the Greek name for it was used as a synonym for \"spear\" in poetry during the fourth and third centuries BC.  In Italy, the \"mazzarella\", \"uncino\" or \"bastone\", the stick carried by the \"butteri\" or mounted herdsmen of the Maremma region, is traditionally made of cornel-wood, there called \"crognolo\" or \"grugnale\", dialect forms of.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "\"Cornus mas\", \"male\" cornel, was named so to distinguish it from the true dogberry, the \"female\" cornel, \"Cornus sanguinea\", and so it appears in John Gerard's \"Herbal\":", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Garden history.", "content": "The shrub was not native to the British Isles. William Turner had only heard of the plant in 1548, but by 1551 he had heard of one at Hampton Court Palace. Gerard said it was to be found in the gardens \"of such as love rare and dainty plants\".  The appreciation of the early acid-yellow flowers is largely a 20th-century development.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017):", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Cornus mas, the Cornelian cherry, European cornel or Cornelian cherry dogwood, is a species of flowering plant in the dogwood family Cornaceae, native to Southern Europe and Southwestern Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972625}
{"src_title": "Carboxylic acid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Examples and nomenclature.", "content": "Carboxylic acids are commonly identified by their trivial names. They often have the suffix \"-ic acid\". IUPAC-recommended names also exist; in this system, carboxylic acids have an \"-oic acid\" suffix. For example, butyric acid (CHCOH) is butanoic acid by IUPAC guidelines. For nomenclature of complex molecules containing a carboxylic acid, the carboxyl can be considered position one of the parent chain even if there are other substituents, such as 3-chloropropanoic acid. Alternately, it can be named as a \"carboxy\" or \"carboxylic acid\" substituent on another parent structure, such as 2-carboxyfuran.  The carboxylate anion (R–COO or RCO) of a carboxylic acid is usually named with the suffix \"-ate\", in keeping with the general pattern of \"-ic acid\" and \"-ate\" for a conjugate acid and its conjugate base, respectively. For example, the conjugate base of acetic acid is acetate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical properties.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Solubility.", "content": "Carboxylic acids are polar. Because they are both hydrogen-bond acceptors (the carbonyl –C=O) and hydrogen-bond donors (the hydroxyl –OH), they also participate in hydrogen bonding. Together, the hydroxyl and carbonyl group form the functional group carboxyl. Carboxylic acids usually exist as dimers in nonpolar media due to their tendency to \"self-associate\". Smaller carboxylic acids (1 to 5 carbons) are soluble in water, whereas higher carboxylic acids have limited solubility due to the increasing hydrophobic nature of the alkyl chain. These longer chain acids tend to be soluble in less-polar solvents such as ethers and alcohols. Aqueous sodium hydroxide and carboxylic acids, even hydrophobic ones, react to yield water-soluble sodium salts. For example, enathic acid has a low solubility in water (0.2 g/L), but its sodium salt is very soluble in water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Boiling points.", "content": "Carboxylic acids tend to have higher boiling points than water, because of their greater surface areas and their tendency to form stabilised dimers through hydrogen bonds. For boiling to occur, either the dimer bonds must be broken or the entire dimer arrangement must be vaporised, increasing the enthalpy of vaporization requirements significantly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Acidity.", "content": "Carboxylic acids are Brønsted–Lowry acids because they are proton (H) donors. They are the most common type of organic acid.  Carboxylic acids are typically weak acids, meaning that they only partially dissociate into HO cations and RCOO anions in neutral aqueous solution. For example, at room temperature, in a 1-molar solution of acetic acid, only 0.4% of the acid are dissociated. Electron-withdrawing substituents, such as -CF group, give stronger acids (the pKa of formic acid is 3.75 whereas trifluoroacetic acid, with a trifluoromethyl substituent, has a pK of 0.23). Electron-donating substituents give weaker acids (the pK of formic acid is 3.75 whereas acetic acid, with a methyl substituent, has a pK of 4.76)  Deprotonation of carboxylic acids gives carboxylate anions; these are resonance stabilized, because the negative charge is delocalized over the two oxygen atoms, increasing the stability of the anion. Each of the carbon–oxygen bonds in the carboxylate anion has a partial double-bond character. The carbonyl carbon's partial positive charge is also weakened by the -/ negative charges on the 2 oxygen atoms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Odour.", "content": "Carboxylic acids often have strong sour odours. Esters of carboxylic acids tend to have pleasant odours, and many are used in perfume.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Characterization.", "content": "Carboxylic acids are readily identified as such by infrared spectroscopy. They exhibit a sharp band associated with vibration of the C–O vibration bond (\"ν\") between 1680 and 1725 cm. A characteristic \"ν\" band appears as a broad peak in the 2500 to 3000 cm region. By H NMR spectrometry, the hydroxyl hydrogen appears in the 10–13 ppm region, although it is often either broadened or not observed owing to exchange with traces of water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Occurrence and applications.", "content": "Many carboxylic acids are produced industrially on a large scale. They are also frequently found in nature. Esters of fatty acids are the main components of lipids and polyamides of aminocarboxylic acids are the main components of proteins.  Carboxylic acids are used in the production of polymers, pharmaceuticals, solvents, and food additives. Industrially important carboxylic acids include acetic acid (component of vinegar, precursor to solvents and coatings), acrylic and methacrylic acids (precursors to polymers, adhesives), adipic acid (polymers), citric acid (a flavor and preservative in food and beverages), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (chelating agent), fatty acids (coatings), maleic acid (polymers), propionic acid (food preservative), terephthalic acid (polymers). Important carboxylate salts are soaps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synthesis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industrial routes.", "content": "In general, industrial routes to carboxylic acids differ from those used on a smaller scale because they require specialized equipment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Laboratory methods.", "content": "Preparative methods for small scale reactions for research or for production of fine chemicals often employ expensive consumable reagents.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Less-common reactions.", "content": "Many reactions produce carboxylic acids but are used only in specific cases or are mainly of academic interest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "The most widely practiced reactions convert carboxylic acids into esters, amides, carboxylate salts, acid chlorides, and alcohols. Carboxylic acids react with bases to form carboxylate salts, in which the hydrogen of the hydroxyl (–OH) group is replaced with a metal cation. For example, acetic acid found in vinegar reacts with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) to form sodium acetate, carbon dioxide, and water:  Carboxylic acids also react with alcohols to give esters. This process is widely used, e.g. in the production of polyesters. Likewise, carboxylic acids are converted into amides, but this conversion typically does not occur by direct reaction of the carboxylic acid and the amine. Instead esters are typical precursors to amides. The conversion of amino acids into peptides is a significant biochemical process that requires ATP.  The hydroxyl group on carboxylic acids may be replaced with a chlorine atom using thionyl chloride to give acyl chlorides. In nature, carboxylic acids are converted to thioesters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reduction.", "content": "Like esters, most of carboxylic acid can be reduced to alcohols by hydrogenation or using hydride or alkyl transferring agents (since they will deprotonate the acids instead without transfer) such as lithium aluminium hydride or Grignard reagents (organolithium compounds).  \"N\",\"N\"-Dimethyl(chloromethylene)ammonium chloride (ClHC=N(CH)Cl) is a highly chemoselective agent for carboxylic acid reduction. It selectively activates the carboxylic acid to give the carboxymethyleneammonium salt, which can be reduced by a mild reductant like lithium tris(\"t\"-butoxy)aluminum hydride to afford an aldehyde in a one pot procedure. This procedure is known to tolerate reactive carbonyl functionalities such as ketone as well as moderately reactive ester, olefin, nitrile, and halide moieties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Carboxyl radical.", "content": "The carboxyl radical, •COOH, only exists briefly. The acid dissociation constant of COOH has been measured using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. The carboxyl group tends to dimerise to form oxalic acid.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A carboxylic acid is an organic compound that contains a carboxyl group (C(=O)OH) attached to an R-group. The general formula of a carboxylic acid is R–COOH, with R referring to the alkyl group. Carboxylic acids occur widely. Important examples include the amino acids and fatty acids. Deprotonation of a carboxylic acid gives a carboxylate anion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972626}
{"src_title": "Wisława Szymborska", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Wisława Szymborska was born on 2 July 1923 in Prowent, Poland (now part of Kórnik, Poland), the second daughter of Wincenty Szymborski and Anna (née Rottermund) Szymborska. Her father was at that time the steward of Count Władysław Zamoyski, a Polish patriot and charitable patron. After the death of Count Zamoyski in 1924, her family moved to Toruń, and in 1931 to Kraków, where she lived and worked until her death in early 2012.  When World War II broke out in 1939, she continued her education in underground classes. From 1943, she worked as a railroad employee and managed to avoid being deported to Germany as a forced labourer. It was during this time that her career as an artist began with illustrations for an English-language textbook. She also began writing stories and occasional poems. Beginning in 1945, she began studying Polish literature before switching to sociology at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. There she soon became involved in the local writing scene, and met and was influenced by Czesław Miłosz. In March 1945, she published her first poem \"Szukam słowa\" (\"Looking for words\") in the daily newspaper, \"Dziennik Polski\". Her poems continued to be published in various newspapers and periodicals for a number of years. In 1948, she quit her studies without a degree, due to her poor financial circumstances; the same year, she married poet Adam Włodek, whom she divorced in 1954 (they remained close until Włodek's death in 1986). Their union was childless. Around the time of her marriage she was working as a secretary for an educational biweekly magazine as well as an illustrator. Her first book was to be published in 1949, but did not pass censorship as it \"did not meet socialist requirements\".  However, Szymborska adhered to the People's Republic of Poland's (PRL) official ideology early in her career, signing an infamous political petition from 8 February 1953, condemning Polish priests accused of treason in a show trial. Her early work supported socialist themes, as seen in her debut collection \"Dlatego żyjemy\" (\"That is what we are living for\"), containing the poems \"Lenin\" and \"Młodzieży budującej Nową Hutę\" (\"For the Youth who are building Nowa Huta\"), about the construction of a Stalinist industrial town near Kraków. She became a member of the ruling Polish United Workers' Party.  Although initially close to the official party line, as the Polish Communist Party shifted from the Stalinist communists to \"national\" communists, Szymborska grew estranged from socialist ideology and renounced her earlier political work. Although she did not officially leave the Communist party until 1966, she began to establish contacts with dissidents. As early as 1957, she befriended Jerzy Giedroyc, the editor of the influential Paris-based émigré journal \"Kultura\", to which she also contributed. In 1964, she opposed a Communist-backed protest to \"The Times\" against independent intellectuals, demanding freedom of speech instead.  In 1953, Szymborska joined the staff of the literary review magazine \"Życie Literackie\" (\"Literary Life\"), where she continued to work until 1981 and from 1968 ran her own book review column, called \"Lektury Nadobowiązkowe\". Many of her essays from this period were later published in book form. From 1981–83, she was an editor of the Kraków-based monthly periodical, \"NaGlos\" (\"OutLoud\"). In the 1980s, she intensified her oppositional activities, contributing to the samizdat periodical \"Arka\" under the pseudonym \"Stańczykówna\", as well as to the Paris-based \"Kultura\". In the early 1990s, with her poem published in \"Gazeta Wyborcza\", she supported the vote of no-confidence in the first non-Communist government; thereby bringing former Communists back to power. The final collection published while Szymborska was still alive, \"Dwukropek\", was chosen as the best book of 2006 by readers of Poland's \"Gazeta Wyborcza\". She also translated French literature into Polish, in particular Baroque poetry and the works of Agrippa d'Aubigné. In Germany, Szymborska was associated with her translator Karl Dedecius, who did much to popularize her works there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and last works.", "content": "Surrounded by friends and relatives, Szymborska died peacefully of lung cancer in her sleep at home in Kraków in 2012, aged 88. Szymborska was working on new poetry at the time of her death, though was unable to arrange her final poems for publication in the way she would have wanted. Her last poetry was published later in 2012. In 2013, the Wisława Szymborska Award was established in honour of her literary legacy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "Szymborska frequently employed literary devices such as ironic precision, paradox, contradiction and understatement, to illuminate philosophical themes and obsessions. Many of her poems feature war and terrorism. She wrote from unusual points of view, such as a cat in the newly empty apartment of its dead owner. Her reputation rests on a relatively small body of work, fewer than 350 poems. When asked why she had published so few poems, she said: \"I have a trash can in my home\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pop culture.", "content": "Szymborska's poem \"Nothing Twice\" turned into a song by composer Andrzej Munkowski performed by Łucja Prus in 1965 makes her poetry known in Poland, rock singer Kora cover of \"Nothing Twice\" was a hit in 1994.  The poem \"Love At First Sight\" was used in the film \"Turn Left, Turn Right\", starring Takeshi Kaneshiro and Gigi Leung.  \"\", a film directed by Krzysztof Kieślowski, was inspired by Szymborska's poem, \"Love At First Sight\".  In her last years Szymborska collaborated with Polish jazz trumpeter Tomasz Stańko who dedicated his record \"Wisława\" (ECM, 2013) to her memory - taking inspiration for the compositions from their collaboration and her poetry.  Her poem \"People on the Bridge\" was made into a film created by Beata Pozniak. It was shown around the globe and at a film festival in New Delhi as an award it was screened additionally 36 times in 18 cities in India.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Wisława Anna Szymborska (; 2 July 1923 – 1 February 2012) was a Polish poet, essayist, translator and recipient of the 1996 Nobel Prize in Literature. Born in Prowent, which has since become part of Kórnik, she later resided in Kraków until the end of her life. In Poland, Szymborska's books have reached sales rivaling prominent prose authors: although she once remarked in a poem, \"Some Like Poetry\" (\"Niektórzy lubią poezję\"), that no more than two out of a thousand people care for the art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972627}
{"src_title": "Network-attached storage", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "A NAS unit is a computer connected to a network that provides only file-based data storage services to other devices on the network. Although it may technically be possible to run other software on a NAS unit, it is usually not designed to be a general-purpose server. For example, NAS units usually do not have a keyboard or display, and are controlled and configured over the network, often using a browser.  A full-featured operating system is not needed on a NAS device, so often a stripped-down operating system is used. For example, FreeNAS or NAS4Free, both open source NAS solutions designed for commodity PC hardware, are implemented as a stripped-down version of FreeBSD.  NAS systems contain one or more hard disk drives, often arranged into logical, redundant storage containers or RAID.  NAS uses file-based protocols such as NFS (popular on UNIX systems), SMB (Server Message Block) (used with MS Windows systems), AFP (used with Apple Macintosh computers), or NCP (used with OES and Novell NetWare). NAS units rarely limit clients to a single protocol.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versus DAS.", "content": "The key difference between direct-attached storage (DAS) and NAS is that DAS is simply an extension to an existing server and is not necessarily networked. NAS is designed as an easy and self-contained solution for sharing files over the network.  Both DAS and NAS can potentially increase availability of data by using RAID or clustering.  When both are served over the network, NAS could have better performance than DAS, because the NAS device can be tuned precisely for file serving which is less likely to happen on a server responsible for other processing. Both NAS and DAS can have various amount of cache memory, which greatly affects performance. When comparing use of NAS with use of local (non-networked) DAS, the performance of NAS depends mainly on the speed of and congestion on the network.  NAS is generally not as customizable in terms of hardware (CPU, memory, storage components) or software (extensions, plug-ins, additional protocols) as a general-purpose server supplied with DAS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versus SAN.", "content": "NAS provides both storage and a file system. This is often contrasted with SAN (storage area network), which provides only block-based storage and leaves file system concerns on the \"client\" side. SAN protocols include Fibre Channel, iSCSI, ATA over Ethernet (AoE) and HyperSCSI.  One way to loosely conceptualize the difference between a NAS and a SAN is that NAS appears to the client OS (operating system) as a file server (the client can map network drives to shares on that server) whereas a disk available through a SAN still appears to the client OS as a disk, visible in disk and volume management utilities (along with client's local disks), and available to be formatted with a file system and mounted.  Despite their differences, SAN and NAS are not mutually exclusive and may be combined as a SAN-NAS hybrid, offering both file-level protocols (NAS) and block-level protocols (SAN) from the same system. An example of this is Openfiler, a free software product running on Linux-based systems. A shared disk file system can also be run on top of a SAN to provide filesystem services.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In the early 1980s, the \"Newcastle Connection\" by Brian Randell and his colleagues at Newcastle University demonstrated and developed remote file access across a set of UNIX machines. Novell's NetWare server operating system and NCP protocol was released in 1983. Following the Newcastle Connection, Sun Microsystems' 1984 release of NFS allowed network servers to share their storage space with networked clients. 3Com and Microsoft would develop the LAN Manager software and protocol to further this new market. 3Com's 3Server and 3+Share software was the first purpose-built server (including proprietary hardware, software, and multiple disks) for open systems servers.  Inspired by the success of file servers from Novell, IBM, and Sun, several firms developed dedicated file servers. While 3Com was among the first firms to build a dedicated NAS for desktop operating systems, Auspex Systems was one of the first to develop a dedicated NFS server for use in the UNIX market. A group of Auspex engineers split away in the early 1990s to create the integrated NetApp filer, which supported both the Windows SMB and the UNIX NFS protocols and had superior scalability and ease of deployment. This started the market for proprietary NAS devices now led by NetApp and EMC Celerra.  Starting in the early 2000s, a series of startups emerged offering alternative solutions to single filer solutions in the form of clustered NAS Spinnaker Networks (acquired by NetApp in February 2004), Exanet (acquired by Dell in February 2010), Gluster (acquired by RedHat in 2011), ONStor (acquired by LSI in 2009), IBRIX (acquired by HP), Isilon (acquired by EMC November 2010), PolyServe (acquired by HP in 2007), and Panasas, to name a few.  In 2009, NAS vendors (notably CTERA Networks and Netgear) began to introduce online backup solutions integrated in their NAS appliances, for online disaster recovery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "The way manufacturers make NAS devices can be classified into three types:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "NAS is useful for more than just general centralized storage provided to client computers in environments with large amounts of data. NAS can enable simpler and lower cost systems such as load-balancing and fault-tolerant email and web server systems by providing storage services. The potential emerging market for NAS is the consumer market where there is a large amount of multi-media data. Such consumer market appliances are now commonly available. Unlike their rackmounted counterparts, they are generally packaged in smaller form factors. The price of NAS appliances has fallen sharply in recent years, offering flexible network-based storage to the home consumer market for little more than the cost of a regular USB or FireWire external hard disk. Many of these home consumer devices are built around ARM, PowerPC or MIPS processors running an embedded Linux operating system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Open-source server implementations.", "content": "Open-source NAS-oriented distributions of Linux and FreeBSD are available. These are designed to be easy to set up on commodity PC hardware, and are typically configured using a web browser.  They can run from a virtual machine, Live CD, bootable USB flash drive (Live USB), or from one of the mounted hard drives. They run Samba (an SMB daemon), NFS daemon, and FTP daemons which are freely available for those operating systems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clustered NAS.", "content": "A clustered NAS is a NAS that is using a distributed file system running simultaneously on multiple servers. The key difference between a clustered and traditional NAS is the ability to distribute (e.g. stripe) data and metadata across the cluster nodes or storage devices. Clustered NAS, like a traditional one, still provides unified access to the files from any of the cluster nodes, unrelated to the actual location of the data.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Network-attached storage (NAS) is a file-level (as opposed to block-level) computer data storage server connected to a computer network providing data access to a heterogeneous group of clients. NAS is specialized for serving files either by its hardware, software, or configuration. It is often manufactured as a computer appliance a purpose-built specialized computer. NAS systems are networked appliances that contain one or more storage drives, often arranged into logical, redundant storage containers or RAID. Network-attached storage removes the responsibility of file serving from other servers on the network. They typically provide access to files using network file sharing protocols such as NFS, SMB, or AFP. From the mid-1990s, NAS devices began gaining popularity as a convenient method of sharing files among multiple computers. Potential benefits of dedicated network-attached storage, compared to general-purpose servers also serving files, include faster data access, easier administration, and simple configuration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972628}
{"src_title": "Zbigniew Preisner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Zbigniew Preisner was born in Bielsko-Biała, and studied history and philosophy in Kraków. Never having received formal music lessons, he taught himself music by listening and transcribing parts from records. His compositional style represents a distinctively sparse form of tonal neo-Romanticism. Paganini and Jean Sibelius are acknowledged influences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Preisner is best known for the music composed for the films directed by fellow Pole Krzysztof Kieślowski. His \"Song for the Unification of Europe\", based on the Greek text of 1 Corinthians 13, is attributed to a character in Kieślowski's \"\" and plays a dominating role in the story. His music for \"\" includes a setting of Polish and French versions of a poem by Wisława Szymborska, a Polish Nobel Prize-winning poet.  After working with Kieślowski on \"\", Preisner was hired by the producer Francis Ford Coppola to write the score for \"The Secret Garden\", directed by Polish director Agnieszka Holland. Although Preisner is most closely associated with Kieślowski, he has collaborated with several other directors, winning a César in 1996 for his work on Jean Becker's \"Élisa\". He has won a number of other awards, including another César in 1994 for \"\", and the Silver Bear from the 47th Berlin International Film Festival 1997 for \"The Island on Bird Street\". He was nominated for Golden Globe awards for his scores for (1993) and At Play in the Fields of the Lord (1991).  In 1998, \"Requiem for My Friend\", Preisner's first large scale work not written for film, premiered. It was originally intended as a narrative work to be written by Krzysztof Piesiewicz and directed by Kieślowski, but it became a memorial to Kieślowski after the director's death. The \"Lacrimosa\" from this Requiem appears in Terrence Malick's \"The Tree of Life\". The \"Dies Irae\" from this Requiem appears in the film \"La Grande Bellezza\", directed by Paolo Sorrentino and in the second season of the television series \"The Crown\".  Preisner composed the theme music for the \"People's Century\", a monumental 26-part documentary made jointly in 1994 by the BBC television network in United Kingdom and the PBS television network in the United States. He has also worked with director Thomas Vinterberg on the 2003 film \"It's All About Love\". He provided orchestration for David Gilmour's 2006 album \"On An Island\" as well as additional orchestrations for the show at Gdańsk shipyards at which he also conducted the Baltic Philharmonic Orchestra, this was documented on the album \"Live in Gdańsk\" (2008). \"Silence, Night and Dreams\" is Zbigniew Preisner's new recording project, a large-scale work for orchestra, choir and soloists, based on texts from the Book of Job. The premier recording, was released in 2007 with the lead singer of Madredeus, Teresa Salgueiro and boy soprano Thomas Cully from Libera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Van den Budenmayer.", "content": "Van den Budenmayer is a fictitious 18th-century Dutch composer created by Preisner and director Krzysztof Kieślowski for attributions in screenplays. Preisner said Van den Budenmayer is a pseudonym he and Kieślowski invented \"because we both loved the Netherlands\". Music \"by\" the Dutch composer plays a role in three Kieślowski films. The first is \"Dekalog\" (1988). The second is \"\" (1993) in which a theme from his \"musique funebres\" is quoted in the \"Song for the Unification of Europe\". Its E minor soprano solo is prefigured in the earlier film \"The Double Life of Veronique\" (1991), where circumstances in the story prevent the solo from finishing. The third is \"\" (1994).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zbigniew Preisner (; born 20 May 1955 as Zbigniew Antoni Kowalski) is a Polish film score composer, best known for his work with film director Krzysztof Kieślowski.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972629}
{"src_title": "Constantine IX Monomachos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Constantine Monomachos was the son of Theodosios Monomachos, an important bureaucrat under Basil II and Constantine VIII. At some point, Theodosios had been suspected of conspiracy and his son's career suffered accordingly. Constantine's position improved after he married his second wife, a niece of Emperor Romanos III Argyros. Catching the eye of Empress Zoë, Zoë was exiled to Mytilene on the island of Lesbos by her second husband, Michael IV. The death of Michael IV and the overthrow of Michael V in 1042 led to Constantine being recalled from his place of exile and appointed as a judge in Greece. However, prior to commencing his appointment, Constantine was summoned to Constantinople, where the fragile working relationship between Michael V's successors, the empresses Zoë and Theodora, was breaking down. After two months of increasing acrimony between the two, Zoë decided to search for a new husband, thereby hoping to prevent her sister from increasing her popularity and authority.  After her first preference displayed contempt for the empress and her second died under mysterious circumstances, Zoë remembered the handsome and urbane Constantine. The pair were married on 11 June 1042, without the participation of Patriarch Alexius I of Constantinople, who refused to officiate over a third marriage (for both spouses). On the following day, Constantine was formally proclaimed emperor together with Zoë and her sister Theodora.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Constantine continued the purge instituted by Zoë and Theodora, removing the relatives of Michael V from the court. The new emperor was pleasure-loving and prone to violent outbursts on suspicion of conspiracy. He was heavily influenced by his mistress Maria Skleraina, a relative of his second wife, and Maria's family. Constantine had another mistress, a certain \"Alan princess\", probably Irene, daughter of the Georgian Bagratid prince Demetrius. In August 1042, the emperor relieved General George Maniakes from his command in Italy, and Maniakes rebelled, declaring himself emperor in September. He transferred his troops into the Balkans and was about to defeat Constantine's army in battle, when he was wounded and died on the field, ending the crisis in 1043.  Immediately after the victory, Constantine was attacked by a fleet from Kievan Rus'; it is \"incontrovertible that a Rus' detachment took part in the Maniakes rebellion\". They too were defeated, with the help of Greek fire. Constantine married his relative Anastasia to the future Prince Vsevolod I of Kiev, the son of his opponent Yaroslav I the Wise. Constantine's family name \"Monomachos\" (\"one who fights alone\") was inherited by Vsevolod and Anastasia's son, Vladimir II Monomakh.  Constantine IX's preferential treatment of Maria Skleraina in the early part of his reign led to rumors that she was planning to murder Zoë and Theodora. This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to actually harming Constantine who was participating in a religious procession along the streets of Constantinople. The mob was only quieted by the appearance at a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the people that they were not in any danger of assassination.  In 1045 Constantine annexed the Armenian kingdom of Ani, but this expansion merely exposed the empire to new enemies. In 1046 the Byzantines came into contact for the first time with the Seljuk Turks. They met in battle in Armenia in 1048 and settled a truce the following year. Even if the Seljuk rulers were willing to abide by the treaty, their unruly Turcoman allies showed much less restraint. The Byzantine forces would suffer a cataclysmic defeat at the battle of Manzikert in 1071. Constantine began persecuting the Armenian Church, trying to force it into union with the Orthodox Church. In 1046, he refounded the University of Constantinople by creating the Departments of Law and Philosophy. In 1047 Constantine was faced by the rebellion of his nephew Leo Tornikios, who gathered supporters in Adrianople and was proclaimed emperor by the army. Tornikios was forced to retreat, failed in another siege, and was captured during his flight. The revolt had weakened Byzantine defenses in the Balkans, and in 1048 the area was raided by the Pechenegs, who continued to plunder it for the next five years. The emperor's efforts to contain the enemy through diplomacy merely exacerbated the situation, as rival Pecheneg leaders clashed on Byzantine ground, and Pecheneg settlers were allowed to live in compact settlement in the Balkans, making it difficult to suppress their rebellion.  Constantine seems to have taken recourse to the \"pronoia\" system, a sort of Byzantine feudal contract in which tracts of land (or the tax revenue from it) were granted to particular individuals in exchange for contributing to and maintaining military forces. Constantine could be wasteful with the imperial treasury. On one occasion he is said to have sent an Arab leader 500,000 gold coins, over two tons of gold. In 1054 the centuries-old differences between the Greek and Roman churches led to their final separation. Legates from Pope Leo IX excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Keroularios when Keroularios would not agree to adopt western church practices, and in return Keroularios excommunicated the legates. This sabotaged Constantine's attempts to ally with the Pope against the Normans, who had taken advantage of the disappearance of Maniakes to take over Southern Italy.  Constantine tried to intervene, but he fell ill and died on 11 January of the following year. He was persuaded by his councillors, chiefly the \"logothetes tou dromou\" John, to ignore the rights of the elderly Theodora, daughter of Constantine VIII, and to pass the throne to the \"doux\" of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon. However, Theodora was recalled from her retirement and named empress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture and art.", "content": "The literary circle at the court of Constantine IX included the philosopher and historian Michael Psellos, whose \"Chronographia\" records the history of Constantine's reign. Psellos left a physical description of Constantine in his \"Chronographia\": he was \"\"ruddy as the sun, but all his breast, and down to his feet... [were] colored the purest white all over, with exquisite accuracy. When he was in his prime, before his limbs lost their virility, anyone who cared to look at him closely would surely have likened his head to the sun in its glory, so radiant was it, and his hair to the rays of the sun, while in the rest of his body he would have seen the purest and most translucent crystal.\"\"  Immediately upon ascending to the throne in 1042, Constantine IX set about restoring the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which had been substantially destroyed in 1009 by Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Permitted by a treaty between al-Hakim's son Ali az-Zahir and Byzantine Emperor Romanos III, it was Constantine IX who finally funded the reconstruction of the Church and other Christian establishments in the Holy Land.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Constantine IX Monomachos, Latinized as Constantine IX Monomachus (; c. 1000 – 11 January 1055), reigned as Byzantine emperor from 11 June 1042 to 11 January 1055. He had been chosen by the Empress Zoë as a husband and co-emperor in 1042, although he had been exiled for conspiring against her previous husband, Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian. They ruled together until Zoë died in 1050.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972630}
{"src_title": "Maternal bond", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Pregnancy.", "content": "The maternal bond between a woman and her biological child usually begins to develop during pregnancy. The pregnant female adapts her lifestyle to suit the needs of the developing infant. At around 18 to 25 weeks, the mother begins to feel the fetus moving. Similar to seeing her child for the first time in an ultrasound scan, this experience typically leads the mother to feel more attached to her child.  The developing fetus has some awareness of the mother's heartbeat and voice and has the ability to respond to touch or movement. By the seventh month of pregnancy, two-thirds of women report a strong maternal bond with their unborn child.  Some mothers who did not want the pregnancy may not have a close relationship with the child. They are more likely to suffer from post-partum depression or other mental health problems and less likely to breast feed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Childbirth.", "content": "Childbirth is an experience that can strengthen the mother and child bond. Factors such as a traumatic birth, the mother's childhood, medical stress, lack of support and the influence of a spouse or partner can weaken the bond.  Emotional \"bonding theory\" first appeared in the mid-1970s, and by the 1980s had become an accepted phenomenon. Soon, the process became analyzed and scrutinized to the point of creating another term – \"poor bonding\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oxytocin.", "content": "Production of oxytocin during childbirth and lactation increases parasympathetic activity. Thus, anxiety is theoretically reduced. Maternal oxytocin circulation is said to predispose women to bond and show bonding behavior, although this has been disputed.  Breastfeeding is also strongly believed to foster the bond, via touch, response and mutual gazing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Moral side effects.", "content": "A 2014 study claimed that oxytocin promotes dishonesty when the outcome favors the closely bonded groups to which an individual belongs. A real-world example of this effect can be seen when parents lie about their address to gain admission to better schools for their children.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Maternal separation anxiety.", "content": "Beginning at 9–10 months of age when infants begin to crawl and then when they begin to walk around 12 months of age, they begin to develop capacities to physically explore the world away from their mother. These capacities bring with them separation anxiety as the infant becomes more vulnerable away from mother. This newly acquired motor development parallels infants' intellectual curiosity, cognitive and language development as they begin to point and name, and jointly attend with mothers to their environment beginning by 9–10 months. Most parents welcome these explorations and this increased independence. However, in the context of maternal depression, trauma or disturbed bonding in her own early life, some mothers have significant difficulty in tolerating the exploration and-or the infant's anxiety.  This anxiety increases when infants and toddlers feel threatened or socially reference their mothers for reassurance. Research claimed out that mothers, for example, with histories of violence-exposure and post-traumatic stress show less activity in the medial prefrontal cortex, a brain area that helps to temper and contextualize fear responses, and thus are likely unable to extinguish their own fear response upon watching a videotaped mother-toddler separation scene in a magnetic resonance imaging scanner.  Inevitably, children who have rarely been separated from their mother become anxious when separated for extended periods. This is most commonly experienced when starting to attend school. Every child suffers to some extent.  Later in life, this anxiety can reoccur if mothers have to leave their family unit to work. In both cases, the child's anxiety (and that of the parents) can be reduced by priming, i.e. preparing the child for the experience prior to its occurrence and by creating and maintaining dialogue and connection between the absent parent and child during the separation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A maternal bond is the relationship between a mother and her child. While typically associated with pregnancy and childbirth, a maternal bond may also develop in cases where the child is unrelated, such as an adoption.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972631}
{"src_title": "Apicius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Organization.", "content": "The Latin text is organized in ten books with Greek titles, in an arrangement similar to that of a modern cookbook:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foods.", "content": "The foods described in the book are useful for reconstructing the dietary habits of the ancient world around the Mediterranean Basin. But the recipes are geared for the wealthiest classes, and a few contain what were exotic ingredients at that time (e.g., flamingo). A sample recipe from Apicius (8.6.2–3) follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternative editions.", "content": "In a completely different manuscript, there is also a very abbreviated epitome entitled \"Apici excerpta a Vinidario\", a \"pocket Apicius\" by \"an illustrious man\" named Vinidarius, made as late as the Carolingian era. The Vinidarius of this book may have been a Goth, in which case his Gothic name may have been Vinithaharjis (𐍅𐌹𐌽𐌹𐌸𐌰𐌷𐌰𐍂𐌾𐌹𐍃), but this is only conjecture. Despite being called \"illustrious,\" nothing about him is truly known.  \"Apici excerpta a Vinidario\" survives in a single 8th-century uncial manuscript. Despite the title, this booklet is not an excerpt purely from the \"Apicius\" text we have today, as it contains material that is not in the longer \"Apicius\" manuscripts. Either some text was lost between the time the excerpt was made and the time the manuscripts were written, or there never was a \"standard \"Apicius\"\" text because the contents changed over time as it was adapted by readers.  Once manuscripts surfaced, there were two early printed editions of \"Apicius\", in Milan (1498, under the title \"In re quoquinaria\") and Venice (1500). Four more editions in the next four decades reflect the appeal of \"Apicius\". In the long-standard edition of C. T. Schuch (Heidelberg, 1867), the editor added some recipes from the Vinidarius manuscript.  Between 1498 (the date of the first printed edition) and 1936 (the date of Joseph Dommers Vehling's translation into English and bibliography of Apicius), there were 14 editions of the Latin text (plus one possibly apocryphal edition). The work was not widely translated, however; the first translation was into Italian, in 1852, followed in the 20th century by two translations into German and French. The French translation by Bertrand Guégan was awarded the 1934 Prix Langlois by the Académie française.  Vehling made the first translation of the book into English under the title \"Cookery and Dining in Imperial Rome\". It was published in 1936 and is still in print, having been reprinted in 1977 by Dover Publications. It is now of historical interest only, since Vehling's knowledge of Latin was not always adequate for the difficult task of translation, and several later and more reliable translations now exist.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Apicius is a collection of Roman cookery recipes, usually thought to have been compiled in the 1st century AD and written in a language that is in many ways closer to Vulgar than to Classical Latin; later recipes using Vulgar Latin (such as \"ficatum\", \"bullire\") were added to earlier recipes using Classical Latin (such as \"iecur\", \"fervere\"). Based on textual analysis, the food scholar Bruno Laurioux believes that the surviving version only dates from the fifth century (that is, the end of the Roman Empire): \"The history of \"De Re Coquinaria\" indeed belongs then to the Middle Ages\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972632}
{"src_title": "Mandarin duck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The adult male has a red bill, large white crescent above the eye and reddish face and \"whiskers\". The male's breast is purple with two vertical white bars, and the flanks ruddy, and he has two orange \"sails\" at the back (large feathers that stick up like boat sails). The female is similar to the female wood duck, with a white eye-ring and stripe running back from the eye, but is paler below, has a small white flank stripe, and a pale tip to its bill.  Both the males and females have crests, but the purple crest is more pronounced on the male.  Like many other species of ducks, the male undergoes a moult after the mating season into eclipse plumage. When in eclipse plumage, the male looks similar to the female, but can be told apart by its bright yellow-orange or red beak, lack of any crest, and a less-pronounced eye-stripe.  Mandarin ducklings are almost identical in appearance to wood ducklings, and very similar to mallard ducklings. The ducklings can be distinguished from mallard ducklings because the eye-stripe of mandarin ducklings (and wood ducklings) stops at the eye, while in mallard ducklings it reaches all the way to the bill.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mutations.", "content": "Various mutations of the mandarin duck are found in captivity. The most common is the white mandarin duck. Although the origin of this mutation is unknown, the constant pairing of related birds and selective breeding is presumed to have led to recessive gene combinations leading to genetic conditions including leucism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The species was once widespread in East Asia, but large-scale exports and the destruction of its forest habitat have reduced populations in eastern Russia and in China to below 1,000 pairs in each country; Japan, however, is thought to still hold some 5,000 pairs. The Asian populations are migratory, overwintering in lowland eastern China and southern Japan.  Specimens frequently escape from collections, and in the 20th century, a large, feral population was established in Great Britain; more recently, small numbers have bred in Ireland, concentrated in the parks of Dublin. Now, about 7,000 are in Britain with other populations on the European continent, the largest of which is in the region of Berlin. Isolated populations exist in the United States. The town of Black Mountain, North Carolina, has a limited population, and a free-flying feral population of several hundred mandarins exist in Sonoma County, California. This population is the result of several ducks escaping from captivity, then reproducing in the wild. In 2018, a single bird, dubbed Mandarin Patinkin, was seen in New York City's Central Park.  The habitats it prefers in its breeding range are the dense, shrubby forested edges of rivers and lakes. It mostly occurs in low-lying areas, but it may breed in valleys at altitudes of up to. In winter, it additionally occurs in marshes, flooded fields, and open rivers. While it prefers fresh water, it may also be seen wintering in coastal lagoons and estuaries. In its introduced European range, it lives in more open habitat than in its native range, around the edges lakes, water meadows, and cultivated areas with woods nearby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "In the wild, mandarin ducks breed in densely wooded areas near shallow lakes, marshes or ponds. They nest in cavities in trees close to water and during the spring, the females lay their eggs in the tree's cavity after mating. A single clutch of nine to twelve eggs is laid in April or May. Although the male may defend the brooding female and his eggs during incubation, he himself does not incubate the eggs and leaves before they hatch. Shortly after the ducklings hatch, their mother flies to the ground and coaxes the ducklings to leap from the nest. After all of the ducklings are out of the tree, they will follow their mother to a nearby body of water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food and feeding.", "content": "Mandarins feed by dabbling or walking on land. They mainly eat plants and seeds, especially beech mast. The species will also add snails, insects and small fish to its diet. The diet of mandarin ducks changes seasonally; in the fall and winter, they mostly eat acorns and grains. In the spring, they mostly eat insects, snails, fish and aquatic plants. In the summer, they eat dew worms, small fish, frogs, mollusks, and small snakes. They feed mainly near dawn or dusk, perching in trees or on the ground during the day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "Predation of the mandarin duck varies between different parts of its range. Mink, raccoon dogs, otters, polecats, Eurasian eagle owls, and grass snakes are all predators of the mandarin duck. The greatest threat to the mandarin duck is habitat loss due to loggers. Hunters are also a threat to the mandarin duck, because often they are unable to recognize the mandarin in flight and as a result, many are shot by accident. Mandarin ducks are not hunted for food, but are still poached because their extreme beauty is prized.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chinese culture.", "content": "The Chinese refer to Mandarin ducks as \"yuanyang\" (), where \"yuan\" () and \"yang\" () respectively stand for male and female mandarin ducks. In traditional Chinese culture, mandarin ducks are believed to be lifelong couples, unlike other species of ducks. Hence they are regarded as a symbol of conjugal affection and fidelity, and are frequently featured in Chinese art.  A Chinese proverb for loving couples uses the mandarin duck as a metaphor: \"\"Two mandarin ducks playing in water\"\" (). A mandarin duck symbol is also used in Chinese weddings because in traditional Chinese lore, they symbolize wedded bliss and fidelity. Because the male and female plumages of the mandarin duck are so unalike, \"yuan-yang\" is frequently used colloquially in Cantonese to mean an \"odd couple\" or \"unlikely pair\" – a mixture of two different types of same category. For example, the drink yuanyang and yuan-yang fried rice. Mandarin ducks featured on the flag of Weihaiwei during British rule.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Korean culture.", "content": "For Koreans, mandarin ducks represent peace, fidelity, and plentiful offspring. Similar to the Chinese, they believe that these ducks mate for life. For these reasons, pairs of wooden-carved mandarin ducks called wedding ducks are often given as wedding gifts and play a significant role in Korean marriage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Japanese culture.", "content": "Similarly, in Japanese the ducks are called and are used in the phrase.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The mandarin duck (\"Aix galericulata\") is a perching duck species native to the East Palearctic. It is medium-sized, at long with a wingspan. It is closely related to the North American wood duck, the only other member of the genus \"Aix\". \"Aix\" is an Ancient Greek word which was used by Aristotle to refer to an unknown diving bird, and \"galericulata\" is the Latin for a wig, derived from \"galerum\", a cap or bonnet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972633}
{"src_title": "Alexei Shirov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Shirov became the world under-16 champion in 1988 and was the runner-up at the World Junior Championship in 1990 (second on tiebreaks to Ilya Gurevich). In the same year, he achieved the title of Grandmaster. Shirov is the winner of numerous international tournaments: Biel 1991, Madrid 1997 (shared first place with Veselin Topalov), Ter Apel 1997, Monte Carlo 1998, Mérida 2000, Paul Keres Memorial Rapid Tournament in Tallinn (2004, 2005, 2011, 2012, 2013), Canadian Open Chess Championship 2005.  He reached second on the FIDE rating list in January and July 1994, behind Anatoly Karpov, though Garry Kasparov was excluded from those lists and was rated higher.  In 1998 Shirov's ranking rose again, to number four in the PCA rating list. On the basis of this rating, he was invited to play a ten-game match against Vladimir Kramnik to select a challenger for PCA World Champion Garry Kasparov. Shirov won the match with two wins, no losses and seven draws. However, the plans for the Kasparov match fell through when sufficient financial backing could not be found. When Kasparov instead played Kramnik for Kasparov's world title in 2000, Shirov maintained that the match was invalid and he was the rightful challenger.  In 2000, Shirov reached the final of the FIDE World Chess Championship, losing 31⁄2–1⁄2 to Viswanathan Anand.  In 2002, played in the Candidates Tournament to choose a challenger for Classical World Champion Kramnik. He won his group of four, but lost his semi-final 21⁄2–1⁄2 to eventual winner Peter Leko.  In May–June 2007 he played in the Candidates Tournament of the World Chess Championship 2007. He won his first round match against Michael Adams (+1−1=4, won in rapid playoff), but was eliminated when he lost his second round match to Levon Aronian (+0−1=5). As of 2018, this is Shirov's last appearance at a Candidates Tournament.  In November–December 2007 Shirov played in the Chess World Cup 2007, which was a qualifier for the World Chess Championship 2010. He made the final, but lost the final 21⁄2–11⁄2 to Gata Kamsky.  In May 2009, Alexei Shirov won the category 21 M-Tel Masters 2009 tournament, held in Sofia, Bulgaria.  In September 2010, Shirov participated in the Grand Slam Chess Masters preliminary tournament in Shanghai, where he faced world No. 4 Levon Aronian, world No. 5 Vladimir Kramnik, and Wang Hao; the top two scorers qualified for the Grand Slam final supertournament from October 9 to 15 in Bilbao against world No. 1 Magnus Carlsen and World Champion Viswanathan Anand. After drawing his first two games, Shirov then won three consecutive games, including his first victory over Kramnik since 2003. Finishing with 41⁄2/6 points, Shirov won the tournament, qualifying along with Kramnik for the Grand Slam final.  In May 2011, Shirov won a strong round-robin tournament in Lublin, Poland, the 3rd Lublin Union Memorial 2011 with a score of 5/7. In December 2011, he switched back federations from Spain to Latvia.  In February 2012, Shirov won the Aivars Gipslis Memorial in Riga with 8 points out of 9. In June 2012 Shirov won the Buenos Aires Masters Tournament (category 13) with 51⁄2/7.  In August 2013, he played in the Chess World Cup. He won his first round match against Hou Yifan, and was eliminated when he lost his second round match to Wei Yi. In August 2015, Shirov won the 5th Riga Technical University Open edging out Robert Hovhannisyan on tiebreak score, after both players finished on 71⁄2/9. In March 2017, Shirov won the Mikhail Tal Memorial blitz tournament in Jūrmala scoring 91⁄2/11 points.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Shirov is of Russian descent. In 1994 he married an Argentine, Verónica Alvarez, moved to Tarragona, and became a citizen of Spain. He was married to Lithuanian Viktorija Čmilytė, also a chess grandmaster, from 2001 to 2007. Shortly before the Shanghai 2010 tournament, Shirov got married for a third time to WIM Olga Dolgova. At that time he still played for Spain, but he and his wife also had an apartment in Riga, Latvia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing style.", "content": "Shirov is one of the greatest tactical players and is noted for his attacking style and often excels in complications, a tendency which has led to comparisons with fellow Latvian and former world champion, Mikhail Tal, under whom he studied in his youth. Shirov is also a fantastic endgame player.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Illustrative game.", "content": "During the 1998 Linares chess tournament Shirov played Black against future FIDE world champion Veselin Topalov and won by sacrificing his only piece in a bishop and pawn ending:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chess books.", "content": "Shirov has written two books on his best games:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexei Shirov (, ; born 4 July 1972) is a Latvian and Spanish chess player. He was awarded the title of Grandmaster by FIDE in 1990. Shirov was ranked number two in the world in 1994.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972634}
{"src_title": "Calcium chloride", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "De-icing and freezing-point depression.", "content": "By depressing the freezing point of water, calcium chloride is used to prevent ice formation and is used to de-ice. This application consumes the greatest amount of calcium chloride. Calcium chloride is relatively harmless to plants and soil. As a deicing agent, it is much more effective at lower temperatures than sodium chloride. When distributed for this use, it usually takes the form of small, white spheres a few millimeters in diameter, called prills. Solutions of calcium chloride can prevent freezing at temperatures as low as −52 °C (−62 °F), making it ideal for filling agricultural implement tires as a liquid ballast, aiding traction in cold climates.  It is also used in domestic and industrial chemical air dehumidifiers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Road surfacing.", "content": "The second largest application of calcium chloride exploits hygroscopic properties and the tackiness of its hydrates. Calcium chloride is highly hygroscopic and its hydration is an exothermic reaction. A concentrated solution keeps a liquid layer on the surface of dirt roads, which suppresses the formation of dust. It keeps the finer dust particles on the road, providing a cushioning layer. If these are allowed to blow away, the large aggregate begins to shift around and the road breaks down. Using calcium chloride reduces the need for grading by as much as 50% and the need for fill-in materials as much as 80%.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "The average intake of calcium chloride as food additives has been estimated to be 160–345 mg/day. Calcium chloride is permitted as a food additive in the European Union for use as a sequestrant and firming agent with the E number E509. It is considered as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Its use in organic crop production is generally prohibited under the US National Organic Program.  In marine aquariums, calcium chloride is one way to introduce bioavailable calcium for calcium carbonate-shelled animals such as mollusks and some cnidarians. Calcium hydroxide (kalkwasser mix) or a calcium reactor can also be used.  As a firming agent, calcium chloride is used in canned vegetables, in firming soybean curds into tofu and in producing a caviar substitute from vegetable or fruit juices. It is commonly used as an electrolyte in sports drinks and other beverages, including bottled water. The extremely salty taste of calcium chloride is used to flavor pickles without increasing the food's sodium content. Calcium chloride's freezing-point depression properties are used to slow the freezing of the caramel in caramel-filled chocolate bars. Also, it is frequently added to sliced apples to maintain texture.  In brewing beer, calcium chloride is sometimes used to correct mineral deficiencies in the brewing water. It affects flavor and chemical reactions during the brewing process, and can also affect yeast function during fermentation.  In cheesemaking, calcium chloride is sometimes added to processed (pasteurized/homogenized) milk to restore the natural balance between calcium and protein in casein. It is added before the coagulant.  Calcium chloride is used to prevent cork spot and bitter pit on apples by spraying on the tree during the late growing season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Laboratory and related drying operations.", "content": "Drying tubes are frequently packed with calcium chloride. Kelp is dried with calcium chloride for use in producing sodium carbonate. Anhydrous calcium chloride has been approved by the FDA as a packaging aid to ensure dryness (CPG 7117.02).  The hydrated salt can be dried for re-use but will dissolve in its own water of hydration if heated quickly and form a hard amalgamated solid when cooled.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Miscellaneous applications.", "content": "Calcium chloride is used in concrete mixes to accelerate the initial setting, but chloride ions lead to corrosion of steel rebar, so it should not be used in reinforced concrete. The anhydrous form of calcium chloride may also be used for this purpose and can provide a measure of the moisture in concrete.  Calcium chloride is included as an additive in plastics and in fire extinguishers, in wastewater treatment as a drainage aid, in blast furnaces as an additive to control scaffolding (clumping and adhesion of materials that prevent the furnace charge from descending), and in fabric softener as a thinner.  The exothermic dissolution of calcium chloride is used in self-heating cans and heating pads.  In the oil industry, calcium chloride is used to increase the density of solids-free brines. It is also used to provide inhibition of swelling clays in the water phase of invert emulsion drilling fluids.  CaCl acts as flux material, decreasing the melting point, in the Davy process for the industrial production of sodium metal through the electrolysis of molten NaCl.  Similarly, CaCl is used as a flux and electrolyte in the FFC Cambridge process for titanium production, where it ensures the proper exchange of calcium and oxygen ions between the electrodes.  Calcium chloride is also used in the production of activated charcoal.  Calcium chloride is also an ingredient used in ceramic slipware. It suspends clay particles so that they float within the solution, making it easier to use in a variety of slipcasting techniques.  Calcium chloride dihydrate (20 percent by weight) dissolved in ethanol (95 percent ABV) has been used as a sterilant for male animals. The solution is injected into the testes of the animal. Within one month, necrosis of testicular tissue results in sterilization.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hazards.", "content": "Calcium chloride can act as an irritant by desiccating moist skin. Solid calcium chloride dissolves exothermically, and burns can result in the mouth and esophagus if it is ingested. Ingestion of concentrated solutions or solid products may cause gastrointestinal irritation or ulceration.  Consumption of calcium chloride can lead to hypercalcemia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "Calcium chloride dissolves in water, producing chloride and the aquo complex [Ca(HO)]. In this way, these solutions are sources of \"free\" calcium and free chloride ions. This description is illustrated by the fact that these solutions react with phosphate sources to give a solid precipitate of calcium phosphate: Calcium chloride has a very high enthalpy change of solution, indicated by considerable temperature rise accompanying dissolution of the anhydrous salt in water. This property is the basis for its largest-scale application.  Molten calcium chloride can be electrolysed to give calcium metal and chlorine gas:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "In much of the world, calcium chloride is derived from limestone as a by-product of the Solvay process, which follows the net reaction below: North American consumption in 2002 was 1,529,000 tonnes (3.37 billion pounds).  In the US, most of calcium chloride is obtained by purification from brine.  As with most bulk commodity salt products, trace amounts of other cations from the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals (groups 1 and 2) and other anions from the halogens (group 17) typically occur, but the concentrations are trifling.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occurrence.", "content": "Calcium chloride occurs as the rare evaporite minerals sinjarite (dihydrate) and antarcticite (hexahydrate). The related minerals chlorocalcite (potassium calcium chloride, KCaCl) and tachyhydrite (calcium magnesium chloride, CaMgCl·12HO) are also very rare.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Calcium chloride is an inorganic compound, a salt with the chemical formula CaCl. It is a white coloured crystalline solid at room temperature, and it is highly soluble in water. It can be created by neutralising hydrochloric acid with calcium hydroxide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972635}
{"src_title": "Hubertus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hubertus was born probably in Toulouse about the year 656. He was the eldest son of Bertrand, Duke of Aquitaine. As a youth, Hubert was sent to the Neustrian court of Theuderic III at Paris, where his charm and agreeable address led to his investment with the dignity of \"count of the palace\". Like many nobles of the time, Hubert was addicted to the chase. Meanwhile, the tyrannical conduct of Ebroin, mayor of the Neustrian palace, caused a general emigration of the nobles and others to the court of Austrasia at Metz.  Hubert soon followed them and was warmly welcomed by Pepin of Herstal, mayor of the palace, who created him almost immediately grand-master of the household. About this time (682) Hubert married Floribanne, daughter of Dagobert, Count of Leuven. Their son Floribert of Liège would later become bishop of Liège, for bishoprics were all but accounted fiefs heritable in the great families of the Merovingian kingdoms. He nearly died at the age of 10 from \"fever\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spiritual conversion.", "content": "His wife died giving birth to their son and Hubert retreated from the court, withdrew into the forested Ardennes, and gave himself up entirely to hunting. However, a great spiritual revolution was imminent. According to a late legend the following happened: On Good Friday morning, when the faithful were crowding the churches, Hubert sallied forth to the chase.  As he was pursuing a magnificent stag or hart, the animal turned and, as the pious legend narrates, he was astounded at perceiving a crucifix standing between its antlers, while he heard a voice saying: \"Hubert, unless thou turnest to the Lord, and leadest an holy life, thou shalt quickly go down into hell\". Hubert dismounted, prostrated himself and said, \"Lord, what wouldst Thou have me do?\" He received the answer, \"Go and seek Lambert, and he will instruct you.\"  However, the story of the hart appears first in one of the later legendary hagiographies (\"Bibliotheca hagiographica latina\", nos. 3994–4002) and has been appropriated from the legend of Saint Eustace or Placidus. It was only attributed to St. Hubert in the 15th century.  Hubertus (German) is honored among sport-hunters as the originator of ethical hunting behavior.  During Hubert's religious vision, the \"Hirsch\" (German: deer) is said to have lectured Hubertus into holding animals in higher regard and having compassion for them as God's creatures with a value in their own right. For example, the hunter ought to only shoot when a humane, clean and quick kill is assured. He ought shoot only old stags past their prime breeding years and to relinquish a much anticipated shot on a trophy to instead euthanize a sick or injured animal that might appear on the scene.  Further, one ought never shoot a female with young in tow to assure the young deer have a mother to guide them to food during the winter. Such is the legacy of Hubert who still today is taught and held in high regard in the extensive and rigorous German and Austrian hunter education courses.  The legacy is also followed by the French \"chasse à courre\" masters, huntsmen and followers, who hunt deer, boar and roe on horseback and are the last direct heirs of Hubert in Europe. \"Chasse à courre\" (riding to hounds) is currently enjoying a revival in France. The Hunts apply a specific set of ethics, rituals, rules and tactics dating back to the early Middle-Ages. Hubert is venerated every year by the Hunts in formal ceremonies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious career.", "content": "Hubert set out immediately for Maastricht, for there Lambert was bishop who received him kindly, and became his spiritual director. Hubert now renounced all his very considerable honors, and gave up his birthright to the Aquitaine to his younger brother, Odo, whom he made guardian of his infant son, Floribert. Having distributed all his personal wealth among the poor, he studied for the priesthood, was soon ordained, and shortly afterwards became one of St. Lambert's chief associates in the administration of his diocese. By the advice of St. Lambert, Hubert made a pilgrimage to Rome in 708, but during his absence, Lambert was assassinated by the followers of Pepin. According to the hagiographies of Hubert, this act was simultaneously revealed to the pope in a vision, together with an injunction to appoint Hubert bishop of Maastricht.  He distributed his episcopal revenues among the poor, was diligent in fasting and prayer, and became famous for his eloquence in the pulpit. In 720, in obedience to a vision, Hubert translated St. Lambert's remains from Maastricht to Liège with great pomp and ceremonial, several neighboring bishops assisting. A basilica for the relics was built upon the site of Lambert's martyrdom, and was made a cathedral the following year, the see being removed from Maastricht to Liège, then only a small village. This laid the foundation of the future greatness of Liège, of which Lambert is honored as patron, and Hubert as founder and first bishop.  Hubert actively evangelised among the pagans in the extensive Ardennes forests and in Toxandria, a district stretching from near Tongeren to the confluence of the Waal and the Rhine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Hubertus died peacefully in a place called \"Fura\", located 30 miles from Liège, 30 May 727 or 728. He was first buried in the collegiate St Peter's Church, Liège, but his bones were exhumed and transported to the Benedictine Abbey of Amdain (\"Andagium\", in French \"Andage\", the present-day Saint-Hubert, Belgium) in the Ardennes in 825. The abbey became a focus for pilgrimages, until the coffin disappeared during the Reformation. His feast day is 3 November, probably the date of the translation of his relics to Amdain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Hubert was widely venerated in the Middle Ages and partly because of his noble birth several military orders were named after him: the Bavarian, the Bohemian International Order of St. Hubertus and that of the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne.  Hubertus, along with Quirinus of Neuss, Cornelius and Anthony, was venerated as one of the Four Holy Marshals (\"Vier Marschälle Gottes\") in the Rhineland.  In the Anglican Communion, at least two churches were dedicated to Saint Hubertus within the Church of England.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patronage.", "content": "Saint Hubert of Liège is patron of archers; dogs; forest workers; trappers; hunting; huntsmen; mathematicians; metal workers; smelters and the city of Liège.  St Hubert has been inaccurately described as the patron saint of hunters when he became honoured by sportsmen as the originator of ethical hunting behaviour. This is a fallacy as he renounced hunting after he had his vision. In fact, his hunting life had been seen by God as an unholy life, which would lead him to hell. Indeed, in the Middle Ages, when St Hubert became a priest, clergy were forbidden to hunt and, if they did, they would have to take penance.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Hubertus or Hubert ( 656–30 May, 727) was a Christian saint who became the first bishop of Liège in 708. He was the patron saint of hunters, mathematicians, opticians, and metalworkers. Known as the \"Apostle of the Ardennes\", he was called upon, until the early 20th century, to cure rabies through the use of the traditional St Hubert's Key.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972636}
{"src_title": "Landser (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Michael Regener, Landser's singer and guitarist, started a gang of neo-Nazi rockers called Vandalen in East Berlin in 1982. The Vandalen advocated a return to Odinism.  In 1991, the band that would become Landser were formed by Soren B (vocals and guitar), Andreas L (bass) and Horst S (drums). This proto-Landser were non-political and played covers of German and English songs. Regener replaced Soren in early 1992 and named the group Endlosung, then Landser.  Landser's first major release was \"Das Reich kommt wieder\" (\"The Reich Will Rise Again\") in September 1992. Shortly after its release, Landser played their only public concert, wearing masks. Their other albums include \"Republik der Strolche\" (\"Republic of Rascals\", 1995), \"Rock gegen Oben\" (\"Rock against the Top\" 1997) and \"Ran an den Feind,\" (\"Engage the Enemy\", 2000), which includes a remake of the 1940 German military march \"Bomben auf England\", retitled \"Bomben auf Israel\". The song \"Rudolf Hess\" from \"Rock gegen Oben\" glorifies Nazi Rudolf Hess as a martyr and, in \"Sturmführer\", Michael Regener, the band's leader, pays tribute to his grandfather, who was a Waffen Schutzstaffel (SS) officer. The track \"Verkauft und Verraten\" (Sold Out and Betrayed) from \"Rock gegen Oben\" compares life in East Germany, where Regener was born, to life in modern Germany. In it, he says that he \"can still see the snipers lurking in the watchtowers\" and at the end, he exclaims that he has been \"sold out and betrayed by the fucking Democrats\".  Most of their songs espouse an aggressively nationalist perspective of the world and are highly critical of the Federal Republic of Germany, its surveillance and censorship agencies (i.e. the Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz), liberalism and the Left. A number of songs speak against communists, pedophiles and homosexuals, as well as ethnic minorities in Germany, such as the Poles, Jews, Russians, Gypsies, Turks, Vietnamese, blacks and Czechs but also against refugees. Many songs are decidedly racist against all Non-Whites. Some of their songs are non-political and inspired by German drinking songs. Others praise German icons such as Frederick the Great or take an anti-drug stance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal action.", "content": "In Germany, the band has been deemed a criminal organization and its three members were fined and ordered to perform community service. The court also found all three men guilty of \"incitement of the masses\" and \"spreading hate propaganda\" in addition to \"forming a criminal organisation\".  Bassist Andre Möhricke and drummer Christian Wenndorff both received a year and nine months’ probation after the judge said they helped investigators and expressed remorse; the band's leader, Michael Regener was sentenced to more than three years in prison. This was the first time a band had been declared illegal in Germany and its members jailed. On March 10, 2005, the German Federal Court of Justice, Germany's highest court, rejected Regener's appeal of his sentence.  Owing to Möhricke and Wenndorff making long statements to the police and courts to receive shorter sentences, Michael Regener dissolved the band forever. He stated his former friends and band members had \"liberty expensively bought, at the price of honour!\"  All Landser albums were censored via a process called indexed. As a result of the indexing, two compilation albums, \"Rock gegen ZOG\" and \"Tanzorchester Immervoll\", were released containing all the songs that did not have forbidden lyrics.  Regener was still producing CDs while waiting for his appeal. After the forced breakup of Landser, Regener founded a new band in 2004, Die Lunikoff Verschwörung (The Lunikoff conspiracy). They have made several CDs, including 2004's \"Die Rückkehr des Unbegreiflichen\", \"Amalek Vol. 1 & 2\", and 2005's \"Niemals auf Knien\". The lyrics of these CDs were vetted by lawyers to make them not actionable according to German law. On October 21, 2006, approximately 750 neo-Nazis launched a protest outside the jail where Regener was being held, demanding his release.  In January 2007, under German law because Michael Regener had already served two-thirds of his jail sentence his lawyers filed for probation. The justice sentencing court of Berlin agreed with probation and suspended the remaining time. The Federal prosecutors office took the case to the court of appeal against the Berlin decision and on March 19, 2007 the original sentence was upheld. He was released early March 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "All these albums are indexed, but used copies are still available from other countries and they circulate on peer-to-peer sites.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Landser () was a German neo-Nazi rock band. \"Landser\" is an old-fashioned German colloquialism for a low-ranking soldier. The band, who are outlawed in Germany, were previously called Endlösung (Final Solution), and were founded by members of the neo-Nazi group \"Die Vandalen - Ariogermanische Kampfgemeinschaft\" (The Vandals - Aryan Germanic Combat Association), which was founded in 1982 in the former German Democratic Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972637}
{"src_title": "Christian the Younger of Brunswick", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Christian was born in 1599 at the Gröningen Priory near Halberstadt (in today's Saxony-Anhalt), the third son of Duke Henry Julius of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1564–1613) with his second wife Elizabeth (1573–1626), daughter of the late King Frederick II of Denmark. After his father's death, he was educated by his maternal uncle, King Christian IV of Denmark, and attended the University of Helmstedt. After the death of his brother Rudolf in 1616, Christian, at the age of 17, was elected his successor as Lutheran administrator of the Halberstadt bishopric. Though he did not obtain any confirmation by the Emperor or the Catholic Church, this position provided him the necessary finances to start a military career.  In 1620 Christian joined the army of Prince Maurice of Orange and fought in the Netherlands against a Spanish army. Later he raised his own army and, in liege to Frederick V, Elector Palatine, he carried out three significant battles: the Battle of Höchst (1622), the Battle of Fleurus (1622), and lastly at the Battle of Stadtlohn (1623). He participated in a number of plunderings and burnings along the France-Germany border and throughout the Netherlands. Christian fought alongside the Count of Mansfeld in the first two engagements, and suffered two losses to the Count of Tilly: an arguable one at Höchst, and his final one at Stadtlohn. Christian's major success was at Fleurus, where his actions directly led to the relieving of the Protestant stronghold of Bergen op Zoom. He died childless from wounds sustained in battle in 1626.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campaigns of 1622-23.", "content": "In 1621, Christian was one of the few men to continue rallying behind Frederick V, who had only the year before claimed and been deposed from the throne of Bohemia following his crushing loss at the Battle of White Mountain. Frederick was still leader of the Protestant resistance rooted from the 1618 crushed Bohemian Revolution. What attracted Christian to the cause is arguable, but something that may have had to do with it was the fact that before his campaigning, Christian declared a chivalric love for Elizabeth, Frederick's wife and daughter of James I of England, who at this point of the war had sent several thousand troops under Sir Horace Vere to the Palatinate.  By the end of 1621 he had managed to raise 10,000 troops, with whom he wintered in Westphalia, gathering a great treasure from the dioceses of Münster and Paderborn. Christian's military actions began in 1622 when Ernst von Mansfeld began organizing his forces and expressed interest in linking up with his army, especially after his ally Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Baden-Durlach, was crushingly defeated at the Battle of Wimpfen. They were caught at the Battle of Höchst, 22 June 1622, and although Christian was arguably defeated, he was able to escape with much of his army despite crossing a river under heavy fire and losing all of his baggage. The newly united Protestant army moved into Alsace, leaving Heidelberg, the capital of the Palatinate, to fall to Count von Tilly in September 1622, effectively forcing Frederick V out of the war.  After intense foraging and ravaging of the Alsace region, Christian and Mansfeld moved north in Lorraine, and upon the news of the Spanish siege of Bergen op Zoom, they marched to the relief of the city, fighting the Battle of Fleurus (29 August 1622) and in the midst of the battle, Christian displayed his well-known courage and stubbornness on the field by leading four unsuccessful cavalry charges against the Spanish lines under Fernández de Córdoba. It was on the fifth charge that the Protestant horsemen broke the Spanish lines and paved the way for the Protestant relief of Bergen op Zoom that October. This came at a cost of most of Christian's infantry and one of Christian's arms. Fresh from that victory, Christian spent the winter of 1622–23 in the Spanish Netherlands resting and replenishing his army to what would be in spring 1623 set at roughly 15,000.  Spring 1623 saw a plan between Christian, Mansfeld, the Prince of Transylvania Bethlen Gabor, and his ally Count Thurn to retake Bohemia for the Protestants and to breathe new life into the ailing Protestant cause. The campaign faltered from the start as Count von Tilly received news of the troop movements and positioned himself in Lower Saxony, with reports from Mansfeld coming to Christian that he did not have the money to pay his armies or to campaign, leaving Christian to himself in the north. Outnumbered again, and leading an army that was not as disciplined as that of Tilly, Christian made a break for the relative safety of the United Provinces. He was outrun and outmaneuvered 10 miles short of the Dutch border, and in a stand typical of Christian's bravery, he was nonetheless decisively defeated at the Battle of Stadtlohn on 6 August 1623, when he lost all but 2,000 of this 15,000-man army. Broken, he fled for The Hague with the remnants of his army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Defeat and death.", "content": "Christian's defeat signalled the \"Palatine Phase\" of the Thirty Years' War, and the end of the Protestant rebellion as a whole. Three days after Stadtlohn, Frederick V signed an armistice with Ferdinand II, ending the former's resistance to what seemed as impending Catholic domination of the Holy Roman Empire. Mansfeld shortly thereafter disbanded his army on the Rhine with the entrance of Denmark, the United Provinces, and England into the war in 1625. Under a plan that involved Christian, Mansfeld, and Christian IV, King of Denmark, pushing from the United Provinces and from Denmark, Christian found himself with ample financial backing. Ordered to advance on the Rhineland, he undertook this mission but quickly found himself checked by Tilly in Hesse, and opted this time to retreat rather than fight. Ill from the outset of the campaign, he died at Wolfenbüttel on 16 June 1626 at the age of 26.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christian the Younger of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (20 September 1599 – 16 June 1626), a member of the House of Welf, titular Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Halberstadt, was a German Protestant military leader during the early years of the Thirty Years' War, fighting against the forces of the Imperial House of Habsburg, Habsburg Spain, and the Catholic League.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972638}
{"src_title": "Jōdō", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Legendary origins of Jōjutsu.", "content": "Shintō Musō-ryū jōjutsu (sometimes known as Shinto Muso-ryu jōdo - \"Shindo\" is also a valid pronunciation for the leading character), is reputed to have been invented by the great swordsman Musō Gonnosuke Katsuyoshi (夢想 權之助 勝吉, fl. c.1605, date of death unknown) about 400 years ago, after a bout won by the famous Miyamoto Musashi (宮本 武蔵, 1584–1645). According to this tradition, Gonnosuke challenged Musashi using a \"bō\", or long staff, a weapon he was said to wield with great skill. Although other accounts of this first duel disagree, according to the oral tradition of Shintō Musō-ryū, Musashi caught Gonnosuke's \"bō\" in a two sword \"X\" block (\"jūji-dome\"). Once in this position, Gonnosuke could not move in such a way as to prevent Musashi from delivering a counterattack, and Musashi elected to spare his life.  Gonnosuke's wanderings then brought him to Mt Homan in Chikuzen (modern-day Fukuoka) where, after a period of purification, meditation, and training, Gonnosuke claimed to have received a divine vision from a small child who told him: \"holding a round stick, know the solar plexus\" (\"\"maruki wo motte, suigetsu wo shire\"\"「丸木を以って、水月を知れ」). By shortening the length of the \"bō\" from roughly 185 cm to 128 cm (or, in Japanese measurement units, four \"shaku\", two \"sun\" and one \"bu\"), he could increase the versatility of the weapon, giving him the ability to use techniques created for the long staff, spear fighting and swordsmanship. The length of the new weapon was longer than the \"tachi\" (long sword) of the period, but short enough to allow the reversal of the striking end of the \"jō\" in much tighter quarters than the longer \"bō\". Gonnosuke could alter the techniques he used with the \"jō\" stick, depending on the opponent he faced, to provide himself with many different options of attack. He named his style Shintō Musō-ryū and challenged Musashi again. This time, when Musashi attempted to use the \"jūji-dome\" block on the \"jō\" staff, Gonnosuke was able to wheel around the other end of the staff (because of the reduced length), forcing Musashi into a position where he had to concede defeat. Returning the courtesy he received during their previous duel, Gonnosuke spared Musashi's life.  This may be an embellished story of the creation of jōjutsu, as the oral tradition of Shintō Musō-ryū is the only mention of this second duel, or for that matter, a person defeating Musashi in combat. Witness accounts of Musashi's life, as well as his own writings, insist he retired from dueling undefeated. Furthermore, while this legend is the most well-known tale to include the use of the jō, Gonnosuke cannot be credited as the sole creator of the jō as a number of other schools from the same period and with no links to SMR also include jōjutsu in their curriculum (Suiō-ryū, Tendō-ryū, Hōten-ryū, Takenouchi-ryū). What is known about Gonnosuke after his alleged second duel is that he eventually became the martial arts instructor for the Kuroda clan of northern Kyūshū, where jōjutsu remained an exclusive art of the clan until the early 1900s, when the art form was taught to the general public.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern practice.", "content": "The modern study of jōdō (way of the \"jō\") has two branches.  One is \"koryū\", or \"old school\" jōdō. This branch is further subdivided into a number of different schools which include jōdō or jōjutsu in their curriculum, (Shintō Musō-ryū, Suiō-ryū, Tendō-ryū, Hōten-ryū, Kukishin-ryū, Takenouchi-ryū, etc.). These schools also teach the use of other weapons such as the sword, the naginata, the short staff (tanjō), the chained sickle (kusarigama), the truncheon (jutte), and (jūjutsu)-close combat for defeating an opponent in which one uses either a short weapon or none. Most practitioners specialise in only one school.  The other branch is called Seitei Jōdō and is practiced by the All Japan Kendo Federation (全日本剣道連盟 \"Zen Nippon Kendō Renmei\"). Seitei Jōdō starts with 12 pre-arranged forms (\"kata\"), which are drawn from Shintō Musō-ryū. In addition to these 12 \"kata\" the student will also study their koryū.  Jōjutsu has also been adapted for use in the Japanese police force, who refer to the art as \"keijō-jutsu\" (警杖術), or police stick art.  Aiki-jō is the name given to the set of martial art techniques practiced with a jō, practiced according to the principles of aikido, taught first by Morihei Ueshiba then further developed by Morihiro Saito, one of Ueshiba's most prominent students.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": ", meaning \"the way of the \"jō\"\", or is a Japanese martial art using a short staff called \"jō\". The art is similar to \"bōjutsu\", and is strongly focused upon defense against the Japanese sword. The \"jō\" is a short staff, usually about 3 to 5 feet (0.9 to 1.5 m) long.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972639}
{"src_title": "Aerobics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Both the term and the specific exercise method were developed by Dr Kenneth H. Cooper, an exercise physiologist, and Col. Pauline Potts, a physical therapist, both of the United States Air Force. Cooper, an exercise enthusiast, was puzzled about why some people with good muscular strength were prone to perform poorly at activities such as long-distance running, swimming, and bicycling. He began using a bicycle ergometer to measure sustained performance in terms of a person's ability to use oxygen. In 1968, he published \"Aerobics\", which included exercise programs using running, walking, swimming and bicycling. At the time the book was published there was increasing awareness of the need for increased exercise due to widespread weakness and inactivity. Cooper published a mass-market version \"\"The New Aerobics\"\" in 1979.  Aerobics gained worldwide popularity after the release of Jane Fonda's exercise videos in 1982.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Step aerobics.", "content": "Step aerobics is a form of aerobic exercise that uses a low elevated platform, the step, of height tailored to individual needs by inserting risers. Step aerobics classes are offered at many gyms.  Step aerobics was developed by Gin Miller around 1989. After a knee injury, Miller consulted an orthopedic doctor, who recommended she strengthen the muscles supporting the knee by stepping up and down on a milk crate; from this she developed the step regimen.  Step aerobics can also be involved in dancing games, such as \"Dance Dance Revolution\" or \"In the Groove\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Moves and techniques.", "content": "Often moves are referred to as Reebok step moves in reference to one of the first makers of the plastic step commonly used in gyms.  The \"basic\" step involves raising one foot onto the step, then the other so that they are both on the step, then stepping the first foot back, followed by the second. A \"right basic\" would involve stepping right foot up, then the left, then returning to the floor alternating right then left.  Some instructors switch immediately between different moves, for example between a right basic and a left basic without any intervening moves, effectively \"tapping\" the foot without shifting weight; tap-free or smooth stepping alternates the feet without \"taps\" Common moves include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Choreography.", "content": "Many instructors will prepare a set of moves that will be executed together to form the choreography of the class. Usually, the choreography will be timed to 32 beats in a set, ideally switching legs so that the set can be repeated in a mirrored fashion. A set may consist of many different moves and the different moves may have different durations. For example, a basic step as described above takes 4 beats (for the 4 steps the person takes). Similarly, the \"knee up\" move also takes 4 beats. Another common move, the repeater knee, is an 8-beat move.  Classes vary in the level of choreography. Basic level classes will tend to have a series of relatively basic moves strung together into a sequence. More advanced classes incorporate dance elements such as turns, mambos, and stomps. These elements are put together into 2–3 routines in each class. One learns the routines during the class and then all are performed at the end of the class. Regardless of the complexity of the choreography, most instructors offer various options for different levels of intensity/dance ability while teaching the routines.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Freestyle aerobics.", "content": "Freestyle aerobics is an aerobics style in which a group instructor choreographs several short dance combinations and teaches them to the class. This is usually achieved by teaching the class 1-2 movements at a time and repeating the movements until the class is able to join the whole choreography together. Aerobic music is used throughout the class. This is sometimes followed by a strength section which uses body weight exercises to strengthen muscles and a stretch routine to cool down and improve flexibility. Classes are usually 30–60 minutes in length and may include the use of equipment such as a barbell, aerobic step, or small weights.  In freestyle aerobics, the instructor choreographs the routine and adjusts it to the needs and wants of her/his class. There is often no difference between base movements in freestyle and pre-choreographed programs.  It is practiced to improve aerobic fitness, flexibility and strength.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aerobic gymnastics.", "content": "Aerobic gymnastics, also known as sport aerobics and competitive aerobics, may combine complicated choreography, rhythmic and acrobatic gymnastics with elements of aerobics. Performance is divided into categories by age, sex and groups (individual, mixed pairs and trios) and are judged on the following elements: dynamic and static strength, jumps and leaps, kicks, balance and flexibility. Ten exercises are mandatory: four consecutive high leg kicks, patterns. A maximum of ten elements from following families are allowed: push-ups, supports and balances, kicks and splits, jumps and leaps. Elements of tumbling such as handsprings, handstands, back flips, and aerial somersaults are prohibited. Scoring is by judging of artistic quality, creativity, execution, and difficulty of routines. Sport aerobics has state, national, and international competitions, but is not an olympic sport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Benefits.", "content": "Like other forms of exercise, step aerobics helps burn calories and fat. The number of calories burned depends on the speed of movements, step height, length of exercise, and the persons height and weight.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aerobics is a form of physical exercise that combines rhythmic aerobic exercise with stretching and strength training routines with the goal of improving all elements of fitness (flexibility, muscular strength, and cardio-vascular fitness). It is usually performed to music and may be practiced in a group setting led by an instructor (fitness professional), although it can be done solo and without musical accompaniment. With the goal of preventing illness and promoting physical fitness, practitioners perform various routines comprising a number of different dance-like exercises. Formal aerobics classes are divided into different levels of intensity and complexity and will have five components: warm-up (5–10 minutes), cardiovascular conditioning (25–30 minutes), muscular strength and conditioning (10–15 minutes), cool-down (5–8 minutes) and stretching and flexibility (5–8 minutes). Aerobics classes may allow participants to select their level of participation according to their fitness level. Many gyms offer a variety of aerobic classes. Each class is designed for a certain level of experience and taught by a certified instructor with a specialty area related to their particular class.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972640}
{"src_title": "Gamepad", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "Gamepads generally feature a set of buttons handled with the right thumb and a direction controller handled with the left. The direction controller has traditionally been a four-way digital cross (also named a joypad, or alternatively a d-pad, and never called arrow keys), but most modern controllers additionally (or as a substitute) feature one or more analog sticks.  Some common additions to the standard pad include shoulder buttons (also called \"bumpers\") and triggers placed along the edges of the pad (shoulder buttons are usually digital, i.e. merely on/off; while triggers are usually analog); centrally placed \"start\", \"select\", and \"home\" buttons, and an internal motor to provide force feedback.  There are programmable joysticks that can emulate keyboard input. Generally they have been made to circumvent the lack of joystick support in some computer games, e.g. the Belkin Nostromo SpeedPad n52. There are several programs that emulate keyboard and mouse input with a gamepad such as the free and open-source cross-platform software antimicro, Enjoy2, or proprietary commercial solutions such as JoyToKey, Xpadder, and Pinnacle Game Profiler.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early designs.", "content": "The 1962 video game \"Spacewar!\" initially used toggle switches built into the computer readout display to control the game. These switches were awkward and uncomfortable to use, so Alan Kotok and Bob Saunders built and wired in a detached control device for the game. This device has been called the earliest gamepad.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Entry into the mass market.", "content": "It would take many years for the gamepad to rise to prominence, as during the 1970s and the early 1980s joysticks and paddles were the dominant video game controllers, though several Atari joystick port-compatible pushbutton controllers were also available. The third generation of video games saw many major changes, and the eminence of gamepads in the video game market.  Nintendo developed a gamepad device for directional inputs, a D-pad with a \"cross\" design for their \"Donkey Kong\" handheld game. This design would be incorporated into their \"Game & Watch\" series and console controllers such as the standard NES controller. Though developed because they were more compact than joysticks, and thus more appropriate for handheld games, D-pads were soon found by developers to be more comfortable to use than joysticks. The D-pad soon became a ubiquitous element on console gamepads, though to avoid infringing on Nintendo's patent, most controller manufacturers use a cross in a circle shape for the D-pad instead of a simple cross.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Continued refinements.", "content": "The original Sega Genesis/Mega Drive control pad has three face buttons, but a six-button pad was later released. The SNES controller also featured six action buttons, with four face buttons arranged in a diamond formation, and two shoulder buttons positioned to be used with the index fingers, a design which has been imitated by most controllers since. The inclusion of six action buttons was influenced by the popularity of the \"Street Fighter\" arcade series, which utilized six buttons.  For most of the 1980s and early 1990s, analog joysticks were the predominant form of gaming controller for PCs, while console gaming controllers were mostly digital. This changed in 1996, when all three major consoles introduced an optional analog control. The Sony Dual Analog Controller had twin convex analog thumbsticks, the Sega Saturn 3D Control Pad had a single analog thumbstick, and the Nintendo 64 controller combined digital and analog controllers in a single body, starting a trend to have both an analog stick and a d-pad.  Despite these changes, gamepads essentially continued to follow the template set by the NES controller (a horizontally-oriented controller with two or more action buttons positioned for use with the right thumb, and a directional pad positioned for use with the left thumb).  Gamepads failed to achieve any sort of dominance outside of the home console market, though several PC gamepads have enjoyed popularity, such as the Gravis PC GamePad.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Three-dimensional control.", "content": "Though three-dimensional games rose to prominence in the mid-1990s, controllers continued to mostly operate on two-dimensional principles; in order to move with six degrees of freedom, players would have to hold down a button to toggle the axis on which the directional pad operates, rather than being able to control movement along all three axes at once. One of the first gaming consoles, the Fairchild Channel F, did have a controller which allowed six degrees of freedom, but the processing limitations of the console itself prevented there from being any software to take advantage of this ability. In 1994 Logitech introduced the CyberMan, the first practical six degrees of freedom controller, but due to its high price, poor build quality, and limited software support it sold poorly. Industry insiders blame the CyberMan's high profile and costly failure for the gaming industry's lack of interest in developing 3D control over the next several years. The Wii Remote is shaped like a television remote control and contains tilt sensors and three-dimensional pointing which allows the system to understand all directions of movement and rotation (back and forth around the pitch, roll, and yaw axes). The controller is also multifunctional and includes an expansion bay which can be used with different types of peripherals. An analog stick peripheral called \"Nunchuk\" also contains an accelerometer but unlike the Wii Remote, it lacks any pointer functionality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Gamepads are also available for personal computers. Examples of PC gamepads include the Asus Eee Stick, the Gravis PC, the Microsoft SideWinder and Saitek Cyborg range, and the Steam Controller. Third-party USB adapters and software can be employed to utilize console gamepads on PCs; the DualShock 3, DualShock 4, Wii Remote and Joy-Con can be used with third-party software on systems with Bluetooth functionality, with USB additionally usable on DualShock 3 and DualShock 4. Xbox 360 and Xbox One controllers are officially supported on Windows with Microsoft-supplied drivers; a dongle can be used to connect them wirelessly, or the controller can be connected directly to the computer over USB (wired versions of Xbox 360 controllers were marketed by Microsoft as PC gamepads, while the Xbox One controller can be connected to a PC via its Micro USB slot).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A gamepad, joypad, controller, is a type of game controller held in two hands, where the fingers (especially thumbs) are used to provide input. They are typically the main input device for video game consoles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972641}
{"src_title": "Šilutė", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "Šilutė's origin dates to an inn (Krug, locally \"karčema\") catering to travelers and their horses which was located halfway between Memel (Klaipėda) and Tilsit (Tilžė). The German name of \"Heydekrug\" referred to a \"Krug\" (an archaic word for inn) in the \"Heide\" (heathland). The inn was known for being in the region where most people spoke the Memelland-Samogitian dialect \"Šilokarčema\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "A famous fish market was opened in Šilutė almost 500 years ago, when Georg Tallat purchased the inn together with the land and fishing rights in 1511. The town was a gathering place for peasants from nearby Samogitia and Curonian and Prussian fishermen from Rusnė,, Nida, and. Next to the inn a church of Werden (Verdainė) was built in 1550. Heydekrug often sought city rights, but was opposed by Memel and Tilsit in 1721 and 1725. In 1722 Heydekrug became a district center and in 1818 the capital of Landkreis Heydekrug. The settlement was amalgamated with the villages of Werden (Verdainė), Szibben (Žibai), and Cynthionischken (Cintjoniškiai) in 1910, although it still did not receive city rights. Following World War I, the town became part of Lithuania when it acquired the Klaipėda Region in 1923.  The town was reclaimed by Nazi Germany in 1939 when it reacquired the Memel Territory. In 1941 the town finally received city rights. During World War II, the Stalag Luft VI prisoner-of-war camp was located near Heydekrug; it was the northernmost POW camp within the confines of the German Reich.  There remain many old buildings in Šilutė: an old post office (1905), a fire station (1911), a court building and prison (1848), a bridge across the Sziesze (Šyša) (1914), an estate of H. Scheu (1818), an old market square, a harbor, railway station and a bridge (1875), and the Vydūnas gymnasium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The town, which is a regional center, has a well-developed infrastructure. There is an amateur theatre, a museum, three churches, a few hotels, and many cafés, restaurants, and bars. There are large industrial enterprises in Šilutė as well: Šilutės Rambynas (1842), producing butter and cheese, is one of the oldest factories in the area; Šilutės Baldai (1890); and Šilutės Durpės (1882) which exports approximately 50,000 m of peat. Newly founded enterprises are also prospering: Šilutės Girnos (combined fodder); Žibai; Grabupėliai (meat processing); and EKSA, a subsidiary of the alcohol producer Stumbras. To speed up capital investments, the region council has established land tax bonuses for investors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Šilutė is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Šilutė (, previously \"Šilokarčiama\", ), is a city in the south of the Klaipėda County, Lithuania. The city was part of the Klaipėda Region and ethnographic Lithuania Minor. Šilutė was the interwar capital of Šilutė County and is currently the capital of Šilutė District Municipality.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972642}
{"src_title": "Heinrich Aldegrever", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Painter, printmaker and goldsmith active in a Westphalia milieu. Born in Paderborn. His real name was Trippenmecker, which in Westphalian dialect means a clog-maker. It is not known where Aldegrever was taught. He probably worked in a workshop of one of the Soest goldsmiths. His early works show a strong Westphalian influence. Aldegrever made a journey to the Netherlands, where he became acquainted with works of Joos van Cleve, Barendt van Orley, Lucas van Leyden and Jacob Cornelisz.  Around 1525 he moved to Soest, where a year later he painted the wings and predella of the Mary altar for the church of St. Peter. His signature and symbolic clog show that he was still using his father's name.  His first engravings appeared in 1527. They were signed with a monogram \"AG\", resembling closely that of Albrecht Dürer. In 1531, influenced by surrounding religious fervour, he became a Lutheran. Because of lack of church commissions he devoted most of his time to portrait painting and printmaking. Aldegrever's some 290 engravings and woodcuts, chiefly from his own designs, are delicate and minute, though somewhat hard in style, and entitle him to a place in the front rank of the so-called \"Little Masters\": Barthel Beham, his brother Hans Sebald Beham, and Georg Pencz, with whom he is often compared. Like them, he was also a skilled ornament designer. From the close resemblance of his style to that of Albrecht Dürer he has also sometimes been called the \"Albert of Westphalia\".  About a third of his prints were ornamental engravings; they were used as models by artists and craftsmen well into the seventeenth century.  Aldegrever, who actively supported the Reformation, executed portraits of Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon. Although he chose the Lutheran Church, he had friends among the Anabaptists. He was commissioned by the bishop of Münster in 1535–36 to engrave portraits of Anabaptist leaders Jan van Leyden and Bernhard Knipperdolling, although they were already imprisoned, and only caricatures of them circulated. In the cycle \"Power of Death\", done under visible influence of Hans Holbein, he criticizes the vices of the Catholic Church.  Aldegrever was interested also in folk subjects. In 1538 and 1551 two series of prints depicting marriage dances were made. An important part of his oeuvre are prints on mythological subjects, the \"Deeds of Hercules\" being one of the best examples.  Only two paintings are firmly attributed to him: the wings and predella of the \"Marienaltar\" (c. 1525-6) in the Wiesenkirche in Soest, and a portrait of Graf Phillip von Waldeck (1837) in Schloss Aroldsen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heinrich Aldegrever or Aldegraf (1502–1555, 1558 or 1561) was a German painter and engraver. He was one of the \"Little Masters\", the group of German artists making small old master prints in the generation after Albrecht Dürer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972643}
{"src_title": "Periander", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Periander was the second tyrant of Corinth and the son of Cypselus, the founder of the Cypselid dynasty. Cypselus’ wife was named Cratea. There were rumors that she and her son, Periander, slept together. Periander married Lyside (whom he often referred to as Melissa), daughter of Procles and Eristenea. They had two sons: Cypselus, who was said to be weak-minded, and Lycophron, a man of intelligence. According to the book Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, Periander, in a fit of rage, kicked his wife or threw her down a set of stairs so hard that she was killed. Greek historian Herodotus has alluded to suggestions that Periander had defiled the corpse of his wife, employing a metaphor: \"Periander baked his bread in a cold oven.\" Grief for his mother and anger at his father drove Lycophron to take refuge in Corcyra. When Periander was much older and looking to have his successor at his side, he sent for Lycophron. When the people of Corcyca heard of this, they killed Lycophron rather than let him depart. The death of his son caused Periander to fall into a despondency that eventually led to his death. Periander was succeeded by his nephew, Psammetichus, who ruled for just three years and was the last of the Cypselid tyrants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rule.", "content": "Periander built Corinth into one of the major trading centers in Ancient Greece. He established colonies at Potidaea in Chalcidice and at Apollonia in Illyria, conquered Epidaurus, formed positive relationships with Miletus and Lydia, and annexed Corcyra, where his son lived much of his life. Periander is also credited with inventing a transport system, the Diolkos, across the Isthmus of Corinth. Tolls from goods entering Corinth's port accounted for nearly all the government revenues, which Periander used to build temples and other public works, and to promote literature and arts. He had the poet Arion come from Lesbos to Corinth for an arts festival in the city. Periander held many festivals and built many buildings in the Doric style. The Corinthian style of pottery was developed by an artisan during his rule.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Writing and philosophy.", "content": "Periander was said to be a patron of literature, who both wrote and appreciated early philosophy. He is said to have written a didactic poem 2,000 lines long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Periander is referenced by many contemporaries in relation to philosophy and leadership. Most commonly he is mentioned as one of the Seven Sages of Ancient Greece, a group of philosophers and rulers from early Greece, but some authors leave him out of the list. In Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, Diogenes Laertius, a philosopher of the 3rd century AD, lists Periander as one of these seven sages. Ausonius also refers to Periander as one of the Sages in his work \"The Masque of the Seven Sages\".  Some scholars have argued that the ruler named Periander was a different person from the sage of the same name. Diogenes Laertius writes that \"Sotion, and Heraclides, and Pamphila in the fifth book of her Commentaries say that there were two Perianders; the one a tyrant, and the other a wise man, and a native of Ambracia. Neanthes of Cyzicus makes the same assertion, adding, that the two men were cousins to one another. Aristotle says, that it was the Corinthian Periander who was the wise one; but Plato contradicts him.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Periander (; ; died c. 585 BC), was the Second Tyrant of the Cypselid dynasty that ruled over Corinth. Periander's rule brought about a prosperous time in Corinth's history, as his administrative skill made Corinth one of the wealthiest city states in Greece. Several accounts state that Periander was a cruel and harsh ruler, but others claim that he was a fair and just king who worked to ensure that the distribution of wealth in Corinth was more or less even. He is often considered one of the Seven Sages of Greece, men of the 6th century BC who were renowned for centuries for their wisdom. (The other Sages were most often considered to be Thales, Solon, Cleobulus, Chilon, Bias, and Pittacus.)", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972644}
{"src_title": "Roquefort", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Legend has it that the cheese was discovered when a youth, eating his lunch of bread and ewes' milk cheese, saw a beautiful girl in the distance. Abandoning his meal in a nearby cave, he ran to meet her. When he returned a few months later, the mold (\"Penicillium roqueforti\") had transformed his plain cheese into Roquefort.  Though it is often claimed that Roquefort was praised by Pliny the Elder in AD 79, in fact, Pliny simply speaks of a cheese from Gaul, not mentioning its origin or even saying that it was blue; the story was promoted by the \"Société des Caves\". On 4 June 1411, Charles VI granted a monopoly for the ripening of the cheese to the people of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon as they had been doing for centuries.  In 1925, the cheese was the recipient of France's first \"Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée\" when regulations controlling its production and naming were first defined. In 1961, in a landmark ruling that removed imitation, the \"Tribunal de Grande Instance\" at Millau decreed that, although the method for the manufacture of the cheese could be followed across the south of France, only those cheeses whose ripening occurred in the natural caves of Mont Combalou in Roquefort-sur-Soulzon were permitted to bear the name Roquefort.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The mold that gives Roquefort its distinctive character (\"Penicillium roqueforti\") is found in the soil of the local caves. Traditionally, the cheesemakers extracted it by leaving bread in the caves for six to eight weeks until it was consumed by the mold. The interior of the bread was then dried to produce a powder. In modern times, the mold can be grown in a laboratory, which allows for greater consistency. The mold may either be added to the curd or introduced as an aerosol through holes poked in the rind.  Roquefort is made entirely from the milk of the Lacaune breed of sheep. Prior to the AOC regulations of 1925, a small amount of cow's or goat's milk was sometimes added. Around of milk is required to make one kilogram of Roquefort.  The cheese is produced throughout the \"département\" of Aveyron and part of the nearby \"départements\" of Aude, Lozère, Gard, Hérault and Tarn. , there are seven Roquefort producers. The largest-volume brand by far is Roquefort Société made by the \"Société des Caves de Roquefort\" (a subsidiary of Lactalis), which holds several caves and opens its facilities to tourists, and accounts for around 60% of all production. Roquefort Papillon is also a well-known brand. The five other producers, each holding only one cave, are Carles, Gabriel Coulet, Fromageries occitanes, Vernières and Le Vieux Berger.  Around three million cheeses were made in 2005 (18,830 tons) making it, after Comté, France's second most popular cheese.  Production of Roquefort cheese entails \"4,500 people who herd special ewes on 2,100 farms producing milk... in a carefully defined oval grazing area across the Larzac Plain and up and down nearby hills and valleys.\" Total production in 2008 of about 19,000 tons was reported. The proportion of Roquefort exported to the United States remained small, only 450 tons out of 3,700 in total exports. Spain, with purchases of 1,000 tons, was by far the largest foreign customer. In early 2009, Susan Schwab, the then-outgoing US Trade Representative, announced a 300% tariff on the cheese, apparently the highest level by far of any in the package of tariffs placed on dozens of European luxury goods in response to a European ban on hormone-treated US beef. The tariff was suspended several months later as the US and EU settled the dispute.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consumption and other uses.", "content": "The regional cuisine in and around Aveyron includes many Roquefort-based recipes for main-course meat sauces, savory tarts and quiches, pies, and fillings.  Contrary to popular belief, \"Penicillium roqueforti\" does not produce penicillin. However, due to the presence of other anti-inflammatory proteins, it was common in country districts for shepherds to apply this cheese to wounds to avoid gangrene.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AOC regulations.", "content": "The regulations that govern the production of Roquefort have been laid down over a number of decrees by the INAO. These include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Glutamate content.", "content": "Roquefort has a high content of free glutamate, 1280 mg per 100 g of cheese.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "According to a 2012 study, Roquefort contains anti-inflammatory compounds. A study from 2013 found that proteins from Roquefort cheese inhibit Chlamydia propagation and LPS (Lipopolysaccharide) leukocyte migration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roquefort (,, ; ) is a sheep milk cheese from Southern France, and is one of the world's best known blue cheeses. Though similar cheeses are produced elsewhere, EU law dictates that only those cheeses aged in the natural Combalou caves of Roquefort-sur-Soulzon may bear the name Roquefort, as it is a recognised geographical indication, or has a protected designation of origin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972645}
{"src_title": "Joseph Pilates", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Joseph H. Pilates was born 9 December 1883 in Mönchengladbach, Germany. His father, Heinrich Friedrich Pilates, who was born in Greece, was a metal worker and enthusiastic gymnast, and his German-born mother was a housewife.  Pilates was a sickly child. He suffered from asthma, rickets, and rheumatic fever, and he dedicated his entire life to improving his physical strength. He was introduced by his father to gymnastics and body-building, and to martial arts like jiu-jitsu and boxing. By the age of 14, he was fit enough to pose for anatomical charts. Pilates came to believe that the \"modern\" life-style, bad posture, and inefficient breathing lay at the roots of poor health. He ultimately devised a series of exercises and training techniques, and engineered all the equipment, specifications, and tuning required to teach his methods properly.  Pilates was originally a gymnast and bodybuilder, but when he moved to England in 1912, he earned a living as a professional boxer, a circus-performer, and a self-defense trainer at police schools and Scotland Yard. During World War I the British authorities interned him, along with other German citizens, in Lancaster Castle, where he taught wrestling and self-defense, boasting that his students would emerge stronger than they were before their internment. It was there that he began refining and teaching his minimal equipment system of mat exercises that later became \"Contrology\". He was then transferred to another internment camp at Knockaloe on the Isle of Man. During that involuntary break, he began to intensively develop his concept of an integrated, comprehensive system of physical exercise, which he himself called \"Contrology\". Some of the early use of Pilates's exercise methods included rehabilitation of seriously injured veterans.  He studied yoga and the movements of animals and trained his fellow inmates in fitness and exercises.  After World War I, he returned to Germany and collaborated with important experts in dance and physical exercise such as Rudolf Laban. In Hamburg, he trained police officers. He immigrated to the United States around 1925. On the ship to America, he met his future wife Clara. The couple founded a studio in New York City and directly taught and supervised their students well into the 1960s. \"Contrology\", related to encouraging the use of the mind to control muscles, focusing attention on core postural muscles that help keep the body balanced and provide support for the spine. In particular, Pilates exercises teach awareness of breath and of alignment of the spine, and strengthen the deep torso and abdominal muscles.  Joseph and Clara Pilates soon established a devoted following in the local dance and performing-arts community of New York. Well-known dancers such as George Balanchine, who arrived in the United States in 1933, and Martha Graham, who had come to New York in 1923, became devotees and regularly sent their students to the Pilates for training and rehabilitation. His exercise regimen built flexibility, strength and stamina. Soon after it became known that ballerinas were attending the Pilates gym on 8th Avenue, society women followed.  One of the ballerinas was Romana Kryzanowska, who become Pilates' protege. Kryzanowska started Pilates at the age of 16 following an ankle injury. Pilates said of her, \"she's a natural\". Kryzanowska was named a helper and started teaching Pilates alongside Pilates and his wife. Toward the end of his life, Pilates named Kryzanowska as the director of The Pilates Studio. Kryzanowska and her daughter continued to operate Pilates' original studio. Jay Grimes believes that nobody knows Joseph Pilates’ work better than Kryzanowska.  Joseph Pilates wrote several books, including \"Return to Life through Contrology\" and \"Your Health,\" and he was also a prolific inventor, with over 26 patents cited. Joe and Clara had a number of disciples who continued to teach variations of his method or, in some cases, focused exclusively on preserving the method and the instructor-training techniques they had learned during their studies with Joe and Clara.  In 1967, Joseph Pilates died in New York of advanced emphysema, aged 83.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Hubertus Pilates (9 December 1883 – 9 October 1967) was a German physical trainer, and notable for having invented and promoted the Pilates method of physical fitness.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972646}
{"src_title": "Carl Stamitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life in Mannheim.", "content": "Carl Stamitz was the eldest son of Johann Stamitz, a violinist and composer of the early classical era. As its leader, Johann Stamitz trained the court orchestra at Mannheim Palace to be disciplined and technically polished and they created a sensation with their ability to play with subtlety and precision, as well as with a great dynamic range.  Carl was born at Mannheim in an era when the 'Mannheim \"Gout\"' was causing a sensation in Europe. He received his first lessons in violin and composition from his father. After his father's death in 1757, the boy was taught by Christian Cannabich (1731–1798), his father's successor as concert-master and leader of the Mannheim orchestra. Ignaz Holzbauer (1711–1798), the court-director of music, and the court-composer Franz Xaver Richter (1709–1789) also had a hand in the boy's education.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "By the time he was seventeen, Stamitz was employed as a violinist in the court orchestra. In 1770, he resigned from his post and began travelling. As a travelling virtuoso on the violin, the viola and viola d'amore, Stamitz often accepted short-term engagements, but never managed to gain a permanent position with one of the European princes or in one of the orchestras of his time.  In 1770 he went to Paris, where he went into service with Louis, Duke of Noailles, who made him his court composer. He also appeared in the Concerts Spirituels, sometimes together with his brother Anton, who had probably come to Paris with him. With Paris as his base, he made frequent concert tours to a number of German cities: on 12 April 1773 he appeared in Frankfurt; a year later he was in Augsburg; and in 1775 he ventured as far as the Russian capital, Saint Petersburg. In 1777 he dwelt for a time in Strasbourg where Franz Xaver Richter was music director. During the years 1777 and 1778 he was successful in London, one of many Austro-German musicians, such as Carl Friedrich Abel, J. C. Bach and in his last years Haydn, to be drawn there. His stay in London was possibly facilitated through his contact with Thomas Erskine, Earl of Kellie (1753–1781), who had received lessons from Carl's father Johann during a tour of the continent. Between 1782 and 1783, Stamitz gave concerts in The Hague and in Amsterdam. In 1785 he returned to Germany to appear in concerts in Hamburg, Lübeck, Braunschweig, Magdeburg and Leipzig. In April 1786 he made his way to Berlin, where on 19 May 1786 he participated in the performance of Handel's \"Messiah\", under the baton of Johann Adam Hiller.  He later travelled to Dresden, Prague, Halle and then Nuremberg, where on 3 November 1787 he staged a \"Great Allegorical Musical Festivity in Two Acts\" in celebration of the balloon ascent of the French aviation pioneer Jean-Pierre Blanchard. During the winter of 1789–90 he directed the amateur concerts in Kassel, but failed to gain an employment with the Schwerin court. By now married and the father of four young children, he was forced to resume a life of travelling. On 12 November 1792 he gave a concert in the Weimar court theatre, which was then under the direction of Goethe. In 1793 he undertook a last journey along the River Rhine to his native Mannheim, before he finally gave up travelling. Sometime in the winter of 1794–95 he moved his family to the university town of Jena in central Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final years.", "content": "During the years Stamitz spent at Jena, there was neither a town band nor an orchestra to speak of. According to some sources, he was in some way connected to the university, but this seems a matter of dispute.  Stamitz gradually descended into poverty. After his death in November 1801, a substantial number of tracts on alchemy were found in his library. Because of this it is thought that he dabbled in attempts at making gold.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Carl Stamitz wrote more than 50 symphonies, at least 38 symphonies concertantes and more than 60 concertos for violin, viola, viola d'amore, cello, clarinet, basset horn, flute, bassoon and other instruments. He also wrote a large volume of chamber music. Some of the clarinet and viola concertos that Stamitz composed are considered to be among the finest available from the period.  During the period when he lived in Paris, Stamitz began to cooperate with the Bohemian born clarinet virtuoso Joseph Beer (1744–1811), which proved fruitful for both Stamitz and Beer. At least one of Stamitz's clarinet concertos (the concerto No. 6 in E-flat major) seems to have been composed jointly by the two men, as both of their names appear on the title page of the Viennese manuscript. Stamitz was the first composer to specify a left-hand pizzicato (an important virtuoso device) in a musical composition. This occurs in his Viola Concerto in D major, where the passage in question is designated by an \"0\" above the notes.  Stamitz's cello concertos were written for Frederick William II of Prussia, who was a gifted amateur musician: both Mozart and Beethoven wrote music for the king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "Stylistically, Stamitz's music is not too far removed from the galante works of the young Mozart, or those of Haydn's middle period. Stamitz's works are characterized by regular periods and appealing melodies, with the voices quite often led in thirds, sixths and tenths. The writing for the solo instruments is idiomatic and virtuosic, but not excessively so.  The opening movements of Stamitz's concertos and orchestral works are regularly constructed in sonata form, with an extensive double exposition. Their structure is additive in nature and does not exhibit the thematic development that is considered typical of the Viennese classical style. The middle movements are expressive and lyrical, sometimes called 'Romance' and usually constructed according to the \"Liedform\" (ABA, ABA' or AA'B). The final movement is often (and in the concertos almost always) a French-style rondo.  Just as his teacher Franz Xaver Richter had done, Stamitz preferred minor keys, as he generally used a variety of (sometimes remote) keys.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Works (selection).", "content": "Symphonies  Concertos  Chamber music  Operas Both are considered lost.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carl Philipp Stamitz (; baptized 8 May 17459 November 1801) was a German composer of partial Czech ancestry. He was the most prominent representative of the second generation of the Mannheim School.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972647}
{"src_title": "Johann Stamitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Stamitz was born in Deutschbrod, Bohemia, into a family that came from Marburg (today Maribor, Slovenia).  Stamitz spent the academic year 1734–1735 at the University of Prague. After only one year, he left the university to pursue a career as a violin virtuoso. His activities during the six-year period between his departure from the university in 1735 and his appointment in Mannheim around 1741 are not precisely known.  He was appointed by the Mannheim court in 1741 or 1742. Most likely, his engagement there resulted from contacts made during the Bohemian campaign and coronation of Carl Albert (Karl VII) of Bavaria, a close ally of the Elector Palatine. In January 1742, Stamitz performed before the Mannheim court as part of the festivities surrounding the marriage of Karl Theodor, who succeeded his uncle Karl Philipp as Elector Palatine less than a year later; Carl Albert was among the wedding guests.  Stamitz married Maria Antonia Luneborn on July 1, 1744. They had five children together, Carl Philipp, Maria Franziska, Anton Thadäus Nepomuk, and two children who died in infancy.  Probably around the late summer of 1754, Stamitz paid a yearlong visit to Paris, perhaps at the invitation of music patron Alexandre Le Riche de La Poupelinière with whom he stayed, appearing in public there for the first time at a Concert Spirituel on September 8, 1754. His Parisian success induced him to publish his Orchestral Trios, Op. 1 (actually symphonies for string orchestra), and possibly other works of his by various publishers there.  He probably returned to Mannheim around the autumn of 1755, dying there in spring 1757, less than two years later, at the age of 39. The entry of his death reads: \"March 30, 1757. Buried, Jo'es Stainmiz, director of court music, so expert in his art that his equal will hardly be found. Rite provided\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compositions.", "content": "Stamitz's most important compositions are his 58 symphonies and his 10 orchestral trios. The orchestral trios are actually symphonies for strings, but may be played one player to a part as chamber music. His concertos include numerous ones for violin, two for viola, two for harpsichord, 12 for flute (including the famous C Major concerto recorded by Rampal), one for oboe and one for clarinet, among the earliest concertos for the instrument (Johann Melchior Molter's six from the 1740s seem to have been the first). He also composed a large amount of chamber music for various instrumental combinations, as well as eight vocal works including his widely circulated concert Mass in D.  Because at least five other 18th-century musicians bore the surname Stamitz, including four from Johann's immediate family, any attempt to catalog his (or any of the others') works is risky at best, principally in view of the many variations in spelling. Actually, few difficulties arise in distinguishing between works by Johann Stamitz and those of his sons Carl and Anton. By contrast, the relationship of the names 'Steinmetz' and 'Stamitz' has caused substantial confusion, given at least two other 18th-century musicians with the surname Steinmetz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Innovations in the Classical symphony.", "content": "Johann Stamitz's expanded orchestration included important wind parts. His symphonies of the 1750s are scored in eight parts: four strings, two horns and two oboes, although flutes or clarinets may substitute for the oboes. Horns provided not only a harmonic backdrop for strings but solo lines as well, and he was also one of the first composers to write independent lines for oboes.  The chief innovation in Stamitz's symphonic works is their four-movement structure: fast – slow – minuet and trio – dashing presto or prestissimo finale. While prior isolated four-movement symphonies exist, Stamitz was the first composer to use it consistently: well over half his symphonies and nine of his ten orchestral trios are in four movements. He also contributed to the development of sonata form, most often used in symphonic first movements but occasionally in finales (when not in rondo form) and even slow movements (when not in ABA ternary form) as well.  Stamitz also adapted and extended traits originally developed in Italian opera in his instrumental works. He added innovative dynamic devices such as extended crescendos, simple \"tutti\" chordal textures and slow harmonic rhythm. Like Italian operas, Stamitz's compositions have a strong sense of rhythmic drive and distinctive thematic material.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Wenzel Anton Stamitz (Czech: Jan Václav Antonín Stamic; 18 June 1717 – 27 March 1757) was a Bohemian composer and violinist. His two surviving sons, Carl and Anton Stamitz, were composers of the Mannheim school, of which Johann is considered the founding father. His music is stylistically transitional between Baroque and Classical periods.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972648}
{"src_title": "Karl Hass", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Espionage.", "content": "Hass was born in Kiel. In 1934, Hass joined the \"Sicherheitsdienst\" (SD), the SS's intelligence service, where his ruthlessness brought promotion. After the downfall of Benito Mussolini and the occupation of Italy by Nazi Germany, Karl Hass was sent to Rome to set up a network of radio operators and to organize saboteurs behind the invading Allied lines. While in Rome, serving under SS-\"Obersturmbannführer\" Herbert Kappler, Karl Hass aided in the deportation of more than 1,000 Jews to Auschwitz.  Hass was also the officer who had Princess Mafalda of Savoy, the daughter of King Vittorio Emanuele III of Italy, placed into German military custody, which eventually resulted in her death. He reputedly lured her to his headquarters in Rome by the suggestion that there was a message from her husband who was then being held in Berlin. On her arrival at the German command, Hass had the princess arrested and sent for questioning to Munich in Germany. She was subsequently sent to Berlin and then to Buchenwald concentration camp, where she was later wounded in an Allied bombing raid. Despite receiving medical attention at the camp, she died following an operation to amputate her infected arm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ardeatine massacre.", "content": "Following a 23 March 1944 bomb attack in the Via Rasella by Italian resistance fighters that killed 33 soldiers, Hass, Capt. Erich Priebke and fellow officers rounded up 335 Italians and the next day transported them to the Ardeatine caves at the outskirts of Rome. Hass, Priebke, and their soldiers systematically executed each captive with a shot to the back of the head. The Ardeatine massacre is one of the most notorious in the Italian history of World War II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "After the war, SS-\"Hauptsturmführer\" Hass was taken prisoner by the Allies, but rather than being brought to justice for his war crimes, he was apparently employed by the United States Army Counter Intelligence Corps to spy on the Soviet Union. Only Kappler was charged with the Ardeatine cave massacre. In the early 1990s, Priebke, who had helped Hass with the executions, was interviewed in Argentina by an American television crew and as a result of the ensuing uproar in Italy was eventually extradited to stand trial. Hass returned to Italy to testify against Priebke. However, on the night before he was due to testify, Hass decided against testifying against his old colleague, and attempted to flee from his hotel room by climbing down from an outside balcony. He seriously injured himself after slipping and falling from the balcony and was taken to hospital where he ultimately gave testimony to Court officials. In the court records, Hass admitted the execution of two civilians, but defended his actions by claiming he was only following orders, a defense which has been ruled invalid ever since the Nuremberg trials.  Tried and convicted for his role in the Ardeatine action, he was sentenced to life in prison in 1998. Considered to be in poor health, Hass was held under limited house arrest in what was described as \"a retirement villa in his favorite area of Switzerland\" until his death in 2004.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Hass (5 October 1912 – 21 April 2004) was an SS officer and German spy who helped deport more than 1,000 Italian Jews to Auschwitz. A perpetrator in the Ardeatine massacre, in which 335 civilians were murdered, he was tried and convicted in Italy in 1998. He spent the last years of his life under limited house arrest in \"the splendor of the beautiful Swiss Alps\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972649}
{"src_title": "Ray Ewry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life and early career.", "content": "Ewry was born in Lafayette, Indiana, and contracted polio as a young boy. In his childhood, he used a wheelchair, and it was feared that he might become paralysed for life.  However, Ewry did his own exercises and overcame his illness. Ewry attended Purdue University in 1890–1897, where he captained the track and field team, played American football, and became a member of Sigma Nu fraternity. After receiving a graduate degree in mechanical engineering at Purdue, he moved to New York. There he worked as a hydraulics engineer and became a member of the New York Athletic Club. He specialized in now defunct events, the standing jumps: the standing high jump, the standing long jump and the standing triple jump. These events are similar to their modern, normal versions but the athlete jumped without a run-up.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Ewry proved to be the best standing jumper in the world. At his first Olympics, held in Paris (1900), he won gold medals in all three standing jumps. Incidentally, all three finals were held on the same day (July 16).  At the 1904 Summer Olympics, Ewry successfully defended all three of his titles. The standing triple jump event was discontinued after those Olympics, but Ewry continued to dominate the two remaining standing jump events at both the 1906 Intercalated Games and 1908 Games, thus bringing his total to 10 Olympic gold titles including two from the Intercalated Games, the highest number achieved until 2008. The 1906 Intercalated Games are currently not officially recognised by the IOC, although they were organized as an Olympic event by the IOC. Even if the 1906 games are removed from his totals, he stands () as the 12th most successful Olympian of all time in terms of total individual medals and second most successful in terms of individual gold medals. The standing jumping events were no longer held in the Olympics after 1912.  Ewry's superiority is also displayed by the fact that his world record in the standing long jump () was still standing when the event was discontinued internationally in the 1930s. In 1974 he was inducted into the National Track and Field Hall of Fame and in 1983 into the United States Olympic Hall of Fame.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Longstanding records for Olympic medals.", "content": "Ewry's eight Olympic gold medals in individual events (i.e. non-relay), although now second to Michael Phelps's 13, was the record, all alone, for 100 years and 23 days—from July 23, 1908, until Phelps won \"his\" eighth on August 15, 2008 (followed by his ninth on August 16).  His record of winning three gold medals in \"one event\", although it had subsequently been equaled by seven other athletes, was not surpassed for 60 years—from 1908 until Al Oerter won his \"fourth\" gold (discus throw) in 1968, a feat equaled by Carl Lewis when he won his fourth (long jump) in 1996, Michael Phelps when he won his fourth (200 meter individual medley) in 2016, and by Kaori Icho when she won her fourth consecutive gold in women's wrestling in 2016.  Finally, his record of three gold medals in \"two\" events, set in July 1908 (standing long jump on July 20 and standing high jump on July 23) was not surpassed for 108 years—until in 2016 Michael Phelps won his third gold medal in the 200-meter butterfly to win three gold medals in three events (200-meter individual medley, 100-meter butterfly, and 200-meter butterfly). Phelps equaled Ewry's record in 2012, when he won his third gold in the 100 meter butterfly on August 3, having won his third in the 200-meter individual medley on August 2.  Ewry currently holds the record for the most Olympic medals with a 100% record—8 individual golds.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Raymond \"Ray\" Clarence Ewry (October 14, 1873 – September 29, 1937) was an American track and field athlete who won eight gold medals at the Olympic Games and two gold medals at the Intercalated Games (1906 in Athens). This puts him among the most successful Olympians of all time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972650}
{"src_title": "Pyrenean Shepherd", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Pyrenean Shepherd is the smallest of the French and Spanish herding dogs. The breed comes in two varieties: Rough-faced (Poil Long) and smooth-Faced (Face Rase). Rough-faced males are at the withers, and rough-faced females are. Smooth-faced males are at the withers, and smooth-faced females are inches at the withers. The weight is between, aiming for lithe and muscular, never fat.  The head is of small proportions in comparison to the dog, with a rather flat skull, and a somewhat short, triangular muzzle. The face is expressive and intelligent, with dark eyes, except in the case of merles or slate grey coat colour. Traditionally the dog's ears are cropped. If natural, the Pyrenean Shepherd should have semi-prick or rose ears. Naturally prick ears are not correct for the breed, and may indicate an outcross.  The body is long and lean, and should reflect the natural energetic athleticism of the dog. The legs are well proportioned, with lean, well-angulated, well-let-down hocks typical of a sure-footed mountain breed. The tail can be docked short, a natural bob-tail, or naturally long with a crook in the end, so long as its carried below the topline at rest and in motion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coat.", "content": "The coat has two basic varieties, smooth-faced and rough-faced (demi-long or long-haired). The smooth-faced variety has short, fine hairs on the muzzle, with a modest ruff around the face and neck, and some feathering along the legs, tail, and belly. In contrast, the rough-faced has longer hair on the muzzle and face, though never enough to cover or obscure the eyes or create a bearded effect, and demi-long or long, coarse hair over the rest of the body. The rough-faced dog can also form cords over his hindquarters and front legs.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Color.", "content": "Shades of fawn are most typical for the breed, either with or without black mask and overlay. Also very common are brindles and various shades of grey. Less common are merles of various kinds (blue merle, brindle merle, fawn merle), and black. All colors allow for some white at the head, chest, and feet, but solid colors are preferred.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "The Pyrenean Shepherd was designed to be a sheepdog, and as such is full of the same sort of energy that other herding dogs have, but in a surprisingly small package. This adaptive dog wants to, and can, do all the jobs on the field, and is a natural herder. A dog that needs a job, its cleverness makes it ideal for other work and dog sports such as flyball, competitive obedience, and agility. This dog is good with, and protective of, children with whom they were brought up.  Pyr Sheps are \"one-man\" dogs, attached and dedicated to their owners, with a desire to follow them around the house to help with daily chores. They sense every mood and often seem to be able to read their masters' minds, as they are constantly watchful. Because of this, they are extremely trainable.  Their natural wariness, while valuable in a herding dog which might need to alert their shepherd of strange animals or people, combined with their herding bossiness, can lead to shyness or aggression in even the most friendly puppy if not properly managed. Frequent socialization from a very young age can help counter this trait.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "Pyrenean Shepherds can compete in dog agility trials, obedience, showmanship, flyball, and tracking events.  On 1 January 2009, the Pyrenean Shepherd finally became eligible to compete in herding events in the United States sponsored by the AKC. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive herding tests. Pyr Sheps exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Care.", "content": "Pyrenean Shepherds need only a weekly brush, as well as regular checks for burrs or mats, to keep their coat in good condition. They also need a lot of space indoors, and space to exercise outdoors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "After the first World War, the Pyrenean Shepherd, or \"Pyr Shep\", gained national recognition in France for their valiant work as couriers, search and rescue dogs, watch dogs, and company mascots.  The smooth-faced Pyrenean Shepherd in its harlequin or blue merle coloration may have been one of the foundation breeds for the Australian Shepherd when sheep herders brought their sheepdogs to the American West when they flew to the United States as contract herders for the Western Range Association in the 1940s until the early 1970s.  The Pyr Shep is not yet a well-known breed outside of its native France and Spain, but its size, intelligence, and attractive coat make it appealing. After one of its breed won the World Agility Championship for midsized dogs in 2003, it gained more attention as an intelligent performance dog for dog sports.  On 24 January 2015, a male Pyrenean Shepherd, GCh (Grand Champion) La Brise Sun Bear, a dog (i.e., male), was awarded an AKC all-breed Best In Show (BIS). This was the first BIS since having been formally recognized by the AKC for competition (within the Herding Group).  The first Pyrenean Sheepdogs were registered with the Kennel Club (UK) in 1988 and the Pyrenean Sheepdog Club of Great Britain was formed in 1992 by a small number of enthusiasts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pyrenean Shepherd (known in France originally, and also in non-AKC registries such as the UKC, as the Berger des Pyrénées, and in Spain as the Pastor de los Pirineos) is a medium-small breed of dog native to the Pyrenees mountains in southern France and northern Spain, bred since at least medieval times for herding livestock, especially sheep. It worked as an active herder together with the Great Pyrenees, another breed, which acted as the flock's guardian.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972651}
{"src_title": "Pinus mugo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Pinus mugo\" is native to the subalpine zones of the Pyrenees, Alps, Erzgebirge, Carpathians, northern and central Apennines, and higher Balkan Peninsula mountains - Rila, Pirin, Korab, Prokletije, etc. It is usually found from, occasionally as low as in the north of the range in Germany and Poland, and as high as in the south of the range in Bulgaria and the Pyrenees. Also in the Republic of Kosova it is found in the Bjeshkët e Nemuna National Park.  \"Pinus mugo\" was planted in coastal Denmark for sand dune stabilization. It has naturalized and become invasive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are three subspecies:  Both subspecies have similar foliage, with dark green leaves (\"needles\") in pairs, long.  The cones are nut-brown, long: and in subsp. \"mugo\" are symmetrical, thin-scaled and matt textured; and in subsp. \"uncinata\" are asymmetrical with thick scales on the upper side of the cone, thin on the lower side, and glossy textured.  An old name for the species \"\" is still occasionally seen, and a typographical error \"\"mugho\"\" (first made in a prominent 18th century encyclopedia) is still repeated surprisingly often.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Pinus mugo\" is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant, for use as a small tree or shrub, planted in gardens and in larger pots and planters. It is also used in Japanese garden style landscapes, and for larger bonsai specimens. In Kosova, its trunk is used as construction material for the vernacular architecture in the mountains called \"Bosonica\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "Numerous cultivars have been selected. The following have been given the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit:  Cultivars with seasonal changes in foliage color include \"Pinus mugo\" 'Wintergold' and \"Pinus mugo\" 'Ophir'.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Culinary use.", "content": "A recent trend is the increase in use of the mugo pine in cooking. Buds and young cones are harvested from the wild in the spring and left to dry in the sun over the summer and into the fall. The cones and buds gradually drip syrup, which is then boiled down to a concentrate and combined with sugar to make pine syrup. The syrup is usually sold as \"pinecone syrup\" or \"pine cone syrup\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "\"Pinus mugo\" is classed as a wilding conifer, and spreads as an invasive species in the high country of New Zealand, coastal Denmark, and other areas of Scandinavia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pinus mugo, known as bog pine, creeping pine, dwarf mountain pine, mugo pine, mountain pine, scrub mountain pine, or Swiss mountain pine, is a species of conifer, native to high elevation habitats from southwestern to Central Europe and Southeast Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972652}
{"src_title": "Pilonidal disease", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Pilonidal cysts are itchy and often very painful, and typically occur between the ages of 15 and 35. Although usually found near the coccyx, the condition can also affect the navel, armpit or genital region, though these locations are much rarer.  Signs and symptoms may include:  Some people with a pilonidal cyst will be asymptomatic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pilonidal sinus.", "content": "Pilonidal sinus (PNS): is a sinus tract, or small channel, that may originate from the source of infection and open to the surface of the skin. Material from the cyst drains through the pilonidal sinus. A pilonidal cyst is usually painful, but with draining the patient might not feel pain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Causes.", "content": "One proposed cause of pilonidal cysts is ingrown hair, although hairs found in pilonidal sinus tracts may originate from the head. Excessive sitting is thought to predispose people to the condition, as sitting increases pressure on the coccygeal region. Trauma is not believed to cause a pilonidal cyst; however, such an event may result in inflammation of an existing cyst; there are cases where this can occur months after a localized injury to the area. Some researchers have proposed that pilonidal cysts may be caused by a congenital pilonidal dimple. Excessive sweating can also contribute to the formation of a pilonidal cyst: moisture can fill a stretched hair follicle, which helps create a low-oxygen environment that promotes the growth of anaerobic bacteria, often found in pilonidal cysts. The presence of bacteria and low oxygen levels hamper wound healing and exacerbate a forming pilonidal cyst.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differential diagnosis.", "content": "A pilonidal cyst can resemble a dermoid cyst, a kind of teratoma (germ cell tumor). In particular, a pilonidal cyst in the gluteal cleft can resemble a sacrococcygeal teratoma. Correct diagnosis is important because all teratomas require consultation with an oncologist and complete surgical excision, if possible without any spillage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "If there is infection, treatment is generally by incision and drainage just off the midline.  The evidence or elective treatment of pilonidal sinus disease is poor. The most commonly performed surgery is for the pilonidal sinus complex to be surgically excised with the wound often left open to heal. Post-surgical wound packing may be necessary, and packing typically must be replaced daily for 4 to 8 weeks. In some cases, two years may be required for complete granulation to occur. Sometimes the cyst is resolved via surgical marsupialization.  Surgeons can also excise the sinus and repair with a reconstructive flap technique, such as a \"cleft lift\" procedure or Z-plasty, usually done under general anesthetic. This approach is especially useful for complicated or recurring pilonidal disease, leaves little scar tissue and flattens the region between the buttocks, reducing the risk of recurrence. This approach typically results in a more rapid recovery than the traditional surgery, however there are fewer surgeons trained in the cleft lift procedure and it consequently may not be as accessible to patients, depending on their location. Meta-analysis shows recurrence rates were lower in open healing than with primary closure (RR 0.60, 95% CI 0.42 to 0.87), at the expense of healing time. Pilonidal cysts can recur, and do so more frequently if the surgical wound is sutured in the midline, as opposed to away from the midline, which obliterates the natal cleft and removes the focus of shearing stress. An incision lateral to the intergluteal cleft is therefore preferred, especially given the poor healing of midline incisions in this region. Minimally invasive techniques with no wound and rapid return to full activities have been reported but await randomised trials.  Another technique is to treat pilonidal sinus with fibrin glue. This technique is of unclear benefit as of 2017 due to insufficient research. The evidence for any treatment is of low quality, and care must be taken not to over interpret any study in this field.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Pilonidal means nest of hair and is derived from the Latin words for hair (\"pilus\") and nest (\"nidus\"). The condition was first described by Herbert Mayo in 1833. R.M. Hodges was the first to use the phrase pilonidal cyst to describe the condition in 1880.  The condition was widespread in the United States Army during World War II. The condition was termed \"Jeep seat\" or \"Jeep riders' disease\", because a large portion of people who were being hospitalized for it rode in Jeeps, and prolonged rides in the bumpy vehicles were believed to have caused the condition due to irritation and pressure on the coccyx.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pilonidal disease is a type of skin infection which typically occurs as a cyst between the cheeks of the buttocks and often at the upper end. Symptoms may include pain, swelling, and redness. There may also be drainage of fluid, but rarely a fever. Risk factors include obesity, family history, prolonged sitting, greater amounts of hair, and not enough exercise. The underlying mechanism is believed to involve a mechanical process. The lesions may contain hair and skin debris. Diagnosis is based on symptoms and examination. If there is infection, treatment is generally by incision and drainage just off the midline. Shaving the area may prevent recurrence. More extensive surgery may be required if the disease recurs. Antibiotics are usually not needed. Without treatment the condition may remain long term. About 3 per 10,000 people per year are affected, and it occurs more often in males than females. Young adults are most commonly affected. The term \"pilonidal\" means \"nest of hair\". The condition was first described in 1833.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972653}
{"src_title": "Asarum europaeum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The prostrate stems are long, each bearing two reniform leaves with long petioles. The leaves are about 10 cm wide. The upper surface of the leaves is shiny, and they have a pepper-like taste and smell. There are also 2 to 3 stipules present that occur in two rows opposite each other on the stem. The flowers are solitary, terminal and nodding. The flower tube is composed of fused tepals that ends with 3 petal-like projections that are brownish towards their ends and dark purple toward the centre. There are 12 stamens present. The flowers emerge in the late winter and spring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Asarum europaeum\" has a wide distribution in Europe. It ranges from southern Finland and northern Russia south to southern France, Italy, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia and Bulgaria. It is absent from the British Isles and Scandinavia, and also from northwestern Germany and the Netherlands. Within Europe, the plant is grown outside of its range in the United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and the Netherlands.  It occurs mostly in deciduous woodland or coniferous forests, especially in calcareous (chalky) soils.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are two recognised subspecies other than the type, including \"A. europaeum\" ssp. \"caucasicum\", which is confined to the southwestern Alps, and \"A. europaeum\" ssp. \"italicum\", which is found in central and northern Italy as well as in the Skopska Crna Gora mountains of North Macedonia and Kosovo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"A. europaeum\" is quite shade-tolerant and is often employed as groundcover where little else will grow. This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Asarum europaeum, commonly known as asarabacca, European wild ginger, hazelwort, and wild spikenard, is a species of flowering plant in the birthwort family Aristolochiaceae, native to large parts of temperate Europe, and also cultivated in gardens. It is a creeping evergreen perennial with glossy green, kidney shaped leaves and solitary dull purple flowers hidden by the leaves. Though its roots have a ginger aroma, it is not closely related to the true culinary ginger \"Zingiber officinale\", which originates in tropical Asian rainforests. It is sometimes harvested for use as a spice or a flavoring. In former days, it was used in snuff and also medicinally as an emetic and cathartic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972654}
{"src_title": "George William, Elector of Brandenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Cölln on the Spree (today part of Berlin), George William was the son of John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg and Anna of Prussia. His maternal grandfather was Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia. In 1616 George William married Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. Their only son Frederick William later became known as the \"Great Elector\". Of his two daughters, the eldest, Louise Charlotte, married Jacob Kettler, Duke of Courland, and the younger, Hedwig Sophie, married William VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rule.", "content": "In 1619 George William inherited the Margravate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia. He paid his feudal homage in person to the King of Poland, Sigismund III Vasa, in September 1621 in Warsaw (the Duchy of Prussia was a fief of the Kingdom of Poland at the time). The homage was renewed in 1633 after the election of a new Polish king, Władysław IV Vasa. During the Thirty Years' War, the Reformed George William tried to remain neutral between the Roman Catholic forces of the Holy Roman Empire and the Protestant principalities. As his sister Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg was queen of Sweden, George William had to maneuver between requests of assistance from his Lutheran brother-in-law King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and his own Protestant counsellors on one side and his Catholic chancellor Count Adam von Schwarzenberg on the other.  Despite his attempts at neutrality, George William was forced by Gustavus Adolphus, since 1626 occupying Ducal Prussia's access to the sea, to join the Protestant forces in 1631. His rule was largely weak and ineffective, as much of government responsibilities in Brandenburg-Prussia was turned over to Schwarzenberg as the country suffered greatly during the war. Protestant and Catholic troops alike burned and plundered the Brandenburg region and the population was decimated there as it was throughout the German states. Whereas Ducal Prussia remained mostly untouched.  With his brother-in-law Gustavus dead in 1632, George William maintained the Swedish alliance until after the Swedish defeat at the Battle of Nördlingen on 6 September 1634. At that point, George William withdrew Brandenburg from the war and signed the Peace of Prague with Emperor Ferdinand II on 30 May 1635. Leaving Schwarzenberg in charge of the government, George William withdrew in 1637 to the relatively safe region of Ducal Prussia, where he lived in retirement until his death at Königsberg in Prussia in 1640.  [aged 45]", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "George William (; 13 November 1595 – 1 December 1640), of the Hohenzollern dynasty, was margrave and elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia from 1619 until his death. His reign was marked by ineffective governance during the Thirty Years' War. He was the father of Frederick William, the \"Great Elector\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972655}
{"src_title": "Zirconium dioxide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production, chemical properties, occurrence.", "content": "Zirconia is produced by calcining zirconium compounds, exploiting its high thermal stability.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Three phases are known: monoclinic below 1170 °C, tetragonal between 1170 °C and 2370 °C, and cubic above 2370 °C. The trend is for higher symmetry at higher temperatures, as is usually the case. A small percentage of the oxides of calcium or yttrium stabilize in the cubic phase. The very rare mineral tazheranite, (Zr,Ti,Ca)O, is cubic. Unlike TiO, which features six-coordinated titanium in all phases, monoclinic zirconia consists of seven-coordinated zirconium centres. This difference is attributed to the larger size of the zirconium atom relative to the titanium atom.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemical reactions.", "content": "Zirconia is chemically unreactive. It is slowly attacked by concentrated hydrofluoric acid and sulfuric acid. When heated with carbon, it converts to zirconium carbide. When heated with carbon in the presence of chlorine, it converts to zirconium tetrachloride. This conversion is the basis for the purification of zirconium metal and is analogous to the Kroll process.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Engineering properties.", "content": "Zirconium dioxide is one of the most studied ceramic materials. ZrO adopts a monoclinic crystal structure at room temperature and transitions to tetragonal and cubic at higher temperatures. The change of volume caused by the structure transitions from tetragonal to monoclinic to cubic induces large stresses, causing it to crack upon cooling from high temperatures. When the zirconia is blended with some other oxides, the tetragonal and/or cubic phases are stabilized. Effective dopants include magnesium oxide (MgO), yttrium oxide (YO, yttria), calcium oxide (CaO), and cerium(III) oxide (CeO).  Zirconia is often more useful in its phase'stabilized' state. Upon heating, zirconia undergoes disruptive phase changes. By adding small percentages of yttria, these phase changes are eliminated, and the resulting material has superior thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties. In some cases, the tetragonal phase can be metastable. If sufficient quantities of the metastable tetragonal phase is present, then an applied stress, magnified by the stress concentration at a crack tip, can cause the tetragonal phase to convert to monoclinic, with the associated volume expansion. This phase transformation can then put the crack into compression, retarding its growth, and enhancing the fracture toughness. This mechanism is known as transformation toughening, and significantly extends the reliability and lifetime of products made with stabilized zirconia.  The ZrO band gap is dependent on the phase (cubic, tetragonal, monoclinic, or amorphous) and preparation methods, with typical estimates from 5–7 eV.  A special case of zirconia is that of tetragonal zirconia polycrystal, or TZP, which is indicative of polycrystalline zirconia composed of only the metastable tetragonal phase.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The main use of zirconia is in the production of hard ceramics, such as in dentistry, with other uses including as a protective coating on particles of titanium dioxide pigments, as a refractory material, in insulation, abrasives and enamels. Stabilized zirconia is used in oxygen sensors and fuel cell membranes because it has the ability to allow oxygen ions to move freely through the crystal structure at high temperatures. This high ionic conductivity (and a low electronic conductivity) makes it one of the most useful electroceramics. Zirconium dioxide is also used as the solid electrolyte in electrochromic devices.  Zirconia is a precursor to the electroceramic lead zirconate titanate (\"PZT\"), which is a high-K dielectric, which is found in myriad components.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Niche uses.", "content": "The very low thermal conductivity of cubic phase of zirconia also has led to its use as a thermal barrier coating, or TBC, in jet and diesel engines to allow operation at higher temperatures. Thermodynamically, the higher the operation temperature of an engine, the greater the possible efficiency. Another low thermal conductivity use is a ceramic fiber insulation for crystal growth furnaces, fuel cell stack insulation and infrared heating systems.  This material is also used in dentistry in the manufacture of 1) subframes for the construction of dental restorations such as crowns and bridges, which are then veneered with a conventional feldspathic porcelain for aesthetic reasons, or of 2) strong, extremely durable dental prostheses constructed entirely from monolithic zirconia, with limited but constantly improving aesthetics. Zirconia stabilized with yttria (yttrium oxide), known as yttria-stabilized zirconia, can be used as a strong base material in some full ceramic crown restorations.  Transformation toughened zirconia is used to make ceramic knives. Because of the hardness, ceramic-edged cutlery stays sharp longer than steel edged products.  Due to its infusibility and brilliant luminosity when incandescent, it was used as an ingredient of sticks for limelight.  Zirconia has been proposed to electrolyze carbon monoxide and oxygen from the atmosphere of Mars to provide both fuel and oxidizer that could be used as a store of chemical energy for use with surface transportation on Mars. Carbon monoxide/oxygen engines have been suggested for early surface transportation use as both carbon monoxide and oxygen can be straightforwardly produced by zirconia electrolysis without requiring use of any of the Martian water resources to obtain hydrogen, which would be needed for the production of methane or any hydrogen-based fuels.  Zirconia can be used as photocatalyst since its high band gap (~ 5 eV) allows the generation of high energetic electrons and holes. Some studies demonstrated the activity of doped zirconia (in order to increase visible light absorption) in degrading organic compounds and reducing Cr(VI) from wastewaters.  Zirconia is also a potential high-k dielectric material with potential applications as an insulator in transistors.  Zirconia is also employed in the deposition of optical coatings; it is a high-index material usable from the near-UV to the mid-IR, due to its low absorption in this spectral region. In such applications, it is typically deposited by PVD.  In jewelry making, some watch cases are advertised as being \"black zirconium oxide\". In 2015 Omega released a fully ZrO watch named \"The Dark Side of The Moon\" with ceramic case, bezel, pushers and clasp, advertising it as four times harder than stainless steel and therefore much more resistant to scratches during everyday use.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diamond simulant.", "content": "Single crystals of the cubic phase of zirconia are commonly used as diamond simulant in jewellery. Like diamond, cubic zirconia has a cubic crystal structure and a high index of refraction. Visually discerning a good quality cubic zirconia gem from a diamond is difficult, and most jewellers will have a thermal conductivity tester to identify cubic zirconia by its low thermal conductivity (diamond is a very good thermal conductor). This state of zirconia is commonly called \"cubic zirconia\", \"CZ\", or \"zircon\" by jewellers, but the last name is not chemically accurate. Zircon is actually the mineral name for naturally occurring zirconium silicate (ZrSiO).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Zirconium dioxide (), sometimes known as zirconia (not to be confused with zircon), is a white crystalline oxide of zirconium. Its most naturally occurring form, with a monoclinic crystalline structure, is the mineral baddeleyite. A dopant stabilized cubic structured zirconia, cubic zirconia, is synthesized in various colours for use as a gemstone and a diamond simulant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972656}
{"src_title": "The Adventures of Captain Hatteras", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The novel, set in 1861, described adventures of British expedition led by Captain John Hatteras to the North Pole. Hatteras is convinced that the sea around the pole is not frozen and his obsession is to reach the place no matter what. Mutiny by the crew results in destruction of their ship but Hatteras, with a few men, continues on the expedition. On the shore of the island of \"New America\" he discovers the remains of a ship used by the previous expedition from the United States. Doctor Clawbonny recalls in mind the plan of the real Ice palace, constructed completely from ice in Russia in 1740 to build a snow-house, where they should spend a winter. The travellers winter on the island and survive mainly due to the ingenuity of Doctor Clawbonny (who is able to make fire with an ice lens, make bullets from frozen mercury and repel attacks by polar bears with remotely controlled explosions of black powder).  When the winter ends the sea becomes ice-free. The travellers build a boat from the shipwreck and head towards the pole. Here they discover an island, an active volcano, and name it after Hatteras. With difficulty a fjord is found and the group get ashore. After three hours climbing they reach the mouth of the volcano. The exact location of the pole is in the crater and Hatteras jumps into it. As the sequence was originally written, Hatteras perishes in the crater; Verne's editor, Jules Hetzel, suggested or rather required that Verne do a rewrite so that Hatteras survives but is driven insane by the intensity of the experience, and after return to England he is put into an asylum for the insane. Losing his \"soul\" in the cavern of the North Pole, Hatteras never speaks another word. He spends the remainder of his days walking the streets surrounding the asylum with his faithful dog Duke. While mute and deaf to the world, Hatteras' walks are not without a direction. As indicated by the last line \"Captain Hatteras forever marches northward\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "New America.", "content": "New America is the name given to a large Arctic island, a northward extension of Ellesmere Island, as discovered by Captain John Hatteras and his crew. Its features include, on the west coast, Victoria Bay, Cape Washington, Johnson Island, Bell Mountain, and Fort Providence, and at its northern point (), Altamont Harbour.  As with many of Verne's imaginative creations, his description of Arctic geography was based on scientific knowledge at the time the novel was written (1866) but foreshadowed future discoveries. Ellesmere Island had been re-discovered and named by Edward Inglefield in 1852 and further explored by Isaac Israel Hayes in 1860-61. Forty years after the novel's publication, in 1906, Robert Peary claimed to have sighted Crocker Land around 83° N, and in 1909, Frederick Cook sighted Bradley Land at 85° N, both at locations occupied by Verne's New America. Cook's choice of route may actually have been inspired by his reading of Verne.  The land is named by Captain Altamont, an American explorer, who is first to set foot on the land. In the novel as published, it is unclear whether New America is meant to be a territorial claim for the United States. As William Butcher points out, this would not be surprising, since Verne wrote about the US acquisition of Alaska in \"The Fur Country\", and Lincoln Island is proposed as a US possession in \"The Mysterious Island\". In fact, a deleted chapter, \"John Bull and Jonathan,\" had Hatteras and Altamont dueling for the privilege of claiming the land for their respective countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptation.", "content": "In 1912, Georges Méliès made a film based on the story entitled \"The Conquest of the Pole\" ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English translations.", "content": "A number of English-language translations of \"The Adventures of Captain Hatteras\" were published in the nineteenth century. These are generally considered to be out-of-copyright, and copies can be obtained from free sources:  These translations compress and truncate Verne's text to varying degrees; the Osgood translation is considered to be of “relatively good quality.” Editions from other publishers are generally based on one of these four translations.  A modern translation by William Butcher was published by Oxford University Press in 2005.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Adventures of Captain Hatteras () is an adventure novel by Jules Verne in two parts: \"The English at the North Pole\" () and \"The desert of ice\" ().", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972657}
{"src_title": "Crocodile (locomotive)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Switzerland.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Class Ce 6/8.", "content": "A prototype locomotive, SBB-CFF-FFS Ce 6/8 I number 14201, was ordered in June 1917. The production \"Crocodiles\" were the series \"SBB Ce 6/8 II\" and \"SBB Ce 6/8 III\" locomotives of the SBB, Swiss Federal Railways, built between 1919 and 1927. There were 33 class Ce 6/8 II and 18 class Ce 6/8 III, making a total (excluding the prototype) of 51 locomotives. These locomotives were developed for pulling heavy goods trains on the steep tracks of the Gotthardbahn from Lucerne to Chiasso, including the Gotthard Tunnel.  The electric motors available at the time were large and had to be body-mounted above the plane of the axles, but flexibility was required to negotiate the tight curves on the Alpine routes and tunnels. An articulated design, with two powered nose units bridged with a pivoting center section containing cabs and the heavy transformer, met both requirements and gave excellent visibility from driving cabs mounted safely away from any collision. The two motors in each nose unit were geared to a jackshaft between the drive axles farthest from the cab (SBB Ce 6/8 II) or farthest from the end (SBB Ce 6/8 III), with side rods carrying the power to the drivers. These locomotives, sometimes called the \"Swiss Crocodile\" or \"SBB Crocodile\", were highly successful and served until the 1982. The German model railway manufacturer Märklin published a book about their history in 1984. Nine out of 51 total produced have survived, but only three are still in operation as preserved historical locomotives in Switzerland.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Class Be 6/8.", "content": "Between 1942 and 1947, thirteen members of class Ce 6/8 II were upgraded with more powerful motors, to allow a higher top speed, and these became class Be 6/8 II. This required raising the jackshaft above the plane of the axles, necessitating a more complex system of side rods. In 1956, all eighteen members of class Ce 6/8 III were upgraded and became class Be 6/8 III.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Narrow gauge.", "content": "As well as standard gauge Crocodiles, there are also narrow gauge versions. The best known are the Rhaetian Railway (RhB)'s metre gauge locomotives of class Ge 6/6 I, the Rhaetian Crocodile. Several of these still run on passenger trains on special occasions. They are also used on freight trains in busy periods. The Bernina Railway (later merged with the RhB) also built a single Crocodile type, the Ge 4/4, nicknamed the \"Bernina Crocodile\". This locomotive survives and is being restored to operating condition.  Two other Swiss narrow-gauge railways also have locomotives nicknamed Crocodiles; the BVZ Zermatt-Bahn (BVZ) (which merged with the Furka Oberalp Bahn (FO) in 2003 to form the Matterhorn-Gotthard-Bahn) uses series \"HGe 4/4 I\", known as the Zermatt crocodile, while the Chemin de Fer Yverdon-Ste. Croix owns a solitary class \"Ge 4/4\" #21. Neither of these locomotive types have an articulated body, which leads some railfans to nickname them \"false crocodiles\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Austria.", "content": "Very similar locomotives were used in Austria as Austrian Federal Railways (\"Österreichische Bundesbahn\") classes ÖBB 1089 and ÖBB 1189, and are often known as \"Austrian Crocodiles\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "The German classes E 93 and E 94, also used by the ÖBB as series 1020, are sometimes called \"German crocodiles\". They are sometimes nicknamed \"Alligators\", instead, because of their broader, shorter snouts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France.", "content": "The French SNCF 25 kV AC locomotives of classes CC 14000 and CC 14100, used mainly for iron ore trains on the, have sometimes been called \"crocodiles\", although more commonly \"flatirons\". They are different from the Swiss crocodiles in that they are not articulated, but are a single long steeplecab or'monocabine' with a bogie beneath each end.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "India.", "content": "Crocodile locomotives were also used in India. These locomotives, of series WCG-1, were used from 1928 between Bombay and Pune, and were all built to the Indian broad gauge of 5 ft 6 in (1676 mm). The first 10 locomotives were built by Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works. Vulcan Foundry of Great Britain constructed a further 31 examples for this line.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other Crocodile-like locomotives.", "content": "The articulated-body design was not unique to the Crocodiles. It was used in the United States on the Milwaukee Road class EP-2 \"Bi-Polars\", for example.  Many more locomotives adopted the design of long noses without articulation of the body. The single GE 4/4 of the Yverdon–Ste-Croix railway was known as the \"Crocodile\", despite being an elongated Bo-Bo steeplecab with articulated bogies beneath, rather than an articulated locomotive. This extended to painting it with large crocodile heads on each side.  In the United Kingdom, the LNER Class ES1 featured a crocodile-like design and was built between 1902 and 1904, both locomotives remaining in service until 1966, when No.2 was scrapped and No. 1 (BR No.26500) was preserved, now on display at Shildon Locomotion Museum.  The Panama Canal uses double-ended locomotives, known as'mules', to act as land-based tugs to steer ships through the Canal's lock chambers.  Furthermore, some examples of locomotives similar in design to the Crocodiles, which were manufactured by Škoda can be found on the route between Borjomi and Bakuriani in Georgia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Crocodile (German Krokodil) electric locomotives are so called because they have long \"noses\" at each end, reminiscent of the snout of a crocodile (see also Steeplecab). These contain the motors and drive axles, and are connected by an articulated center section. The center section usually contains the crew compartments, pantographs and transformer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972658}
{"src_title": "Mokele-mbembe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "1909 saw the first mention of a apatosaurus-like creature in \"Beasts and Men\", the autobiography of famed big-game hunter Carl Hagenbeck. He claimed to have heard from two independent sources about a creature living in Rhodesia which was described to them by natives as \"half elephant, half dragon.\" Naturalist Joseph Menges had also told Hagenbeck about similar stories. Hagenbeck speculated that \"it can only be some kind of dinosaur, seemingly akin to the \"Brontosaurus\".\" Another of Hagenbeck's sources, Hans Schomburgk, asserted that while at Lake Bangweulu, he noted a lack of hippopotami; his native guides informed him of a large hippo-killing creature that lived in Lake Bangweulu; however, as noted below, Schomburgk thought that native testimony was sometimes unreliable.  Reports of entities described to be dinosaur-like in Africa caused a minor sensation in the mass media, and newspapers in Europe and North America carried many articles on the subject in 1910–1911; some took the reports at face value, others were more skeptical.  According to German adventurer Lt. Paul Gratz's account from 1911:The crocodile is found only in very isolated specimens in Lake Bangweulu, except in the mouths of the large rivers at the north. In the swamp lives the \"nsanga\", much feared by the natives, a degenerate saurian which one might well confuse with the crocodile were it not that its skin has no scales and its toes are armed with claws. I did not succeed in shooting a \"nsanga\", but on the island of Mbawala I came by some strips of its skin.  Another report comes from German Captain, as described by Willy Ley in \"Exotic Zoology\" (1959). Von Stein was ordered to conduct a survey of German colonies in what is now Cameroon in 1913. He heard stories of an enormous reptile called \"Mokéle-mbêmbe\" alleged to live in the jungles, and included a description in his official report. According to Ley, \"von Stein worded his report with utmost caution,\" knowing it might be seen as unbelievable. Nonetheless, von Stein thought the tales were credible: trusted native guides had related the tales to him, and the stories were related to him by independent sources, yet featured many of the same details. Though von Stein's report was never formally published, Ley quoted von Stein as writing:  The animal is said to be of a brownish-gray color with a smooth skin, its size is approximately that of an elephant; at least that of a hippopotamus. It is said to have a long and very flexible neck and only one tooth but a very long one; \"some say it is a horn\". A few spoke about a long, muscular tail like that of an alligator. Canoes coming near it are said to be doomed; the animal is said to attack the vessels at once and to kill the crews but without eating the bodies. The creature is said to live in the caves that have been washed out by the river in the clay of its shores at sharp bends. It is said to climb the shores even at daytime in search of food; its diet is said to be entirely vegetable. This feature disagrees with a possible explanation as a myth. The preferred plant was shown to me, it is a kind of liana with large white blossoms, with a milky sap and applelike fruits. At the Ssombo River I was shown a path said to have been made by this animal in order to get at its food. The path was fresh and there were plants of the described type nearby. But since there were too many tracks of elephants, hippos, and other large mammals it was impossible to make out a particular spoor with any amount of certainty.  Alfred Aloysius Smith, who had worked for a British trading company in what is now Gabon in the late 1800s, briefly mentions in his 1927 memoir the \"jago-nini\" and \"amali\":Aye, and behind the Cameroon there's things living we know nothing about. I could 'a' made books about many things. The \"Jago-Nini\" they say is still in the swamps and rivers. Giant diver it means. Comes out of the water and devours people. Old men'll tell you what their grandfathers saw but they still believe its there. Same as the Amali I've always taken it to be. I've seen the Amali's footprint. About the size of a good frying pan in circumference and three claws instead of five.He also speculates that \"some great creature like the Amali\" could be responsible for finding broken and splintered ivory in (now known to be mythical) elephants' graveyards, as well as claiming to have given a chiseled out cave painting of the \"amali\" to Ulysses S. Grant.  In 2001, BBC broadcast in the TV series \"Congo\" a collective interview with a group of BiAka pygmies, who identified the \"mokele mbembe\" as a rhinoceros while looking at an illustrated manual of wildlife. Neither species of African rhinoceros is common in the Congo Basin, and the Mokèlé-mbèmbé may be a mixture of mythology and folk memory from a time when rhinoceroses were found in the area.  In August and September of 2018, Lensgreve of Knuthenborg, Adam Christoffer Knuth, along with a film crew from DR and a DNA scientist, traveled to Lake Tele in Congo, in search of the Mokele-mbembe. They did not find the dinosaur. However they found a new green algae, which has not been discovered before.  In 2016, a young travel documentary crew, from South Africa, made an independent documentary about searching for 'Mokèlé-mbèmbé, which they later sold to Discovery Africa. The team, consisting of Jordan Deall, Luke Macdonald, and Donovan Orr, spent roughly four weeks in the Likuoala swamp region visiting various Aka (pygmy) villages, collecting stories of the creature's existence. Whilst they point out the difficulty of differentiating between Mokele-Mbembe's spiritual and physical existence, they interview numerous people who believe in its presence, whilst others suggest the last of the species died at least a decade ago.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Congo River Basin mythology, Mokele-mbembe (Lingala:, \"one who stops the flow of rivers\") is a water-dwelling entity, sometimes described as a living creature, sometimes as a spirit.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972659}
{"src_title": "Banshee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Sometimes she has long streaming hair and wears a gray cloak over a green dress, and her eyes are red from continual weeping. She may be dressed in white with red hair and a ghastly complexion, according to a firsthand account by Ann, Lady Fanshawe in her \"Memoirs\". Lady Wilde in \"Ancient Legends of Ireland\" provides another:  The size of the banshee is another physical feature that differs between regional accounts. Though some accounts of her standing unnaturally tall are recorded, the majority of tales that describe her height state the banshee's stature as short, anywhere between one foot and four feet. Her exceptional shortness often goes alongside the description of her as an old woman, though it may also be intended to emphasize her state as a fairy creature.  Sometimes the banshee assumes the form of some sweet singing virgin of the family who died young, and has been given the mission by the invisible powers to become the harbinger of coming doom to her mortal kindred. Or she may be seen at night as a shrouded woman, crouched beneath the trees, lamenting with veiled face, or flying past in the moonlight, crying bitterly. The cry of this spirit is mournful beyond all other sounds on earth, and betokens certain death to some member of the family whenever it is heard in the silence of the night.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Keening.", "content": "In Ireland and parts of Scotland, a traditional part of mourning is the keening woman (\"bean chaointe\"), who wails a lament—in, (Munster dialect), (Connaught dialect) or (Ulster dialect), \"caoin\" meaning \"to weep, to wail\". This keening woman may in some cases be a professional, and the best keeners would be in high demand.  Irish legend speaks of a lament being sung by a fairy woman, or banshee. She would sing it when a family member died or was about to die, even if the person had died far away and news of their death had not yet come. In those cases, her wailing would be the first warning the household had of the death.  The banshee also is a predictor of death. If someone is about to enter a situation where it is unlikely they will come out alive she will warn people by screaming or wailing, giving rise to a banshee also being known as a wailing woman.  It is often stated that the banshee laments only the descendants of the pure Milesian stock of Ireland, sometimes clarified as surnames prefixed with O' and Mac, and some accounts even state that each family has its own banshee. One account, however, also included the Geraldines, as they had apparently become \"more Irish than the Irish themselves,\" countering the lore ascribing banshees exclusively to those of Milesian stock. Another exception was the Rossmore banshee which supposedly heralded the death of a member of the family of Baron Rossmore, whose ancestry was predominantly Scottish and Dutch.  When several banshees appear at once, it indicates the death of someone great or holy. The tales sometimes recounted that the woman, though called a fairy, was a ghost, often of a specific murdered woman, or a mother who died in childbirth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "Most, though not all, surnames associated with banshees have the \"Ó\" or \"Mc/Mac\" prefix - that is, surnames of Goidelic origin, indicating a family native to the Insular Celtic lands rather than those of the Norse, English, or Norman. Accounts reach as far back as 1380 to the publication of the \"Cathreim Thoirdhealbhaigh\" (\"Triumphs of Torlough\") by Sean mac Craith. Mentions of banshees can also be found in Norman literature of that time.  The Ua Briain banshee is thought to be named Aibell and the ruler of 25 other banshees who would always be at her attendance. It is possible that this particular story is the source of the idea that the wailing of numerous banshees signifies the death of a great person.  In some parts of Leinster, she is referred to as the \"bean chaointe\" (keening woman) whose wail can be so piercing that it shatters glass. In Scottish folklore, a similar creature is known as the bean nighe or \"ban nigheachain\" (little washerwoman) or \"nigheag na h-àth\" (little washer at the ford) and is seen washing the bloodstained clothes or armour of those who are about to die. In Welsh folklore, a similar creature is known as the cyhyraeth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Banshees, or creatures based upon them, have appeared in many forms in popular culture.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A banshee ( ; Modern Irish,, from,, \"woman of the fairy mound\" or \"fairy woman\") is a female spirit in Irish folklore who heralds the death of a family member, usually by wailing, shrieking, or keening. Her name is connected to the mythologically important tumuli or \"mounds\" that dot the Irish countryside, which are known as síde (singular \"síd\") in Old Irish.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972660}
{"src_title": "Clapperboard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the silent era the principal requirement of film stock identification during a day's shoot was the slate. Since the earliest sound films (until the advent of digital cinematography) visual and audio tracks were recorded on separate media by separate equipment. The \"slate\" was maintained and for the benefit of sound synchronization the addition of a \"clapper\" was devised, a crew member bringing his hands together in one firm clap in frame before the removal of the slate and the call, \"action\". Two hinged aligned wooden sticks hitting each other were later added to the top of the slate, as they produced a sharper sound.  The clapper as two sticks hinged together was invented by F. W. Thring (father of actor Frank Thring), who was head of Efftee Studios in Melbourne, Australia. The clapboard with both the sticks and slate together was a refinement of Leon M. Leon (1903–1998) a pioneer sound engineer.  The release of Aretha Franklin's 1972 concert film \"Amazing Grace\" was delayed for 46 years due to young Academy Award nominated director Sydney Pollack forgetting to use clapperboards, making the film impossible to edit until the advent of non-linear editing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "The clapperboard combines a 'chalkboard slate' or perspex board with 'filmsticks' or 'clappersticks'. The slate displays the name of the production, the scene and \"take\" about to be performed, and similar information; a camera assistant holds the clapperboard so the slate is in view of the cameras with the Filmsticks already open, speaks out information for the benefit of the audio recording, then claps the filmsticks shut.  The shutting of the filmsticks is easily identified on the visual track, and the sharp \"clap\" noise is easily identified on the separate audio track. The two tracks can later be precisely synchronised by matching the sound and movement. Since each take is identified on both the visual and audio tracks, segments of film are easily matched with segments of audio.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Traditional clapperboards consisted of a wooden slate with a hinged filmstick attached to its top. Modern clapperboards generally use a pair of wooden sticks atop either a whiteboard or a translucent acrylic glass slate (the latter being easily legible via the light coming through it from the scene about to be shot). The filmsticks traditionally have diagonally interleaved lines of black and white to ensure a clear visual of the clap in most lighting conditions. In recent years sticks with calibrated color stripes have become available.  Digislates are simply clapperboards with inbuilt electronic boxes displaying SMPTE time code. The timecode displayed on the clapperboard will have been jam synced with the internal clock of the camera so it's easy for an editor to pull the timecode metadata from the video file and sound clip and synchronise them together. However, electronic timecode can drift throughout a shoot day so the Filmsticks on the clapperboard still need to be closed together in order to ensure there's a way of manually synchronising the footage and audio if matching the digital timecode fails.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "The slate typically includes the date, the production title, the name of the director, the name of the director of photography (DoP) and the scene information — which follows two popular systems:  A verbal identification of the numbers, known either as \"voice slate\" or \"announcement\", occurs after sound has reached speed. At the same time or shortly thereafter, the camera will start running, and the clapperboard is then filmed briefly at the start of the 'take' and the filmsticks are clapped sharply as soon as the camera has reached sync speed. Specific procedures vary depending on the nature of the production (documentary, television, feature, commercial, etc.), and the dominant camera assisting regional conventions.  A clapper board is generally used to identify all takes on a production, even takes that do not require synchronization, such as MOS takes, which have no sound. When a slate is used to mark an MOS take, the slate is held half open, with a hand blocking the sticks, or closed, with a hand over the sticks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operator.", "content": "The clapper loader (or 2nd AC) is generally responsible for the maintenance and operation of the clapperboard, while the script supervisor is responsible for determining which system will be used and what numbers a given take should have. While these are usually fairly obvious once a system has been agreed upon, the script supervisor is usually considered the final arbiter in the event of an unclear situation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alternatives.", "content": "Sometimes a \"tail slate\" or end slate is filmed at the end of a take, during which the clapperboard is held upside-down. This is done when the slate was not captured at the start of the take due to the camera being set up for the shot in such a way that the board cannot be captured, for example when a specific focus or frame is set up and cannot be altered until the take is complete. Tail slates are also commonly used when the director makes the decision that clapping a slate at the beginning of the scene would be distracting to the actor, such as when filming a highly emotional performance.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A clapperboard is a device used in filmmaking and video production to assist in synchronizing of picture and sound, and to designate and mark the various scenes and takes as they are filmed and audio-recorded.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972661}
{"src_title": "Eduard Taaffe, 11th Viscount Taaffe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family background and early years.", "content": "Taaffe was the second son of Count Louis Taaffe, 9th Viscount Taaffe (1791–1855), Austrian Minister of Justice during the Revolutions of 1848 and president of the court of appeal. His ancestor Francis Taaffe, 3rd Earl of Carlingford (1639–1704) had entered the service of the Habsburg Monarchy in the 17th century; the family held large estates in Bohemia.  As a child, Eduard Taaffe was one of the chosen companions of the young Archduke Francis Joseph, who in 1848 was crowned Emperor of Austria. That connection led to a distinguished political career for Taafe in the service of the Habsburgs. He studied law at the University of Vienna and entered public service in 1852. From 1861 he served at the Bohemian crown land government in Prague and in 1863 was appointed \"Landespräsident\" (stadtholder) in the Duchy of Salzburg. He backed the implementation of the February Patent constitution under State Minister Anton von Schmerling and in 1864 became a member of the Bohemian Diet (\"Landtag\"), where he did however not excel. In 1867 the Chairmen of the Ministers' Conference Count Richard Belcredi appointed him Upper Austrian stadtholder at Linz.  By the death of his elder brother Charles (1823–1873), colonel in the Austro-Hungarian Army, Eduard Graf von Taaffe succeeded to the Irish titles. He had married Countess Irma Tsaky in 1862, by whom he left four daughters and one son, Henry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minister-President (first term).", "content": "During the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, Emperor Francis Joseph offered him the post of Minister of the Interior in Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust's cabinet. In June he became vice-president of the ministry, and at the end of the year he entered the first ministry (\"Bürgerministerium\") of the newly organized Austrian portion of the monarchy. For the next three years he took a notable part in the confused political changes, and probably more than any other politician represented the wishes of the emperor.  Taaffe had entered the ministry as a German Liberal, but he soon took an intermediate position between the Liberal majority of the \"Bürgerministerium\" (\"Citizen's Ministry\" because it was mainly commoners) and the party which desired a federal constitution and which was strongly supported at court. From September 1868 to January 1870, after the retirement of Auersperg, he was president of the cabinet. In 1870, the government fell on the question of the revision of the constitution: Taaffe with Potocki and Johann Nepomuk Berger wished to make some concessions to the Federalists; the Liberal majority wished to preserve undiminished the authority of the Imperial Council. The two parties presented memoranda to the emperor, each defending their view and offering their resignation: after some hesitation the emperor accepted the policy of the majority, and Taaffe with his friends resigned.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second term.", "content": "The Liberals, however, failed to form a new government, as the representatives of most of the territories refused to appear in the Imperial Council: they resigned, and in the month of April Potocki and Taaffe returned to office. The latter failed, however, in an attempt to come to an understanding with the Czechs, and in their turn they had to make way for the Clerical and Federalist cabinet of Hohenwart. Taaffe now became governor of Tyrol, but in 1879, on the collapse of the Liberal government, he was recalled to high office. At first, he attempted to carry on the government without a change of principles, but he soon found it necessary to come to an understanding with the Feudal and Federal parties and was responsible for the conduct of the negotiations which in the elections of the same year gave a majority to the different groups of the National and Clerical opposition. In July he became minister president: at first he still continued to govern with the Liberals, but this was soon made impossible, and he was obliged to turn for support to the Conservatives.  Legislation to help the working class emerged from Catholic conservatives. They turned to social reform by using Swiss and German models and intervening in state economic matters. In Germany Chancellor Otto von Bismarck had used such policies to neutralize socialist promises. The Catholics studied the Swiss Factory Act of 1877 that limited working hours for everyone, and gave maternity benefits, and German laws that insured workers against industrial risks inherent in the workplace. These served as the basis for Austria's 1885 Trade Code Amendment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Election reform of 1882.", "content": "Count Taaffe is mostly remembered for his election reform of 1882, which reduced to 5 guilders the minimum tax base required for men over the age of 24 to vote. Before this reform, the tax base was set locally, but was usually at a considerably higher level, so that only 6% of the male population of Cisleithania had been entitled to vote. However, even after this reform, there were still four classes of voters whose vote counted differently, depending on how much tax an individual was paying.  The next election reform was enacted in 1896 by Kasimir Felix Graf Badeni, who succeeded in bringing about more radical reforms than Taaffe had achieved.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Policies on nationalities.", "content": "It was Taaffe's great achievement that he persuaded the Czechs to abandon the policy of abstention and to take part in the parliament. It was on the support of them, the Poles, and the Clericals that his majority depended. His avowed intention was to unite the nationalities of Austria: Germans and Slavs were, as he said, equally integral parts of Austria; neither must be oppressed; both must unite to form an Austrian parliament. Notwithstanding the growing opposition of the German Liberals, who refused to accept the equality of the nationalities, he kept his position for thirteen years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Late years.", "content": "In 1893 he was defeated on a proposal for the revision of the franchise, and resigned. He retired into private life, and died two years later at his country residence, Ellischau, in Bohemia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eduard Franz Joseph Graf von Taaffe, 11th Viscount Taaffe (24 February 183329 November 1895) was an Austrian statesman, who served for two terms as Minister-President of Cisleithania, leading cabinets from 1868 to 1870 and 1879 to 1893. He was a scion of the Irish Taaffe noble dynasty, who held hereditary titles from two countries: Imperial Counts (\"Reichsgrafen\") of the Holy Roman Empire and viscounts in the Peerage of Ireland (in the United Kingdom).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972662}
{"src_title": "Leucine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Dietary leucine.", "content": "As a food additive, L-leucine has E number E641 and is classified as a flavor enhancer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Requirements.", "content": "The Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) of the U.S. Institute of Medicine set Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for essential amino acids in 2002. For leucine, for adults 19 years and older, 42 mg/kg body weight/day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health effects.", "content": "As a dietary supplement, leucine has been found to slow the degradation of muscle tissue by increasing the synthesis of muscle proteins in aged rats. However, results of comparative studies are conflicted. Long-term leucine supplementation does not increase muscle mass or strength in healthy elderly men. More studies are needed, preferably ones based on an objective, random sample of society. Factors such as lifestyle choices, age, gender, diet, exercise, etc. must be factored into the analyses to isolate the effects of supplemental leucine as a standalone, or if taken with other branched chain amino acids (BCAAs). Until then, dietary supplemental leucine cannot be associated as the prime reason for muscular growth or optimal maintenance for the entire population.  Both L-leucine and D-leucine protect mice against seizures. D-leucine also terminates seizures in mice after the onset of seizure activity, at least as effectively as diazepam and without sedative effects. Decreased dietary intake of L-leucine promotes adiposity in mice. High blood levels of leucine are associated with insulin resistance in humans, mice, and rodents. This might be due to the effect of leucine to stimulate mTOR signaling. Dietary restriction of leucine and the other BCAAs can reverse diet-induced obesity in wild-type mice by increasing energy expenditure, and can restrict fat mass gain of hyperphagic rats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Leucine toxicity, as seen in decompensated maple syrup urine disease, causes delirium and neurologic compromise, and can be life-threatening.  A high intake of leucine may cause or exacerbate symptoms of pellagra in people with low niacin status because it interferes with the conversion of L-tryptophan to niacin.  Leucine at a dose exceeding 500 mg/kg/d was observed with hyperammonemia. As such, unofficially, a tolerable upper intake level (UL) for leucine in healthy adult men can be suggested at 500 mg/kg/d or 35 g/d under acute dietary conditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacodynamics.", "content": "Leucine is a dietary amino acid with the capacity to directly stimulate myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis. This effect of leucine arises results from its role as an activator of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), a serine-threonine protein kinase that regulates protein biosynthesis and cell growth. The activation of mTOR by leucine is mediated through Rag GTPases, leucine binding to leucyl-tRNA synthetase, leucine binding to sestrin 2, and possibly other mechanisms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metabolism in humans.", "content": "Leucine metabolism occurs in many tissues in the human body; however, most dietary leucine is metabolized within the liver, adipose tissue, and muscle tissue. Adipose and muscle tissue use leucine in the formation of sterols and other compounds. Combined leucine use in these two tissues is seven times greater than in the liver.  A small fraction of metabolism – less than 5% in all tissues except the testes where it accounts for about 33% – is initially catalyzed by leucine aminomutase, producing β-leucine, which is subsequently metabolized into (β-KIC), β-ketoisocaproyl-CoA, and then acetyl-CoA by a series of uncharacterized enzymes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Synthesis in non-human organisms.", "content": "Leucine is an essential amino acid in the diet of animals because they lack the complete enzyme pathway to synthesize it \"de novo\" from potential precursor compounds. Consequently, they must ingest it, usually as a component of proteins. Plants and microorganisms synthesize leucine from pyruvic acid with a series of enzymes: Synthesis of the small, hydrophobic amino acid valine also includes the initial part of this pathway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) since it possesses an aliphatic side-chain that is not linear.  Racemic leucine had been subjected to circularly polarized synchrotron radiation to better understand the origin of biomolecular asymmetry. An enantiomeric enhancement of 2.6% had been induced, indicating a possible photochemical origin of biomolecules' homochirality.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leucine (symbol Leu or L) is an essential amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Leucine is an α-amino acid, meaning it contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated −NH form under biological conditions), an α-carboxylic acid group (which is in the deprotonated −COO form under biological conditions), and a side chain isobutyl group, making it a non-polar aliphatic amino acid. It is essential in humans, meaning the body cannot synthesize it: it must be obtained from the diet. Human dietary sources are foods that contain protein, such as meats, dairy products, soy products, and beans and other legumes. It is encoded by the codons UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, and CUG.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972663}
{"src_title": "Meat and bone meal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the UK, after the 1987 discovery that BSE could cause vCJD, the original feed ban was introduced in 1988 to prevent ruminant protein being fed to ruminants. In addition, it has been illegal to feed ruminants with all forms of mammalian protein (with specific exceptions) since November 1994 and to feed any farmed livestock, including fish and horses, with mammalian meat and bone meal (mammalian MBM) since 4 April 1996. Regulation (EC) No.999/2001 introduced EU-wide regulations, which relaxed UK controls.  In 2000, UK supermarket chain Co-op Food was still calling for \"a legally-binding Europe-wide ban on the feeding of animal waste to farm animals\". They opined that the practice was tantamount to cannibalism. According to the BBC at the time there was no ban on the use in livestock feed of animal blood, tallow, poultry offal and feather meal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European categories.", "content": "In Europe (before the 2002 EU Regulation), animal by-products were classified into two categories: \"high risk\" or \"low risk\" products. Since 2002, \"processed animal protein\" (PAP) and other animal by-products, authorized or not for various uses, are categorized into three categories (by the European Regulation 2002) according to their supposed or demonstrated level of health risk.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Detection.", "content": "A minimum of 500g is required to test samples of solid or liquid material at the Irish Equine Centre, an independent not-for-profit organisation. Tests are by light microscopy and using real-time PCR for ruminant DNA. The presence of MBM and fish products in feed can be tested by light microscopy in two days. The presence of ruminant DNA in feed by real-time PCR can be detected by this lab in 48 to 72 hours.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Meat and bone meal (MBM) is a product of the rendering industry. It is typically about 48–52% protein, 33–35% ash, 8–12% fat, and 4–7% water. It is primarily used in the formulation of animal feed to improve the amino acid profile of the feed. Feeding of MBM to cattle is thought to have been responsible for the spread of BSE (mad cow disease); therefore, in most parts of the world, MBM is no longer allowed in feed for ruminant animals. However, it is still used to feed monogastric animals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972664}
{"src_title": "Pull-up (exercise)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "In past decades, the term \"pull-up\" also referred to open-chain pulling exercises done with a barbell. These exercises are now more popularly known as the bent-over row (in the 1950s) and upright row (in the 1970s).  Some have associated a \"pull-up\" with utilizing an overhand (pronated; palms facing away) grip. This includes by the Boy Scouts of America, Guinness World Records \"makes a difference between\" pull-ups and chin-ups according to grip. Organizations such as the United States Marine Corps and the World Pull-Up Organization however, see pull-ups including both the overhand and underhand grips.  Variations of pull-ups, beyond being named for their grip, can also be named based on how high the body rises, by naming it after the body part that either comes into contact with or passes over the top of the bar. A \"chest-up\" or \"sternum-up\" for example, indicates that the chest or sternum meets the bar, requiring extra scapular adduction and depression.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a physical test.", "content": "Pull-ups are a common way to measure the upper body strength of the \"pulling muscles\". They are used by the United States Marine Corps as a part of the Physical Fitness Test, although marines may also choose to substitute push-ups.  Pull-ups were also used as part of military test in Singapore, where the IPPT for National-Service men is used. It is also used in the NAPFA test for male students above the age of 14. It was then removed in 2014 with the announcement of a new IPPT format.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grips.", "content": "Pull-ups can be done with a supinated, neutral, or pronated grip (often called \"chin-ups\", \"hammer grip pull-ups\", and \"pull-ups\", respectively). Grips may match each other or be different (mixed grip). Grips may also rotate throughout the movement, such as by doing them on rings, rotating handles (false grip) or pull up handles. The range of motion used by trainers can vary. The fullest possible range is with straight arms overhead (elbow directly above shoulder), to pulling when the arms are at the sides (elbow directly below shoulder). People sometimes only train portions, such as avoiding locking out the arms at the bottom, or stopping when the head/chin/neck touch the bar. Positions within the range are also trained isometrically, as in flexed-arm and straight-arm hangs for time.  The width of the grip may also differ. When grabbing and holding the bar during the pull-up, the hands can be apart at shoulder-width, or wider, or narrower enough to touch each other. This may make the pull-up more difficult and may limit the range of motion compared to the shoulder-width grip.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Organizations such as the American Council on Exercise give advice such as \"care should be taken not to unduly put stress on your shoulder during this exercise\". Elbow pain due to tendonitis, bursitis, and ulnar nerve entrapment can occur as a result of excessive pull ups and improper technique.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Records (pronated grip).", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Guinness World Records.", "content": "Bodyweight:  Bodyweight (variations):  Weighted:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "RecordHolders.Org.", "content": "As of January 2015 the most repetitions within a given time period:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A pull-up is an upper-body strength exercise. The pull-up is a closed-chain movement where the body is suspended by the hands and pulls up. As this happens, the elbows flex and the shoulders adduct and extend to bring the elbows to the torso.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972665}
{"src_title": "Anima and animus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anima.", "content": "Anima originated from Latin, and was originally used to describe ideas such as breath, soul, spirit or vital force. Jung began using the term in the early 1920s to describe the inner feminine side of men.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Animus.", "content": "Animus originated from Latin, where it was used to describe ideas such as the rational soul, life, mind, mental powers, courage or desire. In the early nineteenth century, animus was used to mean \"temper\" and was typically used in a hostile sense. In 1923, it began being used as a term in Jungian psychology to describe the masculine side of women.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Levels of anima development.", "content": "Jung believed anima development has four distinct levels, which in \"The psychology of the transference\" he named \"Eve\", \"Helen\", \"Mary\" and \"Sophia\". In broad terms, the entire process of anima development in a man is about the male subject opening up to emotionality, and in that way a broader spirituality, by creating a new conscious paradigm that includes intuitive processes, creativity and imagination, and psychic sensitivity towards himself and others where it might not have existed previously.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eve.", "content": "The first is \"Eve\", named after the Genesis account of Adam and Eve. It deals with the emergence of a man's object of desire. The anima is completely tied up with woman as provider of nourishment, security and love.  The man at this anima level cannot function well without a woman, and is more likely to be controlled by her. He is often impotent or has no sexual desire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Helen.", "content": "The second is \"Helen\", an allusion to Helen of Troy in Greek mythology. In this phase, women are viewed as capable of worldly success and of being self-reliant, intelligent and insightful, even if not altogether virtuous. This second phase is meant to show a strong schism in external talents (cultivated business and conventional skills) with lacking internal qualities (inability for virtue, lacking faith or imagination).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mary.", "content": "The third phase is \"Mary\", named after the Christian theological understanding of the Virgin Mary (Jesus' mother). At this level, women can now seem to possess virtue by the perceiving man (even if in an esoteric and dogmatic way), in as much as certain activities deemed consciously unvirtuous cannot be applied to her.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sophia.", "content": "The fourth and final phase of anima development is \"Sophia\", named after the Greek word for wisdom. Complete integration has now occurred, which allows women to be seen and related to as particular individuals who possess both positive and negative qualities. The most important aspect of this final level is that, as the personification \"Wisdom\" suggests, the anima is now developed enough that no single object can fully and permanently contain the images to which it is related.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Levels of animus development.", "content": "Jung focused more on the man's anima and wrote less about the woman's animus. Jung believed that every woman has an analogous animus within her psyche, this being a set of unconscious masculine attributes and potentials. He viewed the animus as being more complex than the anima, postulating that women have a host of animus images whereas the male anima consists only of one dominant image.  Jung stated that there are four parallel levels of animus development in a woman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Man of mere physical power.", "content": "The animus \"first appears as a personification of mere physical power - for instance as an athletic champion or \"muscle man\", such as 'the fictional jungle hero Tarzan'\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Man of action or romance.", "content": "In the next phase, the animus \"possesses initiative and the capacity for planned action...the \"romantic\" man - the 19th century British poet Byron; or the \"man of action\" - America's Ernest Hemingway, war hero, hunter, etc.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Man as a professor, clergyman, orator.", "content": "In the third phase \"the animus becomes the \"word\", often appearing as a professor or clergyman...the bearer of the word - Lloyd George, the great political orator\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Man as a spiritual guide.", "content": "\"Finally, in his fourth manifestation, the animus is the incarnation of \"meaning\". On this highest level he becomes (like the anima) a mediator of...spiritual profundity\". Jung noted that \"in mythology, this aspect of the \"animus\" appears as Hermes, messenger of the gods; in dreams he is a helpful guide.\" Like Sophia, this is the highest level of mediation between the unconscious and conscious mind. In the book \"The Invisible Partners,\" John A. Sanford said that the key to controlling one's anima/animus is to recognize it when it manifests and exercise our ability to discern the anima/animus from reality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anima and animus compared.", "content": "The four roles are not identical with genders reversed. Jung believed that while the anima tended to appear as a relatively singular female personality, the animus may consist of a conjunction of multiple male personalities: \"in this way the unconscious symbolizes the fact that the animus represents a collective rather than a personal element\".  The process of animus development deals with cultivating an independent and non-socially subjugated idea of self by embodying a deeper \"word\" (as per a specific existential outlook) and manifesting this word. To clarify, this does not mean that a female subject becomes more set in her ways (as this word is steeped in emotionality, subjectivity, and a dynamism just as a well-developed anima is) but that she is more internally aware of what she believes and feels, and is more capable of expressing these beliefs and feelings. Thus the \"animus in his most developed form sometimes...make[s] her even more receptive than a man to new creative ideas\".  Both final stages of animus and anima development have dynamic qualities (related to the motion and flux of this continual developmental process), open-ended qualities (there is no static perfected ideal or manifestation of the quality in question), and pluralistic qualities (which transcend the need for a singular image, as any subject or object can contain multiple archetypes or even seemingly antithetical roles). They also form bridges to the next archetypal figures to emerge, as \"the unconscious again changes its dominant character and appears in a new symbolic form, representing the Self\". - the archetypes of the Wise Old Woman/Man", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jungian cautions.", "content": "Jungians warned that \"every personification of the unconscious - the shadow, the anima, the animus, and the Self - has both a light and a dark aspect...the anima and animus have dual aspects: They can bring life-giving development and creativeness to the personality, or they can cause petrification and physical death\".  One danger was of what Jung termed \"invasion\" of the conscious by the unconscious archetype - \"Possession caused by the anima...bad taste: the anima surrounds herself with inferior people\". Jung insisted that \"a state of anima possession...must be prevented. The anima is thereby forced into the inner world, where she functions as the medium between the ego and the unconscious, as does the persona between the ego and the environment\".  Alternatively, over-awareness of the anima or animus could provide a premature conclusion to the individuation process - \"a kind of psychological short-circuit, to identify the animus at least provisionally with wholeness\". Instead of being \"content with an intermediate position\", the animus seeks to usurp \"the self, with which the patient's animus identifies. This identification is a regular occurrence when the shadow, the dark side, has not been sufficiently realized\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The anima and animus are described in Carl Jung's school of analytical psychology as part of his theory of the collective unconscious. Jung described the animus as the unconscious masculine side of a woman, and the anima as the unconscious feminine side of a man, each transcending the personal psyche. Jung's theory states that the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind, as opposed to the theriomorphic and inferior function of the shadow archetypes. He believed they are the abstract symbol sets that formulate the archetype of the Self.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972666}
{"src_title": "Flag of Slovakia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Slovakia's flag in its current form (but with another coat of arms on it or without any arms) can be dated back to the revolutionary year 1848 (see: \"The Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas\"). It was also used semi-officially in Czechoslovakia before World War II, by the Slovak Republic during World War II.  In 1990, the Interior Ministry tasked Ladislav Čisárik, a painter and heraldic artist, and Ladislav Vrtel, an expert in heraldry, with creating a new coat of arms and national flag. Čisárik and Vrtel based their designs for a modern coat of arms and flag on an existing 14th Century coat of arms. However, Čisárik and Vrtel chose to enlarge the double cross three times to emphasize it as a national symbol. In addition to the national coat of arms and the national flag, the duo also designed a new presidential standard, which incorporates the double cross as well.  The new flag was finally adopted (initially without Čisárik's and Vrtel's coat of arms) on 1 March 1990 as the flag of the Slovak Republic within Czechoslovakia. The coat of arms was added on 3 September 1992 and a special law describing the details of the flag followed in February 1993.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "Since the Slovak flag without the coat of arms is identical to the current flag of the Russian Federation, and can also be compared to the modern flag of Slovenia, the Constitution of Slovakia added the national coat of arms in September 1992.  It is one of 28 national flags that contain overtly Christian symbols.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The current form of the national flag of Slovakia () was adopted by Slovakia's Constitution, which came into force on 3 September 1992. The flag, in common with many other flags of Slavic nations, uses Pan-Slavic colors – red, white and blue, But the variant looks like the flag of Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972667}
{"src_title": "Crédit Lyonnais", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Founded in July 6, 1863 in Lyon by Henri Germain, Crédit Lyonnais was the biggest bank in the world by 1900. It was nationalised in 1945, as was most of the banking sector in France after the war.  Following a change of leadership and frantic expansion starting in 1988, the bank was the subject of numerous financial scandals, contributing to a huge debt of around 150 billion French francs (nearly €23 billion). This was caused by directors exaggerating investments and by problems with the bank's subsidiary companies.  Crédit Lyonnais became the leading lender to Hollywood studios in the 1980s. Clients included independent film studios Castle Rock Entertainment, Weintraub Entertainment Group, Nelson Entertainment, Vestron Pictures, and Carolco Pictures. Many of these companies developed financial difficulties. It also financed Giancarlo Parretti's takeover of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1990 for $1.25 billion. However, Paretti started looting the company, fired most of the accounting staff, appointed his 21-year-old daughter to a senior financial post, and used company money to buy presents for several girlfriends. By June 1991, CL had had enough: under the terms of an April agreement that gave it control of Parreti's MGM stock, it fired Parretti and began a lawsuit against him. However, CL soon faced intense scrutiny for its dealings with Parretti. Overall, CL lost $5 billion from its Hollywood deals.  The bank avoided financial disaster by moving its troubled debts and liabilities into a new state-owned company, Consortium de Réalisation (CDR). The creation of the CDR was highly controversial, as many did not believe that the French government should have bailed out the bank. The CDR notably agreed to pay US$525 million to the California Department of Insurance in order to head off a lawsuit over the Executive Life insurance scandal. The CDR also ended up with the various film libraries from now defunct film production companies that defaulted on their loans. The library was known as the Epic film library. The Loeb & Loeb law firm spent 4 years determining the full extent of the film assets. In late 1997, PolyGram Filmed Entertainment out bid Disney, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Live Entertainment and several other companies, for the Epic library at $225 million. Despite losing the bid, MGM would acquire the Epic library and the rest of PolyGram's pre-1996 library in 1998.  To allow the bailout, the European Commission imposed severe limitations, principally on the bank's international activities, and the bank was forced to sell many entities in the following years.  The bailout cost French taxpayers almost €15 billion in all.  On May 5, 1996 a major fire destroyed much of Crédit Lyonnais' Paris headquarters. The fire began in the main trading room of the bank and was one of the worst fires to damage a Paris building in 25 years. It burned for over 12 hours, destroying two-thirds of the building, along with crucial bank archives and computer data.  In 1998, Crédit Lyonnais sold Crédit Lyonnais (Austria) to the Anglo Irish Bank.  Crédit Lyonnais was fully privatized in 1999. In 2003 BNP Paribas built a position in the capital of the bank. However, in 2003, Crédit Agricole bought it and reorganised its operations:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent controversy.", "content": "In 2001, Denis Robert and Ernest Backes book, \"Revelation\", showed that Crédit Lyonnais was one of the many banks to hold unpublished accounts in Clearstream, a Luxembourg-based transaction clearing company, which has been accused by the authors of being a huge international money-laundering machine.  In 2005 the CDR had to pay back €135 million to the creditors of Bernard Tapie, the controversial billionaire, after a scandal concerning the sale of Adidas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sponsorship.", "content": "Crédit Lyonnais sponsors the Tour de France, with its corporate brand on the sides of the yellow jersey (for the leader of the general classification in the Tour de France).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Crédit Lyonnais () is a historic French bank. In the early 1990s it was the largest French bank, majority state-owned at that point. Crédit Lyonnais was the subject of poor management during that period which almost led to its bankruptcy in 1993. It was acquired by former rival Crédit Agricole in 2003.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972668}
{"src_title": "Chupacabra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "\"Chupacabras\" can be literally translated as \"goat-sucker\", from \"chupar\" (\"to suck\") and \"cabra\" (\"goat\"). It is known as both \"chupacabras\" and \"chupacabra\" throughout the Americas, with the former being the original word, and the latter a regularization of it. The name is attributed to Puerto Rican comedian Silverio Pérez, who coined the label in 1995 while commenting on the attacks as a San Juan radio deejay.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first reported attack eventually attributed to the creatures occurred in March 1995 in Puerto Rico. Eight sheep were discovered dead, each with three puncture wounds in the chest area and reportedly completely drained of blood. A few months later, in August, an eyewitness, Madelyne Tolentino, reported seeing the creature in the Puerto Rican town of Canóvanas, when as many as 150 farm animals and pets were reportedly killed. In 1975, similar killings in the small town of Moca were attributed to \"El Vampiro de Moca\" (\"The Vampire of Moca\"). Initially, it was suspected that the killings were committed by a Satanic cult; later more killings were reported around the island, and many farms reported loss of animal life. Each of the animals was reported to have had its body bled dry through a series of small circular incisions.  Puerto Rican comedian and entrepreneur Silverio Pérez is credited with coining the term \"chupacabras\" soon after the first incidents were reported in the press. Shortly after the first reported incidents in Puerto Rico, other animal deaths were reported in other countries, such as the Dominican Republic, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Brazil, United States, and Mexico.  In October and December 2018, there came many reports of chupacabras suspects in Manipur, India. Many domestic animals and poultry were killed in a suspicious manner as chupacabra does. Many people said that they had seen the species (chupacabras) with their eyes. However, forensic experts opined that there was no any aspect of chupacabra but street dogs were responsible for mass killing of domestic animals and poultries after studying the remnant of corpse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reputed origin.", "content": "A five-year investigation by Benjamin Radford, documented in his 2011 book \"Tracking the Chupacabra\", concluded that the description given by the original eyewitness in Puerto Rico, Madelyne Tolentino, was based on the creature Sil in the 1995 science-fiction horror film \"Species\". The alien creature Sil is nearly identical to Tolentino’s chupacabra eyewitness account and she had seen the movie before her report: \"It was a creature that looked like the chupacabra, with spines on its back and all... The resemblance to the chupacabra was really impressive,\" Tolentino reported. Radford revealed that Tolentino \"believed that the creatures and events she saw in \"Species\" were happening in reality in Puerto Rico at the time,\" and therefore concludes that \"the most important chupacabra description cannot be trusted.\" This, Radford believes, seriously undermines the credibility of the chupacabra as a real animal.  In addition, the reports of blood-sucking by the chupacabra were never confirmed by a necropsy, the only way to conclude that the animal was drained of blood. An analysis by a veterinarian of 300 reported victims of the chupacabra found that they had not been bled dry.  Radford divided the chupacabra reports into two categories: the reports from Puerto Rico and Latin America where animals were attacked and it is supposed their blood was extracted, and the reports in the United States of mammals, mostly dogs and coyotes with mange, that people call \"chupacabra\" due to their unusual appearance.  In late October 2010, University of Michigan biologist Barry O'Connor concluded that all the chupacabra reports in the United States were simply coyotes infected with the parasite \"Sarcoptes scabiei\", whose symptoms would explain most of the features of the chupacabra: they would be left with little fur, thickened skin, and rank odor. O'Connor theorized that the attacks on goats occurred \"because these animals are greatly weakened, they're going to have a hard time hunting. So they may be forced into attacking livestock because it's easier than running down a rabbit or a deer.\"  Although several witnesses came to the conclusion that the attacks could not be the work of dogs or coyotes because they had not eaten the victim, this conclusion is incorrect. Both dogs and coyotes can kill and not consume the prey, either because they are inexperienced, or due to injury or difficulty in killing the prey. The prey can survive the attack and die afterwards from internal bleeding or circulatory shock. The presence of two holes in the neck, corresponding with the canine teeth, are to be expected since this is the only way that most land carnivores have to catch their prey.  There are reports of stray Mexican Hairless Dogs being mistaken for chupacabras.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The most common description of the chupacabra is that of a reptile-like creature, said to have leathery or scaly greenish-gray skin and sharp spines or quills running down its back. It is said to be approximately high, and stands and hops in a fashion similar to that of a kangaroo.  Another common description of the chupacabra is of a strange breed of wild dog. This form is mostly hairless and has a pronounced spinal ridge, unusually pronounced eye sockets, fangs, and claws. Unlike conventional predators, the chupacabra is said to drain all of the animal's blood (and sometimes organs) usually through three holes in the shape of a downwards-pointing triangle or through one or two holes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related legends.", "content": "\"Grunches\", a favored legend that gets its name from a road in between the Mississippi river and the Gulf of Mexico, known as lovers lane, to the locals of New Orleans.  The \"Ozark Howler\" a large cougar like animal.  The Peuchens of Chile also share similarities in their supposed habits, but instead of being dog-like they are described as winged snakes. This legend may have originated from the vampire bat, an animal endemic to the region.  In the Philippines, another legendary creature called the Sigbin shares many of chupacabra's descriptions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The popularity of the chupacabra has resulted in its being featured in many types of media.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The chupacabra or chupacabras (, literally \"goat-sucker\"; from \"chupar\", \"to suck\", and \"cabra\", \"goat\") is a legendary creature in the folklore of parts of the Americas, with its first purported sightings reported in Puerto Rico. The name comes from the animal's reported habit of attacking and drinking the blood of livestock, including goats.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972669}
{"src_title": "Eighth Crusade", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Despite the failure of the Seventh Crusade, which ended in the capture of King Louis by the Mamluks, the king did not lose interest in crusading. He continued to send financial aid and military support to the settlements in Outremer from 1254 to 1266. While the \"crusade\" of the King's brother Charles of Anjou against the Hohenstaufen Kingdom of Sicily occupied Papal attention for some years, the advance of Baibars in Syria during the early 1260s became increasingly alarming to Christendom. The War of Saint Sabas between Genoa and Venice had drawn in the Crusader States and depleted their resources and manpower. The exhausted settlements were systematically overrun by the methodical campaigns of Baibars. By 1265, he had raided Galilee and destroyed the cathedral of Nazareth, captured Caesarea and Arsuf and temporarily took Haifa. In late 1266, Louis informed Pope Clement IV that he intended to go on a crusade again.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "Louis formally took the cross on 24 March 1267 at an assembly of his nobles. A second ceremony took place on 5 June 1267 before a papal legate in Notre-Dame de Paris. Louis's son-in-law, King Theobald II of Navarre, who had also taken the cross, was also present. The response was less enthusiastic than to his calling of the Seventh Crusade in 1248, although its unpopularity may have been exaggerated by his chronicler Jean de Joinville, who was personally opposed to the venture. The crusade was set to sail from Aigues-Mortes in early summer 1270 in Genoese and Marseillois shipping. An Aragonese contingent under James I of Aragon sailed from Barcelona in September 1269, but was caught in a storm and badly damaged; most of the survivors returned home, while one squadron under the King's natural sons Pedro Fernández and Fernán Sánchez reached Acre. Too weak to engage Baibars, they soon returned to Aragon as well.  Louis' initial plan was to descend on the coast of Outremer by way of Cyprus. However, a new plan was developed in 1269, wherein the fleet would first descend on Tunis. This change has often been attributed to the King's brother Charles of Anjou, whose newly-conquered Kingdom of Sicily would benefit from a renewal of its traditional influence on Tunis. However, the details of Charles' preparations suggest that he was not initially aware of the change of plans, which originated at the French court. Louis may have thought that Tunis was an important base of supplies for Egypt; Geoffrey of Beaulieu stated that the King thought that the Khalif of Tunis, Muhammad I al-Mustansir, might be persuaded to convert to Christianity, if given military support.  Pope Clement ceded a tenth of the church's income in Navarre to King Theobald for the financing the crusade. The prior of Roncesvalles and the dean of Tudela were to oversee the collection of the tenth. The preaching of the crusade in Navarre was primarily undertaken by the Franciscans and Dominicans of Pamplona.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campaign and siege.", "content": "A large and well-organized fleet under Louis IX sailed from Aigues-Mortes about a month late, on 1 July 1270. The following day a second fleet under the King of Navarre sailed from Marseille. The two fleets joined up at Cagliari on the southern coast of Sardinia. They landed on the Tunisian coast on 18 July without facing much resistance. The crusaders built a camp near a fort built over Carthage and awaited the arrival of the Sicilian contingent under Charles of Anjou. The North African summer bred pestilence, and an epidemic of dysentery swept through the crusading ranks. Louis' Damietta-born son John Tristan died of the disease on 3 August. Soon Louis, too, fell sick, and died, in penitence, on a bed of ashes on 25 August. His brother Charles arrived just after his death.  Because of further diseases the siege of Tunis was abandoned on 30 October by the Treaty of Tunis with the sultan. In this agreement the Christians gained free trade with Tunis, and residence for monks and priests in the city was guaranteed. After hearing of the death of Louis and the evacuation of the crusaders from Tunis, Sultan Baibars of Egypt cancelled his plan to send Egyptian troops to fight Louis in Tunis. The treaty was quite beneficial to Charles of Anjou, who received one-third of a war indemnity from the Tunisians, and was promised that Hohenstaufen refugees in the sultanate would be expelled.  Prince Edward of England arrived with an English fleet the day before the crusaders left Tunis. The English returned to Sicily with the rest of the crusaders; the combined fleet was badly damaged in a storm off Trapani. At the end of April 1271, the English continued to Acre to carry on the Ninth Crusade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary response.", "content": "Bertran d'Alamanon, a diplomat in the service of Charles of Anjou, and Ricaut Bono criticised the de Papal policy of pursuing wars in Italy with money that should have gone overseas.  The failure of the Eighth Crusade, like those of its predecessors, caused a response to be crafted in Occitan poetry by the troubadours. The death of Louis of France especially sparked their creative output, notable considering the hostility which the troubadours had previously shown towards the French monarchy during the Albigensian Crusade. Three \"planhs\", songs of lament, were composed for the death of Louis IX.  Guilhem d'Autpol composed \"Fortz tristors es e salvaj'a retraire\" for Louis. Raimon Gaucelm de Bezers composed \"Qui vol aver complida amistansa\" to celebrate the preparations of the Crusade in 1268, but in 1270 he had to compose \"Ab grans trebalhs et ab grans marrimens\" in commemoration of the French king. Austorc de Segret composed \"No sai quim so, tan sui desconoissens\", a more general Crusading song, that laments Louis but also that either God or Satan is misleading Christians. He also attacks Louis' brother Charles, whom he calls the \"caps e guitz\" (head and guide) of the infidels, because he convinced Louis to attack Tunis and not the Holy Land, and he immediately negotiated a peace with the Muslims after Louis' death.  After the Crusade, the aged troubadour Peire Cardenal wrote a song, \"Totz lo mons es vestitiz et abrazatz\" (more or less: the entire world is besieged and surrounded [by falsehood]), encouraging Louis' heir, Philip III, to go to the Holy Land to aid Edward Longshanks.  Satiric verses were composed in Tunis about Louis' new plan to invade Tunis: \"O Louis, Tunis is the sister of Egypt! thus expect your ordeal! you will find your tomb here instead of the house of Ibn Lokman; and the eunuch Sobih will be here replaced by Munkir and Nakir.\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Eighth Crusade was a crusade launched by Louis IX of France against the city of Tunis in 1270. The Eighth Crusade is sometimes counted as the Seventh, if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades of Frederick II are counted as a single crusade. The Ninth Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth. The crusade is considered a failure after Louis died shortly after arriving on the shores of Tunisia, with his disease-ridden army dispersing back to Europe shortly afterwards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972670}
{"src_title": "Fidelis of Sigmaringen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born Mark Roy or Rey in 1577, in Sigmaringen, a town in modern-day Germany, then under the Principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. His father's name was John Rey. He studied law and philosophy at the University of Freiburg.  Roy subsequently taught philosophy at this university, ultimately earning the degree of Doctor of Law. During his time as a student he did not drink wine, and wore a hair-shirt. He was known for his modesty, meekness and chastity.  In 1604, Roy accompanied, as preceptor (teacher-mentor), three young Swabian gentlemen on their travels through the principal parts of Europe. During six years of travel, he attended Mass very frequently. In every town they came to, he visited the hospitals and churches, passed several hours on his knees in the presence of the Blessed Sacrament, and was generous to the poor, sometimes giving them the very clothes off his back.  Upon his return, he practiced law as a counselor or advocate, at Colmar, in Alsace, France where he came to be known as the 'poor man's lawyer'. He scrupulously forbore all invectives, detractions, and whatever might affect the reputation of any adversary. Disenchanted with the evils associated with his profession, he was determined to join his brother George as a member of the Capuchin friars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life as a friar.", "content": "Upon entering the Capuchin order, the guardian gave him the religious name of Fidelis, the Latin word for \"faithful,\" alluding to that text from the Book of Revelation which promises a crown of life to him who shall continue faithful to the end. He finished his novitiate and studies for the priesthood, presiding over his first Mass at the Capuchin friary in Fribourg (in present-day Switzerland), on October 4, 1612 (the feast day of St. Francis of Assisi, founder of the order).  As soon as Fidelis finished his course of theology, he was immediately employed in preaching and in hearing confessions. After becoming guardian of the Capuchin friary in Weltkirchen, Feldkirch (in present-day Austria). During a severe epidemic in a city, Fidelis cared for and cured many sick soldiers. Many residents of the town and neighboring places were reformed by his zealous labors, and several Calvinists were converted. The Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith commissioned Fidelis to preach in the Graubünden region of eastern Switzerland. Eight other Capuchin friars were to be his assistants, and they labored in this mission under his direction.  The Calvinists of that territory, being incensed at his success in converting their brethren, loudly threatened Fidelis' life, and he prepared himself for martyrdom. Ralph de Salis and another Calvinist gentleman were both converted by his missionary efforts. Fidelis and his companions entered into Prättigau, a small district of Graubünden, in 1622, on the Feast of the Epiphany, January 6. The effects of his ardent zeal, where the Bishop of Coire sent a lengthy and full account to the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, enraged the Calvinists in that province.  On April 24, 1622, Fidelis made his confession, celebrated Mass and then preached at Grüsch. At the end of his sermon, which he had delivered with more than ordinary zeal, he stood silent all of a sudden, with his eyes fixed upon Heaven, in ecstasy. He foretold his death to several persons in the clearest terms, and began signing his letters, \"\"P. Fidelis, prope diem esca vermium\"\" (\"Father Fidelis, in days ahead to become food for worms\"). After the service at Grüsch he and several companions traveled to Seewis. His companions noted that he was particularly cheerful.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On April 24, in a campaign organized by the Habsburgs, Fidelis was preaching under protection of some Austrian imperial soldiers in the Church at Seewis with the aim to reconvert the people of Seewis to Catholicism. During the sermon, his listeners were called \"to arms\" by the Calvinist agitators outside. Some of the people went to face the Austrian troops outside the church. Fidelis had been persuaded by the remaining Catholics to immediately flee with the Austrian troops out of Seewis, which he did, but then returned alone to Grüsch. On his way back he was confronted by 20 Calvinist soldiers who demanded unsuccessfully that he renounce the Catholic faith, and when he refused, they subsequently murdered him.  A local account:  From Grüsch he went to preach at Seewis, where, with great energy, he exhorted the Catholics to constancy in the faith. After a Calvinist had discharged his musket at him in the Church, the Catholics entreated him to leave the place. He answered that death was his gain and his joy, and that he was ready to lay down his life in God's cause. On his road back to Grüsch, he met twenty Calvinist soldiers with a minister at their head. They called him a false prophet, and urged him to embrace their sect. He answered: \"I am sent to you to confute, not to embrace your heresy. The Catholic religion is the faith of all ages, I fear not death.\" One of them beat him down to the ground by a stroke on the head with his backsword. Fidelis rose again on his knees, and stretching forth his arms in the form of a cross, said with a feeble voice \"Pardon my enemies, O Lord: blinded by passion they know not what they do. Lord Jesus, have mercy on me. Mary, Mother of God, succor me!.\" Another sword stroke clove his skull, and he fell to the ground and lay in a pool of his own blood. The soldiers, not content with this, added many stab wounds to his body with their long knives, and hacked-off his left leg, as they said, to punish him for his many journeys into those parts to preach to them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "It is said that a Catholic woman lay concealed near the place of Fidelis' martyrdom as the saint was slain. After the soldiers had left, she came out to assess the incident and found the martyr's eyes open, fixed on the heavens. He was buried by Catholics the next day.  The rebels were soon after defeated by the imperial troops, an event which the martyr had foretold them. The Protestant minister who had participated in Fidelis' martyrdom, was converted by this circumstance, made a public abjuration of Calvinism and was received into the Catholic Church.  After six months, the martyr's body was found to be incorrupt, but his head and left arm were separated from his body. The body parts were then placed into two reliquaries, one sent to the Cathedral of Coire, at the behest of the bishop, and laid under the High Altar; the other was placed in the Capuchin church at Weltkirchen, Feldkirch, Austria.  Saint Fidelis' feast day in the Catholic Church is celebrated on April 24.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fidelis of Sigmaringen, O.F.M. Cap. (1577 - 1622) was a Capuchin friar who was a major figure in the Counter-Reformation, and was martyred by his opponents at Seewis im Prättigau, now part of Switzerland. Fidelis was canonized in 1746.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972671}
{"src_title": "Harnessed bushbuck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The harnessed bushbuck is distributed from Senegal and southern Mauritania across the Sahel, east to Ethiopia, and south to Angola and the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is common across this broad geographic distribution and is found in wooded savannas, forest-savanna mosaics; penetrating into some of the rain forest zones of the southern Central African Republic, Gabon, Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of Congo; in montane forests of the Bamenda Highlands and Mount Cameroon; and in the semi-arid zones of the Ethiopian lowlands. It does not occur in the deep rain forests of the central Congo Basin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description and genetics.", "content": "The harnessed bushbuck is in general smaller than other tragelaphines, with a mainly red or yellow-brown ground colour. It is conspicuously striped with several vertical and at least one horizontal stripe and there is little to no sexual dimorphism with respect to patterning and ground colouration. It has been referred to as the harnessed antelope or \"guib harnaché\". The conspicuousness of its patterning tends to attenuate slightly in a west to east cline along the species range, being least striking in the \"decula\" population of Ethiopia. Seven other genetically-based population groupings exist, some do not correspond to previously described subspecies. The nominate \"scriptus\" population occurs in west Africa including Senegal, Gambia, Guinea and Sierra Leone, while two populations occur along the upper and lower Volta River valley in Ghana, respectively, one in the Niger Basin in Nigeria as far east as the Cross River, \"phaleratus\" south of the Bamenda Highlands through Cameroon, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo to northern Angola, \"bor\" from Lake Chad and the Chari River across the Central African Republic to the Nile, and lastly \"dodingae\" east of the Nile in lowland areas of southern Sudan and northern Uganda.  As the first of the bushbucks to be described by Pallas in 1766 as \"Antilope scripta\" from Senegal, it retains the original species name for the bushbuck. Its alternative common name, kéwel, is taken from the Wolof language spoken in Senegal. As most studies of the bushbucks have focused on the Cape bushbuck (\"Tragelaphus sylvaticus\"), very little is known about the biology of the harnessed bushbuck, except for what can be gleaned from museum specimens and hunting trophies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The harnessed bushbuck or kéwel (\"Tragelaphus scriptus\") is a small to medium-sized antelope widespread in west and central Africa. Formerly and alongside the Cape bushbuck it was generically known as the bushbuck, however, it has since been found to be a species in its own right, with a separate geographic distribution. Of all the other tragelaphine antelopes, the harnessed bushbuck is most closely related to the nyala (\"Tragelaphus angasi\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972672}
{"src_title": "Nord (French department)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Tribes of the Belgae, such as the Menapii and Nervii were the first peoples recorded in the area later known as Nord.  During the 4th and 5th Centuries, Roman rulers of \"Gallia Belgica\" secured the route from the major port of Bononia (Boulogne) to Colonia (Cologne), by co-opting Germanic peoples north-east of this corridor, such as the Tungri. In effect, the area known later as Nord became an isogloss (linguistic border) between the Germanic and Romance languages. Saxon colonisation of the region from the 5th to the 8th centuries likely shifted the isogloss further south so that, by the 9th century, most people immediately north of Lille spoke a dialect of Old Dutch. This has remained evident in the place names of the region. After the County of Flanders became part of France in the 9th century, the isogloss moved north and east.  During the 14th Century, much of the area came under the control of the Duchy of Burgundy and in subsequent centuries was therefore part of the Habsburg Netherlands (from 1482) and the Spanish Netherlands (1581).  Areas that later constituted Nord were ceded to France by treaties in 1659, 1668, and 1678, becoming the Counties of Flanders and Hainaut, and part of the Bishopric of Cambrai.  On 4 March 1790, during the French Revolution, Nord became one of the original 83 departments created to replace the counties.  Modern government policies making French the only official language have led to a decline in use of the Dutch West Flemish dialect. There are currently 20,000 speakers of a sub-dialect of West Flemish in the arrondissement of Dunkirk and it appears likely that this particular sub-dialect will be extinct within decades. There is, however, a movement to bring back use of the Dutch language as a second official language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Nord is part of the current Hauts-de-France region and is surrounded by the French departments of Pas-de-Calais and Aisne, as well as by Belgium and the North Sea.  Situated in the north of the country along the western half of the Belgian frontier, the department is unusually long and narrow. Its principal city is Lille, which with nearby Roubaix, Tourcoing and Villeneuve d'Ascq constitutes the center of a cluster of industrial and former mining towns totalling slightly over a million inhabitants. Other important cities are Valenciennes, Douai, and Dunkirk. The principal rivers are the following: Yser, Lys, Escaut, Scarpe, Sambre", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "Nord is the most heavily populated department, with a population of 2,617,939 and an area of 5,743 km2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "The President of the Departmental Council is the unaffiliated right-winger Jean-René Lecerf.  The first President of the Fifth Republic, General Charles de Gaulle, was born in Lille in the department on 22 November 1890.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "At the forefront of France's 19th century industrialisation, the area suffered severely during World War I and now faces the economic, social and environmental problems associated with the decline of coal mining with its neighbours following the earlier decline of the Lille-Roubaix textile industry.  Until recently, the department was dominated economically by coal mining, which extended through the heart of the department from neighbouring Artois into central Belgium.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nord ( or simply, ; West Flemish and, ) is a department in the Hauts-de-France region of France bordering Belgium. It was created from the western halves of the historical counties of Flanders and Hainaut, and the Bishopric of Cambrai. The modern coat of arms was inherited from the County of Flanders.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972673}
{"src_title": "Ilex aquifolium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Ilex aquifolium\" grows to tall with a woody stem as wide as, rarely or more, in diameter. The leaves are 5–12 cm long and 2–6 cm broad; they are evergreen, lasting about five years, and are dark green on the upper surface and lighter on the underside, oval, leathery, shiny, and about 5 to 9 cm long. In the young and in the lower limbs of mature trees, the leaves have three to five sharp spines on each side, pointing alternately upward and downward, while leaves of the upper branches in mature trees lack spines.  The flowers are white, four-lobed, and pollinated by bees. Holly is dioecious, meaning that there are male plants and female plants. The sex cannot be determined until the plants begin flowering, usually between 4 and 12 years of age. In male specimens, the flowers are yellowish and appear in axillary groups. In the female, flowers are isolated or in groups of three and are small and white or slightly pink, and consist of four petals and four sepals partially fused at the base.  The fruit only appears on female plants, which require male plants nearby to fertilise them. The fruit is a drupe (stone fruit), about 6–10 mm in diameter, a bright red or bright yellow, which matures around October or November; at this time they are very bitter due to the ilicin content and so are rarely eaten until late winter after frost has made them softer and more palatable. They are eaten by rodents, birds and larger herbivores. Each fruit contains 3 to 4 seeds which do not germinate until the second or third spring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Today, holly is found in western Asia and Europe in the undergrowth of oak forest and beech forest in particular, although at times it can form a dense thicket as the dominant species. It requires moist, shady environments, found within forests or in shady slopes, cliffs, and mountain gorges.  Along the west coast of the United States and Canada, from California to British Columbia, non-native English Holly has proved very invasive, quickly spreading into native forest habitat, where it thrives in shade and crowds out native species. It has been placed on the Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board's monitor list, and is a Class C invasive plant in Portland.  During the Cenozoic Era, the Mediterranean region, Europe, and northwest Africa had a wetter climate and were largely covered by laurel forests. Holly was a typical representative species of this biome, where many current species of the genus \"Ilex\" were present. With the drying of the Mediterranean Basin during the Pliocene, the laurel forests gradually retreated, replaced by more drought-tolerant sclerophyll plant communities. The modern \"Ilex aquifolium\" resulted from this change. Most of the last remaining laurel forests around the Mediterranean are believed to have died out approximately 10,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Holly is a rugged pioneer species that prefers relatively moist areas, and tolerates frost as well as summer drought. The plant is common in the garrigue and maquis and is also found in deciduous forest and oak forest.  Pure stands of hollies can grow into a labyrinth of vaults in which thrushes and deer take refuge, while smaller birds are protected among their spiny leaves. After the first frost of the season, holly fruits become soft and fall to the ground serving as important food for winter birds at a time of scarce resources.  The flowers are attractive as nectar sources for insects such as bees, wasps, flies, and small butterflies. The commonly-encountered pale patches on leaves are due to the leaf-mine insect \"Phytomyza ilicis\".  It is an invasive species on the West Coast of Canada and the United States as well as in Hawaii.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Ilex aquifolium\" is widely grown in parks and gardens in temperate regions. Numerous cultivars have been selected, of which the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-  The hybrid \"Ilex\" × \"altaclerensis\" was developed at Highclere Castle in Hampshire, England, in 1835, a cross between \"I. aquifolium\" and the tender species \"I. perado\". The following cultivars have gained the RHS AGM:-  Hollies are often used for hedges; the spiny leaves make them difficult to penetrate, and they take well to pruning and shaping.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry, toxicity, tea and traditional uses.", "content": "Holly berries contain alkaloids, caffeine, and theobromine, saponins, caffeic acid, and a yellow pigment, ilixanthin. The berries are generally regarded as toxic to humans. Accidental consumption may occur by children or pets attracted to the bright red berries. The berries are emetic, possibly due to the compound, ilicin, though caffeine and theobromine found in the plant are toxic generally to dogs and cats. The leaves of yerba mate, also in the genus \"Ilex\", are used to make a caffeinated beverage, called mate or Paraguayan tea.  In traditional medicine, holly is supposed to be diuretic, a relief from fever, and a laxative.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries, before the introduction of turnips, \"Ilex aquifolium\" was cultivated for use as winter fodder for cattle and sheep. Less spiny varieties of holly were preferred, and in practice the leaves growing near the top of the tree have far fewer spines, making them more suitable for fodder.  \"Ilex aquifolium\" was once among the traditional woods for Great Highland bagpipes before tastes turned to imported dense tropical woods such as cocuswood, ebony, and African blackwood.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ilex aquifolium, the holly, common holly, English holly, European holly, or occasionally Christmas holly, is a species of flowering plant in the family Aquifoliaceae, native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and southwest Asia. It is regarded as the type species of the genus \"Ilex\", which by association is also called \"holly\". It is an evergreen tree or shrub found, for example, in shady areas of forests of oak and in beech hedges. In the British Isles it is one of very few native evergreen trees. It has a great capacity to adapt to different conditions and is a pioneer species that repopulates the margins of forests or clearcuts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972674}
{"src_title": "Nikolai Bulganin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Bulganin was born in 1895 in Nizhny Novgorod, the son of an office worker. The family was of Russian ethnicity. He joined the Bolshevik Party in 1917 and was recruited in 1918 into the Cheka, the Bolshevik regime's political police, where he served until 1922. After the Russian Civil War, he became an industrial manager and worked in the electricity administration until 1927. He was director of the Moscow electricity supply in 1927–1931. In 1931–1937, Bulganin was chairman of the executive committee of the Moscow City Soviet.  In 1934, the 17th Congress of the Communist Party elected Bulganin a candidate member of the Central Committee. A loyal Stalinist, he was promoted rapidly as other leaders fell victim to Joseph Stalin's Great Purge of 1937–38. In July 1937, he was appointed Prime Minister of the Russian Republic (RSFSR). He became a full member of the Central Committee later that year and, in September 1938, became Deputy Prime Minister of the Soviet Union and head of the State Bank of the USSR.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "During World War II, Bulganin played a leading role in the government and Red Army, although he was never a front-line commander. He was given the rank of Colonel-General and was a member of the State Defense Committee. He was appointed Deputy Commissar for Defence in 1944 and served as Stalin's principal agent in the High Command of the Red Army. In 1947, he became Minister for the Armed Forces and was promoted to the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union. He also became a candidate member of the Politburo of the Communist Party. He was again Deputy Prime Minister of the Soviet Union, under Stalin, from 1947 to 1950. In 1948, he became a full member of the Politburo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Premiership.", "content": "After Stalin's death in March 1953, Bulganin moved into the first rank of the Soviet leadership, being appointed to the key post of Defense Minister. He was an ally of Nikita Khrushchev during his power struggle with Georgy Malenkov, and in February 1955 he succeeded Malenkov as Premier of the Soviet Union. He was generally seen as a supporter of Khrushchev's reforms and destalinisation. He and Khrushchev travelled together to India, Yugoslavia and Britain, where they were known in the press as \"the B and K show.\" In his memoirs, however, Khrushchev recounted that he believed that he \"couldn't rely on [Bulganin] fully.\" During the Suez Crisis of October–November 1956, Bulganin sent letters to the governments of the United Kingdom, France, and Israel threatening rocket attacks on London, Paris, and Tel Aviv if they did not withdraw their forces from Egypt. In a letter to Israeli prime minister David Ben-Gurion, Bulganin wrote, \"Israel is playing with the fate of peace, with the fate of its own people, in a criminal and irresponsible manner; [...] which will place a question [mark] upon the very existence of Israel as a State.\" Khrushchev, in his memoirs, admitted the threat was designed simply to divide Western opinion, especially since at the time he did not have enough ICBMs to launch the rockets, and in any case he had no intention of going to war in 1956. By 1957, however, Bulganin had come to share the doubts held about Khrushchev's policies by the opposition group (which Khrushchev and his supporters labelled the \"Anti-Party Group\") led by Vyacheslav Molotov. In June, when the dissenters tried to remove Khrushchev from power at a meeting of the Politburo, Bulganin vacillated between the two camps. When the dissenters were defeated and removed from power, Bulganin held on to his position for a while, but in March 1958, at a session of the Supreme Soviet, Khrushchev forced his resignation. He was appointed Chairman of the Soviet State Bank, a job he had held two decades before, but in September Bulganin was removed from the Central Committee and deprived of the title of Marshal. He was dispatched to Stavropol as Chairman of the Regional Economic Council, a token position, and in February 1960 he was retired on a pension.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "His wife was Elena Mikhailovna Korovina, an English teacher from a Moscow school. The couple had two children: son Leo and daughter Vera. Vera married the son of Admiral Kuznetsov.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikolai Alexandrovich Bulganin (; – 24 February 1975) was a Soviet politician who served as Minister of Defense (1953–1955) and Premier of the Soviet Union (1955–1958) under Nikita Khrushchev, following service in the Red Army and as defence minister under Joseph Stalin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972675}
{"src_title": "Progress (spacecraft)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "Progress is of much the same size and shape as Soyuz. It consists of three modules:  Reduction in mass was possible because the Progress was designed to be uncrewed and disposable. This means that there is no need for bulky life support systems and heat shields. A small amount of weight is saved due to the lack of automatic rescue crews system and lack of parachutes. The spacecraft also has no ability to split into separate modules. After undocking, the spacecraft performs a retrofire and burns up in the atmosphere.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions.", "content": "There were many small variations between the different flights, but the major upgrades are reflected in the change of name.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Progress (1978–1990).", "content": "There were 42 spacecraft built using the initial Progress design, the last one being launched in May 1990.  The bureau in charge of designing the freighter was TsKBEM (now RKK Energia). They began work on the design in mid-1973, assigning Progress the GRAU index 11F615A15. The design was complete by February 1974, and the first production model was ready for launch in November 1977. Progress 1 launched on 20 January 1978 aboard the same rocket used to launch the Soyuz. It still featured the same launch shroud as the Soyuz, though this was purely for aerodynamic purposes as the launch escape system had been deactivated.  This first version of Progress had a mass of 7,020 kg and carried 2,300 kg of cargo, or 30% of its launch mass. It had the same diameter as the Soyuz at 2.2 metres, but was 8 metres in length—slightly longer. The autonomous flight time was 3 days, the same time as that of the Soyuz ferry. It could spend one month docked. Progress always docked to the aft port of the station it was resupplying (the aft being where the main rocket engines of the station and their tankage, for refueling by the Progress, are located).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Progress-M 11F615A55 (1989-2009).", "content": "The upgraded Progress M (GRAU: 11F615A55, manufacturer's designation: 7K-TGM) was first launched in August 1989. The first 43 flights all went to Mir; following Mir's re-entry, Progress was used as the resupply vehicle for the International Space Station. As of August 2014, there have been 56 flights to the ISS and more are scheduled.  The Progress M is essentially the same spacecraft as the Progress, but it features improvements based on the Soyuz T and TM designs. It can spend up to 30 days in autonomous flight and is able to carry 100 kg more. Also, unlike the old Progress crafts, it can return items to Earth. This is accomplished by using the Raduga capsule, which can carry up to 150 kg of cargo. It is 1.5 m long and 60 cm in diameter and has a \"dry mass\" of 350 kg. Progress M can also dock to the forward port of the station and still transfer fuel. It uses the same rendezvous system as the Soyuz, and it features solar panels for the first time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Progress-М 11F615A60 (2008-2015).", "content": "A new modification of the Progress spacecraft, with new TsVM-101 digital flight computer and MBITS digital telemetry system, was first launched on 26 November 2008, at 12:38 UTC from the Kazakhstan's Baikonur Cosmodrome spaceport aboard a Russian Soyuz rocket. The first spacecraft of this series was Progress M-01M.  The spacecraft belongs to the so-called 400 series (GRAU: 11F615A60), and all modifications applied to it were subsequently used in the production of new Soyuz-TMA-M crewed spacecraft.  Progress M-27M was launched on 28 April 2015, but communication with the vessel was lost soon after, and it was destroyed as it re-entered the atmosphere on 8 May 2015. The last launch was Progress M-29M", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Progress M1 (2000-2004).", "content": "Progress M1 is another variant, capable of carrying more propellant (but less total cargo) to the space stations. There have been 11 of these flights.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Progress M2.", "content": "Progress M2 was a planned variant, which was a proposed design for the proposed Mir-2 space station, but was dropped due to financial issues. The M2 variant would have a larger service module for larger cargo or space station modules and would have been launched on a Zenit rocket as the spacecraft is bigger.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Progress MS (2015-present).", "content": "Progress MS is an improved variant which first launched on 21 December 2015. It has the following improvements:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Current status.", "content": "Progress spacecraft are used to resupply the International Space Station as of 2020. Between 1 February 2003 and 26 July 2005, they were the only spacecraft available to transport large quantities of supplies to the station, as the Space Shuttle fleet was grounded after the breakup of \"Columbia\" at the end of STS-107. For ISS missions, the Progress M1 variant is used, which moves the water tanks from the propellant and refueling module to the pressurized section, and as a result is able to carry more propellant. Progress M-67, the final flight of a Progress-M spacecraft, was launched 24 July 2009 on a Soyuz-U.  On 9 July 2018, Progress MS-09 broke a previous record by reaching the ISS in 3 hours and 48 minutes, carrying about 2450 kg of cargo and supplies. It delivered food, fuel and supplies, including 705 kg of propellant, 50 kg of oxygen and air, 420 kg of water.  The European Space Agency (ESA) operated its own type of robotic supply freighter, the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV). The first of these, named \"Jules Verne\", was launched at 04:03 GMT on 9 March 2008. ATVs can carry up to 8.85 tonnes of cargo into space, roughly three times as much as the Progress, and were launched annually by Ariane 5 rockets from 2011-2014 as part of ESA contribution to ISS upkeep. The design is adopted as the Service Module of the Orion spacecraft.  NASA's planned Orion spacecraft was initially designed to have an uncrewed variant of the Crew module similar to Progress, however this capability has been removed on 2009. SpaceX's commercial Dragon spacecraft and Northrop Grumman's Cygnus spacecraft also handle American logistics to the International Space Station.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Progress () is a Russian expendable cargo spacecraft. Its purpose is to deliver the supplies needed to sustain a human presence in orbit. While it does not carry a crew, it can be boarded by astronauts when docked to a space station, hence it is classified as \"crewed\" by its manufacturer. Progress is derived from the crewed Soyuz spacecraft and launches on the same vehicle, a Soyuz rocket.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972676}
{"src_title": "Melk Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The abbey was founded in 1089 when Leopold II, Margrave of Austria gave one of his castles to Benedictine monks from Lambach Abbey. A monastic school, the Stiftsgymnasium Melk, was founded in the twelfth century, and the monastic library soon became renowned for its extensive manuscript collection. The monastery's scriptorium was also a major site for the production of manuscripts. In the fifteenth century the abbey became the centre of the Melk Reform movement which reinvigorated the monastic life of Austria and Southern Germany.  Today's Baroque abbey was built between 1702 and 1736 to designs by Jakob Prandtauer. Particularly noteworthy are the abbey church with frescos by Johann Michael Rottmayr and the library with countless medieval manuscripts, including a famed collection of musical manuscripts and frescos by Paul Troger.  Due to its fame and academic stature, Melk managed to escape dissolution under Emperor Joseph II when many other Austrian abbeys were seized and dissolved between 1780 and 1790. The abbey managed to survive other threats to its existence during the Napoleonic Wars, and also in the period following the Anschluss in 1938, when the school and a large part of the abbey were confiscated by the state.  The school was returned to the abbey after the Second World War and now caters for nearly 900 pupils of both sexes.  Since 1625 the abbey has been a member of the Austrian Congregation, now within the Benedictine Confederation.  In his novel \"The Name of the Rose\", Umberto Eco named one of the protagonists \"Adso of Melk\" as a tribute to the abbey and its famous library.  Among its alumni was the nineteenth-century Austrian dramatist and short-story writer, Friedrich Halm.  Melk Abbey is also the metaphorical climax (\"a peak in a mountain range of discovery\") of Patrick Leigh Fermor's autobiographical account of his walking tour across pre-WW II Europe in \"A Time of Gifts\", which includes a description of the abbey at that time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restoration Efforts.", "content": "The first fire to impact the Melk Abbey and its invaluable library was in 1297. This left the structures destroyed. This fire, plague and famine lead to the “Melk Reform” movement in the early fifteenth century. Most of the manuscripts Melk is famous for housing were saved by Monks. During the 1683 Turkish invasion, the Melk Abbey also suffered devastation.  The abbey that stands today, built in 1702, caught fire in 1974. This second fire marred the ornamented rooms and damaged the interior and its art, leading to its restoration from 1978 to 1995. The nave of the abbey was a part of the restoration. Eight pounds of gold bullion was used to restore the statues and altars. The restoration process also focused on the church’s frescoes and brown marble columns. The Marble Hall, a popular guest attraction, was also restored during this period. These restoration efforts leave the abbey similar to its 1740 grandeur.  In July 2019, Christine Glaßner, from the Austrian Academy of Sciences' Institute of Medieval Research, while researching the abbey's archives, discovered a previously-unknown strip of parchment—measuring by —bearing 60 partial lines of the poem \"Der Rosendorn\". The parchment, which had been subsequently recycled into the binding of a much later book, has been dated to around 1300; this is nearly 200 years earlier than it was previously thought to have been written.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Euro commemorative coin.", "content": "Melk Abbey was recently selected as the main motif of a 10 euro collectors' coin: the Austrian Melk Abbey commemorative coin, minted on April 18, 2007. The obverse shows a view up to the façade of the abbey church and its two side wings from a low level. The twin baroque towers and the great dome of the church behind them can be seen. In the lower right corner the coat-of-arms of the Abbey of Melk (the crossed keys of St. Peter) can be seen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Melk Abbey () is a Benedictine abbey above the town of Melk, Lower Austria, Austria, on a rocky outcrop overlooking the Danube river, adjoining the Wachau valley. The abbey contains the tomb of Saint Coloman of Stockerau and the remains of several members of the House of Babenberg, Austria's first ruling dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972677}
{"src_title": "Aurignacian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Main characteristics.", "content": "The Aurignacians are part of the wave of anatomically modern humans thought to have spread from Africa through the Near East into Paleolithic Europe, and became known as European early modern humans, or Cro-Magnons. This wave of anatomically modern humans includes fossils of the Ahmarian, Bohunician, Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean and Magdalenian cultures, extending throughout the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), covering the period of roughly 48,000 to 15,000 years ago.  The Aurignacian tool industry is characterized by worked bone or antler points with grooves cut in the bottom. Their flint tools include fine blades and bladelets struck from prepared cores rather than using crude flakes. The people of this culture also produced some of the earliest known cave art, such as the animal engravings at Trois Freres and the paintings at Chauvet cave in southern France. They also made pendants, bracelets, and ivory beads, as well as three-dimensional figurines. Perforated rods, thought to be spear throwers or shaft wrenches, also are found at their sites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association with modern humans.", "content": "The sophistication and self-awareness demonstrated in the work led archaeologists to consider the makers of Aurignacian artifacts the first modern humans in Europe. Human remains and Late Aurignacian artifacts found in juxtaposition support this inference. Although finds of human skeletal remains in direct association with Proto-Aurignacian technologies are scarce in Europe, the few available are also probably modern human. The best dated association between Aurignacian industries and human remains are those of at least five individuals from the Mladeč caves in the Czech Republic, dated by direct radiocarbon measurements of the skeletal remains to at least 31,000–32,000 years old. At least three robust, but typically anatomically-modern individuals from the Peștera cu Oase cave in Romania, were dated directly from the bones to ca. 35,000–36,000 BP. Although not associated directly with archaeological material, these finds are within the chronological and geographical range of the Early Aurignacian in southeastern Europe. On genetic evidence it has been argued that both Aurignacian and the Dabba culture of North Africa came from an earlier big game hunting Levantine Aurignacian culture of the Levant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art.", "content": "Aurignacian figurines have been found depicting faunal representations of the time period associated with now-extinct mammals, including mammoths, rhinoceros, and tarpan, along with anthropomorphized depictions that may be interpreted as some of the earliest evidence of religion.  Many 35,000-year-old animal figurines were discovered in the Vogelherd Cave in Germany. One of the horses, amongst six tiny mammoth and horse ivory figures found previously at Vogelherd, was sculpted as skillfully as any piece found throughout the Upper Paleolithic. The production of ivory beads for body ornamentation was also important during the Aurignacian. The famous paintings in Chauvet cave date from this period.  Typical statuettes consist of women that are called Venus figurines. They emphasize the hips, breasts, and other body parts associated with fertility. Feet and arms are lacking or minimized. One of the most ancient figurines was discovered in 2008 in the Hohle Fels cave in Germany. The figurine has been dated to 35,000 years ago.  Aurignacian finds include bone flutes. The oldest undisputed musical instrument was the Hohle Fels Flute discovered in the Hohle Fels cave in Germany's Swabian Alb in 2008. The flute is made from a vulture's wing bone perforated with five finger holes, and dates to approximately 35,000 years ago. A flute was also found at the Abri Blanchard in southwestern France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tools.", "content": "Stone tools from the Aurignacian culture are known as Mode 4, characterized by blades (rather than flakes, typical of mode 2 Acheulean and mode 3 Mousterian) from prepared cores. Also seen throughout the Upper Paleolithic is a greater degree of tool standardization and the use of bone and antler for tools. Based on the research of scraper reduction and paleoenvironment, the early Aurignacian group moved seasonally over greater distances to procure reindeer herds within cold and open environments than those of the earlier tool cultures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Asia.", "content": "Lebanon/Palestine/Israel region  Siberia", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "In a genetic study published in \"Nature\" in May 2016, the remains of an Aurignacian individual from modern-day Belgium were examined. He belonged to the paternal haplogroup C1a and the maternal haplogroup M.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Aurignacian () is an archaeological tradition of the Upper Palaeolithic associated with European early modern humans (EEMH) lasting from 43,000 to 26,000 years ago. The Upper Paleolithic developed in Europe some time after the Levant, where the Emiran period and the Ahmarian period form the first periods of the Upper Paleolithic, corresponding to the first stages of the expansion of \"Homo sapiens\" out of Africa. They then migrated to Europe and created the first European culture of modern humans, the Aurignacian.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972678}
{"src_title": "Jiří Dopita", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Early in his career, Dopita attracted little notice as a professional prospect. At age 23, Dopita was selected in the sixth round of the 1992 NHL Entry Draft by the Boston Bruins, but never came to North America while the Bruins owned his rights. However, starting in 1993, Dopita joined the German Bundesliga with Eisbären Berlin, averaging over a point per game in the Bundeliga and with Berlin's later entry in the Deutsche Eishockey Liga.  Starting in the 1995–96 season, Dopita returned to his native Czech Republic and played with HC Vsetín of the Czech Extraliga. Dopita continued his scoring pace in the Czech Republic, averaging over a point per game every year in six seasons with Vsetín, compiling 315 career points, and being selected again in the NHL draft, this time in 1998 being selected in the 5th round at 123rd overall by the New York Islanders. However, once again, Dopita would not play with the Islanders. And at the 1999 NHL Entry Draft, his right were traded to the Florida Panthers for a 5th round choice that year.  By the late 1990s, some, such as the Hockey News, considered Dopita the best player outside the NHL. He was a member of the gold medal-winning Czech team at the 1998 Winter Olympics, and was named Czech player of the year in 2001, the first non-NHLer to win the award since Roman Turek in 1994. When it became clear that Dopita still did not seem to have interest in coming to North America, his NHL rights were moved again at the 2001 NHL Entry Draft to the Philadelphia Flyers for a 2nd round selection that year, the Flyers made a concerted effort to bring Dopita to the NHL. The Flyers had convinced Dopita's former Vsetin HC teammate Roman Cechmanek to come to North America prior to the previous season and the 32-year-old Dopita agreed to join him in Philadelphia for the 2001–02 NHL season.  However, Dopita's time in the NHL was to be disappointing. He recorded respectable totals getting limited ice time with Philadelphia, including a four-goal game against the Atlanta Thrashers, but a knee injury limited him to 52 games. After the season, his rights were traded to the Edmonton Oilers, where he was expected to be a top-two centre. However, Dopita had a terrible season, recording only six points in 21 games.  After only two years in the NHL, Dopita returned to the Czech Republic, this time with Pardubice HC. In his second year with Pardubice, at age 36, Dopita recorded less than a point per game in European competition for the first time since his time with Olomouc HC. For 2005–06, Dopita joined HC JME Znojemští Orli and has remained with the team for 2006–07 season too.  On 5 May 2006 Dopita became the majority shareholder of Olomouc HC.  Dopita is currently the head coach of VHK Vsetín.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jiří Dopita (, born 2 December 1968 in Šumperk, Czechoslovakia) is former Czech professional ice hockey player, and currently hockey coach. He has played in the Czech Elite League most of his career. He briefly played in the National Hockey League. Dopita has primarily played center throughout his career.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972679}
{"src_title": "Porosity", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Void fraction in two-phase flow.", "content": "In gas-liquid two-phase flow, the void fraction is defined as the fraction of the flow-channel volume that is occupied by the gas phase or, alternatively, as the fraction of the cross-sectional area of the channel that is occupied by the gas phase.  Void fraction usually varies from location to location in the flow channel (depending on the two-phase flow pattern). It fluctuates with time and its value is usually time averaged. In separated (i.e., non-homogeneous) flow, it is related to volumetric flow rates of the gas and the liquid phase, and to the ratio of the velocity of the two phases (called \"slip ratio\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Porosity in earth sciences and construction.", "content": "Used in geology, hydrogeology, soil science, and building science, the porosity of a porous medium (such as rock or sediment) describes the fraction of void space in the material, where the void may contain, for example, air or water. It is defined by the ratio:  where \"V\" is the volume of void-space (such as fluids) and \"V\" is the total or bulk volume of material, including the solid and void components. Both the mathematical symbols formula_2 and formula_3 are used to denote porosity.  Porosity is a fraction between 0 and 1, typically ranging from less than 0.005 for solid granite to more than 0.5 for peat and clay.  The porosity of a rock, or sedimentary layer, is an important consideration when attempting to evaluate the potential volume of water or hydrocarbons it may contain. Sedimentary porosity is a complicated function of many factors, including but not limited to: rate of burial, depth of burial, the nature of the connate fluids, the nature of overlying sediments (which may impede fluid expulsion). One commonly used relationship between porosity and depth is given by the Athy (1930) equation:  where formula_5 is the surface porosity, formula_6 is the compaction coefficient (m) and formula_7 is depth (m).  A value for porosity can alternatively be calculated from the bulk density formula_8, saturating fluid density formula_9 and particle density formula_10:  If the void space is filled with air, the following simpler form may be used: Normal particle density is assumed to be approximately 2.65 g/cm (silica), although a better estimation can be obtained by examining the lithology of the particles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Porosity and hydraulic conductivity.", "content": "Porosity can be proportional to hydraulic conductivity; for two similar sandy aquifers, the one with a higher porosity will typically have a higher hydraulic conductivity (more open area for the flow of water), but there are many complications to this relationship. The principal complication is that there is not a direct proportionality between porosity and hydraulic conductivity but rather an inferred proportionality. There is a clear proportionality between pore throat radii and hydraulic conductivity. Also, there tends to be a proportionality between pore throat radii and pore volume. If the proportionality between pore throat radii and porosity exists then a proportionality between porosity and hydraulic conductivity may exist. However, as grain size or sorting decreases the proportionality between pore throat radii and porosity begins to fail and therefore so does the proportionality between porosity and hydraulic conductivity. For example: clays typically have very low hydraulic conductivity (due to their small pore throat radii) but also have very high porosities (due to the structured nature of clay minerals), which means clays can hold a large volume of water per volume of bulk material, but they do not release water rapidly and therefore have low hydraulic conductivity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sorting and porosity.", "content": "Well sorted (grains of approximately all one size) materials have higher porosity than similarly sized poorly sorted materials (where smaller particles fill the gaps between larger particles). The graphic illustrates how some smaller grains can effectively fill the pores (where all water flow takes place), drastically reducing porosity and hydraulic conductivity, while only being a small fraction of the total volume of the material. For tables of common porosity values for earth materials, see the \"further reading\" section in the Hydrogeology article.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Porosity of rocks.", "content": "Consolidated rocks (e.g., sandstone, shale, granite or limestone) potentially have more complex \"dual\" porosities, as compared with alluvial sediment. This can be split into connected and unconnected porosity. Connected porosity is more easily measured through the volume of gas or liquid that can flow into the rock, whereas fluids cannot access unconnected pores.  Porosity is the ratio of pore volume to its total volume. Porosity is controlled by: rock type, pore distribution, cementation, diagenetic history and composition. Porosity is not controlled by grain size, as the volume of between-grain space is related only to the method of grain packing.  Rocks normally decrease in porosity with age and depth of burial. Tertiary age Gulf Coast sandstones are in general more porous than Cambrian age sandstones. There are exceptions to this rule, usually because of the depth of burial and thermal history.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Porosity of soil.", "content": "Porosity of surface soil typically decreases as particle size increases. This is due to soil aggregate formation in finer textured surface soils when subject to soil biological processes. Aggregation involves particulate adhesion and higher resistance to compaction. Typical bulk density of sandy soil is between 1.5 and 1.7 g/cm. This calculates to a porosity between 0.43 and 0.36. Typical bulk density of clay soil is between 1.1 and 1.3 g/cm. This calculates to a porosity between 0.58 and 0.51. This seems counterintuitive because clay soils are termed \"heavy\", implying \"lower\" porosity. Heavy apparently refers to a gravitational moisture content effect in combination with terminology that harkens back to the relative force required to pull a tillage implement through the clayey soil at field moisture content as compared to sand.  Porosity of subsurface soil is lower than in surface soil due to compaction by gravity. Porosity of 0.20 is considered normal for unsorted gravel size material at depths below the biomantle. Porosity in finer material below the aggregating influence of pedogenesis can be expected to approximate this value.  Soil porosity is complex. Traditional models regard porosity as continuous. This fails to account for anomalous features and produces only approximate results. Furthermore, it cannot help model the influence of environmental factors which affect pore geometry. A number of more complex models have been proposed, including fractals, bubble theory, cracking theory, Boolean grain process, packed sphere, and numerous other models. The characterisation of pore space in soil is an associated concept.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Porosity of fabric or aerodynamic porosity.", "content": "The ratio of holes to solid that the wind \"sees\". Aerodynamic porosity is less than visual porosity, by an amount that depends on the constriction of holes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Die casting porosity.", "content": "Casting porosity is a consequence of one or more of the following: gasification of contaminants at molten-metal temperatures; shrinkage that takes place as molten metal solidifies; and unexpected or uncontrolled changes in temperature or humidity.  While porosity is inherent in die casting manufacturing, its presence may lead to component failure where pressure integrity is a critical characteristic. Porosity may take on several forms from interconnected micro-porosity, folds, and inclusions to macro porosity visible on the part surface. The end result of porosity is the creation of a leak path through the walls of a casting that prevents the part from holding pressure. Porosity may also lead to out-gassing during the painting process, leaching of plating acids and tool chatter in machining pressed metal components.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Measuring porosity.", "content": "Several methods can be employed to measure porosity: where", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void (i.e. \"empty\") spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0% and 100%. Strictly speaking, some tests measure the \"accessible void\", the total amount of void space accessible from the surface (cf. closed-cell foam).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972680}
{"src_title": "Winifred Wagner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and marriage to Siegfried Wagner.", "content": "Winifred Marjorie Williams was born in Hastings, England, to John Williams, a journalist and critic, and his wife, Emily Florence Karop. Winifred lost both her parents before the age of two and was initially raised in a number of homes. Eight years later she was adopted by a distant German relative of her mother, Henrietta Karop, and her husband Karl Klindworth, a musician and a friend of Richard Wagner.  The Bayreuth Festival was seen as a family business, with the leadership to be passed from Richard Wagner to his son Siegfried Wagner, but Siegfried, who was secretly bisexual, showed little interest in marriage. It was arranged that Winifred Klindworth, as she was called at the time, aged 17, would meet Siegfried Wagner, aged 45, at the Bayreuth Festival in 1914. A year later they were married. It was hoped that the marriage would end Siegfried's homosexual encounters and the associated costly scandals, and provide an heir to carry on the family business.  Following their marriage on 22 September 1915, they had four children in rapid succession:  After the death of Siegfried Wagner in 1930, Winifred Wagner took over the Bayreuth Festival, running it until the end of World War II.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Friendship with Adolf Hitler.", "content": "In 1923, Winifred met Adolf Hitler, who greatly admired Wagner's music. When Hitler was jailed for his part in the Munich Beer Hall Putsch, Winifred sent him food parcels and stationery on which Hitler's autobiography \"Mein Kampf\" may have been written. In the late 1930s, she served as Hitler's personal translator during treaty negotiations with Britain.  Although Winifred remained personally faithful to Hitler, she denied that she had ever supported the Nazi party. Her relationship with Hitler grew so close that by 1933 there were rumours of impending marriage (there were similar rumours about her love for English novelist Hugh Walpole). \"Haus Wahnfried\", the Wagner home in Bayreuth, became Hitler's favorite retreat. Hitler gave the festival government assistance and tax exempt status, and treated Winifred's children solicitously.  According to biographer Brigitte Hamann, Winifred Wagner was reported to be \"disgusted\" by Hitler's persecution of the Jews. In one notable incident, in the late 1930s, a letter from her to Hitler prevented Hedwig and Alfred Pringsheim (whose daughter Katia was married to Thomas Mann) from being arrested by the Gestapo.  According to Gottfried Wagner, Winifred's grandson, she never admitted the error of her ways. After the war, in true friendship, her posthumous devotion to the man she cryptically referred to as \"USA\" – for \"Unser Seliger Adolf\" (our blessed Adolf) – remained undimmed. She corresponded with Hitler for nearly two decades. Scholars have not been allowed to see the letters, which have been kept locked away by one of Winifred's grandchildren, Amélie Lafferentz, who has insisted that they not be released until the whole family agrees to do so.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Bayreuth years.", "content": "Like Hitler, Winifred Wagner believed profoundly in the rite of a secular cult of German nationalism, of Nordic self-realization, and \"völkisch\" aspiration. After the collapse of the Third Reich, a denazification court banned her from the Bayreuth Festival, which she passed to her sons Wieland and Wolfgang.  In the 1950s she again became a political hostess. Her grandson Gottfried Wagner later recalled that \"My aunt Friedelind was outraged when my grandmother again slowly blossomed as the first lady of right-wing groups and received political friends such as Emmy Göring, Ilse Hess, the former NPD Adolf von Thadden, Gerdy Troost, the wife of the Nazi architect and friend of Hitler Paul Ludwig Troost, the British fascist leader Oswald Mosley, the German NS-movie director Karl Ritter and the racist author and former Senator of the Reich Hans Severus Ziegler\".  In 1975, Winifred Wagner gave a filmed interview to Hans-Jürgen Syberberg in which she appeared unrepentant concerning her past. \"To have met him [Hitler],\" she declared, \"is an experience I would not have missed.\" She was also interviewed that year by David Irving, who reported that she had said she would still welcome Hitler at her door, and also that she had discussed with Hitler the saving of some individuals.  She died in Überlingen, one of the best preserved medieval sites, on the shore of Lake Constance, on 5 March 1980 at the age of 82, and was interred at Bayreuth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The friendship of Winifred and Hitler is treated fancifully in A. N. Wilson's novel, \"Winnie and Wolf\" (2007).  \"The Music Keeper\", an American play from 1982 by Elliot Tiber and Andre Ernotte, takes place two days before Winifred Wagner's death and is about Frau Wagner's relationship with Adolf Hitler and her obsession with the Bayreuth mystique and Hitler's malign mission.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Winifred Marjorie Wagner (née Williams; 23 June 1897 – 5 March 1980) was the English-born wife of Siegfried Wagner, the son of Richard Wagner, and ran the Bayreuth Festival after her husband's death in 1930 until the end of World War II in 1945. She was a friend and supporter of Adolf Hitler (himself a Wagner enthusiast), and she and Hitler maintained a regular correspondence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972681}
{"src_title": "John Maynard Smith", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "John Maynard Smith was born in London, the son of the surgeon Sidney Maynard Smith, but following his father's death in 1928, the family moved to Exmoor, where he became interested in natural history. Quite unhappy with the lack of formal science education at Eton College, Maynard Smith took it upon himself to develop an interest in Darwinian evolutionary theory and mathematics, after having read the work of old Etonian J. B. S. Haldane, whose books were in the school's library despite the bad reputation Haldane had at Eton for his communism. He became an atheist at age 14.  On leaving school, Maynard Smith joined the Communist Party of Great Britain and started studying engineering at Trinity College, Cambridge. When the Second World War broke out in 1939, he defied his party's line and volunteered for service. He was rejected, however, because of poor eyesight and was told to finish his engineering degree, which he did in 1941. He later quipped that \"under the circumstances, my poor eyesight was a selective advantage—it stopped me getting shot\". The year of his graduation, he married Sheila Matthew, and they later had two sons and one daughter (Tony, Carol, and Julian). Between 1942 and 1947, he applied his degree to military aircraft design.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second degree.", "content": "Maynard Smith, having decided that aircraft were “noisy and old-fashioned”, then took a change of career, entering University College London (UCL) to study fruit fly genetics under Haldane. After graduating he became a lecturer in Zoology at UCL between 1952 and 1965, where he directed the \"Drosophila\" lab and conducted research on population genetics. He published a popular Penguin book, \"The Theory of Evolution\", in 1958 (with subsequent editions in 1966, 1975, 1993).  He became gradually less attracted to communism and became a less active member, finally leaving the Party in 1956 like many other intellectuals, after the Soviet Union brutally suppressed the Hungarian Revolution (Haldane had left the party in 1950 after becoming similarly disillusioned).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "University of Sussex.", "content": "In 1962 he was one of the founding members of the University of Sussex and was a Dean between 1965–85. He subsequently became a professor emeritus. Prior to his death the building housing much of Life Sciences at Sussex was renamed the John Maynard Smith Building, in his honour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Evolution and the Theory of Games\".", "content": "In 1973 Maynard Smith formalised a central concept in evolutionary game theory called the evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS), based on a verbal argument by George R. Price. This area of research culminated in his 1982 book \"Evolution and the Theory of Games\". The Hawk-Dove game is arguably his single most influential game theoretical model.  He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1977. In 1986 he was awarded the Darwin Medal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evolution of sex and other major transitions in evolution.", "content": "Maynard Smith published a book entitled \"The Evolution of Sex\" which explored in mathematical terms, the notion of the \"two-fold cost of sex\". During the late 1980s he also became interested in the other major evolutionary transitions with the evolutionary biologist Eörs Szathmáry. Together they wrote an influential 1995 book \"The Major Transitions in Evolution\", a seminal work which continues to contribute to ongoing issues in evolutionary biology. A popular science version of the book, entitled \"The Origins of Life: From the birth of life to the origin of language\" was published in 1999.  In 1991 he was awarded the Balzan Prize for Genetics and Evolution \"For his powerful analysis of evolutionary theory and of the role of sexual reproduction as a critical factor in evolution and in the survival of species; for his mathematical models applying the theory of games to evolutionary problems\" (motivation of the Balzan General Prize Committee). In 1995 he was awarded the Linnean Medal by The Linnean Society and in 1999 he was awarded the Crafoord Prize jointly with Ernst Mayr and George C. Williams. In 2001 he was awarded the Kyoto Prize.  In his honour, the European Society for Evolutionary Biology has an award for extraordinary young evolutionary biology researchers named \"The John Maynard Smith Prize\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Animal Signals\".", "content": "His final book, \"Animal Signals\", co-authored with David Harper, on signalling theory was published in 2003.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "He died on 19 April 2004. He is survived by his wife Sheila and their children.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The John Maynard Smith Archive is housed at the British Library. The papers can be accessed through the British Library catalogue.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Maynard Smith (6 January 1920 – 19 April 2004) was a British theoretical and mathematical evolutionary biologist and geneticist. Originally an aeronautical engineer during the Second World War, he took a second degree in genetics under the well-known biologist J. B. S. Haldane. Maynard Smith was instrumental in the application of game theory to evolution with George R. Price, and theorised on other problems such as the evolution of sex and signalling theory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972682}
{"src_title": "Sophie Marceau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "She was born 17 November 1966 in Paris, the second child of Simone (née Morisset), a shop assistant (d. 2016), and Benoît Maupu, a truck driver. Her parents divorced when she was nine years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film career.", "content": "In February 1980, Marceau and her mother came across a model agency looking for teenagers. Marceau had photos taken at the agency, but did not think anything would come of it. At the same time, Françoise Menidrey, the casting director for Claude Pinoteau's \"La Boum\" (1980), asked modeling agencies to recommend a new teenager for the project. After viewing the rushes, Alain Poiré, the director of the Gaumont Film Company, signed Marceau to a long-term contract. \"La Boum\" was a hit movie, not only in France, where 4,378,500 tickets were sold, but also in several other European countries. In 1981, Marceau made her singing debut with French singer François Valéry on record \"Dream in Blue\", written by Pierre Delanoë. She rejected the main role in a soon-to-be controversial film, Beau-père, in which she would have played as a teenage girl who seduces her step-father for a sexual relationship. The role was eventually played by Ariel Besse.  In 1982, at age 16, Marceau bought back her contract with Gaumont for one million French francs. She borrowed most of the money. After starring in the sequel film \"La Boum 2\" (1982), Marceau focused on more dramatic roles, including the historical drama \"Fort Saganne\" in 1984 with Gérard Depardieu and Catherine Deneuve, \"Joyeuses Pâques\" (\"Happy Easter\") in 1984, \"L'amour braque\" and \"Police\" in 1985, and \"Descente aux enfers\" (\"Descent into Hell\") in 1986. In 1988, she starred in \"L'Étudiante\" (\"The Student\") and the historical adventure film \"Chouans!\". That year, Marceau was named Best Romantic Actress at the International Festival of Romantic Movies for her role in \"Chouans!\" In 1989, Marceau starred in \"My Nights Are More Beautiful Than Your Days\", which was directed by her long-time boyfriend Andrzej Zulawski. In 1990, she starred in \"Pacific Palisades\" and \"La note bleue\", her third film directed by her companion. In 1991, she ventured into the theater in \"Eurydice\", which earned Marceau the Moliere Award for Best Female Newcomer. Throughout the 1990s, Marceau began making less-dramatic films, such as the comedy \"Fanfan\" in 1993 and \"Revenge of the Musketeers\" (\"La fille de d'Artagnan\") in 1994—both popular in Europe and abroad. That year, she returned to the theatre as Eliza Doolittle in \"Pygmalion\".  Marceau achieved international recognition in 1995 playing the role of Princess Isabelle in Mel Gibson's \"Braveheart\". That year, she was part of an ensemble of international actors in the French film directed by Michelangelo Antonioni and Wim Wenders, \"Beyond the Clouds\". In 1997, she continued her string of successful films with William Nicholson's \"Firelight\", filmed in England, Véra Belmont's \"Marquise\", filmed in France, and Bernard Rose's \"Anna Karenina\", filmed in Russia. In 1999, she played Hippolyta in \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", and the villainess Bond girl Elektra King in \"The World Is Not Enough\". In 2000, Marceau teamed up again with her then-boyfriend Andrzej Zulawski to film \"Fidelity\", playing the role of a talented photographer who takes a job at a scandal-mongering tabloid and becomes romantically involved with an eccentric children's book publisher. In recent years, Marceau has continued to appear in a wide variety of roles, mainly in French films, playing a widowed nurse in \"Nelly\" (\"À ce soir\") in 2004, an undercover police agent in \"Anthony Zimmer\" in 2005, and the troubled daughter of a murdered film star in \"Trivial\" in 2007. In 2008, Marceau played a member of the French Resistance movement in \"Female Agents\", and a struggling single mother in \"LOL (Laughing Out Loud)\". In 2009, she teamed up with Monica Bellucci in \"Don't Look Back\" about the mysterious connection between two women who have never met. In 2010, Marceau played a successful business executive forced to confront her unhappy childhood in \"With Love... from the Age of Reason\" (\"L'âge de raison\").  In 2012, Marceau played a 40-something career woman who falls in love with a young jazz musician in \"Happiness Never Comes Alone\". In 2013, she appeared in \"Arrêtez-moi\" (\"Arrest Me\") as a woman who shows up at a police station and confesses to the murder of her abusive husband several years earlier.  She was selected to be on the jury for the main competition section of the 2015 Cannes Film Festival.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Author and director.", "content": "In 1995, Marceau wrote a semi-autobiographical novel, \"Menteuse\" (the English translation, \"Telling Lies\", was published in 2001). Marceau's work was described as \"an exploration of female identity\".  In 2002, Marceau made her directorial debut in the feature film \"Speak to Me of Love\", for which she was named Best Director at the Montreal World Film Festival. The film starred Judith Godrèche. It was her second directorial effort, following her nine-minute short film \"L'aube à l'envers\" in 1995, which also starred Godrèche. In 2007, she directed \"Trivial\", her second feature film.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "From 1985 to 2001, Marceau had a relationship with director Andrzej Żuławski. Their son Vincent was born in July 1995. In 2001, Marceau separated from Żuławski and began a six-year relationship with producer Jim Lemley. They have a daughter, Juliette (born June 2002 in London).  Marceau also had a relationship with Christopher Lambert beginning in 2007, with whom she appeared in the films \"Trivial\" and \"Cartagena\". They announced their separation on 11 July 2014.  Marceau is a classically trained cellist, as seen in the 1999 film \"Lost and Found\". She is bilingual (French and English).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sophie Marceau (; born Sophie Danièle Sylvie Maupu, 17 November 1966) is a French actress, director, screenwriter, and author. As a teenager, Marceau achieved popularity with her debut films \"La Boum\" (1980) and \"La Boum 2\" (1982), receiving a César Award for Most Promising Actress. She became a film star in Europe with a string of successful films, including \"L'Étudiante\" (1988), \"Pacific Palisades\" (1990), \"Fanfan\" (1993), and \"Revenge of the Musketeers\" (1994). Marceau became an international film star with her performances in \"Braveheart\" (1995), \"Firelight\" (1997), and the 19th James Bond film \"The World Is Not Enough\" (1999).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972683}
{"src_title": "Faisal II of Iraq", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Birth and early years.", "content": "Faisal was the only son of Iraq's second king, Ghazi, and his wife Queen Aliya, second daughter of 'Ali bin Hussein, King of the Hijaz and Grand Sharif of Mecca. Faisal's father was killed in a mysterious car crash when he was three years old; his uncle 'Abd al-Ilah served as regent until Faisal came of age in 1953.  King Faisal II was the model used by Belgian comic writer Hergé for his character Prince Abdullah of Khemed in \"The Adventures of Tintin\". He suffered from asthma.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1941 coup.", "content": "Faisal's childhood coincided with the Second World War, in which the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq was formally allied with the British Empire and the Allies. In April 1941, his uncle 'Abd al-Ilah was briefly deposed as Regent by a military \"coup d'état\" which aimed to align Iraq with the Axis powers. The 1941 coup in Iraq soon led to the Anglo-Iraqi War. German aid proved insufficient, and 'Abd al-Ilah was restored to power by a combined Allied force composed of the Jordanian Arab Legion, the Royal Air Force and other British units. Iraq resumed its British alliance, and at the end of the war joined the United Nations.  During his early years, Faisal was tutored at the royal palace with several other Iraqi boys. During World War II, he lived for a time with his mother at Grove Lodge at Winkfield Row in Berkshire in England. As a teenager, Faisal attended Harrow School with his second cousin The Prince Hussein, later to become King Hussein of Jordan. The two boys were close friends, and reportedly planned early on to merge their two realms, to counter what they considered to be the threat of militant pan-Arab nationalism.  In 1952, Faisal visited the United States, where he met President Harry Truman, Dean Acheson, the actor James Mason, and Jackie Robinson, among others.  Hastening Faisal's demise was the decision taken by his regent (later confirmed by him) to allow the United Kingdom to retain a continued role in Iraqi affairs, through the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1948, and later the Baghdad Pact, signed in 1955. Massive protests greeted news of each of these alliances, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of demonstrators and an increasing deterioration of loyalty to the Iraqi Crown.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "End of regency.", "content": "Faisal attained his majority on 2 May 1953, commencing his active rule with little experience and during a changing Iraqi political and social climate exacerbated by the rapid development of pan-Arab nationalism.  Faisal initially relied for political advice upon his uncle Prince 'Abd al-Ilah and General Nuri al-Sa'id, a veteran politician and nationalist who had already served several terms as Prime Minister. As oil revenues increased during the 1950s, the king and his advisers chose to invest their wealth in development projects, which some claimed increasingly alienated the rapidly growing middle class and the peasantry. The Iraqi Communist Party increased its influence. Though the regime seemed secure, intense dissatisfaction with Iraq's condition brewed just below the surface. An ever-widening gap between the wealth of the political elites, landowners and other supporters of the regime on the one hand, and the poverty of workers and peasants on the other, intensified opposition to Faisal's government. Since the upper classes controlled the parliament, reformists increasingly saw revolution as their sole hope for improvement. The Egyptian Revolution of 1952, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, provided an impetus for a similar undertaking in Iraq.  On 1 February 1958, neighbouring Syria joined with Nasser's Egypt to form the United Arab Republic. This prompted the Hashemite kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan to strengthen their ties by establishing a similar alliance. Two weeks later, on 14 February, this league formally became the Arab Federation of Iraq and Jordan. Faisal, as the senior member of the Hashemite family, became its head of state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Downfall and murder.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "An opposition forms.", "content": "Faisal's political situation deteriorated in 1956, with uprisings in the cities of Najaf and Hayy. Meanwhile, Israel's attack on Egypt, coordinated with Britain and France in response to Nasser's nationalisation of the Suez Canal, only exacerbated popular revulsion for the Baghdad Pact, and thus Faisal's regime. The opposition began to coordinate its activities; in February 1957, a \"Front of National Union\" was established, bringing together the National Democrats, Independents, Communists, and the Ba'ath Party. An identical process ensued within the Iraqi officer corps with the formation of a \"Supreme Committee of Free Officers\". Faisal's government endeavoured to preserve the military's loyalty through generous benefits, but this proved increasingly ineffective as more and more officers came to sympathise with the nascent anti-monarchist movement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "14 July Revolution.", "content": "In the summer of 1958, King Hussein of Jordan asked for Iraqi military assistance during the escalating Lebanon crisis. Units of the Royal Iraqi Army under the command of Colonel Abd al-Karim Qasim, \"en route\" to Jordan, chose to march on Baghdad instead, where they mounted a \"coup d'état\" on 14 July. During the 14 July Revolution, Faisal II ordered the Royal Guard to offer no resistance, and surrendered to the insurgents. Around 8 am, Captain Abdul Sattar Sabaa Al-Ibousi, leading the revolutionary assault group at the Rihab Palace, which was still the principal royal residence in central Baghdad, ordered the King, Crown Prince 'Abd al-Ilah, Crown Princess Hiyam ('Abd al-Ilah's wife), Princess Nafeesa ('Abd al-Ilah's mother), Princess Abadiya (Faisal's aunt) and several servants to gather in the palace courtyard (the young King having not yet moved into the newly completed Royal Palace). There they were told to turn toward the wall and were immediately machine-gunned by their captors. Faisal did not die during the initial fusillade and was transported to a hospital, but died \"en route\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Many years later, when the Iraqi historian Safa Khulusi met Al-Ibousi, who was once one of Khulusi's students, and questioned him on his part in Faisal's death, the former student answered, \"all I did was remember Palestine, and the trigger on the machine-gun just set itself off\".  During the regime of Saddam Hussein, Faisal II was reburied under a marble tomb located next to that of his father in the restored Royal Mausoleum in Baghdad.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable published works.", "content": "Faisal II was the author of \"Ways to Defend Yourself\" (1951), an Arabic book on judo and self-defense. and He printed 50 copies of it and gave it to kings and leaders on top of them his uncle King Abdullah of Jordan. He also gave a copy of it to the League of Arab Nations hoping to reprint it and distribute it for free on the youth in Arab countries, but that never happened.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military ranks.", "content": "Faisal held the following ranks:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Namesakes.", "content": "Martyr Faisal II College (\"Kolleyet Al-Shahid Faisal Al-Thani\") is a military school in Jordan that was named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Faisal II (Arabic: الملك فيصل الثاني \"Al-Malik Fayṣal Ath-thānī\") (2 May 1935 – 14 July 1958) was the last King of Iraq. He reigned from 4 April 1939 until July 1958, when he was executed during the 14 July Revolution together with numerous members of his family. This regicide marked the end of the thirty-seven-year-old Hashemite monarchy in Iraq, which then became a republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972684}
{"src_title": "Mars Observer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission background.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 1984, a high priority mission to Mars was set forth by the Solar System Exploration Committee. Then titled the \"Mars Geoscience/Climatology Orbiter\", the Martian orbiter was planned to expand on the information already gathered by the Viking program. Preliminary mission goals expected the probe to provide planetary magnetic field data, detection of certain spectral line signatures of minerals on the surface, images of the surface at 1 meter/pixel and global elevation data.  \"Mars Observer\" was originally planned to be launched in 1990 by a Space Shuttle Orbiter. The possibility for an expendable rocket to be used was also suggested, if the spacecraft was designed to meet certain constraints. On March 12, 1987, the mission was rescheduled for launch in 1992, in lieu of other backlogged missions (Galileo, Magellan, Ulysses) after the Space Shuttle \"Challenger\" disaster. Along with a launch delay, budget overruns necessitated the elimination of two instruments to meet the 1992 planned launch. As the development matured, the primary science objectives were finalized as:  The program's total cost is estimated at $813 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spacecraft design.", "content": "The \"Mars Observer\" spacecraft had a mass of. Its bus measured 1.1 meters tall, 2.2 meters wide, and 1.6 meters deep. The spacecraft was based on previous satellite designs, originally intended and developed to orbit Earth. The RCA AS-4000 Ku-band satellite design was used extensively for the spacecraft bus, propulsion, thermal protection, and solar array. RCA TIROS and DMSP Block 50-2 satellite designs were also utilized in the implementing the Attitude and Articulation Control System (AACS), command and data handling subsystem, and power subsystem, into \"Mars Observer\". Other elements such as the bipropellant components and high-gain antenna were designed specifically for the mission.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mission profile.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Launch and trajectory.", "content": "\"Mars Observer\" was launched on September 25, 1992 at 17:05:01 UTC by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration from Space Launch Complex 40 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, aboard a Commercial Titan III CT-4 launch vehicle. The complete burn sequence lasted for 34 minutes after a solid-fuel Transfer Orbit Stage placed the spacecraft into an 11-month, Mars transfer trajectory, at a final speed of 5.28 km/s with respect to Mars.  On August 25, 1992, particulate contamination was found within the spacecraft. After a full inspection, a cleaning was determined necessary and was performed on August 29. The suspected cause of the contamination were measures taken to protect the spacecraft prior to the landfall of Hurricane Andrew which struck the coast of Florida on August 24.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Encounter with Mars.", "content": "\"Mars Observer\" was scheduled to perform an orbital insertion maneuver on August 24, 1993, but contact with the spacecraft was lost on August 21, 1993. The likely reason for the spacecraft failure was the leakage of fuel and oxidizer vapors through the improperly designed PTFE check valve to the common pressurization system. During interplanetary cruise, the vapor mix had accumulated in feed lines and pressurant lines, resulting in explosion and their rupture after the engine was restarted for routine course correction. A similar problem later crippled the Akatsuki space probe in 2010. Although none of the primary objectives were achieved, the mission provided interplanetary cruise phase data, collected up to the date of last contact. This data would be useful for subsequent missions to Mars. Science instruments originally developed for \"Mars Observer\" were placed on four subsequent spacecraft to complete the mission objectives: Mars Global Surveyor launched in 1996, Mars Climate Orbiter launched in 1998, 2001 Mars Odyssey launched in 2001 and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter launched in 2005.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Intended operations.", "content": "On August 24, 1993, \"Mars Observer\" would turn 180-degrees and ignite the bipropellant thrusters to slow the spacecraft, entering into a highly elliptical orbit. Over the next three months, subsequent \"transfer to lower orbit\" (TLO) maneuvers would be performed as the spacecraft reached periapsis, eventually resulting in an approximately circular, 118-minute orbit around Mars.  The primary mission was to begin on November 23, 1993, collecting data during one Martian year (approximately 687 Earth days). The first global map was expected to be completed on December 16, followed by solar conjunction beginning on December 20, and lasting for nineteen days, ending on January 3, 1994; during this time, mission operations would be suspended as radio contact would not be possible.  Orbiting Mars at an approximate speed of 3.4 km/s, the spacecraft would travel around Mars in a north to south, polar orbit. As the spacecraft circles the planet, horizon sensors indicate the orientation of the spacecraft while the reaction wheels would maintain the orientation of the instruments, towards Mars. The chosen orbit was also sun-synchronous, allowing the daylit side of Mars to always be captured during the mid-afternoon of each Martian Sol. While some instruments could provide a real-time data link when Earth was in view of the spacecraft, data would also be recorded to the digital tape recorders and played back to Earth each day. Over 75 gigabytes of scientific data was expected to be yielded during the primary mission, much more than any previous mission to Mars. The end of the operable life for the spacecraft was expected to be limited by the supply of propellant and the condition of the batteries.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Communications loss.", "content": "On August 21, 1993, at 01:00 UTC, three days prior to the scheduled Mars orbital insertion, there was an \"inexplicable\" loss of contact with \"Mars Observer\". New commands were sent every 20 minutes in the hopes that the spacecraft had drifted off course and could regain contact. However, the attempt was unsuccessful. It is unknown whether the spacecraft was able to follow its automatic programming and go into Mars orbit or if it flew by Mars and is now in a heliocentric orbit.  On January 4, 1994, an independent investigation board from the Naval Research Laboratory, announced their findings: the most probable cause in the loss of communication was a rupture of the fuel pressurization tank in the spacecraft's propulsion system. It is believed that hypergolic fuel may have leaked past valves in the system during the cruise to Mars, allowing the fuel and oxidizer to combine prematurely before reaching the combustion chamber. The leaking fuel and gas probably resulted in a high spin rate, causing the spacecraft to enter into the \"contingency mode\"; this interrupted the stored command sequence and did not turn the transmitter on. The engine was derived from one belonging to an Earth orbital satellite and was not designed to lie dormant for months before being fired.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The Mars Exploration Program was formed officially in the wake of the Mars Observer's failure in September 1993. The goals of that program include identifying the location of water, and preparing for crewed missions to Mars.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mars Observer spacecraft, also known as the Mars Geoscience/Climatology Orbiter, was a robotic space probe launched by NASA on September 25, 1992, to study the Martian surface, atmosphere, climate and magnetic field. During the interplanetary cruise phase, communication with the spacecraft was lost on August 21, 1993, three days prior to orbital insertion. Attempts to re-establish communication with the spacecraft were unsuccessful.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972685}
{"src_title": "Bretwalda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The first syllable of the term \"bretwalda\" may be related to \"Briton\" or \"Britain\". The second element is taken to mean 'ruler' or'sovereign', though is more literally 'wielder'. Thus, this interpretation would mean'sovereign of Britain' or 'wielder of Britain'. The word may be a compound containing the Old English adjective \"brytten\" (from the verb \"breotan\" meaning 'to break' or 'to disperse'), an element also found in the terms \"bryten rice\" ('kingdom'), \"bryten-grund\" ('the wide expanse of the earth') and \"bryten cyning\" ('king whose authority was widely extended'). Though the origin is ambiguous, the draughtsman of the charter issued by Æthelstan used the term in a way that can only mean 'wide-ruler'.  The latter etymology was first suggested by John Mitchell Kemble who alluded that \"of six manuscripts in which this passage occurs, one only reads \"Bretwalda\": of the remaining five, four have \"Bryten-walda\" or \"-wealda\", and one \"Breten-anweald\", which is precisely synonymous with Brytenwealda\"; that Æthelstan was called \"brytenwealda ealles ðyses ealondes\", which Kemble translates as 'ruler of all these islands'; and that \"bryten-\" is a common prefix to words meaning 'wide or general dispersion' and that the similarity to the word \"bretwealh\" ('Briton') is \"merely accidental\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contemporary use.", "content": "The first recorded use of the term \"Bretwalda\" comes from a West Saxon chronicle of the late 9th century that applied the term to Ecgberht, who ruled Wessex from 802 to 839. The chronicler also wrote down the names of seven kings that Bede listed in his \"Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum\" in 731. All subsequent manuscripts of the \"Chronicle\" use the term \"Brytenwalda\", which may have represented the original term or derived from a common error.  There is no evidence that the term was a title that had any practical use, with implications of formal rights, powers and office, or even that it had any existence before the 9th-century. Bede wrote in Latin and never used the term and his list of kings holding \"imperium\" should be treated with caution, not least in that he overlooks kings such as Penda of Mercia, who clearly held some kind of dominance during his reign. Similarly, in his list of bretwaldas, the West Saxon chronicler ignored such Mercian kings as Offa.  The use of the term \"Bretwalda\" was the attempt by a West Saxon chronicler to make some claim of West Saxon kings to the whole of Great Britain. The concept of the overlordship of the whole of Britain was at least recognised in the period, whatever was meant by the term. Quite possibly it was a survival of a Roman concept of \"Britain\": it is significant that, while the hyperbolic inscriptions on coins and titles in charters often included the title \"rex Britanniae\", when England was unified the title used was \"rex Angulsaxonum\", ('king of the Anglo-Saxons'.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern interpretation by historians.", "content": "For some time, the existence of the word \"bretwalda\" in the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\", which was based in part on the list given by Bede in his \"Historia Ecclesiastica\", led historians to think that there was perhaps a \"title\" held by Anglo-Saxon overlords. This was particularly attractive as it would lay the foundations for the establishment of an English monarchy. The 20th-century historian Frank Stenton said of the Anglo-Saxon chronicler that \"his inaccuracy is more than compensated by his preservation of the English title applied to these outstanding kings\". He argued that the term \"bretwalda\" \"falls into line with the other evidence which points to the Germanic origin of the earliest English institutions\".  Over the later 20th century, this assumption was increasingly challenged. Patrick Wormald interpreted it as \"less an objectively realized office than a subjectively perceived status\" and emphasised the partiality of its usage in favour of Southumbrian rulers. In 1991, Steven Fanning argued that \"it is unlikely that the term ever existed as a title or was in common usage in Anglo-Saxon England\". The fact that Bede never mentioned a special title for the kings in his list implies that he was unaware of one. In 1995, Simon Keynes observed that \"if Bede's concept of the Southumbrian overlord, and the chronicler's concept of the 'Bretwalda', are to be regarded as artificial constructs, which have no validity outside the context of the literary works in which they appear, we are released from the assumptions about political development which they seem to involve... we might ask whether kings in the eighth and ninth centuries were quite so obsessed with the establishment of a pan-Southumbrian state\".  Modern interpretations view the concept of \"bretwalda\" overlordship as complex and an important indicator of how a 9th-century chronicler interpreted history and attempted to insert the increasingly powerful Saxon kings into that history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overlordship.", "content": "A complex array of dominance and subservience existed during the Anglo-Saxon period. A king who used charters to grant land in another kingdom indicated such a relationship. If a king held sway over a large kingdom, such as when the Mercians dominated the East Anglians, the relationship would have been more equal than in the case of the Mercian dominance of the Hwicce, which was a comparatively small kingdom. Mercia was arguably the most powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom for much of the late 7th though 8th centuries, though Mercian kings are missing from the two main \"lists\". For Bede, Mercia was a traditional enemy of his native Northumbria and he regarded powerful kings such as the pagan Penda as standing in the way of the Christian conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. Bede omits them from his list, even though it is evident that Penda held a considerable degree of power. Similarly powerful Mercia kings such as Offa are missed out of the West Saxon \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\", which sought to demonstrate the legitimacy of their kings to rule over other Anglo-Saxon peoples.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bretwalda (also brytenwalda and bretenanwealda, sometimes capitalised) is an Old English word. The first record comes from the late 9th-century \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\". It is given to some of the rulers of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms from the 5th century onwards who had achieved overlordship of some or all of the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It is unclear whether the word dates back to the 5th century and was used by the kings themselves or whether it is a later, 9th-century, invention. The term \"bretwalda\" also appears in a 10th-century charter of Æthelstan. The literal meaning of the word is disputed and may translate to either 'wide-ruler' or 'Britain-ruler'.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972686}
{"src_title": "Frederica of Mecklenburg-Strelitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Frederica's mother died on 22 May 1782 after giving birth to her tenth child. Two years later (28 September 1784), her father remarried the younger sister of his deceased wife, Princess Charlotte of Hesse-Darmstadt, but this union ended just one year later, when Charlotte died of complications resulting from childbirth on 12 December 1785.  The twice-widowed Duke Charles considered himself unable to give his daughters proper rearing and education, so he sent Frederica and her elder sisters Charlotte, Therese and Louise to their maternal grandmother, Princess Maria Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt. Princess Maria Louise's choice of a Swiss teacher for the girls, Salomé de Gélieu, proved to be a good one. Some time later, Duke Charles also sent his two surviving sons, the Hereditary Grand Duke George and Charles, to be raised by their grandmother.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First marriage.", "content": "Frederica's parents were anxious to arrange advantageous marriages for all their daughters, and used family connections to bring this about. Queen Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, wife of King Frederick William II, was a first cousin of Frederica's mother. Frederica's parents broached with the Prussian royal family the idea of marriage between their children, and the Prussians were not averse. On 14 March 1793, the Princesses of Mecklenburg-Strelitz \"coincidentally\" met the Prussian King Frederick William II at the Prussian Theatre in Frankfurt-am-Main. He was immediately captivated by the grace and charm of both sisters, Frederica and Louise. The pending marriage negotiations received traction, and within weeks, the matter was settled: Frederica's elder sister Louise would marry Crown Prince Frederick William, and Frederica would marry his younger brother Prince Louis.  The double engagement was celebrated in Darmstadt on 24 April 1793, only a few weeks after the sister fortuitously met their future father-in-law at the theatre. On December 24, Louise and Crown Prince Frederick William were married in the Royal Palace of Berlin; two days later, on 26 December, Frederica and Prince Louis were also married at the same venue.  Unlike her sister, Frederica did not enjoy a happy marriage. Although her husband died only three years after the wedding, Louis was said to have preferred the company of his mistresses and completely neglected his wife, or at least, that is her version; in response, she allegedly began an affair with her husband's uncle Prince Louis Ferdinand. Despite her husband's alleged neglect, Fredrica did bear him three children in as many years: Frederick in 1794; a short-lived son, Charles, in 1795; and a daughter, Frederica, in 1796.  In 1795, King Frederick William II appointed Louis as Chief of the Dragoons Regiment No.1, which was stationed in Schwedt. One year later, on 23 December 1796, Prince Louis died of diphtheria. It was three years almost to the day since their wedding. At this time, his youngest child, Frederica, was less than three months old, and his eldest son was hardly two years old. After Louis's death, his father provided Frederica with a suitable residence near Berlin, and a sufficient income, and she moved with her three children to Schönhausen Palace near Berlin.  In 1797, Frederica and her cousin Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, seventh son of King George III of Great Britain by his wife Queen Charlotte (Frederica's paternal aunt), became unofficially engaged. The Duke of Cambridge asked the consent of his father to the marriage. The King did not refuse his consent but asked his son to wait until the ongoing war with France was over. The relationship eventually ended, with rumors circulating that either Adolphus had offered to release Frederica from the engagement, or - as Queen Charlotte believed - Frederica had jilted him for another man.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "In 1798 Frederica became pregnant. The father was Prince Frederick William of Solms-Braunfels. The prince recognized his paternity and requested her hand in marriage, a proposal that was quickly granted in order to avoid scandal. On 10 December of that year, the couple was married in Berlin and immediately moved to Ansbach. Two months later, in February 1799, Frederica gave birth to a daughter who only lived eight months. Prince Frederick William, disappointed and embittered, resumed his old dissipated lifestyle and became an alcoholic. In 1805 he resigned his military posts for \"health reasons\". Frederica had to maintain her family with her own resources after her brother-in-law, King Frederick William III of Prussia, refused to restore her annual pension as a dowager princess of Prussia. Frederica's older brother-in-law and head of the family, William Christian, Prince of Solms-Braunfels, advised her to get a divorce, with his full approval. She and her husband nonetheless refused.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Third marriage.", "content": "In May 1813, during a visit to his uncle Duke Charles in Neustrelitz, Prince Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, the fifth son of King George III of Great Britain, met and fell in love with Frederica. Duke Charles made it clear to his daughter that her separation from the Prince of Solms-Braunfels was absolutely logical, and that he saw a marriage with an English prince as a great opportunity for her. During the next months Frederica considered the intentions of Ernest Augustus and the possible effects on her own situation. When, after the victory of the allies in the Battle of Leipzig, Ernest Augustus spent some days in Neustrelitz, he was greeted enthusiastically. Some time later Frederica asked the Prussian king for approval for her divorce from Prince Frederick William of Solms-Braunfels. All parties agreed, including the Prince of Solms-Braunfels, but Frederick William's sudden death on 13 April 1814 precluded the need for a divorce. The prince's demise was considered by some as a little too convenient, and some suspected that Frederica had poisoned him. In August, the engagement with Ernest Augustus was officially announced. After the British Prince Regent gave his consent to the wedding, Frederica and Ernest Augustus were married on 29 May 1815 at the parish church of Neustrelitz. Some time later, the couple traveled to Great Britain and married again on 29 August 1815 at Carlton House, London.  Queen Charlotte bitterly opposed the marriage, even though her future daughter-in-law was also her niece. She refused to attend the wedding and advised her son to live outside England with his wife. Frederica never obtained the favor of her aunt/mother-in-law, who died unreconciled with her in 1818. During her marriage to Ernest Augustus she gave birth three times, but only a son survived, who would eventually become King George V of Hanover.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen of Hanover.", "content": "On 20 June 1837 King William IV of the United Kingdom and Hanover died without issue. His heir was Princess Victoria, only daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, but because Hanover had been ruled under semi-Salic Law since the times of the Holy Roman Empire, she could not inherit the Hanoverian throne. The next male descendant of the late king was the Duke of Cumberland, Frederica's husband, who then became King of Hanover, with Frederica as his Queen consort.  After a short illness, Queen Frederica of Hanover died in 1841 at Hanover. The Court master builder Georg Ludwig Friedrich Laves was instructed by the King to build a mausoleum for his wife and himself in the garden of the chapel at Herrenhausen Palace. He also gave royal orders for the transformation of a central square near the \"Leineschloss\" and renamed it \"Friederikenplatz\" in her honor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederica of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (\"Friederike Louise Caroline Sophie Charlotte Alexandrine\") (3 March 1778 – 29 June 1841) was a German princess who became, by marriage, princess of Prussia, princess of Solms-Braunfels, Duchess of Cumberland in Britain and Queen of Hanover (in Germany) as the consort of Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover (the fifth son and eighth child of King George III).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972687}
{"src_title": "Battle of Badon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical accounts.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Siege of Mount Badon.", "content": "The earliest mention of the Battle of Badon is Gildas' \"De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae\" (\"On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain\"), written in the early to mid-6th century. In it, the Anglo-Saxons are said to have \"dipped [their] red and savage tongue in the western ocean\" before Ambrosius Aurelianus organized a British resistance with the survivors of the initial Saxon onslaught. Gildas describes the period that followed Ambrosius' initial success:  \"De Excidio Britanniae\" describes the battle as such an \"unexpected recovery of the [island]\" that it caused kings, nobles, priests, and commoners to \"live orderly according to their several vocations\" before the long peace degenerated into civil wars and the iniquity of Maelgwn Gwynedd.  The battle is next mentioned in an 8th-century text of Bede's \"Ecclesiastical History of the English People\". It describes the \"siege of Mount Badon, when they made no small slaughter of those invaders,\" as occurring 44 years after the first Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. Since Bede places that arrival during or just after the joint reign of Marcian and Valentinian III in 449456, he must have considered Badon to have taken place between 493 and 500. Bede then puts off discussion of the battle \"But more of this hereafter\" only to seemingly never return to it. Bede does later include an extended account of Saint Germanus of Auxerre's victory over the Saxons and Picts in a mountain valley, which he credits with curbing the threat of invasion for a generation. However, as the victory is described as having been accomplished bloodlessly, it was presumably a different occasion from Badon. Accepted at face value, St. Germanus' involvement would also place the battle around 430, although Bede's chronology shows no knowledge of this.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Battle of Badon.", "content": "The earliest surviving text mentioning Arthur at the battle is the early 9th-century \"Historia Brittonum\", in which the soldier (Latin \"mīles\") Arthur is identified as the leader of the victorious British force at Badon:  \"The twelfth battle was on Mount Badon in which there fell in one day 960 men from one charge by Arthur; and no one struck them down except Arthur himself\".  The Battle of Badon is next mentioned in the \"Annales Cambriae\" (\"Annals of Wales\"), assumed to have been written during the mid- to late-10th century. The entry states: That Arthur had gone unmentioned in the source closest to his own time, Gildas, was noticed at least as early as the 12th-century hagiography which claims that Gildas had praised Arthur extensively but then excised him completely after Arthur killed the saint's brother, Hueil mab Caw. Modern writers have suggested the details of the battle were so well known that Gildas could have expected his audience to be familiar with them.  Geoffrey of Monmouth's c. 1136 \"Historia Regum Britanniae\" was massively popular and survives in many copies from soon after its composition. Going into (and fabricating) much greater detail, Geoffrey closely identifies Badon with Bath, including having Merlin foretell that Badon's baths would lose their hot water and turn poisonous. He also mixes in aspects of other accounts: the battle begins as a Saxon siege and then becomes a normal engagement once Arthur's men arrive; Arthur bears the image of the Virgin both on his shield and shoulder. Arthur charges, but kills a mere 470, ten more than the number of Britons ambushed by Hengist near Salisbury. Elements of the Welsh legends are also added: in addition to the shield \"Pridwen\", Arthur gains his sword \"Caliburnus\" and his spear, \"Ron\". Geoffrey also makes the defence of the city from the Saxon sneak attack a holy cause, having Dubricius offer absolution of all sins for those who fall in battle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scholarship.", "content": "McCarthy and Ó Cróinín propose that Gildas' 44 years and one month is not a reference to the simple chronology but a position within the 84-year Easter cycle used for computus at the time by the Britons and the Irish church. The tables in question begin in January 438, which would place their revised date of the battle in February 482.  Hirst, Ashe and Wood argue for the site of Liddington Castle on the hill above Badbury (Old English: \"Baddan byrig\") in Wiltshire. This site commands The Ridgeway, which connects the River Thames with the River Avon and River Severn beyond. The Burkitts argue for the site of Bath on the basis of evidence of the Welsh Annals, as well as archaeological, linguistic and place name evidence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second Badon.", "content": "The A Text of the \"Annales Cambriae\" includes the entry: \"The first celebration of Easter among the Saxons. The second battle of Badon. Morgan dies.\" The date for this action is given by Phillimore as 665, but the Saxons' first Easter is placed by the B Text in its entry 634 years after the birth of Christ and \"the second Badon\" is not mentioned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local lore.", "content": "Apart from the professional scholarship, various communities throughout Wales and England carry on local traditions maintaining that their area was the site of the battle: these include Bathampton Down, which has evidence of Dark Age camps, circumvallation entrenchments, and artillery mounds surrounding it; Badbury Rings at the Kingston Lacy House in Dorset; and Bowden Hill in Wiltshire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Badon also known as the Battle of Mons Badonicus (, \"Blockade/siege of the Badonic Hill\"; \"Bellum in monte Badonis\", \"Battle on Badon Hill\"; \"Bellum Badonis\", \"Battle of Badon\"; Old Welsh: \"Badon\"; Middle Welsh: \"Gweith Vadon\", \"Battle of Badon\";, \"Battle of Badon Mount/Hill\") was a battle purportedly fought between Celtic Britons and Anglo-Saxons in Britain in the late 5th or early 6th century. It was credited as a major victory for the Britons, stopping the encroachment of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms for a period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972688}
{"src_title": "Xylene", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Occurrence and production.", "content": "Xylenes are an important petrochemical produced by catalytic reforming and also by coal carbonisation in the manufacture of coke fuel. They also occur in crude oil in concentrations of about 0.5–1%, depending on the source. Small quantities occur in gasoline and aircraft fuels.  Xylenes are produced mainly as part of the BTX aromatics (benzene, toluene, and xylenes) extracted from the product of catalytic reforming known as reformate. The xylene mixture is a slightly greasy, colorless liquid commonly encountered as a solvent.  Several million tons are produced annually. In 2011, a global consortium began construction of one of the world's largest xylene plants in Singapore.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Xylene was first isolated and named in 1850 by the French chemist Auguste Cahours (1813–1891), having been discovered as a constituent of wood tar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Isomers.", "content": "Xylene exists in three isomeric forms. The isomers can be distinguished by the designations \"ortho\"- (\"o\"-), \"meta\"- (\"m\"-) and \"para\"- (\"p\"-), which specify to which carbon atoms (of the benzene ring) the two methyl groups are attached. By counting the carbon atoms around the ring starting from one of the ring carbons bonded to a methyl group, and counting towards the second methyl group, the \"o\"-isomer has the IUPAC name of 1,2-dimethylbenzene, the \"m\"-isomer is 1,3-dimethylbenzene and the \"p\"-isomer is 1,4-dimethylbenzene. Of the three isomers, the \"p\"-isomer is the most industrially sought after since it can be oxidized to terephthalic acid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industrial production.", "content": "Xylenes are produced by the methylation of toluene and benzene. Commercial or laboratory grade xylene produced usually contains about 40-65% of \"m\"-xylene and up to 20% each of \"o\"-xylene, \"p\"-xylene and ethylbenzene. The ratio of isomers can be shifted to favor the highly valued \"p\"-xylene via the patented UOP-\"Isomar\" process or by transalkylation of xylene with itself or trimethylbenzene. These conversions are catalyzed by zeolites.  ZSM-5 is used to facilitate some isomerization reactions leading to mass production of modern plastics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "The chemical and physical properties of xylene differ according to the respective isomers. The melting point ranges from (\"m\"-xylene) to (\"p\"-xylene)—as usual, the para isomer's melting point is much higher because it packs more readily in the crystal structure. The boiling point for each isomer is around. The density of each isomer is around 0.87 g/mL (7.26 lb/U.S. gallon or 8.72 lb/imp gallon) and thus is less dense than water. Xylene in air can be smelled at concentrations as low as 0.08 to 3.7 ppm (parts of xylene per million parts of air) and can be tasted in water at 0.53 to 1.8 ppm.  Xylenes form azeotropes with water and a variety of alcohols. With water the azeotrope consists of 60% xylenes and boils at 94.5 °C. As with many alkylbenzene compounds, xylenes form complexes with various halocarbons. The complexes of different isomers often have dramatically different properties from each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terephthalic acid and related derivatives.", "content": "\"p\"-Xylene is the principal precursor to terephthalic acid and dimethyl terephthalate, both monomers used in the production of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic bottles and polyester clothing. 98% of \"p\"-xylene production, and half of all xylenes produced is consumed in this manner. \"o\"-Xylene is an important precursor to phthalic anhydride. The demand for isophthalic acid is relatively modest so \"m\"-xylene is rarely sought (and hence the utility of its conversion to the \"o\"- and \"p\"-isomers).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Solvent applications and industrial purposes.", "content": "Xylene is used as a solvent. In this application, with a mixture of isomers, it is often referred to as xylenes or xylol. Solvent xylene often contains a small percentage of ethylbenzene. Like the individual isomers, the mixture is colorless, sweet-smelling, and highly flammable. Areas of application include the printing, rubber, and leather industries. It is a common component of ink, rubber, and adhesives. In thinning paints and varnishes, it can be substituted for toluene where slower drying is desired, and thus is used by conservators of art objects in solubility testing. Similarly it is a cleaning agent, e.g., for steel, silicon wafers, and integrated circuits. In dentistry, xylene can be used to dissolve gutta percha, a material used for endodontics (root canal treatments). In the petroleum industry, xylene is also a frequent component of paraffin solvents, used when the tubing becomes clogged with paraffin wax. For similar reasons, it is often the active ingredient in commercial products for ear wax (cerumen) removal.(1)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Laboratory use.", "content": "Xylene is used in the laboratory to make baths with dry ice to cool reaction vessels, and as a solvent to remove synthetic immersion oil from the microscope objective in light microscopy. In histology, xylene is the most widely used clearing agent. Xylene is used to remove paraffin from dried microscope slides prior to staining. After staining, microscope slides are put in xylene prior to mounting with a coverslip.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Precursor to other compounds.", "content": "Although conversion to terephthalic acid is the dominant chemical conversion, xylenes are precursors to other chemical compounds. For instance chlorination of both methyl groups gives the corresponding xylene dichlorides (bis(chloromethyl)benzenes) whilst mono-bromination yields xylyl bromide, a tear gas agent used in World War I.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health and safety.", "content": "Xylene is flammable but of modest acute toxicity, with ranges from 200 to 5000 mg/kg for animals. Oral for rats is 4300 mg/kg. The principal mechanism of detoxification is oxidation to methylbenzoic acid and hydroxylation to hydroxylene.  The main effect of inhaling xylene vapor is depression of the central nervous system (CNS), with symptoms such as headache, dizziness, nausea and vomiting. At an exposure of 100 ppm, one may experience nausea or a headache. At an exposure between 200 and 500 ppm, symptoms can include feeling \"high\", dizziness, weakness, irritability, vomiting, and slowed reaction time.  The side effects of exposure to low concentrations of xylene () are reversible and do not cause permanent damage. Long-term exposure may lead to headaches, irritability, depression, insomnia, agitation, extreme tiredness, tremors, hearing loss, impaired concentration and short-term memory loss. A condition called chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy, commonly known as \"organic solvent syndrome\" has been associated with xylene exposure. There is very little information available that isolates xylene from other solvent exposures in the examination of these effects.  Hearing disorders have been also linked to xylene exposure, both from studies with experimental animals, as well as clinical studies.  Xylene is also a skin irritant and strips the skin of its oils, making it more permeable to other chemicals. The use of impervious gloves and masks, along with respirators where appropriate, is recommended to avoid occupational health issues from xylene exposure.  Xylenes are metabolized to methylhippuric acids. The presence of methylhippuric acid can be used as a biomarker to determine exposure to xylene.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Xylene (from Greek ξύλο, \"xylo\", \"wood\"), xylol or dimethylbenzene is any one of three isomers of dimethylbenzene, or a combination thereof. With the formula (CH)CH, each of the three compounds has a central benzene ring with two methyl groups attached at substituents. They are all colorless, flammable liquids, some of which are of great industrial value. The mixture is referred to as both xylene and, more precisely, xylenes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972689}
{"src_title": "Theodoric I, Margrave of Meissen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Dietrich fell out with his brother, Albrecht the Proud as his mother persuaded his father to change the succession so that Dietrich was given the Margraviate of Meißen and Albrecht (although the older son) the Margraviate of Weißenfels. Albrecht took his father prisoner to try to make him return the succession to the way it had been. After Otto obtained his release by order of the emperor Frederick I, he had only just renewed the war when he died in 1190. Albrecht took back the Meißen margraviate from his brother. Dietrich attempted to regain the margraviate, supported by Landgraf Hermann I of Thuringia, whose daughter he was married to. In 1195, however, he left on a pilgrimage to Palestine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Albrecht's Death.", "content": "After Albrecht's death in 1195, leaving no children, Meissen, with its rich mines, was seized by the emperor Henry VI as a vacant fief of the empire. Dietrich finally came into possession of his inheritance two years later on Henry's death.  At the time of the struggle between the two rival kings Philip of Swabia and Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor, Phillip gave Dietrich the tenure of the march of Meißen again. After that time, Dietrich was on Phillip's side and remained true to the Staufer even after Phillip was murdered in 1208.  Dietrich became caught up in dangerous disagreements with the city of Leipzig and the Meißen nobility. After a fruitless siege of Leipzig, in 1217 he agreed to a settlement but then took over the city by trickery, had the city walls taken down and built three castles of his own within the city, full of his own men.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Margrave Dietrich died on 18 February 1221, possibly poisoned by his doctor, instigated into doing so by the people of Leipzig and the dissatisfied nobility. He left behind a widow, Jutta of Thuringia, daughter of Hermann I, Landgrave of Thuringia. Some of his children had already died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and issue.", "content": "Children from his marriage to Jutta of Thuringia, daughter of Hermann I, Landgrave of Thuringia:  Children from extramarital liaisons:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theodoric I (11 March 1162 – 18 February 1221), called the Oppressed (\"Dietrich der Bedrängte\"), was the Margrave of Meissen from 1198 until his death. He was the second son of Otto II, Margrave of Meissen and Hedwig of Brandenburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972690}
{"src_title": "Square wave", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin and uses.", "content": "Square waves are universally encountered in digital switching circuits and are naturally generated by binary (two-level) logic devices. Square waves are typically generated by metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) devices due to their rapid on–off electronic switching behavior, in contrast to BJT transistors which slowly generate signals more closely resembling sine waves rather than square waves.  Square waves are used as timing references or \"clock signals\", because their fast transitions are suitable for triggering synchronous logic circuits at precisely determined intervals. However, as the frequency-domain graph shows, square waves contain a wide range of harmonics; these can generate electromagnetic radiation or pulses of current that interfere with other nearby circuits, causing noise or errors. To avoid this problem in very sensitive circuits such as precision analog-to-digital converters, sine waves are used instead of square waves as timing references.  In musical terms, they are often described as sounding hollow, and are therefore used as the basis for wind instrument sounds created using subtractive synthesis. Additionally, the distortion effect used on electric guitars clips the outermost regions of the waveform, causing it to increasingly resemble a square wave as more distortion is applied.  Simple two-level Rademacher functions are square waves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definitions.", "content": "The square wave in mathematics has many definitions, which are equivalent except at the discontinuities:  It can be defined as simply the sign function of a sinusoid:  which will be 1 when the sinusoid is positive, −1 when the sinusoid is negative, and 0 at the discontinuities. Here, \"T\" is the period of the square wave and \"f\" is its frequency, which are related by the equation \"f\" = 1/\"T\".  A square wave can also be defined with respect to the Heaviside step function \"u\"(\"t\") or the rectangular function Π(\"t\"):  A square wave can also be generated using the floor function directly:  and indirectly:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fourier analysis.", "content": "Using Fourier expansion with cycle frequency over time, an ideal square wave with an amplitude of 1 can be represented as an infinite sum of sinusoidal waves:  The ideal square wave contains only components of odd-integer harmonic frequencies (of the form ). Sawtooth waves and real-world signals contain all integer harmonics.  A curiosity of the convergence of the Fourier series representation of the square wave is the Gibbs phenomenon. Ringing artifacts in non-ideal square waves can be shown to be related to this phenomenon. The Gibbs phenomenon can be prevented by the use of σ-approximation, which uses the Lanczos sigma factors to help the sequence converge more smoothly.  An ideal mathematical square wave changes between the high and the low state instantaneously, and without under- or over-shooting. This is impossible to achieve in physical systems, as it would require infinite bandwidth.  Square waves in physical systems have only finite bandwidth and often exhibit ringing effects similar to those of the Gibbs phenomenon or ripple effects similar to those of the σ-approximation.  For a reasonable approximation to the square-wave shape, at least the fundamental and third harmonic need to be present, with the fifth harmonic being desirable. These bandwidth requirements are important in digital electronics, where finite-bandwidth analog approximations to square-wave-like waveforms are used. (The ringing transients are an important electronic consideration here, as they may go beyond the electrical rating limits of a circuit or cause a badly positioned threshold to be crossed multiple times.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics of imperfect square waves.", "content": "As already mentioned, an ideal square wave has instantaneous transitions between the high and low levels. In practice, this is never achieved because of physical limitations of the system that generates the waveform. The times taken for the signal to rise from the low level to the high level and back again are called the \"rise time\" and the \"fall time\" respectively.  If the system is overdamped, then the waveform may never actually reach the theoretical high and low levels, and if the system is underdamped, it will oscillate about the high and low levels before settling down. In these cases, the rise and fall times are measured between specified intermediate levels, such as 5% and 95%, or 10% and 90%. The bandwidth of a system is related to the transition times of the waveform; there are formulas allowing one to be determined approximately from the other.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A square wave is a non-sinusoidal periodic waveform in which the amplitude alternates at a steady frequency between fixed minimum and maximum values, with the same duration at minimum and maximum. Although not realizable in physical systems, the transition between minimum and maximum is instantaneous for an ideal square wave.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972691}
{"src_title": "Battle of Wittstock", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Context.", "content": "The Holy Roman Emperor, with his Saxon and Roman Catholic allies, was fighting for the control of northern Germany against the Swedes and an alliance of Protestant princes opposed to Habsburg hegemony. The Swedes were also allied to the French, but the latter played no part in the battle. The Imperial main army was screening the Swedish army behind the Elbe while a smaller army under General Klitzing was overrunning Brandenburg. Field Marshal Johan Banér commanding the main Swedish army was joined by Field Marshal Alexander Leslie commanding the Army of the Weser which comprised German, Scottish and (at least one) English regiments. Together they crossed the Elbe with a surprise march and met their opponents in the forested hilly landscape slightly south of Wittstock.  The Imperial army was larger in strength than the Swedish army, but at least one-third of it was composed of Saxon units of questionable quality. The Swedish artillery was considerably stronger, leading the Imperial commanders to maintain a largely defensive position on the hill tops.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The battle.", "content": "The Imperial forces decided to wait for the Swedes on a range of sandy hills, the Scharfenberg. A part of the Imperial front was further defended with six ditches and a wall of linked wagons. Their commanders waited for some time for the Swedish troops to appear on the open fields to their front. Instead, the Swedish army was turning the Imperial left flank, moving behind the cover of a series of linked hills. The Imperial troops were forced to redeploy their lines to set up a new front.  The battle was begun by small forces detached in detail to secure the hills. The Swedes, under Banér had problems moving up reinforcements through marshy ground, but battle was eventually joined along a wide front.  Banér and Leslie had detached one-fourth of the army under Lieutenant-General James King and Major-General Torsten Stålhandske to take a long detour around the Imperial right flank. They found the traverse difficult and slow, leading Banér's troops to take heavy casualties and begin to retreat. Alexander Leslie moved five of his regiments to his relief taking heavy casualties in the process with the Scottish and English regiments being particularly badly mauled. Nonetheless they were able to relieve Banér in time for King's cavalry to finally outflank the Imperial troops causing a rout. With Major General Vitzthum in the reserve refusing to engage the Imperialists, his role was taken by Major-General John Ruthven (Leslie's son-in-law) who had been so deployed for just such an emergency. Now attacked on two fronts and with the reserve brigades engaged, the Imperial forces, having lost all their artillery, retreated under the cover of dusk in full rout.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conclusion.", "content": "In the accounts of the battle preserved in National Archives of Sweden, Johan Banér accredits the victory to Field Marshal Leslie. Leslie, in his personal correspondence to the Swedish Chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna, was clearly horrified at the losses sustained by his army and implies that there had been disagreement about the wisdom of Banér's tactics before the battle. A third report, by James King conforms with Leslie's, but also contains additional information. All three have been transcribed, translated and published in English. Nevertheless, Wittstock was a resounding victory for the Swedish forces and corrected any delusions harboured by the Imperialists that they were a spent force after the earlier battle of Nördlingen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Wittstock took place during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). It was fought on 24 September (Julian calendar) or 4 October (Gregorian calendar) 1636. A Swedish-allied army commanded jointly by Johan Banér and Alexander Leslie, later 1st Earl of Leven decisively defeated a combined Imperial-Saxon army, led by Count Melchior von Hatzfeld and the Saxon Elector John George I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972692}
{"src_title": "Teti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Teti had several wives:  Teti is known to have had several children. He was the father of at least three sons and probably ten daughters. Of the sons, two are well attested, a third one is likely:  According to N. Kanawati, Teti had at least nine daughters, by a number of wives, and the fact that they were named after his mother, Sesheshet, allows researchers to trace his family. At least three princesses bearing the name Seshseshet are designated as \"king’s eldest daughter\", meaning that there were at least three different queens. It seems that there was a tenth one, born of a fourth queen as she is also designated as \"king’s eldest daughter\".  Another possible daughter is princess Inti.  During Teti's reign, high officials were beginning to build funerary monuments that rivaled that of the pharaoh. His vizier, Mereruka, built a mastaba tomb at Saqqara which consisted of 33 richly carved rooms, the biggest known tomb for an Egyptian nobleman. This is considered to be a sign that Egypt's wealth was being transferred from the central court to the officials, a slow process that culminated in the end to the Old Kingdom.  Manetho states that Teti was murdered by his palace bodyguards in a harem plot, but he may have been assassinated by the usurper Userkare. He was buried in the royal necropolis at Saqqara. His pyramid complex is associated with the mastabas of officials from his reign. Teti's highest date is his Year after the 6th Count 3rd Month of Summer day lost (Year 12 if the count was biannual) from Hatnub Graffito No.1. This information is confirmed by the South Saqqara Stone Annal document from Pepi II's reign which gives him a reign of around 12 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Third \"subsidiary\" pyramid to Teti's tomb.", "content": "Teti's mother was the Queen Sesheshet, who was instrumental in her son's accession to the throne and a reconciling of two warring factions of the royal family. Sesheshet lived between 2323 BC to 2291 BC. Egypt's chief archaeologist Zahi Hawass, secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, announced, on November 11, 2008, that she was entombed in a 4,300-year-old 5-metre (16-foot) tall pyramid at Saqqara. This is the 118th pyramid discovered thus far in Egypt, the largest portion of its 2-metre wide casing was built with a superstructure 5 metres high. It originally reached 14 metres, with sides 22 metres long.  Once 5 stories tall, it lay beneath 7 meters (23 feet) of sand, a small shrine and mud-brick walls from later periods. The third known \"subsidiary\" pyramid to Teti's tomb was originally 46 feet (14 meters) tall and 72 feet (22 meters) square at its base, due to its walls having stood at a 51-degree angle. Buried next to the Saqqara Step Pyramid, its base lies 65 feet underground and is believed to have been 50 feet tall when it was built.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Teti, less commonly known as Othoes, sometimes also Tata, Atat, or Athath in outdated sources, was the first pharaoh of the Sixth dynasty of Egypt. He is buried at Saqqara. The exact length of his reign has been destroyed on the Turin King List but is believed to have been about 12 years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972693}
{"src_title": "Dorado", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Dorado was one of twelve constellations named by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. It appeared: Dorado has been represented historically as a dolphinfish and a swordfish; the latter depiction is inaccurate. It has also been represented as a goldfish. The constellation was also known in the 17th and 18th century as Xiphias. The name \"Dorado\" ultimately become dominant and was adopted by the IAU.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stars.", "content": "Alpha Doradus is a blue-white star of magnitude 3.3, 176 light-years from Earth. It is the brightest star in Dorado. Beta Doradus is a notably bright Cepheid variable star. It is a yellow-tinged supergiant star that has a minimum magnitude of 4.1 and a maximum magnitude of 3.5. One thousand and forty light-years from Earth, Beta Doradus has a period of 9 days and 20 hours.  R Doradus is one of the many variable stars in Dorado. S Dor, 9.721 hypergiant in the Large Magellanic Cloud, is the prototype of S Doradus variable stars. The variable star R Doradus 5.73 has the largest known apparent size of any star other than the Sun. Gamma Doradus is the prototype of the Gamma Doradus variable stars.  Supernova 1987A was the closest supernova to occur since the invention of the telescope. SNR 0509-67.5 is the remnant of an unusually energetic Type 1a supernova from about 400 years ago.  HE 0437-5439 is a hypervelocity star escaping from the Milky Way/Magellanic Cloud system.  Dorado is also the location of the South Ecliptic pole, which lies near the fish's head. The pole was called \"Polus Doradinalis\" by Willem Jansson Blaeu.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deep-sky objects.", "content": "Because Dorado contains part of the Large Magellanic Cloud, it is rich in deep sky objects. The Large Magellanic Cloud, 25,000 light-years in diameter, is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way Galaxy, located at a distance of 179,000 light-years. It has been deformed by its gravitational interactions with the larger Milky Way. In 1987, it became host to SN 1987A, the first supernova of 1987 and the closest since 1604. This 25,000-light-year-wide galaxy contains over 10,000 million stars. All coordinates given are for Epoch J2000.0.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equivalents.", "content": "In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Dorado are in two of Xu Guangqi's Southern Asterisms (近南極星區, \"Jìnnánjíxīngōu\"): the White Patches Attached (夾白, \"Jiābái\") and the Goldfish (金魚, \"Jīnyú\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dorado () is a constellation in the southern sky. It was named in the late 16th century and is now one of the 88 modern constellations. Its name refers to the dolphinfish (\"Coryphaena hippurus\"), which is known as \"dorado\" in Portuguese, although it has also been depicted as a swordfish. Dorado contains most of the Large Magellanic Cloud, the remainder being in the constellation Mensa. The South Ecliptic pole also lies within this constellation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972694}
{"src_title": "Saint Matthias", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "There is no mention of a Matthias among the lists of disciples or followers of Jesus in the three synoptic gospels, but according to Acts, he had been with Jesus from his baptism by John until his Ascension. In the days following, Peter proposed that the assembled disciples, who numbered about 120, nominate two men to replace Judas. They chose Joseph called Barsabas (whose surname was Justus) and Matthias. Then they prayed, \"Thou, Lord, which knowest the hearts of all [men], shew whether of these two thou hast chosen, That he may take part of this ministry and apostleship, from which Judas by transgression fell, that he might go to his own place.\" Then they cast lots, and the lot fell to Matthias; so he was numbered with the eleven apostles.  No further information about Matthias is to be found in the canonical New Testament. Even his name is variable: the Syriac version of Eusebius calls him throughout not Matthias but \"Tolmai\", not to be confused with Bartholomew (which means Son of Tolmai), who was one of the twelve original Apostles; Clement of Alexandria refers once to Zacchaeus in a way which could be read as suggesting that some identified him with Matthias; the \"Clementine Recognitions\" identify him with Barnabas; Hilgenfeld thinks he is the same as Nathanael in the Gospel of John.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ministry.", "content": "The tradition of the Greeks says that St. Matthias planted the faith about Cappadocia and on the coasts of the Caspian Sea, residing chiefly near the port Issus.  According to Nicephorus (\"Historia eccl.\", 2, 40), Matthias first preached the Gospel in Judaea, then in Aethiopia (by the region of Colchis, now in modern-day Georgia) and was there stoned to death. An extant Coptic \"Acts of Andrew and Matthias,\" places his activity similarly in \"the city of the cannibals\" in Aethiopia. A marker placed in the ruins of the Roman fortress at Gonio (Apsaros) in the modern Georgian region of Adjara claims that Matthias is buried at that site.  The \"Synopsis of Dorotheus\" contains this tradition: \"Matthias preached the Gospel to barbarians and meat-eaters in the interior of Ethiopia, where the sea harbor of Hyssus is, at the mouth of the river Phasis. He died at Sebastopolis, and was buried there, near the Temple of the Sun.\"  Alternatively, another tradition maintains that Matthias was stoned at Jerusalem by the local populace, and then beheaded (cf. Tillemont, \"Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire ecclesiastique des six premiers siècles\", I, 406–7). According to Hippolytus of Rome, Matthias died of old age in Jerusalem.  Clement of Alexandria observed (\"Stromateis\" vi.13.):  Not that they became apostles through being chosen for some distinguished peculiarity of nature, since also Judas was chosen along with them. But they were capable of becoming apostles on being chosen by Him who foresees even ultimate issues. Matthias, accordingly, who was not chosen along with them, on showing himself worthy of becoming an apostle, is substituted for Judas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "Surviving fragments of the lost Gospels of Matthias attribute it to Matthias, but Early Church Fathers attributed it to heretical writings in the 2nd century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "The feast of Saint Matthias was included in the Roman Calendar in the 11th century and celebrated on the sixth day to the Calends of March (24 February usually, but 25 February in leap years). In the revision of the General Roman Calendar in 1969, his feast was transferred to 14 May, so as not to celebrate it in Lent but instead in Eastertide close to the Solemnity of the Ascension, the event after which the Acts of the Apostles recounts that Matthias was selected to be ranked with the Twelve Apostles.  The Eastern Rites of the Eastern Orthodox Church celebrate his feast on 9 August. Yet the Western Rite parishes of the Orthodox Church continues the old Roman Rite of 24 and 25 February in leap years.  The Church of England's \"Book of Common Prayer\", as well as other older common prayer books in the Anglican Communion, celebrates Matthias on 24 February. According to the newer \"Common Worship\" liturgy, he is celebrated on 14 May with a Festival, although he may be celebrated on 24 February, if desired. In the Episcopal Church as well as some in the Lutheran Church, including the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Church–Canada, his feast remains on 24 February. In \"Evangelical Lutheran Worship\", used by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America as well as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, the feast date for Matthias is on 14 May.  It is claimed that St Matthias the Apostle's remains were brought to Italy through Empress Helena, mother of Emperor Constantine I (the Great); part of these relics would be interred in the Abbey of Santa Giustina, Padua, and the remaining in the Abbey of St. Matthias, Trier, Germany. According to Greek sources, the remains of the apostle are buried in the castle of Gonio-Apsaros, Georgia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Matthias (Koine Greek: Μαθθίας, \"Maththías\", from Hebrew מַתִּתְיָהוּ \"Mattiṯyā́hū\"; ; died c. AD 80) was, according to the Acts of the Apostles (written c. AD 80–90), chosen by the apostles to replace Judas Iscariot following the latter's betrayal of Jesus and his subsequent death. His calling as an apostle is unique, in that his appointment was not made personally by Jesus, who had already ascended into heaven, and it was also made before the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the early Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972695}
{"src_title": "Albert the Bear", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Albert was the only son of Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, and Eilika, daughter of Magnus Billung, Duke of Saxony. He inherited his father's valuable estates in northern Saxony in 1123, and on his mother's death, in 1142, succeeded to one-half of the lands of the house of Billung. Albert was a loyal vassal of his relation, Lothar I, Duke of Saxony, from whom, about 1123, he received the Margraviate of Lusatia, to the east; after Lothar became King of the Germans, he accompanied him on a disastrous expedition to Bohemia against the upstart, Soběslav I, Duke of Bohemia in 1126 at the Battle of Kulm, where he suffered a short imprisonment.  Albert's entanglements in Saxony stemmed from his desire to expand his inherited estates there. After the death of his brother-in-law, Henry II, Margrave of the Nordmark, who controlled a small area on the Elbe called the Saxon Northern March, in 1128, Albert, disappointed at not receiving this fief himself, attacked Udo V, Count of Stade, the heir, and was consequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothar. Udo, however, was said to have been assassinated by servants of Albert on 15 March 1130 near Aschersleben. In spite of this, he went to Italy in 1132 in the train of the king, and his services there were rewarded in 1134 by the investiture of the Northern March, which was again without a ruler.  In 1138 Conrad III, the Hohenstaufen King of the Germans, deprived Albert's cousin and nemesis, Henry the Proud of his Saxon duchy, which was awarded to Albert if he could take it. After some initial success in his efforts to take possession, Albert was driven from Saxony, and also from his Northern march by a combined force of Henry and Jaxa of Köpenick, and compelled to take refuge in south Germany. When peace was made with Henry in 1142, Albert renounced the Saxon duchy and received the counties of Weimar and Orlamünde. It was possibly at this time that Albert was made Archchamberlain of the Empire, an office which afterwards gave the Margraves of Brandenburg the rights of a prince-elector.  Once he was firmly established in the Northern March, Albert's covetous eye lay also on the thinly populated lands to the north and east. For three years he was occupied in campaigns against the Slavic Wends, who as pagans were considered fair game, and whose subjugation to Christianity was the aim of the Wendish Crusade of 1147 in which Albert took part. Albert was a part of the army that besieged Demmin. And at the end of the war, recovered Havelberg, which had been lost since 983. Diplomatic measures were more successful, and by an arrangement made with the last of the Wendish princes of Brandenburg, Pribislav of the Hevelli, Albert secured this district when the prince died in 1150. Taking the title \"Margrave in Brandenburg\", he pressed the \"crusade\" against the Wends, extended the area of his mark, encouraged German migration, established bishoprics under his protection, and so became the founder of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157, which his heirs — the House of Ascania — held until the line died out in 1320.  In 1158 a feud with Henry's son, Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, was interrupted by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. On his return in 1160, he, with the consent of his sons; Siegfried not being mentioned, donated land to the Knights of Saint John in memory of his wife, Sofia, at Werben at the Elbe. Around this same time, he minted a pfennig in memory of his deceased wife. In 1162 Albert accompanied Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to Italy, where he distinguished himself at the storming of Milan.  In 1164 Albert joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and peace being made in 1169, Albert divided his territories among his six sons. He died on 13 November 1170, possibly in Stendal, and was buried at Ballenstedt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cognomen.", "content": "Albert's personal qualities won for him the cognomen of \"the Bear,\" \"not from his looks or qualities, for he was a tall handsome man, but from the cognisance on his shield, an able man, had a quick eye as well as a strong hand, and could pick what way was straightest among crooked things, was the shining figure and the great man of the North in his day, got much in the North and kept it, got Brandenburg for one there, a conspicuous country ever since,\" says Carlyle, who called Albert \"a restless, much-managing, wide-warring man.\" He is also called by later writers \"the Handsome.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Albert was married in 1124 to Sophie of Winzenburg (died 25 March 1160) and they had the following children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albert the Bear (; 1100 – 18 November 1170) was the first margrave of Brandenburg from 1157 to his death and was briefly duke of Saxony between 1138 and 1142.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972696}
{"src_title": "Pechenga (urban-type settlement), Murmansk Oblast", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Pechenga area has been indigenously inhabited by the Finnic Kvens and the Sami.  The settlement was founded as the Pechenga Monastery in 1533 at the influx of the Pechenga River into the Barents Sea, 135 km west of modern Murmansk, by St. Tryphon of Pechenga, a monk from Novgorod. In 1533, the area became part of Russia.  Inspired by the model of the Solovki, Tryphon wished to convert the local Sami population to Christianity and to demonstrate how faith could flourish in the most inhospitable lands. His example was eagerly followed by other Russian monks. By 1572, the Pechenga Monastery counted about 50 brethren and 200 lay followers. Six years after Tryphon's death in 1583, the wooden monastery was raided and burnt down by the Swedes. It is said that the raid claimed the lives of 51 monks and 65 lay brothers. The monastery was moved closer to the Norwegian border. It was destroyed in 1764, but restored in 1880, and exists to this day.  On 18 May 1918 the Finnish government declared war on Soviet Russia. During the war the area around Pechenga was occupied by the Finnish forces, and as a result of the Treaty of Tartu in 1920 became a part of Finland, renamed Petsamo. Nickel was discovered in 1921 and began to be exploited commercially in 1935. The area was captured by the Soviets during the Winter War in 1940 but returned to Finland at the conclusion of the war. During the Second World War, between 1941 through 1944, Petsamo was used as a staging post for attacks on Murmansk by Finland and Germany. Aircraft from the British aircraft carrier HMS \"Furious\" attacked the port on July 30, 1941. The area was captured by the Red Army during the Petsamo–Kirkenes Offensive in 1944 and in 1947, after the subsequent Paris Peace Treaty, incorporated into the Soviet Union.  After the war the area was a military zone due to its proximity to the Norwegian border. Nickel mining has led to ecological problems in the area.  The 200th Independent Motor Rifle Brigade is stationed at the settlement.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pechenga (; Finnish and ; ; ; ) is an urban locality (an urban-type settlement) in Pechengsky District, Murmansk Oblast, Russia. Municipally, it is incorporated as Pechenga Urban Settlement of Pechengsky Municipal District. Population:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972697}
{"src_title": "Lhotse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "The European eel is a critically endangered species. Since the 1970s, the numbers of eels reaching Europe is thought to have declined by around 90% (possibly even 98%). Contributing factors include overfishing, parasites such as \"Anguillicola crassus\", barriers to migration such as hydroelectric dams, and natural changes in the North Atlantic oscillation, Gulf Stream, and North Atlantic drift. Recent work suggests polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) pollution may be a factor in the decline. TRAFFIC is introducing traceability and legality systems throughout trade change to control the decline and encourage a U-turn on the species. The species is listed in Appendix II of the CITES Convention.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sustainable consumption.", "content": "In 2010, Greenpeace International added the European eel to its \"seafood red list\", and the Sustainable Eel Group launched the Sustainable Eel Standard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Breeding projects.", "content": "As the European eel population has been falling for some time, several projects have been started. In 1997, in the Netherlands initiated a project where they attempted to get European eels to breed in captivity by simulating the journey from Europe to the Sargasso Sea with a swimming machine for the fish.  The first to achieve some success was DTU Aqua, a part of the Technical University of Denmark. Through a combination of fresh and salt water, as well as hormones, they were able to breed it in captivity in 2006 and make the larvae survive for 4.5 days after hatching. By 2007, DTU Aqua scientists were able to set a new record where the larvae survived for 12 days by feeding the mother eel with a special arginine-enriched diet. At this age the content of the larval yolk sac has been used, the mouth and digestive channel have developed, and it requires feeding. Attempts with various substances failed. Deep water sampling of the presumed habitat of larval European eel in the Sargasso Sea was performed by the Galathea 3 expedition in 2006—07, in the hope of revealing the likely feeding preference at the early stage. Their results indicated that they feed on various planktonic organisms, but especially microscopic jellyfish. A follow-up expedition was performed by DTU's own research ship to the Sargasso Sea region in 2014.  To further the research, the PRO-EEL project, led by DTU Aqua and involving several research institutes elsewhere in Denmark (University of Copenhagen and others), Norway (Norwegian Institute of Fisheries and Food Research and others), the Netherlands (Leiden University and others), Belgium (Ghent University), France (French National Center for Scientific Research and others), Spain (ICTA at Polytechnic University of Valencia) and Tunisia (National Institute of Marine Sciences and Technologies), was started in 2010. By 2014, the eel larvae at their facilities typically survive 20–22 days, but the full life cycle has still not been completed in captivity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life history.", "content": "Much of the European eel's life history was a mystery for centuries, as fishermen never caught anything they could identify as a young eel. Unlike many other migrating fish, eels begin their life cycle in the ocean and spend most of their lives in fresh inland water, or brackish coastal water, returning to the ocean to spawn and then die. In the early 1900s, Danish researcher Johannes Schmidt identified the Sargasso Sea as the most likely spawning grounds for European eels. The larvae (leptocephali) drift towards Europe in a 300-day migration.  When approaching the European coast, the larvae metamorphose into a transparent larval stage called \"glass eel\", enter estuaries, and many start migrating upstream. After entering their continental habitat, the glass eels metamorphose into elvers, miniature versions of the adult eels. As the eel grows, it becomes known as a \"yellow eel\" due to the brownish-yellow color of their sides and belly. After 5–20 years in fresh or brackish water, the eels become sexually mature, their eyes grow larger, their flanks become silver, and their bellies white in color. In this stage, the eels are known as \"silver eels\", and they begin their migration back to the Sargasso Sea to spawn.  Magnetoreception has also been reported in the European eel by at least one study, and may be used for navigation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European eel (\"Anguilla anguilla\") is a species of eel, a snake-like, catadromous fish. They are normally around and rarely reach more than, but can reach a length of up to in exceptional cases.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972698}
{"src_title": "Kutná Hora", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The town began in 1142 with the settlement of Sedlec Abbey, the first Cistercian monastery in Bohemia, Sedlec Monastery, brought from the Imperial immediate Cistercian Waldsassen Abbey. By 1260, German miners began to mine for silver in the mountain region, which they named Kuttenberg, and which was part of the monastery property. The name of the mountain is said to have derived from the monks' cowls (the \"Kutten\") or from the word mining (\"kutání\" in old Czech). Under Abbot Heidenreich, the territory greatly advanced due to the silver mines which gained importance during the economic boom of the 13th century.  The earliest traces of silver have been found dating back to the 10th century, when Bohemia already had been in the crossroads of long-distance trade for many centuries. Silver dinars have been discovered belonging to the period between 982–995 in the settlement of Malín, which is now a part of Kutná Hora.  From the 13th to 16th centuries, the city competed with Prague economically, culturally, and politically. Since 1995, the city center has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site.  In 1300, King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia issued the new royal mining code \"Ius regale montanorum\" (also known as \"Constitutiones Iuris Metallici Wenceslai II\"). This was a legal document that specified all administrative as well as technical terms and conditions necessary for the operation of mines. The city developed with great rapidity, and at the outbreak of the Hussite Wars in 1419 was the second most important city in Bohemia, after Prague, having become the favourite residence of several Bohemian kings. It was here that, on January 18, 1409, Wenceslaus IV signed the famous Decree of Kutná Hora, by which the Czech university nation was given three votes in the elections to the faculty of Prague University as against one for the three other nations.  In 1420, Emperor Sigismund made the city the base for his unsuccessful attack on the Taborites during the Hussite Wars, leading to the Battle of Kutná Hora. Kuttenberg (Kutná Hora) was taken by Jan Žižka, and after a temporary reconciliation of the warring parties was burned by the imperial troops in 1422, to prevent its falling again into the hands of the Taborites. Žižka nonetheless took the place, and under Bohemian auspices it awoke to a new period of prosperity.  Along with the rest of Bohemia, Kuttenberg (Kutná Hora) passed to the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria in 1526. In 1546, the richest mine was severely flooded. In the insurrection of Bohemia against Ferdinand I the city lost all its privileges. Repeated visitations of the plague and the horrors of the Thirty Years' War completed its ruin. Half-hearted attempts after the peace to repair the ruined mines failed; the town became impoverished, and in 1770 was devastated by fire. The mines were abandoned at the end of the 18th century. In this town, Prague groschen were minted between 1300–1547/48.  In May 1742 during the First Silesian War, a Prussian force under Frederick the Great stopped in the town prior to the Battle of Chotusitz.  Bohemia was a crownland of the Austrian Empire in 1806, and remained controlled by the Austrian monarchy after the compromise of 1867). Until 1918, Kuttenberg was the capital of the district of the same name, one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Bohemia.  Together with the rest of Bohemia, the town became part of the newly founded Czechoslovakia after World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary. Kutná Hora was incorporated into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia by Nazi Germany in the period 1939–1945, but was restored to Czechoslovakia after World War II. The town became part of the Czech Republic in 1993, after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The center of Kutná Hora and Sedlec Abbey with its famous ossuary are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Among the most important buildings in the town are the Gothic, five-naved St. Barbara's Church, begun in 1388, and the Italian Court, formerly a royal residence and mint, which was built at the end of the 13th century. The Gothic Stone Haus, which since 1902 has served as a museum, contains one of the richest archives in the country. The Gothic St. James's Church, with its tower, is another prominent building. Sedlec is the site of the Gothic Cathedral of Our Lady and the famous Ossuary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Kutná Hora is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kutná Hora (; medieval Czech: \"Hory Kutné\"; ) is a town in the Central Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972699}
{"src_title": "Ernst Grünfeld", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Grünfeld was born in Josefstadt, Vienna. He lost a leg in his early childhood, which was beset by poverty. However, he discovered chess, studied intensely, and quickly earned a reputation as a skilled player at the local chess club, the Wiener Schach-Klub.  The First World War (1914–1918) seriously affected Grünfeld's chances of playing the best in the world as few tournaments were played during this troubled period. He was reduced to playing correspondence matches and spent much of his spare time studying opening variations. He started a library of chess material which he kept in his small Viennese flat until his death at the age of 68 in 1962.  He developed a reputation as an expert on openings during the 1920s and success over the board soon followed. He was 1st= in Vienna (1920) with Savielly Tartakower; 1st in Margate (1923); 1st in Meran (1924); 1st in Budapest (1926) with Mario Monticelli; 1st in Vienna (1927) and he shared first spot in the Vienna tournaments of 1928 and 1933 (Trebitsch Memorial)—the former with Sándor Takács and the latter with Hans Müller; and finally he was 1st in the tournament at Ostrava of 1933. He also won in the 23rd DSB Congress at Frankfurt 1923.  During the Bad Pistyan (Piešťany) tournament of April 1922 Grünfeld introduced his most important contribution to opening theory—the Grünfeld Defence. He played the defence against Friedrich Sämisch in round 7, drawing in 22 moves, and later that year he used it successfully against Alexander Alekhine in the Vienna tournament. However, he did not play the opening frequently.  During the late 1920s and 1930s Grünfeld played top board for Austria in four Chess Olympiads (1927, 1931, 1933, 1935), and his best year was in 1927 when he scored 91⁄2/12. According to the Chessmetrics website he would have been rated around 2715 at his peak (December 1924). In May 1943, he took 2nd, behind Paul Keres, in Posen, and won in December 1943 in Vienna. After the Second World War, he tied for 3rd-4th at Vienna 1951 (Schlechter Memorial, Moshe Czerniak won). Grünfeld became an International Grandmaster in 1950. By the late 1950s he was playing very little chess and he mainly worked on his prodigious library which by now had completely filled the living room in his flat which he shared with his wife and daughter. His last tournament was Beverwijk (Hoogovens Tournament) in 1961, where in a field with five more strong grandmasters, he finished with a score of 3/9 (with only one win, against Jan Hein Donner).  He died in Ottakring, Vienna on April 3, 1962.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing style.", "content": "He reputedly modeled his style of play on Akiba Rubinstein's and only played 1.d4, claiming that he did not make mistakes in the opening. However, his style of avoiding complex variations together with an essentially drawish nature was simply not good enough to trouble the world's best. He is best remembered for his eponymous defence, the Grünfeld Defence (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 d5) and for his general expertise in the opening.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "Ernst Grünfeld contributed many articles on openings to chess magazines around Europe. Indeed, before he had turned 20, he was already contributing articles on the Ruy Lopez to \"Wiener Schachzeitung\", which was one of the most popular German language chess publications of its day, and over the next 40 years or so he wrote many articles on opening theory for in Germany, Belgium, and the USSR. His favorite market was in Bulgaria though because they used to pay for his work in food rather than in money!  He published several books which were generally well received and he contributed to a seminal account of the Teplice tournament of 1922. Other publications include \"The Queen's Pawn Game and the Queen's Gambit Declined\" (1924) and \"Taschenbuch der Eroffnungen im Schach\" (1953).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernst Franz Grünfeld (November 21, 1893 – April 3, 1962) was a leading Austrian chess grandmaster and chess writer, mainly on opening theory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972700}
{"src_title": "Viscum album", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a hemi-parasitic shrub, which grows on the stems of other trees. It has stems long with dichotomous branching. The leaves are in opposite pairs, strap-shaped, entire, leathery textured, long, broad and are a yellowish-green in colour. This species is dioecious and the insect-pollinated flowers are inconspicuous, yellowish-green, diameter. The fruit is a white or yellow berry containing one (very rarely several) seed embedded in the very sticky, glutinous fruit pulp.  It is commonly found in the crowns of broad-leaved trees, particularly apple, lime (linden), hawthorn and poplar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The mistletoe was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus. Its species name is the Latin adjective \"albus\" \"white\". It and the other members of the genus \"Viscum\" were originally classified in the mistletoe family Viscaceae, but this family has since been sunk into the larger family Santalaceae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "Several subspecies are commonly accepted. They differ in fruit colour, leaf shape and size, and most obviously in the host trees utilised.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "European mistletoe is potentially fatal, in a concentrated form, and people can become seriously ill from eating the berries.  The toxic lectin viscumin has been isolated from \"Viscum album\". Viscumin is a cytotoxic protein (ribosome inactivating protein, or RIP) that binds to galactose residues of cell surface glycoproteins and may be internalised by endocytosis. Viscumin strongly inhibits protein synthesis by inactivating the 60 S ribosomal subunit. The structure of this protein is very similar to other RIPs, showing the most resemblance to ricin and abrin.  Some birds have immunity to the poison and enjoy the berries, especially the mistle thrush which is named for its favourite food.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture, folklore and mythology.", "content": "European mistletoe has always attracted popular interest and has been surrounded by a number of myths and legends. In cultures across pre-Christian Europe, mistletoe was seen as a representation of divine male essence (and thus romance, fertility and vitality). It still plays a role in the folklore of some countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Celtic world.", "content": "According to Pliny the Elder, the Celts considered it a remedy for barrenness in animals and an antidote to poison, and sacred when growing on oak trees (where it is rare). He describes a Celtic ritual sacrifice and banquet at which a druid dressed in white would climb an oak tree to collect mistletoe using a golden sickle. (This legend is often referred to in the popular \"Asterix\" comic books, where the druid Getafix is often seen collecting mistletoe with a sickle.)  Modern druids may use the Native American \"Phoradendron leucarpum\" as well as other mistletoe species.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scandinavia.", "content": "According to the 13th century \"Prose Edda\", the goddess Frigg had all living and inanimate things swear an oath not to hurt her son Baldr. At a gathering, other gods tested the oath by hurling stones, arrows and fire at him, all in vain. But Frigg had not demanded the oath from mistletoe, because \"it seemed too young\" for that. By a scheming of Loki, Baldr's brother, the blind god Höðr made an arrow from mistletoe and killed Baldr with it.  In the \"Gesta Danorum\" version of the story, Baldr and Höðr are rival suitors, and Höðr kills Baldr with a sword named Mistilteinn (Old Norse \"mistletoe\"). In addition, a sword by the same name appears in various other Norse legends.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ancient Greece and Rome.", "content": "Mistletoe figured prominently in Greek mythology, and is believed to be the Golden Bough of Aeneas, ancestor of the Romans. Also in Greek mythology mistletoe was used by heroes to access the underworld. The Romans associated mistletoe with peace, love and understanding and hung it over doorways to protect the household.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Christianity.", "content": "When Christianity became widespread in Europe after the 3rd century AD, the religious or mystical respect for the mistletoe plant was integrated to an extent into the new religion. In some way that is not presently understood, this may have led to the widespread custom of kissing under the mistletoe plant during the Christmas season. The earliest documented case of kissing under the mistletoe dates from 16th century England, a custom that was apparently very popular at that time.  Winston Graham reports a Cornish tradition that mistletoe was originally a fine tree from which the wood of the Cross was made, but afterwards it was condemned to live on only as a parasite.  Mistletoe is commonly used as a Christmas decoration, though such use was rarely alluded to until the 18th century. According to custom, the mistletoe must not touch the ground between its cutting and its removal as the last of Christmas greens at Candlemas. It may remain hanging throughout the year, often to preserve the house from lightning or fire, until it is replaced the following Christmas Eve. The tradition has spread throughout the English-speaking world, but is largely unknown in the rest of Europe. (The similar native species \"Phoradendron leucarpum\" is used in North America in lieu of the European \"Viscum album\".)  According to an old Christmas custom, a man and a woman who meet under a hanging of mistletoe were obliged to kiss. The custom may be of Scandinavian origin. It was alluded to as common practice in 1808 and described in 1820 by American author Washington Irving in his \"The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.\":  In Germany, the Christmas tradition is that people who kiss under mistletoe will have an enduring love or are bound to marry one another.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Local symbol.", "content": "Every year, the UK town of Tenbury Wells holds a mistletoe festival and crowns a 'Mistletoe Queen'.  Mistletoe is the county flower of Herefordshire. It was voted such in 2002 following a poll by the wild plant conservation charity Plantlife.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flavoring.", "content": "Mistletoe is an ingredient of pomace brandy based liquor biska made in Istra, Croatia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alternative medicine.", "content": "Mistletoe leaves and young twigs are used by herbalists, and preparations made from them are popular in Europe, especially in Germany, for attempting to treat circulatory and respiratory system problems. Use of mistletoe extract in the treatment of cancer originated with Rudolf Steiner, the founder of Anthroposophy.  Although laboratory and animal experiments have suggested that mistletoe extract may affect the immune system and be able to kill some kinds of cancer cells, there is little evidence of its benefit to people with cancer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bird trapping.", "content": "The sticky juice of mistletoe berries was used to make birdlime, an adhesive to trap small animals or birds.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Viscum album is a species of mistletoe in the family Santalaceae, commonly known as European mistletoe, common mistletoe or simply as mistletoe (Old English \"mistle\"). It is native to Europe and western and southern Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972701}
{"src_title": "Ludwig Klages", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Klages was born in Hanover, Germany. In Munich, he studied physics, philosophy and chemistry but, after completing his doctorate in chemistry, he resolved never to work as a chemist. He met the sculptor Hans Busse and with him and Georg Meyer he founded the Deutsche Graphologische Gesellschaft (German Graphology Association) in 1894.  In Munich, Klages also encountered the writer Karl Wolfskehl and the mystic Alfred Schuler. He was a lover of Fanny zu Reventlow, the \"Bohemian Countess\" of Schwabing, and with Wolfskehl, Schuler and the writer Ludwig Derleth they formed a group known as the Munich Cosmic Circle, with which the poet Stefan George is sometimes associated. He wrote a book praising George's poetry in 1902. As a member of this group his philosophy contrasted the \"degenerate\" modern world with an ancient, and mystical, Germanic past, with a heroic role for the artist in forging a new future. George distanced himself from Klages' mystical philosophy (which was shared by Schuler), but continued for a time to publish Klages' poems in his journal \"Blätter für die Kunst\". Wolfskehl acquainted Klages with the work of Johann Jakob Bachofen (1815–1887), a Swiss anthropologist and sociologist, and his research into matriarchal clans.  In 1914 at the outbreak of war Klages moved to Switzerland and supported himself with his writing and income from lectures. He returned to Germany in the 1920s and in 1932 was awarded the Goethe medal for Art and Science. However, by 1936 he was under attack from Nazi authorities for lack of support and on his 70th birthday in 1942 was denounced by many newspapers in Germany. After the war he was honoured by the new government, particularly on his 80th birthday in 1952.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "He created a complete theory of graphology and will be long associated with the concepts of form level, rhythm and bi-polar interpretation. Together with Friedrich Nietzsche and Henri Bergson he anticipated existential phenomenology. He also coined the term logocentrism in the 1920s.  Ludwig Klages was a major figure in the European revival of paganism and has been called \"the most significant restorer of polytheism since Julian, the Roman Emperor known as 'the Apostate'(...)\".  He wrote 14 books and 60 articles (1910–1948), and co-edited the journals \"Berichte\" (1897–1898) and its successor \"Graphologische Monatshefte\" until 1908. His most important works are:  As a philosopher, Klages took the Nietzschean premises of Lebensphilosophie \"to their most extreme conclusions.\" He drew a distinction between life-affirming \"Seele\" (spirit) and life-destroying \"Geist\" (mind). \"Geist\" represented the forces of \"modern, industrial, and intellectual rationalization\", while \"Seele\" represented the possibility of overcoming \"alienated intellectuality in favor of a new-found earthly rootedness.\"  When Klages died, the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas urged that Klages' \"realizations concerning anthropology and philosophy of language\" should not be left \"hidden behind the veil\" of Klages' \"anti-intellectualist metaphysics and apocalyptic philosophy of history\". Habermas characterized these realizations as \"not outdated\" but ahead of the time.  Klages voiced a fierce cultural critique of Judeo-Christianity and, on rare occasions, like in his introduction to the Nachlass of his former colleague Alfred Schuler in 1940, slipped into bouts of anti-semitism.  Klages influence was widespread and amongst his great admirers were contemporaries like Jewish thinker Walter Benjamin, philosopher Ernst Cassirer, philologist Walter F. Otto and novelist Hermann Hesse.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ludwig Klages (10 December 1872 – 29 July 1956) was a German philosopher, psychologist and a theoretician in the field of handwriting analysis. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972702}
{"src_title": "Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Géza was the elder son of Taksony, Grand Prince of the Hungarians. His mother was his father's wife \"from the land of the Cumans\", according to the anonymous author of the \"Gesta Hungarorum\". This anachronistic reference to the Cumans suggests that she was of Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian origin. The Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, who listed the descendants of Grand Prince Árpád around 950, did not mention Géza. Even so, Gyula Kristó wrote that Géza was born around 940 and the emperor ignored him because of his youth. The genuine form of his name was either \"Gyeücsa\" or \"Gyeusa\", which is possibly a diminutive form of the Turkic title \"yabgu\". Géza's father arranged his marriage with Sarolta daughter of a Hungarian chieftain called Gyula, who ruled Transylvania independently of the grand prince and had converted to Christianity in Constantinople. Sarolt seems to have also adhered to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, according to Bruno of Querfurt's remark on her \"languid and muddled Christianity\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Géza succeeded his father around 972. He adopted a centralizing policy, which gave rise to his fame as a merciless ruler. The longer version of his son's \"Life\" even states that Géza's hands were \"defiled with blood\". Pál Engel wrote that Géza carried out a \"large-scale purge\" against his relatives, which explains the lack of references to other members of the Árpád dynasty from around 972. Koppány, who continued to rule the southern parts of Transdanubia, is the only exception to this dearth of references. A marriage alliance between the German and Byzantine dynasties brought about a rapprochement between the two powers neighboring Hungary in 972. Géza decided to make peace with the Holy Roman Empire. First, a monk named Bruno sent by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor arrived in Hungary around 972. Hungarian \"legates\" were present at a conference held by the emperor in Quedlinburg in 973.  A record on one Bishop Prunwart in the Abbey of Saint Gall mentions his success in baptising many Hungarians, including their \"king\". The nearly contemporaneous Thietmar of Merseburg confirms that the conversion to Christianity of the pagan Hungarians started under Géza, who became the first Christian ruler of Hungary. His baptismal name was Stephen. However, Géza continued to observe pagan cults, which proves that his conversion to Christianity was never complete. Kristó and other historians have said that the first Roman Catholic diocese in Hungary, with its seat in Veszprém, was set up in Géza's reign, but their view has not been unanimously accepted. A charter issued during his son's reign states that Géza was the founder of the Benedictine Pannonhalma Archabbey.  Taking advantage of internal conflicts which emerged in the Holy Roman Empire after Emperor Otto I's death, Géza invaded Bavaria and took the fortress of Melk in 983. In 991, the Bavarians launched a counter-attack which forced Géza to withdraw Hungarian forces from the territories east of the Vienna Woods. Furthermore, he renounced the lands east of the river Leitha in his peace treaty of 996 with Henry IV of Bavaria. Géza also arranged the marriage of his son and heir Stephen to Henry IV's sister Giselle. Even before this marriage alliance, Géza convoked the Hungarian leaders to an assembly and forced them to take an oath confirming his son's right to succeed him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Sarolt gave birth to at least three of Géza's children; Stephen, who succeeded his father on the throne, and two unnamed daughters. Sarolt survived Géza, which suggests that she was also the mother of Géza's daughters. Based on the \"Polish-Hungarian Chronicle\", Szabolcs de Vajay wrote that the daughters' mother was Géza's alleged second wife Adelaide of Poland, but this has not been widely accepted. Adelaide is only mentioned in the \"Polish–Hungarian Chronicle\", which describes her as the sister of Mieszko I of Poland, but specialists have often questioned her real existence. The chronicle attributes Géza's conversion to Adelaide's influence.  The following family tree presents Géza's ancestry and his offspring.  \"*Whether Menumorut is an actual or an invented person is debated by modern scholars.\"<br>\"**A Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady.\"<br>\"***Samuel Aba might have been Géza's grandson instead of his son-in-law.\"<br>\"****The Aba family descending from them still flourished in the 14th century.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secondary sources.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Géza ( 940 – 997), also Gejza, was Grand Prince of the Hungarians from the early 970s. He was the son of Grand Prince Taksony and his OrientalKhazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarianwife. He married Sarolt, a daughter of an Eastern Orthodox Hungarian chieftain. After ascending the throne, Géza made peace with the Holy Roman Empire. Within Hungary, he consolidated his authority with extreme cruelty, according to the unanimous narration of nearly contemporaneous sources. He was the first Hungarian monarch to support Christian missionaries from Western Europe. Although he was baptised (his baptismal name was Stephen), his Christian faith remained shallow and he continued to perform acts of pagan worship. He was succeeded by his son, Stephen who was crowned the first King of Hungary in 1000 or 1001.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972703}
{"src_title": "Henry Briggs (mathematician)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Briggs was born at Daisy Bank, Sowerby Bridge, near Halifax, in Yorkshire, England. After studying Latin and Greek at a local grammar school, he entered St John's College, Cambridge, in 1577, and graduated in 1581. In 1588, he was elected a Fellow of St John's. In 1592 he was made reader of the physical lecture founded by Thomas Linacre; he would also read some of the mathematical lectures as well. During this period, he took an interest in navigation and astronomy, collaborating with Edward Wright.  In 1596, he became first professor of geometry in the recently founded Gresham College, London, where he also taught astronomy and navigation. He lectured there for nearly 23 years, and made Gresham College a centre of English mathematics, from which he would notably support the new ideas of Johannes Kepler.  He was a friend of Christopher Heydon, a writer on astrology, though Briggs himself rejected astrology for religious reasons. He once called astrology, \"a mere system of groundless conceits\".  At this time, Briggs obtained a copy of \"Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio\", in which Napier introduced the idea of logarithms. It has also been suggested that he knew of the method outlined in \"Fundamentum Astronomiae\" published by the Swiss clockmaker Jost Bürgi, through John Dee. Napier's formulation was awkward to work with, but the book fired Briggs' imagination – in his lectures at Gresham College he proposed the idea of base 10 logarithms in which the logarithm of 10 would be 1; and soon afterwards he wrote to the inventor on the subject. Briggs was active in many areas, and his advice in astronomy, surveying, navigation, and other activities like mining was frequently sought. Briggs in 1619 invested in the London Company, and he had two sons: Henry, who later emigrated to Virginia, and Thomas, who remained in England.  Briggs died on 26 January 1630, and was buried in the chapel of Merton College, Oxford. Dr Smith, in his \"Lives of the Gresham Professors\", characterizes him as a man of great probity, a condemner of riches, and contented with his own station, preferring a studious retirement to all the splendid circumstances of life. The lunar crater Briggs is named in his honour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematical contributions.", "content": "In 1616 Briggs visited Napier at Edinburgh in order to discuss the suggested change to Napier's logarithms. The following year he again visited for a similar purpose. During these conferences the alteration proposed by Briggs was agreed upon; and on his return from his second visit to Edinburgh, in 1617, he published the first chiliad of his logarithms.  In 1619 he was appointed Savilian Professor of Geometry at the University of Oxford, and resigned his professorship of Gresham College in July 1620. Soon after his settlement at Oxford he was incorporated Master of Arts.  In 1622 he published a small tract on the \"Northwest Passage to the South Seas, through the Continent of Virginia and Hudson Bay\". The tract is notorious today as the origin of the cartographic myth of the Island of California. In it Briggs stated he had seen a map that had been brought from Holland that showed the Island of California. The tract was republished three years later (1625) in Pvrchas His Pilgrimes (vol 3, p848).  In 1624 his \"Arithmetica Logarithmica\" was published, in folio, a work containing the logarithms of thirty thousand natural numbers to fourteen decimal places (1-20,000 and 90,001 to 100,000). This table was later extended by Adriaan Vlacq to 10 places, and by Alexander John Thompson to 20 places in 1952. Briggs was one of the first to use finite-difference methods to compute tables of functions.  He also completed a table of logarithmic sines and tangents for the hundredth part of every degree to fourteen decimal places, with a table of natural sines to fifteen places, and the tangents and secants for the same to ten places; all of which were printed at Gouda in 1631 and published in 1633 under the title of \"Trigonometria Britannica\"; this work was probably a successor to his 1617 \"Logarithmorum Chilias Prima\" (\"The First Thousand Logarithms\"), which gave a brief account of logarithms and a long table of the first 1000 integers calculated to the 14th decimal place.  Briggs discovered, in a somewhat concealed form and without proof, the binomial theorem. English translations of Briggs's \"Arithmetica\" and the first part of his \"Trigonometria Britannica\" are available on the web.  Some other works, as his \"Commentaries on the Geometry of Peter Ramus\", and \"Remarks on the Treatise of Longomontanus respecting the Quadrature of the Circle\" have not been published.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry Briggs (February 1561 – 26 January 1630) was an English mathematician notable for changing the original logarithms invented by John Napier into common (base 10) logarithms, which are sometimes known as Briggsian logarithms in his honour.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972704}
{"src_title": "Polymorphism (computer science)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Interest in polymorphic type systems developed significantly in the 1960s, with practical implementations beginning to appear by the end of the decade. \"Ad hoc polymorphism\" and \"parametric polymorphism\" were originally described in Christopher Strachey's \"Fundamental Concepts in Programming Languages\", where they are listed as \"the two main classes\" of polymorphism. Ad hoc polymorphism was a feature of Algol 68, while parametric polymorphism was the core feature of ML's type system.  In a 1985 paper, Peter Wegner and Luca Cardelli introduced the term \"inclusion polymorphism\" to model subtypes and inheritance, citing Simula as the first programming language to implement it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ad hoc polymorphism.", "content": "Christopher Strachey chose the term \"ad hoc polymorphism\" to refer to polymorphic functions that can be applied to arguments of different types, but that behave differently depending on the type of the argument to which they are applied (also known as function overloading or operator overloading). The term \"ad hoc\" in this context is not intended to be pejorative; it refers simply to the fact that this type of polymorphism is not a fundamental feature of the type system. In the Pascal / Delphi example below, the codice_1 functions seem to work generically over various types when looking at the invocations, but are considered to be two entirely distinct functions by the compiler for all intents and purposes: program Adhoc;  function Add(x, y : Integer) : Integer; begin end;  function Add(s, t : String) : String; begin end;  begin end. In dynamically typed languages the situation can be more complex as the correct function that needs to be invoked might only be determinable at run time.  Implicit type conversion has also been defined as a form of polymorphism, referred to as \"coercion polymorphism\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Parametric polymorphism.", "content": "\"Parametric polymorphism\" allows a function or a data type to be written generically, so that it can handle values \"uniformly\" without depending on their type. Parametric polymorphism is a way to make a language more expressive while still maintaining full static type-safety.  The concept of parametric polymorphism applies to both data types and functions. A function that can evaluate to or be applied to values of different types is known as a \"polymorphic function.\" A data type that can appear to be of a generalized type (e.g. a list with elements of arbitrary type) is designated \"polymorphic data type\" like the generalized type from which such specializations are made.  Parametric polymorphism is ubiquitous in functional programming, where it is often simply referred to as \"polymorphism\". The following example in Haskell shows a parameterized list data type and two parametrically polymorphic functions on them: data List a = Nil | Cons a (List a)  length :: List a -> Integer length Nil = 0 length (Cons x xs) = 1 + length xs  map :: (a -> b) -> List a -> List b map f Nil = Nil map f (Cons x xs) = Cons (f x) (map f xs) Parametric polymorphism is also available in several object-oriented languages. For instance, templates in C++ and D, or under the name generics in C#, Delphi and Java: class List<T> {  List<B> map(Func<A, B> f, List<A> xs) { John C. Reynolds (and later Jean-Yves Girard) formally developed this notion of polymorphism as an extension to lambda calculus (called the polymorphic lambda calculus or System F). Any parametrically polymorphic function is necessarily restricted in what it can do, working on the shape of the data instead of its value, leading to the concept of parametricity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subtyping.", "content": "Some languages employ the idea of \"subtyping\" (also called \"subtype polymorphism\" or \"inclusion polymorphism\") to restrict the range of types that can be used in a particular case of polymorphism. In these languages, subtyping allows a function to be written to take an object of a certain type \"T\", but also work correctly, if passed an object that belongs to a type \"S\" that is a subtype of \"T\" (according to the Liskov substitution principle). This type relation is sometimes written \"S\" <: \"T\". Conversely, \"T\" is said to be a \"supertype\" of \"S\"—written \"T\" :> \"S\". Subtype polymorphism is usually resolved dynamically (see below).  In the following example we make cats and dogs subtypes of animals. The procedure codice_2 accepts an animal, but will also work correctly if a subtype is passed to it: abstract class Animal {  class Cat extends Animal {  class Dog extends Animal {  static void letsHear(final Animal a) {  static void main(String[] args) {  In another example, if \"Number\", \"Rational\", and \"Integer\" are types such that \"Number\" :> \"Rational\" and \"Number\" :> \"Integer\", a function written to take a \"Number\" will work equally well when passed an \"Integer\" or \"Rational\" as when passed a \"Number\". The actual type of the object can be hidden from clients into a black box, and accessed via object identity. In fact, if the \"Number\" type is \"abstract\", it may not even be possible to get your hands on an object whose \"most-derived\" type is \"Number\" (see abstract data type, abstract class). This particular kind of type hierarchy is known—especially in the context of the Scheme programming language—as a \"numerical tower\", and usually contains many more types.  Object-oriented programming languages offer subtype polymorphism using \"subclassing\" (also known as \"inheritance\"). In typical implementations, each class contains what is called a \"virtual table\"—a table of functions that implement the polymorphic part of the class interface—and each object contains a pointer to the \"vtable\" of its class, which is then consulted whenever a polymorphic method is called. This mechanism is an example of: The same goes for most other popular object systems. Some, however, such as Common Lisp Object System, provide \"multiple dispatch\", under which method calls are polymorphic in \"all\" arguments.  The interaction between parametric polymorphism and subtyping leads to the concepts of variance and bounded quantification.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Row polymorphism.", "content": "Row polymorphism is a similar, but distinct concept from subtyping. It deals with structural types. It allows the usage of all values whose types have certain properties, without losing the remaining type information.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Polytypism.", "content": "A related concept is \"polytypism\" (or \"data type genericity\"). A polytypic function is more general than polymorphic, and in such a function, \"though one can provide fixed ad hoc cases for specific data types, an ad hoc combinator is absent\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Implementation aspects.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Static and dynamic polymorphism.", "content": "Polymorphism can be distinguished by when the implementation is selected: statically (at compile time) or dynamically (at run time, typically via a virtual function). This is known respectively as \"static dispatch\" and \"dynamic dispatch,\" and the corresponding forms of polymorphism are accordingly called \"static polymorphism\" and \"dynamic polymorphism\".  Static polymorphism executes faster, because there is no dynamic dispatch overhead, but requires additional compiler support. Further, static polymorphism allows greater static analysis by compilers (notably for optimization), source code analysis tools, and human readers (programmers). Dynamic polymorphism is more flexible but slower—for example, dynamic polymorphism allows duck typing, and a dynamically linked library may operate on objects without knowing their full type.  Static polymorphism typically occurs in ad hoc polymorphism and parametric polymorphism, whereas dynamic polymorphism is usual for subtype polymorphism. However, it is possible to achieve static polymorphism with subtyping through more sophisticated use of template metaprogramming, namely the curiously recurring template pattern.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In programming languages and type theory, polymorphism is the provision of a single interface to entities of different types or the use of a single symbol to represent multiple different types.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972705}
{"src_title": "Alexander Arutiunian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Arutiunian was born in Yerevan, Armenia, in the family of Grigor and Eleonora Arutiunian. His father was a military serviceman. In 1927, Arutiunian became a member of the Yerevan State Conservatory’s children group, then, at age 14, he was admitted to the Conservatory to the studios of Olga Babasyan (piano), and Sergei Barkhudaryan and Vardges Talyan (composition). He graduated from the Music Conservatory of Yerevan on the eve of World War II. After the war he moved to Moscow, where between 1946 and 1948 he participated in the workshops of House of Armenian Culture, studied composition with Genrikh Litinsky. After graduation he returned to Yerevan to teach at the local Conservatory and in 1954 he was appointed artistic director of the Armenian State Philharmony. He was also a member of the Board of the USSR Composers' Union, as well as of the Armenian SSR Composers’ Union.  In 1949, Arutiunian was awarded the Stalin Prize for his cantata \"Motherland\", a graduation piece he wrote as a student at the Moscow Conservatory. The USSR Radio Choir and Orchestra premiered this work in November 1948.  In 1949, Arutiunian composed the \"Festive Overture\" that was first performed in the Big Hall of the Leningrad Philharmonic in November 1949, with Evgeny Mravinsky conducting. During the Moscow Music Congress Aram Khachaturian considered him as a promising Soviet composer. He continued to win acclaim at home and abroad for his works, many of which are quickened by the folk traditions of Armenian music. Other works of that kind include \"The tale of Armenian people\" (1960), \"Ode to Lenin\" (1967) and \"Hymn to the brotherhood\" (1970).  Some of Arutiunian's works for wind instruments include his 1950 concerto for trumpet, the concerto for tuba, and the brass quintet \"Armenian Scenes\". In 1988, inspired by the Spitak earthquake, Arutiunian composed his Concerto for Violin and String Orchestra, \"Armenia-88\" (dedicated to Ruben Aharonyan). The premiere took place in Yerevan in 1989.  In September 2010 Arutiunian's 90th birthday was celebrated by a series of concerts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trumpet Concerto in A-flat major (1950).", "content": "Arutiunian's \"Trumpet Concerto\" consists of the following movements:  The melodic and rhythmic characteristics of Armenian folk music are a strong influence in Arutiunian's work. As a composer, he expressed his nationality by incorporating the flavor of ashughner (folk minstrel) improvisations. At the time the concerto was written, his compositional style was similar to Khachaturian's. However, in the 1960s he tended towards classical forms and clearer tonality.  Arutiunian's trumpet concerto was his sixth major composition, written in 1950. Arutiunian originally intended to write it in 1943 for a student of Tabakov, Zsolak Vartasarian, who was the principal trumpet in the Armenian Philharmonic Orchestra. However, Vartasarian died in the war and the concerto was not completed until 1950, so Aykaz Messlayan was the first performer of the Concerto and Timofei Dokschitzer was the first to record this concerto.  The concerto's introduction to the United States is solely due to Dokschitzer, a leading Soviet Russian trumpeter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1950, Arutiunian married Irina (Tamara) Odenova. Their marriage produced two children, a daughter, Narine (born 1951), who is a pianist and lawyer; and a son, Suren (born 1953), who is an artist-designer. His extended family includes 3 granddaughters and a grandson. He died, aged 91, in his home city of Yerevan. Arutiunian is buried at the Komitas Pantheon which is located in the city center of Yerevan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Important works include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexander Grigori Arutiunian (), also known as Arutunian, Arutyunyan, Arutjunjan, Harutyunian or Harutiunian (23 September 1920 – 28 March 2012), was a Soviet and Armenian composer and pianist, widely known for his 1950 trumpet concerto. A professor at Yerevan State Conservatory, he was recognized with many awards for his work, including the Stalin Prize in 1949 and People's Artist of the USSR in 1970, as well as numerous honors from his homeland of Armenia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972706}
{"src_title": "Dinaric Alps", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The Dinarides are named after Mount Dinara (1,831 m), a prominent peak in the center of the mountain range on the border with the Dalmatian part of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The chain is called \"Alpet Dinaride\" or \"Alpet Dinarike\" in Albanian, \"Dinaridi\"/Динариди in Serbo-Croatian, \"Dinarsko gorstvo\" in Slovene and \"Alpi Dinariche\" in Italian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "The Dinaric Karst region is built mostly of Mesozoic limestone and dolomite deposited on top of a huge Bahama-type carbonate platform, while a few kilometers thick carbonate successions have been deformed during the Alpine orogenesis. The main tectonic phase of the Alpine orogenesis in the Dinaric Karst region took place in Cenozoic Era (Paleogene) as a result of the Adriatic microplate (Adria) collision with Europe, and the process is still active. The Mesozoic limestone forms a very distinctive region of the Balkans, notable for features such as the Karst Plateau, which has given its name to all such terrains of limestone eroded by groundwater. The Dinarides are known for being composed of karst – limestone rocks – as is Dinara, the mountain for which they were named. The Quaternary ice ages had relatively little direct geologic influence on the Balkans. No permanent ice caps existed, and there is little evidence of extensive glaciation. Only the highest summits of Durmitor, Orjen and Prenj have glacial valleys and moraines as low as. However, in the Prokletije, a range on the northern Albanian border that runs east to west (thus breaking the general geographic trend of the Dinaric system), there is evidence of major glaciation. One geological feature of great importance to the present-day landscape of the Dinarides must be considered in more detail: that of the limestone mountains, often with their attendant faulting. They are hard and slow to erode, and often persist as steep jagged escarpments, through which steep-sided gorges and canyons are cleft by the rivers draining the higher slopes. The partially submerged western Dinaric Alps form the numerous islands and harbors along the Croatian coast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rivers in Dinaric karst.", "content": "The most extensive example of limestone mountains in Europe are those of the Karst of the Dinaric Alps. Here, all the characteristic features are encountered again and again as one travels through this wild and underpopulated country. Limestone is a very porous rock, yet very hard and resistant to erosion. Water is the most important corrosive force, dissolving the limestone by chemical action of its natural acidity. As it percolates down through cracks in the limestone it opens up fissures and channels, often of considerable depth, so that whole systems of underground drainage develop. During subsequent millennia these work deeper, leaving in their wake enormous waterless caverns, sinkholes and grottoes and forming underground labyrinths of channels and shafts. The roofs of some of these caverns may eventually fall in, to produce great perpendicular-sided gorges, exposing the water to the surface once more.  The Dinaric rivers carved many canyons characteristic for Dinaric Alps, and in particular karst. Among largest and most well known are the Neretva, the Rakitnica, the Prača (river), the Drina, the Sutjeska, the Vrbas, Ugar, the Piva, the Tara, the Komarnica, the Morača, the Cem/Ciijevna, the Lim, and the Drin.  Only along the Dinaric gorges is communication possible across the Karst, and roads and railways tunnel through precipitous cliffs and traverse narrow ledges above roaring torrents. A number of springs and rivers rise in the Dinaric range, including Jadro Spring noted for having been the source of water for Diocletian's Palace at Split. At the same time, the purity of these rocks is such that the rivers are crystal clear, and there is little soil-making residue. Water quality testing of the Jadro River, for example, indicates the low pollutant levels present. Rock faces are often bare of vegetation and glaring white, but what little soil there is may collect in the hollows and support lush lime-tolerant vegetation, or yield narrow strips of cultivation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Human activity.", "content": "Ruins of fortresses dot the mountainous landscape, evidence of centuries of war and the refuge the Dinaric Alps have provided to various armed forces. During the Roman period, the Dinarides provided shelter to the Illyrians resisting Roman conquest of the Balkans, which began with the conquest of the eastern Adriatic coast in the 3rd century BC. Rome conquered the whole of Illyria in 168 BC, but these mountains sheltered Illyrian resistance forces for many years until the area's complete subjugation by 14 AD. More recently, the Ottoman Empire failed to fully subjugate the mountainous areas of Montenegro. In the 20th century, too, the mountains provided favourable terrain for guerrilla warfare, with Yugoslav Partisans organising one of the most successful Allied resistance movements of World War II.  The area remains underpopulated, and forestry and mining remain the chief economic activities in the Dinaric Alps. The people of the Dinaric Alps are on record as being the tallest in the world, with an average adolescent height of. The people of Bosnia and Herzegovina have the highest recorded average of any single country, with 183.9 cm average for men and 172.72 cm for women.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mountain passes.", "content": "The main mountain passes of the Dinaric Alps are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tunnels.", "content": "Major tunnels transversing the Dinaric Alps include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mountains and plateaus.", "content": "The mountains and plateaus within the Dinarides are found in the following regions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes and references.", "content": "Notes:  References:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dinaric Alps (;,,, ), also commonly Dinarides, are a mountain range in Southern and Southeastern Europe, separating the continental Balkan Peninsula from the Adriatic Sea. They stretch from Italy in the northwest through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo to Albania in the southeast.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972707}
{"src_title": "Magnum Photos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Founding of agency.", "content": "Magnum was founded in Paris in 1947 by Robert Capa, David \"Chim\" Seymour, Henri Cartier-Bresson, George Rodger and William Vandivert (all photographers), Rita Vandivert and Maria Eisner, based on an idea of Capa's. (Seymour, Cartier-Bresson and Rodger were all absent from the meeting at which it was founded. In response to a letter telling him that he was a member, Rodger wrote that Magnum seemed a good idea but, \"It all sounded too halcyon to be true,\" when Capa had told him of it and, \"I rather dismissed the whole thing from my mind\".)  Rita Vandivert was the first President, and head of the New York office; Maria Eisner the head of the Paris office. The plan was for Rodger to cover Africa and the Middle East; Cartier-Bresson to cover south and east Asia; Seymour and William Vandivert to cover Europe and the United States, respectively; and Capa to be free to follow his curiosity and events.  Magnum is one of the first photographic cooperatives, owned and administered entirely by members. The staff serve a support role for the photographers, who retain all copyrights to their own work.  The Magnum cooperative has included photojournalists from across the world, who have covered many historical events of the 20th century. The cooperative's archive includes photographs depicting family life, drugs, religion, war, poverty, famine, crime, government and celebrities. Although it has been asserted that the name \"Magnum\" was chosen because the founding members always drank a bottle of champagne during the first meetings, Russell Miller writes:  It was... presumably agreed by those present [at the first meeting] that Magnum was a fine new name for such a bold new venture, indicative as it was of greatness in its literal Latin translation, toughness in its gun connotation and celebration in its champagne mode.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governance.", "content": "Magnum is owned by its photographers, who act as shareholders. Each full member of Magnum has a vote in proposals made at a meeting held once a year, called the Annual General Meeting (AGM). Photographers with the status of contributor or correspondent are represented by Magnum but have no voting rights. Full members can choose to become contributors after 23 years of membership; this status gives them increased liberty to work outside Magnum, at the cost of their voting rights.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Elections of new members.", "content": "In the early years of Magnum, membership had generally come about by the personal invitation of Robert Capa. However, in 1955 a three-stage membership system was set up that continues to this day and is described below. Until 1953 there were also a large number of stringers who used Magnum but were not members.  Magnum's photographers meet once a year, during the last weekend in June, in New York, Paris or London, to discuss the cooperative's business. One day of the meeting is reserved to review potential new members' portfolios and vote on admitting individuals. An approved applicant is invited to become a 'Nominee Member' of Magnum, a category of membership that provides a chance for members and the individual to get to know each other, but that includes no binding commitments on either side.  After two years of Nominee membership, a photographer may present another portfolio if wanting to apply for 'Associate Membership'. If successful, the photographer is bound by the rules of the agency, and enjoys its facilities and worldwide representation. The difference between an Associate Member and a full Member is that an Associate is not a Director of the Company and does not have voting rights in the corporate decision-making. After two more years, an Associate wanting to be considered for full membership presents another portfolio of work for consideration by the members. Once elected as a full member, the individual is a member of Magnum for life or for as long as the photographer chooses.  No member photographer of Magnum has ever been asked to leave.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photographic collection.", "content": "In February 2010, Magnum announced that Michael Dell's venture capital firm MSD Capital had acquired a collection of nearly 200,000 original press prints of images taken by Magnum photographers. It had formed a partnership with the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin to preserve, catalog, and make photographs available to the general public. In September 2013 it was announced MSD Capital donated the collection to the Ransom Center. A preliminary inventory is available for researchers who wish to use the collection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Graduate Photographers Award.", "content": "The Graduate Photographers Award was established in 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Magnum Photos is an international photographic cooperative owned by its photographer-members, with offices in New York City, Paris, London and Tokyo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972708}
{"src_title": "Richard Glazar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Glazar was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia, to a Jewish-Bohemian family who spoke both Czech and German. His father served in the Austro-Hungarian Army before independence. His parents divorced in 1922, and his mother married a wealthy leather merchant, Quido Bergmann, who already had two children, Karel and Adolf. Karel died in the Austrian Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp on May 17, 1942. Adolf went in October 1939 to Denmark with the Youth Aliyah organization, escaped in October 1943 to Sweden (Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany 1940-45). In 1944-45 he served as a volunteer in the Free Czechoslovak Army in UK & France, and was later awarded the Czechoslovakian War Cross. He later earned the degree of B.Sc. in dairy technology at the Agriculture University of Denmark. Richard and Adolf met after WWII and continued to have contact until the end of Richard's life. Red Cross.  Glazar's father died of pneumonia in the Soviet Union, to which he had escaped from the Nisko reservation in the General Government of occupied Poland; some 1,100 Czech Jews had been deported there by the Nazis in 1939. Glazar's mother survived both Auschwitz and Bergen-Belsen, and was the only member of his family left when he returned to Prague in 1945. His stepbrother Adolf Dasha Bergmann also survived after having served in the Czech army in France and was in Prague, when Richard returned to Prague in 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Glazar was accepted into the Charles University in Prague in June 1939. He was originally enrolled as a philosophy student, but anti-Jewish legislation after the German occupation forced him into a course reading economics. His entire family had the chance to move to England at Christmas in 1938, when his stepfather obtained a permit. His stepfather did not take this opportunity, as he did not want to leave behind all that he had built up in Czechoslovakia.  On November 17, 1939, all Czech universities were closed until the end of the war, following student demonstrations against the execution of a number of their fellow students. This act would have been one of the Glazar family's first warnings of the horrific events to follow, and fearing for his safety, his family sent him to a farm outside Prague in 1940. Glazar stayed there for two years. On September 12, 1942, he was transported to the Nazi concentration camp or ghetto at Theresienstadt (previously the fortified town of Terezin, located 35 miles north of Prague). Following the German occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia on March 15, 1939, Theresienstadt became a holding area for transports to other concentration camps, such as Auschwitz.  In Terezin, Glazar met Karl Unger, who became a close friend. Glazar was to stay in Terezin for only one month, before he and Unger were transported to Treblinka on October 8, 1942.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treblinka.", "content": "Glazar wrote his story down after the war, and had part of it published in 1967 in a Czech magazine, \"Mezinárodní politika\". In 1985 he was interviewed by Claude Lanzmann for the documentary \"Shoah\" (1985). When Glazar moved to Switzerland after the Prague Spring, his memoir was published in full in German as \"Die Falle mit dem grünen Zaun: Überleben in Treblinka\" (1992). An English translation, \"Trap with a Green Fence: Survival in Treblinka\", was published in 1995 by Northwestern University Press.  In \"Shoah\", Glazar described his arrival at Treblinka:  New arrivals at Treblinka were ordered to strip, then herded into gas chambers disguised as communal showers; exhaust gas was pumped in instead of water. Glazar was instead selected for the \"Sonderkommando\" work unit, along with a friend, Karel Unger. He described in his book the packing of victims' clothes for shipment to Germany, and how the gold from teeth was extracted and, together with coins and jewelry, added to the German loot. Food brought by the victims helped sustain both the SS and the Ukrainian guards, along with inmates who would steal them at the unloading ramp.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The revolt.", "content": "After the big transports from Grodno and Białystok Ghettos in January 1943, in February and March 1943 no transports came into the camp. The \"Sonderkommando\" had virtually no food, which made the Jewish inmates realize that their lives depended on the transports arriving regularly.  It was this knowledge that drove them to try to escape. The first escape attempt was planned for January 1943 and was code-named \"The Hour\". The idea was that at a specified time, all those working for the camp would attack the SS and Ukrainian guards, steal their weapons, and attack the camp Kommandantur. Unfortunately, this did not proceed, as typhus broke out, and many inmates either died, were hospitalized, or were too sick to participate. The escape that actually worked was less violent and ambitious: on August 2, 1943, men broke out through a damaged gate during a prisoner's revolt. Most of the escapees were arrested close to the camp, but Glazar and Unger fled from the area and made their way across Poland.  While on the run, they were arrested by a forester, but managed to convince him that they were Czechs working for \"Organisation Todt\" (a Nazi construction and engineering group in Poland). Both men were later sent to Mannheim in Germany, to work for Heinrich Lanz as immigrant workers, using falsified papers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life after the war.", "content": "Following the end of the war, when Glazar and Unger were liberated by the Americans, Glazar attended the trials of many of the Nazis associated with Treblinka, including Franz Stangl. Glazar also went on to study in Prague, Paris and London, and received a degree in economics. In 1968 he and his family moved to Switzerland after the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the armies of the Warsaw Pact.  Glazar helped Michael Peters, the founder of the Aktion Reinhard Camps (a network of private Holocaust researchers), build a model of Treblinka. Glazar committed suicide on December 20, 1997 by jumping out of a window in Prague after the death of his wife, leaving the model unfinished.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Glazar (November 29, 1920 – December 20, 1997) was a Czech-Jewish inmate of the Treblinka extermination camp in German-occupied Poland during the Holocaust. One of a small group of survivors of the camp's prisoner revolt in August 1943, Glazar described his experiences in an autobiographical book, \"Trap with a Green Fence: Survival in Treblinka\" (1992).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972709}
{"src_title": "Scoville scale", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Scoville organoleptic test.", "content": "In the Scoville organoleptic test, an exact weight of dried pepper is dissolved in alcohol to extract the heat components (capsaicinoids), then diluted in a solution of sugar water. Decreasing concentrations of the extracted capsaicinoids are given to a panel of five trained tasters, until a majority (at least three) can no longer detect the heat in a dilution. The heat level is based on this dilution, rated in multiples of 100 SHU.  Another source using subjective assessment stated: \"Conventional methods used in determining the level of pungency or capsaicin concentration are using a panel of tasters (Scoville Organoleptic test method).... Pepper pungency is measured in Scoville Heat Units (SHU). This measurement is the highest dilution of a chili pepper extract at which heat can be detected by a taste panel.\"  A weakness of the Scoville organoleptic test is its imprecision due to human subjectivity, depending on the taster's palate and number of mouth heat receptors, which vary widely among people. Another weakness is sensory fatigue; the palate is quickly desensitized to capsaicinoids after tasting a few samples within a short time period. Results vary widely (up to ± 50%) between laboratories.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pungency units.", "content": "Since the 1980s, spice heat has been assessed quantitatively by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which measures the concentration of heat-producing capsaicinoids, typically with capsaicin content as the main measure. As stated in one review: \"the most reliable, rapid, and efficient method to identify and quantify capsaicinoids is HPLC; the results of which can be converted to Scoville Heat Units by multiplying the parts-per-million by 16.\" HPLC results permit the measurement of a substance’s capsaicin capacity to produce perceived heat (\"pungency\"). This method gives results in American Spice Trade Association \"pungency units\", which are defined as one part capsaicin per million parts dried pepper mass.  For parts per million (ppm) measurements, SHU units are calculated from \"parts per million of heat\" (ppmH), which is found with the following calculation:  formula_1  Peak areas are calculated from HPLC traces of dry samples of the substance to be tested in 1 ml of acetonitrile. The standard used to calibrate the calculation is 1 gram of capsaicin. Scoville heat units are found by multiplying the ppmH value by a factor of 15 or 16.  An orally administered capsule of capsaicinoids claiming 100,000 Scoville units will correspond to around 6.6 mg of capsaicinoids.  The levels of pungency, in terms of Scoville units are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scoville ratings.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Considerations.", "content": "Since Scoville ratings are defined per unit of dry mass, comparison of ratings between products having different water content can be misleading. For example, typical fresh chili peppers have a water content around 90%, whereas Tabasco sauce has a water content of 95%. For law-enforcement-grade pepper spray, values from 500,000 up to 5 million SHU have been reported, but the actual strength of the spray depends on the dilution.  Numerical results for any specimen vary depending on its cultivation conditions and the uncertainty of the laboratory methods used to assess the capsaicinoid content. Pungency values for any pepper are variable, owing to expected variation within a species, possibly by a factor of 10 or more, depending on seed lineage, climate and humidity, and soil composition supplying nutrients. The inaccuracies described in the measurement methods also contribute to the imprecision of these values.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Capsicum\" peppers.", "content": "\"Capsicum\" chili peppers are commonly used to add pungency in cuisines worldwide. The range of pepper heat reflected by a Scoville score is from 100 or less (sweet peppers) to over 3 million (Pepper X) (table below; Scoville scales for individual chili peppers are in the respective linked article).  The chilis with the highest rating on the Scoville scale exceed one million Scoville units, and include specimens of naga jolokia or bhut jolokia and its cultivars, the \"Dorset naga\" and the \"bhut jolokia\", neither of which has official cultivar status.  Numerical results for any specimen vary depending on its cultivation conditions and the uncertainty of the laboratory methods used to assess the capsaicinoid content. Pungency values for any pepper are variable, owing to expected variation within a specieseasily by a factor of 10 or moredepending on seed lineage, climate (humidity is a big factor for the Bhut Jolokia; the Dorset Naga and the original Naga have quite different ratings), and even soil (this is especially true of habaneros). The inaccuracies described in the measurement methods above also contribute to the imprecision of these values. When interpreting Scoville ratings, this should be kept in mind.  The Scoville scale may be extrapolated to express the pungency of substances that are even hotter than pure capsaicin. One such substance is resiniferatoxin, an alkaloid present in the sap of some species of euphorbia plants (spurges). Since it is 1000 times as hot as capsaicin, it would have a Scoville scale rating of 16 billion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Capsaicinoids.", "content": "The class of compounds causing pungency in plants like chili peppers is called capsaicinoids, which display a linear correlation between concentration and Scoville scale, and may vary in content during ripening. Capsaicin is the major capsaicinoid in chili peppers.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Scoville scale is a measurement of the pungency (spiciness or \"heat\") of chili peppers, as recorded in Scoville Heat Units (SHU), based on the concentration of capsaicinoids, among which capsaicin is the predominant component. The scale is named after its creator, American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville, whose 1912 method is known as the Scoville organoleptic test. The Scoville organoleptic test is the most practical method for estimating SHU and is a subjective assessment derived from the capsaicinoid sensitivity by people experienced with eating hot chilis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972710}
{"src_title": "Sasser (computer worm)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and effects.", "content": "Sasser was created on April 30, 2004. This worm was named Sasser because it spreads by exploiting a buffer overflow in the component known as LSASS (Local Security Authority Subsystem Service) on the affected operating systems. The worm scans different ranges of IP addresses and connects to victims' computers primarily through TCP port 445. Microsoft's analysis of the worm indicates that it may also spread through port 139. Several variants called \"Sasser.B\", \"Sasser.C\", and \"Sasser.D\" appeared within days (with the original named Sasser.A). The LSASS vulnerability was patched by Microsoft in the April 2004 installment of its monthly security packages, prior to the release of the worm. Some technology specialists have speculated that the worm writer reverse-engineered the patch to discover the vulnerability, which would open millions of computers whose operating system had not been upgraded with the security update.  The effects of Sasser include the news agency Agence France-Presse (AFP) having all its satellite communications blocked for hours and the U.S. flight company Delta Air Lines having to cancel several trans-atlantic flights because its computer systems had been swamped by the worm. The Nordic insurance company \"If\" and their Finnish owners \"Sampo Bank\" came to a complete halt and had to close their 130 offices in Finland. The British Coastguard had its electronic mapping service disabled for a few hours, and Goldman Sachs, Deutsche Post, and the European Commission also all had issues with the worm. The X-ray department at Lund University Hospital had all their four layer X-ray machines disabled for several hours and had to redirect emergency X-ray patients to a nearby hospital. The University of Missouri was forced to \"unplug\" its network from the wider Internet in response to the worm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Author.", "content": "On 7 May 2004, 18-year-old German computer science student Sven Jaschan from Rotenburg, Lower Saxony was arrested for writing the worm. German authorities were led to Jaschan partly because of information obtained in response to a bounty offer by Microsoft of US$250,000.  One of Jaschan's friends had informed Microsoft that his friend had created the worm. He further revealed that not only Sasser, but also Netsky.AC, a variant of the Netsky worm, was his creation. Another variation of Sasser, Sasser.E, was found to be circulating shortly after the arrest. It was the only variation that attempted to remove other worms from the infected computer, much in the way Netsky does.  Jaschan was tried as a minor because the German courts determined that he created the worm before he was 18. The worm itself had been released on his 18th birthday (29 April 2004). Sven Jaschan was found guilty of computer sabotage and illegally altering data. On Friday, 8 July 2005, he received a 21-month suspended sentence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Side effects.", "content": "An indication of the worm's infection of a given PC is the existence of the files codice_1, codice_2 or codice_3 on the PC's hard disk, the codice_4 running randomly and 100% CPU usage, as well as seemingly random crashes with LSA Shell (Export Version) caused by faulty code used in the worm. The most characteristic symptom of the worm is the shutdown timer that appears due to the worm crashing LSASS.exe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Workarounds.", "content": "The shutdown sequence can be aborted by pressing start and using the Run command to enter codice_5. This aborts the system shutdown so the user may continue what he or she was doing. The shutdown.exe file is not available by default within Windows 2000, but can be installed from the Windows 2000 resource kit. It is available in Windows XP. A second option to stop the worm from shutting down a computer is to change the time and/or date on its clock to earlier; the shutdown time will move as far into the future as the clock was set back.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sasser is a computer worm that affects computers running vulnerable versions of the Microsoft operating systems Windows XP and Windows 2000. Sasser spreads by exploiting the system through a vulnerable port. Thus it is particularly virulent in that it can spread without user intervention, but it is also easily stopped by a properly configured firewall or by downloading system updates from Windows Update. The specific hole Sasser exploits is documented by Microsoft in its MS04-011 bulletin, for which a patch had been released seventeen days earlier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972711}
{"src_title": "Konrad von Marburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Konrad's early life is not well known, but he was described by contemporary church sources as well educated and highly knowledgeable. His contemporaries called him \"Magister,\" a proof that he had finished the course of studies at some university, perhaps Paris or Bologna. He was noted for his strong asceticism and his oppressive zeal in defending the church.  Much of his early work within the church was related to the suppression of heresy, and he took an active part in the Albigensian Crusade in southern France. Pope Innocent III, who championed the Medieval Inquisition, was one of Konrad's early supporters. Eventually, however, Konrad returned to Germany, the land of his birth. In particular, Konrad was employed by Louis' wife, St. Elizabeth of Hungary, to whom Konrad acted as spiritual director.  After receiving a commission from the Archbishop of Mainz, Siegfried II, Konrad set to work seeking out heresy in both Thuringia and Hesse, and quickly gained a reputation for being unreasonable and unjust. According to most accounts, Konrad accepted almost any accusation as true, and regarded suspects as guilty until proven innocent. Those accused of being heretics were quickly sought out by Konrad's mobs, and told to repent or else be burnt at the stake. Those accused of heresy were also encouraged to denounce others, with the implication that their own lives might be spared if they did so. Konrad included commoners, nobles and priests in his inquisition: Heinrich Minnike, Provost of Goslar, was one of Konrad's first targets, and was burnt at the stake.  In 1231, Gregory IX granted him permission to ignore standard church procedure for the investigation of heresy. The pope also issued the papal bull \"Vox in Rama\" in response to Konrad's allegations, condemning \"Luciferian.\" In 1233, Konrad accused Henry II, Count of Sayn, of taking part in \"satanic orgies\". Henry, however, appealed to an assembly of bishops in Mainz where they decided to postpone a verdict to the discontent of both parties.  Konrad, refused to accept the decision and demanded that a verdict be reached, but eventually gave up and left Mainz to return to Marburg. On the road, he was attacked by several knights, who killed both Konrad and his assistant, a Franciscan friar named Gerhard Lutzelkolb.  After Konrad's death, Pope Gregory declared Konrad to have been an upholder of the Christian faith and ordered his killers punished. Perceptions in the German Empire, however, were markedly less favorable, and the memory of Konrad was enough to turn opinion against the Italian Inquisition for many years. Not only locally, and not diminishing over the centuries, the name of Konrad von Marburg became a byword for sadism and the dark side of Catholicism.  The place where Konrad was killed, Hof Kapelle near Marburg, is marked with a stone (within the premises of a private farm); it was locally long believed to be haunted and is allegedly today on certain days the site of black rites. A fountain on the lower \"Steinweg\", one of Marburg's main lanes, close to St. Elisabeth Church, which in some neo-gothic restoration attempt was topped with the effigy of a generic monk that was locally believed to represent Konrad, was continuously stoned by the students of the University of Marburg, and after many attempts at replacement, had to be substituted with an architectural ornament.  Konrad appears in a work by the English novelist Charles Kingsley, who wrote his \"Saint's Tragedy\" about Elisabeth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "Konrad von Marburg is pictured as the main character in the French comic strip \"The Third Testament\" by Xavier Dorison and Alex Alice. After hiding for 20 years after being sentenced to death by an Inquisition Tribunal framed by Henry of Sayn, a mellowed and weary Konrad again faces the mysterious Count of Sayn in a race to find a legendary document, the “Third Testament”. The story is a 4-part suite published by Glénat.  Konrad von Marburg appears as an antagonist in the anime series \"Radiant\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Konrad von Marburg (sometimes anglicised as Conrad of Marburg) (1180 – 30 July 1233) was a medieval German priest and nobleman.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972712}
{"src_title": "Juniperus communis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Juniperus communis\" is a small coniferous evergreen tree or shrub, very variable in form, ranging from —rarely —tall to a low, often prostrate spreading shrub in exposed locations. It has needle-like leaves in whorls of three; the leaves are green, with a single white stomatal band on the inner surface. It never attains adult foliage. It is dioecious, with male and female cones, which are wind pollinated, on separate plants.  The fruit are berry-like cones, initially green, ripening in 18 months to purple-black with a blue waxy coating; they are spherical, diameter, and usually have three (occasionally six) fleshy fused scales, each scale with a single seed. The seeds are dispersed when birds eat the cones, digesting the fleshy scales and passing the hard, unwinged seeds in their droppings. The male cones are yellow, long, and fall soon after shedding their pollen in March–April.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "As to be expected from the wide range, \"J. communis\" is very variable, with several infraspecific taxa; delimitation between the taxa is still uncertain, with genetic data not matching morphological data well.  Some botanists treat subsp. \"alpina\" at the lower rank of variety, in which case the correct name is \"Juniperus communis\" var. \"saxatilis\" Pallas, though the name \"Juniperus communis\" var. \"montana\" is also occasionally cited; others, primarily in eastern Europe and Russia, sometimes treat it as a distinct species \"J. sibirica\" Burgsd. (syn. \"J. nana\" Willd., \"J. alpina\" S.F.Gray).  \"Juniperus communis\" is one of Ireland's longest established plants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The juniper berry oil is composed largely of monoterpene hydrocarbons such as α-pinene, myrcene, sabinene, limonene and β-pinene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Juniperus communis\" is cultivated in the horticulture trade and used as an evergreen ornamental shrub in gardens. The following cultivars gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit in 1993:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Crafts.", "content": "It is too small to have any general lumber usage. In Scandinavia, however, juniper wood is used for making containers for storing small quantities of dairy products such as butter and cheese, and also for making wooden butter knives. It was also frequently used for trenails in wooden shipbuilding by shipwrights for its tough properties.  In Estonia juniper wood is valued for its long lasting and pleasant aroma, very decorative natural structure of wood (growth rings) as well as good physical properties of wood due to slow growth rate of juniper and resulting dense and strong wood. Various decorative items (often eating utensils) are common in most Estonian handicraft shops and households.  According to the old tradition, on Easter Monday Kashubian (Northern Poland) boys chase girls whipping their legs gently with juniper twigs. This is to bring good fortune in love to the chased girls.  Juniper wood, especially burl wood, is frequently used to make knife handles for French pocketknives such as the Laguiole.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culinary.", "content": "Its astringent blue-black seed cones, commonly known as \"juniper berries\", are too bitter to eat raw and are usually sold dried and used to flavour meats, sauces, and stuffings. They are generally crushed before use to release their flavour. Since juniper berries have a strong taste, they should be used sparingly. They are generally used to enhance meat with a strong flavour, such as game, including game birds, or tongue.  The cones are used to flavour certain beers and gin (the word \"gin\" derives from an Old French word meaning \"juniper\"). In Finland, juniper is used as a key ingredient in making sahti, a traditional Finnish ale. Also the Slovak alcoholic beverage Borovička and Dutch Jenever are flavoured with juniper berry or its extract.  Juniper is used in the traditional farmhouse ales of Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Latvia. In Norway, the beer is brewed with juniper infusion instead of water, while in the other countries the juniper twigs are mainly used in the mash, as filters to prevent the crushed malts from clogging the outlet of the mashing tun. The use of juniper in farmhouse brewing has been common in much of northern Europe, seemingly for a very long time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "Juniper berries have long been used as medicine by many cultures including the Navajo people. Western American tribes combined the berries of \"Juniperus communis\" with \"Berberis\" root bark in a herbal tea. Native Americans also used juniper berries as a female contraceptive.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Juniperus communis, the common juniper, is a species of conifer in the genus \"Juniperus\", in the family Cupressaceae. It has the largest geographical range of any woody plant, with a circumpolar distribution throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic south in mountains to around 30°N latitude in North America, Europe and Asia. Relict populations can be found in the Atlas Mountains of Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972713}
{"src_title": "William V, Prince of Orange", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "William Batavus was born in The Hague on 8 March 1748, the only son of William IV, who had the year before been restored as stadtholder of the United Provinces. He was only three years old when his father died in 1751, and a long regency began. His regents were:  William was made the 568th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1752.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stadtholder.", "content": "William V assumed the position of stadtholder and Captain-General of the Dutch States Army on his majority in 1766. However, he allowed the Duke of Brunswick to retain a large influence on the government with the secret \"Acte van Consulentschap\". On 4 October 1767 in Berlin, Prince William married Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia, the daughter of Augustus William of Prussia, niece of Frederick the Great and a cousin of George III. (He himself was George III's first cousin). He became an art collector and in 1774 his \"Galerij Prins Willem V\" was opened to the public.  The position of the Dutch during the American War of Independence was one of neutrality. William V, leading the pro-British faction within the government, blocked attempts by pro-American-independence, and later pro-French, elements to drag the government to war in support of the Franco-American alliance. However, things came to a head with the Dutch attempt to join the Russian-led League of Armed Neutrality, leading to the outbreak of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War in 1780. In spite of the fact that Britain was engaged in fighting on several fronts, the war went badly for the poorly prepared Dutch, leading to the loss of St. Eustatius and Nagapattinam. Scandals like the Brest Affair undermined belief in the Dutch navy. The stadtholderian regime and the Duke of Brunswick were suspected of treason in the matter of the loss of the Barrier fortresses. The deterioration of the prestige of the regime made minds ripe for agitation for political reform, like the pamphlet Aan het Volk van Nederland, published in 1781 by Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol.  After the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), there was growing restlessness in the United Provinces with William's rule. A coalition of old Dutch States Party \"regenten\" and democrats, called Patriots, was challenging his authority more and more. In 1785 William left the Hague and removed his court to Het Loo Palace in Gelderland, a province remote from the political center. In September 1786 he sent States-Army troops to Hattem and Elburg to overthrow the cities' Patriot vroedschap, despite the defense by Patriot Free Corps, organised by Herman Willem Daendels. This provoked the Patriot-dominated States of Holland to deprive him of his office of Captain-General of the States Army. In June 1787 his energetic wife Wilhelmina tried to travel to the Hague to foment an Orangist rising in that city. Outside Schoonhoven, she was stopped by Free Corps, taken to a farm near Goejanverwellesluis and after a short detention made to return to Nijmegen.  To Wilhelmina and her brother, Frederick William II of Prussia, this was both an insult and an excuse to intervene militarily. Frederick launched the Prussian invasion of Holland in September 1787 to suppress the Patriots. Many Patriots fled to the North of France, around Saint-Omer, in an area where Dutch was spoken. Until his overthrow they were supported by King Louis XVI of France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile in Great Britain and Ireland.", "content": "William V joined the First Coalition against Republican France in 1793 with the coming of the French Revolution. His troops fought bravely in the Flanders Campaign, but in 1794 the military situation deteriorated and the Dutch Republic was threatened by invading armies. The year 1795 was a disastrous one for the \"ancien régime\" of the Netherlands. Supported by the French Army, the revolutionaries returned from Paris to fight in the Netherlands, and in 1795 William V went into exile in England. A few days later the Batavian Revolution occurred, and the Dutch Republic was replaced with the Batavian Republic.  Directly after his arrival in England, the Prince wrote a number of letters (known as the Kew Letters) from his new residence in Kew to the governors of the Dutch colonies, instructing them to hand over their colonies to the British \"for safe-keeping.\" Though only a number complied, this contributed to their confusion and demoralisation. Almost all Dutch colonies were in the course of time occupied by the British, who in the end returned most, but not all (South Africa and Ceylon), first at the Treaty of Amiens and later with the Convention of London 1814.  In 1799 the Hereditary Prince took an active part in the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland, engineering the capture of a Batavian naval squadron in the Vlieter Incident. The surrender of the ships (that had been paid for by the Batavian Republic) was formally accepted in the name of William V as stadtholder, who was later allowed to \"sell\" them to the Royal Navy for an appreciable amount. But that was his only success, as the troops suffered from choleric diseases, and civilians at that time were unwilling to re-instate the old regime. The arrogance of the tone in his proclamation, demanding the restoration of the stadtholderate, may not have been helpful, according to Simon Schama.  After the Peace of Amiens in 1802, in which Great Britain recognised the Batavian Republic, an additional Franco-Prussian Convention of 23 May 1802 declared that the House of Orange would be ceded in perpetuity the domains of Dortmund, Weingarten, Fulda and Corvey in lieu of its Dutch estates and revenues (this became the Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda). As far as Napoleon was concerned, this cession was conditional on the liquidation of the stadtholderate and other hereditary offices of the Prince. William V, however had no interest in towns, territories and abbeys confiscated from other rulers, including alternatives as Würzburg and Bamberg, but wanted what was his due: his arrears in salaries and other financial perquisites since 1795, or a lump sum of 4 million guilders. The foreign minister of the Batavian Republic, Maarten van der Goes, was willing to secretly try to persuade the \"Staatsbewind\" of the Batavian Republic to grant this additional indemnity, but Napoleon put a stop to it, when he got wind of the affair.  The last of the Dutch stadtholders, William V died in exile at his daughter's palace in Brunswick, now in Germany. His body was moved to the Dutch Royal Family crypt in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft on 29 April 1958.  In 1813, his son, King William I returned to the Netherlands and became the first Dutch monarch from the House of Orange.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "William V and Wilhelmina of Prussia were parents to five children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appreciation.", "content": "During his life and afterwards William V was a controversial person, in himself, and because he was the unwilling center of a political firestorm that others had caused. Many historians and contemporaries have written short appreciations of him that were often acerbic. Phillip Charles, Count of Alvensleben, who was Prussian envoy to the Hague from 1787 (so not someone who must be suspected to be prejudiced against William) may be taken as an example. He wrote:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William V (Willem Batavus; 8 March 1748 – 9 April 1806) was a Prince of Orange and the last Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic. He went into exile to London in 1795. He was furthermore ruler of the Principality of Orange-Nassau until his death in 1806. In that capacity he was succeeded by his son William.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972714}
{"src_title": "Johann Joseph Fux", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Fux was born to a peasant family in Hirtenfeld, Styria, Austria. Relatively little is known about his early life, but likely he went to nearby Graz for music lessons. In 1680 he was accepted at the Jesuit university there, where his musical talent became apparent. From 1685 until 1688 he served as organist at St. Moritz in Ingolstadt. Sometime during this period he must have made a trip to Italy, as evidenced by the strong influence of Corelli and Bolognese composers on his work of the time.  By the 1690s he was in Vienna, and attracted the attention of Emperor Leopold I with some masses he composed; the emperor was sufficiently impressed by them to assist him with his career after this point. In 1698, Leopold hired him as court composer. Fux traveled again to Italy, studying in Rome in 1700; it may have been here that he acquired the veneration for Palestrina which was so consequential for music pedagogy.  Fux served Leopold I until his death, and two more Habsburg emperors after that: Joseph I, and Charles VI, both of whom continued to employ him in high positions in the court. Fux was famous as a composer throughout this period, his fame being eclipsed only later in the 18th century as the Baroque style died out. Although his music until recently never regained favor, his mastery of counterpoint influenced countless composers through his treatise \"Gradus ad Parnassum\" (1725). Haydn largely taught himself counterpoint by reading it and recommended it to the young Beethoven. Mozart had a copy of it that he annotated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Gradus ad Parnassum\".", "content": "The \"Gradus ad Parnassum\" (Steps or Ascent to Mount Parnassus) is a theoretical and pedagogical work written by Fux in Latin in 1725, and translated into German by Lorenz Christoph Mizler in 1742. Fux dedicated it to Emperor Charles VI.  The work is divided into two major parts. In the first part, Fux presents a summary of the theory on \"Musica Speculativa,\" or the analysis of intervals as proportions between numbers. This section is in a simple lecture style, and looks at music from a purely mathematical angle, in a theoretical tradition that goes back, through the works of Renaissance theoreticians, to the Ancient Greeks. Fux explains that intervals in exact mathematical proportions result in larger and smaller half tones, and he also mentions that some organists added extra keys (split halves to use smaller and bigger half tones), but that adding extra keys on a keyboard was problematic and for this reason they divided every note in \"\"\"\" (two equal parts), resulting in equal temperament. He continues:  The second part, on \"Musica Pratica,\" is the section of this treatise where the author presents his instruction on counterpoint, fugue, double counterpoint, a brief essay on musical taste, and his ideas on composing sacred music, writing in the \"a cappella\" and in the \"recitativo\" style. This part is in the form of a dialog, between a master (Aloysius, Latin for Luigi, who is meant to represent Palestrina's ideas) and a student, Josephus, who represents Fux himself, a self-admitted admirer of Palestrina. At the outset, Fux states his purpose: \"to invent a simple method by which a student can progress, step by step, to the heights of compositional mastery...\" and gives his opinion of contemporary practice: \"I will not be deterred by the most passionate haters of study, nor by the depravity of the present time.\" He also states that theory without practice is useless. Thus, his book stresses practice over theory.  While \"Gradus ad Parnassum\" is famous as the origin of the term \"species counterpoint\", Fux was not the first one to invent the idea. In 1610, Girolamo Diruta, a composer of the Venetian school, published \"Il Transilvano\", which presented the Renaissance polyphonic style as a series of types: one note against one note, two notes against one note, suspensions, and so forth. Fux's work repeated some of Diruta's, possibly coincidentally, since he is not known to have had a copy. In any event, Fux presented the idea with a clarity and focus which made it famous as a teaching method.  In species counterpoint, as given in Fux, the student is to master writing counterpoint in each species before moving on to the next. The species are, in order, note against note; two notes against one; four notes against one; ligature or suspensions (one note against one, but offset by half of the note value); and florid counterpoint, in which the other species are combined freely. Once all the species are mastered in two voices, the species are gone through again in three voices, and then in four voices. (Occasionally, in modern counterpoint textbooks, the third and fourth species are reversed with suspensions being taught before four notes against one.) Fux expressed the intention of adding sections on how to write counterpoint for more than four parts, indicating that rules in this area were to be \"less rigorously observed\". However, citing his poor health as a result of gout and age, he chose to conclude the book as it stood.  Modern counterpoint education is greatly indebted to \"Gradus ad Parnassum\" as the codex of the five species. Most subsequent counterpoint textbooks have taken Fux as their starting point, from the book by Albrechtsberger (\"Gründliche Anweisung zur Komposition\") to 20th century examples such as the book by Knud Jeppesen (\"Counterpoint: The Polyphonic Vocal Style of the Sixteenth Century\").  The Latin edition of Fux's \"Gradus ad Parnassum\" from the year 1725 is the only surviving book of J.S. Bach's personal library of theoretical works.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Fux also composed church music (\"Missa canonica,\" \"Missa Christi Corporis,\" \"Requiem\" K 51–53, \"Magnificat\" K 98, \"De Profundis\"), oratorios (\"Il Fonte della Salute\"), operas (\"Julo Ascanio, re d'Alba,\" 1708; \"Orfeo ed Euridice,\" 1715; \"Angelica, vinditrice di Alkina,\" 1723 – an example of the Colossal Baroque style; \"Costanza e Fortezza,\" 1723), and instrumental pieces (collected in his \"Concentus musico-instrumentalis,\" 1701).  For the clavier, Fux composed five Partitas, a 20-minute Capriccio, a Ciaccona, an Harpeggio Prelude and Fugue, an Aria Passaggiata, and a set of twelve Minuets.  Fux frequently worked with theatrical engineer Giuseppe Galli Bibiena and poet and librettist Pietro Pariati.  Fux's compositions were catalogued by Ludwig Ritter von Köchel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Joseph Fux (; c. 1660 – 13 February 1741) was an Austrian composer, music theorist and pedagogue of the late Baroque era. He is most famous as the author of \"Gradus ad Parnassum\", a treatise on counterpoint, which has become the single most influential book on the Palestrinian style of Renaissance polyphony. Almost all modern courses on Renaissance counterpoint, a mainstay of college music curricula, are indebted in some degree to this work by Fux.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972715}
{"src_title": "Climograph", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Representation.", "content": "One form of representation uses an overlapped combination of a bar and line chart used to show the climate of a place over a 12-month period. The horizontal axis (x-axis) displays the 12 months while the vertical axis contains the precipitation scale on one side and the temperature scale on the other.  While temperature is typically visualized using a line, some climographs opt to visualize the data using a bar. This method's advantage allows the climograph to display the average range in temperature (average minimum and average maximum temperatures) rather than a simple monthly average.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "The patterns in a climograph describe not just a location's climate but also provide evidence for that climate's relative location. For example, a climograph with a narrow range in temperature over the year might represent a location close to the equator, or alternatively a location adjacent to a large body of water exerting a moderating effect on the temperature range. Meanwhile, a wide range in annual temperature might suggest the opposite. We could also derive information about a site's ecological conditions through a climograph. For example, if precipitation is consistently low year-round, we might suggest the location reflects a desert; if there is a noticeable seasonal pattern to the precipitation, we might suggest the location experiences a monsoon season. When combining the temperature and precipitation patterns together, we have even better clues as to the local conditions. Despite this, it is important to note that a number of local factors contribute to the patterns observed in a particular place; therefore, a climograph is not a foolproof tool that captures all the geographic variation that might exist.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A climograph is a graphical representation of a location's basic climate. Climographs display data for two variables: (a) monthly average temperature and (b) monthly average precipitation. These are useful tools to quickly describe a location's climate.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972716}
{"src_title": "Chinese whispers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "As the game is popular among children worldwide, it is also known under various other names depending on locality, such as \"Russian scandal\", \"whisper down the lane\", \"broken telephone\" (in Greece), \"operator\", \"grapevine\", \"gossip\", \"secret message\", \"the messenger game\", and \"pass the message\", among others. In France, it is called \"téléphone arabe\" (Arabic telephone) or \"téléphone sans fil\" (wireless telephone). In Malaysia, this game is commonly referred to as \"telefon rosak\", in Israel as \"telefon shavur\" (טלפון שבור) and in Greece as \"spazmeno tilefono\" (σπασμένο τηλέφωνο) which all translate to \"broken telephone\". In Poland it is called \"głuchy telefon\", which means \"deaf telephone\". In the United States, the game is known under the name \"telephone\" – which in this use is never shortened to the colloquial and more common word \"phone\".  Historians trace Westerners' use of the word \"Chinese\" to denote \"confusion\" and \"incomprehensibility\" to the earliest contacts between Europeans and Chinese people in the 17th century, and attribute it to Europeans' inability to understand China's culture and worldview. Using the phrase \"Chinese whispers\" suggested a belief that the Chinese language itself is not understandable. Additionally, Chinese people have historically been stereotyped by Westerners as secretive or inscrutable. The more fundamental metonymic use of the name of a foreign language to represent a broader class of situations involving foreign languages or difficulty of understanding a language is also captured in older idioms, such as \"It's all Greek to me\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Game.", "content": "The game has no winner: the entertainment comes from comparing the original and final messages. Intermediate messages may also be compared; some messages will become unrecognizable after only a few steps.  As well as providing amusement, the game can have educational value. It shows how easily information can become corrupted by indirect communication. The game has been used in schools to simulate the spread of gossip and its supposed harmful effects. It can also be used to teach young children to moderate the volume of their voice, and how to listen attentively; in this case, a game is a success if the message is transmitted accurately with each child whispering rather than shouting. It can also be used for older or adult learners of a foreign language, where the challenge of speaking comprehensibly, and understanding, is more difficult because of the low volume, and hence a greater mastery of the fine points of pronunciation is required.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "A variant of Chinese whispers is called Rumors. In this version of the game, when players transfer the message, they \"deliberately\" change one or two words of the phrase (often to something more humorous than the previous message). Intermediate messages can be compared. What an individual player changes in the message often says something about the player. There is a second derivative variant, no less popular than Rumors, known as Mahjong Secrets (UK), or, more commonly, Broken Telephone (US), where the objective is to receive the message from the whisperer and whisper to the next participant the first word or phrase that comes to mind in association with what was heard. At the end, the final phrase is compared to the first in front of all participants. The pen-and-paper game Telephone Pictionary (also known as Eat Poop You Cat) is played by alternately writing and illustrating captions, the paper being folded so that each player can only see the previous participant's contribution. Commercial boardgame versions \"Telestrations\" and \"Cranium Scribblish\" were both released in 2009. The game has also been implemented online at Broken Picture Telephone, Drawception and other sites.  A translation relay is a variant in which the first player produces a text in a given language, together with a basic guide to understanding, which includes a lexicon, an interlinear gloss, possibly a list of grammatical morphemes, comments on the meaning of difficult words, etc. (everything except an actual translation). The text is passed on to the following player, who tries to make sense of it and casts it into his/her language of choice, then repeating the procedure, and so on. Each player only knows the translation done by his immediate predecessor, but customarily the relay master or mistress collects all of them. The relay ends when the last player returns the translation to the beginning player.  Another variant of Chinese whispers is shown on \"Ellen's Game of Games\" under the name of \"Say Whaaaat?\". However, the differences is that the four players will be wearing earmuffs; therefore the players have to read their lips.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chinese whispers (Commonwealth English) or telephone (North American English) is an internationally popular children's game in which players form a line, and the first player comes up with a message and whispers it to the ear of the second person in the line. The second player repeats the message to the third player, and so on. When the last player is reached, they announce the message they heard to the entire group. The first person then compares the original message with the final version. Although the objective is to pass around the message without it becoming garbled along the way, part of the enjoyment is that, regardless, this usually ends up happening. Errors typically accumulate in the retellings, so the statement announced by the last player differs significantly from that of the first player, usually with amusing or humorous effect. Reasons for changes include anxiousness or impatience, erroneous corrections, and the difficult-to-understand mechanism of whispering.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972717}
{"src_title": "Hymenolepis nana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Morphology.", "content": "As its name implies ( – dwarf), it is a small species, seldom exceeding 40 mm long and 1 mm wide. The scolex bears a retractable rostellum armed with a single circle of 20 to 30 hooks. The scolex also has four suckers, or a tetrad. The neck is long and slender, and the segments are wider than long. Genital pores are unilateral, and each mature segment contains three testes. After apolysis, gravid segments disintegrate, releasing eggs, which measure 30 to 47 μm in diameter. The oncosphere is covered with a thin, hyaline, outer membrane and an inner, thick membrane with polar thickenings that bear several filaments. The heavy embryophores that give taeniid eggs their characteristic striated appearance are lacking in this and the other families of tapeworms infecting humans. The rostellum remains invaginated in the apex of the organ. Rostellar hooklets are shaped like tuning forks. The neck is long and slender, the region of growth. The strobila starts with short, narrow proglottids, followed with mature ones.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifecycle.", "content": "Infection is acquired most commonly from eggs in the feces of another infected individual, which are transferred in food, by contamination. Eggs hatch in the duodenum, releasing oncospheres, which penetrate the mucosa and come to lie in lymph channels of the villi. An oncosphere develops into a cysticercoid which has a tail and a well-formed scolex. It is made of longitudinal fibers and is spade-shaped with the rest of the worm still inside the cyst. In five to six days, cysticercoids emerge into the lumen of the small intestine, where they attach and mature.  The direct lifecycle is doubtless a recent modification of the ancestral two-host lifecycle found in other species of hymenolepidids, because cysticercoids of \"H. nana\" can still develop normally within larval fleas and beetles. One reason for facultative nature of the lifecycle is that \"H. nana\" cysticercoids can develop at higher temperatures than can those of the other hymenolepidids. Direct contaminative infection by eggs is probably the most common route in human cases, but accidental ingestion of an infected grain beetle or flea cannot be ruled out. The direct infectiousness of the eggs frees the parasite from its former dependence upon an insect intermediate host, making rapid infection and person-to-person spread possible. The short lifespan and rapid course of development also facilitate the spread and ready availability of this worm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "\"H. nana\", like all tapeworms, contains both male and female reproductive structures in each proglottid. This means that the dwarf tapeworm, like other tapeworms is hermaphroditic. Each segment contains three testes and a single ovary. When a proglottid becomes old and unable to absorb any more nutrition, it is released and is passed through the host's digestive tract. This gravid proglottid contains the fertilized eggs, which are sometimes expelled with the feces. However, most of the time, the egg may also settle in the microvilli of the small intestine, hatch, and the larvae can develop to sexual maturity without ever leaving the host.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "The dwarf tapeworm, like all other tapeworms, lacks a digestive system and feeds by absorption on nutrients in the intestinal lumen. They have nonspecific carbohydrate requirements and they seem to absorb whatever is being passed through the intestine at that time. When it becomes an adult, it attaches to the intestinal walls with its suckers and toothed rostellum and has its segments reaching out into the intestinal space to absorb food.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "The dwarf tapeworm or \"Hymenolepis\" nana is found worldwide. More common in warm parts of South Europe, Russia, India, US and Latin America. Infection is most common in children, in persons living in institutional settings, crowded environments and in people who live in areas where sanitation and personal hygiene is inadequate. Infection is most common in children aged 4–10 years, in dry, warm regions of the developing world. Estimated to have 50-75 million carriers of Hymenolopis nana with 5 to 25% prevalence in children worldwide. One becomes infected by accidentally ingesting dwarf tapeworm eggs, ingesting fecally contaminated foods or water, by touching your mouth with contaminated fingers, or by ingesting contaminated soil, and/or accidentally ingesting an infected arthropod.  United States: International:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pathogenesis.", "content": "Light infections: Heavy infections:  For young children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "The prescription drug Praziquantel is usually prescribed in a single dose to patients suffering from infection of \"H.nana.\" Praziquantel is widely used and preferred due to its high efficacy. Research has shown that the cysticercoid phase of H.nana’s life cycle is the most susceptible to the Praziquantel treatment.  In 1980, research proved that Praziquantel had morphological effects on H.nana and other similar cestodes. Following ten minutes of Praziquantel administration, H. nana was almost completely paralyzed; thirty minutes post-administration, the tapeworms were completely dislodged from the caecum. This research fully indicated the paralyzing and deadly nature of Praziquantel on \"H. nana\", \"H. diminuta\", \"H. microstoma.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 1887, Grassi demonstrated that transmission from rat to rat did not require an intermediate host. Later, in 1921, Saeki demonstrated a direct cycle of transmission of \"H. nana\" in humans, transmission without an intermediate host. In addition to the direct cycle, Nicholl and Minchin demonstrated that fleas can serve as intermediate hosts between humans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "4. Arora, H. S. (2017, January 6). Hymenolepiasis. Retrieved December 8, 2017, from https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/998498-overview#a6  5. C. (2012, January 10). Hymenolepiasis FAQs. Retrieved December 8, 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/hymenolepis/faqs.html", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dwarf tapeworm (\"Hymenolepis nana\", also known as \"Rodentolepis nana\", \"Vampirolepis nana\", \"Hymenolepis fraterna\", and \"Taenia nana\") is a cosmopolitan species though most common in temperate zones, and is one of the most common cestodes (a type of intestinal worm or helminth) infecting humans, especially children.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972718}
{"src_title": "Excavator", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "Excavators are also called diggers, JCBs (a proprietary name, in an example of a generic trademark), mechanical shovels, or 360-degree excavators (sometimes abbreviated simply to \"360\"). Tracked excavators are sometimes called \"trackhoes\" by analogy to the backhoe. In the UK, wheeled excavators are sometimes known as \"rubber ducks.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "Excavators are used in many ways:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Configurations.", "content": "Modern hydraulic excavators come in a wide variety of sizes. The smaller ones are called mini or compact excavators. For example, Caterpillar's smallest mini-excavator weighs and has 13 hp; their largest model is the largest excavator available (developed and produced by the Orenstein & Koppel, Germany, until the takeover 2011 by Caterpillar, named »RH400«), the CAT 6090, which weighs in excess of, has 4500 hp, and a bucket as large as 52.0 m3.  Hydraulic excavators usually couple engine power to (commonly) three hydraulic pumps rather than to mechanical drivetrains. The two main pumps supply oil at high pressure (up to 5000 psi, 345 bar) for the arms, swing motor, track motors and accessories while the third is a lower pressure (~700 psi, 48 bar) pump for pilot control of the spool valves; this third circuit allows for reduced physical effort when operating the controls. Generally, the 3 pumps used in excavators consist of 2 variable displacement piston pumps and a gear pump. The arrangement of the pumps in the excavator unit changes with different manufacturers using different formats.  The three main sections of an excavator are the undercarriage, the house and the arm (also boom is used). The undercarriage includes tracks, track frame, and final drives, which have a hydraulic motor and gearing providing the drive to the individual tracks. Undercarriage can also have blade similar to that of a bulldozer. The house includes the operator cab, counterweight, engine, fuel and hydraulic oil tanks. The house attaches to the undercarriage by way of a center pin. High pressure oil is supplied to the tracks' hydraulic motors through a hydraulic swivel at the axis of the pin, allowing the machine to slew 360° unhindered and thus provides the left-and-right movement. The arm provides the up-and-down and closer-and-further (or digging movement) movements. Arm consist typically of boom, stick and bucket with three joints between them and the house.  The boom attaches to the house and provides the up-and-down movement. It can be one of several different configurations:  Attached to the end of the boom is the stick (or dipper arm). The stick provides the digging movement needed to pull the bucket through the ground. The stick length is optional depending whether reach (longer stick) or break-out power (shorter stick) is required. Most common is mono stick but there are also, for example, telescopic sticks.  On the end of the stick is usually a bucket. A wide, large capacity (mud) bucket with a straight cutting edge is used for cleanup and levelling or where the material to be dug is soft, and teeth are not required. A general purpose (GP) bucket is generally smaller, stronger, and has hardened side cutters and teeth used to break through hard ground and rocks. Buckets have numerous shapes and sizes for various applications. There are also many other attachments which are available to be attached to the excavator for boring, ripping, crushing, cutting, lifting, etc. Attachments can be attached with pins similar to other parts of the arm or with some variety of quick coupler. Excavators in Scandinavia often feature a tiltrotator which allows attachments rotate 360 degrees and tilt +/- 45 degrees, in order to increase the flexibility and precision of the excavator. Before the 1990s, all excavators had a long or conventional counterweight that hung off the rear of the machine to provide more digging force and lifting capacity. This became a nuisance when working in confined areas. In 1993 Yanmar launched the world's first Zero Tail Swing excavator, which allows the counterweight to stay inside the width of the tracks as it slews, thus being safer and more user friendly when used in a confined space. This type of machine is now widely used throughout the world.  There are two main types of \"Control\" configuration generally use in excavators to control the boom and bucket, both of which spread the four main digging controls between two x-y joysticks. This allows a skilled operator to control all four functions simultaneously. The most popular configuration in the US is the SAE controls configuration while in other parts of the world, the ISO control configuration is more common. Some manufacturers such as Takeuchi have switches that allow the operator to select which control configuration to use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Excavator attachments.", "content": "Hydraulic excavator capabilities have expanded far beyond excavation tasks with buckets. With the advent of hydraulic-powered attachments such as a breaker, a grapple or an auger, the excavator is frequently used in many applications other than excavation. Many excavators feature a quick coupler for simplified attachment mounting, increasing the machine's utilization on the jobsite. Excavators are usually employed together with loaders and bulldozers. Most wheeled, compact and some medium-sized (11 to 18-tonne) excavators have a backfill (or dozer) blade. This is a horizontal bulldozer-like blade attached to the undercarriage and is used for levelling and pushing removed material back into a hole.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current manufacturers.", "content": "As of April 2020, there are current excavator manufacturers:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Excavators are heavy construction equipment consisting of a boom, dipper (or stick), bucket and cab on a rotating platform known as the \"house\". The house sits atop an undercarriage with tracks or wheels. They are a natural progression from the steam shovels and often mistakenly called power shovels. All movement and functions of a hydraulic excavator are accomplished through the use of hydraulic fluid, with hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors. Due to the linear actuation of hydraulic cylinders, their mode of operation is fundamentally different from cable-operated excavators which use winches and steel ropes to accomplish the movements.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972719}
{"src_title": "Unter den Linden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Unter den Linden runs east–west from the site of the Stadtschloss royal palace at the Lustgarten park, where the demolished Palace of the Republic once stood, to Pariser Platz and Brandenburg Gate. Eastward the boulevard crosses the Spree river at Berlin Cathedral and continues as Karl-Liebknecht-Straße. The western continuation behind Brandenburg Gate is Straße des 17. Juni. Major north–south streets crossing Unter den Linden are Friedrichstraße and Wilhelmstrasse.  Unter den Linden, which sits at the heart of the historic section of Berlin, developed from a bridle path laid out by Elector John George of Brandenburg in the 16th century to reach his hunting grounds in the Tiergarten. It was replaced by a boulevard of linden trees planted in 1647, extending from the city palace to the gates of the city, by order of the \"Great Elector\" Frederick William. While the western part of the boulevard retained its character, the area around present-day Bebelplatz was integrated into the fortification of Berlin in the aftermath of the Thirty Years' War, visible until today as there are no trees.  By the 19th century, as Berlin grew and expanded to the west, Unter den Linden became the best-known and grandest street in Berlin. In 1851 the famous equestrian statue of King Frederick II of Prussia was erected on the centre strip, designed by Christian Daniel Rauch. Johann Strauss III wrote the waltz „\"Unter den Linden\"“ in 1900. In the course of the building of the Nord-Süd-Tunnel for the Berlin S-Bahn in 1934–35, most of the linden trees were cut down and during the last days of World War II the remaining trees were destroyed or cut down for firewood. The present-day linden were replanted in the 1950s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Points of interest.", "content": "Since 1937, the numbering of the properties on the street has started at the \"Schlossbrücke\" (Palace Bridge), which connects Unter den Linden with the Lustgarten and Museum Island. The reconstructed Alte Kommandantur is at No. 1, standing opposite the Zeughaus arsenal, the oldest building on Unter den Linden, built between 1695 and 1706, now the seat of the \"Deutsches Historisches Museum\", No. 2. Buildings along the street include (from east to west) the Crown Prince's Palace (the former palace of the Hohenzollern crown princes), at No. 3, opposite the Neue Wache war memorial, No. 4, Karl Friedrich Schinkel’s masterpiece built in 1817. Further along, on Bebelplatz, the Berlin State Opera, No. 7, colloquially called \"Lindenoper\", St. Hedwig's Cathedral and the \"Altes Palais\", No. 9, the favourite residence of Emperor Wilhelm I; next on the north side are the main building of the Humboldt University, No. 6, and House I of the Berlin State Library, No. 8. At the western end are the Russian Embassy (former Soviet Embassy, Nos. 63-65, the Hungarian Embassy, No. 76, standing at the junction with Wilhelmstrasse,and finally the Hotel Adlon, No. 77, at the corner of Pariser Platz, which has been completely rebuilt on the site of the pre-war hotel. Well-known statues of Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt in front of the university as well as of the Prussian generals Scharnhorst and Bülow, also adorn the street. A street sign carrying the name Unter den Linden dating from before the 1930s was taken away by British forces and can now be seen at the Imperial War Museum, London.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Unter den Linden (, \"under the linden trees\") is a boulevard in the central Mitte district of Berlin, the capital of Germany. Running from the City Palace to Brandenburg Gate, it is named after the linden (lime) trees that line the grassed pedestrian mall on the median and the two broad carriageways. The avenue links numerous Berlin sights, landmarks and rivers for sightseeing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972720}
{"src_title": "Differentiable function", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Differentiability of real functions of one variable.", "content": "A function formula_1, defined on an open set formula_2, is said to be differentiable at formula_3 if any of the following equivalent conditions is satisfied:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differentiability and continuity.", "content": "If is differentiable at a point, then must also be continuous at. In particular, any differentiable function must be continuous at every point in its domain. \"The converse does not hold\": a continuous function need not be differentiable. For example, a function with a bend, cusp, or vertical tangent may be continuous, but fails to be differentiable at the location of the anomaly.  Most functions that occur in practice have derivatives at all points or at almost every point. However, a result of Stefan Banach states that the set of functions that have a derivative at some point is a meager set in the space of all continuous functions. Informally, this means that differentiable functions are very atypical among continuous functions. The first known example of a function that is continuous everywhere but differentiable nowhere is the Weierstrass function.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differentiability classes.", "content": "A function \"f\" is said to be \"continuously differentiable\" if the derivative \"\"(\"x\") exists and is itself a continuous function. Although the derivative of a differentiable function never has a jump discontinuity, it is possible for the derivative to have an essential discontinuity. For example, the function is differentiable at 0, since exists. However, for \"x\" ≠ 0, differentiation rules imply which has no limit as \"x\" → 0. Nevertheless, Darboux's theorem implies that the derivative of any function satisfies the conclusion of the intermediate value theorem.  Continuously differentiable functions are sometimes said to be of \"class\" C. A function is of \"class\" C if the first and second derivative of the function both exist and are continuous. More generally, a function is said to be of \"class\" C if the first \"k\" derivatives '(\"x\"), '(\"x\"),..., \"f\"(\"x\") all exist and are continuous. If derivatives \"f\" exist for all positive integers \"n\", the function is smooth or equivalently, of \"class\" C.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differentiability in higher dimensions.", "content": "A function of several real variables is said to be differentiable at a point if there exists a linear map such that  If a function is differentiable at, then all of the partial derivatives exist at, and the linear map is given by the Jacobian matrix. A similar formulation of the higher-dimensional derivative is provided by the fundamental increment lemma found in single-variable calculus.  If all the partial derivatives of a function exist in a neighborhood of a point and are continuous at the point, then the function is differentiable at that point.  However, the existence of the partial derivatives (or even of all the directional derivatives) does not in general guarantee that a function is differentiable at a point. For example, the function defined by  is not differentiable at, but all of the partial derivatives and directional derivatives exist at this point. For a continuous example, the function  is not differentiable at, but again all of the partial derivatives and directional derivatives exist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differentiability in complex analysis.", "content": "In complex analysis, complex-differentiability is defined using the same definition as single-variable real functions. This is allowed by the possibility of dividing complex numbers. So, a function formula_18 is said to be differentiable at formula_19 when  Although this definition looks similar to the differentiability of single-variable real functions, it is however a more restrictive condition. A function formula_18, that is complex-differentiable at a point formula_19 is automatically differentiable at that point, when viewed as a function formula_23. This is because the complex-differentiability implies that  However, a function formula_18 can be differentiable as a multi-variable function, while not being complex-differentiable. For example, formula_26 is differentiable at every point, viewed as the 2-variable real function formula_27, but it is not complex-differentiable at any point.  Any function that is complex-differentiable in a neighborhood of a point is called holomorphic at that point. Such a function is necessarily infinitely differentiable, and in fact analytic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differentiable functions on manifolds.", "content": "If \"M\" is a differentiable manifold, a real or complex-valued function \"f\" on \"M\" is said to be differentiable at a point \"p\" if it is differentiable with respect to some (or any) coordinate chart defined around \"p\". More generally, if \"M\" and \"N\" are differentiable manifolds, a function \"f\": \"M\" → \"N\" is said to be differentiable at a point \"p\" if it is differentiable with respect to some (or any) coordinate charts defined around \"p\" and \"f\"(\"p\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In calculus (a branch of mathematics), a differentiable function of one real variable is a function whose derivative exists at each point in its domain. As a result, the graph of a differentiable function must have a (non-vertical) tangent line at each interior point in its domain, be relatively smooth, and cannot contain any break, angle, or cusp.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972721}
{"src_title": "Anne Bonny", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life of Bonny.", "content": "Bonny's birthdate is speculated to be around 1700. She was said to be born in Old Head of Kinsale, in County Cork, Ireland. She was the daughter of servant woman Mary Brennan and Brennan's employer, lawyer William Cormac. Official records and contemporary letters dealing with her life are scarce, and most modern knowledge stems from Charles Johnson's \"A General History of the Pyrates\" (a collection of pirate biographies, the first edition partly accurate, the second much embellished).  Bonny's father William Cormac first moved to London to get away from his wife's family, and he began dressing his daughter as a boy and calling her \"Andy\". When Cormac's wife discovered William had taken in the illegitimate daughter and was bringing the child up to be a lawyer's clerk and dressing her as a boy, she stopped giving him an allowance. Cormac then moved to the Province of Carolina, taking along his former serving girl, the mother of Bonny. Bonny's father abandoned the original \"Mc\" prefix of their family name to blend more easily into the Charles Town citizenry. At first, the family had a rough start in their new home, but Cormac's knowledge of law and ability to buy and sell goods soon financed a townhouse and eventually a plantation just out of town. Bonny's mother died when she was 12. Her father attempted to establish himself as an attorney but did not do well. Eventually, he joined the more profitable merchant business and accumulated a substantial fortune.  It is recorded that Bonny had red hair and was considered a \"good catch\" but may have had a fiery temper; at age 13, she supposedly stabbed a servant girl with a knife. She married a poor sailor and small-time pirate named James Bonny. James hoped to win possession of his father-in-law's estate, but Bonny was disowned by her father. Anne's father did not approve of James Bonny as a husband for his daughter, and he kicked Anne out of their house.  There is a story that Bonny set fire to her father's plantation in retaliation, but no evidence exists in support. However, it is known that sometime between 1714 and 1718, she and James Bonny moved to Nassau, on New Providence Island, known as a sanctuary for English pirates called the Republic of Pirates. Many inhabitants received a King's Pardon or otherwise evaded the law. It is also recorded that, after the arrival of Governor Woodes Rogers in the summer of 1718, James Bonny became an informant for the governor. James Bonny would report to Governor Rogers about the pirates in the area, which resulted in a multitude of these pirates being arrested. Anne disliked the work her husband did for Governor Rogers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rackham's partner.", "content": "While in the Bahamas, Bonny began mingling with pirates in the taverns. She met John \"Calico Jack\" Rackham, and he became her lover. He offered money to her husband James Bonny if he would divorce her, but her husband refused and apparently threatened to beat Bonny. She and Rackham escaped the island together, and she became a member of Rackham's crew. She disguised herself as a man on the ship, and only Rackham and Mary Read were aware that she was a woman until it became clear that she was pregnant. Rackham then landed her at Cuba where she gave birth to a son. She then rejoined Rackham and continued the pirate life, having divorced her husband and married Rackham while at sea. Bonny, Rackham, and Read stole the ship \"William\", then at anchor in Nassau harbor, and put out to sea. Rackham and the two women recruited a new crew. Their crew spent years in Jamaica and the surrounding area. Bonny took part in combat alongside the men, and Governor Rogers named her in a \"Wanted Pirates\" circular published in \"The Boston News-Letter\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capture and imprisonment.", "content": "In October 1720, Rackham and his crew were attacked by a sloop captained by Jonathan Barnet under a commission from Nicholas Lawes, Governor of Jamaica. Most of Rackham's pirates put up little resistance, as many of them were too drunk to fight. They were taken to Jamaica where they were convicted and sentenced by Governor Lawes to be hanged. According to Johnson, Bonny's last words to Rackham were: \"Had you fought like a man, you need not have been hang'd like a dog.\"  Read and Bonny both \"pleaded their bellies,\" asking for mercy because they were pregnant, and the court granted them a stay of execution until they gave birth. Read died in prison, most likely from a fever from childbirth. Anne stayed in prison until she gave birth, and nothing else is known about her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "There is no record of Bonny's release, execution, or death, and this has fed speculation as to her fate. Charles Johnson writes in \"A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the most notorious Pyrates\", published in 1724: \"She was continued in Prison, to the Time of her lying in, and afterwards reprieved from Time to Time; but what is become of her since, we cannot tell; only this we know, that she was not executed.\" Ultimately, it is unknown how, or when, Anne Bonny died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Other women pirates:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Websites Books Games", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anne Bonny (possibly 1697 – possibly April 1782) was an Irish pirate operating in the Caribbean, and one of the most famous female pirates of all time. The little that is known of her life comes largely from Captain Charles Johnson's (it is probable that this work was actually written by Daniel Defoe) \"A General History of the Pyrates\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972722}
{"src_title": "Landlocked country", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Significance.", "content": "Historically, being landlocked has been disadvantageous to a country's development. It cuts a nation off from important sea resources such as fishing, and impedes or prevents direct access to maritime trade, a crucial component of economic and social advance. As such, coastal regions, or inland regions that have access to the World Ocean, tended to be wealthier and more heavily populated than inland regions that have no access to the World Ocean. Paul Collier in his book \"The Bottom Billion\" argues that being landlocked in a poor geographic neighborhood is one of four major development \"traps\" by which a country can be held back. In general, he found that when a neighboring country experiences better growth, it tends to spill over into favorable development for the country itself. For landlocked countries, the effect is particularly strong, as they are limited in their trading activity with the rest of the world. He states, \"If you are coastal, you serve the world; if you are landlocked, you serve your neighbors.\" Others have argued that being landlocked has an advantage as it creates a \"natural tariff barrier\" which protects the country from cheap imports. In some instances, this has led to more robust local food systems.  Landlocked developing countries have significantly higher costs of international cargo transportation compared to coastal developing countries (in Asia the ratio is 3:1).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Efforts to avoid being landlocked.", "content": "Countries thus have made particular efforts to avoid being landlocked, by acquiring land that reaches the sea:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trade agreements.", "content": "Countries can make agreements on getting free transport of goods through neighbor countries:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political repercussions.", "content": "Losing access to the sea is generally a great blow to a nation, politically, militarily, and economically. The following are examples of countries becoming landlocked.  The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea now gives a landlocked country a right of access to and from the sea without taxation of traffic through transit states. The United Nations has a programme of action to assist landlocked developing countries, and the current responsible Undersecretary-General is Anwarul Karim Chowdhury.  Some countries have a long coastline, but much of it may not be readily usable for trade and commerce. For instance, in its early history, Russia's only ports were on the Arctic Ocean and frozen shut for much of the year. The wish to gain control of a warm-water port was a major motivator of Russian expansion towards the Baltic Sea, Black Sea and Pacific Ocean. On the other hand, some landlocked countries can have access to the ocean along wide navigable rivers. For instance, Paraguay (and Bolivia to a lesser extent) have access to the ocean through the Paraguay and Parana rivers.  Several countries have coastlines on landlocked bodies of water, such as the Caspian Sea and the Dead Sea. Since these seas are in effect lakes without access to wider seaborne trade, countries such as Kazakhstan are still considered landlocked. Although the Caspian Sea is connected to the Black Sea via the man-made Volga–Don Canal, large oceangoing ships are unable to traverse it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "By degree.", "content": "Landlocked countries may be bordered by a single country having direct access to the high seas, two or more such countries, or be surrounded by other landlocked countries, making a country doubly landlocked.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landlocked by a single country.", "content": "Three countries are landlocked by a single country (enclaved countries):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Landlocked by two countries.", "content": "Seven landlocked countries are surrounded by only two mutually bordering neighbours (semi-enclaved countries):  To this group could be added three \"de facto\" states with no or limited international recognition:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Doubly landlocked.", "content": "A country is \"doubly landlocked\" or \"double-landlocked\" when it is surrounded only by landlocked countries (requiring the crossing of at least two national borders to reach a coastline). There are two such countries:  After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Württemberg became a doubly landlocked state, bordering only Bavaria, Baden, and Switzerland. There were no doubly landlocked countries from the unification of Germany in 1871 until the end of World War I. Liechtenstein bordered the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which had an Adriatic coastline, and Uzbekistan was then part of the Russian Empire, which had both ocean and sea access.  With the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918 and creation of an independent, landlocked Austria, Liechtenstein became the sole doubly landlocked country until 1938. In the Anschluss that year, Austria was absorbed into Nazi Germany, which possessed a border on the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. After World War II, Austria regained its independence and Liechtenstein once again became doubly landlocked.  Uzbekistan, which had been part of the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union, gained its independence with the dissolution of the latter in 1991 and became the second doubly landlocked country.  However, Uzbekistan's doubly landlocked status depends on the Caspian Sea's status dispute: some countries, especially Iran and Turkmenistan, claim that the Caspian Sea should be considered as a real sea (mainly because this way they would have larger oil and gas fields), which would make Uzbekistan only a simple landlocked country since its neighbours Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan have access to the Caspian Sea.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List of landlocked countries and territories.", "content": "They can be grouped in \"contiguous\" groups as follows:  Note:  There are the following 13 \"single\" landlocked countries (each of them borders no other landlocked country):  Notes:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A landlocked country or landlocked state is a sovereign state that does not have territory connected to an ocean or whose coastlines lie on endorheic basins. There are currently 49 landlocked countries, including 5 partially recognized states.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972723}
{"src_title": "Anton Drexler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Munich, Drexler was a machine-fitter before becoming a railway toolmaker and locksmith in Berlin. He is believed to have been disappointed with his income, and to have played the zither in restaurants to supplement his earnings. Drexler did not serve in the armed forces during World War I because he was deemed unfit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Involvement in politics.", "content": "During World War I, Drexler joined the German Fatherland Party, a short-lived far-right party active during the last phase of the war, that played a vital role in the emergence of the stab-in-the-back myth and the defamation of certain politicians as the November Criminals.  In March 1918, Drexler founded a branch of Free Workers' Committee for a Good Peace (\"Der Freie Arbeiterausschuss für einen guten Frieden\") league. Karl Harrer, a journalist and member of the Thule Society, convinced Drexler and several others to form the Political Workers' Circle (\"Politischer Arbeiter-Zirkel\") in 1918. The members met periodically for discussions with themes of nationalism and antisemitism. Drexler was a poet and a member of the Völkisch agitators.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Founding of the German Workers' Party.", "content": "Together with Harrer, Gottfried Feder and Dietrich Eckart, Drexler founded the German Workers' Party (DAP) in Munich on 5 January 1919.  At a DAP meeting in Munich in September 1919, the main speaker was Gottfried Feder. When Feder's lecture concluded, Adolf Hitler got involved in a heated political argument with a visitor, Professor Adalbert Baumann, who questioned the soundness of Feder's arguments in support of Bavaria separatism and against capitalism. In vehemently attacking the man's arguments, Hitler made an impression on the other party members with his oratory skills, and according to him, the professor left the hall acknowledging defeat. Drexler approached Hitler and gave him a copy of his pamphlet \"My Political Awakening\", which contained anti-Semitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Marxist ideas. Hitler claims the literature reflected the ideals he already believed in. Impressed with Hitler, Drexler encouraged him to join the DAP. On the orders of his army superiors, Hitler applied to join the party.  Once accepted, Hitler began to make the party more public, and he organized their biggest meeting yet of 2,000 people, for 24 February 1920 in the Hofbräuhaus in Munich. It was in this speech that Hitler, for the first time, enunciated the twenty-five points of the \"German Worker's Party\"'s manifesto that he had authored with Drexler and Feder. Through these points he gave the organisation a foreign policy, including the abrogation of the Treaty of Versailles, a Greater Germany, Eastern expansion, exclusion of Jews from citizenship. On the same day the party was renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party (\"Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei\"; NSDAP).  Following an intraparty dispute, Hitler angrily tendered his resignation on 11 July 1921. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed; he rejoined the party as member 3,680. Drexler was thereafter moved to the purely symbolic position of honorary president and left the party in 1923.  Drexler was also a member of a \"völkisch\" political club for affluent members of Munich society known as the Thule Society. His membership in the Nazi Party ended when it was temporarily outlawed in 1923 following the Beer Hall Putsch despite Drexler not actually having taken part in the coup attempt. In 1924 he was elected to the Bavarian state parliament for another party, in which he served as vice president until 1928. He played no role in the Nazi Party's re-founding in 1925 and rejoined only after Hitler ascended to national power in 1933. He founded a splinter group, the \"Nationalsozialer Volksbund\", but this dissolved in 1928. He received the party's Blood Order in 1934, and was still occasionally used as a propaganda tool until about 1937, but was never allowed any legitimate power within the party.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Drexler died after a lengthy illness due to alcoholism in Munich in February 1942.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anton Drexler (13 June 1884 – 24 February 1942) was a German far-right political leader of the 1920s who founded the pan-German and anti-Semitic German Workers' Party (DAP), the antecedent of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). Drexler mentored his successor in the NSDAP, Adolf Hitler, during his early years in politics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972724}
{"src_title": "High Fens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The High Fens, established as a reserve in 1957, with their high altitude and unique location, consist mainly of raised bogs, and low, grass- or wood-covered hills, moorland and forest. The provincial capital of Liège is to its west, the German border is to the east and the dark forested hills of the Ardennes surround the southern part. The park stretches between Eupen in the north, Monschau in the east, Spa in the west and Malmedy in the south. It stretches north of Malmedy as far as Eupen and marks the end of the Ardennes proper. It is contiguous with the Eifel hills, which stretch east from the German border to form the large Deutsch–Belgischer Naturpark. Signal de Botrange located in the Haute Fagnes is marked by a Telecom Tower erected over an older artificial, earthen mound with stone steps that was built to raise a small part of the broad plateau from. Large urban centres in the vicinity of the reserve are Eupen, Verviers, Spa and Malmedy.  Part of the High Fens reserve remains closed during the spring breeding season of the endangered black grouse (\"Tetrao tetrix\"). During the summer there is a risk of fire in the forest area. Boardwalks cross the bogs, permitting access across these areas. Paths lead to many areas of the park, and there are signposts to guide visitors through the park. The nature reserve of the High Fens is coordinated under the Nature Division and Forests of the Walloon Region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The reserve is one of the wettest and coldest parts of Belgium. It is frequently shrouded in mist and low cloud. It has a subalpine climate with strong winds and fierce winters, which are occasionally subarctic. The Fagnes plateau intercepts clouds brought by the prevailing Atlantic winds, and this results in copious precipitation, with an average of of rain per year. However, beneath the fragile composition of the overlying soils are rocky beds and clay that prevent infiltration of water and thus create the conditions for wetlands, marshes and bogs.  The highest and lowest annual rainfall recorded are and respectively, with maximum on a single day of on 7 October 1982 at the Signal de Botrange. The maximum snowfall recorded at Signal de Botrange was in 1953. The maximum number of frost days (when the temperature remains below ) in a year is reported to be 158 days and the minimum is 70 days. The lowest temperature recorded was in 1942, but it was in 1952 at Baraque-Michel.  Several rivers have their sources in the High Fens: the Vesdre, Hoëgne, Warche, Gileppe, Eau Rouge, Amblève, Our, Kyll, and Rur. In winter all the water sources freeze into snow making the High Fens one of the best ski resorts in Belgium. During winter the swamps appear as if \"wrapped in white fluffy snow shawl\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zoning.", "content": "The region has been zoned under a regulation of 1992 into specific zones, keeping in view the access areas provided for visitors and tourists. The areas are allocated to three zones: B, C, and D. Zone B is open daily to the public subject to regulations: bicycles and dogs are forbidden; one must keep to identified tracks; waste is to be disposed of only in trashcans; and silence is to be maintained. Zone C can be visited only accompanied by a guide authorised by the park administration. However no access to this zone is allowed from mid-March to late June, when an endangered species, the black grouse, breeds here. Zone D is a totally protected reserve area, with no access to the public.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "In the High Fens the habitats of many plants and animals typically found further north or in the mountains, result from the geology and relief, the harsh climate, high rainfall, long and cold winters and low average temperatures in the region.  The High Venn's plateau thus is rich in flora and fauna some of which have become rare and threatened in the last more than three centuries. The heathers and turf moors in the reserve have a significant role to maintain biodiversity for the rare and threatened flora and fauna as it ensures regulation of the water balance and maintains value of the landscape. However, since the 17th century, peat cutting, drainage, inappropriate spruce plantations, infestation of the ground by the purple moor-grass, a herb, had caused problems for the ecology of the region. These negative aspects are now being rectified by special projects titled \"Life-Nature Project\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora.", "content": "The common heather or \"Calluna\", a small bush of height is grazed by sheep and also has healing qualities; the bilberry, in the family Ericaceae, is a shrub found at an altitude of 500 m (around 1600 feet); the rootless peat mosses (\"Sphagnum\") of about grow at a year and form the basic turf moors through the buildup of organic matter; cotton grass, a perennial plant in wet regions; sundew (\"Drosera rotundfolia\") found in the acid turfs of the reserve which are carnivores and consumes insects; and wintergreen chickweed (\"cerastium\"), which is a seven-petal flower and also the logo of the park.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fauna.", "content": "Faunal species recorded are: the wild boar, roe deer, hen harrier, black grouse, wood mouse, grasshopper warbler, northern shrike, great grey shrike, meadow pipit, stonechat and wheatear. The black grouse, a protected species, is found in small numbers. It is a sedentary bird. The male species has black plumage with a red wattle above the eyes while the female species has a brown plumage with black, grey and white stripes and possesses a light forked tail. Vertebrates, spiders and insects reported in the reserve are: orvet (\"Anguis fragilis\"), \"Odonata Orthoptera\", \"Heteroptera Lepidoptera\", diptera, crustaceans, myriapods and shellfish.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fires.", "content": "As the habitat consists of bogs, fire is a major hazard during the drought period, when Fens is closed except for a small fen area near Poleur. Triangular signs painted in red are fixed at the fire hazard locations. In April 2011, in a fire that broke out in the High Fens, of land were destroyed. Stated to be the biggest ever fire in the Fens, 300 fire fighters supported by a helicopter were involved in dousing and controlling the fires.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "The winter sports activities allowed in the Fens in specified area and outside conserved area of the fens are skiing, bicycling and trekking. Cross-country skiing in the High Fens is permitted on specified forest tracks which are located in the outskirts or even outside the nature reserve. Hiking trails have been reorganized outside the parks reserved areas. The walk routes would be limited to undergrowth adjacent to nature reserve. Bicycle routes have been specified outside the nature reserve in nearby forests. The subalpine climate may change to subarctic condition and hence when taking adventure walks in the night through the park it could be hazardous unless one is properly equipped for taking such a risk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monument.", "content": "Another notable monument is at Gèyeté (Gayetay) within the municipal boundary of Sart and Jalhay; it is in memory of eight American airmen who were the crews of three Douglas C-47 Skytrains that collided in flight on 6 April 1945 due to fog. The memorial consists of a three-bladed propeller erected on a quartzite pedestal, with a cross erected next to it with the inscription \"For the American airmen.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The High Fens (; ; ), which were declared a nature reserve in 1957, are an upland area, a plateau region in the province of Liège, in the east of Belgium and adjoining parts of Germany, between the Ardennes and the Eifel highlands. The High Fens are the largest nature reserve or park in Belgium, with an area of ; it lies within the German-Belgian natural park \"Hohes Venn-Eifel\" (), in the Ardennes. Its highest point, at above sea level, is the Signal de Botrange near Eupen, and also the highest point in Belgium. A tower high was built here that reaches above sea level. The reserve is a rich ecological endowment of Belgium covered with alpine sphagnum raised bogs (not \"fens\" as the name would imply) both on the plateau and in the valley basin; the bogs, which are over 10,000 years old, with their unique subalpine flora, fauna and microclimate, are key to the conservation work of the park.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972725}
{"src_title": "British Shorthair", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The origins of the British Shorthair most likely date back to the first century AD, making it one of the most ancient identifiable cat breeds in the world. It is thought that the invading Romans initially brought Egyptian domestic cats to Great Britain. These cats then interbred with the local European wildcat population. Over the centuries, their naturally isolated descendants developed into distinctively large, robust cats with a short but very thick coat, to better withstand conditions on their native islands. Based on artists' representations, the modern British Shorthair is unchanged from this initial type.  Selective breeding of the best examples of the type began in the nineteenth century, with emphasis on developing the unusual blue-grey variant called the \"British Blue\" or \"English type\" (to distinguish it from the more fine-boned \"Russian type\"). Some sources directly credit UK artist, and pioneering cat fancier, Harrison Weir with the initial concept of standardizing the breed. Others suggest a group of breeders may have been involved. The new British Shorthair was featured at the first-ever cat show, organised by Weir and held at the Crystal Palace in London in 1871, and enjoyed great initial popularity.  By the 1900s with the advent of the newly imported Persian and other long-haired breeds, the British Shorthair had fallen out of favour, and breeding stock had become critically rare by World War I. At least partially to alleviate this, British Shorthair breeders mixed Persians into their bloodlines. The genes thus introduced would eventually become the basis for the British Longhair. At the time, any long-haired cats produced were placed into the Persian breeding program. As all cats with the blue colouration were then judged together as variants on a \"de facto\" single breed. The Blue Shorthair, outcrossings of the British with the Russian Blue were also common.  After the war, in an attempt to maintain the breed standard, the GCCF decided to accept only third-generation Persian/British Shorthair crosses. This contributed to another shortage of pure breeding stock by World War II, at which point the Persian and Russian Blue were reintroduced into the mix. British Shorthair breeders also worked with the French Chartreux, another ancient breed, which although genetically unrelated to the British Blue, is a very similar cat in appearance. Breeders worked to re-establish the true British type, and by the late 1970s, the distinctive British Shorthair had achieved formal recognition from both the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) and The International Cat Association (TICA). According to the GCCF's 2013 registry data, it is once again the most popular pedigreed breed in its native country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The British Shorthair is a relatively powerful-looking large cat, having a broad chest, strong thick-set legs with rounded paws and a medium-length, blunt-tipped tail. The head is relatively large and rounded, with a short muzzle, broad cheeks (most noticeable in mature males, who tend to develop prominent jowls) and large round eyes that are deep coppery orange in the British Blue and otherwise vary in colour depending on the coat. Their large ears are broad and widely set.  The British Blue variant can often be confused with the grey Scottish Fold. However, the Shorthair can be characterised by having its pointy triangle ears, whereas the Fold has softer, folded ears.  They are slow to mature in comparison with most cat breeds, reaching full physical development at approximately three years of age. Unusually among domestic cats they are a noticeably sexually dimorphic breed, with males averaging and females.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coat, colour and patterns.", "content": "The British Shorthair's coat is one of the breed's defining features. It is very dense but does not have an undercoat; thus, the texture is plush rather than woolly or fluffy, with a firm, \"crisp\" pile that breaks noticeably over the cat's body as it moves.  Although the British Blue remains the most familiar variant, British Shorthairs have been developed in many other colours and patterns. Black, blue, white, red, cream, silver, golden and—most recently—cinnamon and fawn are accepted by all official standards, either solid or in colourpoint, tabby, shaded and bicolour patterns; the GCCF, FIFe and TICA also accept chocolate and its dilute lilac, disallowed in the CFA standard. All colours and patterns also have tortoiseshell variants.  The Tabby patterns include: Classic Tabby, Mackerel Tabby, Spotted & Ticked Tabby. The non-tabby patterns include: Tortoiseshell, Bi-Colour, Van patterns Bi-Colour & White, Smoke, Tipped & Colourpointed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "They are an easygoing and dignified breed, not as active and playful as many but sweet-natured and devoted to their owners, making them a favourite of animal trainers. They tend to be safe around other pets and children since they will tolerate a fair amount of physical interaction, but as a rule do not like to be picked up or carried. They require only minimal grooming and take well to being kept as indoor-only cats; however, they can be prone to obesity unless care is taken with their diet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "The UK breed committee considers the British Shorthair a long-lived cat, with a life expectancy of 14–20 years. Vet clinic data from England shows a median lifespan of 11.8 years. Swedish insurance data puts the median lifespan of the breed at >12.5 years. 82% of British Shorthairs lived to 10 years or more and 54% lived to 12.5 years or more.  Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) can be a problem in the breed. A Danish prevalence study with more than 329 cats showed that 20.4% of males and 2.1% of the females had HCM. On top of this 6.4% of males and 3.5% of females were judged to be equivocal.<ref name=\"doi10.1111/j.1939-1676.2011.0751.x\"></ref> HCM testing of males used for breeding is now mandatory for breeders organized under the Danish Fife member, Felis Danica.  The breed is thought to be at high risk of polycystic kidney disease (PKD). A DNA test lab has noted a significant decrease of the PKD mutations in tested populations. Carrier frequency is now at 1%.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The British Shorthair is the pedigreed version of the traditional British domestic cat, with a distinctively stocky body, dense coat, and broad face. The most familiar color variant is the \"British Blue,\" a solid grey-blue coat, copper eyes, and a medium-sized tail. The breed has also been developed in a wide range of other colours and patterns, including tabby and colorpoint.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972726}
{"src_title": "Klínovec", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "Klínovec lies in the Karlovy Vary Region, about 3 km (2 miles) to the east of Boží Dar and 5 km (3 miles) north-east of Jáchymov. Another two towns are set in the valley to the north, between Klínovec and Fichtelberg: Loučná pod Klínovcem, the second smallest municipality with town status in the Czech Republic with merely 80 inhabitants, and Oberwiesenthal, a German spa town. Access to the peak is provided by a road from Boží Dar, tourist trails (marked red and yellow), or a chairlift from Jáchymov, running all year round. These days, Klínovec is a popular regional ski resort, featuring more than 10 kilometres (6 miles) of ski pistes, 35 kilometres (20 miles) of trails for cross-country skiing and a snowpark.  The average temperature at the peak is, the average rainfall amounts to 1,050 mm (41\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Thanks to its elevation, Klínovec offers marvellous panoramic view of Bohemia and Saxony. On a clear day, the Bohemian Forest may be seen to the south, 150 kilometres (90 miles) away, or the Ještěd mountain to the east.  The first public observation tower was built on the summit as early as 1817, and instantly became popular among visitors of the famous spa of Carlsbad, now Karlovy Vary. However, the wooden tower burnt down in 1868, and a new stone one was built between the years 1883 and 1884. This tower bore the name \"Kaiser-Franz-Josephs-Turm\" (\"Emperor Franz Joseph Tower\") and has survived until the present.  The tower is 24 metres (79') high and was extended with a hotel in 1893, when its popularity grew to such an extent, that accommodation was needed. The complex has been further extended over time, but it is currently in poor condition. Attempts to restore the buildings have been delayed through a lack of funds, although work was due to start in 2012.  In addition, a 56 metre (183') high broadcasting tower was erected on the top of Klínovec in the 1950s, exceeding the height of the observation tower by 32 metres (105'). The Klínovec TV tower covers most of the Karlovy Vary and Ústí nad Labem Regions and broadcasts in digital.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Klínovec () is the highest peak of the Ore Mountains, located in the Czech Republic's part of the mountains at. There is an important TV broadcasting tower on the top of the mountain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972727}
{"src_title": "China Radio International", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Radio was first introduced in China in the 1920s and 1930s. However, few households had radio receivers. A few cities had commercial stations. Most usage of radio was for political purpose, frequently on a local area level.  The Chinese Communist Party first used radio in Yanan Shaanxi Province in March 1940 with a transmitter imported from Moscow. Xinhua New Chinese Radio (XNCR) went on the air from Yanan on December 30, 1940. XNCR transmitted to a larger geographical area after 1945, and its programs became more regular and formalised with broadcasts of news, official announcements, war bulletins, and art and literary programs.  The English service started on September 11, 1947, transmitting as XNCR from a cave in Shahe in the Taihang Mountains, when China was in the midst of a civil war, to announce newly conquered areas and broadcast a Chinese political and cultural perspective to the world at large. The station moved from the Taihang Mountains to the capital, Peking, when The People's Republic of China was formed in 1949. Its name was changed to Radio Peking on April 10, 1950, and to Radio Beijing in 1983. On January 1, 1993, the name of the station was again changed, this time to China Radio International, in order to avoid any confusion with local Beijing radio broadcasting. Its online broadcasting platform: China International Broadcasting Network (CIBN) was formally established in 2011, as a joint venture of China Radio International, Huawen Media Investment, JinZhengYuan, Youku, Oriental Times Media and Suning Holdings Group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Short wave/international broadcasting.", "content": "CRI broadcasts via shortwave radio, satellite and the Internet in English and numerous other languages (see below). There are also numerous AM and FM relays. Shortwave broadcasts in English are targeted at North America, South America, the Caribbean, Europe, Africa, Asia and the South Pacific. CRI maintains direct shortwave broadcasts to developed, media-rich countries in North America and Europe, even as major Western broadcasters (such as BBC World Service, Voice of America and Radio Netherlands) reduce or discontinue such broadcasts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Programming.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mandarin Channel.", "content": "At the beginning of 1984, it started to broadcast home service to the Beijing area on AM and FM frequencies. The service later expanded to dozens of major cities across the PRC, providing listeners inside the PRC with timely news and reports, music, weather, English and Chinese learning skills, as well as other services.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CRI News Radio (90.5 FM).", "content": "CRI News Radio (CRI环球资讯广播) was established on 28 September 2005, which takes advantage of CRI's journalists from all around the world and report international (and partially domestic) news, sport, entertainment and lifestyle programmes for domestic listeners in Mandarin Chinese. Its aim is to make CRI News Radio a first-class national news radio brand and its slogans are 'First News, News First', 'On-the-Spot China, Live World' etc. CRI News Radio can be heard online and in Beijing on the radio on 90.5 FM; in Tianjin 90.6 FM; in Chongqing 91.7 FM; in Guangdong, Hong Kong, and Macau 107.1 FM; in Shandong 89.8 FM; in Anhui 90.1 FM.  Popular Shows", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Chinese podcasts.", "content": "The following programmes can be heard on the Mandarin version of the podcast from the World Radio Network:  This broadcast was originally targeted at London in the United Kingdom. In 2006, they removed the \"London\" reference, which was part of the introduction as \"\"Ni hao London. Hello London\"\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "English Channel.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CRI in English (846 AM, 1008 AM; 91.5 FM).", "content": "The CRI English channels that can be heard online are:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "English Podcasts.", "content": "CRI offers a list of podcast programs in English:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Holiday Broadcasts.", "content": "During major Chinese holidays (dubbed Golden Week), such as Chinese New Year, May Day, and Mid-Autumn Festival, China Radio International typically broadcasts special programmes such as:  Most of these programmes are not typical of the broadcast during the other parts of the year. The analogy is similar to Christmas music broadcasts in the United States.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Olympic Radio.", "content": "In July 2006, CRI launched a new radio station called CRI Olympic Radio at 900 AM in Beijing. This special broadcast was done in Mandarin, Korean, English, Russian, French, Spanish, Arabic, Japanese and German 24 hours a day. This service was terminated in late 2008 after the Beijing Olympics and now the frequency 900 AM is occupied by CRI News Radio which only covers Beijing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Languages.", "content": "China Radio International broadcasts in the following languages:  The Tibetan, Uygur and Kazakh services are broadcast in association with local radio stations (Tibet People's Broadcasting Station and Xinjiang People's Broadcasting Station).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Joint ventures.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "China International Broadcasting Network.", "content": "China International Broadcasting Network (CIBN, traded as, an internet TV, was a joint venture of China Radio International with other companies. The company was owned by Global Broadcasting Media Group (, a joint venture (50–50) of China Radio International and, literally \"JinZhengYuan Union Investment Holding\") for 34.0004% stake, Huawen Media Investment for 30.9996% stake, a subsidiary () of listed company Oriental Times Media () for 15% stake, the operator of Youku () for 10% stake and Suning Holdings Group, the parent company of PPTV for 10% stake.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "China Radio International (CRI) is a state-controlled international radio broadcaster of China. It is currently headquartered in Babaoshan area of Beijing's Shijingshan District. It was founded on December 3, 1941, as Radio Peking. It later adopted the pinyin form Radio Beijing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972728}
{"src_title": "Henry II the Pious", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Henry the Pious was the second son of High Duke Henry the Bearded of Poland and Hedwig of Andechs. His elder brother, Bolesław, died in 1206. In 1213, his younger brother Konrad the Curly died during a hunt, leaving the young Henry as the sole heir of Lower Silesia. Around 1218 his father arranged his marriage to Anne, daughter of King Ottokar I of Bohemia. This union with the royal Přemyslid dynasty allowed Henry the Pious to participate actively in international politics.  Henry the Bearded quickly designated his sole surviving son as his sole heir, and from 1222, the young prince countersigned documents with his father. By 1224, he had his own seal and notary. In 1227, during a meeting of Piast dukes in Gąsawa, Henry the Bearded and High Duke Leszek I the White were ambushed. Leszek was killed and Henry was seriously wounded. Henry the Pious acted as interim duke. In 1229, Henry the Bearded was captured by Duke Konrad I of Masovia, and again young Henry the Pious acted as interim duke. During 1229–30, he led a military expedition to recover and secure the possession of Lubusz Land, and in 1233–34 he actively supported his father's affairs in Prussia and Greater Poland. In 1234, Henry the Bearded named his son co-ruler. Later, Henry the Bearded took the duchies of Kraków and Silesia, and Henry the Pious was given the duchies of Silesia and Greater Poland. When Henry the Bearded died on 19 March 1238, Henry the Pious became duke of Silesia, Kraków and Greater Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sole reign.", "content": "Henry the Pious inherited Lower Silesia from his father. Southern Greater Poland and Kraków were ruled by the Piast princes, although the late duke of Greater Poland and Kraków, Władysław III, had left all his lands to Henry the Bearded. The will was ignored by Duke Konrad of Masovia and Władysław's III nephew Władysław Odonic.  Henry II could retain his authority as a regent over the Upper Silesian Duchy of Opole-Racibórz and the Duchy of Sandomierz during the minority of their rulers Mieszko II the Fat and Bolesław V the Chaste. Nevertheless, in 1239, Henry was compelled to resign the regency, although he remained on good terms with the Dukes of Opole and Sandomierz, and managed to retain Greater Polish Kalisz and Wieluń.  The situation in the northwest was more complicated: Margrave Otto III of Brandenburg took the important Greater Polish fortress at Santok and besieged Lubusz. Henry II also inherited the disputes with Konrad of Masovia, Władysław Odonic, and with the Church, led by Pełka, Archbishop of Gniezno. The situation changed unexpectedly after the death of Władysław Odonic on 5 June 1239, who left two minor sons, Przemysł I and Bolesław the Pious. Henry II took the majority of Odonic's possessions (including Gniezno), leaving Nakło nad Notecią and Ujście to Odonic's sons.  Henry then abandoned the traditional alliance of his family with the Imperial House of Hohenstaufen and supported Pope Gregory IX, immediately resolving his dispute with the Church. He then put an end to his conflicts with Konrad of Masovia by arranging the marriages of two of his daughters to two of Konrad's sons: Gertrude to Bolesław, and Constance, to Casimir I of Kuyavia. In 1239, Henry II reclaimed the Santok fortress from Margrave Otto III after Henry's victory in the Battle of Lubusz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mongol invasion.", "content": "In the East, a new dangerous opponent appeared: the Mongols, under the leadership of Batu Khan, who, after the invasion of Rus' chose the Kingdom of Hungary as his next target. Batu Khan realized that he had to take control of Poland before he could take Hungary. In January 1241, Batu sent reconnaissance troops to Lublin and Zawichost. The invasion was launched a month later, by an army of 10,000 men under the leadership of Orda. In Lesser Poland the Mongols met weaker resistance, defeating and killing almost all the Kraków and Sandomierz nobility in the Battle of Tursko (13 February), and the Battles of Tarczek and Chmielnik (18 March), including the voivode of Kraków, Włodzimierz and the castellan Klement of Brzeźnica. All of Lesser Poland, including Kraków and Sandomierz, fell into the hands of the Mongols.  Henry did not wait for the promised aid from Western rulers and began to concentrate the surviving troops of Lesser Poland and his own Silesian and Greater Poland forces in Legnica. Europe's rulers were more focused on the struggle between the Holy Roman Empire and Papacy, and they ignored Henry's requests for help. The only foreign troops who joined him were those of King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia and the combined forces of some Knights Templar. Some sources report that European forces halted their troops near Legnica, probably fearing that the Christian Army would become an easy prey to the Mongols. The battle of Legnica took place on 9 April 1241. Henry was defeated and killed in action.  The defeat was widely blamed on the European monarchs, especially Emperor Frederick II and King Béla IV of Hungary, who had refused to help, and the unexpected retreat from the battle by Henry's Upper Silesian cousin Mieszko II the Fat, through a trick of the Mongols. There are two descriptions of Henry's death, one submitted by Jan Długosz (today considered dubious), and the second by C. de Brigia in his \"Historii Tartatorum\" (based on reports of direct witnesses, now considered more reliable). However, the Mongols did not intend to occupy the country, and shortly afterward they went through Moravia to Hungary, wanting to connect with the main army of Batu Khan. Henry's naked and decapitated body could only be identified by his wife, because of his polydactyly. He had six toes on his left foot, which was confirmed when his tomb was opened in 1832. Henry was buried in the crypt of the Franciscan Church of Sts. Vincent and Jacob in Wrocław (Breslau).  Despite ruling for only three years, Henry remained in the memories of Silesia, Greater Poland and Kraków as the perfect Christian knight, lord and martyr, whose brilliant career was abruptly ended by his early death. Upon his death, the line of the Silesian Piasts fragmented into numerous dukes of Silesia, who (except for Henry's grandson Henry IV Probus) were no longer able to prevail as Polish high dukes and subsequently came under the influence of the neighbouring Kingdom of Bohemia.  In 1944, Henry the Pious' body went missing after being taken from its tomb by German scientists for laboratory tests; they had hoped to prove that the prince was Aryan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Between 1214–1218, Henry married Anna (ca. 1201 – 23 June 1265), daughter of King Ottokar I of Bohemia. They had ten children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Leo Frankowski's Conrad Stargard series has the time-travelling protagonist decide on Henry as the man he wants to be King of a reunited Poland, and after defeating the Mongols this comes to fruition.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry II the Pious () (1196 – 9 April 1241), of the Silesian line of the Piast dynasty, was Duke of Silesia at Wrocław and Duke of Kraków and thus High Duke of Poland as well as Duke of Southern Greater Poland from 1238 until his death. During 1238–1239 he also served as a regent of two other Piast duchies: Sandomierz and Upper Silesian Opole–Racibórz. On October 2015, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Legnica opened up his cause for beatification, obtaining him the title of Servant of God.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972729}
{"src_title": "Procopius (usurper)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "According to Ammianus Marcellinus, Procopius was a native of Cilicia and spent his youth there, probably in Corycus. On his mother's side, Procopius was a Greek, a maternal cousin, to Emperor Julian, since their maternal grandfather was Julius Julianus. His first wife was probably Artemisia, having married secondly the dowager Empress Faustina, while the Roman general of the 5th century Procopius and his son, the Emperor Anthemius, were among his descendants, the first being the son of his son Procopius.  In 358, during the reign of Constantius II, he was sent with Lucillianus as an envoy to the Sassanid court; in this period he was \"tribunus\" and \"notarius\".  Procopius entered Julian's retinue and took part in his campaign against the Sassanids in 363. Together with Sebastianus he was entrusted with controlling the upper Tigris with 30,000 men and, if possible, joining King Arsaces II of Armenia and marching southward, to reach Julian's army in Assyria. However, Julian died and, when Procopius reached the main Roman army near Thilsaphata, between Nisibis and Singara, he met the new emperor, Jovian.  According to Zosimus, Julian had given Procopius an imperial robe, explaining his act only to him. When Jovian was acclaimed Emperor, Procopius gave him the robe, revealed to him Julian's intention, and asked the new Emperor to be allowed to retire to private life; Jovian accepted, and Procopius and his family retired to Caesarea Mazaca.  Ammianus, who based part of his account on the testimony of Strategius, tells that a baseless rumor spread, according to which Julian had ordered Procopius to take the purple in case of his death. Fearing Jovian's wrath, which had caused the death of another army candidate to the throne (Jovianus), Procopius went into hiding, but later supervised the transport of Julian's body to Tarsus and its subsequent burial, and only later went to Caesarea with his family.  After Jovian's death, the new emperors, Valentinian I and Valens, sent some soldiers to arrest Procopius. He surrendered, but asked to meet his family; he had his captors dine and drink, and then seized the opportunity to flee with his family, first to the Black Sea and later to the Tauric Chersonese, where they hid. However, Procopius lived in constant fear of betrayal or exposure among the savage barbarians, and decided to go to Constantinople to ask Strategius for help.  Procopius immediately moved to declare himself Emperor. He bribed two legions which were then resting at Constantinople to support his efforts, and took control of the imperial city. Shortly after this he proclaimed himself Emperor on September 28, 365, and quickly took control of the provinces of Thrace, and later Bithynia.  Though Valens initially despaired of subduing the rebellion, and was inclined to come to terms with the usurper, he quickly rallied, guided by the counsels of Sallustius and Arintheus, and the superior ability of his generals prevailed in two battles at Thyatira and Nacolia where Procopius' forces were defeated. He fled the battlefield, and was for a while a fugitive in the wilds of Phrygia, but was soon betrayed to Valens due to the treachery of his two generals Agilonius and Gomoarius (they had been promised they would be \"shown favour\" by Valens), he was captured. Valens had his rival executed on 27 May 366 by being fastened to two trees bent down with force; when the trees were released, Procopius was ripped apart in the manner of the legendary execution of the bandit Sinis. The \"favour\" Valens showed to Agilonius and Gomoarius was to have them both sawn asunder.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Procopius (c. 325/326 – 27 May 366) was a Roman usurper against Valens, and a member of the Constantinian dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972730}
{"src_title": "Tokaji", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Six grape varieties are officially approved for Tokaji wine production:  Furmint accounts for 60% of the area and is by far the most important grape in the production of Aszú wines. Hárslevelű stands for further 30%. Nevertheless, an impressive range of different types and styles of wines are produced in the region, ranging from dry whites to the Eszencia, the world's sweetest wine.  The area where Tokaji wine is traditionally grown is a small plateau, above sea level, near the Carpathian Mountains. The soil is of volcanic origin, with high concentrations of iron and lime. The location of the region has a unique climate, beneficial to this particular viniculture, due to the protection of the nearby mountains. Winters are bitterly cold and windy; spring tends to be cool and dry, and summers are noticeably hot. Usually, autumn brings rain early on, followed by an extended Indian summer, allowing a very long ripening period.  The Furmint grapes begin maturation with thick skins, but as they ripen the skins become thinner, and transparent. This allows the sun to penetrate the grape and evaporate much of the liquid inside, producing a higher concentration of sugar. Other types of grapes mature to the point of bursting, however, unlike most other grapes, Furmint will grow a second skin which seals it from rot. This also has the effect of concentrating the grape's natural sugars. The grapes are left on the vine long enough to develop the \"noble rot\" (Botrytis cinerea) mold. Grapes then are harvested, sometimes as late as December (and in the case of true Eszencia, occasionally into January).  Typical yearly production in the region runs to a relatively small.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of Tokaji wine.", "content": "These wines, once referred to as common, \"ordinárium\", are now named after their respective grape varieties: Tokaji Furmint, Tokaji Hárslevelű, Tokaji Sárgamuskotály and Tokaji Kövérszőlő.  In 1999, Chateau Pajzos became the first winery to produce a Tokaji ice wine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imperial Tokay.", "content": "Prior to 1918 (the end of World War I and the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire), the finest eszencia Tokaji was not sold but was reserved for the Imperial cellars of the Habsburg Monarchy. By the mid 18th century these finest eszencia Tokaji originally held by the Habsburgs were called \"Imperial Tokay\". Cases, barrels, and bottles of it often passed between European monarchs as gifts. In 2008, a bottle of Imperial Tokay bearing the seal of the wine cellar of the Royal Saxon Court sold at auction at Christie's for £1,955.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "It is not known for how long vines have been grown on the volcanic soil of the fork of the rivers Bodrog and Hernád. This predates the settlement of the Magyar tribes to the region. According to legend, the first aszú was made by Laczkó Máté Szepsi in 1630. However, mention of wine made from aszú grapes had already appeared in the \"Nomenklatura\" of Fabricius Balázs Sziksai which was completed in 1576. A recently discovered inventory of aszú predates this reference by five years.  Tokaji wine became the subject of the world's first appellation control, established several decades before Port wine, and over 120 years before the classification of Bordeaux. Vineyard classification began in 1730 with vineyards being classified into three categories depending on the soil, sun exposure and potential to develop noble rot, botrytis cinerea, first class, second class and third class wines. A royal decree in 1757 established a closed production district in Tokaj. The classification system was completed by the national censuses of 1765 and 1772.  In 1920, following the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a small part of the Tokaj wine region (approx. 1.75 km2) became part of Czechoslovakia due to the Treaty of Trianon, while the rest remained part of Hungary. After World War II, when Hungary became a Soviet-influenced state, Tokaji production continued with as many as 6,000 small producers, but the bottling and distribution were monopolized by the state-owned organization. Since the collapse of the communist regimes in 1990, a number of independent wineries have been established in the Tokaj wine region. A state-owned producer continues to exist and handles approximately 20% of the overall production.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Famous consumers of Tokaji.", "content": "Voivode Stephen the Great of Moldavia was said to be a very big fan of Tokay wines. He introduced in Moldavia the Kövérszőlő cultivar, that lead to the development of Grasă de Cotnari wine.  Tokaji has since the 18th century been known as \"Vinum Regum, Rex Vinorum\" (\"Wine of Kings, King of Wines\"), an epithet sometimes attributed to King Louis XIV of France. In 1703, Francis Rákóczi II, Prince of Transylvania, gave Louis XIV some Tokaji wine from his Tokaj estate as a gift. The Tokaji wine was served at the French Royal court at Versailles, where it became known as Tokay.  Emperor Franz Josef (who was also King of Hungary) had a tradition of sending Queen Victoria Tokaji Aszú wine, as a gift, every year on her birthday, one bottle for every month she had lived, twelve for each year. On her eighty-first and final birthday (1900), this totaled an impressive 972 bottles.  Tokaji wine has received accolades from numerous great writers and composers including Beethoven, Liszt, Schubert, Goethe, Heinrich Heine, Friedrich von Schiller, Bram Stoker, Johann Strauss II, and Voltaire. The composer Joseph Haydn's favorite wine was Tokaji. Besides Louis XIV, several other European monarchs are known to have been keen consumers of the wine. Louis XV and Frederick the Great tried to outdo one another when they treated guests such as Voltaire with Tokaji. Napoleon III, the last Emperor of the French, ordered 30–40 barrels of Tokaji at the French Royal Court every year. Pope Pius IV. (1499–1565) at the Council of Trient in 1562, exclaimed: \"Summum pontificem talia vina decent!\" (This is the type of wine that should be on the papal table). Gustav III, King of Sweden, loved Tokaji – it has been said he never had any other wine to drink. In Russia, customers included Peter the Great and Empress Elizabeth of Russia. A newspaper account of the 1933 wedding of Polish president Ignacy Mościcki notes that toasts were made with 250-year-old wines, and goes on to say \"The wine, if good, could only have been Essence of Tokay, and the centuries-old friendship between Poland and Hungary would seem to support this conclusion.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses of the Tokaji appellation.", "content": "Tokaji wines have been famous for a long time, which has resulted in their name being “adopted” by other wines:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tokaji ( ) or Tokay is the name of the wines from the Tokaj wine region (also \"Tokaj-Hegyalja wine region\" or \"Tokaj-Hegyalja\") in Hungary or the adjoining Tokaj wine region in Slovakia. This region is noted for its sweet wines made from grapes affected by noble rot, a style of wine which has a long history in this region. The \"nectar\" coming from the grapes of Tokaj is also mentioned in the national anthem of Hungary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972731}
{"src_title": "United Arab Emirates dirham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The name \"dirham\" is an Arabic word. Due to centuries of trade and usage of the currency, \"dirham\" survived through the Ottoman Empire.  The United Arab Emirates dirham was introduced on 19 May 1973. It replaced the Qatar and Dubai riyal at par. The Qatar and Dubai riyal had circulated since 1966 in all of the emirates except Abu Dhabi, where the dirham replaced the Bahraini dinar at 1 dinar = 10 dirham. Before 1966, all the emirates that were to form the UAE used the Gulf rupee. As in Qatar, the emirates briefly adopted the Saudi riyal during the transition from the Gulf rupee to the Qatar and Dubai riyal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coins.", "content": "In 1973, coins were introduced in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 fils, and 1 dirham. The 1, 5 and 10 fils are struck in bronze, with the higher denominations in cupro-nickel. The fils coins were same size and composition as the corresponding Qatar and Dubai dirham coins. In 1995, the 5 fils, 10 fils, 50 fils, and 1 dirham coins were reduced in size, with the new 50 fils being curve-equilateral-heptagonal shaped.  The value and numbers on the coins are written in Eastern Arabic numerals and the text is in Arabic. The 1, 5 and 10 fils coins are rarely used in everyday life, so all amounts are rounded up or down to the nearest multiples of 25 fils. The 1 fils coin is a rarity and does not circulate significantly. In making change there is a risk of confusing the old 50 fils coin for the modern 1 dirham coin because the coins are almost the same size.  Since 1976 the Currency Board of the United Arab Emirates has minted several commemorative coins celebrating different events and rulers of the United Arab Emirates. For details, see Commemorative coins of the United Arab Emirates dirham.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issues with fraud.", "content": "By August 2006 it became publicly known that the Philippine one peso coin is the same size as one dirham. As 1 peso is only worth 8 fils, this has led to vending machine fraud in the UAE. Pakistan's 5 rupee coin, the Omani 50 Baisa coin and the Moroccan 1 dirham are also the same size as the Emirati one dirham coin. A falcon watermark is present on all dirham notes to prevent fraud.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Banknotes.", "content": "On 20 May 1973, the U.A.E. Currency Board introduced notes in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 dirhams; a 1000 dirham note was issued on 3 January 1976. A second series of note was introduced in 1982 which omitted the 1 and 1000 dirham notes. 500 dirham notes were introduced in 1983, followed by 200 dirham in 1989. 1000 dirham notes were reintroduced in 2000. Banknotes are currently available in denominations of 5 (brown), 10 (green), 20 (light blue), 50 (purple), 100 (pink), 200 (green/brown), 500 (navy blue) and 1000 (greenish blue) dirhams.  The obverse texts are written in Arabic with numbers in Eastern Arabic numerals; the reverse texts are in English with numbers in Arabic numerals. The 200 dirham denomination is scarce as it was only produced in 1989; any circulating today come from bank stocks. The 200 dirham denomination has since been reissued and is now in circulation since late May 2008 – it has been reissued in a different colour; Yellow/Brown to replace the older Green/Brown. The United Arab Emirates Central Bank has released a new 50 dirham note. The security thread is a 3-mm wide, color-shifting windowed security thread with demetalized UAE 50, and it bears the new coat of arms which was adopted on 22 March 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exchange rates.", "content": "On January 28, 1978, the dirham was officially pegged to the IMF's special drawing rights (SDRs). In practice, it is pegged to the U.S. dollar for most of the time. Since November 1997, the dirham has been pegged to the 1 U.S. dollar = 3.6725 dirhams, which translates to approximately 1 dirham = 0.272294 dollar.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The United Arab Emirates dirham (, sign: د.إ; code: AED), also known as simply the Emirati dirham, is the currency of the United Arab Emirates. The term \"dirham\" is officially abbreviated \"AED\", while unofficial abbreviations include \"DH\" or \"Dhs.\". The dirham is subdivided into 100.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972732}
{"src_title": "Electorate of Cologne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Cologne was the ancient Roman city of Colonia Agrippina in the province of Germania Inferior, and has been a bishop's see since Roman times. In 953, the archbishops of Cologne first gained noteworthy secular power, when Bishop Bruno was appointed as duke by his brother Emperor Otto I. To weaken the secular nobility, who threatened his power, Otto endowed Bruno and his successors in the bishop's see with the prerogatives of secular princes. This was the beginning of the electoral state of Cologne. It was formed from the temporal possessions of the archbishopric and included in the end a strip of territory along the left Bank of the Rhine east of Jülich, and the Duchy of Westphalia on the other side of the Rhine, beyond Berg and Mark.  By the end of the 12th century, the Archbishop of Cologne was one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Emperor. Besides being prince-elector, he was Arch-chancellor of Italy as well, technically from 1238 and permanently from 1263 until 1803. In the Battle of Worringen (1288), the archbishop was captured by soldiers of the city and was forced to grant the city near-complete autonomy. Eventually, the archbishop moved to Bonn to escape jurisdiction conflicts with the city government. In 1475, Cologne became a Free Imperial City, independent from the archbishop. The first pogrom against the Jews was in 1349, when they were used as scapegoats for the Black Death, and therefore burnt in an \"auto-da-fé\". Political tensions arose from issues of taxation, public spending, regulation of business, and market supervision, as well as the limits of corporate autonomy.  Long-distance trade in the Baltic grew, as the major trading towns came together in the Hanseatic League, under the leadership of Lübeck. It was a business alliance of trading cities and their guilds that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe and flourished from the 1200 to 1500 and continued with lesser importance after that. The chief cities were Cologne on the Rhine River, Hamburg and Bremen on the North Sea, and Lübeck on the Baltic. The economic structures of medieval and early modern Cologne were based on the city's major harbor, its location as a transport hub and its entrepreneurial merchants who built ties with merchants in other Hanseatic cities.  During the 16th century, two Archbishops of Cologne converted to Protestantism. The first, Hermann von Wied, resigned the archbishopric on converting, but Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, who converted to Calvinism in 1582, attempted to secularize the archbishopric. His marriage the following February, and his refusal to relinquish the territory resulted in the election of a competing archbishop and prince-elector, Ernst of Bavaria, brother of the Wittelsbach Duke of Bavaria. In the Cologne War that followed, the pope funded Italian and Spanish mercenaries and the Catholic Bavarians also sent an army to support Ernst, while the Protestant Netherlands supported von Waldburg. The war ruined most of the Electoral economy, and many villages and towns were besieged and destroyed. The Siege of Godesberg in November–December 1583 ended with the destruction of Godesberg Castle and the slaughter of most of its inhabitants. After several more sieges, von Waldburg gave up his claim to the see and retired to Strasbourg with his wife. Ernst became archbishop–the first major success of the Counter-Reformation in Germany. Under Ernst's direction, Jesuits supervised the reintroduction of Catholicism in the Electorate. From 1583 to 1761, the archbishopric was effectively a secundogeniture of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. As the archbishop in this period usually also held the Bishopric of Münster (and often the Bishopric of Liège), he was one of the most important princes of northwestern Germany.  From 1597 until 1794, Bonn was the residence the Elector, and consequently the capital of the Electorate. After 1795, the electorate's territories on the left bank of the Rhine were occupied by France and were formally annexed in 1801. Cologne was part of the \"département\" of Roer; Bonn was part of the \"département\" of Rhin-et-Moselle. The \"Reichsdeputationshauptschluss\" of 1803 secularized the rest of the archbishopric, giving the Duchy of Westphalia to the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt and Vest Recklinghausen to the Duke of Arenberg. Cologne was, however, reestablished as the seat of a Catholic archbishop in 1824, and is an archdiocese to the present day.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Electorate of Cologne (), sometimes referred to as Electoral Cologne (), was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire that existed from the 10th to the early 19th century. It consisted of the Hochstift — the temporal possessions — of the Archbishop of Cologne and ruled by him in his capacity as prince-elector. There were only two other ecclesiastical prince-electors in the Empire: the Electorate of Mainz and the Electorate of Trier. The Archbishop-Elector of Cologne was also Arch-chancellor of Italy (one of the three component titular kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire, the other two being Germany and Burgundy) and, as such, ranked second among all ecclesiastical and secular princes of the Empire, after the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz, and before that of Trier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972733}
{"src_title": "Men in black", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Folklore.", "content": "Folklorist James R. Lewis compares accounts of men in black with tales of people encountering Lucifer and speculates that they can be considered a kind of \"psychological drama.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ufologists.", "content": "Men in black figure prominently in ufology and UFO folklore. In the 1950s and 1960s, UFOlogists adopted a conspiratorial mindset and began to fear they would be subject to organized intimidation in retaliation for discovering \"the truth of the UFOs.\"  In 1947, Harold Dahl claimed to have been warned not to talk about his alleged UFO sighting on Maury Island by a man in a dark suit. In the mid-1950s, the ufologist Albert K. Bender claimed he was visited by men in dark suits who threatened and warned him not to continue investigating UFOs. Bender maintained that the men in black were secret government agents who had been given the task of suppressing evidence of UFOs. The ufologist John Keel claimed to have had encounters with men in black and referred to them as \"demonic supernaturals\" with \"dark skin and/or 'exotic' facial features.\" According to the ufologist Jerome Clark, reports of men in black represent \"experiences\" that \"don't seem to have occurred in the world of consensus reality.\"  Historian Aaron Gulyas wrote, \"during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, UFO conspiracy theorists would incorporate the Men in Black into their increasingly complex and paranoid visions.\"  In his article, \"Gray Barker: My Friend, the Myth-Maker,\" John C. Sherwood claims that, in the late 1960s, at the age of 18, he cooperated when Gray Barker urged him to develop a hoax—which Barker subsequently published—about what Barker called \"blackmen,\" three mysterious UFO inhabitants who silenced Sherwood's pseudonymous identity, \"Dr. Richard H. Pratt.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The G-Man from the Half-Life video game franchise is said to have characteristics of the men in black, including an awkward grasp of human speech and mannerisms. The 1997 science fiction movie Men In Black (1997 film) starring Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones was inspired by the Men In Black conspiracy", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In popular culture and UFO conspiracy theories, men in black (MIB) are supposed men dressed in black suits who claim to be quasi-government agents who harass, threaten or assassinate UFO witnesses to keep them quiet about what they have seen. It is sometimes implied that they may be aliens themselves. The term is also frequently used to describe mysterious men working for unknown organizations, as well as various branches of government allegedly designed to protect secrets or perform other strange activities. The term is generic, used for any unusual, threatening or strangely behaved individual whose appearance on the scene can be linked in some fashion with a UFO sighting. Several alleged encounters with the men in black have been reported by UFO researchers and enthusiasts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972734}
{"src_title": "Carloman (mayor of the palace)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Assumption of power.", "content": "After the death of Charles, power was not divided to include their half-brother Grifo, Charles' son by his second wife Swanachild. This was per Charles' wishes; although Grifo demanded a portion of the realm, his brothers refused him. In 741, Carloman and Pepin besieged Grifo in Laon, took him captive and forced him into a monastery. Each brother turned his attention towards his own area of influence as \"majordomo\", Pepin in the West (in what was called Neustria, roughly the area between Nancy and Reims) and Carloman in the East (in what was called Austrasia, roughly the area between Bruges, Metz and Fulda), which was the Carolingian base of power.  With Grifo contained, the two mayors, who had not yet proved themselves in battle in defence of the realm as their father had, on the initiative of Carloman, installed the Merovingian Childeric III as king (743), even though Martel had left the throne vacant since the death of Theuderic IV in 737.  Unlike most medieval instances of fraternal power sharing, Carloman and Pepin for seven years seemed at least willing to work together; certainly, they undertook many military actions together. Carloman joined Pepin against Hunald I of Aquitaine's rising in 742 and again in 745. Pepin assisted Carloman against the Saxons in 742–43, when Duke Theoderic was forced to come to terms, and against Odilo, Duke of Bavaria, in 742 and again in 744, when peace was established between the brothers and their brother-in-law, for Odilo had married their sister Hiltrude.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Strengthening of the dynasty.", "content": "In his realm, Carloman strengthened his authority in part via his support of the Anglo-Saxon missionary Winfrid (later Saint Boniface), the so-called \"Apostle of the Germans,\" whom he charged with restructuring the church in Austrasia. This was in part the continuation of a policy begun under his grandfather, Pepin of Herstal, and continued under his father, Charles Martel, who erected four dioceses in Bavaria (Salzburg, Regensburg, Freising, and Passau) and gave them Boniface as archbishop and metropolitan over all Germany east of the Rhine, with his seat at Mainz. Boniface had been under Charles Martel's protection from 723 on; indeed the saint himself explained to his old friend, Daniel of Winchester, that without it he could neither administer his church, defend his clergy, nor prevent idolatry.  Carloman was instrumental in convening the \"\" in 742, the first major synod of the Catholic Church to be held in the eastern regions of the Frankish kingdom. Chaired jointly by him and Boniface, the synod ruled that priests were not allowed to bear arms or to host females in their houses and that it was one of their primary tasks to eradicate pagan beliefs. His father had frequently confiscated church property to reward his followers and to pay for the standing army that had brought him victory at Tours (a policy supported by Boniface as necessary to defend Christianity). By 742 the Carolingians were wealthy enough to pay their military retainers and support the Church. For Carloman, a deeply religious man, it was a duty of love; for Pippin a practical duty. Both saw the necessity of strengthening the ties between their house and the Church. Carloman donated the land for one of Boniface's most important foundations, the monastery of Fulda.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political ruthlessness.", "content": "Despite his piety, Carloman could be ruthless towards real or perceived opponents. After repeated armed revolts and rebellions, Carloman in 746 convened an assembly of the Alemanni magnates at Cannstatt and then had most of the magnates, numbering in the thousands, arrested and executed for high treason in the Blood Court at Cannstatt. This eradicated virtually the entire tribal leadership of the Alemanni and ended the independence of the tribal duchy of Alemannia, which was thereafter governed by counts appointed by their Frankish overlords.  These actions strengthened Carloman's position, and that of the family as a whole, especially in terms of their rivalries with other leading Germanic families such as the Bavarian Agilolfings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Withdrawal from public life.", "content": "On 15 August 747, Carloman renounced his position as \"majordomo\" and withdrew to a monastic life, being tonsured in Rome by Pope Zachary. All sources from the period indicate that Carloman's renunciation of the world was volitional, although some have speculated that he went to Rome for other, unspecified reasons and was \"encouraged\" to remain in Rome by the pope, acting on a request from Pepin to keep Carloman in Italy.  Carloman founded a monastery on Monte Soratte and then went to Monte Cassino. All sources from the period indicate that he believed his calling was the Church. He withdrew to Monte Cassino and spent most of the remainder of his life there, presumably in meditation and prayer. His son, Drogo, demanded from Pepin the Short his father's share of the family patrimony, but was swiftly neutralised.  Seven years after Carloman's retirement and on the eve of his death, he once more stepped briefly on the public stage. In 754, Pope Stephen II had begged Pepin, now king, to come to his aid against the king of the Lombards, Aistulf. Carloman left Monte Cassino to visit his brother to ask him not to march on Italy (and possibly to drum up support for his son Drogo). Pippin was unmoved, and imprisoned Carloman in Vienne, where he died on 17 August. He was buried in Monte Cassino.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carloman (between 706 and 716 – 17 August 754) was the eldest son of Charles Martel, \"majordomo\" or mayor of the palace and duke of the Franks, and his wife Chrotrud of Treves. On Charles's death (741), Carloman and his brother Pepin the Short succeeded to their father's legal positions, Carloman in Austrasia, and Pepin in Neustria. He was a member of the family later called the Carolingians and it can be argued that he was instrumental in consolidating their power at the expense of the ruling Merovingian kings of the Franks. He withdrew from public life in 747 to take up the monastic habit, \"the first of a new type of saintly king,\" according to Norman Cantor, \"more interested in religious devotion than royal power, who frequently appeared in the following three centuries and who was an indication of the growing impact of Christian piety on Germanic society\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972735}
{"src_title": "Beluga (sturgeon)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The common name for the sturgeon, as for the unrelated beluga whale, is derived from the Russian word белый (\"beliy\"), meaning \"white\", probably referring to the extensive pale colour on the flanks and belly in beluga compared to other sturgeons. Other common names are morun (Ro), moruna (Bu), viza (Hu), vyza velka (Cz), vyza (Slov), storione ladano or storione attilo (It), grand esturgeon (F), Hausen (G).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Huso huso\" shows typical characteristics of sturgeons, i.e., elongated body, heterocercal tail, partially cartilaginous skeleton, naked skin, longitudinal series of scutes. The dorsal fin has 48 to 81 soft rays, the anal fin, much shorter, has 22 to 41 soft rays. The series of longitudinal scutes are five: dorsal (1 series, 9-17 scutes), lateral (2 series, one per side, 28-60 scutes each) and ventral series (2 series, one per side, 7-14 scutes each). The surface of the skin is covered by fine denticles. The rostrum is conical and contains numerous sensory pits on both ventral and dorsal surfaces. Large, crescent shaped mouth, protractile, with the upper lip continuous while lower lip is interrupted by a large gap. The barbels are laterally compressed with foliate appendages, arranged in two pairs, originating midway or closer to the mouth than the tip of the snout.  However, during the growth Beluga sturgeon shows evident morphologic changes:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "Among all extant bony fishes, Beluga sturgeon may be considered a rival to the ocean sunfish (\"Mola\" sp.) as the most massive fish, the second longest fish after the giant oarfish (\"Regalecus glesne\"), as well as the largest freshwater fish in the world. The beluga also rivals the great white shark (\"Carcharodon carcharias\") for the title of largest actively predatory fish.. The largest accepted record is of a female taken in 1827 in the Volga estuary at and. Another specimen reportedly weighted and measured in length. Several other records of aged sturgeon exceed. Among sturgeons, only the closely related Kaluga (\"Huso dauricus\") can attain similar size, with a maximum weight of.  Beluga of such great sizes are very old (continuing to grow throughout life) and have become increasingly rare in recent decades due to the heavy fishing of this species. Today, mature belugas that are caught are generally long and weigh. The female beluga is typically 20% larger than the male. An exceptionally big beluga caught recently reportedly weighed and measured.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "Like most sturgeons, the beluga is anadromous, migrating upstream in rivers to spawn. Males attain sexual maturity at 12–16 years of age, whereas females do so at 16–22 years. In both sexes, they will go to spawn every 4 to 7 years. At one time, beluga sturgeons could migrate up to upriver to spawn but dams in almost every major tributary they utilize has impeded historic spawning routes. The female lays her eggs on gravel from underwater. Upon hatching, the embryo are long, 10–14 days later when they absorb their yolk sack, the length is. Thereafter, the larvae usually subsist on benthic invertebrates but at as small as in length will switch to a fish-based diet. While swimming back to the ocean, the young sturgeons may cover up to a day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "\"Huso huso\" is a pelagic predator which local distribution is not influenced by the nature of the substrates, unlike most of the sturgeons which show demersal attitude. The prey is sucked into the mouth opening extremely quickly the jaws and extending forward the lips. Juveniles feed on benthic invertebrates in rivers and shallow coastal waters, where they grow quickly, then, at the length of 8–10 cm, they become largely piscivorous. Different diets have been observed throughout the distribution range of Beluga sturgeon, as well as according to the stage of migration of the spawners, anyway it mainly consists for adults in a great diversity of large fish (73% of the diet). Additional food items may include molluscs and crustaceans, even aquatic birds and young seals (Caspian seals, \"Pusa caspica\"). The piscivorous diet of Beluga sturgeon tendentially changes with age: in the Caspian Sea, it mainly consists in \"Clupeonella\" sp. for juveniles smaller than 40 cm, different species of Gobiidae for fish ranging between 40 and 280 cm, then mullets, \"Alosa\" sp. and other sturgeons for the biggest.  In brackish environments of the Ponto-Caspian basin, the genera \"Alosa\", \"Aspius\" and \"Engraulis\" are the preferred prey. In estuaries and rivers of the same area, migrating spawners eat various cyprinids, mainly \"Cyprinus carpio\" and \"Rutilus rutilus\", \"Sander lucioperca\" and, among sturgeons, \"Acipenser ruthenus\" is the main prey. It is little known about the diet of the Adriatic population, it has been reported that in marine and brackish environments adult \"H. huso\" foraged primarily on molluscs (Cephalopoda, of which common cuttlefish, \"Sepia officinalis,\" and European squid, \"Loligo vulgaris,\" are particularly common in the Adriatic sea) and fish belonging to the families Gadidae, Pleuronectidae, Gobiidae, Clupeidae, Scombridae and Mugilidae, but also on big crustaceans; in the rivers, they fed mainly on local Cyprinidae.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Beluga caviar is considered a delicacy worldwide. The flesh of the beluga, though, is not particularly renowned but is a hearty white meat similar to that of swordfish. Beluga caviar has long been scarce and expensive and its endangered status has made its caviar even more expensive throughout the world.  Its air bladder is said to make the best isinglass.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status.", "content": "IUCN classifies the beluga as critically endangered. It is a protected species listed in appendix III of the Bern Convention, and its trade is restricted under CITES appendix II. The Mediterranean population is strongly protected under appendix II of the Bern Convention, prohibiting any intentional killing of these fish.  The United States Fish and Wildlife Service has banned imports of beluga caviar and other beluga products from the Caspian Sea since 6 October 2005, after listing beluga sturgeon under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Beluga or Great sturgeon (\"Huso huso\") is a species of anadromous fish in the sturgeon family (Acipenseridae) of order Acipenseriformes. It is found primarily in the Caspian and Black Sea basins, and formerly in the Adriatic Sea. Going on maximum size, it is the eighth most massive living species of bony fish. Heavily fished for the female's valuable roe, known as beluga caviar, wild populations have been greatly reduced by overfishing and poaching.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972736}
{"src_title": "Bernardino Rivadavia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Rivadavia was born in Buenos Aires on May 20, 1780, the fourth son of Benito Bernardino González de Rivadavia, a wealthy Spanish lawyer, and his first wife María Josefa de Jesús Rodríguez de Rivadeneyra. On December 14, 1809, he married Juana del Pino y Vera Mujica, daughter of the viceroy of the Río de la Plata, Joaquín del Pino and his second wife, the vicereine Rafaela Francisca de Vera Mujica y López Pintado. His military appointment was rejected by Mariano Moreno.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Rivadavia was active in both the Argentine resistance to the British invasion of 1806 and in the May Revolution movement for Argentine Independence in 1810. In 1811, Rivadavia became the dominant member of the governing triumvirate as Secretary of the Treasury and Secretary of War. Until its fall in October 1812, this government focused on creating a strong central government, moderating relations with Spain, and organizing an army.  By 1814 the Spanish King Ferdinand VII had returned to the throne and started the Absolutist Restoration, which had grave consequences for the governments in the Americas. Manuel Belgrano and Rivadavia were sent to Europe to seek support for the United Provinces from both Spain and Britain. They sought to promote the crowning of Francisco de Paula, son of Charles IV of Spain, as regent of the United Provinces, but in the end he refused to act against the interests of the King of Spain. The diplomatic mission was a failure, both in Spain and in Britain. He visited France as well, and returned to Buenos Aires in 1821, at their friends' request.  During his stay in Britain, Rivadavia saw the growing development of the Industrial Revolution, and the rise of Romanticism. He sought to promote a similar development in Buenos Aires, and invited many people to move to the city. He convinced Aimé Bonpland to visit the country, but few other invitations were accepted.  In June 1821, he was named minister of government to Buenos Aires by governor Martín Rodríguez. Over the next five years, he exerted a strong influence, and focused heavily on improving the city of Buenos Aires, often at the expense of greater Argentina. To make the former look more European, Rivadavia constructed large avenues, schools, paved and lighted streets. He founded the University of Buenos Aires, as well as the Theatre, Geology, and Medicine Academies and the continent's first museum of natural science.  He persuaded the legislature to authorize a one-million pound loan for public works that were never undertaken. The provincial bonds were sold in London through the Baring Brothers Bank, local and Buenos Aires-based British traders also acting as financial intermediaries. The borrowed money was in turn lent to these businessmen, who never repaid it. Of the original million pounds the Buenos Aires government received only £552,700. The province's foreign debt was transferred to the nation in 1825, its final repayment being made in 1904.  A strong supporter of a powerful, centralized government in Argentina, Rivadavia often faced violent resistance from the opposition federalists. In 1826, Rivadavia was elected the first President of Argentina. During his term he founded many museums, and expanded the national library.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "His government had many problems, primarily an ongoing war with Brazil over territory in modern Uruguay and resistance from provincial authorities. Faced with the rising power of the Federalist Party and with several provinces in open revolt, Rivadavia submitted his resignation on June 27, 1827. He was succeeded by Vicente López y Planes. At first he returned to private life, but fled to exile in Europe in 1829.  Rivadavia returned to Argentina in 1834 to confront his political enemies, but was immediately sentenced again to exile. He went first to Brazil and then to Spain, where he died on September 2, 1845. He asked that his body would never be brought back to Buenos Aires.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Rivadavia is recognized as the first president of Argentina, even though his rule was accepted only in Buenos Aires, he did not complete a full mandate, there was no constitution for more than half of his rule, and did not start a presidential succession line. The chair of the President of Argentina is known as the \"chair of Rivadavia\", but only metaphorically: Rivadavia took everything when he left office, including the chair, which could never be retrieved.  Liberal historians praise Rivadavia as a great historical man, for his work improving education, culture and separation of church and state. Revisionist authors condemn his Anglophilia, the weak customs barriers that allowed the entry of big British imports, harming the weak Argentine economy of the time, and the Baring Brothers loan that started the Argentine External debt.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bernardino de la Trinidad González Rivadavia (May 20, 1780 – September 2, 1845) was the first President of Argentina, then called the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, from February 8, 1826 to June 27, 1827.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972737}
{"src_title": "Triskelion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Use in European antiquity.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Neolithic to Bronze Age.", "content": "The triple spiral symbol, or three spiral volute, appears in many early cultures, the first in Malta (4400–3600 BCE) and in the astronomical calendar at the famous megalithic tomb of Newgrange in Ireland built around 3200 BCE, as well as on Mycenaean vessels.  The Neolithic era symbol of three conjoined spirals may have had triple significance similar to the imagery that lies behind the triskelion.. It is carved into the rock of a stone lozenge near the main entrance of the prehistoric Newgrange monument in County Meath, Ireland. Newgrange, which was built around 3200 BCE.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classical Antiquity.", "content": "The \"triskeles\" proper, composed of three human legs, is younger than the triple spiral, found in decorations on Greek pottery especially as a design shown on hoplite shields, and later also minted on Greek and Anatolian coinage. An early example is found on the shield of Achilles in an Attic \"hydria\" of the late 6th century BCE. It is found on coinage in Lycia, and on staters of Pamphylia (at Aspendos, 370–333 BCE) and Pisidia.  The meaning of the Greek triskeles is not recorded directly. The Duc de Luynes in his 1835 study noted the co-occurrence of the symbol with the eagle, the cockerel, the head of Medusa, Perseus, three crescent moons, three ears of corn, and three grains of corn. From this, he reconstructed feminine divine triad which he identified with the \"triple goddess\" Hecate. The triskeles was adopted as emblem by the rulers of Syracuse. It is possible that this usage is related with the Greek name of the island of Sicily, \"Trinacria\" (Τρινακρία \"having three headlands\"). The Sicilian triskeles is shown with the head of Medusa at the center. The ancient symbol has been re-introduced in modern flags of Sicily since 1848.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roman period and Late Antiquity.", "content": "Late examples of the triple spiral symbols are found in Iron Age Europe, e.g. carved in rock in Castro Culture settlement in Galicia, Asturias and Northern Portugal. In Ireland before the 5th century, in Celtic Christianity the symbol took on new meaning, as a symbol of the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medieval use.", "content": "The triple spiral design is found as a decorative element in Gothic architecture. The three legs (triskeles) symbol is rarely found as a charge in late medieval heraldry, notably as the arms of the King of Mann (Armorial Wijnbergen, c. 1280), and as canting arms in the city seal of the Bavarian city of Füssen (dated 1317).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern usage.", "content": "The triskeles was included in the design of the Army Gold Medal awarded to British Army majors and above who had taken a key part in the Battle of Maida (1806). An early flag of Sicily, proposed in 1848, included the Sicilian triskeles or \"Trinacria symbol\". Later versions of Sicilian flags have retained the emblem, including the one officially adopted in 2000. The Flag of the Isle of Man (1932) shows a heraldic design of a triskeles of three armoured legs.  The triple spiral, or the \"horned triskelion\", is used by some polytheistic reconstructionist or neopagan groups. As a \"Celtic symbol\", it is used primarily by groups with a Celtic cultural orientation and, less frequently, can also be found in use by various eclectic or syncretic traditions such as Neopaganism. The spiral triskele is one of the primary symbols of Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, used to represent a variety of triplicities in cosmology and theology; it is also a favored symbol due to its association with the god Manannán mac Lir.  Other uses loosely inspired by the triskelion as a \"Celtic\" symbol include the crest of the Breton football club En Avant de Guingamp, which combines the Flag of Brittany, the team colours and the triple spiral triskelion. and the triskelion-like design of the roundel of the Irish Air Corps,  Other uses of triskelion-like emblems include the logo for the Trisquel Linux distribution, the seal of the United States Department of Transportation, and the design of RCA's \"Spider\" 45 rpm adapter (adopted as a popular symbol for record and music enthusiasts). Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging, an Afrikaner nationalist organization and political party (founded 1973), uses a triskele composed of three sevens as its symbol in place of the Nazi swastika. Use of a triskelion-derived emblem has been reported for parts of the BDSM community in 2012. \"The Gamesters of Triskelion\" is a second-season episode of the American science fiction television series \"Star Trek\". In the Marvel Universe, the intelligence agency S.H.I.E.L.D. uses the Triskelion as its headquarters. The Triskele is also used as a prominent symbol in MTV's \"Teen Wolf\" (2011) which draws heavily from Celtic mythology. In the television series \"Merlin\" it was used as symbol of druids. In anime \"Nanatsu no Taizai\" it is used as symbol of goddesses clan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occurrence in nature.", "content": "The endocytic protein, clathrin, is triskelion-shaped. The Ediacaran fossil Tribrachidium is also triskelion shaped.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A triskelion or triskeles is a motif consisting of a triple spiral exhibiting rotational symmetry. The spiral design can be based on interlocking Archimedean spirals, or represent three bent human legs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972738}
{"src_title": "World Meteorological Organization", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The organization.", "content": "WMO has a membership of 193 Member States and Territories as of May 2019. The Convention of the World Meteorological Organization was signed 11 October 1947 and established upon ratification on 23 March 1950.  The WMO hierarchy:  The annually published WMO Statements on the status of the World Climate provides details of global, regional and national temperatures and extreme weather events. It also provides information on long-term climate change indicators including atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, sea level rise, and sea ice extent. The year 2016 was the hottest year on record, with many weather and climate extremes, according to the most recent WMO report.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Meteorological codes.", "content": "In keeping with its mandate to promote the standardization of meteorological observations, the WMO maintains numerous code forms for the representation and exchange of meteorological, oceanographical, and hydrological data. The traditional code forms, such as SYNOP, CLIMAT and TEMP, are character-based and their coding is position-based. Newer WMO code forms are designed for portability, extensibility and universality. These are BUFR, CREX, and, for gridded geo-positioned data, GRIB.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognitions received.", "content": "In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) jointly created by WMO and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) received the Nobel Peace Prize \"for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about anthropogenic (man-made) climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Meteorological Day.", "content": "The World Meteorological Day is held annually on 23 March.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use of the International System of Units.", "content": "WMO states that \"the International System of Units (SI) should be used as the system of units for the evaluation of meteorological elements included in reports for international exchange.\" The following units, which include units which are not SI units, are recommended by the WMO for meteorological observations:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Membership.", "content": "As of May 2019, WMO Members include a total of 187 Member States and 6 Member Territories.  Ten United Nations member states are not members of WMO: Equatorial Guinea, Grenada, Liechtenstein, Marshall Islands, Palau, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and San Marino. Cook Islands and Niue are WMO Members but non-members of the United Nations. Vatican City and State of Palestine and the states with limited recognition are not members of either organization.  The six WMO Member Territories are the British Caribbean Territories (joint meteorological organization and membership), French Polynesia, Hong Kong, Macau, Curaçao and Sint Maarten (joint meteorological service and membership) and New Caledonia. (List of all members with admission dates.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Membership by regional associations.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Region I (Africa).", "content": "Region I consists of the states of Africa and a few former colonial powers. Region I has 57 member states and no member territories: Non-member", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Region II (Asia).", "content": "Region II has 33 member states and 2 member territories. The member states are:  The member territories are:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Region III (South America).", "content": "Region III consists of the states of South America, including France as French Guiana is an overseas region of France. It has a total of 13 member states and no member territories:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Region IV (North America, Central America and the Caribbean).", "content": "Region IV consists of the states of North America, Central America, and the Caribbean, including three European states with dependencies within the region. It has a total of 25 member states and 2 member territories. The member states are:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Region V (South-West Pacific).", "content": "Region V consists of 21 member states and 2 member territories. The member states are:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Region VI (Europe).", "content": "Region VI consists consist of all the states in Europe as well as some Western Asia. It has 50 member states:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "States with membership in more than one region.", "content": "A total of ten member states have membership in more than one region. Two nations are members to four different regions, while eight are members of two regions. These nations, with their regions, are as follows:", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is an intergovernmental organization with a membership of 193 Member States and Territories. The President of the World Meteorological Congress, its supreme body, is Gerhard Adrian as a successor of David Grimes. The organization is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972739}
{"src_title": "John George I, Elector of Saxony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Dresden, John George was the second son of the Elector Christian I and Sophie of Brandenburg. He belonged to the Albertine line of the House of Wettin. John George succeeded to the electorate on 23 June 1611 on the death of his elder brother, Christian II. The geographical position of the Electorate of Saxony rather than her high standing among the German Protestants gave her ruler much importance during the Thirty Years' War. At the beginning of his reign, however, the new elector took up a somewhat detached position. His personal allegiance to Lutheranism was sound, but he liked neither the growing strength of Brandenburg nor the increasing prestige of the Palatinate; the adherence of the other branches of the Saxon ruling house to Protestantism seemed to him to suggest that the head of the Electorate of Saxony should throw his weight into the other scale, and he was prepared to favour the advances of the Habsburgs and the Roman Catholic party.  Thus John George was easily induced to vote for the election of Ferdinand, Archduke of Styria, as emperor in August 1619, an action which nullified the anticipated opposition of the Protestant electors. The new emperor secured the help of John George for the impending campaign in Bohemia by promising that he should be undisturbed in his possession of certain ecclesiastical lands. Carrying out his share of the bargain by occupying Silesia and Lusatia, where he displayed much clemency, the Saxon elector had thus some part in driving Frederick V, elector palatine of the Rhine, from Bohemia and in crushing Protestantism in that country, the crown of which he himself had previously refused.  Gradually, however, he was made uneasy by the obvious trend of the imperial policy towards the annihilation of Protestantism, and by a dread lest the ecclesiastical lands should be taken from him; and the issue of the edict of restitution in March 1629 put the capstone to his fears. Still, although clamouring vainly for the exemption of the electorate from the area covered by the edict, John George took no decisive measures to break his alliance with the emperor. He did, indeed, in February 1631 call a meeting of Protestant princes at Leipzig, but in spite of the appeals of the preacher Matthias Hoe von Hohenegg (1580–1645) he contented himself with a formal protest.  Meanwhile, Gustavus Adolphus had landed in Germany, aiming to relieve Magdeburg. Gustavus attempted to conclude an alliance with John George to allow him to cross the Elbe at Wittenberg, but John George remained hesitant to join the Protestant cause and the discussions went nowhere. Hoping that an alliance would be concluded eventually, Gustavus avoided any military action.  Tilly, commander of the main imperial force, was also concerned about the possibility of an alliance, no matter how unlikely it was at the time. In order to preempt any such move, he invaded Saxony and started to ravage the countryside. This had the effect of driving John George into the alliance he had hoped to preempt, which was concluded in September 1631. The Saxon troops were present at the battle of Breitenfeld, but were routed by the imperialists, the elector himself seeking safety in flight.  Nevertheless, he soon took the offensive. Marching into Bohemia the Saxons occupied Prague, but John George soon began to negotiate for peace and consequently his soldiers offered little resistance to Wallenstein, who drove them back into Saxony. However, for the present the efforts of Gustavus Adolphus prevented the elector from deserting him, but the position was changed by the death of the king at Lützen in 1632, and the refusal of Saxony to join the Protestant league under Swedish leadership.  Still letting his troops fight in a desultory fashion against the imperialists, John George again negotiated for peace, and in May 1635 he concluded the important treaty of Prague with Ferdinand II. His reward was Lusatia and certain other additions of territory; the retention by his son Augustus of the archbishopric of Magdeburg; and some concessions with regard to the edict of restitution. Almost at once he declared war upon the Swedes, but in October 1636 he was beaten at Wittstock; and Saxony, ravaged impartially by both sides, was soon in a deplorable condition. At length in September 1645 the elector was compelled to agree to a truce with the Swedes, who, however, retained Leipzig; and as far as Saxony was concerned this ended the Thirty Years' War. After the peace of Westphalia, which with regard to Saxony did little more than confirm the treaty of Prague, John George died on 8 October 1656.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assessment.", "content": "Although not without political acumen, John George was not a great ruler; his character appears to have been harsh and unlovely, and he was addicted to drink and other diversions such as hunting. Wallenstein held him in contempt saying on more than one occasion \"have you seen how he lives \".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and children.", "content": "John George was married twice. In addition to his successor John George II, he left three sons, Augustus (1614–1680), Christian (died 1691) and Maurice (died 1681).  In Dresden on 16 September 1604 Johann Georg married firstly Sibylle Elisabeth, daughter of Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg. She died in the birth of their only child:  In Torgau on 19 July 1607 Johann Georg married secondly Magdalene Sibylle, daughter of Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia. They had ten children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John George I (German: Johann Georg I.) (5 March 1585 – 8 October 1656) was Elector of Saxony from 1611 to 1656.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972740}
{"src_title": "Jew's harp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The frame is held firmly against the performer's parted teeth or lips (depending on the type), using the jaw and mouth as a resonator, greatly increasing the volume of the instrument. The teeth must be parted sufficiently for the reed to vibrate freely, and the fleshy parts of the mouth should not come into contact with the reed to prevent damping of the vibrations and possible pain. The note or tone thus produced is constant in pitch, though by changing the shape of the mouth, and the amount of air contained in it (and in some traditions closing the glottis), the performer can cause different overtones to sound and thus create melodies.  According to the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" Eleventh Edition, \"The vibrations of the steel tongue produce a compound sound composed of a fundamental and its harmonics. By using the cavity of the mouth as a resonator, each harmonic in succession can be isolated and reinforced, giving the instrument the compass shown.\"  \"The lower harmonics of the series cannot be obtained, owing to the limited capacity of the resonating cavity. The black notes on the stave show the scale which may be produced by using two harps, one tuned a fourth above the other. The player on the Jew's harp, in order to isolate the harmonics, frames his mouth as though intending to pronounce the various vowels.\" See: bugle scale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest depiction of somebody playing what seems to be a Jew's harp is a Chinese drawing from the 3rd Century BC. Archaeological finds of surviving examples in Europe have been claimed to be almost as old, but those dates have been challenged both on the grounds of excavation techniques, and the lack of contemporary writing or pictures mentioning the instrument.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "There are many theories for the origin of the name \"Jew's harp\". According to the Oxford English Dictionary, this name appears earliest in Walter Raleigh's \"Discouerie Guiana\" in 1596, spelled \"Iewes Harp\". The \"jaw\" variant is attested at least as early as 1774 and 1809, the \"juice\" variant appeared only in the late 19th and 20th centuries.  It has also been suggested that the name derives from the French \"Jeu-trompe\" meaning \"toy-trumpet\". (Though in the French idiom, if two substantives are joined together, the qualifying noun is invariably the last.)  Both theories—that the name is a corruption of \"jaws\" or \"jeu\"—are described by the OED as \"baseless and inept\". The OED says that, \"More or less satisfactory reasons may be conjectured: e.g. that the instrument was actually made, sold, or imported to England by Jews, or purported to be so; or that it was attributed to Jewish people, suggesting the trumps and harps mentioned in the Bible, and hence considered a good commercial name.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cambodian music.", "content": "The angkouch (Khmer: អង្គួច) is a Cambodian jew's harp. It is a folk instrument made of bamboo and carved into a long, flat shape with a hole in the center and the tongue across the hole. There is also a metal variety, more round or tree-leaf shaped. It may also have metal bells attached. The instrument is both a wind instrument and percussion instrument. As a wind instrument, it is placed against the mouth, which acts as a resonator and tool to alter the sound. Although mainly a folk instrument, better-made examples exist. While the instrument was thought to be the invention of children herding cattle, it is sometimes used in public performance, to accompany the Mahori music in public dancing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Carnatic music.", "content": "The instrument, known as morsing in South India, morchang in Rajasthan, or murchunga in Nepal (where they are common), is part of the rhythmic section in a Carnatic music ensemble.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sindhi music.", "content": "In Sindhi the Jew's harp is called Changu (چنگُ). In Sindhi music, it can be an accompaniment or the main instrument. One of the most famous players is Amir Bux Ruunjho.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World music.", "content": "The Jew's harp is frequently to be found in the repertoire of music played by alternative or world music bands. Sandy Miller of the UK-based Brazilian samba/funk band \"Tempo Novo\", plays a Jew's harp solo in the piece \"Canto de Ossanha\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Austrian Jew's harp playing.", "content": "Austrian Jew's harp music uses typical Western harmony. The UNESCO has included Austrian Jew's harp playing in its Intangible Cultural Heritage list.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Western classical music.", "content": "Early representations of Jew's harps appeared in Western churches since the fourteenth century.  The Austrian composer Johann Albrechtsberger—chiefly known today as a teacher of Beethoven—wrote seven concerti for Jew's harp, mandora, and orchestra between 1769 and 1771. Four of them have survived, in the keys of F major, E-flat major, E major, and D major. They are based on the special use of the Jew's harp in Austrian folk music.  Well known performer Franz Koch (1761–1831), discovered by Frederick the Great, could play two Jew's harps at once, while the also well known performer Karl Eulenstein (1802—1890), \"invented a system of playing four at once, connecting them by silken strings in such a way that he could clasp all four with the lips, and strike all the four springs at the same time\".  The American composer Charles Ives wrote a part for Jew's harp in the \"Washington's Birthday\" movement of \".\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Western rock music.", "content": "It features prominently in Canned Heat's multi-part piece \"Parthenogenesis\" from their \"Living the Blues\" album.  The Jew's harp provides a distinctive sound for the beginning of The Who's \"Join Together\".  It appears in Johnny Cash's recording of \"God's Gonna Cut You Down\" from his album \"\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kyrgyz music.", "content": "The \"temir komuz\" is made of iron usually with a length of 100–200 mm and with a width of approximately 2–7 mm. The range of the instrument varies with the size of the instrument, but generally hovers around an octave span. The Kyrgyz people are exceptionally proficient on the \"temir komuz\" instrument and it is quite popular among children, although some adults continue to play the instrument. There is a National Artist of Kyrgyz Republic who performs on the instrument, \"temir komuz\". One time twenty Kirgiz girls played in a \"temir komuz\" ensemble on the stage of the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow. \"Temir komuz\" pieces were notated by Zataevich in two or three parts. Apparently an octave drone is possible, or even an ostinato alternating the fifth step of a scale with an octave.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Jew's harp, also known as the jaw harp, mouth harp, gewgaw, guimbard, khomus, trump, Ozark harp, Galician harp, or murchunga is a lamellophone instrument, consisting of a flexible metal or bamboo tongue or reed attached to a frame.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972741}
{"src_title": "Cassander", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early history.", "content": "In his youth, Cassander was taught by the philosopher Aristotle at the Lyceum in Macedonia. He was educated alongside Alexander the Great in a group that included Hephaestion, Ptolemy and Lysimachus. His family were distant collateral relatives to the Argead dynasty.  Cassander is first recorded as arriving at Alexander the Great's court in Babylon in 323 BC, where he had been sent by his father, Antipater, most likely to help uphold Antipater's regency in Macedon, although a later contemporary who was hostile to the Antipatrids suggested that Cassander had journeyed to the court to poison the King.  Whatever the truth of this suggestion, Cassander stood out amongst the Diadochi in his hostility to Alexander's memory. As Cassander and the other diadochi struggled for power, Alexander IV, Roxana, and Alexander's supposed illegitimate son Heracles were all executed on Cassander's orders, and a guarantee to Olympias to spare her life was not respected. Cassander's decision to restore Thebes, which had been destroyed under Alexander, was perceived at the time to be a snub to the deceased King. It was later even said that he could not pass a statue of Alexander without feeling faint. Cassander has been perceived to be ambitious and unscrupulous, and even members of his own family were estranged from him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later history.", "content": "As Antipater grew close to death in 319 BC, he transferred the regency of Macedon not to Cassander, but to Polyperchon, possibly so as not to alarm the other Diadochi through an apparent move towards dynastic ambition, but perhaps also because of Cassander's own ambitions. Cassander rejected his father's decision, and immediately went to seek the support of Antigonus, Ptolemy and Lysimachus as his allies. Waging war on Polyperchon, Cassander destroyed his fleet, put Athens under the control of Demetrius of Phaleron, and declared himself Regent in 317 BC. After Olympias’ successful move against Philip III later in the year, Cassander besieged her in Pydna. When the city fell two years later, Olympias was killed, and Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxanne confined at Amphipolis.  Cassander associated himself with the Argead dynasty by marrying Alexander's half-sister, Thessalonica, and he had Alexander IV and Roxanne poisoned in either 310 BC or the following year. By 309 BC, Polyperchon began to claim that Heracles was the true heir to the Macedonian inheritance, at which point Cassander bribed him to have the boy killed. After this, Cassander's position in Greece and Macedonia was reasonably secure, and he proclaimed himself king in 305 BC. After the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, in which Antigonus was killed, he was undisputed in his control of Macedonia; however, he had little time to savour the fact, dying of dropsy in 297 BC.  Cassander's dynasty did not live much beyond his death, with his son Philip dying of natural causes, and his other sons Alexander and Antipater becoming involved in a destructive dynastic struggle along with their mother. When Alexander was ousted as joint king by his brother, Demetrius I took up Alexander's appeal for aid and ousted Antipater II, killed Alexander V and established the Antigonid dynasty. The remaining Antipatrids, such as Antipater Etesias, were unable to re-establish the Antipatrids on the throne.  Of more lasting significance was Cassander's refoundation of Therma into Thessalonica, naming the city after his wife. Cassander also founded Cassandreia upon the ruins of Potidaea.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lissandreia (the modern region of \"Kassandreia\", Halkidiki, survived in a corrupted form), interpreted as army commander Cassander (Greek: Κάσσανδρος Ἀντιπάτρου, \"Kassandros Antipatrou\"; \"son of Antipatros\": c. 355 BC – 297 BC) was king of ancient kingdom of Macedon from 305 BC until 297 BC, and \"de facto\" ruler of southern Greece from 317 BC until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972742}
{"src_title": "Singleton pattern", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The singleton design pattern is one of the twenty-three well-known \"Gang of Four\" design patterns that describe how to solve recurring design problems to design flexible and reusable object-oriented software, that is, objects that are easier to implement, change, test, and reuse.  The singleton design pattern solves problems like:  The singleton design pattern describes how to solve such problems:  The key idea in this pattern is to make the class itself responsible for controlling its instantiation (that it is instantiated only once).<br> The hidden constructor (declared private) ensures that the class can never be instantiated from outside the class.<br> The public static operation can be accessed easily by using the class name and operation name (codice_2).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "An implementation of the singleton pattern must: Typically, this is done by: The instance is usually stored as a private static variable; the instance is created when the variable is initialized, at some point before the static method is first called. The following is a sample implementation written in Java. public final class Singleton {", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "C# implementation.", "content": "public sealed class Singleton {  In C# you can also use static classes to create singletons, where the class itself is the singleton. public static class Singleton {", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lazy initialization.", "content": "A singleton implementation may use lazy initialization, where the instance is created when the static method is first invoked. If the static method might be called from multiple threads simultaneously, measures may need to be taken to prevent race conditions that could result in the creation of multiple instances of the class. The following is a thread-safe sample implementation, using lazy initialization with double-checked locking, written in Java. public final class Singleton {", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dart implementation.", "content": "class Singleton {", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PHP implementation.", "content": "class Singleton {", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Java Implementation.", "content": "public class Coin {", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kotlin Implementation.", "content": "Kotlin object keyword declares a singleton class  object Coin{", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Delphi and Free Pascal implementation.", "content": "GetInstance is thread safe implementation of Singleton.  unit SingletonPattern;  interface  type  function GetInstance: TTest;  implementation  uses  var  function GetInstance: TTest; begin  end;  constructor TTest.Create; begin end;  initialization  finalization  end. Usage:  procedure TForm3.btnCreateInstanceClick(Sender: TObject); var begin end;", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In software engineering, the singleton pattern is a software design pattern that restricts the instantiation of a class to one \"single\" instance. This is useful when exactly one object is needed to coordinate actions across the system. The term comes from the mathematical concept of a singleton.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972743}
{"src_title": "Letov Š-28", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Design work started in 1932 to meet a requirement from the Finnish Air Force although they never accepted the type. It first flew in 1934 and began equipping the Czechoslovak Air Force the following year. The machine was made in two versions—with wheeled undercarriage for land use and with floats for water operations. Although Czechoslovakia was a land-locked nation, a floatplane target tug was necessary for a Czechoslovak anti-aircraft artillery training depot in the Bay of Kotor (now in Montenegro) and four were built as the Š-328v (v stood for vodní or water). It was used as a reconnaissance aircraft, light bomber and ground-attack aircraft for the Czechoslovakia Air Force during the mid- and late-1930s and in that same role during the early months of World War II, when the Slovak Air Force came under German control following its occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939. 13 planes from first production batch were tested as night fighters, armed with four 7,92 mm vz.30 machine guns in the wings and two movable vz.30s for the observer. These were later modified for normal use because without radar whose effectiveness was minimal. At the time of the Munich agreement, which ended the Sudeten crisis the Czechoslovak Air Force had 227 planes in operational units and 87 in training schools and mobilisation depots. Production continued even after German occupation of Czechoslovakia until 1940, the last planes being 30 Š-328 produced for Bulgaria, and 50 planes of that type ordered by Slovakia in July 1938. Altogether, 412 Letov Š-328 were produced.  The Letov Š-328's combat record is vague but some sources suggest that some Š-328 landplanes may have been used during the Spanish Civil War however there is no evidence to confirm this and is likely a misidentification of another type. The Germans used captured Š-328s both as trainers and in the night attack role on the Eastern Front in the Winter of 1942-43. The Germans handed over some of these machines to their allies, Bulgaria, and Slovakia.  The Slovak Š-328s carried out reconnaissance and bombing sorties in support of the Slovak participation in the Invasion of Poland in September 1939. Following Slovakia's participation in the German Invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Slovak Š-328s were used for patrol and reconnaissance flights and a few of them also attacked soviet trucks and cars. They were again used in anti-partisan operations in western Ukraine in the summer of 1942. At least 11 Slovakian aircraft were seized by Slovak insurgents and flown against the Germans in late 1944 during the Slovak National Uprising in September to October 1944. The unit never had more than three aircraft operational at time, but they were an important asset. On 7 September 1944, this aircraft achieved one of the last downings of an enemy aircraft achieved by a biplane, when a patrolling Š-328 was attacked by a reconnaissance Focke-Wulf Fw 189. The Fw 189 was damaged by machine gun fire and forced to land in an area controlled by the insurgents.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Letov Š-28 was a Czechoslovak single-engined, two-seat reconnaissance aircraft. It was manufactured by Letov Kbely in a number of versions with different powerplants. The most important version was the Š-328, which was produced in relatively high quantities (412 planes produced).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972744}
{"src_title": "Hungarian forint", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The forint's name comes from the city of Florence, where gold coins called \"fiorino d'oro\" were minted from 1252. In Hungary, \"florentinus\" (later \"forint\"), also a gold-based currency, was used from 1325 under Charles Robert, with several other countries following Hungary's example.  Between 1868 and 1892 the forint was the name used in Hungarian for the currency of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, known in German as the gulden or florin. It was subdivided into 100 krajczár (\"krajcár\" in modern Hungarian orthography).  The forint was reintroduced on 1 August 1946, after the pengő was rendered almost worthless by massive hyperinflation in 1945–46: the highest ever recorded. The process was managed by the Hungarian Communist Party, which held the relevant cabinet seats. The forint's success was exploited for political gains, contributing to the Communists' takeover of complete power in 1948–49. The forint replaced the pengő at the rate of 1 forint = pengő—dropping 29 zeroes from the old currency. In fact, this was an imaginary exchange rate. With the highest value note being 100 million B. pengő ( pengő), the total amount of pengő in circulation had a value of less than 0.1 fillér. (The \"B\" stood for an old-style \"billion\", i.e. a million million.) Of more significance was the exchange rate to the adópengő of 1 forint = 200 million adópengő.  Historically the forint was subdivided into 100 \"fillér\" (comparable to a penny), although fillér coins have been rendered useless by inflation and have not been in circulation since 1999. (Since 2000, one forint has typically been worth about half a US cent or slightly less.) The Hungarian abbreviation for forint is \"Ft\", which is written after the number with a space between. The name fillér, the subdivision of all Hungarian currencies since 1925, comes from the German word \"Heller\". The abbreviation for the fillér was \"f\", also written after the number with a space in between.  When the forint was introduced, its value was defined on the basis of 1 kilogram of gold being 13 210 forints. Therefore, given that gold was fixed at 35 USD per Troy ounce, one USD was at that time worth 11.74 forints approximately (11.739340815 forints exactly).  After its 1946 introduction, the forint remained stable for the following two decades, but started to lose its purchasing power as the state-socialist economic system (Planned economy) lost its competitiveness during the 1970s and 1980s. After the democratic change of 1989–90, the forint saw yearly inflation figures of about 35% for three years, but significant market economy reforms helped stabilize it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coins.", "content": "In 1946, coins were introduced in denominations of 2, 10, 20 fillérs and 1, 2, 5 forints. The silver 5 forint coin was reissued only in the next year; later it was withdrawn from circulation. 5 and 50 fillérs coins were issued in 1948. In 1967, a 5 forint coin was reintroduced, followed by a 10 forint in 1971 and 20 forint in 1982.  In 1992, a new series of coins was introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and (a somewhat different, 500‰ silver) 200 forint. Production of the 2 and 5 fillér coins ceased in 1992, with all fillér coins withdrawn from circulation by 1999. From 1996, a bicolor 100 forint coin was minted to replace the 1992 version, since the latter was considered too big and ugly, and could easily be mistaken for the 20 forint coin.  Silver 200 forint coins were withdrawn in 1998 (as their nominal value was too low compared to their precious metal content); the 1 and 2 forint coins remained legal tender until 29 February 2008. For cash purchases, the total price is now rounded to the nearest 5 forint (to 0 or to 5). A new 200 forint coin made of base metal alloy was introduced in place of the 200 forint bank note on 15 June 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Banknotes.", "content": "In 1946, 10- and 100-forint notes were introduced by the \"Magyar Nemzeti Bank\" (Hungarian National Bank). A new series of higher quality banknotes (in denominations of 10, 20 and 100 forints) were introduced in 1947 and 1948. 50-forint notes were added in 1953, 500-forint notes were introduced in 1970, followed by 1,000 forints in 1983, and 5,000 forints in 1991.  A completely redesigned new series of banknotes in denominations of 200, 500, 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000 and 20,000 forints was introduced gradually between 1997 and 2001. Each banknote depicts a famous Hungarian leader or politician on the obverse and a place or event related to him on the reverse. All of the banknotes are watermarked, contain an embedded vertical security strip and are suitable for visually impaired people. The 1,000 forints and higher denominations are protected by an interwoven holographic security strip. The notes share the common size of. The banknotes are printed by the Hungarian Banknote Printing Corp. in Budapest on paper manufactured by the Diósgyőr Papermill in Miskolc.  Commemorative banknotes have also been issued recently: 1,000- and 2,000-forint notes to commemorate the millennium (in 2000) and a 500-forint note to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the 1956 revolution (in 2006).  Forgery of forint banknotes is not significant. However, forged 20,000-forint notes printed on the paper of 2,000-forint notes after dissolving the original ink might come up and are not easy to recognize. Another denomination preferred by counterfeiters was the 1,000-forint note until improved security features were added in 2006.  Banknotes that were previously in circulation are withdrawn and recycled as materials for briquettes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of current banknotes.", "content": "All banknotes are in size.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Current exchange rates.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historic rates.", "content": "Most traded currencies (from 31 December 1990):  Currencies of nearby countries (from 31 December 2010):", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The forint (sign: Ft; code: HUF) is the currency of Hungary. It was formerly divided into 100 fillér, but fillér coins are no longer in circulation. The introduction of the forint on 1 August 1946 was a crucial step in the post-World War II stabilisation of the Hungarian economy, and the currency remained relatively stable until the 1980s. Transition to a market economy in the early 1990s adversely affected the value of the forint; inflation peaked at 35% in 1991. Since 2001, inflation is in single digits, and the forint has been declared fully convertible. As a member of the European Union, the long-term aim of the Hungarian government may be to replace the forint with the euro, but that does not appear to be likely until some time during the 2020s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972745}
{"src_title": "Philippe Verdelot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Verdelot was born in Les Loges, Seine-et-Marne, France. Details of his early life are obscure. He probably came to Italy at an early age, spending the first decade or two of the 16th century at some cities in northern Italy, most likely including Venice. A painting of 1511, described by Vasari but never positively identified, is believed by many musicologists to show Verdelot in Venice with an Italian singer.  Verdelot is known to have been \"maestro di cappella \" at the Baptisterium San Giovanni in Florence from 1523 to 1525; and he seems also to have been employed at the Cathedral there, from 1523 until 1527. In 1526 he collaborated with Niccolò Machiavelli on a production of Machiavelli's famous cynical comedy \"La Mandragola\". While the play was written in 1518, the 1526 performance in Florence was dedicated to the Medici pope, Clement VII. Both Machiavelli, expelled from Florence by the Medici, and Verdelot, generally sided with the Florentine Republic against the Medici, but attempted to play the delicate political game of pleasing both sides. The several pieces which Verdelot wrote for Machiavelli's play, while called \"canzone\", are considered to be the earliest madrigals.  In addition to siding with the Florentine Republic, Verdelot was most likely a supporter of martyred reformer Girolamo Savonarola. This is shown by several of his works: his setting of \"In te domine speravi\", based on the psalm which was the subject of that man's last writing before he was burned at the stake; and the use of the tune most closely associated with the monk, \"Ecce quam bonum\", the song which unified his followers during his final conflict, and which appears in the inner voices in Verdelot's motet \"Letamini in domino.\"  Verdelot may have been killed in the siege of Florence (1529–1530) or in the simultaneous plague that ravaged the city, since there is no definite evidence that he was alive after 1530. That he was there during the siege has been considered likely on the evidence of one of his motets, composed around that time, \"Congregati sunt inimici nostri\". In this work, texts from Ecclesiasticus are woven together with the Antiphon for Peace, \"Da pacem Domine\", which is used as a cantus firmus.  Some scholars infer that Verdelot was alive until about 1540, based on some ambiguous references to contemporary events in his works published during the 1530s. Several books of madrigals published in Venice in the late 1530s include his work; one of these books is devoted entirely to him. Possibly he moved to Venice after the siege to escape the notoriously vengeful, and victorious, Medici. He is known to have been dead by 1552, when writer Ortenzo Landi mentioned him as being deceased.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and influence.", "content": "Verdelot, along with Costanzo Festa, is considered to be the father of the madrigal, an a cappella vocal form which emerged in the late 1520s from a convergence of several previous musical streams (including the frottola, the canzone, the laude, and also including some influence from the more serious style of the motet).  Verdelot's style balances homophonic with imitative textures, rarely using word-painting, which was largely a later development (though a few interesting foreshadowings can be found). Most of his madrigals are for five or six voices.  Verdelot's madrigals were hugely popular, as can be inferred from their frequency of reprinting and their wide dissemination throughout Europe in the 16th century. He also composed motets and masses.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philippe Verdelot (1480 to 1485–1530 to 1540) was a French composer of the Renaissance, who spent most of his life in Italy. He is commonly considered to be the father of the Italian madrigal, and certainly was one of its earliest and most prolific composers; in addition he was prominent in the musical life of Florence during the period after the recapture of the city by the Medici from the followers of Girolamo Savonarola.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972746}
{"src_title": "Nigella sativa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The genus name \"Nigella\" is a diminutive of the Latin (black), referring to the seed color. The specific epithet, \"\"sativa\"\", refers to \"cultivation\".  In English, \"N. sativa\" and its seed are variously called black caraway, black seed, black cumin, fennel flower, nigella, nutmeg flower, Roman coriander, and \"kalanji\".  Blackseed and black caraway may also refer to \"Bunium persicum\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary uses.", "content": "In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration classifies \"Nigella sativa\" L. (black cumin, black caraway) as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for use as a spice, natural seasoning, or flavoring. The seeds of \"N. sativa\" are used as a spice in Indian and Middle Eastern cuisines, and also in Polish cuisine. The black seeds taste like a combination of onions, black pepper, and oregano. They have a pungent, bitter taste and smell. In Palestine, the seeds are ground to make bitter qizha paste.  The dry-roasted seeds flavor curries, vegetables, and pulses. They can be used as a seasoning in recipes with pod fruit, vegetables, salads, and poultry. In some cultures, the black seeds are used to flavor bread products, and are used as part of the spice mixture \"panch phoron\" (meaning a mixture of five spices) and alone in many recipes in Bengali cuisine and most recognizably in \"naan\". \"Nigella \"is also used in Armenian string cheese, a braided string cheese called \"majdouleh\" or \"majdouli\" in the Middle East.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Archaeological evidence about the earliest cultivation of \"N. sativa\" dates to millennia, with \"N. sativa\" seeds found in several sites from ancient Egypt, including Tutankhamun's tomb. Seeds were found in a Hittite flask in Turkey from the second millennium BCE.  \"N. sativa\" may have been used as a condiment of the Old World to flavor food. The Persian physician Avicenna in his \"Canon of Medicine\" described \"N. sativa\" as a treatment for dyspnea. \"N. sativa\" was used in the Middle East as a traditional medicine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "Oils are 32% to 40% of the total composition of \"N. sativa\" seeds. \"N. sativa\" oil contains linoleic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, and \"trans\"-anethole, and other minor constituents, such as nigellicine, nigellidine, nigellimine, and nigellimine N-oxide. Aromatics include thymoquinone, dihydrothymoquinone, \"p\"-cymene, carvacrol, α-thujene, thymol, α-pinene, β-pinene and \"trans\"-anethole. Protein and various alkaloids are present in the seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "One meta-analysis of clinical trials found weak evidence that \"N. sativa\" has a short-term benefit on lowering systolic and diastolic blood pressure, with limited evidence that various extracts of black seed can reduce triglycerides and LDL and total cholesterol, while raising HDL cholesterol. Despite considerable use of \"N. sativa\" in traditional medicine practices in Africa and Asia, there is insufficient, high-quality clinical evidence to indicate that consuming the seeds or oil provides any benefit to human health.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nigella sativa (black caraway, also known as black cumin, nigella, kalojeera, kalonji or kalanji) is an annual flowering plant in the family Ranunculaceae, native to a large region of the eastern Mediterranean, northern Africa, the Indian Subcontinent, and West Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972747}
{"src_title": "Metaprogramming", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Approaches.", "content": "Metaprogramming enables developers to write programs and develop code that falls under the generic programming paradigm. Having the programming language itself as a first-class data type (as in Lisp, Prolog, SNOBOL, or Rebol) is also very useful; this is known as \"homoiconicity\". Generic programming invokes a metaprogramming facility within a language by allowing one to write code without the concern of specifying data types since they can be supplied as parameters when used.  Metaprogramming usually works in one of three ways.  Lisp is probably the quintessential language with metaprogramming facilities, both because of its historical precedence and because of the simplicity and power of its metaprogramming. In Lisp metaprogramming, the unquote operator (typically a comma) introduces code that is evaluated at program definition time rather than at run time; see Self-evaluating forms and quoting in Lisp. The metaprogramming language is thus identical to the host programming language, and existing Lisp routines can be directly reused for metaprogramming, if desired. This approach has been implemented in other languages by incorporating an interpreter in the program, which works directly with the program's data. There are implementations of this kind for some common high-level languages, such as RemObjects’ Pascal Script for Object Pascal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usages.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Code generation.", "content": "A simple example of a metaprogram is this POSIX Shell script, which is an example of generative programming: echo '#!/bin/sh' > program for i in $(seq 992) do done chmod +x program This script (or program) generates a new 993-line program that prints out the numbers 1–992. This is only an illustration of how to use code to write more code; it is not the most efficient way to print out a list of numbers. Nonetheless, a programmer can write and execute this metaprogram in less than a minute, and will have generated exactly 1000 lines of code in that amount of time.  A quine is a special kind of metaprogram that produces its own source code as its output. Quines are generally of recreational or theoretical interest only.  Not all metaprogramming involves generative programming. If programs are modifiable at runtime or if incremental compilation is available (such as in C#, Forth, Frink, Groovy, JavaScript, Lisp, Elixir, Lua, Perl, PHP, Python, REBOL, Ruby, Rust, SAS, Smalltalk, and Tcl), then techniques can be used to perform metaprogramming without actually generating source code.  One style of generative approach is to employ domain-specific languages (DSLs). A fairly common example of using DSLs involves generative metaprogramming: lex and yacc, two tools used to generate lexical analyzers and parsers, let the user describe the language using regular expressions and context-free grammars, and embed the complex algorithms required to efficiently parse the language.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Code instrumentation.", "content": "One usage of metaprogramming is to instrument programs in order to do dynamic program analysis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Challenges.", "content": "Some argue that there is a sharp learning curve to make complete use of metaprogramming features. Since metaprogramming gives more flexibility and configurability at runtime, misuse or incorrect use of the metaprogramming can result in unwarranted and unexpected errors that can be extremely difficult to debug to an average developer. It can introduce risks in the system and make it more vulnerable if not used with care. Some of the common problems which can occur due to wrong use of metaprogramming are inability of the compiler to identify missing configuration parameters, invalid or incorrect data can result in unknown exception or different results. Due to this, some believe that only high-skilled developers should work on developing features which exercise metaprogramming in a language or platform and average developers must learn how to use these features as part of convention.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses in programming languages.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Macro systems.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Macro assemblers.", "content": "The IBM/360 and derivatives had powerful macro assembler facilities that were often used to generate complete assembly language programs or sections of programs (for different operating systems for instance). Macros provided with CICS transaction processing system had assembler macros that generated COBOL statements as a pre-processing step.  Other assemblers, such as MASM, also support macros.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Metaclasses.", "content": "Metaclasses are provided by the following programming languages:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Implementations.", "content": "The list of notable metaprogramming systems is maintained at List of Program Transformation Systems.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Metaprogramming is a programming technique in which computer programs have the ability to treat other programs as their data. It means that a program can be designed to read, generate, analyze or transform other programs, and even modify itself while running. In some cases, this allows programmers to minimize the number of lines of code to express a solution, in turn reducing development time. It also allows programs greater flexibility to efficiently handle new situations without recompilation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972748}
{"src_title": "Abstinence", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Abstinence in religion.", "content": "Abstinence may arise from an ascetic over indulgent, hasidic point of view in natural ways of procreation, present in most faiths, or from a subjective need for spiritual discipline. In its religious context, abstinence is meant to elevate the believer beyond the normal life of desire, to a chosen ideal, by following a path of renunciation.  For Jews, the principal day of fast is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement.  For Muslims, the period of fasting lasts during the whole month of Ramadan, from dawn to dusk.  Both Jews and Muslims abstain from pork in their regular diet.  In both Christianity and Islam, amongst others, pre-marital sex is prohibited.  Catholics abstain from food and drink for an hour prior to taking Holy Communion, and from meat on Ash Wednesday and on Fridays except solemnities. In the Anglican Communion, the Book of Common Prayer prescribes certain days as days for fasting and abstinence, \"consisting of the 40 days of Lent, the ember days, the three rogation days (the Monday to Wednesday following the Sunday after Ascension Day), and all Fridays in the year (except Christmas, if it falls on a Friday)\". Orthodox Christians abstain from food and drink from midnight on the day they receive Holy Communion, and abstain from meat and dairy on Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year, as well as during Great Lent. Catholics distinguish between fasting and abstinence; the former referring to the discipline of taking one full meal a day, and the latter signifying the discipline of eating no meat (fish is allowed). Some Protestants, especially Methodists and Baptists, have preferred to abstain from drinking alcohol and the use of tobacco.  Mormons abstain from certain foods and drinks by combining spiritual discipline with health concerns. Mormons also fast one day a month, for both spiritual and charitable reasons (the money saved by skipping meals is donated to the needy). The Seventh-day Adventist Church encourages the consumption of only clean meats as specified in Leviticus and strongly discourages the consumption of alcohol, smoking, and the use of narcotics.  In India, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and Hindus abstain from eating meat and fish (basically, all living animals) on the grounds both of health and of reverence for all sentient forms of life. Total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of Hinduism. In addition, lay and monastic Buddhists refrain from killing any living creature and from consuming intoxicants, and bhikkhus keep vows of chastity. In Theravada Buddhism, bhikkhus also refrain from eating in the afternoon, and cannot accept money. Jains abstain from violence in any form, and will not consume living creatures or kill bugs or insects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medicine.", "content": "In medicine, abstinence is the discontinuation of a drug, often an addictive one. This might, in addition to craving after the drug, be expressed as withdrawal syndromes. In the Basic Text of Narcotics Anonymous, a large fellowship following the 12-steps outlined by AA, NA is outlined to be \"a program of complete abstinence from all mood or mind-altering substances.\" This description includes alcohol, because alcohol is a drug, and is widely known to include any kind of prescription narcotics, like pain-killers (opiates), anti-anxiety medicine (benzodiazepines) or diet pills (amphetamines). The practice of abstinence is a learned behavior, and comes slowly over time - time spent listening and sharing in NA and AA meetings, behavioral health psychology group or individualized therapies, and hanging out with people in the recovery support community.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of abstinence.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "\"Fasting\" is primarily the act of willingly abstaining from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. A fast may be total or partial concerning that from which one fasts, and may be prolonged or intermittent as to the period of fasting. Fasting practices may preclude sexual activity as well as food, in addition to refraining from eating certain types or groups of foods; for example, one might refrain from eating meat. A complete fast in its traditional definition is abstinence of all food and liquids except for water.  \"Vegetarianism\" is the practice of a diet that excludes meat (including game, marine mammals and slaughter by-products), poultry, fowl, fish, shellfish and other sea creatures. There are several variants of the diet, some of which also exclude eggs or products produced from animal labour such as dairy products and honey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tobacco smoking.", "content": "\"Smoking cessation\" is the action leading towards the discontinuation of the consumption of a smoked substance, mainly tobacco, but it may encompass cannabis and other substances as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alcohol.", "content": "\"Teetotalism\" is the practice and promotion of complete abstinence from alcoholic beverages.  Some common reasons for choosing teetotalism are religious, health, family, philosophical or social reasons, and, sometimes, as simply a matter of taste preference. When at drinking establishments, they either abstain from drinking or consume non-alcoholic beverages such as tea, coffee, water, juice, and soft drinks.  Contemporary and colloquial usage has somewhat expanded teetotalism to include strict abstinence from most \"recreational\" intoxicants (legal and illegal, see controlled substances). Most teetotaller organizations also demand from their members that they do not promote or produce alcoholic intoxicants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pleasure.", "content": "A general abstinence from pleasures or leisure, either partial or full, may be motivated by ambition, career or general self-respect (excluding the point of view that even the latter examples may be regarded as sources of pleasure).  It is widely accepted that abstinence from addictive drugs gives successful outcome. However, it is not certain whether a general abstinence from pleasures of leisure yields higher productivity. Too much work generates stress and its potential adverse effects. Furthermore, the effort itself to achieve abstinence may consume willpower from its ultimate purpose. Total abstinence from pleasure or leisure is practically impossible and instead an individual work-life balance is necessary.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Abstinence is a self-enforced restraint from indulging in bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to sexual abstinence, or abstinence from alcohol, drugs, or food.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972749}
{"src_title": "Aristolochia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Aristolochia\" is a genus of evergreen and deciduous lianas (woody vines) and herbaceous perennials. The smooth stem is erect or somewhat twining. The simple leaves are alternate and cordate, membranous, growing on leaf stalks. There are no stipules.  The flowers grow in the leaf axils. They are inflated and globose at the base, continuing as a long perianth tube, ending in a tongue-shaped, brightly colored lobe. There is no corolla. The calyx is one to three whorled, and three to six toothed. The sepals are united (gamosepalous). There are six to 40 stamens in one whorl. They are united with the style, forming a gynostemium. The ovary is inferior and is four to six locular.  These flowers have a specialized pollination mechanism. The plants are aromatic and their strong scent attracts insects. The inner part of the perianth tube is covered with hairs, acting as a fly-trap. These hairs then wither to release the fly, covered with pollen.  The fruit is dehiscent capsule with many endospermic seeds.  The common names \"Dutchman's pipe\" and \"pipevine\" (e.g. common pipevine, \"A. durior\") are an allusion to old-fashioned meerschaum pipes at one time common in the Netherlands and northern Germany. \"Birthwort\" (e.g. European birthwort \"A. clematitis\") refers to these species' flower shape, resembling a birth canal. Aristolochia was first described by the 4th c. BC Greek philosopher and botanist Theophrastos in his book [Inquiry of Plants, IX.8.3], and the scientific name \"Aristolochia\" was developed from Ancient Greek \"aristos\" (\"άριστος\") \"best\" + \"locheia\" (\"λοχεία\"), \"childbirth\" or \"childbed\", relating to its known ancient use in childbirth. The Roman orator Cicero records a different tradition, that the plant was named for the otherwise unknown individual with the common Greek name Aristolochos, who had learned from a dream that it was an antidote for snake bites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Herbalism, toxicity and carcinogenicity.", "content": "The species \"Aristolochia clematitis\" was highly regarded as a medicinal plant since the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, and on until the Early Modern era; it also plays a role in traditional Chinese medicine. Due to its resemblance to the uterus, the doctrine of signatures held that \"birthwort\" was useful in childbirth. A preparation was given to women upon delivery to expel the placenta, as noted by the herbalist Dioscurides in the 1st century AD. Despite its presence in ancient medicine, \"Aristolochia\" is known to contain the lethal toxin aristolochic acid.  The \"Bencao Gangmu\", compiled by Li Shi-Zhen in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was based on the author's experience and on data obtained from earlier herbals; this Chinese herbal classic describes 1892 \"drugs\" (with 1110 drawings), including many species of \"Aristolochia\". For 400 years, the \"Bencao Gangmu\" remained the principal source of information in traditional Chinese medicine and the work was translated into numerous languages, reflecting its influence in countries other than China. In the mid-twentieth century, the \"Bencao Gangmu\" was replaced by modern \"Materia Medica\", the most comprehensive source being \"Zhong Hua Ben Cao\" (\"Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica\"), published in 1999. The \"Encyclopedia\" lists 23 species of \"Aristolochia\", though with little mention of toxicity. The Chinese government currently lists the following \"Aristolochia\" herbs: \"A. manshuriensis\" (stems), \"A. fangchi\" (root), \"A. debilis\" (root and fruit), and \"A. contorta\" (fruit), two of which (\"madouling\" and \"qingmuxiang\") appear in the 2005 Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China.  In traditional Chinese medicine \"Aristolochia\" species are used for certain forms of acute arthritis and edema.  Despite the toxic properties of aristolochic acid, naturopaths claim that a decoction of birthwort stimulates the production and increases the activity of white blood cells, or that pipevines contain a disinfectant which assists in wound healing. Also, \"Aristolochia bracteolata\" is colloquially known as \"worm killer\" due to supposed antihelminthic activity.  \"Aristolochia\" taxa have also been used as reptile repellents. \"A. serpentaria\" (Virginia snakeroot) is thus named because the root was used to treat snakebite, as \"so offensive to these reptiles, that they not only avoid the places where it grows, but even flee from the traveler who carries a piece of it in his hand\". \"A. pfeiferi\", \"A. rugosa\", and \"A. trilobata\" are also used in folk medicine to treat snakebites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity and carcinogenicity.", "content": "In 1993, a series of end-stage renal disease cases was reported from Belgium associated with a weight loss treatment, where \"Stephania tetrandra\" in a herbal preparation was suspected of being substituted with \"Aristolochia fangchi\". More than 105 patients were identified with nephropathy following the ingestion of this preparation from the same clinic from 1990 to 1992. Many required renal transplantation or dialysis. Aristolochia is a component of some Chinese herbal medicines.  \"Aristolochia\" has been shown to be both a potent carcinogen and kidney toxin. Herbal compounds containing \"Aristolochia\" are classified as a Group 1 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Epidemiological and laboratory studies have identified \"Aristolochia\" to be a dangerous kidney toxin; \"Aristolochia\" has been shown associated with more than 100 cases of kidney failure. Furthermore, it appears as if contamination of grain with European birthwort (\"A. clematitis\") is a cause of Balkan nephropathy, a severe renal disease occurring in parts of southeast Europe. In 2001 the UK government banned the sale, supply and importation of any medicinal product consisting of or containing a plant of the genus Aristolochia. Several other plant species that do not cause themselves kidney poisoning, but which were commonly substituted with Aristolochia in the remedies, were prohibited in the same order.  Aristolochic acid was linked to aristolochic acid-associated urothelial cancer in a Taiwanese study in 2012. In 2013, two studies reported that aristolochic acid is a strong carcinogen. Whole-genome and exome analysis of individuals with a known exposure to aristolochic acid revealed a higher rate of somatic mutation in DNA. Metabolites of aristolochic acid enter the cell nucleus and form adducts on DNA. While adducts on the transcribed DNA strand within genes are detected and removed by transcription-coupled repair, the adducts on the non-transcribed strand remain and eventually cause DNA replication errors. These adducts have a preference for adenine bases, and cause A-to-T transversions. Furthermore, these metabolites appear to show a preference for CAG and TAG sequences.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Garden history.", "content": "Due to their spectacular flowers, several species are used as ornamental plants, notably the hardy \"A. durior\" of eastern North America, which was one of John Bartram's many introductions to British gardens; in 1761 Bartram sent seeds he had collected in the Ohio River Valley to Peter Collinson in London, and Collinson gave them to the nurseryman James Gordon at Mile End to raise. The vine was soon adopted for creating for arbors \"a canopy impenetrable to the rays of the sun, or moderate rain,\" as Dr John Sims noted in \"The Botanical Magazine\", 1801.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Swallowtail butterflies.", "content": "Many species of \"Aristolochia\" are eaten by the caterpillar larvae of swallowtail butterflies, thus making themselves unpalatable to most predators. Lepidoptera feeding on pipevines include:  Choreutidae Papilionidae  In Australia the invasive \"Aristolochia littoralis\" is fatal to the caterpillars of \"Ornithoptera euphorion\" and \"O. richmondia\" and threatens to displace their proper host, \"A. tagala\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aristolochia () is a large plant genus with over 500 species that is the type genus of the family Aristolochiaceae. Its members are commonly known as birthwort, pipevine or Dutchman's pipe and are widespread and occur in the most diverse climates. Some species, like \"A. utriformis\" and \"A. westlandii\", are threatened with extinction.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972750}
{"src_title": "Udon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "There are many stories explaining the origin of udon.  One story says that in AD 1241, Enni, a Rinzai monk, introduced flour milling technology from Song China to Japan. Floured crops were then made into noodles such as udon, soba, and pancakes in Japan which were eaten by locals. Milling techniques were spread around the country.  Another story states that during the Nara period, a Japanese envoy was introduced to 14 kinds of confection while being in China during the Tang Dynasty. One of them was called, which was listed as in, a dictionary which was published in the Heian Era. The muginawa is believed to be an origin for many kinds of Japanese noodles. However, the muginawa in Shinsen Jikyō was made with wheat and rice flour.  Another story for udon claims that the original name of the noodle was \"konton\", which was made with wheat flour and sweet fillings.  Yet another story says that a Buddhist priest called Kukai introduced udon noodles to Shikoku during the Heian Era. Kūkai, the Buddhist priest, traveled to Tang China around the beginning of the 9th century to study. Sanuki Province claimed to have been the first to adopt udon noodles from Kūkai. Hakata claimed to have produced udon noodles based on Enni's recipe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dishes.", "content": "Udon noodles are boiled in a pot of hot water. Depending on the type of udon, the way it is served is different as well. Udon noodles are usually served chilled in the summer and hot in the winter. In the Edo period, the thicker wheat noodle was generally called udon, and served with a hot broth called. The chilled variety was called.  Cold udon, or udon salad, is usually mixed with egg omelette slices, shredded chicken and fresh vegetables, such as cucumber and radish. Toppings of Udon soup are chosen to reflect the seasons. Most toppings are added without much cooking, although there are also deep-fried tempura. Many of these dishes may also be prepared with soba.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional varieties.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Japan.", "content": "There are wide variations in both thickness and shape for udon noodles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Korea.", "content": "In Korea, authentic Japanese udon dishes are served in numerous Japanese restaurants, while the Korean-style udon noodle soups are served in \"bunsikjip\" (snack bars) and \"pojangmacha\" (street stalls). Both types are called \"udong\" (), which is the transliteration of the Japanese word \"udon\" (). In Korea, the word \"udong\" refers to noodle dishes (typically noodle soup), while the noodles themselves are called \"udong-myeon\" (; \"udong noodles\") and considered a type of \"garak-guksu\" (; \"thick noodles\"). Common ingredients for \"udong\" noodle soup include crowndaisy greens and \"eomuk\" (fish cakes), neither of which are very common in Japanese \"udon\" dishes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Palau.", "content": "There is also a dish called \"udon\" in Palau, because of the former Japanese administration. The broth is soy sauce–based like Japanese udon. However, as there were many immigrants from Okinawa, it uses less broth like Okinawa soba. Most notably, the noodle is that of spaghetti, as it is easier to acquire there.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tourism and udon.", "content": "Kagawa prefecture is well-known throughout Japan for its Sanuki udon (讃岐うどん). It is promoted to other regions of Japan through means such as mascots, udon-related souvenirs, as well as movies featuring udon as the main theme.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The flavour of broth and topping vary from region to region. Usually, dark brown broth, made from dark soy sauce (\"koikuchi shōyu\"), is used in eastern Japan, and light brown broth, made from light soy sauce (\"usukuchi shōyu\"), is used in western Japan. This is noticeable in packaged instant noodles, which are often sold in two different versions for east and west. \"Currynanban\" is another popular variation, served in curry broth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972751}
{"src_title": "United Nations Convention against Torture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Summary.", "content": "The Covenant follows the structure of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), with a preamble and 33 articles, divided into three parts:  Part I (Articles 1–16) contains a definition of torture (Article 1), and commits parties to taking effective measures to prevent any act of torture in any territory under their jurisdiction (Article 2). These include ensuring that torture is a criminal offense under a party's municipal law (Article 4), establishing jurisdiction over acts of torture committed by or against a party's nationals (Article 5), ensuring that torture is an extraditable offense (Article 8), and establishing universal jurisdiction to try cases of torture where an alleged torturer cannot be extradited (Article 5). Parties must promptly investigate any allegation of torture (Articles 12 and 13), and victims of torture, or their dependents in case victims died as a result of torture, must have an enforceable right to compensation (Article 14). Parties must also ban the use of evidence produced by torture in their courts (Article 15), and are barred from deporting, extraditing, or refouling people where there are substantial grounds for believing they will be tortured (Article 3).  Parties are required to train and educate their law enforcement personnel, civilian or military personnel, medical personnel, public officials, and other persons involved in the custody, interrogation, or treatment of any individual subjected to any form of arrest, detention, or imprisonment, regarding the prohibition against torture (Article 10). Parties also must keep interrogation rules, instructions, methods, and practices under systematic review regarding individuals who are under custody or physical control in any territory under their jurisdiction, in order to prevent all acts of torture (Article 11). Parties are also obliged to prevent all acts of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment in any territory under their jurisdiction, and to investigate any allegation of such treatment. (Article 16).  Part II (Articles 17–24) governs reporting and monitoring of the Convention and the steps taken by the parties to implement it. It establishes the Committee against Torture (Article 17), and empowers it to investigate allegations of systematic torture (Article 20). It also establishes an optional dispute-resolution mechanism between parties (Article 21) and allows parties to recognize the competence of the Committee to hear complaints from individuals about violations of the Convention by a party (Article 22).  Part III (Articles 25–33) governs ratification, entry into force, and amendment of the Convention. It also includes an optional arbitration mechanism for disputes between parties (Article 30).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main provisions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition of torture.", "content": "Article 1.1 of the Convention defines torture as:  The words \"inherent in or incidental to lawful sanctions\" remain vague and very broad. It is extremely difficult to determine what sanctions are 'inherent in or incidental to lawful sanctions' in a particular legal system and what are not. The drafters of the Convention neither provided any criteria for making such determination nor did it define the terms. The nature of the findings would so differ from one legal system to another that they would give rise to serious disputes among the Parties to the Convention. It was suggested that the reference to such rules would make the issue more complicated, for it would endow the rules with a semblance of legal binding force. This allows state parties to pass domestic laws that permit acts of torture that they believe are within the lawful sanctions clause. However, the most widely adopted interpretation of the lawful sanctions clause is that it refers to sanctions authorized by international law. Pursuant to this interpretation, only sanctions that are authorized by international law will fall within this exclusion. The interpretation of the lawful sanctions clause leaves no scope of application and is widely debated by authors, historians, and scholars alike.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ban on torture.", "content": "Article 2 prohibits torture, and requires parties to take effective measures to prevent it in any territory under their jurisdiction. This prohibition is absolute and non-derogable. \"No exceptional circumstances whatsoever\" may be invoked to justify torture, including war, threat of war, internal political instability, public emergency, terrorist acts, violent crime, or any form of armed conflict. In other words, torture cannot be justified as a means to protect public safety or prevent emergencies. Subordinates who commit acts of torture cannot abstain themselves from legal responsibility on the grounds that they were just following orders from their superiors.  The prohibition on torture applies to anywhere under a party's effective jurisdiction inside or outside of its borders, whether on board its ships or aircraft or in its military occupations, military bases, peacekeeping operations, health care industries, schools, day care centers, detention centers, embassies, or any other of its areas, and protects all people under its effective control, regardless of nationality or how that control is exercised.  The other articles of part I lay out specific obligations intended to implement this absolute prohibition by preventing, investigating, and punishing acts of torture.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ban on \"refoulement\".", "content": "Article 3 prohibits parties from returning, extraditing, or \"refouling\" any person to a state \"where there are substantial grounds for believing that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture.\" The Committee against Torture has held that this danger must be assessed not just for the initial receiving state, but also to states to which the person may be subsequently expelled, returned or extradited.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ban on cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment.", "content": "Article 16 requires parties to prevent \"other acts of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment which do not amount to torture as defined in article 1\" in any territory under their jurisdiction. Because it is often difficult to distinguish between cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment and torture, the Committee regards Article 16's prohibition of such act as similarly absolute and non-derogable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Optional Protocol.", "content": "The Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (OPCAT), adopted by the General Assembly on 18 December 2002 and in force since 22 June 2006, provides for the establishment of \"a system of regular visits undertaken by independent international and national bodies to places where people are deprived of their liberty, in order to prevent torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment,\" to be overseen by a Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.  As of October 2016, the Protocol has 76 signatories and 90 parties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Committee against Torture.", "content": "The Committee against Torture (CAT) is a body of human rights experts that monitors implementation of the Convention by State parties. The Committee is one of eight UN-linked human rights treaty bodies. All state parties are obliged under the Convention to submit regular reports to the CAT on how rights are being implemented. Upon ratifying the Convention, states must submit a report within one year, after which they are obliged to report every four years. The Committee examines each report and addresses its concerns and recommendations to the State party in the form of \"concluding observations.\" Under certain circumstances, the CAT may consider complaints or communications from individuals claiming that their rights under the Convention have been violated.  The CAT usually meets in April/May and November each year in Geneva. Members are elected to four-year terms by State parties and can be re-elected if nominated. The current membership of the CAT, :", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (commonly known as the United Nations Convention against Torture (UNCAT)) is an international human rights treaty, under the review of the United Nations, that aims to prevent torture and other acts of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment around the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972752}
{"src_title": "Tuamotus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Administrative divisions.", "content": "French Polynesia is a semi-autonomous island group designated as an overseas country of France. The Tuamotus combine with the Gambier Islands to form the \"Îles Tuamotu-Gambier\" which is one of the five administrative divisions of French Polynesia.  The Tuamotus are grouped into sixteen communes: Anaa; Arutua; Fakarava; Fangatau; Hao; Hikueru; Makemo; Manihi; Napuka; Nukutavake; Puka Puka; Rangiroa; Reao; Takaroa; Tatakoto; and Tureia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Electoral divisions.", "content": "The communes on Tuamotu are part of two different electoral districts (\"circonscriptions électorales\") represented in the Assembly of French Polynesia. The \"Îles Gambier et Tuamotu Est\" electoral district comprises the commune of Gambier and eleven communes in eastern Tuamotu: Anaa; Fangatau; Hao; Hikueru; Makemo; Napuka; Nukutavake; Pukapuka; Reao; Tatakoto; and Tureia. The other five communes in western Tuamotu – Arutua; Fakarava; Manihi; Rangiroa; and Takaroa – form the \"Îles Tuamotu Ouest\" electoral district.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demography.", "content": "At the 2007 census, the Tuamotus (including the Gambier Islands) had a population of 18,317 inhabitants (15,862 in 2002, 8,100 in 1983). Of these, 769 inhabitants live in a radius around Mururoa and Fangataufa, the sites of former French nuclear tests.  The common language spoken in the Tuamotus is Tuamotuan, except in Puka-Puka which uses the Marquesan language. The Gambier Islands use Mangarevan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The islands' economy is predominantly composed of subsistence agriculture. The most important sources of additional income are the cultivation of black pearls and the preparation of copra. Tourism-related income remains meager, especially by comparison to the tourism industry of the neighboring Society Islands. Modest tourism infrastructure is found on the atolls of Rangiroa and Manihi which have recreational scuba diving and snorkeling destinations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Despite the vast spread of the archipelago, it covers a total land area of only about 885 km2 (). The climate is warm tropical, without pronounced seasons. The annual average temperature is a relatively continuous 26 °C (79 °F). Water sources such as lakes or rivers are absent, leaving catchments of rain as the only source of fresh water. The annual average rainfall is 1400 mm (about 55 in). Rainfall is not markedly different throughout the year, although it is lowest during the months of September and November.  Geological stability of the archipelago is high, as it was created by the weakly active Easter Fracture Zone. No volcanic eruptions have been recorded historically.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "The sparse soil of the coral islands does not permit diverse vegetation. The coconut palm, which forms the basis for copra production, is of special economic importance. On a few islands, vanilla is also cultivated. Agriculture is generally otherwise limited to simple subsistence. Fruit and vegetable staples include yams, taro, and breadfruit, as well as a wide range of other tropical fruits. Pandanus leaves are traditionally woven together as a roof thatch (although nowadays there are a great number of corrugated sheet-metal roofs instead), as well as for other items, such as mats and hats.  The species-rich reefs are home to a diverse range of underwater fauna. Surface creatures are primarily seabirds, insects, and lizards. The Tuamotus have only 57 species of birds, but ten of these are endemic, including the Tuamotu kingfisher, the Tuamotu reed warbler, and the Tuamotu sandpiper. Thirteen species are globally threatened and one is extinct.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "All of the islands of the Tuamotus are coral \"low islands\": essentially high sand bars built upon coral reefs. Makatea, southwest of the Palliser Islands, is one of three great phosphate rocks in the Pacific Ocean. The others are Banaba in Kiribati, and the island nation of Nauru. Although geographically part of the Tuamotus, the Gambier Islands, at the southeastern extreme of the archipelago, are geologically and culturally distinct.  In the northwest of the archipelago, the ring-shaped atoll Taiaro provides a rare example of a coral reef with a fully enclosed lagoon. The atoll was officially designated as a UNESCO biosphere reserve in 1977.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The early history of the Tuamotu islands is generally shrouded in mystery. Archaeological findings lead to the conclusion that the western Tuamotus were settled from the Society Islands by circa 700 CE/AD. On the islands of Rangiroa, Manihi and Mataiva, there are flat ceremonial platforms (called \"marae\") made of coral blocks, although their exact age is unknown.  European encounters with the Tuamotus began with that of Portuguese sailor Ferdinand Magellan, during his circumglobal voyage in 1521 sailing in the service of the Spanish Crown. His visit was followed by: None of these visits were of political consequence, as the islands were in the sphere of influence of the Pōmare Dynasty of Tahiti.  It was not until the beginning of the 19th century that the first Christian missionaries arrived. Traders took the islands' pearls to the European markets by the late 19th century, making them coveted possessions. France forced the abdication of King Pōmare V of Tahiti and claimed the islands without ever having formally annexed them.  Robert Louis Stevenson and Fanny Stevenson travelled among the Paumotus on the Yacht \"Casco\" in 1888; an account of their journey was published as \"In the South Seas\". Jack London wrote a story, \"The Seed of McCoy\", based on an incident in 1900 when a burning ship, the \"Pyrenees\", was safely beached on Mangareva. In the story, London has the ship sail past Mangareva and all through the Tuamotus before beaching on Fakarava.  The Tuamotus made headlines around the world in 1947, when Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl, sailing from South America with a crew of five others, reached Raroia on his raft \"Kon-Tiki\". More recently the islands have been the subject of headlines as the site of French nuclear weapons testing on the atolls of Moruroa and Fangataufa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Island groups.", "content": "The Tuamotu archipelago consists of eight groups of small islands and atolls:  Related island groups include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tuamotus, also referred to in English as the Tuamotu Archipelago or the Tuamotu Islands (, officially ), are a French Polynesian chain of almost 80 islands and atolls forming the largest chain of atolls in the world. This archipelago in the southern Pacific Ocean stretches from the northwest to the southeast over an area roughly the size of Western Europe. The total area of land within this chain is, with its major islands being Anaa, Fakarava, Hao and Makemo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972753}
{"src_title": "European Youth Parliament", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The European Youth Parliament was founded by Laurent Grégoire (FR) and Bettina Carr-Allinson (NL), initially as a school project at the Lycée François-Ier in Fontainebleau, to the south of Paris. It is there that three of the first four International Sessions were held, starting in 1988, about a year after the idea took place.  It then developed steadily for a few years until it moved to Witney, Oxfordshire, in 1991, and was legally recognised as the \"European Youth Parliament International Ltd.\", a subsidiary of a charity created in 1992 for this purpose, the Fontainebleau Youth Foundation. The organisation experienced an enduring growth for the next ten years, its network counting an increasing number of National Committees and its activities becoming both larger and more numerous. The National Committees stretch beyond the scope of countries within the European Union and try to encompass all European countries.  In the years 2001 to 2004, the EYP encountered various problems of financial nature. On November 4, 2004, however, the European Youth Parliament was reborn due to a mutual agreement between representatives of EYP's Board of National Committees, alumni and the Heinz-Schwarzkopf Foundation. The EYP's status since then has been a programme of the Schwarzkopf-Stiftung Junges Europa, and is hosted in Berlin, Germany.  The actual activities of the EYP never faltered during this period.  Since 2004, the EYP has introduced several reforms to introduce more transparency in its institutions and further enlarged its activities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management.", "content": "At the international level, the EYP is governed by an international board, the Governing Body. The Governing Body has six members elected by the National Committees and by the alumni of past sessions. A representative of the Heinz-Schwarzkopf Foundation is also a member. The board is largely responsible for the quality assurance of the International Sessions but also takes responsibility for the overall direction of the organisation and the long-term sustainability and protection of the organisation. The day-to-day business of the organisation is administered by a hired manager at the International Office in Berlin. Philipp J. Scharff was the manager from 2004 until 2008, Jan Phillip Beck (DE) from 2008 until 2011, Ville Vasaramäki (FI) from 2011 until 2013 and Krista Lagus (FI) from 2013 until 2017. Lukas Fendel (DE) has been taken on the role of Executive Director from 2017 until 2020.  At the national level, the National Committees are free to choose how to manage themselves, though the form of management must comply with basic democratic principles. It is the responsibility of the National Committees to organise and fund their own national sessions (more about them below). International Sessions can receive limited funding from EYP at the international level but are largely responsible for their economy as well. Sessions are usually funded through sponsorship from various organisations or corporations. Each session must be economically independent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sessions.", "content": "EYP organises three international nine-day sessions each year. They are organised in different countries and all European countries are invited to join, not just members of the EU. Each country's national committee selects a delegation to participate in each session, the size of the delegation depends on the country and how long time its National Committee has been part of EYP. The delegations are then spread out in different committees, each committee with a particular topic. This ensures a maximised cultural diversity in the committee and serves as a strong incentive to socialise and make friends with people from the committee.  Each international session starts with a two-day Teambuilding part, in which delegates get acquainted with each other and start improving the group dynamics of the committee. The delegates play different games which are meant to bring the delegates from an initial shyness stage to a comfortable, open atmosphere optimal for efficient Committee work.  This is followed by four or five days for Committee Work. During this time the delegates discuss a problematic topic on current European political matters and write a resolution on how to deal with the issue. A member of the European Parliament or some alternative expert will generally visit once to answer questions and quickly discuss the topic with the Committee.  The sessions end with a General Assembly, in which the committee resolutions are looked through, altered and approved (or if the resolution is found unacceptable, not approved). If a resolution is approved it is sent on to the European Parliament, for the consideration of MEPs. General Assembly is usually held in some honorary or prestigious location, such as the host country's Houses of Parliament or the main hall of the City Council.  Additionally National Committees of EYP organise several national and regional sessions every year. National sessions are to select a delegation for one of the upcoming international sessions. These sessions are shorter, lasting normally three days and do not invite a member of the European Parliament to the committees. Regional sessions are of varying length, from 3 to 7 or 8 days, and in essence imitate international sessions. They have, however, a more constrained budget and tend to be less formal than international sessions. For both national and regional sessions, resolutions are not sent on to the European Parliament.  As of Spring 2019, 90 (taking into account the Extraordinary International Session of EYP in Lillehammer, Norway, Winter 2010) international EYP sessions have taken place:  Future sessions will include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European Youth Parliament is a politically unbound non-profit organisation, which encourages European youth to actively engage in citizenship and cultural understanding. It involves 50,000 youngsters from all around Europe in its events and has around 5,000 active members in the different countries. It was established in 1987 in Fontainebleau, France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972754}
{"src_title": "Yaşar Kemal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Kemal was born to Sadık and his wife Halime on 6 October 1923 in Gökçedam, a hamlet in the province of Osmaniye in southern Turkey. He was born into a Kurdish family that had partly Caucasian and Assyrian origins. Kemal had a difficult childhood, his family had the flee from Van to Diyarbakır and from there, they were deported to Adana. He lost his right eye in a knife accident when his father was slaughtering a sheep on Eid al-Adha. Moreover, when he was five years old he witnessed his father being stabbed to death by his adoptive son Yusuf while praying in a mosque. These traumatic experiences left Kemal with a speech impediment, which lasted until he was twelve years old. At nine Kemel began school in a neighboring village, and later he continued his formal education in Kadirli, Osmaniye Province.  Kemal was a locally noted bard before he began school but was unappreciated by his widowed mother until he composed an elegy on the death of one of her eight brothers, all of whom were bandits. However, he forgot it and became interested in writing as a means to record his work when he questioned an itinerant peddler, who was doing his accounts. Ultimately, his village paid his way to university in Istanbul.  He worked for a while for rich farmers, guarding their river water against other farmers' unauthorized irrigation. However, instead he taught the poor farmers how to steal the water undetected, by taking it at night.  Later he worked as a letter-writer, then as a journalist, and finally as a novelist. He said that the Turkish police confiscated his first two novels.  When Kemal was visiting Akdamar Island in 1951, where he saw the island's Holy Cross Church being removed. Using his contacts to the public, he helped stop the removal. In 2005 the church was restored by the Turkish government.  In 1962 Kemal joined the Workers Party of Turkey (TIP) and \"served as one of its leaders until quitting after the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968\". In December 2000 he was involved in negotiations concerning the death fasts against the F-Type prisons.  In 2005 Kemal wrote a new introduction to his novel \"Memed, My Hawk\", wherein he prognosticated that \"...confronted with the massacre of nature, that great scourge of our age, we will create myths of fear as our ancestors did.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages.", "content": "In 1952, Yaşar Kemal married Thilda Serrero, a member of a prominent Sephardi Jewish family in Istanbul. Her grandfather, Jak Mandil Pasha, was the chief physician of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II. She translated 17 of her husband’s works into the English language. Thilda predeceased Yaşar on 17 January 2001 (aged 78) from pulmonary complications at a hospital in Istanbul, and was buried at Zincirlikuyu Cemetery. Thilda was also survived by her son Raşit Göğçel and a grandchild.  Yaşar Kemal remarried on 1 August 2002. His second spouse was Ayşe Semiha Baban, a lecturer for public relations at the Bilgi University in Istanbul. She was educated at the American University of Beirut, Bosphorus University and Harvard University.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years and death.", "content": "On 14 January 2015 Kemal was hospitalized at Istanbul University's Çapa Medical Faculty, due to respiratory insufficiency. During the afternoon of 28 February 2015, in the intensive care unit, where he had been admitted owing to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, he died. Following a religious funeral service held at Teşvikiye Mosque, attended by former Turkish president Abdullah Gul, political party leaders, high-ranking officials and an enormous assembly of mourners, he was buried on 2 March 2015 beside his first wife Thilda's grave in Zincirlikuyu Cemetery. Kemal is survived by his wife Ayşe Semiha Baban and his adoptive son, visual artist Ahmet Güneştekin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Kemal published his first book \"Ağıtlar\" (\"Ballads\") in 1943, which was a compilation of folkloric themes. This book brought to light many long forgotten rhymes and ballads. He had begun to collect these ballads at the age of 16. His first stories \"Bebek\" (\"The Baby\"), \"Dükkancı\" (\"The Shopkeeper\") and \"Memet ile Memet\" (\"Memet and Memet\") were published in 1950. He penned his first tale \"Pis Hikaye\" (\"The Dirty Story\") in 1944, while he was serving in the military, in Kayseri. Then he published his book of short stories \"Sarı Sıcak\" (\"Yellow Heat\") in 1952. The initial point of his works was the toil of the people of the Çukurova plains and he based the themes of his writings on the lives and sufferings of these people. Kemal used the legends and stories of Anatolia extensively as the basis for his works.  He received international acclaim with the publication of \"Memed, My Hawk\" () in 1955. In \"İnce Memed\", Kemal criticizes the fabric of the society through a legendary hero, a protagonist, who flees to the mountains as a result of the oppression of the Aghas. One of the most famous writers in Turkey, Kemal was noted for his command of the language and lyrical description of bucolic Turkish life. He was awarded 19 literary prizes during his lifetime and nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973.  His 1955 novel \"Teneke\" was adapted into a theatrical play, which was staged for almost one year in Gothenburg, Sweden, in the country where he lived for about two years in the late 1970s. Italian composer Fabio Vacchi adapted the same novel with the original title into an opera of three acts, which premiered at the Teatro alla Scala in Milano, Italy in 2007.  Kemal was a major contributor to Turkish literature in the early years after the language's recreation as a literary language following Atatürk's Reforms of the 1930s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Stories  Novels  Epic Novels  Reportages  Experimental Works  Children's Books", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yaşar Kemal (born Kemal Sadık Gökçeli; 6 October 1923 – 28 February 2015) was a Kurdish writer and human rights activist, and one of Turkey's leading writers. He received 38 awards during his lifetime and had been a candidate for the Nobel Prize in Literature on the strength of \"Memed, My Hawk\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972755}
{"src_title": "Tarim River", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"tarim\" is used to designate the bank of a river that flows into a lake or that is not able to be differentiated from the sands of a desert. This is a characteristic hydrographic feature of many rivers that traverse the sands of the Taklamakan Desert. Another characteristic of the rivers of the Tarim Basin, including the Tarim River itself, is their active migration, that is, the shifting of their beds and banks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography and climate.", "content": "The total length of the Yarkand-Tarim river system is, although, as the Tarim frequently changes its channel, the length tends to vary over the years. It is shallow, unsuitable for navigation, and because of its heavy silt load, forms a braided stream near its terminus. The area of the Tarim River Basin is about. A considerable part of the Tarim's course is unformed, following no clearly defined riverbed. The water volume of the lower course of the river diminishes as a result of extensive evaporation and water-diversion schemes.  The Tarim's low-water period is from October through April. The spring and summer high waters begin in May and continue through September as the snows melt on the distant Tian Shan and Kunlun mountains.  The Lower Tarim Basin is an arid plain composed of alluvium and lake sediments and is bordered by massive mountain ranges. The basin is the driest region of Eurasia. The predominant part of it is occupied by the Taklamakan Desert, whose sand area exceeds. In addition, there are several comparatively small sand massifs with areas of from. Sand dunes are the predominant relief.  Precipitation in the Tarim Basin is extremely scant, and in some years it is nonexistent. In the Taklamakan Desert and in the Lop Nur basin, the average annual total of precipitation is about. In the foothills and in several other areas of the river's basin, the precipitation amounts to from a year. In the Tian Shan it is much wetter, precipitation often exceeding. Maximum temperatures in the Tarim Basin are about 40 °C (104 °F). The Tarim River freezes over every year from December through March.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Course.", "content": "The Tarim River and most of its tributaries originate in the Karakorum and Kunlun Mountains. The name Tarim is applied to the river formed by the union of the Aksu River, flowing from the north, and Yarkand River, coming from the southwest, near the Aral City in western Xinjiang. A third river, the Khotan River, comes to the same junction area from the south but it is usually dry at this location, having crossed the Taklamakan Desert to get here. Another river of western Xinjiang is the Kashgar River, which flows into the Yarkand River during the rainy season about upstream from the Yarkand's confluence with the Aksu. By another definition, however, the Tarim starts at the Kashgar/Yarkand merger, and Aksu is considered just a tributary of the Tarim.  The Tarim flows in an eastward direction around the northern edge of the Taklamakan Desert. It receives another tributary, the Muzat River from the north; however, out of these four rivers (Aksu, Yarkand, Khotan, and Muzart), only the Aksu flows into the Tarim year-round It is the Tarim's most important tributary, supplying 70–80 percent of its water volume. Prior to the completion of reservoirs and irrigation works in the mid-20th century, the Tarim's waters eventually reached Lop Nur (now a salt-encrusted lake bed). The river's waters now drain intermittently into Taitema Lake, which is located about southwest of Lop Nur.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "Vegetation in the Tarim Basin is mainly located along the river and its branches. There, at the edge of the sands, shrubs like vegetation and stunted trees, especially wormwood, are found. Tugay poplar forest grows in the Tarim River valley. Underbrush consists of willows, sea buckthorn, and dense growths of Indian hemp and Ural licorice.  The Tarim River is rich in fish, and animal life on the river and the surrounding desert is varied. At the time of Sven Hedin's visit in 1899, tigers were still being hunted and trapped along the rivers of the region and near Lop Nur. The valley and lakes of the Tarim are a stopover for many migratory birds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human use.", "content": "Despite the Chinese government's promotion of large-scale irrigation, oasis agriculture remains the mainstay of the scattered settlements in the region. Grains, cotton, silk, fruits, and wool are the chief agricultural products, with Khotan jade being another important item.  Chinese authorities in the northwestern region of Xinjiang are relocating hundreds of ethnic minority farming families along the dwindling Tarim River. By 2008, more than 6,000 households along the river will have been resettled and cultivation forbidden along the river banks, in an attempt to save 60 million cubic meters (16 billion gallons) of water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Some Chinese originally considered the Tarim to be the upper course of the Yellow River but, by the time of the Former Han Dynasty (125 BCE–23 CE), it was known that it drains into Lop Nur, a series of salt lakes. Its total length is.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tarim River (; ), known in Sanskrit as the Śītā, is an endorheic river in Xinjiang, China. It is the principal river of the Tarim Basin, a desert region of Central Asia between the Tian Shan and Kunlun Mountains. The river historically terminated at Lop Nur, but today reaches no further than Taitema Lake before drying out.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972756}
{"src_title": "Darial Gorge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In history.", "content": "The \"Darial\" originates from \"Dar-i Alān\" () meaning \"Gate of the Alans\" in Persian. The Alans held the lands north of the pass in the first centuries AD. It has been fortified in ancient times by the Romans and Persians; the fortification was variously known as the Iberian Gates or the Caucasian Gates. The pass is mentioned in the Georgian annals under the names of Darialani; Strabo calls it \"Porta Caucasica\" and \"Porta Cumana\"; Ptolemy, \"Fortes Sarmatica\"; it was sometimes known as \"Porta Caucasica\" and \"Portae Caspiae\" (a name bestowed also on the \"gate\" or pass beside the Caspian Sea at Derbent); and the Tatars call it Darioly.  Josephus wrote that Alexander the Great built iron gates at an unspecified pass which some Latin and Greek authors identified with Darial.  Darial Pass fell into Sassanid hands in 252-253, when the Sassanid Empire conquered and annexed Iberia. The control of the Darial Pass switched to the Western Turkic Kaganate in 628, when Tong Yabgu Kagan signed a treaty with Iberia, transferring over to the Kaganate the control of all its cities and fortresses, and establishing free trade. Control of Darial Pass switched to the Arab Rashidun Caliphate in 644. Afterwards, it was controlled by the Kingdom of Georgia. There was a battle point between the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde, then indirectly controlled by Safavids and Qajar state, until it was captured by Russian Empire after annexation of Kingdom of Georgia in 1801-1830. It remained a strategic Russian forepost under Russian control until the dismemberment of the Soviet Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Importance.", "content": "The Darial Pass was historically important as one of only two crossings of the Caucasus mountain range, the other being the Derbent Pass. As a result, Darial Gorge has been fortified since at least 150 BC. Ruins of an ancient fortress are still visible. The pass served as a hub point for many roads connecting North and South Caucasus and remained open for traffic for most of its existence.  The Russian fort, Darial, which guarded this section of the Georgian Military Road, was built at the northern end of the gorge, at an altitude of 1447 m (4746 ft).  The gorge has been immortalized in Russian poetry, notably by Lermontov in \"The Demon\"; it has become known as one of the most romantic places in the Caucasus.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Darial Gorge (, \"Darialis Kheoba\"; ;, \"Arvykom\";, \"Dära Äle\") is a river gorge on the border between Russia and Georgia. It is at the east base of Mount Kazbek, south of present-day Vladikavkaz. The gorge was carved by the river Terek, and is approximately long. The steep granite walls of the gorge can be as much as tall in some places.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972757}
{"src_title": "Géraud Duroc", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Duroc, born at Pont-à-Mousson (Meurthe-et-Moselle), the son of an officer, was educated at the military schools of his native town and of Châlons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Revolutionary Wars.", "content": "He was gazetted second lieutenant, (artillery) in the 4th regiment in 1793, and advanced steadily in the service. Captain Duroc became \"aide-de-camp\" to Napoleon in 1796, and distinguished himself at Isonzo, Brenta and Gradisca in the Italian campaigns of 1796-1797.  He served in Egypt, and was seriously wounded at Aboukir. His devotion to Napoleon was rewarded by complete confidence. He became first \"aide-de-camp\" (1798), general of brigade (1800), and governor of the Tuileries. After the battle of Marengo, he was sent on missions to Vienna, St Petersburg (Russia), Stockholm and Copenhagen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "As Grand Marshal of the Palace, he was responsible for the measures taken to secure Napoleon's personal safety, whether in France or on his campaigns, and he directed the minutest details of the imperial household.  After the Battle of Austerlitz, where he commanded the grenadiers in the absence of General Oudinot, he was employed in a series of important negotiations with Frederick William III of Prussia, with the elector of Saxony (December 1806), in the incorporation of certain states in the Confederation of the Rhine, and in the conclusion of the armistice of Znaim (July 1809).  In 1808, he was created \"duc de Frioul\": his duchy was made duché grand-fief for his widow in 1813, a rare - but nominal - hereditary honor (extinguished in 1829), created in Napoleon's own Kingdom of Italy. After the Russian campaign, he became senator (1813).  After the Battle of Bautzen (May 20–21, 1813), the Grande Armée made a slow pursuit of Allied forces. At Reichenbach on the 22nd of May, 1813, a cannonball ricocheted off a tree-trunk, hit Duroc in the stomach, tore open his belly and spilled out his intestines in a gory mess over uniform, saddle and horse, which Napoleon witnessed. Whilst Duroc lay dying inside a farmhouse he requested Napoleon's presence where he apologised to the Emperor for not being able to serve him further, asked him to be a father to his daughter, and then requested him to withdraw so that he was not present at the moment of death. Napoleon bought the farm and erected a monument to his memory.  In December, 1814 while at Elba Napoleon made a declaration to Lord Ebrington, when trying to justify the poisoning of the sick at Jaffa, that in the case of his friend Duroc, who, when his bowels were falling out before his eyes, he repeatedly cried to Napoleon to have him put out of his misery. Napoleon responded, \"I told him I pity you, my friend, but there's no cure, you have to suffer up to the end\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Memorial.", "content": "Duroc was buried in The Invalides (for veterans, in Paris) in 1847. The metro station Duroc of the Paris Métro is named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Géraud Christophe Michel Duroc, 1st Duc de Frioul (October 25, 1772 – May 23, 1813) was a French general noted for his association with Napoleon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972758}
{"src_title": "Stone pine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The prehistoric range of \"Pinus pinea\" included North Africa in the Sahara Desert and Maghreb regions during a more humid climate period, in present-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. Its contemporary natural range is in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome ecoregions and countries, including the following: The Iberian conifer forests ecoregion of the Iberian Peninsula in Spain and Portugal; the Italian sclerophyllous and semideciduous forests ecoregion in France and Italy; the Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests ecoregion of southern Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia; the Illyrian deciduous forests of the eastern coast of the Ionian and Adriatic Seas in Croatia and Albania; and the Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests ecoregion of the southern Balkan Peninsula in Greece.  In Greece, although the species is not widely distributed, an extensive stone pine forest exists in western Peloponnese at Strofylia on the peninsula separating the Kalogria Lagoon from the Mediterranean Sea. This coastal forest is at least long, with dense and tall stands of \"Pinus pinea\" mixed with \"Pinus halepensis\". Currently, \"Pinus halepensis\" is outcompeting stone pines in many locations of the forest. Another location in Greece is at Koukounaries on the northern Aegean island of Skiathos at the southwest corner of the island. This is a half-mile-long dense stand of stone and Aleppo pines that lies between a lagoon and the Aegean Sea.  In Western Asia, the Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests ecoregion in Turkey; and the Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests ecoregion in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and northern Israel. The Mediterranean woodlands and forests ecoregion of North Africa, in Morocco and Algeria. In the Western Cape Province, where the pines were according to legend planted by the French Huguenot refugees who settled at the Cape of Good Hope during the late 17th century and brought the seeds with them from France. Known in the Afrikaans language as \"kroonden\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The stone pine is a coniferous evergreen tree that can exceed in height, but is more typical. In youth, it is a bushy globe, in mid-age an umbrella canopy on a thick trunk, and, in maturity, a broad and flat crown over in width. The bark is thick, red-brown and deeply fissured into broad vertical plates.  The flexible mid-green leaves are needle-like, in bundles of two, and are long (exceptionally up to ). Young trees up to 5–10 years old bear juvenile leaves, which are very different, single (not paired), long, glaucous blue-green; the adult leaves appear mixed with juvenile leaves from the fourth or fifth year on, replacing it fully by around the tenth year. Juvenile leaves are also produced in regrowth following injury, such as a broken shoot, on older trees.  The cones are broad, ovoid, long, and take 36 months to mature, longer than any other pine. The seeds (pine nuts, \"piñones\", \"pinhões\", \"pinoli\", or \"pignons\") are large, long, and pale brown with a powdery black coating that rubs off easily, and have a rudimentary wing that falls off very easily. The wing is ineffective for wind dispersal, and the seeds are animal-dispersed, originally mainly by the Iberian magpie, but in recent history largely by humans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "\"Pinus pinea\" has been cultivated extensively for at least 6,000 years for its edible pine nuts, which have been trade items since early historic times. The tree has been cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region for so long that it has naturalized, and is often considered native beyond its natural range.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ornamental tree.", "content": "In Italy, the stone pine has been an aesthetic landscape element since the Italian Renaissance garden period. The tree is among the symbols of Rome, where many historic Roman roads, such as the Via Appia, are embellished with lines of stone pines. Stone pines were planted on the hills of the Bosphorus strait in Istanbul for ornamental purposes during the Ottoman period. In the 1700s, \"P. pinea\" began being introduced as an ornamental tree to other Mediterranean climate regions of the world, and is now often found in gardens and parks in South Africa, California, and Australia. It has naturalized beyond cities in South Africa to the extent that it is listed as an invasive species there. It is also planted in western Europe up to southern Scotland, and on the East Coast of the United States up to New Jersey.  In the United Kingdom it has won the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.  Small specimens are used for bonsai, and also grown in large pots and planters. The year-old seedlings are seasonally available as table-top Christmas trees tall.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "Other products of economic value include resin, bark for tannin extraction, and empty pine cone shells for fuel. \"Pinus pinea\" is also currently widely cultivated around the Mediterranean for environmental protection such as consolidation of coastal dunes, soil conservation and protection of coastal agricultural crops.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pests.", "content": "The introduced western conifer seed bug \"(Leptoglossus occidentalis\") was accidentally imported with timber to northern Italy in the late 1990s from western USA, and has spread across Europe as an invasive pest species since then. It feeds on the sap of developing conifer cones throughout its life, and its sap-sucking causes the developing seeds to wither and misdevelop. It has destroyed most of the pine nut seeds in Italy, threatening \"P. pinea\" in its native habitats there.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The stone pine, botanical name Pinus pinea, also known as the Italian stone pine, umbrella pine and parasol pine, is a tree from the pine family (\"Pinaceae\"). The tree is native to the Mediterranean region, occurring in Southern Europe, Israel, Lebanon and Syria. It is also naturalized in North Africa, the Canary Islands, South Africa and New South Wales. The species was introduced into North Africa millennia ago, such a long time that it is essentially indistinguishable from being native.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972759}
{"src_title": "Family Constellations", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Conceptual basis.", "content": "The philosophical orientation of Family Constellations were derived through an integration of existential phenomenology family systems therapy and elements of indigenous mysticism.  The phenomenological lineage can be traced through philosophers Franz Brentano, Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. This perspective stands in contrast to the positivist reductionist orientation of the scientific psychology. Rather than understanding mind, emotion and consciousness in terms of its constituent parts, existential phenomenology opens perception to the full panorama of human experience and seeks to grasp a sense of meaning.  Family Constellations take their form from family systems psychology. Influential figures in this movement include Jacob Moreno, the founder of psychodrama; Iván Böszörményi-Nagy, the pioneer of transgenerational systemic thinking; Milton Erickson, a pioneer of brief therapy and hypnotherapy; Eric Berne who conceived the concept of \"life scripts\"; and Virginia Satir, who developed family sculpture, the precursor of Systemic Constellations. In the past decade, further advancements in the use of the process have been innovated by practitioners throughout the world.  The process draws from indigenous spiritual mysticism to contribute towards releasing tensions, lightening emotional burdens, and resolving real-world problems. Hellinger lived as a Roman Catholic priest in South Africa for 16 years in the 1950s and 1960s. During these years, he became fluent in the Zulu language, participated in Zulu rituals, and gained an appreciation for the Zulu worldview.  Of particular importance is the difference between traditional Zulu attitudes toward parents and ancestors and those typically held by Europeans. Heidegger postulated that to be human is to find oneself thrown into a world with no clear logical, ontological, or moral structure. In Zulu culture, Hellinger found a certitude and equanimity that were the hallmarks of Heidegger's elusive authentic Self. The traditional Zulu people lived and acted in a religious world in which the central focal point was the ancestors. They are regarded as positive, constructive, and creative presences. The connection with ancestors is a central feature of the Constellation process.  The term \"Family Constellations\" was first used by Alfred Adler in a somewhat different context to refer to the phenomenon that each individual belongs to and is bonded in relationship to other members of his or her family system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The method.", "content": "This description is the prototype group Family Constellation as developed by Bert Hellinger in the 1990s. Many practitioners have blended Constellation work with psychological aspects of healing. Others have kept the classic form as taught by Hellinger, such as the Constellation Approach. The Constellation Approach merges concepts of Family Constellations, energy medicine, and consciousness studies to complement the understanding of classic Constellation methodology.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Family Constellations, also known as Systemic Constellations and Systemic Family Constellations, is a non proved, non scientific, alternative therapeutic method which draws on elements of family systems therapy, existential phenomenology and isiZulu beliefs and attitudes to family. In a single session, a Family Constellation attempts to reveal a supposedly unrecognized dynamic that spans multiple generations in a given family and to resolve the deleterious effects of that dynamic by encouraging the subject, through representatives, to encounter and accept the factual reality of the past.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972760}
{"src_title": "Elisabeth of France (1602–1644)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Élisabeth, \"Madame Royale\", was born at the Château de Fontainebleau on 22 November 1602; reportedly her mother showed a cruel indifference to her, because she had believed the prophecy of a nun who assured her that she would give birth to three consecutive sons.  Shortly after her birth, she was betrothed with Philip Emmanuel, Prince of Piedmont, eldest son and heir of Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, by Catherine Michelle, a daughter of King Philip II of Spain. Philip Emmanuel died in 1605.  As a daughter of the King of France, she was born a \"Fille de France\". As the eldest daughter of the king, she was known at court by the traditional honorific of \"Madame Royale\". The early years of \"Madame Royale\" were spent under the supervision of the royal governess Françoise de Montglat at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, a quiet place away from the Parisian court in which she shared education and games with her legitimate siblings (besides Dauphin, the other \"Fils de France\" were Christine Marie, later Duchess of Savoy; Nicholas Henri, Duke of Orléans, who died in infancy; Gaston, Duke of Orléans; and Henrietta Maria, later Queen of England) and the bastard children that her father had from his constant love affairs. When King Henry IV was assassinated outside the Palais du Louvre in Paris on 14 May 1610, her brother the Dauphin (with whom Élisabeth had a very close relationship) succeeded him to the throne as King Louis XIII of France under the Regency of their mother Marie de' Medici.  When Elisabeth was ten years old, in 1612, negotiations were begun for a double marriage between the royal families of France and Spain; Elisabeth would marry the Prince of Asturias (the future Philip IV of Spain) and her brother Louis the Spanish Infanta Anne.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "After her proxy marriage to the Prince of Asturias and Louis's proxy marriage to the Infanta Anne, Elisabeth and her brother met their respective spouses for the first time on 25 November 1615 on the Pheasant Island in the river Bidassoa that divides France and Spain between the French city of Hendaye and the Spanish city of Fuenterrabía. This was the last time Louis would see his sister. In Spain, Elisabeth's French name took on the Spanish form of \"Isabel\". The religious ceremony took place in the Saint Mary Cathedral in Burgos. At the time of her marriage, the thirteen-year-old \"Isabel\" became the new Princess of Asturias.  This marriage followed a tradition of cementing military and political alliances between the Catholic powers of France and Spain with royal marriages. The tradition went back to 1559 with the marriage of King Philip II of Spain with the French princess Elisabeth of Valois, the daughter of King Henry II of France, as part of the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis. The \"Exchange of the Princesses at the Spanish Border\" was painted by Peter Paul Rubens as part of his Marie de' Medici cycle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen.", "content": "Elisabeth herself was the subject of rumors about her relations with the noted poet Peralta (Juan de Tassis, 2nd Count of Villamediana), who was her gentleman-in-waiting. On 14 May 1622, a fire broke out while the Peralta masque \"La Gloria de Niquea\" was being acted before the court. Peralta carried the queen to a place of safety, which caused suspicion about their relationship to deepen. Peralta neglected a significant warning that his life was in peril, and \"he was murdered as he stepped out of his coach. The responsibility for his death was divided between Philip IV and Olivares\" (at the time, prime minister and king's favorite).  Elisabeth's last child, Infanta Maria Theresa of Spain, would later become queen of France as the wife of her nephew, the future Louis XIV. Unlike her husband and sister-in-law, she would not see the wedding that cemented the peace between her homeland and adopted country, Spain; the countries would be at war until 1659.  Elisabeth was renowned for her beauty, intelligence and noble personality, which made her very popular in Spain.  She was regent of Spain during the Catalan Revolt and supported the Duke of Nochera against the Count-Duke of Olivares in favor of an honorable withdrawal from the Catalan Revolt. Prior to 1640, the queen does not appear to have had much influence over state affairs, which was largely entrusted to Olivares. Elisabeth did not get along with Olivares, who reportedly assisted her spouse in his adultery and prevented her from achieving any political influence and once famously remarked, when she presented a political view to the king, that priests existed to pray as well as queens existed to give birth.  Between 1640 and 1642, Elisabeth served as regent for the king in his absence during the Catalan revolt, and was given very good critic for her efforts. She was reputed to have influenced the fall of Olivares as a part of a \"women's conspiracy\" alongside the duchess of Mantua, Ana de Guevara, María de Ágreda and her chief lady-in-waiting Luisa Manrique de Lara, Countessess Paredes de Nava.  The fall of Olivares made the king consider her his only political partner, and when the king left again for the front in 1643, Elisabeth was again appointed regent assisted by Chumacero. Her second regency was also given good reviews, and she was credited by the king for her efforts to provide vital supplies for the troops as well as for her negotiations with the banks to provide finances for the army, offering her own jewelry as security. It was rumored that she was intending to follow the example of queen Isabella the Catholic and lead her own army to retake Badajoz.  The Queen died in Madrid on 6 October 1644 at the age of forty-one, leaving two small children: Balthasar Charles and Maria Theresa. After her death, her husband married his niece Mariana of Austria. One of her great-grandsons, Philip, Duke of Anjou, became King Philip V of Spain, and through him, Elisabeth is an ancestor of the subsequent Spanish monarchs.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Elisabeth of France or Isabel of Bourbon (22 November 1602 – 6 October 1644) was Queen Consort of Spain (1621 to 1644) and Portugal (1621 to 1640) as the first spouse of King Philip IV of Spain. She served as regent of Spain during the Catalan Revolt in 1640-42 and 1643-44. She was the eldest daughter of King Henry IV of France and his second spouse Marie de' Medici.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972761}
{"src_title": "Bezoar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Bezoars had value because they were believed to have the power of a universal antidote against any poison. Tradition held that a drinking glass which contained a bezoar would neutralize any poison poured into it. The word \"bezoar\" comes from the Persian \"pād-zahr\" (), which literally means \"antidote.\"  The Andalusian physician Ibn Zuhr (d. 1161), known in the West as Avenzoar, is thought to have made the earliest description of bezoar stones as medicinal items. Extensive reference to bezoars also appears in the \"Picatrix\", which may have originated earlier.  In 1567, French surgeon Ambroise Paré described an experiment to test the properties of the bezoar stone. At the time, the bezoar stone was deemed able to cure the effects of any poison, but Paré believed this was impossible. It happened that a cook at King's court was caught stealing fine silver cutlery and was sentenced to death by hanging. The cook agreed to be poisoned instead. Ambroise Paré then used the bezoar stone to no great avail, as the cook died in agony seven hours after taking poison. Paré had proved that the bezoar stone could not cure all poisons, contrary to popular belief at the time.  Modern examinations of the properties of bezoars by Gustaf Arrhenius and Andrew A. Benson of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography have shown that they could, when immersed in an arsenic-laced solution, remove the poison. The toxic compounds in arsenic are arsenate and arsenite. Each is acted upon differently, but effectively, by bezoar stones. Arsenate is removed by being exchanged for phosphate in the mineral brushite, a crystalline structure found in the stones. Arsenite is found to bond to sulfur compounds in the protein of degraded hair, which is a key component in bezoars.  A famous case in the common law of England (\"Chandelor v Lopus\", 79 Eng Rep. 3, Cro. Jac. 4, Eng. Ct. Exch. 1603) announced the rule of \"caveat emptor\" (\"let the buyer beware\") if the goods they purchased are not in fact genuine and effective. The case concerned a purchaser who sued for the return of the purchase price of an allegedly fraudulent bezoar. (The law report does not discuss how the plaintiff discovered that the bezoar did not work.)  Bezoars were important objects in cabinets of curiosity and natural history collections, especially for their use in early modern pharmacy and the study of animal health.  The \"Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy\" notes that consumption of unripened persimmons has been identified as causing epidemics of intestinal bezoars, and that up to 90% of bezoars that occur from eating too much of the fruit require surgery for removal.  A 2013 review of three databases identified 24 publications presenting 46 patients treated with Coca-Cola for phytobezoars. The cola was administered in doses of 500 mL to up to 3000 mL over 24 hours, orally or by gastric lavage. A total of 91.3% of patients had complete resolution after treatment with Coca-Cola: 50% after a single treatment, others requiring the cola plus endoscopic removal. Doctors resorted to surgical removal in four cases.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography  Further reading", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A bezoar is a mass found trapped in the gastrointestinal system, though it can occur in other locations. A pseudobezoar is an indigestible object introduced intentionally into the digestive system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972762}
{"src_title": "Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Charlottenburg on 7 May 1767, Frederica Charlotte was the eldest child of the future Frederick William II of Prussia, and the only child of his first wife and cousin, Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Lüneburg.  At the time of her birth, her childless granduncle Frederick the Great was on the throne of Prussia. Her father was the King's nephew and heir presumptive, while her mother was also his niece. Their union was extremely unhappy due to their mutual infidelities. After several affairs with musicians and officers, Frederica's mother became pregnant in 1769. Then she planned to escape from Prussia with her lover, but she was betrayed and captured, causing a public scandal. After a divorce was quickly granted, Elisabeth Christine was placed under house arrest in the castle of Stettin, where she remained for the next seventy-one years until her death in 1840.  Frederica Charlotte was two years old at the time of her mother's disgrace, and never saw her mother again. Frederick the Great reportedly felt compassion for her mother, and entrusted Frederica Charlotte to the care of his spouse, Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern, with the words: \"There is only this poor child remaining to her, and she can find no asylum save with you; let the little one have the apartments lately occupied by my niece of Holland.\" Frederica Charlotte reportedly had a happy childhood with Queen Elisabeth Christine, who had no children of her own. The Queen doted upon her grandniece and foster daughter, and she kept in correspondence with her foster mother her entire life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 29 September 1791 at Charlottenburg Palace, she married Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, the second son of the British king George III. There was a second marriage ceremony at Buckingham House on 23 November. The new Duchess of York received an enthusiastic welcome in London.  The marriage between Frederica Charlotte and Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany was arranged in order to provide the British throne with heirs, as the Prince of Wales was at the time secretly married and his marriage status complicated. Reportedly, the Prince of Wales, who was at the time, albeit not legally, married to Maria Fitzherbert, regarded it unnecessary for him to enter a dynastic marriage, because the eldest of his brothers had married a princess and could provide an heir to the throne in his stead. Frederica Charlotte had been chosen upon the wish of Frederick the Great, who allowed George III to read a letter from Frederica Charlotte displaying her gentle and affectionate nature, successfully anticipating that this would touch George III and make him inquire for her to marry his son.  Upon her marriage, her future mother-in-law Queen Charlotte wrote to Queen Elisabeth Christine: \"If anything could add to my satisfaction at the choice of my son, it would be the lively interest which your Majesty takes in the fate of this Princess, your pupil, and I assure you that a Princess brought up under your eye, and to whom you render so high a testimony, shall find in me not only a mother but a friend; and I hope that in gaining the Princess's friendship, I shall also gain a part in yours, which would be of great value to me.\" The queen kept her word, as Frederica Charlotte wrote home to her foster mother how well treated she was by her mother-in-law, and how welcome she felt in England, where she once stayed for hours in the House of Commons, so interested in the political speeches that the hours felt like minutes.  The marriage was, however, not a happy one, and after three years, it had become apparent that the Duke and Duchess of York would have no issue. Along with the fact that the parliament would make it possible to pay his debts should he marry officially, it was also the fact that the Duchess of York was by 1794 no longer expected to have children which prompted the Prince of Wales to agree to issue marriage negotiations of his own. Frederica Charlotte and Frederick separated and the Duchess retired to Oatlands Park, Weybridge, where she lived eccentrically until her death. Their relationship after separation appears to have been amicable, but there was never any question of reconciliation.  She is described as: \"clever and well-informed; she likes society and dislikes all form and ceremony, but in the midst of the most familiar intercourse she always preserves a certain dignity of manner\", and :\"probably no person in such a situation was ever more really liked.\" In 1827 (after her death), she was called: \"a harmless but an eccentric little woman, with an extraordinary fondness for cats and dogs, some indications of the German severity of family etiquette, which gave her household the air of Potsdam, and but a slight share of those attractions which might retain the regards of a husband—young, a soldier, and a prince.\" High-stakes gambling is reported to have taken place at Oatlands. Frederica kept many dogs and was apparently very devoted to monkeys Her father-in-law once remarked : \"Affection must rest on something, and where there are no children, animals are the object.\" At her death, her spouse is described as sincerely grieved and very anxious that the wishes expressed in her will should be carried out.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "She died, on 6 August 1820, in Oatlands Park, Weybridge, Surrey, England and is commemorated by a monument, erected by the people of Weybridge, that stands on Monument Green, Weybridge.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia (Friederike Charlotte Ulrike Katharina; 7 May 1767 – 6 August 1820) was a Prussian and British princess. She was the eldest daughter of King Frederick William II of Prussia and the wife of Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, second son of King George III of the United Kingdom.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972763}
{"src_title": "Abstract factory pattern", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The Abstract Factory  design pattern is one of the twenty-three well-known \"GoF design patterns\" that describe how to solve recurring design problems to design flexible and reusable object-oriented software, that is, objects that are easier to implement, change, test, and reuse.  The Abstract Factory design pattern solves problems like:  Creating objects directly within the class that requires the objects is inflexible because it commits the class to particular objects and makes it impossible to change the instantiation later independently from (without having to change) the class. It stops the class from being reusable if other objects are required, and it makes the class hard to test because real objects cannot be replaced with mock objects.  The Abstract Factory design pattern describes how to solve such problems:  This makes a class independent of how its objects are created (which concrete classes are instantiated). A class can be configured with a factory object, which it uses to create objects, and even more, the factory object can be exchanged at run-time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition.", "content": "The essence of the Abstract Factory Pattern is to \"Provide an interface for creating families of related or dependent objects without specifying their concrete classes.\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "The \"factory\" determines the actual \"concrete\" type of object to be created, and it is here that the object is actually created (in C++, for instance, by the new operator). However, the factory only returns an \"abstract\" pointer to the created concrete object.  This insulates client code from object creation by having clients ask a factory object to create an object of the desired abstract type and to return an abstract pointer to the object.  As the factory only returns an abstract pointer, the client code (that requested the object from the factory) does not know — and is not burdened by — the actual concrete type of the object that was just created. However, the type of a concrete object (and hence a concrete factory) is known by the abstract factory; for instance, the factory may read it from a configuration file. The client has no need to specify the type, since it has already been specified in the configuration file. In particular, this means:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "UML diagram.", "content": "In the above UML class diagram, the codice_17 class that requires codice_18 and codice_19 objects does not instantiate the codice_20 and codice_21 classes directly. Instead, the codice_17 refers to the codice_23 interface for creating objects, which makes the codice_17 independent of how the objects are created (which concrete classes are instantiated). The codice_25 class implements the codice_23 interface by instantiating the codice_20 and codice_21 classes. <br> The UML sequence diagram shows the run-time interactions: The codice_17 object calls codice_30 on the codice_25 object, which creates and returns a codice_20 object. Thereafter, the codice_17 calls codice_34 on codice_25, which creates and returns a codice_21 object.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pseudocode.", "content": "It should render a button in either a Windows style or Mac OS X style depending on which kind of factory was used. Note that the Application has no idea what kind of codice_37 it is given or even what kind of codice_38that factory creates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "C# example.", "content": "interface IButton  interface IGUIFactory  class WinFactory : IGUIFactory  class OSXFactory : IGUIFactory  class WinButton : IButton  class OSXButton : IButton  class Program", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dart example.", "content": "import \"dart:math\";  // An existing hierarchy abstract class Button {  class WinButton implements Button {  class OSXButton implements Button {  class LinuxButton implements Button {  abstract class GUIFactory {  class WinFactory implements GUIFactory {  class OSXFactory implements GUIFactory {  class LinuxFactory implements GUIFactory {  // Abstract the way to create a button class AbstractFactory {  void main() {", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Java example.", "content": "With the introduction of the method reference syntax in Java 8, there is a specific syntax, Type::new, to convert a call to a constructor to a function (typed as a functional interface).  import java.util.List; import java.util.Random;  // an existing hierarchy interface Button { class WinButton implements Button { class OSXButton implements Button {  public class AbstractFactoryExample {  Also note that instead of declaring the functional interface GUIFactory, it's also possible to use the predefined functional interface java.util.function.Supplier<Button>.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "PHP example.", "content": "interface Button  interface GUIFactory  class WinFactory implements GUIFactory  class OSXFactory implements GUIFactory  class WinButton implements Button  class OSXButton implements Button  $appearance = \"osx\";  $factory = NULL;  switch ($appearance) {  if ($factory instanceof GUIFactory) {", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crystal example.", "content": "abstract class Button end  class LinuxButton < Button end  class WindowsButton < Button end  class MacOSButton < Button end  abstract class GUIFactory end  class LinuxFactory < GUIFactory end  class WindowsFactory < GUIFactory end  class MacOSFactory < GUIFactory end  appearance = \"linux\"  case appearance when \"linux\" when \"osx\" when \"win\" end  if factory end", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Python example.", "content": "from abc import ABC, abstractmethod from sys import platform class Button(ABC):  class LinuxButton(Button):  class WindowsButton(Button):  class MacOSButton(Button):  class GUIFactory(ABC):  class LinuxFactory(GUIFactory):  class WindowsFactory(GUIFactory):  class MacOSFactory(GUIFactory):  if platform == 'linux': elif platform == 'darwin': elif platform == 'win32': else:  button = factory.create_button() result = button.paint() print(result) Alternative implementation using the classes themselves as factories: from abc import ABC, abstractmethod from sys import platform class Button(ABC):  class LinuxButton(Button): class WindowsButton(Button):  class MacOSButton(Button):  if platform == \"linux\": elif platform == \"darwin\": elif platform == \"win32\": else:  button = factory() result = button.paint() print(result)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Golang example.", "content": "package main  import (  type Button interface {  type GUIFactory interface {  func (f *WinFactory) CreateButton() Button {  func (f *OSXFactory) CreateButton() Button {  func (f *LinuxFactory) CreateButton() Button {  func (b *WinButton) Paint() {  func (b *OSXButton) Paint() {  func (b *LinuxButton) Paint() {  func BuildFactory(appearance string) GUIFactory {  func main() {", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The abstract factory pattern provides a way to encapsulate a group of individual factories that have a common theme without specifying their concrete classes. In normal usage, the client software creates a concrete implementation of the abstract factory and then uses the generic interface of the factory to create the concrete objects that are part of the theme. The client does not know (or care) which concrete objects it gets from each of these internal factories, since it uses only the generic interfaces of their products. This pattern separates the details of implementation of a set of objects from their general usage and relies on object composition, as object creation is implemented in methods exposed in the factory interface.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972764}
{"src_title": "Tariq ibn Ziyad", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Medieval Arabic historians give contradictory data about Tariq's origins or nationality. Some conclusions about his personality and the circumstances of his entry into al-Andalus are surrounded by uncertainty. The vast majority of modern sources state that Tariq was a Berber \"mawla\" of Musa ibn Nusayr, the Umayyad governor of Ifriqiya.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Musa ibn Nusayr appointed Ṭāriq governor of Tangier after its conquest in 710-711 according to Ibn Abd al-Hakam (803-871), but an unconquered Visigothic outpost remained nearby at Ceuta, a stronghold commanded by a nobleman named Julian, Count of Ceuta.  After Roderic came to power in Spain, Julian had, as was the custom, sent his daughter, Florinda la Cava, to the court of the Visigothic king for education. It is said that Roderic raped her, and that Julian was so incensed he resolved to have the Muslims bring down the Visigothic kingdom. Accordingly, he entered into a treaty with Ṭāriq (Mūsā having returned to Qayrawan) to secretly convoy the Muslim army across the Straits of Gibraltar, as he owned a number of merchant ships and had his own forts on the Spanish mainland.  About April 26, 711, the army of Ṭāriq, composed of recent converts to Islam, was landed on the Iberian peninsula (Spain) by Julian. They debarked at the foothills of a mountain which was henceforth named after him, Gibraltar (\"Djabal Tarik\").  Tariq's army contained about 7,000 Berber horsemen, and Mūsā is said to have sent an additional 5,000 reinforcements after the conquest. Roderic, to meet the threat of the Berbers, assembled an army said to number 100,000. Most of the army was commanded by, and loyal to, the sons of Wittiza, whom Roderic had brutally deposed. Ṭāriq won a decisive victory when Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete.  Tariq split his army into four divisions which went on to capture Córdoba under Mughith al-Rumi, Granada and other places, while he remained at the head of the division which captured Toledo. Afterwards, he continued advancing towards the north, reaching Guadalajara and Astorga. Ṭāriq was de facto governor of Hispania until the arrival of Mūsā a year later.  Both Tariq and Musa were simultaneously ordered back to Damascus by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in 714, where they spent the rest of their lives. The son of Musa, Abd al-Aziz who took the command of troops of Al-Andalus was assassinated in 716. In the many Arabic histories written about the conquest of southern Spain, there is a definite division of opinion regarding the relationship between Ṭāriq and Musa bin Nusayr. Some relate episodes of anger and envy on the part of Mūsā, that his freedman had conquered an entire country. Others do not mention, or play down, any such bad blood. On the other hand, another early historian al-Baladhuri (9th century) merely states that Mūsā wrote Ṭāriq a \"severe letter\" and that the two were later reconciled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Speech.", "content": "The 16th-century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari, in his \"The Breath of Perfume\", places into Ṭāriq's mouth a long speech to his troops before Guadalete.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād () also known simply as Tarik in English, was a Berber Umayyad commander who initiated the Muslim conquest of Visigothic Hispania (Present day Spain and Portugal) in 711–718 A.D. He led a large army and crossed the Strait of Gibraltar from the North African coast, consolidating his troops at what is today known as the Rock of Gibraltar. The name \"Gibraltar\" is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name \"Jabal Ṭāriq\" (جبل طارق), meaning \"mountain of Ṭāriq\", which is named after him.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972765}
{"src_title": "Hisham II", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Reign.", "content": "In 976, at the age of 11, Hisham II succeeded his father Al-Hakam II as Caliph of Cordoba. Hisham II was a minor at the time of his accession and therefore was unfit to rule. In order to benefit the Caliphate, his mother Subh was aided by first minister Jafar al-Mushafi to act as regents with al-Mansur ibn Abi Aamir (better known as \"Almanzor\") as her steward. In 978 Almanzor manipulated his way into the position of royal chamberlain. In an attempt to position himself as a prospective ruler of the Caliphate, Almanzor and General Ghalib al-Siklabi sabotaged the brother of Al-Hakam II who was set to succeed his brother and become the next Caliph of Cordoba. Too young to rule, Hisham II handed his political reins of power over to Almanzor in 981 who became the \"de facto\" leader of the Caliphate until his death in 1002. Al-Mansur ibn Abi Amir perpetuated his position as the omnipotent ruler in charge of the empire while he exiled Hisham II and essentially kept him prisoner leaving him impotent for most of his reign as the third Caliph of Cordoba. With his countless successful campaigns against Christian powers in the Spanish North such as Barcelona in 985, León in 988, as well as a major strike on the church of St. James in the Galician city of Santiago de Compostela in 998, Almanzor is known for bringing the Caliphate of Córdoba to its apex of power in Islamic Iberian history.  In 1002, after the death of his father (Almanzor), Abd al-Malik (1002–1008) became the ruler of the Caliphate and led successful campaigns against Navarre and Barcelona. In 1008 Abd ur-Rahman Sanjul (1008–1009) is said to have poisoned his brother (Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar) which led to his death in October 1008. In 1009, while Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo was waging war against Alfonso V in León, Muhammad II al-Mahdi usurped the throne from Hisham II then held him hostage in Cordoba. In November of the same year, just months after initiating his control as the ruler of the Caliphate, Muhammad II al-Mahdi was overthrown by a primarily Berber army (that he had previously commanded, but by which he was later abandoned) which was led by Sulayman ibn al-Hakam in the battle of Alcolea. After the battle, Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar was exiled to Toledo at which point Sulayman laid siege to Cordoba freeing Hisham II from the imprisonment that took place under the rule of Muhammad II al-Mahdi. Sulayman ibn al-Hakam was appointed to Caliph by his Berber army and maintained that position until Muhammad II al-Mahdi re-conquered the territory in May, 1010. Finally the Slavic troops of the Caliphate under al-Wahdid restored Hisham II as Caliph (1010–1013).  Hisham II was now under the influence of al-Wahdid, who was nevertheless unable to gain control of the Berber troops – these still supported Sulayman, and the civil war continued. In 1013 the Berbers took Cordoba with much plundering and destruction. What happened to Hisham after that is uncertain – supposedly he was killed on 19 April 1013 by the Berbers. In any case, Sulayman al-Mustaʿin (1013–1016) became Caliph.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revival under the taifa kings.", "content": "Due to his disappearance, and hence his possible survival, Hisham II was revived as a symbol of legitimacy by the taifa kings who appeared following the definitive collapse of the caliphate: in 1035, the ruler of the Taifa of Seville, Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abbad, announced that Hisham had reappeared, and declared his allegiance to him. Other taifas falling under Seville's sway during the following years followed suit. It was not until 1060 that the Sevillan ruler Abbad II al-Mu'tadid acknowledged that this supposed Hisham had died in 1044 without a successor, but the \"convenient fiction\" of his survival lasted until at least 1082/83, when his name still appears in the coins of the Taifa of Zaragoza.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abu'l-Walid Hisham II al-Mu'ayyad bi-llah (, Abū'l-Walīd Hishām al-Muʾayyad bi-ʾllāh) (son of Al-Hakam II and Subh of Cordoba) was the third Umayyad Caliph of Spain, in Al-Andalus from 976–1009, and 1010–13.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972766}
{"src_title": "Angela Merici", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Birth to death.", "content": "Merici was born in 1474 on a farm near Desenzano del Garda, a small town on the southwestern shore of Lake Garda in Lombardy, Italy. She and her older sister, Giana Maria, were left orphans when she was fifteen years old. They went to live with their uncle in the town of Salò. Young Angela was very distressed when her sister suddenly died without receiving the Last Rites of the Church and prayed that her sister's soul rest in peace. It is said that in a vision she received a response that her sister was in heaven in the company of the saints. She joined the Third Order of St. Francis around that time. People began to notice Angela's beauty and particularly to admire her hair. As she had promised herself to God, and wanted to avoid the worldly attention, she dyed her hair in soot.  Merici's uncle died when she was twenty years old and she returned to her home in Desenzano, and lived with her brothers, on her own property, given to her in lieu of the dowry that would otherwise have been hers had she married. She later had another vision that revealed to her that she was to found an association of virgins who were to devote their lives to the religious training of young girls. This association was a success and she was invited to start another school in the neighboring city, Brescia.  According to legend, in 1524, while traveling to the Holy Land, Merici became suddenly blind when she was on the island of Crete. Despite this, she continued her journey to the Holy Land and was ostensibly cured of her blindness on her return, while praying before a crucifix, at the same place where she was struck with blindness a few weeks before. In 1525 she journeyed to Rome in order to gain the indulgences of the Jubilee Year then being celebrated. Pope Clement VII, who had heard of her virtue and success with her school, invited her to remain in Rome. Merici disliked notoriety, however, and soon returned to Brescia.  On 25 November 1535, Merici gathered with 12 young women who had joined in her work in a small house in Brescia near the Church of St Afra, where together they committed themselves in the founding of the Company of St Ursula, placed under the protection of the patroness of medieval universities. Her goal was to elevate family life through the Christian education of future wives and mothers. They were the first teaching order of women religious.  Four years later the group had grown to 28. Merici taught her companions to be consecrated to God and dedicated to the service of their neighbor, but to remain in the world, teaching the girls of their own neighborhood, and to practice a religious form of life in their own homes. The members wore no special habit and took no formal religious vows. Merici wrote a Rule of Life for the group, which specified the practice of celibacy, poverty and obedience in their own homes. The Ursulines opened orphanages and schools. On 18 March 1537, she was elected \"Mother and Mistress\" of the group. The Rule she had written was approved in 1544 by Pope Paul III.  When Merici died in Brescia on 27 January 1540, there were 24 communities of the Company of St. Ursula serving the Church through the region. Her body was clothed in the habit of a Franciscan tertiary and was interred in the Church of Sant'Afra.  The traditional view is that Merici believed that better Christian education was needed for girls and young women, to which end she dedicated her life. Querciolo Mazzonis argues that the Company of St. Ursula was not originally intended as a charitable group specifically focused on the education of poor girls, but that this direction developed after her death in 1540, sometime after it received formal recognition in 1546.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "During her life, Merici had often prayed at the tombs of the Brescian martyrs at the Church of St. Afra in Brescia. She lived in small rooms attached to a priory of the Canons Regular of the Lateran. According to her wishes, after her death, she was interred in the Church of St Afra to be near the martyrs' remains. There her body remained until the complete destruction of this church and its surrounding area by Allied bombing during the Second World War, on 2 March 1945, in which the parish priest and many townspeople died. The church and corresponding buildings were afterwards rebuilt, and reopened on 10 April 1954. The church was consecrated on January 27, 1956, with a new dedication to St. Angela Merici, while the Parish of St. Afra was transferred to the neighboring Church of St. Eufemia.  Merici was beatified in Rome on 30 April 1768, by Pope Clement XIII. She was later canonized on 24 May 1807 by Pope Pius VII.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feast Day.", "content": "Merici was not included in the 1570 Tridentine Calendar of Pope Pius V, because she was not canonized until 1807. In 1861 her feast day was included in the Roman Calendar – not on the day of her death, 27 January, since this date was occupied by the feast day of St. John Chrysostom, but instead on 31 May. In 1955 Pope Pius XII assigned this date to the new feast of the Queenship of Mary, and moved Merici's feast to 1 June. The celebration was ranked as a Double until 1960, when Pope John XXIII gave it the equivalent rank of Third-Class Feast. Lastly, in the major 1969 reform of the liturgy, Pope Paul VI moved the celebration, ranked as a Memorial, to the saint's day of death, 27 January.  St. Angela Merici Catholic School, Bradford, Ontario, Canada.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dedications.", "content": "St. Angela Merici Academy, Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, United States.  St. Angela Merici Catholic School, Chatham, Ontario. Canada (To Be Opened September 2020)  St Angela’s College, Cork, Ireland.  Merici College, Braddon, ACT, Australia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Angela Merici or Angela de Merici (, ; 21 March 1474 – 27 January 1540) was an Italian religious educator, who is honored as a saint by the Catholic Church. She founded the Company of St. Ursula in 1535 in Brescia, in which women dedicated their lives to the service of the Church through the education of girls. From this organisation later sprang the monastic Order of Ursulines, whose nuns established places of prayer and learning throughout Europe and, later, worldwide, most notably in North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972767}
{"src_title": "Kigelia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The genus name comes from the Mozambican Bantu name, \"kigeli-keia\", while the common names sausage tree and cucumber tree refer to the long, sausage-like fruit. Its name in Afrikaans \"worsboom\" also means sausage tree, and its Arabic name means \"the father of kit-bags\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "It is a tree growing up to tall and it typically has spreading branches. The bark is grey and smooth at first, peeling on older trees. It can be as thick as on a diameter branch. The wood is pale brown or yellowish, undifferentiated and not prone to cracking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foliage.", "content": "The tree is evergreen where rainfall occurs throughout the year, but deciduous where there is a long dry season. The leaves are opposite or in whorls of three, long, pinnate, with six to ten oval leaflets up to long and broad; the terminal leaflet can be either present or absent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "The flowers (and later the fruit) hang down from branches on long flexible stems ( long). Flowers are produced in panicles; they are bell-shaped (similar to those of the African tulip tree but broader and much darker and more waxy), orange to maroon or purplish green, and about wide. Individual flowers do not hang down but are oriented horizontally.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fruit.", "content": "The fruit is a woody berry from long and up to broad, but has been reported. Typically it weighs between but occasionally up to, and hangs down on long, rope-like peduncles. The fruit pulp is fibrous, containing many seeds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Species associations.", "content": "Some birds are attracted to the flowers and the strong stems of each flower make ideal footholds. Their scent is most notable at night indicating that they are adapted to pollination by bats, which visit them for pollen and nectar. The flowers also remain open by day however, and are freely visited by many insect pollinators, particularly large species such as carpenter bees. The fruit are eaten by several species of mammals, including baboons, bushpigs, savannah elephants, giraffes, hippopotamuses, monkeys, and porcupines. The seeds are dispersed in their dung. The seeds are also eaten by brown parrots and brown-headed parrots, and the tree's foliage by elephants and greater kudu (Joffe 2003; del Hoyo et al. 1997). Introduced specimens in Australian parks are very popular with cockatoos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "The fresh fruit is poisonous and strongly purgative; fruit are prepared for consumption by drying, roasting or fermentation (Joffe 2003; McBurney 2004). \"Kigelia\" is also used in a number of skin care products. In Botswana, the timber is used for makoros, yokes and oars.  The hard shell (skin) of the fruit can be hollowed out, cleaned, and made into useful, durable containers of varying sizes.  The tree is widely grown as an ornamental tree in tropical regions for its decorative flowers and unusual fruit. Planting sites should be selected carefully, as the falling fruit can cause serious injury to people and damage vehicles parked under the trees.  In Central Kenya, especially among the Agikuyu and the Akamba, the dried fruits are used to make an alcoholic beverage (\"muratina\" in Kikuyu, \"kaluvu\" in Kamba), which is a core component in cultural events in Central Kenya. The fruit is harvested then split into two along the grain, then dried in the sun. The dried fruit is then treated with bee pollen and honey. The treated fruit (\"miatine\") is then used in fermentation process in making of sweet beer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kigelia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Bignoniaceae. The genus consists of only one species, Kigelia africana, which occurs throughout tropical Africa. The so-called sausage tree grows a fruit that is up to long, weighs about, and resembles a sausage in a casing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972768}
{"src_title": "Justo José de Urquiza", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Justo José de Urquiza y García was born in Entre Ríos, the son of José Narciso de Urquiza Álzaga, born in Castro Urdiales, Spain, and María Cándida García González, a Creole of Buenos Aires. He was governor of Entre Ríos during the government of Juan Manuel de Rosas, governor of Buenos Aires with powers delegated from the other provinces. Rosas presented a resignation to his charge frequently, but only as a political gesture, counting that the other governments would reject it. However, in 1851, resentful of the economic and political dominance of Buenos Aires, Urquiza accepted Rosas' resignation and resumed for Entre Rios the powers delegated in Buenos Aires. Along with the resuming of international commerce without passing through the port of Buenos Aires, Urquiza replaced the \"\"Death to the savage unitarians!\"\" slogan with \"Death to the enemies of national organization!\", requesting the making of a national constitution that Rosas had long rejected. Corrientes supported Urquiza's action, but Rosas and the other provinces condemned the \"crazy, traitor, savage, unitarian\" Urquiza. Supported by Brazil and the Uruguayan liberals, he created the \"Big Army\" and forced Manuel Oribe to capitulate, ending the long siege of Montevideo in October 1851, and finally defeating Rosas on 3 February 1852 at the Battle of Caseros. The other provinces that supported Rosas against Urquiza's pronunciation changed sides and supported his project of creating a National Constitution.  Urquiza immediately began the task of national organization. He became provisional director of the Argentine Confederation in May 1852. In 1853, a constituent assembly adopted a constitution based primarily on the ideas of Juan Bautista Alberdi, and Urquiza was inaugurated president in March 1854.  During his administration, foreign relations were improved, public education was encouraged, colonization was promoted, and plans for railroad construction was initiated. His work of national organization was, however, hindered by the opposition of Buenos Aires, which seceded from the Confederation. Open war broke out in 1859. Urquiza defeated the provincial army led by Bartolomé Mitre in October 1859, at the Battle of Cepeda, and Buenos Aires agreed to re-enter the Confederation.  Constitutional amendments proposed by Buenos Aires were adopted in 1860 but the settlement was short-lived, and further difficulties culminated in civil war. Urquiza met the army of Buenos Aires, again led by Mitre, in September 1861. The battle was indecisive, but Urquiza withdrew from the field, leaving the victory with Mitre. He retired to San José Palace, his residence in Entre Ríos, where he ruled until he was assassinated at age 69 (along with his sons Justo and Waldino) by followers of dissident and political rival Ricardo López Jordán.  Like many other nineteenth century Argentine patriots, Urquiza was a freemason. His imposing Palacio San José has been interpreted as containing many masonic symbols, created \"to symbolize and reflect the construction of his other work: the Argentine State\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributes.", "content": "There are many streets, parks and squares all over Argentina that are named after Justo José de Urquiza, such as the Urquiza park in Rosario or the Urquiza park in Parana city. There is a central street in Rosario called Urquiza, and there is a commuter railway line in Buenos Aires named after him, the Urquiza Line.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Justo José de Urquiza y García (; October 18, 1801 – April 11, 1870) was an Argentine general and politician. He was president of the Argentine Confederation from 1854 to 1860.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972769}
{"src_title": "Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "BOINC was originally developed to manage the SETI@home project.  The original SETI client was a non-BOINC software exclusively for SETI@home. As one of the first volunteer grid computing projects, it was not designed with a high level of security. As a result, some participants in the project attempted to cheat the project to gain \"credits,\" while some others submitted entirely falsified work. BOINC was designed, in part, to combat these security breaches.  The BOINC project started in February 2002, and the first version was released on April 10, 2002. The first BOINC-based project was Predictor@home launched on June 9, 2004. In 2009, AQUA@home deployed multi-threaded CPU applications for the first time, followed by the first OpenCL application in 2010. , 31 BOINC projects are active.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design and structure.", "content": "In essence, BOINC is software that can use the unused CPU and GPU cycles on a computer to do scientific computing—what one individual does not use of his/her computer, BOINC uses. In late 2008, BOINC's official website announced that Nvidia had developed a system called CUDA that uses GPUs for scientific computing. With NVIDIA's assistance, some BOINC-based projects (e.g., SETI@home, MilkyWay@home) now have applications that run on NVIDIA GPUs using CUDA. Beginning in October 2009, BOINC added support for the ATI/AMD family of GPUs also. These applications run from 2 to 10 times faster than the former CPU-only versions. In 7.x preview versions, GPU support (via OpenCL) was added for computers using Mac OS X with AMD Radeon graphic cards.  BOINC consists of a server system and client software that communicate with each other to distribute and process work units and return the results.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "User interfaces.", "content": "BOINC can be controlled remotely by remote procedure calls (RPC), from the command line, and from the BOINC Account Manager.  BOINC Manager currently has two \"views\": the \"Advanced View\" and the \"Simplified GUI\". The \"Grid View\" was removed in the 6.6.x clients as it was redundant.  The appearance (skin) of the Simplified GUI is user-customizable, in that users can create their own designs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mobile application.", "content": "A BOINC app also exists for Android, allowing every person owning an Android device – smartphone, tablet and Kindle – to share their unused computing power. The user is allowed to select the research projects they want to support, if it is in the app's available project list.  By default, the application will allow computing only when the device is connected to a WiFi network, is being charged, and the battery has a charge of at least 90%. Some of these settings can be changed to users needs. Not all BOINC projects are available and some of the projects are not compatible with all versions of Android operating system or availability of work is intermittent. Currently available projects are Asteroids@home, Einstein@home, Enigma@home, LHC@home, Moo! Wrapper, Quake Catcher Network, Rosetta@home, SETI@home, Universe@Home, World Community Grid and Yoyo@home.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Account managers.", "content": "A BOINC Account Manager is an application that manages multiple BOINC project accounts across multiple computers (CPUs) and operating systems. Account managers were designed for people who are new to BOINC or have several computers participating in several projects. The account manager concept was conceived and developed jointly by GridRepublic and BOINC. Current and past account managers include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Credit system.", "content": "The BOINC Credit System is designed to avoid cheating by validating results before granting credit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Projects.", "content": "There are 30 active projects listed in the BOINC official website. Amicable Numbers (BOINC Project) - Math  Asteroids@home - Astrophysics  BOINC@TACC - Multiple Sciences  CAS@home - Physics, Biochemistry  Citizen Science Grid - Multiple Sciences  Climateprediction.net - Earth Sciences  Collatz Conjecture (BOINC Project) - Math  Cosmology@Home - Astronomy and Physics  Einstein@Home - Astrophysics  Gerasim@Home - Math and Computing  GPUGRID.net - Biology and Medicine  LHC@home - Physics  Milkyway@home - Astronomy  MindModeling@Home - Cognitive Sciences  Moo! Wrapper - Math and Computing  nanoHUB@Home - Nanoscience  NFS@home - Math and Computing  NumberFields@home - Math and Computing  ODLK - Math and Computing  ODLK1 - Math and Computing  Primaboinca - Math and Computing  PrimeGrid - Math and Computing  Radioactive@Home - Distributed Sensoring  RakeSearch - Math and Computing  RNA World (BOINC Project) - Molecular Biology  Rosetta@home - Biology and Medicine  SRBase - Math and Computing  Universe@Home - Astronomy  World Community Grid - Life Sciences (Biology, Medicine, Climate, etc)  Yoyo@home - Multiple Sciences", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC, pronounced – rhymes with \"oink\"), an open-source middleware system, supports volunteer and grid computing. Originally developed to support the SETI@home project, it became generalized as a platform for other distributed applications in areas as diverse as mathematics, linguistics, medicine, molecular biology, climatology, environmental science, and astrophysics, among others. BOINC aims to enable researchers to tap into the enormous processing resources of multiple personal computers around the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972770}
{"src_title": "Foederati", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Republic.", "content": "Early in the history of the Roman Republic, \"foederati\" were the tribes that were bound by a treaty (foedus ) to come to the defense of Rome but which were neither Roman colonies nor a beneficiaries of Roman citizenship (\"civitas\"). The Latini tribe were considered blood allies, but the rest were federates or \"socii\". The friction between these treaty obligations without the corresponding benefits of Romanity led to the Social War between the Romans, with a few close allies, and the disaffected \"socii\". A law of 90 BCE (\"Lex Julia\") offered Roman citizenship to the federate states that accepted the terms. Not all cities were prepared to be absorbed into the Roman \"res publica\" (e.g., Heraclea and Naples). Other foederati lay beyond Italy: Gades (Cádiz) in Spain; and Massilia (Marseilles).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Empire.", "content": "Later, the sense of the term \"foederati\" and its usage and meaning was extended by the Roman practice of subsidizing entire barbarian tribes — which included the Franks, Vandals, Alans, Huns and, best known, the Visigoths — in exchange for providing warriors to fight in the Roman armies. Alaric began his career leading a band of Gothic foederati.  At first, the Roman subsidy took the form of money or food, but as tax revenues dwindled in the 4th and 5th centuries, the \"foederati\" were billeted on local landowners, which came to be identical to being allowed to settle on Roman territory. Large local landowners living in distant border provinces (see \"marches\") on extensive, largely self-sufficient villas, found their loyalties to the central authority, already conflicted by other developments, further compromised in such situations. Then, as these loyalties wavered and became more local, the Empire began to devolve into smaller territories and closer personal fealties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "4th century.", "content": "The first Roman treaty with the Goths was after the defeat of Ariaric in 332, but whether or not this treaty was a \"foedus\" is unclear.  The Franks became foederati in 358 CE, when Emperor Julian let them keep the areas in northern Gaul, which had been depopulated during the preceding century. Roman soldiers defended the Rhine and had major armies south and west of the Rhine. Frankish settlers were established in the areas north and east of the Romans and helped with the Roman defense by providing intelligence and a buffer state. The breach of the Rhine borders in the frozen winter of 406 and 407 made an end to the Roman presence at the Rhine when both the Romans and the allied Franks were overrun by a tribal migration \"en masse\" of Vandals and Alans.  In 376 CE, some of the Goths asked Emperor Valens to allow them to settle on the southern bank of the Danube river, and were accepted into the empire as \"foederati\". These same Goths then rose in rebellion and defeated the Romans in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 CE. The critical ensuing loss of military manpower forced the Western Roman Empire to rely much more on foederati levies thereafter.  The loyalty of the tribes and their chieftains was never reliable, and in 395, the Visigoths, this time under the lead of Alaric, once again rose in rebellion. The father of one of the most powerful late Roman generals, Stilicho, was from the ranks of the \"foederati\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "5th century.", "content": "At the Battle of Faesulae in 406, Stilicho defeated the Gothic king Radagaisus and his combined Vandal and Goth army, only with the support of Gothic chieftain Sarus and Hunnic ruler Uldin.  In 423, the general Flavius Aetius entered the service of the usurper Joannes as \"cura palatii\" and was sent by Joannes to ask the Huns for assistance. Joannes, a high-ranking officer, lacked a strong army and fortified himself in his capital, Ravenna, where he was killed in the summer of 425. Shortly afterwards, Aetius returned to Italy with a large force of Huns to find that power in the west was now in the hands of Valentinian III and his mother Galla Placidia. After fighting against Aspar's army, Aetius managed a compromise with Galla Placidia. He sent back his army of Huns and in return obtained the rank of \"comes et magister militum per Gallias\", the commander in chief of the Roman army in Gaul.  Around 418 (or 426), Attaces, the king of the Alans, fell in battle against the Visigoths, who at the time were still allies of Rome, in Hispania, and most of the surviving Alans appealed to Gunderic. Gunderic accepted their request and thus became King of the Vandals and Alans.  Late in Gunderic's reign, the Vandals themselves began to clash more and more with the Visigothic \"Foederati\", often getting the worse of these battles because the Visigoths were so much more numerous. After Gunderic died early in 428, the Vandals elected his half-brother Genseric as his successor, and Genseric left Iberia to the Visigoths in favor of invading Roman Africa.  By the 5th century, lacking the wealth needed to pay and train a professional army, Western Roman military strength was almost entirely reliant on \"foederati\" units. In 451, Attila the Hun was defeated only with help of the \"foederati\" (who included the Visigoths, Alans and Saxons), and the \"foederati\" would deliver the fatal blow to the dying nominal Western Roman Empire in 476, when their commander Odoacer deposed the usurper Western Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and sent the imperial insignia back to Constantinople with the Senate's request that the 81-year-old West/East sub-division of the empire be abolished. Even before the eventual collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 several kingdoms with the status of \"foederati\" managed to gain a full independence formally recognized by the Western Roman Empire, such as the Vandals through the peace treaty concluded in 442 between their king Genseric and Valentinian III and the Visigoths through the peace treaty concluded in 475 between their king Euric and Julius Nepos.  After the collapse of the Hunnic empire, the Ostrogoths entered into relations with the Eastern Roman Empire and were settled in Pannonia to become \"foederati\" of the Byzantines. During the latter half of the 5th century, the Ostrogoths relationship with the Byzantines started to shift from friendship to enmity, just as the Visigoths had done before them, and their king Theoderic the Great led them to frequently ravage the provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire, eventually threatening Constantinople itself. Eventually, Theoderic and emperor Zeno worked out an arrangement beneficial to both sides, in which Theoderic invaded Odoacer's kingdom and eventually conquered Italy.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "6th century.", "content": "\"Foederati\" (Gr: Φοιδερᾶτοι or translated as Σύμμαχοι) were still present in the Eastern Roman army during the 6th century. Belisarius' and Narses' victorious armies included many \"foederati\", including Hunnic archers and Herule mercenaries, when they reconquered Africa and Italy. At the Battle of Taginae, a large contingent of the Byzantine army was made up of Lombards, Gepids and Bulgars.  In the east, foederati were formed from several Arab tribes to protect against the Persian-allied Arab Lakhmids and the tribes of the Arabian peninsula. Among these foederati were the Tanukhids, Banu Judham, Banu Amela and the Ghassanids. The term Foederati continues to be attested in the Eastern Roman armies until around the reign of Maurice.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Foederati ( in English; sing. foederatus ) were peoples and cities bound by a treaty, known as \"foedus\", with Rome. In Republican times the term identified the socii, whereas during the Imperial period it was used to describe foreign states, client kingdoms, or barbarian tribes to which the Roman Empire provided benefits in exchange for military assistance. The term was also used, especially under the Roman Empire, for groups of \"barbarian\" mercenaries of various sizes, who were typically allowed to settle within the Roman Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972771}
{"src_title": "Symphony No. 9 (Dvořák)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Instrumentation.", "content": "This symphony is scored for the following orchestra:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Form.", "content": "A typical performance usually lasts around 40 minutes. The work is in four movements:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "I. Adagio – Allegro molto.", "content": "The movement is written in sonata form and begins with an introductory leitmotif in Adagio. This melodic outline also appears in the third movement of Dvořák's String Quintet No. 3 in E major and his Humoresque No. 1. The exposition is based on three thematic subjects. The first in E minor is notable for its announcing and responsive phrases. The second is in G minor and undergoes a transformation such that it resembles a Czech polka. The exposition's closing theme in G major is known for being similar to the American negro spiritual \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\". The development primarily focuses on the main and closing themes, and the recapitulation consists of a repetition of the main theme as well as a transposition of the second and closing themes up a semitone. The movement is concluded with a coda, with the main theme stated by the brass above an orchestral tutti.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "II. Largo.", "content": "The second movement is introduced by a harmonic progression of chords in the wind instruments. Beckerman interprets these chords as a musical rendition of the narrative formula \"Once upon a time\". Then a solo cor anglais (English horn) plays the main theme accompanied by muted strings. Dvořák was said to have changed the theme from clarinet to cor anglais as it reminded him of the voice of Harry Burleigh. The movement's middle section contains a passage in C minor evoking a nostalgic and desolate mood which eventually leads into a funeral march above pizzicato steps in the basses. It is followed by a quasi-scherzo that incorporates this movement's theme as well as the first movement's main and closing themes. The Largo is concluded with the soft return of the main theme and introductory chords.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "III. Molto vivace.", "content": "The movement is a scherzo written in ternary form, with influences from Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's \"The Song of Hiawatha\". The stirring rhythm of the first part is interrupted by a trio middle section. The first part is then repeated, followed by an echo in the coda of the first movement's main theme.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "IV. Allegro con fuoco.", "content": "The final movement is also written in sonata form. After a brief introduction, the horns and trumpets declare the movement's main theme against sharp chords played by the rest of the orchestra. The second theme is then presented by the clarinet above tremolos in the strings. The development not only works with these two themes but also recalls the main themes of the first and second movements and a fragment of the Scherzo. Following the recapitulation which begins in the unexpected key of G minor but later corrects itself back to the original key, the movement reaches its climax in the coda, in which materials from the first three movements are reviewed for a final time while the Picardy third is expanded after the orchestra triumphantly plays a \"modally altered\" plagal cadence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Dvořák was interested in Native American music and the African-American spirituals he heard in North America. While director of the National Conservatory he encountered an African-American student, Harry T. Burleigh, who sang traditional spirituals to him. Burleigh, later a composer himself, said that Dvořák had absorbed their'spirit' before writing his own melodies. Dvořák stated:  The symphony was commissioned by the New York Philharmonic, and premiered on 16 December 1893, at Carnegie Hall conducted by Anton Seidl. A day earlier, in an article published in the \"New York Herald\" on 15 December 1893, Dvořák further explained how Native American music influenced his symphony:  In the same article, Dvořák stated that he regarded the symphony's second movement as a \"sketch or study for a later work, either a cantata or opera... which will be based upon Longfellow's \"Hiawatha\"\" (Dvořák never actually wrote such a piece). He also wrote that the third movement scherzo was \"suggested by the scene at the feast in \"Hiawatha\" where the Indians dance\".  In 1893, a newspaper interview quoted Dvořák as saying \"I found that the music of the negroes and of the Indians was practically identical\", and that \"the music of the two races bore a remarkable similarity to the music of Scotland\". Most historians agree that Dvořák is referring to the pentatonic scale, which is typical of each of these musical traditions.  In a 2008 article in \"The Chronicle of Higher Education\", prominent musicologist Joseph Horowitz states that African-American spirituals were a major influence on Dvořák's music written in North America, quoting him from an 1893 interview in the \"New York Herald\" as saying, \"In the negro melodies of America I discover all that is needed for a great and noble school of music.\" Dvořák did, it seems, borrow rhythms from the music of his native Bohemia, as notably in his Slavonic Dances, and the pentatonic scale in some of his music written in North America from African-American and/or Native American sources. Statements that he borrowed melodies are often made but seldom supported by specifics. One verified example is the song of the Scarlet Tanager in the Quartet. Michael Steinberg writes that a flute solo theme in the first movement of the symphony resembles the spiritual \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\". Leonard Bernstein averred that the symphony was truly multinational in its foundations.  Dvořák was influenced not only by music he had heard, but by what he had seen, in America. He wrote that he would not have composed his American pieces as he had, if he had not seen America. It has been said that Dvořák was inspired by the American \"wide open spaces\" such as prairies he may have seen on his trip to Iowa in the summer of 1893. Notices about several performances of the symphony include the phrase \"wide open spaces\" about what inspired the symphony and/or about the feelings it conveys to listeners.  Dvořák was also influenced by the style and techniques used by earlier classical composers including Beethoven and Schubert. The falling fourths and timpani strokes in the \"New World Symphony\"s Scherzo movement evoke the Scherzo of Beethoven's Choral Symphony (Symphony No. 9). The use of flashbacks to prior movements in the New World Symphony's last movement is reminiscent of Beethoven quoting prior movements in the opening Presto of the Choral Symphony's final movement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "At the premiere in Carnegie Hall, the end of every movement was met with thunderous clapping and Dvořák felt obliged to stand up and bow. This was one of the greatest public triumphs of Dvořák's career. When the symphony was published, several European orchestras soon performed it. Alexander Mackenzie conducted the London Philharmonic Society in the European premiere on 21 June 1894. Clapham says the symphony became \"one of the most popular of all time\" and at a time when the composer's main works were being welcomed in no more than ten countries, this symphony reached the rest of the musical world and has become a \"universal favorite\". It had been performed [as of 1978] more often \"than any other symphony at the Royal Festival Hall, London\" and is in \"tremendous demand in Japan\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Goin' Home\".", "content": "The theme from the Largo was adapted into the spiritual-like song \"Goin' Home\" (often mistakenly considered a folk song or traditional spiritual) by Dvořák's pupil William Arms Fisher, who wrote the lyrics in 1922.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Symphony No. 9 in E minor, \"From the New World\", Op. 95, B. 178 (), popularly known as the New World Symphony, was composed by Antonín Dvořák in 1893 while he was the director of the National Conservatory of Music of America from 1892 to 1895. It has been described as one of the most popular of all symphonies. In older literature and recordings, this symphony was – as for its first publication – numbered as Symphony No. 5. Astronaut Neil Armstrong took a tape recording of the \"New World Symphony\" along during the Apollo 11 mission, the first Moon landing, in 1969. The symphony was completed in the building that now houses the Bily Clocks Museum.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972772}
{"src_title": "Hypomania", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Individuals in a hypomanic state have a decreased need for sleep, are extremely gregarious and competitive, and have a great deal of energy. They are, otherwise, often fully functioning (unlike individuals suffering from a full manic episode).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distinctive markers.", "content": "Specifically, hypomania is distinguished from mania by the absence of psychotic symptoms and grandiosity, and by its lesser degree of impact on functioning.  Hypomania is a feature of bipolar II disorder and cyclothymia, but can also occur in schizoaffective disorder. Hypomania is also a feature of bipolar I disorder; it arises in sequential procession as the mood disorder fluctuates between normal mood (euthymia) and mania. Some individuals with bipolar I disorder have hypomanic as well as manic episodes. Hypomania can also occur when moods progress downwards from a manic mood state to a normal mood. Hypomania is sometimes credited with increasing creativity and productive energy. Numerous people with bipolar disorder have credited hypomania with giving them an edge in their theater of work.  People who experience hyperthymia, or \"chronic hypomania\", encounter the same symptoms as hypomania but on a longer-term basis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Associated disorders.", "content": "Cyclothymia, a condition of continuous mood fluctuations, is characterized by oscillating experiences of hypomania and depression that fail to meet the diagnostic criteria for either manic or major depressive episodes. These periods are often interspersed with periods of relatively normal (euthymic) functioning.  When a patient presents with a history of at least one episode of both hypomania and major depression, each of which meet the diagnostic criteria, bipolar II disorder is diagnosed. In some cases, depressive episodes routinely occur during the fall or winter and hypomanic ones in the spring or summer. In such cases, one speaks of a \"seasonal pattern\".  If left untreated, and in those so predisposed, hypomania may transition into mania, which may be psychotic, in which case bipolar I disorder is the correct diagnosis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Causes.", "content": "Often in those who have experienced their first episode of hypomania – generally without psychotic features – there may be a long or recent history of depression or a mix of hypomania combined with depression (known as mixed-state) prior to the emergence of manic symptoms. This commonly surfaces in the mid to late teens. Because the teenage years are typically an emotionally charged time of life, it is not unusual for mood swings to be passed off as normal hormonal teen behavior and for a diagnosis of bipolar disorder to be missed until there is evidence of an obvious manic or hypomanic phase.  In cases of drug-induced hypomanic episodes in unipolar depressives, the hypomania can almost invariably be eliminated by lowering medication dosage, withdrawing the drug entirely, or changing to a different medication if discontinuation of treatment is not possible.  Hypomania can be associated with narcissistic personality disorder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Psychopathology.", "content": "Mania and hypomania are usually studied together as components of bipolar disorders, and the pathophysiology is usually assumed to be the same. Given that norepinephrine and dopaminergic drugs are capable of triggering hypomania, theories relating to monoamine hyperactivity have been proposed. A theory unifying depression and mania in bipolar individuals proposes that decreased serotonergic regulation of other monoamines can result in either depressive or manic symptoms. Lesions on the right side frontal and temporal lobes have further been associated with mania.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "The DSM-IV-TR defines a hypomanic episode as including, over the course of at least four days, elevated mood plus three of the following symptoms OR irritable mood plus four of the following symptoms, when the behaviors are clearly different from how the person typically acts when not depressed:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medications.", "content": "Antimanic drugs are used to control acute attacks and prevent recurring episodes of hypomania combined with a range of psychological therapies. The recommended length of treatment ranges from 2 years to 5 years. Anti-Depressants may also be required for existing treatments but are avoided in patients who have had a recent history with hypomania. Sertraline has often been debated to have side effects that can trigger hypomania.  These include:  Other anti-manic drugs that are not antipsychotics include:  Other drugs used to treat symptoms of mania/hypomania but considered less effective include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates called one personality type 'hypomanic' (Greek: ὑπομαινόμενοι, \"hypomainómenoi\"). In 19th century psychiatry, when mania had a broad meaning of insanity, hypomania was equated by some to concepts of 'partial insanity' or monomania. A more specific usage was advanced by the German neuro-psychiatrist Emanuel Ernst Mendel in 1881, who wrote, \"I recommend, taking into consideration the word used by Hippocrates, to name those types of mania that show a less severe phenomenological picture, 'hypomania. Narrower operational definitions of hypomania were developed in the 1960s and 1970s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hypomania (literally \"under mania\" or \"less than mania\") is a mood state characterized by persistent disinhibition and mood elevation (euphoria), with behavior that is noticeably different from the person's typical behavior when in a non-depressed state. It may involve irritability, not necessarily less severe than full mania; in fact, the presence of marked irritability is a documented feature of hypomanic and mixed episodes in Bipolar type II. According to DSM-5 criteria, hypomania is distinct from mania in that there is no significant functional impairment; mania, by DSM-5 definition, does include significant functional impairment and may have psychotic features.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972773}
{"src_title": "Fyodor Ushakov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and naval career.", "content": "Ushakov was born in the village of Burnakovo in the Yaroslavl gubernia, to a modest family of the minor nobility. His father, Fyodor Ignatyevich Ushakov, was a retired sergeant of the Preobrazhensky regiment of the Russian Imperial guards. By the time Fyodor Ushakov submitted his statement of background (\"skaska\") to the military, his family had not been officially confirmed in the so-called 'dvoryanstvo', yet they surely belonged to serving gentry. In the submission Ushakov stated that he neither had a coat-of-arms, nor a royal patent for a landed estate, and had no way to prove nobility. In 1798, Fyodor Ushakov, as a vice-admiral of the Black Sea Navy, submitted a request for official nobility and an arms providing a genealogical record. In 1807 his coat-of-arms was added to the General all-Russian book heraldry. In 1815 Fyodor Ushakov and his family were added to the part 6 (ancient nobility) of the Yaroslavl genealogical book.  On 15 February 1761, he signed up for the Russian Navy in Saint Petersburg. After training, he served on a galley in the Baltic Fleet. In 1768 he was transferred to the Don Flotilla (Azov Sea Navy) in Taganrog, and served in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74). He commanded Catherine II's own yacht, and was active in protecting Russian merchant ships in the Mediterranean during the First League of Armed Neutrality.  After the Russian Empire conquered Crimean Khanate in 1783, Ushakov personally supervised the construction of a naval base in Sevastopol and the building of docks in Kherson. During the Russo-Turkish War (1787–92), he defeated the Ottomans at Fidonisi (1788), Kerch Strait (1790), Tendra (1790), and Cape Kaliakra (1791). In these battles, he demonstrated the ingenuity of his innovative doctrines in the art of naval warfare.  In 1798 Ushakov was promoted to full admiral and given command of a squadron which sailed to the Mediterranean via Constantinople, where it joined with a Ottoman squadron. The combined Russian-Ottoman fleet then operated under Ushakov's command in the War of the Second Coalition against the French Republic. The expedition started by conquering the Ionian islands, acquired by France the year before from the defunct Republic of Venice in the Treaty of Campo Formio. This action culminated in the Siege of Corfu (1798–1799), and led to the subsequent creation of the Septinsular Republic. Ushakov's squadron then blockaded French bases in Italy, notably Genoa and Ancona, and successfully assaulted Naples and Rome.  Tsar Paul, in his capacity as the Grand Master of the Order of St. John, ordered Ushakov to proceed to Malta, which a British fleet under Nelson was assisting in besieging.  However, after rendezvousing with the Coalition forces on Malta, Ushakov was almost immediately recalled back home to Russia in 1800 (along with his fleet), where the new Emperor, Alexander I, failed to appreciate his victories. Ushakov resigned command in 1807 and withdrew into the Sanaksar Monastery in modern-day Mordovia. He was asked to command the local militia during the Patriotic War of 1812 but declined.  In the course of 43 naval battles under his command he did not lose a single ship and never lost a battle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tactics.", "content": "Distinguishing features of Ushakov's tactics were: use of unified marching and fighting orders; resolute closing to close quarters with the enemy forces without evolution of a fighting order; concentration of effort against enemy flagships; maintaining a reserve (Kaiser-flag squadrons); combination of aimed artillery fire and maneuvering; and chasing the enemy to its total destruction or capture. Giving great value to sea and fire training of his staff, Ushakov was a supporter of generalissimo Suvorov's principles of training for sailors and officers. Ushakov's innovations were among the first successful developments of naval tactics, from its \"line\" to maneuvering concepts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Several warships have been named after Admiral Ushakov.  On 3 March 1944 the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR established the Order of Ushakov for Navy officers who showed outstanding achievement leading to victory over a numerically superior enemy. This medal was one of several which was preserved in Russia upon the dissolution of the Soviet Union, thus remaining one of the highest military awards in the Russian Federation. The Ushakov Medal was established simultaneously for servicemen who had risked their life in naval theatres defending the Soviet Union. In May 2014, the medal was presented to 19 surviving British sailors who had served on the Arctic convoys during World War II in a ceremony aboard HMS \"Belfast\".  The Baltic Naval Institute in Kaliningrad also carries his name. The minor planet 3010 Ushakov, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Ivanovna Chernykh in 1978, is named after him.  In 1953 two Soviet films were released portraying his career \"Attack from the Sea\" and \"Admiral Ushakov\". In both films he was played by Ivan Pereverzev.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Canonization.", "content": "The Russian Orthodox Church glorified Ushakov as a patron saint of the Russian Navy in 2000. His relics are preserved in Sanaksar Monastery.  In 2005, in the Cathedral of St. Theodore Ushakov in Saransk (Mordovia), Patriarch Alexius II declared Saint Feodor Ushakov the patron saint of Russian nuclear-armed strategic bombers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fyodor Fyodorovich Ushakov (; – ) was the most illustrious Russian naval commander and admiral of the 18th century. He is notable for winning every engagement he participated in as the admiral of the Russian fleet present.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972774}
{"src_title": "Margaret the Virgin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Hagiography.", "content": "According to the version of the story in \"Golden Legend\", she was a native of Antioch and the daughter of a pagan priest named Aedesius. Her mother having died soon after her birth, Margaret was nursed by a Christian woman five or six leagues (6.9–8.3 miles) from Antioch. Having embraced Christianity and consecrated her virginity to God, Margaret was disowned by her father, adopted by her nurse, and lived in the country keeping sheep with her foster mother (in what is now Turkey). Olybrius, Governor of the Roman Diocese of the East, asked to marry her, but with the demand that she renounce Christianity. Upon her refusal, she was cruelly tortured, during which various miraculous incidents occurred. One of these involved being swallowed by Satan in the shape of a dragon, from which she escaped alive when the cross she carried irritated the dragon's innards. The \"Golden Legend\" describes this last incident as \"apocryphal and not to be taken seriously\" (trans. Ryan, 1.369).  As Saint Marina, she is associated with the sea, which \"may in turn point to an older goddess tradition\", reflecting the pagan divinity, Aphrodite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "The Eastern Orthodox Church knows Margaret as Saint Marina, and celebrates her feast day on 17 July. She has been identified with Saint Pelagia, \"Marina\" being the Latin equivalent of the Greek \"Pelagia\" who—according to her hagiography by James, the deacon of Heliopolis—had been known as \"Margarita\" (\"Pearl\"). We possess no historical documents on Saint Margaret as distinct from Saint Pelagia. The Greek Marina came from Antioch in Pisidia (as opposed to Antioch of Syria), but this distinction was lost in the West.  The story was summarized in the 9th-century martyrology of Rabanus Maurus, even if it was too fantastic for many clergy (it went too far even for Jacobus de Voragine, who remarks that the part where she is eaten by the dragon is to be considered apocryphal).  In 1222, the Council of Oxford added her to the list of feast days, and so her cult acquired great popularity. Many versions of the story were told in 13th-century England, in Anglo-Norman (including one ascribed to Nicholas Bozon), English, and Latin, and more than 250 churches are dedicated to her in England, most famously, St. Margaret's, Westminster, the parish church of the British Houses of Parliament in London. In art, she is usually pictured escaping from, or standing above, a dragon.  She is recognized as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, being listed as such in the Roman Martyrology for 20 July. She was also included from the 12th to the 20th century among the saints to be commemorated wherever the Roman Rite was celebrated, but was then removed from that list because of the entirely fabulous character of the stories told of her.  Every year on Epip 23 the Coptic Orthodox church celebrates her martyrdom day, and on Hathor 23 the Coptic church celebrates the dedication of a church to her name. Saint Mary church in Cairo holds a relic believed to be Margaret's right hand, previously moved from the Angel Michael Church (modernly known as Haret Al Gawayna) following its destruction in the 13th century AD. It is displayed to the public and visitors on her feast days.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Margaret, known as Margaret of Antioch in the West, and as () in the East, is celebrated as a saint on 20 July in the Western Rite Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches, on 17 July (Julian calendar) by the Eastern-Rite Orthodox Church and on Epip 23 and Hathor 23 in the Coptic Churches.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972775}
{"src_title": "Nicolás Avellaneda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in San Miguel de Tucumán, his mother moved with him to Bolivia after the death of his father, Marco Avellaneda, during a revolt against Juan Manuel de Rosas. He studied law at Córdoba, without graduating. Back at Tucumán he founded \"El Eco del Norte\", and moved to Buenos Aires in 1857, becoming director of the \"El Nacional\" and editor of \"El Comercio de la Plata\". He finished his studies at Buenos Aires, meeting Domingo Faustino Sarmiento. Sarmiento helped him to become teacher of economy at the University of Buenos Aires. He wrote \"\"Estudio sobre las leyes de tierras públicas\"\" (), proposing to give the lands to producers that make production from them. This system, similar to the one employed at the United States, suggested to reduce bureaucracy and pointed that this would allow stable populations and population growth.  He was a member of the house of representatives in 1859 and Minister of Government of Adolfo Alsina in the Buenos Aires province in 1866. During Domingo Faustino Sarmiento's presidency, he was Minister of Justice and Education. He implemented the educational reform that was defining of his government.  Avellaneda attained the presidency in 1874 but had its legitimacy contested by Bartolomé Mitre and supported by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento. Mitre deployed the army against Avellaneda but was defeated by Julio Argentino Roca. Mitre was held prisoner and judged by military justice, but Avellaneda indulged him in order to promote pacification. He also included Rufino de Elizalde and José María Gutiérrez, supporters of Mitre, as members of his cabinet.  In line with people like Alberdi or Sarmiento, who thought that European immigration was crucial to the Argentine development, he promoted the \"Avellaneda law\" that allowed European farmers ease to get terrains. The immigration numbers were doubled in a few years.  Having won the revolution and bringing peace to the country, Avellaneda faced the serious economic crisis, centering his efforts on the control of the land with the Conquest of the Desert and expanding the railroads, the cereal and meat exports, and the European immigration, specially to Patagonia. During his presidency, the economy of Argentina was seriously affected by the European crisis putting the country on the edge of debt default. Deciding to take Argentina from its debts, he said that \"[...]there are two million Argentines who would economize even to their hunger and thirst to fulfill the promises of our public commitments in the foreign markets\". He reduced the budget and applied a weak protectionism. The crisis was eventually fixed with the growing exports of refrigerated meat to Europe, a new developing industrial method of the time.  A prolific writer, his works have been published in 12 volumes.  Aged 37, he was the youngest Argentine president ever elected. He had served in the Argentine Senate for five months in 1874 and returned to the Senate in 1883 until his death. He died on a ship returning from medical treatment in France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicolás Remigio Aurelio Avellaneda Silva (3 October 1837 – 24 November 1885) was an Argentine politician and journalist, and president of Argentina from 1874 to 1880. Avellaneda's main projects while in office were banking and education reform, leading to Argentina's economic growth. The most important events of his government were the Conquest of the Desert and the transformation of the City of Buenos Aires into a federal district.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972776}
{"src_title": "European Social Fund", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The European Social Fund was created in the founding Treaty of Rome in 1957. It is the oldest of the Structural Funds. It was established as a \"remedial instrument\" against the end of nationalist protectionism due to the advent of the European Economic Community.  As of 2015, the main goal is to foster employment, reduce social exclusion and invest in skills. In some EU countries it also supports administrative reform.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The place of the ESF in EU policies and strategies.", "content": "The overarching strategy of the European Union is the Europe 2020 strategy, which aims to promote \"smart, sustainable, inclusive growth\" with greater coordination of national and European policies. In 2010 this succeeded the Lisbon Agenda which aimed to make Europe the most dynamic and competitive knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion, and respect for the environment, by 2010. The objectives of Europe 2020 shape the priorities of the ESF.  In the light of the need to increase competitiveness and employment against a background of globalisation and ageing populations, the European Employment Strategy provides a coordinating framework for the Member States to agree common priorities and goals in the field of employment. These common priorities are then taken up in the Employment Guidelines and incorporated into the National Reform Programmes prepared by the individual Member States. ESF funding is deployed by the Member States in support of their National Reform Programmes as well as their National Strategic Reference Frameworks (NSRF) which establish a member state's main priorities for spending the EU Structural Funds it receives.  The European Social Agenda also plays a role in shaping the priorities of ESF spending. The Social Agenda seeks to update the 'European social model' by modernising labour markets and social protection systems so that workers and businesses can benefit from the opportunities created by international competition, technological advances and changing population patterns while protecting the most vulnerable in society. In addition, the concept of 'flexicurity' contributes to current ESF initiatives. Flexicurity can be defined as a policy strategy to enhance the flexibility of labour markets, work organisations and labour relations, on the one hand, and employment security and income security on the other. The term flexicurity encompasses a new approach to employment involving 'work for life' rather than the 'job for life' model of the past. It encourages workers to take charge of their working lives through lifelong training, adapting to change and mobility.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Strategy definition.", "content": "The ESF is managed through seven-year programming cycles. The ESF strategy and budget is negotiated between the EU member states, the European Parliament and the EU Commission. The strategy defines the objectives of ESF funding, which it shares partly or wholly with other structural funding. For the current ESF funding cycle these objectives are:  The strategy also lays down broad priority axes – the actions required to achieve the objectives and which are eligible for funding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Funds allocation.", "content": "The level of ESF funding differs from one region to another depending on their relative wealth. EU regions are divided into four categories of eligible regions, based on their regional GDP per capita compared to the EU average (EU with 25 or 15 Member States) and split between the two objectives.  Convergence objective includes:  The regional competitiveness and employment objective includes:  In convergence regions, ESF co-financing of projects can reach 85% of total costs. In regional competitiveness and employment regions, 50% co-financing is more common. For the richer Member States and regions, ESF funding complements existing national employment initiatives; for less-wealthy Member States, ESF funding can be the main source of funds for employment-related initiatives. The eligible regions for the current ESF programming round (2007–2013) are shown on the map.  While the allocation of funds to poorer regions intends to work towards the objective of convergence between regions (i.e. inter-regional equality), research has suggested that the funds may amplify intra-regional inequalities with for example in Poland richer municipalities receiving more funds than poorer municipalities within the regions. One explanation may lie in the co-financing procedures with poorer potential applicants being less likely to gather the required co-funding. Another issue with allocation has been that project applications have been rejected purely on minor administrative issues. While this has improved over time, research has shown that information provision and familiarity with application procedures is still a barrier in submitting applications for funds, and may play a larger role in than outright corruption in the selection process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "While strategy definition is done at EU level, implementation of ESF funding is the responsibility of EU Member States and regions. Once the strategy and budget allocation have been agreed, a shared approach to programming is taken. Seven-year Operational Programmes are planned by Member States and their regions together with the European Commission. These Operational Programmes describe the fields of activity that will be funded, which can be geographical or thematic.  The Member States designate national ESF management authorities that are responsible for selecting projects, disbursing funds, and evaluating the progress and results of projects. Certification and auditing authorities are also appointed to monitor and ensure compliance of expenditure to the ESF regulation.  Until 2007, approximately 5% of ESF funds were allocated to 'Community Initiatives' to support transnational and innovative actions. They have addressed such issues as employment for women (NOW), disabled people (INTEGRA) and young people, new professions and qualifications (EUROFORM) and adaptability (ADAPT). The most recent of these, the EQUAL Community Initiative, saw in the admission of 10 new Member States in 2004 but ended in 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ESF projects.", "content": "The implementation of the ESF on the ground is achieved through projects which are applied for and implemented by a wide range of organisations, both in the public and private sector. These include national, regional and local authorities, educational and training institutions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the voluntary sector, as well as social partners, for example, trade unions and works councils, industry and professional associations, and individual companies.  The beneficiaries of ESF projects are varied, for example, individual workers, groups of people, industrial sectors, trades unions, public administrations or individual firms. Vulnerable groups of people who have particular difficulty in finding work or getting on in their jobs, such as the long-term unemployed and women, are a particular target group. As an indication, it is estimated that over 9 million individuals from these vulnerable groups are helped each year through participation in ESF projects – see chart 1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European Social Fund, 2007–2013.", "content": "The last programming cycle of the ESF ran from 2007 to 2013 under the banner \"Investing in People\". Over this period, it invested around €75 billion – close to 10% of the EU budget – on employment-enhancing projects. Funding was given to six specific priority areas:  In any given region, the actual distribution of funds varied to reflect local and regional priorities. All six priorities were applicable to both the convergence and regional competitiveness and employment objectives; however, convergence would normally place an emphasis on the ‘improving human capital’ priority.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European Social Fund (ESF) is the European Union's main financial instrument for supporting employment in the member states of the European Union as well as promoting economic and social cohesion. ESF spending amounts to around 10% of the EU's total budget.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972777}
{"src_title": "Tongue splitting", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Process.", "content": "There are several methods used to split tongues: cutting with a scalpel, cauterizing and tying off. It is performed by oral surgeons, plastic surgeons, or body modification practitioners, or done oneself, but only oral and plastic surgeons are licensed. Before splitting with any method, some choose to have a well-healed tongue piercing where the back end of the split is intended to be. This effectively prevents the tongue from healing forward from the back of the cut, which would result in a split that is not as deep as desired.  When using the scalpel method, the tongue is cut down the middle with a scalpel and each half is stitched or sutured along the cut edge. This helps prevent the sides from healing back to each other and also achieves a more rounded and natural look. In some cases the scalpel is heated to provide a cauterizing effect, limiting bleeding.  Cauterizing can be done with a cautery unit or an argon laser. Both burn the tongue in half which closes off blood vessels, preventing much bleeding. If an established tongue piercing is not used as the back end of the split with this method, the tongue has a higher tendency to heal and the procedure must be done again to achieve the depth desired.  The tie off or fishing line method is done by the person themselves. Fishing line is tied through an existing tongue piercing to the tip of the tongue and tightened. When the line has cinched through the tissue and become loose, it is cut out and a new tighter line is placed in to continue the cut. This slower process allows the tongue to heal as it is being split, negating the need for stitches or cauterization to control bleeding as blood loss is limited. It can take anywhere from a few days to a few months to split the tongue this way depending on the individual's pain tolerance and determination.  The tongue generally heals in 1–2 weeks, during which time the person may have difficulty with speech or their normal dietary habits. Splitting is reversible but the reversal is even more painful than the tongue splitting procedure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Result.", "content": "After the tongue is split and the sides healed, control over the individual sides can be gained with practice. The two halves can be raised up and down opposite each other, spread apart from the other half which makes the split quite apparent and some objects can be grasped onto and held. A split tongue is an easy body modification to conceal with a little effort. Keeping the tongue in the mouth and the two halves pressed together when speaking can keep the split out of view. When the two sides are held together, it appears as though there is only a deep crevice in the center of the tongue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motivation.", "content": "Many cite increased sensation, enhancement when kissing for the giver and receiver or novelty, but the reasons can be deeper as well. Challenging oneself, rites of passage, connecting with or being in control of one's body, making a spiritual connection or testing the body's limits are also reasons given. Like all body modifications, it can be used to connect or identify with a specific group or to ward off those who would make quick undesired judgments based on appearance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "Dustin Allor, a 19-year-old body piercer in the U.S., split her tongue in 1996 herself. Not having any reference of this being done before, she came up with the tie-off or fishing line method. In 1997 she was featured on the cover of Fakir Musafar's Body Play Magazine. Dustin's documented success with this process inspired coworker Natalie Lowry to follow suit in 2001.  Erik Sprague, aka The Lizardman had his tongue split on July 18, 1997, by oral surgeon Dr. Lawrence Busino, using an argon laser. A new deeper split was done on October 3, 1997. This was the third modern tongue bifurcation and the first one done using a laser.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Laws.", "content": "The legality of tongue splitting varies greatly depending on the country and within those countries, individual states or territories. Some examples are given below, but do not encompass all the laws regarding this subject.  Some branches of the U.S. military ban body modifications that detract from a professional military image and explicitly include tongue splitting or forking as examples.  In 2003, Illinois became the first state in the U.S. to regulate tongue splitting, passing a law making it illegal to perform the procedure on another person, unless it is done by someone licensed to practice medicine. The law does not appear to prohibit performing the procedure on one's self. Since then New York, Delaware, and Texas have enacted laws that either ban the practice, ban the procedure on minors without parental consent, or restrict it to being performed by only doctors and/or dentists.  In 2009, the Australian state of Victoria enacted a ban on splitting the tongues of minors.  In 2017 Brendan McCarthy was charged in the United Kingdom for a number of body modifications including tongue splitting. He pleaded guilty in 2019 to causing grievous bodily harm with intent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tongue bifurcation, splitting or forking, is a type of body modification in which the tongue is cut centrally from its tip to as far back as the underside base, forking the end.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972778}
{"src_title": "Senusret III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Senusret III was the son of Senusret II and Khenemetneferhedjet I, also called Khenemetneferhedjet I Weret (\"the elder\"). Three wives of Senusret III are known for certain. These are Itakayt, Khenemetneferhedjet II and Neferthenut, all three mainly known from their burials next to the pyramid of the king at Dahshur. Several daughters are known, although they also are attested only by the burials around the king's pyramid and their exact relation to the king is disputable. These include Sithathor, Menet, Senetsenebtysy, and Meret. Amenemhat III was most likely a son of the king. Other sons are not known.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Initiatives.", "content": "Senusret III cleared a navigable canal through the first cataract of the Nile River, (this was different from the Canal of the Pharaohs, which apparently, Senusret III also tried to build). He also relentlessly pushed his kingdom's expansion into Nubia (from 1866 to 1863 BC) where he erected massive river forts including Buhen, Semna, Shalfak and Toshka at Uronarti.  He carried out at least four major campaigns into Nubia in his Years 8, 10, 16, and 19. His Year 8 stela at Semna documents his victories against the Nubians, through which he is thought to have made safe the southern frontier, preventing further incursions into Egypt. Another great stela from Semna dated to the third month of Year 16 of his reign mentions his military activities against both Nubia and Canaan. In it, he admonished his future successors to maintain the new border that he had created:  His final campaign, which was in his Year 19, was less successful because the king's forces were caught with the Nile being lower than normal and they had to retreat and abandon their campaign in order to avoid being trapped in hostile Nubian territory. Such was his forceful nature and immense influence that Senusret III was worshipped as a deity in Semna by later generations. Jacques Morgan, in 1894, found rock inscriptions near Sehel Island documenting his digging of a canal. Senusret III erected a temple and town in Abydos, and another temple in Medamud.  His court included the viziers Sobekemhat, Nebit, and Khnumhotep. Ikhernofret worked as treasurer for the king at Abydos. Senankh cleared the canal at Sehel for the king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Length of reign.", "content": "A double-dated papyrus in the Berlin Museum shows Year 20 of his reign next to Year 1 of his son, Amenemhat III; generally, this is presumed to be a proof for a coregency with his son, which should have been started in this year. According to Josef W. Wegner, a Year 39 hieratic control note was recovered on a white limestone block from: Wegner stresses that it is unlikely that Amenemhat III, Senusret's son and successor, would still be working on his father's temple nearly four decades into his own reign. He notes that the only possible explanation for the block's existence at the project is that Senusret III had a 39-year reign, with the final 20 years in coregency with his son Amenemhat III. Since the project was associated with a project of Senusret III, his Regnal Year was presumably used to date the block, rather than Year 20 of Amenemhat III. Wegner interprets this as an implication that Senusret was still alive in the first two decades of his son's reign.  Wegner's hypothesis is rejected by some scholars, such as Pierre Tallet and Harco Willems; according to them, it is more likely that such a coregency never occurred, and that the Year 39 control note still refers to Amenemhat III, who may have ordered some additions to Senusret's monuments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pyramid and complex.", "content": "Senusret's pyramid complex was built north-east of the Red Pyramid of Dashur. It far surpassed those from the early twelfth dynasty in size, grandeur, and underlying religious conceptions.  There has been speculation that Senusret was not necessarily buried there, but rather, in his sophisticated funerary complex in Abydos and his pyramid more likely being a cenotaph.  Senusret's pyramid is 105 meters square and 78 meters high. The total volume was approximately 288,000 cubic meters. The pyramid was built of a core of mud bricks. They were not made a consistent size implying that standardized moulds were not used. The burial chamber was lined with granite. Above the vaulted burial chamber was a second relieving chamber that was roofed with five pairs of limestone beams each weighing 30 tons. Above this was a third mudbrick vault.  The pyramid complex included a small mortuary temple and seven smaller pyramids for his queens. There is also an underground gallery with further burials for royal women. Here were found the treasures of Sithathor and queen Mereret. There was also a southern temple, however this has since been destroyed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royal statuary.", "content": "Senusret III is well known for his distinctive statues, which are almost immediately recognizable as his. On them, the king is depicted at different ages and, in particular, on the aged ones he sports a strikingly somber expression: the eyes are protruding from hollow eye sockets with pouches and lines under them, the mouth and lips have a grimace of bitterness, and the ears are enormous and protruding forward. In sharp contrast with the even-exaggerated realism of the head and, regardless of his age, the rest of the body is idealized as forever young and muscular, in the more classical pharaonic fashion.  Scholars could only make assumptions about the reasons why Senusret III chose to have himself portrayed in such a unique way, and polarized on two diverging opinions. Some argue that Senusret wanted to be represented as a lonely and disenchanted ruler, human before divine, consumed by worries and by his responsibilities. At the opposite, other scholars suggested that the statues originally would convey the idea of a dreadful tyrant able to see and hear everything under his strict control.  More recently, it has been suggested that the purpose of such peculiar portraiture was not to represent realism, but rather, to reveal the perceived nature of royal power at the time of Senusret's reign.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trivia.", "content": "Senusret is a major character in Christian Jacq's historical fiction series \"The Mysteries of Osiris\"  Many conservative biblical scholars consider Senusret the pharaoh mentioned in Genesis 39-47, who elevated Joseph to a high administrative post, answerable directly to him.  Colchis", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Khakaure Senusret III (also written as Senwosret III or the hellenised form, Sesostris III) was a pharaoh of Egypt. He ruled from 1878 BC to 1839 BC during a time of great power and prosperity, and was the fifth king of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. He was a great pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty and is considered to be, perhaps, the most powerful Egyptian ruler of the dynasty. Consequently, he is regarded as one of the sources for the legend about Sesostris. His military campaigns gave rise to an era of peace and economic prosperity that reduced the power of regional rulers and led to a revival in craftwork, trade, and urban development. Senusret III was among the few Egyptian kings who were deified and honored with a cult during their own lifetime.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972779}
{"src_title": "Gustav Horn, Count of Pori", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "Gustaf Horn was born at Örbyhus in Uppsala County, Sweden. He was the youngest son of Field Marshal Carl Horn and Agneta von Dellwig. He was born while his father was imprisoned in Örbyhus Castle at Tierp. He was born into the Swedish (geographically and ethnically Finnish) noble family Horn af Kankas and was educated extensively in European universities. He studied military sciences under prince Maurice of Orange in the Netherlands. As a colonel, Gustav Horn took part in the siege of Riga in 1621 and was seriously wounded. He led troops which conquered Tartu in Livonian Estonia. With Count Jakob De la Gardie, he led the defense of Livonia against Poland in the late 1620s. At age 35, he was elevated to the rank of Field Marshal by King Gustav II Adolf.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Command of Swedish forces.", "content": "When King Gustav II Adolf decided to join the war in Germany (1630), he appointed Gustav Horn as his second in command. At the battle of Breitenfeld in 1631, Horn prevented the Imperial force under Tilly from flanking the main body of the Swedish army, after their Saxon allies had fled the field. After this Horn led troops in Upper (southern) Franconia and conquered among others, Mergentheim, the town of the Teutonic Order and the bishopric of Bamberg). He then went to Bavaria with the king. Horn was sent to lead troops in the Rhineland, where he occupied Koblenz and Trier, and continued to Swabia.  After the death of King Gustav II Adolf at Lützen in November 1632, Field Marshal Horn and General John Banér were appointed to the overall command of Swedish forces in Germany. Gustav Horn's father-in-law, the Chancellor Oxenstierna, took the leadership of the civil government. When Horn was ordered to combine his troops with those of Bernhard of Weimar, the two men found themselves unable to work together, and they were given separate commands.  After Wallenstein's murder in 1634, Horn took some areas in Swabia: in the spring of that year, his troops unsuccessfully laid siege to the imperial city of Überlingen, which would have been a rich and valuable prize. In early September 1634 his forces, and those of Bernard of Saxony, were crushed at the battle of Nördlingen by combined Habsburg and Spanish forces. Horn was taken prisoner and held by the Roman Catholic army in Burghausen Castle until 1642. He was exchanged for three imperial generals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "Following his exchange, Horn was appointed Vice President of the War Department. During the war against Denmark in 1644, Horn led the attack on Skåne and conquered the whole province, except the towns of Malmö and Kristianstad. Malmö's siege lasted until the Treaty of Brömsebro brought the war to an end. In 1651, Horn received Pori (\"Björneborg\") on the west coast of Finland. His estate at Alūksne in Livonia (\"Marienborg\") was made into a barony. Horn then served as Governor-General in Livonia, and as Lord High Constable of the empire, becoming Lord President of the War Department. When the war against Poland broke out in 1655, Gustav Horn directed the defense of Sweden against possible Polish invasion. Gustav Horn was one of the most capable of Gustav II Adolf's military commanders, and also an able administrator. His particular skills were in arranging defenses for several sorts of situations. He also maintained relatively strict discipline, so his troops did not plunder and pillage as much as others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Häringe Manor.", "content": "Gustaf Horn acquired Häringe Manor (\"Häringe slott\") at Västerhaninge parish in Södermanland during 1625. The estate was received as a gift from King Gustav II Adolf. The main building was built on the initiative of Gustaf Horn and was completed in 1657. After the death of Gustaf Horn in 1657, the estate was inherited by his daughter Agneta Horn (1629–1672), by her daughter Hedvig Catharina Lillie (1695-1745) in 1730 and then by Carl Julius De la Gardie (1729-1786) in 1745.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1628 Horn married first to Kristina Oxenstierna (1609 1631), daughter of Count and Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna. They had two children:  In 1643 Horn married Sigrid Bielke (1620–1679). They had nine children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Count Gustav Horn af Björneborg (October 22, 1592 – May 10, 1657) was a Finnish nobleman of the Swedish Empire, military officer, and Governor-General. He was appointed member of the Royal Council in 1625, Field Marshal in 1628, Governor General of Livonia in 1652 and Lord High Constable since 1653. In the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), he was instrumental as a commander in securing victory at the Battle of Breitenfeld, in 1631. He was High Councillor of the realm in 1625, elevated to the rank of field marshal in 1628, and sometimes commander-in-chief of Swedish forces in Germany during Thirty Years' War. After the war, he served as Governor-General of Livonia 1652, President of War department and Lord High Constable in 1653. In 1651, Queen Christina created him Count of Björneborg (\"Horn af Björneborg\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972780}
{"src_title": "Emomali Rahmon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Rahmon was born as Emomali Sharipovich Rakhmonov () to Sharif Rahmonov and Mayram Sharifova, a peasant family in Danghara, Kulob Oblast (present-day Khatlon province). From 1971 to 1974 he served in the Soviet Union's Pacific Fleet, during which he was stationed in the Primorsky Krai. After completing the military service, Rahmon returned to his native village where he worked for some time as an electrician.  As rising apparatchik in Tajikistan, he became a chairman of the collective state farm of his native Danghara. According to his official biography, Rahmon graduated from the Tajik State National University with a specialist's degree in Economics in 1982. After working for several years in the trade union of Sovkhoz in Danghara, Rahmon was appointed chairman of the sovkhoz in 1987.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "In 1990, Rahmon was elected a people's deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the Tajik SSR. President Rahmon Nabiyev was forced to resign in the first months of the Civil War in Tajikistan in August 1992. Akbarsho Iskandarov, Speaker of the Supreme Soviet, became acting president. Iskandarov resigned in November 1992 in an attempt to end the civil unrest. That same month, the Supreme Soviet met in Khujand for its 16th session and declared Tajikistan a parliamentary republic. Rahmon was then elected by the members of the Supreme Soviet as its chairman—a post equivalent to that of president—and the head of government.  During the civil war that lasted from 1992–97, Rahmon's rule was opposed by the United Tajik Opposition. As many as 100,000 people died during the war. He survived an assassination attempt on 30 April 1997 in Khujand, as well as two attempted coups in August 1997 and in November 1998.  In 1994, a new constitution reestablished the presidency. Rahmon was elected to the post on 6 November 1994 and sworn in ten days later. Following constitutional changes, he was re-elected on 6 November 1999 to a seven-year term, officially taking 97% of the vote. On 22 June 2003, he won a referendum that would allow him to run for two more consecutive seven-year terms after his term expired in 2006. The opposition alleges that this amendment was hidden in a way that verged upon electoral fraud. Rahmon was re-elected for a seven-year term in a controversial election on 6 November 2006, with about 79% of the vote, according to the official results. On 6 November 2013, he was re-elected for the second seven-year term in office, with about 84% of the vote, in an election that the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe said had lacked a \"genuine choice and meaningful pluralism\".  In December 2015, a law passed by Tajikistan's parliament gave Emomali Rahmon the title \"Founder Of Peace and National Unity, Leader of the Nation\" (Tajik: Асосгузори сулҳу ваҳдати миллӣ – Пешвои миллат, \"Asosguzori sulhu vahdati millî – Peşvo‘i millat\"; Russian: Основатель мира и национального единства – Лидер нации, \"Osnovatel mira i natsionalnogo yedinstva – Lider natsii\"). A shorter version of the title, \"Leader of the Nation,\" is used frequently. In addition to granting Rahmon a lifelong immunity from prosecution, the law also gave him a number of other lifelong privileges including veto powers over all major state decisions, the freedom to address the nation and parliament on all matters he deems important, and the privilege of attending all government meetings and parliament sessions.  On 22 May 2016, a nationwide referendum approved a number of changes to the country's constitution. One of the main changes lifted the limit on presidential terms, effectively allowing Rahmon to stay in power for as many terms as he wishes. Other key changes outlawed faith-based political parties, thus finalizing the removal of the outlawed Islamic Revival Party from Tajikistan's politics, and reduced the minimum eligibility age for presidential candidates from 35 to 30, effectively enabling Rahmon's older son, Rustam Emomali, to run for president any time after 2017. In January 2017, Rustam Emomali was appointed Mayor of Dushanbe, a key position, which is seen by some analysts as the next step to the top of the government.  According to the US ambassador in Tajikistan, Rahmon's government is characterized by cronyism and corruption. Rahmon and his family control the country's major businesses, including the largest bank. In November 2018, Rahmon launched a hydroelectric station to solve energy problems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name changes.", "content": "In March 2007, Rahmonov changed his surname to \"Rahmon\", getting rid of the Russian-style \"-ov\" ending. He also removed the patronymic, \"Sharipovich\", from his name altogether. Rahmon explained that he had done so out of respect for his cultural heritage. Following the move, scores of governments officials, members of parliament, and civil servants around the country removed Russian-style patronymics and \"-ov\" endings from their surnames. In April 2016, Tajikistan officially banned the giving of Russian-style patronymics and surnames to newborn children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion and convictions.", "content": "Rahmon is a Sunni Muslim and has frequently stressed his Muslim background even though his administration is ironically engaged in a relentless campaign against public displays of Islamic devotion. His suppression of Islamic expression includes banning beards, attendance at the mosque for women and children under eighteen, hajj for people under 40, studying in Islamic schools outside Tajikistan, the production, import or export of Islamic books without permission (implemented in 2017), using loudspeakers to broadcast the adhan, veils, madrassas, Islamist political parties and Arabic-sounding names (implemented in 2016). Furthermore, mosques are heavily regulated, providing unofficial Islamic teaching can lead to up to twelve years of imprisonment, and an arduous process is required in order to obtain a permit to establish an Islamic organisation, publish an Islamic book, or go on pilgrimage to Mecca. In January 2016, Rahmon performed an Umrah with a number of his children and senior members of his government. That was Rahmon's fourth pilgrimage to Mecca.  His reply to critics of the election standards of the 2006 Tajikistani presidential elections was:  During a 2010 Organisation of the Islamic Conference session hosted in Dushanbe, Rahmon spoke against what he deemed was the misuse of Islam toward political ends, claiming that \"Terrorism, terrorists, have no nation, no country, no religion... Using the name 'Islamic terrorism' only discredits Islam and dishonors the pure and harmless religion of Islam.\"  Membership in Hizb ut-Tahrir, a militant Islamic party which today aims for an overthrow of secular governments and the unification of Tajiks under one Islamic state, is illegal and members are subject to arrest and imprisonment.  The Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP) is a banned Islamist political party and designated as a terrorist organization since 2015.  In 2017 the government of Tajikistan passed a law requiring people to \"stick to traditional national clothes and culture\", which has been widely seen as an attempt to prevent women from wearing Islamic clothing, in particular the style of headscarf wrapped under the chin, in contrast to the traditional Tajik headscarf tied behind the head.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He is married to Azizmo Asadullayeva and has nine children: seven daughters and two sons. Two of his children, Rustam Emomali and Ozoda Rahmon, are senior officials in his administration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emomali Rahmon (; born 5 October 1952) is a Tajikistani politician who has served as President of Tajikistan (or its equivalent post) since 1994. His rule is regarded by Human Rights Watch as a dictatorship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972781}
{"src_title": "Charles, Grand Duke of Baden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "His father was Charles Louis, Hereditary Prince of Baden, the heir to the Margraviate of Baden, which was raised to a grand duchy after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. His mother was Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt, the daughter of Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. He was the brother-in-law of the rulers of Bavaria, Russia, and Sweden. His sister Caroline was the queen consort of Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria, his sister Louise was the empress consort of Alexander I of Russia and his sister Frederica was the queen consort of Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden.  At the age of 15, Charles went on a journey to visit his sisters in their courts in St. Petersburg and Stockholm. He was on his way home with his father, when his father died in a fall from his coach on 15 December 1801. Charles was a witness to this accident.  Due to the strong influence of France on the court of Baden, Charles was forced to marry Emperor Napoléon I's adopted daughter, Stéphanie de Beauharnais, in Paris on 8 April 1806, this despite his own protests and those of his mother and sisters. Charles apparently preferred the hand of his cousin Princess Augusta of Bavaria. It would be five years before the couple would produce an heir.  Charles went to war in 1807 as head of the Baden contingent under Marshal Lefebvre. There he took part in the siege of Danzig.  In 1808, Charles returned to the side of his grandfather. His grandfather's age was beginning to show and Charles became co-regent. Charles was 25 years old when he succeeded his grandfather Charles Frederick upon the latter's death on 11 June 1811.  On 4 October 1817, as neither he nor the other sons from his grandfather's first marriage had surviving male descendants, Charles confirmed the succession rights of his half-uncles from the Hochberg morganatic line, granting each the title, Prince and Margrave of Baden, and the style of \"Highness\". He asked the princely congress in Aachen on 20 November 1818, just weeks before his death, to confirm the succession rights of the sons of Louise Caroline, Countess of Hochberg, morganatic second wife of Grand Duke Charles Frederick.  But this proclamation of Baden's succession evoked international challenges. The Congress of Vienna had, in 1815, recognised the eventual claims of Austria and Bavaria to parts of Baden which it allocated to Charles Frederick in the Upper Palatinate and the Breisgau, anticipating that upon his imminent demise those lands would cease to be part of the Grand Duchy. The disputes were resolved by the Treaty of Frankfurt, 1819, under which Baden ceded a portion of Wertheim, already enclaved within Bavaria, to that Kingdom, whereupon the succession as settled in 1817 was recognized by Bavaria and Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "Hereditary Prince Charles married Stéphanie de Beauharnais (28 August 1789 – 29 January 1860), daughter of Claude de Beauharnais and adoptive daughter of Emperor Napoléon I in Paris on 8 April 1806. Their children:  As Grand Duke Charles did not have any surviving male children, upon his death in Rastatt, he was succeeded by his uncle Louis I. It has been speculated that the foundling Kaspar Hauser was his son, and therefore the actual hereditary prince.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles (Karl Ludwig Friedrich; 8 July 1786 – 8 December 1818) became ruler of the Grand Duchy of Baden as its grand duke on 11 June 1811 and reigned until his death in 1818. He was born in Karlsruhe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972782}
{"src_title": "Honeydew (secretion)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Religion and mythology.", "content": "In Norse mythology, dew falls from the ash tree Yggdrasil to the earth, and according to the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Gylfaginning\", \"this is what people call honeydew and from it bees feed.\"  In Greek mythology, \"méli\", or \"honey\", drips from the Manna–ash, (Fraxinus ornus), with which the \"Meliae\", or \"ash tree nymphs\", nursed the infant god Zeus on the island of Crete, (as in the \"Hymn to Zeus\" by Callimachus).  Honey-dew is referenced in the last lines of Samuel Coleridge's poem \"Kubla Khan\", perhaps because of its mythological connotations:  In the Hebrew Bible, while the Israelites are wandering through the desert after the Exodus, they are miraculously provided with a substance, manna, that is sometimes associated with honeydew. Exodus 16:31 provides a description: \"it was like coriander seed, white, and the taste of it was like wafers made with honey.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nectar producing trees.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eucalyptus.", "content": "In eucalypt forests, production of both the honeydew nectar and manna tends to increase in spring and autumn. Eucalyptus can produce even more manna than honeydew nectar. The sugar glider possum eats both, licking the nectar from branches. Other species attracted to the nectar include the feathertail glider, brush-tailed phascogale, and brown antechinus. Most trees are not able to produce sap if the phloem duct becomes damaged by mechanical processes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dates.", "content": "The Ommatissus lybicus is attracted to certain cultivars of the date palm tree. The honeydew producing insects preferred the Medjhool variety to the Deglet Noor in Israel, where they have been observed in the Arava Valley. Very dense insect populations may have some adverse effects. Different methods of controlling the insects, including natural and chemical, have been studied.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tamarisk.", "content": "Two scale insects in the Sinai, Trabutina mannipara and Najacoccus serpentinus feed on Tamarisk trees. They secrete a sugary nectar that turns white when it hardens, resembling certain whitish flakes described in the Hebrew scriptures.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Honeydew is a sugar-rich sticky liquid, secreted by aphids and some scale insects as they feed on plant sap. When their mouthpart penetrates the phloem, the sugary, high-pressure liquid is forced out of the anus of the aphid. Honeydew is particularly common as a secretion in hemipteran insects and is often the basis for trophobiosis. Some caterpillars of Lycaenidae butterflies and some moths also produce honeydew.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972783}
{"src_title": "1993 Men's Ice Hockey World Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "World Championship Group A (Germany).", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consolation Round 11–12 Place.", "content": "\"Switzerland was relegated to the Group B.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World Championship Group B (Netherlands).", "content": "Played in Eindhoven 25 March to 4 April. The British team, just promoted from Group C, won all their games. Their first game was won by either keen strategy, or controversy, depending on how you view it. With the score against tournament favorite Poland tied three all, the British coach, Alex Dampier, asked the referee to measure the opposing goalie's stick. It was found to be illegal, and Great Britain scored the winning goal on the ensuing powerplay.  \"Great Britain was promoted to the Group A while Bulgaria was relegated to the Group C.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Championship Group C (Slovenia).", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying Round.", "content": "All qualifiers were played from 6 to 8 November 1992.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group 1 (Latvia).", "content": "Played in Riga. The winner would play in Group C, the other two nations had to play each other the following year for inclusion into Group C2.  \"Latvia qualified for the Group C.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group 2 (Belarus).", "content": "Played in Minsk. The top two teams moved on to Group C in the spring, last place was included in Group C1 in 1994. Azerbaijan had the option of playing in this group, but did not.  \"Ukraine and Kazakhstan both qualified for Group C.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group 3 (Croatia/Slovenia).", "content": "Played as a home and home series in Zagreb and Ljubljana. The winner would go on to Group C, the loser would have to try to qualify next year for Group C2. Originally Luxembourg was to play in this group but declined.  \"Slovenia qualified for the Group C.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group 4 (Turkey).", "content": "Played in Ankara. Originally South Africa was to be in this group as well, but they went directly to the Group C instead.  \"Israel qualified for Group C.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First Round.", "content": "Played from 12–18 March. The first and second place from each group of six advanced to the semifinals, and then finals, with the winner gaining promotion to the Group B. The three other semi-finalists, together with the two third place teams, would remain to form Group C1 in 1994. The remaining six nations would comprise Group C2, effectively being relegated. At the time of this tournament, the expected format for 1994 was different. South Korea beat Spain seven to three to win what was expected to be a battle to remain in the Group C. Instead, Group C was divided into two parts putting them both in the bottom tier.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group 1.", "content": "Played in Bled.  \"Belgium, South Korea, and Israel were relegated to the Group C2.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group 2.", "content": "Played in Ljubljana.  \"Australia, Spain, and South Africa were relegated to the Group C2.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "\"Latvia was promoted to the Group B.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ranking and statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final standings.", "content": "The final standings of the tournament according to IIHF:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scoring leaders.", "content": "List shows the top skaters sorted by points, then goals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leading goaltenders.", "content": "Only the top five goaltenders, based on save percentage, who have played 50% of their team's minutes are included in this list.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 1993 Men's Ice Hockey World Championships was the 57th such event sanctioned by the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). Teams representing 32 countries participated in several levels of competition, with an additional six national teams failing to advance from mid-season preliminary qualifying tournaments. The competition also served as qualifications for group placements in the 1994 competition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972784}
{"src_title": "European tree frog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "European tree frogs are small; males range from in length, and females range from in length. They are slender, with long legs. Their dorsal skin is smooth, while their ventral skin is granular. Their dorsal skin can be green, gray, or tan depending on the temperature, humidity, or their mood. Their ventral skin is a whitish color, and the dorsal and ventral skin is separated by a dark brown lateral stripe from the eyes to the groin. Females have white throats, while males have golden brown throats with large (folded) vocal sacs. The head of \"H. arborea\" is rounded, the lip drops strongly, the pupil has the shape of a horizontal ellipse, and the tympanum is clearly recognizable. The discs on the frog's toes, which it uses to climb trees and hedges, is a characteristic feature of \"H. arborea\". Like other frogs, their hind legs are much larger and stronger than the fore legs, enabling the frogs to jump rapidly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Members of the \"H. arborea\" species complex are the only representatives of the widespread tree frog family (Hylidae) indigenous to mainland Europe. and are found across most of Europe (except Ireland), northwest Africa, and temperate Asia to Japan. This species complex is native to these countries:  Albania; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; the Czech Republic; Denmark; France; Georgia; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Israel (found in the Ayalon Valley); Italy; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the Republic of; Moldova; Montenegro; the Netherlands; Poland; Portugal; Romania; the Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine.  It has also been introduced to the United Kingdom, (although at least one British population, now thought to be extinct, may have been native), and it has been reintroduced to Latvia.  European tree frogs can be found in marshlands, damp meadows, reed beds, parks, gardens, vineyards, orchards, stream banks, lakeshores, or humid or dry forests. They tend to avoid dark or thick forests, and they are able to tolerate some periods of dryness; therefore, sometimes they are found in dry habitats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "European tree frogs reproduce in stagnant bodies of water, such as lakes, ponds, swamps, reservoirs, and sometimes puddles, from late March to June. They croak in the breeding season, even when migrating to their mating pools or ponds. Males will often change breeding ponds, even within the same breeding season. After a spring rain, the males will call females from low vegetation or shallow ponds. About 800 to 1000 eggs are laid in clumps the size of a walnut. Individual eggs are about 1.5 mm in diameter. After 10–14 days, the eggs hatch. Then, after three months, tadpoles metamorphose into frogs. Metamorphosis usually peaks from late July to early August. They are able to live for up to 15 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "According to the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species, \"H. arborea\" is “listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large population, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.” However, according to the IUCN, the population trend of \"H. arborea\" is decreasing. Some of the main threats to European tree frogs include habitat fragmentation and destruction, pollution of wetlands, predation from fish, capture for the pet trade, and climate change. Besides these main threats, other possible reasons for the decline in their populations include increased UVB radiation and local and far-ranging pesticides, fertilizers, and pollutants. Trout have been observed preying on European tree frogs, and in Europe, trout introduced into a pond result in a significant decline in their population. While \"H. arborea\" is sensitive to habitat fragmentation, habitat restoration (beginning in the 1980s) has been successful to increase populations. Besides habitat restoration, other attempts to increase population have included building of new breeding ponds, creation of “habitat corridors to connect breeding sites”, and reintroductions. This has been successful in Sweden, Latvia, and Denmark. Habitat protection has been shown to be the most important approach to conserving European tree frog populations.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European tree frog (\"Hyla arborea\") is a small tree frog. As traditionally defined, it was found throughout much of Europe, Asia and northern Africa, but based on molecular genetic and other data several populations formerly included in it are now recognized as separate species (for example, \"H. intermedia\" of Italy and nearby, \"H. molleri\" of the Iberian Peninsula, \"H. meridionalis\" of parts of southwestern Europe and northern Africa, and \"H. orientalis\" of parts of Eastern Europe, Turkey and the Black Sea and Caspian Sea regions), limiting the true European tree frog to Europe from France to Poland and Greece.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972785}
{"src_title": "Hyperspace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early depictions.", "content": "Though the concept of hyperspace did not emerge until the 20th century, along with space travel as a whole, stories of an unseen realm outside our normal world are part of earliest oral tradition. Some stories, before the development of the science fiction genre, feature space travel using a fictional existence outside what humans normally observe. In \"Somnium\" (published 1634), Johannes Kepler tells of travel to the moon with the help of demons. From the 1930s through to the 1950s, many stories in the science fiction magazines, \"Amazing Stories\" and \"Astounding Science Fiction\" introduced readers to hyperspace as a fourth spatial dimension. Kirk Meadowcroft's \"The Invisible Bubble\" (1928) and John Campbell's \"Islands of Space\" (1931) features an early reference to hyperspace. In John Buchan's Ruritanian romance novel \"The House of the Four Winds\" (1935), the young Scotsman John \"Jaikie\" Galt is said to know \"...less about women than he knew about the physics of hyperspace.\"  Writers of stories in magazines used the hyperspace concept in various ways. In \"The Mystery of Element 117\" (1949) by Milton Smith, a window is opened into a new \"hyperplane of hyperspace\" containing those who have already died on Earth. In Arthur C. Clarke's \"Technical Error\" (1950), a man is laterally reversed by a brief accidental encounter with \"hyperspace\".  Hyperspace travel became widespread in science fiction, because of the perceived limitations of FTL travel in ordinary space. In E.E. Smith's \"Gray Lensman\" (1939), a \"5th order drive\" allows travel to anywhere in the universe while hyperspace weapons are used to attack spaceships. In Nelson Bond's \"The Scientific Pioneer Returns\" (1940), the hyperspace concept is described. Isaac Asimov's Foundation series, first published between 1942 and 1944 in \"Astounding\", featured a Galactic Empire traversed through hyperspace. Asimov's short story \"Little Lost Robot\" (1947) features a \"Hyperatomic Drive\" shortened to \"Hyperdrive\" and observes that \"fooling around with hyper-space isn't fun\". In the 1955 classic \"Forbidden Planet\", the crew is in a hyperspace suspended state during interstellar travel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later depictions.", "content": "By the 1950s, hyperspace travel was established as a typical means for traveling. Hyperspace is often depicted as blue, pulsing with Cherenkov radiation. Many stories feature hyperspace as a dangerous place, and others require a ship to follow set hyperspatial \"highways\". Hyperspace is often described as being an unnavigable dimension where straying from a preset course can be disastrous.  In some science fiction, the danger of hyperspace travel is due to the chance that the route through hyperspace may take a ship too close to a celestial body with a large gravitational field, such as a star. In such scenarios, if a starship passes too close to a large gravitational field while in hyperspace, the ship is forcibly pulled out of hyperspace and reverts to normal space. Therefore, certain hyperspace \"routes\" may be mapped out that are safe, not passing too close to stars or other dangers.  Starships in hyperspace are sometimes depicted isolated from the normal universe; they cannot communicate with nor perceive things in real space until they emerge. Often there can be no interaction between two ships even when both are in hyperspace. This effect can be used as a plot device; because they are invisible to each other while in hyperspace, ships will encounter each other most often around contested planets or space stations. Hyperdrive may also allow for dramatic escapes as the pilot \"jumps\" to hyperspace in the midst of battle to avoid destruction.  In many stories, for various reasons, a starship cannot enter or leave hyperspace too close to a large concentration of mass, such as a planet or star; this means that hyperspace can only be used after a starship gets to the outside edge of a solar system, so the starship must use other means of propulsion to get to and from planets. The reasons given for such restrictions are usually technobabble, but their existence is just a plot device allowing for interstellar policies to actually form and exist. Science fiction author Larry Niven published his opinions to that effect in \"N-Space\". According to him, such an unrestricted technology would give no limits to what heroes and villains could do. In fact, every criminal would have the ability to destroy colonies, settlements and indeed whole worlds without any chance of stopping him.  Other writers have limited access to hyperspace by requiring a very large expenditure of energy in order to open a link (sometimes called a \"jump point\") between hyperspace and normal space; this effectively limits access to hyperspace to very large starships, or to large stationary \"jump gates\" that can open jump points for smaller vessels. These restrictions are often plot devices to prevent starships from easily escaping by slipping into hyperspace, thus ensuring epic space battles. An example of this is the \"jump\" technology as seen in \"Babylon 5\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hyperspace is a concept from science fiction relating to a superluminal method of travel. It is typically described as an alternative \"sub-region\" of space co-existing with our own universe which may be entered using an energy field or other device. In most fiction, hyperspace is described as a physical place that can be entered and exited. Once in hyperspace, the laws of general and special relativity do not behave in the same way when compared to normal outer space, allowing travelers though hyperspace to go great distances without being physically present in normal space and taking less time, measured from normal outer space, to travel said distance. \"Through hyper-space, that unimagineable region that was neither space nor time, matter nor energy, something nor nothing, one could traverse the length of the Galaxy in the interval between two neighboring instants of time.\" Hyperspace is a part of the universe where time can be traveled just like normal space's distance. This allows faster-than-light travel which is necessary to have practical outer space travel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972786}
{"src_title": "Shuriken", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Bo-shuriken.", "content": "A \"Bo-shuriken\" is a throwing weapon consisting of a straight iron or steel spike, usually four-sided but sometimes round or octagonal in section. Some examples have points on both ends. The length ranges from 12 to 21 cm (5–8 in) and the average weight from 35 to 150 grams (1.2–5.4 ounces). They should not be confused with the kunai, which is a thrusting and stabbing implement that is sometimes thrown.  \"Bo-shuriken\" were constructed from a wide variety of everyday items, and as such came in many shapes and sizes. Some derived their names from the materials of which they were made, such as \"kugi-gata\" (nail form), \"hari-gata\" (needle form) and \"tantō-gata\" (knife form); some were named after an object of similar appearance, such as \"hoko-gata\" (spear form), \"matsuba-gata\" (pine-needle form); while others have names that are purely descriptive, such as \"kankyuto\" (piercing tool form), \"kunai-gata\" (utility tool form), or \"teppan\" (plate metal) and \"biao\" (pin).  The \"bo-shuriken\" is thrown in a number of ways, such as overhead, underarm, sideways and rearwards, but in each case the throw involves the blade sliding out of the hand through the fingers in a smooth, controlled flight. The major throwing methods are the \"jiki da-ho\" (direct-hit method), and the \"han-ten da-ho\" (turning-hit method). These two are technically different, in that the former does not allow the blade to spin before it hits the target, while the latter \"requires\" that the blade spin\".\" Other items such as hairpins, \"kogata\" (utility knife), and chopsticks were thrown in the same way as \"bo-shuriken\", although they were not associated with any particular school of shurikenjutsu.  The origins of the \"bo-shuriken\" in Japan are still unclear despite continuing research. This is partly because shurikenjutsu was a secret art and also due to the fact that throughout early Japanese history there were many independent exponents of the skill of throwing long, thin objects. The earliest-known reference to a school teaching shurikenjutsu is to Ganritsu Ryu, active during the 17th century. This school utilized a long, thin implement with a bulbous head, thought to be derived from the arrow. Surviving examples of blades used by this school appear to combine an arrow's shape with that of a needle traditionally used in Japanese leatherwork and armor manufacture.  There are earlier mentions in written records—such as the \"Osaka Gunki\" (大阪軍記, the military records of Osaka)—of the standard knife and short sword being thrown in battle. Miyamoto Musashi is said to have won a duel by throwing his short sword at his opponent, killing him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hira shuriken/shaken.", "content": "\"Hira-shuriken\" generally resemble the popular conception of shuriken. They are constructed from thin, flat plates of metal derived from a variety of sources including \"hishi-gane\" (coins), \"kugi-nuki\" (carpentry tools), spools, and \"senban\" (nail removers).  They often have a hole in the center and possess a fairly thin blade sharpened mainly at the tip. The holes derive from their source in items that had holes—old coins, washers, and nail-removing tools. This proved convenient for the shuriken user as the weapons could be strung on a string or dowel in the belt for transport, and the hole also had aerodynamic and weighting effects that aided the flight of the blade.  There are a wide variety of forms of \"hira-shuriken,\" and they are now usually identified by the number of points the blades possess. As with \"bo-shuriken\", the various shapes of \"hira-shuriken\" were usually representative of a particular school (ryū) or region that preferred the use of such shapes, and it is therefore possible to identify the school by the type of blade used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "Contrary to popular belief, shuriken were not primarily intended as killing weapons, but rather in a secondary role as a nuisance or distraction. Targets were primarily the more exposed parts of the body: the eyes, face, hands, or feet. The shuriken would sometimes be thrown in a way that slashed the opponent in a glancing blow and travelled on, becoming lost, leaving him confused about the cause of the wound.  Shuriken, especially \"hira-shuriken\", were also used in novel ways—they could be embedded in the ground, injuring those who stepped on them (similar to a caltrop), wrapped in fuse to be lit and thrown to cause fire, or wrapped in a cloth soaked in poison and lit to cover an area with a cloud of poisonous smoke. They could also be used as a handheld weapon in close combat.  There are reports of shuriken being coated with poison, intended either as a throwing weapon or to be left in a conspicuous place for a victim to pick up. Other reports indicate that shuriken may have been buried in dirt or animal feces and allowed to harbor the bacterium \"Clostridium tetani\"—if the point penetrated a victim deeply enough, the bacteria transferred into the wound could cause a then-incurable tetanus infection.  Shuriken are simple weapons, but their historical value has increased. Unlike the treasured katana and other bladed weapons, antique shuriken are not often well preserved, largely due to their expendable nature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "Modern shuriken are most often made of stainless steel and are commercially available in many knife shops in Europe and North America, or via the Internet. They are illegal to possess or carry in some countries, such as Belgium, the Netherlands, Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom (manufacture, sale, distribution and import). In the United States, some states prohibit them (e.g.\",\" California, Indiana, New York) while others allow them. In some cases they may be allowed but are still subject to specific local legislation. Owners may be required to possess a certificate for the possession of knives.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A shuriken (; literally: \"hidden hand blade\") is a Japanese concealed weapon that was used as a hidden dagger or metsubushi to distract or misdirect.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972787}
{"src_title": "Abkhaz language", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "Abkhaz is a Northwest Caucasian language and is thus related to Adyghe. It is especially close to Abaza, and they are sometimes considered dialects of the same language, Abazgi, of which the literary dialects of Abkhaz and Abaza are simply two ends of a dialect continuum. Grammatically, the two are very similar; however, the differences in phonology are substantial and are the main reason for many other linguists preferring to keep the two separate. Most linguists (instance, Chirikba 2003) believe that Ubykh is the closest relative to the Abkhaz–Abaza dialect continuum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geographical distribution.", "content": "Abkhaz is spoken primarily in Abkhazia. Abkhaz is also spoken by members of the large Abkhaz Muhajir diaspora, mainly located in Turkey, with smaller groups living in Syria, Iraq, and Jordan; the Georgian autonomous republic of Adjara; throughout the former Soviet Union (e.g. Armenia and Ukraine); and – through more recent emigration – in Western countries such as Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States. However, the exact number of Abkhaz speakers in these countries remains unknown due to a lack of official records.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest extant written records of the Abkhaz language are in the Arabic script, recorded by the Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century. Abkhaz has been used as a literary language for only about 100 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dialects.", "content": "Abkhaz is generally viewed as having three major dialects:  The literary language is based on the Abzhywa dialect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phonology.", "content": "Abkhaz has a very large number of consonants (58 in the literary dialect), with three-way voiced/voiceless/ejective and palatalized/labialized/plain distinctions. By contrast, the language has only two phonemically distinct vowels, which have several allophones depending on the palatal and/or labial quality of adjacent consonants.  Phonemes in green are found in the Bzyp and Sadz dialects of Abkhaz, but not in Abzhywa; phonemes in blue are unique to the Bzyp dialect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grammar.", "content": "Abkhaz is typologically classified as a polysynthetic and agglutinative language. Like all other Northwest Caucasian languages, Abkhaz has an extremely complex verbal system coupled with a very simple noun system. Viacheslav Chirikba has characterized Abkhaz as a \"verbcentric language\", as the verb occupies the central place in Abkhaz morphology.  Abkhaz is an ergative–absolutive language that distinguishes just two cases, the instrumental and the adverbial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing system.", "content": "Abkhaz has used the Cyrillic script since 1862. The first alphabet was a 37-character Cyrillic alphabet invented by Baron Peter von Uslar. In 1909 a 55-letter Cyrillic alphabet was used. A 75-letter Latin script devised by a Russian/Georgian linguist Nikolai Marr lasted for 2 years 1926–1928 (during the Latinization campaign). The Georgian script was adopted and used in 1938–54 years after was restored the initial Cyrillic alphabet designed in 1892 by Dmitry Gulia together with Konstantin Machavariani and modified in 1909 by Aleksey Chochua.  Cyrillic script: Latin script:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unicode.", "content": "The Latin alphabet in Abkhaz is currently not in Unicode. Its inclusion was proposed in 2011. See also:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Status.", "content": "Both Georgian and Abkhaz law enshrines an official status of the Abkhaz language in Abkhazia.  The 1992 law of Georgia, reiterated in the 1995 constitution, grants Abkhaz the status of second official language in the territory of Abkhazia — along with Georgian.  In November 2007, the de facto authorities of Abkhazia adopted a new law \"on the state language of the Republic of Abkhazia\" that mandates Abkhaz as the language of official communication. According to the law, all meetings held by the president, parliament, and government must be conducted in Abkhaz (instead of Russian, which is currently a de facto administrative language) from 2010, and all state officials will be obliged to use Abkhaz as their language of everyday business from 2015. Some, however, have considered the implementation of this law unrealistic and concerns have been made that it will drive people away from Abkhazia and hurt the independent press due to a significant share of non-Abkhaz speakers among ethnic minorities as well as Abkhaz themselves, and a shortage of teachers of Abkhaz. The law is an attempt to amend a situation where up to a third of the ethnic Abkhaz population are no longer capable of speaking their ethnic language, and even more are unable to read or write it; instead, Russian is the language most commonly used in public life at present.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abkhaz (; ; sometimes spelled Abxaz;, also known as Abkhazian,<ref name=\"ISO 639-2/RA\"><ref name=\"ISO 639-3/RA\"> is a Northwest Caucasian language most closely related to Abaza. It is spoken mostly by the Abkhaz people. It is one of the official languages of Abkhazia, where around 100,000 people speak it. Furthermore, it is spoken by thousands of members of the Abkhazian diaspora in Turkey, Georgia's autonomous republic of Adjara, Syria, Jordan, and several Western countries. The Russian census of 2010 reported 6,786 speakers of Abkhaz in Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972788}
{"src_title": "6 Nimmt!", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Summary.", "content": "The game has 104 cards, each bearing a number and one to seven bull's heads symbols that represent penalty points. A round of ten turns is played where all players place one card of their choice onto the table. The placed cards are arranged on four rows according to fixed rules. If placed onto a row that already has five cards then the player receives those five cards, which count as penalty points that are totaled up at the end of the round. Rounds are played until a player reaches 66 points, whereupon the player with the least penalty points wins. The game's suggested minimum age is 10 years, and it lasts around 45 minutes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rules.", "content": "The goal is to be the player with the fewest points. To do this, the players need to avoid picking up penalty cards.  \"6 Nimmt!\" is played using a special card deck that has a variable number of small cattle heads on them. The cards are numbered 1 to 104, each giving 1, 2, 3, 5 or 7 points (i.e. cattle heads) to the person who picks it up.  In the deck there are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "Ten cards are dealt to each player.  Four uncovered cards are arranged on the table to form a vertical line.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "At each turn, each player selects a card to play, and puts the card face down on the table. When all the players have selected a card, the cards are uncovered.  Starting with the lowest valued card, and continuing in increasing order, each player must put their card at the end of one of the four rows on the table, following these rules:  The cards of all the players are played following these rules, from the lowest player card to the highest one.  At the end of the turn, the players each select a new card to play; this is repeated for 10 turns until all the cards in the hand are played.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "End of the game.", "content": "After the 10 turns, each player counts the cattle heads on the cards gathered from the table during the round. The score of each player is collected on the paper and a new hand starts.  The game ends when a player collects a total of 66 or more cattle heads. The winner is the player who has collected the fewest cattle heads.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The number of cards depends on the number of players.", "content": "To make the game more complex, if there are fewer than 10 players, before starting, remove from the deck the cards higher than 10n + 4 (where n is the number of players). E.g. with 5 player you will use only the cards from 1 to 54, excluding the cards from 55 to 104, with 7 player only the cards from 1 to 74 are used. The other rules are unchanged.  This variation is more strategic than the basic rules since it is possible to know which cards have been already played and which ones are available to other players.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cards can also go to the beginning of the row.", "content": "In this variation, the card currently being placed can also go to the left of an existing row of cards, following the same concepts: it has to be lower than the leftmost card in that row and it has to be closest in value to that card (example, place the 10 to the left of 11 instead of 15). It is not allowed to place a card in between two existing cards of a row. If a card could be placed both at the start of one row or at the end of another row, the closest card (in number) determines where it will go. If placing the 6th card to the left of a row, you take the whole row and leave your card as the start. This variation is implemented online at Brett Spiel Welt and makes the game more unpredictable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Each player chooses his/ her cards.", "content": "All cards are placed facing upwards on the table. Starting from a randomly selected player and continuing clockwise each player chooses a card. This continues until each player holds 10 cards. The remaining 4 cards are arranged on the table to form a vertical line. The other rules are unchanged.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children's version.", "content": "This version is for children who understand bigger/smaller numbers or to teach them the concept.  Teaches kids to count and learn about bigger/smaller numbers. It is purely luck, so kids and adults are equally matched.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "6 Nimmt! / Take 6! is a card game for 2–10 players designed by Wolfgang Kramer in 1994 and published by Amigo Spiele. The French version is distributed by Gigamic. This game received the \"Deutscher Spiele Preis\" award in 1994.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972789}
{"src_title": "Edgar the Peaceful", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years and accession.", "content": "Edgar was the son of Edmund I and Ælfgifu of Shaftesbury. Upon the death of King Edmund in 946, Edgar's uncle, Eadred, ruled until 955. Eadred was succeeded by his nephew, Eadwig, Edmund's eldest son.  Eadwig was not a popular king, and his reign was marked by conflict with nobles and the Church, primarily St Dunstan and Archbishop Oda. In 957, the thanes of Mercia and Northumbria changed their allegiance to Edgar. A conclave of nobles declared Edgar as king of the territory north of the Thames. Edgar became King of England upon Eadwig's death in October 959, aged 16.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "One of Edgar's first actions was to recall Dunstan from exile and have him made Bishop of Worcester and Abbot of Glastonbury Abbey, subsequently Bishop of London and later, Archbishop of Canterbury. Dunstan remained Edgar's advisor throughout his reign. While Edgar may not have been a particularly peaceable man, his reign was peaceful. The Kingdom of England was well established, and Edgar consolidated the political unity achieved by his predecessors. By the end of his reign, England was sufficiently unified in that it was unlikely to regress back to a state of division among rival kingships, as it had to an extent under the reign of Eadred. William Blackstone mentions that King Edgar standardised measure throughout the realm. According to George Molyneaux, Edgar's reign, \"far more than the reigns of either Alfred or Æthelstan, was probably the most pivotal phase in the development of the institutional structures that were fundamental to royal rule in the eleventh-century kingdom\". Indeed, an early eleventh century king Cnut the Great states in a letter to his subjects that <nowiki>\"it is my will that all the nation, ecclesiastical and lay, shall steadfastly observe Edgar's laws, which all men have chosen and sworn at Oxford\"</nowiki>.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Benedictine reform.", "content": "The Monastic Reform Movement that introduced the Benedictine Rule to England's monastic communities peaked during the era of Dunstan, Æthelwold, and Oswald (historians continue to debate the extent and significance of this movement).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dead Man's Plack.", "content": "In 963, Edgar allegedly killed Earl Æthelwald, his rival in love, near present-day Longparish, Hampshire. The event was commemorated by the Dead Man's Plack, erected in 1825. In 1875, Edward Augustus Freeman debunked the story as a \"tissue of romance\" in his book, \"Historic Essays\"; however, his arguments were rebutted by naturalist William Henry Hudson in his 1920 book \"Dead Man's Plack and an Old Thorn\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coronation at Bath.", "content": "Edgar was crowned at Bath and along with his wife Ælfthryth was anointed, setting a precedent for a coronation of a queen in England itself. Edgar's coronation did not happen until 973, in an imperial ceremony planned not as the initiation, but as the culmination of his reign (a move that must have taken a great deal of preliminary diplomacy). This service, devised by Dunstan himself and celebrated with a poem in the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\", forms the basis of the present-day British coronation ceremony. The symbolic coronation was an important step; other kings of Britain came and gave their allegiance to Edgar shortly afterwards at Chester. Six kings in Britain, including the King of Scots and the King of Strathclyde, pledged their faith that they would be the king's liege-men on sea and land. Later chroniclers made the kings into eight, all plying the oars of Edgar's state barge on the River Dee. Such embellishments may not be factual, and what actually happened is unclear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Edgar died on 8 July 975 at Winchester, Hampshire. He was buried at Glastonbury Abbey. He left two sons, his successor Edward, who was probably his illegitimate son by Æthelflæd, daughter of ealdorman Ordmaer, and Æthelred, the younger, the child of his wife Ælfthryth. Edgar also had a possibly illegitimate daughter by Wulfthryth, who later became abbess of Wilton. She was joined there by her daughter, Edith of Wilton, who lived there as a nun until her death. Both women were later regarded as saints.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "\"[H]e was extremely small both in stature and bulk...\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edgar (, ; 8 July 975), known as the Peaceful or the Peaceable, was King of England from 959 until his death. He was the younger son of Edmund I and Ælfgifu of Shaftesbury, and came to the throne as a teenager, following the death of his older brother Eadwig. As king, Edgar further consolidated the political unity achieved by his predecessors, with his reign being noted for its relative stability. His most trusted advisor was Dunstan, whom he recalled from exile and made Archbishop of Canterbury. The pinnacle of Edgar's reign was his coronation at Bath in 973, which was organised by Dunstan and forms the basis for the current coronation ceremony. After his death he was succeeded by his son Edward, although the succession was disputed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972790}
{"src_title": "Aedui", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "They are mentioned as \"Ardues\" (Ἄρδυες) by Polybius (2nd c. BC), as \"Haedui\" by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC) and Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), as \"Haeduos\" by Livy (early 1st c. BC), as \"Aedui\" by Pliny (1st c. AD), as \"Aidúōn\" (Αἰδύων) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as \"Aídouoi\" (Aἴδουοι) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD).  The name \"Aedui\" ('the ardent ones') stems from Gaulish \"aidu-\" ('fire, ardour'), itself from Proto-Celtic \"*aydu-\" ('fire'; compare with Old Irish \"áed\", Welsh \"aidd\" 'ardour'), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European \"*h2eydhos\" ('firewood'; compare with Sanskrit \"édhas\" 'bonfire', Latin \"aedes\" 'building, temple').", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Territory.", "content": "The territory of the Aedui was situated in a strategic economic position between the Saône and Loire rivers, and included most of the modern départements of Saône-et-Loire and Nièvre, the southwestern-part of Côte-d'Or between Beaune and Saulieu, and the southern part of Yonne around Avallon, corresponding to the Saône plains, the Morvan granitic massif, and the low Nivernais plateau, from east to west. They dwelled between the Arverni in the west, the Segusiavi and Ambarri in the south, the Sequani in the east, and the Lingones and Senones in the north.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Settlements.", "content": "Three oppida are known from the late La Tène period: Vieux-Dun (Dun-les-Places), Le Fou de Verdun (Lavault-de-Frétoy), and Bibracte, which occupied a central position in the Aedian economic system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ancient sources.", "content": "The country of the Aedui is defined by reports of them in ancient writings. The upper Liger formed their western border, separating them from the Bituriges. The Arar formed their eastern border, separating them from the Sequani. The Sequani did not reside in the region of the confluence of the Dubis and the Arar, and of the Arar into the Rhodanus, as Caesar says that the Helvetii, traveling southward along the pass between the Jura Mountains and the Rhodanus, which belonged to the Sequani, plundered the territory of the Aedui. These circumstances explain an apparent contradiction in Strabo, who in one sentence says that the Aedui lived between the Arar and the Dubis, and in the next, that the Sequani lived across the Arar (eastward). Both statements are true: the first in the south, and the second to the north.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "La Tène period.", "content": "By the early 3rd century BC, the emergence of grouped settlements with diversified functions, along with the creation of sanctuaries, suggest the beginning of a continuous La Tène settlement in the region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roman period.", "content": "Outside of the Roman province and prior to Roman rule, Gaul was occupied by self-governing tribes divided into cantons, and each canton was further divided into communes. The Aedui, like other powerful tribes in the region, such as the Arverni, Sequani, and Helvetii, had replaced their monarchy with a council of magistrates called grand-judges. The grand-judges were under the authority of a senate. This senate was made up of the descendants of ancient royal families. Free men in the tribes were vassals of the heads of these families, in an exchange of military, financial, and political interests.  According to Livy (v. 34), the Aedui took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the sixth century BC. Before Caesar's time, they had attached themselves to the Romans and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people. When the Sequani, their traditional rivals, defeated and massacred the Aedui at the Battle of Magetobriga in 121 BC, with the assistance of the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus, the Aedui sent the druid Diviciacus to Rome with an appeal to the senate for help; but his mission was unsuccessful.  After his arrival in Gaul in 58 BC, Caesar restored the independence of the Aedui. In spite of this, they subsequently joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (\"B. G.\" vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, the Aedui gladly returned to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled their capital, Bibracte, on Mont Beuvray, and constructed a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum (modern Autun).  In AD 21, during the reign of Tiberius, the Aedui revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, but they were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus \"Ann.\" iii. 43-46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor Claudius the distinction of \"jus honorum\", thus being the first Gauls permitted to become senators.  The oration of Eumenius, in which he pleaded for the restoration of the schools of his native Augustodunum, suggests that the district was then neglected. The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called the Vergobretus (according to Mommsen, \"judgment-worker\"). He was elected annually, and possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontiers of his territory. Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui.  It is possible that the Aedui adopted many of the governmental practices of the Romans, such as electing magistrates and other officials, although it may have been a natural development in their political system. It is thought that other Celtic tribes, such as the Remi and the Baiocasses, also elected their leaders.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "The Temple of Janus was located just outside the Aedian town of Augustodunum. It probably dates back to the second half of the 1st century AD.  In the late La Tène period, religious convergences occurred between the Aedui and the neighbouring Lingones and Sequani in the Saône-Doubs area, as evidenced by the similarity in the practices at the sanctuaries of Nuits-Saint-Georges (Aedui), Mirebeau-sur-Bèze (Lingones) and Mandeure (Sequani).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Aedui, Haedui, or Hedui (Gaulish: \"the ardent ones\"; ) were a Gallic tribe, dwelling in the modern Burgundy region during the La Tène and Roman periods. According to Julius Caesar in his writings on the Gallic Wars in Commentarii de Bello Gallico, the Aedui were one of the stronger gallic tribes, them being the target of jealous tribes like the Helvetii, Sequani, Remi, and Arverni. Furthermore, the Aedui seemed to work in a semi-republican state, with the powerful Vergobret at least slightly being at the will of the people, similar to the senators of Rome", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972791}
{"src_title": "Alfonso XI of Castile", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minority.", "content": "Born on 13 August 1311 in Salamanca, he was the son of King Ferdinand IV of Castile and Constance of Portugal. His father died when Alfonso was one year old. His grandmother, María de Molina, his mother Constance, his granduncle \"Infante\" John of Castile, Lord of Valencia de Campos, son of King Alfonso X of Castile and uncle \"Infante\" Peter of Castile, Lord of Cameros, son of King Sancho IV assumed the regency. Queen Constance died first on 18 November 1313, followed by Infantes John and Peter during a military campaign against Granada in 1319, which left Dowager Queen María as the only regent until her death on 1 July 1321.  After the death of the infantes John and Peter in 1319, Philip (son of Sancho IV and María de Molina, thus brother of Infante Peter), Juan Manuel (the king's second-degree uncle by virtue of being Ferdinand III's grandson) and Juan the One-eyed (his second degree uncle, son of John of Castile who died in 1319) split the kingdom among themselves according to their aspirations for regency, even as it was being looted by moors and the rebellious nobility.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Majority.", "content": "His effective reign began in August 1325 when he was sworn in as King as he was proclaimed to have reached the age of majority in the Cortes of Valladolid. Following a ritual that took him to Santiago de Compostela and to the monastery of Las Huelgas in Burgos, his self-crowning took place in 1332.  As soon as he took the throne, he began working hard to strengthen royal power by dividing his enemies. His early display of ruthless rulership skills included the unhesitant execution of possible opponents. Alfonso XI ordered the assassination of his uncle Juan the One-eyed in Toro in the 1326 eve of the feast of All Saints along two of the latter's knights, luring the former with promises of reconciliation.  He managed to extend the limits of his kingdom to the Strait of Gibraltar after the important victory at the Battle of Río Salado against the Marinid Dynasty in 1340 and the conquest of the Kingdom of Algeciras in 1344. Once that conflict was resolved, he redirected all his Reconquista efforts to fighting the Moorish king of Granada.  During his reign a political reform in the municipal government took place, with the substitution of the \"concejos abiertos\" by the \"regimientos\". He fostered the issuance of \"cartas pueblas\" as strategy for the demographic strengthening in the borderland areas.  He is variously known among Castilian kings as the Avenger or the Implacable, and as \"He of Río Salado.\" The first two names he earned by the ferocity with which he repressed the disorders caused by the nobles during his long minority; the third by his victory in the Battle of Río Salado over the last formidable Marinid invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in 1340.  Alfonso XI never went to the insane lengths of his son Peter of Castile, but he could be bloody in his methods. He killed for reasons of state without any form of trial. He openly neglected his wife, Maria of Portugal, and indulged a scandalous passion for Eleanor of Guzman, who bore him ten children.  Infected by the Black Death during the 1349–1350 siege of Gibraltar, Alfonso died in the night of 25–26 March 1350 (some sources put the date wrongfully at 27 March).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Alfonso XI first married Constanza Manuel in 1325, but had the union annulled two years later. His second marriage, in 1328, was to his double first cousin Maria of Portugal, daughter of Alfonso IV of Portugal. They had:  By his mistress, Eleanor of Guzmán, he had ten children:  After Alfonso's death, his widow Maria had Eleanor arrested and later killed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "\"...King Alfonso was not very tall but well proportioned, and he was rather strong and had fair skin and hair.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfonso XI (13 August 131126 March 1350), called the Avenger (\"el Justiciero\"), was the king of Castile, León and Galicia. He was the son of Ferdinand IV of Castile and his wife Constance of Portugal. Upon his father's death in 1312, several disputes ensued over who would hold regency, which were resolved in 1313.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972792}
{"src_title": "António Egas Moniz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and training.", "content": "Moniz was born in Avanca, Estarreja, Portugal, as António Caetano de Abreu Freire de Resende. He attended Escola do Padre José Ramos and Colégio de S. Fiel dos Jesuítas and studied medicine at the University of Coimbra, graduating in 1899. For the next 12 years, he served as a lecturer for basic medical courses at Coimbra. In 1911, he became a neurology professor at the University of Lisbon, where he worked until his retirement in 1944.  His uncle and godfather, Father Caetano de Pina Resende Abreu e Sá Freire, convinced his family to change his surname to Egas Moniz since he was convinced that the Resende family was descended from medieval nobleman Egas Moniz o Aio.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Politics was an early passion for Moniz. He supported a republican government, diverging from his family’s support for the monarchy. As a student activist, he was jailed on two separate occasions for participating in demonstrations. While serving as Dean of the Medical School at the University of Lisbon, he was arrested a third time for preventing police from settling a student-run protest.  Antonio Moniz was a member of freemasonry.  Moniz’s formal political career began when he was elected to parliament in 1900. During World War I, he was appointed the Ambassador to Spain, and afterward, he served as Minister for External Affairs, representing Portugal at the 1919 Versailles Peace Conference.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cerebral angiography.", "content": "In 1926, at age 51, Moniz retired from politics and returned to medicine full-time. He hypothesized that visualizing blood vessels in the brain with radiographic means would allow for more precise localization of brain tumors. During his experiments, Moniz injected radiopaque dyes into brain arteries and took X-rays to visualize abnormalities. In his initial tests, Moniz used strontium and lithium bromide in three patients with a suspected tumor, epilepsy, and Parkinsonism, but the experiment failed and one patient died. In the next set of trials, he achieved success using 25% sodium iodide solution on three patients, developing the first cerebral angiogram.  Moniz presented his findings at the Neurological Society in Paris and the French Academy of Medicine in 1927. He was the first person to successfully visualize the brain using radiopaque substances, as previous scientists had only visualized peripheral structures. He also contributed to the development of Thorotrast for use in the procedure and delivered many lectures and papers on the subject. His work led to the use of angiography to detect internal carotid occlusion, as well as two Nobel Prize nominations in this area.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prefrontal leucotomy.", "content": "Moniz thought that mental illness originated from abnormal neural connections in the frontal lobe. He described a “fixation of synapses,” which in mental illness, was expressed as “predominant, obsessive ideas.” Moniz also referenced the experiments of Yale physiologists John Fulton and C.F. Jacobsen, who found that removing the frontal lobes of a chimpanzee made it calmer and more cooperative. In addition, Moniz observed “changes in character and personality” among soldiers who had suffered from injuries to their frontal lobes.  Moniz hypothesized that surgically removing white matter fibers from the frontal lobe would improve a patient’s mental illness. He enlisted his long-time staff member and neurosurgeon Almeida Lima to test the procedure on a group of 20 patients, mainly with schizophrenia, anxiety, and depression. The surgeries took place under general anesthesia. The first psychosurgery was performed in 1935 on a 63-year-old woman with depression, anxiety, paranoia, hallucinations, and insomnia. The patient experienced a rapid physical recovery, and two months later, a psychiatrist noted that she was calmer, less paranoid, and well oriented. In the first set of surgeries, Moniz reported a total of seven cures, seven improvements, and six unchanged cases.  Moniz never performed a surgery himself, partially because of his lack of neurosurgical training but also because he suffered from severe gout that left his hands crippled. Instructed by Moniz, Lima performed ten of the first twenty surgeries by injecting absolute alcohol to destroy the frontal lobe. Later on, Moniz and Lima developed a new technique using a leucotome, a needle-like instrument with a retractable wire loop. By rotating the wire loop, they were able to surgically separate white matter fibres.  Moniz judged the results acceptable in the first 40 or so patients he treated, claiming, \"Prefrontal leukotomy is a simple operation, always safe, which may prove to be an effective surgical treatment in certain cases of mental disorder.\" He also claimed that any behavioral and personality deterioration that may occur was outweighed by reduction in the debilitating effects of the illness. He conceded that patients who had already deteriorated from the mental illness did not benefit much. The procedure enjoyed a brief vogue, and in 1949 he received the Nobel Prize \"for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses.\"  Critics accused Moniz of understating complications, providing inadequate documentation, and not following up with patients. After his initial procedures, other physicians, such as Walter Jackson Freeman II and James W. Watts, adopted a modified technique in the United States and renamed it “lobotomy.”", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Writing.", "content": "Moniz was a prolific writer, publishing work in Portuguese literature, sexology, and two autobiographies. Upon graduating from medical school, he gained notoriety for publishing a series of controversial books, called \"A Vida Sexual\" (The Sexual Life). His other writings included biographies of Portuguese physician Pedro Hispano Portucalense and José Custódio de Faria, a monk and hypnotist. In the field of medicine, Moniz published 112 articles and 2 books on angiography alone. He also wrote on neurological war injuries, Parkinson’s disease, and clinical neurology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In 1939, Moniz was shot multiple times by a schizophrenic patient and subsequently confined to a wheelchair. He continued in private practice until 1955. Moniz died from an internal haemorrhage on 13 December 1955.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Since falling almost completely from use in the 1960s, leucotomy has been deplored by many as brutally arrogant, and collateral derision has been directed at Moniz as its inventor. Others suggest judging the inventor separately from the invention, characterizing Moniz' work as a \"great and desperate\" attempt to find effective treatment for severe forms of mental illness for which there was at the time no effective treatment. Some claim it was aggressive promotion of lobotomy by other doctors (such as Walter Freeman) which led to its being performed in large numbers of cases now considered inappropriate.  Thorotrast, which Moniz helped develop for use in cerebral angiography is radioactive and was eventually found to be highly carcinogenic, affecting many patients who were treated with it before its use ceased in the 1950s.  In 1957 Moniz's study centre, now known as the Egas Moniz Museum, was transferred to Santa Maria Hospital, and integrated into the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Lisbon, where there is also a statue of him. His art collection is on display at his country house in Avanca.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Important publications.", "content": "According to the Nobel Prize, his more important publications are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "António Caetano de Abreu Freire Egas Moniz (29 November 1874 – 13 December 1955), known as Egas Moniz (), was a Portuguese neurologist and the developer of cerebral angiography. He is regarded as one of the founders of modern psychosurgery, having developed the surgical procedure \"leucotomy\"known better today as \"lobotomy\"for which he became the first Portuguese national to receive a Nobel Prize in 1949 (shared with Walter Rudolf Hess).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972793}
{"src_title": "Rumex", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "They are erect plants, usually with long taproots. The fleshy to leathery leaves form a basal rosette at the root. The basal leaves may be different from those near the inflorescence. They may or may not have stipules. Minor leaf veins occur. The leaf blade margins are entire or crenate.  The usually inconspicuous flowers are carried above the leaves in clusters. The fertile flowers are mostly hermaphrodites, or they may be functionally male or female. The flowers and seeds grow on long clusters at the top of a stalk emerging from the basal rosette; in many species, the flowers are green, but in some (such as sheep's sorrel, \"Rumex acetosella\") the flowers and their stems may be brick-red. Each seed is a three-sided achene, often with a round tubercle on one or all three sides.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The genus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. Within the family Polygonaceae, it is placed in the subfamily Polygonoideae. The genus \"Emex\" was separated from \"Rumex\" by Francisco Campderá in 1819 on the basis that it was polygamous (i.e. had both bisexual and unisexual flowers on the same plant). However, some species of \"Rumex\" subg. \"Acetosa\" also have this characteristic, and most other features that are supposed to distinguish \"Emex\" are found in species of \"Rumex\". Accordingly, in 2015, Schuster et al. demoted \"Emex\" to a subgenus of \"Rumex\".  Within the subfamily Polygonoideae, \"Rumex\" is placed in the tribe Rumiceae, along with the two genera \"Oxyria\" and \"Rheum\". It is most closely related to \"Rheum\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": ", Plants of the World Online accepted the following species. A large number of hybrids are also recorded.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "These plants have many uses. Broad-leaved dock (\"Rumex obtusifolius\") used to be called butter dock because its large leaves were used to wrap and conserve butter.  \"Rumex hymenosepalus\" has been cultivated in the Southwestern US as a source of tannin (roots contain up to 25%), for use in leather tanning, while leaves and stems are used for a mordant-free mustard-colored dye.  These plants are edible. The leaves of most species contain oxalic acid and tannin, and many have astringent and slightly purgative qualities. Some species with particularly high levels of oxalic acid are called sorrels (including sheep's sorrel \"Rumex acetosella\", common sorrel \"Rumex acetosa\", and French sorrel \"Rumex scutatus\"), and some of these are grown as leaf vegetables or garden herbs for their acidic taste.  In Western Europe, dock leaves are a traditional remedy for the sting of nettles, and suitable larger docks (such as broad-leaved dock \"R. obtusifolius\" or curled dock \"R. crispus\") often grow conveniently in similar habitats to the common nettle (\"Urtica dioica\").  In traditional Austrian medicine, \"R. alpinus \"leaves and roots have been used internally for treatment of viral infections.  Rumex nepalensis is also has a variety of medicinal uses in the Greater Himalayas, including Sikkim in Northeastern India.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "Several fossil fruits of \"Rumex\" sp. have been described from middle Miocene strata of the Fasterholt area near Silkeborg in Central Jutland, Denmark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "Nutrition information is shown in the infobox on the right.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The docks and sorrels, genus Rumex, are a genus of about 200 species of annual, biennial, and perennial herbs in the buckwheat family, Polygonaceae. Members of this genus are very common perennial herbs with a native almost worldwide distribution, and introduced species growing in the few places where the genus is not native.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972794}
{"src_title": "Vatican Museums", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Vatican Museums trace their origin to one marble sculpture, purchased in the 16th century: \"Laocoön and His Sons\" was discovered on 14 January 1506, in a vineyard near the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo Buonarroti, who were working at the Vatican, to examine the discovery. On their recommendation, the pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The pope put the sculpture, which depicts the Trojan priest Laocoön and his two sons being attacked by giant serpents, on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery.  Benedict XIV founded the \"Museum Christianum\", and some of the Vatican collections formed the Lateran Museum, which Pius IX founded by decree in 1854.  The Museums celebrated their 500th anniversary in October 2006 by permanently opening the excavations of a Vatican Hill necropolis to the public.  On 1 January 2017, Barbara Jatta became the Director of the Vatican Museums, replacing Antonio Paolucci who had been director since 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pinacoteca Vaticana.", "content": "The art gallery was housed in the Borgia Apartment until Pope Pius XI ordered construction of a proper building. The new building, designed by Luca Beltrami, was inaugurated on 27 October 1932. The museum's paintings include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collection of Modern Religious Art.", "content": "The Collection of Modern Religious Art was added in 1973 and houses paintings and sculptures from artists like Carlo Carrà, Giorgio de Chirico, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Marc Chagall, Paul Klee, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sculpture museums.", "content": "The group of museums includes several sculpture museums surrounding the Cortile del Belvedere. These are the Gregoriano Profano Museum, with classical sculpture, and others as below:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pio-Clementino Museum.", "content": "The museum takes its name from two popes; Clement XIV, who established the museum, and Pius VI, the pope who brought the museum to completion. Clement XIV came up with the idea of creating a new museum in Innocent VIII's Belvedere Palace and started the refurbishment work.  Pope Clement XIV founded the Pio-Clementino museum in 1771, and originally it contained the Renaissance and antique works. The museum and collection were enlarged by Clement's successor Pius VI. Today, the museum houses works of Greek and Roman sculpture. Some notable galleries are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chiaramonti Museum.", "content": "This museum was founded in the early 19th century by Pope Pius VII, whose surname before his election as pope was Chiaramonti. The museum consists of a large arched gallery in which are exhibited several statues, sarcophagi and friezes. The New Wing, Braccio Nuovo, built by Raffaele Stern, houses statues including the Augustus of Prima Porta, the \"Doryphoros\", and \"The River Nile\". It is in the Classical style and has a wide arched roof with skylights. The colour scheme is blue-grey and white with a polychrome marble floor. The walls of each side of the gallery have a row of large niches in which stand marble statues. Between the niches are plinths supporting smaller portrait sculptures. The Galeria Lapidaria forms part of the Chiaramonti Museum, and contains over 3,000 stone tablets and inscriptions. It is accessible only with special permission, usually for the purpose of academic study.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gregoriano Etrusco Museum.", "content": "Founded by Pope Gregory XVI in 1836, this museum has eight galleries and houses important Etruscan pieces, coming from archaeological excavations. The pieces include vases, sarcophagus, bronzes and the \"Guglielmi Collection\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gregoriano Egiziano Museum.", "content": "This museum houses a large collection of artifacts from Ancient Egypt. Such material includes papyruses, the \"Grassi Collection\", animal mummies, and reproductions of the \"Book of the Dead\".  The Gregoriano Egiziano Museum was inaugurated on 2 February 1839 to commemorate the anniversary of Gregory XVI's accession to the papacy. The creation of the Gregoriano Egiziano Museum was particularly close to the pope's heart as he believed the understanding of ancient Egyptian civilisation was vital in terms of its scientific importance as well as its value in understanding the Old Testament. This feeling was expressed in a paper by the museum's first curator, the physiologist and Barnabite, Father Luigi Maria Ungarelli.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vatican Historical Museum.", "content": "The Vatican Historical Museum () was founded in 1973 at the behest of Pope Paul VI, and was initially hosted in environments under the Square Garden. In 1987, it moved to the main floor of the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran where it opened in March 1991.  The Vatican Historical Museum has a unique collection of portraits of the Popes from the 16th century to date, the memorable items of the Papal Military Corps of the 16–17th centuries and old religious paraphernalia related to rituals of the papacy. Also on display on the lower floor are the \"papamobili\" (Popemobiles), carriages and motorcars of Popes and Cardinals, including the first cars used by Popes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visitors.", "content": "The Museums had 6,427,277 visitors in 2017, making them the fourth-most-visited art museum in the world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vatican Museums (; ) are the public art and sculpture museums in the Vatican City. They display works from the immense collection amassed by the Roman Catholic Church and the Papacy throughout the centuries including several of the most renowned Roman sculptures and most important masterpieces of Renaissance art in the world. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display, and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, and restoration departments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972795}
{"src_title": "Sophia Charlotte of Hanover", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sophia Charlotte was born in Iburg Castle in the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück, where her father held the title of a Protestant prince-bishop. In 1672 her family moved to the new episcopal residence in Osnabrück and finally in 1679 to Hanover, when Ernest Augustus succeeded his brother Duke John Frederick of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Principality of Calenberg.  During her childhood, Sophia Charlotte visited the Kingdom of France with her mother in hopes of marrying the \"Grand Dauphin\" Louis, heir to the French throne. He later married Duchess Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria instead, but Sophia Charlotte was also proposed as a possible bride for Louis's father, King Louis XIV, after he lost his wife in 1683. Nothing came of this plan either. A marriage to Frederick of Hohenzollern, son of the \"Great Elector\" Frederick William of Brandenburg and heir of both Electoral Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia, was therefore arranged.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Electress and queen.", "content": "By marrying Frederick on 8 October 1684, she became Electress of Brandenburg in 1688, and after the elevation of Brandenburg-Prussia to a kingdom in 1701, she became the first Queen in Prussia. Her only child to reach maturity became King Frederick William I of Prussia. Her husband was so much in love with her that while he had an official mistress, Catharina Rickert, at his palace — in imitation of Louis XIV — he never made use of her services; however, his feeling was not mutual. Initially, Sophia Charlotte interfered in political affairs, pushing the downfall of the Prussian prime minister Eberhard von Danckelman in 1697, but soon retired to private life. In 1695, she had received the estates of Lietzow manor west of Berlin from the hands of her husband in exchange of further away Caputh. Here she had a Baroque summer residence erected by the architects Johann Arnold Nering and Martin Grünberg, in order to live independently from her spouse and have her own court. Frederick was only allowed there by invitation, such as on 11 July 1699, when she hosted a birthday party for him. From 1700, she regularly lived there in the summer months. Then called \"Lietzenburg\", it was renamed Charlottenburg Palace after her death.  Sophia Charlotte is mainly remembered for her friendship and correspondence with her mother's good friend and tutor Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, whose avowed disciple she became. In addition to German, she spoke French, Italian and English fluently. Following the example set by her mother, she surrounded herself with philosophers and theologians like Isaac de Beausobre, Daniel Ernst Jablonski or John Toland and inspired the foundation of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. She was interested in music, sang and played the cembalo, had an Italian opera theater constructed, and employed the musicians Attilio Ariosti and Giovanni Bononcini. The composer Arcangelo Corelli did her the honor of dedicating to her his Op. 5 sonatas for solo violin (Rome, 1700). The latter was one of the most significant and influential publications of compositions for violin in the history of Western music. Nonetheless, the nature of her relationship with Corelli remains obscure.  Sophia Charlotte was such a formidable personage that when Tsar Peter the Great first met her and her mother on his Grand Embassy in 1697, he was so overwhelmed and intimidated that he could not speak. Both women put him at ease, and he reciprocated with his natural humour and trunks full of brocade and furs.  While on a visit to her mother in Hanover, Sophia Charlotte died of pneumonia on 21 January 1705, when she was 36 years of age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Charlottenburg, today a district of Berlin, the Charlottensee lake in Bad Iburg, as well as the Sophie-Charlotte-Gymnasium in Berlin are named after her.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sophia Charlotte of Hanover (30 October 1668 – 1 February 1705) was the first Queen consort in Prussia as wife of King Frederick I. She was the only daughter of Elector Ernest Augustus of Hanover and his wife Sophia of the Palatinate. Her eldest brother George Louis succeeded to the British throne in 1714 as King George I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972796}
{"src_title": "Zona pellucida", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "The zona pellucida is a translucent matrix of glycoproteins that surrounds the mammalian oocyte, and its formation is critical to successful fertilization. In non-mammals it is called the vitelline membrane or vitelline envelope.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "The thick membrane of the zona pellucida functions to only allow species-specific fertilization; to prevent polyspermy, and enable the acrosome reaction for the successful adhesion and penetration of the sperm cell. The major glycoproteins of the egg coat responsible, are known as sperm-binding proteins.  The four major sperm-binding proteins, or sperm-receptors, are ZP1, ZP2, ZP3, and ZP4. They bind to capacitated spermatozoa and induce the acrosome reaction. Successful fertilization depends on the ability of sperm to penetrate the extracellular matrix of the zona pellucida that surrounds the egg. In the mouse:  Data with native human protein are not currently available.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Immunocontraception.", "content": "ZP module-containing glycoproteins ZP1, ZP2, ZP3 and ZP4 are targets for immunocontraception in mammals.  In non-mammals, the zona pellucida is called the vitelline membrane or envelope, and the vitelline envelope in insects, and plays an important role in preventing cross-breeding of different species, especially in species such as fish that fertilize outside of the body.  The zona pellucida is commonly used to control wildlife population problems by immunocontraception. When the zona pellucida of one animal species is injected into the bloodstream of another, it results in sterility of the second species due to immune response. This effect can be temporary or permanent, depending on the method used. In New Jersey, immunocontraception using porcine zona pellucida has been trialled for the control of deer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The zona pellucida (plural zonae pellucidae, also egg coat or pellucid zone) is a glycoprotein layer surrounding the plasma membrane of mammalian oocytes. It is a vital constitutive part of the oocyte. The zona pellucida first appears in unilaminar primary oocytes. It is secreted by both the oocyte and the ovarian follicles. The zona pellucida is surrounded by the corona radiata. The corona is composed of cells that care for the egg when it is emitted from the ovary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972797}
{"src_title": "Aziz Nesin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Pseudonyms.", "content": "Generally going by the name \"Aziz Nesin\", the name \"Aziz\" was originally his father's nickname, used by Nesin for the pseudonym under which he started publishing. He wrote under more than fifty \"noms de plume\", such as the pseudonym \"Vedia Nesin\", his first wife's name, which he used for love poems published in the magazine \"Yedigün\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "Nesin was of armenian origin. He was born in 1915 on Heybeliada, one of the Princes' Islands of Istanbul, in the days of the Ottoman Empire. After serving as a career officer for several years, he became the editor of a series of satirical periodicals with a socialist slant. He was jailed several times and placed under surveillance by the National Security Service (MAH in Turkish) for his political views.  Nesin supposedly provided a strong indictment of the oppression and brutalization of the common man. He satirized bureaucracy and \"exposed economic inequities in stories that effectively combine local color and universal truths\". Aziz Nesin has been presented with numerous awards in Turkey, Italy, Bulgaria and the former Soviet Union. His works have been translated into over thirty languages. During latter parts of his life he was said to be the only Turkish author who made a living only out of his earnings from his books.  On 6 June 1956, he married a coworker from the \"Akbaba\" magazine, Meral Çelen.  In 1972, he founded the Nesin Foundation. The purpose of the Nesin Foundation is to take, each year, four poor and destitute children into the Foundation's home and provide every necessity - shelter, education and training, starting from elementary school - until they complete high school, a trade school, or until they acquire a vocation. Aziz Nesin donated to the Nesin Foundation his copyrights in their entirety for all his works in Turkey or other countries, including all of his published books, all plays to be staged, all copyrights for films, and all his works performed or used in radio or television.  Aziz Nesin was a political activist. In the aftermath of the 1980 military coup led by Kenan Evren, Turkish intelligentsia faced heavy oppression. Aziz Nesin led a number of intellectuals to rebel against the military government, by issuing the Petition of Intellectuals (), notable signatories of which included Yalçın Küçük, Korkut Boratav, Atıf Yılmaz and Murat Belge. He was the two-time President of Türkiye Yazarlar Sendikası (Turkish Writers' Union) once from 1975 to 1980, and subsequently from 1987 to 1989.  He was also a critic on Islam. In the early 1990s, he began a translation of Salman Rushdie's controversial novel, \"The Satanic Verses\". This provoked outrage from Islamic organizations, who were gaining popularity throughout Turkey, who then tried to hunt him down. On July 2, 1993 while attending a mostly Alevi cultural festival in the central Anatolian city of Sivas, a mob organized by Islamists gathered around the Madimak Hotel, where the festival attendants were accommodated. After hours of siege, the intruders set the hotel on fire. After flames engulfed several lower floors of the hotel, firetrucks managed to get close, and Aziz Nesin and many guests of the hotel escaped. However, 37 people were killed. This event, also known as the Sivas massacre, was perceived as censorship, and human rights in Turkey were allegedly disrupted at that time. It also deepened the rift between fundamentalist Muslims and those that they regard as infidels.  He devoted his last years to combating religious fundamentalism. Aziz Nesin died on 6 July 1995 in Çeşme, İzmir, due to a heart attack. After his death, his body was buried at an unknown location in land belonging to the Nesin Foundation, without any ceremony, as requested in his will.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English language bibliography.", "content": "Several of Nesin's works have been published in English translation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Istanbul Boy.", "content": "Istanbul Boy: The Autobiography of Aziz Nesin (Turkish title: \"Böyle Gelmiş Böyle Gitmez\") is a multi-volume autobiography by Turkish writer Aziz Nesin published by University of Texas Press and Southmoor Studios, in English language translation by Joseph S. Jacobson.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Turkish Stories from Four Decades.", "content": "Turkish Stories from Four Decades is a 1991 short story collection by Turkish writer Aziz Nesin published by Three Continents Press, in English language translation by Louis Mitler.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dog Tails.", "content": "Dog Tails is a long story collection by Turkish writer Aziz Nesin republished in 2000 by Southmoor Studios, in Spanish language translation by Joseph S. Jacobson.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Memoirs Of An Exile.", "content": "Memoirs Of An Exile (Turkish title: \"Bir Sürgünün Hatıraları\") is an autobiographical memoir by Turkish writer Aziz Nesin about his exile to Bursa, republished in 2001 by Southmoor Studios, in English language translation by Joseph S. Jacobson.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hayri the Barber Surnâmé.", "content": "Hayri the Barber Surnâmé (Turkish title: \"Surnâme\") is a novel by Turkish writer Aziz Nesin republished in 2001 by Southmoor Studios, in English language translation by Joseph S. Jacobson.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Out of the Way! Socialism's Coming!", "content": "Out of the Way! Socialism's Coming! (Turkish title: \"Sosyalizm Geliyor Savulun!\") is a 2001 selection of three stories from a short story collection by Turkish writer Aziz Nesin, published by Milet Books, in a dual of the original Turkish and an English language translation by Damian Croft, as part of its series of Turkish-English Short Story Collections.  The publisher states that, \"In these hilarious and entertaining stories, the legendary Aziz Nesin turns his uniquely incisive, satirical wit on shifting ideologies, bureaucracy and the question of who’s really (in)sane: the ones locked up or the ones outside.\"  A review in \"Write Away\" states that, \"These are thought provoking parables of our time,\" that, \"take the mickey out of bureaucracy and political ideology and hypocrisy,\" and \"should leave readers laughing and thinking.\"  The volume consists of the stories;  For an English-only edition of the full collection, see below under \"\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Dance of the Eagle and the Fish.", "content": "The Dance of the Eagle and the Fish is a children's book adapted by English writer Alison Boyle from the short story of the same name by Turkish writer Aziz Nesin and published in 2001 by Milet Books, in English language translation by Ruth Christie.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Socialism Is Coming: Stand Aside.", "content": "Socialism Is Coming: Stand Aside (Turkish title: \"Sosyalizm Geliyor Savulun!\") is a short story collection by Turkish writer Aziz Nesin republished in 2002 by Southmoor Studios, in English language translation by Joseph S. Jacobson.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Tales of Nasrettin Hoca.", "content": "The Tales of Nasrettin Hoca (Turkish title: \"Nasrettin Hoca Hikayeleri\") is a short story collection by Turkish writer Aziz Nesin based on the folk tales of Nasrettin Hoca republished in 2002 by Dost Yayınları, in English language translation by Talât Sait Halman.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Laugh or Lament.", "content": "Laugh or Lament: Selected Short Stories is a 2002 short story collection by Turkish writer Aziz Nesin published by Turkish Ministry of Culture, in English language translation by Masud Akhtar Shaikh, with an introduction by the translator.  The volume consists of the stories;", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notes.", "content": "According to Nesin's autobiography \"Memoirs of an Exile\": \"They named me \"Nusret\". In Turkish, this Arabic word means 'God's Help.' It was a name entirely fitting to us because my family, destitute of any other hope, placed all their hope in God.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aziz Nesin (; born Mehmet Nusret, 20 December 1915 – 6 July 1995) was a Turkish writer, humorist and the author of more than 100 books. Born in a time when Turks did not have official surnames, he had to adopt one after the Surname Law of 1934 was passed. Although his family carried the epithet \"Topalosmanoğlu\", after an ancestor named \"Topal Osman\", he chose the surname \"Nesin\". In Turkish, \"Nesin?\" means, \"What are you?\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972798}
{"src_title": "Kerberos (protocol)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and development.", "content": "Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) developed Kerberos to protect network services provided by Project Athena. The protocol is based on the earlier Needham–Schroeder symmetric key protocol. Several versions of the protocol exist; versions 1–3 occurred only internally at MIT.  Kerberos version 4 was primarily designed by Steve Miller and Clifford Neuman. Published in the late 1980s, version 4 was also targeted at Project Athena.  Neuman and John Kohl published version 5 in 1993 with the intention of overcoming existing limitations and security problems. Version 5 appeared as RFC 1510, and was made obsolete by RFC 4120 in 2005.  Authorities in the United States classified Kerberos as \"Auxiliary Military Equipment\" on the US Munitions List and banned its export because it used the Data Encryption Standard (DES) encryption algorithm (with 56-bit keys). A Kerberos 4 implementation developed at the Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden named KTH-KRB (rebranded to Heimdal at version 5) made the system available outside the US before the US changed its cryptography export regulations (\"circa\" 2000). The Swedish implementation was based on a limited version called eBones. eBones was based on the exported MIT Bones release (stripped of both the encryption functions and the calls to them) based on version Kerberos 4 patch-level 9.  In 2005, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Kerberos working group updated specifications. Updates included:  MIT makes an implementation of Kerberos freely available, under copyright permissions similar to those used for BSD. In 2007, MIT formed the Kerberos Consortium to foster continued development. Founding sponsors include vendors such as Oracle, Apple Inc., Google, Microsoft, Centrify Corporation and TeamF1 Inc., and academic institutions such as the Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden, Stanford University, MIT, and vendors such as CyberSafe offering commercially supported versions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Microsoft Windows.", "content": "Windows 2000 and later versions use Kerberos as its default authentication method. Some Microsoft additions to the Kerberos suite of protocols are documented in RFC 3244 \"Microsoft Windows 2000 Kerberos Change Password and Set Password Protocols\". RFC 4757 documents Microsoft's use of the RC4 cipher. While Microsoft uses and extends the Kerberos protocol, it does not use the MIT software.  Kerberos is used as preferred authentication method: In general, joining a client to a Windows domain means enabling Kerberos as default protocol for authentications from that client to services in the Windows domain and all domains with trust relationships to that domain.  In contrast, when either client or server or both are not joined to a domain (or not part of the same trusted domain environment), Windows will instead use NTLM for authentication between client and server.  Intranet web applications can enforce Kerberos as an authentication method for domain joined clients by using APIs provided under SSPI.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "UNIX and Unix-like operating systems.", "content": "Many UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems, including FreeBSD, OpenBSD, Apple's macOS, Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Oracle's Solaris, IBM's AIX and z/OS, HP's HP-UX and OpenVMS and others, include software for Kerberos authentication of users or services. Embedded implementation of the Kerberos V authentication protocol for client agents and network services running on embedded platforms is also available from companies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Protocol.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The client authenticates itself to the Authentication Server (AS) which forwards the username to a key distribution center (KDC). The KDC issues a ticket-granting ticket (TGT), which is time stamped and encrypts it using the ticket-granting service's (TGS) secret key and returns the encrypted result to the user's workstation. This is done infrequently, typically at user logon; the TGT expires at some point although it may be transparently renewed by the user's session manager while they are logged in.  When the client needs to communicate with a service on another node (a \"principal\", in Kerberos parlance), the client sends the TGT to the TGS, which usually shares the same host as the KDC. Service must be registered at TGS with a Service Principal Name (SPN). The client uses the SPN to request access to this service. After verifying that the TGT is valid and that the user is permitted to access the requested service, the TGS issues ticket and session keys to the client. The client then sends the ticket to the service server (SS) along with its service request.  The protocol is described in detail below.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vulnerabilities.", "content": "The Data Encryption Standard (DES) cipher can be used in combination with Kerberos, but is no longer an Internet standard because it is weak. Security vulnerabilities exist in many legacy products that implement Kerberos because they have not been updated to use newer ciphers like AES instead of DES.  In November 2014, Microsoft released a patch (MS14-068) to rectify an exploitable vulnerability in Windows implementation of the Kerberos Key Distribution Center (KDC). The vulnerability purportedly allows users to \"elevate\" (and abuse) their privileges, up to Domain level.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kerberos () is a computer-network authentication protocol that works on the basis of \"tickets\" to allow nodes communicating over a non-secure network to prove their identity to one another in a secure manner. The protocol was named after the character \"Kerberos\" (or \"Cerberus\") from Greek mythology, the ferocious three-headed guard dog of Hades. Its designers aimed it primarily at a client–server model and it provides mutual authentication—both the user and the server verify each other's identity. Kerberos protocol messages are protected against eavesdropping and replay attacks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972799}
{"src_title": "Australopithecus bahrelghazali", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Fossils.", "content": "To date, four fossils have been described. Based on the sediments where the fossils were found, \"A. bahrelghazali\" was dated by beryllium-based radiometric dating as living about 3.6 million years ago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "KT-12/H1 (Abel).", "content": "A mandibular fragment found at Chad east of the Bahr el Ghazal (\"river of gazelles\") to about from the fort of Koro Toro, by the Franco-Chadian team of Michel Brunet January 23, 1995 on the site called KT12. Named after the fossil valley near where it was discovered, cataloged KT12/H1, the holotype consists of a mandibular fragment, a lower second incisor, both lower canines, and all four of its premolars, still affixed within the dental alveoli. The KT-12/H1 specimen was nicknamed Abel by Brunet as a dedication to his deceased colleague Abel Brillanceau.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "KT12/H2.", "content": "An upper premolar of another individual was found in the same place in January 1996. This paratype is cataloged KT12/H2.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "KT13-96-H1.", "content": "A third fossil, a fragment of left maxilla, was collected on January 16, 1996, at the KT13 site, not far from KT12. Cataloged KT13-96-H1, it appears in a scientific article in 1997 as \" Australopithecus\" sp. indet. before being named \"Australopithecus bahrelghazali\" in 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "KT40 fossil.", "content": "A fourth fossil mandibular fragment with two teeth was unearthed on July 18, 2000, a few kilometers south of the site KT13 on the new site of KT40. The three sites of hominids KT12, KT13 and KT40 are located at the foot of the same sandy cord, the Goz Kerki, testimony of the former shoreline of Lake MégaTchad. The fossil potential of this sector therefore remains important.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "The KT-12/H1 mandible has similar features to the dentition of \"Australopithecus afarensis\", which has caused researcher William Kimbel to argue that Abel is not a separate species, but \"falls within the range of variation\" of the species \"Australopithecus afarensis\". By 1996, Brunet and his team classified KT-12/H1 as the holotype specimen for \"Australopithecus bahrelghazali\". This claim is difficult to substantiate, as the describers, contrary to the \"International Code of Zoological Nomenclature\", have kept the specimen locked away from inspection by the general paleoanthropological community.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Australopithecus bahrelghazali is a hominin species that inhabited the Bahr el Ghazal region in Central Africa around 3.6 million years ago. It was discovered in 1995 by a Franco-Chadian team led by the paleontologist Michel Brunet. All four fossils that have been found since 1995 are jaw (mandibular or maxillar) fragments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972800}
{"src_title": "Australopithecus garhi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The Ethiopian \"Australopithecus garhi\" was first described in 1999 by palaeoanthropologists Berhane Asfaw, Tim D. White, Owen Lovejoy, Bruce Latimer, Scott Simpson, and Gen Suwa based on fossils discovered in the Hatayae Beds of the Bouri Formation in Middle Awash, Afar Region, Ethiopia. The first hominin remains were discovered here in 1990—a partial parietal bone (GAM-VP-1/2), left jawbone (GAM-VP-1/1), and left humerus (MAT-VP-1/1)—which are unassignable to a specific genus. The first identifiable \"Australopithecus\" fossils–an adult ulna (BOU-VP-11/1)–were found on 17 November 1996 by T. Assebework. A partial skeleton (BOU-VP-12/1) was discovered 13 days later by White, comprising a mostly complete left femur, right humerus, radius, and ulna, and a partial fibula, foot, and jawbone. The holotype specimen, a partial skull (BOU-VP-12/130), was discovered on 20 November 1997 by Ethiopian palaeoanthropologist Yohannes Haile-Selassie. More skull fragments (BOU-VP-12/87) were recovered south of BOU-VP-12/1. On 17 November 1997, French palaeoanthropologist Alban Defleur discovered a complete mandible (BOU-VP-17/1) about north in the Esa Dibo locality of the formation, and American palaeoanthropologist David DeGusta discovered a humerus (BOU-VP-35/1) north of BOU-VP-17/1. However, BOU-VP-11, -12, and -35 cannot conclusively be attributed to \"A. garhi\".  The remains are dated to about 2.5 million years ago (mya) based on argon–argon dating. When they were discovered, human evolution was obscured due to a paucity of remains from 3 to 2 mya, with the only hominins from this timespan being identified from South Africa (\"A. africanus\") and Lake Turkana, Kenya (\"Paranthropus aethiopicus\"). Likewise, the classification of australopithecines and pre-\"Homo erectus\" hominins has been the subject of much debate. The original describers considered \"A. garhi\" to be a descendent of the earlier \"A. afarensis\" which inhabited the same region, based mainly on dental similarities. Though they assigned the species to \"Australopithecus\", the original describers believed it could represent an ancestor to \"Homo\", which, if the case, would possibly lead to reclassification as \"H. garhi\". Because the characteristics of \"A. garhi\" are unexpected for a human ancestor at this stage, the species name, \"garhi\", means \"surprise\" in the local Afar language. In 1999, American palaeoanthropologists David Strait and Frederick E. Grine concluded that \"A. garhi\" was instead an offshoot of the human line instead of an ancestor because \"A. garhi\" and \"Homo\" share no synapomorphies (traits unique to only them). In 2015, \"Homo\" was recorded from 2.8 mya, much earlier than \"A. garhi\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anatomy.", "content": "Like other australopithecines, \"A. garhi\" had a brain volume of about, a sagittal crest running along the midline of the skull, and a prognathic jaw (the jaw jutted out). Relatively, the postcanine teeth, the molars and premolars, are massive (post-canine megadontia), similar to or greater than those of other australopithecines and of the large-toothed \"Paranthropus robustus\". The large teeth of \"Australopithecus\" species have historically been interpreted as having been adaptations for a diet of hard foods, but the durable teeth may instead have only served an important function during leaner times for harder fallback foods. That is, dental anatomy may not accurately portray normal \"Australopithecus\" diet, rather abnormal diet during times of famine.  Like the earlier \"A. afarensis\" from the same region, \"A. garhi\" had a humanlike humerus to femur ratio, and an apelike brachial index (lower to upper arm ratio) as well as curved phalanges of the hand. This is generally interpreted as adaptations for both walking on two legs (habitual bipedalism) as well as for grasping while climbing in trees (arboreality).  The BOU-VP-35/1 humerus specimen is notably larger than the humerus of the BOU-VP-12/1 specimen, which could potentially indicate size-specific sexual dimorphism with males larger than females to a similar degree to what is postulated in \"A. afarensis\", but it is unclear if this does not represent normal size variation of the same sex as this is based on only two specimens. Nonetheless, on the basis of size, BOU-VP-12/130 is considered male and BOU-VP-17/1 female. Contemporary hominins from Kenya are about the same size as \"A. garhi\". BOU-VP-17/1 may have been about tall.  \"Australopithecus\" are thought to have had fast, apelike growth rates, lacking an extended childhood typical of modern humans. However, the legs of \"A. garhi\" are elongated, unlike those of other \"Australopithecus\", and, in humans, elongated limbs develop during the delayed adolescent growth spurt. This could mean that \"A. garhi\", compared to other \"Australopithecus\", either had a slower overall growth rate, or a more rapid leg growth rate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "It was previously believed that only \"Homo\" could manufacture tools, but mammalian bones associated with the \"A. garhi\" remains exhibit cut and percussion marks made from stone tools: the left mandible of an alcelaphine bovid with three successive, unambiguous cut marks presumably made while removing the tongue; a bovid tibia with cut marks, chop marks, and impact scars from a hammerstone, possibly inflicted to harvest the bone marrow; and a \"Hipparion\" (a horse) femur with cut marks consistent with dismemberment and filleting. However, it is unclear why no stone tools were recovered from this site. Because the Hatayae locality was likely a featureless, grassy lake margin with so few raw materials for making stone tools, it is possible these hominins were creating and carrying tools some ways with them to butchering sites, intending to use them many times before discarding.  At the nearby Gona site, where there is an abundance of raw materials, several Oldowan tools (an industry previously believed to have been invented by \"H. habilis\") were recovered from 1992–1994. The tools date to around 2.6–2.5 mya, the oldest evidence of manufacturing at the time, and since \"A. garhi\" was the only species identified in the vicinity at the time, this species was the best candidate for authorship. However, in 2015, the earliest remains of \"Homo\", LD 350-1, were discovered in Ledi-Geraru, also in the Afar Region, dating to 2.8–2.75 mya. More stone tools were found in 2019 dating to about 2.6 mya in Ledi-Geraru, predating the Gona artifacts, and these may be attributed to \"Homo\"; the invention of sharp-edged Oldowan tools could actually be due to specific adaptations characteristic of \"Homo\". Nonetheless, other australopithecines have been associated with stone tool manufacturing, such as the 2010 discovery of cut marks dating to 3.4 mya attributed to \"A. afarensis\", and the 2015 discovery of the Lomekwi culture from Lake Turkana dating to 3.3 mya possibly attributed to \"Kenyanthropus\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Australopithecus garhi is a species of australopithecine from the Bouri Formation in the Afar Region of Ethiopia 2.6–2.5 million years ago (mya) during the Early Pleistocene. The first remains were described in 1999 based on several skeletal elements uncovered in the three years preceding. \"A. garhi\" was originally considered to have been a direct ancestor to \"Homo\" and the human line, but is now thought to have been an offshoot. Like other australopithecines, \"A. garhi\" had a brain volume of ; a jaw which jutted out (prognathism); relatively large molars and premolars; adaptations for both walking on two legs (bipedalism) and grasping while climbing (arboreality); and it is possible that, though unclear if, males were larger than females (exhibited sexual dimorphism). One individual, presumed female based on size, may have been tall.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972801}
{"src_title": "Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born on 14 February 1945 in Zürich, Switzerland, as the eldest son of Prince Franz Joseph II and Princess Gina of Liechtenstein. His father had succeeded as Prince of Liechtenstein in 1938 upon the death of his childless grand-uncle, Prince Franz I, and Hans-Adam was thus hereditary prince from birth.  In 1969, Hans-Adam graduated from the University of St. Gallen with a Licentiate (equivalent to a master's degree) in Business and Economic Studies.  In 1984, Prince Franz Joseph II, while legally remaining head of state and retaining the title of sovereign prince, formally handed the power of making day-to-day governmental decisions to his eldest son as a way of beginning a dynastic transition to a new generation. Hans-Adam formally succeeded as Prince of Liechtenstein upon the death of his father on 13 November 1989.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Powers.", "content": "A referendum to adopt Hans-Adam's revision of the constitution to expand his powers passed in 2003. The prince had threatened to leave the country if the referendum did not result in his favour.  On 15 August 2004 Hans-Adam formally handed the power of making day-to-day governmental decisions to his eldest son, the Hereditary Prince Alois, as a way of beginning a dynastic transition to a new generation. Legally, Hans-Adam remains the head of state.  In July 2012 the people of Liechtenstein overwhelmingly rejected a proposal to curtail the political power of the princely family. Despite an almost year-long campaign by those who proposed the changes, 76% of those voting in a referendum supported the Prince's power to veto the outcome of future referendums. Legislators, who serve on a part-time basis, rose in the prince's defence on 23 May, voting 18 to 7 against the citizens' initiative. Hans-Adam responded to the result: \"It is with joy and gratitude that the Princely House of Liechtenstein has taken note that a large majority of the population would like to continue the hitherto so successful 300-year partnership between the people and the Princely House.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal wealth.", "content": "Hans-Adam owns LGT banking group and has a family fortune of $US7.6 billion and a personal fortune of about $US4 billion, making him one of the world's richest heads of state, and Europe's wealthiest monarch. He owns an extensive art collection, much of which is displayed for the public at the Liechtenstein Museum in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Hans-Adam descends in the direct male line from three of the previous fourteen Princes of Liechtenstein, and from another three in the female line.  On 30 July 1967, at St. Florin's in Vaduz, he married his second cousin once-removed, Countess Marie Aglaë Kinsky von Wchinitz und Tettau (born 1940) who, upon her husband's accession to the throne, became \"Her Serene Highness The Princess of Liechtenstein\".  They have four children and 15 grandchildren:  The Prince is an honorary member of K.D.St.V. Nordgau Prag Stuttgart, a Catholic students' fraternity that is a member of the Cartellverband der katholischen deutschen Studentenverbindungen. The Prince donated $12 million in 2000 to found the Liechtenstein Institute on Self-determination (LISD) at Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs. In his childhood he joined the Pfadfinder und Pfadfinderinnen Liechtensteins in Vaduz. He is also a former member of the Viennese Scout Group \"\"Wien 16-Schotten\"\". He is a member of the World Scout Foundation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Viewpoints and book.", "content": "Hans-Adam has written the political treatise \"The State in the Third Millennium\" (), which was published in late 2009. In it, he argues for the continued importance of the nation-state as a political actor. He controversially tried to patent millennia-old native foods like Basmati rice through an American patent and succeeded but withdrew after concerns raised by India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. He makes the case for democracy as the best form of government, which he sees China and Russia as in transition towards although the path will be difficult for these nations. He also declared his role in a princely family as something that has legitimacy only from the assent of the people. He stated that government should be limited to a small set of tasks and abilities, writing that people \"have to free the state from all the unnecessary tasks and burdens with which it has been loaded during the last hundred years, which have distracted it from its two main tasks: maintenance of the rule of law and foreign policy\". In an interview, recorded in November 2010, Hans-Adam said that he saw certain problems with aspects of the US Constitution, such as the lack of direct democracy. He also said, \"I am sitting here and that's because Americans saved us during World War II and during the Cold War. So I am very grateful to them.\"  Hans-Adam offered a major contribution to the study of self-determination in the foreword to a \"Sourcebook, on Self-Determination and Self-Administration\", edited by Wolfgang F. Danspeckgruber and Sir Arthur Watts,, 1997; and in the Encyclopedia Princetoniensis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles and honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles and styles.", "content": "The official title of the monarch is \"Prince of Liechtenstein, Duke of Troppau and Jägerndorf, Count of Rietberg, Sovereign of the House of Liechtenstein\" (German: \"Fürst von und zu Liechtenstein, Herzog von Troppau und Jägerndorf, Graf zu Rietberg, Regierer des Hauses von und zu Liechtenstein\"). Modern German uses different words for two types of aristocrat, both of whom are referred to as \"prince\" in English: The German word for a ruler, head of family or nobleman who ranks below a \"Herzog\" and above a \"Graf\" is \"Fürst\", while a cadet descendant of an emperor, king, reigning \"Fürst\" and some other \"Fürsten\", is \"Prinz\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Hans-Adam II (Johannes Adam Ferdinand Alois Josef Maria Marco d'Aviano Pius; born 14 February 1945) is the reigning Prince of Liechtenstein. He is the son of Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein (1906–1989) and his wife, Countess Georgina von Wilczek (1921–1989). He also bears the titles Duke of Troppau and Jägerndorf, and Count of Rietberg. Hans-Adam is the richest monarch in Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972802}
{"src_title": "Middle Paleolithic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin of behavioral modernity.", "content": "The earliest evidence of behavioral modernity first appears during the Middle Paleolithic; undisputed evidence of behavioral modernity, however, only becomes common during the following Upper Paleolithic period.  Middle Paleolithic burials at sites such as Krapina in Croatia (dated to 130,000 BP) and the Qafzeh and Es Skhul caves in Israel ( 100,000 BP) have led some anthropologists and archeologists (such as Philip Lieberman) to believe that Middle Paleolithic cultures may have possessed a developing religious ideology which included concepts such as an afterlife; other scholars suggest the bodies were buried for secular reasons.  According to recent archeological findings from \"Homo heidelbergensis\" sites in the Atapuerca Mountains, the practice of intentional burial may have begun much earlier during the late Lower Paleolithic, but this theory is widely questioned in the scientific community. Cut-marks on Neandertal bones from various sites - such as Combe Grenal and the Moula rock shelter in France - may imply that Neanderthals, like some contemporary human cultures, may have practiced excarnation for presumably religious reasons (see Neanderthal behavior § Cannibalism or ritual defleshing?).  The earliest undisputed evidence of artistic expression during the Paleolithic period comes from Middle Paleolithic/Middle Stone Age sites such as Blombos Cave in the form of bracelets, beads, art rock, ochre used as body paint and perhaps in ritual, though earlier examples of artistic expression such as the Venus of Tan-Tan and the patterns found on elephant bones from Bilzingsleben in Thuringia may have been produced by Acheulean tool-users such as \"Homo erectus\" prior to the start of the Middle Paleolithic period. Activities such as catching large fish and hunting large game animals with specialized tools indicate increased group-wide cooperation and more elaborate social organization.  In addition to developing advanced cultural traits, humans also first began to take part in long-distance trade between groups for rare commodities (such as ochre (which was often used for religious purposes such as ritual)) and raw materials during the Middle Paleolithic as early as 120,000 years ago. Inter-group trade may have appeared during the Middle Paleolithic because trade between bands would have helped ensure their survival by allowing them to exchange resources and commodities such as raw materials during times of relative scarcity (i.e., famine or drought).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social stratification.", "content": "Evidence from archeology and comparative ethnography indicates that Middle Paleolithic people lived in small, egalitarian band societies similar to those of Upper Paleolithic societies and some modern hunter-gatherers such as the ǃKung and Mbuti peoples. Both Neandertal and modern human societies took care of the elderly members of their societies during the Middle Paleolithic. Christopher Boehm (1999) has hypothesized that egalitarianism may have arisen in Middle Paleolithic societies because of a need to distribute resources such as food and meat equally to avoid famine and ensure a stable food supply.  Typically, it has been assumed that women gathered plants and firewood and men hunted and scavenged dead animals through the Paleolithic. However, recent archaeological research done by the anthropologist and archaeologist Steven Kuhn from the University of Arizona suggests that this sex-based division of labor (presumably) did not exist prior to the Upper Paleolithic in Middle Paleolithic societies (modern humans before 40,000 or 50,000 BCE and Neandertals) and evolved relatively recently in human prehistory. The sexual division of labor may have evolved to allow humans to acquire food and other resources more efficiently and thus may have allowed Upper Paleolithic \"Homo sapiens\" to out-compete the Neandertals in Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "Although gathering and hunting comprised most of the food supply during the Middle Paleolithic, people began to supplement their diet with seafood and began smoking and drying meat to preserve and store it. For instance the Middle Stone Age inhabitants of the region now occupied by the Democratic Republic of the Congo hunted large long catfish with specialized barbed fishing points as early as 90,000 years ago, and Neandertals and Middle Paleolithic \"Homo sapiens\" in Africa began to catch shellfish for food as revealed by shellfish cooking in Neandertal sites in Italy about 110,000 years ago and Middle Paleolithic \"Homo sapiens\" sites at Pinnacle Point, in Africa.<ref name=\"NYTIMES/10/08/07\"></ref>  Anthropologists such as Tim D. White suggest that cannibalism was common in human societies prior to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, based on the large amount of “butchered human\" bones found in Neandertal and other Middle Paleolithic sites. Cannibalism in the Middle Paleolithic may have occurred because of food shortages.  However it is also possible that Middle Paleolithic cannibalism occurred for religious reasons which would coincide with the development of religious practices thought to have occurred during the Upper Paleolithic. Nonetheless it remains possible that Middle Paleolithic societies never practiced cannibalism and that the damage to recovered human bones was either the result of excarnation or predation by carnivores such as saber-toothed cats, lions and hyenas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technology.", "content": "Around 200,000 BP Middle Paleolithic Stone tool manufacturing spawned a tool-making technique known as the prepared-core technique, that was more elaborate than previous Acheulean techniques. Wallace and Shea split the core artifacts into two different types: formal cores and expedient cores. Formal cores are designed to extract the maximum amount from the raw material while expedient cores are more based on function need. This method increased efficiency by permitting the creation of more controlled and consistent flakes. This method allowed Middle Paleolithic humans correspondingly to create stone-tipped spears, which were the earliest composite tools, by hafting sharp, pointy stone flakes onto wooden shafts. Paleolithic groups such as the Neanderthals who possessed a Middle Paleolithic level of technology appear to have hunted large game just as well as Upper Paleolithic modern humans and the Neanderthals in particular may have likewise hunted with projectile weapons.  Nonetheless Neanderthal usage of projectile weapons in hunting occurred very rarely (or perhaps never) and the Neanderthals hunted large game animals mostly by ambushing them and attacking them with mêlée weapons such as thrusting spears rather than attacking them from a distance with projectile weapons. An ongoing controversy about the nature of Middle Paleolithic tools is whether there were a series of functionally specific and preconceived tool forms or whether there was a simple continuum of tool morphology that reflect the extent of edge maintenance, as Harold L. Dibble has suggested.  The use of fire became widespread for the first time in human prehistory during the Middle Paleolithic and humans began to cook their food c. 250,000 years ago. Some scientists have hypothesized that hominids began cooking food to defrost frozen meat which would help ensure their survival in cold regions. Robert K. Wayne, a molecular biologist, has controversially claimed, based on a comparison of canine DNA, that dogs may have been first domesticated during the Middle Paleolithic around or even before 100,000 BCE.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. The term Middle Stone Age is used as an equivalent or a synonym for the Middle Paleolithic in African archeology. The Middle Paleolithic broadly spanned from 300,000 to 30,000 years ago. There are considerable dating differences between regions. The Middle Paleolithic was succeeded by the Upper Paleolithic subdivision which first began between 50,000 and 40,000 years ago. Pettit and White date the Early Middle Paleolithic in Great Britain to about 325,000 to 180,000 years ago (late Marine Isotope Stage 9 to late Marine Isotope Stage 7), and the Late Middle Paleolithic as about 60,000 to 35,000 years ago.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972803}
{"src_title": "Ladislaus of Salzburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Władysław was the fifth and youngest son of the Silesian duke Henry II the Pious, by his wife Anna, daughter of the Přemyslid king Ottokar I of Bohemia. The Silesian Piasts, elder line of the Polish ruling Piast dynasty, had been restored into their Silesian heritage by the aid of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1163. Władysław's grandfather, Duke Henry the Bearded, also regained the Seniorate Province and the Polish Crown as High Duke in 1232.  Duke Henry II became co-ruler of his father in 1226 and was able to succeed him as Silesian duke and High Duke of Poland in 1238. When he was killed during the Mongol invasion in the Battle of Legnica on 9 April 1241, Władysław's eldest brother Bolesław II the Bald assumed the rule over the Lower Silesian lands and the guardianship of his minor siblings. Stuck in internal conflicts with his brothers Henry III the White and Mieszko, he was not able to secure the Polish throne, which he had to cede to his Piast cousin Konrad of Masovia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "With the approval of their mother Anna of Bohemia and with the purpose to not further divide the paternal lands, the younger sons of late Henry II, Władysław and Konrad I, were sent to study at the Italian university of Padua, with the idea that both prepare for an ecclesiastical career. In 1248, their rivalling elder brothers Henry III and Bolesław II finally came to terms: Henry assumed the government over the Lower Silesian lands around Wrocław, after he made a land division with Bolesław II. He chose Władysław as co-ruler, while Konrad I supposedly became co-ruler in the newly established Duchy of Legnica under Bolesław. However, the Duke of Legnica refused to share the power with anybody. Konrad fled to Greater Poland and, backed by his brother-in-law Duke Przemysł I, eventually obtained the Duchy of Głogów as his own share in 1251.  In the case of Henry III and Władysław, the cooperation between the brothers was a mutual agreement with few opportunities to frictions, as Władysław mainly stayed in the Bohemian capital Prague at the court of his maternal cousin King Ottokar II. His role in the undivided Duchy of Wrocław was limited to receive his rents; Henry III took under his hands all the government. Nevertheless, Władysław too issued numerous deeds and in 1261 he and his brother jointly vested the Wrocław citizens with Magdeburg rights. With the support of the Bohemian king, Władysław continued his spiritual career: about 1255 he became a provost at the cathedral chapter of the St Peter and Paul collegiate church in Vyšehrad (today a part of Prague) and thus was appointed Bohemian Royal Chancellor, a post exclusively reserved for the Vyšehrad provosts. The close alliance between the Silesian Piasts and the Přemyslid dynasty strengthened the ties between the lands of Silesia and Bohemia.  Władysław joined the cathedral chapter in Bamberg in 1256 and was elected bishop in the following year, however, he had to resign, as he received no dispensation by Pope Alexander IV due to his young age. Backed by King Ottokar II, he became a member of the Wrocław chapter and in April 1265 he was elected Bishop of Passau. In October he was elected Archbishop of Salzburg; this time he received the consent of Pope Clement IV. Władysław arrived in Salzburg in Spring 1266. He had to return to Silesia upon the death of his brother Duke Henry III the White on 3 December 1266. In his will, he left Władysław the guardianship of his infant son Henry IV Probus and with this, the regency of the whole Silesian duchy of Wrocław.  Henry III's government had not been too beneficial to the church; Władysław, now as a bishop and also regent, was not inclined to preserve the prerogatives of the nobility, but at the end he was forced to accept this. The bishop-regent was an advocate, with his late brother Henry III, for the canonization of their paternal grandmother, Duchess Hedwig of Silesia (\"née\" of Andechs). The process was finally completed, when Saint Hedwig was canonized by Pope Clement on 26 March 1267. This was certainly Władysław's great personal success and gave much prestige to the whole family.  The final chord of his great church's career was his nomination in 1268 to the Bishopric of Wrocław. Władysław had no intention to sacrifice the Archbishopric of Salzburg, but thanks to his influence in Prague and Rome he was appointed an \"apostolic administrator\" with all the rights of a bishop. Władysław fulfilled all his duties honestly, a quite uncommon attitude among the medieval princes. When he was Archbishop of Salzburg and shortly afterwards received the title of an administrator in the Diocese of Wroclaw, he was able to combine the two positions so that no one can say that these features overwhelm them. The last four years of life he was in constant travels between Salzburg and Wrocław.  Władysław died on 27 April 1270 and was buried in Salzburg Cathedral. In his will, he left his rights over the half of the Duchy of Wroclaw to his nephew Henry IV Probus. There were some rumours that the cause of death of the young bishop, with not more than thirty-three years, was poisoning. Guilty of this crime have to be among the nobility, who four years earlier apparently killed Duke Henry III the White, and almost twenty years later his nephew Henry IV shared the same fate. The mere fact of mentioning the same source (the \"Chronicle of the Silesian Piast Dukes\" and his likes) stated that the subsequent death of the Dukes of Wroclaw in a short term appears to be somewhat suspect. Likely source of sensational suit has gone, but few credible rumors. The sudden death of a young prince caused by natural factors in the time, when the medical service was not the best, could easily be interpreted as a poisoning. Władysław's death was likely, however, natural, which indicates the presumable place of his death, Salzburg. If the Polish nobles actually wanted to kill him, they presumably would have made this when he stayed in Wroclaw and may not have chosen a long journey to Germany to eliminate the bishop-regent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Władysław of Salzburg, also known as Władysław of Wrocław () or Władysław of Silesia (, ; – 27 April 1270), a member of the Silesian Piasts, was co-ruler in the Duchy of Wroclaw since 1248. He served as chancellor of King Ottokar II of Bohemia from 1255 and was elected Bishop of Bamberg in 1257 and Bishop of Passau in 1265. Władysław became Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg in the same year, and from 1268 also served as administrator of the Wrocław diocese.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972804}
{"src_title": "Justicialist Party", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Party history.", "content": "The Justicialist Party was founded in 1947 by Juan and Evita Perón, and superseded the Labour Party on which Perón had been elected a year earlier. Following the enactment of women's right to vote in 1948, the Peronist Women's Party, led by the First Lady, was also established. All Peronist entities were banned from elections after 1955, when the \"Revolución Libertadora\" overthrew Perón, and civilian governments' attempt to lift Peronism's ban from legislative and local elections in 1962 and 1965 resulted in military coups. Basing itself on the policies espoused by Juan Perón as president of Argentina, the party's platform has from its inception centered around populism, and its most consistent base of support has historically been the CGT, Argentina's largest trade union. Perón ordered the mass nationalization of public services, strategic industries, and the critical farm export sector, while enacting progressive labor laws and social reforms, and accelerating public works investment.  His tenure also favored technical schools while harassing university staff, and promoted urbanization as it raised taxes on the agrarian sector. These trends earned Peronism the loyalty of much of the working and lower classes, but helped alienate the upper and middle class sectors of society. Censorship and repression intensified, and following his loss of support from the influential Catholic Church, Perón was ultimately deposed in a violent 1955 coup.  The alignment of these groups as pro or anti-Peronist largely endured, though the policies of Peronism itself varied greatly over the subsequent decades, as did, increasingly, those put forth by its many competing figures. During Perón's exile, it became a big tent party united almost solely by their support for the aging leader's return. A series of violent incidents, as well as Perón's negotiations with both the military regime and diverse political factions, helped lead to his return to Argentina in 1973, and to his election.  An impasse followed in which the PJ had a place both for leftist armed organizations such as \"Montoneros\", and far-right factions such as José López Rega's Argentine Anti-Communist Alliance. Following Perón's death in 1974, however, this tenuous understanding disintegrated, and a wave of political violence ensued, ultimately resulting in the March 1976 coup. The Dirty War of the late 1970s, which cost hundreds of Peronists (among thousands more) their lives, solidified the party's populist outlook, particularly following the failure of conservative Economy Minister José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz's free trade and deregulatory policies after 1980.  In the first democratic elections after the end of the dictatorship of the National Reorganization Process, in 1983, the Justicialist Party lost to the Radical Civic Union (UCR). Six years later, it returned to power with Carlos Menem, during whose term the Constitution was reformed to allow for presidential reelection. Menem (1989–1999) adopted neoliberal right-wing policies which changed the overall image of the party.  The Justicialist Party was defeated by a coalition formed by the UCR and the centre-left FrePaSo (itself a left-wing offshoot of the PJ) in 1999, but regained political weight in the 2001 legislative elections, and was ultimately left in charge of managing the selection of an interim president after the economic collapse of December 2001. Justicialist Eduardo Duhalde, chosen by Congress, ruled during 2002 and part of 2003.  The 2003 elections saw the constituency of the party split in three, as Carlos Menem, Néstor Kirchner (backed by Duhalde) and Adolfo Rodríguez Saá ran for the presidency leading different party coalitions. After Kirchner's victory, the party started to align behind his leadership, moving slightly to the left.  The Justicialist Party effectively broke apart in the 2005 legislative elections when two factions ran for a Senate seat in Buenos Aires Province: Cristina Fernández de Kirchner (then the first lady) and Hilda González de Duhalde (wife of former president Duhalde). The campaign was particularly vicious. Kirchner's side allied with other minor forces and presented itself as a heterodox, left-leaning Front for Victory (FpV), while Duhalde's side stuck to older Peronist tradition. González de Duhalde's defeat to her opponent marked, according to many political analysts, the end to Duhalde's dominance over the province, and was followed by a steady defection of his supporters to the winner's side.  Néstor Kirchner proposed the entry of the party into the Socialist International in February 2008. His dominance of the party was undermined, however, by the 2008 Argentine government conflict with the agricultural sector, when a bill raising export taxes was introduced with presidential support. Subsequent growers' lockouts helped result in the defection of numerous Peronists from the FpV caucus, and further losses during the 2009 mid-term elections resulted in the loss of the FpV absolute majorities in both houses of Congress.  In 2015, the PJ, with its presidential candidate Daniel Scioli, was defeated by the Cambiemos coalition. Mauricio Macri was inaugurated as President of Argentina, ending 12 years of Kirchnerism.  However, in the elections of 2019, the PJ joined the Frente de Todos, which won the presidential elections. The PJ returned to power, with Alberto Fernández as President of the nation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideology.", "content": "From its foundation the Justicialist Party has been a Peronist catch-all party, which focuses on the figure of Juan Perón and his wife Eva.  From 1974 to 1976, under the leadership of Isabel Peron, the Justicialist Party is no longer characterized by anti-imperialist and revolutionary tones, but by a strong focus on anti-communism (of which it became the main bulwark in South America) and the support of neoliberalism. This line continued even after the military dictatorship of the National Reorganization Process, with the Government of Carlos Menem until that of Eduardo Duhalde. From the return of Peron in 1973 the party moved from being a Third Position left-wing party to a centre-right party, while rival Radical Civic Union acted as a centre-left party.  Since 2003 the party has undergone an abrupt turnaround, with the rise of a faction known as the \"Front for Victory\", led by Néstor Kirchner. The policies and ideology of this faction was dubbed \"Kirchnerismo\", a mix of socialism, left-wing nationalism and radicalism. Néstor Kirchner was elected President of Argentina, becoming popular in a short time. After his death, his wife Cristina Fernández took over the leadership of the Front for Victory, which continues to be a major faction of the Justicialist Party, with the head of the party being Eduardo Fellner.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Justicialist Party (, ), or PJ, is a Peronist political party in Argentina, and the largest component of the Peronist movement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972805}
{"src_title": "Upper Paleolithic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Lifestyle and technology.", "content": "Both \"Homo erectus\" and Neanderthals used the same crude stone tools. Archaeologist Richard G. Klein, who has worked extensively on ancient stone tools, describes the stone tool kit of archaic hominids as impossible to categorize. He argues that almost everywhere, whether Asia, Africa or Europe, before 50,000 years ago all the stone tools are much alike and unsophisticated. Firstly among the artefacts of Africa, archeologists found they could differentiate and classify those of less than 50,000 years into many different categories, such as projectile points, engraving tools, knife blades, and drilling and piercing tools. These new stone-tool types have been described as being distinctly differentiated from each other; each tool had a specific purpose. The invaders, commonly referred to as the Cro-Magnons, left many sophisticated stone tools, carved and engraved pieces on bone, ivory and antler, cave paintings and Venus figurines.  The Neanderthals continued to use Mousterian stone tool technology and possibly Chatelperronian technology. These tools disappeared from the archeological record at around the same time the Neanderthals themselves disappeared from the fossil record, about 40,000 cal BP. Settlements were often located in narrow valley bottoms, possibly associated with hunting of passing herds of animals. Some of them may have been occupied year round, though more commonly they appear to have been used seasonally; people moved between the sites to exploit different food sources at different times of the year. Hunting was important, and caribou/wild reindeer \"may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting.\"  Technological advances included significant developments in flint tool manufacturing, with industries based on fine blades rather than simpler and shorter flakes. Burins and racloirs were used to work bone, antler and hides. Advanced darts and harpoons also appear in this period, along with the fish hook, the oil lamp, rope, and the eyed needle.  The changes in human behavior have been attributed to changes in climate, encompassing a number of global temperature drops. These led to a worsening of the already bitter cold of the last glacial period (popularly but incorrectly called the last ice age). Such changes may have reduced the supply of usable timber and forced people to look at other materials. In addition, flint becomes brittle at low temperatures and may not have functioned as a tool.  Some scholars argue that the appearance of complex or abstract language made these behavior changes possible. The complexity of the new human capabilities hints that humans were less capable of planning or foresight before 40,000 years, while the emergence of cooperative and coherent communication marked a new era of cultural development.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Changes in climate and geography.", "content": "The climate of the period in Europe saw dramatic changes, and included the Last Glacial Maximum, the coldest phase of the last glacial period, which lasted from about 26.5 to 19 kya, being coldest at the end, before a relatively rapid warming (all dates vary somewhat for different areas, and in different studies). During the Maximum, most of Northern Europe was covered by an ice-sheet, forcing human populations into the areas known as Last Glacial Maximum refugia, including modern Italy and the Balkans, parts of the Iberian Peninsula and areas around the Black Sea.  This period saw cultures such as the Solutrean in France and Spain. Human life may have continued on top of the ice sheet, but we know next to nothing about it, and very little about the human life that preceded the European glaciers. In the early part of the period, up to about 30 kya, the Mousterian Pluvial made northern Africa, including the Sahara, well-watered and with lower temperatures than today; after the end of the Pluvial the Sahara became arid. The Last Glacial Maximum was followed by the Allerød oscillation, a warm and moist global interstadial that occurred around 13.5 to 13.8 kya. Then there was a very rapid onset, perhaps within as little as a decade, of the cold and dry Younger Dryas climate period, giving sub-arctic conditions to much of northern Europe. The Preboreal rise in temperatures also began sharply around 10.3 kya, and by its end around 9.0 kya had brought temperatures nearly to present day levels, although the climate was wetter. This period saw the Upper Paleolithic give way to the start of the following Mesolithic cultural period.  As the glaciers receded sea levels rose; the English Channel, Irish Sea and North Sea were land at this time, and the Black Sea a fresh-water lake. In particular the Atlantic coastline was initially far out to sea in modern terms in most areas, though the Mediterranean coastline has retreated far less, except in the north of the Adriatic and the Aegean. The rise in sea levels continued until at least 7.5 kya (5500 BC), so evidence of human activity along Europe's coasts in the Upper Paleolithic is mostly lost, though some traces have been recovered by fishing boats and marine archaeology, especially from Doggerland, the lost area beneath the North Sea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timeline.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "50,000–40,000 BP.", "content": "50,000 BP 45,000–43,000 BP 43,000–41,000 BP", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "40,000–30,000 BP.", "content": "40,000–35,000 BP  35,000 BP 30,000 BP", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "30,000–20,000 BP.", "content": "29,000–25,000 BP 24,000 BP 23,000 BP 22,000 BP 21,000 BP", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20,000–10,000 BP.", "content": "18,000 BP  17,000 BP  15,000 BP 14,000 BP  12,000 BP  11,000 BP  10,000 BP", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultures.", "content": "The Upper Paleolithic in the Franco-Cantabrian region:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic, Late Stone Age) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. Very broadly, it dates to between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago (the beginning of the Holocene), according to some theories coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity in early modern humans, until the advent of the Neolithic Revolution and agriculture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972806}
{"src_title": "Yevpatoria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Greek settlement.", "content": "The first recorded settlement in the area, called Kerkinitis (), was built by Greek colonists around 500 BC. Along with the rest of Crimea, Kerkinitis formed part of the dominions of Mithridates VI, King of Pontus ( BC), from whose nickname, \"Eupator\" (\"of noble father\"), the city's modern name derives.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Khanate period.", "content": "From roughly the 7th through the 10th centuries AD, Yevpatoria was a Khazar settlement; its name in Khazar language was probably \"Güzliev\" (literally \"beautiful house\"). It was later subject to the Cumans (Kipchaks), the Mongols and the Crimean Khanate. During this period the city was called \"Kezlev\" by Crimean Tatars and \"Gözleve\" by Ottomans. The Russian medieval name \"Kozlov\" is a Russification of the Crimean Tatar name. For a short period between 1478 and 1485, the city was administrated by the Ottoman Empire. Afterwards, it became an important urban center of the Crimean Khanate.  The 400-year-old Juma Jami mosque is one of the many designed by the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan. It was built from 1552 until 1564. 35-metre minarets rose on the flanks of the building. The mosque was of great state significance. It was here that a ceremony of the declaration of rights of the Crimean Khans was held at their enthronement. Only after that they went to their capital, the city of Bakhchisarai.  Yevpatoria became a residence of the spiritual ruler of the Karaites, the Gakham. In this connection here, a complex of two praying houses was built under the supervision of the Rabovich brothers, in which forms of the Renaissance and Muslim architecture entwined in a most unusual manner. The ensemble organically incorporates three courtyards. The entrance to it is marked by the gates, built in 1900, which look like a refined triumphal arch.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Russian rule.", "content": "In 1783, along with the rest of the Crimea, Kezlev was captured by the Russian Empire. Its name was officially changed to \"Yevpatoriya\" in 1784. The name comes from the Greek \"Eupatoria\" (transliteration from Greek to Russian is \"Евпатория\") in honor of Eupator Dionysius, king of Pontus. This spelling of the city name came to the French, German, Spanish and English languages at the end of the 18th сentury. The spelling \"Yevpatoriya\" came to English from the Ukrainian name \"Євпаторія\", in the second half of the 20th century.  Adam Mickiewicz visited the town in 1825 and wrote one of his \"Crimean Sonnets\" here; it was later translated into Russian by Mikhail Lermontov.  The city was occupied in September 1854 by British, French and Turkish troops during the Crimean War prior to the Allied landing in Kalamita Bay, after which the Battle of the Alma south of the bay followed. It became a garrison of Ottoman troops later during the war and was the site of the Battle of Eupatoria in February 1855, which was the largest military clash in the Crimean theatre outside the Sevastopol area.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern Yevpatoria.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "USSR.", "content": "In 1930s it was a question about the medical profile resort of Yevpatoria. Natural factors create excellent conditions for the treatment of osteo-articular tuberculosis and other children's diseases. In 1933, at a scientific conference in Yalta, it was agreed that among the Soviet resort towns Yevpatoria, Odessa, Anapa, or one of the South Coast of Crimea - the most suitable for the organization of children's resort is Yevpatoria. In Yevpatoria there is a perfect combination of climatic and balneological factors contributing to the healing of the most serious diseases of this time like tuberculosis. An additional positive factor is the lack of mosquitoes in Yevpatoria, as on the southern coast of Crimea, or mosquitoes as in Anapa.  In 1936, the government decided to determine the place of construction of the All-Union children's resort in Yevpatoria. In 1938, the approved plan of general reconstruction of the city. During World War II, sanatoriums were used as military hospitals. By July 1, 1945 in Yevpatoria operated 14 sanatoriums, have taken 2,885 people. By 1980s, in city operated 78 sanatoriums for 33 thousand people. About one million vacationers visited Yevpatoria in summer time without the purpose of treatment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ukraine.", "content": "Today Yevpatoria is a major Black Sea port, a rail hub, and resort town. The population swells greatly during the summer months, with many residents of northern cities visiting for beach recreation. As such, local residents are heavily employed during summer months but are often underemployed during the winter. The main industries include fishing, food processing, wine making, limestone quarrying, weaving, and the manufacture of building materials, machinery, furniture manufacturing and tourism.  Yevpatoria has spas of mineral water, salt and mud lakes. These resorts belong to a vast area with curative facilities where the main health-improving factors are the sunshine and sea, air and sand, brine and mud of the salt lakes, as well as the mineral water of the hot springs. The population of the town is sure to have known about the curative qualities of the local mud that can be found here from time immemorial, which is witnessed by the manuscripts of Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar (ca 80 BC).  On December 24, 2008 a blast destroyed a five-story building in the town. 27 people were killed. President Viktor Yushchenko declared December 26 to be a day of national mourning.  Two beaches in Yevpatoria have been Blue Flag beaches since May 2010, these were the first beaches (with two beaches in Yalta) to be awarded a Blue Flag in a CIS memberstate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "Ethnic composition of Yevpatoria in 2001 according to the Ukrainian census:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Yevpatoria has a humid subtropical climate (\"Cfa\") under the Köppen climate classification with cool winters and warm to hot summers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Area attractions.", "content": "Famous attractions within or near Yevpatoria are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Names of asteroid number 6489 and number 24648.", "content": "Asteroid number 6489 has a name Golevka, which has a complicated origin. In 1995, Golevka was studied simultaneously by three radar observatories across the world: Goldstone in California, Eupatoria RT-70 radio telescope (Yevpatoriya is sometimes romanized as Evpatoria or Eupatoria (Russian origin)) and Kashima in Japan. 'Gol-Ev-Ka' comes from the first few letters of each observatory's name; it was proposed by the discoverer following a suggestion by Alexander L. Zaitsev.  Asteroid 24648 Evpatoria was discovered 1985 Sept. 19 by Nikolai Chernykh and Lyudmila Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and named in honor of Evpatoria (transliteration from Russian to English, thus Yevpatoriya). The minor planet marked the occasion of the 2500th anniversary of the town in 2003.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yevpatoria (; ; ) is a city of regional significance in Western Crimea, north of Kalamita Bay. Yevpatoria serves as the administrative center of Yevpatoria Municipality, one of the districts (\"raions\") into which Crimea is divided. Population:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972807}
{"src_title": "Bořivoj I, Duke of Bohemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "According to the early 12th-century \"Chronica Boëmorum\", Bořivoj was a son of the legendary Bohemian prince Hostivít, thus a descendant of Queen Libuše and her husband Přemysl the Ploughman. His ancestry has not been conclusively established by historians, however. In view of his dependence on Great Moravia, he might have been related by blood to the Mojmir dynasty.  Bořivoj initially resided at Levý Hradec, a gord situated northwest of present-day Prague. As the head of the Přemyslids who dominated the Central Bohemian environs, Bořivoj declared himself \"kníže\" (\"prince\") - in Latin \"dux\", which means a sovereign prince - around the year 867 AD. His title was later translated by German scholars as \"duke\" (\"Herzog\") of the Bohemians (Czechs). Although the rulers of the German stem duchies emerging in the late 9th century held the same title, the meaning of his title was in fact completely different. In contrast to the German dukes who acted as the representatives of higher rulers (kings or emperors), the Czech \"dux\" denoted a sovereign ruler. Bořivoj was recognised as such around 872 by his overlord King Svatopluk I of Moravia, who dispatched Bishop Methodius of Thessalonica to begin the Christianization of Bohemia.  In 872, Bořivoj supported Svatopluk militarily in his dispute with the East Frankish king Louis the German, and in south Bohemia, they defeated the Frankish troops. About 874, Bořivoj married Ludmila (later canonized as St. Ludmila of Bohemia). The couple had two known sons, Spytihněv and Vratislaus, both of whom succeeded him as dukes. Ludmila and Bořivoj were baptised by Methodius (probably in 883), and the latter became an enthusiastic evangelist, although the religion failed to take root among Bořivoj's subjects.  In the years 883/884 Bořivoj was deposed by a revolt in support of his Přemyslid kinsman Strojmír. He was restored in 885 only with the support of his suzerain Svatopluk of Moravia. The duke or (more probably) his son Spytihněv moved his residence to the Hradčany mountain and laid the foundations for Prague Castle. When Bořivoj died about 889, his sons still minors, King Svatopluk concluded an agreement with the East Frankish ruler Arnulf of Carinthia and took over the rule of the Bohemian duchy himself.  As with most of the early Bohemian rulers, Bořivoj is a shadowy figure; exact dates for his reign and vital statistics cannot be established. Nonetheless, several major fortifications and religious foundations are said to have dated from this time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bořivoj I (,, c. 852 – c. 889) was the first historically documented Duke of Bohemia and progenitor of the Přemyslid dynasty. His reign over the Duchy of Bohemia is believed to have started about the year 870, but in this era Bohemia was subordinated to Great Moravia. One of the most important clues to the approximate time of his accession is the contemporary Frankish chronicle \"Annales Fuldenses,\" which mentions several West Slavic princes in the year 872, among them one \"Goriwei,\" who may be identical with Bořivoj.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972808}
{"src_title": "Wisteria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The botanist Thomas Nuttall said he named the genus \"Wisteria\" in memory of the American physician and anatomist Caspar Wistar (1761–1818). Questioned about the spelling later, Nuttall said it was for \"euphony,\" but his biographer speculated that it may have something to do with Nuttall's friend Charles Jones Wister, Sr., of Grumblethorpe, the grandson of the merchant John Wister.  Some Philadelphia sources state that the plant is named after Wister. As the spelling is apparently deliberate, there is no justification for changing the genus name under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. However, some spell the plant's common name \"wistaria\".  Genetic analysis shows \"Callerya\", \"Afgekia\" and \"Wisteria\" to be each other's closest relatives and quite distinct from other members of the tribe Millettieae. Both have eight chromosomes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "The following is a list of accepted \"Wisteria\" species:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Wisterias climb by twining their stems around any available support. \"W. floribunda\" (Japanese wisteria) twines clockwise when viewed from above, while \"W. sinensis\" twines counterclockwise. This is an aid in identifying the two most common species of wisteria. They can climb as high as above the ground and spread out laterally. The world's largest known wisteria is in Sierra Madre, California, measuring more than in size and weighing 250 tons. Planted in 1894, it is of the 'Chinese lavender' variety.  The leaves are alternate, 15 to 35 cm long, pinnate, with 9 to 19 leaflets. The flowers are produced in pendulous racemes 10 to 80 cm long, similar to those of the genus \"Laburnum\", but are purple, violet, pink or white. There is no yellow on the leaves. Flowering is in spring (just before or as the leaves open) in some Asian species, and in mid to late summer in the American species and \"W. japonica\". The flowers of some species are fragrant, most notably \"W. sinensis\". \"Wisteria\" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including brown-tail.  The seeds are produced in pods similar to those of \"Laburnum\", and, like the seeds of that genus, are poisonous. All parts of the plant contain a saponin called wisterin, which is toxic if ingested, and may cause dizziness, confusion, speech problems, nausea, vomiting, stomach pains, diarrhea and collapse. There is debate over whether the concentration outside of the seeds is sufficient to cause poisoning. Wisteria seeds have caused poisoning in children and pets of many countries, producing mild to severe gastroenteritis and other effects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Wisteria, especially \"Wisteria sinensis\", is very hardy and fast-growing. It can grow in fairly poor-quality soils, but prefers fertile, moist, well-drained soil. It thrives in full sun. It can be propagated via hardwood cutting, softwood cuttings, or seed. However, specimens grown from seed can take decades to bloom; for this reason, gardeners usually grow plants that have been started from rooted cuttings or grafted cultivars known to flower well.  Another reason for failure to bloom can be excessive fertilizer (particularly nitrogen). Wisteria has nitrogen fixing capability (provided by Rhizobia bacteria in root nodules), and thus mature plants may benefit from added potassium and phosphate, but not nitrogen. Finally, wisteria can be reluctant to bloom before it has reached maturity. Maturation may require only a few years, as in Kentucky wisteria, or nearly twenty, as in Chinese wisteria. Maturation can be forced by physically abusing the main trunk, root pruning, or drought stress.  Wisteria can grow into a mound when unsupported, but is at its best when allowed to clamber up a tree, pergola, wall, or other supporting structure. Whatever the case, the support must be very sturdy, because mature wisteria can become immensely strong with heavy wrist-thick trunks and stems. These can collapse latticework, crush thin wooden posts, and even strangle large trees. Wisteria allowed to grow on houses can cause damage to gutters, downspouts, and similar structures.  Wisteria flowers develop in buds near the base of the previous year's growth, so pruning back side shoots to the basal few buds in early spring can enhance the visibility of the flowers. If it is desired to control the size of the plant, the side shoots can be shortened to between 20 and 40 cm long in midsummer, and back to 10 to 20 cm in the fall. Once the plant is a few years old, a relatively compact, free-flowering form can be achieved by pruning off the new tendrils three times during the growing season in the summer months. The flowers of some varieties are edible, and can even be used to make wine. Others are said to be toxic. Careful identification by an expert is strongly recommended before consuming this or any wild plant.  Chinese wisteria was brought to the United States for horticultural purposes in 1816, while Japanese wisteria was introduced around 1830. Because of its hardiness and tendency to escape cultivation, these non-native wisterias are considered invasive species in many parts of the U.S., especially the Southeast, due to their ability to overtake and choke out other native plant species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art and symbolism.", "content": "Wisteria and their racemes have been widely used in Japan throughout the centuries and were a popular symbol in family crests and heraldry. One popular dance in kabuki, the \"Fuji Musume\" or \"\"The Wisteria Maiden\"\" is the sole extant dance of a series of five personifying dances, in which a maiden becomes the embodiment of the spirit of wisteria. In the West, both in building materials such as tile, as well as stained glass, wisterias have been used both in realism and stylistically in artistic works and industrial design.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wisteria is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae (Leguminosae), that includes ten species of woody climbing bines (twining vines) that are native to China, Korea, Japan, and the Eastern United States. Some species are popular ornamental plants. An aquatic flowering plant with the common name wisteria or 'water wisteria' is in fact \"Hygrophila difformis\", in the family Acanthaceae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972809}
{"src_title": "Julio Argentino Roca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Upbringing and early career.", "content": "Roca was born in the northwestern city of San Miguel de Tucumán in 1843 into a prominent local family. He graduated from the National College in Concepción del Uruguay, Entre Ríos. Before he was 15, Roca joined the army of the Argentine Confederation, on 19 March 1858. While still an adolescent, he went to fight as a junior artillery officer in the struggle between Buenos Aires and the interior provinces, first on the side of the provinces and later on behalf of the capital. He also fought in the War of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay between 1865 and 1870. Roca rose to the rank of colonel serving in the war to suppress the revolt of Ricardo López Jordán in Entre Ríos. President Nicolás Avellaneda later promoted him to General after his victory over rebel general José M. Arredondo in the battle of Santa Rosa, leading the loyalist forces. Roca saw the army \"as an agent of national unification,\" and his experience in the army \"broadened his understanding of Argentina and the provincial upper class.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political beginnings.", "content": "In 1878, during Avellaneda's presidency, he became Minister of War and it was his task to prepare a campaign that would bring an end to the \"frontier problem\" after the failure of the plan of Adolfo Alsina (his predecessor). A number of indigenous groups defended their traditional territories and frequently assaulted non-indigenous frontier settlements, taking horses and cattle, and capturing women and children, who were enslaved or offered as brides to the warriors. Roca's approach to dealing with the Indian communities of the Pampas, however, was completely different from Alsina's, who had ordered the construction of a ditch and a defensive line of small fortresses across the Province of Buenos Aires. Roca saw no way to end native attacks (\"malones\") but by putting under effective government control all land up to the Río Negro in a campaign (known as the Conquest of the Desert) that would \"extinguish, subdue or expel\" the Indians who lived there. \"He began the campaign against the Ranqueles\", which eventually resulted in the \"transfer of 35% of national territory from the Indians to local caudillos. This land conquest would also strengthen Argentina's strategic position against Chile.  He devised a \"tentacle\" move, with waves of 6,000 men cavalry units stemming coordinately from Mendoza, Córdoba, Santa Fé and Buenos Aires in July 1878 and April 1879 respectively, with an official toll of nearly 1,313 Native Americans killed and 15,000 taken as prisoners, and is credited with the liberation of several hundred European hostages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First presidency.", "content": "In mid-1879, after the death of Alsina, the most prestigious leader of the National Autonomous Party was General Roca, which was proposed as a candidate by Cordoba's governor Miguel Celman, and in Buenos Aires by the doctor Eduardo Wilde; quickly gained the support of most of the Argentine state governors. The April 11 elections for president, which came a sweeping victory for the voters of Roca, except in Buenos Aires and Corrientes. On June 13 the Electoral College met and elected President General Roca and Vice President Francisco Bernabé Madero. But in Buenos Aires it was brewing a revolution against the triumph of Roca. Four days later the fighting began, which ended on June 25 with an agreement between the province and the nation; the revolution of 1880 had cost 3,000 dead. Shortly before the presidential inauguration Roca was passed in Congress federalization of Buenos Aires.  Under his mandate the so-called \"laicist laws\" (\"Leyes Laicas\") were passed, which nationalized a series of functions that previously were under the control of the Church. He also created the so-called \"Registro Civil\", an index of all births, deaths and marriages. President Roca also made primary education free of charge by nationalizing education institutions run by the Church. This led to a break in relations with the Vatican. Roca presided over an era of rapid economic development fueled by large scale European immigration, railway construction, and booming agricultural exports. In May 1886 Roca was the subject of a failed assassination attempt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Continuing political involvement.", "content": "Roca himself had put forward Juárez Celman as his successor, who was his brother-in-law. However, Celman distanced himself from Roca. Celman's government was ultimately tarnished by the Baring crisis and corruption allegations.  Roca did not participate in the 1890 revolution attempt against Celman, which was instigated by Leandro N. Alem and Bartolomé Mitre (\"Unión Cívica\", later \"Unión Cívica Radical\"). However, he was pleased in the resulting weakness of Miguel Juárez Celman.  After his first presidency Roca remained important politically, becoming a senator and Minister of the Interior under Carlos Pellegrini. After President Luis Sáenz Peña resigned in January 1895, José Evaristo Uriburu took over the presidency, when Roca was President of the Senate. Because of this, Roca again assumed the duties of President between 28 October 1895 and 8 February 1896, when Uriburu was ill.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second presidency.", "content": "In the middle of 1897 the \"Partido Autonomista Nacional\" party put forward Roca as a presidential candidate once more. Unopposed, he was able to begin a second regular term in office on 12 October 1898. During his second presidency, the \"Ley de Residencia\" law was passed, which made it possible to expel some of Argentina's trade union leaders, who were noncitizen anarchists and socialists deemed dangerous to Argentina. During this presidency military service was introduced in 1901 and a border dispute with Chile was settled in 1902. Luis Drago, Roca’s foreign minister, articulated the Drago Doctrine of 1902 asserting that foreign powers could not collect public debts from sovereign American states by armed force or occupation of territory. Argentina's foreign debt increased in this period, although economic growth continued. Roca was unable to continue his political domination, and he was unable to essentially name his successor. Roca's second term ended in 1904, and is considered less successful than his first.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In 1912 Roca was appointed as Special Ambassador of Argentina to Brazil by President Roque Sáenz Peña. Roca returned to Argentina in 1914 and died in Buenos Aires on October 19, 1914. He was buried in La Recoleta Cemetery in Buenos Aires.  His son, Julio Argentino Roca, Jr., became vice-president of Argentina in 1932 to 1938.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "During the twentieth century, Roca was recognized as one of the statesmen who forged the foundations of the modern Argentine republic. As such, Roca has been honored by designating cities, departments, lakes, streets, avenues, squares, monuments, parks, schools and railway lines throughout the country. Examples include the in the province of Río Negro, the town of in the province of Chaco; the town of in the province of Santa Fe; the of the province of Entre Ríos; the of the province of Córdoba. In Buenos Aires, a major thoroughfare is named for him and an equestrian statue of him was erected in 1941. In recent years, there has been an increasing re-evaluation of Roca's place in Argentine history, particularly his involvement in the Conquest of the Desert. Some groups claim that he committed genocide against the Native Argentines.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alejo Julio Argentino Roca Paz (July 17, 1843 – October 19, 1914) was an army general who served as President of Argentina from 12 October 1880 to 12 October 1886 and from 12 October 1898 to 12 October 1904. Roca is the most important representatives of the Generation of '80 and is known for directing the \"Conquest of the Desert\", a series of military campaigns against the indigenous peoples of Patagonia. During his two terms as president, many important changes occurred, particularly major infrastructure projects of railroads and port facilities; increased foreign investment, particularly from Great Britain; large-scale immigration from southern Europe; expansion of the agricultural and pastoral sectors of the economy; and laicizing legislation strengthening state power. Roca's main foreign policy concern was to set the limits with Chile, which had never been determined with precision. Roca took advantage of the fact that year of 1881, Chile was fighting the War of the Pacific against Bolivia and Peru, so for Chile it was strategically important not to have a second military front. Argentina gained territory by treaty with Chile.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972810}
{"src_title": "Bretislav I", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Youth.", "content": "Bretislav was the son of Duke Oldřich and his low-born concubine Božena. As an illegitimate son could not obtain a desirable wife by conventional means, he chose to kidnap his future wife Judith of Schweinfurt (), a daughter of the Bavarian noble Henry of Schweinfurt, Margrave of Nordgau, in 1019 at Schweinfurt.  During his father’s reign, in 1019 or 1029, Bretislav took back Moravia from Poland. About 1031, he invaded Hungary in order to prevent its expansion under king Stephen. The partition of Bohemia between Oldřich and his brother Jaromír in 1034 was probably the reason why Bretislav fled beyond the Bohemian border, only to come back to take the throne after Jaromír’s abdication.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Raid into Poland.", "content": "In 1035, Bretislav helped Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II in his war against the Lusatians. In 1039, he invaded Lesser and Greater Poland, captured Poznań, sacked Gniezno, and brought the relics of St. Adalbert, Radim Gaudentius and the Five Brothers back with him. On the way back, he regained part of Silesia, (several dozen years before conquered by Poles), including Wrocław. His main goal was to set up an archbishopric in Prague and create a large state subject only to the Holy Roman Empire. His raid had an unintended enduring influence on Polish history, as the plundering and destruction of Gniezno pushed the next Polish rulers to move their capital to Kraków, which would retain this role for many centuries ahead.  In 1040, the German King Henry III invaded Bohemia, but was forced to retreat after he lost the Battle at Brůdek (a pass in the Bohemian Forest). The following year, Henry III invaded again, skirted the border defences and laid siege to Bretislav in Prague. Forced by a mutiny among his nobles and betrayed by Bishop Šebíř of Prague, Bretislav had to renounce all of his conquests save for Moravia and recognize Henry III as his sovereign. 1042 Emperor Henry III granted Bretislav Silesia as lien.  In 1047, Emperor Henry III negotiated a peace treaty between Bretislav and the Poles. This pact worked in Bretislav's favour, as the Polish ruler swore never again to attack Bohemia in return for an annual subsidy to Gniezno.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Domestic policy.", "content": "Bretislav was the author of decrees concerning the rules of Christianization, which included a ban on polygamy and trade on holidays.  It was in 1030 that Bretislav married the afore-mentioned Judith. In 1054, he established rules for the ducal succession and introduced agnatic seniority as the law of succession. Younger members of the dynasty were supposed to govern fiefs (technically, parts of Moravia), but only at the duke's discretion. The result of this succession policy was the relative indivisibility of the Czech lands, but also bitter conflicts over succession and territorial primacy between members of the dynasty. It was effectively ended by the elevation of Bohemia to the status of a kingdom under Ottokar I of Bohemia, which led to the establishment of primogeniture as the ruling principle for succession rights.  Bretislav's eldest son Spytihněv was to succeed him as Duke of Bohemia with control over it domains. Moravia was incorporated into the Bohemian duchy, but divided between three of his younger sons. The Olomouc Appanage went to Vratislaus; the Znojmo Appanage went to Konrád; and the Brno Appanage went to Otto. The youngest son, Jaromír, entered the church and became Bishop of Prague.  Bretislav died at Chrudim in 1055 during preparations for another invasion of Hungary and was succeeded by his son Spytihněv II as Duke of Bohemia. His sons Otto and Vratislav were shut out of the government by Spytihněv, but after his death both gained control of Moravia and Bohemia, respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Bretislav married Judith, the daughter of Margrave Henry of Schweinfurt. The House of Přemysl wished to confirm its good relationship with the Babenbergs through a marriage to Judith in 1020. Judith was a desirable bride, but Oldřich of Bohemia had only one son, Bretislav, and he was of illegitimate birth, thus complicating the prospect of a marriage with the high-born Judith. Bretislav solved the problem by kidnapping Judith from a monastery in Schweinfurt. He was never punished for this crime, and he married Judith some time later. Their first son Spytihněv was born after almost ten years, which led to the hypothesis that the kidnapping happened in 1029, although Judith may have given birth to daughters before her first son. In all, there were five sons from the marriage that survived into adulthood:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Bretislav I was buried in the old St. Vitus Church in Prague, founded by Wenceslaus I in 930, and his tomb is now situated in the Chapel of St. Wenceslaus in the St. Vitus Cathedral built in the 1344–66 period. Bretislav I was depicted in the fresco composition of the Přemyslid dynasty at the Znojmo Rotunda, painted in the 1134–61 period.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bretislav I (; 1002/1005 – 10 January 1055), known as the \"Bohemian Achilles\", of the Přemyslid dynasty, was Duke of Bohemia from 1035 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972811}
{"src_title": "Integra-Signum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "How it works.", "content": "The locomotives have three sending and receiving magnets and there are two trackside magnets near the signals.  Integra-Signum asks the train driver to confirm distant signals that show stop and distant or home signals that show caution. If he does not confirm or passes a home signal that shows stop, the train is stopped automatically. This is achieved by interrupting the power supply to the motors and applying the emergency brake.  The locomotive's sending magnet is a strong permanent magnet, which induces a current in the receiving magnet in the middle of the track, if the signal's short-circuit contact is closed. The receiving magnet on the locomotive consists of two magnet field detectors, which detect the signal's state according to polarity and timing of the magnetic field emitted by the second magnet outside the track: Stop (home signals): positive - negative, concurrent  Caution (distant signals): negative - positive, concurrent  Caution (home signal): positive - positive, not concurrent  Because Integra-Signum can only stop a train when it's \"too late\", i.e. after the red signal, it is not sufficient if there is an obstacle less than the braking distance away from the signal, which is especially a problem with fast trains. To address this issue, Zugbeeinflussung ZUB has been introduced.  Despite that Integra-Signum aims to prevent accidents, there was also an accident caused by it. In 1959, an Integra-Signum magnet mounted on a SBB-CFF-FFS RBe 540 EMU tore out a wooden sleeper on a level crossing near Gland, which led to the derailment of the entire train at 125 km/h.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phasing out.", "content": "By 2017 Switzerland had almost completed the migration to ETCS Level 1. Integra-Signum will remain in service for a few years more on a small number of special lines; one of these is the Uetliberg railway line, which will first be converted from DC to AC electrification.  From beginning 2018, new vehicles running on the Swiss network do not need anymore the class B system SIGNUM and ZUB.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Integra-Signum is a Swiss train protection system introduced in 1933. Originally it was called Signum; the name Integra was added later. It transmits data inductively and is simple, robust and reliable also in snow.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972812}
{"src_title": "Utah teapot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "For his work, Newell needed a simple mathematical model of a familiar object. His wife, Sandra Newell, suggested modelling their tea service since they were sitting down for tea at the time. He sketched the teapot free-hand using graph paper and a pencil. Following that, he went back to the computer laboratory and edited bézier control points on a Tektronix storage tube, again by hand.  The teapot shape contained a number of elements that made it ideal for the graphics experiments of the time: it was round, contained saddle points, had a genus greater than zero because of the hole in the handle, could project a shadow on itself, and could be displayed accurately without a surface texture.  Newell made the mathematical data that described the teapot's geometry (a set of three-dimensional coordinates) publicly available, and soon other researchers began to use the same data for their computer graphics experiments. These researchers needed something with roughly the same characteristics that Newell had, and using the teapot data meant they did not have to laboriously enter geometric data for some other object. Although technical progress has meant that the act of rendering the teapot is no longer the challenge it was in 1975, the teapot continued to be used as a reference object for increasingly advanced graphics techniques.  Over the following decades, editions of computer graphics journals (such as the ACM SIGGRAPH's quarterly) regularly featured versions of the teapot: faceted or smooth-shaded, wireframe, bumpy, translucent, refractive, even leopard-skin and furry teapots were created.  Having no surface to represent its base, the original teapot model was not intended to be seen from below. Later versions of the data set fixed this.  The real teapot is ~33% taller (ratio 4:3) than the computer model. Jim Blinn stated that he scaled the model on the vertical axis during a demo in the lab to demonstrate that they could manipulate it. They preferred the appearance of this new version and decided to save the file out of that preference.  The original, physical teapot was purchased from ZCMI (a department store in Salt Lake City) in 1974. It was donated to the Boston Computer Museum in 1984, where it was on display until 1990. It now resides in the ephemera collection at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California where it is catalogued as \"Teapot used for Computer Graphics rendering\" and bears the catalogue number X00398.1984. Versions of the teapot are still sold today by Friesland Porzellan in Germany, who were the original makers of the teapot as they were once part of the Melitta Group.  Versions of the teapot model — or sample scenes containing it — are distributed with or freely available for nearly every current rendering and modelling program and even many graphic APIs, including AutoCAD, Houdini, Lightwave 3D, MODO, POV-Ray, 3ds Max, and the OpenGL and Direct3D helper libraries. Some RenderMan-compliant renderers support the teapot as a built-in geometry by calling codice_1. Along with the expected cubes and spheres, the GLUT library even provides the function codice_2 as a graphics primitive, as does its Direct3D counterpart D3DX (codice_3). However version 11 of DirectX does not provide this functionality anymore. Mac OS X Tiger and Leopard also include the teapot as part of Quartz Composer; Leopard's teapot supports bump mapping. BeOS included a small demo of a rotating 3D teapot, intended to show off the platform's multimedia facilities.  Teapot scenes are commonly used for renderer self-tests and benchmarks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearances.", "content": "One famous ray-traced image, by James Arvo and David Kirk in 1987, shows six stone columns, five of which are surmounted by the Platonic solids (tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron). The sixth column supports a teapot. The image is titled \"The Six Platonic Solids\", with Arvo and Kirk calling the teapot \"the newly discovered Teapotahedron\". This image appeared on the covers of several books and computer graphic journals.  The Utah teapot sometimes appears in the \"Pipes\" screensaver shipped with Microsoft Windows, but only in versions prior to Windows XP, and has been included in the \"polyhedra\" XScreenSaver hack since 2008.  Jim Blinn (in one of his \"Project MATHEMATICS!\" videos) proves an amusing (but trivial) version of the Pythagorean theorem: construct a (2D) teapot on each side of a right triangle and the area of the teapot on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the teapots on the other two sides.  Loren Carpenter's 1980 CGI film \"Vol Libre\" features the teapot, appearing briefly at the beginning and end of the film in the foreground with a fractal-rendered mountainscape behind it.  Vulkan and OpenGL graphics APIs feature Utah teapot along with Stanford Dragon and Stanford Bunny on their badges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "With the advent of the first computer generated short films and proceeding full-length feature films, it has become an in-joke to hide the Utah teapot in films' scenes. For example, in the movie \"Toy Story\", the Utah teapot appears in a short tea-party scene. The teapot also appears in \"The Simpsons\" episode \"Treehouse of Horror VI\" in which Homer discovers the \"third dimension.\" It also appears in Pixar's \"Monsters, Inc.\" on the table in Boo's bedroom. In \"The Sims 2\", a picture of the Utah teapot is one of the paintings available to buy in-game, titled \"Handle and Spout\". The teapot appears as a throwable item in \"Superhot VR\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "3D printing.", "content": "Through 3D printing, the Utah Teapot has come full circle from being a computer model based on an actual teapot to being an actual teapot based on the computer model. It is widely available in many renderings in different materials from small plastic knick-knacks to a fully functional ceramic teapot. It is sometimes intentionally rendered as a low poly object to celebrate its origin as a computer model.  In 2009, a Belgian design studio, Unfold, 3D printed the Utah Teapot in ceramic with the objective of returning the iconographic teapot to its roots as a piece of functional dishware while showing its status as an icon of the digital world.  In 2015, the California-based company and self-described \"Make-Tank\", Emerging Objects, followed suit, but this time printed the teapot, along with teacups and teaspoons, out of actual tea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Original teapot model.", "content": "The original teapot the Utah teapot was based on is still available from Friesland Porzellan. Originally it was plainly called \"Haushaltsteekanne\" (Household Teapot); the company only found out about their product's 'fame' in 2017, whereupon they officially renamed it \"Utah Teapot\". It is available in three different sizes, the one Martin Newell had used is the \"1,4L Utah Teapot\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "OBJ Conversion.", "content": "Although the original tea set by Newell can be downloaded directly, this tea set is specified using a set of Bézier patches in a custom format, which can be difficult to import directly into many popular 3D modeling applications. As such, a tesselated conversion of the dataset in the popular OBJ file format can be useful. One such conversion of the complete Newell teaset is available on the University of Utah website.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Utah teapot, or the Newell teapot, is a 3D test model that has become a standard reference object and an in-joke within the computer graphics community. It is a mathematical model of an ordinary teapot that appears solid, cylindrical, and partially convex. A teapot primitive is considered the equivalent of a \"Hello, World!\" program, as a way to create an easy 3D scene with a somewhat complex model acting as a basic geometry reference for scene and light setup. Some programming libraries, such as the OpenGL Utility Toolkit, even have functions dedicated to drawing teapots.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972813}
{"src_title": "Colza oil", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "Colza oil is extensively used as a lubricant for machinery. It was widely used in European domestic lighting before the advent of coal (city) gas or kerosene. It was the preferred oil for train pot lamps, and was used for lighting railway coaches in the United Kingdom before gas lighting, and later electric lighting, were adopted. Burned in a Carcel lamp, it was part of the definition of the French standard measure for illumination, the carcel, for most of the nineteenth century. In lighthouses, for example in early Canada, colza oil was used before the introduction of mineral oil. The colza oil was used with the Argand burner because it was cheaper than whale oil. Colza was burned to a limited extent in the Confederacy during the American Civil War.  Colza oil was used in Gombault's Caustic Balsam, a popular horse and human liniment at the turn of the 20th century.  Among the more unusual applications of colza oil is the calming of choppy seas, where the oil modifies the surface tension of the water and rapidly smooths the surface. For this purpose, colza oil was carried in ship's lifeboats. Rescue and recovery operations have been made far less risky in this way.  More recently, colza has been cultivated in Europe as an ingredient for biodiesel fuels, and is the primary source of biodiesel in Germany.  Colza oil is also used as a food oil. Bornholm, Denmark is the only place to produce rapeseed oil from the seed's germ.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Colza oil or colza is a non-drying oil obtained from the seeds of rapeseed (\"Brassica napus\" subsp. \"napus\". syn. \"Brassica napus\" var. \"oleifera\" Delile, \"Brassica campestris\" subsp. \"napus\" (L.) Hook.f. & T. Anderson). Colza is extensively cultivated in France, Belgium, the United States, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark (especially on the island of Bornholm), and Poland. In France and Denmark, especially, the extraction of the oil is an important industry. In commerce, colza is a traditional rapeseed oil (with turnip rape oil, sarson oil, toria oil (\"Brassica rapa\" ssp.), and ravison oil), to which they are very closely allied in both source and properties. It is a comparatively nonodoriferous oil of a yellow colour, having a specific gravity varying between 0.912 and 0.920. The cake left after extraction of the oil is a valuable feed ingredient for pigs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972814}
{"src_title": "Alfred Einstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Einstein was born in Munich. Though he originally studied law, he quickly realized his principal love was music, and he acquired a doctorate at Munich University, focusing on instrumental music of the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras, in particular music for the viola da gamba. In 1918 he became the first editor of the \"Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft\"; slightly later he became music critic for the \"Münchner Post\"; and in 1927 became music critic for the \"Berliner Tageblatt\". In this period he was also a friend of the composer Heinrich Kaspar Schmid in Munich and Augsburg. In 1933, after Hitler's rise to power, he left Nazi Germany, moving first to London, then to Italy, and finally to the United States in 1939, where he held a succession of teaching posts at universities including Smith College, Columbia University, Princeton University, the University of Michigan, and the Hartt School of Music in Hartford, Connecticut.  Einstein not only researched and wrote detailed works on specific topics, but wrote popular histories of music, including the \"Short History of Music\" (1917), and \"Greatness in Music\" (1941). In particular, due to his depth of familiarity with Mozart, he published an important and extensive revision of the Köchel catalogue of Mozart's music (1936). It is this work for which Einstein is most well known. Einstein also published a comprehensive, three-volume set \"The Italian Madrigal\" (1949) on the secular Italian form, the first detailed study of the subject. His 1945 volume \"Mozart: His Character, His Work\" was an influential study of Mozart and is perhaps his best known book.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to Albert Einstein.", "content": "While one source (1980) lists Alfred as a cousin of the scientist Albert Einstein, another claims (1993) that no relationship has been verified. Some websites claim they were both descended from a Moyses Einstein seven generations back, hence they were sixth cousins. In 1991, Alfred's daughter Eva stated that they were not related. On the other hand, she wrote in 2003 that they were fifth cousins on one side, and fifth cousins once removed on the other, according to research by George Arnstein. They were photographed together in 1947 when Albert Einstein received an honorary doctorate from Princeton, but they did not know that they were distantly related.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfred Einstein (December 30, 1880February 13, 1952) was a German-American musicologist and music editor. He was born in Munich and fled Nazi Germany after Hitler's \"Machtergreifung\", arriving in the United States by 1939. He is best known for being the editor of the first major revision of the Köchel catalogue, which was published in the year 1936. The Köchel catalogue is the extensive catalogue of the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972815}
{"src_title": "Mentha aquatica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Water mint is a herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant growing to tall. The stems are square in cross section, green or purple, and variably hairy to almost hairless. The rhizomes are wide-spreading, fleshy, and bear fibrous roots. The leaves are ovate to ovate-lanceolate, long and broad, green (sometimes purplish), opposite, toothed, and vary from hairy to nearly hairless. The flowers of the watermint are tiny, densely crowded, purple, tubular, pinkish to lilac in colour and form a terminal hemispherical inflorescence; flowering is from mid to late summer. Water mint is visited by many types of insects, and can be characterized by a generalized pollination syndrome, but can also spread by underground rhizomes. All parts of the plant have a distinctly minty smell. Unbranched, hairless plants, with narrower leaves and paler flowers, native to areas of Sweden and Finland near the Baltic Sea, have been called \"Mentha aquatica\" var. \"litoralis\".  \"Mentha aquatica\" is a polyploid, with 2\"n\" = 8\"x\" = 96 chromosomes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Mentha aquatica\" was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. As with other \"Mentha\" species, it was subsequently re-described under a variety of different names;, Plants of the World Online listed 87 synonyms, including four forms or varieties that it does not recognize. The cultivated eau de Cologne mint (also known as bergamot mint) is considered to be a variety of this species.  It hybridises with \"Mentha spicata\" (spearmint) to produce \"Mentha\" × \"piperita\" (peppermint), a sterile hybrid; with \"Mentha suaveolens\" (apple mint) to produce \"Mentha\" × \"suavis\"; with \"Mentha arvensis\" (corn mint) to produce \"Mentha\" × \"verticillata\"; and with both \"M. arvensis\" and \"M. spicata\" to give the tri-species hybrid \"Mentha\" × \"smithiana\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Water mint is native to much of Europe, northern Africa and western Asia. It has been introduced to North and South America, Australia and some Atlantic islands.  As the name suggests, water mint occurs in the shallow margins and channels of streams, rivers, pools, dikes, ditches, canals, wet meadows, marshes and fens. If the plant grows in the water itself, it rises above the surface of the water. It generally occurs on mildly acidic to calcareous (it is common on soft limestone) mineral or peaty soils. \"M. aquatica\" can occur in certain fen-meadow habitats such as the Juncus subnodulosus-Cirsium palustre plant association. It is a component of Purple moor grass and rush pastures - a type of Biodiversity ActPlan habitat in the UK.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "It can be used to make a herbal tea. The cultivated variety known as eau de Cologne mint or bergamot mint, is used to produce mentha citrata oil, also known as bergamot oil, used in perfumery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mentha aquatica (water mint; syn. \"Mentha hirsuta\" Huds.) is a perennial flowering plant in the mint family Lamiaceae. It grows in moist places and is native to much of Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972816}
{"src_title": "Symphytum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Species.", "content": "Species include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "The Russian comfrey 'Bocking 14' cultivar was developed during the 1950s by Lawrence D Hills, the founder of the Henry Doubleday Research Association (the organic gardening organisation itself named after the Quaker pioneer who first introduced Russian comfrey into Britain in the nineteenth century) following trials at Bocking, near Braintree.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Propagation.", "content": "Bocking 14 is sterile, and therefore will not set seed (one of its advantages over other cultivars as it will not spread out of control), thus is propagated from root cuttings. The gardener can produce \"offsets\" from mature, strongly growing plants by driving a spade horizontally through the leaf clumps about below the soil surface. This removes the crown, which can then be split into pieces. The original plant will quickly recover, and each piece can be replanted with the growing points just below the soil surface, and will quickly grow into new plants. Offsets can also be purchased by mail order from specialist nurseries in order to initially build up a stock of plants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phytochemistry, folk medicine, and toxicity.", "content": "Folk medicine names for comfrey include knitbone, boneset and the derivation of its Latin name \"Symphytum\" (from the Greek \"symphis\", meaning growing together of bones, and \"phyton\", a plant), referring to its ancient uses. Similarly the common French name is \"consoude\", meaning to weld together. The tradition in different cultures and languages suggest a common belief in its usefulness for mending bones.  Comfrey contains mixed phytochemicals in varying amounts, including allantoin, mucilage, saponins, tannins, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, inulin, and proteins, among others. Liver toxicity is associated with consuming this plant or its extracts. In modern herbalism, comfrey is most commonly used topically.  In 2001, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a ban of comfrey products marketed for internal use, and a warning label for those intended for external use. Comfrey should not be used during pregnancy and lactation, in infants, and in people with liver, kidney, or vascular diseases.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Symphytum is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae. There are up to 35 species, known by the common name comfrey (pronounced ). Some species and hybrids, particularly \"S. officinale\" and \"S.\" × \"uplandicum\", are used in gardening and herbal medicine. They are not to be confused with \"Cynoglossum virginianum\", known as wild comfrey, another member of the borage family.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972817}
{"src_title": "Barium chloride", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure and properties.", "content": "BaCl crystallizes in two forms (polymorphs). One form has the cubic fluorite (CaF) structure and the other the orthorhombic cotunnite (PbCl) structure. Both polymorphs accommodate the preference of the large Ba ion for coordination numbers greater than six. The coordination of Ba is 8 in the fluorite structure and 9 in the cotunnite structure. When cotunnite-structure BaCl is subjected to pressures of 7–10 GPa, it transforms to a third structure, a monoclinic post-cotunnite phase. The coordination number of Ba increases from 9 to 10.  In aqueous solution BaCl behaves as a simple salt; in water it is a 1:2 electrolyte and the solution exhibits a neutral pH. Its solutions react with sulfate ion to produce a thick white precipitate of barium sulfate. Oxalate effects a similar reaction: When it is mixed with sodium hydroxide, it gives the dihydroxide, which is moderately soluble in water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "On an industrial scale, it is prepared via a two step process from barite (barium sulfate): This first step requires high temperatures. In place of HCl, chlorine can be used.  Barium chloride can in principle be prepared from barium hydroxide or barium carbonate. These basic salts react with hydrochloric acid to give hydrated barium chloride.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Although inexpensive, barium chloride finds limited applications in the laboratory and industry. In industry, barium chloride is mainly used in the purification of brine solution in caustic chlorine plants and also in the manufacture of heat treatment salts, case hardening of steel. Its toxicity limits its applicability.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Barium chloride, along with other water-soluble barium salts, is highly toxic. Sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate are potential antidotes because they form barium sulfate BaSO, which is relatively non-toxic because of its insolubility.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Barium chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula BaCl. It is one of the most common water-soluble salts of barium. Like most other barium salts, it is white, toxic, and imparts a yellow-green coloration to a flame. It is also hygroscopic, converting first to the dihydrate BaCl(HO). It has limited use in the laboratory and industry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972818}
{"src_title": "Vera Menchik", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Her father, František Menčík, was born in Bystra nad Jizerou, Bohemia, while her mother, Olga Illingworth (c. 1885–1944), was English. He was the manager of several estates owned by the nobility in Russia, and his wife was a governess of the children of the estate owner.  Vera Menchik was born in Moscow in 1906. Her sister Olga Menchik was born in 1907.  When she was nine years old her father gave her a chess set and taught her how to play. When she was 15 her school club organised a chess tournament and she came second.  After the Revolution her father lost a mill he owned and eventually also the big house where the family lived. The marriage broke down; her father returned to Bohemia, and in the autumn of 1921 Olga and her daughters went to Hastings, England, to live with Olga's mother.  As Vera spoke only Russian she hesitated to go to the local chess club, but at last on 18 March 1923 she joined the Hastings Chess Club and began to take lessons from John Drewitt. Then she became a pupil of the grandmaster Géza Maróczy. During 1923 she played in several team matches.  In December 1923 she played in her first Hastings Congress and got a draw against Edith Price, the then British ladies' champion.  In the next Hastings Christmas Chess Congress 1924/25 she played again in Group A, first class, and finished second with five points out of seven. She met Miss Price in the last round of the Group of the Winners and again drew.  In 1925 she contested two matches against Edith Price, winning both of them, and she was considered the strongest lady player in the country; as she was not British she could not enter the national competition.  In January 1926 she won the first Girls' Open Championship at the Imperial Club in London with her sister Olga coming third. In 1927 she retained this title and Olga came second. Next year Vera was too old to play, and Olga again came second.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Women's World Championships.", "content": "She won the first Women's World Championship in 1927 and successfully defended her title six times in every other championship held during her lifetime, losing only one game, while winning 78 and drawing four games.  She also won two matches against Sonja Graf for the Women's World Champion title; (+3−1=0) at Rotterdam 1934, and (+9−2=5) at Semmering 1937.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International tournament results.", "content": "Starting in 1929, she participated in a number of Hastings Congress tournaments.  A list of her results in Hastings, year by year;  The biggest and strongest tournament Menchik played in was the Moscow tournament of 1935, which featured World Champions Botvinnik, Capablanca, and Lasker, as well as a host of elite players and future GMs like Flohr, Ragozin, Spielmann, Levenfish, Lilenthal, etc. Here, Menchik finished in last place, 20th out of 20 competitors, with a score of (+0−16=3).  Other major international tournaments include Karlsbad in 1929, where she finished last, 22nd out of 22 players, with a score of (+2−17=2), and Lodz in 1938, where she finished 15th out of 16, with a score of (+1−9=5).  Menchik's best results at international tournaments came at Ramsgate 1929. This was a Scheveningen system match, with 7 players from one team competing against 7 from another. Menchik finished with an unbeaten score of (+3−0=4). In 1934 she finished in 3rd place out of 9 players at Maribor, behind Lajos Steiner and Vasja Pirc, but ahead of the likes of Rudolph Spielmann and Milan Vidmar, with a score of (+3−1=4). In 1942 she won a match against Jacques Mieses (+4−1=5). It should, however, be noted that Mieses was 77 years old at the time, and no longer an active tournament participant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The \"Vera Menchik Club\".", "content": "When in 1929, Menchik entered the Carlsbad 1929 chess tournament, Viennese master Albert Becker ridiculed her entry by proposing that any player whom Menchik defeated in tournament play should be granted membership into the \"Vera Menchik Club\". In the same tournament, Becker himself became the first member of the \"club\". In addition to Becker, the \"club\" eventually included Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander, Abraham Baratz, Eero Böök, Edgard Colle, Max Euwe, Harry Golombek, Mir Sultan Khan, Frederic Lazard, Jacques Mieses, Stuart Milner-Barry, Karel Opočenský, Brian Reilly, Samuel Reshevsky, Friedrich Sämisch, Lajos Steiner, George Alan Thomas, William Winter, and Frederick Yates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Late life and death.", "content": "In 1937, at the age of 31, Vera Menchik married Rufus Henry Streatfeild Stevenson (1878–1943), twenty-eight years her senior, who was subscriptions editor of \"British Chess Magazine\", a member of the West London Chess Club, and later honorary secretary of the British Chess Federation.  In 1944 Britain was nearing its sixth year in World War II, and 38-year-old Vera, who was widowed the previous year, still held the title of women's world champion. On 26 June she, her sister Olga, and their mother were killed in a V-1 flying bomb attack which destroyed their home at 47 Gauden Road in the Clapham area of South London. All three were cremated at the Streatham Park Crematorium on 4 July 1944.  The trophy for the winning team in the Women's Chess Olympiad is known as the \"Vera Menchik Cup\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Vera Menchik is the longest-reigning women's world chess champion in history, having held the title for 17 years. Her dominance over her contemporaries can be seen in her matches against Sonja Graf. Graf was the second strongest women's player in the world at the time and had been coached by the legendary Siegbert Tarrasch, but looking at both the games and the final result, their playing levels were completely different. In the two matches, Menchik won twelve games to three, with five draws. The fourth world champion, Alekhine, wrote after one of her victories against Sonja Graf in 1939 that \"it is totally unfair to persuade a player of an acknowledged superclass like Miss Menchik to defend her title year after year in tournaments composed of very inferior players\", the specific tournament in question being the seventh Women's World Chess Championship. However, against the very best male players, Menchik did not fare well. She lost to Jose Raul Capablanca (9-0), Alexander Alekhine (7-0), Mikhail Botvinnik (2-0), Paul Keres (2-0), Reuben Fine (2-0) and Emanuel Lasker (1-0).  She was inducted into the World Chess Hall of Fame in 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vera Frantsevna Menchik (; ; 16 February 1906 – 26 June 1944) was a British-Czechoslovak-Russian chess player who became the world's first women's chess champion. She also competed in chess tournaments with some of the world's leading male chess masters, with occasional successes including two wins over future world champion Max Euwe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972819}
{"src_title": "Ibizan Hound", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Looks.", "content": "The Ibizan Hound is an elegant and agile breed, with an athletic and attractive outline and a ground-covering springy trot. Though graceful in appearance, it has good bone girth and is a rugged/hardy breed. Its large upright ears - a hallmark of the breed - are broad at the base and frame a long and elegant headpiece. The neck is long and lean. It has a unique front assembly with well laid-back shoulders and relatively straight upper arm. Coming in both smooth and wire-coated varieties, their coat is a combination of red and white with the nose, ears, eye rims, and pads of feet being a light tan color. Its eyes are a striking amber color and have an alert and intelligent expression. The Ibizan may range in height, depending on which Standard you follow, from and weigh from, males being larger than females.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "Ibizan Hounds are intelligent, active, and engaging by nature. They rank 53rd in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs, being of average working/obedience intelligence, but many Ibizan owners will enjoy recounting a multitude of examples of their problem-solving abilities. They are true \"clowns\" of the dog world, delighting in entertaining their people with their antics. Though somewhat independent and stubborn at times, they do take well to training if positive methods are used, but will balk at punitive training methods. They are generally quiet, but will alarm bark if necessary, so they make good watch dogs. They are sensitive hounds, and very good around children and other dogs alike. They generally make good house dogs, but are active and athletic, therefore need a lot of daily exercise. They do not make good kennel dogs. Ibizan hounds are sweet, but they are very stubborn and independent.  Ibizan Hounds are \"escapologists\": they are able to jump incredible heights from a standstill, so they need very tall fences. They also have been known to climb, and many can escape from crates, open baby gates and even locks. They have a strong prey drive, therefore they cannot be trusted off leash unless in a safely enclosed area. Once off the leash, they might not come back for a long time. A hound that knows where its home is and the surrounding area will usually return unscathed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "The Ibizan Hound is typical of the Hound Group in that it rarely suffers from hereditary illness. Minor health concerns for the breed include seizures and allergies; very rarely, one will see axonal dystrophy, cataract, retinal dysplasia and deafness in the breed. Ibizan Hound owners should have their dogs' eyes tested by a veterinarian before breeding. CERF and BAER testing is recommended for the breed. Ibizan Hounds are sensitive to barbiturate anesthesia, and typically live between 12 and 14 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History and use.", "content": "This breed originates in the island of Eivissa and has been traditionally used in the Catalan-speaking areas of Spain, and France where it was known under the name of \"le charnigue\", to hunt rabbits and other small game. The Ibizan Hound is a fast dog that can hunt on all types of terrain, working by scent, sound and sight. Hunters run these dogs in mostly female packs, with perhaps a male or two, as the female is considered the better hunter.  Traditionally a farmer may have one dog and a very well off farmer two dogs to catch rabbits for food. However, in the last twenty years it is seen as a sport where between five and fifteen dogs can be seen in the chase of one rabbit.  The Ibizan Hound authority Miquel Rosselló has provided a detailed description of a working trial which characterises their typical hunting technique and action, strikingly illustrated with action photos by Charles Camberoque which demonstrate hunt behaviour and typical hunt terrain. While local hunters will at times use one dog or a brace, and frequently packs of six to eight or as many as fifteen, the working trial requires an evaluation of one or two braces. A brace is called a \"colla\". The couples should be tested on at least two to five rabbits (not hares), without the use of any other hunting aid. An inspection and evaluation of the exterior, fitness, character and obedience of the dogs is recommended prior to the hunt. The trial is qualified as having 5 parts. The dogs should show: (1) careful tracking and scenting of the rabbit, without being distracted in the least, 0-30 points; (2) correct signalling of the game, patient stand, strong jump into the air, obedience 0-10 points; (3) chase, giving tongue, speed, sureness, anticipation 0-30 points; (4) putting the game to cover at close quarters, listening, waiting, obedience, correct attack 0-10 point; and (5) good catch, or correct indication of the game's location, retrieval, obedience 0-20 points.  Individual dogs are expected to show a great degree of discipline, obedience and co-operation. They should be extremely agile, have good speed and a powerful vertical jump from a stationary position in rough and often heavily covered ground. They should have excellent scent-tracking abilities, give tongue at the right time when approaching the game closely, and otherwise be silent so that they can locate the game by sound.  The Ibizan Hound is similar in function and type to several breeds, such as the Pharaoh Hound, the Cirneco dell'Etna, the Portuguese Podengo, and the Podenco Canario. The Ibizan Hound is the largest of these breeds, classified by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale as primitive types.  It is believed the Ibizan Hound evolves from the \"tesem\", the ancient Egyptian hunting dog. Representations of this dog on the walls of ancient tombs show a striking similarity to the modern Ibizan Hound. These dogs would have been brought to the island of Eivissa by the Phoenicians, who founded settlements there as early as the 8th century BC. A recent DNA analysis found that the breed was formed recently from other breeds. A more recent article argues that continued trait selective breeding may be behind this lack of support.  In the United States, the Ibizan Hound is frequently competed in lure coursing through the AKC and ASFA, and also competes in LGRA straight racing and NOTRA oval track racing. Some parts of the country also use them for coursing live prey, generally jackrabbits.  The Ibizan Hound breed is recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale, Continental Kennel Club, American Kennel Club, United Kennel Club, Kennel Club of Great Britain, Canadian Kennel Club, National Kennel Club, New Zealand Kennel Club, Australian National Kennel Council, America's Pet Registry, and American Canine Registry. It was fully recognized by the American Kennel Club in 1979.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In folk culture.", "content": "According to journalist Norman Lewis, when an owner no longer wants to own one of these dogs (having too much of an appetite, for instance), it is considered very bad luck to kill the dog. Instead, they release the dog on the other side of the island, so that someone else might 'adopt' the animal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ibizan Hound (, ) is a lean, agile dog of the hound family. There are two hair types of the breed: smooth and wire. The more commonly seen type is the smooth. Some consider there to be a third type, long, but the longhair is most likely a variation of the wire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972820}
{"src_title": "Cho Oyu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Height.", "content": "Cho Oyu's height was originally measured at and at the time of the first ascent it was considered the seventh highest mountain on earth, after Dhaulagiri at (Manaslu, now, was also estimated lower at ). A 1984 estimate of made it move up to sixth place. New measurements made in 1996 by the Government of Nepal Survey Department and the Finnish Meteorological Institute in preparation for the Nepal Topographic Maps put the height at 8,188 m, one remarkably similar to the used by Edmund Hillary in his 1955 book \"High Adventure\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climbing history.", "content": "Cho Oyu was first attempted in 1952 by an expedition organised and financed by the Joint Himalayan Committee of Great Britain as preparation for an attempt on Mount Everest the following year. The expedition was led by Eric Shipton and included Edmund Hillary, Tom Bourdillon and George Lowe. A foray by Hillary and Lowe was stopped due to technical difficulties and avalanche danger at an ice cliff above and a report of Chinese troops a short distance across the border influenced Shipton to retreat from the mountain rather than continue to attempt to summit.  The mountain was first climbed on October 19, 1954, via the north-west ridge by Herbert Tichy, Joseph Jöchler and Sherpa Pasang Dawa Lama of an Austrian expedition. Cho Oyu was the fifth 8000 metre peak to be climbed, after Annapurna in June 1950, Mount Everest in May 1953, Nanga Parbat in July 1953 and K2 in July 1954. Until the ascent of Mount Everest by Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler in 1978, this was the highest peak climbed without supplemental oxygen.  Cho Oyu is considered the easiest eight-thousander, with the lowest death-summit ratio (th of Annapurna's). It is the second most climbed eight-thousander after Everest (whose height makes it the most popular), and has over four times the ascents of the third most popular eight-thousander, Gasherbrum II. It is marketed as a \"trekking peak\", achievable for climbers with high fitness, but low mountaineering experience. It has a broadly flat summit plateau with no cairn (the traditional prayer flags on Cho Oyu's summit plateau do not mark the \"technical\" summit), which can be a source of confusion, and debate, amongst climbers (see Elizabeth Hawley).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cho Oyu (Nepali: चोयु; ) is the sixth-highest mountain in the world at above sea level. Cho Oyu means \"Turquoise Goddess\" in Tibetan. The mountain is the westernmost major peak of the \"Khumbu\" sub-section of the Mahalangur Himalaya 20 km west of Mount Everest. The mountain stands on the ChinaNepal border.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972821}
{"src_title": "Left Opposition", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first confrontation between the Left Opposition and the \"triumvirate\" occurred from October 1923 to January 1924 over industrialization policies. The \"triumvirate\" won decisively at the XIII Party Conference in January 1924. Following Lenin's death in January 1924, the confrontation between the Left Opposition and the \"triumvirate\" expanded more openly into a dispute over Trotsky's policies, with the \"triumvirate\" accusing Trotsky's policies of being \"anti-Leninist\". At the XIIIth Communist Party Congress in May 1924, the \"triumvirate's\" position was further strengthened at the Left Opposition's expense. Another confrontation took place from October to December 1924, during the so-called \"Literary Discussion\" and criticism of Trotsky's permanent revolution policy as Stalin proposed socialism in one country. This resulted in the removal of Trotsky from his ministerial post on 6 January 1925, although Stalin opposed Zinoviev's demand that Trotsky be expelled from the Communist Party.  With Trotsky largely marginalized, Zinoviev and Kamenev had a falling out with Stalin at the XIVth Communist Party Conference in April 1925 over Stalin's October 1924 proposal of \"Socialism in One Country\", which Zinoviev and Kamenev now openly opposed. By this time, the Right Opposition leader, Bukharin, had elaborated on Stalin's socialism in one country policy, giving it a theoretical justification. This solidified the Right Opposition as Stalin's main allies, as the \"triumvirate\" of Stalin-Zinoviev-Kamenev from recent years broke up. Soon after the April 1925 Conference, Zinoviev and Kamenev formed the New Opposition, but they were defeated by Stalin, who was again supported by Bukharin and Rykov, at the XIVth Party Congress in December 1925. Soon after their defeat at the Congress, Zinoviev and Kamenev joined forces with Trotsky's Left Opposition in early 1926, in what became known as the United Opposition. From July to October 1926, the United Opposition lost out to Stalin, and its leaders were expelled from the ruling Politburo.  In October 1927, soon after catastrophic events regarding the Chinese Revolution of 1925-27, which confirmed the United Opposition's critical analysis of the Communist Party's support for the nationalist Kuomintang, the last United Opposition members were expelled from the Communist Party Central Committee; and in November 1927, Trotsky and Zinoviev were expelled from the Communist Party itself. In December 1927, the XVth Party Congress declared Left Opposition and Trotskyist views to be incompatible with Communist Party membership and expelled all leading Left Opposition supporters from the Party.  After their expulsion by the XVth Congress, Zinoviev, Kamenev and their supporters immediately surrendered to Stalin, \"admitted their mistakes\" and were readmitted to the Communist Party in 1928, although they never regained their former influence and eventually perished in the Great Purge. Trotsky and his supporters, on the other hand, refused to capitulate to Stalin and were exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union in early 1928. Trotsky was eventually expelled from the country in February 1929, sent into exile in Turkey. Trotsky's supporters remained in exile, but their resolve began to waver in 1929 as Stalin turned against Bukharin and Rykov and adopted the policy of collectivization, which appeared to be close to the policies that the Left Opposition had advocated earlier. The Left Opposition attempted to field opposition candidates against the official Communist Party candidates in the 1929 elections, but to no avail. Most (but not all) prominent Left Opposition members recanted between 1929 and 1934, but they nearly all perished during the Great Purge of the mid-late 1930s along with the Oppositionists who remained unrepentant.  In the meantime, Trotsky founded the International Left Opposition in 1930. It was meant to be an opposition group within the Comintern, but members of the Comintern were immediately expelled as soon as they joined (or were suspected of joining) the ILO. The ILO therefore concluded that opposing Stalinism from within the communist organizations controlled by Stalin's supporters had become impossible, so new organizations had to be formed. In 1933, the ILO was renamed the International Communist League (ICL), which formed the basis of the Fourth International, founded in Paris in 1938.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Left Opposition was a faction within the Bolshevik Party from 1923 to 1927 headed \"de facto\" by Leon Trotsky. The Left Opposition formed as part of the power struggle within the party leadership that began with the Soviet founder Vladimir Lenin's illness and intensified with his death in January 1924. Originally, the battle lines were drawn between Trotsky and his supporters who signed The Declaration of 46 in October 1923 on the one hand and a triumvirate (also known by its Russian name \"troika\") of Comintern chairman Grigory Zinoviev, Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin and Politburo chairman Lev Kamenev on the other hand.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972822}
{"src_title": "Blackburn Ripon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The Blackburn Ripon was designed to replace the single-seat Dart torpedo bomber. In accordance with Air Ministry Specification 21/23, it was also required to be used for long-range reconnaissance, for which a two-man crew was demanded. The first prototype flew on 17 April 1926 as a landplane, with the second prototype following on 26 August first flying as a seaplane. Initial trials against its competitors, the Handley Page Harrow and the Avro Buffalo, showed that none of the competitors were adequate, so the Ripon was redesigned with an improved engine installation, an enlarged rudder and increased sweepback on the wings. Thus improved, the Ripon was declared the winner and ordered for service.  Four prototypes and 90 production aircraft were manufactured by Blackburn for use by the Fleet Air Arm. The Baffin was a development of the Ripon, which replaced it in service with the Fleet Air Arm, with 68 Ripons converted to Baffins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "The Ripon entered service with the Fleet Air Arm in 1929, six joining No 462 (Fleet Torpedo Bomber) Flight aboard in January of that year. The Ripon was normally used as a carrier-based landplane by the Fleet Air Arm, and although capable of being converted to a seaplane, was rarely fitted with floats. The Ripon continued in service with Torpedo Bomber flights until 1933, when the Fleet Air Arm was reorganised into three larger squadrons, No. 810, No. 811 and No. 812. The last Ripons were retired from service in January 1935 when 811 Naval Air Squadron re-equipped with Blackburn Baffins.  The Blackburn Ripon was also ordered for use by the Finnish Air Force, with one example for Finland being built by Blackburn, before 25 were produced under licence at the Finnish Aircraft Factory. These were powered with a number of different radial engines; the pattern aircraft had a 530 hp (400 kW) Bristol Jupiter VII, the next seven had 480 hp (360 kW) Gnome Rhone Jupiter VI, followed by eight with 535 hp (399 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Panther engines and the final ten with 580 hp (430 kW) Bristol Pegasus engines. The Finnish Air Force used Ripons as reconnaissance aircraft against the Soviet Union in the Winter War and the Continuation War. After losing an aircraft to Soviet fighters in 1939, the Ripon was limited to night missions. The last missions were flown in 1944.  One Ripon coded RI-140 was stored and has been reassembled and put on display in the Päijänne Tavastia Aviation Museum recently. It is the only preserved example.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Blackburn T.5 Ripon was a British carrier-based torpedo bomber and reconnaissance biplane which first flew in 1926. It was used by the Fleet Air Arm as a torpedo bomber from 1930 until 1935. Ripons were also sold to Finland, where they continued to be used in action in the Winter War and the Continuation War until 1944.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972823}
{"src_title": "Robert Koldewey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "After attending a gymnasium in Braunschweig, Koldewey moved with his family to Altona in 1869 where he attended the Christianeum, achieving his abitur in 1875.  Koldewey was a self-trained archaeological historian of the classical area. Although he studied architecture and art history in Berlin and Vienna, he left both those universities without an advanced degree. In 1882 he was signed on as a participant to the excavation of ancient Assus in Turkey, where Koldewey learned several excavation methods and how best to draw ancient remains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "Francis H. Bacon (an advisor to Heinrich Schliemann) introduced Koldewey to archaeology at the excavation of Assos in 1882–1883. Koldewey went on to conduct digs for the German Archaeological Institute, at Hellenic sites including Lesbos (1885–1886) and Mesopotamian sites such as Lagash (1887). In 1890–1891 and 1894, he worked with Felix von Luschan on the excavation of a Hellenic city in Sicily.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Excavation of Babylon.", "content": "With support from the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft (German Oriental Society), Koldewey directed the excavation of Babylon from 1899 through 1914, using comparatively modern archaeological techniques. (The site had been identified a century earlier by Claudius James Rich.) More than 200 people worked daily, year round, for fifteen years.  When the team unearthed Babylon's central Processional street in 1899, the modern world had its first look at the site of this much-storied ancient city. The expedition also found the outer walls, inner walls, and foundation of Etemenanki, a temple sometimes identified as the \"Tower of Babel\". It also unearthed Nebuchadnezzar's palaces.  Walter Andrae, a participant in the expedition, later created models of Babylon for the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin. The excavations at the famous city of Babylon were considered prestigious for Germany, and were consequently well-sponsored and well-publicized.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hanging Gardens of Babylon.", "content": "The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were a previously unconfirmed legend about a beautiful man-made mountain full of green plants and trees that reportedly were built by King Nebuchadnezzar (ruled 605 BC – 563 BC) for his homesick wife, Amyitis, who was daughter of the king of the Medes.  While excavating the Southern Citadel, Robert Koldewey discovered a basement with fourteen large rooms with stone arch ceilings. Ancient texts showed that only two locations in the city had used stone, the north wall of the Northern Citadel, and the Hanging Gardens. The north wall of the Northern Citadel had already been found. This made it seem likely that Koldewey had found the cellar of the gardens.  He continued exploring the area and discovered many of the features reported by the ancient Greek historian Diodorus. While Koldewey was convinced that he had found the gardens, some modern archaeologists have called his discovery into question. While the location of the site that Koldewey excavated was well known and recognised as where Babylon had been situated, they argue that the dig site was too far from the Euphrates River to have been irrigated with the amount of water required for a green garden, and the ancient Greek historian Strabo stated that the Hanging Gardens were located right next to the river. The complex of arched rooms that Koldewey discovered was most likely a storeroom, as cuneiform tablets with lists of supplies and rations were later found in the ruins.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Robert Johann Koldewey (10 September 1855 – 4 February 1925) was a German archaeologist, famous for his in-depth excavation of the ancient city of Babylon in modern-day Iraq. He was born in Blankenburg am Harz in Germany, the duchy of Brunswick, and died in Berlin at the age of 69.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972824}
{"src_title": "Talaiotic culture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Up until the end of the 20th century, it was theorized that the Talaiotic Culture arose out of interaction between new peoples from the eastern Mediterranean and local island culture, in the form of an aggressive invasion, or perhaps as a peaceful assimilation. The Talaiotic Culture arose at the same time that the crisis caused by the Sea Peoples was occurring, which had revolutionized societies in this part of the Mediterranean until the 13th century BC. These theories were based mainly on architectonic remains that exist in abundance on Majorca and Menorca. The Talaiotic people were considered a warlike race due to the abundance of talaiots or defensive towers and the existence of walled towns. In addition, the talaiots were similar in many respects to the nuraghes of Sardinia, which lends credence to the theory that the Talaiotic people were of Sardinian origin.  However, archaeological excavations conducted at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries have established that the talaiots were built much later –at the beginning of the first millennium BC, which means that they were not built during the time of the Sea Peoples and the Sardinian nuraghes. In addition, there is more and more proof that what was considered a sudden transition from a Pre-Talaiotic Culture during the Bronze Age to the Talaiotic Culture was actually a slow evolution lasting several centuries, and actually caused by a localized crisis on the Balearic Islands. However, external influences on the Talaiotic Culture cannot be completely discounted, since the existence of bronze alloys on the island (which requires tin, not available on the Balearic Islands) indicates that frequent contacts with the outside world existed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first evidence indicating the development of this culture appeared at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, when island society was threatened by population increases, inefficient food production, and limited living space. Agricultural techniques that the first inhabitants had brought with them a millennium before in the Copper Age consisted of planting in newly-broken ground by burning forests and plowing the newly cleared ground. This technique resulted in a rapid deterioration of fertile land, and may be the main cause for the almost completely meat-based diet of the islanders towards the end of the Bronze Age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Talaiotic Period in Majorca.", "content": "The first great monuments on Majorca from this period are the Layered Tumuli (\"Túmulos Escalonados\"), which had a funerary purpose. The date of their construction dates from the end of the second millennium BC to the beginnings of the first millennium BC, and many of the Tumuli are associated with hypogea from the Bronze Age. In sum, the society of this era is called \"Proto-Talaiotic,\" since many features of the subsequent Talaiotic society begin to appear at this time. These features include the clustering of the population into towns. It has been confirmed that in some of these Talaiotic towns naviform structures were dismantled in order to use the building material to build ordinary dwellings.  At the beginning of the first millennium BC, talaiots began to proliferate on Majorca, either appearing in isolated fashion as a territorial boundary stone, or in towns, but mostly grouped together in ceremonial centers. In Majorca, these ceremonial centers were as abundant as the towns themselves. Some of them consisted of small groups of stone structures (talaiots, tumuli), scattered across the island, and frequently serving as boundary stones between the towns. Some of these ceremonial centers consisted of a line of up to seven stone structures across a distance of more than half a kilometer. The abundance of these centers serves as evidence of their importance: most likely they were where frequent disputes were resolved, and where various festivities were celebrated. The centers also served as a seasonal and economic calendar (economic activities such as sowing, harvests, hunting), in which the young of various towns could meet (thus guaranteeing sexual outbreeding). Sanctuaries also existed on the island, recognizable because their two rear corners are rounded. Sanctuaries situated within the towns were small, and their interiors had only a single column, which was more or less centered. The sanctuaries in the countryside were much bigger (10–15 m.) and tended to have many pairs of columns. The funerary monuments of Majorca were varied, a characteristic similar to the previous age: burials were made in natural caves and in hypogea. The Talaiotic hypogea were much bigger than those from the Bronze Age, sometimes with column excavated from the surrounding rock, and the enlargement of these columns provided a reason for enlarging the hypogea themselves. A large cemetery was also built, the Necropolis of Son Real, unique to Majorca and Menorca. The Necropolis served as a cemetery in which the tombs were similar to small talaiots, and were either circular or square-shaped. Small \"navetas\" can also be found in the Necropolis. Despite the Talaiotic preference for burials to occur in hypogea, during the time of the Talaiotic Culture a novelty was introduced: the burial of a body with lime.  A 3,200-year-old well-preserved Bronze Age sword was discovered by archaeologists under the leadership of Jaume Deya and Pablo Galera on the Mallorca Island in the Puigpunyent from the stone megaliths site Talaiot. Specialists assumed that the weapon was made when the Talaiotic culture was in critical comedown. The sword will be on display at the nearby Majorca Museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Talaiotic Period in Menorca.", "content": "The reorganization of Menorcan society into chieftainships and towns occurred on similar lines to societal changes on Mallorca, although some Menorcan towns were much larger than Majorcan ones, indicating, perhaps, the existence of stronger social changes or tensions. The variety of monuments on Menorca (besides talaiots) constructed from the end of the Bronze Age and throughout the Iron Age, surpasses that found on Mallorca. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, there appeared tombs known as “navetas.” They were built with Talaiotic techniques, but were also drawn from a very ancient tradition that contains many similarities to the tradition of the construction of dolmens going back a previous millennium. The construction known as the Taula is considered the most emblematic ceremonial monument of Menorca. It served as a sanctuary, and its enclosure had a horseshoe form, similar to those found on Mallorca but unlike the Majorcan variety, had a great central structure resembling a table (“taula” means “table” in the Catalan language). The exact construction date of these sanctuaries is not known, although the enclosures could have existed throughout the Talaiotic, and the central monuments could belong to any date throughout the first millennium.  The first author who wrote about the Talayotic monuments of Menorca was Joan Ramis in his book Celtic antiques on the island of Menorca, which was edited 1818, being the first book in Spanish language entirely devoted to Prehistory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The end of the Talaiotic Period.", "content": "The very factors that gave rise to the Talaiotic Period spelled its doom. Construction of talaiots ceased, and many of them were destroyed or converted for different uses. The nearby Punic center of Ebusus, present-day Ibiza, increased its commercial influence to include the Gymnesian Islands; this economic extension in effect transformed itself into an actual Punic colonization of the Gymnesian Islands. The Mediterranean subsequently became dominated by the Roman and Carthaginian Empires. The Punic Wars would erupt between these two powers, and the islands of Mallorca and Menorca would be forcibly dragged into what is called the Post-Talaiotic Period (also known as the Balearic Culture or Post-Talaiotic Culture).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Talaiotic Culture or Talaiotic Period is the name used to describe the society that existed on the Gymnesian Islands (the easternmost Balearic Islands) during the Iron Age. Its origins date from the end of the second millennium BC, when the inaccurately named Pre-Talaiotic Culture underwent a crisis and evolved into the Talaiotic Culture. Its name is derived from the talaiots, which are the most abundant and emblematic structures from the prehistoric period of the Balearic Islands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972825}
{"src_title": "The Marais", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paris aristocratic district.", "content": "In 1240, the Order of the Temple built its fortified church just outside the walls of Paris, in the northern part of the Marais. The Temple turned this district into an attractive area, which became known as the Temple Quarter, and many religious institutions were built nearby: the des Blancs-Manteaux, de Sainte-Croix-de-la-Bretonnerie and des Carmes-Billettes convents, as well as the church of Sainte-Catherine-du-Val-des-Écoliers.  During the mid-13th century, Charles I of Anjou, King of Naples and Sicily, and brother of King Louis IX of France built his residence near the current n°7 rue de Sévigné. In 1361 the King Charles V built a mansion known as the Hôtel Saint-Pol in which the Royal Court settled during his reign as well as his son's.  From that time to the 17th century and especially after the Royal Square (\"Place Royale\", current \"place des Vosges\") was designed under King Henri IV of France in 1605, the Marais was the French nobility's favorite place of residence. French nobles built their urban mansions there—hôtels particuliers, in French—such as the Hôtel de Sens, the Hôtel de Sully, the Hôtel de Beauvais, the Hôtel Carnavalet, the Hôtel de Guénégaud and the Hôtel de Soubise, as well as many other hôtels particuliers, found all over the district.  During the late 18th century, the district was no longer the \"most\" fashionable district for the nobility, yet it still kept its reputation of being an aristocratic area. By that time, only minor nobles and a few more powerful nobles, such as the Prince de Soubise, lived there. The Place des Vosges remained a place for nobles to meet. The district fell into despair after the French Revolution, and was therefore abandoned by the nobility completely, and would remain so until the present day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jewish community.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "People.", "content": "After the French Revolution, the district was no longer the aristocratic district it had been during the 17th and 18th centuries. Because of this, the district became a popular and active commercial area, hosting one of Paris' main Jewish communities. At the end of the 19th century and during the first half of the 20th, the district around the rue des Rosiers, referred to as the \"Pletzl\", welcomed many Eastern European Jews (Ashkenazi) who reinforced the district's clothing specialization. During World War II the Jewish community was targeted by the Nazis who were occupying France. As of today the rue des Rosiers remains a major centre of the Paris Jewish community, which has made a comeback since the 1990s. Public notices announce Jewish events, bookshops specialize in Jewish books, and numerous restaurants and other outlets sell kosher food.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Institutions.", "content": "The synagogue on 10 rue Pavée is adjacent to the rue des Rosiers. It was designed in 1913 by Art Nouveau architect Hector Guimard, who designed several Paris Metro stations. Le Marais houses the Museum of Jewish Art and History, the largest French museum of Jewish art and history. The museum conveys the rich history and culture of Jews in Europe and North Africa from the Middle Ages to the 20th century.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Historic events.", "content": "In 1982, Palestinian terrorists murdered 6 people and injured 22 at a Jewish restaurant in Le Marais, Chez Jo Goldenberg, an attack which evidence ties to the Abu Nidal Organization.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Post-war rehabilitation.", "content": "By the 1950s, the district had become a working-class area and most of its architectural masterpieces were in a bad state of repair. In 1964, General de Gaulle's Culture Minister Andre Malraux made the Marais the first \"secteur sauvegardé\" (literally \"safeguarded sector\"). These were meant to protect and conserve places of special cultural significance. In the following decades the government and the Parisian municipality led an active restoration and Rehabilitation Policy.  The main Hôtels particuliers have been restored and turned into museums: the Hôtel Salé hosts the Picasso Museum, the Hôtel Carnavalet hosts the Paris Historical Museum, the Hôtel Donon hosts the Cognacq-Jay Museum, the Hôtel de Saint-Aignan hosts the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme. The site of Beaubourg, the western part of Marais, was chosen for the Centre Georges Pompidou, France's national Museum of Modern Art and one of the world's most important cultural institutions. The building was completed in 1977 with revolutionary architecture by Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Today's Marais.", "content": "The Marais is now one of Paris' main localities for art galleries. Following its rehabilitation, the Marais has become a fashionable district, home to many trendy restaurants, fashion houses, and hip galleries.  The Marais is also known for the Chinese community it hosts. The community began to appear during World War I. At that time, France needed workers to replace its at-war soldiers and China decided to send a few thousand of its citizens on the condition that they would not take part in the war. After the 1918 victory, some of them decided to stay in Paris, specifically living around the current rue au Maire. Today, most work in jewellery and leather-related products. The Marais' Chinese community has settled in the north of the district, particularly in the surrounding of Place de la République. Next to it, on the Rue du Temple, is the Chinese Church of Paris.  Other features of the neighbourhood include the Musée Picasso, the house of Nicolas Flamel, the Musée Cognacq-Jay, and the Musée Carnavalet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "LGBT culture.", "content": "Le Marais became a centre of LGBT culture, beginning in the 1980s. As of today, 40% of the LGBT businesses in Paris are in Le Marais. Florence Tamagne, author of \"Paris: 'Resting on its Laurels'?\", wrote that Le Marais \"is less a 'village' where one lives and works than an entrance to a pleasure area\" and that this differentiates it from Anglo-American gay villages. Tamagne added that like U.S. gay villages, Le Marais has \"an emphasis on 'commercialism, gay pride and coming-out of the closet'\".\"Le Dépôt\", one of the largest cruising bars in Europe as of 2014 (per Tamagne), is in the Le Marais area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable residents.", "content": "According to sources, the following are people of note:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Places and monuments of note.", "content": "According to sources, the following are places and monuments of note:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Le Marais (; \"The Marsh\") is a historic district in Paris, France. Long the aristocratic district of Paris, it hosts many outstanding buildings of historic and architectural importance. It spreads across parts of the 3rd and 4th arrondissements in Paris (on the Rive Droite, or Right Bank, of the Seine). Once shabby, the district has been rehabilitated and now sports trendy shopping and restaurants in streets such as Rue des Francs-Bourgeois and Rue des Rosiers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972826}
{"src_title": "BSA (The Software Alliance)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 2013 Victoria Espinel resigned from the office of the United States Intellectual Property Enforcement Coordinator (IPEC) of the Office of Management and Budget and joined the staff of the BSA as its president.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campaigns.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Play It Cybersafe.", "content": "\"Play It Cyber Safe\" campaign features an anti-piracy ferret for a mascot. Objectives of the campaign include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bust Your Boss!", "content": "Among the more provocative approaches BSA has taken is the \"Bust Your Boss!\" campaign that has appeared on billboards, printed publications and on the Internet with the following suggestion: \"\"Is your current or former employer using pirated software in their office? Hit 'em where it really hurts - report their illegal software use today.\"\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public policy.", "content": "BSA | The Software Alliance has put forward submissions to the Advisory Council on Intellectual Property (Australia) in their Review of the Innovation Patent System.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Members.", "content": "Membership includes the following: Official Member List  Members no longer listed as members :", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "The BSA's enforcement practices against small to medium-sized businesses have been the subject of numerous articles. About 2006, the BSA came under fire for offering reward money up to $200,000 USD to disgruntled employees that report current or former employers for alleged violations of BSA member software licenses.  According to an article in Mother Jones magazine, the BSA discovered in 1995 that Antel, the Uruguayan national telephone company, had copied $100,000 worth of Microsoft, Novell, and Symantec software. The BSA's lawyers in Uruguay quickly filed suit, but dropped the suit in 1997 when Antel signed a \"special agreement\" with Microsoft to replace all of its software with Microsoft products. This has led to accusations that the BSA is a front for Microsoft, with its other members being enlisted purely to disguise Microsoft's dominant role.  The BSA supported the highly controversial US Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA). This has led to calls from various online communities that BSA members should be boycotted as a result of their perceived attack on the Internet's underlying structure. Kaspersky Lab has left the BSA over this.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "BSA annual software piracy study.", "content": "BSA has been heavily criticized about the yearly study it publishes about copyright infringement of software. This study, produced in collaboration with the International Data Corporation, tries to estimate the level of copyright infringement of software in different countries, as well as the resulting losses for the software industry. The methodology consists in estimating the number of computers shipped in a given country, as well as the average quantity of software installed on these machines. Separately, an estimation of the quantity of legitimate software sold in the country is produced, and the difference between the total amount of software estimated to be in use in the country and the estimation of software sold is used as an indicator of the rate of unauthorized copying. An estimation of the total amount lost is produced by multiplying the estimator number of unauthorized copies by the price of the original software.  These estimates have been criticized as being exaggerated and many flaws of the methodology have been pointed out; some of the figures seem to be guesses rather than solid data, and some data may not be representative. The calculation of the losses, in particular, assumes that each piece of copied software represents a direct loss of sale for software companies, a very contested assumption. The study's assumptions have been described as erroneous in a way \"that would get a first year student of statistics into trouble\".  These criticisms have been aggravated by the use of the BSA study to lobby for new, stricter copyright laws and to seek tougher penalties for people convicted of copyright infringement on software. In Britain, a judge cited the data provided by the BSA to justify a lengthy prison sentence for two people convicted of copyright infringement.  Another study claiming that software patents are of the same importance to small and medium enterprises and large companies, has been described as misleading and as using a flawed methodology, but the results have nevertheless been quoted by politicians.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Software Alliance, also known as BSA, is a trade group established by Microsoft in 1988 to represent commercial software makers. It is a member of the International Intellectual Property Alliance. Its principal activity is trying to stop copyright infringement of software produced by its members. Founded as the Business Software Alliance, it dropped \"Business\" from its name in October 2012, and styles itself \"BSA | The Software Alliance\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972827}
{"src_title": "Emil Jannings", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood and youth.", "content": "Jannings was born in Rorschach, Switzerland, the son of Emil Janenz, an American businessman from St. Louis, and his wife Margarethe (\"née\" Schwabe), originally from Germany. Jannings held German citizenship; while he was still young the family moved to Leipzig in the German Empire and further to Görlitz after the early death of his father.  Jannings ran away from school and went to sea. When he returned to Görlitz, his mother finally allowed him to begin a traineeship at the town state theatre, where Jannings started his stage career. From 1901 onwards he worked with several theatre companies in Bremen, Nuremberg, Leipzig, Königsberg, and Glogau before joining the Deutsches Theater ensemble under director Max Reinhardt in Berlin. Permanently employed since 1915, Jannings met with playwright Karl Vollmöller, fellow actor Ernst Lubitsch, and photographer Frieda Riess, who after World War I all were at the heart of the Weimar Culture in 1920s Berlin. Jannings made his breakthrough in 1918 with his role as Judge Adam in Kleist's \"Broken Jug\" at the Schauspielhaus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Jannings was a theater actor who went into films, though he remained dissatisfied with the limited expressive possibilities in the silent era. Having signed a contract with the UFA production company, he starred in \"Die Augen der Mumie Ma\" (\"The Eyes of the Mummy\", 1918) and \"Madame DuBarry\" (1919), both with Pola Negri in the main female part. He also performed in the 1922 film version of \"Othello\" and in F. W. Murnau's 1924 film \"The Last Laugh\" (\"Der Letzte Mann\"), as a proud but aged hotel doorman who is demoted to a restroom attendant. Jannings worked with Murnau on two other films; playing the title character in \"Tartuffe\" (\"Herr Tartüff\", 1925), and as Mephistopheles in \"Faust\" (1926).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "America.", "content": "His increasing popularity enabled Jannings to sign an agreement with Paramount Pictures and eventually follow his acting colleagues Lubitsch and Negri to Hollywood. He started his career in 1927 with \"The Way of All Flesh\" directed by Victor Fleming (now lost) and in the following year performed in Josef von Sternberg's \"The Last Command\". In 1929, Jannings won the first Best Actor Oscar for his work in both films. He and Sternberg also cooperated in \"Street of Sin\" (1928), though they actually differed about Jannings' acting in front of the camera.  His Hollywood career came to an end with the advent of talkies as his thick German accent was difficult to understand. His dialogue was initially dubbed by another actor in the part-talkie \"The Patriot\" (1928) directed by Ernst Lubitsch, although Jannings' own voice was restored after he objected. Returning to Europe, he starred opposite Marlene Dietrich in the 1930 film \"The Blue Angel\", which was filmed simultaneously in English with its German version \"Der blaue Engel\".  According to Susan Orlean, author of \"Rin Tin Tin: The Life and The Legend\", Jannings was not actually the winner of the first best actor vote, but the runner-up. While researching her book, Orlean thought she discovered that it was in fact Rin Tin Tin, the German Shepherd dog, one of the biggest movie stars of his time, who won the vote. The Academy, however, worried about not being taken seriously if they gave the first Oscar to a dog, chose to award the Oscar to the human runner-up.  In 1960, Jannings was posthumously honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1630 Vine Street for his contribution to motion pictures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nazi Germany.", "content": "After the Nazi \"Machtergreifung\" in 1933, Jannings continued his career in the service of Nazi cinema. During the Third Reich, he starred in several films which were intended to promote Nazism, particularly the \"Führerprinzip\" by presenting unyielding historical characters, such as \"Der alte und der junge König\" (\"The Old and the Young King\" 1934), \"Der Herrscher\" (\"The Ruler\" 1937) directed by Veit Harlan, \"Robert Koch\" (1939), \"Ohm Krüger\" (\"Uncle Kruger\", 1941) and \"Die Entlassung\" (\"Bismarck's Dismissal\", 1942). He also performed in his famed role in \"The Broken Jug\" directed by Gustav Ucicky. Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels named Jannings an \"Artist of the State\" (\"Staatsschauspieler\")  The shooting of his last film \"Wo ist Herr Belling?\" was aborted when troops of the Allied Powers entered Germany in Spring 1945. Jannings reportedly carried his Oscar statuette with him as proof of his former association with Hollywood. However, his active role in Nazi propaganda meant that he was subject to denazification, effectively ending his career.  Ironically, in the same period Dietrich became a US citizen and an influential anti-Nazi activist, spending much of the war entertaining troops on the front lines and broadcasting on behalf of the OSS. Dietrich particularly loathed Jannings for his Nazi ties, and would later refer to her former co-star as a \"ham\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Jannings retired to Strobl near Salzburg, Austria, and became an Austrian citizen in 1947. He died in 1950, aged 65, from liver cancer. He is buried in the St. Wolfgang cemetery. His Best Actor Oscar is now on display at the Berlin Filmmuseum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriages.", "content": "Jannings was married four times. His first three marriages ended in divorce, his last with his death. His last three marriages were to German stage and film actresses, Hanna Ralph, Lucie Höflich, and Gussy Holl. He had a daughter, Ruth-Maria, although some sources say Ruth-Maria was actually his stepdaughter, and that her real father was Conrad Veidt, Holl's first husband.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emil Jannings (born Theodor Friedrich Emil Janenz, 23 July 1884 – 2 January 1950) was a German actor, popular in the 1920s in Hollywood. He was the first Oscar recipient, honored with the Academy Award for Best Actor at the 1929 ceremony for his roles in the films \"The Last Command\" and \"The Way of All Flesh\". Jannings is the only German ever to have won that award.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972828}
{"src_title": "Wilhelm Weitling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Wilhelm Christian Weitling was born in Magdeburg, Prussia, the son of Christiane Weitling and Guilliaume Terijon. Weitling's father was a young French officer who was billeted in occupied Prussia, who met and fell in love with Weitling's mother, a household maid. His parents never married, with his father dying in the ill-fated 1812 French invasion of Russia.  Weitling was raised in dire poverty, frequently in the care of others while his mother eked out a meager living as a maid and cook. His formal education was minimal, limited to elementary study in the public school of Magdeburg and such reading as he was able to do on his own at the local library. He was raised as a Roman Catholic through the age of 12, and read the Bible attentively, retaining an ability to quote scripture throughout his life. In keeping with the dual nationality of his birth, Weitling was bilingual in French and German, learning English as well as the basics of Italian later in his life.  Weitling was apprenticed to a tailor at an early age, living with his master and learning the skill of tailoring garments for women and men thoroughly. He became a journeyman at the age of 18, leaving his hometown to travel across the German states in search of employment. He landed in the city of Leipzig in 1830, where he began to take an interest in politics and to try his hand at the writing of satirical poetry. He made his way to Dresden in the fall of 1832 and from there to Vienna in 1834, where he worked fabricating artificial flowers and decorations for women's clothing.  In the fall of 1837 Weitling emigrated to Paris, a city which he had briefly visited two years before. He would remain there for four years, becoming deeply involved in the radical political ideas of the day, in particular the writings of Fourier, Owen and Cabet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political activity.", "content": "After joining the League of the Just in 1837, Weitling joined Parisian workers in protests and street battles in 1839. Tristram Hunt called his doctrine \"a highly emotional mix of Babouvist communism, chiliastic Christianity, and millenarian populism\": In conformity with the work of the Christian radical Felicité de Lamennais, Weitling urged installing communism by physical force with the help of a 40,000-strong army of ex-convicts. A prelapsarian community of goods, fellowship, and societal harmony would then ensue, directed by Weitling himself. While Marx and Engels struggled with the intricacies of industrial capitalism and modern modes of production, Weitling revived the apocalyptic politics of the sixteenth-century Münster Anabaptists and their gory attempts to usher in the Second Coming. Much to Marx and Engels's annoyance, Weitling's giddy blend of evangelism and protocommunism attracted thousands of dedicated disciples across the Continent.  In 1838, he published his first work, \"Die Menschheit, wie sie ist und wie sie sein sollte\" (The human race as it is, and as it should be), which was translated into Hungarian and other languages.  In 1841, after the abortive rebellion of the Blanquists, he went to Switzerland, visiting Geneva, Vevey and Langenthal in the Canton of Berne, and finally settling in Zurich in 1843. At all these places, he promoted the doctrines of communism with his preaching and publications, including the 1842 work \"Garantien der Harmonie und Freiheit\" (Guarantees of harmony and freedom).  Weitling's work \"Das Evangelium eines armen Sünders\" (The poor sinner's gospel) came out in 1845, but by this time the attention of the Swiss authorities had been attracted. He was arrested and prosecuted for revolutionary agitation, including blasphemy on account of having published a text which depicted Jesus Christ as both a communist and the illegitimate child of Mary. Found guilty, he was given a six-month sentence.  On his release, he was deported back to Prussia. He resided for a time in Hamburg, but then left on a journey which took him to London, Treves, Brussels and New York City.  In Weitling's 1847 book \"Gospel of Poor Sinners,\" he traced communism back to early Christianity.  Upon the outbreak of the revolutions of 1848 in Germany, Weitling returned to Germany, preaching his communism to little effect. When the revolutions failed in 1849, he returned to New York thus becoming one of the Forty-Eighters.  His book \"Guarantees of Harmony and Freedom\" was praised by Bruno Bauer, Ludwig Feuerbach and Mikhail Bakunin, the latter of whom Weitling was to meet in Zürich in 1843. Karl Marx, in an article from 1844, referred to Weitling's work as the \"vehement and brilliant literary debut of the German workers,\" Although John Spargo suggested that \"what won from Marx this high-sounding praise was simply the fact that Weitling's appeals were addressed to the workers as a class\", Marx himself emphasized Weitling's theoretical and philosophical \"brilliance,\" which compared favorably to the more \"economically\" inclined English workers and the more practical \"politically\" oriented French workers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "American years.", "content": "Weitling continued his activism on behalf of communism in the United States. In January 1850, he began the publication of a monthly journal, \"Die Republik der Arbeiter\". By the end of the year, it had a circulation of 4,000. Toward the end of his life he turned from activism to technological and astronomical studies. For seven years, he was register at Castle Garden. He received nine patents for improvements to sewing machines, among which were double stitch, button hole and embroidery attachments. He received a patent for a dress-trimming crimper which he had worked on for 17 years, and on his death left several unfinished machines.  He participated with the experimental German-American settlement of Communia, Iowa. Weitling died in New York City. A widow and six children survived him.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Wilhelm Christian Weitling (October 5, 1808 – January 25, 1871) was a German-born tailor, inventor, and radical political activist. Weitling gained fame in Europe as a social theorist before emigrating to the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972829}
{"src_title": "Stefka Kostadinova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Plovdiv, Kostadinova went to a specialist sports school, but was only introduced to high jump in a Year Six (12-13 year olds) athletics meet in Sofia, on a day she is quoted as saying she would never forget (on TransWorldSport interview in 2012). She jumped 1.66m (5 ft 4)and was informed that it was a world record for her age group; equivalent to the adult female world record in 1941: See Women's high jump world record progression", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Kostadinova is the reigning world record holder in the women's high jump at 2.09 m, which she jumped during the 1987 World Championships in Athletics in Rome. Her world record is one of the oldest in modern athletics. Altogether Kostadinova set seven world records - three outdoors and four indoors. She also holds the distinction of having jumped over 2.00 m 197 times.  Kostadinova won the gold medal in the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, setting an Olympic record of 2.05 m. She also won a silver medal at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. Kostadinova won the outdoor World Championships in 1987 and 1995. She won the World Indoor Championship five times between 1985 and 1997. Kostadinova also won gold in all European Championships in Athletics in which she competed. She was a European outdoor champion in Stuttgart in 1986 and a four-time European indoor champion in 1985, 1987, 1988, and 1994.  Kostadinova was voted Sportsperson of the Year in Bulgaria four times (1985, 1987, 1995 and 1996).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1995 Kostadinova gave birth to her son, Nikolay, just several months before winning gold in the 1995 World Championships in Athletics. In 1999 she divorced her long-standing husband and coach, Nikolay Petrov. The same year she officially put an end to her athletic career, though she had actually not participated in any major sports competition since the World Indoors Championship in 1997. In 2007 Kostadinova married her companion of some nine years, a businessman in the construction industry, Nikolai Popvasilev.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports administration career.", "content": "After retiring Kostadinova started a career in sports administration. She has served as vice president of the Bulgarian Athletic Federation, vice president of the Bulgarian Olympic Committee and was deputy sports minister of Bulgaria from 2003 through 2005.  On November 11, 2005 Kostadinova was elected president of the Bulgarian Olympic Committee. She replaced Ivan Slavkov, who was expelled by the International Olympic Committee for violating its standards in ethics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stefka Georgieva Kostadinova (; born March 25, 1965) is a Bulgarian retired athlete who competed in the high jump. Her world record of 2.09 metres has stood since 1987. She was the 1996 Olympic champion, a twice World champion and five-times a World Indoor champion. She has been the president of the Bulgarian Olympic Committee since 2005.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972830}
{"src_title": "Prunus serotina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "\"Prunus serotina\" has the following subspecies and varieties:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Prunus serotina\" is a medium-sized, fast-growing forest tree growing to a height of. Leaves are long, ovate-lanceolate in shape, with finely toothed margins. Fall leaf color is yellow to red. Flowers are small, white and 5-petalled, in racemes long which contain several dozen flowers. The flowers give rise to reddish-black \"berries\" (drupes) fed on by birds, in diameter.  For about its first decade the bark of a black cherry tree is thin, smooth, and banded, resembling a birch. A mature tree has very broken, dark grey to black bark. The leaves are long and shiny, resembling a sourwood’s. An almond-like odor is released when a young twig is scratched and held close to the nose, revealing minute amounts of cyanide compounds produced and stored by the plant as a defense mechanism against herbivores.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and cultivation.", "content": "\"Prunus serotina\" is a pioneer species. In the Midwest, it is seen growing mostly in old fields with other sunlight-loving species, such as black walnut, black locust, and hackberry. Gleason and Cronquist (1991) describe \"P. serotina\" as \"[f]ormerly a forest tree, now abundant as a weed-tree of roadsides, waste land, and forest-margins\". It is a moderately long-lived tree, with ages of up to 258 years known, though it is prone to storm damage, with branches breaking easily; any decay resulting, however, only progresses slowly. Seed production begins around 10 years of age, but does not become heavy until 30 years and continues up to 100 years or more. Germination rates are high, and the seeds are widely dispersed by birds and bears who eat the fruit and then excrete them. Some seeds however may remain in the soil bank and not germinate for as long as three years. All \"Prunus\" species have hard seeds that benefit from scarification to germinate (which in nature is produced by passing through an animal's digestive tract).  \"Prunus serotina\" was widely introduced into Western and Central Europe as an ornamental tree in the mid 20th century, where it has become locally naturalized. It has acted as an invasive species there, negatively affecting forest community biodiversity and regeneration.  \"Prunus serotina\" subsp. \"capuli\" was cultivated in Central and South America well before European contact.  Deer browse the foliage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biochemistry.", "content": "Like apricots and apples, the seeds of black cherries contain cyanogenic glycosides, compounds that can be converted into cyanide, such as amygdalin. These compounds release hydrogen cyanide when the seed is ground or minced, which releases enzymes that break down the compounds. These enzymes include amygdalin beta-glucosidase, prunasin beta-glucosidase and mandelonitrile lyase. In contrast, although the flesh of cherries also contains these compounds, it does not contain the enzymes needed to produce cyanide, so the flesh is safe to eat.  The foliage, particularly when wilted, also contains cyanogenic glycosides, which convert to hydrogen cyanide if eaten by animals. Farmers are recommended to remove any trees that fall in a field containing livestock, because the wilted leaves could poison the animals. Removal is not always practical, though, because they often grow in very large numbers on farms, taking advantage of the light brought about by mowing and grazing. Entire fencerows can be lined with this poisonous tree, making it difficult to monitor all the branches falling into the grazing area. Black cherry is a leading cause of livestock illness, and grazing animals' access to it should be limited.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pests and diseases.", "content": "\"P. serotina\" is a host of caterpillars of various Lepidoptera (see List of Lepidoptera which feed on \"Prunus\"). The eastern tent caterpillar defoliates entire groves some springs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Known as capolcuahuitl in Nahuatl (the source of the \"capuli\" epithet), it was an important food in pre-Columbian Mexico. Native Americans ate the berries.  The wood of \"Prunus serotina\" is also used as a spice in foods, as it imparts a unique flavor.  \"Prunus serotina\" timber is valuable; perhaps the premier cabinetry timber of the U.S., traded as \"cherry\". High quality cherry timber is known for its strong orange hues and high price. Low-quality wood, as well as the sap wood, can be more tan. Its density when dried is around.  \"Prunus serotina\" trees are sometimes planted as ornamentals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prunus serotina, commonly called black cherry, wild black cherry, rum cherry, or mountain black cherry, is a deciduous tree or shrub belonging to the genus \"Prunus\". The species is widespread and common in North America and South America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972831}
{"src_title": "Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In 1195, Alfonso VIII of Castile was defeated by the Almohads in the Disaster of Alarcos. After this victory the Almohads took several important cities: Trujillo, Plasencia, Talavera, Cuenca, and Uclés. Then, in 1211, Muhammad al-Nasir crossed the Strait of Gibraltar with a powerful army, invaded Christian territory, and captured Salvatierra Castle, the stronghold of the knights of the Order of Calatrava. The threat to the Hispanic Christian kingdoms was so great that Pope Innocent III called Christian knights to a crusade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "Alfonso crossed the mountain range that defended the Almohad camp, sneaking through the Despeñaperros Pass, led by Martín Alhaja, a local shepherd who knew the area. The Christian coalition caught the Moorish army at camp by surprise, and Alhaja was granted the hereditary title Cabeza de Vaca for his assistance to Alfonso VIII. According to legend, the Caliph had his tent surrounded with a bodyguard of slave-warriors. Though it was once claimed that these men were chained together to prevent flight, it is considered more likely that this results from a mistranslation of the word \"serried\", meaning a densely packed formation. The Navarrese force led by their king Sancho VII broke through this bodyguard. The Caliph escaped, but the Moors were routed, leaving heavy casualties on the battlefield. The victorious Christians seized several prizes of war; Miramamolín's tent and standard were delivered to Pope Innocent III.  Christian losses were far fewer, only about 2,000 men (though not as few as legend had it). The losses were particularly heavy among the Orders. Those killed included Pedro Gómez de Acevedo (bannerman of the Order of Calatrava), Alvaro Fernández de Valladares (\"comendator\" of the Order of Santiago), Pedro Arias (master of the Order of Santiago, died of wounds on 3 August) and Gomes Ramires (Portuguese master of the Knights Templar and simultaneously master of Leon, Castile and Portugal). Ruy Díaz (master of the Order of Calatrava) was so grievously wounded that he had to resign his command.  Muhammad al-Nasir died in Marrakech shortly afterwards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The crushing defeat of the Almohads significantly hastened their decline both in the Iberian Peninsula and in the Maghreb a decade later. That gave further impulse to the Christian Reconquest and sharply reduced the already declining power of the Moors in Iberia. Shortly after the battle, the Castilians took Baeza and then Úbeda, major fortified cities near the battlefield and gateways to invade Andalusia. According to a letter from Alfonso VIII of Castile to Pope Innocent III, Baeza was evacuated and its people moved to Úbeda; Alfonso laid siege, killing 60,000 Muslims and enslaving many more. According to the \"Latin Chronicle of Kings of Castile\" the number given is almost 100,000 Saracens, including children and women, who were captured.  Thereafter, Alfonso VIII's grandson Ferdinand III of Castile took Cordova in 1236, Jaén in 1246, and Seville in 1248; then he took Arcos, Medina-Sidonia, Jerez, and Cádiz. In 1252, Ferdinand was preparing his fleet and army for invasion of the Almohad lands in Africa. But he died in Seville on 30 May 1252, during an outbreak of plague in southern Hispania. Only Ferdinand's death prevented the Castilians from taking the war to the Almohad on the Mediterranean coast, James I of Aragon conquered the Balearic Islands (from 1228 over the following four years) and Valencia (the city capitulated on 28 September 1238).  By 1252 the Almohad empire was almost finished, at the mercy of another emerging African power. In 1269 a new association of African tribes, the Marinids, took control of the Maghreb, and most of the former Almohad empire was under their rule. Later, the Marinids tried to recover the former Almohad territories in Iberia, but they were definitively defeated by Alfonso XI of Castile and Afonso IV of Portugal in the Battle of Río Salado, the last major military encounter between large Christian and Muslim armies in Hispania.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Moorish Granada.", "content": "In 1292 Sancho IV took Tarifa, key to the control of the Strait of Gibraltar. Granada, Almería, and Málaga were the only major Muslim cities remaining in the Iberian peninsula. These three cities were the core of the Emirate of Granada, ruled by the Nasrid dynasty. Granada was a vassal state of Castile, until finally taken by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Harry Harrison's 1972 alternate history/science fiction novel \"Tunnel Through the Deeps\" depicts a history where the Moors won at Las Navas de Tolosa and retained part of Spain into the 20th century.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, known in Arab history as the Battle of Al-Uqab (), took place on 16 July 1212 and was an important turning point in the \"Reconquista\" and in the medieval history of Spain. The Christian forces of King Alfonso VIII of Castile were joined by the armies of his rivals, Sancho VII of Navarre and Peter II of Aragon, in battle against the Almohad Muslim rulers of the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula. The al-Nasir (\"Miramamolín\" in the Spanish chronicles) led the Almohad army, made up of people from all over the Almohad Caliphate.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972832}
{"src_title": "Ara Güler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Güler was born in Beyoğlu, Istanbul, Turkey, in 1928 to Armenian parents. He studied at the local Getronagan Armenian High School. Owner of a pharmacy on Istiklal Avenue, his father had a wide circle of friends from the art world of the period. Ara Güler's early contact with this world inspired him to embark on a career in cinema. During his high school years, he jobbed in movie studios and attended drama courses held by Muhsin Ertuğrul, the founder of modern Turkish theater. However, he abandoned cinema in favor of journalism, joining the staff of the newspaper \"Yeni Istanbul\" as photojournalist in 1950 and studying economics at the University of Istanbul at the same time. He then transferred to another newspaper, \"Hürriyet\". (Güler is not related to the royal Guleria family.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photography career.", "content": "In 1958, the American magazine company \"Time–Life\" opened a branch in Turkey, and Güler became its first correspondent for the Near East. Soon he received commissions from \"Paris Match, Stern,\" and \"The Sunday Times in London.\" After completing his military service in 1961, Güler was employed by the Turkish magazine \"Hayat\" as head of its photographic department.  About this time, he met Henri Cartier-Bresson and Marc Riboud, who recruited him for the Magnum Photos agency, which he joined (though later withdrew from). He was presented in the British \"1961 Photography Yearbook.\" Also in that year, he was accepted as the only Turkish member to the American Society of Magazine Photographers (ASMP) (today called the American Society of Media Photographers). The Swiss magazine \"Camera\" honored him with a special issue.  In the 1960s, Güler's photographs were used to illustrate books by notable authors and were displayed at various exhibitions throughout the world. His works were exhibited in 1968 in \"10 Masters of Color Photography\" at the New York Museum of Modern Art and at Photokina Fair in Cologne, Germany. His book \"Türkei\" was published in Germany in 1970. His photos on art and art history were used in \"Time,\" \"Life,\" \"Horizon\" and \"Newsweek\" and publications of Skira of Switzerland.  Güler traveled on assignment to Iran, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Kenya, New Guinea, Borneo, as well as all parts of Turkey. In the 1970s he photographed politicians and artists such as Indira Gandhi, Maria Callas, John Berger, Bertrand Russell, Willy Brandt, Alfred Hitchcock, Ansel Adams, Imogen Cunningham, Marc Chagall, Salvador Dalí and Pablo Picasso. Some critics consider his most renowned photographs to be his melancholic black and white pictures taken mostly with a Leica camera in Istanbul, mainly in the 1950s and 1960s.  He has exhibited frequently since then, and also had his work published in special supplements. International publishers have featured his photographs.  Güler's work is collected by the National Library of France in Paris; the George Eastman Museum in Rochester, New York; University of Nebraska-Lincoln Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery; Museum Ludwig Köln, and Das imaginäre Photo-Museum, Köln.  In the 1970s, Güler worked in film, directing the documentary \"The End of the Hero\" (1975). It was based on a fictional account of the dismantling of the World War I veteran battlecruiser \"TCG Yavuz.\"  Güler's archive contains some 800,000 photographic slides.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Güler's 'philosophy' of photography.", "content": "Güler attached the greatest importance to human presence in his photographs and described himself as a \"visual historian\". \"\"When I'm taking a picture of Aya Sofia, what counts is the person passing by who stands for life\"\", he said. He believed that photography should provide a memory of people, of their lives and especially their suffering. While he considers that art lies, he believes that photography can only reflect reality. He embraced the identity of a photojournalist because he did not attach much value to photography as an artistic pursuit, which to him would have little value. He did not consider photography to be an art.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Güler died of a heart attack on 17 October 2018. He had been suffering from kidney failure and was being treated with dialysis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ara Güler (16 August 1928 – 17 October 2018) was an Armenian-Turkish photojournalist, nicknamed \"the Eye of Istanbul\" or \"the Photographer of Istanbul\". He was \"one of Turkey's few internationally known photographers\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972833}
{"src_title": "Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the Treaty of Paris in 1814 the Austrians had confirmed their claims to the territories of the former Lombard Duchy of Milan, which had been ruled by the Habsburg Monarchy since 1714 and together with the adjacent Duchy of Mantua by the Austrian branch of the dynasty from 1708 to 1796, and of the former Republic of Venice, which had been under Austrian rule intermittently upon the 1797 Treaty of Campo Formio.  The Congress of Vienna combined these lands into a single kingdom, ruled in personal union by the Habsburg Emperor of Austria; as distinct of the neighbouring Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena and Reggio as well as the Duchy of Parma, which remained independent entities under Habsburg rule. The Austrian emperor was represented day-to-day by viceroys appointed by the Imperial Court in Vienna and resident in Milan and Venice.  The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia was first ruled by Emperor Francis I from 1815 to his death in 1835. His son Ferdinand I ruled from 1835 to 1848. In Milan on 6 September 1838, he became the last king to be crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. The crown was subsequently brought to Vienna after the loss of Lombardy in 1859 but was restored to Italy after the loss of Venetia in 1866.  Though the local administration was Italian in language and staff, the Austrian authorities had to cope with the Italian unification (\"Risorgimento\") movement. After a popular revolution on 22 March 1848, known as the \"Five Days of Milan\", the Austrians fled from Milan, which became the capital city of a \"Governo Provvisorio della Lombardia\" (Lombardy Provisional Government). The next day, Venice also rose against the Austrian rule, forming the \"Governo Provvisorio di Venezia\" (Venice Provisional Government). The Austrian forces under Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky, after defeating the Sardinian troops at the Battle of Custoza (24–25 July 1848), entered Milan (6 August) and Venice (24 August 1849), and once again restored Austrian rule.  Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria ruled over the Kingdom for the rest of its existence. The office of Viceroy was abolished and replaced by a Governor-General. The office was initially assumed by Field Marshal Radetzky, upon his retirement in 1857 it passed it to Franz Joseph's younger brother Maximilian (who later became Emperor of Mexico), who served as Governor-General in Milan from 1857 to 1859.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End of the Kingdom.", "content": "After the Second Italian War of Independence and the defeat in the Battle of Solferino in 1859, Austria by the Treaty of Zurich had to cede Lombardy up to the Mincio River, except for the fortresses of Mantua and Peschiera, to the French Emperor Napoleon III, who immediately passed it to the Kingdom of Sardinia and the embryonic Italian state. Maximilian retired to Miramare Castle near Trieste, while the capital was relocated to Venice. However, remaining Venetia and Mantua likewise fell to the Kingdom of Italy in the aftermath of the Third Italian War of Independence, by the 1866 Peace of Prague. The territory of Venetia and Mantua was formally transferred from Austria to France, and then handed over to Italy on 19 October 1866, for diplomatic reasons; a plebiscite marked the Italian annexation on 21–22 October 1866.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "Administratively the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia comprised two independent governments (\"Gubernien\") in its two parts, which officially were declared separate crown lands in 1851. Each part was further subdivided in several provinces, roughly corresponding with the \"départements\" of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy.  Lombardy included the provinces of Milan, Como, Bergamo, Brescia, Pavia, Cremona, Mantua, Lodi-Crema, and Sondrio. Venetia included the provinces of Venice, Verona, Padua, Vicenza, Treviso, Rovigo, Belluno, and Udine.  According to the Ethnographic map of Karl von Czoernig-Czernhausen, issued by the Imperial and Royal Administration of Statistics in 1855, the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia then had a population of 5,024,117 people, consisting of the following ethnic groups: 4,625,746 Italians; 351,805 Friulians; 12,084 Germans (Cimbrians in Venetia); 26,676 Slovenians and 7,806 Jews.  For the first time since 1428, Lombardy reappeared as an entity, the first time in history that term \"Lombardy\" was officially used to call specifically this entity and not for the whole Northern Italy  The administration used Italian as its language in its internal and external communications and documents, and the language's dominant position in politics, finance or jurisdiction was not questioned by the Austrian officials. The Italian-language \"Gazzetta di Milano\" was the official newspaper of the Kingdom. Civil servants employed in the administration were predominately Italian, with only about 10 per cent of them being recruited from other regions of the Austrian Empire. Some bilingual Italian-German-speaking civil servants came from the neighboring County of Tyrol. The German language, however, was the command language of the military, and top police officials were native German-speakers from other parts of the Empire. The highest governorships were also reserved for Austrian aristocrats.  Austrian general Karl von Schönhals wrote in his memoirs that the Austrian administration enjoyed the support of the rural population and the middle class educated at the universities of Pavia and Padua, who were able to pursue careers in the administration.  Von Schönhals further noted that the Austrians mistrusted and refused the local aristocrats from high government offices, as they traditionally had rejected university education and were in the past able to gain leadership positions because of their family background. Consequently, the aristocrats saw themselves deprived of the possibility of establishing themselves in the management of society and supported the wars of independence against the Austrians.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (), commonly called the \"Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom\" (, ), was a constituent land (crown land) of the Austrian Empire. It was created in 1815 by resolution of the Congress of Vienna in recognition of the Austrian House of Habsburg-Lorraine's rights to Lombardy and the former Republic of Venice after the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, proclaimed in 1805, had collapsed. It was finally dissolved in 1866 when its remaining territory was incorporated into the recently proclaimed Kingdom of Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972834}
{"src_title": "Oleaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Genera.", "content": "The following 27 extant genera are recognized in the family Oleaceae. \"Linociera\" is not included, even though some authors continue to recognize it. \"Linociera\" is not easy to distinguish from \"Chionanthus\", mostly because the latter is polyphyletic and not clearly defined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "The type genus for Oleaceae is \"Olea\", the olives. Recent classifications recognize no subfamilies, but the family is divided into five tribes. The distinctiveness of each tribe has been strongly supported in molecular phylogenetic studies, but the relationships among the tribes were not clarified until 2014. The phylogenetic tree for Oleaceae is a 5-grade that can be represented as {Myxopyreae [Forsythieae (Fontanesieae <Jasmineae + Oleeae>)]}.  The major centers of diversity for Oleaceae are in Southeast Asia and Australia. There are also a significant number of species in Africa, China, and North America. In the tropics the family is represented in a variety of habitats, from low-lying dry forest to montane cloud forest. In Oleaceae, the seed dispersal is almost entirely by wind or animals. In the case that the fruit is a berry, the species is mostly dispersed by birds. The wind-dispersed fruits are samaras.  Some of the older works have recognized as many as 29 genera in Oleaceae. Today, most authors recognize at least 25, but this number will change because some of these genera have recently been shown to be polyphyletic.  Estimates of the number of species in Oleaceae have ranged from 600 to 900. Most of the species number discrepancy is due to the genus \"Jasminum\" in which as few as 200 or as many as 450 species have been accepted.  In spite of the sparsity of the fossil record, and the inaccuracy of molecular-clock dating, it is clear that Oleaceae is an ancient family that became widely distributed early in its history. Some of the genera are believed to be relictual populations that remained unchanged over long periods because of isolation imposed by geographical barriers like the low-elevation areas that separate mountain peaks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Members of the family Oleaceae are woody plants, mostly trees and shrubs; a few are lianas. Some of the shrubs are, climbing by scrambling into other vegetation.  Leaves without stipules; simple or pinnately or ternately compound. The family is characterized by opposite leaves. Alternate or whorled arrangements are rarely observed, with some \"Jasminum\" species presenting a spiral configuration. The laminas are pinnately veined and can be serrate, dentate or entire at the margin. Domatia are observed in certain taxa. The leaves may be either deciduous or evergreen, with evergreen species predominating in warm temperate and tropical regions, and deciduous species predominating in colder regions.  The flowers are most often bisexual and actinomorphic, occurring in racemes or panicles, and often fragrant. The calyx and corolla, when present, are gamosepalous and gamopetalous, respectively, their lobes connate, at least at the base. The androecium has 2 stamens. These are inserted on the corolla tube and alternate with the corolla lobes. The stigmas are two-lobed. The gynoecium consists of a compound pistil with two carpels. The ovary is superior with two locules. The placentation is axile. Ovules usually 2 per locule; sometimes 4, rarely many. Nectary disk, when present, encircling the base of the ovary. The plants are most often hermaphrodite but sometimes polygamomonoecious.  The fruit can be a berry, drupe, capsule or samaras.  The obvious feature that distinguishes Oleaceae and its sister family, Carlemanniaceae, from all others, is the fact that while the flowers are actinomorphic, the number of stamens is reduced to two.  Many members of the family are economically significant. The olive (\"Olea europaea\") is important for its fruit and for the olive oil extracted from it. The ashes (\"Fraxinus\") are valued for their tough wood. Forsythias, lilacs, jasmines, osmanthuses, privets, and fringe trees are valued as ornamental plants in gardens and landscaping. At least two species of jasmine are the source of an essential oil. Their flowers are often added to tea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Carl Linnaeus named eight of the genera of Oleaceae in 1753 in his Species Plantarum. He did not designate what we now know as plant families, but placed his genera in artificial groups for purposes of identification. After the work of Linnaeus, names for groups that included the genera of Oleaceae were used, but none of them was a valid publication of the family name Oleaceae. For example, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, in his \"Genera Plantarum\" in 1789, placed them in an order which he called \"Jasmineae\". In 1809, in a flora of Portugal, Johann Centurius Hoffmannsegg and Johann H.F. Link described at the taxonomic rank of family a group which they called \"Oleinae\". Their description is now regarded as the establishment of what we now know as Oleaceae.  The last revision of Oleaceae was published in 2004 in a series entitled \"The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants\". Since that time, molecular phylogenetic work has shown that the next revision of Oleaceae must include substantial changes to the circumscription of genera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Oleaceae is most closely related to the small Indo-Malesian family Carlemanniaceae. These two families form the second most basal clade in the order Lamiales, after Plocospermataceae. The families Plocospermataceae, Carlemanniaceae, Oleaceae, and Tetrachondraceae form a polyphyletic group known as the \"basal Lamiales\", which is in contrast to the monophyletic \"core Lamiales\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Oleaceae is one of only a few major plant families for which no well-sampled molecular phylogenetic study has ever been conducted. The only DNA sequence study of the entire family sampled 76 species for two noncoding chloroplast loci, \"rps16\" and \"trnL–F\". Little was determined in this study, largely because the mutation rate in the chloroplast genome of Oleaceae is very low compared to that of most other angiosperm families.  Also, the family is notorious for incongruence between phylogenies based on plastid and nuclear DNA. The most likely cause of this incongruence is reticulate evolution resulting from rampant hybridization.  The delimitation of genera in Oleaceae has always been especially problematic. Some recent studies of small groups of related genera have shown that some of the genera are not monophyletic. For example, \"Olea\" section \"Tetrapilus\" is separate from the rest of \"Olea\". It is a distinct group of 23 species and had been named as a genus, \"Tetrapilus\", by João de Loureiro in 1790.  The genus \"Ligustrum\" has long been suspected of having originated from within \"Syringa\", and this was confirmed in a cladistic comparison of selected chloroplast genes.  \"Osmanthus\" consists of at least three lineages whose closest relatives are not other lineages of \"Osmanthus\".  \"Chionanthus\" is highly polyphyletic, with its species scattered across the phylogenetic tree of the subtribe Oleinae. Its African species are closer to \"Noronhia\" than to its type species, the North American \"Chionanthus virginicus\". Its Madagascan species are phylogenetically within \"Noronhia\" and will be formally transferred to it in a forthcoming paper.  The monophyly of \"Nestegis\" is in considerable doubt, but few of its closest relatives have been sampled in phylogenetic studies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Oleaceae are a family of flowering plants in the order Lamiales. It presently comprises 28 genera, one of which is recently extinct. The extant genera includes \"Cartrema\", which was resurrected in 2012. The number of species in the Oleaceae is variously estimated in a wide range around 700. The Oleaceae consist of shrubs, trees, and a few lianas. The flowers are often numerous and highly odoriferous. The family has a subcosmopolitan distribution, ranging from the subarctic to the southernmost parts of Africa, Australia, and South America. Notable members of the Oleaceae include olive, ash, jasmine, and several popular ornamental plants including privet, forsythia, fringetrees, and lilac.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972835}
{"src_title": "The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Following Freddie Mercury's death on 24 November 1991 from bronchopneumonia brought on by AIDS, the remaining members of Queen (John Deacon, Brian May and Roger Taylor) came together with their manager Jim Beach to organize a concert to celebrate the life and legacy of Mercury, and to raise money for AIDS research and spread awareness about the disease. In February 1992, at the annual BRIT Awards ceremony, May and Taylor announced plans for the concert. When tickets finally went on sale, all 72,000 tickets sold out in just three hours, even though no performers were announced apart from remaining members of Queen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concert.", "content": "The concert opened with a message from the three remaining members of Queen in tribute to Mercury. The music then commenced with short sets from artists that were influenced by the music of Queen, including Metallica, Extreme (playing a Queen medley), Def Leppard (who brought Brian May onstage for a version of \"Now I'm Here\"), and Guns N' Roses. Between bands, several video clips honouring Freddie Mercury were shown while roadies changed the stage for the following act's performance. Elizabeth Taylor then gave an AIDS prevention speech, which was followed by a compilation of Mercury's various interactions with audiences.  The second half of the concert featured the three remaining Queen members – John Deacon (on bass), Brian May (on guitar) and Roger Taylor (on drums) – along with guest singers and guitarists, including Elton John, Roger Daltrey (of The Who), Tony Iommi (of Black Sabbath), David Bowie, Mick Ronson (of Spiders from Mars), James Hetfield (of Metallica), George Michael, Seal, Paul Young, Annie Lennox, Lisa Stansfield, Robert Plant (of Led Zeppelin), Joe Elliott and Phil Collen (of Def Leppard), Axl Rose and Slash (of Guns N' Roses), Liza Minnelli, and others. Via satellite from Sacramento, California, U2 dedicated a live performance of \"Until the End of the World\" to Mercury.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home releases.", "content": "The concert was originally released in VHS form (usually in two tape releases worldwide), but due to time limitations, \"Love of My Life\" and \"More Than Words\" by Extreme, \"Animal\" and \"Let's Get Rocked\" by Def Leppard, Spinal Tap's \"The Majesty of Rock\", U2's \"Until The End of the World\", Mango Groove's \"Special Star\" and Robert Plant's version of \"Innuendo\" were removed in the original release. The US release also omitted Bob Geldof's performance of \"Too Late God\", and Zucchero Fornaciari's performance of \"Las Palabras de Amor\".  In April 2002, for the 10th anniversary of the Mercury Phoenix Trust, the second half of the concert featuring the performances by the surviving members of Queen was released on DVD and entered the UK charts at number 1. \"Innuendo\" was not included on the DVD, at the request of Robert Plant. In addition, the original 4:3 footage had been cropped down to widescreen.  On 24 June 2013, Queen announced on their Facebook page that a new remastered version of the concert would be released in late 2013 on DVD and Blu-ray. The DVD and Blu-ray was released on 2 September 2013. Like the earlier, VHS release, this version excludes Extreme's \"Love of My Life\" and \"More Than Words\", Def Leppard's \"Animal\" and \"Let's Get Rocked\", Spinal Tap, U2 and Mango Groove from the opening acts segment of the show, and Robert Plant's \"Innuendo\" from the Queen+ segment of the show.  Clips of rehearsals and of Metallica's set (as well as James Hetfield's performance of Stone Cold Crazy with Queen and Tony Iommi) were featured in the 1992 documentary A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica.  In May 2020, Queen announced that they will be premiering the concert on YouTube to raise money for the COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund. It will be available for 48 hours.  Several songs from the concert have also been released in audio-only format:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performances.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Backing musicians.", "content": "Queen were backed by the following musicians:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert for AIDS Awareness was a benefit concert held on Easter Monday, 20 April 1992 at Wembley Stadium in London, England for an audience of 72,000. The concert was produced for television by Ray Burdis, directed by David Mallet and broadcast live on television and radio to 76 countries around the world, with an audience of up to one billion. The concert was a tribute to Queen's lead vocalist, Freddie Mercury, who died of AIDS on 24 November 1991. The show marked bassist John Deacon's final full-length concert with Queen (save a short live appearance with Brian May, Roger Taylor and Elton John in 1997). The profits from the concert were used to launch The Mercury Phoenix Trust, an AIDS charity organisation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972836}
{"src_title": "Friedel–Crafts reaction", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Friedel–Crafts alkylation.", "content": "Friedel–Crafts alkylation involves the alkylation of an aromatic ring with an alkyl halide using a strong Lewis acid, such as aluminium chloride, ferric chloride, or other MX\"\" reagent, as catalyst. The general mechanism for tertiary alkyl halides is shown below.  For primary (and possibly secondary) alkyl halides, a carbocation-like complex with the Lewis acid, [R---(X---MX\"\")] is more likely to be involved, rather than a free carbocation.  This reaction suffers from the disadvantage that the product is more nucleophilic than the reactant because alkyl groups are activators for the Friedel–Crafts reaction. Consequently, overalkylation can occur. Steric hindrance can be exploited to limit the number of alkylations, as in the \"t\"-butylation of 1,4-dimethoxybenzene.  Furthermore, the reaction is only useful for primary alkyl halides in an intramolecular sense when a 5- or 6-membered ring is formed. For the intermolecular case, the reaction is limited to tertiary alkylating agents, some secondary alkylating agents (ones for which carbocation rearrangement is degenerate), or alkylating agents that yield stabilized carbocations (e.g., benzylic or allylic ones). In the case of primary alkyl halides, the carbocation-like complex (R---X---AlCl) will undergo a carbocation rearrangement reaction to give almost exclusively the rearranged product derived from a secondary or tertiary carbocation.  Alkylations are not limited to alkyl halides: Friedel–Crafts reactions are possible with any carbocationic intermediate such as those derived from alkenes and a protic acid, Lewis acid, enones, and epoxides. An example is the synthesis of neophyl chloride from benzene and methallyl chloride:  In one study the electrophile is a bromonium ion derived from an alkene and NBS: In this reaction samarium(III) triflate is believed to activate the NBS halogen donor in halonium ion formation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Friedel–Crafts dealkylation.", "content": "Friedel–Crafts alkylation has been hypothesized to be reversible. In a retro-Friedel–Crafts reaction or Friedel–Crafts dealkylation, alkyl groups are removed in the presence of protons or other Lewis acid.  For example, in a multiple addition of ethyl bromide to benzene, \"ortho\" and \"para\" substitution is expected after the first monosubstitution step because an alkyl group is an activating group. However, the actual reaction product is 1,3,5-triethylbenzene with all alkyl groups as a \"meta\" substituent. Thermodynamic reaction control makes sure that thermodynamically favored \"meta\" substitution with steric hindrance minimized takes prevalence over less favorable \"ortho\" and \"para\" substitution by chemical equilibration. The ultimate reaction product is thus the result of a series of alkylations and dealkylations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Friedel–Crafts acylation.", "content": "Friedel–Crafts acylation involves the acylation of aromatic rings. Typical acylating agents are acyl chlorides. Typical Lewis acid catalysts are acids and aluminium trichloride. However, because the product ketone forms a rather stable complex with Lewis acids such as AlCl, a stoichiometric amount or more of the \"catalyst\" must generally be employed, unlike the case of the Friedel–Crafts alkylation, in which the catalyst is constantly regenerated. Friedel–Crafts acylation is also possible with acid anhydrides. Reaction conditions are similar to the Friedel–Crafts alkylation. This reaction has several advantages over the alkylation reaction. Due to the electron-withdrawing effect of the carbonyl group, the ketone product is always less reactive than the original molecule, so multiple acylations do not occur. Also, there are no carbocation rearrangements, as the acylium ion is stabilized by a resonance structure in which the positive charge is on the oxygen.  The viability of the Friedel–Crafts acylation depends on the stability of the acyl chloride reagent. Formyl chloride, for example, is too unstable to be isolated. Thus, synthesis of benzaldehyde through the Friedel–Crafts pathway requires that formyl chloride be synthesized \"in situ\". This is accomplished by the Gattermann-Koch reaction, accomplished by treating benzene with carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride under high pressure, catalyzed by a mixture of aluminium chloride and cuprous chloride.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reaction mechanism.", "content": "The reaction proceeds through generation of an acylium center. The reaction is completed by deprotonation of the arenium ion by AlCl, regenerating the AlCl catalyst. However, in contrast to the truly catalytic alkylation reaction, the formed ketone is a moderate Lewis base, which forms a complex with the strong Lewis acid aluminum trichloride. The formation of this complex is typically irreversible under reaction conditions. Thus, a stochiometric quantity of AlCl is needed. The complex is destroyed upon aqueous workup to give the desired ketone. For example, the classical synthesis of deoxybenzoin calls for 1.1 equivalents of AlCl with respect to the limiting reagent, phenylacetyl chloride. In certain cases, generally when the benzene ring is activated, Friedel-Crafts acylation can also be carried out with \"catalytic\" amounts of a milder Lewis acid (e.g. Zn(II) salts) or a Brønsted acid catalyst using the anhydride or even the carboxylic acid itself as the acylation agent.  If desired, the resulting ketone can be subsequently reduced to the corresponding alkane substituent by either Wolff–Kishner reduction or Clemmensen reduction. The net result is the same as the Friedel–Crafts alkylation except that rearrangement is not possible.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Friedel–Crafts hydroxyalkylation.", "content": "Arenes react with certain aldehydes and ketones to form the hydroxyalkylated products, for example in the reaction of the mesityl derivative of glyoxal with benzene:  As usual, the aldehyde group is more reactive electrophile than the phenone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scope and variations.", "content": "This reaction is related to several classic named reactions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dyes.", "content": "Friedel–Crafts reactions have been used in the synthesis of several triarylmethane and xanthene dyes. Examples are the synthesis of thymolphthalein (a pH indicator) from two equivalents of thymol and phthalic anhydride:  A reaction of phthalic anhydride with resorcinol in the presence of zinc chloride gives the fluorophore fluorescein. Replacing resorcinol by N,N-diethylaminophenol in this reaction gives rhodamine B:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Haworth reactions.", "content": "The Haworth reaction is a classic method for the synthesis of 1-tetralone. In this reaction, benzene is reacted with succinic anhydride, the intermediate product is reduced and a second FC acylation takes place with addition of acid.  In a related reaction, phenanthrene is synthesized from naphthalene and succinic anhydride in a series of steps which begin with FC acylation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Friedel–Crafts test for aromatic hydrocarbons.", "content": "Reaction of chloroform with aromatic compounds using an aluminium chloride catalyst gives triarylmethanes, which are often brightly colored, as is the case in triarylmethane dyes. This is a bench test for aromatic compounds.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Friedel–Crafts reactions are a set of reactions developed by Charles Friedel and James Crafts in 1877 to attach substituents to an aromatic ring. Friedel–Crafts reactions are of two main types: alkylation reactions and acylation reactions. Both proceed by electrophilic aromatic substitution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972837}
{"src_title": "Dunaújváros", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Dunaújváros is located in the Transdanubian part of the Great Hungarian Plain (called Mezőföld), south of Budapest on the Danube, Highway 6, Motorways M6, M8 and the electrified Budapest-Pusztaszabolcs-Dunaújváros-Paks railway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The city replaced the village of \"Dunapentele\" (\"Pantaleon up on the Danube\"), named after Saint Pantaleon. The construction of this new industrial city started in 1949 and the original village was renamed \"Sztálinváros\" (\"Stalin City\") in 1951. After the Hungarian revolution of 1956 the new government renamed the city the neutral \"Dunaújváros\" in 1961, which means \"Danube New City\" (New City on the Danube).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Dunaújváros is one of the newest cities in the country. It was built in the 1950s during the industrialization of the country under Socialist rule, as a new city next to an already existing village, \"Dunapentele\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dunapentele.", "content": "Dunapentele was not built on until the 1950s. The construction started on the Danube's right side. The area has been inhabited since ancient times. When Western Hungary was a Roman province under the name \"Pannonia\", a military camp and a town called \"Intercisa\" stood in this place, at the border of the province. The Hungarians conquered the area in the early 10th century. The village of \"Pentele\", named after the medieval Greek saint, Pantaleon, was founded shortly after.  Between 1541 and 1688 the village was under Ottoman rule, and during the 150-year war it was completely destroyed. During the freedom fight led by Prince Ferenc II Rákóczi of Transylvania, the place was deserted again. In the 18th century the village began to prosper. In 1830 the village was given the right to hold markets days twice a week. In 1831 there was a cholera epidemic and which caused a small scale peasants revolt. In 1833 Pentele was granted town status \"(oppidum)\" by Ferdinand V. The citizens took part in the freedom fight in 1848–49.  After the Second World War the new, Communist government started a major industrialisation programme, in support of its rearmament efforts. In 1949 \"Dunaújváros\" was chosen as the site of the largest iron and steel works in the country. Originally they were to be built close to Mohács, but the Hungarian-Yugoslavian relations worsened, and this new site was chosen, farther away from the Yugoslav border. The city was designed to have 25,000 residents.  The construction of the city began on May 2, 1950 near Dunapentele. Within one year more than 1,000 housing units were built and construction on the factory complex began. The city officially took the name of Joseph Stalin on April 4, 1952; its name was \"Sztálinváros\" 'Stalin City' as a parallel to Stalingrad in the USSR.  The metal works were opened in 1954. The city had a population of 27,772 at this time; 85% of them lived in nice, comfortable apartments, while about 4,200 people still lived in uncomfortable barracks which originally provided \"homes\" for the construction workers.  In the middle of the 1950s, public transport was organized, with buses carrying 24,000 passengers each day. During the 1950s many cultural and sports facilities were built, the Endre Ságvári Primary School being the largest school in Central Europe in the 1960s. The official and obligatory architectural style and art movement of the communist system was socialist realism. Per definition the style's meaning was communist, its form was national, and its preferred mode of representation was the allegory. There are several public statues and reliefs in the town, which represent the allegoric union of workers, peasants and intellectuals, surrounded by traditional folk motifs. Thanks to the inspiration of Bauhaus the buildings and monuments of this era (1949–56), like the forge, the cinema, the theatre, the hospital and the city's schools where characterized by a structural functionalism, but the ideological function resulted in classicist decorations, like columns, tympanums and arcades, because of which the informal name of the style became ‘Stalin’s Baroque’  In 1956, the construction was hindered by an earthquake and a flood, and in October by the start of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. During the revolution the city used its historical name \"Dunapentele\" again. The \"Rákóczi\" radio station, which was created by the revolutionaries, broadcast from Dunapentele (in fact from a bus that was constantly moving around in the city so that it couldn't be located.) Even though the citizens of Dunapentele tried to defend their city, the Soviet army occupied the city on November 7, 1956. The city came under martial law and soviet tanks were stationed throughout the city.  After the revolution the city was still the \"trademark city\" of socialism in Hungary, and was presented as such to foreign visitors. Among the visitors were Yuri Gagarin and the Indonesian president Sukarno. The city also provided a scenic backdrop to popular movies.  In 1960, the ten-year-old city already had 31,000 residents who celebrated its anniversary.  On November 26, 1961 the city's name was changed to \"Dunaújváros\" (Duna|új|város meaning \"Danube-new-city\"; \"New City upon Danube\". See also Tiszaújváros) as a consequence of Stalin's death (1953) and the Hungarian Revolution (1956).  In 1990 it became a city with county rights—as one of the then four, (now five) cities in the country that have this status but are not county capitals—in accordance with a new law that granted this status to all cities with a population over 50,000. Even though the population of Dunaújváros has been under 50,000 since 2008, it has kept its status as a city with county rights (along with Hódmezővásárhely, which is in a similar situation).  The DUNAFERR factory complex is still is an important enterprise in the Hungarian steel industry, and a major employer in the area. Today, Dunaújváros is home to many new infrastructures (Pentele Bridge, direct highway link between Budapest and Dunaújváros), the new South Korean Hankook factory, Europe's biggest tire factory of Hankook, and Hamburger Hungaria, one of the largest containerboard manufacturers in Europe. This and other projects make Dunaújváros a new Hungarian boomtown.  Thanks to its formal political and economic importance, the communist urban design, the socialist realist architecture and its unique atmosphere the town is the considerable memento of communism. Many of the half-century old buildings have received the protection of historic monuments, and the town is in the focus of growing touristic interest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "In 2001 Dunaújváros had 55,309 residents (92.5% Hungarian, 0.6% Romani, 0.6% German, 6.3% other). Religions: 38.9% Roman Catholic, 8.3% Calvinist, 2% Lutheran, 37.8% Atheist, 0.2% other, 12.8% no answer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "The current mayor of Dunaújváros is Pintér Tamás (Jobbik).  The local Municipal Assembly, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 15 members (1 Mayor, 10 Individual constituencies MEPs and 4 Compensation List MEPs) divided into this political parties and alliances:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "The most popular sport is ice hockey, and the city is home to the Steel Bulls. The second most popular sport in the town is football. The town has one team playing in the top level league, the Nemzeti Bajnokság I, the Dunaújváros PASE. However the most well-known team is the defunct Dunaújváros FC which also won the 1999-2000 Nemzeti Bajnokság I season. The women's water polo team of Dunaújvárosi FVE won the 2018 edition of the LEN Trophy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Dunaújváros is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Dunaújváros (; formerly known as \"Dunapentele\" and \"Sztálinváros\"; ) is an industrial city in Fejér County, Central Hungary. The city is best known for its steelworks, which is the largest in the country.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972838}
{"src_title": "Sandra Kalniete", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Kalniete was born in Togur, Kolpashevsky District, Tomsk Oblast, Siberia, Russia, where her family had been deported from Latvia by the Soviet secret police during the occupation of her country by the Soviet Union, for use as slave labour. Her mother Ligita Kalniete (née Dreifelde, 1926-2006) was first deported together with her mother and father in 1941, after which Ligita returned in 1948, just to be deported again in 1949. Her father Aivars Kalnietis (born 1931) was deported together with his mother in 1949 as well. She only saw her native country when she was five years old, when the family was allowed to return in 1957.  She studied art at the Latvian Academy of Art from 1977 to 1981 and worked as an art historian, publishing a book, \"Latvian Textile Art\", in 1989. She joined politics in 1988, during Latvia's independence movement, and was a deputy chairwoman and one of the founders of Latvian Popular Front, the main pro-independence political organization. Ms. Kalniete has graduated from the Department of Art History and Art Theory at the Art Academy of Latvia (1981), the Institute for International Studies at the University of Leeds (1992), The Graduate Institute of International Studies at the University of Geneva (1995), and has a Master of Arts from the Art Academy of Latvia (1996).  After Latvia declared independence, Kalniete worked in Latvia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and served as Latvia's ambassador to the UN (from 1993 to 1997), France (from 1997 to 2000) and UNESCO (from 2000 to 2002).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Kalniete became Foreign Minister of Latvia in November 2002 and served in this position until in 2004 when she was appointed the first Latvian Commissioner of the European Union in charge of Agriculture and Fisheries.  A large part of the Latvian society was shocked after she was not re-nominated as Latvia's EU Commissioner. Afterwards, Kalniete stepped aside from politics and refused the low-rank diplomatic positions she was offered.  At the beginning of 2006, Kalniete joined the New Era Party. In October 2006, she was elected to the Latvian parliament. She was the 2007 candidate of the New Era Party for the post of Latvian president, before withdrawing in favor of Aivars Endziņš on 24 May 2007.  Between 2006 and 2007, Kalniete served as member of the Amato Group, a group of high-level European politicians unofficially working on rewriting the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe into what became known as the Treaty of Lisbon following its rejection by French and Dutch voters.  In 2008, Kalniete announced she was leaving the New Era Party. She joined the newly founded Civic Union and became the party's leader. In the 2009 European Parliament election she was elected as a Member of the European Parliament and reelected in the 2014 European Parliament election in Latvia. She put herself forward as a potential candidate to succeed Andris Bērziņš as President of Latvia after his decision to step down in 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human rights activism.", "content": "Sandra Kalniete is involved in many human rights causes pertaining to totalitarian crimes. She is the chair of the Reconciliation of European Histories Group, an all-party group in the European Parliament aimed at coming to terms with the totalitarian past in many countries of Europe.  In 2004, she argued that \"behind the Iron Curtain the Soviet regime continued to commit genocide against the peoples of Eastern Europe and, indeed, against its own people [...] the two totalitarian regimes—Nazism and Communism—were equally criminal.\" She elaborated on this in 2006 when she came up with death counts for the two regimes, pointing out that the Soviet Union killed around 94.5 million people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "She is an author of three books:  \"With Dancing Shoes in Siberian Snows\" was published in French as \"En escarpins dans les neiges de Sibérie\" and was nominated for the \"documentary book of the month\" by the readers of \"Elle\" magazine. Since its publishing it has been translated into more than ten languages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translations.", "content": "The book \"Ar balles kurpēm Sibīrijas sniegos\", Riga, Latvia: Atēna, 2001 () has been translated into several languages:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sandra Kalniete (born 22 December 1952) is a Latvian politician, author, diplomat and independence movement leader. She served as Foreign Minister of Latvia 2002–2004 and as European Commissioner for Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries in 2004. Since 2009, she has served as Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for the European People's Party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972839}
{"src_title": "Sudeten German Party", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In 1903, a group of Sudeten Germans living in the Bohemian crown lands of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy created the German Workers' Party (DAP). Influenced by the ideas of pan-Germanism and anti-Slavism, they opposed the Czech National Revival movement advocated by the Young Czech Party. The history of this party is centered on the cities of Eger (German for present-day Cheb) and Aussig (Ústí nad Labem), it originated and gave the impetus for Austrian National Socialism.  At the end of World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Empire broke up into several nation states. The DAP was renamed German National Socialist Workers' Party on 5 May 1918 and after the proclamation of Czechoslovakia claimed the right of self-determination in the predominantly German-settled \"Sudetenland\" and \"German Bohemian\" territories, demanding affiliation with the newly established Republic of German-Austria. However, the new Czech-dominated government demanded the unity of the Bohemian (or now called Czech) lands, as confirmed by the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and considered the Pan-German party offensive and dangerous for the existence of the country. The Czechoslovakian DNSAP led by Hans Knirsch together with the conservative German National Party (\"Deutsche Nationalpartei\", DNP) became the main proponent of so-called \"negativism\", the general tendency among the Sudeten Germans not to accept the legitimacy of the Czechoslovakian state. Under Knirsch's successor Rudolf Jung, the party increasingly influenced by the rise of the Nazi Party in the German Weimar Republic. In 1933, both the DNSAP and DNP decided to dissolve in order to prevent the imminent ban by the Prague government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "SHF.", "content": "The SHF was founded on 1 October 1933. The party entered into an alliance with the Carpatho-German Party (KdP) in the same year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Konrad Henlein.", "content": "The newly established SdP did not see itself as a successor of the DNSAP; in fact, SdP leader Konrad Henlein sharply rejected the idea. At first he advocated the \"Ständestaat\" concept of the Austrofascist movement according to the ideas of Othmar Spann and would have rather preferred the affiliation with the Federal State of Austria than with Nazi Germany. In his earlier speeches (until 1937), Henlein stressed his distance from German National Socialism, affirming loyalty to the Czechoslovak state and stressing approval of the idea of a cantonal system and individual freedom. He later described his contact to Nazi leaders as merely tactical. In 1935 when Karl Hermann Frank became deputy leader, the SdP gradually adopted the DNSAP tradition and became more radical.  In the parliamentary election of May 1935, the SdP with 1,249,534 (15.2%) of the votes became the strongest of all parties in Czechoslovakia. The party had won about 68% of the German votes, thus surpassing the German Social Democratic Workers Party, the German Christian Social People's Party and the Farmers' League. Meanwhile, the influence exerted by the German Nazi dictatorship became stronger and after 1935 several groups within the party were financed by Germany. In November 1937 Adolf Hitler openly declared - according to the Hossbach Memorandum - his intention to separate the Sudetenland from the Czechoslovak state. The SdP officially coordinated this policy with Nazi leaders in order to integrate the German-speaking parts of Bohemia and Moravia into the German Reich.  After the Austrian \"Anschluss\" Henlein first met Hitler on 28 March 1938. His policy was the so-called \"Grundplanung OA\" (Basic planning) of summer 1938 and later in the interior policy of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. In March 1938 the Farmers League joined the SdP, as well as many Christian Social deputies in the Czechoslovak parliament. At a convention in Carlsbad on 24 April the majority of the party advocated the demand of the Sudeten Germans as an autonomous ethnic group, the separation of a self-governing German settlement area and the freedom to decide for the \"Anschluss\" to Nazi Germany. At this time the SdP had about 1.35 million members.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Annexation.", "content": "In September 1938 the policy of SdP succeeded in the German annexation of Sudetenland according to the Munich Agreement (see: German occupation of Czechoslovakia). On 1 October Henlein was appointed \"Reichskommissar\" of the incorporated territories, which became the \"Reichsgau Sudetenland\". After a last convention at Aussig, the organization officially merged into the German Nazi Party at a festive ceremony in Reichenberg (Liberec) on 5 November 1938. However, as many Nazi officials like Reinhard Heydrich were suspicious of the SdP party members, they were not absorbed, but had to apply for admission to the Nazi Party. About 520,000 members were approved, among them Henlein himself who also joined the \"SS\". He was officially appointed \"Gauleiter\" in 1939, an office he held until 1945, though largely losing power to Reich Protector Heydrich.  As of October 1938 the SdP/KdP parliamentary club had 52 members from the Chamber of Deputies, and their joint Senate club had 26 members. On 30 October 1938 the parliamenary mandates of 46 deputies and 22 Senators of SdP and KdP were annulled.  The SdP branches in areas that remained in Czechoslovakia after the Sudetenland annexation formed the German People's Group in Czecho-Slovakia (\"Deutsche Volksgruppe in der Tschecho-Slowakei\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sudeten German Party (, SdP, ) was created by Konrad Henlein under the name \"Sudetendeutsche Heimatfront\" (\"Front of the Sudeten German Homeland\") on 1 October 1933, some months after the First Czechoslovak Republic had outlawed the German National Socialist Workers' Party (\"Deutsche Nationalsozialistische Arbeiterpartei\", DNSAP). In April 1935, the party was renamed \"Sudetendeutsche Partei\" following a mandatory demand of the Czechoslovak government. The name was officially changed to Sudeten German and Carpathian German Party (\"Sudetendeutsche und Karpatendeutsche Partei\") in November 1935.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972840}
{"src_title": "Lumbricus terrestris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Common names.", "content": "Because it is widely known, \"Lumbricus\" goes under a variety of common names. In Britain, it is primarily called the common earthworm or lob worm (though the name is also applied to a marine polychaete). In North America, the term nightcrawler (or vitalis) is also used. In Canada, it is also called the dew worm, or \"Grandaddy Earthworm\". In several Germanic languages, it is called variants of \"rain worm\", for example in German \"Gemeiner Regenwurm\" (\"common rain worm\") or in Danish \"Stor regnorm\" (\"large rain worm\"). In the rest of the world, many references are just to the scientific name, though with occasional reference to the above names.  Although this is not the most abundant earthworm, even in its native range, it is a very conspicuous and familiar earthworm species in garden and agricultural soils of the temperate zone, and is frequently seen on the surface, unlike most other earthworms. It is also used as the example earthworm for millions of biology students around the world, even in areas where the species does not exist. However, 'earthworm' can be a source of confusion, since in most of the world, other species are more typical. For example, through much of the unirrigated temperate areas of the world, the \"common earthworm\" is actually \"Aporrectodea\" (=\"Allolobophora\") \"trapezoides\", which in those areas is a similar size and dark color to \"L. terrestris\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "\"L. terrestris\" is an anecic worm. That is, it forms temporary deep burrows and comes to the surface to feed, as opposed to burrowing through the soil for its food as most other earthworms do. An unusual habit of this species is to pull leaves into the mouth of its burrow where they partially decay before being eaten. While they generally feed on plant material, they have been observed feeding on dead insects and feces.  The natural lifespan of \"L. terrestris\" is unknown, though individuals have lived for six years in captivity.  In parts of Europe, notably the Atlantic fringe of northwestern Europe, it is now locally endangered due to predation by the New Zealand flatworm (\"Arthurdendyus triangulatus\") and the Australian flatworm (\"Australoplana sanguinea\"), two predatory flatworms accidentally introduced from New Zealand and Australia. These predators are very efficient earthworm eaters, being able to survive for lengthy periods with no food, so still persist even when their prey has dropped to unsustainably low populations. In some areas, this is having a seriously adverse effect on the soil structure and quality. The soil aeration and organic material mixing previously done by the earthworms has ceased in some areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As an invasive species in North America.", "content": "\"L. terrestris\" is considered invasive in the north central United States. It does not do well in tilled fields because of pesticide exposure, physical injuries from farm equipment and a lack of nutrients. It thrives in fence rows and woodlots and can lead to reductions in native herbaceous and tree regrowth.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lumbricus terrestris is a large, reddish worm species widely distributed around the world (along with several other lumbricids). In some areas where it is an introduced species, some people consider it a serious pest for outcompeting native worms. It has an unusual habit of copulating on the surface at night, which makes it more visible than most other earthworms.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972841}
{"src_title": "Piz Bernina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Piz Bernina is one of the few isolated Alpine four-thousanders and the most topographically isolated mountain of Switzerland. It is the culminating point of a group of summits slightly lower than 4,000 meters (13,120 feet) mostly lying on the main watershed between Switzerland and Italy (such as Piz Scerscen, Piz Zupò, and Piz Palü). The only other summit higher than is La Spedla (the \"Shoulder\"), a minor prominence south of the mountain, which is also the highest point on the Italian side of the massif.  The summit itself is located on a perpendicular chain (orientated north–south) starting at La Spedla on the border and finishing at Piz Chalchagn, composed also of Piz Morteratsch and Piz Boval.  Piz Bernina separates two glacial valleys, the Tschierva Glacier on the west and the Morteratsch Glacier on the east. The waters flowing on both side of the mountain end up in the Inn River running northeast through Engadin. South of Piz Bernina the watershed separates the drainage basins of the Danube (Black Sea) and the Po River (Adriatic Sea). The summit of Piz Bernina is the culminating point of the Danube drainage basin. Politically, it is split between the municipalities of Samedan and Pontresina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "The rocks composing Piz Bernina are mostly diorites and gabbros. The massif in general is also composed of granites, notable on Piz Corvatsch and Piz Palü. Most of the range belongs to the Austroalpine nappes, a tectonic unit whose rocks come from the Apulian plate, a small continent which broke away from Africa (Gondwana) before the Alpine orogeny. The Austroalpine nappes are common throughout all of the Eastern Alps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climbing history.", "content": "The first ascent was made via the east ridge in 1850 by the 28-year-old topographer Johann Wilhelm Coaz (1822-1918, from S-Chanf) and his assistants, the brothers Jon and Lorenz Ragut Tscharner. On 13 September 1850, shortly after 6 a.m., they left the Bernina Inn (at ) with their measuring instruments. They traversed the Labyrinth (on the Morteratsch Glacier) and headed to the \"Fuorcla Crast'Agüzza\", a col between the Crast' Agüzza and Piz Bernina. They reached the summit at around 6 p.m.  Johan Coaz wrote in his diary:  In 1866, the south ridge running from La Spedla was climbed by Francis Fox Tuckett and F. A. Y. Brown with guides Christian Almer and F. Andermatten. They started at midnight from the \"Alpe Foppa\" on the Italian side, and reached the summit at 11 a.m., descending to Pontresina only a few hours later.  The first attempt to climb the northern ridge, the \"Biancograt\", was made on 12 August 1876 by Henri Cordier and Thomas Middlemore with guides Johann Jaun and Kaspar Maurer. They successfully reached the top of the ridge, Piz Alv, but when they saw the chasm lying between them and the summit of Piz Bernina, they considered it to be beyond their powers and returned down the Biancograt. Cordier later declared the gap to be \"absolutely impossible\".  Exactly two years later, Paul Güssfeldt, accompanied by the guides H. Grass and J. Gross, reached the summit via the Biancograt and accomplished the first complete ascent on this route. The first winter ascent was made on 15 March 1929 by C. Colmus with guides C. and U. Grass. To win a bet worth 200 CHF, Hermann Buhl reached the summit of Piz Bernina from the Boval hut in 6 hours; he then descended the north ridge in only 15 minutes, establishing a record.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Piz Bernina is the highest summit of the Engadin region and lies close to the resorts of St. Moritz and Pontresina. The mountain can be seen from different viewpoints with the use of ski-lifts from Diavolezza, Piz Corvatsch or Piz Nair. The Bernina railway connects St. Moritz with the southern Val Poschiavo through the Bernina Pass.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climbing routes and huts.", "content": "The normal route starts from the Rifugio Marco e Rosa, located at above the Fuorcla Crast'Agüzza, and follows the route taken by the first ascentionists.  The north ridge, called the \"Biancograt\" or \"Crast Alva\" (both meaning \"White Ridge\"), is the most well-known and attractive route to the summit, and is much more difficult than the normal route. The route starts from the Tschierva Hut () in Val Roseg, accessible from Pontresina. The Biancograt itself starts at the Fuorcla Prievlusa () and leads to Piz Bianco (). To reach the summit, the Bernina gap – which repulsed Cordier, Middlemore, Jaun and Maurer in 1876 – has to be traversed.  Other huts in the area", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Piz Bernina or Pizzo Bernina () is the highest mountain in the Eastern Alps, the highest point of the Bernina Range, and the highest peak in the Rhaetian Alps. It rises 4,048.6 m (13,283 ft) and is located south of Pontresina and near the major Alpine resort of St. Moritz, in the Engadin valley with the massif partially in Italy. It is also the most easterly mountain higher than in the Alps, the highest point of the Swiss canton of Graubünden, and the fifth-most prominent peak in the Alps. The minor summit () known as La Spedla is the highest point in the Italian Lombardy region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972842}
{"src_title": "Drosera rotundifolia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Morphology.", "content": "The leaves of the common sundew are arranged in a basal rosette. The narrow, hairy, long petioles support long laminae. The upper surface of the lamina is densely covered with red glandular hairs that secrete a sticky mucilage.  A typical plant has a diameter of around, with a tall inflorescence. The flowers grow on one side of a single slender, hairless stalk that emanates from the centre of the leaf rosette. White or pink in colour, the five-petalled flowers produce, light brown, slender, tapered seeds.  In the winter, \"D. rotundifolia\" produces a hibernaculum to survive the cold conditions. This consists of a bud of tightly curled leaves at ground level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Carnivory.", "content": "The plant feeds on insects, which are attracted to the glistening drops of mucilage, loaded with a sugary substance, covering its leaves. It has evolved this carnivorous behaviour in response to its habitat, which is usually poor in nutrients or is so acidic that nutrient availability is severely decreased. The plant uses enzymes to dissolve the insects – which become stuck to the glandular tentacles – and extract ammonia (from proteins) and other nutrients from their bodies. The ammonia replaces the nitrogen that other plants absorb from the soil, and plants that are placed in a high-nitrogen environment rely less upon nitrogen from captured insects.  It has been assumed that insects were also attracted to the bright red color of the common sundew, but studies using artificial traps have suggested that color does not affect prey attraction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "In North America, the common sundew is found in all parts of Canada except the Canadian Prairies and the tundra regions, southern Alaska, the Pacific Northwest, and along the Appalachian Mountains south to Georgia and Louisiana.  It is found in much of Europe, including the British Isles, most of France, the Benelux nations, Germany, Denmark, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Poland, Belarus, the Baltic countries, Sweden and Finland, as well as northern portions of Portugal, Spain, Romania, mountain regions of Bulgaria and in Iceland and southern regions of Norway and Greenland. It is infrequent in Austria and Hungary, and some populations are scattered around the Balkans.  In Britain, this is the most common form of sundew and it can be found on Exmoor, Dartmoor, Sedgemoor, the Lake District, Shropshire, Pennines and in Scotland, among other places. It is usually found in bogs, marshes and in hollows or corries on the sides of mountains. It is the county flower of Shropshire.  In Asia, it is found across Siberia and Japan, as well as parts of Turkey, the Caucasus region, the Kamchatka Peninsula and southern parts of Korea. Populations can also be found on the island of New Guinea and Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The common sundew thrives in wetlands such as marshes and fens. It is also found in wet stands of black spruce, \"Sphagnum\" bogs, silty and boggy shorelines and wet sands. It prefers open, sunny or partly sunny habitats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The round-leaved sundew is classified as Least Concern in the IUCN red list. In North America, it is considered endangered in the US states of Illinois and Iowa, exploitably vulnerable in New York, and threatened in Tennessee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"D. rotundifolia\" is one of the temperate species of \"Drosera\" cultivated by growers interested in carnivorous plants. To be grown successfully, plants of the wild species must be given a substantial period of winter dormancy during which they form hibernacula. The cultivar \"D. rotundifolia\" 'Charles Darwin' can be grown more successfully without a period of dormancy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medicinal properties.", "content": "According to D.H. Paper, \"et al.\", \"Drosera rotundifolia\" plant extracts show great efficacy as an anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic, more so than \"D. madagascariensis\", as a result of the flavonoids such as hyperoside, quercetin and isoquercetin, but not the naphthoquinones present in the extracts. The flavonoids are thought to affect the M muscarinic receptors in smooth muscle, causing the antispasmodic effects. Ellagic acid in \"D. rotundifolia\" extracts has also been shown to have antiangiogenic effects.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Drosera rotundifolia, the round-leaved sundew or common sundew, is a species of sundew, a carnivorous plant often found in bogs, marshes and fens. One of the most widespread sundew species, it has a circumboreal distribution, being found in all of northern Europe, much of Siberia, large parts of northern North America, Korea and Japan but is also found as far south as California, Mississippi and Alabama in the United States of America and on New Guinea.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972843}
{"src_title": "Sestertius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The sestertius was introduced c. 211 BC as a small silver coin valued at one-quarter of a denarius (and thus one hundredth of an aureus). A silver denarius was supposed to weigh about 4.5 grams, valued at ten grams, with the silver sestertius valued at two and one-half grams. In practice, the coins were usually underweight.  When the denarius was retariffed to sixteen \"asses\" (due to the gradual reduction in the size of bronze denominations), the sestertius was accordingly revalued to four \"asses\", still equal to one quarter of a denarius. It was produced sporadically, far less often than the denarius, through 44 BC. In or about 23 BC, with the coinage reform of Augustus, the sestertius was reintroduced as a large brass denomination. While the \"as\", now made of copper, was worth one quarter of a sestertius. Augustus tariffed the value of the sestertius as one hundredth of the gold aureus. The sestertius was produced as the largest brass denomination until the late 3rd century AD. Most were struck in the mint of Rome but from AD 64 during the reign of Nero (AD 54–68) and Vespasian (AD 69–79), the mint of Lyon (\"Lugdunum\"), supplemented production. Lyon sestertii can be recognised by a small globe, or legend stop, beneath the bust.  The brass sestertius typically weighs in the region of 25 to 28 grams, is around 32–34 mm in diameter and about 4 mm thick. The distinction between bronze and brass was important to the Romans. Their name for brass was \"orichalcum\", also spelled \"aurichalcum\" (echoing the word for a gold coin, aureus), meaning 'gold-copper', because of its shiny, gold-like appearance when the coins were newly struck (see, for example Pliny the Elder in his \"Natural History\" Book 34.4).  Orichalcum was considered, by weight, to be about double the value of copper. This is why the half-sestertius, the dupondius, was around the same size and weight as the bronze was, but was worth two asses.  Sestertii continued to be struck until the late 3rd century, although there was a marked deterioration in the quality of the metal used and the striking even though portraiture remained strong. Later emperors increasingly relied on melting down older sestertii, a process which led to the zinc component being gradually lost as it burned off in the high temperatures needed to melt copper (zinc melts at 419 °C but boils at 907 °C, copper melts at 1085 °C). The shortfall was made up with bronze and even lead. Later sestertii tend to be darker in appearance as a result and are made from more crudely prepared blanks (see the Hostilian coin on this page).  The gradual impact of inflation caused by debasement of the silver currency meant that the purchasing power of the sestertius and smaller denominations like the dupondius and as was steadily reduced. In the 1st century AD, everyday small change was dominated by the dupondius and \"as\", but in the 2nd century, as inflation hit, the sestertius became the dominant small change. In the 3rd century silver coinage contained less and less silver, and more and more copper or bronze. By the 260s and 270s the main unit was the double-denarius, the Antoninianus, but by then these small coins were almost all bronze. Although these coins were theoretically worth eight sestertii, the average sestertius was worth far more in plain terms of the metal it contained.  Some of the last sestertii were struck by Aurelian (270–275 AD). During the end of its issue, when sestertii were reduced in size and quality, the double sestertius was issued first by Trajan Decius (249–251 AD) and later in large quantity by the ruler of a breakaway regime in the West, named Postumus (259–268 AD), who often used worn old sestertii to overstrike his image and legends on. The double sestertius was distinguished from the sestertius by the radiate crown worn by the emperor, a device used to distinguish the dupondius from the \"as\" and the Antoninianus from the denarius.  Eventually, many sestertii were withdrawn by the state and by forgers, to melt down to make the debased Antoninianus, which made inflation worse. In the coinage reforms of the 4th century, the sestertius played no part and passed into history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unit of account.", "content": "The sestertius was also used as a standard unit of account and was represented on inscriptions with the monogram HS. Large values were recorded in terms of \"sestertium milia\", thousands of sestertii, with the \"milia\" often omitted and implied. The wealthy general and politician of the late Roman Republic, Crassus, who fought in the war to defeat Spartacus, was said by Pliny the Elder to have had \"estates worth 200 million sesterces\".  A loaf of bread cost roughly half a sestertius, and a sextarius (c. 0.5 L) of wine anywhere from less than half to more than one sestertius. One modius (6.67 kg) of wheat in 79 AD Pompeii cost seven sestertii, of rye three sestertii, a bucket two sestertii, a tunic fifteen sestertii, a donkey five hundred sestertii.  According to Tacitus' \"Annals\", book I, chapter 17.4 and 17.5, soldiers of the Rhine army who rose against Tiberius were paid ten \"asses\" a day, out of which they had to pay, among other things, for their own uniforms. They demanded to be paid a denarius a day, and they got it.  Records from Pompeii show a slave being sold at auction for 6,252 sestertii. A writing tablet from Londinium (Roman London), dated to c. 75–125 AD, records the sale of a Gallic slave girl called Fortunata for 600 denarii, equal to 2,400 sestertii, to a man called Vegetus. It is difficult to make any comparisons with modern coinage or prices, but for most of the 1st century AD, the ordinary legionary was paid nine hundred sestertii per annum, rising to twelve hundred under Domitian (81–96 AD), the equivalent of 3.3 sestertii per day. Half of it was deducted for living costs, leaving the soldier, if he was lucky enough to get paid, with about 1.65 sestertii per day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Numismatic value.", "content": "Sestertii are highly valued by numismatists, since their large size gave \"caelatores\" (engravers) a large area in which to produce detailed portraits and reverse types. The most celebrated are those produced for Nero (54–68 AD) between the years 64 and 68 AD, created by some of the most accomplished coin engravers in history. The brutally realistic portraits of this emperor, and the elegant reverse designs, greatly impressed and influenced the artists of the Renaissance. The series issued by Hadrian (117–138 AD), recording his travels around the Roman Empire, depicts the Empire at its height, and included the first representation on a coin of the figure of Britannia; centuries later it was revived by English king Charles II, and continues to feature on the United Kingdom coinage.  As a result of ceasing production and withdrawals from circulation in the 4th century, sestertii are less common as a whole compared to other Roman bronze coins. Fully struck examples with sharp detail often command high premiums at auction.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The sestertius (plural sestertii), or sesterce (plural sesterces), was an ancient Roman coin. During the Roman Republic it was a small, silver coin issued only on rare occasions. During the Roman Empire it was a large brass coin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972844}
{"src_title": "Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Until the 11th century, the Archdeacon of the Roman Church was responsible for the administration of the property of the Church (i.e., the Diocese of Rome), but its numerous ancient privileges and rights had come to make it a frequent hindrance to independent action on the part of the Pope; as a result, when the last Archdeacon Hildebrand was elected to the papacy as Gregory VII in 1073, he suppressed the Archdeaconate and the prelate entrusted with the supervision of the Apostolic Camera (\"Camera Apostolica\"), i.e., the possessions of the Holy See, became known as the \"Camerarius\" (\"Chamberlain\").  Prior to the 18th century, the Camerlengo enjoyed an income of 10,000 to 12,000 scudi a year out of the Apostolic Camera. He had jurisdiction over all suits involving the Apostolic Camera, and could judge separately or in association with the Clerics of the Apostolic Camera; he was not impeded by Consistory. He has appellate jurisdiction over suits decided by the Masters of the Roads. In a narration of the 18th century, the Camerlengo is the chief officer in the Apostolic Camera, the Financial Council of the Pope. In his office are the Governor of Rome (who is Vice-Chancellor), The Treasurer, the Auditor, the President, the Advocate General, the Fiscal Procurator, the Commissary, and twelve Clerks of the Chamber (one with the special title of Prefect of the Grain Supply, another Prefect of Provisions, another Prefect of Prisons, and another Prefect of Roads). Each Clerk of the Chamber received around 8,000 scudi a year, representing 10% of the business that passes through his office.  The powers and functions of the Camerlengo were diminished considerably in the 19th century, first by the reorganisation of the papal government after the election of Pope Pius VII in 1800, then by the reorganization of the papal government after the return of Pope Pius IX from exile in 1850, and then by the loss of the Papal States in 1860 and the City of Rome in 1870. The chief beneficiary of these changes was the Cardinal Secretary of State. Since early in the 20th century, the offices of Secretary of State and Camerlengo were held concurrently by Pietro Gasparri (1916–1930), Eugenio Pacelli (1935–1939), Jean-Marie Villot (1970–1979), and by Tarcisio Bertone (2007–2013). Since then Pope Francis has appointed as Camerlengo prelates who have not been Secretary of State: Jean-Louis Tauran (2014–2018) and Kevin Joseph Farrell (2019–present).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Responsibilities.", "content": "The camerlengo is responsible for the formal determination of the death of the reigning pope; the traditional procedure – abandoned centuries ago – was to call his baptismal name (e.g. \"Albine, dormisne?\", meaning \"[name], are you sleeping?\"). After the pope is declared dead, the camerlengo takes possession of the Ring of the Fisherman and cuts it with shears in the presence of the cardinals. This act symbolizes the end of the late Pope's authority and prevents its use in forging documents. The camerlengo then notifies the appropriate officers of the Roman Curia and the dean of the College of Cardinals. He participates in the preparations for the conclave and the pope's funeral.  In the past the camerlengo took possession of the pope's last will and took responsibility for revealing its contents. Now the last will of the pope is given to the College of Cardinals and its content is revealed during the first meeting of the College of Cardinals. The only responsibility still in the camerlengo's hands is to safekeep the last will of the pope until the College of Cardinals takes possession of it.  Until a successor Pope can be elected, the camerlengo serves as Vatican City's acting sovereign. He is no longer, however, responsible for the government of the Catholic Church when the papacy is vacant; that task was placed in the hands of the College of Cardinals by \"Universi Dominici gregis\" (1996). His power is extremely limited, being merely enough to allow Church institutions to continue to operate and perform some basic functions without making any definitive decisions or appointments that are normally reserved to other powers delegated by the pope. Unlike the rest of the Roman Curia, the camerlengo retains his office during the \"sede vacante\" period and functions as the executive director of the Vatican's operations, answerable to the College of Cardinals. This is primarily to carry out the College's decisions with regard to the funeral of the late pope and the events leading up to the conclave. The only other people who keep their offices during this time are the Major Penitentiary, the Archpriest of St. Peter's Basilica, the Papal Almoner, and the Vicars General for Rome and for the Vatican City State.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of Camerlengos.", "content": "Those who have held the office of Camerlengo are:  Two Camerlengos have been elected Pope: Gioacchino Pecci (Pope Leo XIII) in 1878 and Eugenio Pacelli (Pope Pius XII) in 1939. Two others, Cencio Savelli (elected Pope Honorius III in 1216) and Rinaldo Conti di Segni (elected Pope Alexander IV in 1254) were not Camerlengo at the time of their election to the papacy, Cencio having served from 1188 until 1198 and Rinaldo from 1227 until 1231.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church is an office of the papal household that administers the property and revenues of the Holy See. Formerly, his responsibilities included the fiscal administration of the Patrimony of Saint Peter. As regulated in the apostolic constitution \"Pastor bonus\" of 1988, the camerlengo is always a cardinal, though this was not the case prior to the 15th century. His heraldic arms are ornamented with two keysone gold, one silverin saltire, surmounted by an ombrellino, a canopy or umbrella of alternating red and yellow stripes. These also form part of the coat of arms of the Holy See during a papal interregnum (\"sede vacante\"). The camerlengo has been Kevin Farrell since his appointment by Pope Francis on 14 February 2019. The vice camerlengo has been Archbishop Ilson de Jesus Montanari since 1 May 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972845}
{"src_title": "Ethidium bromide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure, chemistry, and fluorescence.", "content": "As with most fluorescent compounds, ethidium bromide is aromatic. Its core heterocyclic moiety is generically known as a phenanthridine, an isomer of which is the fluorescent dye acridine. Absorption maxima of EtBr in aqueous solution are at 210 nm and 285 nm, which correspond to ultraviolet light. As a result of this excitation, EtBr emits orange light with wavelength 605 nm.  Ethidium bromide's intense fluorescence after binding with DNA is probably not due to rigid stabilization of the phenyl moiety, because the phenyl ring has been shown to project outside the intercalated bases. In fact, the phenyl group is found to be almost perpendicular to the plane of the ring system, as it rotates about its single bond to find a position where it will impinge upon the ring system minimally. Instead, the hydrophobic environment found between the base pairs is believed to be responsible. By moving into this hydrophobic environment and away from the solvent, the ethidium cation is forced to shed any water molecules that were associated with it. As water is a highly efficient fluorescence quencher, the removal of these water molecules allows the ethidium to fluoresce.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Ethidium bromide is commonly used to detect nucleic acids in molecular biology laboratories. In the case of DNA this is usually double-stranded DNA from PCRs, restriction digests, etc. Single-stranded RNA can also be detected, since it usually folds back onto itself and thus provides local base pairing for the dye to intercalate. Detection typically involves a gel containing nucleic acids placed on or under an ultraviolet lamp. Since ultraviolet light is harmful to eyes and skin, gels stained with ethidium bromide are usually viewed indirectly using an enclosed camera, with the fluorescent images recorded as photographs. Where direct viewing is needed, the viewer's eyes and exposed skin should be protected. In the laboratory the intercalating properties have long been used to minimize chromosomal condensation when a culture is exposed to mitotic arresting agents during harvest. The resulting slide preparations permit a higher degree of resolution, and thus more confidence in determining structural integrity of chromosomes upon microscopic analysis.  Ethidium bromide is also used during DNA fragment separation by agarose gel electrophoresis. It is added to running buffer and binds by intercalating between DNA base pairs. When the agarose gel is illuminated using UV light, DNA bands become visible. Intercalation of EtBr can alter properties of the DNA molecule, such as charge, weight, conformation, and flexibility. Since the mobilities of DNA molecules through the agarose gel are measured relative to a molecular weight standard, the effects of EtBr can be critical to determining the sizes of molecules.  Ethidium bromide has also been used extensively to reduce mitochondrial DNA copy number in proliferating cells. The effect of EtBr on mitochondrial DNA is used in veterinary medicine to treat trypanosomiasis in cattle, as EtBr binds molecules of kinetoplastid DNA and changes their conformation to the Z-DNA form. This form inhibits replication of kinetoplastid DNA, which is lethal for trypanosomes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternatives.", "content": "There are alternatives to ethidium bromide which are advertised as being less dangerous and having better performance. For example, several SYBR-based dyes are used by some researchers and there are other emerging stains such as \"Novel Juice\". SYBR dyes are less mutagenic than EtBr by the Ames test with liver extract. However, SYBR Green I was actually found to be more mutagenic than EtBr to the bacterial cells exposed to UV (which is used to visualize either dye). This may be the case for other \"safer\" dyes, but while mutagenic and toxicity details are available these have not been published in peer-reviewed journals. The MSDS for SYBR Safe reports an for rats of over 5 g/kg, which is higher than that of EtBr (1.5 g/kg). Many alternative dyes are suspended in DMSO, which has health implications of its own, including increased skin absorption of organic compounds. Despite the performance advantage of using SYBR dyes instead of EtBr for staining purposes, many researchers still prefer EtBr since it is considerably less expensive.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health risks.", "content": "Ethidium bromide is thought to act as a mutagen because it intercalates double-stranded DNA (i.e. inserts itself between the strands), deforming the DNA. This could affect DNA biological processes, like DNA replication and transcription. Ethidium bromide has been shown to be mutagenic to bacteria via the Ames test, but only after treatment with liver homogenate, which simulates the metabolic breakdown of the molecule being tested. The lack of detected mutagenicity without liver homogenate indicates that ethidium bromide is not directly mutagenic, but that its metabolites are; however, the identity of these mutagenic metabolites are unknown. The National Toxicology Program states it is not mutagenic in rats and mice. These conclusions are supported by a subchronic carcinogenicity study in mice, whereby no mutagenic effects were detected. Ethidium bromide (Homidium brand) use in animals to treat trypanosome infection suggests that toxicity and mutagenicity are not high. Studies have been conducted in animals to evaluate EtBr as a potential antitumorigenic chemotherapeutic agent. Its chemotherapeutic use is due to its toxicity to mitochondria. A more recent study shows that EtBr acts as a topoisomerase I poison, just like several anticancer drugs used in humans. The above studies do not support the commonly-held idea that ethidium bromide is a potent mutagen in humans, but they do indicate that it can be toxic at high concentrations. Recent science writers have reported on what is perceived to be disproportionate fear over the toxicity and mutagenicity of the compound.  Most use of ethidium bromide in the laboratory (0.25–1 μg/ml) is below the level required for toxicity, and is 3 orders of magnitude lower than the therapeutic dosages used in cattle. The level is high enough that exposure may interfere with replication of mitochondrial DNA in some human cell lines, although the implications of that are not clear. Testing in humans and longer studies in any mammalian system would be required to fully understand the potential risk ethidium bromide poses to lab workers.  Ethidium bromide can be added to YPD media and used as an inhibitor for cell growth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Handling and disposal.", "content": "Ethidium bromide is not regulated as hazardous waste at low concentrations, but is treated as hazardous waste by many organizations. Material should be handled according to the material safety data sheet (MSDS).  The disposal of laboratory ethidium bromide remains a controversial subject. Ethidium bromide can be degraded chemically, or collected and incinerated. It is common for ethidium bromide waste below a mandated concentration to be disposed of normally (such as pouring it down a drain). A common practice is to treat ethidium bromide with sodium hypochlorite (bleach) before disposal. According to Lunn and Sansone, chemical degradation using bleach yields compounds which are mutagenic by the Ames test. Data are lacking on the mutagenic effects of degradation products. Lunn and Sansone describe more effective methods for degradation. Elsewhere, ethidium bromide removal from solutions with activated charcoal or ion exchange resin is recommended. Various commercial products are available for this use.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ethidium bromide is an intercalating agent commonly used as a fluorescent tag (nucleic acid stain) in molecular biology laboratories for techniques such as agarose gel electrophoresis. It is commonly abbreviated as EtBr, which is also an abbreviation for bromoethane. To avoid confusion, some laboratories have used the abbreviation EthBr. When exposed to ultraviolet light, it will fluoresce with an orange colour, intensifying almost 20-fold after binding to DNA. Under the name homidium, it has been commonly used since the 1950s in veterinary medicine to treat trypanosomiasis in cattle. The high incidence of antimicrobial resistance makes this treatment impractical in some areas, where the related isometamidium chloride is used instead. Ethidium bromide may be a mutagen, although this depends on the organism exposed and the circumstances of exposure.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972846}
{"src_title": "Duchy of Brabant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Duchy of Brabant (adjective: \"Brabantian\" or \"Brabantine\") was historically divided into four parts, each with its own capital. The four capitals were Leuven, Brussels, Antwerp and's-Hertogenbosch. Before's-Hertogenbosch was founded, Tienen was the fourth capital.  Its territory consisted essentially of the three modern-day Belgian provinces of Flemish Brabant, Walloon Brabant and Antwerp; the Brussels-Capital Region; and most of the present-day Dutch province of North Brabant. Its most important cities were Brussels, Antwerp, Leuven, Breda,'s-Hertogenbosch, Lier and Mechelen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brabantian lion.", "content": "The modern flag of Belgium takes its colors from Brabant's coat of arms: \"Sable a lion or armed and langued gules\" (a gold lion on a black field with red claws and tongue).  Probably first used by Count Lambert I of Louvain (ruled 1003–1015), the lion is documented in a 1306 town's seal of Kerpen, together with the red lion of Limburg. Up to the present, the Brabantian lion features as the primary heraldic charge on the coats of arms of both Flemish and Walloon Brabant, and of the Dutch province of North Brabant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The region's name is first recorded as the Carolingian shire \"pagus Bracbatensis\", located between the rivers Scheldt and Dijle, from \"braec\" \"marshy\" and \"bant\" \"region\". Upon the 843 Treaty of Verdun it was part of Lotharingia within short-lived Middle Francia, and was ceded to East Francia according to the 880 Treaty of Ribemont.  In earlier Roman times, the Nervii, a Belgic tribe, lived in the same area. They were incorporated into the Roman province of Belgica, and considered to have both Celtic and Germanic cultural links. At the end of the Roman period the region was conquered by the Germanic Franks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Counts of Leuven.", "content": "In 959 the East Frankish king Otto I of Germany elevated Count Godfrey of Jülich to the rank of duke of Lower Lorraine. In 962 the duchy became an integral part of the Holy Roman Empire, where Godfrey's successors of the ducal Ardennes-Verdun dynasty also ruled over the \"Gau\" of Brabant. Here, the counts of Leuven rose to power, when about 1000 Count Lambert I the Bearded married Gerberga, the daughter of Duke Charles of Lower Lorraine, and acquired the County of Brussels. About 1024 southernmost Brabant fell to Count Reginar V of Mons (\"Bergen\", later Hainaut), and Imperial lands up to the Schelde river in the west came under the rule of the French Counts Baldwin V of Flanders by 1059. Upon the death of Count Palatine Herman II of Lotharingia in 1085, Emperor Henry IV assigned his fief between the Dender and Zenne rivers as the Landgraviate of Brabant to Count Henry III of Leuven and Brussels.  About one hundred years later, in 1183/1184, Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa formally established the Duchy of Brabant and created the hereditary title of duke of Brabant in favour of Henry I of Brabant, son of Count Godfrey III of Leuven. Although the original county was still quite small - and limited to the territory between the Dender and Zenne rivers, situated to the west of Brussels - from the 13th century onwards its name came to apply to the entire territory under control of the dukes.  In 1190, after the death of Godfrey III, Henry I also became Duke of Lower Lotharingia. By that time the title had lost most of its territorial authority. According to protocol, all his successors were thereafter called Dukes of Brabant and Lower Lotharingia (often called Duke of Lothier).  After the Battle of Worringen in 1288, the dukes of Brabant also acquired the Duchy of Limburg and the lands of Overmaas (trans-Meuse). In 1354 Duke John III of Brabant granted a Joyous Entry (charter of liberty) to the subjects of Brabant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands.", "content": "In 1430 the Duchies of Lower Lotharingia, Brabant and Limburg were inherited by Philip the Good of Burgundy and became part of the Burgundian Netherlands.  In 1477 the Duchy of Brabant became part of the House of Habsburg as part of the dowry of Mary of Burgundy. At that time the Duchy extended from Luttre, south of Nivelles to's Hertogenbosch, with Leuven as the capital city. The subsequent history of Brabant is part of the history of the Habsburg Seventeen Provinces.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eighty Years War and division of Brabant.", "content": "The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) brought the northern parts (essentially the present Dutch province of North Brabant) under military control of the northern insurgents. After the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the United Provinces' independence was confirmed and northern Brabant was formally ceded to the United Provinces as Staats-Brabant, a federally governed territory and part of the Dutch Republic.  The southern part remained in Spanish Habsburg hands as a part of the Southern Netherlands. It was transferred to the Austrian branch of the Habsburg monarchy in 1714. Brabant was included in the unrecognised United States of Belgium, which existed from January to December 1790 during short-lived revolt against Emperor Joseph II, until imperial troops regained the Austrian Netherlands for Leopold II who had succeeded his brother.  The area was overrun during the French Revolution in 1794, and formally annexed by France in 1795. The duchy of Brabant was dissolved and the territory was reorganised in the \"départements\" of Deux-Nèthes (present province of Antwerp) and Dyle (the later province of Brabant).  After the defeat of Bonaparte in 1815, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created at the Congress of Vienna. The three old provinces were restored as North Brabant, Antwerp and South Brabant. The latter two became part of modern Belgium when it was created in 1830, South Brabant becoming simply Brabant province.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cities of Brabant.", "content": "Brabant had fortified walled cities and unwalled cities. The unwalled cities did not have the right to construct walls. Trade was allowed in the walled areas and usually this right resulted in a larger population and the development of major villages and later cities. The unwalled cities also had the right to hold markets, which they held on large market squares. This distinguishes them from surrounding villages that were not allowed to hold markets and did not possess market squares. Being unwalled also meant that some of these places suffered heavily in war and during the Dutch Revolt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quarter of Antwerp.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unwalled cities.", "content": "Note: the city of Mechelen formed an independent state along with the Land of Heist-op-den-Berg and Gestel. Willemstad, Geertruidenberg and Klundert were part of the County of Holland.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Quarter of's-Hertogenbosch.", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Duchy of Brabant was a State of the Holy Roman Empire established in 1183. It developed from the Landgraviate of Brabant and formed the heart of the historic Low Countries, part of the Burgundian Netherlands from 1430 and of the Habsburg Netherlands from 1482, until it was partitioned after the Dutch revolt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972847}
{"src_title": "Ivan VI of Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Emperor of Russia.", "content": "Ivan was born on 23 August 1740 at Saint Petersburg, the eldest child of Duke Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick-Lüneburg by his wife, Duchess Anna Leopoldovna of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the only niece of the childless Empress Anna of Russia, and the only granddaughter of Tsar Ivan V. She had lived in Russia almost all her life, and her husband had also made his home in that country, in the expectation that they or their progeny would inherit the throne upon the death of the empress.  This expectation was fulfilled within two months of the birth of their first-born child. On 5 October 1740 the infant Ivan was adopted by his grandaunt (who was on her deathbed) and declared her heir apparent. The empress also declared that her longtime lover and advisor, Ernst Johann von Biron, duke of Courland, would serve as regent until Ivan came of age. Indeed, the desire to ensure that her lover would enjoy power and influence after her death was the primary reason the dying empress chose to name as her heir the infant rather than his mother.  Empress Anna died soon thereafter on 28 October 1740. The following day the infant was proclaimed emperor as Ivan VI, Autocrat of All The Russias, and Biron became regent. However, the idea of Biron wielding power was not acceptable either to Ivan's parents or to most of the nobility. During his years as Anna's lover he had made many enemies, and was tremendously unpopular at court. Within three weeks Ivan's father had engineered Biron's fall. At midnight on 8/19 November 1740 Biron was seized in his bedroom by partisans of the royal couple and banished to Siberia (he was later permitted to reside at Yaroslavl). Ivan's mother, Anna Leopoldovna, was made regent, though the vice-chancellor, Andrei Osterman, effectively ran the government during her brief regency.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deposition and imprisonment.", "content": "Ivan's reign, and his mother's regency, lasted thirteen months, for on December 6, 1741 a coup d'état placed Elizabeth of Russia on the throne, and Ivan and his family were imprisoned in the fortress of Dünamünde (13 December 1742) after a preliminary detention at Riga, from where the new Empress had at first intended to send the unhappy family home to Brunswick. In June 1744, following the Lopukhina Affair, the Empress transferred Ivan to Kholmogory on the White Sea where, isolated from his family and seeing no one other than his jailer, he remained for the next twelve years. When news of his confinement at Kholmogory circulated more widely, young Ivan was secretly transferred to the fortress of Shlisselburg (1756) where he was still more rigorously guarded; not even the commandant of the fortress knowing the true identity of \"a certain prisoner\". Throughout Elizabeth's reign her predecessor's name was subjected to a damnatio memoriae procedure; all coins, documents, and publications bearing Ivan's name and titles were systematically confiscated and destroyed, and now are of an extraordinary rarity.  Upon the accession of Peter III in 1762, Ivan's situation seemed about to improve, for the new emperor visited and sympathised with his plight, but Peter himself was deposed a few weeks later. New instructions were sent to Ivan’s guardian to place manacles on his charge and even to scourge him should he become unmanageable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On the accession of Catherine II, in the summer of 1762, still more stringent orders were sent to the officer in charge of \"the nameless one\"; if any attempt were made from outside to release him, the prisoner was to be put to death. Under no circumstances was he to be delivered alive into anyone's hands, without an express written order in the Empress' handwriting. By this time twenty years of solitary confinement had disturbed Ivan's mental equilibrium, though he does not seem to have been actually insane. Nevertheless, despite the mystery surrounding him, he was well aware of his imperial origin and always called himself \"Gosudar\" (Sovereign). Instructions had been given not to educate him, but he had been taught his letters and could read his Bible. Since his presence at Shlisselburg could not remain concealed forever, its eventual discovery was the cause of his demise.  A sub-lieutenant of the garrison, Vasily Mirovich, learned of his identity and formed a plan for freeing and proclaiming him Emperor. At midnight on 5 July 1764, Mirovich won over some of the garrison, arrested the commandant, Berednikov, and demanded the release of Ivan. His jailers, on orders of their commander, an officer surnamed Chekin, immediately murdered Ivan in compliance with the secret instructions already in their possession. Mirovich and his supporters were arrested and executed shortly thereafter. Ivan was buried quietly in the fortress, and his death secured Catherine II's position on the throne until her own son came of age.  Ivan's siblings, who were born in prison, were released into the custody of their aunt, the Danish queen dowager, Juliana Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, on 30 June 1780 and settled at Horsens in Jutland. There they lived under house arrest for the rest of their lives under Juliana's guardianship and Catherine's expense. Although they were prisoners, they lived in relative comfort and retained a small \"court\" of forty to fifty people, all Danes except for the priest.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ivan VI Antonovich of Russia (Ioann Antonovich; ; – ) was Emperor of Russia in 1740–41. He was only two months old when he was proclaimed emperor and his mother named regent. Scarcely a year later his first cousin twice-removed, Elizabeth, seized the throne in a coup. Ivan and his parents were imprisoned far from the capital and spent the rest of their lives in captivity. After more than twenty years as a prisoner, Ivan was killed by his guards when some army officers (unknown to Ivan) attempted to free him. His surviving siblings, who had been born in prison, were then released into the custody of their aunt, the Queen of Denmark, but none could live normally after a lifetime of confinement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972848}
{"src_title": "Eubulides", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Eubulides was a pupil of Euclid of Megara, the founder of the Megarian school. He was a contemporary of Aristotle, against whom he wrote with great bitterness. He taught logic to Demosthenes, and he is also said to have taught Apollonius Cronus, the teacher of Diodorus Cronus, and the historian Euphantus. He may have been the author of a book about Diogenes of Sinope.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paradoxes of Eubulides.", "content": "Eubulides is most famous for inventing the forms of seven famous paradoxes, some of which, however, are also ascribed to Diodorus Cronus:  The first paradox (the Liar) is probably the most famous, and is similar to the famous paradox of Epimenides the Cretan. The second, third and fourth paradoxes are variants of a single paradox and relate to the problem of what it means to \"know\" something and the identity of objects involved in an affirmation (compare the masked man fallacy). The fifth and sixth paradoxes are also a single paradox and is usually thought to relate to the vagueness of language. The final paradox attacks presumptions involved in a proposition, and is related to the syllogistic fallacy.  These paradoxes were very well known in ancient times, some are alluded to by Eubulides' contemporary Aristotle and even partially by Plato. Aulus Gellius mentions how the discussion of such paradoxes was considered (for him) after-dinner entertainment at the Saturnalia, but Seneca, on the other hand, considered them a waste of time: \"Not to know them does no harm, and mastering them does no good.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eubulides (; fl. 4th century BCE) of Miletus was a philosopher of the Megarian school, and a pupil of Euclid of Megara. He is famous for his paradoxes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972849}
{"src_title": "Blackburn Skua", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Built to Air Ministry specification O.27/34, it was a low-wing monoplane of all-metal (duralumin) construction, with a retractable undercarriage and enclosed cockpit. It was the Fleet Air Arm's first service monoplane and was a radical departure for a force that was primarily equipped with open-cockpit biplanes such as the Fairey Swordfish.  Performance for the fighter role was compromised by the aircraft's naval requirements for folding wings, large fuel capacity, heavy armament with large ammunition supply, rear gunner and lack of power of contemporary aircooled engines, resulting in a relatively low speed; in common with contemporary marks of Japanese and United States Navy Aircraft Carrier borne fighters along with the Royal Navy's Gloster Sea Gladiator. These naval fighters compared unfavourably with land based fighters such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109 which reached at sea level over the Skua's and the Gloster Sea Gladiator's. The armament of four fixed, forward-firing 0.303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns in the wings and a single flexible, rearward-firing.303 in (7.7 mm) Vickers K machine gun was effective for the time. For the dive-bombing role, a or bomb was carried on a special swinging \"trapeze\" crutch under the fuselage (somewhat like that of the Junkers Ju 87), which enabled the bomb to clear the propeller arc on release. Four bombs or eight Cooper bombs could also be carried in racks under each wing. It had large Zap-type air brakes/flaps, which helped in dive bombing and landing on aircraft carriers at sea.  Two prototypes were ordered from Blackburn in 1935 and the first, serial number \"K5178\", first flew on 9 February 1937. Both prototypes were powered by the Bristol Mercury XII radial engine but following trials when a production order for 190 aircraft was placed, they were to have Bristol Perseus XII engines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first unit to receive the Skua was 800 Naval Air Squadron in late 1938 at Worth Down. By November the squadron had embarked on and was followed in 1939 by 801 and 803 squadrons. With the start of the Second World War, Skuas were soon in action and on 14 September three took off from Ark Royal to go to the aid of the SS \"Fanad Head\" which had been attacked by a U-boat. When they arrived, the \"Fanad Head\" was being shelled by \"U-30\" and all three dived to attack the submarine, which quickly dived to safety. Two of the Skuas were damaged by the blasts and had to ditch. \"U-30\" returned to Germany with the crews of the two ditched Skuas, who became the first naval airmen to be prisoners of war in the conflict.  Skuas were originally credited with the first confirmed kill by British aircraft during the Second World War: a Dornier Do 18 flying boat was shot down over the North Sea on 26 September 1939 by three Skuas of 803 Naval Air Squadron, flying from Ark Royal. (An earlier victory by a Fairey Battle on 20 September 1939 over Aachen, was later confirmed by French sources). On 10 April 1940, 16 Skuas of 800 and 803 NAS led by Lieutenant Commander William Lucy, flying from RNAS Hatston in the Orkney Islands, sank the in Bergen harbour during Operation Weserübung, the German invasion of Norway.  \"Königsberg\" was the first major warship ever sunk in war by air attack and the first major warship ever to be sunk by dive bombing. Lucy later also became a fighter ace flying the Skua. These two mostly-Skua squadrons suffered heavy losses during an attempt to bomb the German battleship Scharnhorst at Trondheim on 13 June 1940; of 15 aircraft in the raid, eight were shot down and the crews killed or taken prisoner. Among the latter were both squadron commanders, Captain R. T. Partridge (RM) and Lieutenant Commander John Casson (RN).  Although it fared reasonably well against Axis bombers over Norway and in the Mediterranean, the Skua suffered heavy losses when confronted with modern fighters, particularly the Bf 109, and they were withdrawn from front line service in 1941. Most Skuas were replaced by another two-seater, the Fairey Fulmar, which doubled the Skua's forward armament and had a speed advantage of. A number of aircraft were converted to target tugs, following withdrawal from front line service. Others were completed as target tugs from the factory and used by the RAF and Fleet Air Arm in this role (Fleet Requirements). They were also used as advanced trainers for the Fleet Air Arm. The last Skua in service was struck off charge in March 1945.  The Blackburn Roc was a very similar aircraft developed as a turret fighter, with all its armament in a dorsal turret. The Roc was expected to fly with the Skua. Rocs were attached to Skua squadrons to protect the fleet anchorage at Scapa Flow in early 1940 and briefly from and \"Ark Royal\" during the Norwegian Campaign. Skuas and Rocs flew fighter sweeps and bombing sorties over the English Channel during Operation Dynamo and Operation Ariel, the evacuations of Allied forces from Dunkirk and other French ports.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "No intact Skuas survive. In April 2007 the only known nearly complete Blackburn Skua was discovered in Orkdalsfjorden in Norway at depth. Due to an engine failure, the Skua, flown by John Casson, leader of 803 Squadron, had to make an emergency water landing in the fjord. Both crew members survived and spent the next five years as prisoners of war. Despite efforts to raise the aircraft to the surface as gently as possible, the tail broke off. The engine had become detached in the ditching. The fuselage, cockpit and wings were salvaged. The Skua will be restored at Norway's aviation museum in Bodø.  In 1974, L2940 was recovered from Breidalsvatnet lake, near Grotli in Skjåk municipality in Norway. Captain R. T. Partridge (RM) shot down a Heinkel He 111 and then made an emergency landing on the ice-covered lake on 27 April 1940. Survivors from both aeroplanes independently made their way to a mountain lodge, where they encountered each another. This incident serves as the basis for the film \"Into the White\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Blackburn B-24 Skua was a carrier-based low-wing, two-seater, single-radial engine aircraft operated by the British Fleet Air Arm which combined the functions of a dive bomber and fighter. It was designed in the mid-1930s and saw service in the early part of the Second World War. It took its name from the sea bird.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972850}
{"src_title": "Nika riots", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The ancient Roman and Byzantine empires had well-developed associations, known as \"demes\", which supported the different factions (or teams) under which competitors in certain sporting events took part; this was particularly true of chariot racing. There were initially four major factional teams of chariot racing, differentiated by the colour of the uniform in which they competed; the colours were also worn by their supporters. These were the Blues, the Greens, the Reds, and the Whites, although by the Byzantine era the only teams with any influence were the Blues and Greens. Emperor Justinian I was a supporter of the Blues.  The team associations had become a focus for various social and political issues for which the general Byzantine population lacked other forms of outlet. They combined aspects of street gangs and political parties, taking positions on current issues, notably theological problems or claimants to the throne. They frequently tried to affect the policy of the emperors by shouting political demands between races. The imperial forces and guards in the city could not keep order without the cooperation of the circus factions which were in turn backed by the aristocratic families of the city; these included some families who believed they had a more rightful claim to the throne than Justinian.  In 531 some members of the Blues and Greens had been arrested for murder in connection with deaths that occurred during rioting after a recent chariot race. Relatively limited riots were not unknown at chariot races, similar to the football hooliganism that occasionally erupts after association football matches in modern times. The murderers were to be executed, and most of them were. But on January 10, 532, two of them, a Blue and a Green, escaped and were taking refuge in the sanctuary of a church surrounded by an angry mob.  Justinian was nervous: he was in the midst of negotiating with the Persians over peace in the east at the end of the Iberian War and now he faced a potential crisis in his city. Facing this, he declared that a chariot race would be held on January 13 and commuted the sentences to imprisonment. The Blues and the Greens responded by demanding that the two men be pardoned entirely.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Causes.", "content": "Justinian and two of his leading officials, John the Cappadocian and Tribonian, were extremely unpopular because of the high taxes they levied, the corruption of the latter two and John's cruelty against debtors. John and Justinian had also reduced spending on the civil service and combated the corruption of the civil service. The many nobles who had lost their power and fortune when removed from the smaller, less corrupt civil service joined the ranks of the Greens. Justinian was also reducing the power of both teams, the Greens seeing this as further imperial oppression akin to the reforms in the civil service, while the Blues felt betrayed. The Roman legal code had a popular image as the biggest distinguishing feature of the civilized Romans as compared to \"barbarians\" (). The law code was also religiously important as the Romans were believed to be \"chosen by God\", it being a symbol of justice. As such it brought legitimacy with it if an emperor successfully made significant legal reforms but if this process bogged down it showed divine anger. What had taken nine years for the Theodosian code took Justinian just thirteen months.  Just before the Nika riots of January 532, however, the pace of reforms had slowed to a crawl. At the same time Justinian was fighting an unsuccessful war against the Persians; while Byzantine victories at Dara (spring of 530) and Satala (summer of 530) had fostered his legitimacy for a short while, the defeat at Calinicum (531) and negative strategic situation damaged the emperor's reputation. On top of that the legal reforms were unpopular with the aristocracy from the start, as they made it impossible to use obscure laws and jurisprudence to avoid unfavorable verdicts, further angering the aristocracy. On top of this both Justinian and his wife Theodora were of low birth - late Roman and Byzantine society was not as class driven as the feudal-dominated society of the west. The Greens were a Monophysite group and represented the interest of the moneyed non-landowners, Justinian being neither of those. When Justinian refused to pardon the two arrested rioters there was already a deep-seated resentment among the general populace as well as among the aristocracy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Riots.", "content": "On January 13, 532, a tense and angry populace arrived at the Hippodrome for the races. The Hippodrome was next to the palace complex, and thus Justinian could watch from the safety of his box in the palace and preside over the races. From the start, the crowd had been hurling insults at Justinian. By the end of the day, at race 22, the partisan chants had changed from \"Blue\" or \"Green\" to a unified (\"\"Nika\"\", meaning \"Win!\" \"Victory!\" or \"Conquer!\"), and the crowds broke out and began to assault the palace. For the next five days, the palace was under siege. The fires that started during the tumult resulted in the destruction of much of the city, including the city's foremost church, the Hagia Sophia (which Justinian would later rebuild).  Some of the senators saw this as an opportunity to overthrow Justinian, as they were opposed to his new taxes and his lack of support for the nobility. The rioters, now armed and probably controlled by their allies in the Senate, also demanded that Justinian dismiss the prefect John the Cappadocian and the \"quaestor\" Tribonian. They then declared a new emperor, Hypatius, who was a nephew of former Emperor Anastasius I.  Justinian, in despair, considered fleeing, but his wife Theodora is said to have dissuaded him, saying, \"Those who have worn the crown should never survive its loss. Never will I see the day when I am not saluted as empress.\" She is also credited with adding, \"[W]ho is born into the light of day must sooner or later die; and how could an Emperor ever allow himself to be a fugitive.\" Although an escape route across the sea lay open for the emperor, Theodora insisted that she would stay in the city, quoting an ancient saying, \"Royalty is a fine burial shroud,\" or perhaps, \"[the royal color] Purple makes a fine winding sheet.\"  As Justinian rallied himself, he created a plan that involved Narses, a popular eunuch, as well as the generals Belisarius and Mundus. Carrying a bag of gold given to him by Justinian, the slightly built eunuch entered the Hippodrome alone and unarmed against a murderous mob that had already killed hundreds. Narses went directly to the Blues' section, where he approached the important Blues and reminded them that Emperor Justinian supported them over the Greens. He also reminded them that Hypatius, the man they crowned, was a Green. Then, he distributed the gold. The Blue leaders spoke quietly with each other and then they spoke to their followers. Then, in the middle of Hypatius' coronation, the Blues stormed out of the Hippodrome. The Greens sat, stunned. Then, Imperial troops led by Belisarius and Mundus stormed into the Hippodrome, killing any remaining rebels indiscriminately be they Blues or Greens.  About thirty thousand rioters were reportedly killed. Justinian also had Hypatius executed and exiled the senators who had supported the riot. He then rebuilt Constantinople and the Hagia Sophia and was free to establish his rule.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nika riots ( \"Stásis toû Níka\"), Nika revolt or Nika sedition took place against Emperor Justinian I in Constantinople over the course of a week in 532 CE. They were the most violent riots in the city's history, with nearly half of Constantinople being burned or destroyed and tens of thousands of people killed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972851}
{"src_title": "Acrolein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production.", "content": "Acrolein is prepared industrially by oxidation of propene. The process uses air as the source of oxygen and requires metal oxides as heterogeneous catalysts: About 500,000 tons of acrolein are produced in this way annually in North America, Europe, and Japan. Additionally, all acrylic acid is produced via the transient formation of acrolein. The main challenge is in fact the competing overoxidation to this acid. Propane represents a promising but challenging feedstock for the synthesis of acrolein (and acrylic acid).  When glycerol (also called glycerin) is heated to 280 °C, it decomposes into acrolein: This route is attractive when glycerol is co-generated in the production of biodiesel from vegetable oils or animal fats. The dehydration of glycerol has been demonstrated but has not proven competitive with the route from petrochemicals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Niche or laboratory methods.", "content": "The original industrial route to acrolein, developed by Degussa, involves condensation of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde: Acrolein may also be produced on lab scale by the reaction of potassium bisulfate on glycerol (glycerine).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Acrolein is a relatively electrophilic compound and a reactive one, hence its high toxicity. It is a good Michael acceptor, hence its useful reaction with thiols. It forms acetals readily, a prominent one being the spirocycle derived from pentaerythritol, diallylidene pentaerythritol. Acrolein participates in many Diels-Alder reactions, even with itself. Via Diels-Alder reactions, it is a precursor to some commercial fragrances, including lyral, norbornene-2-carboxaldehyde, and myrac aldehyde. The monomer 3,4-epoxycyclohexylmethyl-3’,4’-epoxycyclohexane carboxylate is also produced from acrolein via the intermediacy of tetrahydrobenzaldehyde.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biocide.", "content": "Acrolein is mainly used as a contact herbicide to control submersed and floating weeds, as well as algae, in irrigation canals. It is used at a level of 10 ppm in irrigation and recirculating waters. In the oil and gas industry, it is used as a biocide in drilling waters, as well as a scavenger for hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemical precursor.", "content": "A number of useful compounds are made from acrolein, exploiting its bifunctionality. The amino acid methionine is produced by addition of methanethiol followed by the Strecker synthesis. Acrolein condenses with acetaldehyde and amines to give methylpyridines. It is also thought to be an intermediate in the Skraup synthesis of quinolines, but is rarely used as such due to its instability.  Acrolein will polymerize in the presence of oxygen and in water at concentrations above 22%. The color and texture of the polymer depends on the conditions. Over time, it will polymerize with itself to form a clear, yellow solid. In water, it will form a hard, porous plastic.  Acrolein is sometimes used as a fixative in preparation of biological specimens for electron microscopy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health risks.", "content": "Acrolein is toxic and is a strong irritant for the skin, eyes, and nasal passages. The main metabolic pathway for acrolein is the alkylation of glutathione. The WHO suggests a \"tolerable oral acrolein intake\" of 7.5 μg per day per kg of body weight. Although acrolein occurs in French fries, the levels are only a few μg per kg. In response to occupational exposures to acrolein, the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set a permissible exposure limit at 0.1 ppm (0.25 mg/m) at an eight-hour time-weighted average. Acrolein acts in an immunosuppressive manner and may promote regulatory cells, thereby preventing the generation of allergy on the one hand, but also increasing the risk of cancer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cigarette smoke.", "content": "Connections exist between acrolein gas in the smoke from tobacco cigarettes and the risk of lung cancer. In terms of the \"noncarcinogenic health quotient\" for components in cigarette smoke, acrolein dominates, contributing 40 times more than the next component, hydrogen cyanide. The acrolein content in cigarette smoke depends on the type of cigarette and added glycerin, making up to 220 μg acrolein per cigarette. Importantly, while the concentration of the constituents in mainstream smoke can be reduced by filters, this has no significant effect on the composition of the side-stream smoke where acrolein usually resides, and which is inhaled by passive smoking. E-cigarettes, used normally, only generate \"negligible\" levels of acrolein (less than 10 μg \"per puff\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemotherapy metabolite.", "content": "Cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide treatment results in the production of acrolein. Acrolein produced during cyclophosphamide treatment collects in the urinary bladder and if untreated can cause hemorrhagic cystitis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Analytical methods.", "content": "The \"acrolein test\" is for the presence of glycerin or fats. A sample is heated with potassium bisulfate, and acrolein is released if the test is positive. When a fat is heated strongly in the presence of a dehydrating agent such as potassium bisulfate (), the glycerol portion of the molecule is dehydrated to form the unsaturated aldehyde, acrolein (CH=CH–CHO), which has the odor peculiar to burnt cooking grease. More modern methods exist.  In the US, EPA methods 603 and 624.1 are designed to measure acrolein in industrial and municipal wastewater streams.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Acrolein (systematic name: propenal) is the simplest unsaturated aldehyde. It is a colourless liquid with a piercing, acrid smell. The smell of burnt fat (as when cooking oil is heated to its smoke point) is caused by glycerol in the burning fat breaking down into acrolein. It is produced industrially from propylene and mainly used as a biocide and a building block to other chemical compounds, such as the amino acid methionine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972852}
{"src_title": "Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, 2nd Count of Bucquoy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career in the Spanish Army of Flanders.", "content": "Bucquoy was born in Arras on 9 January 1571, son of Maximilian de Longueval, 1st Count of Bucquoy. He began serving in Spanish forces in the Low Countries as a teenager, and was a colonel at the age of 26. He fought in the Battle of Nieuwpoort (1600), the Siege of Ostend (1601–1604) and distinguished himself as General of the Artillery in the Frisian campaigns of Ambrosio Spinola. In 1606 he married Maria Maddalena Biglia, daughter of a Milanese nobleman in the entourage of the Archduke Albert and in 1607 they had a son named Charles Albert. In 1610 he was ambassador extraordinary to France, to convey the condolences of Archdukes Albert and Isabella on the murder of Henry IV of France.  In 1613 he became a knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece. As a mark of special favour the commandery in the Order of Calatrava that he had to renounce upon entering the Golden Fleece, was transferred to his son. That year also saw his appointment as Grand Bailiff (or governor) of the County of Hainaut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commander of the Imperial Army.", "content": "He travelled to Bohemia to represent Archduke Albert at the Diet of Budweis in January 1614. Shortly after his election, Emperor Matthias invited Bucquoy to take charge the Imperial Army and he accepted the post in August 1614. He happened to be on leave in the Habsburg Netherlands when on 23 May 1618 the Second Defenestration of Prague triggered the Bohemian Revolt. Bucquoy returned to Vienna in August and took command of the imperial forces raised to put down the revolt. Short of soldiers, supplies and money, his first campaign came close to disaster more than once. Defeated by Count Jindřich Matyáš Thurn on 9 November in the Battle of Lomnice, he was unable to save the besieged town of Pilsen. While his army encamped in its winter quarters around Budweis, Thurn's surprise march on Vienna was only halted by the severity of winter. After receiving reinforcements provided by Archduke Albert, his campaign of 1619 did much to reverse the fortunes of the war. On 10 June he defeated Ernst von Mansfeld in the Battle of Sablat, thereby forcing the Bohemians to abandon their siege of Budweis.  He also commanded the imperial forces during the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620. As a result of his successes, Emperor Ferdinand II gave him estates at Nové Hrady, Rožmberk and Libějovice. These estates remained in the family until 1945.  Bucquoy was killed during the siege of Érsekújvár (Neuhäusel) (Nové Zámky) on 10 July 1621. One of his commanders, Torquato Conti attempted to retrieve his body from the battlefield but was captured. Conti was later released and replaced Bucquoy as a commander of Imperial forces.  His funeral, with full honours, took place in the Franciscan Church, Vienna, on 31 July 1621.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy (,, full name in, ) (Arras, 9 January 1571 – Nové Zámky, 10 July 1621) was a military commander who fought for the Spanish Netherlands during the Eighty Years' War and for the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972853}
{"src_title": "Magnus the Good", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Magnus was an illegitimate son of King Olaf Haraldsson (later St. Olaf), by his English concubine Alfhild, originally a slave (thrall) of Olaf's queen Astrid Olofsdotter. Born prematurely, the child was weak and unable to breathe for the first few minutes, and he was probably not expected to survive. Olaf was not present at the child's birth, and his Icelandic skald Sigvatr Þórðarson became his godfather. In a hasty baptism, Sigvatr named Magnus after the greatest king he knew of, also Olaf's greatest role model, \"Karla Magnus\", or Charlemagne. Against the odds, Magnus went on to grow strong and healthy, and he became of vital importance to Olaf as his only son.  Olaf was dethroned by the Danish king Cnut the Great in 1028, and he went into exile with his family and court, including the young Magnus. They travelled over the mountains and through Eidskog during the winter, entered Värmland, and were given shelter by a chieftain called Sigtrygg in Närke. After a few months, they departed Närke, and by March went eastwards towards Sigtuna, where the Swedish king Anund Jacob had left them a ship. The party thereafter sailed through the Baltic Sea and into the Gulf of Finland, eventually landing in Kievan Rus' (\"Garðaríki\"). They made their first stop at Staraya Ladoga (\"Aldeigjuborg\") to organise the further journey. From there they travelled southwards to Novgorod (\"Holmgard\"), where Olaf sought assistance from Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise. Yaroslav, however, did not want to become directly involved in the Scandinavian power-struggles, and declined to help. After some time, in early 1030, Olaf learned that the Earl of Lade Håkon Eiriksson, Cnut's regent in Norway, had disappeared at sea, and gathered his men to make a swift return to Norway. Magnus was left to be fostered by Yaroslav and his wife Ingegerd.  In early 1031, a party including Magnus's uncle Harald Sigurdsson (later also to be king and then known as Harald Hardrada) arrived to report the news of his father's death at the Battle of Stiklestad. For the next few years, Magnus was educated in Old Russian and some Greek and was trained as a warrior. After Cnut's death in 1035, the Norwegian noblemen did not want to be under the oppressive rule of his son Svein and his mother Ælfgifu (known as \"Álfífa\" in Norway) any longer. Einar Thambarskelfir and Kalf Arnesson, who had both sought to be appointed regents under Cnut after Olaf's death in 1030 (Cnut instead appointed Svein and Ælfgifu), went together to Kievan Rus' to bring the boy back to rule as the King of Norway. After receiving the approval of Ingegerd, they returned with Magnus to Sigtuna in early 1035, and received backing from the Swedish king, brother of Magnus's stepmother Astrid. Astrid immediately became an important supporter of Magnus, and an army was gathered in Sweden, headed by Einar and Kalf, to place Magnus on the Norwegian throne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Norway and Denmark.", "content": "Magnus was proclaimed king in 1035 at 11 years of age while Svein, the pretender to the Norwegian throne as son of Canute the Great of Denmark and Queen Elfgifu of Mercia, fled; Svein died shortly after. At first Magnus sought revenge against his father's enemies, but on Sigvatr's advice he stopped doing so, which is why he became known as \"good\" or \"noble\".  Another son of Cnut, Harthacnut, was on the throne of Denmark and wanted his country to reunite with Norway, while Magnus initiated a campaign against Denmark around 1040. However, the noblemen of both countries brought the two kings together at the Göta älv, the border between their kingdoms. They made peace and agreed that the first of them to die would be succeeded by the other. In 1042 Harthacnut died while in England, and Magnus also became King of Denmark, in spite of a claim by Cnut's nephew Sweyn Estridsen, whom Harthacnut had left in control of Denmark when he went to England, and who had some support.  As part of consolidating his control, Magnus destroyed the Jomsborg, headquarters of the Jomsvikings. Sweyn fled east and returned as one of the leaders of an invasion by the Wends in 1043, which Magnus decisively defeated at the Battle of Lyrskov Heath, near Hedeby. In the battle, Magnus wielded Saint Olaf's battle-axe, named Hel after the goddess of death. He had dreamt of his father the night before, and the Norwegians swore that before the battle they could hear the bell that Saint Olaf had given to the Church of St. Clement in Kaupang, in Nidaros – a sign that the saint was watching over his son and the army. It was the greatest victory ever over the Wends, with up to 15,000 killed.  Sweyn continued to oppose Magnus in Denmark, although according to \"Heimskringla\", they reached a settlement by which Sweyn became Earl of Denmark under Magnus. Magnus wanted to reunite Cnut the Great's entire North Sea Empire by also becoming king of England. When Harthacnut died, the English nobles had chosen as their king Æthelred the Unready's son Edward (later known as Edward the Confessor); Magnus wrote to him that he intended to attack England with combined Norwegian and Danish forces and \"he will then govern it who wins the victory.\" The English were mostly hostile to Magnus; Sweyn was made welcome there, although Edward's mother, Emma, curiously favored Magnus and in 1043 the king confiscated her property, with which by one report she had promised to assist Magnus.  Meanwhile, Magnus' uncle Harald Sigurdsson had returned to Norway from the east and contested his rule there, while Sweyn was still a threat in Denmark; Harald allied himself with Sweyn. Magnus chose to appease Harald, and made him his co-king in Norway in 1046.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Sweyn increased the pressure on Magnus from his base in Scania, but by late 1046, Magnus had driven Sweyn out of Denmark. However, on October 25, 1047 he died suddenly while in Denmark, either in Zealand or in Jutland, either in an accident or of a disease; accounts vary. Reports include falling overboard from one of the ships he was mustering to invade England and drowning, falling off a horse, and falling ill while on board a ship. He is said to have made Sweyn his heir in Denmark, and Harald in Norway; some say in a deathbed statement. Magnus was buried with his father in the cathedral at Nidaros, modern Trondheim.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical appearance.", "content": "Snorri describes Magnus as:of middle height, with regular features and light complexion. He had light blond hair, was well-spoken and quick to make up his mind, was of noble character, most generous, a great warrior, and most valorous.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descendants.", "content": "The line of Olaf II ended with Magnus' death. However, in 1280 Eric II of Norway, who was descended through his mother from Magnus' legitimate sister, Wulfhild, was crowned king of Norway.  Magnus was not married, but had a daughter out of wedlock, Ragnhild, who married Haakon Ivarsson, a Norwegian nobleman. Her great-grandson would become King Eric III of Denmark.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Magnus Olafsson (Old Norse: \"Magnús Óláfsson\", Norwegian and Danish: \"Magnus Olavsson\"; c. 1024 – 25 October 1047), better known as Magnus the Good (Old Norse: \"Magnús góði\", Norwegian and Danish: \"Magnus den gode\"), was King of Norway from 1035 and King of Denmark from 1042, ruling over both countries until his death in 1047.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972854}
{"src_title": "Bontebok", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The bontebok is a tall, medium-sized antelope. They typically stand high at the shoulder and measure along the head and body. The tail can range from. Body mass can vary from. Males are slightly larger and noticeably heavier than females. The bontebok is a chocolate brown colour, with a white underside and a white stripe from the forehead to the tip of the nose, although there is a brown stripe across the white near the eyes in most blesbok. The bontebok also has a distinctive white patch around its tail (whence the Latin name), while this patch is light brown/tan in blesbok. The horns of bontebok are lyre-shaped and clearly ringed. They are found in both sexes and can reach a length of half a metre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Blesbok live in highveld, where they eat short grasses, while bontebok are restricted to coastal Fynbos and Renosterveld. They are diurnal, though they rest during the heat of the day. Herds contain only males, only females, or are mixed, and do not exceed 40 animals for bonteboks or 70 for blesboks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Bontebok are not good jumpers, but they are very good at crawling under things. Mature males form territories and face down other males in displays and occasionally combat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "Bontebok were once extensively killed as pests, and were reduced to a wild population of just 17 animals, but the species has since recovered. Blesbok are extinct in their natural habitat, but they have increased in population to the point where they are now very abundant and avidly farmed, because they are popular quarry for hunters and are easy to sustain.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The bontebok (\"Damaliscus pygargus\") is an antelope found in South Africa, Lesotho and Namibia. The bontebok has two subspecies; the bontebok (\"Damaliscus pygargus pygargus\"), occurring naturally in the Fynbos and Renosterveld areas of the Western Cape, and the blesbok (\"Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi\") occurring in the highveld.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972855}
{"src_title": "Petronius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Tacitus, Plutarch and Pliny the Elder describe Petronius as the \"elegantiae arbiter\" (also phrased \"arbiter elegantiarum\"), \"judge of elegance\" in the court of the emperor Nero. He served as suffect consul in 62. Later, he became a member of the senatorial class who devoted themselves to a life of pleasure. His relationship to Nero was apparently akin to that of a fashion advisor.  Tacitus gives this account of Petronius in his historical work the \"Annals\" (XVI.18): None of the ancient sources give any further detail about his life, or mention that he was a writer. However, a medieval manuscript written around 1450 of the \"Satyricon\" credited a \"Titus Petronius\" as the author of the original work. Traditionally, this reference is linked with Petronius Arbiter, since the novel appears to have been written or at least set during his lifetime. The link, however, remains speculative and disputed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a writer.", "content": "Petronius' development of his characters in the \"Satyricon\", namely Trimalchio, transcends the traditional style of writing of ancient literature. In the literature written during Petronius' lifetime, the emphasis was always on the typical considerations of plot, which had been laid down by classical rules. The character, which was hardly known in ancient literature, was secondary. Petronius goes beyond these literary limitations in his exact portrayals of detailed speech, behaviour, surroundings, and appearance of the characters.  Another literary device Petronius employs in his novel is a collection of specific allusions. The allusions to certain people and events are evidence that the \"Satyricon\" was written during Nero's time. These also suggest that it was aimed at a contemporary audience which consisted in part of Nero's courtiers and even Nero himself.  One such allusion, found in chapter 9, refers to the story of the good wife Lucretia which was well known at the time:  The message Petronius tries to convey in his work is far from moral and does not intend to produce reform, but is written above all to entertain and should be considered artistically. Nevertheless, his writings can be a valuable tool to better comprehend the customs and ways of life of Roman society at that particular time, since the author strives to preserve the plausibility of his representation, as can be noted by the frequent use of allusions and detailed descriptions of characters and behaviours. As the title implies, the \"Satyricon\" is a satire, specifically a Menippean satire, in which Petronius satirizes nearly anything, using his taste as the only standard. It is speculated that Petronius' depiction of Trimalchio mirrors that of Nero. Although the author's own opinion is never alluded to, the opinions of the characters involved in the story are evident, as is how Encolpius criticizes Trimalchio.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Petronius' high position soon made him the object of envy for those around him. Having attracted the jealousy of Tigellinus, the commander of the emperor's guard, he was accused of treason. He was arrested at Cumae in 65 AD but did not wait for a sentence. Instead, he chose to take his own life. Tacitus again records his elegant suicide in the sixteenth book of the \"Annals\":  According to Pliny the Elder: \"T. Petronius, a consular, when he was going to die through Nero's jealousy and envy, broke his fluorspar wine-dipper so that the emperor's table would not inherit it. It had cost 300,000 sesterces\". T. Petronius and G. Petronius have been said to have been the same man.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Apocryphal quotation.", "content": "In recent times, a popular quotation, actually written by Charlton Ogburn in 1957, on reorganization is often spuriously attributed to a Gaius Petronius. In one version it reads: We trained hard... but it seemed that every time we were beginning to form up into teams we would be reorganized. I was to learn later in life that we tend to meet any new situation by reorganizing; and a wonderful method it can be for creating the illusion of progress while producing confusion, inefficiency, and demoralization.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gaius Petronius Arbiter (; c. 27 – 66 AD) was a Roman courtier during the reign of Nero. He is generally believed to be the author of the \"Satyricon\", a satirical novel believed to have been written during the Neronian era (54–68 AD).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972856}
{"src_title": "Isenheim Altarpiece", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition.", "content": "The altarpiece has two sets of wings, displaying three configurations:  Wings closed:  With the exception of certain holy days, the wings of the altarpiece were kept closed, displaying The Crucifixion framed on the left by the martyrdom of Saint Sebastian pierced by arrows, and on the right by Saint Anthony the Great, remaining placid although he is being taunted by a frightening monster. The two saints protect and heal the sick, Saint Anthony as the patron saint of the victims of Saint Anthony's fire and Saint Sebastian, whose aid was invoked to ward off the plague. Grünewald's Crucifixion stands as one of the most poignant representations of this scene in Western art due to the artist's masterful depiction of horrific agony, with Christ's emaciated body writhing under the pain of the nails driven through his hands and feet. This body covered with sores and riddled with thorns must have terrified the sick, but also left no doubt about Christ's suffering, thus comforting them in their communion with the Saviour, whose pain they shared. \"Grünewald depicts Jesus' body ravaged by crucifixion yet evokes pointedly the Christian message of Jesus' horrible suffering; originally intended for a hospital, the altar painting may have been designed to provide comfort and solace to the sick.\" Mary, the mother of Jesus, is shown at Christ's right, collapsing in anguish in the arms of John, the beloved disciple of Christ, and shrouded in a large piece of white cloth.  At Christ's left, John the Baptist is accompanied by a lamb, symbolising the sacrifice of Jesus. The presence of John the Baptist is anachronistic. Beheaded by order of Herod in 29 AD, he could not possibly have witnessed the death of Christ. This last figure announces the New Testament by crying out in Latin, \"illum oportet crescere me autem minui\" (Vulgate, John ), \"He must increase, but I must decrease.\" The inclusion of John the Baptist in this scene is symbolic, since he is considered as the last of the prophets to announce the coming of the Messiah.  Outer wings opened:  The outer wings of the Isenheim Altarpiece were opened for important festivals of the liturgical year, particularly those in honour of the Virgin Mary. Thus are revealed four scenes: the left wing represents the Annunciation during which the archangel Gabriel comes to announce to Mary that she will give birth to Jesus, the son of God. The Virgin Mary is depicted in a chapel to indicate the sacred character of the event. In the central corpus, the Concert of Angels and the Nativity are not independent scenes but instead fit within a unified concept: the viewer witnesses Christ's coming to earth as a newborn baby, who will be led to combat the forces of evil personified by certain of the angels, disturbing in their physical appearance. A number of symbols provide keys to aid in interpretation: the enclosed garden represents Mary's womb and is a sign of her perpetual virginity, the rose bush without thorns refers to her as free of original sin, the fig tree symbolises mother's milk. The bed, the bucket and the chamber pot underscore the human nature of Christ. Lastly, the right wing shows the Resurrection, in which Christ emerges from the tomb and ascends into Heaven bathed in light transfiguring the countenance of the Crucified into the face of God. The Resurrection and the Ascension are therefore encapsulated in a single image.  Inner wings opened:  - The sculptures of Saint Augustine and Guy Guers, Saint Anthony, Two Bearers of Offerings, Saint Jerome, Christ and the Twelve Apostles are by Niclaus of Haguenau. With its inner wings open, the altarpiece allowed pilgrims and the afflicted to venerate Saint Anthony, protector and healer of Saint Anthony's fire. Saint Anthony occupies the place of honour at the centre of the corpus and at his side a pig is depicted, the emblem of the Antonite order. On his left and right, two bearers of offerings illustrate these contributions in kind, an important source of income for the Antonites. This central section is framed by Saint Augustine and Saint Jerome, two of the four great fathers of the Latin Church. Guy Guyers, who had commissioned the Altarpiece, is depicted kneeling at the feet of Saint Augustine.  - Visit of Saint Anthony to Saint Paul the Hermit. The two hermits meet in a stunning landscape, intended to represent the Theban Desert. Grünewald created a fantastic universe, surrounding the date palm with a strange mixture of vegetation, in marked contrast with the calmness and tranquillity of the encounter, in which the animals in attendance take part, with the crow bringing two morsels of bread to the two recluses. In this dreamlike scene, medicinal plants, painted in naturalistic fashion, sprout at the feet of the two main figures. - Saint Anthony Tormented by Demons. This panel depicts Saint Anthony being tormented by monstrous creatures sent by Satan. Trampled to the ground, beaten with sticks, torn by claws and bitten, Saint Anthony appeals to God for help who sends angels to combat these evil demons. In the lower left corner, the being with webbed feet and a distended belly seems to personify the disease caused by ergot poisoning, resulting in swelling and ulcerous growths.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Iconography.", "content": "The iconography of the altarpiece has several unusual elements derived from closely following the accounts left by Saint Bridget of Sweden of her mystical visions. These had long had a significant influence on art, especially on depictions of the Nativity of Christ, a scene not included here.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent history.", "content": "The altarpiece's location in Alsace has meant that, in recent times, control of the work has alternated between Germany and France according to the fortunes of war. Following the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 and the passing of control to Germany, German writers developed the concept that the altarpiece somehow represented the essential character of the German nation. The work subsequently became an object of extraordinary scenes of veneration in Munich during its temporary relocation there during the First World War, and again when Alsace passed back into French hands at the end of the War.  In the immediate postwar period the altarpiece, with its strong overtones of violent sensation and emotion, became a natural source of inspiration for many painters in the influential Expressionist school, such as George Grosz and Otto Dix. It also provided the basis for Paul Hindemith's modernist opera \"Mathis der Maler\". In the later 1930s, it appears to have suffered a temporary decline in official esteem in Germany as a result of the National Socialists’ branding of both Expressionism and of Hindemith’s work as \"degenerate\".  Due to renovation work in the former convent and until April 2015, the Isenheim Altarpiece was on view in the local Dominican Church, located about 200 metres from the Unterlinden Museum. This temporary transfer offered an exceptional and unprecedented opportunity to present, alongside Grünewald and Haguenau’s monumental masterwork, all three painted works by the Colmar native Martin Schongauer held in Colmar: the Orlier Altarpiece (1470–1475), the Altarpiece of the Dominicans (c. 1480) and the Virgin of the Rose Bush (1473). The altarpiece depicting Saint Catherine and Saint Lawrence (c. 1510) and sculptures from the Late Middle Ages rounded out the presentation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Isenheim Altarpiece is an altarpiece sculpted and painted by, respectively, the Germans Nikolaus of Haguenau and Matthias Grünewald in 1512–1516. It is on display at the Unterlinden Museum at Colmar, Alsace, in France. It is Grünewald's largest work, and is regarded as his masterpiece. It was painted for the Monastery of St. Anthony in Isenheim near Colmar, which specialized in hospital work. The Antonine monks of the monastery were noted for their care of plague sufferers as well as their treatment of skin diseases, such as ergotism. The image of the crucified Christ is pitted with plague-type sores, showing patients that Jesus understood and shared their afflictions. The veracity of the work's depictions of medical conditions was unusual in the history of European art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972857}
{"src_title": "Nicandra physalodes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Plants grow to 1 metre tall and are vigorous with spreading branches and ovate, mid-green, toothed and waved leaves. The flowers are bell-shaped and 5 centimeters or more across, pale violet with white throats (occasionally pure white), opening only for a few hours in the day. The flower becomes lantern-like towards the end of its blooming period, the inflated calyces somewhat resembling those of certain \"Physalis\" spp., although in \"Nicandra\" (unlike in \"Physalis\") the fruiting calyx is deeply lobed, (the sepals cordate) and not a single, undivided, bladder-like structure. The plant is thought to have insect repellent properties, particularly in relation to whitefly. \"N. physalodes\" seeds have a relatively thick testa (seed coat) and exhibit strong dormancy, which may, however be broken by a combination of warm and cold stratification, involving temperature fluctuation between 15 and 25 °C.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Nicandra physalodes\" is native to western South America – Northwest Argentina, Bolivia, North and Central Chile and Peru. It has been introduced in many tropical and temperate regions worldwide. In the British Isles, the plant is a frequent casual, found in bare or sparsely grassy places, including cultivated ground, waste places and rubbish tips. Its occurrence is often traceable to the presence of its seeds in commercial brands of bird seed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stock poison.", "content": "\"Nicandra physalodes\" is suspected of having poisonous properties similar to those possessed by certain \"Physalis\" species implicated in the poisoning of sheep. Some conflicting evidence in respect of these suspicions has emerged from Australia (where the plant is sometimes known as \"wild gooseberry\"), in which the plant has been suspected, on rather vague evidence, of poisoning stock at various times, although a feeding test carried out in New South Wales using a sheep and a goat gave negative results. A case was reported from New South Wales in 1970 in which two crossbred ewes died, apparently as a result of consuming this plant. The animals had been left to graze in a paddock of Wimmera ryegrass heavily infested with \"Nicandra physalodes\" plants of around 60 cm in height, such that they overtopped the grass. Both ewes died, with symptoms of bloat within 12 hours. At necropsy there were extensive hemorrhages in heart and lungs, but no other apparent abnormalities. The paunches of the ewes were observed to contain large amounts of \"Nicandra\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The literature on the plant features somewhat conflicting accounts of use, as a species both edible and toxic/medicinal, pointing to the conclusion that it should be regarded as suspect and treated with caution. The whole plant is said to be toxic (even, according to some sources, very toxic) and to be used medicinally as a diuretic, sedative and cough medicine. The tender leaves have, on occasion, been cooked as a leaf vegetable or pot herb (e.g. in the cuisine of Tanzania), yet the decoction of the leaves has been used as an insecticide to treat head lice; while the juice of the fresh leaves has been used to treat amoebiasis. Unspecified medicinal uses of the leaves have also been recorded in the folk medicine of Brazil and Madagascar. The rather dry, brown berries within the papery calyces have an odour reminiscent of cooking oil and, although described in at least one source as being poisonous, are eaten by the Raji people of Nepal. The seeds are said to be edible, but also to be employed as an insecticide and medicinally as an antipyretic, being boiled with water and taken for fever, indigestion and constipation, thus further implying laxative properties. The seeds are used in traditional Tibetan medicine in which system they are described as having an acrid taste and to possess 'a cooling, very poisonous potency' manifested in effects that are analgesic, anthelmintic, antibiotic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic; being used also to treat toothache, impotence and unspecified 'contagious disorders' and furthermore to 'increase bodily vigour' (i.e. to function as an adaptogen) if consumed in regular doses. \"Nicandra physalodes\" is used as a folk remedy in several countries in the Himalaya, including Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal and Sikkim, although it is not native to the region. This may be due to a popular recognition of a familial resemblance - particularly in regard to calyces inflated at fruiting - to several native Solanaceous plants of the Himalaya long used in traditional medical practices, the genera involved being \"Anisodus\", \"Physochlaina\", \"Przewalskia\" and \"Scopolia\" (all belonging to tribe Hyoscyameae of subfamily Solanoideae). The much valued (and consequently over-harvested) species \"Anisodus tanguticus\" is perhaps particularly relevant in this context. In the southern U.S.A. the juice of the plant has been mixed with milk as a poisoned bait for houseflies and blow flies in the same way in which the crumbled caps of the fungus \"Amanita muscaria\" were used in parts of Europe. However, the flies were said to be killed outright, rather than merely stupefied, as in the case of the mushroom/milk infusion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "\"Nicandra physalodes\" contains nicandrenones, a group of the steroidal lactones known as withanolides. The nicandrenones, like certain other types of withanolide, have insecticidal properties. 30 years after their discovery, the first total synthesis of nicandrenones was carried out in the year 2000. Amongst its other paradoxical attributes, \"N. physalodes\" is also slightly intoxicating, showing a certain degree of psychoactivity of a type similar to that elicited by the tropane alkaloid hyoscyamine (well known as one of the active principles present in the notoriously toxic nightshades \"Hyoscyamus niger\" and \"Atropa belladonna\" and causing mydriasis - a symptom said also to be caused by the alkaloids present in \"Nicandra\"). This property of the plant is reflected in one of the common names given it in France (namely \"belladonne de pays\" i.e. 'country belladonna') and likewise in the common name \"belladona\" given it in Bolivia. It is not yet known whether this mild psychoactivity is referable to the alkaloid content or the withanolide content (or possibly to both - or indeed a synergy between the two). Like its more toxic relatives, \"Nicandra physalodes\" is alkaloidal, analyses having revealed the presence of the tropane alkaloid tropinone and the pyrrolidine alkaloid hygrine (0.1%, in the root). Withanolides are found almost exclusively in plants of the Solanaceae and, while it is noticeable that many psychoactive species belonging to that family contain only, or primarily, such compounds, not a single withanolide has yet been proven to be psychoactive. The compounds are named for the Solanaceous genus \"Withania\", the best-known species of which, \"Withania somnifera\", is, as its specific name suggests, mildly psychoactive to the extent of being sleep-inducing (among other useful medicinal properties). The use of \"W.somnifera\" (common name (i.a.) 'Indian ginseng') as a tonic (adaptogen) in Ayurvedic medicine parallels the use of \"Nicandra\" as an adaptogen in traditional Tibetan medicine (see above, under 'Uses') and is accounted for by withanolide content. Also present in \"Nicandra\" are calystegines, a new group of polyhydroxy alkaloids with a nortropane skeleton and named for the bindweed genus \"Calystegia\" (Convolvulaceae). Their occurrence has been noted in several species of the Solanaceae, including \"Atropa belladonna\". The biosynthesis of these compounds is thought to take place via the tropane alkaloid pathway, the first metabolite being pseudotropine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicandra physalodes is a species of flowering plant in subfamily Solanoideae of the nightshade family. It is known by the common names apple-of-Peru and shoo-fly plant. It is thought originally to have been native to western South America, including Peru, and is known elsewhere as an introduced and ruderal species – sometimes as a weed – in tropical, subtropical and, to a lesser extent, temperate areas all over the world. It has also long been cultivated as an ornamental plant for its attractive flowers and curious fruits (the latter sometimes dried for use in floral design) and has been adopted into the traditional medicine of countries far-removed from its original home.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972858}
{"src_title": "Arthur Ruppin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Arthur Ruppin was born in Rawicz in the German Empire (today in Poland). When he was fifteen, his family's poverty forced him to work to support them. Nonetheless, he was able to complete his studies in law and economics, winning the Krupp prize in 1899 for his dissertation on the use of social Darwinism in industry. He was to distinguish himself both in furthering practical Zionist settlement and in the academic world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zionist activism.", "content": "Ruppin joined the Zionist Organization (ZO, the future World Zionist Organization – WZO) in 1905. In 1907 he was sent by David Wolffsohn, the President of the ZO, to study the condition of the Yishuv (the Jewish community in Palestine), then in the Ottoman Empire, to investigate the possibilities for development of agriculture and industry. He reported on what he saw, which was distressing, and gave recommendations for improving the situation. In 1908 Ruppin came to live in Palestine by decision of the eighth Zionist Congress. He opened the Palestine Office of the Zionist Organization in Jaffa, with the aim of directing the settlement activities of the Zionist movement. His work made Practical Zionism possible and shaped the direction of the Second Aliya, the last wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine before World War I. Ruppin became the chief Zionist land agent. He helped to get a loan for Ahuzat Bayit, later Tel Aviv, and acquired land on the Carmel, in Afula, in the Jezreel Valley, and in Jerusalem. Ruppin was instrumental in shaping the nature of Jewish settlement in Palestine and in changing the paradigm of settlement from those of plantation owners and poor laborers to the collective and cooperative kibbutzim and moshavim that became the backbone of the state-in-the-making. He catalyzed the commune at Sejera, and helped building the first kibbutz – Degania, as well as helping to support and organize Kinneret, Merhavia and other settlements (background about Labor Zionism can be found at www.mideastweb.org). Later, he supported Yehoshua Hankin in his purchases of large tracts of land in the Galilee. Ruppin was among the founders of the Brit Shalom peace movement, which supported a binational state, but he left Brit Shalom after the 1929 Hebron massacre. Thereafter he was convinced that only an independent Jewish state would be possible, and he believed that the way to bring about that state was through continued settlement. He headed the Jewish Agency between 1933 and 1935, and helped to settle the large numbers of Jewish immigrants from Germany who came in that period. Ruppin died in 1943. He was buried in Degania Alef.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Race theory.", "content": "Ruppin considered assimilation as the worst threat to the existence of Jews as people, and argued for a concentration of Jews in a common area, to be realized by the colonisation of Palestine, where they would be protected from the assimilationist tendencies in Europe, as he explained in his book \"The Jews of the Present\" (\"Die Juden der Gegenwart\" in German), especially in its 2nd largely changed edition. Ruppin accepted the idea of a division of humankind into three important races of humans, the \"white\", \"yellow\" and \"black\", and considered Jews to be part of the \"white\" race (page 213/214), and within this \"race\", which Ruppin divides in \"Xantrochroe\" (light colored) and \"Melanochroe\" (dark colored), to be part of the latter, actually mixture from the Arab and North African peoples and other West and South Asian peoples.  Ruppin believed that realization of Zionism required \"racial purity\" of Jews, and was inspired by works of anti-semitic thinkers,including some Nazis. Ruppin personally met Hans F. K. Günther, one of many racist thinkers who greatly influenced Nazism.  Ruppin believed in numerous \"Jewish types,\" performed skull measurements, and believed Ashkenazi Jews were made of various racial subclasses, according to nasal structure. He distinguished between \"Racial Jews\" and \"Jewish types\", and believed Ashkenazi Jews to be superior to Yemeni Jews. His concepts included dividing Jews into \"white, black and yellow\" metaracial categories.  Ruppin wrote that Jewish race should be \"purified\", he also stated that \"only the racially pure come to the land.” Afer becoming head of the Palestine Office of the Zionist Executive (later the Jewish Agency for Israel), he aruged against immigration of Ethiopian Jews due to their lack of \"blood connection\" and arguing that Yemenite Jews should be limited for menial labor. Due to the Holocaust, historiography in Israel usually played down or ignored altogether this aspect of Ruppin's life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "Many cities in Israel named streets after him, and the city of Haifa has a prize in his name awarded for extraordinary works in thinking, philosophy and politics. One of the prize-winners was the philosopher, Zionist and friend of Kafka's, Felix Weltsch in 1952.  The German city Magdeburg, in which Ruppin lived during his youth, has named a street after him.  Ruppin Academic Center is named after Arthur Ruppin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arthur Ruppin (1 March 1876 – 1 January 1943) was a Zionist thinker and leader. He was one of the founders of the city of Tel Aviv. He directed Berlin's Bureau for Jewish Statistics and Demography from 1902 to 1907. From 1908 on, he was the director of the Palestine Office of the Zionist Organization in Jaffa, organizing Zionist colonisation in Palestine. In 1926 Ruppin joined the faculty of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and founded the sociology department. A building there is now named in his honor. His most celebrated sociological work is \"The Jews in the Modern World\" (1934).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972859}
{"src_title": "Teleportation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The use of the term \"teleport\" to describe the hypothetical movement of material objects between one place and another without physically traversing the distance between them has been documented as early as 1878.  American writer Charles Fort is credited with having coined the word \"teleportation\" in 1931 to describe the strange disappearances and appearances of anomalies, which he suggested may be connected. As in the earlier usage, he joined the Greek prefix \"tele-\" (meaning \"remote\") to the root of the Latin verb \"portare\" (meaning \"to carry\"). Fort's first formal use of the word occurred in the second chapter of his 1931 book \"Lo!\":", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fiction.", "content": "Teleportation is a common subject in science fiction literature, film, video games, and television. The use of matter transmitters in science fiction originated at least as early as the 19th century. An early example of scientific teleportation (as opposed to magical or spiritual teleportation) is found in the 1897 novel \"To Venus in Five Seconds\" by Fred T. Jane. Jane's protagonist is transported from a strange-machinery-containing gazebo on Earth to planet Venus – hence the title.  The earliest recorded story of a \"matter transmitter\" was Edward Page Mitchell's \"The Man Without a Body\" in 1877.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Science.", "content": "An actual teleportation of matter has never been realized by modern science (which is based entirely on mechanistic methods). It is questionable if it can ever be achieved, because any transfer of matter from one point to another without traversing the physical space between them violates Newton's laws, a cornerstone of physics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beaming.", "content": "Beaming is often used as a synonym for teleportation and refers to the hypothetical transmission of an object in the form of radiation. To this end, the object must be “dematerialized” at the sender, i.e. broken down into its components, which are then sent as a beam and “materialized” at the destination, i.e. reconverted into matter. In this way it is achieved that an object, similar to teleportation, disappears at the place of origin and reappears at the destination. However, there is a continuous transmission path along which the matter (possibly in a converted form) traverses the physical space. Therefore, strictly speaking, beaming is not teleportation. The concept mainly originates from the science fiction series Star Trek, where people and inanimate objects are transported back and forth between places using so-called transporter devices.  In the real world it has so far not been possible to beam objects. For one thing, there is no available technology that can disintegrate or reassemble arbitrary objects atom by atom, let alone within seconds. Furthermore, the required amount of information to fully represent macroscopic objects is far too large for today's available information technology. Another obstacle often cited in this context is Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which prohibits the simultaneous measurement of position and momentum of individual particles with arbitrary precision. At room temperature and even far below, however, this poses no limitation, since position and momentum of individual particles fluctuate statistically and do not have to be determined precisely.  Moreover, the science fiction concepts for beaming do not get it exactly clear what kind of radiation the matter would be converted to. According to the current state of knowledge, electromagnetic radiation alone cannot transport matter, since it only transmits the energy, but not the baryons and leptons required to create atoms. If, alternatively, a beam of matter particles was sent, this would offer hardly any advantage over transporting the object as a whole. On the one hand, accelerating and decelerating the particles would require the same amount of energy as for the original object. So there would be no speed advantage. On the other hand, particle beams can hardly penetrate layers of matter along the transmission path (which is supposedly possible in the science-fiction concepts within some limits). A realistic form of beaming could be the transfer of pure information and the use of matter available at the destination to perform materialization. Then however, beaming would merely be the construction of a remote copy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quantum teleportation.", "content": "Quantum teleportation is distinct from regular teleportation, as it does not transfer matter from one place to another, but rather transmits the information necessary to prepare a (microscopic) target system in the same quantum state as the source system. In many cases, such as normal matter at room temperature, the exact quantum state of a system is irrelevant for any practical purpose (because it fluctuates rapidly anyway, it \"decoheres\"), and the necessary information to recreate the system is classical. In those cases, quantum teleportation may be replaced by the simple transmission of classical information, such as radio communication.  In 1993, Bennett \"et al\" proposed that a quantum state of a particle could be teleported to another distant particle, but the two particles do not move at all. This is called state teleportation. There are many following theoretical and experimental papers published. Researchers believe that quantum teleportation is the foundation of quantum calculation and quantum communication.  In 2008, M. Hotta proposed that it may be possible to teleport energy by exploiting quantum energy fluctuations of an entangled vacuum state of a quantum field. There are some papers published but no experimental verification.  In 2014, researcher Ronald Hanson and colleagues from the Technical University Delft in the Netherlands, demonstrated the teleportation of information between two entangled quantumbits three metres apart.  In 2016, Y. Wei showed that in a generalization of quantum mechanics, particles themselves could teleport from one place to another. This is called particle teleportation. With this concept, superconductivity can be viewed as the teleportation of some electrons in the superconductor and superfluidity as the teleportation of some of the atoms in the cellular tube. This effect is not predicted to occur in standard quantum mechanics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Philosopher Derek Parfit used teleportation in his teletransportation paradox.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Teleportation is the hypothetical transfer of matter or energy from one point to another without traversing the physical space between them. It is a common subject in science fiction literature, film, video games, and television. Teleportation is often paired with time travel, being that the travelling between the two points takes unknown period of time, sometimes being immediate.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972860}
{"src_title": "Jindřich Matyáš Thurn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was the son of a member of the \"geheimrat\" of Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria, Franz Napus von Thurn-Valsassina (František Thurn), count of Linz (1508–1586) and his second wife, Countess Barbora Gräfin von Schlick (1547–1581), daughter of Hieronymus Schlick count of Bassano and Weißkirchen and countess Katharina von Gleichen-Tonna.  Both of his parents were Protestants. Count Jindrich Matyas was born on in Lipnice nad Sázavou castle in the Crown of Bohemia. After the death of his father, he was fostered to his Catholic uncle John Ambrose.  Young count Thurn served in the Imperial Habsburg embassy, and visited Istanbul, Syria, Egypt and Jerusalem. From 1592 he served in the imperial army against Turks. In imperial service, Thurn rose to the ranks of colonel and War Councillor. By marriage, he came into remarkable landholdings, in Croatian Krajina among other places. The Emperor granted him the burgraviate of Karlštejn Castle in central Bohemia as reward for his accomplishments in the battles against the Turks in Hungary. In northeast Bohemia he purchased 1605 the lordship of Veliš manor (near town Jičín), which brought him to the membership of the Bohemian estate of nobles (\"páni\", \"lords\"). Politically, Thurn joined the Protestants of Bohemia where he served as marshal of the nobility.  In 1617, the devout Catholic archduke Ferdinand of Styria was put forward as Habsburg successor to the aged, childless emperor Matthias, and also to be elected to the Bohemian throne. Bohemian nobles required him to commit to honor their freedom of religion, enshrined in the Decree (Letter of Majesty) of the late emperor Rudolph II. Thurn was one of signatories of Bohemians' critical reply to Ferdinand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leader of the Bohemian Rebellion.", "content": "Despite his accession to the crown of Bohemia in 1617, Ferdinand was not willing to agree to the demands of the Bohemian nobility. Furthermore, their demands also failed to prevent Ferdinand's election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1619. What the nobles did achieve was that in 1618, in a stormy event at the Royal Castle of Prague, count Thurn was a key leader of that faction of the nobility who incited a crowd that defenestrated two of Ferdinand's representatives, Bořita of Martinice and Slavata of Chlum together with their scribe, Philip Fabricius.  Following the defenestration, Thurn was elected as one of the thirty Defenders of the Protestant Faith elected by the Estates of Bohemia. The revolt of the Protestant population of Bohemia began on 23 May 1618 and Thurn took command of the national army. His command was signified by a series of ineffective campaigns, faults in the campaign plan in some cases beyond his control, which frustrated imperial efforts to quickly crush the revolt. He participated in deposing Ferdinand of Bohemia from the throne and in the election of Frederick V, Elector Palatine as the new Bohemian king. Count Thurn was commander of a regiment at the inauspicious Battle of White Mountain in 1620. After the Bohemians' defeat there, Ferdinand exiled him, like all the other Protestant nobility (including leaders of the uprising) and townspeople. Consequently, Thurn lost his estates in Bohemia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In exile.", "content": "After being exiled, Thurn continued to take part in the fighting and political negotiations of the Thirty Years' War against the Habsburgs, acting in the roles of both diplomat and as a soldier.  In 1626 he took command of some troops in Silesia. Then he served as lieutenant general in the army of King Gustav Adolf of Sweden. His only son, count Frantisek Bernard, who rose to the rank of colonel in Swedish service, fell ill during the Polish campaign and died in 1628.  On 11 October 1633 Thurn and his force of 8000 soldiers were confronted by Wallenstein's army near Steinau an der Oder in Saxony, where he was captured. He was ransomed soon from the captivity, and retired to the family's new holdings in Pärnu (Pernau), Estonia. Count Thurn died there, and was buried in the St Mary's Cathedral of Tallinn.  His heir was his underage grandson, count Heinrich von Thurn-Valsassina of Pärnu (1628–1656), son of František Bernard (1592–1628) and Magdalena von Thurn-Valsassina (born von Hardeck).  Count Thurn wrote a booklet in German, titled \"Defensionsschrift\" (\"Writing about Defenestration\"), the work justifying his role in the events of 1618 as a deliberate, conscious defence of his religious beliefs. The booklet was published in Sweden.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Count Jindřich Matyáš Thurn-Valsassina (German: \"Heinrich Matthias Graf von Thurn und Valsassina\"; Italian: \"Enrico Matteo Conte della Torre di Valsassina\") (24 February 1567 – 26 January 1640), was a Czech (Bohemian) nobleman, one of leaders of Protestant Bohemian Revolt against Emperor Ferdinand II. He took part in events that led to the Thirty Years War, and after the war he became a military leader and diplomat in Swedish service, who eventually resided in Swedish Estonia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972861}
{"src_title": "Nauru Airlines", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Nauru Airlines was established as Air Nauru on 17 September 1969, and started operations on 14 February 1970 with an experimental service between Nauru and Brisbane, using a Dassault Falcon 20 (a medium-size business jet) that was chartered from an Australian company. Regular scheduled services commenced after the delivery in January 1972 of the airline's first Fokker F28 Fellowship twin jet (a second Fellowship was subsequently placed into service as well). A Boeing 737-200C was added to the fleet in 1975 and a Boeing 727-100 entered service on 16 June 1976. Later in the 1970s the two Fellowships were sold and more Boeings were added to the fleet.  By 1983 the fleet included seven aircraft: two Boeing 727-100s and five Boeing 737-200s; since the entire population of Nauru at this time was about 8,000, the airline was in the position of having seating capacity equal to 10% of the Nauruan population. The airline also had a bad reputation for cancelling flights at the whim of its government owners, including using the Boeing 727s for low-level searches for Nauruan fisherman lost at sea while relatives on board were served alcohol by the flight attendants. From this high point (at least in terms of fleet numbers) the airline gradually contracted in size, leasing some aircraft and selling others. Five years later in 1988 the fleet consisted of three Boeing 737-200s with the one remaining 727-100 leased out to Trans Australia Airlines. At this time the airline was badly affected by an industrial dispute with its pilots and was operating without a set timetable, a situation that lasted for several months.  In the early 1990s, an Air Nauru 737 was chartered to operate the Auckland-Niue route of Niue Airlines, the latter company's only service.  In 1993 two of the 737-200s were replaced by Boeing 737-400s, leaving the Boeing 737-200C to soldier on for a little while longer. The airline, by now only operating a single 737-400, was corporatised in July 1996 as the Nauru Air Corporation (NAC) headed by a new CEO without ties to the government, enabling it to operate independently in a commercial marketplace, free from most of its government constraints.  In 1998 Air Nauru came under the regulatory control of the Civil Aviation Authority of Australia and since then has been a select foreign carrier holding an Australian Air Operator's Certificate (AOC). Mismanagement of the island's wealth and the resulting economic troubles caused the airline to lose large amounts of money, and on some occasions become insolvent. Its operations were also suspended for brief periods in the 1990s because of concerns raised by Australia over the airworthiness and safety record of its aircraft. Airline offices and equipment were also frequently repossessed by the Australian government for Nauru's repeated defaults on foreign loans. The airline became in dispute with the Export-Import Bank of the United States in 2002, and in December 2005 the High Court of Australia upheld an earlier decision to allow the bank to seize Air Nauru's only aircraft, leaving Nauru and the island nation of Kiribati without air services. The aircraft was seized by creditors at Melbourne Airport on 18 December 2005. Following the acquisition of a replacement aircraft (a Boeing 737-300) in mid-2006, the airline was rebranded as Our Airline and relaunched on 14 October 2006. Our Airline was renamed Nauru Airlines on 1 August 2014.  Nauru Airlines is now wholly owned by the state and had 65 employees in July 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Destinations.", "content": "Nauru Airlines serves the following destinations as of December 2019:  Air Nauru once had a remarkably comprehensive network in the Asia-Pacific, with services to Hong Kong, Kagoshima, Taipei, Okinawa, Manila, Singapore, Guam, Saipan, Koror, Chuuk, Pohnpei, Honiara, Kosrae, Majuro, Tarawa, Honolulu, Honiara, Port Vila, Nouméa, Apia, Pago Pago, Nadi, Tonga, Kanton Island, Niue, Raratonga, Auckland, Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, and Kiritimati, also known as Christmas Island. The average load factor throughout the network was around 20%, with many flights carrying no or few passengers. The Nauru government subsidised the airline with profits from phosphate mining. Due to the phosphate reserves depleting in the early 1990s, along with the mismanagement of the island's reserves the airline began to cease services to unprofitable destinations.  Since relaunching services in 2006, the airline has repeatedly adjusted its route map. When the airline initially resumed services in 2006, it offered a twice-weekly service from Brisbane to Honiara, Nauru, Tarawa, and Majuro. These were quickly curtailed, with flights to Majuro eliminated. The Tarawa extension was suspended from July 2008 to November 2009 because, along with the high fuel prices of the time, operating the Tarawa flight was not profitable without a connecting destination. The Tarawa extension was suspended again in 2011 because of disputes, but it was resumed in early 2012. Meanwhile, Honiara service was suspended around the same time.  Although it had been reported in early 2007 that Our Airline would begin services between Nauru and Fiji in the very near future, the airline instead provided once weekly Tarawa to Nadi service on behalf of Air Kiribati beginning in November 2009. However, the service between Nauru and Fiji which began in 2010 ceased in December 2011 due to a dispute between the governments of Kiribati and Fiji. This was replaced with a bi-weekly service that operated from Nauru to Nadi nonstop.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Services provided to Norfolk Island.", "content": "Norfolk Island's Norfolk Jet Express and Norfolk Air had chartered Our Airline to fly services between Norfolk Island and Brisbane, Newcastle, Melbourne and Sydney. Norfolk Jet Express went out of business on 4 June 2005. A government operated airline, called Norfolk Air, was then established but with no aircraft of its own, Qantas operated the flights from 11 June 2005 using Air Nauru's Boeing 737-400. This arrangement ceased later that year, when the aircraft was seized due to Air Nauru's own financial problems. Other airlines filled the gap for Norfolk Air, but Air Nauru again started providing aircraft for Norfolk Air flights in April 2009. The Norfolk government closed down Norfolk Air in March 2012, with a new agreement that Air New Zealand would take over the Norfolk Island flights, using its own aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fleet.", "content": "The Nauru Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft (as of August 2019):  Previously operated aircraft:  In March 2006, the government of the Republic of China, reportedly as a reward for Nauru's diplomatic recognition of the ROC instead of the People's Republic of China, assisted Air Nauru with the purchase of a second-hand Boeing 737, which was expected to be in operation by mid-2006, after several logistical delays. This purchase was put on hold in May 2006 due to OzJet and Air Pacific having started on the routes formerly operated by Air Nauru. In October 2006 the new Boeing plane came into service. The plane was registered as VH-INU and named as 'Naoero'. In 2008, the Airline bought their second Boeing 737-300 adorned with a full Norfolk Air livery, remaining till now despite Norfolk Air's current state of closure. The plane was registered as VH-NLK. Later in March 2013, the Airline purchased a Boeing 737-300 from GECAS. The plane was painted in the 'Our Airline' livery in Melbourne, making its first visit to Brisbane Airport on 3 September 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nauru Air Corporation, trading as Nauru Airlines (formerly trading as Our Airline and Air Nauru) is the flag carrier airline of the Republic of Nauru. It operates scheduled international services to other Pacific islands and Australia. Its main base is Nauru International Airport. Its head office is on the property of Nauru International Airport, Yaren District and its operations office is in Brisbane in the Australian state of Queensland. In August 2014, the airline changed its name from Our Airline to Nauru Airlines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972862}
{"src_title": "Superoxide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Salts.", "content": "Superoxide forms salts with alkali metals and alkaline earth metals. The salts CsO, RbO, KO, and NaO are prepared by the reaction of O with the respective alkali metal.  The alkali salts of are orange-yellow in color and quite stable, provided they are kept dry. Upon dissolution of these salts in water, however, the dissolved undergoes disproportionation (dismutation) extremely rapidly (in a pH-dependent manner):  This reaction (with moisture and carbon dioxide in exhaled air) is the basis of the use of potassium superoxide as an oxygen source in chemical oxygen generators, such as those used on the space shuttle and on submarines. Superoxides are also used in firefighters' oxygen tanks in order to provide a readily available source of oxygen. In this process acts as a Brønsted base, initially forming the hydroperoxyl radical (HO).  The superoxide anion,, and its protonated form, hydroperoxyl, are in equilibrium in an aqueous solution:  Given that the hydroperoxyl radical has a p\"K\" of around 4.8, at neutral pH superoxide predominantly exists in the anionic form.  Potassium superoxide is soluble in dimethyl sulfoxide (facilitated by crown ethers) and is stable as long as protons are not available. Superoxide can also be generated in aprotic solvents by cyclic voltammetry.  Superoxide salts also decompose in the solid state, but this process requires heating:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "Superoxide and hydroperoxyl (HO) are often discussed interchangeably, although superoxide predominates at physiological pHs. Both superoxide and hydroperoxyl are classified as reactive oxygen species. It is generated by the immune system to kill invading microorganisms. In phagocytes, superoxide is produced in large quantities by the enzyme NADPH oxidase for use in oxygen-dependent killing mechanisms of invading pathogens. Mutations in the gene coding for the NADPH oxidase cause an immunodeficiency syndrome called chronic granulomatous disease, characterized by extreme susceptibility to infection, especially catalase-positive organisms. In turn, micro-organisms genetically engineered to lack the superoxide-scavenging enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) lose virulence. Superoxide is also deleterious when produced as a byproduct of mitochondrial respiration (most notably by Complex I and Complex III), as well as several other enzymes, for example xanthine oxidase, which can catalyze the transfer of electrons directly to molecular oxygen under strongly reducing conditions.  Because superoxide is toxic at high concentrations, nearly all organisms living in the presence of oxygen express SOD. SOD efficiently catalyzes the disproportionation of superoxide: Other proteins that can be both oxidized and reduced by superoxide (e.g., hemoglobin) have weak SOD-like activity. Genetic inactivation (\"knockout\") of SOD produces deleterious phenotypes in organisms ranging from bacteria to mice and have provided important clues as to the mechanisms of toxicity of superoxide in vivo.  Yeast lacking both mitochondrial and cytosolic SOD grow very poorly in air, but quite well under anaerobic conditions. Absence of cytosolic SOD causes a dramatic increase in mutagenesis and genomic instability. Mice lacking mitochondrial SOD (MnSOD) die around 21 days after birth due to neurodegeneration, cardiomyopathy, and lactic acidosis. Mice lacking cytosolic SOD (CuZnSOD) are viable but suffer from multiple pathologies, including reduced lifespan, liver cancer, muscle atrophy, cataracts, thymic involution, haemolytic anemia and a very rapid age-dependent decline in female fertility.  Superoxide may contribute to the pathogenesis of many diseases (the evidence is particularly strong for radiation poisoning and hyperoxic injury), and perhaps also to aging via the oxidative damage that it inflicts on cells. While the action of superoxide in the pathogenesis of some conditions is strong (for instance, mice and rats overexpressing CuZnSOD or MnSOD are more resistant to strokes and heart attacks), the role of superoxide in aging must be regarded as unproven for now. In model organisms (yeast, the fruit fly Drosophila and mice), genetically knocking out CuZnSOD shortens lifespan and accelerates certain features of aging (cataracts, muscle atrophy, macular degeneration, thymic involution). But the converse, increasing the levels of CuZnSOD, does not seem (except perhaps in \"Drosophila\"), to consistently increase lifespan. The most widely accepted view is that oxidative damage (resulting from multiple causes, including superoxide) is but one of several factors limiting lifespan.  The binding of O by reduced (Fe)heme proteins involves formation of Fe(III) superoxide complex.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assay in biological systems.", "content": "The assay of superoxide generated in biological systems is a difficult task because of its high reactivity and short half-life. One approach that has been used in quantitative assays converts superoxide to hydrogen peroxide, which is relatively stable. Hydrogen peroxide is then assayed by a fluorimetric method. As a free radical, superoxide has a strong EPR signal, and it is possible to detect superoxide directly using this method when its abundance is high enough. For practical purposes, this can be achieved only in vitro under non-physiological conditions, such as high pH (which slows the spontaneous dismutation) with the enzyme xanthine oxidase. Researchers have developed a series of tool compounds termed \"spin traps\" that can react with superoxide, forming a meta-stable radical (half-life 1–15 minutes), which can be more readily detected by EPR. Superoxide spin trapping was initially carried out with DMPO, but phosphorus derivatives with improved half-lives, such as DEPPMPO and DIPPMPO, have become more widely used.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bonding and structure.", "content": "Superoxides are compounds in which the oxidation number of oxygen is −. Whereas molecular oxygen (dioxygen) is a diradical containing two unpaired electrons, the addition of a second electron fills one of its two degenerate molecular orbitals, leaving a charged ionic species with single unpaired electron and a net negative charge of −1. Both dioxygen and the superoxide anion are free radicals that exhibit paramagnetism.  The derivatives of dioxygen have characteristic O–O distances that correlate with the order of the O–O bond.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A superoxide is a compound that contains the superoxide ion, which has the chemical formula. The systematic name of the anion is dioxide(1−). The reactive oxygen ion superoxide is particularly important as the product of the one-electron reduction of dioxygen O, which occurs widely in nature. Molecular oxygen (dioxygen) is a diradical containing two unpaired electrons, and superoxide results from the addition of an electron which fills one of the two degenerate molecular orbitals, leaving a charged ionic species with a single unpaired electron and a net negative charge of −1. Both dioxygen and the superoxide anion are free radicals that exhibit paramagnetism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972863}
{"src_title": "Ossification", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Intramembranous ossification.", "content": "Intramembranous ossification forms the flat bones of the skull, mandible and hip bone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Endochondral ossification.", "content": "Endochondral ossification is the formation of long bones and other bones. This requires a hyaline cartilage precursor. There are two centers of ossification for endochondral ossification.  The primary center  In long bones, bone tissue first appears in the diaphysis (middle of shaft). Chondrocytes multiply and form trebeculae. Cartilage is progressively eroded and replaced by hardened bone, extending towards the epiphysis. A perichondrium layer surrounding the cartilage forms the periosteum, which generates sperm cells that then go on to make a collar that encircles the outside of the bone and remodels the medullary cavity on the inside.  The nutrient artery enters via the nutrient foramen from a small opening in the diaphysis. It invades the primary center of ossification, bringing osteogenic cells (osteoblasts on the outside, osteoclasts on the inside.) The canal of the nutrient foramen is directed away from more active end of bone when one end grows more than the other. When bone grows at same rate at both ends, the nutrient artery is perpendicular to the bone.  Most other bones (e.g. vertebrae) also have primary ossification centers, and bone is laid down in a similar manner.  Secondary centers  The secondary centers generally appear at the epiphysis. Secondary ossification mostly occurs after birth (except for distal femur and proximal tibia which occurs during 9th month of fetal development). The epiphyseal arteries and osteogenic cells invade the epiphysis, depositing osteoblasts and osteoclasts which erode the cartilage and build bone. This occurs at both ends of long bones but only one end of digits and ribs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Several hypotheses have been proposed for how bone evolved as a structural element in vertebrates. One hypothesis is that bone developed from tissues that evolved to store minerals. Specifically, calcium-based minerals were stored in cartilage and bone was an exaptation development from this calcified cartilage. However, other possibilities include bony tissue evolving as an osmotic barrier, or as a protective structure.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ossification (or osteogenesis) in bone remodeling is the process of laying down new bone material by cells called osteoblasts. It is synonymous with bone tissue formation. There are two processes resulting in the formation of normal, healthy bone tissue: Intramembranous ossification is the direct laying down of bone into the primitive connective tissue (mesenchyme), while endochondral ossification involves cartilage as a precursor. In fracture healing, endochondral osteogenesis is the most commonly occurring process, for example in fractures of long bones treated by plaster of Paris, whereas fractures treated by open reduction and internal fixation with metal plates, screws, pins, rods and nails may heal by intramembranous osteogenesis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972864}
{"src_title": "Aspergillus niger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Aspergillus niger\" is included in \"Aspergillus\" subgenus \"Circumdati\", section \"Nigri\". The section \"Nigri\" includes 15 related black-spored species that may be confused with \"A. niger\", including \"A. tubingensis\", \"A. foetidus\", \"A. carbonarius\", and \"A. awamori\". A number of morphologically similar species were in 2004 described by Samson \"et al.\"  In 2007 the strain of ATCC 16404 \"Aspergillus niger\" was reclassified as \"Aspergillus brasiliensis\" (refer to publication by Varga et al.). This has required an update to the U.S. Pharmacopoeia and the European Pharmacopoeia which commonly use this strain throughout the pharmaceutical industry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pathogenicity.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plant disease.", "content": "\"Aspergillus niger\" causes sooty mold of onions and ornamental plants. Infection of onion seedlings by \"A. niger\" can become systemic, manifesting only when conditions are conducive. \"A. niger\" causes a common postharvest disease of onions, in which the black conidia can be observed between the scales of the bulb. The fungus also causes disease in peanuts and in grapes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Human and animal disease.", "content": "\"Aspergillus niger\" is less likely to cause human disease than some other \"Aspergillus\" species. In extremely rare instances, humans may become ill, but this is due to a serious lung disease, aspergillosis, that can occur. Aspergillosis is, in particular, frequent among horticultural workers who inhale peat dust, which can be rich in \"Aspergillus\" spores. The fungus has also been found in the mummies of ancient Egyptian tombs and can be inhaled when they are disturbed.  \"A. niger\" is one of the most common causes of otomycosis (fungal ear infections), which can cause pain, temporary hearing loss, and, only in severe cases, damage to the ear canal and tympanic membrane.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"A. niger\" has been cultivated both on Czapek medium plates and malt extract agar oxoid (MEAOX) plates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industrial uses.", "content": "\"Aspergillus niger\" is cultured for the industrial production of many substances. Various strains of \"A. niger\" are used in the industrial preparation of citric acid (E330) and gluconic acid (E574), and have been assessed as acceptable for daily intake by the World Health Organization. \"A. niger\" fermentation is \"generally recognized as safe\" (GRAS) by the United States Food and Drug Administration under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.  Many useful enzymes are produced using industrial fermentation of \"A. niger\". For example, \"A. niger\" glucoamylase () is used in the production of high-fructose corn syrup, and pectinases (GH28) are used in cider and wine clarification. Alpha-galactosidase (GH27), an enzyme that breaks down certain complex sugars, is a component of Beano and other products that decrease flatulence. Another use for \"A. niger\" within the biotechnology industry is in the production of magnetic isotope-containing variants of biological macromolecules for NMR analysis. \"Aspergillus niger\" is also cultured for the extraction of the enzyme, glucose oxidase (), used in the design of glucose biosensors, due to its high affinity for β-D-glucose.  \"Aspergillus niger\" growing from gold-mining solution contained cyano-metal complexes, such as gold, silver, copper, iron, and zinc. The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy-metal sulfides. Alkali-treated \"A. niger\" binds to silver to 10% of dry weight. Silver biosorption occurs by stoichiometric exchange with Ca(II) and Mg(II) of the sorbent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genome.", "content": "The \"A. niger\" ATCC 1015 genome was sequenced by the Joint Genome Institute in a collaboration with other institutions.  The genomes of two \"A. niger\" strains have been fully sequenced.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Aspergillus niger is a fungus and one of the most common species of the genus \"Aspergillus\". It causes a disease called \"black mold\" on certain fruits and vegetables such as grapes, apricots, onions, and peanuts, and is a common contaminant of food. It is ubiquitous in soil and is commonly reported from indoor environments, where its black colonies can be confused with those of \"Stachybotrys\" (species of which have also been called \"black mold\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972865}
{"src_title": "Lu Xun", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Lu Xun was born in Shaoxing, Zhejiang. As was common in pre-modern China, Lu Xun had many names. His birth name was \"Zhou Zhangshou\" (). His courtesy name was \"Yushan\" (), but he later changed that to \"Yucai\" (). In 1898, before he went to the Jiangnan Naval Academy, he took the given name \"Shuren\" ()—which means, figuratively, \"to be an educated man\". The name by which he is best known internationally, \"Lu Xun\", was a literary pseudonym that he chose", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Lu Xun half-heartedly participated in one civil service examination, in 1899, but then abandoned pursuing a traditional Confucian education or career. He intended to study at a prestigious school, the \"Seeking Affirmation Academy\", in Hangzhou, but was forced by his family's poverty to study at a tuition-free military school, the \"Jiangnan Naval Academy\", in Nanjing, instead. As a consequence of Lu's decision to attend a military school specializing in Western education, his mother wept, he was instructed to change his name (to avoid disgracing his family), and some of his relatives began to look down on him. Lu attended the Jiangnan Naval Academy for half a year, and left after it became clear that he would be assigned to work in an engine room, below deck, which he considered degrading. He later wrote that he was dissatisfied with the quality of teaching at the academy. After leaving the school, Lu sat for the lowest level of the civil service exams, and finished 137th of 500. He intended to sit for the next-highest level, but became upset when one of his younger brothers died, and abandoned his plans.  Lu Xun transferred to another", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Lu intended to study in Germany in 1909, but did not have sufficient funds, and was forced to return home. Between 1909 and 1911 he held a number of brief teaching positions at local colleges and secondary schools that he felt were unsatisfying, partly to support his brother Zuoren's studies in Japan.  Lu spent these years in traditional Chinese literary pursuits: collecting old books, researching pre-modern Chinese fiction, reconstructing ancient tombstone inscriptions, and compiling the history of his native town, Shaoxing. He explained to an old friend that his activities were not \"scholarship\", but \"a substitute for 'wine and women'\". In his personal letters he expressed disappointment about his own failure, China's political situation, and his family's continuing impoverishment. In 1911 he returned to Japan to retrieve his brother, Zuoren, so that Zuoren could help with the family finances. Zuoren wanted to remain in Japan to study French, but Lu wrote that \"French... does not fill stomachs.\" He encouraged another brother, Jianren, to become a botanist. He began to drink heavily, a habit he continued for the rest of his life. In 1911 he wrote his first short story, \"Nostalgia\", but he was so disappointed with it that he threw it away. Zuoren saved it, and had it successfully published two years later under his own name.  In February 1912, shortly", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Late career.", "content": "In 1929, he visited his dying mother, and reported that she was pleased at the news of Guangping's pregnancy. Xu Guangping gave birth to a son, Haiying, on 27 September 1929. She was in labor with the baby for 27 hours. The child's name meant simply \"Shanghai infant\". His parents chose the name thinking that he could change it himself later, but he never did so. Haiying was Lu Xun's only child.  After moving to Shanghai, Lu rejected all regular teaching positions (though he sometimes gave guest lectures at different campuses), and for the first time was able to make a living solely as a professional writer, with a monthly income of roughly 500 yuan. He was", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Shortly after Lu Xun's death, Mao Zedong called him \"the saint of modern China,\" but used his legacy selectively to promote his own political goals. In 1942, he quoted Lu out of context to tell his audience to be \"a willing ox\" like Lu Xun was, but told writers and artists who believed in freedom of expression that, because Communist areas were already \"free\", they did not need to be like Lu Xun. After the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, Communist Party literary theorists portrayed his work as orthodox examples of communist literature, yet every one of Lu's close disciples from the 1930s was purged. Mao admitted that, had Lu survived until the 1950s, he would \"either have gone silent or gone to prison\". Party leaders depicted him as \"drawing the blueprint of the communist future\" and Mao Zedong defined him as the \"chief commander of China's Cultural Revolution,\" although Lu did not join the party. During the 1920s and 1930s Lu Xun and his contemporaries often met informally for freewheeling intellectual discussions, but after the founding of the People's Republic in 1949 the Party sought more control over intellectual life in China, and this type of intellectual independence was suppressed, often violently. Finally, Lu Xun's satirical and ironic writing style itself was discouraged, ridiculed, then as often as possible destroyed. In 1942, Mao wrote that \"the style of the essay should not simply be like Lu Xun's. [In a Communist society] we can shout at the top of our voices and have no need for veiled and round-about expressions, which are hard for the people to understand. During the Cultural Revolution, the Communist Party both hailed Lu Xun as one of the fathers of communism in China, yet ironically suppressed the very intellectual culture and style of writing that he represented. Some of his essays and writings are now part of the primary school and middle school compulsory curriculum in China. Living under the rule of the dark forces and deprived", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style and thought.", "content": "Lu Xun was a versatile writer. He wrote using both traditional Chinese conventions and 19th century European literary forms. His style has been described in equally broad terms, conveying both \"sympathetic engagement\" and \"ironic detachment\" at different moments. His essays are often very incisive in his societal commentary, and in his stories his mastery of the vernacular language and tone make some of his literary works (like \"The True Story of Ah Q\") hard to convey through translation. In them, he frequently treads a fine line between criticizing the follies of his characters and sympathizing with those very follies. Lu Xun was a master of irony and satire (as can be seen in \"The True Story of Ah Q\") and yet can write impressively", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translations into English.", "content": "Lu Xun's works became known to English readers as early as 1926 with the publication in Shanghai of The True Story of Ah Q, translated by George Kin Leung, and more widely beginning in 1936 with an anthology edited by Edgar Snow and Nym Wales \"Living China, Modern Chinese Short Stories,\" in which Part One included seven of Lu Xun's stories and a short biography based on Snow's talks with Lu Xun. However, there was not a complete translation of the fiction until the four-volume set of his writings, which included \"Selected Stories of Lu Hsun\" translated by Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang. Another full selection was William A.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lu Xun (Wade–Giles romanisation: Lu Hsün) was the pen name of Zhou Shuren (25 September 1881 – 19 October 1936), a Chinese writer, essayist, poet, and literary critic. He was a leading figure of modern Chinese literature. Writing in Vernacular Chinese and Classical Chinese, he was a short story writer, editor, translator, literary critic, essayist, poet, and designer. In the 1930s, he became the titular head of the League of Left-Wing Writers in Shanghai.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972866}
{"src_title": "Burgenland Croatian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Burgenland Croatian was the language of Croatian refugees who fled Croatia during the Turkish Wars and settled in the western part of what was then Hungary, the area where they still live. Burgenland Croats included speakers of all three dialects of the Serbo-Croatian language (Shtokavian, Chakavian and Kajkavian), with the majority being the Chakavians. They originally came from the river Una valley. Burgenland Croats did not take part in the shaping of the present standard Croatian in the 19th century. Instead, they constructed their own written standard based mainly on the local Chakavian speech and adopted the Croatian alphabet, a modified Latin alphabet, as their script.  It is still a matter of debate whether Burgenland Croatian should be classified as a Slavic micro-language of its own. Burgenland Croatian dialects are mostly viewed as isolated dialects of the Croatian.  Burgenland Croatian and the Prekmurje dialect of Slovene (in Prekmurje and Hungary) have influenced each other. The first Prekmurje Slovene works (for example, the Old Hymnal of Martjanci) was applied to the Burgenland Croatian books. A few of those that wrote in Prekmurje Slovene were of Burgenland Croatian descent (for example Jakab Szabár) and also Burgenland Croatian (József Ficzkó).  After the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1918 the areas in which Burgenland Croats lived were divided between Austria, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. After 1921 most of these areas became part of Austria, which established a new province of Burgenland, after which the Croatian minority was named. In 1922 Austria founded the \"Apostolic administration of Burgenland\" and began to abolish bilingual schools through the introduction of the teaching of German in all primary schools. This process was temporarily stopped after \"The National Education Act\", that allowed the work of the Croatian elementary schools, was adopted. After Hitler Annexed Austria in 1938 this law was abolished. In 1955 the \"Austrian State Treaty\" was signed. It gave permission to the Burgenland Croats to use Croatian in education, judiciary and public administration. With the adoption of the \"Law on National Minorities\" in 1976 use of Croatian in public life became limited. After constitutional complaint was accepted in 1987 parts of the law were changed and Croatian was introduced as an official in 6 out of 7 districts of Burgenland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Written language.", "content": "Burgenland Croatian written language is based mainly on the local Chakavian dialect with some influences from the other Croatian dialects spoken in Burgenland. It uses the Latin alphabet with the same diacritical modifiers as the Croatian alphabet. In the course of language development it acquired some of its own specialised vocabulary, sometimes different from that used in standard Croatian.  The popular \"The Little Prince\" has also been translated into Burgenland Croatian (1998), specifically the Standard version by Ivan Rotter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spoken language.", "content": "Croats living in the south of Burgenland speak mainly the Shtokavian-Chakavian dialect, those in the central part the Chakavian dialect with a hard Kajkavian influence, and in the north (close to Vienna) the Chakavian dialect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Newspapers written in Burgenland Croatian.", "content": "Newspapers of the Burgenland Croats are: \"Crikveni glasnik\" (Church Gazett), 1946; \"Naše selo\" (Our village), 1947; \"Naš tjednik\" (Our weekly), 1947; \"Naša domovina\" (Our homeland), 1952; \"Glas\" (Voice), 1957; \"Novi glas\" (New Voice), 1969; \"Put\" (Way), 1981).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First books written in Burgenland Croatian.", "content": "The beginnings of literacy are linked to: Klimpuški misal (Klimpuški Missal) (1501), S. Consul Histrianus and Antun Dalmatin's Postila (Fasting) (1568), Duševne pesne (Spiritual songs) (1609) and Grgur Mekinić Pythiraeus's Druge knjige duševnih pesan (Other books of the Spiritual songs) (1611). Until the mid-19th century, the literature in Burgenland Croatian had religious character and was intended mostly for peasants. Main writers were priests and nuns. In the second half of the 19th century teachers began to write. Thanks to that, many school textbooks and calendars were written.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writers writing in Burgenland Croatian.", "content": "Most popular Burgenland Croat writers are: J. Mulih (1694–1754), Godefrid Palković (1714–78), L. Bogović (1719–89), E. M. Kragel (1725–88), M. Laáb (cca. 1746–1823), J. Ficko (1772–1843), M. Drobilić (1808–91), T. Jordan (1815–93), G. Glavanić (1833–72), M. Naković (1840–1900), I. Mušković (1848–1930), M. Borenić (1850–1939), Ivan Čuković (1865–1944), P. Jandrišević (1879–1938), I. Blažević (1888–1946), Mate Meršić Miloradić (1850–1928), Ignac Horvat (1895–1973), Martin Meršić, A. Blazović (1921–2004), Franz Probst (1919–93), N. Benčić (b. 1938), Ivan (Lav) Sučić (b. 1938), Mathilda Bölcs (b. 1949), J. Čenar (b. 1956), P. Tyran (b. 1955) and H. Gassner (b. 1955).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Burgenland Croatian (\"Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik\"; German: \"Burgenlandkroatische Sprache\", Hungarian: \"Gradišćei horvát nyelv\") is a regional variety of the Chakavian dialect of Croatian spoken in Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia. Burgenland Croatian is recognized as a minority language in the Austrian state of Burgenland, where it is spoken by 19,412 people according to official reports (2001). Many of the Burgenland Croatian speakers in Austria also live in Vienna and Graz, due to the process of urbanization, which is mostly driven by the poor economic situation of large parts of Burgenland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972867}
{"src_title": "Okra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and common name.", "content": "The first use of the word okra in the U.S appears around 1670, possibly deriving from the Igbo word. The word \"gumbo\" (alternatively: \"gombo\") became common in the United States around 1805, with usage more prominent in the Southeastern United States. The word gumbo (or \"gombo\") derives from American French (most likely Louisiana creole).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin and distribution.", "content": "Okra is an allopolyploid of uncertain parentage (proposed parents include \"Abelmoschus ficulneus\", \"A. tuberculatus\" and a reported \"diploid\" form of okra). Truly wild (as opposed to naturalised) populations are not known with certainty and the species may be a cultigen. The geographical origin of okra is disputed, with supporters of South Asian, Ethiopian and West African origins. The Egyptians and Moors of the 12th and 13th centuries used the Arabic word for the plant, \"bamya\", suggesting it had come into Egypt from Arabia, but earlier it was probably taken from Ethiopia to Arabia. The plant may have entered southwest Asia across the Red Sea or the Bab-el-Mandeb straight to the Arabian Peninsula, rather than north across the Sahara, or from India. One of the earliest accounts is by a Spanish Moor who visited Egypt in 1216 and described the plant under cultivation by the locals who ate the tender, young pods with meal. From Arabia, the plant spread around the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and eastward. The plant was introduced to the Americas by ships plying the Atlantic slave trade by 1658, when its presence was recorded in Brazil. It was further documented in Suriname in 1686. Okra may have been introduced to southeastern North America from Africa in the early 18th century. By 1748, it was being grown as far north as Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson noted it was well established in Virginia by 1781. It was commonplace throughout the Southern United States by 1800, and the first mention of different cultivars was in 1806.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Botany and cultivation.", "content": "The species is a perennial, often cultivated as an annual in temperate climates, often growing to around tall. As a member of the Malvaceae, it is related to such species as cotton, cocoa, and hibiscus. The leaves are long and broad, palmately lobed with 5–7 lobes. The flowers are in diameter, with five white to yellow petals, often with a red or purple spot at the base of each petal. The pollens are spherical with approximately 188 microns diameter. The fruit is a capsule up to long with pentagonal cross-section, containing numerous seeds.  \"Abelmoschus esculentus\" is cultivated throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world for its fibrous fruits or pods containing round, white seeds. It is among the most heat- and drought-tolerant vegetable species in the world and will tolerate soils with heavy clay and intermittent moisture, but frost can damage the pods. In cultivation, the seeds are soaked overnight prior to planting to a depth of. It prefers a soil temperature of at least for germination which occurs between six days (soaked seeds) and three weeks. Seedlings require ample water. The seed pods rapidly become fibrous and woody and, to be edible as a vegetable, must be harvested when immature, usually within a week after pollination. Okra is available in two varieties, green and red. Red okra carries the same flavor as the more popular green okra and differs only in color. When cooked, the red okra pods turn green.  The most common disease afflicting the okra plant is verticillium wilt, often causing a yellowing and wilting of the leaves. Other diseases include powdery mildew in dry tropical regions, leaf spots, and root-knot nematodes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food and uses.", "content": "The products of the plant are mucilaginous, resulting in the characteristic \"goo\" or slime when the seed pods are cooked; the mucilage contains soluble fiber. Botanists say to de-slime okra it should be cooked with an acid (like vinegar, tomatoes, etc.); as the pH changes the mucilage will become less viscous. Pods are cooked, pickled, eaten raw, or included in salads. Okra may be used in some developing countries to mitigate malnutrition and alleviate food insecurity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "Raw okra is 90% water, 2% protein, 7% carbohydrates and negligible in fat. In a 100 gram amount, raw okra is rich (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) in dietary fiber, vitamin C and vitamin K, with moderate contents of thiamin, folate and magnesium (table).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leaves and seeds.", "content": "Young okra leaves may be cooked in a similar way to the greens of beets or dandelions. The leaves are also eaten raw in salads. Okra seeds may be roasted and ground to form a caffeine-free substitute for coffee. When importation of coffee was disrupted by the American Civil War in 1861, the \"Austin State Gazette\" said, \"An acre of okra will produce seed enough to furnish a plantation with coffee in every way equal to that imported from Rio.\"  Greenish-yellow edible okra oil is pressed from okra seeds; it has a pleasant taste and odor, and is high in unsaturated fats such as oleic acid and linoleic acid. The oil content of some varieties of the seed is about 40%. At 794 kg/ha, the yield was exceeded only by that of sunflower oil in one trial. A 1920 study found that a sample contained 15% oil. A 2009 study found okra oil suitable for use as a biofuel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Industrial uses.", "content": "Bast fibre from the stem of the plant has industrial uses such as the reinforcement of polymer composites. The mucilage produced by the okra plant can be used for the removal of turbidity from wastewater by virtue of its flocculent properties. Having composition similar to a thick polysaccharide film, okra mucilage is under development as a biodegradable food packaging, as of 2018.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Okra (, ), \"Abelmoschus esculentus\", known in many English-speaking countries as ladies' fingers or ochro, is a flowering plant in the mallow family. It is valued for its edible green seed pods. The geographical origin of okra is disputed, with supporters of West African, Ethiopian, Arabian, and South Asian origins. The plant is cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions around the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972868}
{"src_title": "Akademgorodok", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The town was founded in 1957 under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Academician Mikhail Alexeyevich Lavrentyev, a mechanician and mathematician, the first Chairman of the Siberian Branch of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, played a prominent role in establishing Akademgorodok. At its peak, Akademgorodok was home to 65,000 scientists and their families, and was a privileged area to live in.  During the Soviet period (1961–1991), due to the peculiarity of the Soviet economic system, monetary rewards did not always translate into a higher standard of living. To offset this, a special compensation system was devised in Akademgorodok for its residents and leading scientists. For example, residents of Akademgorodok had access to special food ration distribution outlets (') that provided, most of the time, an access to some basic subsidized foodstuffs, which were not always easily obtainable elsewhere. Scientists who had obtained a doctorate (a post-Ph.D. degree under the Russian system) were rewarded by the authorities with the special food delivery service ('), which provided access to a wider selection of groceries than available to the general population; some of the scientists, despite being eligible, refused it on moral grounds. Full and corresponding members of the Academy of Sciences had access to still higher level of service (\") and were eligible to live in single-family residences (called \"cottages\"), considered luxurious by Soviet standards, as most of the population lived in apartments in nine- and four-story multi-apartment buildings.  During the early years residents enjoyed great freedom from the rules and restraints of the Soviet Union, with a modernist cultural centre exhibiting works by banned Soviet artists, risqué poetry evenings, and other activities allowed nowhere else. Scientific research in areas dismissed as dangerous pseudoscience in Moscow, such as cybernetics and genetics, flourished. However, freedoms were severely curtailed in the 1970s during the Brezhnev era.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Akademgorodok in the post-Soviet era.", "content": "The collapse of the Soviet Union saw many scientists, including whole cadres of Russia's top minds in the physical and theoretical sciences, reduced to penury. Beginning in the mid-1990s, as economic reforms allowed private investment in Russia, Akademgorodok saw the beginnings of venture funding. In 1992, a software company called Novosoft was founded here, and its chief client was IBM. Around this time CFT started, which specializes in banking and financial software. By 1997 private investment reached US$10 million; by 2006 it was $150 million, reaching about $1 billion by 2015. Intel and Schlumberger have brought work to Akademgorodok, and other companies are following them into the area. Many scientists, including Lavrentyev's son, also named Mikhail and also an accomplished mathematician in his own right, were deeply involved in this renaissance. Currently its population stands at over 100,000 and there are over 40 research institutes located within Akademgorodok. While still minuscule by the standards of other countries, the private venture effort in Akademgorodok has breathed new life into what was once one of the Soviet Union's premier scientific centers. , 300 companies had been set up since 2011, employing about 9,000 people and generating 17bn roubles (£175M) annually.  The area is sometimes called \"Silicon Forest\". A much larger technology center in the former Soviet Union is the Skolkovo Innovation Center, conveniently located on the outskirts of Moscow, a $4bn state project with annual revenues of $1bn.  The Quality Schools International QSI International School of Novosibirsk, previously located in Akademgorodok, opened in 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sightseeing.", "content": "The Technopark (Academpark) has a distinctive headquarters, constructed in 2013. It has two inclined towers connected by an overhead passage on the 13-14th floor level. Its unique form is the source of its nickname: \"the geese\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Akademgorodok (, \"Academic Town\" or \"Academic City\") is a part of the Sovetsky District of the city of Novosibirsk, Russia, located 30 km south of the city center and about 10 km west of the Science town Koltsovo. It is the educational and scientific centre of Siberia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972869}
{"src_title": "Ding Ling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ding Ling was born into a gentry family in Linli, Hunan province. Her father died when Ding was three. Ding Ling's mother, who raised her children alone while becoming an educator, was Ding's role model, and she would later write an unfinished novel, titled \"Mother\", which described her mother's experiences. Following her mother's example, Ding Ling became an activist at an early age. Ding Ling fled to Shanghai in 1920 in repudiation of traditional Chinese family practices by refusing to marry her cousin who had been chosen to become her husband. She rejected the commonly accepted view that parents as the source of the child's body are its owners, and she ardently asserted that she owned and controlled her own body.  Ding Ling was influenced by progressive teachers at the People's Girls School, and by her association with modern writers such as Shen Congwen and the left-wing poet Hu Yepin, whom she married in 1925. She began writing stories around this time, most famously \"Miss Sophia's Diary\", published in 1927, in which a young woman describes her unhappiness with her life and confused romantic and sexual feelings. In 1931, Hu Yepin was executed in Shanghai by the Kuomintang government for his association with the Communists. In March 1932 she joined the Chinese Communist Party, and almost all of her fiction after this time was in support of its goals. She was active in the League of Left-Wing Writers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political persecution.", "content": "Active in the Communist revolutionary cause, she was placed under house arrest in Shanghai by the Guomindang for a three-year period from 1933 to 1936. She escaped, and made her way to the Communist base of Yan'an. There she became one of the most influential figures in Yan'an cultural circles, serving as director of the Chinese Literature and Arts Association and editing a newspaper literary supplement.  Ding Ling struggled with the idea that revolutionary needs, defined by the party, should come before art. She objected to the gender standards at work in Yan'an. In 1942 she wrote an article in a party newspaper, titled \"Thoughts on March 8\", questioning the party's commitment to change popular attitudes towards women. She satirized male double standards concerning women, saying they were ridiculed if they focused on household duties, but also became the target of gossip and rumors if they remained unmarried and worked in the public sphere. She also criticized male cadres use of divorce provisions to rid themselves of unwanted wives. Her article was condemned by Mao Zedong and the party leadership, and she was forced to retract her views and undergo a public self-confession.  Her main work in these years was the novel \"The Sun Shines Over Sanggan River\", which she completed in 1948. It followed the complex results of land reform on a rural village. It was awarded the Stalin prize for Literature in 1951, and is considered one of the best examples of socialist-realist fiction. It did not, however, address gender issues.  Always a political activist, in 1957 she was denounced as a \"rightist\", purged from the party, and her fiction and essays were banned. She spent five years in jail during the Cultural Revolution and was sentenced to do manual labor on a farm for twelve years before being \"rehabilitated\" in 1978.  In her introduction to \"Miss Sophie's Diary And Other Stories\", Ding Ling explains her indebtedness to the writers of other cultures:  I can say that if I have not been influenced by Western literature I would probably not have been able to write fiction, or at any rate not the kind of fiction in this collection. It is obvious that my earliest stories followed the path of Western realism... A little later, as the Chinese revolution developed, my fiction changed with the needs of the age and of the Chinese people... Literature ought to join minds together... turning ignorance into mutual understanding. Time, place and institutions cannot separate it from the friends it wins... And in 1957, a time of spiritual suffering for me, I found consolation in reading much Latin American and African literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "A few years before her death, she was allowed to travel to the United States where she was a guest at the University of Iowa's International Writing Program. She died in Beijing in 1986.  She authored more than three hundred works. After her \"rehabilitation\" many of her previously banned books such as her novel \"The Sun Shines Over The Sanggan River\" were republished and translated into numerous languages. Some of her short works, spanning a fifty-year period, are collected in \"I Myself Am A Woman: Selected Writings Of Ding Ling\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ding Ling (; October 12, 1904 – March 4, 1986), formerly romanized as Ting Ling, was the pen name of Jiang Bingzhi (), also known as Bin Zhi (彬芷 \"Bīn Zhǐ\"), one of the most celebrated 20th-century Chinese authors. She was awarded the Soviet Union's Stalin second prize for Literature in 1951.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972870}
{"src_title": "Johnny Torrio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Torrio was born in Irsina (then known as Montepeloso), Basilicata, in Southern Italy, to Tommaso Torrio and Maria Carluccio originally from Altamura, Apulia. When he was two his father, a railway employee, died in a work accident; shortly after, Torrio immigrated to New York City with his widowed mother in December 1884. She later remarried.  His first jobs were as a porter and bouncer in Manhattan. While he was a teenager, he joined a street gang and became its leader; he eventually managed to save enough money and opened a billiards parlor for the group, and from there grew illegal activities such as gambling and loan sharking. Torrio's business sense caught the eye of Paul Kelly, the leader of the infamous Five Points Gang. Torrio's gang ran legitimate businesses, but its main concern was the numbers game, supplemented by incomes from bookmaking, loan sharking, hijacking, prostitution, and opium trafficking. Al Capone, who worked at Kelly's club, admired Torrio's quick mind and looked to him as his mentor.  Capone had belonged to the Junior Forty Thieves, the Bowery Boys and the Brooklyn Rippers; they soon moved up to the Five Points Gang. Torrio eventually hired Capone to bartend at the Harvard Inn, a bar in the Coney Island section of Brooklyn owned by Torrio's business associate, Frankie Yale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Move to Chicago.", "content": "Torrio was the nephew of Victoria Moresco, the wife and business partner of \"Big Jim\" Colosimo, who had become the owner of more than 100 brothels in Chicago. According to Laurence Bergreen, \"Torrio is [also] described as Colosimo’s nephew, but in the absence of any evidence to confirm the relationship, it is more likely their kinship was spiritual rather than familial\".  In 1909, Colosimo invited Torrio to Chicago to deal with extortion demands from the Black Hand. Torrio eliminated the extortionists and stayed on; he ran Colosimo's operations and organized the criminal muscle needed to deal with threats to them.  In 1919, Capone also left New York for Chicago at the invitation of Torrio. Capone began in Chicago as a bouncer in a brothel, where he contracted syphilis. Timely use of Salvarsan probably could have cured the infection, but he apparently never sought treatment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Colosimo murder.", "content": "When Prohibition went into effect in 1920, Torrio pushed for the gang to enter into bootlegging, but Colosimo stubbornly refused. In March 1920, Colosimo secured an uncontested divorce from Moresco. A month later, he and Dale Winter eloped to West Baden Springs, Indiana. Upon their return, he bought a home on the South Side. On May 11, 1920, Torrio called and told Colosimo that a shipment was about to arrive at his restaurant. Colosimo drove there to await it, but instead he was shot in an ambush and killed. Frankie Yale had allegedly traveled from New York to Chicago and personally killed longtime gang boss Colosimo at the behest of Chicago Outfit friends Torrio and Capone. Although suspected by Chicago police, Yale was never officially charged. Colosimo was allegedly murdered because he stood in the way of his gang making bootlegging profits, having \"gone soft\" after his marriage with Winter. Al Capone has also been suggested as the gunman. Colosimo's ex-wife, unhappy with the financial arrangements of the divorce, is also theorized having arranged the murder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rivalry with North Side Gang.", "content": "Torrio headed an essentially Italian organized crime group that was the biggest in the city, with Capone as his right-hand man. He was wary of being drawn into gang wars and tried to negotiate agreements over territory between rival crime groups. The smaller North Side Gang led by Dean O'Banion (also known as Dion O'Banion) was of mixed ethnicity, and it came under pressure from the Genna brothers who were allied with Torrio. O'Banion found that Torrio was unhelpful with the encroachment of the Gennas into the North Side, despite his pretensions to be a settler of disputes. In a fateful step, Torrio either arranged for or acquiesced to the murder of O'Banion at his flower shop on November 10, 1924. This placed Hymie Weiss at the head of the gang, backed by Vincent Drucci and Bugs Moran. Weiss had been a close friend of O'Banion, and the North Siders made it a priority to get revenge on his killers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assassination attempt and handover to Capone.", "content": "In January 1925, Capone was ambushed, leaving him shaken but unhurt. Twelve days later, on January 24, Torrio was returning from a shopping trip with his wife Anna, when he was shot several times. After recovering, he effectively resigned and handed control to Capone, age 26, who became the new boss of an organization that took in illegal breweries and a transportation network that reached to Canada, with political and law-enforcement protection. In turn, he was able to use more violence to increase revenue. An establishment that refused to purchase liquor from him often got blown up, and as many as 100 people were killed in such bombings during the 1920s. Rivals saw Capone as responsible for the proliferation of brothels in the city.  In late 1925, Torrio moved to Italy, where he no longer dealt directly in mob business, with his wife and mother. He gave total control of the Outfit to Capone and said, \"It's all yours, Al. Me? I'm quitting. It's Europe for me\". Torrio left a criminal empire which grossed about $70,000,000 a year ($997,500,000 in 2018 dollars) from bootleg booze, gambling and prostitution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years and death.", "content": "In 1928, Torrio returned to the United States, as Benito Mussolini began putting pressure on the Mafia in Italy. He is credited with helping to organize a loose cartel of East Coast bootleggers, the Big Seven, in which a number of prominent gangsters, including Lucky Luciano, Longy Zwillman, Joe Adonis, Frank Costello, and Meyer Lansky played a part. Torrio also supported creation of a national body that would prevent the sort of all-out turf wars between gangs that had broken out in Chicago and New York. His idea was well received, and a conference was hosted in Atlantic City by Torrio, Lansky, Luciano and Costello in May 1929; the National Crime Syndicate was created.  Torrio was charged with income tax evasion in 1936, and after several failed appeals, Torrio was sent to prison in 1939, serving two years. After his release, he lived quietly until his death.  On April 16, 1957, Torrio had a heart attack in Brooklyn while he was sitting in a barber's chair waiting for a haircut; he died several hours later in a nearby hospital.  The media did not learn about his death until three weeks after his burial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Torrio has been portrayed several times in television and motion pictures:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Donato Torrio (born Donato Torrio, ; January 20, 1882 – April 16, 1957) was an Italian-American mobster who helped build the Chicago Outfit in the 1920s. It was later inherited by his protégé Al Capone. Torrio proposed a National Crime Syndicate in the 1930s and later became an adviser to Lucky Luciano and his Luciano crime family.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972871}
{"src_title": "Inscribed angle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Theorem.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statement.", "content": "The inscribed angle theorem states that an angle \"θ\" inscribed in a circle is half of the central angle 2\"θ\" that subtends the same arc on the circle. Therefore, the angle does not change as its vertex is moved to different positions on the circle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proof.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inscribed angles where one chord is a diameter.", "content": "Let \"O\" be the center of a circle, as in the diagram at right. Choose two points on the circle, and call them \"V\" and \"A\". Draw line \"VO\" and extended past \"O\" so that it intersects the circle at point \"B\" which is diametrically opposite the point \"V\". Draw an angle whose vertex is point \"V\" and whose sides pass through points \"A\" and \"B\".  Draw line \"OA\". Angle \"BOA\" is a central angle; call it \"θ\". Lines \"OV\" and \"OA\" are both radii of the circle, so they have equal lengths. Therefore, triangle \"VOA\" is isosceles, so angle \"BVA\" (the inscribed angle) and angle \"VAO\" are equal; let each of them be denoted as \"ψ\".  Angles \"BOA\" and \"AOV\" are supplementary. They add up to 180°, since line \"VB\" passing through \"O\" is a straight line. Therefore, angle \"AOV\" measures 180° − \"θ\".  It is known that the three angles of a triangle add up to 180°, and the three angles of triangle \"VOA\" are:  Therefore,  Subtract 180° from both sides,  where \"θ\" is the central angle subtending arc \"AB\" and \"ψ\" is the inscribed angle subtending arc \"AB\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Inscribed angles with the center of the circle in their interior.", "content": "Given a circle whose center is point \"O\", choose three points \"V\", \"C\", and \"D\" on the circle. Draw lines \"VC\" and \"VD\": angle \"DVC\" is an inscribed angle. Now draw line \"VO\" and extend it past point \"O\" so that it intersects the circle at point \"E\". Angle \"DVC\" subtends arc \"DC\" on the circle.  Suppose this arc includes point \"E\" within it. Point \"E\" is diametrically opposite to point \"V\". Angles \"DVE\" and \"EVC\" are also inscribed angles, but both of these angles have one side which passes through the center of the circle, therefore the theorem from the above Part 1 can be applied to them.  Therefore,  then let  so that  Draw lines \"OC\" and \"OD\". Angle \"DOC\" is a central angle, but so are angles \"DOE\" and \"EOC\", and  Let  so that  From Part One we know that formula_13 and that formula_14. Combining these results with equation (2) yields  therefore, by equation (1),", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Inscribed angles with the center of the circle in their exterior.", "content": "The previous case can be extended to cover the case where the measure of the inscribed angle is the \"difference\" between two inscribed angles as discussed in the first part of this proof.  Given a circle whose center is point \"O\", choose three points \"V\", \"C\", and \"D\" on the circle. Draw lines \"VC\" and \"VD\": angle \"DVC\" is an inscribed angle. Now draw line \"VO\" and extend it past point \"O\" so that it intersects the circle at point \"E\". Angle \"DVC\" subtends arc \"DC\" on the circle.  Suppose this arc does not include point \"E\" within it. Point \"E\" is diametrically opposite to point \"V\". Angles \"EVD\" and \"EVC\" are also inscribed angles, but both of these angles have one side which passes through the center of the circle, therefore the theorem from the above Part 1 can be applied to them.  Therefore, then let so that  Draw lines \"OC\" and \"OD\". Angle \"DOC\" is a central angle, but so are angles \"EOD\" and \"EOC\", and Let so that  From Part One we know that formula_13 and that formula_14. Combining these results with equation (4) yields therefore, by equation (3),", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Corollary.", "content": "By a similar argument, the angle between a chord and the tangent line at one of its intersection points equals half of the central angle subtended by the chord. See also Tangent lines to circles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "The inscribed angle theorem is used in many proofs of elementary Euclidean geometry of the plane. A special case of the theorem is Thales' theorem, which states that the angle subtended by a diameter is always 90°, i.e., a right angle. As a consequence of the theorem, opposite angles of cyclic quadrilaterals sum to 180°; conversely, any quadrilateral for which this is true can be inscribed in a circle. As another example, the inscribed angle theorem is the basis for several theorems related to the power of a point with respect to a circle. Further, it allows one to prove that when two chords intersect in a circle, the products of the lengths of their pieces are equal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inscribed angle theorems for ellipses, hyperbolas and parabolas.", "content": "Inscribed angle theorems exist for ellipses, hyperbolas and parabolas, too. The essential differences are the measurements of an angle. (An angle is considered as a pair of intersecting lines.)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In geometry, an inscribed angle is the angle formed in the interior of a circle when two secant lines (or, in a degenerate case, when one secant line and one tangent line of that circle) intersect on the circle. It can also be defined as the angle subtended at a point on the circle by two given points on the circle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972872}
{"src_title": "Philippe Antoine d'Ornano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revolution and First Empire.", "content": "Born in Ajaccio, Corsica, he served in Italy during the French Revolutionary Wars (in 1798 and 1799), and later took part in the expedition to Saint-Domingue. D'Ornano served in the campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars from 1805 on. He commanded the 5th Dragoon regiment during the battle of Fuentes de Oñoro, after a brave attack of cavalry, he was promoted to brigadier general.  He returned to France and took part in the Russian campaign of 1812. At the Battle of Borodino, d'Ornano was promoted to \"général de division\". D'Ornano was wounded at the Battle of Krasnoi.  In 1813, after the death of Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bessières, he commanded the cavalry of the Imperial Guard. He accompanied Napoleon to the south of France until the emperor embarked for Elba, and was exiled from France by the Bourbon Restoration. In 1816, d'Ornano married Napoléon's former mistress Marie Walewska - she died in childbirth in 1817. Her heart was placed in the crypt of the d'Ornano family at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris and her body was brought back to Poland for burial. (In 1869, however, her coffin was found to be empty. It was speculated that some unknown necrophile had removed her remains.)  The line of Counts d'Ornano was continued by his only son Rodolphe-Auguste d'Ornano, and exists until the present day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Restoration, July Monarchy, and Second Empire.", "content": "He returned to France and resumed active service in 1829 when he was given a position at the Military Academy of Saint-Cyr. In 1830, after the July Revolution, he was given command of the 4th military division at Tours. Two years later, he suppressed revolts in the Vendée after which he was made a Peer of France. In 1848 he served as head of the 14th military division until he resigned for reasons of health.  In 1849, d'Ornano was elected to the National Assembly as a member for the \"département\" of Indre-et-Loire. During the Second Empire, he was made a Senator and a Grand Cross in the Légion d'honneur. After the death of Rémi Joseph Isidore Exelmans, he was appointed Chancellor of the order. In 1853 he was made Governor of Les Invalides. At the age of seventy seven, he was promoted to Marshal of France by Napoléon III. He died in Vincennes, a suburb of Paris, in 1863.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Philippe Antoine d'Ornano, 1st Comte d'Ornano (January 17, 1784 – October 13, 1863) was a French soldier and political figure who rose to the rank of Marshal of France. He was made \"Count d'Ornano of the French Empire\" in 1808. He was born a son of Lodovico Antonio Ornano and Isabella Maria Buonaparte, making him a second cousin of Napoleon Bonaparte.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972873}
{"src_title": "Georges Cadoudal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Brech, in Brittany, after completing his education, he remained true to his Royalist and Roman Catholic convictions during the start of the Revolution. From 1793 he organized a rebellion in the Morbihan against the National Convention of the First Republic. It was quickly suppressed, and he thereupon joined the army of the Vendée insurrection, taking part in the battles of Le Mans and of Savenay in December of the same year.  Returning to Morbihan, he was arrested, and imprisoned at Brest. He succeeded, however, in escaping, and began again the struggle against the Revolution. In spite of the defeat of his party, and of the fact that he was forced several times to take refuge in England, Cadoudal did not cease both to wage war and to conspire in favour of the Royalist pretender Louis, count of Provence. In 1799 he was a regular visitor at Mont Orgueil, Jersey where he would meet Philippe d'Auvergne, a British spymaster. He refused to come to any understanding with the government, although offers were made to him by Napoleon Bonaparte, who admired his skill and his obstinate energy.  From 1800 it was impossible for Cadoudal to continue to wage open war, so he centered his efforts on conspiracies. He was indirectly involved in Pierre Saint-Regent's attempt on the life of the First Consul, in December, and fled to England again.  On the night of 23 August 1803, landed Georges and several other Chouans at the foot of the cliffs of Biville. The conspirators wanted to undertake a new kidnap or assassination attempt on Bonaparte whilst on the road to Malmaison. Although under nominal police surveillance, he succeeded in eluding pursuit for six months, but was arrested for long periods. Found guilty and sentenced to death, he refused to ask for pardon and was guillotined in Paris, along with eleven of his companions. Before being executed, he shouted to the crowd: \"And now, it's time to show to the Parisians how Christians, Royalists and Bretons die\".  During the Restoration, in 1814, Cadoudal was made a Marshal of France posthumously, by Louis XVIII.  Cadoudal features as a main character in the 1940 Rafael Sabatini novel, \"Marquis of Carabas\" (tr. \"Master-at-Arms\"). He is also portrayed in \"The Companions of Jehu\" and \"The Knight of Sainte-Hermine\" by Alexandre Dumas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georges Cadoudal (; 1 January 1771 – 25 June 1804), sometimes called simply Georges, was a Breton politician, and leader of the \"Chouannerie\" during the French Revolution. He was posthumously named a Marshal of France in 1814 by the reinstated Bourbons. Cadoudal means in Breton language \"warrior returning from the fight\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972874}
{"src_title": "Ulex europaeus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Growing to tall, it is an evergreen shrub. The young stems are green, with the shoots and leaves modified into green spines, long. Young seedlings produce normal leaves for the first few months; these are trifoliate, resembling a small clover leaf.  The solitary flowers are yellow, long, with the pea-flower structure typical of the Fabaceae; they are produced throughout the year, but mainly over a long period in spring. They are coconut-scented. The fruit is a legume (pod) long, dark purplish-brown, partly enclosed by the pale brown remnants of the flower; the pod contains 2–3 small blackish, shiny, hard seeds, which are ejected when the pod splits open in hot weather. Seeds remain viable for 30 years.  Like many species of gorse, it is often a fire-climax plant, which readily catches fire but re-grows from the roots after the fire; the seeds are also adapted to germinate after slight scorching by fire. It has a tap root, lateral and adventious roots. An extremely tough and hardy plant, it survives temperatures down to. It can live for about thirty years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "The species has been introduced to other areas of Europe, and also to the Americas, New Zealand, South Africa, and Australia, where it is often considered a weed and is a serious problem invasive species in some areas (notably the western United States, Chile and New Zealand). It was introduced to New Zealand from Scotland as a type of hedge, but became a major blight to farmers as the climate suited its growth better than its native habitat and many of its natural predators were absent.  Common gorse is also an invasive species in the montane grasslands of Horton Plains National Park in Sri Lanka. It outcompetes native, endemic species and is a fire hazard.  Biological pest control is used on this plant in many areas. The gorse spider mite (\"Tetranychus lintearius\") and the gorse seed weevil (\"Exapion ulicis\") reduce the spread of the plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "This plant is used for hedging, boundary definition and groundcover in suitably sunny, open locations. Cultivars include 'Strictus' (Irish gorse), a dwarf form, and the double-flowered, non-fruiting 'Flore Pleno', which has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Bruised gorse was used in some areas for feeding to horses and other livestock. Lectin extracted from seeds of this species binds to, is remarkably specific for, and is the standard method for identification of H-substance (absent in the hh antigen system) on human red blood cells. The vast majority of humans express H-substance, which is the basis for the ABO blood group system, but a few rare individuals (\"Bombay phenotype\") do not—and a chemical isolated from \"Ulex europaeus\" is used to identify these individuals. This lectin is also used as a marker for human vascular endothelial cells, and as a tool for their isolation for in-vitro culture.  It fixes nitrogen into the soil.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ulex europaeus (gorse, common gorse, furze or whin) is a species of flowering plant in the family Fabaceae, native to the British Isles and Western Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972875}
{"src_title": "Phocas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early Life.", "content": "Flavius Phocas' date of birth is unknown. He and his family were likely of Thraco-Roman origin. The life of Phocas before his usurpation of the Byzantine Empire's throne is obscure, but it is known that he served as a low-ranking officer under Emperor Maurice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Usurpation.", "content": "In 602, the Byzantine army rebelled against Emperor Maurice, largely due to exhaustion and outrage over orders to continue campaigning north of the Danube in winter as well as previous cuts in wages. The army declared Phocas, by then a centurion, to be the new emperor, raising him on a shield (the traditional method of declaring emperors) on 23 November 602.  Phocas was crowned the new emperor by the patriarch in the church of St John the Baptist at the Hebdomon. Several days afterwards he entered Constantinople unopposed.  Maurice fled the city with his sons, Theodosius and Tiberius, but they were soon after captured and executed. Maurice's wife and daughters were put in the monastery of Nea Metanoia and later killed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Foreign conflict.", "content": "Despite the execution of the previous emperor and his dynastic successors, Phocas remained in a precarious position, which led him to devote his energy to purging enemies and destroying conspiracies. Because of this focus, and the local resistance he faced all throughout the Byzantine Empire, he was unable to confront foreign attacks on the empire's frontiers. The Avars and Slavs launched numerous raids into the Balkan provinces of the Byzantine Empire, and the Sassanian Empire launched an invasion of the eastern provinces of the empire.  The Avars were able to take all land in the Balkans north of Thessalonika. The populations of Christian cities were slaughtered or captured. The Byzantines transferred most of their forces to the eastern front due to the threat from the Persians.  The Sassanid Persians had formerly been at peace with Maurice as a result of a treaty they made with him in 591. After Phocas usurped and killed Maurice, the Persians invaded the empire in 603. The Sassanids rapidly occupied the eastern provinces, leading the \"Magister militum per Orientem\", Narses, to defect to their side. Phocas swiftly dealt with him, by inviting him to Constantinople under the promise of safe conduct, then having him burnt alive when he arrived. By 607, the Sassanids had occupied Mesopotamia, Syria, and much of Asia Minor, as far as the Bosphorus.  By the time his reign ended in 610, the Persians had already crossed the Euphrates and taken Zenobia. Contemporary accounts describe the Persians as being very brutal to the occupied population. The'miracle of St Demetrios' described the carnage:  [T]he devil raised the whirlwind of hatred in all the East, Cilicia, Asia, Palestine and all the lands from there to Constantinople: the factions, no longer content simply to spill blood in public places, attacked homes, slaughtered women, children, the aged, and the young who were sick; those whose youth and frailty impeded their escape from the massacre, [saw] their friends, acquaintances, and parents pillaged, and after all that, even set on fire so that the most wretched inhabitant was not able to escape.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "Phocas was an incompetent administrator, who was unable to control either the state or the army effectively. Due to his distrust of the bulk of Constantinople's elite, with whom he had no connection before becoming emperor, Phocas practised nepotism, frequently filling senior military positions with his relatives. He installed: his brother Domentziolus as \"Magister officiorum\" in 603; his nephew Domentziolus as \"Magister militum per Orientem\" in 604, giving him command over the eastern provinces; and his brother Comentiolus as \"Magister militum per Orientem\" around 610. All three remained loyal to Phocas until they were killed by Heraclius. Of the three known male blood-relatives of Phocas, all three were appointed to senior posts, two in military positions and one in an administrative position. Phocas also appointed Priscus, who was his son-in-law by way of his marriage to Phocas' daughter Domentzia, as \"Comes excubitorum\", the captain of the Excubitors, in 603.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italian policy.", "content": "When Phocas was Emperor, Byzantine Italy was under continual attack from Lombards, but the Byzantine government spent few resources to aid Italy due to troubles elsewhere. In the entirety of Phocas' reign the only public building built with government money in the city of Rome was a statue of Phocas completed in 608.  When Phocas usurped Maurice, Gregory the Great was bishop of Rome and he praised Phocas as a restorer of liberty. Gregory referred to him as a pious and clement lord, and compared his wife (the new Empress) Leontia to Marcian's consort Pulcheria (whom the Council of Chalcedon called the new Helena). In May 603, portraits of the imperial couple arrived in Rome and were ordered by the pope to be placed in the oratory of St Caesarius in the imperial palace on the Palatine.  Imperial approval was needed in that time to appoint a new pope, but the approval was delayed by a year upon the death of Pope Sabinian in 606, as Phocas was occupied with killing internal enemies that threatened his rule. He finally gave approval in 607 and Boniface III became pope. Phocas declared Rome \"the head of all churches\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Downfall.", "content": "Despite being appointed as \"Comes excubitorum\", Priscus was not loyal to Phocas, and in 608 he appealed to Heraclius the Elder, the Exarch of Carthage, to rebel against Phocas. Heraclius the Elder agreed, and began to prepare to invade, by cutting off the supply of grain to Constantinople and assembling a large army and navy. Heraclius the Elder launched his invasion in 609, with his cousin, Nicetas, marching troops overland to the capital, and his son, Heraclius, leading a naval invasion of Thessaloniki, before marching to Constantinople. Heraclius arrived outside Constantinople on 3 October 610, and seized the city on 5 October. Heraclius was declared emperor on the same day, and swiftly had Phocas executed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Phocas is generally depicted as a villain by Byzantine and modern historians alike, but some of the earliest sources available about Phocas’ reign were written during the reign of Heraclius. The writings that survive aren’t reliably neutral and the writers would have good reason to demonize him in order to strengthen the rule of Heraclius.  In the cultural sphere, the reign of Phocas is marked by the change of Imperial fashion set by Constantine the Great. Constantine and all his successors, except Julian the Apostate, were beardless. Phocas again introduced the wearing of the beard. This fashion lasted until the end of the Byzantine Empire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phocas (;, \"Phokas\"; c. 547 – 5 October 610) was Byzantine emperor from 602 to 610. The early life of Phocas is largely unknown, but he rose to prominence in 602, as a leader in the revolt against Emperor Maurice. Phocas captured Constantinople and overthrew Maurice on 23 November 602, and declared himself emperor on the same day. Phocas deeply distrusted the elite of Constantinople, and therefore installed his relatives in high military positions, and brutally purged his opponents. Phocas was an incompetent leader, both of the administration and army, and under him the Byzantine Empire was threatened by multiple enemies, with frequent raids in the Balkans from the Avars and Slavs, and a Sassanid invasion of the eastern provinces. Because of Phocas' incompetence and brutality, the Exarch of Africa, Heraclius the Elder, rebelled against him. Heraclius the Elder's son, Heraclius, succeeded in taking Constantinople on 5 October 610, and executed Phocas on the same day, before declaring himself the emperor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972876}
{"src_title": "Bert van Marwijk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Van Marwijk was born in Deventer, Overijssel. As a forward and a midfielder, he played 393 matches in the Dutch highest division, the Eredivisie. He began his career at Go Ahead Eagles, his hometown club. After six seasons, he left Deventer and started to play in Alkmaar, for AZ. In 1978, he moved to MVV Maastricht, playing there for eight seasons before playing one season for Fortuna Sittard. He ended his playing career in 1988 after playing one season for the Belgium Football Club Assent. Van Marwijk had opportunities to play for bigger clubs like Feyenoord or West Ham United, but because of injuries he never made a big transfer.  In 1975, van Marwijk was called up by Rinus Michels to play for the Dutch national team in a friendly match against Yugoslavia, which was his only cap.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Managerial career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Van Marwijk began his professional managerial career at his former club Fortuna Sittard. His side finished seventh in the Eredivisie in 1998, and reached the KNVB Cup final in 1999. Fortuna had players like Mark van Bommel, Kevin Hofland and Wilfred Bouma during that period.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feyenoord.", "content": "In 2000, van Marwijk became the manager of Rotterdam-based club Feyenoord. In his first season, he led Feyenoord to a second-place finish in the Eredivisie and in his second season, 2001–02, he had one of the biggest successes of his career. After beating SC Freiburg, Rangers, PSV and Internazionale in the knock-out stage, he won the UEFA Cup final after beating Borussia Dortmund in the final, 3–2. Feyenoord ended in third place in the league with van Marwijk in the 2001–02, 2002–03 and 2003–04 seasons. In July 2004, he became manager of German Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund; he was succeeded at Feyenoord by Ruud Gullit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Borussia Dortmund.", "content": "In both of his first two seasons with Dortmund, 2004–05 and 2005–06, van Marwijk ended seventh in the Bundesliga table. During his third season, his side was stagnating, situated mid-table in ninth, whereupon van Marwijk and the club announced that they would part ways at the end of the 2006–07 season. On 18 December, however, Dortmund and van Marwijk parted company earlier than announced; he was replaced by Jürgen Röber.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feyenoord.", "content": "In June 2007, van Marwijk returned to Feyenoord, also bringing back Feyenoord veteran Giovanni van Bronckhorst from Barcelona. He also brought in Tim de Cler, Kevin Hofland and Roy Makaay, and with this team Feyenoord squad, he won the KNVB Cup in 2008 after beating Roda JC 2–0 in the final.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Netherlands national team.", "content": "Van Marwijk's return to Feyenoord would be short-lived; before the end of the 2007–08 season, it was announced van Marwijk would succeed Marco van Basten as head coach of the Dutch national team after UEFA Euro 2008. During his two spells as coach of Feyenoord, five seasons in total, they would finish second once, in 2000–01. Van Marwijk was succeeded at Feyenoord by Gertjan Verbeek.  Van Marwijk's management staff as Dutch coach included former internationals Frank de Boer and Phillip Cocu, as well as Dick Voorn. In the 2010 World Cup, van Marwijk led the Dutch to the final against Spain after defeating Slovakia in the round of 16, Brazil in the quarter-finals and Uruguay in the semi-finals. They lost, however, 1–0 in extra time. He opted for a very hard style of play, especially during the final, in strong contrast with the Dutch football tradition.  On 8 December 2011, van Marwijk extended his contract with the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB) for four more years through to the summer of 2016, including participation in the 2014 World Cup and Euro 2016 tournaments. At the Euro 2012 tournament, however, the Dutch ended up without a single point and being widely criticized, prompting van Marwijk to resign on 27 June.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hamburg.", "content": "On 26 September 2013, van Marwijk became the head coach of German side Hamburger SV after refusing offers from Southampton and Sporting CP. On 8 February, Hamburg lost for their sixth consecutive league match and gave up three goals in their fifth-straight league match. The supervisory board at Hamburg met on 9 February 2014 to discuss the future of van Marwijk, opting to let him continue in his role. He was then, however, sacked on 15 February after Hamburg lost 4–2 to Eintracht Braunschweig. Hamburg had lost seven-straight league matches and a DFB-Pokal loss to Bayern Munich. His assistant coach, Roel Coumans, was sacked as well. Van Marwijk lasted 143 days at the helm of Hamburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Saudi Arabia.", "content": "On 26 August 2015, van Marwijk became the new manager of the Saudi Arabia national team on a one-year contact. On 3 September 2015, he managed his first game, winning 7–0 against East Timor at the 2018 Asian World Cup qualifiers. On 24 March 2016, he clinched qualification to the third (final) round by winning 2–0 against Malaysia. After criticism from local media for not staying in the country and watching league games, van Marwijk helped Saudi Arabia to directly qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in their last game against Japan. Saudi Arabia qualified for their fifth FIFA World Cup and first since Germany 2006. But days after their last qualifying match, van Marwijk left the Saudi Arabia post having been unable to agree on a new contract with the Saudi Arabian Football Federation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "On 24 January 2018, van Marwijk was appointed as the new head coach of the Australia national soccer team. On 8 March 2018, it was announced that he will be replaced as Australian coach by Graham Arnold after the 2018 FIFA World Cup.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "UAE.", "content": "On 20 March 2019, van Marwijk became the new manager of the UAE national team. On 4 December 2019, UAE Football Association announced the sacking of van Marwijk following their 4-2 defeat to Qatar in the 24th Arabian Gulf Cup.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lambertus \"Bert\" van Marwijk (; born 19 May 1952) is a Dutch football manager who last managed United Arab Emirates national team. As a footballer, he played for the Go Ahead Eagles, AZ, MVV and Fortuna Sittard amongst other clubs, and represented the Netherlands once.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972877}
{"src_title": "Pier Luigi Nervi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Pier Luigi Nervi was born in Sondrio and attended the Civil Engineering School of Bologna from which he graduated in 1913; his formal education was quite similar to that experienced today by Italian civil engineering students. After graduating he joined the Society for Concrete Construction and, during World War I from 1915 to 1918, he served in the Corps of Engineering of the Italian Army. From 1961 to 1962 he was the Norton professor at Harvard University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Civil engineering works.", "content": "Nervi began practicing civil engineering after 1923. His projects in the 1930s included several airplane hangars that were important for his development as an engineer. A set of hangars in Orvieto (1935) were built entirely out of reinforced concrete, and a second set in Orbetello and Torre del Lago (1939) improved the design by using a lighter roof, precast ribs, and a modular construction method.  During the 1940s he developed ideas for reinforced concrete which helped in the rebuilding of many buildings and factories throughout Western Europe, and even designed and created a boat hull that was made of reinforced concrete as a promotion for the Italian government.  Nervi also stressed that intuition should be used as much as mathematics in design, especially with thin shell structures. He borrowed from both Roman and Renaissance architecture while applying ribbing and vaulting to improve strength and eliminate columns. He combined simple geometry and prefabrication to innovate design solutions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engineer and architect.", "content": "Pier Luigi Nervi was educated and practised as an \"ingegnere edile\" (translated as \"building engineer\") – in Italy. At the time (and to a lesser degree also today), a building engineer might also be considered an architect. After 1932, his aesthetically pleasing designs were used for major projects. This was due to the booming number of construction projects at the time which used concrete and steel in Europe and the architecture aspect took a step back to the potential of engineering. Nervi successfully made reinforced concrete the main structural material of the day. Nervi expounded his ideas on building in four books (see below) and many learned papers.  Archeological excavations suggested that he may have some responsibilities for the Flaminio stadium foundations passing through ancient Roman tombs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International projects.", "content": "Most of his built structures are in his native Italy, but he also worked on projects abroad. Nervi's first project in the United States was the George Washington Bridge Bus Station, for which he designed the roof, which consists of triangular pieces that were cast in place. This building is still used today by over 700 buses and their passengers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Pier Luigi Nervi was awarded Gold Medals by the Institution of Structural Engineers in the UK, the American Institute of Architects (AIA Gold Medal 1964) and the RIBA.  In 1957, received the Frank P. Brown Medal of The Franklin Institute and the Wilhelm Exner Medal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pier Luigi Nervi (21 June 1891 – 9 January 1979) was an Italian engineer and architect. He studied at the University of Bologna graduating in 1913. Nervi taught as a professor of engineering at Rome University from 1946 to 1961 and is known worldwide as a structural engineer and architect and for his innovative use of reinforced concrete.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972878}
{"src_title": "Slovak koruna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Modern koruna.", "content": "In 1993, the newly independent Slovakia introduced its own koruna, replacing the Czechoslovak koruna at par.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coins.", "content": "In 1993, coins were introduced in denominations of 10, 20 and 50 haliers, 1, 2, 5 and 10 korunas. The 10- and 20-halier coins were taken out of circulation on 31 December 2003. In 1996 the 50-halier coin was made smaller and instead of aluminium it was made with copper plated steel.  The obverse of the coins feature the coat of arms of Slovakia, with motifs from Slovak history on the reverses.  Coins were exchangeable for euros at the National Bank of Slovakia until January 2, 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Banknotes.", "content": "At midnight on 31 December 1992, the Czechoslovak Republic bifurcated into the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. In 1993, the newly independent Slovakia introduced its own koruna, replacing the Czechoslovak koruna at par. Provisional banknotes were issued in denominations of 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 korún by affixing stamps bearing the coat of arms of Slovakia and the denomination to Czechoslovak banknotes. The main motifs on the obverses of the banknotes represent important people living in the territory of the present Slovakia in various historical eras. On the reverses, these motifs are completed by depicting places where these people lived and were active.  Slovak banknotes denominated in koruny can be exchanged for euros indefinitely.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical exchange rates.", "content": "The graph shows the value of the euro in korunas from 1999 to December 2008. As may be seen, the currency strengthened as Slovakia's economy did. The koruna joined the ERM II on 28 November 2005 at the rate of € = 38.4550 Sk with a 15% band. On 17 March 2007, this rate was readjusted to 35.4424 Sk with the same band, an 8.5% increase in the value of the koruna. On the same day, 1 euro traded at 33.959 Sk. The central rate of koruna was then adjusted once more on 28 May 2008 to 33.8545 with no change in the band.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Slovak koruna or Slovak crown (, literally meaning \"Slovak crown\") was the currency of Slovakia between 8 February 1993 and 31 December 2008, and could be used for cash payment until 16 January 2009. The ISO 4217 code was \"SKK\" and the local abbreviation was \"Sk\". The koruna was subdivided into 100 \"haliers\" (abbreviated as \"hal.\" or simply \"h\", singular: \"halier\"). The abbreviation is placed after the numeric value.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972879}
{"src_title": "Nicolas Joseph Maison", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "Nicolas-Joseph Maison was born in Épinay-sur-Seine, near Paris on 19 December 1771.He enlisted in the French Revolutionary army in 1789 and on 1 August 1791, he was named captain in the 9th Battalion of Volunteer of Paris and served in the infantry in the early French Revolutionary Wars. He served as aide-de-camp to Minister of War Bernadotte in 1799.  In 1805, he joined the I Corps of the Grande Armée assembled by emperor Napoleon I and participated in the Battle of Austerlitz. During the campaign of 1806 he served as a General de brigade in the corps of Marshal Bernadotte and took part in the chase of the Prussian army to Lübeck after their defeat at Jena. In 1808 he was sent to Spain where he served under Marshal Victor and was wounded at the capture of Madrid. In 1812 he joined Napoléon in the invasion of Russia. At some point in the invasion marshal Ney saved his life, a deed he would later repay by condemning Ney to death. At the Beresina he was promoted to General de division and made a baron of the Empire.  After the wounding of Marshal Oudinot, he took over command of the II Corps and led it during the retreat to the Weischel. He served in the campaign of 1813 and after Marshal Jacques MacDonald's defeat at the Battle of Katzbach was once again tasked with leading the retreat. After the Battle of Leipzig, where he was wounded, he was given the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur and was made a count of the empire.<ref name=\"LH/875/52\">.</ref> In 1814, he was tasked with defending what is now Belgium and the port of Antwerp. With inadequate forces, he managed to hold his own against greatly superior Allied forces and defeated Johann von Thielmann's Saxons at the Battle of Courtrai.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bourbon restoration.", "content": "After the abdication of the emperor, Maison rallied to Louis XVIII of France, who made him a Knight of St. Louis and appointed him Governor of Paris. During the Hundred Days, Maison stayed loyal to the Bourbons and joined them when they fled to Ghent. After the Second Restoration, he was made commandant of the 1st Military Division. He was put on the court martial appointed to judge Marshal Ney on a charge of treason for joining Napoléon but after he and his colleagues declared themselves incompetent he was demoted to command of the 8th Military Division in Marseilles. In 1817, Maison was created a marquis and a Peer of France by Louis XVIII.  In 1828, he was given command of the French expeditionary corps in Morea (the Peloponnese peninsula in Greece). This expedition consisted in a land intervention of the French Army in the Peloponnese at the time of the Greek War of Independence, with the aim of liberating the region from the Turkish-Egyptian occupation forces commanded by Ibrahim Pasha. The military expedition was also accompanied by a scientific expedition mandated by the French Academy. After the soldiers took control of the principal strongholds held by the Turkish troops (Navarino, Modon, Coron and Patras), General Maison was created a Marshal of France by Charles X on 22 February 1829. Although he returned to France after 8 months, the French kept a military presence in the area until 1833. He left Greece on 22 May 1829.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "July monarchy.", "content": "In 1830 he joined the July Revolution and served in November 1830 as Minister of Foreign Affairs for a couple of weeks, before being sent to Vienna as ambassador. In 1833 he was made ambassador to Russia in St. Petersburg. Maison served as minister of war from 30 April 1835 to 19 September 1836 after which he retired from public life.  Nicolas-Joseph Maison died in Paris on 13 February 1840. He is buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery (division 5).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nicolas Joseph Maison, 1er Marquis Maison (19 December 1771 – 13 February 1840) was a Marshal of France and Minister of War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972880}
{"src_title": "Herbarium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The oldest traditions of making herbarium collections or \"Horti sicci\" have been traced to Italy. Luca Ghini and his students created herbaria of which the oldest extant one is that of Gherardo Cibo from around 1532. While most of the early herbaria were prepared with sheets bound into books, Carolus Linnaeus came up with the idea of maintaining them on free sheets that allowed their easy re-ordering within cabinets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Specimen preservation.", "content": "Commensurate with the need of wildlife conservation, it is often desirable to include in a herbarium sheet as much of the plant as possible (e.g., roots, flowers, stems, leaves, seed, and fruit), or at least representative parts of them in the case of large specimens. To preserve their form and colour, plants collected in the field are carefully arranged and spread flat between thin sheets, known as 'flimsies', (equivalent to sheets of newsprint) and dried, usually in a plant press, between blotters or absorbent paper. During the drying process the specimens are retained within their flimsies at all times to minimise damage, and only the thicker, absorbent drying sheets are replaced. For some plants it may prove helpful to allow the fresh specimen to wilt slightly before being arranged for the press. An opportunity to check, rearrange and further lay out the specimen to best reveal the required features of the plant occurs when the damp absorbent sheets are changed during the drying/pressing process.  The specimens, which are then mounted on sheets of stiff white paper, are labelled with all essential data, such as date and place found, description of the plant, altitude, and special habitat conditions. The sheet is then placed in a protective case. As a precaution against insect attack, the pressed plant is frozen or poisoned, and the case disinfected.  Certain groups of plants are soft, bulky, or otherwise not amenable to drying and mounting on sheets. For these plants, other methods of preparation and storage may be used. For example, conifer cones and palm fronds may be stored in labelled boxes. Representative flowers or fruits may be pickled in formaldehyde to preserve their three-dimensional structure. Small specimens, such as mosses and lichens, are often air-dried and packaged in small paper envelopes.  No matter the method of preservation, detailed information on where and when the plant was collected, habitat, color (since it may fade over time), and the name of the collector is usually included.  The value of a herbarium is much enhanced by the possession of “types”, that is, the original specimens on which the study of a species was founded. Thus the herbarium at the British Museum, which is especially rich in the earlier collections made in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, contains the types of many species founded by the earlier workers in botany. It is also rich in types of Australian plants from the collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and contains in addition many valuable modern collections.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections management.", "content": "Most herbaria utilize a standard system of organizing their specimens into herbarium cases. Specimen sheets are stacked in groups by the species to which they belong and placed into a large lightweight folder that is labelled on the bottom edge. Groups of species folders are then placed together into larger, heavier folders by genus. The genus folders are then sorted by taxonomic family according to the standard system selected for use by the herbarium and placed into pigeonholes in herbarium cabinets.  Locating a specimen filed in the herbarium requires knowing the nomenclature and classification used by the herbarium. It also requires familiarity with possible name changes that have occurred since the specimen was collected, since the specimen may be filed under an older name.  Modern herbaria often maintain electronic databases of their collections. Many herbaria have initiatives to digitize specimens to produce a virtual herbarium. These records and images are made publicly accessible via the Internet when possible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Herbarium collections can have great significance and value to science, and have many uses. Herbaria have long been essential for the study of plant taxonomy, the study of geographic distributions, and the stabilizing of nomenclature. Linnaeus's herbarium, which contains over 4,000 types, now belongs to the Linnean Society in England. Modern scientists continue to develop novel, non-traditional uses for herbarium specimens that extend beyond what the original collectors could have anticipated.  Specimens housed in herbaria may be used to catalogue or identify the flora of an area. A large collection from a single area is used in writing a field guide or manual to aid in the identification of plants that grow there. With more specimens available, the author or the guide will better understand the variability of form in the plants and the natural distribution over which the plants grow.  Herbaria also preserve a historical record of change in vegetation over time. In some cases, plants become extinct in one area or may become extinct altogether. In such cases, specimens preserved in a herbarium can represent the only record of the plant's original distribution. Environmental scientists make use of such data to track changes in climate and human impact.  Herbaria have also proven very useful as source of plant DNA for use in taxonomy and molecular systematics. Even ancient fungaria represent a source for DNA-barcoding of ancient samples.  Many kinds of scientists and naturalists use herbaria to preserve voucher specimens; representative samples of plants used in a particular study to demonstrate precisely the source of their data, or to enable confirmation of identification at a future date.  They may also be a repository of viable seeds for rare species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Institutional herbaria.", "content": "Many universities, museums, and botanical gardens maintain herbaria. The largest herbaria in the world, in approximate order of decreasing size, are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A herbarium (plural: herbaria) is a collection of preserved plant specimens and associated data used for scientific study. The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on a sheet of paper (called \"\"exsiccatae\"\") but, depending upon the material, may also be stored in boxes or kept in alcohol or other preservative. The specimens in a herbarium are often used as reference material in describing plant taxa; some specimens may be types.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972881}
{"src_title": "Czechoslovak koruna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First koruna.", "content": "A currency called the \"krone\" in German and \"koruna\" in Czech was introduced in Austria-Hungary on 11 September 1892, as the first modern gold-based currency in the area. After the creation of an independent Czechoslovakia in 1918, an urgent need emerged for the establishment of a new currency system that would distinguish itself from the currencies of the other newly born countries suffering from inflation. The next year, on 10 April 1919, a currency reform took place, defining the new \"koruna\" as equal in value to the Austro-Hungarian krone. The first banknotes came into circulation the same year, the coins three years later, in 1922.  This first koruna circulated until 1939, when separate currencies for Bohemia and Moravia and Slovakia were introduced, at par with the Czechoslovak koruna. These were the Bohemian and Moravian koruna and the Slovak koruna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second crown.", "content": "The Czechoslovak koruna was re-established in 1945, replacing the two previous currencies at par. As a consequence of the war, the currency had lost much of its value.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Third koruna.", "content": "The koruna went through a number of further reforms. A particularly drastic one was undertaken in 1953. At that time, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia had to deal with the existence of a double market in the country: a fixed market ensuring basic food availability (a remnant of the postwar quota system); and a free market, in which goods were as much as eight times more expensive but better quality. They decided to declare a currency reform effective from 1 June 1953 and to distribute new banknotes printed in the Soviet Union. The reform had been prepared very quickly and was confidential up to the last minute, but some information leaked anyway, causing a lot of panic.  The night before the deadline, the president of Czechoslovakia, Antonín Zápotocký, made a radio speech, in which he lied to the nation that there was no possibility of a reform and quietened down the inhabitants. The next day, people (those lucky enough not to fit into the category of \"capitalistic elements\", a pejorative category which the intelligence agency used to blacklist certain individuals) were allowed to change up to 1,500 old korunas for new korunas at the rate of 5 old to 1 new koruna and the rest at the rate of 50 to 1. All insurance stock, state obligations and other commercial papers were nullified. The economic situation of many people got worse, and many petitions and demonstrations broke out, the largest of which took place in Plzeň, where 472 people were arrested.  In 1993, on the breakup of Czechoslovakia, the Czechoslovak koruna split into two independent currencies: the Slovak koruna and the Czech koruna. Accession to the EU in 2004 meant both currencies were slotted to be replaced by the euro once their respective countries met the criteria for economic convergence and there was the political will to do so. The Slovak koruna was replaced by the euro on 1 January 2009; there is currently no set or estimated date for the Czech koruna to be replaced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consumer price index.", "content": "Annual increase in the consumer price index", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Czechoslovak koruna (in Czech and Slovak: \"Koruna československá\", at times \"Koruna česko-slovenská\"; \"koruna\" means \"crown\") was the currency of Czechoslovakia from April 10, 1919, to March 14, 1939, and from November 1, 1945, to February 7, 1993. For a brief time in 1939 and again in 1993, it was also the currency in separate Czech and Slovak republics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972882}
{"src_title": "Thomas Robert Bugeaud", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born at Limoges, a member of a noble family of Périgord (Occitania), the youngest of thirteen children. He ran away from home, and for some years lived in the country as an agricultural worker. At the age of twenty he became a private soldier in the \"Vélites\" of the Imperial Guard, with which he took part in the Austerlitz campaign of the following year. Early in 1806, he was given a commission, and as a Second Lieutenant he served in the Jena and Eylau campaigns, winning his promotion to the rank of lieutenant at the Battle of Pultusk.  In 1808, he was in the first French corps to enter Spain, and was stationed in Madrid during the revolt of the Dos Mayo. At the Second Siege of Saragossa, he won further promotion to the rank of captain, and in 1809–1810 found opportunities for winning distinction under Suchet in the eastern theatre of the Peninsular War, in which he rose to the rank of major and the command of a full regiment. At the first restoration he was made a colonel, but he rejoined Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and under his old chief Suchet distinguished himself in the war in the Alps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "July monarchy.", "content": "He spent the fifteen years after the fall of Napoleon without employment, returning to agriculture and developing his home district of Périgord. The July revolution of 1830 reopened his military career and after a short tenure of regimental command he was in 1831 promoted brigadier-general (\"maréchal de camp\"). In the same year, he was elected to the French parliament's lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, where he showed himself to be an inflexible opponent of democracy. In his military capacity, he was noted for his severity in suppressing riots. His conduct as gaoler of the Duchess of Berry led to a duel between Bugeaud and the deputy Dulong in which the latter was killed (1834); this affair, and the heavy handed suppression of a further riot, exposed Bugeaud to ceaseless attacks in the Chamber and in the press, though his opinion was sought by all parties in matters connected with agriculture and industrial development. He was re-elected in 1834, 1837, and 1839.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Algeria.", "content": "Although he initially disapproved of the conquest of Algeria, his undeviating adherence to Louis Philippe brought him into agreement with the government. He embarked on a campaign to win the swift, complete, and lasting subjugation of Algeria. He was sent to Africa in a subordinate capacity and proceeded to initiate his war of flying columns. He won his first victory on 7 July 1836, made a brilliant campaign of six weeks' duration, and returned home with the rank of lieutenant-general. In the following year, he signed the Treaty of Tafna (30 May 1837), with Abd-el-Kader, an act which, though justified by the military and political situation, led to attacks upon him in the chamber, to the refutation of which Bugeaud devoted himself in 1839. Finally, in 1840, he was nominated governor-general of Algeria, and early in 1841 he put into force his system of flying columns, a controversial but successful tactic known as \"Razzia\" at the time. His swiftness and energy drove back the forces of Abd-el-Kader from place to place, while the devotion of the rank and file to \"Père Bugeaud\" enabled him to carry all before him in action. In 1842, he secured the French positions by undertaking the construction of roads. In 1843, Bugeaud was made marshal of France, and in this and the following year he continued his operations with unvarying success. His great victory of Isly on 14 August 1844 won him the title of duke. In 1845, however, he had to take the field again in consequence of the disaster of Sidi Brahim (22 September 1845), and up to his final retirement from Algeria (July 1846) he was almost constantly employed in the field. His resignation was due to differences with the home government on the question of the future government of the province. Amidst his other activities he had found time to study the agricultural characteristics of the conquered country, and under his régime the number of French colonists had grown from 17,000 to 100,000. In 1848, the marshal was in Paris during the revolution, but his orders prevented him from acting effectively to suppress it. He was asked, but eventually refused, to be a candidate for the presidency in opposition to Louis Napoleon. His last public service was the command of the army of the Alps, formed in 1848–1849 to observe events in Italy. He died in Paris in 1849.  Bugeaud's writings were numerous, including his \"Œuvres militaires\", collected by Weil (Paris, 1883), many official reports on Algeria and the war there, and some works on economics and political science. See: Comte d'Ideville, \"Le Maréchal Bugeaud\" (Paris, 1881–1882).  Bugeaud's innovations and writings continued to be influential among French military leaders engaged in colonial campaigns.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas Robert Bugeaud, marquis de la Piconnerie, duc d'Isly (15 October 178410 June 1849) was a Marshal of France and Governor-General of Algeria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972883}
{"src_title": "Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "D'Erlon was born in Reims on 29 July 1765. His father and grandfather were carpenters, and he trained to be a locksmith.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Revolutionary Wars.", "content": "D'Erlon entered the army as a private soldier in 1782, was discharged after five years’ service and re-entered it in 1792. In 1792 he served as a corporal in the pre-revolutionary army, being elected to captain the following year.  From 1794 to 1796 he was aide-de-camp to General Lefebvre. In 1799 he was promoted to brigadier general, and fought under André Masséna in Switzerland. The same year he distinguished himself at the Second Battle of Zurich.  He continued his service in many battles of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, including Hohenlinden in 1800 (in which he was wounded), the Hanover region (earning him promotion to Major General in 1803).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "As a general of division he took part in Napoleon's campaigns of 1805 and 1806. At the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, his division played a pivotal role, and he rendered excellent service at Jena in 1806.  In 1807, as chief of staff for Lefebvre at the siege of Danzig (now Gdańsk), he negotiated the terms of surrender. The same year he was wounded in the foot at Friedland. After this battle he was made grand officer of the Legion of Honour, was created Count d’Erlon and received a pension.  Following the conclusion of the 1809 Danubian campaign, D'Erlon was sent as Chief of Staff to Marshal Lefebvre. Lefebvre was in command of the VII (Bavarian) Corps in action in the Tyrolean Rebellion against the pro-Austrian insurgency led by the innkeeper Andreas Hofer. After the failure of the allied second offensive to retake the Tyrol, Lefebvre was relieved of his command by Napoleon because of his poor performance and terrible relationship with the Bavarians. D'Erlon was given command, and in by the end of November he had pacified the region, and in the process formed a strong bond with his Bavarian subordinates.  For the next six years d’Erlon was almost continuously engaged as commander of an army corps in the Peninsular War, in which he added greatly to his reputation as a capable general. He arrived in the Peninsular as commander of the IX Corps, and at the pass of Maya in the Pyrenees defeated the British General Hill. In the subsequent battles of the 1814 campaign he distinguished himself further.  After Napoleon abdicated in 1814 d'Erlon transferred his allegiance to the House of Bourbon along with the rest of the army and was given command of the 16th military division, but he was soon arrested for conspiring with the Orléans party, to which he was secretly devoted. He escaped and joined Napoleon, who had returned from exile on the island of Elba.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Hundred Days.", "content": "Napoleon made him a peer of France, and gave him command of the I Corps, which formed part of the Army of the North. On 16 June 1815 during the first major engagements of Waterloo Campaign, due to conflicting orders his Corps spent the day on the Old Roman Road marching and counter marching between the battles of Quatre Bras and Ligny without engaging in either battle. He was not, however, held to account by Napoleon, and as the latter's practice in such matters was severe to the verge of injustice, it may be presumed that the failure was not due to d’Erlon. If the I Corps had engaged in either battle the outcome of the campaign might have been different.  Two days later at the Battle of Waterloo it was his Corps in Column formation which attacked the Allied centre right from La Haye Sainte to Papelotte at 13:30 and was stopped by Picton's Peninsular War veterans, and then attacked in the flanks by the British heavy cavalry. He retreated with the rest of the French army and fought in the closing operations around Paris. After the surrender of Napoleon, d'Erlon entered exile in Munich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-Napoleonic Service.", "content": "In 1825 he was granted amnesty by Charles X. In the July Revolution in 1830 he supported the Juilletistes, and was given the Great Order of the Legion of honour by Louis-Philippe on 19 November 1831. In 1832 was given the command of the 12th Division in Nantes. Later in the year his division suppressed a Vendean revolt and arrested the Duchess of Berry.  In 1834 d'Erlon was named governor-general of Algeria. After the defeat of the French army under General Trezel at the Battle of Macta in 1835, D'Erlon was recalled to France and replaced.  From 1837 he resumed his command of the 12th Division in Nantes, a position he held until 1843 when he moved to Paris to retire and was granted the title marshal of France on 9 April 1843. He died on 25 January of the following year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1794, in Reims, d'Erlon married Marie-Anne de Rousseau (died 1828), daughter of Nicolas de Rousseau, a banker, who he has got to know through Marie-Jeanne (Rousseau) the wife of his brother Jean-François Drouet. While in Reims on the morning of his wedding, he was informed of his appointment as aide-de-camp to General Francois Lefebvre. On Christmas Day 1794, his first child, a son who was christened Nicolas Adolphe, was born. In 1796 his wife had their second child, a daughter: Marie-Anne Louise. In 1800 he moved his family to Paris where his third child Aimé Napoleon François was born.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon (29 July 176525 January 1844) was a marshal of France and a soldier in Napoleon's Army. D'Erlon notably commanded the I Corps of the \"Armée du Nord\" at the battle of Waterloo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972884}
{"src_title": "Louis-Auguste-Victor, Count de Ghaisnes de Bourmont", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "On the eve of the French Revolution, Bourmont entered the Gardes Françaises of the French royal army but he emigrated in 1789. Bourmont served in Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de Condé royalist army in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. Then he served as chief of staff in the civil war in lower Anjou from 1794 to 1796. After fleeing to Switzerland in 1796, he took part in another insurrection from 1798-1800. He was arrested in 1801 because of involvement with Georges Cadoudal, but three years later he managed to escape to Portugal.  When Junot invaded Portugal in 1807, Bourmont offered him his services and was employed as chief of staff of a division. Arrested when re-entering France in 1809, he was released upon the intercession of Junot and employed in the Imperial army.  He served in Italy and on the staff of Eugène de Beauharnais during the Russian campaign of 1812. Taken prisoner during the retreat from Moscow, he managed to escape and rejoin the French army. After the Battle of Lützen in 1813 he was promoted to general of brigade, he took part in the Battle of Leipzig and in 1814 he was promoted to general of division for defending Nogent-sur-Seine. After the fall of Napoleon, Bourmont rallied to the Bourbons.  During the Hundred Days, the government of Louis XVIII of France frantically tried to stop Napoleon's march on Paris. Marshal Michel Ney was ordered to report to Besançon where he was to receive his orders from Bourmont. It irritated the proud Ney, Prince of Moscow, to take instructions from such a junior general, so he demanded to see the king. During his interview with Louis, Ney boasted to the king that he would bring back the ex-emperor in an iron cage. By the time Ney arrived in Besançon, he found that the royalist position was rapidly deteriorating and that Bourmont's assignment was to spy on him. On 11 March 1815, Ney told Bourmont that he was going over to Napoleon's camp. Shortly afterward, the Bourbon cause collapsed and Louis fled to Belgium, followed by hundreds of royalists.  According to historian David Hamilton-Williams, the Comte d'Artois asked Bourmont to remain a royalist agent, so he requested to continue in command. The new Minister of War, Marshal Louis-Nicolas Davout refused to employ Bourmont, writing to Napoleon, \"I cannot sit idly and watch this officer wear the uniform of this country; his treasonous statements concerning the Emperor are well known to all; the brigade and regimental commanders of the 14th Infantry Division despise him. Who would trust such a man?\" Nevertheless, Étienne Maurice Gérard, leader of the IV Corps vouched for him so he retained his position. On the morning of 15 June, as the French Army of the North advanced into Belgium, the 14th Division led the IV Corps column of march. Near Florennes, Bourmont halted his division. On the pretence of scouting ahead, he and his staff, rode ahead with a squadron of lancers. After gaining a suitable distance from French lines, he sent the lancers back with a letter for Gérard. In the missive, he explained that he was deserting but promised, \"They will not get any information from me which will injure the French army, composed of men I love.\" He and his staff put the white Bourbon cockade on their hats and galloped for the nearest Prussian position. He immediately handed over Napoleon's operational plans to the Prussians. Gebhard von Blucher's chief of staff August von Gneisenau was pleased to receive this windfall. However, Blucher had no use for turncoats and called Bourmont a traitor to his face. When Gneisenau noted that Bourmont was wearing the white cockade, making them allies, Blucher screamed, \"Cockade be damned! A dirty dog is always a dirty dog!\"  With Napoleon's orders in their hands, the Prussians were able to take the appropriate countermeasures to gather their army. Bourmont's defection enraged the French rank and file. Though their loyalty to Napoleon was absolute, they began to suspect treachery in their generals. Étienne Hulot, who became the acting division commander, was compelled to give a speech that pledged loyalty to Napoleon and the tricolor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bourbon Restoration.", "content": "After the Battle of Waterloo and Napoleon's fall, Bourmont gave evidence that led to Ney's execution. After the Second Restoration, he was given command of the 16th infantry division in Besançon and took part in the Spanish campaign of 1823. King Charles X of France made him minister of war in 1829 and Marshal of France in 1830. He was commanding the Invasion of Algiers in 1830 when the July Revolution broke out in 1830. Bourmont refused to give his allegiance to the new King Louis Philippe and was dismissed from service.  In 1832 Marshal Bourmont took part in the rising of Caroline Ferdinande Louise, duchesse de Berry and on its failure fled to Portugal. He commanded the army of the absolutist monarch King Miguel during the Liberal Wars and after the victory of the constitutional party he retired to Rome. At the amnesty of 1840 he returned to France, where he died on 27 October 1846 at Freigné in Maine-et-Loire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis-Auguste-Victor, Count de Ghaisnes de Bourmont (2 September 1773 – 27 October 1846) emigrated from France soon after the outbreak of the French Revolution. A lifelong royalist, he fought with the counter-revolutionary Army of Condé for two years, then joined the insurrection in France for three more years before going into exile. He was arrested after assisting the Georges Cadoudal conspiracy, but escaped to Portugal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972885}
{"src_title": "GAZ-M20 Pobeda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first sketches of similar-looking cars were completed by Valentin Brodsky in 1938 and by Vladimir Aryamov in 1940, which revealed a growing tendency towards streamline car design in the Soviet Union. Aryamov's two-door coupe GAZ-11-80, designed in 1940, greatly resembled the later Pobeda and was in many ways identical to it. However, after the German invasion of 1941 military priorities delayed the work on the new car and the factory was switched to military production. The first Pobeda was developed in the Soviet Union under chief engineer Andrei A. Liphart. Originally intended to be called \"Rodina\" (Homeland), the name \"Pobeda\" (Victory) was a back-up, but was preferred by Joseph Stalin. The name was chosen because the works started in 1943 at Gorky Avto Zavod (GAZ, \"Gorky Car Plant\"), when victory in World War II began to seem likely, and the car was to be a model for post-war times. The plant was later heavily bombarded, but work was unaffected. Styling was done by \"the imaginative and talented Veniamin Samoilov\". The GAZ-M20 Pobeda was one of the first Soviet cars of original design and moreover introduced a new vogue in automobile design; only the front suspension and, partially, the unitized body were influenced by the 1938 Opel Kapitän. It was one of the first cars to introduce ponton styling with slab sides, preceding many Western manufacturers. The M20 was the first Soviet car using entirely domestic body dies; it was designed against wooden bucks, which suffered warping, requiring last-minute tuning by GAZ factory employees. The first prototype was ready on November 6, 1944 (for an anniversary of the October Revolution). The first production model rolled off the assembly line on June 21, 1946. It was also the first Soviet automobile to have turn signals, two electric windshield wipers (rather than mechanical- or vacuum-operated ones), four-wheel hydraulic brakes, an electric heater, and a factory-installed AM radio. The car came to be a symbol of postwar Soviet life and is today a popular collector's item.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design and development.", "content": "During the design process, GAZ had to choose between a inline six and a inline four; Stalin preferred the four, so it was used. The same M-20 engine was later used on the ASU-57 light assault gun. In addition, the headlights were covered by an American patent.  Production started in 1946, only a year after the end of the world war, and was difficult due to serious economic and technical hardships caused by the war; by the end of 1946, only twenty-three cars were completed, virtually by hand. Truly mass production had to wait until 28 April 1947, and even then, only 700 were built before October 1948. During that period the Soviet Union was unable to produce steel sheets large enough for body panels, so strips had to be welded together, which led to countless leaks and of solder in the body, as well as an increase in weight of. Steel quality was below average, up to 60% was rejected, and the overall quality of the first cars was so low that production was actually stopped by order of the government and the company's director was fired. On August 31, 1948, the government issued a decree requiring the immediate improvement of quality and thorough testing of the new automobiles. The cars and their integral parts were subjected to detailed laboratory and on-road testing, opinions of the cars' drivers were carefully studied and taken into account.  After a reorganisation, solving the initial build quality issues, making 346 improvements and adding two thousand new tools, the Pobeda was restored to production. It had a new carburettor, different final drive ratio (5.125:1 rather than 4.7:1), strengthened rear springs, improved heater, and the ability to run on the low-grade 66 octane fuel typical in the Soviet Union. (Among the changes was a lower rear seat, enabling military and police officers to ride without removing their caps). The improvements enabled the new Pobeda to reach in 12 seconds, half the previous model's time. In January 1949, the state commission issued a report after testing the new model and its parts, where it noted the significant improvement of build quality, ruggedness and durability of the car, good fuel consumption and on-road performance, especially on poor roads.  The improved Pobeda was placed in production on 1 November 1949, and the techniques needed to develop and manufacture it effectively created the Soviet automobile industry. In 1952, improved airflow in the engine increased power from to ; it climbed to, along with the new grille, upholstery, steering wheel, radio, and radiator badge, as the M20V (Russian: \"М-20В\"), 1955.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions.", "content": "Total production of the Pobeda was 235,999, including 37,492 taxis and 14,222 cabriolets. A great number of cars was used by government organizations and government-owned corporations, including taxicab parks (there were no private taxis in the USSR). Despite its 16,000 ruble price tag, with average wage 800 ruble, the Pobeda was available to buy for ordinary citizens, and by 1954–1955 the demand for cars in the USSR started to exceed production, and there appeared long queues to buy a car. The Pobeda provided the first serious opportunity for the Soviet automobile industry to export cars, and \"Western drivers found it to be almost indestructible\".  The Pobeda was replaced by the GAZ M21 Volga.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Export.", "content": "The car was a successful export for the USSR, and the design was licensed to the Polish FSO (Passenger Automobile Factory) factory in Warsaw, where it was built as the FSO Warszawa beginning in 1951, continuing until 1973. A few were assembled in Pyongyang, North Korea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical details.", "content": "Weighing, the Pobeda has a 2.1 litre sidevalve straight-four engine, derived from a Chrysler design under licence. It produced and achieved a top speed of.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The GAZ-M20 \"Pobeda\" (; \"Победа\", \"Victory\") was a passenger car produced in the Soviet Union by GAZ from 1946 until 1958. It was also licensed to Polish Passenger Automobile Factory, as FSO Warszawa. Although usually known as the GAZ-M20, an original car's designation at that time was just M-20, for \"Molotovets\" (GAZ factory bore a name of Vyacheslav Molotov).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972886}
{"src_title": "Jacques Lauriston", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Lauriston obtained his first commission about 1786, served with the artillery and on the general staff during the early campaigns of the Revolution, and became brigadier of artillery in 1795. Resigning in 1796, he was brought back into the service in 1800 as \"aide-de-camp\" to Napoleon, with whom, as a cadet, Lauriston had been on friendly terms. In the years immediately preceding the first empire, Lauriston was, successively, director of the La Fère artillery school and special envoy to Denmark before being selected to convey to England the ratification of the Peace of Amiens in 1802.  In 1805, having risen to the rank of general of division, he took part in the war against Austria. He occupied Venice and the Republic of Ragusa in 1806, was made governor-general of Venice in 1807, took part in the Erfurt negotiations of 1808, was ennobled as a count, and served with the emperor during the Peninsular War in Spain (1808–1809), where he commanded the division that besieged and won Pamplona. He fought under Viceroy Eugène de Beauharnais at the Battle of Raab in the Italian campaign and the subsequent advance to Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fame and high command.", "content": "At the Battle of Wagram on 6 July 1809, Napoleon ordered Lauriston to form a grand battery to stop the surprise Austrian attack against his left flank. To provide time, the emperor directed General Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty's heavy cavalry to charge. While Nansouty's cuirassiers and carabiniers sacrificed themselves in futile attacks on the Austrians, Lauriston assembled 112 artillery pieces for his huge battery. He gathered all 60 guns from the Imperial Guard, 24 guns from General Karl Philipp von Wrede's Bavarian division, and 38 pieces from Eugène's Army of Italy. He advanced the batteries into grapeshot range, unlimbered the guns, and opened fire. In the face of this terrific blizzard of lead, the Austrian III \"Armeekorps\" of General Johann Kollowrat halted and edged back out of the firing range. The barrage allowed time for Napoleon to organize a successful counterattack.  In 1811, Lauriston was made ambassador to Russia. In 1812, he held a command in the \"Grande Armée\" and gained distinction through his firmness in covering the retreat from Moscow. He commanded the V Corps at Lützen and Bautzen during the German campaign, but was captured during the disastrous retreat after the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813.  Lauriston was held as a prisoner of war until the fall of the empire. He then joined King Louis XVIII of France, to whom he remained faithful during the Hundred Days. His reward was a seat in the Chamber of Peers and a command in the Royal Guard. In 1817, he was created a marquis, and became commandant \"supérieur\" of the \"Département du Finistère et de la place de Brest\". In 1823, Lauriston was made a Marshal of France and he commanded a corps during the Spanish expedition. He died of a stroke in Paris on 11 June 1828. The name LAURISTON is inscribed on Column 13 of the Arc de Triomphe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacques Alexandre Bernard Law, marquis de Lauriston (1 February 1768 – 12 June 1828) was a French soldier and diplomat of Scottish descent, and a general officer in the French Army during the Napoleonic Wars. He was born in Pondicherry in French India, where his father, a nephew of the financier John Law, was the Governor-General. His mother was a member of the Carvallho family of Portuguese traders. Lauriston is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972887}
{"src_title": "Sven Fischer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Fischer, who stands at and weighs, was born in Schmalkalden, Thuringia (former East Germany). His apparent talents for athletics was discovered early and already in third grade he was training three times a week in the BSG Werkzeugkombinat sports club. In the fifth grade, he became district champion of his age class.  In September 1983, the boarding school Kinder- und Jugendsportschule (KJS) accepted him on a biathlon youth scholarship. After his exam in 1989, he joined the army studying to become a sports teacher. The German reunification and the fall of the Berlin wall and subsequent unification of the East and West German armies, forced him to leave the military in 1990.  He instead started training for international sport events, but in 1989, when Fischer was eighteen, he had problems with both his kneecaps after a growth spurt as a youth: \"I grew too fast and didn't stretch well.\" As a result he sat out the whole of the 1989 season and thought he might have to retire from the sport at his young age. However, in the 1990 season when he came back he found that he had become more powerful than before his injury, and in December 1990, he celebrated his first European cup victory in sprint in Hochfilzen. One week later he participated in his first world cup relay. He was soon rewarded B–status and because of success in the German Championship in 1992 he qualified for the world cup in Pokljuka in December 1992.  In 1993, he won a World Championship gold medal in the 10 km Team in Borovets, Bulgaria, and a world cup race, in sprint, in Kontiolahti, Finland. In 1994, he won the Olympic bronze medal in the 20 km individual.  Fischer was an integral part of the German biathlon team until his retirement.  Fischer has eight biathlon victories at the Holmenkollen ski festival, three in individual (1995, 1999, 2004), two in sprint (1995, 1999), two in pursuit (2002, 2004), and one in mass start (2001).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Fischer won the World Cup overall on two occasions (1996/97 and 1998/99), he's also come second twice (1993/94 and 2004/05), and third three times (1995/96, 1997/98, and 1999/2000). In the 2004/05 season Fischer lost the World Cup by only eleven points, which he most probably would have earned had he competed in the final race of the year, but he missed it because of a cold.  In the Olympics, Fischer won four gold medals, one of them in the sprint in 2006 Winter Olympics, and the other three in the relay (1994, 1998, and 2006). He also won two silver, and two bronze.  In the World Championships, Fischer amassed seven gold medals, six silver, and seven bronze. Four of his gold medals were won in relays, one in the team event, one in the individual, and one in the mass start. In the sprint he has one of his silver medals (Hochfilzen 2005). He has three bronze from the pursuit (Kontiolahti 1999, Pokljuka 2001, and Hochfilzen 2005). In the mass start he has one gold (Oslo Holmenkollen 1999), two silver (Khanty-Mansiysk 2003 and Hochfilzen 2005), and one bronze (Pokljuka 2001). His remaining silver and two bronze came in the relay (silver in Ruhpolding 1996, bronzes in Borovets 1993 and Lahti 2000).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biathlon results.", "content": "All results are sourced from the International Biathlon Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Olympic Games.", "content": "\"8 medals (4 gold, 2 silver, 2 bronze)\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World Championships.", "content": "\"20 medals (7 gold, 6 silver, 7 bronze)\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Individual victories.", "content": "\"33 victories (6 In, 13 Sp, 10 Pu, 4 MS)\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sven Fischer (born 16 April 1971) is a former German biathlete. He trained with the WSV Oberhof 05 club, and was coached by Frank Ullrich and Fritz Fischer (national coaches) and Klaus Siebert (club coach). After the 2006/07 biathlon season, he retired.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972888}
{"src_title": "Kazimierz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early history.", "content": "Three early medieval settlements are known to have existed on the island defining Kazimierz. The most important of these was the pre-Christian Slavic shrine at Skałka (“the little rock”) at the western, upstream tip of the island. This site, with its sacred pool, was later Christianised as the Church of St. Michael the Archangel in the 11th century and was the legendary site of the martyrdom of St. Stanisław. There was a nearby noble manor complex to the southeast and an important cattle-market town of Bawół, possibly based on an old tribal Slavic gród, at the edges of the habitable land near the swamps that composed the eastern, downstream end of the island. There was also a much smaller island upstream of Kazimierz known as the “Tatar Island” after the Tatar cemetery there. This smaller island has since washed away.  On 27 March 1335, King Casimir III of Poland (\"Kazimierz Wielki\") declared the two western suburbs of Kraków to be a new town named after him, Kazimierz (\"Casimiria\" in Latin). Shortly thereafter, in 1340, Bawół was also added to it, making the boundaries of new city the same as the whole island. King Casimir granted his \"Casimiria\" location privilege in accordance with Magdeburg Law and, in 1362, ordered defensive walls to be built. He settled the newly built central section primarily with burghers, with a plot set aside for the Augustinian order next to Skałka. He also began work on a campus for the Kraków Academy which he founded in 1364, but Casimir died in 1370 and the campus was never completed.  Perhaps the most important feature of medieval Kazimierz was the \"Pons Regalis\", the only major, permanent bridge across the Vistula () for several centuries. This bridge connected Kraków via Kazimierz to the Wieliczka Salt Mine and the lucrative Hungarian trade route. The last bridge at this location (at the end of modern Stradomska Street) was dismantled in 1880 when the filling-in of the \"Old Vistula\" river bed under Mayor Mikołaj Zyblikiewicz made it obsolete.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jewish Kazimierz.", "content": "Jews had played an important role in the Kraków regional economy since the end of the 13th century, granted the freedom of worship, trade and travel by Bolesław the Pious in his General Charter of Jewish Liberties issued already in 1264. The Jewish community in Kraków had lived undisturbed alongside their ethnic Polish neighbours under the protective King Casimir III the Great, the last king of the Piast dynasty. Nevertheless, in early 15th century pressured by the Synod of Constance some dogmatic clergy began to push for less official tolerance. Accusations of blood libel by a fanatic priest in Kraków led to riots against the Jews in 1407 even though the royal guard hastened to the rescue.  As part of the re-founding of the Kraków university, starting in 1400, the Academy began to buy out buildings in the Old Town. Some Jews moved to the area around modern Plac Szczepański. The oldest synagogue building standing in Poland was built in Kazimierz at around that time, either in 1407 or 1492 (the date varies with several sources). It is an Orthodox fortress synagogue called the Old Synagogue. In 1494 a disastrous fire destroyed a large part of Kraków. In 1495 the Polish king Jan I Olbracht transferred the Jews from the ravaged Old Town to the Bawół district of Kazimierz. The Jewish Qahal petitioned the Kazimierz town council for the right to build its own interior walls, cutting across the western end of the older defensive walls in 1553. Due to the growth of the community and influx of Jews from Bohemia, the walls were expanded again in 1608. Later requests to expand the walls were turned down as redundant.  The area between the walls was known as the \"Oppidum Judaeorum\", the Jewish City, which represented only about one fifth of the geographical area of Kazimierz, but nearly half of its inhabitants. The Oppidum became the main spiritual and cultural centre of Polish Jewry, hosting many of Poland's finest Jewish scholars, artists and craftsmen. Among its famous inhabitants were the Talmudist Moses Isserles, the Kabbalist Natan Szpiro, and the royal physician Shmuel bar Meshulam.  The golden age of the Oppidum came to an end in 1782, when the Austrian Emperor Joseph II disbanded the kahal. In 1822, the walls were torn down, removing any physical reminder of the old borders between Jewish and ethnic Polish Kazimierz.  When after 1795 (in the Third Partition of Poland) Austria acquired the city of Kraków, Kazimierz lost its status as a separate city and became a district of Kraków. The richer Jewish families quickly moved out of the overcrowded streets of eastern Kazimierz. Because of the injunction against travel on the Sabbath, however, most Jewish families stayed relatively close to the historic synagogues in the old Oppidum, maintaining Kazimierz's reputation as a “Jewish district” long after the concept ceased to have any administrative meaning. By the 1930s, Kraków had 120 officially registered synagogues and prayer houses scattered across the city and much of Jewish intellectual life had moved to new centres like Podgórze.  In a tourist guide that was published in 1935, Meir Balaban, a Reform rabbi and professor of History at the University of Warsaw, lamented that the Jews who remained in the once vibrant Oppidum were “only the poor and the ultraconservative.” However, this same exodus was the reason why most of the buildings in the Oppidum are preserved today in something close to their 18th century shape.  During the Second World War, the Jews of Krakow, including those in Kazimierz, were forced by the Nazis into a crowded ghetto in Podgórze, across the river. Most of them were later killed during the liquidation of the ghetto or in death camps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Postwar Jewish Kazimierz.", "content": "After the Second World War, devoid of Jews, Kazimierz was neglected by the communist authorities. However, since 1988, now a popular annual Jewish Cultural Festival has drawn Cracovians back to the heart of the Oppidum and re-introduced Jewish culture to a generation of Poles who have grown up without Poland's historic Jewish community. In 1993, Steven Spielberg shot his film \"Schindler's List\" largely in Kazimierz (in spite of the fact that very little of the action historically took place there) and this drew international attention to Kazimierz. Since 1993, there have been parallel developments in the restoration of important historic sites in Kazimierz and a booming growth in Jewish-themed restaurants, bars, bookstores and souvenir shops. Not only that, there are also some Jews moving to Kazimierz from Israel and America. Kazimierz with Krakow, is having a small growth in Jewish population recently.  A Jewish youth group now meets weekly in Kazimierz and the Remuh Synagogue, which actively serves a small congregation of mostly elderly Cracovian Jews.  Each year at the end of June, the Jewish Culture Festival takes place in Kazimierz. It is Europe's largest Jewish festival of culture and music and attracts visitors from around the world. Music at the festival is very diverse and played by bands from the Middle East, USA and Africa, amongst others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnic Polish part.", "content": "\"See map:\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jewish part.", "content": "\"See map:\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kazimierz (; ; ) is a historical district of Kraków and Kraków Old Town, Poland. Since its inception in the fourteenth century to the early nineteenth century, Kazimierz has been an independent city, a royal city of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom, a location south of the Old Town of Kraków, separated from it by a branch of the Vistula river. For many centuries, Kazimierz was a place of coexistence and interpenetration of ethnic Polish and Jewish cultures. Its northeastern part of the district was historic Jewish, and whose inhabitants were forcibly relocated by the German occupying forces into the Krakow ghetto just across the river in Podgórze in 1941. Today Kazimierz is one of the major tourist attractions of Krakow and an important center of cultural life of the city.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972889}
{"src_title": "Georges Mouton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Phalsbourg, Lorraine, he enlisted in the French Revolutionary Army in 1792. Serving in the early campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars, he by 1800 he was promoted to the rank of colonel.  He was promoted to \"général de brigade\" in 1805, after the establishment of the French Empire, and to \"général de division\" in 1807. Mouton distinguished himself in the battles of Jena, Landshut and Aspern-Essling. In 1810, he was created count of Lobau in recognition of his role in the battle of Aspern.  During the Russian Campaign, he acted as a senior \"aide-de-camp\" to Emperor Napoleon I of France. He then served with distinction during the 1813 campaign, seeing action at the Battles of Lützen and Bautzen.  After Dominique Vandamme was made prisoner during the battle of Kulm, Lobau commanded the retreat of the remnants of the corps. He served under Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr when, upon the retreat after the battle of Leipzig, the latter was trapped in Dresden and after the surrender of these forces he became a prisoner of the Austrian Empire for the rest of the war.  During the Hundred Days, Lobau rallied to Napoleon and was made commander of the VI Infantry Corps which he led in the battles of Ligny and Waterloo. At the Battle of Waterloo he distinguished himself in the defense of Plancenoit against the Prussians.  After the Second Restoration, Lobau was forced to go into exile until he was allowed to return to France in 1818. He was elected to the House of Representatives from 1828 to 1830 as a liberal, and, in 1830, he joined the July Revolution as commander of the National Guard.  As a reward for his services to King Louis-Philippe he was made a Marshal in 1831, the same year he was made a Peer of France. In 1832 and 1834, Lobau was assigned to suppress insurrections, a task in which he was successful.  Georges Mouton, comte de Lobau died in Paris in 1838", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georges Mouton, comte de Lobau (21 February 1770 – 27 November 1838) was a French soldier and political figure who rose to the rank of Marshal of France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972890}
{"src_title": "Jens Nowotny", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "After playing youth football for two clubs, Nowotny finished his formation with Karlsruher SC. He made his first team – and Bundesliga – on 2 May 1992, playing the entire 1–0 away win against Hamburger SV, and finished the season in the starting eleven, as the club collected three wins in four matches (three goals conceded) and finished in eighth position.  Still not in his 20s, Nowotny became a defensive mainstay for Karlsruhe. On 10 April 1993, he scored a brace for the club in only ten minutes, in a 2–2 draw at VfL Bochum, and went on to collect nearly 150 official appearances during his spell, including four in the 1993–94 UEFA Cup.  Aged 22, Nowotny signed for Bayer 04 Leverkusen, making his league debut on 21 August 1996, a 3–1 away success against MSV Duisburg. An undisputed first-choice from the start, he appeared in 32 matches in his first season, as the club finished in second place, trailing FC Bayern Munich by two points; he continued to appear regularly during his stay, often forming an efficient defensive partnership with Carsten Ramelow.  On 30 October 1998, Nowotny scored his first league goal for Leverkusen, in an 8–2 home demolition of Borussia Mönchengladbach. Additionally, he appeared in 16 games in the club's 2001–02 UEFA Champions League runner-up run; however, he was greatly missed in the following season's league campaign, only appearing once as the club finished in 15th position, narrowly escaping relegation, and having the fourth-worse defensive record in the league, at 56 goals conceded.  On 28 September 2004, Nowotny scored his first and only Champions League goal, in Bayer's 2–4 away defeat against FC Dynamo Kyiv. He left the club in the 2006 summer, with more than 300 official appearances - 231 in the Bundesliga - in 10 years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Abroad spell.", "content": "On 18 July 2006, 32-year-old Nowotny agreed to sign a three-year contract with Croatian League champions NK Dinamo Zagreb. He made his debut for Dinamo on 29 July, against NK Slaven Belupo, in the first domestic league match of 2006–07, and also appeared in the club's Champions League qualifying round against Arsenal – the English had tried to sign him in the past – a 0–3 home defeat.  On 19 August 2006, Nowotny suffered an injury during Dinamo's home match against NK Međimurje, a 4–1 win. Even though he was not fully healed and had played all 90 minutes for Germany in a friendly match only three days earlier, he asked to play because his wife and children came to Zagreb to watch him. Coach Josip Kuže, as he later admitted, had his doubts about the player's decision to play; he also had thoughts to substitute him by the end of the match, but changed his mind because of the fans, who had accepted Nowotny with acclamation. After the match, his injury became more serious, and needed surgery, and a one-month layoff (he missed both legs of the side's 2–5 aggregate loss against AJ Auxerre, for the UEFA Cup).  Eventually, on 22 January 2007, Nowotny announced his retirement from football, not being able to fully recover. He said: \"To think I may have to wait another 10 months through physiotherapy and returning to training – this is enough.\", said the 33-year-old.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Nowotny made his debut for the German national team on 30 April 1997, in a 1998 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Ukraine played in Bremen, replacing striker Fredi Bobic after 15 minutes.  He was subsequently part of the squads at two UEFA European Football Championships, 2000 and 2004, totalling five appearances in two group stage exits; he missed the 2002 World Cup due to a serious injury.  Nowotny was then picked for the 2006 World Cup in his country, after two years of absence from international football. However, the experienced stopper spent the whole tournament as backup to younger Christoph Metzelder and Per Mertesacker, only playing in the third-place play-off against Portugal (3–1 win), as stand-in for the injured Mertesacker. In total he won 48 caps, scoring his only goal in a friendly match, a 7–0 victory over Malta on 27 May 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Bayer Leverkusen  Dinamo Zagreb  Germany  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jens Daniel Nowotny (born 11 January 1974) is a German former professional footballer who played as a defender. He played in nearly 300 official games with Bayer Leverkusen in one full decade, helping them reach the 2002 Champions League final. In his prime, he is widely regarded as the best defender in Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972891}
{"src_title": "Jean-Charles Pichegru", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Pichegru was born in a peasant family at Arbois (or, according to Charles Nodier, at Les Planches-près-Arbois, near Lons-le-Saulnier), in the then Franche-Comté (now in the Jura department of France). The friars of Arbois were entrusted with his education, and sent him to the military school of Brienne-le-Château. There, he taught mathematics, and among his pupils was the young Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1783, he entered the 1st regiment of artillery, where he rapidly rose to the rank of adjutant-second lieutenant, and briefly served in the American Revolutionary War.  When the Revolution erupted in 1789, he became leader of the Jacobin Club in Besançon, and, when a regiment of volunteers of the départment of the Gard marched through the city, he was elected lieutenant colonel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rhine front.", "content": "The fine condition of his regiment was noticed in the French Revolutionary Army section of the Rhine, and his organizing ability got him appointed in the headquarters, and then promoted \"général de brigade\".  In 1793, Lazare Carnot and Louis de Saint-Just were sent to find \"roturier\" (non-aristocratic) generals who could prove successful (\"see: Campaigns of 1793 in the French Revolutionary Wars\"). Carnot discovered Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, and Saint-Just discovered Louis Lazare Hoche and Pichegru. At first, Pichegru was appointed \"général de division\" and commander of the \"Division of the Upper Rhine\".  Appointed commander-in-chief of the Army of the Rhine, Pichegru attacked the Coalition army of Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser in the Battle of Haguenau in 1793. Over a period of weeks the Coalition Forces were driven back step by step in bitter fighting. The intervention of the Army of the Moselle under Hoche at the Battle of Froeschwiller in late December finally caused Wurmser to abandon Alsace. For the Second Battle of Wissembourg, Pichegru was placed under the command of Hoche, who proved to be a difficult superior. Nevertheless, the French again won the battle, compelling Wurmser to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine and the Prussian army to withdraw toward Mainz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Northern front.", "content": "In December 1793, Hoche was arrested, probably owing to his colleague's denunciations, and Pichegru became commander-in-chief of the Army of the Rhine and Moselle. He was summoned to succeed Jourdan in the Army of the North in February 1794, subsequently fighting three major campaigns within the year. The forces of the Kingdom of Great Britain, the Dutch Republic and Habsburg Austria held a strong position along the Sambre to the North Sea.  After attempting to break the Austrian centre, Pichegru suddenly turned their right, and defeated the Count of Clerfayt at Cassel, Menin and Courtrai, while his subordinate, Joseph Souham, defeated Prince Josias of Coburg in the battle of Tourcoing in May 1794. After a lull, during which Pichegru feigned a siege of Ypres, he again attacked Clerfayt, and defeated him at Roeselare and Hooglede, while Jourdan, commanding the newly named Army of Sambre-et-Meuse, withstood Austrian attacks in the battle of Fleurus (27 June 1794), which eventually led to Allied evacuation of the Low Countries. Pichegru began his second campaign by crossing the Meuse on 18 October, and, after taking Nijmegen, drove the Austrians beyond the Rhine. The Anglo-Hanoverian army withdrew behind the Waal. Then, while Pichegru's troops prepared to go into winter quarters, the Convention ordered the Army of the North to mount a winter campaign. On 27 December two brigades crossed the Meuse on the ice, and stormed the Bommelerwaard. On 10 January Pichegru's army crossed the ice of the Waal between Zaltbommel and Nijmegen, then, on 13 January, entered Utrecht, which surrendered on the 16th. The Anglo-Hanoverian army retreated behind the IJssel and then withdrew to Hanover and Bremen. Pichegru, who had successfully penetrated the frozen Hollandic Water Line, arrived in Amsterdam on 20 January, after the Batavian Revolution had taken place. The French occupied the rest of the Dutch Republic in the next month.  This major victory was marked by unique episodes, such as the Capture of the Dutch fleet at Den Helder by French hussars, and exceptional discipline of the French battalions in Amsterdam, who, although faced with the opportunity of plundering the richest city in Europe, showed self-restraint.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thermidor and Directory.", "content": "Although a former associate of Saint-Just, Pichegru offered his services to the Thermidorian Reaction, and, after having received the title of \"Sauveur de la Patrie\" (\"Saviour of the Fatherland\") from the National Convention, subdued the sans-culottes of Paris, when they rose in insurrection against the Convention on 12 Germinal (1 April).  Pichegru then took command of the armies of the North, the Sambre-and-Meuse, and the Rhine, and, crossing the Rhine in force, took Mannheim in May 1795.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Going over to the Royalists.", "content": "Although he had become a hero of the Revolution, he allowed his colleague Jourdan to be defeated, betrayed all his plans to the enemy, and took part in organizing a conspiracy for the return and crowning of Louis XVIII as King of France. The plans were suspected, and, when he offered his resignation to the Directory in October 1795, it was promptly accepted (much to his surprise). He retired in disgrace, but secured his election to the Council of Five Hundred in May 1797 as a leader of the Royalists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coup attempts and death.", "content": "Pichegru planned a \"coup d'état\" during the \"Coup of 18 Fructidor\", but he was arrested and with fourteen others was deported to Cayenne, French Guiana in 1797. He and seven others escaped and fled to Paramaribo. The gouverneur De Friderici allowed them to get on board a ship to the United States. Shortly thereafter, he went to London where he joined thousands of Frenchmen who had left France in a mass movement in an effort to save themselves from the violence of the French Revolution. There, he served on General Aleksandr Rimsky-Korsakov's staff in the campaign of 1799. He went to Paris in August 1803 with Georges Cadoudal to head a royalist uprising against the First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte. Betrayed by a friend, Pichegru was arrested on 28 February 1804, and was later found strangled in prison on the morning of April 6. The government reported that he had committed suicide, but Napoleon has been regularly blamed for orchestrating the murder. However, there is little evidence that Napoleon was involved. His supporters often argue that Napoleon had nothing to gain from having Pichegru murdered, especially after the execution of d'Enghein, which infuriated the royalty across Europe.  Pichegru was buried in the \"cimetière Sainte-Catherine\", a Paris cemetery with its entrance in the former \"rue de Fer\", and which was closed in 1824.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Charles Pichegru (16 February 1761 – 5 April 1804) was a distinguished French general of the Revolutionary Wars. Under his command, French troops overran Belgium and the Netherlands before fighting on the Rhine front. His royalist positions led to his loss of power and imprisonment in Cayenne, French Guiana during the Coup of 18 Fructidor in 1797. After escaping into exile in London and joining the staff of Alexander Korsakov, he returned to France and planned the Pichegru Conspiracy to remove Napoleon from power, which led to his arrest and death. Despite his defection, his surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 3.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972892}
{"src_title": "Herodes Atticus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ancestry and family.", "content": "Herodes Atticus was a Greek of Athenian descent. His ancestry could be traced to the Athenian noblewoman Elpinice, a half-sister of the statesman Cimon and daughter of Miltiades. He claimed lineage from a series of mythic Greek kings: Theseus, Cecrops, and Aeacus, as well as the god Zeus. He had an ancestor four generations removed from him called Polycharmus, who may have been the Archon of Athens of that name from 9/8 BC–22/23. His family bore the Roman family name Claudius. There is a possibility that a paternal ancestor of his received Roman citizenship from an unknown member of the Claudian gens.  Herodes Atticus was born to a distinguished and very rich family of consular rank. His parents were a Roman Senator of Greek descent, Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, and the wealthy heiress Vibullia Alcia Agrippina. He had a brother named Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodianus and a sister named Claudia Tisamenis. His maternal grandparents were Claudia Alcia and Lucius Vibullius Rufus, while his paternal grandfather was Hipparchus.  His parents were related as uncle and niece. His maternal grandmother and his father were sister and brother. His maternal uncle Lucius Vibullius Hipparchus was an Archon of Athens in the years 99–100 and his maternal cousin, Publius Aelius Vibullius Rufus, was an Archon of Athens between 143–144.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "Herodes Atticus was born in Marathon, Greece, and spent his childhood years between Greece and Italy. According to Juvenal he received an education in rhetoric and philosophy from many of the best teachers from both Greek and Roman culture. Throughout his life, however, Herodes Atticus remained entirely Greek in his cultural outlook.  He was a student of Favorinus, and inherited Favorinus' library. Like Favorius, he was a harsh critic of Stoicism.  these disciplines of the cult of the unemotional, who want to be considered calm, brave, and steadfast because they show neither desire nor grief, neither anger nor pleasure, cut out the more active emotions of the spirit and grow old in a torpor, a sluggish, enervated life.  The Emperor Hadrian in 125 appointed him Prefect of the free cities in the Roman province of Asia. He later returned to Athens, where he became famous as a teacher. In the year 140, Herodes Atticus was elected and served as an Archon of Athens. Later in 140, the Emperor Antoninus Pius invited him to Rome from Athens to educate his two adopted sons, the future Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Sometime after, he was betrothed to Aspasia Annia Regilla, a wealthy aristocrat, who was related to the wife of Antoninus Pius, Faustina the Elder. When Regilla and Herodes Atticus married, she was 14 years old and he was 40. As Herodes Atticus was in favor with the Emperor, as a mark of his friendship Antoninus Pius appointed him Consul in 143.  Herodes Atticus and Regilla controlled a large tract around the Third Mile of the Appian Way outside Rome, which was known as the \"Triopio\" (from Triopas, King of Thessaly). For his remaining years he travelled between Greece and Italy.  Some time after his consulship, he returned to Greece permanently with his wife and their children.  Herodes Atticus was the teacher of three notable students: Achilles, Memnon and Polydeuces (Polydeukes). \"The aged Herodes Atticus in a public paroxysm of despair at the death of his perhaps \"eromenos\" Polydeukes, commissioned games, inscriptions and sculptures on a lavish scale and then died, inconsolable, shortly afterwards.\"  Herodes Atticus had a distinguished reputation for his literary work, most of which is now lost, and was a philanthropist and patron of public works. He funded a number of building projects, including:  Throughout his life, Herodes Atticus had a stormy relationship with the citizens of Athens, but before he died he was reconciled with them. When he died, the citizens of Athens gave him an honored burial, his funeral taking place in the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens, which he had commissioned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Regilla bore Herodes Atticus six children, of whom three survived to adulthood. Their children were:  After Regilla died in 160, Herodes Atticus never married again. When he died in 177, his son Atticus Bradua and his grandchildren survived him. Sometime after his wife's death, he adopted his cousin's first grandson Lucius Vibullius Claudius Herodes as his son.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Herodes Atticus and Regilla, from the 2nd century until the present, have been considered great benefactors in Greece, in particular in Athens. The couple are commemorated in Herodou Attikou Street and Rigillis Street and Square, in downtown Athens. In Rome, their names are also recorded on modern streets, in the Quarto Miglio suburb close to the area of the Triopio. During his life, he built a theater called the Odeon of Herodes Atticus to honor Regilla after her death in 160 AD.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "Primary sources  Secondary material", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Herodes Atticus (, \"Hērōidēs ho Attikos\"; 177), or Atticus Herodes, son of Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes (suffect consul 133), was a Greco-Roman politician and sophist who served as a Roman senator. Appointed consul at Rome in 143, he was the first Greek to hold the rank of \"consul ordinarius\", as opposed to \"consul suffectus\". In Latin, his full name was given as Lucius Vibullius Hipparchus Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes (). According to Philostratus, Herodes Atticus was a notable proponent of the Second Sophistic. M.I. Finley described Herodes Atticus as \"patron of the arts and letters (and himself a writer and scholar of importance), public benefactor on an imperial scale, not only in Athens but elsewhere in Greece and Asia Minor, holder of many important posts, friend and kinsman of emperors.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972893}
{"src_title": "Marie-Caroline of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, Duchess of Berry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Caroline was born at Caserta Palace in Naples. She was the eldest child of Prince Ferdinand, the future King Francis I of the Two Sicilies and his first wife, Archduchess Maria Clementina of Austria, the tenth child and third daughter of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor and Maria Luisa of Spain. Her parents were double first cousins.  Caroline was baptised with the names of her paternal grandparents, Maria Carolina of Austria and King Ferdinand of Naples, as well as her maternal grandmother Maria Luisa, Holy Roman Empress.  She spent her youth in Palermo and in Naples. Her mother died in 1801; her father married again in 1802 to Infanta Maria Isabella of Spain, another first cousin, and had twelve more children.  In 1816, French ambassador Pierre Louis Jean Casimir de Blacas arranged with the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily for Caroline to marry Louis XVIII of France's nephew, Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry. The marriage was held on 24 April 1816 in Naples. Caroline thus became ; known as in France.  Even though it was arranged, the marriage was happy, with Caroline and her husband living at the Élysée Palace in Paris which was given to them.  They had four children, of which the youngest two survived infancy. The elder was Louise Marie Thérèse of Artois (1819–1864). The Duke was assassinated in 1820; Caroline was then pregnant with their fourth child, Henri, Count of Chambord (1820–1883), who was dubbed the \"miracle child\", as his birth continued the direct Bourbon line of King Louis XIV of France (his grand-uncle the King Louis XVIII, his grandfather, the future Charles X of France, and Charles' other son Louis Antoine all had no sons). He was thus going to be the eventual heir to the throne. As his mother, Caroline became an important figure in the politics of the Bourbon Restoration.  In 1824, Louis XVIII died and was succeeded by Caroline's father-in-law as Charles X.  In the July Revolution of 1830, Charles X was overthrown. Both Charles and his elder son abdicated; but their cousin Louis Philippe of Orléans did not proclaim Henri as king. Instead Louis Philippe allowed the National Assembly to declare himself king. Caroline and Henri went into exile in with Charles and his family. She lived in Bath for a time, and then joined Charles and Louis Antoine in Edinburgh. Charles lived in Holyrood Palace, but Caroline (and also Louis Antoine) lived at 11 (now 12) Regent Terrace.  Caroline did not find conditions in Edinburgh agreeable, nor did she accept her son's exclusion from the throne by the Orléanist \"King of the French\". She declared her son to be the legitimate king, and herself to be regent. In 1831 she left Edinburgh, and returned to her family in Naples via the Netherlands, Prussia, and Austria. From Naples, with the help of the Vicomte de Saint Priest, she intrigued for a Legitimist rebellion to \"restore\" Henri to the throne. She also secretly married an Italian nobleman, Ettore Carlo Lucchesi-Palli, 8th (1805–1864) on 14 December of that year. In April 1832 she landed near Marseille. Receiving little support, she made her way to the Vendée and Brittany, where she succeeded in instigating a brief but abortive insurrection in June 1832. However, her followers were defeated. After remaining hidden for five months in a house in Nantes, she was betrayed by Simon Deutz to the government in November 1832, and imprisoned in the Chateau of Blaye.  During her incarceration, she gave birth to a daughter, and her remarriage was revealed, which lost her the sympathies of the Legitimists. She had French nationality by her marriage to the Duke of Berry, but lost it by her remarriage to an Italian; thus she was in theory ineligible to serve as regent. She was no longer an object of fear to the French government, which released her in June 1833.  She went to Sicily with her husband. The child born in prison died, but they had four additional living children. In 1844, Caroline and her husband purchased the beautiful palazzo Ca' Vendramin Calergi on the Grand Canal in Venice from the last member of the Vendramin family line.  In the turmoil of the Risorgimento, they had to sell the palazzo to her grandson, Prince Henry, Count of Bardi, and many of its fine works of art were auctioned in Paris. They retired to Brunnsee, near Graz in Austria. Her husband died there in 1864, and she died in 1870.  French novelist Alexandre Dumas wrote two stories about her and her plotting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patron of the arts.", "content": "Even as a member of the royal family, the Duchess of Berry was an exceptional theatre-goer. She was the patron of the Théâtre du Gymnase, which changed its name, for a time, to the \"théâtre de Madame\", in her honor. She attended the Odéon at least nine times during 1824 to 1828. She contributed to benefit performances, such as that of Giacomo Rossini's \"La dame du lac\" (1826), for victims of the fire at Antonio Franconi's Cirque Olympique; she contributed 500 francs.  The Duchess of Berry and her first husband, Charles-Ferdinand d'Artois, were enthusiastic art collectors. Her sale of 1822 was novel for its catalogue which contained lithographic reproductions of all the works. Lithography, invented by Alois Senefelder, had only been fully described in 1818 in \"Vollstandiges Lehrbuch der Steindruckerei\", translated into French in 1819. The lithographs, produced by Isidore Laurent Deroy sparked an interest in the technique as a means for reproducing art.  She was a collector of landscapes; her collection featured at least three by Ruisdael. She had several genre scenes by Auguste-Xavier Leprince and she owned works by Jan van der Heyden, Michel Philibert Genod, François Marius Granet, Pauline Auzou, Jean-Claude Bonnefond, Charles Marie Bouton, Martin Drolling, Hortense Haudebourt-Lescot, and Achille Etna Michallon, among many others.  The Duchess was known to patronise the Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory, commissioning notable works by Jean-Charles-François Leloy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Children with Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry:  Children with Ettore Carlo Lucchesi-Palli, 8th Duke della Grazia:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marie-Caroline de Bourbon-Sicile, duchesse de Berry (Maria Carolina Ferdinanda Luise; 5 November 1798 – 17 April 1870) was an Italian princess of the House of Bourbon who married into the French royal family, and was the mother of Henri, Count of Chambord.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972894}
{"src_title": "Audrey Tautou", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Tautou was born in Beaumont and was raised in Montluçon. Her father Bernard Tautou is a dental surgeon, and her mother Eveline is a teacher. Tautou showed an interest in acting at an early age and started her acting lessons at the Cours Florent. There she learned English and Italian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1990s.", "content": "In 1998, Tautou participated in a Star Search-like competition sponsored by Canal+ called \"Jeunes Premiers\" (The Young Debuts) and won Best Young Actress at the 9th Béziers Festival of Young Actors. Tonie Marshall gave her a role in the César-winning \"Venus Beauty Institute\" (1999, also known as \"Vénus beauté (institut)\"). In 2000, she won the Prix Suzanne Bianchetti as her country's most promising young film actress.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2000s.", "content": "In 2001, Tautou rose to international fame for her performance as the eccentric lead in the romantic comedy \"Amélie\" (original French title: \"Le Fabuleux Destin d'Amélie Poulain\"; ), a film directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet. Written by Jeunet with Guillaume Laurant, the film is a whimsical depiction of contemporary Parisian life, set in Montmartre. It tells the story of a shy waitress, who decides to change the lives of those around her for the better, while struggling with her own isolation. The film was an international co-production between companies in France and Germany.  The film met with critical acclaim and was a major box-office success. \"Amélie\" won Best Film at the European Film Awards; it won four César Awards (including Best Film and Best Director), two BAFTA Awards (including Best Original Screenplay), and was nominated for five Academy Awards. Grossing over $33 million in limited theatrical release, it is still the highest-grossing French-language film released in the United States.  In 2002, she acted in the British thriller film \"Dirty Pretty Things\" directed by Stephen Frears and written by Steven Knight, a drama about two illegal immigrants in London. It was produced by BBC Films and Celador Films. The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay and won a British Independent Film Award for \"Best Independent British Film\" in 2003.  In 2004, she starred in \"A Very Long Engagement\", a romantic war film co-written and directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet. It is a fictional tale about a young woman's desperate search for her fiancé who might have been killed in the Battle of the Somme, during World War I. It was based on a novel of the same name, written by Sebastien Japrisot, first published in 1991. In June, she was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS).  In 2005, Tautou starred in her first full Hollywood production, opposite Tom Hanks, in the film version of Dan Brown's best-selling novel \"The Da Vinci Code\", directed by Ron Howard and released in May 2006.  She starred alongside Gad Elmaleh in Pierre Salvadori's \"Hors de prix\" (\"Priceless\"), released 13 December 2006. The film has been compared to \"Breakfast at Tiffany's\".  Tautou starred with Guillaume Canet in Claude Berri's \"Ensemble, c'est tout\" in 2007, an adaptation of the eponymous novel by Anna Gavalda.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010s–present.", "content": "Tautou played the lead role in the biopic of fashion designer Coco Chanel, titled \"Coco avant Chanel\", and directed by Anne Fontaine. Filming began in Paris in September 2008, and released in France on 22 April 2009. The script is partially based on Edmonde Charles-Roux's book \"L'Irrégulière\" (\"The Non-Conformist\"). Instead of releasing \"Coco Before Chanel\" in the United States itself, Warner Bros. let Sony Pictures Classics handle the release there. The film grossed $6 million in the United States.  \"Coco Before Chanel\" was nominated for four BAFTA Awards, three European Film Awards, six César Awards and the Academy Award for Best Costume Design.  In 2011, she appeared in \"Delicacy\", a French romantic comedy-drama directed by David and Stéphane Foenkinos and based on the novel of the same name by David Foenkinos. David was nominated for the 2012 Best Writing (Adaptation) César Award and the film was nominated as Best Film.  She appeared in the music video of \"I Love Your Smile\", a song by British singer-songwriter Charlie Winston.  She was the host of the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2013 Cannes Film Festival.  She was a member of the jury of the 2015 Berlin Film Festival. She appeared in The Odyssey as Simone Melchior Coustea.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public image and modelling career.", "content": "Tautou began modelling at a very young age, taking modelling courses and other activities, and has modelled for magazines such as \"Vogue\", \"Elle\", \"Harpers Bazaar\", \"Marie Claire\" in many countries, and many others.  Tautou was named in 2009 as the next spokesmodel for Chanel No. 5, replacing Nicole Kidman. She was directed in the advertisement by Jean-Pierre Jeunet, with whom she worked on \"Amélie\" and \"A Very Long Engagement\". The advertisement was released in 2009 to coincide with the film's release. She has also become the face of L'Oreal and Montblanc and several other ad campaigns.  Tautou over the years has been declared a fashionista and icon by the press, appearing in many magazines, fashion, beauty, and culture. She has attended major fashion week events around the world as well as smaller events. The press sometimes refers to her as \"The Chanel Muse\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "She has studied at the Institut Catholique de Paris. A church-goer when young, she has stated that she is \"not officially\" Catholic.  Tautou says she considers France her base, where she plans to focus her career, rather than in the United States. She told Stevie Wong of \"The Straits Times\" \"I am, at the end of the day, a French actress. I am not saying I will never shoot an English-language movie again, but my home, my community, my career is rooted in France. I would never move to Los Angeles.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Audrey Justine Tautou (; born 9 August 1976) is a French actress. Signed by an agent at age 17, she made her acting debut at 18 on television and her feature film debut the following year in \"Venus Beauty Institute\" (1999), for which she received critical acclaim and won the César Award for Most Promising Actress.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972895}
{"src_title": "Statistical physics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Statistical mechanics.", "content": "Statistical mechanics provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, therefore explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum mechanics at the microscopic level. Because of this history, statistical physics is often considered synonymous with statistical mechanics or statistical thermodynamics.  One of the most important equations in statistical mechanics (akin to formula_1 in Newtonian mechanics, or the Schrödinger equation in quantum mechanics) is the definition of the partition function formula_2, which is essentially a weighted sum of all possible states formula_3 available to a system.  where formula_5 is the Boltzmann constant, formula_6 is temperature and formula_7 is energy of state formula_3. Furthermore, the probability of a given state, formula_3, occurring is given by  Here we see that very-high-energy states have little probability of occurring, a result that is consistent with intuition.  A statistical approach can work well in classical systems when the number of degrees of freedom (and so the number of variables) is so large that the exact solution is not possible, or not really useful. Statistical mechanics can also describe work in non-linear dynamics, chaos theory, thermal physics, fluid dynamics (particularly at high Knudsen numbers), or plasma physics.  Although some problems in statistical physics can be solved analytically using approximations and expansions, most current research utilizes the large processing power of modern computers to simulate or approximate solutions. A common approach to statistical problems is to use a Monte Carlo simulation to yield insight into the properties of a complex system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quantum statistical mechanics.", "content": "Quantum statistical mechanics is statistical mechanics applied to quantum mechanical systems. In quantum mechanics a statistical ensemble (probability distribution over possible quantum states) is described by a density operator \"S\", which is a non-negative, self-adjoint, trace-class operator of trace 1 on the Hilbert space \"H\" describing the quantum system. This can be shown under various mathematical formalisms for quantum mechanics. One such formalism is provided by quantum logic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scientists and universities.", "content": "A significant contribution (at different times) in development of statistical physics was given by Satyendra Nath Bose, James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, J. Willard Gibbs, Marian Smoluchowski, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Richard Feynman, Lev Landau, Vladimir Fock, Werner Heisenberg, Nikolay Bogolyubov, Benjamin Widom, Lars Onsager, and others. Statistical physics is studied in the nuclear center at Los Alamos. Also, Pentagon has organized a large department for the study of turbulence at Princeton University. Work in this area is also being conducted by Saclay (Paris), Max Planck Institute, Netherlands Institute for Atomic and Molecular Physics and other research centers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Achievements.", "content": "Statistical physics allowed us to explain and quantitatively describe superconductivity, superfluidity, turbulence, collective phenomena in solids and plasma, and the structural features of liquid. It underlies the modern astrophysics. It is statistical physics that helped us to create such intensively developing study of liquid crystals and to construct a theory of phase transition and critical phenomena. Many experimental studies of matter are entirely based on the statistical description of a system. These include the scattering of cold neutrons, X-ray, visible light, and more. Statistical physics plays a major role in Physics of Solid State Physics, Materials Science, Nuclear Physics, Astrophysics, Chemistry, Biology and Medicine (e.g. study of the spread of infectious diseases), Information Theory and Technique but also in those areas of technology owing to their development in the evolution of Modern Physics. It still has important applications in theoretical sciences such as Sociology and Linguistics and is useful for researchers in higher education, corporate governance, and industry.  Thermal and Statistical Physics (lecture notes, Web draft 2001) by Mallett M., Blumler P. by Harald J W Müller-Kirsten (University of Kaiserslautern, Germany)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Statistical physics is a branch of physics that uses methods of probability theory and statistics, and particularly the mathematical tools for dealing with large populations and approximations, in solving physical problems. It can describe a wide variety of fields with an inherently stochastic nature. Its applications include many problems in the fields of physics, biology, chemistry, neuroscience, and even some social sciences, such as sociology and linguistics. Its main purpose is to clarify the properties of matter in aggregate, in terms of physical laws governing atomic motion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972896}
{"src_title": "Leszno", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The town goes back to the 13th century. Leszno in the Polish Poznań Voivodeship was first mentioned in historical documents in 1393, when the estate was the property of Stefan z Karnina of Wieniawa Coat of Arms. The family took its name, Leszczyński from the place name of their estate as was the custom among the Polish nobility.  Around 1516, a community of Protestant Unity of the Brethren (\"Unitas fratrum\") refugees expelled from the Bohemian lands by King Vladislaus II, settled in Leszno invited by the Leszczyński family, who were since 1473 imperial counts and had converted to Calvinism. The arrival of the Bohemian Protestants as well as weavers from nearby Silesia helped the settlement to grow and made it possible to become a town in 1547 by a privilege according to Magdeburg Law given by King Sigismund I of Poland. Leszno was also the biggest printing center in Greater Poland thanks to the activity of the Protestant community, whose number increased because of inflow of refugees from Silesia, Bohemia and Moravia during the Thirty Years War. In 1631, Leszno was vested with further privileges by King Sigismund III Vasa, treating it as equal with the most important cities of Poland. At that time it already had a Gymnasium school led for a period by Jan Amos Komenský (known in English as Comenius), an educator and the last bishop of the Unity of the Brethren. From 1638 until his death in 1647, Johann Heermann, a German-speaking poet, lived in Leszno. Between 1636 and 1639, the town became fortified and its area increased.  The golden era of Leszno ended during the Second Northern War, when the town was burnt down on 28 April 1656. Quickly rebuilt afterwards, it was again set on fire during the Great Northern War by Russian forces in 1707 and was ravaged by plague in 1709. The Leszczyński family owned the city until 1738 when King Stanisław Leszczyński sold it to Alexander Joseph Sulkowski after he had abdicated for the second time.  During the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, Leszno was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia and after the Napoleonic Wars was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Posen as \"Lissa\". In 1887 it became the administrative seat of the Prussian \"Kreis Lissa\". The town took part in the Greater Poland Uprising of 1918–19 and was returned to the Second Polish Republic by the Treaty of Versailles with effect from 17 January 1920. The local populace had to acquire Polish citizenship. In the 1939 Invasion of Poland, the town was annexed by Nazi Germany and incorporated into \"Reichsgau Wartheland\". The Polish population was resettled to the \"General Government\". Most of the town's Jewish population (which in its history included such famous rabbis as Leo Baeck and Jacob of Lissa as well as the writer Ludwig Kalisch) and remaining Poles were murdered by the Nazi \"Einsatzgruppen\".  After the defeat of Nazi-Germany, the town returned to Poland in 1945. It underwent a period of fast development especially between 1975 and 1998 when it was a seat of a \"voivodeship\" administrative area. In 2000 the city was awarded \"The Golden Star of Town Twinning\" prize by the European Commission.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Leszno has an oceanic climate (Köppen: \"Cfb\") although notably with warm summer continental characteristics (\"Dfb\"), typical of inland west and south polish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – Sister cities.", "content": "Leszno is twinned with:  The Leszno motorcycle club was founded on May 8, 1938. The club was re-established May 2, 1946 after World War II. On July 28, 1949 the Leszno motorcycle club changed its name to Unia Leszno Speedway Club. When the name was changed, some rules and regulations were changed as well. The Unia Leszno has been a very successful club that has won many awards and medals throughout the years. The Unia Leszno Speedway Club has won over 78 different medals since the formation of the club.  The Leszno Aero Club is the largest airfield in the Wielkopolska area. The Aero Club belongs to the Polish Aero Club central gliding school. The Aero Club in Leszno hosted the world gliding championship in 1958, 1969, and 2003. It is the only place that has done so. The Aero Club also has a pilot school called the Central Gliding school. The school has been around for over 50 years.  The Klub Sportowy Polonia Leszno was formed in 1912 in Leszno. It is an indoor soccer field. The first President of the club was Marcin Giera. The club did not gain much popularity until after World War II when official teams started playing there. Prior to World War I most of the people that played there were locals.  The Muzeum Okregowe in Leszno was founded in 1949. It officially opened on January 1, 1950. It is known to be own of the oldest museums in the Wielkopolska area of Poland. The museum displays Leszno's history and culture from the past 50 years. It specializes in artifacts from the 17th century. Throughout the years, things from the museum were moved to different museums around Poland. In early 1963 the artifacts were officially and permanently placed in an old pastors home. The building is located on No. 17 Metzig Square.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Leszno (, between 1800 and 1918 also called \"Polnisch Lissa\" or \"Lissa in Posen\") is a town in western Poland with 64,197 inhabitants (2017) and is the seventh-largest town in the Greater Poland Voivodeship. Since 1999 it has been in the southern part of the new voivodeship. Previously it was the capital of the Leszno Voivodeship (1975–1998). The town has county status.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972897}
{"src_title": "Pavel Telička", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Washington, D.C. as the son of a communist diplomat. He was member of Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and after his graduation from the Faculty of Law, Charles University in Prague, in 1986 and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Czechoslovakia. In the following years, he held various positions in the Czechoslovak – later Czech – ministry, including the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in the Czech Mission to the European Union (EU) in Brussels. From 1998 onwards, he served as Chief Negotiator for the accession of the Czech Republic to the European Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European Union.", "content": "In February 2004 Czech government nominated Miloš Kužvart, the former Czech Environment Minister, as a candidate for the EU commissioner. Kužvart, however, was allegedly not able to communicate in any foreign language, although he does in fact speak English, and allegedly lacked insight into EU affairs. He stepped down in a dramatic way after his first candidate visit in Brussels. Under time pressure the government nominated Telička.  When the Czech Republic entered the EU on 1 May 2004 Telička became EU commissioner in the Prodi Commission. He shared the portfolio of Health and Consumer Protection with David Byrne. He held this post only until November 2004; he did not continue in the following Barroso Commission due to a Czech government crisis in summer 2004. He was succeeded as the Czech commissioner by Vladimír Špidla, the former Czech Prime Minister who resigned during a crisis.  Soon after, in December 2004, he co-founded BXL Consulting with offices in Prague and Brussels. BXL Consulting was providing consultancy in EU affairs but as of 2014 it is no longer doing so. In 2013 he supported ANO 2011 led by Andrej Babiš in the Czech parliament elections; he was its candidate for the 2014 European Parliament election. Since his election in July 2014, he was a vice-chair in the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe until the 2019 European Parliament election.  He was also elected president of the Czech Rugby Union in November 2009.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pavel Telička (born 21 August 1965) is a Czech lobbyist, politician and Member of the European Parliament (MEP) from the Czech Republic. He previously served as European Commissioner for Health and Consumer Protection from May 2004 to November 2004. He was a member of the ANO 2011, part of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe until 2017 when he quit amid disagreements with leader Andrej Babiš.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972898}
{"src_title": "Volkswagen Transporter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "T1 – Type 2 (1950–1967).", "content": "Initially derived from the Volkswagen Type 1 (Volkswagen Beetle), the Volkswagen Type 2 (T1) was the first generation of Volkswagen's Transporter family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "T2 – Type 2 (1967–1979).", "content": "The Volkswagen T2 platform was marketed from 1967 through 1979 model years, with a Volkswagen Type 4 engine optionally available from 1972 on.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "T3 – Type 2 (1979–1992).", "content": "The Volkswagen (Type 2) T3 Transporter, also known as T25 in the UK or VW Vanagon in the United States, was introduced in 1979. The T3 Transporter was one of the last all-new bodied Volkswagen platforms that still used an air-cooled, rear-engine design.  Compared to its predecessor, (the T2), the T3 was sturdier and heavier, with a slightly larger, much more square and boxy body, that offered more usable interior space than the original models' rounded front side, roof, and edges. The T3, with its front now folding sharply along a horizontal middle axis, instead of the old model's curve, is sometimes called \"the wedge\" by enthusiasts, to differentiate it from earlier VW \"Kombis\".  The Volkswagen air-cooled boxer engine was supplanted by a water-cooled one – though still rear-mounted – in 1983. Both Porsche and Oettinger built six-cylinder versions of the T3 Transporter in very small numbers, with the Porsche-built version achieving a top speed around.  A four-wheel drive Syncro model was introduced, premiering in January 1985.  While production of the T3 ended in Europe with the Syncro produced in Austria until 1992, the T3 was also produced in South Africa, until 2002.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "T4 – Transporter (1990–2003).", "content": "The first officially designated \"T platform\" vehicle, the Volkswagen Transporter (T4) dramatically updated the Volkswagen van line by using a front-mounted, front-wheel drive, water-cooled engine. The T4 was marketed in North America as the Volkswagen Eurovan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "T5 – Transporter (2003–2015).", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2003–2009 (pre facelift).", "content": "The Volkswagen Transporter (T5) is a current variant of the Volkswagen T platform. In North America it is sold in Mexico but not in the United States or Canada. As with other light trucks, the T5 range would face a 25% tariff, known as the chicken tax, if imported to the US.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009–2015 (facelift).", "content": "The Transporter T5 range received a facelift in late 2009. Updated powertrain options include common rail diesel engines, and a world-first usage in a light commercial vehicle of a dual clutch transmission – namely Volkswagen Group's 7-speed Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "T6 – Transporter (2016–present).", "content": "In 2016, Volkswagen released the latest iteration of the Transporter, the T6.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Volkswagen Transporter, based on the Volkswagen Group's T platform, now in its sixth generation, refers to a series of vans produced for over 60 years and marketed worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972899}
{"src_title": "Stéphanie de Beauharnais", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Versailles at the beginning of the French Revolution, Stéphanie was a great-granddaughter to Claude de Beauharnais (1680–1738) and Renée Hardouineau (1696–1744) who were married in La Rochelle during 1713. Their oldest son was François de Beauharnais, Marquess de la Ferte-Beauharnais (1714–1800) who served as a governor of Martinique. Their younger son was Claude de Beauharnais, 1st Count des Roches-Baritaud (1717–1784), Stephanie's paternal grandfather.  Claude was married in 1753 to Marie Anne Françoise Mouchard (1738–1813), known in poetry as \"Fanny de Beauharnais\". Their oldest son was Claude de Beauharnais, 2nd Count des Roches-Baritaud (1756–1819). In 1783 the 2nd Count married Claudine Françoise de Lezay (1767–1791). The marriage resulted in the birth of first her older brother Alberic de Beauharnais (1786–1791) and then Stephanie herself. Her father was remarried in 1799 to Suzanne Fortin-Duplessis (1775–1850). The second marriage resulted in the birth of her half-sister Joséphine de Beauharnais, Marchioness de Quiqueran-Beaujeu (1803–1870).  The fates of her family however would be defined by another Joséphine. On December 13, 1779 Alexandre, Vicomte de Beauharnais, first cousin of her father, was married to Joséphine Tascher de la Pagerie. On July 23, 1794, Alexandre was guillotined. Joséphine had affairs with several influential figures of the French Directory, including Paul François Jean Nicolas Barras. The latter would introduce her to his recent favorite Napoléon Bonaparte. Napoléon soon started courting her. On March 9, 1796 they were married.  General Napoléon Bonaparte was now stepfather to Eugène de Beauharnais and Hortense de Beauharnais, second cousins of Stephanie. As his prominence and wealth continued to rise, Napoléon found himself being \"de facto\" patron to both the Bonaparte and the de Beauharnais families. Stephanie would soon see her patron rise to become First Consul of France.  Her \"uncle\" crowned himself Emperor of the French on December 2, 1804. As a prominent member of the new Imperial Family, Stephanie held residence in the Tuileries Palace. Her new status allowed her to live a rather luxurious life. She would soon however have to depart both the Palace and France.  This was a consequence of Napoleon's effort to secure an alliance with the Prince-elector of Baden. The alliance was to be secured through a marriage between the descendants of the two sovereigns, connecting the two dynasties. The Prince-Elector was to be represented by his grandson. Napoleon on the other hand lacked legitimate descendants of his own. He adopted Stephanie and named her \"Princesse Française\" (French Princess) with the style of Imperial Highness. The marriage took place in Paris on April 8, 1806. On July 25, 1806 her new grandfather-in-law was named Karl Friedrich, Grand Duke of Baden.  By most accounts the arranged marriage was not particularly successful. Her husband was determined to continue living as a bachelor. He set residence in Karlsruhe. She was allowed to settle separately in Mannheim. Even the official complaints by the Emperor did not resolve this situation. The Grand Duke offered Schwetzingen to be their common summer residence. But only Stephanie accepted the offer. The situation changed somewhat when it became evident that the aging Grand Duke would not live much longer. The couple apparently reconciled in an effort to produce heirs for the throne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "On June 10, 1811, Stephanie's husband, Karl succeeded his grandfather as Grand Duke of Baden. He and Grand Duchess Stephanie would have five children:  Among her descendants are the former Kings of Romania and former King of Yugoslavia, the present King of the Belgians, the present Grand Duke of Luxembourg and the present Sovereign Prince of Monaco.  The Grand Duke died on December 8, 1818. Stephanie remained a widow for the rest of her long life. She was reportedly a devoted mother to her three daughters. Her residence in Mannheim became a popular Salon for artists and intellectuals. Stephanie died in Nice, France at the age of 71, in 1860, 41 years after her husband.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stéphanie, Grand Duchess of Baden (Stéphanie Louise Adrienne de Beauharnais; August 28, 1789 – January 29, 1860) was a French princess and the Grand Duchess consort of Baden by marriage to Karl, Grand Duke of Baden.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972900}
{"src_title": "William I, Elector of Hesse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "William was born in Kassel, Hesse in 1743. His father, landgrave Frederick II (who died in 1785), had in 1747 abandoned the family and reverted to Catholicism. In 1755 he formally annulled his marriage. William's grandfather, Landgrave William, granted the newly acquired principality of Hanau to his daughter-in-law and grandsons. Technically, young William became the reigning prince of Hanau, while under his mother's regency. The young prince William, together with his two younger brothers, lived with their mother, the landgravine Mary. From 1747 they were supported by Protestant relatives and moved to Denmark. There they lived with Mary's sister, Louise of Great Britain, and her family; Louise died in 1751.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 1 September 1764, William married his first cousin, Wilhelmina Caroline of Denmark and Norway (1747–1820), who was the second surviving daughter of Frederick V of Denmark and Norway. They married at Christiansborg Palace and resided for two decades mostly in Denmark.  In 1785 they moved to Kassel when William succeeded to the landgraviate. During the lifetime of his father, William had already received the Principality of Hanau, south of the Hessian territories near Frankfurt, as successor of its newly extinct princes. The Hanau people did not want to have a Catholic ruler.  William's younger brother Charles in 1766 married another of their Danish first cousins, Princess Louise of Denmark.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Upon the death of his father on 31 October 1785, he became William IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel. He was said to have inherited one of the largest fortunes in Europe at the time.  William looked for help in managing his estate. He hired Mayer Amschel Rothschild as \"Hoffaktor\" in 1769, to supervise the operation of his properties and tax-gathering. The wealth of William's estate provided a good living for Rothschild and the men had a strong relationship; he founded the Rothschild family dynasty, which became important in financing and banking in Europe. Although they had been acquainted since 1775, William IX did not formally designate Rothschild as his overseer until 1801.  The early fortunes of the Rothschild family were made through a conjunction of financial intelligence and the wealth of Prince William. During the Napoleonic Wars, William used the Frankfurt Rothschilds to hide his fortune from Napoleon. This money then saw its way through to Nathan Mayer, (N.M.) in London, where it helped fund the British movements through Portugal and Spain. The interest made from this venture was reaped by the budding banker barons, who used it to swiftly develop their fortune and prestige in Europe and Britain. It was not long before their riches outweighed those of their benefactor, William of Hesse-Kassel.  In 1803, Landgrave William was created \"His Royal and Serene Highness\" The Prince-Elector of Hesse. In 1806 his electorate was annexed by the Kingdom of Westphalia, ruled by Jérôme Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother. William escaped to Denmark with his family and lived there in exile until the French were expelled from Germany. Following the defeat of the Napoleonic armies in the Battle of Leipzig, William was restored in 1813.  He was a member of the Tugendbund, a quasi-Masonic secret society founded after the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in June 1808 at Koningsberg.  Several other prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire had been recognized as kings at the Congress of Vienna (1815), and William attempted to join them by declaring himself King of the Chatti. However, the European powers refused to recognize this title at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) and instead granted him the grand ducal style of \"Royal Highness.\" Deeming the title of Prince-Elector to be superior in dignity to that of Grand Duke, William chose to remain an Elector, even though there was no longer a Holy Roman Emperor to elect. Hesse-Kassel would remain an Electorate until it was annexed by Prussia in 1866.  He ruled until his death in Kassel in 1821. He was succeeded by his son William.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "With his wife Wilhelmina Caroline of Denmark and Norway he had four children:  He had several mistresses and fathered over twenty recognized illegitimate children and provided some financial means to each of them.  With his mistress Charlotte Christine Buissine:  With his mistress Rosa Dorothea Ritter (1759–1833):  With his mistress Karoline von Schlotheim (1766–1847):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William I, Elector of Hesse (; 3 June 1743 – 27 February 1821) was the eldest surviving son of Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) and Princess Mary of Great Britain, the daughter of George II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972901}
{"src_title": "Miloslav Vlk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Vlk was born in Líšnice, a municipal part of the market town of Sepekov, in the Písek District of Southern Bohemia. He spent his childhood in Záluží near Chyšky, where he attended elementary school and experienced the hard labour of farm work.  At the age of 11, he first started thinking about the priesthood. This initial idea of a priestly vocation came to him because he felt particularly challenged by a poster hanging in his parish church that continued to attract his attention. The poster said: 'Wouldn't you like to become a priest?'. That goal seemed unattainable at the time, so he dreamed of becoming an aircraft pilot.  On 20 June 1952 he passed his final examination at Secondary School in České Budějovice, Southern Bohemia. In those years of Communist persecution theological studies were impossible, so from 1952 to 1953 he worked at the Motor Union automobile factory in České Budějovice and from 1953 to 1955 did military service in Karlovy Vary.  Despite the political situation, after being discharged he was able to study archival science at the Arts Faculty of the Charles University in Prague and received his degree in 1960. He worked in various archives in Southern Bohemia: at the Regional Archives of Třeboň in Jindřichův Hradec, and from December 1960 to 1964 at the Civic and District Archives of České Budějovice, where he served as director.  In this same period he published a series of articles in various scientific reviews. In 1964 he left this work in order to study at the Theology Faculty of Saints Cyril and Methodius in Litoměřice (1964–1968).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Priesthood.", "content": "On 23 June 1968, during the 'Prague Spring', he was ordained a priest at the age of 36 and was immediately appointed secretary to Bishop Josef Hlouch of České Budějovice (1968–1971).  The state authorities, worried about his influence and pastoral activity, forced him in 1971 to leave České Budějovice and sent him to the parishes of Lažiště and Záblatí, isolated on the mountains of the Bohemian Forest in the Prachatice district. From 1 November 1972 he was parish priest in Rožmitál pod Třemšínem and at the same time in Bohutín and Drahenice, in the Příbram district. There in 1978, the state authorities, in collaboration with the local communists, revoked his state authorization to exercise his priestly ministry.  Citizen Vlk was thus forced to live underground in Prague from October 1978 to 31 December 1988.  From 1978 to 1986 he worked as a window-cleaner in downtown Prague. In this period he secretly carried out his pastoral activity with small groups of lay people. From 1986 to 1988 he was able to work in the district archives of the Czechoslovak State Bank in Prague.  On 1 January 1989, at the start of the 'turning point', he was permitted to exercise the priestly ministry for a 'trial' year. He became parish priest at Žihobce and Bukovník in the Klatovy region of Western Bohemia. Subsequently, on 1 September 1989, he began to work as a curate on the Bavarian (German) border: at Čachrov, Javorná, Železná Ruda, Běšiny and Stráž na Šumavě.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Episcopacy and Cardinalate.", "content": "The \"Velvet Revolution\" changed the status of the church in Czechoslovakia and on 14 February 1990 Pope John Paul II appointed Vlk Bishop of České Budějovice and he was consecrated on 31 March 1990 from Bishop Antonín Liška.  On 27 March 1991 Pope John Paul II appointed Vlk Archbishop of Prague to succeed Cardinal František Tomášek. He was installed on 1 June 1991. He was made a Cardinal by Pope John Paul II in the Consistory of 26 November 1994, becoming the Cardinal-Priest of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme.  In 1992 he was elected President of the Czech Episcopal Conference; a role that he held until 2001. From 16 April 1993 until 31 May 2001 Archbishop Vlk was President of the Council of European Episcopal Conferences (CCEE), as the successor to Carlo Maria Martini, Archbishop of Milan, Italy. Special Secretary of the 1st Special Assembly for Europe of the Synod of Bishops (1991); and has taken part in the 9th General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops (1994) and in the 2nd Special Assembly for Europe (1999).  Between 1992 and 1993 he received three honorary degrees: one each from Illinois Benedictine College and the University of St. Thomas in the U.S., and a doctorate in theology from the Faculty of Passau. In addition to these academic awards he has also received various honorary citizenships.  Cardinal Vlk died, after a long illness on 18 March 2017.  Vlk was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2005 papal conclave that selected Pope Benedict XVI. Vlk reached age 80 on 17 May 2012 and lost the right to participate in any papal conclave and on the same day he ceased to hold his various Curial memberships. He was a member of the following dicasteries of the Roman Curia:  Pope Benedict XVI accepted Cardinal Vlk's resignation as Archbishop of Prague on 13 February 2010 and nominated Dominik Duka to succeed him.  Vlk served for 18 years as Moderator of the Bishop-Friends of the Focolare Movement. On 10 August 2012, he was succeeded in this position by Monsignor Francis Xavier Kriengsak Kovitvanit, the Metropolitan Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bangkok in Bangkok, Thailand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Views.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Church properties in the Czech Republic.", "content": "Vlk has fought a decade-long battle to work out a new legal framework for the Catholic Church in the Czech Republic, which would include resolution of some $6 billion in church property confiscated under the Communists and never returned. That includes almost a million acres (4,000 km2) of forest which formed the church's traditional economic base.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political groups.", "content": "Vlk has been sharply critical of the rise of far-right and xenophobic sentiment in Central Europe, joining Jewish protests in 2007 when right-wingers planned a march through Prague's Jewish quarter on the anniversary of Kristallnacht.  On the 41st anniversary of the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, Cardinal Vlk called for the ban of the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia, which is currently the third most popular political party in the Czech Republic according to opinion polls.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conflict with Lefebvrites.", "content": "In 2006, Vlk criticized a group of Lefebvrite tradionalists who held a conference in Prague, accusing them of sympathies for \"anti-Semitism and neo-Nazism\". Local organizers responded that Vlk showed \"ill will to socially ostracize Catholics who point to the negative consequences of liberalization processes in the church.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Miloslav Vlk (; 17 May 1932 – 18 March 2017) was a Czech prelate of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Archbishop of Prague from 1991 to 2010. He was made a cardinal in 1994. He was also the President of the Council of European Bishops' Conferences (1993–2001).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972902}
{"src_title": "Pardubice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The oldest extant document regarding Pardubice comes from 1295.  The area had a monastery founded in 2nd half of 13th century and the city was founded. In 1491, Pardubice was bought by William II of Pernstein, who continued to expand the town and made significant impact on its prosperity. Until 1918, the town was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867), head of the PARDUBITZ district, one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Bohemia.  In 1845, the first train arrived to Pardubice. The town was connected to other railway lines so Pardubice could thrive even more. New industrial enterprises started to emerge in the town, namely a distillery, a factory for mill machines of Josef Prokop and sons and Fanta's Factory. Since 1874, the Great Pardubice Steeplechase (\"Velká Pardubická\") horse race has taken place every autumn (second Sunday in October). On 13 May 1911, Ing. Jan Kašpar made history by flying the first long-haul flight towards Prague. In Pardubice, industrial expansion was on the rise, especially after the First World War. However, during the Second World War the town was damaged by air strikes of the Allies. The Fanto Werke refinery at Pardubice was repeatedly bombed during the Oil Campaign of World War II, and forced labor was provided by a concentration camp. Tesla electronics manufacturer operated from 1921–1989, and the Foxconn factory was established in June 2000. After 1989 the town continued to develop and flourish; the Chateau and its surroundings of estates were reconstructed. Pardubice has established contacts with foreign municipalities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Pardubice is situated on the bank of the second longest river in the Czech Republic, the Labe River, where there is a mouth of another river called Chrudimka. Pardubice is located at approximately 15° east longitude and 50° north longitude. The city is located 100 km east of the capital city of Prague, 150 km north-west of Brno. Pardubice is in the area of Labe Lowlands with average elevation of 225 m and its area is 78 km. The area is of lowland character without many hills. One exception is a nearby hill, Kunětická hora.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Pardubice is an important railway junction. From Pardubice come tracks to Prague, Ostrava, Hradec Králové and Jaroměř or Havlíčkův Brod. Railway station Pardubice main station is very busy, all trains of Czech railways, RegioJet and LEO Express stop there.  Pardubice is served by Pardubice Airport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry.", "content": "Pardubice is called the city of industry. The dominant industries are chemical industry, electrical engineering and mechanical engineering. The chemical industry is mainly represented by a company Paramo and Synthesia, which was founded in Pardubice-Semtín as a stock factory for explosive substances. This field of industry together with the factory went through significant development, especially in 1960s. Synthesia is now one of the leading Czech companies manufacturing cellulose, pigments and dyes, and organic compounds. Synthesia is also a major exporter mainly for the EU countries and is associated with the invention of Semtex plastic explosive. Paramo – formally known as Fanta's Factory was until 2012 one of the major companies of its kind, but during the year a major shareholder decided to significantly suppress its production and the future of Paramo is still uncertain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural monuments and sights.", "content": "Pardubice is dominated by the Green Gate with remains of the town's fortifications. The Chateau, which has been reconstructed, is located nearby. The city itself has many historical buildings, for example, Kamenná vila (Stone Villa), Crematorium, Dům U Bílého koníčka (House at the White Horse), Wernerův dům (Werner's House), Dům U Jonáše (At Jonah's), the City Hall. Churches are dedicated to the Our Lady of Sorrows, St. John the Baptist, St. Bartholomew.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "The ice hockey club Dynamo Pardubice plays in the Czech Extraliga. The team plays its home games at Tipsport Arena. The city was first represented in the top national football competition by SK Pardubice in the 1930s and 1940s. Later VCHZ Pardubice played in the top national league in the 1968–69 season. As of 2019/2020, the highest-ranked team from the city is FK Pardubice, which plays in the second-tier Czech National Football League. Women's team SK DFO Pardubice plays in the Czech First Division (women). The basketball team is BK JIP Pardubice.  The city is also home to the Golden Helmet of Pardubice (also known as the Czech Golden Helmet), a motorcycle speedway competition held at the Svítkov Stadium. The Golden Helmet has been run since 1929 is one of the most prestigious individual titles in world speedway outside of the Speedway World Championship or a riders national championship. Winners of the Golden Helmet have included World Champions Ole Olsen, Erik Gundersen, Hans Nielsen and Nicki Pedersen (Denmark), Ove Fundin, Per Jonsson and Tony Rickardsson (Sweden), and Jason Crump and 2014 winner Chris Holder (Australia). Ole Olsen holds the record for the most Golden Helmet wins with 7 (1970, 1971, 1972, 1975, 1977, 1979 and 1980).  In 2018 Pardubice is for the first time represented in the Czech rink bandy league.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Pardubice is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cooperation agreements.", "content": "Pardubice cooperates with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Pardubice (; ) is a city in the Czech Republic. It is the capital city of the Pardubice Region and lies on the river Elbe, 96 kilometres east of Prague. There is an old tower and a castle. Factories include the Synthesia chemical factory, an oil refinery Paramo, a heavy machinery factory and an electronic equipment plant. The city is well known for its sport events, which include the Great Pardubice Steeplechase in horse racing, the Golden Helmet of Pardubice in motorcycle racing, and the Czech Open in golf and chess.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972903}
{"src_title": "Louis Desaix", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born to an impoverished noble family of Ayat-sur-Sioule in the then-province of Auvergne, Desaix received his military education at the school founded by Marshal d'Effiat, and entered the French royal army. During his first six years of service, he devoted himself to duty and to military studies. When the French Revolution broke out, he threw himself into the cause of liberty. Refusing to \"emigrate\", he joined the staff of Charles Louis Victor de Broglie, prince de Broglie the Jacobin son of prince de Broglie. This nearly cost Desaix his life, but he escaped the guillotine, and by his conspicuous service soon came into favour with the Republican government. Like many other members of the old ruling classes who had accepted the new order, the instinct of command, joined to native ability, brought Desaix career success, and thus he had attained the command of a division in 1794.  During the campaign of 1795 he commanded Jourdan's right wing, and during Moreau's invasion of Bavaria, the following year, he held an equally important command. Following the retreat which ensued when the archduke Charles won the battles of Amberg and Würzburg Desaix commanded Moreau's rearguard, and later the fortress of Kehl, with the highest distinction, and his name became a household word, like those of Bonaparte, Jourdan, Hoche, Marceau and Kléber. Next year his initial successes were interrupted by the Preliminaries of Leoben, and he procured for himself a mission into Italy in order to meet General Bonaparte, who spared no pains to captivate the brilliant young general from the almost rival camps of Germany. Provisionally appointed commander of the \"Army of England,\" Desaix was soon transferred by Bonaparte to the expeditionary force intended for Egypt. It was his division which bore the brunt of the Mamluk attack at the battle of the Pyramids, and he crowned his reputation by his victories over Murad Bey in Upper Egypt. Amongst the fellaheen he acquired the significant appellation of the \"Just Sultan\".  When command passed to Kléber, Desaix was one of the small party selected to accompany Bonaparte. However, it was months before he could join the new First Consul. The campaign of 1800 was close to its climax when Desaix at last arrived in Italy. He was immediately assigned to the command of a corps of two infantry divisions. Three days later (14 June), detached, with Boudet's division, at Rivalta, he heard the cannon of Marengo on his right. Taking the initiative he marched at once towards the sound, meeting Bonaparte's staff officer, who had come to recall him, half way on the route. He arrived with Boudet's division at the moment when the Austrians were victorious all along the line. Exclaiming, \"There is yet time to win another battle!\" he led his three regiments straight against the enemy's centre. At the moment of victory Desaix was killed by a musket ball. It happened to be that same day, when Jean-Baptiste Kleber, Desaix's good friend and comrade, governor-general of Egypt, was assassinated in Cairo. Upon hearing the news of Desaix's death, a grief-stricken Napoleon exclaimed, \"Why am I not allowed to weep?\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memory.", "content": "Napoleon paid tribute to Desaix by erecting monuments to him, one on the Place Dauphine and the other in the Place des Victoires in Paris. The memorial in the Place des Victoires was later destroyed. A monumental tomb with sculptures by Jean Guillaume Moitte serves as his final resting-place at the Great St Bernard Hospice, (his body originally lay in Milan, and it was moved to the Hospice in 1805). Moreover, his name is written on a face of the Arc de Triomphe, with other great military figures of the French Revolution. There is also a fort, in Fort-de-France, Martinique, that is named Fort Desaix in his honor. A street, Rue Desaix, and a parallel cul-de-sac, Square Desaix, in the fifteenth arrondissement of Paris, between two metro stations, Bir-Hakeim and Dupleix, also bear his name. Desaix Boulevard is a major street in the Bayou St. John / Fairgrounds district of New Orleans. Several ships of the French Navy have borne the name \"Desaix\" in his honour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis Charles Antoine Desaix () (17 August 176814 June 1800) was a French general and military leader during French Revolutionary Wars. According to the usage of the time, he took the name \"Louis Charles Antoine Desaix de Veygoux\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972904}
{"src_title": "Apepi (pharaoh)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Praenomina.", "content": "\"Neb-khepesh-Re\" ('), \"A-qenen-Re\" (') and \"A-user-Re\" (\"\") are three praenomina or throne names used by this same ruler during various parts of his reign. While some Egyptologists once believed that there were two separate kings who bore the name Apepi, namely Auserre Apepi and Aqenenre Apepi, it is now recognized that Khamudi succeeded Apepi I at Avaris and that there was only one king named Apepi or Apophis. Nebkhepeshre or \"Re is the Lord of Strength\" was Apepi's first prenomen; towards the middle of his reign, this Hyksos ruler adopted a new prenomen, Aqenenre, which translates as \"The strength of Re is great.\" In the final decade or so of his reign, Apepi chose Auserre as his last prenomen. While the prenomen was altered, there is no difference in the translation of both Aqenenre and Auserre. His Horus name \"Shetep-tawy\" is attested only twice (once together with \"A-qenen-Re\"). It appears on an offering table and on blocks found at Bubastis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Rather than building his own monuments, Apepi generally usurped the monuments of previous pharaohs by inscribing his own name over two sphinxes of Amenemhat II and two statues of Imyremeshaw. Apepi is thought to have usurped the throne of northern Egypt after the death of his predecessor, Khyan, since the latter had designated his son, Yanassi, to be his successor on the throne as a foreign ruler. He was succeeded by Khamudi, the last Hyksos ruler. Ahmose I, who drove out the Hyksos kings from Egypt, established the 18th Dynasty.  In the Ramesside era, Apepi is recorded as worshiping Seth in a monolatric way: \"[He] chose for his Lord the god Seth. He didn't worship any other deity in the whole land except Seth.\" Jan Assmann argues that because the Ancient Egyptians could never conceive of a \"lonely\" god lacking personality, Seth the desert god, who was worshiped exclusively, represented a manifestation of evil.  There is some discussion in Egyptology concerning whether Apepi also ruled Upper Egypt. There are indeed several objects with the king's name most likely coming from Thebes and Upper Egypt. These include a dagger with the name of the king bought on the art market in Luxor. There is an axe of unknown provenance where the king is called \"beloved of Sobek, lord of Sumenu\". Sumenu is nowadays identified with Mahamid Qibli, about 24 kilometers south of Thebes and there is a fragment of a stone vessel found in a Theban tomb. For all these objects it is arguable that they were traded to Upper Egypt. More problematic is a block with the king's name found at Gebelein. The block had been taken as evidence for building activity of the king in Upper Egypt and, hence, seen as proof that the Hyksos also ruled in Upper Egypt. However, the block is not very big and many scholars argue today, that it might have reached Gebelein after the looting of the Hyksos capital and is no proof of a Hyksos reign in Upper Egypt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Two sisters are known: Tani and Ziwat. Tani is mentioned on a door of a shrine in Avaris and on the stand of an offering table (Berlin 22487). She was the sister of the king. Ziwat is mentioned on a bowl found in Spain.  A 'Prince Apepi', named on a seal (now in Berlin) is likely to have been his son. Apepi also had a daughter, named Herit: a vase belonging to her was found in a tomb at Thebes, sometimes regarded as the one of king Amenhotep I, which might indicate that at some point his daughter was married to a Theban king. The vase, however, could have been an item which was looted from Avaris after the eventual victory over the Hyksos by Ahmose I.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Apepi (also Ipepi; Egyptian language ') or Apophis (; regnal names Neb-khepesh-Re, A-qenen-Re and A-user-Re\"') was a ruler of Lower Egypt during the fifteenth dynasty and the end of the Second Intermediate Period that was dominated by this foreign dynasty of rulers called the Hyksos. According to the Turin Canon of Kings, he ruled over the northern portion of Egypt for forty years. He ruled during the early half of the 16th century BC and outlived his southern rival, Kamose, but not Ahmose I. Although his reign only entailed northern Egypt, Apepi was dominant over most of Egypt during the early portion of his reign, and traded peacefully with the native Theban Seventeenth dynasty to the south.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972905}
{"src_title": "Senate (France)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "France's first experience with an upper house was under the Directory from 1795 to 1799, when the Council of Ancients was the upper chamber. There were Senates in both the First and Second Empires (the former being known as the \"Sénat conservateur\", the latter as the French Senate), but these were only nominally legislative bodies – technically they were not legislative, but rather advisory bodies on the model of the Roman Senate.  With the Restoration in 1814, a new Chamber of Peers was created, on the model of the British House of Lords. At first it contained hereditary peers, but following the July Revolution of 1830, it became a body whose members were appointed for life. The Second Republic returned to a unicameral system after 1848, but soon after the establishment of the Second French Empire in 1852, a Senate was established as the upper chamber. In the Fourth Republic, the Senate was replaced by the Council of the Republic, but its function was largely the same. With the new Constitution of the Fifth Republic which came into force on 4 October 1958, the older name of Senate was restored.  In 2011, the Socialist Party won control of the Senate for the first time since the foundation of the Fifth Republic. In 2014, the centre-right Gaullists and its allies won back the control of the Senate; they retained their majority in 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Powers.", "content": "Under the Constitution of France, the Senate has nearly the same powers as the National Assembly. Bills may be submitted by the administration (\"projets de loi\") or by either house of Parliament (\"propositions de loi\"). Because both houses may amend the bill, it may take several readings to reach an agreement between the National Assembly and the Senate. When the Senate and the National Assembly cannot agree on a bill, the administration can decide, after a procedure called \"commission mixte paritaire\", to give the final decision to the National Assembly, whose majority is normally on the government's side, but as regarding the constitutional laws the administration must have the Senate's agreement. This does not happen frequently; usually the two houses eventually agree on the bill, or the administration decides to withdraw it. This power however gives the National Assembly a prominent role in the law-making process, especially since the administration is necessarily of the same side as the Assembly, for the Assembly can dismiss the administration through a motion of censure.  The power to pass a vote of censure, or vote of no confidence, is limited. As was the case in the Fourth Republic's constitution, new cabinets do not have to receive a vote of confidence. Also, a vote of censure can occur only after 10 percent of the members sign a petition; if rejected, those members that signed cannot sign another petition until that session of Parliament has ended. If the petition gets the required support, a vote of censure must gain an absolute majority of all members, not just those voting. If the Assembly and the Senate have politically distinct majorities, the Assembly will in most cases prevail, and open conflict between the two houses is uncommon.  The Senate is also the representative of the territories and often defends the regions and mayors, see the article 24 of the Constitution.  The Senate also serves to monitor the administration's actions by publishing many reports each year on various topics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "Until September 2004, the Senate had had 321 members, each elected to serve for a nine-year term. In that month, the term was reduced to six years, while – to reflect a growth in the country's population – the number of senators was set to increase progressively, to reach 348 by 2011. Senators had been elected in thirds every three years; this was also changed to one half of their number every three years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President.", "content": "The President of the Senate is elected by Senators from among their members. The current incumbent is Gérard Larcher. The President of the Senate is, under the Constitution of the Fifth Republic, first in the line of succession—in case of death, resignation or removal from office (only for health reasons)—to the presidency of the French Republic, becoming Acting President of the Republic until a new election can be held. This happened twice for Alain Poher—once at the resignation of Charles de Gaulle and once at the death of Georges Pompidou.  The President of the Senate also has the right to designate three of the nine members of the Constitutional Council, serving for nine years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Election.", "content": "Senators are elected indirectly by approximately 150,000 officials, known as the \"grands électeurs\", including regional councillors, department councillors, mayors, municipal councillors in large communes, as well as members of the National Assembly. However, 90% of the electors are delegates appointed by councillors. This system introduces a bias in the composition of the Senate favoring rural areas. As a consequence, while the political majority changes frequently in the National Assembly, the Senate has remained politically right, with one brief exception, since the foundation of the Fifth Republic, much to the displeasure of the Socialists.  This has spurred controversy, especially after the 2008 election in which the Socialist Party, despite controlling all but two of France's regions, a majority of departments, as well as communes representing more than 50 % of the population, still failed to achieve a majority in the Senate. The Senate has also been accused of being a \"refuge\" for politicians that have lost their seats in the National Assembly. The left, led by the Socialist Party, gained control of the Senate for the first time since 1958 during the 2011 election, leading to the election of Jean-Pierre Bel at its presidency. This proved a short-lived win, as the right, led by the Union for a Popular Movement, regained the Senate three years later.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "As an indirectly elected house, the Senate is often criticised by political parties such as La France Insoumise and the National Rally as not being representative enough. The Republicans and the Socialist Party tend to want to reform the Senate in order to make it more effective without questioning its existence.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Senate (; pronunciation: ) is the upper house of the French Parliament. Indirectly elected by elected officials, it represents territorial collectivities of the Republic and French citizens living abroad. The Senate enjoys less prominence than the lower house, the directly elected National Assembly; debates in the Senate tend to be less tense and generally receive less media coverage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972906}
{"src_title": "Narcissus and Goldmund", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "\"Narcissus and Goldmund\" is the story of a young man, Goldmund (), who wanders aimlessly throughout Medieval Germany after leaving a Catholic monastery school in search of what could be described as \"the meaning of life\".  Narcissus (German: \"Narziss or, before the German spelling reform of 1996, \"Narziß\" ), a gifted young teacher at the cloister school, quickly befriends Goldmund, as they are only a few years apart, and Goldmund is naturally bright. Goldmund looks up to Narcissus, and Narcissus has much fondness for him in return. After straying too far in the fields one day on an errand gathering herbs, Goldmund comes across a beautiful Gypsy woman, who kisses him and invites him to make love. This encounter becomes his epiphany; he now knows he was never meant to be a monk. With Narcissus' help, he leaves the monastery and embarks on a wandering existence.  Goldmund finds he is very attractive to women, and has numerous love affairs. After seeing a particularly beautiful carved Madonna in a church, he feels his own artistic talent awakening and seeks out the master carver, with whom he studies for several years. However, in the end Goldmund refuses an offer of guild membership, preferring the freedom of the road. When the Black Death devastates the region, Goldmund encounters human existence at its ugliest. Finally, after being imprisoned and set to be executed, he is reunited with and saved by his friend Narcissus, now an abbot, and the two reflect upon the different paths their lives have taken, contrasting the artist with the thinker.  The timeline and geography of the narrative is left somewhat vague, as the tale is rather abstract, and there is little attempt at historical accuracy. For example, some of Narcissus and Goldmund's discussions of philosophy and science sound too modern to have taken place during medieval times.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "In this novel the influence of Friedrich Nietzsche's theory of the Apollonian versus Dionysian spirit is evident. The polarization of Narcissus's individualist Apollonian character stands in contrast to the passionate and zealous disposition of Goldmund. Hesse, in the spirit of Nietzsche's \"The Birth of Tragedy\", completes the equation by creating Goldmund as a wanderer (a Dionysian endeavour) balanced out by Narcissus, the structured and stable priest-monk (an Apollonian approach), and highlighting the harmonizing relationship between the main characters.  Goldmund is presented as an evolving seeker who attempts to embody both Apollonian and Dionysian elements, thus capturing Nietzsche's conception of the ideal tragedy. Goldmund comes to embody a wide spectrum of the human experience, lusting for the gruesome ecstasy of the sensual world yet capturing and representing it through his talent as a sculptor.  Like most of Hesse's works, the main theme of this book is the wanderer's struggle to find himself, as well as the Jungian union of polar opposites (\"Mysterium Coniunctionis\"). Goldmund represents nature and the \"feminine mind\", while Narcissus represents science and logic and God and the \"masculine mind\". These \"feminine\" and \"masculine\" qualities are drawn from the Jungian archetypal structure, and is reminiscent of some of his earlier works, especially \"Demian\". Throughout the novel, Goldmund increasingly becomes aware of memories of his own mother, which ultimately results in his desire to return to the \"Urmutter\" (primordial mother). However, he also tries to reconcile the Apollonian and Dionysian ideals through art (giving form to the formless).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English translations.", "content": "The first translation into English, (by Geoffrey Dunlop), appeared in 1932 entitled \"Death and the Lover\". Penguin Modern Classics published this translation in 1971, entitled \"Narziss and Goldmund\", reprinting in 1971, 1972x2, 1973x2, 1974x2, 1976, 1978. In 1968, a translation by Ursule Molinaro was published as \"Narcissus and Goldmund\". In 1994 a new translation by Leila Vennewitz was shortlisted for the Schlegel-Tieck Prize.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Narcissus and Goldmund (; also published as Death and the Lover) is a novel written by the German–Swiss author Hermann Hesse which was first published in 1930. At its publication, \"Narcissus and Goldmund\" was considered Hesse's literary triumph; chronologically, it follows \"Steppenwolf\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972907}
{"src_title": "The Unbearable Lightness of Being", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Premise.", "content": "\"The Unbearable Lightness of Being\" takes place mainly in Prague in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It explores the artistic and intellectual life of Czech society from the Prague Spring of 1968 to the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Union and three other Warsaw Pact countries and its aftermath. The main characters are: Tomáš, an adulterous surgeon; his wife Tereza, a photographer anguished by her husband's infidelities; Tomáš's lover Sabina, a free-spirited artist; Franz, a Swiss university professor and lover of Sabina; Karenin, Tomáš and Tereza's dog; and finally Šimon, Tomáš's estranged son from an earlier marriage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophical underpinnings.", "content": "Challenging Friedrich Nietzsche's concept of eternal recurrence (the idea that the universe and its events have already occurred and will recur \"ad infinitum\"), the story's thematic meditations posit the alternative: that each person has only one life to live and that which occurs in life occurs only once and never again – thus the \"lightness\" of being. Moreover, this lightness also signifies freedom; Tomáš and Sabina display this lightness, whereas Tereza's character is \"weighed down\". In the Constance Garnett translation of Tolstoy's \"War and Peace\" she gives us the phrase \"strange lightness of being\" during the description of Prince Andrey's death. In contrast, the concept of eternal recurrence imposes a \"heaviness\" on life and the decisions that are made – to borrow from Nietzsche's metaphor, it gives them \"weight\". Nietzsche believed this heaviness could be either a tremendous burden or great benefit depending on the individual's perspective.  The \"unbearable lightness\" in the title also refers to the lightness of love and sex, which are themes of the novel. Kundera portrays love as fleeting, haphazard and possibly based upon endless strings of coincidences, despite holding much significance for humans.  Quoting Kundera from the book:  “\"The heavier the burden, the closer our lives come to the earth, the more real and truthful they become. Conversely, the absolute absence of burden causes man to be lighter than air, to soar into heights, take leave of the earth and his earthly being, and become only half real, his movements as free as they are insignificant. What then shall we choose? Weight or lightness?...When we want to give expression to a dramatic situation in our lives, we tend to use metaphors of heaviness. We say that something has become a great burden to us. We either bear the burden or fail and go down with it, we struggle with it, win or lose. And Sabina – what had come over her? Nothing. She had left a man because she felt like leaving him. Had he persecuted her? Had he tried to take revenge on her? No. Her drama was a drama not of heaviness but of lightness. What fell to her lot was not the burden, but the unbearable lightness of being.”  In the novel, Nietzsche's concept is attached to an interpretation of the German adage einmal ist keinmal (\"one occurrence is not significant\"), namely an \"all-or-nothing\" cognitive distortion that Tomáš must overcome in his hero's journey. He initially believes \"If we only have one life to live, we might as well not have lived at all,\" and specifically (with respect to committing to Tereza) \"There is no means of testing which decision is better, because there is no basis for comparison.\" The novel resolves this question decisively that such a commitment is in fact possible and desirable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication.", "content": "\"The Unbearable Lightness of Being\" (1984) was not published in the original Czech until 1985 by the exile publishing house 68 Publishers (Toronto, Ontario, Canada). The second Czech edition was published in October 2006, in Brno, Czech Republic, some eighteen years after the Velvet Revolution, because Kundera did not approve it earlier. The first English translation by Michael Henry Heim was published in hardback in 1984 by Harper & Row in the US and Faber and Faber in the UK and in paperback in 1985.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "In 1988, an American-made film adaptation of the novel was released starring Daniel Day-Lewis, Lena Olin and Juliette Binoche. In a note to the Czech edition of the book, Kundera remarks that the movie had very little to do with the spirit either of the novel or the characters in it. In the same note Kundera goes on to say that after this experience he no longer allows any adaptations of his work.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Unbearable Lightness of Being () is a 1984 novel by Milan Kundera, about two women, two men, a dog and their lives in the 1968 Prague Spring period of Czechoslovak history. Although written in 1982, the novel was not published until two years later, in a French translation (as \"L'Insoutenable légèreté de l'être\"). The original Czech text was published the following year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972908}
{"src_title": "Wave vector", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definitions.", "content": "There are two common definitions of wave vector, which differ by a factor of 2π in their magnitudes. One definition is preferred in physics and related fields, while the other definition is preferred in crystallography and related fields. For this article, they will be called the \"physics definition\" and the \"crystallography definition\", respectively.  In both definitions below, the magnitude of the wave vector is represented by formula_1; the direction of the wave vector is discussed in the following section.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physics definition.", "content": "A perfect one-dimensional traveling wave follows the equation: where:  formula_1 is the magnitude of the wave vector. In this one-dimensional example, the direction of the wave vector is trivial: this wave travels in the +x direction with speed (more specifically, phase velocity) formula_13. In a multidimensional system, the scalar formula_14 would be replaced by the vector dot product formula_15, representing the wave vector and the position vector, respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Crystallography definition.", "content": "In crystallography, the same waves are described using slightly different equations. In one and three dimensions respectively:  The differences between the above two definitions are: The direction of k is discussed in the next section.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Direction of the wave vector.", "content": "The direction in which the wave vector points must be distinguished from the \"direction of wave propagation\". The \"direction of wave propagation\" is the direction of a wave's energy flow, and the direction that a small wave packet will move, i.e. the direction of the group velocity. For light waves, this is also the direction of the Poynting vector. On the other hand, the wave vector points in the direction of phase velocity. In other words, the wave vector points in the normal direction to the surfaces of constant phase, also called wavefronts.  In a lossless isotropic medium such as air, any gas, any liquid, amorphous solids (such as glass), and cubic crystals the direction of the wavevector is exactly the same as the direction of wave propagation. If the medium is anisotropic, the wave vector in general points in directions other than that of the wave propagation. The condition for the wave vector to point in the same direction in which the wave propagates is that the wave has to be homogeneous, which isn't necessarily satisfied when the medium is anisotropic. In a homogeneous wave, the surfaces of constant phase are also surfaces of constant amplitude. In case of heterogeneous waves, these two species of surfaces differ in orientation. The wave vector is always perpendicular to surfaces of constant phase.  For example, when a wave travels through an anisotropic medium, such as light waves through an asymmetric crystal or sound waves through a sedimentary rock, the wave vector may not point exactly in the direction of wave propagation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In solid-state physics.", "content": "In solid-state physics, the \"wavevector\" (also called k-vector) of an electron or hole in a crystal is the wavevector of its quantum-mechanical wavefunction. These electron waves are not ordinary sinusoidal waves, but they do have a kind of \"envelope function\" which is sinusoidal, and the wavevector is defined via that envelope wave, usually using the \"physics definition\". See Bloch wave for further details.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In special relativity.", "content": "A moving wave surface in special relativity may be regarded as a hypersurface (a 3D subspace) in spacetime, formed by all the events passed by the wave surface. A wavetrain (denoted by some variable X) can be regarded as a one-parameter family of such hypersurfaces in spacetime. This variable X is a scalar function of position in spacetime. The derivative of this scalar is a vector that characterizes the wave, the four-wavevector.  The four-wavevector is a wave four-vector that is defined, in Minkowski coordinates, as:  where the angular frequency formula_25 is the temporal component, and the wavenumber vector formula_26 is the spatial component.  Alternately, the wavenumber formula_1 can be written as the angular frequency formula_7 divided by the phase-velocity formula_29, or in terms of inverse period formula_8 and inverse wavelength formula_31.  When written out explicitly its contravariant and covariant forms are:  In general, the Lorentz scalar magnitude of the wave four-vector is:  The four-wavevector is null for massless (photonic) particles, where the rest mass formula_35  An example of a null four-wavevector would be a beam of coherent, monochromatic light, which has phase-velocity formula_36  which would have the following relation between the frequency and the magnitude of the spatial part of the four-wavevector:  The four-wavevector is related to the four-momentum as follows:  The four-wavevector is related to the four-frequency as follows:  The four-wavevector is related to the four-velocity as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lorentz transformation.", "content": "Taking the Lorentz transformation of the four-wavevector is one way to derive the relativistic Doppler effect. The Lorentz matrix is defined as  In the situation where light is being emitted by a fast moving source and one would like to know the frequency of light detected in an earth (lab) frame, we would apply the Lorentz transformation as follows. Note that the source is in a frame \"S\" and earth is in the observing frame, \"S\". Applying the Lorentz transformation to the wave vector  and choosing just to look at the formula_44 component results in So", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Source moving away (redshift).", "content": "As an example, to apply this to a situation where the source is moving directly away from the observer (formula_46), this becomes:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Source moving towards (blueshift).", "content": "To apply this to a situation where the source is moving straight towards the observer (formula_48), this becomes:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Source moving tangentially (transverse Doppler effect).", "content": "To apply this to a situation where the source is moving transversely with respect to the observer (formula_50), this becomes:", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "In physics, a wave vector (also spelled wavevector) is a vector which helps describe a wave. Like any vector, it has a magnitude and direction, both of which are important. Its magnitude is either the wavenumber or angular wavenumber of the wave (inversely proportional to the wavelength), and its direction is ordinarily the direction of wave propagation (but not always, see below).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972909}
{"src_title": "Paranthropus aethiopicus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first specimen of \"Australopithecus aethiopicus\" that was discovered is known as Omo 18. Omo 18, also known as \"Paraustralopithecus aethiopicus\" was discovered in southern Ethiopia by French archeologists Camille Arambourg and Yves Coppens in 1967. Omo 18 serves as a predecessor to KNM-WT 17000, which was discovered by Alan Walker and named \"Australopithecus walkeri\" by Ferguson (1989). The finding discovered in 1985 by Alan Walker in West Turkana, Kenya, KNM WT 17000 (known as the \"Black Skull\" due to the dark coloration of the bone, caused by high levels of manganese), is one of the earliest examples of robust pliocene hominids. A key feature of Omo 18 is that it has a v-shaped jaw unlike the other Australopithecus species found. Although Omo 18 was the first skull discovered of these species, many paleoanthropologists ignored the finding on the basis that it was similar to the other species of australopithecines. Once KNM-WT 17000 was discovered, interest renewed in Omo 18 and it was reclassified.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Australopithecus aethiopicus\" belongs to the group known as the robust australopithecines (\"Paranthropus\") along with \"Australopithecus robustus\" and \"Australopithecus boisei\". The robust australopithecines share many characteristics of the cranium and mandible, especially more robust jaws and teeth, flaring zygomatic arches, a prominent sagittal crest, and a heavier supraorbital torus, indicating a shared evolutionary development. \"Australopithecus aethiopicus\" has notable features that differ from the other robust australopithecines, including a larger zygomatic arch, extended ramus of the mandible, and a more prognathic face. These differences may have been developed during the evolution of \"aethiopicus\", but it may also suggest that \"A. aethiopicus\" has a different phylogenetic history than \"A. robustus\" and \"A. boisei.\"  The skull is dated to 2.5 million years ago, older than the later forms of robust australopithecines. Anthropologists suggest that \"P. aethiopicus\" lived between 2.7 and 2.5 million years ago. The features are quite primitive and share many traits with \"Australopithecus afarensis\"; thus \"P. aethiopicus\" is likely to be a direct descendant. With its face being as prognathic (projecting) as A. afarensis, its brain size was also quite small at 410 cc.  \"Paranthropus aethiopicus\" was first proposed in 1967 to describe a toothless partial mandible (Omo 18) found in Ethiopia by French paleontologists. Lower jaw and teeth fragments have been uncovered. \"P. aethiopicus\" had a large sagittal crest and zygomatic arch adapted for heavy chewing (as in gorilla skulls). Not much is known about this species since the best evidence comes from the \"Black Skull\" and the jaw. There is not enough material to make an assessment of how tall they were, but they may have been as tall as \"Australopithecus afarensis\".  \"Paranthropus aethiopicus\" is considered a megadont archaic hominin; the term megadont referring to the huge size of the postcanine tooth crowns. The initial discovery was a toothless adult mandible in the Shungura formation of the Omo region of Ethiopia in 1967 (Omo 18.18). The ash layers above and below the fossils give an approximate date of 2.3-2.5 mya. There is only one mostly complete skull for this hominin, so it’s hard to make proper inferences about physical characteristics. However, it can be said that the available skull is similar to P. boisei, although the incisors are larger, the face more prognathic, and the cranial base less flexed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "Paranthropus aethiopicus skull indicated that the cheek tooth rows are long and parallel to one another. A wide gap between left and right molars from the skull found demonstrates that it had wide front teeth. Having wide front teeth is a characteristic that distinguishes it from other Paranthropus species.  Other cranial differences that distinguish it from Paranthropus robustus and Paranthropus boisei are larger incisors, smaller cranial base and mandibular corpus, as well as a shorter postcanine tooth row. Although there is no evidence of postcranial, a proximal tibia has been recovered and is believed to belong to Paranthropus aethiopicus. When looking at details from the morphology of the base of the skull, it is clear that Paranthropus aethiopicus is the least specialized, which also supports the claim that it is the ancestor of the other Paranthropus species", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "\"Paranthropus aethiopicus\" is originally from West Turkana and Omo lived in bushland to open woodland around an area of edaphic grasslands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "There is not much information on the exact diet of the \"Paranthropus aethiopicus\", but researchers believe it had to consume a lot of food based on morphology of its mandible and sagittal crest. Its size is reported to be only one fourth of a gorilla today, hinting that its diet, despite being large, was low in nutrition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification debates.", "content": "Not all anthropologists agree that \"P. aethiopicus\" evolved into both \"Paranthropus boisei\" and \"Paranthropus robustus\", since the skull more closely resembles that of \"A. afarensis\". The one clue that makes \"P. aethiopicus\" a possible ancestor to both \"P. boisei\" and \"P. robustus\" is the similarity in jaw size. \"P. aethiopicus\" is known to have lived in mixed savanna and woodland. More evidence must be gathered about \"P. aethiopicus\" in order to accurately describe its physiology. The bizarre primitive shape of the \"Black Skull\" gives evidence that \"P. aethiopicus\" and the other australopithecines are on an evolutionary branch of the hominid tree, distinctly diverging from the \"Homo\" (human) lineage.. There has been many debates on whether Paranthropus aethiopicus should even be considered its own species or should it be part of P. boisei. However, there has been enough information to support the claim that it is different enough to be its own species. These differences consist of distinct mandibular premolar cusp morphology between both species. With new findings, larger and more elaborate talonids are also evident. Paranthropus aethiopicus was seen as having too many similarities in order to be a reasonably considered as an ancestor of the other two “robust” species. These similarities consist of the cranial capacity and the basicranial features which are structurally related to size of the brain. Many researchers have came to the conclusion, based on the law of parsimony, that since \"Paranthropus aethiopicus\" does not differ dramatically from its ancestor that it was the one who gave rise to the other “robust” species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paranthropus aethiopicus (or \"Australopithecus aethiopicus)\" is an extinct species of hominin, one of the robust australopithecines. Aethiopicus refers to Ethiopia, which is where its fossils have been discovered as well as in Kenya. Its fossils have been discovered in Ethiopia and Kenya and have been dated to approximately 2.5 million years before present.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972910}
{"src_title": "Transit of Mercury", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Scientific observations.", "content": "The most common observation to be made at a transit is to record the times when the disk of Mercury appears to be in contact with the limb of the Sun. Those contacts are traditionally referred to as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th contacts – with the 2nd and 3rd contacts occurring when the disk of Mercury is fully on the disk of the sun. As a general rule, 1st and 4th contacts cannot be accurately detected, while 2nd and 3rd contacts are readily visible within the constraints of the Black Drop effect, irradiation, atmospheric conditions, and the quality of the optics being used.  Observed contact times for transits between 1677 and 1881 are given in S Newcomb's analysis of transits of Mercury. Observed 2nd and 3rd contacts times for transits between 1677 and 1973 are given in Royal Greenwich Observatory Bulletin No.181, 359-420 (1975).  Examples of the scientific investigations based on transits of Mercury are:  Images of the November 15, 1999 transit from the Transition Region and Coronal explorer (TRACE) satellite were on Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD) on November 19 Three APODs featured the May 9, 2016 transit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1832 Mercury transit.", "content": "The Shuckburgh telescope of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in London was used for the 1832 transit of Mercury. It was equipped with a micrometer by Dollond and was used for a report of the events as seen through the small refractor. By observing the transit in combination with timing it and taking measures, a diameter for the planet was taken. They also reported the peculiar effects that they compared to pressing a coin into the Sun. The observer remarked:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1907 transit.", "content": "For the 1907 transit of Mercury, these were some the telescope used at the Paris Observatory include:  The telescopes were mobile and were placed on the terrace for the observations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Occurrence of transits.", "content": "Transits of Mercury can only occur when the Earth is aligned with a node of Mercury's orbit. Currently that alignment occurs within a few days of May 8 (descending node) and November 10 (ascending node), with the angular diameter of Mercury being about 12′′ for May transits, and 10′′ for November transits. The average date for a transit increases over centuries as a result of Mercury's nodal precession and Earth's axial precession.  Transits of Mercury occur on a regular basis. As explained in 1882 by Newcomb, the interval between passages of Mercury through the ascending node of its orbit is 87.969 days, and the interval between the Earth's passage through that same longitude is 365.254 days. Using continued fraction approximations of the ratio of these values, it can be shown that Mercury will make an almost integral number of revolutions about the Sun over intervals of 6, 7, 13, 33, 46, and 217 years.  In 1894 Crommelin noted that at these intervals, the successive paths of Mercury relative to the Sun are consistently displaced northwards or southwards. He noted the displacements as:  Comparing these displacements with the solar diameter (about 31.7′ in May, and 32.4′ in November) the following may be deduced about the interval between transits:  Transits that occur 46 years apart can be grouped into a series. For November transits each series includes about 20 transits over 874 years, with the path of Mercury across the Sun passing further north than for the previous transit. For May transits each series includes about 10 transits over 414 years, with the path of Mercury across the Sun passing further south than for the previous transit. Some authors have allocated a series number to transits on the basis of this 46-year grouping.  Similarly transits that occur 217 years apart can be grouped into a series. For November transits each series would include about 135 transits over 30,000 years. For May transits each series would include about 110 transits over 24,000 years. For both the May and November series, the path of Mercury across the Sun passes further north than for the previous transit. Series numbers have not been traditionally allocated on the basis of the 217 year grouping.  Predictions of transits of Mercury covering many years are available at NASA, SOLEX, and Fourmilab.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Partial transits of Mercury.", "content": "Sometimes Mercury appears to only graze the Sun during a transit. There are two possible scenarios:  The possibility that, at mid-transit, Mercury is seen to be fully on the solar disk from some parts of the world, and completely miss the Sun as seen from other parts of the world cannot occur.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Past and future transits.", "content": "The first observation of a transit of Mercury was on November 7, 1631 by Pierre Gassendi. Johannes Kepler had however predicted the occurrence of transits of Mercury and Venus some time before that. Gassendi unsuccessfully attempted to observe the transit of Venus just one month later, but due to inaccurate astronomical tables, he did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe. A transit of Venus was not observed until 1639 by Jeremiah Horrocks. The table below includes all historical transits of Mercury from 1605 on:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A transit of Mercury across the Sun takes place when the planet Mercury passes directly (transits) between the Sun and a superior planet, becoming visible against (and hence obscuring a small portion of) the solar disk. During a transit, Mercury appears as a tiny black dot moving across the disk of the Sun.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972911}
{"src_title": "Cymbopogon citratus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Cymbopogon citratus\" is native to Island Southeast Asia (Malesia). It has been introduced extensively to South Asia since precolonial times. After the World War I, lemongrass was introduced to Madagascar, South America, and Central America. It has now been naturalized throughout the tropics and subtropics worldwide.  In its native range, \"Cymbopogon citratus\" is known as \"sereh\", \"serai\", or \"serai dapur\" in Indonesia and Malaysia; and \"tanglad\", \"salai\", or \"balioko\" in the Philippines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary uses.", "content": "\"Cymbopogon citratus\" is abundant in the Philippines and Indonesia where it is known as \"tanglad\" or \"sereh\". Its fragrant leaves are traditionally used in cooking, particularly for \"lechon\" and roasted chicken.  The dried leaves can also be brewed into a tea, either alone or as a flavoring in other teas, imparting a flavor reminiscent of lemon juice but with a mild sweetness without significant sourness or tartness.  In Sri Lanka, lemongrass is known as \"sera\" (සේර). It is used as a herb in cooking, in addition to its use for the essential oils.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medicinal uses.", "content": "The leaves of \"Cymbopogon citratus\" have been used in traditional medicine and are often found in herbal supplements and teas.  In the folk medicine of the Krahô people of Brazil, it is believed to have anxiolytic, hypnotic, and anticonvulsant properties.  In traditional medicine of India the leaves of the plant are used as stimulant, sudorific, antiperiodic, and anticatarrhal, while the essential oil is used as carminative, depressant, analgesic, antipyretic, antibacterial, and antifungal agent.  Laboratory studies have shown cytoprotective, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties \"in vitro\", as well as antifungal properties (though \"Cymbopogon martinii\" was found to be more effective in that study).  Citronellol is an essential oil constituent from \"Cymbopogon citratus\", \"Cymbopogon winterianus\", and \"Lippia alba\". Citronellol has been shown to lower blood pressure in rats by a direct effect on the vascular smooth muscle leading to vasodilation. In a small, randomized, controlled trial, an infusion made from \"C. citratus\" was used as an inexpensive remedy for the treatment of oral thrush in HIV/AIDS patients.  Lemon grass oil contains 65-85% citral in addition to myrcene, citronellal, citronellol, and geraniol. Hydrosteam distillation, condensation, and cooling can be used to separate the oil from the water. The hydrosol, as a by-product of the distillation process, is used for the production of skin care products such as lotions, creams, and facial cleansers. The main ingredients in these products are lemon grass oil and \"negros oil\" (mixture of lemon grass oil with virgin coconut oil) used in aromatherapy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effect on insects.", "content": "Beekeepers sometimes use lemon grass oil in swarm traps to attract swarms. Lemon grass oil has also been tested for its ability to repel the pestilent stable fly, which bite domestic animals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cymbopogon citratus, commonly known as West Indian lemon grass or simply lemon grass, is a tropical plant native to Maritime Southeast Asia and introduced to many tropical regions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972912}
{"src_title": "Mayday", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The \"mayday\" procedure word was originated in 1921, by a senior radio officer at Croydon Airport in London. The officer, Frederick Stanley Mockford, was asked to think of a word that would indicate distress and would easily be understood by all pilots and ground staff in an emergency. Since much of the traffic at the time was between Croydon and Le Bourget Airport in Paris, he proposed the expression \"mayday\" from the French \"\" ('help me'), a shortened form of \"venez m'aider\" ('come and help me'). It is unrelated to the holiday May Day.  Before the voice call \"mayday\", SOS was the Morse code equivalent of the mayday call. In 1927, the International Radiotelegraph Convention of Washington adopted the voice call mayday as the radiotelephone distress call in place of the SOS radiotelegraph (Morse code) call.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mayday calls.", "content": "If a mayday call cannot be sent because a radio is not available, a variety of other distress signals and calls for help can be used. Additionally, a mayday call can be sent on behalf of one vessel by another; this is known as a mayday relay.  Civilian aircraft making a mayday call in United States airspace are encouraged by the Federal Aviation Administration to use the following format, omitting any portions as necessary for expediency or where they are irrelevant (capitalization as in the original source):  Making a false distress call is a criminal offence in many countries, punishable by a fine, restitution, and possible imprisonment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other urgent calls.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pan-pan.", "content": "\"Pan-pan\" (from the French: \", 'a breakdown') indicates an urgent situation, such as a mechanical failure or a medical problem, of a lower order than a \"grave and imminent threat requiring immediate assistance\". The suffix \"medico\" used to be added by vessels in British waters to indicate a medical problem (\"pan-pan medico\", repeated three times), or by aircraft declaring a non-life-threatening medical emergency of a passenger in flight, or those operating as protected medical transport in accordance with the Geneva Conventions. \"Pan-pan medico\" is no longer in official use.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Declaring emergency.", "content": "Sometimes the phrase \"declaring emergency\" is used in aviation, as an alternative to calling \"mayday\". For example, Swissair Flight 111 radioed \"Swissair one-eleven heavy is declaring emergency\" after their situation had worsened, upgrading from the \"pan-pan\" which was declared earlier.  However, the International Civil Aviation Organization recommends the use of the standard \"pan-pan\" and \"mayday\" calls instead of \"declaring an emergency\". Cases of pilots using phrases other than \"pan-pan\" and \"mayday\" have caused confusion and errors in aircraft handling.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Silencing other communications traffic.", "content": "\"Seelonce mayday\" (using an approximation of the French pronunciation of \") is a demand that the channel only be used by the vessel/s and authorities involved with the distress. The channel may not be used for normal working traffic until \"seelonce feenee\" is broadcast. \"Seelonce mayday\" and \"seelonce feenee\" may only be sent by the controlling station. The expression \"stop transmitting – mayday\" is an aeronautical equivalent of \"seelonce mayday\". \"Seelonce distress\" and \"prudonce\" are no longer in use since ITU WRC-07. Also only the station in charge of the distress may use \"seelonce mayday\".  The format for a \"seelonce mayday\" is MAYDAY, All Stations x3 or [Interfering station] x3, this is [controlling station], SEELONCE MAYDAY. ITU RR 2016.  \"Seelonce feenee\" (from French \"\",'silence finished') means that the emergency situation has been concluded and the channel may now be used normally. \"Distress traffic ended\" is the aeronautical equivalent of \"seelonce feenee\".  The format for the \"seelonce feenee\" is MAYDAY, All stations x3, this is [controlling station] x3, date and time in UTC, distressed vessels MMSI number, distressed vessels name, distressed vessels call sign, SEELONCE FEENEE. ITU RR 2016.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mayday is an emergency procedure word used internationally as a distress signal in voice-procedure radio communications. It is used to signal a life-threatening emergency primarily by aviators and mariners, but in some countries local organizations such as firefighters, police forces, and transportation organizations also use the term. Convention requires the word be repeated three times in a row during the initial emergency declaration (\"Mayday mayday mayday\") to prevent it being mistaken for some similar-sounding phrase under noisy conditions, and to distinguish an \"actual\" mayday call from a message \"about\" a mayday call.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972913}
{"src_title": "Anacharsis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Anacharsis the son of Gnurus, a Scythian chief, was half Greek and from a mixed Hellenic culture, apparently in the region of the Cimmerian Bosporus. He left his native country to travel in pursuit of knowledge, and came to Athens about 589 BC, at a time when Solon was occupied with his legislative measures.  According to the story recounted by Hermippus, Anacharsis arrived at the house of Solon and said, \"I have traveled here from afar to make you my friend.\" Solon replied, \"It's better to make friends at home.\" Thereupon the Scythian replied, \"Then it is necessary for you, being at home, to make friends with me.\" Solon laughed and accepted him as his friend.  Anacharsis cultivated the outsider's knack of seeing the illogic in familiar things. For example, Plutarch remarks that he \"expressed his wonder at the fact that in Greece wise men spoke and fools decided.\" His conversation was droll and frank, and Solon and the Athenians took to him as a sage and philosopher. His rough and free discourse became proverbial among Athenians as 'Scythian discourse'.  Anacharsis was the first foreigner (metic) who received the privileges of Athenian citizenship. He was reckoned by some ancient authors as one of the Seven Sages of Greece, and it is said that he was initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries of the Great Goddess, a privilege denied to those who did not speak fluent Greek.  According to Herodotus, when Anacharsis returned to the Scythians he was killed by his own brother for his Greek ways and especially for the impious attempt to sacrifice to the Mother Goddess Cybele, whose cult was unwelcome among the Scythians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideas.", "content": "None of the works ascribed to him in ancient times, if indeed they were written by him, have survived. He was said to have written a book comparing the laws of the Scythians with the laws of the Greeks, as well as work on the art of war. All that remains of his thought is what later tradition ascribes to him. He became famous for the simplicity of his way of living and his acute observations on the institutions and customs of the Greeks. He exhorted moderation in everything, saying that the vine bears three clusters of grapes: the first wine, pleasure; the second, drunkenness; the third, disgust. So he became a kind of emblem to the Athenians, who inscribed on his statues: 'Restrain your tongues, your appetites, your passions.'  There are ten extant letters ascribed to him, one of which is also quoted by Cicero: Greetings from Anacharsis to Hanno: My clothing is a Scythian cloak, my shoes are the hard soles of my feet, my bed is the earth, my food is only seasoned by hunger - and I eat nothing but milk and cheese and meat. Come and visit me, and you will find me at peace. You want to give me something. But give it to your fellow-citizens instead, or let the immortal gods have it. All of the letters are spurious. The first nine probably date from the 3rd century BC, they are usually included among the \"Cynic epistles\", and reflect how the Cynic philosophers viewed him as prefiguring many of their ideas; the tenth letter is quoted by Diogenes Laërtius, it is addressed to Croesus, the proverbially rich king of Lydia, it too is fictitious: Anacharsis to Croesus: O king of the Lydians, I am come to the country of the Greeks, in order to become acquainted with their customs and institutions; but I have no need of gold, and shall be quite contented if I return to Scythia a better man than I left it. However I will come to Sardis, as I think it very desirable to become a friend of yours.  Strabo makes him the (probably legendary) inventor of the anchor with two flukes, and others made him the inventor of the potter's wheel.  Having been informed that Solon was employed to draw up a code of laws for the Athenians, Anacharsis described his occupation, saying: \"Solon showed Anacharsis some laws that he was drafting for the Athenians. Anacharsis laughed at Solon for imagining that the dishonesty and greed of the Athenians could be restrained by written laws. Such laws, said Anacharsis, are like spiderwebs: they catch the weak and poor, but the rich can rip right through them.\" (Plutarch, Solon, https://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/biography/solon.htm)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revival in the 18th century.", "content": "In 1788 Jean Jacques Barthelemy (1716–95), a highly esteemed classical scholar and Jesuit, published \"The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece\" about a young Scythian descended from Anacharsis. The 4-volume work was an imaginary travel journal, one of the first historical novels, which Klemperer called \"the encyclopedia of the new cult of the antique\" in the late 18th century. It affected the growth of philhellenism in France at the time. The book went through many editions, was reprinted in the United States and translated into German and other languages. It later inspired European sympathy for the Greek struggle for independence and spawned sequels and imitations through the 19th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anacharsis (; ) was a Scythian philosopher; he travelled from his homeland on the northern shores of the ancient Iran, to Athens, in the early 6th century BC, and made a great impression as a forthright and outspoken barbarian, that is, a non-Greek speaker. He very well could have been a forerunner of the Cynics, in part because of his strong, but playful, \"parrhesia\". None of his works have survived.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972914}
{"src_title": "Mordheim", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Warbands.", "content": "The official rulebook which was released in 1999 introduced several warbands which players are able to use. These included human mercenaries from the Empire provinces of Reikland, Middenheim and Marienburg, cult of the possessed, witch hunters, the sister of Sigmar, the undead, and skaven.  A Mordheim Annual was released in 2002, increasing the number of officially available warbands. The expanded set of warbands introduced orcs and goblins, dwarf treasure hunters, human mercenaries from the Empire province of Ostland and Averland, high elves and Kislev.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reduction in official support.", "content": "Games Workshop ceased releasing updated rules and material for the game in 2004. Preliminary suggestions for official rules were last released in 2006 though official moves in support of the game have been non-existent for even longer. In February 2008 Games Workshop amended their mail-order indexes, removing numerous Mordheim models from their online store. In February 2010 Games Workshop stopped supplying the Mordheim rulebook for purchase as a physical book. In April 2014 the previously available digital downloads of rulebooks and other materials were removed from the Games Workshop website.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Computer game adaptation.", "content": "A computer based adaptation of the game titled was released for personal computers in November 2015 and consoles in October 2016.  There is also a version for mobile devices, Mordheim: Warband Skirmish, by Legendary Games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unofficial material.", "content": "Mordheim continues to enjoy a cult following and fans of the game have suggested further developments to the rules. Border Town Burning is the biggest post 2004 development in Mordheim. It contains detailed expansion rules for campaigns in the Cathayan borderlands, detailing the merchant travels along the \"Silk Road\" from Cathay to the Old World. Relics of the Crusades (refer to external links below) is another expansion set, this time set in Araby during the Crusades. The setting is very detailed and was originally published through official channels and so can be said to be semi-official. The Coreheim rules modification that streamlines and balances the original Mordheim rules so that play progresses faster and more weapons options are viable. The name 'Coreheim' is a play on words which signifies that the designers thought that the setting, featuring only a handful of warbands, had been diluted by the introduction of so many later warbands.  As a Games Workshop \"Specialist Game\" Mordheim receives only very limited official support regarding both gaming products (such as models) and rules tweaks/updates.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mordheim is a tabletop game published by Games Workshop in 1999. It is a skirmish variant of the company's Warhammer Fantasy game but set on a warband or \"skirmish\" scale. Mordheim was designed by Alessio Cavatore, Tuomas Pirinen and Rick Priestley. Besides being a typical miniature skirmish game, Mordheim also features a campaign system. Warbands gain experience and equipment as the campaign progresses, in a similar nature to role-playing games.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972915}
{"src_title": "Odo the Great", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "His earlier life is obscure, as are his ancestry and ethnicity. One theory suggests that he was of Roman origin as contemporary Frankish chroniclers refer to his father as an enemy Roman. Several Dukes of Aquitaine have been suggested as Odo's father: Boggis or Bertrand, or Duke Lupus I. According to the spurious Charte d'Alaon, Hubertus was one of Odo's brothers.  Odo succeeded to the ducal throne maybe as early as 679, probably the date of the death of Lupus, or 688. Other dates are possible, including 692, but he was certainly in power by 700.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early leadership.", "content": "The historian Jean de Jaurgain cites him as fighting in 711 against the Visigoth Roderic in Pamplona. In 715 he declared himself independent during the civil war raging in Gaul. It is not likely that he ever took the title of king.  In 718, he appears raising an army of Basques (\"\"hoste Vasconum commota\"\") as an ally of Chilperic II of Neustria and the Mayor of the Palace Ragenfrid, who may have offered recognition of his kingship over Aquitaine. They were fighting against the Austrasian mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, but after the defeat of Chilperic at Soissons that year, he made peace with Charles by surrendering to him the Neustrian king and his treasures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Between Umayyads and Franks.", "content": "Odo was also obliged to fight both the Umayyads and the Franks who invaded his kingdom. On 9 June 721 he inflicted a major defeat upon Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani at the Battle of Toulouse, the first major battle lost by the Muslim Umayyad forces in their military campaign northwards, claiming the lives of thousands of Umayyad soldiers. The heroic victory was celebrated with gifts from the Pope, who declared the Aquitanian duke a Champion of (Roman) Christianity and solidified his independence.  In order to help secure his borders against the Umayyads, he married his daughter, probably named Lampegia, to the Muslim Berber rebel lord Uthman ibn Naissa, called \"Munuza\" by the Franks, the deputy governor of what would later become Catalonia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battles of Garonne, Tours and death.", "content": "In 731, the Frankish Charles Martel, after defeating the Saxons, turned his attention to the rival southern realm of Aquitaine, denounced Odo's alliance with Uthman ibn Naissa, and crossed the Loire, so breaking the peace treaty held with Odo. The Frankish leader ransacked Aquitaine twice, seizing Bourges too, and Odo engaged the Frankish troops but was defeated. Charles went back to Francia.  Meanwhile, the Umayyads were gathering forces to attack Odo's ally in the Pyrenean region of Cerdanya (maybe Catalonia) Uthman ibn Naissa. In 731, the Berber lord was subject to the attack of an expedition led by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, overcoming and killing the rebel leader, and capturing Odo's daughter, who was sent as prisoner to a harem in Damascus. Busy as Odo was trying to fend off Charles's thrust, he didn't make it to help his ally.  In 732, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi's troops raided Vasconia, advanced towards Bordeaux and ransacked the city. Odo engaged them but was defeated by the Umayyads near Bordeaux. Following the defeat, Odo re-organised his scattered forces, and ran north to warn Charles Martel, Mayor of the palaces of Neustria and Austrasia, of the impending threat and to appeal for assistance in fighting the Arab-Berber advance, which he received in exchange for accepting formal Frankish overlordship. The duke, aged almost 80, joined Charles Martel's troops and was to form the Frankish army's left flank, while the Umayyads and the multinational army commanded by Charles built up their forces somewhere between Vienne and Clain to the north of Poitiers in preparation for the so-called Battle of Tours (732, or possibly 733).  Odo led his forces to play a major role in defeating the Umayyad army when they broke into the main Cordovan camp and set fire to it, sparking confusion and wreaking havoc with the enemy's rearguard. The alliance defeated the Umayyads at the Battle of Tours in 732, and expelled them from Aquitaine.  After the battle, Charles headed back north to his domains in Francia—Neustria and Austrasia— and duke Odo was left as ruler in Aquitaine and Vasconia. In 735 the Duke Odo abdicated or died, and was succeeded by his son Hunald. He may have died in a monastery where he retreated, perhaps as late as 740. Odo the Great's popularity in Aquitaine is attested by the \"Vita Pardulfi\".  The name of the character of king Yon de Gascogne in the 12th-century tale \"The Four Sons of Aymon\" is probably a corruption of Odo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Odo the Great (also called \"Eudes\" or \"Eudo\") (died 735), was the Duke of Aquitaine by 700. His territory included Vasconia in the south-west of Gaul and the Duchy of Aquitaine (at that point located north-east of the river Garonne), a realm extending from the Loire to the Pyrenees, with the capital in Toulouse. He fought the Carolingian Franks and made alliances with the Moors to combat them. He retained this domain until his abdication in 735. He is remembered for defeating the Umayyads in 721 as they advanced down the Garonne through Aquitaine. He was the first to defeat them decisively in Western Europe. The feat earned him the epithet \"The Great\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972916}
{"src_title": "Robert Silverberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Silverberg was born to Jewish parents in Brooklyn, New York. A voracious reader since childhood, he began submitting stories to science fiction magazines during his early teenage years. He received a BA in English Literature from Columbia University, in 1956. While at Columbia, he wrote the juvenile novel \"Revolt on Alpha C\" (1955), published by Thomas Y. Crowell with the cover notice: \"A gripping story of outer space\". He won his first Hugo in 1956 as the \"best new writer\".  That year Silverberg was the author or co-author of four of the six stories in the August issue of \"Fantastic\", breaking his record set in the previous issue. For the next four years, by his own count, he wrote a million words a year, mostly for magazines and Ace Doubles. He used his own name as well as a range of pseudonyms during this era, and often worked in collaboration with Randall Garrett, who was a neighbour at the time. (The Silverberg/Garrett collaborations also used a variety of pseudonyms, the best-known being Robert Randall.) From 1956 to 1959, Silverberg routinely averaged five published stories a month, and he had over 80 stories published in 1958 alone.  In 1959, the market for science fiction collapsed, and Silverberg turned his ability to write copiously to other fields, from historical non-fiction to softcore pornography. \"Bob Silverberg, a giant of science fiction... was doing two [books] a month for one publisher, another for a second publisher, and the equivalent of another book for a magazine... He was writing a quarter of a million words a month\" under many different pseudonyms including about 200 erotic novels published as Don Elliott. In a 2000 interview, Silverberg explained that the erotic fiction (published under the pseudonym \"Don Elliot\")", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literary growth.", "content": "In the mid-1960s, science fiction was becoming more serious and sophisticated. Frederik Pohl, then editing three science fiction magazines, offered Silverberg carte blanche in writing for them. Thus inspired, Silverberg returned to the field that gave him his start, paying far more attention to depth of character development and social background than he had in the past and mixing in elements of the modernist literature he had studied at Columbia.  Silverberg continued to write rapidly—Algis Budrys reported in 1965 that he wrote and sold at least 50,000 words (\"call it the equivalent of a commercial novel\") weekly—but the novels he wrote in this period are considered superior to his earlier work; Budrys in 1968 wrote of his surprise that \"Silverberg is now writing deeply detailed, highly educated, beautifully figured books\" like \"Thorns\" and \"The Masks of Time\". Perhaps the first book to indicate the new Silverberg was \"To Open the Sky\", a fixup of stories published by Pohl in \"Galaxy Magazine\", in which a new religion helps people reach the stars. That was followed by \"Downward to the Earth\", a story containing echoes of material from Joseph Conrad's work, in which the human former administrator of an alien world returns after the planet's inhabitants have been set free. Other acclaimed works of that time include \"To Live Again\", in which the memories and personalities of the deceased can be transferred to other people; \"The World Inside\", a look at an overpopulated future; and \"Dying Inside\", a tale of a telepath losing his powers.  In the August 1967 issue of \"Galaxy\", Silverberg published a 20,000-word novelette called \"Hawksbill Station\". This story earned Silverberg his first Hugo and Nebula story award nominations. An expanded novel form of \"Hawksbill Station\" was published the following year. In 1969 \"Nightwings\" was awarded the Hugo for best novella. Silverberg won a Nebula award in 1970 for the short story \"Passengers\", two the following year for his novel \"A Time of Changes\" and the short story \"Good News from the Vatican\", and yet another in 1975 for his novella \"Born with the Dead\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later developments.", "content": "After suffering through the stresses of a major house fire and a thyroid malfunction, Silverberg moved from his native New York City to the West Coast in 1972, and he announced his retirement from writing in 1975. In 1980 he returned, however, with \"Lord Valentine's Castle\", a panoramic adventure set on an alien planet, which has become the basis of the Majipoor series—a cycle of stories and novels set on the vast planet Majipoor, a world much larger than Earth and inhabited by no fewer than seven different species of settlers. In a 2015 interview Silverberg said that he did not intend to write any more fiction.  Silverberg received a Nebula award in 1986 for the novella \"Sailing to Byzantium\", which takes its name from the poem by William Butler Yeats; a Hugo in 1987 for the novella \"Gilgamesh in the Outback\", set in the \"Heroes in Hell\" universe of Bangsian Fantasy; a Hugo in 1990 for \"Enter a Soldier. Later: Enter Another\". The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Silverberg in 1999, its fourth class of two deceased and two living writers, and the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America made him its 21st SFWA Grand Master in 2005.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Silverberg has been married twice. He and Barbara Brown married in 1956, separated in 1976, and divorced a decade later. Silverberg and science fiction writer Karen Haber married in 1987. They live in the San Francisco Bay Area. Before the age of 30, Silverberg was independently wealthy through his investments and once owned the former mansion of New York City Mayor Fiorello La Guardia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Hugo Awards  Locus Award  Nebula Awards", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Silverberg (born January 15, 1935) is an American author and editor, best known for writing science fiction. He is a multiple winner of both Hugo and Nebula Awards, a member of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame, and a Grand Master of SF. He has attended every Hugo Awards ceremony since the inaugural event in 1953.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972917}
{"src_title": "Miloš Obrenović I of Serbia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Miloš Teodorović was the son of Teodor \"Teša\" Mihailović (died 1802) from Dobrinja, and Višnja (died 18 June 1817). His family descended from the Bratonožići tribe. This was the second marriage of his mother Višnja, from which also sprung Jovan (1787–1850) and Jevrem (1790–1856). From Višnja's first marriage, with Obren Martinović (died 1780) from Brusnica, Miloš had half-brothers Jakov (died 1811) and Milan (died 1810), and half-sister Stana. After the death of Obren, Višnja moved from Brusnica and married Teodor in Dobrinja. Although many historians put 1780 as the year when Miloš was born, according to foundation plaque in the wall of the Old Church in Kragujevac, his capital, he was 35 when the church was finished in 1818, meaning that he was born in 1783. After the death of his brother Milan, a famed revolutionary with great reputation among the people, Miloš adopted the surname Obrenović. In official documents, his name was sometimes written Miloš Teodorović Obrenović (; ).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Serbian Uprising.", "content": "Miloš fought in the First Serbian uprising until its very end in 1813. He was wounded in the battle for Užice. His half-brother Milan also took part in the Uprising, rising to become the voivode of the Rudnik district, until his death in 1810. After Milan's death, Miloš adopted the surname of his half-brother, Obrenović. This name was the patronymic which his half-brother derived from Obren, the first name of his own father (Miloš's step-father). After the rebellion collapsed, Miloš was among the few of its leaders that remained in Serbia to face the returning Ottomans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second Serbian Uprising.", "content": "In April 1815, Prince Miloš organized and led the Second Serbian uprising. After defeating the Turks, and Napoleon's defeat in Russia, the Turks agreed to the terms of the agreement from 1815. After the killing of Karađorđe Petrović, in 1817, Obrenović became the leader of the Serbs. As a result of the agreement, Serbia gained some autonomy, but remained under Ottoman sovereignty. Miloš Obrenović was left in power as its absolute ruler.  Between the end of 1828 and the autumn of 1830, Prince Miloš created a so-called \"legislative commission\" to translate the Code Napoléon into Serbian and codify the laws and customs of the country. After discussing the commission, Miloš invited two distinguished legal specialists to come from Hungary to prepare a more suitable criminal and civil code of laws for Serbia. They were Vasilije Lazarević, \"Bürgermeister\" (mayor) of Zemun, and Jovan Hadžić, lawyer, poet, and member of the municipal senate of Novi Sad.  In January 1831, Prince Miloš informed a great national assembly that he had obtained an imperial edict from the Sultan ending all direct obligations of Serbian peasants to their former Turkish lords, guaranteeing Ottoman recognition of Serbian autonomy in most matters of internal administration, and offering Serbia the prospect of territorial aggrandizement, as well as the express right to institute schools, courts, and a governmental administration of her own. The Sultan's decrees of 1830 and 1833 expanded the same rights to a larger territory, and made Serbia a sovereign principality, with Miloš Obrenović as hereditary prince. A Metropolitanate of Serbia was established in Belgrade as an autonomous unit of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Russia's status as the guarantor of Serbia's autonomy was also recognized.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "The supporters of the rule of law often rebelled against Miloš's government. Following one such rebellion, he agreed to adopt a constitution, the \"Sretenje\" or Candlemas constitution, in 1835. The move was opposed by neighboring Austria, the ruling Ottoman Empire and Russia. It is believed that the three great empires saw the constitution as a danger to their own autocratic systems of government. Metternich's Austria particularly ridiculed the fact that Serbia had its own flag and foreign ministry. Miloš abolished the constitution at the demand of Russia and Turkey, and it was replaced by the \"Turkish\" Constitution of 1838.  Miloš abdicated in 1839 in favor of his sons—Milan, who died a few weeks later, and Mihailo, who then became prince. Mihailo was deposed in 1842, and the family was out of power until 1858, when it returned with Miloš restored as prince for the last two years of his life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Miloš Obrenović was given the epithet \"the Great\". He was proclaimed \"Father of the Fatherland\" by the National Assembly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "In 1805, Miloš married Ljubica Vukomanović (September 1785 – Vienna, 26 May 1843). The couple had eight children whose names are known. It is speculated that Ljubica had other pregnancies that resulted in miscarriages, stillbirths, or children who died shortly after birth, with some sources giving a number as high as 17 pregnancies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prince Miloš Obrenović I of Serbia (; ; 18 March 1780 or 1783 – 26 September 1860) born Miloš Teodorović (; ) was Prince of Serbia from 1815 to 1839, and again from 1858 to 1860. He participated in the First Serbian uprising, led Serbs in the Second Serbian uprising, and founded the House of Obrenović. Under his rule, Serbia became an autonomous principality within the Ottoman Empire. Prince Miloš ruled autocratically, consistently refusing to share power, which generated strong domestic opposition. During his rule, Miloš I bought a number of estates and ships from Ottoman Turks and also became a prominent trader. He was the richest man in Serbia and one of the richest in the Balkans, with estates in Vienna, Serbia and Wallachia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972918}
{"src_title": "Salina, Sicily", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Eryngium alpinum\" is a hemicryptophyte, its overwintering buds are situated just below the soil surface and the floral axis more or less erect with a few leaves. The roots are deep and robust.  The stems are solitary and erect, usually with three branches on the apex and with longitudinal purple stripes. This plant generally reaches about in height, with a maximum of. The basal leaves are oval or heart-shaped, wide and long, with toothed hedges and a long petiole. The cauline leaves are sessile and progressively more divided.  The inflorescences are dense umbels at the top of the main branches. They are bright green at the bases and the stiff, bristly bracts are blue. They are about 4 cm long and 2 cm diameter and the bracts are up to long. The flowers inside are about 2 mm long. The peripheral flowers are sterile and the internal flowers are hermaphroditic. Both types are actinomorphic and pentamerous, with five petals. Flowering occurs in July through September. The flowers are -insect-pollinated. The fruit is a spiny achene about half a centimeter wide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "This plant is native to Austria, Liechtenstein, Croatia, France, Switzerland, Italy, and Slovenia. It grows in subalpine scrub, rocky areas and wet pastures, preferably in limestone, at an altitude of above sea level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"E. alpinum\" is cultivated as an ornamental plant for its blue and purple flowerheads. It requires dry, well-drained soil and full sun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "Wild populations of the species are in decline due to overcollection for ornamental use and habitat degradation from recreational activity and grazing. Numerous local extinctions of subpopulations have occurred.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salina () is one of the Aeolian Islands north of Sicily, southern Italy. It is the second largest island in the archipelago.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972919}
{"src_title": "Adansonia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Baobabs reach heights of and have trunk diameters of. The Glencoe baobab, a specimen of \"A. digitata\" in Limpopo Province, South Africa, was considered to be the largest living individual, with a maximum circumference of and a diameter of about. The tree has since split into two parts, so the widest individual trunk may now be that of the Sunland baobab, or Platland tree, also in South Africa. The diameter of this tree at ground level is and its circumference at breast height is.  \"Adansonia\" trees produce faint growth rings, probably annually, but they are not reliable for aging specimens, because they are difficult to count and may fade away as the wood ages. Radiocarbon dating has provided data on a few individuals of \"A. digitata\". The Panke baobab in Zimbabwe was some 2,450 years old when it died in 2011, making it the oldest angiosperm ever documented, and two other trees – Dorslandboom in Namibia and Glencoe in South Africa – were estimated to be approximately 2,000 years old. Another specimen known as Grootboom was dated and found to be at least 1275 years old. Greenhouse gases and global warming appear to be factors reducing baobab longevity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "Of the nine species accepted six are native to Madagascar, two are native to mainland Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, and one is native to Australia. One of the mainland African species also occurs on Madagascar, but it is not a native of that island. It was introduced in ancient times to south Asia and during the colonial era to the Caribbean. It is also present in the island nation of Cape Verde. The ninth species was described in 2012, and is found in upland populations of southern and eastern Africa. The African and Australian baobabs are almost identical despite having separated more than 100 million years ago, probably by oceanic dispersal.  Species include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The Malagasy species are important components of the Madagascar dry deciduous forests. Within that biome, \"Adansonia madagascariensis\" and \"A. rubrostipa\" occur specifically in the Anjajavy Forest, sometimes growing out of the tsingy limestone itself. \"A. digitata\" has been called \"a defining icon of African bushland\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Baobabs store water in the trunk (up to ) to endure harsh drought conditions. All occur in seasonally arid areas, and are deciduous, shedding their leaves during the dry season. Across Africa, the oldest and largest baobabs began to die in the early 21st century, likely from a combination of drought and rising temperatures. The trees appear to become parched, then become dehydrated and unable to support their massive trunks.  Baobabs are important as nest sites for birds, in particular the mottled spinetail and four species of weaver.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaves.", "content": "Leaves may be eaten as a leaf vegetable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tree.", "content": "In Tanzania, the dry pulp of \"A. digitata\" is added to sugarcane to aid fermentation in brewing (beermaking).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Some baobab species are sources of fiber, dye, and fuel. Indigenous Australians used the native species \"A. gregorii\" for several products, making string from the root fibers and decorative crafts from the fruits. Oil from the seed is also used in cosmetics, particularly in moisturizers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adansonia is a genus of deciduous trees known as baobabs. They are native to the regions of Madagascar and mainland Africa. The tree has also been introduced to other regions such as Australia and Asia. The generic name honours Michel Adanson, the French naturalist and explorer who described \"Adansonia digitata\". The baobab is also known as the \"upside down tree\", a name that originates from several myths.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972920}
{"src_title": "Bellman–Ford algorithm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Algorithm.", "content": "Like Dijkstra's algorithm, Bellman–Ford proceeds by relaxation, in which approximations to the correct distance are replaced by better ones until they eventually reach the solution. In both algorithms, the approximate distance to each vertex is always an overestimate of the true distance, and is replaced by the minimum of its old value and the length of a newly found path. However, Dijkstra's algorithm uses a priority queue to greedily select the closest vertex that has not yet been processed, and performs this relaxation process on all of its outgoing edges; by contrast, the Bellman–Ford algorithm simply relaxes \"all\" the edges, and does this formula_1 times, where formula_2 is the number of vertices in the graph. In each of these repetitions, the number of vertices with correctly calculated distances grows, from which it follows that eventually all vertices will have their correct distances. This method allows the Bellman–Ford algorithm to be applied to a wider class of inputs than Dijkstra.  Bellman–Ford runs in formula_3 time, where formula_2 and formula_5 are the number of vertices and edges respectively.  Simply put, the algorithm initializes the distance to the source to 0 and all other nodes to infinity. Then for all edges, if the distance to the destination can be shortened by taking the edge, the distance is updated to the new lower value. At each iteration that the edges are scanned, the algorithm finds all shortest paths of at most length edges (and possibly some paths longer than edges). Since the longest possible path without a cycle can be formula_1 edges, the edges must be scanned formula_1 times to ensure the shortest path has been found for all nodes. A final scan of all the edges is performed and if any distance is updated, then a path of length formula_2 edges has been found which can only occur if at least one negative cycle exists in the graph.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proof of correctness.", "content": "The correctness of the algorithm can be shown by induction:  Lemma. After \"i\" repetitions of \"for\" loop,  Proof. For the base case of induction, consider codice_1 and the moment before \"for\" loop is executed for the first time. Then, for the source vertex, codice_2, which is correct. For other vertices \"u\", codice_3, which is also correct because there is no path from \"source\" to \"u\" with 0 edges.  For the inductive case, we first prove the first part. Consider a moment when a vertex's distance is updated by codice_4. By inductive assumption, codice_5 is the length of some path from \"source\" to \"u\". Then codice_6 is the length of the path from \"source\" to \"v\" that follows the path from \"source\" to \"u\" and then goes to \"v\".  For the second part, consider a shortest path \"P\" (there may be more than one) from \"source\" to \"v\" with at most \"i\" edges. Let \"u\" be the last vertex before \"v\" on this path. Then, the part of the path from \"source\" to \"u\" is a shortest path from \"source\" to \"u\" with at most \"i-1\" edges, since if it were not, then there must be some strictly shorter path from \"source\" to \"u\" with at most \"i-1\" edges, and we could then append the edge \"uv\" to this path to obtain a path with at most \"i\" edges that is strictly shorter than \"P\"—a contradiction. By inductive assumption, codice_5 after \"i\"−1 iterations is at most the length of this path from \"source\" to \"u\". Therefore, codice_8 is at most the length of \"P\". In the \"i\" iteration, codice_9 gets compared with codice_8, and is set equal to it if codice_8 is smaller. Therefore, after \"i\" iterations, codice_9 is at most the length of \"P\", i.e., the length of the shortest path from \"source\" to \"v\" that uses at most \"i\" edges.  If there are no negative-weight cycles, then every shortest path visits each vertex at most once, so at step 3 no further improvements can be made. Conversely, suppose no improvement can be made. Then for any cycle with vertices \"v\"[0],..., \"v\"[\"k\"−1],  codice_13  Summing around the cycle, the \"v\"[\"i\"].distance and \"v\"[\"i\"−1 (mod \"k\")].distance terms cancel, leaving  codice_14  I.e., every cycle has nonnegative weight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Finding negative cycles.", "content": "When the algorithm is used to find shortest paths, the existence of negative cycles is a problem, preventing the algorithm from finding a correct answer. However, since it terminates upon finding a negative cycle, the Bellman–Ford algorithm can be used for applications in which this is the target to be sought – for example in cycle-cancelling techniques in network flow analysis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications in routing.", "content": "A distributed variant of the Bellman–Ford algorithm is used in distance-vector routing protocols, for example the Routing Information Protocol (RIP). The algorithm is distributed because it involves a number of nodes (routers) within an Autonomous system (AS), a collection of IP networks typically owned by an ISP. It consists of the following steps:  The main disadvantages of the Bellman–Ford algorithm in this setting are as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Improvements.", "content": "The Bellman–Ford algorithm may be improved in practice (although not in the worst case) by the observation that, if an iteration of the main loop of the algorithm terminates without making any changes, the algorithm can be immediately terminated, as subsequent iterations will not make any more changes. With this early termination condition, the main loop may in some cases use many fewer than iterations, even though the worst case of the algorithm remains unchanged.  Yen's second improvement first assigns some arbitrary linear order on all vertices and then partitions the set of all edges into two subsets. The first subset, \"E\", contains all edges (\"v\", \"v\") such that \"i\" < \"j\"; the second, \"E\", contains edges (\"v\", \"v\") such that \"i\" > \"j\". Each vertex is visited in the order \"v\", \"v\",..., \"v\", relaxing each outgoing edge from that vertex in \"E\". Each vertex is then visited in the order \"v\", \"v\",..., \"v\", relaxing each outgoing edge from that vertex in \"E\". Each iteration of the main loop of the algorithm, after the first one, adds at least two edges to the set of edges whose relaxed distances match the correct shortest path distances: one from \"E\" and one from \"E\". This modification reduces the worst-case number of iterations of the main loop of the algorithm from to formula_10.  Another improvement, by, replaces the arbitrary linear order of the vertices used in Yen's second improvement by a random permutation. This change makes the worst case for Yen's improvement (in which the edges of a shortest path strictly alternate between the two subsets \"E\" and \"E\") very unlikely to happen. With a randomly permuted vertex ordering, the expected number of iterations needed in the main loop is at most formula_11.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trivia.", "content": "In China, an algorithm which adds a first-in first-out queue to the Bellman–Ford algorithm, known as SPFA, published by Edward Moore in 1959 and rediscovered by Fanding Duan in 1994, is popular with students who take part in the and International Collegiate Programming Contest.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bellman–Ford algorithm is an algorithm that computes shortest paths from a single source vertex to all of the other vertices in a weighted digraph. It is slower than Dijkstra's algorithm for the same problem, but more versatile, as it is capable of handling graphs in which some of the edge weights are negative numbers. The algorithm was first proposed by, but is instead named after Richard Bellman and Lester Ford Jr., who published it in 1958 and 1956, respectively. Edward F. Moore also published the same algorithm in 1957, and for this reason it is also sometimes called the Bellman–Ford–Moore algorithm.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972921}
{"src_title": "George Stevens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film career.", "content": "George Stevens was born in Oakland, California, the son of Landers Stevens and Georgie Cooper, both stage actors. Drama critic Ashton Stevens and film director James W. Horne were his uncles. He also had two brothers, Jack, a cinematographer, and writer Aston Stevens. He learned about the stage from his parents and worked and toured with them on his path to filmmaking. He broke into the movie business as a cameraman, working on many Laurel and Hardy short films, such as \"Bacon Grabbers\" (1929) and \"Night Owls\" (1930). His first feature film was \"The Cohens and Kellys in Trouble\" in 1933.  In 1934 he got his first directing job, the slapstick \"Kentucky Kernels\". His big break came when he directed Katharine Hepburn in \"Alice Adams\" in 1935. He went on in the late 1930s to direct several Ginger Rogers and Fred Astaire movies, not only with the two actors together, but on their own. In 1940, he directed Carole Lombard in \"Vigil in the Night\", and the film has an alternative ending for European audiences in recognition of World War II, which at the time the U.S. had not yet entered.  During World War II, Stevens joined the U.S. Army Signal Corps and headed a film unit from 1943 to 1946, under General Eisenhower. His unit shot footage documenting D-Day—including the only Allied European Front color film of the war—the liberation of Paris and the meeting of American and Soviet forces at the Elbe River, as well as horrific scenes from the Duben labor camp and the Dachau concentration camp. Stevens also helped prepare the Duben and Dachau footage and other material for presentation during the Nuremberg Trials. In 2008, his footage was entered into the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as an \"essential visual record\" of World War II.  One result of his World War II experiences was that his subsequent films became more dramatic. The motion picture \"I Remember Mama\" from 1948 was the last movie that he made with comic scenes. He was responsible for such classic films as \"A Place in the Sun\", \"Shane\", \"The Diary of Anne Frank\", \"Giant\" and \"The Greatest Story Ever Told\". He ended his directing career with the 1970 film \"The Only Game in Town\" with Warren Beatty and Elizabeth Taylor. In the same year, he was head of the jury at the 20th Berlin International Film Festival. In 1973 he was a member of the jury at the 8th Moscow International Film Festival.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Stevens was the father of television and film writer-producer-director George Stevens, Jr., the first CEO and director of the American Film Institute. George Jr. produced and directed the documentary about his father \"George Stevens: A Filmmaker's Journey\" in 1984 and is the father of Stevens's grandson Michael Stevens (1966–2015), who was also a television and film producer-director.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Stevens died following a heart attack on March 8, 1975, on his ranch in Lancaster, California, north of Los Angeles. He is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "As a lieutenant colonel in the United States Army, Stevens headed the U.S. Army Signal Corps unit that filmed the Normandy landings and the liberation of the Dachau concentration camp. For these contributions, he was awarded the Legion of Merit.  Stevens has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1701 Vine Street. He won the Academy Award for Best Director twice, in 1951 for \"A Place in the Sun\" and in 1956 for \"Giant\". He was also nominated in 1943 for \"The More the Merrier\", in 1954 for \"Shane\", and in 1959 for \"The Diary of Anne Frank\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archives.", "content": "The moving image collection of George Stevens is held at the Academy Film Archive. The film material at the Academy Film Archive is complemented by material in the George Stevens papers at the Academy's Margaret Herrick Library.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George Cooper Stevens (December 18, 1904 – March 8, 1975) was an American film director, producer, screenwriter and cinematographer. Among his most notable films are \"A Place in the Sun\" (1951; winner of six Academy Awards including Best Director), \"Shane\" (1953; Oscar nominated), \"Giant\" (1956; Oscar for Best Director), and \"The Diary of Anne Frank\" (1959; nominated for Best Director).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972922}
{"src_title": "Claude Louis Hector de Villars", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Villars was born at Moulins (in the present-day département of Allier) in a noble but poor family — his father was the diplomat Pierre de Villars. He entered the French army through the corps of pages in 1671. He distinguished himself at twenty in the Siege of Maastricht in 1673 during the Franco-Dutch War and after the bloody Battle of Seneffe a year later he was promoted on the field to mestre de camp (colonel) of a cavalry regiment.  The next promotion would take time in spite of a long record of service under Turenne, The Great Condé and Luxembourg, and of his aristocratic birth, as he had incurred the enmity of the powerful Louvois. He was finally made \"maréchal de camp\" in 1687.  In the interval between the Dutch wars and the formation of the League of Augsburg, Villars, who combined with his military gifts the tact and subtlety of the diplomatist, was employed in an unofficial mission to the court of Bavaria, and there became the constant companion of Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria.  He returned to France in 1690 and was given a command in the cavalry of the army in Flanders, but towards the end of the War of the Grand Alliance, in 1698, he went to Vienna as ambassador.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War of the Spanish Succession.", "content": "It was Villars' part in the next war, beginning with Friedlingen (1702) and Hochstadt (1703) and ending with Denain (1712), that has made him most famous. For his part in the battle of Friedlingen he received the marshalate, and for the pacification of the insurgent Cévennes he received the Saint-Esprit order and the title of duke. Friedlingen and Hochstadt were barren victories, and the campaigns of which they formed were characterized by lost opportunities. Villars' glory thus begins with the year 1709 when France, apparently helpless, was roused to a great effort of self-defence by the stringent demands of the Coalition.  In that year he was called to command the main army opposing Prince Eugène of Savoy and Marlborough on the northern frontier. During the famine of the winter he shared the soldiers' miserable rations. When the campaign opened the old Marshal Boufflers volunteered to serve under him, and after the terrible battle of Malplaquet, in which he was gravely wounded (by a musketball to the knee), he was able to tell the king: \"If it please God to give your majesty's enemies another such victory, they are ruined.\"  Two more campaigns passed without a battle and with scarcely any advance on the part of the invaders, but at last Marlborough manoeuvred Villars out of the famous \"Ne plus ultra\" lines, and the power of the defence seemed to be broken. But Louis made a last effort, the English contingent and its great leader were withdrawn from the enemy's camp, and Villars, though still suffering from his Malplaquet wounds, outmanoeuvred and decisively defeated Eugène at Denain. <br> This victory saved France, though the war dragged on for another year, where Villars led the Rhine campaign (1713), in which he took Landau, led the stormers at Freiburg and negotiated the Treaty of Rastatt and the Treaty of Baden with Prince Eugène.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Villars\" residence.", "content": "\"Villars,\" named for Marshal Villars, was built in Moulins, Allier during the reign of Louis XV. The 18th century historical monument was used as a cavalry barracks. It was partially destroyed during World War II and was restored by François Voinchet, Architect of Historic Monuments and is now the Centre National du Costume de Scene museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regency.", "content": "Villars played a conspicuous part in the politics of the Regency period as the principal opponent of Cardinal Dubois, and only the memories of Montmorency's rebellion prevented his being made constable of France. He took the field for the last time in the War of the Polish Succession (1734), with the title \"marshal-general of the king's armies\", that Turenne had held before him. But he was over eighty years old at this point, and after opening the campaign energetically he died at Turin on 17 June 1734.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Villars's memoirs show us a \"fanfaron plein d'honneur\", as Voltaire calls him. He was indeed boastful, and also covetous of honours and wealth. But he was also described as an honourable man of high courage, moral and physical, and certainly a very skilled soldier. He was famous for his love for young men as wrote the Duchess of Orleans in her letters.  The memoirs, part of which was published in 1734 and afterwards several times republished in untrustworthy versions, were for the first time completely edited by the Marquis de Vogüé in 1884–92.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Claude Louis Hector de Villars, Prince de Martigues, Marquis then Duc de Villars, Vicomte de Melun (8 May 1653 – 17 June 1734) was a general of Louis XIV of France, one of only six Marshals who have been promoted to Marshal General of France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972923}
{"src_title": "Abyssinian cat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Abyssinian cat as it is known today was bred in Great Britain. It is alleged that British soldiers deployed to North Africa in the nineteenth century returned home with kittens purchased from local traders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Abyssinian is a slender, fine-boned, medium-sized cat. The head is moderately wedge-shaped, with a slight break at the muzzle, and nose and chin ideally forming a straight vertical line when viewed in profile. They have alert, relatively large pointed ears. The eyes are almond-shaped and are gold, green, hazel or copper depending on coat color. The legs tend to be long in proportion to a graceful body, with small oval paws; the tail is likewise long and tapering.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coat and colors.", "content": "Abyssinian kittens are born with dark coats that gradually lighten as they mature, usually over several months. The adult coat should not be excessively short and is ideally fine, dense and close-lying, silky to the touch. The ticked or agouti effect that is the trademark of the breed—genetically a variant of the tabby pattern—should be uniform over the body, although the ridge of the spine and tail, back of the hind legs and the pads of the paws are always noticeably darker. Each hair has a light base with three or four bands of additional color growing darker towards the tip. The base color should be as clear as possible; any extensive intermingling with grey is considered a serious fault. A tendency to white on the chin is common but likewise must be minimal. The typical tabby M-shaped marking is often found on the forehead.  The breed's original color standard is a warm deep reddish-brown base with black ticking, known as \"usual\" in the United Kingdom and as \"ruddy\" elsewhere. Sorrel (also called cinnamon or red), a lighter coppery base with chocolate brown ticking, is a unique mutation of this original pattern. Other variants have been introduced by outcrossing to the Burmese and other shorthaired breeds, notably blue (on a warm beige base) and fawn (on a softer creamy peach base). The less common chocolate and lilac are not recognized in the Cat Fancier's Association (CFA) breed standard but have been granted full champion status in The International Cat Association (TICA) and in the UK. The UK also recognizes the Silver Abyssinian, in which the base coat is a pure silvery white with black (called \"usual silver\"), blue, cream or sorrel ticking. Various other color combinations are in development, including the \"torbie\", in which a patched tortoiseshell pattern in any of these colors is visible under the tabby banding.  The breed owes their distinctive coat to a dominant mutant gene known as Ta. The first cat to have its entire genome published was an Abyssinian named Cinnamon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "Abyssinians are a popular breed thanks in large part to their unusual intelligence and generally extroverted, playful, willful personalities. They are said to become depressed without constant activity and the attention of their owners. Veterinarian Joan O. Joshua has written that the \"dog-like attachment to the owners\" of Abyssinian and Burmese cats causes \"greater dependence on human contacts\". This stands in contrast to the mere \"tolerant acceptance of human company\" based around \"comforts\" that multiple other breeds display.  With their interest in playing with their owners combined with their curious intelligence, Abyssinians are known as the \"Clowns of the Cat Kingdom\". They have an active, outgoing nature, yet tend to be quiet cats. They have soft chirrup-like vocalizations which do not sound like the expected \"meow\". They are affectionate and friendly toward people.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "The breed can be prone to gingivitis, which can lead to more serious periodontitis. Familial renal amyloidosis or AA amyloidosis, a kidney disorder due to a mutation in the AA amyloid protein gene, has been seen in Abyssinians. The Abyssinian has had severe problems with blindness caused by a hereditary retinal degeneration due to mutations in the rdAc gene. However, the prevalence has been reduced from 45% to less than 4% in 2008 in the country of Sweden. With the widespread availability of rdAc mutation detection tests and services, such as those provided by the UC Davis Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, it is possible to reduce the disease frequency in all populations of Abyssinian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetic diversity.", "content": "The 2008 study \"The Ascent of Cat Breeds: Genetic Evaluations of Breeds and Worldwide Random-bred Populations\" by Lipinski et al. conducted at UC Davis by the team led by leading feline geneticist Dr Leslie Lyons found that the Abyssinian has a low level of genetic diversity, a heterozygosity value of 0.45 within a range of 0.34–0.69 for all breeds studied, and has genetic markers common to both Southeast Asian and Western breeds indicating that cats from both Asia and Europe were used to create the breed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Related breed.", "content": "Somali cats are the same genetic stock as Abyssinians but are recessive for a gene responsible for long-hair. Ocicats came about from the accidental crossbreeding of Abyssinians and Siamese breeds.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Abyssinian is a breed of domestic short-haired cat with a distinctive \"ticked\" tabby coat, in which individual hairs are banded with different colors. In nomenclature terms, they are also known as simply Abys. The breed is named for Abyssinia (now called Ethiopia), where it is believed to have originated.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972924}
{"src_title": "Occupational disease", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "Some well-known occupational diseases include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lung diseases.", "content": "Occupational lung diseases include asbestosis among asbestos miners and those who work with friable asbestos insulation, as well as black lung (coalworker's pneumoconiosis) among coal miners, silicosis among miners and quarrying and tunnel operators and byssinosis among workers in parts of the cotton textile industry.  Occupational asthma has a vast number of occupations at risk.  Bad indoor air quality may predispose for diseases in the lungs as well as in other parts of the body.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Skin diseases.", "content": "Occupational skin diseases are ranked among the top five occupational diseases in many countries.  Occupational skin diseases and conditions are generally caused by chemicals and having wet hands for long periods while at work. Eczema is by far the most common, but urticaria, sunburn and skin cancer are also of concern.  Contact dermatitis due to irritation is inflammation of the skin which results from a contact with an irritant. It has been observed that this type of dermatitis does not require prior sensitization of the immune system. There have been studies to support that past or present atopic dermatitis is a risk factor for this type of dermatitis. Common irritants include detergents, acids, alkalies, oils, organic solvents and reducing agents.  The acute form of this dermatitis develops on exposure of the skin to a strong irritant or caustic chemical. This exposure can occur as a result of accident at a workplace. The irritant reaction starts to increase in its intensity within minutes to hours of exposure to the irritant and reaches its peak quickly. After the reaction has reached its peak level, it starts to heal. This process is known as decrescendo phenomenon. The most frequent potent irritants leading to this type of dermatitis are acids and alkaline solutions. The symptoms include redness and swelling of the skin along with the formation of blisters.  The chronic form occurs as a result of repeated exposure of the skin to weak irritants over long periods of time.  Clinical manifestations of the contact dermatitis are also modified by external factors such as environmental factors (mechanical pressure, temperature, and humidity) and predisposing characteristics of the individual (age, sex, ethnic origin, preexisting skin disease, atopic skin diathesis, and anatomic region exposed.  Another occupational skin disease is Glove related hand urticaria. It has been reported as an occupational problem among the health care workers. This type of hand urticaria is believed to be caused by repeated wearing and removal of the gloves. The reaction is caused by the latex or the nitrile present in the gloves.  High-risk occupations include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical.", "content": "Donald Hunter in his classic history of occupational diseases discusses many example of occupational diseases. They include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prevention.", "content": "Prevention measures include avoidance of the irritant through its removal from the workplace or through technical shielding by the use of potent irritants in closed systems or automation, irritant replacement or removal and personal protection of the workers.  In order to better prevent and control occupational disease, most countries revise and update their related laws, most of them greatly increasing the penalties in case of breaches of the occupational disease laws. Occupational disease prevention, in general legally regulated, is part of good supply chain management and enables companies to design and ensure supply chain social compliance schemes as well as monitor their implementation to identify and prevent occupational disease hazards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An occupational disease is any chronic ailment that occurs as a result of work or occupational activity. It is an aspect of occupational safety and health. An occupational disease is typically identified when it is shown that it is more prevalent in a given body of workers than in the general population, or in other worker populations. The first such disease to be recognised, squamous-cell carcinoma of the scrotum, was identified in chimney sweep boys by Sir Percival Pott in 1775. Occupational hazards that are of a traumatic nature (such as falls by roofers) are not considered to be occupational diseases.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972925}
{"src_title": "Josef Dobrovský", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Dobrovský was born at Balassagyarmat, Nógrád County, in the Kingdom of Hungary, when his father Jakub Doubravský (1701, Solnitz (Czech: Solnice), Bohemia 1764, Bischofteinitz (Czech: Horšovský Týn), Bohemia) was temporarily stationed as a soldier there. His mother was Magdalena Dobrovská (1733, Tschaslawsko (Czech: Čáslavsko), Bohemia 1797).  He received his first education in the German school at Horšovský Týn in Plzeň district, made his first acquaintance with the Czech language and soon made himself fluent in it at the Německý Brod gymnasium, and then studied for some time under the Jesuits at Klatovy. In 1769 he began to study philosophy at the University of Prague. In 1772 he was admitted among the Jesuits at Brno and was preparing for a Christian mission in India. However, the entire order was dissolved in the Czech lands in 1773 and Dobrovský thus returned to Prague to study theology.  After holding for some time the office of tutor to Count Nostitz, he obtained an appointment first as vice-rector, and then as rector, in the general seminary at Hradisko (now part of Olomouc); but in 1790 he lost his post through the abolition of the seminaries throughout the Habsburg Empire, and returned as a guest to the house of the count. At this time, he wrote some of the most important works in Slavic studies, historiography and philology.  In 1792 he was commissioned by the Bohemian Academy of Sciences to visit Stockholm, Turku, Saint Petersburg and Moscow in search of the manuscripts which had been scattered by the Thirty Years' War, and on his return he accompanied Count Nostitz to Switzerland and Italy.  In the 1780s Dobrovský participated in the academic life of Prague. In 1784, he helped to set up the Royal Czech Society of Sciences, and in 1818 the National Museum of what was to become Czechoslovakia and eventually the Czech Republic.  However, his reason began to give way in 1795, and in 1801 he had to be confined in a lunatic asylum, but by 1803 he had completely recovered. The rest of his life was mainly spent either in Prague or at the country seats of his friends Counts Nostitz and Czernin, but his death occurred in Brno, where he had gone in 1828 to study in the local libraries.  While his fame rests chiefly on his labours in Slavonic philology his botanical studies are not without value in the history of the science.  Between 1948 and 1968 Czech poet Vladimír Holan lived in the so-called \"Dobrovský House\" on Kampa, often saying that the \"Blue Abbé\" (a nickname by which Dobrovský was known) would sometimes visit him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Most important works.", "content": "See Palacký, \"J. Dobrowskys Leben und gelehrtes Wirken\" (1833).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josef Dobrovský (17 August 1753 – 6 January 1829) was a Czech philologist and historian. He was one of the most important figures of the Czech National Revival, along with Josef Jungmann.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972926}
{"src_title": "Francesco Moser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Palmarès.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classic races.", "content": "After finishing second in 1974 behind Roger De Vlaeminck and in 1976 behind Marc Demeyer of Belgium, Moser finally won Paris–Roubaix, his favorite race, three consecutive times. Moser had seven podium finishes in Paris–Roubaix; only De Vlaeminck, with nine, has more. In 1978, he beat De Vlaeminck and Jan Raas of the Netherlands; in 1979, he beat De Vlaeminck and Hennie Kuiper of the Netherlands; and in 1980, he beat Gilbert Duclos-Lassalle of France and the German, Dietrich Thurau. Moser came in third in 1981 behind Bernard Hinault and Roger De Vlaeminck, and was also third in 1983 behind Hennie Kuiper and Gilbert Duclos-Lassalle. He rode Paris–Roubaix in his final season as a cyclist in 1987. Other victories include the 1975 and 1978 Giro di Lombardia and the 1984 Milan–San Remo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other classics.", "content": "Moser won the 1974 Paris–Tours, the 1977 Züri-Metzgete, the 1979 Gent–Wevelgem, and the 1977 Flèche Wallonne.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Grand Tours.", "content": "Moser had some success in the three-week grand tours. He rode the Tour de France in 1975, and although he won two stages, led the race for seven days and won the young rider competition, he never rode the Tour again; the mountains did not suit him. However, he won the 1984 Giro d'Italia, in front of Laurent Fignon of France and Moreno Argentin of Italy. Taking advantage of an unusually flat course, Moser used time-trialing ability to overcome what others had gained in the mountains. He also won the points classification in the Giro d'Italia in 1976, 1977, 1978 and 1982.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other accomplishments.", "content": "He competed in the individual road race and team time trial events at the 1972 Summer Olympics.  Moser won the 1977 world road racing championship in San Cristobal, Venezuela, in front of Thurau and Franco Bitossi. Moser was also silver medallist in 1976, behind Freddy Maertens of Belgium and second in 1978 to Gerrie Knetemann of the Netherlands.  On 19 January 1984, in Mexico City, Moser broke the 1972 hour record of Eddy Merckx. He rode 50.808 kilometers, on an aerodynamic bike with full disc wheels more advanced than the conventional bike Merckx used in 1972. As a result, in 1997 the Union Cycliste Internationale banned hour records set on bikes featuring technological advantages. Under the new rules, Merckx's record wasn't broken until 2000. Moser auctioned his bicycle to benefit UNICEF.  He was a member of the Regional Council of Trentino-Alto Adige from 1993 until 1998.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rivalries.", "content": "Moser's biggest rival was Giuseppe Saronni.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After retirement.", "content": "Moser started a bike company, Moser Cicli, constructing race bikes in a workshop in Trento. Production is 2,000-3,000 frames annually.  He was the first chairman of the CPA (Cyclistes Professionels Associés), a union for professional riders of TT/I and TT/II league of teams (now UCI WorldTeams and UCI Professional Continental Teams, respectively). He held the position from 1999 until 2007.  Moser also became a viticulturist, cultivating different varieties of grapes. He continued his father's winery with his children Francesca, Carlo and Ignazio on the family estate \"Maso Villa Warth\" in Val di Cembra, on the hills just north of Trento. He is also a passionate hunter and was the host of the television series \"\"A Caccia con Moser\"\" \"(Hunting with Moser)\" on Sky Italia's channel \"Caccia TV\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francesco Moser ( or ; ;; born 19 June 1951 in Palù di Giovo, Trentino), nicknamed \"Lo sceriffo\" (The sheriff), is an Italian former professional road bicycle racer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972927}
{"src_title": "Havlíčkův Brod", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The Czech word \"Brod\" means \"ford\" in English. The settlement became a town in the mid 13th century and for distinction from another places of the same name it was firstly named \"Smilův Brod\" (\"Smil's Ford\") after its founder Smil of Lichtenburk. However, later it became called \"Německý Brod\" (\"German Ford\", German: \"Deutschbrod\") because of its predominantly German population, and as the opposite of Český Brod (\"Czech Ford\") near Prague. The Germans made up most of the population of the town since 13th until the first half of 15th century. Because of Anti-German sentiment after World War II, the town was renamed \"Havlíčkův Brod\" (\"Havlíček's Ford\") in honor of the 19th century writer and publicist Karel Havlíček Borovský, who was born in nearby village and grew up and studied in the town. It is one of very few examples of personal honorification in Czech toponymy. The rather long official name is commonly abbreviated \"HB\", or colloquially \"Havlbrod\" or just \"Brod\" (when there's no need to distinguish).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Settlement in Brod has been documented as far back as the 12th century. After silver was discovered in the area, the Bohemian nobleman Smil of Lichtenburk (Lichtenburg) invited German miners to settle the area; Brod received its city rights in 1257. Although the townspeople were German-speakers in a predominantly Czech-speaking land, the people of Brod became loyal subjects of the Bohemian crown. In the 13th and 14th centuries it was a center for silver mining, although its importance gradually declined in the latter century. Because the German townspeople supported King Sigismund during the Hussite Wars, Brod was sacked on 22 January 1422 by Jan Žižka. The town was resettled by predominantly Czech-speaking population in 1429 and experienced a cultural flowering during the 16th and 17th centuries. Since 1429 the majority of the town's population was ethnically Czech. Until 1918, the town was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), head of the \"Deutschbrod - Nemecky Brod\" district, one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Bohemia.  Brod was industrialized during the 19th century with an emphasis on textiles. Railway came here in 1870 and the station later became an important hub.  After the World War II, the town was renamed \"Havlíčkův Brod\". In the late 1980s Brod's center was declared a national treasure.  Nowadays Havlickuv Brod is a calm city although there are many rail stations located there as it's a cross way between many districts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Havlíčkův Brod is both road and railway hub. There are five rail lines leading off the main station: to Kolín and Prague (operating since 1870), to Pardubice (1871), to Brno (1898), to Jihlava (1871) and a local line to Humpolec (1894). Historically, the main line running through the town was Vienna-Znojmo-Jihlava-Kolín, but after WWII the line to Brno was rebuilt, made double-track and electrified, and Praha-HB-Brno became one of main passenger and freight train routes in Czechoslovakia. Though at the break of 20th and 21st centuries its importance dropped, as all international expresses were transferred to the 1st National Railway Transit Corridor (via Česká Třebová), it is still a relevant alternative route.  The town is also a crossing of two major Czech roads, No. 34 from České Budějovice to Svitavy and No. 38 from Mladá Boleslav to Jihlava and Znojmo (and on to Vienna). The D1 motorway Praha-Brno is accessible by both of these roads (exits are about 20 km from HB).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — Sister cities.", "content": "Brod is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Havlíčkův Brod (), until 1945 Německý Brod (; ) is a district town in the Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic. It is located roughly in the geographical centre of the state, on the Sázava River in the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands and it has a population of about 23,000. It lies in the historical land of Bohemia, near its border with Moravia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972928}
{"src_title": "Otar Iosseliani", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "In 1953 he went to Moscow to study at the faculty of mathematics, but in two years he quit and entered the State Film Institute (VGIK) where his teachers were Alexander Dovzhenko and Mikhail Chiaureli. While still a student, he began working at the Gruziafilm studios in Tbilisi, first as an assistant director and then as an editor of documentaries.  In 1958 he directed his first short film \"Akvarel\". In 1961 he graduated from VGIK with a diploma in film direction. When his medium-length film \"Aprili\" (1961) was denied theatrical distribution, Iosseliani abandoned filmmaking and in 1963–1965 worked first as a sailor on a fishing boat and then at the Rustavi metallurgical factory. \"Aprili\" was finally released only in 1972.  In 1966 he directed his first feature film \"Giorgobistve\" that was presented at the Critics' Week at the 1968 Cannes Film Festival and won a FIPRESCI award there. When his 1976 film \"Pastorali\" was shelved for a few years and then granted only a limited distribution, Iosseliani grew sceptical about getting any artistic freedom in his homeland. Following Pastorali's success at the 1982 Berlin Film Festival, the director moved to France where in 1984 he made \"Les Favoris de la Lune\". The film was distinguished with a Special Jury Prize at the Venice Film Festival. Since then Venice became a showcase for all his subsequent films.  In 1986 he was a member of the jury at the 36th Berlin International Film Festival.  In 1989 he again received a Special Jury Prize for \"Et la Lumiere Fut\" and in 1992 the Pasinetti Award for Best Direction for \"La Chasse aux Papillons\". After the dissolution of the Soviet Union he continued to work in France where he made the documentary \"Seule Georgie\" (1994) which was followed by the sardonic and allegorical \"Brigands - Chapitre VII\" (1996).  In 1995 he was a member of the jury at the 19th Moscow International Film Festival.  In 2011 his film \"Chantrapas\" was selected as the Georgian entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 84th Academy Awards, but it did not make the final shortlist.  In 2011 Otar Iosseliani received a lifetime achievement honor – the at the Munich International Film Festival. It was given by his former pupil, a Georgian filmmaker Dito Tsintsadze.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political views.", "content": "Iosseliani holds political views that are considered Russophobia by some observers. In particular, in the aftermath of the 2008 Russo-Georgian war he expressed his political views in an interview to Ukrainian Weekly 2000 news agency: We (Georgians) will never be at peace with Russia again. Previously we felt contempt for it, but now what we feel is hatred -- and this is very serious. So, go live with your Russians the way you want to. [...] But there will be no way back! (for Georgians) Two hundred years of patience and contempt are over now!  In 2011, while appearing on Echo of Moscow, Ioseliani claimed that journalists intentionally distorted his words about Russians and attributed to him things he had never said.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otar Iosseliani (, born 2 February 1934) is a Georgian-film maker. He was born in the Georgian capital city of Tbilisi, where he studied at the Tbilisi State Conservatoire and graduated in 1952 with a diploma in composition, conducting and piano.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972929}
{"src_title": "SRV record", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Record format.", "content": "A SRV record has the form:  An example SRV record in textual form that might be found in a zone file might be the following:  This points to a server named sipserver.example.com listening on TCP port 5060 for Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) protocol services. The priority given here is 0, and the weight is 5.  As in MX records, the target in SRV records must point to hostname with an address record (A or AAAA record). Pointing to a hostname with a CNAME record is not a valid configuration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Provisioning for high service availability.", "content": "The \"priority\" field determines the precedence of use of the record's data. Clients should use the SRV records with the lowest-numbered priority value first, and fall back to records of higher value if the connection fails. If a service has multiple SRV records with the same priority value, clients should load balance them in proportion to the values of their \"weight\" fields. In the following example, both the \"priority\" and \"weight\" fields are used to provide a combination of load balancing and backup service.  The first three records share a priority of 10, so the weight field's value will be used by clients to determine which server (host and port combination) to contact. The sum of all three values is 100, so bigbox.example.com will be used 60% of the time. The two hosts, smallbox1 and smallbox2 will be used for 40% of requests total, with half of them sent to smallbox1, and the other half to smallbox2. If bigbox is unavailable, these two remaining machines will share the load equally, since they will each be selected 50% of the time.  If all three servers with priority 10 are unavailable, the record with the next lowest priority value will be chosen, which is backupbox.example.com. This might be a machine in another physical location, presumably not vulnerable to anything that would cause the first three hosts to become unavailable.  The load balancing provided by SRV records is inherently limited, since the information is essentially static. Current load of servers is not taken into account, unless TTL values are low enough (around a minute or lower) that the priority (or weight) values can be quickly updated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "SRV records are common in conjunction with the following standardized communications protocols:  In Microsoft Windows 2000 clients query for SRV records to determine the domain controller for a given service. SRV records are also used by Outlook 2007, 2010 and Macintosh 10.6 mail to locate the Exchange Autodiscover service. In Microsoft Windows networks domain controllers register their network service types for Active Directory in the DNS.  A registry of service names for SRV records & protocols is maintained by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) as defined in RFC 6335.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Service record (SRV record) is a specification of data in the Domain Name System defining the location, i.e., the hostname and port number, of servers for specified services. It is defined in RFC 2782, and its type code is 33. Some Internet protocols such as the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) and the Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) often require SRV support by network elements.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972930}
{"src_title": "Camille d'Hostun, duc de Tallard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Military career.", "content": "Tallard was granted a commission in the French army at the age of 15. He later served under the prince de Condé in the Netherlands, and from 1674, under Turenne in Alsace. He was promoted \"maréchal de camp\" in 1678, and served in the Nine Years' War (1688–1697).  His friendship with King Louis XIV ensured a position of authority. After the war he served for two years as ambassador to the Court of St. James's, where his exceptional knowledge of European political affairs proved highly valuable. When King James II died in September 1701, King Louis recognised James's son as his successor to the throne of England. Consequently, King William III expelled Tallard from London in 1702.  Tallard's military career reached its height during the War of the Spanish Succession. On 7 September 1703 the duc de Burgundy and Tallard took the town of Breisach. Tallard proceeded to attack Landau in mid October. A relief force under the Prince of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) was roundly defeated by Tallard's force at the Battle of Speyerbach on 15 November. As a result, Landau fell two days later. Shortly after, Tallard was created Marshal of France.  In 1704, Tallard was sent to reinforce Maximilian II Emanuel's and Marshal Marsin's Franco-Bavarian army on the Danube, which was under threat from the Duke of Marlborough's and Prince Eugene's allied army. Tallard set out on 1 July from Strasbourg, but although the six day siege of Villingen proved abortive, (abandoned on 22 July), the French Marshal was able to bring 34,000 men through the Black Forest, reaching Ulm on 5 August. Tallard was placed in overall command of the combined Franco-Bavarian army, but the subsequent Battle of Blenheim on 13 August 1704 resulted in complete destruction of his forces. Decisively beaten, he was captured and taken back to England and housed on parole in Newdigate House Nottingham. The writer Daniel Defoe reported that his \"small, but beautiful parterre, after the French fashion\" was one of the beauties of Nottingham.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "On his release in 1711 he returned to France. Despite the calamity of Blenheim, Louis appeared to bear the Marshal no ill will. Tallard was made a duke in 1712 and became a Peer of France in 1715. In King Louis XIV's testament, Tallard was appointed to the Council of Regency but the duc d'Orléans had the testament nullified. He was elected president of the Académie des Sciences in 1724 and, in 1726, he became a French minister of state. He died in 1728.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "He married Marie-Catherine de Grolée de Viriville-La Tivolière and had one son;", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Camille d'Hostun de la Baume, duc de Tallard (14 February 1652 – 20 March 1728) was a French noble, diplomat and military commander, who became Marshal of France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972931}
{"src_title": "Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and personality.", "content": "Born at the Royal Palace of Turin, he was a son of Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia and his second wife Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg. He was styled the \"Duke of Savoy\" from birth until he succeeded to his father's throne. He was the eldest son of his parents and was the heir apparent from birth which was greeted with much celebration. His father had had a son with his first wife, Countess Palatine Anne Christine of Sulzbach who was also named Victor Amadeus, Duke of Aosta, but died in 1725. His education was entrusted to Gerdil Giacinto Sigismondo, with a particular emphasis on military training. Throughout his life he would have a great interest in the state military on which he lavished attention.  As a young prince, he surrounded himself with intellectuals and ministers, many of whom would come to prominence in his reign. He was privately conservative and very religious person, who, as a young boy, stayed far from public life. His father felt him to be unsuitable to hold power.  Good-natured but naive, Savoy would be loved by his subjects for his generosity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "He married Infanta Maria Antonia of Spain (1729–1785), youngest daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese. They were married on 31 May 1750 at Oulx and later had twelve children. He had a loving relationship with his wife who exerted little influence over her husband. The marriage had been arranged by Maria Antonietta's half brother, the ruling Ferdinand VI of Spain. The Spanish Infanta had been previously rejected by Louis, Dauphin of France. The union was used to strengthen relations between Madrid and Turin having fought on opposing sides in the War of the Austrian Succession. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Sardinia.", "content": "When Victor Amadeus came to the throne in 1773 he started working on bureaucratic and military aspects of the reign. He was suspicious of anything innovative. However, he did implement several public works as well as paying a great deal of attention to his administration and armed forces. He approved and set up two new important cultural state institutions on the advice of the bourgeoisie and aristocracy alike. He started works of improvements in the port of Nice, and had dams in the Arce and the road of the Côte built.  At the outbreak of the French Revolution, Victor Amadeus III allowed his two sons-in-law, the Counts of Artois, Provence and the Princesses Marie Adélaïde and Victoire to stay in his kingdom under his protection. After four years of fighting, the French under Bonaparte had finally beaten the Piedmontese army in the Battle of Montenotte (12 April 1796), the Battle of Millesimo (13–14 April 1796) and the Battle of Mondovi (21 April 1796). On April 26 the French proclaimed the Republic of Alba on the occupied territories. Two days later, with the Armistice of Cherasco, the Republic was ceded back to Victor Amadeus. He was forced to sign the Treaty of Paris on May 15 abandoning the First Coalition against the French Republic. The terms of the treaty required him to cede the fortresses of Cuneo, Ceva, Alessandria and Tortona to France, and allow free passage of the latter's armies towards Italy. He was also compelled to cede Nice and Savoy.  He died on 16 October, 1796 at the Castle of Moncalieri having suffered an attack of apoplexy. Victor Amadeus died leaving an economically damaged kingdom and two key provinces – Savoy and Nice – devastated having suffered at the hands of French revolutionary forces. He was buried at the Basilica of Superga in Turin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 1786 Victor Amadeus III moved many of his ancestors and kinsmen to the Basilica of Superga where he himself rests today. He established the Gold Medal of Military Valor 21 May 1793. Like his parents, he carried out improvements to the Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi outside Turin. Victor Amadeus III also encouraged the extension of the Orto Botanico dell'Università di Torino as well as the Società Agraria di Torino which he created in 1785. His first cousin the Landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg was named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Victor Amadeus III (Vittorio Amadeo Maria; 26 June 1726 – 16 October 1796) was King of Sardinia from 1773 to his death. Although he was politically conservative, he carried out numerous administrative reforms until he declared war on Revolutionary France in 1792. He was the father of the last three mainline Kings of Sardinia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972932}
{"src_title": "Francisco Tárrega", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Tárrega was born on 21 November 1852, in Villarreal, Province of Castellón, Spain. It is said that Francisco's father played flamenco and several other music styles on his guitar; when his father was away working as a watchman at the Convent of San Pascual, Francisco would take his father's guitar and attempt to make the beautiful sounds he had heard. Francisco's nickname as a child was \"Quiquet\".  As a child, he ran away from his nanny and fell into an irrigation channel and injured his eyes. Fearing that his son might lose his sight completely, his father moved the family to Castellón de la Plana to attend music classes because as a musician he would be able to earn a living, even if blind. Both his first music teachers, Eugeni Ruiz and Manuel González, were blind.  In 1862, concert guitarist Julián Arcas, on tour in Castellón, heard the young Tárrega play and advised Tárrega's father to allow Francisco to come to Barcelona to study with him. Tárrega's father agreed, but insisted that his son take piano lessons as well. The guitar was viewed as an instrument to accompany singers, while the piano was quite popular throughout Europe. However, Tárrega had to stop his lessons shortly after, when Arcas left for a concert tour abroad. Although Tárrega was only ten years old, he ran away and tried to start a musical career on his own by playing in coffee houses and restaurants in Barcelona. He was soon found and brought back to his father, who had to make great sacrifices to advance his son's musical education.  Three years later, in 1865, he ran away again, this time to Valencia where he joined a gang of gypsies. His father looked for him and brought him back home once more, but he ran away a third time, again to Valencia. By his early teens, Tárrega was proficient on both the piano and the guitar. For a time, he played with other musicians at local engagements to earn money, but eventually he returned home to help his family. Tárrega entered the Madrid conservatory in 1874, under the sponsorship of a wealthy merchant named Antonio Canesa. He had brought along with him a recently purchased guitar, made in Seville by Antonio de Torres. Its superior sonic qualities inspired him both in his playing and in his view of the instrument's compositional potential. At the conservatory, Tárrega studied composition under Emilio Arrieta who convinced him to focus on guitar and abandon the idea of a career with the piano.  By the end of the 1870s, Tárrega was teaching the guitar (Emilio Pujol, Miguel Llobet, and Daniel Fortea were pupils of his) and giving regular concerts. Tárrega received much acclaim for his playing and began traveling to other areas of Spain to perform. By this time he was composing his first works for guitar, which he played in addition to works of other composers.  During the winter of 1880, Tárrega replaced his friend Luis de Soria, in a concert in Novelda, Alicante, where, after the concert, an important man in town asked the artist to listen to his daughter, María José Rizo, who was learning to play guitar. Soon they were engaged.  In 1881, Tárrega played in the Opera Theatre in Lyon and then the Paris Odeon, in the bicentenary of the death of Pedro Calderón de la Barca. He also played in London, but he liked neither the language nor the weather. There is a story about his visit to England. After a concert, some people saw that the musician was in low spirits. \"What is the matter, maestro?\" they asked him. \"Do you miss home? Your family, perhaps?\" They advised him to capture that moment of sadness in his music. Thus he conceived the theme of one of his most memorable works, \"Lágrima\" (literally meaning teardrop). After playing in London he came back to Novelda for his wedding. At Christmas 1882, Tárrega married María José Rizo.  To enlarge his guitar repertory and, no doubt, to make use of his considerable knowledge of keyboard music, he soon began transcribing piano works of Beethoven, Chopin, Mendelssohn and others. Tárrega and his wife moved to Madrid, gaining their living by teaching privately and playing concerts, but after the death of an infant daughter during the winter, Maria Josefa de los Angeles Tárrega Rizo, they settled permanently in Barcelona in 1885. Among his friends in Barcelona were Isaac Albéniz, Enrique Granados, Joaquín Turina and Pablo Casals.  Francisco Tárrega and María José (María Josefa) Rizo had three more children: Paquito (Francisco), Maria Rosatia (María Rosalia) (best known as Marieta) and Concepción. On a concert tour in Valencia shortly afterward, Tárrega met a wealthy widow, Conxa Martinez, who became a valuable patron to him. She allowed him and his family use of a house in Barcelona, where he would write the bulk of his most popular works. Later she took him to Granada, where the guitarist conceived the theme for \"Recuerdos de la Alhambra\", which he composed on his return and dedicated to his friend Alfred Cottin, a Frenchman who had arranged his Paris concerts.  From the later 1880s up to 1903, Tárrega continued composing, but limited his concerts to Spain. In 1900, Tárrega visited Algiers, where he heard a repetitive rhythm played on an Arabian drum. The following morning he composed \"Danza Mora\" based on that rhythm. In about 1902, he cut his fingernails and created a sound that would become typical of those guitarists associated with his school. The following year he went on tour to Italy, giving highly successful concerts in Rome, Naples, and Milan.  In January 1906, he was afflicted with paralysis on his right side, and though he would eventually return to the concert stage, he never completely recovered. He finished his last work, \"Oremus\", on 2 December 1909. He died in Barcelona thirteen days later, on 15 December, at the age of 57.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical style.", "content": "As a composer Tárrega was conservative, with a style similar to the general trends of the second half of the 19th century. A virtuoso on his instrument, he was known as the \"Sarasate of the guitar\".  Tárrega is considered to have laid the foundations for 20th century classical guitar and for increasing interest in the guitar as a recital instrument. Tárrega preferred small intimate performances over the concert stage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compositions.", "content": "Francisco Tárrega composed 78 original scores and 120 transcriptions – mostly for his own use.  As with several of his Spanish contemporaries, such as his friend Isaac Albéniz, he had an interest in combining the prevailing Romantic trend in classical music with Spanish folk elements, and transcribed several of Albéniz's piano pieces. The contemporary guitarist and composer Angelo Gilardino has written that Tárrega's 9 \"Preludios\" are \"... the deepest musical thought of Tárrega in the most concentrated form.\"  He is also the composer of \"Gran Vals\", an excerpt of which was used in the iconic Nokia ringtone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Guitars.", "content": "The guitars used by Tárrega include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francisco de Asís Tárrega y Eixea (21 November 185215 December 1909) was a Spanish composer and classical guitarist of the Romantic period. He is known for such pieces as \"Recuerdos de la Alhambra\". He is often called \"the father of classical guitar\" and is considered one of the greatest guitarists of all time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972933}
{"src_title": "Manau (group)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Band history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The beginning.", "content": "In 1988, Martial and Cédric began hosting a radio show on a local FM station, with Martial rapping in the show and Cédric as DJ. The show ended in two years and built up a following of fans. When the show ended, Cédric managed to get a job at the radio station Skyrock.  Several years later, Cédric met R.V., who had come into the station to perform a live session with his group MeanWhile. R.V. had just finished seven years of schooling at the prestigious Paris Conservatoire, and was now able to play guitar, bass, accordion, and keyboard. Cédric and R.V. hit it off immediately and began talking about making a group.  Meanwhile, Martial had been developing a career as a songwriter. One of his brother's friends had introduced him to the joys of Celtic culture, and he picked up on it immediately, discovering the work of Breton folk stars such as Dan Ar Braz, Yann-Fanch Kemener and the group Tri Yann. Martial's early songs were also greatly influenced by Jean Markale's novel \"L'épopée Celte,\" an amazing account of ancient Celtic folklore, peopled with Druids and Celtic warlords.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Formation as a group.", "content": "Shortly after Cédric and R.V.'s meeting, they teamed up with Martial to form the group Manau. They set to work on a unique fusion of Celtic rhythms and rap beats. One of their demo tapes landed on the desk of the creative director at Polydor. Impressed by their highly original sound, he immediately offered them a recording contract.  The band set to work on their new single, \"La Tribu de Dana\" and it was released in May 1998. The song rocketed to the top of the charts, selling a huge 1.7 million copies to date, 1.5 million of them in the first few months after its release. \"La tribu de Dana\" means \"the tribe of Dana,\" and is the name of a group of figures in Irish mythology, also described in \"L'épopée Celte.\" For further information see \"Tuatha Dé Danann\".  Although the song was very popular, it sounded very familiar to older music fans. And with good reason. The chorus of Manau's single was actually a cover of the melody line from Alan Stivell's famous 1970s folk hit \"Tri Martolod\". Stivell promptly sued the group. Manau maintains that the song was simply a baseline, and was modified enough to not be considered plagiarism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Success.", "content": "Marketing directors at Polydor were encouraged by the single's success and asked the band to create a debut album. Although they had an extremely tight deadline, Manau set to work. They enlisted the help of Loïc Taillebrest, a well-known folk musician renowned for his performances on the bagpipes and the bombarde.  They went on to finish their debut album, \"Panique celtique\", after just a few weeks' work in the studio. The album was released in July 1998 and, as expected, it soared to the top of the French album charts, selling over 500,000 copies almost immediately and reaching the one million mark a year later.  Manau's popularity increased exponentially. They were soon invited to several music festivals, including the famous Francofolies festival in la Rochelle, and the annual music festival in Marseilles. They also were able to perform with the legendary French folk group Tri Yann at the Saint-Renan festival in Brittany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1999 Victoires de la Musique.", "content": "The group embarked upon a major national tour at the beginning of 1999 and, right in the middle of the tour, received the award for Best Rap/Groove Album of the year at \"Victoires de la Musique\" (the annual French Music Awards) held in Paris in February. The group claimed their win felt \"\"pretty weird\"\" as, with the music they make, they didn't see themselves as \"\"truly representative of rap as a genre\"\". The group's win also garnered criticism from rap groups such as IAM, Fonky Family, and NTM who called into question the judgement of the \"Victoires de la Musique\". Manau also faced ridicule from rappers who doubted their talent in rap.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Changes.", "content": "Shortly after the group received the award for Best Rap/Groove Album of the year at \"Victoires de la Musique\", Hervé decided to leave the group and devote himself to his old band MeanWhile.  The chart-topping trio had become a chart-topping duo. But this didn't seem to bother the fans, as they kept coming out in droves to cheer on Martial and Cédric.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further albums.", "content": "Manau came storming back into the French music news in the autumn of 2000 with a second album entitled \"Fest Noz de Paname\". Manau spent a year in the studio perfecting their sound and, after eight months of practically non-stop touring, their sound had matured considerably. Moving away from the \"Celtic rap fusion\" style which had made their name, the group began experimenting with new genres and working with different artists. Their second album includes two \"duets\" with Maurane and Dee Dee Bridgewater. The success was not what was expected, but still enormous. The departure of RV was noticeable on this album. The style was more blues/jazz and less Celtic, but not to the extent of that of the next album \"on peut tous rever\", in which they tried a more commercial style of rap/hiphop. Manau published a new album, \"Nouvelle Vague\" on 8 November 2019.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Manau () is a French hip hop group formed in 1998, known for their fusing of traditional Celtic melodies with modern hip hop beats. It was initially composed of Martial Tricoche, Cédric Soubiron, and R.V. (Hervé) Lardic until R.V.'s departure and replacement by Gregor Gandon. Although the band is currently based in Paris, all of the members can trace their roots back to Brittany. The group's name comes from the old Gaelic name for the Isle of Man.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972934}
{"src_title": "Döme Sztójay", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Versec (modern-day Vršac) into a Serb family as Dimitrije Stojaković (), Sztójay joined the Austro-Hungarian Army as a young man and served as a colonel during World War I. After the war, Sztójay served in Admiral Miklós Horthy’s counter-revolutionary army, specializing in counter-espionage. After Horthy became Regent of Hungary, Sztójay was promoted to general and served as a military attaché in Berlin from 1925 to 1933. He Magyarized his name to Sztójay in 1927. From 1933 to 1935, Sztójay served in the Ministry of Defence. In 1935, Prime Minister Gyula Gömbös named Sztójay as Hungarian ambassador to Germany, a position he would hold until 1944. As ambassador, Sztójay formed strong ties with the Third Reich and often voiced support for German policies to his superiors in Hungary.  In Operation Margarethe in March 1944, the German Army occupied Hungary and forced Horthy to remove Prime Minister Miklós Kállay from office. Kállay, like Horthy, knew that Germany was losing the war, and had put out numerous feelers to the West. On 9 September 1943 László Veress, an employee of the Ministry of Exterior signed a secret agreement to surrender unconditionally to the Western Allies. Although Kállay and his government had promised on numerous occasions to surrender to the Western Allies as soon as they reached Hungary, Veress' agreement was unauthorized, as in Kállay's consideration it effectively gave up Hungary's sovereignty.  Nevertheless, the agreement didn't sit well with Berlin. When they took over the country, the Germans gave Horthy a choice between choosing a new prime minister who would cooperate with the Germans or undisguised occupation. Knowing that the latter would likely mean a gauleiter who would treat Hungary in the same manner as the other Nazi-occupied countries, Horthy chose the former. The German Plenipotentiary for Hungary, Edmund Veesenmayer, proposed that Horthy reappoint Béla Imrédy, who had been prime minister earlier in the war (and who had, ironically, a Jewish great-grandfather). However, Horthy balked at appointing the strongly pro-German Imrédy and suggested Sztójay instead. Though Sztójay had been ambassador to Berlin for a decade and was known to be pro-German, Horthy believed that at bottom he was a soldier first and would not totally give in to German demands. The Germans readily approved of Horthy's choice, and on 23 March 1944, Sztójay was appointed Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs.  As prime minister, Sztójay legalized Ferenc Szálasi’s Arrow Cross Party, increased Hungarian troop levels on the Eastern Front, dissolved the nation's labor unions, jailed political opponents, and cracked down on left wing politicians and activists. He also significantly ramped up the pace of forced deportations of Hungarian Jews, but at the same time tried to reduce the consequences. Horthy quickly became appalled by Sztójay's actions and demanded his removal as prime minister, but Veesenmayer, backed by Adolf Hitler, sternly refused to do so. Horthy refused to give in entirely, however, and used his influence to stop the deportations of Hungary's Jews and to force Imrédy out of Sztójay's cabinet. The Germans finally submitted to Horthy's pressure in August 1944 and Sztójay resigned as prime minister in favour of Géza Lakatos.  When Horthy was removed from power by the Germans in October 1944, Sztójay was not reappointed prime minister due to poor health. Sztójay subsequently fled Hungary when the Germans were driven out of the country by the Red Army in April 1945. Sztójay was later captured by American troops and extradited to Hungary in October 1945, after which time he was tried by a People's Tribunal in Budapest. He was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against the Hungarian people, sentenced to death, and executed by a firing squad in Budapest in 1946.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Döme Sztójay (5 January 1883 – 22 August 1946) was a Hungarian soldier and diplomat of Serb origin, who served as Prime Minister of Hungary in 1944, during World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972935}
{"src_title": "Albert Casimir, Duke of Teschen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was a younger son of King Augustus III of Poland (who was also Elector of Saxony) and Maria Josepha of Austria, a first cousin of Empress Maria Theresa, being the eldest daughter of Emperor Joseph I. Prince Albert of Saxony, Duke of Teschen, was also one of the godparents to his namesake, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.  Young Albert was specifically chosen by Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria to be her husband. This was a special favour granted by her mother, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, because marriages of imperial children were usually used for diplomatic purposes. Still, the betrothal and wedding had to wait until the death of her father, Emperor Francis I, and the wedding decorations were black because it occurred during the official mourning period after his death. From his father-in-law's estate, Albert received the territory of Teschen in Austrian Silesia and was accordingly given the title of \"Duke of Teschen.\" Since he became a member of the Habsburg-Lorraine family, the title of \"Archduke\" was also given to him.  The Silesian Duchy of Teschen had been inherited by Emperor Francis through his father's Gonzaga ancestry, as compensation for the lost Duchy of Montferrat, taken from them in favor of the dukes of Savoy. Archduchess Maria Christina, the daughter of Francis of Lorraine, received the duchy among her dowry. Prince Albert of Saxony thus became the Duke of Teschen, the only non-Habsburg to become such after the title passed into Habsburg control. Their marriage remained childless except for a daughter that died as a baby, and upon the death of the widowed Albert in 1822, Teschen was granted to their adopted son, Archduke Charles of Austria, who became Duke of Teschen and started the Habsburg-Lorraine branch of Dukes of Teschen.  Albert was royal governor of Hungary from 1765 to 1781, with his seat at Bratislava Castle and his summer residence in Halbturn Castle at Neusiedl. He was then made Governor of the Austrian Netherlands, along with his wife. In Brussels, they built a palace in Laeken (the present-day home of the Belgian royal family) as their seat. There, he assembled the beginnings of his vast art collection, which he took with him when the couple had to flee from Brussels to Vienna in 1793, due to the French Revolution and following his military defeat by invasion forces at the Battle of Jemappes.  In Vienna, a palace adjoining the Hofburg, originally designed by Emanuel Teles Silva-Tarouca, was enlarged for them by architect Louis Montoyer. That palace is today called the Albertina, after Albert, and houses the collection he started. Only two-thirds of his collection survives, because one of the cargo ships bringing it from Brussels sank \"en route\". After his return to Vienna, he used as an advisor Adam von Bartsch, the Curator of the Imperial prints collection and the greatest prints scholar of his age.  After the early death of his wife in 1798 of typhus, he lived only for his art collection, which he bequeathed to his (wife's) nephew and adopted son Archduke Charles of Austria.  Next door to his palace, in the \"Augustinerkirche\", Albert had a famous memorial to his wife carved by Antonio Canova. The couple are buried in tombs 111 and 112 in the Tuscan Vault of the Imperial Crypt in Vienna, with their hearts in urns 40 and 28 in the nearby Herzgruft, and their viscera in urns 75 and 63 of the Ducal Crypt in Vienna's cathedral.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prince Albert Casimir of Saxony, Duke of Teschen (11 July 1738, Moritzburg, Electorate of Saxony – 10 February 1822, Vienna) was a Saxon prince from the House of Wettin who married into the Habsburg imperial family. He was noted as an art collector and founded the Albertina in Vienna, one of the largest and finest collections of old master prints and drawings in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972936}
{"src_title": "Baron Franz von der Trenck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Trenck was born into a military family on 1 January 1711, in Reggio in south Italy, where his father Johann Heinrich Trenck served as an Austrian officer. Although born in Italy, Trenk was actually a Prussian with Austrian citizenship, and with large estates in Croatia, more precisely Slavonia. He spent his childhood mostly in Italy, Croatia and Hungary, which was not unusual since his father's job required frequent relocation. He was educated by the Jesuits at Ödenburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Trenck entered the Imperial army in 1728 but resigned in disgrace three years later and decided to live peacefully in Požega, Slavonia. He married and lived on his estate for a few years. Upon the death of his wife who had perished in the black plague of 1737, he offered to raise an irregular corps of pandurs for service against the Turks, but this offer was refused, after which he entered the Imperial Russian Army as a mercenary. In Russia he met and befriended Ernst Gideon von Laudon. But after serving against the Turks and Tatars during the Russo-Turkish War for a short time as captain and major of cavalry he was accused of bad conduct, brutality and disobedience and condemned to death. Despite showing insubordination he had gained popularity for defying an order to retreat. His sentence was commuted by Field Marschal Münnich to degradation and imprisonment.  After a time Trenck returned to Austria, where his father was governor of a small fortress, but there he came into conflict with everyone and actually took sanctuary in a convent in Vienna. Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine, interesting himself in this strange man, obtained for him an amnesty and a commission in a corps of irregulars. In this command, besides his usual truculence and bad manners, he displayed conspicuous personal bravery, and in spite of the general dislike into which his vices brought him his services were so valuable that he was promoted to lieutenant-colonel (1743) and colonel (1744).  Trenck earned most of his fame during the War of the Austrian Succession, as the leader and commander of a unit of pandurs, or paramilitary troops in the Austrian army which specialized in frontier warfare, guerrilla tactics and surprise hit-and-run actions, into which he recruited mostly Croatian mercenaries, experienced fighters from the Austro-Ottoman Military Frontier. The Trenck's Pandurs soon became infamous for the atrocities they committed on the civilian population, some actions deemed brutal even by the standards of the day.  When the War of the Austrian Succession broke out Trenck rallied volunteers and marched for Vienna to assist Maria Theresa of Austria. While in Vienna, Trenck's Pandurs marched the streets before invading Prussia. At the battle of Soor he and his irregulars plundered when they should have been fighting and Trenck was accused of having allowed the king of Prussia himself to escape.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imprisonment and death.", "content": "After a time he was brought before a court-martial in Vienna, which convicted him of having sold and withdrawn commissions to his officers without the permission of the empress, having punished his men without heed of the military code, and having drawn pay and allowance for fictitious men. Much was allowed to an irregular officer in all these respects, but Trenck had far outrun the admitted limits, and above all his brutalities and robberies had made him detested throughout Austria and Silesia. A death sentence followed, but the composition of the court-martial and its proceedings were thought to have been such as from the first forbade a fair trial as such, though most modern historians think the sentence to have been correct, even so. Nonetheless, concerns about the apparently arbitrary form of the proceedings meant that eventually the sentence was commuted by the Empress into one of cashiering and imprisonment. The rest of his life was spent in mild captivity in the fortress of Spielberg () in Brno, where he died on October 4, 1749. In his last will he left the sum of 30,000 gulden to the small town of Marienburg which had been sacked, burned and razed to the ground by his troops.  Trenck's mummified remains can presently be seen on display in the crypt of Brno's Capuchin Monastery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baron Franz von der Trenck (German: \"Franz Freiherr von der Trenck\", Croatian: \"Barun Franjo Trenk\") (Reggio di Calabria. January 1, 1711 – Brno. October 4, 1749) was an Austrian soldier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972937}
{"src_title": "Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born in the Castle of Rivoli in Piedmont, the only child of Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy and Margaret of France, Duchess of Berry. He became duke on 30 August 1580.  Well-educated, and intelligent, he spoke Italian, French and Spanish, as well as Latin. He proved an able warrior although short and hunchbacked. Being also ambitious and confident, he pursued a policy of expansion for his duchy, seeking to expand it into a kingdom. In the autumn of 1588, taking advantage of the civil war weakening France during the reign of his first cousin Henry III, he occupied the Marquisate of Saluzzo, which was under French protection. The new king, Henry IV, demanded the restitution of that land, but Charles Emmanuel refused, and war ensued. The broader conflict involving France and Spain ended with the Peace of Vervins (2 May 1598), which left the current but separate question of Saluzzo unsolved. After the Duke started talks with Spain, Henry threatened to return to war until, with the Treaty of Lyon (17 January 1601), Saluzzo went to Savoy in exchange for Bresse and other territories over the Alps. By terms of the treaty, the eradication of Protestants was to be carried on in the duchy.  In 1602 Charles Emmanuel attacked the city of Geneva. On 11 December that year he led his troops to the city during the night and they surrounded the city walls by two in the morning. The Savoyard cuirassiers were ordered to dismount and climb the city walls in full armour as a shock tactic. However, the alarm was raised by a night watchman and Geneva's militia rose to meet the invaders. The attempted raid was a disastrous failure, and 54 Savoyards were killed, and many more were captured. Charles Emmanuel's army retreated in a panic and the Savoyard prisoners were executed.  The heavy helmets worn by Charles Emmanuel's troops, with visors made in a stylized imitation of a human face, were known as \"Savoyard\" helmets after this notorious incident. A number of these suits of armour were captured by the Swiss and kept as trophies. The Geneva militia's successful defence of the city's walls is still celebrated as an act of heroism during the annual festival of L'Escalade.  With the Treaty of Bruzolo (25 April 1610), Charles Emmanuel allied with France against Spain, but the assassination of Henry IV changed the situation, as the treaty was not recognized by Marie de' Medici, who immediately assumed regency for Henry's son Louis XIII, a minor. Nevertheless, Charles Emmanuel obtained the help of French troops to free Alba from the Spaniards (January 1617), as the new king resumed his father's alliance with Savoy. His sister Christine Marie was married to Charles Emmanuel's son, Victor Amadeus in 1619. In the First Genoese-Savoyard War of 1625, Charles Emmanuel tried with the help of France to obtain access to the Mediterranean Sea at the expense of Genoa. After Spanish intervention, the status-quo was restored in the Treaty of Monçon. However, when the French occupied Casale Monferrato during the War of the Mantuan Succession, Charles Emmanuel allied with Spain. When Richelieu invaded Piedmont and conquered Susa, the duke changed sides again and returned to an alliance with France. However, when Philip IV of Spain sent two invasion forces from Genoa and Como, Charles Emmanuel declared himself neutral, and in 1630 Richelieu ordered a French army to march into Savoy to force the duke to comply with the pacts. The French troops, soon backed by another army, occupied Pinerolo and Avigliana. The Savoy army under Victor Amadeus was defeated in Lower Valsusa.  Charles Emmanuel was one of the most wanted candidates for the crown of a restored Serbian kingdom, hypothetically presumed after a Christian crusade against the Ottoman Empire during planning for the Great Conspiracy of the late 16th and early 17th centuries under the auspices of Serbian Patriarch Jovan, Herzegovinian Duke Grdan and other chiefs of the Serb clans.. At the 1608 Council of monastery Morača, during a gathering of representatives of the Serb clans and the Serbian Church, Charles was elected \"King of Serbia\" and invited to convert to Eastern Orthodoxy (as a precondition for being crowned by Patriarch John) and to vow to protect Orthodox Christianity.. The conspirators, bearing closely in mind the failures of the 1590 decade, did not want to expose themselves in any action before direct support from the West was forthcoming. Thus no broad uprising of the Balkan Christian peoples against the rule of the Ottoman Turks was sparked, as Charles Emmanuel lacked the financial resources to take the crown and restore the Serbian statehood extinguished in the 15th century.  In 1609, Charles Emmanuel came in contact with Albanian mercenaries like Giovanni Renesi, his brother Demetrio Renesi and a relative Don Joanne Renesi, who intended to revolt against the Ottomans at the Convention of Kuçi in 1614.  The duke died suddenly of a stroke at Savigliano in late July 1630. He was succeeded by his son Victor Amadeus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In 1584 he married his first cousin-once-removed, Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain, daughter of Philip II of Spain and Elizabeth of Valois, who bore him ten children:  In Riva di Chieri on 28 November 1629, he secretly married his long-time and official mistress, Marguerite de Rossillon, \"Marchesa\" di Riva di Chieri (bap. 24 December 1599 – 10 November 1640), with whom he had four children, legitimized after the wedding but without succession rights:  In addition he had several illegitimate children:  — With Luisa de During Maréchal:  — With Virginia Pallavicino:  — With Argentina Provana:  — With Anna Felizita Cusani:  — With unknown mistress:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Emmanuel I (; 12 January 1562 – 26 July 1630), known as the Great, was the Duke of Savoy from 1580 to 1630. He was nicknamed \"Testa d'feu\" (\"the Hot-Headed\") for his rashness and military aggression.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972938}
{"src_title": "Spyridon Louis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Spyridon Louis was born in the town of Marousi, north of Athens, into a poor family. Louis's father sold mineral water in Athens, which at the time lacked a central water supply, and Spyridon helped him by transporting it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "After Pierre de Coubertin's decision in 1894 to revive the Olympic Games, preparations were made to organise the first modern Olympics in Athens. One of the races would be the marathon, an event which had never been held before. It had been suggested by Frenchman Michel Bréal, who was inspired by the legend of the messenger Pheidippides, who had run from Marathon to Athens to announce the Athenian victory in the Battle of Marathon—and then dropped dead.  The Greeks were very enthusiastic about this new event and decided to hold qualifiers for the marathon. These races were started by Colonel Papadiamantopoulos, who Louis previously served under in the military. The first qualifying race—the first ever marathon race—was held on 22 March, and was won by Charilaos Vasilakos in 3 hours, 18 minutes. Louis participated in the second qualifying race, two weeks later, and placed fifth. Papadiamantopoulos, who knew of Louis's talent in running, had convinced him to try out.  The Olympic marathon was run on 10 April (or 29 March by the Julian calendar then in use in Greece). The Greek public had been very enthusiastic about the Games, but were disappointed in the fact that no track and field event had yet been won by a Greek competitor. The victory in the discus throw, a classical Greek event, by the American Robert Garrett had been particularly painful. Because of its close connection with Greek history, the public yearned for the marathon to be won by one of their countrymen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The marathon race.", "content": "In Marathon, Colonel Papadiamantopoulos gave the starting signal for the small field, consisting of seventeen athletes, thirteen of them representing Greece. The early leader of the race, which led over dusty dirt roads along which throngs of Greeks had gathered to watch, was the Frenchman Albin Lermusiaux, who had placed third in the 1500 metres prior to the marathon. In the town of Pikermi, Louis is said to have made a stop at a local inn to drink a glass of wine. (Louis's grandson, also Spyridon Louis, has stated that this is incorrect; that his grandfather's girlfriend gave him half an orange and shortly afterwards he \"got a glass of cognac from his future father-in-law.\") After asking for the advantage of the other runners, he confidently declared he would overtake them all before the end.  After 26 km, Lermusiaux was exhausted and abandoned the race. The lead was taken over by Edwin Flack, an Australian who won the 800 and 1500 m races. Louis slowly closed in on Flack. The Australian, not used to running long distances, collapsed a few kilometers onwards, giving Louis the lead.  During the race, there was tension among the Greek spectators when Flack was in first place. However, when news was delivered to the fans that Louis overtook the lead, the cry \"Hellene, Hellene!\" was taken up by rapturous spectators. Louis was greeted with cheers after entering the Panathenaic Stadium for the final part of the marathon. Louis ran with Crown Prince Constantine and Prince George of Greece during the last lap, finishing with a time of 2:58:50. Louis's victory set off wild celebrations, as described in the official report of the Games:  Here the Olympionic Victor was received with full honour; the King rose from his seat and congratulated him most warmly on his success. Some of the King’s aides-de-camp, and several members of the Committee went so far as to kiss and embrace the victor, who finally was carried in triumph to the retiring room under the vaulted entrance. The scene witnessed then inside the Stadion cannot be easily described, even strangers were carried away by the general enthusiasm.  Adding to the celebrations, two more Greek runners entered the stadium to finish in second and third place. Third place finisher Spyridon Belokas was later found to have covered part of the course by carriage and was disqualified; third place was awarded to the Hungarian Gyula Kellner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After the Olympics.", "content": "After his victory, Louis received gifts from many countrymen, ranging from jewellery to a lifelong free shave at a barber shop. It is unknown whether Louis accepted all these gifts, although he did take back home the carriage he had asked of the king. After the Olympics, Louis ended his athletic career to become a farmer and a police officer.  In 1926, Louis was arrested on charges of falsifying military documents and was imprisoned. After spending more than a year in jail, he was acquitted.  His last public appearance came in 1936, when he was invited to be a guest of honour by the organizers of the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin. After bearing the standard of the Greek team during the opening ceremonies, he was received by Adolf Hitler and offered him an olive branch from Olympia, the birthplace of the Olympic Games, as a symbol of peace. Louis recalled the moments after his victory: \"That hour was something unimaginable and it still appears to me in my memory like a dream... Twigs and flowers were raining down on me. Everybody was calling out my name and throwing their hats in the air...\"  Several months before the Italian invasion of Greece, Louis died. In Greece, various sports establishments are named after Louis. These include the Olympic Stadium of Athens where the 2004 Summer Olympics were held, as well as the road outside the stadium.  The Jayne Mansfield movie \"It Happened in Athens\" is a heavily fictionalized take on Louis and the marathon, and his story is featured in the 1984 TV miniseries \"\". The expression in Greek: \"\"yinomai Louis\"\" (γίνομαι Λούης), translated as \"to becοme Louis,\" is now employed to mean \"tο disappear by running fast.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breal's Silver Cup.", "content": "The silver cup given to Louis at the first modern Olympic Games staged in Athens in 1896, was sold for £541,250 ($860,000) in London during a Christie's auction on 18 April 2012. The trophy, with a height of six inches, broke the auction record for Olympic memorabilia. The item was sold on the day Britain marked the 100 days' countdown to the 2012 London Olympics. Christie's called the auction \"heated\" and involved six bidders. The auctioneer later confirmed the buyer as the Stavros Niarchos Foundation.  The cup is currently displayed at the Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center, a project of the Stavros Niarchos Foundation, fulfilling the commitment of the foundation to make it available to the public and to share it with everyone, upon the project's completion. During the development of the project, the cup was temporarily displayed at the Acropolis Museum of Athens and the Olympic Museum in Lausanne, during a period that coincided with the International Marathon of Lausanne.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Spyridon Louis (, sometimes transliterated \"Spiridon Loues\"; 12 January 1873 – 26 March 1940), commonly known as Spyros Louis (Σπύρος Λούης), was a Greek water-carrier who won the first modern-day Olympic marathon at the 1896 Summer Olympics. Following his victory, he was celebrated as a national hero.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972939}
{"src_title": "Marie Tussaud", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Marie Tussaud was born 1 December 1761 in Strasbourg, France. Her father, Joseph Grosholtz, was killed in the Seven Years' War just two months before Marie was born. When she was six years old, her mother, Anne-Marie Walder, took her to Bern, in Switzerland. There the family moved into the home of local doctor Philippe Curtius (1741–1794), for whom Anne-Marie acted as housekeeper.  Curtius, whom Marie would call her uncle, was skilled in wax modeling. He initially used this talent to illustrate anatomy, but he later used it for portraits. He moved to Paris in 1765 to establish a \"Cabinet de Portraits En Cire\" (Wax portraiture firm). In that year, he made a waxwork of Louis XV's last mistress, Madame du Barry, a cast that is the oldest waxwork currently on display. A year later, Tussaud and her mother joined Curtius in Paris. The first exhibition of Curtius' waxworks was shown in 1770 and attracted a large crowd. In 1776, the exhibition was moved to the Palais Royal and, in 1782, Curtius opened a second exhibit, the Caverne des Grands Voleurs (Cavern of the Grand Thieves), a precursor to Tussaud's Chamber of Horrors, on Boulevard du Temple.  Curtius taught Tussaud the art of wax modelling. She showed talent for the technique and began working for him as an artist. In 1777, she created her first wax figure, that of Voltaire. From 1780 until the Revolution in 1789, Tussaud created many of her most famous portraits of celebrities such as those of philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Benjamin Franklin and Voltaire. She was also called upon to cast the heads of individuals executed by guillotine and whole body casts of prominent figures at the time, such as Jean-Paul Marat. During this period her memoirs claim she became employed to teach votive making to Élisabeth, the sister of Louis XVI. In her memoirs, she admitted to be privy to private conversations between the princess and her brother and members of his court. She also claimed that members of the royal family were so pleased with her work that she was invited to live at Versailles for a period of nine years, although no contemporary evidence exists to confirm her accounts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French Revolution.", "content": "On 12 July 1789, wax heads of Jacques Necker and the duc d'Orléans made by Curtius were carried in a protest march two days before the attack on the Bastille.  Tussaud was perceived as a royal sympathiser; in the Reign of Terror she was arrested, along with Joséphine de Beauharnais, and her head was shaved in preparation for her execution by guillotine. She said she was released thanks to Collot d'Herbois' support for Curtius and his household. Tussaud said she was then employed to make death masks of the revolution's famous victims, including Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, Marat, and Robespierre.  When Curtius died in 1794, he left his collection of wax works to Tussaud. In 1795, she married François Tussaud, a civil engineer. The couple had three children: a daughter who died after birth and two sons, Joseph and François.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Great Britain.", "content": "In 1802, after the Treaty of Amiens, Tussaud went to London with her son Joseph, then four years old, to present her collection of portraits. She had accepted an invitation from Paul Philidor, a magic lantern and phantasmagoria pioneer, to exhibit her work alongside his show at the Lyceum Theatre. She did not fare particularly well financially, and left for Edinburgh in 1803.  As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, Tussaud was unable to return to France so she travelled with her collection throughout the British Isles. In 1822, she reunited with her other son, François, who joined her in the family business. Her husband remained in France and the two never saw each other again. In November, 1825 her touring exhibition was in the Wisbech Georgian theatre (now the Angles Theatre), having already been at Yarmouth, Norwich, King's Lynn and Bury St Edmunds. Entrance was 1s. In 1835, after 33 years touring Britain, she established her first permanent exhibition in Baker Street, on the upper floor of the \"Baker Street Bazaar\". In 1838, she wrote her memoirs. In 1842, she made a self-portrait which is now on display at the entrance of her museum. Some of the sculptures done by Tussaud herself still exist.  She died in her sleep in London on 16 April 1850 at the age of 88. There is a memorial tablet to Madame Marie Tussaud on the right side of the nave of St. Mary's Roman Catholic Church, Cadogan Street, London.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Upon Marie Tussaud's retirement, her son François (or Francis) became chief artist for the Exhibition. He was succeeded in turn by his son Joseph, who was succeeded by his son John Theodore Tussaud.  Madame Tussaud's wax museum has now grown to become one of the major tourist attractions in London, and has expanded with branches in Amsterdam, Beijing, Bangkok, Berlin, Blackpool, Sydney, Hong Kong, Las Vegas, San Francisco, Shanghai, Washington, D.C., New York City, Orlando, Hollywood, Singapore, Vienna and recently New Delhi. As of 2019, the newest museum is in Prague. The current owner is Merlin Entertainments, a company owned by Blackstone Group.  She is one of the main characters in the book \"Faces of the Dead\" by Suzanne Weyn. Edward Carey's 2018 novel \"Little\" is a novelization of her work and life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna Maria \"Marie\" Tussaud (; née Grosholtz; 1 December 1761 – 16 April 1850) was a French artist known for her wax sculptures and Madame Tussauds, the wax museum she founded in London.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972940}
{"src_title": "Lace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word lace is from Middle English, from Old French \"las\", noose, string, from Vulgar Latin *\"laceum\", from Latin \"laqueus\", noose; probably akin to \"lacere\", to entice or ensnare.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "There are many types of lace, classified by how they are made. These include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The origin of lace is disputed by historians. An Italian claim is a will of 1493 by the Milanese Sforza family. A Flemish claim is lace on the alb of a worshiping priest in a painting about 1485 by Hans Memling. But since lace evolved from other techniques, it is impossible to say that it originated in any one place.  The late 16th century marked the rapid development of lace, both needle lace and bobbin lace became dominant in both fashion as well as home décor. For enhancing the beauty of collars and cuffs, needle lace was embroidered with loops and picots.  Lace was used by clergy of the early Catholic Church as part of vestments in religious ceremonies but did not come into widespread use until the 16th century in the northwestern part of the European continent. The popularity of lace increased rapidly and the cottage industry of lace making spread throughout Europe. In 1840, Britain's Queen Victoria was married in lace, influencing the wedding dress style until now. In North America in the 19th century, missionaries spread the knowledge of lace making to the Native American tribes. St. John Francis Regis guided many women out of prostitution by establishing them in the lace making and embroidery trade, which is why he became the Patron Saint of lace making.  The English diarist Samuel Pepys often wrote about the lace used for his, his wife's, and his acquaintances' clothing, and on 10 May 1669, noted that he intended to remove the gold lace from the sleeves of his coat \"as it is fit [he] should\", possibly in order to avoid charges of ostentatious living.  Catherine of Aragon while exiled in Ampthill, England, was said to have supported the lace makers there by burning all her lace, and commissioning new pieces. This may be the origin of the lacemaker's holiday - Cattern's day. On this day (25 or 26 November) lacemakers were given a day off from work, and Cattern cakes - small dough cakes made with caraway seeds, were used to celebrate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lace is a delicate fabric made of yarn or thread in an open weblike pattern, made by machine or by hand.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972941}
{"src_title": "Oka (river)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name and history.", "content": "The Oka river was the homeland of the Eastern Slavic Vyatichi tribe. By the 5th century the land around the Oka river was inhabited by different Slavic tribes. The Baltic tribe of Galindians also lived in the western part of the Oka basin. Turkic tribes also inhabited the Oka area. The Oka river was also inhabited by Vikings and other peoples from Scandinavia. Artifacts of Scandinavian origin were found along the Oka - Volga route. There is no consensus opinion where the name Oka originated from.  From the Mongol conquest until about 1633, the Oka was the last line of defense against steppe raiders. Later Zasechnaya cherta, a chain of fortification lines, was created to protect Grand Duchy of Moscow and later the Tsardom of Russia from the Crimean-Nogai Raids. It was south of the original line along the Oka.  The river gave its name to the Upper Oka Principalities, situated upstream from Tarusa. In 1221 Grand Duke Yuri II of Vladimir founded Nizhny Novgorod, later to become one of largest Russian cities, to protect the Oka's confluence with the Volga. The Qasim Khanate, a Muslim polity, occupied the middle reaches of the Oka (around the city of Kasimov) in the 15th and 16th centuries.  Before the construction of the railways in the mid-19th century and the building of the Moscow Canal in the 1930s, the Oka, along with its tributary Moskva, served as an important transportation route connecting Moscow with the Volga. Due to the Oka's and Moskva's meandering courses, travel was not particularly fast: for example, it took Cornelis de Bruijn around 10 days to sail from Moscow down these two rivers to Nizhny Novgorod in 1703. Traveling upstream may have been even slower, as the boats had to be pulled by burlaks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "The banks of the river are dotted with historical and cultural sites, including the medieval monasteries of Murom, the mosques and minarets of Kasimov, the fortified kremlins of Kolomna and Serpukhov, the memorial houses of Vasily Polenov and Sergey Yesenin, the excavated ruins of Old Ryazan and the Oka Shukhov Tower.  The Prioksko-Terrasny Biosphere Reserve lies along the left bank of the river opposite the town of Pushchino and is known for its wisent breeding nursery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main tributaries.", "content": "The largest tributaries of the Oka are, from source to mouth:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "The Oka appears as the title and main theme in a popular, nostalgia filled song (in which it is compared to the Vistula river in Poland) of the Polish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division which was formed nearby in 1943. The unit fought all the way to Berlin alongside the Red Army. It was written by Leon Pasternak.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Oka (, ) is a river in central Russia, the largest right tributary of the Volga. It flows through the regions of Oryol, Tula, Kaluga, Moscow, Ryazan, Vladimir and Nizhny Novgorod and is navigable over a large part of its total length, as far upstream as to the town of Kaluga. Its length is and its catchment area is. The Russian capital Moscow sits on one of the Oka's tributaries—the Moskva.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972942}
{"src_title": "Gundam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concept.", "content": "\"Mobile Suit Gundam\" was developed by animator Yoshiyuki Tomino and a changing group of Sunrise creators with the collective pseudonym of Hajime Yatate. The series was originally entitled \"Freedom Fighter Gunboy\" (or \"Gunboy\") for the robot's gun, with teen boys the primary target demographic. Early production had a number of references to freedom: the White Base was originally \"Freedom's Fortress\", the Core Fighter was the \"Freedom Wing\" and the Gunperry was the \"Freedom Cruiser\". The Yatate team combined the English word \"gun\" with the last syllable of the word \"freedom\" to form the portmanteau \"Gundom\". Tomino changed it to \"Gundam\", suggesting a unit wielding a gun powerful enough to hold back enemies like a hydroelectric dam holding back water. In keeping with the concept, Gundams are depicted as prototypes or limited-production, with higher capabilities than mass-produced units.  Most Gundams are large, bipedal, humanoid vehicles controlled from a cockpit by a human pilot. The cockpit is located in the torso, while the head serves as a camera to transmit images back to the cockpit. Most of the series protagonists are Newtypes, genetically advanced humans adapted for space. Newtypes have psychic abilities that enable them to sense each other across space and to utilize special mobile suits.  The series itself has been described as a space opera.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Innovation.", "content": "\"Mobile Suit Gundam\" reportedly pioneered the real robot subgenre of mecha anime. Unlike its super robot cousins, \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" attempted realism in its robot design and weaponry by running out of energy and ammunition or malfunctioning. Its technology is derived from actual science (such as Lagrange points and the O'Neill cylinder in space, and the use of Helium-3 as an energy source) or feasible technology requiring only a few fictional elements to function (such as Minovsky Physics).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Timelines.", "content": "Most of the \"Gundam\" animation (including the earliest series) is set in what is known as the Universal Century (UC) calendar era, with later series set in alternate calendars or timelines. Although many new Gundam stories are told in their parallel universe with independent timelines (giving them greater creative freedom), the original UC storyline continues to be popular. It established the series, setting the standard for hard science fiction in anime; the original \"Gundam\" marked the maturing of the giant-robot genre. Nostalgia for the oldest \"Gundam\" shows (and its status as a pop-culture icon in Japan) is a factor in its continuing success.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spinoffs.", "content": "\"SD Gundam\", a spinoff of \"Gundam\" which began during the mid-1980s, features super deformed designs and emphasizes comedy and adventure. \"Model Suit Gunpla Builders Beginning G\", \"Gundam Build Fighters\", and \"Gundam Build Divers\" feature contemporary settings and use Gunpla as plot elements.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "TV series, films, and video.", "content": "Except for \"Mobile Suit Gundam 00\" (which follows the current calendar era), all mainstream Gundam series are set in a fictional era which begins after a drastic event or chain of events. The scenario commonly changes as the story progresses between Earth, space, space colonies and in some cases the Moon and terraformed planets.  On July 5, 2018, it was announced at the Anime Expo 2018 that Legendary Pictures and Sunrise are teaming up to developing a Live action Gundam movie. On March 6, 2019, Deadline reports that Brian K. Vaughan will write and will also serve as an executive producer for the film.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manga and novels.", "content": "Manga adaptations of the \"Gundam\" series have been published in English in North America by a number of companies, such as Viz Media, Del Rey Manga and Tokyopop, and in Singapore by Chuang Yi.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Video games.", "content": "\"Gundam\" has spawned over 80 video games for arcade, computer and console platforms, some with characters not found in other \"Gundam\" media. Some of the games, in turn inspired spinoff novels and manga. Most \"Gundam\" video games, except \"\", were released only in Japan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gundam models.", "content": "Hundreds of Gundam models, primarily made of plastic but sometimes with resin and metal detail parts, have been released. They range in quality from children's toy kits to hobbyist and museum-grade models, and most are in 1:35, 1:48, 1:60, 1:100 or 1:144 scale. Promotional 1:6 or 1:12 scale models are supplied to retailers and are not commercially available. For \"Gundam\" 30th anniversary, a full-size RX-78-2 Gundam model was constructed and displayed at Gundam Front Tokyo, in the Odaiba district; it was taken down on 5 March 2017. A new statue of the Unicorn Gundam was erected at the same location, now renamed The Gundam Base Tokyo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other merchandise.", "content": "Bandai, \"Gundam\" primary licensee, produces a variety of products. Other companies produce unofficial merchandise, such as toys, models and T-shirts. Products include Mobile Suit In Action (MSiA) action figures and Gundam model kits in several scales and design complexities. Each series generally has its own set of products, MSiA and model lines such as Master Grade and High Grade Universal Century may extend across series. The most popular action-figure line has been the Gundam Fix series, which includes the mecha in the animated series, manga and novels and accessories to create an updated version. In addition to Master Grade and High Grade Gundams, Bandai released a 30th-anniversary series of Gundam models in 2010. The Real Grade (RG) Gundam series combined the Master Grade's detailed inner structure with additional colour separation, making the 1:144-scale series complex in design and compact in size. After the introduction of the RG Gundam series, Bandai released the Metal Build series in March 2011 (beginning with the 00 Gundam).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Internet.", "content": "Bandai maintains several websites to promote \"Gundam\" projects; Gundam Perfect Web is the official Japanese site. Its English-language counterpart is the US-maintained Gundam Official. In 2005, the website hosted the Gundam Official User Forum. The forum was based on the existing fan forum, Gundam Watch, using many of its staff. When the project was retired, Gundam Watch was reborn and became Gundam Evolution.  A number of series-specific websites have been created, often available for a limited time (usually to promote a DVD release). Common content includes character and mecha listings, lists of related merchandise and pay-for-download content. Special pages are frequent, often presenting downloadable wallpaper or a small game. The \"Superior Defender Gundam Force\" website has a game in which players take the role of villain Commander Sazabi, attempting to blast his subordinate with weapons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Global spread.", "content": "Since 1980, \"Gundam\" has appeared in the following countries and regions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impact.", "content": "\"Gundam\" is a Japanese cultural icon; it is a ¥50-billion-annual business of Bandai Namco, reaching ¥54.5 billion annual revenue by 2006, and annual revenue by 2014. Stamps were issued, an Agriculture Ministry employee was reprimanded for contributing to the Japanese Wikipedia Gundam-related pages, and the Japan Self-Defense Forces code-named its developing advance personal-combat system Gundam.  The impact of Gundam in Japan has been compared to the impact of \"Star Wars\" in the United States.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": ", also known as the, is a Japanese science fiction media franchise/media mix created by Yoshiyuki Tomino and Sunrise that features giant robots (mecha) with the name \"Gundam\" (after the original titular mecha). The franchise began on April 7, 1979 with \"Mobile Suit Gundam\", a TV series that defined the \"real robot\" mecha anime genre by featuring giant robots called mobile suits in a militaristic setting. The popularity of the series and its merchandise spawned a franchise that includes television series, OVAs, films, manga, novels and video games, as well as a whole industry of model robots known as Gunpla (plastic Gundam model).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972943}
{"src_title": "UIC wagon numbers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Placement of the code.", "content": "As shown on the photographs at right, the code may be arranged either vertically (e.g. on closed wagons) on three or more lines at man's height with the letter codes next to the corresponding part of the digit code, or horizontally (e.g. on flat wagons) at the bottom of the chassis side with all digits together (with groups separated by spaces and the check digit by a dash) and all letters together. It is always found on both sides of the wagon, not on the front or back.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calculation of the self-check digit.", "content": "The digits are multiplied individually from right to left alternately by 2 and 1, and digit summed using the Luhn algorithm. The difference between this sum and the next multiple of ten is the check digit, placed after the eleventh digit, separated by a dash.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "Wagon number: 21 81 2471 217  Wagon number: 51 80 0843 001", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Country code.", "content": "At the beginning of 2006 the country replaced the owner (almost exclusively state railways), with the owner now indicated by following letters. For example, for a vehicle registered in Germany on the AAE, which had its own code as a private railway, \"68 AAE\" became \"80 D-AAE\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reading of numbers.", "content": "Numbers are read visually, the method of choice today (2008). No railway is able to read the number automatically with the required reliability (less than 1 error in 10,000). Using OCR readers the numbering (DB AG: Font \"Gerade Normschrift\" DIN 16 Variant DB) can be only be read to an accuracy of no better than 5% (1 in 20).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Numbering systems.", "content": "The UIC has the following numbering systems, as detailed in leaflets:  These agreements have not yet achieved the status of a standard or norm.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Wagon numbers (or coach numbers) are key data for railway operations. They enable a railway wagon or coach to be positively identified and form a common language between railway operators, infrastructure companies and the state authorities. The system of wagon numbering has been laid down by the International Union of Railways (\"Union internationale des chemins de fer\" or \"UIC\") and is similar to that used for the locomotives and multiple units. Vehicle numbering is now governed by the Intergovernmental Organisation for International Carriage by Rail and in Technical Specifications for Interoperability (TSI) of the European Union.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972944}
{"src_title": "Svitavy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The town's origins date back to around 1150 when Premonstratensian monks from nearby Litomyšl built a church and founded a village at a ford on the river Svitava (\"pure\", \"clear\"), from which the settlement got its name. Svitavy was first mentioned in 1256 when it was taken over by the bishop of Olomouc, Bruno von Schauenburg. Settlers were then brought in from Germany. In 1330, Svitavy was promoted to the status of a city, and at the end of the 14th century, walls were built around the city with three gates. In the 16th century the town flourished economically as a center of weavers and drapers. During the Hussite, Thirty Years', Napoleonic and Austro-Prussian wars, the city suffered as armies passed through the town. During the Thirty Years' War the town was devastated and in 1781 it burned down by accident. In the 19th century the building of a railway line through Zwittau contributed to the development of the town, especially the textile industry. Svitavy was historically a German-speaking town with a Czech minority; in 1930, 88.4% of the population was German-speaking. In the beginning of the 20th century the town saw tensions between Czech and German speaking people. In October 1938, the town was added to Sudetenland and occupied by the German army. After the end of the Second World War in 1945, the German population was expelled as a result of the Beneš decrees. The industrialist Oskar Schindler, who saved 1,200 Jews working at his factory during the war, was born in Zwittau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "Svitavy has a valuable historical core, which includes the elongated main square with the second longest arcade in the Czech Republic and a collection of architecturally noteworthy civic buildings, several churches, remains of city walls, and baroque statues.  Among the most notable buildings in Svitavy are the old city hall and the neighboring building \"U mouřenína\" (\"The Moor\"), located on the main square. Also of particular interest are the City Museum and the Ottendorfer House. The oldest church in Svitavy is the Church of St. Giles. There are only a few remains left of the city walls, including a semi-circular bastion. There are a variety of monuments and statues in the town's public spaces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museums, galleries and other cultural institutions.", "content": "In addition, a branch of the museum is located on the ground floor of the Ottendorfer House:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Svitavy is a transport hub of the area. It is well-connected by rail to other parts of the Czech Republic, including regular connections to Brno and Prague. EuroCity and InterCity trains pass through Svitavy without stopping, but some stop at Česká Třebová, a short distance from Svitavy on the same line. The town also has an intercity bus station with services to various destinations. Two major highways cross just north of Svitavy, E461/43, which goes through the town to Brno and Vienna, and E442/35 going east–west.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Svitavy is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Svitavy (; ) is a town in the Pardubice Region of the Czech Republic. The town has a population of 17,000 and is also the district administrative centre. It is the birthplace of Oskar Schindler and an important centre of the Czech Esperanto movement, with an Esperanto museum that is part of the city museum.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972945}
{"src_title": "Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Technology.", "content": "EDGE/EGPRS is implemented as a bolt-on enhancement for 2.5G GSM/GPRS networks, making it easier for existing GSM carriers to upgrade to it. EDGE is a superset to GPRS and can function on any network with GPRS deployed on it, provided the carrier implements the necessary upgrade. EDGE requires no hardware or software changes to be made in GSM core networks. EDGE-compatible transceiver units must be installed and the base station subsystem needs to be upgraded to support EDGE. If the operator already has this in place, which is often the case today, the network can be upgraded to EDGE by activating an optional software feature. Today EDGE is supported by all major chip vendors for both GSM and WCDMA/HSPA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transmission techniques.", "content": "In addition to Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), EDGE uses higher-order PSK/8 phase shift keying (8PSK) for the upper five of its nine modulation and coding schemes. EDGE produces a 3-bit word for every change in carrier phase. This effectively triples the gross data rate offered by GSM. EDGE, like GPRS, uses a rate adaptation algorithm that adapts the modulation and coding scheme (MCS) according to the quality of the radio channel, and thus the bit rate and robustness of data transmission. It introduces a new technology not found in GPRS, Incremental Redundancy, which, instead of retransmitting disturbed packets, sends more redundancy information to be combined in the receiver. This increases the probability of correct decoding.  EDGE can carry a bandwidth up to 236 kbit/s (with end-to-end latency of less than 150 ms) for 4 timeslots (theoretical maximum is 473.6 kbit/s for 8 timeslots) in packet mode. This means it can handle four times as much traffic as standard GPRS. EDGE meets the International Telecommunications Union's requirement for a 3G network, and has been accepted by the ITU as part of the IMT-2000 family of 3G standards. It also enhances the circuit data mode called HSCSD, increasing the data rate of this service.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "EDGE modulation and coding scheme (MCS).", "content": "The channel encoding process in GPRS as well as EGPRS/EDGE consists of two steps: first, a cyclic code is used to add parity bits, which are also referred to as the Block Check Sequence, followed by coding with a possibly punctured convolutional code. In GPRS, the Coding Schemes CS-1 to CS-4 specify the number of parity bits generated by the cyclic code and the puncturing rate of the convolutional code. In GPRS Coding Schemes CS-1 through CS-3, the convolutional code is of rate 1/2, i.e. each input bit is converted into two coded bits. In Coding Schemes CS-2 and CS-3, the output of the convolutional code is punctured to achieve the desired code rate. In GPRS Coding Scheme CS-4, no convolutional coding is applied.  In EGPRS/EDGE, the Modulation and Coding Schemes MCS-1 to MCS-9 take the place of the Coding Schemes of GPRS, and additionally specify which modulation scheme is used, GMSK or 8PSK. MCS-1 through MCS-4 use GMSK and have performance similar (but not equal) to GPRS, while MCS-5 through MCS-9 use 8PSK. In all EGPRS Modulation and Coding Schemes, a convolutional code of rate 1/3 is used, and puncturing is used to achieve the desired code rate. In contrast to GPRS, the Radio Link Control (RLC) and Media Access Control (MAC) headers and the payload data are coded separately in EGPRS. The headers are coded more robustly than the data.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evolved EDGE.", "content": "Evolved EDGE, also called EDGE Evolution, is a bolt-on extension to the GSM mobile telephony standard, which improves on EDGE in a number of ways. Latencies are reduced by lowering the Transmission Time Interval by half (from 20 ms to 10 ms). Bit rates are increased up to 1 Mbit/s peak bandwidth and latencies down to 80 ms using dual carrier, higher symbol rate and higher-order modulation (32QAM and 16QAM instead of 8PSK), and turbo codes to improve error correction. This results in real world downlink speeds of up to 600kbit/s. Further the signal quality is improved using dual antennas improving average bit-rates and spectrum efficiency.  The main intention of increasing the existing EDGE throughput is that many operators would like to upgrade their existing infrastructure rather than invest on new network infrastructure. Mobile operators have invested billions in GSM networks, many of which are already capable of supporting EDGE data speeds up to 236.8 kbit/s. With a software upgrade and a new device compliant with Evolved EDGE (like an Evolved EDGE smartphone) for the user, these data rates can be boosted to speeds approaching 1 Mbit/s (i.e. 98.6 kbit/s per timeslot for 32QAM). Many service providers may not invest in a completely new technology like 3G networks.  Considerable research and development happened throughout the world for this new technology. A successful trial by Nokia Siemens and \"one of China's leading operators\" has been achieved in a live environment. With the introduction for more advanced wireless technologies like UMTS and LTE, which also focus on a network coverage layer on low frequencies and the upcoming phase-out and shutdown of 2G mobile networks, it is very unlikely that Evolved EDGE will ever see any deployment on live networks. Up to now (as of 2016) there are no commercial networks which support the Evolved EDGE standard (3GPP Rel-7).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technology.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reduced Latency.", "content": "With Evolved EDGE come three major features designed to reduce latency over the air interface.  In EDGE, a single RLC data block (ranging from 23 to 148 bytes of data) is transmitted over four frames, using a single time slot. On average, this requires 20 ms for one way transmission. Under the RTTI scheme, one data block is transmitted over two frames in two timeslots, reducing the latency of the air interface to 10 ms.  In addition, Reduced Latency also implies support of Piggy-backed ACK/NACK (PAN), in which a bitmap of blocks not received is included in normal data blocks. Using the PAN field, the receiver may report missing data blocks immediately, rather than waiting to send a dedicated PAN message.  A final enhancement is RLC-non persistent mode. With EDGE, the RLC interface could operate in either acknowledged mode, or unacknowledged mode. In unacknowledged mode, there is no retransmission of missing data blocks, so a single corrupt block would cause an entire upper-layer IP packet to be lost. With non-persistent mode, an RLC data block may be retransmitted if it is less than a certain age. Once this time expires, it is considered lost, and subsequent data blocks may then be forwarded to upper layers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Downlink Dual Carrier.", "content": "With Downlink Dual Carrier, the handheld is able to receive on two different frequency channels at the same time, doubling the downlink throughput. In addition, if second receiver is present then the handheld is able to receive on an additional timeslot in single-carrier mode, because it may overlap the tuning of one receiver with other tasks.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Higher Modulation Schemes.", "content": "Both uplink and downlink throughput is improved by using 16 or 32 QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation), along with turbo codes and higher symbol rates.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Networks.", "content": "The Global mobile Suppliers Association (GSA) states that, as of May 2013, there were 604 GSM/EDGE networks in 213 countries, from a total of 606 mobile network operator commitments in 213 countries.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) (also known as Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC), or Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution) is a digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission rates as a backward-compatible extension of GSM. EDGE is considered a pre-3G radio technology and is part of ITU's 3G definition. EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in 2003 – initially by Cingular (now AT&T) in the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972946}
{"src_title": "Marie-Antoine Carême", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Abandoned by his parents in Paris in 1794 at the height of the French Revolution, he worked as a kitchen boy at a cheap Parisian chophouse in exchange for room and board. In 1798, he was formally apprenticed to Sylvain Bailly, a famous \"pâtissier\" with a shop near the Palais-Royal. The post-revolutionary Palais-Royal was a high profile, fashionable neighborhood filled with vibrant life and bustling crowds. Bailly recognized his talent and ambition. By the time he was prepared to leave Bailly, he could stipulate that he should be free to leave his new employer when a better offer came along. Carême opened his own shop, the \"Pâtisserie de la rue de la Paix\", which he maintained until 1813.  Carême gained fame in Paris for his \"pièces montées\", elaborate constructions used as centerpieces, which Bailly had displayed in the pâtisserie window. He made these confections, which were sometimes several feet high, entirely out of foodstuffs such as sugar, marzipan, and pastry. He modeled them on temples, pyramids, and ancient ruins, taking ideas from architectural history books which he studied at the nearby Bibliothèque Nationale, thanks to the enlightened attitude of his first employer Bailly. He is credited with the inventions of \"gros nougats\" and \"grosses meringues\", \"croquantes\", made of almonds and honey, and \"solilemmes\".  He did freelance work creating pieces principally for the French diplomat and gourmand Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, but also other members of Parisian high society, including Napoleon. While working on his confections at many private kitchens, he quickly extended his culinary skills to main courses.  Napoleon was famously indifferent to food, but he understood the importance of social relations in the world of diplomacy. In 1804, he gave money to Talleyrand to purchase Château de Valençay, a large estate outside Paris. The château was intended to act as a kind of diplomatic gathering place. When Talleyrand moved there, he took Carême with him.  Carême was set a test by Talleyrand: to create a whole year’s worth of menus, without repetition, and using only seasonal produce. Carême passed the test and completed his training in Talleyrand's kitchens. After the fall of Napoleon, Carême went to London for a time and served as \"chef de cuisine\" to the Prince Regent, later George IV. Returning to the continent, he accepted the invitation of Tsar Alexander I to come to St. Petersburg, but stayed so briefly that he prepared not even a single meal for the Tsar. Upon returning to Paris, he became chef to banker James Mayer Rothschild.  Carême died in his Paris house on the Rue Neuve Saint Roche at the age of 48, due perhaps to many years inhaling the toxic fumes of the coal burning stoves over which he cooked. He is remembered as the founder of the concept of \"haute cuisine\" and is interred in the Montmartre Cemetery in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "In his first major position, Carême worked as \"chef de cuisine\" to Talleyrand, who encouraged Carême in the development of a new refined food style using herbs, fresh vegetables, and simplified sauces with few ingredients. Talleyrand became a famous host during the Congress of Vienna— by the time the congress disbanded, not only the map of Europe but also the culinary tastes of its upper classes had been thoroughly revised.  Carême's impact on culinary matters ranged from trivial to theoretical. He is credited with creating the standard chef's hat, the \"toque\", he devised new sauces and dishes, and he published a classification of all sauces into groups based on four mother sauces. He is also frequently credited with replacing the practice of \"service à la française\" (serving all dishes at once) with \"service à la russe\" (serving each dish in the order printed on the menu) after he returned from service in the Russian court, but others say he was a diehard supporter of \"service à la française\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works by Carême.", "content": "Carême wrote several books on cookery, above all the encyclopedic \"L'Art de la Cuisine Française\" (5 vols, 1833–34, of which he had completed three before his death), which included, aside from hundreds of recipes, plans for menus and opulent table settings, a history of French cookery, and instructions for organizing kitchens.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marie Antoine (Antonin) Carême (; 8 June 178412 January 1833) was a French chef and an early practitioner and exponent of the elaborate style of cooking known as \"grande cuisine\", the \"high art\" of French cooking: a grandiose style of cookery favoured by both international royalty and by the newly rich of Paris. Carême is often considered one of the first internationally renowned celebrity chefs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972947}
{"src_title": "Grep", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Before it was named, codice_1 was a private utility written by Ken Thompson to search files. He was approached by his manager, Doug McIlroy, who expressed interest in having a similar functionality implemented. Thompson responded that he would think about such a utility overnight, but what he did was actually fixing bugs and making improvements, which took about an hour. The next day Thompson presented codice_1 to McIlroy, who said it was exactly what he wanted. Thompson's account may explain why it is believed that codice_1 was written overnight.  The first version of codice_1 was written by Ken Thompson in PDP-11 assembly language to help Lee E. McMahon analyze the text of the Federalist Papers to determine authorship of the individual papers. The ed text editor (also authored by Thompson) had regular expression support but could not be used on such a large amount of text, so Thompson excerpted that code into a standalone tool. He chose the name because in ed, the command \"g/re/p\" would print all lines matching a specified pattern. codice_1 was first included in Version 4 Unix. Stating that it is \"generally cited as \"the\" prototypical software tool\", Doug McIlroy credited codice_1 with \"irrevocably ingraining\" Thompson's tools philosophy in Unix.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sample usage.", "content": "The following example demonstrates the output of the codice_1 command given different arguments  $ grep root /etc/passwd root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash operator:x:11:0:operator:/root:/sbin/nologin  $ grep -n root /etc/passwd 1:root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash 12:operator:x:11:0:operator:/root:/sbin/nologin  $ grep -c false /etc/passwd 7", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "A variety of codice_1 implementations are available in many operating systems and software development environments. Early variants included codice_11 and codice_12, introduced in Version 7 Unix. The \"codice_11\" variant supports an extended regular expression syntax added by Alfred Aho after Ken Thompson's original regular expression implementation. The \"codice_12\" variant searches for any of a list of \"fixed\" strings using the Aho–Corasick string matching algorithm. Binaries of these variants persist in most modern systems, however their explicit usage has been deprecated and the functionalities of these variants are included in codice_1 as the command-line switches codice_16 and codice_17; the use of the switches is therefore the recommended method of use.  Other commands contain the word \"grep\" to indicate that they search (usually for regular expression matches). The codice_18 utility, for instance, displays the processes whose names match a given regular expression.  In the Perl programming language, \"grep\" is the name of the built-in function that finds elements in a list that satisfy a certain property. This higher-order function is typically named filter in functional programming languages.  The codice_19 command is an implementation of codice_1 that uses Perl regular expression syntax. Similar functionality can be invoked in the GNU version of codice_1 with the codice_22 flag.  Ports of codice_1 (within Cygwin and GnuWin32, for example) also run under Microsoft Windows. Some versions of Windows feature the similar codice_24 or codice_25 command.  A codice_1 command is also part of ASCII's \"MSX-DOS2 Tools\" for MSX-DOS version 2.  The software \"Adobe InDesign\" has functions GREP (since CS3 version (2007)), in the \"find/change\" dialog box \"GREP\" tab, and introduced with InDesign CS4 in \"paragraph styles\" \"GREP styles\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage as a verb.", "content": "In December 2003, the \"Oxford English Dictionary Online\" added draft entries for \"grep\" as both a noun and a verb.  A common verb usage is the phrase \"You can't grep dead trees\"—meaning one can more easily search through digital media, using tools such as codice_1, than one could with a hard copy (i.e., one made from dead trees, paper). Compare with \"google\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "codice_1 is a command-line utility for searching plain-text data sets for lines that match a regular expression. Its name comes from the ed command \"g/re/p\" (\"globally search for a regular expression and print matching lines\"), which has the same effect. codice_1 was originally developed for the Unix operating system, but later available for all Unix-like systems and some others such as OS-9.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972948}
{"src_title": "15 puzzle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Solvability.", "content": "used a parity argument to show that half of the starting positions for the \"n\"-puzzle are impossible to resolve, no matter how many moves are made. This is done by considering a function of the tile configuration that is invariant under any valid move, and then using this to partition the space of all possible labeled states into two equivalence classes of reachable and unreachable states.  The invariant is the parity of the permutation of all 16 squares plus the parity of the taxicab distance (number of rows plus number of columns) of the empty square from the lower right corner. This is an invariant because each move changes both the parity of the permutation and the parity of the taxicab distance. In particular, if the empty square is in the lower right corner then the puzzle is solvable if and only if the permutation of the remaining pieces is even.  For larger versions of the \"n\"-puzzle, finding a solution is easy, but the problem of finding the \"shortest\" solution is NP-hard. It is also NP-hard to approximate the fewest slides within an additive constant, but there is a polynomial-time constant-factor approximation. For the 15-puzzle, lengths of optimal solutions range from 0 to 80 single-tile moves (there are 17 configurations requiring 80 moves) or 43 multi-tile moves; the 8-puzzle always can be solved in no more than 31 single-tile moves or 24 multi-tile moves (integer sequence A087725). The multi-tile metric counts subsequent moves of the empty tile in the same direction as one.  The number of possible positions of the 24-puzzle is ≈ which is too many to calculate God's number. In 2011, lower bounds of 152 single-tile moves or 41 multi-tile moves had been established, as well as upper bounds of 208 single-tile moves or 109 multi-tile moves. In 2016, the upper bound was improved to 205 single-tile moves.  The transformations of the fifteen puzzle form a groupoid (not a group, as not all moves can be composed); this groupoid acts on configurations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternate proof.", "content": "In an alternate view of the problem, we can consider the invariant to be the sum of the parity of the number of inversions in the current order of the 15 numbered pieces and the parity of the difference in the row number of the empty square from the row number of the last row. (Let's call it row distance from the last row.) This is an invariant because each column move, when we move a piece within the same column, changes both the parity of the number of inversions (by changing the number of inversions by ±1, ±3) and the parity of the row distance from the last row (changing row distance by ±1); and each row move, when we move a piece within the same row, does not change any of the two parities. Now if we look at the solved state of the puzzle, this sum is even. Hence it is easy to prove by induction that any state of the puzzle for which the above sum is odd cannot be solvable. In particular, if the empty square is in the lower right corner (even anywhere in the last row) then the puzzle is solvable if and only if the number of inversions of the numbered pieces is even.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The puzzle was \"invented\" by Noyes Palmer Chapman, a postmaster in Canastota, New York, who is said to have shown friends, as early as 1874, a precursor puzzle consisting of 16 numbered blocks that were to be put together in rows of four, each summing to 34. Copies of the improved Fifteen Puzzle made their way to Syracuse, New York, by way of Noyes' son, Frank, and from there, via sundry connections, to Watch Hill, Rhode Island, and finally to Hartford (Connecticut), where students in the American School for the Deaf started manufacturing the puzzle and, by December 1879, selling them both locally and in Boston, Massachusetts. Shown one of these, Matthias Rice, who ran a fancy woodworking business in Boston, started manufacturing the puzzle sometime in December 1879 and convinced a \"Yankee Notions\" fancy goods dealer to sell them under the name of \"Gem Puzzle\". In late January 1880, Dr. Charles Pevey, a dentist in Worcester, Massachusetts, garnered some attention by offering a cash reward for a solution to the Fifteen Puzzle.  The game became a craze in the U.S. in February 1880, Canada in March, Europe in April, but that craze had dissipated by July. Apparently, the puzzle was not introduced to Japan until 1889.  Noyes Chapman had applied for a patent on his \"Block Solitaire Puzzle\" on February 21, 1880. However, that patent was rejected, likely because it was not sufficiently different from the August 20, 1878 \"Puzzle-Blocks\" patent (US 207124) granted to Ernest U. Kinsey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sam Loyd.", "content": "Sam Loyd claimed from 1891 until his death in 1911 that he invented the puzzle, for example writing in the \"Cyclopedia of Puzzles\" (published 1914): \"The older inhabitants of Puzzleland will remember how in the early seventies I drove the entire world crazy over a little box of movable pieces which became known as the '14-15 Puzzle'.\" However, Loyd had nothing to do with the invention or initial popularity of the puzzle, and in any case, the craze was in 1880, not the early 1870s. Loyd's first article about the puzzle was published in 1886 and it was not until 1891 that he first claimed to have been the inventor.  Some later interest was fuelled by Loyd offering a $1,000 prize for anyone who could provide a solution for achieving a particular combination specified by Loyd, namely reversing the 14 and 15, called by Loyd the 14-15 puzzle. This was impossible, as had been shown over a decade earlier by, as it required a transformation from an even to an odd permutation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Miscellaneous.", "content": "The Minus Cube, manufactured in the USSR, is a 3D puzzle with similar operations to the 15-puzzle.  Bobby Fischer was an expert at solving the 15-Puzzle. He had been timed to be able to solve it within 25 seconds; Fischer demonstrated this on November 8, 1972, on \"The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson\".  Several browser games are inspired of n-puzzle mechanic, e.g., Continuity or Rooms.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 15-puzzle (also called Gem Puzzle, Boss Puzzle, Game of Fifteen, Mystic Square and many others) is a sliding puzzle that consists of a frame of numbered square tiles in random order with one tile missing. The puzzle also exists in other sizes, particularly the smaller 8-puzzle. If the size is 3×3 tiles, the puzzle is called the 8-puzzle or 9-puzzle, and if 4×4 tiles, the puzzle is called the 15-puzzle or 16-puzzle named, respectively, for the number of tiles and the number of spaces. The object of the puzzle is to place the tiles in order by making sliding moves that use the empty space.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972949}
{"src_title": "Erwin Huber", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Erwin Huber was born in Reisbach in the district of Dingolfing-Landau, Bavaria. He attended elementary school in Reisbach and a secondary modern in Dingolfing. His first professional job was at the Bavarian administration of the finances in 1963. After several finance jobs he entered the Bavarian State Ministry of Finance in 1970. During this period he studied Economics at the University of Munich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Huber was elected to the Landtag of Bavaria in 1978 and from 1988 to 1994 was Secretary-General of the Christian Social Union. He entered the Bavarian state government in 1994 and has served as Director of the Bavarian State Chancellery (1993–1994 and 1998–2005), Minister of State for Finance (1994–1998) and Minister of State for Federal Matters and Administrative Reform (2003–2005). In 2005, he was appointed as Bavarian Minister of State for Economics, Transport and Technology, a post he held until 2007 when he was once again appointed Minister of State for Finances.  In September 2007, he was elected chairman of his party. Huber, a loyalist of outgoing chairman Edmund Stoiber, received 58% of the vote, defeating the Federal Agriculture Minister Horst Seehofer, who received 39% of the vote, and party rebel Gabriele Pauli, who gained roughly 3%.  Two days after the state elections of 2008, in which the CSU received only 43,4% of the vote (down from 60,7% in the state elections of 2003), Huber announced his resignation. He was succeeded by Horst Seehofer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Erwin Huber is a Roman Catholic and is married with two children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erwin Huber (born 26 July 1946) is a German politician. He was chairman of the Christian Social Union of Bavaria from 2007 to 2008.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972950}
{"src_title": "Dzierżoniów", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In its early history until 1945, the town was known as \"Reichenbach\"; composed of the German words \"reich\" (rich, strong) and \"Bach\" (stream), it refers to the current of the Piława River. The name was rendered in Polish as \"Rychbach\". To differentiate between other places named Reichenbach, the Lower Silesian town became known in German as \"Reichenbach im Eulengebirge\", or \"Reichenbach in the Owl Mountains\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "In the early Middle Ages, the area was inhabited by the tribe of Silesians. After short periods of Great Moravian and Czech rule, in the 10th century the region became part of the emerging Polish state.  Reichenbach was first mentioned in a document dating to 13 February 1258. The parish Church of St. George was also noted early on. The town was part of various Piast-ruled duchies of fragmented Poland. The coat of arms, depicting Saint George slaying a dragon, was used by 1290 at the latest. The town passed successively from the Bishopric of Wrocław, to the Duchy of Ziębice, and to the Duchy of Świdnica-Jawor. The Knights Hospitaller built a school and hospital in the town in 1338. In 1392 the town became part of the Kingdom of Bohemia. It was plundered by the Hussites during the 15th-century Hussite Wars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early modern era.", "content": "The Habsburg Monarchy of Austria inherited the Bohemian throne in 1526 and became the town's new lords. Reichenbach developed into a trading center, especially for textiles and linen, during the 16th century. The town suffered during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). After the First Silesian War in 1742, most of Silesia, including Reichenbach, became part of the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1762 during the Seven Years' War, the region between Reichenbach and Schweidnitz (Świdnica) was the setting for the Battle of Burkersdorf between Prussia and Austria. It also saw the frustration of an Austrian attempt to relieve the Prussian Siege of Schweidnitz. In 1790 representatives from Austria, Prussia, the Dutch Republic, and Poland met at Reichenbach to discuss the Ottoman wars in Europe. In 1800, the town was visited by future president of the United States John Quincy Adams.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "19th and 20th century.", "content": "In 1813, Tsar Alexander I of Russia met with King Frederick William III of Prussia here to organize the War of the Sixth Coalition. From 1816–1945 Reichenbach contained the district office for \"Landkreis Reichenbach\" (Reichenbach district). Until 1820 the town was the seat of a Prussian district president. In the 19th century, the town became one of the leading centers of textile production in Silesia. In 1848 the Silesian Weavers' Rebellion took place here. Reichenbach was connected to a rail network in 1855. It became part of the Prussian-led German Empire in 1871. During World War II, in 1944, the Germans established the \"FAL Reichenbach\" subcamp of the Gross-Rosen concentration camp, mainly for Jewish women from the Netherlands. The town was occupied by the Red Army on 8 May 1945.  Reichenbach was transferred from Germany to Poland in 1945 after World War II. Many of its German inhabitants had fled earlier in 1945 before the war's end, while most of those who had stayed were subsequently expelled. The void was filled by Poles moving in, some of whom from the eastern part of the country that had been annexed by the Soviet Union.  In the period immediately following World War II, the town was known by different names. The municipal office, the local office and the railway administration all used different names for it: Rychbach (its traditional Polish name), Reichenbach and Drobniszew. In one of the Polish Ministerial decrees of 1945, another name was used: \"Rychonek\". In 1946 the town was renamed \"Dzierżoniów\" after the apiarist Jan Dzierżon; ironically, Germany also viewed Dzierżon as one of their own, and in 1936, as part of a Nazi effort to remove Slavic-sounding place names, his birthplace, Lowkowitz (now Łowkowice), was renamed \"Bienendorf\" (\"Bee village\") in his honor. During World War II there was a large concentration camp in Lower Silesia, Gross-Rosen, with important branches in Rychbach and in two additional nearby towns. There were about 20,000 Jewish survivors of the camp, many of whom were Polish Jews. They did not want to go back to their hometowns because of the decimation of their Jewish communities and the fear of antisemitic violence. They were later joined by Polish Jews repatriated from the Soviet Union, and others who had survived in hiding in Poland or returned from concentration camps in Germany.  Thus, the peak number of Jews in Dzierżoniów was 17,800 reached in November 1946 of the 50,000-Jew commune in Dzierżoniów County (incl. Bielawa, Pieszyce, Piława Górna, etc.) led by Jakub Egit from 1945–1948.  One of the town's synagogues survived the war and has been restored.  In the post-war period, the textile and electromechanical industry developed. In 1945, the first radio receiver production company in post-war Poland, \"Zakłady Radiowe Diora\", was founded in Dzierżoniów. Greeks, refugees of the Greek Civil War, settled in Dzierżoniów in the 1950s.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Football team Lechia Dzierżoniów and handball team are based in Dzierżoniów. Football players Krzysztof Piątek, Patryk Klimala, Jarosław Jach, Paweł Sibik all played in Lechia Dzierżoniów in the early stages of their careers, while handball players Paweł Piwko, Jan Czuwara, Dawid Dawydzik played in Żagiew Dzierżoniów in the early stages of their careers.  The annual \"Tewzadze Open\" chess tournament is held in Dzierżoniów, to commemorate Georgian-Polish military officer Valerian Tevzadze.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Dzierżoniów is twinned with:  <br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dzierżoniów (, until 1946 Rychbach; ) is a town located at the foot of the Owl Mountains in southwestern Poland, within the Lower Silesian Voivodeship (from 1975–1998 in the former Wałbrzych Voivodeship). It is the seat of Dzierżoniów County, and of Gmina Dzierżoniów (although it is not part of the territory of the latter, since the town forms a separate urban gmina).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972951}
{"src_title": "Wheelset (rail transport)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Grovers bogie.", "content": "Two-axle cars operating on lines with sharp curves, such as Queensland Railways, used Grovers bogies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Special wheelsets.", "content": "Rubber-tyred metros feature special wheelsets with rubber tyres outside of the special flanged steel wheels. The unusually large flanges on the steel wheels guide the bogie through standard railroad switches and in addition keep the train from derailing in case the tires deflate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Semi-conical shape.", "content": "Most train wheels have a semi-conical taper of about 1 in 20. The semi-conical shape helps steer the wheel set around curves, so that the wheel flanges do not come in contact with the rail sides. The rails generally slant inwards at the same rate as the wheel conicity. As the wheels approach a curve, they tend to continue in a straight path due to the inertia of the rail car. This inertia causes the wheel set to shift sideways as the track curves under it. Due to this fact, the effective diameter of the outer wheels needs to be greater than that of the inner ones. Since the wheels are joined rigidly by the axle, the outer wheels travel farther, then causing the train to naturally follow the curve. For more information on this process, see Hunting oscillation.  Queensland Railways, for its first hundred years, used cylindrical wheels and vertical rails. With non-inclined rails and cylindrical wheels, the wheel squeal from trains taking curves on that railway was slight. After adopting coned wheels and inclined rails from the mid 1980s, the wheel squeal from trains curving at the same location and at the same speed decreased immensely. Some modern systems, such as Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) in San Francisco, use cylindrical wheels and flat-topped rails; BART is now switching to conical tread to reduce the noise caused by flange/rail contact and loss of adhesion of one of the wheels on curves.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A wheelset is the wheel–axle assembly of a railroad car. The frame assembly beneath each end of a car, railcar or locomotive that holds the wheelsets is called the bogie (or truck in North America). Most North American freight cars have two bogies with two or three wheelsets, depending on the type of car; short freight cars generally have no bogies but instead have two wheelsets.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972952}
{"src_title": "Margaret of Parma", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Margaret's mother, Johanna Maria van der Gheynst, a servant of Charles de Lalaing, Seigneur de Montigny, was a Fleming. Margaret was brought up in Mechelen, under the supervision of two powerful Spanish and Austrian Habsburg Imperial family relatives, her great-aunt, the Archduchess Margaret of Austria, and her aunt Mary of Austria, who were successive governors of the Netherlands from 1507 to 1530 and from 1530 to 1555, respectively.  Her early life followed a strict routine set forth by her father, Charles V, who used his daughter as part of his plans to secure his empire.  In 1527, the year she turned five, she became engaged to the nephew of Pope Clement VII, Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence, to assist her father's ambition in gaining influence in Italy. The marriage negotiations had been initiated in 1526, and in 1529 the agreement was officially signed by her father and the Pope. In 1529, Margaret was acknowledged by her father and allowed to assume the name Margaret of Austria, and in 1533, the 11-year-old girl was brought to live in Italy and educated in the courts of Florence, Rome, and Parma. There, she was taught skills that helped her grow as an independent woman. As Margaret did not spend much time with her husband, she used this time to become exposed to the surrounding Italian culture. Though she was multi-lingual, she preferred the Italian language for the rest of her life.  In 1536, she married Alessandro, who was assassinated in 1537. On 4 November 1538, the 15-year-old widow married Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma, the 14-year-old grandson of Pope Paul III. At first she refused to marry him. Although the union proved an unhappy one, it gave her years of experience in Rome, and produced twin sons, one of whom died in infancy. She would continue her studies of the arts and politics while being married to Ottavio. The couple lived separately for much of their lives, and Margaret maintained her own court and chapel. She was in a somewhat difficult position, as the Pope and the Emperor argued about authority over Parma. In 1555, the Farnese family were acknowledged as rulers of Parma by Spain in exchange for the custody of her son.  In 1555, she left Italy for the Netherlands, where she left her son in the care of her half-brother Philip II. Philip appointed her Governor of the Netherlands when he left in 1559 for Spain. As governor, Margaret faced the rising storm of discontent against the Inquisition and Spanish despotism, and Philip had left her but nominal authority. He was determined to pursue his own arbitrary course, and the result was the revolt of the Netherlands. Margaret was forced to adjust herself to the advice of Cardinal Granvelle, Philip's choice for her chief councilor, who would grow to be greatly disliked in the Netherlands. After Granvelle's exile from the Netherlands in 1564, Margaret was forced to rely on the grandees in her Council. In 1565, an opposition party was formed from the Dutch nobility. Margaret received its complaints and, having no army to put down the dissenters, promised to stop religious repression. In 1566, Iconoclastic riots took place all over the Netherlands but she managed to quell them, with the help of her stadtholders Philip of Noircarmes (who subjugated the cities of Tournai and Valenciennes) in Hainaut and William of Orange in Holland. The next year, Philip sent her military help led by the Duke of Alba. Margaret warned Philip that actions by Alba would lead to catastrophe, but instead of trying to stop Alba, she resigned when she learned that Alba's power of attorney, granted by Philip, superseded her own.  In 1567 Margaret retired to L'Aquila in Italy. She was appointed Governor of Abruzzo, where she had inherited a domain from her late husband. She acted as the adviser to her son and to her royal bastard half-brother, John of Austria. In 1578, her son Alexander Farnese was appointed to the office of governor-general of the Netherlands; Philip appointed her his co-regent, intending that they would balance each other. However, they were unable to work together, and Margaret retired to Namur in 1582. She was given permission by Philip to return to Italy in 1583. She died in Ortona in 1586 and was buried in the church of S. Sisto in Piacenza.  Charlie R. Steen describes her as \"a woman dedicated to compromise and conciliation in public affairs.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "She had two sons with her second husband Ottavio:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat of arms.", "content": "Margaret of Austria, as Duchess of Florence and Parma, chose for her device a pearl shining from its shell, with the motto, \"Decus allatura coronae\" (\"About to bring glory to the crown\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Margaret of Parma (; 5 July 1522 – 18 January 1586) was Governor of the Netherlands from 1559 to 1567 and from 1578 to 1582. She was the illegitimate daughter of the then 22-year-old Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Johanna Maria van der Gheynst. She was a Duchess of Florence and a Duchess of Parma and Piacenza by marriage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972953}
{"src_title": "Katharina Schratt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Katharina Schratt was born in Baden bei Wien, the only daughter of stationery dealer Anton Schratt (1804–1883); she had two brothers. From the age of six, she took an interest in theatre. Her parents tried to discourage her from becoming an actress and sent her to a boarding school in Cologne, however, this only increased her ambition. She finally was allowed to take acting lessons in Vienna and gave her debut at the age of 17 in her hometown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "In 1872, she joined the ensemble of the Royal Court Theatre in Berlin, achieving considerable success in a short time. Schratt left Germany after only a few months, following the call of the Viennese to join their City Theatre. Her performance made her a leading lady of the Viennese stage.  In 1879 she married the Hungarian magnate and consular officer Baron Miklós Kiss de Ittebe (1852–1909), and gave birth to a son, Anton (1880–1970). Soon after, Schratt and her husband separated due to incompatibility.  Schratt toured overseas, and appeared in New York City after which she returned permanently to Vienna's Hofburgtheater, she was one of Austria's most popular actresses until she retired in 1900, following disagreement with theatre director Paul Schlenther.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Royal friend and \"confidante\".", "content": "Schratt's appearances and performances in the early 1880s at Hofburgtheater captivated Franz Joseph, and she was invited to perform for visiting Czar Alexander III of Russia at Kremsier Castle. She soon became Franz Joseph's companion. It is said that Franz Joseph's wife Empress Elisabeth actually encouraged the relationship between the actress and the Emperor.  After Elisabeth's murder in 1898, their relationship continued, with one interruption (1900/01, due to a difference in opinions), until the emperor's death in November 1916. She was rewarded with a generous lifestyle including a mansion on Vienna's Gloriettegasse, near Schönbrunn Palace and a mansion in Bad Ischl. In addition, her gambling debts were paid by him. Upon her husband's death in 1909, she also inherited Palais Königswarter, a three-story palace on Vienna's Kärntner Ring boulevard, just across from the State Opera.  Schratt was a friend of notable men such as Count Johann Nepomuk Wilczek or Prince Ferdinand I of Bulgaria. Her relationship with the Emperor lasted for 34 years, but remained platonic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years and death.", "content": "After the death of Franz Joseph, she lived completely withdrawn in her palace on the Kärntner Ring. In the 1930s, journalists bothered her to talk about her relationship with the late Emperor. Book companies asked her to write her memoirs, however Schratt would always say, \"I am an actress not a writer and I have nothing to say, for I was never a Pompadour, still less a Maintenon.\" In her later years, Schratt became deeply religious. She visited Emperor Franz Joseph's and Empress Elisabeth's tomb in the Kapuzinergruft daily. The former actress also loved animals and donated money to animal shelters. She died in 1940 at the age of 86. She was buried at Hietzing Cemetery in Vienna.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Katharina Schratt (11 September 1853 – 17 April 1940) was an Austrian actress who became \"the uncrowned Empress of Austria\" as a \"confidante\" of Emperor Franz Joseph.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972954}
{"src_title": "Phosphorylation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Glucose.", "content": "Phosphorylation of sugars is often the first stage in their catabolism. Phosphorylation allows cells to accumulate sugars because the phosphate group prevents the molecules from diffusing back across their transporter. Phosphorylation of glucose is a key reaction in sugar metabolism because many sugars are first converted to glucose before they are metabolized further.  The chemical equation for the conversion of D-glucose to D-glucose-6-phosphate in the first step of glycolysis is given by  Researcher D. G. Walker of the University of Birmingham determined the presence of two specific enzymes in adult guinea pig liver, both of which catalyze the phosphorylation of glucose to glucose 6 phosphate. The two enzymes have been identified as a specific glucokinase (ATP-D-glucose 6-phosphotransferase) and non-specific hexokinase (ATP-D-hexose 6-phosphotransferase).  Hepatic cells are freely permeable to glucose, and the initial rate of phosphorylation of glucose is the rate-limiting step in glucose metabolism by the liver (ATP-D-glucose 6-phosphotransferase) and non-specific hexokinase (ATP-D-hexose 6-phosphotransferase).  The role of glucose 6-phosphate in glycogen synthase: High blood glucose concentration causes an increase in intracellular levels of glucose 6 phosphate in liver, skeletal muscle and fat (adipose) tissue. (ATP-D-glucose 6-phosphotransferase) and non-specific hexokinase (ATP-D-hexose 6-phosphotransferase). In liver, synthesis of glycogen is directly correlated by blood glucose concentration and in skeletal muscle and adipocytes, glucose has a minor effect on glycogen synthase. High blood glucose releases insulin, stimulating the trans location of specific glucose transporters to the cell membrane.  The liver’s crucial role in controlling blood sugar concentrations by breaking down glucose into carbon dioxide and glycogen is characterized by the negative delta G value, which indicates that this is a point of regulation with. The hexokinase enzyme has a low Km, indicating a high affinity for glucose, so this initial phosphorylation can proceed even when glucose levels at nanoscopic scale within the blood.  The phosphorylation of glucose can be enhanced by the binding of Fructose-6-phosphate, and lessened by the binding fructose-1-phosphate. Fructose consumed in the diet is converted to F1P in the liver. This negates the action of F6P on glucokinase, which ultimately favors the forward reaction. The capacity of liver cells to phosphorylate fructose exceeds capacity to metabolize fructose-1-phosphate. Consuming excess fructose ultimately results in an imbalance in liver metabolism, which indirectly exhausts the liver cell’s supply of ATP.  Allosteric activation by glucose 6 phosphate, which acts as an effector, stimulates glycogen synthase, and glucose 6 phosphate may inhibit the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase by cyclic AMP-stimulated protein kinase.  Phosphorylation of glucose is imperative in processes within the body. For example, phosphorylating glucose is necessary for insulin-dependent mechanistic target of rapamycin pathway activity within the heart. This further suggests a link between intermediary metabolism and cardiac growth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Glycolysis.", "content": "Glycolysis is an essential process of glucose degrading into two molecules of pyruvate, through various steps, with the help of different enzymes. It occurs in ten steps and proves that phosphorylation is a much required and necessary step to attain the end products. Phosphorylation initiates the reaction in step 1 of the preparatory step (first half of glycolysis), and initiates step 6 of payoff phase (second phase of glycolysis).  Glucose, by nature, is a small molecule with the ability to diffuse in and out of the cell. By phosphorylating glucose (adding a negatively charged phosphate group), glucose is converted to glucose-6-phosphate and trapped within the cell as the cell membrane is negatively charged. This reaction occurs due to the enzyme hexokinase, an enzyme that helps phosphorylate many six-membered ring structures. Glucose-6-phosphate cannot travel through the cell membrane and is therefore, coerced to stay inside the cell. Phosphorylation takes place in step 3, where fructose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. This reaction is catalyzed by phosphofructokinase.  While phosphorylation is performed by ATPs during preparatory steps, phosphorylation during payoff phase is maintained by inorganic phosphate. Each molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is phosphorylated to form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. This reaction is catalyzed by GAPDH (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase). The cascade effect of phosphorylation eventually causes instability and allows enzymes to open the carbon bonds in glucose.  Phosphorylation functions as an extremely vital component of glycolysis, for it helps in transport, control and efficiency.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Protein phosphorylation.", "content": "Protein phosphorylation is considered the most abundant post-translational modification in eukaryotes. Phosphorylation can occur on serine, threonine and tyrosine side chains (often called'residues') through phosphoester bond formation, on histidine, lysine and arginine through phosphoramidate bonds, and on aspartic acid and glutamic acid through mixed anhydride linkages. Recent evidence confirms widespread histidine phosphorylation at both the 1 and 3 N-atoms of the imidazole ring. Recent work demonstrates widespread human protein phosphorylation on multiple non-canonical amino acids, including motifs containing phosphorylated histidine, aspartate, glutamate, cysteine, arginine and lysine in HeLa cell extracts. However, due to the chemical lability of these phosphorylated residues, and in marked contrast to Ser, Thr and Tyr phosphorylation, the analysis of phosphorylated histidine (and other non-canonical amino acids) using standard biochemical and mass spectrometric approaches is much more challenging and special procedures and separation techniques are required for their preservation alongside classical Ser, Thr and Tyr phosphorylation.  The prominent role of protein phosphorylation in biochemistry is illustrated by the huge body of studies published on the subject (as of March 2015, the MEDLINE database returns over 240,000 articles, mostly on \"protein\" phosphorylation).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ATP.", "content": "ATP, the \"high-energy\" exchange medium in the cell, is synthesized in the mitochondrion by addition of a third phosphate group to ADP in a process referred to as oxidative phosphorylation. ATP is also synthesized by substrate-level phosphorylation during glycolysis. ATP is synthesized at the expense of solar energy by photophosphorylation in the chloroplasts of plant cells.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In chemistry, phosphorylation of a molecule is the attachment of a phosphoryl group. Together with its counterpart, dephosphorylation, it is critical for many cellular processes in biology. Protein phosphorylation is especially important for their function; for example, this modification activates (or deactivates) almost half of the enzymes present in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, thereby regulating their function. Many proteins (between 1/3 to 2/3 of the proteome in eukaryotes) are phosphorylated temporarily, as are many sugars, lipids, and other biologically-relevant molecules.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972955}
{"src_title": "Freestyle skiing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Ski acrobatics have been practiced since the 1930s. Aerial skiing was popularized in the 1950s by Olympic gold medalist Stein Eriksen. Early US competitions were held in the mid-1960s. The International Ski Federation (FIS) recognized freestyle skiing as a sport in 1979 and brought in new regulations regarding certification of athletes and jump techniques in an effort to curb the dangerous elements of the competitions. The first FIS Freestyle Skiing World Cup was staged in 1980 and the first FIS Freestyle World Ski Championships took place in 1986 in Tignes, France. Freestyle skiing was a demonstration event at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary. Mogul skiing was added as an official medal event at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, and the aerials event was added for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer. In 2011, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) approved both halfpipe and slopestyle freeskiing events to be added to the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Forms of freestyle skiing.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aerial skiing.", "content": "Aerialists ski off 2-4 meter jumps, that propel them up to 6 meters in the air (which can be up to 20 meters above the landing height, given the landing slope). Once in the air, aerialists perform multiple flips and twists before landing on a 34 to 39-degree inclined landing hill about 30 meters in length. The top male aerialists can currently perform triple back flips with up to four or five twists.  Aerial skiing is a judged sport, and competitors receive a score based on jump takeoff (20%), jump form (50%) and landing (30%). A degree of difficulty (DOD) is then factored in for a total score. Skiers are judged on a cumulative score of LIMA two jumps. These scores do not generally carry over to the next round.  Aerialists train for their jumping maneuvers during the summer months by skiing on specially constructed water ramps and landing in a large swimming pool. An example of this is the Utah Olympic Park training facility. A water ramp consists of a wooden ramp covered with a special plastic mat that when lubricated with sprinklers allows an athlete to ski down the ramp towards a jump. The skier then skis off the wooden jump and lands safely in a large swimming pool. A burst of air is sent up from the bottom of the pool just before landing to break up the surface tension of the water, thus softening the impact of the landing. Skiers sometimes reinforce the skis that they use for water-ramping with 6mm of fiberglass or cut holes in the front and back in order to soften the impact when landing properly on their skis.  Summer training also includes training on trampolines, diving boards, and other acrobatic or gymnastic training apparatus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mogul skiing.", "content": "Moguls are a series of bumps on a trail formed when skiers push the snow into mounds or piles as they execute short-radius turns. Moguls can also be formed deliberately, by piling mounds of snow.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ski ballet (Acroski).", "content": "Ski ballet, later renamed acroski (or \"acro\"), was a competitive discipline in the formative years of freestyle skiing and was similar to ice dancing. Competitors devised routines lasting 3 to 5 minutes and executed to music. The routines consisted of spins, jumps, and flips on a prepared flat course. The routines were scored by judges who assessed the choreography, technical difficulty, and mastery of skills demonstrated by the competitors. Early innovators in the sport were Jan Bucher, Park Smalley, and Hermann Reitberger. The International Ski Federation ceased all formal competition of this event after 2000.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ski cross.", "content": "Ski cross is based on the snowboarding boardercross. Despite it being a timed racing event, it is often considered part of freestyle skiing because it incorporates terrain features traditionally found in freestyle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Half-pipe skiing.", "content": "Half-pipe skiing is the sport of riding snow skis on a half-pipe. Competitors gradually ski to the end of the pipe by doing flips and tricks. It became an Olympic event for the first time at the 2014 Olympic Games in Sochi, Russia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Slopestyle.", "content": "In slopestyle, athletes ski or snowboard down a course including a variety of obstacles including rails, jumps, and other terrain park features. Points are scored for amplitude, originality and quality of tricks. Twin-tip skis are used and are particularly useful if the skier lands backwards. Slopestyle tricks fall mainly into four categories: spins, grinds, grabs and flips. Slopestyle became an Olympic event, in both skiing and snowboarding forms, at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi, Russia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Twin-tip skis are used in events such as slopestyle and halfpipe. Mogul skis are used in moguls and sometimes in aerials. Specially designed racing skis are used in ski cross. Ski bindings took a major design change to include plate bindings mounted to the bottom of the skiers boot to allow for multi-directional release.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Freestyle skiing is a skiing discipline comprising aerials, moguls, cross, half-pipe, slopestyle and big air as part of the Winter Olympics. It can consist of a skier performing aerial flips and spins, and can include skiers sliding rails and boxes on their skis. It is also commonly referred to as freeskiing, jibbing, as well as many other names around the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972956}
{"src_title": "The Art of Fugue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sources.", "content": "The earliest extant source of the work is an autograph manuscript of the early 1740s, containing 12 fugues and 2 canons. This autograph is typically referred to by its call number of P200 in the Berlin State Library. Three manuscripts for pieces that would appear in the revised edition were bundled with P200 at some point before its acquisition by the library.  The revised version was published in May 1751, slightly less than a year after Bach's death. In addition to changes in the order, notation, and material of pieces which appeared in the autograph, it contained 2 new fugues, 2 new canons, and 3 pieces of ostensibly spurious inclusion. A second edition was published in 1752, but differed only in its addition of a preface by Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg.  In spite of its revisions, the printed edition of 1751 contained a number of glaring editorial errors. The majority of these may be attributed to Bach's relatively sudden death in the midst of publication. Three pieces were included that do not appear to have been part of Bach's intended order: an unrevised (and thus redundant) version of the second double fugue, Contrapunctus X; a two-keyboard arrangement of the first mirror fugue, Contrapunctus XIII; and a chorale harmonization \"\" (\"Herewith I come before Thy Throne\"), derived from BWV 668a, and noted in the introduction to the edition as a recompense for the work's incompleteness, having purportedly been dictated by Bach on his deathbed.  The anomalous character of the published order and the Unfinished Fugue have engendered a wide variety of theories which attempt to restore the work to the state originally intended by Bach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "\"The Art of Fugue\" is based on a single subject:  <score vorbis=\"1\"> </score>  which each canon and fugue employs in some variation.  The work divides into seven groups, according to each piece's prevailing contrapuntal device; in both editions, these groups and their respective components are generally ordered to increase in complexity. In the order in which they occur in the printed edition of 1751 (without the aforementioned works of spurious inclusion), the groups, and their components are as follows.  Simple fugues:  Counter-fugues, in which the subject is used simultaneously in regular, inverted, augmented, and diminished forms:  Double and triple fugues, employing two and three subjects respectively:  Mirror fugues, in which a piece is notated once and then with voices and counterpoint completely inverted, without violating contrapuntal rules or musicality:  Canons, labeled by interval and technique:  The Unfinished Fugue:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Instrumentation.", "content": "Both editions of the \"Art of Fugue\" are written in open score, where each voice is written on its own staff. This has led some to conclude that the \"Art of Fugue\" was intended as an intellectual exercise, meant to be studied more than heard. The renowned keyboardist and musicologist Gustav Leonhardt, argued that the \"Art of Fugue\" was probably intended to be played on a keyboard instrument (and specifically the harpsichord). Leonhardt's arguments included the following:  Despite this controversy as to whether \"The Art of Fugue\" should be performed at all and, if so, on what instrument, the work has been performed and recorded by many different solo instruments and ensembles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Unfinished Fugue.", "content": "A handwritten manuscript of the piece known as the \"Unfinished Fugue\" is among the three bundled with the autograph manuscript P200. It breaks off abruptly in the middle of its third section, with an only partially written measure 239. This autograph carries a note in the handwriting of Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, stating \"Über dieser Fuge, wo der Name B A C H im Contrasubject angebracht worden, ist der Verfasser gestorben.\" (\"At the point where the composer introduces the name \"BACH\" [for which the English notation would be B–A–C–B] in the countersubject to this fugue, the composer died.\") This account is disputed by modern scholars, as the manuscript is clearly written in Bach's own hand, and thus dates to a time before his deteriorating health and vision would have prevented his ability to write, probably 1748–1749.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attempts at completion.", "content": "A number of musicians and musicologists have composed conjectural completions of \"Contrapunctus XIV\" which include the fourth subject, including musicologists Donald Tovey (1931), Zoltán Göncz (1992), Yngve Jan Trede (1995), and Thomas Daniel (2010), organists Helmut Walcha, David Goode, Lionel Rogg, and Davitt Moroney (1989). Ferruccio Busoni's \"Fantasia contrappuntistica\" is based on \"Contrapunctus XIV\", but it develops Bach's ideas to Busoni's own purposes in Busoni's musical style, rather than working out Bach's thoughts as Bach himself might have done. Other completions that do not incorporate the fourth subject including those by the French classical organist Alexandre Pierre François Boëly and pianist Kimiko Douglass-Ishizaka.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Significance.", "content": "In 2007, New Zealand organist and conductor Indra Hughes completed a doctoral thesis about the unfinished ending of Contrapunctus XIV, proposing that the work was left unfinished not because Bach died, but as a deliberate choice by Bach to encourage independent efforts at a completion.  Douglas Hofstadter's book \"Gödel, Escher, Bach\" discusses the unfinished fugue and Bach's supposed death during composition as a tongue-in-cheek illustration of Austrian logician Kurt Gödel's first incompleteness theorem. According to Gödel, the very power of a \"sufficiently powerful\" formal mathematical system can be exploited to \"undermine\" the system, by leading to statements that assert such things as \"I cannot be proven in this system\". In Hofstadter's discussion, Bach's great compositional talent is used as a metaphor for a \"sufficiently powerful\" formal system; however, Bach's insertion of his own name \"in code\" into the fugue is not, even metaphorically, a case of Gödelian self-reference; and Bach's failure to finish his self-referential fugue serves as a metaphor for the unprovability of the Gödelian assertion, and thus for the incompleteness of the formal system.  Sylvestre and Costa reported a mathematical architecture of \"The Art of Fugue\", based on bar counts, which shows that the whole work was conceived on the basis of the Fibonacci series and the golden ratio. The significance of the mathematical architecture can probably be explained by considering the role of the work as a membership contribution to the, and to the \"scientific\" meaning that Bach attributed to counterpoint.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Art of Fugue (or The Art of the Fugue; ), BWV 1080, is an incomplete musical work of unspecified instrumentation by Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750). Written in the last decade of his life, \"The Art of Fugue\" is the culmination of Bach's experimentation with monothematic instrumental works.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972957}
{"src_title": "Ludolf Bakhuizen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born in Emden, East Frisia, and came to Amsterdam in about 1650, working as a merchant's clerk and a calligrapher. He discovered so strong a genius for painting that he relinquished the business and devoted himself to art from the late 1650s, initially in pen drawings. He studied first under Allart van Everdingen and then under Hendrik Dubbels, two eminent masters of the time, and soon became celebrated for his sea-pieces, which often had rough seas.  He was an ardent student of nature, and frequently exposed himself on the sea in an open boat in order to study the effects of storms. His compositions, which are numerous, are nearly all variations of one subject, the sea, and in a style peculiarly his own, marked by intense realism or faithful imitation of nature. In his later years Bakhuizen employed his skills in etching; he also painted a few examples each of several other genres of painting, such as portraits, landscapes and genre paintings.  During his life Bakhuizen was visited by Cosimo III de' Medici, Peter the Great and also worked for various German princes. In 1699 he opened a gallery on the top floor of the famous Amsterdam townhall. After a visit to England he died in Amsterdam on 17 November 1708.  Bakhuizen painted portraits of his large circle of friends. These are of lesser artistic value but provide an insight into his good relations with contemporary scholars and literary figures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ludolf Bakhuizen (28 December 1630 – 7 November 1708) was a German-born Dutch painter, draughtsman, calligrapher and printmaker. He was the leading Dutch painter of maritime subjects after Willem van de Velde the Elder and Younger left for England in 1672. He also painted portraits of his family and circle of friends.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972958}
{"src_title": "SOFAR channel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Details.", "content": "The SOFAR channel is centred on the depth where the cumulative effect of temperature and water pressure (and, to a lesser extent, salinity) combine to create the region of minimum sound speed in the water column. Pressure in the ocean increases linearly with depth, but temperature is more variable, generally falling rapidly in the main thermocline from the surface to around a thousand metres deep, then remaining almost unchanged from there to the ocean floor in the deep sea. Near the surface, the rapidly falling temperature causes a decrease in sound speed, or a negative sound speed gradient. With increasing depth, the increasing pressure causes an increase in sound speed, or a positive sound speed gradient. The depth where the sound speed is at a minimum is called the sound channel axis.  Near Bermuda, the sound channel axis occurs at a depth of around 1000 metres. In temperate waters, the axis is shallower, and at high latitudes (above about 60°N or below 60°S) it reaches the surface.  Sound propagation is constrained to the channel by refraction, which makes sound travel near the depth of slowest speed. If a sound wave propagates away from this horizontal channel, the part of the compression front furthest from the channel axis travels faster, so the wave front curves back toward the channel axis. As a result, the sound waves trace a path that oscillates across the SOFAR channel axis. This principle is similar to long distance transmission of light in an optical fibre.  Mysterious low-frequency sounds, attributed to fin whales (\"Balaenoptera physalus\"), are a common occurrence in the channel. Scientists believe fin whales may dive down to this channel and \"sing\" to communicate with other fin whales many kilometers away.  During World War II, Dr. Maurice Ewing suggested that dropping into the ocean a small metal sphere (called a SOFAR bomb or SOFAR disc), specifically designed to implode at the SOFAR channel, could be used as a secret distress signal by downed pilots.  The novel \"The Hunt for Red October\" describes the use of the SOFAR channel in submarine detection.  The conjectured existence of a similar channel in the upper atmosphere, theorized by Dr. Ewing, led to Project Mogul, carried out from 1947 until late 1948.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The SOFAR channel (short for Sound Fixing and Ranging channel), or deep sound channel (DSC), is a horizontal layer of water in the ocean at which depth the speed of sound is at its minimum. The SOFAR channel acts as a waveguide for sound, and low frequency sound waves within the channel may travel thousands of miles before dissipating. This phenomenon is an important factor in submarine warfare. The deep sound channel was discovered and described independently by Maurice Ewing, Stanley Wong and Leonid Brekhovskikh in the 1940s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972959}
{"src_title": "Russian cruiser Varyag (1899)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction and design.", "content": "In 1897, the Russian Admiralty, as part of a programme to reinforce the Imperial Russian Navy's Far East Fleet, published specifications for a fast protected cruiser, capable of commerce raiding. The ships were required to be armed with 152 mm (6-inch) quick-firing guns, and to have a speed of. Russian shipyards were already busy, and the Imperial Admiralty placed an order with the American shipyard William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia on 11 April 1898 to build a single cruiser, \"Varyag\" against this specification. Single ships were also ordered from the German shipyards Germaniawerft () and AG Vulcan () against these specifications. \"Varyag\" was laid down in October 1898, was launched on 31 October 1899 and commissioned into the Imperial Russian Navy on 2 January 1901, under the command of Captain Vladimir Behr.  \"Varyag\" was long overall and between perpendiculars, with a beam of and a draught of at normal displacement. Design displacement was with full load displacement about. Thirty Niclausse water-tube boilers fed steam to two sets of four-cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines rated at which drove two 3-bladed propellers. As a protected cruiser, the main protection consisted of an arched armoured deck which protected the ship's engines and magazines. The deck was thick in the central horizontal portion, and thick in the sloping sections towards the ship's sides. The ship's conning tower was protected by, with protecting the ammunition hoists and for the bow and stern torpedo tubes. The ship's main armament was twelve Obukhoff 152 mm (6-inch) L/45 guns, with two guns side by side on the ship's forecastle, two side-by-side on the quarterdeck, and the remaining eight on sponsons on the ship's upper deck. These guns could fire a shell to a range of, and at a rate of 6 rounds per gun. 2388 rounds of 152 mm ammunition were carried. Twelve 75 mm (2.95 in) L/50 QF guns defended the ship against torpedo boats, and could fire a shell to a range of at a rate of 10 rounds per minute. Close-in defence was provided by four Hotchkiss 47 mm revolving cannon on fighting tops, with four more on the upper deck, backed up by two 37 mm guns and two machine guns. Two Baranowski 64 mm landing guns were also carried for on-shore use by the ship's marines. Six 381 mm (15 inch) torpedo tubes were carried, two on each beam and one in the bow and stern.  During her construction, an assistant physician, Leo Alexandroff, left the ship's advance party on 20 April 1899, and applied for U.S. citizenship. He was arrested for desertion. His case reached the United States Supreme Court, which ruled in \"Tucker v. Alexandroff\" that the ship, though not accepted for service in the Imperial Russian Navy, was a warship under the terms of the 1832 treaty between Russia and the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "During the Battle of Chemulpo Bay at the start of the Russo-Japanese War, \"Varyag\" (under the command of Captain of the First Rank Vsevolod Rudnev) found itself in battle, engaged with the heavily superior Japanese squadron of Admiral Uriu, (one armoured cruiser, five protected cruisers and eight destroyers) in a heroic attempt to break out from Chemulpo (Incheon) harbour 9 February 1904. Chemulpo was in neutral Korean waters. Admiral Uriu gave the Russian ships in harbor a written ultimatum to sail by 12:00 noon or be attacked in the harbor itself. Captain Rudnev sortied, accompanied by the gunboat \"Koreets\"; having lost 31 men dead, 191 injured (out of 570) and outgunned, both ships returned to harbor by 1:00 p.m., the crew decided not to surrender, but to sink the ship. The crew was saved by transferring them to the British cruiser, the French cruiser \"Pascal\", and the Italian cruiser ; the captain of the US gunboat declined doing so as a violation of U.S. neutrality.  In 1907, Vsevolod Rudnev (by that time dismissed from Russian naval service in the rank of rear admiral) was decorated with the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun for his heroism in that battle; although he accepted the order, he never wore it in public.  \"Varyag\" was later salvaged by the Japanese and repaired. She served with the Imperial Japanese Navy as the protected cruiser.  During World War I, Russia and Japan were allies and several ships were transferred by the Japanese to the Russians. She was repurchased by the Imperial Russian Navy at Vladivostok on 5 April 1916 and renamed back to \"Varyag\". In June, she departed for Murmansk via the Indian Ocean, arriving in November 1916. She was sent to Liverpool in Great Britain for an overhaul by Cammell Laird in February 1917, and was due to re-enter service with the Arctic squadron of the Russian Navy. However, following the Russian October Revolution on 7 November 1917 crewmen who had remained onboard hoisted the red flag and refused to set sail. On 8 December 1917 she was seized by a detachment of British soldiers. Assigned to the Royal Navy in February 1918, she ran aground while under tow off of Ireland, but was refloated and used as a hulk until 1919. She was then sold to a German firm in 1920 for scrap, but on 5 February 1920 ran aground on rocks near the Scottish village of Lendalfoot () in the Firth of Clyde, while being towed to Germany. She was scrapped in place from 1923-1925.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The stoicism of \"Varyag\"s crew at Chemulpo has inspired the Austrian poet Rudolf Greinz to write a poem dedicated to Varyag. The Russian translation of this poem was put on music by A.S. Turischev. The result was that remains popular today: Auf Deck, Kameraden, all' auf Deck! Heraus zur letzten Parade! Der stolze Warjag ergibt sich nicht, Wir brauchen keine Gnade! Наверх вы, товарищи, все по местам!<br> Последний парад наступает.<br> Врагу не сдается наш гордый “Варяг”,<br> Пощады никто не желает. <br><br><br>  \"(translation)\"<br> Get up you comrades, take your places,<br> The final parade is at hand.<br> Proud \"Varyag\" will not surrender to the enemy,<br> No one wants their mercy.  On Sunday 30 July 2006 (Russian Navy Day), a memorial plaque to the cruiser was unveiled at Lendalfoot in a ceremony attended by senior Russian politicians and navy personnel, veterans and local dignitaries.  On 8 September 2007 a monument in the form of a large bronze cross was unveiled as an addition to the Lendalfoot memorial, in a ceremony attended by former Nato Secretary General George Robertson, British and Russian navy officers and diplomats. The “Cruiser Varyag” Charity Foundation had organised a competition in Russia for the design of the monument, and RT International described it as \"the first monument to Russian military glory in the UK\".  In 2010, as a gesture marking the 20th anniversary of diplomatic relations between Korea and Russia, the flag of \"Varyag\" was restored. The Japanese Navy recovered the flag when the ship was salvaged; and the Incheon Metropolitan Museum acquired them after Japan's defeat at the end of World War II. The return of the flag takes the form of a two-year renewable loan because of the Korean law protecting cultural assets.  In 2018, the Russian heavy metal band Aria in their album \"Proklyatie Morey\" (\"Curse of the seas\") included the song \"Varyag\", which recounts the engagement.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Varyag (also spelled Variag; see Varangian for the meaning of the name) () was a Russian protected cruiser. \"Varyag\" became famous for her crew's stoicism at the Battle of Chemulpo Bay.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972960}
{"src_title": "Denatured alcohol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "In many countries, sales of alcoholic beverages are heavily taxed for revenue and public health policy purposes (see Pigovian tax). In order to avoid paying beverage taxes on alcohol that is not meant to be consumed, the alcohol must be \"denatured\", or treated with added chemicals to make it unpalatable. Its composition is tightly defined by government regulations in countries that tax alcoholic beverages. Denatured alcohol is used identically to ethanol itself except for applications that involve fuel, surgical and laboratory stock. Pure ethanol is required for food and beverage applications and certain chemical reactions where the denaturant would interfere. In molecular biology, denatured ethanol cannot be used for the precipitation of nucleic acids.  Denatured alcohol has no advantages for any purpose over normal ethanol; it is a public policy compromise. As denatured alcohol is sold without the often heavy taxes on alcohol suitable for consumption, it is a cheaper solution for most uses that do not involve drinking. If pure ethanol were made cheaply available for fuel, solvents, or medicinal purposes, it would likely be used as a drink by some people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Despite its poisonous content, denatured alcohol is sometimes consumed as a surrogate alcohol. This can result in blindness or death if it contains methanol. For instance, during the Prohibition in the United States, federal law required methanol in domestically manufactured industrial alcohols. From 25–27 December 1926, which was roughly at the midpoint of the \"Noble Experiment\" of nationwide alcohol prohibition, 31 people in New York City alone died of methanol poisoning. To help prevent this, denatonium is often added to give the substance an extremely bitter flavour. Substances such as pyridine are added to give the mixture an unpleasant odour, and agents such as syrup of ipecac may also be included to induce vomiting.  New Zealand has removed methanol from its government-approved \"methylated spirits\" formulation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formulations.", "content": "Diverse additives are used to make it difficult to use distillation or other simple processes to reverse the denaturation. Methanol is commonly used both because its boiling point is close to that of ethanol and because it is toxic. Another typical denaturant is pyridine. Often the denatured alcohol is dyed with methyl violet.  There are several grades of denatured alcohol, but in general the denaturants used are similar. As an example, the formulation for \"completely denatured alcohol\", according to 2005 British regulations was as follows:  The European Union agreed in February 2013 to the mutual procedures for the complete denaturing of alcohol:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Specially denatured alcohol.", "content": "A specially denatured alcohol (SDA) is one of many types of denatured alcohol specified under the United States Title 27 of the Code of Federal Regulations Section 21.151. A specially denatured alcohol is a combination of ethanol and another chemical substance, e.g., ethyl acetate in SDA 29, 35, and 35A, added to render the mixture unsuitable for drinking. SDAs are often used in cosmetic products, and can also be used in chemical manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, and solvents. Another example is SDA 40-B, which contains tert-butyl alcohol and denatonium benzoate, N.F. In the United States and other countries, the use of denatured alcohol unsuitable for beverages avoids excise taxes on alcohol.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Denatured alcohol, also called methylated spirits (in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United Kingdom) or wood spirit or denatured rectified spirit, is ethanol that has additives to make it poisonous, bad-tasting, foul-smelling, or nauseating to discourage recreational consumption. It is sometimes dyed so that it can be identified visually. Pyridine, methanol, or both can be added to make denatured alcohol poisonous, and denatonium can be added to make it bitter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972961}
{"src_title": "Hieronymus Wolf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born at Oettingen in Bayern, Germany, he was one of nine children. His father, allegedly of noble origin, was an office clerk and much impoverished. Hieronymus himself for years worked as a scribe, although he was formally educated as an attorney. He studied, on and off, in Wittenberg and was very impressed with Melanchthon and directly exposed to Lutheran teaching. Allegedly, he saved money out of his meager income to purchase a Latin-Greek dictionary and taught himself Greek. Upon acquiring some mastery of Greek, he plunged into translation in German of the speeches of Demosthenes. His translation was published in 1549 by well-known publishing house Oporinus, which made his name known to the Fugger family in Augsburg. Wolf got a position as a secretary and librarian of Fugger Library in 1551.  A student of Philipp Melanchthon and Joachim Camerarius, he managed to secure the position of secretary and librarian in the newly established public library of Augsburg in 1537, where he was given the chance to study and translate numerous ancient and medieval Greek authors, making them accessible to German academics. He made his reputation as a scholar of Isocrates and first published an edition of him at Paris in 1551. The library became famous for its contents and in particular for 100 Greek manuscripts that were transferred from Venice. Later on, under the scholarly direction of Hieronymus Wolf and others, the library became a research center of both respect and quality throughout Europe.  Six years later, Wolf was appointed first rector of Gelehrtenschule in the building of St Anne Carmelite cloister, subsequently known as St Anne Gymnasium. The Protestant College was established there to counterbalance the Jesuit college created more or less at the same time.  Hieronymus Wolf was, however, a sick man throughout his life. He never married. Intellectually brilliant and very renowned as a teacher, he was also very egocentric and secluded. As a result, the outstanding faculty he brought to St Anne was often left to fend for themselves and ran the school independently. He died at age of 64. His initiative led to the hiring of two outstanding faculty: Georg Henisch and Simon Fabricius. They added a Protestant College to the Gymnasium in the early 1580s. The initiative to establish an institution of learning open to adults was an ethos of Protestant teaching. Soon, the college ran into difficulties due to the rapidly emerging Counter-Reformation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Hieronymus continued to work in Augsburg's library, but his life's work was outside the traditional fields proposed by humanism. Until his time, no distinction was made between ancient and medieval Greek works, and indeed the latter was shadowed by the interest shown for classical authors. Rather, interest was stirred from a different direction, that of discovering and explaining the history that led to the conquest of much of eastern Europe by the Ottomans, whom Wolf lived to see during their Siege of Vienna. He focused primarily on Greek history, and published his work in 1557 under the title \"Corpus Historiae Byzantinae\", which was more a collection of Byzantine sources than a comprehensive history. Nevertheless, the impact of his work on the long term was massive, as it would set the foundations for upcoming medieval Greek histories. This reference to \"Byzantinae\" has since spread through western European scholars and gradually replaced the name Roman as used in the Eastern Roman Empire by the term Byzantine, to denote medieval Greek-speaking literature from the Eastern Roman Empire. This replacement reflects the feud between east and west over the title of Emperor of the Romans, that began already with Constantine the Great transferring the capital to Bosphorus.  In the 17th century, Louis XIV of France prompted for the assemblage of all Byzantine works and called several renowned scholars from around the world to participate in this effort. Hieronymus' \"Corpus\" would be used to build upon. The result was the immense \"Corpus Historiae Byzantinae\" in 34 volumes, with paralleled Greek text and Latin translation. This edition popularized the term \"Byzantine Empire\" (never used by that empire itself during the centuries of its existence) and established it in historical studies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hieronymus Wolf (13 August 1516 - 8 October 1580) was a sixteenth-century German historian and humanist, most famous for introducing a system of Roman historiography that eventually became the standard in works of medieval Greek history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972962}
{"src_title": "Thoralf Skolem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Although Skolem's father was a primary school teacher, most of his extended family were farmers. Skolem attended secondary school in Kristiania (later renamed Oslo), passing the university entrance examinations in 1905. He then entered Det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet to study mathematics, also taking courses in physics, chemistry, zoology and botany.  In 1909, he began working as an assistant to the physicist Kristian Birkeland, known for bombarding magnetized spheres with electrons and obtaining aurora-like effects; thus Skolem's first publications were physics papers written jointly with Birkeland. In 1913, Skolem passed the state examinations with distinction, and completed a dissertation titled \"Investigations on the Algebra of Logic\". He also traveled with Birkeland to the Sudan to observe the zodiacal light. He spent the winter semester of 1915 at the University of Göttingen, at the time the leading research center in mathematical logic, metamathematics, and abstract algebra, fields in which Skolem eventually excelled. In 1916 he was appointed a research fellow at Det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet. In 1918, he became a Docent in Mathematics and was elected to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.  Skolem did not at first formally enroll as a Ph.D. candidate, believing that the Ph.D. was unnecessary in Norway. He later changed his mind and submitted a thesis in 1926, titled \"Some theorems about integral solutions to certain algebraic equations and inequalities\". His notional thesis advisor was Axel Thue, even though Thue had died in 1922.  In 1927, he married Edith Wilhelmine Hasvold.  Skolem continued to teach at Det kongelige Frederiks Universitet (renamed the University of Oslo in 1939) until 1930 when he became a Research Associate in Chr. Michelsen Institute in Bergen. This senior post allowed Skolem to conduct research free of administrative and teaching duties. However, the position also required that he reside in Bergen, a city which then lacked a university and hence had no research library, so that he was unable to keep abreast of the mathematical literature. In 1938, he returned to Oslo to assume the Professorship of Mathematics at the university. There he taught the graduate courses in algebra and number theory, and only occasionally on mathematical logic. Skolem's Ph.D. student Øystein Ore went on to a career in the USA.  Skolem served as president of the Norwegian Mathematical Society, and edited the \"Norsk Matematisk Tidsskrift\" (\"The Norwegian Mathematical Journal\") for many years. He was also the founding editor of \"Mathematica Scandinavica\".  After his 1957 retirement, he made several trips to the United States, speaking and teaching at universities there. He remained intellectually active until his sudden and unexpected death.  For more on Skolem's academic life, see Fenstad (1970).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematics.", "content": "Skolem published around 180 papers on Diophantine equations, group theory, lattice theory, and most of all, set theory and mathematical logic. He mostly published in Norwegian journals with limited international circulation, so that his results were occasionally rediscovered by others. An example is the Skolem–Noether theorem, characterizing the automorphisms of simple algebras. Skolem published a proof in 1927, but Emmy Noether independently rediscovered it a few years later.  Skolem was among the first to write on lattices. In 1912, he was the first to describe a free distributive lattice generated by \"n\" elements. In 1919, he showed that every implicative lattice (now also called a Skolem lattice) is distributive and, as a partial converse, that every finite distributive lattice is implicative. After these results were rediscovered by others, Skolem published a 1936 paper in German, \"Über gewisse 'Verbände' oder 'Lattices'\", surveying his earlier work in lattice theory.  Skolem was a pioneer model theorist. In 1920, he greatly simplified the proof of a theorem Leopold Löwenheim first proved in 1915, resulting in the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, which states that if a countable first-order theory has an infinite model, then it has a countable model. His 1920 proof employed the axiom of choice, but he later (1922 and 1928) gave proofs using Kőnig's lemma in place of that axiom. It is notable that Skolem, like Löwenheim, wrote on mathematical logic and set theory employing the notation of his fellow pioneering model theorists Charles Sanders Peirce and Ernst Schröder, including ∏, ∑ as variable-binding quantifiers, in contrast to the notations of Peano, Principia Mathematica, and \"Principles of Mathematical Logic\". Skolem (1934) pioneered the construction of non-standard models of arithmetic and set theory.  Skolem (1922) refined Zermelo's axioms for set theory by replacing Zermelo's vague notion of a \"definite\" property with any property that can be coded in first-order logic. The resulting axiom is now part of the standard axioms of set theory. Skolem also pointed out that a consequence of the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem is what is now known as Skolem's paradox: If Zermelo's axioms are consistent, then they must be satisfiable within a countable domain, even though they prove the existence of uncountable sets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Completeness.", "content": "The completeness of first-order logic is a corollary of results Skolem proved in the early 1920s and discussed in Skolem (1928), but he failed to note this fact, perhaps because mathematicians and logicians did not become fully aware of completeness as a fundamental metamathematical problem until the 1928 first edition of Hilbert and Ackermann's \"Principles of Mathematical Logic\" clearly articulated it. In any event, Kurt Gödel first proved this completeness in 1930.  Skolem distrusted the completed infinite and was one of the founders of finitism in mathematics. Skolem (1923) sets out his primitive recursive arithmetic, a very early contribution to the theory of computable functions, as a means of avoiding the so-called paradoxes of the infinite. Here he developed the arithmetic of the natural numbers by first defining objects by primitive recursion, then devising another system to prove properties of the objects defined by the first system. These two systems enabled him to define prime numbers and to set out a considerable amount of number theory. If the first of these systems can be considered as a programming language for defining objects, and the second as a programming logic for proving properties about the objects, Skolem can be seen as an unwitting pioneer of theoretical computer science.  In 1929, Presburger proved that Peano arithmetic without multiplication was consistent, complete, and decidable. The following year, Skolem proved that the same was true of Peano arithmetic without addition, a system named Skolem arithmetic in his honor. Gödel's famous 1931 result is that Peano arithmetic itself (with both addition and multiplication) is incompletable and hence \"a posteriori\" undecidable.  Hao Wang praised Skolem's work as follows: \"Skolem tends to treat general problems by concrete examples. He often seemed to present proofs in the same order as he came to discover them. This results in a fresh informality as well as a certain inconclusiveness. Many of his papers strike one as progress reports. Yet his ideas are often pregnant and potentially capable of wide application. He was very much a 'free spirit': he did not belong to any school, he did not found a school of his own, he did not usually make heavy use of known results... he was very much an innovator and most of his papers can be read and understood by those without much specialized knowledge. It seems quite likely that if he were young today, logic... would not have appealed to him.\" (Skolem 1970: 17-18)  For more on Skolem's accomplishments, see Hao Wang (1970).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thoralf Albert Skolem (; 23 May 1887 – 23 March 1963) was a Norwegian mathematician who worked in mathematical logic and set theory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972963}
{"src_title": "Trance music", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The \"Trance\" name may refer to an induced emotional feeling, high, euphoria, chills, or uplifting rush that listeners claim to experience, or it may indicate an actual trance-like state the earliest forms of this music attempted to emulate in the 1990s before the genre's focus changed. A writer for Billboard magazine writes, “Trance music is perhaps best described as a mixture of 70s disco and 60s psychedelia”.  Another possible antecedent is Yuzo Koshiro and Motohiro Kawashima's electronic soundtracks for the \"Streets of Rage\" series of video games from 1991 to 1994. It was promoted by the well-known UK club-night \"Megatripolis\" (London, at Heaven on Thursdays) whose scene catapulted it to international fame.  Examples of early trance releases include but are not limited to KLF's 1988 release \"What Time Is Love?\" (Pure Trance 1), German duo Dance 2 Trance's 1990 track \"We Came in Peace\", and German duo Jam & Spoon's 1992 12\" Single remix of the 1990 song \"The Age Of Love\".  The writer Bom Coen traces the roots of trance to Paul van Dyk's 1993 remix of Humate's \"Love Stimulation\". However, Van Dyk's trance origins can be traced further back to his work with Visions of Shiva, being the first tracks he released In subsequent years, one genre, vocal trance, arose as the combination of progressive elements and pop music, and the development of another subgenre, epic trance, finds some of its origins in classical music, with film music also being influential.  Trance was arguably at its commercial peak in the second part of 1990s and early 2000s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Classic trance employs a 4/4 time signature, a tempo of 125 to 150 BPM, and 32 beat phrases and is somewhat faster than house music. A kick drum is usually placed on every downbeat and a regular open hi-hat is often placed on the upbeat. Extra percussive elements are usually added, and major transitions, builds or climaxes are often foreshadowed by lengthy \"snare rolls\"—a quick succession of snare drum hits that build in velocity, frequency, and volume towards the end of a measure or phrase.  Rapid arpeggios and minor keys are common features of Trance, the latter being almost universal. Trance tracks often use one central \"hook\", or melody, which runs through almost the entire song, repeating at intervals anywhere between 2 beats and 32 bars, in addition to harmonies and motifs in different timbres from the central melody. Instruments are added or removed every 4, 8, 16, or 32 bars.  In the section before the breakdown, the lead motif is often introduced in a sliced up and simplified form, to give the audience a \"taste\" of what they will hear after the breakdown. Then later, the final climax is usually \"a culmination of the first part of the track mixed with the main melodic reprise\".  As is the case with many dance music tracks, trance tracks are usually built with sparser intros (\"mix-ins\") and outros (\"mix-outs\") in order to enable DJs to blend them together immediately.  More recent forms of trance music incorporate other styles and elements of electronic music such as electro and progressive house into its production. It emphasizes harsher basslines and drum beats which decrease the importance of offbeats and focus primarily on a four on the floor stylistic house drum pattern. The BPM of more recent styles tends to be on par with house music at 120 to 135 beats per minute. However, unlike house music, recent forms of trance stay true to their melodic breakdowns and longer transitions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subgenres.", "content": "Trance music is broken into a number of subgenres including acid trance, classic trance, hard trance, progressive trance, and uplifting trance. Uplifting trance is also known as \"anthem trance\", \"epic trance\", \"commercial trance\", \"stadium trance\", or \"euphoric trance\", and has been strongly influenced by classical music in the 1990s and 2000s by leading artists such as Ferry Corsten, Armin Van Buuren, Tiësto, Push, Rank 1 and at present with the development of the subgenre \"orchestral uplifting trance\" or \"uplifting trance with symphonic orchestra\" by such artists as Sound Apparel, Andy Blueman, Ciro Visone, Soundlift, Arctic Moon, and Sergey Nevone & Simon O'Shine, among others. Closely related to Uplifting Trance is Euro-trance, which has become a general term for a wide variety of highly commercialized European dance music. Several subgenres are crossovers with other major genres of electronic music. For instance, Tech trance is a mixture of trance and techno, and Vocal trance \"combines [trance's] progressive elements with pop music\". The dream trance genre originated in the mid-1990s, with its popularity then led by Robert Miles.  AllMusic states on progressive trance: \"the progressive wing of the trance crowd led directly to a more commercial, chart-oriented sound, since trance had never enjoyed much chart action in the first place. Emphasizing the smoother sound of Eurodance or house (and occasionally more reminiscent of Jean-Michel Jarre than Basement Jaxx), Progressive Trance became the sound of the world's dance floors by the end of the millennium. Critics ridiculed its focus on predictable breakdowns and relative lack of skill to beat-mix, but progressive trance was caned by the hottest DJ.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music festivals.", "content": "The following is an incomplete list of dance music festivals that showcase trance music.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Asia.", "content": "\"Notes:\" Sunburn was not the first festival/event to specialize in India in trance music. Much earlier pioneers of Goa parties held events as early as the late 80's and through all of the 1990s", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Netherlands.", "content": "Electronic Music festivals in the Netherlands are mainly organized by four companies ALDA Events, ID&T, UDC and Q-dance:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "North America.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Electronic music festivals in the United States feature various electronic music genres such as trance, house, techno, electro, dubstep, and drum and bass:", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Trance is a genre of electronic music that emerged from the early 1990s German techno and hardcore scenes. At the same time trance music was developing in Europe, the genre was also gathering a following in the Indian state of Goa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972964}
{"src_title": "Ardbeg distillery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the distillery.", "content": "The Ardbeg distillery has been producing whisky since 1798, and began commercial production in 1815. Like most Scottish distilleries, for most of its history, its whisky was produced for use in blended whisky, rather than as a single malt. By 1886 the distillery produced 300,000 gallons of whisky per year, and employed 60 workers. Production was halted in 1981, but resumed on a limited basis in 1989 and continued at a low level through late 1996, during the period when Ardbeg was owned by Hiram Walker. In 1997 the distillery was bought and reopened by Glenmorangie plc (subsequently taken over by the French company LVMH on 28 December 2004) with production resuming on 25 June 1997 and full production resuming in 1998. The distillery was reopened by Ed Dodson in 1997 and handed over to Stuart Thomson, who managed it from 1997 to 2006. Michael \"Mickey\" Heads, an Islay native and former manager at Jura who had worked at Ardbeg years earlier, took over on 12 March 2007.  The name \"Ardbeg\" is an anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic \"An Àird Bheag\", meaning \"The Small Promontory\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Ardbeg's offerings have garnered an array of awards at international spirit ratings competitions. For example:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The distillery output is quite big for a distillery with only two pot stills. The wash still has a capacity of about 18,000 litres and the spirit still of about 17,000 litres. Currently a new still house is under construction which will double Ardbeg's distilling capacity. Ardbeg is one of the only Scottish distilleries who use a purifier, which leads to a smoother spirit.  In 2011, 20 vials of Ardbeg spirit and wood particles were sent to the International Space Station to investigate their interaction. They returned on 12 September 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "Ardbeg inspired the Finnish composer of contemporary music, Osmo Tapio Räihälä, to write the symphonic poem \"Ardbeg—The Ultimate Piece For Orchestra\" (2003); it was recorded by the Finnish Radio Symphony Orchestra on 28 April 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ardbeg Distillery (Scottish Gaelic: \"Taigh-staile na h-Àirde Bige\") is a Scotch whisky distillery in Ardbeg on the south coast of the isle of Islay, Argyll and Bute, Scotland, in the Inner Hebrides group of islands. The distillery is owned by Louis Vuitton Moët Hennessy, and produces a heavily peated Islay whisky. The distillery uses malted barley sourced from the maltings in Port Ellen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972965}
{"src_title": "Mehmet Scholl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Scholl played for SV Nordwest Karlsruhe (from 1976 to 1982) and Karlsruher SC (from 1982 to 1992) before joining Bayern Munich in July 1992. He stayed at Bayern for the rest of his career, wearing the number 7 shirt. Scholl retired from professional football after the 2006–07 season. In 15 seasons at Bayern he has played in 468 competitive matches for Bayern, scoring 116 goals – 88 of these appearances were in European cup competitions (18 goals).  He was one of the Bundesliga's most successful players, winning the championship eight times. Aged 19, he made his Bundesliga debut on 21 April 1990, coming on for Karlsruher SC in the 78th minute of their away match against 1. FC Köln, and promptly scored his team's fifth goal in the 90th minute. He has scored 98 goals (11 for Karlsruhe, 87 for Bayern) in 392 Bundesliga matches (58 for Karlsruhe, 334 for Bayern). Scholl has been praised for his technical ability, his creative playmaking, his dribbling skills, and his free kicks. In early 2001, he was voted Player of the Year 2000 by the professional players of the First and Second Bundesliga, and in May 2005, fans voted him one of the eleven greatest Bayern players of all time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Scholl played 36 matches for the German national team between 1995 and 2002, scoring eight goals. He was part of Germany's winning team at Euro 96 where he played in the quarterfinal, semifinal, and final. In the 69th minute of the final when the Czech Republic was leading 1–0, he was substituted for the then relatively unknown Oliver Bierhoff who went on to score the two goals that turned the match around for Germany, catapulting Bierhoff to national and international fame. Scholl also played in all three of Germany's games at Euro 2000, scoring Germany's only goal in the tournament against Romania.  Scholl repeatedly suffered injuries throughout his career, preventing him from maintaining a regular spot on the national team and eventually prompting him to retire from the national team prior to the 2002 FIFA World Cup, making him one of Germany's most successful players never to have played in a World Cup.  Among German football fans, Scholl was one of the most popular footballers because of his character and his unique skills. Before the 2006 World Cup Campaign, more than 100,000 people signed an online petition, \"Mehmet für Deutschland\", to persuade Jürgen Klinsmann to include Scholl in the German squad. Despite the public support, Scholl was not included.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "On 27 April 2009, he was named as interim head coach for Bayern Munich II. He replaced Hermann Gerland who became assistant coach under Jupp Heynckes and continued to work as under-13 head coach. In July 2009 he was appointed as permanent manager of Bayern II and left the team on 30 June 2010 for a year, working on his coaching licence. Scholl returned to Bayern Munich II as head coach. In January 2013, Scholl announced that he would leave the team at the end of the 2012–13 season because he wanted to focus on his job as TV pundit and that it conflicts with his work as coach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Scholl was born in Karlsruhe, the second son of Ergin and Hella Yüksel, a Turkish father and a German mother. When he was five, his parents divorced, and his mother then married Hermann Scholl from whom Mehmet acquired his last name.  In May 2002 and October 2003, he released two successful mixtapes, featuring his favourite bands. The compilation's title \"Mehmet Scholl kompiliert – Vor dem Spiel ist nach dem Spiel\" is a reference to Sepp Herberger's famous expression \"nach dem Spiel ist vor dem Spiel\" (\"after the game is before the game\"). In an interview, Scholl said he chose this title because he listens to this music before the game, after the game, in the car on the way to the stadium, and in the car when leaving the stadium. The first volume includes songs by The Beta Band, Sportfreunde Stiller, Jimmy Eat World, and The Notwist (complete track list) among others. The second volume includes songs by Oasis, Wir sind Helden, and The Flaming Lips (complete track list) to name a few. Once a month, he co-presents the feature \"Mehmets Schollplatten\" in the program \"Nachtmix\" of the \"Bayern 2\" radio station, which is the culturally oriented channel of the federal public broadcaster Bayerischer Rundfunk.  As a young player, Scholl was quoted with the words \"hängt die Grünen, solange es noch Bäume gibt\" (\"hang the Greens while there still are trees\"), seemingly expressing his dislike for the German Green Party. He was widely criticized for this quote because most people did not understand his point which was to point that in near future there might be no trees left, thereby giving his statement an ironic touch. Even though he made further ironic remarks in this interview (\"One thing you'd never do?\" \"I'd never put a blind man at an advertising pillar and tell him that this is the wall he needs to walk down to get home.\"), some people did not get the jokes. However, he was sued by a Green politician for instigation to murder and eventually he donated 15,000 DM to charity. Afterwards, Scholl was asked by a journalist which party he would vote for, but he answered: \"Green naturally – I cannot leave them hanging\" (\"Grün natürlich, ich kann sie ja nicht hängenlassen\").  Scholl is officially without religious confession, but is an avid follower of Buddhist principles.  Since his retirement from football, he has taken up nine-pin bowling (Kegeln), a sport in which he already excelled as a youth.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mehmet Tobias Scholl (born Mehmet Tobias Yüksel; 16 October 1970) is a German football manager and former player. He played most of his career as an attacking midfielder for Bayern Munich. During his career he won the UEFA Cup in 1996 (scoring a goal in each leg of the final), the Euro 1996, and the UEFA Champions League in 2001, as well as eight German Championships (all with Bayern Munich). He retired at the end of the 2006–07 Bundesliga season as one of the most successful German football players of all time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972966}
{"src_title": "Osman II", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Osman II was born at Topkapı Palace, Constantinople, the son of Sultan Ahmed I (1603–17) and one of his consorts Mahfiruz Hatun. According to later traditions, at a young age, his mother had paid a great deal of attention to Osman's education, as a result of which Osman II became a known poet and would have mastered many languages, including Arabic, Persian, Greek, Latin, and Italian; this has been refuted since. Osman was born eleven months after his father Ahmed Ahmed's transition to the throne. He was trained in the palace. According to foreign observers, he was one of the most cultured of Ottoman princes.  Osman's failure to capture the throne at the death of his father Ahmed may have been caused by the absence of a mother to lobby in his favor; his own mother was probably already dead or in exile.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Osman II ascended the throne at the age of 14 as the result of a coup d'état against his uncle Mustafa I \"the Intestable\" (1617–18, 1622–23). Despite his youth, Osman II soon sought to assert himself as a ruler, and after securing the empire's eastern border by signing a peace treaty (Treaty of Serav) with Safavid Persia, he personally led the Ottoman invasion of Poland during the Moldavian Magnate Wars. Forced to sign a peace treaty with the Poles after the Battle of Chotin (Chocim) (which was, in fact, a siege of Chotin defended by the Lithuanian–Polish hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz) in September–October, 1621, Osman II returned home to Constantinople in shame, blaming the cowardice of the Janissaries and the insufficiency of his statesmen for his humiliation.  The basic and exceptional weakness from which Osman II suffered was the conspicuous absence of a female power basis in the harem. From 1620 until Osman's death, a governess (\"daye hatun\", lit. wet-nurse) was appointed as a stand-in valide, and she could not counterbalance the contriving of Mustafa I's mother in the Old Palace. Although he did have a loyal chief black eunuch at his side, this could not compensate for the absence of what in the politics of that period was a winning combination, valide sultan–chief black eunuch, especially in the case of a young and very ambitious ruler. According to Piterberg, Osman II did not have haseki sultan, opposite with Peirce who claim that Ayşe was Osman's haseki. But it is clear that Ayşe could not take valide's role during her spouse's reign.  In the autumn of 1620, Özi Beylerbeyi İskender Pasha seized the secret letter sent by Transylvanian Prince Bethlen Gabor to Istanbul and sent it to Poland, and Osman also became a veteran of the people around him. He decided to embark on a Polish expedition. Continuing preparations for the Polish campaign. Neither cold nor famine nor the British ambassador John Eyre could determine Osman. The ambassador of Sigismund, the King of Poland, was brought into Istanbul despite the severe colds. The janissaries and army were not willing to go on a campaign, regardless of their conditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Great winter of 1621.", "content": "Following the murder of Şehzade Mehmed on 12 January 1621, a severe snow started in Istanbul. The people of Istanbul were drastically affected by the cold, which increased local violence on 24 January 1621, more so than the palace murder. This is the biggest natural disaster that concerns the capital in Osman's four-year short reign. Bostanzade Yahya Efendi, one of those who lived through this cold, tells that the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus were covered with ice in the end of January-beginning of February: \"Between Üsküdar and Beşiktaş, the men walk around and go to Üsküdar. They came from Istanbul on foot. And the year became a gala (famine).  It was snowing for 15 days, that the frosts were frozen from the severity of the cold, but that the river was open between Sarayburnu and Üsküdar. For this natural disaster, froze in thirty thousand froze between Üsküdar and Istanbul from the cold,\" Haşimi Çelebi, \"The road became Üsküdar, the Mediterranean froze a thousand thirty\". As a result of the inconvenience of the Zahire ships, there was a complete famine in Istanbul, and 75 dirhams of bread jumped to one akche, and the oak of the meat to 15 akches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Seeking a counterweight to Janissary influence, Osman II closed their coffee shops (the gathering points for conspiracies against the throne) and started planning to create a new and more loyal army consisting of Anatolian sekbans. The result was a palace uprising by the Janissaries, who promptly imprisoned the young sultan in Yedikule Fortress in Istanbul, where Osman II was strangled to death. More specifically, and according to chronicles, his testicles were \"crushed\" by Pehlivan the Oil Wrestler. After the death of Osman II, his ear was cut off and represented to Halime Sultan and Sultan Mustafa I to confirm his death and Mustafa would no longer need to fear his nephew. It was the first time in the Ottoman history that a Sultan was executed by the Janissaries.  This disaster is one of the most discussed topics in Ottoman history. Hasanbegzade, Karaçelebizade, Solakzade, Peçevi, Müneccimbaşı and Naima dates, in the Fezleke of Katip Çelebi, detailed and some of them were narrated in a story style.  Osman had three consorts: Osman had one son:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In the 2015 Turkish television series \"\", Osman II was portrayed by actor Taner Ölmez.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Osman II ( \"‘Osmān-i sānī\"; 3 November 1604 – 20 May 1622), commonly known in Turkey as Genç Osman (meaning \"Osman the Young\"), was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1618 until his regicide on 20 May 1622.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972967}
{"src_title": "Inter-Cities Fairs Cup", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spanish era.", "content": "The first competition was to be held over two seasons to avoid clashes with national leagues fixtures. Because it was also intended to coincide with trade fairs, it ran over into a third year. It commenced in 1955 and finished in 1958. Cities that entered teams included Barcelona, Basel, Birmingham, Copenhagen, Frankfurt, Vienna, Cologne, Lausanne, Leipzig, London, Milan, and Zagreb. The first competition included a group stage and also featured some city representative teams instead of clubs. The eventual finalists were the city of Barcelona and a London XI. While the latter side consisted of players from 11 clubs, the former was effectively FC Barcelona with one player from RCD Espanyol. After a 2–2 draw at Stamford Bridge, Barcelona emerged triumphant after winning the return 6–0. A second tournament took place between 1958 and 1960. This time, the group stage format was abandoned in favour of a knockout tournament. Barcelona retained the cup, beating Birmingham City 4–1 in the final.  The third tournament was held over the course of the 1960–61 season and all subsequent tournaments were completed over one season. The season also saw the holders, Barcelona, compete in both the Fairs Cup and European Cup. During the early days of European competition, these tournaments were effectively rivals and there was little or no co-ordination between the administrators running them. The European Cup quickly established itself as the premier club competition, largely because it had the advantage of featuring national league champions and was completed in a single season from the very start. The efforts of Barcelona ended in failure in both competitions. In the Fairs Cup quarter-finals, they lost 7–6 on aggregate to Hibernian, while in the European Cup, they were beaten in the final by Benfica. Roma took three games to beat Hibernian in the semi-finals before they progressed to the final. Birmingham City reached their second final in two years but once again they were defeated. After a 2–2 draw at home, they lost 2–0 to Roma in the return.  The 1961–62 season saw the rules amended to allow three teams from each country to enter. The \"one city, one team\" rule was temporarily abandoned and two teams represented each of Edinburgh, Milan, and Barcelona (respectively Hibernian and Heart of Midlothian, Internazionale and A.C. Milan, and FC Barcelona and RCD Espanyol). This increase in teams resulted in Spanish teams continuing to dominate the competition. FC Barcelona were now regularly joined by Valencia CF and Real Zaragoza. These three clubs won the competition six times between them from 1958 to 1966. The Fairs Cup saw three all-Spanish finals in 1962, 1964, and 1966. The 1962 final saw Valencia CF beat FC Barcelona 7–3 on aggregate and in 1963 they retained the title after beating Dinamo Zagreb with a 4–1 aggregate score. They reached their third final in 1964 but lost 2–1 to Real Zaragoza in a single game at the Camp Nou.  The 1965 tournament saw a record entry of 48 teams, testimony to the growing status of the Fairs Cup. It also produced only the second final not to feature a Spanish team. Ferencvárosi TC of Hungary beat Juventus in another single-game final. The 1966 competition attracted attention for all the wrong reasons. Chelsea were pelted with rubbish at Roma and Leeds United fought a bruising encounter with Valencia CF which ended with three dismissals. Leeds also had Johnny Giles sent off in the semi-final against Real Zaragoza. The final saw FC Barcelona beat Real Zaragoza 4–3 on aggregate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "English era.", "content": "The 1967 tournament saw the emergence of English clubs with Leeds United reaching the final. Although they lost to Dinamo Zagreb, they returned the following season and defeated Ferencvárosi TC to become the first English club to win the competition. The subsequent victories of Newcastle United and Arsenal and a second win for Leeds United saw English clubs winning the last four Fairs Cup tournaments. The last final saw Leeds United declared winners on away goals after drawing with Juventus 3–3 on aggregate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "UEFA Cup.", "content": "In the 1971–72 season the competition was taken over by UEFA and relaunched as the UEFA Cup. By replacing the trophy, renaming the competition, and revising the entry regulations, UEFA effectively ended the Fairs Cup. Among the changes was the abandonment of the \"one city one team\" rule, which had had a particularly bad effect on English entrants for 1969–70, when Liverpool (2nd), Arsenal (4th), Southampton (7th), and Newcastle United (9th-also holders) got the places, at the expense of Everton (3rd), Chelsea (5th), Tottenham Hotspur (6th), and West Ham United (8th). The Football League upheld the geographic rule until 1975, when UEFA pressured the League to drop it or face sanctions. Everton that year, having come 4th, would have been excluded from the competition due to Liverpool's 2nd-place finish.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trophy play-off match.", "content": "After the 1970-71 season the organisation of the Fairs Cup was taken over by UEFA. The competition was rebranded as UEFA Cup with a new trophy being introduced which is still in use today. The old trophy had not been won by any club permanently, so UEFA organised a play off match to decide who would gain permanent possession of the original Fairs Cup trophy. Before the match, FIFA President Sir Stanley Rous presented silver insignias to the members of the 1958 title winning side, FC Barcelona.  The one-off match was played on 22 September 1971, between the first ever Fairs Cup winners, FC Barcelona, and the last winners, Leeds United. Barcelona won this play-off 2–1.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, sometimes referred to as the European Fairs Cup, Fairs Cities' Cup, or simply as the Fairs Cup, was a European football competition played between 1955 and 1971. The competition was the idea of FIFA vice-president and Executive Committee member Ernst Thommen, Italian Football Federation President and FIFA Executive Committee member Ottorino Barassi, and the English Football Association general secretary and president of FIFA from 1961 to 1974, Stanley Rous. As the name suggests, the competition was set up to promote international trade fairs. Friendly games were regularly held between teams from cities holding trade fairs and it was from these games that the competition evolved. The competition was initially only open to teams from cities that hosted trade fairs and where these teams finished in their national league had no relevance. Early competitions also featured a \"one city, one team\" rule. After 1968, it was sometimes referred to as the Runners-up Cup, with teams now qualifying based on league position.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972968}
{"src_title": "Neum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "Neum is a small town located in mild Mediterranean climate that has steep hills, stone-sandy beaches, and several large tourist hotels. The inland area behind Neum has a rich archeological history and untouched wilderness with centuries-old olive groves in the hinterland.  Neum has about 5,000 beds for tourists, 1,810 in hotels with the remaining capacity in motels, villas, and private accommodation. Tourism in Neum is active only in the coastal region. Prices tend to be lower than in neighbouring Croatia, making it popular with shoppers. Tourism, and the commerce it brings, is the leading contributor to the economy of the area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "Neum is 60 km (37 mi) from Dubrovnik (80 km (50 mi) from Dubrovnik Airport), 70 km (43 mi) from Mostar and Međugorje and 30 km (19 mi) from Ploče and Metković, both of which have railway stations.  The Bosnia and Herzegovina coastal strip of Neum cuts off the southernmost Croatian exclave from the rest of Croatia. This is a result of the Treaty of Karlowitz of 1699. With its admission to the European Union, Croatia had to apply EU regulations at its border crossings, including the passage through the Neum section.  The construction of the Pelješac Bridge, which would bypass Neum entirely, has significance for Croatia's integrity and also for its future Schengen Area membership and the EU as a whole. It would significantly improve traffic flow and the traffic connection of Dubrovnik to the rest of mainland Croatia, avoiding crossing the external borders of the EU at Neum, negotiating long, costly queues and strict customs checks twice within the space of 20 km.  Encouraged by the recent developments in Croatia - Slovenia maritime border dispute (June 2017), the ruling Bosniak Party of Democratic Action (SDA) and other Bosnian political parties have decided to obstruct the €420 million worth project previously approved by the EU. The EU Commission has already allocated €357 million of Cohesion Policy funds to build the bridge. It should be completed by 2022.  Neum is planned to be a freight port. There are plans to build a real seaport, rail and a motorway and thus the Croatian bridge must have a high clearance according to the view of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Today the main freight port for Bosnia and Herzegovina is Ploče (in Croatia) further north, which has a railway to Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subdivision.", "content": "The municipality includes the town of Neum (municipal seat) and several villages:  Babin Do, Borut, Brestica, Broćanac, Brštanica, Cerovica, Cerovo, Crnoglav, Dobri Do, Dobrovo, Donji Drijen, Donji Zelenikovac, Dubravica, Duži, Glumina, Gornje Hrasno, Gradac, Hotanj Hutovski, Hutovo, Kiševo, Moševići, Prapratnica, Previš, Rabrani, Vinine and Žukovica.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Border crossings.", "content": "Neum has two border crossing checkpoints with Croatia on the European route E65 or Adriatic Highway which connects the two parts of Croatia's Dalmatian coast. Neum 1 is located to the northwest of the city, with the Klek border checkpoint on the Croatian side. Neum 2 is located to the southeast, with the Croatian border checkpoint at Zaton Doli.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Neum corridor dates back to the Treaty of Karlovci of 1699, whereby the Republic of Ragusa was separated from the Dalmatian possessions of its rival Venice by two buffer zones ceded by Ragusa to the Ottoman empire to prevent the possibility of Venice invading via land: north of its territory is Neum and the bay of Klek, and south of its territory is Sutorina with the port of Herceg-Novi on the Bay of Kotor, now part of Montenegro since 1947.  The Karlovci borders were reaffirmed in 1718 by the Treaty of Požarevac, but then the Ottomans, tired of negotiating in vain with Venice for a widening of their maritime access, simply usurped the territory of Gornji Klek and most of the Klek peninsula from the Republic of Ragusa, which it had bought from King Stjepan of Bosnia at the end of the 14th century. After the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797 and the Vienna Congress in 1815, the Austrian Empire, which had annexed both the Dalmatian possessions of Venice and the territory of Dubrovnik, tried to buy back the Neum and Sutorina enclaves from the Ottomans, but in vain. Instead, it stationed a warship to block access to the port of Neum until the Treaty of Berlin, which gave Vienna the whole of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1878. Neum had been under Ottoman control for 179 years.  In 1918, as a consequence of Vienna's defeat, Neum joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes which would start being called \"Yugoslavia\" in 1929. Under Karađorđević, the Yugoslav Government ignored the borders inherited from history twice: in 1929, when the Neum Region was included in the Littoral Banovina, and in 1939 when, following the Cvetković–Maček Agreement, it was included in the Banovina of Croatia. Tito's federal Yugoslavia was founded on the principle, declared at the 1943 AVNOJ in Jajce and comparatively well-respected by the \"Đilas commission\" in 1945, of establishing the federated Republics in their borders of 1878 which is why the Neum enclave is now part of independent Bosnia-Herzegovina, including most of the Klek peninsula (Ponta Kleka, Rep Kleka), the two islets Veliki and Mali Školj and the rock of Lopata in the Bay of Klek.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The climate of the area is Mediterranean, characterized by mild winters and dry summers, with three times more rain in the rainier than in the drier months, during which the mean precipitation do not exceed 40 mm (1.57 in). The mean yearly precipitation observed is of 1316 mm (51.8). The dominant winds come from the north, north-east and north-west. The average sea temperature (as observed in Neum) ranges from 13 °C (55 °F) in January to 28 °C (82 °F) in July and August.  Vegetation is the evergreen Mediterranean type, and subtropical flora (palm trees, agaves, cacti) grow in Neum and its surroundings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture and sport.", "content": "Neum celebrates the feast of Our Lady of Good Health as its municipal day. As part of the celebrations, Neum hosts the Music Festival Etnofest Neum. The town also hosts the Neum Animated Film Festival.  The linđo is traditionally danced in the Neum region.  Neum is home to local branches of the cultural organizations Matica hrvatska and HKD Napredak.  Popular activities include swimming and sun bathing, beach-going, boating, and various other water-sports. Neum has a water polo club VK Jadran Neum, which is a member of the Croatian Water Polo Federation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Maritime.", "content": "The Sutorina dispute was a border dispute between Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina regarding the sovereignty over the territory of Sutorina. In the end government of Bosnia signed the agreement (by Minister of Foreign Affairs Igor Crnadak and/or witnessed by the Croat Member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina Dragan Čović) agreeing that Sutorina was part of Montenegro.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Neum-Klek naval port (WWI).", "content": "Consideration was given to a plan to build a new advanced naval base at Neum-Klek by Austro-Hungarian Navy. General Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf considered fortifying Neum with coastal batteries and torpedo craft to supplement seafront defenses (in order to prevent Italian raids, or worse large scale Italian landing). The project never got past the planning stage prior to the outbreak of War in 1914.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Neum () is a town and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina, located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity. It is the only town to be situated along Bosnia and Herzegovina's of coastline, making it the country's only access to the Adriatic Sea. As of 2013, Neum municipality has a population of 4,268 inhabitants, while the town of Neum has a population of 3,013 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972969}
{"src_title": "Southern African Development Community", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Member states.", "content": "SADC has 16 member states: The Union of Comoros was admitted into SADC at the 37th SADC Summit of Heads of State and Government held in Pretoria, South Africa in 2017, bringing the total number of Member States to 16. Additionally, Burundi has requested to join.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The origins of SADC are in the 1960s and 1970s, when the leaders of majority-ruled countries and national liberation movements coordinated their political, diplomatic and military struggles to bring an end to colonial and white-minority rule in southern Africa. The immediate forerunner of the political and security cooperation leg of today's SADC was the informal Frontline States (FLS) grouping. It was formed in 1980.  The Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) was the forerunner of the socio-economic cooperation leg of today's SADC. The adoption by nine majority-ruled southern African countries of the Lusaka declaration on 1 April 1980 paved the way for the formal establishment of SADCC in April 1980.  Membership of the FLS and SADCC sometimes differed.  SADCC was transformed into SADC on 17 August 1992, with the adoption by the founding members of SADCC and newly independent Namibia of the Windhoek declaration and treaty establishing SADC. The 1992 SADC provided for both socio-economic cooperation and political and security cooperation. In reality, the FLS was dissolved only in 1994, after South Africa's first democratic elections. Subsequent efforts to place political and security cooperation on a firm institutional footing under SADC's umbrella failed.  On 14 August 2001, the 1992 SADC treaty was amended. The amendment heralded the overhaul of the structures, policies and procedures of SADC, a process which is ongoing. One of the changes is that political and security cooperation is institutionalised in the Organ on Politics, Defence and Security (OPDS). One of the principal SADC bodies, it is subject to the oversight of the organisation's supreme body, the Summit, which comprises the heads of state or government.  The organisation holds its own multi-sport event in the form of the SADC Games, which was first held in 2004 in Maputo. Originally planned for an earlier date in Malawi and Lesotho, organisational issues led to abandonment of the plan and the SADC issuing a fine of $100,000 against Malawi. The first event in 2004 in Maputo resulted in over 1000 youths under-20 from 10 countries taking part in a sports programme including athletics, football, netball, boxing and basketball.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Protocols.", "content": "SADC has 27 legally binding protocols dealing with issues such as Defence, Development, Illicit Drug Trade, Free Trade and Movement of People.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "SADC FTA.", "content": "The SADC Free Trade Area was established in August 2008, after the implementation of the SADC Protocol on Trade in 2000 laid the foundation for its formation. Its original members were Botswana, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe, with Malawi and Seychelles joining later. Of the 15 SADC member states, only Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo are not yet participating, however Angolan trade minister Joffre Van-Dúnen Júnior said in Luanda that his ministry is working to create conditions for Angola's accession to the SADC Free Trade Area in 2019. The SADC-Customs Union, scheduled to be established by 2010 according to SADC's Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (RISDP), is unlikely to become reality in the near future. This is because the European Union's Economic Partnership Agreements (EPA) with their inherent extra-regional freetrade regimes provided for several SADC members more benefits than deeper regional market integration within the framework of a SADC-Customs Union. Since these SADC countries formed four different groupings to negotiate and implement different Economic Partnership Agreements with European Union, the chance to establish a SADC-wide common external tariff as prerequisite for a regional customs union is missed.  On Wednesday 22 October 2008, SADC joined with the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa and the East African Community to form the African Free Trade Zone, including all members of each of the organizations. The leaders of the three trading blocs agreed to create a single free trade zone, the African Free Trade Zone, consisting of 26 countries with a GDP of an estimated $624bn (£382.9bn). It is hoped the African Free Trade Zone agreement would ease access to markets within the zone and end problems arising from the fact that several of the member countries belong to multiple groups.  The African Free Trade Zone effective has been more than a hundred years in the making—a trade zone spanning the whole African continent from Cape to Cairo and envisioned by Cecil Rhodes and other British imperialists in the 1890s. The only difference is that the African Free Trade Zone is the creation of independent African Countries. The idea is a free trade zone spanning the whole continent from the Cape to Cairo (Cape Town in the Republic of South Africa to Cairo in Egypt).  In addition to eliminating duplicative membership and the problem member states also participating in other regional economic cooperation schemes and regional political and security cooperation schemes that may compete with or undermine each other, the African Free Trade Zone further aims to strengthen the bloc's bargaining power when negotiating international deals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Challenges facing member countries.", "content": "SADC countries face many social, development, economic, trade, education, health, diplomatic, defence, security and political challenges. Some of these challenges cannot be tackled effectively by individual members. Cattle diseases and organised-crime gangs know no boundaries. War in one country can suck in its neighbours and damage their economies. The sustainable development that trade could bring is threatened by the existence of different product standards and tariff regimes, weak customs infrastructure and bad roads. The socio-economic and political and security cooperation aims of SADC are equally wide-ranging, and intended to address the various common challenges.  One significant challenge is that member states also participate in other regional economic cooperation schemes and regional political and security cooperation schemes that may compete with or undermine SADC's aims. For example, South Africa and Botswana both belong to the Southern Africa Customs Union, Zambia is a part of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, and Tanzania is a member of the East African Community.  According to Human Rights Watch, \"SADC has been criticized for its laxity on making human rights compliance within its member states a priority\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure and decision-making procedures.", "content": "The organisation has six principal bodies:  Except for the Tribunal (based in Windhoek, Namibia), SNCs and Secretariat, decision-making is by consensus.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is an inter-governmental organization headquartered in Gaborone, Botswana. Its goal is to further socio-economic cooperation and integration as well as political and security cooperation among 16 southern African countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972970}
{"src_title": "Amin Maalouf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Maalouf was born in Beirut, Lebanon, and grew up in the Badaro cosmopolitan neighborhood, the second of four children. His parents had different cultural backgrounds. His mother, Odette Ghossein, is Lebanese of Turkish descent, from the Metn Village of Ain el Kabou, she was born in Egypt and lived there for many years before coming back to Lebanon. She currently lives in France. His father was from the Melkite Catholic community near the village of Baskinta in Ain el Qabou. Maalouf's mother was a staunch Maronite Catholic who insisted on sending him to Collège Notre Dame de Jamhour, a French Jesuit school. He studied sociology at the Francophone Université Saint-Joseph in Beirut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Maalouf worked as the director of the Beirut-based daily newspaper \"An-Nahar\" until the start of the Lebanese civil war in 1975, when he moved to Paris, which became his permanent home.  Maalouf's first book, \"The Crusades Through Arab Eyes\", 1983, examined the period on the basis of contemporaneous Arabic sources.  Besides novels, he has written four texts for musical compositions and several works of non-fiction, of which \"Crusades through Arab Eyes\" is probably the best known.  In 2011, he was elected to seat #29 of the Académie française, a chair previously held by Ernst Renan. He is trumpeter Ibrahim Maalouf's uncle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "In 1993, Maalouf was awarded the Prix Goncourt for his novel The Rock of Tanios (\"\"Le rocher de Tanios\")\", set in 19th-century Lebanon. In 2010 he received the Spanish Prince of Asturias Award for Literature for his work, an intense mix of suggestive language, historic affairs in a Mediterranean mosaic of languages, cultures and religions and stories of tolerance and reconciliation.  He was elected a member of the Académie française on 23 June 2011 to fill seat 29, left vacant by the death of anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss. Maalouf is the first person of Lebanese heritage to receive that honor. His book \"Un fauteuil sur la Seine\" briefly recounts the lives of those who preceded him in seat 29.  Maalouf has been awarded honorary doctorates by the Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium), the American University of Beirut (Lebanon), the Rovira i Virgili University (Spain), the University of Évora (Portugal), and the University of Ottawa (Canada).  In 2016, he won the Sheikh Zayed Book Award for \"Cultural Personality of the Year\", the premier category with a prize of 1 million dirhams.  In 2020, he was awarded the National Order of Merit by the French government. He was given the honor by President Emmanuel Macron.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fiction.", "content": "Maalouf's novels are marked by his experiences of civil war and migration. Their characters are itinerant voyagers between lands, languages, and religions and he prefers to write about \"our past\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Librettos.", "content": "All Maalouf's librettos have been written for the Finnish composer Kaija Saariaho.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Amin Maalouf (; ; born 25 February 1949) is a Lebanese-born French author who has lived in France since 1976. Although his native language is Arabic, he writes in French, and his works have been translated into over 40 languages. He received the Prix Goncourt in 1993 for his novel \"The Rock of Tanios\" as well as the 2010 Prince of Asturias Award for Literature. He is a member of the Académie française.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972971}
{"src_title": "Fire salamander", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Habitat, behavior and diet.", "content": "Fire salamanders live in central Europe forests and are more common in hilly areas. They prefer deciduous forests since they like to hide in fallen leaves and around mossy tree trunks. They need small brooks or ponds with clean water in their habitat for the development of the larvae. Whether on land or in water, fire salamanders are inconspicuous. They spend much of their time hidden under wood or other objects. They are active in the evening and the night, but on rainy days they are active in the daytime as well.  The diet of the fire salamander consists of various insects, spiders, earthworms and slugs, but they also occasionally eat newts and young frogs. In captivity, they eat crickets, mealworms, waxworms and silkworm larvae. Small prey will be caught within the range of the vomerine teeth or by the posterior half of the tongue, to which the prey adheres. It weighs about 40 grams. The fire salamander can grow to be long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Males and females look very similar except during the breeding season when the most conspicuous difference is a swollen gland around the male's vent. This gland produces the spermatophore, which carries a sperm packet at its tip. The courtship happens on land. After the male becomes aware of a potential mate, he confronts her and blocks her path. The male rubs her with his chin to express his interest in mating, then crawls beneath her and grasps her front limbs with his own in amplexus. He deposits a spermatophore on the ground, then attempts to lower the female's cloaca into contact with it. If successful, the female draws the sperm packet in and her eggs are fertilized internally. The eggs develop internally and the female deposits the larvae into a body of water just as they hatch. In some subspecies, the larvae continue to develop within the female until she gives birth to fully formed metamorphs. Breeding has not been observed in neotenic fire salamanders.  In captivity, females may retain sperm long-term and use the stored sperm later to produce another clutch. This behavior has not been observed in the wild, likely due to the ability to obtain fresh sperm and the degradation of stored sperm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "The fire salamander's primary alkaloid toxin, samandarin, causes strong muscle convulsions and hypertension combined with hyperventilation in all vertebrates. The poison glands of the fire salamander are concentrated in certain areas of the body, especially around the head and the dorsal skin surface. The coloured portions of the animal's skin usually coincide with these glands. Compounds in the skin secretions may be effective against bacterial and fungal infections of the epidermis; some are potentially dangerous to human life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Fire salamanders are found in most of southern and central Europe. They are most commonly found at altitudes between and, only rarely below (in Northern Germany sporadically down to ). However, in the Balkans or Spain they are commonly found in higher altitudes as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "Several subspecies of the fire salamander are recognized. Most notable are the subspecies \"fastuosa\" and \"bernadezi\", which are the only viviparous subspecies – the others are ovoviviparous.  Some former subspecies have been lately recognized as species for genetic reasons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Confirmed hosts of \"Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans\".", "content": "The fire salamander is under threat or has been extinct in certain regions such as the south of the Netherlands and the East of Belgium by the propagation of mycose \"Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans\" origin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The fire salamander (\"Salamandra salamandra\") is possibly the best-known salamander species in Europe. It is black with yellow spots or stripes to a varying degree; some specimens can be nearly completely black while on others the yellow is dominant. Shades of red and orange may sometimes appear, either replacing or mixing with the yellow according to subspecies. Fire salamanders can have a very long lifespan; one specimen lived for more than 50 years in Museum Koenig, a German natural history museum.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972972}
{"src_title": "Mortar and pestle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Scientists have found ancient mortars and pestles in Southwest Asia that date back to approximately 35000 BC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The English word \"mortar\" derives from middle English \"morter\", from old French \"mortier\", from classical Latin \"mortarium\", meaning, among several other usages, \"receptacle for pounding\" and \"product of grinding or pounding\". The classical Latin \"pistillum\", meaning \"pounder\", led to English \"pestle\".  The Roman poet Juvenal applied both \"mortarium\" and \"pistillum\" to articles used in the preparation of drugs, reflecting the early use of the mortar and pestle as a symbol of a pharmacist or apothecary.  The antiquity of these tools is well documented in early writing, such as the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus of ~1550 BC (the oldest preserved piece of medical literature) and the Old Testament (Numbers 11:8 and Proverbs 27:22).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medicine.", "content": "Mortars and pestles were traditionally used in pharmacies to crush various ingredients prior to preparing an extemporaneous prescription. The mortar and pestle, with the Rod of Asclepius, the Green Cross, and others, is one of the most pervasive symbols of pharmacology, along with the show globe.  For pharmaceutical use, the mortar and the head of the pestle are usually made of porcelain, while the handle of the pestle is made of wood. This is known as a Wedgwood mortar and pestle and originated in 1759. Today the act of mixing ingredients or reducing the particle size is known as trituration.  Mortars and pestles are also used as drug paraphernalia to grind up pills to speed up absorption when they are ingested, or in preparation for insufflation. To finely ground drugs, not available in liquid dosage form is used also if patients need artificial nutrition such as parenteral nutrition or by nasogastric tube.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food preparation.", "content": "Mortars are also used in cooking to prepare wet or oily ingredients such as guacamole, hummus and pesto (which derives its name from the pestle pounding), as well as grinding spices into powder. The molcajete, a version used by pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican cultures including the Aztec and Maya, stretching back several thousand years, is made of basalt and is used widely in Mexican cooking. Other Native American nations use mortars carved into the bedrock to grind acorns and other nuts. Many such depressions can be found in their territories.  In Japan, very large mortars are used with wooden mallets to prepare mochi. A regular sized Japanese mortar and pestle are called a \"suribachi\" and \"surikogi\", respectively. Granite mortars and pestles are used in Southeast Asia, as well as Pakistan and India. In India, it is used extensively to make spice mixtures for various delicacies as well as day to day dishes. With the advent of motorized grinders, use of the mortar and pestle has decreased. It is traditional in various Hindu ceremonies (such as weddings, and upanayanam) to crush turmeric in these mortars.  In Malay, it is known as \"batu lesung\". Large stone mortars, with long (2–3 foot) wood pestles were used in West Asia to grind meat for a type of meatloaf, or kibbeh, as well as the hummus variety known as masabcha. In Indonesia and the Netherlands mortar is known as \"Cobek\" or \"Tjobek\" and pestle is known as \"Ulekan\" or \"Oelekan\". The chobek is shaped lke a deep saucer or plate. The ulekan is either pistol-shaped or an ovoid. It is often used to make fresh sambal, a spicy chili condiment, hence the \"sambal ulek/oelek\" denote its process using pestle. It is also used to grind peanut and other ingredients to make peanut sauce for gado-gado.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Husking and dehulling.", "content": "Large mortars and pestles are commonly used in developing countries to husk and dehull grain. These are usually made of wood, and operated by one or more persons.  In the Philippines, mortar and pestles are specifically associated with de-husking rice. A notable traditional mortar and pestle is the boat-shaped \"bangkang pinawa\" or \"bangkang pangpinawa\", literally \"boat (\"bangka\") for unpolished rice\", usually carved from a block of molave or other hardwood. It is pounded by two or three people. The name for the mortar, \"lusong\", is the origin of the name of the largest island in the Philippines - Luzon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Material.", "content": "Good mortar and pestle-making materials must be hard enough to crush the substance rather than be worn away by it. They cannot be too brittle either, or they will break during the pounding and grinding. The material should also be cohesive, so that small bits of the mortar or pestle do not mix in with the ingredients. Smooth and non-porous materials are chosen that will not absorb or trap the substances being ground.  In food preparation, a rough or absorbent material may cause the strong flavour of a past ingredient to be tasted in food prepared later. Also, the food particles left in the mortar and on the pestle may support the growth of microorganisms. When dealing with medications, the previously prepared drugs may interact or mix, contaminating the currently used ingredients.  Rough ceramic mortar and pestle sets can be used to reduce substances to very fine powders, but stain easily and are brittle. Porcelain mortars are sometimes conditioned for use by grinding some sand to give them a rougher surface which helps to reduce the particle size. Glass mortars and pestles are fragile, but stain-resistant and suitable for use with liquids. However, they do not grind as finely as the ceramic type.  Other materials used include stone, often marble or agate, wood (highly absorbent), bamboo, iron, steel, brass, and basalt. Mortar and pestle sets made from the wood of old grape vines have proved reliable for grinding salt and pepper at the dinner table. Uncooked rice is sometimes ground in mortars to clean them. This process must be repeated until the rice comes out completely white. Some stones, such as molcajete, need to be seasoned first before use. Metal mortars are kept lightly oiled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Automatic mortar grinder.", "content": "Since the results obtained with hand grinding are neither reproducible nor reliable, most laboratories work with automatic mortar grinders. Grinding time and pressure of the mortar can be adjusted and fixed, saving time and labor.  The first automatic Mortar Grinder was invented by F. Kurt Retsch in 1923: the \"Retschmill\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Advantages.", "content": "The use of mortar and pestle, pestling, offers the advantage that the substance is crushed with low energy so that the substance will not warm up.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Folklore.", "content": "In Russian tales, Baba Yagá is portrayed as a hag who flies through the air in a mortar, using the pestle as a rudder.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mortar and pestle are implements used since ancient times to prepare ingredients or substances by crushing and grinding them into a fine paste or powder in the kitchen, laboratory, and pharmacy. The \"mortar\" () is a bowl, typically made of hard wood, metal, ceramic, or hard stone, such as granite. The \"pestle\" (, ) is a heavy and blunt club-shaped object. The substance to be ground, which may be wet or dry, is placed in the mortar, where the pestle is pressed and rotated onto it until the desired texture is achieved.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972973}
{"src_title": "Eurasian pygmy owl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Habitat.", "content": "This owl can be found primarily in coniferous forests of the taiga and higher mountainous regions with coniferous and mixed forests. These areas generally have cooler temperatures and higher rainfall than nearby lowland regions. The owl usually lives along the edges of clearings surrounded by moist or swampy land, generally with a water source nearby. It nests in old woodpecker holes, often those of the great spotted woodpecker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The Eurasian pygmy owl is usually red-tinged to a greyish-brown with dots on its back. The tail is generally darker than the body with five narrow, whitish bars. It has a small, short head with white to grey eyebrows and yellow eyes. It lacks the ear tufts that many other owls have. There is a white half collar on the back of the neck. The belly is mostly white with brown speckles. The beak is a greyish yellow and hook-shaped.  In order to be able to carry larger vertebrate prey, it has evolved disproportionately large feet. The legs and toes are a brownish-yellow with black talons. Females are 17.4 to 19 centimetres (6.8 to 7.5 inches) long, and males are generally smaller, measuring 15.2 to 17 centimetres (6 to 6.7 inches) in length. Females are about 67 to 77 grams, and males are 50 to 65 grams in weight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Call.", "content": "The call of the Eurasian pygmy owl is much higher in pitch than what is generally perceived as a normal owl \"hoot\". The call of the male is a monotonous chain of clear, fluted notes spaced by about two seconds. The call of the female is similar, but higher in pitch. Before and after the mating season, both males and females make a five to seven note rise on the pitch scale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "This owl nests in tree cavities, often in old woodpecker holes. It prefers conifers but will occupy birches and beeches. Pairs form in autumn through early spring. During courtship the male leads the female through his territory. If he has obtained a nest hole, he leads her to it. The male will also feed the female.  This species is serially monogamous, forming bonded pairs for one or more breeding seasons. The male is territorial and may use the same nesting territory for up to seven years. The female lays about four to seven eggs, generally in April. They are incubated for four weeks, starting when the third egg is laid. They hatch nearly simultaneously and the female remains with them for nine to ten days, being fed by the male.  After three weeks the young are active and the female returns to the nest only to feed them and clean out waste. Fledging occurs at 30 to 34 days. The chicks remain close to the nest for a few days before departing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "The diet of the Eurasian pygmy owl includes mostly small mammals, such as voles, lemmings, bats, and mice, and small birds such as thrushes, crossbills, chaffinches, and leaf-warblers. They are able to catch birds in flight. Other prey items may include lizards, fish, and insects. The owl may store food during the winter.  This owl is crepuscular, being active during the daylight hours near sunrise and sunset.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Eurasian pygmy owl (\"Glaucidium passerinum\") is the smallest owl in Europe. It is a dark reddish to greyish-brown, with spotted sides and half of a white ring around the back of the neck. This species is found in the boreal forests of Northern and Central Europe to Siberia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972974}
{"src_title": "Lake Tana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Lake Tana was formed by volcanic activity, blocking the course of inflowing rivers in the early Pleistocene epoch, about 5 million years ago.  The lake was originally much larger than it is today. Seven large permanent rivers feed the lake as well as 40 small seasonal rivers. The main tributaries to the lake are Gilgel Abbay (Little Nile River), and the Megech, Gumara, and Rib rivers.  Lake Tana has a number of islands, whose number varies depending on the level of the lake. It has fallen about in the last 400 years. According to Manoel de Almeida (a Portuguese missionary in the early 17th century), there were 21 islands, seven to eight of which had monasteries on them \"formerly large, but now much diminished.\" When James Bruce visited the area in the later 18th century, he noted that the locals counted 45 inhabited islands, but stated he believed that \"the number may be about eleven.\" A 20th-century geographer named 37 islands, of which he believed 19 have or had monasteries or churches on them.  Remains of ancient Ethiopian emperors and treasures of the Ethiopian Church are kept in the isolated island monasteries (including Kebran Gabriel, Ura Kidane Mehret, Narga Selassie, Daga Estifanos, Medhane Alem of Rema, Kota Maryam, and Mertola Maryam). On the island of Tana Qirqos is a rock shown to Paul B. Henze, on which he was told the Virgin Mary had rested on her journey back from Egypt; he was also told that Frumentius, who introduced Christianity to Ethiopia, is \"allegedly buried on Tana Cherqos.\" The body of Yekuno Amlak is interred in the monastery of St. Stephen on Daga Island. Emperors whose tombs are also on Daga include Dawit I, Zara Yaqob, Za Dengel, and Fasilides. Other important islands in Lake Tana include Dek, Mitraha, Gelila Zakarias, Halimun and Briguida.  The monasteries are believed to have been built over earlier religious sites. They include the fourteenth-century Debre Maryam, and the eighteenth-century Narga Selassie, Tana Qirqos (said to have housed the Ark of the Covenant before it was moved to Axum), and Ura Kidane Mehret, known for its regalia. A ferry service links Bahir Dar with Gorgora via Dek Island and various lakeshore villages.  There is also Zege Peninsula on the southwest portion of the lake. Zege is the site of the Azwa Maryam monastery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Water characteristics and floods.", "content": "Compared to other tropical lakes, the waters in Lake Tana are relatively cold, typically ranging from about. The water has a pH that is neutral to somewhat alkaline and its transparency is quite low.  Because of the large seasonal variations in the inflow of its tributaries, rain and evaporation, the water levels of Lake Tana typically vary by in a year, peaking in September–October just after the main wet season. When the water levels are high, the plains around the lake often are flooded and other permanent swamps in the region become connected to the lake.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fauna.", "content": "Since there are no inflows that link the lake to other large waterways and the main outflow, the Blue Nile, is obstructed by the Blue Nile Falls, the lake supports a highly distinctive aquatic fauna, which generally is related to species from the Nile Basin. The lake's nutrient levels are low.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fish.", "content": "There are 27 fish species in Lake Tana and 20 of these are endemic. This includes one of only two known cyprinid species flocks (the other, from Lake Lanao in the Philippines, has been decimated by introduced species). It consists of 15 relatively large, up to long, \"Labeobarbus\" barbs that formerly were included in \"Barbus\" instead. Among these, \"L. acutirostris\", \"L. longissimus\", \"L. megastoma\" and \"L. truttiformis\" are strictly piscivorous, and \"L. dainellii\", \"L. gorguari\", \"L. macrophtalmus\" and \"L. platydorsus\" are mostly piscivorous. Their most important prey are the small \"Enteromius\" and \"Garra\" species. The remaining \"Labeobarbus\" in Lake Tana have other specialized feeding habits: \"L. beso\" (non-endemic and not closely related to the others) feeds on algae, \"L. surkis\" mostly on macrophytes, \"L. gorgorensis\" on macrophytes and molluscs, \"L. brevicephalus\" on zooplankton (however, juveniles of all members of the species flock feed on zooplankton), \"L. osseensis\" on macrophytes and adults insects, and \"L. crassibarbis\", \"L. intermedius\" (non-endemic but closely related to the others), \"L. nedgia\" and \"L. tsanensis\" on benthic invertebrates like chironomid larvae. Among the endemic \"Labeobarbus\", eight species spawn in the lake's wetlands and the remaining move seasonally into its tributaries where they spawn.  In addition to the \"Labeobarbus\" species flock, the endemic species are \"Enteromius pleurogramma\", \"E. tanapelagius\", \"Garra regressus\", \"G. regressus\" and \"Afronemacheilus abyssinicus\" (one of only two African stone loaches). The remaining non-endemic species are Nile tilapia (widespread in Africa, but with the endemic subspecies \"tana\" in the lake), \"E. humilis\", \"G. dembecha\", \"G. dembeensis\" and the large African sharptooth catfish.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fishing and threats.", "content": "Lake Tana supports a large fishing industry, mainly based on the \"Labeobarbus\" barbs, Nile tilapia and sharptooth catfish. According to the Ethiopian Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 1,454 tons of fish were landed in 2011 at Bahir Dar, which the department estimated was 15% of its sustainable amount. Nevertheless, in a review that compared catches in 2001 to those ten years earlier, it was found that typical sizes of both the tilapia and the catfish had significantly decreased, and populations of the \"Labeobarbus\" barbs that breed in the tributaries had significantly declined. Among the endemic fish, most are considered threatened (endangered or vulnerable) or data deficient (available data insufficient for evaluating a status) by the IUCN. In the early 2000s, the local government for the first time introduced a fisheries legislation and it is hoped this will have a positive effect on the fish populations.  Other serious threats are habitat destruction and pollution. Bahir Dar has become a large city and it is rapidly growing; its wastewater is generally released directly into the lake. The vegetation in the lake's wetlands, which are an important nursery for the \"Labeobarbus\" and other fish, are being cleared at a fast pace. A potentially serious threat to the unique ecosystem would be an introduction of a large and efficient predatory species like the Nile perch, which has been implicated in numerous extinctions in Lake Victoria. The piscivorous \"Labeobarbus\" of Lake Tana are relatively inefficient predators that only can take fish up to about 15% of the length of the predator itself.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other fauna.", "content": "Among other fauna, the lake supports relatively few invertebrates: There are fifteen species of molluscs, including one endemic, and also an endemic freshwater sponge.  About 230 species of birds, including more than 80 wetland birds such as the great white pelican, African darter, hamerkop, storks, African spoonbill, ibis, ducks, kingfishers and African fish eagle, are known from Lake Tana. It is an important resting and feeding ground for many Palearctic migrant waterbirds.  There are no crocodiles, but the African softshell turtle has been recorded near the Blue Nile outflow from the lake. Hippos are present, mostly near the Blue Nile outflow.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lake Tana (also spelled T'ana,, ', '; an older variant is Tsana, Ge'ez: ጻና \"Ṣānā\"; sometimes called \"Dembiya\" after the region to the north of the lake) is the source of the Blue Nile and is the largest lake in Ethiopia. Located in Amhara Region in the north-western Ethiopian Highlands, the lake is approximately long and wide, with a maximum depth of, and an elevation of. Lake Tana is fed by the Gilgel Abay, Reb and Gumara rivers. Its surface area ranges from, depending on season and rainfall. The lake level has been regulated since the construction of the control weir where the lake discharges into the Blue Nile. This controls the flow to the Blue Nile Falls (Tis Abbai) and hydro-power station.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972975}
{"src_title": "Hymie Weiss", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Weiss was born in present-day Poland, to Walenty S. Wojciechowski and Mary Bruszkiewicz. He had five siblings, Bernard, Frederick, Violet and Joseph, one of the two who died during infancy. He was nicknamed \"Hymie\" and \"Hymie the Pole\", later in his career. He was Catholic, despite the \"Jewish-sounding\" moniker (he carried a rosary and a bible). As a teenager, Weiss became a petty criminal. After he upset a fragrance shelf during a botched burglary as a youth, police dubbed him 'The Perfume Burglar'. He befriended the Irish-American Dean O'Banion. With Weiss and George \"Bugs\" Moran, O'Banion established the North Side Gang, a criminal organization that eventually controlled bootlegging and other illicit activities in the northern part of Chicago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personality.", "content": "When Weiss's brother Fred was questioned about him in 1926, he replied, \"I've seen him once in twenty years... that was when he shot me, six years ago\". When photographers tried to snap his picture, Weiss would glare at them and say in a low voice, \"You take a picture of me and I'll kill you\".  On one occasion, Weiss chased away at gunpoint by a deputy U.S. Marshal who came to arrest a friend for violation of the Mann Act at a party he was attending. The marshal returned with reinforcements, arrested the friend, and confiscated a cache of alcohol and weapons. After the raid, Weiss filed a lawsuit to recover silk shirts and socks that he claimed the marshals had stolen; both the government's charges and the lawsuit came to nothing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Murder.", "content": "Jury selection for a murder trial of Joe Saltis, with whom Weiss sought an alliance, began on October 11, 1926 and Weiss and four of his men were sighted there. With him that day were his bodyguard Sam Pellar, gangster Paddy Murray, attorney William W. O'Brien, and Benjamin Jacobs (an investigator for O'Brien). At four o'clock that afternoon, Weiss and his men left for their State Street headquarters, Schofield’s Flowers. The quintet parked their cars on Superior Street and rounded the corner to cross State. As they did, two gunmen hidden in a nearby rooming house opened fire with a submachine gun and shotgun. Weiss and Murray were fatally wounded by this first burst. William O'Brien was hit four times and staggered into a nearby stairwell. At the initial sound of gunfire, a panicked Sam Pellar drew his.38 and instinctively fired a shot in the general direction of shooters (this bullet unintentionally struck Weiss as he collapsed onto the sidewalk). Pellar and Jacobs, both wounded, staggered back the way they had come. Bullets followed them the whole way and some chipped the cornerstone of the Holy Name Cathedral directly across the street.  Weiss is buried at Mount Carmel Cemetery in Hillside, Illinois, the same place as Al Capone and Dean O'Banion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Weiss and other Prohibition-era mobsters served as the basis for many gangster films of the 1930s. James Cagney, for example, based his character on both Weiss and Chicago gangland figure Dean O'Banion in \"The Public Enemy\" (1931).  In 2013 and 2014, Weiss is portrayed by Will Janowitz on the third and fourth seasons of \"Boardwalk Empire\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Earl J. \"Hymie\" Weiss (born Henry Earl J. Wojciechowski; January 25, 1898 – October 11, 1926), was a Polish-American mob boss who became a leader of the Prohibition-era North Side Gang and a bitter rival of Al Capone. He was known as 'the only man Al Capone feared'.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972976}
{"src_title": "Saint-Étienne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Named after Saint Stephen, the city first appears in the historical record in the Middle Ages as (after the River Furan, a tributary of the Loire). In the 13th century, it was a small borough around the church dedicated to Saint Etienne. On the upper reaches of the Furan, near the Way of St. James, the Abbey of Valbenoîte had been founded by the Cistercians in 1222. In the late 15th century, it was a fortified village defended by walls built around the original nucleus.  From the 16th century, Saint-Étienne developed an arms manufacturing industry and became a market town. It was this which accounted for the town's importance, although it also became a centre for the manufacture of ribbons and passementerie starting in the 17th century.  Later, it became a mining centre of the Loire coal mining basin, and more recently, has become known for its bicycle industry.  In the first half of the 19th century, it was only a chief town of an arrondissement in the'of the Loire, with a population of 33,064 in 1832. The concentration of industry prompted these numbers to rise rapidly to 110,000 by about 1880. It was this growing importance of Saint-Étienne that led to its being made seat of the prefecture and the departmental administration on 25 July 1855, when it became the chief town in the'and seat of the prefect, replacing Montbrison, which was reduced to the status of chief town of an. Saint-Étienne absorbed the commune of Valbenoîte and several other neighbouring localities on 31 March 1855.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Saint-Étienne became a popular stop for automobile travelers in the early 20th century.  In 1998, Saint-Étienne set up a design biennale, the largest of its kind in France. It lasts around two weeks. A landmark in the history of the importance ascribed to design in Saint-Étienne was the inauguration of \"La Cité du design\" on the site of the former arms factory in 2009.  The city also launched the Massenet Festivals, (the composer Jules Massenet hailed from the area) devoted mainly to perform Massenet's operas. In 2000, the city was named one of the French Towns and Lands of Art and History. On 22 November 2010, it was nominated as \"City of Design\" as part of UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network.  Saint-Étienne has four museums:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Saint-Étienne has a continental-influenced oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb), that is heavily influenced by its relative distance to the sea. Summer days are very warm for a marine climate type, but fall into the range due to the cool nights that keep the mean average temperatures below the subtropical threshold of. Winters are cold. Saint-Étienne is the snowiest city of France, with an average of 82 cm (around 3 ft) of snow per winter. Precipitation levels are very low for this type of climate regime during winter, although the summers are wet and humid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "The city's football club AS Saint-Étienne has won the Ligue 1 title a record ten times, achieving most of their success in the 1970s. The British indie-dance band Saint Etienne named themselves after the club.  St. Étienne has many sports stadiums, the largest being Stade Geoffroy-Guichard used for football and Stade Henri-Lux for athletics. St. Étienne was the capital of the French bicycle industry. The bicycle wheel manufacturer Mavic is based in the city and frame manufacturers Motobécane and Vitus are also based here. The city often hosts a stage of the Tour de France.  St. Étienne resident Thierry Gueorgiou is a world champion in orienteering. The local rugby union team is CA Saint-Étienne Loire Sud Rugby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The nearest airport is Saint-Étienne - Bouthéon Airport which is located in Andrézieux-Bouthéon, north-northwest of Saint-Étienne. The main railway station is Gare de Saint-Étienne-Châteaucreux, which offers high speed services to Paris, Lyon (Saint-Étienne–Lyon railway), and several regional lines.  Saint-Étienne is also notable for its tramway (Saint-Étienne tramway) – which uniquely with Lille, it kept throughout the 20th century – and its trolleybus system (Saint-Étienne trolleybus system) – which is one of only three such systems currently operating in France.  Bus and tram transport is regulated and provided by the Société de Transports de l'Agglomération Stéphanoise (STAS), a public transport executive organisation.  The bicycle sharing system Vélivert with 280 short term renting bicycles has been available since June 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "Saint-Étienne was the birthplace of  It was also the place where Andrei Kivilev died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Saint-Étienne is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint-Étienne (;, ; ) is a city in eastern central France, in the Massif Central, southwest of Lyon in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, on the trunk road that connects Toulouse with Lyon. Saint-Étienne is the capital of the Loire department and has a population of approximately 172,023 (2013) in the city itself and over 508,000 in the metropolitan area (2011).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972977}
{"src_title": "And Quiet Flows the Don", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The novel deals with the life of the Cossacks living in the Don River valley during the early 20th century, probably around 1912, just prior to World War I. The plot revolves around the Melekhov family of Tatarsk, who are descendants of a cossack who, to the horror of many, took a Turkish captive as a wife during the Crimean War. She is accused of witchcraft by Melekhov's superstitious neighbors, who attempt to kill her but are fought off by her husband. Their descendants, the son and grandsons, who are the protagonists of the story, are therefore often nicknamed \"Turks\". Nevertheless, they command a high level of respect among people in Tatarsk.  The second eldest son, Grigori Panteleevich Melekhov, is a promising young soldier who falls in love with Aksinia, the wife of Stepan Astakhov, a family friend. Stepan regularly beats her and there is no love between them. Grigori and Aksinia's romance and elopement raise a feud between her husband and his family. The outcome of this romance is the focus of the plot as well as the impending World and Civil Wars which draw up the best young Cossack men for what will be two of Russia's bloodiest wars. The action moves to the Austro-Hungarian front, where Grigory ends up saving Stepan's life, but that doesn't end the feud. Grigory, at his father's insistence, takes a wife, Natalya, but still loves Aksinia.  The book deals not only with the struggles and suffering of the Cossacks but also the landscape itself, which is vividly brought to life. There are also many folk songs referenced throughout the novel. \"And Quiet Flows the Don\" grew out of an earlier, unpublished work, the \"Donshina\":I began the novel by describing the event of the Kornilov putsch in 1917. Then it became clear that this putsch, and more importantly, the role of the Cossacks in these events, would not be understood without a Cossack prehistory, and so I began with the description of the life of the Don Cossacks just before the beginning of World War I. (quote from \"M.A. Sholokhov: Seminarii\", (1962) by F.A. Abramovic and V.V. Gura, quoted in \"Mikhail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov\", by L.L. Litus.)  Grigori Melekhov is reportedly based on two Cossacks from Veshenskaya, Pavel Nazarovich Kudinov and Kharlampii Vasilyevich Yermakov, who were key figures in the anti-Bolshevist struggle of the upper Don.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary significance, criticism, and accusations of plagiarism.", "content": "The novel has been compared to \"War and Peace\" (1869), written by Leo Tolstoy. Like the Tolstoy novel, \"And Quiet Flows the Don\" is an epic picture of Russian life during a time of crisis and examines it through political, military, romantic, and civilian lenses. Sholokhov was accused by Solzhenitsyn and others, amongst them Svetlana Alliluyeva (the daughter of Stalin) and Natalia Belinkova, of plagiarizing the novel. An investigation in the late 1920s had upheld Sholokhov's authorship of \"Silent Don\" and the allegations were denounced as malicious slander in \"Pravda\".  During the Second World War, Sholokhov's archive was destroyed in a bomb raid, and only the fourth volume survived. Sholokhov had his friend Vassily Kudashov, who was killed in the war, look after it. Following Kudashov's death, his widow took possession of the manuscript, but she never disclosed the fact of owning it. The manuscript was finally found by the Institute of World Literature of Russian Academy of Sciences in 1999 with assistance from the Russian Government. The writing paper dates back to the 1920s: 605 pages are in Sholokhov's own hand, evidencing considerable re-drafting and re-organising of the material by Sholokhov, and 285 are transcribed by his wife Maria and sisters. However, there are claims that the manuscript is just a copy of the manuscript of Fyodor Kryukov, the true author.  Statistical analysis of sentence lengths in \"And Quiet Flows the Don\" gives full support to Sholokhov.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and nominations.", "content": "The novel won the Stalin Prize in 1941 and its author won the Nobel Prize in 1965.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The novel has been adapted for the screen four times: a 1931 film by Ivan Pravov and Olga Preobrazhenskaya; a second, 1958 adaption was directed by Sergei Gerasimov and starred Elina Bystritskaya and Pyotr Glebov. In 1992–1993 a remake was directed by Sergei Bondarchuk (starring Rupert Everett); the film was not finished until 2006, when Fyodor Bondarchuk completed the editing, and was shown on Russian television as a seven-part miniseries. A shorter, 3-hours version of Bondarchuk's \"And Quiet Flows the Don\" was released on DVD in several countries. In 2015 the novel has been adapted again more comprehensively as a 14-part TV-series, directed by Sergey Ursulyak.  Ivan Dzerzhinsky based his opera \"Quiet Flows the Don\" (\"Tikhiy Don\") on the novel, with the libretto adapted by his brother Leonid. Premiered in October 1935, it became wildly popular after Stalin saw and praised it a few months later. The opera was proclaimed a model of socialist realism in music and won Dzerzhinsky a Stalin Prize.  The lyrics for the folk song \"Where Have All the Flowers Gone?\" by Pete Seeger and Joe Hickerson were adapted from a cossack folk song mentioned in \"And Quiet Flows the Don\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "And Quiet Flows the Don or Quietly Flows the Don (, literally \"Quiet Don\") is an epic novel in four volumes by Russian writer Mikhail Alexandrovich Sholokhov. The first three volumes were written from 1925 to 1932 and published in the Soviet magazine \"Oktyabr\" in 1928–1932, and the fourth volume was finished in 1940. The English translation of the first three volumes appeared under this title in 1934.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972978}
{"src_title": "Convolvulaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Convolvulaceae can be recognized by their funnel-shaped, radially symmetrical corolla; the floral formula for the family has five sepals, five fused petals, five epipetalous stamens (stamens fused to the petals), and a two-part syncarpous and superior gynoecium. The stems of these plants are usually winding, hence their Latin name (from \"convolvere\", \"to wind\"). The leaves are simple and alternate, without stipules. In parasitic Cuscuta they are reduced to scales. The fruit can be a capsule, berry, or nut, all containing only two seeds per one locule (one ovule/ovary). The leaves and starchy, tuberous roots of some species are used as foodstuffs (e.g. sweet potato and water spinach), and the seeds are exploited for their medicinal value as purgatives. Some species contain ergoline alkaloids that are likely responsible for the use of these species as ingredients in psychedelic drugs (e.g. ololiuhqui). The presence of ergolines in some species of this family is due to infection by fungi related to the ergot fungi of the genus \"Claviceps\". A recent study of Convolvulaceae species, \"Ipomoea asarifolia\", and its associated fungi showed the presence of a fungus, identified by DNA sequencing of 18s and ITS ribosomal DNA and phylogenetic analysis to be closely related to fungi in the family Clavicipitaceae, was always associated with the presence of ergoline alkaloids in the plant. The identified fungus appears to be a seed-transmitted, obligate biotroph growing epiphytically on its host. This finding strongly suggests the unique presence of ergoline alkaloids in some species of the family Convolvulaceae is due to symbiosis with clavicipitaceous fungi. Moreover, another group of compounds, loline alkaloids, commonly produced by some members of the clavicipitaceous fungi (genus \"Neotyphodium\"), has been identified in a convolvulaceous species, but the origin of the loline alkaloids in this species is unknown.  Members of the family are well known as showy garden plants (e.g. morning glory) and as troublesome weeds (e.g. bindweed and dodder), while \"Humbertia madagascariensis\" is a medium-sized tree. Some parasitic members of this family are also used medicinally.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Convolvulaceae (), known commonly as the bindweed or morning glory family, is a family of about 60 genera and more than 1,650 species of mostly herbaceous vines, but also trees, shrubs and herbs, and also including the sweet potato and a few other food tubers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972979}
{"src_title": "Big Jim Colosimo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Colosimo was born on February 16, 1878, to Luigi Colosimo and his second wife Giuseppina Mascaro in the town of Colosimi, Province of Cosenza, Italy. He emigrated from Italy to Chicago at the age of 17, starting out as a petty criminal. Colosimo attracted the attention of First Ward aldermen Michael \"Hinky Dink\" Kenna and John Coughlin. They made him a precinct captain and later their bagman. This gave Colosimo the political connections that helped him in his rise to power as a mob boss.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prostitution empire.", "content": "Later, Colosimo acquired another nickname, \"Diamond Jim,\" because he frequently dressed in a white suit and wore diamond pins, rings, and other jewelry. This, combined with his personal charm and money, helped him establish relationships with women. He had a love of both women and money, which fueled his enthusiasm for prostitution. In 1902, Colosimo married Victoria Moresco, an established Chicago madame, and together they opened a second brothel. Torrio was the nephew of Moresco. According to Laurence Bergreen, \"Torrio is [also] described as Colosimo’s nephew, but in the absence of any evidence to confirm the relationship, it is more likely their kinship was spiritual rather than familial.\" Within a few years, Colosimo had expanded this to nearly 200 brothels and had also made inroads into gambling and racketeering. He was reputedly making $50,000 per month from his various legal and illegal operations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Help from New York.", "content": "By 1909, Black Hand extortion was a serious threat to Colosimo in Chicago. He brought in gangster John \"The Fox\" Torrio from Brooklyn and made him his second in command. The following year, he opened Colosimo's Cafe, a restaurant and nightclub at 2126 South Wabash. It quickly became a popular destination for prominent Chicagoans and visitors to Chicago. In 1919, Torrio and Colosimo opened a brothel at 2222 South Wabash called the Four Deuces, a reference to the address. Torrio hired his old Brooklyn colleague Al Capone to work as a bartender and bouncer, which gave Capone his entry into Chicago crime.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Betrayal.", "content": "When Prohibition went into effect in 1920, Torrio pushed for the gang to enter into bootlegging, but Colosimo stubbornly refused. In March 1920, Colosimo secured an uncontested divorce from Moresco. A month later, he and Dale Winter eloped to West Baden Springs, Indiana. Upon their return, he bought a home on the South Side. On May 11, 1920, Torrio called and told Colosimo that a shipment was about to arrive at his restaurant. Colosimo drove there to await it, but instead he was shot in an ambush and killed. Frankie Yale had allegedly traveled from New York to Chicago and personally killed longtime gang boss Colosimo at the behest of Chicago Outfit friends Torrio and Capone. Although suspected by Chicago police, Yale was never officially charged. Colosimo was allegedly murdered because he stood in the way of his gang making bootlegging profits, having \"gone soft\" after his marriage with Winter. Al Capone has also been suggested as the gunman. Colosimo's ex-wife, unhappy with the financial arrangements of the divorce, is also theorized having arranged the murder.  Colosimo was the first gang leader to organize the disparate parts of Chicago's crime scene. After his death, Torrio took over his gang, later to be replaced by Al Capone. His mob eventually became the infamous Chicago Outfit that ruled over some parts of the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular media.", "content": "Big Jim has been portrayed on screen by:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vincenzo Colosimo (; February 16, 1878 – May 11, 1920), known as James \"Big Jim\" Colosimo or as \"Diamond Jim\", was an Italian-American Mafia crime boss who emigrated from Calabria, Italy, in 1895, and built a criminal empire in Chicago based on prostitution, gambling, and racketeering. He gained power through petty crime and by heading a chain of brothels. From about 1902 until his death in 1920, he led a gang that became known after his death as the Chicago Outfit. Johnny Torrio was an enforcer whom Colosimo imported in 1909 from New York and who seized control after his death. Al Capone, a Torrio henchman, allegedly was directly involved in the murder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972980}
{"src_title": "Vaquita", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The vaquita was first described as a species by marine biologists Kenneth S. Norris and William N. McFarland in 1958 after studying the morphology of skull specimens found on the beach. It was not until nearly thirty years later, in 1985, that fresh specimens allowed scientists to describe their external appearance fully.  The genus \"Phocoena\" comprises four species of porpoise, most of which inhabit coastal waters (the spectacled porpoise is more oceanic). The vaquita is most closely related to Burmeister’s porpoise (\"Phocoena spinipinnis\") and less so to the spectacled porpoise (\"Phocoena dioptrica\"), two species limited to the Southern Hemisphere. Their ancestors are thought to have moved north across the equator more than 2.5 million years ago during a period of cooling in the Pleistocene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The smallest living species of cetacean, the vaquita can be easily distinguished from any other species in its range. It has a small body with an unusually tall, triangular dorsal fin, a rounded head, and no distinguished beak. The coloration is mostly grey with a darker back and a white ventral field. Prominent black patches surround its lips and eyes. Sexual dimorphism is apparent in body size, with mature females being longer than males and having larger heads and wider flippers. Females reach a maximum size of about 150 cm, while males reach about 140 cm. Dorsal fin height is greater in males than in females.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Vaquita habitat is restricted to a small portion of the upper Gulf of California (also called the Sea of Cortez), making this the smallest range of any marine mammal species. They live in shallow, turbid waters of less than 50 m depth (150 ft).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Vaquitas are generalists, foraging on a variety of demersal fish species, crustaceans, and squids, though benthic fish such as grunts and croakers make up most of the diet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social behavior.", "content": "Vaquitas are generally seen singly or in pairs, often with a calf, but have been observed in small groups of up to 10 individuals.  Little is known about the life history of this species. Life expectancy is estimated at about 20 years and age of sexual maturity is somewhere between 3 and 6 years of age. While an initial analysis of stranded vaquitas estimated a two-year calving interval, recent sightings data suggest that vaquitas can reproduce annually. It is thought that vaquitas have a polygynous mating system in which males compete for females. This competition is evidenced by the presence of sexual dimorphism (females are larger than males), small group sizes, and large testes (accounting for nearly 3% of body mass).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population status.", "content": "Because the vaquita was only fully described in the late 1980s, historical abundance is unknown. The first comprehensive vaquita survey throughout their range took place in 1997 and estimated a population of 567 individuals. By 2007 abundance was estimated to have dropped to 150. Population abundance as of 2018 was estimated at less than 19 individuals. Given the continued rate of bycatch and low reproductive output from a small population, it is possible that there are as few as 10 vaquitas alive today.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fisheries bycatch.", "content": "The drastic decline in vaquita abundance is the result of fisheries bycatch in commercial and illegal gillnets, including fisheries targeting the now-endangered totoaba, shrimp, and other available fish species. In spite of government regulations, including a partial gillnet ban in 2015 and establishment of a permanent gillnet exclusion zone in 2017, illegal fishing remains prevalent in vaquita habitat, and as a result the population has continued to decline.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other threats.", "content": "Given their proximity to the coast, vaquitas are exposed to habitat alteration and pollution from runoff. There is no evidence, however, that these threats have made any significant contribution to their decline. Bycatch is the single biggest threat to the survival of the few remaining vaquita.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "The vaquita is listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. Today, this is the most endangered marine mammal in the world.  The species is also protected under the US Endangered Species Act, the Mexican Official Standard NOM-059 (Norma Oficial Mexicana), and Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation efforts.", "content": "The Mexican government, international committees, scientists, and conservation groups have recommended and implemented plans to help reduce the rate of bycatch, enforce gillnet bans, and promote population recovery.  Mexico launched a program in 2008 called PACE-VAQUITA in an effort to enforce the gillnet ban in the Biosphere Reserve, allow fishermen to swap their gillnets for vaquita-safe fishing gear, and provide economic support to fishermen for surrendering fishing permits and pursuing alternative livelihoods. Despite the progress made with legal fishermen, hundreds of poachers continued to fish in the exclusion zone.  With continued illegal totoaba fishing and uncontrolled bycatch of vaquitas, the International Committee for the Recovery of the Vaquita (CIRVA) recommended that some vaquitas be removed from the high-density fishing area and be relocated to protected sea pens. This effort, called VaquitaCPR, captured two vaquitas in 2017: one was later released and the other died shortly after capture after both suffered from shock.  Local and international conservation groups, including Museo de Ballena and Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, are working with the Mexican Navy to detect fishing in the Refuge Area and remove illegal gillnets. In March 2020, the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) announced a ban on imported Mexican shrimp and other seafood caught in vaquita habitat in the northern Gulf of California.  To date, efforts have been unsuccessful in solving the complex socioeconomic and environmental issues that impact vaquita conservation and the greater Gulf of California ecosystem. Necessary action includes habitat protection, resource management, education, fisheries enforcement, alternative livelihoods for fishermen, and raising awareness of the vaquita and associated issues.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "To learn more about the vaquita and conservation efforts visit:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The vaquita (\"Phocoena sinus\") is a species of porpoise endemic to the northern end of the Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez, Vermilion Sea). Averaging 150 cm (for females) or 140 cm (for males) in length, it is the smallest of all living cetaceans. Today, the species is on the brink of extinction. Recent research estimates the population at fewer than 19 individuals. The steep decline in abundance is primarily due to bycatch in gillnets from the illegal totoaba fishery.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972981}
{"src_title": "Vicia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Use by humans.", "content": "Bitter vetch (\"V. ervilia\") was one of the first domesticated crops. It was grown in the Near East about 9,500 years ago, starting perhaps even one or two millennia earlier during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A. By the time of the Central European Linear Pottery culture – about 7,000 years ago – broad bean (\"V. faba\") had also been domesticated. Vetch has been found at Neolithic and Eneolithic sites in Bulgaria, Hungary and Slovakia. And at the same time, at the opposite end of Eurasia, the Hoabinhian people also utilized the broad bean in their path towards agriculture, as shown by the seeds found in Spirit Cave, Thailand.  Bernard of Clairvaux shared a bread-of-vetch meal with his monks during the famine of 1124 to 1126, as an emblem of humility. However, Bitter Vetch largely was dropped from human use over time. It was only used to save as a crop of last resort in times of starvation: vetches \"featured in the frugal diet of the poor until the eighteenth century, and even reappeared on the black market in the South of France during the Second World War\", Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, of Marseillais background, has remarked. However, broad beans remained prominent. In the Near East the seeds are mentioned in Hittite and Ancient Egyptian sources dating from more than 3,000 years ago as well as in the Christian Bible, and in the large Celtic Oppidum of Manching from the La Tène culture in Europe some 2,200 years ago. Dishes resembling ful medames are attested in the Jerusalem Talmud which was compiled before 400 AD.  In our time, the common vetch (\"V. sativa\") has also risen to prominence. Together with broad bean cultivars such as horse bean or field bean, the FAO includes it among the 11 most important pulses in the world. The main usage of the common vetch is as forage for ruminant animals, both as fodder and legume, but there are other uses, as tufted vetch, \"V. cracca\" is grown as a mid-summer pollen source for honeybees.  In 2017, global production of vetches was 920,537 tonnes. That year, 560,077 acreas were devoted to the cultivation of vetches in the world. Over 54% of that output came from Europe alone. Africa (17.8% of world total), Asia (15.6% of world total), Americas (10.6% of world total) and Oceania (1.8% of world total).  The bitter vetch, too, is grown extensively for forage and fodder, as are hairy vetch (\"V. villosa\", also called fodder vetch), bard vetch (\"V. articulata\"), French vetch (\"V. serratifolia\") and Narbon bean (\"V. narbonensis\"). \"V. benghalensis\" and Hungarian vetch (\"V. pannonica\") are cultivated for forage and green manure. The vetches also have a broad variety of other purposes. The Hairy Vetch has well-established uses as a green manure and as an allelopathic cover crop. As regards the broad bean, it is known to accumulate aluminum in its tissue; in polluted soils it may be useful in phytoremediation, but with one per mil of aluminum in the dry plant (possibly more in the seeds), it might not be edible anymore. The robust plants are useful as a beetle bank to provide habitat and shelter for carnivorous beetles and other arthropods to keep down pest invertebrates. When the root nodules of broad bean are inoculated with the rhodospirillacean bacterium \"Azospirillum brasilense\" and the glomeracean fungus \"Glomus clarum\", the species can also be productively grown in salty soils. In the 1980s, the auxin 4-Cl-IAA was studied in \"V. amurensis\" and the broad bean, and since 1990, the antibacterial γ-thionins fabatin-1 and -2 have been isolated from the latter species.  Despite a small chromosome count of \"n\"=6, the broad bean has a high DNA content, making it easy for a micronucleus test of its root tips to recognize genotoxic compounds. A lectin from \"V. graminea\" is used to test for the medically significant N blood group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "The vetches grown as forage are generally toxic to non-ruminants (such as humans), at least if eaten in quantity. Cattle and horses have been poisoned by \"V. villosa\" and \"V. benghalensis\", two species that contain canavanine in their seeds. Canavanine, a toxic analogue of the amino acid arginine, has been identified in Hairy Vetch as an appetite suppressant for monogastric animals, while Narbon bean contains the quicker-acting but weaker γ-glutamyl-S-ethenylcysteine. In common vetch, γ-glutamyl-β-cyanoalanine has been found. The active part of this molecule is β-cyanoalanine. It inhibits the conversion of the sulfur amino acid methionine to cysteine.  Cystathionine, an intermediary product of this biochemical pathway, is secreted in urine. This process can effectively lead to the depletion of vital protective reserves of the sulfur amino acid cysteine and thereby making \"Vicia sativa\" seed a dangerous component in mixture with other toxin sources. The Spanish pulse mix \"\" contains common vetch and bitter vetch in addition to vetchling (\"Lathyrus cicera\") seeds; it can be fed in small quantities to ruminants, but its use as a staple food will cause lathyrism even in these animals. Moreover, common vetch as well as broad bean – and probably other species of \"Vicia\" too – contain oxidants like convicine, isouramil, divicine and vicine in quantities sufficient to lower glutathione levels in G6PD-deficient persons to cause favism disease. At least broad beans also contain the lectin phytohemagglutinin and are somewhat poisonous if eaten raw. Split common vetch seeds resemble split red lentils (\"Lens culinaris\"), and has been occasionally mislabelled as such by exporters or importers to be sold for human consumption. In some countries where lentils are highly popular – e.g., Bangladesh, Egypt, India and Pakistan – import bans on suspect produce have been established to prevent these potentially harmful scams.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Vetches have cylindrical root nodules of the indeterminate type and are thus nitrogen-fixing plants. Their flowers usually have white to purple or blue hues, but may be red or yellow; they are pollinated by bumblebees, honey bees, solitary bees and other insects.  \"Vicia\" species are used as food plants by the caterpillars of some butterflies and moths, such as:  Most other parasites and plant pathogens affecting vetches have been recorded on the broad bean, the most widely cultivated and economically significant species. They include the mite \"Balaustium vignae\" whose adults are found on broad bean, the potexviruses \"Alternanthera\" mosaic virus, clover yellow mosaic virus and white clover mosaic virus, and several other virus species such as \"Bidens\" mosaic virus, tobacco streak virus, \"Vicia\" cryptic virus and \"Vicia faba\" endornavirus.  Plants formerly placed in \"Vicia\" include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Vicia\" means ‘binder’ in Latin; this was the name used by Pliny for vetch.  The vetch is also referenced by Horace in his account of 'The town mouse and country mouse' as 'ervo' (ervum,i - neut) This is said to be a source of comfort for the country mouse after a disturbing insight into urban life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vicia is a genus of about 140 species of flowering plants that are part of the legume family (Fabaceae), and which are commonly known as vetches. Member species are native to Europe, North America, South America, Asia and Africa. Some other genera of their subfamily Faboideae also have names containing \"vetch\", for example the vetchlings (\"Lathyrus\") or the milk-vetches (\"Astragalus\"). The broad bean (\"Vicia faba\") is sometimes separated in a monotypic genus \"Faba\"; although not often used today, it is of historical importance in plant taxonomy as the namesake of the order Fabales, the Fabaceae and the Faboideae. The tribe Vicieae in which the vetches are placed is named after the genus' current name. Among the closest living relatives of vetches are the lentils (\"Lens\") and the true peas (\"Pisum\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972982}
{"src_title": "Domažlice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Domažlice was first recorded as a town in 1231, when Přemysl Otakar II of Bohemia ordered the city to be fortified for the purpose of protecting the border with Bavaria. It would remain fortified from 1262 to 1265. Border guards were recruited from the Chodové (Slavic free farmers) who settled in the vicinity of Domažlice.  The city was mortgaged to Bavaria in 1331, lasting until 1419 (with some interruptions). Under Hussite rule, German citizens were expelled from the city, and since then, the population has been predominantly Czech. In 1431, Prokop the Bald defeated the crusaders of the Holy Roman Empire near Domažlice. The 15th and 16th century saw Domažlice change hands frequently, but its importance diminished following the end of the Thirty Years' War. It was not until 1770 that it recovered, largely due to innovations in the textile industry.  Until 1918 the town was part of the Austrian monarchy, finding itself on the Austrian side of the Austro-Hungarian internal frontier following the 1867 \"Ausgleich\" \"(compromise)\". It was the district capital of the district with the same name, being one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" (district capitals) in Bohemia.  Within the context of the Czech National Revival, Domažlice became a central place during the 19th century. At the time, it was the most western ethnic Czech town, very close to the border with the Kingdom of Bavaria. In the city, a pilgrimage took place on August 13, 1939, which developed into a large Czech protest demonstration against the German occupation and control of the ethnic Czech Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.The German population was expelled in 1945 according to the Potsdam Agreement.  In 2005 a mass grave was discovered on the outskirts of the town, holding 54 Germans, mainly members of the local SA, executed by the Czech resistance after the end of the war, around May 8, 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Domažlice is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Domažlice (; ) is a town in the Plzeň Region of the Czech Republic. Domažlice is also a Municipality with Extended Competence and a Municipality with Commissioned Local Authority within the same borders.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972983}
{"src_title": "Jindřichův Hradec", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first written mention of the town is in 1220. Before that, it was probably a Slavic settlement. At the end of the 12th century more people arrived. At the beginning of the 13th century a Gothic castle was built (it was gradually rebuilt into a Renaissance chateau in the 16th century). In the census following the Thirty Years' War, Jindřichův Hradec was the second largest city in the Kingdom of Bohemia. Between 1831 and 1935 it was the first city in the area to get electricity for lighting, in 1888 the water mill was converted to electricity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "The city castle and palace is the third largest in the country after those in Prague and Český Krumlov. It covers and contains 320 rooms. More than 10,000 works of art and a similar number of books may be found there.  The district museum, which is in a Renaissance building that was once the Jesuit seminary appeared in the city in 1882 and is one of the oldest regional museums in Bohemia. The most well-known item in the museum is the Kryza, the largest mechanical Christmas manger scene in the world according to the Guinness Book of World Records.  Houses in the marketplace (Friendensplatz) with the pristine Gothic city hall", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surroundings.", "content": "Jindřichův Hradec's neighbourhood includes sites such as Červená Lhota Castle, the historical town of Třeboň and Stráž nad Nežárkou. The UNESCO World Heritage town of Telč lies to the east.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Jindřichův Hradec is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jindřichův Hradec (; ) is a town in the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. It has approximately 21,500 inhabitants and is the capital of the Jindřichův Hradec District.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972984}
{"src_title": "Moodle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Moodle was originally developed by Martin Dougiamas to help educators create online courses with a focus on interaction and collaborative construction of content, and it is in continual evolution. The first version of Moodle was released on 20 August 2002. Nowadays the Moodle Project is led and coordinated by Moodle HQ, an Australian company of 50 developers which is financially supported by a network of eighty-four Moodle Partner service companies worldwide. Moodle's development has also been assisted by the work of open-source programmers.  Moodle as a learning platform can enhance existing learning environments. As an E-learning tool, Moodle has a wide range of standard and innovative features such as a calendar and a Gradebook. Moodle is a leading virtual learning environment and can be used in many types of environments such as education, training and development and in business settings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plugins.", "content": "Plugins are a flexible tool set, allowing Moodle users to extend the features of the site. There are hundreds of plugins for Moodle, extending the features of Moodle's core functionality. Each plugin is maintained in the Moodle plugins directory. As of October 2019, there were 1,619 plugins available for Moodle with over 380,400 recent downloads.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "Graphical themes for Moodle can be installed to change the look and functionality of a Moodle site or of an individual course.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mobile.", "content": "Many Moodle themes, based on responsive web design, allow Moodle to be used on mobile devices. Also, a Moodle mobile app is available in Google Play, App Store (iOS), and the Windows Phone Store.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "E-learning standards support.", "content": "Moodle has adopted the following e-learning standards:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deployment.", "content": "Users can download and install Moodle on a Web server, such as Apache HTTP Server, and a number of database management systems, such as MySQL, are supported. Pre-built combinations of Moodle with a Web server and database are available for Microsoft Windows and Macintosh. Other automated installation approaches exist, such as installing a Debian package, deploying a ready-to-use TurnKey Moodle appliance, using the Bitnami installer, or using a \"one-click install\" service such as Installatron.  Certified Moodle Partners provide other Moodle services, including hosting, training, customization and content development. This network of providers support development of the Moodle project through royalties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interoperability.", "content": "Moodle runs without modification on Unix, Linux, FreeBSD, Windows, OS X, NetWare and any other systems that support PHP and a database, including webhost providers.  Moodle also has import features for use with other specific systems, such as importing quizzes or entire courses from Blackboard or WebCT., Moodle did not import Blackboard courses, apparently due to changes in php code-releases.  In March 2012 Blackboard acquired two companies based on Moodle's software including Baltimore-based Moodlerooms Inc. and NetSpot of Adelaide, Australia. In August 2015, Blackboard acquired Colombia-based Nivel7, possibly the largest Moodle services provider in Latin America. The Red Hat site, Opensource.com, reported that Moodle will always be an open-source project, with clear delineation between Blackboard and Moodle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "Martin Dougiamas, who has graduate degrees in computer science and education, wrote the first version of Moodle. Dougiamas started a Ph.D. to examine \"the use of open source software to support a social constructionist epistemology of teaching and learning within Internet-based communities of reflective inquiry.\" Although how exactly social constructivism makes Moodle different from other eLearning platforms is difficult to show, it has been cited as an important factor by Moodle adopters. Other Moodle adopters, such as the Open University in the UK, have pointed out that Learning Management Systems can equally be seen as \"relatively pedagogy-neutral\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pedagogical approach.", "content": "The stated philosophy of Moodle includes a constructivist and social constructionist approach to education, emphasizing that learners (and not just teachers) can contribute to the educational experience. Using these pedagogical principles, Moodle provides an environment for learning communities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Origin of name.", "content": "The acronym \"Moodle\" stands for \"modular object-oriented dynamic learning environment.\" (In the early years the \"m\" stood for \"Martin's\", named after Martin Dougiamas, the original developer). As well as being an acronym, the name was chosen because of the dictionary definition of Moodle and to correspond to an available domain name.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Moodle has continued to evolve since 1999 (since 2001 with the current architecture). It has been translated into over 100 different languages and is accessible in many countries worldwide. Institutions can add as many Moodle servers as needed without having to pay license fees. The Open University of the UK currently uses a Moodle installation for their 200,000 users while the UK government uses a Moodle installation for their Civil Service Learning platform serving half a million employees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Moodle conferences.", "content": "A MoodleMoot is a conference for Moodle community members, held to learn about Moodle, share experiences of the learning platform, discuss research in related educational technologies and contribute ideas to future Moodle development. Held around the world, MoodleMoots are organised by universities or other large organisations using Moodle, Moodle Partners, Moodle associations or Moodle HQ.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adoption.", "content": "Moodle has over 50% of market share in Europe, Latin America, and Oceania.  In the U.S. higher education market as of fall 2018, the top three LMSs by number of institutions were Blackboard (31%), Canvas (30%), and Moodle (18%). --- In 2013, Moodle was for a time the second largest provider with 23% market share (following Blackboard (41%). However, by 2017, Moodle had dropped to the third largest provider, due in part to increased adoption of Instructure's semi-opensource Canvas platform. In March 2016, Blackboard became an official Moodle partner, although this was later completely revoked.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Moodle is a free and open-source learning management system (LMS) written in PHP and distributed under the GNU General Public License. Developed on pedagogical principles, Moodle is used for blended learning, distance education, flipped classroom and other e-learning projects in schools, universities, workplaces and other sectors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972985}
{"src_title": "Arum maculatum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The leaves of \"A. maculatum\" appear in the spring (April–May) followed by the flowers borne on a poker-shaped inflorescence called a \"spadix\", which is partially enclosed in a pale green spathe or leaf-like hood. The flowers are hidden from sight, clustered at the base of the spadix with a ring of female flowers at the bottom and a ring of male flowers above them. The leaves may be either purple-spotted (var. \"maculatum\") or unspotted (var. \"immaculatum\").  Above the male flowers is a ring of hairs forming an insect trap. Insects, especially owl-midges \"Psychoda phalaenoides\", are attracted to the spadix by its faecal odour and a temperature up to 15 °C warmer than the ambient temperature. The insects are trapped beneath the ring of hairs and are dusted with pollen by the male flowers before escaping and carrying the pollen to the spadices of other plants, where they pollinate the female flowers. The spadix may also be yellow, but purple is the more common.  In autumn, the lower ring of (female) flowers forms a cluster of bright red berries which remain after the spathe and other leaves have withered away. These attractive red to orange berries are extremely poisonous. The berries contain oxalates of saponins which have needle-shaped crystals that irritate the skin, mouth, tongue, and throat, and result in swelling of throat, difficulty breathing, burning pain, and upset stomach. However, their acrid taste, coupled with the almost immediate tingling sensation in the mouth when consumed, means that large amounts are rarely taken and serious harm is unusual. It is one of the most common causes of accidental plant poisoning based on attendance at hospital emergency departments.  The root-tuber may be very big and is used to store starch. In mature specimens, the tuber may be as much as 400 mm below ground level. All parts of the plant can produce allergic reactions in many people and the plant should be handled with care. Many small rodents appear to find the spadix particularly attractive; finding examples of the plant with much of the spadix eaten away is common. The spadix produces heat and probably scent as the flowers mature, and this may attract the rodents.  \"Arum maculatum\" is also known as cuckoo pint or cuckoo-pint in the British Isles and is named thus in Nicholas Culpepers' famous 17th-century herbal. This is a name it shares with \"Arum italicum\" (Italian lords-and-ladies) - the other native British \"Arum\". \"Pint\" is a shortening of the word \"pintle\", meaning penis, derived from the shape of the spadix. The euphemistic shortening has been traced to Turner in 1551.  As a seedling the plant has small light green leaves that are not glossy like the mature leaves. At about 5 months its leaves grow larger and glossier. At one year old all of the leaves become glossy and die back. The next year the plant flowers during summer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "It grows in woodland areas and riversides. It can occasionally grow as a weed in partly shaded spots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"A. maculatum\" is the type species of the genus \"Arum\". Within the genus, it belongs to subgenus \"Arum\", section \"Arum\".  \"A. maculatum\" has a chromosome count of 2n = 56.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary.", "content": "The root of the cuckoo-pint, when roasted well, is edible and when ground was once traded under the name of Portland sago. It was used like salep (orchid flour) to make saloop — a drink popular before the introduction of tea or coffee. It was also used as a substitute for arrowroot. If prepared incorrectly, it can be highly toxic, so should be prepared with due diligence and caution.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivated.", "content": "\"Arum maculatum\" is cultivated as an ornamental plant in traditional and woodland shade gardens. The cluster of bright red berries standing alone without foliage can be a striking landscape accent. The mottled and variegated leaf patterns can add bright interest in darker habitats.  \"Arum maculatum\" may hybridize with \"Arum italicum\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Laundry starch.", "content": "In 1440, the nuns of Syon Abbey in England used the roots of the cuckoo-pint flower to make starch for altar cloths and other church linens. In fact, communion linen could only be made in this way.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Arum maculatum is a common woodland plant species of the family Araceae. It is widespread across most of Europe, as well as Turkey and the Caucasus. It is known by an abundance of common names including snakeshead, adder's root, arum, wild arum, arum lily, lords-and-ladies, devils and angels, cows and bulls, cuckoo-pint, soldiers diddies, priest's pintle, Adam and Eve, bobbins, naked girls, naked boys, starch-root, wake robin, friar's cowl, sonsie-give-us-your-hand, jack in the pulpit and cheese and toast. The name \"lords-and-ladies\" and other gender-related names refer to the plant's likeness to male and female genitalia symbolising copulation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972986}
{"src_title": "South Orkney Islands", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The South Orkney Islands were discovered in 1821 by two sealers, the American Nathaniel Brown Palmer and the British George Powell. The Islands were originally named \"Powell's Group\", with the main island named Coronation Island as it was the year of the coronation of King George IV. In 1823, James Weddell visited the Islands, gave the archipelago its present name (after the Orkney Islands in the north of Scotland) and also renamed some of the islands. The South Orkney Islands are located at roughly the same latitude south as the Orkney Islands are north (60°S vs 59°N), although it is not known if this was a factor behind the naming of the islands.  Subsequently, the islands were frequently visited by sealers and whalers, but no thorough survey was done until the expedition of William Speirs Bruce on the \"Scotia\" in 1903, which overwintered at Laurie Island. Bruce surveyed the islands, reverted some of Weddell's name changes, and established a meteorological station, which was sold to the Argentine Government upon his departure in 1904. This base, renamed \"Orcadas\" in 1951, is still in operation and is thus the oldest research station continuously staffed in the Antarctic.  In 1908, the United Kingdom declared sovereignty over various Antarctic and South American territories \"to the south of the 50th parallel of south latitude, and lying between the 20th and the 80th degrees of west longitude\", including the South Orkney Islands. The Islands were subsequently administered as part of the Falkland Islands Dependencies. A biological research station on Signy Island was built in 1947 by the British Antarctic Survey, and was staffed year-round until 1996, when the Station staffing was reduced to 8-10 personnel who remained only during the southern hemisphere summer (November to April each year). In 1962, the islands became part of the newly established British Antarctic Territory.  The Argentine claim to the islands dates from 1925. It was originally justified by the Argentine occupation of the Laurie Island base and later subsumed into a wider territorial claim.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography and climate.", "content": "The islands are situated at latitudes about 60°30' to 60°48' S and longitudes 44°25' to 46°43' W in the Southern Ocean. As a group of islands, the South Orkney Islands are at approximately.  The archipelago comprises four main islands. Coronation Island is the largest, measuring about long; its highest point is Mount Nivea which rises to above sea level. Laurie Island is the easternmost of the islands. The other main islands are Powell and Signy. Smaller islands in the group include Robertson Islands, the Saddle Islands, and Acuña Island. The total area of the archipelago is about, of which about 90 percent is glaciated.  The Inaccessible Islands about to the west are considered part of the South Orkneys.  The climate of the South Orkneys is generally cold, wet, and windy. Summers are short and cold (December to March) when the average temperatures reach about and fall to about in July. The all time temperature range is between. The seas around the islands are ice-covered from late April to November.  South Orkney Trough () is an undersea trough named in association with the South Orkney Islands and approved 10/77 (ACUF 177).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "Despite the harsh conditions the islands do support vegetation and are part of the Scotia Sea Islands tundra ecoregion, along with South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, the South Shetland Islands and Bouvet Island. All these islands lie in the cold seas below the Antarctic convergence. These areas support tundra vegetation consisting of mosses, lichens and algae, while seabirds, penguins and seals feed in the surrounding waters.  The littoral zone of the South Orkneys is biologically either lifeless or very poor. Amphipods and planarians exist under rocks, along with various algaes, chitons, and some gastropods. With increasing water depth, life becomes more varied: starfish appear beyond 2–3 meters along with sponges, urchins, and ascidians. At 8–10 meters the variety of starfish increases along with the general biomass, and below 30 meters there are vast colonies of these creatures. Two penguin species, Chinstrap (\"Pygoscelis antarctica\") and Adélie (\"Pygoscelis adeliae\"), are present on land.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research stations.", "content": "The two claimant nations maintain research stations on the islands.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The South Orkney Islands are a group of islands in the Southern Ocean, about north-east of the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula and south-west of South Georgia Island. They have a total area of about. The islands are claimed both by Britain (as part of the British Antarctic Territory since 1962, previously as a Falkland Islands Dependency), and by Argentina as part of Argentine Antarctica. Under the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, sovereignty claims are held in abeyance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972987}
{"src_title": "Differential signaling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Advantages.", "content": "Provided that the source and receiver impedances in a circuit are equal (it is balanced), external electromagnetic interference tends to affect both conductors identically. Since the receiving circuit only detects the difference between the wires, the technique resists electromagnetic noise compared to one conductor with an un-balanced reference (low-Ω connection to ground).  Contrary to popular belief, differential signalling does not affect noise cancellation. Balanced lines with differential receivers will reject noise regardless of whether the signal is differential or single-ended, but since balanced line noise rejection requires a differential receiver anyway, differential signalling is often used on balanced lines. This improves SNR, reduces EMI, and makes the signal more immune to ground currents or differences.  The technique works for both analog signaling, as in balanced audio—and digital signaling, as in RS-422, RS-485, Ethernet over twisted pair, PCI Express, DisplayPort, HDMI, and USB.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Suitability for use with low-voltage electronics.", "content": "The electronics industry, particularly in portable and mobile devices, continually strives to lower supply voltage to save power. A low supply voltage, however, reduces noise immunity. Differential signaling helps to reduce these problems because, for a given supply voltage, it provides twice the noise immunity of a single-ended system.  To see why, consider a single-ended digital system with supply voltage formula_1. The high logic level is formula_2 and the low logic level is 0 V. The difference between the two levels is therefore formula_3. Now consider a differential system with the same supply voltage. The voltage difference in the high state, where one wire is at formula_2 and the other at 0 V, is formula_3. The voltage difference in the low state, where the voltages on the wires are exchanged, is formula_6. The difference between high and low logic levels is therefore formula_7. This is twice the difference of the single-ended system. If the voltage noise on one wire is uncorrelated to the noise on the other one, it takes twice as much noise to cause an error with the differential system as with the single-ended system. In other words, differential signalling doubles the noise immunity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resistance to electromagnetic interference.", "content": "This advantage is not directly due to differential signaling itself, but to the common practice of transmitting differential signals on balanced lines. Single-ended signals are still resistant to interference if the lines are balanced and terminated by a differential amplifier.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Comparison with single-ended signaling.", "content": "In single-ended signaling, the transmitter generates a single voltage that the receiver compares with a fixed reference voltage, both relative to a common ground connection shared by both ends. In many instances single-ended designs are not feasible. Another difficulty is the electromagnetic interference that can be generated by a single-ended signaling system that attempts to operate at high speed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Generalization: Ensemble Signaling.", "content": "The disadvantage of differential signal transmission is that it requires twice as many wires as single-ended signal transmission.  Ensemble signaling improves this by using n wires to transmit n−1 differential signals. formula_8 is equivalent to differential signalling.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2-wire ensemble signalling (encoding one signal using two wires).", "content": "Encoder: Using the generator matrix and the input vector formula_10 you get formula_11, the two signals to transmit.  Decoder: Using the control matrix formula_12 and the input vector formula_14 you get your initial vector formula_15.  By removing formula_17 from the calculation you get normal differential signaling:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "4-wire ensemble signalling (encoding three signals using four wires).", "content": "Encoder: Using the generator matrix and the input vector formula_22 you get formula_11, the four signals to transmit.  Decoder: Using the control matrix formula_12 and the input vector formula_14 you get your initial vector formula_15.  By removing formula_31 from the calculation you get the matrices for ensemble signaling using four wires to transmit three signals differentially.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "n-wire ensemble signalling (encoding n−1 signals using n wires).", "content": "formula_35 and formula_36.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The technique minimizes electronic crosstalk and electromagnetic interference, both noise emission and noise acceptance, and can achieve a constant or known characteristic impedance, allowing impedance matching techniques important in a high-speed signal transmission line or high quality balanced line and balanced circuit audio signal path.  Differential pairs include:  Differential pairs generally carry differential or semi-differential signals, such as high-speed digital serial interfaces including LVDS differential ECL, PECL, LVPECL, Hypertransport, Ethernet over twisted pair, Serial Digital Interface, RS-422, RS-485, USB, Serial ATA, TMDS, FireWire, and HDMI etc. or else high quality and/or high frequency analog signals (e.g., video signals, balanced audio signals, etc.).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transmission lines.", "content": "The type of transmission line that connects two devices (chips, modules) dictates the type of signaling. Single-ended signaling is used with coaxial cables, in which one conductor totally screens the other from the environment. All screens (or shields) are combined into a single piece of material to form a common ground. Differential signaling is used with a balanced pair of conductors. For short cables and low frequencies, the two methods are equivalent, so cheap single-ended circuits with a common ground can be used with cheap cables. As signaling speeds become faster, wires begin to behave as transmission lines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in computers.", "content": "Differential signaling is often used in computers to reduce electromagnetic interference, because complete screening is not possible with microstrips and chips in computers, due to geometric constraints and the fact that screening does not work at DC. If a DC power supply line and a low-voltage signal line share the same ground, the power current returning through the ground can induce a significant voltage in it. A low-resistance ground reduces this problem to some extent. A balanced pair of microstrip lines is a convenient solution, because it does not need an additional PCB layer, as a stripline does. Because each line causes a matching image current in the ground plane, which is required anyway for supplying power, the pair looks like four lines and therefore has a shorter crosstalk distance than a simple isolated pair. In fact, it behaves as well as a twisted pair. Low crosstalk is important when many lines are packed into a small space, as on a typical PCB.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "High-voltage differential signaling.", "content": "High-voltage differential (HVD) signaling uses high-voltage signals. In computer electronics, \"high voltage\" normally means 5 volts or more.  SCSI-1 variations included a high voltage differential (HVD) implementation whose maximum cable length was many times that of the single-ended version. SCSI equipment for example allows a maximum total cable length of 25 meters using HVD, while single-ended SCSI allows a maximum cable length of 1.5 to 6 meters, depending on bus speed. LVD versions of SCSI allow less than 25 m cable length not because of the lower voltage, but because these SCSI standards allow much higher speeds than the older HVD SCSI.  The generic term \"high-voltage differential signaling\" describes a variety of systems. \"Low-voltage differential signaling\" or LVDS, on the other hand, is a specific system defined by a TIA/EIA standard.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Differential signaling is a method for electrically transmitting information using two complementary signals. The technique sends the same electrical signal as a \"differential pair\" of signals, each in its own conductor. The pair of conductors can be wires (typically twisted together) or traces on a circuit board. The receiving circuit responds to the electrical difference between the two signals, rather than the difference between a single wire and ground. The opposite technique is called single-ended signalling. Differential pairs are usually found on printed circuit boards, in twisted-pair and ribbon cables, and in connectors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972988}
{"src_title": "Argania", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The scientific name \"Argania\" is derived from \"argan\", the name of the tree in Shilha, the Berber language which is spoken by the majority of the people living in the areas where the tree is endemic. Shilha Berber has a rich vocabulary for the various parts of the fruit, its stages of ripeness, and its harvesting and processing. The oil is also called \"argan\". In medieval Arabic pharmacological sources, the tree is known as \"harjān\", a distortion of the Berber word \"argan\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "In Morocco, \"arganeraie\" forests now cover some and are designated as a UNESCO biosphere reserve. Their area has shrunk by about half during the last 100 years, due to charcoal making, grazing, and increasingly intensive cultivation. The best hope for the conservation of the trees may lie in the recent development of a thriving export market for argan oil as a high-value product. However, the wealth brought by argan oil export has also created threats to argan trees in the form of increased goat population. Locals use the newfound wealth to buy more goats and the goats stunt the growth of the argan trees by climbing up and eating their leaves and fruit. It is reported that the display of the tree climbing goats is staged or faked and may be considered animal abuse.  Argan is also grown in the Arabah and Negev regions of Israel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "In some parts of Morocco, argan takes the place of the olive as a source of forage, oil, timber, and fuel in Berber society. Especially near Essaouira, the argan tree is frequently climbed by goats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fruit.", "content": "Argan fruit falls in July, when black and dry. Until this happens, goats are kept out of the argan woodlands by wardens. Rights to collect the fruit are controlled by law and village traditions. The leftover nuts are gathered after consumption and spit out by ruminating goats. Seeds spat out by the goats constitute an overlooked mechanism of seed dispersal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Argan oil.", "content": "Argan oil is produced by several women's co-operatives in the southwestern parts of Morocco. The most labor-intensive part of oil-extraction is removal of the soft pulp (used to feed animals) and the cracking by hand, between two stones, of the hard nut. The seeds are then removed and gently roasted. This roasting accounts for part of the oil's distinctive, nutty flavor.  The traditional technique for oil extraction is to grind the roasted seeds to paste, with a little water, in a stone rotary quern. The paste is then squeezed by hand to extract the oil. The extracted paste is still oil-rich and is used as animal feed. Oil produced this way can be stored and used for 3–6 months, and will be produced as needed in a family, from a store of the kernels, which will keep for 20 years unopened. Dry-pressing is becoming increasingly important for oil produced for sale, as this method allows for faster extraction, and the oil produced can be used for 12–18 months after extraction.  The oil contains 80% unsaturated fatty acids, is rich in essential fatty acids, and is more resistant to oxidation than olive oil. Argan oil is used for dipping bread, on couscous, salads, and similar uses. A dip for bread known as \"amlou\" is made from argan oil, almonds, and peanuts, sometimes sweetened by honey or sugar. The unroasted oil is traditionally used as a treatment for skin diseases, and has become favoured by European cosmetics manufacturers.  Argan oil is sold in Morocco as a luxury item. Sales of the product have grown since being marketed by the cosmetics industry in the US and Europe in the early 21st century. Its price is notable compared to other oils.  Argan oil contains:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Animal feed.", "content": "Argan trees are a major source of forage for sheep, goats, camels and cattle. Fruits and leaves are readily consumed by livestock. The press cake resulting from oil extraction can also be sun dried and fed to ruminants. Bees can nest in argan trees, making them sites for wild honey harvesting.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Argania (Berber: ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵏ \"argan\") is a genus of flowering plants containing the sole species Argania spinosa, known as argan, a tree endemic to the calcareous semidesert Sous valley of southwestern Morocco and to the region of Tindouf in southwestern Algeria. Argan trees grow to high and live up to approximately 200 years. They are thorny, with gnarled trunks and wide spreading crown. The crown has a circumference of about and the branches lean towards the ground.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972989}
{"src_title": "François d'Orléans, Prince of Joinville", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born at the Château de Neuilly, in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France. Educated for the navy, he was commissioned lieutenant in 1836. His first conspicuous service was at the Bombardment of San Juan de Ulua, in November 1838, commanding the corvette, when he headed a landing party and took the Mexican general Mariano Arista prisoner with his own hand at Veracruz.  The prince was promoted to captain of the frigate \"La\", and in 1840 was entrusted with bringing the remains of Napoleon from Saint Helena to France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "He married on 1 May 1843 in Rio de Janeiro, Princess Francisca of Brazil, Princess de Bragança, sister of Pedro II of Brazil. They had a son Pierre duc de Penthièvre (1845–1919), also brought up to the navy, and who, for a time, attended the United States Naval Academy. The prince de Joinville visited the academy and asked for a frank estimation of his son's character, conduct, and aptitude for naval service. His son never married, but fathered two illegitimate children. The couple also had a daughter, Françoise who married her cousin Robert, Duke of Chartres in 1863 and had issue. Through this union, François d'Orléans is an ancestor of the present day Orléans claimant to the French throne, Jean, Count of Paris.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deafness.", "content": "In his early 20s he became increasingly deaf, but surgery to cure his hearing loss was totally unsuccessful. His friend Victor Hugo wrote in his memoirs, \"The Prince de Joinville's deafness increases. Sometimes it saddens him, sometimes he makes light of it. One day he said to me: 'Speak louder, I am as deaf as a post'\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Naval operations and service in the American Civil War.", "content": "In 1844 he conducted naval operations on the coast of Morocco, bombarding Tangier and occupying Mogador, and was rewarded with the rank of vice-admiral. In the following year he published in the \"Revue des deux mondes\" an article on the deficiencies of the French Navy which attracted considerable attention, and by his hostility to the Guizot ministry, as well as by an affectation of ill-will towards the United Kingdom, he gained considerable popularity. The Revolution of 1848 nevertheless swept him away with the other Orléans princes. He hastened to quit Algeria, where he was then serving, and took refuge at Claremont, in Surrey, with the rest of his family.  Being excluded from continuing a career in the Second Empire's navy, in 1851, he announced his candidacy for the French presidential election to be held in 1852, hoping to pave the way for an eventual restoration of the monarchy. The attempt to become a second \"Prince-President\" was aborted by 2 December 1851 coup by which the first Prince-President, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, effected his own ascension to the throne. In 1861, upon the outbreak of the American Civil War, he proceeded to Washington, D.C., and placed the services of his son and two of his nephews at the disposal of the United States government. President Lincoln appointed him and his nephews to the staff of Major General George B. McClellan. Toward the end of the Peninsula Campaign (June 1862), difficulties between France and the U.S.A. over Mexico caused the prince to withdraw from the Union forces, and he returned to Europe.  Otherwise, he was little heard of until the overthrow of the Second French Empire in 1870, when he re-entered France, only to be promptly expelled by the government of national defence. Returning incognito, he joined the army of general Louis d'Aurelle de Paladines, under the assumed name of \"Colonel Lutherod\", fought bravely before Orléans, and afterwards, divulging his identity, formally sought permission to serve. Gambetta, however, arrested him and sent him back to England.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In the National Assembly, elected in February 1871, the prince was returned by two \"départements\" and elected to sit for the Haute-Marne. By an arrangement with Thiers, however, the prince did not take his seat until the latter had been chosen president of the provisional republic. His deafness prevented him from making any contribution in the Assembly, and he resigned his seat in 1876. In 1886 the provisions of the law against pretenders to the throne deprived him of his rank as vice-admiral, but he continued to live in France, and died in Paris in June 1900.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "The prince de Joinville was the author of several essays and pamphlets on naval affairs and other matters of public interest, which were originally published for the most part either unsigned or pseudonymously, and subsequently republished under his own name after the fall of the Empire. They include \"Essais sur la marine française\" (1853); \"Études sur la marine\" (1859 and 1870); \"Guerre d'Amérique, campagne du Potomac\" (1862 and 1872); \"Encore un mot sur Sadowa\" (Brussels, 1868); and \"Vieux souvenirs\" (1894). Joinville has also some reputation as a painter. He was present at the July Revolution of 1830 when Charles X was replaced by the Orleanist French King Louis-Philippe. In a number of portraits of French national life he depicted several great events in the life of the Bourbon monarchy. As the King's troops marshalled at the Place de la Concorde he depicted them firing on the crowd. As the mob invaded the Palais Royal he painted Charles X, with Louis-Philippe his usurper, standing behind him, and the king waved to the crowds below. In a famous scene, he drew a woman atop some men handing her the Tricolor as they marched on July 31, 1830 Delacroix's image contrasted heavily to the royal motif of Joinville's paintings. But Joinville remained a patriot himself and without contradiction captured the delivery of Napoleon's body on returning from St Helena. In total Joinville painted 35 watercolours.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Francois' son, Pierre (1845–1919), entered the United States Naval Academy on 15 October 1861. He received an honorary appointment as an ensign in the United States Navy on 28 May 1863 and served on the frigate USS \"John Adams\". He was granted a leave of absence from the Navy as of 1 January 1864 and resigned from the Navy on May 30, 1864. He returned to France in June of that year.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François-Ferdinand-Philippe-Louis-Marie d'Orléans, prince de Joinville (14 August 1818 – 16 June 1900) was the third son of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, afterwards king of the French and his wife Marie Amalie of Bourbon-Sicilies. He was an admiral of the French Navy, and a talented artist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972990}
{"src_title": "Autoclaved aerated concrete", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Other names for the product include autoclaved cellular concrete (ACC), autoclaved lightweight concrete (ALC), autoclaved concrete, cellular concrete, porous concrete, Aircrete, Thermalite, Hebel Block, Starken, and Ytong.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "AAC was perfected in the mid-1920s by the Swedish architect and inventor Dr. Johan Axel Eriksson, working with Professor Henrik Kreüger at the Royal Institute of Technology. The process was patented in 1924. In 1929, production started in Sweden at the city of Yxhult. From \"Yxhults Ånghärdade Gasbetong\" later became the first registered building materials brand in the world: Ytong. Another brand “Siporex” was established in Sweden in 1939 and presently licences and owns plants in 35 locations around the world. The second major international cellular concrete Hebel brand goes back to company founder and technicians Josef Hebel from Memmingen. In 1943, the first Hebel-plant was opened in Germany.  Originally Ytong autoclaved aerated concrete in Sweden was produced with alum shale, whose combustible carbon content was beneficial in the production process. Unfortunately, the slate deposits used for Ytong in Sweden also contain a very low level of natural uranium, which makes the material give off radioactive radon gas in the building. In 1972, the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority pointed out the unsuitability of a radon-emitting construction material, and the use of alum slate in the production of Ytong ceased in 1975. By using new formulations, containing only quartz sand, calcined gypsum, lime (mineral), cement, water and aluminum powder, Ytong produced a new type of aerated concrete which no longer contains alum slate and thus has eliminated the problem of radon exposure from this raw material. The production of this white autoclaved aerated concrete is now state of the art and similar formulations are used by all producers around the world.  In 1978 The Swedish team of Siporex Sweden opened the Siporex Factory in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia - the \"Lightweight Construction Company - Siporex - LCC SIPOREX\" which have supplied the Middle-East and Africa and Japan by most of its need. The LCC SIPOREX FACTORY has operated for more than 40 years. Today aerated concrete is produced by many companies, particularly in Europe and Asia. There is some production in the Americas and in Africa, there is one plant in Egypt. AAC production in Europe has slowed down considerably, but the industry is growing rapidly in Asia due to strong demand in housing and commercial space. China is now the largest aircrete market in the world with several hundred factories. China, Central Asia, India, and the Middle-East are the biggest in terms of AAC manufacturing and consumption.  The product aircrete is sold, like other masonry materials, under many different brand names. Ytong and Hebel are brands of the international operating company Xella headquartered in Duisburg. Other more internationally renowned brand names in Europe are H + H Celcon (Denmark), or Solbet (Poland).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "AAC is a highly thermally insulating concrete-based material used for both interior and exterior construction. Besides AAC's insulating capability, one of its advantages is quick and easy installation, because the material can be routed, sanded, or cut to size on site using standard power tools with carbon steel cutters.  AAC is well suited for high-rise buildings and those with high temperature variations. Due to its lower density, high-rise buildings constructed using AAC require less steel and concrete for structural members. The mortar needed for laying of AAC blocks is reduced due to the lower number of joints. Similarly, the material required for rendering is also lower due to the dimensional accuracy of AAC. The increased thermal efficiency of AAC makes it suitable for use in areas with extreme temperatures, as it eliminates the need for separate materials for construction and insulation, leading to faster construction and cost savings.  Even though regular cement mortar can be used, most of the buildings erected with AAC materials use thin bed mortar in thicknesses around 1⁄8 inch, depending on the national building codes. AAC materials can be coated with a stucco or plaster compound to guard against the elements, or covered with siding materials such as brick or vinyl.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manufacturing.", "content": "Unlike most other concrete applications, AAC is produced using no aggregate larger than sand. Quartz sand, calcined gypsum, lime (mineral) and/or cement and water are used as a binding agent. Aluminum powder is used at a rate of 0.05%–0.08% by volume (depending on the pre-specified density). In some countries, like India and China, fly ash generated from coal fire power plants and having 50-65% silica content is used as an aggregate.  When AAC is mixed and cast in forms, several chemical reactions take place that gives AAC its light weight (20% of the weight of concrete) and thermal properties. Aluminum powder reacts with calcium hydroxide and water to form hydrogen. The hydrogen gas foams and doubles the volume of the raw mix creating gas bubbles up to 3mm (1⁄8 inch) in diameter. At the end of the foaming process, the hydrogen escapes into the atmosphere and is replaced by air.  When the forms are removed from the material, it is solid but still soft. It is then cut into either blocks or panels, and placed in an autoclave chamber for 12 hours. During this steam pressure hardening process, when the temperature reaches 190° Celsius (374° Fahrenheit) and the pressure reaches 8 to 12 bar, quartz sand reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium silicate hydrate, which gives AAC its high strength and other unique properties. Because of the relatively low temperature used AAC blocks are not considered fired brick but a lightweight concrete masonry unit. After the autoclaving process, the material is ready for immediate use on the construction site. Depending on its density, up to 80% of the volume of an AAC block is air. AAC's low density also accounts for its low structural compression strength. It can carry loads of up to 8 MPa (1,160 PSI), approximately 50% of the compressive strength of regular concrete.  In 1978, the first AAC material was opened in the Persian Gulf state of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia - LCC SIPOREX- Lightweight Construction Company supplying the GCC countries with the Aerated products of blocks and panels.  Since 1980, there has been a worldwide increase in the use of AAC materials. New production plants are being built in Australia, Bahrain, China, Eastern Europe, India, and the United States. AAC is increasingly used by developers, architects, and home builders worldwide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Advantages.", "content": "AAC has been produced for more than 70 years, and it offers several advantages over other cement construction materials, one of the most important being its lower environmental impact.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disadvantages.", "content": "AAC has been produced for more than 70 years, however, some disadvantages were found when it was introduced in the UK (where cavity wall with clay brick two-skin construction has been the norm).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) is a lightweight, precast, foam concrete building material suitable for producing concrete masonry unit (CMU) like blocks. Composed of quartz sand, calcined gypsum, lime, cement, water and aluminum powder, AAC products are cured under heat and pressure in an autoclave. Invented in the mid-1920s, AAC simultaneously provides structure, insulation, and fire- and mold-resistance. Forms include blocks, wall panels, floor and roof panels, cladding (façade) panels and lintels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972991}
{"src_title": "San Pietro in Vincoli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Also known as the \"Basilica Eudoxiana\", it was first rebuilt on older foundations in 432–440 to house the relic of the chains that bound Saint Peter when he was imprisoned in Jerusalem, the episode called \"Liberation of Saint Peter\". The Empress Eudoxia (wife of Emperor Valentinian III), who received them as a gift from her mother, Aelia Eudocia, consort of Valentinian II, presented the chains to Pope Leo I. Aelia Eudocia had received these chains as a gift from Iuvenalis, bishop of Jerusalem.  According to legend, when Leo compared them to the chains of St. Peter's final imprisonment in the Mamertine Prison, in Rome, the two chains miraculously fused together. The chains are now kept in a reliquary under the main altar in the basilica. The only link outside of Rome can be found in the Diocese of Burlington (Vermont).  The basilica, consecrated in 439 by Sixtus III, has undergone several restorations, among them a restoration by Pope Adrian I, and further work in the eleventh century. From 1471 to 1503, in which year he was elected Pope Julius II, Cardinal Della Rovere, the nephew of Pope Sixtus IV, effected notable rebuilding. The front portico, attributed to Baccio Pontelli, was added in 1475. The cloister (1493–1503) has been attributed to Giuliano da Sangallo. Further work was done at the beginning of the 18th century, under Francesco Fontana, and there was also a renovation in 1875.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The interior has a nave and two aisles, with three apses divided by antique Doric columns. The aisles are surmounted by cross-vaults, while the nave has an 18th-century coffered ceiling, frescoed in the center by Giovanni Battista Parodi, portraying the \"Miracle of the Chains\" (1706). In this scene, Pope Alexander heals the neck goiter of Saint Balbina by touching her with the chains that once bound St Peter.  Michelangelo's \"Moses\" (completed in 1515), while originally intended as part of a massive 47-statue, free-standing funeral monument for Pope Julius II, became the centerpiece of the Pope's funeral monument and tomb in this, the church of della Rovere family. Moses is depicted with horns, connoting \"the radiance of the Lord\", due to the similarity in the Hebrew words for \"beams of light\" and \"horns\". This kind of iconographic symbolism was common in early sacred art, and for an artist horns are easier to sculpt than rays of light.  Other works of art include two canvases of \"Saint Augustine\" and \"St. Margaret\" by Guercino, the monument of Cardinal Girolamo Agucchi designed by Domenichino, who is also the painter of a sacristy fresco depicting the \"Liberation of St. Peter\" (1604). The altarpiece on the first chapel to the left is a \"Deposition\" by Cristoforo Roncalli. The tomb of Cardinal Nicholas of Kues (d 1464), with its relief, \"Cardinal Nicholas before St Peter\", is by Andrea Bregno. Painter and sculptor Antonio Pollaiuolo is buried at the left side of the entrance. He is the Florentine sculptor who added the figures of Romulus and Remus to the sculpture of the Capitoline Wolf on the Capitol.  The tomb monument of Cardinal Cinzio Aldobrandini was erected 1705-07 by prince Giovanni Battista Pamphili Aldobrandini to a design by his architect Carlo Francesco Bizzaccheri and with the sculptures of putti and a winged skeleton by Pierre Le Gros the Younger.  In 1876 archeologists discovered the tombs of those once believed to be the seven Maccabean martyrs depicted in 2 Maccabees 7–41. It is highly unlikely that these are in fact the Jewish martyrs that had offered their lives in Jerusalem. They are remembered each year on 1 August, the same day as the miracle of the fusing of the two chains. The third altar in the left aisle holds a mosaic of Saint Sebastian from the seventh century. This mosaic is related to an outbreak of plague in Pavia, in northern Italy. The relics of Sebastian were taken there in order to stop a 680 outbreak of plague, since Sebastian was believed to have been born in Lombardy, and an altar was constructed for his relics at a San Pietro in Vincoli in Pavia. As a symbol of the subsequently reinforced relationship between Pavia and Rome, an identical altar to Sebastian was built at the Roman church of the same name, resulting in a parallel cult for the saint in both regions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of Cardinal-Priests since 1405.", "content": "List of the cardinal titulars of the church", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "San Pietro in Vincoli (Saint Peter in Chains) is a Roman Catholic titular church and minor basilica in Rome, Italy, best known for being the home of Michelangelo's statue of Moses, part of the tomb of Pope Julius II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972992}
{"src_title": "Île Amsterdam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first person known to have sighted the island was the Spanish explorer Juan Sebastián de Elcano, on 18 March 1522, during his circumnavigation of the world. Elcano did not give the island a name. On 17 June 1633, after sighting it, Dutch mariner Anthonie van Diemen named the island after his ship, \"Nieuw Amsterdam\". The first recorded landing on the island occurred in December 1696, led by the Dutch explorer Willem de Vlamingh.  French mariner Pierre François Péron wrote that he was marooned on the island between 1792 and 1795. Péron's \"Memoires\", in which he describes his experiences, were published in a limited edition, now an expensive collectors' item. However, Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul were often confused at the time and Péron may have been marooned on Saint-Paul.  Sealers are said to have landed on the island, for the first time, in 1789. Between that date and 1876, 47 sealing vessels are recorded at the island, 9 of which were wrecked. Relics of the sealing era can still be found.  The island was a stop on the Macartney Mission during its voyage to China in 1793.  On 11 October 1833, the British barque \"Lady Munro\" was wrecked at the island. Of the 97 persons aboard, 21 survivors were picked up two weeks later by a US sealing schooner, \"General Jackson\".  John Balleny in command of the exploration and sealing vessel \"Eliza Scott\" (154 tons) visited the island in November 1838 in search of seals. He returned with a few fish and reported having seen the remains of a hut and the carcase of a whale.  The islands of Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul were first claimed by Martin Dupeyrat for France in 1843. However, the governor of Réunion refused to ratify the act of possession and France took formal control only in October 1892.  In January 1871 an attempt to settle the island was made by a party led by Heurtin, a French resident of Réunion. After seven months, their attempts to raise cattle and grow crops were fruitless, and they returned to Réunion, abandoning the cattle on the island.  In May 1880 circumnavigated the island searching for a missing ship the \"Knowsley Hall\". A cutter and gig were despatched to the island to search for signs of habitation. There was a flagpole on Hoskin Point and north were two huts, one of which had an intact roof and contained three bunks, empty casks, an iron pot and the eggshells and feathers of sea-birds. There was also an upturned serviceable boat in the other hut, believed to belong to the fishermen who visited the island.  The islands were attached to the French colony of Madagascar from 21 November 1924 until 6 August 1955 when the French Southern and Antarctic Lands was formed. (Madagascar gained independence in 1958.)  The first French base on Île Amsterdam was established in 1949, and was originally called Camp Heurtin. It is now the Martin-de-Viviès research station.  The Global Atmosphere Watch still maintains a presence on Île Amsterdam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amateur radio.", "content": "From 1987–98, there were frequent amateur radio operations from Amsterdam Island. There was a resident radio amateur operator in the 1950s, using callsign FB8ZZ.  In January 2014 Clublog listed Amsterdam and St Paul Islands as the seventh most-wanted DXCC entity. On 25 January 2014 a DX-pedition landed on Amsterdam Island using MV \"Braveheart\" and began amateur radio operations from two separate locations using callsign FT5ZM. The DX-pedition remained active until 12 February and achieved over 170,000 two-way contacts with amateur radio stations worldwide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environment.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The volcanic island is a potentially active volcano. No historical eruptions are known, although the fresh morphology of the latest volcanism at Dumas Crater on the NE flank suggests it may have occurred as recently as a century ago.. It has an area of, measuring about on its longest side, and reaches as high as at the Mont de la Dives. The high central area of the island, at an elevation of over, containing its peaks and caldera, is known as the Plateau des Tourbières (\"Plateau of Bogs\"). The cliffs that characterise the western coastline of the island, rising to over, are known as the Falaises d'Entrecasteaux after the 18th-century French navigator Bruni d'Entrecasteaux.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Île Amsterdam has a mild, oceanic climate under the Köppen climate classification, with a mean annual temperature of, rainfall of, persistent westerly winds and high levels of humidity. Under the Trewartha climate classification the island is well inside the maritime subtropical zone due to its very low diurnal temperature variation keeping means high.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vegetation.", "content": "\"Phylica arborea\" trees occur on Amsterdam, which is the only place where they form a low forest, although the trees are also found on Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island. It was called the \"Grand Bois\" (\"Great Forest\"), which covered the lowlands of the island until forest fires set by sealers cleared much of it in 1825. Only eight fragments remain.  Some sailors from HMS \"Raleigh\" landed on the island on 27 May 1880. They described the vegetation as Rough ground, grass several feet high, myrtle high in sheltered ravines, sedge, ferns (principally \"polypodium\") and cabbages, grown into bushes with stumps several inches thick in the garden...", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Birds.", "content": "The island is home to the endemic Amsterdam albatross, which breeds only on the Plateau des Tourbières. Other rare species are the brown skua, Antarctic tern and western rockhopper penguin. The Amsterdam duck is now extinct, as are the local breeding populations of several petrels. There was once possibly a species of rail inhabiting the island, as a specimen was taken in the 1790s (which has been lost), but this was either extinct by 1800 or was a straggler of an extant species. The common waxbill has been introduced. Both the Plateau des Tourbières and Falaises d'Entrcasteaux have been identified as Important Bird Areas by BirdLife International, the latter for its large breeding colony of Indian yellow-nosed albatrosses.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Mammals.", "content": "There are no native land mammals. Subantarctic fur seals and southern elephant seals breed on the island. Introduced mammals include the house mouse and brown rat. Feral cats are present.  A distinct breed of wild cattle, Amsterdam Island cattle, also inhabited the island from 1871 to 2010. They originated from the introduction of five animals by Heurtin during his brief attempt at settlement of the island in 1871, and by 1988 had increased to an estimated 2,000. Following recognition that the cattle were damaging the island ecosystems, a fence was built restricting them to the northern part of the island. In 2007 it was decided to eradicate the population of cattle entirely, resulting in the slaughter of the cattle between 2008 and 2010.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Île Amsterdam (), also known as Amsterdam Island, New Amsterdam, or Nouvelle Amsterdam, is an island of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in the southern Indian Ocean that together with neighbouring Île Saint-Paul to the south forms one of the five districts of the territory. The research station at Martin-de-Viviès, first called \"Camp Heurtin\" and then \"La Roche Godon\", is the only settlement on the island and is the seasonal home to about thirty researchers and staff studying biology, meteorology, and geomagnetics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972993}
{"src_title": "Tancred, Prince of Galilee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Tancred was a son of Emma of Hauteville and Odo the Good Marquis. His maternal grandparents were Robert Guiscard and Guiscard's first wife Alberada of Buonalbergo. Emma was also a sister of Bohemond I of Antioch.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First Crusade.", "content": "In 1096, Tancred joined his maternal uncle Bohemond on the First Crusade, and the two made their way to Constantinople. There, he was pressured to swear an oath to Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus, promising to give back any conquered land to the Byzantine Empire. Although the other leaders did not intend to keep their oaths, Tancred refused to swear the oath altogether. He participated in the siege of Nicaea in 1097, but the city was taken by Alexius' army after secret negotiations with the Seljuk Turks. Because of this, Tancred was very distrustful of the Byzantines.  In 1097 the Crusaders divided their forces at Heraclea Cybistra and Tancred entered the Levant by passing south through the Cilician Gates. He displayed the skills of a brilliant tactician by seizing five of the most important sites in Cilicia Pedias, which included the ancient cities of Tarsus and Adana, the great emporium at Mopsuestia, and the strategic castles at Sarvandikar and Anazarbus. The last three settlements were annexed to the Principality of Antioch. During their fourteen-year occupation of Anazarbus the Crusaders built the magnificent donjon atop the center of the fortified outcrop. At Sarvandikar, which controlled the strategic Amanus Pass, Tancred imprisoned Raymond of Saint-Gilles in 1101/02.  He assisted in the siege of Antioch in 1098. One year later, during the assault on Jerusalem, Tancred, along with Gaston IV of Béarn, claimed to have been the first Crusader to enter the city on July 15. However, the first crusader to enter Jerusalem was Ludolf of Tournai, and he was followed by his brother Englebert. When the city fell, Tancred gave his banner to a group of the citizens who had fled to the roof of the Temple of Solomon. This should have assured their safety, but they were massacred, along with many others, during the sack of the city. The author of the \"Gesta Francorum\" (Deeds of the Franks) records that, when Tancred realised this, he was \"greatly angered\". When the Kingdom of Jerusalem was established, Tancred became Prince of Galilee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regent of Antioch.", "content": "In 1100, Tancred became regent of Antioch when Bohemond was taken prisoner by the Danishmends at the Battle of Melitene. He expanded the territory of the Latin principality by capturing land from the Byzantines, although, over the next decade, Alexius attempted, unsuccessfully, to bring him under Byzantine control. In 1104, he also took control of the County of Edessa when Baldwin II was taken captive after the Battle of Harran. After Baldwin's release in late 1108, he had to fight Tancred (probably early 1109) to regain control of the county; Tancred was eventually defeated and returned to Antioch. After Harran, Bohemond returned to Europe to recruit more Crusaders, again leaving his nephew as regent in Antioch. Tancred's victory over Radwan of Aleppo at the Battle of Artah in 1105 allowed the Latin principality to recover some its territories east of the Orontes River.  In 1108, Tancred refused to honour the Treaty of Devol, in which Bohemond swore an oath of fealty to Alexius, and for decades afterwards Antioch remained independent of the Byzantine Empire. In 1110, he brought Krak des Chevaliers under his control, which would later become an important castle in the County of Tripoli. Tancred remained regent in Antioch in the name of Bohemond II until his death in 1112 during a typhoid epidemic. He had married Cecile of France, but died childless.  The \"Gesta Tancredi\" is a biography of Tancred written in Latin by Ralph of Caen, a Norman who joined the First Crusade and served under Tancred and Bohemond. An English translation was co-published in 2005 by Bernard S. Bachrach and David S. Bachrach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Tancred appears as a character in Torquato Tasso's 16th-century poem \"Jerusalem Delivered\", in which he is portrayed as an epic hero and given a fictional love interest, the pagan warrior-maiden Clorinda. He is also loved by the Princess Erminia of Antioch. Portions of Tasso's verses were set by Claudio Monteverdi in his 1624 dramatic work \"Il Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda\". He also appears in one of the scenes in Imre Madách's \"The Tragedy of Man\". In Tom Harper's \"Siege of Heaven\" he is depicted as a violent psychopath. His portrayal is similar although slightly more humorous in Alfred Duggan's novel \"Count Bohemond\".  Tancred also appears as one of the Crusade leaders in Sir Walter Scott's novel \"Count Robert of Paris\" who returned to Constantinople from Scutari to ensure a fair contest between Count Robert and his challenger. The novel \"Tancred, or the New Crusade\" by Benjamin Disraeli centres around the adventures of an imagined modern descendant and namesake of the Prince of Galilee. Rossini's opera \"Tancredi\" is based on Tasso, via Voltaire's play \"Tancrède\" of 1759.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tancred (1075 – December 5 or December 12, 1112) was an Italo-Norman leader of the First Crusade who later became Prince of Galilee and regent of the Principality of Antioch. Tancred came from the house of Hauteville and had a great-grandfather with the same name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972994}
{"src_title": "Mansi language", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Varieties.", "content": "Mansi is subdivided into four main dialect groups which are to a large degree mutually unintelligible, and therefore best considered four languages. A primary split can be set up between the Southern variety and the remainder. A number of features are also shared between the Western and Eastern varieties, while certain later sound changes have diffused between Eastern and Northern (and are also found in some neighboring dialects of Northern Khanty to the east).  Individual dialects are known according to the rivers their speakers live(d) on: The sub-dialects given above are those which were still spoken in the late 19th and early 20th century and have been documented in linguistic sources on Mansi. Pre-scientific records from the 18th and early 19th centuries exist also of other varieties of Western and Southern Mansi, spoken further west: the Tagil, Tura and Chusovaya dialects of Southern and the Vishera dialect of Western.  The two dialects last mentioned were hence spoken on the western slopes of the Urals, where also several early Russian sources document Mansi settlements. Placename evidence has been used to suggest Mansi presence reaching still much further west in earlier times, though this has been criticized as poorly substantiated.  Northern Mansi has strong Russian, Komi, Nenets, and Northern Khanty influence, and it forms the base of the literary Mansi language. There is no accusative case; that is, both the nominative and accusative roles are unmarked on the noun. and have been backed to and.  Western Mansi went extinct ca. 2000. It had strong Russian and Komi influences; dialect differences were also considerable. Long vowels were diphthongized.  Eastern Mansi is spoken by 100–200 people. It has Khanty and Tatar influence. There is vowel harmony, and for it has, frequently diphthongized.  Southern Mansi was recorded from area isolated from the other Mansi varieties. Around 1900 a couple hundred speakers existed; in the 1960s it was spoken only by a few elderly speakers, and it has since then gone extinct. It had strong Tatar influence and displayed several archaisms such as vowel harmony, retention of (elsewhere merged with ), (elsewhere deaffricated to ), (elsewhere fronted to or diphthongized) and (elsewhere raised to ).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phonology.", "content": "The inventory presented here is a maximal collection of segments found across the Mansi varieties. Some remarks:  The vowel systems across Mansi show great variety. As typical across the Uralic languages, many more vowel distinctions were possible in the initial, stressed syllable than in unstressed ones. Up to 18–19 stressed vowel contrasts may be found in the Western and Eastern dialects, while Northern Mansi has a much reduced, largely symmetric system of 8 vowels, though lacking short ** and long **:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alphabet.", "content": "The first publication of the written Mansi language was a translation of the Gospel of Matthew published in London in 1868. In 1932 a version of Latin alphabet was introduced with little success. The former Latin alphabet:  A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, Ꜧ, I, J, K, L, Ļ, M, N, Ņ, Ŋ, O, P, R, S, S, T, Ţ, U, V, Z, Ь  In 1937, Cyrillic replaced the Latin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grammar.", "content": "Mansi is an agglutinating, subject–object–verb (SOV) language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Article.", "content": "There are two articles in Mansi: definite ань (aɲ), which also means \"now\" when placed before verbs, and indefinite акв (akw), literally \"one\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nouns.", "content": "There is no grammatical gender. Mansi distinguishes between singular, dual and plural number. Six grammatical cases exist. Possession is expressed using possessive suffixes, for example -зм, which means \"my\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Grammatical cases, declining.", "content": "Example with: пут /put/ (cauldron)  Missing cases can be expressed using postpositions, such as халнэл (χalnəl, 'of, out of'), саит (sait, 'after, behind'), etc.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Verbs.", "content": "Mansi conjugation has three persons, three numbers, two tenses, and four moods. Active and passive voices exist.  Intransitive and transitive conjugations are distinguished. This means that there are two possible ways of conjugating a verb. When the speaker conjugates in intransitive, the sentence has no concrete object (in this case, the object is \"nothing\" or something like \"something, anything\"). In the transitive conjugation, there is a concrete object. This feature also exists in the other Ugric languages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tenses.", "content": "Mansi uses suffixes to express the tense. The tense suffix precedes the personal suffix. The language has no future tense; the future is expressed in other ways.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Moods.", "content": "There are four moods: indicative, conditional, imperative and precative.  Indicative mood has no suffix. Imperative mood exists only in the second person.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Personal suffixes.", "content": "The suffixes are the following:  Thus, the conjugation of the verb мина (lat. \"mina\" [go]), in past tense (remember the suffix -с):", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Active/Passive voice.", "content": "Verbs have active and passive voice. Active voice has no suffix; the suffix to express the passive is -ве-.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Verbal prefixes.", "content": "Verbal prefixes are used to modify the meaning of the verb in both concrete and abstract ways. For example, with the prefix эл- (el-) (away, off) the verb мина (mina) (go) becomes элмина (elmina), which means \"to go away\". This is surprisingly close to the Hungarian equivalents: \"el-\" (away) and \"menni\" (to go), where \"elmenni\" is \"to go away\"  ēl(a) – 'forwards, onwards, away' χot – 'direction away from something and other nuances of action intensity'", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Numbers.", "content": "Numbers 1 and 2 also have attributive forms: акв (1) and кит (2); compare with Hungarian \"két\", Old Hungarian \"kit\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "ам хул алысьлаӈкве минасум. – I went fishing (literally \"\"I fish catch went\"\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mansi languages (previously, \"Vogul\" and also \"Maansi\") are or were spoken by the Mansi people in Russia along the Ob River and its tributaries, in the Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug, and Sverdlovsk Oblast. Traditionally considered a single language, they constitute a branch of the Uralic languages, often considered most closely related to the neighbouring Khanty languages and then to Hungarian. According to the 2010 census, there were 940 Mansi-speaking people in Russia, out of an ethnic population of 12 thousand.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972995}
{"src_title": "Cardiac glycoside", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General structure.", "content": "The general structure of a cardiac glycoside consists of a steroid molecule attached to a sugar (glycoside) and an R group. The steroid nucleus consists of four fused rings to which other functional groups such as methyl, hydroxyl, and aldehyde groups can be attached to influence the overall molecule's biological activity. Cardiac glycosides also vary in the groups attached at either end of the steroid. Specifically, different sugar groups attached at the sugar end of the steroid can alter the molecule's solubility and kinetics; however, the lactone moiety at the R group end only serves a structural function.  In particular, the structure of the ring attached at the R end of the molecule allows it to be classified as either a cardenolide or bufadienolide. Cardenolides differ from bufadienolides due to the presence of an “enolide,” a five-membered ring with a single double bond, at the lactone end. Bufadienolides, on the other hand, contain a “dienolide,” a six-membered ring with two double bonds, at the lactone end. While compounds of both groups can be used to influence the cardiac output of the heart, cardenolides are more commonly used medicinally, primarily due to the widespread availability of the plants from which they are derived.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Cardiac glycosides can be more specifically categorized based on the plant they are derived from, as in the following list. For example, cardenolides have been primarily derived from the foxglove plants \"Digitalis purpurea\" and \"Digitalis lanata\", while bufadienolides have been derived from the venom of the cane toad \"Bufo marinus\", from which they receive the “bufo” portion of their name. Below is a list of organisms from which cardiac glycosides can be derived.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mechanism of action.", "content": "Cardiac glycosides affect the sodium-potassium ATPase pump in cardiac muscle cells to alter their function. Normally, these sodium-potassium pumps move potassium ions in and sodium ions out. Cardiac glycosides, however, inhibit this pump by stabilizing it in the E2-P transition state, so that sodium cannot be extruded: intracellular sodium concentration therefore increases. With regard to potassium ion movement, because both cardiac glycosides and potassium compete for binding to the ATPase pump, changes in extracellular potassium concentration can potentially lead to altered drug efficacy. Nevertheless, by carefully controlling the dosage, such adverse effects can be avoided. Continuing on with the mechanism, raised intracellular sodium levels inhibit the function of a second membrane ion exchanger, NCX, which is responsible for pumping calcium ions out of the cell and sodium ions in at a ratio of /. Thus, calcium ions are also not extruded and will begin to build up inside the cell as well.  The disrupted calcium homeostasis and increased cytoplasmic calcium concentrations cause increased calcium uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) via the SERCA2 transporter. Raised calcium stores in the SR allow for greater calcium release on stimulation, so the myocyte can achieve faster and more powerful contraction by cross-bridge cycling. The refractory period of the AV node is increased, so cardiac glycosides also function to decrease heart rate. For example, the ingestion of digoxin leads to increased cardiac output and decreased heart rate without significant changes in blood pressure; this quality allows it to be widely used medicinally in the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical significance.", "content": "Cardiac glycosides have long served as the main medical treatment to congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia, due to their effects of increasing the force of muscle contraction while reducing heart rate. Heart failure is characterized by an inability to pump enough blood to support the body, possibly due to a decrease in the volume of the blood or its contractile force. Treatments for the condition thus focus on lowering blood pressure, so that the heart does not have to exert as much force to pump the blood, or directly increasing the heart's contractile force, so that the heart can overcome the higher blood pressure. Cardiac glycosides, such as the commonly used digoxin and digitoxin, deal with the latter, due to their positive inotropic activity. On the other hand, cardiac arrhythmia are changes in heart rate, whether faster (tachycardia) or slower (bradycardia). Medicinal treatments for this condition work primarily to counteract tachycardia or atrial fibrillation by slowing down heart rate, as done by cardiac glycosides.  Nevertheless, due to questions of toxicity and dosage, cardiac glycosides have been replaced with synthetic drugs such as ACE inhibitors and beta blockers and are no longer used as the primary medical treatment for such conditions. Depending on the severity of the condition, though, they may still be used in conjunction with other treatments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "From ancient times, humans have used cardiac-glycoside-containing plants and their crude extracts as arrow coatings, homicidal or suicidal aids, rat poisons, heart tonics, diuretics and emetics, primarily due to the toxic nature of these compounds. Thus, though cardiac glycosides have been used for their medicinal function, their toxicity must also be recognized. For example, in 2008 US poison centers reported 2,632 cases of digoxin toxicity, and 17 cases of digoxin-related deaths. Because cardiac glycosides affect the cardiovascular, neurologic, and gastrointestinal systems, these three systems can be used to determine the effects of toxicity. The effect of these compounds on the cardiovascular system presents a reason for concern, as they can directly affect the function of the heart through their inotropic and chronotropic effects. In terms of inotropic activity, excessive cardiac glycoside dosage results in cardiac contractions with greater force, as further calcium is released from the SR of cardiac muscle cells. Toxicity also results in changes to heart chronotropic activity, resulting in multiple kinds of dysrhythmia and potentially fatal ventricular tachycardia. These dysrhythmias are an effect of an influx of sodium and decrease of resting membrane potential threshold in cardiac muscle cells. When taken beyond a narrow dosage range specific to each particular cardiac glycoside, these compounds can rapidly become dangerous. In sum, they interfere with fundamental processes that regulate membrane potential. They are toxic to the heart, the brain, and the gut at doses that are not difficult to reach. In the heart, the most common negative effect is Premature ventricular contraction.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and increase its rate of contractions by acting on the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses are as treatments for congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias; however, their relative toxicity prevents them from being widely used. Most commonly found as secondary metabolites in several plants such as foxglove plants, these compounds nevertheless have a diverse range of biochemical effects regarding cardiac cell function and have also been suggested for use in cancer treatment.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972996}
{"src_title": "Pink triangle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nazi prisoner identification.", "content": "In Nazi concentration camps, each prisoner was required to wear a downward-pointing, equilateral triangular cloth badge on their chest, the color of which identified the reason for their imprisonment. Early on, homosexual male prisoners were variously identified with a green triangle (indicating criminals) or red triangle (political prisoners), the number \"175\" (referring to Paragraph 175, the section of the German penal code criminalizing homosexual activity), or the letter \"A\" (which stood for \"Arschficker\", literally \"ass fucker\").  Later, the use of a pink triangle was established for prisoners identified as homosexual men, which also included bisexual men and transgender women. (Lesbian and bisexual women and trans men were not systematically imprisoned; some were, and classified as \"asocial\", wearing a black triangle.) The pink triangle was also assigned to sexual offenders, such as rapists and pedophiles. If a prisoner was also identified as Jewish, the triangle was superimposed over a yellow second triangle pointing the opposite way, to resemble the Star of David like the yellow badge identifying other Jews. Prisoners wearing a pink triangle were harshly treated, even by other prisoners.  While the number assigned a pink triangle in German concentration camps is hard to estimate, Richard Plant – author of \"The Pink Triangle: The Nazi War Against Homosexuals –\" gives a rough estimate of the number convicted for homosexuality \"between 1933 to 1944 at between 50,000 and 63,000\".  After the camps were liberated at the end of the Second World War, many of the prisoners imprisoned for homosexuality were re-incarcerated by the Allied-established Federal Republic of Germany. An openly homosexual man named Heinz Dörmer, for instance, served in a Nazi concentration camp and then in the jails of the new Republic (three condemnations for sexual relationships with minors). The Nazi amendments to Paragraph 175, which turned homosexuality from a minor offense into a felony, remained intact in East Germany until 1968 and in West Germany until 1969. West Germany continued to imprison those identified as homosexual until 1994 under a revised version of the Paragraph, which still made sexual relations between men up to the age of 21 – as well as male homosexual prostitution – illegal. While lawsuits seeking monetary compensation have failed, in 2002 the German government issued an official apology to the LGBTQ community.  Rudolf Brazda, one of the last known homosexual concentration camp survivors, died on August 3, 2011 at the age of 98.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gay rights symbol.", "content": "In the 1970s, newly active European and North American gay liberation advocates began to use the pink triangle to raise awareness of its use in Nazi Germany. In 1972, gay concentration camp survivor Heinz Heger's memoir \"Die Männer mit dem rosa Winkel\" (\"The Men with the Pink Triangle\") brought it to greater public attention. In response, the German gay liberation group Homosexuelle Aktion Westberlin issued a call in 1973 for gay men to wear it as a memorial to past victims and to protest continuing discrimination. In the 1975 movie \"The Rocky Horror Picture Show\", the bisexual, transvestite character Dr. Frank N. Furter wears a pink triangle badge on one of his outfits. In 1976, Peter Recht, Detlef Stoffel, and Christiane Schmerl made the German documentary \"Rosa Winkel? Das ist doch schon lange vorbei...\" (\"Pink Triangle? That was such a long time ago...\"). Publications such as San Francisco's \"Gay Sunshine\" and Toronto's \"The Body Politic\" promoted the pink triangle as a memorial to those who had been persecuted.  In the 1980s, the pink triangle was increasingly used not just as a memorial but as a positive symbol of both self and community identity. It commonly represented both gay and lesbian identity, and was incorporated into the logos of such organizations and businesses. It was also used by individuals, sometimes discreetly or ambiguously as an \"insider\" code unfamiliar to the general public. The logo for the 1987 March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights was a silhouette of the US Capitol Dome superimposed over a pink triangle.  Taking a more militant tone, the AIDS Coalition To Unleash Power (ACT UP) was formed by six gay activists in New York City in 1987, and to draw attention to the disease's disproportionate impact on gay and bisexual men, and the apparent role of \"genocidal\" homophobia in slowing progress on medical research, adopted an upward-pointing pink triangle on a black field along with the slogan \"SILENCE = DEATH\" as its logo. Some use the triangle in this orientation as a specific \"reversal\" of its usage by the Nazis. The Pink Panthers Movement in Denver, Colorado adopted a pink triangle with clawed panther print logo, adapted from the original Pink Panthers Patrol in New York City.  In the 1990s, a pink triangle enclosed in a green circle came to be commonly used as a symbol identifying \"safe spaces\" for LGBTQ people at work or in school.  The pink triangle served as the basis for the \"biangles\", a symbol of bisexual identity which consists of pink and blue triangles overlapping in a lavender or purple area. The pink and blue symbolize either homosexuality and heterosexuality, or female and male gender, reflecting bisexuals' attraction to both.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Monuments and memorials.", "content": "The symbol of the pink triangle has been included in numerous public monuments and memorials. In 1980 a jury chose the pink triangle design for the Homomonument in Amsterdam, to memorialize gay men killed in the Holocaust (and also victims of anti-gay violence generally. In 1995, after a decade of campaigning for it, a pink triangle plaque was installed at the Dachau Memorial Museum to commemorate the suffering of gay men and lesbians. In 2015 a pink triangle was incorporated into Chicago's Legacy Walk. It is the basis of the design of the Gay and Lesbian Holocaust Memorial in Sydney. In 2001 it inspired both San Francisco's Pink Triangle Park in the Castro and the Pink Triangle on Twin Peaks that is displayed every year during Pride weekend. It is also the basis for LGBTQ memorials in Barcelona, Sitges, and Montevideo, and the burial component of the LGBTQ Pink Dolphin Monument in Galveston.  Until 1985 there was an unofficial ban on placing pink triangle wreaths at the United Kingdom war memorial the Cenotaph, and such wreaths were removed as soon as they were found by officials.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A pink triangle has been a symbol for various LGBTQ identities, initially intended as a badge of shame, but later reclaimed as a positive symbol of self-identity. In Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, it began as one of the Nazi concentration camp badges, distinguishing those imprisoned because they had been identified by authorities as homosexual men, a category that also included bisexual men and transgender women. In the 1970s, it was revived as a symbol of protest against homophobia, and has since been adopted by the larger LGBTQ community as a popular symbol of LGBTQ pride and the LGBTQ rights movement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972997}
{"src_title": "Water opossum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin of the name.", "content": "The local name for the water opossum, \"yapok\", probably comes from the name of the Oyapok River in French Guiana.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical appearance.", "content": "The water opossum is a small opossum, 27-32.5 cm long, with a 36–40 cm long tail. The fur is in a marbled grey and black pattern, while the muzzle, eyestripe, and crown are all black. A light band runs across the forehead anterior to the ears, which are rounded and naked. There are sensory facial bristles in tufts above each eye, as well as whiskers. The water opossum's tail, furred and black at the base, is yellow or white at its end. The hindfeet of the water opossum are webbed, while the forefeet (\"hands\") are not. The forefeet can be used to feel for and grab prey as the animal swims, propelled by its tail and webbed back feet. Unlike other didelphids, the water opossum does not have a cloaca.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aquatic adaptations.", "content": "The water opossum has several adaptations for its watery lifestyle. It has short, dense fur, which is water-repellent. The broad hindfeet are webbed and are used for propulsion through water, moving with alternate strokes. They are symmetrical as well, which distributes force equally along both borders of the webbing; this increases the efficiency of the water opossum's movement through the water. The water opossum's long tail also aids in swimming.  Being a marsupial and at the same time an aquatic animal, the water opossum has evolved a way to protect its young while swimming. A strong ring of muscle makes the pouch (which opens to the rear) watertight, so the young remain dry, even when the mother is totally immersed in water. The male also has a pouch (although not as watertight as the female's), where he places his genitalia before swimming. This is thought to prevent them from becoming tangled in aquatic vegetation and is probably helpful in streamlining the animal as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Water opossums mate in December and a litter of 1-5 young is born 12 to 14 days later in the nest. By 22 days the offspring are beginning to show some fur, and by 40 days or so their eyes are open, their bodies protruding from the mother's pouch. At 48 days of age, the young opossums detach from the nipples, but they still nurse and sleep with the mother.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "The water opossum seems to have a history dating as far back as to the Pliocene Epoch.  Holocene subfossil fragments of \"Chironectes\" have been discovered in São Paulo, Brazil. Also, there are fossil specimens from the late Pleistocene-Recent cave deposits in Minas Gerais, Brazil, as well as from the late Pliocene in Entre Ríos Province, Argentina.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The water opossum (\"Chironectes minimus\"), also locally known as the yapok (), is a marsupial of the family Didelphidae. It is the only living member of its genus, Chironectes. This semiaquatic creature is found in and near freshwater streams and lakes from Mexico through Central and South America to Argentina and is the most aquatic living marsupial (the lutrine opossum also has aquatic habits). It is also the only living marsupial in which both sexes have a pouch. The thylacine, commonly referred to as the Tasmanian tiger, also exhibited this trait, but it is now believed to be extinct.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972998}
{"src_title": "Podarcis muralis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The common wall lizard is a small, thin lizard whose small scales are highly variable in colour and pattern. Its coloration is generally brownish or greyish, and may occasionally be tinged with green. In some individuals, the row of spots along their backs may form a line, while others may have a reticulated pattern with dark spots on the side and scattered white spots that can be blue in the shoulder region. The tail is brown, grey or rust in colour, and may also have light bars on the sides. The belly region has six rows of larger rectangular scales that are generally reddish, pink, or orangish. Common wall lizards may also have dark markings on the throat. This lizard has six distinct morphological forms which are identified by the colouration of its throat and underbelly. Three of these are pure morphs consisting only of solid colours on their scales: white, red (orange) or yellow, and three other morphs are distinguished by a combination of colours: white-yellow, white-red and yellow-red.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The common wall lizard prefers rocky environments, including urban settings, where it can scurry between rock, rubble, debris and buildings. In the southern part of its range it tends to occur in humid or semi-humid habitats, compared to drier habitats in the north.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical communication.", "content": "Common wall lizards rely both on visual and chemical signals to communicate with conspecifics. Male wall lizards are equipped with femoral glands, which produce a waxy secretion used for chemical signalling. Both the proteinic and lipophilic compounds in the secretions are known to carry socially relevant information.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Polymorphism.", "content": "The six morphs of this lizard are primarily identifiable by colour and can be distinguished with the naked eye. However, they are commonly confirmed by digital photo and colour analysis. Source of colouration comes from different pigments within the lizard, with yellow colouration originating from carotenoids, and the expression of red/orange colour from pteridines. This is indicative that a phenomenon such as multiple alleles or epistasis may have a role in determining morphology. Morphs also differ in aspects other than colouration: differences between morphs are seen with femoral gland secretion, immune competence and body size. For males, colouration is visible on the underbelly, but in females of all the morphs there is less colouration seen in this region, indicating that sexual dimorphism occurs within this species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations between morphs.", "content": "Aside from differences in colour, the morphs vary by length, survival rate, and immune resistance/response to infection.  Susceptibility to infection also varies between morphs, red and yellow-red morphs are the most susceptible to infection by the haemogregarine parasite, a common parasite for these lizards. White morphs are the most resistant to this parasite and the yellow morphs are at an intermediate value of immune resistance and intensity. Certain traits can also lead to a variation in snout-vent length in each of these morphs. For example, in orange morphs, sexual selection favours larger morphs which makes them, on average, larger than the other morphs.  The femoral gland secretions of males differ in chemical composition according to each respective morph. Secretions are used by males for intra-species communication, such as marking of territories and attracting potential mates. Individuals share the same organics within the secretions, but the concentrations of certain key compounds differ. For example, α-tocopherol is present in higher concentrations in the secretions of red morphs. This molecule allows for scents to remain in the environment longer by reducing the rate of oxidation in humid environments. This indicates that red morphs tend to be more territorial and maintain territories for longer periods of time compared to other morphs. This phenomenon is also seen when it comes to the age of lizards. Similarly, older, more territorial lizards have higher levels of α-tocopherol compared to younger individuals who are more prone to roaming regardless of morph. Again, indicating that the composition of the secretions relate to the function. Furanones are found in higher concentrations in white morphs, followed by yellow, then red morphs.  Among females, reproductive strategies differ by morph; yellow females are \"r\" strategists, producing many smaller eggs in their clutch which would allow for numerous offspring to be produced and proliferate in smaller populations with less competition. White females are \"K\" strategists, producing fewer, larger eggs which makes offspring more likely to survive in harsher, more competitive environments. Red females can be \"r\" or \"K\" strategists based on the environment they are in. The existence of alternate strategies points to how morphs have adapted to different environments and hints to the maintenance of colour polymorphism as with fluctuations in environments each morph will eventually be the fittest and as such will not be selected out of the population.  The differences observed between morphs are unique evolutionary trade offs employed by each morph to promote survival within the different environments they face in light of limited ability to adapt perfectly to each pressure. Such a trade off is seen when comparing orange morphs to white morphs: morphs, on average, have larger body sizes compared to the white morphs but, in exchange, they are more prone to parasitic infection. In orange morphs, more emphasis is placed on being larger and having the ability to physically compete and ward of potential threats, but in white morphs, metabolic emphasis is placed on having a more hardy immune system to resist infection. Again, these trade offs can arise as there are selective differences in the environment each morph prefers. The differences in the relative proportions of the morphs with respect to location show that environmental pressures differ and some morphs' trade offs are more successful in specific environments than another's.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and status.", "content": "The natural range spans much of the mainland Europe except from the north and very south and extends to Turkey. It occurs as introduced populations in southern Britain, where one such population in the seaside town of Ventnor on the Isle of Wight has become somewhat famous, and also in North America. There has been some scientific debate as to whether the populations in Southern England represent the northern edge of their native range.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "North America.", "content": "\"Podarcis muralis\" has been introduced in the United States and is spreading throughout the Cincinnati metropolitan area. It is commonly observed living in limestone outcrops, rock walls, and rubble along the Ohio River basin.  It is referred to locally in the Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky area as the \"Lazarus lizard\", as it was introduced to the area around 1950 by George Rau, a boy who was a member of the family who owned the Lazarus department store chain (now absorbed into Macy's). After he returned from a family vacation to northern Italy, he released about 10 of the reptiles near his Cincinnati home. This prolific lizard has reproduced exponentially; it continues to expand its distribution range annually, and has established itself so well in southwest Ohio, it is now considered a naturalized species by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources and is protected under state law (it is illegal to harm, capture, or possess this animal without a proper licence).  The European wall lizard was also introduced to Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada in 1970, when a dozen individuals were released into the wild from a small private zoo.  This lizard is also present in Los Angeles and San Diego counties in California and may exist elsewhere in California.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Podarcis muralis (common wall lizard) is a species of lizard with a large distribution in Europe and well-established introduced populations in North America, where it is also called the European wall lizard. It can grow to about in total length.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4972999}
{"src_title": "Litomyšl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The town takes its name from the Litoměřici, one of more than a dozen West Slavic tribes who settled in the Czech lands from the sixth century.  The eastern Bohemian town of Litomyšl emerged in the 13th century on the site of an older fortified settlement on the Trstenice path - an important trading route linking Bohemia and Moravia.  From 30 April 1344 till its suppression in 1474 in the Hussite Wars the town was the seat of a Latin Catholic Diocese of Leitomischl / Litomyšl / Lutomislen(sis) (Latin adjective), until its territory was merged back into the (meanwhile Metropolitan Arch)Diocese of Prague. In 1970 it was nominally restored as Titular bishopric.  Until 1918 \"Leitomischl–Litomyšl\" (older German name \"Leutomischl\") was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austrian side after the compromise of 1867), head of the district with the same name, one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" or \"okresní hejtmanství\" in Bohemia.  Litomyšl had a Jewish community until 1942, when it was deported in The Holocaust. Litomyšl's synagogue survived until the 1960s, when it was demolished and an apartment block was built in its place.  Litomyšl had a German-speaking community until it was expelled in 1945 as a result of the Beneš decrees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "The dominant feature of Litomyšl is the monumental Renaissance castle built in the years 1568–81. The buildings of the castle precincts are exceptional not only for their architectural refinement, but have also as the birthplace of the Czech composer Bedřich Smetana. On the elongated square, which is one of the largest in the Czech Republic, is a town hall of Gothic origin and a series of Renaissance and baroque houses, many with arcades and vaulted ground floor rooms. One of the most important houses is \"Dům U rytířů\" (\"the House of the Knights\"), a 16th-century building with a notable stone façade.  In the past the town was also a significant religious centre. It was in Litomyšl in 1344 that the second bishopric to be established in Bohemia was founded, although it ceased to exist in the Hussite Wars.  In the 19th century the Litomyšl Grammar School was of great importance.  The cultural traditions of the town go far beyond regional and national frontiers. The exquisite interiors of the castle, especially the baroque castle theatre, the amphitheatre in the castle park and Smetana House, all offer varied programmes of concerts and theatrical performances and thus enrich the life of the town throughout the year. In 1994 the meeting of the seven Central European presidents was held at the castle. The chateau complex was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1999.  Litomyšl is also home to the \"Portmoneum\", a museum of the artist and writer Josef Váchal in the home of his admirer Josef Portman, who commissioned Váchal's murals and painted furniture in the house.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcasting station.", "content": "Near Litomyšl is a large broadcasting station for short and medium wave. The short wave transmitter at is the most important short wave broadcasting facility of Czech using towers with heights up to. Slightly southeast at are two guyed masts, tall, used for medium wave broadcasting on 1287 kHz with 150 kW", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "There is an extensive permanent exhibition of Olbram Zoubek's (a famous Czech contemporary sculptor and designer) sculptures and art in Litomyšl Castle Vault Gallery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Litomyšl is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "<br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Litomyšl (; ) is a town and municipality, former bishopric and Latin Catholic titular see in the Pardubice Region of Bohemia, in the Czech Republic. It is east of Prague and has about 10,500 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973000}
{"src_title": "Benešov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Benešov began to be settled in the 11th century. The first settlers are believed to have arrived on Karlov Hill in 1050 during the Přemyslid dynasty. A message from the 17th century points to an existing church in 1070. The first written mention of Benešov, then spelt Benissaw in Latin, however, dates only from 1226, when it was owned by the Lord of Benis, as the surname was then spelt. A small monastery was founded here in 1246 by Tobias of Benissaw, the Prague provost and an uncle of the late Bishop of Prague, Tobias of Bechyne. By 1300 they left and the property was sold to the Lord of Sternberg, whose crest is still the city's coat of arms.  In 1420 the then mostly German populated city was conquered and burned by the Hussites.  In the late Middle Ages Benissaw was the centre of several political negotiations, such as the 1451 and 1473 meetings of the Bohemian Diet here. In the 15th and 16th centuries the town experienced an economic boom, especially thanks to its location on the trade route from Prague to Linz. A contemporary first edition map in Latin by A. Ortelius dated 1570 spells the city as Benissaw. After the end of the 16th Century there were several changes in ownership. During the Thirty Years' War, the population had suffered because of passing Polish and Swedish troops. To promote the reintroduction of Catholicism and improving the education a 1703 Priory college with a high school was founded in 1703. The Saint Anna Church of the Priory College was built over 1705 to 1715 according to plans submitted by the Italian architect Giovanni Battista Alliprandi. After 1803 the town developed as a center of national rebirth for Slavic Bohemians.  In 1871 the town was connected to Prague by rail and by 1895 it was an important regional hub. The town's station is Benešov u Prahy.  By World War I Benesov was an important garrison town of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. There were the Second Battalion of the \"II. Bataillon des Böhmischen Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 102\" (Bohemian Infantry Regiment No. 102) and the \"II. Bataillon des k.k. Landwehr-Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 28\" (Second Battalion of the Imperial Landwehr Infantry Regiment No. 28). Because of fears of possible political unrest in 1916 by Czech nationalists, the 2nd Regiment of the \"Tiroler Kaiserjäger\" with a reserve unit part from Bolzano was stationed here to 1918.  Early during World War II the town was evacuated temporarily as the \"SS-Truppenübungsplatz Böhmen\" of the Waffen SS was stationed here.  A significant measure of industrialization began after 1945 with the establishment of a machinery factory and the food industry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "The town in led by 7-member city council, currently consisting of councillors representing the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) and the ANO 2011 (ANO). These parties control 11 out of 27 seats in a town parliament, and are supported by the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSČM) and the TOP 09 (controlling 15 out of 27 seats in summary).  The latest Benešov municipal election in 2014 was won by the coalition of the Vote for the City – Independents (VPM–NEZ) with 24.4% and gain of 7 seats in the town parliament. Followed by the ČSSD with 18.8% and 6 seats, and the ANO with 15.6% and 5 seats. The Civic Democratic Party (ODS), Mayors and Independents (STAN), TOP 09 and KSČM also entered the town parliament. A city council coalition between the VPM–NEZ, ODS, STAN and TOP 09 was formed after the election, however, in January 2016, it was dissolved by the parliament by 16 votes, succeed by the current coalition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Benešov is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Benešov (; ), also known as Benešov u Prahy (; lit. \"Benešov near Prague\") is a town in the Central Bohemian Region, Czech Republic, about southeast of Prague, the biggest town and former capital of the Benešov District. The Konopiště castle and the Czech national mountain Blaník are near the town. In 2019, the population was over 16,600.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973001}
{"src_title": "Mladá Boleslav", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Founded in the second half of the 10th century by King Boleslav II as a royal castle. Because there already was a castle known as Boleslav near Prague, this new castle was named \"Mladá\" (\"young\") to distinguish it from the older Boleslav, which became known in the 15th century as Stará Boleslav (\"Old Boleslav\"). The town received partial city rights in 1334 and 1436, becoming an important site on the road from Prague to northern Bohemia, Lusatia, and Brandenburg. In the 16th century the city was a leading centre of the Unitas Fratrum / Unity of the Brethren / Moravian Church, hosting the Brethren's bishop, Renaissance church, and printing house. After being re-catholicized in the 17th century, the city's population declined.  In the 17th and 18th centuries, Mladá Boleslav (called \"Bumsla\" by Jews) was an important Jewish center. In the 19th century (in fact, the period of decline of the Jewish community), Mladá Boleslav was dubbed \"Jerusalem on Jizera\". In 1634, Jacob Bassevi von Treuenberg (born 1580 in Verona, Italy), the first ennobled Jew in the Habsburg monarchy, was buried in the Jewish cemetery in Mladá Boleslav.  In the 19th century new prosperity came: the city became an important regional centre as new schools, theatres, museums, and the Laurin & Klement (today Škoda) automobile factory were founded. Since the 1990s the factory has made it one of the richest and most prosperous Czech cities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Mladá Boleslav is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "The local football team FK Mladá Boleslav has played in the top national division since 2004. They were runners-up in 2005–06, have been Czech Cup winners twice (2011 and 2016) and have qualified for the UEFA Cup and Europa League nine times, beating such opponents as Olympique de Marseille 4–3 on aggregate in 2006 and US Citta di Palermo 2–1 on aggregate in 2007. The local ice hockey team BK Mladá Boleslav, was relegated in 2012 from the Extraliga, but quickly returned in 2014. The town also has one of the Czech Republic's top floorball teams, national champions 2017–18.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mladá Boleslav (; ; both meaning \"New (or literally Young) Boleslav\") is a statutory city in the north of the Czech Republic, on the left bank of the Jizera river about northeast of Prague. It is the second biggest city in the Central Bohemian Region and a major centre of the Czech automotive industry (Škoda Auto). The city name abbreviation \"MB\" became eponymous for colloquial naming of Škoda cars (especially in the communist era) as \"embé(čko)\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973002}
{"src_title": "Reinaldo Arenas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Arenas was born in the countryside of Newport Beach Aguas Claras, Holguín Province, Cuba, and later moved to the city of Holguín. In 1963, he moved to Havana to enroll in the School of Planification and, later, in the Faculty of Letters at the Universidad de La Habana, where he studied philosophy and literature without completing a degree. The following year, he began working at the Biblioteca Nacional José Martí. While there, his talent was noticed and he was awarded prizes at Cirilo Villaverde National Competition held by UNEAC (National Union of Cuban Writers and Artists). His \"Hallucinations\" was awarded \"first Honorable Mention\" in 1966 although, as the judges could find no better entry, no First Prize was awarded that year.  His writings and openly gay life were, by 1967, bringing him into conflict with the communist government. He left the Biblioteca Nacional and became an editor for the Cuban Book Institute until 1968. From 1968 to 1974 he was a journalist and editor for the literary magazine \"La Gaceta de Cuba\". In 1974, he was sent to prison after being charged and convicted of \"ideological deviation\" and for publishing abroad without official consent. He escaped from prison and tried to leave Cuba by launching himself from the shore on a tire inner tube. The attempt failed and he was rearrested near Lenin Park and imprisoned at the notorious El Morro Castle alongside murderers and rapists. He survived by helping the inmates to write letters to wives and lovers. He was able to collect enough paper this way to continue his writing. However, his attempts to smuggle his work out of prison were discovered and he was severely punished. Threatened with death, he was forced to renounce his work and was released in 1976. In 1980, as part of the Mariel Boatlift, he fled to the United States. He came on the boat \"San Lázaro\" captained by Cuban emigré Roberto Agüero.  In 1987, Arenas was diagnosed with AIDS; he continued to write and speak out against the Cuban government. He mentored many Cuban exile writers, including John O'Donnell-Rosales. After battling AIDS, Arenas died of an intentional overdose of drugs and alcohol on December 7, 1990, in New York City. In a suicide letter written for publication, Arenas wrote: Due to my delicate state of health and to the terrible depression that causes me not to be able to continue writing and struggling for the freedom of Cuba, I am ending my life... I want to encourage the Cuban people abroad as well as on the Island to continue fighting for freedom.... Cuba will be free. I already am. In 2012 Arenas was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "Despite his short life and the hardships imposed during his imprisonment, Arenas produced a significant body of work. In addition to significant poetic efforts (\"El Central\", \"Leprosorio\"), his \"Pentagonia\" is a set of five novels that comprise a \"secret history\" of post-revolutionary Cuba. It includes \"Singing from the Well\" (in Spanish also titled \"Celestino before Dawn\"), \"Farewell to the Sea\" (whose literal translation is \"The Sea Once More\"), \"Palace of the White Skunks\", the Rabelaisian \"Color of Summer\", and \"The Assault\". In these novels Arenas’ style ranges from a stark realist narrative and high modernist experimental prose to absurd, satiric humor. His second novel, \"Hallucinations\" (\"El Mundo Alucinante\"), rewrites the story of the colonial dissident priest Fray Servando Teresa de Mier.  In interviews, his autobiography, and in some of his fiction work itself, Arenas draws explicit connections between his own life experience and the identities and fates of his protagonists. As is evident and as critics such as Francisco Soto have pointed out, the \"child narrator\" in \"Celestino\", Fortunato of \"The Palace...\", Hector of \"Farewell..\", and the triply named \"Gabriel/Reinaldo/Gloomy Skunk\" character in \"Color\" appear to live progressive stages of a continuous life story that is also linked to Arenas's own. In turn, Arenas consistently links his individual narrated life to the historical experience of a generation of Cubans. A constant theme in his novels and other writing is the condemnation of the Castro government, although Arenas also critiques the Catholic Church, US culture and politics. He also critique a series of literary personalities in Havana and internationally, particularly those who he believed had betrayed him and suppressed his work (Severo Sarduy and Ángel Rama are notable examples). His \"Thirty truculent tongue-twisters\", which he claims circulated in Havana and which are reprinted in \"The Color of Summer\", mock everyone from personal friends who he suggests may have spied on him to figures such as Nicolás Guillén, Alejo Carpentier, Miguel Barnet, Sarduy and of course Castro himself.  His autobiography, \"Before Night Falls\" was on the \"New York Times\" list of the ten best books of the year in 1993. In 2000 this work was made into a film, directed by Julian Schnabel, in which Arenas was played by Javier Bardem. An opera based on the autobiography with libretto and music by Cuban-American composer Jorge Martín premiered at the Fort Worth Opera on May 29, 2010, with baritone Wes Mason singing the role of Arenas.  The Reinaldo Arenas Papers are held at Princeton University Library. “The collection consists of personal and working papers of Reinaldo Arenas” and includes typescript and typescript drafts, essays, interviews, newspaper clippings, correspondence and other documents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "\"English\"  Spanish", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Reinaldo Arenas (July 16, 1943 – December 7, 1990) was a Cuban poet, novelist, and playwright known as an early sympathizer, and later critic of Fidel Castro and the Cuban Revolution, and a rebel of the Cuban government.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973003}
{"src_title": "École nationale d'administration", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Founding.", "content": "The École Nationale d'Administration was formally established in October 1945 at the decree of Michel Debré as part of his project to reform the recruitment and training of high-ranking officials.  The ENA was designed to democratize access to the higher ranks of the French civil service. Until then, each ministry had its own hiring process and selection standards. The examinations for particular ministries were often extremely specialized, meaning that few candidates possessed the knowledge to pass. In addition, the narrow expertise required meant few officials were capable of serving in a variety of roles.  The school was designed to broaden and standardize the training provided to senior public servants, and to ensure they possessed extensive knowledge of policy and governance. Debré's stated intention was to create “a body of officials proven to be highly competent, especially in financial, economic and social matters.” The new system, based on academic proficiency and competitive examination, was also intended to guard against nepotism and make recruitment to top positions more transparent.  Access to senior positions of the French civil service is threefold: first, through generalist civil service positions; second, through \"technical\" (engineering) positions; and third, through internal promotion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relocation to Strasbourg.", "content": "In November 1991 the government of Prime Minister Édith Cresson announced that the ENA would be relocated to Strasbourg. The \"Commanderie Saint-Jean\", a former barracks and prison dating back to the 14th century, was chosen as its new site. The move was designed to emphasize the school's symbolic proximity to the numerous European institutions based in the city. However, though the school was officially relocated, it maintained many of its facilities in Paris. It remained split between the two cities, requiring students to complete studies in both locations, until it was fully re-located to Strasbourg in January 2005.  In 2002, it was merged with the Institut international d’administration publique (IIAP) with the aim of increasing its international profile.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Closing.", "content": "In April 2019, it was claimed that a leaked speech to be delivered by French President Macron would announce that ENA would be closed as part of the solution to the Gilets Jaunes crisis. On the 25th of April 2019, President Emmanuel Macron confirmed that he will close ENA.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recruitment and exit procedures.", "content": "Admission to the ENA is granted based on a competitive examination taking place from the end of August to November, which people generally take after completing studies at the \"Institut d'études politiques de Paris\" or any \"Prép'Ena\" (preparatory classes for the ENA examination for people coming from universities or \"grandes écoles\"). The \"concours externe\" exam is divided into two parts:  Results of this exam process are published by the end of December.  Other exam processes govern admission for career civil servants (\"concours interne\") and for all other people, already active in business, political or union activities (\"troisième concours\").  Following a two-year intensive programme combining high-responsibility internships and examinations, the ENA ranks students according to their results. Students are then asked, by order of merit, the position/body they want to join. Top-ranked students (between 12 and 15 students) usually join the so-called \"grands corps\" \"Inspection générale des finances\", \"Conseil d'État\" or Cour des comptes, usually followed by the French Treasury and the diplomatic service. Other students will join various ministries and administrative justice or préfectures. To quote the ENA's site:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Promotions.", "content": "Academic years at the ENA are known as \"promotions\", and are named by the students after outstanding French people (Vauban, Saint-Exupéry, Rousseau), Foreigners (Mandela), characters (Cyrano de Bergerac), battles (Valmy), concepts (Croix de Lorraine, Droits de l'homme) or values (liberté-égalité-fraternité).  This tradition comes from old French military academies such as the Ecole Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr.  The \"Promotion Voltaire\" of 1980 has attracted particular attention, since numerous graduates that year went on to become significant figures in French politics. François Hollande, Dominique de Villepin, Ségolène Royal, Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Michel Sapin were all members of this \"promotion\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ranking.", "content": "In 2011, the \"\" ranked the ENA third in France and ninth in the world according to the number of alumni holding the position of CEO at Fortune Global 500 companies.  In 2013, a Times Higher Education ranking that ordered universities according to the same metric placed the ENA sixth in the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alumni.", "content": "Few \"énarques\" (around 1%) actually get involved in politics. Most ENA alumni hold apolitical, technical positions in the French civil service. Researchers at the Centre national de la recherche scientifique have shown that many ENA alumni become business executives in France.  French law makes it relatively easy for civil servants to enter politics: civil servants who are elected or appointed to a political position do not have to resign their position in the civil service; instead, they are put in a situation of \"temporary leave\" known as \"disponibilité\". If they are not re-elected or reappointed, they may ask for their reintegration into their service (well-known examples include Lionel Jospin and Philippe Séguin). In addition, ENA graduates are often recruited as aides by government ministers and other politicians; this makes it easier for some of them to enter a political career. As an example, Dominique de Villepin entered politics as an \"appointed\" official, after serving as an aide to Jacques Chirac, without ever having held an elected position. The ENA also participates in international Technical Assistance programmes, funded by the EU or other donors.  Since its creation 60 years ago, the ENA has trained 5600 French senior officials and 2600 foreigners. Some famous alumni include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International cooperation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uzbekistan.", "content": "An agreement was signed in Paris on 16 October 2012 between the ENA and the Uzbek Academy of administration; it allows for cooperation in the modernization of state administration and improving skills of public servants in Uzbekistan. The first cooperation was due to begin in January 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Critics have accused the ENA of educating a narrow ruling class who are prone to groupthink and averse to alternative perspectives. According to these critics, the ENA discourages its students from innovative thinking and pushes them to take conventional, middle-of-the-road positions. Peter Gumbel, a British academic, has claimed that France's \"grande école\" system, and especially the ENA, has the effect of perpetuating an intellectually brilliant yet out-of-touch ruling elite. Yannick Blanc, a former senior civil servant, has also suggested that \"énarques\" have often been too ‘intellectually conformist'.  Some French politicians such as Bruno Le Maire and François Bayrou have proposed abolishing the ENA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Other main French Grandes Écoles :  Other prestigious universities in the world:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The École nationale d'administration (generally referred to as ENA; ; ) is a French \"grande école\", created in 1945 by French President, Charles de Gaulle, and principal author of the French Constitution, Michel Debré, to democratise access to the senior civil service. The ENA selects and undertakes initial training of senior French officials. It is considered to be one of the most academically exceptional French schools, both because of its low acceptance rates and because a large majority of its candidates have already graduated from other elite schools in the country. Thus, within French society, the ENA stands as one of the main pathways to high positions in the public and private sectors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973004}
{"src_title": "Estates Theatre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Estates Theatre was built during the late 18th century in response to Enlightenment thought regarding general access to the theatre, and theatres themselves demonstrating the cultural standards of a nation. The Estates Theatre was designed by Anton Haffenecker and built in a little less than two years for the aristocrat František Antonín Count Nostitz Rieneck. Prague's first standing public theatre, the Sporck Theatre, operated from 1724 to 1735. The owner of this theatre, Count Franz Anton von Sporck, permitted the free use of it to subsidize the commercial venture of the Venetian impresario Antonio Denzio. The next commercial theatre, the \"Kotzentheater\" or Divadlo v Kotcích, operated sporadically from 1739–1783 under a series of Italian impresarios. The final closure of the \"Kotzentheater\" coincided with the opening of Count Nostitz’s \"Nostitzsches Nationaltheater.\" The theatre opened in 1783 with a performance of the tragedy \"Emilia Galotti\" by the German playwright Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. The building itself was constructed in a Neoclassical style and remains one of the few European theatres to be preserved in its almost original state to the present day. Its motto, \"Patriae et Musis\" \"To the Native Land and the Muses\"), which is inscribed above the portal, should also be noted as reflecting the original intentions of its creator.  The Estates Theatre has undergone several changes in its history. It first acquired the name Royal Theatre of the Estates in 1798 when it was purchased by the Bohemian Estates. With the opening of the Provisional Theatre in 1862, the Czech ensemble left and the Theatre of the Estates was dedicated to a solely German ensemble and was renamed to \"Deutsches Landestheater\" (Provincial German Theatre). During the period between 1920 and 1948 the theatre regained the name Theatre of the Estates and became affiliated with the National Theatre. In 1948 the theatre was renamed the Tyl Theatre (after dramatist J.K. Tyl) and would be known as such until 1990 when, at the end of an eight-year reconstruction project, it became known again as the Estates Theatre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Productions and artists.", "content": "While the theatre was initially built with the intention of producing German dramas and Italian operas, works in other languages were also staged. Czech productions were first staged in 1785 in order to reach a broader Czech audience but by 1812 they became a regular feature of Sunday and holiday matinées. The somewhat political nature of these performances later led to idea of founding a National Theatre after 1848 with the defeat of the revolution and the departure of J.K. Tyl. Many of the founding Czech dramatists were involved in the Estates Theatre, such as the brothers Thám (Karel and Václav), J.K. Tyl, Ján Kollár, and so on. The first Czech modern opera, František Škroup’s \"The Tinker\", was staged here in 1826 and in 1834 the premiere of the song “Where is my Home?” (Kde domov můj) was performed by bass Karel Strakatý (words by Tyl, music by Škroup), which would later become the Czech national anthem.  The Estates Theatre was not limited to native participants; many famous European artists were also active. Individuals such as Carl Maria von Weber, Anton Rubinstein, Karl Goldmark, and Gustav Mahler conducted at the Estates Theatre. Other famous names include the actors A.W. Iffland, F. Raimund, J.N. Nestroy, along with opera singer Angelica Catalani and violin virtuoso Niccolò Paganini.  One of the Estates Theatre’s many claims to glory is its strong link with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who conducted the world premiere of his opera \"Don Giovanni\" here in October 1787. Also, in 1791, Mozart’s \"La Clemenza di Tito\" was staged in public here for the first time in celebration of the coronation of Emperor Leopold II. It is the only theatre left standing where Mozart performed.  Anton Jaich, the set designer, worked here from 1846 to 1861.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent history.", "content": "The Estates Theatre currently offers performances of dramas, ballets and operas with the focus of the opera company on the work of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. A more contemporary claim to fame originates from the Oscar-winning film \"Amadeus\", directed by Czech director Miloš Forman. The scenes of Mozart in Prague were shot at the Estates Theatre for authenticity.  Because Mozart conducted the 1787 premiere of \"Don Giovanni\" in the Estates Theatre, the ghost statue outside the theatre represents the opera’s character Il Commendatore.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Estates Theatre or Stavovské divadlo is a historic theatre in Prague, Czech Republic. The Estates Theatre was annexed to the National Theatre in 1948 and currently draws on three artistic ensembles, opera, ballet, and drama, which perform at the Estates Theatre, the National Theatre, and the (separate building, Kolowrat Palace).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973005}
{"src_title": "Fiordland penguin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The Fiordland crested penguin was described in 1845 by English zoologist George Robert Gray, its specific epithet derived from the Ancient Greek \"pachy-\"/παχυ- \"thick\" and \"rhynchos\"/ρύγχος \"beak\". It is one of six species in the genus \"Eudyptes\", the generic name derived from the Ancient Greek \"eu\"/ευ \"good\" and \"dyptes\"/δύπτης \"diver\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "This species is a medium-sized, yellow-crested, black-and-white penguin, growing to approximately long and weighing on average, with a weight range of. It has dark, bluish-grey upperparts with a darker head, and white underparts. Its broad, yellow eyebrow-stripe extends over the eye and drops down the neck. It can be distinguished from the similar erect-crested penguin (\"Eudyptes sclateri\") and Snares penguin (\"Eudyptes robustus\") in having no bare skin around the base of its bill. Female Fiordland penguins lay a clutch of two eggs where the first-laid egg is much smaller than the second egg, generally hatches later, and shows higher mortality, demonstrating a brood reduction system that is unique from other avian groups.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "This penguin nests in colonies among tree roots and rocks in dense temperate coastal forest. It breeds along the shores the West Coast of the South Island south of about Bruce Bay and the Open Bay Islands, around Fiordland and Foveaux Strait, and on Stewart Island/Rakiura and its outlying islands. Fossils of this species have been found as far north as the northern end of the South Island, and they probably once nested in the North Island as well. Their range has been drastically reduced by hunting in Polynesian times, and they are now only found in the least-populated part of New Zealand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "The main prey species reported are cephalopods (85%, mainly arrow squid, \"Nototodarus sloanii\"), followed by crustaceans (13%, primarily krill, \"Nyctiphanes australis\") and fish (2%, mainly red cod and hoki). However, the importance of cephalopods might be exaggerated. Prey taken seems to vary between Codfish Island and northern Fiordland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "Fiordland crested penguins are classed as vulnerable to extinction by the IUCN, and their status was changed from vulnerable to endangered by the Department of Conservation in 2013. Surveys in the 1990s counted 2,500 pairs, though this was likely an underestimate; based on historic trends, the population is probably continuing to decline. The main threats are introduced predators such dogs, cats, rats, and especially stoats. They are also vulnerable to human disturbance, fleeing nests and leaving chicks exposed to predators.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fiordland penguin (\"Eudyptes pachyrhynchus\"), also known as the Fiordland crested penguin (in Māori, tawaki or pokotiwha), is a crested penguin species endemic to New Zealand. It currently breeds along the south-western coasts of New Zealand's South Island as well as on Stewart Island/Rakiura and its outlying islands. Because it originally ranged beyond Fiordland, it is sometimes referred to as the New Zealand crested penguin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973006}
{"src_title": "Bavarian Forest National Park", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Especially protected are the Norway spruce–dominated highland forests, mixed mountain forests of European silver fir, European beech and spruce trees and water meadow spruce woods in the valleys. Although a few remnants of ancient forest remain, the National Park area is still heavily influenced by the former forestry industry. Since nature is now left to take its course again, there is no human intervention when there are catastrophic events such as large scale bark beetle infestation. This resulted in the death of a portion of the high elevation forests in the 1990s and triggered controversial discussions amongst the residents of the National Park, which highlighted differing attitudes to the wilderness. As the result of a compromise, bark beetle is now fought in the buffer area.  The most important peaks in the National Park are the Großer Falkenstein (), the Lusen () and the Großer Rachel (). In addition to the forests, there are also ecologically valuable raised bogs with bog lakes such as the Latschensee and former high meadows, the so-called \"Schachten\", which spread even further on the Czech side of the border in the Bohemian Forest.  With over 700,000 visitors per year, the National Park is an important economic factor in the economically underdeveloped region of the Bavarian Forest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The National Park runs along the main ridge of the Bavarian Forest from the Großer Falkenstein (1,305 m) in the northwest past the Großer Rachel (1,453 m) to the Lusen (1,373 m) in the southeast.  According to the classification of the major natural regions of Germany it is part of the Rear Bavarian Forest (\"Hinterer Bayerischer Wald\") in the Upper Palatine-Bavarian Forest.  On the other side of the border in the Czech Republic, the Bavarian Forest National Park is bounded by the Šumava National Park which is 68,064 hectares in area.  The national park is located in the eastern part of Bavaria in the counties of Regen and Freyung-Grafenau along the border with the Czech Republic and covers an area of 24,250 hectares of forest covering the low mountain range of the Bavarian Forest. It borders on the municipalities of (from north to south): Bayerisch Eisenstein, Zwiesel, Lindberg, Frauenau, Spiegelau, Sankt Oswald-Riedlhütte, Neuschönau, Hohenau and Mauth. Parts of the National Park are located on the territory of the respective communities and parts also lie in unparished areas.  There are many enclaves in the national park, especially around the edges:  In addition, there are several other enclaves that comprise just one or a few small plots. These numerous enclaves, especially in the \"Altgebiet\" make the border very long there, and the buffer zone, where bark beetle control is allowed, extends far into the interior of the park (see below for more details).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mammals.", "content": "The park is home to many rare mammals such as the Eurasian lynx (\"Lynx lynx\"), wildcat (\"Felis silvestris\"), beaver (\"Castor fiber\"), Eurasian otter (\"Lutra lutra\"), western barbastelle (\"Barbastella barbastellus\"), Bechstein's bat (\"Myotis bechsteini\") and the greater mouse-eared bat (\"Myotis myotis\"). Also present are red deer, in which two-thirds of the population overwinter in an enclosure, in order to prevent excessive grazing to the land. Even moose have been recorded in the park, from a population in the Lipno Reservoir, Czech Republic.  Lynx were eradicated from the National Park in around 1850, but in the 1970's five to ten were released into the park, along with another 17 released in the Šumava national park a decade later. This resulted in an initially strong increase in the Lynx population in the region, but between 1995 and 2008, the population decreased significantly. This was possibly due to the illegal killing of the animals on both the Czech and Bavarian sides. Brown bear are not found in the wild in the park.  In 2016, a pair of wolves were discovered in the park.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Birds.", "content": "Many rarely seen species of birds are found in the national park. These include capercaillie, hazel grouse, peregrine falcon, European honey-buzzard, black stork and Eurasian pygmy owl.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Insects.", "content": "In the national park over 1800 beetle species have currently been identified, including 14 ancient woodland specialist species. Very rare insect species such as \"Tragosoma depsarium\", a longhorn beetle which can only be found in forests rich in dead wood.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plants.", "content": "Rare and endangered plant species which are found in the national park include Hungarian gentian, Swertia perennis and the mosses Buxbaumia viridis and Dicranum viride.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Bavarian Forest National Park () is a national park in the Eastern Bavarian Forest immediately on Germany's border with the Czech Republic. It was founded on 7 October 1970 as the first national park in Germany. Since its expansion on 1 August 1997 it has covered an area of 24,250 hectares. Together with the neighbouring Czech Bohemian Forest the Bavarian Forest forms the largest contiguous area of forest in Central Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973007}
{"src_title": "Angle of repose", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Applications of theory.", "content": "The angle of repose is sometimes used in the design of equipment for the processing of particulate solids. For example, it may be used to design an appropriate hopper or silo to store the material, or to size a conveyor belt for transporting the material. It can also be used in determining whether or not a slope (of a stockpile, or uncompacted gravel bank, for example) will likely collapse; the talus slope is derived from angle of repose and represents the steepest slope a pile of granular material will take. This angle of repose is also crucial in correctly calculating stability in vessels.  It is also commonly used by mountaineers as a factor in analysing avalanche danger in mountainous areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Measurement.", "content": "There are numerous methods for measuring angle of repose and each produces slightly different results. Results are also sensitive to the exact methodology of the experimenter. As a result, data from different labs are not always comparable. One method is the triaxial shear test, another is the direct shear test.  If the coefficient of static friction is known of a material, then a good approximation of the angle of repose can be made with the following function. This function is somewhat accurate for piles where individual objects in the pile are minuscule and piled in random order.  where, \"μ\" is the coefficient of static friction, and \"θ\" is the angle of repose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Methods in determining the angle of repose.", "content": "The measured angle of repose may vary with the method used.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tilting box method.", "content": "This method is appropriate for fine-grained, non-cohesive materials with individual particle size less than 10 mm. The material is placed within a box with a transparent side to observe the granular test material. It should initially be level and parallel to the base of the box. The box is slowly tilted until the material begins to slide in bulk, and the angle of the tilt is measured.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Fixed funnel method.", "content": "The material is poured through a funnel to form a cone. The tip of the funnel should be held close to the growing cone and slowly raised as the pile grows, to minimize the impact of falling particles. Stop pouring the material when the pile reaches a predetermined height or the base a predetermined width. Rather than attempt to measure the angle of the resulting cone directly, divide the height by half the width of the base of the cone. The inverse tangent of this ratio is the angle of repose.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Revolving cylinder method.", "content": "The material is placed within a cylinder with at least one transparent end. The cylinder is rotated at a fixed speed and the observer watches the material moving within the rotating cylinder. The effect is similar to watching clothes tumble over one another in a slowly rotating clothes dryer. The granular material will assume a certain angle as it flows within the rotating cylinder. This method is recommended for obtaining the dynamic angle of repose, and may vary from the static angle of repose measured by other methods.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Of various materials.", "content": "Here is a list of various materials and their angle of repose. All measurements are approximated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "With different supports.", "content": "Different supports will modify the shape of the pile, in the illustrations below sand piles, though angles of repose remain the same.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exploitation by antlion and wormlion (Vermileonidae) larvae.", "content": "The larvae of the antlions and the unrelated wormlions Vermileonidae trap small insects such as ants by digging conical pits in loose sand, such that the slope of the walls is effectively at the critical angle of repose for the sand. They achieve this by flinging the loose sand out of the pit and permitting the sand to settle at its critical angle of repose as it falls back. Thus, when a small insect, commonly an ant, blunders into the pit, its weight causes the sand to collapse below it, drawing the victim toward the center where the predator that dug the pit lies in wait under a thin layer of loose sand. The larva assists this process by vigorously flicking sand out from the center of the pit when it detects a disturbance. This undermines the pit walls and causes them to collapse toward the center. The sand that the larva flings also pelts the prey with so much loose, rolling material as to prevent it from getting any foothold on the easier slopes that the initial collapse of the slope has presented. The combined effect is to bring the prey down to within grasp of the larva, which then can inject venom and digestive fluids.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "The angle of repose plays a part in several topics of technology and science, including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The angle of repose, or critical angle of repose, of a granular material is the steepest angle of descent or dip relative to the horizontal plane to which a material can be piled without slumping. At this angle, the material on the slope face is on the verge of sliding. The angle of repose can range from 0° to 90°. The morphology of the material affects the angle of repose; smooth, rounded sand grains cannot be piled as steeply as can rough, interlocking sands. The angle of repose can also be affected by additions of solvents. If a small amount of water is able to bridge the gaps between particles, electrostatic attraction of the water to mineral surfaces will increase the angle of repose, and related quantities such as the soil strength.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973008}
{"src_title": "Fritz Klein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Klein was born in Feketehalom, Austria-Hungary (now Codlea in central Romania).  Klein was considered a Volksdeutscher, or ethnic German. He studied medicine at the University of Budapest and completed his military service in Romania, finishing his studies in Budapest after World War I. He lived and worked as a doctor in Siebenbürgen (Transylvania), Romania.  In 1939, as a Romanian citizen he was drafted into the Romanian army, where after the outbreak of the war with the Soviet Union in 1941 he served as paramedic on the eastern front. In May 1943, Romanian fascist dictator Marshal Antonescu, on a demand from Hitler to release ethnic Germans in the Romanian Army, drafted them into the German army. Hence Klein became a soldier in the Waffen-SS, was listed in the SS-Personalhauptamt, and was posted to Yugoslavia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "On 15 December 1943, he arrived in Auschwitz concentration camp, where at first he served as a camp doctor in the women’s camp in Birkenau. Subsequently, he worked as a camp doctor in the Gypsy camp. He also participated in numerous selections (\"Selektionen\") on the ramp. In December 1944 he was transferred to Neuengamme concentration camp, from where he was sent to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in January 1945. He remained at the camp with commandant Josef Kramer and assisted in handing it over to British troops. Klein was imprisoned and forced to help bury all unburied corpses in mass graves. The British Army Film and Photographic Unit Number 5 photographed Klein standing in a mass grave, in a well-known 1945 photo (seen on the right).  When asked how he reconciled his actions with his ethical obligations as a physician, Klein famously stated: \"My Hippocratic oath tells me to cut a gangrenous appendix out of the human body. The Jews are the gangrenous appendix of mankind. That's why I cut them out.\"  Klein and 44 other camp staff were tried in the Belsen Trial by a British military court at Lüneburg. The trial lasted several weeks, from September to November 1945. During the trial Anita Lasker testified that he took part in selections for the gas chamber.  He was sentenced to death and hanged at by Albert Pierrepoint on 13 December 1945.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fritz Klein (24 November 1888 – 13 December 1945) was a German Nazi doctor and war criminal, hanged for his role in atrocities at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp during the Holocaust.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973009}
{"src_title": "Albert of Brandenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Kölln on the Spree, Albert was the younger son of John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg and of Margaret of Thuringia.  After their father's funeral, Albert and his older brother Joachim I Nestor became margraves of Brandenburg in 1499, but only his older brother held the title of an elector of Brandenburg. Albert studied at the University of Frankfurt (Oder), and in 1513 became Archbishop of Magdeburg at the age of 23 and administrator of the Diocese of Halberstadt.  In 1514 he obtained the Electorate of Mainz, and in 1518, at the age of 28, was made a cardinal. The Indulgence issued by Leo X in 1514 for the building of the new St. Peter's in Rome, was entrusted to Albert (1517) for publication in Saxony and Brandenburg. Albert employed Tetzel for the actual preaching of the Indulgence. Later, Martin Luther addressed a letter of protest to Albert concerning the conduct of Tetzel  Largely in reaction to Tetzel's actions, Martin Luther wrote his famous 95 Theses, which led to the Reformation. Luther sent these to Albert on 31 October 1517, and according to a false tradition nailed a copy to the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg. Albert forwarded the theses to Rome, suspecting Luther of heresy. When the imperial election of 1519 drew near, partisans of the two leading candidates (King Charles I of Spain and Francis I of France) eagerly solicited the vote of the Prince-Archbishop of Mainz, and Albert appears to have received a large amount of money for his vote. The electors eventually chose Charles, who became the Emperor Charles V.  Albert's large and liberal ideas, his friendship with Ulrich von Hutten, and his political ambitions, appear to have raised hopes that he could be won over to Protestantism; but after the German Peasants' War of 1525 he ranged himself definitely among the supporters of Catholicism, and was among the princes who joined the League of Dessau in July 1525.  Cardinal Albert needed a prestigious church building that met his expectations at a central location in his \"Residenz\" town. Albert feared for his peace of mind in heaven, and collected more than 8,100 relics and 42 holy skeletons which needed to be stored. These precious treasures, known as \"Hallesches Heilthum\", indirectly related to the sale of indulgences which had triggered the Reformation a few years before. Then the cardinal and the Catholic members of the town council wanted to repress the growing influence of the Reformation by holding far grander masses and services in a new church dedicated solely to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Albert's hostility towards the reformers, however, was not so extreme as that of his brother Joachim I, Elector of Brandenburg; and he appears to have exerted himself towards peace, although he was a member of the League of Nuremberg, formed in 1538 as a counterpoise to the League of Schmalkalden. New doctrines nevertheless made considerable progress in his dominions, and he was compelled to grant religious liberty to the inhabitants of Magdeburg in return for 500,000 florins. During his later years showed more intolerance towards the Protestants, and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in his dominions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Market Church of Our Lady.", "content": "The Market Church of Our Lady in Halle, which had been built to defend against the spread of Reformation sympathies, was the very spot where Justus Jonas officially introduced the Reformation into Halle with his Good Friday sermon in 1541. The service must have been at least partly conducted in the open air, because at that time construction had only been finished at the eastern end of the nave. Jonas began a successful preaching crusade and attracted so many people that the church overflowed. Cardinal Albert left the town permanently after the estates (\"Stände\") in the city had announced that they would take over his enormous debt at the bank of Jacob Fugger. Halle became Protestant and in 1542 Jonas was appointed as priest to St. Mary's and in 1544 bishop over the city.  Albert adorned the collegiate church (\"Stiftskirche\") at Halle and the cathedral at Mainz in sumptuous fashion, and took as his motto the words \"Domine, dilexi decorem domus tuae\" (Latin for: \"Lord, I admired the adornment of your house.\"). A generous patron of art and learning, he counted Erasmus among his friends.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Albert died at the Martinsburg, Mainz in 1545.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cardinal Albert of Brandenburg (; 28 June 149024 September 1545) was Elector and Archbishop of Mainz from 1514 to 1545, and Archbishop of Magdeburg from 1513 to 1545.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973010}
{"src_title": "John of Saxony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "During most of his life, John stood little chance of inheriting the Saxon Crown: he was preceded by his father and two older brothers, Frederick Augustus and Clement. However, in 1822 Clement died unmarried in Italy, and John was now only preceded in the line of succession by his older brother Frederick Augustus.  When his uncle Anton succeeded his older brother as king (1827), John became the third in line to the throne, and after his father Maximilian renounced his succession rights in 1830, John became in the second in line. John's older brother became King Frederick Augustus II in 1836; now he was the first in line of succession to the throne. The King, married twice, was childless. John remained as heir presumptive during all the reign of his brother.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Saxony.", "content": "John became King of Saxony after the death of his brother Frederick Augustus II on 9 August 1854.  The Judiciary Organization of 1855, the extension of the railroad network, the introduction of the freedom of trade are attributed mainly to his suggestion and promotion. Under his government, came the acceptance of the French Commercial Treaty (1862) and the acknowledgment of a contract with Italy. He exerted himself under influence of his minister Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust for the Great Germany Solution (de: \"Großdeutsche Lösung\") of the imperial arrangement (under inclusion of Austria). In 1866 Saxony fought on the Austrian side in the Austro-Prussian War. Finally, after the defeat of the Battle of Königgrätz, Saxony joined the North German Confederation and in 1871 the German Empire under the hegemony of the Kingdom of Prussia. The King died two years later, aged seventy-one.  Beyond his political work, Johann was busy with literature. Under the pseudonym \"Philalethes\" he translated to German the Dante's Divine Comedy; some parts of this work were placed in the Schloss Weesenstein. The Dresden district of Johannstadt was named after him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In Munich on 10 November 1822 (by proxy) and again in Dresden on 21 November 1822 (in person), Johann married with the Princess Amalia of Bavaria (Amalie Auguste), daughter of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. They had nine children:  King John of Saxony died at Pillnitz.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John (; 12 December 1801 – 29 October 1873) was a King of Saxony and a member of the House of Wettin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973011}
{"src_title": "Albert of Saxony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Albert's education, as usual with German princes, concentrated to a great extent on military matters, but he attended lectures at the University of Bonn. His first experience of warfare came in 1849, when he served as a captain in the First War of Schleswig against Denmark.  When the Austro-Prussian War broke out in 1866, Albert, then Crown Prince (German: \"Kronprinz\"), took up the command of the Saxon forces opposing the Prussian Army of Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia. No attempt was made to defend Saxony, and the Saxons fell back into Bohemia and effected a junction with the Austrians. They took a prominent part in the battles by which the Prussians forced the line of the Jizera and in the Battle of Jičín. The Crown Prince, however, succeeded in effecting the retreat in good order, and in the decisive Battle of Königgrätz (3 July 1866), he held the extreme left of the Austrian position. The Saxons maintained their post with great tenacity but were involved in the disastrous defeat of their allies.  During the operations, the Crown Prince won the reputation of a thorough soldier. After peace was made and Saxony had entered the North German Confederation, he gained the command of the Saxon army, which had now become the XII army corps of the North German army, and in that position, he carried out the necessary reorganisation. He proved a firm adherent of the Prussian alliance. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, he again commanded the Saxons, who were included in the 2nd army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia, his old opponent. At the Battle of Gravelotte, they formed the extreme left of the German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out the attack on St Privat, the final and decisive action in the battle.  In the reorganisation of the army which accompanied the march towards Paris the Crown Prince gained a separate command over the 4th army (Army of the Meuse) consisting of the Saxons, the Prussian Guard corps, and the IV (Prussian Saxony) corps. He was succeeded in command of the XII corps by his brother Prince George, who had served under him in Bohemia.  Albert took a leading part in the operations which preceded the battle of Sedan, the 4th army being the pivot on which the whole army wheeled round in pursuit of MacMahon; and the actions of Buzancy and Beaumont on 29 and 30 August 1870 were fought under his direction; in the Battle of Sedan itself (1 September 1870), with the troops under his orders, Albert carried out the envelopment of the French on the east and the north.  Albert's conduct in the engagements won for him the complete confidence of the army, and during the Siege of Paris, his troops formed the north-east section of the investing force. During the siege, he blocked French attempts to break out of the encirclement at Le Bourget and Villiers. After the conclusion of the Treaty of Frankfurt (1871), he was left in command of the German army of occupation, a position which he held till the fall of the Paris Commune. On the conclusion of peace, he was made an inspector-general of the army and a field marshal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King.", "content": "On the death of his father, King John on 29 October 1873, the Crown Prince succeeded to the throne as King Albert. His reign proved uneventful, and he took little public part in politics, devoting himself to military affairs, in which his advice and experience were of the greatest value, not only to the Saxon corps but also to the German army in general. During his reign, the Saxon monarchy became constitutional.  In the 1870s, Albert initiated the construction of a Dresden suburb, the Albertstadt. It was then the largest garrison in Germany. Near the former suburb other buildings and places still bear his name: the Albertbrücke, the Alberthafen, the Albertplatz and the Albertinum.  In 1879, he initiated the reconstruction of the Saint Afra School in Meissen. In 1897, he was appointed arbitrator between the claimants for the Principality of Lippe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and succession.", "content": "In Dresden on 18 June 1853, Albert married Princess Carola, daughter of Gustav, Prince of Vasa and granddaughter of Gustav IV Adolf, the second to last king of Sweden of the House of Holstein-Gottorp. The marriage was childless although Carola miscarried many times. They included:  Albert died at Sibyllenort on 19 June 1902 and was succeeded by his brother, who became King George. He was buried in Dresden on 23 June, among the mourners present were both the German Emperor Wilhelm II and the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours, decorations and awards.", "content": "The King of Saxony bird-of-paradise was named in Albert's honour; the Queen Carola's parotia was named for his wife.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albert (; 23 April 1828 – 19 June 1902) was the King of Saxony and a member of the House of Wettin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973012}
{"src_title": "William I of Sicily", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "William was the son of King Roger II of Sicily, grandson of Roger I of Sicily and great-grandson of Tancred of Hauteville. He grew up with little expectation of ruling. The deaths of his three older brothers Roger, Tancred, and Alfonso between 1138 and 1148 changed matters, though when his father died William was still not well-prepared to take his place.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kingship.", "content": "On assuming power, William kept the administration which had guided his father's rule for his final years. Only the Englishman Thomas Brun was removed, and the chancellor Maio of Bari was promoted. The real power in the kingdom was at first exercised by Maio, a man of low birth, whose title \"ammiratus ammiratorum\" was the highest in the realm. Maio continued Roger's policy of excluding the nobles from the administration, and sought also to curtail the liberties of the towns. The barons, always chafing against the royal power, were encouraged to revolt by Pope Adrian IV, whose recognition William had not yet sought, by the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenus, and by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I.  At the end of 1155, Greek troops recovered Bari, Trani, Giovinazzo, Andria, Taranto and began to besiege Brindisi. William and his army landed on the peninsula and destroyed the Greek fleet (4 ships) and army at Brindisi on May 28, 1156 and recovered Bari. Adrian came to terms at Benevento on June 18, 1156 where he and William signed the Treaty of Benevento, abandoning the rebels and confirming William as king. During the summer of 1157, William sent a fleet of 164 ships carrying 10,000 men to sack Euboea and Almira. In 1158 William made peace with the Greeks.  These diplomatic successes were probably due to Maio; on the other hand, the African dominions were lost to the Almohads, and it is possible that he advised their abandonment in face of the dangers threatening the kingdom from the north. In 1156, a revolt began in Sfax and quickly spread and nothing was done to put it down. In 1159, the admiral Peter led a raiding expedition against the Saracen-held Balearic Islands with 160 ships. He tried to relieve besieged Mahdia with the same fleet, but turned around just after engaging in battle. Peter did not fall out of favour, but no further assistance was sent to the Christians holding out in Mahdia and the city surrendered on 11 January 1160, ending the \"African empire\".  The policy of Maio led to a general conspiracy, and in November 1160 Maio was murdered in Palermo by Matthew Bonello, leader of the Sicilian nobles. The barons, however, had long been plotting to overthrow the king. Desiring a weak power on the throne, they had been eyeing the king's eldest son, Roger IV, Duke of Apulia, as a possible replacement for his father.  After the assassination of Maio, the royal palace was stormed by two of the king's own relatives: his illegitimate half-brother Simon, whom he had dispossessed of Taranto early in his reign and his bastard nephew Tancred, the count of Lecce. The king was captured along with his whole family, his life being barely spared by one Richard of Mandra. Roger was then paraded through the streets and it was announced that he would be crowned in the cathedral three days thence.  For a while the king remained in the hands of the conspirators who purposed murdering or just deposing him, but the people and the army rallied round him; he recovered power, crushed the Sicilian rebels, had Bonello blinded, and in a short campaign reduced the rest of the \"Regno\", avenging the rebel burning of Butera. During the initial assault on the palace, to release the captive king, the king's son Roger was killed by a wayward arrow (though the historian Falcandus, seemingly ever-ready to impugn the royal character, has the king kicking his \"faithless\" son dead).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Thus freed from feudal revolts, William confided the government to men trained in Maio's school, creating a triumvirate: the grand protonotary, Matthew of Ajello; Count Sylvester of Marsico, who had inherited Maio's property; and the Bishop Palmer of Syracuse, elect, but not consecrated. His latter years were peaceful; he became the champion of the true pope against the Holy Roman Emperor, and Alexander III was installed in the Lateran Palace in November 1165 by a guard of Normans.  William died on May 7, 1166 and was interred in Palermo Cathedral, although he was later moved to Monreale Cathedral by his son and heir William II of Sicily when that building was completed. By his wife, Margaret of Navarre, daughter of García Ramírez of Navarre, he had four sons:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversial accounts.", "content": "\"De Mulieribus Claris\" by Boccaccio said the at the birth of Princess Constance daughter of William, a Calabrian abbot named Joachim told William that his daughter would cause the destruction of Sicily. William believed the prediction and shut young Constance up in a monastery and forced her to become a nun to prevent her having husband or children. This apparently contradicted the fact that Constance was indeed the posthumous daughter of Roger II and half-sister of William. Giovanni Villani said William I sought to put her to death due to the prediction until Tancred, a bastard son of Roger I, Count of Sicily, persuaded him to send her to a convent instead.  Joachim Camerarius argued that Constance was simply sent to the convent during the coup against William I for her safety and stayed there until her betrothal without ever being a nun. Hugo Falcandus and Richard of San Germano argued Constance was brought up and educated in royal palace rather than a monastery. François Eudes de Mézeray said Constance had never become a nun.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William I (1120 or 1121 – May 7, 1166), called the Bad or the Wicked (), was the second King of Sicily, ruling from his father's death in 1154 to his own in 1166. He was the fourth son of Roger II and Elvira of Castile.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973013}
{"src_title": "Admont Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Dedicated to Saint Blaise, Admont Abbey was founded in 1074 by Archbishop Gebhard of Salzburg with the legacy of the late Saint Hemma of Gurk, and settled by monks from St. Peter's Abbey in Salzburg under abbot Isingrin. The second abbot, Giselbert, is said to have introduced the Cluniac reforms here. Another of the early abbots, Wolfhold, established a convent for the education of girls of noble family, and the educational tradition has remained strong ever since. The monastery prospered during the Middle Ages and possessed a productive scriptorium. Abbot Engelbert of Admont (1297–1327) was a famous scholar and author of many works.  The wars against the Turks and the Reformation (Abbot Valentine was obliged to resign because of his Reformed views) caused a lengthy decline, but with the Counter-Reformation the abbey flourished once again. In addition to the secondary school, which later moved to Judenburg, there were faculties of theology and philosophy. Abbot Albert von Muchar was well known as an historian and taught at the University of Graz.  In the 17th and 18th centuries, the abbey reached a high point of artistic productivity, with the works of the world-famous ecclesiastical embroiderer Brother Benno Haan (1631–1720) and the sculptor Joseph Stammel (1695–1765).  On April 27, 1865, a disastrous fire destroyed almost the entire monastery. While the monastic archives burned, the library could be salvaged. Reconstruction began the following year but was still not complete by 1890.  The economic crises of the 1930s forced the abbey to sell off many of its art treasures, and during the period of the National Socialist government the monastery was dissolved and the monks evicted. They were able to return in 1946 and the abbey today is again a thriving Benedictine community.  From 1641, the abbey was a member of the Salzburg Congregation, which in 1930 was merged into the present Austrian Congregation of the Benedictine Confederation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abbey church.", "content": "The present church was designed by the architect Wilhelm Bücher to replace the former church after the fire of 1865. It is inspired by Regensburg Cathedral and was the first sacred building in Austria in the neo-Gothic style. It incorporates 12th century Romanesque side doors. The two west towers are 67 metres tall, and the facade contains figures of Saint Benedict and Saint Scholastica. The figure of the church's patron, Saint Blaise, tops the pinnacle of the west door.  The interior consists of a central aisle and two side aisles, off each of which are five side chapels and six altars. The picture on the altar of Mary, \"Maria Immaculata\" by Martino Altomonte (1657–1745), is surrounded by 15 carved medallions of the secrets of the rosary by Joseph Stammel. Both works of art were created in 1726 and survived the fire of 1856.  In a side chapel is located the famous crib of Admont, also by Stammel. It is open to view from 25 December to 2 February. The Gothic crucifix under the triumphal arch dated 1518 is ascribed to Andreas Lackner.  A statue of Saint Blaise stands on top of the high altar of white Carrara marble. The choir is decorated with early 18th century tapestries by. In the Chapel of St. Benedict is a Baroque Corpus Christi from the workshop of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Present day.", "content": "The community at Admont consists of over 27 monks under Abbot Bruno Hubl. The abbey is responsible for 27 parishes, runs a secondary school with about 600 pupils and an old people's home in Frauenberg. Its various businesses and enterprises employ about 500 people, and it also has the management of the museums and collections detailed below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Library.", "content": "The library hall, built in 1776 to designs by the architect Joseph Hueber, is 70 metres long, 14 metres wide and 13 metres high, and is the largest monastery library in the world. It contains c. 70,000 volumes of the monastery's entire holdings of c. 200,000 volumes. The ceiling consists of seven cupolas, decorated with frescoes by Bartolomeo Altomonte showing the stages of human knowledge up to the high point of Divine Revelation. Light is provided by 48 windows and is reflected by the original colour scheme of gold and white. The architecture and design express the ideals of the Enlightenment, against which the sculptures by of \"The Four Last Things\" make a striking contrast.  The abbey possesses over 1,400 manuscripts, the oldest of which, from St. Peter's Abbey in Salzburg, were the gift of the founder, Archbishop Gebhard, and accompanied the first monks to settle here, as well as over 900 incunabulae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museums.", "content": "Since the Baroque period the abbots had accumulated a collection of \"curiosities\" and scientific specimens of various sorts, which were entirely destroyed in the fire of 1865. As part of the reconstruction Father Gabriel Strobl determined to replace the lost collections, and so formed the nucleus of the modern museums. Father Strobl was himself a botanist but also worked on building up the insect collection, so much so that he became one of the great entomologists of his day. The Natural History museum now contains over 250,000 insect specimens, including one of the three largest collections of flies, or Diptera, in Europe. Other collections of, for example, minerals and rock, and exotic species, have also been formed.  The abbey also houses two major art collections of Historical and Modern Art. The historical art collection was begun in 1959 by Father Adalbert Krause, and has been significantly augmented since 1980. The present museum was opened in 2003. The collection particularly features ecclesiastical art, and contains for example many works of ecclesiastical embroidery by the famous craftsman Benno Haan and of the abbey sculptor Joseph Stammel.  Since 1997 the abbey has also been building up a collection of contemporary art, largely produced by young Austrian artists and often specially designed for the abbey premises.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Admont Abbey () is a Benedictine monastery located on the Enns River in the town of Admont, Austria. The oldest remaining monastery in Styria, Admont Abbey contains the largest monastic library in the world as well as a long-established scientific collection. It is known for its Baroque architecture, art, and manuscripts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973014}
{"src_title": "Cinque Terre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Cinque Terre is mentioned in documents dating to the 11th century. Monterosso and Vernazza were settled first and the other villages grew later, whilst within the territory of the Republic of Genoa. In the 16th century the inhabitants reinforced existing forts and built new defense towers to defend the area from attacks by the Turks. Cinque Terre experienced economic decline from the 17th to 19th centuries, recovering when an arsenal was built in La Spezia and it gained a railway link to Genoa. The railway led to migration from the area and a decline in traditional industries until the growth of tourism from the 1970s onwards brought some prosperity.  The predominant crops in the area have been grapes and olives. Some fisherman were based in Monterosso, but the area's gaily painted fisherman's cottages were conceived in the late 1970s as a tourist attraction.  On 25 October 2011 torrential rains caused floods and mudslides in Cinque Terre. Nine people were killed and villages were severely damaged, particularly Vernazza and Monterosso al Mare.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport and tourism.", "content": "Access to Cinque Terre by car is limited. A road to Vernazza is very narrow and ends a kilometre before the town.  Trains run from La Spezia to all five towns within Cinque Terre, as well as to major regional and national destinations.  A passenger ferry runs between the villages except Corniglia. The ferry also runs to Genoa's Old Harbour, La Spezia, Lerici and Porto Venere.  A walking trail, known as (\"Azure Trail\"), used to connect the five villages but the section from Riomaggiore to Manarola called the Via dell'Amore (\"Love Walk\") is closed. It is still possible to walk between these villages, although the trail is both steeper and longer than the (closed) path along the waterfront.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "From the poem, “The Lemons”, 1921. This is how the Nobel laureate Eugenio Montale, through his poetry, tells of the beauty of Monterosso and how the Cinque Terre must be discovered.  The Cinque Terre were not only a source of inspiration for Eugenio Montale but for many others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cinema.", "content": "In 2013 Cinque Terre was one of the shooting locations of the movie The Wolf of Wall Street by Martin Scorsese.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food and wine.", "content": "Given its location on the Mediterranean, seafood is plentiful in the local cuisine. Anchovies of Monterosso are a local specialty designated with a Protected Designation of Origin status from the European Union. The mountainsides of the Cinque Terre are heavily terraced and are used to cultivate grapes and olives. This area, and the region of Liguria, as a whole, is known for pesto, a sauce made from basil leaves, garlic, salt, olive oil, pine nuts and pecorino cheese. Focaccia is a particularly common locally baked bread product. Farinata, a typical snack found in bakeries and pizzerias, is a savoury and crunchy pancake made from a base of chick pea flour. The town of Corniglia is particularly popular for a gelato made from local honey ().  The grapes of the Cinque Terre are used to produce two locally made wines. The eponymous \"Cinque Terre\" and the \"Sciachetrà\" are both made using Bosco, Albarola, and Vermentino grapes. Both wines are produced by the, located between Manarola and Volastra. Other DOC producers are Forlini-Capellini, Walter de Batté, Buranco, Arrigoni.  In addition to wines, other popular local drinks include grappa, a brandy made with the pomace left from winemaking, and limoncino, a sweet, creamy liqueur made from lemons. It is served chilled after meals and often used in the preparation of desserts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preservation.", "content": "In 1998, the Italian Ministry for the Environment set up the Cinque Terre protected natural marine area to protect the natural environment and to promote socio-economic development compatible with the natural landscape of the area. Today, millions of visitors visit it every year. In 1999 the Parco Nazionale delle Cinque Terre was created to conserve the ecological balance, protect the landscape, and safeguard the anthropological values of the location. Nevertheless, dwindling interest in cultivation and maintenance of the terrace walls posed a long-term threat to the site, which was for this reason included in the 2000 and 2002 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund. The organization secured grants from American Express to support a study of the conservation of Cinque Terre. Following the study, a site management plan was created.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cinque Terre (;, meaning \"Five Lands\") is a coastal area within Liguria, in the northwest of Italy. It lies in the west of La Spezia Province, and comprises five villages: Monterosso al Mare, Vernazza, Corniglia, Manarola, and Riomaggiore. The coastline, the five villages, and the surrounding hillsides are all part of the Cinque Terre National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973015}
{"src_title": "Pieter van den Hoogenband", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Maastricht, Limburg, he is the son of Cees-Rein van den Hoogenband and Astrid Verver, a former Dutch 800 m freestyle silver medalist at the European Junior Championships. He has a younger brother.  He grew up in Geldrop, where he swam for PSV Eindhoven. His father is a team doctor with the professional football team of the same club.  Russian swimmer and four-time Olympic gold medalist Alexander Popov was his role model.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Swimming career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "In 1993, Van den Hoogenband achieved his first successes, performing well on the European Youth Olympic Days. Before the Atlanta Games, Astrid van den Hoogenband, who was coaching the Dutch team, became frustrated with the swimmers representing the Netherlands, feeling they had much potential but would not be able to live up to it due to lack of adequate support. She pleaded with Cees to take action, as he carried much weight from his professional connections. After Astrid threatened to remove Pieter from the sport, Cees created a small foundation and signed up 20 initial sponsors who each paid $2,500 to fund a team trainer. The Dutch swimming team eventually signed contracts with Philips, Nike, and Speedo. Enough funds were raised to open a swim school in Eindhoven, Van den Hoogenband's place of residence. The team eventually grew to ten. Pieter remained the Netherlands' brightest star, and along with fellow Dutch Inge de Bruijn brought the Netherlands many victories in the sport.  Van den Hoogenband is the only swimmer in history who has managed to win both the 100–200 metre freestyle double at the Olympics and also repeat as 100 freestyle champion at the Olympics. His three Olympic Gold are the only three won by a Dutch male pool swimmer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1996 Olympics.", "content": "Van den Hoogenband's international breakthrough came at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. Only 18 years old, he exceeded the expectations of many by finishing 4th in both the 100 m and 200 m freestyle. He won the 50 m freestyle B final, and finished 5th in the 4×100 m freestyle relay, 7th in the 4×200 m freestyle relay, and 10th in the 4×100 m medley relay.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1998 World championships.", "content": "At the 1998 World Aquatics Championships in Perth, Australia, Van den Hoogenband won bronze medal in the 200 metre freestyle and silver in the 4×200 m freestyle relay.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2000 Olympics.", "content": "After winning 6 gold medals at the 1999 European Championships, he was one of the favourites at the 2000 Summer Olympics, but his adversaries were formidable. In the 200 m freestyle he faced the world record holder, Australian youngster Ian Thorpe, favourite of the home crowd in Sydney. In the semi-finals, Van den Hoogenband set a new world record, but Thorpe countered with a time only 0.02 s slower. In an exciting final, Van den Hoogenband equalled his time from the semi-finals to win the gold medal. In the 100 m freestyle, Van den Hoogenband again set a world record in the semi-finals and won his second gold medal, defeating the 1992 and 1996 champion, Alexander Popov. His 100 m world record stood until 21 March 2008 and was broken by France's Alain Bernard (47.60). Van den Hoogenband won two more medals, both bronze, in the 50 m freestyle and the 4×200 m freestyle relay, in which he was the final swimmer.  Van den Hoogenband was named Dutch sportsman of the year in 1999, 2000 and 2004, World Swimmer of the Year in 2000, and European Swimmer of the Year in 1999, 2000, 2002 and 2004.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2001 World championships.", "content": "At the 2001 World Championships in Fukuoka, Japan, Van den Hoogenband won four silver medals in the 50 m, 100 m, 200 m freestyle events and 4×100 m freestyle relay.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2003 World Championships.", "content": "At the 2003 World Championships in Barcelona he split a 46.70 in the medley relay which stood as the fastest 100 m freestyle split until it was topped in 2008 by the French relay veteran Frédérick Bousquet, at 46.63 seconds. Van den Hoogenbands' 46.70, however, remained as the fastest textile relay split until it was topped in 2015 by Cameron McEvoy of Australia. He had disappointing performances in both the 100 and 200 freestyle events though, finishing runner up to Alexander Popov and Ian Thorpe respectively, with considerably slow times. His times from previous meets in the past year, and earlier rounds of the championships, would have won both events. His winning time in the 200 freestyle at the 2002 European Championships was faster than Ian Thorpe's winning time at these Championships, but Pieter went about 2 whole seconds slower this time around. His time in the semis of the 100 freestyle at these Championships would have won the final of that event as well (won by Alexander Popov), and his 100 free relay split (with nearly a second gain from a rolling start) was 2 whole seconds faster.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2004 Olympics.", "content": "At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, he won a gold medal in the 100 m freestyle and two silvers in the 200 m freestyle and the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay, swimming the anchor leg in 46.79 which was the 2nd fastest split in history. By finishing ahead of Michael Phelps in both the 200 m freestyle and the 4×100 m freestyle relay, he is the only swimmer to ever beat Phelps twice in Olympic competition. While technically the second was a relay, his split was faster by a large margin, and the margin of beating the U.S team by a far smaller one.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2007 World Championships.", "content": "At the 2007 World Championships in Melbourne, Australia, Van den Hoogenband won a silver medal in the 200 m freestyle behind Michael Phelps.  He holds by a large margin the all-time record for most runner up finishes at the World Championships without winning.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2008 Olympics.", "content": "He returned to the Olympic Games in 2008 in Beijing and finished fifth in the 100 m freestyle. He retired after the race. In the semifinals he broke his own national record that stood from 2000 Summer Olympics bringing it to 47.68 s.  In making the 100 m freestyle final, Van den Hoogenband became the first swimmer to make the finals in the same event four times.  In December of the same year, he announced his retirement.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Post swimming.", "content": "Van den Hoogenband continues swimming as recreation and he remains active in sports industry. He is a commentator of many swimming events, including 2012 Summer Olympics. The swimming arena in the sporting centre of Eindhoven was named \"Pieter van den Hoogenband Zwemstadion\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Van den Hoogenband was married to his longtime girlfriend Minouche Smit who is also a former swimmer. They have a daughter Daphne (born 23 June 2007) and a son Sander (born 13 September 2009). In September 2012 the couple announced their divorce. Then Van den Hoogenband dated Ranomi Kromowidjojo, also a multiple Olympic gold medalist. Their relationship ended in 2014. On 16 September 2016 Van den Hoogenband married Marie-José Crooijmans.  Despite a fierce rivalry, Van den Hoogenband is a good friend of Australian Ian Thorpe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pieter Cornelis Martijn van den Hoogenband (; born 14 March 1978) is a Dutch former swimmer. He is a triple Olympic champion and former world record holder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973016}
{"src_title": "Elisabeth of Valois", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "She was born in the Château de Fontainebleau. She was raised under the supervision of the governor and governess of the royal children, Jean d'Humières and Françoise d'Humières.She was appointed a lady in waiting Claude de Vineulx who accompanied her to Spain and wrote reports of Elisabeth's health to Catherine de Medici. Her childhood was spent in the French royal nursery, where her father insisted she share her bedroom with her future sister-in-law, Mary, Queen of Scots, who was about three years older than Elisabeth. Even though Elisabeth had to give precedence to Mary (since Mary was already a crowned queen), the two would remain close friends for the rest of their lives. While it is acknowledged that her sister Margaret and her future sister-in-law Mary were prettier than she, she was one of Catherine's attractive daughters. Elisabeth was also described as being shy, timid and very much in awe of her formidable mother; although there is also evidence that Catherine was tender and loving toward Elisabeth. This was certainly evident in her letters to Elisabeth.  In 1550, Elisabeth's father, Henry, began negotiations for her marriage to Edward VI of England. This arrangement brought condemnation from Pope Julius III who reportedly stated that he would excommunicate both if they married. Henry, undeterred, agreed to a 200,000 ecus dowry, which became irrelevant upon Edward's death in 1553.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen of Spain.", "content": "Elisabeth married Philip II of Spain son of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Isabella of Portugal in 1559. Originally married via proxy at Notre Dame (with the Duke of Alba standing in for Philip) prior to leaving France, the actual ceremony took place in Guadalajara, Spain, upon her arrival. The marriage was a result of the Peace of Cateau Cambrésis (1559). His second wife, Mary I of England, had recently died, making Elisabeth of Valois Philip's third wife.  At her wedding she met the painter Sofonisba Anguissola, and Ana de Mendoza, who would live with her the rest of her life. Philip II appointed Anguissola to be a lady-in-waiting and court painter for his queen. Under Anguissola's tutelage, Elisabeth improved her amateur painting skills. Anguissola also influenced the artistic works of her children, Isabella Clara Eugenia and Caterina Michaela, during her time at the court.  Philip was completely enchanted by his 14-year-old bride, and by 1564 had given up his infidelities. Despite the significant age difference, Elisabeth was also quite pleased with her husband. (In letters to her mother, she proclaimed herself to be fortunate to have married so charming a prince.) Philip enjoyed hosting chivalric tournaments to entertain his wife. Elisabeth would play liege lady to the three young princes of the Spanish Court: Carlos, Prince of Asturias, John of Austria (illegitimate son of Charles V), and Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma (son of Charles V's illegitimate daughter Margaret).  Elisabeth had originally been betrothed to Philip's son, Carlos, Prince of Asturias, but political complications unexpectedly necessitated instead a marriage to Philip. Her relationship with her troubled stepson Carlos was warm and friendly. Despite reports of his progressively bizarre behavior, Carlos was always kind and gentle to Elisabeth. When it eventually became necessary for Philip to lock him away (which shortly led to the Prince's demise), Elisabeth cried for days.  Philip was very attached to Elisabeth, staying close by her side even when she was ill with smallpox. Elisabeth's first pregnancy in 1564 ended with a miscarriage of twin girls. She later gave birth to Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain on 12 August 1566, and then to Isabella's younger sister Catherine Michelle of Spain on 10 October 1567. Phillip and Elisabeth were very close to both of their daughters buying them jams, dolls, toys and more. It is said 'both rejoiced at the birth of Isabella as if it had been the birth of a son'. Elisabeth had another miscarriage on 3 October 1568, and died the same day, along with her newborn infant daughter.  After the death of Elisabeth, Catherine de' Medici offered her younger daughter Margaret as a bride for Philip. Philip declined the offer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Elisabeth of Valois is a central character in Thomas Otway's play \"Don Carlos\", in Schiller's play of the same name, in Verdi's opera adapted from Schiller's play, also titled \"Don Carlos\", and in several other, less well-known operas; Antonio Buzzolla's version of 1850 is actually named \"Elisabetta di Valois\". All these works imply a tragic romance between Elisabeth and Carlos, suggesting that they were really in love with each other when Elisabeth was forced to break off her engagement to Carlos and marry his father Philip.  In Madame de Lafayette's novella \"The Princesse de Cleves\", Elisabeth of Valois' marriage to Philip II is the occasion for the wedding games at which her father Henri II dies; her role is brief but it substantially affects the novella's narrative arc.  Elisabeth of Valois is portrayed by Caoimhe O'Malley (in the Pilot) on the CW show, Reign, then later by Anastasia Phillips in the fourth season of the show. Rather than the “plain Jane” of her family the character is portrayed as beautiful and her timid and shy personality is changed to that of one more forceful, cold, insensitive and quite controlling which is driven out of her legitimate desire for her mother's affections. Her name \"Elisabeth\" is spelled with an S instead of a Z though in the fourth season she is simply called \"Leeza\" as not to be confused with Queen Elizabeth I. In the first episode, Leeza is married to King Philip of Spain, leaves for Spain with her husband without speaking any lines, and isn't physically seen until fourth season of the show. Though not seen until the fourth season, she is mentioned as a possible option for god-mother to her King Francis' (her brother's) son John in the second season. In the third season, her kingdom is chosen as a safe haven for her younger sisters and brothers after a group calling themselves \"The Red Knights\" threaten revenge on the Valois family. Making her physical return to the show, she is one of the four Queens (Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth I and her mother, regent Queen Catherine) to be featured during the season. During her appearance, she spends time in French court as an envoy of Spain and voice of her husband's wishes as well rival for her mother.  Elisabeth of Valois is a major character in \"The Creation of Eve\", a novel by Lynn Cullen based on the history of Sofonisba Anguissola, the first renowned female artist of the Italian Renaissance. In the novel, Sofonisba is the painting tutor and premier lady-in-waiting for young Queen Elisabeth.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elisabeth of Valois (; ) (2 April 1545 – 3 October 1568) was a Spanish queen consort as the third spouse of Philip II of Spain. She was the eldest daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973017}
{"src_title": "Moulins, Allier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Moulins is located on the banks of the Allier River.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Before the French Revolution, Moulins was the capital of the province of Bourbonnais and the seat of the Dukes of Bourbon. It appears in documented records at least as far back as the year 990. In 1232, Archambaud VIII, Sire de Bourbon granted a franchise to the village's inhabitants.  The town achieved greater prominence in 1327, when Charles IV elevated Louis I de Clermont to Duke of Bourbon. Either Louis or the later Peter II, Duke of Bourbon and of Auvergne moved the capital of the province from Bourbon-l'Archambault to Moulins.  In February 1566 it became eponymous to the Edict of Moulins, an important royal ordinance dealing with many aspects of the administration of justice and feudal and ecclesiastical privilege, including limitations on the appanages held by French princes, abrogation of the levy of rights of tallage claimed by seigneurs over their dependants, and provisions for a system of concessions on rivers.  This was the birthplace of the great 19th-century operatic baritone and art collector Jean-Baptiste Faure. In the 20th century, Coco Chanel went to school in Moulins as an orphan, before moving to Paris, where she became a fashion designer and major innovator in women's clothing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns.", "content": "Moulins is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Moulins-sur-Allier station, in the centre of the town, has direct trains to Paris Paris-Gare de Lyon, which take about 2 hours 25 minutes.  Montbeugny Airport is a small airport located near Moulins.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Moulins (; ) is a commune in central France, capital of the Allier department. It is located on the Allier River.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973018}
{"src_title": "Romuald", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "According to the \"vita\" by Peter Damian, written about fifteen years after Romuald's death, Romuald was born in Ravenna, in northeastern Italy, to the aristocratic Onesti family. His father was Sergius degli Onesti and his mother was Traversara Traversari. As a youth, according to early accounts, Romuald indulged in the pleasures and sins of the world common to a tenth-century nobleman. At the age of twenty he served as second to his father, who killed a relative in a duel over property. Romuald was devastated, and went to the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe to do 40 days of penance. After some indecision, Romuald became a monk there. San Apollinare had recently been reformed by St. Mayeul of Cluny Abbey, but still was not strict enough in its observance to satisfy Romuald. His injudicious correction of the less zealous aroused such enmity against him that he applied for, and was readily granted, permission to retire to Venice, where he placed himself under the direction of a hermit named Marinus and lived a life of extraordinary severity. About 978, Pietro Orseolo I, Doge of Venice, who had obtained his office by acquiescence in the murder of his predecessor, began to suffer remorse for his crime. On the advice of Guarinus, Abbot of San Miguel-de-Cuxa, in Catalonia, and of Marinus and Romuald, he abandoned his office and relations, and fled to Cuxa, where he took the habit of St. Benedict, while Romuald and Marinus erected a hermitage close to the monastery. Romuald lived there for about ten years, taking advantage of the library of Cuxa to refine his ideas regarding monasticism.  After that he spent the next 30 years going about Italy, founding and reforming monasteries and hermitages. His reputation being known to advisors of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III, Romuald was persuaded by him to take the vacant office of abbot at Sant'Apollinare to help bring about a more dedicated way of life there. The monks, however, resisted his reforms, and after a year, Romuald resigned, hurling his abbot's staff at Otto's feet in total frustration. He then again withdrew to the eremetical life.  In 1012 he arrived at the Diocese of Arezzo. Here, according to the legend, a certain Maldolus, who had seen a vision of monks in white garments ascending into Heaven, gave him some land, afterwards known as the Campus Maldoli, or Camaldoli. St. Romuald built on this land five cells for hermits, which, with the monastery at Fontebuono, built two years later, became the famous mother-house of the Camaldolese Order. Romuald's daunting charisma awed Rainier of Tuscany, who was neither able to face Romuald nor to send him away. Romuald founded several other monasteries, including the monastery of Val di Castro, where he died in 1027.  Romuald's feast day was not included in the Tridentine Calendar. It was added in 1594 for celebration on 19 June, the date of his death, but in the following year it was transferred by Pope Clement VIII to 7 February, the anniversary of the transfer of his relics to Fabriano in 1481, and in 1969 it was moved back to the day of his death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "St. Romuald's Rule.", "content": "In his youth Romuald became acquainted with three major schools of western monastic tradition. Sant'Apollinare in Classe was a traditional Benedictine monastery under the influence of the Cluniac reforms. Marinus followed a much harsher, ascetic and solitary lifestyle, which was originally of Irish eremitic origins. The abbot of Sant Miguel de Cuxa, Guarinus, had also begun reforms but mainly built upon a third Christian tradition, that of the Iberian Peninsula. Romuald was able to integrate these different traditions and establish his own monastic order. The admonition in his rule \"Empty yourself completely and sit waiting\" places him in relation to the long Christian history of intellectual stillness and interior passivity in meditation also reflected in the nearly contemporary Byzantine ascetic practice known as Hesychasm.  \"Sit in your cell as in paradise. Put the whole world behind you and forget it. Watch your thoughts like a good fisherman watching for fish. The path you must follow is in the Psalms — never leave it.\" \"If you have just come to the monastery, and in spite of your good will you cannot accomplish what you want, take every opportunity you can to sing the Psalms in your heart and to understand them with your mind. And if your mind wanders as you read, do not give up; hurry back and apply your mind to the words once more.\"  Archbishop Cosmo Francesco Ruppi noted that, \"Interiorization of the spiritual dimension, the primacy of solitude and contemplation, slow penetration of the Word of God and calm meditation on the Psalms are the pillars of Camaldolese spirituality, which St. Romuald gives as the essential core of his Rule.\"  Romuald's reforms provided a structural context to accommodate both the eremitic and cenobitic aspects of monastic life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Romuald (; 951 – traditionally 19 June, c. 1025/27 AD) was the founder of the Camaldolese order and a major figure in the eleventh-century \"Renaissance of eremitical asceticism\". Romuald spent about 30 years traversing Italy, founding and reforming monasteries and hermitages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973019}
{"src_title": "Bob Beamon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Robert Beamon was born in South Jamaica, Queens, New York and grew up in the New York Housing Authority's Jamaica Houses.  When he was attending Jamaica High School he was discovered by Larry Ellis, a renowned track coach. Beamon later became part of the All-American track and field team. Beamon began his college career at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, to be close to his ill grandmother. After her death, he transferred to the University of Texas at El Paso, where he received a track and field scholarship.  In 1965 Beamon set a national high school triple jump record and was second in the nation in the long jump. In 1967 he won the AAU indoor title and earned a silver medal at the Pan American Games, both in the long jump.  Beamon was suspended from the University of Texas at El Paso for participating in a boycott of competition with Brigham Young University because of the Book of Mormon's teachings on race. Fellow Olympian Ralph Boston became his unofficial coach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1968 Summer Olympics.", "content": "Beamon entered the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City as the favorite to win the gold medal, having won 22 of the 23 meets he had competed in that year, including a career best of 8.33 m (equivalent to 27 feet 4 inches) and a world's best of 8.39 m that was ineligible for the record books due to excessive wind assistance. That year he won the AAU and NCAA indoor long jump and triple jump titles, as well as the AAU outdoor long jump title. He came close to missing the Olympic final, overstepping on his first two attempts in qualifying. With only one chance left, Beamon re-measured his approach run from a spot in front of the board and made a fair jump that advanced him to the final. There he faced the two previous gold-medal winners, American Ralph Boston (1960) and Lynn Davies of Great Britain (1964), and twice bronze medallist Igor Ter-Ovanesyan of the Soviet Union. On October 18, Beamon set a world record for the long jump with a first jump of 8.90 m, bettering the existing record by 55 cm. When the announcer called out the distance for the jump, Beamon—unfamiliar with metric measurements—still did not realize what he had done. When his teammate and coach Ralph Boston told him that he had broken the world record by nearly two feet, his legs gave way and an astonished and overwhelmed Beamon suffered a brief cataplexy attack brought on by the emotional shock, and collapsed to his knees, his body unable to support itself, placing his hands over his face. The defending Olympic champion Lynn Davies told Beamon, \"You have destroyed this event\", and in sports jargon, a new adjective – \"Beamonesque\" – came into use to describe spectacular feats.  Prior to Beamon's jump, the world record had been broken thirteen times since 1901, with an average increase of 6 cm and the largest increase being 15 cm (6 in.). In the years following the jump, the mark was considered unbeatable. It took 12 years for another human being to jump 28 feet, much less 29. His world record stood for 23 years until it was finally broken in 1991 when Mike Powell jumped 8.95 m at the World Championships in Tokyo, but Beamon's jump is still the Olympic record and years later remains the second-longest wind-legal jump in history. One journalist called Beamon \"the man who saw lightning\". Sports journalist Dick Schaap wrote a book about the leap, \"The Perfect Jump\".  Beamon landed his jump near the far end of the sand pit, but the optical device which had been installed to measure jump distances was not designed to measure a jump of such length. This forced the officials to measure the jump manually which added to the jump's aura.  Beamon's world-record jump was named by \"Sports Illustrated\" magazine as one of the five greatest sports moments of the 20th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Shortly after the Mexico City Olympics, Beamon was drafted by the Phoenix Suns in the 15th round of the 1969 NBA draft but never played in an NBA game. In 1972 he graduated from Adelphi University with a degree in sociology.  Beamon has worked in a variety of roles to promote youth athleticism, including collaborations with former California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and Beamon's work at the athletic programs of several universities. He is a graphic artist with work exhibited by the Art of the Olympians (AOTO), and was the former chief executive of the Art of the Olympians Museum in Fort Myers, Florida.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "Beamon is in the National Track and Field Hall of Fame, and when the United States Olympic Hall of Fame started to induct athletes in 1983, Beamon was one of the first inductees. There is a Bob Beamon Street in El Paso, Texas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Beamon (born August 29, 1946) is an American former track and field athlete, best known for his world record in the long jump at the Mexico City Olympics in 1968. He broke the existing record by a margin of 55 cm and his world record stood for almost 23 years until it was broken in 1991 by Mike Powell., the jump is still the Olympic record and the second longest wind legal jump in history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973020}
{"src_title": "Jan Łaski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Jan Łaski was born in Łask, the son of Jaroslaw Łaski, the voivode of Sieradz Voivodship, and Susanna Bąk, the daughter of Zbigniew Bąk of Bąkowa Góra. His uncle, also Jan Łaski, was by turns royal secretary, Archbishop of Gniezno, Primate of Poland and Grand Chancellor of the Crown; he was also the uncle of King Sigismund I the Old. Both Jan Łaskis' coat-of-arms was \"Korab\".  After his family's fall from political power and prestige, Łaski, a learned priest, went in 1523 to Basel, where he became a close friend of Erasmus and Zwingli. In 1542, he became pastor of a Protestant church at Emden, East Frisia. Shortly after, he went to England, where in 1550 he was superintendent of the Strangers' Church of London and had some influence on ecclesiastical affairs in the reign of Edward VI. On the accession of Roman Catholic Queen Mary in July 1553, he fled to Copenhagen with a shipload of refugees from the Strangers' Church. However they were denied refuge there because they would not accept the Augsburg Confession of Faith. They were resettled in Brandenburg. Łaski also helped Catherine Willoughby and her husband after they too had left England. His support enabled them to obtain an appointment from Sigismund II as administrators of Lithuania. Łaski was a correspondent of John Hooper, whom Łaski supported in the vestments controversy.  In 1556, he was recalled to Poland, where he became secretary to King Sigismund II and was a leader in the Calvinist Reformation.  His contributions to the Reformed churches were the establishment of church government in theory and practice, a denial of any distinction between ministers and elders except in terms of who could teach and administer the sacraments. With fellow Reformed ministers, Martin Micron, and Gellius Faber, John à Lasco wrote long treatises and had an extensive dialogue with Anabaptist Menno Simons, who understood \"the Word became flesh\" in a literal way and denied the orthodox view that \"the Word took on flesh\" in the incarnation.  He died in Pińczów, Poland.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jan Łaski or Johannes à Lasco (1499 – 8 January 1560) was a Polish Reformed reformer. Owing to his influential work in England (c. 1543–1555) during the English Reformation, he is known to the English-speaking world by the Anglicised form John à Lasco (or less commonly, John Laski).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973021}
{"src_title": "Cone cell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Humans normally have three types of cones. The first responds the most to light of longer wavelengths, peaking at about 560 nm; this type is sometimes designated L for long. The second type responds the most to light of medium-wavelength, peaking at 530 nm, and is abbreviated M for medium. The third type responds the most to short-wavelength light, peaking at 420 nm, and is designated S for short. The three types have peak wavelengths near 564–580 nm, 534–545 nm, and 420–440 nm, respectively, depending on the individual. Such a difference is caused by the different opsins they carry, OPN1LW, OPN1MW, OPN1SW respectively. The CIE 1931 color space is an often-used model of spectral sensitivities of the three cells of an average human being.  While it has been discovered that there exists a mixed type of bipolar cells that bind to both rod and cone cells, bipolar cells still predominantly receive their input from cone cells.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shape and arrangement.", "content": "Cone cells are somewhat shorter than rods, but wider and tapered, and are much less numerous than rods in most parts of the retina, but greatly outnumber rods in the fovea. Structurally, cone cells have a cone-like shape at one end where a pigment filters incoming light, giving them their different response curves. They are typically 40–50 μm long, and their diameter varies from 0.5 to 4.0 μm, being smallest and most tightly packed at the center of the eye at the fovea. The S cone spacing is slightly larger than the others.  Photobleaching can be used to determine cone arrangement. This is done by exposing dark-adapted retina to a certain wavelength of light that paralyzes the particular type of cone sensitive to that wavelength for up to thirty minutes from being able to dark-adapt making it appear white in contrast to the grey dark-adapted cones when a picture of the retina is taken. The results illustrate that S cones are randomly placed and appear much less frequently than the M and L cones. The ratio of M and L cones varies greatly among different people with regular vision (e.g. values of 75.8% L with 20.0% M versus 50.6% L with 44.2% M in two male subjects).  Like rods, each cone cell has a synaptic terminal, an inner segment, and an outer segment as well as an interior nucleus and various mitochondria. The synaptic terminal forms a synapse with a neuron such as a bipolar cell. The inner and outer segments are connected by a cilium. The inner segment contains organelles and the cell's nucleus, while the outer segment, which is pointed toward the back of the eye, contains the light-absorbing materials.  Unlike rods, the outer segments of cones have invaginations of their cell membranes that create stacks of membranous disks. Photopigments exist as transmembrane proteins within these disks, which provide more surface area for light to affect the pigments. In cones, these disks are attached to the outer membrane, whereas they are pinched off and exist separately in rods. Neither rods nor cones divide, but their membranous disks wear out and are worn off at the end of the outer segment, to be consumed and recycled by phagocytic cells.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "The difference in the signals received from the three cone types allows the brain to perceive a continuous range of colors, through the opponent process of color vision. (Rod cells have a peak sensitivity at 498 nm, roughly halfway between the peak sensitivities of the S and M cones.)  All of the receptors contain the protein photopsin, with variations in its conformation causing differences in the optimum wavelengths absorbed.  The color yellow, for example, is perceived when the L cones are stimulated slightly more than the M cones, and the color red is perceived when the L cones are stimulated significantly more than the M cones. Similarly, blue and violet hues are perceived when the S receptor is stimulated more. Cones are most sensitive to light at wavelengths around 420 nm. However, the lens and cornea of the human eye are increasingly absorptive to shorter wavelengths, and this sets the short wavelength limit of human-visible light to approximately 380 nm, which is therefore called 'ultraviolet' light. People with aphakia, a condition where the eye lacks a lens, sometimes report the ability to see into the ultraviolet range. At moderate to bright light levels where the cones function, the eye is more sensitive to yellowish-green light than other colors because this stimulates the two most common (M and L) of the three kinds of cones almost equally. At lower light levels, where only the rod cells function, the sensitivity is greatest at a blueish-green wavelength.  Cones also tend to possess a significantly elevated visual acuity because each cone cell has a lone connection to the optic nerve, therefore, the cones have an easier time telling that two stimuli are isolated. Separate connectivity is established in the inner plexiform layer so that each connection is parallel.  The response of cone cells to light is also directionally nonuniform, peaking at a direction that receives light from the center of the pupil; this effect is known as the Stiles–Crawford effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Color afterimage.", "content": "Sensitivity to a prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time, leading to neural adaptation. An interesting effect occurs when staring at a particular color for a minute or so. Such action leads to an exhaustion of the cone cells that respond to that color – resulting in the afterimage. This vivid color aftereffect can last for a minute or more.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clinical significance.", "content": "One of the diseases related to cone cells present in retina is retinoblastoma. Retinoblastoma is a rare cancer of the retina, caused by the mutation of both copies of retinoblastoma genes (RB1). Most cases of retinoblastoma occur during early childhood. One or both eyes may be affected. The protein encoded by RB1 regulates a signal transduction pathway while controlling the cell cycle progression as normally. Retinoblastoma seems to originate in cone precursor cells present in the retina that consist of natural signalling networks which restrict cell death and promote cell survival after losing the RB1, or having both the RB1 copies mutated. It has been found that TRβ2 which is a transcription factor specifically affiliated with cones is essential for rapid reproduction and existence of the retinoblastoma cell. A drug that can be useful in the treatment of this disease is MDM2 (murine double minute 2) gene. Knockdown studies have shown that the MDM2 gene silences ARF-induced apoptosis in retinoblastoma cells and that MDM2 is necessary for the survival of cone cells. It is unclear at this point why the retinoblastoma in humans is sensitive to RB1 inactivation.  The pupil may appear white or have white spots. A white glow in the eye is often seen in photographs taken with a flash, instead of the typical \"red eye\" from the flash, and the pupil may appear white or distorted. Other symptoms can include crossed eyes, double vision, eyes that do not align, eye pain and redness, poor vision or differing iris colors in each eye. If the cancer has spread, bone pain and other symptoms may occur.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cone cells, or cones, are photoreceptor cells in the retinas of vertebrate eyes including the human eye. They respond differently to light of different wavelengths, and are thus responsible for color vision, and function best in relatively bright light, as opposed to rod cells, which work better in dim light. Cone cells are densely packed in the fovea centralis, a 0.3 mm diameter rod-free area with very thin, densely packed cones which quickly reduce in number towards the periphery of the retina. There are about six to seven million cones in a human eye and are most concentrated towards the macula.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973022}
{"src_title": "Luigi Fagioli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Born in the small city of Osimo, in the Marche region of central Italy, as a boy Luigi Fagioli was fascinated by the relatively new invention of the automobile and the ensuing racing. Blessed with great natural driving instincts, a young Fagioli spent several years participating in hillclimbing and sports car races before entering Grand Prix racing in 1926. By 1930, his racing success led to an opportunity to join the Maserati team on the Grand Prix motor racing circuit. He immediately made his presence felt, winning the Coppa Ciano and Circuit of Avellino. In April of the following year he went head to head with Louis Chiron and his Bugatti Type 51 at the Monaco Grand Prix. In what is one of racing's most famous battles, Chiron eventually won but Fagioli showed how skilled he was in a car geared for great speed on long stretches, not the tight twists and short runs of Monte Carlo. Fagioli went on to take the victory at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza in Monza, Italy beating Chiron as well as fellow Italian greats, Achille Varzi and Tazio Nuvolari. In 1932, Fagioli won the Grand Prix of Rome driving for Maserati but for the 1933 season he was signed by the Alfa Romeo team of Scuderia Ferrari. Driving an Alfa Romeo P3, he won the Coppa Acerbo, the Grand Prix du Comminges, and the Italian Grand Prix.  A supremely confident Fagioli often displayed a fiery temper and retaliated against other drivers on the track when he felt they had done something wrong. Also, he frequently took chances that others might not and as such he developed a somewhat negative reputation after he had several significant race crashes. Nevertheless, his talents were considerable and for the 1934 season he was lured away by Mercedes to drive one of their Silver Arrows with the brilliant Hermann Lang as his chief mechanic. The move proved successful for Fagioli but his relationship with the German team manager and co-drivers was extremely difficult. In his very first race for Mercedes, one their cars dominated, a furious Fagioli abandoned his vehicle after having been given orders by team manager Alfred Neubauer to stay in second place and allow fellow Mercedes driver Manfred von Brauchitsch to win. Despite the problems, Fagioli remained part of the German team, earning his second consecutive Coppa Acerbo and together with Rudolf Caracciola, drove a Mercedes W25A to claim his second straight Italian Grand Prix title. Following this, Fagioli went on to take first place at the Spanish Grand Prix at the Circuito Lasarte.  For the 1935 racing season, his factory Mercedes was upgraded to a W25B model with which he captured the Monaco Grand Prix and the AVUS and Penya Rhin Grand Prix races. However, his relationship with his teammates worsened, in particular, Rudolf Caracciola and in some races Fagioli tried to pass Caracciola against team orders. He left Mercedes at the end of the 1936 season and joined Auto Union where his rivalry with Caracciola escalated, culminating at the Tripoli Grand Prix when Fagioli physically attacked his former teammate.  Health problems, including crippling rheumatism, soon began to severely affect Luigi Fagioli's racing ability. At the Coppa Acerbo he needed the aid of a cane just to walk and had no choice but to drop out of the race. With his health somewhat improved, following the end of World War II, 52-year-old Luigi Fagioli joined Alfa-Romeo's 1950 Formula One team driving the 158/159 Alfetta, earning five podium finishes in six races en route to finishing a remarkable third overall in the first ever FIA World Championship. He even entered the final round as one of three drivers in contention for the title, despite not winning a race. His only Grand Prix of 1951 was his last, but he nevertheless won the French Grand Prix with Juan-Manuel Fangio, earning the distinction of being the oldest person to ever win a Formula One race. During the race, the Alfa Romeo team manager ordered him to hand over his healthy car to Fangio while Fagioli would drive Fangio's car, which was plagued with engine problems. Ferrari had done the same, ordering José Froilán González to hand over to the quicker and more experienced Alberto Ascari; this was common practice in Grand Prix racing before 1957. Fangio battled hard with Ascari and took victory while Fagioli finished 11th and last in Fangio's original car, 22 laps down. Fagioli was so incensed by this that he retired from Grand Prix racing after this race. For 1952, Fagioli signed with Lancia to drive sports cars and took great personal delight by finishing in third place in the Mille Miglia ahead of arch rival Rudolf Caracciola. Shortly after, while practising for the Monaco Grand Prix, which was run as a sports car race that year, he had what appeared to be a minor crash: however, his internal injuries were such that he died in hospital three weeks later.  Luigi Fagioli ranks as one of Italy's greatest race car drivers, and has the second-highest percentage of podium finishes in the Formula One World Championship (85.71%), after \"one-time wonder\" Dorino Serafini.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Racing record.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complete Formula One World Championship results.", "content": "<nowiki>*</nowiki> Two shared drives with Juan Manuel Fangio, resulting in positions 1 and 11, respectively. Each driver scored half points for the win.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Luigi Cristiano Fagioli (; 9 June 1898 – 20 June 1952), nicknamed \"the Abruzzo robber\", was an Italian motor racing driver. He is currently the oldest driver to win a race in Formula One, also being the only race winner born outside the 20th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973023}
{"src_title": "Grumman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Leroy Grumman worked for the Loening Aircraft Engineering Corporation beginning in 1920, and when it was bought by Keystone Aircraft Corporation and the operations were moved from New York City to Bristol, Pennsylvania in 1929 Grumman and his partners, all ex-Leoning Aircraft employees, (Edmund Ward Poor, William Schwendler, Jake Swirbul, and Clint Towl) started their own company in an old Cox-Klemin Aircraft Co. factory in Baldwin on Long Island, New York.  The company registered as a business on December 5, 1929, and officially opened on January 2, 1930. While maintaining the business by welding aluminum tubing for truck frames, the company eagerly pursued contracts with the US Navy. Grumman designed the first practical floats with a retractable landing gear for the Navy, and this launched Grumman into the aviation market. The first Grumman aircraft was also for the Navy, the Grumman FF-1, a biplane with retractable landing gear. This was followed by a number of other successful designs.  During World War II, Grumman became known for its \"Cats\", Navy fighter aircraft, F4F Wildcat and F6F Hellcat, the less well known Grumman F7F Tigercat and Grumman F8F Bearcat, and for its torpedo bomber TBF Avenger. Grumman ranked 22nd among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. Grumman's first jet aircraft was the F9F Panther; it was followed by the upgraded F9F/F-9 Cougar, and the less well known F-11 Tiger in the 1950s. The company's big postwar successes came in the 1960s with the A-6 Intruder and E-2 Hawkeye and in the 1970s with the Grumman EA-6B Prowler and F-14 Tomcat. Grumman products were prominent in several feature movies including \"The Final Countdown\" in 1980 and \"Top Gun\" in 1986. The U.S. Navy still employs the Hawkeye as part of Carrier Air Wings on board aircraft carriers, while the U.S. Marine Corps, the last branch of service to fly the Prowler retired it on March 8, 2019.  Grumman was the chief contractor on the Apollo Lunar Module that landed men on the moon. The firm received the contract on November 7, 1962, and built 13 lunar modules; 6 out of those lunar models landed on the moon. The last lunar module was given permanently to the Smithsonian Institution. As the Apollo program neared its end, Grumman was one of the main competitors for the contract to design and build the Space Shuttle but lost to Rockwell International.  In 1969 the company changed its name to Grumman Aerospace Corporation, and in 1978 it sold the Grumman-American Division to Gulfstream Aerospace. That same year, it acquired the bus manufacturer Flxible. The company built the Grumman Long Life Vehicle (LLV), a light transport mail truck designed for and used by the United States Postal Service. The mail truck had been built from 1987 until 1994. Originally, it was supposed to stay in usage for 24 years, although, some of them are still in service today. In December 1982, Grumman announced that they will be selling Flxible for $40 million to the General Automotive Corporation of Ann Arbor.  Grumman was responsible for a successful line of business aircraft including the Gulfstream I turboprop (Grumman model G-159) and Gulfstream II business jet (Grumman model G-1159) which were operated by a number of companies and private individuals as well as by government agencies including various military entities and NASA. In addition, the Gulfstream I propjet was operated by several commuters/regional airlines in scheduled passenger services and included a stretched version, being the Gulfstream I-C (Grumman model G-159C) which could transport 37 passengers. Gulfstream business jets continue to be currently manufactured by Gulfstream Aerospace which is a wholly-owned subsidiary of General Dynamics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Long Island location.", "content": "For much of the Cold War period, Grumman was the largest corporate employer on Long Island. Grumman's products were considered so reliable and ruggedly built that the company was often referred to as the \"Grumman Iron Works\".  As the company grew, it moved to Valley Stream, New York, then Farmingdale, New York, finally to Bethpage, New York, with the testing and final assembly at the Naval Weapons Station in Calverton, New York, all located on Long Island. At its peak in 1986 it employed 23,000 people on Long Island and occupied in structures on it leased from the U.S. Navy in Bethpage.  The end of the Cold War at the beginning of the 1990s reduced defense spending and led to a wave of mergers as aerospace companies shrank in number; in 1994 Northrop bought Grumman for $2.1 billion to form Northrop Grumman, after Northrop topped a $1.9 billion offer from Martin Marietta.  The new company closed almost all of its facilities on Long Island and converted the Bethpage plant to a residential and office complex, with its headquarters becoming the corporate headquarters for Cablevision and the Calverton plant being turned into a business/industrial complex. Former aircraft hangars have become Grumman Studios, a film and television production center. A portion of the airport property has been used for the Grumman Memorial Park.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, later Grumman Aerospace Corporation, was a leading 20th century American producer of military and civilian aircraft. Founded on December 6, 1929, by Leroy Grumman and partners, it merged in 1994 with Northrop Corporation to form Northrop Grumman.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973024}
{"src_title": "Gennady Rozhdestvensky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Gennady Rozhdestvensky was born in Moscow. His parents were the noted conductor and pedagogue Nikolai Anosov and soprano Natalya Rozhdestvenskaya. His given name was Gennady Nikolayevich Anosov, but he adopted his mother’s maiden name in its masculine form for his professional career so as to avoid the appearance of nepotism. His younger brother, the painter P.N. Anosov, retained their father's name.  He studied conducting with his father at the Moscow Conservatory and piano with Lev Oborin. Already known for having conducted Tchaikovsky's \"The Nutcracker\" ballet at the Bolshoi Theatre at the age of 20, he quickly established his reputation. He premiered many works by Soviet composers, including Edison Denisov's \"Le soleil des Incas\" (\"The Sun of the Incas\"; 1964), as well as giving the Russian premiere of Benjamin Britten's \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\" and the Western premiere of Dmitri Shostakovich's Fourth Symphony at the 1962 Edinburgh Festival.  He became general artistic director of the Bolshoi Theatre in 2000, and in 2001 conducted the world premiere of the original version of Sergei Prokofiev's opera \"The Gambler\". Not long afterwards he resigned, citing desertion by singers, production problems and hostile coverage by the Moscow press.  Among the works dedicated to Rozhdestvensky are Sofia Gubaidulina's symphony \"Stimmen... Verstummen...\" and several of Alfred Schnittke's works, such as Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 8, and Symphony No. 9. Schnittke wrote of him:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conducting.", "content": "Rozhdestvensky was considered a versatile conductor and a highly cultured musician with a supple stick technique. In moulding his interpretations, he gave a clear idea of the structural outlines and emotional content of a piece, combined with a performing style which melded logic, intuition and spontaneity. In the Soviet Union, he recorded extensively with the big three major contemporary soloists David Oistrakh (violin, Sviatoslav Richter (piano) and Mstislav Rostropovich (cello).  Rozhdestvensky is featured in the documentary \"Notes interdites: scènes de la vie musicale en Russie Soviétique\" (English title: \"The Red Baton\"), which examines the hardships faced by musicians in the Soviet Union under Stalinism. In it, he describes the political situation and its impact on his life, as well as those of Shostakovich, Prokofiev, Stravinsky, Richter and other colleagues. The role of Tikhon Khrennikov, Secretary of the Union of Soviet Composers, is discussed extensively.  On a lighter note, the documentary features Rozhdestvensky discussing the art of conducting, and includes footage of masterclasses, rehearsals with students from the Moscow Conservatory and Zürich's \"Tonhalle\" orchestra, as well as snippets of Rozhdestvensky conducting Shostakovich's 7th Symphony, Tchaikovsky's \"Romeo and Juliet\", and Alfred Schnittke's \"Dead Souls\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shostakovich interpreter.", "content": "In 2016, Rozhdestvensky was awarded the 7th International Shostakovich Prize for his contribution to the interpretation of the work of Dmitri Shostakovich. At Edinburgh in 1964, he conducted the first performance outside the Soviet Union of the 4th symphony. His 1983 recording of the 8th symphony is considered a classic. He edited the second volume of the collected works of Shostakovich published in 1984, including the Symphony No. 3 and Symphony No. 4.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1969, Rozhdestvensky married the pianist Viktoria Postnikova. Together they recorded Tchaikovsky's piano concertos. Their son, Sasha Rozhdestvensky, is a violinist, with whom Rozhdestvensky senior recorded the Glazunov and Shostakovich violin concertos in 2007.  Gennady Rozhdestvensky died on 16 June 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orchestra tenures.", "content": "With the USSR Ministry of Culture Symphony Orchestra he recorded all the symphonies of Dmitri Shostakovich, Alexander Glazunov, Anton Bruckner, Alfred Schnittke, and Arthur Honegger. He also performed all the symphonies of Ralph Vaughan Williams in Leningrad in the late 1980s. Those have been released, by the Melodiya label, in a complete CD box set in April 2014.  He conducted many of the world's greatest orchestras, including the Berlin Philharmonic, the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, and the London Symphony Orchestra.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gennady Nikolayevich Rozhdestvensky, CBE (; 4 May 1931 – 16 June 2018) was a Soviet and Russian conductor, People's Artist of the USSR (1976), and Hero of Socialist Labour (1990).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973025}
{"src_title": "Roger Martin du Gard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Trained as a paleographer and archivist, he brought to his works a spirit of objectivity and a scrupulous regard for detail, and because of his concern with documentation and the relationship of social reality to individual development, his fiction has been linked with the realist and naturalist traditions of the 19th century. His sympathy for the humanist socialism and pacifism of Jean Jaurès is evident in his work.  He is best known for \"The Thibaults\", a multi-volume \"roman fleuve\" which follows the fortunes of two brothers, Antoine and Jacques Thibault, from their upbringing in a prosperous Catholic bourgeois family to the end of the World War I. Six parts of the novel were published between 1922 and 1929. After abandoning a seventh volume in manuscript, he published two more volumes in 1936 and 1940. Written under the shadow of the darkening international situation in Europe in the 1930s, these last parts, which together are longer than the previous six combined, focus on the political and historical situation leading up to the outbreak of the First World War and bring the story to 1918.  Martin du Gard wrote several other novels, including \"Jean Barois\", which was set against the historical context of the Dreyfus Affair. During World War II, he resided in Nice, where he prepared a novel \"(Souvenirs du lieutenant-colonel de Maumort)\" which remained unfinished at his death. It was posthumously published in 1983. His other works include plays and a memoir of André Gide, a longtime friend.  Roger Martin du Gard died in 1958 and was buried in the Cimiez Monastery Cemetery in Cimiez, a suburb of the city of Nice, France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roger Martin du Gard (; 23 March 1881 – 22 August 1958) was a French novelist, winner of the 1937 Nobel Prize for Literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973026}
{"src_title": "Conrad von Soest", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Works.", "content": "Conrad von Soest's main surviving works are influenced by French illuminated manuscripts and certain early Parisian examples of Early Netherlandish painting; his detailed knowledge of Parisian patterns and techniques points towards a sojourn in Paris as a journeyman in the 1380s:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "The surviving documents relevant to Conrad von Soest are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Citizen of Dortmund.", "content": "As the name 'Conrad von Soest' does not appear in the list of new citizens and as his marriage contract was written in the form reserved for Dortmund citizens, he was clearly born to a Dortmund family.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage contract.", "content": "The marriage contract (\"Morgensprache\"), made before witnesses, between \"Conrad von Soest\" and \"Gertrude, daughter of Lambertes van Munster\", is dated February 11, 1349. The couple was able to dispose of a considerably sum each in this contract. Another unusual aspect of the contract is the number and quality of the witnesses: 6 members of the cosmopolitan, prosperous and well-educated patriciate of Dortmund, among them the second mayor of the current council, Herrmann Klepping, the tertiary council member, Detmar Klepping, and both mayors already elected for the following council year, Arnd Sudermann and Lambert Berswordt. The wealth of the groom and the eminent witnesses may well indicate that this was a second marriage. (A master had to marry before he could open his own workshop and it would then have taken a while to earn such wealth).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Painter of Dortmund.", "content": "According to the membership list of the Confraternity of Mary of 1396, Conrad von Soest lived in the Ostenhellweg, Dortmund's principal thoroughfare. The list also refers to two other painters resident in the Ostenhellweg, Lambert and Hermann. It is unclear whether they were his journeymen, living in his house, or masters presiding over their own workshops in the same street.  Since 1954, the Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe (Landscape Society Westphalia-Lippe) has awarded the Konrad-von-Soest Prize for Visual Arts, endowed with 12,800 euros.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sources and notes.", "content": "Attribution", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Conrad von Soest, also \"Konrad\" in modern texts, or in Middle High German \"Conrad van Sost\" or \"von Soyst\", (born around 1370 in Dortmund; died soon after 1422) was the most significant Westphalian artist and painted in the so-called \"soft style\" of International Gothic. He played a leading role in the introduction of this International Courtly Style to Northern Germany around 1390 and influenced German and Northern European painting into the late 15th century. He was the master of a thriving workshop and was accepted into the social circle of the cosmopolitan patrician elite of Dortmund. Dortmund was then a leading and very prosperous member of the influential Hanseatic League.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973027}
{"src_title": "Vita Karoli Magni", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Literary context.", "content": "Historians have traditionally described the work as the first example of a biography of a European king. The author tried to imitate the style of that of the ancient Roman biographer Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, who is most famous for his \"Lives of the Caesars\". Einhard's biography used especially the model of the biography of Emperor Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Date.", "content": "The date of the work is uncertain, and a number of theories have been put forward. The inclusion of Charlemagne's will at the end of the work makes it fairly clear that it was written after his death in 814. The first reference to the work, however, comes in a letter to Einhard from Lupus of Ferrieres, which is dated to the mid-9th century. Dates have been suggested ranging from about 817 to 833, usually based on interpretations of the text in the political context of the first years of the reign of Louis the Pious and Louis's attitude to his father. No theory has yet emerged as an obvious frontrunner, and it is likely that debate will continue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Author.", "content": "Einhard's book is about intimate glimpses of Charlemagne's personal habits and tastes. He occupied a favoured position at Charlemagne's court so he had inside information. Einhard received advanced schooling at the monastery of Fulda sometime after 779. He was an exceptional student and was quite knowledgeable. The word was sent to Charlemagne of Einhard's expertise. He was then sent to Charlemagne’s Palace School at Aachen in 791. Einhard then received employment at Charlemagne's Frankish court about 796. He remained at this position for twenty some years. Einhard's book was expressly intended to convey his appreciation for advanced education. He wrote his biography after he had left Aachen and was living in Seligenstadt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Einhard and Charlemagne.", "content": "Einhard's position while with Charlemagne was that of a modern minister of public works so he had intimate knowledge of his court. Einhard was also given the responsibility of many of Charlemagne's abbeys. It used to be suggested that Einhard's wife, Emma, was a daughter of Charlemagne; that can generally be disregarded as a twelfth-century fabrication, however, since there is no proof.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reliability.", "content": "Most biographies of the Middle Ages related only good deeds of their subject, with many embellishments to improve their subject. Einhard's biography, however, is considered, for the most part, to be a trustworthy account of Charlemagne's life. It is considered an excellent account of earlier Medieval life. Despite Einhard's limitations, since it was his first attempt at a major writing, the British historian Thomas Hodgkin said, \"almost all our real, vivifying knowledge of Charles the Great is derived from Einhard, and that the \"Vita Karoli Magni\" is one of the most precious literary bequests of the early Middle Ages.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vita Karoli Magni (\"Life of Charles the Great\") is a biography of Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor, written by Einhard.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973028}
{"src_title": "Angara", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Dams and reservoirs.", "content": "Four dams of major hydroelectric plants - constructed since the 1950s - exploit the waters of the Angara:  The reservoirs of these dams flooded a number of villages along the Angara and its tributaries (including the historic fort of Ilimsk on the Ilim), as well as numerous agricultural areas in the river valley. Due to its effects on the way of life of the rural residents of the Angara valley, dam construction was criticized by a number of Soviet intellectuals, in particular by the Irkutsk writer Valentin Rasputin - both in his novel \"Farewell to Matyora\" (1976) and in his non-fiction book \"Siberia, Siberia\" (1991).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Navigation.", "content": "The Angara is navigable by modern watercraft on several isolated sections:  The section between the Ust-Ilimsk Dam and the Boguchany Dam has not been navigable due to rapids. However, with the completion of the Boguchany Dam, and filling of its reservoir, at least part of this section of the river will become navigable as well. Nonetheless, this will not enable through navigation from Lake Baikal to the Yenisey, as none of the existing three dams has been provided with a ship lock or a boat lift, nor will the Boguchany Dam have one.  Despite the absence of a continuous navigable waterway, the Angara and its tributary the Ilim were of considerable importance for Russian colonization of Siberia since ca. 1630, when they (and the necessary portages) formed important water routes connecting the Yenisey with Lake Baikal and the Lena. The river lost its transportation significance after the construction of an overland route between Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk and, later, the Trans-Siberian Railway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries.", "content": "The largest tributaries of the Angara are, from source to mouth:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Angara (Buryat and, \"Angar\", \"Cleft\";, \"Angará\") is a major river in Siberia, which traces a course through Russia's Irkutsk Oblast and Krasnoyarsk Krai. It drains out of Lake Baikal and is the headwater tributary of the Yenisey. It is long, and has a drainage basin of. It was formerly known as the Lower or Nizhnyaya Angara (distinguishing it from the Upper Angara). Below its junction with the Ilim, it was formerly known as the Upper Tunguska (, \"Verkhnyaya Tunguska\", distinguishing it from the Lower Tunguska) and, with the names reversed, as the Lower Tunguska.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973029}
{"src_title": "François Mauriac", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "François Charles Mauriac was born in Bordeaux, France. He studied literature at the University of Bordeaux, graduating in 1905, after which he moved to Paris to prepare for postgraduate study at the École des Chartes.  On 1 June 1933 he was elected a member of the \"Académie française\", succeeding Eugène Brieux.  A former Action française supporter, he turned to the left during the Spanish Civil War, criticizing the Catholic Church for its support of Franco. After the fall of France to the Axis during the Second World War, he briefly supported the collaborationist régime of Marshal Pétain, but joined the Resistance as early as December 1941. He was the only member of the Académie française to publish a Resistance text with the Editions de Minuit.  Mauriac had a bitter dispute with Albert Camus immediately following the Liberation of France. At that time, Camus edited the Resistance paper \"Combat\" (thereafter an overt daily, until 1947), while Mauriac wrote a column for \"Le Figaro\". Camus said newly liberated France should purge all Nazi collaborator elements, but Mauriac warned that such disputes should be set aside in the interests of national reconciliation. Mauriac also doubted that justice would be impartial or dispassionate given the emotional turmoil of the Liberation. Despite having been viciously criticised by Robert Brasillach he campaigned against his execution.  Mauriac also had a bitter public dispute with Roger Peyrefitte, who criticised the Vatican in books such as \"Les Clés de saint Pierre\" (1953). Mauriac threatened to resign from the paper he was working with at the time (\"L'Express\") if they did not stop carrying advertisements for Peyrefitte's books. The quarrel was exacerbated by the release of the film adaptation of Peyrefitte's \"Les Amitiés Particulières\" and culminated in a virulent open letter by Peyrefitte in which he accused Mauriac of homosexual tendencies and called him a Tartuffe, hypocrite.  Mauriac was opposed to French rule in Vietnam, and strongly condemned the use of torture by the French army in Algeria.  In 1952 he won the Nobel Prize in Literature \"for the deep spiritual insight and the artistic intensity with which he has in his novels penetrated the drama of human life\". He was awarded the Grand Cross of the \"Légion d'honneur\" in 1958. He published a series of personal memoirs and a biography of Charles de Gaulle. Mauriac's complete works were published in twelve volumes between 1950 and 1956. He encouraged Elie Wiesel to write about his experiences as a Jew during the Holocaust, and wrote the foreword to Elie Wiesel's book \"Night\".  He was the father of writer Claude Mauriac and grandfather of Anne Wiazemsky, a French actress and author who worked with and married French director Jean-Luc Godard.  François Mauriac died in Paris on 1 September 1970 and was interred in the Cimetière de Vemars, Val d'Oise, France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François Charles Mauriac (, ; 11 October 1885 – 1 September 1970) was a French novelist, dramatist, critic, poet, and journalist, a member of the\" Académie française\" (from 1933), and laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature (1952). He was awarded the Grand Cross of the \"Légion d'honneur\" in 1958. He was a lifelong Catholic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973030}
{"src_title": "Palm Islands", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Palm Jumeirah.", "content": "Palm Jumeirah is the site of private residences and hotels. From the air, the archipelago resembles a stylized palm tree within a circle. Palm Jumeirah was built in the early 21st century and was largely financed from Dubai's income from petroleum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environmental concerns.", "content": "The construction of the Dubai Palm Islands has had a significant impact on the surrounding environment, resulting in changes to area wildlife, coastal erosion, alongshore sediment transport and wave patterns. Sediment stirred up by construction has suffocated and injured local marine fauna and reduced the amount of sunlight which filters down to seashore vegetation. Variations in alongshore sediment transport have resulted in changes in erosion patterns along the UAE coast, which has also been exacerbated by altered wave patterns as the waters of the Persian Gulf attempt to move around the new obstruction of the islands. Dubai's megaprojects have become a favorite cause of environmentalists. Greenpeace has criticized the Palm Islands for lack of sustainability, and Mongabay.com, a site dedicated to rain forest conservation, has attacked Dubai's artificial islands aggressively, stating that:  Significant changes in the maritime environment [of Dubai] are leaving a visual scar [... ] As a result of the dredging and redepositing of sand for the construction of the islands, the typically crystalline waters of the Persian Gulf at Dubai have become severely clouded with silt. Construction activity is damaging the marine habitat, burying coral reefs, oyster beds and subterranean fields of sea grass, threatening local marine species as well as other species dependent on them for food. Oyster beds have been covered in as much as two inches of sediment, while above the water, beaches are eroding with the disruption of natural currents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structural importance.", "content": "Palm Jumeirah was built entirely from sand and rocks (no concrete or steel was used to build the island). This was done in accordance with the order of the Ruler of Dubai, who came up with the idea for the Palm Islands, as well as their design.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Obstacles after the island construction.", "content": "Installation of utilities and pipelines were very difficult and laborious.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Risk mitigation.", "content": "To counteract with the waves and the constant motion of the sea, breakwaters were built all around the island. They were 3 meters high and 160 kilometers in total length. Expanded over a length of about 11.5 kilometers, the base of these breakwaters and the island itself were constantly monitored during construction process with the help of deep sea divers. The divers checked the alignment and placement of the rocks beneath the surface to ensure its stability. Shape of the island was monitored using the global positioning system.  The sand on top of the island was sprayed by a technique called rainbowing. Here the sand from the dredging ships was sprayed on to the land. The whole island was planned such that there was no stagnant water between the island and the breakwaters. In order to achieve this, small structural modifications were made to the breakwaters that surrounded the island, allowing the sea water to move through the breakers without causing any damage to the island.  To prevent erosion of the sand from the island, maintenance systems spray material along the coast of the island and also along the Dubai coast. Coastal ecology was recovered with the help of nature itself. These changes began attracting newer species of fishes and also reef formations. Every 6 weeks sea divers go down under water to check the marine life as part of their monitoring process. Precautions were also taken to prevent the process of liquifaction of the sand on the island (below the upper surface). This process of liquifaction was caused by the movement of the rocks and sand and also underwater erosion before and after construction. A Vibro-compaction technique was used to prevent the process of liquifaction. This was carried out in order to hold the island's base together and also to make a strong foundation for further construction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction effects and repercussions.", "content": "The construction of the Palm islands along the coast of Dubai has caused several large environmental changes: a reduction in the area's aquatic life, erosion of the coastal soil, and irregular sediment transport along the shore. There is also a dramatic change in wave patterns along the coast of Dubai due to the rock walls constructed around the palm islands: instead of hitting the shores directly, the waves move in an unusual manner around the new obstruction. This has led to the weakening of the shores of Dubai.  The origin of most of the environmental damage stems from disturbed sediment from construction of the Palm islands. The sediment decreased the amount of sunlight filtering down to the sea vegetation and injured the surrounding marine fauna. Environmental disturbances caused by changes in sediment and coastal erosion have attracted the attention of environmental groups such as Greenpeace.  The World Wildlife Fund announced in 2006, \"[The] UAE's human pressure on global ecosystems (its ecological footprint) [is] the highest in the world. The country is supposedly at present five times more unsustainable than any other country\" (Samarai 2007). It also mentioned that the construction from the start up to date had caused many visible ecological and environmental changes that were a threat to the future.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remedial measure to protect the coast.", "content": "To properly manage their shorelines and effects, Dubai relies on its coastal monitoring program. Established in 1997, the Dubai coastal monitoring program began studying the baseline bathymetric (measurement of depth of water in oceans or seas) and topographic survey of the Jumeirah (Dubai) coastline.  Additional data were collected with technological improvements including remote video monitoring of Dubai beaches, sediment sampling and analysis, near shore directional wave and current recordings and intensive measurement exercises at selected locations using Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) equipment. This way they were able to do a constant monitor and check on the continuously changing environmental conditions along the coast of Dubai.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Palm Islands are three artificial islands, Palm Jumeirah, Deira Island and Palm Jebel Ali, on the coast of Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Creation of the islands started in 2001.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973031}
{"src_title": "Frederick I, Elector of Saxony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was the eldest son of Frederick III, Landgrave of Thuringia, and Catherine of Henneberg. After the death of his uncle William I, Margrave of Meissen in 1407, he was made governor of the Margraviate of Meissen together with his brother William II as well as with his cousin Frederick IV (son of Balthasar), until their possessions were divided in 1410 and 1415.  In the German town war of 1388 he assisted Frederick V of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg, and in 1391 did the same for the Teutonic Order against Wladislaus II of Poland. He supported Rupert III, Elector Palatine of the Rhine, in his struggle with King Wenceslaus for the German throne, probably because Wenceslaus refused to fulfill a promise to give him his sister Anna in marriage.  The danger to Germany from the Hussites induced Frederick to ally himself with Emperor Sigismund; and he took a leading part in the war against them, during the earlier years of which he met with considerable success. For his victory at the Battle of Brüx in 1421, Frederick was granted the ranks of Duke and Elector. In the prosecution of this enterprise Frederick spent large sums of money, for which he received various places in Bohemia and elsewhere in pledge from Sigismund, who further rewarded him on 6 January 1423 with the vacant electoral Duchy of Saxony-Wittenberg; and Fredericks formal investiture followed at Ofen on the 1 August 1425. Thus ascended Frederick IV, who called himself Frederick I now as duke and elector. Thus spurred to renewed efforts against the Hussites, the elector was endeavouring to rouse the German princes to aid him in prosecuting this war when the Saxon army was almost annihilated at Aussig on the 16 August 1426.  After the death of his brother William, Frederick became the ruler over the entire possession of The House of Wettin except Thuringia.  In 1409, Frederick and his brother William founded the University of Leipzig, for the benefit of German students who had left the University of Prague after the events relating to the Western Schism.  Frederick died in 1428 at Altenburg. He was buried as the first Wettin in the centre of what is now known as the Princes Chapel in Meissen Cathedral. The cathedral is now accessible to the public for a small fee and the tomb is readily seen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Frederick I married Catherine of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1442), daughter of Henry the Mild, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg on 7 February 1402 and had 7 children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick I, the Belligerent or the Warlike (; 11 April 1370 – 4 January 1428), a member of the House of Wettin, ruled as Margrave of Meissen from 1407 and Elector of Saxony (as Frederick I) from 1423 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973032}
{"src_title": "Paul Lincke", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Lincke was born on 7 November 1866 in the Jungfern Bridge district of Berlin. He was the son of magistrate August Lincke and his wife Emilie. His father played the violin in several small orchestras. When Paul was only five years old his father died. Emilie moved with her three children to Adalbertstaße, and later to Eisenbahnstraße, near Lausitzer Platz.  Lincke's early musical inclinations were towards military music. His mother sent him after the completion of secondary school education to Wittenberge. Here he was trained in the Wittenberg City Band under Rudolf Kleinow as a bassoonist. He also learned to play the tenor horn, the drums, the piano and the violin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance and early compositions.", "content": "Instead of pursuing a career as a military musician, Lincke secured employment as a bassoonist at Berlin's Central Theatre, under Adolf Ernst. After one year, he joined the orchestra of the Ostend Theatre.  In entertainment and dance music Lincke gained valuable experience at the Königsstädtischen Theater, the Belle-Alliance-Theater and the Parodie-Theater. He accompanied the musical vaudeville programs and provided his own compositions for popular singers. His \"\" (\"Venus on Earth\"), a revue-like one-act play was created in 1897 at the Apollo Theater in Friedrichstraße.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Success with \"\".", "content": "For two years, Paul Lincke worked at the most famous European vaudeville house, the Folies Bergère in Paris. He then returned with new compositions to the Apollo-Theater where, with huge success in 1899'(Mrs Moon) was premiered. That same year, followed'(In the Realm of Indra), and in 1902 the operetta \"Lysistrata\". The librettos of these were by Heinrich Bolten-Baeckers.  In 1908 Paul Lincke became principal conductor and composer for the Metropol Theater, whose spectacular revues were the capital's biggest attraction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "During the Nazi regime and World War II.", "content": "With the Nazi rise to power in 1933, Lincke maintained his position and was feted by the Nazi regime. In 1937 he was awarded the Silver Medal of Honour of his native city, on his 75th birthday he was made an honorary citizen of Berlin.  His operetta \"\"Frau Luna\"\" (Mrs. Moon) was turned into starring Lizzi Waldmüller, Irene von Meyendorff and Georg Alexander and directed by Theo Lingen in 1941.  In 1943 Lincke toured Marienbad, Bohemia, to conduct \", whose first performance in 1899 is now regarded as the birth of the Berlin operetta. During his absence, his house and his music publisher in Berlin were bombed.  After the war ended, Lincke wanted to return to Berlin. He strove in vain to obtain the approval of the Allies, which, as a native Berliner, he was required to have at that time. With the help of one American General Pierce, he moved first to Arzberg, Bavaria, with his housekeeper Johanna Hildebrandt, who had worked for him for 35 years.  Lincke's ailing health was worsened by the climate there, and he moved again to Hahnenklee. He died there shortly before his 80th birthday. His funeral was held in Hahnenklee, where his grave is still maintained today.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1885, while in the orchestra of the Grand Theatre, Lincke fell in love with the 16-year-old soubrette Anna Mueller, whom he married a year later. His wife later celebrated triumphs with the Berlin audience under the name Anna Müller-Lincke.  In 1901 Lincke divorced his first wife, Anna. That same year he met a young actress who was known under the stage name Ellen Sousa. She played in the Friedrich-Wilhelmstädtischen Theater, and enchanted Lincke from the first moment. Sousa at first rejected his advances but Lincke was persistent. Within a few weeks she had visited his home, and they developed a deeply affectionate relationship, leading to her request to be cast to sing at the Apollo Theater. Sousa had hoped the connection would boost her career, but it did not. She became pregnant and left the stage before giving birth to a son. Lincke now demanded that Sousa fulfil her maternal duties and leave stage work. However, three months later Sousa was again singing at the Apollo.  Lincke offered Ellen Sousa marriage in return for her leaving the stage. She in return demanded a cooling-off period to consider her new role as wife and mother. Lincke experienced another wave of success from Paris, leading to him spending many nights out on the social scene, leaving Sousa at home to attend to her maternal commitments. Lincke now pressured Sousa to choose between him or returning to the stage, giving her ten days to think it over while he left town to make a guest appearance. When he returned after six days, Sousa and the child had moved out.  Years later Ellen Sousa married a wholesale merchant, whom she followed to Dresden and who adopted her son without Lincke's objection. This was the end of his relationship with Ellen Sousa and his son. From those events came his well-known instrumental waltz \"\" (Spurned Love).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Lincke's march \"\" (\"Berlin Air\") is the unofficial anthem of Berlin. It is one of the traditional encores of the Berlin Philharmonic orchestra. The aria comes from the 1922 revision of Lincke's 1899 operetta ', about a trip to the moon in a hot air balloon, where an adventurous party of prominent Berliners meet Frau Luna and her court. The march was originally from Lincke's 1904 two-act burlesque '.  Other Lincke operettas include \" (\"In the Kingdom of Indra\") and \"Lysistrata\". The latter includes the song \"Das Glühwürmchen,\" known in English as \"The Glow-Worm\". It was originally translated into English by Lilla Cayley Robinson in the early 20th century, but American lyricist Johnny Mercer later expanded and greatly revised her lyrics. His version was a hit for the Mills Brothers in 1952, and has been performed by many others.  Lincke also composed the wedding dance played in the 1997 movie \"Titanic\"; it is played while the ship is going down and in the dining room in earlier scenes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carl Emil Paul Lincke (7 November 1866 – 3 September 1946) was a German composer and theater conductor. He is considered the \"father\" of the Berlin operetta. His well-known compositions include \"\" (\"Berlin Air\"), the unofficial anthem of Berlin, from his operetta \"Frau Luna\"; and \"The Glow-Worm\", from his operetta \"Lysistrata\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973033}
{"src_title": "Antonín Panenka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "An attacking midfielder known for the quality of his passing and his free kicks, Panenka played for Bohemians Praha for most of his career, joining the club in 1967. In 1981, Panenka left Bohemians for Austrian club Rapid Wien, where he won two Bundesliga titles and an Austrian Cup. In 1985 Rapid reached the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup final; Panenka played as a substitute, but his side lost 3–1 to Everton. Later that year, Panenka moved to VSE St. Pölten and played two more seasons before moving into the lower leagues in Austria, playing from 1987–89 for Slovan Vienna, from 1989–91 for ASV Hohenau and from 1991–93 for Kleinwiesendorf.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Panenka penalty.", "content": "Panenka came to international prominence playing for Czechoslovakia at UEFA Euro 1976, where Czechoslovakia reached the final, facing West Germany. After extra time, the match finished 2–2, and so the first penalty shootout in a European Championships final ensued. The first seven kicks were converted until West Germany's fourth penalty taker, Uli Hoeneß, ballooned his shot over the bar. With the score 4–3, Panenka stepped up to take the fifth Czechoslovakian penalty, to win the match under immense pressure. He feigned shooting to the side of the goal, causing German goalkeeper Sepp Maier dive to his left, and then gently chipped the ball into the middle of the net. The sheer cheek of the goal led a watching French journalist to dub Panenka \"a poet\", and to this day his winning kick is one of the most famous ever, making Panenka's name synonymous with that particular style of penalty kick.  Since 1976 there have been numerous attempts to emulate Panenka, both successfully and others unsuccessfully, at every level of the sporting pyramid across the world, including in critical match winning moments such as international cup finals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-playing career.", "content": "Today, Panenka works as a president of Bohemians 1905.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antonín Panenka (born 2 December 1948) is a Czech former footballer who played as an attacking midfielder. He played most of his career for Czech club Bohemians Prague. Panenka won UEFA Euro 1976 with Czechoslovakia. In the final against West Germany, he scored the winning penalty in the shootout with a softly-chipped ball up the middle of the goal as the goalkeeper dived away; this style of penalty is now called the Panenka penalty. In 1980, he won Czechoslovak Footballer of the Year and his team finished third at Euro 1980.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973034}
{"src_title": "Information retrieval", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "An information retrieval process begins when a user enters a query into the system. Queries are formal statements of information needs, for example search strings in web search engines. In information retrieval a query does not uniquely identify a single object in the collection. Instead, several objects may match the query, perhaps with different degrees of relevancy.  An object is an entity that is represented by information in a content collection or database. User queries are matched against the database information. However, as opposed to classical SQL queries of a database, in information retrieval the results returned may or may not match the query, so results are typically ranked. This ranking of results is a key difference of information retrieval searching compared to database searching.  Depending on the application the data objects may be, for example, text documents, images, audio, mind maps or videos. Often the documents themselves are not kept or stored directly in the IR system, but are instead represented in the system by document surrogates or metadata.  Most IR systems compute a numeric score on how well each object in the database matches the query, and rank the objects according to this value. The top ranking objects are then shown to the user. The process may then be iterated if the user wishes to refine the query.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The idea of using computers to search for relevant pieces of information was popularized in the article \"As We May Think\" by Vannevar Bush in 1945. It would appear that Bush was inspired by patents for a'statistical machine' - filed by Emanuel Goldberg in the 1920s and '30s - that searched for documents stored on film. The first description of a computer searching for information was described by Holmstrom in 1948, detailing an early mention of the Univac computer. Automated information retrieval systems were introduced in the 1950s: one even featured in the 1957 romantic comedy, Desk Set. In the 1960s, the first large information retrieval research group was formed by Gerard Salton at Cornell. By the 1970s several different retrieval techniques had been shown to perform well on small text corpora such as the Cranfield collection (several thousand documents). Large-scale retrieval systems, such as the Lockheed Dialog system, came into use early in the 1970s.  In 1992, the US Department of Defense along with the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), cosponsored the Text Retrieval Conference (TREC) as part of the TIPSTER text program. The aim of this was to look into the information retrieval community by supplying the infrastructure that was needed for evaluation of text retrieval methodologies on a very large text collection. This catalyzed research on methods that scale to huge corpora. The introduction of web search engines has boosted the need for very large scale retrieval systems even further.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Model types.", "content": "For effectively retrieving relevant documents by IR strategies, the documents are typically transformed into a suitable representation. Each retrieval strategy incorporates a specific model for its document representation purposes. The picture on the right illustrates the relationship of some common models. In the picture, the models are categorized according to two dimensions: the mathematical basis and the properties of the model.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance and correctness measures.", "content": "The evaluation of an information retrieval system' is the process of assessing how well a system meets the information needs of its users. In general, measurement considers a collection of documents to be searched and a search query. Traditional evaluation metrics, designed for Boolean retrieval or top-k retrieval, include precision and recall. All measures assume a ground truth notion of relevancy: every document is known to be either relevant or non-relevant to a particular query. In practice, queries may be ill-posed and there may be different shades of relevancy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Information retrieval (IR) is the activity of obtaining information system resources that are relevant to an information need from a collection of those resources. Searches can be based on full-text or other content-based indexing. Information retrieval is the science of searching for information in a document, searching for documents themselves, and also searching for the metadata that describes data, and for databases of texts, images or sounds.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973035}
{"src_title": "Crystallographic defect", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Point defects.", "content": "Point defects are defects that occur only at or around a single lattice point. They are not extended in space in any dimension. Strict limits for how small a point defect is are generally not defined explicitly. However, these defects typically involve at most a few extra or missing atoms. Larger defects in an ordered structure are usually considered dislocation loops. For historical reasons, many point defects, especially in ionic crystals, are called \"centers\": for example a vacancy in many ionic solids is called a luminescence center, a color center, or F-center. These dislocations permit ionic transport through crystals leading to electrochemical reactions. These are frequently specified using Kröger–Vink notation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Line defects.", "content": "Line defects can be described by gauge theories.  Dislocations are linear defects, around which the atoms of the crystal lattice are misaligned. There are two basic types of dislocations, the \"edge\" dislocation and the \"screw\" dislocation. \"Mixed\" dislocations, combining aspects of both types, are also common.  Edge dislocations are caused by the termination of a plane of atoms in the middle of a crystal. In such a case, the adjacent planes are not straight, but instead bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal structure is perfectly ordered on either side. The analogy with a stack of paper is apt: if a half a piece of paper is inserted in a stack of paper, the defect in the stack is only noticeable at the edge of the half sheet.  The screw dislocation is more difficult to visualise, but basically comprises a structure in which a helical path is traced around the linear defect (dislocation line) by the atomic planes of atoms in the crystal lattice.  The presence of dislocation results in lattice strain (distortion). The direction and magnitude of such distortion is expressed in terms of a Burgers vector (b). For an edge type, b is perpendicular to the dislocation line, whereas in the cases of the screw type it is parallel. In metallic materials, b is aligned with close-packed crystallographic directions and its magnitude is equivalent to one interatomic spacing.  Dislocations can move if the atoms from one of the surrounding planes break their bonds and rebond with the atoms at the terminating edge.  It is the presence of dislocations and their ability to readily move (and interact) under the influence of stresses induced by external loads that leads to the characteristic malleability of metallic materials.  Dislocations can be observed using transmission electron microscopy, field ion microscopy and atom probe techniques. Deep-level transient spectroscopy has been used for studying the electrical activity of dislocations in semiconductors, mainly silicon.  Disclinations are line defects corresponding to \"adding\" or \"subtracting\" an angle around a line. Basically, this means that if you track the crystal orientation around the line defect, you get a rotation. Usually, they were thought to play a role only in liquid crystals, but recent developments suggest that they might have a role also in solid materials, e.g. leading to the self-healing of cracks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematical classification methods.", "content": "A successful mathematical classification method for physical lattice defects, which works not only with the theory of dislocations and other defects in crystals but also, e.g., for disclinations in liquid crystals and for excitations in superfluid He, is the topological homotopy theory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Computer simulation methods.", "content": "Density functional theory, classical molecular dynamics and kinetic Monte Carlo simulations are widely used to study the properties of defects in solids with computer simulations. Simulating jamming of hard spheres of different sizes and/or in containers with non-commeasurable sizes using the Lubachevsky–Stillinger algorithm can be an effective technique for demonstrating some types of crystallographic defects.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Crystallographic defects are interruptions of regular patterns in crystalline solids. They are common because positions of atoms or molecules at repeating fixed distances determined by the unit cell parameters in crystals, which exhibit a periodic crystal structure, are usually imperfect.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973036}
{"src_title": "Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth.", "content": "Wilamowitz-Moellendorff was born in Markowitz (Markowice), a small village near Hohensalza (Inowrocław), in the then Province of Posen (now part of the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship), to a Germanized family of distant Polish ancestry. His father, a Prussian Junker, was Arnold Wilamowitz, of Szlachta origin and using the Ogończyk coat of arms, while his mother was Ulrika, née Calbo. The couple settled in a small manor confiscated from a local noble in 1836. The Prussian part of their name, von Moellendorf, was acquired in 1813, when Prussian field marshal Wichard Joachim Heinrich von Möllendorf adopted Ulrich's ancestors. Wilamowitz, a third child, grew up in East Prussia.  In 1867 Wilamowitz passed his \"Abitur\" at the renowned boarding school at Schulpforta.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Studies.", "content": "Until 1869 Wilamowitz studied Classical Philology at the University of Bonn. His teachers, Otto Jahn and Hermann Usener, had a formative influence on him. Willamowitz's relationship with Usener was strained. He developed a lifelong rivalry with his fellow student Friedrich Nietzsche and a close friendship with his contemporary Hermann Diels. Together with Diels, he moved to Berlin in 1869, where he graduated as a Doctor of Philosophy cum laude in 1870. After voluntary service in the Franco-Prussian War, he embarked on a study tour to Italy and Greece.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conflict with Nietzsche and Wagner.", "content": "Even before he gained a professorial title, Wilamowitz was a member of a scholarly dispute about Nietzsche's \"Birth of Tragedy\" that attracted much attention. In 1872–73, he published two unusually aggressive polemics (German: \"\"Zukunftsphilologie\"\", i.e. \"\"Philology of the future\"\"), which strongly attacked Nietzsche (then Professor at the University of Basel) and Professor Erwin Rohde (University of Kiel). Richard Wagner, whose views on art had influenced Nietzsche and Rohde, reacted by publishing an open letter and Rohde wrote a damning response. The issue at stake was the deprecation of Euripides, on whom Nietzsche blamed the destruction of Greek tragedy. Wilamowitz saw the methods of his adversaries as an attack on the basic tenets of scientific thought, unmasking them as enemies of the scientific method. His polemic was considered as Classical philology's reply to Nietzsche's challenge.  At the age of 80 when Wilamowitz wrote his memoirs, he saw the conflict with Nietzsche less passionately, but did not retract the essential points of his critique. He stated that he had not fully realised at the time that Nietzsche was not interested in scientific understanding but rather in Wagner's musical drama, but also that he was nevertheless right to take his position against Nietzsche's \"rape of historical facts and all historical method\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Greifswald.", "content": "In 1875, he gained a professorial title for his study \"Analecta Euripidea\". In the same year he gave his first public academic lecture in Berlin. In 1876, he was employed as \"Ordinarius\" (full professor) for Classical Philology at Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität at Greifswald. During this period, he also married Marie Mommsen, the eldest daughter of Theodor Mommsen, and published \"Homeric Studies\" (\"Homerische Studien\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Göttingen.", "content": "In 1883, he took a further professorial position at Georg-August-Universität in Göttingen. Here, he continued to teach Classical Philology but also gave replacement lectures in Ancient History. His influence ensured the employment of his Greifswald colleague, Julius Wellhausen, in Göttingen. In 1891, he became vice-chancellor of the university, and he was appointed a member of Göttingen's Royal Academy of Sciences one year later. When Wilamowitz left Göttingen, he was succeeded by Georg Kaibel, a close associate from his student days and his successor at Greifswald.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Berlin.", "content": "In 1897, with the support of his friend Diels, Wilamowitz was offered a position at the Royal Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität at Berlin, as successor to Ernst Curtius. He stayed until his retirement in 1921. In 1915, he was appointed chancellor of the university for one year. Together with Diels, he founded the Berlin Institute for Ancient Studies (\"Institut für Altertumskunde\") in 1897. His public lectures on subjects of Classical antiquity, which took place twice a week, attracted large audiences.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teaching activities and memberships.", "content": "In 1891, Wilamowitz was elected a corresponding member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences and he was a full member from 1899. In 1902 he took the academy's presidency. As a member of the Göttingen academy, he strongly encouraged the publication of the \"Thesaurus Linguae Latinae\". From 1897 he also worked as a member to the academy's Commission for Patristics. In 1894 he was elected full member of the German Archaeological Institute. He also was editor of the series \"Philologische Untersuchungen\" from 1880 to 1925.  Further, Wilamowitz taught as a guest lecturer in Oxford (1908) and Uppsala (1912), was a corresponding member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters (1909) and the Scientific Society of Lund (1921).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Inscriptiones Graecae\".", "content": "During his presidency of the Prussian Academy, Wilamowitz oversaw the continuation of August Böckh's and Adolf Kirchhoff's publication series, the \"Inscriptiones Graecae\". Wilamowitz had a formative influence on the further development of that project, which he directed until his death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "Wilamowitz was an initiator of the memorandum \"Erklärung der Hochschullehrer des Deutschen Reiches\" (\"Declaration by the University Teachers of the German Reich\"), in which 3,016 signatories supported German participation in the First World War. Shortly after, he also signed the \"Manifesto of the Ninety-Three\", from which he distanced himself later. In 1914, his son, Tycho von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, who was also active as a classical philologist, fell in the battle of Ivangorod. The memorandum appeared a few days later.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1878 he married Maria Mommsen, the eldest daughter of the famous ancient historian, Theodor Mommsen, whom he actively assisted in the completion of his \"Roman History\".  Wilamowitz spent his last years in seclusion, suffering from severe kidney problems. He died in Berlin on 25 September 1931, having been in a coma for a short time. He is buried in his native village, along with his wife, Maria (1855–1936), and their only son, Tycho. He also had a daughter, Dorothea Freifrau Hiller von Gaertringen, wife of archaeologist Friedrich Hiller von Gaertringen, who died on 24 March 1972.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Achievements.", "content": "Wilamowitz is one of the central figures of 19th and 20th century Classical philology. As a great authority of the literature and history of Ancient Greece, Wilamowitz took a stance against traditional methodology and textual criticism. As a representative of Postclassicism, he concentrated less on literary history but rather aimed to extract biographical information on the respective authors from the preserved texts. Thus, he employed historical perspectives to serve philology. Apart from his seminal general works (\"Greek Literature from Antiquity\", \"Hellenistic Poetry\"), he published numerous detailed studies of Euripides, Homer, Aeschylus, Pindar and Aristotle. As a scientific organiser, he was also responsible for the publication of important standard-setting source material publications, such as \"Inscriptiones Graecae\".  He also passionately supported the preservation of Classical education in the German school system.  Notable pupils of his include Felix Jacoby, Karl Mittelhaus, Wolfgang Schadewaldt, Eduard Fraenkel, Werner Jaeger, Johannes Geffcken, Paul Maas, Eduard Schwartz, Gilbert Murray, Paul Friedländer, Friedrich Solmsen and Johannes Sykutris.  In recent decades, the American scholar William M. Calder III has been publishing a series of important documents about and by Wilamowitz, including much of his correspondence with Diels, Eduard Norden, Mommsen, Paul Wendland, and others.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Enno Friedrich Wichard Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (22 December 1848 – 25 September 1931) was a German classical philologist. Wilamowitz, as he is known in scholarly circles, was a renowned authority on Ancient Greece and its literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973037}
{"src_title": "Bugs Moran", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Moran was born Adelard Cunin to French immigrant Jules Adelard Cunin and Marie Diana Gobeil, Canadian descendent, in Saint Paul, Minnesota. He attended Cretin High School, a private Catholic school in Saint Paul, but he also joined a local juvenile gang and left school at age 18. He was later caught robbing a store and was sent to the state juvenile correctional facility, and was put in jail three times before he turned 21. He then fled to Chicago where he was caught trying to rob a warehouse, taking part in a horse-stealing ring, taking part in robbery involving the death of a police officer, and robbing a freight car, for which he received a variety of prison and jail sentences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prohibition.", "content": "Prohibition was established in 1920 with the enactment of the 18th Amendment, which banned the distribution of alcoholic beverages, resulting in bootlegging.  Among the involved gangs were Dean O'Banion and his mostly Irish group, including Bugs Moran, who became known as the North Side Gang and Al Capone as the leader of the Italian mob on the South Side. These two rivals fought violently, resulting in what is known as \"The Bootleg Battle of the Marne\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battling Al Capone.", "content": "The bootlegging operation of Hymie Weiss and Bugs Moran continued to pose a significant challenge to Capone's South Side Gang. Moran and Capone then led a turf war with each other that cost them both. Moran's hatred of Capone was apparent even to the public. Moran was disgusted that Capone engaged in prostitution. He would not increase profits himself by engaging in prostitution rings because of his Catholic religion. Johnny Torrio's gang killed Dean O'Banion, and in an attempt to avenge him Bugs Moran and Earl \"Hymie\" Weiss made an attempt on Torrio's life. Later they went on to make a failed attempt on Al Capone's life at his headquarters, the Hawthorne Inn in Cicero, Illinois. More than one thousand shots were fired at the inn and at a nearby restaurant in their attempts to kill Capone. In retaliation, Weiss's life was taken by Al Capone's gang, and Bugs Moran became head man of the North Side Gang. Responding to Weiss's death, Moran tried to kill a member of Capone's gang, resulting in an attack, allegedly from Capone, known as the St. Valentine's Day Massacre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The St. Valentine's Day Massacre.", "content": "On February 14, 1929, Capone probably tried to strike a decisive blow against Moran with the notorious Saint Valentine's Day Massacre. The day before, a tempting phone call to Moran told him that a truckload of whiskey had just arrived from Detroit, Michigan, and that he could have it at a bargain price. He ordered the whiskey to be delivered at 10:30 a.m. the next morning at the garage of the S.M.C. Cartage Company on North Clark Street, where he kept his bootlegging trucks. Two gunmen dressed as Chicago police officers and two others in plain clothes lined up seven of Moran's people against the wall in the warehouse and gunned them down. However, Bugs Moran, the main target of the \"hit\", narrowly eluded death, as he had decided to sleep in that day. Had they known he was not there, they might have put off the attack until a different day. Another North Sider, Al Weinshank, was misidentified as Moran by one of Capone's lookouts who signaled for the attack to begin.  Responders were late to the scene due to the lack of reporting by neighbors, who thought that whatever had occurred had been taken care of when they saw the two \"police officers\" exit the area from which the gunshots were heard. Six of the men were killed and another was near death when police arrived on the scene. The seventh man, Frank Gusenberg, was taken to a hospital, where he refused to identify his killers following the gangster's code of silence, and later died. When Moran saw the carnage, he broke the gangster code, accusing Capone of the murders. No one was convicted of the crime, and Capone denied all involvement in the massacre. Capone was called to court, however, but claimed to be sick both times. The tactic worked, and Capone never was convicted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After Prohibition.", "content": "Moran managed to keep control of his territory and what remained of his gang through the early 1930s, but the North Side gang never fully recovered its power or former place in Chicago's underworld as the chief rival to Capone's Italian mob. Moran eventually left the area, quitting the gang entirely—though not the criminal lifestyle, as he reverted to his earlier gangster ways of petty crime such as mail fraud and robbery.  On April 30, 1939, Moran was convicted of conspiracy to cash $62,000 worth of American Express checks. He was freed on appeal when he posted a bond; he fled but was captured and not released until December 21, 1944. He was almost penniless by the 1940s, only 17 years after being one of the richest gangsters in Chicago. On July 6, 1946, he was arrested for his involvement in the robbery of a Dayton, Ohio tavern on June 28, 1945, and he received a sentence of 20 years after being found guilty. He was paroled in 1956 but was immediately arrested for his role in the 1945 robbery of a bank in Ansonia, Ohio. He was found guilty in 1957 and sentenced to 10 more years in prison.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death in prison.", "content": "Moran died of lung cancer a few months into his 10-year sentence at Leavenworth Prison in Kansas on February 25, 1957, at the age of 63.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He married Evelyn Herrell, who left him for his criminal life. In 1922 he married Lucille Logan Bilezikdijan, and he had a son, John George Moran (1920 – 1959).  Salem Press. American Villains. Pasadena, Calif: Salem Press, 2008. 386-389. Accessed March 22, 2015. EBSCOhost.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George Clarence \"Bugs\" Moran (; born Adelard Leo Cunin; August 21, 1893 – February 25, 1957) was an American Chicago Prohibition-era gangster. He was incarcerated three times before his 21st birthday. Seven members of his gang were gunned down in a warehouse in the Saint Valentine's Day Massacre of February 14, 1929, supposedly on the orders of his rival Al Capone.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973038}
{"src_title": "Charles Joseph, comte de Flahaut", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born in Paris, officially the son of Marshal Alexandre-Sébastien, comte de Flahaut (2nd son of ) who was guillotined at Arras in February 1793, by his wife, Adélaïde Filleul, However, Charles de Flahaut was generally recognized to be the offspring of his mother's liaison with Talleyrand, with whom he was closely connected throughout his life. His mother took him with her into exile in 1792, and they remained abroad until 1798, moving from England to Switzerland (where she is rumoured to have \"become involved\" with Louis-Philippe, then Duke of Orleans), before Hamburg where she met her second husband, Ambassador Dom José Maria do Carmo de Sousa Botelho Mourão e Vasconcelos,.  Charles de Flahaut volunteered for military service joining the cavalry in 1800, and received his army commission after the Battle of Marengo. He was appointed \"aide-de-camp\" to Joachim, 1st Prince Murat, and was wounded at the Battle of Landbach in 1805.  At Warsaw he met Anne Poniatowska, Countess Potocka with whom he quickly became intimate. After the Battle of Friedland he was awarded the Legion of Honour and returned to Paris in 1807. He served in Spain in 1808, and then in (Germany).  Meanwhile, the Countess Potocka had established herself in Paris, but Flahaut had by this time entered into a relationship with Queen Hortense of Holland; the birth of their son was registered in Paris on 21 October 1811 as Charles-Auguste-Louis-Joseph Demorny, later created Duc de Morny.  Flahaut fought with distinction in the Russian Campaign of 1812 and, in 1813, was appointed Brigadier-General and aide-de-camp to Emperor Napoleon being promoted, after the Battle of Leipzig, as a Général de division. After Napoleon's abdication in 1814 he submitted to the new French government, but was placed on the retired list in September. Flahaut was assiduous in his attendance on Queen Hortense until the Hundred Days brought him back into active service.  A mission to Vienna to secure the return of Empress Marie-Louise resulted in failure. He was present at Waterloo (as an aide-de-camp to Napoleon), and afterwards sought to place Napoleon II on the throne. He was spared exile due to an intervention by Talleyrand, but was placed under police surveillance. Flahaut then chose to leave for Germany, and thence to Britain.  The Flahauts returned to France in 1827 and, in 1830, King Louis-Philippe promoted the Count to the rank of Lieutenant-General as well as creating him a Peer of France. He remained a staunch supporter of Talleyrand's policies, and in 1831 served briefly as French Ambassador to Berlin. Subsequently, he was attached to the household of the Duke of Orléans and, in 1841, was posted as Ambassador to Vienna, where he remained until 1848, when he was dismissed and retired from army service. After the \"Coup d'état\" of 1851, his services were re-engaged, and from 1860 to 1862 he served in Britain as French Ambassador to the Court of St James's. In 1864, the Flahauts returned to Paris and took up residence at the Hôtel de Salm, when Charles was appointed Grand Chancellor of the Legion of Honour. He died in Paris on 1 September 1870.  In the opinion of the unnamed author of a biography on Flahaut in the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" Eleventh Edition: \"The comte de Flahaut is perhaps better remembered for his exploits in gallantry, and the elegant manners in which he had been carefully trained by his mother, than for his public services, which were not, however, so inconsiderable as they have sometimes been represented to be\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Flahaut was the lover of Napoleon I's stepdaughter, Hortense de Beauharnais (Queen of Holland), with whom he had an illegitimate son, Charles Demorny (1811–1865) who later became Duke of Morny.  While in Britain Flahaut married in Edinburgh on 20 June 1817 The Hon. Margaret Mercer Elphinstone (1788–1867), daughter of Admiral George, Viscount Keith ; she succeeded, in her own right, as 2nd Baroness Keith in 1823 and \"de jure\" 7th Lady Nairne in 1837. They had five daughters:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Auguste-Charles-Joseph de Flahaut de La Billarderie, comte de Flahaut (21 April 17851 September 1870) was a French general during the Napoleonic Wars, a statesman, and late in life French ambassador to the Court of St James's.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973039}
{"src_title": "Carousel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early carousels.", "content": "The modern carousel emerged from early jousting traditions in Europe and the Middle East. Knights would gallop in a circle while tossing balls from one to another; an activity that required great skill and horsemanship. This game was introduced to Europe at the time of the Crusades from earlier Byzantine and Arab traditions. The word carousel originated from the Italian \"garosello\" and Spanish \"carosella\" (\"little battle\", used by crusaders to describe a combat preparation exercise and game played by Turkish and Arabian horsemen in the 12th century). This early device was essentially a cavalry training mechanism; it prepared and strengthened the riders for actual combat as they wielded their swords at the mock enemies.  By the 17th century, the balls had been dispensed with, and instead the riders had to spear small rings that were hanging from poles overhead and rip them off. Cavalry spectacles that replaced medieval jousting, such as the ring-tilt, were popular in Italy and France. The game began to be played by commoners, and carousels soon sprung up at fairgrounds across Europe. At the Place du Carrousel in Paris, an early make believe carousel was set up with wooden horses for the children.  By the early 18th century carousels were being built and operated at various fairs and gatherings in central Europe and England. Animals and mechanisms would be crafted during the winter months and the family and workers would go touring in their wagon train through the region, operating their large menagerie carousel at various venues. Makers included Heyn in Germany and Bayol in France. These early carousels had no platforms; the animals would hang from chains and fly out from the centrifugal force of the spinning mechanism. They were often powered by animals walking in a circle or people pulling a rope or cranking.  By 1803 John Joseph Merlin had a carousel in his Mechanical Museum in London, where gentry and nobility liked to gather on winter evenings. The horses \"floated free over a pole\". It was connected to a \"big musical instrument that played a fully orchestrated concerto\" and from the first note the carousel would start turning while each individual horse would make a galloping movement with a visitor riding on its back. Merlin did not patent his inventions and engineers were allowed to come to create their own models of his creations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Direction of rotation.", "content": "Viewed from above, in the United Kingdom, merry-go-rounds, called ‘gallopers’ by the showmen community when populated by model horses, usually turn clockwise (from the outside, animals face to the left), while in North America and Mainland Europe, carousels typically go counterclockwise (animals face to the right).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern carousels.", "content": "By the mid-19th century the platform carousel was developed; the animals and chariots were fixed to a circular floor that would suspend from a centre pole and rotate around. These carousels were called dobbies and were operated manually by the operator or by ponies.  In mid-19th century England, the carousel became a popular fixture at fairs. The first steam-powered mechanical roundabout, invented by Thomas Bradshaw, appeared at the Aylsham Fair in about 1861. It was described by a \"Halifax Courier\" journalist as \"a roundabout of huge proportions, driven by a steam engine which whirled around with such impetuousity, that the wonder is the daring riders are not shot off like cannon- ball, and driven half into the middle of next month.\" Soon afterwards, English engineer Frederick Savage began to branch out of agricultural machinery production into the construction of fairground machines, swiftly becoming the chief innovator in the field. Savage's fairground machinery was exported all over the world. By 1870, he was manufacturing carousels with Velocipedes (an early type of bicycle) and he soon began experimenting with other possibilities, including a roundabout with boats that would pitch and roll on cranks with a circular motion, a ride he called 'Sea-on-Land'.  Savage applied a similar innovation to the more traditional mount of the horse; he installed gears and offset cranks on the platform carousels, thus giving the animals their well-known up-and-down motion as they travelled around the center pole – the galloping horse. The platform served as a position guide for the bottom of the pole and as a place for people to walk or other stationary animals or chariots to be placed. He called this ride the 'Platform Gallopers'. He also developed the 'platform-slide' which allowed the mounts to swing out concentrically as the carousel built up speed. Fairground organs (band organs) were often present (if not built in) when these machines operated. Eventually electric motors were installed and electric lights added, giving the carousel its classic look. These mechanical innovations came at a crucial time, when increased prosperity meant that more people had time for leisure and spare money to spend on entertainment. It was in this historical context that the modern fairground ride was born, with Savage supplying this new market demand. In his 1902 Catalogue for Roundabouts he claimed to have \"... patented and placed upon the market all the principal novelties that have delighted the many thousands of pleasure seekers at home and abroad.\"  In the United States, the carousel industry was developed by immigrants, notably Gustav Dentzel of Germany and Charles W.F. Dare from England, from the late 19th century. Several centers and styles for the construction of carousels emerged in the United States: Coney Island style – characterized by elaborate, and sometimes faux-jeweled, saddles – with Charles I. D. Looff; Philadelphia style – known for more realistically painted saddles – with Dentzel and the Philadelphia Toboggan Company; and Country Fair style – often with no saddles at all – with Allan Herschell and Edward Spillman of western New York, and Charles W. Parker of Kansas. The golden age of the carousel in America was the early 20th century, with large machines and elaborate animals, chariots, and decorations being built.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Similar uses of the term \"carousel\".", "content": "On some playgrounds, small manually powered carousels exist.  At airports, rotating conveyors in the baggage claim area are often called luggage carousels.  Various photographic slide projectors, notably those made by Kodak until 2004, used rotating trays or magazines called carousels to hold the slides and were often known as \"carousel projectors.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Antique and notable carousels.", "content": "The National Carousel Association maintains a list of Historic Carousel Award winners, primarily focused on carousels in Canada and America.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A carousel (American English: from French \"carrousel\" and Italian \"carosello\"), roundabout (British English), or merry-go-round, is a type of amusement ride consisting of a rotating circular platform with seats for riders. The \"seats\" are traditionally in the form of rows of wooden horses or other animals mounted on posts, many of which are moved up and down by gears to simulate galloping, to the accompaniment of looped circus music. This leads to one of the alternative American names, the galloper (however see ‘direction of rotation’ below). Other popular names are jumper, horseabout, and flying horses.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973040}
{"src_title": "Duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "She was born in Wolfenbüttel, the ninth child of Karl I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and Princess Philippine Charlotte of Prussia. Her maternal grandparents were Frederick William I of Prussia and Sophia Dorothea of Hanover.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "In Brunswick on 16 March 1756 she married Ernst August II Konstantin, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Ernst August died in 1758 leaving her regent for their infant son, Karl August.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regency.", "content": "During Karl August's minority she administered the affairs of the duchy with notable prudence, strengthening its resources and improving its position in spite of the troubles of the Seven Years' War. In 1775, with her son having attained his majority, she retired.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural role.", "content": "As a patron of art and literature she drew many of the most eminent men in Germany to Weimar, including Johann Gottfried Herder, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller and Abel Seyler's theatrical company. When Anna Amalia succeeded in engaging the Seyler Company, this was \"an extremely fortunate coup. The Seyler Company was the best theatre company in Germany at that time.\" Amalia von Helvig was also later to be a part of her court. She hired Christoph Martin Wieland, a poet and translator of William Shakespeare, to educate her son. She also established the Duchess Anna Amalia Library, which is now home to some 1,000,000 volumes. The duchess was honoured in Goethe's work under the title \"Zum Andenken der Fürstin Anna-Amalia\".  Anna Amalia was a notable composer. Among her significant works is a symphony for two oboes, two flutes, two violins, and double bass (1765), a tripartite oratorio (1768), an \"opera\" called \"Erwin und Elmire\" (1776), based on a text by Goethe, and a divertimento for piano, clarinet, viola, and violoncello (around 1780).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (24 October 173910 April 1807), was a German princess and composer. She became the duchess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, by marriage, and was also regent of the states of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach from 1758 to 1775. She transformed her court and its surrounding into the most influential cultural center of Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973041}
{"src_title": "Ulisse Aldrovandi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Aldrovandi was born in Bologna to Teseo Aldrovandi and his wife, a noble but poor family. His father was a lawyer, and Secretary to the Senate of Bologna, but died when Ulisse was seven years old. However, when Pope Gregory XIII, a member of Ulisse's mother's family was elected in 1570, the family's fortune improved. His widowed mother wanted him to become a jurist. Initially he was sent to apprentice with merchants as a scribe for a short time when he was 14 years old, but he found his vocation, after studying mathematics, Latin, law, and philosophy, initially at the university of Bologna, and then in Padua in 1545 and becoming a notary. His interests successively extended to philosophy and logic, which he combined with the study of medicine.  In June 1549, Aldrovandi was accused and arrested for heresy on account of his espousing of the anti-trinitarian beliefs of the Anabaptist Camillo Renato. By September, he had published an abjuration, but was transferred to Rome, and remained in custody or house arrest until absolved in April, 1550. During this time, he befriended many local scholars. While in light captivity there, he became more and more interested in botany, zoology, and geology (he is credited for the invention/first written record of this word). From 1551 onward, he organized a variety of expeditions to the Italian mountains, countryside, islands, and coasts to collect and catalogue plants.  He obtained a degree in medicine and philosophy in 1553 and started teaching logic and philosophy in 1554 at the University of Bologna. In 1559, he became professor of philosophy and in 1561 he became the first professor of natural sciences at Bologna (\"lectura philosophiae naturalis ordinaria de fossilibus, plantis et animalibus\"). Aldrovandi was a friend of Francesco de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1574 – 1587), visiting his garden at Pratolino and travelling with him, compiling a list of the most valuable plants at Pratolino. He also formed fruitful associations with botanical artists such as Jacopo Ligozzi, to further develop illustrated texts. He died in Bologna on 4 May 1605, at the age of 82.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Over the course of his life, he would assemble one of the most spectacular cabinets of curiosities: his \"theatre\" illuminating natural history comprising some 7000 specimens of the \"diversità di cose naturali\", of which he wrote a description in 1595. Between 1551 and 1554, he organized several expeditions to collect plants for a herbarium, among the first botanizing expeditions. Eventually, his herbarium contained about 4760 dried specimens on 4117 sheets in sixteen volumes, preserved at the University of Bologna. He also had various artists including Jacopo Ligozzi, Giovanni Neri, and Cornelio Schwindt, compose illustrations of specimens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Botanic garden.", "content": "At his demand and under his direction, a public botanic garden was created in Bologna in 1568, now the Orto Botanico dell'Università di Bologna. Due to a dispute on the composition of a popular medicine with the pharmacists and doctors of Bologna in 1575, he was suspended from all public positions for five years. In 1577, he sought the aid of pope Gregory XIII (a cousin of his mother), who wrote to the authorities of Bologna to reinstate Aldrovandi in his public offices and request financial aid to help him publish his books.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "His vast collections in botany and zoology he willed to the Senate of Bologna; until 1742 the collections were conserved in the Palazzo Pubblico, then in the Palazzo Poggi, but were distributed among various libraries and institutions in the course of the nineteenth century. In 1907 a representative part were reunited at Palazzo Poggi, Bologna, where the 400th anniversary of his death was memorialized in a celebrative exhibition in 2005.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Neurofibromatosis.", "content": "He was the first to have extensively documented the neurofibromatosis disease, a type of skin tumour. Recently, however, it has been observed that in a work by Andrea Mantegna's, this type of disease had been pictured 80 years earlier than in Androvandi's work.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List of selected publications.", "content": "Of the several hundred books and essays he wrote, only a handful were published during his lifetime:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ulisse Aldrovandi (11 September 1522 – 4 May 1605) was an Italian naturalist, the moving force behind Bologna's botanical garden, one of the first in Europe. Carl Linnaeus and the comte de Buffon reckoned him the father of natural history studies. He is usually referred to, especially in older literature, as Aldrovandus; his name in Italian is equally given as Aldroandi.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973042}
{"src_title": "Polish notation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Explanation.", "content": "The expression for adding the numbers 1 and 2 is written in Polish notation as (pre-fix), rather than as (in-fix). In more complex expressions, the operators still precede their operands, but the operands may themselves be expressions including again operators and their operands. For instance, the expression that would be written in conventional infix notation as can be written in Polish notation as Assuming a given arity of all involved operators (here the \"−\" denotes the binary operation of subtraction, not the unary function of sign-change), any well formed prefix representation thereof is unambiguous, and brackets within the prefix expression are unnecessary. As such, the above expression can be further simplified to  The processing of the product is deferred until its two operands are available (i.e., 5 minus 6, and 7). As with \"any\" notation, the innermost expressions are evaluated first, but in Polish notation this \"innermost-ness\" can be conveyed by the sequence of operators and operands rather than by bracketing.  In the conventional infix notation, parentheses are required to override the standard precedence rules, since, referring to the above example, moving them or removing them changes the meaning and the result of the expression. This version is written in Polish notation as  When dealing with non-commutative operations, like division or subtraction, it is necessary to coordinate the sequential arrangement of the operands with the definition of how the operator takes its arguments, i.e., from left to right. For example,, with 10 left to 5, has the meaning of 10 ÷ 5 (read as \"divide 10 by 5\"), or, with 7 left to 6, has the meaning of 7 - 6 (read as \"subtract from 7 the operand 6\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evaluation algorithm.", "content": "Prefix/postfix notation is especially popular for its innate ability to express the intended order of operations without the need for parentheses and other precedence rules, as are usually employed with infix notation. Instead, the notation uniquely indicates which operator to evaluate first. The operators are assumed to have a fixed arity each, and all necessary operands are assumed to be explicitly given. A valid prefix expression always starts with an operator and ends with an operand. Evaluation can either proceed from left to right, or in the opposite direction. Starting at the left, the input string, consisting of tokens denoting operators or operands, is pushed token for token on a stack, until the top entries of the stack contain the number of operands that fits to the top most operator (immediately beneath). This group of tokens at the stacktop (the last stacked operator and the according number of operands) is replaced by the result of executing the operator on these/this operand(s). Then the processing of the input continues in this manner. The rightmost operand in a valid prefix expression thus empties the stack, except for the result of evaluating the whole expression. When starting at the right, the pushing of tokens is performed similarly, just the evaluation is triggered by an operator, finding the appropriate number of operands that fits its arity already at the stacktop. Now the leftmost token of a valid prefix expression must be an operator, fitting to the number of operands in the stack, which again yields the result. As can be seen from the description, a push-down store with no capability of arbitrary stack inspection suffices to implement this parsing.  The above sketched stack manipulation works –with mirrored input– also for expressions in reverse Polish notation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Polish notation for logic.", "content": "The table below shows the core of Jan Łukasiewicz's notation for sentential logic. Some letters in the Polish notation table stand for particular words in Polish, as shown:  Note that the quantifiers ranged over propositional values in Łukasiewicz's work on many-valued logics.  Bocheński introduced a system of Polish notation that names all 16 binary connectives of classical propositional logic. For classical propositional logic, it is a compatible extension of the notation of Łukasiewicz. But the notations are incompatible in the sense that Bocheński uses L and M (for nonimplication and converse nonimplication) in propositional logic and Łukasiewicz uses L and M in modal logic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementations.", "content": "Prefix notation has seen wide application in Lisp s-expressions, where the brackets are required since the operators in the language are themselves data (first-class functions). Lisp functions may also be variadic. The Tcl programming language, much like Lisp also uses Polish notation through the mathop library. The Ambi programming language uses Polish notation for arithmetic operations and program construction. LDAP filter syntax uses Polish prefix notation.  Postfix notation is used in many stack-oriented programming languages like PostScript and Forth. CoffeeScript syntax also allows functions to be called using prefix notation, while still supporting the unary postfix syntax common in other languages.  The number of return values of an expression equals the difference between the number of operands in an expression and the total arity of the operators minus the total number of return values of the operators.  Polish notation, usually in postfix form, is the chosen notation of certain calculators, notably from Hewlett-Packard. At a lower level, postfix operators are used by some stack machines such as the Burroughs large systems.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Polish notation (PN), also known as normal Polish notation (NPN), Łukasiewicz notation, Warsaw notation, Polish prefix notation or simply prefix notation, is a mathematical notation in which operators \"precede\" their operands, in contrast to the more common infix notation, in which operators are placed \"between\" operands, as well as reverse Polish notation (RPN), in which operators \"follow\" their operands. It does not need any parentheses as long as each operator has a fixed number of operands. The description \"Polish\" refers to the nationality of logician Jan Łukasiewicz, who invented Polish notation in 1924.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973043}
{"src_title": "Systema Naturae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Linnaeus (later known as \"Carl von Linné\", after his ennoblement in 1761) published the first edition of'in the year 1735, during his stay in the Netherlands. As was customary for the scientific literature of its day, the book was published in Latin. In it, he outlined his ideas for the hierarchical classification of the natural world, dividing it into the animal kingdom ('), the plant kingdom ('), and the \"mineral kingdom\" (').  Linnaeus's \"Systema Naturae\" lists only about 10,000 species of organisms, of which about 6,000 are plants and 4,236 are animals. According to the historian of botany William T. Stearn, \"Even in 1753 he believed that the number of species of plants in the whole world would hardly reach 10,000; in his whole career he named about 7,700 species of flowering plants.\"  Linnaeus developed his classification of the plant kingdom in an attempt to describe and understand the natural world as a reflection of the logic of God's creation. His sexual system, where species with the same number of stamens were treated in the same group, was convenient but in his view artificial. Linnaeus believed in God's creation, and that there were no deeper relationships to be expressed. He is frequently quoted to have said: \"God created, Linnaeus organized\" (Latin: \"Deus creavit, Linnaeus disposuit\"). The classification of animals was more natural. For instance, humans were for the first time placed together with other primates, as Anthropomorpha.  As a result of the popularity of the work, and the number of new specimens sent to him from around the world, Linnaeus kept publishing new and ever-expanding editions of his work. It grew from eleven very large pages in the first edition (1735) to 2,400 pages in the 12th edition (1766–1768). Also, as the work progressed, he made changes: in the first edition, whales were classified as fishes, following the work of Linnaeus' friend and \"father of ichthyology\" Peter Artedi; in the 10th edition, published in 1758, whales were moved into the mammal class. In this same edition, he introduced two-part names (see binomen) for animal species, something that he had done for plant species (see binary name) in the 1753 publication of \"\". The system eventually developed into modern Linnaean taxonomy, a hierarchically organized biological classification.  After Linnaeus' health declined in the early 1770s, publication of editions of \"Systema Naturae\" went in two directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray issued the \"Regnum Vegetabile\" section separately in 1774 as the \"Systema Vegetabilium\", rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire \"Systema\" appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793. It was as the \"Systema Vegetabilium\" that Linnaeus' work became widely known in England following translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society, as \"A System of Vegetables\" (1783–1785).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "In his ', Linnaeus established three kingdoms, namely ','and '. This approach, the Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Kingdoms, survives until today in the popular mind, notably in the form of parlour games: \"Is it animal, vegetable or mineral?\". The classification was based on five levels: kingdom, class, order, genus, and species. While species and genus was seen as God-given (or \"natural\"), the three higher levels were seen by Linnaeus as constructs. The concept behind the set ranks being applied to all groups was to make a system that was easy to remember and navigate, a task which most say he succeeded in. Linnaeus's work had a huge impact on science; it was indispensable as a foundation for biological nomenclature, now regulated by the Nomenclature Codes. Two of his works, the first edition of the'(1753) for plants and the 10th edition of the \"Systema Naturæ\" (1758), are accepted among the starting points of nomenclature. Most of his names for species and genera were published at very early dates, and thus take priority over those of other, later authors. In zoology there is one exception, which is a monograph on Swedish spiders, ', published by Carl Clerck in 1757, so the names established there take priority over the Linnean names. However, his impact on science was not because of the value of his taxonomy. His talent for attracting skillful young students and sending them abroad to collect specimens made his work far more influential than that of his contemporaries. At the close of the 18th century, his system had effectively become the standard system for biological classification.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Animal Kingdom.", "content": "Only in the Animal Kingdom is the higher taxonomy of Linnaeus still more or less recognizable and some of these names are still in use, but usually not quite for the same groups as used by Linnaeus. He divided the Animal Kingdom into six classes; in the tenth edition (1758), these were:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plant Kingdom.", "content": "The orders and classes of plants, according to his ', were never intended to represent natural groups (as opposed to his'in his \") but only for use in identification. They were used in that sense well into the 19th century.  The Linnaean classes for plants, in the Sexual System, were:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mineral Kingdoms.", "content": "Linnaeus's taxonomy of minerals has long since fallen out of use. In the 10th edition, 1758, of the \"\", the Linnaean classes were:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "Gmelin's thirteenth (\"decima tertia\") edition of \"Systema Naturae\" (1788–1793) should be carefully distinguished from the more limited \"Systema Vegetabilium\" first prepared and published by Johan Andreas Murray in 1774 (but labelled as \"thirteenth edition\").  The dates of publication for Gmelin's edition were the following:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The tenth edition of this book (1758) is considered the starting point of zoological nomenclature. In 1766–1768 Linnaeus published the much enhanced 12th edition, the last under his authorship. Another again enhanced work in the same style and titled \"\"\" was published by Johann Friedrich Gmelin between 1788 and 1793. Since at least the early 1900s zoologists commonly recognized this as the last edition belonging to this series. It was also officially regarded by the ICZN in Opinion 296 (26 Oct 1954) as the 13th edition of \"Systema Naturae\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973044}
{"src_title": "Guntram", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "King Gontrand had something of that fraternal love which his brothers lacked; the preeminent chronicler of the period, St. Gregory of Tours, often called him \"good king Gontrand\", as noted in the quotation below from the former's \"Decem Libri Historiarum\", in which St. Gregory discussed the fate of Gontrand's three marriages:  The good king Gontrand first took a concubine Veneranda, a slave belonging to one of his people, by whom he had a son Gundobad. Later he married Marcatrude, daughter of Magnar, and sent his son Gundobad to Orléans. But after she had a son Marcatrude was jealous, and proceeded to bring about Gundobad's death. She sent poison, they say, and poisoned his drink. And upon his death, by God's judgment she lost the son she had and incurred the hate of the king, was dismissed by him, and died not long after. After her he took Austerchild, also named Bobilla. He had by her two sons, of whom the older was called Clothar and the younger Chlodomer.  Gontrand had a period of intemperance. He was eventually overcome with remorse for the sins of his past life, and spent his remaining years repenting of them, both for himself and for his nation. In atonement, he fasted, prayed, wept, and offered himself to God. Throughout the balance of his prosperous reign he attempted to govern by Christian principles. According to St. Gregory of Tours, he was the protector of the oppressed, caregiver to the sick, and the tender parent to his subjects. He was generous with his wealth, especially in times of plague and famine. He strictly and justly enforced the law without respect to person, yet was ever ready to forgive offences against himself, including two attempted assassinations. Gontrand munificently built and endowed many churches and monasteries. St. Gregory related that the king performed many miracles both before and after his death, some of which St. Gregory claimed to have witnessed himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "In 567, his elder brother Charibert I died and his lands of the Kingdom of Paris were divided between the surviving brothers: Gontrand, Sigebert I, and Chilperic I. They shared his realm, agreeing at first to hold Paris in common. Charibert's widow, Theudechild, proposed a marriage with Gontrand, the eldest remaining brother, though a council convened at Paris as late as 557 had forbidden such tradition as incestuous. Gontrand decided to house her more safely, though unwillingly, in a monastery in Arles.  In 573, Gontrand was caught in a civil war with his brother Sigebert I of Austrasia, and in 575 summoned the aid of their brother Chilperic I of Soissons. He reversed his allegiance later, due to the character of Chilperic, if we may give him the benefit of the doubt in light of St. Gregory's commendation, and Chilperic retreated. He thereafter remained an ally of Sigebert, his wife, and his sons until his death. When Sigebert was assassinated later in 575, Chilperic invaded the kingdom, but Gontrand sent his general Mummolus, who was always Gontrand's greatest weapon, for he was the greatest general in Gaul at the time, to remove him. Mummolus defeated Chilperic's general Desiderius and the Neustrian's forces retreated from Austrasia.  In 577, Chlothar and Clodomir, his two surviving children, died of dysentery and he adopted as his son and heir Childebert II, his nephew, Sigebert's son, whose kingdom he had saved two years prior. However, Childebert did not always prove faithful to his uncle. In 581, Chilperic took many of Gontrand's cities and in 583, he allied with Childebert and attacked Gontrand. This time Gontrand made peace with Chilperic and Childebert retreated. In 584, he returned Childebert's infidelity by invading his land and capturing Tours and Poitiers, but he had to leave to attend the Baptism of Chlothar II, his other nephew, who now ruled in Neustria. Supposed to take place on 4 July, the feast of St. Martin of Tours, in Orléans, it did not and Gontrand turned to invade Septimania. Peace was soon made. In 584 or 585, one Gundowald claimed to be an illegitimate son of Chlothar I and proclaimed himself king, taking some major cities in southern Gaul, including Poitiers and Toulouse, which belonged to Gontrand. Gontrand marched against him, calling him nothing more than a miller's son named Ballomer. Gundowald fled to Comminges and Gontrand's army proceeded to besiege the citadel. He could not capture it, but did not need to: Gundowald's followers gave him over and he was executed.  In 587, Fredegund attempted to assassinate him, but failed. He went, on 28 November, to Trier to conclude a treaty with Childebert; Brunhilda, his sister-in-law, Sigebert's wife, whose ally he had always been; Chlodosind, Childebert's sister; Faileuba, Childebert's queen; Magneric, Bishop of Trier; and Ageric, Bishop of Verdun. This was called the Treaty of Andelot and it endured until Gontrand died.  Also in 587, Gontrand compelled obedience from Waroch II, the Breton ruler of the Vannetais. He forced the renewal of the oath of 578 in writing and demanded 1,000 \"solidi\" in compensation for raiding the Nantais. In 588, the compensation was not yet paid, as Waroch promised it to both Gontrand and Chlothar II, who probably had suzerainty over Vannes.  In 589 or 590, Gontrand sent an expedition against Waroch under Beppolem and Ebrachain, mutual enemies. Ebrachain was also enemy of Fredegund, who sent the Saxons of Bayeux to aid Waroch. Beppolem fought alone for three days before dying, at which point Waroch tried to flee to the Channel Islands, but Ebrachain destroyed his ships and forced him to accept a peace, the renewal of the oath, and the surrender of a nephew as a hostage. This was all to no effect. The Bretons maintained their independent mindedness.  In 589, Gontrand made a final advance on Septimania, to no avail. He fought against the barbarians who menaced the kingdom and quelled a rebellion of his niece Basina at a Poitevin monastery with the aid of many of his bishops in 590.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and veneration.", "content": "He died at Chalon-sur-Saône in 592, and his nephew Childebert II succeeded him. He was buried in the Church of Saint Marcellus, which he had founded in Chalon. Almost immediately, his subjects proclaimed Gontrand a saint and the Catholic Church celebrates his feast day on 28 March. The Huguenots, who scattered his ashes in the 16th century, left only his skull untouched in their fury. It is now kept there in a silver case.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Gontrand (c. AD 532 in Soissons – 28 March AD 592 in Chalon-sur-Saône), also called Gontran, Gontram, Guntram, Gunthram, Gunthchramn, and Guntramnus, was the king of the Kingdom of Orléans from AD 561 to AD 592. He was the third eldest and second eldest surviving son of Chlothar I and Ingunda. On his father's death in 561, he became king of a fourth of the Kingdom of the Franks, and made his capital at Orléans. The name \"Gontrand\" denotes \"War Raven\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973045}
{"src_title": "Richard Réti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Réti was born to a Jewish family in Bazin, Austria-Hungary (now Pezinok, Slovakia), where his father worked as a physician in the service of the Austrian military.  His older brother Rudolph Reti (who did not use the acute accent) was a noted pianist, musical theorist, and composer. He is the great-grandfather of the German painter Elias Maria Reti. Réti came to Vienna to study mathematics at Vienna University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chess career.", "content": "One of the top players in the world during the 1910s and 1920s, he began his career as a combinative classical player, favoring openings such as the King's Gambit (1.e4 e5 2.f4). After the end of the First World War, however, his playing style changed, and he became one of the principal proponents of hypermodernism, along with Aron Nimzowitsch and others. With the exception of Nimzowitsch's book \"My System\", he is considered to be the movement's foremost literary contributor. He had his greatest early successes in the period 1918 through 1921, in tournaments in Kaschau (Košice; 1918), Rotterdam (1919), Amsterdam (1920), Vienna (1920), and Gothenburg (1921).  In 1925 Réti set a world record for blindfold chess with 29 games played simultaneously. He won 21, drew 6, and lost 2.  Réti was also a notable composer of endgame studies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Réti died on 6 June 1929 in Prague of scarlet fever. His ashes are buried in the grave of Réti's father, Dr. Samuel Réti, in the Jewish section of Zentralfriedhof cemetery in Vienna, in Section T1, Group 51, Row 5, Grave 34.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Réti Opening (1.Nf3 d5 2.c4) is named after him. Réti defeated World Champion José Raúl Capablanca in the New York 1924 chess tournament using this opening – Capablanca's first defeat in eight years, his only loss to Réti, and his first since becoming world champion. This tournament was also the only occasion in which Réti beat future world champion Alexander Alekhine, accomplishing this feat in the same number of moves, and with the same final move (31.Rd1–d5).  Réti's writings have become classics of chess literature. \"Modern Ideas in Chess\" (1923) and \"Masters of the Chess Board\" (1933) are studied today.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Famous endgame study.", "content": "Réti composed one of the most famous chess studies, shown in this diagram. It was published in \"Ostrauer Morgenzeitung\" 4 December 1921. It seems impossible for the white king to catch the advanced black pawn, while the white pawn can be easily stopped by the black king. The idea of the solution is to move the king to advance on both pawns at the same time using specific properties of the chess geometry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable games.", "content": "A collection of his games was published as \"Reti's Games of Chess\", annotated by H. Golombek, republished by Dover (1974).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Selig Réti (28 May 1889 – 6 June 1929) was an Austro-Hungarian, later Czechoslovakian chess player, chess author, and composer of endgame studies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973046}
{"src_title": "Sémillon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Sémillon grape is native to the Bordeaux region. It was known as Sémillon de Saint-Émilion in 1736, while Sémillon also resembles the local pronunciation of the town’s name ([semi'ʎuŋ]). It first arrived in Australia in the early 19th century and by the 1820s the grape covered over 90% of South Africa's vineyards, where it was known as \"Wyndruif\", meaning \"wine grape\". It was once considered to be the most planted grape in the world, although this is no longer the case. In the 1950s, Chile's vineyards were made up of over 75% Sémillon. Today, it accounts for just 1% of South African Cape vines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Viticulture.", "content": "Sémillon, which is relatively easy to cultivate, consistently produces six to eight tons of grapes per acre from its vigorous vines. It is fairly resistant to disease, except for rot. The grape ripens early, when, in warmer climates, it acquires a pinkish hue. Since the grape has a thin skin, there is also a risk of sunburn in hotter climates; it is best suited to areas with sunny days and cool nights.  The Sémillon grape is rather heavy, with low acidity and an almost oily texture. It has a high yield and wines based on it can age a long time. Along with Sauvignon blanc and Muscadelle, Sémillon is one of only three approved white wine varieties in the Bordeaux region.  The grape is also key to the production of sweet wines such as Sauternes. For the grapes to be used for sweet wine production, they need to have been affected by Botrytis (also known as \"noble rot\"). This fungus dries out the grapes, thus concentrating the sugar and flavours in the grape berry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional production.", "content": "Sémillon is an important cultivar in two significant wine producing countries. In France, Sémillon is the preeminent white grape in the Bordeaux wine regions. The grape has also found a home in Australia; whereas today the country's major white varieties are Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc, early in the country's viticultural development it was Sémillon, at that time mislabeled as Riesling, that was the most significant white variety.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "France.", "content": "In France, the Sémillon grape is grown mostly in Bordeaux where it is blended with Sauvignon blanc and Muscadelle. When dry, it is referred to as \"Bordeaux blanc\" and is permitted to be made in the appellations of Pessac-Léognan, Graves, Entre-Deux-Mers and other less-renowned regions. In this form, Sémillon is generally a minor constituent in the blend. However, when used to make the sweet white wines of Bordeaux (such as those from Sauternes, Barsac and Cérons) it is often the dominant variety. In such wines the vine is exposed to the \"noble rot\" of \"Botrytis cinerea\" which consumes the water content of the fruit, concentrating the sugar present in its pulp. When attacked by Botrytis cinerea, the grapes shrivel and the acid and sugar levels are intensified.  Due to the declining popularity of the grape variety, fewer clones are cultivated in nurseries causing producers to project a future shortage of quality wine. In 2008, 17 Bordeaux wine producers, including Château d'Yquem, Château Olivier, Château Suduiraut and Château La Tour Blanche, formed an association to grow their own clones.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "Sémillon is widely grown in Australia, particularly in the Hunter Valley north of Sydney, where for a long time it was known as \"Hunter River Riesling\". Four styles of Sémillon-based wines are made there: The latter two styles were pioneered by Lindemans, Tulloch, McWilliam's Elizabeth, Drayton's and Tyrrell's, and are considered unique to Australia.  Most examples of these bottle-aged Hunter Semillons exhibit a buttercup-yellow colour, burnt toast or honey characteristics on the nose and excellent complex flavours on the palate, with a long finish and soft acid. Young Hunter Valley semillon is almost always a dry wine, usually exhibiting citrus flavours of lemon, lime or green apple. Cooler-year Hunter Semillons seem to be the most highly sought after, with some of the 1974 and 1977 vintages still drinking well. The newer, fruit-accentuated styles are championed by the likes of Iain Riggs at Brokenwood Wines and The Rothbury Estate.  Sémillon is also finding favour with Australian producers outside the Hunter Valley in the Barossa Valley and Margaret River regions. The Adelaide Hills is becoming a flourishing region for Semillon, with the cooler climate producing some wines of great complexity. Vineyards such as Amadio and Paracombe produce some premium blends of the classical style.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "South Africa.", "content": "Semillon is one of the Cape’s true heritage white varietals, with origins as early as the 17th century (when it became known as Groendruif which translates as Green grape), the grape variety accounted for more than 90% of plantings in the first half of the 19th century. While South African Semillon has not quite taken off as a serious commercial category in single varietal form in the modern era, there are stunning wines being made from especially older vineyards (some of them centurions). More often, the variety plays a role in beefing up the volume of Sauvignon blancs.  The best South African Semillons have juicy fruit with often an ethereal-like citrus perfume, fine texture, herbal interest and manage to marry the intensity of flavour with finesse.  A red mutation of Semillon is today rarely found, although it was once quite common in South Africa. Semillon Rouge is also a synonym for Merlot.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other regions.", "content": "Outside of these regions, however, Sémillon is unpopular and often criticised for lack of complexity and intensity. As such, plantings have decreased over the last century. As referenced above, the grape can still be found in South Africa and Chile. The latter is reputed to have the largest plantings of this grape, although the number of acres planted with Sémillon fluctuates often. California growers plant Sémillon primarily to blend it with Sauvignon blanc. There are some wineries in the Washington State that have produced Sémillon as a varietal wine since the early 1980s; others actively produce Sémillon for Ice Wine and Late Harvest wines. At least one winery in Idaho grows and produces a varietal offering and at least four vineyards in Texas are growing Sémillon. The grape is also planted in Argentina, Canada (Niagara and British Columbia) and recently in New Zealand.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sémillon is a golden-skinned grape used to make dry and sweet white wines, mostly in France and Australia. Its thin skin and susceptibility to botrytis make it dominate the sweet wine region Sauternes AOC and Barsac AOC.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973047}
{"src_title": "Speed badminton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The special shuttlecock and the idea of the game were invented in 2001 in Berlin by Bill Brandes. The game was refined to the final game of crossminton by the Speedminton company. The inventor first named his new sport \"shuttleball\", but soon the game was renamed \"speed badminton\". Starting from January 2016 the name was changed again, to crossminton. Originally, the idea of the inventor was to create an outdoor variant of badminton, so he changed the ball to be smaller and heavier (today called speeder). The analogy of badminton now exists only in a technical way: there is no net and the game tempo is faster. In 2003, there were already 6,000 active players in Germany. The sport is growing steadily and there are numerous international tournaments across Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Game.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Court.", "content": "The court consists of two squares of 5.50 m (18 ft) length. They are fixed opposite to each other at a distance of 12.8 m (42 ft).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Both of the players need a racket. The rackets are similar to the ones used in squash but are specially produced for Crossminton. They are 58–60 cm long, and the material and the strings are different. The ball is called speeder and is heavier than a conventional badminton shuttlecock, meaning it can be used up to wind force 4.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rules.", "content": "The field consists of two squares measuring 5.5 meters (18 ft) on each side. The distance between the squares is 12.8 meters (42 ft). Crossminton can be played on half of a tennis court which can easily be modified with elastic lines. Match Speeders are used for normal games. Children and adolescents (U12) play with fun speeders on a smaller court (4x4 m) over a smaller distance (9 meters).  The aim of the game is to reach the square of the opposite player with the speeder. If the speeder falls outside the opposite square, the other side gains a point. Both players are allowed to step out of, or any where inside their square during play.  The game ends when one player has at least 16 points and has at least 2 points advantage over their opponent. Every time a set/round finishes, the players switch sides.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Set.", "content": "A set is played until 16 points. At a score of 15:15 there is overtime where two points head start are needed to win the set. A game usually lasts three winning sets. At tournaments, it is possible to play only two winning sets until the semi-finals.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "The right to serve first is drawn by throwing a coin or a speeder. Every player has three serves. Every rally scores. At a score of 15:15 the serve switches after every point. The serve must be done out of the designated zone which is 3 m behind the front offensive line. This line must not be crossed and the serve is played bottom-up. The first serve of the next set is done by the loser of the previous set.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Points.", "content": "Every rally scores if there is no necessity to repeat it. Points can be gained if:  If a player returns a speeder from outside the court, it is considered to still be in play.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Change of ends.", "content": "After every set, there is a change of ends to guarantee equal opportunities concerning wind and lighting conditions. If a fifth game (tiebreak) becomes necessary, players change sides after every 6 points.  At the double division, both players are standing in the same court. The coin or speeder decides the side who serves first. The serving player stands at the backline, and his partner stands in front. The serves rotate between the four players. The first serve in the following set goes to the loser of the previous one.  Crossminton can be played outside and inside, the court can be painted or pegged off. There is even the possibility to use a portable court. Crossminton played in the dark is called Blackminton. With black lights, fluorescent paints, rackets and special speeders (night speeders) with glow sticks (speedlights) it is possible to play even at night.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "World & European Championships.", "content": "The first Crossminton (former Speed Badminton) World Championships took place on 26 and 27 August 2011. It was officially named ‘ISBO Azimut Hotels Speedminton® World Championships’. Over 380 participants from 29 countries played in Berlin, in 10 categories. Players from Canada, the US and Australia also attended. Per Hjalmarson from Sweden won the men’s title, Janet Köhler from Germany won the women’s title and Rene Lewicki & Daniel Gossen from Germany won the doubles title in the final games. Since then the World and European Championships alternate every year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International tournaments.", "content": "There are many international crossminton tournaments taking place all around the world under the supervision of the International Crossminton Organization. Every member country can host every year up to one 1000/500 points tournament and four 250 points tournaments. There are only five 1000 points tournaments every year, chosen by the ICO based on the applications sent by member federations. The series of 1000 and 500 points tournaments is called World Series.  By participating in international ICO tournaments the players receive ranking points based on their results. Ranking points are used to determine seeding for upcoming tournaments.  \"* 1000 points tournaments are denoted in bold characters\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nations Cup.", "content": "Since 2013 the ICO organizes a national team competition called ICO Nations Cup. The concept is derived from tennis competitions like David Cup or Fed Cup, but in crossminton mixed teams consisting of both male and female players are competing. First, Regional tournaments are played in group- or elimination system and then the winners of Regional tournaments – Regional Champions – battle it out for the title of ICO Nations Cup Champion at the Final tournament.  A national team consists of at least three players – 2 male players (open category, but not as a rule) and 1 female player (women’s category, but not as a rule) – and not more than five players (3 players + 2 reserves that can step in for either singles or doubles matches). A clash between two national teams constists of 6 matches – 4 singles and 2 doubles matches.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Crossminton (previously known as Speed Badminton) is a racket game that combines elements from different sports like badminton, squash and tennis. It is played without any net and has no prescribed playground, so it can be executed on tennis courts, streets, beaches, fields or gyms.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973048}
{"src_title": "Jean-Victor Poncelet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Birth, education, and capture (1788–1814).", "content": "Poncelet was born in Metz, France, on 1 July 1788, the illegitimate then legitimated son of Claude Poncelet, a lawyer of the Parliament of Metz and wealthy landowner. At a young age, he was sent to live with the Olier family at Saint-Avold. He returned to Metz for his secondary education, at Lycée Fabert. \"Lycée\" is the French name for high school. After this, he attended the École Polytechnique, a prestigious school in Paris, from 1808 to 1810, though he fell behind in his studies in his third year due to poor health. After graduation, he joined the Corps of Military Engineers. He attended the École d'application in his hometown during this time, and achieved the rank of lieutenant in the French Army the same year he graduated.  Poncelet took part in Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. His biographer writes that he was part of the group which was cut from Marshal Michel Ney's army at the Battle of Krasnoi and was forced to capitulate to the Russians, though other sources say that he was left for dead. Upon capture, he was interrogated by General Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich, but he did not disclose any information. The Russians held him as a prisoner of war and confined him at Saratov. During his imprisonment, in the years 1812–1814, he wrote his most notable work, \"Traité des propriétés projectives des figures\", which outlined the foundations of projective geometry, as well as some new results. Poncelet, however, could not publish it until after his release in 1814.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Release and later employment (1822–1848).", "content": "In 1815, the year after his release, Poncelet was employed a military engineer at his hometown of Metz. In 1822, while at this position, he published \"Traité des propriétés projectives des figures\". This was the first major work to discuss projective geometry since Desargues', though Gaspard Monge had written a few minor works about it previously. It is considered the founding work of modern projective geometry. Joseph Diaz Gergonne also wrote about this branch of geometry at approximately the same time, beginning in 1810. Poncelet published several papers about the subject in Annales de Gergonne (officially known as \"Annales de mathématiques pures et appliquées\"). However, Poncelet and Gergonne ultimately engaged in a bitter priority dispute over the Principle of Duality.  In 1825, he became the professor of mechanics at the École d'Application in Metz, a position he held until 1835. During his tenure at this school, he improved the design of turbines and water wheels, deriving his work from the mechanics of the Provençal mill from southern France. Although the turbine of his design was not constructed until 1838, he envisioned such a design twelve years previous to that. In 1835, he left École d'Application, and in December 1837 became a tenured professor at Sorbonne (the University of Paris), where a 'Chaire de mécanique physique et expérimentale' was specially created for him with the support of François Arago.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Commanding General at École Polytechnique (1848–1867).", "content": "In 1848, Poncelet became the Commanding General of his \"alma mater\", the École Polytechnique. He held the position until 1850, when he retired.  During this time, he wrote \"Applications d'analyse et de géométrie\", which served as an introduction to his earlier work \"Traité des propriétés projectives des figures\". It was published in two volumes in 1862 and 1864. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1865.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Contributions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poncelet–Steiner theorem.", "content": "Poncelet discovered the following theorem in 1822: Euclidean compass and straightedge constructions can be carried out using only a straightedge if a single circle and its center is given. Swiss mathematician Jakob Steiner proved this theorem in 1833, leading to the name of the theorem. The constructions that this theorem states are possible are known as Steiner constructions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Poncelet's porism.", "content": "In geometry, Poncelet's porism (sometimes referred to as Poncelet's closure theorem) states that whenever a polygon is inscribed in one conic section and circumscribes another one, the polygon must be part of an infinite family of polygons that are all inscribed in and circumscribe the same two conics.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jean-Victor Poncelet (1 July 1788 – 22 December 1867) was a French engineer and mathematician who served most notably as the Commanding General of the École Polytechnique. He is considered a reviver of projective geometry, and his work \"Traité des propriétés projectives des figures\" is considered the first definitive text on the subject since Gérard Desargues' work on it in the 17th century. He later wrote an introduction to it: \"Applications d'analyse et de géométrie\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973049}
{"src_title": "Franz Defregger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Franz Defregger was born on 30 April 1835 at the Ederhof in Stronach, Tyrol in the Austrian Empire. He was the second son of Maria (née Fercher) and Michael Defregger, a farmer, who also had five daughters. His mother and two of his sisters died in 1841 during a typhoid epidemic. Franz himself nearly died from the fever. During his early years, Franz developed a strong love of music, and learned to play the flugelhorn. He soon became a member of a local band in Dölsach, playing at weddings, assemblies, and balls. Franz also displayed an early talent for drawing and woodcarving, which he developed autodidactically while working on his father's farm.  After his father died in 1858, Franz took over the farm at the age of twenty-three. Within two years, however, he sold the farm and shared the money with his sisters who wanted to emigrate to America. Defregger moved to Innsbruck and studied woodcarving with the sculptor Michael Stolz, a professor at the Innsbrucker Trade School. Stoltz soon recognized Defregger's greater talent as a painter, and in the autumn of 1860, he arranged a meeting with Karl von Piloty at the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich. At Piloty's suggestion, Defregger attended a preparatory class at the Academy with Hermann Dyck. On 19 July 1861, Defregger passed the entrance examination and was accepted into the Academy. In the autumn of that year, he enrolled in a painting class given by Hermann Anschutz.  In the summer of 1863, with the encouragement of architect Dominik Stadler, Defregger travelled to Paris to enhance his studies at the academy. He enrolled at the École des beaux-arts on the recommendation of Alexander Laemlein. In 1864, he took part in the Salon des Refusés; the Salon catalog from 1864 listed him as \"élève de l'École des Beaux-Arts\". During his time in Paris, Defregger's work was influenced by his experiences in the city and through autodidactic study at museums, art collections, and studios. After spending two years in Paris, Defregger returned to Munich in July 1865 and began studying under Piloty at the academy.  During the next few years, Defregger also spent time in East Tyrol, painting portraits of his relatives and friends. Between 1867 and 1870, he worked with Hans Makart and Gabriel of Max in the studio of the Munich history painter Piloty. His paintings were popular, and he soon became successful as an artist. He was professor of history painting from 1878 to 1910 at the Munich Art Academy. He preferred portraits, rustic motifs from the everyday life, and dramatic scenes from the Tyrolean national uprising of 1809.  In 1883, Defregger was given the Order of Merit of the Bavarian crown, and was made a Knight of the collected personal nobility. He received numerous prizes and awards, including the Prussian Order of Merit for Science and the Arts. In 1906, his work was displayed at the Century of German Art exhibition in Berlin. His students included the Gröden artists Josef Moroder Lusenberg and Hans Perathoner, Lovis Corinth, Walter Thor, Hugo Engl, Emma von Müller and many others. Defregger also worked alongside other artists in the studio, especially Rudolf Epp, developing a style consistent with the Munich school.  Franz Defregger died in Munich in 1921 at the age of 85. He was buried at Nordfriedhof in Munich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Defregger's private home in Munich, called the Defregger House, was built by architect Georg von Hauberrisser. Defregger's residence in Bolzano, the Villa Defregger, was built in 1879 according to the plans of the Bolzano city architect Sebastian Altmann. In 1922 in Vienna, a street was named \"Defreggerstraße\" to honor the artist. Similar street dedications occurred in Bolzano and Gries am Brenner—both have since been renamed. Built in 1887, the Defreggerhaus refuge at the foot of the Großvenediger mountain was also named in his honor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Defregger (after 1883 Franz von Defregger) (30 April 1835 – 2 January 1921) was an Austrian artist known for producing genre art and history paintings set in his native county of Tyrol.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973050}
{"src_title": "Soma (drink)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Soma is a Vedic Sanskrit word that literally means \"distill, extract, sprinkle\", often connected in the context of rituals.  Soma, and its cognate the Avestan \"haoma\". The word is derived from an Indo-Iranian root \"*sav-\" (Sanskrit \"sav-/su\") \"to press\", i.e. \"*sau-ma-\" is the drink prepared by pressing the stalks of a plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vedic soma.", "content": "In the Vedas, the same word (soma) is used for the drink, the plant, and its deity. Drinking \"soma\" produces immortality (\"Amrita\", Rigveda 8.48.3). Indra and Agni are portrayed as consuming soma in copious quantities. In the vedic mythology, Indra drank large amounts of soma while fighting the serpent demon Vritra. The consumption of soma by human beings is well attested in Vedic ritual.  The \"Rigveda\" (8.48.3) says: Ralph T.H. Griffith translates this as: Swami Dayanand Saraswati explains this as: The references to immortality and light are characteristics of an entheogenic experience. (Michael Wood (historian))(The Story of India)  Also, consider Rigveda (8.79.2-6) regarding the power of Soma: \"...He covers the naked and heals all who are sick. The blind man sees; the lame man steps forth...Let those who seek find what they seek: let them receive the treasure...Let him find what was lost before; let him push forward the man of truth...\" Such is indicative of an experience with an entheogen of some source...(Michael Wood (historian)).(\"The Story of India\")", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Avestan haoma.", "content": "The finishing of \"haoma\" in Zoroastrianism may be glimpsed from the Avesta (particularly in the \"Hōm Yast\", Yasna 9), and Avestan language \"*hauma\" also survived as Middle Persian \"hōm\". The plant \"haoma\" yielded the essential ingredient for the ritual drink, \"parahaoma\".  In Yasna 9.22, haoma grants \"speed and strength to warriors, excellent and righteous sons to those giving birth, spiritual power and knowledge to those who apply themselves to the study of the nasks\". As the religion's chief cult divinity he came to be perceived as its divine priest. In Yasna 9.26, Ahura Mazda is said to have invested him with the sacred girdle, and in Yasna 10.89, to have installed haoma as the \"swiftly sacrificing \"zaotar\"\" (Sanskrit \"hotar\") for himself and the Amesha Spenta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Candidates for the plant.", "content": "There has been much speculation as to the original \"Sauma\" plant. Candidates that have been suggested include honey, mushrooms, psychoactive and other herbal plants.  When the ritual of somayajna is held today in South India, the plant used is the \"somalatha\" (Sanskrit: soma creeper, \"Sarcostemma acidum\") which is procured as a leafless vine.  Since the late 18th century, when Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron and others made portions of the Avesta available to western scholars, several scholars have sought a representative botanical equivalent of the \"haoma\" as described in the texts and as used in living Zoroastrian practice. In the late 19th century, the highly conservative Zoroastrians of Yazd (Iran) were found to use ephedra, which was locally known as \"hum\" or \"homa\" and which they exported to the Indian Zoroastrians.  During the colonial British era scholarship, cannabis was proposed as the soma candidate by Joseph Chandra Ray, \"The Soma Plant\" (1939) and by B. L. Mukherjee (1921).  In the late 1960s, several studies attempted to establish \"soma\" as a psychoactive substance. A number of proposals were made, including one in 1968 by the American banker R. Gordon Wasson, an amateur ethnomycologist, who asserted that \"soma\" was an inebriant but not cannabis, and suggested fly-agaric mushroom, \"Amanita muscaria\", as the likely candidate. Since its introduction in 1968, this theory has gained both detractors and followers in the anthropological literature. Wasson and his co-author, Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, drew parallels between Vedic descriptions and reports of Siberian uses of the fly-agaric in shamanic ritual.  In 1989 Harry Falk noted that, in the texts, both \"haoma\" and \"soma\" were said to enhance alertness and awareness, did not coincide with the consciousness altering effects of an entheogen, and that \"there is nothing shamanistic or visionary either in early Vedic or in Old Iranian texts\", (Falk, 1989) Falk also asserted that the three varieties of ephedra that yield ephedrine (\"Ephedra gerardiana\", \"E. major procera\" and \"E. intermedia\") also have the properties attributed to \"haoma\" by the texts of the Avesta. (Falk, 1989) At the conclusion of the 1999 Haoma-Soma workshop in Leiden, Jan E. M. Houben writes: \"despite strong attempts to do away with ephedra by those who are eager to see sauma[sic] as a hallucinogen, its status as a serious candidate for the Rigvedic Soma and Avestan Haoma still stands\" (Houben, 2003).  The Soviet archeologist Viktor Sarianidi wrote that he had discovered vessels and mortars used to prepare soma in Zoroastrian temples in Bactria. He said that the vessels have revealed residues and seed impressions left behind during the preparation of soma. This has not been sustained by subsequent investigations. Alternatively Mark Merlin, who revisited the subject of the identity of soma more than thirty years after originally writing about it stated that there is a need of further study on links between soma and \"Papaver somniferum\". (Merlin, 2008)  In his book \"Food of the Gods\", ethnobotanist Terence McKenna postulates that the most likely candidate for soma is the mushroom Psilocybe cubensis, a hallucinogenic mushroom that grows in cow dung in certain climates. McKenna cites both Wasson's and his own unsuccessful attempts using \"Amanita muscaria\" to reach a psychedelic state as evidence that it could not have inspired the worship and praise of soma. McKenna further points out that the 9th mandala of the Rig Veda makes extensive references to the cow as the embodiment of soma.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transcendental Meditation movement.", "content": "The Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's Transcendental Meditation-Sidhi Program involves a notion of \"soma\", said to be based on the Rigveda.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Vedic tradition, soma () is a ritual drink of importance among the early vedic Indians. The Rigveda mentions it, particularly in the Soma Mandala.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973051}
{"src_title": "Rhodesian Ridgeback", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Since Carolingian times, cereals have been grown in Gonesse. In the period of the 12th through to the 16th centuries, the cultivation of grain was supplemented by drapery, in particular the production of the coarse woollen material of the \"gaunace\". The commune was an important producer of wheat for the Parisian market in modern times, until the decline of its bakery trade at the end of the 18th century helped feed a strong migration to the capital. The world's first hydrogen filled balloon — the unmanned balloon launched by Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers from the Champ de Mars in Paris on 27 August 1783 — flew for 45 minutes and landed in Gonesse, where the reportedly terrified local peasants destroyed it with pitchforks. This caused the government to issue a statement on the harmlessness and the scientific value of such experiments.  In 1815, Marshal Grouchy arrived in Gonesse in the course of the War of the Sixth Coalition, with 40,000 troops and 120 artillery pieces. On 2 July, the Duke of Wellington made his headquarters at the commune.  Since June 1939, the property Frapart (the \"Castle\") is used as the main establishment of the urban administration.  Jean Camus, Louis Furmanek, Pierre Lorgnet, and Albert Drouhot from Gonesse belonged to the French Resistance movement during the German occupation of France from 1940 to 1944.  On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590 — a Concorde supersonic transport — crashed onto a hotel in the town after a tyre blew out, caused by running over a strip of metal that had fallen off a DC-10 at nearby Charles de Gaulle International Airport. The crash led to the deaths of all 109 people on board and four more on the ground. The Concorde crash occurred fewer than 6 km from Goussainville, the site of the crash of the supersonic Tupolev Tu-144 during the 1973 Paris Air Show.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twinning with Leonessa.", "content": "Gonesse is twinned with the town of Leonessa in Rieti / Italy, since 1981.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "Among the places worthwhile to visit in the town are the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, the old Hotel-Dieu, the Hotel-Dieu, the lofts Garlande and Orgemont, and the estates of Malmaison and of Coulanges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Gonesse is served neither by the Paris Métro, RER, nor the suburban rail network. The closest station is the Villiers-le-Bel – Gonesse – Arnouville station on the Paris RER line D. This station is located in the neighbouring commune of Arnouville-lès-Gonesse, from Gonesse town centre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": ", the commune had 20 municipal primary schools with a total of 3,526 ;pupils, including 11 pre-schools (\"écoles maternelles\") with a total of 1,389 pupils (in addition to 20 children in \"toute petite\" programmes) and nine elementary schools with 2,137 total pupils.  Junior high schools:  There is one senior high school, Lycée René Cassin-Gonesse.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Rhodesian Ridgeback is a dog breed bred in the Southern Africa region. Its forebears can be traced to the semi-domesticated, ridged hunting dogs of the Khoikhoi, which were crossed with European dogs by the early colonists of the Cape Colony of southern Africa. The original breed standard was drafted by F. R. Barnes, in Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), in 1922, who named the breed the Rhodesian Ridgeback. The standard was approved by the South African Kennel Union in 1927.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973052}
{"src_title": "Arantxa Sánchez Vicario", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Arantxa Sánchez Vicario started playing tennis at the age of four, when she followed her older brothers Emilio Sánchez and Javier Sánchez (both of whom became professional players) to the court and hit balls against the wall with her first racquet. As a 17-year-old, she became the youngest winner of the women's singles title at the 1989 French Open, defeating World No. 1 Steffi Graf in the final. (Monica Seles broke the record the following year when she won the title at age 16.)  Sánchez Vicario quickly developed a reputation on the tour for her tenacity and refusal to concede a point. Commentator Bud Collins described her as \"unceasing in determined pursuit of tennis balls, none seeming too distant to be retrieved in some manner and returned again and again to demoralize opponents\" and nicknamed her the \"Barcelona Bumblebee\".  She won six women's doubles Grand Slam titles, including the US Open in 1993 (with Helena Suková) and Wimbledon in 1995 (with Jana Novotná). She also won four Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. In 1991, she helped Spain win its first-ever Fed Cup title, and helped Spain win the Fed Cup in 1993, 1994, 1995, and 1998. Sanchez Vicario holds the records for the most matches won by a player in Fed Cup competition (72) and for most ties played (58). She was ITF world champion in 1994 in singles.  Sánchez Vicario was also a member of the Spanish teams that won the Hopman Cup in 1990 and 2002.  Over the course of her career, Sánchez Vicario won 29 singles titles and 69 doubles titles before retiring in November 2002. She came out of retirement in 2004 to play doubles in a few select tournaments as well as the 2004 Summer Olympics, where she became the only tennis player to play in five Olympics in the Games history. Sanchez Vicario is the most decorated Olympian in Spanish history with four medals – two silver and two bronze.  In 2005, \"TENNIS \"Magazine put her in 27th place in its list of 40 Greatest Players of the \"TENNIS\" era and in 2007, she was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame. She was only the third Spanish player (and the first Spanish woman) to be inducted.  In 2009, Sánchez Vicario was present at the opening ceremony of Madrid's Caja Mágica, the new venue for the Madrid Masters. The second show court is named Court Arantxa Sánchez Vicario in her honour.  In 2015 Sanchez Vicario went into professional coaching. She got involved in training Danish player Caroline Wozniacki.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "She has been married twice: her first marriage to the sports writer Juan Vehils on 21 July 2000 ended in 2001. She married the businessman Josep Santacana in September 2008. Their first child, a girl also named Arantxa, was born on 27 February 2009. Sánchez Vicario gave birth to their second child, a boy named Leo, on 28 October 2011.  In 2012 it was reported that, despite Sánchez Vicario having earned $60 million over the course of her career, her parents had lost all of her money, she became very poor and that she was in debt to Spanish tax authorities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major finals.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Olympics.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Singles: 2 medals (1 silver medal, 1 bronze medal).", "content": "Arantxa Sánchez Vicario lost in the semi-finals to Jennifer Capriati 3–6, 6–3, 1–6. In 1992, there was no bronze medal play-off match, both beaten semi-final players received bronze medals", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Grand Slam performance timelines.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Doubles.", "content": "NH = tournament not held A = did not participate in the tournament SR = the ratio of the number of Grand Slam tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Aránzazu Isabel María \"Arantxa\" Sánchez Vicario (; born 18 December 1971) is a Spanish former world No. 1 retired tennis player. She won 14 Grand Slam titles: four in singles, six in women's doubles, and four in mixed doubles. In 1994, she was crowned the ITF World Champion for the year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973053}
{"src_title": "Max Bense", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Max Bense spent his early childhood in his birthplace Strasbourg and in 1918 his family was deported from Alsace-Lorraine as a consequence of World War I. Starting in 1920, he attended grammar school in Cologne and after 1930 he studied physics, chemistry, mathematics, geology, and philosophy at the University of Bonn. During his studies, his interest in literature is revealed by several contributions to newspapers, journals, and broadcast, for which he wrote several radio dramas. In 1937 he received his doctor's degree (Dr. phil. nat.) with his dissertation \"Quantenmechanik und Daseinsrelativität\" (Quantum Mechanics and Relativity of \"Dasein\"). He used the term \"Relativity of Dasein\", which he adopted from Max Scheler, for explaining that novel theories do not have to contradict classical science. Bense – declared opponent of national socialism – knowingly opposed the Deutsche Physik of the Nazi regime (cf. Johannes Juilfs), which rejected the theory of relativity due to Einstein's Jewish origin. Therefore, he did not receive his postdoctoral qualification.  In 1938, Bense initially worked as a physicist at the Bayer AG in Leverkusen. After the outbreak of World War II he was a soldier, firstly as a meteorologist, then as a medical technician in Berlin and Georgenthal, where he was mayor for a short time after the end of the war. In 1945 the University of Jena appointed him to curator (Chancellor of the University) and offered him the possibility of postdoctoral work (habilitation), which was likely to be cumulative, at the Social-Pedagogic Faculty, which was followed by an appointment to Professor extraordinarius of philosophical and scientific propaedeutics.  In 1948, Bense fled from the political development of the Soviet occupation zone to Boppard; and he was appointed as a guest professor in philosophy and theory of science by the University of Stuttgart in 1949, and as senior lecturer (associate professor) there in 1950. In 1955, Bense raised a controversy concerning mythologizing tendencies of German postwar culture. Thereupon he became the target of public polemics, resulting in a postponement of his appointment to full professor until 1963.  In addition, he worked at the adult education center in Ulm and at the Ulm School of Design from 1953 to 1958.  He was also guest professor at the Hamburg College for Visual Arts from 1958 to 1960 and in 1966/67.  Max Bense became professor emeritus on February 7, 1978 and died in 1990 as an internationally accredited scientist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematics in art and language.", "content": "Already in his first publication, \"Raum und Ich\" (\"Space and Ego\"; 1934), Bense combined theoretical philosophy with mathematics, semiotics, and aesthetics; this remained his thematic emphasis. For the first time, he phrased a rational aesthetics, which defines the components of language – words, syllables, phonemes – as a statistical language repertoire, and which opposes literature that is based upon meaning. Conversely, Bense studied the concept of style, which he applied to mathematics – following Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz' \"Mathesis Universalis\" –, designing a universal markup language. \"Die Mathematik in der Kunst\" (\"Mathematics in Art\"; 1949) was his starting point for investigating mathematical principles of form in the history of art. From this, Bense developed a perspective to see the mathematical spirit in works of literary art, especially in metrics and rhythm. Bense's thoughts assumed the correlation of a mathematical and linguistic consciousness, which have a common origin and have grown into complementary modes of thought. He considered the atomistic structures of the linguistic modes to be equivalent. By using non-interpretable basic elements (characters) and rules or operators, these forms give meaning, impart information and make stylistically formed language possible. He considered the aesthetic and the semantic information to be generally separated and not to be defined until they are used. This was the first German integration of Ludwig Wittgenstein's work into the field of aesthetics.  Some of Bense's knowledge is based on the investigations of the American mathematician George David Birkhoff. Thus some termini like \"redundancy\" and \"entropy\" have to be equated with \"Ordnungsmaß\" and \"Materialverbrauch\" (consumption of material) from Birkhoff's aesthetics research.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Technology and ethics.", "content": "Bense considered the destruction of the social and intellectual middle-class world since the beginning of the 20th century a parallel to the destruction of the concept of being in philosophy. He saw the natural world replaced by an artificial one. As a forerunner of the computer age, Bense thought about the technical counterparts of human existence; unlike many of his contemporaries he considered machines as pure products of human intelligence, having algorithms as a basis, but soon he posed ethical questions, which were not discussed in ethics of technology until decades later. His pragmatic views of technology, influenced by Walter Benjamin, which lacked either belief in progress or its rejection, brought him the criticism of Theodor W. Adorno – and again put him in the role of the opposition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Structural analysis of language.", "content": "Inspired by neuroscience, informatics, and the occupation with electronic calculating machines, but also by Wittgenstein's concept of the language-game, Bense tried to put into perspective or to extend the traditional view of literature. In that, he was one of the first philosophers of culture who integrated the technical possibilities of the computer into their thoughts and investigated them across disciplinary boundaries. He statistically and topologically analysed linguistic phenomena, subjected them to questions of semiotic, information theory, and communication theory using structuralistic approaches. Thus Bense became the first theoretician of concrete poetry, which was started by Eugen Gomringer in 1953, and encouraged e.g. Helmut Heißenbüttel, Claus Bremer, Reinhard Döhl, Ludwig Haring, and Franz Mon to perform further experiments, and also had influence on Ernst Jandl's language deconstruction (see also Stuttgarter Gruppe/Schule).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discussion with writers.", "content": "In his work with literature and literary language, Bense was not content with only theoretical considerations; he had close contact to authors like Alfred Andersch and Arno Schmidt. His constructions of analogy to visual arts made major contributions to the understanding of cubism and dadaism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Understanding of science.", "content": "As a theoretician of science, Bense represented the \"synthetic intellectual concept,\" where classical humanism and modern technology constructively complement one another. From this concept of science, he hoped for progressive knowledge, which must always be ethically scrutinized, and at the same time, for the prevention of regression. Because of that, Bense argued for enlightenment and put himself into that tradition.  After 1984 Max Bense applied his theories of visual art to screen media. Because of that, early thoughts of media studies concerning the internet, especially the concept of digital poetry, may be traced back to Bense.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "\"All publications are in German.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secondary literature.", "content": "\"All references are in German.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Max Bense (February 7, 1910 in Strasbourg – April 29, 1990 in Stuttgart) was a German philosopher, writer, and publicist, known for his work in philosophy of science, logic, aesthetics, and semiotics. His thoughts combine natural sciences, art, and philosophy under a collective perspective and follow a definition of reality, which – under the term \"existential rationalism\" – is able to remove the separation between humanities and natural sciences.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973054}
{"src_title": "Common frog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The adult common frog has a body length of its back and flanks varying in colour from olive green to grey-brown, brown, olive brown, grey, yellowish and rufous. However, it can lighten and darken its skin to match its surroundings. Some individuals have more unusual colouration—both black and red individuals have been found in Scotland, and albino frogs have been found with yellow skin and red eyes. During the mating season the male common frog tends to turn greyish-blue (see video below). The average mass is ; the female is usually slightly larger than the male.  The flanks, limbs and backs are covered with irregular dark blotches and they usually sport a chevron-shaped spot on the back of their neck and a dark spot behind the eye. Unlike other amphibians, common frogs generally lack a mid-dorsal band but, when they have one, it is comparatively faint. In many countries moor frogs have a light dorsal band which easily distinguishes them from common frogs. The underbelly is white or yellow (occasionally more orange in females) and can be speckled with brown or orange. The eyes are brown with transparent horizontal pupils, and they have transparent inner eyelids to protect the eyes while underwater, as well as a'mask' which covers the eyes and eardrums. Although the common frog has long hind legs compared to the common toad, they are shorter than those of the agile frog with which it shares some of its range. The longer hind legs and fainter colouration of the agile frog are the main features that distinguish the two species.  Males are distinguishable from females as they are smaller and have hard swellings, known as nuptial pads, on the first digits of the forelegs, used for gripping females during mating. During the mating season males' throats often turn white, and their overall colour is generally light and greyish, whereas the female is browner, or even red.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The common frog is found throughout much of Europe as far north as northern Scandinavia inside the Arctic Circle and as far east as the Urals, except for most of Iberia, southern Italy, and the southern Balkans. Other areas where the common frog has been introduced include the Isle of Lewis, Shetland, Orkney and the Faroe Islands. It is also found in Asia, and eastward to Japan.  The common frog has long been thought to be an entirely introduced species in Ireland, however, genetic analyses suggest that particular populations in the south west of Ireland are indeed indigenous to the country. The authors propose that the Irish frog population is a mixed group that includes native frogs that survived the last glacial period in ice free refugia, natural post-glacial colonisers and recent artificial introductions from Western Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Outside the breeding season, common frogs live a solitary life in damp places near ponds or marshes or in long grass. They are normally active for much of the year, only hibernating in the coldest months. In the most northern extremities of their range they may be trapped under ice for up to nine months of the year, but recent studies have shown that in these conditions they may be relatively active at temperatures close to freezing. In the British Isles, common frogs typically hibernate from late October to January. They will re-emerge as early as February if conditions are favourable, and migrate to bodies of water such as garden ponds to spawn. Where conditions are harsher, such as in the Alps, they emerge as late as early June. Common frogs hibernate in running waters, muddy burrows, or in layers of decaying leaves and mud at the bottom of ponds or lakes primarily with a current. The oxygen uptake through the skin suffices to sustain the needs of the cold and motionless frogs during hibernation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "During the spring the frog's pituitary gland is stimulated by changes in external factors, such as rainfall, day length and temperature, to produce hormones which, in turn, stimulate the production of sex cells - eggs in the females and sperm in the male. The male's nuptial pad also swells and becomes more heavily pigmented. Common frogs breed in shallow, still, fresh water such as ponds, with spawning commencing sometime between March and late June, but generally in April over the main part of their range. The adults congregate in the ponds, where the males compete for females. The courtship ritual involves noisy vocalisations (croaking) by large \"choirs\" of males. The females are attracted to the males that produce the loudest and longest calls and enter the water, where the males mill around and try to grasp them with their front legs — although they may grasp anything of a similar size, such as a piece of wood. The successful male climbs on the back of the female and grasps her under the forelegs with his nuptial pads, in a position known as amplexus, and kicks away any other males that try to grasp her. He then stays attached in this position until she lays her eggs, which he fertilises by spraying sperm over them as they are released from the female's cloaca. The courtship rituals are performed throughout the day and night but spawning typically takes place at night. The females lay between 1,000 and 2,000 eggs which float in large clusters near the surface of the water. After mating the pairs separate, the females will leave the water and the males will try to find another mate. Within three or four days all the females will have laid their eggs and left the water and the males disperse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "In common with other amphibians the rate of development of the larvae is influenced by temperature, with eggs and tadpoles in ponds at higher temperatures developing faster than those at lower temperatures. Newly hatched tadpoles are mainly herbivorous, feeding on algae, detritus, plants and some small invertebrates, but they become fully carnivorous once their back legs develop, feeding on small water animals or even other tadpoles when food is scarce. Juvenile frogs feed on invertebrates both on land and in water but their feeding habits change significantly throughout their lives and older frogs will eat only on land. Adult common frogs will feed on any invertebrate of a suitable size, catching their prey on their long, sticky tongues, although they do not feed at all during the short breeding season. Preferred foods include insects (especially flies), snails, slugs and worms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "Common frogs are susceptible to a number of diseases, including \"Ranavirus\" and the parasitic fungus \"Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis\" which has been implicated in extinctions of amphibian species around the world. Loss of habitat and the effect of these diseases has caused the decline of populations across Europe in recent years. The common frog is listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Predators.", "content": "Tadpoles are eaten by fish, beetles, dragonfly larvae and birds. Adult frogs have many predators including storks, birds of prey, crows, gulls, ducks, terns, herons, pine martens, stoats, weasels, polecats, badgers, otters and snakes. Some frogs are killed, but rarely eaten, by domestic cats, and large numbers are killed on the roads by motor vehicles.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The common frog (\"Rana temporaria\"), also known as the European common frog, European common brown frog, or European grass frog, is a semi-aquatic amphibian of the family Ranidae, found throughout much of Europe as far north as Scandinavia and as far east as the Urals, except for most of Iberia, southern Italy, and the southern Balkans. The farthest west it can be found is Ireland. It is also found in Asia, and eastward to Japan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973055}
{"src_title": "Chlorhexidine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "Chlorhexidine is used in disinfectants (disinfection of the skin and hands), cosmetics (additive to creams, toothpaste, deodorants, and antiperspirants), and pharmaceutical products (preservative in eye drops, active substance in wound dressings and antiseptic mouthwashes). A 2019 Cochrane review concluded that based on very low certainty evidence in those who are critical ill \"it is not clear whether bathing with chlorhexidine reduces hospital‐acquired infections, mortality, or length of stay in the ICU, or whether the use of chlorhexidine results in more skin reactions.\"  In endodontics, chlorhexidine is used for root canal irrigation and as an intracanal dressing, but has been replaced by the use of sodium hypochlorite bleach in much of the developed world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Antiseptic.", "content": "There is tentative evidence that it is more effective than povidone-iodine.  CHG is active against Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, facultative anaerobes, aerobes, and yeasts. It is particularly effective against Gram-positive bacteria (in concentrations ≥ 1 μg/l). Significantly higher concentrations (10 to more than 73 μg/ml) are required for Gram-negative bacteria and fungi. Chlorhexidine is ineffective against polioviruses and adenoviruses. The effectiveness against herpes viruses has not yet been established unequivocally.  Chlorhexidine, like other cation-active compounds, remains on the skin. It is frequently combined with alcohols (ethanol and isopropyl alcohol).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dental use.", "content": "Use of a CHG-based mouthwash in combination with normal tooth care can help reduce the build-up of plaque and improve mild gingivitis. There is not enough evidence to determine the effect in moderate to severe gingivitis. About 20 mL twice a day of concentrations of 0.1% to 0.2% is recommended for mouth-rinse solutions with a duration of at least 30 seconds. Such mouthwash also has a number of adverse effects including damage to the mouth lining, tooth discoloration, tartar build-up, and impaired taste. Extrinsic tooth staining occurs when chlorhexidine rinse has been used for 4 weeks or longer.  Mouthwashes containing chlorhexidine which stain teeth less than the classic solution have been developed, many of which contain chelated zinc.  Using chlorhexidine as a supplement to everyday mechanical oral hygiene procedures for 4 to 6 weeks and 6 months leads to a moderate reduction in gingivitis compared to placebo, control or mechanical oral hygiene alone.  Chlorhexidine is a cation which interacts with anionic components of toothpaste, such as sodium lauryl sulfate and sodium monofluorophosphate, and forms salts of low solubility and antibacterial activity. Hence, to enhance the antiplaque effect of chlorhexidine, \"it seems best that the interval between toothbrushing and rinsing with CHX [chlorhexidine] be more than 30 minutes, cautiously close to 2 hours after brushing.\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Topical.", "content": "Nepal was the first country in the world to use chlorhexidine to treat the umbilical cord of newborn babies, and received a USAID Pioneers Prize for reducing the neonatal death rate. Chlorhexidine is very effective for poor countries like Nepal and its use is growing in the world for treating the umbilical cord. A 2015 Cochrane review has yielded high-quality evidence that within the community setting, chlorhexidine skin or cord care can reduce the incidence of omphalitis (inflammation of the umbilical cord) by 50% and also neonatal mortality by 12%. Chlorhexidine gluconate is used as a skin cleanser for surgical scrubs, a cleanser for skin wounds, for preoperative skin preparation and germicidal hand rinses. Chlorhexidine eye drops have been used as a treatment for eyes affected by \"Acanthamoeba\" keratitis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Side effects.", "content": "CHG is ototoxic; if put into an ear canal which has a ruptured eardrum, it can lead to deafness.  CHG does not meet current European specifications for a hand disinfectant. Under the test conditions of the European Standard EN 1499, no significant difference in the efficacy was found between a 4% solution of chlorhexidine digluconate and soap. In the U.S., between 2007 and 2009, Hunter Holmes McGuire Veterans Administration Medical Center conducted a cluster-randomized trial and concluded that daily bathing of patients in intensive care units with washcloths saturated with chlorhexidine gluconate reduced the risk of hospital-acquired infections.  Whether prolonged exposure over many years may have carcinogenic potential is still not clear. The Federal Drug Administration (FDA) in the USA recommendation is to limit the use of a chlorhexidine gluconate mouthwash to a maximum of six months.  Once digested CHG is poorly absorbed into gastrointestinal tract. If aspirated into the lungs at high enough concentration, as reported in one case, it can be fatal due to the high risk of acute respiratory distress syndrome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanism of action.", "content": "At physiologic pH, chlorhexidine salts dissociate and release the positively charged chlorhexidine cation. The bactericidal effect is a result of the binding of this cationic molecule to negatively charged bacterial cell walls. At low concentrations of chlorhexidine, this results in a bacteriostatic effect; at high concentrations, membrane disruption results in cell death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "It is a cationic polybiguanide (bisbiguanide). It is used primarily as its salts (e.g., the dihydrochloride, diacetate, and digluconate).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deactivation.", "content": "Chlorhexidine is deactivated by forming insoluble salts with anionic compounds, including the anionic surfactants commonly used as detergents in toothpastes and mouthwashes, anionic thickeners such as carbomer, and anionic emulsifiers such as acrylates/C10-30 alkyl acrylate crosspolymer, among many others. For this reason, chlorhexidine mouth rinses should be used at least 30 minutes after other dental products. For best effectiveness, food, drink, smoking, and mouth rinses should be avoided for at least one hour after use. Many topical skin products, cleansers, and hand sanitizers should also be avoided to prevent deactivation when chlorhexidine (as a topical by itself or as a residue from a cleanser) is meant to remain on the skin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synthesis.", "content": "The structure is based on two molecules of proguanil, linked with a hexamethylenediamine spacer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brands.", "content": "Chlorhexidine topical is sold as Betasept, Biopatch, Calgon Vesta, ChloraPrep One-Step, Dyna-Hex, Hibiclens, Hibistat Towelette, Scrub Care Exidine, Spectrum-4 among others.  Chlorhexidine gluconate mouth rinse is sold as Paroex, Peridex, PerioChip, Periogard among others.  Hexoralettene N contains benzocaine, menthol and chlorhexidine hydrochloride. It is used as oral antiseptic candies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The name \"Chlorhexidine\" breaks down as chlor(o) + hex(ane) + id(e) + (am)ine), is a cationic polybiguanide. It is used primarily as its gluconate salt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veterinary medicine.", "content": "In animals, chlorhexidine is used for topical disinfection of wounds, and to manage skin infections. Chlorhexidine-based disinfectant products are used within the dairy farming industry.  Post-surgical respiratory problems have been associated with the use of chlorhexidine products in cats.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chlorhexidine (commonly known by the salt forms chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) or chlorhexidine acetate), is a disinfectant and antiseptic that is used for skin disinfection before surgery and to sterilize surgical instruments. It may be used both to disinfect the skin of the patient and the hands of the healthcare providers. It is also used for cleaning wounds, preventing dental plaque, treating yeast infections of the mouth, and to keep urinary catheters from blocking. It is used as a liquid or powder. Side effects may include skin irritation, teeth discoloration, and allergic reactions. It may cause eye problems if direct contact occurs. Use in pregnancy appears to be safe. Chlorhexidine may come mixed in alcohol, water, or surfactant solution. It is effective against a range of microorganisms, but does not inactivate spores. Chlorhexidine came into medical use in the 1950s. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system. Chlorhexidine is available over the counter. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US$2.20–4.10 per liter of 5% solution. In the United Kingdom this amount costs the NHS about £4.80. In 2017, it was the 286th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than one million prescriptions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973056}
{"src_title": "Antonio Cesti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born at Arezzo, and studied with various local musicians. In 1637 he joined the Order of Friars Minor, or Franciscans, a Roman Catholic religious group founded by Francis of Assisi. While he was in Volterra he turned more toward secular music, perhaps due to the patronage and influence of the powerful Medici family. Here he also came in contact with Salvator Rosa, who wrote libretti for a number of Cesti's cantatas. By 1650 Cesti's calling as a Franciscan friar and his success as a singer and composer for operas was coming into conflict, and he was officially reprimanded. In 1652 he became a member of the court at Innsbruck of Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria. After holding a post somewhere in Florence as \"maestro di cappella\", he entered the papal chapel in 1660. In 1666 he became \"Vice-Kapellmeister\" at Vienna, and died at Venice in 1669.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Cesti is known principally as a composer of operas. The most celebrated of these were \"La Dori\" (Venice, 1663), \"Il pomo d'oro\" (Vienna, 1668) and \"Orontea\" (1656). \"Il pomo d'oro\" (\"The Golden Apple\") was written for the wedding in Vienna of Emperor Leopold I in 1666, and first performed in 1668, in a famously lavish production. It was far more elaborate than contemporary Venetian operas, including a large orchestra, numerous choruses, and various mechanical devices used to stage things like gods descending from heaven (\"deus ex machina\"), naval battles, and storms.  \"Orontea\" was revived seventeen times in the next thirty years, making it one of the most frequently performed operas on the continent in the mid-17th century. Even Samuel Pepys owned a copy of the score. It includes a well-known soprano aria \"\"Intorno all'idol mio\"\" (English: \"\"Around my idol\"\").  Cesti was also a composer of chamber cantatas, and his operas are notable for the pure and delicate style of their airs, more suited to the chamber than to the stage. He wrote in the \"bel canto\" style of the 17th century, and his compositions were heavily influenced by his career as a professional singer. His musical writing owes much to the emerging tonality of the time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pietro Marc'Antonio Cesti () (baptism 5 August 162314 October 1669), known today primarily as an Italian composer of the Baroque era, was also a singer (tenor), and organist. He was \"the most celebrated Italian musician of his generation\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973057}
{"src_title": "Calophyllum inophyllum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "\"Calophyllum inophyllum\" is also known as Alexandrian laurel balltree, beach touriga, Borneo-mahogany, Indian doomba oiltree, Indian-laurel, laurelwood, red poon, satin touriga, and tacamahac-tree. In Island Southeast Asia and Oceania, they are also commonly known as bintangur, bitaog, tamanu, or kamani.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Calophyllum inophyllum\" is a low-branching and slow-growing tree with a broad and irregular crown. It usually reaches in height. The flower is wide and occurs in racemose or paniculate inflorescences consisting of four to 15 flowers. Flowering can occur perennially, but usually two distinct flowering periods are observed, in late spring and in late autumn. The fruit (the ballnut) is a round, green drupe measuring in diameter and having a single large seed. When ripe, the fruit is wrinkled and its color varies from yellow to brownish-red.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Calophyllum inophyllum\" is native to Africa in: Comoros; Kenya; Madagascar; Mauritius; Mozambique; Seychelles; Tanzania (including Pemba Island of the Zanzibar Archipelago); south, southeast and east Asia in: Bangladesh; Cambodia; China (on Hainan); southern India; Andaman and Nicobar Islands Indonesia; Japan (Ryukyu Islands); Malaysia; Myanmar; Papua New Guinea; the Philippines; Sri Lanka; Taiwan; Thailand; Vietnam; the northwestern, southwestern and south central Pacific Region in: the Cook Islands; Fiji; French Polynesia (Marquesas and Society Islands); Guam; the Marshall Islands; Micronesia; the Northern Mariana Islands; Palau; and Samoa; and in Australia in: Northern Territory and Queensland.  Now, it is widely cultivated in all tropical regions of the world. Because of its decorative leaves, fragrant flowers, and spreading crown, it is best known as an ornamental plant.  This tree often grows in coastal regions, as well as nearby lowland forests. However, it has also been cultivated successfully in inland areas at moderate altitudes. It tolerates varied kinds of soil, coastal sand, clay, or even degraded soil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shipbuilding.", "content": "Mastwood is notable for its ability to grow to massive sizes in sandy or rocky beaches of island and coastal habitats, as well as its habit of sending out arching large trunks over the water where its seeds are dispersed via the currents. Due to these characters, mastwood are of particular importance to traditional shipbuilding of the larger Austronesian outrigger ships and were carried with them as they migrated to Oceania and Madagascar. Other species of the genus \"Calophyllum\" were also used similarly, like \"Calophyllum soulattri\", \"Calophyllum peekelii\", and \"Calophyllum goniocarpum\". They were comparable in importance to how oaks were in European shipbuilding and timber industries.  Various parts of the mastwood were integral to the manufacture of outrigger canoes among various Austronesian peoples. The large curving limbs were commonly carved into the dugout canoe that formed the keel of the Austronesian outriggers ships. The strakes, which are attached to the keel by the uniquely Austronesian technique of \"sewing\" them with a combination of dowels and lashed lugs instead of nails, can also be made from mastwood, but it is more commonly made from other \"softer\" timber species like \"Artocarpus\". Other pieces became masts, outrigger floats, and outrigger spars. Smaller curving limbs can also be carved into the ribs of the boat.  In many parts of Polynesia, mastwood groves planted in \"marae\" were considered sacred and abodes of spirits. Mastwood were also carved into religious objects like \"tiki\". They are also commonly mentioned in the chants and folklore of Polynesia.  In Australia, the 1889 book \"The Useful Native Plants of Australia\" records \"During a debate on the Pearl Fisheries Bill in the Queensland Assembly, a clause was specially inserted to protect trees of this species at Thursday Island. A fine of £10 is inflicted on any person who cuts down or injures this or a cocoa-nut tree, or any other tree bearing edible fruit. This clause is, of course, in the interest of the aboriginals.\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Aside from shipbuilding, tamanu oil extracted from the fruit kernels were important in Polynesian culture. The oils, as well as poultices made from leaves and flowers, are also commonly used for traditional medicine. The leaves contain compounds that are poisonous to fish and can be used as fish poison. The sap of the tree is poisonous and is used to make poison arrows in Samoa. The mature fruit is poisonous enough to use as rat bait.  The seeds yield a thick, dark green tamanu oil for medicinal use or hair grease. The nuts are dried before cracking, after which the oil-laden kernel is removed and further dried. The first neoflavone isolated from natural sources (1951) was calophyllolide from \"C. inophyllum\" seeds.  The Mavilan, a Tulu-speaking tribe in north Kerala in India, use the bark to make a powder that they mix with water and apply it to plants affected by a type of plant disease caused by water that they call \"neeru vembu\".  The fatty acid methyl esters derived from \"C. inophyllum\" seed oil meets the major biodiesel requirements in the United States (ASTM D 6751), and European Union (EN 14214). The average oil yield is 11.7 kg-oil/tree or 4680 kg-oil/hectare. In the northwest coastal areas of Luzon island in Philippines, the oil was used for night lamps. This widespread use started to decline when kerosene became available, and later on electricity. It was also used as fuel to generate electricity to provide power for radios during World War II.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Calophyllum inophyllum is a large evergreen plant, commonly called tamanu, mastwood, beach calophyllum, beautyleaf or. It is native to tropical Asia and Wallacea. Due to its importance as a source of timber for the traditional shipbuilding of large outrigger ships, it has been spread in prehistoric times by the migrations of the Austronesian peoples to the islands of Oceania and Madagascar, along with other members of the genus \"Calophyllum\". It has since been naturalized in regions in the East African coast. It is also a source of the culturally important tamanu oil.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973058}
{"src_title": "Ussher chronology", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ussher's methods.", "content": "The chronologies of Ussher and other biblical scholars corresponded so closely because they used much the same method to calculate key events recorded in the Bible. Establishing the chronologies is complicated by the fact that the Bible was compiled by different authors over several centuries with lengthy chronological gaps, making it difficult to do a simple totaling of Biblical ages and dates. In his article on Ussher's calendar, James Barr has identified three distinct periods that Ussher and others had to tackle:  After reckoning the years from creation to the last kings of Judah, Ussher used to establish the length of time from the creation to the accession of Babylonian king Amel-Marduk (also known as Evil-Merodach). He then used information from Babylonian, Greek, and Roman sources to fix the date of Amel-Marduk's enthronement at 562 BC (after Nebuchadnezzar's death), from which he was able to deduce a creation in 4004 BC.  In fixing the date of Jesus' birth, Ussher took account of an error perpetrated by Dionysius Exiguus, the founder of the Anno Domini numbering system. Ussher chose 5 BC as Christ's birth year because Josephus indicated that the death of Herod the Great occurred in 4 BC. Thus, for the Gospel of Matthew to be correct, Jesus could not have been born after that date.  The season in which Creation occurred was the subject of considerable theological debate in Ussher's time. Many scholars proposed it had taken place in the spring, the start of the Babylonian, Chaldean and other cultures' chronologies. Others, including Ussher, thought it more likely that it had occurred in the autumn, largely because that season marked the beginning of the Jewish year.  Ussher further narrowed down the date by using the Jewish calendar to establish the \"first day\" of creation as falling on a Sunday near the autumnal equinox. The day of the week was a backward calculation from the six days of creation with God resting on the seventh, which in the Jewish calendar is Saturday—hence, Creation began on a Sunday. The astronomical tables that Ussher probably used were Kepler's \"Tabulae Rudolphinae\" (\"Rudolphine Tables\", 1627). Using them, he would have concluded that the equinox occurred on Tuesday, October 25, only one day earlier than the traditional day of its creation, on the fourth day of Creation week, Wednesday, along with the Sun, Moon, and stars. Modern equations place the autumnal equinox of 4004 BC on Sunday, October 23 (by the Julian calendar).  Ussher's understanding of creation placed the \"first day\" referred to in on October 23, but with a \"pre-creation\" event, which he identified as the \"beginning of time\" occurring the previous night. Ussher referred to his dating of creation on the first page of \"Annales\" in Latin and on the first page of its English translation \"Annals of the World\" (1658). In the following extract from the English translation, the phrase \"in the year of the Julian Calendar\" refers to the Julian Period, of which year 1 is 4713 BC, and therefore year 710 is 4004 BC. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. Ge. 1:1 This beginning of time, according to our chronology, happened at the start of the evening preceding the 23rd day of October in the year of the Julian Calendar, 710. Ussher provides a slightly different time in his \"Epistle to the Reader\" in his Latin and English works: \"I deduce that the time from the creation until midnight, January 1, 1 AD was 4003 years, seventy days and six hours.\" Six hours before midnight would be 6 pm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ussher's chronology today.", "content": "By the middle of the 19th century, Ussher's chronology came under increasing attack from supporters of uniformitarianism, who argued that Ussher's \"young Earth\" was incompatible with the increasingly accepted view of an Earth much more ancient than Ussher's. It became generally accepted that the Earth was tens, perhaps even hundreds of millions of years old. Ussher fell into disrepute among theologians as well; in 1890, Princeton professor William Henry Green wrote a highly influential article in \"Bibliotheca Sacra\" entitled \"Primeval Chronology\" in which he strongly criticised Ussher. He concluded: We conclude that the Scriptures furnish no data for a chronological computation prior to the life of Abraham; and that the Mosaic records do not fix and were not intended to fix the precise date either of the Flood or of the creation of the world. The similarly conservative theologian B. B. Warfield reached the same conclusion in \"On The Antiquity and Unity of the Human Race\", commenting that \"it is precarious in the highest degree to draw chronological inferences from genealogical tables\".  Archbishop Ussher's chronology has in recent years been subject to artistic criticism, including in the play \"Inherit the Wind\" (based on the Scopes Monkey Trial) and the fantasy novel \"Good Omens\" which alleges that \"he is off by a quarter of an hour\". A different viewpoint comes from Stephen Jay Gould, who, while totally disagreeing with Ussher's chronology, nevertheless wrote: I shall be defending Ussher's chronology as an honorable effort for its time and arguing that our usual ridicule only records a lamentable small-mindedness based on mistaken use of present criteria to judge a distant and different past  Ussher represented the best of scholarship in his time. He was part of a substantial research tradition, a large community of intellectuals working toward a common goal under an accepted methodology...", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ussher chronology is a 17th-century chronology of the history of the world formulated from a literal reading of the Old Testament by James Ussher, the Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland. The chronology is sometimes associated with young Earth creationism, which holds that the Universe was created only a few millennia ago by God as described in the first two chapters of the biblical book of Genesis. Ussher fell into disrepute in the 19th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973059}
{"src_title": "Gantt chart", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "A Gantt chart, or harmonogram, is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. This chart lists the tasks to be performed on the vertical axis, and time intervals on the horizontal axis. The width of the horizontal bars in the graph shows the duration of each activity. Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary elements of a project. Terminal elements and summary elements constitute the work breakdown structure of the project. Modern Gantt charts also show the dependency (i.e., precedence network) relationships between activities. Gantt charts can be used to show current schedule status using percent-complete shadings and a vertical \"TODAY\" line as shown here.  Gantt charts are sometimes equated with bar charts.  Gantt charts are usually created initially using an \"early start time approach\", where each task is scheduled to start immediately when its prerequisites are complete. This method maximizes the float time available for all tasks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical development.", "content": "Although now regarded as a common charting technique, Gantt charts were considered revolutionary when first introduced. The first known tool of this type was developed in 1896 by Karol Adamiecki, who called it a \"harmonogram\". Adamiecki did not publish his chart until 1931, however, and only in Polish, which limited both its adoption and recognition of his authorship.  In 1912, published what would be considered Gantt charts while discussing a construction project. It appears that Schürch's charts were not notable but rather routine in Germany at the time they were published. The prior development leading to Schürch's work is unknown. Unlike later Gantt charts, Schürch's charts did not display interdependencies, leaving them to be inferred by the reader. These were also static representations of a planned schedule.  The chart is named after Henry Gantt (1861–1919), who designed his chart around the years 1910–1915.  One of the first major applications of Gantt charts was by the United States during World War I, at the instigation of General William Crozier.  The earliest Gantt charts were drawn on paper and therefore had to be redrawn entirely in order to adjust to schedule changes. For many years, project managers used pieces of paper or blocks for Gantt chart bars so they could be adjusted as needed. Gantt's collaborator Walter Polakov introduced Gantt charts to the Soviet Union in 1929 when he was working for the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy. They were used in developing the First Five Year Plan, supplying Russian translations to explain their use..  In the 1980s, personal computers allowed widespread creation of complex and elaborate Gantt charts. The first desktop applications were intended mainly for project managers and project schedulers. With the advent of the Internet and increased collaboration over networks at the end of the 1990s, Gantt charts became a common feature of web-based applications, including collaborative groupware. By 2012, almost all Gantt charts were made by software which can easily adjust to schedule changes.  In 1999, Gantt charts were identified as \"one of the most widely used management tools for project scheduling and control\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "In the following tables there are seven tasks, labeled \"a\" through \"g\". Some tasks can be done concurrently (\"a\" and \"b\") while others cannot be done until their predecessor task is complete (\"c\" and \"d\" cannot begin until \"a\" is complete). Additionally, each task has three time estimates: the optimistic time estimate (\"O\"), the most likely or normal time estimate (\"M\"), and the pessimistic time estimate (\"P\"). The expected time (\"T\") is estimated using the for the time estimates, using the formula (\"O\" + 4\"M\" + \"P\") ÷ 6.  Once this step is complete, one can draw a Gantt chart or a network diagram.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Progress Gantt charts.", "content": "In a progress Gantt chart, tasks are shaded in proportion to the degree of their completion: a task that is 60% complete would be 60% shaded, starting from the left. A vertical line is drawn at the time index when the progress Gantt chart is created, and this line can then be compared with shaded tasks. If everything is on schedule, all task portions left of the line will be shaded, and all task portions right of the line will not be shaded. This provides a visual representation of how the project and its tasks are ahead or behind schedule..", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Linked Gantt charts.", "content": "\"Linked Gantt charts\" contain lines indicating the dependencies between tasks. However, linked Gantt charts quickly become cluttered in all but the simplest cases. Critical path network diagrams are superior to visually communicate the relationships between tasks. Nevertheless, Gantt charts are often preferred over network diagrams because Gantt charts are easily interpreted without training, whereas critical path diagrams require training to interpret. Gantt chart software typically provides mechanisms to link task dependencies, although this data may or may not be visually represented. Gantt charts and network diagrams are often used for the same project, both being generated from the same data by a software application.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule, named after its inventor, Henry Gantt (1861–1919), who designed such a chart around the years 1910–1915. Modern Gantt charts also show the dependency relationships between activities and current schedule status.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973060}
{"src_title": "Saint Cecilia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "It is popularly supposed that Cecilia was a noble lady of Rome who, with her husband Valerian, his brother Tiburtius, and a Roman soldier named Maximus, suffered martyrdom in about 230, under the Emperor Alexander Severus. Giovanni Battista de Rossi, however, argues that instead she perished in Sicily under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius between 176 and 180, citing the report of Venantius Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers (d. 600).  According to the story, despite her vow of virginity, she was forced by her parents to marry a pagan nobleman named Valerian. During the wedding, Cecilia sat apart singing to God in her heart, and for that she was later declared the saint of musicians. When the time came for her marriage to be consummated, Cecilia told Valerian that watching over her was an angel of the Lord, who would punish him if he sexually violated her but would love him if he respected her virginity. When Valerian asked to see the angel, Cecilia replied that he could if he would go to the third milestone on the Via Appia and be baptized by Pope Urban I. After following Cecilia's advice, he saw the angel standing beside her, crowning her with a chaplet of roses and lilies.  The martyrdom of Cecilia is said to have followed that of her husband Valerian and his brother at the hands of the prefect Turcius Almachius. The legend about Cecilia's death says that after being struck three times on the neck with a sword, she lived for three days, and asked the pope to convert her home into a church.  Cecilia was buried in the Catacomb of Callixtus, and later transferred to the Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. In 1599, her body was found still incorrupt, seeming to be asleep.  Cecilia is one of the most famous of the Roman martyrs, although some elements of the stories recounted about her do not appear in the source material. According to Johann Peter Kirsch, the existence of the martyr is a historical fact, while some details bear the mark of a pious romance, like many other similar accounts compiled in the fifth and sixth century. The relation between Cecilia and Valerian, Tiburtius, and Maximus, mentioned in the Acts of the Martyrs, has some historical foundation. Her feast day has been celebrated since about the fourth century. There is no mention of Cecilia in the \"Depositio Martyrum\", but there is a record of an early Roman church founded by a lady of this name, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Santa Cecilia in Trastevere.", "content": "The church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere is reputedly built on the site of the house in which she lived. The original church was constructed in the fourth century; during the ninth century, Pope Paschal I had remains which were supposedly hers buried there. In 1599, while leading a renovation of the church, Cardinal Paolo Emilio Sfondrati had the remains, which he reported to be incorrupt, excavated and reburied.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Meaning of the name 'Cecilia'.", "content": "The name \"Cecilia\" applied generally to Roman women who belonged to the plebeian clan of the Caecilii. Legends and hagiographies, mistaking it for a personal name, suggest fanciful etymologies. Among those cited by Chaucer in \"The Second Nun's Tale\" are: lily of heaven, the way for the blind, contemplation of heaven and the active life, as if lacking in blindness, and a heaven for people to gaze upon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patroness of musicians.", "content": "The first record of a music festival in her honor was held at Évreux in Normandy in 1570.  The Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia in Rome is one of the oldest musical institutions in the world. It was founded by the papal bull, Ratione congruit, issued by Sixtus V in 1585, which invoked two saints prominent in Western musical history: Gregory the Great, after whom Gregorian chant is named, and Saint Cecilia, the patron saint of music.  Her feast day became an occasion for musical concerts and festivals that occasioned well-known poems by John Dryden and Alexander Pope and music by Henry Purcell (\"Ode to St. Cecilia\"); several oratorios by Marc-Antoine Charpentier (\"In honorem Caeciliae, Valeriani et Tiburtij canticum\"; and several versions of \"Caecilia virgo et martyr\" to libretti probably written by Philippe Goibaut); George Frideric Handel (\"Ode for St. Cecilia's Day\"; \"Alexander's Feast\"); Charles Gounod (\"St. Cecilia Mass\"); as well as Benjamin Britten, who was born on her feast day (\"Hymn to St Cecilia\", based on a poem by W. H. Auden). Herbert Howells' \"A Hymn to Saint Cecilia\" has words by Ursula Vaughan Williams; Gerald Finzi's \"For Saint Cecilia\", Op. 30, was set to verses written by Edmund Blunden; Michael Hurd's 1966 composition \"A Hymn to Saint Cecilia\" sets John Dryden's poem; and Frederik Magle's \"Cantata to Saint Cecilia\" is based on the history of Cecilia. \"The Heavenly Life\", a poem from \"Des Knaben Wunderhorn\" (which Gustav Mahler used in his \"Symphony No. 4\") mentions that \"Cecilia and all her relations make excellent court musicians.\"  From the name of Cecilia comes \"Cecyliada\", the name of festival of sacred, choral and contemporary music, held from 1994 in Police, Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Cecilia symbolizes the central role of music in the liturgy.  The Sisters of Saint Cecilia, religious sisters, shear the lambs' wool used to make the palliums of new metropolitan archbishops. The lambs are raised by the Cistercian Trappist Fathers of the Tre Fontane (Three Fountains) Abbey in Rome. The lambs are blessed by the Pope every January 21, the Feast of the martyr Saint Agnes. The pallia are given by the Pope to the new metropolitan archbishops on the Solemnity of Saints Peter and Paul, June 29.  Located on the Isle of Wight, St. Cecilia's Abbey, Ryde was founded in 1882. The nuns live a traditional monastic life of prayer and work, and study in accordance with the ancient Rule of St. Benedict.  The famous luthier Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume produces a line of violin and viola under the name St. Cécile with a decal stamped on the upper back.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Iconography.", "content": "Cecilia is frequently depicted playing a viola, a small organ, or other musical instrument, evidently to express what was often attributed to her, namely that while the musicians played at her nuptials, she sang in her heart to God, though the organ may be attributed to her erroneously, as the result of a mistranslation.  A miniature Saint Cecilia beneath Worcester Cathedral was featured on the reverse side of the Sir Edward Elgar £20 banknote, which was withdrawn by the Bank of England in 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "Domenichino's Fresco Cycle in San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome (1614)  The apse mosaic in the Church of St. Cecilia in Trastevere", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Cecilia () is a saint venerated in the Latin Catholic, Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, as well as some churches of the Anglican Communion. She is one of seven women, in addition to the Blessed Virgin, commemorated by name in the Canon of the Mass in the Roman Catholic Church. She is regarded as the patron saint of musicians. It is written that as the musicians played at her wedding she \"sang in her heart to the Lord\". Her feast day is on November 22.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973061}
{"src_title": "Tula, Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name of the city is probably of pre-Russian, probably Baltic, origin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Tula was first mentioned in the Nikon Chronicle related to the year 1146. As the chronicle was compiled in the 16th century, the date is disputed. The first confirmed mention of Tula dates to 1382.  In the Middle Ages, Tula was a minor fortress at the border of the Principality of Ryazan. As soon as it passed to the Grand Duchy of Moscow, a brick citadel, or kremlin, was constructed in 1514–1521. It was a key fortress of the Great Abatis Belt and successfully resisted a siege by the Tatars in 1552. In 1607, Ivan Bolotnikov and his supporters seized the citadel and withstood a four-months siege by the Tsar's army. In the 18th century, some parts of the kremlin walls were demolished. Despite its archaic appearance, the five-domed Assumption Cathedral in the kremlin was built as late as 1764.  In 1712, Tula was visited by Peter the Great, who commissioned the Demidov blacksmiths to build the first armament factory in Russia. Several decades later, Tula was turned by the Demidovs into the greatest ironworking center of Eastern Europe. The oldest museum in the city, showcasing the history of weapons, was inaugurated by the Demidovs in 1724, and Nicholas-Zaretsky Church in the city houses their family vault. The first factory to produce samovars industrially was also established there in the course of the 18th century. After the Demidovs moved the center of their manufacture to the Urals, Tula continued as a center of heavy industry, particularly in the manufacture of matériel.  In the 1890s, Ivan Savelyev, a medical orderly, became the founder of social democracy in Tula and set up a workers' study circle.  The city grew rapidly in the early 20th century as a result of arms production during the 1905 Russo-Japanese War and World War I. Tula's factories also manufactured weapons for the Red Army during the Russian Civil War of 1918–1921.  During the World War II of 1941–1945, the city was important in the production of armaments. Tula became the target of a German offensive to break Soviet resistance in the Moscow area between Friday, October 24 and December 5, 1941. According to Erik Durschmied in \"The Weather Factor: How Nature has Changed History\", one German general reached the South Western Outskirts of Tula on 29th-30th October 1941. The heavily fortified city held out, however, and Guderian's Second Panzer Army was stopped near Tula. The city secured the southern flank during the Battle of Moscow and the subsequent counter-offensive. Tula was awarded the title Hero City in 1976. It is home to the Klokovo air base and the Tula Arms Plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Tula serves as the administrative center of the oblast. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as Tula City Under Oblast Jurisdiction—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the territories of Tula City Under Oblast Jurisdiction and of Leninsky District are incorporated as Tula Urban Okrug.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "For more than four centuries Tula has been known as a center of crafts and metalworking. Tula is a developed industrial center. Importance in the industrial structure of Tula are metallurgy, machinery and metal with a high share of the military-industrial complex and food manufacturing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "A musical instrument, the Tula accordion, is named after the city, which is a center of manufacture for such instruments sold throughout Russia and the world. Tula is also renowned for traditional Russian pryanik, cookies made with honey and spices (see Tula pryanik). In the West, Tula is perhaps best known as the center of samovar production: the Russian equivalent of \"coals to Newcastle\" is \"You don't take a samovar to Tula\". (The saying is falsely ascribed to the writer and playwright Anton Chekhov, whose made a satirical portrait of one of his characters saying \"Taking your wife to Paris is the same as taking your own samovar to Tula\".)  The most popular tourist attraction in Tula Oblast is Yasnaya Polyana, the home and burial place of the writer Leo Tolstoy. It is situated south-west of the city. It was here that Tolstoy wrote his celebrated novels \"War and Peace\" and \"Anna Karenina\". The largest public park in Tula is the P. Belousov Central Park of Culture and Recreation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Tula is home to:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Since 1867, there has been a railway connection between Tula and Moscow. Tula is a major railway junction with trains to Moscow, Oryol, Kursk and Kaluga. The Moscow to Simferopol M2 motorway runs past the city. City transport is provided by trams, trolleybuses, buses, and marshrutkas. Tula trams, trolleybuses, and bus routes are operated by \"Tulgorelectrotrans\" (Tula city electrotransport company).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "Most of Tula's churches are Russian Orthodox churches. Next in number are Protestants and Catholics. Non-Christian organizations that are present include Muslims, Jews, Hare Krishna, Buddhists and Taoists.  All Orthodox organizations in Tula and the Tula Oblast are included in the Diocese of Tula and Yefremov. Among the Tula Orthodox churches should be mentioned Saints Cathedral (1776-1800), the oldest church in Tula - Annunciation (1692) and the Assumption Cathedral of the Tula Kremlin (1762-1764). There is also the Shcheglovsky Monastery of Holy Mother of God, built in mid 19th century and consecrated in 1860. In Tula also Old Believers' community services which are performed in the church of St. John Chrysostom.  In Tula there is the only Catholic church in the area, the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul. Since the 1990s, Tula has several Protestant denominations, the largest church of which is a Baptist church with a prayer house in Tula. Representatives of other Protestant churches in Tula are Seventh-day Adventists, Presbyterians (Church of the Holy Trinity, The Glorious Jesus the Lord, the Good News), Pentecostals (Tula Christian Center, Church of the New Testament) and other evangelical churches (Word of Life, the Vine Gypsy Church).  Also the city has a synagogue and the Jewish Community House.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "In Russian fist fighting, Tula was considered to have some of the most famous fighters.  The city association football club, FC Arsenal Tula, played in the Russian Premier League in 2014/2015 and 2016/2017 seasons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Tula has a humid continental climate. This is pronounced by warm summers and cold but not severe winters by Russian standards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Tula is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tula () is the largest city and the administrative center of Tula Oblast in Russia, located south of Moscow. Tula is located in the north of the Central Russian Upland in European Russia, on the banks of the Upa River, a tributary of the Oka, 193 km south of Moscow. As of the 2010 Census, Tula had a population of 501,169, and increase from 481,216 in 2002, making it the 32nd largest city in Russia by population.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973062}
{"src_title": "Nicolas Flamel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "The historical Flamel lived in Paris in the 14th and 15th centuries, and his life is one of the best documented in the history of medieval alchemy. He ran two shops as a scribe and married Perenelle in 1368. She brought the wealth of two previous husbands to the marriage. The French Catholic couple owned several properties and contributed financially to churches, sometimes by commissioning sculptures. Later in life, they were noted for their wealth and philanthropy.  Flamel lived into his 70s, and in 1410 designed his own tombstone, which was carved with the images of Christ, St. Peter, and St. Paul. The tombstone is preserved at the Musée de Cluny in Paris. Records show that Flamel died in 1418. He was buried in Paris at the end of the nave of the former Church of Saint-Jacques-de-la-Boucherie. His will, dated 22 November 1416, indicates that he was generous but that he did not have the extraordinary wealth of later alchemical legend. There is no indication that the real Flamel of history was involved in alchemy, pharmacy or medicine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "House in Paris.", "content": "One of Flamel's houses still stands in Paris, at 51 rue de Montmorency. It is the oldest stone house in the city. There is an old inscription on the wall, which states, \"We, plowmen and women living at the porch of this house, built in 1407, are requested to say every day an 'Our Father' and an 'Ave Maria' praying God that His grace forgive poor and dead sinners.\" The ground floor currently contains a restaurant. A Paris street near the Louvre Museum, the \"rue Nicolas Flamel\", has been named after him; it intersects with the \"rue Pernelle\", named after his wife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Posthumous reputation as an alchemist.", "content": "Legendary accounts of Flamel's life are based on 17th-century works, primarily \"Livre des figures hiéroglyphiques\". The essence of his reputation are claims that he succeeded at the two goals of alchemy: that he made the philosopher's stone, which turns base metals into gold, and that he and his wife, Perenelle, achieved immortality through the \"Elixir of Life\".  An alchemical book, published in Paris in 1612 as \"Livre des figures hiéroglyphiques\" and in London in 1624 as \"Exposition of the Hieroglyphical Figures\" was attributed to Flamel. It is a collection of designs purportedly commissioned by Flamel for a tympanum at the Cimetière des Innocents in Paris, long disappeared at the time the work was published. In the publisher's introduction, Flamel's search for the philosopher's stone was described. According to that introduction, Flamel had made it his life's work to understand the text of a mysterious 21-page book he had purchased. The introduction claims that, around 1378, he traveled to Spain for assistance with translation. On the way back, he reported that he met a sage, who identified Flamel's book as being a copy of the original \"Book of Abramelin the Mage\". With this knowledge, over the next few years, Flamel and his wife allegedly decoded enough of the book to successfully replicate its recipe for the philosopher's stone, producing first silver in 1382 and then gold. Also, Flamel is said to have studied some texts in Hebrew.  The validity of this story was first questioned in 1761 by Etienne Villain. He claimed that the source of the Flamel legend was P. Arnauld de la Chevalerie, publisher of \"Exposition of the Hieroglyphical Figures\", who wrote the book under the pseudonym Eiranaeus Orandus. Other writers have defended the legendary account of Flamel's life, which has been embellished by stories of sightings in the 17th and 18th centuries and expanded in fictitious works ever since.  Flamel had achieved legendary status within the circles of alchemy by the mid 17th century, with references in Isaac Newton's journals to \"the Caduceus, the Dragons of Flammel\". Interest in Flamel revived in the 19th century: Victor Hugo mentioned him in \"The Hunchback of Notre Dame\", Erik Satie was intrigued by Flamel, and Albert Pike refers to Nicholas Flamel in his book \"Morals and Dogma of the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry\". Flamel's reputation as an alchemist was further bolstered in the late 20th century by his depiction as the creator of the eponymous alchemical substance in the best-selling novel \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\" and its film adaptation. He also appears in the 2018 spinoff film \"\", where he is portrayed by Brontis Jodorowsky.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Flamel has been portrayed in popular fiction as a legendary figure who holds the key to immortality or the philosopher's stone. For example, in Victor Hugo's 1831 novel \"Notre Dame de Paris\", the tragic main character Claude Frollo is a young priest and alchemist who spends much of his time studying the carvings in Les Innocents, trying to fathom Flamel's secrets. Into the twentieth and twenty-first century, works such as \"Harry Potter\" (1997 to the ), \"Fullmetal Alchemist\" (2001–2010), \"The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel\" (2007–2012), and \"As Above, So Below\" (2014) have propagated the legend of Nicolas Flamel.  The works of Nicolas Flamel are central to several missions found in the video game \"\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicolas Flamel (; 1330 – 22 March 1418) was a French scribe and manuscript-seller. After his death, Flamel developed a reputation as an alchemist believed to have discovered the philosopher's stone and to have thereby achieved immortality. These legendary accounts first appeared in the 17th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973063}
{"src_title": "Emin Pasha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Emin was born in Oppeln (in present day Poland), Silesia, into a middle-class German Jewish family, which moved to Neisse when he was two years old. After the death of his father in 1845, his mother married a Christian; she and her offspring were baptized Lutherans. He studied at the universities at Breslau, Königsberg, and Berlin, qualifying as a physician in 1864. However, he was disqualified from practice, and left Germany for Constantinople, with the intention of entering Ottoman service.  Travelling via Vienna and Trieste, he stopped at Antivari in Montenegro, found himself welcomed by the local community, and was soon in medical practice. He put his linguistic talent to good use, as well, adding Turkish, Albanian, and Greek to his repertoire of languages. He became the quarantine officer of the port, leaving only in 1870 to join the staff of Ismail Hakki Pasha, governor of northern Albania; in the service, he travelled throughout the Ottoman Empire, although the details are little-known.  When Hakki Pasha died in 1873, Emin went back to Neisse with the pasha's widow and children, where he passed them off as his own family, but left suddenly in September 1875, reappearing in Cairo and then departing for Khartoum, where he arrived in December. At this point he took the name \"Mehemet Emin\" (Arabic \"Muhammad al-Amin\"), started a medical practice, and began collecting plants, animals, and birds, many of which he sent to museums in Europe. Although some regarded him as a Muslim, it is not clear if he ever actually converted.  Charles George Gordon, then governor of Equatoria, heard of Emin's presence and invited him to be the chief medical officer of the province; Emin assented and arrived there in May 1876. Gordon immediately sent Emin on diplomatic missions to Buganda and Bunyoro to the south, where Emin's modest style and fluency in Luganda were quite popular.  After 1876, Emin made Lado his base for collecting expeditions throughout the region. In 1878, the Khedive of Egypt appointed Emin as Gordon's successor to govern the province, giving him the title of Bey. Despite the grand title, there was little for Emin to do; his military force consisted of a few thousand soldiers who controlled no more than a mile's radius around each of their outposts, and the government in Khartoum was indifferent to his proposals for development. He showed himself a bitter foe of slavery.  The revolt of Muhammad Ahmad that began in 1881 had cut Equatoria off from the outside world by 1883, and the following year, Karam Allah marched south to capture Equatoria and Emin. In 1885, Emin and most of his forces withdrew further south, to Wadelai near Lake Albert. Cut off from communications to the north, he was still able to exchange mail with Zanzibar through Buganda. Determined to remain in Equatoria, his communiques, carried by his friend Wilhelm Junker, aroused considerable sentiment in Europe in 1886, particularly acute after the death of Gordon the previous year.  The Emin Pasha Relief Expedition, led by Henry Morton Stanley, undertook to rescue Emin by going up the Congo River and then through the Ituri Forest, an extraordinarily difficult route that resulted in the loss of two-thirds of the expedition. Precise details of this trek are recorded in the published diaries of the expedition's non-African \"officers\" (e.g., Major Edmund Musgrave Barttelot, Captain William Grant Stairs, Mr. Arthur Jephson, and Thomas Heazle Parke, surgeon of the expedition). Stanley met Emin in April 1888, and after a year spent in argument and indecision, during which Emin and Jephson were imprisoned at Dufile by troops who mutinied from August to November 1888, Emin was convinced to leave for the coast. The bulk of his forces remained near Lake Albert until 1890, when Frederick Lugard took them with him to Kampala Hill, where they participated in the Battle of Kampala Hill. Stanley and Emin arrived in Bagamoyo in 1890. During celebrations, Emin was injured when he stepped through a window he mistook for an opening to a balcony. Emin spent two months in a hospital recovering, while Stanley left without being able to bring him back in triumph.  The introduction of sleeping sickness in Uganda was attributed to the movement of Emin and his followers. Prior to the 1890s, sleeping sickness was unknown in Uganda, but the tsetse fly was probably brought by Emin from the Congo territory.  Emin then entered the service of the German East Africa Company and accompanied Dr. Stuhlmann on an expedition to the lakes in the interior, but was killed by two Arab slave traders at Kinena Station in the Congo Free State, near Nyangwe, on the 23rd or 24 October 1892.  He added greatly to the anthropological knowledge of central Africa and published valuable geographical papers. In 1890 he was awarded the Founder's Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society.  Emin Pasha is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of African snake, \"Leptotyphlops emini\", and an East African species of \"Passer\" sparrow, Chestnut sparrow \"Passer eminibey\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mehmed Emin Pasha (born Isaak Eduard Schnitzer, baptized Eduard Carl Oscar Theodor Schnitzer; March 28, 1840 – October 23, 1892) was an Ottoman physician of German Jewish origin, naturalist, and governor of the Egyptian province of Equatoria on the upper Nile. The Ottoman Empire conferred the title \"Pasha\" on him in 1886, and thereafter he was referred to as \"Emin Pasha\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973064}
{"src_title": "Marc Wilmots", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "In his club career, which started in 1987, Wilmots played for Sint-Truiden, Mechelen, Standard Liège, Schalke 04, and Bordeaux. At Schalke, he helped them to the 1997 UEFA Cup Final. His goal in the first leg was cancelled out by Internazionale in the second leg, but Schalke went on to win the game on penalties, with Wilmots scoring the decisive goal. He retired in 2003, after his second stint with Schalke. During his time with Schalke, the fans there gave him the affectionate nickname \"\"Das Kampfschwein\"\" (The War Pig), which has been picked up by some English language journalists. In Belgium he is known under the nickname the \"Bull of Dongelberg\", an allusion to his birthplace.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "For Belgium, Wilmots scored 28 goals in 70 caps, his first coming in May 1990. He went to four World Cups, playing in three. After being an unused substitute in 1990, he played 54 minutes in 1994 without scoring, but scored two goals in 1998 and three in 2002, making him Belgium's leading goal scorer in World Cup history. He also scored a goal against Brazil in the last 16 match of the 2002 World Cup which was disallowed because of a \"phantom foul\" on Roque Júnior. According to Wilmots, the referee Peter Prendergast apologized for the error to him at half time. Wilmots was named as one of the seven reserves in the 2002 World Cup All-Star Team.  Wilmots also played in Euro 2000, when Belgium co-hosted the tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Managerial career.", "content": "Wilmots became a football manager in summer 2004 for Sint-Truiden, but was sacked in February 2005. Between 2009 and 2012, he served as assistant manager of the Belgium national team under Dick Advocaat and later Georges Leekens. On 15 May 2012, following the exit of Leekens, Wilmots assumed the Belgium reins on an interim basis before going onto become permanent coach, signing a contract until June 2014.  On 11 October 2013, Belgium qualified for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Wilmots is credited with \"not only giving the young group confidence in themselves as well as enjoying a close relationship with his players but also at the same time being capable of instilling discipline to the squad.\" During the group stage, Belgium topped the group with all three wins, before exiting the tournament at the quarter-final stage.  On 13 October 2015, Belgium won the group to qualify for the UEFA Euro 2016 in the last game of the stage against Israel. After a disappointing European Championship, Wilmots was fired by the Royal Belgian Football Association on 15 July 2016.  In March 2017 Wilmots was appointed as the manager of Ivory Coast national team. However he was sacked from his position six months later after failing to qualify for the World Cup.  On 15 May 2019, Wilmots agreed a three years contract to become the manager of the Iranian national team, after Portuguese coach Carlos Queiroz left the team after eight years in charge following Iran's semifinal exit in the Asian Cup. He officially signed his contract on 29 May, effective from 1 June 2019. On 4 December 2019, he resigned from his position as Iran coach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "After retiring as a footballer, Wilmots went into politics. He was elected to the Senate for the French-speaking conservative party, the Reformist Movement (\"Mouvement Réformateur\" or MR) in the 2003 federal election. He received 79,437 votes, a number surpassed only by 17 other candidates in the whole country during the elections.  His political career is not considered very successful. In 2005, he announced that he wanted to resign as a senator, a rather unconventional and criticized constitutional move.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marc Robert Wilmots (born 22 February 1969) is a Belgian international former footballer who most recently managed the Iran national football team. During his club career as attacking midfielder, he won trophies with KV Mechelen, Standard Liège and Schalke 04.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973065}
{"src_title": "Carinhall", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Named in honour of his Swedish first wife, Carin Göring (1888–1931), the residence was constructed in stages from 1933 on a large scale, but in the manner of a hunting lodge. The main architect was Werner March, designer of the Olympic stadium in Berlin. Carin Göring's remains had first been interred in Sweden following her death, but were moved to Carinhall in 1934 and placed in a mausoleum on the grounds.  On 10 April 1935, Carinhall was the venue for Göring's wedding banquet with his second wife, Emmy Sonnemann.  Carinhall became the destination for many of Göring's looted art treasures from across occupied Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Emmyhall.", "content": "The \"Reichsjägerhof\", Göring's smaller hunting lodge at Rominten in East Prussia (now Krasnolesye), in the Rominten Heath, was known as \"Emmyhall\" after his second wife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fate.", "content": "To prevent Carinhall from falling into the hands of the advancing Red Army, the compound was blown up on 28 April 1945 at Göring's orders by a Luftwaffe demolition squad. The art treasures were evacuated beforehand to Berchtesgaden.  Only the monumental entrance gates, a few foundation structures, and decorative stones remain from the building. A bronze statue by Franz von Stuck, \"Kämpfende Amazone\" (1897), once at Carinhall, is now at Eberswalde. Another statue, \"Kronenhirsch\" by Johannes Darsow, can be found at Tierpark Berlin in the district of Friedrichsfelde.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 1999, new interest was sparked by the book \"Görings Reich: Selbstinszenierungen in Carinhall\" which led to treasure hunters visiting the ruins, and concerns raised about the site becoming a neo-Nazi \"shrine\". The state government of Brandenburg ordered the remains of the tomb of Göring's wife to be demolished.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carinhall was the country residence of Hermann Göring. It was built on a large hunting estate northeast of Berlin in Schorfheide forest, between the lakes Großdöllner See and Wuckersee in the north of Brandenburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973066}
{"src_title": "Magellanic penguin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Magellanic penguins are medium-sized penguins which grow to be tall and weigh between. The males are larger than the females, and the weight of both drops while the parents raise their young.  Adults have black backs and white abdomens. There are two black bands between the head and the breast, with the lower band shaped in an inverted horseshoe. The head is black with a broad white border that runs from behind the eye, around the black ear-coverts and chin, and joins at the throat. Chicks and younger penguins have grey-blue backs, with a more faded grey-blue colour on their chest. Magellanic penguins can live up to 25 years in the wild, but as much as 30 years in captivity.  Young birds usually have a blotched pattern on their feet, which fades as they grow up into adulthood. By the time these birds reach about ten years of age, their feet usually become all black.  Like other species of penguins, the Magellanic penguin has very rigid wings used to swim under water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Magellanic penguins feed in the water, preying on cuttlefish, squid, krill, and other crustaceans, and ingest sea water with their prey. Their salt-excreting gland rids the salt from their bodies. Adult penguins can regularly dive to depths of between 20m to 50m deep in order to forage for prey. During the breeding season males and females have similar foraging and diving patterns as well as diet composition, however bone tissue analysis suggests that diets diverge post-season when limitations imposed by chick rearing are removed.  Magellanic penguins do not experience a severe shortage of food like the Galapagos penguins, because they have a consistent food supply being located on the Atlantic coast of South America. The presence of the large continental shelf in the Atlantic Ocean lets Magellanic penguins forage far from their breeding colony.  Jellyfish including species in the genera \"Chrysaora\" and \"Cyanea\" were found to be actively sought-out food items, while they previously had been thought to be only accidentally ingested. Similar preferences were found in the Adélie penguin, yellow-eyed penguin and little penguin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "Magellanic penguins travel in large flocks when hunting for food. In the breeding season, these birds gather in large nesting colonies at the coasts of Argentina, southern Chile, and the Falkland Islands, which have a density of 20 nests per 100 m. The breeding season begins with the arrival of adult Magellanic penguins at the breeding colonies in September and extends into late February and March when the chicks are mature enough to leave the colonies. One of the largest of these colonies is located at Punta Tombo. Nests are built under bushes or in burrows. Two eggs are laid. Incubation lasts 39–42 days, a task which the parents share in 10- to 15-day shifts. The chicks are cared for by both parents for 29 days and are fed every two to three days. Normally, both are raised through adulthood, though occasionally only one chick is raised. A successful Magellanic is considered to be able to raise 0.7 chicks on average per breeding season.  Magellanic penguins lay eggs in warm places where the temperature remains over 20°C. The male and female penguins take turns hatching, as they forage far away from their nests. The males return from the sea on the day the second egg is laid to take their turn incubating The second eggs are generally larger and with higher temperature than the first egg. The first one is more likely to survive, but under some conditions both chicks may be raised successfully. Male and female Magellanic penguins overlap in the at-sea areas they use whilst foraging, and show only small difference in foraging behaviours during early chick-rearing.  Magellanic penguins mate with the same partner year after year. The male reclaims his burrow from the previous year and waits to reconnect with his female partner. The females are able to recognize their mates through their call alone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physiological responses.", "content": "Newly hatched chicks that are visited by tourists show a stress response, with elevated levels of corticosterone in their blood. The elevated corticosterone is detrimental to the development of muscle strength, growth, and immune function.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status in the wild.", "content": "Millions of these penguins still live on the coasts of Argentina and Chile, but the species is classified as threatened, primarily due to the vulnerability of large breeding colonies to oil spills, which kill 20,000 adults and 22,000 juveniles every year off the coast of Argentina. To help the fight against the oil spills, zoo representatives from all over the world come and adopt the hatchlings, and breed them there. The decline of fish populations is also responsible, as well as predators such as sea lions, giant petrels, and leopard seals which prey on the chicks. The warrah, before it became extinct, also preyed on the penguin.  Climate change has displaced fish populations, so Magellanic penguins must swim an extra further from the nest for fish. While the penguins are swimming an extra, their mates are sitting on a nest and starving. A colony being tracked by University of Washington professor P. Dee Boersma, about south of Buenos Aires, has fallen by more than 20 percent in the past 22 years, leaving 200,000 breeding pairs. Some younger penguins are now moving their breeding colonies north to be closer to fish, but, in some cases, this is putting them on private, unprotected lands. As a result of these changes, some penguins are known to have been lost or confused. At present, 12 of 17 penguin species are experiencing rapid population declines. A recent study of professor Dee Boersma showed that an increase of rainstorms caused by climate change affecting weather patterns has had a large impact in the chicks' population. The chicks haven't yet grown waterproof feathers so they are more likely to die of hypothermia when they get wet during big storms.  Increased frequency of extreme events, such as storms, drought, temperature extremes, and wildfires, associated with climate change, increases the reproductive failure in Magellanic penguins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The provincial government of Chubut is committed to the creation of a MPA in order to protect the penguins and other marine species near the largest Magellanic breeding colony. The creation of a MPA would likely improve the breeding success of the colonies as well as increase prey availability, reduce foraging distance, and increase feeding frequency.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Magellanic penguin (\"Spheniscus magellanicus\") is a South American penguin, breeding in coastal Patagonia, including Argentina, Chile and the Falkland Islands, with some migrating to Brazil where they are occasionally seen as far north as Espirito Santo. It is the most numerous of the \"Spheniscus\" penguins. Its nearest relatives are the African penguin, the Humboldt penguin, and the Galápagos penguins. The Magellanic penguin was named after Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, who spotted the birds in 1520. The species is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973067}
{"src_title": "Secretariat of State (Holy See)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the Secretariat of State.", "content": "The origins of the Secretariat of State go back to the fifteenth century. The apostolic constitution \"Non Debet Reprehensibile\" of 31 December 1487 established the \"Secretaria Apostolica\" comprising twenty-four apostolic secretaries, one of whom bore the title \"Secretarius Domesticus\" and held a position of pre-eminence. One can also trace to this \"Secretaria Apostolica\" the Chancery of Briefs, the Secretariat of Briefs to Princes and the Secretariat of Latin Letters.  Pope Leo X established another position, the \"Secretarius Intimus\", to assist the Cardinal who had control of the affairs of State and to attend to correspondence in languages other than Latin, chiefly with the Apostolic Nuncios (who at that time were evolving into permanent diplomatic representatives). From these beginnings, the Secretariat of State developed, especially at the time of the Council of Trent.  For a long time, the \"Secretarius Intimus\", also called \"Secretarius Papae\" or \"Secretarius Maior\", was almost always a prelate, often endowed with episcopal rank. It was only at the beginning of the pontificate of Innocent X that someone already a Cardinal and not a member of the Pope's family was called to this high office. Pope Innocent XII definitively abolished the office of Cardinal Nephew, and the powers of that office were assigned to the Cardinal Secretary of State alone.  On 19 July 1814, Pope Pius VII established the Sacred Congregation for the Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, expanding the \"Congregatio super negotiis ecclesiasticis Regni Galliarum\" established by Pius VI in 1793. With the apostolic constitution \"Sapienti Consilio\" of 29 June 1908, Saint Pius X divided the Sacred Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs in the form fixed by the \"Codex Iuris Canonici\" of 1917 (Can. 263) and he specified the duties of each of the three sections: the first was concerned essentially with extraordinary affairs, while the second attended to the ordinary affairs, and the third, until then an independent body (the Chancery of Apostolic Briefs), had the duty of preparing and dispatching pontifical Briefs.  With the apostolic constitution \"Regimini Ecclesiae universae\" of 15 August 1967, Pope Paul VI reformed the Roman Curia, implementing the desire expressed by the bishops in the Second Vatican Council. This gave a new face to the Secretariat of State, suppressing the Chancery of Apostolic Briefs, formerly the third section, and transforming the former first section, the Sacred Congregation for the Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, into a body distinct from the Secretariat of State, though closely related to it, which was to be known as the Council for the Public Affairs of the Church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "On 28 June 1988, John Paul II promulgated the apostolic constitution \"Pastor bonus\", which introduced a reform of the Roman Curia and divided the Secretariat of State into two sections: the Section for General Affairs and the Section for Relations with States, which incorporated the Council for the Public Affairs of the Church. Pope Francis added a third unit, the Section for Diplomatic Staff, in November 2017.  The head of the Secretariat of State is the Secretary of State, who is a cardinal. The Cardinal Secretary of State is primarily responsible for the diplomatic and political activity of the Holy See, in some circumstances representing the Pope himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Section for General Affairs.", "content": "The Section for General Affairs handles the normal operations of the Church including organizing the activities of the Roman Curia, making appointments to curial offices, publishing official communications, papal documents, handling the concerns of embassies to the Holy See, and keeping the papal seal and Fisherman's Ring. Abroad, the Section for General Affairs is responsible for organizing the activities of nuncios around the world in their activities concerning the local church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Substitute for General Affairs.", "content": "The Section for General Affairs is headed by an archbishop known as the Substitute for General Affairs, or more formally, Substitute for General Affairs to the Secretary of State. The current Substitute for General Affairs to the Secretary of State is Archbishop Edgar Peña Parra. There have been 10 substitutes since 1953:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Assessor for General Affairs of the Secretariat of State.", "content": "The deputy to the Substitute for General Affairs, effectively deputy chief of staff, is called the Assessor for General Affairs of the Secretariat of State. The current Assessor for General Affairs of the Secretariat of State is Monsignor Luigi Roberto Cona.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Section for Relations with States.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "The Congregation for the Ecclesiastical Affairs of the Kingdom of France was set up by Pope Pius VI with the Constitution \"Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum\" in 1793 to deal with the problems created for the Church by the French Revolution. In 1814, Pope Pius VII gave this office responsibility for negotiations with all governments, renaming it the Extraordinary Congregation for the Ecclesiastical Affairs of the Catholic World (). Some years later, Pope Leo XII changed its name to the Sacred Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs (), which remained its title until 1967 when Pope Paul VI separated this body from the Secretariat of State, calling it the Council for the Public Affairs of the Church. This Council was later replaced by the present Section for Relations with States.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Responsibilities.", "content": "The Section is responsible for the Holy See's interactions with civil governments. According to the relevant articles of the apostolic constitution \"Pastor bonus\", the responsibilities of the Secretary for Relations with States are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "The Section is headed by an Archbishop, the Secretary for Relations with States, who reports to the Secretary of State. His staff includes a Prelate, the Under-Secretary for Relations with States, and is assisted by Cardinals and Bishops. The Secretary for Relations with States is often called the foreign minister of the Holy See, and the Under-Secretary is often called the deputy foreign minister.  The current Secretary for Relations with States is Archbishop Paul Gallagher. The current Undersecretary for Relations with States is Francesca Di Giovanni, the first woman to hold this office. The current Delegate for Pontifical Representations is Archbishop Jan Pawłowski and the current Head of Protocol is Monsignor Josep Murphy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Section for Diplomatic Staff.", "content": "On 21 November 2017, via a communique of the Secretariat of State, it was announced that Pope Francis had created the Section for Diplomatic Staff, expanding the responsibilities of the Delegate for Pontifical Representations. Reportedly, it started operating on 9 November 2017. Since its creation it has been headed by Archbishop Jan Romeo Pawlowski.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Secretariat of State is the oldest dicastery in the Roman Curia, the central papal governing bureaucracy of the Catholic Church. It is headed by the Cardinal Secretary of State and performs all the political and diplomatic functions of the Holy See. The Secretariat is divided into three sections, the Section for General Affairs, the Section for Relations with States, and, since 2017, the Section for Diplomatic Staff.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973068}
{"src_title": "Rock ptarmigan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The ptarmigan's genus name, \"Lagopus\", is derived from Ancient Greek \"lagos\" (λαγώς \"lagṓs\"), meaning \"hare\", + \"pous\" (πούς \"poús\"), \"foot\", in reference to the bird's feathered legs.  The species name, \"muta\", comes from New Latin and means \"mute\", referring to the simple croaking song of the male. It was for a long time misspelt \"mutus\", in the erroneous belief that the ending of \"Lagopus\" denotes masculine gender. However, as the Ancient Greek term λαγώπους \"lagṓpous\" is of feminine gender, and the species name has to agree with that, the feminine \"muta\" is correct.  The word ptarmigan comes from the Scottish Gaelic \"tàrmachan\", literally croaker. The silent initial p was added in 1684 by Robert Sibbald through the influence of Greek, especially \"pteron\" (πτερόν \"pterón\"), \"wing\", \"feather\", or \"pinion\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The rock ptarmigan is long (tail ) with a wingspan of. It is smaller than the willow ptarmigan by about ten percent. The male's \"song\" is a loud croaking.  The rock ptarmigan is seasonally camouflaged; its feathers moult from white in winter to brown in spring or summer. The breeding male has greyish upper parts with white wings and under parts. In winter, its plumage becomes completely white except for the black tail. It can be distinguished from the winter willow ptarmigan by habitat—the rock ptarmigan prefers higher elevations and more barren habitat; it is also smaller with a more delicate bill.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The rock ptarmigan is a sedentary species which breeds across arctic and subarctic Eurasia and North America (including Greenland) on rocky mountainsides and tundra. It is widespread in the Arctic Cordillera and is found in isolated populations in the mountains of Norway, Scotland, the Pyrenees, the Alps, Bulgaria, the Urals, the Pamir Mountains, the Altay Mountains, and Japan—where it occurs only in the Japan Alps and on Hakusan mountain. Because of the remote habitat in which it lives, it has only a few predators—such as golden eagles—and it can be surprisingly approachable. It has been introduced to New Zealand, South Georgia, the Kerguelen Islands, and the Crozet Islands.  The small population living on Franz Josef Land in the Russian High Arctic overwinters during the polar night and survives by feeding on rich vegetation on and underneath high cliffs where seabird colonies are located in summer.<ref name=\"FJL/\">Dinets, V. (2001) Winter ecology of Willow Ptarmigan \"Lagopus lagopus\" and Rock Ptarmigan \"L. mutus\" at the northern limit of their range. \"Ornitologia\" 29: 326-327 (in Russian with English summary).</ref>  During the last ice age, the species was far more widespread in continental Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "The rock ptarmigan feeds primarily on birch and willow buds and catkins when available. It also eats various seeds, leaves, flowers, and berries of other plant species. Insects are eaten by the developing young.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "Apart from the comb, the male rock ptarmigan has no ornaments or displays that are typical for grouses in temperate regions. Studies on other grouses have shown that much variation in comb size and colour exists between the species, and that the comb is used in courtship display and aggressive interactions between males. Many studies have shown that there is a strong correlation between the comb size and the level of testosterone in males; one report from 1981 showed that the amount of testosterone is correlated to aggressiveness against other males.  The male's comb has been the focus of studies regarding sexual selection. Studies of a population of male rock ptarmigans in Scarpa Lake, Nunavut, have shown that during the first year, mating success among males was influenced by comb size and condition, and bigamous males had larger combs than monogamous males. The correlation to size disappeared after the first year, but the correlation to comb condition remained. This is consistent with another study of the same population of \"L. muta\" that showed that mating success overall is correlated to comb condition. Exceptions were first-time breeders, in which the size of the comb influenced mating success.  The rock ptarmigan becomes sexually mature at six months of age and commonly has up to six chicks. Because of this high breeding rate, the size of the population is affected very little by factors such as hunting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "Rock ptarmigan meat is a popular part of festive meals in Icelandic cuisine. Hunting of rock ptarmigans was banned in Iceland in 2003 and 2004 due to its declining population. Hunting has been allowed again since 2005, but is restricted to selected days, which are revised yearly and all trade of rock ptarmigan is illegal.  In Thomas Bewick's \"A History of British Birds\" (1797) the species is named as \"White Grouse\" with alternatives \"White Game, or Ptarmigan\". The birds feed, records Bewick, \"on the wild productions of the hills, which sometimes give the flesh a bitter, but not unpalatable taste: it is dark coloured, and has somewhat the flavour of the hare.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Provincial bird.", "content": "The Rock ptarmigan is the official territorial bird of Nunavut, Canada. Its Inuktitut name is \"ᐊᕐᑭᒡᒋᖅ ᐊᑕᔪᓕᒃ, aqiggiq atajulik.\" It is the official game bird of Newfoundland and Labrador.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The rock ptarmigan (') is a medium-sized gamebird in the grouse family. It is known simply as the ptarmigan\"' in the UK and in Canada, where it is the official bird for the territory of Nunavut, and the official game bird for the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. In Japan, it is known as the \"raichō\" (雷鳥), which means \"thunder bird\". It is the official bird of Gifu, Nagano, and Toyama Prefectures and is a protected species nationwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973069}
{"src_title": "Andriyan Nikolayev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Andrian Grigoryevich Nikolayev was born on September 5, 1929 in Sorseli, a village in the Chuvash region of the Volga River valley, and spent his time growing up on a collective farm. Nikolayev loved the idea of flying even as a child. When he was young boy Nikolayev's interest in flying manifested itself in that he climbed trees with his friends and claimed he would take flight from there. These behaviors were not encouraged by the villagers and Nikolayev did not take flight from any trees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education and career.", "content": "Nikolayev supported his family following the death of his father in 1944, however this was not preferred by his mother, who would rather that he earn an education. Nikolayev later entered medical school before he joined the Soviet army. During his training Nikolayev was able to maintain a very calm state during stressful situations. Nikolayev's calm would make him a fair candidate for becoming a cosmonaut. His future colleagues Yuri Gagarin, Gherman Titov, and seventeen others would join him in March 1960. Nikolayev's future wife was cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, and he reportedly kissed her goodbye before boarding Vostok 3.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Nikolayev flew on two space flights: Vostok 3 (becoming the third Soviet cosmonaut) and Soyuz 9. His call sign in these flights was Falcon (). On both, he set new endurance records for the longest time a human being had remained in orbit. He also served as backup for the Vostok 2 and Soyuz 8 missions. On 22 January 1969, Nikolayev survived an assassination attempt on Leonid Brezhnev, undertaken by a Soviet Army deserter, Viktor Ilyin. He left the cosmonaut corps on 26 January 1982.  Nikolayev was also the first person to make a television broadcast from space, in August 1962. Vostok 3 was part the first dual space flight, with Pavel Popovich on Vostok 4.  In the early days of space travel, it was usual to place trainee astronauts into isolation chambers to see how long they could last alone. They sat in silence unable to gauge time. Many men cracked. One cosmonaut, Andriyan Nikolayev lasted the longest – four days – and became known as the Iron Man.  On 3 November 1963, he married Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman to fly in space (see Vostok 6). They had one daughter, Elena Andriyanovna (now a doctor of medicine), before their marriage collapsed. However, it was not until 1982 that they divorced.  In 2004, Nikolayev died of a heart attack in Cheboksary, the capital of Chuvashia in Russia. A scandal ensued. His daughter, who lives in Moscow, desired that he be interred in the cemetery at Star City. The president of Chuvashia had other ideas. After a farewell ceremony in Cheboksary, Nikolayev was buried in his native village of Shorshely. He has no family living in the republic. Plans are in the works to move the body to Star City.  Nikolayev was also a keen skier: Service in the Air Force made us strong, both physically and morally. All of us cosmonauts took up sports and PT seriously when we served in the Air Force. I know that Yuri Gagarin was fond of ice hockey. He liked to play goal keeper. Gherman Titov was a gymnastics enthusiast, Andriyan Nikolayev liked skiing, Pavel Popovich went in for weight lifting. I don't think I am wrong when I say that sports became a fixture in the life of the cosmonauts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andriyan Grigoryevich Nikolayev (Chuvash and ; 5 September 1929 – 3 July 2004) was a Soviet cosmonaut. In 1962, aboard Vostok 3, he became the third Soviet cosmonaut to fly into space. Nikolayev was an ethnic Chuvash.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973070}
{"src_title": "Camargue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "With an area of over, the Camargue is western Europe's largest river delta. It is a vast plain comprising large brine lagoons or \"étangs\", cut off from the sea by sandbars and encircled by reed-covered marshes. These are in turn surrounded by a large cultivated area.  Approximately a third of the Camargue is either lakes or marshland. The central area around the shoreline of the \"Étang de Vaccarès\" has been protected as a regional park since 1927, in recognition of its great importance as a haven for wild birds. In 2008, it was incorporated into the larger Parc naturel régional de Camargue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "The Camargue is home to more than 400 species of birds and has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International. Its brine ponds provide one of the few European habitats for the greater flamingo. The marshes are also a prime habitat for many species of insects, notably (and notoriously) some of the most ferocious mosquitos to be found anywhere in France. Camargue horses (Camarguais) roam the extensive marshlands, along with Camargue cattle (see below).  The native flora of the Camargue have adapted to the saline conditions. Sea lavender and glasswort flourish, along with tamarisks and reeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional park.", "content": "Officially established as a regional park and nature reserve in 1970, the Parc Naturel Régional de Camargue covers 820 km2. This territory is some of the most natural and most protected in all of Europe. A roadside museum provides background on flora, fauna, and the history of the area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human influence.", "content": "Humans have lived in the Camargue for millennia, greatly affecting it with drainage schemes, dykes, rice paddies and salt pans. Much of the outer Camargue has been drained for agricultural purposes.  The Camargue has an eponymous horse breed, the famous white Camarguais. Camargue horses are ridden by the \"gardians\" (cowboys), who rear the region's cattle for fighting bulls for regional use and for export to Spain, as well as sheep. Many of these animals are raised in semi-feral conditions, allowed to roam through the Camargue within a manade, or free-running herd. They are periodically rounded up for culling, medical treatment, or other events.  Few towns of any size have developed in the Camargue. Its \"capital\" is Arles, located at the extreme north of the delta where the Rhône forks into its two principal branches. The only other towns of note are along the sea front or near it: Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, about 45 km to the southwest and the medieval fortress-town of Aigues-Mortes on the far western edge, in the \"Petite Camargue\". Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer is the destination of the annual Romani pilgrimage for the veneration of Saint Sarah.  The Camargue was exploited in the Middle Ages by Cistercian and Benedictine monks. In the 16th-17th centuries, big estates, known locally as \"mas,\" were founded by rich landlords from Arles. At the end of the 18th century, they had the Rhône diked to protect the town and their properties from flooding. In 1858, the building of the \"digue à la mer\" (dyke to the sea) achieved temporary protection of the delta from erosion, but it is a changing landform, always affected by waters and weather.  The north of the Camargue is agricultural land. The main crops are cereals, grapevine and rice. Near the seashore, prehistoric man started extracting salt, a practice that continues today. Salt was a source of wealth for the Cistercian \"salt abbeys\" of Ulmet, Franquevaux and Psalmody in the Middle Ages. Industrial salt collection started in the 19th century, and big chemical companies such as Péchiney and Solvay founded the'mining' city of Salin-de-Giraud.  The boundaries of the Camargue are constantly revised by the Rhône as it transports huge quantities of mud downstream – as much as 20 million m annually. Some of the \"étangs\" are the remnants of old arms and legs of the river. The general trend is for the coastline to move outwards as new earth is deposited in the delta at the river's mouth. Aigues-Mortes, originally built as a port on the coast, is now some inland. The pace of change has been modified in recent years by man-made barriers, such as dams on the Rhône and sea dykes, but flooding remains a problem across the region.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Camargue (,,, ; ) is a natural region located south of Arles, France, between the Mediterranean Sea and the two arms of the Rhône delta. The eastern arm is called the \"Grand Rhône\"; the western one is the \"Petit Rhône\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973071}
{"src_title": "Carabiner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Use.", "content": "Carabiners are widely used in rope-intensive activities such as climbing, arboriculture, caving, sailing, hot air ballooning, rope rescue, construction, industrial rope work, window cleaning, whitewater rescue, and acrobatics. They are predominantly made from both steel and aluminium. Those used in sports tend to be of a lighter weight than those used in commercial applications and rope rescue. Often referred to as carabiner-style or as mini-biners, carabiner keyrings and other light-use clips of similar style and design have also become popular. Most are stamped with a \"Not For Climbing\" or similar warning due to a common lack of load-testing and safety standards in manufacturing. While from an etymological perspective any metal attaching link with a spring gate is technically a carabiner, the strict usage among the climbing community specifically refers only to those devices manufactured and tested for load-bearing in safety-critical systems like rock and mountain climbing, typically rated to 20 kN or more.  Carabiners on hot air balloons are used to connect the envelope to the basket and are rated at 2.5 tonne, 3 tonne or 4 tonne.  Load-bearing screw-gate carabiners are used to connect the diver's umbilical to the surface supplied diver's harness. They are usually rated for a safe working load of 5 kN or more (equivalent to a weight in excess of approximately 500 kg).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical properties.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shape.", "content": "Carabiners come in four characteristic shapes:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Locking mechanisms.", "content": "There are three broad categories of locking mechanisms for carabiners: auto locking, manual locking, and non-locking.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Non-locking.", "content": "Non-locking carabiners (or \"snap-links\") have a sprung swinging gate that accepts a rope, webbing sling, or other hardware. Rock climbers frequently connect two non-locking carabiners with a short length of webbing to create a quickdraw (an extender).  Two gate types are common:  Both solid and wire gate carabiners can be either \"straight gate\" or \"bent gate\". Bent-gate carabiners are easier to clip a rope into using only one hand, and so are often used for the rope-end carabiner of quickdraws and alpine draws used for lead climbing.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Locking.", "content": "Life supporting carabiners such as those used in tree climbing need to be strong (thus strength ratings), but also secure against unintentional opening under use. All carabiners with a spring loaded gate are \"self closing\" (single action). Several are also \"self locking\" (double action), some even \"self double locking\" (triple action).  Locking carabiners have the same general shape as non-locking carabiners, but have an additional mechanism securing the gate. These mechanisms may be either threaded sleeves (\"screw-lock\"), spring-loaded sleeves (\"twist-lock\"), magnetic levers (\"Magnetron\"), other spring loaded unlocking levers or opposing double spring loaded gates (\"Twin-Gate\").", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Certification.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "American National Standards Institute/American Society of Safety Engineers standard ANSI Z359.1-2007 \"Safety Requirement for Personal Fall Arrest Systems, Subsystems and Components\", section 3.2.1.4 (for snap hooks and carabiners) is a voluntary consensus standard. This standard requires that all connectors/ carabiners support a minimum breaking strength (MBS) of and feature an auto-locking gate mechanism which supports a minimum breaking strength (MBS) of.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A carabiner or karabiner () is a specialized type of shackle, a metal loop with a spring-loaded gate used to quickly and reversibly connect components, most notably in safety-critical systems. The word is a shortened form of \"Karabinerhaken\" (or also short \"Karabiner\"), a German phrase for a \"spring hook\" used by a carbine rifleman, or carabinier, to attach his carabin to a belt or bandolier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973072}
{"src_title": "Litoměřice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The settlement of Litoměřice has a deep history of Paleolithic cultures as well as large Celtic settlements of the La Tène culture, which did not survive the incoming Germanic attacks. The area was later settled by Germanic tribes, when Litoměřice first appear on Ptolemy's Map in the 2nd Century under the name of Nomisterium. The Germanic tribes later migrated west and those remaining mingled with the incoming Slavs.  One of the oldest Czech towns, Litoměřice was established in the 10th century on the site of an early medieval Přemyslid Dynasty fort. The area was settled by the Czech tribe of Litoměřici, after which the town was named. In the High Middle Ages a small group of German settlers was also invited in by Slavic rulers. A royal-town statute was granted in 1219 by the Czech king, Přemysl Otakar I.. From the 12th to the 17th century it was a significant trading centre in the Holy Roman Empire.  The population suffered during the 15th century Hussite Wars. After the Protestant tensions with the Catholics that triggered the Thirty Years' War and the Protestants' defeat in the Battle of White Mountain, the surviving population of the city was forced to accept Catholicism or face property confiscation and the obligation to leave the kingdom. In this way, the town became a Catholic bishop's residency in 1655. As a result, the Czech Protestant population shrank and the town became largely Germanized.  In 1918, Bohemia, Moravia and Czech Silesia became constituent parts of the newly-created Czechoslovakia (which was confirmed by the Treaty of St. Germain), along with a large border area inhabited predominantly by Germans. Local Germans tried to join German Austria (which in turn aimed to join post-war German Reich), but Czechoslovak troops prevented this. Known under the informal name of the Sudetenland, the region became the subject of political controversy in the following years. Slavs settled there again, but remained a minority. In 1938, after the Munich Agreement, German troops occupied the Sudetenland (and all the rest of Czech lands a few months later). The Czech population, which had grown to about 5,000 people, had to leave again.  Jews from Leitmeritz were forced to flee to the Protectorate or were deported during the Holocaust in the Sudetenland. From March 1944 to May 1945, Leitmeritz concentration camp was located west of the town. 18,000 prisoners passed through the camp and were forced to work mostly on excavating underground factories (Richard I and II) under Radobýl. 4,500 died.  In the final stages of World War II, German troops retreated to escape the advancing Red Army. The Czech resistance took control of the castle on 27 April 1945, and after a few days they started negotiations with the German commander about the terms of his surrender. The Wehrmacht capitulated in the night after 8 May, but German troops fled on 9 May, just before Soviet troops entered the town on 10 May 1945. Most of the German population of the town was expelled by the so-called Beneš decrees in August 1945, along with about 2.5 million other former Czechoslovak citizens of German ethnicity from the country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "There are several main sights already visible when approaching Litoměřice. The Baroque St. Stephen's Cathedral at the Cathedral Square (\"Dómské náměstí\") was built in place of an older Romanasque basilica in the years 1664–1668. The interior is almost completely authentic with main and six side altars and a lot of original paintings. Right next to the dome is a bishop's residence built in 1683–1701 by Giulio Broggio. On the main square there is All-Saints Church and within distance there is an Annunciation (Lady Day) Church, another masterpiece built by the son of Giulio Broggio, Octavio. The old town hall (now city museum) and Black Eagle House (Dům u černého orla) on the main square are also worthy a look. The symbol of the city is a chalice, since the watchout tower on the Town Hall has this shape.  There are numerous cellars connected by an extensive web of underground ways under the town. In some places, the cellars were built in three floors. The ways are about three kilometers () long and they belong to the longest of their kind in the Czech Republic. Unfortunately, only of these underground ways are open to the public. You can notice the ancient town wall when entering the town. The original town wall was built in the Gothic style. Northern Bohemian Gallery of Creative Arts (SGVU) is based close the main square. Extensive collection spans from 13th century to contemporary art with numerous other exhibitions during the year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable residents.", "content": "There are several successful sportsmen who were born, lived or are living in Litoměřice, among other olympic medalists, world champions or Stanley Cup winners:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — Sister cities.", "content": "Litoměřice is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Litoměřice (; ) is a town at the junction of the rivers Elbe () and Ohře () in the northern part of the Czech Republic, approximately northwest of Prague.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973073}
{"src_title": "Třeboň", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Třeboň was established around the middle of the 12th century. In 1366, the House of Rožmberk/Rosenberg became owner of the estate. The period of greatest growth for the town dates to the second half of the 15th century when (1462–1523) seriously began to take care of the land. The district became famous as a fish pond farming area. From 1611 the Houses of Habsburg and Schwarzenberg were owners of the town and the estate.  Until 1918, \"Třeboň - Wittingau\" (\"Wittingau\" until the end of the 19th century) was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), in the district with the same name, one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Bohemia.  During the Czechoslovak republic the mudguard spa arose there but the district of Třeboň was abolished in the year 1960.  The express railway connection between Prague and Vienna passed through the city of Třeboň. President Masaryk officially visited the city twice by train, in 1919 and 1925.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Třeboň today.", "content": "Třeboň is a tourist destination, and this is the area's major economic activity, along with agriculture, the spa industry and other services. The TV series \"The Territory of White Deer\" was filmed in Třeboň.  The State Regional Archive for South Bohemia is based here, where genealogical studies about people born in the South Bohemian Region may be conducted, for example. Digital images of parish registers and other genealogical records from the archive have been placed on the internet.  The International Festival of Animated Films, Anifest, was held in Třeboň each May between 2002 and 2010; after that, Anifilm took its place.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Třeboň is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Třeboň (; ) is a historical town in the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. Its population is around 8,200.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973074}
{"src_title": "PGM-11 Redstone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Redstone was a direct descendant of the German V-2 rocket, developed by a team of predominantly German rocket engineers under the leadership of Wernher von Braun, that had been brought to the United States after World War II as part of Operation Paperclip.  A product of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, Redstone was designed as a surface-to-surface missile for the U.S. Army. It was named for the arsenal on 8 April 1952, which traced its name to the region's red rocks and soil. The first Redstone lifted off from LC-4A at Cape Canaveral on 20 August 1953. It flew for one minute and 20 seconds before suffering an engine failure and falling into the sea. Following this partial success, the second test was conducted on 27 January 1954, this time without a hitch as the missile flew 55 miles. After these first two prototypes were flown, an improved engine was introduced to reduce problems with LOX turbopump cavitation.  The third Redstone flight on 5 May was a total loss as the engine cut off one second after launch, causing the rocket to fall back on the pad and explode. After this incident, Major General Holger Toftoy pressured Wernher von Braun for the cause of the failure. The latter replied that he had no idea, but they would review telemetry and other data to find out. Toftoy persisted, asking \"Wernher, why did the rocket explode?\" An exasperated von Braun said \"It exploded because the damn sonofabitch blew up!\"  Von Braun pressured the ABMA team to improve reliability and workmanship standards, allegedly remarking that \"Missile reliability will require that the target area is more dangerous than the launch area.\" Subsequent test flights went better and the Army declared Redstone operational in mid-1955. Testing was moved from LC-4 to the bigger LC-5 and LC-6.  The Redstone program proved to be a bone of contention between the Army and Air Force due to their different ideas of nuclear warfare. The Army favored using small warheads on mobile missiles as tactical battlefield weapons while the Air Force, which was responsible for the ICBM program, wanted large cross-continental missiles that could strike Soviet targets and rapidly cripple the USSR's infrastructure and ability to wage war.  With the arrival of newer solid-fueled missiles that could be stored and not require fueling before launch, Redstone was rendered obsolete and production ended in 1961. The 40th Artillery Group was deactivated in February 1964 and 46th Artillery Group was deactivated in June 1964, as Redstone missiles were replaced by the Pershing missile in the U.S. Army arsenal. All Redstone missiles and equipment deployed to Europe were returned to the United States by the third quarter of 1964. In October 1964, the Redstone missile was ceremonially retired from active service at Redstone Arsenal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Redstone was capable of flights from to. It consisted of a thrust unit for powered flight and a missile body for overall missile control and payload delivery on target. During powered flight, Redstone burned a fuel mixture of 25 percent water–75 percent ethyl alcohol with liquid oxygen (LOX) used as the oxidizer. Later Redstones used Hydyne, 60% unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and 40% diethylenetriamine (DETA), as the fuel. The missile body consisted of an aft unit containing the instrument compartment, and the warhead unit containing the payload compartment and the radar altimeter fuze. The missile body was separated from the thrust unit 20–30 seconds after the termination of powered flight, as determined by the preset range to target. The body continued on a controlled ballistic trajectory to the target impact point. The thrust unit continued on its own uncontrolled ballistic trajectory, impacting short of the designated target.  The nuclear-armed Redstone carried the W39, either a MK 39Y1 Mod 1 or MK 39Y2 Mod 1, warhead with a yield of 3.8 megatons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Chrysler Corporation was awarded the prime production contract, to be made at the newly renamed Michigan Ordnance Missile Plant in Warren, Michigan. The navy-owned facility was previously known as the Naval Industrial Reserve Aircraft Plant used for jet engine production. Following the cancellation of a planned jet engine program, the facility was made available to the Chrysler Corporation for missile production, and began missile and support equipment production in 1952. Rocketdyne Division of North American Aviation Company provided the rocket engines; Ford Instrument Company, division of Sperry Rand Corporation, produced the guidance and control systems; and Reynolds Metals Company fabricated fuselage assemblies as subcontractors to Chrysler.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Redstone derivatives.", "content": "In 1955, the Jupiter-C rocket (not to be confused with the later, unrelated Jupiter IRBM) was developed as an enhanced Redstone for atmospheric and reentry vehicle tests. It had elongated propellant tanks for increased burn time and a new engine that burned a fuel mixture known as hydyne and under the name of the Jupiter C/Juno 1 was used for the first successful US space launch of the Explorer 1 satellite in 1958.  The Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle was a derivation of the Redstone with a fuel tank increased in length by and was used on 5 May 1961 to launch Alan Shepard on his sub-orbital flight to become the second person and first American in space. It retained the Jupiter C's longer propellant tanks, but went back to using ethyl alcohol/water for propellant instead of hydyne. From 1966 to 1967, a series of surplus modified Redstones called Spartas were launched from Woomera, South Australia as part of a joint U.S.–United Kingdom–Australian research program aimed at understanding re-entry phenomena. These Redstones had two solid fuel upper stages added. The U.S. donated a spare Sparta for Australia's first satellite launch, WRESAT, in November 1967.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The PGM-11 Redstone was the first large American ballistic missile. A short-range ballistic missile (SRBM), it was in active service with the United States Army in West Germany from June 1958 to June 1964 as part of NATO's Cold War defense of Western Europe. It was the first US missile to carry a live nuclear warhead, in the 1958 Pacific Ocean weapons test, Hardtack Teak.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973075}
{"src_title": "Jacques Laffite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Jacques-Henri Laffite was born in Paris on 21 November 1943. He attended the Cours Hattemer, a private school.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formula One career.", "content": "Laffite debuted in Formula One in 1974 for Frank Williams' Iso–Marlboro team. The following year he raced for the same team, now named Williams, scoring a second place in the German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring.  In Laffite moved to the French Ligier team, scoring 20 points and a pole position at the Italian Grand Prix. The next two seasons were transitional, although he managed to win his first Grand Prix at Anderstorp in the 1977 Swedish Grand Prix.  The 1979 season opened with Laffite winning the first two races. He fought for the World Championship title until the last races, but eventually placed only fourth, with 36 points. The following two seasons were similar, with two more fourth places in the Championship and a further three victories. In 1982, however, Laffite finished only 17th in the final classification, with only 5 points scored.  During the early 1980s, Laffite also made three end of season trips to Australia to race in the non-championship Australian Grand Prix. He failed to finish his first race in 1981 (he was lucky to start after his car hit the wall on the outside of the last turn of the short (1.609 km (1.000 mi)) Calder Park Raceway in qualifying, but his local crew were able to repair it for the race). He finished second to fellow Frenchman Alain Prost in 1982, and third behind Brazilian Roberto Moreno and Australian John Smith in 1983. In all of his pre-Formula One AGP drives, Laffite drove a Formula Pacific or Formula Mondial Ralt RT4 powered by a 1.6-litre Ford l4 engine.  Results in the next two seasons weren't much better, when he moved back to England, again to race for Williams (11 and 5 points, respectively). Now in his forties, Laffite returned to Ligier in 1985: in that season he was on the podium three times (Great Britain, Germany and Australia), for a total of 16 points. In 1986 he scored 14 points including two more podium finishes in the first half of the season, but he broke both legs in a crash at the start of the British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch, and thereafter retired from Formula One. The race was stopped and restarted without Laffite, who was thus classified as a non-starter and ended his career tied with Graham Hill for the most Grand Prix starts. He was the most successful driver in Ligier's history, having taken six of their nine wins.  As a result of Laffite's injuries, new safety rules were enforced from the season that stated that in all cars the driver's feet must be behind the front axle line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-Formula One career.", "content": "Laffite recovered from his injuries and later raced in touring cars, finishing 17th in the inaugural World Touring Car Championship driving an Alfa Romeo 75 for Alfa Corse as well as racing three seasons in the German-based DTM series.  He is now a television commentator for the French network TF1, best known for his reaction to the incident at the 1997 European Grand Prix in which Michael Schumacher collided with Jacques Villeneuve, and Laffite reacted with curse words on live television.  In October 2008, at the age of 64, he tested a Renault R27 F1 car at the Paul Ricard circuit.  Jacques Laffite, golf enthusiast, is a shareholder of Dijon-Bourgogne Golf.  Also deeply attached to the Creuse for Golf Fisheries and nature, he has a property in Creuse near Aubusson", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Racing record.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complete European Formula Two Championship results.", "content": "Graded drivers not eligible for European Formula Two Championship points", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complete World Touring Car Championship results.", "content": "<nowiki>*</nowiki> Overall race position shown. Registered WTCC points paying position may differ.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jacques-Henri Laffite (born 21 November 1943 in Paris) is a French former racing driver who competed in Formula One from to. He achieved six Grand Prix wins, all while driving for the Ligier team. From 1997 to 2013, Laffite was a presenter for TF1.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973076}
{"src_title": "Jeanne Moreau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Moreau was born in Paris, the daughter of Katherine (née Buckley), a dancer who performed at the Folies Bergère (d. 1990), and Anatole-Désiré Moreau, a restaurateur (d. 1975). Moreau's father was French; her mother was English, a native of Oldham, Lancashire, England and of part Irish descent. Moreau's father was Catholic and her mother, originally a Protestant, converted to Catholicism upon marriage. When a young girl, \"the family moved south to Vichy, spending vacations at the paternal ancestral village of Mazirat, a town of 30 houses in a valley in the Allier. \"It was wonderful there\", Moreau said. \"Every tombstone in the cemetery was for a Moreau\". During World War II, the family was split, and Moreau lived with her mother in Paris. Moreau ultimately lost interest in school at age 16, and after attending a performance of Jean Anouilh's \"Antigone\", found her calling as an actor. She later studied at the Conservatoire de Paris. Her parents separated permanently while Moreau was at the conservatory and her mother, \"after 24 difficult years in France, returned to England with Jeanne's sister, Michelle.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1947, Moreau made her theatrical debut at the Avignon Festival. She debuted at the Comédie-Française in Ivan Turgenev's \"A Month in the Country\" and, by her 20s, was already one of leading actresses in the theatre's troupe. After 1949, she began appearing in films with small parts but continued primarily active in the theatre for several years — a year at the Théâtre National Populaire opposite among others Gérard Philipe and Robert Hirsch, then a breakout two years in dual roles in \"The Dazzling Hour\" by Anna Bonacci, then Jean Cocteau's \"La Machine Infernale\" and others before another two-year run, this time in Shaw's \"Pygmalion\". From the late 1950s, after appearing in several successful films, she began to work with the emerging generation of French film-makers. \"Elevator to the Gallows\" (1958) with first-time director Louis Malle was followed by Malle's \"The Lovers\" (\"Les Amants\", 1959).  Moreau went on to work with many of the best known New Wave and avant-garde directors. François Truffaut's New Wave film \"Jules et Jim\" (1962), her biggest success internationally, is centered on her magnetic starring role. She also worked with a number of other notable directors such as Michelangelo Antonioni (\"La notte\" and \"Beyond the Clouds\"), Orson Welles (\"The Trial\", \"Chimes at Midnight\" and \"The Immortal Story\"), Luis Buñuel (\"Diary of a Chambermaid\"), Elia Kazan (\"The Last Tycoon\"), Rainer Werner Fassbinder (\"Querelle\"), Wim Wenders (\"Until the End of the World\"), Carl Foreman (\"Champion\" and \"The Victors\"), and Manoel de Oliveira \"(Gebo et l'Ombre)\".  In 1983, she was head of the jury at the 33rd Berlin International Film Festival. In 2005, she was awarded with the Stanislavsky Award at the 27th Moscow International Film Festival.  Moreau was also a vocalist. She released several albums and once performed with Frank Sinatra at Carnegie Hall in 1984. In addition to acting, Moreau worked behind the camera as a writer, director and producer. Her accomplishments were the subject of the film \"Calling the Shots\" (1988) by Janis Cole and Holly Dale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Throughout her life, Moreau maintained friendships with prominent writers such as Jean Cocteau, Jean Genet, Henry Miller and Marguerite Duras, (an interview with Moreau is included in Duras's book \"Outside: Selected Writings\"). She formerly was married to Jean-Louis Richard (1949–1964, separated in 1951) and then to American film director William Friedkin (1977–1979). Director Tony Richardson left his wife Vanessa Redgrave for her in 1967, but they never married. She also had affairs with directors Louis Malle and François Truffaut, fashion designer Pierre Cardin and the Greek actor/playboy Theodoros Roubanis.  In 1971, she was a signer of the Manifesto of the 343 which publicly announced she obtained an illegal abortion.  Moreau was a close friend of Sharon Stone, who presented a 1998 American Academy of Motion Pictures life tribute to Moreau at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater, academy headquarters in Beverly Hills. Orson Welles called her \"the greatest actress in the world\", and she remained one of France's most accomplished actresses.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jeanne Moreau (; 23 January 1928 – 31 July 2017) was a French actress, singer, screenwriter and director. She won the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress for \"Seven Days... Seven Nights\" (1960) (which she shared with Melina Mercouri for her role in \"Never on Sunday\"), the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actress for \"Viva Maria!\" (1965), and the César Award for Best Actress for \"The Old Lady Who Walked in the Sea\" (1992). She was also the recipient of several lifetime awards, including a BAFTA Fellowship in 1996, Cannes Golden Palm in 2003 and César Award in 2008.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973077}
{"src_title": "Citadels (card game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "Gameplay revolves around two phases each round, character selection and then taking actions.  Firstly, characters are selected through a partially secret draft. Each character has a different in-game effect which allows the player choosing that character to activate during the next phase of the turn. Beginning with the player possessing the crown counter, players take it in turn to choose a character card secretly before passing the hand to the next player. To add further strategy to the game, only some characters are available each round. Unavailable characters are selected randomly, and may be revealed or hidden, depending on the number of people playing. Also depending on the number of players in the game, players may be able to choose a second character, allowing them two 'turns' in the next phase of the round.  After character selection is finished, characters are called out in order to take their actions. Characters that were not selected (either by choice, or because they were not in the available selection) are ignored, and the next character takes their action phase. The actions involve: taking income, taking additional district cards, 'building' district cards, and using character-specific abilities.  Characters are then reshuffled and a new turn begins with players selecting new characters in the same process. When a player 'builds' their eighth district card in their tableau, the game ends and points are tallied. Bonus points are awarded for building the maximum 8 districts, being the first to do so, and having a district of each possible color (purple, yellow, red, blue, green).  There are several cards that affect the end of the game. A player can build the \"Belltower\" district card to cause the game to end with 7 districts instead of 8. This affects the appropriate bonus points and the warlord/diplomat abilities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characters.", "content": "The original set contained eight character cards:  The abilities associated with each character vary and include defensive, offensive, and bonus earning powers. For example, the Assassin has the ability to kill another character, preventing him or her from taking a turn; the King has the ability to move the crown counter, and the Warlord is able to destroy districts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Expansions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Additional character set.", "content": "The English language edition is sold as an expanded set with some extra cards and markers. These cards add a ninth character to be used in games of five or more players.  The expansion set also adds an entire set of new characters, any of which can be swapped for their numerical counterpart (i.e. a game could not have the Witch and the Assassin, as they are both Character #1):  These characters are generally a twist on the character and ability on the original set of character cards. For example, where the King takes the king token for himself, the Emperor instead nominates a different character to receive the king token.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Dark City.", "content": "An expansion, \"The Dark City\", was released for the game in 2004. The expansion adds 14 new purple district cards, some turn summary cards, and a wooden king token. The German, Dutch, Lithuanian and Estonian language editions of \"The Dark City\" also include the nine new character cards from the English-language edition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Circus.", "content": "The latest edition of the base game that was published in Germany in 2012 contained 15 new cards of a new type called \"action cards\". These cards can be used once per turn without costing any gold and offer various tactical advantages - comparable to purple district cards.  This new edition was released as Ohne Furcht und Adel. It included the base game and the new action cards, but not the Dark City expansion which was included with the Fantasy Flight 3rd edition of Citadels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Citadels New Edition (2016).", "content": "This edition of the game includes characters and districts from the original game and The Dark City, as well as a brand new cast of 9 characters and 12 completely new districts! Lastly, this edition has new artwork.  New characters:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Citadels is a German-style card game, designed by Bruno Faidutti, originally published in French as \"Citadelles\" by MultiSim in 2000, illustrated by Julien Delval, Florence Magnin, Jean-Louis Mourier and Cyrille Daujean as graphic designer for the first edition. Sometime later, Citadels was published in German as \"Ohne Furcht und Adel\", which means \"Without Fear or Nobility\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973078}
{"src_title": "Great Rift Valley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Theoretical extent.", "content": "Today these rifts and faults are seen as distinct, although connected, but originally, the Great Rift Valley was thought to be a single feature that extended from Lebanon in the north to Mozambique in the south, where it constitutes one of two distinct physiographic provinces of the East African mountains. It included what today is called the Lebanese section of the Dead Sea Transform, the Jordan Rift Valley, Red Sea Rift and the East African Rift. These rifts and faults were formed 35 million years ago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Asia.", "content": "The northernmost parts of the Rift corresponds to the central section of what is called today the Dead Sea Transform (DST) or Rift. This midsection of the DST forms the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon, separating the Lebanon from the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Further south it is known as the Hula Valley separating the Galilee mountains and the Golan Heights.  The Jordan River begins here and flows southward through Lake Hula into the Sea of Galilee in Israel. The Rift then continues south through the Jordan Rift Valley into the Dead Sea on the Israeli-Jordanian border. From the Dead Sea southwards, the Rift is occupied by the Wadi Arabah, then the Gulf of Aqaba, and then the Red Sea.  Off the southern tip of Sinai in the Red Sea, the Dead Sea Transform meets the Red Sea Rift which runs the length of the Red Sea. The Red Sea Rift comes ashore to meet the East African Rift and the Aden Ridge in the Afar Depression of East Africa. The junction of these three rifts is called the Afar Triple Junction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Africa.", "content": "The East African rift has two branches, the Western Rift Valley and the Eastern Rift Valley.  The Western Rift, also called the Albertine Rift, is bordered by some of the highest mountains in Africa, including the Virunga Mountains, Mitumba Mountains, and Ruwenzori Range. It contains the Rift Valley lakes, which include some of the deepest lakes in the world (up to deep at Lake Tanganyika).  Much of this area lies within the boundaries of national parks such as Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwenzori National Park and Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda, and Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda. Lake Victoria is considered to be part of the rift valley system although it actually lies between the two branches. All of the African Great Lakes were formed as the result of the rift, and most lie within its rift valley.  In Kenya, the valley is deepest to the north of Nairobi. As the lakes in the Eastern Rift have no outlet to the sea and tend to be shallow, they have a high mineral content as the evaporation of water leaves the salts behind. For example, Lake Magadi has high concentrations of soda (sodium carbonate) and Lake Elmenteita, Lake Bogoria, and Lake Nakuru are all strongly alkaline, while the freshwater springs supplying Lake Naivasha are essential to support its current biological variety.  The southern section of the Rift Valley includes Lake Malawi, the third-deepest freshwater body in the world, reaching in depth and separating the Nyassa plateau of Northern Mozambique from Malawi; it ends in the Zambezi valley.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Great Rift Valley is a series of contiguous geographic trenches, approximately in total length, that runs from the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon which is in Asia to Mozambique in Southeast Africa. While the name continues in some usages, it is rarely used in geology as it is considered an imprecise merging of separate though related rift and fault systems.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973079}
{"src_title": "Conrad Celtes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born at Wipfeld, near Schweinfurt in Lower Franconia under his original name Konrad Bickel or Pyckell (modern spelling Pickel), Celtes pursued his studies at the University of Cologne (1477–1479; B.A., 1479) and at the University of Heidelberg (1484). While at Heidelberg, he received instruction from Dalberg and Agricola. As customary in those days for humanists, he Latinized his name, to Conradus Celtis. For some time he delivered humanist lectures during his travels to Erfurt, Rostock and Leipzig. His first work was titled \"Ars versificandi et carminum\" (The Art of Writing Verses and Poems, 1486). He further undertook lecture tours to Rome, Florence, Bologna and Venice.  The elector Frederick of Saxony approached the emperor Frederick III, who named Conrad Celtes \"Poet Laureate\" (Honored Poet) upon his return. At this great imperial ceremonial gathering in Nuremberg, Celtes was at the same time presented with a doctoral degree. Celtes again made a lecturing tour throughout the empire.  In 1489–1491, he stayed in Kraków where he studied mathematics, astronomy and the natural sciences at the Jagiellonian University (at which he enrolled in 1489), and befriended many other humanists such as Lorenz Rabe and Bonacursius. He also founded a learned society, based on the Roman academies. The local branch of the society was called \"Sodalitas Litterarum Vistulana\" (the \"Literary Society on the Vistula River\").  In 1490 he once again went through Breslau (Wrocław) to Prague, capital of the Kingdom of Bohemia. Hartmann Schedel used Celtis' descriptions of Breslau in the \"Schedelsche Weltchronik\" (Nuremberg Chronicle). In Hungary, Celtis formed the \"Sodalitas Litterarum Hungaria\" (\"Hungarian Literary Society\"), later as \"Sodalitas Litterarum Danubiana\" to be based in Vienna. He made stops at Regensburg, Passau and Nuremberg (and probably Mainz). At Heidelberg he founded the \"Sodalitas Litterarum Rhenana\" (\"Rhineland Literary Society\"). Later he went to Lübeck and Ingolstadt. At Ingolstadt, in 1492, he delivered his famous speech to the students there, in which he called on Germans to rival Italians in learning and letters. This would later become an extremely popular address in sixteenth-century German nationalistic sentiment.  While the plague ravaged Ingolstadt, Celtes taught at Heidelberg. By now he was a professor. In 1497 Celtes was called to Vienna by the emperor Maximilian I, who honored him as \"teacher of the art of poetry and conversation\" with an imperial \"Privilegium\", the first of its kind. There he lectured on the works of classical writers and in 1502 founded the \"Collegium Poetarum\", a college for poets. His invitation to Vienna came about greatly at the influence of his friend and fellow scholar Johannes Cuspinian.  Celtes died at Vienna a few years later of syphilis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "Conrad Celtes' teachings had lasting effects, particularly in the field of history. He was the first to teach the history of the world as a whole. He started work on the \"Germania Illustrata\" with \"Germania generalis\" and \"De origine, situ, moribus et institutis Norimbergae libellus\" (\"On the origins, site, habits and institutions of Nuremberg\"). He discovered and published the writings of Hroswitha of Gandersheim. Celtes also discovered a map showing roads of the Roman Empire, the \"Tabula Peutingeriana\", or Peutinger Table. Celtes collected numerous Greek and Latin manuscripts in his function as librarian of the imperial library that was founded by Maximilian, and he claimed to have discovered the missing books of Ovid’s \"Fasti\" in a letter to the Venetian publisher Aldus Manutius in 1504. The purported new verses had actually been composed by an 11th-century monk and were known to the Empire of Nicaea according to William of Rubruck, but even so, many contemporary scholars believed Celtes and continued to write about the existence of the missing books until well into the 17th century.  Conrad Celtes was more of a free-thinking humanist and placed a higher value on the ancient pagan, rather than the Christian ideal. His friend Willibald Pirckheimer had blunt discussions with him on that subject.  The Celtis-Gymnasium in Schweinfurt was named after Conrad Celtis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Conrad Celtes (; ; 1 February 1459 – 4 February 1508) was a German humanist scholar and poet of the German Renaissance born in Franconia (nowadays part of Bavaria). He led the theatrical performances at the Viennese court and reformed the syllabi. In 1500, he published Tacitus' \"Germania\" and his rediscovered works (e.g. Hrotsvit von Gandersheim, 1501) and wrote the \"Quatuor libri amorum\" in 1500, after the model of Ovid.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973080}
{"src_title": "Conjoint analysis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Conjoint design.", "content": "A product or service area is described in terms of a number of attributes. For example, a television may have attributes of screen size, screen format, brand, price and so on. Each attribute can then be broken down into a number of levels. For instance, levels for screen format may be LED, LCD, or Plasma.  Respondents would be shown a set of products, prototypes, mock-ups, or pictures created from a combination of levels from all or some of the constituent attributes and asked to choose from, rank or rate the products they are shown. Each example is similar enough that consumers will see them as close substitutes but dissimilar enough that respondents can clearly determine a preference. Each example is composed of a unique combination of product features. The data may consist of individual ratings, rank orders, or preferences among alternative combinations.  Conjoint design involves four different steps:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1. Determine the type of study.", "content": "There are different types of study that can be chosen:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2. Identify the relevant attributes.", "content": "Attributes in conjoint analysis should:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "3. Specify the attributes’ levels.", "content": "Levels of attributes should be:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "4. Design questionnaire.", "content": "As the number of combinations of attributes and levels increases the number of potential profiles increases exponentially. Consequently, fractional factorial design is commonly used to reduce the number of profiles that have to be evaluated, while ensuring enough data are available for statistical analysis, resulting in a carefully controlled set of \"profiles\" for the respondent to consider.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "The earliest forms of conjoint analysis were what are known as Full Profile studies, in which a small set of attributes (typically 4 to 5) are used to create profiles that are shown to respondents, often on individual cards. Respondents then rank or rate these profiles. Using relatively simple dummy variable regression analysis the implicit utilities for the levels can be calculated. Two drawbacks were seen in these early designs.  Firstly, the number of attributes in use was heavily restricted. With large numbers of attributes, the consideration task for respondents becomes too large and even with fractional factorial designs the number of profiles for evaluation can increase rapidly. In order to use more attributes (up to 30), hybrid conjoint techniques were developed. The main alternative was to do some form of self-explication (rating of separate components) before the conjoint tasks and some form of adaptive computer-aided choice over the profiles to be shown.  The second drawback was that the task itself was unrealistic and did not link directly to behavioural theory. In real-life situations, the task would be some form of actual choice between alternatives rather than the more artificial ranking and rating originally used. Jordan Louviere pioneered an approach that used only a choice task which became the basis of choice-based conjoint analysis and discrete choice analysis. This stated preference research is linked to econometric modeling and can be linked to revealed preference where choice models are calibrated on the basis of real rather than survey data. Originally choice-based conjoint analysis was unable to provide individual level utilities as it aggregated choices across a market. This made it unsuitable for market segmentation studies. With newer hierarchical Bayesian analysis techniques, individual level utilities can be imputed back to provide individual level data.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Information collection.", "content": "Data for conjoint analysis are most commonly gathered through a market research survey, although conjoint analysis can also be applied to a carefully designed configurator or data from an appropriately designed test market experiment. Market research rules of thumb apply with regard to statistical sample size and accuracy when designing conjoint analysis interviews.  The length of the research questionnaire depends on the number of attributes to be assessed and the method of conjoint analysis in use. A typical adaptive conjoint questionnaire with 20-25 attributes may take more than 30 minutes to complete. Choice based conjoint, by using a smaller profile set distributed across the sample as a whole may be completed in less than 15 minutes. Choice exercises may be displayed as a store front type layout or in some other simulated shopping environment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "Depending on the type of model, different econometric and statistical methods can be used to estimate utility functions. These utility functions indicate the perceived value of the feature and how sensitive consumer perceptions and preferences are to changes in product features. The actual estimation procedure will depend on the design of the task and profiles for respondents, in the type of specification, and the scale of measure for preferences (it can be ratio, ranking, choice) which can have a limited range or not. For rated full profile tasks, linear regression may be appropriate, for choice based tasks, maximum likelihood estimation, usually with logistic regression are typically used. The original methods were monotonic analysis of variance or linear programming techniques, but contemporary marketing research practice has shifted towards choice-based models using multinomial logit, mixed versions of this model, and other refinements. Bayesian estimators are also very popular. Hierarchical Bayesian procedures are nowadays relatively popular as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practical applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Market research.", "content": "One practical application of conjoint analysis in business analysis is given by the following example: A real estate developer is interested in building a high rise apartment complex near an urban Ivy League university. To ensure the success of the project, a market research firm is hired to conduct focus groups with current students. Students are segmented by academic year (freshman, upper classmen, graduate studies) and amount of financial aid received. Study participants are given a series of index cards. Each card has 6 attributes to describe the potential building project (proximity to campus, cost, telecommunication packages, laundry options, floor plans, and security features offered). The estimated cost to construct the building described on each card is equivalent. Participants are asked to order the cards from least to most appealing. This forced ranking exercise will indirectly reveal the participants' priorities and preferences. Multi-variate regression analysis may be used to determine the strength of preferences across target market segments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Litigation.", "content": "Federal courts in the United States have allowed expert witnesses to use conjoint analysis to support their opinions on the damages that an infringer of a patent should pay to compensate the patent holder for violating its rights. Nonetheless, legal scholars have noted that the Federal Circuit's jurisprudence on the use of conjoint analysis in patent-damages calculations remains in a formative stage.  One example of this is how Apple used a conjoint analysis to prove the damages suffered by Samsung's copyright infringement, and increase their compensation in the case.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Conjoint analysis is a survey-based statistical technique used in market research that helps determine how people value different attributes (feature, function, benefits) that make up an individual product or service.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973081}
{"src_title": "Model-driven architecture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Then, given a platform model corresponding to CORBA,.NET, the Web, etc., the platform independent model (PIM) is translated to one or more platform-specific models (PSMs) that computers can run. This requires mappings and transformations and should be modeled too.  The OMG organization provides rough specifications rather than implementations, often as answers to Requests for Proposals (RFPs). Implementations come from private companies or open source groups.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related standards.", "content": "The MDA model is related to multiple standards, including the Unified Modeling Language (UML), the Meta-Object Facility (MOF), XML Metadata Interchange (XMI), Enterprise Distributed Object Computing (EDOC), the Software Process Engineering Metamodel (SPEM), and the Common Warehouse Metamodel (CWM). Note that the term “architecture” in Model-driven architecture does not refer to the architecture of the system being modeled, but rather to the architecture of the various standards and model forms that serve as the technology basis for MDA.  Executable UML was the UML profile used when MDA was born. Now, the OMG is promoting fUML, instead. (The action language for fUML is ALF.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trademark.", "content": "The Object Management Group holds registered trademarks on the term Model Driven Architecture and its acronym MDA, as well as trademarks for terms such as: Model Based Application Development, Model Driven Application Development, Model Based Application Development, Model Based Programming, Model Driven Systems, and others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Model-driven architecture topics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "MDA approach.", "content": "OMG focuses Model-driven architecture on forward engineering, i.e. producing code from abstract, human-elaborated modelling diagrams (e.g. class diagrams). OMG's ADTF (Analysis and Design Task Force) group leads this effort. With some humour, the group chose ADM (MDA backwards) to name the study of reverse engineering. ADM decodes to Architecture-Driven Modernization. The objective of ADM is to produce standards for model-based reverse engineering of legacy systems. Knowledge Discovery Metamodel (KDM) is the furthest along of these efforts, and describes information systems in terms of various assets (programs, specifications, data, test files, database schemas, etc.).  As the concepts and technologies used to realize designs and the concepts and technologies used to realize architectures have changed at their own pace, decoupling them allows system developers to choose from the best and most fitting in both domains. The design addresses the functional (use case) requirements while architecture provides the infrastructure through which non-functional requirements like scalability, reliability and performance are realized. MDA envisages that the platform independent model (PIM), which represents a conceptual design realizing the functional requirements, will survive changes in realization technologies and software architectures.  Of particular importance to model-driven architecture is the notion of model transformation. A specific standard language for model transformation has been defined by OMG called QVT.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "MDA tools.", "content": "The OMG organization provides rough specifications rather than implementations, often as answers to Requests for Proposals (RFPs). The OMG documents the overall process in a document called the MDA Guide.  Basically, an MDA tool is a tool used to develop, interpret, compare, align, measure, verify, transform, etc. models or metamodels. In the following section \"model\" is interpreted as meaning any kind of model (e.g. a UML model) or metamodel (e.g. the CWM metamodel). In any MDA approach we have essentially two kinds of models: \"initial models\" are created manually by human agents while \"derived models\" are created automatically by programs. For example, an analyst may create a UML initial model from its observation of some loose business situation while a Java model may be automatically derived from this UML model by a Model transformation operation.  An MDA tool may be a tool used to check models for completeness, inconsistencies, or error and warning conditions. Also used to calculate metrics for the model.  Some tools perform more than one of the functions listed above. For example, some creation tools may also have transformation and test capabilities. There are other tools that are solely for creation, solely for graphical presentation, solely for transformation, etc.  Implementations of the OMG specifications come from private companies or open source groups. One important source of implementations for OMG specifications is the Eclipse Foundation (EF). Many implementations of OMG modeling standards may be found in the Eclipse Modeling Framework (EMF) or Graphical Modeling Framework (GMF), the Eclipse foundation is also developing other tools of various profiles as GMT. Eclipse's compliance to OMG specifications is often not strict. This is true for example for OMG's EMOF standard, which EMF approximates with its Ecore implementation. More examples may be found in the M2M project implementing the QVT standard or in the M2T project implementing the MOF2Text standard.  One should be careful not to confuse the \"List of MDA Tools\" and the List of UML tools, the former being much broader. This distinction can be made more general by distinguishing 'variable metamodel tools' and 'fixed metamodel tools'. A UML CASE tool is typically a 'fixed metamodel tool' since it has been hard-wired to work only with a given version of the UML metamodel (e.g. UML 2.1). On the contrary, other tools have internal generic capabilities allowing them to adapt to arbitrary metamodels or to a particular kind of metamodels.  Usually MDA tools focus rudimentary architecture specification, although in some cases the tools are architecture-independent (or platform independent).  Simple examples of architecture specifications include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "MDA concerns.", "content": "Some key concepts that underpin the MDA approach (launched in 2001) were first elucidated by the Shlaer-Mellor method during the late 1980s. Indeed, a key absent technical standard of the MDA approach (that of an action language syntax for Executable UML) has been bridged by some vendors by adapting the original Shlaer-Mellor Action Language (modified for UML). However, during this period the MDA approach has not gained mainstream industry acceptance; with the Gartner Group still identifying MDA as an \"on the rise\" technology in its 2006 \"Hype Cycle\", and Forrester Research declaring MDA to be \"D.O.A.\" in 2006. Potential concerns that have been raised with the OMG MDA approach include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Code generation controversy.", "content": "Code generation means that the user abstractly models solutions, which are connoted by some model data, and then an automated tool derives from the models parts or all of the source code for the software system. In some tools, the user can provide a skeleton of the program source code, in the form of a source code template where predefined tokens are then replaced with program source code parts during the code generation process.  An often cited criticism is that the UML diagrams just lack the detail which is needed to contain the same information as is covered with the program source. Some developers even claim that \"the Code \"is\" the design\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Model-driven architecture (MDA) is a software design approach for the development of software systems. It provides a set of guidelines for the structuring of specifications, which are expressed as models. Model-driven architecture is a kind of domain engineering, and supports model-driven engineering of software systems. It was launched by the Object Management Group (OMG) in 2001.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973082}
{"src_title": "Slovenj Gradec", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"Gradec\", Slovene for 'little castle', was first mentioned in a 1091 deed, then part of the Imperial March of Styria. The prefix \"Windisch\" (the traditional German name for Slavs in general and Slovenes in particular) was added to distinguish it from the city Graz (whose name has the same etymology). The modern Slovene name, Slovenj Gradec (literally: the Slovene Graz), derives from this German denomination. From 1180 until 1918, Slovenj Gradec belonged to the Duchy of Styria, since 1804 a crown land of the Austrian Empire. It was the ancestral seat of the Windisch-Graetz noble family first documented in 1220. Upon the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918, with the rest of Lower Styria, it was included in the newly established Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Until 1918, the town was a German-speaking island in a Slovene-speaking area. In the 1880 census, the town of Slovenj Gradec was 75 percent German-speaking and 25 percent Slovene-speaking. Many inhabitants, like the family of the composer Hugo Wolf, were of mixed ethnic origin. After the end of World War I, many of the local German-speaking inhabitants emigrated to Austria. Those who remained were gradually assimilated into the now Slovene-speaking majority. During World War Two, the town was occupied by the Nazis and annexed to the Third Reich. The local Slovenes were submitted to a policy of violent Germanization and many died of various persecutions. The partisan insurgency developed in the area, especially in the hills to the east of the town. After World War II, the remaining ethnic Germans were expelled from Yugoslavia, and Slovenj Gradec lost its traditional presence of German speakers.  From the 1950s onward, the town experienced a rapid industrialization and eventually became the unofficial economic and political center for Slovenian Carinthia. In 1994, it became one of the 11 towns in Slovenia with the status of City (or Urban) Municipality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "The parish church in the town is dedicated to Saint Elizabeth of Hungary and belongs to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Maribor. It was first mentioned in written documents from 1235. Next to it stands a Gothic chapel dedicated to the Holy Spirit with frescos dating to the mid-15th century.  In 1994, an archaeological excavation uncovered the remains of what is believed to be the oldest church in Styria, dating to the Carolingian period (second half of the 9th century).  The Slovenj Gradec Art Gallery () was founded in 1957 and is located on the first floor of the old town hall in the town centre. The gallery hosted international fine art exhibitions under the sponsorship of the United Nations in 1966, 1975, 1979, 1985, and 1991. The 1997 exhibition \"The Artist and Urban Environment\" displayed art activity in Peace Messenger Cities from all over the world. In 2012, Slovenj Gradec and Ptuj were partners with Maribor, the European Capital of Culture. As a result, the gallery presented further exhibitions that attracted Europe-wide attention.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable residents.", "content": "Notable people that were born or lived in Slovenj Gradec include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — Sister cities.", "content": "Slovenj Gradec is twinned with:  Charter of cultural cooperation was signed with Bardejov, Slovakia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International Association of Peace Messenger Cities.", "content": "Since 1989, Slovenj Gradec was one of the most active and progressive cities within The International Association of Peace Messenger Cities, being a member of its executive board since 1997 and secretary-general of this organization in periods 2007–2010, 2010–2013, 2013–2016 and 2016–2019.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Slovenj Gradec (; \", \"after about 1900 \"Windischgraz\") is a town in northern Slovenia. It is the centre of the City Municipality of Slovenj Gradec. It is part of the historical Styria region, and since 2005 it has belonged to the NUTS-3 Carinthia Statistical Region. It is located in the Mislinja Valley at the eastern end of the Karawanks mountain range, about west of Maribor and northeast of Ljubljana.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973083}
{"src_title": "NATO Response Force", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The purpose of the NRF is to provide a quick reaction force of high quality to support NATO missions as required. The concept of NRF was first endorsed with a declaration of NATO's Heads of State at the Prague Summit on 22 November 2002. It was then approved by NATO Defence Ministers in June 2003, and the first headquarters created in October 2003 in Italy under command of NATO Joint Force Command in Brunssum, Netherlands, designated NRF 1. Its rotation replacement was designated NRF 2 (2004) at the same time.  Rotating forces through the NRF requires nations to meet the demanding standards needed for collective defence and expeditionary operations. As the standards are very high, participation in the NRF is preceded by a six-month NATO exercise program in order to integrate and standardize the various national contingents. Generally, nations carry out a pre-training period in preparation for the NATO exercises of between 6–18 months. Once activated Reconnaissance Teams deploy within 5 days. This is the first of a number of deployment phases that lead to the deployment of the entire HQ Joint Task Force and Immediate Reaction Forces within 30 days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tasks.", "content": "The NRF is certified by NATO to perform a wide variety of tasks including: providing an immediate response capability for conducting collective defence of Alliance members in the event of an Article V operation;", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "The NRF has three elements:  Command & Control element: This is based on a deployable Joint Force Headquarters. Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) has overall strategic command of the NRF. NATO's two Joint Force Commands, based in Brunssum, Netherlands and Naples, Italy take one-year turns to command the NRF.  Immediate Response Force (IRF): The IRF element is designed to provide the initial response to a crisis and is not scaled to be a stand-alone force for all but the smallest operations. If further land, maritime or air capabilities are required, they will be drawn from the Response Forces Pool.  Response Forces Pool (RFP): The RFP consists of a broad spectrum of military capabilities encompassing command and control, combat and support units. There is no fixed size to the RFP. The forces contributed to the RFP are drawn from the much wider pool of Allied or Partners National deployable forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Very High Readiness Joint Task Force (VJTF).", "content": "During the 2014 Wales summit NATO leaders agreed to establish a Very High Readiness Joint Task Force (VJTF). The VJTF will be a high-readiness \"Spearhead Force\" able to deploy at short notice to threats against NATO sovereignty. It will consist of a land brigade numbering around 5,000 troops, supported by air, sea and special forces. The VJTF would be supported by two more land brigades as a \"rapid reinforcement capability\" in case of a major crisis. Altogether, the enhanced NATO Response Force will amount to around 30,000 troops.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deployments.", "content": "As of January 2015, units assigned to the NRF have been used on four occasions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Non-NATO participants.", "content": "Of NATO's non-member partners, Finland and Sweden joined the Response Force in 2008 and 2013, respectively. Ukraine and Georgia began contributions, respectively, in 2014 and 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The NATO Response Force (NRF) is a high readiness force comprising land, air, sea and special forces units capable of being deployed quickly on operations wherever needed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973084}
{"src_title": "Louny", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The city was founded in the 12th century (the first known written record dates from 1115). The Church of St Peter stands on the site of the original fort. The original name was \"Luna\", which is retained in the name of a local park, \"Pramen Luna\", and accounts for the Moon as part of the town's emblem. The town developed and expanded during the reign of Ottokar I of Bohemia, although the Thirty Years' War depopulated the city. The second half of the 19th century witnessed the economic growth of the area. Until 1918, \"Laun - Louny\" was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), in the district of the same name, one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Bohemia.  The town lies on a railway junction and a factory for overhauling railway engines and rolling stock was established in 1873 which became a major employer and contributed to the town's expansion during the early 20th century. The former state company has now been privatized, but remains the town's largest employer with a workforce of 750.  Other industries include a brewery (from the hops which are grown in the region) and a factory making porcelain electrical insulators for power cables, etc.  The town's architecture was formed mainly in the 19th and 20th centuries when many old buildings were torn down. Nevertheless, the most important architectural feature is Roman Catholic St. Nicholas Church, erected between 1517 and 1537 in the late Gothic style. One of the architects was Benedikt Rejt. It incorporates a tower from an earlier church which was otherwise destroyed along with most of the town by a major fire in 1517.  Parts of the town ramparts remain, as does the Žatec Gate which dates from 1500 but was reconstructed in 1872.  An Open-Air Museum of Archeology is located in nearby Březno.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Louny is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louny (; ) is a town in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic. It is situated on the River Ohře.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973085}
{"src_title": "Hydrangea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "\"Hydrangea\" flowers are produced from early spring to late autumn; they grow in flowerheads (corymbs or panicles) most often at the ends of the stems. Typically the flowerheads contain two types of flowers: small non-showy flowers in the center or interior of the flowerhead, and large, showy flowers with large colorful sepals (tepals). These showy flowers are often extended in a ring, or to the exterior of the small flowers. Plants in wild populations typically have few to none of the showy flowers, while cultivated hydrangeas have been bred and selected to have more of the larger type flowers.  There are two flower arrangements in hydrangeas with corymb style inflorescences, which includes the commonly grown \"bigleaf hydrangea\"—\"Hydrangea macrophylla\". Mophead flowers are large round flowerheads resembling pom-poms or, as the name implies, the head of a mop. In contrast, lacecap flowers bear round, flat flowerheads with a center core of subdued, small flowers surrounded by outer rings of larger flowers having showy sepals or tepals. The flowers of some rhododendrons and viburnums can appear, at first glance, similar to those of some hydrangeas.  Hydrangea flowers, when cut, dehydrate easily and wilt very fast due to the large surface area of the petals. A wilted hydrangea may have its hydration restored by first having its stem immersed in boiling water; as the petals of the hydrangea can also absorb water, the petals may then be immersed, in room-temperature water, to restore the flower's hydration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Colours and soil acidity.", "content": "In most species the flowers are white, but in some species (notably \"H. macrophylla\"), can be blue, red, pink, light purple, or dark purple. In these species, floral color change occurs due to the presence of aluminium ions which are available or tied up depending upon the soil pH. For \"H. macrophylla\" and \"H. serrata\" cultivars, the flower color can be determined by the relative acidity of the soil: an acidic soil (pH below 7), will have available aluminum ions and typically produce flowers that are blue to purple, whereas an alkaline soil (pH above 7) will tie up aluminum ions and result in pink or red flowers. This is caused by a color change of the flower pigments in the presence of aluminium ions which can be taken up into hyperaccumulating plants. Lowering the pH of potting soils or mixes usually does not change the flower color to blue, because these soils have no aluminum ions. The ability to blue or pink a hydrangea is also influenced by the cultivar. Some plants are selected for their ability to be blued, while others are bred and selected to be red, pink or white. The flower color of most other Hydrangea species is not affected by aluminum and cannot be changed or shifted. Hydrangeas are also nicknamed 'Change Rose'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "\"Hydrangea alaskana\" is a fossil species recovered from paleogene strata in Jaw Mountain Alaska.  Four fossil seeds of \"Hydrangea polonica\" have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "Hydrangeas are popular ornamental plants, grown for their large flowerheads, with \"Hydrangea macrophylla\" being by far the most widely grown with over 600 named cultivars, many selected to have only large sterile flowers in the flowerheads. Hydrangea macrophylla, also known as Bigleaf Hydrangea, can be broken up into two main categories; Mophead Hydrangea & Lacecap Hydrangea. Some are best pruned on an annual basis when the new leaf buds begin to appear. If not pruned regularly, the bush will become very 'leggy', growing upwards until the weight of the stems is greater than their strength, at which point the stems will sag down to the ground and possibly break. Other species only flower on 'old wood'. Thus new wood resulting from pruning will not produce flowers until the following season.  Hydrangea root and rhizome are indicated for treatment of conditions of the urinary tract in the PDR for Herbal Medicine and may have diuretic properties. Hydrangeas are moderately toxic if eaten, with all parts of the plant containing cyanogenic glycosides. \"Hydrangea paniculata\" is reportedly sometimes smoked as an intoxicant, despite the danger of illness and/or death due to the cyanide.  The flowers on a hydrangea shrub can change from blue to pink or from pink to blue from one season to the next depending on the acidity level of the soil. Adding organic materials such as coffee grounds, citrus peel or eggshells will increase acidity and turn hydrangea flowers blue, as described in an article on Gardenista. A popular pink hydrangea called Vanilla Strawberry has been named \"Top Plant\" by the \"American Nursery and Landscape Association\".  The hybrid \"Runaway Bride Snow White\", bred by Ushio Sakazaki from Japan, was named Plant of the Year at the 2018 RHS Chelsea Flower Show.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "In Japan, \"ama-cha\",甘茶 meaning sweet tea, is another herbal tea made from \"Hydrangea serrata\", whose leaves contain a substance that develops a sweet taste (phyllodulcin). For the fullest taste, fresh leaves are crumpled, steamed, and dried, yielding dark brown tea leaves. Ama-cha is mainly used for \"kan-butsu-e\" (the Buddha bathing ceremony) on April 8 every year—the day thought to be Buddha's birthday in Japan. During the ceremony, Ama-cha is poured over a statue of Buddha and served to people in attendance. A legend has it that on the day Buddha was born, nine dragons poured Amrita over him; ama-cha is substituted for Amrita in Japan.  In Korean tea, \"Hydrangea serrata\" (hangul:산수국 hanja:) is used for an herbal tea called \"sugukcha\" (수국차) or \"ilsulcha\" (이슬차).  The pink hydrangea has risen in popularity all over the world, but especially in Asia. Pink hydrangeas have many different meanings, but generally mean, \"You are the beat of my heart,\" as described by the celebrated Asian florist Tan Jun Yong, where he was quoted saying, \"The light delicate blush of the petals reminds me of a beating heart, while the size could only match the heart of the sender!\"  Hydrangea quercifolia was declared the official state wildflower of Alabama in 1999.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Hydrangea (; common names hydrangea or hortensia) is a genus of 70–75 species of flowering plants native to Asia and the Americas. By far the greatest species diversity is in eastern Asia, notably Korea, China, and Japan. Most are shrubs 1 to 3 meters tall, but some are small trees, and others lianas reaching up to by climbing up trees. They can be either deciduous or evergreen, though the widely cultivated temperate species are all deciduous.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973086}
{"src_title": "Geolocation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Techniques.", "content": "For either geolocating or positioning, the locating engine often uses radio frequency (RF) location methods, for example Time Difference Of Arrival (TDOA) for precision. TDOA systems often use mapping displays or other geographic information system. When satellite navigation (such as GPS) signals are unavailable, geolocation applications can use information from cell towers to triangulate the approximate position, a method that is not as accurate as GPS but has greatly improved in recent years. This is in contrast to earlier radiolocation technologies, for example Direction Finding where a line of bearing to a transmitter is achieved as part of the process.  Internet and computer geolocation can be performed by associating a geographic location with the Internet Protocol (IP) address, RFID, hardware embedded article/production number, embedded software number (such as UUID, Exif/IPTC/XMP or modern steganography), invoice, Wi-Fi positioning system, device fingerprint, canvas fingerprinting or device GPS coordinates, or other, perhaps self-disclosed information.  IP address location data can include information such as country, region, city, postal/zip code, latitude, longitude and time zone. Deeper data sets can determine other parameters such as domain name, connection speed, ISP, language, proxies, company name, US DMA/MSA, NAICS codes, and home/business.  At times geolocation can be more deductive, as with crowdsourcing efforts to determine the position of videos of training camps, combats, and beheadings in Syria by comparing features detected in the video with publicly available map databases such as Google Earth, as practiced by sites such as Bellingcat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standards.", "content": "Some standards and name servers include: ISO 3166, FIPS, INSEE, Geonames, IATA and ICAO. For geographic locations in the United States, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Codes are often used. ANSI INCITS 446-2008 is entitled \"Identifying Attributes for Named Physical and Cultural Geographic Features (Except Roads and Highways) of the United States, Its Territories, Outlying Areas, and Freely Associated Areas, and the Waters of the Same to the Limit of the Twelve-Mile Statutory Zone A number of commercial solutions have been proposed:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Geolocation is the identification or estimation of the real-world geographic location of an object, such as a radar source, mobile phone, or Internet-connected computer terminal. In its simplest form, geolocation involves the generation of a set of geographic coordinates and is closely related to the use of positioning systems, but its usefulness is enhanced by the use of these coordinates to determine a meaningful location, such as a street address.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973087}
{"src_title": "Great Exhibition", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Great Exhibition of Products of French Industry organised in Paris, France, from 1798 to 1849 were precursors to the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London.  The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations was organised by Prince Albert, Henry Cole, Francis Henry, George Wallis, Charles Dilke and other members of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce as a celebration of modern industrial technology and design. It was arguably a response to the highly effective French Industrial Exposition of 1844: indeed, its prime motive was for Britain to make \"clear to the world its role as industrial leader\". Prince Albert, Queen Victoria's consort, was an enthusiastic promoter of the self-financing exhibition; the government was persuaded to form the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 to establish the viability of hosting such an exhibition. Queen Victoria and her family visited three times. Although the Great Exhibition was a platform on which countries from around the world could display their achievements, Britain sought to prove its own superiority. The British exhibits at the Great Exhibition \"held the lead in almost every field where strength, durability, utility and quality were concerned, whether in iron and steel, machinery or textiles.\" Britain also sought to provide the world with the hope of a better future. Europe had just struggled through \"two difficult decades of political and social upheaval,\" and now Britain hoped to show that technology, particularly its own, was the key to a better future.  Sophie Forgan says of the Exhibition that \"Large, piled-up 'trophy' exhibits in the central avenue revealed the organisers' priorities; they generally put art or colonial raw materials in the most prestigious place. Technology and moving machinery were popular, especially working exhibits.\" She also notes that visitors \"could watch the entire process of cotton production from spinning to finished cloth. Scientific instruments were found in class X, and included electric telegraphs, microscopes, air pumps and barometers, as well as musical, horological and surgical instruments.\"  A special building, nicknamed The Crystal Palace, or \"The Great Shalimar\", was built to house the show. It was designed by Joseph Paxton with support from structural engineer Charles Fox, the committee overseeing its construction including Isambard Kingdom Brunel, and went from its organisation to the grand opening in just nine months. The building was architecturally adventurous, drawing on Paxton's experience designing greenhouses for the sixth Duke of Devonshire. It took the form of a massive glass house, 1848 feet long by 454 feet wide (about 563 metres by 138 metres) and was constructed from cast iron-frame components and glass made almost exclusively in Birmingham and Smethwick. From the interior, the building's large size was emphasized with trees and statues; this served, not only to add beauty to the spectacle, but also to demonstrate man's triumph over nature. The Crystal Palace was an enormous success, considered an architectural marvel, but also an engineering triumph that showed the importance of the Exhibition itself. The building was later moved and re-erected in 1854 in enlarged form at Sydenham Hill in south London, an area that was renamed Crystal Palace. It was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936.  Six million people—equivalent to a third of the entire population of Britain at the time—visited the Great Exhibition. The average daily attendance was 42,831 with a peak attendance of 109,915 on 7 October. The event made a surplus of £186,000 (£ in 2015), which was used to found the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and the Natural History Museum. They were all built in the area to the south of the exhibition, nicknamed Albertopolis, alongside the Imperial Institute. The remaining surplus was used to set up an educational trust to provide grants and scholarships for industrial research; it continues to do so today.  The Exhibition caused controversy as its opening approached. Some conservatives feared that the mass of visitors might become a revolutionary mob. The English-born King Ernest Augustus I of Hanover, shortly before his death, wrote to Lord Strangford about it: The folly and absurdity of the Queen in allowing this trumpery must strike every sensible and well-thinking mind, and I am astonished the ministers themselves do not insist on her at least going to Osborne during the Exhibition, as no human being can possibly answer for what may occur on the occasion. The idea... must shock every honest and well-meaning Englishman. But it seems everything is conspiring to lower us in the eyes of Europe.  In modern times, the Great Exhibition is a symbol of the Victorian Age, and its thick catalogue, illustrated with steel engravings, is a primary source for High Victorian design. A memorial to the exhibition, crowned with a statue of Prince Albert, is located behind the Royal Albert Hall. It is inscribed with statistics from the exhibition, including the number of visitors and exhibitors (British and foreign), and the profit made.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibits.", "content": "The official descriptive and illustrated catalogue of the event lists exhibitors not only from throughout Britain but also from its 'Colonies and Dependencies' and 44 'Foreign States' in Europe and the Americas. Numbering 13,000 in total, the exhibits included a Jacquard loom, an envelope machine, kitchen appliances, steel-making displays and a reaping machine that was sent from the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Admission fees.", "content": "Admission prices to the Crystal Palace varied according to the date of visit, with ticket prices decreasing as the parliamentary season drew to an end and London traditionally emptied of wealthy individuals. Prices varied from three guineas (£ in 2015) (two guineas for a woman) for a season ticket, or £1 per day (for the first two days only), then reducing to five shillings per day (until May 22). The admission price was then further reduced to one shilling (£ in 2015), per day – except on Fridays, when it was set at two shillings and six pence and on Saturdays when it remained at five shillings. The one-shilling ticket proved most successful amongst the industrial classes, with four and a half million shillings (£ in 2015) being taken from attendees in this manner. Two thousand five hundred tickets were printed for the opening day, all of which were bought.  To attract future custom from the working classes, the newly expanding railways offered highly discounted tickets for people to travel from distant parts of the country and special rates were offered to parties, often led by the local vicar. Those too poor to travel lined up by the rail tracks to watch the long trains of open carriages steaming past.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stereoscopic views.", "content": "The Great Exhibition of 1851 encouraged the production of souvenirs. Several manufacturers produced stereoscope cards which provided a three-dimensional view of the Exhibition. These paper souvenirs were printed lithographic cards which were hand-coloured and held together by cloth to give a three-dimensional view of the Great Exhibition. They offered a miniature view of the Crystal Palace Exhibition when one viewed the cards through the peep holes on the front cover. Visitors purchased these souvenirs so that they could relive the experience of going to the exhibition.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations or The Great Exhibition (sometimes referred to as the Crystal Palace Exhibition in reference to the temporary structure in which it was held), an international exhibition, took place in Hyde Park, London, from 1 May to 15 October 1851. It was the first in a series of World's Fairs, exhibitions of culture and industry that became popular in the 19th century. The Great Exhibition was organised by Henry Cole and by Prince Albert, husband of the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom, Queen Victoria. Famous people of the time attended, including Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, Samuel Colt, members of the Orléanist Royal Family and the writers Charlotte Brontë, Charles Dickens, Lewis Carroll, George Eliot, Alfred Tennyson and William Makepeace Thackeray. The opening music, under the superintendence of William Sterndale Bennett was directed by Sir George Smart.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973088}
{"src_title": "Interim management", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Historical antecedents come from ancient Roman times, with ancient Roman publicans (Latin: \"publicanus\", plural: \"publicani\") or ‘Roman contractors’ being engaged to erect or maintain public buildings, supply armies overseas, or collect certain taxes (such as tithes and customs). This system for letting contracts was well established by the 3rd century BC.  The modern practice of interim management started in the mid to late-1970s, when permanent employees in The Netherlands were protected by long notice periods and companies faced large costs for terminating employees. Hiring temporary managers seemed like an ideal solution.  Since the 1980s, the concept and use of interim managers as a resourcing tool for organisations has received attention from academic researchers and policy makers as well as practitioners. In 1984, Atkinson postulated the emergence of an organisation design comprising both a core and a peripheral workforce, using differing forms of contractual relationship (flexibility) on an international basis. Examples of further study include Kalleberg (2000), looking at temporary, contract and part-time work; and Bosch (2004) looking at Western European “employment” relationships.  A good example of interim management benefitting from a geo-political change was its use by the German privatization agency after reunification of East and West, post 1989. The demand was created for interim managers in Eastern Germany to apply the required management and leadership competencies necessary to re-structure the formerly state owned companies. Demand continued to grow in the 1990s in Germany as the economy struggled to deal with unification, recession and resultant ambitious economic forecasts for the ‘new’ economy. One prominent example, mentioned by Bruns (2006) was the appointment of Helmut Sihler as interim CEO of German Telekom AG in 2001.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The interim management value proposition.", "content": "There are several factors that make the interim management offering increasingly popular and cost-effective to client organisations. These factors are characterised as a ‘value proposition’ that interim managers offer to their clients.  Although there is some variation at the margins of interim management (with temporary workers, freelancers, contractors and consultants) the following factors are typical of the interim management value proposition:.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The interim management assignment lifecycle.", "content": "Interim assignments vary in scope and requirements, encompassing change management, ‘gap’ assignments, project management and turnaround management. The following stages of the ‘assignment lifecycle’ are typical of how interim managers enter into an assignment, reach and carry out the actual implementation, and finally exit the assignment. The assignment should include a plan for making resources available to meet the longer-term goals.  The early stages have much in common with consultancy, as do later stages with project management, but the accountability and responsibility that interim managers have for successful analysis and delivery of a fitting solution, is what makes these stages uniquely typical of the interim management approach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses of interim management.", "content": "There are a number of different business situations that could result in the need for an interim manager. Typically these could be situations such as crisis management, sudden departure, illness, death, change management, managing change or transition, sabbaticals, MBOs and IPOs, mergers and acquisitions, and project management. The functions of an interim manager are almost endless, thus the scope of an interim manager's skill set is quite unique.  The interim management concept has taken root in the UK, Germany, and Belgium, and is spreading elsewhere, most notably in Australia, the US, France, and Ireland. In Spain recruitment increased by 68% in 2011, according to Michael Page Interim management, and since 2013 there is a first association called \"Association Interim Management Spain\". In Nigeria, the Institute Of Corporate and Interim Management has been approved by The Federal Ministry Of Education and established under Federal Government Decree No. 1 of 1990, to promote Corporate and Interim Management practice in Africa.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Interim management is the temporary provision of management resources and skills. Interim management can be seen as the short-term assignment of a proven heavyweight interim executive manager to manage a period of transition, crisis or change within an organization. In this situation, a permanent role may be unnecessary or impossible to find on short notice. Additionally, there may be nobody internally who is suitable for, or available to take up, the position in question.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973089}
{"src_title": "Moor frog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The family the moor frog belongs to, Ranidae, is a broad group containing 605 species. The family is like a “catch-all” for ranoid frogs that do not belong to any other families. Since this is the case, the characteristics that define them are more general, and the frogs are found all throughout the world, on every continent but Antarctica.  The moor frog's genus, \"Rana\", is a little more specific. Frogs of this genus are found in Europe, Asia, South America, and North America. The moor frog is not found in either of the Americas, unlike the foothill yellow-legged frog, Cascades frog, and Columbia spotted frog, which are all found in North America.  The moor frog's scientific name, \"Rana arvalis\" means \"frog of the fields\". It is also called the Altai brown frog because frogs from the Altai Mountains in Asia have been included in the \"R. arvalis\" species. The Altai frogs have some different characteristics such as shorter shins, but currently there is no official distinction and all frogs are placed under \"Rana arvalis\". The taxonomy may be more defined in the future.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "This is a small frog, characterized by an unspotted belly, a large, dark ear spot, and — often, not always — a pale stripe down the center of the back. They are generally described as a reddish-brown, but can also be yellow, gray, or light olive. Their bellies are white or yellow and they have a \"bandit-like\" black stripe going from their nose to their ears. They vary from 5.5 to 6.0 cm long, but can reach up to 7.0 cm in length, and their heads are more tapered than those of the Common frog (\"Rana temporaria\"). The skin on their flanks and thighs is smooth, and the posterior part of their tongues is forked and free. They have horizontal pupils, their feet are partially webbed, and their back legs are shorter than those of other species of frogs. The males are different from the females because of the nuptial pads on their first fingers and their paired guttural vocal sacs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The species has an extensive distribution across Europe. It can be found inhabiting an area stretching from the lowlands of Central and Southern Europe to Siberia, in Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, and Ukraine. However, they are believed to be extirpated in Switzerland and possibly in Siberia as well; the records of frogs being in Siberia at all may have been in error. Alsace, France, constitutes the western boundary of their territory. Moor frogs were also confirmed to have been present in East Anglia in the UK, after archaeological remains were found.  The types of land they can inhabit are greatly varied. They live in tundra, forest tundra, forest, forest steppe, and steppe, forest edges and glades, semideserts, swamps, meadows, fields, bush lands, and gardens. They prefer areas untouched by humans, such as damp meadows and bogs, but they still may be able to live in agricultural and urban areas.  Moor frogs provide a good model for studying local adaptation as they experience a wide range of environments and are relatively limited in their movements. Their restriction in movements implies limited gene flow and facilitates evolution through adaptive genetic differentiation among populations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hibernation.", "content": "Moor frogs will hibernate sometime between September and June, depending on the latitude of the location. Frogs in southwestern, plains areas will disappear later (around November or December) and return earlier (February). Frogs in cold, polar areas, though, will disappear sooner (in September) and return later (in June).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "The mating season takes place between March and June right after the end of hibernation. Males form breeding choruses, and their songs sound similar to those of the agile frog, (\"Rana dalmatina\"). Their calls can \"sound like air escaping from a submerged empty bottle: 'waug...waug...waug'. Males can also develop bright-blue coloration for a few days during the season.  The spawning happens very quickly and is completed in three to 28 days. The spawn of each frog is laid in one or two clusters of 500-3000 eggs in warm, shallow waters like in ponds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metamorphosis.", "content": "Metamorphosis happens between June and October. Larvae are about 45 mm long and colored dark with small metallic dots. When they become tadpoles, they eat algae and small invertebrates. The adult frogs' feeding is halted during the breeding season, but their diets consist of insects and various invertebrates.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Effects of acidification on population.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Environmental plasticity.", "content": "Increased acidity levels in breeding areas may be problematic for moor frog populations, as it reduces survival and growth of the aquatic embryos and larvae. When exposed to acidity, moor frogs were however shown to be able to adapt relatively rapidly (within 16–40 generations). Local adaptation to acidity is also possible in survival during the embryonic stage, during which frogs are most sensitive to severe acidity. Moreover, compared to those from neutral sites, acid origin populations have higher embryonic and larval acid tolerance (survival and larval period were less negatively affected by low pH), higher larval growth but slower larval development rates, and larger metamorphosing size. Divergence in embryonic acid tolerance and metamorphic size correlates most strongly with breeding pond pH, whereas divergence in larval period and larval growth correlates most strongly with latitude and predator density, respectively.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Maternal effects.", "content": "For female moor frogs, in order to optimize their maternal investments, they need to balance between their own fitness and the fitness of their offspring. Additionally, under the great pressure exerted by acidification, female moor frogs also need to do a trade-off between quality and quantity of the offspring.  Environmental stress, like acidity, may either select for or select against certain phenotypes and hence may increase variation in fitness. The adaptive optima for the population would shift greatly compared to those living in less acidic and more benign environments, thereby making the allocation of resources even more important. As a result of the increasing variation in fitness, frogs from acidic environments may also favor different reproductive strategies than those more benign environments. Compared to neutral origin females, acid origin females tend to invest relatively more in fecundity than in egg size, invest more in their offspring than in self-maintenance, and increase their reproductive effort as their residual reproductive value decreases. Consequently, acid origin females increase the clutch size and total reproductive output with age, while neutral origin females only increase egg size but not clutch size or total reproductive output with age.  In conclusion, environmental acidification lowers maternal investment, selects for investment in larger eggs at a cost to fecundity, imposes negative effects on reproductive output, and alters the relationship between female phenotype and maternal investment, as well as strengthens the egg-size-fecundity trade-off.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Population threats.", "content": "This species is generally common and often abundant. It faces few major threats and is currently classified as Least Concern by the IUCN. The moor frog may be impacted by the destruction and pollution of breeding sites and adjacent habitats, mostly through urbanization, recreational use of waterside areas, and intensive agriculture. The species does not appear to be notably susceptible to chytridiomycosis, although the fungus has been detected in frogs in Germany.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The moor frog (\"Rana arvalis\") is a slim, reddish-brown, semiaquatic amphibian native to Europe and Asia. It is a member of the family Ranidae, or true frogs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973090}
{"src_title": "Nate Dogg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Nathaniel Dwayne Hale was born on August 19, 1969, in Clarksdale, Mississippi. At the Life Line Baptist Church—where his father Daniel Lee Hale was pastor and his mother Ruth Holmes led the choir—Nate began singing in childhood.  At age 14, following his parents' divorce, he moved to Long Beach, California, where he continued singing at the New Hope Baptist Church. While friends with Warren G and RBX, he was a cousin of Snoop Dogg, Daz Dillinger, Butch Cassidy, and Lil' 1⁄2 Dead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "At age 17, Hale dropped out of high school, left home, and 30 days later enlisted in the Marines. He was stationed at Camp Schwab, in Okinawa, Japan, in the Material Readiness Battalion of the 3rd Force Service Support Group, which supplied ammunition to most of the Pacific. After three years as an ammunition specialist, he was discharged in 1989. Hale would recall that he had joined the military since he had \"wanted to see if he was a man.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Entertainment career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "213 trio.", "content": "In 1990, Nate Dogg, Snoop Dogg, and Warren G, formed a rap trio called 213. They recorded their first demo tape in the back of the famed V.I.P. record store in Long Beach. The demo was later heard by Dr. Dre at a bachelor party.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Solo career.", "content": "Nate Dogg debuted on Dr. Dre's first solo album, \"The Chronic\", in 1992. Nate's trademark singing, complementing the new gangsta rap sound G-funk, was well received by fans and critics alike, and he signed to Dre's label, Death Row Records, in 1993. Nate Dogg also featured on Snoop Dogg's debut solo album, \"Doggystyle\", in 1993, his singing prominent on the track \"Ain't No Fun (If the Homies Can't Have None).\"  In 1994, Nate Dogg cowrote his duo with Warren G, the single \"Regulate.\" Nate was also featured on 2Pac releases, including his group's, also released in 1994. In July 1998, amid his departure from Death Row Records, the label released his double album, delayed about two years, \"G-Funk Classics Vol. 1 & 2\". In 2001, his Elektra Records followup, \"Music & Me\", peaked at #3 on the \"Billboard\" hip-hop chart. He also had an eponymous album that saw unauthorized release in 2003.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collaborations.", "content": "Nate Dogg was often sought to sing on other artists' tracks, usually to sing the hook. As a featured artist, he charted 16 times on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, and in 2003 reached #1 via 50 Cent's \"21 Questions.\"  Otherwise, his successful collaborations are numerous, including 2Pac's \"All Bout U,\" Dr. Dre's \"The Next Episode,\" Westside Connection's \"Gangsta Nation,\" Mos Def's \"Oh No,\", Fabolous' \"Can't Deny It,\" Ludacris's \"Area Codes,\" Kurupt's \"Behind the Walls,\" Mark Ronson's \"Ooh Wee,\" Houston's \"I Like That,\" Eminem's \"'Till I Collapse,\" his \"Never Enough\", his \"Shake That,\" and Mobb Deep's \"Have a Party.\"  Further, in 2002, appearing on television, Nate Dogg was on a celebrity episode of \"The Weakest Link\", where, finally eliminated by Xzibit and Young MC, he was among the final three.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legal troubles.", "content": "Nate Hale was charged for a 1991 robbery of a Check Changers shop and for a 1994 robbery of Taco Bell in San Pedro, but was acquitted. Yet in 1996, he was convicted of a drug offense in Los Angeles County.  On June 17, 2000, for allegedly assaulting his former girlfriend and setting her mother's car afire in Lakewood, Hale was charged with kidnapping, domestic violence, terrorist threats, and arson. Andre \"Dr. Dre\" Young posted $1 million bond. The charges were dismissed while he pleaded no contest to illegal gun possession by a felon, and received a $1,000 fine and three years probation.  On April 12, 2002, a tour bus carrying Hale, while outside of Kingman, Arizona, was found with two pistols and four ounces of cannabis, whereby he was booked and then released on $3,500 bond. The next month, the weapon charges were dropped for his guilty plea on a drug charge, and he was sentenced to probation, community service, and drug counseling.  In July 2006, Hale was charged with misdemeanor aggravated trespassing, telephone harassment, battery assault, dissuading a witness from reporting a crime, and breaking a restraining order. In March 20, 2008, pleading guilty to trespassing and battery, he lost gun-ownership rights for 10 years, received three years probation, and was ordered to a domestic-violence intervention program.  On June 23, 2008, after allegedly threatening his estranged wife by emails and chasing her on Interstate 405, Hale was charged with two felony counts of criminal threats and one count of stalking. He pleaded not guilty. In April 2009, as the alleged victim had failed to contact prosecutors, the charges were dropped. Incidentally, he was also convicted of driving under the influence of drugs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health problems and death.", "content": "On December 19, 2007, Hale suffered a stroke. After a week in Pomona Valley Hospital Medical Center, he entered a rehabilitation facility. Although his body's left side was weakened, neither his cognition nor voice were affected and a full recovery was expected.  Hale sustained another stroke on September 12, 2008. On March 15, 2011, in Long Beach, California, at age 41, by complications of multiple strokes, or by congestive heart failure, he died. Hale was interred in Long Beach at Forest Lawn Memorial Park.  In 2013, Nate Dogg's son Naijiel Hale committed to play football at the University of Arizona. A couple of years later, in 2015, Nate's other son, Nathaniel Jr., having adopted the stage name Lil Nate Dogg, released his own album, \"Son of a G\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and nominations.", "content": "Nate Dogg was nominated for four Grammy Awards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nathaniel Dwayne Hale (August 19, 1969 – March 15, 2011), known professionally as Nate Dogg, was an American singer, rapper and songwriter. His smooth vocals made the hooks of numerous artists' rap songs, especially in the West Coast's G-funk era in the 1990s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973091}
{"src_title": "Walkenried Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The third Cistercian monastery on German territory was founded by Adelheid of Lare (Lohra), wife of Count Volkmar of Klettenberg, under the first abbot Henry I (1127–28); the foundation was backed by King Lothair III and confirmed in 1137 by Pope Innocent II. The constituent convent arrived in 1129 from Kamp Abbey in the Rhineland, where Adelheid had stayed on a pilgrimage. The premises were conveniently situated on the Wieda creek and the southern slopes of the Harz mountains. Shortly afterwards construction work of a Romanesque basilica began, which was dedicated in 1137. Two Cistercian daughter houses were founded: Pforta (\"Sancta Maria ad Portam\", 1137) near Naumburg and Sittichenbach Abbey (1141) near Eisleben in the County of Mansfeld.  Walkenried grew rich and acquired lands as far away as the Rhineland and Pomerania. The monks gave much attention to land clearance and development, especially mining, smelting and charcoal works, and also the construction of fishponds. They used the Upper Harz water management system to cultivate the surrounding estates along the Helme river down to Thuringia, which are today called Goldene Aue. The abbey also held a library, where the 14th-century flagellant and millenarian Konrad Schmid, though a layman, educated himself. In the 13th century, about 100 monks and more than 200 lay brothers lived in the abbey, which became one of the most affluent and significant Cistercian monasteries in Germany. In 1209 the erection of a new basilica modelled on Morimond Abbey began, supported by Emperor Otto IV. The church, then one of the largest in Northern Germany, and the adjacent cloister were finished in a Gothic style and consecrated by Bishop Siegfried II of Hildesheim in 1290. The Counts of Klettenberg held the office of a \"Vogt\" (reeve), which upon their extinction about 1260 passed to the Counts of Hohnstein.  When in the mid 14th century plague epidemics depopulated the Harz region, both the mining in the Upper Harz and the agricultural business stagnated and the abbey began to decline. In the early 16th century, the premises were settled by only 12 monks and the abbot. The German Peasants' War brought the monastery to the verge of destruction, when on Easter 1525, a mob of about 800 peasants from the southern Harz region marched against Walkenried. Abbot Paulus (1520–36) and the monks fled, taking the archives with them. The abbey was plundered and the church spire torn down, severely damaging the underlying crossing vault.  In view of the Protestant Reformation the abbey was finally declared an immediate \"Reichsstift\" (Imperial abbey) by Emperor Charles V in 1542. Nevertheless, the next abbot, John VIII (1530–59), was very worldly and extravagant; in 1546 he and his monks turned Lutheran. Thereupon Count Ernst of Hohnstein, as patron of the abbey, laid a complaint before the Habsburg emperor, who in 1548 ordered that everything in the abbey should be restored to its former condition, but his command was unheeded. After the count's death the entire County of Hohnstein became Protestant, and in 1556, a Latin school was opened at Walkenried. Four Lutheran abbots directed the abbey until 1578 when the Count of Hohnstein appointed his son as administrator, after whose death in 1593 the Halberstadt cathedral chapter left the administration of Hohnstein and Walkenried Abbey to the Princes of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.  During the Thirty Years' War the abbey was for a short time (1629–31) restored to the Cistercians. The 1648 Peace of Westphalia put an end to the existence of the Protestant monastery and the abbey was secularised. In 1668, the Latin school was closed. The Wolfenbüttel dukes ruled the former abbey's estates within an incorporated \"Amt\" also comprising the neighbouring villages of Zorge and Hohegeiß.  From that time the abbey was systematically quarried as a source of building stone. The Gothic church was greatly damaged since the destruction of the roof tower by the peasants in 1525; today only a few picturesque remains are still in existence. The library was also destroyed by the peasants, but the archives are preserved at the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel. Otherwise, however the claustral buildings are generally well preserved. The chapter hall has served since 1570 as a Lutheran church. The demolition of the buildings was stopped in 1817, first comprehensive works to renovate the cloister started in 1876. Since 1977 the premises are managed by the Osterode district authorities; a museum opened in 2006.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Walkenried Abbey () was a Cistercian abbey located in the village of Walkenried in Lower Saxony, Germany. Founded in 1127 on the southern rim of the Harz mountain range, the remnants of the monastic complex since 2010 are part of the Upper Harz Water Regale World Heritage Site.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973092}
{"src_title": "Madeleine de Scudéry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born at Le Havre, Normandy, in northern France, she was without fortune, but she was exceedingly well-educated. Her father, captain of the port in Le Havre, died in 1613 with her mother following shortly after. Madeleine and her brother Georges de Scudéry were placed in the care of an uncle who cared for them very well. He gave Madeleine an abnormally well-rounded education: she studied writing, spelling, drawing, dancing, painting, and needlework. In addition, on her own, Madeleine studied agriculture, medicine, cooking, Spanish, and Italian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Her lengthy novels, such as \"Artamène, ou le Grand Cyrus\" (10 vols., 1648–53), \"Clélie\" (10 vols., 1654–61), \"Ibrahim, ou l'illustre Bassa\" (4 vols., 1641), \"Almahide, ou l'esclave reine\" (8 vols., 1661–63) were the delight of Europe, commended by other literary figures such as Madame de Sévigné. \"Artamène\", which contains about 2.1 million words, ranks as the longest novel ever published. Her novels derive their length from endless conversations and, as far as incidents go, successive abductions of the heroines, conceived and told decorously. Contemporary readers also enjoyed these novels because they gave a glimpse into the life of important society figures. These figures were often disguised as Persian, Greek, and Roman warriors and maidens. In fact, Scudéry created the roman à clef to provide a forum for her thinly veiled fiction featuring political and public figures.  \"Les Femmes Illustres\" (1642) addresses itself to women and defends education, rather than the beauty or cosmetic, as a means of social mobility for women. This text was a means to justify women's participation in rhetoric and literary culture. It uses women speakers as models for the speeches, including Cleopatra of Egypt. In \"Les Femmes Illustres\" (1642), \"Conversations Sur Divers Sujets\" (1680), and \"Conversations Nouvelles sur Divers Sujets, Dediees Au Roy\" (1684), Madeleine de Scudéry adapted classical rhetorical theory from Cicero, Quintilian, Aristotle, and the sophists to a theory of salon conversation and letter writing. Scudéry's Conversations Sur Divers Sujets, included dialogues covering \"Conversation,\" \"The Art of Speaking,\" \"Raillery,\" \"Invention,\" and \"The Manner of Writing Letters.\" This text offers the rhetoric of salon conversation and model scenarios where women take intellectual control of the conversation. Other works devoted to conversations, pertaining to the education of women include: \"The Slave Queen\" (1660), \"Mathilda of Aguilar, a Spanish Tale,\" (1667), and \"The Versailles Promenade, or the Tale of Celanire\" (1669). These covered the art of speaking, invention, the manner of writing letters, and scenarios where women had control of the intellectual conversation.  Scudéry's novels are usually set in the classical world or \"the Orient\", but their language and action reflect fashionable ideas of the 17th century, and the characters can be identified with Mademoiselle de Scudéry's contemporaries. In \"Clélie\", Herminius represents Paul Pellisson; Scaurus and Lyriane were Paul Scarron and his wife (who became Mme de Maintenon); and in the description of Sapho in vol. 10 of \"Le Grand Cyrus\" the author paints herself.  In \"Clélie\", Scudéry invented the famous \"Carte de Tendre\", a map of an Arcadia where the geography is all based around the theme of love: the river of Inclination flows past the villages of \"Billet Doux\" (love letter), \"Petits Soins\" (Little Trinkets) and so forth. Scudéry was a skilled conversationalist; several volumes purporting to report her conversations upon various topics were published during her lifetime. She had a distinct vocation as a pedagogue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Madeleine survived her brother by more than thirty years, and in her later days published numerous volumes of conversations, to a great extent extracted from her novels, thus forming a kind of anthology of her work. Scudéry was deaf for the last 40 years of her life. She outlived her vogue to some extent, but retained a circle of friends, like Marie Dupré, to whom she was always the \"incomparable Sapho.\"  Her \"Life and Correspondence\" was published at Paris by MM. Rathery and Boutron in 1873.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Madeleine de Scudéry was part of a movement in the late Renaissance in England and France where women used classical rhetorical theory for their own. She revised discourse to be modeled on conversation rather than public speaking, favoring that as a means of rhetoric, the speaker in the salon built on the ideas of the speaker before them, opting for consensus rather than argument. She is one of the central figures associated with the \"salon\" conversation and letter writing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "Controversial in her own era, Mademoiselle de Scudéry was satirized by Molière in his plays \"Les Précieuses ridicules\" (1659) and \"Les Femmes savantes\" (1672) and by Antoine Furetière in his \"Roman Bourgeois\" (1666).  The 19th century German writer E.T.A. Hoffmann wrote what is usually referred to as the first German-language detective story, featuring Scudéry as the central figure. \"Das Fräulein von Scuderi\" (Mademoiselle de Scudery) is still widely read today, and is the origin of the \"Cardillac syndrome\" in psychology. Mademoiselle de Scudéry is also featured prominently in \"Madeleine: One of Love's Jansenists\", a novel published in 1919 by modernist writer Hope Mirrlees. The novel is set in and around the literary circles of the 17th Century Précieuses. The protagonist, a young woman named Madeleine Troqueville, becomes enamored of Mademoiselle de Scudéry, who snubs young Madeleine. It has been suggested that the novel is a roman à clef with Natalie Clifford Barney portrayed as Mademoiselle de Scudéry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "Summaries of the stories and keys to the characters may be found in Heinrich Körting, \"Geschichte des französischen Romans im 17ten Jahrhundert\" (second edition, Oppeln, 1891).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Madeleine de Scudéry (15 November 1607 – 2 June 1701), often known simply as Mademoiselle de Scudéry, was a French writer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973093}
{"src_title": "Diminishing returns", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The concept of diminishing returns can be traced back to the concerns of early economists such as Johann Heinrich von Thünen, Jacques Turgot, Adam Smith, James Steuart, Thomas Robert Malthus, and David Ricardo. However, classical economists such as Malthus and Ricardo attributed the successive diminishment of output to the decreasing quality of the inputs. Neoclassical economists assume that each \"unit\" of labor is identical. Diminishing returns are due to the disruption of the entire productive process as additional units of labor are added to a fixed amount of capital. The law of diminishing returns remains an important consideration in farming.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "An example is a factory that has a fixed stock of capital, or tools and machines, and a variable supply of labor. As the firm increases the number of workers, the total output of the firm grows but at an ever-decreasing rate. This is because after a certain point, the factory becomes overcrowded and workers begin to form lines to use the machines. The long-run solution to this problem is to increase the stock of capital, that is, to buy more machines and to build more factories.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Returns and costs.", "content": "There is an inverse relationship between returns of inputs and the cost of production, although other features such as input market conditions can also affect production costs. Suppose that a kilogram of seed costs one dollar, and this price does not change. Assume for simplicity that there are no fixed costs. One kilogram of seeds yields one ton of crop, so the first ton of the crop costs one dollar to produce. That is, for the first ton of output, the marginal cost as well as the average cost of the output is $1 per ton. If there are no other changes, then if the second kilogram of seeds applied to land produces only half the output of the first (showing diminishing returns), the marginal cost would equal $1 per half ton of output, or $2 per ton, and the average cost is $2 per 3/2 tons of output, or $4/3 per ton of output. Similarly, if the third kilogram of seeds yields only a quarter ton, then the marginal cost equals $1 per quarter ton or $4 per ton, and the average cost is $3 per 7/4 tons, or $12/7 per ton of output. Thus, diminishing marginal returns imply increasing marginal costs and increasing average costs.  Cost is measured in terms of opportunity cost. In this case the law also applies to societies – the opportunity cost of producing a single unit of a good generally increases as a society attempts to produce more of that good. This explains the bowed-out shape of the production possibilities frontier.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In economics, diminishing returns is the decrease in the marginal (incremental) output of a production process as the amount of a single factor of production is incrementally increased, while the amounts of all other factors of production stay constant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973094}
{"src_title": "Chaperone (protein)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location and functions.", "content": "Some chaperone systems work as foldases: they support the folding of proteins in an ATP-dependent manner (for example, the GroEL/GroES or the DnaK/DnaJ/GrpE system). Although most newly synthesized proteins can fold in absence of chaperones, a minority strictly requires them for the same. Other chaperones work as holdases: they bind folding intermediates to prevent their aggregation, for example DnaJ or Hsp33. Chaperones can also work as disaggregases, i.e. they can interact with aberrant protein assemblies and revent them to monomers. Some chaperones can assist in protein degradation, leading proteins to protease systems, such as the ubiquitin-proteasome system in eukaryotes.  Many chaperones are heat shock proteins, that is, proteins expressed in response to elevated temperatures or other cellular stresses. The reason for this behaviour is that protein folding is severely affected by heat and, therefore, some chaperones act to prevent or correct damage caused by misfolding.  Macromolecular crowding may be important in chaperone function. The crowded environment of the cytosol can accelerate the folding process, since a compact folded protein will occupy less volume than an unfolded protein chain. However, crowding can reduce the yield of correctly folded protein by increasing protein aggregation. Crowding may also increase the effectiveness of the chaperone proteins such as GroEL, which could counteract this reduction in folding efficiency.  More information on the various types and mechanisms of a subset of chaperones that encapsulate their folding substrates (e.g. GroES) can be found in the article for chaperonins. Chaperonins are characterized by a stacked double-ring structure and are found in prokaryotes, in the cytosol of eukaryotes, and in mitochondria.  Other types of chaperones are involved in transport across membranes, for example membranes of the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in eukaryotes. A bacterial translocation—specific chaperone maintains newly synthesized precursor polypeptide chains in a translocation-competent (generally unfolded) state and guides them to the translocon.  New functions for chaperones continue to be discovered, such as bacterial adhesin activity, induction of aggregation towards non-amyloid aggregates, suppression of toxic protein oligomers via their clustering, and in responding to diseases linked to protein aggregation (e.g. see prion) and cancer maintenance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human chaperone proteins.", "content": "Chaperones are found in, for example, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), since protein synthesis often occurs in this area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Endoplasmic reticulum.", "content": "In the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) there are general, lectin- and non-classical molecular chaperones helping to fold proteins.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nomenclature and examples of bacterial and archaeal chaperones.", "content": "There are many different families of chaperones; each family acts to aid protein folding in a different way. In bacteria like \"E. coli\", many of these proteins are highly expressed under conditions of high stress, for example, when the bacterium is placed in high temperatures. For this reason, the term \"heat shock protein\" has historically been used to name these chaperones. The prefix \"Hsp\" designates that the protein is a heat shock protein.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hsp60.", "content": "Hsp60 (GroEL/GroES complex in \"E. coli\") is the best characterized large (~ 1 MDa) chaperone complex. GroEL is a double-ring 14mer with a hydrophobic patch at its opening; it is so large it can accommodate native folding of 54-kDa GFP in its lumen. GroES is a single-ring heptamer that binds to GroEL in the presence of ATP or ADP. GroEL/GroES may not be able to undo previous aggregation, but it does compete in the pathway of misfolding and aggregation. Also acts in mitochondrial matrix as molecular chaperone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hsp70.", "content": "Hsp70 (DnaK in \"E. coli\") is perhaps the best characterized small (~ 70 kDa) chaperone.  The Hsp70 proteins are aided by Hsp40 proteins (DnaJ in \"E. coli\"), which increase the ATP consumption rate and activity of the Hsp70s.  It has been noted that increased expression of Hsp70 proteins in the cell results in a decreased tendency toward apoptosis.  Although a precise mechanistic understanding has yet to be determined, it is known that Hsp70s have a high-affinity bound state to unfolded proteins when bound to ADP, and a low-affinity state when bound to ATP.  It is thought that many Hsp70s crowd around an unfolded substrate, stabilizing it and preventing aggregation until the unfolded molecule folds properly, at which time the Hsp70s lose affinity for the molecule and diffuse away. Hsp70 also acts as a mitochondrial and chloroplastic molecular chaperone in eukaryotes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hsp90.", "content": "Hsp90 (HtpG in \"E. coli\") may be the least understood chaperone. Its molecular weight is about 90 kDa, and it is necessary for viability in eukaryotes (possibly for prokaryotes as well).  Heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) is a molecular chaperone essential for activating many signaling proteins in the eukaryotic cell.  Each Hsp90 has an ATP-binding domain, a middle domain, and a dimerization domain. Originally thought to clamp onto their substrate protein (also known as a client protein) upon binding ATP, the recently published structures by Vaughan \"et al.\" and Ali \"et al.\" indicate that client proteins may bind externally to both the N-terminal and middle domains of Hsp90.  Hsp90 may also require co-chaperones-like immunophilins, Sti1, p50 (Cdc37), and Aha1, and also cooperates with the Hsp70 chaperone system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hsp100.", "content": "Hsp100 (Clp family in \"E. coli\") proteins have been studied \"in vivo\" and \"in vitro\" for their ability to target and unfold tagged and misfolded proteins.  Proteins in the Hsp100/Clp family form large hexameric structures with unfoldase activity in the presence of ATP. These proteins are thought to function as chaperones by processively threading client proteins through a small 20 Å (2 nm) pore, thereby giving each client protein a second chance to fold.  Some of these Hsp100 chaperones, like ClpA and ClpX, associate with the double-ringed tetradecameric serine protease ClpP; instead of catalyzing the refolding of client proteins, these complexes are responsible for the targeted destruction of tagged and misfolded proteins.  Hsp104, the Hsp100 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is essential for the propagation of many yeast prions. Deletion of the HSP104 gene results in cells that are unable to propagate certain prions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The investigation of chaperones has a long history. The term \"molecular chaperone\" appeared first in the literature in 1978, and was invented by Ron Laskey to describe the ability of a nuclear protein called nucleoplasmin to prevent the aggregation of folded histone proteins with DNA during the assembly of nucleosomes. The term was later extended by R. John Ellis in 1987 to describe proteins that mediated the post-translational assembly of protein complexes. In 1988, it was realised that similar proteins mediated this process in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The details of this process were determined in 1989, when the ATP-dependent protein folding was demonstrated \"in vitro\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical significance.", "content": "There are many disorders associated with mutations in genes encoding chaperones (i.e. multisystem proteinopathy) that can affect muscle, bone and/or the central nervous system.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In molecular biology, molecular chaperones are proteins that assist the conformational folding or unfolding and the assembly or disassembly of other macromolecular structures. Chaperones are present when the macromolecules perform their normal biological functions and have correctly completed the processes of folding and/or assembly. The chaperones are concerned primarily with protein folding. The first protein to be called a chaperone assists the assembly of nucleosomes from folded histones and DNA and such assembly chaperones, especially in the nucleus, are concerned with the assembly of folded subunits into oligomeric structures.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973095}
{"src_title": "CONMEBOL", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1916, the first edition of the \"Campeonato Sudamericano de Fútbol\" (South-American Football Championship), now known as the \"Copa América\", was contested in Argentina to commemorate the centenary of the Argentine Declaration of Independence. The four participating associations of that tournament gathered together in Buenos Aires in order to officially create a governing body to facilitate the organization of the tournament. Thus, CONMEBOL was founded on 9 July 1916 under the initiative of Uruguayan Héctor Rivadavia Gómez, but approved by the football associations of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay. The first Constitutional Congress on 15 December of that same year, which took place in Montevideo, ratified the decision.  Over the years, the other football associations in South America joined, with the last being Venezuela in 1952. Guyana, Suriname, and the French overseas department of French Guiana, while geographically in South America, are not part of CONMEBOL. Consisting of a French territory, a former British territory, and a former Dutch territory, they are part of the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF), mainly due to historical, cultural, and sporting reasons. With ten member nations, CONMEBOL is the smallest and the only fully continental land-based FIFA confederation (no insular countries or associates from different continents).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competitions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CONMEBOL competitions.", "content": "National teams:  Clubs:  Inter Continental:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "The main competition for men's national teams is the Copa América, started in 1916. CONMEBOL also runs national competitions at Under-20, Under-17 and Under-15 levels. For women's national teams, CONMEBOL operates the Copa América Femenina for senior national sides, as well as Under-20 and Under-17 championships.  In futsal, there is the Copa América de Futsal and Campeonato Sudamericano de Futsal Sub-20. The Campeonato Sudamericano Femenino de Futsal is the women's equivalent to the man's tournament.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "CONMEBOL also runs the two main club competitions in South America: the Copa Libertadores was first held in 1960 and the Copa Sudamericana was launched by CONMEBOL in 2002 as an indirect successor to the Supercopa Libertadores (begun in 1988). A third competition, the Copa CONMEBOL, started in 1992 and was abolished in 1999. In women's football, CONMEBOL also conducts the Copa Libertadores Femenina for club teams. The competition was first held in 2009.  The Recopa Sudamericana pits the past year's winners of the Copa Libertadores against the winners of the Copa Sudamericana (previously the winners of the Supercopa Libertadores) and came into being in 1989.  The Intercontinental Cup was jointly organised with UEFA between the Copa Libertadores and the UEFA Champions League winners.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rankings.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National teams.", "content": "<nowiki>*</nowiki> Inactive for more than 18 months and therefore not ranked Men's update: 20 February 2020 Women's update: 27 March 2020", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clubs.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Football Database rankings.", "content": "Last updated: 5 April 2020", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Beach soccer national teams.", "content": "Men's update: 23 September 2018", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Major tournaments.", "content": "For each tournament, the flag of the host country and the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Corruption.", "content": "On 27 May 2015, several CONMEBOL leaders were arrested in Zürich, Switzerland by Swiss police and indicted by the U.S. Department of Justice on charges of corruption, money laundering, and racketeering. Those swept up in the operation include former CONMEBOL presidents Eugenio Figueredo and Nicolás Léoz and several football federations presidents such as Carlos Chávez and Sergio Jadue. On 3 December 2015, the CONMEBOL President Juan Ángel Napout was also arrested.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL, ; ; or CSF) is the continental governing body of football in South America (apart from Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana), and it is one of FIFA's six continental confederations. The oldest continental confederation in the world, its headquarters are located in Luque, Paraguay, near Asunción. CONMEBOL is responsible for the organization and governance of South American football's major international tournaments. With 10 member football associations, it has the fewest members of all the confederations in FIFA.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973096}
{"src_title": "Electrolux", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The company originates from a merger of two companies—Lux AB and Svenska Elektron AB, the former an established manufacturer and the latter a younger company founded by a former vacuum salesman who had also been an employee of the former firm. The origins of Electrolux are closely tied to the vacuum, but today it also makes major appliances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sales company to major manufacturer.", "content": "In 1919, a Svenska Elektron AB acquisition, Elektromekaniska AB, became Elektrolux (the spelling was changed to Electrolux in 1957). It initially sold Lux branded vacuum cleaners in several European countries.  In 1923, the company acquired AB Arctic and subsequently added absorption refrigerators to its product line. Other appliances soon followed, including washing machines in 1951, dishwashers in 1959, and food service equipment in 1962.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mergers and acquisitions.", "content": "The company has often and regularly expanded through mergers and acquisitions.  While Electrolux had bought several companies before the 1960s, that decade saw the beginnings of a new wave of M&A activity. The company bought ElektroHelios, Norwegian Elektra, Danish Atlas, Finnish Slev, and Flymo, et al., in the nine years from 1960 to 1969. This style of growth continued through the 1990s, seeing Electrolux purchase scores of companies including, for a time, Husqvarna.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hans Werthen.", "content": "Hans Werthen, President and later Chairman of the Board, led the strategic core of an increasingly decentralized Electrolux—and was instrumental to its rapid growth.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Restructuring.", "content": "While attempts to cut costs, centralise administration, and wring out economies of scale from Electrolux's operations were made in the 1960s and 1970s with the focus so firmly on growth, further company-wide restructuring efforts only began in the late 1990s.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "A public company.", "content": "Electrolux made an initial public offering on the London Stock Exchange in 1928 (it was delisted in 2010) and another on the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1930.  Currently, its shares trade on the NASDAQ OMX Nordic Market and over-the-counter. Electrolux is an OMX Nordic 40 constituent stock.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2000 to present.", "content": "In North America, the Electrolux name was long used by vacuum cleaner manufacturer Aerus LLC, originally established to sell Swedish Electrolux products. In 2000, Aerus transferred trademark rights back to the Electrolux Group, and ceased using the Electrolux name in 2004.  Conversely, Electrolux-made vacuums carried the Eureka brand name, which Electrolux continued to use while also selling Electrolux branded vacuums after 2000. Electrolux USA customer service maintains a database of Electrolux made vacuums and provides a link to Aerus's website for the convenience of owners of Electrolux branded Aerus vacuums.  Keith McLoughlin took over as President and CEO on January 1, 2011, and became the company's first non Swedish chief executive.  In August 2011, Electrolux acquired from Sigdo Koppers the Chilean appliance manufacturer CTI obtaining several brands with the purchase including: Fensa, Gafa, Mademsa and Somela.  On February 6, 2017, Electrolux announced that it had agreed to acquire Anova Applied Electronics, Inc. (company), the U.S.-based provider of the Anova Precision Cooker.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Brands.", "content": "Electrolux sells under a wide variety of brand names worldwide. Most of them were acquired through mergers and acquisitions and only do business in a single country or geographic area. The following is an incomplete list.  Note: This list does not include brands such as Kenmore and John Lewis, which may sell Electrolux produced appliances but are not owned by or affiliated with Electrolux, as Electrolux acts as an OEM for these brands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Slogan.", "content": "The company's current international slogan is \"Shape living for the Better\". In the past it used to be \"Thinking of you\". In the 1960s the company successfully marketed vacuums in the United Kingdom with the slogan \"Nothing sucks like an Electrolux\".  In the United States, it was frequently assumed that using this slogan was a brand blunder. In fact, the informal American meaning of the word sucks was already well known at the time in the United Kingdom, and the company hoped the slogan, with its possible double entendre, would gain attention. In Indonesia, the Electrolux previous slogans as \"Kalau saja semua seawet Electrolux\" (English: If Only All Durable as Electrolux).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Electrolux AB (commonly known as Electrolux, ) is a Swedish multinational home appliance manufacturer, headquartered in Stockholm. It is consistently ranked the world's second largest appliance maker by units sold after Whirlpool.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973097}
{"src_title": "René Higuita", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Higuita was born in Medellín, Antioquia to a single mother, Maria Dioselina. His mother died when he was very young, so his grandma had to take care of him. He was very poor as a child, so he had to work as newspaper mailman and many other jobs in order to survive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club career.", "content": "Higuita started his playing career with Millonarios and transferred to Atlético Nacional in 1986. He played the majority of his club career with the Colombian side where he helped the team win the Colombian League on numerous occasions as well as the Copa Libertadores and Copa Interamericana, both in 1989. After leaving them, he moved to Spain to play with Real Valladolid for one season, before coming back to Atletico Nacional for four years. He then left for Mexico to play for Veracruz before coming back to the Colombian league to play for Atletico's city rivals, Independiente Medellín.  He briefly retired in 2005 after failing a drug test while playing for Aucas.  He came out of retirement on 21 July 2007 to sign for Venezuelan club Guaros FC. In January 2008, aged 41, he signed for the Colombian second division team Deportivo Rionegro. In June 2008 he signed for another Colombia team, Deportivo Pereira, and finally retired on 25 January 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Higuita's first major tournament was the 1989 Copa América, where the team was knocked out in the first round. In the 1990 FIFA World Cup, he played an important part to lead the country into the round of 16 for the first time ever. However, Higuita's unorthodox playing style caused a mistake by him that knocked Colombia out of the World Cup, when he tried to feint Cameroon striker Roger Milla but failed, and Milla dispossessed him and scored, which put Cameroon through to the quarter-finals. Higuita described it as \"a mistake as big as a house\". As a result of such behaviour, Higuita was nicknamed \"El Loco\" (\"The Madman\").  He played in the 1991 Copa América where the team finished fourth. His last call up for the national team was for the 1999 Copa América.  Higuita often took set-pieces for the Colombian national team, in all, he scored three goals in his 68 international appearances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "On the pitch, Higuita was known for his dramatic flair, composure under pressure, and eccentric playing style, often taking unnecessary risks and actively coming out of his area to anticipate opponents, play the ball out to defenders, undertake individual dribbling runs, and attempt to score goals, which led him to be described as a'sweeper-keeper'; he was therefore a pioneer in influencing other goalkeepers to take more responsibility for situations further away from the goal. Although he was a goalkeeper, Higuita also became known for scoring directly from free-kicks, as well as penalties.  His style of play led to the creation of the Back-pass rule, which is also known as the \"Higuita Law.\"  IFFHS ranked Higuita the 8th best keeper in South American history.  Higuita's style of play, which was first shown to a global audience during the 1990 FIFA World Cup, was pioneering in influencing goalkeepers to take more responsibility for situations further from the goal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scorpion Kick.", "content": "Furthermore, Higuita reportedly invented the scorpion kick, a movement which involves the player jumping forward, positioning their legs over their head, and in doing so, kicks the ball away with their heels; one of Higuita's most notable uses of the scorpion was when he performed it while clearing a cross from Jamie Redknapp during a friendly against England at Wembley Stadium on 6 September 1995, earning him considerable media attention. It ranked 94th in Channel 4's \"100 Greatest Sporting Moments\" in 2002.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "Higuita has expressed the wish to coach the Colombian national team and in December 2008 he got the job of goalkeeper coach for his former club Real Valladolid.  He joined Al Nassr FC in Saudi Arabia in 2011, and was the club goalkeeper coach for about 5 years, until 2016.  He rejoined Atletico Nacional on 28 June 2017 after receiving a coaching job as the goalkeeping coach. Upon rejoining, he said \"the dream of my life was to return to Atletico Nacional\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Higuita is married to Magnolia, with whom he has three children, Andrés, Pamela and Wilfred. He also has a daughter, Cindy Carolina, from a previous marriage.  He is friends with Diego Maradona and played in the Argentine's farewell match in 2001.  Higuita was imprisoned in 1993 after getting involved in a kidnapping. Acting as a go-between for the drug barons Pablo Escobar and Carlos Molina, he was largely responsible for securing the release of Molina's daughter by delivering the ransom money. He received $64,000 for his services, which breaks Colombian law as it is an offence to profit from a kidnapping. He was incarcerated for seven months before being released without charge. Commenting on the case, he has stated that \"I'm a footballer, I didn't know anything about kidnapping laws.\"  In the ESPN documentary \"The Two Escobars\", Higuita claimed that he was arrested for visiting Pablo during his time in prison with the desire to thank him for turning himself in thus stabilizing Colombia for a short period. He supported this theory claiming that all he was asked during questioning was solely about Pablo Escobar himself and no kidnapping.  Because of the term in prison Higuita was not fit for the 1994 FIFA World Cup. In another scandal, he tested positive for cocaine on 23 November 2004 while playing for Aucas, an Ecuadorian football club.  In 2005, Higuita participated in the reality TV program \"La isla de los famosos: Una aventura pirata\" (\"The Island of the Famous: A Pirate Adventure\"), a show similar to \"Survivor\". Also in 2005, he underwent plastic surgery to completely change his appearance.  Higuita has expressed the wish to become more politically active.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International goals.", "content": "\"Scores and results lists Colombia's goal tally first.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Atlético Nacional", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Colombia", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "José René Higuita Zapata (; born 27 August 1966) is a Colombian former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper. He was nicknamed \"El Loco\" (\"The Madman\") for his high-risk'sweeper-keeper' playing style and his flair for the dramatic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973098}
{"src_title": "Temelín Nuclear Power Station", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Planning began in the late 1970s and the final project was submitted in 1985. Construction of four operating units began in 1987. The project was expected to be completed in 1991 with estimated building costs of 35 billion Kčs. Six villages were demolished by the then-Communist government to make way for the power station.  After the Velvet revolution in 1990 the Czechoslovakian government decided to cease construction of the third and fourth reactors. Work continued on the first two reactors; in the 1990s alterations to the original design were made by Westinghouse in conjunction with SUJB and the IAEA to bring reliability and safety levels into conformance with Western European standards. The standards audit was carried out by Halliburton NUS. As part of the alterations information and control systems were added, electrical modifications carried out, and cabling, reactor core and fuel elements were replaced. In 1993 the Czech government decided to complete the plant in the face of delays and cost overruns, with expected completion at the time estimated for 1997. In 1994 an opinion poll reported that 68% of Czech citizens were in favor of nuclear power development.  In 1998 construction still was not completed and costs reached 71 CZK billion. The Czech government again reconsidered completion of the plant. In 1999 the decision was made to continue, hoping for an expected completion in 2000 with a maximum cost of 98.6 CZK billion. The project was controversial; national and international (mainly Austrian) opposition was stronger than in the early 1990s. In a 1999 opinion poll 47% of Czech citizens were in favor and 53% against nuclear power development, a fall from 1994. In subsequent years the same poll showed change to 63% in favor and 37% against in 2000 with 58% in favor and 42% against in 2001, indicating fluctuation of opinion. As early as 1993 there were local and international protests against the plant's construction. Large grassroots civil disobedience actions took place in 1996 and 1997. These were organized by the so-called Clean Energy Brigades. In September and October 2000, Austrian anti-nuclear protesters demonstrated against the Temelin Nuclear Power Plant and at one stage temporarily blocked all 26 border crossings between Austria and the Czech Republic. The first reactor was finally commissioned in 2000 and the second in 2002.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical data.", "content": "Most information was taken from ČEZ website Others from leaflet \"Energy from South Bohemia\" by ČEZ Group and the IAEA PRIS database. In 2013 the reactors were updated from 3000 MW thermal output to 3120 MW output, bringing the total output to 1003 MWe net and 1056 MWe gross. In 2015 turbomachinery was updated, bringing the total output to the current 1026 MWe net and 1080 MWe gross.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The reactor vessel (active zone).", "content": "The reactor contains 163 fuel assemblies. A single assembly has the shape of ~4.5m long hexagonal and inside are 312 fuel rods and 61 control rods. The fuel rods contain stacked cylindrical fuel pellets. Fuel enrichment: max. 4% (average 3.5%) of U (fissile isotope) Fuel load UO: 92t (The reactor splits about 3 kg of uranium every day) Fuel Replacement cycle: 4 years (every year 1/4 is changed) vessel height: ~11m, outside diameter: ~4.5m, wall thickness: 193mm The vessel is designed for up to 17.6MPa at 350 °C The vessel is made of high quality, low-alloy chrome-nickel-molybdenum-vanadium steel  For the reactor to produce thermal output 1W, 30 billion fissions of uranium-235 must take place every second. For a coal power station to produce the same output 1,500,000,000 billion carbon atoms must be burned.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactor cooling system.", "content": "Number of cooling loops: 4 Quantity of primary circuit coolant: 337 m Operating pressure: 15.7MPa Coolant inlet temperature: approx. 290 °C (554F) Coolant outlet temperature: approx. 320 °C (608F) Coolant flow through reactor: 23.5 m/s", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Steam generator.", "content": "Number per reactor block: 4 Steam delivered per one generator: 1470 t/hour Steam outlet pressure: 6.3MPa Steam outlet temperature: 278.5 °C (533.3F)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cooling circuit.", "content": "The plant has 4 cooling towers (each reactor has 2 towers). Each tower has a height of, a diameter of, and an external wall surface area of. Pure water is evaporated in cooling tower (~0.3m/s). The water needs to be constantly refilled.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Protective Envelope (containment).", "content": "Height of cylindrical section: 38m Inside diameter of cylindrical section: 45m Wall thickness: 1.2m Thickness of steel lining: 8mm", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Turbine generator set.", "content": "Number per production block: 1 Number of steam turbine sections: 1 high pressure + 3 low pressure Speed: 3000 rpm Voltage on alternator's terminal: 24kV Alternator cooling: hydrogen – water", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reliability.", "content": "The International Atomic Energy Agency data show that Reactor 1 reaches a cumulative operating factor of about 63%, and Reactor 2 an operating factor of about 76%. The cumulative operating factor figures for Temelín NPP reactors are lower than the figures of similar reactors operated in Russia, where the cumulative operating factor is around 80-87%. ČEZ had increased operating factor and production in recent years and the plant reached 84% in 2012 with a total record production of 15 TWh.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "New reactors.", "content": "Plans to build all four original reactors were reopened in 2005. However, in 2014 the prospective plans were cancelled.  In 2007 planning was suspended because a new government agreed not to promote nuclear energy; a Green Party was a member of the coalition government. However, in July 2008 ČEZ requested the Ministry of the Environment conduct an environmental impact assessment for two additional reactors. In 2009 regional approval was granted for the new build. In August 2009, ČEZ sought bids for two pressurized water reactors (PWRs). Shortly after the Fukushima nuclear accidents, Prime Minister Petr Nečas announced that the construction of new reactors will continue according to the original plans, but with the tender selection delayed to 2013.  In July 2012 ČEZ opened bids for the public contract for completing the Temelín Nuclear Power Plant in the presence of the bidders - Areva, a consortium of the Westinghouse Electric Company, LLC and WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC ČR, and a consortium of ŠKODA JS, Atomstroyexport, and Gidropress. In October 2012 ČEZ informed Areva that they have in their bid failed to meet statutory requirements. Moreover, Areva has not fulfilled some other crucial criteria defined in the tender. Since the award procedure has been conducted in accordance with the Public Procurement Act, Areva's bid had to be excluded from further evaluation.  In March 2013, a Russian led consortium, comprising Atomstroyexport, Gidropress and Skoda, signed contracts with the three Czech companies ZAT, HOCHTIEF CZ and UJV Rez, for the construction of the two new nuclear reactor units for Temelín-3 and Temelín-4. The reactors proposed are the MIR-1200 (Modernised International Reactor). ZAT would supply automated systems for the plant, HOCHTIEF CZ would be responsible for construction of the nuclear island, and UJV Rez would help compile project documentation for the nuclear and turbine islands, and also create working documentation for construction of the plant. A statement said the consortium is aiming for a “localisation level” of 75 percent. The other running project for the contract was Westinghouse with its AP1000 reactor. The winner of the contract was scheduled to be announced at the end of 2013.  In April 2014, ČEZ cancelled the project after the Czech government stated it does not plan to provide guarantees or other mechanisms to support the construction of low-emission power plants following discussions in the EU. The ČEZ CEO stated:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Temelín Nuclear Power Station (, abbreviation \"JETE\") is located near Temelín, a small village in the Czech Republic. Temelín NPP is owned by ČEZ Group, which employs 1000 workers at this site. The adjacent castle Vysoký Hrádek serves as an information centre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973099}
{"src_title": "Dukovany Nuclear Power Station", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plant characteristics.", "content": "The plant has four reactors. As of December 31, 2011 CEZ reported turbine generator output (gross capacity) as listed below. Net capacity is a baseline estimate only. In 2005, Unit 3 was upgraded to 456 MWe gross capacity, and the same upgrade was made to Unit 1 and Unit 4 in 2007. Unit 3 was further upgraded in 2009 to 500MWe. In total an extra 240 MWe of capacity has been or will be added before 2013 in a comprehensive program of improvements including steam plant replacement, addition of instrumentation and fuel changes.  The reactors are fuelled by uranium dioxide UO2. Fuel is placed in the reactor in 312 fuel assemblies. Each assembly consists of 126 fuel rods with a hermetically sealed fuel.  Dukovany Nuclear Power Station has 8 cooling towers, each 125 metres tall.  West of the facility there is a 136 metre tall guyed tower for monitoring air radioactivity.  In 1994, a visitor information centre was opened at the site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Power distribution.", "content": "The power lines leaving Dukovany Nuclear Power Station are mainly installed on delta type pylons. They run to Slavetice substation situated at 49°6'15\" N and 16°7'10\" E. At this substation the powerline to Dürnrohr in Austria starts.  Plant owner CEZ plans to install a district heating circuit to supply heat to homes and businesses in Brno. A pipeline over 40 kilometres in length could be installed after regional officials have considered CEZ's environmental impact statement for the project, submitted in July 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Replacement.", "content": "In 2019 the Czech government gave preliminary approval for at least one new nuclear power unit for about 2035 to replace the four units expected to shut down between 2035 and 2037. The financial model proposed is a state guarantee so finance can be obtained at government interest rates, but no subsidy on operating costs or above market-price electricity rates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "The Dukovany reactor complex appears in the video game \"Tom Clancy's EndWar\" as a potential battlefield.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dukovany Nuclear Power Station is a nuclear power plant near Dukovany, a village in the Czech Republic. It was the second nuclear power plant in Czechoslovakia (the Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant in what is now Slovakia was constructed in 1958), and the first one in what is now the Czech Republic. It is situated from the city of Třebíč, near the Dalešice Reservoir, where the plant sources its water supply. In 1970 Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union ratified a contract for construction of two nuclear power plants. Actual construction work began four years later. From 1985 to 1987, four power units with pressurized water reactors were commissioned. All four are still in operation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973100}
{"src_title": "Good faith", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "\"Bona fides\".", "content": "\"Bona fides\" is a Latin phrase meaning \"good faith\". Its ablative case is \"bona fide\", meaning \"in good faith\", which is often used as an adjective to mean \"genuine\". While today \"fides\" is concomitant to faith, a more technical translation of the Latin concept would be something like \"reliability\", in the sense of a trust between two parties for the potentiality of a relationship. In ancient Rome \"bona fides\" was always assumed by both sides, had implied responsibilities, and both legal and religious consequences if broken. Fides was one of the original virtues to be considered a religious \"divinity\" in Roman paganism. Modern interpretation is that it is a return of favor for the completion of a favor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Law.", "content": "In law, \"bona fides\" denotes the mental and moral states of honesty and conviction regarding either the truth or the falsity of a proposition, or of a body of opinion; likewise regarding either the rectitude or the depravity of a line of conduct. As a legal concept \"bona fides\" is especially important in matters of equity. The concept of \"bona fide\" is also proclaimed by the original version of \"Magna Carta\". In contract law, the implied covenant of good faith is a general presumption that the parties to a contract will deal with each other honestly and fairly, so as not to destroy the right of the other party or parties to receive the benefits of the contract. In insurance law, the insurer's breach of the implied covenant may give rise to a legal liability known as insurance bad faith.  Most US jurisdictions view breaches of implied covenants of good faith and fair dealing solely as a variant of breach of contract. Linguistically, in the US, American English usage of \"bona fides\" applies it as synonymous with credentials, professional background, and documents attesting a person's identity, which is not synonymous with \"bona fide\" occupational qualifications. More recently, other common law countries have begun to adopt good faith as a general principle. In the UK, the High Court in \"Yam Seng Pte Ltd v Int Trade Corp Ltd\" expressed this preference. In Canada, the Supreme Court declared in \"Bhasin v. Hrynew\" that good faith was a general organizing principle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Employment efforts.", "content": "\"Bona fide\" occupational qualifications (employer's good faith effort) are qualities or attributes that employers are allowed to consider when making decisions on the hiring and retaining of employees. An employer's good faith effort is used as an evaluation tool by the jurisdiction during the annual program review process to determine an employer's level of commitment to the reduction goals of the Washington State's Commute Trip Reduction (CTR) Law. United States federal and state governments are required by affirmative action (and other such laws) to look for disabled, minority, female, and veteran business enterprises when bidding public jobs. Good faith effort law varies from state to state and even within states depending on the awarding department of the government. Most good faith effort requires advertising in state certified publications, usually a trade and a focus publication. Other countries such as Canada have similar programs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In wikis.", "content": "Public wikis depend on implicitly or explicitly assuming that its users are acting in good faith. Wikipedia's principle \"Assume Good Faith\" (often abbreviated AGF) has been a stated guideline since 2005. It has been described as \"the first principle in the Wikipedia etiquette\". According to one study of users' motives for contributing to Wikipedia, \"while participants have both individualistic and collaborative motives, collaborative (altruistic) motives dominate.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Good faith (), in human interactions, is a sincere intention to be fair, open, and honest, regardless of the outcome of the interaction. While some Latin phrases have lost their literal meaning over centuries, this is not the case with \"bona fides\"; it is still widely used and interchangeable with its generally accepted modern-day English translation of \"good faith\". It is an important concept within law and business. The opposed concepts are bad faith, \"mala fides\" (duplicity) and perfidy (pretense). In contemporary English, the usage of \"bona fides\" is synonymous with credentials and identity. The phrase is sometimes used in job advertisements, and should not be confused with the \"bona fide\" occupational qualifications or the employer's good faith effort, as described below.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973101}
{"src_title": "Condition number", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "General definition in the context of error analysis.", "content": "Given a problem formula_4 and an algorithm formula_5 with an input \"x\", the \"absolute\" error is formula_6 and the \"relative\" error is formula_7.  In this context, the \"absolute\" condition number of a problem \"f\" is  and the \"relative\" condition number is", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Matrices.", "content": "For example, the condition number associated with the linear equation \"Ax\" = \"b\" gives a bound on how inaccurate the solution \"x\" will be after approximation. Note that this is before the effects of round-off error are taken into account; conditioning is a property of the matrix, not the algorithm or floating-point accuracy of the computer used to solve the corresponding system. In particular, one should think of the condition number as being (very roughly) the rate at which the solution \"x\" will change with respect to a change in \"b\". Thus, if the condition number is large, even a small error in \"b\" may cause a large error in \"x\". On the other hand, if the condition number is small, then the error in \"x\" will not be much bigger than the error in \"b\".  The condition number is defined more precisely to be the maximum ratio of the relative error in \"x\" to the relative error in \"b\".  Let \"e\" be the error in \"b\". Assuming that \"A\" is a nonsingular matrix, the error in the solution \"A\"\"b\" is \"A\"\"e\". The ratio of the relative error in the solution to the relative error in \"b\" is  This is easily transformed to  The maximum value (for nonzero \"b\" and \"e\") is then seen to be the product of the two operator norms as follows:  The same definition is used for any consistent norm, i.e. one that satisfies  When the condition number is exactly one (which can only happen if \"A\" is a scalar multiple of a linear isometry), then a solution algorithm can find (in principle, meaning if the algorithm introduces no errors of its own) an approximation of the solution whose precision is no worse than that of the data.  However, it does not mean that the algorithm will converge rapidly to this solution, just that it will not diverge arbitrarily because of inaccuracy on the source data (backward error), provided that the forward error introduced by the algorithm does not diverge as well because of accumulating intermediate rounding errors.  The condition number may also be infinite, but this implies that the problem is ill-posed (does not possess a unique, well-defined solution for each choice of data; that is, the matrix is not invertible), and no algorithm can be expected to reliably find a solution.  The definition of the condition number depends on the choice of norm, as can be illustrated by two examples.  If formula_14 is the norm defined in the square-summable sequence space l (which matches the usual distance in a standard Euclidean space and is usually noted as formula_15), then  where formula_17 and formula_18 are maximal and minimal singular values of formula_19 respectively. Hence:  The condition number with respect to \"L\" arises so often in numerical linear algebra that it is given a name, the condition number of a matrix.  If formula_14 is the norm defined in the sequence space l of all bounded sequences (which matches the maximum of distances measured on projections into the base subspaces and is usually denoted by formula_28), and formula_19 is lower triangular non-singular (i.e., formula_30), then  The condition number computed with this norm is generally larger than the condition number computed with square-summable sequences, but it can be evaluated more easily (and this is often the only practicably computable condition number, when the problem to solve involves a \"non-linear algebra\", for example when approximating irrational and transcendental functions or numbers with numerical methods).  If the condition number is not too much larger than one, the matrix is well-conditioned, which means that its inverse can be computed with good accuracy. If the condition number is very large, then the matrix is said to be ill-conditioned. Practically, such a matrix is almost singular, and the computation of its inverse, or solution of a linear system of equations is prone to large numerical errors. A matrix that is not invertible has condition number equal to infinity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nonlinear.", "content": "Condition numbers can also be defined for nonlinear functions, and can be computed using calculus. The condition number varies with the point; in some cases one can use the maximum (or supremum) condition number over the domain of the function or domain of the question as an overall condition number, while in other cases the condition number at a particular point is of more interest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "One variable.", "content": "The condition number of a differentiable function formula_4 in one variable as a function is formula_33. Evaluated at a point formula_34, this is  Most elegantly, this can be understood as (the absolute value of) the ratio of the logarithmic derivative of formula_4, which is formula_37, and the logarithmic derivative of formula_34, which is formula_39, yielding a ratio of formula_40. This is because the logarithmic derivative is the infinitesimal rate of relative change in a function: it is the derivative formula_41 scaled by the value of formula_4. Note that if a function has a zero at a point, its condition number at the point is infinite, as infinitesimal changes in the input can change the output from zero to positive or negative, yielding a ratio with zero in the denominator, hence infinite relative change.  More directly, given a small change formula_43 in formula_34, the relative change in formula_34 is formula_46, while the relative change in formula_47 is formula_48. Taking the ratio yields  The last term is the difference quotient (the slope of the secant line), and taking the limit yields the derivative.  Condition numbers of common elementary functions are particularly important in computing significant figures and can be computed immediately from the derivative; see significance arithmetic of transcendental functions. A few important ones are given below:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Several variables.", "content": "Condition numbers can be defined for any function formula_4 mapping its data from some domain (e.g. an formula_51-tuple of real numbers formula_34) into some codomain (e.g. an formula_53-tuple of real numbers formula_47), where both the domain and codomain are Banach spaces. They express how sensitive that function is to small changes (or small errors) in its arguments. This is crucial in assessing the sensitivity and potential accuracy difficulties of numerous computational problems, for example, polynomial root finding or computing eigenvalues.  The condition number of formula_4 at a point formula_34 (specifically, its relative condition number) is then defined to be the maximum ratio of the fractional change in formula_47 to any fractional change in formula_34, in the limit where the change formula_59 in formula_34 becomes infinitesimally small:  where formula_14 is a norm on the domain/codomain of formula_4.  If formula_4 is differentiable, this is equivalent to:  where denotes the Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives of formula_4 at formula_34, and formula_68 is the induced norm on the matrix.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In the field of numerical analysis, the condition number of a function measures how much the output value of the function can change for a small change in the input argument. This is used to measure how sensitive a function is to changes or errors in the input, and how much error in the output results from an error in the input. Very frequently, one is solving the inverse problem: given formula_1 one is solving for \"x,\" and thus the condition number of the (local) inverse must be used. In linear regression the condition number of the moment matrix can be used as a diagnostic for multicollinearity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973102}
{"src_title": "Deborah", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In the Bible.", "content": "In the Book of Judges, it is stated that Deborah was a prophet, a judge of Israel and the wife of Lapidoth. She rendered her judgments beneath a date palm tree between Ramah in Benjamin and Bethel in the land of Ephraim.  The people of Israel had been oppressed by Jabin, the king of Canaan, whose capital was Hazor, for twenty years. Stirred by the wretched condition of Israel she sends a message to Barak, the son of Abinoam, at Kedesh of Naphtali, and tells him that the Lord God had commanded him to muster ten thousand troops of Naphtali and Zebulun and concentrate them upon Mount Tabor, the mountain at the northern angle of the great plain of Esdraelon. At the same time she states that the Lord God of Israel will draw Sisera, commander of Jabin's army, to the River Kishon. Barak declines to go without the prophet. Deborah consents, but declares that the glory of the victory will therefore belong to a woman. As soon as the news of the rebellion reaches Sisera he collects nine hundred chariots of iron and a host of people.  Then Deborah said, according to :  As Deborah prophesied, a battle is fought (led by Barak), and Sisera is completely defeated. He himself escapes on foot, while his army is pursued as far as Harosheth of the Gentiles and destroyed. Sisera comes to the tent of Jael; and he lies down to rest. He asks for a drink; she gives him milk; and while he is asleep she hammers a tent-pin through his temple.  The Biblical account of Deborah ends with the statement that after the battle, there was peace in the land for 40 years ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Song of Deborah.", "content": "The Song of Deborah is found in Judges 5:2–31 and is a victory hymn, sung by Deborah and Barak, about the defeat of Canaanite adversaries by some of the tribes of Israel. Biblical scholars generally identified the Song as one of the oldest parts of the Bible, dating somewhere in the 12th century BC, based on its grammar and context. However, some critics have recently argued that the song's language and content indicate that it was written no earlier than the 7th century BC. The song itself differs slightly from the events described in Judges 4. The song mentions six participating tribes (Ephraim, Benjamin, Machir, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali) as opposed to the two tribes in Judges 4:6 (Naphtali and Zebulun) and does not mention the role of Jabin.  Though it is not uncommon to read a victory hymn in the Hebrew Bible, the Song of Deborah stands out as unique in that it is a hymn that celebrates a military victory helped by two women: Deborah and Jael. Michael Coogan writes that Jael being a woman \"is a further sign that Yahweh ultimately is responsible for the victory: the mighty Canaanite general Sisera will be'sold' by the Lord 'into the hand of a woman (Judges 4:9).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traditional chronology.", "content": "Traditional Jewish chronology places Deborah's 40 years of judging Israel () from 1107 BC until her death in 1067 BC. The \"Dictionary of World Biography: The Ancient World\" claims that she might have lived in the period between 1200 BC to 1124 BC. Based on archaeological findings, different biblical scholars have argued that Deborah's war with Sisera best fits the context of either the second half of the 12th century BC or the second half of the 11th century BC.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "According to the Book of Judges, Deborah (, \"Dəḇōrāh\", \"bee\";, \"Dabūrāh\") was a prophetess of the God of the Israelites, the fourth Judge of pre-monarchic Israel and the only female judge mentioned in the Bible, and the wife of Lapidoth. Deborah told Barak that God commanded him to lead an attack against the forces of Jabin king of Canaan and his military commander Sisera (Judges 4:6–7); the entire narrative is recounted in chapter 4.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973103}
{"src_title": "Natalia Alexeievna (Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born in Prenzlau, Uckermark, Brandenburg, Prussia as the sixth child and fourth daughter of the nine children born from the Landgravial couple, Wilhelmina Louisa Augusta of Hesse-Darmstadt was brought up under the strict supervision of her mother, nicknamed \"The Great Landgräfin\", famed as one of the most learned women of her time and who befriended several writers and philosophers of her time, such as Goethe, Herder and other celebrities of that time. Already in her youth, Wilhelmina was distinguished by an outstanding mind, strong character and ardent temperament.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Journey to Russia and Marriage.", "content": "In 1772, Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich of Russia was 18-years-old, and his mother, Empress Catherine II, began the search for a bride for him. After a long search, two candidates remained: Sophia Dorothea of Württemberg and Wilhelmina. But Sophia Dorothea was just 13-years-old, and Catherine II urgently needed an heir, so the Empress was forced to opt for one of the remaining three unmarried daughters of the Landgrave; however, this option did not please her. In a letter to her envoy, she wrote:  King Frederick II of Prussia — to whom Catherine turned for \"recommendations\" in this matter — wanted the marriage, moreover because the Landgrave's eldest daughter Frederica was married to the heir of the Prussian throne and so, an alliance between Prussia and Russia would be a beneficial outcome.  In October 1772, Catherine wrote to Nikita Ivanovich Panin:  Unable to decide which one was worthy, the Empress sent an invitation to Wilhelmina, her sisters and their mother to visit Russia. The three Princesses studied to perfect their French, worked on their dancing, practiced dropping deep curtseys, and completed their wardrobes. Their first stop was in Berlin where from there a flotilla of four ships, sent by Catherine, which took them to Russia. It was the Grand Duke Paul's best friend, young Andrei Razumovsky, who commanded the frigate that carried the young ladies and their mother. He was immediately captivated by these charming passengers, and was particularly taken with Wilhelmine. She was not insensible to the admiration of Andrei.  The meeting of the Tsarevich with the Hessian princesses occurred in Gatchina on 15 June 1773. Paul chose Wilhelmina; she was very pretty, gay and exuberant, and the heir of the Russian throne was very delighted with her. Catherine wrote:  On 27 June 1773 the Landgravine of Hesse-Darmstadt and her three daughters were awarded with the Order of Saint Catherine. Almost one month later, on 15 August, Princess Wilhelmina was accepted in the Orthodox faith with the name and title of Grand Duchess Natalia Alexeievna, and the next day her betrothal with the Tsarevich Paul took place amidst great ostentation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tsarevna.", "content": "On 29 September 1773, the wedding between Tsarevich Paul Petrovich and Natalia Alexeievna took place in the Church of the Nativity of the Most Holy Theotokos (currently Kazan Cathedral). Very soon she showed her domineering and impetuous nature: the English envoy James Harris, 1st Earl of Malmesbury noted that she \"ruled her husband despotically, without even giving herself the trouble to show the least attachment to him.\"  During the first few months of her marriage, Natalia's gaiety and spontaneity animated the whole court. The Empress was delighted with her initially, but as time passed difficulties started to appear. The new Tsarevna's union was a failure: although Paul Petrovich loved his wife, Natalia was disappointed with her life as a married woman; for this, she began several political intrigues against Catherine II in order to help her husband to take the throne, because she felt such a need to accede to power due to her disastrous conjugal life. In addition, the Tsarevna refused to learn Russian and, being raised in modern Europe, showed certain independence in her statements, adhering to liberal ideas and even occasionally advocated the liberation of the peasants. Catherine II clearly didn't like her daughter-in-law's behavior. She wrote:  Despite the fact that the Tsarevna wasn't in love with her husband, she used her influence over him and tried to keep him away from everyone except for a narrow circle of her friends. According to contemporaries, the Tsarevna was a serious and ambitious woman, with a proud heart and a cool temper. In addition, she had been married for two years, but there was still no heir, to the concern of the court and the Empress.  However, in early 1776 the long-awaited pregnancy of the Tsarevna was officially announced to the court. Rumours of her affair with the charming Andrei Razumovsky aroused doubts about the real paternity of the child; however, for Catherine II didn't seem to care if was her son's or Andrei's. Natalia was carrying the heir to the Russian throne, and for the Empress, that was all that mattered.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 10 April 1776 around 4 a.m., the Tsarevna began the first labour pains. The contractions lasted for several days, and despite this, the baby couldn't be born naturally. The child died in the womb and infected the mother's body.  After five days of torment at 5 a.m. on 15 April, Tsarevna Natalia Alekseevna finally died after giving birth to a stillborn son.  The Chevalier de Corberon questioned the surgeon Moreau during a dinner, and he wrote, <nowiki>\"</nowiki>\"He [Moreau] told me privately that in his opinion, the surgeons and doctors of the court were asses. The Grand Duchess should never have died. In truth, it is very surprising that greater care is not taken in advance with a Grand Duchess. The people are very angry, weeping and bitter. Yesterday and today, people in shops were heard to say, 'The young ladies die; the old babas never die.'\"<nowiki>\"</nowiki> 'Old babas' (old women) was an allusion to Empress Catherine II.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Natalia Alexeievna, Tsarevna of Russia (25 June 1755 – 26 April 1776) was the first wife of Paul Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia (future Emperor Paul I), son of the Empress Catherine II. She was born as Princess Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt as the fifth child of Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt and his spouse Countess Palatine Caroline of Zweibrücken.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973104}
{"src_title": "Wanda Landowska", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life in Europe.", "content": "Landowska was born in Warsaw to Jewish parents. Her father was a lawyer, and her mother a linguist who translated Mark Twain into Polish. She began playing piano at the age of four, and studied at the Warsaw Conservatory with the senior Jan Kleczyński and Aleksander Michałowski. She was considered a child prodigy. She studied composition and counterpoint under Heinrich Urban in Berlin, and had lessons in Paris with Moritz Moszkowski. She began her performing career in Paris, where her recitals in that city and other European cities garnered praise from critics. She was interested in the music of J.S. Bach, whose works for harpsichord were included in her recitals by 1903, earning praise from Albert Schweitzer.  She became very interested in harpsichord, to the point that she decided to devote her career to harpsichord rather than piano, against the wishes of her friends, who thought she had a promising future as a pianist. In 1908–09, she toured Russia with a Pleyel harpsichord, similar to the 1889 model that the firm displayed at the Paris Exposition. After eloping with and marrying Polish folklorist and ethnomusicologist Henry Lew in 1900 in Paris, she taught piano at the Schola Cantorum there (1900–1912).  She later taught harpsichord at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik (1912–1919). When World War I started in 1914, she was interned on the grounds that she was a foreign national. After WWI ended, her husband died in a car accident. She had her American debut in 1923, touring major cities with four Pleyel Grand Modele de Concert harpsichords, which were huge seven-and-a-half foot long instruments with foot pedal-controlled registers. These were large, heavily built harpsichords with a 16-foot stop (a set of strings an octave below normal pitch) and owed much to piano construction. Deeply interested in musicology, and particularly in the works of Bach, Couperin and Rameau, she toured the museums of Europe looking at original keyboard instruments; she acquired old instruments and had new ones made at her request by Pleyel and Company. Responding to criticism by fellow Bach specialist Pablo Casals, she once said: \"You play Bach your way, and I'll play him 'his' way.\" A number of important new works were written for her: Manuel de Falla's \"El retablo de maese Pedro\" (\"Master Peter's Puppet Show\") marked the return of the harpsichord to the modern orchestra. Falla later wrote a harpsichord concerto for her, and Francis Poulenc composed his \"Concert champêtre\" for her. She taught at the Curtis Institute of Music from 1925 until 1928. She established the École de Musique Ancienne at Paris in 1925: from 1927, her home in Saint-Leu-la-Forêt became a center for the performance and study of old music. During this time Landowska frequented the salon of open lesbian Natalie Clifford Barney, to both socialize and perform.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life in America.", "content": "When the German Army invaded France, Landowska fled with her student and domestic partner Denise Restout. After leaving Saint-Leu in 1940, sojourning in Banyuls-sur-Mer, a commune in southern France, where her friend, sculptor Aristide Maillol was living, they sailed from Lisbon to the United States. Believing the Nazi threat to be temporary she had left with only two suitcases. She arrived in New York on 7 December 1941, the date of the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Her home in Saint-Leu was looted, and her instruments and manuscripts were stolen, so she arrived in the United States essentially with no assets.  Her 1942 performance of Bach's \"Goldberg Variations\" at New York's Town Hall was the first occasion in the 20th century where the piece was played on the harpsichord, the instrument for which it had been written.  She settled in Lakeville, Connecticut in 1949, and re-established herself as a performer and teacher in the United States, touring extensively. Her last public performance was in 1954. Her partner, Denise Restout, was editor and translator of her writings on music, including \"Musique ancienne\", and \"Landowska on Music\", published posthumously in 1964. Landowska recorded extensively for the Victor Talking Machine Company/RCA Victor and The Gramophone Company/EMI.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Wanda Aleksandra Landowska (5 July 1879 – 16 August 1959) was a Polish harpsichordist whose performances, teaching, recordings, and writings played a large role in reviving the popularity of the harpsichord in the early 20th century. She was the first person to record Johann Sebastian Bach's \"Goldberg Variations\" on the harpsichord (1933). She became a naturalized French citizen in 1938.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973105}
{"src_title": "Mineralocorticoid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Physiology.", "content": "The name mineralocorticoid derives from early observations that these hormones were involved in the retention of sodium, a mineral. The primary endogenous mineralocorticoid is aldosterone, although a number of other endogenous hormones (including progesterone and deoxycorticosterone) have mineralocorticoid function.  Aldosterone acts on the kidneys to provide active reabsorption of sodium and an associated passive reabsorption of water, as well as the active secretion of potassium in the principal cells of the cortical collecting tubule and active secretion of protons via proton ATPases in the lumenal membrane of the intercalated cells of the collecting tubule. This in turn results in an increase of blood pressure and blood volume.  Aldosterone is produced in the zona glomerulosa of the cortex of the adrenal gland and its secretion is mediated principally by angiotensin II but also by adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and local potassium levels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mode of action.", "content": "The effects of mineralocorticoids are mediated by slow genomic mechanisms through nuclear receptors as well as by fast nongenomic mechanisms through membrane-associated receptors and signaling cascades.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genomic mechanisms.", "content": "Mineralocorticoids bind to the mineralocorticoid receptor in the cell cytosol, and are able to freely cross the lipid bilayer of the cell. This type of receptor becomes activated upon ligand binding. After a hormone binds to the corresponding receptor, the newly formed receptor-ligand complex translocates into the cell nucleus, where it binds to many hormone response elements (HREs) in the promoter region of the target genes in the DNA.  The opposite mechanism is called transrepression. The hormone receptor without ligand binding interacts with heat shock proteins and prevents the transcription of targeted genes.  Aldosterone and cortisol (a glucosteroid) have similar affinity for the mineralocorticoid receptor; however, glucocorticoids circulate at roughly 100 times the level of mineralocorticoids. An enzyme exists in mineralocorticoid target tissues to prevent overstimulation by glucocorticoids. This enzyme, 11-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type II (), catalyzes the deactivation of glucocorticoids to 11-dehydro metabolites. Licorice is known to be an inhibitor of this enzyme and chronic consumption can result in a condition known as pseudohyperaldosteronism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pathophysiology.", "content": "Hyperaldosteronism (the syndrome caused by elevated aldosterone) is commonly caused by either idiopathic adrenal hyperplasia or by an adrenal adenoma. The two main resulting problems:  Hypoaldosteronism (the syndrome caused by underproduction of aldosterone) leads to the salt-wasting state associated with Addison's disease, although classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia and other disease states may also cause this situation. Acute underproduction (hemorrhagic adrenalitis) is often lifethreatening.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacology.", "content": "An example of a synthetic mineralocorticoid is fludrocortisone (Florinef).  Important antimineralocorticoids are spironolactone and eplerenone.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mineralocorticoids are a class of corticosteroids, which in turn are a class of steroid hormones. Mineralocorticoids are produced in the adrenal cortex and influence salt and water balances (electrolyte balance and fluid balance). The primary mineralocorticoid is aldosterone.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973106}
{"src_title": "Corticosteroid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medical uses.", "content": "Synthetic pharmaceutical drugs with corticosteroid-like effects are used in a variety of conditions, ranging from brain tumors to skin diseases. Dexamethasone and its derivatives are almost pure glucocorticoids, while prednisone and its derivatives have some mineralocorticoid action in addition to the glucocorticoid effect. Fludrocortisone (Florinef) is a synthetic mineralocorticoid. Hydrocortisone (cortisol) is typically used for replacement therapy, \"e.g.\" for adrenal insufficiency and congenital adrenal hyperplasia.  Medical conditions treated with systemic corticosteroids: Topical formulations are also available for the skin, eyes (uveitis), lungs (asthma), nose (rhinitis), and bowels. Corticosteroids are also used supportively to prevent nausea, often in combination with 5-HT3 antagonists (\"e.g.\" ondansetron).  Typical undesired effects of glucocorticoids present quite uniformly as drug-induced Cushing's syndrome. Typical mineralocorticoid side-effects are hypertension (abnormally high blood pressure), steroid induced diabetes mellitus, psychosis, poor sleep, hypokalemia (low potassium levels in the blood), hypernatremia (high sodium levels in the blood) without causing peripheral edema, metabolic alkalosis and connective tissue weakness. Wound healing or ulcer formation may be inhibited by the immunosuppressive effects.  Clinical and experimental evidence indicates that corticosteroids can cause permanent eye damage by inducing central serous retinopathy (CSR, also known as central serous chorioretinopathy, CSC). This should be borne in mind when treating patients with optic neuritis. There is experimental and clinical evidence that, at least in optic neuritis speed of treatment initiation is important.  A variety of steroid medications, from anti-allergy nasal sprays (Nasonex, Flonase) to topical skin creams, to eye drops (Tobradex), to prednisone have been implicated in the development of CSR.  Corticosteroids have been widely used in treating people with traumatic brain injury. A systematic review identified 20 randomised controlled trials and included 12,303 participants, then compared patients who received corticosteroids with patients who received no treatment. The authors recommended people with traumatic head injury should not be routinely treated with corticosteroids.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacogenetics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Asthma.", "content": "Patients' response to inhaled corticosteroids has some basis in genetic variations. Two genes of interest are CHRH1 (corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1) and TBX21 (transcription factor T-bet). Both genes display some degree of polymorphic variation in humans, which may explain how some patients respond better to inhaled corticosteroid therapy than others. However, not all asthma patients respond to corticosteroids and large sub groups of asthma patients are corticosteroid resistant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adverse effects.", "content": "Use of corticosteroids has numerous side-effects, some of which may be severe:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biosynthesis.", "content": "The corticosteroids are synthesized from cholesterol within the adrenal cortex. Most steroidogenic reactions are catalysed by enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family. They are located within the mitochondria and require adrenodoxin as a cofactor (except 21-hydroxylase and 17α-hydroxylase).  Aldosterone and corticosterone share the first part of their biosynthetic pathway. The last part is mediated either by the aldosterone synthase (for aldosterone) or by the 11β-hydroxylase (for corticosterone). These enzymes are nearly identical (they share 11β-hydroxylation and 18-hydroxylation functions), but aldosterone synthase is also able to perform an 18-oxidation. Moreover, aldosterone synthase is found within the zona glomerulosa at the outer edge of the adrenal cortex; 11β-hydroxylase is found in the zona fasciculata and zona glomerulosa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "By chemical structure.", "content": "In general, corticosteroids are grouped into four classes, based on chemical structure. Allergic reactions to one member of a class typically indicate an intolerance of all members of the class. This is known as the \"Coopman classification\". The highlighted steroids are often used in the screening of allergies to topical steroids.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group A – Hydrocortisone type.", "content": "Hydrocortisone, Hydrocortisone acetate, Cortisone acetate, tixocortol pivalate, prednisolone, methylprednisolone, prednisone", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Group B – Acetonides (and related substances).", "content": "Amcinonide, budesonide, desonide, fluocinolone acetonide, fluocinonide, halcinonide, and triamcinolone acetonide.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Group C – Betamethasone type.", "content": "Beclometasone, betamethasone, dexamethasone, fluocortolone, halometasone, and mometasone.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Group D – Esters.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Group D – Halogenated (less labile).", "content": "Alclometasone dipropionate, betamethasone dipropionate, betamethasone valerate, clobetasol propionate, clobetasone butyrate, fluprednidene acetate, and mometasone furoate.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Group D – Labile prodrug esters.", "content": "Ciclesonide, cortisone acetate, hydrocortisone aceponate, hydrocortisone acetate, hydrocortisone buteprate, hydrocortisone butyrate, hydrocortisone valerate, prednicarbate, and tixocortol pivalate.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "By route of administration.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Topical steroids.", "content": "For use topically on the skin, eye, and mucous membranes.  Topical corticosteroids are divided in potency classes I to IV in most countries (A to D in Japan). Seven categories are used in the United States to determine the level of potency of any given topical corticosteroid.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Inhaled steroids.", "content": "For nasal mucosa, sinuses, bronchi, and lungs. This group includes:  There also exist certain combination preparations such as Advair Diskus in the United States, containing fluticasone propionate and salmeterol (a long-acting bronchodilator), and Symbicort, containing budesonide and formoterol fumarate dihydrate (another long-acting bronchodilator). They are both approved for use in children over 12 years old.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Oral forms.", "content": "Such as prednisone, prednisolone, methylprednisolone, or dexamethasone.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Systemic forms.", "content": "Available in injectables for intravenous and parenteral routes.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Tadeusz Reichstein, Edward Calvin Kendall. and Philip Showalter Hench were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1950 for their work on hormones of the adrenal cortex, which culminated in the isolation of cortisone.  Initially hailed as a miracle cure and liberally prescribed during the 1950s, steroid treatment brought about adverse events of such a magnitude that the next major category of anti-inflammatory drugs, the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), was so named in order to demarcate from the opprobrium. Corticosteroids were voted Allergen of the Year in 2005 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.  Lewis Sarett of Merck & Co. was the first to synthesize cortisone, using a 36-step process that started with deoxycholic acid, which was extracted from ox bile. The low efficiency of converting deoxycholic acid into cortisone led to a cost of US$200 per gram. Russell Marker, at Syntex, discovered a much cheaper and more convenient starting material, diosgenin from wild Mexican yams. His conversion of diosgenin into progesterone by a four-step process now known as Marker degradation was an important step in mass production of all steroidal hormones, including cortisone and chemicals used in hormonal contraception.  In 1952, D.H. Peterson and H.C. Murray of Upjohn developed a process that used Rhizopus mold to oxidize progesterone into a compound that was readily converted to cortisone. The ability to cheaply synthesize large quantities of cortisone from the diosgenin in yams resulted in a rapid drop in price to US$6 per gram, falling to $0.46 per gram by 1980. Percy Julian's research also aided progress in the field. The exact nature of cortisone's anti-inflammatory action remained a mystery for years after, however, until the leukocyte adhesion cascade and the role of phospholipase A2 in the production of prostaglandins and leukotrienes was fully understood in the early 1980s.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The \"cortico-\" part of the name refers to the adrenal cortex, which makes these steroid hormones. Thus a corticosteroid is a \"cortex steroid\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Corticosteroids are a class of steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex of vertebrates, as well as the synthetic analogues of these hormones. Two main classes of corticosteroids, glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids, are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including stress response, immune response, and regulation of inflammation, carbohydrate metabolism, protein catabolism, blood electrolyte levels, and behavior.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973107}
{"src_title": "Simon Sechter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Sechter was born in Friedberg (Frymburk), Bohemia, then part of the Austrian Empire, and moved to Vienna in 1804, succeeding Jan Václav Voříšek as court organist there in 1824. In 1810 he began teaching piano and voice at an academy for blind students. In 1828 the ailing Franz Schubert had one counterpoint lesson with him. In 1851 Sechter was appointed professor of composition at the Vienna Conservatory. He died in poverty. He was succeeded at the Conservatory by Anton Bruckner, a former student whose teaching methods were based on Sechter's.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teaching methods.", "content": "Others whom Sechter taught include Henri Vieuxtemps, Franz Lachner, Eduard Marxsen (who taught Johannes Brahms piano and counterpoint), Johann Nepomuk Fuchs, Gustav Nottebohm, Anton Door, Karl Umlauf, Béla Kéler and Sigismond Thalberg, Adolf von Henselt, Anton de Kontski, Kornelije Stanković and Theodor Döhler.  Sechter had strict teaching methods. For instance, he forbade Bruckner to write any original compositions while studying counterpoint with him. The scholar Robert Simpson believes that \"Sechter unknowingly brought about Bruckner's originality by insisting that it be suppressed until it could no longer be contained.\" Sechter taught Bruckner by mail from 1855 to 1861 and considered Bruckner his most dedicated pupil. Upon Bruckner's graduation, Sechter wrote a fugue dedicated to his student.  In the three-volume treatise on the principles of composition, \"Die Grundsätze der musikalischen Komposition\", Sechter wrote a seminal work that influenced many later theorists. Sechter's ideas are derived from Jean-Philippe Rameau's theories of the fundamental bass, always diatonic even when the surface is highly chromatic; music theory historians strongly associate Sechter with the Viennese conception of fundamental bass theory. Sechter was an advocate of just intonation over well-tempered tuning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As composer.", "content": "Sechter was also a composer, and in that capacity he is mostly remembered for writing about 5,000 fugues (he tried to write at least one fugue every day), but he also wrote masses and oratorios. In addition he wrote five operas \"Das Testament des Magiers\" (1842), \"Ezzeline, die unglückliche Gegangene aus Deli-Katesse\" (1843), \"Ali Hitsch-Hatsch\" (1844), \"Melusine\" (1851), and \"Des Müllers Ring\" (?). In 1823–24, he was one of the 51 composers who composed a variation on a waltz by Anton Diabelli for \"Vaterländischer Künstlerverein.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Simon Sechter (11 October 1788 – 10 September 1867) was an Austrian music theorist, teacher, organist, conductor and composer. He was one of the most prolific composers who ever lived, although his music is largely forgotten and he is now mainly remembered as a strict music teacher, most notably of Anton Bruckner.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973108}
{"src_title": "Ino (Greek mythology)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Ino was the second wife of the Minyan king Athamas, mother of Learches and Melicertes and stepmother of Phrixus and Helle. She was the second daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia and one of the three sisters of Semele, the mortal woman of the house of Cadmus who gave birth to Dionysus. The three sisters were Agave, Autonoë and Ino, who was a surrogate for the divine nurses of Dionysus: Ino was a primordial Dionysian woman, nurse to the god and a divine maenad. (Kerenyi 1976:246)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mythology.", "content": "Maenads were reputed to tear their own children limb from limb in their madness. In the back-story to the heroic tale of Jason and the Golden Fleece, Phrixus and Helle, twin children of Athamas and Nephele, were hated by their stepmother, Ino. Ino hatched a devious plot to get rid of the twins, roasting all the crop seeds of Boeotia so they would not grow. The local farmers, frightened of famine, asked a nearby oracle for assistance. Ino bribed the men sent to the oracle to lie and tell the others that the oracle required the sacrifice of Phrixus. Athamas reluctantly agreed. Before he was killed though, Phrixus and Helle were rescued by a flying golden ram sent by Nephele, their natural mother. Helle fell off the ram into the Hellespont (which was named after her, meaning \"Sea of Helle\") and drowned, but Phrixus survived all the way to Colchis, where King Aeetes took him in and treated him kindly, giving Phrixus his daughter, Chalciope, in marriage. In gratitude, Phrixus gave the king the golden fleece of the ram, which Aeetes hung in a tree in his kingdom.Later, Ino raised Dionysus, her nephew, son of her sister Semele, causing Hera's intense jealousy. In vengeance, Hera struck Athamas with insanity. Athamas went mad, slew one of his sons, Learchus, thinking he was a ram, and set out in frenzied pursuit of Ino. To escape him Ino threw herself into the sea with her son Melicertes. Both were afterwards worshipped as marine divinities, Ino as Leucothea (\"the white goddess\"), Melicertes as Palaemon. Alternatively, Ino was also stricken with insanity and killed Melicertes by boiling him in a cauldron, then took the cauldron and jumped into the sea with it. A sympathetic Zeus did not want Ino to die, and transfigured her and Melicertes as Leucothea and Palaemon.  The story of Ino, Athamas and Melicertes is relevant also in the context of two larger themes. Ino, daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, had an end just as tragic as her siblings: Semele died while pregnant with Zeus' child, killed by her own pride and lack of trust in her lover; Agave killed her own son, King Pentheus, while struck with Dionysian madness, and Actaeon, son of Autonoe, the third sibling, was torn apart by his own hunting dogs. Also, the insanity of Ino and Athamas, who hunted his own son Learchos as a stag and slew him, can be explained as a result of their contact with Dionysus, whose presence can cause insanity. None can escape the powers of Dionysus, the god of wine. Euripides took up the tale in \"The Bacchae\", explaining their madness in Dionysiac terms, as a result of their having initially resisted belief in the god's divinity.  When Athamas returned to his second wife, Ino, Themisto (his third wife) sought revenge by dressing her children in white clothing and Ino's in black and directing the murder of the children in black. Ino switched their clothes without Themisto knowing and she killed her own children.  Transformed into the goddess Leucothea, Ino also represents one of the many sources of divine aid to Odysseus in the \"Odyssey\" (5:333ff), her earliest appearance in literature. Homer calls her \"Ino-Leocothea of the beautiful ankles [καλλίσφυρος], daughter of Cadmus, who was once a mortal speaking with the tongue of men, but now in the salt sea-waters has received honor at the hands of the gods\". Providing Odysseus with a veil and telling him to discard his cloak and raft, she instructs him how he can entrust himself to the waves and succeed in reaching land and eventually the island of Scheria (Corcyra), home of Phaeaceans.  In historical times, a sisterhood of maenads of Thebes in the service of Dionysus traced their descent in the female line from Ino; we know this because an inscription at Magnesia on the Maeander summoned three maenads from Thebes, from the house of Ino, to direct the new mysteries of Dionysus at Magnesia (Burkert 1992:44).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Greek mythology Ino (Ancient Greek: Ἰνώ, ) was a mortal queen of Boeotia, who after her death and transfiguration was worshiped as a goddess under her epithet Leucothea, the \"white goddess.\" Alcman called her \"Queen of the Sea\" (), which, if not hyperbole, would make her a doublet of Amphitrite.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973109}
{"src_title": "Dominique Vandamme", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Vandamme enlisted in the army in 1786 and rapidly rose through the ranks. At the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793 he was a Brigadier General. He served in this rank in the campaigns of 1794 in the Low Countries, 1795 on the Rhine and 1796 in Germany. He was court-martialled for looting and suspended. Reinstated, he fought at the First Battle of Stockach on 25 March 1799, but disagreement with General Jean Moreau led to his being sent to occupation duties in Holland. At the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 he led his division, alongside Gen. St. Hilaire's, as part of Marshal Soult's IV Corps in the charge that captured the Pratzen Heights. For his leadership he was awarded the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour.  In 1806-7 his forces besieged Breslau, and after finally taking it he ordered the fortifications to be levelled. He was named Count of Unsebourg by Napoleon I after the Silesian campaign during the War of the Fourth Coalition. In the campaign of 1809, he led a small allied corps from Württemberg in the battles of Abensberg, Landshut, and Eckmühl.  Reportedly a brutal and violent soldier, renowned for insubordination and looting, Napoleon is said to have told him, \"If I had two of you, the only solution would be to have one hang the other\". Napoleon added that he would give Vandamme command of the vanguard were he (Napoleon) to launch a campaign against Lucifer in Hell.  In the campaign of 1813, Vandamme's I Corps attacked the Allied Bohemian Army as it tried to retreat after the Battle of Dresden. While his troops were engaged in the Battle of Kulm, a corps led by the Prussian General Friedrich Graf Kleist von Nollendorf fortuitously attacked the French from the rear. In the consequent disaster, Vandamme and 13,000 of his men were captured. In his captivity, he appears to have been treated with especial harshness, and at the end of the war he was forbidden to enter Paris, and sent to Cassel by Louis XVIII. He was thus free of all obligations towards the Bourbons, and when Napoleon returned, joined him without hesitation. The emperor made him a peer of France.  In the campaign of 1815 Vandamme was in command of the III Corps, under the direction of Marshal Emmanuel Grouchy. He urged Grouchy to join Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, but Grouchy preferred to pursue the Prussian 3rd Corps under General Johann von Thielmann, winning the Battle of Wavre, but losing the war. After the restoration of Louis XVIII of France Vandamme was exiled to America and settled in Philadelphia amongst other French military exiles. General Vandamme was allowed to return to France by the ordinance of 1 December 1819. He was re-established in the service in the Ètat-major Général, until his final retirement on 1 January 1825. Afterwards he lived alternatively in Cassel and Ghent, occupying himself with the writing of his memoirs. He died in his native Cassel, aged 59.  VANDAMME is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "General Dominique-Joseph René Vandamme, Count of Unseburg (5 November 1770, Cassel, Nord15 July 1830) was a French military officer, who fought in the Napoleonic Wars. He was a dedicated career soldier with a reputation as an excellent division and corps commander. However he had a nasty disposition that alienated his colleagues; he publicly criticized Napoleon, who never appointed him marshal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973110}
{"src_title": "Battle of Kulm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Following the French victory at Dresden, Vandamme pursued the retreating allies. Napoleon sent Marshals Gouvion Saint Cyr and Auguste Marmont to support Vandamme's corps. With Vandamme in advance, Saint Cyr's and Marmont's corps brought up the rear. Vandamme caught up with Alexander Ivanovich Ostermann-Tolstoy's forces near the town of Kulm, eight kilometres northwest of Aussig (Ústí nad Labem, now in the Czech Republic).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "On 29 August, Vandamme, with 34,000 soldiers and 84 guns at his disposal, attacked Russian formations forming a rearguard for the retreating Coalition army, at 16,000 strong, under the command of Russian general Ostermann-Tolstoy. The situation was very dangerous for the allies; if Vandamme won the battle, the French would take the passes in the mountains, and the retreating Coalition army could be trapped by Napoleon. However, Ostermann-Tolstoy rallied all of his troops for a stiff defense, and soon Vandamme's troops were repulsed. Vandamme's situation changed the next day. A Prussian army corp commanded by Friedrich von Kleist attacked Vandamme's rear guard. Kleist then received help from a combined Russian and Austrian attack on his front, under the command of Generals Ostermann-Tolstoy and von Colloredo-Mansfeld. In an attempt to repulse simultaneous attacks on his front and rear, Vandamme ordered his forces to form squares. The inexperienced French troops were unable to fend off the allies, and soon withdrew from the battlefield, with heavy losses, including Vandamme himself as a captured prisoner of war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casualties.", "content": "The French lost more than half of the pursuing force of 34,000; about 5,000 soldiers killed or wounded, and between 7,000 and 13,000 French soldiers were taken prisoner, including Vandamme, and almost all of his artillery, 80 of his 84 guns, were captured. The allies lost approximately 13,000 soldiers killed or wounded.  In Vandamme's corps there were two Polish regiments of Uhlans, part of cavalry divisions under the command of General Jean Corbineau. These regiments were used by Vandamme to defend against enemy cavalry charges. One regiment, commanded by Colonel Maximilian Fredro (brother of playwright Alexander Fredro), was attacked after withdrawing to a defile and surrendered. The other regiment of Uhlans, under the command of Count Tomasz Łubieński (generally known in English as Thomas Lubienski) successfully withdrew.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "While Marshal MacDonald's defeat at Katzbach coincided with Napoleon's victory at Dresden, the Coalition success at Kulm eventually negated his triumph, given that his troops never completely crushed the enemy. Thus, by winning this battle, Ostermann-Tolstoy and his troops succeeded in buying much needed time for the Coalition armies to regroup after the Battle of Dresden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Insults.", "content": "According to a French anecdote, after the battle Vandamme was brought to and accused by Emperor Alexander I of Russia of being a brigand and plunderer. He retorted, \"I am neither a plunderer nor a brigand, but in any case, my contemporaries and history will not reproach me for having murdered my own father.\" This statement apparently hinted at the widespread belief that Alexander I was implicated in the murder of his father, Emperor Paul I.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The battlefield today.", "content": "The battlefield is mostly built over. There is a large monument topped with a lion next door to the Hotel Napoleon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Kulm was a battle near the town Kulm () and the village Přestanov in northern Bohemia. It was fought on 29–30 August 1813, during the War of the Sixth Coalition. 32,000 French troops under Dominique Vandamme attacked an army of about 50-60,000 Austrians, Russians and Prussians under Alexander Ostermann-Tolstoy, but were defeated with heavy losses on both sides.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973111}
{"src_title": "Heinkel He 70", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Heinkel He 70 \"Blitz\" (Lightning) was designed in the early 1930s to serve as a mailplane for \"Deutsche Lufthansa\" in response to a request for an aircraft faster than the Lockheed Model 9 Orion (used by Swissair) to service short routes.  It was a low-wing monoplane, with the main characteristics of its design being an aerodynamically efficient elliptical wing, a two-bladed propeller driven by a single engine.  In order to meet the demanding speed requirements, the design endeavored to minimise drag, with flush rivets giving a smooth surface finish, and retractable main landing gear. The tail wheel was not retractable. It was powered by a BMW VI V12 engine of 630hp cooled by ethylene glycol rather than water. This allowed a smaller radiator which also retracted at high speed to further reduce drag. The pilot and radio operator were seated in tandem, followed by a cabin seating four passengers in pairs facing each other. and proved to have excellent performance, setting eight world records for speed over distance, and reaching a maximum speed of 377 km/h (222 mph).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Luft Hansa operated He 70s between 1934 and 1937 for a fast flight service which connected Berlin with Frankfurt, Hamburg and Cologne, as well as on the Cologne/Hamburg route.  He 70s were flown abroad from Stuttgart to Seville between 1934 and 1936. The route was part of the South America mail service provided by Luft Hansa that continued via Bathurst, The Gambia to Natal, Brazil, using Junkers Ju 52/3m and Dornier Wal flying boats.  Remaining aircraft were transferred to the \"Luftwaffe\" in 1937.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military use.", "content": "The \"Luftwaffe\" operated He 70s from 1935, initially as a light bomber and reconnaissance aircraft. As soon as purpose built designs became available, it was relegated as a liaison and courier aircraft.  Twenty-eight aircraft were sent in the late 1930s to Spain with the German-manned \"Legion Condor\", where they were used during the Spanish Civil War as fast reconnaissance aircraft. There they were known as the \"Rayo\", Spanish for \"lightning\".  The He 70K (later He 170) was a fast reconnaissance airplane variant used by the German air force. Fitted with a new WM-K-14 radial engine, it was used by the Royal Hungarian Air Force as the He 170A early in World War II during 1941–42.  The main weakness of the He 70 in military use was that crews considered it a fire risk. Elements of the airframe were made out of an extremely flammable magnesium alloy called \"Elektron\", though the majority of the monocoque fuselage was Duralumin. Elektron is very light yet strong, but burns readily when ignited and is difficult to extinguish. Moreover, each wing contained a non-self-sealing 47-gallon fuel tank, which may have further added to the aircraft's reputation for catching fire. A single hit from a light machine gun is reputed to have often set the entire aircraft ablaze. The Hungarian He 170A fleet was retired for this and other reasons, including poor defensive armament, short range and poor view from the cabin, and replaced with vintage, high-wing He 46 monoplanes, until modern Bf 109 fighter-reconnaissance and specialized Fw 189 \"Uhu\" medium altitude observation aircraft could be introduced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "While the He 70 saw only limited service in training capacities during World War II, it was the \"Luftwaffe\"s first \"Schnellbomber\" and served as the antecedent for the majority of bombers involved in both the Battle of Britain and the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "German designs.", "content": "The He 70 is known mainly as the direct ancestor of the Heinkel He 111, which had the distinctive elliptical wings and streamlined fuselage in a twin-engine configuration. One can also see the close similarity of the designs in the tail section and cockpit of the early He 111. The He 111, which began service with the \"Luftwaffe\" in 1936, went on to become the most numerous bomber type of the Luftwaffe – with just over 5,600 examples produced during the war in total – in the early years of World War II, before the growing numbers of Junkers Ju 88 bomber variants (the -A and -S subtypes) overtook it later in World War II.  Heinkel's pioneering design was also a model for the He 112 fighter which competed unsuccessfully against the Messerschmitt Bf 109 to become the \"Luftwaffe\"s first monoplane fighter. The He 112 was nonetheless built in small numbers, and its performance proved once again the strength of the He 70's original design.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Japanese designs.", "content": "The He 70 was exported to Japan for study and inspired the Aichi D3A (\"Val\") carrier-launched light bomber. This aircraft shared the He 70's distinctive low-mounted elliptical wing and was one of several collaborations between Heinkel and the Japanese aviation industry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "British designs.", "content": "It has been said that the He 70 was an inspiration or influence for the Supermarine Spitfire's elliptical wing.  In a letter to Heinkel, written after seeing the aircraft perform with the Rolls Royce Kestrel engine fitted, R. J. Mitchell said: However, Beverley Shenstone, RJ Mitchell's aerodynamic advisor denied that the Spitfire wing was copied from the He 70. Shenstone said:  The Günther brothers had already used an elliptical wing design for the Bäumer Sausewind sports aircraft before they joined Heinkel.  Shenstone said that the He 70's influence on the Spitfire design was limited to use as a benchmark for aerodynamic smoothness.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Heinkel He 70 was a mail plane and fast passenger aircraft of the 1930s designed by German aeronautics firm Heinkel Flugzeugwerke, which was also used in auxiliary bomber and aerial reconnaissance roles. It had a relatively brief commercial career before it was replaced by types which could carry more passengers. The He 70 was a leading design for its day, setting eight world speed records by the beginning of 1933.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973112}
{"src_title": "Salvatore Maranzano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Salvatore Maranzano was the youngest of 12 children born to Domenico Maranzano and Antonina Piscotta. Five of his siblings lived to adulthood: Mariano, Angelo, Nicolo, Giuseppe, and Angela. As a youngster, Maranzano had wanted to become a priest and even studied to become one, but later became associated with the Mafia in his homeland. Maranzano had a very commanding presence and was greatly respected by his underworld peers. He had a fascination with Julius Caesar and the Roman Empire, and enjoyed talking to his less-educated American Mafia counterparts about these subjects. Because of this, he was nicknamed \"Little Caesar\" by his underworld peers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Maranzano emigrated from Sicily to the United States in the 1920s, settling in Brooklyn. The Sicilian \"mafioso\" Don Vito Ferro decided to make a bid for control of Mafia operations in the United States. From his base in Castellammare del Golfo, Maranzano was sent to seize control. While building a legitimate business as a real estate broker, Maranzano also maintained a growing bootlegging business, using the real estate company as a front for his illegal operations. He soon became involved in prostitution and the illegal smuggling of narcotics; he also took a liking to a young Joseph Bonanno and became his mentor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Castellammarese War.", "content": "To protect the criminal empire that Maranzano had built up, he declared war on his rival Joe Masseria, the boss of all bosses, in 1930, starting the Castellammarese War. In early 1931, Lucky Luciano decided to eliminate his boss, Masseria. In a secret deal with Maranzano, Luciano agreed to engineer Masseria's death in return for receiving Masseria's rackets and becoming Maranzano's second-in-command. On April 15, Luciano invited Masseria and two other associates to lunch in a Coney Island restaurant. After finishing their meal, the mobsters decided to play cards. At that point, according to mob legend, Luciano went to the bathroom. Four gunmen – Vito Genovese, Albert Anastasia, Joe Adonis and Benjamin \"Bugsy\" Siegel – then walked into the dining room and shot and killed Masseria. With Maranzano's blessing, Luciano took over Masseria's gang and became Maranzano's lieutenant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Boss of All Bosses.", "content": "With Masseria gone, Maranzano reorganized the Italian American gangs in New York City into Five Families headed by Luciano, Profaci, Gagliano, Vincent Mangano and himself. Each family would have a boss, underboss, capos, soldiers, and associates, would be composed of only full-blooded Italian Americans, while associates could come from any background. However, Maranzano called a meeting of crime bosses in Wappingers Falls, New York, and declared himself \"capo dei capi\" (\"boss of all bosses\"). Maranzano also whittled down the rival families' rackets in favor of his own. Luciano appeared to accept these changes, but was merely biding his time before removing Maranzano. Although Maranzano was slightly more forward-thinking than Masseria, Luciano had come to believe that Maranzano was even more greedy and hidebound than Masseria had been.  Maranzano's scheming, his arrogant treatment of his subordinates and his fondness for comparing his organization to the Roman Empire (he attempted to model the organization after Caesar's military chain of command) did not sit well with Luciano and his ambitious friends, like Vito Genovese, Frank Costello and others. Despite his advocacy for modern methods of organization, including crews of soldiers doing the bulk of a family's illegal work under the supervision of a \"caporegime\", at heart Maranzano was a \"Mustache Pete\" — an old-school mafioso too steeped in Old World ways. He was opposed to Luciano's partnership with Jewish gangsters such as Meyer Lansky and Benjamin \"Bugsy\" Siegel. Luciano and his colleagues had intended all along to bide their time before getting rid of Maranzano.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "By September 1931, Maranzano realized Luciano was a threat, and hired Vincent \"Mad Dog\" Coll, an Irish gangster, to kill him. However, Tommy Lucchese alerted Luciano that he was marked for death. On September 10, Maranzano ordered Luciano and Genovese to come to his office at the 230 Park Avenue in Manhattan. Convinced that Maranzano planned to murder them, Luciano decided to act first. He sent to Maranzano's office four Jewish gangsters whose faces were unknown to Maranzano's people. They had been secured with the aid of Lansky and Siegel. Disguised as government agents, two of the gangsters disarmed Maranzano's bodyguards. The other two, aided by Lucchese, who was there to point Maranzano out, stabbed the boss multiple times before shooting him. This assassination was the first of what would later be fabled as the \"Night of the Sicilian Vespers.\"  Although there would have been few objections had Luciano declared himself \"capo di tutti capi,\" he abolished the title, believing the position created trouble between the families and made himself a target for another ambitious challenger. Luciano subsequently created The Commission to serve as the governing body for organized crime.  Maranzano is buried in Saint John's Cemetery, Queens, New York, near Luciano's grave.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photographs.", "content": "The only known photographs of Maranzano are from the scene of his death. In 2009, \"Informer\" author David Critchley had identified the picture once claimed to be a mugshot of Maranzano, as that of the London-based gangster Salvatore Messina instead. In August 2019, the \"Informer\" had issued another photo believed to be Maranzano, but later retracted the statement in September due to European historians identifying the image to be that of German criminal Peter Kürten.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salvatore Maranzano (; July 31, 1886 – September 10, 1931) was an organized crime figure from the town of Castellammare del Golfo, Sicily, and an early Cosa Nostra boss who led what later would become the Bonanno crime family in New York City. He instigated the Castellammarese War in 1930, to seize control of the American Mafia, winning the war after the murder of rival faction head, Joe Masseria, in April 1931. He then briefly became the Mafia's \"capo di tutti capi\" (\"boss of all bosses\") and formed the Five Families in New York City, but was murdered on September 10, 1931, under the orders of Charles \"Lucky\" Luciano, who established an arrangement in which families shared power to prevent future turf wars: The Commission.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973113}
{"src_title": "Matthias Sindelar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Of Czech descent, Sindelar was born Matěj Šindelář () in Kozlov, Moravia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the son of Jan Šindelář, a blacksmith, and his wife Marie (née Švengrová). Despite occasional claims that Sindelar was of Jewish origin, the family was Catholic. They moved to Vienna in 1905 and settled in the district of Favoriten, which had a large Czech-speaking community. Young Matěj/Matthias began playing football in the streets of Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club career (1918–1939).", "content": "At the age of 15, the Sindelar joined Hertha Vienna, playing there until 1924, when he was brought to FK Austria Vienna, whose name at the time was \"Wiener Amateur-SV\", up to 1926. He helped the team win the Austrian Cup in 1925, 1926, 1933, 1935 and 1936, a league title in 1926, and the Mitropa Cup in 1933 and 1936.  In 2001, Sindelar was chosen in Austria's Team of the Century.  Sindelar was arguably one of Europe's best and, in scope, most influential footballers of his generation, recognized for his ball control, passing and dribbling, and especially his creativity. Anecdote has it that some Viennese football fans went to Sindelar's games not only to see him play but to get a better understanding of how football should be played.  In 1938 he appeared as himself in the Austrian film \"Roxy and the Wonderteam\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Austria national team.", "content": "From 1926 to 1937, Sindelar was capped 43 times for his country, scoring 26 goals. He scored four goals in his first three international matches, including one in his debut match, a 2-1 victory over Czechoslovakia on 28 September 1926. Sindelar became an essential part of the Austrian \"Wunderteam\" that was coached by Hugo Meisl, after a falling-out caused by his individualism. David Goldblatt described the events:  He made his international debut in 1926 and played well before falling out of favour with the disciplinarian Meisl. Four years in the international wilderness followed until Meisl was cornered by a gathering of the city's leading football commentators as he sat in the Ring Café in 1931. Everyone was arguing for Sindelar's recall and Meisl changed his mind. Sindelar played. Scotland were beaten and the \"Wunderteam\" - already disciplined, organized, hardworking and professional - acquired their playmaker and inspiration, that vital spark of unpredictability.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1934 World Cup.", "content": "Sindelar and Austria were especially prominent at the 1934 World Cup. The high point was their defeat of Hungary in quarterfinals, when Sindelar was matched up against centre-half György Sárosi, who would go on to claim a runners-up medal at the following World Cup in France. In a bruising encounter, one Hungarian was sent-off, and Johann Horvath, the Austrian midfielder, was injured and missed the semi-final against Italy. Austria then suffered a controversial defeat to the host nation, with Sindelar affected by the harsh marking of Luis Monti.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Austria v Germany 1938.", "content": "On 3 April 1938, the Austrian team played Germany in the Prater Stadium in Vienna its last match as an independent Austrian team, as some weeks earlier, Germany had annexed Austria (Anschluss) and the Nazis ordered the dissolution of the Austrian team into a common team with Germany, even though it had qualified for the 1938 FIFA World Cup.  The match (German: \"Anschlussspiel\") was dubbed as a game for celebrating the Anschluss and Austria's \"coming home to the Reich\". The Austrians played on the wish of Sindelar in red-white-red kits (the national flag's colours) instead of their traditional white and black. Austria missed out many sitters in a way that looked deliberate. However, in the last 20 minutes, Sindelar and teammate Karl Sesta both scored as the game finished 2–0. Sindelar is reported to have celebrated extravagantly in front of senior Nazi dignitaries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International caps and goals.", "content": "The following is a list of Sindelar's international appearances and goals with the Austria national football team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Team record.", "content": "In the 43 matches that Sindelar played, Austria had a total record of 25 victories, 11 draws, and 7 losses.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Death and myth.", "content": "Always refusing to leave his home country, Sindelar refused to play for Germany after Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938 (Anschluss), citing old age (by then 35 years) or injury as his excuse. On 23 January 1939 both Sindelar and his girlfriend Camilla Castagnola were found dead at the apartment they shared in Vienna; the official verdict cited carbon monoxide poisoning as the cause. Different theories speculated that his death was an accident, suicide or murder.  Austrian writer Friedrich Torberg later dedicated the poem \"\"Auf den Tod eines Fußballspielers\"\" (\"On the death of a footballer\") to Sindelar. The poem suggested that he had committed suicide as a result of the German Anschluss of Austria in 1938. On the other hand, it has been thought and reported that his death was accidental, caused by a defective chimney. A neighbour had reported a defective chimney in the block a few days before Sindelar's death. However, in a 2000s documentary screened on the BBC, Egon Ulbrich, a lifelong friend of Sindelar, stated that a local official was bribed to record his death as an accident, which ensured that he would receive a state funeral. \"\"According to the Nazi rules, a person who had been murdered or who has committed suicide cannot be given a grave of honour. So we had to do something to ensure that the criminal element involved in his death was removed\",\" he stated. It has also been suggested that Sindelar was killed for his opposition for the Anschluss. The Nazi secret police force, the notorious Gestapo, had a file on him and had kept his café under surveillance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Sindelar was ranked as Austria's best footballer of the twentieth century by the IFFHS, also ranking as the world's 22nd best. His career titles include:  |", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Matthias Sindelar (; 10 February 1903 – 23 January 1939) was an Austrian footballer who played for Austria Vienna and the Austrian national football team", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973114}
{"src_title": "Eduard Suess", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Eduard Suess was born on 20 August 1831 in London, England, the oldest son of Adolph Suess, a Lutheran Saxon merchant, and Jewish mother Eleonore Zdekauer. When he was three, his family relocated to Prague, and then to Vienna when he was 14. He became interested in geology at a young age. While working as an assistant at the Hofmuseum in Vienna, he published his first paper—on the geology of Carlsbad (in present-day Czech Republic)—when he was 19. In 1855, Suess married Hermine Strauss, the daughter of a prominent physician from Prague. Their marriage produced five sons and one daughter.  In 1856, he was appointed professor of paleontology at the University of Vienna, and in 1861 was appointed professor of geology. He gradually developed views on the connection between Africa and Europe. Eventually, he concluded that the Alps to the north were once at the bottom of an ocean, of which the Mediterranean was a remnant. Suess was not correct in his analysis, which was predicated upon the notion of \"contractionism\"—the idea that the Earth is cooling down and, therefore, contracting. Nevertheless, he is credited with postulating the earlier existence of the Tethys Ocean, which he named in 1893. He claimed in 1885 that land bridges had connected South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. He named this ancient broken continent Gondwanaland.  Suess published a comprehensive synthesis of his ideas between 1885 and 1901 titled \"Das Antlitz der Erde\" (\"The Face of the Earth\"), which was a popular textbook for many years. In volume two of this massive three-volume work, Suess set out his belief that across geologic time, the rise and fall of sea levels were mappable across the earth—that is, that the periods of ocean transgression and regression were correlateable from one continent to another. His theory was based upon glossopteris fern fossils occurring in South America, Africa, and India. His explanation was that the three lands were once connected in a supercontinent, which he named Gondwanaland. Again, this is not quite correct: Suess believed that the oceans flooded the spaces currently between those lands. In his work \"Die Entstehung der Alpen\", Suess also introduced the concept of the biosphere, which was later extended by Vladimir I. Vernadsky in 1926. Suess wrote: He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1895. He received the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society of London in 1896 and he won the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1903. Suess died on 26 April 1914 in Vienna. He is buried in the town of Marz in Burgenland, Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Suess is considered one of the early practitioners of ecology. Suess Land in Greenland, the lunar crater \"Suess\", as well as the crater \"Suess\" on Mars, are named after him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Franz Eduard Suess.", "content": "His son, Franz Eduard Suess (1867–1941), was superintendent and geologist at the \"Imperial Geological Institute\" in Vienna, who studied moldavites and coined the term tektite. The asteroid 12002 Suess, discovered by Czech astronomers Petr Pravec and Lenka Kotková in 1996, was named in his honor.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Eduard Suess (; 20 August 1831 – 26 April 1914) was an Austrian geologist and an expert on the geography of the Alps. He is responsible for hypothesising two major former geographical features, the supercontinent Gondwana (proposed in 1861) and the Tethys Ocean.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973115}
{"src_title": "Righteous Among the Nations", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Bestowing.", "content": "When Yad Vashem, the Shoah Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, was established in 1953 by the Knesset, one of its tasks was to commemorate the \"Righteous Among the Nations\". The Righteous were defined as non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust.  Since 1963, a commission headed by a justice of the Supreme Court of Israel has been charged with the duty of awarding the honorary title \"Righteous Among the Nations\". Guided in its work by certain criteria, the commission meticulously studies all documentation including evidence by survivors and other eyewitnesses, evaluates the historical circumstances and the element of risk to the rescuer, and then decides if the case meets the criteria. Those criteria are:  The award has been given without regard to the social rank of the helper. It has been given to royalty such as Princess Alice of Battenberg, Queen Mother Helen of Romania and Queen Elisabeth of Belgium but also to others like the philosopher Jacques Ellul and to Amsterdam department store employee Hendrika Gerritsen.  A person who is recognized as Righteous for having taken risks to help Jews during the Holocaust is awarded a medal in their name, a certificate of honor, and the privilege of having the name added to those on the Wall of Honor in the Garden of the Righteous at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem (the last is in lieu of a tree planting, which was discontinued for lack of space). The awards are distributed to the rescuers or their next-of-kin during ceremonies in Israel, or in their countries of residence through the offices of Israel's diplomatic representatives. These ceremonies are attended by local government representatives and are given wide media coverage.  The Yad Vashem Law authorizes Yad Vashem \"to confer honorary citizenship upon the Righteous Among the Nations, and if they have died, the commemorative citizenship of the State of Israel, in recognition of their actions\". Anyone who has been recognized as \"Righteous\" is entitled to apply to Yad Vashem for the certificate. If the person is no longer alive, their next of kin is entitled to request that commemorative citizenship be conferred on the Righteous who has died. In total, men and women from 51 countries have been recognized, amounting to more than 10,000 authenticated rescue stories. Yad Vashem's policy is to pursue the program for as long as petitions for this title are received and are supported by evidence that meets the criteria.  Recipients who choose to live in the State of Israel are entitled to a pension equal to the average national wage and free health care, as well as assistance with housing and nursing care.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Righteous settled in Israel.", "content": "At least 130 Righteous non-Jews have settled in Israel. They were welcomed by Israeli authorities, and were granted citizenship. In the mid-1980s, they became entitled to special pensions. Some of them settled in British Mandatory Palestine before Israel's establishment shortly after World War II, or in the early years of the new state of Israel, while others came later. Those who came earlier often spoke fluent Hebrew and have integrated into Israeli society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other signs of veneration.", "content": "The Righteous are honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church in the United States on 16 July.  One Righteous Among the Nations, Saint Elizabeth Hesselblad of Sweden, has been canonized a saint in the Catholic Church. Five others have been beatified: Blessed Giuseppe Girotti, O.P., and Odoardo Focherini of Italy, Blessed Klymentiy Sheptytsky, M.S.U., of Austria-Hungary, Blessed Bernhard Lichtenberg of Germany, and Blessed Sára Salkaházi of Hungary.  In 2015, Lithuania's first street sign honoring a Righteous Among the Nations was unveiled in Vilnius. The street is named Simaites Street, after Ona Šimaitė, a Vilnius University librarian who helped and rescued Jewish people in the Vilna Ghetto.  In Zvolen, Slovakia, the commemorates the Righteous Among the Nations from Slovakia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Number of awards by country.", "content": ", the award has been made to 27,363 people.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Righteous Among the Nations (, \"ḥasidei ummot ha`olam\" \"righteous (plural) of the world's nations\") is an honorific used by the State of Israel to describe non-Jews who risked their lives during the Holocaust to save Jews from extermination by the Nazis for altruistic reasons. The term originates with the concept of \"righteous gentiles\", a term used in rabbinic Judaism to refer to non-Jews, called \"ger toshav\", who abide by the Seven Laws of Noah.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973116}
{"src_title": "Thiocyanate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Organic thiocyanates.", "content": "Organic and transition metal derivatives of the thiocyanate ion can exist as \"linkage isomers\". In thiocyanates, the organic group (or metal ion) is attached to sulfur: R−S−C≡N has a S–C single bond and a C≡N triple bond. In isothiocyanates, the substituent is attached to nitrogen: R−N=C=S has a S=C double bond and a C=N double bond:  Organic thiocyanates are valuable building blocks in organic chemistry and they allow to access efficiently various sulfur containing functional groups and scaffolds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synthesis.", "content": "Several synthesis routes exist, the most basic being the reaction between alkyl halides and alkali thiocyanate in aqueous media. Organic thiocyanates are hydrolyzed to thiocarbamates in the Riemschneider thiocarbamate synthesis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biological chemistry of thiocyanate in medicine.", "content": "Thiocyanate is known to be an important part in the biosynthesis of hypothiocyanite by a lactoperoxidase. Thus the complete absence of thiocyanate or reduced thiocyanate in the human body, (e.g., cystic fibrosis) is damaging to the human host defense system.  Thiocyanate is a potent competitive inhibitor of the thyroid sodium-iodide symporter. Iodine is an essential component of thyroxine. Since thiocyanates will decrease iodide transport into the thyroid follicular cell, they will decrease the amount of thyroxine produced by the thyroid gland. As such, foodstuffs containing thiocyanate are best avoided by Iodide deficient hypothyroid patients.  In the early 20th century, thiocyanate was used in the treatment of hypertension, but it is no longer used because of associated toxicity. Sodium nitroprusside, a metabolite of which is thiocyanate, is however still used for the treatment of a hypertensive emergency. Rhodanese catalyzes the reaction of sodium nitroprusside with thiosulfate to form the metabolite thiocyanate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coordination chemistry.", "content": "Thiocyanate shares its negative charge approximately equally between sulfur and nitrogen. As a consequence, thiocyanate can act as a nucleophile at either sulfur or nitrogen — it is an ambidentate ligand. [SCN] can also bridge two (M−SCN−M) or even three metals (>SCN− or −SCN<). Experimental evidence leads to the general conclusion that class A metals (hard acids) tend to form \"N\"-bonded thiocyanate complexes, whereas class B metals (soft acids) tend to form \"S\"-bonded thiocyanate complexes. Other factors, e.g. kinetics and solubility, are sometimes involved, and linkage isomerism can occur, for example [Co(NH)(NCS)]Cl and [Co(NH)(SCN)]Cl.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Test for iron(III) and cobalt(II).", "content": "If [SCN] is added to a solution with iron(III) ions, a blood-red solution forms mainly due to the formation of[Fe(SCN)(HO)], i.e. pentaaqua(thiocyanato-\"N\")iron(III). Lesser amounts of other hydrated compounds also form: e.g. Fe(SCN) and [Fe(SCN)].  Similarly, Co gives a blue complex with thiocyanate. Both the iron and cobalt complexes can be extracted into organic solvents like diethyl ether or amyl alcohol. This allows the determination of these ions even in strongly coloured solutions. The determination of Co(II) in the presence of Fe(III) is possible by adding KF to the solution, which forms uncoloured, very stable complexes with Fe(III), which no longer react with SCN.  Phospholipids or some detergents aid the transfer of thiocyanatoiron into chlorinated solvents like chloroform and can be determined in this fashion.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Thiocyanate (also known as rhodanide) is the anion [SCN]. It is the conjugate base of thiocyanic acid. Common derivatives include the colourless salts potassium thiocyanate and sodium thiocyanate. Organic compounds containing the functional group SCN are also called thiocyanates. Mercury(II) thiocyanate was formerly used in pyrotechnics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973117}
{"src_title": "Wilhelm Kempff", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kempff was born in Jüterbog, Brandenburg, in 1895. He grew up in nearby Potsdam where his father was a royal music director and organist at St. Nicolai Church. His grandfather was also an organist and his brother Georg became director of church music at the University of Erlangen. Kempff studied music at first at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik at the age of nine after receiving lessons from his father at a younger age. Whilst there he studied composition with Robert Kahn and piano with Karl Heinrich Barth (with whom Arthur Rubinstein also studied). In 1914 Kempff moved on to study at the Viktoria gymnasium in Potsdam before returning to Berlin to finish his training.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a pianist.", "content": "In 1917, Kempff gave his first major recital, consisting of predominantly major works, including Beethoven's Hammerklavier Sonata and Brahms Variations on a Theme of Paganini. Kempff toured widely in Europe and much of the rest of the world. Between 1936 and 1979 he performed ten times in Japan (a small Japanese island was named \"Kenpu-san\" in his honor). Kempff made his first London appearance in 1951 and his first in New York in 1964. He gave his last public performance in Paris in 1981, and then retired for health reasons (Parkinson's disease). He died in Positano, Italy, in 1991 at the age of 95, five years after his wife, whom he had married in 1926. They were survived by seven children.  Wilhelm Kempff recorded over a period of some sixty years. His recorded legacy includes works of Schumann, Brahms, Schubert, Mozart, Bach, Liszt, Chopin and particularly, of Beethoven. He recorded the complete sonatas of Franz Schubert long before these works became popular, albeit restricting himself to the finished movements, not fragments, in sonatas that Schubert left incomplete. He also recorded two sets of the complete Beethoven sonatas, one in mono (1951–1956) and the other in stereo (1964–1965); earlier, he recorded nearly all on shellac (1926–1945). He recorded the complete Beethoven piano concertos twice as well, both with the Berlin Philharmonic; the first from the early 1950s in mono with Paul van Kempen, and the later in stereo from the early 1960s with Ferdinand Leitner. Kempff also recorded chamber music with Yehudi Menuhin, Pierre Fournier, Wolfgang Schneiderhan, Paul Grümmer, and Henryk Szeryng, among others.  He left recordings of most of his repertory, including the complete sonatas of Beethoven and Schubert. He performed to an advanced age, continuing to give concerts past his eightieth birthday. His association with the Berlin Philharmonic spanned over sixty years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technique and style.", "content": "As a performer Kempff stressed lyricism and spontaneity in music, particularly effective in intimate pieces or passages. He always strove for a singing, lyrical quality. He avoided extreme tempos and display for its own sake.  The pianist Alfred Brendel has written that Kempff \"played on impulse... it depended on whether the right breeze, as with an aeolian harp, was blowing. You then would take something home that you never heard elsewhere.\" (in Brendel's book, \"The Veil of Order\"). He regards Kempff as the \"most rhythmical\" of his colleagues. Brendel helped choose the selections for the Philips label's Great Pianists of the 20th Century issue of Kempff recordings, and wrote in the notes that Kempff \"achieves things that are beyond him\" in his \"unsurpassable\" recording of Liszt's first Legende, \"St. Francis Preaching to the Birds.\"  When pianist Artur Schnabel undertook his pioneering complete recording of the Beethoven sonatas in the 1930s, he told EMI that if he didn't complete the cycle, they should have Kempff complete the remainder. Later, when Kempff was in Finland, the composer Jean Sibelius asked him to play the slow movement of Beethoven's 29th Sonata, the Hammerklavier; after Kempff finished, Sibelius told him, \"You did not play that as a pianist but rather as a human being.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As a teacher.", "content": "From 1924 to 1929, Kempff took over the direction of the Stuttgart College of Music as a successor of Max Pauer. In 1931, he was co-founder of the summer courses at Marmorpalais Potsdam. In 1957, Kempff founded Fondazione Orfeo (today: Kempff Kulturstiftung) in the south-Italian city Positano and held his first Beethoven interpretation masterclass at Casa Orfeo, which Kempff had built especially for this reason. He continued teaching there once a year until 1982. His wife died in 1986. After his death in 1991, Gerhard Oppitz taught the courses from 1992–1995, followed by John O’Conor until 2011 and from 2013 onwards Bernd Goetzke. Oppitz and O'Conor had both been outstanding participants of Kempff's masterclasses and were personally closely connected with Wilhelm Kempff. Like his predecessors Bernd Goetzke is a former participant of the courses in Positano.  Other noted pianists to have studied with Kempff include Jörg Demus, Norman Shetler, Mitsuko Uchida, Peter Schmalfuss, İdil Biret and Ventsislav Yankov.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "A lesser-known activity of Kempff was composing. He composed for almost every genre and used his own cadenzas for Beethoven's Piano Concertos 1–4. His student İdil Biret has recorded a CD of his piano works. His second symphony premiered in 1929 at the Leipzig Gewandhaus by Wilhelm Furtwängler. He also prepared a number of Bach transcriptions, including the Siciliano from the Flute Sonata in E-flat major, that have been recorded by Kempff and others. His opera \"Famile Gozzi\", a comic work in three acts, was written in 1934.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "Among many others:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wilhelm Walter Friedrich Kempff (25 November 1895 – 23 May 1991) was a German pianist and composer. Although his repertoire included Bach, Mozart, Chopin, Schumann, Liszt and Brahms, Kempff was particularly well known for his interpretations of the music of Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert, recording the complete sonatas of both composers. He is considered to have been one of the chief exponents of the Germanic tradition during the 20th century and one of the greatest pianists of all time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973118}
{"src_title": "Heinkel He 59", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "In 1930, Ernst Heinkel began developing an aircraft for the \"Reichsmarine\". To conceal the true military intentions, the aircraft was officially a civil aircraft. The He 59B landplane prototype was the first to fly, an event that took place in September 1931, but it was the He 59A floatplane prototype that paved the way for the He 59B initial production model, of which 142 were delivered in three variants. The Heinkel He 59 was a pleasant aircraft to fly; deficiencies noted were the weak engine, the limited range, the small load capability and insufficient armament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The aircraft was of a mixed-material construction. The wings were made of a two-beam wooden frame, where the front was covered with plywood and the rest of the wing was covered with fabric. The box-shaped fuselage had a fabric-covered steel frame. The tail section was covered with lightweight metal sheets.  The keels of the floats were used as fuel tanks - each one holding 900 L (238 US gal) of fuel. Together with the internal fuel tank, the aircraft could hold a total of 2,700 L (713 US gal) of fuel. Two fuel tanks could also be placed in the bomb bay, bringing the total fuel capacity up to 3,200 L (845 US gal). The propeller was fixed-pitch with four blades.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "During the first months of World War II, the He 59 was used as a torpedo- and minelaying aircraft. Between 1940 and 1941 the aircraft was used as a reconnaissance aircraft, and in 1941-42 as a transport, air-sea rescue, and training aircraft. The trainer models survived slightly longer in service than operational models, but all had been retired or destroyed by 1944. Some aircraft were operated by the Condor Legion in Spain during the Spanish Civil War in 1936 as coastal reconnaissance and torpedo floatplanes.  The British claimed, as the air-sea rescue aircraft, despite carrying Red Cross markings, were being used for reconnaissance, they were legitimate targets. Even before then some had been forced down by British aircraft. One justification the British used resulted from the fact that in July 1940 they had shot down a white HE 59 near Deal, Kent that was clearly marked with red crosses simply because it was in the same air space as German fighters. Some have explained this violation by stating that the British were fearful that saboteurs might be landed using these aircraft, another claim was that a convoy passing through the heavily trafficked English channel had spotted a red cross marked HE 59 and was then attacked by bombers later in its voyage. When the crew of the HE 59 downed off Deal was captured the British noted that the pilot supposedly noted the position and direction of a British convoy in his log book. Using that pretext the British Air Ministry issued Bulletin 1254 indicating that all enemy air-sea rescue aircraft were to be destroyed wherever they were encountered. Later, Winston Churchill later cast doubt on his own government's claims and motives when he wrote: \"We did not recognize this means of rescuing enemy pilots who had been shot down in action, in order that they might come and bomb our civil population again.\" Germany protested the British attacks as rescue aircraft were part of the Geneva Convention agreement stipulating that belligerents must respect all \"mobile sanitary formations\" such as field ambulances and hospital ships. Churchill claimed that rescue aircraft were not anticipated by the treaty, and were therefore not covered. Because British attacks on He 59s continued the German Seenotdienst ordered the rescue aircraft armed and camouflaged. The use of civil registration and red cross markings was abandoned. A Seenotdienst gunner later shot down an attacking No. 43 Squadron RAF Hurricane fighter on July 20 Rescue flights were ordered to be protected by fighter aircraft whenever possible.  The \"Ilmavoimat\" (Finnish Air Force) rented four aircraft from Germany in August 1943. These were used to ferry long-range reconnaissance patrols behind enemy lines. They were returned to Germany four months later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "\"Brandenburg Historica,\" The Luftwaffe Seenotdienst (Air Sea Rescue Service) of World War II", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Heinkel He 59 was a twin-engined German biplane designed in 1930, resulting from a requirement for a torpedo bomber and reconnaissance aircraft able to operate on wheeled landing gear or twin-floats.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973119}
{"src_title": "Babirusa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "The genus is monotypic within the subfamily Babyrousinae, or alternatively considered to form a tribe, Babyrousini, of the subfamily Suinae. To date, only one fossil skull has been found to suggest a larger ancestor.  All members of the genus were considered part of a single species, the babirusa or pig-deer, \"B. babyrussa\". They were split into several species, this scientific name is restricted to the Buru babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands, whereas the best-known species, the north Sulawesi babirusa, is named \"B. celebensis\". The split, which uses the phylogenetic species concept, is based on differences in size, amount of hair on body and tail-tuft, and measurements of the skull and teeth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "\"B. babyrussa beruensis\" was described as an extinct, Pleistocene subspecies from southwestern Sulawesi before babirusas were split into multiple species.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Physical description.", "content": "Babirusa are notable for the long upper canines in the males. The upper canines of male babirusa emerge vertically from the alveolar process, penetrating through the skin and curving backward over the front of the face and towards the forehead. The lower canines also grow upwards. The canines of the female are either reduced or absent. The structure of the male's canines vary by species. In the golden babirusa, the upper canines are short and slender with the alveolar rotated forward to allow the lower canines to cross the lateral view. The Togian babirusa also has the same characteristics and the upper canines always converge. The North Sulawesi babirusa has long and thick upper canines with a vertically implanted alveolar. This caused the upper canines to emerge vertically and not cross with the lower canines. Babirusa also vary by species in other characteristics. The golden babirusa has a long, thick pelage that is white, creamy gold, black or gold overall and black at the rump. The pelage of the Togian babirusa is also long but not as that of the golden babirusa. The Togian babirusa has a tawny, brown or black pelage that is darker on the upper parts than in the lower parts. The North Sulawesi babirusa has very short hair and appears bald. The female babirusa has only one pair of teats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology and ecology.", "content": "Babirusa are native to Sulawesi, some of the Togian Islands, the Sula Islands and Buru. In Sulawesi, they range from the northern peninsula to the south and south east provinces. Although babirusas are present on both Sulawesi and Sula, they are not found on the large islands between the two, the Banggai Archipelago. It has been hypothesized that the unusual distribution is due to their being transported by humans as gifts bestowed by native royalty. The preferred habitat of babirusa are tropical rainforests along river banks. It appears that they have been confined to the higher grounds in the interior despite occurring in lowland areas near coasts in the past. They are also active during the daytime. Like all pig species, babirusa have an omnivorous diet with an intestinal tract similar to that of the domestic pig. The stomach diverticulum of a babirusa is enlarged which may indicate that it is a ruminant but evidence shows otherwise. Because it does not have a rostral bone in the nose, a babirusa does not dig with its snout like other pigs do except in mud and swampy grounds. The diet of the babirusa includes leaves, roots, fruits and animal material. Apparently, the strong jaws of a babirusa are capable of easily cracking hard nuts.  Male babirusa tend to live solitarily while adult females can be found in groups with young. Groups of female and young babirusa may number up to 84 individuals, most of which contain no adult males. Males rarely travel in pairs or trios. The tusks of the adult males are used in intraspecific fighting. The upper tusks are for defense while the lower tusks are offensive weapons. If a babirusa does not grind its tusks (achievable through regular activity), they can eventually keep growing so as to penetrate the animal's own skull.  Female babirusa cycle lengths are between 28 and 42 days and estrus last 2–3 days. The litter size for a babirusa is usually one or two piglets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with humans.", "content": "In Indonesia, the striking appearance of the babirusa has inspired demonic masks, and the animal itself is sometimes used as a gift to present to visitors.  The Balinese Hindu-era Court of Justice pavilion and the \"floating pavilion\" of Klungkung palace ruins are notable for painted babirusa \"raksasa\" (grotesques) on the ceilings.  Prehistoric paintings of babirusa found in caves on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia have been dated back at least 35,400 years (to the ice age Pleistocene epoch). Adam Brumm, who co-authored the 2014 study dating the paintings, said \"The paintings of the wild animals are most fascinating because it is clear they were of particular interest to the artists themselves.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "Babirusas are protected in Indonesia and killing them is illegal in most cases. However, poaching remains a significant threat to the babirusa. Additionally, commercial logging operations threaten the babirusa by habitat loss, and also reduce cover, making the babirusa more exposed to poachers. All extant species of babirusa are listed as vulnerable or endangered by the IUCN.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The babirusas, also called deer-pigs () are a genus, Babyrousa, in the swine family found in Wallacea, or specifically the Indonesian islands of Sulawesi, Togian, Sula and Buru. All members of this genus were considered part of a single species until 2002, the babirusa, \"B. babyrussa\", but following that, was split into several species. This scientific name is restricted to the Buru babirusa from Buru and Sula, whereas the best-known species, the north Sulawesi babirusa, is named \"B. celebensis\". The remarkable \"prehistoric\" appearance of these mammals is largely due to the prominent upwards incurving canine tusks of the males, which actually pierce the flesh in the snout.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973120}
{"src_title": "Nile Delta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "From north to south, the delta is approximately in length. From west to east, it covers some of coastline. The delta is sometimes divided into sections, with the Nile dividing into two main distributaries, the Damietta and the Rosetta, flowing into the Mediterranean at port cities with the same name. In the past, the delta had several distributaries, but these have been lost due to flood control, silting and changing relief. One such defunct distributary is Wadi Tumilat.  The Suez Canal is east of the delta and enters the coastal Lake Manzala in the north-east of the delta. To the north-west are three other coastal lakes or lagoons: Lake Burullus, Lake Idku and Lake Mariout.  The Nile is considered to be an \"arcuate\" delta (arc-shaped), as it resembles a triangle or flower when seen from above. Some scholars such as Aristotle have written that the delta was constructed for agricultural purposes due to the drying of the region of Egypt. Although such an engineering feat would be considered equivalent to a wonder of the ancient world, there is insufficient evidence to determine conclusively whether the delta is man-made or was formed naturally.  In modern day, the outer edges of the delta are eroding, and some coastal lagoons have seen increasing salinity levels as their connection to the Mediterranean Sea increases. Since the delta no longer receives an annual supply of nutrients and sediments from upstream due to the construction of the Aswan Dam, the soils of the floodplains have become poorer, and large amounts of fertilizers are now used. Topsoil in the delta can be as much as in depth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "People have lived in the Nile Delta region for thousands of years, and it has been intensively farmed for at least the last five thousand years. The delta was a major constituent of Lower Egypt, and there are many archaeological sites in and around the delta. Artifacts belonging to ancient sites have been found on the delta's coast. The Rosetta Stone was found in the delta in 1799 in the port city of Rosetta (an anglicized version of the name Rashid). In July 2019 a small Greek temple, ancient granite columns, treasure-carrying ships, and bronze coins from the reign of Ptolemy II, dating back to the third and fourth centuries BC, were found at the sunken city of Heracleion, colloquially known as Egypt's Atlantis. The investigations were conducted by Egyptian and European divers led by the underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio. They also uncovered a devastated historic temple (the city's main temple) underwater off Egypt's north coast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient branches of the Nile.", "content": "Records from ancient times (such as by Pliny the Elder) show that the delta had seven distributaries or branches, (from east to west):  There are now only two main branches, due to flood control, silting and changing relief: the Damietta (corresponding to the Phatnitic) to the east, and the Rosetta (corresponding to the Bolbitine) in the western part of the Delta. The Delta used to flood annually, but this ended with the construction of the Aswan Dam.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "About 39 million people live in the Delta region. Outside of major cities, population density in the delta averages or more. Alexandria is the largest city in the delta with an estimated population of more than 4.5 million. Other large cities in the delta include Shubra El Kheima, Port Said, El Mahalla El Kubra, Mansura, Tanta, and Zagazig.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wildlife.", "content": "During autumn, parts of the Nile River are red with lotus flowers. The Lower Nile (North) and the Upper Nile (South) have plants that grow in abundance. The Upper Nile plant is the Egyptian lotus, and the Lower Nile plant is the Papyrus Sedge (\"Cyperus papyrus\"), although it is not nearly as plentiful as it once was, and is becoming quite rare.  Several hundred thousand water birds winter in the delta, including the world's largest concentrations of little gulls and whiskered terns. Other birds making their homes in the delta include grey herons, Kentish plovers, shovelers, cormorants, egrets and ibises.  Other animals found in the delta include frogs, turtles, tortoises, mongooses, and the Nile monitor. Nile crocodiles and hippopotamus, two animals which were widespread in the delta during antiquity, are no longer found there. Fish found in the delta include the flathead grey mullet and soles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The Delta has a hot desert climate (Köppen: BWh) as the rest of Egypt, but its northernmost part, as is the case with the rest of the northern coast of Egypt which is the wettest region in the country, has relatively moderate temperatures, with highs usually not surpassing in the summer. Only of rain falls on the delta area during an average year, and most of this falls in the winter months. The delta experiences its hottest temperatures in July and August, with a maximum average of. Winter temperatures are normally in the range of at nights to in the daytime. With cooler temperatures and some rain, the Nile Delta region becomes quite humid during the winter months.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sea level.", "content": "Egypt's Mediterranean coastline experiences significant loss of land to the sea, in some places amounting to a year. The low-lying Nile Delta area in particular is vulnerable to sea level rise associated with global warming. This effect is exacerbated by the lack of sediments being deposited since the construction of the Aswan Dam. If the polar ice caps were to melt, much of the northern delta, including the ancient port city of Alexandria, could disappear under the Mediterranean. A rise in sea level could affect about 6.6% of the total land cover area in the Nile Delta region. At sea level rise, an estimated 887 thousand people could be at risk of flooding and displacement and about of vegetation, wetland, cropland, and of urban area land could be destroyed, flooding approximately. Some areas of the Nile Delta's agricultural land have been rendered saline as a result of sea level rise; farming has been abandoned in some places, while in others sand has been brought in from elsewhere to reduce the effect. In addition to agriculture, the delta's ecosystems and tourist industry could be negatively affected by global warming. Food shortages resulting from climate change could lead to seven million \"climate refugees\" by the end of the 21st century. Nevertheless, environmental damage to the delta is not currently one of Egypt's priorities.  The delta's coastline has also undergone significant changes in geomorphology as a result of the reclamation of coastal dunes and lagoons to form new agricultural land and fish farms as well as the expansion of coastal urban areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governorates and large cities.", "content": "The Nile Delta forms part of these 10 governorates: Large cities located in the Nile Delta:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nile Delta ('or simply ') is the delta formed in Lower Egypt where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the world's largest river deltas—from Alexandria in the west to Port Said in the east, it covers of Mediterranean coastline and is a rich agricultural region. From north to south the delta is approximately in length. The Delta begins slightly down-river from Cairo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973121}
{"src_title": "Blue hour", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "How and when it happens.", "content": "The still commonly presented incorrect explanation claims that the Earth's post-sunset and pre-sunrise atmosphere solely receives and disperses the sun's shorter blue wavelengths and scatters the longer, reddish wavelengths to explain why the hue of this hour is so blue. In fact, the blue hour occurs when the Sun is far enough below the horizon so that the sunlight's blue wavelengths dominate due to the Chappuis absorption caused by ozone. Even some websites dedicated to information about ozone still propagate the incorrect claim that ozone does not contribute to the blue color of the sky, though this effect is much weaker during the rest of the day, between morning and evening twilight.  When the sky is clear, the blue hour can be a colorful spectacle, with the indirect sunlight tinting the sky yellow, orange, red, and blue. This effect is caused by the relative diffusibility of shorter wavelengths (bluer rays) of visible light versus the longer wavelengths (redder rays). During the blue \"hour\", red light passes through space while blue light is scattered in the atmosphere, and thus reaches Earth's surface. Blue hour usually lasts about 20–30 minutes right after sunset and right before sunrise. For instance, if the sun sets at 6:30 p.m., blue hour would occur from 6:40 p.m. to 7 p.m.. If the sun were to rise at 7:30 a.m., blue hour would occur from 7 a.m. to 7:20 a.m.. Time of year, location, and air quality all have an impact on the exact timing of blue hour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blue hour photography.", "content": "Many artists value this period for the quality of the soft light. Although the blue hour does not have an official definition, the blue color spectrum is most prominent when the Sun is between 4° and 8° below the horizon. Photographers cherish blue hour for the tranquil mood it sets. When photographing blue hour it is recommended to capture subjects that have artificial light sources, such as buildings, monuments, cityscapes, or bridges.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The blue hour (from French ; ) is the period of twilight (in the morning or evening, around the nautical stage) when the Sun is at a significant depth below the horizon and residual, indirect sunlight takes on a predominantly blue shade, which differs from the one visible during most of a clear day, which is caused by Rayleigh scattering.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973122}
{"src_title": "Volin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born in the Voronezh district of Central Russia, where both his parents were doctors. His parents offered him the opportunity to study in the best schools, where he learned French and German. After high school, he initially studied at a college in Voronezh, later enrolling in the Saint Petersburg State University Faculty of Law to study jurisprudence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activism and imprisonment.", "content": "In 1904 he left the university, joined the Socialist-Revolutionary Party and became involved in the revolutionary labor movement. He was engaged in cultural and educational activity among the workers of the city when he met Father Gapon and joined his petition movement; on Bloody Sunday (1905) he was with a group that was turned back by soldiers before it could reach the Winter Palace. During the ensuing strikes he took the lead in creating the first St. Petersburg Soviet in order to coordinate aid and information for the workers; although quiescent much of the year and finally suppressed in December after the Russian Revolution of 1905, the Soviet was revived during the February Revolution of 1917.  He was arrested, imprisoned and deported because of his revolutionary activities after the 1905 Revolution. In 1907 he escaped from prison fled fled to France. He settled in Paris where he completed his studies, came under the influence of Russian anarchists and joined the movement, a small group of Apollon Karelin, in 1911. Volin's views eventually gravitated towards anarcho-syndicalism, and he decided to leave the Socialist-Revolutionary Party in 1913. During the first months of the First World War he participated in the International Commission for the Anti-militarist Section, for which he was detained by the French authorities in 1915. At this point he was married and had four children. He remained in a concentration camp from where he was to be deported, but he escaped with the help of some French comrades and embarked from Bordeaux to the United States.  In America, Volin joined the Union of Russian Workers, which had more than 10,000 members. In the union he was very well received, he was placed in charge of editing its paper, \"Golos Truda\" (\"Voice of the Labor)\", and he was regularly required to attend conferences throughout North America, since it lacked speakers and propagandists. He was a great orator, as the Russian press had pointed out during the events of 1905. His easy speech, the persuasive tone of his voice, the elegance of his imaginative and colorful language, the vigor and the elevation of his thought, attracted the adherence of the masses, who gathered to listen to him.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After the Revolution.", "content": "But in 1917 he abandoned his work in America to return to Petrograd, in the midst of the Russian Revolution. Back in Russia, he verified the weakness of the anarchist movement, due to the little consideration that anarchists in Russia paid to the organization in North America. He tried to solve the disunity of anarchists living in Russia and anarchists who went into exile in the times of the Tsar, but forming the \"Petrograd Union of Anarcho-Syndicalist Propaganda\". This decided to continue the publication of the Golos Truda, of which Volin continued as editor. After the October revolution, the newspaper was made daily and a Bolshevik-oriented editorial committee was added to it. This committee was not to the liking of Volin, who left the newspaper after the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty.  He left for Bobrov, where he worked in the city Soviet and was reunited with his wife and four children, back from France. He was in charge of popular education, with the task of bringing the population to an understanding of revolutionary events. Shortly thereafter, he joined the organizers of the Kursk Conference, which commissioned him to draft adopted resolutions and prepare a statement that could be accepted by all the trends and nuances of anarchism - allowing everyone to work in a single organization. Thus, Volin formulated his idea of Synthesis anarchism, which included syndicalism, communism and individualism, since he considered these to be the three main aspects of anarchism.  In the autumn of 1918, Volin created, together with other colleagues, the Nabat, an organization that had a great capacity for mobilization due to its high number of affiliates.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Ukrainian Revolution and the Bolshevik repression.", "content": "In 1919, Volin decided to join the Makhnovist movement, in the culture and education sector, to organize meetings, conferences, talks, popular councils, as well as the publication of flyers and posters. That same year, Volin was elected president of the Insurgent Council, where he worked intensively for six months. His work was interrupted when he fell ill with tuberculosis. Due to his immobility, he was easily arrested on January 14, 1920 and transferred to Moscow at the hands of the Cheka. He was released in October 1920, on the occasion of the alliance signed between the Black Army and the Red Army to fight Pyotr Wrangel's forces.  He moved to Kharkiv, where, with the Nabat Confederation, he prepared an anarchist Congress for December 25. On the eve of the congress, the Bolsheviks arrested Volin and the anarchists in attendance, for their membership in libertarian groups. Volin and the other prisoners were transferred to Moscow.  From then on he was incarcerated in Butyrka prison In prison, everyone knew about the Cheka's brutality, against which they protested with a hunger strike that lasted for ten and a half days, and ended thanks to an unexpected intervention: convinced by Emma Goldman, Alexander Berkman and Alexander Shapiro, the European delegates to a Profintern Congress obtained the release of ten prisoners, including Volin, on condition of perpetual banishment under threat of death.<ref", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vsevolod Mikhailovich Eikhenbaum (, ; 11 August 188218 September 1945), known in later life as Volin or (the spelling he used himself) Voline (Во́лин), was a leading Russian anarchist who participated in the Russian and Ukrainian Revolutions before being forced into exile by the Bolshevik Party government. He was a main proponent of the anarchist organizational form known as synthesis anarchism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973123}
{"src_title": "Elisabeth Ludovika of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Elisabeth was born in Munich, the daughter of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and his Queen Friederike Karoline Wilhelmine Margravine of Baden. She was the identical twin sister of Queen Amalie of Saxony, consort of King John I of Saxony, and sister of Archduchess Sophie of Austria, mother of Emperor Franz Josef I of Austria and Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico; as well as Ludovika, Duchess in Bavaria, mother of Franz Josef's consort, Empress Elisabeth of Austria (\"Sisi\"), who was Elisabeth's godchild and namesake. She was known within her family as Elise.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Crown Princess.", "content": "On 29 November 1823, she married the future King Frederick William IV of Prussia and supported his intellectual interests, namely his attempts at artwork, which he held dear to his heart. She refused to become a Protestant as a condition of her marriage, insisting that she would only convert if she was convinced on the merits of the reformed faith after studying it for herself. It was only 5 May 1830, seven years after her marriage, that Elisabeth formally converted to Protestantism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen.", "content": "Becoming Queen consort of Prussia in 1840, she was never without influence in Prussian politics, where she was active in preserving the close friendship between Prussia and the Austrian Empire.  To Frederick William IV, she was an exemplary wife and, during his long illness, a dedicated nurse. She was initially hostile to her nephew's British wife, Victoria, Princess Royal, known within the family as Vicky, but their relationship thawed when Vicky took care of Elisabeth and comforted her during the early painful days of her widowhood. Elisabeth never forgot Vicky's kindness and in her will broke with tradition by leaving Vicky her jewels. These jewels were meant to have been bequeathed to the current Queen, (Augusta of Saxe-Weimar, Elisabeth's sister-in-law, who was by then Prussian Queen and German Empress); this was an offense for which Augusta never forgave Vicky.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen Dowager.", "content": "After her husband's death on 2 January 1861, Elisabeth lived quietly at her seats at Sanssouci, Charlottenburg, and Stolzenfels and dedicated herself to charity work in memory of her late husband. Her brother-in-law, Emperor Wilhelm I of Germany, held her in high regard as a true friend.  During a visit to her sister, Queen Amalie of Saxony, Elisabeth died in 1873 in Dresden. She was buried next to her husband on 21 December at the Friedenskirche in Potsdam.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Elisabeth Ludovika of Bavaria (13 November 1801 – 14 December 1873) was a Princess of Bavaria and later Queen consort of Prussia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973124}
{"src_title": "Hans Stuck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Pre-WWII career.", "content": "Stuck's experience with car racing started in 1922 with early morning runs bringing milk from his farm to Munich, shortly after his first marriage. This eventually led to his taking up hill-climbing; he won his first race, at Baden-Baden, in 1923. A few years later, after a year as a privateer for Austro-Daimler, he became a works driver for them in 1927, doing well in hill climbs, and making his first appearance in a circuit race (the German Grand Prix) that year as well. In 1931, Austro-Daimler left racing, and Stuck eventually wound up driving a Mercedes-Benz SSKL in sports car racing, where he continued to excel.  In 1933, his acquaintance with Adolf Hitler (whom he had met by chance on a hunting trip in 1925) led to his involvement with Ferdinand Porsche and Auto Union in Hitler's plans for German auto racing. With his experience from racing up mountain passes in the Alps in the 1920s, he was virtually unbeatable when he got the new Auto Union car, which was designed by Porsche. Its rear mounted engine provided superior traction compared to conventional front engine designs, so that its (eventually) 500+ horse-power could be transformed into speed even on non-paved roads. In circuit racing, the new car was very hard to master, though, due to the swing axle rear suspension design in combination of the weight distribution of its rear engine design.  His career with Auto Union was quite successful. In 1934, he won the German, Swiss and Czechoslovakian Grand Prix races (as well as finishing second in the Italian Grand Prix and Eifelrennen). There was no European Championship for the circuit races that year, or he would have won it. Wins in a number of hill-climb races brought him European Mountain Champion, the first of three he would eventually collect.  In 1935, he won the Italian Grand Prix (along with second at the German Grand Prix; he also won his usual collection of hill-climb wins, again taking the European Mountain Championship. 1936 was leaner; he placed second in the Tripoli and German Grands Prix, finishing second in the competition for the European Championship. After Stuck missed a number of hill-climbs because of injuries suffered in accidents, that year the European Mountain Championship fell to his famous team-mate, Bernd Rosemeyer. 1937 was equally lean, bringing only second places in the Rio de Janeiro and Belgian Grands Prix.  1938 opened poorly; Stuck was either fired from, or quit, the Auto Union team (accounts from the two sides differ). After a series of injuries to other team drivers, as well as pressure from the German government (again, accounts differ as to what combination of factors was the cause), he was re-hired, and proved himself by winning a third European Mountain Championship, his last major pre-war success.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-WWII career.", "content": "After the war, although Germans were banned from racing until 1950, Stuck obtained Austrian citizenship and immediately continued racing. A link with Alex von Falkenhausen led to Stuck driving for his team in Formula Two racing, although with little success.  He drove a Porsche Spyder in 1953, also with no success. A liaison with BMW, starting in 1957, was more fruitful, although his first hill-climbs for them (in a Type 507) were not. A switch to their tiny BMW 700 RS did the trick, and at age 60, he became German Hillclimb Champion for the last time. He decided to retire on a high note, and thereupon closed his professional driving career.  As an instructor on the Nürburgring, he taught his son Hans-Joachim the secrets of this challenging circuit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Stuck was born in Warsaw in 1900. Although his parents were of Swiss ancestry, they had moved to Germany by the time Stuck was born, and he grew up there.  He was called up for military service in World War I in 1917. In 1918, his older brother Walter was killed, along with Walter's commanding officer; as a result, Stuck met the commander's sister, Ellen Hahndorff, and they were married in 1922. After several years, Stuck's involvement in the fast life on the track as well as off it caused them to split up and divorce.  In 1931, he met Paula von Reznicek, a famous tennis player; they were married in 1932. The fact that she had a Jewish grandfather caused Stuck some problems with the rise of the Nazis, but his personal relationship with Hitler saved him from serious trouble.  In 1939, he met Christa Thielmann, at that point engaged to Paula's youngest brother. Stuck and Paula divorced in 1948, and he married Christa that year. Their son, Hans-Joachim, was born in 1951. Christa died in 2014, at the age of 93.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "! colspan=\"3\" style=\"background: #99ff66;\" | Sporting achievements", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Stuck (sometimes called Hans Stuck von Villiez, last name pronounced \"\"shtook\"\") (27 December 1900, in Warsaw – 9 February 1978, in Grainau) was a German motor racing driver. Both his son Hans-Joachim Stuck (born 1951) and his grandsons Johannes and Ferdinand Stuck became race drivers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973125}
{"src_title": "Bryansk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first written mention of Bryansk, as Debryansk, dates to 1146 in the Hypatian Codex. The name appears variously as, and in other spellings. Etymologically, it derives from \"дъбръ\", a Slavic word for \"ditch\", \"lowland\", or \"dense woodland\"; the area was known for its dense woods, of which very little remains today. Local authorities and archaeologists, however, believe that the town had existed as early as 985 as a fortified settlement on the right bank of the Desna River.  Bryansk remained poorly attested until the 1237-1242 Mongol invasion of Rus'. It was the northernmost of the Severian cities in the possession of the Chernigov Rurikids. After the Mongols murdered Prince Mikhail of Chernigov in 1246 and his capital was destroyed, his son Roman Mikhailovich moved his seat to Bryansk. In 1310, when the Mongols sacked the town again, it belonged to the Principality of Smolensk.  Grand Duke Algirdas of Lithuania acquired Bryansk through inheritance in 1356 and gave it to his son, Dmitry the Elder. Until the end of the century Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania, Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania, the future Grand Duke Švitrigaila of Lithuania, and Grand Duke Yury of Smolensk contested control of the town.  The Grand Duchy of Moscow conquered Bryansk following the Battle of Vedrosha in 1503. The town was turned into a fortress which played a major role during the Time of Troubles (1598-1613). During the Time of Troubles the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied the town in 1610, and it remained in Polish hands as part of Smolensk Voivodeship until the Truce of Deulino in 1634. In 1709 Tsar Peter the Great incorporated Bryansk into the Kiev Governorate, but Empress Catherine the Great deemed it wise to transfer the town to the newly-formed Oryol Governorate in 1779. She also promulgated the town's coat of arms (August 1781).  In the 17th and 18th centuries the economy of Bryansk, which had become a regional trading center, was based on the Svenskaya fair (), the largest in European Russia. The fair took place annually under the auspices of the nearby Svensky Monastery. After the town started to manufacture cannon and ammunition for the Imperial Russian Navy in 1783, Bryansk evolved from a regional market town into an important industrial center for metallurgy and textiles. The city's population exceeded 30,000 by 1917. In 1812 Napoleon's \"Grande Armée\" fought the Russians in Bryansk and in Orel during the French invasion of Russia.  In 1918 the Belarusian People's Republic claimed Bryansk, but Bolshevik forces took the town in 1919. During World War II the German Wehrmacht captured Bryansk and the town remained under Axis occupation (from October 6, 1941 to September 17, 1943), with the city left heavily damaged by fighting. About 60,000 Soviet partisans were active in and around Bryansk, inflicting heavy losses on the German army. In 1944, soon after its liberation, Bryansk became the administrative center of Bryansk Oblast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Bryansk is the administrative center of the oblast. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with three work settlements (Belye Berega, Bolshoye Polpino, and Raditsa-Krylovka), incorporated separately as Bryansky Urban Administrative Okrug—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Bryansky Urban Administrative Okrug is incorporated as Bryansk Urban Okrug.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Today's Bryansk is an important center for steel and machinery manufacturing, and is home to many large factories. The main industries are machine building, metalworking, chemical, electrical equipment, electronics, wood, textile and food industries, locomotives, diesel engines, freight cars, motor graders, pavers and other road equipment, agricultural equipment, construction materials, and garments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Since 1868, there is a railway connection between Bryansk and Moscow. The city has railway stations: Bryansk Orlovsky and Bryansk-Lgovskiy (Bryansk Bryansk -I and -II, respectively), Ordzhonikidzegrad; Street Bus Station and Peresvet Bezhitsa bus station. west of the city lies the Bryansk International Airport.  Passenger traffic carried by bus (more than 1,400 cars on 54 permanent urban routes), trolley on 10 regular routes, uses (36 routes), as well as commuter trains and railcars. The cost of public transport (trolley buses) is 16 rubles, and buses, 20 rubles ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "Russian cosmonaut Viktor Afanasyev, shot put athlete Svetlana Krivelyova, sculptor and architect Naum Gabo, classical pianist Valentina Igoshina, and MMA fighter Vitaly Minakov were born in Bryansk. Bulgarian communist leader Stanke Dimitrov (Marek) died in an aviation accident near the city. The writer Leonid Dobychin spent most of his adult years there. Swimmer Victoria Kaminskaya was born in Bryansk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Bryansk has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification \"Dfb\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture and education.", "content": "Bryansk has two universities, three theaters, and a technical academy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Bryansk is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bryansk () is a city and the administrative center of Bryansk Oblast, Russia, located southwest of Moscow. Bryansk is also closer to the border with Belarus. Population:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973126}
{"src_title": "Eagle Nebula", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Eagle Nebula is part of a diffuse emission nebula, or H II region, which is catalogued as IC 4703. This region of active current star formation is about 5700 light-years distant. A spire of gas that can be seen coming off the nebula in the northeastern part is approximately 9.5 light-years or about 90 trillion kilometers long.  The cluster associated with the nebula has approximately 8100 stars, which are mostly concentrated in a gap in the molecular cloud to the north-west of the Pillars. The brightest star (HD 168076) has an apparent magnitude of +8.24, easily visible with good binoculars. It is actually a binary star formed of an O3.5V star plus an O7.5V companion. This star has a mass of roughly 80 solar masses, and a luminosity up to 1 million times that of the Sun. The cluster's age has been estimated to be 1–2 million years.  The descriptive names reflect impressions of the shape of the central pillar rising from the southeast into the central luminous area. The name \"Star Queen Nebula\" was introduced by Robert Burnham, Jr., reflecting his characterization of the central pillar as the Star Queen shown in silhouette.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Pillars of Creation\" region.", "content": "Images taken by Jeff Hester and Paul Scowen using the Hubble Space Telescope in 1995 greatly improved scientific understanding of processes inside the nebula. One of these photographs became famous as the \"Pillars of Creation\", depicting a large region of star formation. The small dark areas in the photograph are believed to be protostars (Bok globules). The pillar structure of the region resembles that of a much larger star formation region in the Soul Nebula of Cassiopeia, imaged with the Spitzer Space Telescope in 2005 and characterized as \"Pillars of Star Creation\". or \"Pillars of Star Formation\". These columns – which resemble stalagmites protruding from the floor of a cavern – are composed of interstellar hydrogen gas and dust, which act as incubators for new stars. Inside the columns and on their surface astronomers have found knots or globules of denser gas, called EGGs (\"Evaporating Gaseous Globules\"). Stars are being formed inside some of these EGGs.  X-ray images from the Chandra observatory compared with Hubble's \"Pillars\" image have shown that X-ray sources (from young stars) do not coincide with the pillars, but instead randomly dot the area. Any protostars in the pillars' EGGs are not yet hot enough to emit X-rays.  Evidence from the Spitzer Telescope originally suggested that the pillars in M16 may already have been destroyed by a supernova explosion. Hot gas observed by Spitzer in 2007 suggested that the area was disturbed by a supernova that exploded some 8,000 to 9,000 years ago. Due to the distance of the nebula, the light from the supernova would have reached Earth between 1,000 and 2,000 years ago. The more slowly moving shock wave from the supernova would have taken a few thousand years to move through the nebula and would have blown away the delicate pillars. However, in 2014 the Pillars were imaged a second time by Hubble, in both visible light and infrared light. The new images being 20 years apart provided a new, detailed account of the rate of evaporation occurring within the pillars. It was later discovered that there in fact was no supernova explosion within them, and it is estimated they will be around for at least 100,000 years longer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Eagle Nebula (catalogued as Messier 16 or M16, and as NGC 6611, and also known as the Star Queen Nebula and The Spire) is a young open cluster of stars in the constellation Serpens, discovered by Jean-Philippe de Cheseaux in 1745–46. Both the \"Eagle\" and the \"Star Queen\" refer to visual impressions of the dark silhouette near the center of the nebula, an area made famous as the \"Pillars of Creation\" imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope. The nebula contains several active star-forming gas and dust regions, including the aforementioned Pillars of Creation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973127}
{"src_title": "Amélie of Orléans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Amélia's paternal grandparents were Prince Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of Orléans, and Duchess Helena of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Her maternal grandparents were Prince Antoine, Duke of Montpensier, and the Infanta Luisa Fernanda of Spain. The Dukes of Orléans and Montpensier were siblings, both sons of Louis-Philippe I, King of the French, and Maria Amalia of the Two Sicilies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "On 22 May 1886, Amélia married Carlos, Prince Royal of Portugal. He was the eldest son of King Luís I of Portugal and Maria Pia of Savoy. He was at the time the heir apparent to the throne. The bride was almost twenty-one years old and the groom about twenty-three. The marriage had been arranged by their families after several attempts to arrange a marriage for her with a member of the Austrian or Spanish dynasties. At first, the marriage was not popular and Queen Maria Pia was expecting to marry Carlos to Archduchess Marie Valerie of Austria, Princess Mathilde of Saxony, Princess Viktoria of Prussia or Princess Victoria of Wales. However, Amélia and Carlos came to live quite harmoniously with each other.  They had three children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen consort.", "content": "Amélia played an active role as a queen, and somewhat softened the growing criticism towards the monarchy with her personal popularity, though she did receive some criticism for her expenses. She was active in many social projects, such as the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis and the foundation of charity organisations, sanatoriums and drugstores. She was considered less formal than her mother-in-law Maria Pia, learned Portuguese well and was described as calm and mild. She was interested in literature, opera and theatre, was a diarist and also painted. During the absence of her spouse in 1895, she acted as regent. In 1902, she made a cruise on the Mediterranean Sea that was much criticised for its luxury.  In 1892, Pope Leo XIII gave a Golden Rose to Amélia.  On 19 October 1889, King Luís died and Carlos succeeded him on the throne. Amélia became the new Queen consort of Portugal. However her husband became known for his extramarital affairs while the popularity of the Portuguese monarchy started to wane in the face of a bankrupt economy, industrial disturbances, socialist and republican antagonism and press criticism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lisbon regicide.", "content": "On 1 February 1908, the royal family returned from the palace of Vila Viçosa to Lisbon. They travelled in the royal train to Barreiro and from there took a boat to cross the Tagus River. They disembarked at Cais das Colunas in the principal square of downtown Lisbon, the Terreiro do Paço. On their way to the Palace of Necessidades, the carriage carrying Carlos and his family passed through the \"Rua do Arsenal\". While crossing the square and turning to the street, several shots were fired from the crowd by at least two men (Alfredo Luís da Costa and Manuel Buiça), among others. The King died immediately, his heir Prince Dom Luís was mortally wounded and Infante Dom Manuel was hit in the arm, yet Queen Amélia was surprisingly unharmed after trying to defend her youngest son, the new king Manuel II, with the flower bouquet she kept in her hand.  The two assassins were shot on the spot by members of the royal bodyguard and later were recognized as members of the Portuguese Republican Party and of their masonic left-wing organisation Carbonária. About twenty minutes later, Prince Luis Filipe died and the next day Manuel was acclaimed King of Portugal, the last of the Braganza dynasty.  Manuel II of Portugal was deposed by a military coup, later known as the 5 October 1910 revolution, which resulted in the establishment of the Portuguese First Republic. Queen Amélia left Portugal with the rest of the royal family and went into exile. She lived most of her remaining life in France. During World War II the Portuguese government invited her to return to Portugal, but she declined the offer. She visited Portugal for the last time in 1945.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dona Maria Amélia (; 28 September 1865 – 25 October 1951) was the last Queen consort of Portugal as the wife of Carlos I of Portugal. As the eldest daughter of Prince Philippe, Count of Paris, and his wife, Princess Marie Isabelle d'Orléans, she was a \"Princess of Orléans\" by birth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973128}
{"src_title": "Mercury-Redstone 2", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The previous Mercury-Redstone mission, MR-1A, flew a trajectory that was too steep with accelerations too high for a human passenger. MR-1A had climbed to its programmed apogee of about 130 miles (209 km) and landed 235 miles (378 km) downrange. Mercury-Redstone 2 would follow a more flattened trajectory. Its planned flight path was an apogee of 115 miles (185 km) and a range of 290 miles (467 km).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission.", "content": "Mercury spacecraft No. 5 contained six new systems that had not been on previous flights: environmental control system, attitude stabilization control system, live retrorockets, voice communications system, \"closed loop\" abort sensing system, and a pneumatic landing bag.  Six chimpanzees (four female and two male) and 20 medical specialists and animal handlers from Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, where the chimps lived and were trained, were moved into quarters behind Hangar S at Cape Canaveral, Florida on January 2, 1961. The six chimps were trained in Mercury simulators for three weeks. The day before the flight, two chimps were chosen for the mission: one primary, Ham, and one backup, a female chimp named Minnie. The competition was fierce, but Ham was full of energy and good humor. Ham was named in honor of Holloman Aerospace Medical Center. Ham was from Cameroon, Africa, (original name Chang, Chimp No. 65) and was purchased by the USAF July 9, 1959. He was 3 years 8 months old at launch.  At 12:53 UTC, January 31, 1961, Ham was inserted into the spacecraft. The countdown was then delayed almost four hours because of a hot inverter, and several other minor problems.  At 16:55 UTC the MR-2 lifted off. One minute after the launch, computers reported that the flight path angle was at least one degree too high and rising. At two minutes, the computers predicted a 17 \"g\" (167 m/s2) acceleration. At 2 minutes 17 seconds into the flight, the Redstone's liquid oxygen (LOX) fuel was depleted. The closed-loop abort system sensed a change in engine chamber pressure when the LOX supply was depleted and fired the launch escape system. The abort signaled a Mayday message to the recovery forces.  The high flight angle, and the early abort, caused the maximum velocity of the spacecraft to be 7,540 ft/s (2,298 m/s) instead of the planned 6,465 ft/s (1,970 m/s). The retrorockets had been jettisoned during the abort and therefore could not be used to slow down the spacecraft. All of this added up to an overshoot of the planned landing area by 130 miles (209 km) and an apogee of 157 miles (253 km) instead of 115 miles (185 km).  Another problem occurred at 2 minutes and 18 seconds into the flight, when cabin pressure dropped from 5.5 to 1 lb/in2 (38 to 7 kPa). This malfunction was traced later to the air inlet snorkel valve. Vibrations had loosened a pin in the snorkel valve and allowed the valve to open. Ham was safe in his own couch spacesuit and did not suffer any ill effects from the loss of cabin pressure. His couch spacesuit pressure remained normal, and suit temperature stayed well within the 60 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit (16 to 26 °C) optimum range.  Because of over-acceleration of the launch vehicle and the boost from the escape rocket, a speed of 5,857 mph (9,426 km/h) was reached instead of the 4,400 mph (7,081 km/h) planned. At apogee Ham's spacecraft was 48 miles (77 km) farther downrange than planned. Ham was weightless for 6.6 minutes instead of the 4.9 minutes that were planned. The spacecraft landed 422 miles (679 km) downrange after a 16.5-minute flight. He received 14.7 \"g\" (144 m/s2) during reentry, almost 3 \"g\" (29 m/s2) greater than planned.  Ham performed his tasks well, pushing levers about 50 times during the flight. Onboard cameras filming Ham's reaction to weightlessness showed a surprising amount of dust and debris floating around inside the capsule during apogee.  The spacecraft splashed down about 12:12 pm. EST, out of sight from recovery forces. About 12 minutes later, the first recovery signal was received from the spacecraft. Tracking showed it was about 60 miles (96 km) from the nearest recovery ship. Twenty-seven minutes after landing, a search plane sighted the capsule floating upright in the Atlantic. The search plane requested that the Navy send its rescue helicopters from the closest ship carrying them.  When helicopters arrived they found the spacecraft on its side, taking on water, and submerging. Upon water impact, the beryllium heat shield had bounced against the capsule bottom, punching two holes in the titanium pressure bulkhead. The landing bag had worn badly, and the heatshield was torn free from the spacecraft before recovery. After the craft capsized, the open snorkel valve let still more sea water enter the capsule. When the helicopter crew finally latched onto and picked up Ham's spacecraft at 18:52 UTC., they estimated there was about 800 pounds (360 kg) of sea water aboard. The spacecraft was flown to and lowered to the deck of. When the spacecraft was opened Ham appeared to be in good condition and readily accepted an apple and half an orange.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-flight.", "content": "With the malfunctions during the flight, the Mercury-Redstone was deemed not ready for a human passenger planned for MR-3. It was postponed pending a final booster development flight, Mercury-Redstone BD.  After his spaceflight, Ham was transferred to the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. for 17 years and then in 1981 was moved to a zoo in North Carolina to live with a colony of other chimps. He died on January 19, 1983, at the age of 26. Ham is buried at the New Mexico Museum of Space History in Alamogordo, New Mexico. He was one of many animals in space.  Ham's backup, Minnie, was the only female chimp trained for the Mercury program. After her role in the Mercury program ended, Minnie became part of an Air Force chimp-breeding program, producing nine offspring and helping raise the offspring of several other members of the chimp colony. She was the last surviving \"astro-chimp\". She died at the age of 41 on March 14, 1998.  Mercury spacecraft No. 5, used in the Mercury-Redstone 2 mission, is currently displayed at the California Science Center, Los Angeles, California.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mercury-Redstone 2 (MR-2) was the penultimate test flight of the Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle prior to the first manned American space mission in Project Mercury. It was launched at 16:55 UTC on January 31, 1961 from LC-5 at Cape Canaveral, Florida. Mercury spacecraft No. 5 carried a chimpanzee named Ham on a suborbital flight, landing in the Atlantic Ocean 16 minutes and 39 seconds after launch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973129}
{"src_title": "Padjelanta National Park", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and the presence of the Sámi people.", "content": "The name of the park derives from the Lule Sami word \"Badjelánnda\", which translates to \"the higher land\" – a straightforward description of the region. Today the three Sámi villages Duorbun, Jåhkågasska and Sirges let their reindeer graze in Padjelanta in the summer, using the traditional settlements of Stáloluokta, Árasluokta and Sállohávrre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nature.", "content": "The park, which borders on Norway in the west, is primarily comprised by a vast plateau around the two unusually large lakes Vastenjávrre and Virihávrre – the latter of which is often referred to as \"\"the most beautiful lake in Sweden\"\". Consequently, the landscape is fairly flat and open, especially compared to the alpine Sarek National Park on its eastern border, and mainly consists of rolling hills with few peaks of the higher variety.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plants.", "content": "Most of the park is situated above the tree line; meaning few species of trees can survive the harsh climate of the park. The exposure of strong winds and the cold winters has made it so that the only tree that can exist in any relevant numbers is the small and robust \"Betula pubescens\" subsp. \"tortuosa\" (mountain birch). These form a small forest () in the northeast corner of the park. The diversity of the flora is extremely high, nonetheless: over 400 different lower plant (thallophytes) species have been cataloged in the area, which reportedly is a record in the Swedish fells (highlands). This is due to its western position and chalk-rich bedrock. Some of these species, such as \"Arenaria humifusa\" and \"Gentiana aurea\", can only be found in the Swedish fell regions and \"Potentilla robbinsiana\" is a plant that, in Europe, has only ever been found in Padjelanta.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Animals.", "content": "Padjelelanta hosts a very limited number of mammals, with a low variety of different species, almost all of which have small populations. The mammals that do exist are mostly lemmings and reindeer, as well as the predators that eat them; in this case the wolverine and the Arctic fox, respectively, both being permanently resident in the park.  Padjelanta's bird-life however is very rich and showcases most species associated with the Swedish bare mountain fell – and fell lake regions. The most typical species on the heath are European golden plover, meadow pipit and northern wheatear but rock ptarmigan, Eurasian dotterel and Eurasian whimbrel are also fairly common sights.  In and around the lakes there are plenty of Anatinae, such as long-tailed duck, Eurasian teal and common scoter as well as many waders, which include red-necked phalarope, ruff, Temminck's stint and common redshank.  The northeast forest is also home to a great variety of species and contains an abundance of common redpoll, willow warbler, Lapland longspur, bluethroat and redwing.  Then there are also many birds that are not really constricted to one area but is spread throughout the park. This include lesser white-fronted goose, gyrfalcon, golden eagle, white-tailed eagle, great snipe, rough-legged buzzard and long-tailed jaeger. During lemming-years you can even see the snowy owl which is otherwise rare seen in Padjelanta.  The park also contains a rich quantity of fish, Vastenjávrre and Virihávrre being especially densely populated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Padjelanta, due to its flourishing meadows and fish filled lakes has long been attractive to humans and the park has been inhabited ever since the Stone Age(one evidence of this being the many trapping pits that have been found and dated back to this period of time). Even today the lakes are utilized for fishing by the Sámi villages. Ever since the birth of modern science the area has also been interesting for scientists, mainly for studying its flora, fauna and geology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "There is a well-known hiking trail called Padjelantaleden (Padjelanta Trail) that runs between Kvikkjokk in the southeast and either Vaisaluokta or Änonjalme beneath Áhkká in the north, and is about 140 km in length. All these endpoints lie outside the borders of the park, which means that hikers must travel for at least a day before entering Padjelanta itself, but in the summer there are also regular helicopter tours between Kvikkjokk, Stáloluokta and Ritsem.  Along this trail there are a number of cottage sites providing accommodation for visitors. Originally, the tourist buildings within the park proper were managed by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, but they have since passed into the care of the aforementioned Sámi villages, under the name \"Badjelánnda Laponia Turism\" (BLT). The other cottages on the trail are maintained by the Swedish Tourist Association (STF). In Stáloluokta there is a sauna, and during the tourist season visitors can also buy provisions there.  Note that Padjelantaleden is a summer trail, so there are no markings visible when the land is covered in snow. Neither are the cottages manned in winter, but there is always at least one room open at all the cottage sites.  Another hiking trail called Nordkalottruta also passes through the park, although its path is the same as that of Padjelantaleden most of the way.  Another point of interest is that the Swedish center of inaccessibility (i.e. the point where one is at a maximum distance from civilization) lies in Padjelanta. It is reported that at the southeastern bay of the lake Rissájávrre close to the border of Sarek, it is approximately. in either direction to the closest road. The isolation of this spot is, however, partially an illusion, since the much-trodden Padjelantaleden and specifically the \"Tuottar\" cottage site are actually less than. away.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Padjelanta () is a national park in Norrbotten County in northern Sweden. Established in 1963, it is the largest national park in Sweden with an area of, and part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Laponia established in 1996.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973130}
{"src_title": "Semantic differential", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Theoretical background.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nominalists and realists.", "content": "Theoretical underpinnings of Charles E. Osgood's semantic differential have roots in the medieval controversy between the nominalists and realists. Nominalists asserted that only real things are entities and that abstractions from these entities, called universals, are mere words. The realists held that universals have an independent objective existence. Osgood’s theoretical work also bears affinity to linguistics and general semantics and relates to Korzybski's structural differential.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use of adjectives.", "content": "The development of this instrument provides an interesting insight into the broader area between linguistics and psychology. People have been describing each other since they developed the ability to speak. Most adjectives can also be used as personality descriptors. The occurrence of thousands of adjectives in English is an attestation of the subtleties in descriptions of persons and their behavior available to speakers of English. Roget's Thesaurus is an early attempt to classify most adjectives into categories and was used within this context to reduce the number of adjectives to manageable subsets, suitable for factor analysis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Factors of Evaluation, Potency, and Activity.", "content": "Osgood and his colleagues performed a factor analysis of large collections of semantic differential scales and found three recurring attitudes that people use to evaluate words and phrases: evaluation, potency, and activity. Evaluation loads highest on the adjective pair 'good-bad'. The'strong-weak' adjective pair defines the potency factor. Adjective pair 'active-passive' defines the activity factor. These three dimensions of affective meaning were found to be cross-cultural universals in a study of dozens of cultures.  This factorial structure makes intuitive sense. When our ancestors encountered a person, the initial perception had to be whether that person represents a danger. Is the person good or bad? Next, is the person strong or weak? Our reactions to a person markedly differ if perceived as good and strong, good and weak, bad and weak, or bad and strong. Subsequently, we might extend our initial classification to include cases of persons who actively threaten us or represent only a potential danger, and so on. The evaluation, potency and activity factors thus encompass a detailed descriptive system of personality. Osgood's semantic differential measures these three factors. It contains sets of adjective pairs such as warm-cold, bright-dark, beautiful-ugly, sweet-bitter, fair-unfair, brave-cowardly, meaningful-meaningless.  The studies of Osgood and his colleagues revealed that the evaluative factor accounted for most of the variance in scalings, and related this to the idea of attitudes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subsequent studies: factors of Typicality-Reality, Complexity, Organisation and Stimulation.", "content": "Studies using the SD found additional universal dimensions. More specifically several researchers reported a factor of \"Typicality\" (that included scales such as “regular-rare”, “typical-exclusive”) or \"Reality\" (“imaginary-real”, “evident-fantastic”, “abstract-concrete”), as well as factors of \"Complexity\" (\"complex-simple\", \"unlimited-limited\", \"mysterious-usual\"), \"Improvement\" or \"Organization\" (\"regular-spasmodic\", \"constant-changeable\", \"organized-disorganized\", \"precise-indefinite\"), Stimulation (\"interesting-boring\", \"trivial-new\").  Nobel Prize winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman's doctoral thesis was on the subject of the Semantic Differential.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "The semantic differential is today one of the most widely used scales used in the measurement of attitudes. One of the reasons is the versatility of the items. The bipolar adjective pairs can be used for a wide variety of subjects, and as such the scale is called by some \"the ever ready battery\" of the attitude researcher. A specific form of the SD, Projective Semantics method uses only most common and neutral nouns that correspond to the 7 groups (factors) of adjective-scales most consistently found in cross-cultural studies (Evaluation, Potency, Activity as found by Osgood, and Reality, Organization, Complexity, Limitation as found in other studies). In this method, seven groups of bipolar adjective scales corresponded to seven types of nouns so the method was thought to have the object-scale symmetry (OSS) between the scales and nouns for evaluation using these scales. For example, the nouns corresponding to the listed 7 factors would be: Beauty, Power, Motion, Life, Work, Chaos, Law. Beauty was expected to be assessed unequivocally as “very good” on adjectives of Evaluation-related scales, Life as “very real” on Reality-related scales, etc. However, deviations in this symmetric and very basic matrix might show underlying biases of two types: scales-related bias and objects-related bias. This OSS design had meant to increase the sensitivity of the SD method to any semantic biases in responses of people within the same culture and educational background.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statistical properties.", "content": "Five items (five bipolar pairs of adjectives) have been proven to yield reliable findings, which highly correlate with alternative Likert numerical measures of the same attitude.  One problem with this scale is that its psychometric properties and level of measurement are disputed. The most general approach is to treat it as an ordinal scale, but it can be argued that the neutral response (i.e. the middle alternative on the scale) serves as an arbitrary zero point, and that the intervals between the scale values can be treated as equal, making it an interval scale.  A detailed presentation on the development of the semantic differential is provided in \"Cross-Cultural Universals of Affective Meaning.\" David R. Heise's \"Surveying Cultures\" provides a contemporary update with special attention to measurement issues when using computerized graphic rating scales.  Verhagen and colleagues introduce a framework for adequate development and usage of the semantic differential. The framework advocates particular attention for collecting the set of relevant bipolar scales, linguistic testing of semantic bipolarity, and establishing semantic differential dimensionality.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Semantic differential (SD) is a type of a rating scale designed to measure the connotative meaning of objects, events, and concepts. The connotations are used to derive the attitude towards the given object, event or concept.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973131}
{"src_title": "Drop (liquid)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Surface tension.", "content": "Liquid forms drops because the liquid exhibits surface tension.  A simple way to form a drop is to allow liquid to flow slowly from the lower end of a vertical tube of small diameter. The surface tension of the liquid causes the liquid to hang from the tube, forming a pendant. When the drop exceeds a certain size it is no longer stable and detaches itself. The falling liquid is also a drop held together by surface tension.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Viscosity and pitch drop experiments.", "content": "Some substances that appear to be solid, can be shown to instead be extremely viscous liquids, because they form drops and display droplet behavior. In the famous pitch drop experiments, pitch – a substance somewhat like solid bitumen – is shown to be a liquid in this way. Pitch in a funnel slowly forms droplets, each droplet taking about 10 years to form and break off.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pendant drop test.", "content": "In the pendant drop test, a drop of liquid is suspended from the end of a tube or by any surface by surface tension. The force due to surface tension is proportional to the length of the boundary between the liquid and the tube, with the proportionality constant usually denoted formula_1. Since the length of this boundary is the circumference of the tube, the force due to surface tension is given by  where \"d\" is the tube diameter.  The mass \"m\" of the drop hanging from the end of the tube can be found by equating the force due to gravity (formula_3) with the component of the surface tension in the vertical direction (formula_4) giving the formula  where α is the angle of contact with the tube, and \"g\" is the acceleration due to gravity.  The limit of this formula, as α goes to 90°, gives the maximum weight of a pendant drop for a liquid with a given surface tension, formula_1.  This relationship is the basis of a convenient method of measuring surface tension, commonly used in the petroleum industry. More sophisticated methods are available to take account of the developing shape of the pendant as the drop grows. These methods are used if the surface tension is unknown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Drop adhesion to a solid.", "content": "The drop adhesion to a solid can be divided into two categories: lateral adhesion and normal adhesion. Lateral adhesion resembles friction (though tribologically lateral adhesion is a more accurate term) and refers to the force required to slide a drop on the surface, namely the force to detach the drop from its position on the surface only to translate it to another position on the surface. Normal adhesion is the adhesion required to detach a drop from the surface in the normal direction, namely the force to cause the drop to fly off from the surface. The measurement of both adhesion forms can be done with the Centrifugal Adhesion Balance (CAB). The CAB uses a combination of centrifugal and gravitational forces to obtain any ratio of lateral and normal forces. For example, it can apply a normal force at zero lateral force for the drop to fly off away from the surface in the normal direction or it can induce a lateral force at zero normal force (simulating zero gravity).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Droplet.", "content": "The term droplet is a diminutive form of 'drop' – and as a guide is typically used for liquid particles of less than 500 μm diameter. In spray application, droplets are usually described by their perceived size (i.e., diameter) whereas the dose (or number of infective particles in the case of biopesticides) is a function of their volume. This increases by a cubic function relative to diameter; thus a 50 μm droplet represents a dose in 65 pl and a 500 μm drop represents a dose in 65 nanolitres.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Speed.", "content": "A droplet with a diameter of 3 mm has a terminal velocity of approximately 8 m/s. Drops smaller than in diameter will attain 95% of their terminal velocity within. But above this size the distance to get to terminal velocity increases sharply. An example is a drop with a diameter of that may achieve this at.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Optics.", "content": "Due to the different refractive index of water and air, refraction and reflection occur on the surfaces of raindrops, leading to rainbow formation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sound.", "content": "The major source of sound when a droplet hits a liquid surface is the resonance of excited bubbles trapped underwater. These oscillating bubbles are responsible for most liquid sounds, such as running water or splashes, as they actually consist of many drop-liquid collisions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Dripping tap\" noise prevention.", "content": "Reducing the surface tension of a body of liquid makes possible to reduce or prevent noise due to droplets falling into it. This would involve adding soap, detergent or a similar substance to water. The reduced surface tension reduces the noise from dripping.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shape.", "content": "The classic shape associated with a drop (with a pointy end in its upper side) comes from the observation of a droplet clinging to a surface. The shape of a drop falling through a gas is actually more or less spherical for drops less than 2 mm in diameter. Larger drops tend to be flatter on the bottom part due to the pressure of the gas they move through. As a result, as drops get larger, a concave depression forms which leads to the eventual breakup of the drop.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capillary length.", "content": "The capillary length is a length scaling factor that relates gravity and surface tension, and is directly responsible for the shape a droplet for a specific fluid will take. The capillary length stems from the Laplace pressure, using the radius of the droplet.  Using the capillary length we can define microdrops and macrodrops. Microdrops are droplets with radius smaller than the capillary length, where the shape of the droplet is governed solely by surface tension and they form a spherical cap shape. If a droplet has a radius larger than the capillary length, they are known as macrodrops and the gravitational forces will dominate. Macrodrops will be 'flattened' by gravity and the height of the droplet will be reduced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "Raindrop sizes typically range from 0.5 mm to 4 mm, with size distributions quickly decreasing past diameters larger than 2-2.5 mm.  Scientists traditionally thought that the variation in the size of raindrops was due to collisions on the way down to the ground. In 2009 French researchers succeeded in showing that the distribution of sizes is due to the drops' interaction with air, which deforms larger drops and causes them to fragment into smaller drops, effectively limiting the largest raindrops to about 6 mm diameter. However, drops up to 10 mm (equivalent in volume to a sphere of radius 4.5 mm) are theoretically stable and could be levitated in a wind tunnel. The largest recorded raindrop was 8.8 mm in diameter, located at the base of a cumulus congestus cloud in the vicinity of Kwajalein Atoll in July 1999. A raindrop of identical size was detected over northern Brazil in September 1995.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standardized droplet sizes in medicine.", "content": "In medicine, this property is used to create droppers and IV infusion sets which have a standardized diameter, in such a way that 1 millilitre is equivalent to 20 drops. When smaller amounts are necessary (such as paediatrics), microdroppers or paediatric infusion sets are used, in which 1 millilitre = 60 microdrops.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A drop or droplet is a small column of liquid, bounded completely or almost completely by free surfaces. A drop may form when liquid accumulates at the lower end of a tube or other surface boundary, producing a hanging drop called a pendant drop. Drops may also be formed by the condensation of a vapor or by atomization of a larger mass of liquid.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973132}
{"src_title": "Rwenzori Mountains", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geology.", "content": "The mountains formed about three million years ago in the late Pliocene epoch and are the result of an uplifted block of crystalline rocks including gneiss, amphibolite, granite and quartzite.  This uplift divided the paleolake Obweruka and created three of the present-day African Great Lakes: Lake Albert, Lake Edward, and Lake George.  The range is about long and wide. It consists of six massifs separated by deep gorges: Mount Stanley (), Mount Speke (), Mount Baker (), Mount Emin (), Mount Gessi () and Mount Luigi di Savoia (). Mount Stanley has several subsidiary summits, with Margherita Peak being the highest point.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human history.", "content": "The mountains are occasionally identified with the legendary \"Mountains of the Moon\", depicted in antiquity as the source of the Nile River.  Photographer Vittorio Sella took a number of photographs of the Ruwenzori Mountains during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, documenting the retreat of the range's glaciers. Sella's photographic work is conserved at the Museo Nazionale della Montagna in Turin and at the Istituto di Fotografia Alpina Vittorio Sella in Biella, both in Italy. The Makerere University, Uganda, also has a selection of his images.  The first traverse of the six massifs of the Ruwenzori was done in 1975, starting on 27 January and ending on 13 February. The traverse was done by Polish climbers Janusz Chalecki, Stanisław Cholewa and Leszek Czarnecki, with Mirosław Kuraś accompanying them on the last half of the traverse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natural history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora.", "content": "The Ruwenzori are known for their vegetation, ranging from tropical rainforest through alpine meadows to snow. The range supports its own species and varieties of giant groundsel and giant lobelia and even has a tall heather covered in moss that lives on one of its peaks. Most of the range is now a World Heritage Site and is covered jointly by Rwenzori Mountains National Park in southwestern Uganda and the Virunga National Park in the eastern Congo.  There is no water shortage in the Ruwenzori; yet, several members of the afro-alpine family resemble species that normally thrive in desert climates. The reason lies in their similar water economy. Water is not always readily available to the afroalpine plants when they need it. In addition, nightly frosts affect the sap transport in the plants and the intake of water by its roots. As the day begins, the air temperature and radiation level rise rapidly, putting strenuous demands on the exposed parts of the plants as they try to meet the transpiration demands of the leaves and maintain a proper water balance. To counter the effects of freezing, the afro-alpine plants have developed the insulation systems that give them such a striking appearance. These adaptations become more prominent as the elevation increases.  There are five overlapping vegetation zones in the Ruwenzori: the evergreen forest zone (up to ); the bamboo zone (); the heather zone (); the alpine zone (); and, the nival zone (). At higher elevations, some plants reach an unusually large size, such as lobelia and groundsels. The vegetation in the Ruwenzori is unique to equatorial alpine Africa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Glacial recession.", "content": "An ongoing concern is the impact of climate change on the Ruwenzori's glaciers. In 1906, forty-three named glaciers were distributed over six mountains with a total area of, about half the total glacier area in Africa. By 2005, less than half of these were still present, on only three mountains, with an area of about. Recent scientific studies, such as those by Richard Taylor of University College London, have attributed this retreat to global climate change and have investigated the impact of this change on the mountain's vegetation and biodiversity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ruwenzori, also spelled Rwenzori and Rwenjura, are a range of mountains in eastern equatorial Africa, located on the border between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The highest peak of the Ruwenzori reaches, and the range's upper regions are permanently snow-capped and glaciated. Rivers fed by mountain streams form one of the sources of the Nile, for which reason during the European exploration of Africa, the Ruwenzori came to be identified with the legendary Mountains of the Moon, identified by the Greek scholar Ptolemy as the source of the Nile. Virunga National Park in the Congo and Rwenzori Mountains National Park in Uganda are located within the range.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973133}
{"src_title": "Man", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and terminology.", "content": "The English term \"man\" is derived from a Proto-Indo-European root \"*man-\" (see Sanskrit/Avestan \"manu-\", Slavic \"mǫž\" \"man, male\"). More directly, the word derives from Old English \"mann.\" The Old English form had a default meaning of \"adult male\" (which was the exclusive meaning of \"wer\"), though it could also signify a person of unspecified gender. The closely related Old English pronoun \"man\" was used just as it is in Modern German to designate \"one\" (e. g., in the saying \"man muss mit den Wölfen heulen\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "In human beings, the sex of an individual is determined at the time of fertilization by the genetic material carried in the sperm cell. If a sperm cell carrying an X chromosome fertilizes the egg, the offspring will typically be female (XX). On the other hand, if a sperm cell carrying a Y chromosome fertilizes the egg, the offspring will typically be male (XY). Persons whose anatomy or chromosomal makeup differ from this pattern are referred to as intersex.  Like most other male mammals, a man's genome typically inherits an X chromosome from his mother and a Y chromosome from his father. The male fetus produces larger amounts of androgens and smaller amounts of estrogens than a female fetus. This difference in the relative amounts of these sex steroids is largely responsible for the physiological differences that distinguish men from women.  Humans exhibit sexual dimorphism in many characteristics, many of which have no direct link to reproductive ability, although most of these characteristics do have a role in sexual attraction. Most expressions of sexual dimorphism in humans are found in height, weight, and body structure, though there are always examples that do not follow the overall pattern. For example, men tend to be taller than women, but there are many people of both sexes who are in the mid-height range for the species.  Primary sex characteristics (or sex organs) are characteristics that are present at birth and are integral to the reproductive process. For men, primary sex characteristics include the penis and testicles. Secondary sex characteristics are features that appear during puberty in humans. Such features are especially evident in the sexually dimorphic phenotypic traits that distinguish between the sexes, but—unlike the primary sex characteristics—are not directly part of the reproductive system. Secondary sexual characteristics that are specific to men include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproductive system.", "content": "The male reproductive system includes external and internal genitalia. The male external genitalia consist of the penis, the male urethra, and the scrotum, while the male internal genitalia consist of the testes, the prostate, the epididymis, the seminal vesicle, the vas deferens, the ejaculatory duct, and the bulbourethral gland.  The male reproductive system's function is to produce semen, which carries sperm and thus genetic information that can unite with an egg within a woman. Since sperm that enters a woman's uterus and then fallopian tubes goes on to fertilize an egg which develops into a fetus or child, the male reproductive system plays no necessary role during the gestation. The study of male reproduction and associated organs is called andrology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sex hormones.", "content": "In mammals, the hormones that influence sexual differentiation and development are androgens (mainly testosterone), which stimulate later development of the ovary. In the sexually undifferentiated embryo, testosterone stimulates the development of the Wolffian ducts, the penis, and closure of the labioscrotal folds into the scrotum. Another significant hormone in sexual differentiation is the anti-Müllerian hormone, which inhibits the development of the Müllerian ducts. For males during puberty, testosterone, along with gonadotropins released by the pituitary gland, stimulates spermatogenesis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "Although in general men suffer from many of the same illnesses as women, they suffer from slightly more illnesses in comparison to women. Men have lower life expectancy and higher suicide rates compared to women.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sexuality and gender.", "content": "Male sexuality and attraction vary from person to person, and a man's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, including evolved predispostions, personality, upbringing, and culture. While the majority of men are heterosexual, significant minorities are homosexual or bisexual. Some men identify as \"mostly straight\".  A small percentage of people assigned female at birth may identify as male (typically referred to as transgender men). In contrast, some people assigned male at birth may identify as female (typically referred to as transgender woman). Some people assigned male at birth may also identify as non-binary. There are also intersex people who may identify as either female or male.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Masculinity.", "content": "Masculinity (also sometimes called \"manhood\" or \"manliness\") is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with boys and men. Although masculinity is socially constructed, some research indicates that some behaviors considered masculine are biologically influenced. To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex, as both males and females can exhibit masculine traits.  Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. While the outward signs of masculinity look different in different cultures, there are some common aspects to its definition across cultures. In all cultures in the past, and still among traditional and non-Western cultures, getting married is the most common and definitive distinction between boyhood and manhood. In the late 20th century, some qualities traditionally associated with marriage (such as the \"triple Ps\" of \"protecting, providing, and procreating\") were still considered signs of having achieved manhood.  Anthropology has shown that masculinity itself has social status, just like wealth, race and social class. In Western culture, for example, greater masculinity usually brings greater social status. Many English words such as \"virtue\" and \"virile\" (from the Indo-European root \"vir\" meaning \"man\") reflect this.  The Parsons model was used to contrast and illustrate extreme positions on gender roles. Model A describes total separation of male and female roles, while Model B describes the complete dissolution of barriers between gender roles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Medical:  Dynamics:  Political:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A man is an adult male human. Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy. Like most other male mammals, a man's genome typically inherits an X chromosome from his mother and a Y chromosome from his father. The male fetus generally produces larger amounts of androgens and smaller amounts of estrogens than a female fetus. This difference in the relative amounts of these sex steroids is largely responsible for the physiological differences that distinguish men from women. During puberty, hormones which stimulate androgen production result in the development of secondary sexual characteristics, thus exhibiting greater differences between the sexes. However, there are exceptions to the above for some transgender and intersex men.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973134}
{"src_title": "Joanna la Beltraneja", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Birth and parentage.", "content": "King Henry IV of Castile married Joan of Portugal, daughter of King Duarte of Portugal and the youngest sister of King Afonso V of Portugal, on May 21, 1455. Seven years later, Joanna was born at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid.  Henry IV had previously been married to Blanche II of Navarre. After thirteen years, that marriage was annulled on the grounds that it had never been consummated. This was attributed to a curse, which only affected Henry's relationship with Blanche; a number of prostitutes from Segovia testified that they had noticed no impairment.  Henry had no other children and was rumoured to be impotent. Whether true or not, this rumor was widely circulated by Henry's opponents, who further insinuated that the little infanta (Joanna) was the child of Beltrán de la Cueva, a royal favourite at court, who was created the 1st Duke of Alburquerque in 1464. They called Joanna \"la Beltraneja\", a mocking reference to her supposed illegitimacy.  Joanna's mother, Joan of Portugal, was eventually banished to Bishop Fonseca's castle, where she fell in love with Fonseca's nephew and became pregnant. Henry divorced Joan in 1468.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heir to the throne.", "content": "On 9 May 1462, Joanna was officially proclaimed heir to the throne of Castile and created Princess of Asturias. Henry had the nobles of Castile swear allegiance to her and promise that they would support her as monarch.  Many of the more prominent nobles, seeking to increase their own power, refused to recognise Joanna, preferring that Henry would have named as heir his younger half-brother, Infante Alfonso. Armed conflict broke out and in 1464 the league of nobles forced Henry to repudiate Joanna and recognise Infante Alfonso as his heir. Alfonso then became Prince of Asturias, a title traditionally held by the heir apparent. Henry agreed to this compromise with the stipulation that Infante Alfonso would marry Joanna (his half-niece), to ensure that they both would receive the crown.  But in 1468, Infante Alfonso died, and Henry divorced Joanna's mother, resulting in Joanna's displacement in the succession. Her half-aunt, Infanta Isabella, was placed before her in the succession, although Joanna was considered the heir after Isabella.  Joanna was held in custody by the Mendoza family from 1465–1470, and then by Juan, Marqués de Villena (elevated, in 1472, to 1st Duke of Escalona), and his family from 1470–1475. There were many negotiations for her marriage to someone who could defend her rights of succession. On 26 October 1470, she was betrothed and then married by proxy to Charles, Duke of Guienne, brother of Louis XI of France, and proclaimed as legitimate heir to the throne. But Charles died in 1472. After a few unsettled arrangements, which included French and Burgundian princes, Joanna was promised in marriage to her maternal uncle, King Afonso V of Portugal, who swore to defend her (and his own) rights to the Crown of Castile.  When Henry died in 1474, she was recognized as queen by some noble factions, while others preferred her half-aunt Isabella as queen. This began the four-year War of the Castilian Succession.  In addition to the King of Portugal, Joanna was supported by some of the high Castilian nobility and by descendants of Portuguese families that had settled in Castile after 1396: the Archbishop of Toledo (Alfonso Carrillo de Acuña); the 2nd Duke of Escalona, a powerful and wealthy nobleman; the Estúñiga family, with lands bordering Portugal; the Marquess of Cádiz; and the Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava, Rodrigo Téllez Girón.  Isabella was supported by Ferdinand of Aragon (whom she married), and by most of the Castilian nobility and clergy: the powerful House of Mendoza; the Manrique de Lara family; the 2nd Duke of Medina Sidonia; the 1st Duke of Alburquerque; the Order of Santiago; and the Order of Calatrava, except its Grand Master.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Throne claimant.", "content": "On 10 May 1475, King Afonso V of Portugal invaded Castile and married Joanna in Plasencia, 15 days later, making her Queen of Portugal. Joanna and Afonso V held court at Toro, and she was considered a promising ruler by her courtiers, though too young. Joanna sent a letter to the cities of Castile, expounding the wish of her father King Henry IV that she should rule, and proposed that the cities vote for which succession they wished should be recognized. However, Joanna found fewer supporters than expected. Very shortly, Isabella I's husband King Ferdinand II led her forces against the armies of Joanna and her husband Afonso V.  Both armies met at Toro (1 March 1476). King Afonso V was beaten by the left and center of King Ferdinand's army, and fled from the battlefield. His son John II of Portugal defeated the Castilian right wing, recovered the lost Portuguese Royal standard, and held the field, but overall the battle was indecisive. Even so, the prestige of Joanna and Afonso V dissolved because Ferdinand II sent messages to all the cities of Castile and to several other kingdoms informing them about a huge victory where the Portuguese were crushed. Faced with this news, the party of Joanna la Beltraneja, who was under siege at the Royal Alcazar, was terminated, and the Portuguese were forced to return to their kingdom. \"That is the battle of Toro. The Portuguese army had not been exactly defeated; however, the sensation was that Donna Joanna’s cause had completely sunk. It made sense that for the Castilians, Toro was considered as divine retribution, the compensation willed by God for the terrible disaster of Aljubarrota, still alive in the Castilian memory.\"  After this, Joanna's husband Afonso tried without success to form an alliance with Louis XI of France. In 1478, the marriage of Joanna and Afonso V was annulled by Pope Sixtus IV on grounds of consanguinity, ending her tenure as Queen of Portugal. She was also forced to renounce the title of Queen of Castile.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1479, Alfonso renounced his pretension to the Castilian Crown and signed a treaty with Isabella and Ferdinand. Joanna was given a choice: enter a convent, or marry Isabella's one-year-old son John when he came of age (and if he then consented). Joanna chose to enter the Convent of Santa Clara in Coimbra, and the ceremony was witnessed by Isabella, who praised her decision. She was not incarcerated in the convent, and was eventually allowed to reside in the Castle of São Jorge in Lisbon. In 1482, King Francis Phoebus of Navarre, nephew of Louis XI of France, proposed to her, with the implication of again raising her claim to Castile. This was intended as a French warning to Isabella and Ferdinand, who threatened Roussillon. But Francis died soon after. Isabella died in 1504, and it is alleged that, as a maneuver to retain control of Castile, rather than have his son-in-law Philip succeed there, Ferdinand then proposed marriage to Joanna, but she refused.  Joanna signed her letters \"\"La Reina\"\" (\"the Queen\"), until she died. She would become known in Portugal as \"\"a Excelente Senhora\"\" (\"the Excellent Lady\"). She died in Lisbon, having survived her aunt Isabella I. Joanna's claim to Castile was extinguished at her death, as her heir would have been her cousin Joanna, Isabella's daughter, who was already Queen of Castile.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Articles  Books", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joanna \"la Beltraneja\" (21 February 1462 – 12 April 1530) was a claimant to the throne of Castile, and Queen of Portugal as the wife of King Afonso V, her uncle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973135}
{"src_title": "Walther Gerlach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "Gerlach was born in Biebrich, Hessen-Nassau, German Empire, as son of Dr. med. Valentin Gerlach and his wife Marie Niederhaeuser.  He studied at the University of Tübingen from 1908, and received his doctorate in 1912, under Friedrich Paschen. The subject of his dissertation was on the measurement of radiation. After obtaining his doctorate, he continued on as an assistant to Paschen, which he had been since 1911. Gerlach completed his Habilitation at Tübingen in 1916, while serving during World War I.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "From 1915 to 1918, during the war, Gerlach did service with the German Army. He worked on wireless telegraphy at Jena under Max Wien. He also served in the Artillerie-Prüfungskommission under Rudolf Ladenburg.  Gerlach became a Privatdozent at the University of Tübingen in 1916. A year later, he became a Privatdozent at the University of Göttingen. From 1919 to 1920, he was the head of a physics laboratory of Farbenfabriken Elberfeld, later Bayer-Werke A.G.  In 1921, he became a.o. (extraordinary) professor at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University of Frankfurt am Main. It was before 17. Feb.1922 that Gerlach succeeded with the experiment on spin quantization in a magnetic field (\"Richtungsquantelung\"), later and wrongly called the Stern–Gerlach effect. The below two lines on Hentschel seem to be a bibliographical notice. Permit me to continue as follows: In \"Orden pour le Mérite für Wissenschaften und Künste\", Reden und Gedenkworte (speeches and \"memorials\"), vol. 16, 1980, Verlag Lambert Schneider in Heidelberg, pp. 47-53, physicist Wolfgang Gentner (1906-1980), evidently a close friend of Gerlach, points out that it was Gerlach who had by himself- given his extraordinary gift for experimenting - after Otto Stern had already in 1921 left for Rostock, where he had been given a professorship-  Otto Stern (compare his article) was among the nominees for the physics Nobel Prize in 1943 and was awarded the prize on 9 November 1944. The citation did not mention the highly important Stern-Gerlach experiment which Walther Gerlach finally carried out successfully early in 1922 during the Weimar Republic in the absence of Otto Stern who had already moved on to Rostock, thus withholding the honour from Gerlach in view of his continued activity in \"Nazi-led\" Germany at the end of the war. (Oral information from Prof. Dr. Horst Schmidt-Böcking, Institute for nuclear physics, Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main in 2015, who conserves the unpublished documentation concerning the differing opinions within the Nobel-Committee on the subject of Walther Gerlach. Schmidt-Böcking is also engaged in the physical reassembling of Gerlach's experiment within the planned new Senckenberg-Museum at Frankfurt).  In 1925, Gerlach took a call and became an ordinarius professor at the University of Tübingen, successor to Friedrich Paschen. In 1929, he took a call and became ordinarius professor at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, successor to Wilhelm Wien. He held this position until May 1945, when he was arrested by the American and British Armed Forces.  From 1937 until 1945, Gerlach was a member of the supervisory board of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft (KWG). After 1946, he continued to be an influential official in its successor organization after World War II, the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG).  On 1 January 1944, Gerlach officially became head of the physics section of the Reichsforschungsrat (RFR, Reich Research Council) and Bevollmächtigter (plenipotentiary) of nuclear physics, replacing Abraham Esau. In April of that year, he founded the \"Reichsberichte für Physik\", which were official reports appearing as supplements to the \"Physikalische Zeitschrift\".  From May 1945, Gerlach was interned in France and Belgium by British and American Armed Forces under Operation Alsos. From July of that year to January 1946, he was interned in England at Farm Hall under Operation Epsilon, which interned 10 German scientists who were thought to have participated in the development of atomic weapons.  Upon Gerlach's return to Germany in 1946, he became a visiting professor at the University of Bonn. From 1948, he became an ordinarius professor of experimental physics and director of the physics department at the University of Munich, a position he held until 1957. He was also rector of the university from 1948 to 1951.  From 1949 to 1951, Gerlach was the founding president of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, which promotes applied sciences. From 1949 to 1961, he was the vice-president of the Deutsche Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung und Förderung der Forschung (German Association for the Support and Advancement of Scientific Research); also known in short as the Deutsche Forschungs-Gemeinschaft (DFG), previously the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft.  In 1957, Gerlach was a co-signer of the Göttingen Manifesto, which was against rearming the Federal Republic of Germany with atomic weapons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other positions / Decorations / Honours.", "content": "He died in Munich in 1979.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "literature.", "content": "Rest of my insert which your system had no more room for: The \"theoretician\" Wolfgang Pauli had sent Gerlach a postcard on 17 Feb. 1922 with his congratulations and the remark \"Jetzt wird hoffentlich auch der ungläubige Stern von der Richtungsquantelung überzeugt sein\" (Now the disbelieving Stern will hopefully become convinced of the Richtungsquantelung\". Niels Bohr apparently was the only physicist in that time, who was ready to believe in the phenomenon. Therefore it would seem appropriate to speak of the Gerlach-Stern experiment. Stern was awarded the Nobel- Prize in 1944 (for 1943). Gerlach was considered risky, having at the end of the war been active in the Reichsrüstungsrat and the Uran(ium) Projekt of the Nazi regime. He would have been the right choice.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Walther Gerlach (1 August 1889 – 10 August 1979) was a German physicist who co-discovered spin quantization in a magnetic field, the Stern–Gerlach effect.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973136}
{"src_title": "Giovanni Bononcini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Bononcini was born in Modena, Italy, the oldest of three sons. His father, Giovanni Maria Bononcini (1642–1678), was a violinist and a composer, and his younger brother, Antonio Maria Bononcini, was also a composer. An orphan from the age of 8, Giovanni Battista studied in the music school of Giovanni Paolo Colonna at San Petronio Basilica in Bologna (perhaps in 1680 or 1681).  In 1685, at the age of 15, he published three collections of instrumental works (in two of which he gave his age as 13). On 30 May 1686, he was accepted as a member of the prestigious Accademia Filarmonica di Bologna. His services were already much in demand: he worked at San Petronio as a string player and singer, published further collections of instrumental pieces, and produced two oratorios for performance in Bologna and Modena. From 1687 to 1691 he served as \"maestro di cappella\" at the church of San Giovanni in Monte in Bologna, for which he composed a set of masses) for double choir which were published in 1688 as his op.7. In 1690 he composed a further oratorio for Modena. He also spent some time in Milan in 1689 and 1690. In 1691 he dedicated a set of vocal duets (op. 8) to Emperor Leopold I and played in the orchestra of the Cardinal Legate of Bologna, Benedetto Pamphili.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rome.", "content": "In the same year, he moved to Rome, where he entered the service of Filippo II Colonna, a powerful patron of the arts, for whom Bononcini, along with Colonna's librettist, Silvio Stampiglia, produced six serenatas, an oratorio and at three (possibly five) operas between 1692 and 1696, including the highly successful \"Xerse\" (1694). Another successful opera, \"Il trionfo di Camilla\" was produced in Naples (in 1696 or 1697) following the appointment of Colonna's brother-in-law, Luigi della Cerda, as Spain's local viceroy. Between 1695 and 1696, Bononcini was made a member of two of Rome's most exclusive artistic circles, the musical Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia and the literary Accademia degli Arcadi (in which he was one of seven musicians proposed as founding members of a \"chorus\", or performance arm). Around this time, the eclectic musician and poet Giuseppe Valentini wrote a sonnet in praise of Bononcini's teaching abilities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vienna and Berlin.", "content": "Following the death of Colonna's wife Lorenza in August 1697, Bononcini left Rome for Vienna, where he entered the service of Emperor Leopold I with a large salary and also established himself as the favoured composer of Leopold's heir and successor, Joseph. In 1702, following the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession Bononcini moved to the court of Queen Sophia Charlotte in Berlin, where he became the queen's favourite composer and broadened his public reputation with a production of a new opera, \"Polifemo\" (he also composed \"Cefalo\" there).  Although his activities in the next decade are less well documented, he appears to have been in Venice for the production of a new opera during the carnival of 1706. By this time Bononcini had an enviable international reputation: in the words of his fellow composer Francesco Geminiani, \"Camilla\" had \"astonished the musical world by its departure from the dry, flat melody to which their ears had until then been accustomed\". By 1710, productions of \"Camilla\" (presumably based on Bononcini's version) had reached London as well as many cities across Italy. At some time during this decade on one of his sojourns to Italy, he married Margherita Balletti. She came from a family of actors and \"commedia dell'arte\" players and was the sister-in-law of Luigi Riccoboni.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "London.", "content": "From 1720 to 1732 he was in London, where for a time his popularity rivaled George Frideric Handel's, who had arrived in London in 1712. The Whig party favored Handel, while the Tories favored Bononcini. Their competition inspired the epigram by John Byrom that made the phrase \"Tweedledum and Tweedledee\" famous. Handel steadily gained the ascendancy, and Bononcini became a pensioner of the Duchess of Marlborough, who had led his admirers. Bononcini left London after charges of plagiarism were proven against him: he had palmed off a madrigal by Antonio Lotti as his own work.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final years.", "content": "After leaving London in 1733, Bononcini travelled to France in the company of an adventurer, Count Ughi, who swindled him out of most of his property. In Paris Bononcini gave concerts of his religious music at the Concert Spirituel and then moved on to Lisbon to become the cello teacher to the Portuguese king. In 1736 he returned to Vienna, where his opera \"Alessandro in Sidone\" and his oratorio \"Ezechia\" were performed in 1737. In dire financial straits by 1742, he petitioned Maria Theresa of Austria for help. In October of that year she granted him a pension of 50 Florins a month in recognition of his past service to the court. Bononcini died on 9 July 1747 in Vienna, impoverished and largely forgotten. After his death, his last major composition, a \"Te Deum\" which he had composed in 1741 for Francis I, was performed in celebration of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Compositions.", "content": "He published his earliest works for the cello. His other works include a number of operas, masses, and a funeral anthem for the Duke of Marlborough. One of his operas, \"Xerse\", parodied material in an earlier setting of that opera by Francesco Cavalli. This included the aria \"Ombra mai fu\". Bononcini's \"Xerse\" was in turn later adapted by Handel with a third (and best known) version of \"Ombra mai fu\". His song \"Vado ben spesso cangiando loco\" was used by Franz Liszt in his suite for piano \"Années de pèlerinage: Deuxième année: Italie\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giovanni Bononcini (or Buononcini) (18 July 1670 – 9 July 1747) (sometimes cited also as Giovanni Battista Bononcini) was an Italian Baroque composer, cellist, singer and teacher, one of a family of string players and composers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973137}
{"src_title": "Johann Nepomuk Maelzel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Maelzel was born in Regensburg. The son of an organ builder, he received a comprehensive musical education. He moved to Vienna in 1792. After several years of study and experiment, he produced an orchestrion instrument, which was publicly exhibited, and afterward sold for 3,000 florins. In 1804, he invented the panharmonicon, an automaton able to play the musical instruments of a military band, powered by bellows and directed by revolving cylinders storing the notes. This attracted universal attention; the inventor became noted throughout Europe, was appointed imperial court-mechanician at Vienna, and drew the admiration of Ludwig van Beethoven and other noted composers. This instrument was sold to a Parisian admirer for 120,000 francs. In 1805 Maelzel purchased Wolfgang von Kempelen's half-forgotten automaton chess player, The Turk, took it to Paris, and sold it to Eugene Beauharnais at a large profit. Returning to Vienna, he gave his attention to the construction of an automaton trumpeter, which, with lifelike movements and sudden changes of attire, performed French and Austrian field signals and military airs. In 1808 he invented an improved ear trumpet, and a musical chronometer.  In 1813 Maelzel and Beethoven were on familiar terms. Maelzel conceived and musically sketched \"The Battle of Vitoria\" for which Beethoven composed the music; they also gave several concerts, at which Beethoven's symphonies were interspersed with the performances of Maelzel's automatons. In 1814, Beethoven wrote a deposition claiming that Maelzel had defrauded him, claiming ownership of this music, and illegally staging performances of it from an inaccurate transcription. Beethoven described Maelzel in this deposition as \"a rude, churlish man, entirely devoid of education or cultivation\".  In 1816 Maelzel became established in Paris as manufacturer of a metronome. Maelzel's metronome was copied from a metronome invented earlier by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel. By 1817, Beethoven and Maelzel appear to have reconciled. Beethoven wrote glowingly of Maelzel's metronome and declared he would stop using traditional tempo indications like allegro.  In 1817 Maelzel left Paris for Munich, and then again took up his abode in Vienna. At this time he found means to repurchase von Kempelen's chess player, and, after spending several preparatory years in constructing and improving a number of mechanical inventions, he formed an enterprise devoted to exhibiting his array of mechanical wonders in the New World.  He died on a ship in the harbor of La Guaira, Venezuela, reportedly from alcohol poisoning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quotations.", "content": "Views on Maelzel show that he was not always positively viewed by his contemporaries (e.g. regarding his relation to Art).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Nepomuk Maelzel (or Mälzel; August 15, 1772 – July 21, 1838) was a German inventor, engineer, and showman, best known for manufacturing a metronome and several music automatons, and displaying a fraudulent chess machine. He worked with Beethoven to compose a piece.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973138}
{"src_title": "Malbolge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Programming in Malbolge.", "content": "Malbolge was so difficult to understand when it arrived that it took two years for the first Malbolge program to appear. Indeed, the author himself has never written a single Malbolge program. The first program was not written by a human being: it was generated by a beam search algorithm designed by Andrew Cooke and implemented in Lisp.  Later, Lou Scheffer posted a cryptanalysis of Malbolge and provided a program to copy its input to its output. He also saved the original interpreter and specification after the original site stopped functioning, and offered a general strategy of writing programs in Malbolge as well as some thoughts on its Turing-completeness.  Olmstead believed Malbolge to be a linear bounded automaton. There is a discussion about whether one can implement sensible loops in Malbolge—it took many years before the first non-terminating one was introduced. A correct 99 Bottles of Beer program, which deals with non-trivial loops and conditions, was not announced for seven years; the first correct one was by Hisashi Iizawa in 2005. Hisashi Iizawa et al. also proposed a guide for programming in Malbolge for the purpose of obfuscation for software protection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example programs.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hello, World!", "content": "This Malbolge program displays \"Hello World!\", with both words capitalized and exclamation mark at the end.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "cat program.", "content": "This program reads a string from a user and prints that string, similar to Unix cat.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "Malbolge is machine language for a ternary virtual machine, the Malbolge interpreter.  The standard interpreter and the official specification do not match perfectly. One difference is that the compiler stops execution with data outside the 33–126 range. Although this was initially considered a bug in the compiler, Ben Olmstead stated that it was intended and there was in fact \"a bug in the specification\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Registers.", "content": "Malbolge has three registers, a, c, and d. When a program starts, the value of all three registers is zero.  a stands for 'accumulator', set to the value written by all write operations on memory and used for standard I/O. c, the code pointer, is special: it points to the current instruction. d is the data pointer. It is automatically incremented after each instruction, but the location it points to is used for the data manipulation commands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pointer notation.", "content": "d can hold a memory address; [d] is register indirect; the value stored at that address. [c] is similar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Memory.", "content": "The virtual machine has 59,049 (3) memory locations that can each hold a ten-trit ternary number. Each memory location has an address from 0 to 59048 and can hold a value from 0 to 59048. Incrementing past this limit wraps back to zero.  The language uses the same memory space for both data and instructions. This was influenced by how hardware such as x86 architecture worked.  Before a Malbolge program starts, the first part of memory is filled with the program. All whitespace in the program is ignored and, to make programming more difficult, everything else in the program must start out as one of the instructions below.  The rest of memory is filled by using the \"crazy\" operation (see below) on the previous two addresses ([m] = crz [m - 2], [m - 1]). Memory filled this way will repeat every twelve addresses (the individual ternary digits will repeat every three or four addresses, so a group of ternary digits is guaranteed to repeat every twelve).  In 2007, Ørjan Johansen created Malbolge Unshackled, a version of Malbolge which does not have the arbitrary memory limit. The hope was to create a Turing-Complete language while keeping as much in the spirit of Malbolge. No other rules are changed, and all Malbolge programs that do not reach the memory limit are completely functional.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Instructions.", "content": "Malbolge has eight instructions. Malbolge figures out which instruction to execute by taking the value [c], adding the value of c to it, and taking the remainder when this is divided by 94. The final result tells the interpreter what to do:  After each instruction is executed, the guilty instruction gets encrypted (see below) so that it will not do the same thing next time, unless a jump just happened. Right after a jump, Malbolge will encrypt the innocent instruction just prior to the one it jumped to instead. Then, the values of both c and d are increased by one and the next instruction is executed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Crazy\" operation.", "content": "For each ternary digit of both inputs, use the following table to get a ternary digit of the result. For example, crz 0001112220, 0120120120 gives 1001022211.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Encipherment.", "content": "After an instruction is executed, the value at [c] (without anything added to it) will be replaced with itself mod 94. Then, the result is enciphered with one of the following two equivalent methods.  Lou Scheffer's cryptanalysis of Malbolge mentions six different cycles in the permutation. They are listed here:  These cycles can be used to create loops that do different things each time and that eventually become repetitive. Lou Scheffer used this idea to create a Malbolge program (included in his cryptanalysis linked below) that repeats anything the user inputs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "Malbolge is not Turing-complete, due to its memory limits. However, it otherwise has sequential execution, repetition, and conditional-execution. Several attempts have been made to create Turing-complete versions of Malbolge:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "In the television series \"Elementary\", during the episode \"The Leviathan\" (season 1, episode 10), a clue written on a coffee order is described as having been written in Malbolge. It appears to be a small modification of the more verbose \"Hello World\" example shown above.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Malbolge () is a public domain esoteric programming language invented by Ben Olmstead in 1998, named after the eighth circle of hell in Dante's \"Inferno\", the Malebolge. It was specifically designed to be almost impossible to use, via a counter-intuitive 'crazy operation', base-three arithmetic, and self-altering code. It builds on the difficulty of earlier, challenging esoteric languages (such as Brainfuck and Befunge), but takes this aspect to the extreme, playing on the entangled histories of computer science and encryption. Despite this design, it is possible to write useful Malbolge programs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973139}
{"src_title": "Meteosat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First generation.", "content": "The first generation of Meteosat satellites, Meteosat-1 to Meteosat-7, provided continuous and reliable meteorological observations from space to a large user community. Meteosat-1 to 7 have all now retired. When operational the Meteosat First Generation provided images every half-hour in three spectral channels (Visible, Infrared) and Water Vapour, via the Meteosat Visible and Infrared Imager (MVIRI) instrument. Until 1-February 2017, Meteosat-7 provided the primary imagery coverage over the Indian Ocean and provided a service relaying data from Data Collection Platforms (DCP), such as buoys, in support of the Tsunami Warning System for the Indian Ocean. A range of processed meteorological products were also produced. The last disseminated Meteosat-7 image was on 31-March-2017. Meteosat-7 de-orbiting commenced on 3-April-2017 and the spacecraft final command sent on 11-April 2017.  The satellites were manufactured by a consortium COSMOS, with Aérospatiale in its Cannes Mandelieu Space Centre, as Prime, and included Matra, MBB, Selenia Spazio, Marconi Company.  They are 2.1 metres in diameter and 3.195 metres long. Its initial mass in orbit is 282 kg, and in orbit, the satellite spins at 100 rpm around its main axis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second Generation.", "content": "The contract for the second generation was awarded to Aérospatiale in its Cannes Mandelieu Space Centre (now Thales Alenia Space), with main subcontractors as Matra, Messerschmitt, Alenia.  Meteosat Second Generation was designed in response to user requirements to serve the needs of Nowcasting applications and numerical weather prediction. In addition, the GERB instrument provides important data for climate monitoring and research.  The satellites are spin-stabilised like the previous generation, but with many design improvements. The more frequent and comprehensive data collected by MSG also aids the weather forecaster in the swift recognition and prediction of dangerous weather phenomena such as thunderstorms, fog, and explosive development of small, but intense, depressions, which can lead to devastating wind storms.  The MSG satellites are 3.2 m in diameter and 2.4 m high and spin anti-clockwise at 100 RPM at an altitude of 36,000 km.  On 29 January 2004 the first Meteosat Second Generation satellite MSG-1, renamed to Meteosat-8 once operational, commenced routine operations. In addition to the main optical payload SEVIRI (Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager), Meteosat-8 also carries the secondary payload GERB (Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget) instrument.  The launch of MSG-2 (renamed to Meteosat-9) took place on 21 December 2005. The launch of MSG-3 (renamed to Meteosat-10) took place on 5 July 2012. Meteosat-8, -9 and 10 are all operational.  Meteosat-8 is stationed over the Indian Ocean, arriving at 41.5°E on 21 September 2016 and it took over as prime Indian Ocean Data Coverage (IODC) spacecraft on 1 February 2017 (replacing Meteosat-7). Meteosat-7 was moved to its graveyard orbit with the last command sent on 11-April 2017.  Meteosat-9 and -10 are all located over Africa with various differences in operational configuration. Meteosat-9 provides an operational European 'rapid scan' mode service (the MSG RSS service first commenced in May 2008), with images of Europe every 5 minutes. Meteosat-10 provides the main full Earth imagery service over Europe and Africa (with images every 15-minutes).  MSG-4 was successfully launched into space on 15 July 2015 at 18:42 local time on top an Ariane 5 Rocket from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. Like MSG-1, MSG-2 and MSG-3, MSG-4 was launched by Arianespace. The MSG-4 commissioning was successfully completed in December 2015 at which time the spacecraft was placed into in-orbit storage as planned, and renamed to Meteosat-11.  Between January and April 2018 several changes in the constellation of Meteosat satellites will be made. Meteosat-11 will be taken into operations, moved to 0-deg longitude and take over the main full Earth imagery service over Europe and Africa from Meteosat-10. Following this Meteosat-10 will be moved to 9.5-deg E longitude and take over the operational European 5-minute 'rapid scan' mode service from Meteosat-9. Finally Meteosat-9 will be moved to 3.5-deg E longitude and be available as a 'rapid scan' mode service backup to Meteosat-10.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secondary Payloads.", "content": "Meteosat-8,-9, 10, and -11 each carry a GERB Instrument, DCP capable service equipment and a Search and Rescue signal Processor (SARP) that is capable of detecting 406 MHz distress signals from Emergency position-indicating radiobeacon stations. For SARP see more under Cospas-Sarsat.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third Generation (\"MTG\").", "content": "Considering the long development cycle for a new observational space system, EUMETSAT has been working on the definition and the planning for a Meteosat Third Generation (MTG) system since the year 2000. MTG components providing continuity of MSG services need to be available before the end of the nominal lifetime of MSG. MTG preparatory activities started end of 2000 in cooperation with the European Space Agency (ESA), following the decision of the EUMETSAT Council to proceed with a Post-MSG User Consultation Process. The process is aimed at capturing the foreseeable needs of users of EUMETSAT's satellite data in the 2015-2025 timeframe.  On 19 March 2010, ESA chose Thales Alenia Space for a final negotiation leading to a contract to be signed during June.  On 22 June 2010, EUMETSAT confirmed the choice of Thales Alenia Space.  On 24 February 2012, the development contract between ESA and Thales Alenia Space was signed by Mr. Liebig and Mr. Seznec. Thales Alenia Space leads the industrial consortium that is now building the MTG family. Along with being the prime contractor, Thales Alenia Space is responsible for the MTG-I imaging satellite, including the primary payload, the Flexible Combined Imager. Bremen-based OHB is responsible for the MTG-S satellites and provision of the common satellite platforms, supported by Astrium GmbH as the System Architect.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Meteosat series of satellites are geostationary meteorological satellites operated by EUMETSAT under the Meteosat Transition Programme (MTP) and the Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) program.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973140}
{"src_title": "Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Alexander Graham Bell and Edward Miner Gallaudet, both prominent U.S. figures in deaf education, had been debating the effectiveness of oral-only education versus an education that utilizes sign language as a means of visual communication, culminating in the Milan Conference in 1880 that passed eight resolutions on deaf education.  The Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf (which, despite its name, was actually the first) was an international meeting of deaf educators from at least seven countries. There were five delegates from America and approximately 164 delegates total in attendance. The Congress was planned and organized by a committee created by the Pereire Society, a group that was against sign language. More than half of the people invited were known oralists; therefore, the Congress was biased and most, if not all, of the resolutions that were voted on by the delegates gave results in favor of the oral method. Many of the resolutions were worded in ways that supported the oral method, such as \"Considering the incontestable superiority of speech over signs in restoring the deaf-mute to society, and in giving him a more perfect knowledge of language,/Declares –/That the Oral method ought to be preferred that of signs for the education and instruction of the deaf and dumb\".  The Milan Conference was organized by the Pereire Society, an organization formed by the family of Jacob Rodrigues Pereira of France and financed by their numerous railroad and bank holdings (including the Société Générale du Crédit Mobilier). The Pereire Society was a strong supporter of oralism. They organized the Milan conference with the intent to ban sign language. They secured this outcome by carefully selecting who was invited, inviting the delegates to see the oralist success in a local school, and by encouraging negative reactions to those giving speeches supporting sign language and cheering those supporting oralism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Delegates.", "content": "The Milan Conference was attended by 164 delegates of various countries. Out of these 164 delegates only one, James Denison, was Deaf. The conference president was Abbe Giulio Tarra.  The Nationality of the remaining delegates is unknown. The five U.S. delegates present were James Denison, Edward Miner Gallaudet, Reverend Thomas Gallaudet, Isaac Lewis Peet and Charles A Stoddard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conference.", "content": "The Conference was held in the Regio Instituto Tenico di Santa Martha, Milan. It was held from 6 September to 11 September 1880. The aim of the conference was to ban sign language from deaf education. During the conference there were 12 speakers who gave their opinions on the issues connected with deaf education. Nine of the twelve speakers gave an oralist view, and three (the Gallaudet brothers, and Richard Elliot, a teacher from England) supported the use of sign language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eight resolutions.", "content": "1. The Convention, considering the incontestable superiority of articulation over signs in restoring the deaf-mute to society and giving him a fuller knowledge of language, declares that the oral method should be preferred to that of signs in education and the instruction of deaf-mutes.  2. The Convention, considering that the simultaneous use of articulation and signs has the disadvantage of injuring articulation and lip-reading and the precision of ideas, declares that the pure oral method should be preferred.  3. Considering that a great number of the deaf and dumb are not receiving the benefit of instruction, and that this condition is owing to the impotence of families and of institutions, recommends that governments should take the necessary steps that all the deaf and dumb may be educated.  4. Considering that the teaching of the speaking deaf by the Pure Oral method should resemble as much as possible that of those who hear and speak, declares  5. Considering the want of books sufficiently elementary to help the gradual and progressive development of language, recommends that the teachers of the Oral system should apply themselves to the publication of special works on the subject.  6. Considering the results obtained by the numerous inquiries made concerning the deaf and dumb of every age and every condition long after they had quit school, who, when interrogated upon various subjects, have answered correctly, with sufficient clearness of articulation, and read the lips of their questioners with the greatest facility, declares:  7. Considering that the education of the deaf and dumb by speech has peculiar requirements; considering also that the experienced of teachers of deaf-mutes is almost unanimous, declares  8. Considering that the application of the Pure Oral method in institutions where it is not yet in active operation, should be to avoid the certainty of failure prudent, gradual, progressive, recommends", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opposition.", "content": "Delegates from the United States and Britain were the only ones who opposed the use of oralism as a sole method of instruction, but were unsuccessful in their efforts at the congress. Edward Miner Gallaudet and Reverend Thomas Gallaudet were among the protesters who fought against the oralist method. Since failing to overturn the Milan resolutions, Gallaudet ensured that the United States would not be completely converted to oralism-only, which included allowing high school students in institutes for the deaf to use sign language and maintaining Gallaudet College (now Gallaudet University) as a university that permits full usage of sign language.  The National Association of the Deaf was also formed in the United States in response to the Milan Conference and was dedicated toward preserving American Sign Language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First repudiation 100 years later in Hamburg.", "content": "At the 15th International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) held in Hamburg, West Germany in 1980, the first major precedent for the repudiation of the 1880 resolutions was set by a large group of attendees who rejected the 1880 resolutions in practical-moral terms by the method of informal consensus in deciding that the 1880 resolutions had no appropriate standing, originally, in 1880. As explained by Richard G. Brill: \"At the International Congress in Hamburg in 1980, however, the Milan resolutions were challenged head-on in major professional addresses at the opening of the congresses. It was recognized and accepted that resolutions concerning methodology were not appropriate at such international congresses because of the unlikelihood that the delegates fully represented the practices and philosophies of their home countries.\" Rather than seek to directly overturn the 1880s resolutions, the Congress put forward \"Recommendations\" for informational purposes, including the following: \"Recommended that this International Congress on Education of the Deaf, in convocation gathered at Hamburg, West Germany, in August 1980, affirms and declares that all deaf children have the right to flexible communication in the mode or combination of modes which best meets their individual needs.\" Sharkey and Hikins deemed this Recommendation, along with the others, as constituting overturning the 1880 Milan Congress's resolutions.  In spite of the previous precedent set in 1980, in July 2010 in Vancouver, Canada, the board of the 21st International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) formally voted to reject all of the 1880 Milan resolutions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf was (despite the name) the first international conference of deaf educators held in Milan, Italy in 1880. It is commonly known as \"the Milan Conference\". After deliberations from September 6 to 11, 1880, the conference declared that oral education (oralism) was superior to manual education and passed a resolution banning the use of sign language in school. After its passage in 1880, schools in European countries and the United States switched to using speech therapy without sign language as a method of education for the deaf. A formal apology was made by the board at the 21st International Congress on Education of the Deaf in Vancouver, BC, Canada, in 2010 accepting the dangerous ramifications of such ban as an act of discrimination and violation of human and constitutional rights.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973141}
{"src_title": "Schist", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical mining terminology.", "content": "Before the mid-18th century, the terms slate, shale and schist were not sharply differentiated by those involved with mining.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation.", "content": "During metamorphism, rocks which were originally sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic are converted into schists and gneisses. If the composition of the rocks was originally similar, they may be very difficult to distinguish from one another if the metamorphism has been great. A quartz-porphyry, for example, and a fine grained feldspathic sandstone, may both be converted into a grey or pink mica-schist. Usually, however, it is possible to distinguish between sedimentary and igneous schists and gneisses. If, for example, the whole district occupied by these rocks has traces of bedding, clastic structure, or unconformability, then it may be a sign that the original rock was sedimentary. In other cases intrusive junctions, chilled edges, contact alteration or porphyritic structure may prove that in its original condition a metamorphic gneiss was an igneous rock. The last appeal is often to the chemistry, for there are certain rock types which occur only as sediments, while others are found only among igneous masses, and however advanced the metamorphism may be, it rarely modifies the chemical composition of the mass very greatly. Such rocks as limestones, dolomites, quartzites, and aluminous shales have very definite chemical characteristics that distinguish them even when completely recrystallized.  The schists are classified principally according to the minerals they consist of and on their chemical composition. For example, many metamorphic limestones, marbles, and calc-schists, with crystalline dolomites, contain silicate minerals such as mica, tremolite, diopside, scapolite, quartz and feldspar. They are derived from calcareous sediments of different degrees of purity. Another group is rich in quartz (quartzites, quartz schists and quartzose gneisses), with variable amounts of white and black mica, garnet, feldspar, zoisite and hornblende. These were once sandstones and arenaceous rocks. The graphitic schists may readily be believed to represent sediments once containing coal or plant remains; there are also schistose ironstones (hematite-schists), but metamorphic beds of salt or gypsum are exceedingly uncommon. Among schists of igneous origin there are the silky calc-schists, the foliated serpentines (once ultramafic masses rich in olivine), and the white mica-schists, porphyroids and banded halleflintas, which have been derived from rhyolites, quartz-porphyries and felsic tuffs. The majority of mica-schists, however, are altered claystones and shales, and pass into the normal sedimentary rocks through various types of phyllite and mica-slates. They are among the most common metamorphic rocks; some of them are graphitic and others calcareous. The diversity in appearance and composition is very great, but they form a well-defined group not difficult to recognize, from the abundance of black and white micas and their thin, foliated, schistose character. A subgroup is the andalusite-, staurolite-, kyanite- and sillimanite-schists which usually make their appearance in the vicinity of gneissose granites, and have presumably been affected by contact metamorphism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engineering considerations.", "content": "In geotechnical engineering a schistosity plane often forms a discontinuity that may have a large influence on the mechanical behavior (strength, deformation, etc.) of rock masses in, for example, tunnel, foundation, or slope construction.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Schist (pronounced ) is a medium-grade metamorphic rock formed from mudstone or shale. Schist has medium to large, flat, sheet-like grains in a preferred orientation (nearby grains are roughly parallel). It is defined by having more than 50% platy and elongated minerals (such as micas or talc), often finely interleaved with quartz and feldspar. These lamellar (flat, planar) minerals include micas, chlorite, talc, hornblende, graphite, and others. Quartz often occurs in drawn-out grains to such an extent that a particular form called quartz schist is produced. Schist is often garnetiferous. Schist forms at a higher temperature and has larger grains than phyllite. Geological foliation (metamorphic arrangement in layers) with medium to large grained flakes in a preferred sheetlike orientation is called \"schistosity\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973142}
{"src_title": "Havana Club", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Arechabala family history and production.", "content": "The Arechabala family founded a distillery in Cardenas, Cuba in 1878. Later renamed José Arechabala S.A., the company created the Havana Club brand in 1934, and sold rum under that name in both Cuba and the United States. The company was nationalized without compensation by the Castro government in 1960. The Arechabala family allege it was taken from them at gunpoint. Subsequently, much of the Arechabala family was forced to leave Cuba for Spain and the United States, while other members of the family were imprisoned.  The Cuban government sold rum abroad under the Havana Club name beginning in 1972, focusing primarily on the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. The government focused on Havana Club because (unlike the Bacardi family) the Arechabala family had not established plants outside of Cuba and so could not produce a competing brand. The company was considered a \"national jewel\" by the Cuban government, and in 1977 manufacturing was moved to a new plant in Santa Cruz del Norte.  Since 1994, Cuban production and non-US global marketing of Havana Club has continued under a joint partnership between Pernod Ricard and Corporación Cuba Ron.  In 1994, Bacardi began producing rum under the Havana Club name in Cataño, Puerto Rico using a recipe given to them by Arechabala family members. While originally sold in only a few US states (primarily Florida), production was expanded in 2006, and in 2012, after winning a critical court battle, Bacardi announced plans to sell the rum more broadly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pernod Ricard/Bacardi trademark conflict.", "content": "The Havana Club trademark has been the subject of extensive trademark litigation in the US, Spain, and World Trade Organization.  After José Arechabala S.A. was nationalized, the Arechabala family fled Cuba and was forced to stop producing rum. The US trademark registration for \"Havana Club\" lapsed in 1973. The family alleges that this was due to the company's lawyer, Javier Arechabala, remaining imprisoned at the time. Taking advantage of the lapse, the Cuban government registered the mark in the US in 1976. The brand was then assigned by the Cuban government to Pernod Ricard in 1993.  In 1994, Bacardi obtained the Arechabala family's remaining rights in the brand, and began producing limited amounts of rum bearing the name. 922 cases were sold in the US in 1995 and 1996. This drew litigation from Pernod Ricard. Pernod Ricard was successful in two of the first three court holdings issued in this litigation.  However, in 1998, after heavy lobbying from Bacardi, the US Congress passed the \"Bacardi Act\", which protected trademarks related to expropriated Cuban companies, and effectively ended the first phase of the litigation by eliminating Pernod Ricard's standing. This act (also known as Section 211) has been applied only to the Havana Club trademark. The act was ruled illegal by the World Trade Organization in 2001 and 2002, on grounds that it singled out one country (Cuba). The United States has not yet acted to address the WTO ruling, despite a 2005 deadline and requests from the European Union.  Following the initial round of litigation, a second round of litigation occurred, through both the US Federal court system and the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board, focused in part on the allegedly deceptive nature of the use of \"Havana\" in the name of a rum produced outside of Cuba. This round of litigation lasted from 2009 to 2012, and again resulted in a victory for Bacardi. After this defeat, Pernod Ricard announced plans to market the product in the US under the \"Havanista\" mark, while Bacardi announced plans to extend distribution of Bacardi's version of Havana Club throughout the US.  In Spain, Pernod Ricard's ownership of the mark has been upheld in three court rulings, most recently in 2011.  In January 2016, after a thaw in US-Cuba relations, the U.S. government awarded a trademark for Havana Club to the Cuban government, which was \"expected to reignite longstanding tension between Bacardi Ltd. and the Cuban government\". Bacardi appealed the decision, and in 2017, Florida lawmakers asked President Donald Trump to reverse the decision.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current sales and marketing.", "content": "Pernod Ricard's Havana Club is the fifth-largest rum brand in the world, with almost 4 million cases sold in 2012–2013. It is sold in over 120 countries. Its strongest markets include France, and Germany, where marketing plays off the brand's distribution in East Germany during the Cold War. Since 2008, it is also bottled in India, the world's second-largest rum market.  Pernod Ricard plays heavily on Cuban themes in its marketing, including labeling Havana Club as \"El Ron de Cuba\" (\"The Rum of Cuba\"). It is one of the most common items brought into the US by tourists returning from Cuba. To avoid charges of customer deception, Bacardi's Havana Club labeling prominently mentions that it is made in Puerto Rico and is often referred to as \"Havana Club Puerto Rican rum\".  Pernod Ricard's labeling, originated by Cubaexport in the 1970s, is gold and red, and features the Giraldilla, a weathervane from the old fort of Havana. Pernod Ricard has announced plans to use similar gold and red labels on their \"Havanista\" product in the United States.  In 2016, Bacardi announced new branding and sells their version of Havana Club nationally, distilled in Puerto Rico and bottled in Florida.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Havana Club is a brand of rum created in Cuba in 1934. Originally produced in Cárdenas, Cuba by family-owned José Arechabala S.A., the brand was nationalized after the Cuban Revolution of 1959. In 1993, French owned Pernod Ricard and the government of Cuba created a state-run 50:50 joint venture called Corporación Cuba Ron. They began exporting this version of Havana Club globally, except for the United States due to the embargo put in place by the U.S. government.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973143}
{"src_title": "Nazareth (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Nazareth formed in December 1968 in Dunfermline, Scotland, from the remaining members of semi-professional local group The Shadettes (formed in 1961) by vocalist Dan McCafferty, guitarist Manny Charlton (ex Mark V and The Red Hawks), bassist Pete Agnew, and drummer Darrell Sweet. They were inspired by The Beatles and The Rolling Stones. Nazareth took their name from Nazareth, Pennsylvania, which is cited in the first line of The Band's classic song \"The Weight\" (\"I pulled into Nazareth, was feelin' about half past dead...\").  The band moved to London, England in 1970 and released their eponymous debut album in 1971. After getting some attention with their second album \"Exercises,\" released in 1972, Nazareth supported Deep Purple on tour, and issued the Roger Glover-produced \"Razamanaz\", in early 1973. This collection spawned two UK Top Ten hits, \"Broken Down Angel\" and \"Bad Bad Boy\". This was followed by \"Loud 'N' Proud\" in late 1973, which contained another hit single with a cover of Joni Mitchell's song \"This Flight Tonight\". Then came another album \"Rampant,\" in 1974, that was equally successful although its only single, \"Shanghai'd in Shanghai\", narrowly missed the British Top 40. A non-album song, again a cover version, this time of Tomorrow's \"My White Bicycle\", was a UK Top 20 entry in 1975.  \"Hair of the Dog\" was released in April 1975 and was produced by Manny Charlton, ending Roger Glover's association with the band. The title track of that album (popularly, though incorrectly, known as \"Son of a Bitch\" due to its hook lyric) became a staple of 1970s rock radio. The American version of the album included a song originally recorded by The Everly Brothers, the melodic Boudleaux Bryant-penned ballad \"Love Hurts\", that was released as a hit single in the UK and in the US, where it went platinum. The track became the band's only US Top Ten hit and was also a top 10 hit in nine other countries, reaching number 1 in six of them. The song was on the Norwegian chart for 60 weeks.  In 1979, second guitarist Zal Cleminson was added to the line-up, remaining for two albums, \"No Mean City\" and \"Malice in Wonderland\", and contributing numerous compositions. \"Malice in Wonderland\" contained the single \"Holiday\". In 1981, they contributed the song \"Crazy (A Suitable Case for Treatment)\" to the soundtrack to the film, \"Heavy Metal\".  Various Nazareth line-ups continued to make studio albums and tour throughout the 1980s and 1990s, although their popularity had declined such that some albums no longer received either a UK or a US release. They remained popular in Europe, particularly Germany, where \"Dream On\" became a hit single. In 1991, Billy Rankin returned to replace Manny Charlton on the \"No Jive\" album, remaining with the band until 1994.  A tribute came in 1993 when Guns N' Roses covered Nazareth's \"Hair of the Dog\" on \"\"The Spaghetti Incident?\"\", consolation after they turned down Axl Rose's request for the group to play at his wedding. Rankin departed again in 1994, but with Jimmy Murrison and keyboard player Ronnie Leahy, Nazareth maintained a live following in Europe and the US.  Nazareth continued touring after Rankin's departure, with Jimmy Murrison and keyboard player Ronnie Leahy. While on tour in 1999, original drummer Darrell Sweet died at age 51 of a heart attack. He was replaced by bassist Pete Agnew's son Lee for later editions of the band.  On 4 August 2006, John Locke, the former keyboardist of the band, died from cancer at the age of 62.  In February 2008, \"The Newz\" was released on the Hamburg-based label, Edel Entertainment. The release of the album coincided with Nazareth's fortieth anniversary tour, which started on 25 January in Sweden and visited most of Europe, finished on 4 November 2008 in Norway. A follow up album, \"Big Dogz\", was released on 15 April 2011.  Nazareth announced McCafferty's retirement from the band due to ill health on 28 August 2013, leaving Pete Agnew as the sole remaining original member of the band. On 22 February 2014, it was announced that Scottish singer Linton Osborne was chosen as McCafferty's replacement, with the former singer's blessing. In December 2014, Nazareth announced the cancellation of several shows, and later postponement of their UK tour, due to Osborne contracting a virus that left him unable to perform. In a post on his Facebook page 16 January 2015, Osborne announced his departure from the band.  On 13 February 2015, the band announced that Carl Sentance, formerly of Persian Risk, Geezer Butler Band, and Krokus, was their new lead vocalist.  On 25 June 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Nazareth among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nazareth are a Scottish hard rock band formed in 1968 that had several hits in the United Kingdom, as well as in several other West European countries in the early 1970s. They established an international audience with their 1975 album \"Hair of the Dog\", which featured their hits \"Hair of the Dog\" and a cover of the ballad \"Love Hurts\". The band continues to record and tour.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973144}
{"src_title": "Dr. Alban", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Alban was born Alban Uzoma Nwapa into a middle-class family of 10 children in Oguta, Imo state, Nigeria. He is Igbo. He got his secondary education at Christ The King College and spent most of his youth in his hometown of Oguta. At age 23, he traveled to Sweden to study dentistry. To finance his studies, Dr. Alban became a DJ at the Stockholm club \"Alphabet Street\". Very quickly, his name became widely known, especially since he often sang to the records he put on the turntables. DJ René Hedemyr discovered him. Alban finished his studies and even opened his own dentistry practice, keeping his DJ-ing as a lucrative sideline.  In 1990, he met Denniz Pop from the SweMix label and, together with Denniz and rap artist Leila K, released his first record \"Hello Afrika\". At this point, he took the stage name Dr. Alban, a nod to his dental studies. His debut album included hits like \"Hello Afrika\" and \"No Coke\", both of which ended up being million-selling singles. The album itself was quite successful and earned him gold certification awards in numerous markets including Germany (for sales of over 250,000 units), Austria (25,000), and Switzerland (25,000).  One year later, this success was surpassed by his second album \"One Love\". The album included European hit singles such as \"It's My Life\" (which was used as background music for a Tampax advert) and \"Sing Hallelujah\". The single \"It's My Life\" reached No.1 in Israel, Austria, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Germany, and No.2 in Norway, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. The song \"It's My Life\" went platinum in Germany (for sales of over 500,000 units), in the Netherlands (75,000), and it sold over two million copies overall in Europe. The album in turn reached the top of the album chart in Austria and entered the top five in Switzerland, also reaching No.6 in Germany. It went gold in Germany (for sales of over 250,000 units) and platinum both in Austria and Switzerland (both 50,000).  Alban's third album \"Look Who's Talking!\", released in 1994, hit the top 10 in numerous markets including Germany, Switzerland, and Austria. The album was the first to earn Alban a gold certification award in his home country of Sweden for sales of over 50,000 units.  Dr. Alban founded his own record label \"Dr. Records\", whereon he released his 1996 album \"Born in Africa\". The album was unable to match the success of his previous releases. It only reached No.12 in Finland, while it peaked at No.37 in Switzerland and Sweden, No.52 in Germany, and No.41 in Austria. The single \"Born in Africa\" went to number 1 in Finland.  In 1997, Alban released the compilation album \"The Very Best of 1990–1997\", which only charted in Austria, Sweden, and Germany. The same year, the artist also released the studio album \"Believe\", which peaked at No.27 in Sweden, No.30 in Finland, and No.41 in Austria. In late 1998, Dr. Alban released a single with German-based artist Sash!, entitled \"Colour the World\", which experienced moderate chart success in Europe.  In 2000, Alban released the single \"What Do I Do\", which charted only in Sweden at No.43; it spent only two weeks on the charts there. The album \"Prescription\" was a flop as it failed to chart anywhere.  In 2007, after years of absence from the music scene, Dr. Alban released the studio album \"Back to Basics\". It was sold on the internet only through Dr. Alban's official website. In Russia however, both the physical CDs and cassettes were released.  On 15 February 2014 at the Scandinavium arena in Gothenburg, Dr. Alban teamed up with Jessica Folcker in the third heat of Melodifestivalen 2014, performing last with the song \"Around the World\", to win the right to represent Sweden at the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 in Copenhagen, Denmark.  In 2015, he released the single \"Hurricane\", which failed to enter the European charts.  In May 2020, Alban released the song \"Hello Sverige\" to encourage the population of Sweden to respect the social distancing measurements put in place to counteract the COVID-19 pandemic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alban Uzoma Nwapa (born 26 August 1957), better known by his stage name Dr. Alban, is a Swedish recording artist and producer with his own record label, Dr. Records. His music can best be described as Eurodance/hip-hop reggae in a dancehall style. He has sold an estimated 16 million records worldwide and is most famous for his worldwide 1992 hit \"It's My Life\", from the album \"One Love\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973145}
{"src_title": "Turbidite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sequencing.", "content": "Turbidites were first properly described by Arnold H. Bouma (1962), who studied deepwater sediments and recognized particular \"fining-up intervals\" within deep water, fine-grained shales, which were anomalous because they started at pebble conglomerates and terminated in shales. This was anomalous because within the deep ocean it had historically been assumed that there was no mechanism by which tractional flow could carry and deposit coarse-grained sediments into the abyssal depths.  Bouma cycles begin with an erosional contact of a coarse lower bed of pebble to granule conglomerate in a sandy matrix, and grade up through coarse then medium plane parallel sandstone; through cross-bedded sandstone; rippled cross-bedded sand/silty sand, and finally laminar siltstone and shale. This vertical succession of sedimentary structures, bedding, and changing lithology is representative of strong to waning flow regime currents and their corresponding sedimentation.  It is unusual to see all of a complete Bouma cycle, as successive turbidity currents may erode the unconsolidated upper sequences. Alternatively, the entire sequence may not be present depending on whether the exposed section was at the edge of the turbidity current lobe (where it may be present as a thin deposit), or upslope from the deposition centre and manifested as a scour channel filled with fine sands grading up into a pelagic ooze.  It is now recognized that the vertical progression of sedimentary structures described by Bouma applies to turbidites deposited by low-density turbidity currents. As the sand concentration of a flow increases, grain-to-grain collisions within the turbid suspension create dispersive pressures that become important in hindering further settling of grains. As a consequence, a slightly different set of sedimentary structures develops in turbidites deposited by high-density turbidity currents. This different set of structures is known as the Lowe sequence, which is a descriptive classification that complements, but does not replace, the Bouma sequence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation.", "content": "Turbidites are sediments which are transported and deposited by density flow, not by tractional or frictional flow.  The distinction is that, in a normal river or stream bed, particles of rock are carried along by frictional drag of water on the particle (known as \"tractional flow\"). The water must be travelling at a certain velocity in order to suspend the particle in the water and push it along. The greater the size or density of the particle relative to the fluid in which it is travelling, the higher the water velocity required to suspend it and transport it.  Density-based flow, however, occurs when liquefaction of sediment during transport causes a change to the density of the fluid. This is usually achieved by highly turbulent liquids which have a suspended load of fine grained particles forming a slurry. In this case, larger fragments of rock can be transported at water velocities too low to otherwise do so because of the lower density contrast (that is, the water plus sediment has a higher density than the water and is therefore closer to the density of the rock).  This condition occurs in many environments aside from simply the deep ocean, where turbidites are particularly well represented. Lahars on the side of volcanoes, mudslides and pyroclastic flows all create density-based flow situations and, especially in the latter, can create sequences which are strikingly similar to turbidites.  Turbidites in sediments can occur in carbonate as well as siliciclastic sequences.  Classic, low-density turbidites are characterized by graded bedding, current ripple marks, climbing ripple laminations, alternating sequences with pelagic sediments, distinct fauna changes between the turbidite and native pelagic sediments, sole markings, thick sediment sequences, regular bedding, and an absence of shallow-water features (Fairbridge, 1966). A different vertical progression of sedimentary structures characterize high-density turbidites.  Massive accumulations of turbidites and other deep-water deposits may result in the formation of submarine fans. Sedimentary models of such fan systems typically are subdivided into upper, mid, and lower fan sequences each with distinct sand-body geometries, sediment distributions, and lithologic characteristics (Mutti & Ricci Lucci, 1975; Normark, 1978; & Walker, 1978).  Turbidite deposits typically occur in foreland basins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Importance.", "content": "Turbidites provide a mechanism for assigning a tectonic and depositional setting to ancient sedimentary sequences as they usually represent deep-water rocks formed offshore of a convergent margin, and generally require at least a sloping shelf and some form of tectonism to trigger density-based avalanches. Density currents may be triggered in areas of high sediment supply by gravitational failure alone. Turbidites can represent a high resolution record of seismicity, and terrestrial storm/flood events depending on the connectivity of canyon/channel systems to terrestrial sediment sources.  Turbidites from lakes and fjords are also important as they can provide chronologic evidence of the frequency of landslides and the earthquakes that presumably formed them, by dating using radiocarbon or varves above and below the turbidite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic importance.", "content": "Turbidite sequences are classic hosts for lode gold deposits, the prime example being Bendigo and Ballarat in Victoria, Australia, where more than 2,600 tons of gold have been extracted from saddle-reef deposits hosted in shale sequences from a thick succession of Cambrian-Ordovician turbidites. Proterozoic gold deposits are also known from turbidite basin deposits.  Lithified accumulations of turbidite deposits may, in time, become hydrocarbon reservoirs and the petroleum industry makes strenuous efforts to predict the location, overall shape, and internal characteristics of these sediment bodies in order to efficiently develop fields as well as explore for new reserves.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A turbidite is the geologic deposit of a turbidity current, which is a type of sediment gravity flow responsible for distributing vast amounts of clastic sediment into the deep ocean.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973146}
{"src_title": "Timmelsjoch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "During the early Stone Age, shepherds and their flocks lived in the Obergurgl area near Timmelsjoch. By the early Bronze Age, the glaciers of the last Ice Age were retreating and various hunters, adventurers, and wandering tribes entered the higher elevations in the area in search of game and treasure. The discovery of a brooch near the Schönbodenlacke dating from the La Tène period (around 300 BC) indicates that people were passing over the Timmelsjoch during this period.  By the Middle Ages, mining influenced the development of a road network in the area. Marble quarries, semiprecious stones, and oil shales were all exploited. The ancient path over the Timmelsjoch was one of many such roads in the Tyrol which helped facilitate trade and would have a profound social, cultural, political, and religious impact on the peoples of the region. The Timmelsjoch was a particularly important route because it provided one of the most direct routes between the upper Inntal valley and Meran, the regional capital at the time, as well as Tirol Castle and St. Leonhard in Passeier, where the road forks to the Jaufenpass, down to Sterzing, and on to the Brenner Pass road. During that time, cart tracks were relatively few, and travelers, peddlers, and people leading pack animals tended to choose the shortest route.  From the end of the thirteenth century to the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Timmelsjoch facilitated increased trade. Ötztaler Kraxenträger (basket bearers) transported flax, livestock, cured bacon, lard, vinegar, wine, and spirits across the pass. These early traders routes and techniques that would later inspire modern alpinists. The name \"Thymelsjoch\" first appeared in 1241 in a letter written by the Bavarian Count of Eschenlohe. For centuries, the spelling \"Thimmeljoch\" was widely used. The current spelling came into usage only in the twentieth century during the construction of the paved road.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timmelsjoch Hochalpenstrasse.", "content": "The first plans to build a road across the Timmelsjoch were drawn up in 1897, when the Tyrolean Landtag (regional assembly) established a construction agenda which comprised the building of several \"rival roads\" including a road over the Timmelsjoch. Work would not begin until the autumn of 1955. On July 7, 1959, after four years of construction, the road was finally opened to the public. The Timmelsjoch Hochalpenstrasse was well-engineered and integrated into the landscape.  While the road up from the Ötztal valley was built for tourism purposes, the situation in the Passeier Valley (on the southern side) was very different. As in many other parts of the Italian Alps, Mussolini, the ruler from 1922 to 1945, had numerous military roads built up towards Italy's international borders. Construction of the road from Moos in Passeier, 10 km southeast from the pass, commenced in the 1930s. After the meeting between Mussolini and Hitler on the Brenner in 1939, construction work ceased. The road was narrow and rough, but had almost been completed. The last tunnel had been dug through; just the remaining 2 km stretch from its end to the pass had not been built. The tunnel partly collapsed in the following years. From 1939 to the mid-1960s, the unfinished, grassed-over road was only used for forestry purposes. Construction work resumed in the mid-1960s and the road was completed to the pass and opened to through traffic in 1967.  The road on the Ötztal valley side is called the Timmelsjoch Hochalpenstrasse. The pass is now popular with car and motorbike tourists. Due to its elevation, steepness, and narrow road, the Timmelsjoch pass is closed to lorries and vehicles with trailers. With its dramatic scenery, particularly on the southern side, the road has become popular with cyclists. On the last Sunday in August, several thousand cyclists take part in the Ötztaler Cycling Marathon crawl up the section from St. Leonhard in Passeier () to the pass, gaining —the fourth and final pass included in the grueling marathon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timmelsjoch pass.", "content": "The Timmelsjoch pass is open to traffic from approximately the first half of June to the second half of October (the exact dates depend on snow conditions) daily from 7:00 am to 8:00 pm. The Ötztal valley side is subject to a toll charge. At the Timmelsjoch pass, the Rasthaus summit tavern offers travelers warm meals and drinks and a sun terrace. Overlooking the Rasthaus is a stone mountain hut with a summit cross nearby.  Several stone markers in the area indicate the Austria-Italy border.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Timmelsjoch (), (elevation ) is a high mountain pass that creates a link through the Ötztal Alps along the border between Austria and Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973147}
{"src_title": "Countess Maria Louise Albertine of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Falkenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Maria Louise Albertine was a daughter of Count Christian Karl Reinhard of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Falkenburg (1695–1766) and his wife Countess Katharina Polyxena of Solms-Rödelheim (1702–1765). After the death of her father, she was heiress to the barony of Broich and began with the architect Nicolas de Pigage, the restoration and expansion of the Broich Castle. In 1806, the government of Broich was dissolved by Napoleon in 1815 and Broich was annexed by Prussia.  On 16 March 1748, she married Prince George William of Hesse-Darmstadt, the brother of the reigning Landgrave Louis IX of Hesse-Darmstadt in Heidesheim am Rhein. As Louis IX stayed almost exclusively in Pirmasens, she felt obliged, after the death of his wife in 1774, to represent the territory in the capital Darmstadt.  Her daughters Friederike and Charlotte were the first and second wives of Prince Charles II of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. They both died in childbirth. Charles then ended his service as governor-general in Hannover and moved with his children to his wives' mother in Darmstadt. Princess George was a widow since 1782 and took over the education and care of Charles's children.  Charlotte did not move with her father to Darmstadt. At the age of 16, she had been married the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen. His father visited his two sons frequently and moved to Hildburghausen with his oldest daughter in 1787, after he became president of the local imperial debit commission. Thus, Maria Luise cared primarily for Louise and her sisters Therese and Frederica for whom she provided a secure and largely informal home in the \"Old Palace\" at the market square in Darmstadt. She employed regional educational methods.  In 1790 she traveled with Louise, Frederica and George to Frankfurt to see the coronation of Emperor Leopold II. She stayed here with Catharina Elisabeth Goethe. In 1791, she joined an educational trip to the Netherlands. In 1792 she fled from the advancing French army and took the children from Darmstadt to her granddaughter Charlotte in Hildburghausen, where she remained until March 1793. On the return trip to Darmstadt, she traveled via Frankfurt, where a meeting between Louise and her future husband Frederick William III of Prussia had been arranged. In 1793 she accompanied Louise and Frederica to their wedding in Berlin.  Maria Louise was described as a magnificent person, warm hearted, cheerful all the time and usually speaking the Palatinate dialect. The proximity and warmth she has as a surrogate mother during the formative years of her granddaughters passed on to them.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Countess Maria Louise Albertine of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Falkenburg (16 March 1729 – 11 March 1818); also known as Princess George, was heiress to the barony of Broich and by marriage Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt. She was the grandmother and educator of Princess Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, who later became Queen consort of Prussia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973148}
{"src_title": "Karviná", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Until the 19th century Karviná was a low importance village of Cieszyn Silesia, lying near the important town of Fryštát. Discovery of coal led to rapid urban development in Karviná and surrounding villages, and railways were soon built. After the split of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920 it became a part of Czechoslovakia as a main mining center of the country. In 1923 it gained city rights. In October 1938 was annexed by Poland, together with whole region known as Zaolzie and during World War II was a part of Nazi Germany. After the war it again became a part of Czechoslovakia. In 1948 Karviná, Fryštát and the surrounding villages of Darkov, Ráj and Staré Město were merged into one city named Karviná. The coat of arms of Fryštát was chosen as the coat of arms of Karviná and Fryštát became the historical center of this industrial city.  The period after World War II is characterized by economic orientation on heavy industry. Currently the city is still reliant on dense heavy industry but is slowly restructuring the heavy industry influence and developing other economic activities. Karviná is also the center of education in this region with its wide range of specialized secondary schools and, especially, the Faculty of Commerce and Business of the Silesian University in Opava. In 2003 Karviná became a statutory city.  Karviná is also an important cultural and educational center of the Polish minority in the Czech Republic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "Karviná, as a multi-ethnic city of Cieszyn Silesia, was a home to many football clubs established by particular ethnic groups after World War I. At that time many football clubs within the Polish, German, Czech and Jewish communities were founded. The best known and most successful Polish club was PKS Polonia Karwina, founded in 1919. After World War II, the German and Jewish clubs were not re-established. The Czech and Polish clubs still existed until the 1950s, when as a part of communist unification of sport life in Czechoslovakia, Czech clubs were joined to ZSJ OKD Mír Karviná and the Polish Polonia Karwina was incorporated into that club. Today, the only football club in the city is MFK Karviná, playing in the first division.  Karviná is also home to a successful handball club, HCB Karviná, which became twice Czechoslovak champions and eleven times Czech champions. Other sport clubs in the city include two ice hockey teams SK Karviná (playing in the lower division) and HC Baník Karviná (playing in the 2nd Czech league); and the athletics club, with tennis, gymnastics and ice-skating being also very popular and established sports within the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Karviná is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karviná (;,, ) is a city in Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic, on the Olza River. It is administrative center of Karviná District. Karviná lies in the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia and is one of the most important coal mining centers in the Czech Republic. Together with neighboring towns it forms industrial Ostrava-Karviná Coal Basin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973149}
{"src_title": "Comb", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Combs consist of a shaft and teeth that are placed at a perpendicular angle to the shaft. Combs can be made out of a number of materials, most commonly plastic, metal or wood. Combs made from ivory and tortoiseshell were once common but concerns for the animals that produce them have reduced their usage. When made from wood, combs are largely made of boxwood, cherry wood or other fine-grained wood. Good quality wooden combs are usually handmade and polished.  Combs come in various shapes and sizes depending on what they are used for. A hairdressing comb may have a thin, tapered handle for parting hair and close teeth. Common hair combs usually have wider teeth halfway and finer teeth for the rest of the comb. Hot combs were used solely for straightening hair during the colonial era in North America.  A hairbrush comes in both manual and electric models. It is larger than a comb, and is also commonly used for shaping, styling and cleaning hair. A combination comb and hairbrush was patented in the 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses and types.", "content": "Combs can be used for many purposes. Historically, their main purpose was securing long hair in place, decorating the hair, matting sections of hair for dreadlocks, or keeping a kippah or skullcap in place. In Spain, a \"peineta\" is a large decorative comb used to keep a mantilla in place.  In industry and craft, combs are used in separating cotton fibres from seeds and other debris (the cotton gin, a mechanized version of the comb, is one of the machines that ushered in the Industrial Revolution). A comb is used to distribute colors in paper marbling to make the swirling colour patterns in comb-marbled paper.  Combs are also a tool used by police investigators to collect hair and dandruff samples that can be used in ascertaining dead or living persons' identities, as well as their state of health, toxicological profiles, and so forth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Afro pick.", "content": "This type of comb has loose, thick teeth and is usually used on kinky or Afro-textured hair. It is longer and thinner than the typical comb, and it is sometimes worn in the hair.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nit comb.", "content": "Specialized combs such as \"flea combs\" or \"nit combs\" can be used to remove macroscopic parasites and cause them damage by combing. A comb with teeth fine enough to remove nits is sometimes called a \"fine-toothed comb\", as in the metaphoric usage \"go over [something] with a fine-toothed comb\", meaning to search closely and in detail. Sometimes in this meaning, \"fine-toothed comb\" has been reanalysed as \"fine toothcomb\" and then shortened to \"toothcomb\", or changed into forms such as \"the finest of toothcombs\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hygiene.", "content": "Sharing combs is a common cause of parasitic infections much like sharing a hat, as one user can leave a comb with eggs or live parasites, facilitating the transmission of lice, fleas, mites, fungi, and other undesirables. Siblings are also more likely to pass on nits to each other if they share a comb, so it is advisable to buy each child their own comb.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unbreakable plastic comb.", "content": "An unbreakable plastic comb is a comb that, despite being made of plastic rather than (more expensive) metal, does not shatter into multiple pieces if dropped on a hard surface such as bathroom tiles, a hardwood floor, or pavement. Such combs were introduced in the mid-twentieth century. Today most plastic combs are unbreakable as technology has reached a point of understanding the causation of brittleness in these products.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern artisan combs.", "content": "Modern artisan combs crafted from a wide variety of new and recycled materials have become popular over recent years. Used skateboard decks, vinyl records, brass, titanium alloy, acrylic, sterling silver and exotic wood are a few of the materials being used.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Making music.", "content": "Stringing a plant's leaf or a piece of paper over one side of the comb and humming with cropped lips on the opposite side dramatically increases the high-frequency harmonic content of the hum produced by the human voice box, and the resulting spread sound spectrum can be modulated by changing the resonating frequency of the oral cavity.  This was the inspiration for the kazoo, a membranophone. Moreover, the comb is also a lamellophone. Comb teeth have harmonic qualities of their own, determined by their shape, length, and material. A comb with teeth of unequal length, capable of producing different notes when picked, eventually evolved into the thumb piano and musical box.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A comb is a tool consisting of a shaft that holds a row of teeth for pulling through the hair to clean, untangle, or style it. Combs have been used since prehistoric times, having been discovered in very refined forms from settlements dating back to 5,000 years ago in Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973150}
{"src_title": "Yukaghir people", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geographic distribution.", "content": "The Tundra Yukaghirs live in the Lower Kolyma region in the Sakha Republic; the Taiga Yukaghirs in the Upper Kolyma region in the Sakha Republic and in Srednekansky District of Magadan Oblast. By the time of Russian colonization in the 17th century, the Yukaghir tribal groups occupied territories from the Lena River to the mouth of the Anadyr River. The number of the Yukaghirs decreased between the 17th and 19th centuries due to epidemics, internecine wars and Tsarist colonial policy which may have included genocide against the sedentary hunter-fisher Anaouls. Some of the Yukaghirs have assimilated with the Yakuts, Evens, and Russians.  Currently, Yukaghirs live in the Sakha Republic and the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug of the Russian Federation. According to the 2002 Census, their total number was 1,509 people, up from 1,112 recorded in the 1989 Census.  According to the latest 2001 all Ukrainian census, 12 Yukaghirs are living in Ukraine. Only 2 of them indicated Yukaghir as their native language. For the remaining others (6) it is Russian and for 1 it is some other tongue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subethnic groups.", "content": "The 13 tribes that once constituted the Yukaghir group are: Vadul-Alais, Odul, Chuvan, Anaoul, Lavren, Olyuben, Omok, Penjin, Khodynts, Khoromoy, Shoromboy, Yandin, and Yandyr. Genetically, Yukaghirs exhibit roughly equal frequencies of the Y-DNA haplogroups N1c, Q1, and C2 (formerly C3).  The surviving three tribes are the Odul of Nelemnoe, the Vadul of Andryushkino and the Chuvan of the Anadyr river area. Of the extinct groups, the most important were the Khodynts, the Anaoul (both of the Anadyr River area), and the Omok (north of the Chuvan). Sometimes the Chuvan are considered a separate tribe. The Chuvantsy language has been extinct since the early 20th century. In 2002, 1,087 identified themselves as Chuvan compared to more than 1,300 in 1989. The Vadul are mainly involved in reindeer herding while the Odul (Kogime) are mostly hunter-gatherers. The Vadul are also known as Tundra Yukaghir. The Odul are also known as Taiga Yukaghir or Kolyma Yukaghir. The Vadul and Odul languages are as different as German is from Dutch. Both are nearing extinction, and Odul is in a much weaker state compared to Vadul. In the 1989 census, more than 700 of the Yukaghirs identified as Vadul while fewer than 400 were Odul.  The Yukaghir are one of the oldest peoples in North-Eastern Asia. Originally they lived over a huge territory from Lake Baikal to the Arctic Ocean. By the time of the first encounter with Russians, Yukaghir were divided into twelve tribes with around 9,000 people. The Yukagir ethnonym is \"Odul\" or \"Vadul\", which means “mighty”.  Tribal divisions among the Yukaghir are fading now, although in every census from 1926, significant number of tribesmen identified themselves with tribal divisions like Anaoul, Odul and Vadul rather than describing themselves as Yukaghir. The Soviet government actively discouraged this tendency and now only the most elderly identify this way. In the 2002 census, out of the 1,509 Yukaghirs, 51 identified themselves as Omok, 40 as Alais, 21 as Odul, 17 as Vadul, 6 as Khangait and 4 as Detkil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clan system.", "content": "The head of every clan was an elder called a \"Ligey Shomorokh\". His was the final word in all aspects of life. Hunting leaders were \"Khangitche\", and war leaders were \"Tonbaia Shomorokh\" (\"the mighty man\"). Women and teenagers had equal voices with men. The internal life of the community was under the control of the older women. Their decisions in those matters were indisputable.  In the beginning of every summer all clans gathered for the \"Sakhadzibe\" festival, where mutual Yukaghir questions were discussed.  In the Yakut-Sakha Republic there are three nomadic extended family communities. These are Tchaila in Nizhnekolymsky District, Teki Odulok in Verkhnekolymsky District and Ianugail in Ust-Yansky District. The head of Ianugail is I. I. Tomsky. The community’s main activities are deer hunting and fishing. Tchaila is the biggest of the three. Its head is S. I. Kurilov. They have 4000 domesticated reindeer, 200 horses, and 20 cows. The community also hunts deer and polar foxes. There is also a shop where traditional skin and fur garments are made. The head of Teki Odulok is N. I. Shalugin. Their base is the village of Nelemnoe. This community is in the most difficult situation. Due to the “creative interpretation” of various Perestroika and privatization laws by the local and district administration and so-called businessmen, the community has lost all their reindeer, cows and even part of its land. All they have left are about 50 horses. They have no money for supplies for hunting and fishing. 80% of all adult population is \"de facto\" unemployed.  The highest forum for Yukagir is the all-people gathering \"Suktuul\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The main traditional activity is nomadic and semi-nomadic hunting of deer, moose, wild sheep, and sable, as well as fishing. Reindeer are bred mostly for transportation. Horses are known among the Yukaghir as \"domestic reindeer of Yakuts\" (\"Yoqod ile\" in Tundra Yukaghir or \"Yaqad āçə\" in Kolyma Yukaghir). A Yukaghir house is called a \"chum\".  The decline of traditional economic activities, the unfavorable environmental situation of the Yukaghir’s traditional lands and waters, and the absence of local and federal laws and executive mechanisms protecting indigenous peoples in Russia, have not aided the welfare and continuation of traditional Yukaghir communities. The average life span for men is 45 years, and 54 years for women. Child mortality is the highest in the Yakut-Sakha Republic. In addition, one expedition made to the Yukaghir found that most had no knowledge of traditional Yukaghir culture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "The Yukaghir languages are a small language family of two closely related languages, Tundra Yukaghir and Kolyma Yukaghir, although there used to be more. They are unclassified languages: their origin and relation to other languages are unknown; some scholars consider them distantly related to the Uralic languages, but this classification is not accepted by the majority of specialists in Uralic linguistics. The languages are regarded as moribund, since less than 370 people can speak either Yukaghir language. Most Yukaghirs today speak Yakut and Russian.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "Alongside Russian Orthodox beliefs, Yukaghirs still practice shamanism. The dominant cults are ancestral spirits, the spirits of Fire, Sun (Pugu), Hunting, Earth, and Water, which can act as protectors or as enemies of people. The most important is the cult of \"Pugu\", the Sun, who is the highest judge in all disputes. The spirits of the dead go to a place called \"Aibidzi\". Every clan had a shaman called an \"alma\". After death every \"alma\" was treated as a deity, and the body of the dead \"alma\" was dismembered and kept by the clan as relics. The Yukaghir still continue traditions stemming from their origins as nomadic reindeer-hunters: they practice dog sacrifice and have an epic poem based around crows. The animal cult was especially strong in the elk cult. There was a number of rituals and taboos connected with elk and deer hunting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Modern culture:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Yukaghir, or Yukagir ( (\"odul, detkil\"), ) are a people in the Russian Far East, living in the basin of the Kolyma River.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973151}
{"src_title": "Carmine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The English word \"carmine\" is derived from the French word \"carmin\" (12th century), from Medieval Latin \"carminium\", from Persian \"qirmiz\" (\"crimson\"), which itself derives from Middle Persian \"carmir\" (\"red, crimson\"). The Persian term \"carmir\" likely cognates with Sanskrit \"krimiga\" (\"insect-produced\"), from \"krmi\" (\"worm, insect\"). The Persian word for \"worm, insect\" is \"kirm\", and in Iran (Persia) the red colorant carmine was extracted from the bodies of dead female insects such as Kermes vermilio and cochineal. The form of the term may also have been influenced in Latin by \"minium\" (\"red lead, cinnabar\"), said to be of Iberian origin. The word \"carmine\" has been used as a color name as early as 1799.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "To prepare carmine, the powdered scale insect bodies are boiled in an ammonia or sodium carbonate solution, the insoluble matter is removed by filtering, and alum is added to the clear salt solution of carminic acid to precipitate the red aluminium salt, called \"carmine lake\" or \"crimson lake\" (the \"lake\" here deriving from the word lac, referring to a resinous secretion). Purity of color is ensured by the absence of iron. Stannous chloride, citric acid, borax, or gelatin may be added to regulate the formation of the precipitate. For shades of purple, lime is added to the alum; thus, the traditional crimson color is guaranteed not only by carminic acid but also by choice of its chelating metal salt ion.  Carmine may be prepared from cochineal, by boiling dried insects in water to extract the carminic acid and then treating the clear solution with alum. Other common substances such as cream of tartar, stannous chloride, or potassium hydrogen oxalate can also be used to effect the precipitation, but aluminum is needed for the color. Use of these chemicals causes the coloring and animal matters present in the liquid to be precipitated to give a lake pigment. Aluminum from the alum gives the traditional crimson color to carminic acid precipitates, which are called \"carmine lakes\" or \"crimson lakes\". This color is degraded by the presence of iron salts. Addition of lime (calcium) can give carminic acid lakes a purple cast.  Other methods for the production of carmine dye are in use, in which egg white, fish glue, or gelatin is sometimes added before the precipitation.  The quality of carmine is affected by the temperature and the degree of illumination during its preparation, sunlight being requisite for the production of a brilliant hue. It also differs according to the amount of alumina present in it. It is sometimes adulterated with cinnabar, starch and other materials; from these, the carmine can be separated by dissolving it in ammonia. Good carmine should crumble readily between the fingers when dry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties and uses.", "content": "A reflectance spectroscopy study of one commercially available dye based on carminic acid found that it reflects mostly red light with wavelengths longer than about 603 nm, which provides its saturated red color.  Carmine can be used as a staining agent in histology, as a \"Best's carmine\" to stain glycogen, \"mucicarmine\" to stain acidic mucopolysaccharides, and \"carmalum\" to stain cell nuclei. In these applications, it is applied together with a mordant, usually an Al(III) salt.  Carmine was used in dyeing textiles and in painting since antiquity. It is not very stable in oil paint, and its use ceased after new and better red pigments became available. Jacopo Tintoretto used carmine in several of his paintings, including \"Portrait of Vincenzo Morosini\" and \"Christ Washing the Feet of the Disciples\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Allergy.", "content": "Carmine is used as a food dye in many different products such as juices, ice cream, yogurt, and candy, and as a dye in cosmetic products such as eyeshadow and lipstick. Although principally a red dye, it is found in many foods that are shades of red, pink, and purple. As a food dye it has been known to cause severe allergic reactions and anaphylactic shock in some people.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regulations for use in foods.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "In January 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) evaluated a proposal that would require food products containing carmine to list it by name on the ingredient label. It was also announced that the FDA will separately review the ingredient labels of prescription drugs that contain colorings derived from carmine. A request from the Center for Science in the Public Interest urging the FDA to require ingredient labels to explicitly state that carmine is derived from insects and may cause severe allergic reactions and anaphylactic shock was declined by the FDA. Food industries were aggressively opposed to the idea of writing \"insect-based\" on the label, and the FDA agreed to allow \"cochineal extract\" or \"carmine\".  Although concerns over hazards from allergic reactions have been asserted, the FDA has not banned the use of carmine and states that it found no evidence of a \"significant hazard\" to the general population.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "European Union.", "content": "In the European Union, the use of carmine in foods is regulated under the European Commission's directives governing food additives in general and food dyes in particular and listed under the names \"Cochineal\", \"Carminic acid\", \"Carmines\" and \"Natural Red 4\" as additive E 120 in the list of EU-approved food additives. The directive governing food dyes approves the use of carmine for certain groups of foods only and specifies a maximum amount which is permitted or restricts it to the quantum satis.  The EU-Directive 2000/13/EC on food labeling mandates that carmines (like all food additives) must be included in the list of ingredients of a food product with its additive category and listed name or additive number, that is either as \"Food colour carmines\" or as \"Food colour E 120\" in the local language(s) of the market(s) the product is sold in.  Although concerns of hazards from allergic reactions were raised, the use of carmine in foods is not banned in the EU. However, the use of carmine in foods has been discouraged by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), and, although it is used predominantly as coloring in alcoholic beverages, it can still be found in foods such as supermarket Indian curries. A re-evaluation process of the approval status of several food colors (including carmine) was started by the \"Panel on food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food\" of EFSA in early 2006 and was scheduled to be completed by 2008. , EFSA has changed the way they allow use of Carmine E120 for pharmaceutical products. The EFSA had raised concerns over the increasing number of allergic reactions to carmine derived from insects (E120.360), when used within the British Pharmacopoeia. Pharmaceutical products which had previously contained insect-derived carmine, have been replaced with a synthesized version of the food colorant. Internal studies have shown that the new formulations of popular anti-nausea and weight-gain liquid medication had a significantly lower risk in terms of allergic reactions. The new formulation is known to be of plant origin, using calcium oxide in order to gauge color depth.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Carmine ( or ), also called cochineal, cochineal extract, crimson lake or carmine lake, natural red 4, C.I. 75470, or E120, is a pigment of a bright-red color obtained from the aluminium salt of carminic acid; it is also a general term for a particularly deep-red color. The pigment is produced from some scale insects such as the cochineal scale and certain \"Porphyrophora\" species (Armenian cochineal and Polish cochineal). Carmine is used in the manufacture of artificial flowers, paints, crimson ink, rouge and other cosmetics, and some medications. It is routinely added to food products such as yogurt, candy and certain brands of juice, the most notable ones being those of the ruby-red variety.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973152}
{"src_title": "Catherine of Valois", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Catherine of Valois was the youngest daughter of King Charles VI of France and his wife Isabeau of Bavaria. She was born at the Hôtel Saint-Pol (a royal palace in Paris) on 27 October 1401. Early on, there had been a discussion of marrying her to the prince of Wales, the son of Henry IV of England, but the king died before negotiations could begin. In 1414, the prince, now Henry V, re-opened discussion of the match, along with a large dowry and acknowledgement of his right to the throne of France.  While some authors have maintained that Catherine was neglected as a child by her mother, a more modern examination of the evidence suggests otherwise. According to the financial accounts of her mother, toys befitting a French princess were purchased, religious texts were provided, and Catherine was sent to the convent in Poissy to receive a religious education.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royal marriage.", "content": "Henry V went to war with France, and even after the great English victory at Agincourt, plans for the marriage continued. Catherine was said to be very attractive and when Henry finally met her at Meulan, he became enamoured. In May 1420, a peace agreement was made between England and France, the Treaty of Troyes, and Charles acknowledged Henry of England as his heir. Catherine and Henry were married at the Parish Church of St John or at Troyes Cathedral on 2 June 1420. Catherine went to England with her new husband and was crowned queen in Westminster Abbey on 23 February 1421. In June 1421, Henry returned to France to continue his military campaigns.  By this time, Catherine was several months pregnant and gave birth to a son named Henry on 6 December 1421 at Windsor. Her husband never saw their child. During the siege of Meaux, he became sick and died on 31 August 1422, just before his 36th birthday. Catherine was not quite 21 and was left a queen dowager. Charles VI died a couple of months after Henry V, making the young Henry VI king of England and English-occupied northern France. Catherine doted on her son during his early childhood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with Owen Tudor.", "content": "Catherine was still young and marriageable, a source of concern to her brother-in-law Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, the guardian of her son. Rumours abounded that Catherine planned to marry Edmund Beaufort, Count of Mortain, her late husband's cousin. The Duke of Gloucester was strongly against the match, however, and the Parliament of 1427–8 passed a bill which set forth the provision that if the queen dowager remarried without the king's consent, her husband would forfeit his lands and possessions, although any children of the marriage would not suffer punishment. The king's consent was contingent upon his having attained his majority. At that time, the king was only six years old.  Catherine lived in the king's household, presumably so she could care for her young son, but the arrangement also enabled the councillors to watch over the queen dowager herself. Nevertheless, Catherine entered into a sexual relationship with Welshman Owen ap Maredudd ap Tudor, who, in 1421, in France, had been in the service of Henry V's steward Sir Walter Hungerford. Tudor was probably appointed keeper of Catherine's household or wardrobe. The relationship began when Catherine lived at Windsor Castle, and she became pregnant with their first child there. At some point, she stopped living in the King's household and in May 1432 Parliament granted Owen the rights of an Englishman. This was important because of Henry IV's laws limiting the rights of Welshmen.  There is no known date of Catherine's marriage to Owen, and yet there is no contemporaneous evidence that the validity of the marriage and the legitimacy of her children were questioned in secular or canon law. From the relationship of Owen Tudor and Queen Catherine descended the Tudor dynasty of England, starting with King Henry VII. Tudor historians asserted that Owen and Catherine had been married, for their lawful marriage would add respectability and stronger royal ties to the claims of the Tudor dynasty.  Owen and Catherine had at least six children. Edmund, Jasper and Owen were all born away from court. They had one daughter, Margaret, who became a nun and died young.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and aftermath.", "content": "Catherine died on 3 January 1437, shortly after childbirth, in London, and was \"buried in the old Lady chapel\" of Westminster Abbey. While the death date is not in question the cause is, with an equal number of records stating that she did not die as a result of childbirth, but entered Bermondsey Abbey, possibly seeking a cure for an illness that had troubled her for some time. She made her will just three days before her death. She now rests at Westminster Abbey in Henry V's Chantry Chapel. After her death, Catherine's enemies decided to proceed against Owen for violating the law of the remarriage of the queen dowager. Owen appeared before the Council, was subsequently arrested, and taken to Newgate Prison. He tried to escape from Newgate Prison in early 1438 and eventually ended up at Windsor Castle in July of that year.  Meanwhile, Owen and Catherine's two older sons, Edmund and Jasper, went to live with Katherine de la Pole, Abbess of Barking and sister of William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk. Sometime after 1442, the king (their half-brother) took a role in their upbringing. Owen, their father, was eventually released on £2000 bail, but was pardoned in November 1439 (and the bail cancelled in 1440). Owen was treated well afterwards and was a member of the king's household until the mid-1450s. He lived until 1461, when he was executed by the Yorkists following the Battle of Mortimer's Cross in Herefordshire. Their sons were given earldoms by Catherine's son King Henry VI. Edmund married Margaret Beaufort, a descendant of John of Gaunt who had consequently a distant claim to the throne; following the elimination by war of most other candidates, their son became King Henry VII.  The wooden funeral effigy which was carried at Catherine's funeral still survives at Westminster Abbey, and was previously on display in the Westminster Abbey Museum in the Undercroft. It is now displayed in the new Queen's Diamond Jubilee Gallery in the abbey triforium. Her tomb originally boasted an alabaster memorial, which was deliberately destroyed during extensions to the abbey in the reign of her grandson, Henry VII. It has been suggested that Henry ordered her memorial to be removed to distance himself from his illegitimate ancestry. At this time, her coffin lid was accidentally raised, revealing her corpse, which for generations became a tourist attraction. In 1669 the diarist Samuel Pepys kissed the long-deceased queen on his birthday:  Catherine's remains were not properly re-interred until the reign of Queen Victoria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Catherine of Valois (27 October 1401 – 3 January 1437) was the queen consort of England from 1420 until 1422. A daughter of Charles VI of France, she married Henry V of England, and gave birth to his heir Henry VI of England. Her liaison (and possible secret marriage) with Owen Tudor proved the springboard of that family's fortunes, eventually leading to their grandson's elevation as Henry VII of England. Catherine's older sister Isabella was queen of England from 1396 until 1399, as the child bride of Richard II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973153}
{"src_title": "Matilda II, Countess of Boulogne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First marriage.", "content": "In 1223, Matilda married her first husband, Philippe Hurepel, Count of Clermont-en-Beauvais, a younger, arguably illegitimate son of King Philip II of France. By marriage to her, Philippe became her co-ruler of Boulogne, Mortain, Aumale and Dammartin-en-Goële. Count Philippe revolted against his widowed sister-in-law, Blanche of Castile, when his half-brother King Louis VIII died in 1226.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "Count Philippe died in 1234, and Matilda reigned independently for three years. To give the county a male head, she married again in 1238 to Infante Afonso, second in line to the Portuguese throne, younger brother of King Sancho II of Portugal. He became King Afonso III of Portugal on 4 January 1248. At that time he renounced Boulogne.  In 1258, Matilda charged Afonso with bigamy, following his marriage to Beatrice of Castile. Pope Alexander in response, imposed interdict upon any place the couple stayed. At the time of Matilda's death, Afonso and Beatriz were still together, despite the Pope's protests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "She had a son and a daughter with Count Philippe, but no surviving issue with Afonso. Matilda's then apparent barrenness was the true reason for their divorce. According to reports, Queen Matilda remained in Boulogne and was not allowed to follow her husband to Portugal.  Matilda's daughter, having married a lord de Châtillon-Montjay, predeceased her, and presumably left no surviving issue.  Her son reportedly renounced his rights and went to England, for unknown reasons. Apparently he survived his mother the Countess, but presumably did not leave issue.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mahaut or Matilda II of Boulogne (also known as \"Mathilde\", \"Maud de Dammartin\"; 1202 – January 1259) was Countess of Boulogne in her own right and Queen of Portugal by marriage to King Afonso III from 1248 until their divorce in 1253. She was the daughter of Ida, Countess of Boulogne and her husband and co-ruler Renaud, Count of Dammartin. She succeeded her mother as Countess of Boulogne in 1216. She was the great-granddaughter of King Stephen of England.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973154}
{"src_title": "Urfa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "For a while during the rule of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175 - 164 BCE) the city was named \"Callirrhoe\" or \"Antiochia on the Callirhoe\" (). During Byzantine rule it was named \"Justinopolis\". Prior to Turkish rule, it was often best known by the name given it by the Seleucids,, \"Édessa\".  \"Şanlı\" means \"great, glorious, dignified\" in Turkish, and Urfa was officially renamed \"Şanlıurfa\" (\"Urfa the Glorious\") by the Turkish Grand National Assembly in 1984, in recognition of the local resistance in the Turkish War of Independence. The title was achieved following repeated requests by the city's members of parliament, desirous to earn a title similar to those of neighbouring cities \"Gazi\" (veteran) Antep and \"Kahraman\" (Heroic) Maraş.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The history of Urfa is recorded from the 4th century BC, but may date back at least to 9000 BC, when there is ample evidence for the surrounding sites at Duru, Harran and Nevali Cori. Within the further area of the city are three Neolithic sites known: Göbekli Tepe, Gürcütepe and the city itself, where the life-sized limestone \"Urfa Man\" statue was found during an excavation in Balıklıgöl and is now on display at the Şanlıurfa Archaeology and Mosaic Museum. The city was one of several in the upper Euphrates-Tigris basin, the fertile crescent where agriculture began.  According to Jewish and Muslim sources, Urfa is Ur Kasdim, the hometown of Abraham, the grandfather of Jacob whom God named Israel. This identification was disputed by Leonard Woolley, the excavator of the Sumerian city of Ur in 1927 and scholars remain divided on the issue. Urfa is also one of several cities that have traditions associated with Job.  For the Armenians, Urfa is considered a holy place since it is believed that the Armenian alphabet was invented there.  Urfa was conquered repeatedly throughout history, and has been dominated by many civilizations, including the Ebla, Akkadians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Hittites, Hurri-Mitannis, Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Ancient Macedonians (under Alexander the Great), Seleucids, Armenians, Arameans, the Neo-Assyrian Osrhoenes, Romans, Sassanids, Byzantines, and Arabs", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "City of Edessa.", "content": "Although the site of Urfa has been inhabited since prehistoric times, the modern city was founded in 304 B.C by Seleucus I Nicator and named after the ancient capital of Macedonia. In the late 2nd century, as the Seleucid dynasty disintegrated, it became the capital of the Arab Nabataean Abgar dynasty, which was successively a Parthian, Armenian, and Roman client state and eventually a Roman province. Its location on the eastern frontier of the Empire meant it was frequently conquered during periods when the Byzantine central government was weak, and for centuries, it was alternately conquered by Arab, Byzantine, Armenian, Turkish rulers. In 1098, the Crusader Baldwin of Boulogne induced the final Armenian ruler to adopt him and then seized power, establishing the first Crusader State known as the County of Edessa and imposing Latin Christianity on the Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic majority of the population.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Age of Islam.", "content": "Islam first arrived in Urfa around 638 AD, when the region surrendered to the Rashidun army without resisting, and became a significant presence under the Ayyubids (see: Saladin Ayubbi), Seljuks. In 1144, the Crusader state fell to the Turkish Abassid general Zengui, who had most of the Christian inhabitants slaughtered together with the Latin archbishop (see Siege of Edessa) and the subsequent Second Crusade failed to recapture the city. Subsequently, Urfa was ruled by Zengids, Ayyubids, Sultanate of Rum, Ilkhanids, Memluks, Akkoyunlu and Safavids before Ottoman conquest in 1516.  Under the Ottomans Urfa was initially made centre of Raqqa Eyalet, laterly part Urfa (Sanjak) of the Aleppo Vilayet. The area became a centre of trade in cotton, leather, and jewellery. There was a small but ancient Jewish community in Urfa, with a population of about 1,000 by the 19th century. Most of the Jews emigrated in 1896, fleeing the Hamidian massacres, and settling mainly in Aleppo, Tiberias and Jerusalem. There were three Christian communities: Syriac, Armenian, and Latin. According to Lord Kinross, 8,000 Armenians were massacred in Urfa in 1895. The last Neo-Aramaic Christians left in 1924 and went to Aleppo (where they settled in a place that was later called \"Hay al-Suryan\" \"The Syriac Quarter\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First World War and after.", "content": "During the First World War, Urfa was a site of the Armenian and Assyrian Genocides, beginning in August 1915. By the end of the war, the entire Christian population had been killed, had fled, or was in hiding.  The British occupation of the city of Urfa started de facto on 7 March 1919 and officially de jure as of 24 March 1919, and lasted until 30 October 1919. French forces took over the next day and lasted until 11 April 1920, when they were defeated by local resistance forces before the formal declaration of the Republic of Turkey on 23 April 1920).  The French retreat from the city of Urfa was conducted under an agreement reached between the occupying forces and the representatives of the local forces, commanded by Captain Ali Saip Bey assigned from Ankara. The withdrawal was meant to take place peacefully, but was disrupted by an ambush on the French units by irregular Kuva-yi Milliye Şebeke Pass on the way to Syria, leading to 296 casualties among the French.  Modern Urfa presents stark contrasts between its old and new quarters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "It is a stronghold of the governing Justice and Development Party. However, in the 2009 local elections, the city elected an independent, Ahmet Eşref Fakibaba, as mayor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cuisine.", "content": "As the city of Urfa is deeply rooted in history, so its unique cuisine is an amalgamation of the cuisines of the many civilizations that have ruled in Urfa. Dishes carry names in Kurdish, Arabic, Armenian, Syriac, and Turkish, and are often prepared in a spicy manner. It is widely believed that Urfa is the birthplace of many dishes, including Raw Kibbé (Çiğ Köfte), that according to the legend, was crafted by the Prophet Abraham from ingredients he had at hand. The walnut-stuffed Turkish dessert crepe (called \"şıllık\") is a regional specialty.  Many vegetables are used in the Urfa cuisine, such as the \"'Ecır,\" the \"Kenger,\" and the \"İsot\", the legendary local red capsicum that is a smaller and darker cultivar of the Aleppo pepper that takes a purplish black hue when dried and cured.  Unlike most of the Turkish cities that use different versions of regular butter in their regional cuisine, Urfa is, together with Antep, Mardin and Siirt a big user of clarified butter, made exclusively from sheep's milk, called locally \"Urfayağı\" (\"\"Urfabutter\"\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Şanlıurfa GAP Airport is located about 34 km (21 mi) northeast of the city and has direct flights to Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir.  The first 7.7km section, connecting the city centre with the museum quarter, of a planned 4-route, 78km network of trolleybus lines opened on 16 October 2018. An initial fleet of 10 bi-articulated trolleybuses, together with all fixed equipment, has been supplied by manufacturer Bozankaya.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Urfa has a hot summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification \"Csa\"). Urfa is very hot during the summer months. Temperatures in the height of summer usually reach 39 °C (102 °F). Rainfall is almost non-existent during the summer months. Winters are cool and wet. Frost is common and there is sporadic snowfall. Spring and autumn are mild and also wet.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Urfa, officially known as Şanlıurfa (; ; ; ; and known in ancient times as Edessa, is a city with a population of over 2 million residents in south-eastern Turkey, and the capital of Şanlıurfa Province. Urfa is a multiethnic city with a Turkish, Kurdish and Arab population. Urfa is situated on a plain about eighty kilometres east of the Euphrates River. Its climate features extremely hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973155}
{"src_title": "Sintra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prehistory to Moorish occupation.", "content": "The earliest remnants of human occupation were discovered in Penha Verde: these vestiges testify to an occupation dating to the early Paleolithic. Comparable remnants were discovered in an open-air site in São Pedro de Canaferrim, alongside the chapel of the Castelo dos Mouros (\"Moorish Castle\"), dating back to the Neolithic, and include decorated ceramics and microlithic flint utensils from the fifth century B.C.  Ceramic fragments found locally including many late Chalcolithic vases from the Sintra mountains suggest that between the fourth and third millennia B.C. the region (adjacent to the present village of Sintra) was occupied by a Neolithic/Chalcolithic settlement, with characteristics comparable to fortified settlements in Lisbon and Setúbal. The evidence discovered in Quinta das Sequoias and", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kingdom.", "content": "In July 1109, Count Henry reconquered the Castle of Sintra. This was preceded a year before by an attempt by Prince Sigurd the Crusader, son of Magnus III of Norway, to capture the castle from the Moors in the course of his trek to the Holy Land. Sigurd's forces disembarked at the mouth of the Colares River but failed to take the castle. It was only after the conquest of Lisbon, in October 1147, by Afonso Henriques (supported by Crusaders), that the castle surrendered in November. It was integrated into Christian dominions along with Almada and Palmela after their surrender. Afonso Henriques established the Church of São Pedro de Canaferrim within the walls of the Moorish Castle to mark his success.  On 9 January 1154, Afonso Henriques signed a foral", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Joanine and Philippine era.", "content": "John I (1385–1433), first King of the second dynasty, broke the tradition of transferring Sintra to the \"Casa da Rainha\" (Queen's property). Probably around 1383, John I granted the lands of Sintra to Count Henrique Manuel de Vilhena, quickly revoking the decision after Henrique took the Infanta's side during the dynastic quarrel. Sintra, therefore, continued as a possession of the King, who expanded the local estate. Until the end of the 17th century, the royal palace constituted one of the principal residences and summer estates of the court: it was from here that John decided to conquer Ceuta (1415); King Afonso V was born and died at the palace (1433–1481); and here King John II (1481–1495) was acclaimed sovereign.  In a document issued in 1435 by King Edward (1433–1438), the region was described as: \"A land of good air and water and of the Comarcas with an abundance in the sea and land [...] our most loyal city of Lisbon being", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Brigantine era.", "content": "The war with Spain (1640–1668), the affirmation of Mafra during the reign of John V of Portugal (1706–1750) through the construction of the Palace-Convent, and later the construction of Royal Palace of Queluz in 1747 during the reigns of Joseph I (1750–1777) and Maria I (1777–1816), helped diminish royal visits to the region. During this time there were only two documented visits: in 1652 and 1654, respectively the visit of Queen Luísa de Gusmão and King John IV (1640–1656), and the final burial of King Afonso VI.  Alleging the insanity of the King and the incapacity of the heir, the Duke of Cadaval and the Infante Peter led a coup d'état in 1667 which resulted in the resignation of the Count of Castelo Melhor, Minister of King Afonso VI (1656-1633) and the imprisonment of the monarch. In 1668 the Cortes of Lisbon confirmed the Infante Peter, the king's brother, as regent and heir. Afonso VI lived the rest of his life imprisoned, in the Paço da Ribeira (1667–1669), in the Fortress", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Republic.", "content": "The proclamation of a Portuguese Republic in 1910 transformed the bohemian climate of Sintra. Economic development was now promoted; the potential benefits to the region of growth in agriculture, industry and commerce were promoted to foster development. In 1908 a wine growing zone had been demarcated in Colares. Now a commission was established to monitor the quality of wines and promote their exportation, and in 1914 a commercial association () was set up to manage their concession. Meanwhile, in the name of secular and popular progress, parts of the cultural heritage were destroyed, including the annexes of the medieval village bordering the Palace in 1911, while the nave of the Church of the Misericórdia was reduced to the presbytery to allow the road to be widened. The first decades of the 20th century were the time of the fastest urbanization of the town, supported by its rail link to Lisbon and the influx of summer travellers.  During the 1920s damage to culturally important sites led to the creation of institutions to study and", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical geography.", "content": "The Sintra Mountains, a granite massif ten kilometres long - considered the \"Monte da Lua\" (\"Mountain of the Moon\"), or \"Promontorium Lunae\" by the strong local tradition of astral cults - emerge abruptly between a vast plain to the north and the northern margin of the Tagus River estuary, winding in a serpentine cordillera towards the Atlantic Ocean and Cabo da Roca, the most westerly point of continental Europe.  The São João platform, along the northern flank of the Sintra Mountains, has altitudes between and, while the southern part of the mountains, the Cascais platform, is lower: sloping from to the sea, terminating along the coast, around above sea level. The spectacular relief results from the east-west orientation of the massif's axis, its", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Human geography.", "content": "The municipality is administered by 11 civil parish () councils, with local authority to administer services and provide local governance, which are:  Sintra also has numerous localities and villages, including the affluent village of Linhó, Sintra.  Sintra's population grew considerably in the late 20th century, rising from about 14% of the Lisbon region to 19%, with the main concentration of resident population found in the important Queluz-Portela corridor, along the southeast corner of the municipality. In this area were concentrated approximately 82% of the municipality's population, the most attractive parishes to live in being São Pedro de Penaferrim, Rio de Mouro, Belas and Algueirão-Mem Martins.  With the decrease in mortality rates, the region has undergone a general increase in infant births, primarily associated with late births, but also an increase in seniors in the community (56.5% in 2001). Yet Sintra is still considered to have a structurally young population, the youngest in the Greater Metropolitan Area of Lisbon. Young", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The growth in tertiary activities has played an important part in the pattern of employment in the region, with commercial, retail and support services predominating. This has been to the detriment of industry, although continuing industrial activities include the transport of materials, mineral", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Lisbon's commuter railway network (CP Urban Services) provides direct services to Sintra. The journey to Lisbon takes 35–45 minutes.  According to recent statistics, Sintra's suburban railway is the most crowded suburban train system in Europe and the IC19 motorway", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "Sintra has a great", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Much of the miniseries \"Gulliver's Travels\" (1996)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns - sister cities.", "content": "Sintra is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sintra (, ) is a town and municipality in the Greater Lisbon region of Portugal, located on the Portuguese Riviera. The population of the municipality in 2011 was 377,835, in an area of. Sintra is a major tourist destination in Portugal, famed for its picturesqueness and for its numerous historic palaces and castles. Sintra is also a major luxury dining and tourism destination within the Portuguese Riviera, as well as one of the wealthiest municipalities in the country, and is known for the numerous notable events hosted in Sintra, such as Bilderberg Meetings and the Open de Portugal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973156}
{"src_title": "William IV, Prince of Orange", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "William was born in Leeuwarden, Netherlands, the son of John William Friso, Prince of Orange, head of the Frisian branch of the House of Orange-Nassau, and of his wife Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel). He was born six weeks after the death of his father.  William succeeded his father as Stadtholder of Friesland and also, under the regency of his mother until 1731, as Stadtholder of Groningen. In 1722 he was elected Stadtholder of Guelders. The four other provinces of the Dutch Republic:, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Overijssel had in 1702 decided not to appoint a stadtholder after the death of stadtholder William III, issuing the history of the Republic into a period that is known as the Second Stadtholderless Period. In 1747 those four provinces also accepted William as their stadtholder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "In 1720 William was named the 549th Knight of the Order of the Garter. On 25 March 1734 he married at St James's Palace Anne, Princess Royal, eldest daughter of King George II of Great Britain and Caroline of Ansbach. William and Anne had five children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1739 William inherited the estates formerly owned by the Nassau-Dillenburg branch of his family, and in 1743 he inherited those formerly owned by the Nassau-Siegen branch of his family.  In April 1747 the French army entered Flanders, threatening the Netherlands, which was weakened by internal division. The Dutch decided that their country needed a single strong executive, and turned to the House of Orange. William and his family moved from Leeuwarden to The Hague. On 4 May 1747, the States General of the Netherlands named William General Stadtholder of all seven of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, and made the position hereditary for the first time. William first met Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg in 1747, and two years later appointed him field marshal of the Dutch States Army, which later led to Louis Ernest serving as one of the regents for William's heir.  William IV was considered an attractive, educated, and accomplished prince in his prime. Although he had little experience in state affairs, William was at first popular with the people. He stopped the practice of indirect taxation by which independent contractors managed to make large sums for themselves. Nevertheless, he was also a Director-General of the Dutch East India Company, and his alliance with the business class deepened while the disparity between rich and poor grew.  William served as General Stadtholder of all the Netherlands until he died of a stroke in 1751 at The Hague.  The county of Orange, Virginia, and the city of Orangeburg, South Carolina, are named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William IV (Willem Karel Hendrik Friso; 1 September 1711 – 22 October 1751) was Prince of Orange from birth and the first hereditary Stadtholder of all the United Provinces of the Netherlands from 1747 till his death in 1751. During his whole life he was furthermore ruler of the Principality of Orange-Nassau within the Holy Roman Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973157}
{"src_title": "Atrioventricular block", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Anatomy.", "content": "The synchronized contraction of the heart occurs through a well coordinated electrical signal pathway. The initial electrical signal originates from the SA node located in the upper portion of the right atrium. The electrical signal then travels through both the right and left atrium, and causes the two atria to contract at the same time. This simultaneous contraction results in the P wave seen in an ECG tracing.  The electrical signal then travels to the AV node located on the lower portion of the interatrial septum. At the AV node there is a delay in the electrical signal, which allows the atria to contract and blood to flow from the atria to the ventricles. This delay accounts for the ECG period between the P wave and the QRS complex, and creates the PR interval.  From the AV nodes, the electrical signal travels through Bundle of His and divides into the right bundle and left bundle, which are located within the interventricular septum. Finally, the electrical signal travels into the Purkinje fibers. The division of the signal into a right and left bundle and then into the Purkinje fibers allows for a simultaneous depolarization and contraction of the right and left ventricles. The contraction of the ventricles results in the QRS complex seen on an ECG tracing. After contraction, the ventricles must repolarize, or reset themselves, in order to allow for a second depolarization and contraction. The repolarization creates the T wave in the ECG tracing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "An electrocardiogram, or ECG, is used to differentiate between the different types of AV block. In AV block, there is a disruption between the signal traveling from the atria to the ventricles. This results in abnormalities in the PR interval, as well as the relationship between P waves and QRS complexes on the ECG tracing. If the patient is symptomatic from their suspected AV block, it is important that an ECG is also obtained while having symptoms. Physicians may also order a continuous ECG (i.e. Holter monitor or implanted cardiac monitor) to monitor the patient for symptoms and conduction abnormalities over a longer period of time, as AV blocks can be intermittent.  Because some types of AV block can be associated with underlying structural heart disease, patients may also undergo echocardiogram to look at the heart and assess the function.  Laboratory diagnosis for AV blocks include electrolyte, drug level and cardiac enzyme level tests. Based upon clinical suspicion, the physician may do lab tests to assess for reversible causes of AV block, such as hypothyroidism, rheumatologic disorders, and infections (such as Lyme disease).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "There are three types, or degrees, of AV block: (1) first-degree, (2) second-degree, and (3) third-degree, with third-degree being the most severe. An ECG is used to differentiate between the different types of AV block.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First-degree Atrioventricular Block.", "content": "First-degree AV block occurs when there is a delay, but not disruption, as the electrical signal moves between the atrium and the ventricles through the AV node. On ECG, this is defined by a PR interval greater than 200 msec. Additionally, there are no dropped, or skipped, beats.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second-degree Atrioventricular Block.", "content": "Second-degree AV block occurs when the electrical signal between the atria and ventricles is even more impaired than in a first-degree AV block. In a second-degree AV block, the impairment results in a failure to conduct an impulse, which causes a skipped beat.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mobitz I.", "content": "Mobitz I is characterized by a progressive, yet, reversible block of the AV node. On ECG, this is defined by a progressive prolongation of the PR interval, with a resulting dropped beat (the PR interval gets longer and longer until a beat is finally dropped, or skipped).  Some patients are asymptomatic; those who have symptoms respond to treatment effectively. There is low risk of a Mobitz I AV block leading to heart attack and complete heart block.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Mobitz II.", "content": "Mobitz II is caused by a sudden, unexpected failure of the His-Purkinje cells to conduct the electrical impulse. On ECG, the PR interval is unchanged from beat to beat, but there is a sudden failure to conduct the signal to the ventricles, and a resulting random skipped beat.  The risks and possible effects of Mobitz II are much more severe than Mobitz I in that it can lead to severe heart attack.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Third-degree Atrioventricular Block.", "content": "Third-degree AV block occurs when the signal between the atria and ventricles is completely blocked, and there is no communication between the two. None of the signals from the upper chambers make it to the lower chambers. On ECG, there is no relationship between P waves and QRS complexes, meaning the P waves and QRS complexes are not in a 1:1 ratio.  Third-degree AV block is the most severe of the AV blocks. Persons suffering third-degree AV block need emergency treatment including but not limited to a pacemaker.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etiology.", "content": "There are many causes of AV block, ranging from a normal variant among people to the result of a heart attack.  First-degree AV block and Mobitz I second-degree block are often thought to be just normal, benign, conditions in patients, and do not often result from a severe underlying condition.  Mobitz II second-degree block and third-degree AV block are not normal variants, and are associated with an underlying condition. Common causes include ischemia (lack of blood flow and oxygen to the heart muscle) or progressive fibrosis (excessive scaring) of the heart. It is also possible that high degree block can result after cardiac surgery during which the surgeon was in close proximity to the electrical conduction system and accidentally injured it. Reversible causes of Mobitz II and third-degree heart block include untreated Lyme disease, hypothyroidism, hyperkalemia (high levels of potassium), and drug toxicity. Drugs that slow the conduction of the electrical signal through AV node, such as beta-blockers, digoxin, calcium channel blockers, and amiodarone, can cause heart block if they are taken in excessive amounts, or the levels in the blood get too high.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management.", "content": "Management is dependent upon the severity, or degree, of the blockage, the consistency of symptoms, as well as the cause of the AV block.  Patients with first-degree AV block do not have any resulting severe or life-threatening symptoms, such as symptomatic bradycardia or hypotension, and, thus, do not require treatment.  Similarly, patients with second-degree Mobitz I AV block rarely develop life-threatening symptoms, and patients who are asymptomatic do not require treatment. However, in some cases, patients with Mobtz I block can develop life-threatening symptoms that requires intervention. These patients often respond well to atropine, but make require temporary transcutaneous pacing or transvenous pacing until they are not longer symptomatic.  Patients with second-degree Mobitz II and third-degree heart block are much more likely to have symptomatic bradycardia and hemodynamic instability, such as hypotension. Additionally, there is an increased risk of patients with Mobitz II heart block developing third-degree heart block. Therefore, these patients often require temporary pacing with transcutaneous or transvenous pacing wires, and many will ultimately require a permanent implanted pacemaker.  If the heart block is found to be caused by a reversible condition, such as Lyme disease, the underlying condition should first be treated. Often, this will lead to resolution of the heart block and the associated symptoms.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Atrioventricular block (AV block) is a type of heart block that occurs when the electrical signal traveling from the atria, or the upper chambers of the heart, to ventricles, or the lower chambers of the heart, is impaired. Normally, the sinoatrial node (SA node) produces an electrical signal to control the heart rate. The signal travels from the SA node to the ventricles through the atrioventricular node (AV node). In an AV block, this electrical signal is either delayed or completely blocked. When the signal is completely blocked, the ventricles produce their own electrical signal to control the heart rate. The heart rate produced by the ventricles is much slower than that produced by the SA node.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973158}
{"src_title": "Vratislaus II of Bohemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Campaigns of Henry IV.", "content": "Both Pope Alexander II and Pope Gregory VII confirmed Vratislaus in the privilege of wearing the mitre and tunic which his predecessors had. Despite this, Vratislaus supported Henry in both the Investiture Controversy against the popes and the rebellions in Saxony that dominated his long reign. These actions would negate the significance of the mitre.  Vratislaus was often at odds with his brother Jaromír, the bishop of Prague. Jaromír, for his part, ignored the creation of a new Moravian diocese in Olomouc by Vratislaus in 1063. Jaromir even went so far as to retake, by arms, the relics removed from Prague and taken to Moravia. Despite the pope's support for Vratislaus' new see, the Bohemian duke was unswayed in his loyalty to the emperor.  The Saxons revolted under Duke Magnus of Saxony and Otto of Nordheim, Duke of Bavaria, in 1070 and Boleslaus of Poland attacked Bohemia in 1071. In August 1073, Henry responded with an invasion of Poland, but a new Saxon revolt drew him back in 1075. Vratislaus joined him, and they defeated the rebels on 9 June at the First Battle of Langensalza. The Bohemian troops showed conspicuous bravery. Henry then took Jaromír to Germany to be his chancellor under the name of Gebhard and Vratislaus was greatly relieved.  Vratislaus also took part in the wars against the anti-kings who opposed Henry's rule and were elected by a faction of the nobility to replace him. At the Battle of Flarchheim, only through the aid of Vratislaus' contingent was the imperial army capable of overcoming the rebels of the papally-approved claimant Rudolf of Rheinfelden, Duke of Swabia. Vratislaus even succeeded in seizing Rudolf's golden lance. The golden lance was then carried in front of Vratislaus on state occasions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relations with the papacy.", "content": "Vratislaus raised an army to serve in Henry's Italian campaign of 1081. In 1083, Vratislaus and his Bohemians were with Henry when they entered Rome itself.  Despite his serving an excommunicated emperor, Vratislaus maintained good relations with the papacy. Nonetheless, Gregory refused to grant Vratislaus permission to use the Slavonic liturgy. Never, however, did Vratislaus link his fate with that of Henry's antipope, Clement III.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansionism.", "content": "Vratislaus coveted the largely Slavic marches of Meissen and Lusatia, but, in spite of Henry's promises and Bohemian successes against the rebellious margraves, he never received them. He held Lower Lusatia between 1075 and 1086, but in 1088, with the insurrection of Egbert II of Meissen, Henry granted the region to Henry of Ostmark. Vratislaus was thereafter cool to Henry's military adventures. He never wavered in his loyalty, but he abstained from giving the emperor martial aid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Internal affairs.", "content": "It was a Přemyslid tradition that Moravia would be entrusted to the younger brothers of the ruling prince. In Vratislaus' case, his two younger brothers Conrad and Otto inherited Brno and Olomouc and the youngest, Jaromír, entered the church. However, enmity grew between the brothers. It was then that Vratislaus founded the diocese of Olmütz (diocese of Olomouc), under the Archbishopric of Mainz, to counter Otto's authority within his province. Both pope and emperor took a hand in mediating the conflict, which was partially fixed with Henry's appointment of Jaromír as chancellor in 1077. In April 1085, a \"reichstag\" convened in Mainz suppressed the Moravian see, but Vratislaus later re-founded see. Jaromír protested in Rome to Pope Urban II, but died in 1090 before a pope ruled on the matter.  Sadly for Vratislaus, his last years were occupied by dynastic quarrelling. When his brother Otto died in 1086, he gave Olomouc to his son Boleslaus, which was seen to be an act against the interests of Conrad. Vratislaus raised an army against Conrad and sent it out under his other son Bretislaus. This son turned on him. Vratislaus, in keeping with Bohemian custom, designated an heir: Conrad. Thus reconciled, the two attacked Bretislaus, who fled to Hungary.  Vratislaus died of a hunting wound on 14 January 1092 after a reign of thirty years. He was buried in St. Peter and Paul′s Church, Vyšehrad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Vratislaus frequently found himself in conflict with Bishop Jaromír of Prague and sought means to diminish the importance of the Bishop of Prague in domestic Bohemian politics. Among the actions he took were the re-establishment of the Bishopric of Olomouc in 1063 and the creation of the Vyšehrad Chapter in 1070. The latter was richly endowed independently of the Prague bishop, subject instead to the Holy See directly. His success in curbing the power of the Prague bishop helped to strengthen the Bohemian crown and enable later rulers to govern a more unified state. His policy towards the Holy Roman Empire set an example that would be followed in the twelfth century and would ultimately lead to the permanent elevation of Bohemia to the status of a kingdom at the beginning of the thirteenth century. The marriage alliances he was able to conclude with notable foreign princesses reflected the rising position of the Přemyslids among European dynasties. In contrast, Vratislaus's father Bretislaus in 1019 had to abduct his wife, the minor noblewoman Judith of Schweinfurt, to secure any suitable consort at all. His successor continued to cultivate dynastic bonds with notable courts in central and eastern Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Vratislaus was married three times. His first wife Maria died during premature childbirth. He married the second time in 1057 to Adelaide, daughter of Andrew I of Hungary, who died in 1061. They had four children:  In 1062, Vratislaus married a third time to Swatawa of Poland, a daughter of Casimir I of Poland. They had five children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vratislaus (or Wratislaus) II () (d. 14 January 1092), the son of Bretislaus I and Judith of Schweinfurt, was the first King of Bohemia as of 15 June 1085, his royal title granted as a lifetime honorific from Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV that did not establish a hereditary monarchy. Before his elevation to the royal dignity, Vratislaus had ruled Bohemia as duke since 1061.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973159}
{"src_title": "Digital watermarking", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The term \"Digital Watermark\" was coined by Andrew Tirkel and Charles Osborne in December 1992. The first successful embedding and extraction of a steganographic spread spectrum watermark was demonstrated in 1993 by Andrew Tirkel, Charles Osborne and Gerard Rankin.  Watermarks are identification marks produced during the paper making process. The first watermarks appeared in Italy during the 13th century, but their use rapidly spread across Europe. They were used as a means to identify the paper maker or the trade guild that manufactured the paper. The marks often were created by a wire sewn onto the paper mold. Watermarks continue to be used today as manufacturer's marks and to prevent forgery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Digital watermarking may be used for a wide range of applications, such as:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Digital watermarking life-cycle phases.", "content": "The information to be embedded in a signal is called a digital watermark, although in some contexts the phrase digital watermark means the difference between the watermarked signal and the cover signal. The signal where the watermark is to be embedded is called the \"host\" signal. A watermarking system is usually divided into three distinct steps, embedding, attack, and detection. In embedding, an algorithm accepts the host and the data to be embedded, and produces a watermarked signal.  Then the watermarked digital signal is transmitted or stored, usually transmitted to another person. If this person makes a modification, this is called an \"attack\". While the modification may not be malicious, the term attack arises from copyright protection application, where third parties may attempt to remove the digital watermark through modification. There are many possible modifications, for example, lossy compression of the data (in which resolution is diminished), cropping an image or video, or intentionally adding noise.  \"Detection\" (often called extraction) is an algorithm which is applied to the attacked signal to attempt to extract the watermark from it. If the signal was unmodified during transmission, then the watermark still is present and it may be extracted. In \"robust\" digital watermarking applications, the extraction algorithm should be able to produce the watermark correctly, even if the modifications were strong. In \"fragile\" digital watermarking, the extraction algorithm should fail if any change is made to the signal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "A digital watermark is called \"robust\" with respect to transformations if the embedded information may be detected reliably from the marked signal, even if degraded by any number of transformations. Typical image degradations are JPEG compression, rotation, cropping, additive noise, and quantization. For video content, temporal modifications and MPEG compression often are added to this list. A digital watermark is called \"imperceptible\" if the watermarked content is perceptually equivalent to the original, unwatermarked content. In general, it is easy to create either robust watermarks—or—imperceptible watermarks, but the creation of both robust—and—imperceptible watermarks has proven to be quite challenging. Robust imperceptible watermarks have been proposed as a tool for the protection of digital content, for example as an embedded \"no-copy-allowed\" flag in professional video content.  Digital watermarking techniques may be classified in several ways.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Robustness.", "content": "A digital watermark is called \"fragile\" if it fails to be detectable after the slightest modification. Fragile watermarks are commonly used for tamper detection (integrity proof). Modifications to an original work that clearly are noticeable, commonly are not referred to as watermarks, but as generalized barcodes.  A digital watermark is called \"semi-fragile\" if it resists benign transformations, but fails detection after malignant transformations. Semi-fragile watermarks commonly are used to detect malignant transformations.  A digital watermark is called \"robust\" if it resists a designated class of transformations. Robust watermarks may be used in copy protection applications to carry copy and no access control information.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Perceptibility.", "content": "A digital watermark is called \"imperceptible\" if the original cover signal and the marked signal are perceptually indistinguishable.  A digital watermark is called \"perceptible\" if its presence in the marked signal is noticeable (e.g. Digital On-screen Graphics like a Network Logo, Content Bug, Codes, Opaque images). On videos and images, some are made transparent/translucent for convenience for consumers due to the fact that they block portion of the view; therefore degrading it.  This should not be confused with \"perceptual\", that is, watermarking which uses the limitations of human perception to be imperceptible.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Capacity.", "content": "The length of the embedded message determines two different main classes of digital watermarking schemes:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Embedding method.", "content": "A digital watermarking method is referred to as \"spread-spectrum\" if the marked signal is obtained by an additive modification. Spread-spectrum watermarks are known to be modestly robust, but also to have a low information capacity due to host interference.  A digital watermarking method is said to be of \"quantization type\" if the marked signal is obtained by quantization. Quantization watermarks suffer from low robustness, but have a high information capacity due to rejection of host interference.  A digital watermarking method is referred to as \"amplitude modulation\" if the marked signal is embedded by additive modification which is similar to spread spectrum method, but is particularly embedded in the spatial domain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evaluation and benchmarking.", "content": "The evaluation of digital watermarking schemes may provide detailed information for a watermark designer or for end-users, therefore, different evaluation strategies exist. Often used by a watermark designer is the evaluation of single properties to show, for example, an improvement. Mostly, end-users are not interested in detailed information. They want to know if a given digital watermarking algorithm may be used for their application scenario, and if so, which parameter sets seems to be the best.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cameras.", "content": "Epson and Kodak have produced cameras with security features such as the Epson PhotoPC 3000Z and the Kodak DC-290. Both cameras added irremovable features to the pictures which distorted the original image, making them unacceptable for some applications such as forensic evidence in court. According to Blythe and Fridrich, \"[n]either camera can provide an undisputable proof of the image origin or its author\". A secure digital camera (SDC) was proposed by Saraju Mohanty, et al. in 2003 and published in January 2004. This was not the first time this was proposed. Blythe and Fridrich also have worked on SDC in 2004 for a digital camera that would use lossless watermarking to embed a biometric identifier together with a cryptographic hash.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reversible data hiding.", "content": "\"Reversible data hiding\" is a technique which enables images to be authenticated and then restored to their original form by removing the digital watermark and replacing the image data that had been overwritten. This would make the images acceptable for legal purposes. The US Army also is interested in this technique for authentication of reconnaissance images.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Watermarking for relational databases.", "content": "Digital watermarking for relational databases has emerged as a candidate solution to provide copyright protection, tamper detection, traitor tracing, and maintaining integrity of relational data. Many watermarking techniques have been proposed in the literature to address these purposes. A survey of the current state-of-the-art and a classification of the different techniques according to their intent, the way they express the watermark, the cover type, granularity level, and verifiability was published in 2010 by Halder et al. in the Journal of Universal Computer Science..", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A digital watermark is a kind of marker covertly embedded in a noise-tolerant signal such as audio, video or image data. It is typically used to identify ownership of the copyright of such signal. \"Watermarking\" is the process of hiding digital information in a carrier signal; the hidden information should, but does not need to, contain a relation to the carrier signal. Digital watermarks may be used to verify the authenticity or integrity of the carrier signal or to show the identity of its owners. It is prominently used for tracing copyright infringements and for banknote authentication.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973160}
{"src_title": "Josef Groll", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Brewing the first pilsner.", "content": "In the late 1830s the people of Pilsen, Kingdom of Bohemia (today in the Czech Republic) started to prefer less expensive imported bottom-fermented beers to local top-fermented beers. As a result many of top-fermented beers from Pilsen were not being sold fast enough, got spoiled and the casks had to be poured out. In 1839 the burghers with brewing rights decided to build a new brewery capable of producing a bottom-fermented beer with a longer storage life. At the time, this was termed a Bavarian beer, since bottom-fermentation were popular mostly in Bavaria. For bottom-fermentation it is necessary to keep the fermentation tanks cool between 4 and 9 degrees Celsius. The climate in Bohemia is similar to that in Bavaria making it possible to store winter ice and sustain bottom-fermentation year-round. The burghers of Pilsen not only built a new brewery, but also hired Josef Groll, a Bavarian brewer with lager-brewing experience. Josef Groll's father owned a brewery in Vilshofen in Lower Bavaria and had long experimented with new recipes for bottom-fermented beer. On 5 October 1842, Groll brewed the first batch of \"Urquell\" beer. The use of soft Pilsen water, barley malt prepared in indirectly heated English-style kiln and Saaz hops, resulted in golden color and herbal, floral taste. The new beer was first served on 11 November 1842 and was very well received by the local populace. The demand for the Pilsner beer grew strongly. Soon the brewery expanded and started to export to many countries.  Josef Groll's contract with the brewery ended on 30 April 1845. Groll returned to Vilshofen and later inherited his father's brewery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Josef Groll died on 22 November 1887, aged 74, of a heart attack in the house of his daughter Kathi Hutter in Vilshofen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brewery.", "content": "The Groll brewery no longer exists. Parts of the brewery, however, were acquired by \"Wolferstetter\", another brewery located in Vilshofen. \"Wolferstetter\" still produces a \"Josef Groll Pils\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josef Groll (21 August 1813, Vilshofen an der Donau – 22 November 1887, Vilshofen) was a Bavarian brewer, best known for being the first brewer of Pilsner beer. He is sometimes called \"the Father of the Pilsner\". The world's first-ever pale lager, Pilsner Urquell was highly successful, and served as the inspiration for more than two-thirds of the beer produced in the world today.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973161}
{"src_title": "Avia S-199", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Avia continued building Messerschmitt Bf 109G-6s after the war under the Avia S-99 name, at two aircraft factories in Czechoslovakia: one of them officially called \"závod Avia\" (Avia Plant) (1946–48) and \"závod Avia-Jiřího Dimitrova\" (Avia-George Dimitroff-Plant, 1948–49) in Čakovice near Prague, as a postwar corporative part of the \"Automobilové závody, n.p.\" \"[Automotive Works, National Corp.]\". The other was named \"závod Vysočany\" (\"Vysočany Plant\", 1948–49) in Prague, as a corporative part of \"Letecké závody, n.p.\" \"[Aviation Works, National Corp.]\" but soon ran out of the 109's Daimler-Benz DB 605 engine after many were destroyed during an explosion at a warehouse in Krásné Březno.  The S-199 continued to use the Bf 109G airframe but, with none of the original engines available, an alternative engine had to be used. It was decided that as a replacement for the original engine, the aircraft would use the same (Junkers Jumo 211 F) engine and propeller as the Heinkel He 111 bomber. The resulting combination of parts was an aircraft with extremely poor handling qualities. The substitute engine with the propeller lacked the responsiveness of the Daimler-Benz unit and the torque created by the massive paddle-bladed propeller made control very difficult. This, in combination with the 109's narrow-track undercarriage, made landings and takeoffs extremely hazardous.  The Daimler-Benz DB 605 engine allowed for a central cannon mount (\"Motorkanone\" in German) that fired through the propeller spinner. This was not possible with the Junkers Jumo 211, and so the S-199 used a version of the Luftwaffe's \"Rüstsatz VI\" modification kit, which consisted of a pair of MG 151 cannon, one each in a gun pod, beneath each wing. This further impinged on the aircraft's performance. A final hidden danger lay in the gun synchronizer for the cowl-mounted MG 131 machine guns, which did not work as it was meant to, leading a few Israeli aircraft to shoot off their own propellers.  Around 550 S-199s were built, including a number of conversion trainers designated CS-199 (armed) and C-210 (unarmed). The first flight took place in March 1947, and production ended in 1949. The last examples were withdrawn from Czechoslovak service (with their National Security Guard) in 1957. There may be some argument that the S-199's difficult handling was exacerbated by inadequately trained pilots in type, and was not as difficult to land and take off when flown by pilots competently trained in the type, considering the type was used for ten years in Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Israeli service.", "content": "Israeli agents negotiated the purchase of Avia S-199s from the Czechoslovak government in defiance of an arms embargo that Israel faced at the time. Twenty-five aircraft were obtained and all but two were eventually delivered. The price for a fully equipped plane was $190,000. The first examples arrived on 20 May 1948, six days after Israel's declaration of independence and five days after the commencement of hostilities by Egypt. Forming Israel's first fighter squadron, they were assembled and sent into combat for the first time on May 29, attacking the Egyptian army between Isdud and the Ad Halom bridge, south of Tel Aviv. A few days later, on 3 June, taking off from Herzliya Airport the type scored the Israeli Air Force's first aerial victories when Modi Alon shot down a pair of Royal Egyptian Air Force C-47s which had just bombed Tel Aviv.  The type proved unreliable and performed poorly in combat. However, the maintenance and flying difficulties may have been exacerbated by inexperience and the lack of training in type for both flying and maintenance. Furthermore, maintenance problems meant that no more than five were typically airworthy at any one time. The type scored victories over its opponents, including the Spitfire. The Avias were mostly withheld from service by the end of October, at which time only six remained operational. The S-199 continued making sporadic sorties until mid-December.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Avia S-199 is a propeller-driven fighter aircraft built after World War II, notable as the first fighter obtained by the Israeli Air Force, and used during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973162}
{"src_title": "Temple of Castor and Pollux", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Founding.", "content": "The last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, and his allies, the Latins, waged war on the infant Roman Republic. Before the battle, the Roman dictator Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis vowed to build a temple to the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) if the Republic were victorious.  According to legend, Castor and Pollux appeared on the battlefield as two able horsemen in aid of the Republic; and after the battle had been won they again appeared on the Forum in Rome watering their horses at the Spring of Juturna thereby announcing the victory. The temple stands on the supposed spot of their appearance.  One of Postumius’ sons was elected duumvir in order to dedicate the temple on 15 July (the ides of July) 484 BC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "During the Republican period, the temple served as a meeting place for the Roman Senate, and from the middle of the 2nd century BC the front of the podium served as a speaker's platform. During the imperial period, the temple housed the office for weights and measures, and was a depository for the State treasury. Chambers located between the foundation piers of the temple were used to conduct this business. Based on finds from the drains, one of the chambers was likely used by a dentist.  The archaic temple was completely reconstructed and enlarged in 117 BC by Lucius Caecilius Metellus Dalmaticus after his victory over the Dalmatians. Gaius Verres again restored this second temple in 73 BC.  Commemorating the initial victory at Lake Regillus, a large calvary parade was held each year on July 15th and featured as many as 5,000 young men carrying shields and spears. Two young men, riding white horses, led the parade and represented Castor and Pollux.  In 14 BC a fire that ravaged major parts of the forum destroyed the temple, and Tiberius, the son of Livia by a previous marriage and adopted son of Augustus and the eventual heir to the throne, rebuilt it. Tiberius' temple was dedicated in 6 AD. The remains visible today are from the temple of Tiberius, except the podium, which is from the time of Metellus.  In conjunction with this imperial rebuilding, the cult itself became associated with the imperial family. Initially, the twins were identified with Augustus's intended heirs, Gaius and Lucius Caesar. After their premature deaths, however, the association with Castor and Pollux passed to Tiberius and his brother Drusus.  According to Edward Gibbon, the temple of Castor served as a secret meeting place for the Roman Senate. Frequent meetings of the Senate are also reported by Cicero. Gibbon said the senate was roused to rebellion against Emperor Maximinus Thrax and in favor of future emperor Gordian I at the Temple of Castor in 237 AD.  If still in use by the 4th-century, the temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire. The temple was possibly already falling apart in the fourth century, when a wall in front of the Lacus Juturnae was erected from reused material. Nothing is known of its subsequent history, except that in the 15th century, only three columns of its original structure were still standing. The street running by the building was called \"via Trium Columnarum\".  In 1760, the Conservatori, finding the columns in a state of imminent collapse, erected scaffolding for effecting repairs. Both Piranesi and the young English architect George Dance the Younger were able to climb up and make accurate measurements; Dance had \"a Model cast from the finest Example of the Corinthian order perhaps in the whole World\", as he reported to his father.  Today the podium survives without the facing, as do the three columns and a piece of the entablature, one of the most famous features in the Forum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The octastyle temple was peripteral, with eight Corinthian columns at the short sides and eleven on the long sides. There was a single cella paved with mosaics. The podium measures and in height. The building was constructed in \"opus caementicium\" and originally covered with slabs of tuff which were later removed. According to ancient sources, the temple had a single central stairway to access the podium, but excavations have identified two side stairs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "The temple complex was excavated and studied between 1983 and 1989 by a joint archaeological mission of the Nordic academies in Rome, led by Inge Nielsen and B. Poulsen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other Temples of Castor and Pollux.", "content": "The Roman temple is one of a number of known Dioscuri sites remaining from antiquity. Among others,  In his 1888 description of the Dioscuri temple in ancient Greek colonial city of Naucratis in Egypt, Ernest Arthur Gardner remarked that such temples were common enough to have a characteristic orientation. Temples to the gods tended to face east. Temples to heroes and demi-gods such as Castor and Pollux faced west.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Temple of Castor and Pollux () is an ancient temple in the Roman Forum, Rome, central Italy. It was originally built in gratitude for victory at the Battle of Lake Regillus (495 BC). Castor and Pollux (Greek Polydeuces) were the Dioscuri, the \"twins\" of Gemini, the twin sons of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leda. Their cult came to Rome from Greece via Magna Graecia and the Greek culture of Southern Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973163}
{"src_title": "Étienne-Jules Marey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Marey started by studying blood circulation in the human body. Then he shifted to analyzing heart beats, respiration, muscles (myography), and movement of the body. To aid his studies he developed many instruments for precise measurements. For example, in 1859, in collaboration with the physiologist Auguste Chauveau and the watch manufacturer Breguet, he developed a wearable \"Sphygmograph\" to measure the pulse. This sphygmograph was an improvement on an earlier and more cumbersome design by the German physiologist Karl von Vierordt. In 1869 Marey constructed a very delicate artificial insect to show how an insect flies and to demonstrate the figure-8 shape it produced during movement of its wings. He fixed a gold foil to an insect wing and shone light on it to study the flapping of the wing. He also used a soot covered glass-fibre introduced along the path of the insect wing to determine if it crossed with the wing in the upper stroke or lower stroke by examining the side on which the soot was cleared. Then he became fascinated by movements of air and started to study bigger flying animals, like birds. He adopted and further developed \"animated photography\" into a separate field of chronophotography in the 1880s. His revolutionary idea was to record several phases of movement on one photographic surface. In 1890 he published a substantial volume entitled \"Le Vol des Oiseaux\" (\"The Flight of Birds\"), richly illustrated with photographs, drawings, and diagrams. He also created stunningly precise sculptures of various flying birds.  Marey studied other animals too. He published \"La Machine animale\" in 1873 (translated as \"Animal Mechanism\"). The English photographer Eadweard Muybridge carried out his \"Photographic Investigation\" in Palo Alto, California, to prove that Marey was right when he wrote that a galloping horse for a brief moment had all four hooves off the ground. Muybridge published his photos in 1879 and received some public attention.  Marey hoped to merge anatomy and physiology. To better understand his chronophotographic images, he compared them with images of the anatomy, skeleton, joints, and muscles of the same species. Marey produced a series of drawings showing a horse trotting and galloping, first in the flesh and then as a skeleton.  The presence and activity of Marey in Naples is well documented, in particular thanks to the documentation preserved in the historical archive of the Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn. Marey began to travel to Naples presumably because of his relation with madame Vilbort, wife of Joseph Vilbort, the director of the French journal \"Le Globe\". Madame Vilbort moved to Naples to cure her illness, thanks to the warm climate, and Marey followed her. Marey and madame Vilbort bought villa Maria in Posillipo in 1880. Marey accomplished in Naples part of his studies aimed at the realization of his pre-cinematographic tools and in the Dohrn zoological station studied the movement of fishes hosted in the aquarium's tanks. In a letter dated 1 November 1876 Marey requested the Stazione Zoologica to provide live ray fishes for his studies. Among the documentation that witnesses the collaboration of Marey with Anton Dohrn is the archive at the zoological station which preserves photos where the two appear together during an excursion and show Marey on board Dohrn's boat. The usage of the chronophotographic gun, which Marey used to aim at birds, but without shooting, appeared unusual to local people who referred to Maray sometimes as the \"silly from Posillipo\" (\"lo scemo di Posillipo\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chronophotography.", "content": "Marey's chronophotographic gun was made in 1882, this instrument was capable of taking 12 consecutive frames a second, with all the frames recorded on the same picture. Using these pictures he studied horses, birds, dogs, sheep, donkeys, elephants, fish, microscopic creatures, molluscs, insects, reptiles, etc. Some call it Marey's \"animated zoo\". Marey also conducted the famous study about cats always landing on their feet. He conducted very similar studies with a chicken and a dog and found that they could do almost the same. Marey also studied human locomotion. He published another book \"Le Mouvement\" in 1894.  Marey also made movies. They were at a high speed (60 images per second) and of excellent image quality. His research on how to capture and display moving images helped the emerging field of cinematography.  Towards the end of his life he returned to studying the movement of quite abstract forms, like a falling ball. His last great work was the observation and photography of smoke trails. This research was partially funded by Samuel Pierpont Langley under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, after the two met in Paris at the Exposition Universelle (1900). In 1901 he was able to build a smoke machine with 58 smoke trails. It became one of the first aerodynamic wind tunnels.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Étienne-Jules Marey (; 5 March 1830, Beaune, Côte-d'Or – 15 May 1904, Paris) was a French scientist, physiologist and chronophotographer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973164}
{"src_title": "Francesca Caccini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Caccini was born in Florence, and received a humanistic education (Latin, some Greek, as well as modern languages and literature, mathematics) in addition to early musical training with her father. According to Liliana Panella, the first well-founded testimony of Francesca's singer's activity, together with her sister Settimia, at the Medici court, is 1602: in his diary Cesare Tinghi notes that on 3 April 1602 St. Nicholas church in Pisa, where the court moved every year during Lent, polychoral music was directed by \"Giulio Romano [Giulio Caccini], having the wife (the second wife, Margherita) and the two daughters singing well\".  In her early life, Caccini performed with her parents, her half-brother Pompeo, her sister Settimia, and possibly other unnamed Caccini pupils in an ensemble contemporaries referred to as \"le donne di Giulio Romano\". After she was hired by the court, she continued to perform with the family ensemble until Settimia's marriage and resulting move to Mantua caused its breakup. Caccini served the Medici court as a teacher, chamber singer, rehearsal coach and composer of both chamber and stage music until early 1627. By 1614 she was the court's most highly paid musician, in no small part because her musical virtuosity so well exemplified an idea of female excellence projected by Tuscany's de facto Regent, Grand-Duchess Christina of Lorraine. By 1623 she earned 240 scudi.  Caccini is believed to have been a quick and prolific composer, equal in productivity to her court colleagues Jacopo Peri and Marco da Gagliano. Very little of her music survives. Most of her stage music was composed for performance in comedies by poet Michelangelo Buonarroti the Younger (grand-nephew of the artist) such as \"La Tancia\" (1613), \"Il passatempo\" (1614) and \"La fiera\" (1619). In 1618 she published a collection of thirty-six solo songs and soprano/bass duets (\"Il primo libro delle musiche\") that is a compendium of contemporary styles, ranging from intensely moving, harmonically adventurous laments to joyful sacred songs in Italian and Latin, to witty strophic songs about the joys and perils of romantic love. For most of these songs, Caccini used her own poetry.  In winter 1625 Caccini composed all the music for a 75-minute \"comedy-ballet\" entitled \"La liberazione di Ruggiero dall'isola d'Alcina\" which was performed for the visiting crown prince of Poland, Ladislaus Sigismondo (later Władysław IV). Combining witty parodies of early opera's stock scenes and self-important characters with moments of surprising emotional intensity, the score shows that Caccini had mastered the full range of musico-theatrical devices in her time and that she had had a strong sense of large-scale musical design. \"La liberazione\" so pleased the prince that he had it performed in Warsaw in 1628.  After Caccini's first husband (Giovanni Battista Signorini, with whom she had one daughter, Margherita, in 1622) died in December 1626, she quickly arranged to marry again in October 1627, this time to a melophile nobleman in Lucca, Tommaso Raffaelli. She lived in Raffaelli's Lucchese homes, apparently bearing a son (also Tommaso, in 1628), and having some musical relationship to the Buonvisi family in Lucca, until his death in 1630. Although as the wife of a nobleman she had declined at least one request to perform (in Parma, in 1628), once she was widowed Caccini immediately tried to return to Medici service. Her return delayed by the plagues of 1630–33, by 1634 Caccini was back in Florence with her two children, serving the court as music teacher to her daughter Margherita and to the Medici princesses who lived at or frequently visited the convent of La Crocetta, and composing and performing chamber music and minor entertainments for the women's court. Caccini left Medici service on 8 May 1641, and disappeared from the public record.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Francesca Caccini wrote some or all of the music for at least sixteen staged works. All but \"La liberazione di Ruggiero\" and some excerpts from \"La Tancia\" and \"Il passatempo\" published in the 1618 collection are believed lost. Her surviving scores reveal Caccini to have taken extraordinary care over the notation of her music, focusing special attention on the rhythmic placement of syllables and words, especially within ornaments, on phrasing as indicated by slurs, and on the precise notation of often very long, melodically fluid vocal melismas. Although her music is not especially notable for the expressive dissonances made fashionable by her contemporary Monteverdi, Caccini was a master of dramatic harmonic surprise: in her music it is harmony, more than counterpoint, that most powerfully communicates affect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francesca Caccini (; 18 September 1587 – after 1641) was an Italian composer, singer, lutenist, poet, and music teacher of the early Baroque era. She was also known by the nickname \"La Cecchina\", given to her by the Florentines and probably a diminutive of \"Francesca\". She was the daughter of Giulio Caccini. Her only surviving stage work, \"La liberazione di Ruggiero\", is widely considered the oldest opera by a woman composer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973165}
{"src_title": "Yenisey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Yenisey proper, from the confluence of its source rivers Great Yenisey and Little Yenisey at Kyzyl to its mouth in the Kara Sea, is long. From the source of its tributary Selenga, it is long. It has a drainage basin of. The Yenisey flows through the Russian federal subjects Tuva, Khakassia and Krasnoyarsk Krai. The city of Krasnoyarsk is situated on the Yenisey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries.", "content": "The largest tributaries of the Yenisey are, from source to mouth:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lake Baikal.", "content": "The, partly navigable Upper Angara River feeds into the northern end of Lake Baikal from the Buryat Republic but the largest inflow is from the Selenga which forms a delta on the southeastern side.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "The Yenisey basin (excluding Lake Baikal and lakes of the Khantayka headwaters) is home to 55 native fish species, including two endemics: \"Gobio sibiricus\" (a gobionine cyprinid) and \"\" (a grayling). The grayling is restricted to Khövsgöl Nuur and its tributaries. Most fish found in the Yenisey basin are relatively widespread Euro-Siberian or Siberian species, such as northern pike (\"Esox lucius\"), common roach (\"Rutilus rutilus\"), common dace (\"Leuciscus leuciscus\"), Siberian sculpin (\"Cottus poecilopus\"), European perch (\"Perca fluviatilis\") and Prussian carp (\"Carassius gibelio\"). The basin is also home to many salmonids (trout, whitefish, charr, graylings, taimen and relatives) and the Siberian sturgeon (\"Acipenser baerii\").  The Yenisey valley is habitat for numerous flora and fauna, with Siberian pine and Siberian larch being notable tree species. In prehistoric times Scots pine, \"Pinus sylvestris\", was abundant in the Yenisey valley circa 6000 BC. There are also numerous bird species present in the watershed, including, for example, the hooded crow, \"Corvus cornix\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taimyr reindeer herd.", "content": "The Taimyr reindeer herd, a migrating tundra reindeer (\"R.t. sibiricus\"), the largest reindeer herd in the world, migrated to winter grazing ranges along the Yenisey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Navigation.", "content": "River steamers first came to the Yenesei River in 1864 and were brought in from Holland and England across the icy Kara Sea. One was the SS Nikolai. The SS Thames attempted to explore the river, overwintered in 1876, but was damaged in the ice and eventually wrecked in the river. Success came with the steamers Frazer, Express in 1878, and the next year, Moscow hauling supplies in and wheat out. The Dalman reached Yeneisisk in 1881.  Imperial Russia placed river steamers on the massive river in an attempt to free up communication with land-locked Siberia. One boat was the SS St. Nicholas which took the future Tsar Nicholas II on his voyage to Siberia, and later conveyed Vladimir Lenin to prison.  Engineers attempted to place river steamers on regular service on the river during the building of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The boats were needed to bring in the rails, engines and supplies. Captain Joseph Wiggins sailed the Orestes with rail and parted out river steamers in 1893. However, the sea and river route proved very difficult with several ships lost at sea and on the river. Both the Ob and Yenisey mouths feed into very long inlets, several hundred kilometres in length, which are shallow, ice bound and prone to high winds and thus treacherous for navigation. After the completion of the railway, river traffic reduced only to local service as the Arctic route and long river proved much too indirect a route.  The first recreation team to navigate the Yenisey's entire length, including its violent upper tributary in Mongolia, was an Australian-Canadian effort completed in September 2001. Ben Kozel, Tim Cope, Colin Angus and Remy Quinter were on this team. Both Kozel and Angus wrote books detailing this expedition, and a documentary was produced for National Geographic Television.  A canal inclined plane was built on the river in 1985 at the Krasnoyarsk Dam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Nomadic tribes such as the Ket people and the Yugh people have lived along the banks of the Yenisey since ancient times, and this region is the location of the Yeniseian language family. The Ket, numbering about 1000, are the only survivors today of those who originally lived throughout central southern Siberia near the river banks. Their extinct relatives included the Kotts, Assans, Arins, Baikots and Pumpokols who lived further upriver to the south. The modern Ket lived in the eastern middle areas of the river before being assimilated politically into Russia during the 17th through 19th centuries.  Some of the earliest known evidence of Turkic origins was found in the Yenisey Valley in the form of stelae, stone monoliths and memorial tablets dating from between the 7th and 9th centuries AD, along with some documents that were found in China's Xinjiang region. The written evidence gathered from these sources tells of battles fought between the Turks and the Chinese and other legends. There are also examples of Uyghur poetry, though most have survived only in Chinese translation.  Wheat from the Yenisey was sold by Muslims and Uighurs during inadequate harvests to Bukhara and Soghd during the Tahirid era.  Russians first reached the upper Yenisey in 1605, travelling from the Ob, up the Ket, portaging and then down the Yenisey as far as the Sym.  During World War II, Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire agreed to divide Asia along a line that followed the Yenisey to the border of China and then along the border of China and the Soviet Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pollution.", "content": "Studies have shown that the Yenisey suffers from contamination caused by radioactive discharges from a factory that produced bomb-grade plutonium in the secret city of Krasnoyarsk-26, now known as Zheleznogorsk.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Yenisey (, \"Yeniséy\";, \"Yenisei mörön\"; Buryat: Горлог мүрэн, \"Gorlog müren\"; Tyvan: Улуг-Хем, \"Uluğ-Hem\"; Khakas: Ким суғ, \"Kim suğ\"), also romanised as Yenisei, Enisei, or Jenisej, is the fifth-longest river system in the world, and the largest to drain into the Arctic Ocean. Rising in Mungaragiyn-gol in Mongolia, it follows a northerly course before draining into the Yenisey Gulf in the Kara Sea. The Yenisey divides the Western Siberian Plain in the west from the Central Siberian Plateau to the east; it drains a large part of central Siberia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973166}
{"src_title": "Louis I, Duke of Orléans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Succession in Hungary, Poland and Naples.", "content": "In 1374, Louis was betrothed to Catherine, heir presumptive to the throne of Hungary.  Louis and Catherine were expected to reign either over Hungary or over Poland, as Catherine's father, Louis I of Hungary, had no sons. Catherine's father also planned to leave them his claim to the Crown of Naples and the County of Provence, which were then held by his ailing and childless cousin Joanna I. However, Catherine's death in 1378 ended the marriage negotiations. In 1384, Elizabeth of Bosnia started negotiating with Louis' father about the possibility of Louis marrying her daughter Mary, notwithstanding Mary's engagement to Sigismund of Luxembourg. If Elizabeth had made this proposal in 1378, after Catherine's death, the fact that the French king and the Hungarian king did not recognise the same pope would have presented a problem. However, Elizabeth was desperate in 1384 and was not willing to let the schism stand in the way of the negotiations. Antipope Clement VII issued a dispensation which annulled Mary's betrothal to Sigismund and a proxy marriage between Louis and Mary was celebrated in April 1385. Nonetheless, the marriage was not recognised by the Hungarian noblemen who adhered to Pope Urban VI. Four months after the proxy marriage, Sigismund invaded Hungary and married Mary, which ultimately destroyed Louis' chances to reign as King of Hungary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in court and the Hundred Years' War.", "content": "Louis played an important political role during the Hundred Years' War. In 1392 his elder brother Charles the Mad (who may have suffered from either schizophrenia, porphyria, paranoid schizophrenia or bipolar disorder) experienced the first in a lifelong series of attacks of 'insanity'. It soon became clear that Charles was unable to rule independently. In 1393 a regency council presided over by Queen Isabeau was formed, and Louis gained powerful influence.  Louis disputed the regency and guardianship of the royal children with John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. The enmity between the two was public and a source of political unrest in the already troubled France. Louis had the initial advantage, being the brother rather than the first cousin of the king, but his reputation as a womanizer and the rumour of an affair with the queen consort Isabeau of Bavaria made him extremely unpopular. For the following years, the children of Charles VI were successively kidnapped and recovered by both parties, until the Duke of Burgundy managed to be appointed by royal decree to be the guardian of Louis, the Dauphin and regent of France.  Louis did not give up and took every effort to sabotage John's rule, including squandering the money raised for the relief of Calais, then occupied by the English. After this episode, John and Louis broke into open threats and only the intervention of John of Valois, Duke of Berry and uncle of both men, avoided a civil war.  Louis was reportedly responsible for the deaths of four dancers at a disastrous 1393 masquerade ball that became known as the \"Bal des Ardents\" (Ball of the Burning Men). The four victims were burnt alive when a torch held by Louis came too close to their highly flammable costumes. Two other dancers wearing the same costumes (one of whom was Charles VI himself) narrowly escaped a similar fate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Murder.", "content": "On Sunday 20 November 1407, the contending Dukes exchanged solemn vows of reconciliation before the court of France. But only three days later, Louis was brutally assassinated in the streets of Paris, by the orders of the Duke of Burgundy John the Fearless. Louis was stabbed while mounting his horse by fifteen masked criminals led by Raoulet d'Anquetonville, a servant of the Duke of Burgundy. An attendant was severely wounded.  John was supported by the population of Paris and the University. He could even publicly admit the killing. Rather than deny it, John had the scholar Jean Petit of the Sorbonne deliver a peroration justifying the killing of tyrants.  Louis' murder sparked a bloody feud and civil war between Burgundy and the French royal family which divided France for the next twenty-eight years, ending with the Treaty of Arras in 1435.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In 1389, Louis married Valentina Visconti, daughter of Gian Galeazzo, Duke of Milan. The union produced eight children:  By Mariette d'Enghien, his mistress, Louis had an illegitimate son:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis I of Orléans (13 March 1372 – 23 November 1407) was Duke of Orléans from 1392 to his death. He was also, Duke of Touraine (1386–1392), Count of Valois (1386?–1406) Blois (1397–1407), Angoulême (1404–1407), Périgord (1400–1407) and Soissons (1404–07).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973167}
{"src_title": "Antonio Gades", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flamenco.", "content": "Gades's most notable works included dance adaptations of Prosper Mérimée's \"Carmen\" and Federico García Lorca's \"Blood Wedding\" (\"Bodas de Sangre\"), as well as a feature-length adaptation of Manuel de Falla's 23-minute ballet \"El amor brujo\".  In the 1990s, he toured the world with his show \"Fuenteovejuna\", based on Lope de Vega's play of the same name.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "Gades collaborated with the Spanish director Carlos Saura in the filming of the adaptations of \"Carmen\" and \"Blood Wedding\", which also featured Cristina Hoyos.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ballet.", "content": "Gades co-founded and became the artistic director of the Spanish National Ballet (Ballet Nacional de España) in 1978.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life and death.", "content": "Gades was prominent as a political activist in Alicante, where he proclaimed self-determination for the Catalan nation during the Spanish Transition between the late 1970s and early 1980s. He was a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Peoples of Spain, a Marxist–Leninist organization. In 1987 he was a member of the jury at the 15th Moscow International Film Festival.  He was married to the Spanish actress and singer Marisol for four years; they had three daughters.  He died in Madrid from cancer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "About six weeks before his death, Gades received the \"Order of José Martí\", one of the highest honors of Cuba, from Fidel Castro, in Havana, Cuba.  In 2004 his ashes were interred at the Mausoleum of the Frank País Second Eastern Front, a memorial cemetery in Santiago de Cuba.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antonio Esteve Ródenas or Antonio Gades (14 November 1936 in Elda, Alicante – 20 July 2004 in Madrid, Spain) was a Spanish flamenco dancer and choreographer. He helped to popularise the art form on the international stage. He was father of actress María Esteve and singer Celia Flores, daughters of his ex-partner Marisol, a popular actress and singer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973168}
{"src_title": "Physiognotrace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1783–84 a Frenchman named Gilles-Louis Chrétien invented the \"physionotrace\" to aid in the production of silhouette portraits which became popular during the reign of Louis XVI. Within a few minutes a \"grand trait\" was produced. This life-size drawing was completed by an artist. Chrétien's device used the mechanics of the pantograph to transmit the tracing (via an eyepiece) of the subject's profile silhouette to an engraving needle. Thus it enabled the production of multiple portrait copies. Chrétien's first partner, Edme Quenedey, made a drawing of the instrument in 1788, which now sits in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. When Quenedey started his own business in Germany, Chrétien cooperated with the artist Jean-Baptiste Fouquet, and Jean Simon Fournier. Chrétien's workshop was taken over by Edme Bouchardy.  In 1802, John Isaac Hawkins, who was born in England in 1772 and who lived in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, patented the second official physiognotrace, and partnered with Charles Willson Peale to market it to prospective buyers. John Hawkins's machine differed from Chrétien's in that it traced around the actual face with a small bar connected to a pantograph that reduced the silhouette to less than 2 inches. At that time, many versions of these instruments were being used all over the East Coast in the United States, some of which predated Hawkins's, and which were capable of quickly making machine-made profiles.  By 1802, in response to the popularity of silhouettes, which were invented in the late eighteenth century, Peale introduced the British inventor John Hawkins’s (1772–1855) physiognotrace at his museum in Philadelphia. While the operator traced the sitter’s head, the mechanism impressed the image onto a piece of paper that was often folded to produce multiple portraits. The operator then cut away the center of the paper, leaving a “hollow cut” image. These silhouettes, or profiles as they were also called, could be kept loose, framed, or compiled in albums; a black or blue piece of paper or fabric placed behind the image provided contrast.  Peale sent the watercolor sketch of this instrument to Thomas Jefferson, along with a detailed explanation. The drawing now sits with the Jefferson Papers in the Library of Congress. In April 1805, Mr. Peale wrote his friend, Dr. William Thornton to request a certified copy of a patent of a physiognotrace that was issued to John J. Hawkins. Peale, who had an interest in the instrument and who kept the original in his museum, \"needed the certified copy to bring suit against a person who was making the device without authority. John J. Hawkins had been in England, where he sold patent rights to the polygraph (duplicating device) and drawing machine for 1,600 guineas. Mr. Peale also wrote to Dr. Thornton in May 1805 to record an assignment of the Hawkins invention to Mr. Peale for the City of Philadelphia.\" James Sharples, an itinerant British portrait artist, who also lived for a time in Philadelphia, used a physiognotrace to draw profiles of such famous subjects as George Washington and Dolly and James Madison.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A physiognotrace is an instrument, designed to trace a person's physiognomy to make semi-automated portrait aquatints. It was invented in France in 1783–84 and popular for some decades. The sitter climbed into a wooden frame (1.75m high x 6.5m wide), sat and turned to the side to pose. A pantograph connected to a pencil produced within a few minutes a \"grand trait\", a contour line on a piece of paper. With the help of a second scaling down pantograph, the basic features of the portrait were transferred from this sheet in the form of dotted lines to a copper plate which had previously been prepared with a ground for etching. One week later the sitter received an etched plate and twelve little prints. Not only this device, but also the aquatint prints, are called physionotraces.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973169}
{"src_title": "Sido (rapper)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Paul Würdig was born to a German father and a Sinti mother. Würdig stated in an interview with the radio station \"BigFM\" that he's one-eighth Iranian. At the age of eight years Sido and his younger sister were brought up by their mother in East Berlin in the Prenzlauer Berg neighbourhood. In 1988, the family moved to West Berlin, where they first lived in emergency accommodation in Wedding along with many asylum seekers. They then moved into Märkisches Viertel, a high-rise residential area in the Berlin borough of Reinickendorf. During his childhood and youth, Märkisches Viertel had a high proportion of migrants and low-income families. There he attended the Bettina-von-Arnim-Oberschule and afterwards began an apprenticeship as an educator, which he never completed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1997–2002: Early career.", "content": "Sido has been active in the music business since 1997. Together with his best friend B-Tight he released several EPs and demos under the name Royal TS, which were never officially published, at the Berlin underground hip hop label Royal Bunker. SIDO had been friends with DJ Tomekk for a long time. The two made a dubplate from \"Arschficksong\" and DJ Tomekk played them in clubs all over Germany, presenting SIDO to a wider audience for the first time. Specter was Art Director for DJ Tomekk at that time. At a concert the duo got the attention of Halil, Specter and Spaiche - the later founders of the Aggro Berlin label.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2003–2004: First successes and \"Maske\".", "content": "Sido's solo career began in 2002 with the \"Arschficksong\" (\"Ass-fuck song\") on the sampler \"Aggro Ansage Nr. 1\" and the \"Weihnachtssong\" (\"Christmas song\") on \"Aggro Ansage Nr. 3\".  In 2004, Sido's debut album \"Maske\" was released, reaching #3 on the German charts and selling more than 180,000 copies to date, achieving gold status. The lead single \"Mein Block\" (My block) reached #13 on the German charts, the second single \"Fuffies im Club\" (€50 notes in the club) reached #18 and the third single \"Mama ist stolz\" (Mum is proud) reached #25. The original album was indexed because of the song \"Endlich Wochenende\" (\"Finally weekend\") which, according to the BPjM, glorified the use of drugs. The album was rereleased under the name \"Maske X\" with the song \"Arschficksong\" in replacement of \"Endlich Wochenende\". The song was also published (with the video slightly censored), for the first time as a single.  In September of the same year, he won a prestigious German music award for \"Best Newcomer.\" The best-known song from that album, \"Mein Block\", describes life from a resident's perspective in the Märkisches Viertel, a low-income neighborhood of Berlin, detailing the narcotics trade, alcoholism, problems with police, and poverty in Sido's \"Block\", or building.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2005–2006: Other projects and \"Ich\".", "content": "After this debut album, together with his Label colleagues B-Tight and Fler, he released two label samplers: \"Aggro Ansage Nr. 4\" and \"Aggro Ansage Nr. 5\" (which featured the new label artists Tony D and G-Hot).  In 2005, Sido performed with and represented Berlin in the Bundesvision Song Contest 2005 with the song \"Mama ist stolz\", placing 3rd with 113 points.  Later he collaborated with rapper Harris, as the rap duo \"Deine Lieblings Rapper\" (\"Your favourite rappers\"). In 2005, they released their debut album \"Dein Lieblings Album\" (\"Your favourite album\"), with \"Steh wieder auf\" (get up again) as the only single.  In December 2006, Sido released his second album \"Ich\", which reached #4 in the German album charts. Three singles: \"Strassenjunge\", \"Ein Teil von mir\" and \"Schlechtes Vorbild\" were released. The album achieved gold status.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2007: Sektenmusik.", "content": "2007 Sido and B-Tight (alias A.i.d.S. (=Alles ist die Sekte, engl. \"Everything is the sect\") formed their label Sektenmuzik and a rap-crew named Die Sekte (with Rhymin Simon and Vokalmatador). Tony D joined later.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2008: \"Ich und meine Maske\" and Popstars.", "content": "His third album \"Ich und meine Maske\" was released at the end of May 2008. It reached #1 in the German album charts. The singles \"Augen auf\"/Halt dein Maul\", \"Carmen\", \"Herz\", \"Nein!\" and \"Beweg dein Arsch\" had success in the charts.  On August 2008, Sido joined the seventh season of Popstars, called \"Just 4 Girls\", as a jury member, along with Detlef D! Soost and Loona. Many people were surprised, wondering why Sido, the Aggro-rapper with his provocative and aggressive lyrics, would join a TV show like Popstars? At the end of Popstars the band Queensberry was formed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009: \"Aggro Berlin\".", "content": "On 1 April 2009, the label Aggro Berlin was closed. Sido was then signed by Urban Records, a division of Universal Music Germany.  On October, 30th 2009 Sido released his fourth studio album \"Aggro Berlin\". The lead single \"Hey du!\" ranked #4 in the German Charts. In this song Sido talks about growing up in GDR and his later life in West Berlin. He reported that he kept his East Berlin origins secret for a long time for fear of bullying.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Würdig has a son, whose name and date of birth are not known publicly, but he references him in the songs \"Aggro Gold\", \"Ein Teil von mir\" and \"2010\", amongst others.  He began dating former Nu Pagadi lead singer Doreen Steinert in mid-2005 and on 14 February 2010 they became engaged. But in April 2012 they broke off their engagement. Just a few weeks later, in early May 2012, Würdig confirmed rumors that he had started dating German TV presenter Charlotte Engelhardt. Sido had a second son with Engelhardt in 2013.  Würdig is the second cousin of the German DSDS participant Menowin Fröhlich.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "The perceived rebellious tendencies of Sido's label affiliates B-Tight, Fler, and G-Hot, whose persona emphasize embittered racial or class standpoints, have garnered additional discussion in widely circulated publications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "MTV HipHop Open.", "content": "July 2004, Sido performed live in Stuttgart for the festival MTV HipHop Open. During his performances he insulted Frankfurt rapper Azad's mother saying: \"If we had a bed right here, I'd bang Azad's mother\". A week later Sido and Azad met each other backstage and after a short dispute it escalated into a brawl that involved the artists of Aggro Berlin and Bozz Music. The security and the police arrived to stop the conflict, but Azad and his crew had fled already.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Paul Würdig (born 30 November 1980), better known as Sido, is a German rapper. He interprets his artist name as \"super-intelligentes Drogenopfer\" (super-intelligent drug victim). It used to stand for \"Scheiße in dein Ohr\" (shit into your ear), a line from his track \"Terroarr.\" Sido is currently signed to Urban/Universal Music Group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973170}
{"src_title": "Jean Mouton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born Jean de Hollingue either in 1459 or earlier, but records of his early life, as is so often the case with Renaissance composers, are scant. Most likely he was from the village of Haut-Wignes (now Wirwignes), near Boulogne-sur-Mer, in Samer. He probably began his first job, singer and teacher at the collegiate church in Saint Omer, then moved to Nesle (southeast of Amiens) in 1477, and in 1483 was made \"maître de chapelle\" there. Sometime around this time he became a priest, and in 1500 he was in charge of choirboys at the cathedral in Amiens. In 1501 he was in Grenoble, teaching choirboys, but he left the next year, most likely entering the service of Queen Anne of Brittany, and in 1509 he was granted a position again in Grenoble which he could hold \"in absentia\". Mouton was now the principal composer for the French court. For the remainder of his life he was employed by the French court in one capacity or another, often writing music for state occasions—weddings, coronations, papal elections, births and deaths.  Mouton composed a motet, \"Christus vincit\", for the election of Leo X as pope in 1513. Leo evidently liked Mouton's music, for he rewarded him with the honorary title, \"apostolic notary\" on the occasion of a motet he composed for the pope in 1515; the pope made this award during a meeting in Bologna between the French king and the pope after the Battle of Marignano. This trip to Italy was the first, and probably only trip that Mouton made outside France.  Sometime between 1517 and 1522 the Swiss music theorist Heinrich Glarean met Mouton, and praised him effusively; he wrote that \"everyone had copies of his music.\" Glarean used several examples of Mouton's music in his influential treatise, the \"Dodecachordon\".  Mouton may have been the editor of the illuminated manuscript known as the \"Medici Codex,\" one of the primary manuscript sources of the time, which was a wedding gift for Lorenzo de' Medici.  It is considered to be possible that Mouton was in charge of the elaborate musical festivities by the French at the meeting between François I and Henry VIII at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, based on the similarity to the festivities five years earlier after the Battle of Marignano.  Near the end of his life, Mouton moved to Saint-Quentin. According to the engraving on his tombstone, he became a canon at the collegiate church of Saint-Quentin, taking over for Loyset Compère who died in 1518. Mouton died in Saint-Quentin and is buried there. The headstone, now missing, was engraved as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and influence.", "content": "Mouton was hugely influential both as a composer and as a teacher. Of his music, 9 Magnificat settings, 15 masses, 20 chansons, and over 100 motets survive; since he was a court composer for a king, the survival rate of his music is relatively high for the period, it being widely distributed, copied, and archived. In addition, the famous publisher Ottaviano Petrucci printed an entire volume of Mouton's masses (early in the history of music printing, most publications contained works by multiple composers).  The style of Mouton's music has superficial similarities to that of Josquin des Prez, using paired imitation, canonic techniques, and equal-voiced polyphonic writing: yet Mouton tends to write rhythmically and texturally uniform music compared to Josquin, with all the voices singing, and with relatively little textural contrast. Glarean characterized Mouton's melodic style with the phrase \"his melody flows in a supple thread.\"  Around 1500, Mouton seems to have become more aware of chords and harmonic feeling, probably due to his encounter with Italian music. At any rate this was a period of transition between purely linear thinking in music, in which chords were incidental occurrences as a result of correct usage of intervals, and music in which the harmonic element was foremost (for example in lighter Italian forms such as the frottola, which are homophonic in texture and sometimes have frankly diatonic harmony).  Mouton was a fine musical craftsman throughout his life, highly regarded by his contemporaries and much in demand by his royal patrons. His music was reprinted and continued to attract other composers even later in the 16th century, especially two joyful Christmas motets he wrote, \"Noe, noe psallite noe,\" and \"Quaeramus cum pastoribus\", which several later composers used as the basis for masses.  He also influenced posthumously the outstanding music theorist Gioseffo Zarlino, himself a pupil of Willaert, who referred to him, somewhat enthusiastically as his \"precettore\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean Mouton (c. 1459 – 30 October 1522) was a French composer of the Renaissance. He was famous both for his motets, which are among the most refined of the time, and for being the teacher of Adrian Willaert, one of the founders of the Venetian School.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973171}
{"src_title": "Yellowcard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years and first three albums (1997–2002).", "content": "Yellowcard was formed in 1997 in Jacksonville, Florida, after meeting at Douglas Anderson School of the Arts. The band got its name from a phrase its members used in high school: whenever somebody did something stupid at a party, such as spilling a beer on the carpet, they cited soccer laws and gave the offender a \"yellow card\" for committing a \"party foul\".  Yellowcard's original lineup featured Ben Dobson on vocals, Todd Clary on guitar and vocals, Ben Harper on guitar, Warren Cooke on bass, and Longineu Parsons III on drums. Modern Amusement frontman Ryan Key appeared as a guest, on background vocals, as did violinist Sean Mackin. Key had also been in California band Craig's Brother.  Yellowcard recorded its first EP, \"Midget Tossing\", at the Music Factory in Jacksonville", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Ocean Avenue\" (2003–05).", "content": "Shortly after releasing \"The Underdog EP\", Yellowcard signed with Capitol Records, which was looking to sign pop punk groups at the time. The group began recording its major-label debut in February 2003, and the production of the record, titled \"Ocean Avenue,\" was finished in the spring of 2003. During the recording of the album, Mosely left Yellowcard, devoting his time to his first band, Inspection 12, and finishing the band's album, \"Get Rad\". The members of Yellowcard began the search for a new bass", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Lights and Sounds\" (2005–06).", "content": "After almost two years of touring, Yellowcard took a few months off at the beginning of 2005. Ryan Key and Peter Mosely moved to New York City to write the songs for the group's next album. The rest of the band remained in Los Angeles. The band regrouped in LA in the spring and began pre-production for the follow-up to \"Ocean Avenue\" in March. Recording and production was finished in September, and advertising began for the album. The band had originally announced that the album was expected for August", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Paper Walls\" (2006–08).", "content": "On October 16, 2006, Yellowcard announced via its website that the group was back in the studio recording a new album. Guitarist Ryan Mendez posted on the official Yellowcard message board on October 21, 2006, that three songs had been completed and stated, \"I really think fans of both older and newer Yellowcard are going to be very happy.\" Pre-production began in October 2006, and tracking began in January 2007. Between the months of January and March 2007, studio footage labeled \"Yellowcard Sessions\" regarding the band's progress on making the album was posted on their Myspace, with a new video added every Thursday. In total, 10 videos were posted, with additional footage released on the deluxe CD/DVD edition of \"Paper Walls\". Additionally, in January", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hiatus (2008–10).", "content": "Yellowcard announced in an interview in April 2008 that the group would be going on an \"indefinite hiatus.\" The band's European tour set for 2008 was canceled, and they instead embarked on an acoustic tour in the spring of 2008 before going on hiatus. Among the reasons for the band's hiatus were individual member situations. Longineu Parsons took some time off in the winter to spend time with family and joined a side project band based in Jacksonville, Florida. Sean Mackin got married in 2008 and wanted to take some time off to spend with his family. Ryan Key stated that the members needed some time to figure out their personal lives. The band members were unsure of the hiatus' length, but they assured their fans they planned to return as a group. In May 2008, Yellowcard left Capitol Records and was left unsigned. On June 16, 2009, Capitol released an EP titled \"Deep Cuts\", which consists of four previously released tracks.  The original Yellowcard members, Ben Harper, Warren Cooke, Todd Clary, Longineu Parsons, and Ben Dobson, announced they would be performing tracks from", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reformation and \"When You're Through Thinking, Say Yes\" (2010–12).", "content": "Longineu Parsons mentioned in a YouTube video that Yellowcard had started talking about a new record. Yellowcard's official Facebook page announced on August 1, 2010, that the band had reformed and would be working on a new record. Regarding the direction of the new album, Key said on the Hopeless Records website on August 2, \"We're talking about a ton of different ideas, and we're itching to start as soon as possible. Ultimately, we want to make something the fans will love. What we love to do most is look out from the stage and see people exploding with energy, and I think we keep that in mind while we are writing. We miss being out on the road playing for Yellowcard fans all around the world, and without their support, we wouldn't have a career.\"  Josh Portman,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Southern Air\" and \"Ocean Avenue Acoustic\" (2012–14).", "content": "Yellowcard announced at several shows in November 2011 that the group would be returning to the studio in early 2012 to record a new record. Ryan Key stated that the positive reception from \"When You're Through Thinking, Say Yes\" and the overall positive energy that the band was generating was inspiration to begin writing again. The band had already begun to write material for the new record. On February 10, it was announced that all the new music had been demoed, and Key would start writing lyrics.  On February 3, 2012, Sean O'Donnell posted a message on Yellowcard's website stating he was leaving the band because he was getting married and wanted to focus on his family. On the 17th of the same month, also on the band's website, it was announced", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Longineu Parsons III departure and \"Lift a Sail\" (2014–15).", "content": "On February 12, 2014, it was announced that Yellowcard would be playing the entire 2014 Vans Warped Tour. On March 13, 2014, the band announced that drummer and founding member Longineu Parsons III had left the band. By this point, Parsons had been the only remaining member of the original lineup. On March 20, Yellowcard announced it had left Hopeless Records after three years and three albums to sign a worldwide multi-album deal with Razor & Tie. It was then announced that a new record would be released in the fall of 2014. On March 24, the band announced that Nate Young from Anberlin would be playing drums on the new album and on April 14, further confirmed that he would perform with the band at the Warped Tour.  On August 4, 2014,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eponymous final album and break-up (2016–2017).", "content": "On February 24, 2016, Hopeless Records announced that Yellowcard had rejoined the label and that the band was recording an album, which was to be released in late 2016. Nate Young was confirmed to be playing drums on the new record. On April 6, 2016, Ryan Key confirmed on his Twitter account that the name of one of the new tracks would be \"I'm a Wrecking Ball\", which was written and demoed in 2008 with Ryan Mendez and Dan McLintock. On June 7, 2016, the band announced on Facebook that its new album would be self-titled; \"Yellowcard\" was released on September 30, 2016. On June 24, 2016, the band released the lead single off of the album titled \"Rest In Peace\". On August 17, 2016, the", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Musical style.", "content": "Yellowcard's musical style has mainly been described as pop punk, alternative rock, emo pop, and hardcore punk.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yellowcard was an American rock band that formed in Jacksonville, Florida, in 1997 and were based in Los Angeles beginning in 2000. The band is well known for its singles \"Ocean Avenue\", \"Only One\", and \"Lights and Sounds\". The group's music is distinctive within its genre because it features the prominent use of a violin. The band released ten studio albums, with its most recent and final one, \"Yellowcard\", released on September 30, 2016. The band played its final show on March 25, 2017, at the House of Blues in Anaheim, California.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973172}
{"src_title": "Sanremo Music Festival", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the aftermath of World War II, one of the proposals to revitalize the economy and the reputation of Sanremo was to create an annual music festival to be held in the city. During the summer of 1950, the administrator of the Sanremo Casino, Piero Bussetti, and the conductor of the RAI orchestra, Giulio Razzi, rediscussed the idea, deciding to launch a competition among previously unreleased songs. Officially titled \"Festival della Canzone Italiana\" (\"Italian song festival\"), the first edition of the show was held at the Sanremo Casino on 29, 30, and 31 January 1951. The final round of the competition was broadcast by Rete Rossa, the second most important RAI radio station. Twenty songs took part in the competition, performed by three artists only–Nilla Pizzi, Duo Fasano, and Achille Togliani.  Starting from the third edition of the festival, held in 1953, each song was performed by two different artists with different orchestras and arrangements. Two years later, in 1955, the festival made its first appearance on television, since part of the final night was also broadcast by RAI's channel Programma Nazionale. The last night of the show was also broadcast in Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland.  In 1964, Gianni Ravera, who organized the 14th Sanremo Music Festival, slightly changed the rules of the contest, requiring each song to be performed once by an Italian artist and once by an international singer, who was allowed to perform the song in any language. The same rule was applied in the following year's contest. Between 1967 and 1971, entries were not forced to be interpreted by foreign artists, but double performances were kept. Starting from 1972, each entry was sung by one artist only. The competing artists were split for the first time into \"Big artists\" and \"Young artists\" during the Sanremo Music Festival 1974. The competition had one winner only, but the entries in the \"Young artists\" category had to go through an elimination round, while \"Big artists\" were directly admitted to the final round.  In 1977, the Sanremo Casino, which hosted all the previous editions of the contest, was closed for renovations, therefore the show moved to the Teatro Ariston. The theater later became the usual location for the annual contest, hosting it every year except in 1990, when the show was held at the Nuovo Mercato dei Fiori, also known as Palafiori.  In 1980, pre-recorded backing tracks replaced the orchestra, while playback performances were allowed in 1983 during the final round. In 1984 and 1985, all the artists were forced to perform in playback, while live performances with the orchestra were reintroduced in 1990. During the same years, several other changes were introduced in the contest. In 1982, accredited music journalists decided to create an award to recognise the best song competing in the festival. Starting from 1983, the prize was officially awarded during the event. The critics' prize was later named after Mia Martini, who was the first artist receiving it in 1982 for her entry \"E non finisce mica il cielo\".  Moreover, starting from 1984, the separation between newcomers and established artists was marked, introducing two different competitions with separate winners. In 1989, a third category, the Upcoming Artists Section, was introduced, but it was removed the following year. Only in 1998 were the top three artists in the newcomer section allowed to compete in the main competition. This led to the victory of the debuting Annalisa Minetti, which generated some controversy and led to the reintroduction of completely separate competitions starting from 1999.  The distinction among different categories was abolished again in 2004. The following year, the contest included five different categories—Newcomers, Men, Women, Groups, and Classics. The winner of each category competed for the final victory of the contest. The category Classic was abolished in 2006, while starting from 2007, the festival came back to the rules used in the 1990s, with two completely separate competitions for established artists and newcomers.  In 2009, a new competition, held entirely online, was introduced by the president of the 59th edition of the contest, Paolo Bonolis. Titled \"Sanremofestival.59\", the contest was not held in the following years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable foreign duet singers.", "content": "Notable guest artists of that time were, among others:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hosts.", "content": "The first edition of the Sanremo Music Festival was hosted by Nunzio Filogamo. He also hosted the next three editions of the musical event. In 2003, Pippo Baudo hosted for the eleventh time, matching the record previously held by Mike Bongiorno. He later overtook this record, hosting the Sanremo Music Festival in 2007 and in 2008. The 70th edition is hosted for the first time by Amadeus, who hosted \"I Soliti Ignoti\" on the same network.  Full list of festival hosts:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "In 2009, the song \"Luca era gay\" (\"Luca Was Gay\"), written and sung by Povia, was considered by some gay rights organizations as an anti-gay song. The controversy was also based on the name of the song's character: according to Aurelio Mancuso, president of the Arcigay, the name refers to Luca Tolvi, who claimed that Joseph Nicolosi cured his homosexuality. Povia denied this thesis and claimed that the song is about a man he met on a train, whose real name is Massimiliano. The song won second place at the Festival.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Festival della canzone italiana di Sanremo (\"Italian song festival of Sanremo\") is the most popular Italian song contest and awards ceremony, held annually in the town of Sanremo, Liguria, and consisting of a competition amongst previously unreleased songs. Usually referred to as Festival di Sanremo, or outside Italy as Sanremo Music Festival, it was the inspiration for the Eurovision Song Contest.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973173}
{"src_title": "Jihlava", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The origin of the city's name (Iglau in German) is unclear. Most common theory has it derived from the German word \"Igel\", meaning hedgehog, usually in reference to the city's coat of arms. However, the name was in use since before the symbol of a hedgehog was. It is more likely the city is named for the river that flows through it, the name of which is also unclear in its origin, either being derived from the German word \"Igel\" as the first theory suggests, or from Slavic word \"jehla\", referring to sharp stones in Jihlava river bed. According to legend, silver was mined in Iglau as early as 799. King Ottokar I established a mint, and Iglau was granted extensive privileges already during these early times.  An old Slavic settlement upon a ford was moved to a nearby hill where the mining town was founded (ca. 1240) by king Wenceslaus I. In the Middle Ages the town was inhabited mostly by Germans (mostly from Northern Bavaria and Upper Saxony). Medieval mines surrounded by mining settlements were localized outside the walls of the medieval town (named Staré Hory).  In the era of the Hussite Wars, Jihlava remained a Catholic stronghold and managed to resist a number of sieges. Later at Jihlava, on 5 July 1436, a treaty was made with the Hussites, whereby the emperor Sigismund was acknowledged king of Bohemia. A marble relief near the town marks the spot where Ferdinand I, in 1527, swore fidelity to the Bohemian estates.  During the Thirty Years' War Jihlava was twice captured by the Swedes. In 1742, it fell into the hands of the Prussians, and in December 1805 the Bavarians under Wrede were defeated near the town. In 1860, it became the childhood home of Bohemian-Austrian composer Gustav Mahler, who retained his ties to the town until the death of both of his parents in 1889.  Until World War I the town was an important Austro-Hungarian Army military center. In 1914, the First, Second and Third Battalions of the Moravian Infantry Regiment No. 81 (\"Bataillon des Mährischen Infanterie-Regiments Nummer. 81\") and the Second Battalion of the Landwehr infantry regiment number 14 (\"II. Bataillon des Landwehr-Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 14\") were the garrison troops.  After World War I the town constituted a German language island (\"Sprachinsel\") within Slavic speaking Moravia. This affected local politics, as it remained the center of the second largest German-speaking enclave in the republic of Czechoslovakia (after Schönhengstgau/Hřebečsko). After the Czechoslovak Republic was proclaimed on 28 October 1918, the indigenous Germans of Bohemia and Moravia, claiming the right to self-determination according to the 10th of President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, demanded that their homeland areas remain with the new Austrian State. The Volksdeutsche of Iglau relied on peaceful opposition to the Czech military occupation of their region, a process that started on 31 October 1918 and was completed on 28 January 1919. Unsuccessful in getting their right to self-determination recognized and incorporated into the new Czechoslovakian state, many of the indigenous Germans instead took to more nationalistic politics. Thereafter extremist political figures like Hans Krebs, editor of the \"Iglauer Volkswehr\" newspaper, became prominent with the rise of Nazism and the Nazi occupation (1939–1945).  Until the end of World War II, Iglau was the center of a distinctive regional folk culture reflecting hundreds of years of local customs. The local dialect of German was a unique branch of \"Mitteldeutsch\". Musicians often used homemade instruments and original groups of four fiddles (\"Vierergruppen Fiedeln\") and \"Ploschperment\". Typical folk dances were the \"Hatschou\", \"Tuschen\" and \"Radln\". Peasant women wore old \"\"pairische\" Scharkaröckchen\" costumes with shiny dark skirts and big red cloths.  Most of Jihlava's Jewish population was deported and killed due to the Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia.  After the end of World War II, and following the Beneš decrees, the German speakers were evicted; it is estimated that hundreds died on the arduous trek to Austria. The town was repopulated with Czech and Moravian settlers favored by the new Communist regime. After 1951, the town was the site of several Communist show trials, which were directed against the influence of the Roman Catholic Church on the rural population. In the processes eleven death sentences were passed and 111 years of prison sentences imposed. All the convicted persons were rehabilitated after the Velvet Revolution.  In protest against the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1969 Evžen Plocek set himself on fire in the town marketplace in emulation of others in Prague. Today there is a memorial plaque to him.  Since the collapse of Communism in the 1990s the share of employment in agriculture has steadily declined. The industrial sector of the town now employs 65 percent of all workers. In 2004, the Jihlava Polytechnic was set up and now has about 2,600 students.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Jihlava is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jihlava (; ) is a city in the Czech Republic. Jihlava is the capital of the Vysočina Region, situated on the Jihlava river (German \"Igel\") on the historical border between Moravia and Bohemia, and is the oldest mining town in the Czech Republic, approximately 50 years older than Kutná Hora.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973174}
{"src_title": "Climbing harness", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The invention of the climbing harness has been attributed to Jeanne Immink, a Dutch climber in the late nineteenth century. Some of the first climbing harnesses were devised in the U.K. in the early 1960s by Alan Waterhouse, Paul Seddon and Tony Howard who went on to form the Troll climbing equipment manufacturers. A harness designed by British climber Don Whillans was made by Troll for the 1970 Annapurna South Face Expedition. It went into mass production shortly afterwards and soon became popular worldwide.  The sit or seat harness was invented in the 1960s by Yosemite climbers. The first innovation was the Swami Belt, which was multiple loops of webbing around the waist. Then quickly came the Swami Seat, a sit harness tied from webbing, including leg loops and an integrated waist loop. Once the seat/sit harness came to be, suppliers of climbing gear started making them with stitching replacing the knots. The Swami Seat was revealed to the climbing world thru an article in Summit Magazine in the mid-60s. Sewn harnesses came later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "A sit harness consists of a waist belt and two leg loops which are normally connected in the front of the hips through a permanent webbing loop called a \"belay loop\". Belay loops are extremely strong, but nonetheless still a single point of failure that caused at least one notorious death. For rock climbing, the rope typically goes through the two \"tie-in loops\" that are above and below the \"belay loop\". The figure-eight knot is mostly used for rock climbing. These are the most commonly used harnesses for recreational activities such as abseiling and rock climbing, as they afford a wide range of movement while still maintaining a high level of safety. Ensuring the harness fits correctly is key to avoiding pain in the upper thigh area caused by the leg loops being too tight around the upper legs and groin area, while at the same time ensuring that a climber flipped over in a fall does not slip out. The waist belt should be tightened snugly. Leg loops should not be particularly tight, but for obvious reasons neither should they have enough slack to allow extraneous parts of a male climber to get caught inside them.  A chest harness is worn around the shoulders, usually with a sit harness so as to provide an additional attachment point. This attachment point allows for better balance in some situations such as when carrying a heavy pack (as the centre of mass is below the connection to the rope) and when the person in the harness may be unable to maintain an upright position (due to injury or other influences).  A full-body harness is the combination of a sit harness and a chest harness which are permanently or semi-permanently connected to each other. This kind of harness normally offers a wide range of attachment points. It is most commonly used in industrial/rescue situations, and also commonly used by small children instead of a sit harness which is easier to slip out of.  In a study conducted, researchers came to a conclusion that there was no statistically significant evidence revealing a pattern between harness type and severity of climbing accidents. Direct rock contact in rock climbing was the main reason for injury, not the type of climbing harness used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Materials.", "content": "Most harnesses are generally made from webbing. This webbing is often nylon webbing as polyester webbing doesn't hold triglides and d-rings as well, and it's easier to untie nylon webbing. Specifically, Nylon 66 is the most common type of nylon used for this webbing. The webbing is often also tubular webbing, instead of flat webbing. Within a single harness, there are many different weaves of nylon based on the intended function of the specific part of the harness. These weaves sometimes include polyester. The buckles are typically made of anodized aluminum. For the leg loops and waist belt, companies use various methods to make the harness comfortable. The most common method is cushioning the harness with foam and mesh. However, for more lightweight harnesses, some companies use wider waist belts and unidirectional fibers going along the waist belt to distribute the weight evenly and minimize pressure points. Harness designers use increasingly advanced materials such as Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE), aramid fibers (Kevlar, Vectran, etc.), and sailcloth (e.g. the Black Diamond Vision harness) in order to make harnesses lighter and more comfortable. Different harnesses use different materials for these fibers across the leg loops and waist belt.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A climbing harness is an item of climbing equipment for rock-climbing, abseiling, or other activities requiring the use of ropes to provide access or safety such as industrial rope access, working at heights, etc. A harness secures a person to a rope or an anchor point.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973175}
{"src_title": "SC Paderborn 07", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fusion into SC Paderborn.", "content": "For most of the twentieth century, Paderborn had two football clubs: TuS Schloss Neuhaus and FC Paderborn, who remained rivals until the 1980s. After Neuhaus had been promoted to the 2. Bundesliga and finished last in 1983, this set-up had reached its athletic and financial ceiling. Thus, in 1985, the two clubs merged into \"TuS Paderborn/Neuhaus\". In 1997, the club adopted its current identity by assuming the name \"SC Paderborn 07\", named after TuS Neuhaus' founding date 1907.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beginnings in amateur football (1985-2005).", "content": "During most of the 1980s, the recently merged club competed in the third-tier Oberliga Westfalen, where they counted among the leading teams but never achieved promotion. In 1994, Paderborn won the league and thereby qualified for the promotion playoffs. The team lost to Eintracht Braunschweig and Fortuna Düsseldorf but secured a place in the newly formed third-tier of the German football pyramid, the Regionalliga West/Südwest. Except for a brief stint in the fourth tier, Paderborn enjoyed moderate success with regular trips to the DFB Pokal.  During one of these, in 2004/5, the club reached the round of 16 beating MSV Duisburg and Bundesliga-side HSV on the way. It later emerged, that latter match had been affected by game manipulation; referee Robert Hoyzer had received a bribe to let Paderborn win the game. The incident remains the most significant betting scandal in the history of German football.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consolidation in the 2.Bundesliga (2005-15).", "content": "Paderborn returned to the 2. Bundesliga for the first time in nearly thirty years at the end of the same season. The team's advance into professional football brought with it a professionalisation of its structures and in 2005 construction began on a new 15,000-seat stadium which replaced the dated Hermann-Löns-Stadion. All of this helped to establish the club as a regular component of Germany's professional football landscape. This process culminated in the club's first promotion to the Bundesliga after the 2013/14 season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bundesliga and years of turbulence (2015-).", "content": "Paderborn's foray into top-tier football turned out to be a brief one: after a decent first half of the season, the team's play deteriorated and resulted in direct relegation in 2015. There followed a precipitous fall, as the club plummeted to 18th in the 3.Liga in 2017. This result would have led to relegation to the non-professional Regionalliga West, had TSV 1860 Munich not failed to obtain the licence necessary to continue professional play. Thus, Munich was forced to move to the Regionalliga Bayern which allowed Paderborn to avoid its third consecutive relegation. Having been saved narrowly, the club surprisingly finished second in the 2017/18 season and returned to the 2. Bundesliga. In 2019, a remarkable turn of events, the newly promoted side managed another top-two finish, which returned Paderborn to the Bundesliga after years of turbulence. The 2019-20 season, however, saw the club struggle against Bundesliga competition, which led to their relegation back to the second tier in June 2020.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sport-Club Paderborn 07 e.V., commonly known as simply SC Paderborn 07 () or SC Paderborn, is a German association football club based in Paderborn, North Rhine-Westphalia. The club has enjoyed its greatest successes since the turn of the millennium, becoming a fixture in the 2. Bundesliga before finally earning promotion to the Bundesliga in the 2013–14 season. They suffered a hasty fall from grace, however, being relegated to the 2. Bundesliga after only a season in the top division, and then again to the 3. Liga the season after. The club returned to 2. Bundesliga, reaching 2nd place in the 2018–19 season and was promoted to the Bundesliga.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973176}
{"src_title": "Cirsium vulgare", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a tall biennial or short-lived monocarpic thistle, forming a rosette of leaves and a taproot up to 70 cm long in the first year, and a flowering stem 1–1.5 m tall in the second (rarely third or fourth) year. It sometimes will function as an annual, flowering in the first year. The stem is winged, with numerous longitudinal spine-tipped wings along its full length. The leaves are stoutly spined, grey-green, deeply lobed; the basal leaves up to 15–25 cm long, with smaller leaves on the upper part of the flower stem; the leaf lobes are spear-shaped (from which the English name derives). The inflorescence is 2.5–5 cm diameter, pink-purple, with all the florets of similar form (no division into disc and ray florets). The seeds are 5 mm long, with a downy pappus, which assists in wind dispersal. As in other species of \"Cirsium\" (but unlike species in the related genus \"Carduus\"), the pappus hairs are feathery with fine side hairs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Spear thistle is often a ruderal species, colonising bare disturbed ground, but also persists well on heavily grazed land as it is unpalatable to most grazing animals. Nitrogen-rich soils help increase its proliferation. The flowers are a rich nectar source used by numerous pollinating insects, including honey bees, wool-carder bees, and many butterflies. The seeds are eaten by goldfinches, linnets and greenfinches. The seeds are dispersed by wind, mud, water, and possibly also by ants; they do not show significant long-term dormancy, most germinating soon after dispersal and only a few lasting up to four years in the soil seed bank. Seed is also often spread by human activity such as hay bales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Cirsium vulgare\" as a weed.", "content": "Spear thistle is designated an \"injurious weed\" under the UK Weeds Act 1959, and a noxious weed in Australia and in nine US states. Spread is only by seed, not by root fragments as in the related creeping thistle \"C. arvense\". It is best cleared from land by hoeing and deep cutting of the taproot before seeds mature; regular cultivation also prevents its establishment.  Despite this label, the plant has beneficial qualities beyond its very high nectar production. It produces seeds eaten by the American goldfinch, down from seed pods that is used by those birds for nesting material, and serves as a host plant for the Painted lady butterfly. The monarch butterfly and other larger-sized butterflies can feed easily from the flowers due to their large size. Some farmers, due to its usefulness as part of the natural food chain, may find it useful to allow it to grow in beetle banks. The supports for pollinators and pest-eating birds could outweigh its drawbacks. In areas where it does not form monocultures it may also be welcome as a part of a meadow landscape.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other names.", "content": "Other English names include bull thistle, Scots, Scottish, or Scotch thistle, and common thistle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The stems can be peeled and then steamed or boiled. The tap roots can be eaten raw or cooked, but are only palatable on young thistles that have not yet flowered. The dried florets steeped in water are used in rural Italy for curdling goats' milk in preparation for making cheese.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cirsium vulgare, the spear thistle, bull thistle, or common thistle, is a species of the Asteraceae genus \"Cirsium\", native throughout most of Europe (north to 66°N, locally 68°N), Western Asia (east to the Yenisei Valley), and northwestern Africa (Atlas Mountains). It is also naturalised in North America, Africa, and Australia and is an invasive weed in some areas. It is the national flower of Scotland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973177}
{"src_title": "Ferdinand Schörner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Schörner was born on 12 June 1892 in Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria, German Empire. A Bavarian Army veteran of World War I, he was awarded the Pour le Mérite military order as a lieutenant when he took part in the Battle of Caporetto, which shattered the Italian lines in autumn 1917. Schörner served as a staff officer and instructor between the two wars. In 1923 he was adjutant to General Otto von Lossow, the commander of \"Wehrkreis VII\" (military district) in Munich and participated in the defeat of the Beer Hall Putsch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Schörner commanded the 98th Mountain Regiment in the invasion of Poland in 1939. During the 1941 Balkans campaign, he commanded the German 6th Mountain Division and earned the Knight's Cross for his role in breaching the Metaxas Line. With this division, Schörner took part in Operation Barbarossa in June 1941. The 6th \"Gebirgs\" Division was assigned to the Arctic sectors in the Eastern Front. In 1942 as a \"General der Gebirgstruppe\" he took command of the XIX Mountain Corps, part of the German Army in Finland. With this command he participated in the failed attack on Murmansk and the stalemate war that followed. Schörner's task was to keep the Pechenga Nickel Works in German hands. When the Soviets opened an offensive against the Arctic sector, the division took part in the fighting. In January 1942, Schörner was promoted to the rank of \"Generalleutnant\", commanding the Mountain Corps Norway.  He later commanded the XXXX Panzer Corps on the Eastern Front from November 1943 to January 1944. In March 1944 he was made commander of Army Group A, and in May commander of Army Group South Ukraine. After stating that the Crimean port of Sevastopol could be held for a long time even if Crimea fell, he changed his mind and against Hitler's wishes, evacuated the Black Sea port. This retreat occurred too late and the German–Romanian 17th Army that was holding Crimea suffered severe losses, with many men killed or captured while waiting on the piers to be evacuated. During the late spring of 1944, Schörner oversaw the retreat from the Dniester River in Romania. Schörner was promoted to the rank of \"Generaloberst\" in April 1944. In July he became commander of Army Group North, which was later renamed Army Group Courland, where he stayed until January 1945 when he was made commander of Army Group Centre, defending Czechoslovakia and the upper reaches of the River Oder. He became a favorite of high-level Nazi leaders such as Joseph Goebbels, whose diary entries from March and April 1945 have many words of praise for Schörner and his methods. On 4 April 1945, Schörner was promoted to field marshal and was named as the new Commander-in-Chief of the German Army High Command (\"OKH\") in Hitler's last testament. He nominally served in this post until the surrender of the Third Reich on 8 May 1945 but continued to command his army group, since no staff was available to him. He did not have any discernible influence in the final days of the Reich.  On 7 May, the day General Alfred Jodl, Chief-of-Staff of the \"OKW\" was negotiating the surrender of all German forces at SHAEF, the last the \"OKW\" had heard from Schörner was on 2 May. He had reported he intended to fight his way west and surrender his army group to the Americans. On 8 May, \"OKW\" colonel Wilhelm Meyer-Detring was escorted through the American lines to contact Schörner. The colonel reported that Schörner had ordered his operational command to observe the surrender but he could not guarantee that he would be obeyed everywhere. Schörner ordered a continuation of fighting against Red Army and the Czech insurgents of the Prague uprising. Later that day, Schörner deserted and flew to Austria, where he was arrested by the Americans on 18 May. Elements of Army Group Centre continued to resist the overwhelming force of the Red Army liberating Czechoslovakia during the final Prague Offensive. Units of Army Group Centre, the last big German units to surrender, capitulated on 11 May 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war trials and convictions.", "content": "Schörner was arrested in August 1951 by the Soviet authorities on charges of war crimes. In February 1952 the Military Board of the Soviet Supreme Court sentenced him to 25 years of imprisonment. A decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet in April 1952 reduced this sentence to 12 and a half years. A decree of December 1954 allowed him to be handed over to authorities of East Germany, which allowed him to leave for West Germany in 1958. There he was arrested and charged with executions of German Army soldiers accused of desertion, found guilty and sentenced to four and a half years' jail, which he served. Because his Pour le Mérite had not been rescinded he was able to collect a pension of DM 25 per month. He was released at August 4, 1960 and lived in obscurity in Munich until his death in 1973. In the late 1960s he gave a lengthy interview to Italian historian Mario Silvestri on his role and actions during the Austro-German victory at the Battle of Caporetto in World War I rather than on his World War II service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assessment.", "content": "German veterans particularly criticized Schörner for a 1945 order that all soldiers found behind the front lines, who did not possess written orders to be there, were to be court-martialled on the spot and hanged if found guilty of desertion. This is mentioned in the writings of Siegfried Knappe, Hans von Luck and Joseph Goebbels. \"Deserters get no mercy from him\" Goebbels wrote of Schörner on 11 March 1945. \"They are hanged from the nearest tree with a placard round their necks saying 'I am a deserter. I have declined to defend German women and children and therefore I have been hanged'\". (\"\"Ich bin ein Deserteur. Ich habe mich geweigert, deutsche Frauen und Kinder zu beschützen und bin deshalb aufgehängt worden.\"\") Goebbels continued with, \"Naturally such methods are effective. Every man in Schörner's area knows that he may die at the front but will inevitably die in the rear\".  Gottlob Bidermann, a German infantry officer who served in Schörner's command in 1944–45, reported in his memoirs that the General was despised by officers and men alike.  Schörner was said to be devoted to Hitler, a view that is seen as confirmed by Hitler's appointment of Schörner as his replacement as Commander-in-Chief of the German Army on his suicide in the Last will and testament of Adolf Hitler. Schörner did not hesitate to second Hitler's daydreams in the last weeks of the war, agreeing that the Red Army's main objective would be Prague instead of Berlin (in itself a colossal strategic blunder) and so leading him to weaken the critically thin defense lines in front of Berlin. Historian Ian Kershaw described him in 2011 (\"BBC History Magazine\") as \"extraordinarily brutal\".  In \"\" (2012) Kershaw describes Schörner as \"a fanatical (Nazi) loyalist\", an indication of this being that he had served for a brief spell in March 1944 as Chief of the NS Leadership Staff of the Army. The latter was responsible for coordinating relations between the military and the Nazi Party.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferdinand Schörner (12 June 1892 – 2 July 1973) was a German army officer and Nazi war criminal. He was a general and later Field Marshal in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during World War II. He commanded several army groups and was the last Commander-in-chief of the German Army.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973178}
{"src_title": "Intermediate representation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Intermediate language.", "content": "An intermediate language is the language of an abstract machine designed to aid in the analysis of computer programs. The term comes from their use in compilers, where the source code of a program is translated into a form more suitable for code-improving transformations before being used to generate object or machine code for a target machine. The design of an intermediate language typically differs from that of a practical machine language in three fundamental ways:  A popular format for intermediate languages is three-address code.  The term is also used to refer to languages used as intermediates by some high-level programming languages which do not output object or machine code themselves, but output the intermediate language only. This intermediate language is submitted to a compiler for such language, which then outputs finished object or machine code. This is usually done to ease the process of optimization or to increase portability by using an intermediate language that has compilers for many processors and operating systems, such as C. Languages used for this fall in complexity between high-level languages and low-level languages, such as assembly languages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Languages.", "content": "Though not explicitly designed as an intermediate language, C's nature as an abstraction of assembly and its ubiquity as the de facto system language in Unix-like and other operating systems has made it a popular intermediate language: Eiffel, Sather, Esterel, some dialects of Lisp (Lush, Gambit), Haskell (Glasgow Haskell Compiler), Squeak's Smalltalk-subset Slang, Cython, Seed7, SystemTap, Vala, and others make use of C as an intermediate language. Variants of C have been designed to provide C's features as a portable assembly language, including C-- and the C Intermediate Language.  Any language targeting a virtual machine or p-code machine can be considered an intermediate language:  The GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) uses several intermediate languages internally to simplify portability and cross-compilation. Among these languages are  GCC supports generating these IRs, as a final target:  The LLVM compiler framework is based on the LLVM IR intermediate language, of which the compact, binary serialized representation is also referred to as \"bitcode\" and has been productized by Apple. Like GIMPLE Bytecode, LLVM Bitcode is useful in link-time optimization. Like GCC, LLVM also targets some IRs meant for direct distribution, including Google's PNaCl IR and SPIR.  The ILOC intermediate language is used in classes on compiler design as a simple target language.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "Static analysis tools often use an intermediate representation. For instance, radare2 is a toolbox for binary files analysis and reverse-engineering. It uses the intermediate languages ESIL et REIL to analyze binary files.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An intermediate representation (IR) is the data structure or code used internally by a compiler or virtual machine to represent source code. An IR is designed to be conducive for further processing, such as optimization and translation. A \"good\" IR must be \"accurate\" – capable of representing the source code without loss of information – and \"independent\" of any particular source or target language. An IR may take one of several forms: an in-memory data structure, or a special tuple- or stack-based code readable by the program. In the latter case it is also called an \"intermediate language\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973179}
{"src_title": "Kehlsteinhaus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "The Kehlsteinhaus sits on a ridge atop the Kehlstein, a subpeak of the Hoher Göll that rises above the town of Berchtesgaden. It was commissioned by Martin Bormann in the summer of 1937. Paid for by the Nazi Party, it was completed in 13 months. Twelve workers died during its construction.  Hitler first visited on September 16, 1938, and returned to inaugurate it on April 20, 1939, his 50th birthday — though it was not intended as a birthday gift.  A wide approach road climbs over. Costing RM 30 million to build (about 150 million inflation-adjusted euros in 2007), it includes five tunnels and one hairpin turn. From a large car park, a entry tunnel leads to an ornate elevator that ascends the final to the building. The inside of the large elevator is surfaced with polished brass, Venetian mirrors, and green leather. The building's main reception room is dominated by a fireplace of red Italian marble presented by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, which was damaged by Allied soldiers chipping off pieces to take home as souvenirs. The building had a completely electric appliance kitchen, which was unusual in 1937, but was never used to cook meals; instead meals were prepared in town and taken to the kitchen on the mountain top to be reheated. The building also has heated floors, with heating required for at least two days before visitors arrived.  Much of the furniture was designed by Paul László.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "There are two ways to approach and enter the building: the road and the Kehlsteinhaus elevator. Hitler did not trust the elevator, continually expressed his reservations of its safety, and disliked using it; his biggest fear was that the elevator's winch mechanism on the roof would attract a lightning strike. (Bormann took great pains to never mention the two serious lightning strikes that occurred during construction.)  The Kehlsteinhaus lies several miles directly above the Berghof. In a rare diplomatic engagement, Hitler received departing French ambassador André François-Poncet on October 18, 1938, here. A wedding reception for Eva Braun's sister Gretl was held there following her marriage to Hermann Fegelein on June 3, 1944. While Hitler more often than not left the entertaining duties to others, he believed the house presented an excellent opportunity to entertain important and impressionable guests.  Referred to as the \"D-Haus\", short for \"Diplomatic Reception Haus\", the Kehlsteinhaus is often conflated with the tea house on Mooslahnerkopf hill near the Berghof, Hitler's home, which Hitler walked to daily after lunch. The teahouse was demolished by the Bavarian government after the war, due to its connection to Hitler.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Allied capture.", "content": "The Kehlsteinhaus was an aiming point for the 25 April 1945 Bombing of Obersalzberg. This was a Royal Air Force bombing raid conducted by No. 1, No. 5, and No. 8 Group and No. 617 Squadron. The small house proved an elusive target for the force of 359 Avro Lancasters and 16 de Havilland Mosquitoes, which bombed and severely damaged the Berghof area instead.  It is uncertain which Allied military unit was the first to reach the Kehlsteinhaus. The matter is compounded by popular confusion of it and the town of Berchtesgaden taken on May 4 by forward elements of the 7th Infantry Regiment of the 3rd Infantry Division of XV Corps of the U.S. Seventh Army of the Sixth Army Group.  Reputedly, members of the 7th went as far as the elevator to the Kehlsteinhaus, with at least one person claiming that he and a partner continued on to the top. In a Library of Congress interview and more recent interviews, Herman Louis Finnell of the 3rd Infantry Division said that his regiment entered the Berghof, not the Kehlsteinhaus.  However, the 101st Airborne maintains it was first both to Berchtesgaden and the Kehlsteinhaus. Also, elements of the French 2nd Armored Division, Laurent Touyeras, Georges Buis, and Paul Répiton-Préneuf, were present on the night of May 4 to 5, and took several photographs before leaving on May 10 at the request of U.S. command. and so say the numerous testimonies of the Spanish soldiers who went along with them.  Undamaged in the April 25 bombing raid, the Kehlsteinhaus was subsequently used by the Allies as a military command post until 1960, when it was handed back to the State of Bavaria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "Today the building is owned by a charitable trust, and serves as a restaurant offering indoor dining and an outdoor beer garden. It is a popular tourist attraction to those who are attracted by the historical significance of the \"Eagle's Nest\". The road has been closed to private vehicles since 1952 because it is too dangerous, but the house can be reached on foot (in two hours) from Obersalzberg, or by bus from the Documentation Center there. The Documentation Centre currently directs visitors to the coach station where tickets are purchased. The bus ticket is ostensibly an entry ticket as it permits the holder entry to the building's elevator. The buses have special modifications to take on a slight angle, as the steep road leading to the peak is too steep for regular vehicles. The Kehlsteinhaus itself does not mention much about its past, except in the photos displayed and described along the wall of the sun terrace that documents its pre-construction condition until now.  Informal tours of the Kehlsteinhaus are available to be booked through the official website. Due to concern about neo-Nazis and post-war Nazi sympathizers no external guides are permitted to conduct tours.  The lower rooms are not part of the restaurant but can be visited with a guide. They offer views of the building's past through plate-glass windows. Graffiti left by Allied troops is still clearly visible in the surrounding woodwork. The red Italian marble fireplace remains damaged by Allied souvenir hunters, though this was later halted by signage posted that the building was U.S. government property, and damage to it was cause for disciplinary action. Hitler's small study is now a storeroom for the cafeteria.  A trail leads above the Kehlsteinhaus towards the Mannlgrat ridge reaching from the Kehlstein to the summit of the Hoher Göll. The route, which is served by a Klettersteig, is regarded as the easiest to the top.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kehlsteinhaus (known as the Eagle's Nest in English-speaking countries) is a Third Reich-era building erected atop the summit of the Kehlstein, a rocky outcrop that rises above the Obersalzberg near the town of Berchtesgaden. It was used exclusively by members of the Nazi Party for government and social meetings. It was visited on 14 documented instances by Adolf Hitler, who disliked the location due to his fear of heights, the risk of bad weather, and the thin mountain air. Today it is open seasonally as a restaurant, beer garden, and tourist site.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973180}
{"src_title": "Maurice Bavaud", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Bavaud was a Catholic theology student, attending the Saint Ilan Seminary, Saint-Brieuc, Brittany, and a member of an anti-communist student group in France called \"Compagnie du Mystère\". The group's leader, Marcel Gerbohay, had great influence over Bavaud. Gerbohay claimed that he was a member of the Romanov Dynasty, and convinced Bavaud that when communism was destroyed, the Romanovs would once again rule Russia, in the person of Gerbohay. Bavaud believed what Gerbohay had told him, became obsessed with the idea that killing Hitler would help the plans to materialise, and finally decided to carry out the assassination himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attempts.", "content": "On October 9, 1938, Bavaud travelled from Brittany to Baden-Baden, then on to Basel, where he bought a Schmeisser 6.35 mm (.25 ACP) semi-automatic pistol. In Berlin, a policeman, Karl Deckert, overheard Bavaud saying that he would like to meet Hitler personally. Deckert advised Bavaud that a private audience could be arranged if Bavaud could obtain a letter of introduction from a suitable foreign VIP. Deckert advised him to travel to Munich for the anniversary of the 1923 \"Beer Hall Putsch\", which Hitler attended every year. Bavaud followed those instructions by buying a ticket for a seat on the reviewing stand by posing as a Swiss reporter, intending to shoot Hitler as he passed during the parade. Bavaud abandoned this attempt when, on November 9, Hitler turned out to be marching in the company of other Nazi leaders whom Bavaud did not want to injure.  Bavaud next purchased expensive stationery and forged a letter of introduction in the name of the French nationalist leader Pierre Taittinger, which claimed that Bavaud had a second letter for Hitler's eyes only. He travelled to Berchtesgaden in the belief that Hitler had returned there, only to find that Hitler was still in Munich. When Bavaud returned to Munich, he discovered that Hitler was just leaving for Berchtesgaden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arrest and trial.", "content": "Having exhausted his money, Bavaud stowed away on a train to Paris, where he was discovered by a conductor who turned him over to the police. He was interrogated by the Gestapo and admitted his plans to assassinate Hitler.  Bavaud was tried by the Volksgerichtshof on December 18, 1939, naming as his motives that he considered Hitler a danger to humanity in general, to Swiss independence, and to Catholicism in Germany. Swiss diplomacy made no effort to save Bavaud. Hans Frölicher, the Swiss ambassador to Germany, even publicly condemned Bavaud's assassination attempt. An offer from the Germans to exchange Bavaud for a German spy was turned down, and Bavaud was sentenced to death. He was executed by guillotine in the Berlin-Plötzensee prison on the morning of May 14, 1941.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Bavaud's father Alfred attempted to rehabilitate his son's name and reputation, resulting in a court decision on December 12, 1955 reverting the death sentence but posthumously condemning Bavaud to a five-year sentence, arguing that Hitler's life was protected by law just as any other life. A second verdict of 1956 reverted the prison sentence and Germany paid Bavaud's family the sum of CHF 40,000 in reparation.  In 1976, Rolf Hochhuth idealized Bavaud as a \"new William Tell\", while in 1980 Klaus Urner relativized Hochhuth's heroic picture, analyzing psychological aspects of Bavaud's motivation. In 1989 and again in 1998, the Swiss Federal Council admitted that the Swiss authorities did not make a sufficient effort to save Bavaud. Finally, in 2008, the Swiss government honored the life and effort of Bavaud. In 2011, a small monument was erected in Hauterive near Neuchâtel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maurice Bavaud (January 15, 1916 in Neuchâtel – May 14, 1941 in Berlin-Plötzensee) was a Swiss theology student who in 1938 attempted to assassinate Adolf Hitler.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973181}
{"src_title": "European beewolf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Identification.", "content": "The European beewolf is a spectacular species of solitary wasp with bold yellow and black markings on the abdomen, males have trident-shaped markings between their bluish eyes while the larger females have a reddish stripe behind the eyes and a pale face.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The European beewolf is found mainly in areas of open sandy ground in areas such as lowland heathland and coastal dunes. They are infrequently found in clay areas and in Britain have been recorded digging burrows in coal dust and ash and have been found on spoil heaps from coal mining.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies and distribution.", "content": "The European beewolf has a wide distribution in the Afrotropical and Western Palearctic zoogeographical regions from Scandinavia to South Africa. In Europe its distribution has been moving northwards as summers have longer periods of warm weather.  There are currently five recognised subspecies:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "In the more northerly parts of its distribution the European beewolf is univoltine and the flight period is between mid-July and September. In the warmer area in which it occurs there can be more than one generation per year, for example in central Europe there may be two broods in the summer.  Female European beewolves excavate their burrows in sandy soil or in vertical soil faces in open sunny places and these can be up to a metre in length with no less than three and as many as 34 short side tunnels at the end, each of which contains a brood cell. The material displaced by the burrowing wasp is flicked behind it as it excavates the nest. They nest in aggregations which may have as many as 15,000 burrows. The females hunt honeybees \"Apis mellifera\", which are paralyzed with the sting, the female stinging the prey through the articular membranes which are situated behind the front legs, the female then carries the immobilised bee to the nest in flight between the wasp's legs. On reaching the nest she often hovers over the entrance before slowly descending into the burrow. Each brood cell is provisioned with between one and five honeybees for the larva. After the larva has fed sufficiently it spins a cocoon, the cocoon is attached to the wall of the brood cell at its base. In cooler regions the larva overwinters and the adults emerge the following summer. Other species of bee, other than honeybees, have been reported as prey including \"Andrena flavipes\", \"Lasioglossum zonulus\" and \"Nomada sp\" in Britain as well as bees of the genera \"Dasypoda\", \"Halictus\" and \"Megachile\" in continental Europe. Each female may collect up to 100 bees during its flight period.  The humid and warm conditions in the brood cells provide good growth conditions a number of species of mold fungi which can colonise the cells opportunistically from the surrounding soil, especially \"Aspergillus flavus\", which can either infect the larva or the stored immobilised bees and this normally causes the larva to die. Female beewolves protect their offspring against pathogens and they have evolved strategies to reduce the mortality of their offspring in the brood cell. The first strategy is to apply copious amounts of an anti-condensation secretion from a cephalic gland on to the paralysed bees to reduce water condensation on those bees and thereby delay fungal germination. The second strategy consists of a concentrated release of nitric oxide from the beewolf egg itself once the brood cells is closed by the morther that sterililizes the deposited bees by killing acively growing fungi. The third strategy is that the female wasp secretes a whitish substance from specialized glands in its antennae in to the brood cell, this secretion contains symbiotic bacteria of the genus \"Streptomyces\", which are ingested by the larva and before the larva pupates the bacteria are applied to the cocoon to protect the larva from fungal infection.  The males set up territories in vegetation near to the females' nesting aggregations, these territories do not hold any resources to interest the females. The territories are around a quarter of a square metre in extent and are marked with a pheromone from the male's cephalic glands. The males defend these territories from intruding males but the defence does not involve physical contact between the antagonists. Males may have territories which are often in close proximity to one another, constituting a form of lek, allowing the females to make their choice of mates from among the males. The males do not appear to attract the females by using any form of visual display and it is though that the females choose the males to copulate with based on the quality of the pheromones the male produces. The amount of time the male occupies a territory is dependent on the number of female nests near that territory.  The adult wasps feed on nectar and have been recorded as feeding on nectar from bramble, sea-holly, \"Erica\", thrift, pale toadflax \"Linaria repens\", common ragwort, hemp-agrimony and creeping thistle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status in the UK.", "content": "This wasp was previously considered to be one of the great aculeate rarities in Britain, with colonies only in sandy habitats on the Isle of Wight and Suffolk. It has undergone an expansion in range, with the wasp now locally common in a steadily increasing number of sites as far north as Yorkshire (2002). The species has RDB2 status (vulnerable) but, if revised, it is now likely that this status will be removed because of its increase in range and population.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philanthus triangulum, commonly known as the European beewolf, bee-killer wasp or the bee-eating philanthus (from the now obsolete synonym \"Philanthus apivorus\"), is a solitary wasp that lives in the Western Palearctic and Afrotropics. Although the adults of the species are herbivores (feeding on nectar and pollen), the species derives its name from the behavior of the inseminated females, who hunt Western honey bees. The female places several of its paralyzed prey together with an egg in a small underground chamber, to serve as food for the wasp larvae. All members of the genus \"Philanthus\" hunt various species of bees, but \"P. triangulum\" is apparently the only one that specializes in Western honey bees.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973182}
{"src_title": "Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory\" is an online multiplayer game, wherein the players interact with each other over a network, in two teams (Allies and Axis) to defend or destroy mission objectives. The game is playable over the Internet or a Local Area Network. In public games, PunkBuster used to protect the game, however its developer, EvenBalance, discontinued support for the game in October 2011. There are six officially released maps that are partially based on real locations or events (North African Campaign: Gold Rush, Siwa Oasis, and Atlantic Seawall Battery; Europe Campaign: Rail Gun, Würzburg Radar, and Fuel Dump), as well as hundreds of custom maps made by the gaming community. On most maps, the offense needs to complete a certain set of objectives within a limited amount of time. The defense needs to keep the offense from completing objectives until time runs out. Some objectives may be optional, and some objectives can be carried out by either team. These minor objectives assist the team completing them. Depending on game mode the action will continue on another map (Campaign Mode) or the same map (Objective Mode, Stopwatch Mode, Last Man Standing).  In all but the Last Man Standing Mode, dead players respawn all at the same time, every X seconds. In the default maps—assuming that the server settings are not changing it—Allies spawn every 20 seconds and the Axis every 30 seconds, the only exception being Rail Gun where both have a 20-second spawn. With default settings, one can see the spawn timer in the right side of the screen. Experienced players should watch the timer all the time—dying to a 1-second spawn practically means losing your position (and a life, if the server has the rarely used Limited Lives feature enabled) and resetting your health and ammo, while a 30-second spawn can be deadly if there are only a few players. A good tactic is to find out the spawn time of your enemy, for example looking at the mission timer, and time your attacks so that every dead opponent will have to wait a full-time spawn. In the official six map campaign (most common on public servers), Allies are offense for all but one map, Railgun. In Stopwatch Mode (most common for locked or LAN servers) two teams—most common setups: 6vs6 or 3vs3—will play the same map twice, once on each side and the winner is the team with the fastest offense (it can be a tie when both teams defense manage to keep the offense from completing the objectives until time runs out (commonly known as a \"full hold\")).  Players may earn experience points in several skill categories. All character classes may earn points in Battle Sense and Light Weapons. Class skills are generally restricted to the current class, the exception being Heavy Weapons (the Soldier class skill).  Players have certain abilities based on their character class. The player has a Power Bar that provides \"power\" for their special abilities. The power bar regenerates slowly. Constructing the Command post speeds up the recharge rate though. Players have up to eight weapon slots, depending on character class. The classes that are available are engineer, soldier, field ops, medic, and covert ops.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ranking and advancement.", "content": "Players start off as a \"Private\" (Allies) or \"Schütze\" (Axis).  Through gameplay, experience can be gained for three categories: Battle Sense, Light Weapons, and a skill determined by the player's current chosen class. Certain class benefits remain with the player even if they change classes, and benefits from the two general skills are available to the player throughout, regardless of class change. Once a player has accrued enough experience points in a particular skill, the skill is automatically advanced to the next level, providing the player with a new ability or advantage. There are four attainable levels in each skill, awarded at 20, 50, 90 and 140 experience points; some mods add new levels.  Depending on the server's settings, a player's experience (XP) can be deleted at the end of a campaign, when he/she disconnects, or after a set period of time. Experience can also be saved even upon disconnection. In competitions and select public servers, rankings are disabled, meaning that XP gives no advantage. The meaning of this is to make games faster; as defenders usually get a lot more XP, they would become stronger during the match, making the end game very difficult for the offensive team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Enemy Territory: Quake Wars\".", "content": "A commercially released follow-up to \"Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory\" was developed by Splash Damage, titled \"Enemy Territory: Quake Wars\". It does not carry on the World War II setting from \"Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory\" and is instead set in the \"Quake\" universe. The gameplay is based directly on its predecessor, but with the addition of features such as larger maps, controllable vehicles and aircraft, and asymmetric teams.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory is a free and open-source multiplayer first-person shooter video game set during World War II. It was originally planned to be released as a commercial expansion pack to \"Return to Castle Wolfenstein\" and later as a standalone game. However, due to problems with the single-player aspect, the multiplayer portion was released on 29 May 2003 as a freeware standalone game. In January 2004, the source code for the game logic (not the game engine) was released to the benefit of its modding community.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973183}
{"src_title": "Porter's five forces analysis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Five Forces.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1* Threat of new entrants.", "content": "Profitable industries that yield high returns will attract new entities. New entrants eventually will decrease profitability for other firms in the industry. Unless the entry of new firms can be made more difficult by incumbents, abnormal profitability will fall towards zero (perfect competition), which is the minimum level of profitability required to keep an industry in business.  The following factors can have an effect on how much of a threat new entrants may pose:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2* Threat of substitutes.", "content": "A substitute product uses a different technology to try to solve the same economic need. Examples of substitutes are meat, poultry, and fish; landlines and cellular telephones; airlines, automobiles, trains, and ships; beer and wine; and so on. For example, tap water is a substitute for Coke, but Pepsi is a product that uses the same technology (albeit different ingredients) to compete head-to-head with Coke, so it is not a substitute. Increased marketing for drinking tap water might \"shrink the pie\" for both Coke and Pepsi, whereas increased Pepsi advertising would likely \"grow the pie\" (increase consumption of all soft drinks), while giving Pepsi a larger market share at Coke's expense.  Potential factors:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "3* Bargaining power of customers.", "content": "The bargaining power of customers is also described as the market of outputs: the ability of customers to put the firm under pressure, which also affects the customer's sensitivity to price changes. Firms can take measures to reduce buyer power, such as implementing a loyalty program. Buyers' power is high if buyers have many alternatives. It is low if they have few choices.  Potential factors:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "4* Bargaining power of suppliers.", "content": "The bargaining power of suppliers is also described as the market of inputs. Suppliers of raw materials, components, labor, and services (such as expertise) to the firm can be a source of power over the firm when there are few substitutes. If you are making biscuits and there is only one person who sells flour, you have no alternative but to buy it from them. Suppliers may refuse to work with the firm or charge excessively high prices for unique resources.  Potential factors are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "5* Competitive rivalry.", "content": "For most industries the intensity of competitive rivalry is the biggest determinant of the competitiveness of the industry. Having an understanding of industry rivals is vital to successfully marketing a product. Positioning depends on how the public perceives a product and distinguishes it from competitors‘. An organization must be aware of its competitors' marketing strategies and pricing and also be reactive to any changes made. Rivalry among competitors tends to be cutthroat and industry profitability low while having the potential factors below:  Potential factors:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "Strategy consultants occasionally use Porter's five forces framework when making a qualitative evaluation of a firm's strategic position. However, for most consultants, the framework is only a starting point and value chain analysis or another type of analysis may be used in conjunction with this model. Like all general frameworks, an analysis that uses it to the exclusion of specifics about a particular situation is considered naïve.  According to Porter, the five forces framework should be used at the line-of-business industry level; it is not designed to be used at the industry group or industry sector level. An industry is defined at a lower, more basic level: a market in which similar or closely related products and/or services are sold to buyers (see industry information). A firm which competes in a single industry should develop, at a minimum, one five forces analysis for its industry. Porter makes clear that for diversified companies, the primary issue in corporate strategy is the selection of industries (lines of business) in which the company will compete. The average \"Fortune Global 1,000\" company competes in 52 industries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticisms.", "content": "Porter's framework has been challenged by other academics and strategists. For instance, Kevin P. Coyne and Somu Subramaniam claim that three dubious assumptions underlie the five forces:  Also, the last chapter of the book: \"Age of agile\" attributes the bankruptcy of Porter's firm to the outdated nature of his model around competitiveness instead of creating customer value and not making the customers at the center of the universe, i.e customer centricity.  An important extension to Porter's work came from Adam Brandenburger and Barry Nalebuff of Yale School of Management in the mid-1990s. Using game theory, they added the concept of complementors (also called \"the 6th force\") to try to explain the reasoning behind strategic alliances. Complementors are known as the impact of related products and services already in the market. The idea that complementors are the sixth force has often been credited to Andrew Grove, former CEO of Intel Corporation. Martyn Richard Jones, while consulting at Groupe Bull, developed an augmented five forces model in Scotland in 1993. It is based on Porter's Framework and includes Government (national and regional) as well as pressure groups as the notional 6th force. This model was the result of work carried out as part of Groupe Bull's Knowledge Asset Management Organisation initiative.  Porter indirectly rebutted the assertions of other forces, by referring to innovation, government, and complementary products and services as \"factors\" that affect the five forces.  It is also perhaps not feasible to evaluate the attractiveness of an industry independently of the resources that a firm brings to that industry. It is thus argued (Wernerfelt 1984) that this theory be combined with the resource-based view (RBV) in order for the firm to develop a sounder framework.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Porter's Five Forces Framework is a method for analyzing competition of a business. It draws from industrial organization (IO) economics to derive five forces that determine the competitive intensity and, therefore, the attractiveness (or lack thereof) of an industry in terms of its profitability. An \"unattractive\" industry is one in which the effect of these five forces reduces overall profitability. The most unattractive industry would be one approaching \"pure competition\", in which available profits for all firms are driven to normal profit levels. The five-forces perspective is associated with its originator, Michael E. Porter of Harvard University. This framework was first published in \"Harvard Business Review\" in 1979.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973184}
{"src_title": "Great crested grebe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The great crested grebe is the largest member of the grebe family found in the Old World, with some larger species residing in the Americas. They measure long with a wingspan and weigh. It is an excellent swimmer and diver, and pursues its fish prey underwater. The adults are unmistakable in summer with head and neck decorations. In winter, this is whiter than most grebes, with white above the eye, and a pink bill.  The young are distinctive because their heads are striped black and white. They lose these markings when they become adults.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The great crested grebe breeds in vegetated areas of freshwater lakes. The subspecies \"P. c. cristatus\" is found across Europe and east across the Palearctic. It is resident in the milder west of its range, but migrates from the colder regions. It winters on freshwater lakes and reservoirs or the coast. The African subspecies \"P. c. infuscatus\" and the Australasian subspecies \"P. c. australis\" are mainly sedentary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "The great crested grebe has an elaborate mating display. Like all grebes, it nests on the water's edge, since its legs are set relatively far back and it is thus unable to walk very well. Usually two eggs are laid, and the fluffy, striped young grebes are often carried on the adult's back. In a clutch of two or more hatchlings, male and female grebes will each identify their 'favourites', which they alone will care for and teach.  Unusually, young grebes are capable of swimming and diving almost at hatching. The adults teach these skills to their young by carrying them on their back and diving, leaving the chicks to float on the surface; they then re-emerge a few feet away so that the chicks may swim back onto them.  The great crested grebe feeds mainly on fish, but also small crustaceans, insects small frogs and newts.  This species was hunted almost to extinction in the United Kingdom in the 19th century for its head plumes, which were used to decorate hats and ladies' undergarments. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds was set up to help protect this species, which is again a common sight.  The great crested grebe and its behaviour was the subject of one of the landmark publications in avian ethology: Julian Huxley's 1914 paper on \"The Courtship‐habits of the Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus)\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The great crested grebe (\"Podiceps cristatus\") is a member of the grebe family of water birds noted for its elaborate mating display. Its scientific name comes from Latin: the genus name \"Podiceps\" is from, \"vent\" and, \"foot\", and is a reference to the placement of a grebe's legs towards the rear of its body; the species name, \"cristatus\", means \"crested\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973185}
{"src_title": "Free indirect speech", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Naming.", "content": "Randall Stevenson suggests that the term free indirect discourse \"is perhaps best reserved for instances where words have actually been spoken aloud\" and that cases \"where a character's voice is probably the silent inward one of thought\" should be described as free indirect style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison of styles.", "content": "What distinguishes free indirect speech from normal indirect speech is the lack of an introductory expression such as \"he said\" or \"he thought\". It is as if the subordinate clause carrying the content of the indirect speech were taken out of the main clause which contains it, becoming the main clause itself. Using free indirect speech may convey the character's words more directly than in normal indirect, as devices such as interjections and psycho-ostensive expressions like curses and swearwords can be used that cannot be normally used within a subordinate clause. Deictic pronouns and adverbials refer to the coordinates of the originator of the speech or thought, not of the narrator.  Free indirect discourse can also be described as a \"technique of presenting a character's voice partly mediated by the voice of the author\", or, in the words of the French narrative theorist Gérard Genette, \"the narrator takes on the speech of the character, or, if one prefers, the character speaks through the voice of the narrator, and the two instances then are \"merged\"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in literature.", "content": "Roy Pascal cites Goethe and Jane Austen as the first novelists to use this style consistently. He says the nineteenth century French novelist Flaubert was the first to be aware of it as a style. This style would be widely imitated by later authors, called in French \"discours indirect libre\". It is also known as \"estilo indirecto libre\" in Spanish, and is often used by Latin American writer Horacio Quiroga.  In German literature, the style, known as \"erlebte Rede\" (experienced speech), is perhaps most famous in the works of Franz Kafka, blurring the subject's first-person experiences with a grammatically third-person narrative perspective.  In Danish literature, the style is attested since Leonora Christina (1621–1698) (and is, outside literature, even today common in colloquial Danish speech).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English, Irish and Scottish literature.", "content": "As stated above, Austen was one of its first practitioners. The Irish author James Joyce also used free indirect speech in works such as \"The Dead\" (in \"Dubliners\"), \"A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man\", and \"Ulysses\". Scottish author James Kelman uses the style extensively, most notably in his Booker Prize winning novel \"How Late It Was, How Late\", but also in many of his short stories and some of his novels, most of which are written in Glaswegian speech patterns. Virginia Woolf in her novels \"To the Lighthouse\" and \"Mrs Dalloway\" frequently relies on free indirect discourse to take us into the minds of her characters. Another modernist, D. H. Lawrence, also makes frequent use of a free indirect style in \"transcribing unspoken or even incompletely verbalized thoughts\". Lawrence most often uses free indirect speech, a literary technique that describes the interior thoughts of the characters using third-person singular pronouns ('he' and'she') in both \"The Rainbow\" and \"Women in Love\". According to Charles Rzepka of Boston University, Elmore Leonard's mastery of free indirect discourse \"is unsurpassed in our time, and among the surest of all time, even if we include Jane Austen, Gustave Flaubert, and Hemingway in the mix.\"  Some argue that free indirect discourse was also used by Chaucer in \"The Canterbury Tales\". When the narrator says in \"The General Prologue\" that he agrees with the Monk's opinion dismissing criticism of his very unmonastic way of life, he is apparently paraphrasing the monk himself:  These rhetorical questions may be regarded as the monk's own casual way of waving off criticism of his aristocratic lifestyle. Similar examples can be found in the narrator's portrait of the friar.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Free indirect speech is a style of third-person narration which uses some of the characteristics of third-person along with the essence of first-person direct speech; it is also referred to as free indirect discourse, free indirect style, or, in French, discours indirect libre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973186}
{"src_title": "Nenets people", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The literal morphs \"samo\" and \"yed\" in Russian convey the meaning \"self-eater\", which is considered derogatory. Therefore, the name \"Samoyed\" quickly went out of usage in the 20th century. The people are known as the \"Nenets\", which means \"man\".  In old Russian documents the term \"Samoyed\" was often applied indiscriminately to different peoples of Northern Russia who speak related Uralic languages: Nenets, Nganasans, Enets, Selkups (speakers of Samoyedic languages). Currently, the term \"Samoyedic peoples\" applies to the whole group of these different peoples. It is the general term that includes the Nenets, Enets, Selkup, and Nganasan peoples.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "The Nenets language is on the Samoyedic branch of the Uralic language family, with two major dialects, Forest Nenets and Tundra Nenets. Ethnologue says that in Siberia, most young people are still fluent in Nenets, whereas in European Russia, they tend to speak Russian. Overall, the majority of native speakers are from older generations. UNESCO classifies Nenets as an endangered language. Some believe that the use of Russian and Komi is due to inter-ethnic marriages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History and way of life.", "content": "There are two distinct groups of Nenets \"sensu stricto\", based on their economy: the Tundra Nenets (living far to the north) and the Khandeyar or Forest Nenets. A distinct third group of Nenets (Yaran people) has emerged as a result of intermarriages between Nenets and Izhma Komi people.  The Samoyedic languages form a branch of the Uralic language family. They moved from farther south in Siberia to the northernmost part of what later became Russia sometime before the 12th century.  They ended up between the Kanin and Taymyr peninsulas, around the Ob and Yenisey rivers, with only a few of them settling into small communities like Kolva. Their main subsistence comes from hunting and reindeer herding. Using reindeer as a draft animal throughout the year enables them to cover great distances. Large-scale reindeer herding emerged in the 18th century. They bred the Samoyed dog to help herd their reindeer and pull their sleds, and European explorers later used these dogs for polar expeditions, because they were well adapted to the arctic conditions. Tundra wolves can cause considerable economic loss, as they prey on the reindeer herds which are the livelihood of some Nenets families. Along with reindeer meat, fish is a major component in the Nenets' diet. Nenets housing is conical yurt (mya).  They have a shamanistic and animistic belief system which stresses respect for the land and its resources. During migrations, the Nenets placed sacred items like bear skins, religious figures, coins and more on a holy sleigh. The contents of this sacred sleigh are only unpacked during special occasions or for religious rituals (like sacrifices). However, only esteemed elders are allowed to unpack the sacred sleigh. They had a clan-based social structure. The Nenets shaman is called a Tadibya.  After the Russian Revolution, their culture suffered due to the Soviet collectivisation policy. The government of the Soviet Union tried to force the nomadic Samoyeds to settle down permanently. They were forced to settle in villages and their children were educated in state boarding schools, which resulted in erosion of their cultural identity. Many, especially in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug lost their mother tongue and became assimilated. Since the 1930s, a few Nenets have expressed themselves professionally through cultural media. For instance, Tyko Vylka and Konstantin Pankov became well-known painters. Anna Nerkagi is one of the most celebrated Nenets writers. Yuri Vella, though living as a reindeer herder, has become the first writer in the Forest Nenets language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environment.", "content": "Environmental damage to the Nenets' ancestral land is significant due to industrialisation of their land, colonization and climate change. Because of the expansive gas and oil industry, reindeer pastures are shrinking, and some regions, such as the Yamal Peninsula are overgrazed, further endangering the Nenets way of life. The effects of global warming and climate change on nomadic Nenets reindeer herders have been documented, as certain lands they need to cross to follow migration patterns are only accessible during winter. Earlier spring melts compounded by delayed autumn freeze, affect the ability of reindeer and herders to traverse the frozen tundra. Arkhangelsk-based Leonid Zubov has documented how this restricts Nenets people's access to medical facilities, causing them to wait until the next snow season for medical attention.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nenets (, \"nenəj nenəče\",, \"nentsy\"), also known as Samoyed, are a Samoyedic ethnic group native to northern arctic Russia, so called Russian Far North. According to the latest census in 2010, there were 44,857 Nenets in the Russian Federation, most of them living in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Nenets Autonomous Okrug and Taymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District stretching along the coastline of the Arctic Ocean near the so called Arctic Circle between Kola and Taymyr peninsulas. The Nenets people speak either the Tundra or Forest Nenets languages, which are mutually unintelligible.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973187}
{"src_title": "Newton–Cotes formulas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is assumed that the value of a function \"f\" defined on [\"a\", \"b\"] is known at equally spaced points \"x\", for \"i\" = 0,..., \"n\", where \"x\" = \"a\" and \"x\" = \"b\". There are two types of Newton–Cotes formulas, the \"closed\" type which uses the function value at all points, and the \"open\" type which does not use the function values at the endpoints. The closed Newton–Cotes formula of degree \"n\" is stated as  where, with \"h\" (called the \"step size\") equal to. The \"w\" are called \"weights\".  As can be seen in the following derivation the weights are derived from the Lagrange basis polynomials. They depend only on the \"x\" and not on the function \"f\". Let \"L\"(\"x\") be the interpolation polynomial in the Lagrange form for the given data points, then  The open Newton–Cotes formula of degree \"n\" is stated as  The weights are found in a manner similar to the closed formula.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Instability for high degree.", "content": "A Newton–Cotes formula of any degree \"n\" can be constructed. However, for large \"n\" a Newton–Cotes rule can sometimes suffer from catastrophic Runge's phenomenon where the error grows exponentially for large \"n\". Methods such as Gaussian quadrature and Clenshaw–Curtis quadrature with unequally spaced points (clustered at the \"endpoints\" of the integration interval) are stable and much more accurate, and are normally preferred to Newton–Cotes. If these methods cannot be used, because the integrand is only given at the fixed equidistributed grid, then Runge's phenomenon can be avoided by using a composite rule, as explained below.  Alternatively, stable Newton–Cotes formulas can be constructed using least-squares approximation instead of interpolation. This allows building numerically stable formulas even for high degrees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Closed Newton–Cotes formulas.", "content": "This table lists some of the Newton–Cotes formulas of the closed type. For formula_4 with the degree, let formula_5 and the notation formula_6 be a shorthand for formula_7.  Boole's rule is sometimes mistakenly called Bode's rule, as a result of the propagation of a typographical error in Abramowitz and Stegun, an early reference book.  The exponent of the segment size \"b\" − \"a\" in the error term shows the rate at which the approximation error decreases. The degree of the derivative of \"f\" in the error term gives the degree up to which polynomials can be integrated exactly (i.e., with error equal to zero) with this rule. Note that the derivative of \"f\" in the error term increases by 2 for every other rule. The number formula_8 must be taken from the interval.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Open Newton–Cotes formulas.", "content": "This table lists some of the Newton–Cotes formulas of the open type. Again, formula_6 is a shorthand for formula_10, with formula_11, and the degree.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composite rules.", "content": "For the Newton–Cotes rules to be accurate, the step size \"h\" needs to be small, which means that the interval of integration formula_12 must be small itself, which is not true most of the time. For this reason, one usually performs numerical integration by splitting formula_12 into smaller subintervals, applying a Newton–Cotes rule on each subinterval, and adding up the results. This is called a \"composite rule\". See Numerical integration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In numerical analysis, the Newton–Cotes formulas, also called the Newton–Cotes quadrature rules or simply Newton–Cotes rules, are a group of formulas for numerical integration (also called \"quadrature\") based on evaluating the integrand at equally spaced points. They are named after Isaac Newton and Roger Cotes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973188}
{"src_title": "Delonix regia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The flowers of \"Delonix regia\" are large, with four spreading scarlet or orange-red petals up to 8 cm long, and a fifth upright petal called the standard, which is slightly larger and spotted with yellow and white. They appear in corymbs along and at the ends of branches. The naturally occurring variety \"flavida\" (Bengali: \"Radhachura)\" has yellow flowers. The pods are green and flaccid when young and turn dark-brown and woody. They can be up to 60 cm long and 5 cm wide. The seeds are small, weighing around 0.4 g on average. The compound (doubly pinnate) leaves have a feathery appearance and are a characteristic light, bright green. Each leaf is 30–50 cm long with 20 to 40 pairs of primary leaflets or pinnae, each divided into 10–20 pairs of secondary leaflets or pinnules. Pollen grains are elongated, approximately 52 microns in size.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Delonix regia\" is endemic to the Madagascar's dry deciduous forests, but has been introduced into tropical and sub-tropical regions worldwide. In the wild it is endangered, but it is widely cultivated elsewhere and is regarded as naturalised in many of the locations where it is grown:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "North America.", "content": "In the continental United States, it grows in South Florida, Central Florida, and in the Rio Grande Valley of South Texas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Caribbean and Central America.", "content": "In the Caribbean it is featured in many Dominican and Puerto Rican paintings. It can also be found in Belize, The Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, Nicaragua, U.S. Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Jamaica and Curaçao. It is the national flower of St. Kitts and Nevis. It can also be found in Bermuda, Hawaii and Mexico, especially in the Yucatan peninsula. The town of Peñuelas, Puerto Rico, located about west of Ponce, is nicknamed \"\"El Valle de los Flamboyanes\"\" (\"The Valley of the Poinciana Trees\"), as many flamboyant trees are found along the surrounding Río Guayanes, Río Macana, and Río Tallaboa rivers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "South America.", "content": "It grows in Paraguay, Peru and throughout the whole of Brazil.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Europe and the Middle East.", "content": "\"Delonix regia\" is planted in Mediterranean parts of Europe, the Middle east and North Africa, including the southern coast of Spain, the Valencian coast, the Canary Islands, Lebanon, Egypt, Israel and Jordan.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "South Asia.", "content": "The tree is planted in India, where it is referred to as the May-flower tree, Gulmohar or Gul Mohr in West Bengal, Odisha, Bangalore and Sri Lanka. It is also grown in Karachi, Pakistan. In Mauritius and La Réunion it announces the coming of the new year.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Southeast Asia.", "content": "In Myanmar, where it is called Sein-pann-ni, the time of flowering is March in the south and early to late April in the north. It is planted in gardens and as a roadside tree. In Myanmar, this tree is a sign of Thingyan Festival (Apr 13 - 16/17). In the Philippines, its flowering signals the imminent arrival of the monsoon rains. It also grows in Thailand and Indonesia and is the official tree in Vietnam. In that country, this tree is called \"Phượng vỹ\", or phoenix's tail, and is a popular urban tree in much of Vietnam. Its flowering season is May–July, which coincides with the end of the school year in Vietnam. Because of this timing, the flower of poinciana is sometimes called the \"pupil's flower\". The tree is also commonly found on school grounds in Vietnam, however after several trees fell down, with one student killed, schools started cutting down or severely pruning the trees. Hải Phòng city is nicknamed \"\"Thành phố hoa phượng đỏ\"\" (\"City of red poinciana\").", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "East Asia.", "content": "It grows in Southern China and Hong Kong. It is the official tree in Tainan, Taiwan; Xiamen, Fujian Province, People's Republic of China (PRC); and Shantou, Canton Province, (PRC). National Cheng Kung University, a university located in Tainan, put royal poinciana on its emblem.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "It is very widely grown in the Northern Australia, the southern extremes previously limited to South East Queensland where it is a popular street tree in the suburbs of Brisbane. It now grows and blooms successfully in Sydney and other parts of New South Wales.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Micronesia.", "content": "It grows in Guam, and is the official tree of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Required conditions.", "content": "The royal poinciana requires a tropical or near-tropical climate, but can tolerate drought and salty conditions. It prefers an open, free-draining sandy or loamy soil enriched with organic matter. The tree does not like heavy or clay soils and flowers more profusely when kept slightly dry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Propagation.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Seeds.", "content": "The royal poinciana is most commonly propagated by seeds. Seeds are collected, soaked in warm water for at least 24 hours, and planted in warm, moist soil in a semi-shaded, sheltered position. In lieu of soaking, the seeds can also be 'nicked' or 'pinched' (with a small scissors or nail clipper) and planted immediately. These two methods allow moisture to penetrate the tough outer casing, stimulating germination. The seedlings grow rapidly and can reach 30 cm in a few weeks under ideal conditions.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Cuttings.", "content": "Less common, but just as effective, is propagation by semi-hardwood cuttings. Branches consisting of the current or last season's growth can be cut into 30 cm sections and planted in a moist potting mixture. This method is slower than seed propagation (cuttings take a few months to root) but is the preferred method for ensuring new trees are true to form. As such, cuttings are a particularly common method of propagation for the rarer yellow-flowering variety of the tree.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Usefulness.", "content": "In addition to its ornamental value, it is also a useful shade tree in tropical conditions, because it usually grows to a modest height (mostly 5 meters, but it can reach a maximum height of 12 meters) but spreads widely, and its dense foliage provides full shade. In areas with a marked dry season, it sheds its leaves during the drought, but in other areas it is virtually evergreen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural significance.", "content": "In the Indian state of Kerala, royal poinciana is called \"kaalvarippoo\" (, \"kālvarippūv\") which means \"the flower of Calvary\". There is a popular belief among Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala that when Jesus was crucified, there was a small royal poinciana tree nearby his Cross. It is believed that the blood of Jesus Christ was shed over the flowers of the tree and this is how the flowers of royal poinciana got a sharp red color. It is also known as Vaaga in many areas of Kerala.  Flame Trees, the iconic ballad by Australian Rock music band Cold Chisel is said to have been inspired by a preponderance of poinciana trees, however this is incorrect. The Flame trees reference in the song applies to the native Australian Flame Tree (\"Brachychiton acerifolius\").  Its blossom is the national flower of St. Kitts and Nevis, and in May 2018 the royal poinciana was adopted by the city of Key West as its official tree. Known locally as \"semarak api\", \"Delonix regia\" is the city flower of Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia.  The song \"Poinciana\" was inspired by the presence of this tree in Cuba.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Delonix regia is a species of flowering plant in the bean family Fabaceae, subfamily Caesalpinioideae native to Madagascar. It is noted for its fern-like leaves and flamboyant display of orange-red flowers over summer. In many tropical parts of the world it is grown as an ornamental tree and in English it is given the name royal poinciana, flamboyant, flame of the forest, or flame tree (one of several species given this name).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973189}
{"src_title": "Vlissingen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The municipality of Vlissingen consists of the following places:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The fishermen's hamlet that came into existence at the estuary of the Schelde around AD 620 has grown over its 1,400-year history into the third-most important port of the Netherlands. The Counts of Holland, Flanders, and Zeeland had the first harbours dug. Over the centuries, Vlissingen developed into a hub for fishing, especially the herring fishery, commerce, privateering and the slave trade. Under the Treaty of Nonsuch, English garrisons were stationed here and at Brill to keep these ports out of Spanish hands. During the heyday of the Dutch Golden Age, ships from Vlissingen set sail for the various outposts of the Dutch colonial empire and contributed to the world power of The Seven Provinces.  The history of Vlissingen was also marked by invasion, oppression and bombardments. Because of its strategic position at the mouth of the Schelde, the most important passageway to Antwerp, it has attracted the interest, at one time or another, of the British, the French, the Germans and the Spanish. Floods have also been a constant threat. Vlissingen declined during the 18th century. The Napoleonic Wars were particularly disastrous. After 1870, the economy revived after the construction of new docks and the Walcheren canal, the arrival of the railway and the establishment of the shipyard called De Schelde. The Second World War interrupted this growth. The city was heavily damaged by shelling and inundation but was captured and liberated by British Commandos of 4th Special Service Brigade on 3 November 1944.  The city was rebuilt after the war. In the 1960s, the seaport and industrial area of Vlissingen-Oost developed and flourished. Now this area is the economic driving force behind central Zeeland, generating many thousands of jobs. Nowadays approx. 50,000 ships annually from all corners of the world pass through the Schelde.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The derivation of the name Vlissingen is unclear, though most scholars relate the name to the word \"fles\" (\"bottle\") in one way or another.  According to one story, when saint Willibrord landed in Vlissingen with a bottle in the 7th century, he shared its contents with the beggars he found there while trying to convert them. A miracle occurred, typical of hagiography, when the contents of the bottle did not diminish. When the bishop realised the beggars did not want to listen to his words, he gave them his bottle. After that, he supposedly called the city \"Flessinghe\".  Another source states that the name had its origins in an old ferry-service house, on which a bottle was attached by way of a sign. The monk Jacob van Dreischor, who visited the city in 967, then apparently called the ferry-house \"het veer aan de Flesse\" (\"the ferry at the Bottle\"). Because many cities in the region later received the appendix \"-inge\", the name, according to this etymology, evolved to \"Vles-inge\".  According to another source, the name was derived from the Danish word \"Vles\", which means \"tides\".  The eastern cape of Novaya Zemlya, Cape Flissingsky was named after the city in 1596 by Willem Barentsz.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical English name \"Flushing\".", "content": "Vlissingen was historically called \"Flushing\" in English. In the 17th century Vlissingen was important enough to be a town that English speakers referred to and that had acquired its own English name. For example, Samuel Pepys referred to the town as \"Flushing\" in his diaries. In 1673 Sir William Temple referred to Vlissingen as \"Flushing\" once and \"Flussingue\" twice in his book about the Netherlands. Some English writers in the Netherlands also used the Dutch name.  Flushing, originally a Dutch colonial village founded in 1645 and now part of Queens, New York City, was first called Vlissingen after the town in the Netherlands. The English settlers who also came to live in the village shortened the name to \"Vlissing\" by 1657 and then began to call it by its English name \"Flushing.\" The Anglicisation of \"Vlissingen\" into \"Flushing\" did not occur after the conquest of New Netherland, but in England well before then. This village was the site of the Flushing Remonstrance.  The village of Flushing in Cornwall was also named after Vlissingen. Originally named Nankersey, the village was given its name by Dutch engineers from Vlissingen in the Netherlands who built the three main quays in the village. Michigan and Ohio in the US have villages called Flushing as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Topography.", "content": "Topographic map of Vlissingen (city), Sept. 2014", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Vlissingen has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification \"Cfb\") that is milder than the rest of the Netherlands due to its more southern location on the coast. It is approximately 1.5 degrees Celsius warmer annually than Groningen in the northeast. It is also one of the sunniest cities in the Netherlands, receiving approximately 180 more sunshine hours than Maastricht in the southeast. Its all-time record is 36.8 °C set on 27 July 2018 and -18.9 °C on 21 February 1956", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vlissingen (; Zeelandic: \"Vlissienge\"; historical name in ) is a municipality and a city in the southwestern Netherlands on the former island of Walcheren. With its strategic location between the Scheldt river and the North Sea, Vlissingen has been an important harbour for centuries. It was granted city rights in 1315. In the 17th century Vlissingen was a main harbour for ships of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). It is also known as the birthplace of Admiral Michiel de Ruyter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973190}
{"src_title": "Benedetto Marcello", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Venice, Benedetto Marcello was a member of a noble family and his compositions are frequently referred to as \"Patrizio Veneto\". Although he was a music student of Antonio Lotti and Francesco Gasparini, his father wanted Benedetto to devote himself to law. Benedetto managed to combine a life in law and public service with one in music. In 1711 he was appointed a member of the Council of Forty (in Venice's central government), and in 1730 he went to Pola as \"Provveditore\" (district governor). Due to his health having been \"impaired by the climate\" of Istria, Marcello retired after eight years in the capacity of \"Camerlengo\" to Brescia where he died of tuberculosis in 1739.  Benedetto Marcello was the brother of Alessandro Marcello, also a notable composer. On 20 May 1728 Benedetto Marcello married his singing student Rosanna Scalfi in a secret ceremony. However, as a nobleman his marriage to a commoner was unlawful and after Marcello's death the marriage was declared null by the state. Rosanna was unable to inherit his estate, and filed suit in 1742 against Benedetto's brother Alessandro Marcello, seeking financial support.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Marcello composed a variety of music including considerable church music, oratorios, hundreds of solo cantatas, duets, sonatas, concertos and sinfonias. Marcello was a younger contemporary of Antonio Vivaldi in Venice and his instrumental music enjoys a Vivaldian flavor.  As a composer, Marcello was best known in his lifetime and is now still best remembered for his \"Estro poetico-armonico\" (Venice, 1724–27), a musical setting for voices, figured bass (a continuo notation), and occasional solo instruments, of the first fifty Psalms, as paraphrased in Italian by his friend G. Giustiniani. They were much admired by Charles Avison, who with John Garth brought out an edition with English words (London, 1757). \"Estro poetico-armonico\" also represents an important contribution to the history of Jewish liturgical music. Eleven of the Psalms are set to melodies that Marcello apparently transcribed while attending services at several Venetian synagogues. The eleven melodies – six from the Ashkenazic tradition, and five from the Sephardic tradition – are among the earliest notated sources of Jewish liturgy, preceded only by Salamone Rossi's \"Hashirim Asher L’Shlomo\". Perhaps the best known of these melodies is an Ashkenazic melody for Ma'oz Tzur.  The library of the Brussels Conservatoire possesses some interesting volumes of chamber cantatas composed by Marcello for his mistress. Although Benedetto Marcello wrote an opera called \"La Fede riconosciuta\" and produced it in Vicenza in 1702, he had little sympathy with this form of composition, as evidenced in his writings (see below).  Benedetto Marcello's music is \"characterized by imagination and a fine technique and includes both counterpoint and progressive, galant features\".  With the poet Antonio Schinella Conti he wrote a series of experimental long cantatas – a duet, \"Il Timoteo\", then five monologues, \"Cantone,\" \"Lucrezia,\" \"Andromaca,\" \"Arianna abandonnata,\" and finally \"Cassandra\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing.", "content": "Marcello vented his opinions on the state of musical drama at the time in the satirical pamphlet \"Il teatro alla moda\", published anonymously in Venice in 1720. This little work, which was frequently reprinted, is not only extremely amusing, but is most valuable as a contribution to the history of opera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The composer Joachim Raff wrote an opera entitled \"Benedetto Marcello\", based loosely on the life of Marcello and Scalfi.  The Conservatorio di Musica Benedetto Marcello di Venezia was named after him.  A street in Rome, \"Largo Benedetto Marcello\", is named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Benedetto Giacomo Marcello (; 31 July or 1 August 1686 – 24 July 1739) was an Italian composer, writer, advocate, magistrate, and teacher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973191}
{"src_title": "Megapode", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Megapodes are medium-sized to large terrestrial birds with large legs and feet with sharp claws. The largest members of the clade are the species of \"Alectura\" and \"Talegalla\". The smallest are the Micronesian scrubfowl (\"Megapodius laperouse\") and the Moluccan scrubfowl (\"Eulipoa wallacei\"). They have small heads, short beaks, and rounded and large wings. Their flying abilities vary within the clade. They present the hallux at the same level of the other toes just like the species of the clade Cracidae. The other Galliformes have their halluces raised above the level of the front toes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Megapodes are found in the broader Australasian region, including islands in the western Pacific, Australia, New Guinea, and the islands of Indonesia east of the Wallace Line, but also the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. The distribution of the family has contracted in the Pacific with the arrival of humans, and a number of island groups such as Fiji, Tonga, and New Caledonia have lost many or all of their species. Raoul Island, a New Zealand territory and the main island of the Kermadec Islands, may also have once had a species of megapode, based on settler accounts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "Megapodes are mainly solitary birds that do not incubate their eggs with their body heat as other birds do, but bury them. Their eggs are unusual in having a large yolk, making up 50–70% of the egg weight. The birds are best known for building massive nest mounds of decaying vegetation, which the male attends, adding or removing litter to regulate the internal heat while the eggs develop. However, some bury their eggs in other ways; there are burrow-nesters which use geothermal heat, and others which simply rely on the heat of the sun warming sand. Some species vary their incubation strategy depending on the local environment. Although the Australian brushturkey was thought to exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination, this was later proven false; temperature does, however, affect embryo mortality and resulting offspring sex ratios. The nonsocial nature of their incubation raises questions as to how the hatchlings come to recognise other members of their species, which is due to imprinting in other members of the order Galliformes. Research suggests an instinctive visual recognition of specific movement patterns is made by the individual species of megapode.  Megapode chicks do not have an egg tooth; they use their powerful claws to break out of the egg, and then tunnel their way up to the surface of the mound, laying on their backs and scratching at the sand and vegetable matter. Similar to other superprecocial birds, they hatch fully feathered and active, already able to fly and live independently from their parents. In megapodes superprecociality apparently evolved secondarily from brooding and at least loose parental care as more typical in Galliformes. Eggs previously assigned to \"Genyornis\" have been reassigned to giant megapode species. Some dietary and chronological data previously assigned to dromornithids may instead be assigned to the giant megapodes.  Megapodes share some similarities to the extinct enantiornithes in terms of their superprecocial lifecycle, though also several differences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "The more than 20 living species are placed in seven genera. Although the evolutionary relationships between the Megapodiidae are especially uncertain, the morphological groups are clear:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "Living Megapodiidae, based on the work by John Boyd:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The megapodes, also known as incubator birds or mound-builders, are stocky, medium-large, chicken-like birds with small heads and large feet in the family Megapodiidae. Their name literally means \"large foot\" and is a reference to the heavy legs and feet typical of these terrestrial birds. All are browsers, and all but the malleefowl occupy wooded habitats. Most are brown or black in color. Megapodes are superprecocial, hatching from their eggs in the most mature condition of any bird. They hatch with open eyes, bodily coordination and strength, full wing feathers, and downy body feathers, and are able to run, pursue prey, and in some species, fly on the same day they hatch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973192}
{"src_title": "Rudolf von Laban", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Rudolf Laban was born in Pozsony (now Bratislava) in 1879 in the Kingdom of Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Empire, into an aristocratic family. His father's family had come from the French nobility (De La Banne, from a French crusader stranded in Kingdom of Hungary in the 13th century) and Hungarian nobility, and his mother's family was from France. His father was a field marshal of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the governor of the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He spent his childhood in the courtly circles of Vienna and Bratislava, as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the towns of Sarajevo and Mostar.  Enrolled by his father as a cadet in the Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt, he left to study architecture at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. During his stay in Paris, Laban became interested in the relationship between the moving human form and the space which surrounds it. He then moved to Munich at age 30 and under the influence of seminal dancer/choreographer Heidi Dzinkowska began to concentrate on \"Bewegungskunst\", more commonly called \"Ausdruckstanz\", or the movement arts spending the summer months of 1913 and 1914 directing the school for the Arts at the alternative community at Monte Verita, Switzerland.  He established choreographic training centres in Zürich in 1915, and later set up branches in Italy, France, and central Europe.  One of his great contributions to dance was his 1928 publication of 'Kinetographie Laban', a dance notation system that came to be called Labanotation and is still used as one of the primary movement notation systems in dance. His theories of choreography and movement are now foundations of modern dance and dance notation (choreology). Later they were applied in other fields, including cultural studies, leadership development, and non-verbal communication theory.  Laban developed the art of movement choir, wherein large numbers of people move together in some choreographed manner, but that can include personal expression. This aspect of his work was closely related to his personal spiritual beliefs, based on a combination of Victorian theosophy, Sufism, and popular \"fin de siècle\" Hermeticism. By 1914 he had joined the Ordo Templi Orientis and attended their 'non-national' conference in Monte Verità, Ascona in 1917, where he directed \"Song to the Sun\" performed on the Ticino hillside. Laban had founded a summer dance program in Ascona in 1912, which continued until 1914, when World War I broke out.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "Between 1921 and 1929 he directed the Tanzbühne Laban and smaller group Kammertanzbühne Laban creating and touring dance theatre works and devising movement choirs for amateur dancers. He initiated three Dance Congresses in 1927, 1928 and 1930 to further the role of dance and the status of the dancer in Germany.  From 1930 to 1934 he was director of the Allied State Theatres in Berlin, Germany. In 1934, he was promoted to director of the Deutsche Tanzbühne, in Nazi Germany.  He directed major festivals of dance under the funding of Joseph Goebbels' propaganda ministry from 1934-1936. Laban even wrote during this time that \"we want to dedicate our means of expression and the articulation of our power to the service of the great tasks of our \"Volk\". With unswerving clarity our \"Führer\" points the way\". In 1936 Laban become the chairman of the association \"German workshops for dance\" and received a salary of 1250RM per month, but a duodenal ulcer in August of that year bed bound him for two months, eventually leading him to ask to reduce his responsibilities to consultancy. This was accepted and his wage reduced to 500RM, his employment then ran until March 1937 when his contract ended. Several allegations of Laban's attachment to Nazi ideology have been made, for instance that as early as July 1933 he was removing all pupils branded as non-Aryans from the children's course he was running as a ballet director. However, some Laban scholars have pointed out that such words and actions were necessary for survival in Germany at that time, and that his position was precarious as he was neither a German citizen nor a Nazi party member. His work under the Nazi regime culminated in 1936 with Goebbel's banning of \"Vom Tauwind und der Neuen Freude\" (Of the Spring Wind and the New Joy) for not furthering the Nazi agenda.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "England.", "content": "He was allowed to travel to Paris in 1937 and from there he went to England. He joined the Jooss-Leeder Dance School at Dartington Hall in the county of Devon where innovative dance was already being taught by other refugees from Germany.  He was greatly assisted in his dance teaching during these years by his close associate and long-term partner Lisa Ullmann. Their collaboration led to the founding of the Laban Art of Movement Guild (now known as Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance) in 1945 and the Art of Movement Studio in Manchester in 1946. Laban was a friend of Carl Jung and Josef Pilates (inventor of the Pilates method of physical fitness).  In 1947, he published a book \"Effort\", Fordistic study of the time taken to perform tasks in the workplace and the energy used. He tried to provide methods intended to help workers to eliminate \"\"shadow movements\"\" (which he believed wasted energy and time) and to focus instead on constructive movements necessary to the job in hand. He published \"Modern Educational Dance\" in 1948 when his ideas on dance for all including children were taught in many British schools.  He died in the UK.  Among Laban's students, friends, and associates were Mary Wigman, Kurt Jooss, Lisa Ullmann, Albrecht Knust, Lilian Harmel, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, Hilde Holger, Gertrud Kraus, Gisa Geert, Warren Lamb, Elizabeth Sneddon, Yat Malmgren and Irmgard Bartenieff.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Archives.", "content": "The Laban Collection in the Laban Archive at Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance documents Laban's life and work in the 1920s-1950s. The Rudolf Laban Archive at the National Resource Centre for Dance documents his educational work in the UK and contains many of his original drawings. The John Hodgson Collection in the Brotherton Library at Leeds University holds original documents relating to Laban's career in Europe in the early twentieth century. Other archives holding material about Rudolf Laban include the Tanzarchiv Leipzig e.V., Dartington Archive and the German Dance Archives, Cologne", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudolf von Laban, also known as Rudolf Laban (; 15 December 1879 – 1 July 1958), was an Austro-Hungarian dance artist and theorist. He is considered as one of the pioneers of modern dance in Europe as the \"Founding Father of the Expressionist Dance\" in Germany. His work laid the foundations for Laban Movement Analysis, Labanotation (Kinetography Laban), other more specific developments in dance notation and the evolution of many varieties of Laban movement analysis. He is considered to be one of the most important figures in the history of dance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973193}
{"src_title": "Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Gudkov LaGG-3", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The prototype of the LaGG-3 was called the I-301 and was designed by Semyon A. Lavochkin, Vladimir P. Gorbunov and Mikhail I. Gudkov. The prototype was later renamed the LaGG-1 and production aircraft were called the LaGG-3. The prototype was designed and produced by the GAZ-301 factory in Khimki to the North West of Moscow. The design was approved for production in January of 1940 and in the prototype's name the I- prefix stood for \"istrebitel\" \"destroyer\" and the number signified the design bureau responsible (which in this case was the GAZ-301 factory). The I-301 was a single-seat, low-wing monoplane, with a semi-monocoque fuselage, and skinned with birch veneer and plywood.  The I-301 airframe was partially made of \"delta wood\": a material composed of very thin (0.35–0.55 mm) layers of birch or pine wood veneer, and a phenol-formaldehyde resin known as VIAM-B-3, which together were baked at high temperatures and pressures. Delta wood was used for critical parts of the airframe. This novel construction material had tensile strength comparable to that of non-hardened aluminum alloys and only 30% lower than that of precipitation hardened D-1A grade duralumin. It was also incombustible and completely invulnerable to rot, with service life measured in decades in adverse conditions. During production of the prototype, it was discovered that the adhesive used in delta wood caused skin irritation and safety procedures needed to be devised for workers.  The full wooden wing (with plywood surfaces) was analogous to that of the Yak-1. The only difference was that the LaGG's wings were built from two spars. The fuselage was of similar construction to the MiG-1.  The I-301 was armed with one axial mounted MP-6 23 mm autocannon designed by Ya Taubin which fired through a hollow propeller shaft in the \"vee\" between the engine cylinders and two synchronized Berezin UBS machine guns in the cowl. The MP-6 had 81 rounds of ammunition while the Berezin UBS had 230 rounds per gun. The MP-6 was abandoned after the prototype due to excessive recoil forces that damaged engine fittings. The I-301 used a Klimov M-105P engine of a licensed derivative of the Hispano-Suiza HS 12Y with a two-speed two-stage supercharger. At it was heavier than its competitors the Yak-1 and Mig-1 which meant its ceiling of was less than both. The I-301 took to the air for the first time on 30 March 1940 and by 12 June 1940 the manufacturer's tests were completed. The test pilot A Nikashin reported that the fit and finish of the prototype was very good, it handled well, was maneuverable and could be mastered by pilots of average ability.  On 14 June 1940 state acceptance trials began and it reached at sea level, at, and climbed to in 5.85 minutes. Later the I-301 reached at with its radiator doors shut making it the fastest M-105P powered aircraft. The I-301 had a fuel capacity of carried in three self-sealing fuel tanks between the wing spars in the wing's center-section giving it a range of. During testing the state specification was increased to a maximum range of and fuel capacity was increased to. Aircraft with this fuel capacity were designated as LaGG-3's while the prototype was re-designated as the LaGG-1. The test flights revealed 114 faults that needed to be fixed but the project was given high priority so most of these faults were to be addressed in production aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "On 29 June 1940 the LaGG-3 was accepted for production and the first plant to build LaGG-3's was Plant No.23 in Leningrad and was tested in December 1940. As soon they were built, the first aircraft were sent to their units in Soviet Asia. The LaGG-3 proved immensely unpopular with pilots. It was somewhat hard to control as it reacted sluggishly to stick forces. In particular, it was difficult to pull out of a dive, and if the stick was pulled too hard it tended to fall into a spin. As a consequence, sharp turns were difficult to perform. Moreover, pilots reported several imperfections: badly made hydraulic systems, broken connecting rods, oil leaks, engine overheating, rapid engine wear and loss of power. Other faults included, defective landing gear, tail wheel failure, poor quality cockpit glass, poorly finished cowling panels, and poor quality delta wood panels due to rushed production, as a result of the German invasion. The quality of aircraft varied widely from factory to factory.  As reports of these problems came back to Lavochkin's Experimental Design Bureau (OKB), in February 1941, no less than 2,228 modifications were ordered to be introduced into the series. Actually, despite the military's doubts, the Soviet government ordered 66 series of the Lavochkin fighter, which underwent a host of successive improvements in engines, propeller, and armament. The airframe was lightened as well. The LaGG team re-examined the design and pared down the structure as much as possible. Moreover, automatic slats were added to the wings to improve climb and maneuverability on the 35th Series and further weight was saved by installing lighter armament (the first four series were equipped with one axial Berezin machine gun firing through a hollow propeller shaft, two more synchronized cowl mounted Berezin machine guns with 200 rounds per gun and two synchronized ShKAS machine guns above and to the rear of the cowling with 325 rounds per gun; from 8th Series the axial Berezin was replaced by a ShVAK, coupled with a port Berezin in the cowling. But the improvement was slight and, thus, without an alternative powerplant, when the LaGG-3 was first committed to combat in July 1941, it was effective against bombers but it was completely outclassed by the Messerschmitt Bf 109 F.  In combat, the main advantage of the LaGG-3 was the strength of its airframe and the fact that it did not easily catch fire, despite the extensive use of wood. However, the laminated wooden panels did tend to shatter when hit by high explosive rounds and Soviet pilots nicknamed the plane \"Lakirovanny Garantirovanny Grob\", or \"guaranteed varnished coffin\".  On the whole, pilots disliked the type. Pilot Viktor M. Sinaisky recalled: Later in 1941, the LaGG-3 appeared with an internally balanced rudder, retractable ski landing gear for the winter, retractable tailwheel and plumbed for drop tanks. The result was still not good enough. Even with the lighter airframe and revised supercharged engine, the LaGG-3 was underpowered. However, despite its limitations, some Soviet pilots managed to reach the status of ace flying the LaGG-3. G. I. Grigor'yev, from 178th IAP, was credited of at least 11 air victories plus two shared. But pictures of his LaGG-3 \"Yellow 6\", in November–December 1941, show 15 \"stars\", so his score was probably higher. Experiments with fitting a Shvetsov M-82 radial engine to the LaGG-3 airframe finally solved the power problem and led to the Lavochkin La-5 and La-7.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Gudkov LaGG-3 (Лавочкин-Горбунов-Гудков ЛаГГ-3) was a Soviet fighter aircraft of World War II. It was a refinement of the earlier LaGG-1 and was one of the most modern aircraft available to the Soviet Air Force at the time of Germany's invasion in 1941. Despite its wooden construction, it was overweight and underpowered, at one stage 12 LaGG-3s were being completed daily and 6,528 had been built when factory 31 in Tbilisi switched to Yak-3 production in 1944.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973194}
{"src_title": "Four Olds", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The term \"Four Old\" first appeared on June 1, 1966, in Chen Boda's \"People's Daily\" editorial, \"Sweep Away All Monsters and Demons\", where the Old Things were described as anti-proletarian, \"fostered by the exploiting classes, [and to] have poisoned the minds of the people for thousands of years\". However, which customs, cultures, habits, and ideas specifically constituted the \"Four Olds\" were never clearly defined.  On August 8, the Central Committee used the term at its 8th National Congress. The term was endorsed on August 18 by Lin Biao at a mass rally, and from there it spread to \"Red Flag\" magazine, as well as to Red Guard publications.  Calls to destroy the \"Four Olds\" usually did not appear in isolation, but were contrasted with the hope of building the \"Four News\" (new customs, new culture, new habits, new ideas). The idea that Chinese culture was responsible for China's economic backwardness and needed to be reformed had some precedent in the May Fourth Movement (1919), and was also encouraged by colonial authorities during the Japanese occupation of China.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campaign.", "content": "The campaign to Destroy the Four Olds and Cultivate the Four News () began in Beijing on August 19. The first things to change were the names of streets and stores: \"Blue Sky Clothes Store\" to \"Defending Mao Zedong Clothes Store\", \"Cai E Road\" to \"Red Guard Road\", and so forth. Many people also changed their given names to revolutionary slogans, such as Zhihong (, \"Determined Red\") or Jige (, \"Following the Revolution\").  Other manifestations of the Red Guard campaign included giving speeches, posting big-character posters, and harassment of people, such as intellectuals, who defiantly demonstrated the Four Olds. In later stages of the campaign, examples of Chinese architecture were destroyed, classical literature and Chinese paintings were torn apart, and Chinese temples were desecrated.  The Cemetery of Confucius was attacked in November 1966, during the Cultural Revolution, when it was visited and vandalized by a team of Red Guards from Beijing Normal University, led by Tan Houlan. The corpse of the 76th-generation Duke Yansheng was removed from its grave and hung naked from a tree in front of the palace during the desecration of the cemetery in the Cultural Revolution.  Red Guards broke into the homes of the wealthy and destroyed paintings, books, and furniture; all were items that they viewed as part of the Four Olds. Many families' long-kept genealogy books were burned to ashes. The Chinese government stopped short of endorsing the physical destruction of products. In fact, the government protected significant archaeological discoveries made during the Cultural Revolution, such as the Mawangdui and the Terracotta Army.  Many artists and other cultural professionals were persecuted by vigilantes, although some cultural advances came about because of the period, including the integration of \"new\" western instruments and ballet into Peking opera. Traditional Chinese medicine also advanced despite the Four Olds campaign, most significantly by the derivation of the anti-malarial drug artemisinin from the qinghao plant.  Upon learning that Red Guards were approaching the Forbidden City, Premier Zhou Enlai ordered the gates shut and deployed the People's Liberation Army against the Red Guards. After this incident, Zhou attempted to create a more peaceful code of conduct for the Red Guards, with the support of cadres Tao Zhu, Li Fuchuan, and Chen Yi. This plan was foiled by the ultra-leftists Kang Sheng, Jiang Qing, and Zhang Chunqiao. Although many of Zhou's other initiatives to stem the destruction failed because of their or Mao's own opposition, he did succeed in preventing Beijing from being renamed \"East Is Red City\" and the Chinese guardian lions in front of Tian'anmen Square from being replaced with statues of Mao.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appraisal of damage.", "content": "No official statistics have ever been produced by the Communist party in terms of reporting the actual cost of damage. By 1978, many stories of death and destruction caused by the Cultural Revolution had leaked out of China and became known worldwide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restoration.", "content": "Starting in the 1990s and continuing into the 21st century, there has been a massive rebuilding effort under way to restore and rebuild cultural sites that were destroyed or damaged during the Cultural Revolution. This has coincided with a resurgence in interest in, and demand for, Chinese cultural artifacts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Four Olds or the Four Old Things () was a term used during the Cultural Revolution by the Red Guards in the People's Republic of China in reference to the pre-communist elements of Chinese culture they attempted to destroy. The Four Olds were: Old Customs, Old Culture, Old Habits, and Old Ideas. The campaign to destroy the Four Olds began in Beijing on August 19, 1966, shortly after the launch of the Cultural Revolution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973195}
{"src_title": "Jacob Clemens non Papa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Nothing is known of Clemens' early life, and even the details of the years of his artistic maturity are sketchy. He may have been born in Middelburg, Zeeland, though the evidence is contradictory; certainly he was from somewhere in modern Belgium or the Netherlands. The first unambiguous reference to him is from the late 1530s, when Pierre Attaingnant published a collection of his chansons in Paris. Between March 1544 and June 1545 he worked as \"succentor\" at the cathedral of Bruges, and shortly thereafter he began a business relationship with Tielman Susato, the publisher in Antwerp, which was to last for the rest of his life. From 1545 until 1549 he was probably choirmaster to Philippe de Croy, Duke of Aerschot, one of Charles V's greatest generals, where he preceded Nicolas Gombert. In 1550 he was employed as \"sanger ende componist\" (\"singer and composer\") by the Illustrious Brotherhood of Our Blessed Lady in's-Hertogenbosch. There is also evidence that he lived and worked in Ypres and Leiden. It is speculated on slender evidence that he also worked in Dordrecht.  There are several theories regarding the origin of the epithet \"non Papa\". One holds that it was jokingly added by his publisher, Susato, to distinguish him from Pope Clement VII—\"Jacob Clemens—but not the Pope.\" Another states that it is to distinguish him from Jacobus Papa, a poet also from Ypres. However, considering that Pope Clement VII died in 1534, before any of Clemens's music was published, and that the confusion with the poet is unlikely in that the surnames were quite distinct, it is likely that the nickname was merely created in jest rather than for practical reasons. Nonetheless, the suffix has remained throughout the ages.  Details about his death are not known, but he probably died in 1555 or 1556. The 1558 text in Jacobus Vaet's \"Continuo lacrimas\", his \"déploration\" on Clemens's death, suggests that he met a violent end, though if true, the circumstances are not given. According to a 1644 source, Clemens was buried at Diksmuide near Ypres in present-day Belgium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works and influence.", "content": "Unlike many of his contemporaries, Clemens seems never to have traveled to Italy, with the result that Italian influence is absent in his music. He represents the northern European dialect of the Franco-Flemish style.  Clemens was one of the chief representatives of the generation between Josquin and Palestrina and Orlandus Lassus. He was primarily a composer of sacred music. In fact, his musical output was roughly 80 percent sacred music, either liturgical or for private use. Of his approximately 233 motets, only three contain secular texts, in the form of hymns of praise of music. However, he did compose just above 100 secular works that encompass the whole gamut of poetic genres that were used by composers in his generation. Considering that his career as a composer lasted for barely two decades, Clemens was an extremely prolific composer:  Of all these works, the \"Souterliedekens\" were perhaps the most widely known and influential. The \"Souterliedekens\" were published in 1556-1557 by Susato in his \"Musyck Boexken\" (\"Music Books\"), IV-VII and comprised the only Protestant part-music in Dutch during the Renaissance. Based on a preceding volume of \"Souterliedekens\" printed by Symon Cock that contained monophonic settings of the psalms in Dutch, Clemens's \"Souterliedekens\" became the first complete polyphonic settings of all 150 psalms in Dutch. Presumably, the original verse translation of the Psalter into the Dutch language was completed by Willem van Nievelt from Wittenberg. Clemens's part-settings are generally simple, and designed to be sung by people at home. They use the well-known secular tunes that were printed in the Cock edition, including drinking songs, love songs, ballads, and other popular songs of the time, as a \"cantus firmus.\" Most of them were set for 3 parts, and there are 26 different combinations of these voices. Some of the \"Souterliedekens\" are based on dance-songs and are frankly homophonic and homorhythmic, while others use imitation. It is notable that these pieces of music survived the ban in 1569 when the government under the Duke of Alba censured all books that were deemed heretical.  After Clemens' death, his works were distributed to Germany, France, Spain, and even among various circles in England. The influence of Clemens was especially prominent in Germany. Franco-Flemish composer Lassus in particular knew his music well and incorporated elements of his style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memorial year.", "content": "In 2012, Clemens' supposed 500th anniversary is celebrated in several of the towns where he is thought to have worked as a singer and composer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacobus Clemens non Papa (also Jacques Clément or Jacob Clemens non Papa) ( – 1555 or 1556) was a Netherlandish composer of the Renaissance based for most of his life in Flanders. He was a prolific composer in many of the current styles, and was especially famous for his polyphonic settings of the psalms in Dutch known as the \"Souterliedekens.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973196}
{"src_title": "Racibórz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is situated in the southwest of the voivodeship on the upper Oder river, near the border with the Polish Opole Voivodeship and the Czech Republic. The Racibórz Basin (\"Kotlina Raciborska\") forms the southeastern extension of the Silesian Lowlands, surrounded by the Opawskie Mountains in the west (part of the Eastern Sudetes), the Silesian Upland in the north, and the Moravian Gate in the south. The town centre is located about southwest of Katowice and about southeast of the regional capital Wrocław.  As of 2019, the town has a population of approximately 55,000 inhabitants. From 1975 to 1998, it belonged to Katowice Voivodeship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Until the end of the 5th century AD, the lands of the later Racibórz settlement were inhabited by East Germanic Silinger tribes. The town is one of the oldest in Upper Silesia, the site of a hill fort where the old trade route from the Moravian Gate down to Kraków crossed the Oder river. There is a possibility that Racibórz was mentioned in a work of the \"Bavarian Geographer\" in 845 (this document mentions five strongholds of the Slavic Golensizi (Golenshitse, \"Holasici\" in Czech), a proto-Polish tribe, probably Racibórz was one of them). The name Racibórz is of Slavic origin and probably is derived from the name of one Duke Racibor, the city's founder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "However, the first confirmed mention of Racibórz was made in 1108 in the \"Gesta principum Polonorum\" chronicle by the Benedictine monk Gallus Anonymus, at a time when the Polish duke Bolesław III Wrymouth had to ward off the attacks by the forces of Duke Svatopluk of Bohemia invading from the Moravian lands in the south. The Polish rule over the Racibórz area was confirmed in 1137, it was incorporated into the Duchy of Silesia according to the Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty in the following year.  From 1155, Racibórz was the seat of a castellany. The town became the first historical capital of Upper Silesia, when the Duchy of Racibórz was established by the Piast duke Mieszko I Tanglefoot upon the first partition of Silesia in 1172. From 1202 onwards, Duke Mieszko ruled over whole Upper Silesia as Duke of Opole and Racibórz. He had the settlement beneath his residence laid out and the area colonized by Flemish merchants, the first coin with the Polish description \"MILOST\" was issued in Racibórz in 1211. Mieszko's son and successor Duke Casimir I granted the Racibórz citizens municipal privileges in 1217.  Under the rule of Mieszko II the Fat, the town resisted the Mongol invasion of 1241 and the Duke founded a Dominican monastery in the city, where he was buried in 1246. The first Polish national anthem \"Gaude Mater Polonia\" was written ca. 1260–70 in Latin by the Dominican brother Wincenty of Kielcza. In 1285 Duke Przemysław of Racibórz granted the Wrocław bishop Thomas II Zaremba asylum during his fierce struggle with the Silesian duke Henry IV Probus. In turn, Bishop Thomas donated a college of canons at Racibórz Castle, dedicated to Saint Thomas of Canterbury. Duke Przemysław also founded a Dominican nunnery and his daughter Euphemia became its first prioress in 1313. Around 1300, the Dominican friar Peregrine of Opole compiled his \"Sermones de tempore\" and \"Sermones de sanctis\" collections.  From 1299 onwards, Racibórz was ruled by an autonomous city council according to Magdeburg town law. When in 1327 Duke Leszek of Racibórz paid homage to the Luxembourg king John of Bohemia, his duchy became a Bohemian fiefdom. The Bohemian feudal suzerainty, confirmed in the 1335 Treaty of Trentschin, led to the seizure of Racibórz as a reverted fief, when the line of the Silesian Piasts became extinct upon Duke Leszek's death in 1336. The next year King John enfeoffed Leszek's brother-in-law Duke Nicholas II of Opava with the duchy, which from that time on was ruled by the Opava cadet branch of the Bohemian Přemyslid dynasty and incorporated into the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. The Racibórz citizens retained their autonomy and the town developed to an important commercial centre for the region with significant cloth, tanning and brewing industries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern Era.", "content": "When the last Přemyslid duke Valentin died and was buried in the Dominican church in 1521, Racibórz according to a 1512 inheritance treaty fell to the Opole dukes Jan II the Good, also a vassal of Bohemian king. As he himself left no male heirs, his lands fell back to the Habsburg king Ferdinand I. With Opole, Racibórz was temporarily given in pawn to the Hohenzollern margraves of Ansbach and to the royal Polish House of Vasa. The town's economy suffered from the devastations in the Thirty Years' War.  After the First Silesian War in 1742, Racibórz was ceded to the Kingdom of Prussia under Frederick the Great. With most of the Silesian territory it was incorporated into the Province of Silesia in 1815 and the town became the administrative seat of a \"Landkreis\". The mediate Lordship of Ratibor was acquired by Elector William I of Hesse in 1812, succeeded by Landgrave Victor Amadeus of Hesse-Rotenburg in 1821 and Prince Victor of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst in 1834, who was vested with the title of a \"Duke of Ratibor\" by King Frederick William IV of Prussia in 1840. At that time, Ratibor had already lost its status as a residential town, while the princes held court in the secularised monastery of Rausen. In the 19th century, Prussian policies increased the Germanisation. Ratibor became part of the German Empire in 1871. The famous German Romantic poet Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff, a Roman Catholic Silesian nobleman, was born at Lubowitz castle near the town in 1788.  After World War I, Ratibor was incorporated in the Prussian Province of Upper Silesia, it became a border town after the Upper Silesia plebiscite in 1921. During World War II, it was initially spared by the Red Army Vistula–Oder Offensive but occupied and devastated on 30 March 1945. After end of the war, in June 1945, the army of Czechoslovakia briefly entered into the town and Czechoslovakia officially claimed the area of Racibórz and Głubczyce (\"Ratibořsko\" and \"Hlubčicko\") because of having a substantial Czech minority (see border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia). At the same time the expulsion of Germans started, while the town became wholly part of Poland as defined at the Potsdam Conference. The German CDU politician Herbert Hupka at the end of his life promoted reconciliation between the former German inhabitants, including himself, and the new Polish settlers and administration of Racibórz. In 1997, a flood devastated the town.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Racibórz is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Racibórz (,, ) is a town in Silesian Voivodeship in southern Poland. It is the administrative seat of Racibórz County.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973197}
{"src_title": "Horst Ludwig Störmer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Störmer was born in Frankfurt am Main, and grew up in the nearby town of Sprendlingen. After graduating from the Goetheschule in Neu-Isenburg in 1967, he enrolled in architectural engineering at the TH Darmstadt, but later moved to the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt to study physics, but since he had missed the registration period for physics, he began with a mathematics and later changed to physics, qualifying for his Diploma in the laboratory of Prof. Werner Martienssen. Here he was supervised by Prof. Eckhardt Hoenig, and worked alongside another future Nobel laureate, Gerd Binnig.  Störmer moved to France to carry out his PhD research in Grenoble, working in a high-magnetic field laboratory which was run jointly between the French CNRS and the German Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research. Störmer's academic advisor was Prof. Hans-Joachim Queisser, and he was awarded a PhD by the University of Stuttgart in 1977 for his thesis on investigations of electron hole droplets subject to high magnetic fields. He also met his wife, Dominique Parchet, while working in Grenoble.  After receiving his PhD, Störmer moved to the US to work at Bell Labs, where he carried out the research that led to his Nobel prize. After working at Bell Labs for 20 years, he became the I.I. Rabi professor of physics and applied physics at Columbia University in New York City. He retired as professor emeritus in 2011.  Störmer is a naturalized US citizen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research career.", "content": "Perhaps as important as the work for which he won the Nobel prize is his invention of modulation doping, a method for making extremely high mobility two dimensional electron systems in semiconductors. This enabled the later observation of the fractional quantum Hall effect, which was discovered by Störmer and Tsui in October 1981 in an experiment carried out in the Francis Bitter High Magnetic Field Lab at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Within a year of the experimental discovery, Robert Laughlin was able to explain its results. Störmer, Tsui and Laughlin were jointly awarded the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work.  <div style=\"clear:both\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Horst Ludwig Störmer (born April 6, 1949) is a German physicist, Nobel laureate and emeritus professor at Columbia University. He was awarded the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physics jointly with Daniel Tsui and Robert Laughlin \"for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations\" (the fractional quantum Hall effect). He and Tsui were working at Bell Labs at the time of the experiment cited by the Nobel committee.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973198}
{"src_title": "Moment-generating function", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "The moment-generating function of a random variable \"X\" is  wherever this expectation exists. In other words, the moment-generating function is the expectation of the random variable formula_2. More generally, when formula_3, an formula_4-dimensional random vector, and formula_5 is a fixed vector, one uses formula_6 instead of formula_7:  formula_9 always exists and is equal to 1. However, a key problem with moment-generating functions is that moments and the moment-generating function may not exist, as the integrals need not converge absolutely. By contrast, the characteristic function or Fourier transform always exists (because it is the integral of a bounded function on a space of finite measure), and for some purposes may be used instead.  The moment-generating function is so named because it can be used to find the moments of the distribution. The series expansion of formula_10 is  Hence  where formula_13 is the formula_4th moment. Differentiating formula_15 formula_16 times with respect to formula_17 and setting formula_18, we obtain the formula_16th moment about the origin, formula_20; see Calculations of moments below.  If formula_21 is a continuous random variable, the following relation between its moment-generating function formula_15 and the two-sided Laplace transform of its probability density function formula_23 holds:  since the PDF's two-sided Laplace transform is given as  and the moment-generating function's definition expands (by the law of the unconscious statistician) to  This is consistent with the characteristic function of formula_21 being a Wick rotation of formula_15 when the moment generating function exists, as the characteristic function of a continuous random variable formula_21 is the Fourier transform of its probability density function formula_23, and in general when a function formula_31 is of exponential order, the Fourier transform of formula_32 is a Wick rotation of its two-sided Laplace transform in the region of convergence. See the relation of the Fourier and Laplace transforms for further information.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "Here are some examples of the moment-generating function and the characteristic function for comparison. It can be seen that the characteristic function is a Wick rotation of the moment-generating function formula_15 when the latter exists. formula_34", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calculation.", "content": "The moment-generating function is the expectation of a function of the random variable, it can be written as:  Note that for the case where formula_21 has a continuous probability density function formula_31, formula_42 is the two-sided Laplace transform of formula_31.  where formula_13 is the formula_4th moment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Linear transformations of random variables.", "content": "If random variable formula_21 has moment generating function formula_15, then formula_49 has moment generating function formula_50", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Linear combination of independent random variables.", "content": "If formula_52, where the \"X\" are independent random variables and the \"a\" are constants, then the probability density function for \"S\" is the convolution of the probability density functions of each of the \"X\", and the moment-generating function for \"S\" is given by", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vector-valued random variables.", "content": "For vector-valued random variables formula_54 with real components, the moment-generating function is given by  where formula_5 is a vector and formula_57 is the dot product.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Important properties.", "content": "Moment generating functions are positive and log-convex, with \"M\"(0) = 1.  An important property of the moment-generating function is that if two distributions have the same moment-generating function, then they are identical at almost all points. That is, if for all values of \"t\",  then  for all values of \"x\" (or equivalently \"X\" and \"Y\" have the same distribution). This statement is not equivalent to the statement \"if two distributions have the same moments, then they are identical at all points.\" This is because in some cases, the moments exist and yet the moment-generating function does not, because the limit  may not exist. The lognormal distribution is an example of when this occurs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calculations of moments.", "content": "The moment-generating function is so called because if it exists on an open interval around \"t\" = 0, then it is the exponential generating function of the moments of the probability distribution:  That is, with \"n\" being a nonnegative integer, the \"n\"th moment about 0 is the \"n\"th derivative of the moment generating function, evaluated at \"t\" = 0.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other properties.", "content": "Jensen's inequality provides a simple lower bound on the moment-generating function: where formula_63 is the mean of \"X\".  Upper bounding the moment-generating function can be used in conjunction with Markov's inequality to bound the upper tail of a real random variable \"X\". This statement is also called the Chernoff bound. Since formula_64 is monotonically increasing for formula_65, we have for any formula_65 and any \"a\", provided formula_15 exists. For example, when \"X\" is a standard normal distribution and formula_69, we can choose formula_70 and recall that formula_71. This gives formula_72, which is within a factor of 1+\"a\" of the exact value.  Various lemmas, such as Hoeffding's lemma or Bennett's inequality provide bounds on the moment-generating function in the case of a zero-mean, bounded random variable.  When all moments are non-negative, the moment generating function gives a simple, useful bound on the moments:  This can be extended to non-integer powers formula_74 by applying the mentioned Chernoff bound and the Law of the unconscious statistician:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relation to other functions.", "content": "Related to the moment-generating function are a number of other transforms that are common in probability theory:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In probability theory and statistics, the moment-generating function of a real-valued random variable is an alternative specification of its probability distribution. Thus, it provides the basis of an alternative route to analytical results compared with working directly with probability density functions or cumulative distribution functions. There are particularly simple results for the moment-generating functions of distributions defined by the weighted sums of random variables. However, not all random variables have moment-generating functions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973199}
{"src_title": "Turkish lira", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ottoman lira (1844–1923).", "content": "The lira, along with the related currencies of Europe and the Middle East, has its roots in the ancient Roman unit of weight known as the libra which referred to the Troy pound of silver. The Roman libra adoption of the currency spread it throughout Europe and the Near East, where it continued to be used into medieval times. The Turkish lira, the French livre (until 1794), the Italian lira (until 2002), and the British pound (a translated version of the Roman \"libra\"; the word \"pound\" as a unit of weight is still abbreviated as \"lb.\") are the modern descendants of the ancient currency.  The Ottoman lira was introduced as the main unit of currency in 1844, with the former currency, kuruş, remaining as a subdivision. The Ottoman lira remained in circulation until the end of 1927.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First Turkish lira (1923–2005).", "content": "Historical banknotes from the second, third and fourth issues have portraits of \"İsmet İnönü\" on the obverse side. This change was done according to the 12 January 1926 issue of the official gazette and canceled by the Democrat Party after World War II.  After periods of the lira pegged to the British pound and the French franc, a peg of 2.8 Turkish lira = 1 U.S. dollar was adopted in 1946 and maintained until 1960, when the currency was devalued to 9 Turkish lira = 1 dollar. From 1970, a series of hard, then soft pegs to the dollar operated as the value of the Turkish lira began to fall.  The following are based on yearly averages:  The \"Guinness Book of Records\" ranked the Turkish lira as the world's least valuable currency in 1995 and 1996, and again from 1999 to 2004. The Turkish lira had slid in value so far that one original gold lira coin could be sold for 154,400,000 Turkish lira before the 2005 revaluation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second Turkish lira (2005–present).", "content": "In December 2003, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey passed a law that allowed for redenomination by the removal of six zeros from the Turkish lira, and the creation of a new currency. It was introduced on 1 January 2005, replacing the previous Turkish lira (which remained valid in circulation until the end of 2005) at a rate of 1 second Turkish lira (ISO 4217 code \"TRY\") = 1,000,000 first Turkish lira (ISO 4217 code \"TRL\"). With the revaluation of the Turkish lira, the Romanian leu (also revalued in July 2005) briefly became the world's least valued currency unit. At the same time, the Government introduced two new banknotes with the denominations of 50 and 100.  In the transition period between January 2005 and December 2008, the second Turkish lira was officially called \"Yeni Türk lirası\" (\"New Turkish lira\"). It was officially abbreviated \"YTL\" and subdivided into 100 new \"kuruş\" (\"yeni kuruş\"). Starting in January 2009, the \"new\" marking was removed from the second Turkish lira, its official name becoming just \"Turkish lira\" again, abbreviated \"TL\". All obverse sides of current banknotes have portraits of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Until 2016, the same held for the reverse sides of all current coins, but in 2016 one-lira coins were issued to commemorate the \"martyrs and veterans\" of the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, the reverse sides of some of which depict hands holding up a Turkish flag while others show in stylized form a collection of five-pointed stars topped by a Turkish flag.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coins.", "content": "From 1 January 2009, the phrase \"new\" was removed from the second Turkish lira, its official name in Turkey becoming just \"Turkish lira\" again; new coins without the word \"\"yeni\"\" were introduced in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 \"kuruş\" and 1 Turkish lira. Also, the center and ring alloys of the 50 \"kuruş\" and 1 Turkish lira coins were reversed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Banknotes.", "content": "A new series of banknotes, the \"E-9 Emission Group\" entered circulation on 1 January 2009, with the E-8 group ceasing to be valid after 31 December 2009 (although still redeemable at branches of the Central Bank until 31 December 2019). The E-9 banknotes refer to the currency as \"Turkish lira\" rather than \"new Turkish lira\" and include a new 200-Turkish-lira denomination. The new banknotes have different sizes to prevent forgery. The main specificity of this new series is that each denomination depicts a famous Turkish personality, rather than geographical sites and architectural features of Turkey. The dominant color of the 5-Turkish-lira banknote has been determined as \"purple\" on the second series of the current banknotes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exchange rates.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2018 crisis.", "content": "In 2018, the lira's exchange rate accelerated deterioration, reaching a level of US$4.5/TRY by mid-May and of 4.9 a week later. Among economists, the accelerating loss of value was generally attributed to Recep Tayyip Erdoğan preventing the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey from making the necessary interest rate adjustments. Erdoğan, who claimed interest rates beyond his control to be \"the mother and father of all evil\", said that \"the central bank can't take this independence and set aside the signals given by the president.\" Despite Erdogan's apparent opposition, Turkey's Central Bank raised interest rates sharply.  In the campaign for the 2018 general election in Turkey, a widespread conspiracy theory claimed that the Turkish lira's decline were the work of a shadowy group, made up of Americans, English, Dutch and \"some Jewish families\" who would want to deprive incumbent President Erdogan of support in the elections. According to a poll from April 2018, 42 percent of Turks, and 59 percent of governing AK Party voters, saw the decline in the lira as a plot by foreign powers. Turkish foreign minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu claimed Trump's wish to let the current US-Turkish tensions to drag on to the November 2018 US elections so to appeal to his Christian base and gain some points for his party.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Currency sign.", "content": "The current currency sign of Turkish lira was created by the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey in 2012. The new sign was selected after a country-wide contest. The new symbol, created by \"Tülay Lale\", is composed of the letter 'L' shaped like a half anchor, and embedded double-striped letter 'T' angled at 20 degrees.  The design created by Tülay Lale was endorsed after a country-wide competition. It was chosen as the winner from a shortlist of seven submissions to the board of the Central Bank, selected from a total of 8,362 entries. The symbol resembles the first letter of the Turkish monetary unit L in the form of a half anchor with double stroke.  Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan announced the new symbol on 1 March 2012. At its unveiling, Erdoğan explained the design as \"the anchor shape hopes to convey that the currency is a'safe harbor' while the upward-facing lines represent its rising prestige\".  Faik Öztrak, vice chairman of the main opposition party CHP, alleged that the new sign resembles the initials 'TE' of then-prime minister Tayyip Erdoğan in a reference to the tughra of Ottoman sultans. The new Turkish lira sign was also criticized for allegedly showing a similarity with an upside-down Armenian dram sign.  In May 2012, the Unicode Technical Committee accepted the encoding of a new character for the currency sign, which was included in Unicode 6.2 released in September 2012. On Microsoft Windows operating systems, when using Turkish-Q or Turkish-F keyboard layouts, it can be typed with the combination.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Turkish lira (; sign: ₺; code: TRY; usually abbreviated as TL) is the currency of Turkey and the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973200}
{"src_title": "Twenty-One Demands", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Japan had gained a large sphere of influence in northern China and Manchuria through its victories in the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, and had thus joined the ranks of the European imperialist powers in their scramble to establish political and economic domination over Imperial China under the Qing dynasty. With the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution, and the establishment of the new Republic of China, Japan saw an opportunity to further expand its position in China.  The German Empire was in control of the Shandong province as part of the Kiautschou Bay concession since 1898. With the onset of the First World War, Japan declared war against Germany on 23 August 1914, and quickly secured victory by 7 November 1914 after the conclusion of the Siege of Tsingtao.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Initial negotiations.", "content": "Japan, under Prime Minister Ōkuma Shigenobu and Foreign Minister Katō Takaaki, drafted the initial list of Twenty-One Demands, which were reviewed by the \"genrō\" and Emperor Taishō, and approved by the Diet. This list was presented to Yuan Shikai on January 18, 1915, with warnings of dire consequences if China were to reject them.  The Twenty One Demands were divided into five groups:  Knowing the negative reaction \"Group 5\" would cause, Japan initially tried to keep its contents secret. The Chinese government attempted to stall for as long as possible and leaked the full contents of the Twenty-One Demands to European powers in the hope that due to a perceived threat to their own political and economic spheres of interest, they would help contain Japan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Japanese ultimatum.", "content": "After China rejected Japan's revised proposal on 26 April 1915, the \"genrō\" intervened and deleted ‘Group 5’ from the document, as these had proved to be the most objectionable to the Chinese government. A reduced set of \"Thirteen Demands\" was transmitted on May 7 in the form of an ultimatum, with a two-day deadline for response. Yuan Shikai, competing with other local warlords to become the ruler of all China, was not in a position to risk war with Japan, and accepted appeasement, a tactic followed by his successors. The final form of the treaty was signed by both parties on May 25, 1915.  Katō Takaaki publicly admitted that the ultimatum was invited by Yuan to save face with the Chinese people in conceding to the Demands. American Minister Paul Reinsch reported to the US State Department that the Chinese were surprised at the leniency of the ultimatum, as it demanded much less than they had already committed themselves to concede.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences.", "content": "The results of the revised final (Thirteen Demands) version of the Twenty-One Demands were far more negative for Japan than positive. Without \"Group 5\", the new treaty gave Japan little more than it already had in China.  On the other hand, the United States expressed strongly negative reactions to Japan's rejection of the Open Door Policy. In the Bryan Note issued by Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan on 13 March 1915, the U.S., while affirming Japan's \"special interests\" in Manchuria, Mongolia and Shandong, expressed concern over further encroachments to Chinese sovereignty.  Great Britain, Japan's closest ally, expressed concern over what was perceived as Japan's overbearing, bullying approach to diplomacy, and the British Foreign Office in particular was unhappy with Japanese attempts to establish what would effectively be a Japanese protectorate over all of China.  Afterwards, Japan and the United States looked for a compromise; as a result, the Lansing–Ishii Agreement was concluded in 1917. It was approved by the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.  In China, the overall political impact of Japan's actions was highly negative, creating a considerable amount of public ill-will towards Japan, contributing to the May Fourth Movement, and a significant upsurge in nationalism.  Japan continued to push for outright control over Shandong Province and won European diplomatic recognition for their claim at the Treaty of Versailles (despite the refusal of the Chinese delegation to sign the treaty). This, in turn, provoked ill-will from the United States government, as well as widespread hostility within China; a large-scale boycott against Japanese goods was just one effect. In 1922, the U.S. brokered a solution: China was awarded nominal sovereignty over all of Shandong, while in practice Japan's economic dominance continued.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Twenty-One Demands (, \"Taika Nijūikkajō Yōkyū\", ) were a set of demands made during the First World War by the Empire of Japan under Prime Minister Ōkuma Shigenobu to the government of the Republic of China on 8 January 1915. The demands would greatly extend Japanese control of Manchuria and of the Chinese economy, and were opposed by Britain and the United States. In the final settlement Japan gained a little, but lost a great deal of prestige and trust in Britain and the US.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973201}
{"src_title": "Narthex", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word comes from \"narthex\" (Medieval Latin from Classical Greek \"narthex\" νάρθηξ \"giant fennel, scourge\") and was the place for penitents. In Modern Greek \"narthekas\" (νάρθηκας) no longer has this meaning and is either the porch of a church, as English, or the brace of a sprained wrist or sling of a broken arm. In English the narthex is now the porch outside the church at the west end, formerly it was a part of the church itself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Purpose.", "content": "The purpose of the narthex was to allow those not eligible for admittance into the general congregation (particularly catechumens and penitents) to hear and partake of the service. The narthex would often include a baptismal font so that infants or adults could be baptized there before entering the nave, and to remind other believers of their baptisms as they gathered to worship. The narthex is thus traditionally a place of penitence, and in Eastern Christianity some penitential services, such as the Little Hours during Holy Week are celebrated there, rather than in the main body of the church. In the Russian Orthodox Church funerals are traditionally held in the narthex.  Later reforms removed the requirement to exclude people from services who were not full members of the congregation, which in some traditions obviated the narthex. Church architects continued, however, to build a room before the entrance of the nave. This room could be called an inside vestibule (if it is architecturally part of the nave structure) or a porch (if it is a distinct, external structure). Some traditions still call this area the narthex as it represents the point of entry into the church, even if everyone is admitted to the nave itself.  In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the esonarthex and exonarthex had, and still have, distinct liturgical functions. For instance, the procession at the Paschal Vigil will end up at the exonarthex for the reading of the Resurrection Gospel, while certain penitential services are traditionally chanted in the esonarthex.  In some Eastern Orthodox temples, the narthex will be referred to as the \"trapeza\" (refectory), because in ancient times, tables would be set up there after the Divine Liturgy for the faithful to eat a common meal, similar to the agape feast of the early church. To this day, this is where the faithful will bring their baskets at Pascha (Easter) for the priest to bless the Paschal foods which they will then take back to their homes for the festive break-fast. Traditionally, the narthex is where candles and prosphora will be sold for offering during Divine Services.  The doorway leading from the narthex to the nave is sometimes referred to as the \"Royal Doors\", because in major cathedrals (\"catholica\") there were several sets of doors leading into the nave, the central one being reserved only for the use of the Byzantine emperor.  On feast days there will be a procession to the narthex, followed by intercessory prayers, called the Litiy.  In Armenia the local style of narthex is known as a \"gavit\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The narthex is an architectural element typical of early Christian and Byzantine basilicas and churches consisting of the entrance or lobby area, located at the west end of the nave, opposite the church's main altar. Traditionally the narthex was a part of the church building, but was not considered part of the church proper.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973202}
{"src_title": "Moe Tucker", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Maureen Tucker was born in Jackson Heights, Queens, and grew up in Levittown, New York in a middle-class Catholic family. Her father, James, was a housepainter and her mother, Margaret, was a clerical worker. She had an older brother, Jim, who was friends with Sterling Morrison, and a sister, Margo.  As a teenager Tucker was an avid fan of Babatunde Olatunji, whose music she first heard on Murray the K's radio show. Olatunji, along with Bo Diddley and the Rolling Stones, inspired her to become a musician. She began playing the drums in 1963, at age 19. Without any formal instruction, she learned by playing along with popular songs on a second-hand drum kit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Velvet Underground.", "content": "When she was asked to join the Velvet Underground, Tucker had dropped out of Ithaca College and was working for IBM as a keypunch operator. The band's original percussionist, Angus Maclise, had left in November 1965 because he felt the band sold out when it took a paying gig. Tucker was drafted because Velvets guitarist Sterling Morrison remembered her as the younger sister of one of his college friends who played the drums. Tucker was frequently noted for her androgynous appearance. In spite of this, Tucker has said that she never experienced difficulties due to sexism during this time.  Tucker's style of playing was unconventional. She played standing up rather than seated (for easier access to the bass drum), using a simplified drum kit of tom toms, a snare drum and an upturned bass drum, playing with mallets rather than drumsticks. She rarely used cymbals; she claimed that since she felt the purpose of a drummer was simply to \"keep time\", cymbals were unnecessary for this purpose and drowned out the other instruments. Rock critic Robert Christgau said of Tucker, \"Mo was a great drummer in a minimalist, limited, autodidactic way that I think changed musical history. She is where the punk notion of how the beat works begins.\"  Apart from drumming, Tucker sang co-lead vocals on three Velvet Underground songs: the acoustic guitar number \"After Hours\" and the experimental poetry track \"The Murder Mystery\", both from 1969's \"The Velvet Underground\" album, as well as \"I'm Sticking with You\", a song recorded in 1969 but left (officially) unreleased until it appeared on the 1985 outtakes compilation \"VU\". Lou Reed said of \"After Hours\" that it was \"so innocent and pure\" that he could not possibly sing it himself. In the early days, Tucker also occasionally played the bass guitar during live gigs, an instrument that was usually played by the band's regular bassist John Cale. Morrison would normally play the bass if Cale was occupied with viola or keyboards, despite his lack of enthusiasm for playing the instrument. However, some songs had Reed and Morrison playing their usual guitars and Cale was occupied with viola or keyboards and as a result, nobody was on bass: two examples of this are \"Heroin\" and \"Sister Ray\".  Tucker temporarily left the group when she became pregnant with her first child, Kerry \"Trucker\" Tucker, in early 1970. Because of her pregnancy, Tucker was only able to play on a couple of outtakes for \"Loaded\", which would become the band's fourth and final album with Lou Reed. Billy Yule, the younger and high-school-age brother of bassist Doug Yule, filled in the role of drummer for live performances and some of the songs on the album.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1970s and 1980s.", "content": "Tucker returned to the band in late 1970, by which time Reed had left the group and Doug Yule had assumed leadership. She toured North America (United States and Canada) and Europe (United Kingdom and the Netherlands) with the band during 1970 and 1971; shortly afterward, she quit the band and the music business altogether to raise a family.  Tucker moved to Phoenix, Arizona, in 1971, where she lived with her husband and children. While living in Phoenix, she played drums in the short-lived band Paris 1942 with Alan Bishop of the Sun City Girls. In the early 1980s, she divorced and relocated to Douglas, Georgia, where she was hired at a Wal-Mart distribution center. She quit the job in 1989 when she was asked to go on tour of Europe with the band Half Japanese.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1990s: Solo albums and Velvet Underground reunion.", "content": "Tucker started recording and touring again, releasing a number of albums on small, independent labels that feature her singing and playing guitar, fronting her own band. This band at times included former Velvets colleague Sterling Morrison. Tucker also participated in the 1993 Velvet Underground reunion, touring Europe and releasing the double album \"Live MCMXCIII\".  Apart from releasing her own records, Tucker has made guest performances on a number of others' records, including producing \"Fire in the Sky\" (1992) for Half Japanese, whose guitarist, John Sluggett, plays drums on her own recordings. In Jeff Feuerzeig's documentary about Half Japanese, \"The Band That Would Be King\", Tucker performs and is interviewed extensively. Also, she has appeared with Magnet and former Velvet Underground band members Lou Reed (\"New York\") and John Cale (\"Walking on Locusts\").  Tucker also played drums on and produced the album \"The Lives of Charles Douglas\" by indie rocker and novelist Charles Douglas (also known as Alex McAulay) in 1999.  She played bass drum, wrote songs, and sang with the New York/Memphis punk rock–delta blues fusion group the Kropotkins with Lorette Velvette and Dave Soldier in 1999–2003, recording \"Five Points Crawl\".  In 2017 she played at the Grammy Salute to Music Legends awards ceremony. A band, amongst others, consisting of John Cale, played two Velvet Underground classics \"Sunday Morning\" and \"I'm Waiting For The Man\". The Velvet Underground was the recipient of the 2017 Merit Award.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Moe Tucker was married in the early 1970s, and divorced some time in the early 1980s. She has five children: Kerry, Keith, Austen, Kate, and Richard. Tucker lives in Douglas, Georgia, where she raised her family. In a 2010 interview, she said she had ceased making music several years prior, saying caring for her grandson was a \"full-time job\".  In April 2009, Tucker gave an interview at a Tea Party rally in Tifton, Georgia, to a WALB NBC news crew. She voiced support for the Tea Party movement and said she was \"furious about the way we're being led towards socialism\". On the official \"Tea Party Patriots\" website, Tucker stated: \"I have come to believe (not just wonder) that Obama's plan is to destroy America from within.\"  Tucker expanded on her political views later to the \"Riverfront Times\", saying: \"To be honest, I never paid attention to what the hell was going on. My always voting Democrat was the result of that. My philosophy was and is all politicians are liars, bums and cheats.\" She remained adamant about the need to change the Obama administration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "With others.", "content": "With Charles Douglas (a.k.a. Alex McAulay)  With the Kropotkins  With Lou Reed  With Half Japanese  With Charlie Pickett  With Shotgun Rationale  With Bloodkin  With John Cale  With the Raveonettes", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Maureen Ann \"Moe\" Tucker (born August 26, 1944) is an American musician and singer best known for having been the drummer for the New York City-based rock band the Velvet Underground.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973203}
{"src_title": "Gotthard Tunnel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Financing.", "content": "The Gotthard Railway Company was founded in 1871 under the stewardship of the Swiss industrialist Alfred Escher, who had created the Schweizerische Kreditanstalt in 1856. Despite initial difficulties to finance the project, and resulting costs of about 11% over budget, the financing was shared among private and public investors from Switzerland (20M CHF), Italy (45M CHF) and the German Empire (20M CHF). The bidding war between an engineering company from Geneva and Italy was fought, and finally, the Swiss engineer Louis Favre won the project with an estimated cost of 2830 Swiss francs per meter. Because of his low bid, and the extra costs during construction, Favre increasingly found himself at odds with Swiss politicians and investors alike.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The tunnel was built from 1871 to 1881 and marked the first large-scale use of dynamite which had been patented in 1867. Construction was supervised by the Swiss engineer Louis Favre, who suffered a fatal heart attack inside the tunnel in 1879. Construction was difficult due to financial, technical and geological issues, the latter of which led to the death of around 200 workers (the exact number is not known) mainly due to water inrushes; many were also killed by the compressed air-driven trains carrying excavated material out of the tunnel. There were also serious health issues caused by an epidemic of hookworm infection (\"Ancylostoma duodenale\"). Medical investigations led to \"major advances in parasitology, by way of research into the aetiology, epidemiology and treatment of ancylostomiasis\". A strike of the workers in 1875 was crushed by the Swiss Army, killing four and wounding 13.  A memorial for the dead workers was erected in 1932 near the station building at Airolo. The memorial contains a relief by Vincenzo Vela from 1882/1883, titled \"Vittime del lavoro\" (Victims of labour).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "The tunnel was opened for traffic in 1882, operated by the private railway company Gotthardbahn, which ran from Lucerne to Chiasso at the Italian border. The Gotthardbahn was integrated into the Swiss Federal Railways in 1909. In 1920, the first electric trains were run through the Gotthard Tunnel. Initially the voltage had to be reduced from the desired to, because the grime deposited on the insulators by the steam locomotives encouraged excessive arcing. However, in May the next year, steam was replaced entirely by electric traction, and the problem of soot and grime was eliminated.  Until the opening of the Gotthard Road Tunnel in 1980, the Swiss Federal Railways offered piggyback services for cars and trucks through the Gotthard Tunnel. Today, that service exists as the rolling highway from the German to the Italian border and aims to reduce truck traffic on Swiss expressways. An improvisational piggyback service from Göschenen to Airolo was offered during the two-month closure of the Gotthard Road Tunnel in 2001.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Neighbouring tunnels.", "content": "The adjacent ramps include several turn tunnels (see Table of turn tunnels). The nearby Gotthard Road Tunnel was opened in 1980. A second railway tunnel, the Gotthard Base Tunnel, much longer and at a lower elevation than the Gotthard Tunnel, opened on 1 June 2016.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gotthard Tunnel (, ) is an approximately railway tunnel and forms the summit of the Gotthard Railway in Switzerland. It connects Göschenen with Airolo and was the first tunnel through the Saint-Gotthard Massif in order to bypass the St Gotthard Pass. It is built as one double-track, standard gauge tunnel. When opened in 1882, the Gotthard Tunnel was the longest tunnel in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973204}
{"src_title": "Kannada script", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Kannada script derives from the Old Kannada script, which evolved around 10th century as the continuation of the Kadamba alphabet of the fourth century. This evolved from the ancient Brahmi script of the third century BCE. This is debated as recent excavation has led to Talagunda inscription of 370 AD to be the oldest available. Over the centuries some changes have been made to the Kannada script. These changes consist of:  These changes have facilitated the use of the Kannada script for writing many of the literary Indic languages, including Sanskrit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Obsolete Kannada letters.", "content": "Kannada literary works employed the letters (transliterated \" or 'rh') and (transliterated \", 'lh' or 'zh'), whose manner of articulation most plausibly could be akin to those in present-day Malayalam and Tamil. The letters dropped out of use in the 12th and 18th centuries, respectively. Later Kannada works replaced 'rh' and 'lh' with (ra) and (la) respectively.  Another letter (or unclassified \"vyanjana\" (consonant)) that has become extinct is 'nh' or 'inn'. Likewise, this has its equivalent in Telugu, where it is called \"Nakaara pollu\". The usage of this consonant was observed until the 1980s in Kannada works from the mostly coastal areas of Karnataka (especially the Dakshina Kannada district). Now, hardly any mainstream works use this consonant. This letter has been replaced by (consonant n).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kannada script evolution.", "content": "The image below shows the evolution of Kannada script from prehistoric times to the modern period. The Kannada script evolved in stages:  Proto-Kannada → Pre–Old Kannada → Old Kannada → Modern Kannada.  The Proto-Kannada script has its root in ancient Brahmi and appeared around the 3rd century BC. The Pre-Old-Kannada script appeared around the 4th century AD. Old-Kannada script can be traced to around the 10th century AD, whereas Modern-Kannada script appeared around the 17th century AD.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vowel letters.", "content": "There are thirteen vowel letters ( \"svara\") (14, if we consider obsolete vowel ೠ).  When a vowel follows a consonant, it is written with a diacritic rather than as a separate letter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Yōgavāha.", "content": "The \"Yōgavāha\" (part-vowel, part consonant) include two letters:  Another two \"Yōgavāha\" used in Sanskrit, but present in Kannada script, are known as \"Ardhavisarga\":", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consonant letters.", "content": "Two categories of consonant letters ( \"vyan̄jana\") are defined in Kannada: the structured consonants and the unstructured consonants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structured consonants.", "content": "The structured consonants are classified according to where the tongue touches the palate of the mouth and are classified accordingly into five structured groups. These consonants are shown here with their IAST transcriptions. See place of articulation for more information on tongue positions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unstructured consonants.", "content": "The unstructured consonants are consonants that do not fall into any of the above structures:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consonant conjuncts.", "content": "The Kannada script is rich in conjunct consonant clusters, with most consonants having a standard subjoined form and few true ligature clusters. A table of consonant conjuncts follows, although the forms of individual conjuncts may differ according to font.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consonant conjuncts with ರ (ra).", "content": "Of special note is the sequence concerning the letter (ra). Unlike other letters, the conjunct form is written second even if it is pronounced first in the sequence.  For example, the /rnaː/ in the word \"Karnāṭaka\" (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ) is written ರ್ನಾ rather than ರ ್ನಾ.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Consonant conjuncts with nasal consonants.", "content": "The nasal consonants  For example, the /ŋg/ in the word \"Beṅgaḷūru\" (ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು) is usually written rather than (ಬೆಙ್ಗಳೂರು).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Akshara.", "content": "Written Kannada is composed of akshara or \"kagunita\", corresponding to syllables. The letters for consonants combine with diacritics for vowels. The consonant letter without any diacritic, such as \"ka\", has the inherent vowel \"a\". This is called \"dīrgha\". A consonant without a vowel is marked with a 'killer' stroke, such as \"k\". This is known as \"hrasva\".  The formations shown boldface above are seldom used in the normal course of the language.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Numerals.", "content": "The decimal numerals in the script are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transliteration.", "content": "Several transliteration schemes/tools are used to type Kannada characters using a standard keyboard. These include Baraha (based on ITRANS), Pada Software and several internet tools like Google transliteration, Quillpad (predictive transliterator). Nudi, the Government of Karnataka's standard for Kannada Input, is a phonetic layout loosely based on transliteration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Due to its resemblance to an eye and an eyebrow, the Kannada letter \"ṭha\" is used in the \"look of disapproval\" (displayed as \"ಠ_ಠ\"), a popular emoticon used to convey disapproval or contempt. Similarly, the akshara \"rr̥a\" has been used in emoticons to represent a monocle, while \"tha\" has been used to represent a tearing eye.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unicode.", "content": "Kannada script was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 1991 with the release of version 1.0.  The Unicode block for Kannada is U+0C80–U+0CFF:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kannada script (IAST: \"Kannaḍa lipi\"; obsolete: Kannara, Kanarese or Canarese script) is an abugida of the Brahmic family, used primarily to write the Kannada language, one of the Dravidian languages of South India especially in the state of Karnataka, Kannada script is widely used for writing Sanskrit texts in Karnataka. Several minor languages, such as Tulu, Konkani, Kodava, Sanketi and Beary, also use alphabets based on the Kannada script. The Kannada and Telugu scripts share high mutual intellegibility with each other, and are often considered to be regional variants of single script. Other scripts similar to Kannada script are Sinhala script (which included some elements from the Kadamba script), and Old Peguan script (used in Burma).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973205}
{"src_title": "Mauro Giuliani", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Although born in Bisceglie, Giuliani's center of study was in Barletta where he moved with his brother Nicola in the first years of his life. His first instrumental training was on the cello—an instrument which he never completely abandoned—and he probably also studied the violin. Subsequently, he devoted himself to the guitar, becoming a very skilled performer on it in a short time. The names of his teachers are unknown, and we cannot be sure of his exact movements in Italy.  He married Maria Giuseppe del Monaco, and they had a child, Michael, born in Barletta in 1801. After that he was probably in Bologna and Trieste for a brief stay; by the summer of 1806, fresh from his studies of counterpoint, cello and guitar in Italy, he had moved to Vienna without his family. Here he began a relationship with the Viennese Anna Wiesenberger (1784–1817), with whom he had four daughters, Maria Willmuth (born 1808), Aloisia Willmuth (born 1810), Emilia Giuliani (born 1813) and Karolina Giuliani (born 1817).  In Vienna he became acquainted with the classical instrumental style. In 1807 Giuliani began to publish compositions in the classical style. His concert tours took him all over Europe. Everywhere he went he was acclaimed for his virtuosity and musical taste. He achieved great success and became a musical celebrity, equal to the best of the many instrumentalists and composers who were active in the Austrian capital city at the beginning of the 19th century.  Giuliani defined a new role for the guitar in the context of European music. He was acquainted with the highest figures of Austrian society and with notable composers such as Rossini and Beethoven, and cooperated with the best active concert musicians in Vienna. In 1815 he appeared with Johann Nepomuk Hummel (followed later by Ignaz Moscheles), the violinist Joseph Mayseder and the cellist Joseph Merk, in a series of chamber concerts in the botanical gardens of Schönbrunn Palace, concerts that were called the \"Dukaten Concerte\", after the price of the ticket, which was a ducat. This exposure gave Giuliani prominence in the musical environment of the city. Also in 1815, he was the official concert artist for the celebrations of the Congress in Vienna. Two years earlier, on 8 December 1813, he had played (probably cello) in an orchestra for the first performance of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony.  In Vienna, Giuliani had minor success as a composer. He worked mostly with the publisher Artaria, who published many of his works for guitar, but he had dealings with all the other local publishers, who spread his compositions all over Europe. He developed a teaching career here as well; among his numerous students were Bobrowicz and Horetzky.  In 1819 Giuliani left Vienna, mainly for financial reasons: he expected to make financial profit on a concert tour through Bohemia and Bavaria. He returned to Italy, spending time in Trieste and Venice, and finally settled in Rome. In 1822 he brought his illegitimate daughter Emilia to Italy, who had been born in Vienna in 1813. She was educated at the nunnery \"L'adorazione del Gesù\" from 1821 to 1826, together with Giuliani's first illegitimate daughter Maria Willmuth. In Rome he did not have much success; he published a few compositions and gave only one concert.  In July 1823 he began a series of frequent trips to Naples to be with his father, who was seriously ill. In the Bourbon city of Naples Giuliani would find a better reception to his guitar artistry, and there he was able to publish other works for guitar with local publishers.  In 1826 he performed in Portici before Francesco I and the Bourbon court. In this time, which we could call Giuliani's Neapolitan period, he appeared frequently in duo concert with his daughter Emilia, who had become a skilled performer on the guitar. Toward the end of 1827 the health of the musician began to fail; he died in Naples on 8 May 1829. The news of his death created a great stir in the Neapolitan musical environment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theme and variations.", "content": "As a guitar composer he was very fond of the theme and variations— an extremely popular form in Vienna. He had a remarkable ability to weave a melody into a passage with musical effect while remaining true to the idiom of the instrument.  Giuliani's achievements as a composer were numerous. Giuliani's 150 compositions for guitar with opus number constitute the nucleus of the nineteenth-century guitar repertory. He composed extremely challenging pieces for solo guitar as well as works for orchestra and Guitar-Violin and Guitar-Flute duos.  Outstanding pieces by Giuliani include his three guitar concertos (op. 30, 36 and 70); a series of six fantasias for guitar solo, op. 119–124, based on airs from Rossini operas and entitled the \"Rossiniane\"; several sonatas for violin and guitar and flute and guitar; a quintet, op. 65, for strings and guitar; some collections for voice and guitar, and a Grand Overture written in the Italian style. He also transcribed many symphonic works, both for solo guitar and guitar duo. One such transcription arranges the overture to \"The Barber of Seville\" by Rossini, for two guitars. There are further numerous didactic works, among which is a method for guitar that is used frequently by teachers to this day.  Today, Giuliani's concertos and solo pieces are performed by professionals and still demonstrate the ability of the guitarist to play the piece, as well as Giuliani's natural ability as a composer for the classical guitar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Original Sources of Themes.", "content": "Giuliani arranged many 19th century opera themes for the guitar, e.g. from the opera \"Semiramide\" by Gioachino Rossini. His work \"Le Rossiniane\" also includes numerous themes from the operas of Rossini.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Themes in Giuliani's \"Le Rossiniane\".", "content": "The \"Introduction\" from Rossiniana No. 2 has become well known in popular culture due to its inclusion in the Counter Strike Italy map.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Instruments used by Giuliani.", "content": "Of the instruments used by Giuliani, there are guitars made by:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mauro Giuseppe Sergio Pantaleo Giuliani (27 July 1781 – 8 May 1829) was an Italian guitarist, cellist, singer, and composer. He was a leading guitar virtuoso of the early 19th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973206}
{"src_title": "Bursitis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Bursitis commonly affects superficial bursae. These include the subacromial, prepatellar, retrocalcaneal, and \"pes anserinus\" bursae of the shoulder, knee, heel and shin, etc. (see below). Symptoms vary from localized warmth and erythema to joint pain and stiffness, to stinging pain that surrounds the joint around the inflamed bursa. In this condition, the pain usually is worse during and after activity, and then the bursa and the surrounding joint becomes stiff the next morning.  Bursitis could possibly also cause a snapping, grinding or popping sound – known as snapping scapula syndrome – when it occurs in the shoulder joint. This is not necessarily painful.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "There can be several concurrent causes. Trauma, auto-immune disorders, infection and iatrogenic (medicine-related) factors can all cause bursitis. Bursitis is commonly caused by repetitive movement and excessive pressure. Shoulders, elbows and knees are the most commonly affected. Inflammation of the bursae may also be caused by other inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma, systemic lupus erythematosus, and gout. Immune deficiencies, including HIV and diabetes, can also cause bursitis. Infrequently, scoliosis can cause bursitis of the shoulders; however, shoulder bursitis is more commonly caused by overuse of the shoulder joint and related muscles.  Traumatic injury is another cause of bursitis. The inflammation irritates because the bursa no longer fits in the original small area between the bone and the functionary muscle or tendon. When the bone increases pressure upon the bursa, bursitis results. Sometimes the cause is unknown. It can also be associated with various other chronic systemic diseases.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "The most common examples of this condition:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "It is important to differentiate between infected and non-infected bursitis. People may have surrounding cellulitis and systemic symptoms include a fever. The bursa should be aspirated to rule out an infectious process.  Bursae that are not infected can be treated symptomatically with rest, ice, elevation, physiotherapy, anti-inflammatory drugs and pain medication. Since bursitis is caused by increased friction from the adjacent structures, a compression bandage is not suggested because compression would create more friction around the joint. Chronic bursitis can be amenable to bursectomy and aspiration. Bursae that are infected require further investigation and antibiotic therapy. Steroid therapy may also be considered. In cases when all conservative treatment fails, surgical therapy may be necessary. In a bursectomy the bursa is cut out either endoscopically or with open surgery. The bursa grows back in place after a couple of weeks but without any inflammatory component.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bursitis is the inflammation of one or more bursae (fluid filled sacs) of synovial fluid in the body. They are lined with a synovial membrane that secretes a lubricating synovial fluid. There are more than 150 bursae in the human body. The bursae rest at the points where internal functionaries, such as muscles and tendons, slide across bone. Healthy bursae create a smooth, almost frictionless functional gliding surface making normal movement painless. When bursitis occurs, however, movement relying on the inflamed bursa becomes difficult and painful. Moreover, movement of tendons and muscles over the inflamed bursa aggravates its inflammation, perpetuating the problem. Muscle can also be stiffened.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973207}
{"src_title": "Gertrude Jekyll", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jekyll was born at 2 Grafton Street, Mayfair, London, the fifth of the seven children of Captain Edward Joseph Hill Jekyll, an officer in the Grenadier Guards, and his wife Julia Hammersley. Her younger brother, Walter Jekyll (an Anglican priest; sometime Minor Canon of Worcester Cathedral and Chaplain of Malta), was a friend of Robert Louis Stevenson, who borrowed the family name for his famous novella \"Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde\". In 1848 her family left London and moved to Bramley House, Surrey, where she spent her formative years. She never married and had no children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "Jekyll was one half of one of the most influential and historical partnerships of the Arts and Crafts movement, thanks to her association with the English architect Edwin Lutyens, for whose projects she created numerous landscapes and who designed her home Munstead Wood, near Godalming in Surrey. (In 1900, Lutyens and Jekyll's brother Herbert designed the British Pavilion for the Paris Exposition.)  Jekyll is remembered for her outstanding designs and subtle, painterly approach to the arrangement of the gardens she created, particularly her \"hardy flower borders\". Her work is known for its radiant colour and the brush-like strokes of her plantings; it is suggested by some that the Impressionistic-style schemes may have been due to Jekyll's deteriorating eyesight, which largely put an end to her career as a painter and watercolourist. Her artistic ability had been evident when she was a child and she had trained as an artist.  She was one of the first of her profession to take into account the colour, texture, and experience of gardens as aspects of her designs. Jekyll's theory of how to design with colour was influenced by painter J.M.W. Turner and by Impressionism, and by the theoretical colour wheel. Her focus on gardening began at South Kensington School of Art, where she became interested in the creative art of planting, and more specifically, gardening. Jekyll later returned to her childhood home in the village of Bramley, Surrey to design a garden in Snowdenham Lane called Millmead.  Not wanting to limit her influence to teaching the practice of gardening, Jekyll incorporated in her work the theory of gardening and an understanding of the plants themselves. In works like \"Colour Schemes for the Flower Garden\" (reprinted 1988) she put her imprint on modern uses of \"warm\" and \"cool\" flower colours in gardens. Her concern that plants should be displayed to best effect even when cut for the house, led her to design her own range of glass flower vases.  Later in life, Jekyll collected and contributed a vast array of plants solely for the purpose of preservation to numerous institutions across Britain. At the time of her death, she had designed over 400 gardens in Britain, Europe and a few in North America. Jekyll was also known for her prolific writing. She wrote over fifteen books, ranging from \"Wood and Garden\" and her most famous book, \"Colour in the Flower Garden,\" to memoirs of her youth.  She was also interested in traditional cottage furnishings and rural crafts, and concerned that they were disappearing. Her book \"Old West Surrey\" (1904) records many aspects of 19th-century country life, with over 300 photographs taken by Jekyll.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gardens.", "content": "From 1881, when she laid out the gardens for Munstead House, built for her mother by John James Stevenson, Jekyll provided designs or planned planting for some four hundred gardens. More than half were directly commissioned, but many were created in collaboration with architects such as Lutyens and Robert Lorimer. Most of her gardens are lost. A small number have been restored, including her own garden at Munstead Wood, the gardens of Hestercombe House, and those of Woolverstone House and the Manor House in Upton Grey that she designed for the magazine editor Charles Holme.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Jekyll was awarded the Victoria Medal of Honour of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1897 and the Veitch Memorial Medal of the society in 1929. Also in 1929, she was given the George Robert White Medal of Honor of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Burial.", "content": "Jekyll is buried in the churchyard of Busbridge Church, formerly known as St John the Baptist, Busbridge, Godalming, next to her brother, Herbert Jekyll, and his wife, the artist, writer and philanthropist Agnes Jekyll. The Jekyll family memorial was designed by Edwin Lutyens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 1911 the Corporation of Guildford, UK, built an extension to Guildford Museum to house the now internationally important collection of traditional household items that she collected during her life and that she gifted to Surrey Archaeological Society. Some artefacts associated with her life and work are also housed there.  On November 29, 2017, which would have been Jekyll's 174th birthday, a Google Doodle was released honouring her.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gertrude Jekyll ( ; 29 November 1843 – 8 December 1932) was a British horticulturist, garden designer, craftswoman, photographer, writer and artist. She created over 400 gardens in the United Kingdom, Europe and the United States, and wrote over 1,000 articles for magazines such as \"Country Life\" and William Robinson's \"The Garden\". Jekyll has been described as \"a premier influence in garden design\" by British and American gardening enthusiasts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973208}
{"src_title": "Joachim Kroll", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born the son of a miner in Hindenburg (Zabrze), Province of Upper Silesia, Kroll was the sixth of nine children. After the end of World War II, during which his father was a prisoner of war, Kroll's family moved to North Rhine-Westphalia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crimes.", "content": "He began killing in 1955, after his mother died. Around 1960, Kroll went to Duisburg and found work as a toilet attendant for Mannesmann. Afterwards he worked for Thyssen Industries and moved to Friesenstrasse 24, Laar, a district of Duisburg. At that time he resumed killing people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Method.", "content": "Kroll was very particular about where he killed, only killing in the same place on a few occasions years apart. This, and the fact that there were a number of other killers operating in the area at the time, helped him to evade capture. Kroll would surprise his victims and strangle them quickly. Afterward he would strip the body and have intercourse with it, often masturbating over it again. He would then mutilate and cut off pieces to be eaten later. Upon returning home, he would have intercourse again with a rubber sex doll he had for this purpose.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Capture.", "content": "On 3 July 1976, Kroll was arrested for kidnapping and killing a four-year-old girl named Marion Ketter. As police went from home to home, a neighbor approached a policeman and told him that the waste-pipe in his apartment building had blocked up, and when he had asked his neighbor, Kroll, whether he knew what had been blocking the pipe, Kroll had simply replied, \"guts\". Upon this report, the police went up to Kroll's apartment and found the body of Marion Ketter cut up: some parts were in the refrigerator, a small hand was cooking in a pan of boiling water and the entrails were found stuck in the waste-pipe. Kroll was immediately arrested.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trial and death.", "content": "He admitted killing Marion Ketter and gave details of 13 other murders and one attempted murder over the previous two decades.  Kroll said that he often sliced portions of flesh from his victims to cook and eat them, claiming that he did this to save on his grocery bills. In custody, he believed that he was going to get a simple operation to cure him of his homicidal urges and would then be released from prison. Instead he was charged with eight murders and one attempted murder. In April 1982, after a 151-day trial, he was convicted on all counts and was given a life sentence.  He died of a heart attack in 1991 in the prison of Rheinbach.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Joachim Georg Kroll (17 April 1933 – 1 July 1991) was a West German serial killer, child molester and cannibal. He was known as the Ruhr Cannibal (\"Ruhrkannibale\"), Ruhr Hunter (\"Ruhrjäger\") and the Duisburg Man-Eater (\"Duisburger Menschenfresser\"). He was convicted of eight murders but confessed to a total of 14 which he committed in and around the Ruhr metropolitan region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973209}
{"src_title": "Franz Welser-Möst", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Franz Leopold Maria Möst was born in Linz, Austria, and later studied under the composer. As a youth in Linz, he studied the violin and had developed an interest in conducting. After suffering injuries in a car crash that led to nerve damage, he stopped his violin studies and shifted full-time to conducting studies.  In 1985, Möst assumed the stage name \"Welser-Möst\" on suggestion of his mentor, Baron Andreas von Bennigsen of Liechtenstein, thus paying homage to the city of Wels where he grew up. In 1986, he was adopted by Bennigsen. In 1992, Welser-Möst married Bennigsen's former wife, Angelika. His first major debuts were at the Salzburg Festival in 1985, followed by the London Philharmonic Orchestra in 1986 and the Orchester Musikkollegium Winterthur in 1988.  Between 1986 and 1991 Welser-Möst served as the principal conductor of Norrköping Symphony Orchestra, Sweden, and in 1990 he became principal conductor of the London Philharmonic Orchestra (LPO). His LPO tenure was controversial, with London critics giving him the nickname \"Frankly Worse than Most\". He concluded his LPO tenure in 1996.  From 1995 to 2000, he was music director with the Zürich Opera House. He became general music director of the Zürich Opera in September 2005, with an original commitment to the Opera through 2011. However, he stood down from the Zürich post in July 2008, after having agreed to serve in the same capacity at the Vienna State Opera.  In the USA, Welser-Möst made his American conducting debut with the St. Louis Symphony in 1989. He first guest-conducted the Cleveland Orchestra in February 1993. Welser-Möst became music director of the Cleveland Orchestra with the 2002/2003 season, for an initial contract of five years. At the end of his first season, his contract was extended for another five years. In June 2008, the orchestra announced a further extension of his contract with the Cleveland Orchestra through the 2017/2018 season. In October 2014, the orchestra announced an additional extension of his Cleveland Orchestra contract through the 2021-2022 season. In September 2019, the Cleveland Orchestra announced the newest extension of Welser-Möst's contract through the 2026-2027 season.  Welser-Möst first conducted at the Vienna State Opera in 1987, as a substitute for Claudio Abbado in a production of Gioachino Rossini's \"L'italiana in Algeri\". On June 6, 2007, the Austrian government announced the appointment of Welser-Möst as \"Generalmusikdirektor\" of the Vienna State Opera, effective September 2010, alongside Dominique Meyer as director (\"Staatsoperndirektor\"). In September 2014, he announced his resignation from the Vienna State Opera, effective immediately.  Welser-Möst is an honorary member of the Wiener Singverein. He conducted the Vienna New Year's Concert in 2011 and 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "During his tenure with the LPO, Welser-Möst had established an exclusive recording contract with EMI. His 1996 recording of Franz Schmidt's Symphony No. 4 received the Gramophone Award for Best Orchestral Recording. The CDs of Anton Bruckner's Mass No. 3 and \"Te Deum\" and works of Erich Wolfgang Korngold both received Grammy Award nominations for \"Best Classical Album.\" EMI struck a similar deal with Welser-Möst to record performances at the Zürich Opera and has released a number of DVDs of his Zürich opera productions. In 2008 EMI reissued many of Welser-Möst's earlier recordings in an eight CD set. In October 2007, Deutsche Grammophon released the first commercial recording featuring Welser-Möst with The Cleveland Orchestra: Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 including German bass René Pape among the soloists. This recording was soon followed by a disc of Richard Wagner Lieder performed by the orchestra and soloist Measha Brueggergosman. Several DVDs have been issued as well, including Bruckner's 7th and 8th symphonies, at Severance Hall, and the 5th and 4th at the St. Florian Monastery near Linz where Anton Bruckner is buried.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Leopold Maria Möst (born 16 August 1960), known professionally as Franz Welser-Möst, is an Austrian conductor. He is currently music director of the Cleveland Orchestra.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973210}
{"src_title": "Iridescent shark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The fish is named for the glow or iridescence exhibited in juveniles, as well as the shark-like appearance of this and other shark catfish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Adults reach up to in length and can weigh up to a maximum of. They have a shiny, iridescent color that gives these fish their name. However, large adults are uniformly grey. The fins are dark grey or black. Juveniles have a black stripe along the lateral line and a second black stripe below the lateral line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Iridescent sharks originate from the large rivers Chao Phraya and Mekong in Asia, though they have been introduced into other rivers for aquaculture. They are a freshwater fish that natively live in a tropical climate and prefer water with a 6.5–7.5 pH, a water hardness of 2.0–29.0 dGH, and a temperature range of. They prefer large bodies of water similar to the deep waters of their native Mekong river basin.  The iridescent shark is a migratory fish that in most regions moves upstream to spawn during the flood season while the waters are high and returns downstream to seek rearing habitats when the river water levels recede. The dates of the migrations vary depending on the river system. In the Mekong river basin, they migrate upstream in May to July and return downstream during September through December. South of the Khone Falls, upstream migration occurs in October to February, with its peak in November to December; here, it appears to be triggered by receding waters at the end of the flood season.  In August 2015, an environmental group in Santander, Colombia, confirmed that iridescent sharks had been found in one of the tributaries that feed into the Magdalena river, having been accidentally introduced from illegal farm fisheries in the area. The find has caused alarm amongst the scientific community and government officials, as the Magdalena river is home to over 200 native fish species, 35 of which are endangered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary profile.", "content": "Pangasius does not have a gourmet reputation and is sold cheaply as swai (pronounced /swaɪ/) in the United States, panga (or pangas) in Europe and cream dory and basa in several Asian countries.  Despite its poor reputation, the total export of pangasius from Vietnam reached US$1.8 billion in 2014.  Pangasius fillets are an increasingly popular product because of their low cost, mild taste and firm texture. Recipes for other whitefish such as sole or halibut can be adapted to pangasius.  Pangasius is an omnivorous fish, and thus does not require a high level of animal protein in its diet. Typical grading sizes are 3–5 oz, 5–7 oz, and 7–9 oz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the aquarium.", "content": "While juvenile iridescent sharks are sold as pets for home aquariums, they are not easy fish to keep. While they can survive in a 40-gallon aquarium, iridescent sharks are schooling fish that prefer groups, are accustomed to living in rivers, and are active fish that require space. They have very poor eyesight, so detected movement from outside of their habitat can be seen as a threat. If stressed, their first instinct is to flee; a blind dash can cause injury in an aquarium environment. These injuries may result in the fish sinking to the bottom, where it may lie on its side or back until it recovers.  Iridescent sharks require a minimum tank size of to develop naturally. Schools require even larger tanks. If given enough room and fed adequately, they can reach in length. In most home aquaria, the lack of space stunts their growth. For this reason, most iridescent sharks kept in home aquaria grow to in length only and may die prematurely. When provided adequately sized aquaria and proper husbandry, iridescent sharks may live into their teens and grow to full size.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The iridescent shark (\"Pangasianodon hypophthalmus\") is a species of shark catfish (family Pangasiidae) native to the rivers of Southeast Asia. Despite its name, it is not a shark. It is found in the Mekong basin as well as the Chao Phraya River, and is heavily cultivated for food there.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973211}
{"src_title": "Sprite (computer graphics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The use of sprites originated with arcade games. The first video game to represent player characters as human player images was Taito's \"Basketball\", which was licensed in February 1974 to Midway, releasing it as \"TV Basketball\" in North America.  Signetics devised the first chips capable of generating sprite graphics (referred to as \"objects\" by Signetics) for home systems. The Signetics 2636 video processors were first used in the 1978 1292 Advanced Programmable Video System and later in the 1979 Elektor TV Games Computer.  The Atari VCS, released in 1977, features a hardware sprite implementation where five graphical objects can be moved independently of the game playfield. The term \"sprite\" was not in use at the time. The VCS's sprites are called \"movable objects\" in the programming manual, further identified as two \"players\", two \"missiles\", and one \"ball\". These each consist of a single row of pixels that are displayed on a scan line. To produce a two-dimensional shape, the sprite's single-row bitmap is altered by software from one scan line to the next.  The 1979 Atari 400 and 800 home computers feature similar, but more elaborate, circuitry capable of moving eight single-color objects per scan line: four 8-bit wide \"players\" and four 2-bit wide \"missiles\". Each is the full height of the display—a long, thin strip. DMA from a table in memory automatically sets the graphics pattern registers for each scan line. Hardware registers control the horizontal position of each player and missile. Vertical motion is achieved by moving the bitmap data within a player or missile's strip. The feature was called \"player/missile graphics\" by Atari.  The Namco Galaxian arcade system board, for the 1979 arcade game \"Galaxian\", featured animated, multi-colored sprites. It pioneered a sprite system that animated pre-loaded sprites over a scrolling background, which became the basis for Nintendo's \"Radar Scope\" and \"Donkey Kong\" arcade hardware and home consoles such as the Nintendo Entertainment System. According to Steve Golson from General Computer Corporation, the term \"stamp\" was used instead of \"sprite\" at the time.  The term \"sprite\" was first used in the graphic sense by one of the definers of the Texas Instruments 9918(A) video display processor (VDP). The term was derived from the fact that sprites, rather than being part of the bitmap data in the framebuffer, instead \"floated\" around on top without affecting the data in the framebuffer below, much like a ghost or \"sprite\". By this time, sprites had advanced to the point where complete two-dimensional shapes could be moved around the screen horizontally and vertically with minimal software overhead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Systems with hardware sprites.", "content": "These are base hardware specs and do not include additional programming techniques, such as using raster interrupts to repurpose sprites mid-frame.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in 3D rendering.", "content": "2D images with alpha channels constrained to face the camera may be used in 3D graphics. They are common for rendering vegetation, to approximate distant objects, or for particle effects. These are sometimes called \"billboards\" or \"Z-sprites\". If rendered on the fly to cache an approximate view of an underlying 3D model, such sprites are called \"impostors\". Modern GPU hardware can mimic sprites with two texture-mapped triangles or specific primitives such as point sprites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synonyms.", "content": "Some hardware makers used terms other than \"sprite\".  Player/Missile Graphics was a term used by Atari, Inc. for hardware-generated sprites in the Atari 8-bit computers and Atari 5200 console. The term reflected the usage for both characters (\"players\") and smaller associated objects (\"missiles\") that share the same color. The earlier Atari 2600 and some Atari arcade games also used \"player\", \"missile\", and \"ball\" for sprites.  Movable Object Block, or MOB, was used in MOS Technology's graphics chip literature (data sheets, etc.) However, Commodore, the main user of MOS chips and the owner of MOS for most of the chip maker's lifetime, used the term \"sprite\" for the Commodore 64.  The developer manuals for the Nintendo Entertainment System, Super NES, and Game Boy refer to sprites as OBJs (short for \"objects\"), and the region of RAM used to store sprite attributes and coordinates was known as OAM (Object Attribute Memory). This also applies on the Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS handheld systems.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer graphics, a sprite is a two-dimensional bitmap that is integrated into a larger scene, most often in a 2D video game. The term was first used by Danny Hillis at Texas Instruments in the late 1970s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973212}
{"src_title": "Dürnstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The town gained its name from the medieval Dürnstein castle, which overlooked it. The castle's name derived from the German \"duerr/dürr\", meaning \"dry\", and \"Stein\", \"stone\". The castle was dry because it was on a rocky hill, high above the damp conditions of the Danube at the base of the hill, and it was built of stone. The modern town stands between the castle and the river.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Dürnstein was first mentioned in 1192 when, in the castle above the town, King Richard I of England was held captive by Leopold V, Duke of Austria, after their dispute during the Third Crusade. Richard the Lionheart had offended Leopold the Virtuous by casting down his standard from the walls at the Battle of Acre, and the duke suspected that King Richard ordered the murder of his cousin Conrad of Montferrat in Jerusalem. In consequence Pope Celestine III excommunicated Leopold for capturing a fellow crusader. The duke finally gave custody of the king to Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, who imprisoned Richard at Trifels Castle.  Dürnstein Castle was almost completely destroyed by the troops of the Swedish Empire under Field Marshal Lennart Torstenson in 1645.  Dürnstein Abbey (\"Stift Dürnstein\") was established in 1410 by Canons Regular from Třeboň and from 1710 rebuilt in a Baroque style according to plans by Joseph Munggenast, Jakob Prandtauer and Matthias Steinl. The monastery was dissolved by order of Emperor Joseph II in 1788 and fell to the Herzogenburg Priory. It is famous for its blue tower, which is clearly visible from the river.  During the War of the Third Coalition the Battle of Dürenstein was fought nearby on 11 November 1805.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Seats in the municipal assembly as of 2015 elections:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Dürnstein is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dürnstein is a small town on the Danube river in the Krems-Land district, in the Austrian state of Lower Austria. It is one of the most-visited tourist destinations in the Wachau region and also a well-known wine growing area. The municipality consists of the Katastralgemeinden of Dürnstein, Oberloiben, and Unterloiben.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973213}
{"src_title": "Executable", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Generation of executable files.", "content": "Executable files can be hand-coded in machine language, although it is far more convenient to develop software as source code in a high-level language that can be easily understood by humans. In some cases, source code might be specified in assembly language instead, which remains human-readable while being closely associated with machine code instructions. The high-level language is compiled into either an executable machine code file or a non-executable machine code object file of some sort; the equivalent process on assembly language source code is called \"assembly\". Several object files are linked to create the executable. Object files -- executable or not -- are typically stored in a container format, such as Executable and Linkable Format (ELF). This gives structure to the generated machine code, for example dividing it into sections such as.text (executable code),.data (initialized global and static variables), and.rodata (read-only data, such as constants and strings).  In order to be executed by the system (such as an operating system, firmware, or boot loader), an executable file must conform to the system's application binary interface (ABI). In simple interfaces, a file is executed by loading it into memory and jumping to the start of the address space and executing from there. In more complicated interfaces, executable files have additional metadata specifying a separate entry point. For example, in ELF, the entry point is specified in the header's codice_1 field, which specifies the (virtual) memory address at which to start execution. In the GCC (GNU Compiler Collection) this field is set by the linker based on the codice_2 symbol.  Executable files typically also include a runtime system, which implements runtime language features (such as task scheduling, exception handling, calling static constructors and destructors, etc.) and interactions with the operating system, notably passing arguments, environment, and returning an exit status, together with other startup and shutdown features such as releasing resources like file handles. For C, this is done by linking in the crt0 object, which contains the actual entry point and does setup and shutdown by calling the runtime library. Executable files thus normally contain significant additional machine code beyond that directly generated from the specific source code. In some cases it is desirable to omit this, for example for embedded systems development, or simply to understand how compilation, linking, and loading work. In C, this can be done by omitting the usual runtime, and instead explicitly specifying a linker script, which generates the entry point and handles startup and shutdown, such as calling codice_3 to start and returning exit status to the kernel at the end.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computing, executable code, executable file, or executable program, sometimes simply referred to as an executable or binary, causes a computer \"to perform indicated tasks according to encoded instructions\", as opposed to a data file that must be parsed by a program to be meaningful.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973214}
{"src_title": "Wassily Leontief", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Wassily Leontief was born on August 5, 1906, in Munich, Germany, the son of Wassily W. Leontief (professor of Economics) and Zlata (German spelling Slata; later Evgenia) Leontief (née Becker). W. Leontief, Sr., belonged to a family of old-believer merchants living in St. Petersburg since 1741. Genya Becker belonged to a wealthy Jewish family from Odessa. At 15 in 1921, Wassily, Jr., entered University of Leningrad in present-day St. Petersburg. He earned his Learned Economist degree (equivalent to Master of Arts) in 1925 at the age of 19.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Opposition in USSR.", "content": "Leontief sided with campaigners for academic autonomy, freedom of speech and in support of Pitirim Sorokin. As a consequence, he was detained several times by the Cheka. In 1925, he was allowed to leave the USSR, mostly because the Cheka believed that he was mortally ill with a sarcoma, a diagnosis that later proved false. He continued his studies at the Frederick William University in Munich and, in 1928 earned a Ph.D. degree in economics under the direction of Werner Sombart, writing his dissertation on \"The Economy as Circular Flow\" (original German title: \"Die Wirtschaft als Kreislauf\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early professional life.", "content": "From 1927 to 1930, he worked at the Institute for the World Economy of the University of Kiel. There he researched the derivation of statistical demand and supply curves. In 1929, he traveled to China to assist its ministry of railroads as an advisor.  In 1931, he went to the United States and was employed by the National Bureau of Economic Research.  During World War II, Leontief served as consultant at the U. S. Office of Strategic Services.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Affiliation with Harvard.", "content": "Leontief joined Harvard University's department of economics in 1932 and in 1946 became professor of economics there.  In 1949, Leontief used an early computer at Harvard and data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics to divide the U.S. economy into 500 sectors. Leontief modeled each sector with a linear equation based on the data and used the computer, the Harvard Mark II, to solve the system, one of the first significant uses of computers for mathematical modeling, along with George W. Snedecor's usage of the Atanasoff–Berry computer.  Leontief set up the Harvard Economic Research Project in 1948 and remained its director until 1973. Starting in 1965, he chaired the Harvard Society of Fellows.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Affiliation with New York University.", "content": "In 1975, Leontief joined New York University and founded and directed the Institute for Economic Analysis. He taught graduate and undergraduate classes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal.", "content": "In 1932, Leontief married the poet Estelle Marks. Their only child, Svetlana Leontief Alpers, was born in 1936. Estelle wrote a memoir, \"Genia and Wassily\", of their relations with his parents after they came to the US as émigrés.  As hobbies Leontief enjoyed fly fishing, ballet, and fine wines. He vacationed for years at his farm in West Burke, Vermont, but after moving to New York in the 1970s moved his summer residence to Lakeville, Connecticut.  Leontief died in New York City on Friday, February 5, 1999 at the age of 93.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major contributions.", "content": "Leontief is credited with developing early contributions to input-output analysis and earned the Nobel Prize in Economics for his development of its associated theory. He has also made contributions in other areas of economics, such as international trade where he documented the Leontief paradox. He was also one of the first to establish the composite commodity theorem.  Leontief earned the Nobel Prize in economics for his work on input-output tables. Input-output tables analyze the process by which inputs from one industry produce outputs for consumption or for inputs for another industry. With the input-output table, one can estimate the change in demand for inputs resulting from a change in production of the final good. The analysis assumes that input proportions are fixed; thus the use of input-output analysis is limited to rough approximations rather than prediction. Input-output was novel and inspired large-scale empirical work; in 2010 its iterative method was recognized as an early intellectual precursor to Google's PageRank.  Leontief used input-output analysis to study the characteristics of trade flow between the U.S. and other countries, and found what has been named Leontief's paradox; \"this country resorts to foreign trade in order to economize its capital and dispose of its surplus labor, rather than vice versa\", i.e., U.S. exports were relatively labor-intensive when compared to U.S. imports. This is the opposite of what one would expect, considering the fact that the U.S.'s comparative advantage was in capital-intensive goods. According to some economists, this paradox has since been explained as due to the fact that when a country produces \"more than two goods, the abundance of capital relative to labor does not imply that the capital intensity of its exports should exceed that of imports.\"  Leontief was also a very strong proponent of the use of quantitative data in the study of economics. Throughout his life Leontief campaigned against \"theoretical assumptions and non-observed facts\". According to Leontief, too many economists were reluctant to \"get their hands dirty\" by working with raw empirical facts. To that end, Wassily Leontief did much to make quantitative data more accessible, and more indispensable, to the study of economics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In honor.", "content": "The Global Development and Environment Institute at Tufts University awards the Leontief Prize in Economics each year in his honor.  Leontief is listed in the Russian-American Chamber of Fame of Congress of Russian Americans, which is dedicated to Russian immigrants who made outstanding contributions to American science or culture.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wassily Wassilyevich Leontief (; August 5, 1905 – February 5, 1999), was a Russian-American economist known for his research on input-output analysis and how changes in one economic sector may affect other sectors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973215}
{"src_title": "Balsamic vinegar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classifications.", "content": "There are three types of balsamic vinegar:  There are also many products that contain \"Aceto Balsamico di Modena IGP\" as an ingredient, such as glazes or other condiments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena DOP and Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Reggio Emilia DOP\".", "content": "Only two consortia produce true traditional balsamic vinegar, Modena and neighboring Reggio Emilia. True balsamic vinegar is made from a reduction of pressed Trebbiano and Lambrusco grapes. The resulting thick syrup, called \"mosto cotto\" in Italian, is subsequently aged for a minimum of 12 years in a battery of several barrels of successively smaller sizes. The casks are made of different woods like chestnut, cherry, oak, mulberry, ash and juniper. True balsamic vinegar is rich, glossy, deep brown in color, and has a complex flavour that balances the natural sweet and sour elements of the cooked grape juice with hints of wood from the casks.  Reggio Emilia designates the different ages of their balsamic vinegar (\"Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Reggio Emilia\") by label colour. A red label means the vinegar has been aged for at least 12 years, a silver label that the vinegar has aged for at least 18 years, and a gold label designates that the vinegar has aged for 25 years or more.  Modena uses a different system to indicate the age of its balsamic vinegars (\"Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena\"). A white-coloured cap means the vinegar has aged for at least 12 years and a gold cap bearing the designation \"extravecchio\" (extra-old) shows the vinegar has aged for 25 years or more.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Balsamic Vinegar of Modena.", "content": "These commercial-grade products imitate the traditional product. They are made of as little as 20% grape must (and not necessarily from Modena or Reggio Emilia), with the addition of wine vinegar, colouring, caramel, and sometimes thickeners like guar gum or cornflour to artificially simulate the sweetness and thickness of the aged Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena. IGP status requires a minimum aging period of two months, not necessarily in wooden barrels, rising to three years when labeled as invecchiato (aged). As the manufacturing process is highly industrialized, the output of a medium-sized producer may be hundreds of litres per day. In 2009, the European Commission inserted the Balsamic Vinegar of Modena (Aceto Balsamico di Modena) designation in the register of IGP productions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Condimenti\" that used the term balsamic.", "content": "\"Condimento\" (dressing) balsamic vinegars may be labeled as \"condimento balsamico\", \"salsa balsamica\" or \"salsa di mosto cotto\". For those products, there is a risk of creating confusion among consumers looking for the original Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PGI, the two different Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PDO, and Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Reggio Emilia PDO.  'Condimento' balsamic vinegar may be made in any of the following ways:  As there are no official standards or labeling systems to designate \"condimento\" balsamic vinegar, it can be hard to tell their quality based on the packaging alone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traditional processes.", "content": "Traditional balsamic vinegar is produced from the juice of just-harvested white grapes (typically, Trebbiano grapes) boiled down to reach a minimum sugar concentration of 30% (brix) or more in the must, which is then fermented with a slow aging process which further concentrates the flavours. The flavour intensifies over the years, with the vinegar being stored in wooden casks, becoming sweet, viscous and very concentrated. During this period, a portion evaporates: it is said that this is the \"angels' share\", a term also used in the production of bourbon whiskey, scotch whisky, wine, and other alcoholic beverages.  None of the product may be withdrawn until the end of the minimum aging period of 12 years. At the end of the aging period (12, 18, or 25 years) a small portion is drawn from the smallest cask and each cask is then topped up with the contents of the preceding (next larger) cask. Freshly reduced cooked must is added to the largest cask and in every subsequent year the drawing and topping up process is repeated. This process where the product is distributed from the oldest cask and then refilled from the next oldest vintage cask is called solera or \"in perpetuum\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "In Emilia-Romagna, \"tradizionale\" vinegar is most often served in drops on top of chunks of Parmigiano Reggiano and mortadella as an antipasto. It is also used sparingly to enhance steaks, eggs, or grilled fish, as well as on fresh fruit such as strawberries and pears and on plain crema (custard) gelato. \"Tradizionale\" vinegar may be sipped from a tiny glass to conclude a meal.  Contemporary chefs use both \"Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PDO\" and \"Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PGI\" sparingly in simple dishes where the balsamic vinegar's complex tastes are highlighted, using it to enhance dishes like scallops or shrimp, or on simple pastas and risottos.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Balsamic vinegar (), occasionally shortened to balsamic, is a very dark, concentrated, and intensely flavoured vinegar originating in Italy, made wholly or partially from grape must. Grape must is freshly crushed grape juice with all the skins, seeds and stems.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973216}
{"src_title": "Vennbahn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Route.", "content": "The line, which was standard gauge, ran for some across the High Fens (Hautes Fagnes, Hohes Venn) to the south of Aachen in a roughly southward direction from Eupen via Raeren (the site of the depot), Monschau (Montjoie) and Malmedy to Trois-Ponts, with a eastward branch from Oberweywertz to Bütgenbach and Losheim. At Eupen it connected with the line to Herbesthal where it joined the Brussels-Cologne main line. At Trois-Ponts it connected with the Liège-Luxembourg line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The line was built to carry coal and iron. The section of the line from Aachen to Monschau was opened on 30 June 1885. The section from Raeren to Eupen was opened on 3 August 1887. The link to Walheim was opened on 21 December 1889.  On 18 May 1940 Adolf Hitler ordered that the area be re-annexed by the German Reich and the Vennbahn was returned to service as a wholly German line on 2 June 1940. However, after the defeat of Germany in 1945, the pre-war situation was re-instated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "In latter years, until the end of 2001, the Vennbahn line operated tourist services, some of which were steam-hauled. These were withdrawn for want of funds to maintain the line. Part of the track between Kalterherberg and Sourbrodt is now used by railbikes.  It was reported in 2008 that, with the Vennbahn no longer operational, Belgium might have to return the land the line runs along on to Germany, which would result in the reunification of the exclaves with German territory. However, the foreign ministries of Germany and Belgium have since confirmed that the trackbed, even though disused, will stay as Belgian territory and that the German exclaves will therefore remain.  By December 4, 2007, the dismantling of the now disused line had started; by September 2008, the track had been completely removed between Trois-Ponts and Sourbrodt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Enclaves and exclaves.", "content": "Former Vennbahn enclaves:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vennbahn (, \"Fen Railway\") is a former railway line that was built partly across what was then German territory by the Prussian state railways. It is now entirely in Belgium, because the trackbed of the line, as well as the stations and other installations, were made provisional Belgian territory in 1919 (permanent in 1922) under an article of the Treaty of Versailles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973217}
{"src_title": "Český Těšín", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Until 1918 the area was called \"Sachsenberg\" (local dialect: \"Sasko Kympa\") meaning Saxon Hill, and was a small western suburb of the town of Teschen (Polish: \"Cieszyn\", Czech: \"Těšín\") in the Duchy of Teschen, within Cieszyn Silesia of Austria-Hungary.  Following the fall of Austria-Hungary, Czech and Polish local governments were established. Both of them claimed that the whole of Cieszyn Silesia belonged to Czechoslovakia or Poland respectively. To calm down the friction which developed, the local governments concluded an interim agreement on division of the area running along ethnic lines. The division line imposed by the interim agreement was seen as unacceptable by the central Czechoslovak government, mainly because the crucial railway connecting the Czech lands with eastern Slovakia was controlled by Poland, and access to that railway was vital for Czechoslovakia at that time. Despite the division being only interim, Poland decided to organize elections to the Sejm (Polish parliament) in the area. Czechoslovakia claimed that no sovereign rule should be executed in the disputed area before a final solution was found, and requested that the polls not be held in the area.  The Czechoslovak request was rejected by Poland and Czechoslovakia attacked the Polish part of the region on 23 January 1919 and forced Poland, which was at that time at war also with the West Ukrainian National Republic, to withdraw from the larger part of the area. After a ceasefire, both sides agreed to hold a plebiscite, which never took place, as the atmosphere in the region remained heated and turned violent. The entire area was divided by the decision of the Spa Conference from July 1920, thus in practice creating a Zaolzie area, leaving a sizable Polish minority on the Czech side and dividing the town of Cieszyn between the two states. The town Český Těšín was then the center of Český Těšín District, existing in the years 1920–1938 and 1945–1960.  In 1938, following the Munich Agreement allowing the German annexation of the Sudetenland as signed by the United Kingdom and France in accordance with their policy of appeasement, Poland coerced Czechoslovakia to surrender the region of Zaolzie (including Český Těšín), by issuing an ultimatum to that effect on 30 September, which was accepted by Czechoslovakia on 1 October. Following negotiations with Czech authorities, who were given an additional 24 hours to evacuate the area, Polish troops and authorities entered it on 2 October 1938, and the territory was annexed by Poland as \"Cieszyn Zachodni\" (West Cieszyn). After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, the entire territory was annexed by Nazi Germany. During World War II it was a part of Nazi Germany. In 1941, Nazi Germany established the camp Stalag VIII-D here. After the war, the 1920 borders were restored.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "In 1849, the western part of Teschen was home to only 14.9% of the town's total population: in 1880 24% and in 1910 33.4%.  Teschen was known for its national and cultural diversity, consisting mostly of German, Polish, Jewish and Czech communities.  There was also a small but lively Hungarian community in the town, mostly officers and administrative workers.  According to the Austrian census of 1910, Teschen had 22,489 inhabitants, 21,550 of whom had permanent residence there. The census asked people for their native language, 13,254 (61.5%) were German-speaking, 6,832 (31.7%) were Polish-speaking and 1,437 (6.6%) were Czech-speaking. The most populous religious groups were Roman Catholics with 15,138 (67.3%) followed by Protestants with 5,174 (23%) and the Jews with 2,112 (9.4%).  In 1938, there was a sizeable Jewish minority in the town, about 1,500 in Cieszyn and 1,300 in Český Těšín. Nearly all of them were killed by Nazi Germany in concentration camps. Most of the synagogues were destroyed. Today, only one synagogue still stands in the town, used as a Polish cultural centre. The Jewish cemetery in Český Těšín is abandoned. The sizeable German community fled, or were expelled, to Germany after the war. There are no Jewish or German communities left in the town today.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The town today.", "content": "Today the Poles comprise a minority in Český Těšín, as 16.1% of the town's population, although the number of people with Polish heritage is considerably higher. The town is an important cultural and educational center of the Polish minority in Zaolzie. The number of Poles is however decreasing as a result of continuing assimilation. Although a border town, there is no longer any real ethnic tension between Czechs and Poles. Alongside several Czech primary schools and one gymnasium the town has both a Polish primary school and a gymnasium. Těšín Theatre has Czech and Polish ensembles, where plays are presented in both the Czech and Polish languages. Together with ensembles in Vilnius and Lviv it is one of the few theatres outside Poland which has a professional Polish ensemble. The town is a centre of commerce, including the paper industry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Places of worship.", "content": "The diversity of the town is not only ethnic, but also religious. Many Christian denominations are present in the town. In the past a large Jewish community lived there. According to the 2001 census there are 14,860 believers in the town (56.2% of the population), out of whom 8,916 (60%) are Roman Catholics, 737 (5%) Czech Brethren, 356 (2.4%) Jehovah's Witnesses, and 1,709 (11.5%) others, mainly Lutherans.  The oldest sacral building in the town is the Empire style chapel from 1848, located near the cemetery. The Neo-Gothic Catholic Sacred Heart of Jesus Church was built in 1894 by Viennese architect Ludwig Satzky. After the division of the town of Teschen in 1920, there were no Lutheran churches in Český Těšín. In 1927 the local German population built a Lutheran church in the town, and in 1932 the second Lutheran church was built. The church of the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren was constructed in 1929. There is also a Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses, prayer house of the Apostolic Church and several other prayer houses in the town.  There were four synagogues or Jewish prayer houses in Český Těšín before World War II. The oldest one had existed since the beginning of the 20th century. It was run by the Schomre Schabos (Guardians of Shabbat) society. In 1928–1929 the society built a new synagogue on Breitegasse Street. It is to date the only synagogue in the town which still stands. Nazis did not destroy it due to its proximity to other residential buildings. In 1967 the building was bought by the Polish Cultural and Educational Union (PZKO). The Maschike Hatora (Upholding the Law) Orthodox society built its own prayer house on the Felix Dahn Street shortly after the Schomre Schabos synagogue began operating. In 1931–1933 a prayer house was built on the Friedrich Schiller Street but was burned down when Nazis entered the town on 1 September 1939.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Český Těšín (; ; ) is a town in the Karviná District, Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. The town is commonly known in the region as just Těšín (). It lies on the west bank of the Olza river, in the heart of the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia. Until the 1920 division of the region between Poland and Czechoslovakia it was just a western suburb of the town of Teschen, which after the division fell to Poland as Cieszyn. The combined population of the Czech and Polish parts of the city is around 60,000 (25,000 in Těšín, 35,000 in Cieszyn).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973218}
{"src_title": "Red Turban Rebellions", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Causes.", "content": "Since the 1340s, Yuan dynasty experienced problems. The Yellow River flooded constantly, and other natural disasters also occurred. At the same time the Yuan dynasty required considerable military expenditure to maintain its vast empire.  The Black Death also contributed to the birth of the movement. Other groups or religious sects made an effort to undermine the power of the last Yuan rulers; these religious movements often warned of impending doom. Decline of agriculture, plague and cold weather hit China, spurring the armed rebellion. In Hebei, 9 out of 10 were killed by the Black Death when Toghon Temür was enthroned in 1333. Two out of three people in China had died of the plague by 1351.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rebellions.", "content": "The Red Turban Army (紅巾軍) was originally started by Guo Zixing (郭子興) and other followers of the White Lotus to resist the Mongols. The name \"Red Turban\" was used because of their tradition of using red banners and wearing red turbans to distinguish themselves.  These rebellions began on a sporadic basis, first on the coast of Zhejiang when Fang Guozhen and his men assaulted a group of Yuan officials. After that, the White Lotus led by Han Shantong north of the Yellow River became the centre of anti-Mongol sentiment. Red Turban armies in Liaodong invaded Goryeo in 1359 and 1360, briefly occupying Pyongyang (1359) and Kaesong (1360), but were eventually defeated both times.  In 1351 the society plotted an armed rebellion, but it was disclosed and Han Shantong was arrested and executed by the Yuan government. After his death, Liu Futong (劉福通), a prominent member of the White Lotus, assisted Han's son, Han Lin'er (韓林兒), in succeeding his father and establishing the Red Turban Army. After that, several other Chinese rebels in the south of the Yangtze revolted under the name of the Southern Red Turbans. Among the key leaders of the Southern Red Turbans were Xu Shouhui and Chen Youliang. The rebellion was also supported by the leadership of Peng Yingyu (彭瑩玉; 1338) and Zou Pusheng (鄒普勝; 1351).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conclusion.", "content": "One of the more significant Red Turban leaders was Zhu Yuanzhang. At first, he followed Guo Zixing, and in fact married Guo's adopted daughter. After Guo's death, Zhu was seen as his successor and took over Guo's army. Zhu Yuanzhang came from Fengyang and his band of followers such as Xu Da, Chang Yuchun, Tang He, Lan Yu and Mu Ying were known as the \"Fengyang mafia\" later becoming nobles in the Ming dynasty.  Between 1356 and 1367 Zhu began a series of military campaigns seeking to defeat his opponents in the Red Turbans. At first he nominally supported Han Lin'er to stabilize his northern frontier. Then he defeated rivals Chen Youliang, Zhang Shicheng and Fang Guozhen one by one. After rising to dominance, he drowned Han Lin'er. Calling to overthrow the Mongols and restore the Chinese, Zhu gained popular support.  In 1368 Zhu Yuanzhang proclaimed himself emperor in Yingtian, historically known as the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty. The next year the Ming army captured Dadu, and the rule of the Mongol Yuan dynasty was officially over. China was once again under the Chinese rule.  Historical records commonly portray the Red Turban Army as dealing with captive Yuan officials and soldiers with considerable violence. In his work on violence in rural China, William T. Rowe writes:  Following the victory, Zhu Yuanzhang ordered mass relocations across China. People from Shanxi w:zh:洪洞大槐树 were deported into other provinces in northern China including Hebei, Henan and Shandong which had been devastated by plague and famine. Zhu Yuanzhang moved people from Shandong, Guangdong, Hebei, Shanxi and Lake Taihu to settle in his hometown of Fengyang, around 500,000 people in 1367. Guizhou and Yunnan were colonized by soldiers from Anhui, Suzhou and Shanghai from Nanjing numbering 100,000. Sichuan was resettled by people from Hubei and Hunan, Hubei and Hunan were resettled by people from Jiangxi and Henan, Shandong, Beijing, Hezhou and Chuzhou were resettled by people from Shanxi and western Zhejiang while northern Henan and Hebei was resettled by people from Shanxi. The migration has been remembered in legends and novels. Fengyang was resettled by people from southern China and Jiangnan.  In the early Ming dynasty, the population in North and Central China was declining due to wars. In order to increase the population and start the economic recovery of these war-torn areas, the Ming government organized many large-scale forced mass migration to the area. People were moved from Shanxi province, which had been less affected by the wars, to the war-torn, less-populated area of North and Central China. The people were ordered to move to a location near \"the tree\" (大槐树), and prepare themselves for the family migration. The Shanxi Xiao family were part of this group of \"immigrants under the tree\" (在大槐树下集中移民), which were moved to the modern provinces of Henan, Shandong, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Anhui, Jiangsu, Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Shanxi and other places. Today, the Xiao family still has memorial tablets dedicated to their ancestors among the \"immigrants under the tree\" at the fourth cabinet of the memorial hall at the \"large tree roots memorial garden\" (大槐树寻根祭祖园祭祖堂四号供橱).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Red Turban Rebellions () were uprisings against the Yuan dynasty between 1351 and 1368, eventually leading to the overthrow of Mongol rule in China.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973219}
{"src_title": "Sericulture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "According to Confucian text, the discovery of silk production dates to about 2700 BC, although archaeological records point to silk cultivation as early as the Yangshao period (5000–3000 BC). In 1977, a piece of ceramic created 5400–5500 years ago and designed to look like a silkworm was discovered in Nancun, Hebei, providing the earliest known evidence of sericulture. Also, by careful analysis of archaeological silk fibre found on Indus Civilization sites dating back to 2450–2000 BC, it is believed that silk was being used over a wide region of South Asia. By about the first half of the 1st century AD, it had reached ancient Khotan, by a series of interactions along the Silk Road. By AD 140, the practice had been established in India. In the 6th century AD, the smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire led to its establishment in the Mediterranean, remaining a monopoly in the Byzantine Empire for centuries (Byzantine silk). In 1147, during the Second Crusade, Roger II of Sicily (1095–1154) attacked Corinth and Thebes, two important centres of Byzantine silk production, capturing the weavers and their equipment and establishing his own silkworks in Palermo and Calabria, eventually spreading the industry to Western Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The silkworms are fed with mulberry leaves, and after the fourth moult, they climb a twig placed near them and spin their silken cocoons. The silk is a continuous filament comprising fibroin protein, secreted from two salivary glands in the head of each worm, and a gum called sericin, which cements the filaments. The sericin is removed by placing the cocoons in hot water, which frees the silk filaments and readies them for reeling. This is known as the degumming process. The immersion in hot water also kills the silkmoth pupa.  Single filaments are combined to form thread, which is drawn under tension through several guides and wound onto reels. The threads may be plied to form yarn. After drying, the raw silk is packed according to quality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stages of production.", "content": "The stages of production are as follows:  Mahatma Gandhi was critical of silk production based on the Ahimsa philosophy \"not to hurt any living thing\". He also promoted \"Ahimsa silk\", made without boiling the pupa to procure the silk and wild silk made from the cocoons of wild and semiwild silkmoths. The Human League also criticised sericulture in their early single \"Being Boiled\". In the early 21st century, the organisation PETA has also campaigned against silk.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sericulture, or silk farming, is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, \"Bombyx mori\" (the caterpillar of the domestic silkmoth) is the most widely used and intensively studied silkworm. Silk was believed to have first been produced in China as early as the Neolithic Period. Sericulture has become an important cottage industry in countries such as Brazil, China, France, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, and Russia. Today, China and India are the two main producers, with more than 60% of the world's annual production.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973220}
{"src_title": "Mariano Rampolla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Polizzi Generosa, Sicily, Rampolla was the son of Ignazio Rampolla, Count of Tindaro, and of his wife, Orsola Errante.  Rampolla entered the Vatican Seminary in 1856, and in 1861 continued his education at the Collegio Capranica and the Pontifical Gregorian University. Having displayed a considerable knowledge in Oriental affairs, he was sent to the Pontifical Academy of Ecclesiastical Nobles as preparation for service in the Roman Curia.  In 1866 Rampolla was ordained a priest. He obtained a doctorate \"in utroque iure\" (Canon Law and Civil Law) in 1870. In 1874 he was named a Canon of the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. In 1875, he was sent to Spain as Auditor of the papal Nunciature. In 1877 he was named Secretary for Oriental Affairs of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. The following year he was named a Protonotary apostolic \"de numero participantium\", the highest rank of monsignor. In 1880 he was named Secretary of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, the Vatican office which deals with areas of the world in which there is no regularly constituted hierarchy of bishops. Then Rampolla was also appointed Secretary of the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, the subsection of the Secretariat of State that deals with the foreign affairs of the Holy See.  On 1 December 1882 Rampolla was appointed titular archbishop of Heraclea in Europa, and on 8 December 1882 was consecrated bishop by Cardinal Edward Henry Howard. This was in preparation for his nomination as Apostolic Nuncio to Spain, which came on 19 December 1882.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cardinal.", "content": "In the consistory of 14 March 1887, Pope Leo XIII created Rampolla del Tindaro a Cardinal-Priest, and on 26 May assigned him the titular church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. On 2 June he was appointed Secretary of State. In this office, as he had previously in Spain, Rampolla employed Giacomo della Chiesa, the future Benedict XV, as his secretary.  On 21 March 1894, Pope Leo XIII named Cardinal Rampolla Archpriest of Saint Peter's Basilica.  As Secretary of State, Cardinal Rampolla supported the Austrian Christian Social Party, led by Karl Lueger, sometime mayor of Vienna (1897–1910). Lueger entered office over the disapproval of Emperor Franz Joseph through the personal intervention of Leo XIII. Lueger's Christian Social Party was the first Catholic social movement that was both anti-liberal and anti-Semitic. Rampolla began to swing papal policy from support of Austria toward support of France, Austria's enemy. In Italy, he opposed every government that came to office, on the grounds that there was nothing to lose, and perhaps something to gain, especially on the international scene. He fought for the restoration of the pope's control over the former Papal States and fought new penal codes that aimed to criminalize clerical activity. Rampolla expressed his opinion that the French public was obligated to support the French Prime Minister Jules Méline \"in his anti-Semitic endeavours\" at the height of the Dreyfus Affair.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1903 Conclave.", "content": "When Leo XIII died in 1903, it was widely expected that Rampolla would be elected pope. His candidacy gained momentum until the last moment when the Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph I, imposed the veto \"jus exclusivae\" during the conclave. Cardinal Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko, Prince-Archbishop of Kraków, expressed the veto on behalf of the Austrian emperor. Rampolla was reported to have received enough votes to win.  The Secretary of the Conclave, Archbishop Rafael Merry del Val, reported later that Cardinal Puzyna de Kosielsko came to see him, demanding to announce his veto against Cardinal Rampolla in the name of Franz Joseph. Merry Del Val protested and refused even to accept the document. Rampolla, according to Merry del Val, actually gained votes after the veto. However, Merry del Val later told Ludwig von Pastor that he thought Rampolla was unlikely to win since a majority of the cardinals wanted a more conservative direction following the relatively liberal pontificate of Pope Leo XIII, as did he himself.  The specific reasons for Austria's opposition to Rampolla are unclear. The veto may have been based on the pro-French positions adopted by Rampolla, which were reflected in the policies of Leo XIII. Part of the Holy See's solution involving the French Republic was the attempt to reconcile French Catholics with their nation's republican government via laïcité. This was anathema to the powerful Ultramontanes. Others claimed that Austria was acting, for reasons unspecified, on behalf of Italy's government through the intervention of State Minister, or that Austria was acting on behalf of Germany.  While some prelates formally protested this intrusion after voting had been in progress, the Ultramontanist Cardinals readily recognized the existing legal right of the emperor. Support for Rampolla dissipated, leading to the election of Giuseppe Sarto as Pope Pius X. Abolition of the veto right was one of his first official acts, on 20 January 1904.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Pius X chose Rafael Merry del Val to succeed Rampolla as Secretary of State. Rampolla remained Arch-Priest of Saint Peter's. Between 1908 and his death in 1913, Rampolla served as Secretary (then the head) of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. In 1912, Pope Pius X appointed Rampolla Archivist and Librarian of the Holy Roman Church as well, a position he held until his death. He continued to be viewed as a likely successor to Pope Pius X in case of the pontiff's death.  Rampolla died suddenly in Rome on 16 December 1913 at age seventy, some months before the pope died in August 1914. He was buried in the Campo Verano Cemetery near the Basilica of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura. His friend and closest collaborator, Giacomo della Chiesa, the future Pope Benedict XV, presided over his funeral ceremonies. On 19 June 1929, twelve days after the Italian Parliament ratified the Lateran Treaty, the body of Cardinal Rampolla was transferred to Santa Cecilia in Trastevere.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mariano Rampolla del Tindaro (17 August 1843 – 16 December 1913) was an Italian Cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church, and the last man to have his candidacy for papal election vetoed by a Catholic monarch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973221}
{"src_title": "Beaune", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Wine.", "content": "Beaune is one of the wine communes of the Côte de Beaune subregion of the Burgundy wine region, which bears the name of this town. Although Beaune is lacking a Grand Cru vineyard in the commune, it is the hub of the region's wine business, as most of Burgundy's major négociants are here. Beaune is renowned for its annual charity wine auction on behalf of the Hospices de Beaune.  It is on the \"route des Grands Crus\" tourist trail among the vineyards. The road runs north from Beaune to Gevrey Chambertin and Nuits-Saint-Georges and south to Nolay, Saisy and Autun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Town.", "content": "Beaune is the centre for wine industry services (such as tractors and equipment for vat-rooms) as well as a number of wine-related institutes and education facilities. The train station is served by TGV, through Dijon or Lyon.  There is a comprehensive \"traditional\" shopping area clustered around the central square with a focus on gourmet food, fashion, and wine, while large supermarkets, business parks, etc., are situated on the outskirts of town.  Beaune has a major fine food market on Saturdays, where there are a large number of stall holders supplying a broad selection of products and specialties from Burgundy and the surrounding regions. For example, Bresse chickens, Jura cheeses, small goods, spices, produce of every variety as well as seasonal specialties such as truffles. There is a smaller market on Wednesday, and special-event markets and fetes are held throughout the year.  Although Beaune is not primarily a tourist town but one centred on the wine industry, it nevertheless attracts a large amount of tourism. About five traditional smaller hotels are located within the city walls with around five chain hotels on the outskirts.  Beaune is one of a number of towns in Europe asserting a key role in the \"invention of film\"; a number of murals and other tourist attractions reflect this.  Technically Beaune is a commune in eastern France, a sub-prefecture of department 21, the Côte-d'Or department, in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin, Geography and Climate.", "content": "The name \"Beaune\" derives from the Latinised Gaulish word \"Belena\", which was the name of a spring around which the settlement was established. That name in turn is derived from \"Belen\" or \"Belenos\", a god of fast-flowing water. A Roman fort was built there in the first century A.D. and it was already a prosperous wine-growing region in the 13th century.  The town is served by a small watercourse, the \"Bouzaise\" (or \"Bouzaize\") of which the source is in a public park at the north-east boundary.  Beaune has a semi-continental climate with an oceanic tendency. The oceanic influence is seen with frequent rains in each season (though Autumn has the most and Summer has the least) and many weather changes. On the other hand, one sees the semi-continental influence with one of the greatest seasonal temperature differences, characterized by cold winters with frequent snowfall, and hot summers with violent storms. It is this climate which creates the unique environment for which the Côte d'Or is so readily known.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hospices de Beaune.", "content": "Founded in 1442 by Nicolas Rolin, chancellor of the Duke of Burgundy, and his wife, the Hospices are a charity running hospitals and other services for the needy. Following from past donations, they own vineyards in Burgundy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Beaune is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Beaune () is the wine capital of Burgundy in the Côte d'Or department in eastern France. It is located between Paris and Geneva.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973222}
{"src_title": "Flag of Ghana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "National ensign.", "content": "Under terms of section 183 of Ghana's Merchant Shipping Act of 1963, the civil ensign is a red flag with the national flag in a black-fimbriated canton. In 2003, a new merchant shipping act was enacted, however, and this simply provides that \"the National Flag of Ghana\" is the proper national colours for Ghanaian ships. No mention is made of other flags or other possible flags.  The naval ensign is a red St. George's Cross on white flag, with the national flag in canton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Air force ensign and civil air ensign.", "content": "The Ghana Air Force has its own ensign that incorporates the flag of Ghana. Civil aviation in Ghana is represented by the national civil air ensign. It is a standard light-blue field with the Ghanaian flag in the canton. It is charged in the fly with either a red, yellow and green roundel (in the case of the military ensign) or black five-pointed star (in the case of the civil ensign). Both have been used since Independence in 1957, and the subsequent founding of the Ghana Air Force in 1959.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Ghanaian government flag, adopted in 1957, was flown until 1962. Similarly, when the country formed the Union of African States, the flag of the Union was modeled on Bolivia's flag, but with two black stars, representing the nations. In May 1959, a third star was added.  Following the January 1964 constitutional referendum, Ghana adopted a variant of the 1957 tricolour with white in the place of yellow, after the colours of Kwame Nkrumah's ruling and then-sole legal party Convention People's Party, making it similar to the flag of Hungary. The original 1957 flag was reinstated on February 1966 following Nkrumah's overthrow in a \"coup d'état\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The national flag of Ghana was designed and adopted in 1957 and was flown until 1962. It was then reinstated in 1966. It consists of the Pan-African colours of red, gold, and green, in horizontal stripes, with a black five-pointed star in the centre of the gold stripe. The Ghanaian flag was the second African flag after the flag of the Ethiopian Empire to feature these colours. The flag's design influenced that of the flag of Guinea-Bissau (1973). The flag of Ghana was designed by Theodosia Okoh (1922–2015).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973223}
{"src_title": "STL (file format)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "ASCII STL.", "content": "An ASCII STL file begins with the line  where \"name\" is an optional string (though if \"name\" is omitted there must still be a space after solid). The file continues with any number of triangles, each represented as follows:  where each \"n\" or \"v\" is a floating-point number in sign-mantissa-\"e\"-sign-exponent format, e.g., \"2.648000e-002\". The file concludes with  The structure of the format suggests that other possibilities exist (e.g., facets with more than one \"loop\", or loops with more than three vertices). In practice, however, all facets are simple triangles.  White space (spaces, tabs, newlines) may be used anywhere in the file except within numbers or words. The spaces between \"facet\" and \"normal\" and between \"outer\" and \"loop\" are required.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Binary STL.", "content": "Because ASCII STL files can become very large, a binary version of STL exists. A binary STL file has an 80-character header (which is generally ignored, but should never begin with \"solid\" because that may lead some software to assume that this is an ASCII STL file). Following the header is a 4-byte little-endian unsigned integer indicating the number of triangular facets in the file. Following that is data describing each triangle in turn. The file simply ends after the last triangle.  Each triangle is described by twelve 32-bit floating-point numbers: three for the normal and then three for the X/Y/Z coordinate of each vertex – just as with the ASCII version of STL. After these follows a 2-byte (\"short\") unsigned integer that is the \"attribute byte count\" – in the standard format, this should be zero because most software does not understand anything else.  Floating-point numbers are represented as IEEE floating-point numbers and are assumed to be little-endian, although this is not stated in documentation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Color in binary STL.", "content": "There are at least two non-standard variations on the binary STL format for adding color information:  The red/green/blue ordering within those two bytes is reversed in these two approaches – so while these formats could easily have been compatible, the reversal of the order of the colors means that they are not – and worse still, a generic STL file reader cannot automatically distinguish between them. There is also no way to have facets be selectively transparent because there is no per-facet alpha value – although in the context of current rapid prototyping machinery, this is not important.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The facet normal.", "content": "In both ASCII and binary versions of STL, the facet normal should be a unit vector pointing outwards from the solid object. In most software this may be set to (0,0,0), and the software will automatically calculate a normal based on the order of the triangle vertices using the \"right-hand rule\". Some STL loaders (e.g. the STL plugin for Art of Illusion) check that the normal in the file agrees with the normal they calculate using the right-hand rule and warn the user when it does not. Other software may ignore the facet normal entirely and use only the right-hand rule. Although it is rare to specify a normal that cannot be calculated using the right-hand rule, in order to be entirely portable, a file should both provide the facet normal and order the vertices appropriately. A notable exception is SolidWorks, which uses the normal for shading effects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in 3D printing.", "content": "3D printers build objects by solidifying one layer at a time. This requires a series of closed 2D contours that are filled in with solidified material as the layers are fused together. A natural file format for such a machine would be a series of closed polygons corresponding to different Z-values. However, since it is possible to vary the layer thicknesses for a faster though less precise build, it was easier to define the model to be built as a closed polyhedron that can be sliced at the necessary horizontal levels.  The STL file format appears capable of defining a polyhedron with any polygonal facet, but in practice it is only ever used for triangles, which means that much of the syntax of the ASCII protocol is superfluous.  To properly form a 3D volume, the surface represented by any STL files must be closed and connected, where every edge is part of exactly two triangles, and not self-intersecting. Since the STL syntax does not enforce this property, it can be ignored for applications where the closedness does not matter. The closedness only matters insofar as the software that slices the triangles requires it to ensure that the resulting 2D polygons are closed. Sometimes such software can be written to clean up small discrepancies by moving vertices that are close together so that they coincide. The results are not predictable, but it is often sufficient.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in other fields.", "content": "STL file format is simple and easy to output. Consequently, many computer-aided design systems can output the STL file format. Although the output is simple to produce, some connectivity information is discarded.  Many computer-aided manufacturing systems require triangulated models. STL format is not the most memory- and computationally efficient method for transferring this data, but STL is often used to import the triangulated geometry into the CAM system. The format is commonly available, so the CAM system will use it. In order to use the data, the CAM system may have to reconstruct the connectivity.  STL can also be used for interchanging data between CAD/CAM systems and computational environments such as Mathematica.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Representation of curved surfaces.", "content": "It is not possible to use triangles to perfectly represent curved surfaces. To compensate, users often save enormous STL files to reduce the inaccuracy. Native formats of 3D design software files use mathematical surfaces to preserve detail losslessly in small files.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "STL was invented by the Albert Consulting Group for 3D Systems in 1987. The format was developed for 3D Systems' first commercial 3D printers. Since its initial release, the format remained relatively unchanged for 22 years. In 2009, an update to the format, dubbed STL 2.0, was proposed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "STL (an abbreviation of \"stereolithography\") is a file format native to the stereolithography CAD software created by 3D Systems. STL has several backronyms such as \"Standard Triangle Language\" and \"Standard Tessellation Language\". This file format is supported by many other software packages; it is widely used for rapid prototyping, 3D printing and computer-aided manufacturing. STL files describe only the surface geometry of a three-dimensional object without any representation of color, texture or other common CAD model attributes. The STL format specifies both ASCII and binary representations. Binary files are more common, since they are more compact.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973224}
{"src_title": "Porphyrin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Complexes of porphyrins.", "content": "Porphyrins are the conjugate acids of ligands that bind metals to form complexes. The metal ion usually has a charge of 2+ or 3+. A schematic equation for these syntheses is shown: A porphyrin without a metal-ion in its cavity is a \"free base\". Some iron-containing porphyrins are called hemes. Heme-containing proteins, or \"hemoproteins\", are found extensively in nature. Hemoglobin and myoglobin are two O-binding proteins that contain iron porphyrins. Various cytochromes are also hemoproteins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related species.", "content": "A benzoporphyrin is a porphyrin with a benzene ring fused to one of the pyrrole units. e.g. verteporfin is a benzoporphyrin derivative.  Several other heterocycles are related to porphyrins. These include corrins, chlorins, bacteriochlorophylls, and corphins. Chlorins (2,3-dihydroporphyrin) are more reduced, contain more hydrogen than porphyrins, i.e. one pyrrole has been converted to a pyrroline. This structure occurs in chlorophylls. Replacement of two of the four pyrrolic subunits with pyrrolinic subunits results in either a bacteriochlorin (as found in some photosynthetic bacteria) or an isobacteriochlorin, depending on the relative positions of the reduced rings. Some porphyrin derivatives follow Hückel's rule, but most do not.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natural formation.", "content": "A geoporphyrin, also known as a petroporphyrin, is a porphyrin of geologic origin. They can occur in crude oil, oil shale, coal, or sedimentary rocks. Abelsonite is possibly the only geoporphyrin mineral, as it is rare for porphyrins to occur in isolation and form crystals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synthesis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biosynthesis.", "content": "In non-photosynthetic eukaryotes such as animals, insects, fungi, and protozoa, as well as the α-proteobacteria group of bacteria, the committed step for porphyrin biosynthesis is the formation of δ-aminolevulinic acid (δ-ALA, 5-ALA or dALA) by the reaction of the amino acid glycine with succinyl-CoA from the citric acid cycle. In plants, algae, bacteria (except for the α-proteobacteria group) and archaea, it is produced from glutamic acid via glutamyl-tRNA and glutamate-1-semialdehyde. The enzymes involved in this pathway are glutamyl-tRNA synthetase, glutamyl-tRNA reductase, and glutamate-1-semialdehyde 2,1-aminomutase. This pathway is known as the C5 or Beale pathway.  Two molecules of dALA are then combined by porphobilinogen synthase to give porphobilinogen (PBG), which contains a pyrrole ring. Four PBGs are then combined through deamination into hydroxymethyl bilane (HMB), which is hydrolysed to form the circular tetrapyrrole uroporphyrinogen III. This molecule undergoes a number of further modifications. Intermediates are used in different species to form particular substances, but, in humans, the main end-product protoporphyrin IX is combined with iron to form heme. Bile pigments are the breakdown products of heme.  The following scheme summarizes the biosynthesis of porphyrins, with references by EC number and the OMIM database. The porphyria associated with the deficiency of each enzyme is also shown:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Laboratory synthesis.", "content": "One of the most common syntheses for porphyrins is the Rothemund reaction, first reported in 1936, which is also the basis for more recent methods described by Adler and Longo. The general scheme is a condensation and oxidation process starting with pyrrole and an aldehyde.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "The main role of porphyrins is their support of aerobic life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photodynamic therapy.", "content": "Porphyrins have been evaluated in the context of photodynamic therapy (PDT) since they strongly absorb light, which is then converted to energy and heat in the illuminated areas. This technique has been applied in macular degeneration using verteporfin.  PDT is considered a noninvasive cancer treatment, involving the interaction between light of a determined frequency, a photo-sensitizer, and oxygen. This interaction produces the formation of a highly reactive oxygen species (ROS), usually singlet oxygen, as well as superoxide anion, free hydroxyl radical, or hydrogen peroxide. These high reactive oxygen species react with susceptible cellular organic biomolecules such as; lipids, aromatic amino acids, and nucleic acid heterocyclic bases, to produce oxidative radicals that damage the cell, possibly inducing apoptosis or even necrosis.  Bacteria have been shown to produce porphyrins endogenously as byproducts in heme biosynthesis, and these can be used in phototherapy to treat bacterial infections, such as acne.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organic geochemistry.", "content": "The field of organic geochemistry, the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on the Earth, had its origins in the isolation of porphyrins from petroleum. This finding helped establish the biological origins of petroleum. Petroleum is sometimes \"fingerprinted\" by analysis of trace amounts of nickel and vanadyl porphyrins.  Chlorophyll is a magnesium porphyrin, and heme is an iron porphyrin, but neither porphyrin is present in petroleum. On the other hand, nickel and vanadyl porphyrins could be related to catalytic molecules from bacteria that feed primordial hydrocarbons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicology.", "content": "Heme biosynthesis is used as biomarker in environmental toxicology studies. While excess production of porphyrins indicate organochlorine exposure, lead inhibits ALA dehydratase enzyme.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Potential applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biomimetic catalysis.", "content": "Although not commercialized, metalloporphyrin complexes are widely studied as catalysts for the oxidation of organic compounds. Particularly popular for such laboratory research are complexes of \"meso\"-tetraphenylporphyrin and octaethylporphyrin. Complexes with Mn, Fe, and Co catalyze a variety of reactions of potential interest in organic synthesis. Some complexes emulate the action of various heme enzymes such as cytochrome P450, lignin peroxidase. Metalloporphyrins are also studied as catalysts for water splitting, with the purpose of generating molecular hydrogen and oxygen for fuel cells.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Molecular electronics and sensors.", "content": "Porphyrin-based compounds are of interest as possible components of molecular electronics and photonics. Synthetic porphyrin dyes have been incorporated in prototype dye-sensitized solar cells.  Metalloporphyrins have been investigated as sensors.  Phthalocyanines, which are structurally related to porphyrins, are used in commerce as dyes and catalysts, but porphyrins are not.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Supramolecular chemistry.", "content": "Porphyrins are often used to construct structures in supramolecular chemistry. These systems take advantage of the Lewis acidity of the metal, typically zinc. An example of a host–guest complex that was constructed from a macrocycle composed of four porphyrins. A guest-free base porphyrin is bound to the center by coordination with its four-pyridine substituents.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Porphyrins ( ) are a group of heterocyclic macrocycle organic compounds, composed of four modified pyrrole subunits interconnected at their α carbon atoms via methine bridges (=CH−). The parent of porphyrin is porphine, a rare chemical compound of exclusively theoretical interest. Substituted porphines are called porphyrins. With a total of 26 π-electrons, of which 18 π-electrons form a planar, continuous cycle, the porphyrin ring structure is often described as aromatic. One result of the large conjugated system is that porphyrins typically absorb strongly in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. they are deeply colored. The name \"porphyrin\" derives from the Greek word πορφύρα (\"porphyra\"), meaning \"purple\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973225}
{"src_title": "Benetton Group", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1965, the Benettons opened their first store in Belluno and three years after in Paris. The company's core business consists of clothing brands United Colors of Benetton and Sisley.  Benetton was an iconic brand in the 1980s and 1990s but has since struggled to regain this position. In 2000, it ranked 75th in Interbrand's ranking of best global brands, however, by 2002, it had dropped out of the list.  In 2012, Benetton Group was delisted from the stock exchange and is now a fully owned subsidiary of the Benetton family company Edizione holding.  In 2017, the group posted a loss of €180 million. Prompted by the heavy losses, Luciano Benetton, who was then 83 years old, returned from retirement as Executive Chairman for the brand.  Revival efforts also included appointing Jean-Charles de Castelbajac as artistic director and re-appointing photographer Oliviero Toscani. As of 2020, United Colors of Benetton has 1,500 employees and uses 25,000 workers through subcontractors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marketing.", "content": "Benetton is known for its sports sponsorships, and for its \"United Colors\" advertising campaign. In 1982, Benetton hired Oliviero Toscani as creative director, which led to a change in advertising focus towards raising awareness for various issues worldwide. In 1984, Toscani photographed the first multiracial ad for the brand.  In 1989, Toscani refocused Benetton's advertising strategy under the \"United Colors of Benetton\" campaign. The campaign's graphic, billboard-sized ads depicted a variety of shocking subjects, including the deathbed scene of a man (AIDS activist David Kirby) dying from AIDS. Another ad featured a bloodied, unwashed newborn baby with umbilical cord still attached. The newborn ad prompted roughly 650 complaints to the British Advertising Standards Authority, which noted in its 1991 annual report that the Benetton baby ad \"attracted more complaints than we have ever previously known.\" A third ad included a black stallion copulating with a white mare, while an fourth advert showed a light-skinned girl with blond hair hugging a dark-skinned boy whose hair was shaped into devil horns.  In 2000, Benetton was included in the reference publication \"Guinness World Records\" for the \"Most Controversial Campaign.\"  In November 2011, Benetton created the UNHATE Foundation, launching a worldwide communication campaign described as an invitation to leaders and citizens of the world to combat the \"culture of hatred.\" Benetton claimed the campaign was created to serve as its corporate social responsibility strategy. The UNHATE poster series uses altered images of political and religious leaders, such as then-President of the United States Barack Obama and Hugo Chávez, then President of Venezuela, kissing each other. Following Vatican protests, Benetton removed an ad purportedly showing Pope Benedict XVI kissing Ahmed Mohamed el Tayeb, the imam of Egypt's Al Azhar mosque.  Benetton won the Press Grand Prix at the 2012 Cannes Ad festival for its Unhate campaign.  In November 2017, Benetton launched a campaign in collaboration with Devbhumi, a company owned by rural women from India's remote Uttarakhand region. The initiative claims to empower more than 6,000 rural women artisans in India.  In 2019, Benetton Group announced it will be hosting one of the four days of talks and presentations which makes up the 88th annual International Wool Textile Organisation (IWTO) congress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport and sponsorship.", "content": "Benetton Group entered Formula One as a sponsor of Tyrrell in, then Alfa Romeo in ; this arrangement was extended to both Alfa and Toleman in. Benetton Formula Ltd. was formed at the end of 1985 when the Toleman and Spirit teams were sold to the Benetton family. The team saw its greatest success under Flavio Briatore, who managed the team from to. Michael Schumacher won his first Drivers' Championships with the team in and, and the team won their only Constructors' title in 1995. From, the team raced under an Italian licence although it continued to be based, like Toleman, in Oxfordshire in England. The team was bought by Renault for US$120 million in and was rebranded Renault F1 in 2002.  In 1979, Benetton first sponsored their (then amateur) local rugby team, A.S. Rugby Treviso. Benetton Rugby has since become a major force in Italian rugby, with 11 league titles and supplying many players to the national team. Benetton Group has also sponsored Treviso Basket (1982–2012) and Sisley Volley (1987–2012).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticisms.", "content": "Benetton has faced criticism from Mapuche organizations over its purchase of traditional Mapuche lands in Patagonia. The Curiñanco-Nahuelquir family was evicted from their land in 2002 following Benetton's claim to it, but the land was restored in 2007. The company have published a position statement regarding the Mapuche in Patagonia.  Benetton aroused suspicion when they considered using RFID tracking chips on clothes to monitor inventory. A boycott site alleges the tracking chips \"can be read from a distance and used to monitor the people wearing them.\" Issues of consumer privacy were raised and the plan was shelved. Benetton's position on RFID technology is also available on their website.  PETA launched a boycott campaign against Benetton for buying wool from farmers who practiced mulesing. Benetton has since agreed to buy nonmulesed wool and has further urged the wool industry to adopt the PETA and Australian Wool Growers Association agreement to end mulesing. Benetton's position statement on the mulesing controversy is available on their website.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Building collapse at Savar.", "content": "On 24 April 2013, the eight-storey \"Rana Plaza\" commercial building collapsed outside Dhaka that housed one of the factories where Benetton makes its clothing. At least 1,130 people died. Benetton first denied reports linking production of their clothing at the factory, but clothes and documents linked to Benetton were discovered at the disaster site. Of the 29 brands identified as having sourced products from the Rana Plaza factories, only nine attended meetings held in November 2013 to agree a proposal on compensation to the victims. Several companies refused to sign including Walmart, Carrefour, Bonmarché, Mango, Auchan and Kik. The agreement was signed by Primark, Loblaw, Bonmarche and El Corte Ingles. A year after the collapse, Benetton faced international protests after failing to pay any compensation to the Rana Plaza Donors Trust Fund. Protests included shutting down Benetton's flagship Oxford Street store in London.  In April 2015, Benetton Group announced that it has doubled compensation for Rana Plaza victims recommended by independent assessors (PWC AND WRAP) and applied the principles of the Accord on Fire and Building Safety to global suppliers. Benetton's engagement for Bangladesh is available on their website.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Benetton Group S.r.l. is a global fashion brand based in Ponzano Veneto, Italy founded in 1965. Benetton Group has a network of about 5,000 stores worldwide. It is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Benetton family's holding company Edizione.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973226}
{"src_title": "Vladimir Oblast", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Vladimir Oblast borders Moscow, Yaroslavl, Ivanovo, Ryazan, and Nizhny Novgorod Oblasts. The oblast is situated in the center of the East European Plain. The Klyazma and the Oka are the most important rivers. There are approximately three hundred lakes. The oblast is situated in a zone of mixed forests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fauna.", "content": "The oblast's fauna currently includes more than fifty species of mammals (some examples including elk, wild boar, roe deer, red and sika deer, lynx, wolf, squirrel, rabbit, marten, fox, weasel, badger and other fur-bearing animals), five species of reptiles, and ten species of amphibians. The semiaquatic Russian desman is listed in the Russian Red Book of endangered species. The region is inhabited by 216 species of birds, among which are the capercaillie, black grouse, grouse, partridge, woodcock, goose, duck, etc. The lesser white-fronted goose is listed in the Red Book.  Hunting season runs from October to February with the following license and permit restrictions:  Bodies of water in the region are rich in numerous species (about 40) of fresh-water fish (e.g. eel, roach, pike, perch, bream, rudd, and sturgeon in the Klyazma River), which support ice fishing in winter. Additionally, the oblast has several hunting farms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hydrography.", "content": "The total expanse of the oblast's surface waters is 32.9 hectares.  The region has hundreds of rivers with a total length of more than 8.6 million kilometers—there are 560 rivers and streams throughout the oblast. The Klyazma River flows into the Oka River on the south-eastern edge of the oblast's border with the Nizhny Novgorod Region. The Klyazma River's major tributaries in the Vladimir Region are the Sherna (with the Molokcha flowing into it), the Kirzhach (with its own tributaries being the Big and Small Kirzhach), the Peksha, the Koloksha, the Nerl, the Sudogda, the Uvod, the Lukh and the Suvorosch. Tributaries of the Oka within Vladimir oblast are the Gus, Unzha, and Ushna rivers. The Dubna River, a tributary of the Volga River, originates near the town of Alexandrov. The Oka River is navigable throughout the region (157 km). The rivers in the region are characterized by their flat currents, broad valleys and meandering channels. Water levels are characterized by their high spring tides, low water periods over summer-autumn with occasional flooding during heavy rains, and stable/low levels throughout the winter.  There are about three hundred lakes covering an area of five thousand hectares. Most of them are small and undrained and many are overgrown with a peat layer. The origin of the lakes varies. Numerous oxbow lakes are scattered along the river valleys. The largest of them are Lake Urvanovskoe (12 km long) and Lake Visha (length about 10 km). In the Meshchera Lowlands and in the northwest of the oblast are lakes of ancient alluvial valleys: Isikhry, Svyatoe and others. Lakes of karst origin, located in the lower reaches of the Klyazma and in the center of Vyaznikovsky District (a northeastern district in the oblast), have highly mineralized water and are associated with underground watercourses. The largest and deepest of them is Lake Kshchara. In the districts of Alexandrov and Yuryev-Polsky glacial lakes are small in size.  The main masses of wetlands in the region (total area of 37.4 thousand hectares ) occur in Meshchera and Balakhna (in the northeast of the oblast) lowlands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The territory of modern Vladimir Oblast has been populated since ancient times. The oldest known traces of human settlement date to the Upper Paleolithic. A settlement of Homo Sapiens dating back to 25,000 BCE was discovered in the area of Sungir. The region of Vladimir were inhabited by different people like Slavs, Tatars, Finno-Ugrics and Balts. The East Slavic tribe of the Buzhans originated in the Vladimir region. Archaeological excavations of Volga Finn settlements document also the Finno-Ugric roots of this land. Merya, Muromian, and Meshchera inhabited territory of the region during this period.  Since the 10th century CE, Slavic colonization of the area began in Murom and Suzdal. The current territory of Vladimir Oblast became part of the Old Russian state. In the 11th century, the region became part of the Rostov-Suzdal principality and in the 12th century the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. In the early 12th century, Vladimir emerged as did Yaropolch-Zalessky. The Vladimir region rapidly developed in the mid-12th century during the rule of Yuri Dolgorukiy and Andrey Bogolyubsky. New townships arose--Yuriev-Polsky, Gorokhovets, Starodub-on-the-Klyazma, Mstislavl—along with the princely residences Kideksha and Bogolyubovo. The visibility of historical monuments preserves cities reminiscent of medieval Russian history and detailed documents about the history of the last hundred years records the peak of the cultural development of these places (Vladimirskaya guberniya, Vladimir Highway).  Most, if not all, of modern Vladimir, during the Soviet period, seems to have been part of Ivanovo Oblast until it became a separate Federal Subject in 1944.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Vladimir CPSU Committee (who in reality had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament.  The Charter of Vladimir Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Vladimir Oblast is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy and transportation.", "content": "The largest companies in the region include the local branches of Mondelez International (revenues of $ million in 2017) and Ferrero SpA ($ million), Treyd Servis (baby food manufacturer, $ million), Starodvorskiye Kolbasy (sausage producer, $ million).  The Gusevskoye peat narrow gauge railway for hauling peat operates in the Gus-Khrustalny District.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "Population: 1,443,693 (2010 Census);  2009 - 1.46 | 2010 - 1.46 | 2011 - 1.50 | 2012 - 1.62 | 2013 - 1.59 | 2014 - 1.64 | 2015 - 1.73 | 2016 - 1.72(e)  Ethnic composition (2010):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "According to a 2012 survey 42.3% of the population of Vladimir Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 5.1% are unaffiliated Christians, 1.2% are Orthodox Christian believers who don't belong to the church or belong to other (non-Russian) Orthodox churches, and 0.5% of the population are adherents of the Slavic native faith (Rodnovery). In addition, 32% of the population declares to be \"spiritual but not religious\", 13.9% is atheist, and 4.8% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vladimir Oblast (, \"Vladimirskaya oblast\") is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Its administrative center is the city of Vladimir, which is located east of Moscow. As of the 2010 Census, the oblast's population was 1,443,693.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973227}
{"src_title": "Transportation theory (mathematics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Motivation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mines and factories.", "content": "Suppose that we have a collection of \"n\" mines mining iron ore, and a collection of \"n\" factories which use the iron ore that the mines produce. Suppose for the sake of argument that these mines and factories form two disjoint subsets \"M\" and \"F\" of the Euclidean plane R. Suppose also that we have a \"cost function\" \"c\" : R × R → [0, ∞), so that \"c\"(\"x\", \"y\") is the cost of transporting one shipment of iron from \"x\" to \"y\". For simplicity, we ignore the time taken to do the transporting. We also assume that each mine can supply only one factory (no splitting of shipments) and that each factory requires precisely one shipment to be in operation (factories cannot work at half- or double-capacity). Having made the above assumptions, a \"transport plan\" is a bijection \"T\" : \"M\" → \"F\". In other words, each mine \"m\" ∈ \"M\" supplies precisely one factory \"T\"(\"m\") ∈ \"F\" and each factory is supplied by precisely one mine. We wish to find the \"optimal transport plan\", the plan \"T\" whose \"total cost\"  is the least of all possible transport plans from \"M\" to \"F\". This motivating special case of the transportation problem is an instance of the assignment problem. More specifically, it is equivalent to finding a minimum weight matching in a bipartite graph.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Moving books: the importance of the cost function.", "content": "The following simple example illustrates the importance of the cost function in determining the optimal transport plan. Suppose that we have \"n\" books of equal width on a shelf (the real line), arranged in a single contiguous block. We wish to rearrange them into another contiguous block, but shifted one book-width to the right. Two obvious candidates for the optimal transport plan present themselves: If the cost function is proportional to Euclidean distance (\"c\"(\"x\", \"y\") = α|\"x\" − \"y\"|) then these two candidates are \"both\" optimal. If, on the other hand, we choose the strictly convex cost function proportional to the square of Euclidean distance (\"c\"(\"x\", \"y\") = α|\"x\" − \"y\"|), then the \"many small moves\" option becomes the unique minimizer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hitchcock problem.", "content": "The following transportation problem formulation is credited to F. L. Hitchcock: This challenge in logistics was taken up by D. R. Fulkerson and in the book \"Flows in Networks\" (1962) written with L. R. Ford Jr..  Tjalling Koopmans is also credited with formulations of transport economics and allocation of resources.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abstract formulation of the problem.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monge and Kantorovich formulations.", "content": "The transportation problem as it is stated in modern or more technical literature looks somewhat different because of the development of Riemannian geometry and measure theory. The mines-factories example, simple as it is, is a useful reference point when thinking of the abstract case. In this setting, we allow the possibility that we may not wish to keep all mines and factories open for business, and allow mines to supply more than one factory, and factories to accept iron from more than one mine.  Let \"X\" and \"Y\" be two separable metric spaces such that any probability measure on \"X\" (or \"Y\") is a Radon measure (i.e. they are Radon spaces). Let \"c\" : \"X\" × \"Y\" → [0, ∞] be a Borel-measurable function. Given probability measures μ on \"X\" and ν on \"Y\", Monge's formulation of the optimal transportation problem is to find a transport map \"T\" : \"X\" → \"Y\" that realizes the infimum  where \"T\"(μ) denotes the push forward of μ by \"T\". A map \"T\" that attains this infimum (\"i.e.\" makes it a minimum instead of an infimum) is called an \"optimal transport map\".  Monge's formulation of the optimal transportation problem can be ill-posed, because sometimes there is no \"T\" satisfying \"T\"(μ) = ν: this happens, for example, when μ is a Dirac measure but ν is not.  We can improve on this by adopting Kantorovich's formulation of the optimal transportation problem, which is to find a probability measure γ on \"X\" × \"Y\" that attains the infimum  where Γ(μ, ν) denotes the collection of all probability measures on \"X\" × \"Y\" with marginals μ on \"X\" and ν on \"Y\". It can be shown that a minimizer for this problem always exists when the cost function \"c\" is lower semi-continuous and Γ(\"μ\", \"ν\") is a tight collection of measures (which is guaranteed for Radon spaces \"X\" and \"Y\"). (Compare this formulation with the definition of the Wasserstein metric \"W\" on the space of probability measures.) A gradient descent formulation for the solution of the Monge–Kantorovich problem was given by Sigurd Angenent, Steven Haker, and Allen Tannenbaum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Duality formula.", "content": "The minimum of the Kantorovich problem is equal to  where the supremum runs over all pairs of bounded and continuous functions formula_10 and formula_11 such that", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Solution of the problem.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Optimal transportation on the real line.", "content": "For formula_13, let formula_14 denote the collection of probability measures on formula_15 that have finite \"formula_16\"-th moment. Let formula_17 and let formula_18, where formula_19 is a convex function.  The proof of this solution appears in.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Separable Hilbert spaces.", "content": "Let \"formula_26\" be a separable Hilbert space. Let formula_27 denote the collection of probability measures on \"formula_26\" such that have finite formula_16-th moment; let formula_30 denote those elements formula_31 that are Gaussian regular: if formula_32 is any strictly positive Gaussian measure on formula_26 and formula_34, then formula_35 also.  Let formula_36, formula_37, formula_38 for formula_39. Then the Kantorovich problem has a unique solution formula_40, and this solution is induced by an optimal transport map: i.e., there exists a Borel map formula_41 such that  Moreover, if formula_43 has bounded support, then  for formula_20-almost all \"formula_46\" for some locally Lipschitz, \"c\"-concave and maximal Kantorovich potential formula_47. (Here formula_48 denotes the Gateaux derivative of formula_47.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "The Monge–Kantorovich optimal transport has found applications in wide range in different fields. Among them are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics and economics, transportation theory or transport theory is a name given to the study of optimal transportation and allocation of resources. The problem was formalized by the French mathematician Gaspard Monge in 1781.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973228}
{"src_title": "Žižkov Television Tower", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The technical solution itself was unique in its time and brought several innovations and even patents. About twenty different proposals have been made. Finally won in 1984 the variant of futuristic, subtle but stable, three column structure.  The structure of the tower is unconventional, based on a triangle whose corners go up in steel columns, consisting of three tubes with a double steel wall, filled with concrete. They support nine 'pods' and three decks for transmitting equipment. One of the three pillars extends considerably higher than the others, and this provides both the necessary height for some antennas, along with the structure's rocket and gantry appearance. In its time it was a unique technology, which authors have patented.  The tower stands 216 metres (709 feet) high, altitude of the observatory is 93 m, the hotel room altitude is 70 m, restaurants altitude is 66 m, with a capacity of 180 people. Three elevators transport passengers at a speed of 4 m/s.  Three of the pods, positioned directly beneath the decks at the top of the tower, are used for equipment related to the tower's primary function and are inaccessible to the public. The remaining six pods are open to visitors, providing a panoramic view of Prague and the surrounding area. The lower three, approximately half-way up the length of the pillars at 63 metres (207 feet), house a recently refurbished restaurant and café bar.  Construction of the tower cost $19 million. It weighs 11,800 tons and is also used as a meteorological observatory. It is a member of the World Federation of Great Towers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reputation.", "content": "Like many examples of communist-era architecture in Central and Eastern Europe, the TV tower used to be generally resented by the local inhabitants. It also received a spate of nicknames, mostly alluding to its rocket-like shape, like \"Baikonur\", after the Soviet cosmodrome or some more political, like \"Jakeš's finger\" (\"Jakešův prst\"), after the Secretary General of the Czechoslovak Communist Party. In 2009, Australian website Virtualtourist.com called Žižkov TV Tower the second ugliest building in the world, behind the Morris A. Mechanic Theatre in Baltimore. On the other hand, the crawling Babies (together with the statue Piss by the same author) were published by The Guardian in 2007 as the greatest attraction of Prague. Recently, the tower's reputation among Czechs has improved. Today the tower attracts visitors with its technological innovations and view over the city skyline.  Although official criticism during the time of its construction was impossible, the tower was lambasted unofficially for its'megalomania', its 'jarring' effect on the Prague skyline and for destroying part of a centuries-old Old Jewish cemetery in Žižkov situated at the tower's foundations. Burials in the cemetery ended up in 1890. In 1960 the place was converted to Mahler's park. One quarter of the cemetery was preserved, but three quarters of the cemetery tombstones were tumbled and covered with a thick layer of soil. However, the tower's foundation was simply dug up through the layer of the cemetery, tombstones were crushed by heavy equipment and the bones were carried away to landfill.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Last changes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "David Černý sculptures.", "content": "In 2000, ten fiberglass sculptures by Czech artist David Černý called \"Miminka\" (Babies), crawling up and down were temporarily attached to the tower's pillars. The sculptures were admired by many and were returned in 2001 as a permanent installation. Another three Babies, made from bronze, can be found in Prague's Kampa Park.  For cleaning and structural checks, these Babies were removed from the tower in the fall of 2017. After examination of the condition of the sculptures was made a decision to replace them with identical duplicates. In March 2019 were installed the duplicates of the \"Babies\" on their original positions. The original Babies were returned to David Černý.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Restaurant.", "content": "The restaurant 'Oblaca' features a range of international and regional cuisine. Bar prepares various high-quality mixed drinks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Illumination.", "content": "Since 2006, to mark the 125th anniversary of the elevation of Žižkov into a city and the 15th anniversary of the commissioning of the transmitter, the transmitter is illuminated in different colors every evening, usually in the colors of the state tricolor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "České Radiokomunikace TOWER Datacenter.", "content": "After switching to digital TV broadcasting and removing the old analogue broadcast equipment, the owner decided to use the free space for a new colocation datacenter with capacity for 64 racks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Luxury Room.", "content": "On 13 February 2013 a luxury one room hotel was added to the tower. The room sits upstairs from the reopened restaurant and a spiral staircase provides private access. Inside the room is a large bed and a free standing bathtub from where the guest can view the city.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Žižkov Television Tower () is a unique transmitter tower built in Prague between 1985 and 1992. Designed by the architect Václav Aulický and the structural engineer Jiří Kozák, it stands high above the city's traditional skyline from its position on top of a hill in the district of Žižkov, from which it takes its name. The tower is an example of high-tech architecture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973229}
{"src_title": "Angela Hitler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Angela Hitler was born in Braunau, Austria-Hungary, the second child of Alois Hitler Sr. and his second wife, Franziska Matzelsberger. Her mother died the following year. She and her brother Alois Hitler, Jr. were brought up by their father and his third wife Klara Pölzl. Her half-brother, Adolf Hitler, was born six years after her, and they grew very close. She is the only one of his siblings mentioned in \"Mein Kampf\".  Angela's father died in 1903 and her stepmother died in 1907, leaving a small inheritance. On 14 September 1903, she married Leo Raubal (11 June 1879 – 10 August 1910), a junior tax inspector, and gave birth to a son, Leo on 12 October 1906. On 4 June 1908, Angela gave birth to Geli and in 1910 to a second daughter, Elfriede (Elfriede Maria Hochegger, 10 January 1910 – 24 September 1993). Her husband died in 1910.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Widow.", "content": "She moved to Vienna after World War I. Walter Langer's wartime report \"The Mind of Adolf Hitler\", an OSS profile of the Hitler family, paints a positive picture of Angela at this period, describing her as \"rather a decent and industrious person\". It says she became manager of Mensa Academia Judaica, a boarding house for Jewish students, where she once defended those in her care against anti-Semitic rioters. According to Langer: \"Some of our informants knew her during this time and report that in the student riots Angela defended the Jewish students from attack and on several occasions beat the Aryan students away from the steps of the dining hall with a club. She is a rather large, strong peasant type of person who is well able to take an active part.\"  Angela had heard nothing from Adolf for a decade when he re-established contact with her in 1919. In 1924, Adolf was confined in Landsberg; Angela made the trip from Vienna to visit him. In 1928, she and Geli moved to the Haus Wachenfeld at Obersalzberg near Berchtesgaden, where she became his housekeeper and was later put in charge of the household at Hitler's expanded retreat. Geli committed suicide in 1931.  Angela continued to work for her half-brother after Geli's death, but she strongly disapproved of Hitler's relationship with Eva Braun. She eventually left Berchtesgaden as a result and moved to Dresden.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Remarriage.", "content": "On 18 February 1936, she married architect Professor Martin Hammitzsch (22 May 1878 – 12 May 1945), who designed the Yenidze cigarette factory in Dresden, and who later became the Director of the State School of Building Construction in Dresden.  On 26 June 1936, the couple returned to Passau. When they visited the house at the Inn river, where Angela had lived as a child, they left an entry at the visitors' book, and the local newspaper reported.  Hitler apparently disapproved of the marriage, and referred to his half-sister as \"Frau Hammitzsch\". It seems, however, that Hitler re-established contact with her during World War II, because Angela remained his intermediary to the rest of the family with whom he did not want contact. In 1941, she sold her memoirs of her years with Hitler to the Eher-Verlag, which brought her 20,000 Reichsmark.  In spring 1945, after the destruction of Dresden in the massive bomb attack of February 13-14, Adolf Hitler moved Angela to Berchtesgaden to avoid her being captured by the Soviets. He also lent her and his younger sister Paula over 100,000 Reichsmark. In Hitler's Last Will and Testament, he guaranteed Angela a pension of 1,000 Reichsmark monthly. It is uncertain if she ever received any payments. Her second husband committed suicide shortly after the final defeat of Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post war.", "content": "Adolf apparently had a low opinion of the intelligence of both his sisters, calling them \"stupid geese\". Nevertheless, she spoke very highly of him, even after the war, and claimed that neither her brother nor she herself had known anything about the Holocaust. Angela Hitler died of a stroke on 30 October 1949 in the city of Hanover, Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Her son, Leo, had a son – Peter (b. 1931), a retired engineer who lives in Linz, Austria. Angela's daughter Elfriede married German lawyer Ernst Hochegger on 27 June 1937 in Düsseldorf; they had a son, Heiner Hochegger (born in January 1945).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film portrayals.", "content": "She is played by Helene Thimig in the movie \"The Hitler Gang\" (1944). In the miniseries \"\" (2003), she is portrayed by Julie-Ann Hassett.  In the French comedy \"L'as des as\" (1982), Angela Hitler is portrayed as the caretaker of Hitler's Obersalzberg residence. She is played in drag by Günter Meisner, the same actor who plays Hitler.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Angela Franziska Johanna Hammitzsch (née Hitler; 28 July 1883 – 30 October 1949) was the elder half-sister of Adolf Hitler. By her first husband, Leo Raubal Sr., she was the mother of Geli Raubal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973230}
{"src_title": "Leaf by Niggle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "In this story, an artist, named Niggle, lives in a society that does not value art. Working only to please himself, he paints a canvas of a great Tree with a forest in the distance. He invests each and every leaf of his tree with obsessive attention to detail, making every leaf uniquely beautiful. Niggle ends up discarding all his other artworks, or tacks them onto the main canvas, which becomes a single vast embodiment of his vision.  However, there are many mundane chores and duties that prevent Niggle from giving his work the attention it deserves, so it remains incomplete and is not fully realised.  At the back of his head, Niggle knows that he has a great trip looming, and he must pack and prepare his bags.  Also, Niggle's next door neighbour, a gardener named Parish, frequently drops by asking for various forms of help. Parish is lame and has a sick wife and genuinely needs help. Niggle, having a good heart, takes time out to help—but he is also reluctant because he would rather work on his painting. Niggle has other pressing work duties as well that require his attention. Then Niggle himself catches a chill doing errands for Parish in the rain.  Eventually, Niggle is forced to take his trip, and cannot get out of it. He has not prepared, and as a result ends up in a kind of institution, in which he must perform menial labour each day. Back at the home to which he cannot return, Niggle's painting is abandoned, used to patch a damaged roof, and all but destroyed (except for the one perfect leaf of the story's title, which is placed in the local museum).  In time, Niggle is paroled from the institution, and he is sent to a place \"for a little gentle treatment\". He discovers that this new place is the country of the Tree and Forest of his great painting. This place is the true realisation of his vision, not the flawed and incomplete version in his painting.  Niggle is reunited with his old neighbour, Parish, who now proves his worth as a gardener, and together they make the Tree and Forest even more beautiful. Finally, Niggle journeys farther and deeper into the Forest, and beyond into the great Mountains that he only faintly glimpsed in his painting.  Long after both Niggle and Parish have taken their journeys, the lovely place that they created together becomes a destination for many travelers to visit before their final voyage into the Mountains, and it earns the name \"Niggle's Parish\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "One religious reading of \"Leaf by Niggle\" could lead to the conclusion that the allegory of \"Leaf by Niggle\" is life, death, purgatory and paradise. Niggle is not prepared for his unavoidable trip, as humans often are not prepared for death. His time in the institution and subsequent discovery of his Tree represent purgatory and heaven.  But \"Leaf by Niggle\" can also be interpreted as an illustration of Tolkien's religious philosophy of creation and sub-creation. In this philosophy, true creation is the exclusive province of God, and those who aspire to creation can only make echoes (good) or mockeries (evil) of truth. The sub-creation of works that echo the true creations of God is one way that mortals honour God.  This philosophy is evident in Tolkien's other works, especially \"The Silmarillion\"—one Vala, Morgoth, creates the Orc race as a foul mockery of the elf. Another Vala, Aulë, creates the Dwarf race as an act of subcreation that honoured Eru Ilúvatar (the analog of God in Tolkien's writings), and which Eru accepted and made real, just as Niggle's Tree was made real.  Niggle's yearnings after truth and beauty (God's creations) are echoed in his great painting; after death, Niggle is rewarded with the realisation (the making-real) of his yearning. Or, if you prefer, Niggle's Tree always existed; he simply echoed it in his art. From a metanarrative viewpoint, Tolkien's Arda is itself a subcreation designed to honour the true stories of the real world. Thus, the Middle-earth legendarium, despite its lack of overt religious elements, can be interpreted as a profoundly religious work.  An autobiographical interpretation places Tolkien himself as Niggle—in mundane matters as well as spiritual ones. Tolkien was compulsive in his writing, his revision, his desire for perfection in form and in the \"reality\" of his invented world, its languages, its chronologies, its existence. Like Niggle, Tolkien came to abandon other projects or graft them onto his \"Tree\", Middle-earth. Like Niggle, Tolkien faced many chores and duties that kept him from the work he loved; and like Niggle, Tolkien was a horrible procrastinator.  Tolkien himself might have disagreed with an allegorical interpretation. He wrote, in Letter 131 of \"The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien\", \"I dislike Allegory\". In specific reference to Niggle, he wrote in Letter 241, \"It is not really or properly an 'allegory' so much as'mythical'.\" On the other hand, in Letter 153 he said, \"I tried to show allegorically how [subcreation] might come to be taken up into Creation in some plane in my 'purgatorial' story \"Leaf by Niggle\".\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Leaf by Niggle\" is a short story written by J. R. R. Tolkien in 1938–39 and first published in the \"Dublin Review\" in January 1945. It can be found, most notably, in Tolkien's book titled \"Tree and Leaf\", and in other places (including the collections \"The Tolkien Reader\", \"Poems & Stories\", \"A Tolkien Miscellany\", and \"Tales from the Perilous Realm\"). This is notable because the book, consisting of a seminal essay called \"On Fairy-Stories\" and \"Leaf by Niggle\", offers the underlying philosophy (Creation and Sub-Creation, see below) of much of Tolkien's fantastical writings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973231}
{"src_title": "Lothar von Richthofen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career and Jasta 11.", "content": "Richthofen was born on 27 September 1894. He and his brothers, Manfred and Bolko, hunted wild boar, elk, birds, and deer.  Like his brother Manfred, Lothar began the war as a cavalry officer with the 4th Dragoon Regiment. He had remained in the public Gymnasium (high school), he was enrolled in compulsory military training at the Kriegsschule in Danzig (Gdansk, Poland) when war began. On his own initiative Lothar returned to his unit. Lothar was nearly cut down by sniper fire while on patrol. In mid-October 1914, while stationed at Attigny, he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class for valour. It was the only consolation that Lothar received during his cavalry service. The following month, his regiment was transferred to the Eastern Front.  In February 1915 Manfred \"rescued\" his brother Lothar from the boredom of training new troops in Luben and encouraged him to also transfer to the \"Fliegertruppe\".  Richthofen joined the German Army Air Service (\"Luftstreitkräfte\") in late 1915. He served from January 1916 as an observer with \"Jasta\" 23, sometimes observing for Otto Creutzmann and saw action during the Battle of Verdun. He won the Iron Cross 1st Class in December and then began training as a pilot. His first posting as a pilot was to his brother's \"Jasta 11\" on 6 March 1917. An impulsive and aggressive pilot, unlike his coolly calculating brother Manfred, Lothar's first victory claim followed on 28 March for an FE 2b of No. 25 Squadron, Royal Flying Corps. The German high command appreciated the propaganda value of two Richthofens fighting together to defeat the enemy in the air.  Taking part in the period of German dominance called Bloody April by the British, Lothar had won 15 more victories by the beginning of May. When his brother went on leave, Lothar von Richthofen assumed command of the squadron.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Albert Ball.", "content": "During the first week of May 1917, Lothar von Richthofen scored three more victories. On the evening of 7 May near Douai, he led a flight of 5 Albatros D.III's from \"Jasta 11\" that encountered 11 S.E.5s from the \"elite\" No. 56 Squadron RFC, including the top English ace of the time, Captain Albert Ball, as well as a SPAD S.VII from No. 19 Squadron, and a Sopwith Triplane of No 8 (Naval) Squadron. In a running battle in deteriorating visibility in the middle of a thunderstorm over Bourlon Wood, both sides became scattered. Richthofen engaged in single combat with the British Triplane. At about the same time, Ball was seen by fellow 56 Squadron pilot Cyril Crowe chasing a red Albatros into a thundercloud. Ball lost control of his plane and crashed fatally. Though forced to land his damaged aircraft, Richthofen escaped injury. The British Sopwith Triplane involved in the action returned to base undamaged.  Richthofen posted a claim for shooting down the Sopwith Triplane. However, the propaganda value of Ball's death under the guns of a German pilot was obvious, and the German High Command awarded a victory over Ball to Lothar. The fallacy of the award was readily apparent. The idea that an experienced pilot such as Richthofen would confuse a triplane with a biplane was ludicrous. \"Leutnant\" Hailer, a German pilot on the ground who witnessed the crash and was the first German at the crash scene saw no battle damage to Ball's plane. The doctor who autopsied Ball reported massive injuries to Ball from the crash, but no bullet wounds. Nevertheless, the official line was that Lothar von Richthofen shot down Albert Ball. Later research suggests that Ball became disoriented by vertigo, accidentally entering an inverted dive which choked his plane's carburettor and stopped the engine, causing him to crash.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pour le Mérite.", "content": "Richthofen raised his total to 24 by 13 May, when, after shooting down a BE.2, he was wounded in the hip by anti-aircraft fire and crash-landed; his injuries kept him out of combat for five months. On 14 May he was awarded the Pour le Mérite, and he resumed command of Jasta 11 in September 1917. In early 1918 he suffered a severe ear infection and was hospitalised in Berlin.  Returning to his unit in February, he claimed 3 Bristol Fighter F2.Bs on 11 and 12 March, before he was again forced down on 13 March by a Sopwith Camel flown by Captain Augustus Orlebar of No. 73 Squadron. Nursing his crippled Fokker Dr1 Triplane into a landing, Richthofen clipped a high-tension wire and crashed heavily, suffering serious head injuries. He was still recovering when he learned of his brother's death.  Lothar returned to service with Jasta 11 in July 1918. He scored his final victory (a DH-9a) on 12 August 1918, flying a Fokker D.VII. The next day he was again wounded in action against Sopwith Camels, probably by Captain Field E. Kindley of the 148th Aero Squadron USAS.. Lothar may also have been forced down by Canadian RAF pilot William Stephenson, later known as the World War II spymaster code-named \"Intrepid\". Lothar was promoted to Oberleutnant, and saw no further combat before the war ended in November.  Considering the amount of time Lothar von Richthofen spent on the front and in hospitals, he was one of the most combat efficient and prolific flying aces of the war, perhaps even more so than his brother Manfred. Of his total of 40 confirmed victories, Lothar scored 33 in just three months: 15 in April 1917, 8 in May 1917, and 10 in August 1918.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post war.", "content": "With the return of peace, Lothar von Richthofen worked briefly on a farm before accepting an industrial position. He married Countess Doris von Keyserlingk in Cammerau in June 1919, fathering a son, Wolf-Manfred (1922–2010) and a daughter, Carmen Viola (1920–1971), before the marriage was dissolved. He then became a commercial pilot, carrying passengers and mail between Berlin and Hamburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On July 4, 1922 Richthofen died in a crash of his LVG C VI at Hamburg due to an engine failure. Also on board were actress Fern Andra and her director. Both Bluen and Andra survived, Andra spending a year recovering from her injuries.  Lothar von Richthofen was interred next to his father at the Garrison Cemetery in Schweidnitz, but the cemetery was levelled by the Poles when the city was transferred to Poland after World War II. Today the area is a football field, although von Richthofen's headstone still exists.  A plaque to Lothar's memory is next to his brother Manfred von Richthofen's grave on the Südfriedhof in Wiesbaden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orders and Medals.", "content": "Prussia / German Empire  Other German States  Other Central Powers  Prussian / Imperial German Badges", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baron Lothar Siegfried von Richthofen (\"Lothar Siegfried Freiherr von Richthofen\" in German; 27 September 1894 – 4 July 1922) was a German First World War fighter ace credited with 40 victories. He was a younger brother of top-scoring ace Manfred von Richthofen (the \"Red Baron\") and a distant cousin of Luftwaffe Field Marshal Wolfram von Richthofen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973232}
{"src_title": "Thomas Cook", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Thomas Cook was born on 22 November 1808, to John and Elizabeth Cook, who lived at 9 Quick Close in the village of Melbourne, Derbyshire.  At the age of 10, Cook started working as an assistant to a local market gardener for a wage of six pence a week. When he was 14, he secured an apprenticeship with his uncle John Pegg, and spent five years as a cabinet maker.  Cook was brought up as a strict Baptist. In February 1826, he became a Baptist missionary and toured the region as a village evangelist, distributing pamphlets and occasionally working as a cabinet maker to earn money.  In 1832, Cook moved to Adam and Eve Street in Market Harborough. Influenced by the local Baptist minister Francis Beardsall, he took the temperance pledge on New Year's Day in 1833. As a part of the temperance movement, he organised meetings and held anti-liquor processions.  On 2 March 1833, Cook married Marianne Mason (1807–1884) at Barrowden in Rutland. A son, John Mason Cook, was born on 13 January 1834. Thomas Cook died at Thorncroft, Knighton, Leicester, on 18 July 1892, having been afflicted with blindness in his declining years. He was buried with his wife and daughter at Welford Road Cemetery, Leicester.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cook's first excursions.", "content": "Cook's idea to offer excursions came to him while \"walking from Market Harborough to Leicester to attend a meeting of the Temperance Society\". With the opening of the extended Midland Counties Railway, he arranged to take a group of temperance campaigners from Leicester Campbell Street railway station to a teetotal rally in Loughborough, eleven miles away. On 5 July 1841, Thomas Cook escorted around 500 people, who paid one shilling each for the return train journey, on his first excursion. On 4 August 1845 he arranged for a party to travel from Leicester to Liverpool. In 1846, he took 350 people from Leicester on a tour of Scotland. In 1851 he arranged for 150,000 people to travel to the Great Exhibition in London. Four years later, he planned his first excursion abroad, when he took two groups on a 'grand circular tour' of Belgium, Germany and France, ending in Paris for the Exhibition.  The Thomas Cook statue outside Leicester Railway Station, London Road, Leicester was unveiled on 14 January 1994 by his great-great-grandson Thomas Cook. It was sculpted by James Walter Butler RA.  He was awarded Serbian Order of Saint Sava.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thomas Cook & Son.", "content": "Thomas Cook acquired business premises on Fleet Street, London in 1865. The office also contained a shop which sold essential travel accessories, including guide books, luggage, telescopes and footwear. In 1872, he formed a partnership with his son, John Mason Andrew Cook, and renamed the travel agency as \"Thomas Cook & Son\".  In accordance with his beliefs, he and his wife also ran a small temperance hotel above the office. Their business model was refined by the introduction of the 'hotel coupon' in 1868. Detachable coupons in a counterfoil book were issued to the traveller. These were valid for either a restaurant meal or an overnight hotel stay provided they were on Cook's list.  Conflicts between father and son were resolved when the son persuaded his father, Thomas Cook, to retire at the end of 1878. He moved back to Leicester and lived quietly until his death in 1892.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy – Thomas Cook and mass tourism.", "content": "Thomas Cook was a frontrunner of establishing tourism systems and thus made mass tourism possible in Italy. First, the circular tickets could be used on almost all Italian railways. These tickets allowed travel by train for a preset number of days along predetermined routes. Second, Cook designed a series of hotel coupons to complement circular tickets, which could be exchanged for lodging and meals at designated accommodations. Last, he introduced the circular notes which could be changed at designated hotels, banks, and tickets agents for Italian lira at a predetermined exchange rate. Cook's introduction of tourism-specific currency facilitated easier and effective trips within Italy. Also, by introducing a widely dispersed coupon system, Cook \"helped to stabilize the burgeoning Italian economy not only by increasing the revenues from tourism but also by expanding the circulation of Italy's new currency, the lira.\" The coupon system spread rapidly and was well accepted throughout Italian cities. Furthermore, thanks to this system, middle class Italians could afford to travel more frequently and more easily.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas Cook (22 November 1808 – 18 July 1892) was an English businessman. He is best known for founding the travel agency Thomas Cook & Son.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973233}
{"src_title": "Integral test for convergence", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Statement of the test.", "content": "Consider an integer and a non-negative function defined on the unbounded interval, on which it is monotone decreasing. Then the infinite series  converges to a real number if and only if the improper integral  is finite. In other words, if the integral diverges, then the series diverges as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remark.", "content": "If the improper integral is finite, then the proof also gives the lower and upper bounds  for the infinite series.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proof.", "content": "The proof basically uses the comparison test, comparing the term with the integral of over the intervals  Since is a monotone decreasing function, we know that  and  Hence, for every integer,  and, for every integer,  By summation over all from to some larger integer, we get from ()  and from ()  Combining these two estimates yields  Letting tend to infinity, the bounds in () and the result follow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "The harmonic series diverges because, using the natural logarithm, its antiderivative, and the fundamental theorem of calculus, we get Contrary, the series converges for every, because by the power rule From () we get the upper estimate which can be compared with some of the particular values of Riemann zeta function.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Borderline between divergence and convergence.", "content": "The above examples involving the harmonic series raise the question, whether there are monotone sequences such that decreases to 0 faster than but slower than in the sense that for every, and whether the corresponding series of the still diverges. Once such a sequence is found, a similar question can be asked with taking the role of, and so on. In this way it is possible to investigate the borderline between divergence and convergence of infinite series.  Using the integral test for convergence, one can show (see below) that, for every natural number, the series  still diverges (cf. proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges for ) but  converges for every. Here denotes the -fold composition of the natural logarithm defined recursively by Furthermore, denotes the smallest natural number such that the -fold composition is well-defined and, i.e. using tetration or Knuth's up-arrow notation.  To see the divergence of the series () using the integral test, note that by repeated application of the chain rule hence To see the convergence of the series (), note that by the power rule, the chain rule and the above result hence and () gives bounds for the infinite series in ().", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, the integral test for convergence is a method used to test infinite series of non-negative terms for convergence. It was developed by Colin Maclaurin and Augustin-Louis Cauchy and is sometimes known as the Maclaurin–Cauchy test.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973234}
{"src_title": "Leo Brouwer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "He is the grandson of Cuban composer Ernestina Lecuona y Casado. His great-uncle, Ernesto Lecuona, composed \"La Malagueña\" and his second cousin, Margarita Lecuona, composed \"Babalú\", which was popularized by Cuban musician and actor Desi Arnaz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Brouwer was born in Havana. When he was 13, he began classical guitar with the encouragement of his father, who was an amateur guitarist. His teacher was Isaac Nicola, who was a student of Emilio Pujol, who was himself a student of Francisco Tárrega. At age 17 he performed publicly for the first time and began composing.  Brouwer went to the United States to study music at the Hartt College of Music of the University of Hartford, and later at the Juilliard School, where he studied under Vincent Persichetti and took composition classes with Stefan Wolpe.  In 1970 Brouwer played in the premiere of \"El Cimarrón\" by Hans Werner Henze in Berlin. Together with Morton Feldman, he was awarded a 1972 scholarship by the DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) and to work as a guest composer and lecturer at the Academy of Science and Arts of Berlin. In Germany Brouwer also recorded a number of LPs for Deutsche Grammophon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Composing and performing.", "content": "In his early compositions, Brouwer remained close to the rhythms of Cuban music, while later he was drawn to aleatoric music. During the 1960s and 70s, he became interested in the music of modernist composers such as Luigi Nono and Iannis Xenakis, using indeterminacy in works such as \"Sonograma I\". Other works from this period include the guitar pieces \"Canticum\" (1968), \"La espiral eterna\" (1971), \"Parábola\" (1973) and \"Tarantos\" (1974). More recently, Brouwer's works have leaned towards tonality and modality. The solo guitar works \"El Decamerón Negro\" (1981), \"Paisaje cubano con campanas\" (1986), and the \"Sonata\" (1990; for Julian Bream) exemplify this tendency. His playing career ended in the early 1980s due to an injury to a tendon in his right hand middle finger.  Brouwer has written for guitar, piano, and percussion, and has composed orchestral works, ballet, and music for over one hundred movies, including the film \"Like Water for Chocolate\". For a guitar competition in Hungary in 1979, he wrote a composition that employed 200 guitarists. He is known for a series of studies called the Etudes Simples. Brouwer has also transcribed Beatles songs for classical guitar.  He has performed and recorded works by Sylvano Bussotti, Hans Werner Henze, Maurice Ohana, Cristóbal Halffter, Leni Alexander, Cornelius Cardew, and Heitor Villa-Lobos.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other activities.", "content": "He has been a conductor for many symphony orchestras, including the BBC Concert Orchestra, the Berlin Philharmonic, and the Cordoba Symphony in Spain.  Brouwer is involved in the Concurso y Festival Internacional de Guitarra de la Habana (Havana International Guitar Festival and Competition). He frequently travels to attend guitar festivals throughout the world, and especially to other Latin American countries.  Brouwer is a member of the Communist Party of Cuba, and has held a number of official posts in Cuba, including with the music department of the Cuban Institute of Cinematographic Art and Industry.  Brouwer is the great-uncle of Al Jourgensen of Ministry fame. Brouwer is the brother of Jourgensen's maternal grandfather.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Selected compositions.", "content": "Chamber and solo instrumental  Film scores", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Articles  Interviews  Documentaries", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Juan Leovigildo Brouwer Mezquida (born March 1, 1939) is a Cuban composer, conductor, and classical guitarist. He is a Member of Honour of the International Music Council.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973235}
{"src_title": "Alphonse Bertillon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Bertillon was born in Paris. He was a son of statistician Louis-Adolphe Bertillon and younger brother of the statistician and demographer Jacques Bertillon.  After being expelled from the Imperial Lycée of Versailles, Bertillon drifted through a number of jobs in England and France, before being conscripted into the French army in 1875. Several years later, he was discharged from the army with no real higher education, so his father arranged for his employment in a low-level clerical job at the Prefecture of Police in Paris. Thus, Bertillon began his police career on 15 March 1879 as a department copyist.  Being an orderly man, he was dissatisfied with the \"ad hoc\" methods used to identify the increasing number of captured criminals who had been arrested before. This, together with the steadily rising recidivism rate in France since 1870, motivated his invention of anthropometrics. His road to fame was a protracted and hard one, as he was forced to do his measurements in his spare time. He used the famous La Santé Prison in Paris for his activities, facing jeers from the prison inmates as well as police officers.  Bertillon also created many other forensics techniques, including the use of galvanoplastic compounds to preserve footprints, ballistics, and the dynamometer, used to determine the degree of force used in breaking and entering.  The nearly 100-year-old standard of comparing 16 ridge characteristics to identify latent prints at crime scenes against criminal records of fingerprint impressions was based on claims in a 1912 paper Bertillon published in France.  Bertillon died 13 February 1914 in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bertillon and the Dreyfus Affair.", "content": "Bertillon was a witness for the prosecution in the Dreyfus affair in 1894 and again in 1899. He testified as a handwriting expert and claimed that Alfred Dreyfus had written the incriminating document (known as the \"bordereau\"). However, he was not a handwriting expert, and his convoluted and flawed evidence was a significant contributing factor to one of the most infamous miscarriages of justice — the condemnation of the innocent Dreyfus to life imprisonment on Devil's Island.  Using a complex system of measurements, he attempted to prove that Dreyfus had disguised his handwriting by imitating his own handwriting as if someone else was doing so, so that if anyone thought the \"bordereau\" was in Dreyfus's hand, he would be able to say that someone else had forged his writing. Both courts martial evidently accepted this, and Dreyfus was convicted. The verdict of the second court martial caused a huge scandal, and it was eventually overturned.  Bertillon was by many accounts regarded as extremely eccentric. According to Maurice Paléologue, who observed him at the second court-martial, Bertillon was \"certainly not in full possession of his faculties\". Paléologue goes on to describe Bertillon's argument as \"... a long tissue of absurdities,\" and writes of \"... his moonstruck eyes, his sepulchral voice, the saturnine magnetism\" that made him feel that he was \"... in the presence of a necromancer.\"  Bertillon pretended that his graphological system was based on mathematical probability calculus. A later expertise undertaken in 1904 by three renowned mathematicians, Henri Poincaré, Jean Gaston Darboux, and Paul Émile Appell, concluded that Bertillon's system was deprived of any scientific value and that he had failed both to apply the method and to present his data properly. With this key evidence against Dreyfus debunked, he was finally acquitted in 1906.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bertillon System.", "content": "The specific anthropological technique practiced by Bertillon is often called the Bertillon System. This system consisted of five initial measurements — head length, head breadth, length of middle finger, length of the left foot, and length of the cubit. Along with these measurements, Bertillon used photography, now known as a mugshot, to complete this system of record. These methods of identification were combined into a system for law enforcement officials to access information and images quickly.  Although the system was based in scientific measures, it was known to have its flaws. For example, it may not have been able to accurately apply to children or women, as it was mostly designed for men who had reached full physical maturity and had short hair.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alley workers in Minneapolis.", "content": "In the late 19th and 20th centuries black women who were working as sex workers in Minneapolis, Minnesota became known as \"alley workers.\" The Minneapolis Police Department followed the Bertillon System as a means to identify and document the crimes of these alley workers. The system soon became used as a tool to police and categorize these women.  In order to bypass the system many black women would use aliases instead of their real names in order to obtain agency over their criminalization. The most common name that was used as an alias was \"Mamie\", which was also the alias used by Mamie Knight, who was the only surviving mugshot of an alley worker during the department's period of using the Bertillon System. Her mugshot is currently located in the St. Paul police department archives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Bertillon is referenced in the Sherlock Holmes story \"The Hound of the Baskervilles\", in which one of Holmes' clients refers to Holmes as the \"second highest expert in Europe\" after Bertillon. Also, in \"The Naval Treaty\", speaking of the Bertillon system of measurements, \"[Holmes]... expressed his enthusiastic admiration of the French savant.\"  In the Arsène Lupin story \"The Escape of Arsène Lupin\" by Maurice Leblanc, Lupin escapes by exploiting the same flaws in anthropometry that led to its eventual disuse.  In \"Surfeit of Lampreys\" by Ngaio Marsh Chief Inspector Roderick Alleyn touches on the system in Chapter 14, Part 1.  Bertillon is also referenced in the Caleb Carr novel \"The Alienist\". The Isaacson brothers, who are detectives, mention that they are trained in the Bertillon System.  Bertillon Measurements are also mentioned in Sax Rohmer's Fu Manchu-inspired \"The Emperor of America\" (Cassel, 1929, p. 61), the Ross MacDonald novels \"The Drowning Pool\" and \"Blue City\" (p. 30), Yves Fey's mystery \"Floats the Dark Shadow\", and Agatha Christie's mystery \"The Secret of Chimneys\" (1925, chapter 27).  Bertillonage is mentioned in Chapter 4 and in an appendix of the mystery novel, \"The Assassin in the Marais\", by Claude Izner.  Bertillon appears in Eric Zencey's novel \"Panama\".  Bertillon is referenced in the 1965 short story, \"\"Repent, Harlequin!\" Said the Ticktockman\", by Harlan Ellison.  Bertillon is the main character of the third episode of Czech television series \"The Adventures of Criminology\" called \"Bertillonage\".  Bertillon is also mentioned in the second episode of the seventh season of FX television series Archer.  Bertillon was also referenced in the American television series, \"Elementary\" (a modern take on \"Sherlock Holmes\"), season 2, episode 17 (Ears To You).  Bertillon is lampooned in \"The Dreyfus Case: IV\", by Finley Peter Dunne (\"Mr. Dooley\"), reprinted in \"Mr. Dooley in the Hearts of His Countrymen\" (Robert Howard Russell, pub., 1899), pp. 268, ff.  Bertillon is mentioned by Hercule Poirot in 'The Murder on the Links' by Agatha Christie (p55, )  The Bertillon system is demonstrated in the Canadian television series, \"Murdoch Mysteries\", season 13, episode 3 (Forever Young).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alphonse Bertillon (; 22 April 1853 – 13 February 1914) was a French police officer and biometrics researcher who applied the anthropological technique of anthropometry to law enforcement creating an identification system based on physical measurements. Anthropometry was the first scientific system used by police to identify criminals. Before that time, criminals could only be identified by name or photograph. The method was eventually supplanted by fingerprinting.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973236}
{"src_title": "Wilhelm Bittrich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "World War I and inter-war career.", "content": "Born in 1894 into a family of a traveling salesmen, Bittrich volunteered for military service after the outbreak of World War I. He served on the Western and Italian Front and was awarded both classes of the Iron Cross. In 1916, Bittrich transferred to the \"Luftstreitkräfte\" and trained as a pilot. He served with several units, including the 37th Fighter Squadron.  From March to July 1919, Bittrich was a member in the paramilitary \"Freikorps\" under the General Bernhard von Hülsen during the German Revolution of 1918–19. In 1923, Bittrich was accepted into the \"Reichswehr\" of the Weimar Republic. In December 1931 or early 1932, Bittrich joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) (Nr. 829,700). From March until June 1932, he served in the \"Sturmabteilung\" (SA). On 1 July 1932, Bittrich joined the SS (Nr. 39,177) and served in various SS units in leadership positions, reaching the rank of \"Hauptsturmführer\" by June 1934.  From August 1934, Bittrich was a commander of the \"Politische Bereitschaft\" (Political Readiness Detachment) in Hamburg. This unit later became part of the SS-Standarte \"Germania\" in the \"SS-Verfügungstruppe\" (SS-VT). By January 1938, Bittrich was promoted to \"Obersturmbannführer\". He was given command of a battalion in the SS-Regiment \"Deutschland\". With this unit he participated in the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938. In May 1939, Bittrich was posted to the headquarters unit of the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler (LSSAH) and was promoted to \"Standartenführer\" in June 1939.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "He took part in the invasion of Poland (1939), assigned as LSSAH Chief of Staff to Sepp Dietrich. In January 1940 through October 1941, he was commander of the Regiment \"Deutschland\" and fought in the battle of France. From the summer of 1942 through February 1943, Bittrich commanded SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer, that was tasked with rear-security operations (\"Bandenbekämpfung\", literally \"bandit-fighting\") in the Soviet Union. On 9 July 1942 Bittrich attended a conference called to convey the principles of the \"Bandenbekämpfung\" to senior police and security leaders. Organized by Heinrich Himmler, the conference included Kurt Daluege, Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski, Odilo Globocnik, Bruno Streckenbach and others. The policies included collective punishment against villages suspected of supporting partisans, automatic death penalty for immediate families of suspected partisans, deportation (to labor and death camps) of women and children, and confiscation of property for the state. He assumed temporary command of the 2nd SS Panzer Division \"Das Reich\" from 14 October 1941 through 12 December 1941, after Paul Hausser had been wounded. He then was given command over the 9th SS Panzer Division \"Hohenstaufen\" effective February 1943 until 1 July 1944. On 1 July 1944, he was appointed the commander of the 2nd SS Panzer Corps. The 2nd Panzer Corps fought in Normandy. Early September of 1944, the 2nd Panzer Corps was relocated to the Arnhem area in the Netherlands, in order to rest its units. On September 17, 1944, the Allies launched Operation Market Garden, British paratroopers of the 1st Airborne Division landed in Arnhem, some distance from its objectives and was quickly hampered by unexpected resistance from Bittrich's corps. 2nd Panzer Corps managed to encircle the 1st Airborne, inflicting heavy casualties. At the request of the British Divisional Medical Officer, Bittrich authorized a three-hour cease-fire on September 24, 1944, to evacuate more than 2,000 wounded British from the encirclement, and place them in the infirmary of his divisions. Bittrich later saw action at Hungary. Bittrich was listed as a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords by the Association of Knight's Cross Holders, although no record of the award could be found in the German archives due to the irregular nature of its presentation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conviction for war crimes.", "content": "After his arrest on 8 May 1945 he was extradited to France on charges of having ordered the execution of 17 members of the Resistance in Nîmes. The trial revealed that Bittrich had not given such an order and had even opened procedures against the responsible officers. As the commander in charge of the troops who committed the execution, he was held responsible for their misconduct and sentenced to five years in prison. The sentence was considered as served after a long pretrial detention. He was put on trial for a second time in 1953 and sentenced to five years in prison for countenancing hangings, pillage and arson, but was acquitted by the French court in Bordeaux again and released in 1954. He was never brought to trial for any actions and war crimes of the 8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer in the Soviet Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities within HIAG.", "content": "Following his release from prison, Bittrich became active in HIAG, a revisionist organization of former Waffen-SS members. In the 1970s, he served as the organization's chairman. Bittrich died in Wolfratshausen, Bavaria on 19 April 1979.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural portrayals.", "content": "In the 1977 film, \"A Bridge Too Far\", Bittrich is portrayed by actor Maximilian Schell.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wilhelm Bittrich (26 February 1894 – 19 April 1979) was a high-ranking Waffen-SS commander of Nazi Germany. Between August 1942 and February 1943, Bittrich commanded the SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer, in rear security operations (\"Bandenbekämpfung\", literally: \"bandit fighting\") in the Soviet Union. From July 1944 until the end of the war Bittrich commanded the 2nd SS Panzer Corps in Normandy, during Market Garden and in Hungary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973237}
{"src_title": "Marie-France Pisier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Pisier was born in Dalat, French Indochina, where her father was serving as colonial governor of French Indochina. Her younger brother, Gilles Pisier, is a mathematician and a member of the French Academy of Sciences. Her sister, Evelyne, was the first wife of Bernard Kouchner, a French politician and the co-founder of Médecins Sans Frontières. The family moved to Paris when Marie-France was 12 years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Five years later, she made her screen acting debut for director François Truffaut in his 1962 film, \"Antoine and Colette\". Pisier had a brief but incendiary romance with the older, married Truffaut. Despite its end, she later appeared in Truffaut's \"Stolen Kisses\" (\"Baiser volés\", 1968) and \"Love on the Run\" (\"L'Amour en fuite\", 1979), which was the fifth and final film in Truffaut's series about the character Antoine Doinel. Pisier was credited as a co-writer of the screenplay. In a review in \"The New York Times\", film critic Vincent Canby praised her for a \"ravishing performance\".  Pisier later collaborated on the screenplay to Jacques Rivette's \"Celine and Julie Go Boating\" (\"Céline et Julie vont en bâteau\", 1974); she also played a significant supporting role in the film. Later in the same year, she had a role in Luis Buñuel’s \"Phantom of Liberty\".  She gained widespread public recognition in 1975 when she appeared in Jean-Charles Tacchella's popular comedy, \"Cousin Cousine\". Her role as the volatile Karine earned her a César Award for Best Supporting Actress.  Her subsequent feature films included three with director André Téchiné: \"French Provincial\" (\"Souvenirs en France\", 1975); \"The Bronte Sisters\" (\"Les Sœurs Brontë\", 1979), in which she portrayed Charlotte; and \"Barocco\" (1976), for which she won a second César for her performance alongside Isabelle Adjani and Gérard Depardieu.  Pisier attempted to crack the American film industry with \"The Other Side of Midnight\" (1977), adapted from a Sidney Sheldon novel. She appeared on American television in the miniseries \"The French Atlantic Affair\" (1979), and \"Scruples\" the following year. She made two more Hollywood films, \"French Postcards\" (1979) with Debra Winger and \"Chanel Solitaire\" (1981) with Timothy Dalton.  Returning to France, Pisier made her directorial debut with \"The Governor's Party\" (\"Le Bal du gouverneur\", 1990), which she adapted from her own novel. She also played Madame Verdurin in Raúl Ruiz's adaptation of Marcel Proust, \"Time Regained\" (\"Le Temps retrouvé\", 1999). Her final film as director was with Bérénice Bejo (winner of the César Award for Best Actress in \"The Artist) in \"Like An Airplane\" (\"Comme un avion\", 2002).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Pisier's first marriage to Georges Kiejman ended in divorce. She resided in Saint-Cyr-sur-Mer, Var, and was married to Thierry Funck-Brentano. The couple had a son, Mathieu, and a daughter, Iris.  In 1971, Pisier signed the Manifesto of the 343, publicly declaring she had an illegal abortion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "The 66-year-old actress died on 24 April 2011. She was found dead in her swimming pool by Funck-Brentano and is believed to have drowned. She is survived by her sister Évelyne, brother Gilles, and both children. The local mayor announced her death to the news media and President Nicolas Sarkozy made a public statement honouring “her supreme elegance born of the most perfect simplicity.”", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "Pisier appeared in more than 70 films including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marie-France Pisier (10 May 194424 April 2011) was a French actress, screenwriter, and director. She appeared in numerous films of the French New Wave and twice earned the national César Award for Best Supporting Actress.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973238}
{"src_title": "Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was the second son of Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland and Anne Digby, daughter of George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol. On the death of his elder brother Robert in Paris in September 1688, he became heir to the peerage. Called by John Evelyn \"a youth of extraordinary hopes,\" he completed his education at Utrecht, and in 1695 entered the House of Commons as member for Tiverton. In the same year, he married Arabella, daughter of Henry Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Newcastle; she died in 1698 and in 1700, he married Anne Churchill, daughter of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough and Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough. This was an important alliance for Sunderland and for his descendants; through it he was introduced to political life and later the dukedom of Marlborough came to the Spencers.  In 1698 he plunged his family into scandal when his brother-in-law Donogh MacCarthy, 4th Earl of Clancarty, who had been imprisoned in the Tower of London for his support for James II and later escaped, was reconciled with his long-estranged wife, Charles' sister Elizabeth, and at long last consummated the marriage. Charles, alerted by his father's servants, had Clancarty arrested while he was actually in bed with Elizabeth. The result was a public uproar which gravely embarrassed their parents. William III treated the matter as a trifle, wondering why everyone he met teased him about \"that little spark Clancarty\", and gave the couple permission to settle in Altona, Hamburg. Elizabeth, who died in Hamburg in 1704, never saw her parents or brother again. His father's biographer comments that the affair did not show Charles in a good light either as a man or a brother.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Having succeeded to the peerage in 1702, Sunderland was one of the commissioners for the union between England and Scotland, and in 1705, he was sent to Vienna as envoy extraordinary. Although he was tinged with republican ideas and had made himself obnoxious to Queen Anne by opposing the grant to her husband, Prince George, through the influence of Marlborough he was foisted into the ministry as Secretary of State for the Southern Department, taking office in December 1706.  From 1708 to 1710, he was one of the five Whigs collectively called the \"Junto\", who dominated the government, but he had many enemies, the Queen still disliked him, and in June 1710, he was dismissed. Anne offered him a pension of £3000 a year, but this he refused, saying \"if he could not have the honour to serve his country he would not plunder it.\" When Marlborough protested about the dismissal, the Queen inquired sarcastically whether \"the Peace of Europe must depend on it?\" She added that Sunderland was universally unpopular, which was indeed the case.  Sunderland continued to take part in public life, and was active in communicating with the court of Hanover about the steps to be taken in view of the approaching death of the queen. He made the acquaintance of George I in 1706, but when the elector became king, Sunderland only secured the comparatively unimportant position of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. In August 1715, he joined the cabinet as Lord Privy Seal. After a visit to George I in Hanover, he secured in April 1717 the position of Secretary of State for the Northern Department. This he retained until March 1718, when he became First Lord of the Treasury, holding also the post of Lord President of the Council. He was now effectively the prime minister. Sunderland was especially interested in the proposed peerage bill, a measure designed to limit the number of members of the House of Lords, but this was defeated owing partly to the opposition of Sir Robert Walpole. In 1719 he was one of the main subscribers in the Royal Academy of Music (1719), a corporation that produced baroque opera on stage.  The bursting of the South Sea Bubble led to his political ruin. He had taken some part in launching the scheme of 1720, therefore public opinion was roused against him and it was only through the efforts of Walpole that he was acquitted by the House of Commons, when the matter was investigated. In April 1721, he resigned his offices, but he retained his influence with George I until his own death on 19 April 1722.  Sunderland inherited his father's passion for intrigue, while his manners were repelling, but he stands high among his associates for disinterestedness and had an alert and discerning mind. From his early years he had a great love of books, and he spent his leisure and his wealth in forming the library at Althorp, which in 1703 was described as \"the finest in Europe.\" In 1749 part of it was removed to Blenheim Palace.  Sunderland's second wife died in April 1716, after a career of considerable influence on the political life of her time. In 1717, he married an Irish lady of fortune, Judith Tichborne (d. 1749), daughter of Sir Benjamin Tichborne (younger brother of Sir Henry Tichborne, 1st Baron Ferrard, Irish cr. 1715) and Elizabeth Gibbs. She later married Sir Robert Sutton.  In 1722 Sunderland was implicated in what became known as the Atterbury Plot, to restore the House of Stuart, and his death was one of the factors which brought the Plot to light.  The town of Sunderland, Massachusetts, was named in his honour in November 1718, just after he became Lord President of the Council.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "His first wife was Lady Arabella Cavendish (19 August 16734 June 1698), daughter of Henry Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Newcastle. They had one daughter:  His second wife was Lady Anne Churchill (27 February 168315 April 1716). They had six children:  His third wife was Judith Tichborne (17 May 1749). They had three children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland, KG, PC (23 April 167519 April 1722), known as Lord Spencer from 1688 to 1702, was an English statesman and nobleman from the Spencer family. He served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (1714–1717), Lord Privy Seal (1715–1716), Lord President of the Council (1717–1719) and First Lord of the Treasury (1718–1721).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973239}
{"src_title": "Leclanché cell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1866, Georges Leclanché invented a battery that consisted of a zinc anode and a manganese dioxide cathode wrapped in a porous material, dipped in a jar of ammonium chloride solution. The manganese dioxide cathode had a little carbon mixed into it as well, which improved conductivity and absorption. It provided a voltage of 1.4 volts. This cell achieved very quick success in telegraphy, signalling and electric bell work.  The dry cell form was used to power early telephones—usually from an adjacent wooden box affixed to the wall—before telephones could draw power from the telephone line itself. The Leclanché cell could not provide a sustained current for very long. In lengthy conversations, the battery would run down, rendering the conversation inaudible. This is because certain chemical reactions in the cell increase the internal resistance and, thus, lower the voltage. These reactions reverse themselves when the battery is left idle, so it is good only for intermittent use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The original form of the cell used a porous pot. This gave it a relatively high internal resistance and various modifications were made to reduce it. These included the \"Agglomerate block cell\" and the \"Sack cell\". Leclanché first, and Carl Gassner later, strived both to transform the original wet cell into a more portable and more efficient dry cell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The redox reaction in a Leclanché cell involves the two following half-reactions:  The chemical process which produces electricity in a Leclanché cell begins when zinc atoms on the surface of the anode oxidize, i.e. they give up both their valence electrons to become positively charged Zn ions. As the Zn ions move away from the anode, leaving their electrons on its surface, the anode becomes more negatively charged than the cathode. When the cell is connected in an external electrical circuit, the excess electrons on the zinc anode flow through the circuit to the carbon rod, the movement of electrons forming an electric current.  As the current travels around the circuit, when the electrons enter the cathode (carbon rod), they combine with manganese dioxide (MnO) and water (HO), which react with each other to produce manganese oxide (MnO) and negatively charged hydroxide ions. This is accompanied by a secondary acid-base reaction in which the hydroxide ions (OH) accept a proton (H) from the ammonium ions present in the ammonium chloride electrolyte to produce molecules of ammonia and water.  or if one also considers the hydration of the MnO(s) sesquioxide into Mn(III) oxy-hydroxide:  Alternately, the reduction reaction of Mn(IV) can proceed further, forming Mn(II) hydroxide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The electromotive force (e.m.f.) produced by a Leclanche cell is 1.4 volts, with a resistance of several ohms where a porous pot is used. It saw extensive usage in telegraphy, signaling, electric bells and similar applications where intermittent current was required and it was desirable that a battery should require little maintenance.  The Leclanché battery wet cell was the forerunner of the modern zinc-carbon battery (a dry cell). The addition of zinc chloride to the electrolyte paste raises the e.m.f. to 1.5 volts. Later developments dispensed with the ammonium chloride completely, giving a cell that can endure more sustained discharge without its internal resistance rising as quickly (the zinc chloride cell).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Leclanché cell is a battery invented and patented by the French scientist Georges Leclanché in 1866. The battery contained a conducting solution (electrolyte) of ammonium chloride, a cathode (positive terminal) of carbon, a depolarizer of manganese dioxide (oxidizer), and an anode (negative terminal) of zinc (reductant). The chemistry of this cell was later successfully adapted to manufacture a dry cell.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973240}
{"src_title": "Edward Emerson Barnard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Barnard was born in Nashville, Tennessee, to Reuben Barnard and Elizabeth Jane Barnard (\"née\" Haywood), and had one brother. His father died three months before his birth, so he grew up in an impoverished family and did not receive much in the way of formal education. His first interest was in the field of photography, and he became a photographer's assistant at the age of nine.  He later developed an interest in astronomy. In 1876 he purchased a refractor telescope, and in 1881 he discovered his first comet, but failed to announce his discovery. He found his second comet later the same year and a third in 1882.  While he was still working at a photography studio he was married to the British-born Rhoda Calvert in 1881. In the 1880s, Hulbert Harrington Warner offered US$200 per discovery of a new comet. Barnard discovered a total of five, and used the money to build a house for himself and his wife.  With his name being brought to the attention of amateur astronomers in Nashville, they collectively raised enough money to give Barnard a fellowship to Vanderbilt University. He never graduated from the school, but did receive the only honorary degree Vanderbilt has ever awarded. He joined the staff of the Lick Observatory in 1887, though he later clashed with the director, Edward S. Holden, over access to observing time on the larger instruments and other issues of research and management.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Astronomical work.", "content": "Barnard saw the gegenschein in 1882, not aware of earlier papers by Theodor Brorsen and T. W. Backhouse. In 1889 he observed the moon Iapetus pass behind Saturn's rings. As he watched Iapetus pass through the space between Saturn's innermost rings and the planet itself, he saw a shadow pass over the moon. Although he did not realize it at the time, he had discovered proof of the \"spokes\" of Saturn, dark shadows running perpendicular to the circular paths of the rings. These spokes were doubted at first, but confirmed by the spacecraft Voyager 1.  In 1892 he made observations of a nova and was the first to notice the gaseous emissions, thus deducing that it was a stellar explosion. The same year he also discovered Amalthea, the fifth moon of Jupiter. He was the first to discover a new moon of Jupiter since Galileo Galilei in 1609. This was the last satellite discovered by visual observation (rather than by examining photographic plates or other recorded images).  In 1895 he joined the University of Chicago as professor of astronomy. There he was able to use the telescope at Yerkes Observatory. Much of his work during this period was taking photographs of the Milky Way. Together with Max Wolf, he discovered that certain dark regions of the galaxy were actually clouds of gas and dust that obscured the more distant stars in the background. From 1905, his niece Mary R. Calvert worked as his assistant and computer.  The faint Barnard's Star is named for Edward Barnard after he discovered in 1916 that it had a very large proper motion, relative to other stars. This is the second nearest star system to the Sun, second only to the Alpha Centauri system.  He was also a pioneering astrophotographer. His Barnard Catalogue lists a series of dark nebulae, known as Barnard objects, giving them numerical designations akin to the Messier catalog. They begin with and end with. He published his initial list with the 1919 paper in the \"Astrophysical Journal,\" \"On the Dark Markings of the Sky with a Catalogue of 182 such Objects\".  He died on February 6, 1923 in Williams Bay, Wisconsin, and was buried in Nashville. After his death, many examples from his exceptional collection of astronomical photographs were published in 1927 as \"A Photographic Atlas of Selected Regions of the Milky Way\", this work having been finished by Mary R. Calvert, and Edwin B. Frost, then director of Yerkes Observatory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comet discoveries.", "content": "Between 1881 and 1892, he discovered 15 comets, three of which were periodic, and co-discovered two others:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "Awards Named after him", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edward Emerson Barnard (December 16, 1857 – February 6, 1923) was an American astronomer. He was commonly known as E. E. Barnard, and was recognized as a gifted observational astronomer. He is best known for his discovery of the high proper motion of Barnard's Star in 1916, which is named in his honor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973241}
{"src_title": "Mount Kazbek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "Kazbegi is located on the Khokh Range, a mountain range which runs north of the Greater Caucasus Range, and which is pierced by the gorges of the Ardon and the Terek. At its eastern foot runs the Georgian Military Road through the pass of Darial 2,378 meters (7,805 feet). The mountain itself lies along the edge of the Borjomi–Kazbegi Fault (which is a northern sub-ending of the North Anatolian Fault). The region is highly active tectonically, with numerous small earthquakes occurring at regular intervals. An active geothermal/hot spring system also surrounds the mountain. Kazbek is a potentially active volcano, built up of trachyte and sheathed with lava, and has the shape of a double cone, whose base lies at an altitude of 1,770 meters (5,800 feet). Kazbek is the highest of the volcanic cones of the Kazbegi volcanic group which also includes Mount Khabarjina (3,142 metres).  Owing to the steepness of its slopes, the glaciers of Kazbek are not very large. The total combined area of all of Kazbek's glaciers is 135 km2. The best-known glacier is the Dyevdorak (Devdaraki), which creeps down the north-eastern slope into a gorge of the same name, reaching a level of 2,295 meters (7,530 feet). Kazbegi's other glaciers include the Mna, Denkara, Gergeti, Abano, and Chata. The recent collapse of the Kolka Glacier, located in a valley between Mt. Jimara and Kazbegi in the year 2002 was attributed to solfatara volcanic activity along the northern slope of the mountain, although there was no eruption. In addition to the 2002 event, a massive collapse of the Devdaraki Glacier on the mountain's northeastern slope which occurred on August 20, 2014, led to the death of seven people. The glacier collapse dammed the Terek River in the Daryal Gorge and flooded the Georgian Military Highway.  From 24 to 28 May 2019 Caucasus skitouring network organize expedition to survey Mt. Kazbegi height. On 27 May 2019 at 12:22 GMT+4, for the first time, a survey team placed a GPS receiver on the Mt. Kazbegi peak. The new height is defined with the WGS 84 datum. Height was determinate with 5mm accuracy. Defined height is 5053.927m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legend.", "content": "Mount Kazbegi is associated in Georgian folklore with Amirani, the Georgian version of Prometheus, who was chained on the mountain in punishment for having stolen fire from the gods and having given it to mortals. The location of his imprisonment later became the site of an Orthodox hermitage located in a cave called \"Betlemi\" (Bethlehem) at around the 4,000-meter level. According to legends, this cave housed many sacred relics, including Abraham's tent and the manger of the infant Jesus. The summit was first climbed in 1868 by D. W. Freshfield, A. W. Moore, and C. Tucker of the Alpine Club, with the guide François Devouassoud. They were followed by the female Russian alpinist Maria Preobrazhenskaya, who made the climb nine times starting in the year 1900.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kazbegi nature reserve.", "content": "The area around Mount Kazbegi was designated a nature reserve by the Soviet government in 1979, and includes beech forests, subalpine forests and alpine meadows. Many of the plants and animals in the reserve are endemic to the Caucasus region.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mount Kazbegi is a dormant stratovolcano and one of the major mountains of the Caucasus located on the border of Georgia's Kazbegi District and Russian Republic of North Ossetia–Alania.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973242}
{"src_title": "Web syndication", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Motivation.", "content": "For the subscribing sites, syndication is an effective way of adding greater depth and immediacy of information to their pages, making them more attractive to users. For the provider site, syndication increases exposure. This generates new traffic for the provider site—making syndication an easy and relatively cheap, or even free, form of advertisement.  Content syndication has become an effective strategy for link building, as search engine optimization has become an increasingly important topic among website owners and online marketers. Links embedded within the syndicated content are typically optimized around anchor terms that will point an optimized link back to the website that the content author is trying to promote. These links tell the algorithms of the search engines that the website being linked to is an authority for the keyword that is being used as the anchor text. However the recent rollout of Google Panda's algorithm may not reflect this authority in its SERP rankings based on quality scores generated by the sites linking to the authority.  The prevalence of web syndication is also of note to online marketers, since web surfers are becoming increasingly wary of providing personal information for marketing materials (such as signing up for a newsletter) and expect the ability to subscribe to a feed instead. Although the format could be anything transported over HTTP, such as HTML or JavaScript, it is more commonly XML. Web syndication formats include RSS, Atom, and JSON Feed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Syndication first arose in earlier media such as print, radio, and television, allowing content creators to reach a wider audience. In the case of radio, the United States Federal government proposed a syndicate in 1924 so that the country's executives could quickly and efficiently reach the entire population. In the case of television, it is often said that \"Syndication is where the real money is.\" Additionally, syndication accounts for the bulk of TV programming.  One predecessor of web syndication is the Meta Content Framework (MCF), developed in 1996 by Ramanathan V. Guha and others in Apple Computer's Advanced Technology Group.  Today, millions of online publishers, including newspapers, commercial websites, and blogs, distribute their news headlines, product offers, and blog postings in news feeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a commercial model.", "content": "Conventional syndication businesses such as Reuters and Associated Press thrive on the internet by offering their content to media partners on a subscription basis, using business models established in earlier media forms.  Commercial web syndication can be categorized in three ways:  Commercial web syndication involves partnerships between content producers and distribution outlets. There are different structures of partnership agreements. One such structure is licensing content, in which distribution partners pay a fee to the content creators for the right to publish the content. Another structure is ad-supported content, in which publishers share revenues derived from advertising on syndicated content with that content's producer. A third structure is free, or barter syndication, in which no currency changes hands between publishers and content producers. This requires the content producers to generate revenue from another source, such as embedded advertising or subscriptions. Alternatively, they could distribute content without remuneration. Typically, those who create and distribute content free are promotional entities, vanity publishers, or government entities.  Types of content syndicated include RSS or Atom Feeds and full content. With RSS feeds, headlines, summaries, and sometimes a modified version of the original full content is displayed on users' feed readers. With full content, the entire content—which might be text, audio, video, applications/widgets or user-generated content—appears unaltered on the publisher's site.  There are two methods for selecting distribution partners. The content creator can hand-pick syndication partners based on specific criteria, such as the size or quality of their audiences. Alternatively, the content creator can allow publisher sites or users to opt into carrying the content through an automated system. Some of these automated \"content marketplace\" systems involve careful screening of potential publishers by the content creator to ensure that the material does not end up in an inappropriate environment.  Just as syndication is a source of profit for TV producers and radio producers, it also functions to maximize profit for Internet content producers. As the Internet has increased in size it has become increasingly difficult for content producers to aggregate a sufficiently large audience to support the creation of high-quality content. Syndication enables content creators to amortize the cost of producing content by licensing it across multiple publishers or by maximizing distribution of advertising-supported content. A potential drawback for content creators, however, is that they can lose control over the presentation of their content when they syndicate it to other parties.  Distribution partners benefit by receiving content either at a discounted price, or free. One potential drawback for publishers, however, is that because the content is duplicated at other publisher sites, they cannot have an \"exclusive\" on the content.  For users, the fact that syndication enables the production and maintenance of content allows them to find and consume content on the Internet. One potential drawback for them is that they may run into duplicate content, which could be an annoyance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "E-commerce.", "content": "Web syndication has been used to distribute product content such as feature descriptions, images and specifications. As manufacturers are regarded as authorities and most sales are not achieved on manufacturer websites, manufacturers allow retailers or dealers to publish the information on their sites. Through syndication, manufacturers may pass relevant information to channel partners. Such web syndication has been shown to increase sales.  Web syndication has also been found effective as a search engine optimization technique.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Web syndication is a form of syndication in which content is made available from one website to other sites. Most commonly, websites are made available to provide either summaries or full renditions of a website's recently added content. The term may also describe other kinds of content licensing for reuse.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973243}
{"src_title": "Hajo Herrmann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Military career.", "content": "Hermann began his military career as an infantry officer, but was commissioned into the newly formed \"Luftwaffe\" (air force) in 1935. From 1936 until 1937 he was a bomber pilot in Condor Legion in the Spanish Civil War.  Early in World War II, Hermann flew bombing missions in the Invasion of Poland and Norwegian Campaign. By 1940 he was Commander of the 7th Staffel of KG 4 and took part in the Battle of Britain.  In February 1941 his group was transferred to Sicily, from where it attacked Malta then fought in the Battle of Greece. In one attack Herrmann sank the ammunition ship in the Port of Piraeus. The explosion sank 11 ships and made the Greek port unusable for many months.  In July 1942 he was assigned to the general staff in Germany, where he became a confidant of \"Luftwaffe\" commander Hermann Göring. In 1942 Herrmann was appointed to the Luftwaffe Operational Staff. He played a role in the creation of night fighter wing Jagdgeschwader 300 in response to the night raids of Royal Air Force (RAF) Bomber Command on Germany in mid-1943.  In December 1943 Herrmann was appointed Luftwaffe Inspector of Aerial Defence. By 1944 he was Inspector General of night fighters and received the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords. At the end of 1944 he led the 9th Air Division.  Herrmann was a leading exponent of the tactical deployment of \"Rammjäger\" \"Sonderkommando Elbe\" (ram fighters), sent into action in April 1945. Suicide pilot volunteers, often aged 18 to 20, were to be trained only to be competent enough to control specially lightened and unarmoured Bf 109 fighters and bring down Allied bombers by ramming the tail or control surfaces with the propellers of their aircraft and bailing out if possible. Herrmann's intention was to gather a large number of these fighters for a one-off attack on the USAAF bomber formations in the hope of causing enough losses to curtail the bombing offensive for a few months. Fuel shortages prevented employment of the large numbers necessary, although from one mission of this type, on 7 April 1945, of the 120 fighters thus committed only 15 returned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Law career and Nazi activism.", "content": "Herrmann surrendered to Soviet forces after the war, was held prisoner for 10 years and returned to Germany in 1955. Then he studied law and settled in Düsseldorf. He defended Otto Ernst Remer, the head of the neo-Nazi Socialist Reich Party and the Holocaust deniers David Irving and Fred A. Leuchter. Hermann's affinity for Remer, a committed Nazi and former Wehrmacht officer, was rooted in their mutual Holocaust denial activities.  In 1959 Herrmann married the German soprano Ingeborg Reichelt. The couple had two children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans-Joachim \"Hajo\" Herrmann (1 August 1913 – 5 November 2010) was a World War II Luftwaffe pilot and officer and was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973244}
{"src_title": "Pinus nigra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Pinus nigra\" is a tree of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. The majority of the range is in Turkey. It is found in the higher elevations of the South Apennine mixed montane forests ecoregion in southern Italy and the Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests ecoregion in Sicily. There are remnant populations in the Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests ecoregion, and in the higher Atlas Mountains in Morocco and Algeria.  It is found at elevations ranging from sea level to, most commonly from. Several of the varieties have distinct English names.  It has naturalized in parts of the midwestern states of the U.S, normally south of the normal native ranges of native pines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Pinus nigra\" is a large coniferous evergreen tree, growing to high at maturity and spreading to 20 to 40 feet wide. The bark is grey to yellow-brown, and is widely split by flaking fissures into scaly plates, becoming increasingly fissured with age. The leaves (\"needles\") are thinner and more flexible in western populations (see 'Taxonomy' section below).  The ovulate and pollen cones appear from May to June. The mature seed cones are 5–10 cm (rarely to 11 cm) long, with rounded scales; they ripen from green to pale grey-buff or yellow-buff in September to November, about 18 months after pollination. The seeds are dark grey, 6–8 mm long, with a yellow-buff wing 20–25 mm long; they are wind-dispersed when the cones open from December to April. maturity is reached at 15–40 years; large seed crops are produced at 2–5 year intervals.  \"Pinus nigra\" is moderately fast growing, at about per year. It usually has a rounded conic form, that becomes irregular with age. The tree can be long-lived, with some trees over 500 years old. It needs full sun to grow well, is intolerant of shade, and is resistant to snow and ice damage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The species is divided into two subspecies, each further subdivided into three varieties. Some authorities (e.g. \"Flora Europaea\") treat several of the varieties at subspecific rank, but this reflects tradition rather than sound taxonomy, as the distinctions between the taxa are small.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "In Mediterranean Europe and the Anatolian Peninsula (Asia Minor), trees usually associated with this species include Scots pine (\"Pinus sylvestris\"), Serbian spruce (\"Picea omorika\"), Bosnian pine (\"Pinus heldreichii\"), Norway spruce (\"Picea abies\"), Taurus cedar (\"Cedrus libani\"), European silver fir (\"Abies alba\") and related firs. Several species of juniper (\"Juniperus\" spp.), and various broadleaf trees are associates.  \"Pinus nigra\" is a light-demanding species, intolerant of shade but resistant to wind and drought. The eastern \"P. nigra\" subsp. \"nigra\" exhibits greater winter frost hardiness (hardy to below −30 °C) than the western \"P. nigra\" subsp. \"salzmannii\" (hardy to about −25 °C).  Different provenances (seed sources by geographic area) or varieties are adapted to different soil types: Austrian and Pyrenees origins grow well on a wide range of soil types, Corsican origins grows poorly on limestone, while Turkish and Crimean origins grow well on limestone. Most provenances also show good growth on podzolic soils.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lumber.", "content": "The timber of European black pine is similar to that of Scots pine (\"Pinus sylvestris\") and red pine (\"Pinus resinosa\"), being moderately hard and straight-grained. It does however tend to be rougher, softer, and not as strong, due to its faster growth. It is used for general construction, fuel, and in paper manufacture.  In the United Kingdom, \"Pinus nigra\" is important both as a timber tree and in plantations (primarily Corsican pine subsp.). Recently however, serious problems have occurred with red band needle blight disease, caused by the fungus \"Dothistroma septosporum\", resulting in a major recent decline in forestry planting there. In the United States it is of low importance as a timber species.  In regard to Austrian pine, the fungus \"Dothistroma septosporum\" is widespread and rapidly spreading out of control throughout the United States. All now growing Austrian pine are expected to be killed by this disease. It is out of control and not recommended for landscaping, especially in groups or rows.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal usage.", "content": "In Turkey, this pine (subsp. pallasiana) was and is used in various ways, both topically and internally, as well as for construction and for livestock. Among its uses are curing acne, common cold, osteomyelitis, and viral infections; acting as an oral antiseptic; treating cracked hands and feet in the winter; and sealing wooden roofs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ornamental usage.", "content": "In the US and Canada, the European black pine is planted as a street tree, and as an ornamental tree in gardens and parks. Its value as a street tree is largely due to its resistance to salt spray (from road de-icing salt) and various industrial pollutants (including ozone), and its intermediate drought tolerance. In the UK the tree is planted as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens. It is planted with great success as far north as Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.  In both the US and UK most of the specimens planted are from Austrian sources, the \"Pinus nigra\" subsp. \"nigra\" and \"Pinus nigra\" subsp. \"nigra\" var. \"nigra\" seed selections. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, when demand for natural trees was extremely high, its rapid growth, deep green color and low cost made it briefly a popular Christmas tree, but the extreme length of the needles (making it very difficult to decorate) soon led to its fall from favor, and it has long since been abandoned in the US for that purpose.  \"P. nigra\" is planted for windbreaks and shelterbelts in the US, recommended for windbreaks in the Northern Great Plains on medium to deep moist or upland soils.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "\"Pinus nigra\" has become naturalised in a few areas of the United States. In New Zealand it is considered an invasive species and noxious weed, along with lodgepole pine (\"Pinus contorta\") and Scots pine (\"Pinus sylvestris\"), due to their habitat conversion nature in tussock grassland plant communities, shading out the native bunch grasses as their forest canopy develops.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Pinus nigra, the Austrian pine or black pine, is a moderately variable species of pine, occurring across southern Mediterranean Europe from Spain to the eastern Mediterranean, on the Anatolian peninsula of Turkey on Corsica and Cyprus as well as Crimea and in the high mountains of the Maghreb in North Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973245}
{"src_title": "Johnny English", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Johnny English is a kindhearted but inept MI7 employee, working a desk job while dreaming of being their most trusted agent. After Agent One dies in a submarine accident unknowingly caused by English, the remaining agents are killed by a bombing at Agent One's funeral, again due to English's incompetence, leaving English as the lone surviving agent capable of finishing Agent One’s mission.  Assigned to thwart a plot to steal the newly restored Crown Jewels, English meets the mysterious Lorna Campbell at the jewels' unveiling at the Tower of London. During a sudden blackout, the jewels are stolen. In the chaotic aftermath, English accidentally knocks out the deputy head of security and pretends to fight an imaginary \"assailant\" to cover his mistakes; he makes up a false description of the suspect to MI7 head Pegasus.  English and his assistant Angus Bough discover the jewels were removed via a hole dug beneath their display case. Following the tunnel, they confront the German thieves Dieter Klein and Klaus Vendetta, who escape in a hearse. After pursuing the wrong hearse, English gatecrashes a funeral. Bough comes to his rescue, pretending English is an escaped mental patient and posing as a doctor from the \"Lunatic Response Unit\".  English connects the thieves to Pascal Sauvage, a French prison entrepreneur who helped restore the jewels. Pegasus finds English’s claims absurd and warns English not to involve Sauvage, as he is his personal friend. In the car park, English and Bough are attacked by Vendetta but are unharmed. English again encounters Campbell in a YO! Sushi restaurant, recognising her pink motorcycle. Having seen her at two crime scenes, English’s suspicions deepen when her records cannot be found on any government computer.  English and Bough parachute into Sauvage's headquarters, but English mistakenly lands on an identical tower, the City Hospital. Reaching the correct building, the two learn that Sauvage, a descendant of Charles Edward Stuart, plans to make himself king, using an impostor to impersonate the Archbishop of Canterbury. Campbell arrives, revealed to be an Interpol agent tracking Sauvage. With evidence of Sauvage's involvement, English crashes a reception hosted by Sauvage but is suspended by Pegasus for his clumsy actions.  Sauvage scraps his plan to use the fake Archbishop and instead sends his minions to force Queen Elizabeth II to abdicate by threatening her corgis, causing the entire line of succession to be swept clean for Sauvage to become king. Campbell, now placed in charge of the assignment by Pegasus, visits the depressed English and convinces him to travel with her to Sauvage's French château to investigate. Eavesdropping on Sauvage's meeting with internationally renowned criminals, English and Campbell learn he plans to transform all of England into the world's biggest prison. The agents are exposed when English accidentally activates a microphone, and they are taken prisoner.  Bough rescues English and Campbell and they race to stop Sauvage's coronation. English crashes the coronation and discovers the Archbishop in attendance is genuine. Undeterred, English orders Bough to play the incriminating DVD, only to find it is footage of himself lip-syncing to ABBA's \"Does Your Mother Know\" in his underclothes; Sauvage had bugged English's flat. Sneaking away, English swings in to steal St. Edward’s Crown from the Archbishop. Sauvage attempts to kill English, who drops the crown. However, English falls from the wire, lands on the throne, and is crowned instead. In his singular act as king, English has Sauvage arrested and restores the Queen to the throne, simply requesting a knighthood as a reward.  Sauvage is awaiting trial for high treason, while English and Campbell drive to southern France for a romantic holiday, only for English to accidentally eject her out of his car while leaning in to kiss her. In a mid-credits scene, Lorna lands in a hotel swimming pool, where Bough is vacationing alongside a man identical to the fictitious assailant English described to Pegasus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "In March 2000, before the release of \"Maybe Baby\", Atkinson signed up to star as a spoof 007, with the news becoming official.  In July 2002, \"Johnny English\" principal photography commenced. The film shot for fourteen weeks, filming at Shepperton Studios, on location in London and St. Albans, and finally setting down in Monte Carlo for two days to complete filming the final scene. In September 2002, it was announced that Natalie Imbruglia, who wrote the theme tune for \"Johnny English\", would star alongside Atkinson.  The character of Johnny English himself is based on a similar character called Richard Latham, who Atkinson played in a series of British television adverts for Barclaycard. The character of Bough (pronounced 'Boff') was retained from the adverts though another actor, Henry Naylor, played the part in the ads. Some of the gags from the adverts made it into the film, including English incorrectly identifying a waiter, and inadvertently shooting himself with a tranquilliser ballpoint pen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 33% based on 121 reviews with an average rating of 4.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"A tame spy spoof that elicits infrequent chuckles.\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 51 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating \"mixed or average\" reviews.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "All tracks were written by Edward Shearmur and performed by London Metropolitan Orchestra unless otherwise noted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "\"Johnny English\" was released on VHS on 11 August 2003 and on DVD on 13 January 2004, The film was released on Blu-ray on 28 February 2012, along with its sequel \"Johnny English Reborn\". The film was released on Netflix in February 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequels.", "content": "A sequel, titled \"Johnny English Reborn\", was released in October 2011. In September 2010, filming for the sequel began, seven years after the release of the original, and concluded in March 2011. The film follows Johnny English, now training in Asia after being disgraced in an earlier mission, as he attempts to foil a plot to assassinate the Chinese Premier, while a mole is found in \"MI7\" and English has to deal with being framed.  In May 2017, it was announced that pre-production had begun on a third film titled, \"Johnny English Strikes Again\", which was released on 5 October 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johnny English (taglined in some countries as \"Little Brother of James Bond\") is a 2003 spy action comedy film directed by Peter Howitt and written by Neal Purvis, Robert Wade and William Davies. It is a British-French venture produced by StudioCanal and Working Title Films, and distributed by Universal Pictures.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973246}
{"src_title": "Max Amann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Amann was born in Munich on 24 November 1891. During the First World War he obtained the rank of \"Feldwebel\" (equivalent to the US Army staff sergeant) in the Royal Bavarian 16th Infantry Regiment. Amann was Adolf Hitler's company sergeant, and was thus an early acquaintance of Hitler long before his rise to prominence in German politics. He was awarded the Iron Cross second class during the war.  Amann joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in October 1921, as the Party's business manager, and held NSDAP membership number 3. After 1922, he also led the Nazis' publishing house, Eher Verlag. Eher Verlag published, among other imprints, the SS magazine \"Das Schwarze Korps\". In 1924 he was elected as a NSDAP candidate to the Munich city council and in 1933 became a Nazi member of the Reichstag for the electoral district of Upper Bavaria/Swabia. Amann's most notable contribution was persuading Hitler to retitle his first book from \"Viereinhalb Jahre (des Kampfes) gegen Lüge, Dummheit und Feigheit\", (\"Four and a Half Years (of Struggle) Against Lies, Stupidity and Cowardice\") to \"Mein Kampf\", (\"My Struggle\") which he also published. The book became a major source of Eher-Verlag's income and Amann oversaw the book through many editions. He helped Hitler become a wealthy man. Amann also enriched himself through many Nazi publications. Amann published the daily \"Volkischer Beobachter\", the weekly \"Illustrierter Beobachter\" and the \"Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte\".  In November 1933, Hitler named Amann the president of the Reich Media Chamber and Reich Press Leader. He pursued a dual-pronged strategy to establish Nazi control over the industry. In his official role as president of the Media Chamber, Amann had the power to seize or close down any newspapers that did not fully support the Nazi regime. Then, as head of the Eher-Verlag, he bought them at a substantial discount–often at \"auctions\" at which the Eher-Verlag was the sole bidder. By 1942, Amann controlled 80% of all German newspapers through his publishing empire. Combined with the proceeds from \"Mein Kampf,\" this made the Eher-Verlag the largest newspaper and publishing company in Germany, and one of the largest in the world. His income increased from 108,000 RM in 1934 to 3,800,000 RM in 1944.  He rose to the rank of SS-\"Obergruppenführer\". However, as a party official Amann lacked talent, being a poor speaker and debater. In addition, his handwriting was illegible, thus his Chief of Staff and deputy, Rolf Rienhardt, performed these duties for him. Poor handwriting can be attributed in part to the loss of his left arm in an accident with a firearm while hunting with Franz Ritter von Epp on 4 September 1931.  Arrested by Allied troops after the war ended, Amann was deemed a \"Hauptschuldiger\" (Prominent Guilty Party) and sentenced to ten years in a labour camp on 8 September 1948. He was released in 1953, but was stripped of his property, pension rights and practically all of his fortune. Amann died on 30 March 1957, in Munich.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Max Amann (24 November 1891 – 30 March 1957) was a German politician, businessman and a member of the Nazi Party. He was the first business manager of the Nazi Party and later became the head of \"Eher Verlag\", the official Nazi Party publishing house. After the war ended, Amann was arrested by Allied troops. Amann was deemed a \"Hauptschuldiger\" (Prominent Guilty Party) and sentenced to ten years in a labour camp. He was released in 1953. Amann died in poverty on 30 March 1957, in Munich.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973247}
{"src_title": "J. M. G. Le Clézio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Le Clézio's mother was born in the French Riviera city of Nice, his father on the island of Mauritius (which was a British possession, but his father was ethnically Breton). Both his father's and his mother's ancestors were originally from Morbihan, on the south coast of Brittany. His paternal ancestor François Alexis Le Clézio fled France in 1798 and settled with his wife and daughter on Mauritius, which was then a French colony but would soon pass into British hands. The colonists were allowed to maintain their customs and use of the French language. Le Clézio has never lived in Mauritius for more than a few months at a time, but he has stated that he regards himself both as a Frenchman and a Mauritian. He has dual French and Mauritian citizenship (Mauritius gained independence in 1968) and calls Mauritius his \"little fatherland\".  Le Clézio was born in Nice, his mother's native city, during World War II when his father was serving in the British Army in Nigeria. He was raised in Roquebillière, a small village near Nice until 1948 when he, his mother, and his brother boarded a ship to join his father in Nigeria. His 1991 novel \"Onitsha\" is partly autobiographical. In a 2004 essay, he reminisced about his childhood in Nigeria and his relationship with his parents.  After studying at the University of Bristol in England from 1958 to 1959, he finished his undergraduate degree at Nice's Institut d'études littéraires. In 1964 Le Clézio earned a master's degree from the University of Provence with a thesis on Henri Michaux.  After several years spent in London and Bristol, he moved to the United States to work as a teacher. During 1967 he served as an aid worker as part of his national service in Thailand, but was quickly expelled from the country for protesting against child prostitution and sent to Mexico to finish his national service. From 1970 to 1974, he lived with the Embera-Wounaan tribe in Panama. He has been married since 1975 to Jémia Jean, who is Moroccan, and has three daughters (one by his first marriage with Rosalie Piquemal). Since the 1990s they have divided their residence between Albuquerque, Mauritius, and Nice.  In 1983 he wrote a doctoral thesis on colonial Mexican history for the University of Perpignan, on the conquest of the Purépecha people who inhabit the present day state of Michoacán. It was serialized in a French magazine and published in Spanish translation in 1985.  He has taught at a number of universities around the world. A frequent visitor to South Korea, he taught French language and literature at Ewha Womans University in Seoul during the 2007 academic year.  In November 2013, he joined Nanjing University, China as a professor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "Le Clézio began writing at the age of seven; his first work was a book about the sea. He achieved success at the age of 23, when his first novel, \"Le Procès-Verbal\" (\"The Interrogation\"), was the Prix Renaudot and was shortlisted for the Prix Goncourt. Since then he has published more than thirty-six books, including short stories, novels, essays, two translations on the subject of Native American mythology, and several children's books.  From 1963 to 1975, Le Clézio explored themes such as insanity, language, nature and writing. He devoted himself to formal experimentation in the wake of such contemporaries as Georges Perec or Michel Butor. His persona was that of an innovator and a rebel, for which he was praised by Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze.  During the late 1970s, Le Clézio's style changed drastically; he abandoned experimentation, and the mood of his novels became less tormented as he used themes like childhood, adolescence, and traveling, which attracted a broader audience. In 1980, Le Clézio was the first winner of the newly created Grand Prix Paul Morand, awarded by the Académie Française, for his novel \"Désert\". In 1994, a survey conducted by the French literary magazine \"Lire\" showed that 13 percent of the readers considered him to be the greatest living French language writer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nobel Prize.", "content": "The Nobel Prize in Literature for 2008 went to Le Clézio for works characterized by the Swedish Academy as being \"poetic adventure and sensual ecstasy\" and for being focused on the environment, especially the desert. The Swedish Academy, in announcing the award, called Le Clézio an \"author of new departures, poetic adventure and sensual ecstasy, explorer of a humanity beyond and below the reigning civilization.\" Le Clézio used his Nobel prize acceptance lecture to attack the subject of information poverty. The title of his lecture was \"Dans la forêt des paradoxes\" (\"In the forest of paradoxes\"), a title he attributed to Stig Dagerman.  Gao Xingjian, a Chinese émigré, was the previous French citizen to receive the prize (for 2000); Le Clézio was the first French-language writer to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature since Claude Simon for 1985, and the fourteenth since Sully Prudhomme, laureate of the first prize of 1901.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "He is a staunch defender of Mama Rosa, director of a Mexican shelter raided by the police in July 2014 when children were found eating rotten food and kept against the will of their parents. He wrote an article in \"Le Monde\" arguing that she is close to sanctity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio (; 13 April 1940), usually identified as J. M. G. Le Clézio, of French and Mauritian nationality, is a writer and professor. The author of over forty works, he was awarded the 1963 Prix Renaudot for his novel \"Le Procès-Verbal\" and the 2008 Nobel Prize in Literature for his life's work, as an \"author of new departures, poetic adventure and sensual ecstasy, explorer of a humanity beyond and below the reigning civilization\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973248}
{"src_title": "Suzdal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The town's history dates back probably to 999 or 1024 and in 1125 Yury Dolgoruky made Suzdal the capital of the Rostov-Suzdal principality. Suzdal began to function as a capital at the time when Moscow was still a cluster of cowsheds. In 1157 Andrei Bogolyubsky moved the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir, from which time the principality was known as Vladimir-Suzdal. Set in a fertile wheat-growing area, Suzdal remained a trade centre even after Mongol-led invasions. Eventually, it united with Nizhny Novgorod until both were annexed by Moscow in 1392.  After a decline in political importance, the town rose in prominence as a religious center with incredible development projects funded by Vasily III and Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century. In the late 17th and 18th centuries, wealthy merchants paid for 30 charming churches, which still adorn the town. Thus Suzdal reached a remarkable ratio of churches to citizens: at one point, 40 churches per 400 families.  In 1864, local merchants failed to coerce the government into building the Trans-Siberian Railway through their town. Instead it went through Vladimir, away. As a result, Suzdal was bypassed not only by trains, but by the 20th century altogether. Furthermore, in 1967 Suzdal earned a federally protected status, which officially limited the development in the area. That is why the place remains largely the same as ages ago—its cute wooden cottages mingling with golden cupolas that reflect in the river Kamenka, which meanders sleepily through gentle hills and flower-filled meadows.  In 1943 high ranking Nazi officers captured at the Battle of Stalingrad were imprisoned within the monastery  Today, the town operates as an important tourist center, featuring many fine examples of old Russian architecture—most of them churches and monasteries. Although having just under ten thousand residents, Suzdal still retains a rural look with streams and meadows everywhere and chicken and livestock a common sight on the streets, some of which remain unpaved. This juxtaposition of stunning medieval architecture with its pastoral setting lends Suzdal a picturesque charm, and in the summer, artists and easels are a common sight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Suzdal serves as the administrative center of Suzdalsky District, to which it is directly subordinated. As a municipal division, the town of Suzdal is incorporated within Suzdalsky Municipal District as Suzdal Urban Settlement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The only industry in the town is tourism. Suzdal avoided the industrialisation of the Soviet times and was able to preserve a great number of stunning examples of the Russian architecture of the 13th-19th century. There are 305 monuments and listed buildings in Suzdal, including 30 churches, 14 bell towers and 5 monasteries and convents. 79 of them are federally protected buildings and 167 are regionally protected.  In 1992 two of the monuments (Saviour Monastery of St Euthymius and Kremlin with Nativity of the Virgin Cathedral) were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, together with six other White Monuments in this region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infrastructure.", "content": "There are four major hotels in Suzdal: There are also 50 guest-houses with a total number of 700 more rooms. Thus Suzdal has developed an outstanding ratio of about 20 hotel rooms per 100 population (\"comparing to 0.2 rooms for Russia in general, or 1.6 rooms for USA\").  Suzdal has 13 restaurants (\"with 1429 seats\"), 10 cafes (\"305 seats\"), 11 bars and 73 souvenir shops.  In 1982 Suzdal became the first Russian town to receive \"La Pomme d'Or\" \"(\"The Golden Apple\")\" - a prize for excellence in the tourism industry, awarded annually by the World Federation of Travel Journalists and Writers (FIJET).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "More than 60 movies were filmed in Suzdal and the vicinity. Among them:  According to local historian Yury Belov, in the summer of 1964 three different feature films (\"Metel\", \"Zhenitba Balzaminova\" and \"Tsarskaya nevesta\") were filmed in Suzdal at the same time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns.", "content": "Suzdal is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Suzdal () is a town and the administrative center of Suzdalsky District in Vladimir Oblast, Russia, located on the Kamenka River, north of the city of Vladimir, the administrative center of the oblast. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 10,535.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973249}
{"src_title": "Allen Carr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "London-born Carr started smoking while doing National Service aged 18. He qualified as an accountant in 1958. Carr finally stopped smoking on 15 July 1983, aged 48, after a visit to a hypnotherapist. However, it wasn't the hypnotherapy itself that enabled him to stop – \"I succeeded in spite of and not because of that visit\" and \"I lit up the moment I left the clinic and made my way home...\". There were two key pieces of information that enabled Allen to stop later that day. First, the hypnotherapist told him smoking was \"just nicotine addiction\", which Allen had never perceived before that moment, i.e. that he was an addict. Second, his son John lent him a medical handbook which explained that the physical withdrawal from nicotine is just like an \"empty, insecure feeling\". He claims that these two realisations crystallised in his mind just how easy it was to stop and so then enabled him to follow an overwhelming desire to explain his method to as many smokers as possible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Carr teaches that smokers do not receive a boost from smoking a cigarette, and that smoking only relieves the withdrawal symptoms from the previous cigarette, which in turn creates more withdrawal symptoms once \"it\" is finished. In this way the drug addiction perpetuates itself. He asserted that the \"relief\" smokers feel on lighting a cigarette, the feeling of being \"back to normal\", is the feeling experienced by non-smokers all the time. So that smokers, when they light a cigarette are really trying to achieve a state that non-smokers enjoy their whole lives. He further asserted that withdrawal symptoms are actually created by doubt and fear in the mind of the ex-smoker, and therefore that stopping smoking is not as traumatic as is commonly assumed, if that doubt and fear can be removed.  At Allen Carr Clinics during stop-smoking sessions, smokers are allowed to continue smoking while their doubts and fears are removed, with the aim of encouraging and developing the mindset of a non-smoker before the final cigarette is extinguished. A further reason for allowing smokers to smoke while undergoing counselling is Carr's belief that it is more difficult to convince a smoker to stop until they understand the mechanism of \"the nicotine trap\". This is because their attention is diminished while they continue to believe it is traumatic and extremely difficult to quit and continue to maintain the belief that they are dependent on nicotine.  Another assertion unique to Carr's method is that willpower is not required to stop smoking.  His contention was that fear of \"giving up\" is what causes the majority of smokers to continue smoking, thereby necessitating the smoker's perpetuation of the illusion of genuine enjoyment as a moral justification of the inherent absurdity of smoking in the face of overwhelming medical and scientific evidence of its dangers. Instead, he encourages smokers to think of the act of quitting, not as giving up, but as \"escaping\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Easyway.", "content": "Carr left his accountancy job in 1983 and set up his first \"Easyway\" clinic. (He actually stopped smoking and modeled his program from a program called the Living Free Program for Smokers which was given by InControl International Inc. in hospitals across the U.S.) He wrote ten books which appeared as bestsellers on selected book ranking charts including his first book \"The Easy Way to Stop Smoking\" (1985). The success of the original London clinic, through word-of-mouth and direct recommendation, has led to a worldwide network of 100 Easyway clinics in 35 countries plus the production of audio CDs and DVDs. Based on their full money-back guarantee (which requires two follow-up sessions without reimbursement of travel costs), Carr's clinics claim 90% success rate in aiding smokers to stop for three months, and 51% success rate in helping smokers stop for 12 months based on an independent study not connected with any health organisation. Celebrity endorsements include Richard Branson, Anthony Hopkins, Ashton Kutcher, Ellen DeGeneres, Pink, Jason Mraz, Charlotte Church and Hrithik Roshan which aids the organisations efforts to expand commercially.  Allen Carr's Clinics are run by therapists who have claimed they were once smokers and have used Allen's method to stop smoking. All therapists are members of an association created by the Allen Carr multi-million pound enterprise known as the Allen Carr Therapists International (ACTI). ACTI is not accredited by any public health organisation or the NHS.  Carr also wrote a number of other how-to books on subjects such as losing weight and stopping alcohol consumption.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In late July 2006 it was revealed that he had been diagnosed with lung cancer at the age of 71. The following month he revealed that it was terminal and his life expectancy was about nine months. Carr said: \"Since I smoked my final cigarette, 23 years ago, I have been the happiest man in the world. I still feel the same way today.” Carr wrote to Tony Blair, urging the UK Government and NHS to accept his method, saying that the \"powerful influence\" of lobbyists working for nicotine replacement firms had turned them against him.  Carr died on 29 November 2006 at the age of 72, as a result of his lung cancer. He died at his home near Málaga, Spain.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Allen Carr (2 September 1934 – 29 November 2006) was a British author of books about stopping smoking and other psychological dependencies including alcohol addiction.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973250}
{"src_title": "Paul Strand", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Paul Strand was born Nathaniel Paul Stransky on October 16, 1890, in New York; his Bohemian parents were merchant Jacob Stransky and Matilda Stransky (née Arnstein).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In his late teens, he was a student of renowned documentary photographer Lewis Hine at the Ethical Culture Fieldston School. It was while on a fieldtrip in this class that Strand first visited the 291 art gallery – operated by Stieglitz and Edward Steichen – where exhibitions of work by forward-thinking modernist photographers and painters would move Strand to take his photographic hobby more seriously. Stieglitz later promoted Strand's work in the 291 gallery itself, in his photography publication \"Camera Work\", and in his artwork in the Hieninglatzing studio. Some of this early work, like the well-known \"Wall Street\", experimented with formal abstractions (influencing, among others, Edward Hopper and his idiosyncratic urban vision). Other of Strand's works reflect his interest in using the camera as a tool for social reform. He was one of the founders of the Photo League, an association of photographers who advocated using their art to promote social and political causes.  Over the next few decades, Strand worked in motion pictures as well as still photography. His first film was \"Manhatta\" (1921), also known as \"New York the Magnificent\", a silent film showing the day-to-day life of New York City made with painter/photographer Charles Sheeler. \"Manhatta\" includes a shot similar to Strand's famous \"Wall Street\" (1915) photograph. In 1932–35, he lived in Mexico and worked on \"Redes\" (1936), a film commissioned by the Mexican government, released in the US as \"The Wave\". Other films he was involved with were the documentary \"The Plow That Broke the Plains\" (1936) and the pro-union, anti-fascist \"Native Land\" (1942).  In June 1949, Strand left the United States to present \"Native Land\" at the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival in Czechoslovakia. The remaining 27 years of his life were spent in Orgeval, France, where, despite never learning the language, he maintained an impressive, creative life, assisted by his third wife, fellow photographer Hazel Kingsbury Strand.  Although Strand is best known for his early abstractions, his return to still photography in this later period produced some of his most significant work in the form of six book \"portraits\" of place: \"Time in New England\" (1950), \"La France de Profil\" (1952), \"Un Paese\" (featuring photographs of Luzzara and the Po River Valley in Italy, Einaudi, 1955), \"Tir a'Mhurain / Outer Hebrides\" (1962), \"Living Egypt\" (1969, with James Aldridge) and \"Ghana: An African Portrait\" (with commentary by Basil Davidson; London: Gordon Fraser, 1976).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Strand married the painter Rebecca Salsbury on January 21, 1922. He photographed her frequently, sometimes in unusually intimate, closely cropped compositions. After divorcing Salsbury, Strand married Virginia Stevens in 1935. They divorced in 1949; he then married Hazel Kingsbury in 1951 and they remained married until his death in 1976.  The timing of Strand's departure to France is coincident with the first libel trial of his friend Alger Hiss, with whom he maintained a correspondence until his death. Although he was never officially a member of the Communist Party, many of Strand's collaborators were either Party members (James Aldridge; Cesare Zavattini) or prominent socialist writers and activists (Basil Davidson). Many of his friends were also Communists or suspected of being so (Member of Parliament D. N. Pritt; film director Joseph Losey; Scottish poet Hugh MacDiarmid; actor Alex McCrindle). Strand was also closely involved with Frontier Films, one of more than 20 organizations that were identified as \"subversive\" and \"un-American\" by the US Attorney General. When he was asked by an interviewer why he decided to go to France, Strand began by noting that in America, at the time of his departure, \"McCarthyism was becoming rife and poisoning the minds of an awful lot of people.\"  During the 1950s, and owing to a printing process that was reportedly only available in that country at the time, Strand insisted that his books be printed in Leipzig, East Germany, even if it meant they were initially banned in the American market on account of their Communist provenance. Following Strand's move to Europe, it was later revealed in de-classified intelligence files, obtained under the Freedom of Information Act and now preserved at the Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona, that he was closely monitored by security services.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Further reading", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul Strand (October 16, 1890 – March 31, 1976) was an American photographer and filmmaker who, along with fellow modernist photographers like Alfred Stieglitz and Edward Weston, helped establish photography as an art form in the 20th century. His diverse body of work, spanning six decades, covers numerous genres and subjects throughout the Americas, Europe, and Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973251}
{"src_title": "François de Cuvilliés", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Cuvilliés was so diminutive in stature that it was as a court dwarf that he first came to the notice of the then-exiled Max Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, who detected the young dwarf's aptitude and had him tutored in mathematics, then underwrote his further education with Joseph Effner and sent him to Paris from 1720–24, where he trained in the atelier of Jean-François Blondel, On his return to Munich, he was appointed court architect, at first in conjunction with Effner.  At the Elector's death in 1726, for a time Cuvilliés worked at Schloss Brühl for the new Elector's brother, Clemens August of Bavaria. He provided designs for the chapel at Brūhl, (1730–40) and the hunting lodge Falkenlust (1729–40) but as Charles Albert's interests shifted to Munich, he also returned to Munich. There his fame was established by the decors of the Reiche Zimmer in the Munich Residenz, which had been damaged by a fire, 14 December 1729. The contents of the \"Schatzkammer\" fortunately had been spared, and Cuvilliés was commissioned to design the panelling of a new interior, to be executed by the court's premier carver Joachim Dietrich. with four rococo gilded console tables on scrolling legs with playful dragons.  His masterpiece is the Amalienburg in the park at Nymphenburg, built 1734-39, with silvered or gilded naturalist Rococo decorations set off by coloured grounds. As the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica commented, \"his style, while essentially thin, is often painfully elaborate and bizarre. He designed mirrors and consoles, balustrades for staircases, ceilings and fireplaces, and in furniture, beds and commodes especially\".  The Residenztheater, or \"Cuvilliés Theatre\", (1751–1755) was designed and constructed for Elector Max III Joseph by Cuvilliées. Though the theatre was bombed during World War II, the carved and gilded boxes had been dismantled and stored for security. Afterwards, the Residenztheatre was meticulously recreated in the 1950s.  He wrote several treatises on artistic and decorative subjects, which were edited by his son, François de Cuvilliés the Younger, who succeeded his father at the court of Munich. From 1738 he embarked on his lifelong series of suites of engravings of wall-panelling, cornices, furniture and wrought-iron work, which were then published in Munich and distributed in Paris and doubtless elsewhere; they served to disseminate the Rococo throughout Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "François de Cuvilliés the Younger.", "content": "His son François de Cuvilliés the Younger (* 24 October 1731 in Munich; † 10 January 1777 there) was also an architect and an assistant to his father. After the death of the latter, he became a deputy master-builder to the Electoral court at Munich. His work led from his father's rococo style to Neoclassicism.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François de Cuvilliés, sometimes referred to as \"the Elder\" (23 October 1695, Soignies, Hainaut — 14 April 1768, Munich), was a Belgian-born Bavarian decorative designer and architect. He was instrumental in bringing the Rococo style to the Wittelsbach court at Munich and to Central Europe in general.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973252}
{"src_title": "Upper Sorbian language", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The history of the Upper Sorbian language in Germany began with the Slavic migrations during the 6th century AD. Beginning in the 12th century, there was a massive influx of rural Germanic settlers from Flanders, Saxony, Thuringia and Franconia. This so-called \"Ostsiedlung\" (eastern settlement or expansion) led to a slow but steady decline in use of the Sorbian language. In addition, in the Saxony region, the Sorbian language was legally subordinated to the German language. Language prohibitions were later added: In 1293, the Sorbian language was forbidden in Berne castle before the courts; in 1327 it was forbidden in Zwickau and Leipzig, and from 1424 on it was forbidden in Meissen. Further, there was the condition in many guilds of the cities of the area to accept only members of German-language origin.  However, the central areas of the Milzener and Lusitzer, in the area of the today's Lausitz, were relatively unaffected by the new German language settlements and legal restrictions. The language therefore flourished there. By the 17th century, the number of Upper Sorbian speakers in that area grew to over 300,000. The oldest evidence of written Upper Sorbian is the \"Burger Eydt Wendisch\" monument, which was discovered in the city of Bautzen and dated to the year 1532.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Upper Sorbian in Germany.", "content": "There is an estimated 20,000 to 25,000 speakers of Upper Sorbian. Almost all of these live in the state of Saxony, chiefly in the district of Bautzen (Budyšin). The stronghold of the language is the village of Crostwitz (Chrósćicy) and the surrounding municipalities, especially to the west of it. In this core area, Upper Sorbian remains the predominant vernacular.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phonology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vowels.", "content": "The vowel inventory of Upper Sorbian is exactly the same as that of Lower Sorbian. It is also very similar to the vowel inventory of Slovene.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Samples.", "content": "The Lord's Prayer in Upper Sorbian:  Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Upper Sorbian:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Upper Sorbian () is a minority language spoken by Sorbs in Germany in the historical province of Upper Lusatia, which is today part of Saxony. It is grouped in the West Slavic language branch, together with Lower Sorbian, Czech, Polish, Slovak and Kashubian.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973253}
{"src_title": "Wilhelm, Prince of Albania", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "William was born on 26 March 1876 in Neuwied Castle, near Koblenz, in the Prussian Rhineland, as Prince William of Wied (). Born into the mediatised house of Wied-Neuwied, he was the third son of William, 5th Prince of Wied (brother of Queen Elisabeth of Romania), and his wife Princess Marie of the Netherlands (sister of Queen Louise of Sweden).  Prince William served as a Prussian cavalry officer before becoming a captain in the German General Staff in 1911.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Candidate for the Albanian throne.", "content": "Prince William's aunt, Queen Elisabeth of Romania, on learning that the Great Powers were looking for an aristocrat to rule over Albania, asked Take Ionescu to attempt to persuade them to appoint her nephew to the post.  Eventually the European Great Powers — Austria-Hungary, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the French Third Republic, the German Empire, the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy — selected William, a member of the German princely house of Wied, and related to the Queen of the Netherlands to rule over the newly independent Albania. The announcement was made in November 1913 and the decision was accepted by Ismail Qemali, the head of the provisional government. The offer of the Albanian throne was first made to him in the spring of 1913 but he turned it down. Despite rejecting the offer, the Austrians put pressure on Prince William in an attempt to change his mind.  Western Europeans considered Albania to be a poor, lawless and backward country in 1913, and some foreign opinion was scathing. The French press referred to Wilhelm as \"le Prince de Vide\", meaning \"the prince of emptiness\"; vide being a pun on his homeland of Wied.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prince of Albania.", "content": "On 7 February 1914, William let the Great Powers know that he would accept the throne. On 21 February 1914 a delegation of Albanian notables led by Essad Pasha Toptani and Arbëreshë ones (headed by Luigi Baffa and Vincenzo Baffa Trasci), made a formal request, which he accepted thereby becoming \"By the grace of the powers and the will of the people the Prince (Mbret) of Albania\". One month after accepting the throne on 7 March, he arrived in his provisional capital of Durrës and started to organise his government, appointing Turhan Pasha Përmeti to form the first Albanian cabinet. This first cabinet was dominated by aristocrats (prince Essad Pasha Toptani defence and foreign affairs, prince Gjergj Adhamidhi bej Frashëri finances, prince Aziz Pasha Vrioni agriculture).  His brief reign proved a turbulent one. Immediately following his arrival revolts of Muslims broke out in central Albania against his Chief Minister, Essad Pasha, and against foreign domination that was not Turkish. Greece encouraged the formation of a separatist provisional government in North Epirus. Although an agreement was made to grant extra rights to the Greek minority there, the Hellenic Army occupied Southern Albania excluding Berat and Korçë. William's position was also undermined by his own officials, notably Essad Pasha himself, who actually accepted money from Italy to finance a revolt and to stage a coup against William. The plot was exposed, Pasha was arrested on 19 May 1914, tried for treason and sentenced to death. Only the intervention of the Italian government saved his life and he escaped to exile in Italy.  The outbreak of World War I presented more problems for Prince William as Austria-Hungary demanded that he send Albanian soldiers to fight alongside them. When he refused, citing the neutrality of Albania in the Treaty of London, the remuneration that he had been receiving was cut off.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile and death.", "content": "Prince William left the country on 3 September 1914 originally heading to Venice. Despite leaving Albania he did so insisting that he remained head of state. In his proclamation he informed the people that \"he deemed it necessary to absent himself temporarily.\"  He returned to Germany and rejoined the Imperial German Army under the pseudonym \"Count of Kruja\". The name derived from the city of Krujë in Albania. When the Austro-Hungarians forced the Serbian and Montenegrin armies out of Northern Albania in the early months of 1916, William's hopes of being restored were raised although ultimately they came to nothing. After the war, he still harboured ambitions that he might be restored, but the participants at the Paris Peace Conference were unlikely to restore the throne to someone who had just fought against them.  Although several of the factions competing for power in post-war Albania billed themselves as regencies for William, once central authority was definitively restored in 1924, the country was declared a republic on 31 January 1925, officially ending his reign.  With the monarchy in Albania set to be restored with President Ahmet Zogu becoming king, Prince William reaffirmed his claim to the throne announcing he still claimed the throne for himself and his heirs.  Prince William died in Predeal, near Sinaia, in Romania, leaving his son, Hereditary Prince Carol Victor, as heir to his Albanian claims. He was buried in the Lutheran church in Bucharest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "On 30 November 1906 at Waldenburg, Saxony, Prince William married Princess Sophie of Schönburg-Waldenburg (1885–1936); she was distantly related to the Orthodox Ghica family of Albanian origin. They had two children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Prince Wilhelm is portrayed in the 2008 Albanian film \"Time of the Comet (based on Ismail Kadare's novel \"The dark year\" (Viti i mbrapshtë)\", which takes place during his reign. He is played by the German actor Thomas Heinze.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prince Wilhelm of Wied (German: \"Wilhelm Friedrich Heinrich\", 26 March 1876 – 18 April 1945), reigned briefly as sovereign of the Principality of Albania as Vilhelm I from 7 March to 3 September 1914, when he left for exile. His reign officially came to an end on 31 January 1925, when the country was declared an Albanian Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973254}
{"src_title": "Giorgi Baramidze", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Baramidze was born on January 5, 1968, in Tbilisi, Georgia. He graduated from the Department of Chemical Technologies of the Georgian Technical University in 1992. While at the university, he was a co-founder and one of leaders of the student movement. In 1990, he joined forces with other activists establishing and leading Green Party of Georgia. Following graduation from the university in 1992, he worked as the head of a department at the Committee of Human Rights and National Minorities. In 1995, he graduated from George C. Marshall Center for European Security Studies and Defense Economics in Garmisch, Germany.  After start of the military operations in Abkhazia in 1992, he became the head of Green Party Humanitarian Aid Office where he oversaw provision of humanitarian supplies, evacuation of peaceful population from the occupied territories and liberation of Georgian hostages. He's credited with freeing of 200 Georgian prisoners and facilitating rescue of 3,000 Georgian civilians who fled the conflict zone. He later participated in combat operations in Labra village of Ochamchire district and around Sukhumi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Member of Parliament.", "content": "In 1992, Baramidze was elected to the Parliament of Georgia and served as the Secretary for Commission of Human Rights and National Minorities and as member of Parliamentary Defense and Security Commission. He was also elected a member of the State Coordination Commission of Georgia's participation in NATO Partnership for Peace Program (PFP). In 1995, he was one of co-founders of Eduard Shevardnadze's Union of Citizens of Georgia Party and was elected its deputy chairman, acting as Secretary General of the party from 1995 through 1996. In the 1995 parliamentary elections, he was elected from Didube district of Tbilisi. In 1996, he was elected Chairman of Investigation Commission of Parliamentary Anti-Corruption Committee. As a result of anti-corruption activities, he masterminded to have the following several ministers resign, D. Gulua (Minister of Agriculture), P. Injia (Minister of Communications and Postage), D. Zubitashvili (Minister of Energy), D. Iakobidze (Minister of Finance) and D. Eliashvili (Chairman of Department of Gas of Georgia) among them.  In 1996, Baramidze was elected chairman of the parliamentary faction of Union of Citizens of Georgia. A year later, he started joint Georgian government-UNDP program on Corruption Investigation Center becoming its first director.  From 1998 through 1999, Baramidze worked as an Associate Researcher at Institute for the Study of Diplomacy of Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., conducting research on U.S. government policy, structures and functions as well as on political, military and defense issues in Caucasus. In 1999, he worked with Senator Carl Levin in the United States Senate Committee on Armed Services. Upon his return to Georgia in 1999, he was re-elected to the parliament from Didube district and elected Chairman of Defence and Security Committee in 2000 and Chairman of Faction of the United Democrats of Parliament of Georgia in 2002, subsequently playing an active role in the Rose Revolution in November 2003. In 2003 parliamentary elections, Baramidze was re-elected from the same district of Tbilisi.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ministerial positions.", "content": "With the new government in power in late 2003, he was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs of Georgia.  He was seen as a member of the government faction grouped around the then Prime Minister (and Rose Revolution leader) Zurab Zhvania that were seen to be in opposition to the President Mikheil Saakashvili. As such he publicly cast doubt upon the official explanation for Zhvania's death due to carbon monoxide poisoning and instead appeared to endorse the possibility of foul play stating \"none of the versions [of explanation for his death] should be ruled out.\"  In June 2004, he was appointed Minister of Defense replacing Gela Bezhuashvili. In December 2004, some sixty servicemen went AWOL and rallied outside the Human Rights Ombudsman’s Office to demand better social conditions in the army. The former military Ombudsman, Irakli Sesiashvili said that while Baramidze was in charge \"these soldiers have not taken a bath for two months; there is not enough food. Over the last two months, they have eaten meat only a few times. The soldiers do not even have cold water regularly. Heating equipment has been installed, but there is no fuel... all of these Ministers care more about repairing their offices and purchasing new jeeps.\"  In December 2004, he was moved to the post of Vice Premier and State Minister for Euro-Atlantic Integration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to the Parliament.", "content": "In August 2012, Baramdize resigned from his government position in order to run as the United National Movement's majoritarian candidate in Batumi in the 2012 parliamentary election. The election saw the defeat of the UNM by the Georgian Dream coalition and Baramidze lost the Batumi race, but he obtained a seat in the new parliament through a party list. On October 21, 2012, he was elected as one of the vice-speakers of the Parliament of Georgia, representing the parliamentary minority.  In June 2013, the UNM named Baramidze as one of the four candidates for the party's presidential primaries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Baramidze speaks Georgian, English, Russian and French. He is divorced. Baramidze has one daughter, Ann.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giorgi Baramidze (, born January 5, 1968) is a Georgian politician who served as Vice-Prime Minister of Georgia and State Minister for Euro-Atlantic Integration from 2004 to 2012. On October 21, 2012, he was elected as a vice-speaker of the Parliament of Georgia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973255}
{"src_title": "Gabriel Lamé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Lamé was born in Tours, in today's \"département\" of Indre-et-Loire.  He became well known for his general theory of curvilinear coordinates and his notation and study of classes of ellipse-like curves, now known as Lamé curves or superellipses, and defined by the equation:  where \"n\" is any positive real number.  He is also known for his running time analysis of the Euclidean algorithm, marking the beginning of computational complexity theory. Using Fibonacci numbers, he proved that when finding the greatest common divisor of integers \"a\" and \"b\", the algorithm runs in no more than 5\"k\" steps, where \"k\" is the number of (decimal) digits of \"b\". He also proved a special case of Fermat's last theorem. He actually thought that he found a complete proof for the theorem, but his proof was flawed. The Lamé functions are part of the theory of ellipsoidal harmonics.  He worked on a wide variety of different topics. Often problems in the engineering tasks he undertook led him to study mathematical questions. For example, his work on the stability of vaults and on the design of suspension bridges led him to work on elasticity theory. In fact this was not a passing interest, for Lamé made substantial contributions to this topic. Another example is his work on the conduction of heat which led him to his theory of curvilinear coordinates.  Curvilinear coordinates proved a very powerful tool in Lamé's hands. He used them to transform Laplace's equation into ellipsoidal coordinates and so separate the variables and solve the resulting equation.  His most significant contribution to engineering was to accurately define the stresses and capabilities of a press fit joint, such as that seen in a dowel pin in a housing.  In 1854, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.  Lamé died in Paris in 1870. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gabriel Lamé (22 July 1795 – 1 May 1870) was a who contributed to the theory of partial differential equations by the use of curvilinear coordinates, and the mathematical theory of elasticity (for which linear elasticity and finite strain theory elaborate the mathematical abstractions).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973256}
{"src_title": "Carolina Hurricanes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Franchise history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "New England/Hartford Whalers (1971–1997).", "content": "The New England Whalers were established in November 1971 when the World Hockey Association (WHA) awarded a franchise to begin play in Boston, Massachusetts. For the first two years of their existence, the club played their home games at the Boston Arena and Boston Garden. With the increasing difficulty of scheduling games at Boston Garden (owned by the NHL rival Boston Bruins), the owners decided to move the team to Hartford, Connecticut, beginning with the 1974–75 season. While waiting for the completion of a new arena in Hartford, the Whalers played the first part of the season at The Big E Coliseum in West Springfield, Massachusetts. On January 11, 1975, the team played its first game in front of a sellout crowd at the Hartford Civic Center Coliseum, and would maintain its home there through 1997.  As one of the most stable WHA teams, the Whalers, along with the Edmonton Oilers, Quebec Nordiques and Winnipeg Jets, were admitted to the", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Move to North Carolina (1997–2001).", "content": "The Whalers were plagued for most of their existence by limited marketability. Hartford was the smallest American market in the league and was located on the traditional dividing line between the home territories for New York City and Boston teams. It did not help matters that the Hartford Civic Center was one of the smallest arenas in the league, seating under 16,000 spectators for hockey. The Whalers' off-ice problems were magnified when the start of the 1990s triggered a spike in player salaries.  Despite assurances made when he purchased the team in 1994 that the Whalers would remain in Hartford at least through 1998, in March 1997, owner Peter Karmanos announced that the team would move elsewhere after the 1996–97 season because of the team's inability to negotiate a satisfactory construction and lease package for", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stanley Cup Finals and slow starts (2001–2006).", "content": "The Hurricanes made national waves for the first time in the 2002 playoffs. They survived a late charge from the Washington Capitals to win the division, but expectations were low entering the first round against the defending Eastern Conference champion New Jersey Devils. However, Artūrs Irbe and Kevin Weekes were solid in goal and the Hurricanes won two games in overtime as they defeated the Devils in six games. Their second-round matchup was against the Montreal Canadiens, who were riding a wave of emotion after their captain Saku Koivu's return from cancer treatment. In the third period of Game 4 in Montreal, down 2–1 in the series and 3–0 in the game, Carolina would tie the game and later win on Niclas Wallin's overtime goal. The game became known to Hurricanes fans as the \"Miracle at Molson\"; Carolina won the next two games by a combined 13–3 margin over a dejected Habs club to take the series.  In the Eastern Conference Finals, Carolina met the heavily favored Toronto Maple Leafs. In Game 6 in Toronto, the Leafs' Mats Sundin tied the game with 22 seconds remaining to send it to overtime, where Carolina's Martin Gelinas would score to send", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-championship slump (2006–2017).", "content": "The Hurricanes were unable to follow up their recent success. Losing four players to free agency in the offseason and 222-man games to injury during the 2006–07, the team struggled throughout the regular season, and once eliminated in the last game, the Hurricanes finished third in the Southeast and 11th overall in the Eastern Conference. This finish made them the first champions since the 1938–39 Chicago Black Hawks to have failed to qualify for the playoffs both the seasons before and after their championship season, and the third champion overall to not defend its title after both the Blackhawks and the 1995-96 New Jersey Devils. In the 2007–08, Carolina again missed out as Washington Capitals stormed back to take the division title on the last day of the season, leaving the Hurricanes second in the division and ninth overall in the conference, and making the Hurricanes only the second club in NHL history to miss the playoffs for two seasons running after a Stanley Cup triumph. After a slow start to the 2008–09 season, Cup-winning coach Peter Laviolette was fired in early December and replaced by his own predecessor, Paul Maurice. Teetering on the edge of the playoff picture again, the club,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tom Dundon and the \"Bunch of Jerks\" (2018–present).", "content": "Before the 2017–18 season, the Hurricanes unveiled new uniforms. On July 13, 2017, it was reported that Chuck Greenberg had sent Karmanos a letter of intent to buy the team for $500 million. On December 7, 2017, it was announced that Thomas Dundon signed an agreement to purchase the Hurricanes, which ensured that the team would not be relocated. The deal was finalized on January 11, 2018, with Dundon becoming majority owner and having a 61 percent stake in the team, while Karmanos retained a minority interest.  Dundon wasted little time in overhauling the Hurricanes' front office. On March 8, 2018, the team announced that general manager Ron Francis had", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uniforms.", "content": "The Carolina Hurricanes currently wear red uniforms at home and white uniforms on the road. While black is one of the team's core colors, the Hurricanes kept its usage at a minimum, opting for red helmets and red pants while using black exclusively as a trim color along with silver. Nevertheless, the Hurricanes have worn black alternate uniforms for select games.  The initial Hurricanes uniforms featured the primary logo in front with the secondary logo, a hockey stick converted into a storm warning flag, on the shoulders. One enduring feature of this uniform was the red and black warning flags that dot the tail along with silver, red, black and white stripes. In 2000, black trim was added on the player's name, and upon moving to Reebok's Edge template in 2007, piping was added on the shoulder yoke.  In 2008, the Hurricanes unveiled their first black alternate uniform, featuring the flag logo in front and the primary logo (recolored to dark grey) on the shoulders. As with the primary uniforms, warning flag patterns dot the tail, albeit recolored to silver and black. \"V\" stripes of red", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minor league affiliates.", "content": "AHL/IHL", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Season-by-season record.", "content": "\"This is a list of the last five seasons completed by the Hurricanes. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Carolina", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personnel.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retired numbers.", "content": "The Hurricanes also honor three numbers within the organization, but do not display their banners publicly:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Team captains.", "content": "\"Note: This list of team captains does not", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hall of Famers.", "content": "In the franchise's history, WHA and NHL Whalers Gordie Howe, Mark Howe and Dave Keon are all members, as is Bobby Hull,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Broadcasters.", "content": "The regional broadcasting rights for the Carolina Hurricanes is presently held by Fox Sports Carolinas. Color commentary for Fox's broadcast is performed by Tripp Tracy, while play-by-play is provided by John Forslund. Mike Maniscalco is the team's in-game sideline reporter, as well as a television", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First-round draft picks.", "content": "\"Note: This list does", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "NHL awards and trophies.", "content": "Stanley Cup  Prince of Wales Trophy  Conn Smythe Trophy  Frank J.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Franchise scoring leaders.", "content": "These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise (Hartford and Carolina) history. Figures are updated after each completed", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Franchise records.", "content": "\"Note: these records", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Carolina Hurricanes are a professional ice hockey team based in Raleigh, North Carolina. They compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference. The Hurricanes play their home games at the 18,680-seat PNC Arena.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973257}
{"src_title": "Pierre Richard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Pierre Richard was born in a Bourgeois family from Valenciennes. He is the grandson of Léopold Defays who was the director of the company Escaut-et-Meuse. His name comes from the stage name of Pierre Richard-Willm who was his mother's favorite actor. Pierre Richard spent his childhood and a part of his teenage years in his native city where he was a student at the Henri-Wallon high school.  Skipping classes regularly to go to the cinema, it was Danny Kaye in \"Up in Arms\" that revealed his vocation. This being received with only a moderate enthusiasm by his family, he had to learn a real profession. He then studied kinesiotherapy without renouncing acting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "Pierre Richard started his career in the theater with Antoine Bourseiller and producing himself in famous cabarets from Paris, where he played his first sketches written with Victor Lanoux. He then began his film career in 1968 in the film \"Very Happy Alexander\" directed by Yves Robert. In 1970, he directed his first film \"Le Distrait\", followed by \"Les Malheurs d'Alfred\" (1972) and \"I Don't Know Much, But I'll Say Everything\" (1973). He worked again with Yves Robert for the film \"The Tall Blond Man with One Black Shoe\" (1973) and its sequel \"The Return of the Tall Blond Man with One Black Shoe\" (1974), both written by Francis Veber, who then cast him in the main role in his directorial debut, \"The Toy\" (1976). Their partnership achieved further success in three successful comedies of the early 1980s, \"La Chèvre\" (1981), \"Les Compères\" (1983) and \"Les Fugitifs\" (1986), which paired Richard with Gérard Depardieu. Richard returned behind the camera to direct \"On peut toujours rêver\" (1991) and \"Droit dans le mur\" (1997).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recurring names.", "content": "Among his most famous film roles, Pierre Richard came to play different characters with the same name but without any link between them. He is named :", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other activities.", "content": "Since 1986, Pierre Richard has also become a businessman and winemaker. He owns the restaurant \"Au pied de chameau\" in Paris and a 50-hectare vineyard which produces some 80,000 bottles a year (red and rosé) labelled as \"Château Bel Évêque\" in Gruissan in the department of Aude.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Married and divorced three times, he has two sons who are both actors and musicians, Olivier is a group member of \"Blues trottoir\" and plays the saxophone whereas Christophe plays the double bass. His grandson, Arthur Defays, is a model and actor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "Note : Pierre Richard has played in all the films he has directed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Richard (born Pierre-Richard Maurice Charles Léopold Defays; 16 August 1934) is a French actor, film director and screenwriter, best known for the roles of a clumsy daydreamer in comedy films. Richard is considered by many, such as Louis de Funès and Gérard Depardieu, to be one of the greatest and most talented French comedians in the last 50 years. He is also a film director and occasional singer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973258}
{"src_title": "Jizera Mountains", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The range stretches from the Lusatian Mountains (Zittau Mountains) in the northwest to the Krkonoše in the southeast. The Jizera Mountains comprise the sources of the Jizera river, as well as of the Kwisa and the Lusatian Neisse.  The major part in the south is formed from granite, in the northern part from gneisses and mica schists, with some areas formed from basalt.  The weather conditions are characterized by above-average annual precipitation. On 30 July 1897, the measuring station at Nová Louka recorded a daily precipitation amounting to 345.1 mm (13.6 inches), still an unbroken European record.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Peaks.", "content": "The highest peak is Wysoka Kopa (\"Hinterberg\", 1,127 m, 3,698 feet) near the town of Szklarska Poręba in Poland. Neverteheless, a better-known mountain is Smrk (1124 m, 3,688 feet), with a recently rebuilt look-out tower. Other peaks include Jizera (1,122 m, 3,681 feet) and Stóg Izerski (\"Heufuder\", 1,107 m, 3,632). The peaks in order of elevation:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first settlements in the area date back to prehistory. Later on, Celts, German tribes resides in the valleys until they left in 5th century. Later came Lusatian Sorbs. In the 14th century, German-speaking colonists came and started clearing of the dense primeval forests. Permanent settlements were established. In the 16th century, several glass works were founded. Glassmaking had a profound effect on the ecosystem. The primeval forest was gradually replaced by fast-growing spruce monoculture. Other important industries included tin-mining, metallurgy and textile. The Tabulový kámen (), 1072 m) on the northern edge of the Smrk Mountain marked the border between the properties of the Counts of in Friedland, Bohemia, the von Gersdorff family from Meffersdorf, Upper Lusatia (Unięcice, now part of Wigandsthal) and the Counts of Schaffgotsch from Schreiberhau, Silesia.  In the second half of the 20th century the character of the Jizera Mountains changed completely. The German population of the area was expelled in 1945 and replaced by Poles on the now Polish and Czechs on the Czechoslovakian side of the mountains. The ecosystem was badly hit by emissions, produced by lignite fired power stations located in the Zittau basin, part of Europe's ecological Black Triangle. Weakened spruce forest, less resistant against various types of parasites, were on the verge of extinction. The higher parts of the mountains, once densely wooded, became largely treeless, in part also because of excessive deforestation. New roads cut through the once-secluded landscape.  The situation improved only after the fall of communism in 1989. Open-pit coal mines in the former East Germany were closed, as well as several major power plants. Emission filters were installed at the immense Turów Power Station in Bogatynia on the Polish side of Lusatian Neisse. At the same time large-scale reforestation projects were started.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The Jizera Mountains are an attractive location for winter sports, cycling and hiking. The centre for both downhill skiing and ski run is Bedřichov. The international cross-country races \"Jizerská 50\" and \"Bieg Piastów\" (in Polana Jakuszycka) take place there. Its summer MTB counterpart is also gaining popularity.  The towns surrounding the mountains include Liberec, Frýdlant v Čechách, Nové Město pod Smrkem, Świeradów Zdrój, Szklarska Poręba, Desná, Tanvald and Jablonec nad Nisou.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Protections.", "content": "Large parts of the Jizera Mountains are under some form of protection. In the smaller Polish parts, the peat bogs in Jizera Valley are part of a relatively small nature protection of about 5 km2; Rezerwat Torfowiska Doliny Izery. In the Czech parts, Jizera Mountains Protected Landscape Area (\"CHKO Jizerské hory\") covers 368 km2, or almost all of the Czech parts of the mountains. This landscape protection contains several reserves, including the Jizera Dark Sky Park (\"Rašeliniště Jizery\"), dedicated to star watching.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jizera Mountains (), or Izera Mountains (; ), are part of the Western Sudetes on the border between the Czech Republic and Poland. The range got its name from the Jizera River, which rises at the southern base of the Smrk massif.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973259}
{"src_title": "Orlík Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Orlík was established as a royal castle beside a ford across the River Vltava in the second half of the 13th century, probably by Přemysl Otakar II, although in the Middle Ages it came into the hands of noble families and its ownership changed many times. From 1408 the Zmrzlík of Svojšín family owned it, and during their time the Hussite Captain Jan Žižka of Trocnov stayed in the castle. In 1508 the castle burned down, and was rebuilt as a Renaissance chateâu by the new owners, the Lords of Švamberk. In 1623 the Eggenbergs acquired Orlík, and in 1717 it was inherited by the Schwarzenbergs. At the beginning of the 19th century it became their main residence. In 1802 the chateâu was burned out, and during the subsequent repairs a fourth storey was added to the building. The most famous member of the family was Field Marshal Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg, who was victorious over Napoleon in the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. The current Romantic Gothic appearance dates from 1849 to 1860, when partial remodelling in this style was carried out according to plans by Bernard Gruber. The Early Gothic style castle of Orlík was confiscated by the Communist Regime after 1948, but in 1990s was reverted to the Schwarzenbergs.  Access to the chateâu is by a stone bridge across the moat. Three round towers rise above the main façade, one of them being the original, built in the 14th century. The passage into the chateâu is cut into the rock and leads to a trapezoidal courtyard, with arcades on the ground floor. The oldest building is the former palace, which dates from the 14th century and forms the north side of the courtyard.  The interiors are mainly in the Empire style, from the first half of the 19th century. The Lovecký sál (Hunter's Hall), with quadripartite ribbed vaulting, is original Gothic, and the chapel, also dating from the Gothic period, has a net vault. From an artistic point of view, the most valuable rooms are the state rooms on the first floor; the Greater and Lesser Knight's Halls; Hunting Hall; Blue and Empire Saloons; Library, and the Gun Corridor. The interiors are furnished in the style of the period and feature the family's collection of art works.  Adjoining the chateâu is an English-style large park, covering, with native and non-native species of trees and shrubs, and a greenhouse with a collection of fuchsias. The Pseudo-Gothic Schwarzenberg vault is in the western part of the park.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Orlík Castle is a château northeast of the village of Orlík nad Vltavou, in the northern part of the District of Písek, in the South Bohemia Region of the Czech Republic. The original position of the chateâu, on a rock above the Vltava valley, was altered by the creation of the Orlík reservoir in 1954–62, and the chateâu is now barely a few metres above the water level.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973260}
{"src_title": "Serapis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name and origins.", "content": "The name of the deity is derived from the syncretic worship of Osiris and the bull Apis as a single deity under the Egyptian name \"wsjr-ḥp.\" This name was later written in Coptic as \"Userhapi\". \"Sarapis\" was the most common form in Ancient Greek until Roman times, when \"Serapis\" became common.  The most renowned serapeum was in Alexandria. Under Ptolemy I Soter, efforts were made to integrate Egyptian religion with that of their Hellenic rulers. Ptolemy's policy was to find a deity that should win the reverence alike of both groups, despite the curses of the Egyptian priests against the gods of the previous foreign rulers (e.g. Set, who was lauded by the Hyksos). Alexander the Great had attempted to use Amun for this purpose, but he was more prominent in Upper Egypt, and not as popular in Lower Egypt, where the Greeks had stronger influence.  The Greeks had little respect for animal-headed figures, and so a Greek-style anthropomorphic statue was chosen as the idol, and proclaimed as the equivalent of the highly popular Apis. It was named \"Userhapi\" (i.e. \"Osiris-Apis\"), which became Greek \"Sarapis\", and was said to be Osiris in full, rather than just his \"ka\" (life force).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest mention of a Sarapis occurs in the disputed death scene of Alexander (323 BC). Here, Sarapis has a temple at Babylon, and is of such importance that he alone is named as being consulted on behalf of the dying king. The presence of Sarapis in Babylon would radically alter perceptions of the mythologies of this era: the unconnected Babylonian god Ea (Enki) was titled \"Šar Apsi\", meaning \"king of the Apsu\" or \"the watery deep\", and perhaps he is the one meant in the diaries. His significance in the Hellenic psyche, due to its involvement in Alexander's death, may have also contributed to the choice of Osiris-Apis as the chief Ptolemaic god.  According to Plutarch, Ptolemy stole the cult statue from Sinope in Asia Minor, having been instructed in a dream by the \"unknown god\" to bring the statue to Alexandria, where the statue was pronounced to be Sarapis by two religious experts. One of the experts was of the Eumolpidae, the ancient family from whose members the hierophant of the Eleusinian Mysteries had been chosen since before history, and the other was the scholarly Egyptian priest Manetho, which gave weight to the judgement both for the Egyptians and the Greeks.  Plutarch may not be correct, however, as some Egyptologists allege that the \"Sinope\" in the tale is really the hill of Sinopeion, a name given to the site of the already existing Serapeum at Memphis. Also, according to Tacitus, Serapis (i.e., Apis explicitly identified as Osiris in full) had been the god of the village of Rhakotis before it expanded into the great capital of Alexandria. The statue suitably depicted a figure resembling Hades or Pluto, both being kings of the Greek underworld, and was shown enthroned with the modius, a basket/grain-measure, on his head, since it was a Greek symbol for the land of the dead. He also held a sceptre in his hand indicating his rulership, with Cerberus, gatekeeper of the underworld, resting at his feet. The statue also had what appeared to be a serpent at its base, fitting the Egyptian symbol of rulership, the uraeus.  With his (i.e. Osiris's) wife Isis, and their son Horus (in the form of Harpocrates), Serapis won an important place in the Greek world. In his 2nd-century AD \"Description of Greece\", Pausanias notes two \"Serapeia\" on the slopes of Acrocorinth, above the rebuilt Roman city of Corinth and one at Copae in Boeotia.  Serapis figured among the international deities whose cult was received and disseminated throughout the Roman Empire, with Anubis sometimes identified with Cerberus. At Rome, Serapis was worshiped in the Iseum Campense, the sanctuary of Isis built during the Second Triumvirate in the Campus Martius. The Roman cults of Isis and Serapis gained in popularity late in the 1st century when Vespasian experienced events he attributed to their miraculous agency while he was in Alexandria, where he stayed before returning to Rome as emperor in 70. From the Flavian Dynasty on, Serapis was one of the deities who might appear on imperial coinage with the reigning emperor.  The main cult at Alexandria survived until the late 4th century, when a Christian mob destroyed the Serapeum of Alexandria in 385. The Theodosian decree of 380 implicitly included the cult in its general proscription of religions other than approved forms of Nicene Christianity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Serapis (, later form) or Sarapis (, earlier form, originally Demotic: \"wsjr-ḥp,\" \"Userhapi\" \"Osiris-Apis\") is a Graeco-Egyptian deity. The cult of Serapis was introduced during the third century BC on the orders of Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter of the Ptolemaic Kingdom as a means to unify the Greeks and Egyptians in his realm. A serapeum ( \"serapeion\") was any temple or religious precinct devoted to Serapis. The \"cultus\" of Serapis was spread as a matter of deliberate policy by the Ptolemaic kings, who also built the immense Serapeum of Alexandria. Serapis continued to increase in popularity during the Roman Empire, often replacing Osiris as the consort of Isis in temples outside Egypt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973261}
{"src_title": "Aerobic gymnastics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nature of the game.", "content": "The performance area is square for juniors or square for adults and for aero dance and step.  In International competition there are 9 different events: Individual Women, Individual Men, Mixed Pairs, Trios, Group (five athletes), Step Dance (both eight athletes) and trapezium pass. The last four are regardless of the genders of the athletes.  The performances are made up of four groups of elements. The routine must be performed entirely to music.  In the competition, there are specific requirements regarding the outfit, the number of elements performed, the number of lifts performed, the number of elements performed on the floor and much more.  Performances are scored in the following areas: artistry, execution, difficulty and the chair of the judges panel determines the final score deductions based on deductions that change with each code of points. If the combined scores are the same, the tiebreaker is the team with higher execution scores.  The long-term ultimate goal of the sport of aerobic gymnastics is to be included in the Olympic Games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competitive aerobic gymnastics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National Aerobic Championships.", "content": "The National Aerobic Championships is a competition of aerobic gymnastics started in 1984 in the United States. Founded by Sport Fitness International, it was the first major championships in the sport predating the Aerobic Gymnastics World Championships by 11 years. From 1988 onwards the individual events were separated by gender. The sport became popular around the world after it gained popularity in the US when major championships were aired on ESPN during the height of the fitness movement in the US. In recent years, the sport has experienced growth in Eastern Europe, China, Argentina, Mexico, Canada and Australia among other countries but has not grown significantly in the US as the creators of the sport in the USA struggled to transition the focus from fitness to gymnastics. As other countries have blended successfully with their gymnastic federations, the US, where the sport was created, has not been as successful in making that transition. The USAG does not officially acknowledge the sport as a gymnastic discipline even though the international governing body, the FIG, does so.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "FIG aerobics.", "content": "The competitive aerobic gymnastics are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG). The FIG designs the Code of Points and regulates all aspects of international elite competition. Within individual countries, gymnastics is regulated by national federations. In 1995, the FIG recognised sport aerobics as a new competitive gymnastics discipline, organised judges and coaches courses and launched the 1st Aerobic Gymnastics World Championships in Paris (34 countries). In 1997, the IWGA (International World Games Association) included Aerobic Gymnastics in its programme of the 5th World Games (Lahti, Finland). Since 1999 The European Union of Gymnastics has been conducting Aerobic European Gymnastics Championships in all uneven years. Leading nations who have provided World Medallists are: Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, France, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Romania, Russia and Spain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "FISAF aerobics.", "content": "The Federation of International Sports, Aerobics and Fitness (FISAF) is an international non-profit \"umbrella organization\" active in over 40 countries. It is self-described as \"the largest fitness industry organisation in the world\" and \"the largest instructor certification agency in the world\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The sport was added in the biannual Idol Star Athletics Championships for Lunar New Year, 2017 as a male team equivalent to the female individual rhythmic gymnastics, and the scores are given in accordance to FIG Standards. Seventeen (9.8 Technical+9.3 Execution-0.0 Penalty) and ASTRO (9.75+9.45-0.1) both scored 19.10 out of 20.00, but since ASTRO scored higher in Execution, ASTRO won the inaugural event.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aerobic gymnastics or sport aerobics is a competitive sport originating from traditional aerobics in which complex, high-intensity movement patterns and elements of varying difficulty are performed to music.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973262}
{"src_title": "Dornier Do 26", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The elegant Do 26, sometimes referred to as the \"most beautiful flying-boat ever built\", was of all-metal construction. The hull had a central keel and a defined step; the wings were of gull wing configuration, the outer sections being equipped with fully retractable narrow stabilising wing-floats, instead of Dornier's famous \"water-wing\" sponsons extending from the lower hull for lateral stabilization.  Its four engines, Junkers Jumo 205C diesels, were mounted in tractor/pusher pairs in tandem nacelles located at the joint between the dihedral and horizontal wing sections. The rear (pusher) engines could be swung upwards through 10° during take-off and landing, to prevent contact between the three-blade airscrew and water spray created by the forward propellers.  The tail unit was of conventional design, comprising a horizontal tailplane and a single, vertical fin with rudder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pre-war.", "content": "In 1937, \"Deutsche Lufthansa\" ordered three Do 26 aircraft, which were designed to be launched by catapult from special supply ships, for transatlantic air mail purposes. The first, \"Do 26 A\" D-AGNT V1 \"Seeadler\" (\"Sea eagle\"), was piloted on its maiden flight by Flight Captain Erich Gundermann on 21 May 1938; D-AWDS V2 \"Seefalke\" (\"Sea Falcon\"), followed on 23 November 1938, piloted by Flight Captain Egon Fath. Both were completed and handed over to \"Deutsche Lufthansa\" before the outbreak of World War II. Due to opposition from the United States, the German airline was unable to operate these aircraft on the intended transatlantic route; instead, in 1939 they were used to carry air mail between Bathurst and Natal on the Southern Atlantic route. The third aircraft, \"Do 26 B\" D-ASRA \"Seemöwe\" (\"Seagull\") was completed shortly before the start of World War II.  One notable Do 26 civilian mission was carried out by V2 \"Seefalke\", when on 14 February 1939 the veteran \"Lufthansa\" pilot Flight Captain Siegfried Graf Schack von Wittenau embarked on a mercy flight to Chile, taking 580 kg (1,279 lb) of medical supplies for earthquake victims in Chile. The 10,700 km (6,600 mi) flight between Lisbon and Rio de Janeiro lasted 36 hours.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "All three \"Deutsche Lufthansa\" aircraft were impressed into military service in 1939 at the outbreak of World War II, as \"P5+AH\", \"P5+BH\" and \"P5+CH\" respectively.  Three other Do 26 aircraft (V4 – V6) were built as \"Do 26 C\" for the \"Luftwaffe\" with the more powerful 648 kW (880 hp) Junkers Jumo 205D engines; the original three aircraft were similarly converted for military service. Armament consisted of one 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon and three 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 15 machine guns.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Norwegian Campaign.", "content": "The Do 26s saw service in April and May 1940 in the Norwegian Campaign, transporting supplies, troops and wounded to and from the isolated German forces fighting at Narvik under the command of General Eduard Dietl. During this campaign three of them were lost:  On 8 May 1940, V2 (ex \"Seefalke\") was shot down by three Blackburn Skuas of 803 Naval Air Squadron, Fleet Air Arm, operating from the Royal Navy aircraft carrier while carrying 18 Gebirgsjägers to the Narvik front. After a running fight V2 crash-landed in Efjorden in Ballangen. Siegfried Graf Schack von Wittenau, the crew and 18 soldiers, were captured in bloody fighting with Norwegian forces. One of the Skuas, flown by future Fleet Air Arm fighter ace Sub-Lieutenant Philip Noel Charlton, was hit by return fire from V2 and made an emergency landing at Tovik near Harstad.  Then, on 28 May 1940, both V1 (ex \"Seeadler\" piloted by Ernst-Wilhelm Modrow) and V3 (ex \"Seemöwe\") were set ablaze with gunfire and sunk at their moorings at Sildvik in Rombaksfjord near Narvik, when discovered and attacked by three Hawker Hurricanes of No. 46 Squadron RAF led by the New Zealander Flight Lieutenant (later Group Captain) P.G. \"Pat\" Jameson, DSO, DFC and bar shortly after landing. Three mountain guns destined for the German forces fighting in the mountains east of Narvik were lost with the destruction of V1 and V3, whilst one gun was recovered from one of the aircraft before it was lost.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Later World War II service.", "content": "V5 was lost on 16 November 1940, killing its crew, after being launched at night from the catapult ship \"Friesenland\" in Brest, France. The fate of V4 and V6, which in 1944 were still assigned to the Test Unit (German: \"Erprobungsstelle\") in Travemünde, is unclear.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "The wrecks of V1 \"Seeadler\" and V3 \"Seemöwe\" were located in Norwegian waters off Narvik after the war. \"Seemöwe\" has been removed but the fuselage and wings of \"Seeadler\" remain in situ (and are an attraction for divers). Some components from \"Seeadler\", including the cockpit instrument panel and a propeller, are on display at the Narvik War Museum; another propeller can be seen at the flying club in Bodø, Norway.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Dornier Do 26 was an all-metal gull-winged flying boat produced before and during World War II by \"Dornier Flugzeugwerke\" of Germany. It was operated by a crew of four and was intended to carry a payload of 500 kg (1,100 lb) or four passengers on the Lisbon to New York route.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973263}
{"src_title": "Kegel exercise", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mechanism of action.", "content": "The aim of Kegel exercises is to improve muscle tone by strengthening the pubococcygeus muscles of the pelvic floor. Kegel is a popular prescribed exercise for pregnant women to prepare the pelvic floor for physiological stresses of the later stages of pregnancy and childbirth. Kegel exercises are said to be good for treating vaginal prolapse and preventing uterine prolapse in women and for treating prostate pain and swelling resulting from benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostatitis in men. Kegel exercises may be beneficial in treating urinary incontinence in both men and women. Kegel exercises may also increase sexual gratification, allowing women to complete pompoir and aid in reducing premature ejaculation in men. The many actions performed by Kegel muscles include holding in urine and avoiding defecation. Reproducing this type of muscle action can strengthen the Kegel muscles. The action of slowing or stopping the flow of urine may be used as a test of correct pelvic floor exercise technique.  It is now known that the components of levator ani (the pelvic diaphragm), namely pubococcygeus, puborectalis and ileococcygeus, contract and relax as one muscle. Hence, pelvic floor exercises involve the entire levator ani rather than pubococcygeus alone. Pelvic floor exercises may be of benefit in cases of fecal incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse conditions e.g. rectal prolapse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health effects.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Women.", "content": "Factors such as pregnancy, childbirth, aging, being overweight, and abdominal surgery such as cesarean section, often result in the weakening of the pelvic muscles. This can be assessed by either digital examination of vaginal pressure or using a Kegel perineometer. Kegel exercises are useful in regaining pelvic floor muscle strength in such cases.  The symptoms of prolapse and its severity can be decreased with pelvic floor exercises. Effectiveness can be improved with feedback on how to do the exercises.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Men.", "content": "The muscles involved in men's Kegels are called the perineal muscles which can contract both voluntarily and involuntarily. Kegel exercises can train the perineal muscles by increasing oxygen supply to the muscle and increasing the strength of those muscles. The names of the perineal muscles are: Ischiocavernosus (erection), bulbocavernosus (ejaculation), external sphincter of the anus, striated urethral sphincter, transverse perineal, levator of the prostate, and puborectalis.  Premature ejaculation is when male ejaculation occurs after less than one minute of penetration. The perineal muscles are involved in ejaculation when they are involuntarily contracted. The ischiocavernosus are responsible for the male erection and the bulbocavernosus is responsible for ejaculation. By actively contracting the perineal muscles with kegels regularly, strength and control of these muscles will increase, which can aid in reducing premature ejaculation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Urinary incontinence.", "content": "Pelvic floor exercises (muscle training) can be included in conservative treatment approaches for women with urinary incontinence. There is tentative evidence that biofeedback may give added benefit when used with pelvic floor muscle training. There is no clear evidence that teaching pelvic floor exercises alters the risk of stress urinary incontinence in men that develop this condition post prostatectomy.  In pregnant women, antenatal PFMT probably helps prevent urinary continence during pregnancy and up to six months after giving birth but for pregnant women who already have incontinence, it is not clear if antenatal PFMT helps to reduce symptoms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Faecal incontinence.", "content": "In pregnancy, it is not yet clear if antenatal PFMT helps to prevent or treat faecal incontinence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pelvic toning devices.", "content": "Some devices, marketed to women, are for exercising the pelvic floor muscles and to improve the muscle tone of the pubococcygeal or vaginal muscle.  As of 2013 there was no evidence that doing pelvic floor exercise with weights worked better than doing Kegel exercises without weights; there is greater risk with weights, because a foreign object is introduced into the vagina.  Inserting foreign objects into the vagina increases the risk of infections and can lead to vaginosis or toxic shock syndrome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marketing.", "content": "During the latter part of the 20th century, a number of medical and pseudo-medical devices were marketed to consumers as improving sexual performance or orgasms, increasing \"energy\", \"balancing hormones\", and as having other health or lifestyle benefits. There is no evidence for any of these claims, and many of them are pseudoscience.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kegel exercise, also known as pelvic-floor exercise, involves repeatedly contracting and relaxing the muscles that form part of the pelvic floor, now sometimes colloquially referred to as the \"Kegel muscles\". The exercise can be performed multiple times each day, for several minutes at a time, but take one to three months to begin to have an effect.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973264}
{"src_title": "Princess Sophie of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sophie was a daughter of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and his second wife, Princess Caroline of Baden. She was said to be her father’s favorite daughter although she was more attached to her mother, whom she loved dearly. Sophie adored her twin sister Maria Anna and was very close to all her sisters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 4 November 1824, she married Archduke Franz Karl of Austria. Her paternal half-sister, Caroline Augusta of Bavaria, had married the groom's widowed father, Francis II, in 1816. Sophie and Franz Karl had six children. Emperor Francis II was truly fond of Sophie. Although Sophie had little in common with her husband she was caring and devoted wife to Franz Karl who loved and respected her.  Unlike her husband Sophie was attached to all her children especially Francis Joseph as well as Ferdinand Maximilian who was her favourite son. She had a reputation for being strong-willed and authoritarian by nature but she was also known as familiar and sociable person devoted to her family and the Habsburg empire she married into. She enjoyed court life, dance, art and literature as well as horse riding.  Her ambition to place her oldest son on the Austrian throne was a constant theme in Austrian politics. At the time she was called \"the only man at court\". During the Revolution of 1848, she persuaded her somewhat feeble-minded husband to give up his rights to the throne in favour of their son Franz Joseph. After Franz Joseph's accession, Sophie became the power behind the throne.  Historically, Sophie is remembered for her extremely adversial relationship with Franz Joseph's wife Sisi, who was also her niece. Elisabeth hated Sophie for being strict and demanding to her but there is no evidence that Archduchess had the same feelings toward her niece since she usually described Elisabeth quite pleasantly in her diary and letters. Nonetheless she had a good relationships with her other daughters-in-law and was caring mother-in-law to Maria Annunziata.  Sophie kept a detailed diary most of her life, which reveals much about Austrian court life. She was deeply affected in 1867 by the execution in Mexico of her second son Maximilian. She never recovered from that shock, and withdrew from public life. She died of a brain tumor in 1872.  She was also noted for her close relationship with Napoleon II, who lived at the Austrian Court as the Duke of Reichstadt. There were rumors of a sexual affair between them. There was even suspicion that Maximilian, born two weeks before Reichstadt's death in 1832, was actually his child. These claims were never verified, but it is certain that they were very good friends and that his death affected her very much. She is said to have turned into the hard, ambitious woman described in fiction after he died.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Sophie of Bavaria (Sophie Friederike Dorothea Wilhelmine; 27 January 1805 – 28 May 1872) was born to King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and his second wife Caroline of Baden. She was the identical twin sister of Princess Maria Anna of Bavaria, Queen of Saxony as wife of Frederick Augustus II of Saxony. Her eldest son Franz Joseph reigned as Emperor of Austria, and King of Hungary; her second son Maximilian reigned as Emperor of Mexico.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973265}
{"src_title": "Israeli literature", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hebrew writers.", "content": "The foundations of modern Israel writing were laid by a group of literary pioneers from the Second Aliyah including Shmuel Yosef Agnon, the only Nobel Prize winner for literature in Hebrew and the only one for Israeli literature, Moshe Smilansky, Yosef Haim Brenner, David Shimoni, and Jacob Fichman. Until World War I, Hebrew literature was centered in Eastern Europe. After the war and the Russian Revolution many Hebrew writers found their way to Palestine, so that at the time Palestinian writing was essentially a continuation of the European tradition. In 1921, 70 writers met in Tel Aviv and founded the Hebrew Writers' Association. About this time the first literary periodicals made their appearance—\"Ha-Adamah\", edited by Brenner, and \"Ma'abarot\", edited by Fichman. The 1920 and 1930s witnessed the emergence of Palestine as the dominant center of Hebrew literary activity. Many of the pioneers of Hebrew literature were Zionists, and eventually made their way to Palestine. The great figures of the early part of the century—Bialik, Ahad Ha-Am, Tchernichovsky—all spent their last years in Tel Aviv, and although this was not the period of their greatest creativity, they exerted a great influence on younger Hebrew writers.  Among the earliest modern Hebrew writers was a small minority of writers who were born in Palestine. This cadre includes Yitzhaq Shami and Yehuda Burla, Sepharadi Jews whose families migrated to Palestine in the 19th and 18th centuries, respectively. The writing of this group stands out for its authentic depiction of the Arab and Jewish population of Palestine, told from the vantage point of those who grew up in its midst.  The most important writers of the first generation, S.Y. Agnon and Haim Hazaz, were deeply rooted in their European background, and served as links between the classical writers of the early decades of the Hebrew revival and the Hebrew writers in Palestine during the following generations.  For the next generation of writers, the center of focus was Palestine, even when they were writing about other parts of the world. Their framework was the period of aliyah and, very often, life in the kibbutz. Among the outstanding names are Uri Zvi Greenberg and Avraham Shlonsky, who found in Palestine the antidote to the rootlessness of the Diaspora.  The third generation of writers emerged around the time of the Israeli war of independence. Its key figures (S. Yizhar, Moshe Shamir, Hanoch Bartov, Haim Gouri, Benjamin Tammuz, Aharon Megged) were all sabras or had been brought to the country at an early age. Strong influences now came in from other countries, especially Western. A group called the \"Canaanites\" even sought to deny the connection between Israelis and Jews elsewhere. But after 1948, a feeling of emptiness and of searching for new values was leading to experiments in exploring the Jewish past.  The subsequent generation of the 1960s (A. B. Yehoshua, Amos Oz, Natan Yonatan, Yoram Kaniuk, Yaakov Shabtai) has endeavoured to place Israeli culture within a world context and stresses not so much the unique aspects of Jewish life and Israel as the universal. This school of writers often identifies itself with the protest literature of other countries.  The following generation, writers who were born in the 1960s and 1970s and made their debut in the 1980s and 1990s, examined the basic questions of Jewish-Israeli existence by exposing the collective tensions in individual characters and fates. Notable writers from this era include Etgar Keret and Sayed Kashua.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Yiddish writers.", "content": "Apart from Hebrew writers, there is considerable creative productivity in Israel in other languages, notably in Yiddish. Before World War II, Warsaw, Moscow, and New York were the main centers of Yiddish activity. In Palestine there was still a certain hostility to the Yiddish language, which was felt as a challenge to the Hebrew revival. However, with World War II the whole picture changed. The European centers were liquidated by Hitler and Stalin, and the New York center declined. Immigration brought many of the leading Yiddish writers to Israel. Here the internal attitude relaxed and became friendly, in view of the Holocaust in Europe, on the one hand, and the secure position attained by Hebrew, on the other.  Yiddish writing in Israel can be marked by generations, similar to those in Hebrew literature. The first consisted of writers such as David Pinski and Sholem Asch, who passed their last years in Israel. The second generation, led by Abraham Sutzkever, started its career in Eastern Europe but continued in Israel. The third generation was centered on \"Young Israel\", a modernist group of poets and prose writers, most of whom are kibbutz members, whose work has been influenced by the avant-garde schools of English and French writing.  Yiddish writing in Israel is concentrated on the European Holocaust (the leading writer on this is Ka-Tzetnik), and life among new immigrants. Yiddish authors in Israel are organized in a Yiddish authors' association.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arabic writers.", "content": "The presence of Arabic-language literature in Israeli society can be initially attributed to Emile Habibi, an Israeli-Palestinian writer and a communist politician. In 1992, he was awarded the Israel Prize for Arabic literature. A fervent communist, Habibi helped created the Israeli Communist Party and established \"Al-Ittihad\", a communist daily Arabic language newspaper published in Haifa. Habibi's works, while often a critique of Israeli society, are nevertheless part of Israeli culture.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Publication of books in Israel.", "content": "By law, the Jewish National and University Library of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem receives two copies of each book published in Israel. In 2004 it reported that it received 6,436 new books. Most of them were published in Hebrew, and 89% those books published in Hebrew were original to the Hebrew language. Almost 8% of the 2004 crop were children's books and another 4% were textbooks. According to the type of publisher, the books were 55% commercial, 14% self-published, 10% governmental, 7% educational, and 14% published by other types of organizations. The orthodox and ultra-orthodox sector was responsible for 21% of the total titles. 2017 figures show that 17% of books were Torah-related, 16% were literature and 14% children's books.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Israeli literature is literature written in the State of Israel by Israelis. Most works classed as Israeli literature are written in the Hebrew language, although some Israeli authors write in Yiddish, English, Arabic and Russian.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973266}
{"src_title": "Gustav von Schmoller", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Schmoller was born in Heilbronn. His father was a Württemberg civil servant. Young Schmoller studied \"\" (a combination of economics, law, history, and civil administration) at the University of Tübingen (1857–61). In 1861, he obtained an appointment at the. During his academic career, he held appointments as a professor at the universities of Halle (1864–72), Strasbourg (1872–82), and Berlin (1882–1913). After 1899, he represented the University of Berlin in the Prussian House of Lords.  Schmoller's influence on academic policy, economic, social and fiscal reform, and economics as an academic discipline for the time between 1875 and 1910 can hardly be overstated. He was an outspoken proponent of the assertion of German naval power and the expansion of the German overseas empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "As an outspoken leader of the \"younger\" historical school, Schmoller opposed what he saw as the axiomatic-deductive approach of classical economics and, later, the Austrian school—indeed, Schmoller coined the term to suggest provincialism in an unfavorable review of the 1883 book \"Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics (Untersuchungen über die Methode der Socialwissenschaften und der politischen Oekonomie insbesondere)\" by Carl Menger, which attacked the methods of the historical school. This led to the controversy known as the \"Methodenstreit\", which today often appears as a waste of energies and one of the main reasons for the later demise of the whole historical school, although—as Joseph Schumpeter once pointed out—this was really a quarrel \"within\" that school. Schmoller's primarily inductive approach, requesting careful study, comparative in time and space, of economic performance and phenomena generally, his focus on the evolution of economic processes and institutions, and his insistence on the cultural specificity of economics and the centrality of values in shaping economic exchanges stand in stark contrast to some classical and most neoclassical economists, so that he and his school fell out of the mainstream of economics by the 1930s, being replaced in Germany by the successor Freiburg school.  However, it is often overlooked that Schmoller's primary preoccupation in his lifetime was not with economic \"method\" but with economic and social \"policy\" to address the challenges posed by rapid industrialization and urbanization. That is, Schmoller was first and foremost a social reformer. As such, Schmoller's influence extended throughout Europe, to the Progressive movement in the United States, and to social reformers in Meiji Japan. His most prominent non-German students and followers included William J. Ashley, W.E.B. Du Bois, Richard T. Ely, Noburu Kanai, Albion W. Small, and E.R.A. Seligman.  Since the 1980s, Schmoller's work has been re-evaluated and found relevant to some branches of heterodox economics, especially development economics, behavioral economics, evolutionary economics, and neo-institutional economics. He has long had an influence within the subfield of economic history and the discipline of sociology.  His works, the majority of which deal with economic history and policy, include:  After 1881, Schmoller was editor of the \"Jahrbuch für Gesetzebung, Verwaltung, und Volkswirthschaft im deutschen Reich\". From 1878 to 1903, he edited a series of monographs entitled \"Staats- und sozialwissenschaftliche Forschungen\". He was also an editor and major contributor to \"Acta Borussica\", an extensive collection of Prussian historical sources undertaken by the Berlin Academy of Science upon Schmoller's and Sybel's instigation.  One of the reasons why Schmoller is not more widely known today is that most of his books and articles were not translated, as during his time Anglo-American economists generally read German, which was the dominant scholarly language of the time. German having fallen out of favor, the untranslated texts are now inaccessible to readers without knowledge of German. Two exceptions are: His \"magnum opus\" is", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gustav Friedrich (after 1908: von) Schmoller (; 24 June 1838 – 27 June 1917) was the leader of the \"younger\" German historical school of economics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973267}
{"src_title": "Countertransference", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early formulations.", "content": "The phenomenon of countertransference () was first defined publicly by Sigmund Freud in 1910 (\"The Future Prospects of Psycho-Analytic Therapy\") as being \"a result of the patient's influence on [the physician's] unconscious feelings\"; although Freud had been aware of it privately for some time, writing to Carl Jung for example in 1909 of the need \"to dominate 'counter-transference', which is after all a permanent problem for us\". Freud stated that since an analyst is a human himself he can easily let his emotions into the client. Because Freud saw the countertransference as a purely personal problem for the analyst, he rarely referred to it publicly, and did so almost invariably in terms of a \"warning against any countertransference lying in wait\" for the analyst, who \"must recognize this countertransference in himself and master it\". However, analysis of Freud's letters shows that he was intrigued by countertransference and did not see it as purely a problem.  The potential danger of the analyst's countertransference – \"In such cases, the patient represents for the analyst an object of the past on to whom past feelings and wishes are projected\" – became widely accepted in psychodynamic circles, both within and without the psychoanalytic mainstream. Thus, for example, Jung warned against \"cases of counter-transference when the analyst really cannot let go of the patient...both fall into the same dark hole of unconsciousness\". Similarly Eric Berne stressed that \"Countertransference means that not only does the analyst play a role in the patient's script, but she plays a part in his...the result is the 'chaotic situation' which analysts speak of\". Lacan acknowledged of the analyst's \"countertransference...if he is re-animated the game will proceed without anyone knowing who is leading\".  In this sense, the term includes unconscious reactions to a patient that are determined by the psychoanalyst's own life history and unconscious content; it was later expanded to include unconscious hostile and/or erotic feelings toward a patient that interfere with objectivity and limit the therapist's effectiveness. For example, a therapist might have a strong desire for a client to get good grades in university because the client reminds her of her children at that stage in life, and the anxieties that the therapist experienced during that time. Even in its most benign form, such an attitude could lead at best to \"a 'countertransference cure'...achieved through compliance and a 'false self' suppression of the patient's more difficult feelings\".  Another example would be a therapist who did not receive enough attention from her father perceiving her client as being too distant and resenting him for it. In essence, this describes the transference of the treater to the patient, which is referred to as the \"narrow perspective\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Middle years.", "content": "As the 20th century progressed, however, other, more positive views of countertransference began to emerge, approaching a definition of countertransference as the entire body of feelings that the therapist has toward the patient. Jung explored the importance of the therapist's reaction to the patient through the image of the wounded physician: \"it is his own hurt that gives the measure of his power to heal\". Heinrich Racker emphasised the threat that \"the repression of countertransference...is prolonged in the mythology of the analytic situation\". Paula Heimann highlighted how the \"analyst's countertransference is not only part and parcel of the analytic relationship, but it is the patient's \"creation\", it is part of the patient's personality\". As a result, \"counter-transference was thus reversed from being an interference to becoming a potential source of vital confirmation\". The change of fortune \"was highly controversial. Melanie Klein disapproved on the grounds that poorly analyzed psycho-analysts could excuse their own emotional difficulties\" thereby; but among her younger followers \"the trend within the Kleinian group was to take seriously the new view of counter-transference\" – Hanna Segal warning in typically pragmatic fashion however that \"Countertransference can be the best of servants but is the most awful of masters\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Late twentieth-century paradigm.", "content": "By the last third of the century, a growing consensus appeared on the importance of \"a distinction between 'personal countertransference' (which has to do with the therapist) and 'diagnostic response' – that indicates something about the patient...diagnostic countertransference\". A new belief had come into being that \"countertransference can be of such enormous clinical usefulness...You have to distinguish between what your reactions to the patient are telling you about his psychology and what they are merely expressing about your own\". A distinction between \"\"neurotic countertransference\"\" (or \"\"illusory countertransference\"\") and \"\"countertransference proper\"\" had come (despite a wide range of terminological variation) to transcend individual schools. The main exception is that for \"most psychoanalysts who follow Lacan's teaching...counter-transference is not simply one form of resistance, it is \"the\" ultimate resistance of the analyst\".  The contemporary understanding of countertransference is thus generally to regard countertransference as a \"jointly created\" phenomenon between the treater and the patient. The patient pressures the treater through transference into playing a role congruent with the patient's internal world. However, the specific dimensions of that role are colored by treater's own personality. Countertransference can be a therapeutic tool when examined by the treater to sort out who is doing what, and the meaning behind those interpersonal roles (The differentiation of the object's interpersonal world between self and other). Nothing in the new understanding alters of course the need for continuing awareness of the dangers in the narrow perspective – of \"serious risks of unresolved countertransference difficulties being acted out within what is meant to be a therapeutic relationship\"; but \"from that point on, transference and counter-transference were looked upon as an inseparable couple...'total situation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twenty-first-century developments.", "content": "Further developments in the current century might be said to be the increased recognition that \"Most countertransference reactions are a blend of the two aspects\", personal and diagnostic, which require careful disentanglement in their interaction; and the possibility that nowadays psychodynamic counsellors use countertransference much more than transference – \"another interesting shift in perspective over the years\". One explanation of the latter point might be that because \"in object relations therapy...the relationship is so central, 'countertransference' reactions are considered key in helping the therapist to understand the transference\", something appearing in \"the post-Kleinian perspective...[as] \"Indivisible transferencecountertransference\"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Body-centred countertransference.", "content": "Psychologists at NUI Galway and University College Dublin have recently begun to measure body-centred countertransference in female trauma therapists using their recently developed \"Egan and Carr Body Centred Countertransference Scale\", a sixteen symptom measure. High levels of body-centred countertransference have since been found in both Irish female trauma therapists and clinical psychologists. This phenomenon is also known as \"somatic countertransference\" or \"embodied countertransference\" and links to mirror neurons and automatic somatic empathy for others due to the actions of these neurons have been hypothesised.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Countertransference is defined as redirection of a psychotherapist's feelings toward a client – or, more generally, as a therapist's emotional entanglement with a client.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973268}
{"src_title": "Professional Association of Diving Instructors", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ownership History.", "content": "In 1966, PADI was founded by John Cronin and Ralph Erickson. On 9 August 2012, Lincolnshire Management and Providence Equity Partners jointly acquired PADI from Seidler Equity Partners. In 2015, Providence Equity Partners acquired majority stake of PADI from Lincolnshire Management. In 2017, PADI was sold by Providence Equity Partners LLC and acquired by \"Altas Partners\" And \"Florac\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Membership.", "content": "In 2019, PADI reported it had a membership of over 137,000 professional members and 6,600 dive centers, and had awarded more than 27,000,000 diving certifications internationally. PADI operates in 186 countries and territories. Membership is heavily weighted toward males, but in 2016, the organization experienced a growth of 1.1% in female certifications. Women accounted for 37.2% of all certifications during 2016. The organization hosts Women's Dive Day events across the globe in an effort to increase awareness of women divers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Training system.", "content": "PADI courses are performance-based diver training programs, and at the introductory level emphasize practical knowledge, safety and motor skills. The basics of diving physics and physiology are introduced during entry level programs. The details of these concepts are left for later courses when they are necessary for the required competences of the specific training. These practices fall within current modern learning philosophies and receive regular updates via peer review.  The PADI training system is composed of modules with standardized learning objectives divided into theory and practical skills development. Each module is a stand-alone course for which certification is provided to the participant on successful completion of the course. Theory is mainly conveyed by way of self-study using books or digital training using PADI eLearning. All study options are supplemented with video and, in most cases, live instruction to help the participant visualize what they have read. Confirmation of the student diver's level of mastery in standardized knowledge review sessions is carried out by a scuba instructor. The instructor utilizes both written tests and live observation during actual dives to verify a student's knowledge and skills. Practical skills are obtained through confined water training (pools or relatively shallow water) and performance evaluations in open water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Certification Levels.", "content": "Recreational specialty courses", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Workplace programs.", "content": "PADI offers a speciality program called Public Safety Diver for divers who are either employed in or serve as volunteers in the public safety diving sector principally within the United States.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First aid programs.", "content": "PADI via its subsidiary, \"Emergency First Response, Corp\", distributes the following programs in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and first aid for both divers and non-divers:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Contributions, accreditations, recognitions and affiliations.", "content": "PADI courses are recognized, recommended and cited by a variety of institutions and organizations throughout the world for both recreational diving and vocational training.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "PADI courses are recommended for college credit by ACE.  Since 2009, PADI and the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) have maintained a mutual support partnership.  PADI is a member of the United States Recreational Scuba Training Council (RSTC).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other countries.", "content": "In Canada, PADI sponsors the Scouts Canada Scuba Program.  Recognitions and equivalencies has been established between PADI and Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques, the Colombian Navy, and Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM). PADI is also a registered training organisation in Australia. As of 2012, PADI rescue diver and divemaster programs are included on the United Kingdom's Health and Safety Executive list of approved diving qualifications.  Those PADI courses aligning with standards published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for ‘Recreational diving services’ were audited by the European Underwater Federation (EUF) Certification Body in 2004 and 2009, and were certified at both times as complying with these standards.  PADI is a member of the following member councils of the World Recreational Scuba Training Council – the RSTC Canada, the RSTC Europe and the C-Card Council (Japan).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Citations in professional literature.", "content": "PADI's instructional methodology is cited in EDUCAUSE's 2012 book, \"Game Changers: Education and Information Technologies\" regarding badges as “a symbol or indicator of an accomplishment, skill, quality, or interest. From the Boy and Girl Scouts to PADI diving instruction, to the more recently popular geolocation game Foursquare, badges have been successfully used to set goals, motivate behaviors, represent achievements, and communicate success in many contexts.”  PADI's environmental emphasis is cited in the 2007 book, \"New Frontiers in Marine Tourism\", in its section, Dive Tourism, Sustainable Tourism and Social Responsibility: A Growing Agenda – Environmental management and education: the case of PADI, (Chapter Seven). “PADI, as well as other diver certification organisations and individual businesses, has put significant resources into conservation and developed public awareness programmes”.  \"New Frontiers in Marine Tourism\" also cites in the section entitled Student Scholarships and Social Responsibility: A Growing Agenda for PADI, that “The PADI Scholarship programme... is a good example of the way that various disparate parts of an industry, each with limited resources, can pool their efforts to help more people from developing countries to enter the diving profession... PADI recognises that good relations with the involvement of local people is essential both to business development and to environmental protection. The scholarship scheme makes entry into the dive business more possible for some students who have the backing of their dive centre.”", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PADI Travel.", "content": "In 2018, PADI launched PADI Travel, an online dive travel resource and booking platform for dive resort and liveaboard packages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "In 2006, PADI was severely criticized by a Coroner's court in the United Kingdom for providing what experts regarded as short and insufficient training. Although PADI training standards differ from those formerly prevalent in the United Kingdom under the BSAC system, PADI training standards are consistent with World Recreational Scuba Training Council standards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Project AWARE.", "content": "In 1989, PADI founded Project AWARE to help conserve underwater environments. In 1992, Project AWARE Foundation became a registered nonprofit organization with an environmental mission and purpose. PADI continues to partner with Project AWARE, supporting the organization with in-kind services, donations through its processes and connection to the PADI network of divers, dive professionals and dive centers. Project AWARE information has been integrated in most courses and divers are offered the chance to exchange their normal certification card for an AWARE-certification card by making a donation to the program when sending in their application for a new certification.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) is a recreational diving membership and diver training organization founded in 1966 by John Cronin and Ralph Erickson. Cronin was originally a NAUI instructor who decided to form his own organization with Erickson, and to break diver training down into several modular courses instead of the single universal course then prevalent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973269}
{"src_title": "Daniel Bell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Daniel Bell was born in 1919 in the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City. His parents, Benjamin and Anna Bolotsky, were Jewish immigrants, originally from Eastern Europe. They worked in the garment industry. His father died when he was eight months old, and he grew up poor, living with relatives along with his mother and his younger brother. When he was 13 years old, the family's name was changed from Bolotsky to Bell.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Bell was graduated from Stuyvesant High School. He received a bachelor's degree from the City College of New York in 1938, and completed graduate work at Columbia University during the 1938–1939 academic year. He received a Ph.D. in sociology from Columbia in 1961 after he was permitted to submit \"The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties\" (a 1960 essay collection), in lieu of a conventional doctoral dissertation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Bell began his professional life as a journalist, being managing editor of \"The New Leader\" magazine (1941–1945), labor editor of \"Fortune\" (1948–1958), and later, co-editor (with his college friend Irving Kristol) of \"The Public Interest\" magazine (1965–1973). In the late 1940s Bell was Instructor in the Social Sciences in the College of the University of Chicago. During the 1950s, it was close to the Congress for Cultural Freedom. Subsequently, he taught sociology, first at Columbia (1959–1969) and then at Harvard until his retirement in 1990. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1964.  Bell also was the visiting Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions at Cambridge University in 1987. He served as a member of the President's Commission on Technology in 1964–1965 and as a member of the President's Commission on a National Agenda for the 1980s in 1979.  Bell served on the board of advisors for the \"Antioch Review\", and published some of his most acclaimed essays in the magazine: \"Crime as an American Way of Life\" (1953), \"Socialism: The Dream and the Reality\" (1952), \"Japanese Notebook\" (1958), \"Ethics and Evil: Frameworks for Twenty-First Century Culture\" (2005), and \"The Reconstruction of Liberal Education: A Foundational Syllabus\" (2011).  Bell received honorary degrees from Harvard, the University of Chicago, and fourteen other universities in the United States, as well as from Edinburgh Napier University and Keio University in Japan. He also received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Sociological Association in 1992, and the Talcott Parsons Prize for the Social Sciences from the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993. He was given the Tocqueville Award by the French government in 1995.  Bell was a director of Suntory Foundation and a scholar in residence of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.  Bell once described himself as a \"socialist in economics, a liberal in politics, and a conservative in culture.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scholarship.", "content": "Bell is best known for his contributions to post-industrialism. His most influential books are, \"The End of Ideology\" (1960), \"The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism\" (1976), and \"The Coming of Post-Industrial Society\" (1973). Two of his books, the \"End of Ideology\" and the \"Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism\", were listed by the \"Times Literary Supplement\" as among the 100 most important books in the second half of the twentieth century. Besides Bell only Isaiah Berlin, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Albert Camus, George Orwell, and Hannah Arendt, had two books so listed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The End of Ideology\".", "content": "In \"The End of Ideology\" (1960), Bell suggests that the older grand humanistic ideologies, derived from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are exhausted and that new more parochial ideologies will soon arise.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Coming of Post-Industrial Society\".", "content": "In \"The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting\" (1973), Bell outlined a new kind of society, the post-industrial society. He argued that post-industrialism would be information-led and service-oriented. Bell also argued that the post-industrial society would replace the industrial society as the dominant system.  There are three components to a post-industrial society, according to Bell:  Bell also conceptually differentiates between three aspects of the post-industrial society: data, or information describing the empirical world; information, or the organization of that data into meaningful systems and patterns such as statistical analysis; and knowledge, which Bell conceptualizes as the use of information to make judgments. Bell discussed the manuscript of \"The Coming of Post-Industrial Society\" with Talcott Parsons before its publication.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism\".", "content": "In \"The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism\" (1976), Bell contends that the developments of twentieth century capitalism have led to a contradiction between the cultural sphere of consumerist instant self-gratification and the demand, in the economic sphere, for hard-working, productive individuals. Bell articulates this through his \"three realms\" methodology, which divides modern society into the cultural, economic, and political spheres.  Bell's concern is that, with the growth of the welfare state throughout the post-war years, the population is beginning to demand that the state fulfill the hedonistic desires that the cultural sphere is encouraging. That dovetails with the ongoing requirement for the state to maintain the kind of strong economic environment conducive to continual growth. For Bell, the competing, contradictory demands place excessive strain on the state that were manifest in the economic turbulence, fiscal pressure, and political upheaval characteristic of the 1970s.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "His first two marriages to Nora Potashnick and Elaine Graham ended in divorce. In 1960, Bell married Pearl Kazin, a scholar of literary criticism, and sister of Alfred Kazin. She was also Jewish. Bell's son, David Bell, is a professor of French history at Princeton University, and his daughter, Jordy Bell, was an academic administrator and teacher of, among other things, U.S. Women's history at Marymount College, Tarrytown, New York, before her retirement in 2005.  He died at home in Cambridge, Massachusetts on January 25, 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Articles  Books (authored)  Books (edited)  Books contributions  Published lectures", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Daniel Bell (May 10, 1919 – January 25, 2011) was an American sociologist, writer, editor, and professor at Harvard University, best known for his contributions to the study of post-industrialism. He has been described as \"one of the leading American intellectuals of the postwar era\". His three best known works are \"The End of Ideology\", \"The Coming of Post-Industrial Society\", and \"The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973270}
{"src_title": "Edgeworth box", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Example.", "content": "Imagine two people (Octavio and Abby) with a fixed amount of resources between the two of them — say, 10 liters of water and 20 hamburgers. If Abby takes 4 liters of water and 5 hamburgers, then Octavio is left with 6 liters of water and 15 hamburgers. The Edgeworth box is a rectangular diagram with Octavio's origin on one corner (represented by the 'O') and Abby's origin on the opposite corner (represented by the 'A'). The width of the box is the total amount of one good, and the height is the total amount of the other good. Thus, every possible division of the goods between the two people can be represented as a point in the box.  Indifference curves (derived from each consumer's utility function) can be drawn in the box for both Abby and Octavio. The points on each person's indifference curve represent equally liked combinations of quantities of the two goods for that person. Hence Abby is indifferent between one combination of goods and another on any one of her indifference curves, and the same is true for Octavio. For example, Abby might value 1 liter of water and 13 hamburgers the same as 5 liters of water and 4 hamburgers, or 3 liters and 10 hamburgers. There are an infinite number of such curves that could be drawn among the combinations of goods for each consumer (Octavio or Abby).  With Octavio's origin (the point representing zero of each good) at the lower left corner of the Edgeworth box and with Abby's origin at the upper right corner, typically Octavio's indifference curves would be convex to his origin and Abby's would be convex to her origin.  When an indifference curve for Abby crosses one of the indifference curves for Octavio at more than one point (so the two curves are not tangent to each other), a space in the shape of a lens is created by the crossing of the two curves. Any point in the interior of this lens represents an allocation of the two goods between the two people such that both people would be better off than at the corners of the lens, since the interior point is on an indifference curve farther from both of their respective origins, and thus, each individual achieves a higher utility.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pareto set.", "content": "Wherever one of these curves for Abby happens to be tangent to a curve of Octavio's, a combination of the two goods is identified that yields both consumers a level of utility that could not be improved for one person by a reallocation without decreasing the utility of the other person. Such a combination of goods is said to be Pareto optimal. The set of tangential points of contact between pairs of indifference curves, if all traced out, will form a trace connecting Octavio's origin (O) to Abby's (A). This curve connecting points 'O' and 'A', which will not in general be a straight line, is called the Pareto set or the efficient locus, since each point on the curve is Pareto optimal.  The vocabulary used to describe different objects which are part of the Edgeworth box diverges. The entire Pareto set is sometimes called the contract curve, while Mas-Colell, Winston, and Green (1995) restrict the definition of the contract curve to only those points on the Pareto set which make both Abby and Octavio at least as well off as they are at their initial endowment. Other authors who have a more game theoretical bent, such as Martin Osborne and Ariel Rubinstein (1994), use the term core for the section of the Pareto set which is at least as good for each consumer as the initial endowment.  In order to calculate the Pareto set, the slope of the indifference curves for both consumers must be calculated at each point. That slope is the negative of the marginal rate of substitution, so since the Pareto set is the set of points where both indifference curves are tangent, it is also the set of points where each consumer's marginal rate of substitution is equal to that of the other person.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In economics, an Edgeworth box, named after Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, is a way of representing various distributions of resources. Edgeworth made his presentation in his book \"Mathematical Psychics: An Essay on the Application of Mathematics to the Moral Sciences\", 1881. Edgeworth's original two-axis depiction was developed into the now familiar box diagram by Pareto in his 1906 book \"Manual of Political Economy\" and was popularized in a later exposition by Bowley. The modern version of the diagram is commonly referred to as the Edgeworth–Bowley box.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973271}
{"src_title": "Douglas DC-6", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The United States Army Air Forces commissioned the DC-6 project as the XC-112 in 1944. The Army Air Forces wanted a lengthened, pressurized version of the DC-4-based C-54 Skymaster transport with more powerful engines. By the time the prototype XC-112A flew on 15 February 1946, the war was over, the USAAF had rescinded its requirement, and the aircraft was converted to YC-112A, being sold in 1955.  Douglas Aircraft modified the design into a civil transport longer than the DC-4. The civil DC-6 first flew on 29 June 1946, being retained by Douglas for testing. The first airline deliveries were to American Airlines and United Airlines on 24 November 1946. A series of inflight fires (including the fatal crash of United Airlines Flight 608) grounded the DC-6 fleet in 1947. The cause was found to be a fuel vent next to the cabin cooling turbine intake; all DC-6s were modified and the fleet was flying again after four months on the ground.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "In April 1949, United, American, Delta, National, and Braniff were flying DC-6s in the United States. United flew them to Hawaii, Braniff flew them to Rio de Janeiro, and Panagra flew Miami-Buenos Aires; KLM, SAS, and Sabena flew DC-6s across the Atlantic. BCPA DC-6s flew Sydney to Vancouver, and Philippine flew Manila to London and Manila to San Francisco.  Pan Am used DC-6Bs to start transatlantic tourist-class flights in 1952. These were the first DC-6Bs that could gross, with CB-17 engines rated at on 108/135 octane fuel. Several European airlines followed with their own transatlantic services. The DC-6B and C subtypes could perhaps fly nonstop from the eastern US to Europe, but needed to refuel in Goose Bay, Labrador or Gander, Newfoundland when flying westbound into prevailing westerly winds.  Douglas designed four variants of the DC-6: the basic DC-6, and the longer-fuselage () higher-gross-weight, longer-range versions—the DC-6A with cargo doors forward and aft of the wing on the left side, with a cargo floor; the DC-6B for passenger work, with passenger doors only and a lighter floor; and the DC-6C convertible, with the two cargo doors and removable passenger seats.  The DC-6B, originally powered by Double Wasp engines with Hamilton Standard 43E60 constant-speed reversing propellers, was regarded as the ultimate piston-engine airliner from the standpoint of ruggedness, reliability, economical operation, and handling qualities.  The military version, similar to the DC-6A, was the USAF C-118 Liftmaster; the USN R6D version used the more powerful R-2800-CB-17 engines. These were later used on the commercial DC-6B to allow international flights. The R6D Navy version (in the late 1950s and early 1960s) had Curtiss Electric constant-speed reversing propellers.  The USAF and USN renewed their interest in the DC-6 during the Korean War, and ordered 167 C-118/R6D aircraft, some of which later found their way to civil airlines. Harry Truman's first presidential aircraft was an Air Force short-fuselage DC-6 which was designated VC-118, and named \"The Independence\". It is preserved in the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Dayton, Ohio.  Total production of the DC-6 series was 704, including military versions.  In the 1960s two DC-6s were used as transmitter platforms for educational television, based at Purdue University, in a program called the Midwest Program on Airborne Television Instruction.  Many older DC-6s were replaced in airline passenger service from the mid-1950s by the Douglas DC-7, but the simpler, more economical engines in the DC-6 have meant the type has outlived the DC-7, particularly for cargo operations. DC-6/7s surviving into the jet age were replaced in frontline intercontinental passenger service by the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8.  Basic prices of a new DC-6 in 1946–47 were around £210,000–£230,000 and had risen to £310,000 by 1951. By 1960, used prices were around £175,000 per aircraft. Prices for the DC-6A in 1957–58 were £460,000–£480,000. By 1960, used prices were around £296,000. Equivalent prices for the DC-6B in 1958 were around £500,000. Used prices in 1960 were around £227,000.  From 1977 to 1990, five yellow-painted Douglas DC-6Bs were used as water bombers in France by the Sécurité Civile. They were registered F-ZBAC, F-ZBAD, F-ZBAE, F-ZBAP, and F-ZBBU.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operators.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current operators.", "content": "Today, most DC-6s are inactive, stored, or preserved in museums. A number of DC-6s are still flying in northern bush operations in Alaska and Canada, while several are based in Europe and a few are still in operation for small carriers in South America.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Former operators.", "content": "A great number of airlines and air forces from several countries included the DC-6 in their fleets at some point in time; these are further detailed in the list of Douglas DC-6 operators. Beginning in the 1980s, several DC-6Bs were used as fire retardant tankers by Conair Aerial Firefighting of Abbotsford, Canada. The last aircraft was sold to Everts Air Cargo in Fairbanks, AK in the late 2000s.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": ", 147 DC-6s survived, of which 47 were airworthy; several were preserved in museums.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Douglas DC-6 is a piston-powered airliner and cargo aircraft built by the Douglas Aircraft Company from 1946 to 1958. Originally intended as a military transport near the end of World War II, it was reworked after the war to compete with the Lockheed Constellation in the long-range commercial transport market. More than 700 were built and many still fly today in cargo, military, and wildfire control roles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973272}
{"src_title": "Terry Riley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Colfax, California in 1935, Riley began performing as a solo pianist during the 1950s. During that decade, he studied composition at San Francisco State University, the San Francisco Conservatory, and University of California, Berkeley, studying with Seymour Shifrin and Robert Erickson. He was involved in the experimental San Francisco Tape Music Center, working with Morton Subotnick, Steve Reich, Pauline Oliveros, and Ramon Sender. Throughout the 1960s he also traveled frequently in Europe, taking in musical influences and supporting himself by playing in piano bars.  His most influential teacher was Pandit Pran Nath (1918–1996), a master of Indian classical voice who also taught La Monte Young, Marian Zazeela, and Michael Harrison. Riley made numerous trips to India over the course of their association to study and accompany him on tabla, tambura, and voice. In 1971 he joined the Mills College faculty to teach Indian classical music. Riley also cites John Cage and \"the really great chamber music groups of John Coltrane and Miles Davis, Charles Mingus, Bill Evans, and Gil Evans\" as influences on his work. He was awarded an Honorary Doctorate Degree in Music at Chapman University in 2007.  Riley began his long-lasting association with the Kronos Quartet when he met their founder David Harrington while at Mills. Over the course of his career, Riley composed 13 string quartets for the ensemble, in addition to other works. He wrote his first orchestral piece, \"Jade Palace\", in 1991, and has continued to pursue that avenue, with several commissioned orchestral compositions following. He is also currently performing and teaching both as an Indian raga vocalist and as a solo pianist.  Riley continues to perform live, and was part of the All Tomorrow's Parties festival in May 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Techniques.", "content": "Riley's music is usually based on improvising through a series of modal figures of different lengths. Works such as \"In C\" (1964) and the \"Keyboard Studies\" demonstrate this technique. The first performance of \"In C\" was given by Steve Reich, Jon Gibson, Pauline Oliveros and Morton Subotnick. Its form was an innovation: The piece consists of 53 separate modules of roughly one measure apiece, each containing a different musical pattern but each, as the title implies, in the key of C. One performer beats a steady pulse of \"C\"s on the piano to keep tempo. The others, in any number and on any instrument, perform these musical modules following a few loose guidelines, with the different musical modules interlocking in various ways as time goes on.  In the 1950s Riley was already working with tape loops, a technology still in its infancy at the time; he would later, with the help of a sound engineer, create what he called a \"time-lag accumulator\". He has continued manipulating tapes to musical effect, in the studio and in live performances throughout his career. An early tape loop piece titled \"Music for the Gift\" (1963) featured the trumpet playing of Chet Baker. It was during Riley's time in Paris, while composing this piece, that he conceived of and created the time-lag accumulator technique. He has composed using just intonation as well as microtones. In New York City in the mid-1960s he played with his longtime friend La Monte Young, as well as with John Cale and tabla player Angus MacLise, who were founding members of The Velvet Underground. Riley is credited as inspiring Cale's keyboard part on Lou Reed's composition \"All Tomorrow's Parties\", which was sung by German actress Nico and included on the album \"The Velvet Underground and Nico\", recorded in 1966.  Riley's famous overdubbed electronic album \"A Rainbow in Curved Air\" (recorded 1968, released 1969) inspired many later developments in electronic music. These include Pete Townshend's organ parts on The Who's \"Won't Get Fooled Again\" and \"Baba O'Riley\", the latter named in tribute to Riley as well as to Meher Baba. Charles Hazlewood, in his BBC documentary on Minimalism (Part 1) suggests that the album 'Tubular Bells' by Mike Oldfield was also inspired by Riley's example.  Riley's collaborators have included the Rova Saxophone Quartet, Pauline Oliveros, the ARTE Quartett, and, as mentioned, the Kronos Quartet. His 1995 \"Lisbon Concert\" recording features him in a solo piano format, improvising on his own works. In the liner notes Riley cites Art Tatum, Bud Powell and Bill Evans as his piano \"heroes\", illustrating the importance of jazz to his conceptions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He has three children: one daughter, Colleen, and two sons, Gyan, who is a guitarist, and Shahn. He was married to Ann Riley until her death in 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Terrence Mitchell Riley (born June 24, 1935) is an American composer and performing musician best known as a pioneer of the minimalist school of composition. Influenced by jazz and Indian classical music, his music became notable for its innovative use of repetition, tape music techniques, and delay systems.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973273}
{"src_title": "Byblis (plant)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plant characteristics.", "content": "All species of the genus form upright growth supported by a weak, fibrous root system. The genus can be divided into two groups or \"complexes\": The \"B. liniflora\" complex and the \"B. gigantea\" complex (see below).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaves.", "content": "The leaves of all species are round in cross section and highly elongated, tapering at the end. The surface of the leaves is densely studded with glandular hairs which secrete a mucilaginous substance from their tip. These serve to attract small insects, which upon touching the sticky secretions are ensnared. Unless they are strong enough to escape, the insect prey either die of exhaustion or asphyxiate as the mucilage envelops them and clogs their spiracles. Unlike the sundews, however, \"Byblis\" can move neither their tentacles nor the leaves themselves to aid trapping or digestion. As a result, they are grouped among the \"passive flypaper traps\" along with \"Pinguicula\", \"Drosophyllum\", \"Roridula\", \"Stylidium\" and \"Triphyophyllum peltatum\".  Along with the stalked mucilaginous glands, the leaves are also equipped with sessile glands, which assumedly are responsible for the secretion of the digestive juices. Sessile glands are five to ten times as numerous as the stalked glands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "Flowers in this genus are born singly at the end of unbranching, leaf-like inflorescences which emerge from the leaf axes. The five-petaled flowers are generally purple to pale violet, though \"B. gigantea\" und \"B. filifolia\" can sometimes produce white flowers. Except for the self-fertile \"B. liniflora\", all species require pollen from other individuals for fertilization. The pollen release of \"B. gigantea\" and \"B. lamellata\" is only triggered by the resonance frequency of the wings of a landing pollinator, helping ensure cross-pollination with other individuals. The flowers of \"Byblis\" start to bloom in early spring and last until late summer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fruit and seeds.", "content": "Fertilized flowers mature to form an egg-shaped, two-parted seed capsule. As the seed capsule dries out it cracks open (dehisces), dropping the seed on the ground (see gravity dispersal). The black seeds are generally round and often bear webbed surface markings, although those of \"B. lamellata\" are strongly ridged (see ). The germination of many species is brought on by brush fires after the dry period; pyrogenic chemicals in the smoke are responsible for triggering germination.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "All \"Byblis\" species are native to Australia. \"B. gigantea\" and \"B. lamellata\" are endemic to the Perth region of southwest Australia, while the species making up the \"B. liniflora\" complex are found only in north Australia. The exception here is \"B. liniflora\" itself, whose distribution extends into southern Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.  Like many carnivorous plants, \"Byblis\" species usually grow in bogs and marshes. They generally prefer seasonally wet sandy soil in partial or direct sunlight with temperatures between ~ 5-40 °C (40-105 °F).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environmental status.", "content": "As native plants of Australia, all \"Byblis\" species are protected. Until the year 2000, they were also given international protection under CITES appendix II, but were removed from the list when Australia entered the CITES agreement. Since then trade of the genus has been unregulated outside of Australia. However, due to the sensitivity of the plant, interest in the genus has been restricted to a small portion of the carnivorous plant hobbyist community. The majority of plant material sold today is produced in cultivation, with the annual \"B. filifolia\" and \"B. liniflora\" being the most common. Most of the other species must be grown from seed, which is often collected from the wild for this purpose.  The West Australian species \"B. gigantea\" und \"B. lamellata\" are being threatened by habitat destruction for urban sprawl from cities such as Perth. Particularly damaging is the draining of wet habitats to produce arable land. \"B. gigantea\" is on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species and is considered critically endangered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Carnivorous or protocarnivorous.", "content": "The status of the genus as a truly carnivorous plant has been repeatedly put into question. In their natural habitat, all species have been observed playing host to live bugs of the genus \"Setocoris\", which nourished themselves by eating prey caught by the plants. Following this discovery it was assumed that, as with the genus \"Roridula\", the plants do not actually digest their prey themselves, rather relying on the bugs to do that. The plants, it was reasoned, benefited by absorbing nutrients from the excrements of the bugs, either through their leaves or through the ground. An indirect digestion of these nutrients by a chitinase producing fungus was even proposed. It was not until 2005 that direct digestion of insect prey by enzymes secreted by the sessile glands of \"B. filifolia\" was proven. Soon thereafter similar results were found with \"B. liniflora\". These results clearly place this genus among the true carnivorous plants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Systematics.", "content": "Molecular genetics studies have placed the genus in the order Lamiales. While its placement within the order is still unclear, it is closely related to Martyniaceae, Lentibulariaceae as well as Gesneriaceae.  For a time, the genus \"Roridula\" was also assigned to the family Byblidaceae. Since that time, however, it has been placed into its own family, Roridulaceae.  Traditionally the genus was divided into only two species, namely \"B. gigantea\" and \"B. liniflora\". Further species were described in the 1980s, particularly through the work of the Australian botanist Allen Lowrie. Eight species are currently recognized:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivision of the genus.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Byblis liniflora\" complex.", "content": "The four species of this complex, \"B. liniflora\", \"B. rorida\", \"B. filifolia\" and \"B. aquatica\", are annual herbaceous plants that reach a height of and a maximum leaf length of. These species grow from seedlings to flowering plants in only a few months, setting seed and dying with the onset of the dry season. The original haploid chromosome count of this complex is x=8. The diploid number is therefore 2n=16, whereas the tetraploid species \"B. liniflora\" is 2n=32.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Byblis gigantea\" complex.", "content": "The remaining two species, \"B. lamellata\" und \"B. gigantea\", make up what is known as the \"B. gigantea\" complex. These perennial species are both endemic to Southwest Australia, and reach heights of. Unlike the annual members of the \"B. liniflora\" complex, these species survive the dry season by dying back to an underground rhizome, out of which they emerge come fall. The leaves of this complex can reach in length. The base chromosome count of the complex is x=9; since both species are diploid, their chromosome count is 2n=18.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Paleobotany.", "content": "In the year 2004 a single fossil of a seed, resembling that of members of the modern day \"B. liniflora\" complex, was discovered in south Australia dating from the middle of the Eocene epoch. The species was assigned to the Byblidaceae as a parataxon of the genus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The Latin generic name \"\"Byblis\"\" originates from a goddess from Greek mythology, of whom Ovid wrote in his \"Metamorphoses\" (IX, l. 454-664). Byblis, niece of Apollo, fell deeply in love with her twin brother Caunus. At his rejection of her advances, she let forth an endless stream of glistening tears, eventually literally transforming into a spring. The droplets lining the leaves of the \"Byblis\" are said to resemble those tears.  The English vernacular name - \"rainbow plants\" - also denotes the mucilaginous droplets which, under the right lighting conditions and viewing angle, sparkle in a rainbow of colors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Much of the content of this article comes from (retrieved 1 December 2006).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Byblis ( ) is a small genus of carnivorous plants, sometimes termed the rainbow plants for the attractive appearance of their mucilage-covered leaves in bright sunshine. Native to western Australia, it is the only genus in the family Byblidaceae. The first species in the genus was described by the English botanist Richard Anthony Salisbury in 1808. Eight species are now recognized (see below).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973274}
{"src_title": "Modulor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Le Corbusier developed the Modulor in the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man, the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and other attempts to discover mathematical proportions in the human body and then to use that knowledge to improve both the appearance and function of architecture. The system is based on human measurements, the double unit, the Fibonacci numbers, and the golden ratio. Le Corbusier described it as a \"range of harmonious measurements to suit the human scale, universally applicable to architecture and to mechanical things\".  With the Modulor, Le Corbusier sought to introduce a scale of visual measures that would unite two virtually incompatible systems: the Anglo Saxon foot and inch and the international metric system. Whilst he was intrigued by ancient civilisations who used measuring systems linked to the human body: elbow (cubit), finger (digit), thumb (inch) etc., he was troubled by the metre as a measure that was a forty-millionth part of the meridian of the earth.  In 1943, in response to the French National Organisation for Standardisation's (AFNOR) requirement for standardising all the objects involved in the construction process, Le Corbusier asked an apprentice to consider a scale based upon a man with his arm raised to 2.20 m in height. The result, in August 1943 was the first graphical representation of the derivation of the scale. This was refined after a visit to the Dean of the Faculty of Sciences in Sorbonne on 7 February 1945 which resulted in the inclusion of a golden section into the representation.  Whilst initially the Modulor Man's height was based on a French man's height of it was changed to 1.83 m in 1946 because \"in English detective novels, the good-looking men, such as policemen, are always six feet tall!\" The dimensions were refined to give round numbers and the overall height of the raised arm was set at 2.262 m.  Of the works leading to the creation of the Modulor, Robin Evans notes that the female body \"was only belatedly considered and rejected as a source of proportional harmony\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Promotion.", "content": "On 10 January 1946 during a visit to New York, Le Corbusier met with Henry J. Kaiser, an American industrialist whose Kaiser Shipyard had built Liberty ships during World War II. Kaiser's project was to build ten thousand new houses a day, but he had changed his mind and decided to build cars instead. During the interview, Le Corbusier sympathised with Kaiser's problems of coordinating the adoption of equipment between the American and British armies because of the differences in units of length; and promoted his own \"harmonious scale\".  On the same trip he met with David E. Lilienthal of the Tennessee Valley Authority to promote the use of his \"harmonious scale\" on further civil engineering projects.  He also applied the principle of the Modulor to the efficient design of distribution crates in post war France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Graphic representation.", "content": "The graphic representation of the Modulor, a stylised human figure with one arm raised, stands next to two vertical measurements, a red series based on the figure's navel height (1.08 m in the original version, 1.13 m in the revised version) and segmented according to Phi and a blue series based on the figure's entire height, double the navel height (2.16 m in the original version, 2.26 m in the revised), segmented similarly. A spiral, graphically developed between the red and blue segments, seems to mimic the volume of the human figure.  The Modulor 2 was drawn by André Maissonier and Justino Serralta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practical application.", "content": "Le Corbusier used his Modulor scale in the design of many buildings, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unité d'Habitation à Marseille.", "content": "In his first book on the subject \"The Modulor\", Le Corbusier has a chapter on the use of the modular in the Unité d'Habitation. The modular governs: the plan, section and elevations; the brise-soleil; the roof; the supporting columns and the plan and section of the apartments. It was also used for the dimensions of the commemorative stone laid on 14 October 1947. A version of the Modulor Man was cast in concrete near the entrance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Church of Sainte Marie de La Tourette.", "content": "In the Church of Sainte Marie de La Tourette Le Corbusier floors the majority of the church in pale concrete panels set to Modulor dimensions. Also, the engineer Iannis Xenakis applied the Modulor system to the design of the exterior vertical ventilators or \"ondulatoires\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts.", "content": "In the Carpenter Center the Modulor system was used for the brise-soleil distances, the floor to floor heights, the bay distances and the column thicknesses. Le Corbusier conceived that the dimensioning of the entrance ramp would be \"\"visible essay on the mathematics of the human body\"\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Publication.", "content": "Le Corbusier published \"Le Modulor\" in 1948, followed by \"Modulor 2\" in 1955. These works were first published in English as \"The Modulor\" in 1954 and \"Modulor 2 (Let the User Speak Next)\" in 1958.  The 2004 reprinted box set including both books was printed in a square format using the Modulor with the series twenty seven to one hundred and forty reduced in size to one tenth.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Modulor is an anthropometric scale of proportions devised by the Swiss-born French architect Le Corbusier (1887–1965). It was developed as a visual bridge between two incompatible scales, the imperial and the metric system. It is based on the height of a man with his arm raised.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973275}
{"src_title": "Peggy March", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Born to an Italian American family, Peggy was discovered at age 13 singing at her cousin's wedding and was introduced to record producers Hugo & Luigi. They gave her the nickname Little Peggy March because she was only tall, she was only 13, the record she did with them was \"Little Me,\" and her birthday was in March.  On April 24, 1963, her single \"I Will Follow Him\" soared to number one on the United States charts. She recorded the song in early January 1963 and it was released on January 22, when she was only 14. March became the youngest female artist with a number one hit, at 15, in late April 1963, a record that still stands for the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. The recording also reached number one in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Japan, and Scandinavia, although it failed to chart in the United Kingdom. It was a translation of the French song \"Chariot\" recorded a year earlier by Petula Clark. March also became the first white female solo artist to hit #1 on the \"Billboard\" R&B chart. March's success also came with financial trouble. She was a minor and the \"Coogan Law\" prevented her parents from managing her money. The responsibility was placed on her manager, Russell Smith. It was discovered in 1966 that he had squandered the fortune, leaving her with $500. Peggy graduated from Lansdale Catholic High School in 1966.  Although she is remembered in the United States by some as a one-hit wonder, her singles, \"I Wish I Were a Princess\" and \"Hello Heartache, Goodbye Love\". made the Top 30 in the United States, with the latter also reaching #29 on the UK Singles Chart. As with many American artists, March's career in her native United States was derailed in part by the British Invasion pushing many American acts out of popularity, and she had no hits there once the Invasion began in 1964. Recording for RCA Victor, March made 18 singles from 1964 to 1971. She also cut several albums, none of which sold well in the United States. She began having a strong presence in the European and Asian music markets and moved to Germany in 1969. She won the Deutscher Schlager Contest in 1965 and her song \"Mit 17 hat man noch Träume\" (\"At 17 you still have dreams\") placed No. 2 in the German Singles Chart. This was followed by German songs like \"In der Carnaby Street\", \"Einmal verliebt — immer verliebt\", \"Hey, Romeo und Julia\" (\"On Carnaby Street, Once in Love-Always in Love, Hey, Romeo and Juliet\"... No. 1 in German Charts), \"Der Schuster macht schöne Schuhe\" (\"'The Cobbler Makes Beautiful Shoes\"), \"Telegramm aus Tennessee\", \"Die Maschen der Männer\" and \"Das sind die Träume, die man so träumt\". Her commercial success in Germany continued through much of the 1970s; she tried her luck in representing Germany in the Eurovision Song Contest in 1969, only to be placed second in the national final with the song \"Hey! Das ist Musik für mich\". March made another Eurovision attempt in 1975, when she performed the Ralph Siegel composition \"Alles geht vorüber\" in the German national contest. Again, she was placed second.  In 1979, she experimented with disco on the album \"Electrifying\", but it failed to achieve commercial success. By 1981 record companies did not renew her contracts, and she moved back to the United States. In 1984, however, Jermaine Jackson and Pia Zadora achieved a major European hit single with the track \"When the Rain Begins to Fall\", co-written by March. Although not a hit in the UK or in the US, it went to #1 in Germany, France, the Netherlands and Switzerland. In 1998, the song entered the German Top 10 again when covered by rapper Pappa Bear. The cult film \"Hairspray\" featured \"I Wish I Were a Princess\" in 1988, and a retro fad in Germany brought her some continuing success starting in the mid-1990s with the album \"Die Freiheit Frau zu sein\" (1995). Her song \"I Will Follow Him\" was featured in the 1992 movie \"Sister Act\".  March currently works largely in Germany and in the Las Vegas music scene and has also performed at Dick Clark's American Bandstand Theater in Branson, Missouri. In 2004 she was the headliner in Riff Markowitz's Fabulous Palm Springs Follies at the Plaza Theater in Palm Springs, California. In 2005, she released an album of standards, \"Get Happy\", followed by the album \"Meine Liebe ist stark genug\" (2008).  In March 2010, March went into the recording studio to record her first album of new, original material in English in over 30 years. A collaboration with Scandinavian songwriter and producer Soren Jensen, the album \"Always and Forever\" was released on October 13, 2010. It was followed by a special edition for the German-speaking countries in April 2012, including two duets with the Dutch singer José Hoebee, one of them being a cover version of \"I Will Follow Him\"; which had also been a #1 single in the Netherlands and Belgium for Hoebee in 1982 (March further recorded a subsequent recording in 2012 for a 2013 release to commemorate the song's 50th anniversary). March also recorded another version of \"When The Rain Begins To Fall\", as a duet with the German singer Andreas Zaron.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1969, March married Arnie Harris, her longtime manager. They had one daughter, Sande Ann, born in 1974. In 2013, March's husband died. After living in Germany for some time, in 1999, March moved to Florida.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peggy March (born Margaret Annemarie Battavio, March 8, 1948 in Lansdale, Pennsylvania) is an American pop singer. In the United States, she is primarily known for her 1963 million-selling song \"I Will Follow Him\". Although she is sometimes remembered as a one-hit wonder, she continued to have success in Europe well into the 1970s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973276}
{"src_title": "Tokyo subway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Networks.", "content": "There are two primary subway operators in Tokyo: , the combined subway network of the Tokyo and Toei metros comprises 278 stations and 13 lines covering a total system length of. The Tokyo Metro and Toei networks together carry a combined average of over eight million passengers daily. Despite being ranked first in worldwide subway usage, subways make up a small fraction of heavy rail rapid transit in Tokyo alone—only 274 out of 882 railway stations, as of 2007. The Tokyo subway at 8.7 million daily passengers only represents 22% of Tokyo's 40 million daily rail passengers (see Transport in Greater Tokyo). Other urban commuter rail systems include Keihin Electric Express Railway, Keio Corporation, Keisei Electric Railway, Odakyu Electric Railway, Seibu Railway, Tobu Railway and Tokyu Corporation.  In addition, but not formally designated as subways:  The Yokohama Subway and the Minatomirai Line also operate in the Greater Tokyo Area, but they are not directly connected to the Tokyo subway network. However, direct through services from the Tokyo Metro Fukutoshin Line regularly run into Yokohama's Minatomirai Line via the Tōkyū Tōyoko Line railway. On special occasions, typically around holidays, the Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line and Namboku Line operate special \"Minatomirai\" (みなとみらい号), formerly known as \"Yokohama Mirai\" (横浜みらい号), direct through services to the Minatomirai Line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "System administration.", "content": "Both the Tokyo Metro and Toei Subway systems are closely integrated with a unified system of line colors, line codes, and station numbers. However, the separate administration of metro systems has some ramifications:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reciprocal operation.", "content": "As is common with Japanese subway systems, many above-ground and underground lines in the Greater Tokyo Area operate through services with the Tokyo Metro and Toei lines. In a broader sense they are considered a part of the Tokyo subway network, allowing it to reach farther out into the suburbs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1995 sarin attack.", "content": "In 1995, Aum Shinri Kyo, a doomsday cult, attacked the subway system with sarin nerve gas at Kasumigaseki Station and a few others, leading to 13 deaths and over 5,000 people injured.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The is a part of the extensive rapid transit system that consists of Tokyo Metro and the Toei Subway in the Greater Tokyo area of Japan. While the subway system itself is largely within the city center, the lines extend far out via extensive through services onto suburban railway lines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973277}
{"src_title": "KEO", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Contents.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal messages.", "content": "Every person is invited to contribute to the time capsule. The contribution deadline was originally 31 December 2009, but, it has been extended to end of 2014. Messages can be posted via the project's website or sent by postal mail. The organizers encourage everybody to gather messages from children, senior citizens, and the illiterate so that every culture and demographic on Earth is represented. The organization says, \"All the messages received, without undergoing any censorship, will be embarked aboard KEO.\" The satellite has enough capacity to carry a four-page message from each of the more than six billion (as of the original 2009 deadline) inhabitants on the planet. Once the satellite is launched, the messages will be made freely available on the web.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other contents.", "content": "KEO will also carry samples of air, sea water, earth, and a diamond that encases a drop of human blood chosen at random with the DNA of the human genome engraved on one of its facets. The satellite will also carry an astronomical clock that shows the current rotation rates of several pulsars, photographs of people of all cultures, and \"the contemporary Library of Alexandria\", an encyclopedic compendium of current human knowledge.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Technical aspects.", "content": "The messages and library will be encoded in glass-made radiation-resistant DVDs. Symbolic instructions in several formats will show the future finders how to build a DVD reader.  The satellite itself is a hollow sphere 80 cm in diameter. The sphere is engraved with a map of Earth and surrounded by an aluminium layer, a thermal layer and several layers of titanium and other heavy materials intertwined with vacuum. The sphere is resistant to cosmic radiation, atmosphere re-entry, space junk impacts, etc. For its first few years in orbit, KEO will sport a pair of wings 10 meters across that will aid in its spotting from Earth. As the satellite enters the atmosphere, the thermal layer will produce an artificial aurora to give a signal of the satellite's re-entry. The passive satellite will not carry any communications or propulsion systems. It will be launched by an Ariane 5 rocket into an orbit 1,800 km high, an altitude that will bring it back to Earth in 500 centuries, the same amount of time that has elapsed since early humans started to draw on cavern walls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Project history.", "content": "The project KEO was conceived in 1994 by French artist-scientist Jean-Marc Philippe, a pioneer of space art.  Jean-Marc Philippe (died 12 November 2008) was the creator of KEO, a proposed space time capsule.  Philippe held a degree in geophysics and also worked as a painter. He was a member of the European Academy of Science, Art and Literature and of the International Society for Art, Science and Technology (Berkeley), and the winner of many international prizes.  After his death, messages began to be collected, and an initial launch date was set for 2001. Technical feasibility demonstration and other various delays have moved the launch date to 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar projects.", "content": "Several previous spacecraft have included time capsules for humans (or aliens) in the far future. Part of the Apollo 11 Lunar Module, still on the moon, includes a plaque showing the arrangement of the Earth's continents in 1969. The LAGEOS satellite (which will re-enter the atmosphere in 8.4 million years) contains a plaque showing the arrangement of the Earth's continents in the past, present, and future. Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 both contain plaques that give pictorial information about their time and place of origin. Most famously, the two Voyager spacecraft each contain a golden record that contains pictures and sounds of Earth, along with symbolic directions for playing the record and data detailing the location of Earth. The Pioneers and Voyagers have left the solar system for interstellar space. In 2004, the Long Now Foundation produced a nickel disk containing parallel texts in over a thousand languages, which was launched aboard the Rosetta.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "KEO is the name of a proposed space time capsule which was to have been launched in 2003 carrying messages from the citizens of present Earth to humanity 50,000 years from now, when it would re-enter Earth's atmosphere. It was later delayed to 2006, then to 2007/2008, 2010/2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, followed by 2015/2016. Currently the KEO website cites 2019 as its launch, however, no actual date is set and information about its launch is vague.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973278}
{"src_title": "Slaný", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The \"Bohemian Chronicle\" of Václav Hájek records Slaný as having been founded in 750, at the site of a salt spring below Slaný Hill (\"slaný\" is Czech for \"salty\").  The town grew as a result of its location on the trade route between Prague and Saxony. The Benedictines established a hospital here in 1136, together with a church dedicated to St. Gotthard. It was this large presence of the church, and the unconsolidated state of landed property that went with it, that allowed king Wenceslas II to charter Slaný as a town and give his royal assent to its Magdeburg rights only sometime in the decade after 1295. In 1348, an earthquake damaged the now-fortified town; in 1371, a large fire broke out, and the church had to be rebuilt.  Slaný was captured by the Taborites in 1425 during the Hussite Wars, and remained in their hands until 1434. Not only did the Benedictine monks have to leave — this town by the hill was also one of Hussite holy cities, and their preachers expected it to survive the anticipated end of the world. Later, the Hussite king George of Poděbrady gave Slaný many privileges, after the town had supported his election to the throne. The town also participated in the Bohemian Revolt that opened the Thirty Years' War, housing the family of king Frederick I of the Palatinate. After the battle of White Mountain, that meant a defeat for the cause, the town suffered as a result of the ravages of war. Afterwards, the new Catholic possessors of Slaný, the Martinic, erected many a baroque church and edifice that, together with a new monastery, adorn the town to this day.  Since the middle of the 19th century, Czech has been the dominant language there. Industrial development was delayed until around 1860. An important engineering factory was built in 1872 and more followed. A factory producing batteries was founded in 1918. The infrastructure and amenities of a modern town have been gradually added since the second half of the 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Slaný today.", "content": "The villages of Dolín, Želevčice, Lotouš, Blahotice, Netovice, Kvíc, Kvíček, Trpoměchy and Otruby are all administrative parts of Slaný.  The town of Slaný is situated at the crossing of the Prague - Louny, Prague - Karlovy Vary roads. The Prague - Most railway also goes through the town.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Slaný is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Royal town of Slaný (; ) is a town in the Central Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic, located about 25 km northwest of Prague. The town is part of the Prague metropolitan area.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973279}
{"src_title": "The Hum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "A study into the Taos Hum indicated that at least two percent could hear it; each hearer at a different frequency between 32 Hz and 80 Hz, modulated from 0.5 to 2 Hz. Similar results have been found in an earlier British study. It seems to be possible for hearers to move away from it, with one hearer of the Taos Hum reporting its range was. There are approximately equal percentages of male and female hearers. Age does appear to be a factor, with middle aged people being more likely to hear it.  In 2006, Tom Moir, then of Massey University in Auckland, New Zealand, believes he has made several recordings of the Auckland Hum. His previous research using simulated sounds had indicated that the hum was around 56 hertz.  There is skepticism as to whether it exists as a physical sound. In 2009, the head of audiology at Addenbrooke's Hospital in Cambridge, David Baguley, said he believed people's problems with the hum were based on the physical world about one-third of the time, and stemmed from people focusing too keenly on innocuous background sounds the other two-thirds of the time. His current research focuses on using psychology and relaxation techniques to minimise distress, which can lead to a quieting or even removal of the noise.  Geoff Leventhall, a noise and vibration expert, has suggested cognitive behavioral therapy may be effective in helping those affected. \"It's a question of whether you tense up to the noise or are relaxed about it. The CBT was shown to work, by helping people to take a different attitude to it.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "There has been little mainstream attention. Only a handful of articles have been published in scientific literature, including: Leventhall, 2004, 2003; Cowan, 2003; Mullins & Kelly, 1998, 1995; Broner, 1978; Vasudevan & Gordon, 1977. Other publications include: Fox, 1989; Wilson, 1979; Hanlon, 1973.  The Hum has been reported worldwide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Possible explanations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanical devices.", "content": "Although an obvious candidate, given the common description of the hum as sounding like a diesel engine, the majority of reported hums have not been traced to a specific mechanical source.  In the case of Kokomo, Indiana, a city with heavy industry, the origin of the hum was thought to have been traced to two sources. The first was a 36-hertz tone from a cooling tower at the local DaimlerChrysler casting plant and the second was a 10-hertz tone from an air compressor intake at the Haynes International plant. After those devices were corrected, however, reports of the hum persisted.  Two hums have been linked to mechanical sources. The West Seattle Hum was traced to a vacuum pump used by CalPortland to offload cargo from ships. After CalPortland replaced the silencers on the machine, reports of the hum ceased. Likewise, the Wellington Hum is thought to have been due to the diesel generator on a visiting ship. A 35 Hz hum in Windsor, Ontario, is likely to have originated from a steelworks on the industrial zone of Zug Island near Detroit.  One hum in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina was suspected of originating at a Santee Cooper substation almost 2 miles away from the home of a couple who first reported it. The substation is home to the largest transformer in the state. One local couple sued the power company for the disruption the hum was causing them. The hum was louder inside their house than out, in part, they believed, because their house vibrated in resonance to the 60 Hz hum. The volume of the hum was measured at up to 64.1 dB in the couple's home.  Some sources claim that very low frequency radio waves or extremely low frequency radio waves that are used to communicate with submarines might be the source for the hum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tinnitus.", "content": "A suggested diagnosis of tinnitus, a self-reported disturbance of the auditory system, is used by some physicians in response to complaints about the Hum. Tinnitus is generated internally by the auditory and nervous systems, with no external stimulus.  While the Hum is hypothesized by some to be a form of low frequency tinnitus such as the venous hum, some report it is not internal, being worse inside their homes than outside. However, others insist that it is equally bad indoors and outdoors. Some people notice the Hum only at home, while others hear it everywhere they go. Some sufferers report that it is made worse by soundproofing (e.g., double glazing), which serves only to decrease other environmental noise, thus making the Hum more apparent.  Tinnitus is known to be exacerbated by allergens, which are regional and seasonal. Due to blockages, inflammation, and pressure inside the head, taking allergy medicine may help to mitigate the Hum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spontaneous otoacoustic emissions.", "content": "Human ears generate their own noises, called spontaneous otoacoustic emissions (SOAE). Various studies have shown that 38–60% of adults with normal hearing have them, although the majority are unaware of these sounds. The people who do hear these sounds typically hear a faint hissing (cicada insect like sound), buzzing or ringing, especially if they are otherwise in complete silence.  Researchers who looked at the Taos Hum considered otoacoustic emissions as a possibility.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Animals.", "content": "One of the many possible causes of the West Seattle Hum considered was that it was related to the midshipman fish, also known as a toadfish. A previous hum in Sausalito, California, also on the west coast of the United States, was determined to be the mating call of the male midshipman. However, in that case the hum was resonating through houseboat hulls and affecting the people living on those boats. In the West Seattle case, the University of Washington researcher determined that it would be impossible for any resonating hum, transmitted via tanker or boat hulls, to be transmitted very far inland; certainly not far enough to account for the reports.  The Scottish Association for Marine Science hypothesised that the nocturnal humming sound heard in Hythe, Hampshire in the UK could be produced by a similar \"sonic\" fish. The council believed this to be unlikely because such fish are not commonly found in inshore waters of the UK. As of February 2014, the source had not been located, although the sound has now been recorded.  A case of \"hum\" in a house, reported in the \"Daily Telegraph\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s 'Letters from Readers' on 18 January 2018, proved to be a wasps' nest in a hollow wall.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Media coverage.", "content": "The Taos Hum was featured on the TV show \"Unsolved Mysteries\". It was also featured in \"LiveScience\"'s \"Top Ten Unexplained Phenomena\", where it took tenth place.  BBC Radio 4 in the UK featured an investigation of the Hum phenomena in their \"Punt PI\" fact-based comedy programme.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hum is a name often given to widespread reports of a persistent and invasive low-frequency humming, rumbling, or droning noise not audible to all people. Hums have been widely reported by national media in the UK and the United States, and sometimes named according to the locality where the problem has been particularly publicized: e.g., the \"Bristol Hum\", the \"Taos Hum\" and the \"Windsor Hum.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973280}
{"src_title": "Hydroxylamine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Hydroxylamine was first prepared as hydroxylamine hydrochloride in 1865 by the German chemist Wilhelm Clemens Lossen (1838-1906); he reacted tin and hydrochloric acid in the presence of ethyl nitrate. It was first prepared in pure form in 1891 by the Dutch chemist Lobry de Bruyn and by the French chemist Léon Maurice Crismer (1858-1944).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "NHOH can be produced via several routes. The main route is via the Raschig process: aqueous ammonium nitrite is reduced by HSO and SO at 0 °C to yield a hydroxylamido-N,N-disulfonate anion: This anion is then hydrolyzed to give :  Solid NHOH can be collected by treatment with liquid ammonia. Ammonium sulfate,, a side-product insoluble in liquid ammonia, is removed by filtration; the liquid ammonia is evaporated to give the desired product.  The net reaction is:  Hydroxylammonium salts can then be converted to hydroxylamine by neutralization: Julius Tafel discovered that hydroxylamine hydrochloride or sulfate salts can be produced by electrolytic reduction of nitric acid with HCl or HSO respectively:  Hydroxylamine can also be produced by the reduction of nitrous acid or potassium nitrite with bisulfite:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Hydroxylamine reacts with electrophiles, such as alkylating agents, which can attach to either the oxygen or the nitrogen atoms:  The reaction of NHOH with an aldehyde or ketone produces an oxime. This reaction is useful in the purification of ketones and aldehydes: if hydroxylamine is added to an aldehyde or ketone in solution, an oxime forms, which generally precipitates from solution; heating the precipitate with an inorganic acid then restores the original aldehyde or ketone.  Oximes, e.g., dimethylglyoxime, are also employed as ligands.  NHOH reacts with chlorosulfonic acid to give hydroxylamine-\"O\"-sulfonic acid, a useful reagent for the synthesis of caprolactam. The hydroxylamine-\"O\"-sulfonic acid, which should be stored at 0 °C to prevent decomposition, can be checked by iodometric titration.  Hydroxylamine (NHOH), or hydroxylamines (R-NHOH) can be reduced to amines.  Hydroxylamine explodes with heat:  The high reactivity comes in part from the partial isomerisation of the NHOH structure to ammonia oxide (also known as azane oxide), with structure NHO.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Functional group.", "content": "Substituted derivatives of hydroxylamine are known. If the hydroxyl hydrogen is substituted, this is called an \"O\"-hydroxylamine, if one of the amine hydrogens is substituted, this is called an \"N\"-hydroxylamine. In general \"N\"-hydroxylamines are the more common. Similarly to ordinary amines, one can distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary hydroxylamines, the latter two referring to compounds where two or three hydrogens are substituted, respectively. Examples of compounds containing a hydroxylamine functional group are \"N\"-\"tert\"-butyl-hydroxylamine or the glycosidic bond in calicheamicin. \"N\",\"O\"-Dimethylhydroxylamine is a coupling agent, used to synthesize Weinreb amides. The most common method for the synthesis of substituted hydroxylamines is the oxidation of an amine with benzoyl peroxide. Some care must be taken to prevent over-oxidation to a nitrone. Other methods include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Hydroxylamine and its salts are commonly used as reducing agents in myriad organic and inorganic reactions. They can also act as antioxidants for fatty acids. In the synthesis of nylon 6, cyclohexanone (1) is first converted to its oxime (2); treatment of this oxime with acid induces the Beckmann rearrangement to give caprolactam (3):  The nitrate salt, hydroxylammonium nitrate, is being researched as a rocket propellant, both in water solution as a monopropellant and in its solid form as a solid propellant.  This has also been used in the past by biologists to introduce random mutations by switching base pairs from G to A, or from C to T. This is to probe functional areas of genes to elucidate what happens if their functions are broken. Nowadays other mutagens are used.  Hydroxylamine can also be used to highly selectively cleave asparaginyl-glycine peptide bonds in peptides and proteins. It also bonds to and permanently disables (poisons) heme-containing enzymes. It is used as an irreversible inhibitor of the oxygen-evolving complex of photosynthesis on account of its similar structure to water. An alternative industrial synthesis of paracetamol developed by Hoechst–Celanese involves the conversion of ketone to a ketoxime with hydroxylamine.  Some non-chemical uses include removal of hair from animal hides and photographic developing solutions. In the semiconductor industry, hydroxylamine is often a component in the \"resist stripper\", which removes photoresist after lithography.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety and environmental concerns.", "content": "Hydroxylamine may explode on heating. The nature of the explosive hazard is not well understood. At least two factories dealing in hydroxylamine have been destroyed since 1999 with loss of life. It is known, however, that ferrous and ferric iron salts accelerate the decomposition of 50% NHOH solutions. Hydroxylamine and its derivatives are more safely handled in the form of salts.  It is an irritant to the respiratory tract, skin, eyes, and other mucous membranes. It may be absorbed through the skin, is harmful if swallowed, and is a possible mutagen.  Cytochrome P460, an enzyme found in the ammonia-oxidizing bacteria \"Nitrosomonas europea\", can convert hydroxylamine to nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hydroxylamine is an inorganic compound with the formula NHOH. The pure material is a white, unstable crystalline, hygroscopic compound. However, hydroxylamine is almost always provided and used as an aqueous solution. It is used to prepare oximes, an important functional group. It is also an intermediate in biological nitrification. In biological nitrification, the oxidation of NH to hydroxylamine is mediated by the enzyme ammonia monooxygenase (AMO). Hydroxylamine oxidoreductase (HAO) further oxidizes hydroxylamine to nitrite.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973281}
{"src_title": "Logical volume management", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "Most volume-manager implementations share the same basic design. They start with physical volumes (PVs), which can be either hard disks, hard disk partitions, or Logical Unit Numbers (LUNs) of an external storage device. Volume management treats each PV as being composed of a sequence of chunks called physical extents (PEs). Some volume managers (such as that in HP-UX and Linux) have PEs of a uniform size; others (such as that in Veritas) have variably-sized PEs that can be split and merged at will.  Normally, PEs simply map one-to-one to logical extents (LEs). With mirroring, multiple PEs map to each LE. These PEs are drawn from a physical volume group (PVG), a set of same-sized PVs which act similarly to hard disks in a RAID1 array. PVGs are usually laid out so that they reside on different disks or data buses for maximum redundancy.  The system pools LEs into a \"volume group\" (VG). The pooled LEs can then be concatenated together into virtual disk partitions called logical volumes or LVs. Systems can use LVs as raw block devices just like disk partitions: creating mountable file systems on them, or using them as swap storage.  Striped LVs allocate each successive LE from a different PV; depending on the size of the LE, this can improve performance on large sequential reads by bringing to bear the combined read-throughput of multiple PVs.  Administrators can grow LVs (by concatenating more LEs) or shrink them (by returning LEs to the pool). The concatenated LEs do not have to be contiguous. This allows LVs to grow without having to move already-allocated LEs. Some volume managers allow the re-sizing of LVs in either direction while online. Changing the size of the LV does not necessarily change the size of a file system on it; it merely changes the size of its containing space. A file system that can be resized online is recommended in that it allows the system to adjust its storage on-the-fly without interrupting applications.  PVs and LVs cannot be shared between or span different VGs (although some volume managers may allow moving them at will between VGs on the same host). This allows administrators conveniently to bring VGs online, to take them offline or to move them between host systems as a single administrative unit.  VGs can grow their storage pool by absorbing new PVs or shrink by retracting from PVs. This may involve moving already-allocated LEs out of the PV. Most volume managers can perform this movement online; if the underlying hardware is hot-pluggable this allows engineers to upgrade or replace storage without system downtime.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concepts.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hybrid volume.", "content": "A hybrid volume is any volume that intentionally and opaquely makes use of two separate physical volumes. For instance, a workload may consist of random seeks so an SSD may be used to permanently store frequently used or recently written data, while using higher-capacity rotational magnetic media for long-term storage of rarely needed data. On Linux, bcache or dm-cache may be used for this purpose, while Fusion Drive may be used on OS X. ZFS also implements this functionality at the file system level, by allowing administrators to configure multi-level read/write caching.  Hybrid volumes present a similar concept as hybrid drives, which also combine solid-state storage and rotational magnetic media.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Snapshots.", "content": "Some volume managers also implement snapshots by applying copy-on-write to each LE. In this scheme, the volume manager will copy the LE to a \"copy-on-write table\" just before it is written to. This preserves an old version of the LV, the snapshot, which may be later reconstructed by overlaying the copy-on-write table atop the current LV. Unless the volume management supports both thin provisioning and discard, once an LE in the origin volume is written to, it is permanently stored in the snapshot volume. If the snapshot volume was made smaller than its origin, which is a common practice, this may render the snapshot inoperable.  Snapshots can be useful for backing up self-consistent versions of volatile data such as table files from a busy database, or for rolling back large changes (such as an operating system upgrade) in a single operation. Snapshots have a similar effect as rendering storage quiescent, and are similar to the shadow copy (VSS) service in Microsoft Windows.  Some Linux-based Live CDs also use snapshots to simulate read-write access to a read-only optical disc.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disadvantages.", "content": "Logical volumes can suffer from external fragmentation when the underlying storage devices do not allocate their PEs contiguously. This can reduce I/O performance on slow-seeking media such as magnetic disks and other rotational media. Volume managers that use fixed-size PEs, however, typically make PEs relatively large (for example, Linux LVM uses 4 MB by default) in order to amortize the cost of these seeks.  With implementations that are solely volume management, such as Core Storage and Linux LVM, separating and abstracting away volume management from the file system loses the ability to easily make storage decisions for particular files or directories. For example, if a certain directory (but not the entire file system) is to be permanently moved to faster storage, both the file system layout and the underlying volume management layer need to be traversed. For example, on Linux it would be needed to manually determine the offset of a file's contents within a file system and then manually the extents (along with data not related to that file) to the faster storage. Having volume and file management implemented within the same subsystem, instead of having them implemented as separate subsystems, makes the overall process theoretically simpler.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer storage, logical volume management or LVM provides a method of allocating space on mass-storage devices that is more flexible than conventional partitioning schemes to store volumes. In particular, a volume manager can concatenate, stripe together or otherwise combine partitions (or block devices in general) into larger virtual partitions that administrators can re-size or move, potentially without interrupting system use.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973282}
{"src_title": "Vercelli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Vercellae (or \"Vercelum\") was the capital of the \"Libici\" or \"Lebecili\", a Ligurian tribe; it became an important municipium, near which Gaius Marius defeated the Cimbri and the Teutones in the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC.  The imperial magister militum Flavius Stilicho annihilated the Goths there 500 years later. It was half ruined in St. Jerome's time (\"olim potens, nunc raro habitatore semiruta\" (1, 3.1)). After the Lombard invasion it belonged to the Duchy of Ivrea. From 885 it was under the jurisdiction of the prince-bishop, who was a Count of the Empire.  It became an independent commune in 1120, and joined the first and second Lombard leagues. Its statutes are among the most interesting of those of the medieval republics. In 1197 they abolished the servitude of the glebe. In 1228 the University of Pavia was transferred to Vercelli, where it remained till the fourteenth century, but without gaining much prominence; only a university school of law has been maintained.  In 1307, Fra Dolcino, the leader of the Dulcinian was tortured and burned at the stake.  During the troubles of the 13th century it fell into the power of the Della Torre of Milan (1263), of the Marquesses of Monferrato (1277), who appointed Matteo I Visconti captain (1290–1299). The Tizzoni (Ghibellines) and Avogadri (Guelphs) disputed the city from 1301 to 1334. The Guelphs were expelled several times, enabling the Marquess of Monferrato to take Vercelli (1328), which voluntarily placed itself under the Viscount of Milan in 1334. In 1373, Bishop Giovanni Fieschi expelled the Visconti, but Matteo reconquered the city. Facino Cane (1402), profiting by the strife between Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria Visconti, took Vercelli, but was driven out by Theodore II of Montferrat (1404), from whom the city passed to the dukes of Savoy (1427).  In 1499 and 1553 Vercelli was captured by the French, and in 1616 and 1678 by the Spaniards. In 1704 it sustained an energetic siege by the French, who failed to destroy the fortress, after which it shared the fortunes of Savoy. In 1821 Vercelli rose in favour of the Constitution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "Vercelli is home to numerous relics of the Roman period, e.g. an amphitheatre, hippodrome, sarcophagi, and many important inscriptions, some of which are Christian.  There are seven noteworthy towers in the town, most important are the \"Torre dell’Angelo\", which rears up over the old market square, and the \"Torre di Città \"in Via Gioberti.  Vercelli Cathedral, formerly adorned with precious pillars and mosaics, was erected and enlarged by Saint Eusebius of Vercelli, to whom it was dedicated after his death. It was remodeled as of the ninth century, and radically changed in the eighteenth by Count Alfieri. Like the other churches in the city, it contains valuable paintings, especially those of Gaudenzio Ferrari, Gerolamo Giovenone and Bernardino Lanino, who were natives of Vercelli.  The cathedral's Capitulary Library contains valuable manuscripts. Its religious texts include the Codex Vercellensis, an evangelarium of the fourth century; hagiographical manuscripts, not all of which have been critically examined; and a very old copy of the \"Imitation of Christ\", which is relied upon as an argument for attributing the authorship to John Gersen. Its secular texts include the \"Novels\" of Justinian; and the 8th-century \"Leges Langobardorum\" (Laws of the Lombards - Germanic). Finally it contains the famous Vercelli Book — an Old English manuscript which includes the celebrated alliterative poem \"The Dream of the Rood\". The civil archives are not less important, and contain documents dating from 882.  The Basilica di Sant'Andrea was erected by Cardinal Guala Bicchieri in 1219. Together with the old Cistercian monastery, it is one of the most beautiful and best-preserved Romanesque monuments in Italy. Among other noteworthy churches in the city is the \"Santa Maria Maggiore\".  Vercelli's synagogue, an example of Moorish Revival architecture, is located at Via Foà 70 and the city's Jewish cemetery at Corso Randaccio 24. On 23 November 2013, after what was believed to be an antisemitic act, two swastikas were found sprayed on its walls.  The Institute of the Beaux-Arts contains paintings by Vercellese artists.  Ancient charitable institutions continue, such as the hospital founded by Cardinal Guala Bicchieri (1224), which has an annual revenue of more than 600,000 lire ($117,000); and the hospices for orphan girls (1553) and for boys (1542), and mendicant homes.  Vercelli is the seat of the Viotti International Music Competition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "In 2007, 44,475 people were recorded as residing in Vercelli, of whom 47.3% were male and 52.7% were female. Minors (children aged 18 and younger) totaled 14.41% of the population and pensioners 25.83%; the overall national averages are, respectively, 18.06% and 19.94%. The average age of a Vercelli resident was 47 (five years more than the national average of 42) and the birth rate was 8.69 births per 1,000 inhabitants (national average 9.45 births per 1,000 inhabitants). In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Vercelli declined by 1.31% while the national population grew by 3.56%. , 92.38% of the population was Italian. The remainder were Albanian and Romanian (3.48%), North African (2.21%) and Sub-Saharan (0.64%). Approximately 1 in 6 babies born in Vercelli has a least one foreign parent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cuisine.", "content": "The typical dish is rice with beans, called \"panissa\" (\"made with Arborio, Baldo or Maratelli rice\"), the \"tartufata\" (cake) and the \"bicciolani\" a type of biscuits. The typical wine is Gattinara DOCG, a classic red wine of Piedmont made principally from the nebbiolo grape (known locally as \"spanna\") from the \"comune\" of Gattinara, where there is archaeological evidence of vines being grown in Roman times.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "Unione Sportiva Pro Vercelli that was one of the most successful football clubs in Italy in the early 20th century, winning the national championship seven times between 1908 and 1922. However, in the summer 2010 it was not admitted to the league due to heavy debt.  A.S. Pro Belvedere Vercelli to continue the glorious history of the club, has changed its name to the F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892. Currently it plays in the Serie C.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vercelli (; ), is a city and \"comune\" of 46.552 inhabitants (1-1-2017) in the Province of Vercelli, Piedmont, northern Italy. One of the oldest urban sites in northern Italy, it was founded, according to most historians, around the year 600 BC.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973283}
{"src_title": "Colossi of Memnon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The twin statues depict Amenhotep III (fl. 14th century BC) in a seated position, his hands resting on his knees and his gaze facing eastwards (actually ESE in modern bearings) towards the river. Two shorter figures are carved into the front throne alongside his legs: these are his wife Tiye and mother Mutemwiya. The side panels depict the Nile god Hapi.  The statues are made from blocks of quartzite sandstone which was quarried at el-Gabal el-Ahmar (near modern-day Cairo) and transported overland to Thebes (Luxor). The stones are believed to be too heavy to have been transported upstream on the Nile. The blocks used by later Roman engineers to reconstruct the northern colossus may have come from Edfu (north of Aswan). Including the stone platforms on which they stand – themselves about – the colossi reach a towering in height and weigh an estimated 720 tons each. The two figures are about apart.  Both statues are quite damaged, with the features above the waist virtually unrecognizable. The southern statue comprises a single piece of stone, but the northern figure has a large extensive crack in the lower half and above the waist consists of 5 tiers of stone. These upper levels consist of a different type of sandstone, and are the result of a later reconstruction attempt, which William de Wiveleslie Abney attributed to Septimus Severus. It is believed that originally the two statues were identical to each other, although inscriptions and minor art may have varied.  The original function of the Colossi was to stand guard at the entrance to Amenhotep's memorial temple (or mortuary temple): a massive construct built during the pharaoh's lifetime, where he was worshipped as a god-on-earth both before and after his departure from this world. In its day, this temple complex was the largest and most opulent in Egypt. Covering a total of, even later rivals such as Ramesses II's Ramesseum or Ramesses III's Medinet Habu were unable to match it in area; even the Temple of Karnak, as it stood in Amenhotep's time, was smaller. With the exception of the Colossi, however, very little remains today of Amenhotep's temple. It stood on the edge of the Nile floodplain, and successive annual inundations gnawed away at its foundations – a famous 1840s lithograph by David Roberts shows the Colossi surrounded by water – and it was not unknown for later rulers to dismantle, purloin, and reuse portions of their predecessors' monuments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Earthquakes.", "content": "Soon after its construction the temple was destroyed by an earthquake, recently dated by the Armenian Institute of Seismology to around 1200 BC, which left only the 2 huge colossi at the entrance still standing. These were further destroyed by an earthquake in 27 BC, after which they were partly reconstructed by the Roman authorities.  The 1200 BC earthquake also opened numerous chasms in the ground which meant that many statues were buried, some in pristine condition. These have been the subject of extensive restoration and excavation conducted by the Armenian/German archaeologist Hourig Sourouzian, who has revealed that the complex consisted of three pylons, each fronted by colossal statues, while at the far end a rectangular Temple complex consisted of a peristyle court surrounded by columns. So far four of the statues have been re-erected, with 8 waiting to be re-erected, while some 200 statues or pieces of statues are in the Luxor Museum, some on display, others in store awaiting conservation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The modern Arabic name is Kom el-Hatan, but it is generally known by the Roman name as the Temple of Memnon. Memnon was a hero of the Trojan War, a King of Ethiopia who led his armies from Africa into Asia Minor to help defend the beleaguered city but was ultimately slain by Achilles. Memnon (whose name means or ) was said to be the son of Eos, the goddess of dawn. He was associated with colossi built several centuries earlier, because of the reported cry at dawn of the northern statue (see below), which became known as the. Eventually, the entire Theban Necropolis became generally referred to as the Memnonium making him \"Ruler of the west\" as in the case of the god Osiris who was called chief of the west.  in the 19th century, William de Wiveleslie Abney noted that \"(t)he Arabs called these statues 'Shama' and 'Tama', and when speaking of them together gave them the appelation of Sanamât, or the idols.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sounds.", "content": "In 27 BC, a large earthquake reportedly shattered the northern colossus, collapsing it from the waist up and cracking the lower half. Following its rupture, the remaining lower half of this statue was then reputed to \"sing\" on various occasions – always within an hour or two of sunrise, usually right at dawn. The sound was most often reported in February or March, but this is probably more a reflection of the tourist season rather than any actual pattern. The earliest report in literature is that of the Greek historian and geographer Strabo, who claimed to have heard the sound during a visit in 20 BC, by which time it apparently was already well known. The description varied; Strabo said it sounded \"like a blow\", Pausanias compared it to \"the string of a lyre\" breaking, but it also was described as the striking of brass or whistling. Other ancient sources include Pliny (not from personal experience, but he collected other reports), Pausanias, Tacitus, Philostratus and Juvenal. In addition, the base of the statue is inscribed with about 90 surviving inscriptions of contemporary tourists reporting whether they had heard the sound or not.  The legend of the \"Vocal Memnon\", the luck that hearing it was reputed to bring, and the reputation of the statue's oracular powers became known outside of Egypt, and a constant stream of visitors, including several Roman Emperors, came to marvel at the statues. The last recorded reliable mention of the sound dates from 196. Sometime later in the Roman era, the upper tiers of sandstone were added (the original remains of the top half have never been found); the date of this reconstruction is unknown, but local tradition places it circa 199, and attributes it to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus in an attempt to curry favour with the oracle (it is known that he visited the statue but did not hear the sound).  Various explanations have been offered for the phenomenon; these are of two types: natural or man-made. Strabo himself apparently was too far away to be able to determine its nature: he reported that he could not determine if it came from the pedestal, the shattered upper area, or \"the people standing around at the base\". If natural, the sound was probably caused by rising temperatures and the evaporation of dew inside the porous rock. Similar sounds, although much rarer, have been heard from some of the other Egyptian monuments (Karnak is the usual location for more modern reports). Perhaps the most convincing argument against it being the result of human agents is that it did cease, probably due to the added weight of the reconstructed upper tiers.  A few mentions of the sound in the early modern era (late 18th and early 19th centuries) seem to be hoaxes, either by the writers or perhaps by locals perpetuating the phenomenon.  The \"Vocal Memnon\" features prominently in one scene of Henrik Ibsen's \"Peer Gynt\".  They also show up in Oscar Wilde's fairy tale \"The Happy Prince.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Colossi of Memnon ( or \"es-Salamat\") are two massive stone statues of the Pharaoh Amenhotep III, who reigned in Egypt during the Dynasty XVIII. Since 1350 BCE, they have stood in the Theban Necropolis, located west of the River Nile from the modern city of Luxor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973284}
{"src_title": "Sergey Ilyushin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born in the village of Dilyalevo, Vologda Governorate Russian Empire as the youngest of 11 children in a peasant family, the largely self-taught Ilyushin left home at an early age. He worked as a factory laborer, ditch-digger at construction sites, and cleaner of gutters at a dye plant in Petrograd. In 1910, he learned that jobs were available at Kolomyazhsky Racetrack as a groundskeeper. The racetrack was also the site of the first All-Russia Festival of Ballooning in autumn of 1910, and Ilyushin assisted in unpacking crates and setting up equipment. He was also able to meet many of Russia's pioneer aviators, an event that awoke his interest in aviation.  In 1911 he returned to his native village to work as a carter of a dairy plant. The following year, he worked as a construction worker for the Amur Railway, and in 1913 he was in Tallinn as a worker in a shipyard.  With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Ilyushin was conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army, serving with the infantry, and later (as he was literate) as a clerk in the military administration of Vologda. When a request came for seven volunteers to serve in the fledgling Aviation Section, he was quick to volunteer. He worked at first as a mechanic and member of the ground crew. In the summer of 1917, he was qualified as a pilot.  In March 1918, with the withdrawal of the Provisional Government from the war, Ilyushin was demobilized and sent back to his native village. He helped supervise the increasing nationalization of factories in the area and in October 1918 joined the Bolshevik party. With the Russian Civil War, Ilyushin was drafted into the Red Army in May 1919, working as aviation technician of VVS RKKA (Red Army). That autumn, a White Movement Avro 504 biplane made a forced landing near Petrozavodsk. Ilyushin led a team which dismantled it, and sent it to Moscow where it was reverse-engineered into the Soviet U-1 trainer, of which 737 examples were subsequently built.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Work in aviation.", "content": "In the autumn of 1921 Ilyushin left military service; he entered the Institute of Engineers of the Red Air Fleet (renamed the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy on 9 September 1922) on 21 September 1921. During his student years he concentrated on the design of gliders, taking part in numerous competitions. In 1925 one of his designs was sent to a competition in Germany, where it took first prize for flight time. Ilyushin obtained a degree in engineering in 1926 and served until November 1931 as an aeroplanes section manager within the, with involvement in the development of the design requirements for the new aeroplanes of Nikolai Nikolaevich Polikarpov and Andrei Tupolev. This time he was also appointed Assistant Chief of the Air Force Research and Test Institute. Upon his own request in November 1931 he was reassigned to TsAGI Design Bureau and worked there till 1933. In 1933 Ilyushin became chief of the which later grew into the Ilyushin OKB (the bureau behind all Soviet aircraft abbreviated IL-#, a military- and civil-aviation supergiant and major global brand) in 1935.  His single-engined Ilyushin Il-2 ground-attack aircraft, the single most-produced combat aircraft design in history (with 36,183 examples), and the Ilyushin Il-4 twin-engined bomber (of which just over 5,200 examples were built) were used extensively in World War II, on all fronts where the Soviets fought.  After the war, Ilyushin concentrated primarily on commercial airliners, such as the Ilyushin Il-18 and Ilyushin Il-62, which saw extensive use with Aeroflot and with numerous Soviet client states. In 1967 he was given the honorary rank of General-Colonel of Engineering/Technical Service. He became an Academician of the USSR Academy of Science in 1968. He remained the chief designer at the Ilyushin OKB until his retirement due to illness in 1970.  From 1937 to 1970 Ilyushin also served as a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. He died in 1977 in Moscow and was buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sergey Vladimirovich Ilyushin (; – 9 February 1977) was a Soviet aircraft designer who founded the Ilyushin aircraft design bureau. He designed the Il-2 Shturmovik, which made its maiden flight in 1939. It is the most produced warplane, and remains the second most-produced aircraft in history, with some 36,000+ built, behind the US Cessna-172.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973285}
{"src_title": "Prague Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Přemyslid fort.", "content": "The history of the castle began in 870 when its first walled building, the Church of the Virgin Mary, was built. The Basilica of Saint George and the Basilica of St. Vitus were founded under the reign of Vratislaus I, Duke of Bohemia and his son St. Wenceslas in the first half of the 10th century.  The first convent in Bohemia was founded in the castle, next to the church of St. George. A Romanesque palace was erected here during the 12th century.  Thirteenth-century Venetian coins found there were studied by numismatist, Zdenka Nemeškalová-Jiroudková.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medieval castle.", "content": "King Ottokar II of Bohemia improved fortifications and rebuilt the royal palace for the purposes of representation and housing. In the 14th century, under the reign of Charles IV the royal palace was rebuilt in Gothic style and the castle fortifications were strengthened. In place of rotunda and basilica of St. Vitus began building of a vast Gothic church, that were completed almost six centuries later.  During the Hussite Wars and the following decades, the castle was not inhabited. In 1485, King Vladislaus II Jagiellon began to rebuild the castle. The massive Vladislav Hall (built by Benedikt Rejt) was added to the Royal Palace. New defence towers were also built on the north side of the castle.  A large fire in 1541 destroyed large parts of the castle. Under the Habsburgs, some new buildings in Renaissance style were added. Ferdinand I built the Belvedere as a summer palace for his wife Anne. Rudolph II used Prague Castle as his main residence. He founded the northern wing of the palace, with the Spanish Hall, where his precious art collections were exhibited.  The Third Defenestration of Prague in 1618 took place at the castle and began the Bohemian Revolt. During the subsequent wars, the Castle was damaged and dilapidated. Many works from the collection of Rudolph II were looted by Swedes in 1648, in the Battle of Prague (1648) which was the final act of the Thirty Years' War.  The last major rebuilding of the castle was carried out by Empress Maria Theresa in the second half of the 18th century. Following his abdication in 1848, and the succession of his nephew, Franz Joseph, to the throne, the former emperor, Ferdinand I, made Prague Castle his home.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidential residence.", "content": "In 1918, the castle became the seat of the president of the new Czechoslovak Republic, T.G. Masaryk. The New Royal Palace and the gardens were renovated by Slovenian architect Jože Plečnik. In this period the St. Vitus Cathedral was finished (on September 28, 1929). Renovations continued in 1936 under Plečnik's successor Pavel Janák.  On March 15, 1939, shortly after the Nazi Germany forced Czech President Emil Hacha (who suffered a heart attack during the negotiations) to hand his nation over to the Germans, Adolf Hitler spent a night in the Prague Castle, \"proudly surveying his new possession.\" During the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia in World War II, Prague Castle became the headquarters of Reinhard Heydrich, the Reich Protector of Bohemia and Moravia. According to a popular rumor, he is said to have placed the Bohemian crown on his head; old legends say a usurper who places the crown on his head is doomed to die within a year. Less than a year after assuming power, on May 27, 1942, Heydrich was ambushed during Operation Anthropoid, by British-trained Slovak and Czech resistance soldiers while on his way to the Castle, and died of his wounds - which became infected - a week later. Klaus, his firstborn son, died the next year in a traffic accident, also in line with the legend.  After the liberation of Czechoslovakia and the coup in 1948, the Castle housed the offices of the communist Czechoslovak government. After Czechoslovakia split in 1993 into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the castle became the seat of the Head of State of the new Czech Republic. Similar to what Masaryk did with Plečnik, president Václav Havel commissioned Bořek Šípek to be the architect of post-communism Prague Castle's necessary improvements, in particular of the facelift of the castle's gallery of paintings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Architectural styles of Prague Castle.", "content": "The castle buildings represent virtually every architectural style of the last millennium. Prague Castle includes Gothic St. Vitus Cathedral, Romanesque Basilica of St. George, a monastery and several palaces, gardens and defense towers. Most of the castle areas are open to tourists. The castle houses several museums, including the National Gallery collection of Bohemian baroque and mannerism art, exhibition dedicated to Czech history, Toy Museum and the picture gallery of Prague Castle, based on the collection of Rudolph II. The Summer Shakespeare Festival regularly takes place in the courtyard of Burgrave Palace.  The neighborhood around Prague Castle is called Hradčany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Prague Castle is the location in the second level of \"Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb\" video game.  It is also mentioned in the video game \"Assassin's Creed IV Black Flag\" as a hidden file found in a hacked computer at Abstergo Entertainment.  It is briefly shown in the Japanese manga and its anime adaptation \"Monster\" when some of the main characters visit Prague.  Prague Castle served as a Pit Stop for both the fifteenth season of the American \"Amazing Race\" and the first season of the Australian \"Amazing Race\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prague Castle (; ) is a castle complex in Prague, Czech Republic, built in the 9th century. It is the official office of the President of the Czech Republic. The castle was a seat of power for kings of Bohemia, Holy Roman emperors, and presidents of Czechoslovakia. The Bohemian Crown Jewels are kept within a hidden room inside it.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973286}
{"src_title": "Emmanuelle Béart", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Béart was born Emmanuelle Béhart-Hasson in St. Tropez (some sources say Gassin), on the French Riviera, the daughter of Geneviève Galéa, a former model who is of Croatian, Greek and Maltese descent, and Guy Béart, a singer and poet. Her Egyptian-born father's family was Lebanese-Jewish.  In her late teens, she spent her summer vacation with the English-speaking family of a close friend of her father in Montreal. She stayed with Beverly Mellen and William Sofin and their two children Andrew and Sean Sofin, who took her in as their own. At the end of the summer, the family invited her to stay with them and complete her baccalauréat at Collège international Marie de France. They have remained close friends.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Béart got an acting role in 1976 film \"Tomorrow's Children\". In her teens she appeared in bit parts in television. Upon graduating from the Collège International Marie de France in Montreal, she returned to France to attend drama school in Paris. A short time later, she was cast in her first adult role in a film, and in 1986 she achieved fame with her role opposite Yves Montand, playing the avenging daughter in French hit \"Manon des Sources\". For her performance, she won the 1987 César Award for Best Supporting Actress. In 1995, she won the Silver St. George for Best Actress award at the 19th Moscow International Film Festival for her starring role in film \"A French Woman\".  In addition to her award for Best Supporting Actress, she has also been nominated for another seven César Awards for Most Promising Actress and Best Actress. Béart received Most Promising Actress nominations for \"A Strange Passion\" and \"Love on the Quiet\"; followed by Best Actress nominations for \"Children of Chaos\", \"La Belle Noiseuse (The Beautiful Troublemaker)\", \"Un cœur en hiver (A Heart in Winter)\", \"Nelly et Monsieur Arnaud (Nelly and Mr Arnaud)\", and \"Les Destinées Sentimentales (Sentimental Destinies)\"  In the 5 May 2003 issue of the French edition of \"Elle\" magazine, Béart, aged 39, appeared nude: The entire run of 550,000 copies sold out in just three days, making it the biggest-selling issue in the fashion glossy's long history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In the mid-1980s, Béart began a relationship with Daniel Auteuil (her co-star in \"Love on the Quiet\", \"Manon des Sources\", \"A Heart in Winter\" and \"A French Woman\"); they married in 1993 and divorced in 1995. Béart was romantically linked to music producer David François Moreau (since c. 1995 after she separated from Auteuil) and to film producer Vincent Meyer for two years until his suicide in May 2003. She has three children: Nelly Auteuil (born c. 1993), and Johan Moreau (born c. 1996). She married actor Michaël Cohen on 13 August 2008 at Genappe in Belgium, and in 2009 they adopted a child from Ethiopia, named Surafel. Béart and Cohen separated in 2011. In 2011, she began a romantic relationship with director and cinematographer Frédéric Chaudier.  In addition to her screen work, Béart is known for her social activism. She is an ambassador for UNICEF, and has made news for her opposition to France's anti-immigration legislation. In 1996, she made headlines when, defending the rights of the \"sans-papiers\" (\"without papers\", meaning illegal immigrants), she was removed after her group’s occupation of a Parisian church.  In March 2012, Béart spoke out against plastic surgery in \"Le Monde\", saying that she regretted having an operation on her lips in 1990 when she was 27.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emmanuelle Béart (born 14 August 1963) is a French film actress, who has appeared in over 60 film and television productions since 1972. An eight-time César Award nominee, she won the César Award for Best Supporting Actress for the 1986 film \"Manon des Sources\". Her other film roles include \"La Belle Noiseuse\" (1991), \"A Heart in Winter\" (1992), \"Nelly and Mr. Arnaud\" (1995), \"\" (1996) and \"8 Women\" (2002).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973287}
{"src_title": "Douglas Aircraft Company", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1920s.", "content": "The company was founded by Donald Wills Douglas Sr. on July 22, 1921 in Santa Monica, California, following dissolution of the Davis-Douglas Company. An early claim to fame was the first circumnavigation of the world by air in Douglas airplanes in 1924. In 1923, the U.S. Army Air Service was interested in carrying out a mission to circumnavigate the Earth for the first time by aircraft, a program called \"World Flight\". Donald Douglas proposed a modified Douglas DT to meet the Army's needs. The two-place, open cockpit DT biplane torpedo bomber had previously been produced for the U.S. Navy. The DTs were taken from the assembly lines at the company's manufacturing plants in Rock Island, Illinois and Dayton, Ohio to be modified. The modified aircraft known as the Douglas World Cruiser (DWC), also was the first major project for Jack Northrop who designed the fuel system for the series. After the prototype was delivered in November 1923, upon the successful completion of tests on 19 November, the Army commissioned Douglas to build four production series aircraft. Due to the demanding expedition ahead, spare parts, including 15 extra Liberty L-12 engines, 14 extra sets of pontoons, and enough replacement airframe parts for two more aircraft were chosen. These were sent to airports along the route. The last of these aircraft was delivered to the U.S. Army on 11 March 1924.  The four aircraft left Seattle, Washington, on 6 April 1924, flying west, and returned there on 28 September to great acclaim, although one plane was forced down over the Atlantic and sank. After the success of this flight, the Army Air Service ordered six similar aircraft as observation aircraft. The success of the DWC established the Douglas Aircraft Company among the major aircraft companies of the world and led it to adopt the motto \"First Around the World - First the World Around\".  Douglas originally adopted a logo that showed aircraft circling a globe, replacing the original winged heart logo. The logo evolved into an aircraft, a rocket, and a globe. This logo was later adopted by McDonnell Douglas in 1967, and became the basis of Boeing's current logo after their merger in 1997.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pre-war.", "content": "Douglas Aircraft designed and built a wide variety of aircraft for the U.S. military, including the Navy, Army Air Forces, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Coast Guard. The company initially built torpedo bombers for the U.S. Navy, but it developed a number of different versions of these aircraft, including reconnaissance planes and airmail aircraft. Within five years, the company was building about 100 aircraft annually. Among the early employees at Douglas were Ed Heinemann, \"Dutch\" Kindelberger, Carl Cover, and Jack Northrop, who later founded the Northrop Corporation.  The company retained its military market and expanded into amphibian airplanes in the late 1920s, also moving its facilities to Clover Field at Santa Monica, California. The Santa Monica complex was so large, the mail girls used roller skates to deliver the intracompany mail. By the end of World War II, Douglas had facilities at Santa Monica, El Segundo, Long Beach, and Torrance, California, Tulsa and Midwest City, Oklahoma, and Chicago, Illinois. In 1934, Douglas produced a commercial twin-engined transport plane, the Douglas DC-2, followed by the famous DC-3 in 1936. The wide range of aircraft produced by Douglas included airliners, light and medium bombers, fighter aircraft, transports, reconnaissance aircraft, and experimental aircraft.  The company is most famous for the \"DC\" (Douglas Commercial) series of commercial aircraft, including what is often regarded as the most significant transport aircraft ever made: the Douglas DC-3, which was also produced as a military transport known as the C-47 Skytrain or \"Dakota\" in British service. Many Douglas aircraft had long service lives.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "During World War II, Douglas joined the BVD (Boeing-Vega-Douglas) consortium to produce the B-17 Flying Fortress. After the war, Douglas built another Boeing design under license, the B-47 Stratojet turbojet-powered bomber, using a government-owned factory in Marietta, Georgia.  World War II was a major boost for Douglas. Douglas ranked fifth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. The company produced almost 30,000 aircraft from 1942 to 1945, and its workforce swelled to 160,000. The company produced a number of aircraft including the C-47 Skytrain, the DB-7 (known as the A-20, Havoc or Boston), the SBD Dauntless dive bomber, and the A-26 Invader.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "Douglas Aircraft suffered cutbacks at the end of the war, with an end to government aircraft orders and a surplus of aircraft. It was necessary to cut heavily into its workforce, letting go of nearly 100,000 workers.  The United States Army Air Forces established 'Project RAND' (Research ANd Development) with the objective of looking into long-range planning of future weapons. In March 1946, Douglas Aircraft Company was granted the contract to research on intercontinental warfare. Project RAND later become the RAND Corporation.  Douglas continued to develop new aircraft, including the successful four-engined Douglas DC-6 (1946) and its last propeller-driven commercial aircraft, the Douglas DC-7 (1953). The company had moved into jet propulsion, producing its first for the U.S. Navy — the straight-winged F3D Skyknight in 1948 and then the more \"jet age\" style F4D Skyray in 1951. Douglas also made commercial jets, producing the Douglas DC-8 in 1958 to compete with the new Boeing 707.  Douglas was a pioneer in related fields, such as ejection seats, air-to-air missiles, surface-to-air missiles, and air-to-surface missiles, launch rockets, bombs, and bomb racks.  The company was ready to enter the new missile business during the 1950s. Douglas moved from producing air-to-air rockets and missiles to entire missile systems under the 1956 Nike missile program and became the main contractor for the Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile program and the Thor ballistic missile program. Douglas also earned contracts from NASA, most notably for designing the S-IVB stage of the Saturn IB and Saturn V rockets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mergers.", "content": "In 1967, the company was struggling to expand production to meet demand for DC-8 and DC-9 airliners and the A-4 Skyhawk military attack aircraft. The company was also struggling with quality and cash flow problems and DC-10 development costs, as well as shortages due to the Vietnam War. Under the circumstances, Douglas was very receptive to an offer from McDonnell Aircraft Corporation. The two companies seemed to be a good match for each other. Although McDonnell was a major defense contractor, its civil aircraft business was almost nonexistent. Douglas would give McDonnell the civilian contracts it needed to weather any downturns in military procurement.  On April 28, 1967, the two companies merged as McDonnell Douglas Corporation, headquartered at McDonnell's old facility in St. Louis, Missouri. Douglas Aircraft continued as a wholly owned subsidiary of McDonnell Douglas, while its space and missiles division became part of a new subsidiary called McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company.  McDonnell Douglas later merged with its rival Boeing in 1997. Boeing merged Douglas Aircraft into the Boeing Commercial Airplanes division, and the Douglas Aircraft name was retired after 75 years. The last Long Beach-built commercial aircraft, the Boeing 717 (third generation version of the Douglas DC-9), ceased production in May 2006. By 2011, the Boeing C-17 Globemaster III was the last aircraft being assembled at the Long Beach facility; the final C-17 was assembled in late 2015. However, as mentioned above, Boeing uses Douglas' former logo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aircraft.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Douglas Aircraft Company was an American aerospace manufacturer based in Southern California. It was founded in 1921 by Donald Wills Douglas Sr. and later merged with McDonnell Aircraft in 1967 to form McDonnell Douglas, when it then operated as a division of McDonnell Douglas. McDonnell Douglas later merged with Boeing in 1997.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973288}
{"src_title": "Abjad numerals", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Abjad order.", "content": "The Abjad order of the Arabic alphabet has two slightly different variants. The Abjad order is not a simple historical continuation of the earlier north Semitic alphabetic order, since it has a position corresponding to the Aramaic letter \"samekh / semkat\", yet no letter of the Arabic alphabet historically derives from that letter. Loss of'was compensated for by the split of'into two independent Arabic letters, (') and ('), which moved up to take the place of \"\".  The most common Abjad sequence, read from right to left, is: This is commonly vocalized as follows: Another vocalization is:  Another Abjad sequence (probably older, now mainly confined to the Maghreb), is:  which can be vocalized as:  Another vocalization is:  Modern dictionaries and other reference books do not use the Abjad order to sort alphabetically; instead, the newer \" () order, which partially groups letters together by similarity of shape, is used:  Another kind of \" order used to be widely used in the Maghreb until recently, when it was replaced by the Mashriqi order:  Persian dictionaries use a slightly different order, in which و comes before ه instead of after it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses of the Abjad system.", "content": "Before the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the abjad numbers were used for all mathematical purposes. In modern Arabic, they are primarily used for numbering outlines, items in lists, and points of information. In English, points of information are sometimes referred to as \"A\", \"B\", and \"C\" (or perhaps use Roman numerals: I, II, III, IV), and in Arabic, they are \"\", then \"\", then \"\", not the first three letters of the modern \" order.  The abjad numbers are also used to assign numerical values to Arabic words for purposes of numerology. The common Islamic phrase \" ('In the name of Allah, the most merciful, the most compassionate' – see Basmala) has a numeric value of 786 (from a letter-by-letter cumulative value of 2+60+40+1+30+30+5+1+30+200+8+40+50+1+30+200+8+10+40). The name Allāh by itself has the value 66 (1+30+30+5).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Letter values.", "content": "A few of the numerical values are different in the alternative Abjad order: For four Persian letters these values are used:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar systems.", "content": "The Abjad numerals are equivalent to the earlier Hebrew numerals up to 400. The Hebrew numeral system is known as Gematria and is used in Kabbalistic texts and numerology. Like the Abjad order, it is used in modern times for numbering outlines and points of information, including the first six days of the week. The Greek numerals differ in a number of ways from the Abjad ones (for instance in the Greek alphabet there is no equivalent for, \"\"). The Greek language system of letters-as-numbers is called isopsephy. In modern times the old 27-letter alphabet of this system also continues to be used for numbering lists.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Abjad numerals, also called Hisab al-Jummal (, ), are a decimal alphabetic numeral system/alphanumeric code, in which the 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet are assigned numerical values. They have been used in the Arabic-speaking world since before the eighth century when positional Arabic numerals were adopted. In modern Arabic, the word \"\" () means 'alphabet' in general.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973289}
{"src_title": "Raymond Barre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional life.", "content": "After his education, Raymond Barre was professor of economics at the \"Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris (Sciences Po)\" as well as \"École Centrale Paris\".  From 1959 to 1962, he was director of Jean-Marcel Jeanneney's staff, in the ministry of Industry and Trade. Then, in 1967, President Charles de Gaulle chose him as vice-president of the European Commission for Economic & Financial Affairs. He stayed in Brussels until January 1973, serving in the Rey, Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions. Having come back to France, he joined the cabinet as minister of the External Trade in January 1976.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Premiership.", "content": "Seven months later, while mostly unknown at that time, President Giscard d'Estaing appointed him Prime Minister and Minister of Economy and Finance. He presented him to the French people as \"the best economist in France\" (). Under the Fifth Republic, he was the only person to hold these two offices at the same time. He left the ministry of Economy and Finance in 1978, but stayed as Prime minister until the defeat of Giscard d'Estaing at the 1981 presidential election.  At the head of the cabinet, he was faced with the conflict which divided the parliamentary majority between the \"Giscardians\" and the neo-Gaullist Rally for the Republic (RPR) led by his predecessor Jacques Chirac. The right majority unexpectedly won the 1978 legislative election.  Barre was also confronted with an economic crisis. He advocated a strict policy to cut inflation and public spending, and the industrial \"restructuring\" (\"Barre Plans\"). In the face of trade union opposition, he did not use diplomatic language, mocking \"the bearers of banners\" () and he exhorted \"instead of grousing, you should work hard\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-premiership.", "content": "After his departure from the head of the cabinet, he was elected deputy of Rhône \"département\" under the label of the Union for French Democracy (UDF). He held his parliamentary seat until 2002.  In the 1980s, he competed for the leadership of the right against Chirac. Believing that the \"cohabitation\" was incompatible with the \"Fifth Republic\", he let Chirac take the lead of the cabinet after the 1986 legislative election. He ran as UDF candidate for president in the 1988 election, but some components of his party supported covertly the other right-wing candidate, the Neo-Gaullist Prime Minister Jacques Chirac. In this, in spite of positive polls at the beginning of the campaign, he came the third behind the two protagonists of the \"cohabitation\": the Socialist President François Mitterrand and Jacques Chirac. For the second round, he called his voters to transfer to the RPR candidate, who was finally defeated.  After the failure of his presidential candidacy, he focused on his local tenures, in Lyon. In 1995, the RPR Mayor of Lyon Michel Noir could not compete for another term in due to a judicial indictment, and consequently, Barre was the right-wing candidate to the mayoralty. He was elected but he did not run for a second term in 2001. One year later, he finished his last parliamentary term in the French National Assembly and retired from politics.  Raymond Barre was probably the only French politician to have reached such high levels of responsibilities without having ever been an official member or leader of any political party. He always kept some distance with what he considered to be the political \"microcosm\".  Raymond Barre died on 25 August 2007 at age 83 at the Val-de-Grâce military hospital in Paris, where he was being treated for heart problems since his transfer from a hospital in Monaco on 11 April 2007.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Governmental functions  Prime minister : 1976–1981.  Minister of Economy and Finance : 1976–1978.  Minister of Foreign Trade : January–August 1976.  Electoral mandates  National Assembly of France  Member of the National Assembly of France for Rhône (department) : 1981–2002. Elected in 1981, reelected in 1986, 1988, 1993, 1997.  Municipal Council  Mayor of Lyon : 1995–2001.  Municipal councillor of Lyon : 1995–2001.  Urban community Council  President of the Urban Community of Lyon : 1995–2001.  Member of the Urban Community of Lyon : 1995–2001.  Bilderberg Conference participant 1983", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Allegations of antisemitism.", "content": "On several occasions, Raymond Barre made remarks that were interpreted as antisemitic, or at least supportive of antisemitism. In 1980, when he was prime minister, a bombing was attempted against the Union Libérale Israélite de France, a synagogue in the rue Copernic, Paris; however the bomb detonated in the street when the Jews attending shabbat were inside the synagogue, and not when they were out; but as a result some non-Jewish bystanders were killed. Raymond Barre then famously denounced:  In 2007, Barre argued on a radio show that \"the Jewish lobby\" had orchestrated criticism regarding his 1980 remarks. On this same show, Barre defended the collaborationist Maurice Papon at his trial, describing him as \"a scapegoat.\" Barre was criticized for these remarks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governments.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Barre's Second Government, 30 March 1977 – 5 April 1978.", "content": "Changes", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Barre's Third Government, 5 April 1978 – 22 May 1981.", "content": "Changes", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "Barre retired from active politics in June 2002. He was being treated at a hospital for a heart condition since April 2007 when he died on 25 August 2007. He was survived by his wife and two sons.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Raymond Octave Joseph Barre (; 12 April 192425 August 2007) was a French centre-right politician and economist. He was a Vice President of the European Commission and Commissioner for Economic and Financial Affairs under three Presidents (Rey, Malfatti and Mansholt) and later served as Prime Minister under Valéry Giscard d'Estaing from 1976 until 1981. As a candidate for the presidency in 1988, he came in third and was eliminated in the first round. He was born in Saint-Denis, in the French island of Réunion, then still a colony (it became an overseas department in 1946).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973290}
{"src_title": "Davidia involucrata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Davidia involucrata\" is the only member of its genus, but there are two varieties differing slightly in their leaves, \"D. involucrata\" var. \"involucrata\", which has the leaves thinly pubescent (short-haired) on the underside, and \"D. involucrata\" var. \"vilmoriniana\", with glabrous (hairless) leaves. Some botanists treat them as distinct species, with good reason, as the two taxa have differing chromosome numbers so are unable to produce fertile hybrid offspring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a moderately fast-growing tree, growing to in height, with alternate cordate leaves resembling those of a linden in appearance, except that they are symmetrical, and lacking the lop-sided base typical of linden leaves; the leaves are mostly 10–20 cm long and 7–15 cm wide and are ovate to heart-shaped.  \"Davidia involucrata\" is best known for its inflorescence that features white bracts surrounding a purplish-red flower head. The Latin specific epithet \"involucrata\" means \"with a ring of bracts surrounding several flowers\". These form a tight cluster about 1–2 cm across, each flower head with a pair of large (12–25 cm), pure white bracts at the base performing the function of petals. The inflorescences hang in long rows beneath the level branches and are at their best in late May. On a breezy day, the bracts flutter in the wind like white doves or pinched handkerchiefs, hence the English names for this tree.  The fruit is a very hard nut about 3 cm long surrounded by a green husk about 4 cm long by 3 cm wide, hanging on a 10 cm stalk. The nut contains 3–6 seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The genus \"Davidia\" is named for Father Armand David (1826–1900; \"Père David\"), a French Vincentian missionary and keen naturalist who lived in China. David first described the tree in 1869 as a single tree found at over altitude, and sent dried specimens to Paris; in 1871, Henri Baillon described it as a new genus and species.  British plant hunter Augustine Henry again found a single tree, this time in the Yangtse Ichang gorges and sent the first specimen to Kew Gardens. Plant collector Ernest Henry Wilson was employed by Sir Harry Veitch to find Henry's tree but arrived to find that it had been felled for building purposes; however, he later found a grove of the trees overhanging a sheer drop. Returning to Britain, Wilson’s boat was wrecked, but he managed to save his \"Davidia\" specimens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "The oldest probable fossils of \"Davidia\" are permineralized fruits from the Upper Cretaceous (Campanian) Horseshoe Canyon Formation of Dinosaur Provincial Park near Drumheller, Alberta, Canada. Those fruits are smaller than those of \"D. involucrata\" and have fewer locules, but are otherwise similar in morphology to the extant genus.  In 2009, B. I. Pavlyutkin described Miocene fossils in Primorsky Krai and assigned them to a new species in the genus \"Davidia\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In gardens.", "content": "The species was introduced from China to Europe and North America in 1904, and is a popular ornamental tree in parks and larger gardens. Most trees in cultivation are var. \"vilmoriniana\", which has proved much better able to adapt to the climatic conditions in the west.  This tree and the cultivated variety \"D. involucrata\" var. \"vilmoriniana\" have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Davidia involucrata, the dove-tree, handkerchief tree, pocket handkerchief tree, or ghost tree, is a medium-sized deciduous tree in the family Nyssaceae. It was previously included with tupelos in the dogwood family, Cornaceae. It is native to South Central and Southwest China from Hubei to southern Gansu, south to Guizhou, Sichuan and Yunnan, but is widely cultivated elsewhere.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973291}
{"src_title": "Floyd–Warshall algorithm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and naming.", "content": "The Floyd–Warshall algorithm is an example of dynamic programming, and was published in its currently recognized form by Robert Floyd in 1962. However, it is essentially the same as algorithms previously published by Bernard Roy in 1959 and also by Stephen Warshall in 1962 for finding the transitive closure of a graph, and is closely related to Kleene's algorithm (published in 1956) for converting a deterministic finite automaton into a regular expression. The modern formulation of the algorithm as three nested for-loops was first described by Peter Ingerman, also in 1962.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Algorithm.", "content": "The Floyd–Warshall algorithm compares all possible paths through the graph between each pair of vertices. It is able to do this with formula_2 comparisons in a graph, even though there may be up to formula_3 edges in the graph, and every combination of edges is tested. It does so by incrementally improving an estimate on the shortest path between two vertices, until the estimate is optimal.  Consider a graph formula_4 with vertices formula_5 numbered 1 through formula_6. Further consider a function formula_7 that returns the shortest possible path from formula_8 to formula_9 using vertices only from the set formula_10 as intermediate points along the way. Now, given this function, our goal is to find the shortest path from each formula_8 to each formula_9 using \"any\" vertex in formula_13.  For each of these pairs of vertices, the formula_7 could be either  or  We know that the best path from formula_8 to formula_9 that only uses vertices formula_25 through formula_26 is defined by formula_27, and it is clear that if there was a better path from formula_8 to formula_15 to formula_9, then the length of this path would be the concatenation of the shortest path from formula_8 to formula_15 (only using intermediate vertices in formula_16) and the shortest path from formula_15 to formula_9 (only using intermediate vertices in formula_16).  If formula_37 is the weight of the edge between vertices formula_8 and formula_9, we can define formula_7 in terms of the following recursive formula: the base case is and the recursive case is  This formula is the heart of the Floyd–Warshall algorithm. The algorithm works by first computing formula_7 for all formula_46 pairs for formula_47, then formula_48, and so on. This process continues until formula_49, and we have found the shortest path for all formula_46 pairs using any intermediate vertices. Pseudocode for this basic version follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "The algorithm above is executed on the graph on the left below:  Prior to the first recursion of the outer loop, labeled above, the only known paths correspond to the single edges in the graph. At, paths that go through the vertex 1 are found: in particular, the path [2,1,3] is found, replacing the path [2,3] which has fewer edges but is longer (in terms of weight). At, paths going through the vertices {1,2} are found. The red and blue boxes show how the path [4,2,1,3] is assembled from the two known paths [4,2] and [2,1,3] encountered in previous iterations, with 2 in the intersection. The path [4,2,3] is not considered, because [2,1,3] is the shortest path encountered so far from 2 to 3. At, paths going through the vertices {1,2,3} are found. Finally, at, all shortest paths are found.  The distance matrix at each iteration of, with the updated distances in bold, will be:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior with negative cycles.", "content": "A negative cycle is a cycle whose edges sum to a negative value. There is no shortest path between any pair of vertices formula_8, formula_9 which form part of a negative cycle, because path-lengths from formula_8 to formula_9 can be arbitrarily small (negative). For numerically meaningful output, the Floyd–Warshall algorithm assumes that there are no negative cycles. Nevertheless, if there are negative cycles, the Floyd–Warshall algorithm can be used to detect them. The intuition is as follows:  Hence, to detect negative cycles using the Floyd–Warshall algorithm, one can inspect the diagonal of the path matrix, and the presence of a negative number indicates that the graph contains at least one negative cycle.. During the execution of the algorithm, if there is a negative cycle, exponentially large numbers can appear, as large as formula_62, where formula_63 is the largest absolute value of a negative edge in the graph. To avoid overflow/underflow problems one should check for negative numbers on the diagonal of the path matrix within the inner for loop of the algorithm. Obviously, in an undirected graph a negative edge creates a negative cycle (i.e., a closed walk) involving its incident vertices. Considering all edges of the above example graph as undirected, e.g. the vertex sequence 4 – 2 – 4 is a cycle with weight sum −2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Path reconstruction.", "content": "The Floyd–Warshall algorithm typically only provides the lengths of the paths between all pairs of vertices. With simple modifications, it is possible to create a method to reconstruct the actual path between any two endpoint vertices. While one may be inclined to store the actual path from each vertex to each other vertex, this is not necessary, and in fact, is very costly in terms of memory. Instead, the shortest-path tree can be calculated for each node in formula_64 time using formula_65 memory to store each tree which allows us to efficiently reconstruct a path from any two connected vertices.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pseudocode.", "content": "let dist be a formula_66 array of minimum distances initialized to formula_67 (infinity)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "Let formula_69 be formula_70, the number of vertices. To find all formula_71 of formula_7 (for all formula_8 and formula_9) from those of formula_27 requires formula_76 operations. Since we begin with formula_77 and compute the sequence of formula_69 matrices formula_79, formula_80, formula_81, formula_82, the total number of operations used is formula_83. Therefore, the complexity of the algorithm is formula_84.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications and generalizations.", "content": "The Floyd–Warshall algorithm can be used to solve the following problems, among others:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementations.", "content": "Implementations are available for many programming languages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison with other shortest path algorithms.", "content": "The Floyd–Warshall algorithm is a good choice for computing paths between all pairs of vertices in dense graphs, in which most or all pairs of vertices are connected by edges. For sparse graphs with non-negative edge weights, a better choice is to use Dijkstra's algorithm from each possible starting vertex, since the running time of repeated Dijkstra (formula_85 using Fibonacci heaps) is better than the formula_86 running time of the Floyd–Warshall algorithm when formula_87 is significantly smaller than formula_88. For sparse graphs with negative edges but no negative cycles, Johnson's algorithm can be used, with the same asymptotic running time as the repeated Dijkstra approach.  There are also known algorithms using fast matrix multiplication to speed up all-pairs shortest path computation in dense graphs, but these typically make extra assumptions on the edge weights (such as requiring them to be small integers). In addition, because of the high constant factors in their running time, they would only provide a speedup over the Floyd–Warshall algorithm for very large graphs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer science, the Floyd–Warshall algorithm (also known as Floyd's algorithm, the Roy–Warshall algorithm, the Roy–Floyd algorithm, or the WFI algorithm) is an algorithm for finding shortest paths in a weighted graph with positive or negative edge weights (but with no negative cycles). A single execution of the algorithm will find the lengths (summed weights) of shortest paths between all pairs of vertices. Although it does not return details of the paths themselves, it is possible to reconstruct the paths with simple modifications to the algorithm. Versions of the algorithm can also be used for finding the transitive closure of a relation formula_1, or (in connection with the Schulze voting system) widest paths between all pairs of vertices in a weighted graph.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973292}
{"src_title": "Scout Promise", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Original 1908 text.", "content": "In his original book on Boy Scouting, Baden-Powell introduced the Scout Promise, as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Organization of the Scout Movement requirements.", "content": "The form of the promise has varied slightly from country to country and over time, but must fulfill the requirements of the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM) to qualify a National Scout Organization for membership. Together with clarifying its Scout Law, the Constitution of WOSM states:  In order to accommodate many different religions within Scouting, \"God\" may refer to a higher power, and is not specifically restricted to the God of the monotheistic religions. The WOSM Constitution explains \"Duty to God\" as \"Adherence to spiritual principles, loyalty to the religion that expresses them and acceptance of the duties resulting therefrom.\"  The World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS), which is a sister organization to WOSM, has the very same wording in their constitution (Part I, Article 2: Original Promise), and follows similar policies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternative promises.", "content": "Although the Constitution of WOSM states that the Promise should include a reference to Duty to \"God\", Scouting founder Lord Baden-Powell approved the use of promises with reference to a \"higher ideal\", \"higher truth\", an optional reference to God, or without a reference to God, for Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Finland. Three of these countries still offer this alternative promise (France, the Netherlands and Czech Republic). WOSM stated in 1932 that no new exceptions would be made and expressed the hope that the few remaining countries would stop using a promise without any reference to Duty to God.  The Israeli Scouts, though founded in 1919/1920, and joining WOSM in 1951 and WAGGGS in 1963, also have no \"duty to God\" or apparent equivalent in their promise. In 1969, the Eclaireuses et Eclaireurs israélites de France decided to discontinue using the reference to \"God\" due to its inconsistency with religious beliefs and practices from a Jewish perspective. Use of the word God (Dieu), derived from Zeus, can be seen as an inappropriate pagan reference in Jewish texts or education.  As of July 2017, Scouts Australia provides the option to use one of two different versions of the Scout Promise, one which allows scouts to promise \"To be true to my spiritual beliefs [,] To contribute to my community and our world.\" The other option is to promise \"To do my duty to my God, and To the Queen of Australia.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Non-WOSM Scouting.", "content": "Scout sections that follow traditional Scouting, such as Baden-Powell Scouts within the World Federation of Independent Scouts, use several promises including the original Scout promise above that includes the reference to God. Some, however, for example the 1st Tarrant Scout Group in Fort Worth, Texas use a blend of the original promise and the \"Outlander Promise\" which, \"according to tradition\", B-P wrote for Scouts that had to omit the reference to God or a monarch for reasons of conscience.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Since the publication of \"Scouting for Boys\" in 1908, all Scouts and Girl Guides around the world have taken a Scout (or Guide) promise or oath to live up to ideals of the movement, and subscribed to a Scout Law. The wording of the Scout Promise (or Oath) and Scout Law have varied slightly over time and from country to country. Some national organization promises are given below. Although most Scouting and Guiding organizations use the word \"promise\", a few such as the Boy Scouts of America tend to use \"oath\" instead. Typically, Scouts and Guides will make the three-fingered Scout Sign when reciting the promise.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973293}
{"src_title": "Louis Jolliet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jolliet was born in 1645 in Beaupré, a French settlement near Quebec City. When he was seven years old, his father died; his mother then married a successful merchant. Jolliet's stepfather owned land on the Ile d'Orleans, an island in the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec that was home to First Nations. Jolliet spent much time on Ile d'Orleans, so it was likely that he began speaking Indigenous languages of the Americas at a young age. Besides French, he also learned English and Spanish. During his childhood, Quebec was the center of the French fur trade. The Natives were part of day-to-day life in Quebec, and Joliet grew up knowing a lot about them. Jolliet entered a Jesuit school in Quebec as a child and focused on philosophical and religious studies, aiming for priesthood. He also studied music, becoming a skilled harpsichordist and church organist. He received minor orders in 1662 but abandoned his plans to become a priest, leaving the seminary in 1667 to pursue fur trading instead..", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exploration of the Upper Mississippi.", "content": "While Hernando de Soto was the first European to make official note of the Mississippi River by discovering its southern entrance in 1541, Jolliet and Marquette were the first to locate its upper reaches, and travel most of its length, about 130 years later. De Soto had named the river Rio del Espiritu Santo, but tribes along its length called it variations \"Mississippi\", meaning \"Great River\" in the Algonquian languages.  On May 17, 1673, Jolliet and Marquette departed from St. Ignace, Michigan with two canoes and five other voyageurs of French-Indian ancestry. The group sailed to Green Bay. They then paddled upstream (southward) on the Fox River to the site now known as Portage, Wisconsin. There, they portaged a distance of slightly less than two miles through marsh and oak forest to the Wisconsin River. Europeans eventually built a trading post at that shortest convenient portage between the Great Lakes and Mississippi River basins. On June 17, the canoeists ventured onto the Mississippi River near present-day Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin.  The Jolliet-Marquette expedition traveled down the Mississippi to within 435 miles (700 km) of the Gulf of Mexico. They turned back north at the mouth of the Arkansas River. By this point, they had encountered natives carrying European goods and worried about a possible hostile encounter with explorers or colonists from Spain. The voyageurs then followed the Mississippi back to the mouth of the Illinois River, which friendly natives told them was a shorter route back to the Great Lakes. Following the Illinois river upstream, they then turned up its tributary the Des Plaines River near modern-day Joliet, Illinois. They then continued up the Des Plaines River and portaged their canoes and gear at the Chicago Portage. They then followed the Chicago River downstream until they reached Lake Michigan near the location of modern-day Chicago. Father Marquette stayed at the mission of St. Francis Xavier at the southern end of Green Bay, which they reached in August. Joliet returned to Quebec to relate the news of their discoveries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Jolliet married Claire-Francoise Byssot de la Valtrie. Like Jolliet, she was Canadian born, a daughter of Francois Byssot de la Riviere and his wife Marie Couillard. Claire Francoise was also a sister of Louise Byssot de la Valtrie, wife of Seraphin de Margane, Seigneur de la Valtrie. In 1680, Jolliet was granted the Island of Antwhere where he created a fort and maintained soldiers. In 1693, he was appointed \"Royal Hydrographer\", and on April 30, 1697, he was granted a seigneury southwest of Quebec City which he named Jolliest.  In 1694, he sailed from the Gulf of St. Lawrence north along the coast of Labrador as far north as Zoar, a voyage of five and a half months. He recorded details of the country, navigation, the Inuit and their customs. His journal (\"Journal de Louis Jolliet allant à la descouverte de Labrador, 1694,\") is the earliest known detailed survey of the Labrador coast from the Strait of Belle Isle to Zoar.  In May 1700, Louis Jolliet left for Anticosti Island. He then disappears from the historical record. There is no listing of his death or burial place, and the sole record of his fate is the notation that a mass for his soul was said in Quebec on September 15, 1700.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Jolliet's main legacy is most tangible in the Midwestern United States and Quebec, mostly through geographical names, including the cities of Joliet, Illinois; Joliet, Montana; and Joliette, Quebec (founded by one of Jolliet's descendants, Barthélemy Joliette).  The several variations in the spelling of the name \"Jolliet\" reflect spelling that occurred at times when illiteracy or poor literacy was common and spelling was unstandardized. Jolliet's descendants live throughout eastern Canada and the United States. The Louis Jolliet rose, developed by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, was named in his honor.  The Jolliet Squadron of cadets at the Royal Military College Saint-Jean in the Province of Quebec was named in his honor. Joliet Junior College in Joliet, Illinois, is named after the explorer, as are numerous high schools in North America.  A cruise ship sailing out of Quebec City is also named in his honour.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis Jolliet (September 21, 1645after May 1700) was a French-Canadian explorer known for his discoveries in North America. Jolliet and Jesuit Father Jacques Marquette, a Catholic priest and missionary, were the first non-Natives to explore and map the Mississippi River in 1673.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973294}
{"src_title": "Sisters of Mercy of St. Borromeo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "They started cmc. they were originally a pious association of ladies formed in 1626 for the care of thein the service of the sick. The members placed themselves under the patronage of St. Charles Borromeo, called the \"Apostle of Charity\", and adopted the constitutions drawn up by Dom Epiphane Louys, Abbot of Estivals and Vicar General of the reformed Premonstratensians.  By the middle of the 18th century the congregation was in charge of numerous hospitals, and shortly afterwards took up as an additional task the Christian education of children. During the French Revolutionary period the members, although dispersed and deprived of their religious habit, continued their work so heroically as to win the encomiums of their persecutors. On 22 July 1804, they resumed their wearing of the habit, having obtained the approval of Napoleon, and were soon in a flourishing condition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organisation and branching.", "content": "Their rule, based on the rule of St. Augustine, received papal approbation in 1859, and additional constitutions were confirmed by Leo XIII in 1892. Their work includes the direction of all manner of charitable institutions, such as domestic and trade schools, homes for first communicants, protectories, poor-houses, homes for defectives and female reformatories, as well as the care of the sick in their homes. They also have charge of schools, including a number of normal institutes in Austria. Candidates must spend one year as postulants and from three to four and a half years as novices before being admitted to the congregation. The auxiliary sisters for the care of the sick renew their vows annually.  There are several entirely independent branches of Borromean Sisters. In 1838 one was established by Aloysius Joseph Freiherr von Schrenk, Prince-Bishop of Prague (died 1849), which was confirmed as a separate in 1841, and in the early 20th century had 900 members in 102 houses, chiefly in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper Austria and Lower Austria.  In 1848 Melchior Freiherr von Diepenbrock, Prince-Bishop of Breslau, invited the Prague Borromeans to found a house at Neisse, which, in 1857, was raised to the rank of the mother-house of a separate congregation. Later the mother-house was transferred to Trebnitz, and temporarily, during the Kulturkampf, to Teschen, where a provincial house for imperial Austria was later established (1889).  A house of this congregation founded at Alexandria in 1884 was, in 1894, made a provincial mother-house and a novitiate for the (Ottoman) Orient, with the direction of schools, an asylum for the aged, and a hospice for German pilgrims. Affiliated foundations have been made at Jerusalem (1886), Haifa (1888), Cairo (1904) and Emmaus. The members of the Trebnitz congregation numbered 1900, in 211 houses c. 1910.  In 1811 a foundation was made from Nancy at Trier whence the congregation spread to other cities of western Germany. In 1849 a provincial house was erected at Trier which by decree of Pius IX (18 September 1872), was made the mother-house of an independent congregation. A famous Borromean institution is St. Hedwig's Hospital at Berlin, founded in 1846 by Angelika Eschweiler. The Trier branch comprises over 1200 sisters in 70 houses.  A foundation was also made at Maastricht (Dutch province of Limburg) in 1837 by Peter Anton van Baer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sisters of Mercy of St. Borromeo are a number of female Catholic religious congregations sharing one rule and tradition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973295}
{"src_title": "Royal Spanish Academy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Royal Spanish Academy was founded in 1713, modeled after the Accademia della Crusca (1582), of Italy, and the Académie Française (1635), of France, with the purpose \"to fix the voices and vocabularies of the Spanish language with propriety, elegance, and purity\". King Philip V approved its constitution on 3 October 1714, placing it under the Crown's protection.  Its aristocratic founder,, Duke of Escalona and Marquess of Villena, described its aims as \"to assure that Spanish speakers will always be able to read Cervantes\" – by exercising a progressive up-to-date maintenance of the formal language.  The RAE began establishing rules for the orthography of Spanish beginning in 1741 with the first edition of the (spelled from the second edition onwards). The proposals of the Academy became the official norm in Spain by royal decree in 1844, and they were also gradually adopted by the Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas. Several reforms were introduced in the (1959, New Norms of Prosody and Orthography). Since the establishment of the Association of Academies of the Spanish Language in 1951, the Spanish academy works in close consultation with the other Spanish language academies in its various works and projects. The 1999 Orthography was the first to be edited by the twenty two academies together. The current rules and practical recommendations on spelling are presented in the latest edition of the (2010).  The headquarters, opened in 1894, is located at Calle Felipe IV, 4, in the ward of Jerónimos, next to the Museo del Prado. The Center for the Studies of the Royal Spanish Academy, opened in 2007, is located at Calle Serrano 187–189.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fundamentals.", "content": "According to Salvador Gutiérrez, an academic numerary of the institution, the Academy does not dictate the rules but studies the language, collects information and presents it. The rules of the language are simply the continued use of expressions, some of which are collected by the Academy. Although he also says that it is important to read and write correctly. Article 1 of the statutes of the Royal Spanish Academy, translated from Spanish, says the following:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "Members of the Academy are known as (), chosen from among prestigious people within the arts and sciences, including several Spanish-language authors, known as The Immortals (Spanish: ), similarly to their French Academy counterparts. The numeraries (Spanish: \"Números)\" are elected for life by the other academicians. Each academician holds a seat labeled with a letter from the Spanish alphabet, although upper and lower case letters denote separate seats.  The Academy has included Latin American members from the time of Rafael María Baralt, although some Spanish-speaking countries have their own academies of the language.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Royal Spanish Academy (Spanish:, generally abbreviated as RAE) is Spain's official royal institution with a mission to ensure the stability of the Spanish language. It is based in Madrid, Spain, but is affiliated with national language academies in 22 other hispanophone nations through the Association of Academies of the Spanish Language. The RAE's emblem is a fiery crucible, and its motto is (\"Cleans, sets, and gives splendor\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973296}
{"src_title": "Weissensee (Carinthia)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The western shore of the glacial lake is located near the Kreuzberg Saddle mountain pass of the Bundesstraße road from Greifenburg to Hermagor. A smaller mountain road runs from the Drava valley via Stockenboi to the eastern end. Despite its elevation of 930 mAA (3051 ft), the lake surface can reach 24 degrees Celsius in the summer months, while in winter the water freezes over completely and allows skaters to move freely on the ice.  Due to its steep shore, the eastern part is almost uninhabited, with only a narrow path leading to the eastern end, where the area of the Stockenboi municipality reaches the lake. Here the \"Weißenbach\" creek runs down to the Drava Valley. Along the shore are banks of chalk originating from the surrounding mountains of the Southern Limestone Alps, which give the waters its characteristic colour and the Weissensee (\"White Lake\") its name.  About two thirds of the lake's surface are part of a protected area. Ship transport on the lake is provided by four vessels and a speed boat. Except for public transport, the operation of motor boats is prohibited. The waters of the lake reach drinking water quality. The area has much wildlife. It contains many different types of fish, especially trout, common carp, perch and northern pike. Also, there are many different birds, ranging from ducks to geese and herons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "According to a 2001 survey, the Weissensee district had 788 inhabitants of which 97.2% had Austrian citizenship. 73.6% of those surveyed claimed to be members of the evangelical church, 22% claimed to be members of the Roman-Catholic church, and 1% were of Islamic faith. 3.4% claimed not to belong to a religious denomination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "Since 1989, in winter the lake is the site of the Dutch \"Alternatieve Elfstedentocht\" speed skating competition. Beside skating, ice stock sport and cross-country skiing around the Weissensee is quite popular. A smaller alpine skiing area is situated at the southern shore. In February 2007 the first underwater ice hockey world championship was held at the lake. In January 2011, an Austrian mountain aviator association landed about 30 small aircraft on the frozen surface.  A prominent mountain spur at the northern shore, Ronacherfels, is named after a local peasant who died in the winter of 1916 while steering a sleigh on the frozen lake. Taking a shortcut home, he sledged over a thin patch of ice, fell through and died. His body was never found. In honour of his memory, the spur and a nearby inn were named after him.  Parts of the 1987 James Bond film \"The Living Daylights\" were shot at frozen Weissensee.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Weissensee (German spelling: \"Weißensee\") is a lake in the Austrian state of Carinthia within the Gailtal Alps mountain range. The highest situated Carinthian bathing lake shares its name with the municipality of Weissensee on the northern and southern shore.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973297}
{"src_title": "Battle of Mollwitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The War of the Austrian Succession was sparked by the death of Charles VI in 1740 and the succession of his daughter Maria Theresa. The Habsburg Monarchy was originally subject to Salic law, which excluded women from inheriting it; the 1713 Pragmatic Sanction set this aside, allowing Maria Theresa to succeed her father.  This became a European issue because the Monarchy was the most powerful element in the Holy Roman Empire, a loose federation of mostly German states. This position was threatened by the growing size and power of Bavaria, Prussia and Saxony, as well as Habsburg expansion into lands held by the Ottoman Empire. The Empire was headed by the Holy Roman Emperor; in theory an elected post, it had been held by a Habsburg since 1437. France, Prussia and Saxony now challenged Austrian dominance by nominating Charles of Bavaria as Emperor.  In December 1740, Frederick II seized the opportunity to invade Silesia and begin the First Silesian War. With a population of over one million, the Silesian mining, weaving and dyeing industries produced 10% of total Imperial income. Under Kurt Christoph Graf von Schwerin, the Prussians quickly over-ran most of the province and settled into winter quarters but failed to capture the southern fortresses of Glogau, Breslau, and Brieg. Maria Theresa sent an army of about 20,000 men led by Wilhelm Reinhard von Neipperg to take back the province and assert herself as a strong monarch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The march north.", "content": "Neipperg's army caught Frederick II completely off guard as he lingered in the province, and surged northwards past Frederick and his army to relieve the city of Neisse, which was being besieged by a small Prussian force and had not yet fallen. Both Neipperg and Frederick rushed northwards in parallel columns, in a race to reach the city first. In atrocious weather, Neipperg reached Neisse first and set up camp there. Frederick II and his entire army were now caught behind enemy lines with a large Austrian force lying between him and the rest of his kingdom and his supply and communication lines cut off. Both sides knew that battle was now inevitable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prussian preparations.", "content": "Captured Austrian soldiers told Frederick the exact position of Neipperg's forces at Mollwitz, and the morning fog and snow allowed Frederick's army to advance undetected to within 2000 paces of Neipperg's camp. Most commanders would then have given the order to charge the camp and rout the Austrian army, but since Frederick had never fought a campaign or a battle before, he instead decided to deploy his army in a battle line. There was very heavy snow on the ground which caused snow-blindness, and Frederick miscalculated the distance to the river on his right. He deployed several of his units behind a bend in the river where they could take no part in the battle, and several more units were deployed perpendicular to his two battle lines on the right flank. It is said that Schwerin commented early on that Frederick miscalculated the distance, but he was ignored.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Austrian preparations.", "content": "Neipperg was in a bad situation when he discovered Frederick's entire army on his doorstep by simply looking out of his window. Not only were most of his soldiers still sleeping, but his entire army was facing to the north-west, away from the Prussians. The Austrian army was waking up, desperately rushing from its camp and trying to form into a cohesive fighting force. By around 1 pm, both sides had formed lines of battle and were ready to engage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "The Prussian forces advanced on the Austrian line in two sections, but six regiments of Austrian cavalry, numbering 4,500 to 5,000 men and horses, crashed into the cavalry on the right wing of the Prussian Army and shattered it. This left the Prussian flank open to attack, and the Austrian cavalry then turned on the unprotected infantry. Schwerin, the Prussian military commander under Frederick, now advised Frederick II to leave the battlefield because it looked as though the Prussian army was about to be defeated, and the king heeded this warning. Abandoning the field, he was nearly caught and almost shot. Many historians believe that Schwerin advised Frederick to leave so that Schwerin could take command of the troops himself: he was a veteran general.  The scene was chaotic: the perpendicular infantry units deployed between the two Prussian lines were fleeing or firing on other Prussian troops as the Austrian cavalry drove into their flank, but at some point the Prussian infantry, drilled and trained to perfection under Frederick William I, began spontaneously turning right and firing volley after volley at the Austrian cavalry, causing tremendous losses. The leader of the Austrian cavalry, General Römer, received a fatal shot to his head from a Prussian musket ball. With the leaders of both wings dead, an officer asked Schwerin where they should retreat to. Schwerin famously replied, \"We'll retreat over the bodies of our enemies\", and soon restored the situation on the Prussian right wing.  A second Austrian cavalry attack on the left side was beaten back and Schwerin ordered a general advance of all Prussian forces. The Prussian infantry soon engaged the Austrian battle line. They were some of the most well-drilled infantry of the period, and could fire 4-5 shots a minute with their flintlock muskets, seriously outgunning their opponents. Soon the Austrians were routed from the field and Frederick the Great stood victorious.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The victory was due to Field Marshal Schwerin. Frederick the Great had fled from the battlefield when the Austrians seemed to be winning. He later swore never again to leave his troops behind in battle, and he kept this promise faithfully until his death in the late 18th century. He annexed the province of Silesia from Austria and learned a number of valuable lessons from Mollwitz. He is quoted as saying, \"Mollwitz was my school\". Frederick had made several mistakes but his army still won the battle due to their superior training. From now on he was committed to aggression, and geared his entire army towards an aggressive approach. He gave a standing order that his cavalry commanders would never receive a cavalry charge standing still. He greatly increased the use of light cavalry, Hussars, who would act as skirmishers and scouts. Afterwards he is quoted as saying, \"The Prussian army always attacks.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Mollwitz was fought by Prussia and Austria on 10 April 1741, during the First Silesian War (in the early stages of the War of the Austrian Succession). It was the first battle of the new Prussian King Frederick II, in which both sides made numerous military blunders but Frederick the Great still managed to attain victory. This battle cemented his authority over the newly conquered territory of Silesia and gave him valuable military experience.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973298}
{"src_title": "George Akerlof", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Akerlof was born in New Haven, Connecticut, United States, the son of Rosalie Grubber (née Hirschfelder) and Gösta Åkerlöf, who was a chemist and inventor. His mother was Jewish, from a family that had emigrated from Germany. His father was a Swedish immigrant. Akerlof graduated from the Lawrenceville School in 1958 and received the Aldo Leopold Award in 2002. In 1962 he received his BA degree from Yale University, in 1966 his PhD degree from MIT, and taught at the London School of Economics 1978–80.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contributions to economics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Market for Lemons\" and asymmetric information.", "content": "Akerlof is perhaps best known for his article, \"The Market for Lemons: Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism\", published in \"Quarterly Journal of Economics\" in 1970, in which he identified certain severe problems that afflict markets characterized by asymmetric information, the paper for which he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize. In \"Efficiency Wage Models of the Labor Market\", Akerlof and coauthor/former Fed Chair Janet Yellen propose rationales for the efficiency wage hypothesis in which employers pay above the market-clearing wage, in contradiction to the conclusions of neoclassical economics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Identity economics.", "content": "In his latest work, Akerlof and collaborator Rachel Kranton of Duke University introduce social identity into formal economic analysis, creating the field of identity economics. Drawing on social psychology and many fields outside of economics, Akerlof and Kranton argue that individuals do not have preferences only over different goods and services. They also adhere to social norms for how different people should behave. The norms are linked to a person's social identities. These ideas first appeared in their article \"Economics and Identity\", published in \"Quarterly Journal of Economics\" in 2000.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproductive technology shock.", "content": "In the late 1990s Akerlof's ideas attracted the attention of some on both sides of the debate over legal abortion. In articles appearing in The \"Quarterly Journal of Economics\", \"The Economic Journal\", and other forums Akerlof described a phenomenon that he labeled \"\"reproductive technology shock.\"\" He contended that the new technologies that had helped to spawn the late twentieth century sexual revolution, modern contraceptives and legal abortion, had not only failed to suppress the incidence of out-of-wedlock childbearing but also had actually worked to increase it. According to Akerlof, for women who did not use them, these technologies had largely transformed the old paradigm of socio-sexual assumptions, expectations, and behaviors in ways that were especially disadvantageous. For example, the availability of legal abortion now allowed men to view their offspring as the deliberate product of female choice rather than as the joint product of sexual intercourse. Thus, it encouraged biological fathers to reject not only the notion of an obligation to marry the mother but also the idea of a paternal obligation.  While Akerlof did not recommend legal restrictions on either abortion or the availability of contraceptives his analysis seemed to lend support to those who did. Thus, a scholar strongly associated with liberal and Democratic-leaning policy positions has been approvingly cited by conservative and Republican-leaning analysts and commentators.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Looting.", "content": "In 1993 Akerlof and Paul Romer brought forth \"\", describing how under certain conditions, owners of corporations will decide it is more profitable for them personally to 'loot' the company and 'extract value' from it instead of trying to make it grow and prosper. For example:  Bankruptcy for profit will occur if poor accounting, lax regulation, or low penalties for abuse give owners an incentive to pay themselves more than their firms are worth and then default on their debt obligations. Bankruptcy for profit occurs most commonly when a government guarantees a firm's debt obligations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Norms and macroeconomics.", "content": "In his 2007 presidential address to the American Economic Association, Akerlof proposed \"natural norms\" that decision makers have for how they \"should\" behave, and showed how such norms can explain discrepancies between theory and observed facts about the macroeconomy. Akerlof proposed a new agenda for macroeconomics, using social norms to explain macroeconomic behavior. He is considered together with Gary Becker as one of the founders of social economics.  He is a trustee of Economists for Peace and Security and co-director of the Social Interactions, Identity and Well-Being Program at the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR). He is on the advisory board of the Institute for New Economic Thinking. He was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1985.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "His wife, Janet Yellen, was the Chair of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and professor emeritus at UC Berkeley's Haas School of Business, and was the former President and CEO of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco and former Chair of President Bill Clinton's Council of Economic Advisors. His son Robert Akerlof has a PhD in economics from Harvard University and teaches at the University of Warwick.  Akerlof was one of the signees of a 2018 \"amici curiae\" brief that expressed support for Harvard University in the Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard lawsuit. Other signees of the brief include Alan B. Krueger, Robert M. Solow, Janet Yellen, Cecilia Rouse, as well as numerous others.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George Arthur Akerlof (born June 17, 1940) is an American economist who is a university professor at the McCourt School of Public Policy at Georgetown University and Koshland Professor of Economics Emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley. He won the 2001 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared with Michael Spence and Joseph E. Stiglitz).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973299}
{"src_title": "Hardehausen Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1009 \"Herswithehusen\" became the property of Meinwerk, bishop of Paderborn. The abbey was founded on 28 May 1140, by bishop Bernhard I of Paderborn as a daughter house of Kamp Abbey on the Lower Rhine. Construction was completed with the dedication of the church in 1165.  Between 1185 and 1243 three daughter houses were founded from Hardehausen: in 1185, Marienfeld Abbey in Münsterland; in 1196, Bredelar Abbey near Marsberg; and in 1243, Scharnebeck Abbey in Marienfliess near Lüneburg. Also, the nunnery at Wilhelmshausen (Walshausen) which Hardehausen had acquired in 1293 and subsequently emptied, was re-established in 1320 with a new community of monks.  During the Thirty Years' War the abbey was looted and destroyed. During its reconstruction in the years 1680 to 1750 it received its present form.  In 1803 the abbey was secularised, and the monks expelled. The contents were sold or auctioned, and the church was demolished in 1812. The estates were rented out as state property.  Hardehausen was briefly re-founded as a Cistercian monastery in 1927, but the new community was brought to an end by an order of dissolution issued by the National Socialist government in 1938, when the buildings and grounds were sold to the Henschel company from Kassel, from whom they were acquired by the \"Verein für katholische Arbeiterkolonien\" (\"Union for Catholic Workers' Colonies\"). In 1944 the \"Nationalpolitische Erziehungsanstalt\" (Napola) Bensberg transferred to Hardehausen. At this period an external work party from Buchenwald concentration camp, consisting of 30 prisoners, were deployed for forced labour in Hardehausen.  Since 1945 the former monastery has been used for the educational activities of the present Archdiocese of Paderborn. Here are located the \"Jugendhaus Hardehausen\" (established 1945) and also the \"Landvolkshochschule Anton Heinen\" (established 1949, to provide adult education for the entire rural district). In 1970 all the buildings on the site were altered and extended for their educational functions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hardehausen Abbey (\"Kloster Hardehausen\") is a former Cistercian monastery located near Warburg in the district of Höxter in the east of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973300}
{"src_title": "Strahov Monastery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The founding of a monastery.", "content": "After his pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1138, the bishop of Olomouc, Jindřich Zdík, took hold of the idea of founding a monastery of regular canons in Prague. He had the support of the bishops of Prague and Soběslav I, Duke of Bohemia and—after his death—Vladislav II. After Zdík's first unsuccessful attempt to found a Czech variant of the canons' order at the place called Strahov in 1140, an invitation was issued to the Premonstratensians, whose first representatives arrived from Steinfeld in the Rhine valley (now Germany).  The monks began to build their monastery first of wood, with a Romanesque basilica as the center of all spiritual events in Strahov. The building was gradually completed and the construction of the monastery stone buildings continued, in order to replace the provisional wooden living quarters with permanent stone. In 1258, the monastery was heavily damaged by fire and later renewed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "During the Hussite Wars.", "content": "The monastery continued functioning until the period of the Hussites, when it was attacked and plundered by the citizens of Prague in 1420. Books, articles of worship, and the furnishings of both church and convent were burned. Although the building did not sustain great damage from an architectural viewpoint, the monastery took a long time to recover.  During the Hussite Wars, the years of the reign of George of Poděbrady, and the time up to the end of the 16th century, Strahov was relatively moribund. Attempts were made by various officials to renew the original monastery and its religious life, but they were unsuccessful.  It was not until the arrival of the abbot Jan Lohelius that a turn came about. This cleric, originally of Teplá Abbey, became the abbot of Strahov in 1586 and all his abilities were devoted to the renewal of Strahov. He tried to raise the spiritual life of the monastery and, as a visitator circarie of the Premonstratensian order as a whole in Bohemia, he also devoted attention to the material aspect of things. He reconstructed the church, renewed the abbey buildings, established workshops, built a new dormitory and refectory, and had the monastery gardens newly laid out. He regained many of the monastery estates in order to build up the material base of the monastery, providing funds for the institution's maintenance and further development. Thanks to his untiring activity, by 1594—only eight years after Lohelius's appointment—a twelve-member community of monks could live in the monastery once more.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "During the Thirty Years' War.", "content": "In 1612 Jan Lohelius became the archbishop of Prague, his work at Strahov then being continued by the new abbot, Kašpar Questenberg. He continued in the expensive work started by Lohelius, completed the lower cloisters and prelature, and even erected a new building in the form of St. Elizabeth's Hospital, as well as adding out-buildings and a brewery. Furthermore, he founded the Norbertine seminary in the New Town, which was intended for the theological studies of members of the order. All this was achieved during the Thirty Years' War, when Kašpar Questenberg himself was forced by the violence to flee from Prague. The financial account of the costs incurred by his building activities amounted to about 100,000 tolars, which at that time was a very respectable sum for any building work. In this respect, Kašpar Questenberg's expenditures were comparable with such builders as his contemporary Albrecht von Wallenstein.  One of the biggest events in the history of the Premonstratensian order was the transfer of the remains of Norbert of Xanten, the founder of the order, from Magdeburg. The reinterring took place under Questenberg's abbacy. This came about in 1627, and since then the remains of the saintly founder have laid at rest in the abbey church. During Questenberg's time, the Church of Saint Roch was also completed. Originally it was a votive church whose construction was started by Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1602 as an expression of thanks for the end of the plague in 1599. After numerous changes of fortune the church was completed, including its interior, by 1630. When Kašpar Questenberg died in 1640 his successor was Kryšpin Fuk, who continued in his work. Moreover, he gained renown for himself through his participation in the making of the Vltava navigable in the sector called St John's Rapids (\"Svatojánské proudy\"). During this period the abbey was plundered by troops of the Swedish Empire towards the end of the Thirty Years' War. The church and the library were looted. After the departure of the Swedes, Kryšpin Fuk had the damaged abbey repaired again, his work being continued by the Abbots Ameluxen, Sutor, and Franck. The last-mentioned had the prelature reconstructed and a new St. Elizabeth's Hospital built, because the original one built by Kašpar Questenberg was demolished during the construction of Baroque fortifications in Prague.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Theological Hall.", "content": "In 1670 Jeroným Hirnheim, a philosopher and theologian, became the abbot of Strahov. His greatest work, which has survived to the present day, was the building of a new library in the so-called Theological Hall (\"Teologický sál\"), completed in 1679. During the 17th and early 18th centuries, other abbots continued in the reconstruction of the monastery. They also cared for the church, which was repaired and decorated several times during the given period. The monastery experienced other significant building activity, namely after the assaults of French and Bavarian troops in 1742, when Prague was bombarded and seriously damaged. The abbot then organized building efforts anew, in the course of which the church was rebuilt along with the monastery area.  After 1950, the library was incorporated into the Memorial of National Literature. Following events of 1989 the library was, along with the monastery, returned to the Premonstratensians. Within the library, a reading room is also open. The Strahov Library contains over 200,000 volumes, including over 3,000 manuscripts and 1,500 first prints stored in a special depository.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Philosophical Hall.", "content": "In 1779 Václav Mayer occupied the abbot's throne and was the last to carry out great building activities. His most outstanding work was the building of the new library, now in Classical style. Today it is called the Philosophical Hall (\"Filosofický sál\"). This work brought the extensive building activity at Strahov Monastery to an end and the following generations of abbots devoted their attention merely to minor architectural repairs, all under the influence of contemporary fashion, and to maintenance of the area as a whole.  The monastery survived in this way until 1950, when it was taken over by the communist regime, the religious being interned and placed in civil employment, very few of them being able to work in the clerical administration as priests of the diocese. The monastery was subjected to thorough archeological research and transformed into the Memorial of National Literature. In the course of the said archeological research the long since forgotten Romanesque form of the monastery was revealed and reconstructed in a sensitive way.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After the Velvet Revolution.", "content": "After the fall of the communist regime in 1989, the monastery was returned to the Premonstratensian Order, which began to realize a costly reconstruction of the building. By 1994 the church had been restored, a new technical network constructed, the Strahov picture gallery newly built, and the Strahov library renewed. Other architectural restorations were also carried out.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Strahov Monastery () is a Premonstratensian abbey founded in 1143 by Jindřich Zdík, Bishop John of Prague, and Vladislaus II, Duke of Bohemia. It is located in Strahov, Prague, Czech Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973301}
{"src_title": "Chiloé Island", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "With an area of, Chiloé Island is the second largest island in Chile (after the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego), the largest island completely within Chile, and the fifth largest in South America. It is separated from the Chilean mainland by the Chacao Strait (\"Canal Chacao\") to the north, and by the Gulf of Ancud (\"Golfo de Ancud\") and the Gulf of Corcovado (\"Golfo Corcovado\") to the east; the Pacific Ocean lies to the west, and the Chonos Archipelago lies to the south, across the Boca del Guafo. The island is from north to south, and averages wide. The capital is Castro, on the east side of the island; the second largest town is Ancud, at the island's northwest corner, and there are several smaller port towns on the east side of the island, such as Quellón, Dalcahue and Chonchi.  Chiloé Island and the Chonos Archipelago are a southern extension of the Chilean coastal range at Chilean Patagonia, which runs north and south, parallel to the Pacific coast and the Andes Mountains. The Chilean Central Valley lies between the coastal mountains and the Andes, of which the Gulfs of Ancud and Corcovado form the southern extension. Mountains run north and south along the spine of the island. The east coast is deeply indented, with several natural harbors and numerous smaller islands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Chiloé runs from 41o47′S to 43o26′S, and has a humid, cool temperate climate. The western side of the island is rainy and wild, home to the Valdivian temperate rain forests, one of the world's few temperate rain forests. Chiloé National Park (\"Parque Nacional de Chiloé\") is located on the island's western shore and Tantauco Park (\"Parque Tantauco\") a private natural reserve created and owned by Chilean business magnate and President of Chile Sebastián Piñera, is located on the island's southern shore and both include parts of the coastal range. The eastern shore, in the rain shadow of the interior mountains, is warmer and drier.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alfaguara project.", "content": "The northwestern of Chiloé Island in Chiloé National Park has a great diversity of marine fauna, including blue whale, sei whale, Chilean dolphins and Peale's dolphins; sea lions, marine otters, and Magellanic penguin and Humboldt penguins. Nevertheless, this relatively undisturbed area faces different threats, like urban development, habitat degradation, land and marine pollution.  The Alfaguara project (blue whale project), conducted by the Cetacean Conservation Center, is based at Puñihuil on the northwest coast. The project combines long term research, educational and capacity building programs for marine conservation combined with the sustainable development of the local communities. The Islotes de Puñihuil Natural Monument is a group of three islets to the west and north of Puñihuil. The monument is the only known shared breeding site for Humboldt and Magellanic penguins. It is also a breeding area for other species, such as the red-legged cormorant and kelp gull.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Chiloé has been described by Renato Cárdenas, historian at the Chilean National Library, as “a distinct enclave, linked more to the sea than the continent, a fragile society with a strong sense of solidarity and a deep territorial attachment.” Chiloé's history began with the arrival of its first human inhabitants more than 7,000 years ago. Spread along the coast of Chiloé are a number of middens - ancient dumps for domestic waste, containing mollusc shells, stone tools and bonfire remains. All of these remains indicate the presence of nomadic groups dedicated to the collection of marine creatures (clams, mussels and \"choromytilus chorus\", among others) and to hunting and fishing. When the Spanish conquistadores arrived on Chiloé Island in the 16th Century, the island was inhabited by the Chono, Huilliche and Cunco peoples. The original peoples navigated the treacherous waters of the Chiloé Archipelago in boats called \"dalcas\" with skill that impressed the Spaniards.  The first Spaniard to sight the coast of Chiloé was the explorer Alonso de Camargo in 1540, as he was travelling to Peru. However, in an expedition ordered by Pedro de Valdivia, captain Francisco de Ulloa reached the Chacao Channel in 1553 and explored the islands forming the archipelago, and is thus considered the first discoverer of Chiloé. In 1558, Spanish soldier García Hurtado de Mendoza began an expedition which would culminate in the Chiloé archipelago being claimed for the Spanish crown.  The city of Castro was founded in 1567. The island was originally called New Galicia by the Spanish discoverers, but this name did not stick and the name Chiloé, meaning “place of seagulls” in the Huilliche language, was given to the island.  Jesuit missionaries to Chiloé Island, charged with the evangelization of the local population arrived on Chiloé at the turn of the 17th Century and built a number of chapels throughout the archipelago. By 1767 there were already 79 and today more than 150 wooden churches built in traditional style can be found on the islands, many of these declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Following the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, the Franciscans assumed responsibility for the religious mission to Chiloé from 1771.  Chiloé only became part of the Chilean republic in 1826, eight years after independence and following the two failed campaigns for independence in 1820 and 1824. From 1843, a large number of Chilotes (as inhabitants of the island are called) migrated to Patagonia in search of work, mainly in Punta Arenas, but as living and working conditions in Chiloé improved in the following century this migration began gradually to decrease.  In the 19th century, Chiloé was a center for foreign whalers, particularly French whalers. From the middle of the 19th century and until the beginning of the 20th century, Chiloé was the main producer of railroad ties for the whole continent. From this point on, new towns dedicated to this industry were formed, including Quellón, Dalcahue, Chonchi and Quemchi were established. From 1895, lands were given to European settlers and also to large manufacturing industries.  With the rise of farming, inland areas of Chiloé Island began to be occupied; previously only the coastline had been inhabited. With the construction of the railroad between Ancud and Castro in 1912, the occupation of inland zones was completed. This railroad is no longer in service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Access.", "content": "In late 2012, LAN Airlines became the first airline to offer flights to Chiloé Island, inaugurating a regular service between Puerto Montt and the airport of Mocopulli, Dalcahue. Previously the only means of access to Chiloé island was via a ferry service across the Chacao Channel.  A project to build a bridge from Chiloé Island to the mainland of Chile was initially proposed in 1972 and was eventually launched under the government of Ricardo Lagos (2000-2006) who launched the project as part of works to celebrate the Bicentennial of Chile. In 2006, however, the Chacao Channel bridge project was cancelled by the Ministry of Public Works after concerns about its total cost, which was estimated to be higher than the initial budget for the project. In May 2012, President Sebastián Piñera again revived the project, announcing an international bidding process would be opened to present the best solution for the construction of the bridge, with a US$740 million investment limit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chiloé Island (Spanish: \"Isla de Chiloé\"), also known as Greater Island of Chiloé (\"Isla Grande de Chiloé\"), is the largest island of the Chiloé Archipelago off the coast of Chile, in the Pacific Ocean. The island is located in southern Chile, in the Los Lagos Region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973302}
{"src_title": "Ivan Hlinka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Hlinka began to play ice hockey at a young age. When he was six years old, he was playing HC Litvínov's youth team. He played in Czechoslovak league for the first time when he was 16.  At age 20, he became a captain Litvínov's men's team and played in the Czechoslovak national team for the first time. He played 256 games as a member of the Czechoslovak national team and scored 132 goals in international games. He also played in 544 games in Czechoslovak league and scored 347 times. Hlinka was named the Golden Hockey Stick winner as the country's top player in 1978.  Hlinka helped the Czechoslovak team to win world titles in 1972, 1976, and 1977. As a member of the Czechoslovak team, he won an Olympic bronze medal in 1972 and a silver medal in 1976.  Hlinka played in the inaugural Canada Cup tournament in 1976, the international tournament in which the best available players competed for their countries (most notably, players from the National Hockey League). Canada defeated Czechoslovakia in the best-of-three final two games to nothing, with scores of 6–0 and 5–4. The following year, he was named the national team's captain, a position he held from 1977 to 1980.  In 1981, Hlinka and fellow Czech Jiří Bubla joined the NHL's Vancouver Canucks. This started the Czech migration to the NHL. They were the first Czechoslovak players to compete in the NHL with the permission of their country's authorities. (Jaroslav Jiřík played legally in the NHL in the 1969–70 season, but only in three games.) Playing in his first NHL season, Hlinka set a Canucks record for the most points by a rookie with 60 (later matched by Pavel Bure in 1991–92). During the subsequent 1982 Stanley Cup playoffs, the Canucks advanced to the Finals against the New York Islanders. In a losing effort (Vancouver lost the series in four straight games), Hlinka and Bubla became the first Czechs to ever play in the Stanley Cup Finals. The following season, Hlinka improved to 63 points over 65 games. In his two years in the NHL, Hlinka totalled 42 goals and assisted on 81 others in 137 games.  Hlinka returned to Europe to finish his playing career due to problems with his back in 1983. He played in Swiss team EV Zug until 1985, when he returned to Litvínov where he started his coaching career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "After his return to Czechoslovakia, Hlinka began to coach in \"his\" HC Litvínov. Later, he coached temporarily in Freiburg, Germany.  Hlinka also became very famous for his trick in the 1986–87 season. Litvínov was in last place in the standings of the Czechoslovak league. Hlinka, already 37 years old, began to play again. Litvínov immediately improved its game and went unbeaten in Hlinka's first eight games (six wins and two ties). Altogether, he played 19 games and scored 23 points.  In the 1990s, Hlinka was head coach of Czechoslovak and later Czech national teams. His teams won bronze medals at the Albertville Olympics and the World Championships in 1992 and 1993. He left the national team after an unsuccessful World Championship in 1994.  Hlinka returned in 1997 and his team won the bronze medal at the World Championship again. Hlinka became a national hero when his team won the gold medal at the Nagano Olympics; the first time that the NHL agreed to release its players for the Games. The triumph was celebrated by the whole nation. The dominance of the Czech hockey team in the world was confirmed one year later when Hlinka's team won the World Championship again.  In 2000–01, Hlinka returned to the NHL as head coach of the Pittsburgh Penguins. He and Alpo Suhonen became the second and third Europeans to ever coach in the NHL, following Johnny Gottselig. His first season also coincided with Mario Lemieux's return to the NHL, and together they made a surprising run to the Eastern Conference Finals, knocking off the higher seeded Washington Capitals and Buffalo Sabres along the way before falling to the New Jersey Devils. The next season was not successful, as the struggling small-market Penguins had traded their superstar, Jaromír Jágr. Hlinka himself was criticized by Lemieux for not taking classes in the summer to improve his English and that contributed to the frosty relationship between them. He was fired four games into the 2001–02 season and returned to Europe.  In 2001–02, he worked as general manager of Czech national team and, in 2002–03, he coached Russian team Avangard Omsk for one season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Hlinka was supposed to be once again head coach of the Czech national team in the 2004–05 season. However, he died on August 16, 2004, at age 54 when his car collided head-on with a Daewoo Avia driving the wrong way on the E48 highway only 200 yards from the town of Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic. He had gone to Karlovy Vary to ensure that Jaromír Jágr would participate in the 2004 World Cup of Hockey. The truck suddenly appeared in Hlinka's lane. The truck driver claimed that he had to avoid a collision with an animal. More likely (the court was inclined to believe this), he turned from the main road and made a left at an intersection where it was prohibited. Hlinka was not using a safety belt, but according to experts, it would not have prevented his death.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ivan Hlinka (January 26, 1950 – August 16, 2004) was a Czech professional ice hockey player and coach. He is considered to be one of the most important figures in Czech ice hockey history. A big centre, his playing style was comparable to Phil Esposito, often scoring with shots from the slot.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973303}
{"src_title": "Autopoiesis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Meaning.", "content": "Autopoiesis was originally presented as a system description that was said to define and explain the nature of living systems. A canonical example of an autopoietic system is the biological cell. The eukaryotic cell, for example, is made of various biochemical components such as nucleic acids and proteins, and is organized into bounded structures such as the cell nucleus, various organelles, a cell membrane and cytoskeleton. These structures, based on an external flow of molecules and energy, \"produce\" the components which, in turn, continue to maintain the organized bounded structure that gives rise to these components (not unlike a wave propagating through a medium).  An autopoietic system is to be contrasted with an allopoietic system, such as a car factory, which uses raw materials (components) to generate a car (an organized structure) which is something \"other\" than itself (the factory). However, if the system is extended from the factory to include components in the factory's \"environment\", such as supply chains, plant / equipment, workers, dealerships, customers, contracts, competitors, cars, spare parts, and so on, then as a total viable system it could be considered to be autopoietic.  Though others have often used the term as a synonym for self-organization, Maturana himself stated he would \"[n]ever use the notion of self-organization... Operationally it is impossible. That is, if the organization of a thing changes, the thing changes\". Moreover, an autopoietic system is autonomous and operationally closed, in the sense that there are sufficient processes within it to maintain the whole. Autopoietic systems are \"structurally coupled\" with their medium, embedded in a dynamic of changes that can be recalled as sensory-motor coupling. This continuous dynamic is considered as a rudimentary form of knowledge or cognition and can be observed throughout life-forms.  An application of the concept of autopoiesis to sociology can be found in Niklas Luhmann's Systems Theory, which was subsequently adapted by Bob Jessop in his studies of the capitalist state system. Marjatta Maula adapted the concept of autopoiesis in a business context. The theory of autopoiesis has also been applied in the context of legal systems by not only Niklas Luhmann, but also Gunther Teubner.  In the context of textual studies, Jerome McGann argues that texts are \"autopoietic mechanisms operating as self-generating feedback systems that cannot be separated from those who manipulate and use them\". Citing Maturana and Varela, he defines an autopoietic system as \"a closed topological space that 'continuously generates and specifies its own organization through its operation as a system of production of its own components, and does this in an endless turnover of components, concluding that \"Autopoietic systems are thus distinguished from allopoietic systems, which are Cartesian and which 'have as the product of their functioning something different from themselves. Coding and markup appear allopoietic\", McGann argues, but are generative parts of the system they serve to maintain, and thus language and print or electronic technology are autopoietic systems.  In his discussion of Hegel, the philosopher Slavoj Žižek argues, \"Hegel is – to use today's terms – the ultimate thinker of autopoiesis, of the process of the emergence of necessary features out of chaotic contingency, the thinker of contingency's gradual self-organisation, of the gradual rise of order out of chaos.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relation to complexity.", "content": "Autopoiesis can be defined as the ratio between the complexity of a system and the complexity of its environment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relation to cognition.", "content": "An extensive discussion of the connection of autopoiesis to cognition is provided by Thompson. The basic notion of autopoiesis as involving constructive interaction with the environment is extended to include cognition. Initially, Maturana defined cognition as behavior of an organism \"with relevance to the maintenance of itself\". However, computer models that are self-maintaining but non-cognitive have been devised, so some additional restrictions are needed, and the suggestion is that the maintenance process, to be cognitive, involves readjustment of the internal workings of the system in some metabolic process. On this basis it is claimed that autopoiesis is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for cognition. Thompson (p. 127) takes the view that this distinction may or may not be fruitful, but what matters is that living systems involve autopoiesis and (if it is necessary to add this point) cognition as well. It can be noted that this definition of 'cognition' is restricted, and does not necessarily entail any awareness or consciousness by the living system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relation to consciousness.", "content": "The connection of autopoiesis to cognition, or if necessary, of living systems to cognition, is an objective assessment ascertainable by observation of a living system.  One question that arises is about the connection between cognition seen in this manner and consciousness. The separation of cognition and consciousness recognizes that the organism may be unaware of the substratum where decisions are made. What is the connection between these realms? Thompson refers to this issue as the \"explanatory gap\", and one aspect of it is the hard problem of consciousness, how and why we have qualia.  A second question is whether autopoiesis can provide a bridge between these concepts. Thompson discusses this issue from the standpoint of enactivism. An autopoietic cell actively relates to its environment. Its sensory responses trigger motor behavior governed by autopoiesis, and this behavior (it is claimed) is a simplified version of a nervous system behavior. The further claim is that real-time interactions like this require attention, and an implication of attention is awareness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "There are multiple criticisms of the use of the term in both its original context, as an attempt to define and explain the living, and its various expanded usages, such as applying it to self-organizing systems in general or social systems in particular. Critics have argued that the concept and its theory fail to define or explain living systems and that, because of the extreme language of self-referentiality it uses without any external reference, it is really an attempt to give substantiation to Maturana's radical constructivist or solipsistic epistemology, or what Danilo Zolo has called instead a \"desolate theology\". An example is the assertion by Maturana and Varela that \"We do not see what we do not see and what we do not see does not exist\". The autopoietic model, said Rod Swenson, is \"miraculously decoupled from the physical world by its progenitors... (and thus) grounded on a solipsistic foundation that flies in the face of both common sense and scientific knowledge\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The term autopoiesis () refers to a system capable of reproducing and maintaining itself. The original definition can be found in \"\" (1st edition 1973, 2nd 1980): The term was introduced in 1972 by Chilean biologists Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela to define the self-maintaining chemistry of living cells. Since then the concept has been also applied to the fields of cognition, systems theory, architecture and sociology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973304}
{"src_title": "Wenceslas Square", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "Less a square than a boulevard, Wenceslas Square has the shape of a very long (750 m, total area 45,000 m) rectangle, in a northwest–southeast direction. The street slopes upward to the southeast side. At that end, the street is dominated by the grand neoclassical Czech National Museum. The northwest end runs up against the border between the New Town and the Old Town.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 1348, Bohemian King Charles IV founded the New Town of Prague. The plan included several open areas for markets, of which the second largest was the \"Koňský trh\", or Horse Market (the largest was the Charles Square). At the southeastern end of the market was the Horse Gate, one of the gates in the walls of the New Town.  The Statue of Saint Wenceslas formerly stood in the middle of Wenceslas Square, near Grandhotel Evropa, it was moved to Vyšehrad in 1879. During the Czech national revival movement in the 19th century, a more noble name for the street was requested. At this time the square was renamed and new Statue of Saint Wenceslas was built in 1912.  On 28 October 1918, Alois Jirásek read the proclamation of independence of Czechoslovakia in front of the Saint Wenceslas statue.  The Nazis used the street for mass demonstrations. During the Prague Uprising in 1945, a few buildings near the National Museum were destroyed. They were later replaced by department stores.  On 16 January 1969, student Jan Palach set himself on fire in Wenceslas Square to protest the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.  On 28 March 1969, the Czechoslovak national ice hockey team defeated the USSR team for the second time in that year's Ice Hockey World Championships. As the country was still under Soviet occupation, the victory induced great celebrations. Perhaps 150,000 people gathered on Wenceslas Square, and skirmishes with police developed. A group of provocateurs then attacked the Prague office of the Soviet airline Aeroflot, located on the street. The vandalism served as a pretext for reprisals and the period of so-called normalization.  In 1989, during the Velvet Revolution, large demonstrations (with hundreds of thousands of people or more) were held here.  Wenceslas Square is lined by hotels, offices, retail stores, currency exchange booths and fast-food joints. To the dismay of locals and city officials, the neighboring streets are also a popular location for prostitutes to ply their trade late at night. Many strip clubs exist around Wenceslas Square, making Prague a popular location for stag parties. Wenceslas Square is also a popular place to spend the New Year's celebrations, another popular option are terraces near the river. The Christmas markets (\"Vánoční trhy\") are held here every year from early December to the first week of January.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art and architecture.", "content": "The two obvious landmarks of Wenceslas Square are at the southeast, uphill end: the 1885–1891 National Museum Building, designed by Czech architect Josef Schulz, and the statue of Wenceslas.  Other significant buildings on the square include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The Prague Metro's line A runs underneath Wenceslas Square, and the Metro's two busiest stations, Muzeum (lines A and C) and Můstek (lines A and B), have entrances on the street. Currently tram bisect the square only. Tram tracks running the length of the street were removed from the street in 1980; a proposal to reintroduce trams is under consideration. The construction should begin in 2021. Most of the street is open to automobile traffic, but the northwestern end is pedestrianised since 2012.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wenceslas Square (Czech:, colloquially \"Václavák\" ) is one of the main city squares and the centre of the business and cultural communities in the New Town of Prague, Czech Republic. Many historical events occurred there, and it is a traditional setting for demonstrations, celebrations, and other public gatherings. It is also the place with the busiest pedestrian traffic in the whole country. The square is named after Saint Wenceslas, the patron saint of Bohemia. It is part of the historic centre of Prague, a World Heritage Site.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973305}
{"src_title": "Charles Square", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Charles Square originated as a part of the New Town of Prague founded in 1348 by emperor Charles IV. With Wenceslas Square (Horse Market) and \"Senovážné náměstí\" (Hay Market) it became one of three main squares of the newly founded town. These squares were connected with one street (today streets Vodičkova and Jindřišská). Charles Square was supposed to be the most important square of the New Town of Prague and probably of the whole of Prague, therefore the Town Hall of the New Town was built there. Despite these plans the most important square later became Wenceslas Square.  In the late 14th century the Corpus Christi Chapel was built in the middle of the square. It was closed in 1784 and demolished a few years later. This chapel was a very important place of pilgrimage in the late 14th and early 15th century, because the holy relics and crown jewels of the Holy Roman Empire were shown there to thousands of pilgrims.  On 30 July 1419 the Hussite Wars broke out in this square, when Hussites led by priest Jan Želivský threw some Catholic councilors from windows of the New Town Hall. This event is called \"the First Defenestration of Prague\".  In the 17th century the Jesuits started to build their New Town residence on Charles Square. They also founded a new church dedicated to their patron saint and founder of the Jesuit Order, St. Ignatius of Loyola. This church was designed by Carlo Lurago and built in 1655-1677 in the early Baroque style.  On the south side of the square there is a gate to the Church of St. John of Nepomuk \"on the Rock\" which was built in the high Baroque style in 1730s by Kilian Ignac Dientzenhofer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Square () is a city square in the New Town of Prague, Czech Republic. At roughly 80,550 m2 it is one of the largest squares in the world and was the largest town square of the medieval Europe. Founded in 1348 as the main square of the New Town by Charles IV, it was known as \"Dobytčí trh\" (Cattle Market) from the 15th century and finally named after its founder in 1848. The central portion of the square was turned into a park in the 1860s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973306}
{"src_title": "Malá Strana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name Malá Strana translated into English literally means \"Little Side\", though it is frequently referred to as \"Lesser Town\", \"Lesser Quarter\", or \"Lesser Side\". This name derives from its position on the left (west) bank of the river Vltava, on the slopes just below the Prague Castle, in opposition to the larger towns of Prague on the right bank, to which it is conjoined by the Charles Bridge.  The town was originally called the \"New Town beneath the Prague Castle\" () after 1257 when it was founded. After Charles IV founded the New Town of Prague in 1348, the town was renamed the \"Lesser Town of Prague\" (). In the 17th century the unofficial name \"Little Quarter\" () was first used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Malá Strana was founded by the King Ottokar II of Bohemia in 1257. As a royal town (a town founded by the king) it got many privileges. It was created by amalgamating a number of settlements beneath the Prague Castle into a single administrative unit. The original residents were expelled and mostly German craftsmen and merchants were invited by the king. Even though the city was royal, the king did not master the city as a whole.  In the second half of the 14th century the Lesser Town of Prague was extended by the King and Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV who built a new defensive wall called Hunger Wall.  In 1419-1420 the Lesser Town was burnt down by Hussites. In 1541 the town was strongly damaged again by a fire which killed fifty people. After this fire the town was rebuilt in the Renaissance style and many palaces of nobility were built there.  The market place, now known as \"Malostranské náměstí\" (Lesser Town Square), was the center of the town. This square is divided into the upper and lower parts with the St. Nicholas Church in the middle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Baroque architecture predominates in Malá Strana, but the history of the district dates back to far before the Baroque era. Baroque architecture eventually dominated when the style was implanted on Malá Strana after the destructive fires in 1541.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Malá Strana (Czech for \"Little Side (of the River)\", ) or more formally Menší Město pražské () is a district of the city of Prague, Czech Republic, and one of its most historic neighbourhoods.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973307}
{"src_title": "Edessa, Greece", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The Greek name (\"Édessa\") means \"tower in the water\" and is generally thought to be of Phrygian origin, although a minority of scholars consider it to be Illyrian instead. The Slavic name \"Vodĭnŭ\" () commonly held to derive from the Slavic word for \"water\" was first attested in the 10th century, and became the common name until the 20th century.  \"Vodená\" () was the name used in Greek until 1923, when the ancient name was revived. The Bulgarian and Macedonian name remains \"Voden\" (Cyrillic: ). In Turkish, the city is known as \"Vodina\", and in Aromanian the city is known as either \"Edessa\", \"Vudena\" or \"Vodina\".  Seleucus I Nicator named the city of Edessa in Mesopotamia (modern Şanlıurfa, Turkey) after the Macedonian Edessa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Municipality.", "content": "The municipality Edessa was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 2 former municipalities, that became municipal units:  The municipality has an area of 611.212 km, the municipal unit 321.225 km.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "According to some ancient writers, Caranus, the legendary founder of the Argead Dynasty (whose most famous member was Alexander the Great), established the city of Edessa and made it the first capital of ancient Macedon, and later Argead rulers moved Macedon's capital to Aegae and eventually Pella. Archaeological remains have been discovered on the site of ancient Edessa, just below the modern city (40°47'48.48\"N 22° 3'26.24\"E). The walls and many buildings have been unearthed so far. A colonnade with inscription in Greek dates from Roman times. The city achieved certain prominence in the first centuries AD, being located on the Via Egnatia. From 27 BC to 268 AD it had its own mint. The Orthodox Christian Saint Vassa and her three children were put to death here in the 3rd century AD.  Little is known about the fate of the city after 500 AD, but we know that its Greek bishop, Isidoros, participated in the Ecumenical Council of 692.  The city disappears from the sources thereafter, and re-emerges only in the 11th century, in the account of the Bulgarian wars of Emperor Basil II by the chronicler John Skylitzes, with the Slavic name \"Vodena\" ( in Greek). The Bulgarian historian Vasil Zlatarski hypothesized that it was Vodena, and not Vidin on the Danube, that was a base of the Cometopuli in their revolt against Byzantium.  Due to its strategic location, controlling the Via Egnatia as it enters the Pindus mountains, the town was much fought over in the subsequent centuries: the Normans under Bohemond I captured it briefly in 1083, but were eventually repelled by the forces of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. The Nicaean emperor John III Vatatzes captured in 1253, while in the mid-14th century its possession was disputed between the Byzantines and the Serbs under Stephen Dushan, with the latter securing its possession in January 1351. The city was for some time under control of Radoslav Hlapen, who gave it as dowry to his son-in-law Nikola Bagaš probably around 1366/7. The city remained in Bagaš's hands at least until 1385. It fell to the Ottoman war leader Evrenos Bey in the late 14th century, along with the rest of Macedonia.  During the period of Ottoman rule, the Turkish and Muslim component of the town's population steadily increased. From the 1860s onwards, the town was a flashpoint for clashes between Greeks and Bulgarians.  After almost 500 years of Ottoman rule, Edessa was annexed by Greece on 18 October 1912 during the First Balkan War, following the Hellenic Army's military victory against the Ottomans in the battle of Sarantaporo. At that time, Edessa was already well on its way to becoming a major industrial center in Macedonia. Four large textile factories with the Hemp Factory being the biggest, employing the abundant waterfalls as a source of energy. Prior to World War I, in addition to Greeks, the region of Edessa was also populated by Turks, Bulgarians, Pomaks and Vlachs, but during the population exchange between Greece and Turkey most of the Turks and Pomaks living in Edessa were transferred to Turkey. Large numbers of Greek refugees from Asia Minor were settled in the area in 1923. The population swelled from 9,441 to 13,115 in the 1920s. A large segment of the population specialized in silk production, allowing Edessa to enjoy a high standard of living in the interwar period (1922–1940).  The town suffered during the last days of German occupation of Greece in 1944. As a retaliation for the shooting of one soldier by resistance fighters, the Nazis set Edessa on fire. Half of the city, including the Cathedral and the First Primary School, was destroyed and thousands of people were left homeless.  During the Greek Civil War (1946-1949) Edessa was twice attacked in 1948 by the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE), under the control of the Communist Party of Greece. The Slavic-Macedonian National Liberation Front (SNOF), later simply the National Liberation Front (NOF) was heavily established in the area, with eleven Slav Macedonian partisan units operating in the mountains around the city. When the NOF merged with the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE), many Slav Macedonians in the region enlisted as volunteers in the DSE. In early 1949, the military forces of the Greek Government conducted a series of successful military operations that destroyed all communist forces and after the end of war in August 1949, many communists and sympathizers, both ethnic Greeks and ethnic Macedonians were expelled from Greece and fled to the countries of Eastern Europe.  Since the 1970s Edessa's economy no longer relies on industry. At the beginning of the 21st century, it is a city based on services (mostly linked to its function as capital of the Pella regional unit) and tourism due to the many ancient sights nearby, including ancient Pella, the waterfalls and winter sports.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infrastructure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Edessa railway station is located on the Thessaloniki–Bitola railway and is served by both InterCity trains and Proastiakos Thessaloniki suburban trains.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Edessa hosts two sport clubs with presence or earlier presence in the higher national divisions in Greek football and handball. These clubs are shown below.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edessa (, ), until 1923 Vodena (; known as the \"City of Waters\"), is a city in northern Greece and the capital of the Pella regional unit, in the Central Macedonia region of Greece. It was also the capital of the defunct province of the same name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973308}
{"src_title": "Ignition system", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "MinGW was originally called mingw32 (\"Minimalist GNU for W32\"), following the GNU convention whereby Windows is shortened as \"W32\". The numbers were dropped in order to avoid the implication that it would be limited to producing 32-bit binaries. Colin Peters authored the initial release in 1998, consisting only of a Cygwin port of GCC. Jan-Jaap van der Heijden created a Windows-native port of GCC and added binutils and make. Mumit Khan later took over development, adding more Windows-specific features to the package, including the Windows system headers by Anders Norlander. In 2000, the project was moved to SourceForge in order to solicit more assistance from the community and centralize its development.  MinGW was selected as Project of the Month at SourceForge for September 2005.  In 2007 a fork of the original mingw called mingw-w64 appeared in order to provide support for 64 bits and new APIs. It has since then gained widespread use and distribution.  MSYS (a contraction of \"Minimal System\") was introduced as a Bourne shell command line interpreter system with the aim of better interoperability with native Windows software.  In 2018, following a disagreement with SourceForge about the administration of its mailing lists, MinGW migrated to OSDN.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Programming language support.", "content": "Most languages supported by GCC are supported on the MinGW port as well. These include C, C++, Objective-C, Objective-C++, Fortran, and Ada. The GCC runtime libraries are used (libstdc++ for C++, libgfortran for Fortran, etc.).  MinGW links by default to the Windows OS component library MSVCRT, which is the C library that Visual C version 6.0 linked to (the initial target was CRTDLL), which was released in 1998 and therefore does not include support for C99 features, or even all of C89. While targeting MSVCRT yields programs that require no additional runtime redistributables to be installed, the lack of support for C99 has caused porting problems, particularly where printf-style conversion specifiers are concerned. These issues have been partially mitigated by the implementation of a C99 compatibility library, \"libmingwex\", but the extensive work required is far from complete and may never be fully realized. MinGW-w64 has resolved these issues, and provides fully POSIX compliant printf functionality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Link compatibility.", "content": "Binaries (executables or DLLs) generated with different C++ compilers (like MinGW and Visual Studio) are in general not link compatible. However, compiled C code is link compatible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Components.", "content": "The MinGW project maintains and distributes a number of different core components and supplementary packages, including various ports of the GNU toolchain, such as GCC and binutils, translated into equivalent packages. These utilities can be used from the Windows command line or integrated into an IDE. Packages may be installed using the command line via mingw-get.  MinGW supports dynamic libraries named according to the codice_1 and codice_2 conventions, as well as static libraries following the codice_3 naming convention common on Unix and Unix-like systems.  In addition, a component of MinGW known as \"MSYS\" (\"minimal system\") provides Windows ports of a lightweight Unix-like shell environment including rxvt and a selection of POSIX tools sufficient to enable autoconf scripts to run, but it does not provide a C compiler or a case-sensitive file system.  \"mingwPORTs\" are user contributed additions to the MinGW software collection. Rather than providing these \"add-ons\" as precompiled binary packages, they are supplied in the form of interactive Bourne shell scripts, which guide the end user through the process of automatically downloading and patching original source code, then building and installing it. Users who wish to build any application from a mingwPORT must first install both MinGW and MSYS.  The implementation of Windows system headers and static import libraries are released under a permissive license, while the GNU ports are provided under the GNU General Public License. Binary downloads of both the complete MSYS package and individual MinGW GNU utilities are available from the MinGW site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison with Cygwin.", "content": "Although both Cygwin and MinGW can be used to port Unix software to Windows, they have different approaches: Cygwin aims to provide a complete POSIX layer comprising a full implementation of all major Unix system calls and libraries. Compatibility is considered higher priority than performance. On the other hand, MinGW's priorities are simplicity and performance. As such, it does not provide certain POSIX APIs which cannot easily be implemented using the Windows API, such as codice_4, codice_5 and codice_6. Applications written using a cross-platform library that has itself been ported to MinGW, such as SDL, wxWidgets, Qt, or GTK, will usually compile as easily in MinGW as they would in Cygwin.  Windows programs written with Cygwin run on top of a copylefted compatibility DLL that must be distributed with the program, along with the program's source code. MinGW does not require a compatibility layer, since MinGW-based programs are compiled with direct calls to Windows APIs.  The combination of MinGW and MSYS provides a small, self-contained environment that can be loaded onto removable media without leaving entries in the registry or files on the computer.  It is also possible to cross-compile Windows applications with MinGW-GCC under POSIX systems. This means that developers do not need a Windows installation with MSYS to compile software that will run on Windows with or without Cygwin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An ignition system generates a spark or heats an electrode to a high temperature to ignite a fuel-air mixture in spark ignition internal combustion engines, oil-fired and gas-fired boilers, rocket engines, etc. The widest application for spark ignition internal combustion engines is in petrol (gasoline) road vehicles such as cars and motorcycles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973309}
{"src_title": "Dinant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Dinant is positioned in the Upper Meuse valley, at a point where the river cuts deeply into the western Condroz plateau. Sited in a steep sided valley, between the rock face and the river. The original settlement had little space in which to grow away from the river, and it therefore expanded into a long, thin town, on a north-south axis, along the river shore. During the 19th century, the former \"Île des Batteurs\" (Drummers' Island) to the south was attached directly to the town when a branch of the river was filled in.  Dinant has been enriched by the agricultural opportunities presented by the fertile land on the plateau that overlooks it. Within the town, brassware production is a traditional craft that has benefited from the presence of the broad and, at this point, easily navigable river which has facilitated easy delivery of the raw materials and ready distribution of the resulting products of the artisans' workshops. Another traditional source of wealth is provided by the limestone cliffs overlooking the town, which supported a high-end quarrying industry, producing black marble and bluestone, and whose distribution also benefitted from the proximity of the relatively wide and deep navigable river.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins to the 10th century.", "content": "The name Dinant comes from the Celtic \"Divo-Nanto\", meaning \"Sacred Valley\" or \"Divine Valley\"; it can also be translated as \"Celestial Gorge\" or \"Luminous Gorge\" (as in modern Welsh \"Nant Dwyfol\").  The Dinant area was already populated in Neolithic, Celtic, and Roman times. The first mention of Dinant as a settlement dates from the 7th century, when Saint Perpete, bishop of Tongeren, which at the time had its capital in Maastricht, took Dinant as his residence and founded the church of Saint Vincent. In 870, Charles the Bald gave part of Dinant to be administered by the Count of Namur, the other part by the bishop of Tongeren, which was by that time based in Liège.  In the 11th century, the emperor Henry IV granted several rights over Dinant to the Prince-Bishop of Liège, including market and justice rights. From that time on, the city became one of the 23 ‘‘bonnes villes’’ (or principal cities) of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège. The first stone bridge on the Meuse and major repair to the castle, which had been built earlier, also date from the end of the 11th century. Throughout this period, and until the end of the 18th century, Dinant shared its history with its overlord Liège, sometimes rising in revolt against it, sometimes partaking in its victories and defeats, mostly against the neighbouring County of Namur.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Late Middle Ages.", "content": "Its strategic location on the Meuse exposed Dinant to battle and pillage, not always by avowed enemies: in 1466, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, uncle of Louis de Bourbon, Prince-Bishop of Liège, and Philip’s son Charles the Bold punished an uprising in Dinant during the Liège Wars, by casting 800 burghers into the Meuse and setting fire to the city. The city's economic rival was Bouvignes, downriver on the opposite shore of the Meuse.  Late Medieval Dinant and Bouvignes specialised in metalwork, producing finely cast and finished objects in a silvery brass alloy, called \"dinanderie\" and supplying aquamaniles, candlesticks, patens and other altar furniture throughout the Meuse valley (giving these objects their cautious designation \"Mosan\"), the Rhineland and beyond.  Henri Pirenne gained his doctorate in 1883 with a thesis on medieval Dinant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Old Regime and World War I.", "content": "In the 16th- and 17th-centuries wars between France and Spain, Dinant suffered destruction, famine and epidemics, despite its neutrality. In 1675, the French army under Marshal François de Créquy occupied the city. Dinant was briefly taken by the Austrians at the end of the 18th century. The whole Bishopric of Liège was ceded to France in 1795. The \"dinanderies\" fell out of fashion and the economy of the city now rested on leather tanning and the manufacture of playing cards. The famous \"couques de Dinant\" also appeared at that time.  The city suffered devastation again at the beginning of the First World War. On the 15 August 1914, French and German troops fought for the town in the Battle of Dinant (1914), among the wounded was Lieut. Charles de Gaulle. On 23 August, 674 inhabitants were summarily executed by Saxon troops of the German Army — the biggest massacre committed by the Germans in 1914. Within a month, some five thousand Belgian and French civilians were killed by the Germans at numerous similar occasions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Dinant's railway station is on the left bank of the river. There is hourly train service to Brussels, about a 90-minute ride.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Healthcare.", "content": "Dinant hosts the \"Saint-Vincent\" and \"Saint-Anne\" sites (Centre Hospitalier de Dinant) of the CHU UCLouvain Namur university hospital, the provinces' largest employer and serving as teaching hospital for the University of Louvain.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dinant () is a Walloon city and municipality located on the River Meuse, in the Belgian province of Namur. It lies south-east of Brussels, south-east of Charleroi and south of Namur. Dinant is situated north of the border with France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973310}
{"src_title": "Christian Dior", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Christian Dior was born in Granville, a seaside town on the coast of Normandy, France. He was the second of five children born to Maurice Dior, a wealthy fertilizer manufacturer (the family firm was Dior Frères), and his wife, formerly Madeleine Martin. He had four siblings: Raymond (father of Françoise Dior), Jacqueline, Bernard, and Catherine Dior. When Christian was about five years old, the family moved to Paris, but still returned to the Normandy coast for summer holidays.  Dior's family had hoped he would become a diplomat, but Dior was artistic and wished to be involved in art. To make money, he sold his fashion sketches outside his house for about 10 cents each. In 1928, Dior left school and received money from his father to finance a small art gallery, where he and a friend sold art by the likes of Pablo Picasso. The gallery was closed three years later, following the deaths of Dior's mother and brother, as well as financial trouble during the Great Depression that resulted in his father losing control of the family business.  From 1937, Dior was employed by the fashion designer Robert Piguet, who gave him the opportunity to design for three Piguet collections. Dior would later say that 'Robert Piguet taught me the virtues of simplicity through which true elegance must come.' One of his original designs for Piguet, a day dress with a short, full skirt called \"Cafe Anglais\", was particularly well received. Whilst at Piguet, Dior worked alongside Pierre Balmain, and was succeeded as house designer by Marc Bohan – who would, in 1960, become head of design for Christian Dior Paris. Dior left Piguet when he was called up for military service.  In 1942, when Dior left the army, he joined the fashion house of Lucien Lelong, where he and Balmain were the primary designers. For the duration of World War II, Dior, as an employee of Lelong – who labored to preserve the French fashion industry during wartime for economic and artistic reasons – in attempts to preserve the fashion industry during the war, Dior designed dresses for the wives of Nazi officers and French collaborators, as did other fashion houses that remained in business during the war, including Jean Patou, Jeanne Lanvin, and Nina Ricci. His sister, Catherine (1917–2008), served as a member of the French Resistance, was captured by the Gestapo, and sent to the Ravensbrück concentration camp, where she was incarcerated until her liberation in May 1945. In 1947, he named his debut fragrance, \"Miss Dior\" in tribute to his sister.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Dior fashion house.", "content": "In 1946 Marcel Boussac, a successful entrepreneur known as the richest man in France, invited Dior to design for Philippe et Gaston, a Paris fashion house launched in 1925. Dior refused, wishing to make a fresh start under his own name rather than reviving an old brand. On 8 December 1946, with Boussac's backing, Dior founded his fashion house. The actual name of the line of his first collection, presented on 12 February 1947, was \"Corolle\" (literally the botanical term \"corolla\" or \"circlet of flower petals\" in English), but the phrase \"New Look\" was coined for it by Carmel Snow, the editor-in-chief of \"Harper's Bazaar\". Dior's designs were more voluptuous than the boxy, fabric-conserving shapes of the recent World War II styles, influenced by the rations on fabric. He was a master at creating shapes and silhouettes; Dior is quoted as saying \"I have designed flower women.\" His look employed fabrics lined predominantly with percale, boned, bustier-style bodices, hip padding, wasp-waisted corsets and petticoats that made his dresses flare out from the waist, giving his models a very curvaceous form.  Initially, women protested because his designs covered up their legs, which they had been unused to because of the previous limitations on fabric. There was also some backlash to Dior's designs due to the amount of fabrics used in a single dress or suit. Of the “New Look”, Gabrielle “Coco” Chanel said the following, “Look how ridiculous these women are, wearing clothes by a man who doesn’t know women, never had one, and dreams of being one.” During one photo shoot in a Paris market, the models were attacked by female vendors over this profligacy, but opposition ceased as the wartime shortages ended. The \"New Look\" revolutionized women's dress and reestablished Paris as the centre of the fashion world after World War II.  In 1955, the 19-year-old Yves Saint Laurent became Dior's design assistant. Christian Dior later met with Yves Saint Laurent's mother, Lucienne Mathieu-Saint Laurent, in 1957 to tell her that he had chosen Saint Laurent to succeed him at Dior. She said at the time she had been confused by the remark, as Dior was only 52 at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Christian Dior died while on holiday in Montecatini, Italy, on 24 October 1957. Some reports say that he died of a heart attack after choking on a fish bone. \"Time\"'s obituary stated that he died of a heart attack after playing a game of cards. However, one of Dior's acquaintances, the Paris socialite Baron de Redé, wrote in his memoirs that contemporary rumor was that the heart attack had been caused by a strenuous sexual encounter. As of 2020, the exact circumstances of Dior's death remain undisclosed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "Dior was nominated for the 1955 Academy Award for Best Costume Design in black and white for the \"Terminal Station\" directed by Vittorio De Sica (1953).  Dior was also nominated in 1967 for a BAFTA for Best British Costume (Colour) for the \"Arabesque\" directed by Stanley Donen (1966).  Nominated in 1986 for his contributions to the 1985 film, \"Bras de fer\", he was up for Best Costume Design (Meilleurs costumes) during the 11th Cesar Awards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributes.", "content": "The Paul Gallico novella \"Mrs 'Arris Goes to Paris\" (1958, UK title \"Flowers for Mrs Harris\") tells the story of a London charwoman who falls in love with her employer's couture wardrobe and decides to go to Paris to purchase herself a Dior ballgown.  A perfume named Christian Dior is used in Haruki Murakami's novel \"The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle\" as an influential symbol placed at critical plot points throughout.  The English singer-songwriter Morrissey released a song titled \"Christian Dior\" as a B-side to his 2006 single, \"In the Future When All's Well\".  In the song \"Rainbow High\" from the film \"Evita\", Eva Perón sings \"I came from the people. They need to adore me. So Christian Dior me. From my head to my toes\"  Kanye West released a song titled \"Christian Dior Denim Flow\" in 2010. West mentioned the Dior brand in three other songs: \"Devil in a New Dress\", \"Stronger\", and \"Barry Bonds\"  Rapper Pop Smoke released a song titled Dior in February 2020.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christian Dior (; 21 January 1905 – 23 October 1957) was a French fashion designer, best known as the founder of one of the world's top fashion houses, also called Christian Dior, which is now owned by Groupe Arnault. His fashion houses are now all around the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973311}
{"src_title": "Werner Bischof", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Bischof was born in Zürich, Switzerland. When he was six years old, the family moved to Waldshut, Germany, where he subsequently went to school. In 1932, having abandoned studies to become a teacher, he enrolled at the \"Kunstgewerbeschule\" in Zürich. While there he studied alongside. He graduated \"cum laude\" in 1936.  From 1939 on, he worked as an independent photographer for various magazines, in particular, \"\", based in Zürich. He travelled extensively from 1945 to 1949 through nearly all European countries from France to Romania and from Norway to Greece. His works on the devastation in post-war Europe established him as one of the foremost photojournalists of his time.  He was associated into Magnum Photos in 1948 and became a full member in 1949. At that time Magnum was composed of just five other photographers, its founders Robert Capa, Henri Cartier-Bresson, George Rodger, David Seymour, and Ernst Haas.  The focus of much of Bischof's post-war humanist photography was showing the poverty and despair around him in Europe, tempered with his desire to travel the world, conveying the beauty of nature and humanity.  Of photography, Bischof said -  In 1951, he went to India, freelancing for \"Life\", and then to Japan and Korea. For \"Paris Match\" he worked as a war reporter in Vietnam. In 1954, he travelled through Mexico and Panama, before flying to Peru, where he embarked on a trip through the Andes to the Amazonas on 14 May. On 16 May 1954 his car fell off a cliff on a mountain road in the Andes, and all three passengers were killed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Werner Bischof (26 April 1916 – 16 May 1954) was a Swiss photographer and photojournalist. He became a full member of Magnum Photos in 1949, the first new photographer to join its original founders. Bischof's book \"Japan\" (1954) was awarded the Prix Nadar in 1955.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973312}
{"src_title": "Florina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Capacitors.", "content": "A discharged or partially charged capacitor appears as a short circuit to the source when the source voltage is higher than the potential of the capacitor. A fully discharged capacitor will take approximately 5 \"RC\" time cycles to fully charge; during the charging portion of the cycle, instantaneous current can exceed load current by a substantial multiple. Instantaneous current declines to load current as the capacitor reaches full charge. In the case of open circuit, the capacitor will be charged to the peak AC voltage (one cannot actually charge a capacitor with AC line power – this refers to unidirectional alternating voltage output from a rectifier).  In the case of charging a capacitor from a linear DC voltage, like that from a battery, the capacitor will still appear as a short circuit; it will draw current from the source limited only by the internal resistance of the source and ESR of the capacitor. In this case, charging current will be continuous and decline exponentially to the load current. For open circuit, the capacitor will be charged to the DC voltage.  Safeguarding against the filter capacitor’s charging period’s initial current inrush flow is crucial for the performance of the device. Temporarily introducing a high resistance between the input power and rectifier can increase the resistance of the powerup, leading to reducing the inrush current. Using an inrush current limiter for this purpose helps, as it can provide the initial resistance needed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transformers.", "content": "When a transformer is first energized, a transient current up to 10 to 15 times larger than the rated transformer current can flow for several cycles. Toroidal transformers, using less copper for the same power handling, can have up to 60 times inrush to running current. Worst-case inrush happens when the primary winding is connected at an instant around the zero crossing of the primary voltage (which for a pure inductance would be the current maximum in the AC cycle) and if the polarity of the voltage half-cycle has the same polarity as the remanence in the iron core has (the magnetic remanence was left high from a preceding half cycle). Unless the windings and core are sized to normally never exceed 50% of saturation (and in an efficient transformer they never are, such a construction would be overly heavy and inefficient), then during such a start-up the core will be saturated. This can also be expressed as the remnant magnetism in normal operation is nearly as high as the saturation magnetism at the \"knee\" of the hysteresis loop. Once the core saturates, however, the winding inductance appears greatly reduced, and only the resistance of the primary-side windings and the impedance of the power line are limiting the current. As saturation occurs for part half-cycles only, harmonic-rich waveforms can be generated and can cause problems to other equipment. For large transformers with low winding resistance and high inductance, these inrush currents can last for several seconds until the transient has died away (decay time proportional to \"X\"/\"R\") and the regular AC equilibrium is established. To avoid magnetic inrush, only for transformers with an air gap in the core, the inductive load needs to be synchronously connected near a supply voltage peak, in contrast with the zero-voltage switching, which is desirable to minimize sharp-edged current transients with resistive loads such as high-power heaters. But for toroidal transformers only a premagnetising procedure before switching on allows to start those transformers without any inrush-current peak. Inrush current can be divided in three categories:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motors.", "content": "When an electric motor, AC or DC, is first energized, the rotor is not moving, and a current equivalent to the stalled current will flow, reducing as the motor picks up speed and develops a back EMF to oppose the supply. AC induction motors behave as transformers with a shorted secondary until the rotor begins to move, while brushed motors present essentially the winding resistance. The duration of the starting transient is less if the mechanical load on the motor is relieved until it has picked up speed.  For high-power motors, the winding configuration may be changed (wye at start and then delta) during start-up to reduce the current drawn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heaters and filament lamps.", "content": "Metals have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance; they have lower resistance when cold. Any electrical load that contains a substantial component of metallic resistive heating elements, such as an electric kiln or a bank of tungsten-filament incandescent bulbs, will draw a high current until the metallic element reaches operating temperature. For example, wall switches intended to control incandescent lamps will have a \"T\" rating, indicating that they can safely control circuits with the large inrush currents of incandescent lamps. The inrush may be as much as 14 times the steady-state current and may persist for a few milliseconds for smaller lamps up to several seconds for lamps of 500 watts or more. (Non-graphitized) carbon-filament lamps, rarely used now, have a negative temperature coefficient and draw more current as they warm up; an \"inrush\" current is not found with these types.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Protection.", "content": "A resistor in series with the line can be used to limit the current charging input capacitors. However, this approach is not very efficient, especially in high-power devices, since the resistor will have a voltage drop and dissipate some power.  Inrush current can also be reduced by inrush current limiters. Negative-temperature-coefficient (NTC) thermistors are commonly used in switching power supplies, motor drives and audio equipment to prevent damage caused by inrush current. A thermistor is a thermally-sensitive resistor with a resistance that changes significantly and predictably as a result of temperature changes. The resistance of an NTC thermistor decreases as its temperature increases.  As the inrush current limiter self-heats, the current begins to flow through it and warm it. Its resistance begins to drop, and a relatively small current flow charges the input capacitors. After the capacitors in the power supply become charged, the self-heated inrush current limiter offers little resistance in the circuit, with a low voltage drop with respect to the total voltage drop of the circuit. A disadvantage is that immediately after the device is switched off, the NTC resistor is still hot and has a low resistance. It cannot limit the inrush current unless it cools for more than 1 minute to get a higher resistance. Another disadvantage is that the NTC thermistor is not short-circuit-proof.  Another way to avoid the transformer inrush current is a \"transformer switching relay\". This does not need time for cool down. It can also deal with power-line half-wave voltage dips and is short-circuit-proof. This technique is important for IEC 61000-4-11 tests.  Another option, particularly for high-voltage circuits, is to use a pre-charge circuit. The circuit would support a current-limited precharge mode during the charging of capacitors and then switch to an unlimited mode for normal operation when the voltage on the load is 90% of full charge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Switch-off spike.", "content": "When a transformer, electromagnet, or other inductive load is switched off, the inductor increases the voltage across the switch or breaker and cause extended arcing. When a transformer is switched off on its primary side, inductive kick produces a voltage spike on the secondary that can damage insulation and connected loads.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Inrush current, input surge current, or switch-on surge is the maximal instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first turned on. Alternating-current electric motors and transformers may draw several times their normal full-load current when first energized, for a few cycles of the input waveform. Power converters also often have inrush currents much higher than their steady-state currents, due to the charging current of the input capacitance. The selection of over-current-protection devices such as fuses and circuit breakers is made more complicated when high inrush currents must be tolerated. The over-current protection must react quickly to overload or short-circuit faults but must not interrupt the circuit when the (usually harmless) inrush current flows.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973313}
{"src_title": "SMS Seeadler (1888)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "\"Pass of Balmaha\".", "content": "The ship was launched as \"Pass of Balmaha\" by Robert Duncan & Company, Port Glasgow, Scotland, on 9 August 1888 as a steel-hulled ship-rigged sailing vessel measuring. She was long, in beam and with a depth of. Delivered in the following month to the ownership of David R Clark, a partner in Gibson & Clark, Glasgow, she was registered at that port with Official Number 95087 and signal letters KTRP.  In February 1908, \"Pass of Balmaha\" was sold at Leith by Gibson & Clark for £5,500 to The River Plate Shipping Company Ltd of Montreal. Her port of registry remained Glasgow, but she was managed by American interests in Boston, Massachusetts. By 1910, she had been transferred to the Ship Pass of Balmaha Company Ltd, Montreal, and under the management of George I Dewar, Toronto. Both of these companies were controlled by American shipping and lumber interests.  Soon after the outbreak of World War I in 1914 \"Pass of Balmaha\" was transferred to the neutral United States flag and registered at Boston in the ownership of the Harby Steamship Company Ltd of New York, part of the Harris-Irby Cotton Company.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capture.", "content": "\"Pass of Balmaha\" was captured by in the North Sea in 1915 under somewhat peculiar circumstances. She departed from New York Harbor in June 1915, bound for the Arctic port of Arkhangelsk with a cargo of cotton for Russia. She was intercepted by the British auxiliary cruiser \"Victorian\" off the coast of Norway. \"Victorian\"s captain led a boarding party to inspect the cargo for contraband. The British captain found reason for suspicion, and ordered \"Pass of Balmaha\" to sail to Kirkwall in the Orkney Islands for further inspection. A prize crew of an officer and six marines was left aboard to ensure compliance.  The British also ordered the neutral American colours struck and replaced with the British flag, against the will of \"Pass of Balmaha\"s Captain Scott, who realised that this would mark the ship as a belligerent. Soon after, \"U-36\" intercepted \"Pass of Balmaha\". To avoid being impounded, Scott hid the British prize crew in the hold and replaced the Union Jack with the Stars and Stripes. The commander of \"U-36\", Captain Ernst Graeff, was not entirely convinced by this ruse and ordered \"Pass of Balmaha\" to sail for Cuxhaven for inspection. A German ensign was left aboard. Scott and his crew, resentful of what they perceived as British meddling, kept the British marines locked in the hold.  \"Pass of Balmaha\" reached Cuxhaven without major incident, and was boarded by a German inspection party. Captain Scott then revealed the British prize crew to the Germans, who took them prisoner. For their cooperation, the Americans were allowed free passage to a neutral country, but \"Pass of Balmaha\" became property of the German Navy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "SMS \"Seeadler\".", "content": "By 1916 the Allies had blockaded German warships in the North Sea, and any commerce raiders that succeeded in breaking out lacked foreign or colonial bases for resupply of coal. This gave rise to the idea of equipping a sailing ship instead, since it would not require coaling.  \"Seeadler\" was equipped with an auxiliary engine, hidden lounges, accommodation for additional crew and prisoners, two hidden 105 mm guns, mounted on either side of the forecastle, two hidden heavy machine guns, a pair of torpedo tubes for anti-cruiser purposes, and rifles for boarding parties. These weapons were rarely fired (the torpedo tubes never), and many of the 15 ships encountered by \"Seeadler\" were sunk with only one single accidental casualty on either side during the entire journey. On 21 December 1916, she sailed under the command of \"Kapitänleutnant\" Felix von Luckner. The ship was disguised as a Norwegian wood carrier and succeeded in crossing the British blockading line despite being boarded for an inspection. The crew had been handpicked partly for their ability to speak Norwegian. Over the next 225 days, she captured 15 ships in the Atlantic and Pacific and led the British and US Navies on a merry chase.  Her journey ended wrecked on a reef at the island of Mopelia from Tahiti in the Society Islands, part of French Polynesia. Luckner and some crew sailed for Fiji, where they were captured and imprisoned. The French schooner \"Lutece\", of 126 tons, was captured by the remaining crew on 5 September 1917. They sailed to Easter Island as \"Fortuna\", arriving on 4 October and running aground there, after which they were interned by the Chilean authorities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Captured ships.", "content": "Sixteen ships, totaling 30,099 tons, were captured by \"Seeadler\" between 21 December 1916 and 8 September 1917. Unless otherwise noted, all vessels in the list were steamships.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SMS \"Seeadler (Ger: sea eagle) was a three-master steel-hulled sailing ship. She was one of the last fighting sailing ships to be used in war when she served as a merchant raider with Imperial Germany in World War I. Built as the British-flagged Pass of Balmaha\", she was captured by the German submarine, and in 1916 converted to a commerce raider. As \"Seeadler\" she had a successful raiding career, capturing and sinking 15 ships in 225 days until she was wrecked, in September 1917, in French Polynesia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973314}
{"src_title": "Stanislaw Tillich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Born in Neudörfel (Sorbian: Nowa Wjeska) near Kamenz (Sorbian: Kamjenc), Tillich studied construction and drive techniques at the Dresden University of Technology after finishing his Abitur at the Sorbian Gymnasium in Bautzen in 1977. He graduated from university with a Diplomingenieur degree in 1984. Tillich was an employee of the district administration of Kamenz between 1987 and 1989. Later he became an entrepreneur.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Stanislaw Tillich joined the Christian Democratic Union (East Germany) in 1987 and became a member of the CDU after German reunification in 1990. He was a member of the Volkskammer in 1990 and was delegated as an observer of the European Parliament between 1991 and 1994. He joined the European People's Party and was a member of the European Parliament between 1994 and 1999 where he was the Parliament's rapporteur on the 1998 EU budget.  Tillich has been a minister in the government of Saxony since 1999. He was State Minister for Federal and European Affairs until 2002 when he became State Minister and head of the \"Staatskanzlei\". In 2004 he became the Saxon State Minister for Environment and Agriculture. He became State Minister of Finance in 2007 and has been a member of the Landtag of Saxony since 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minister-President of Saxony, 2008-2017.", "content": "Tillich was proposed by Georg Milbradt on 14 April 2008 to become his successor as the Minister-President of Saxony. The Landtag of Saxony elected him on 28 May 2008. He is the first Sorbian head of government in more than thousand years of Sorbian-German coexistence in Saxony.  In the negotiations to form a coalition government of the Christian Democrats (CDU together with the Bavarian CSU) and the Free Democratic Party (FDP) following the 2009 national elections, Tillich was part of the CDU/CSU delegation in the working group on economic affairs and energy policy, led by Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg and Rainer Brüderle.  Since 2010, Tillich has been a member of the Christian Democratic Union's 20-strong executive board. By 2012, opinion polls put the backing of Tillich's CDU at 44 percent, at the time the highest level of support in any of the 16 German federal states; this made commentators describe him as “Germany’s second most-powerful politician from the formerly Communist East“ after Chancellor Angela Merkel.  Tillich participated in the exploratory talks between the CDU, CSU and SPD parties to form a coalition government under Merkel following the 2013 federal elections.  Tillich won reelection in the 2014 state elections. Ahead of the elections, he had soon put an end to speculation that he might team up with the newly founded AfD, which the CDU instead attempted to characterize as a fringe movement that flirts with the far right. At the time, Saxony was the first of three eastern regions to hold elections in a two-week span, with Brandenburg and Thuringia later rounding off the first set of electoral since Merkel won a third term.  As one of Saxony's representatives at the Bundesrat, Tillich served as chairman of the Committee on Foreign Affairs from October 2016. In addition, he was a member of the German-Russian Friendship Group set up in cooperation with Russia's Federation Council.  When the AfD overtook the CDU for the first time to emerge as Saxony's most popular party in the 2017 national elections, Tillich resigned and Michael Kretschmer took over.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life after politics.", "content": "From 2018 until 2019, Tillich co-chaired the German government's so-called coal commission, which was tasked to develop a masterplan before the end of the year on how to phase-out coal and create a new economic perspective for the country's coal-mining regions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Besides his native language Upper Sorbian, Tillich speaks fluent German, Czech and Polish. His wife, Veronika, is half-Polish, half-Sorbian. Her father was a forced laborer from Poland who settled in Lusatia after World War II and married a Sorbian woman. Tillich and his wife have two children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stanislaw Tillich (; ; born 10 April 1959) is a German CDU politician. He served as the 3rd Minister President of Saxony from 2008 to 2017. From 1 November 2015 until 31 October 2016 he was President of the Bundesrat and \"ex officio\" deputy to the President of Germany. Tillich is of Sorbian ethnicity and lives in Panschwitz-Kuckau (Pančicy-Kukow), which is 35 kilometres north-east of Dresden near Kamenz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973315}
{"src_title": "Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born on 9 April 1882, Duke Frederick Francis IV was the son of Frederick Francis III, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, then hereditary Grand duke, and Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia. He was born in Palermo, Sicily at Villa Belmonte where his parents were staying to alleviate the faltering health of the hereditary Grand duke. Frederick Francis's father suffered from a weak heart, chronic asthma, and acute eczema and had to live part of the year away from Mecklenburg in a warmer climate. Frederick Francis's mother, raised in the splendor of the Russian imperial court and the Orthodox church, never got used to the provincial austerity of the Lutheran court of Schwerin, preferring to live abroad.  Frederick Francis was one year old when he became the hereditary grand duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin at the death of his grandfather Frederick Francis II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin on 15 April 1883. Frederick Francis IV had an older sister, Alexandrine and a younger one, Cecilie. The three children were raised with simplicity and a lot of freedom by royal standards. Theirs was a polyglot household. The three siblings, who would remain very close throughout their lives, learned English, French, German and Russian. The family spent only half of the year in Schwerin during the summer months. They stayed as little time as possible in Schwerin Castle surrounded by a lake, preferring Gelbensande, a hunting lodge near Rostock and the Baltic Sea. There, the family led the simple life they preferred. Friederich Franz III spent most his time hunting, while Anastasia and the children rode or drove out, visited local people or enjoyed the beach and the surrounding forest. Every year from November until May, they lived in Villa Welden in Cannes where they sailed with their father and swam in the Mediterranean. On their journey back to Germany they stopped in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.", "content": "Frederick Francis IV succeeded his father as Grand Duke upon his death on 10 April 1897. He had just turned fifteen the day before. As he was a teenager, due to his minority, the grand duchy was governed by his uncle Duke Johann Albrecht as regent. Frederick Francis's mother, Grand Duchess Anastasia preferred to remain in France while he continued the long preparation to eventually assume the throne. The following year, his older sister, Alexandrine married the Danish Crown Prince (future King Christian X in 1912). His mother and younger sister Cecile visited him frequently in Dresden and during their stays, they would go out for long drives in a carriage and horses bought for him from Schwerin. In 1903, the young Grand Duke moved to Bonn, where he attended university and studied administration and law. Adolf Langfeld was appointed as his study advisor.  On 9 April 1901 Frederick Francis came of age, ending the regency and beginning his reign in Schwerin. He immediately began working on a reform of the constitution, but it failed in the face of opposition from parliament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "On 7 June 1904, Frederick Francis married Princess Alexandra of Hanover and Cumberland in Gmunden. She was the second eldest daughter of Ernest Augustus, Crown Prince of Hanover, and his wife Princess Thyra of Denmark, a daughter of Christian IX of Denmark.  They had five children:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Abdication.", "content": "Following the 1918 suicide of Grand Duke Adolphus Frederick VI of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Frederick Francis took up the regency of Strelitz. This happened because the heir presumptive Duke Charles Michael was serving in the Russian Army at the time and had indicated that he wished to renounce his succession rights. Frederick Francis abdicated the grand ducal throne on 14 November 1918 following the German Empire's defeat in World War I; the regency ended at the same time.  After his abdication, he was initially not allowed to live in Mecklenburg and had to move to Denmark. A year later, he was permitted to return. He recovered some of his former properties and occupied some of his former homes. Frederick Francis died on 17 November 1945 in Flensburg after being arrested by No6 RAF Security section on 9 November 1945. He was succeeded as head of the grand ducal house by his son Hereditary Grand Duke Friedrich Franz.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Frederick Francis IV (Friedrich Franz Michael; 9 April 1882 – 17 November 1945) was the last Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and regent of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. He inherited the throne when he was fifteen years old in 1897 and was forced to renounce it in 1918.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973316}
{"src_title": "Old Shatterhand (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "Killings of innocent ranchers indicate the Apaches have broken the peace treaty. Old Shatterhand, blood brother of the Apache chief Winnetou, finds out that ruthless land grabbers did the killings, hoping to start off a war between the Indians and the settlers, and follows the trail right back to the gates of the cavalry's fort.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "After the success of director Harald Reinl's \"Treasure of Silver Lake\" (\"Der Schatz im Silbersee\") in 1962 produced by Horst Wendlandt for Rialto Film, his rival Artur Brauner from CCC Film also wanted to have his share in this upcoming series. Since Wendlandt got the rights for the original Karl May novels (although none of his films ever got too close to their respective plots), Brauner only had the chance of making a movie \"inspired by\" Karl May, using some of the already known characters portrayed by American Lex Barker as \"Old Shatterhand\" and Frenchman Pierre Brice as \"Winnetou\".  American Guy Madison, who had starred in the television series \"The Adventures of Wild Bill Hickok\", played one of the bad guys and exotic Israeli Daliah Lavi was one of the \"damsels in distress\" before turning to a singing career, as did American Bill Ramsey, the comic part in this movie, already known in Germany for his Schlager music and later jazz songs.  One mystery remained from the movie: Today no one remembers who the original singer was of the song \"Nothing To Say\" (\"Die Stunde kam\") by saloon singer Rosemarie, played by actress Kitty Mattern.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The film Old Shatterhand (known as Apaches' Last Battle in the UK) is a very successful Eurowestern based on the character \"Old Shatterhand\" invented by German novelist Karl May. It is a West German CCC Film production co-produced with French, Italian, and Yugoslav companies and filmed in 70mm. Financed with roughly DM5,000,000, the film was the most expensive Karl May western. Composer Riz Ortolani used a chorus for his film score.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973317}
{"src_title": "Donovan Bailey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Manchester, Jamaica in 1967, Bailey immigrated to Canada at age 13 and played basketball with John Degenhardt before his graduation at Queen Elizabeth Park High School in Oakville, Ontario. He began competing as a 100 m sprinter part-time in 1991, but he did not take up the sport seriously until 1994. At that time, he was also a stockbroker. He was coached by American Dan Pfaff.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1993-94 he competed for Fenerbahçe Athletics. At the 1995 world Track & Field Championships in Gothenburg, Sweden, Bailey won both the 100m sprint and the 4 × 100 m relay titles.  As a precursor to the centennial Olympics being held in Atlanta, Bailey broke the indoor 50 m world record during a competition in Reno, Nevada in 1996. He was timed at 5.56 seconds. Maurice Greene matched that performance in 1999, but his run was never ratified as a world record. Bailey repeated the \"double\" at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, setting a world record of 9.84s +0.7 m/s wind in the 100 m. Many Canadians felt his victory restored the image of Canadian athletes, which had been tarnished by Ben Johnson's previous disqualified win at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. Bailey was only the second person to hold all the major titles in the 100 m concurrently (World Champion, Olympic Champion & World Record Holder); Carl Lewis was the first to achieve this feat.  Bailey won a third world title in 1997 with the Canadian relay team, while finishing second in the 100 m behind Maurice Greene.  After the 1997 season Bailey ruptured his Achilles tendon while playing basketball during the post season of 1998, effectively ending his career. He made a second attempt in the 2000 Summer Olympics for Olympic glory, but suffered from pneumonia and dropped out during the rounds. He retired from the sport in 2001, having been a three-time World and 2 time Olympic champion.  Bailey's time of 9.84 in Atlanta was the 100m world record from 1996 until 1999, when it was broken by Maurice Greene. The time also stood as the Commonwealth record from 1996 until 2005, when it was broken by Asafa Powell, and is the current Canadian record holder (shared with Bruny Surin since 1999). His Olympic record was broken by Usain Bolt at the 2008 Beijing Olympics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World's Fastest Man.", "content": "In May 1997 he raced against Michael Johnson in a 150 m race at Toronto's Rogers Centre in a bid to truly determine who the world's fastest man was. Earlier in the spring of 1997, Johnson began performing television promotions in which he billed himself as \"the world's fastest man\" as a result of his 200 meters world record, despite the fact that the 100 m world record holders are traditionally given that unofficial title. Though Bailey ran in the competition, he initially refused to take part, stating that \"the world's fastest man was decided in Atlanta.\"  Bailey won with a time of 14.99 seconds and received $1.5 million.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After racing.", "content": "After racing, Bailey started his own company called DBX Sport Management which helps amateur athletes find a way to promote themselves. He also started a sport injury clinic in Oakville, Ontario.  He has been inducted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame twice: in 2004 as an individual, and in 2008 as part of the 1996 Summer Olympics 4 × 100 relay team.  In August 2008 Bailey began work as a track commentator for CBC Television at the 2008 Summer Olympics. He estimated that had Usain Bolt not slowed down near the end of the 100m dash (which he still won in record time), he could have set a time of 9.55 seconds. He returned as the track analyst for CBC's coverage of the 2016 Summer Olympics.  In 2016, he was made a member of the Order of Ontario. In 2017, Canada's Walk of Fame honoured him with a star.  In 2018, it was reported that Bailey had provided his entire athlete's trust of $3.75 million to Aird & Berlis lawyer Stuart Bollefer, who invested it in what was determined to be a tax evasion scheme by the Canadian government. Bailey lost the full amount due to the scheme, however the courts ordered Aird & Berlis to pay all outstanding taxes due to their negligence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Bailey is a father of two, a girl named Adrienna Bailey and one boy, Mateus Bailey. He has four brothers — Glenroy, Wilburn, O'Neil and Michael, along with one sister, Arlene Duncan. His father is African American and his mother is West Indian.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Donovan Bailey, (born December 16, 1967) is a retired Jamaican-Canadian sprinter, who once held the world record for the 100 metres. He recorded a time of 9.84 seconds to win the gold medal at the 1996 Olympic Games. He was the first Canadian to legally break the 10-second barrier in the 100 m. Particularly noted for his top speed, Bailey ran in his 1996 Olympic title run, the fastest ever recorded by a human at the time. He was inducted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame in 2004 as an individual athlete and in 2008 as part of the 1996 Summer Olympics 4x100 relay team. In 2005, he was also inducted into the Ontario Sports Hall of Fame.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973318}
{"src_title": "Bluma Zeigarnik", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Zeigarnik was born and raised as Bluma Gerstein into a Lithuanian Jewish family in Prienai, Suwałki Governorate (now in Lithuania) to Wolf and Ronya Gerstein, as their only child. Although her parents spoke some Yiddish, their primary language was Russian, as was hers. From a very young age, Zeigarnik had a high regard for education. This showed in Zeigarnik's interest in wanting to continue her education. Zeigarnik was one of the first Russian women to go to a university. She spent many hours studying in the library. It was there that she met her husband, Albert Zeigarnik, and later married in 1919. In 1922, her husband Albert and she left for Berlin, where he studied at the Polytechnic Institute and she at the University of Berlin. She met Kurt Lewin and assisted him during her time at the university. She graduated in 1925 and received a Doctoral degree from the same university in 1927.  Zeigarnik matriculated from the Berlin University in 1927. She described the Zeigarnik effect in a diploma prepared under the supervision of Kurt Lewin. In the 1930s, she worked with Lev Vygotsky at the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine (AUIEM, aka \"VIEM\"). During World War II, she assisted Alexander Luria in treating head injuries. She was a co-founder of Moscow State University Department of Psychology and the All-Russian Seminars in Psychopathology. She died in Moscow at the age of 87.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1931, Zeigarnik and her husband moved to Moscow, where she began a career at the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine (AUIEM). In 1940, a major event happened in Zeigarnik's life; her husband Albert was arrested on suspicion of spying for Germany. By this time, they had two children together, one six years old born in 1934 and the other less than a year old born the previous year in 1939; she was left to take care of the two by herself. Throughout the year, she continued to visit her husband where he was being held in the Lubyanka prison and waited to learn what his punishment and fate were to be. In 1943, Zeigarnik returned to Moscow and began her work again at AUIEM and continued working there until 1950. Shortly after, she lost her job because of anti-Semitism. In 1983, Zeigarnik was awarded the Lewin Memorial Award for her psychological research. Although she was awarded, due to the Russian government's strict rules, the award was reviewed and approved but she was unable to retrieve it. In February 1988, Zeigarnik died before ever gaining her award.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "One of Zeigarnik's first influences was Kurt Lewin. Zeigarnik met Lewin during her first year at Humboldt University of Berlin. During this time, Lewin was a teacher and a researcher, and one of the first to let females into his lab. Zeigarnik liked his progressive views and started her scientific career within his research group. It was with Lewin that she developed her well-known theory: the Zeigarnik effect. Not only was Lewin the main influence in Zeigarnik life, but he was also a good friend. Another Influence of Zeigarnik was L.S. Vygotsky. Zeigarnik met and started working with Vygotsky, as well as A.R Luria and A.N Leontyev in the 1930s. Together they studied topics involving mental structures and general psychology. Their research also allowed Zeigarnik to create and name her own field of psychology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research and contributions.", "content": "In the 1920s, Zeigarnik continued her study under Vygotsky's supervision and was able to conduct a study on memory in which she compared memory in relation to incomplete and complete tasks and found that it is easier for people to remember incomplete tasks than those that are complete. The findings became known as \"The Zeigarnik Effect\". Shortly after her finding of the Zeigarnik Effect, she began work at the Institute of Higher Nervous Activity, where she was also influenced by the psychologist Vygotsky, becoming a part of his science research activities. Zeigarnik work provided great service to her country and as a pathophysiology, she established the use of her work in medical care, specifically in clinical work. Zeigarnik's copious experience helped her present the stages of development of Russian Psychology. Her work had a clinical focus which helped psychiatric health professionals focus their attention on mental health issues. In addition, she continued to teach and concentrated on the importance of mental health and clinical practice. Later, Zeigarnik concluded that the importance of taking personality assessment of the patient's psychological state and general understanding of their defect structure was key. Zeigarnik stated that, \"Any problem suggested by psychiatric practice, whether it concerns the examination of disability, or the study of the structure of remission, or the effectiveness of treatment - the data of psychological study comes useful only at once, when and where they suggest a qualification of the whole personality rather than a certain mental process\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zeigarnik effect.", "content": "In psychology, the Zeigarnik effect states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed tasks (this effect should not be confused with the Ovsiankina effect). In Gestalt psychology, the Zeigarnik effect has been used to demonstrate the general presence of Gestalt phenomena: not just appearing as perceptual effects, but also present in cognition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "Zeigarnik was nominated for the Lewin Memorial Award in 1983 for her work regarding neuropsychology. This award was named after her former professor Kurt Lewin, and is commonly rewarded to those who help to expand and develop psychological research. Being that Zeigarnik herself had made many contributions in this area of research: creating her own theory, developing Pathophysiology, and working with mental structures, she was granted the Lewin award in Leipzig at the International Congress of Psychology. Although officially acknowledged at the congress, Zeigarnik did not ever physically receive the award. This was due to the strict policies Russia had at the time; especially regarding political bans between East and West. Although eventually the award had been reviewed and approved, Zeigarnik was not allowed to travel outside of the country to retrieve the award. In 1988, 5 years after being nominated, she died before ever receiving it.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bluma Wulfovna Zeigarnik (; 9 November (27 October) 1901 – 24 February 1988) was a Soviet psychologist and psychiatrist, a member of the Berlin School of experimental psychology and Vygotsky Circle. She discovered the Zeigarnik effect and contributed to the establishment of experimental psychopathology as a separate discipline in the Soviet Union in the post-World War II period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973319}
{"src_title": "Charles Bridge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Through the 19th century.", "content": "Throughout its history, Charles Bridge has suffered several disasters and witnessed many historic events. Czech legend has it that construction began on Charles Bridge at 5:31am on 9 July 1357 with the first stone being laid by Charles IV himself. This exact time was very important to the Holy Roman Emperor because he was a strong believer in numerology and felt that this specific time, which formed a palindrome (1357 9, 7 5:31), was a numerical bridge, and would imbue Charles Bridge with additional strength. The bridge was completed 45 years later in 1402. A flood in 1432 damaged three pillars. In 1496 the third arch (counting from the Old Town side) broke down after one of the pillars lowered, being undermined by the water (repairs were finished in 1503). A year after the Battle of White Mountain, when the 27 leaders of the anti-Habsburg revolt were executed on 21 June 1621, the Old Town Bridge Tower served as a deterrent display of the severed heads of the victims to stop Czechs from further resistance. During the end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648, the Swedes occupied the west bank of the Vltava, and as they tried to advance into the Old Town the heaviest fighting took place right on the bridge. During the fighting, they severely damaged one side of the Old Town bridge tower (the side facing the river) and the remnants of almost all gothic decorations had to be removed from it afterward. During the late 17th century and early 18th century the bridge gained its typical appearance when an alley of baroque statues was installed on the pillars. During a great flood in 1784, five pillars were severely damaged and, although the arches did not break down, the traffic on the bridge had to be greatly restricted for some time.  The original stairway to Kampa Island was replaced by a new one in 1844. The next year, another great flood threatened the bridge, but the bridge escaped major damage. In 1848, during the revolutionary days, the bridge escaped unharmed from the cannonade, but some of the statues were damaged. In 1866, pseudo-gothic gas lights were erected on the balustrade; they were later replaced with electric lighting. In the 1870s, the first regular public-transport (omnibus) line went over the bridge (officially called \"Charles Bridge\" after 1870) later replaced by a horse tram. The bridge towers underwent a thorough reconstruction between 1874 and 1883.  On 2–5 September 1890, another disastrous flood struck Prague and severely damaged Charles Bridge. Thousands of rafts, logs and other floating materials that escaped from places upstream gradually formed a huge barrier leaning against the bridge. Three arches were torn down by the great pressure and two pillars collapsed from being undermined by the water, while others were partly damaged. With the fifth pillar, two statues – St. Ignatius of Loyola and St. Xavier, both by Ferdinand Brokoff – also fell into the river. The former statue was replaced by a statuary of Saints Cyril and Methodius by Karel Dvořák; the latter was replaced by a replica of the original. Repair works lasted for two years (the bridge was reopened on 19 November 1892) and cost 665,000 crowns.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th century to present.", "content": "In the beginning of the 20th century, Charles Bridge saw a steep rise of heavy traffic. The last day of the horse line on the bridge was 15 May 1905, when it was replaced with an electric tram and later, in 1908, with buses. At the end of World War II, a barricade was built in the Old Town bridge tower gateway. A capital repair of the bridge took place between 1965 and 1978, based on a collaboration among various scientific and cultural institutes. The stability of the pillars was reassured, all broken stone blocks were replaced, and the asphalt top was removed. All vehicular traffic has been excluded from Charles Bridge since then, making it accessible by pedestrians only. The repair cost 50 million crowns.  During the 1990s, some people started criticizing the previous reconstruction of the bridge and proposing further work. As of the beginning of the new millennium, most of the experts appeared to agree that the previous reconstruction had not been flawless but disputed the need for further interference with the bridge. However, after the disastrous floods of 2002 (which themselves caused only minor harm to the bridge), support for an overall bridge reconstruction grew. It was decided that repair and stabilization of the two pillars (numbers 8 and 9) on the Malá Strana side of the bridge would be done. These are the only river pillars that were not repaired after the 1890 floods. The reconstruction was a gradual process that closed off parts of the bridge without closing the span entirely.  Performed from 2008 to 2010, the work included bolstering the pillars and building a new hydroisolation system protecting the bridge. It also encompassed a re-pavimentation of the bridge's pavement and the replacement of many of the stones in the bridge walls, a matter which was controversial due to a heavy-handed approach adopted by the restoration team, which had no previous experience in restoration of cultural heritage monuments. The result has been criticised by conservation professionals all over Europe (see photos on external links), as dozens of new replacement stones do not match the historical ones they are next to, the amount of replaced stones is considered excessive, some stones have been inappropriately positioned, original stones have been chipped and joining materials employed are considered not appropriate for the structure. In 2010 UNESCO's World Heritage Committee adopted a decision stating that \"the restoration of Charles Bridge was carried out without adequate conservation advice on materials and techniques\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statues on the bridge.", "content": "The avenue of 30 mostly baroque statues and statuaries situated on the balustrade forms a unique connection of artistic styles with the underlying gothic bridge. Most sculptures were erected between 1683 and 1714. They depict various saints and patron saints venerated at that time. The most prominent Bohemian sculptors of the time took part in decorating the bridge, such as Matthias Braun, Jan Brokoff, and his sons Michael Joseph and Ferdinand Maxmilian.  Among the most notable sculptures, one can find the statuaries of St. Luthgard, the Holy Crucifix and Calvary, and John of Nepomuk. Well known also is the statue of the knight Bruncvík, although it was erected some 200 years later and does not belong to the main avenue.  Beginning in 1965, all of the statues have been systematically replaced by replicas, and the originals have been exhibited in the Lapidarium of the National Museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tribute.", "content": "On July 9, 2017, Google celebrated the 660th anniversary of Charles Bridge with a Google Doodle.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Bridge ( ) is a historic bridge that crosses the Vltava river in Prague, Czech Republic. Its construction started in 1357 under the auspices of King Charles IV, and finished in the beginning of the 15th century. The bridge replaced the old Judith Bridge built 1158–1172 that had been badly damaged by a flood in 1342. This new bridge was originally called Stone Bridge (\"Kamenný most\") or Prague Bridge (\"Pražský most\") but has been \"Charles Bridge\" since 1870. As the only means of crossing the river Vltava (Moldau) until 1841, Charles Bridge was the most important connection between Prague Castle and the city's Old Town and adjacent areas. This \"solid-land\" connection made Prague important as a trade route between Eastern and Western Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973320}
{"src_title": "Rutaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Most species are trees or shrubs, a few are herbs (\"Boenninghausenia\" and \"Dictamnus\"), frequently aromatic with glands on the leaves, sometimes with thorns. The leaves are usually opposed and compound, and without stipules. Pellucid glands, a type of oil gland, are found in the leaves responsible for the aromatic smell of the family's members; traditionally they have been the primary synapomorphic characteristic to identify the Rutaceae.  Flowers are bractless, solitary or in cyme, rarely in raceme, and mainly pollinated by insects. They are radially or (rarely) laterally symmetric, and generally hermaphroditic. They have four or five petals and sepals, sometimes three, mostly separate, eight to ten stamen (five in \"Skimmia\", many in \"Citrus\"), usually separate or in several groups. Usually a single stigma with 2 to 5 united carpels, sometimes ovaries separate but styles combined.  The fruit of the Rutaceae are very variable: berries, drupes, hesperidia, samaras, capsules, and follicles all occur. Seed number also varies widely.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The family is closely related to the Sapindaceae, Simaroubaceae, and Meliaceae, and all are usually placed into the same order, although some systems separate that order into Rutales and Sapindales. The families Flindersiaceae and Ptaeroxylaceae are sometimes kept separate, but nowadays generally are placed in the Rutaceae, as are the former Cneoraceae. The subfamilial organization has not been fully resolved, but the subfamily Aurantioideae (=Citroideae) is well supported; the placement of several genera remains unclear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable species.", "content": "The family is of great economic importance in warm temperate and subtropical climates for its numerous edible fruits of the genus \"Citrus\", such as the orange, lemon, calamansi, lime, kumquat, mandarin and grapefruit.  Non-citrus fruits include the white sapote (\"Casimiroa edulis\"), orangeberry (\"Glycosmis pentaphylla\"), Clymenia (\"Clymenia polyandra\"), limeberry (\"Triphasia trifolia\"), and the bael (\"Aegle marmelos\").  Other plants are grown in horticulture: \"Murraya\" and \"Skimmia\" species, for example. \"Ruta\", \"Zanthoxylum\" and \"Casimiroa\" species are medicinals. Several plants are also used by the perfume industry, such as the Western Australian \"Boronia megastigma\".  The genus \"Pilocarpus\" has species (\"P. jaborandi\", and \"P. microphyllus\" from Brazil, and \"P. pennatifolius\" from Paraguay) from which the medicine pilocarpine, used to treat glaucoma, is extracted.  Spices are made from a number of species in the genus \"Zanthoxylum\", notably Sichuan pepper.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Rutaceae are a family, commonly known as the rue or citrus family, of flowering plants, usually placed in the order Sapindales.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973321}
{"src_title": "Apache Gold", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Santer (Mario Adorf) and his gang are after the Apache Gold. They intrude Apache land and intercept a courier named Black Eagle. The young warrior is killed while the gangsters attempt to retrieve information from him.  Meanwhile the young chartered surveyor Charlie aka „Old Shatterhand“ (Lex Barker) discovers that the „Great Western Railway“ commits a breach of valid contracts by taking a shortcut through Apache land. He is told that certain geological complications would leave the company no other choice but he can refute these allegations as a pretext to save money even at the costs of lives.  Winnetou (Pierre Brice) observes how the railway is built right into the land of his tribe. On his way back to his village he comes across the corpse of Black Eagle. He brings Black Eagle to his family and reports to his father Intschu-tschuna.  Chief Intshu-tshuna is deeply worried that even more villains like Santer will get to the Apache land and consequently waste his people if the „Great Western Railway“ can carry on.  A missionary called „Klekih-petra“ beseeches him not to start a war. He talks the aristocratic chief and his son Winnetou into setting up a meeting with a deputation of the Great Western Railway. Proceedings are prepared and Old Shatterhand is chosen to convince the Indians that the company will respect the contracts after all.  But Santer doesn't let go of his ambitions. He strives to give Winnetou's people a bad name, so that the U.S.Army will come and drive the people off their land, hereby making way for his personal ambitions.  Santer persuades the chief of a Kiowa tribe to attack the meeting. Klekih-petra is hereby killed and Winnetou is captured by his arch enemies who plan to torture him.  Old Shatterhand risks his life in order to save Winnetou. At night he sneaks into the Kiowa's camp and cuts the chief's son's fetters. Winnetou can escape but doesn't see his saviour.  Now Old Shatterhand and his supporters commence a crusade against Santer and his henchmen. They go to Santers strongpoint, a town called Roswell. There a tremendous fight takes place. But Winnetou also has unfinished business with Santer and goes there too. As an outsider he cannot tell the good men from the bad ones. He and his warriors attack the whole town.  Old Shatterhand gets wounded and is captured. Winnetou has him brought to the Apache village. Thanks to the dedication of Intschu-tschuna's daughter Nsho-tshi (Marie Versini) he survives. But once he has recovered he must stand trial. He claims an ordeal by battle. Chief Intshu-tshuna himself takes him on and Old Shatterhand can scarcely win.  After Old Shatterhand has spared the chief and Nsho-tshi has discovered proof that Shatterhand did free her brother, Shatterhand and Winnetou become officially friends.  Although this tribe is at the brink of civilisation and the leading family does already build houses, Nsho-tshi wants to attend a school in St.Louis before she marries Old Shatterhand. In order to cover the looming expenses her family goes to their source of gold. But Santer is still alive and hasn't ceased to pursue his evil plans. He follows and ambushes them. Winnetou's father dies during the fight and Nsho-tshi dies only little later in the arms of Old Shatterhand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "The English version is shorter than the original German one. Many of Ralf Wolter's scenes, in which he acts in the manner of Benny Hill, are shorter. Moreover Chris Howland's appearances as a preposterous self-declared scholar have been dropped completely.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "It was the highest-grossing film of 1963 at the German box office, selling 10 million tickets and grossing €10 million. It was later released in the Soviet Union, where it sold 56 million tickets in 1975, becoming the third highest-grossing foreign film of the year and the 12th highest-grossing foreign film ever in the Soviet Union. In total, the film sold 66 million tickets at the worldwide box office.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Released on a limited basis in the United States by Columbia Pictures, the film was aired on television in several cities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Apache Gold (, later retitled to \"Winnetou – 1. Teil\"), also known as Winnetou the Warrior, is a 1963 Western film directed by Harald Reinl. It is based on the story of Winnetou, a fictional Native-American Apache hero from the \"Winnetou\" series of German novels. It was the highest-grossing film of 1963 in Germany, where it grossed €10 million, and it sold 66 million tickets at the worldwide box office.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973322}
{"src_title": "Fritz Todt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Todt was born in Pforzheim in the Grand Duchy of Baden, today's Baden-Württemberg to Emil Todt (1861–1909) and his wife Elise née Unterecker (1869–1935). His father owned a small ring factory. During 1910, he volunteered for one-year military service. From 1911 to 1914, Todt studied engineering at Technical University of Munich and at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, graduating with a Diplom degree in construction engineering from the latter.  During World War I, he served initially with the infantry and then as front line reconnaissance observer within the \"Luftstreitkräfte\" (the German Air Forces – DLSK), winning the Iron Cross. After the war he resumed his studies, graduating during 1920.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "During 1921 he initially worked on waterpower stations for the Grün & Bilfinger AG, Mannheim company and, later during 1921, the civil engineering company and worked there until 1933. On 5 January 1922, he joined the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), or \"Nazi Party\". In 1931, he became an \"Oberführer\" (senior Colonel) in the \"Sturmabteilung\" (SA), which was then commanded by Ernst Röhm. During 1932, Todt completed his thesis at Technical University of Munich \"\"Fehlerquellen beim Bau von Landstraßendecken aus Teer und Asphalt\"\" – \"Sources of defects in the construction of tarmac and asphalt road surfaces\" and became a Doctor of Engineering (Dr.-Ing.).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nazi Germany, 1933–41.", "content": "In July 1933, five months after Hitler became \"Reichskanzler\", Todt was appointed \"Inspector General for German Roadways\" (\"Generalinspektor für das deutsche Straßenwesen\"). This public authority (Oberste Reichsbehörde) was privileged to be outside the hierarchy of Reich Ministries; Todt was subordinated directly to Hitler. Alan S. Milward characterized this phase as follows: \"His personal views on business questions and, what was more important, the success of the motorway project kept Todt in the inner circle of the Führer. At the same time, his deliberate pose as a technical expert, as a man without interest in internal power struggles, saved him from the adversaries of the more important party leaders for long time. \" He was given the task of organizing a new construction company for the motorways (\"Reichsautobahnen\"). He edited the journal \"Die Strasse\", which was a publication of his agency from 1934 to 1942. For his work on the autobahnen, Todt was recognized with the German National Prize for Art and Science by Hitler, next to Ernst Heinkel, Ferdinand Porsche and Willy Messerschmitt. Hitler donated the award during 1937, devised as a replacement for the Nobel Prize, which Hitler forbade Germans from accepting starting during 1936.  In 1938, he became \"Leiter des Hauptamts für Technik in der Reichsleitung der NSDAP\" (\"Director of the Head Office for Engineering in the National Directorate of the NSDAP\") and during December \"Generalbevollmächtigter für die Regelung der Bauwirtschaft\" (\"General Commissioner for the Regulation of the Construction Industry\"). At the beginning of World War II in Europe, he was also appointed to the rank of \"Generalmajor\" of the Luftwaffe. During May 1938, he initiated the \"Organisation Todt\" (OT), joining together government firms, private companies and the \"Reichsarbeitsdienst\" (Reich Labour Service). OT used up to 800,000 forced laborers (\"Zwangsarbeiter\") from countries Germany occupied during World War II. Todt was responsible for the construction of the \"West Wall\" (commonly named the \"Siegfried Line\" in English-speaking countries) to defend the \"Reich\" territory. On 17 March 1940, Todt was appointed \"Reichsminister für Bewaffnung und Munition\" (\"Minister for Armaments and Munitions\") which meant he managed the entire military economy.  After the invasion of the USSR during June 1941, Todt was appointed to manage the restoration of the infrastructure there. At the end of July 1941 he was named \"Inspector General for water and energy\". During that year, he became increasingly distant from the commanders of the \"Wehrmacht\" and in particular, from \"Reichsmarschall\" Hermann Göring, the \"Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe\" (Commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe). After an inspection tour of the Eastern Front, Todt complained to Hitler that without better equipment and supplies for the armed forces it would be better to end the war with the Soviet Union. Hitler rejected such an assessment and continued the offensive against the Soviets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Todt was married and had three daughters and one son.  On the occasion of his 50th birthday in 1941, he founded the \" Dr. Fritz Todt Foundation\". The goal of the organisation was to promote young talents of technicians, especially young people from poor families by a training subsidy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 8 February 1942, soon after takeoff from the \"Wolfsschanze\" (\"Wolf's Lair\") airfield near Rastenburg in East Prussia, Todt's aircraft crashed. He was buried in the Invalids' Cemetery in the Scharnhorst-Strasse in Berlin. Posthumously, he became the first recipient of the newly-created \"Deutscher Orden\" (\"German Order\"), the highest award the Nazi Party could bestow on a person for \"duties of the highest order to the state and party\".  It has been suggested that Todt was the victim of an assassination orchestrated by Hitler, but that has never been confirmed. Todt's successor as \"Reichsminister\" was Albert Speer, whom Hitler awarded an \"Org.Todt\" ring during May 1943. Speer mentioned the Reich Air Ministry enquiry into the airplane accident, which he said ended with the sentence: \"The possibility of sabotage is ruled out. Further measures are therefore neither requisite nor intended\". Speer, who was present and had declined to ride on the same flight, thought that the wording was \"curious\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "On 8 February 1944, the second anniversary of Todt's death, Hitler awarded the \"Dr.-Fritz-Todt-Preis\" as a Badge of Honor of the Nazi Party for \"Innovative accomplishments, which are of great importance for the Volk community because of the improvement of their weapons, ammunition and military equipment, and the saving of labor, raw materials and energy\". The Badge of Honor came with a material prize and a certificate, was awarded as a medal made of gold, silver, or steel. The Golden Award of Honor was presented by Hitler in person upon proposal by the responsible Gauleiter, upon the joint proposal of Robert Ley, the director of the corresponding Deutsche Arbeitsfront and NSDAP leaders, and the director of the \"Main office for Technology in the NSDAP\", Albert Speer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fritz Todt (4 September 1891 – 8 February 1942), was a German construction engineer and senior Nazi, who rose from the position of \"Inspector General for German Roadways\", where he directed the construction of the German Autobahns (\"Reichsautobahnen\"), to become the Reich Minister for Armaments and Ammunition. From that position he directed the entire German wartime military economy. At the beginning of World War II he initiated what Hitler named \"Organisation Todt\", a military-engineering company, which supplied industry with forced labor and administered construction of the Nazi concentration camps in the late phase of Nazi Germany. Todt died in a mysterious aircraft crash in 1942.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973323}
{"src_title": "Santa Maria in Trastevere", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The inscription on the episcopal throne states that this is the first church in Rome dedicated to Mary, mother of Jesus, although some claim that privilege belongs to the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. It is certainly one of the oldest churches in the city. A Christian house-church was founded here about 220 by Pope Saint Callixtus I (217–222) on the site of the \"Taberna meritoria\", a refuge for retired soldiers. The area was made available for Christian use by Emperor Alexander Severus when he settled a dispute between the Christians and tavern-keepers, saying, according to the \"Liber Pontificalis\" \"I prefer that it should belong to those who honor God, whatever be their form of worship.\" In 340, when Pope Julius I (337–352) rebuilt the \"titulus Callixti\" on a larger scale, it became the \"titulus Iulii\" in commemoration of his patronage and one of the original 25 parishes in Rome.  The church underwent two restorations in the fifth and eighth centuries and in 1140-43 it was re-erected on its old foundations under Pope Innocent II. Innocent II razed the church along with the recently completed tomb of the Antipope Anacletus II, his former rival. Innocent II arranged for his own burial on the spot formerly occupied by the tomb.  The richly carved Ionic capitals reused along its nave were taken either from the ruins of the Baths of Caracalla or the nearby Temple of Isis on the Janiculum. When scholarship during the 19th century identified the faces in their carved decoration as Isis, Serapis and Harpocrates, a restoration under Pius IX in 1870 hammered off the offending faces.  The predecessor of the present church was probably built in the early fourth century and that church was itself the successor to one of the \"tituli\", Early Christian basilicas ascribed to a patron and perhaps literally inscribed with his name. Although nothing remains to establish with certainty where any of the public Christian edifices of Rome before the time of Constantine the Great were situated, the basilica on this site was known as \"Titulus Callisti\", based on a legend in the \"Liber Pontificalis\", which ascribed the earliest church here to a foundation by Pope Callixtus I (died 222), whose remains, translated to the new structure, are preserved under the altar.  The inscriptions found in Santa Maria in Trastevere, a valuable resource illustrating the history of the Basilica, were collected and published by Vincenzo Forcella.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The present nave preserves its original (pre-12th century) basilica plan and stands on the earlier foundations. The 22 granite columns with Ionic and Corinthian capitals that separate the nave from the aisles came from the ruins of the Baths of Caracalla, as did the lintel of the entrance door.  Inside the church are a number of 12th and late 13th-century mosaics. Below are mosaics on the subject of the \"Life of the Virgin\" by Pietro Cavallini (1291). Above is the mosaic representation of the \"Coronation of the Virgin\" (1130–1143). The \"Coronation of the Virgin\" sits atop an apse vault, and depicts Pope Innocent II holding a model of the church.  Domenichino's octagonal ceiling painting, \"Assumption of the Virgin\" (1617) fits in the coffered ceiling setting that he designed.  The fifth chapel to the left is the Avila Chapel designed by Antonio Gherardi. This, and his Chapel of S. Cecilia in San Carlo ai Catinari are two of the most architecturally inventive chapels of the late-17th century in Rome. The lower order of the chapel is fairly dark and employs Borromini-like forms. In the dome, there is an opening or oculus from which four putti emerge to carry a central \"tempietto\", all of which frames a light-filled chamber above, illuminated by windows not visible from below. The church keeps a relic of Saint Apollonia, her head, as well as a portion of the Holy Sponge. Among those buried in the church are Pope Callixtus I, Pope Innocent II, Antipope Anacletus II, Cardinal Philippe of Alençon and Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The Romanesque campanile is from the 12th century. Near the top, a niche protects a mosaic of the Madonna and Child. The mosaics on the façade are believed to be from the 12th century. They depict the Madonna enthroned and suckling the Child, flanked by 10 women holding lamps. This image on the façade showing Mary nursing Jesus is an early example of a popular late-medieval and renaissance type of image of the Virgin. The motif itself originated much earlier, with significant seventh-century Coptic examples at Wadi Natrun in Egypt.  The façade of the church was restored in 1702 by Carlo Fontana, who replaced the ancient porch with a sloping tiled roof — seen in Falda's view above — with the present classicizing one. The octagonal fountain in the piazza in front of the church (Piazza di Santa Maria in Trastevere), which already appears in a map of 1472, was restored by Carlo Fontana.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The titulus.", "content": "Ancient sources maintain that the \"titulus S. Mariae\" was established by Pope Alexander I around 112. Later traditions give the names of the early patrons of the \"tituli\" and have retrospectively assigned them the title of cardinal: thus at that time, the cardinal-patron of this basilica, these traditions assert, would have been Saint Calepodius. Pope Callixtus I confirmed the \"titulus\" in 221; to honor him it was changed into \"Ss. Callisti et Iuliani\"; it was renamed \"S. Mariae trans Tiberim\" by Innocent II. By the 12th century, cardinal deacons as well as the presbyters had long been dispensed from personal service at the \"tituli\". Among the past cardinal priests holding the honorary \"titulus\" of Santa Maria in Trastevere have been James Gibbons, Pope Leo XII, Józef Glemp, and Cardinal Henry Benedict Stuart, whose coat of arms, topped by a crown (some hailed him as King Henry IX of England) rather than a \"galero\" (red hat), is visible over the screen to the right of the altar. The incumbent titular holder is Carlos Osoro Sierra Archbishop of Madrid since November 19, 2016 upon the death of Loris Francesco Capovilla, the oldest living cardinal at the time of his death on 26 May 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Significant events.", "content": "In July 2014, the wedding of Prince Amedeo of Belgium, Archduke of Austria-Este, and Elisabetta Rosboch von Wolkenstein was held at the basilica.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Basilica of Santa Maria in Trastevere (); ) is a titular minor basilica in the Trastevere district of Rome, and one of the oldest churches of Rome. The basic floor plan and wall structure of the church date back to the 340s, and much of the structure to 1140-43. The first sanctuary was built in 221 and 227 by Pope Callixtus I and later completed by Pope Julius I. The church has large areas of important mosaics from the late 13th century by Pietro Cavallini.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973324}
{"src_title": "Hieracium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flowers and flower-heads.", "content": "\"Hieracium\" or hawkweeds, like others in the family Asteraceae, have mostly yellow, tightly packed flower-heads of numerous small flowers but, unlike daisies and sunflowers in the same family, they have not two kinds of florets but only strap-shaped (spatulate) florets, each one of which is a complete flower in itself, not lacking stamens, and joined to the stem by leafy bracts. As in other members of the tribe, each ray corolla is tipped by 3 to 5 teeth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bracts, stems and leaves.", "content": "Erect single, glabrous or hairy stems, sometimes branched away from the point of attachment, sometimes branched throughout.  The hairiness of hawkweeds can be very complex: from surfaces with scattered to crowded, tapered, whiplike, straight or curly, smooth to setae; \"stellate-pubescent\" or surfaces with scattered to crowded, dendritically branched (often called, but seldom truly, \"stellate\") hairs; and \"stipitate-glandular\" or surfaces with scattered to crowded gland-tipped hairs mostly. Surfaces of stems, leaves, peduncles, and phyllaries may be glabrous or may bear one, two, or all three of the types of hairs mentioned above.  Like the other members of the Chicory tribe, hawkweeds contain a milky latex.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The Large Yellow Underwing (\"Noctua pronuba\") feeds on \"Hieracium\" species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Hieracium\" species are native to Africa,Asia, Europe, North America, Central America and South America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "The classification of \"Hieracium\" into species is notoriously difficult. One reason is the apomictic reproduction (in which plants asexually produce seeds), which tends to produce a lot of minor geographical variation. Over 9000 species names have been published in \"Hieracium\" but some botanists regard many of those as synonyms of larger species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "North America.", "content": "The list below is a selection of species that have been accepted by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service and Canada. A more complete list is given in the list of \"Hieracium\" species.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plant pest.", "content": "All species of the genus \"Hieracium\" are classed as invasive species throughout New Zealand. They are banned from sale, propagation and distribution under the National Pest Plant Accord. \"Hieracium\" is a pasture weed that reduces available feed for livestock and displaces the indigenous plants. It is a particular threat in alpine ecosystems previously dominated by native tussocks, though it will colonise habitats from bare ground, to exotic pine forest, to native Southern Beech forest.  In the United States, many species of \"Hieracium\" have been introduced and all species present are considered noxious weeds in one or more states.  In Australia, hawkweeds are invasive pests in alpine regions, all species of \"Hieracium\" are listed or declared under various State Acts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hieracium, known by the common name hawkweed and classically as hierakion (from ancient Greek ιεράξ, \"hierax\" 'hawk'), is a genus of the sunflower (\"Helianthus\") family Asteraceae), and closely related to dandelion (\"Taraxacum\"), chicory (\"Cichorium\"), prickly lettuce (\"Lactuca\") and sow thistle (\"Sonchus\"), which are part of the tribe Cichorieae. Hawkweeds, with their 10,000+ recorded species and subspecies, do their part to make Asteraceae the second largest family of flowers. Some botanists group all these species or subspecies into approximately 800 accepted species, while others prefer to accept several thousand species. Since most hawkweeds reproduce exclusively asexually by means of seeds that are genetically identical to their mother plant (apomixis or agamospermy), clones or populations that consist of genetically identical plants are formed and some botanists (especially in UK, Scandinavia and Russia) prefer to accept these clones as good species (arguing that it is impossible to know how these clones are interrelated) whereas others (mainly in Central Europe and USA) try to group them into a few hundred more broadly defined species. What is here treated as the single genus \"Hieracium\" is now treated by most European experts as two different genera, \"Hieracium\" and \"Pilosella\", with species such as \"Hieracium pilosella\", \"Hieracium floribundum\" and \"Hieracium aurantiacum\" referred to the latter genus. Many members of the genus \"Pilosella\" reproduce both by stolons (runners like those of strawberries) and by seeds, whereas true \"Hieracium\" species reproduce only by seeds. In \"Pilosella\", many individual plants are capable of forming both normal sexual and asexual (apomictic) seeds, whereas individual plants of \"Hieracium\" only produce one kind of seeds. Another difference is that all species of \"Pilosella\" have leaves with smooth (entire) margins whereas most species of \"Hieracium\" have distinctly dentate to deeply cut or divided leaves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973325}
{"src_title": "Pidgin (software)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The program was originally written by Mark Spencer, an Auburn University sophomore, as an emulation of AOL's IM program AOL Instant Messenger on Linux using the GTK+ toolkit. The earliest archived release was on December 31, 1998. It was named GAIM (\"GTK+ AOL Instant Messenger\") accordingly. The emulation was not based on reverse engineering, but instead relied on information about the protocol that AOL had published on the web. Development was assisted by some of AOL's technical staff. Support for other IM protocols was added soon thereafter.  On 6 July 2015, Pidgin scored seven out of seven points on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's secure messaging scorecard. They have received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having communications encrypted with keys the providers don't have access to (end-to-end encryption), making it possible for users to independently verify their correspondent's identities, having past communications secure if the keys are stolen (forward secrecy), having their code open to independent review (open source), having their security designs well-documented, and having recent independent security audits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naming dispute.", "content": "In response to pressure from AOL, the program was renamed to the acronymous-but-lowercase gaim. As AOL Instant Messenger gained popularity, AOL trademarked its acronym, \"AIM\", leading to a lengthy legal struggle with the creators of GAIM, who kept the matter largely secret.  On April 6, 2007, the project development team announced the results of their settlement with AOL, which included a series of name changes: \"Gaim\" became \"Pidgin\", \"libgaim\" became \"libpurple\", and \"gaim-text\" became \"finch\". The name Pidgin was chosen in reference to the term \"pidgin\", which describes communication between people who do not share a common language. The name \"purple\" refers to \"prpl\", the internal libgaim name for an IM protocol plugin.  Due to the legal issues, version 2.0 of the software was frozen in beta stages. Following the settlement, it was announced that the first official release of Pidgin 2.0.0 was hoped to occur during the two weeks from April 8, 2007. However, Pidgin 2.0 was not released as scheduled; Pidgin developers announced on April 22, 2007 that the delay was due to the preferences directory \".gaim\".  Pidgin 2.0.0 was released on May 3, 2007. Other visual changes were made to the interface in this version, including updated icons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "Pidgin provides a graphical front-end for libpurple using GTK+. Libpurple supports many instant-messaging protocols.  Pidgin supports multiple operating systems, including Windows and many Unix-like systems such as Linux, the BSDs, and AmigaOS. It is included by default in the operating systems Tails and Xubuntu.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pluggability.", "content": "The program is designed to be extended with plugins. Plugins are often written by third-party developers. They can be used to add support for protocols, which is useful for those such as Skype or Discord which have licensing issues (however, the users' data and interactions are still subject to their policies and eavesdropping). They can also add other significant features. For example, the \"Off-the-Record Messaging\" (OTR) plugin provides end-to-end encryption.  The TLS encryption system is pluggable, allowing different TLS libraries to be easily substituted. GnuTLS is the default, and NSS is also supported. Some operating systems' ports, such as OpenBSD's, choose to use OpenSSL or LibreSSL by default instead.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Contacts.", "content": "Contacts with multiple protocols can be grouped into one single contact instead of managing multiple protocols, and contacts can be given aliases or placed into groups.  To reach users as they log on or a status change occurs (such as moving from \"Away\" to \"Available\"), Pidgin supports on-action automated scripts called \"Buddy Pounces\" to automatically reach the user in customizable ways.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "File transfer.", "content": "Pidgin supports file transfers for many protocols. It lacks some protocol-specific features like the folder sharing available from Yahoo. Direct, peer-to-peer file transfers are supported over protocols such as XMPP and MSN.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Voice and video chat.", "content": "As of version 2.6 (released on August 18, 2009), Pidgin supports voice/video calls using Farstream., calls can only be initiated through the XMPP protocol.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Miscellaneous.", "content": "Further features include support for themes, emoticons, spell checking, and notification area integration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Supported protocols.", "content": "The following protocols are officially supported by libpurple 2.12.0, without any extensions or plugins: Some XMPP servers provide transports, which allow users to access networks using non-XMPP protocols without having to install plugins or additional software. Pidgin's support for XMPP means that these transports can be used to communicate via otherwise unsupported protocols, including not only instant messaging protocols, but also protocols such as SMS or E-mail.  Additional protocols, supported by third-party plugins, include Discord, Telegram, Microsoft OCS/LCS (extended SIP/SIMPLE), Facebook Messenger, QQ, Skype via skype4pidgin plugin, WhatsApp and the Xfire gaming network (requires the Gfire plugin).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plugins.", "content": "Various other features are supported using third-party plugins. Such features include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mascot.", "content": "The mascot of Pidgin is a purple pigeon with the name of The Purple Pidgin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other notable software based on libpurple.", "content": "BitlBee and Minbif are IRCd-like gateways to multiple IM networks, and can be compiled with libpurple to increase functionality.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pidgin (formerly named Gaim) is a free and open-source multi-platform instant messaging client, based on a library named libpurple that has support for many instant messaging protocols, allowing the user to simultaneously log into various services from a single application, with a single interface for both the popular and obsolete protocols (from AOL to Discord), thus avoiding the hassle of having to deal with a new bloated, unaudited, closed-source, and different piece of software for each device and protocol.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973326}
{"src_title": "Stanislav Gross", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early political career.", "content": "Born in Prague, Gross briefly worked for Czechoslovak State Railways (ČSD) as an engine-driver trainee. After the Velvet Revolution in 1989, he became a member of the Social Democratic party and in 1992 member of the parliament. After studies in law from 1993 to 1999 he obtained an academic title, although under less than normal conditions. His thesis had a mere 33 pages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minister of the Interior.", "content": "On 5 April 2000 he was named interior minister in the government of Miloš Zeman. After elections in 2002, Gross continued as interior minister and became deputy prime minister in the government of Vladimír Špidla.  During his service, several scandals in the police had leaked out: corruption among the highest officials, irregularities in business tenders and failure to solve serial murders. Gross claimed that this was due to a better ability to discover such behaviour within the police force. Gross was also criticized for installing his friends and allies as executives in state-owned companies and for misuse of secret services for political aims.  In spite of these problems, Gross was able to maintain higher popularity than other politicians (his peak came in at over 70%). His youthful, photogenic appearance, skills in dealing with media and unwillingness to get involved in controversial decisions or discussions helped.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime minister.", "content": "In the 2004 European election, ČSSD lost badly and the popularity of the party was low; this led to the resignation of Špidla on 26 July. Gross was appointed prime minister on 4 August 2004 and his government was approved on 24 August.  Gross was seen by his party as the last way to regain popularity and better handle future elections. This was proved wrong; in elections for regional assemblies and Senate elections, the Social Democrats failed again.  Gross claimed he would modernise the party on lines similar to those followed by Tony Blair, but his short time in office and constant involvement with scandals did not give him any time to implement changes. His popularity started to decline, and his involvement in further allegations of nepotism, police corruption, suspicious dealings in state privatisations accelerated the decline.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Financial irregularities.", "content": "In early 2005, Gross faced a scandal related to unclear origins of the loan to buy his flat. It was found that his wife was a business associate of a brothel owner who was later sentenced for insurance fraud to five years in prison. Criticism from the media and record public dissatisfaction grew into a government crisis. For three months, Gross tried to keep himself in power until he was forced to resign on 25 April 2005. His popularity sank to a record low, and trust in politicians among Czech people was shattered.  In September 2005 Gross stepped down from his remaining position of party leader. The reason was growing suspicion about corruption during the privatization of the chemical conglomerate Unipetrol to the Polish concern of PKN Orlen, involving Gross.  Gross denied all accusations as an absurd conspiracy against him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and death.", "content": "After leaving the world of top level politics Gross started to work for the Law Office of Eduard Bruna. Between April 2006 and January 2007 he served as the chairman of Security Commission of the Social Democrats (\"bezpečnostní komise\"). The media had occasionally speculated about his influence on decisions made within the Czech police.  In September 2007, the economics weekly Euro published information that Gross and his wife bought up to a 31% stake in the energy company Moravia Energo. The value of the stake was estimated to be worth about 300 million CZK. The journal calculated that the banks would provide at most two-thirds of the sum and the rest was thus paid by Gross. When this information was published Gross refused to provide details to the press on grounds of privacy. By June 2008 Gross successfully sold his 31% stake for 150 million CZK, his original purchase price was 21 million CZK. The whole deal was very curious and was investigated, but it was quickly found to be a legitimate business deal according to the Czech Police.  On 18 March 2008 he failed the bar exam, but later passed it and opened a private law practice. Gross was student of the Charles University in Prague and later was awarded his law degree by the University of West Bohemia at Plzeň. In 2009 this university has been the centre of investigations into allegations of law degrees being awarded after only a few months study. Gross was mentioned during the investigation.  In early 2008 together with his wife Šárka Grossová, they purchased a $735,000 (or 11 million CZK) Hidden Bay luxury condo in Miami, Florida (review of public online county records show that the property was purchased in his wife's name only). Mr. Gross and his wife also purchased a small 10 million CZK house in need of major renovations about 1 km from their apartment in Barrandov, Prague, Czech Republic (controversy surrounding the purchase of that apartment was one of the key factors in his stepping down from his post as prime minister and leaving politics).  Gross died on 16 April 2015 at the age of 45 from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Gross was an inspiration for the character of corrupt prime minister Klein in the film Gangster Ka.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stanislav Gross (; 30 October 1969 – 16 April 2015) was a Czech lawyer and politician who served as Prime Minister of the Czech Republic and Leader of the Czech Social Democratic Party from 2004 until 2005 when he resigned as a result of his financial irregularities. He previously served as Minister of the Interior in cabinets of Miloš Zeman and Vladimír Špidla from 2000 to 2004. Gross was Member of the Chamber of Deputies (MP) from 1992 to 2004.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973327}
{"src_title": "Michèle Morgan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Morgan was born Simone Renée Roussel in Neuilly-sur-Seine, Hauts-de-Seine, a wealthy suburb of Paris. She grew up in Dieppe, Seine-Maritime, France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Morgan left home at the age of 15 for Paris determined to become an actress. She took acting lessons from René Simon while serving as an extra in several films to pay for her drama classes. It was then that she took the stage name \"Michèle Morgan\". She argued that she did not have the body type of a Simone, and \"Morgan\" sounded more Hollywood-friendly.  Morgan was first noticed by director Marc Allégret, who offered her a major role in the film \"Gribouille\" (1937), opposite Raimu. Then came \"Le Quai des brumes\" (1938) directed by Marcel Carné (1938), opposite Jean Gabin, and \"Remorques\" (1941) directed by Jean Grémillon.  Upon the invasion of France in 1940 by the Germans, Morgan left for the United States and Hollywood where she was contracted to RKO Pictures in 1941. Her career there proved rather disappointing, apart from \"Joan of Paris\" (1942) opposite Paul Henreid, and \"Higher and Higher\" (1943) opposite Frank Sinatra. She was tested and strongly considered for the female lead in \"Casablanca\" but RKO would not release her for the amount of money that Warner Bros. offered. Morgan did work for Warners however in \"Passage to Marseille\" (1944) with Humphrey Bogart. After the war, Morgan returned to France and quickly resumed her career with the film \"La Symphonie Pastorale\" (1946) directed by Jean Delannoy, which earned her the Best Actress award at the Cannes Film Festival. Her other films from this period include; Carol Reed's \"The Fallen Idol\" (1948), \"Fabiola\" (1949), \"The Proud and the Beautiful\" (1953) by Yves Allégret, \"Les Grandes Manœuvres\" (1955) by René Clair and \"Marie-Antoinette reine de France\" (1956). She continued working in films throughout the 1960s, such as in \"Lost Command\" (1966), a version of \"Les Centurions\". In the 1970s, she virtually retired from her acting career, then made only occasional appearances in film, television and theatre.  For her contribution to the motion picture industry, Morgan has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1645 Vine Street. In 1969, the government of France awarded her the Légion d'Honneur. For her long service to the French motion picture industry, in 1992 she was given an Honorary César Award. In 1996, she also received the Career Golden Lion for lifetime achievement at the Venice Film Festival.  Morgan took up painting in the 1960s. She had a solo exhibition, \"Artistes En Lumière à Paris\", from 2 March to 30 April 2009, at the Espace Cardin in Paris. In 1977 she released her memoir, titled \"With Those Eyes\" (\"Avec ces yeux-là\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and death.", "content": "While in Hollywood, Morgan married William Marshall (1917–1994), in 1942, with whom she had a son, Mike Marshall (1944–2005). Morgan had built and owned a house at 10050 Cielo Drive. Morgan and Marshall divorced in 1948. She married French actor Henri Vidal (1919–1959) in 1950. She remained with him until his death in 1959. She then lived with film director and actor/writer Gérard Oury until his death in 2006.  Morgan died on 20 December 2016, aged 96, in Meudon, France of natural causes. Her funeral was held at the Église Saint-Pierre in Neuilly-sur-Seine on 23 December 2016, and she was buried at the Montparnasse Cemetery.  Despite living to the age of 96, she technically only had 24 birthdays due to being born on February 29.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michèle Morgan (; 29 February 1920 – 20 December 2016) was a French film actress, who was a leading lady for three decades in both French cinema and Hollywood features. She is considered to have been one of the great French actresses of the 20th century. Morgan was the inaugural winner of the Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival. In 1992, she was given an honorary César Award for her contributions to French cinema.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973328}
{"src_title": "British Somaliland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treaties and establishment.", "content": "In 1887, after signing successive treaties with the then ruling Somali Sultans from the Isaaq, Issa, Gadabursi, and Warsangali clans the British established a protectorate in the region referred to as British Somaliland. The British garrisoned the protectorate from Aden and administered it from their British India colony until 1898. British Somaliland was then administered by the Foreign Office until 1905 and afterwards by the Colonial Office.  Generally, the British did not have much interest in the resource-barren region. The stated purposes of the establishment of the protectorate were to \"secure a supply market, check the traffic in slaves, and to exclude the interference of foreign powers.\" The British principally viewed the protectorate as a source for supplies of meat for their British Indian outpost in Aden through the maintenance of order in the coastal areas and protection of the caravan routes from the interior. Hence, the region's nickname of \"Aden's butcher's shop\". Colonial administration during this period did not extend administrative infrastructure beyond the coast, and contrasted with the more interventionist colonial experience of Italian Somalia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dervish Uprising.", "content": "Beginning in 1899, the British were forced to expend considerable human and military capital to contain a decades-long resistance movement mounted by the Dervish resistance movement. The movement was led by Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, a Somali religious leader referred to colloquially by the British as the \"Mad Mullah\". Repeated military expeditions were unsuccessfully launched against Hassan and his Dervishes before World War I. On 9 August 1913, the Somaliland Camel Constabulary suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of Dul Madoba at the hands of the Dervishes. Hassan had already evaded several attempts to capture him. At Dul Madoba, his forces killed or wounded 57 members of the 110-man Constabulary unit, including the British commander, Colonel Richard Corfield.  In 1914, the British created the Somaliland Camel Corps to assist in maintaining order in British Somaliland.  In 1920, the British launched their fifth and final expedition against Hassan and his followers. Employing the then-new technology of military aircraft, the British finally managed to quell Hassan's twenty-year-long struggle. The aerial attack on the Dervish capital, Taleh, killed many members of Hassan's family who had been lured there by the British for an official visit. Hassan and his Dervish supporters fled into the Ogaden, where Hassan died in 1921.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Somaliland Camel Corps.", "content": "The Somaliland Camel Corps, also referred to as the Somali Camel Corps, was a unit of the British Army based in British Somaliland. It lasted from the early 20th century until 1944. The troopers of the Somaliland Camel Corps had a distinctive dress. It was based on the standard British Army khaki drill but included a knitted woollen pullover and drill patches on the shoulders. Shorts were worn with woollen socks on puttees and \"chaplis\", boots or bare feet. Equipment consisted of leather ammunition bandolier and a leather waist belt. The officers wore pith helmets and khaki drill uniforms. Other ranks wore a \"kullah\" with \"puggree\" which ended in a long tail which hung down the back. A \"chaplis\" is typically a colourful sandal. A \"kullah\" is a type of cap. A \"puggree\" is typically a strip of cloth wound around the upper portion of a hat or helmet, particularly a pith helmet, and falling down behind to act as a shade for the back of the neck.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "British Somaliland 1920–1930.", "content": "Following the defeat of the Dervish resistance, the two fundamental goals of British policy in British Somaliland were the preservation of stability and the economic self-sufficiency of the protectorate. The second goal remained particularly elusive because of local resistance to taxation that might have been used to support the protectorate's administration. By the 1930s, the British presence had extended to other parts of British Somaliland. Growth in commercial trade motivated some livestock herders to subsequently leave the pastoral economy and settle in urban areas. Customs taxes also helped pay for British India's patrol of Somalia's Red Sea Coast.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italian invasion.", "content": "In August 1940, during the East African Campaign in World War II, British Somaliland was invaded by Italy. The few British forces that were present attempted to defend the main road to Berbera, but were dislodged from their positions and retreated after losing the Battle of Tug Argan. During this period, the British rounded up soldiers and governmental officials to evacuate them from the territory through Berbera. In total, 7,000 people, including civilians, were evacuated. The Somalis serving in the Somaliland Camel Corps were given the choice of evacuation or disbandment; the majority chose to remain and were allowed to retain their arms.  In March 1941, after a six-month Italian occupation, the British Imperial forces recaptured the protectorate during Operation Appearance. The final remnants of the Italian guerrilla movement discontinued all resistance in British Somaliland by the autumn of 1943.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Independence and union with the Trust Territory of Somaliland.", "content": "In 1947, the entire budget for the administration of the British Somaliland protectorate was only £213,139.  In May 1960, the British Government stated that it would be prepared to grant independence to the then Somaliland protectorate. The Legislative Council of British Somaliland passed a resolution in April 1960 requesting independence. The legislative councils of the territory agreed to this proposal.  In April 1960, leaders of the two territories met in Mogadishu and agreed to form a unitary state. An elected president was to be head of state. Full executive powers would be held by a prime minister answerable to an elected National Assembly of 123 members representing the two territories.  On 26 June 1960, the British Somaliland protectorate gained independence as the State of Somaliland before uniting five days later with the Trust Territory of Somalia to form the Somali Republic (Somalia) on 1 July 1960.  The legislature appointed the speaker Hagi Bashir Ismail Yousuf as first President of the Somali National Assembly and, the same day, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar become President of the Somali Republic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Somaliland.", "content": "In 1991, after a bloody civil war for independence in the northern part of Somali Democratic Republic, the area which formerly encompassed British Somaliland declared independence. In May 1991, the formation of the \"Republic of Somaliland\" was proclaimed, with the local government regarding it as the successor to the former British Somaliland as well as to the State of Somaliland. However, the Somaliland region's self-declared independence remains unrecognised by any country. It is however recognised as one of the federal states of Somalia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "British Somaliland, officially the British Somaliland Protectorate (), was a British protectorate in present-day Somaliland. For much of its existence, the territory was bordered by Italian Somaliland, French Somaliland and Ethiopia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973329}
{"src_title": "Midnight's Children", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and plot summary.", "content": "\"Midnight's Children\" is a loose allegory for events in India both before and, primarily, after the independence and partition of India. The protagonist and narrator of the story is Saleem Sinai, born at the exact moment when India became an independent country. He was born with telepathic powers, as well as an enormous and constantly dripping nose with an extremely sensitive sense of smell. The novel is divided into three books.  The book begins with the story of the Sinai family, particularly with events leading up to India's Independence and Partition. Saleem is born precisely at midnight, 15 August 1947, therefore, exactly as old as independent India. He later discovers that all children born in India between 12 a.m. and 1 a.m. on that date are imbued with special powers. Saleem, using his telepathic powers, assembles a \"Midnight Children's Conference\", reflective of the issues India faced in its early statehood concerning the cultural, linguistic, religious, and political differences faced by a vastly diverse nation. Saleem acts as a telepathic conduit, bringing hundreds of geographically disparate children into contact while also attempting to discover the meaning of their gifts. In particular, those children born closest to the stroke of midnight wield more powerful gifts than the others. Shiva \"of the Knees\", Saleem's nemesis, and Parvati, called \"Parvati-the-witch,\" are two of these children with notable gifts and roles in Saleem's story.  Meanwhile, Saleem's family begin a number of migrations and endure the numerous wars which plague the subcontinent. During this period he also suffers amnesia until he enters a quasi-mythological exile in the jungle of Sundarban, where he is re-endowed with his memory. In doing so, he reconnects with his childhood friends. Saleem later becomes involved with the Indira Gandhi-proclaimed Emergency and her son Sanjay's \"cleansing\" of the Jama Masjid slum. For a time Saleem is held as a political prisoner; these passages contain scathing criticisms of Indira Gandhi's over-reach during the Emergency as well as a personal lust for power bordering on godhood. The Emergency signals the end of the potency of the Midnight Children, and there is little left for Saleem to do but pick up the few pieces of his life he may still find and write the chronicle that encompasses both his personal history and that of his still-young nation, a chronicle written for his son, who, like his father, is both chained and supernaturally endowed by history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major themes.", "content": "The technique of magical realism finds liberal expression throughout the novel and is crucial to constructing the parallel to the country's history. The story moves in different parts of Indian Subcontinent – from Kashmir to Agra and then to Bombay (now Mumbai), Lahore and Dhaka. Nicholas Stewart in his essay, \"Magic realism in relation to the post-colonial and Midnight's Children,\" argues that the \"narrative framework of \"Midnight's Children\" consists of a tale – comprising his life story – which Saleem Sinai recounts orally to his wife-to-be Padma. This self-referential narrative (within a single paragraph Saleem refers to himself in the first person: 'And I, wishing upon myself the curse of Nadir Khan...;' and the third: '\"I tell you,\" Saleem cried, \"it is true....\"') recalls indigenous Indian culture, particularly the similarly orally recounted \"Arabian Nights\". The events in the book also parallel the magical nature of the narratives recounted in \"Arabian Nights\" (consider the attempt to electrocute Saleem at the latrine (p. 353), or his journey in the 'basket of invisibility' (p. 383)).\"  He also notes that, \"the narrative comprises and compresses Indian cultural history.\" \"'Once upon a time,' Saleem muses, 'there were Radha and Krishna, and Rama and Sita, and Laila and Majnun; also (because we are not unaffected by the West) Romeo and Juliet, and Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn' (259).\" Stewart (citing Hutcheon) suggests that \"Midnight's Children\" chronologically entwines characters from both India and the West, \"with post-colonial Indian history to examine both the effect of these indigenous and non-indigenous cultures on the Indian mind and in the light of Indian independence.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "\"Midnight's Children\" has been called \"a watershed in the post-independence development of the Indian English novel\", to the extent that the decade after its 1981 publication has been called \"post-Rushdie\". During that decade, many novels inspired by \"Midnight's Children\" were written by both established and young Indian writers.  Rushdie's innovative use of magic realism allowed him to employ the nation-as-family allegory and at the same time confound it with an impossible telepathy among a multitude of children from a multitude of languages, cultures, regions and religions. No one genre dominates the entire novel, however. It encompasses the comic and the tragic, the real, the surreal, and the mythic. The postcolonial experience could not be expressed by a Western or Eastern, public or private, polarity or unity, any more than any single political party could represent all the people of the nation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Midnight's Children\" was awarded the 1981 Booker Prize, the English Speaking Union Literary Award, and the James Tait Prize. It also was awarded The Best of the Booker prize twice, in 1993 and 2008 (this was an award given out by the Booker committee to celebrate the 25th and 40th anniversary of the award).  The book went on to sell over one million copies in the UK alone.  In 1984 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi brought an action against the book in the British courts, claiming to have been defamed by a single sentence in chapter 28, penultimate paragraph, in which her son Sanjay Gandhi is said to have had a hold over his mother by his accusing her of contributing to his father Feroze Gandhi's death through her neglect. The case was settled out of court when Salman Rushdie agreed to remove the offending sentence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "In the late 1990s the BBC was planning to film a five-part mini-series of the novel with Rahul Bose in the lead, but due to pressure from the Muslim community in Sri Lanka, the filming permit was revoked and the project was cancelled. Later in 2003, the novel was adapted for the stage by the Royal Shakespeare Company. BBC Radio Four broadcast a seven-part dramatic adaptation in 2017 at the 70th anniversary of Indian independence.  Director Deepa Mehta collaborated with Salman Rushdie on a new version of the story, the film \"Midnight's Children\". British-Indian actor Satya Bhabha played the role of Saleem Sinai while other roles were played by Indian actors Shriya Saran, Seema Biswas, Shabana Azmi, Anupam Kher, Siddharth Narayan, Rahul Bose, Soha Ali Khan, Shahana Goswami, Anita Majumdar and Darsheel Safary. The film was premiered in September 2012 at the Toronto International Film Festival (2012-09-09) and the Vancouver International Film Festival (2012-09-27). For an academic overview of the adaptations of \"Midnight's Children\", see Mendes and Kuortti (2016).  In June 2018 streaming service Netflix announced plans to adapt \"Midnight's Children\" as an original Netflix TV series. By the end of 2019, the project had been abandoned. Although showrunner Vishal Bhardwaj had received support from Rushdie for his script and had done much of the work on casting and scouting locations, after the compromises he had made on his poorly-received 2017 film \"Rangoon\" he would not go ahead without agreement for a more ambitious project with a greater special effects budget than Netflix was prepared to agree.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Midnight's Children is a 1981 novel by author Salman Rushdie. It deals with India's transition from British colonialism to independence and the partition of India. It is considered an example of postcolonial, postmodern, and magical realist literature. The story is told by its chief protagonist, Saleem Sinai, and is set in the context of actual historical events. The style of preserving history with fictional accounts is self-reflexive.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973330}
{"src_title": "Seawise Giant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"Seawise Giant\" was ordered in 1974 and delivered in 1979 by Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. at its Oppama shipyard in Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan, as a 418,611-ton Ultra Large Crude Carrier (ULCC). The vessel remained unnamed for a long time, and was identified by her hull number, 1016. During sea trials, 1016 exhibited severe vibration problems while going astern. The Greek owner refused to take delivery and the vessel was subject to a lengthy arbitration proceeding. Following settlement the vessel was sold and named \"Oppama\" by S.H.I. The shipyard exercised its right to sell the vessel and a deal was brokered with Hong Kong Orient Overseas Container Line founder C. Y. Tung to lengthen the ship by several metres and add 146,152 tonnes of cargo capacity through jumboisation. Two years later the ship was relaunched as \"Seawise Giant\". \"Seawise\", a pun on \"C.Y.'s\", was used in the names of other ships owned by C.Y. Tung, including \"Seawise University\".  After the refit, the ship had a capacity of, a length overall of and a draft of. She had 46 tanks, and of deck space. When \"Seawise Giant\" was fully loaded, the ship sank too deep into the water to safely navigate the English Channel. Her draft of 25 meters or 81 feet was too great for the relatively shallow waters of the Channel. The rudder weighed 230 tons, and the propeller weighed 50 tons.  \"Seawise Giant\" was damaged and sunk during the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War by an Iraqi Air Force attack while anchored off Larak Island, Iran, on 14 May 1988 and carrying Iranian crude oil. The ship was struck by parachute bombs. Fires ignited aboard the ship and blazed out of control, and she sank in the shallow waters off the coast. The ship was declared a total loss and was written off.  Shortly after the Iran–Iraq war ended, Norman International bought the shipwreck, salvaged and repaired it. The ship was renamed \"Happy Giant\" after the repairs. These repairs were done at the Keppel Corporation shipyard in Singapore after towing the vessel from the Persian Gulf. she entered service in October 1991 as \"Happy Giant\".  Jørgen Jahre bought the tanker in 1991 for US$39 million and renamed her as \"Jahre Viking\". From 1991 to 2004, she was owned by Loki Stream and flew the flag of Norway.  In 2004, the tanker was purchased by First Olsen Tankers, renamed \"Knock Nevis\", and converted into a permanently moored storage tanker in the Qatar Al Shaheen Oil Field in the Persian Gulf.  \"Knock Nevis\" was renamed \"Mont\", and reflagged to Sierra Leone by new owners Amber Development for her final voyage to India where she was scrapped by Priyablue Industries. The vessel was beached on 22 December 2009. The ship's 36 tonne anchor was saved and sent to the Hong Kong Maritime Museum for exhibition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Size record.", "content": "\"Seawise Giant\" was the longest ship ever constructed, at 458.45 m, longer than the height of many of the world's tallest buildings. Although slightly smaller than Taipei 101's, she was larger than the Petronas Towers'.  Despite her great length, \"Seawise Giant\" was not the largest ship by gross tonnage, ranking sixth at 260,941 GT, behind the crane ship \"Pioneering Spirit\" and the four 274,838 to 275,276 GT \"Batillus\"-class supertankers. She is the longest and largest by deadweight: 564,763 tonnes.  \"Seawise Giant\" was featured on the BBC series \"Jeremy Clarkson's Extreme Machines\" while sailing as \"Jahre Viking\". According to her captain, S. K. Mohan, the ship could reach up to in good weather. It took for the ship to stop from that speed, and her turning circle in clear weather was about.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Seawise Giant, later Happy Giant, Jahre Viking, Knock Nevis, Oppama, and Mont, was a ULCC supertanker that was the longest ship ever, built by Sumitomo Heavy Industries in Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan. She possessed the greatest deadweight tonnage ever recorded. Fully loaded, her displacement was 657,019 tonnes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973331}
{"src_title": "New World monkey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "New World monkeys are small to mid-sized primates, ranging from the pygmy marmoset (the world's smallest monkey), at and a weight of, to the southern muriqui, at and a weight of. New World monkeys differ slightly from Old World monkeys in several aspects. The most prominent phenotypic distinction is the nose, which is the feature used most commonly to distinguish between the two groups. The clade for the New World monkeys, Platyrrhini, means \"flat nosed\". The noses of New World monkeys are flatter than the narrow noses of the Old World monkeys, and have side-facing nostrils. New World monkeys are the only monkeys with prehensile tails—in comparison with the shorter, non-grasping tails of the anthropoids of the Old World.  New World monkeys (except for the howler monkeys of genus \"Alouatta\") also typically lack the trichromatic vision of Old World monkeys. Colour vision in New World primates relies on a single gene on the X-chromosome to produce pigments that absorb medium and long wavelength light, which contrasts with short wavelength light. As a result, males rely on a single medium/long pigment gene and are dichromatic, as are homozygous females. Heterozygous females may possess two alleles with different sensitivities within this range, and so can display trichromatic vision.  Platyrrhines also differ from Old World monkeys in that they have twelve premolars instead of eight; having a dental formula of or (consisting of 2 incisors, 1 canine, 3 premolars, and 2 or 3 molars). This is in contrast with Old World Anthropoids, including gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, siamangs, gibbons, orangutans, and most humans, which share a dental formula of. Many New World monkeys are small and almost all are arboreal, so knowledge of them is less comprehensive than that of the more easily observed Old World monkeys. Unlike most Old World monkeys, many New World monkeys form monogamous pair bonds, and show substantial paternal care of young. They eat fruits, nuts, insects, flowers, bird eggs, spiders, and small mammals. Unlike humans and most Old World monkeys, their thumbs are not opposable (except for some Cebids).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "About 40 million years ago, the Simiiformes infraorder split into the parvorders Platyrrhini (New World monkeys—in South America) and Catarrhini (apes and Old World monkeys—in Africa). The individuals whose descendants would become Platyrrhini are currently conjectured to have migrated to South America either on a raft of vegetation or via a land bridge. There are two possible rafting routes, either across the Atlantic Ocean from Africa or across the Caribbean from North America; however, there is no fossil record to support the hypothesis of a migration from North America. The land bridge hypothesis relies on the existence of Atlantic Ocean ridges and a fall in the sea level in the Oligocene. This would have either produced a single land bridge or a series of mid-Atlantic islands to act as stepping stones for the migration. The latter is now the favorite choice.  At the time the New World monkeys split off, the Isthmus of Panama had not yet formed, ocean currents and climate were quite different, and the Atlantic Ocean was less than the present width by about a third; possibly 1,000 km less, based on the current estimate of the Atlantic mid-ocean ridge formation processes spreading rate of 25 mm/year.  However, the \"Ucayalipithecus\" of Amazonian Peru who might have rafted across the Atlantic between ~35–32 million years ago, are nested within the Parapithecoidea from the Eocene of Afro-Arabia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "The chromosomal content of the ancestor species appears to have been 2n = 54. In extant species, the 2n value varies from 16 in the titi monkey to 62 in the woolly monkey.  A Bayesian estimate of the most recent common ancestor of the extant species has a 95% credible interval of -.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The following is the listing of the various platyrrhine families, as defined by Ryland & Mittermeier (2009), and their position in the Order Primates:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "New World monkeys are the five families of primates that are found in the tropical regions of Central and South America and Mexico: Callitrichidae, Cebidae, Aotidae, Pitheciidae, and Atelidae. The five families are ranked together as the Ceboidea, the only extant superfamily in the parvorder Platyrrhini. Platyrrhini means flat-nosed, and their noses are flatter than those of other simians, with sideways-facing nostrils. Monkeys in the family Atelidae, such as the spider monkey, are the only primates to have prehensile tails. New World monkeys' closest relatives are the other simians, the Catarrhini (\"down-nosed,\" comprising Old World monkeys and apes). New World monkeys descend from African simians that colonized South America, a line that split off about 40 million years ago.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973332}
{"src_title": "Astragalus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Milkvetch species include herbs and shrubs with pinnately compound leaves. There are annual and perennial species. The flowers are formed in clusters in a raceme, each flower typical of the legume family, with three types of petals: banner, wings, and keel. The calyx is tubular or bell-shaped.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Astragalus\" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including many case-bearing moths of the genus \"Coleophora\": \"C. cartilaginella\", \"C. colutella\", \"C. euryaula\", and \"C. onobrychiella\" feed exclusively on \"Astragalus\", \"C. astragalella\" and \"C. gallipennella\" feed exclusively on the species \"Astragalus glycyphyllos\", and \"C. hippodromica\" is limited to \"Astragalus gombo\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The genus was formally described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in his \"Species Plantarum\".  The name \"Astragalus\" is Greek, an old name for this group of plants which were believed to have a positive effect on goat milk production.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "Astragalus has been used in traditional Chinese medicine over centuries to treat various disorders, but there is no high-quality evidence it is effective or safe for any medical purpose.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phytochemicals and supplements.", "content": "Extracts of astragalus root include diverse phytochemicals, such as saponins and isoflavone flavonoids, which are purported in traditional practices to increase lactation in nursing mothers. There is no valid clinical evidence to indicate such use is effective or safe for the mother or infant. Dietary supplement products containing astragalus extracts may not have been adequately tested for efficacy, safety, purity or consistency. The root extracts of astragalus may be used in soups, teas or sold in capsules.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Side effects and toxicology.", "content": "Although astragalus supplements are generally well tolerated, mild gastrointestinal upset, diarrhea, and allergic reactions may occur. Because astragalus may affect regulation of blood sugar and blood pressure, it may be risky for people with blood disorders, diabetes, or hypertension to use it as a supplement. Astragalus may interact with prescribed drugs that suppress the immune system, such as medications used by people being treated for cancer or recovery from organ transplants.  Some astragalus species can be toxic, such as those found in the United States containing the neurotoxin, swainsonine, which causes \"locoweed\" poisoning in animals. Some astragalus species may contain high levels of selenium, possibly causing toxicity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ornamental use.", "content": "Several species, including \"A. alpinus\" (bluish-purple flowers), \"A. hypoglottis\" (purple flowers), and \"A. lotoides\", are grown as ornamental plants in gardens.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Astragalus is a large genus of over 3,000 species of herbs and small shrubs, belonging to the legume family Fabaceae and the subfamily Faboideae. It is the largest genus of plants in terms of described species. The genus is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Common names include milkvetch (most species), locoweed (in North America, some species) and goat's-thorn (\"A. gummifer\", \"A. tragacantha\"). Some pale-flowered vetches (\"Vicia\" spp.) are similar in appearance, but they are more vine-like than \"Astragalus\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973333}
{"src_title": "Mikado (game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rules.", "content": "Classic Mikado consists of 41 sticks. They are coded with different values that have a total of 170 points and are around 15 cm long.  The sticks are bundled and taken in one hand that touches the table or ground. The release creates a circular jumble. Now the players take turns, in which one stick after another should be taken up without moving or touching others. The take-away could be by hand, possibly through pressing on a stick's tip or if one has already picked up a special stick (Mikado/Mandarin), it could be used as a helper, possibly to throw up another stick.  On a fault the turn ends (the last stick taken is not counted). The next player bundles and drops the sticks again. After several rounds, normally five, the one with the highest score – the total of the values of the sticks picked up – is the winner.  A player is allowed to stand up on but not to leave their own place. A bad throw could be rerun and the rules should be kept strict in respect to moving sticks to enjoy the game.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rule variations.", "content": "During a player's turn:  Sticks allowed as pick-up helpers:  A stick taken when picking it up makes another stick in the stack move:  Scoring:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classic Mikado.", "content": "Classic Mikado is typically made from beech wood.  Sizes:  The large and super variants may use the 26 sticks Giant Mikado variant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mini Mikado.", "content": "Made of 31 toothpicks painted in the middle. The game has a total of 145 points. name / coding / value / number of the sticks:  Rules and values are the same as with normal Mikado sticks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Giant Mikado.", "content": "This type is usually used for outdoor use. There are 26 sticks with a length of and diameter. The game has a total of 200 points. Rules and markings are the same as with normal Mikado sticks.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mikado is a pick-up sticks game originating in Europe, played with a set of same-length sticks which can measure between and.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973334}
{"src_title": "Pietro II Orseolo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Reign.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relations with Byzantium.", "content": "In 992 Pietro II Orseolo concluded a treaty with the Byzantine emperor Basil II to transport Byzantine troops in exchange for commercial privileges in Constantinople. His dogaressa was Maria Candiano.  Following repeated complaints by the Dalmatian city-states in 997, the Venetian fleet under Orseolo attacked the Neretvian pirates of Neretva on Ascension Day in 998. Pietro then took the title of \"Dux Dalmatianorum\" (Duke of the Dalmatians), associating it with his son Giovanni Orseolo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scorched earth policy.", "content": "On 9 May 1000 Doge Pietro II decided to finally pacify the Croatians and the Narentines during the last Croatian-Bulgarian wars, protecting Venetian trade colonies and the interests of Romanized Dalmatians. Without difficulties, his fleet of 6 ships scorched the entire eastern half of the Adriatic coast, with only the Neretvians offering resistance. After the Neretvians stole goods and captured 40 tradars from Zadar, the Doge dispatched 10 ships that caught the Neretvians near the island of Kača. He captured them all and brought them triumphantly to Split. There, Neretvian emissaries requested the release of the prisoners. Pietro II agreed provided that the Neretvian Archont himself agreed to bow before him. Moreover, the Neretvians would also have to renounce the old tax that Venetia had to pay since 948, and guarantee safe passage to Venetian ships in the Adriatic.  Pietro II released all prisoners except for 6 Narentines, whom he kept as hostages. The mainland Narentines were thus pacified; the citizens of Korčula decided to wage war against Orseolo, but were eventually conquered. Lastovo however, continued to resist Venetian incursions. The island was infamous for being a pirate haven. In the effort to decisively quell further opposition, Pietro II ordered the evacuation of the island city. Despite continuing opposition, he eventually razed Lastovo to the ground.  At the same time that Pietro II subjugated Lastovo, the former Croatian king Svetoslav Suronja fled to Venice after being deposed by his two brothers. To bolster his weakened position, King Stephen I of Croatia married Pietro II Orseolo's daughter, Joscella (Hicela) Orseolo. Their son Peter Krešimir IV became king in Croatia in 1059.  Pietro II Orseolo was married to Maria Candiano, the daughter of Vitale Candiano and niece of Doge Pietro IV Candiano. Ottone Orseolo succeeded his father, Pietro II, as the doge of Venice until 1026, while his grandson Peter reigned as King of Hungary. His younger son Domenico Orseolo's children settled in Ravenna and became the stem of the Orsini family.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The date of his victory became that of the \"Festa della Sensa\", the Ascension Festival, the oldest festival in Venice. It was commemorated by the Doge and the bishop of Olivolo going past the Lido and blessing the waters, invoking good fortune for the Venetian navy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pietro II Orseolo (961 − 1009) was the Doge of Venice from 991 to 1009. He began the period of eastern expansion of Venice that lasted for the better part of 500 years. He secured his influence in the Dalmatian Romanized settlements from the Croats and Narentines, freed Venetia from a 50-year-old taxation to the latter, and started Venetia's expansions by conquering the islands of Lastovo (\"Lagosta\") and Korčula (\"Curzola\") and acquiring Dubrovnik (\"Ragusa\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973335}
{"src_title": "Convair CV-240 family", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The design began with a requirement by American Airlines for an airliner to replace its Douglas DC-3s. Convair's original design, the unpressurised Model 110, was a twin-engine, low-wing monoplane of all-metal construction, with 30 seats. It was powered by Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp radial engines. It had a tricycle landing gear, and a ventral airstair for passenger boarding. The prototype Model 110, registration NX90653, first flew on July 8, 1946. By this time, American Airlines had changed the requirements to include pressurization and deemed the design too small. Convair used the first prototype for 240 series development work before it had it broken up in 1947. To meet the requirements of airlines for a pressurized airliner, Convair produced a revised design—the Model 240. This had a longer but thinner fuselage than the Model 110, accommodating 40 passengers in the first pressurized, twin-engined airliner. The 240 first flew on March 16, 1947.  The Model 240 was followed by the Model 340, which had a longer fuselage, longer-span wings, and more powerful engines. The 340 first flew on October 5, 1951. In 1954, in an attempt to compete with turboprop-powered airliners like the Vickers Viscount, Convair produced the Model 440 Metropolitan, with more streamlined cowlings, new engine exhausts, and better cabin soundproofing. As the \"Super 240\" evolved into the CV-340 and CV-440, the design reached the limit of piston-engine performance, and future development centered on conversion to turboprop power.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Convair delivered the first production Convairliner to American on February 29, 1948. They delivered a total of 75 to American—and another 50 to Western Airlines, Continental Airlines, Pan American Airways, Lufthansa, KLM, Swissair, Sabena, and Trans Australia Airlines. A CV-240 was the first private aircraft used in a United States presidential campaign. In 1960, John F. Kennedy used a CV-240 named \"Caroline\" (after his daughter) during his campaign. This aircraft is now preserved in the National Air and Space Museum.  After aborted negotiations with TWA and Eastern for \"Super 240\" orders, Convair temporarily halted 240 series production. In response to a United inquiry, Convair redesigned the Super 240, calling it the CV-340. United ordered 55, and more US orders came from Braniff, Continental, Delta, Northeast, and National. Other orders came from abroad, and the CV-340 was popular in South America. The CV-340 earned a reputation for reliability and profitability, and was developed into the CV-440 Metropolitan, the final piston-engined variant of the Convairliners.  Kelowna Flightcraft Air Charter, the major remaining operator of this model, currently holds the type certificate for this aircraft.  Used price for a Convair 240 in 1960 was around £40,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "\"Data from:\" General Dynamics Aircraft and their predecessors", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Civil variants.", "content": "A stretched Convair CV-5800 of IFL Group with this aircraft being developed by Kelowna Flightcraft (now KF Aerospace) in Canada", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Convair CV-240 is an American airliner that Convair manufactured from 1947 to 1954, initially as a possible replacement for the ubiquitous Douglas DC-3. Featuring a more modern design with cabin pressurization, the 240 series made some inroads as a commercial airliner, and had a long development cycle that produced various civil and military variants. Though reduced in numbers by attrition, various forms of the \"Convairliners\" continue to fly in the 21st century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973336}
{"src_title": "Voltage source", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ideal voltage sources.", "content": "An ideal voltage source is a two-terminal device that maintains a fixed voltage drop across its terminals. It is often used as a mathematical abstraction that simplifies the analysis of real electric circuits. If the voltage across an ideal voltage source can be specified independently of any other variable in a circuit, it is called an independent voltage source. Conversely, if the voltage across an ideal voltage source is determined by some other voltage or current in a circuit, it is called a dependent or controlled voltage source. A mathematical model of an amplifier will include dependent voltage sources whose magnitude is governed by some fixed relation to an input signal, for example. In the analysis of faults on electrical power systems, the whole network of interconnected sources and transmission lines can be usefully replaced by an ideal (AC) voltage source and a single equivalent impedance.  The internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is zero; it is able to supply or absorb any amount of current. The current through an ideal voltage source is completely determined by the external circuit. When connected to an open circuit, there is zero current and thus zero power. When connected to a load resistance, the current through the source approaches infinity as the load resistance approaches zero (a short circuit). Thus, an ideal voltage source can supply unlimited power.  If two ideal independent voltage source are directly connected in parallel, they must have exactly the same voltage; Otherwise, it creates a fallacy in logic, similar to writing down the equation formula_1.  Voltage sources in parallel shares the burden of current: If an exact duplicate of voltage is connected in parallel to the original one, either one of them will provide half of the electric current that the original voltage source would provide. For the remainder of the circuit, nothing has changed: These two voltage sources together provide the same voltage, and the same current as the original one alone.  No real voltage source is ideal; all have a non-zero effective internal resistance, and none can supply unlimited current. However, the internal resistance of a real voltage source is effectively modeled in linear circuit analysis by combining a non-zero resistance in series with an ideal voltage source (a Thévenin equivalent circuit).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison between voltage and current sources.", "content": "Most sources of electrical energy (the mains, a battery) are modeled as voltage sources. An \"ideal\" voltage source provides no energy when it is loaded by an open circuit (i.e. an infinite impedance), but approaches infinite energy and current when the load resistance approaches zero (a short circuit). Such a theoretical device would have a zero ohm output impedance in series with the source. A real-world voltage source has a very low, but non-zero internal resistance and output impedance, often much less than 1 ohm.  Conversely, a current source provides a constant current, as long as the load connected to the source terminals has sufficiently low impedance. An ideal current source would provide no energy to a short circuit and approach infinite energy and voltage as the load resistance approaches infinity (an open circuit). An \"ideal\" current source has an infinite output impedance in parallel with the source. A \"real-world\" current source has a very high, but finite output impedance. In the case of transistor current sources, impedance of a few megohms (at low frequencies) is typical.  Since no ideal sources of either variety exist (all real-world examples have finite and non-zero source impedance), any current source can be considered as a voltage source with the \"same\" source impedance and vice versa. Voltage sources and current sources are sometimes said to be duals of each other and any non ideal source can be converted from one to the other by applying Norton's theorem or Thévenin's theorem.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A voltage source is a two-terminal device which can maintain a fixed voltage. An ideal voltage source can maintain the fixed voltage independent of the load resistance or the output current. However, a real-world voltage source cannot supply unlimited current. A voltage source is the dual of a current source. Real-world sources of electrical energy, such as batteries and generators, can be modeled for analysis purposes as a combination of an ideal voltage source and additional combinations of impedance elements.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973337}
{"src_title": "Gortyna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "This important city was next to Cnossus in importance and splendour; in early times these two great towns had entered into a league which enabled them to reduce the whole of Crete under their power; in after-times when dissensions arose among them they were engaged in continual hostilities. It was originally of very considerable size, since Strabo reckons its circuit at 50 stadia; but when he wrote it was very much diminished. He adds that Ptolemy Philopator had begun to enclose it with fresh walls; but the work was not carried on for more than 8 stadia. In the Peloponnesian War, Gortyna seems to have had relations with Athens. In 201 BC, Philopoemen, who had been invited over by the inhabitants, assumed the command of the forces of Gortyna. In 197 BC, five hundred of the Gortynians, under their commander, Cydas, which seems to have been a common name at Gortyna, joined Quinctius Flamininus in Thessaly.  Gortyna stood on a plain watered by the river Lethaeus, and at a distance of 90 stadia from the Libyan Sea, on which were situated its two harbours, Lebena and Metallum, and is mentioned by numerous ancient writers — Pliny the Elder, the author of the \"Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax\", Ptolemy, and Hierocles, who commenced his tour of the island with this place. In the neighbourhood of Gortyna, the fountain of Sauros is said to have been surrounded by poplars which bore fruits; and on the banks of the Lethaeus was another famous spring, which the naturalists said was shaded by a plane-tree, which retained its foliage through the winter, and which the people believed to have covered the marriage-bed of Europa and the metamorphosed Zeus.  The site of Gortyna is at modern Gortyn, where extensive ruins of the ancient town remain. It is a major archaeological site in Crete.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "Excavations of Gortyn were begun in 1884 by the Italian School of Archaeology at Athens. The excavations showed that Gortyn was inhabited from the Neolithic age. Ruins of a settlement on the citadel of Gortyn, were discovered and dated back to 1050 BC, their collapse dating to the seventh century BC. Later the area was fortified with a wall. At the top of the hill in the citadel a temple was found dating to the 7th century BC. In this area two embossed plates were found, along with several other sculptures and paintings. Daedalic plastic and many other clay figurines, black figure and red figure paintings and plenty of pottery, especially the type called kernos, were found in the temple. Graves dating to the geometric age were found on the south side of the citadel. Regarding the lower town, the excavation uncovered the position of the Agora (market) and the temple of Pythian Apollo, which is 600 meters from the Agora. At the foot of Prophet Elias are traces of a sanctuary of Demeter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monuments.", "content": "The heart of Roman Gortyn is the Praetorium, the seat of the Roman Governor of Crete. The Praetorium was built in the 1st century AD, but it was altered significantly over the next eight centuries. In the same area, between the Agora and the temple of Apollo are the ruins of the Roman baths (thermae), as well as the temple of Apollo, an honorary arch, and the temple of the Egyptian deities with the worship statues of Isis, Serapis and Anubis. Parts of the Roman settlement, such as the theater (2nd century AD), have been unearthed during excavations. The theater has two entrances and a half-circular orchestra, the outline of which may still be seen today. Behind the Roman Theater are what has been called the \"Queen of the Inscriptions\". These inscriptions are the laws of the city of Gortyn, which are inscribed in the Dorian dialect on large stone slabs and are still plainly visible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Law code.", "content": "Among archaeologists, ancient historians, and classicists Gortyn is known today primarily because of the 1884 discovery of the Gortyn Code which is both the oldest and most complete known example of a code of ancient Greek law. The code was discovered on the site of a structure built by the Roman emperor Trajan, the Odeon, which for the second time, reused stones from an inscription-bearing wall that also had been incorporated into the foundation of an earlier Hellenistic structure. Although portions of the inscriptions have been placed in museums such as the Louvre in Paris, a modern structure at the site of the mostly ruined Odeon now houses many of the stones bearing the famous law code.\"  A copy of the code has been returned to Athens by the Italian Museum in Taranto and is now housed in the Greek Vouli. The curator of the Taranto Museum spoke in Greek and told the famous and political guests that, \"Greece is not part of Europe, it is Europe.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Myth of Europa and Zeus.", "content": "Classical Greek mythology has it that Gortyn was the site of one of Zeus' many affairs. This myth features the princess Europa, whose name has been applied to the continent, Europe. Disguised as a bull, Zeus abducted Europa from Lebanon and they had an affair under a plane tree (platanus), a tree that may be seen today in Gortys. Following this affair three children were born, Minos, Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon, who became the kings of the three Minoan Palaces in Crete. The identification of Europa in this myth gives weight to the claim that the civilization of the European continent was born on the island of Crete. A colossal statue of Europa sitting on the back of a bull was discovered at the amphitheatre in Gortyn in the nineteenth century and is now in the collections of the British Museum. Many coins were found with Europa representations on the back, showing that the people honored Europa as a great goddess.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Odyssey\".", "content": "According to Book III of Homer's \"The Odyssey\", Menelaus and his fleet of ships, returning home from the Trojan War, were blown off course to the Gortyn coastline. Homer describes stormy seas that pushed the ships against a sharp reef, ultimately destroying many of the vessels but sparing the crew.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gortyna (), or Gortyn (Γορτύν), was a town of ancient Crete which appears in the Homeric poems, under the form of Γορτύν; but afterwards became usually Gortyna (Γόρτυνα). According to Stephanus of Byzantium it was originally called Larissa (Λάρισσα) and Cremnia or Kremnia (Κρήμνια).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973338}
{"src_title": "Skylab 2", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission highlights.", "content": "The Skylab station suffered significant damage on its May 14 launch: its micrometeorite shield, and one of its primary solar arrays had torn loose during launch, and the remaining primary solar array was jammed. Without the shield which was designed to also provide thermal protection, Skylab baked in the Sun, and rising temperatures inside the workshop released toxic materials into the station's atmosphere and endangered on-board film and food. The first crew was supposed to launch on May 15, but instead had to train practicing repair techniques as they were developed by the engineers. Ground controllers purged the atmosphere with pure nitrogen four times, before refilling it with the nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere for the crew.  On May 25, Skylab 2 lifted from LC-39B, the first Saturn IB launch in almost five years and only the second-ever launch from Pad 39B. Booster performance was nominal except for one momentary glitch that could have threatened the mission - when the Commit signal was sent to the Saturn at ignition, the instrument unit sent a command to switch the launch vehicle from internal to external power. This would have shut down the Saturn's electrical system, but not the propulsion system and likely cause the disaster scenario of an uncontrollable booster, requiring the Launch Escape System to be activated and the Command Module pulled away to safety, followed by Range Safety destroying the errant launch vehicle. However, the duration of the cutoff signal was less than one second, too short a time for the electrical relay in the booster to be activated, thus nothing happened and the launch proceeded as planned. This glitch was traced to a modification of the pad electrical equipment and corrective steps were subsequently taken to prevent it from happening again. On reaching the station, Conrad flew their Apollo Command/Service Module (CSM) around it to inspect the damage, then soft-docked with it to avoid the necessity of station keeping while the crew ate, and flight controllers planned the first repair attempt. Then they undocked so that Conrad could position the Apollo by the jammed solar panel, so that Weitz could perform a stand-up EVA, trying to free the array by tugging at it with a 10-foot hooked pole, while Kerwin held onto his legs. This failed, and consumed a significant amount of the Skylab's nitrogen maneuvering fuel to keep it steady in the process.  The crew then attempted to perform the hard dock to Skylab, but the capture latches failed to operate. After eight failed attempts, they donned their pressure suits again and partially dis-assembled the CSM's docking probe; the next attempt worked. Once inside the station, the crew deployed a collapsible parasol through the small scientific airlock to act as a sunshade. (This approach was suggested and designed by NASA's \"Mr. Fix It\" Jack Kinzler, who was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal for the effort.) Successful deployment of the sunshade dropped inside temperatures to sustainable levels.  Two weeks later, Conrad and Kerwin performed a second EVA, finally freeing the stuck solar panel and increasing the electrical power to the workshop. They had prepared for this repair by practicing in the Neutral Buoyancy Simulator at the Marshall Space Flight Center. Without power from the panel, the second and third Skylab missions would have been unable to perform their main experiments, and the station's critical battery system would have been seriously degraded. During this EVA, the sudden deployment of the solar panel structure caused both astronauts to be flung from the station's hull, testing their nerves as well as the strength of their safety tethers. After recovering their composure, both astronauts returned to their positions on the station and completed the EVA.  For nearly a month they made further repairs to the workshop, conducted medical experiments, gathered solar and Earth science data, and performed a total of 392 hours of experiments. The mission tracked two minutes of a large solar flare with the Apollo Telescope Mount; they took and returned some 29,000 frames of film of the sun. The Skylab 2 astronauts spent 28 days in space, which doubled the previous U.S. record. The mission ended successfully on June 22, 1973, when Skylab 2 splashed down in the Pacific Ocean 9.6 km from the recovery ship USS \"Ticonderoga\". Skylab 2 set the records for the longest duration crewed spaceflight, greatest distance traveled and greatest mass docked in space. Conrad set the record for most time in space for an astronaut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission insignia.", "content": "The Skylab 1 patch was designed by Kelly Freas, a well-known artist highly regarded in the science fiction community, who was suggested to NASA by science fiction author and editor Ben Bova. The insignia features Skylab above the earth with the sun in the background. In an article for Analog Science Fiction/Science Fact magazine, Freas said, \"Among the suggestions the astronauts had made was the idea of a solar eclipse as seen from Skylab. It soon became clear that this idea would solve several problems at once: it pointed up the solar study function of Skylab, it would give me the large circular shape of the Earth as counterpoint to the angularity of the cluster, and it would establish firmly the connection of Skylab to the Earth. In addition, it would give a chance to get the necessary high contrast for good visibility of the tiny finished patch.... I made several studies of cloud patterns on the planet, reducing them finally to very conventionalized swirls. The Skylab cluster was simplified and simplified again, till it became simply a black form with a white edgelight to set it off.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spacecraft location.", "content": "The command module they flew to the station in is displayed at the National Museum of Naval Aviation, Pensacola, Florida.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Skylab 2 (also SL-2 and SLM-1) was the first crewed mission to Skylab, the first U.S. orbital space station. The mission was launched on an Apollo command and service module by a Saturn IB rocket on May 25, 1973, and carried a three-person crew to the station. The name Skylab 2 also refers to the vehicle used for that mission. The Skylab 2 mission established a twenty-eight-day record for human spaceflight duration. Furthermore, its crew were the first space station occupants ever to return safely to Earth – the only previous space station occupants, the crew of the 1971 Soyuz 11 mission that had crewed the Salyut 1 station for twenty-four days, died upon reentry due to unexpected cabin depressurization.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973339}
{"src_title": "Skylab 3", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission highlights.", "content": "During the approach phase, a propellant leak developed in one of the Apollo Service Module's reaction control system thruster quads. The crew was able to safely dock with Skylab, but troubleshooting continued with the problem. Six days later, another thruster quad developed a leak, creating concern amongst Mission Control. For the first time, an Apollo spacecraft would be rolled out to Launch Complex 39 for a rescue mission, made possible by the ability for the station to have two Apollo CSMs docked at the same time. It was eventually determined that the CSM could be safely maneuvered using only two working thruster quads, and the rescue mission was never launched.  The crew, during their first EVA, installed the twin-pole sunshade, one of the two solutions for the destruction of the micrometeoroid shield during Skylab's launch to keep the space station cool. It was installed over the parasol, which was originally deployed through a porthole airlock during Skylab 2. Both were brought to the station by Skylab 2.  Skylab 3 continued a comprehensive medical research program that extended the data on human physiological adaptation and readaptation to space flight collected on the previous Skylab 2 mission. In addition, Skylab 3 extended the astronauts' stay in space from approximately one month to two months. Therefore, the effects of flight duration on physiological adaptation and readaptation could be examined.  A set of core medical investigations were performed on all three Skylab crewed missions. These core investigations were the same basic investigations that were performed on Skylab 2, except that the Skylab 3 inflight tests were supplemented with extra tests based on what researchers learned from the Skylab 2 science results. For example, only leg volume measurements, preflight and postflight stereophotogrammetry, and in-flight maximum calf girth measurements were originally scheduled for all three Skylab missions.  In-flight photographs from Skylab 2 revealed the \"puffy face syndrome\" which prompted the addition of in-flight torso and limb girth measurements to gather more data on the apparent headward fluid shift on Skylab 3. Other additional tests included arterial blood flow measurements by an occlusive cuff placed around the leg, facial photographs taken before flight and during flight to study the \"puffy face syndrome\", venous compliance, hemoglobin, urine specific gravity, and urine mass measurements. These inflight tests gave additional information about fluid distribution and fluid balance to get a better understanding of the fluid shift phenomena.  The Skylab 3 biological experiments studied the effects of microgravity on mice, fruit flies, single cells and cell culture media. Human lung cells were flown to examine the biochemical characteristics of cell cultures in the microgravity environment. The two animal experiments were entitled Chronobiology of Pocket Mice and Circadian Rhythm in Vinegar Gnats. Both experiments were unsuccessful due to a power failure 30 hours after launch, which killed the animals.  High school students from across the United States participated in the Skylab missions as the primary investigators of experiments that studied astronomy, physics, and fundamental biology. The student experiments performed on Skylab 3 included the study of libration clouds, X-rays from Jupiter, in-vitro immunology, spider web formation, cytoplasmic streaming, mass measurement, and neutron analysis.  The crew's health was assessed on Skylab by collecting data on dental health, environmental and crew microbiology, radiation, and toxicological aspects of the Skylab orbital workshop. Other assessments were made of astronaut maneuvering equipment and of the habitability of the crew quarters, and crew activities/maintenance experiments were examined on Skylab 2 through 4 to better understand the living and working aspects of life in space.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "S150 Galactic X-Ray Mapping.", "content": "The S150 X-ray experiment was sent up with Skylab 3. The 1,360 kg X-ray astronomy satellite experiment was designed to look for soft galactic x-rays. Short missions had been done before, and S150 would be a longer project. S150 had a large soft x-ray detector, and was mounted atop the Saturn S-IVB upper stage. When released, S150 flew behind and below Skylab on 28 July 1973. The S150 experiment deployed after the Apollo capsule separated from the S-IVB stage. S150 had its own protective housing for the flight. The experiment on S150 ran for 5 hours, as its batteries allowed S150 to measure half of the sky. Experiment data was recorded on tape-recorder and sent to ground stations when available. S150 was designed by University of Wisconsin scientists Dr. William L. Kraushaar and Alan Bunner. S150 could detect 40-100 angstrom photons. The 2001 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe gave a more detailed soft galactic X-ray map, confirming the S150 Galactic X-Ray Mapping finding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission insignia.", "content": "The circular crew patch was Leonardo da Vinci's \"Vitruvian Man\", representing the mission's medical experiments and retouched to remove the genitalia. In the background is a disk that is half Sun (including sunspots) and half Earth to represent the experiments done on the flight. The patch has a white background, the crew's names and \"Skylab II\" with a red, white and blue border. The wives of the crew secretly had an alternate graphic made of a 'universal woman' with their first names in place of the crew's. Stickers with this on them were put in lockers aboard the Command Module to surprise the crew.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spacecraft location.", "content": "The Sklyab 3 command module returned to Earth with Alan L. Bean, Jack R. Lousma, and Owen K. Garriott on September 25, 1973. In 1977 the command module was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution by NASA.  The Apollo Command Module used on Skylab 3 was for a time on display at the visitor's center of the NASA Glenn Research Center at the Great Lakes Science Center in Cleveland, Ohio.  The module was moved to the Great Lakes Science Center in June 2010. It took a year to plan and US$120,000 to move the capsule.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Skylab 3 (also SL-3 and SLM-2) was the second crewed mission to the first American space station, Skylab. The mission began July 28, 1973, with the launch of three astronauts in the Apollo command and service module on the Saturn IB rocket, and lasted 59 days, 11 hours and 9 minutes. A total of 1,084.7 astronaut-utilization hours were tallied by the Skylab 3 crew performing scientific experiments in the areas of medical activities, solar observations, Earth resources, and other experiments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973340}
{"src_title": "Rivne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Rivne was first mentioned in 1283 in Polish annals \"\"Rocznik kapituły krakowskiej\"\" as one of the inhabited places of Halych-Volhynia near which Leszek II the Black was victorious over an army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Following the partition of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia after Galicia-Volhynia Wars, it was under the rule of Great Duchy of Lithuania and in 1434 the Grand Duke of Lithuania Švitrigaila awarded the settlement to a Lutsk nobleman Dychko. In 1461 Dychko sold his settlement to Prince Semen Nesvizh. In 1479 Semen Nesvizh died and his settlement was passed to his wife Maria who started to call herself princess of Rovno. She turned the settlement into a princely residence by building in 1481 a castle on one of local river islands and managed to obtain Magdeburg rights for the settlement in 1492 from the King of Poland Casimir IV Jagiellon. Following her death in 1518, the city was passed on to the princes of Ostrog and declined by losing its status as a princely residency.  In 1566 the town of Rovno became part of newly established Volhynian Voivodeship. Following the Union of Lublin in 1569, it was transferred from the realm of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to the Crown of Poland. The city had a status of privately held by nobles (Ostrogski and Lubomirski families). Following the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 Rivne became a part of the Russian Empire, and in 1797 it was declared to be a county level (uyezd) town of the Volhynian Governorate.  During World War I and the period of chaos shortly after, it was briefly under German, Ukrainian, Bolshevik, and Polish rule. In April–May 1919 Rivne served as the temporary capital of Ukrainian People's Republic. In late April 1919 one of the Ukrainian military leaders Volodymyr Oskilko attempted to organize a coup-d'état against the Petliura's-led Directory and cabinet of Borys Martos and replace them with Yevhen Petrushevych as a president of Ukraine. In Rivne, Oskilko managed to arrest most of ministers from the cabinet including Martos himself, but Petliura at that time was in neighbouring Zdolbuniv and managed to stop Oskilko's efforts. At the conclusion of the conflict, in accordance with the Riga Peace Treaty of 1921 it became a part of Polish Volhynian Voivodeship, a situation which would last until the Second World War.  In 1939, as a result of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the partition of Poland, Rivne was occupied by the Soviet Union. From December of the same year Rivne became the centre of the newly established Rivne Oblast, within the Ukrainian SSR.  On June 28, 1941 Rivne was invaded by the 6th army of the Nazi Germany, which later established the city as the administrative centre of Reichskommissariat Ukraine on August 20, 1941. A prison for the Gestapo was created in Belaia Street. At the time, roughly half of Rivne's inhabitants were Jewish; of these, about 23,000 were taken to a pine grove in Sosenki and killed between November 6 and 8. At the same period the well known German actor Olaf Bach was flown over to the city to perform for the German forces, for morale and to support the troops. He remained in Rivne from November 8 to the 13th. A ghetto was established for the remaining 5,000 Jews. In July 1942, its population was sent north to Kostopil where they were killed; the ghetto was subsequently liquidated. In 1992, a memorial complex of 20 thousand square meters was established, integrating the mass grave with an obelisk inscribed in Yiddish, Hebrew and Ukrainian to commemorate the killing of 17,500 Jews there in November 1941 during the Holocaust. On June 6, 2012, the World War II Jewish burial site was vandalized, allegedly as part of an anti-Semitic act.  On February 2, 1944, the city was captured by the Red Army in the Battle of Rovno, and remained under Soviet control until Ukraine regained its independence on the break-up of the USSR in 1991.  In 1958, the TV tower began broadcasting in the city; in 1969, the first trolley ran through the city; in 1969, Rivne airport was opened. In 1983, the city celebrated its 700th anniversary.  According to rules of Ukrainian orthography on 11 June 1991, the Ukrainian parliament the city was officially renamed Rivne whereas it had previously been known as Rovno.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Rivne has a moderate continental climate with cold, snowy winters and warm summers. Snow cover usually lasts from November until March. The average annual precipitation is June and July being the wettest months and January and February the driest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry.", "content": "During Soviet times the provincial town was transformed into an industrial center of the republic. There were two significant factories built. The first a machine building and metal processing factory capable of producing high-voltage apparatus, tractor spare parts and others. The other a chemical factory and synthetic materials fabrication plant. Light industry, including a linen plant and a textile mill, as well as food industries, including milk and meat processing plants and a vegetable preservation plant have also been built. In addition the city became a production center for furniture and other building materials.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attractions.", "content": "As an important cultural centre, Rivne hosts a humanities and a hydro-engineering university, as well as a faculty of the Kiev State Institute of Culture, and medical and musical as well as automobile-construction, commercial, textile, agricultural and cooperative polytechnic colleges. The city has a historical museum.  Following the fall of the Soviet Union, the monument for the Soviet hero D.N.Medvedev was removed, and the N.I.Kuznetsov monument was moved to another location within the city. Instead, in order to reflect the controversial history of the region the monuments for \"People who died in the honour of Ukraine\", and \"Soldiers who died in local military battles\" were installed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – Sister cities.", "content": "Rivne is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Rivne (; ; ) is a historic city in western Ukraine and the historical region of Volhynia. It is the administrative center of Rivne Oblast (province), as well as the surrounding Rivne Raion (district) within the oblast. Administratively, Rivne is incorporated as a city of oblast significance and does not belong to the raion. Population:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973341}
{"src_title": "Multi-agent system", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Concept.", "content": "Multi-agent systems consist of agents and their environment. Typically multi-agent systems research refers to software agents. However, the agents in a multi-agent system could equally well be robots, humans or human teams. A multi-agent system may contain combined human-agent teams.  Agents can be divided into types spanning simple to complex. Categories include:  Agent environments can be divided into:  Agent environments can also be organized according to properties such as accessibility (whether it is possible to gather complete information about the environment), determinism (whether an action causes a definite effect), dynamics (how many entities influence the environment in the moment), discreteness (whether the number of possible actions in the environment is finite), episodicity (whether agent actions in certain time periods influence other periods), and dimensionality (whether spatial characteristics are important factors of the environment and the agent considers space in its decision making). Agent actions are typically mediated via an appropriate middleware. This middleware offers a first-class design abstraction for multi-agent systems, providing means to govern resource access and agent coordination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The agents in a multi-agent system have several important characteristics:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Self-organisation and self-direction.", "content": "Multi-agent systems can manifest self-organisation as well as self-direction and other control paradigms and related complex behaviors even when the individual strategies of all their agents are simple. When agents can share knowledge using any agreed language, within the constraints of the system's communication protocol, the approach may lead to a common improvement. Example languages are Knowledge Query Manipulation Language (KQML) or Agent Communication Language (ACL).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "System paradigms.", "content": "Many MAS are implemented in computer simulations, stepping the system through discrete \"time steps\". The MAS components communicate typically using a weighted request matrix, e.g. and a weighted response matrix, e.g.  A challenge-response-contract scheme is common in MAS systems, where also considering other components, evolving \"contracts\" and the restriction sets of the component algorithms.  Another paradigm commonly used with MAS is the \"pheromone\", where components leave information for other nearby components. These pheromones may evaporate/concentrate with time, that is their values may decrease (or increase).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "MAS tend to find the best solution for their problems without intervention. There is high similarity here to physical phenomena, such as energy minimizing, where physical objects tend to reach the lowest energy possible within the physically constrained world. For example: many of the cars entering a metropolis in the morning will be available for leaving that same metropolis in the evening.  The systems also tend to prevent propagation of faults, self-recover and be fault tolerant, mainly due to the redundancy of components.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "The study of multi-agent systems is \"concerned with the development and analysis of sophisticated AI problem-solving and control architectures for both single-agent and multiple-agent systems.\" Research topics include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Frameworks.", "content": "Frameworks have emerged that implement common standards (such as the FIPA and OMG MASIF standards). These frameworks e.g. JADE, save time and aid in the standardization of MAS development.  Currently though, no standard is actively maintained from FIPA or OMG. Efforts for further development of software agents in industrial context are carried out in IEEE IES technical committee on Industrial Agents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "MAS have not only been applied in academic research, but also in industry. MAS are applied in the real world to graphical applications such as computer games. Agent systems have been used in films. It is widely advocated for use in networking and mobile technologies, to achieve automatic and dynamic load balancing, high scalability and self-healing networks. They are being used for coordinated defence systems.  Other applications include transportation, logistics, graphics, manufacturing, power system, smartgrids and GIS.  Also, Multi-agent Systems Artificial Intelligence (MAAI) are used for simulating societies, the purpose thereof being helpful in the fields of climate, energy, epidemiology, conflict management, child abuse,... Some organisations working on using multi-agent system models include Center for Modelling Social Systems, Centre for Research in Social Simulation, Centre for Policy Modelling, Society for Modelling and Simulation International.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A multi-agent system (MAS or \"self-organized system\") is a computerized system composed of multiple interacting intelligent agents. Multi-agent systems can solve problems that are difficult or impossible for an individual agent or a monolithic system to solve. Intelligence may include methodic, functional, procedural approaches, algorithmic search or reinforcement learning.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973342}
{"src_title": "Giambattista Basile", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Giugliano to a Neapolitan middle-class family, Basile was a courtier and soldier to various Italian princes, including the doge of Venice. According to Benedetto Croce he was born in 1575, while other sources have February 1566. In Venice he began to write poetry. Later he returned to Naples to serve as a courtier under the patronage of Don Marino II Caracciolo, prince of Avellino, to whom he dedicated his idyll \"L’Aretusa\" (1618). By the time of his death he had reached the rank of \"count\" \"Conte di Torrone\".  Basile's earliest known literary production is from 1604 in the form of a preface to the Vaiasseide of his friend the Neapolitan writer Giulio Cesare Cortese. The following year his villanella \"Smorza crudel amore\" was set to music and in 1608 he published his poem \"Il Pianto della Vergine\".  He is chiefly remembered for writing the collection of Neapolitan fairy tales titled \"Lo cunto de li cunti overo lo trattenemiento de peccerille\" (Neapolitan for \"The Tale of Tales, or Entertainment for Little Ones\"), also known as \"Il Pentamerone\" published posthumously in two volumes by his sister Adriana in Naples, Italy in 1634 and 1636 under the pseudonym Gian Alesio Abbatutis. It later became known as the \"Pentamerone\". Although neglected for some time, the work received a great deal of attention after the Brothers Grimm praised it highly as the first \"national\" collection of fairy tales. Many of these fairy tales are the oldest known variants in existence. They include the earliest known European versions of \"Rapunzel\" and \"Cinderella\" with the Chinese version of Cinderella dating from 850–60 AD.  Giambattista Basile spent much time in the courts of the nobles of the kingdom of Naples; tales of Pentamerone are set in the woods and castles of the Basilicata, in particular the city of Acerenza.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The 2015 film \"Tale of Tales\" is a screen adaptation loosely based on his fairy tale collection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Giovanni Francesco Straparola", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giambattista Basile (February 1566 – February 1632) was an Italian poet, courtier, and fairy tale collector. His collections include the oldest recorded forms of many well-known (and more obscure) European fairy tales.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973343}
{"src_title": "Carte de visite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and format.", "content": "The \"carte de visite\" was usually made of an albumen print, which was a thin paper photograph mounted on a thicker paper card. The size of a \"carte de visite\" is × mounted on a card sized ×. In 1854, Disdéri had also patented a method of taking eight separate negatives on a single plate, which reduced production costs. The \"carte de visite\" was slow to gain widespread use until 1859, when Disdéri published Emperor Napoleon III's photos in this format. This made the format an overnight success. The new invention was so popular that its usage became known as \"cardomania\" and spread quickly throughout Europe and then to America and the rest of the world.  By the early 1870s, \"cartes de visite\" were supplanted by \"cabinet cards\", which were also usually albumen prints, but larger, mounted on cardboard backs measuring by. Cabinet cards remained popular into the early 20th century, when Kodak introduced the Brownie camera and home snapshot photography became a mass phenomenon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "American Civil War.", "content": "The \"carte de visite\" photograph proved to be a very popular item during the American Civil War. Soldiers, friends and family members would have a means of inexpensively obtaining photographs and sending them to loved ones in small envelopes. Photos of Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and other celebrities of the era became instant hits in the North. People were not only buying photographs of themselves, but also collecting photographs of celebrities.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The carte de visite (, visiting card), abbreviated CdV, was a type of small photograph which was patented in Paris by photographer André Adolphe Eugène Disdéri in 1854, although first used by Louis Dodero. Each photograph was the size of a visiting card, and such photograph cards were commonly traded among friends and visitors in the 1860s. Albums for the collection and display of cards became a common fixture in Victorian parlors. The immense popularity of these card photographs led to the publication and collection of photographs of prominent persons.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973344}
{"src_title": "Elista", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Elista was founded in 1865 as a small settlement, the name is from Kalmyk \"els(e)n\" \"sand(y)\". In November 1920, Elista became the administrative center of Kalmyk Autonomous Oblast. By the early 1930s, Elista was transformed into a small city as the collectivization policies of Joseph Stalin forced many Kalmyks to abandon their traditional pastoral nomadic lifestyle in exchange for a modern, sedentary, and urban lifestyle. In October 1935, Elista was recognized as the capital of the Kalmyk ASSR. In late 1942, the city was briefly occupied by the German army. Because of alleged collaboration between the ethnic Kalmyks and the Germans, on December 27, 1943, the Kalmyk ASSR was dissolved and its ethnic Kalmyk residents were forcibly exiled to Siberia. Russian people were brought in to repopulate Elista whose name was changed to Stepnoy (). It was called Stepnoy until 1957, when the survivors of the deportations were allowed to return from exile.  Some western tourists started to visit Elista from the mid-1990s, and more after it received publicity as the host city of the 1998 Chess Olympiad. The city is safe and has little traffic. On the outskirts of Elista, there are vast grasslands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Elista is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with four rural localities, incorporated as the City of Elista—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Elista is incorporated as Elista Urban Okrug.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "Since 1991, the town has been characterized by the slow decay of Soviet-built institutions, and the large construction projects instigated by the republic's millionaire president Kirsan Ilyumzhinov.  The town center has a number of renovated public parks focused on the main square, boasting statues to both Lenin and the Buddha. To the east of the town lies the Olympic village of the 1998 XXXIII Chess Olympiad, known locally as \"City-Chess\". The site has a public swimming pool and an excellent museum of Kalmyk Buddhist art, and is also infrequently used as a conference center.  During his visit in 1998, the 14th Dalai Lama chose a location west of the town center to build a new Buddhist temple for city residents. It was opened in December 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Elista has a small regional airport which is open daily during the week, providing flights to Moscow and various cities in the southern part of the Russian Federation. The airport was closed by the federal aviation authorities sometime in the fall of 2006, but was reopened sometime in 2007. Rail connections are available to Stavropol.  Due to the high cost of air travel, people usually prefer to take the bus between Elista and Moscow. The trip is approximately 18 hours and makes several rest stops along the route. Nowadays, there is an airline Azimuth that provides air flights to Moscow, Sankt Petersburg, Sochi, Crimea and Rostov on Don at affordable cost with direct flights from Elista airport. The price starts at 2500 rubles one way and it saves traveler a lot of time instead of traveling by bus as it was in the past. Within Elista itself, a network of about a dozen \"marshrutka\" (minibus) routes is run by private companies. Minibuses are available around every five minutes. This is the preferred option of most Kalmykians because of the minimal cost (10 rubles).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Elista has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification \"Dfa\"), although it has sometimes been described as a temperate semi-arid climate (Köppen classification \"BSk\"). Winters are cold with a January average of while summers are hot with a July average of. The average annual precipitation is with winters being drier than summers. Extremes range from in January to in August.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Elista is twinned with the following sister cities:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elista ( or ;, \"Elst\") is the capital city of the Republic of Kalmykia, Russia. Population: It was known as \"Stepnoy\" from 1944 to 1957.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973345}
{"src_title": "The Civilizing Process", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Themes.", "content": "The first volume, \"The History of Manners\", traces the historical developments of the European \"habitus\", or \"second nature\", the particular individual psychic structures molded by social attitudes. Elias traced how post-medieval European standards regarding violence, sexual behaviour, bodily functions, table manners and forms of speech were gradually transformed by increasing thresholds of shame and repugnance, working outward from a nucleus in court etiquette. The internalized \"self-restraint\" imposed by increasingly complex networks of social connections developed the \"psychological\" self-perceptions that Freud recognized as the \"super-ego\".  The second volume, \"State Formation and Civilization\", looks into the formation of the state and the theory of civilisation. First, Elias explains that throughout time, social unity increased its control over military and fiscal power until possessing the monopoly over it. The progressive monopolisation of the military and taxation were feeding another (the political power was using tax money to pay its army and using the army to collect the taxes). Elias describes several steps of the creation of the State:  At the end of the process, the State is created and possessed the monopoly of legitimate physical violence. Elias also describes that the \"absolutist mechanism\": the state became the supreme body that coordinates the different interdependent group of the society.  In parallel of the sociogeneses of the state, Elias notes the change in the way to manage the bodily functions. Individuals tried to repress in themselves what is perceived to be part of animal nature, repress in a sphere that appears through time, intimacy. Hence, new feelings appeared: embarrassment and prudishness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "When Elias' work found a larger audience in the 1960s, at first his analysis of the process was misunderstood as an extension of discredited \"social Darwinism\", the idea of upward \"progress\" was dismissed by reading it as consecutive history rather than a metaphor for a social process. It soon became obvious that Elias had intended no moral \"superiority\". Instead he describes the increasing structuring and restraining of human behavior in European history, a process termed as \"civilization\" by its own protagonists. Elias had merely intended to analyze this concept and process dubbed civilization, and researched into its origins, patterns, and methods.  A particular criticism of \"The Civilizing Process\" was formulated by German ethnologist and cultural anthropologist Hans Peter Duerr in his 5-volume \"Der Mythos vom Zivilisationsprozeß\" (1988–2002), pointing out there existed plenty of social restrictions and regulations in Western culture and elsewhere since long before the Medieval period. Elias and his supporters responded that he had never intended to claim that social regulations or self-restraining psychological agents would be institutions singular to Western modernity, it is just that Western culture developed particularly sophisticated, concise, comprehensive, and rigid institutions apparent for instance in its decisive technological advances when compared to other cultures.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Civilizing Process is a book by German sociologist Norbert Elias. It is an influential work in sociology and Elias' most important work. It was first published in Basel, Switzerland in two volumes in 1939 in German as \"Über den Prozeß der Zivilisation\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973346}
{"src_title": "Ficus religiosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Ficus religiosa\" is a large dry season-deciduous or semi-evergreen tree up to tall and with a trunk diameter of up to. The leaves are in shape with a distinctive extended drip tip; they are long and broad, with a petiole. The fruits are small figs in diameter, green ripening to purple.  \"F. religiosa\" has a very long lifespan, ranging on average between 900 and 1,500 years. In some of its native habitats, it has been reportedly found living for over 3,000 years. Some trees have been reported to be more than 2,000 years old, like the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, a peepal tree in the ancient city of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka which is estimated to be more than 2,250 years old and is regarded as the \"Oldest historical tree in the world with religious importance\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Ficus religiosa\" suitably grows at altitudes ranging from up to. Due to the climatic conditions which are prevalent throughout different heat zones, it can grow at latitudes ranging from 30°N to 5°S. It can tolerate air temperatures ranging between to, beyond this upper limit its growth diminishes. It grows on a wide variety of soils but preferably needs deep, alluvial sandy loam with good drainage. It is also found on shallow soils including rock crevices.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association.", "content": "\"Ficus religiosa\" is associated with Blastophaga quadriceps, an agaonid wasp which acts as its pollinator as this wasp lays its eggs only on trees of this species.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Environment.", "content": "\"Ficus religiosa\" is tolerant to various climate zones (Köppen climate classification categories of Af, Am, Aw/As, Cfa, Cwa and Csa) and various types of soils. In Paraguay the tree species occurs in forests at lower elevations, and in China the species has been reported growing at altitudes ranging from to. In India, being a native species, it occurs both naturally in wild as well as cultivated up to altitudes of.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "\"Ficus religiosa\" is tolerant to widely varying climatic conditions such as Tropical rainforest climate where the region receives more than of precipitation per month, Tropical monsoon climate where average precipitation ranges from in the driest month to, Tropical savanna climate with dry summer where average precipitation ranges from per month in summers to per month in winters, Warm temperate climate, wet all year where average temperature ranges from to and it is wet all year, as well as Warm temperate climate with dry summer where average temperature ranges from to and summers are dry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invasiveness.", "content": "Unlike most epiphytic jungle figs, which ring the stems of dicotyledonous support trees from the outside, the epiphytic bushes of F. religiosa are not true stranglers. Their roots penetrate inside the stem of the support, eventually splitting it from within. \"Ficus religiosa\" has been listed as an \"environmental weed\" or \"naturalised weed\" by the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). It has been assigned an invasiveness high risk score of 7 in a risk assessment prepared for the species' invasiveness in Hawaii by PIER. Such a high score predicts it will become a major pest in suitable climate zones. The major reasons for its invasive behaviour are its fast-growing nature, tolerance to various climate zones and soil types, reported lifespan of over 3,000 years, and its suffocating growth habit as it often begins life as an epiphyte.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In religion.", "content": "The \"Ficus religiosa\" tree is considered sacred by the followers of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna says, \"I am the Peepal tree among the trees, Narada among the sages, Chitraaratha among the Gandharvas, And sage Kapila among the Siddhas.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buddhism.", "content": "Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment (\"bodhi\") while meditating underneath a \"Ficus religiosa\". The site is in present-day Bodh Gaya in Bihar, India. The original tree was destroyed, and has been replaced several times. A branch of the original tree was rooted in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka in 288 BCE and is known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi; it is the oldest living human-planted flowering plant (angiosperm) in the world. In Theravada Buddhist Southeast Asia, the tree's massive trunk is often the site of Buddhist or animist shrines. Not all \"Ficus religiosa\" can be called a \"Bodhi Tree\". A Bodhi Tree must be able to trace its parent to another Bodhi Tree and the line goes on until the first Bodhi Tree under which Gautama is said to have gained enlightenment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hinduism.", "content": "Sadhus (Hindu ascetics) still meditate beneath sacred fig trees, and Hindus do pradakshina (circumambulation, or meditative pacing) around the sacred fig tree as a mark of worship. Usually seven pradakshinas are done around the tree in the morning time chanting \"\"vriksha rajaya namah\"\", meaning \"salutation to the king of trees.\" It claimed that the 27 stars (constellations) constituting 12 houses (\"rasis\") and 9 planets are specifically represented precisely by 27 trees—one for each star. The Bodhi Tree is said to represent Pushya (Western star name γ, δ and θ Cancri in the Cancer constellation).  \"Plaksa\" is a possible Sanskrit term for \"Ficus religiosa\". However, according to Macdonell and Keith (1912), it denotes the wavy-leaved fig tree (\"Ficus infectoria\") instead. In Hindu texts, the Plaksa tree is associated with the source of the Sarasvati River. The \"Skanda Purana\" states that the Sarasvati originates from the water pot of Brahma flows from Plaksa on the Himalayas. According to Vamana Purana 32.1-4, the Sarasvati was rising from the Plaksa tree (Pipal tree). \"Plaksa Pra-sravana\" denotes the place where the Sarasvati appears. In the Rigveda Sutras, Plaksa Pra-sravana refers to the source of the Sarasvati.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Ficus religiosa\" is grown by specialty tree plant nurseries for use as an ornamental tree, in gardens and parks in tropical and subtropical climates. Peepul trees are native to Indian subcontinent and thrive in hot, humid weather. They prefer full sunlight and can grow in all soil types, though loam is the best. When planting, use soil with a pH of 7 or below. While it is possible for the plant to grow indoors in a pot, it grows best outside. Young peepul needs proper nourishment. It requires full sunlight and proper watering. Sacred fig occurs naturally in submontane forest regions.  In the Middle East, it is preferably planted as an avenue or road verge tree. In the Philippines and in Nicaragua the species is cultivated in parks and along roadsides and pavements, while in Paraguay it occurs in forests at lower elevations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "\"Ficus religiosa\" is used in traditional medicine for about 50 types of disorders including asthma, diabetes, diarrhea, epilepsy, gastric problems, inflammatory disorders, infectious and sexual disorders.  Prayer beads are made from the seeds of \"Ficus religiosa\", considered sacred because of the closeness to Buddha himself and his enlightenment.  Farmers in North India also cultivate it for its fig fruit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ficus religiosa or sacred fig is a species of fig native to the Indian subcontinent and Indochina that belongs to \"Moraceae\", the fig or mulberry family. It is also known as the bodhi tree, pippala tree, peepul tree, peepal tree or ashwattha tree (in India and Nepal). The sacred fig is considered to have a religious significance in three major religions that originated on the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Hindu and Jain ascetics consider the tree to be sacred and often meditate under them and this is the tree under which Gautama Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment. Sacred fig is designated as the state tree of the Indian state Odisha.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973347}
{"src_title": "Muhammad XII of Granada", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sultan.", "content": "Muhammad XII was the son of Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of the Emirate of Granada whom he succeeded in 1482, as a result of both court intrigue and unrest amongst the population at large.  Muhammad XII soon sought to gain prestige by invading Castile, but was taken prisoner at Lucena in 1483. Muhammad's father was then restored as ruler of Granada, to be replaced in 1485 by his uncle Muhammad XIII, also known as Abdullah ez Zagal.  Muhammad obtained his freedom and Christian support to recover his throne in 1487, by consenting to hold Granada as a tributary kingdom under the Catholic monarchs. He further undertook not to intervene in the Siege of Málaga, in which Málaga was taken by the Christians.  Following the fall of Málaga and Baza in 1487, Almuñécar, Salobreña and Almería were taken by the Christians the following year. By the beginning of 1491, Granada was the only Muslim-governed city in Iberia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surrender of Granada.", "content": "In 1491, Muhammad XII was summoned by Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon to surrender the city of Granada, which was besieged by the Castilians. Eventually, on 2 January 1492, Granada was surrendered. The royal procession moved from Santa Fe to a place a little more than a mile from Granada, where Ferdinand took up his position by the banks of the Genil. A private letter written by an eyewitness to the Bishop of León only six days after the event recorded the scene:  The Moorish sultan, with about eighty or a hundred on horseback and very well dressed, went forth to kiss the hand of their Highnesses. According to the final capitulation the key to Granada will pass into Spanish hands without Muhammad XII having to kiss the hands of Los Reyes, as the Spanish royal couple Isabella and Fernando became known. The indomitable mother of Muhammad XII insisted on sparing her son this final humiliation of kissing the hand of Isabella.  Christopher Columbus seems to have been present; he refers to the surrender:  After your Highnesses ended the war of the Moors who reigned in Europe, and finished the war of the great city of Granada, where this present year 1492 on the 2nd January I saw the royal banners of Your Highnesses planted by force of arms on the towers of the Alhambra.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile.", "content": "Legend has it that as Muhammad XII went into exile, he reached a rocky prominence which gave a last view of the city. Here he reined in his horse and viewed for the last time the Alhambra and the green valley that spread below. The place where this allegedly took place is today known as the Suspiro del Moro, \"the Moor's sigh\". Muhammad mourned his loss, and continued his journey to exile accompanied by his mother. Muhammad XII was given an estate in Laujar de Andarax, Las Alpujarras, a mountainous area between the Sierra Nevada and the Mediterranean Sea, but in October 1493 he crossed the Mediterranean to Fes, Morocco, accompanied by an entourage of 1,130 courtiers and servants. Large numbers of the Muslim population of Granada had already fled to North Africa, taking advantage of a clause in the articles of surrender that permitted free passage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Letter to the Marinid Sultan of Morocco.", "content": "Shortly after his surrender, Muhammad Boabdil sent a long letter to the Marinid rulers of Morocco asking for refuge. The letter begins with a long poem praising the Marinids, followed by a prose passage where he laments his defeat and asks forgiveness for past wrongdoings of his forefathers against the Marinids. The entire text was reported by al-Maqqari:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "North African exile and death.", "content": "The 17th-century historian Al-Maqqari wrote that Muhammad XII crossed the Mediterranean to Melilla then went to Fes where he built a palace. He stayed there until his death in 1533/1534 (in 940 A.H.). He was buried near the \"Musala\" (place of the special prayer during the Islamic festivals) located outside of \"Bab Sheria\" in Fes. Muhammad XII was survived by two sons; Yusef and Ahmed. Al-Maqqari met with his descendants in 1618 in Fes; they lived in a state of poverty and relied on the Zakat.  An alternative final resting place for Muhammad XII is suggested by the late nineteenth century Arabist M.C. Brosselard, who translated a lengthy prescription in Andalusian script on a three-foot long onyx slab held in the town museum of Tlemcen. This epitaph marked the tomb of the exiled king \"our lord Abu-Abdullah\" who died in Tlemcen in May 1494, aged thirty-four. The conflict between places and dates of death may arise from confusion between Muhammad XII and his uncle El Zagal, who also died in North African exile.  Spanish chronicler Luis del Mármol Carvajal wrote \"Muhammad XII died near the Oued el Assouad (Black River) at ford told Waqûba during the war between the Marinids and the Saadians.\" This source is also taken by Louis de Chénier, a diplomat of King Louis XVI of France, in his \"Historical research on the Moors and History of the Empire of Morocco\" published in Paris in 1787.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Abu Abdallah Muhammad XII ( \"Abū ‘Abdi-llāh Muḥammad ath-thānī ‘ashar\") (c. 1460–1533), known in Europe as Boabdil (a Spanish rendering of the name \"Abu Abdillah\"), was the 22nd and last Nasrid ruler of the Emirate of Granada in Iberia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973348}
{"src_title": "Basilica of Maxentius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In ancient Rome, a basilica was a rectangular building with a large central open space, and often a raised apse at the far end from the entrance. Basilicas served a variety of functions, including a combination of a court-house, council chamber and meeting hall. There might be, however, numerous statues of the gods displayed in niches set into the walls. Under Constantine and his successors this type of building was chosen as the basis for the design of the larger places of Christian worship, presumably as the basilica form had fewer pagan associations than those of the designs of traditional Greco-Roman temples, and allowed large congregations. As a result of the building programmes of the Christian Roman emperors the term basilica later became largely synonymous with a large church or cathedral.  Construction began on the northern side of the forum under the emperor Maxentius in 308 AD, and was completed in 312 by Constantine I after his defeat of Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. The building rose on the north side of the Via Sacra, close to the Temple of Peace, at that time probably neglected, and the Temple of Venus and Rome, whose reconstruction was part of Maxentius' interventions.  During the 6th century, the building was called \"templum Romae\".  The colour of the building before it was destroyed was white. The basilica stood on a concrete and rectangular platform. The thickness of the platform is not known/communicated. The central nave was long, wide, high, with side aisles wide and high. Eight massive marble columns high and in circumference stood at the corners of the nave. They were all destroyed except one that was removed by Paul V in 1613 to the Santa Maria Maggiore where it still stands.  The building consisted of a central nave covered by three groin vaults suspended above the floor on four large piers, ending in an apse at the western end containing a colossal statue of Constantine (remnants of which are now in a courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini). The lateral forces of the groin vaults were held by flanking aisles measuring. The aisles were spanned by three semi-circular barrel vaults perpendicular to the nave, and narrow arcades ran parallel to the nave beneath the barrel vaults. The nave itself measured creating a floor. Like the great imperial baths, the basilica made use of vast interior space with its emotional effect. Running the length of the eastern face of the building was a projecting arcade. On the south face was a projecting (\"prostyle\") porch with four columns (\"tetrastyle\"). The south and central sections were probably destroyed by the earthquake of 847. In 1349 the vault of the nave collapsed in another earthquake. The only one of the eight high columns that survived the earthquake was brought by Pope Paul V to Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore in 1614. All that remains of the basilica today is the north aisle with its three concrete barrel vaults. The ceilings of the barrel vaults show advanced weight-saving structural skill with octagonal ceiling coffers.  On the outside wall of the basilica, facing onto the via dei Fori Imperiali, are contemporary maps showing the various stages of the rise of the Roman Empire which were added during the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini. A map depicting Mussolini's \"New Roman Empire\" was removed from the wall after the war. The wrestling events were held here during the 1960 Summer Olympic Games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engineering.", "content": "The basilica Maxentius took aspects from Roman baths as well as typical Roman basilicas. At that time, it used the most advanced engineering techniques known including innovations taken from the Markets of Trajan and the Baths of Diocletian.  Similar to many basilicas at the time such as the Basilica Ulpia, the Basilica of Maxentius featured a huge open space in the central nave. However, instead of having columns support the ceiling like other basilicas, it was built using arches, a much more common appearance in Roman baths than basilicas. Another difference from traditional basilicas is the roof of the structure. While the former were built with a flat roof, the Basilica of Maxentius featured a folded roof, decreasing the overall weight of the structure and decreasing the horizontal forces exerted on the outer arches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The artist Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720-1778) drew many etchings of the basilica.  The building became an inspiration for many buildings built afterwards, including New York City's former Penn Station.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine (), sometimes known as the Basilica Nova—meaning \"new basilica\"—or Basilica of Maxentius, is an ancient building in the Roman Forum, Rome, Italy. It was the largest building in the Forum, and the last Roman basilica built in the city.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973349}
{"src_title": "Erigeron", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Its English name, fleabane, is shared with related plants in several other genera. It appears to be derived from a belief that the dried plants repelled fleas or that the plants were poisonous to fleas. The generic name \"Erigeron\" is derived from the Ancient Greek words (\"êri\") \"early in the morning\" and (\"gérōn\") \"old man\", a reference to the appearance of the white hairs of the fruit soon after flowering or possibly alluding to the early appearance of the seed heads. The noun is masculine, so that specific epithets should have masculine endings (e.g. \"glaucus\") to agree with it. However, authors have incorrectly used neuter endings (e.g. \"glaucum\"), because the ending \"-on\" resembles the ending of Ancient Greek neuter second declension nouns, as Augustin Pyramus de Candolle did in his 1836 account of the genus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The species may be annuals, biennials or perennials. They are well-branched with erect stems, characterized by their numerous white, lavender or pink ray flowers and yellow disc flowers. Some members of this group have no ray flowers. The pappus (= modified calyx, forming a crown) is shorter than in \"Aster\", and consists of bristles. The ray florets are narrower than in \"Aster\", but are clearly longer than the involucre (= whorled bracts).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Many species are used as ornamental plants, with numerous named cultivars such as 'Wayne Roderick', 'Charity', 'Foersters Liebling' and 'Dunkelste aller' (\"The darkest of all\" with semi-double, deep violet flower heads).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Erigeron\" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including \"Bucculatrix angustata\", \"Coleophora squamosella\" (which feeds exclusively on \"E. acris\"), \"Schinia intermontana\", \"Schinia obscurata\" (both of which also feed exclusively on \"Erigeron\"), \"Schinia sexata\" (which feeds exclusively on \"E. glabellus\") and \"Schinia villosa\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erigeron () is a large genus of plants in the daisy family. It is sometimes confused with other closely related genera, \"Aster\" and the true daisy \"Bellis\". The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution in dry, mountainous areas and grassland, with the highest diversity in North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973350}
{"src_title": "Mstislav Keldysh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Keldysh was born to a professional family of Russian nobility. His grandfather, Mikhail Fomich Keldysh (1839–1920), was a military physician, who retired with the military rank of General. Keldysh's grandmother, Natalia Keldysh (née Brusilova), was a cousin of general Aleksei Brusilov. Keldysh's maternal grandfather, Alexander Nikolaevich Skvortsov, was a General of Infantry, and fought in the Caucasian War.  Keldysh's father, Vsevolod Mikhailovich Keldysh (1878–1965), was a civil engineer, Major General of the Engineering Service, and a full professor, teaching at the Kuybyshev Military Engineering Academy from 1918. He became a \"Distinguished Engineering Scientist of Soviet Union\" (Заслуженный деятель науки и техники СССР) in 1944. He was one of the authors of contemporary methods for calculating the strength of reinforced concrete, and a designer of the Moscow Canal and Moscow Metro projects.  Several members of the Keldysh family were victims of political repressions. In the 1930s Keldysh's uncle was sent to a labor camp on the White Sea–Baltic Canal construction site. In 1935 Keldysh's mother was arrested but was released after a few weeks. It was a part of the campaign of collecting gold from the population, but after Keldysh's father brought all the jewelry the family had, the unsatisfied NKVD officer returned \"all this garbage\" back. Keldysh's brother Mikhail, a historian who specialized in Medieval Germany, was arrested in 1936 and executed in 1937 on suspicion of being a German spy. In 1938 another of Keldysh's brothers, Alexander, was arrested as a French spy. Alexander was spared because of the slight liberalization of the repressions during the transfer of the NKVD leadership from Nikolai Yezhov to Lavrentiy Beria, and was acquitted in the court.  The strongest influence on Keldysh was his older sister, Lyudmila Keldysh (1904–1976), a mathematician and Keldysh's first teacher. Among her children are Leonid Keldysh, director of Lebedev Physical Institute and Sergei Novikov, a mathematician.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "Keldysh was born in 1911 in Riga. When he was four the family evacuated to Moscow during the First World War. In the first years of the Soviet Union he was refused entrance to an Institute of Civil Engineers because of his attachment to a noble family. Later, he managed to enter and graduate from the Physics and Mathematics department of the Moscow State University. He obtained employment at the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI) under Mikhail Lavrentyev and Sergey Chaplygin.  Working in TsAGI he explained the auto-oscillation effects of flutter (in-flight auto-induced oscillations and structural deformations), and shimmy (auto-oscillation in the nose-wheel of aircraft undercarriages while on the ground). The effects were responsible for many aircraft catastrophes at the time.  In 1937 Keldysh became Doctor of Science with his dissertation entitled \"Complex Variable and Harmonic Functions Representation by Polynomial Series\", and was appointed a Professor of Moscow State University. In 1943 he became a Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. He got his first Stalin Prize in 1946 for his works on aircraft auto-oscillations. In 1943 he also became a full member of the Academy and the Director of NII-1 (Research Institute number 1) of the Department of the Aviation Industry. He also headed the Department of Applied Mechanics of the Steklov Institute of Mathematics. In 1966 the department was named after him to become the Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics.  During the 1940s Keldysh became the leader of a group of applied mathematicians involved in almost all large scientific projects of the Soviet Union. Keldysh created the \"Calculation Bureau\" that carried most of the mathematical problems related to the development of nuclear weapons. The bureau is also credited with design of the first Soviet computers. In 1947 he became a member of Communist Party.  Keldysh's main efforts were devoted to jet propulsion and rockets including supersonic gas dynamics, heat and mass exchange, and heat shielding. 1959 saw successful testing of the Soviet first cruise missile Burya, which displayed better performance than the Navajo missile being designed in USA at the time.  In 1954 Keldysh, Sergey Korolyov and Mikhail Tikhonravov submitted a letter to the Soviet Government proposing development of an artificial satellite to orbit the Earth. The letter was rejected, and the group filed exaggerated Soviet newspaper articles which influenced American authorities to start satellite programs. This in turn began the effort that culminated in the world's first satellite, Sputnik in October 1957, which marked the beginning of mankind's Space Age. In 1955 Keldysh was appointed chairman of the Satellite Committee at the Academy of Science. In recognition of his contribution to the problems of defense Keldysh was awarded the Hero of Socialist Labor (1956) and the Lenin Prize (1957). In 1961 he received a second Него of Socialist Labor medal for his contribution to Yuri Gagarin's flight into space, the first person to orbit the Earth.  In 1961 Keldysh was elected President of the Academy of Sciences and kept this position for 14 years. Concomitantly he became a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. His last scientific works were devoted to creation of the Shuttle Buran. In 1962 he was elected a member of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union.  Keldysh was 67 when he died. He was honoured with a state funeral and his ashes were buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis on Red Square.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "Keldysh was a member of many foreign academies of sciences, including the Mongolian Academy of Sciences (1961), Polish Academy of Sciences (1962), Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (1962), and Romanian Academy of Sciences (1965). He was also an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1966), Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (1966), Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1970), and Royal Society of Edinburgh (1968), foreign corresponding member of the German Academy of Sciences (1966), and Saxon Academy of Sciences in Leipzig (1966).  Keldysh was awarded the USSR State Prize (1942, 1946), Lenin Prize (1957), six Orders of Lenin, three other orders, numerous medals and four foreign orders.  The crater Keldysh on the Moon, and a research vessel \"Akademik Mstislav Keldysh\" are named after him. A minor planet, 2186 Keldysh discovered in 1973 by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh, is named in his honor.  A street (Akadēmiķa Mstislava Keldiša iela) has been named after Keldysh in the district of Pļavnieki in his native Rīga, Latvia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mstislav Vsevolodovich Keldysh (; – 24 June 1978) was a Soviet scientist in the field of mathematics and mechanics, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1946), President of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1961–1975), three times Hero of Socialist Labor (1956, 1961, 1971), fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1968). He was one of the key figures behind Soviet space program. Among scientific circles of USSR Keldysh was known with epithet \"the Chief Theoretician\" in analogy with epithet \"the Chief Designer\" used for Sergey Korolyov.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973351}
{"src_title": "Eugène Boudin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born at Honfleur, Boudin was the son of a harbor pilot, and at age 10 the young boy worked on a steamboat that ran between Le Havre and Honfleur. In 1835 the family moved to Le Havre, where Boudin's father opened a store for stationery and picture frames. Here the young Eugene worked, later opening his own small shop. Boudin's father had thus abandoned seafaring, and his son gave it up too, having no real vocation for it, though he preserved to his last days much of a sailor's character: frankness, accessibility, and open-heartedness.  In his shop, in which pictures were framed, Boudin came into contact with artists working in the area and exhibited in the shop the paintings of Constant Troyon and Jean-François Millet, who, along with Jean-Baptiste Isabey and Thomas Couture whom he met during this time, encouraged young Boudin to follow an artistic career. At the age of 22 he abandoned the world of commerce, started painting full-time, and travelled to Paris the following year and then through Flanders. In 1850 he earned a scholarship that enabled him to move to Paris, where he enrolled as a student in the studio of Eugène Isabey and worked as a copyist at the Louvre. To supplement his income he often returned to paint in Normandy and, from 1855, made regular trips to Brittany. On 14 January 1863 he married the 28-year-old Breton woman Marie-Anne Guédès in Le Havre and set up home in Paris. Dutch 17th-century masters profoundly influenced him, and on meeting the Dutch painter Johan Jongkind, who had already made his mark in French artistic circles, Boudin was advised by his new friend to paint outdoors (\"en plein air\"). He also worked with Troyon and Isabey, and in 1859 met Gustave Courbet who introduced him to Charles Baudelaire, the first critic to draw Boudin's talents to public attention when the artist made his debut at the 1859 Paris Salon.  In 1857/58 Boudin befriended the young Claude Monet, then only 18, and persuaded him to give up his teenage caricature drawings and to become a landscape painter, helping to instill in him a love of bright hues and the play of light on water later evident in Monet's Impressionist paintings. The two remained lifelong friends and Monet later paid tribute to Boudin's early influence. Boudin joined Monet and his young friends in the first Impressionist exhibition in 1873, but never considered himself a radical or innovator. Both Boudin and Monet lived abroad during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, Boudin in Antwerp and Monet in London; from 1873 to 1880 the Boudins lived in Bordeaux. His growing reputation enabled him to travel extensively at that time, visiting Belgium, the Netherlands and southern France. He continued to exhibit at the Paris Salons, receiving a third place medal at the Paris Salon of 1881, and a gold medal at the 1889 Exposition Universelle. In 1892 Boudin was made a knight of the Légion d'honneur, a somewhat tardy recognition of his talents and influence on the art of his contemporaries.  Late in his life, after the death of his wife in 1889, Boudin spent every winter in the south of France as a refuge from his own ill-health, and from 1892 to 1895 made regular trips to Venice. In 1898, recognizing that his life was almost spent, he returned to his home at Deauville, to die on 8 August within sight of the English Channel and under the Channel skies he had painted so often. He was buried according to his wishes in the Saint-Vincent Cemetery in Montmartre, Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Eugène Boudin Prize is an award given by the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts. Among the laureates of this award, the following painters were nominated:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eugène Louis Boudin (; 12 July 18248 August 1898) was one of the first French landscape painters to paint outdoors. Boudin was a marine painter, and expert in the rendering of all that goes upon the sea and along its shores. His pastels, summary and economic, garnered the splendid eulogy of Baudelaire; and Corot called him the \"King of the skies\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973352}
{"src_title": "Kipchoge Keino", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Keino was born in Kipsamo, Nandi District, Kenya. His name, \"Kipchoge\", is a Nandi language expression for \"born near the grain storage shed\". His parents died when he was a youngster and he was raised by an aunt. After finishing school, he joined the Kenya Police. Before taking up athletics, he played rugby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Athletic career.", "content": "He began his international career at the 1962 Commonwealth Games in Perth, Australia where he came eleventh in the three miles. At the 1964 Summer Olympics he finished fifth in 5000 m and just missed qualification for the 1500 m final.  On 27 August 1965, Keino lowered the 3000 m world record by over 6 seconds to 7:39.6 in his first attempt at the distance. He won two gold medals (1500 and 5000 metres) at the inaugural All-Africa Games. Later in that year, he broke the 5000 m world record held by Ron Clarke, clocking 13:24.2. At the 1966 Commonwealth Games in Kingston, Jamaica, he won both the mile run and three mile run. In the next Commonwealth Games, Keino won the 1500 metres and was third in the 5000 metres.  At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, he won the 1500 metres gold medal (defeating American favourite and world record holder Jim Ryun by 20 metres, the largest winning margin in the history of the event) and 5000 m silver medal. Four years later, he won the 3000 metres steeplechase gold and 1500 metres silver at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany. He retired in 1973. He is on the cover of the October 1968 issue of \"Track and Field News\", the first issue following the Olympics. He shared the cover of the September 1969 issue with Naftali Bon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After athletics.", "content": "With his wife, Phyllis Keino, he has dedicated significant efforts to humanitarian work in Eldoret, Kenya. They have established the Lewa Children's Home for orphans, the KipKeino Primary School in 1999, and the Kip Keino Secondary School in 2009.  For his work with orphans, he shared \"Sports Illustrated\" magazine's \"Sportsmen and Sportswomen of the Year\" award in 1987 with seven others, characterized as \"Athletes Who Care\". In 1996, Kipchoge Keino Stadium in Eldoret is named after him.  In 2007, he was made an honorary Doctor of Law by the University of Bristol. Earlier, Egerton University in Nakuru had awarded him an honorary degree. In July 2012, he received further recognition from the City of Bristol after the Kenyan Olympic Committee, under his presidency, made Bristol the training base for its athletes in preparation for the London 2012 Olympics. In 2012, Kipchoge Keino was among the inductees in the IAAF Hall of fame. The Bristol City Council awarded him freedom of the city, making him the first to receive this honour from Bristol since Sir Winston Churchill  On 5 August 2016, at the Olympic opening ceremony in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Keino was awarded the first Olympic Laurel, for outstanding service to the Olympic movement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Keino resides on a farm in Western Kenya where he controls and runs a charitable organization for orphans. He is married to Phyllis Keino. Their son Martin was a two-time NCAA champion and highly successful pace-setter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kipchoge Hezekiah Keino (born 17 January 1940) is a retired Kenyan track and field athlete. He was the chairman of the Kenyan Olympic Committee (KOC) until 29 September 2017. A two-time Olympic gold medalist, Keino was among the first in a long line of successful middle and long distance runners to come from the country and has helped and inspired many of his fellow countrymen and women to become the athletics force that they are today. In 2012, he was one of 24 athletes inducted as inaugural members of the International Association of Athletics Federations Hall Of Fame.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973353}
{"src_title": "Greek tortoise", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geographic range.", "content": "The Greek tortoise's geographic range includes North Africa, Southern Europe, and Southwest Asia. It is prevalent in the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus (from Anapa, Russia, to Sukhumi, Abkhazia, to the south), as well as in Georgia, Armenia, Iran, and Azerbaijan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "The oldest known definitive fossil is from the Early Pliocene of Greece, but specimens referred to as \"Testudo\" cf. \"graeca\" are known from the Late and Middle Miocene in Greece and Turkey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Greek tortoise (\"T. g. ibera\") is often confused with Hermann's tortoise (\"T. hermanni\" ). However, notable differences enable them to be distinguished.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "The division of the Greek tortoise into subspecies is difficult and confusing. Given their huge range over three continents, the various terrains, climates, and biotopes have produced a huge number of varieties, with new subspecies constantly being discovered. Currently, at least 20 subspecies are published:  This incomplete listing shows the problems in the division of the species into subspecies. The differences in form are primarily in size and weight, as well as coloration, which ranges from dark brown to bright yellow, and the types of flecks, ranging from solid colors to many spots. Also, the bending-up of the edges of their carapaces ranges from minimal to pronounced. So as not to become lost in the number of subspecies, recently, a few tortoises previously classified as \"T. graeca\" have been assigned to different species, or even different genera.  The genetic richness of \"T. graeca\" is also shown in its crossbreeding. Tortoises of different form groups often mate, producing offspring with widely differing shapes and color. Perhaps the best means of identification for the future is simply the place of origin.  The smallest, and perhaps the prettiest, of the subspecies, is the Tunisian tortoise. It has a particularly bright and striking coloration. However, these are also the most sensitive tortoises of the species, so they cannot be kept outdoors in temperate climates, as cold and rainy summers quickly cause the animals to become ill. They are also incapable of long hibernation.  At the other extreme, animals from northeastern Turkey are very robust, such as Hermann's tortoise. The largest specimens come from Bulgaria. Specimens of have been reported. In comparison, the Tunisian tortoise has a maximum weight of 0.7 kg (1.5 lb). \"T. graeca\" is also closely related to the marginated tortoise (\"T. marginata\"). The two species can interbreed, producing offspring capable of reproduction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sexing.", "content": "Males of \"T. graeca\" differ from females in six main points. Firstly, they are generally smaller. Their tails are longer than females and taper to a point evenly, and the cloacal opening is farther from the base of the tail. The underside is somewhat curved, while females have a flat shell on the underside. The rear portion of a male's carapace is wider than it is long. Finally, the posterior plates of the carapace often flange outward.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mating and reproduction.", "content": "In \"T. graeca\", immediately after waking from hibernation, the mating instinct starts up. The males follow the females with great interest, encircling them, biting them in the limbs, ramming them, and trying to mount them. During copulation, the male opens his mouth, showing his red tongue and making squeaking sounds.  During mating, the female stands still, bracing herself with her front legs, moving the front part of her body to the left and right in the same rhythm as the male's cries. One successful mating will allow the female to lay eggs multiple times. When breeding in captivity, the pairs of females and males must be kept separate. If multiple males are in a pen, one takes on a dominant role and will try to mate with the other males in the pen. If more males than females are in a pen, the males might kill each other to mate with the females.  One or two weeks before egg laying, the animals become notably agitated, moving around to smell and dig in the soil, even tasting it, before choosing the ideal spot to lay the eggs. One or two days before egg laying, the female takes on an aggressive, dominant behavior, mounting another animal as for copulation and making the same squeaking sound the male produces during copulation. The purpose of this behavior is to produce respect in the tortoise community so that the female will not be disturbed by the others during egg laying. Further details of egg-laying behavior are the same as those detailed for the marginated tortoise.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trade.", "content": "The Greek tortoise is commonly traded as a pet in source countries such as Morocco and Spain, despite the illegality of this trade. This can lead to an unsustainable removal of wild individuals for the local pet trade and for export. Also, welfare concerns exist with this trade, as the animals are not properly housed when being sold, causing a high rate of mortality in captivity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "The Greek tortoise loves dandelion leaves and other leafy plants. However, although they also enjoy eating lettuce, it is not recommended to them due to having a lack of nutrients that the tortoises need to survive.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Greek tortoise (\"Testudo graeca\"), also known commonly as the spur-thighed tortoise, is a species of tortoise in the family Testudinidae. \"Testudo graeca\" is one of five species of Mediterranean tortoises (genera \"Testudo\" and \"Agrionemys\"). The other four species are Hermann's tortoise (\"T. hermanni\"), the Egyptian tortoise (\"T. kleinmanni\"), the marginated tortoise (\"T. marginata\"), and the Russian tortoise (\"A. horsfieldii\"). The Greek tortoise is a very long-lived animal, achieving a lifespan upwards of 125 years, with some unverified reports up to 200 years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973354}
{"src_title": "Gravettian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gravettian culture.", "content": "The Gravettians were hunter-gatherers who lived in a bitterly cold period of European prehistory, and Gravettian lifestyle was shaped by the climate. Pleniglacial environmental changes forced them to adapt. West and Central Europe were extremely cold during this period. Archaeologists usually describe two regional variants: the western Gravettian, known mainly from cave sites in France, Spain and Britain, and the eastern Gravettian in Central Europe and Russia. The eastern Gravettians, which include the Pavlovian culture, were specialized mammoth hunters, whose remains are usually found not in caves but in open air sites. Gravettian culture thrived on their ability to hunt animals. They utilized a variety of tools and hunting strategies. Compared to theorized hunting techniques of Neanderthals and earlier human groups, Gravettian hunting culture appears much more mobile and complex. They lived in caves or semi-subterranean or rounded dwellings which were typically arranged in small \"villages\". Gravettians are thought to have been innovative in the development of tools such as blunted-back knives, tanged arrowheads and boomerangs. Other innovations include the use of woven nets and oil lamps made of stone. Blades and bladelets were used to make decorations and bone tools from animal remains. Gravettian culture extends across a large geographic region, as far as Estremadura in Portugal. but is relatively homogeneous until about 27,000 BN. They developed burial rites, which included the inclusion of simple, purpose built, offerings and/or personal ornaments owned by the deceased, placed within the grave or tomb. Surviving Gravettian art includes numerous cave paintings and small, portable Venus figurines made from clay or ivory, as well as jewelry objects. The fertility deities mostly date from the early period; there are over 100 known surviving examples. They conform to a very specific physical type, with large breasts, broad hips and prominent posteriors. The statuettes tend to lack facial details, and their limbs that are often broken off.  During the post glacial period, evidence of the culture begins to disappear from northern Europe but was continued in areas around the Mediterranean.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Animals were a primary food source for early humans of the Gravettian period. Since Europe was extremely cold during this period, food sources needed to be high in energy and fat content. Testing comparisons among various human remains reveal that populations at higher latitudes placed greater dietary emphasis on meat. A defining trait distinguishing Gravettian people was their ease of mobility compared to their Neanderthal counterparts. Modern humans developed the technology and social organization that enabled them to migrate with their food source whereas Neanderthals were not adept at travelling, even with relatively sedentary herds.  With their ability to move with the herds, Gravettian diets incorporated a huge variety of animal prey. The main factors were the animal's age and size. For example, first year deer offered hides most suitable for clothing, while fourth year deer contained far more meat. Gravettian diet included larger animals such as mammoths, hyenas, wolves, reindeer killed with stone or bone tools, as well as hares and foxes captured with nets. This time period is classified by the strong emphasis on meat consumption because agriculture had not been fully introduced nor utilized. In addition, the climate was not favorable to stable crop cultivation.  Coastal Gravettians were able to avail of marine protein. From remains found in Italy and Wales, carbon dating reveals that 20-30% of Gravettian diets of coastal peoples consisted of sea animals. Populations of lower latitudes relied more on shell fish and fish while higher latitudes' diets consisted of seals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hunting.", "content": "Clubs, stones and sticks were the primary hunting tools during the Upper Paleolithic period. Bone, antler and ivory points have all been found at sites in France; but proper stone arrowheads and throwing spears did not appear until the Solutrean period (~20,000 Before Present). Due to the primitive tools, many animals were hunted at close range. The typical artefact of Gravettian industry, once considered diagnostic, is the small pointed blade with a straight blunt back. They are today known as the Gravette point, and were used to hunt big game. Gravettians used nets to hunt small game, and are credited with inventing the bow and arrow.  Gravettian settlers tended towards the valleys that pooled migrating prey. Examples found through discoveries in Gr. La Gala, a site in Southern Italy, show a strategic settlement based in a small valley. As the settlers became more aware of the migration patterns of animals like red deer, they learned that prey herd in valleys, thereby allowing the hunters to avoid travelling long distances for food. Specifically in Gr. La Gala, the glacial topography forced the deer to pass through the areas in the valley occupied by humans. Additional evidence of strategically positioned settlements include sites like Klithi in Greece, also placed to intercept migrating prey.  Discoveries in the Czech Republic suggest that nets were used to capture large numbers of smaller prey, thus offering a quick and consistent food supply and thus an alternative to the feast/famine pattern of large game hunters. Evidence comes in the form of 4 mm thick rope preserved on clay imprints. Research suggests that although no larger net imprints have been discovered, there would be little reason for them not to be made as no further knowledge would be required for their creation. The weaving of nets was likely a communal task, relying on the work of both women and children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use of animal remains.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decorations and tools.", "content": "The Gravettian era landscape is most closely related to the landscape of present-day Moravia. Pavlov I in southern Moravia is the most complete and complex Gravettian site to date, and a perfect model for a general understanding of Gravettian culture. In many instances, animal remains indicate both decorative and utilitarian purposes. In the case of, for example, Arctic foxes, incisors and canines were used for decoration, while their humeri and radii bones were used as tools. Similarly, the skeletons of some red foxes contain decorative incisors and canines as well as ulnas used for awls and barbs.  Some animal bones were only used to create tools. Due to their shape, the ribs, fibulas, and metapodia of horses were good for awl and barb creation. In addition, the ribs were also implemented to create different types of smoothers for pelt preparation. The shapes of hare bones are also unique, and as a result, the ulnas were commonly used as awls and barbs. Reindeer antlers, ulnas, ribs, tibias and teeth were utilised in addition to a rare documented case of a phalanx. Mammoth remnants are among the most common bone remnants of the culture, while long bones and molars are also documented. Some mammoth bones were used for decorative purposes. Wolf remains were often used for tool production and decoration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "In a genetic study published in \"Nature\" in May 2016, the remains of fourteen Gravettians were examined. The eight samples of Y-DNA analyzed were determined to be three samples of haplogroup CT, one sample of I, one sample of IJK, one sample of BT, one sample of C1a2, one sample of F. Of the fourteen samples of mtDNA, there were thirteen samples of U and one sample of M. The majority of the sample of U belonged to the U5 and U2.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gravettian was an archaeological industry of the European Upper Paleolithic that succeeded the Aurignacian circa 33,000 years BP. It is archaeologically the last European culture many consider unified, and had mostly disappeared by 22,000 BP, close to the Last Glacial Maximum, although some elements lasted until 17,000 BP. At this point, it was replaced abruptly by the Solutrean in France and Spain, and developed into or continued as the Epigravettian in Italy, the Balkans, Ukraine and Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973355}
{"src_title": "Cristóbal Balenciaga", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Balenciaga was born in Getaria, province of Gipuzkoa, (Basque Country) on 21 January 1895. His father was a simple fisherman who died when Cristobal was a boy, and his mother a seamstress. As a child Balenciaga often spent time with his mother as she worked. At the age of twelve, he began work as the apprentice of a tailor. When he was a teenager, the Marchioness de Casa Torres, the foremost noblewoman in his town, became his customer and patron. She sent him to Madrid, where he was formally trained in tailoring. (Balenciaga is notable as one of the few couturiers in fashion history who could not only use his own hands to create, but pattern, cut, and sew the designs which symbolized the height of his artistry).  Balenciaga was successful during his early career as a designer in Spain. He opened a boutique in San Sebastián in 1919, which expanded to include branches in Madrid and Barcelona. The Spanish royal family and the aristocracy wore his designs, but when the Spanish Civil War forced him to close his stores, Balenciaga moved to Paris. He opened his Paris couture house on Avenue George V in August 1937.  However, it was not until the post-war years that the full scale of the inventiveness of his highly original designs became evident. In 1951, he totally transformed the silhouette, broadening the shoulders and removing the waist. In 1955, he designed the tunic dress, which later developed into the chemise dress of 1957. In 1959, his work culminated in the Empire line, with high-waisted dresses and coats cut like kimonos.  In 1960 he made the wedding dress for Fabiola de Mora y Aragón when she married King Baudouin I of Belgium. The Queen later donated her wedding dress to the Cristóbal Balenciaga Foundation.  He created many designs for socialite Aline Griffith, diplomat Margarita Salaverría Galárraga, and designer Meye Allende de Maier, considering them his muses.  He taught fashion design classes, inspiring other designers including Oscar de la Renta, André Courrèges, Emanuel Ungaro, Mila Schön and Hubert de Givenchy.  His often spare, sculptural creations were considered masterworks of \"haute couture\" in the 1950s and 1960s.  Balenciaga closed his house in 1968 at the age of 74 after working in Paris for 30 years. He decided to retire and closed his fashion houses in Paris, Barcelona and Madrid, one after the other. Balenciaga died on 23 March 1972 in Xàbia, Spain.  Today the Balenciaga fashion house continues under the direction of Demna Gvasalia and under the ownership of the Kering Group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "During the 1950s designers like Christian Dior, Pierre Balmain, and Coco Chanel, emerged, creating pieces very representative to their fashion houses and to their own styles. An important protagonist for this period was Cristobal Balenciaga. This Spanish fashion designer was known as \"The King of Fashion\" and was one of the great masterminds of the period. Balenciaga was born and raised in Spain, where he worked for the Spanish royalty, but because of the Spanish Civil War he moved to Paris where he became this \"King of Fashion\".  The most eye-catching designer of this period was Balenciaga because of his structural designs, which had never before been seen in the fashion world. He was a master of tailoring, and he was able to translate his illustrations from paper to real life. His advanced tailoring skills gave him an advantage over designers all over the world, making him a major target for customers. \"He reshaped women's silhouette in the 1950s, so that clothes we think as typical of that decade are mostly dilutions of his work\" (Irvine, 2013). Compared to some work like the New Look from Christian Dior, which featured full skirts and a tiny waist, Balenciaga changed these to look like the Yoki coat, which was a one-seam coat, or to voluminous looks. However, this look made customers travel from all over the world for his outfits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Balenciaga was gay, although he kept his sexuality private throughout his life. The love of his life and long time partner was Franco-Polish millionaire Władzio Jaworowski d’Attainville, who had helped fund setting him up. When d'Attainville died in 1948, Balenciaga was so broken he considered closing the business.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expositions.", "content": "On 24 March 2011, San Francisco's M. H. de Young Museum celebrated the opening of \"Balenciaga and Spain\", a 120-piece fashion retrospective of his career. \"You can't even measure it\", said Rodarte designer Laura Mulleavy, of Balenciaga's influence. The $2,500-a-ticket fund-raiser for the museum drew 350 guests, including Marissa Mayer, Jamie Tisch, Gwyneth Paltrow, Orlando Bloom, Balthazar Getty, Maggie Rizer, Connie Nielsen, Maria Bello and Mia Wasikowska.  On 7 June 2011, the Balenciaga Museum was inaugurated in his hometown of Getaria by Queen Sofía of Spain and with the presence of Hubert de Givenchy, honorific president of the Balenciaga Foundation. The museum has a collection of more than 1,200 pieces designed by Balenciaga, some of them donations by disciples, like Givenchy, or clients, like Queen Fabiola of Belgium and the heirs of Grace Kelly.  His most famous clients were Mona von Bismarck, Grace Kelly, Ava Gardner, Audrey Hepburn and Jackie Kennedy.  From 7 October 2018 to 6 January 2019, Fort Worth's Kimbell Art Museum presented \"Balenciaga in Black,\" showcasing over one hundred black garments and accessories designed by \"the couturier’s couturier\", carefully selected from the collections of the Palais Galliera and Balenciaga Archives in Paris.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cristóbal Balenciaga Eizaguirre (; 21 January 1895 – 23 March 1972) was a Spanish fashion designer and the founder of the Balenciaga fashion house. He had a reputation as a couturier of uncompromising standards and was referred to as \"the master of us all\" by Christian Dior and as \"the only couturier in the truest sense of the word\" by Coco Chanel, who continued, \"The others are simply fashion designers\". On the day of his death, in 1972, \"Women's Wear Daily\" ran the headline \"The king is dead\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973356}
{"src_title": "Café racer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Café racer origins.", "content": "The term originated among British motorcycle enthusiasts of the early 1960s in London, specifically within the Rocker or \"Ton-Up Boys\" youth subculture, where the bikes were used for short, quick rides between popular cafés, in Watford at the Busy Bee café, and the Ace Café in Stonebridge, London. In post-war Britain, car ownership was still uncommon, but by the late 1950s the average Briton could afford a car, so by the early 1960s the café racer's significance was that a bike had come to represent speed, status and rebellion, rather than mere inability to afford a car.  In 2014, journalist Ben Stewart described the café racer as a \"look made popular when European kids stripped down their small-displacement bikes to zip from one café hangout to another.\" Writing in 1973, Wallace Wyss maintained that the term \"café racer\" was originally used in Europe to describe a \"motorcyclist who played at being an Isle of Man road racer\" but was actually \"someone who owned a racy machine but merely parked it near his table at the local outdoor cafe.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Configuration.", "content": "In addition to light weight, a tuned engine and minimalist bodywork, the café racer typically features distinctive ergonomics. Dropped bars that are low, narrow handlebars (called \"clip-ons\") – enabled the rider to \"tuck in\", reducing wind resistance and improving control. Along with the rearward located seat, the posture often required \"rearsets\", or rear-set footrests and foot controls, again typical of racing motorcycles of the era. Distinctive half or full race-style fairings were sometimes mounted to the forks or frame.  John Glimmerveen declared in 2017 that the typical specification of an early café racer would be: swept-back pipes, low-mounted clip-on handlebars or 'Ace' bars, reverse cone megaphone mufflers, TT100 Dunlop tires, rear sets, and larger carburetors (often with inlet trumpet rather than air filters).  The bikes featured minimalist styling, engines tuned for speed and responsive handling. A typical example was the \"Triton\", a homemade combination of a Triumph Bonneville engine in a Norton Featherbed frame. A less common hybrid was the \"Tribsa\" which had a Triumph engine in a BSA duplex frame. Other hybrids café racers included the \"NorVin\" (a Vincent V-Twin engine in a Featherbed frame), and bikes with racing frames by Rickman or Seeley.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Café racer styling evolved throughout the time of their popularity. By the mid-1970s, Japanese bikes had overtaken British bikes in the marketplace, and the look of real Grand Prix racing bikes had changed. The hand-made, frequently unpainted aluminium racing fuel tanks of the 1960s had evolved into square, narrow, fibreglass tanks. Increasingly, three-cylinder Kawasaki two-strokes, four-cylinder four-stroke Kawasaki Z1, and four-cylinder Honda engines were the basis for café racer conversions. By 1977, a number of manufacturers had taken notice of the café racer boom and were producing factory café racers, such as the well-received Moto Guzzi Le Mans and the Harley-Davidson XLCR. A special version of the Honda XBR thumper with wire-spoked wheels, the Honda GB500 TT, sought to emulate BSA and Norton café racers of the 1960s.  In the mid-1970s, riders continued to modify standard production motorcycles into so-called \"café racers\" by simply equipping them with clubman bars and a small fairing around the headlight. A number of European manufacturers, including Benelli, BMW, Bultaco and Derbi produced factory \"café\" variants of their standard motorcycles in this manner, without any modifications made to make them faster or more powerful, a trend that continues today.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern café racers.", "content": "Manufacturers have noticed that there is a lot of recent consumer interest in café racers. While this approach was not new to the industry, manufacturers have realised the market appeal of this type of ready-to-ride café racer. During the past decade, over 50% of the larger motorcycle manufacturers have adopted the trend. In 2004, Triumph produced a turn-key retro motorcycle with their Thruxton. Another modern cafe racer is the Ducati SportClassic, made from 2006 till 2009.  Current stock café racers from motorcycle factories include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subculture.", "content": "Rockers were a young and rebellious rock and roll subculture who wanted a fast, personalised and distinctive bike to travel between transport cafés along the newly built arterial motorways in and around British towns and cities. Biker lore has it that the goal of many was to be able to reach – called simply \"the ton – along such a route where the rider would leave from a café, race to a predetermined point and back to the café before a single song could play on the jukebox, called record-racing. However, author Mike Seate contends that record-racing is a myth, the story having originated in an episode of the BBC \"Dixon of Dock Green\" television show. Café racers are remembered as being especially fond of rockabilly music and their image is now embedded in today's rockabilly culture.  The Café Racer sub-culture has created a separate look and identity with modern café racers taking style elements from American Greasers, British Rockers, 70s bikers, and modern motorcycle riders to create a global style of their own.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A café racer is a lightweight, powerful motorcycle optimized for speed and handling rather than comfort – and for quick rides over short distances. With bodywork and control layout recalling early-1960s Grand Prix road racing motorcycles, café racers are noted for their visual minimalism, featuring low-mounted handlebars, prominent seat cowling and elongated fuel tank – and frequently knee-grips indented in the fuel tank.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973357}
{"src_title": "Kirov-class battlecruiser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally built for the Soviet Navy, the class is named after the first of a series of four ships constructed,, named \"Kirov\" until 1992. Original plans called for construction of five ships. The fifth vessel was planned to be named \"Fleet Admiral of the Soviet Union Kuznetsov\", also referred as \"Dzerzhinsky\". The name was later changed to \"Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya\" (October Revolution), and then just \"Kuznetsov\"; but on 4 October 1990, plans for construction of a fifth vessel were abandoned.  The lead ship of the class, \"Kirov\" (renamed \"Admiral Ushakov\" in 1992), was laid down in June 1973 at Leningrad's Baltiysky Naval Shipyard, launched on 27 December 1977 and commissioned on 30 December 1980. When she appeared for the first time in 1981, NATO observers called her BALCOM I (Baltic Combatant I). She is currently in reserve.  \"Kirov\" suffered a reactor accident in 1990 while serving in the Mediterranean Sea. Repairs were never carried out, due to lack of funds and the changing political situation in the Soviet Union.  In 1983, a command and control ship, \"SSV-33 Ural\", was launched, although the ship would not be officially commissioned until 1989. She utilized the basic hull design of the \"Kirov\"-class vessels, but with a modified superstructure, different armament, and was intended for a different role within the Soviet Navy. \"Ural\" was decommissioned and laid up in 2001, due to high operating costs, and is scheduled to be scrapped in 2017. , the second vessel in the class, was commissioned in 1984. She was assigned to the Pacific Fleet. In 1992, she was renamed \"Admiral Lazarev\". The ship became inactive in 1994 and was decommissioned four years later. She is currently in reserve. On 19 September 2009, General Popovkin, Deputy MOD for Armaments, said the MOD is looking into bringing \"Admiral Lazarev\" back into service. , now \"Admiral Nakhimov\", was the third ship to enter service, in 1988. She was also assigned to the Northern Fleet. Renamed \"Admiral Nakhimov\" in 1992, she was mothballed in 1999 and reactivated in 2005. She is undergoing overhaul and modernization at Severodvinsk Shipyard.  Construction of the fourth ship, \"Yuriy Andropov\", encountered many delays; her construction was started in 1986 but was not commissioned until 1998. She was renamed (after Peter the Great) in 1992. She currently serves as the flagship of the Russia's Northern Fleet.  On 23 March 2004, English language press reported the Russian Navy Commander-in-Chief, Fleet Admiral Vladimir Kuroedov said \"Pyotr Veliky\"s reactor was in an extremely bad condition and could explode \"at any moment\", a statement which may have been the result of internal politics within the Russian Navy. The ship was sent to port for a month, and the crew lost one-third of their pay.  Russia initially planned to reactivate and by 2020, but it was later indicated that the condition of the reactor cores of both ships was such that it would prove difficult, expensive and potentially dangerous to remove the spent nuclear fuel and repair the cores. As a consequence, it is likely that both ships will be scrapped. The modernization of \"Admiral Ushakov\" seems unlikely due to an alleged nuclear incident which may have left one of its reactors damaged with scrapping to start in 2016 or later. Other sources disagree, stating that all four ships will be modernized and returned to service. In 2014 some maintenance work was performed on \"Admiral Lazarev\" (the only cruiser located in the Pacific). Skepticism was expressed regarding the ability of Sevmash shipyard to simultaneously modernize two \"Kirov\"-class battlecruisers.  Currently, only remains operational. Modernization of \"Admiral Nakhimov\" is ongoing (trials to start in 2020), with the modernization of \"Pyotr Velikiy\" to immediately follow and last for about three years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "The \"Kirov\" class's main weapons are 20 P-700 Granit (SS-N-19 Shipwreck) missiles mounted in deck, designed to engage large surface targets. Air defense is provided by twelve octuple S-300F launchers with 96 missiles and a pair of Osa-MA batteries with 20 missiles each. \"Pyotr Velikiy\" carries some S-300FM missiles and is the only ship in the Russian Navy capable of ballistic missile defence. The ships had some differences in sensor and weapons suites: \"Kirov\" came with SS-N-14 anti-submarine warfare (ASW) missiles, while on subsequent ships these were replaced with 3K95 Kinzhal (Russian: Кинжал – dagger) surface-to-air missile (SAM) systems. The Kinzhal installation is in fact mounted further forward of the old SS-N-14 mounting, in the structure directly behind the blast shield for the bow mounted RBU ASW rocket launcher. \"Kirov\" and \"Frunze\" had eight AK-630 close-in weapon systems, which were supplanted with the Kortik air-defence system on later ships.  Other weapons are the automatic AK-130 gun system (except in \"Kirov\" which had two single guns instead), 10 torpedo/missile tubes (capable of firing SS-N-15 ASW missiles on later ships) and \"Udav\"-1 with 40 anti-submarine rockets and two sextuple RBU-1000 launchers.  Russia is developing a new anti-ship missile to equip \"Kirov\"s called the 3M22 Tsirkon, which is capable of traveling at hypersonic speeds out to at least. If the missile passes developmental tests, it could enter service in 2020, being deployed first aboard \"Admiral Nakhimov\" and later in \"Pyotr Veliky\" when it finishes upgrades in 2022. Depending on the choice of types of missiles will amount to 40 - 80.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Kirov\" class, Soviet designation Project 1144 \"Orlan (sea eagle), is a class of nuclear-powered guided missile cruisers of the Soviet Navy and Russian Navy, the largest and heaviest surface combatant warships (i.e. not an aircraft carrier or amphibious assault ship) in operation in the world. Among modern warships, they are second in size only to large aircraft carriers, and of similar size to a World War II era battleship. The Soviet classification of the ship-type is \"heavy nuclear-powered guided missile cruiser\" (). The ships are often referred to as battlecruisers by Western defence commentators due to their size and general appearance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973358}
{"src_title": "Mors (automobile)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Technical achievements.", "content": "Mors was one of the first automobiles to use the V engine configuration. The Mors 60 horsepower Grand Prix car was powered by a 10-litre V4 side valve engine, with magneto ignition and dry sump lubrication, which could reach 950 rpm. The car had a steel chassis and a four-speed transmission that drove the rear wheels via chain drive, and rear-wheel brakes. In 1902, Mors added pneumatic shock absorbers to their cars, which represented a great leap forward given the quality of the roads and racetracks at the time. With this car, Henri Fournier was able to win the highly significant Paris-Berlin race, with the drive chain breaking immediately afterwards.  Mors ended racing in 1908. Plans to return to auto racing were cancelled due to World War I.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Citroën.", "content": "André Citroën became chairman of Mors in 1908 and restored the company's viability. In 1925, Citroën bought Mors outright and closed it down, using its factory for the production of his Citroën automobiles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "The company produced a number of models which were sold widely in Europe and in the USA. In 1905 these ranged from 2.3 litres to the 8.1 litre 40/52 HP and by 1914 Minerva-built Knight sleeve valve engines replaced side-valve units in the larger cars. Post-1918 only sleeve valve engines were used. Citroën's chevron gears were used for the bevel drive rear axles from 1914 and a unique feature was the Mors patented clutch, which had a contracting band system which replaced the cone clutch used until 1903.  The marque was resurrected briefly when a few small electric cars were made during World War II by a subsidiary electrical company of Émile Mors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Central Automobile Company.", "content": "Central Automobile Company was the US importer of Mors automobiles in New York, New York in the very early part of the 20th century.  The 1904 Mors 18 HP was a touring car. Equipped with a tonneau, it could seat 4 to 6 passengers and sold for a high US$8000. The vertically mounted water-cooled straight-4, situated at the front of the car, produced 18 HP (13.4 kW). A 4-speed transmission was fitted. The pressed steel-framed car was quite modern, with a cellular radiator (with fan) and a throttle control. The Mors 11 HP sold for US$5000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "American Mors.", "content": "The St. Louis Car Company also manufactured the American Mors. After manufacturing the St. Louis and Kobusch cars, the latter of which looked like a Mors, the St. Louis Car Company acquired an official license, blueprints, and plans from the Parisian factory to manufacture Mors cars in the U.S. After making the American Mors for three years, the company turned to the manufacture of a car of their own design, the Standard Six.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mors automobile factory was an early French car manufacturer. It was one of the first to take part in automobile racing, beginning in 1897, due to the belief of the company founder, Émile Mors, in racing's technical and promotional benefits. By the turn of the century, automobile racing had become largely a contest between Mors and Panhard et Levassor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973359}
{"src_title": "Jack Kilby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kilby was born in 1923 in Jefferson City, Missouri to Hubert and Vina Freitag Kilby. Both parents had Bachelor of Science degrees from the University of Illinois, but it was his father's job as a manager of a local power company that brought the family from Jefferson City to Kansas, where he went from manager to president of the utility. Kilby grew up and attended school in Great Bend, Kansas, graduating from the Great Bend High School. (Road signs at the entrances to the town commemorate his time there, and the Commons Area at Great Bend High School has been named The Jack Kilby Commons Area.)  Kilby received his bachelor of science degree from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, where he was an honorary member of Acacia fraternity. In 1947, he received a degree in electrical engineering. He earned his master of science in electrical engineering from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1950, while working at Centralab, a division of Globe-Union corporation in Milwaukee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In mid-1958, Kilby, a newly employed engineer at Texas Instruments (TI), did not yet have the right to a summer vacation. He spent the summer working on the problem in circuit design that was commonly called the \"tyranny of numbers\", and he finally came to the conclusion that the manufacturing of circuit components \"en masse\" in a single piece of semiconductor material could provide a solution. On September 12, he presented his findings to company's management, which included Mark Shepherd. He showed them a piece of germanium with an oscilloscope attached, pressed a switch, and the oscilloscope showed a continuous sine wave, proving that his integrated circuit worked, and thus that he had solved the problem. U.S. Patent 3,138,743 for \"Miniaturized Electronic Circuits\", the first integrated circuit, was filed on February 6, 1959. Along with Robert Noyce (who independently made a similar circuit a few months later), Kilby is generally credited as co-inventor of the integrated circuit.  Jack Kilby went on to pioneer military, industrial, and commercial applications of microchip technology. He headed teams that created the first military system and the first computer incorporating integrated circuits. He invented the handheld calculator (along with Jerry Merryman and James Van Tassel). He was also responsible for the thermal printer that was used in early portable data terminals.  In 1970, he took a leave of absence from TI to work as an independent inventor. He explored, among other subjects, the use of silicon technology for generating electrical power from sunlight. From 1978 to 1984 he held the position of Distinguished Professor of Electrical Engineering at Texas A&M University.  In 1983, Kilby retired from Texas Instruments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "He died of cancer June 20, 2005 at the age of 81, in Dallas, Texas.  On December 14, 2005, Texas Instruments created the Historic TI Archives. The Jack Kilby family donated his personal manuscripts and his personal photograph collection to Southern Methodist University (SMU). The collection will be cataloged and stored at DeGolyer Library, SMU.  In 2008, the SMU School of Engineering, with the DeGolyer Library and the Library of Congress, hosted a year-long celebration of the 50th anniversary of the birth of the digital age with Kilby's Nobel Prize-winning invention of the integrated circuit. Symposia and exhibits examined the many ways in which technology and engineers shaped the modern world. Kilby held an honorary doctorate of science from SMU and was a longtime associate of SMU through the Kilby Foundation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "Recognition of Kilby's outstanding achievements have been made by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), including the election to IEEE Fellow in 1966, the IEEE David Sarnoff Award in 1966, co-recipient of the first IEEE Cledo Brunetti Award in 1978, the IEEE Centennial Medal in 1984 and the IEEE Medal of Honor in 1986. He was co-recipient of the Franklin Institute’s Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1966. In 1982 and 1989, he received the Holley Medal from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). He was elected to member of the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) in 1967 and received the Academy's Vladimir K. Zworykin Award in 1975. Kilby received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1970 and was co-recipient of the first NAE's Charles Stark Draper Prize in 1989. The Kilby Award Foundation was founded in 1980 in his honor, and the IEEE Jack S. Kilby Signal Processing Medal was created in 1995.  Kilby is also the recipient of the nation's most prestigious honors in science and engineering: the National Medal of Science in 1969, and the National Medal of Technology in 1990. In 1982, he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.  In 1993, he was awarded the Kyoto Prize by the Inamori Foundation. He was awarded both the Washington Award, administered by the Western Society of Engineers and the Eta Kappa Nu Vladimir Karapetoff Award in 1999. In 2000, Kilby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his breakthrough discovery, and delivered his personal view of the industry and its history in his acceptance speech.  Kilby was awarded nine honorary doctorate degrees from universities including Southern Methodist University, the University of Miami, University of Illinois, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Texas A&M University, Yale and Rochester Institute of Technology. The National Chiao Tung University (NCTU) in Taiwan awarded Kilby with a certificate of Honorary Professorship in 1998.  The Kilby Labs, TI's research laboratory for silicon manufacturing and integrated circuit design, is named after him.  The Jack Kilby Computer Centre at the Merchiston Campus of Edinburgh Napier University in Edinburgh is also named in his honor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jack St. Clair Kilby (November 8, 1923 – June 20, 2005) was an American electrical engineer who took part (along with Robert Noyce) in the realization of the first integrated circuit while working at Texas Instruments (TI) in 1958. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics on December 10, 2000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973360}
{"src_title": "Participatory budgeting", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Procedure.", "content": "Most broadly, all participatory budgeting schemes allow citizens to deliberate with the goal of creating either a concrete financial plan (a budget), or a recommendation to elected representatives. In the Porto Alegre model, the structure of the scheme gives subjurisdictions (neighborhoods) authority over the larger political jurisdiction (the city) of which they are part. Neighborhood budget committees, for example, have authority to determine the citywide budget, not just the allocation of resources for their particular neighborhood. There is, therefore, a need for mediating institutions to facilitate the aggregation of budget preferences expressed by subjurisdictions.  According to the World Bank Group, certain factors are needed for PB to be adopted: \"[...] strong mayoral support, a civil society willing and able to contribute to ongoing policy debates, a generally supportive political environment that insulates participatory budgeting from legislators' attacks, and financial resources to fund the projects selected by citizens.\" In addition, there are generally two approaches through which PB formulates: top-down versus bottom-up. The adoption of PB has been required by the federal government in nations such as Peru, while there are cases where local governments initiated PB independent from the national agenda such as Porto Alegre. With the bottom-up approach, NGO's and local organizations have played crucial roles in mobilizing and informing the community members.  PB processes do not adhere to strict rules, but they generally share several basic steps:  A participatory budgeting algorithm is sometimes used in order to calculate the budget allocation from the votes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Participatory Budgeting was first developed in the 1980s by the Brazilian Workers' Party, drawing on the party's stated belief that electoral success is not an end in itself but a spring board for developing radical, participatory forms of democracy. While there were several early experiments (including the public budgeting practices of the Brazilian Democratic Movement in municipalities such as Pelotas ), the first full participatory budgeting process was implemented in 1989, in the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil, a capital city of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, and a busy industrial, financial, and service center, at that time with a population of 1.2 million. The initial success of PB in Porto Alegre soon made it attractive to other municipalities. By 2001, more than 100 cities in Brazil had implemented PB, while in 2015, thousands of variations have been implemented in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Porto Alegre.", "content": "In its first Title, the 1988 Constitution of Brazil states that \"All power originates from the people, who exercise it by the means of elected representatives or directly, according to the terms of this Constitution.\" The authoring of the Constitution was a reaction to the previous twenty years of military dictatorship, and the new Constitution sought to secure individual liberty while also decentralizing and democratizing ruling power, in the hope that authoritarian dictatorship would not reemerge.  Brazil's contemporary political economy is an outgrowth of the Portuguese empire's patrimonial capitalism, where \"power was not exercised according to rules, but was structured through personal relationships\". Unlike the Athenian ideal of democracy, in which all citizens participate directly and decide policy collectively, Brazil's government is structured as a republic with elected representatives. This institutional arrangement has created a separation between the state and civil society, which has opened the doors for clientelism. Because the law-making process occurs behind closed doors, elected officials and bureaucrats can access state resources in ways that benefit certain 'clients', typically those of extraordinary social or economic relevance. The influential clients receive policy favors, and repay elected officials with votes from the groups they influence. For example, a neighborhood leader represents the views of shop owners to the local party boss, asking for laws to increase foot traffic on commercial streets. In exchange, the neighborhood leader mobilizes shop owners to vote for the political party responsible for the policy. Because this patronage operates on the basis of individual ties between patron and clients, true decision-making power is limited to a small network of party bosses and influential citizens rather than the broader public.  In 1989, Olívio Dutra won the mayor's seat in Porto Alegre. In an attempt to encourage popular participation in government and redirect government resources towards the poor, Dutra institutionalized the PT's organizational structure on a citywide level. The result is one example of what we now know as Participatory Budgeting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Outcomes.", "content": "A World Bank paper suggests that participatory budgeting has led to direct improvements in facilities in Porto Alegre. For example, sewer and water connections increased from 75% of households in 1988 to 98% in 1997. The number of schools quadrupled since 1986.  The high number of participants, after more than a decade, suggests that participatory budgeting encourages increasing citizen involvement, according to the paper. Also, Porto Alegre's health and education budget increased from 13% (1985) to almost 40% (1996), and the share of the participatory budget in the total budget increased from 17% (1992) to 21% (1999). In a paper that updated the World Bank's methodology, expanding statistical scope and analyzing Brazil's 253 largest municipalities that use participatory budgeting, researchers found that participatory budgeting reallocates spending towards health and sanitation. Health and sanitation benefits accumulated the longer participatory budgeting was used in a municipality. Participatory budgeting does not merely allow citizens to shift funding priorities in the short-term – it can yield sustained institutional and political change in the long term.  The paper concludes that participatory budgeting can lead to improved conditions for the poor. Although it cannot overcome wider problems such as unemployment, it leads to \"noticeable improvement in the accessibility and quality of various public welfare amenities\".  Based on Porto Alegre more than 140 (about 2.5%) of the 5,571 municipalities in Brazil have adopted participatory budgeting.  For other adaptations of Participatory Budgeting around the world, see participatory budgeting by country.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Reviewing the experience in Brazil and Porto Alegre, a World Bank paper points out that lack of representation of extremely poor people in participatory budgeting can be a shortcoming. Participation of the very poor and of the young is highlighted as a challenge. What are the insights regarding the opportunities for and barriers to accomplishing the goal of participatory-based budgeting? It takes leadership to flatten the organizational structure and make conscious ethical responsibilities as individuals and as committee members try to achieve the democratic goals means that the press should be present for the public, and yet the presence of the press inhibits the procedural need for robust discussion. Or, while representation is a cornerstone to participatory budgeting, a group being so large has an effect on the efficiency of the group. Participatory budgeting may also struggle to overcome existing clientelism. Other observations include that particular groups are less likely to participate once their demands have been met and that slow progress of public works can frustrate participants.  In Chicago, participatory budgeting has been criticized for increasing funding to recreational projects while allocating less to infrastructure projects.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Participatory budgeting (PB) is a process of democratic deliberation and decision-making, in which ordinary people decide how to allocate part of a municipal or public budget. Participatory budgeting allows citizens to identify, discuss, and prioritize public spending projects, and gives them the power to make real decisions about how money is spent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973361}
{"src_title": "Stefan Milutin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was the youngest son of King Stefan Uroš I and his wife, Helen of Anjou. Unexpectedly he became king of Serbia after the abdication of his brother Stefan Dragutin. He was around 29. Immediately upon his accession to the throne he attacked Byzantine lands in Macedonia. In 1282, he conquered the northern parts of Macedonia including the city of Skoplje, which became his capital. Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos began preparations for war but he died before their completion. The next year Milutin advanced with his brother deep into Byzantine territory all the way to Kavala.  In 1284, Milutin also gained control of northern Albania and the city of Dyrrachion (Durrës). For the next 15 years there were no changes in the war. Peace was concluded in 1299 when Milutin kept the conquered lands as the dowry of Simonis, daughter of Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos who became his fourth wife. In Nerodimlje župa Milutin had three courts, in Nerodimlje (protected by Petrič), Svrčin and Pauni.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War with the Bulgarians and Mongols.", "content": "At the end of the 13th century Bulgarian feudal lords Darman and Kudelin were jointly ruling the region of Braničevo (in modern Serbia) as independent or semi-independent lords. They regularly attacked Stefan Dragutin's Syrmian Kingdom, in Mačva, an area previously under the sovereignty of Elizabeth of Hungary. The Hungarian queen had sent troops to claim Braničevo in 1282–1284, but her forces had been repelled and her vassal lands plundered in retaliation.  Another campaign, this time organized by both Dragutin and Elizabeth, failed to conquer Darman and Kudelin's domains in 1285 and suffered another counter-raid by the brothers. It was not until 1291 when a joint force of Dragutin and the Serbian King Stefan Milutin managed to defeat the brothers and, for the first time ever, the region came under the rule of a Serb, as it was annexed by Dragutin. Responding to Dragutin's annexation of Braničevo the Bulgarian prince named Shishman that came to rule the semi-independent principality of Vidin around 1280, began to attack the Serbian domains to his west.  Shishman was a vassal of Nogai Khan, Khan of the Golden Horde and sought to expand his territories to the west, invading Serbia coming as far as Hvosno, the Bulgarians failed to capture Zdrelo (near Peć) and were pursued back to Vidin by the Serbs. Milutin devastated Vidin and the rest of Shishman's dominion, making Shishman take refuge on the other side of the Danube. The two however became allies after Milutin married Serbian župan Dragoš to the daughter of Shishman, later Milutin would give his daughter Neda (with title Anna) to Shishman's son Michael who would become the Tsar of Bulgaria in 1323. Milutin and Nogai Khan would soon come into conflict because of the war with the Tsardom of Vidin. Nogai launched a campaign against Serbia but Milutin offered peace sending his son Stefan Dečanski to Nogai's court. Stefan stayed with his entourage there until 1296 or Nogai Khan's death in 1299.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feud of the brothers.", "content": "Disputes began between Milutin and his brother Stefan Dragutin after a peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire was signed in 1299. Dragutin in the meantime held lands from Braničevo in the east to the Bosna river in the west. His capital was Belgrade. War broke out between the brothers and lasted, with sporadic cease-fires, until Dragutin's death in 1314. During this war Milutin appointed Stefan Dečanski as regent in Zeta, modern Montenegro. This meant that Stefan Dečanski was to be heir to the throne in Serbia and not Dragutin's son Stefan Vladislav II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battles and supreme leadership.", "content": "He captured Durres in 1296. On 15 March 1306 Milutin issued a charter to Ratac in which he appointed his son Stephen as his future successor.  The Battle of Gallipoli (1312) was fought by Serbian troops sent by Stefan Milutin to aid Byzantine Emperor Andronikos in the defense of his lands against the Turks. After numerous attempts in subduing the Turks, the rapidly crumbling Byzantine Empire was forced to enlist the help of Serbia. The Turks were looting and pillaging the countryside and the two armies converged at the Gallipoli peninsula where the Turks were decisively defeated. Out of the gratitude to Serbia, the town of Kucovo was donated.  Upon Stefan Dragutin's death in 1314 Milutin conquered most of his lands including Belgrade and started persecute and rebaptist Catholics which led to the crusade started by Pope John XXII. In 1318 there was a revolt of Albanian nobles against the rule of Stefan Milutin, which is sometimes credited to be incited by Prince Philip I of Taranto and Pope John XXII in order to weak Stefan Milutin's rule. Milutin has suppressed rebels without much difficulty. In 1319 Charles I of Hungary regained control over Belgrade and banovina Mačva while Milutin held control in Braničevo. In the year 1314 Milutin's son Stefan Dečanski rebelled against his father, but was captured, blinded and sent to exile in Constantinople. For the rest of Milutin's reign his youngest son Stefan Constantine was considered as heir to the throne, but in the spring of 1321 Stefan Dečanski returned to Serbia and was pardoned by his father.  Time of his reign was marked hostility to Catholicism and conversion of Catholics which provoked rebellion of Catholic nobility. Pope John XXII called Stefan Milutin as \"the enemy of the Christian faith\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "By his first wife, Jelena, a minor Serbian noblewoman, he had two children, King Stephen Uroš III and Anna Neda, who married Michael Shishman of Bulgaria. By his second wife, Helena, daughter of \"sebastokratōr\" John I Doukas of Thessaly, he had no children. By his third wife, Elizabeth, daughter of King Stephen V of Hungary and Elizabeth the Cuman, Milutin had a daughter, Zorica. By his fourth wife, Anna, the daughter of George I of Bulgaria, Stefan Uroš II Milutin had a son, Stefan Konstantin. By his fifth wife Simonis, the daughter of Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos, he had no children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath and legacy.", "content": "At the end of Milutin's life Serbia was second in strength in Southeast Europe after Hungary. During his reign many court ceremonials were taken over from the Byzantine court and Byzantine culture overflowed into Serbia. Milutin was also well known as the founder of many monasteries: Gračanica monastery, Our Lady of Ljeviš, the church of Vavedenje in Hilandar and many more. After his death a short civil war followed, after which the Serbian throne was ascended by his eldest son, Stefan Dečanski.  He is included in The 100 most prominent Serbs.  King Stefan Milutin founded a hospital in Constantinopole, which later became a medical school. He also erected numerous churches and monasteries, including Bukovo monastery, Church of St. Nicetas, Our Lady of Ljeviš, Church of St. George, Banjska monastery, Gračanica monastery, Koroglaš monastery, and Vratna monastery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stefan Uroš II Milutin (; 1253 – 29 October 1321), known as Stefan Milutin (Стефан Милутин), was the King of Serbia between 1282–1321, a member of the Nemanjić dynasty. He was one of the most powerful rulers of Serbia in the Middle Ages. Milutin is credited with strongly resisting the efforts of Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos to impose Roman Catholicism on the Balkans after the Union of Lyons in 1274. As most of the Nemanjić monarchs, he was proclaimed a saint by the Serbian Orthodox Church with a feast day on October 30.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973362}
{"src_title": "New Historians", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Main arguments.", "content": "Avi Shlaim described the New Historians' differences from what he termed the \"official history\" in the following terms:  Pappé suggests that the Zionist leaders intended to displace most Palestinian Arabs; Morris believes the displacement happened in the heat of war. According to the New Historians, Israel and Arab countries each have their share of responsibility for the Arab–Israeli conflict and the Palestinian plight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence on traditional Israeli historical narrative and public opinion.", "content": "Michal Ben-Josef Hirsch argues that, prior to the advent of the New Historians, \"Israelis held to a one-sided historical narrative of the circumstances leading to the creation of the Palestinian refugee problem, and that any other counter-narratives were taboo.\" According to Ben-Josef Hirsch, the conclusions of the New Historians, and the wide-ranging debate that they provoked, ended that taboo and changed the way in which the Palestinian refugee problem and its causes were viewed in Israel. Ben-Josef Hirsch says that the traditional Israeli narrative, that Arabs were responsible for the exodus of the Palestinians, held from 1948 to the late 1990s. She says that the arguments of the New Historians significantly challenged that narrative, leading to a broad debate both in academia and in the wider public discourse, including journalists and columnists, politicians, public figures, and the general public.  Ben-Josef Hirsch believes that a significant change has occurred in how the Palestinian refugee issue is viewed in Israeli society since the late 1990s, with a more complex narrative being more accepted; it recognizes there were instances where Israeli forces expelled Palestinians with the knowledge and authorization of the Israeli leadership. Ben-Josef Hirsch attributes that change to the work of the New Historians and the resulting debate.  The New Historians gained respect by the 1990s. A 1998 series on state television marking Israel's 50th anniversary drew much from their work, as did textbooks introduced to ninth graders in 1999.  Critics of the New Historians have acknowledged this shift. Avi Beker, writing in the \"Jerusalem Post\", states that the effect of the New Historians work on the history of the Arab–Israeli conflict \"cannot be exaggerated\". He says the work of the New Historians is now the mainstream in academia, and that their influence was not confined to intellectual circles. To illustrate his point he cites examples from changes to Israeli school text books to the actions of Israeli political leaders and developments in the Israeli–Palestinian peace process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "The writings of the New Historians have come under repeated criticism, both from traditional Israeli historians who accuse them of fabricating Zionist misdeeds, and from Arab or pro-Arab writers who accuse them of whitewashing the truth about Zionist misbehaviour. Efraim Karsh has accused them of ignoring questions which he says are critical: Who started the war? What were their intentions? Who was forced to mount a defence? What were Israel's casualties?  Early in 2002, the most famous of the new historians, Benny Morris, publicly reversed some of his personal political positions, though he has not withdrawn any of his historical writings. Morris says he did not use much of the newly available archival material when he wrote his book: \"When writing \"The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem 1947–1949\" in the mid-1980s, I had no access to the materials in the IDFA <nowiki>[</nowiki>IDF Archive] or the Haganah Archive and precious little to first-hand military materials deposited elsewhere.\"  Anita Shapira offers the following criticism: Israeli historian Yoav Gelber criticized New Historians in an interview, saying that aside from Benny Morris, they did not contribute to the research of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War in any way. He did however note that they contributed to the public discourse about the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-Zionism.", "content": "Some commentators have argued that the historiography of the New Historians has both drawn inspiration from, and lent impetus to, a movement known as post-Zionism. Generally the term \"post-Zionist\" is self-identified by Jewish Israelis who are critical of the Zionist enterprise and are seen by Zionists as undermining the Israeli national ethos. Post-Zionists differ from Zionists on many important details, such as the status of the law of return and other sensitive issues. Post-Zionists view the Palestinian dispossession as central to the creation of the state of Israel.  Baruch Kimmerling criticised the focus on \"post-Zionism\", arguing that debates around the term were \"nonsense and semi-professional and mainly political\". According to Kimmerling the term has been arbitrarily applied to any research on Israeli history, society or politics that was critical or perceived to be critical. Kimmerling saw this discussion as damaging to research in these areas because it took the focus away from the quality and merit of scholarship and onto whether the work should be characterized as Zionist or post-Zionist. Further, Kimmerling asserted that academics were diverted away from serious research onto polemical issues and that the environment this fostered inhibited the research of younger academics who were fearful of being labeled as belonging to one of the two camps.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Major debates.", "content": "On a few occasions there have been heated public debates between the New Historians and their detractors. The most notable:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The New Historians (, \"HaHistoryonim HaChadashim\") are a loosely defined group of Israeli historians who have challenged traditional versions of Israeli history, including Israel's role in the Palestinian Exodus in 1948 and Arab willingness to discuss peace. The term was coined in 1988 by Benny Morris, one of the leading New Historians. According to Ethan Bronner of \"The New York Times\", the New Historians have sought to advance the peace process in the region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973363}
{"src_title": "Ludwig Gumplowicz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Gumplowicz was a child of a Polish family of Jewish origin. He and his wife, Franciska, had two sons. In 1875, Gumplowicz began studying law at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. For a year he then went to study in Vienna returning to Kraków to receive a doctoral degree in law. In 1860, he began his journalistic career. From 1869-1874 he edited his own magazine the \"Kraj\" (the \"Country\"). Then in 1875, at the age of thirty-seven, he entered the University of Graz as a lecturer in the science of administration and Austrian administrative law. In 1882, he became an associate professor, and in 1893 a full professor. Gumplowicz then retired from academia in 1908. At the end of 1907, his health began to fail. He was diagnosed with cancer of the tongue. In 1909, he and his wife committed suicide together.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thoughts.", "content": "Gumplowicz became interested in the problem of suppressed ethnic groups very early, being from a Jewish family and coming from Kraków, a city of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which was first partitioned and later as the Free City of Kraków annexed by Austria-Hungary. He was a lifelong advocate of minorities in the Habsburg Empire, in particular, the Slavic speakers.  Gumplowicz soon became interested in the later form of sociology of conflict, starting out from the idea of the \"group\" (then known as \"race\"). He understood race as a social and cultural, rather than a biological phenomenon. He stressed in every way the immeasurably small role of biological heredity and the decisive role of the social environment in the determination of human behavior. While attaching a positive significance to the mixing of races, he noted that pure races had already ceased to exist.  He saw the state as an institution which served various controlling elites at different times. In analysis, he leaned towards macrosociology, predicting that if the minorities of a state became socially integrated, they would break out in war. In his 1909 publication, \"Der Rassenkampf\" (Struggle of the Races), he foresaw world war. During his life, he was considered a Social Darwinist, mainly because of his approach to society as an aggregate of groups struggling ruthlessly among themselves for domination. Nevertheless, he did not deduce his conceptions directly from evolutionary theory and criticized those sociologists (Comte, Spencer, Lilienfeld) who employed biological analogies as an explanatory principle. At the same time, he shared the naturalistic conception of history and considered humanity a particle of the universe and nature, a particle governed by the same eternal laws as the whole.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "His political beliefs and his polemic character attracted many Polish and Italian students, making his theories important in Poland, Italy, and other crown states (today Croatia, Czech Republic). But the fact that he published his works in German meant that he was also an important figure in German-speaking countries. Gustav Ratzenhofer was the most prominent of those influenced by him. Gustav Ratzenhofer was the sociologist which Gumplowicz thought most highly of.  Gumplowicz had another disciple in Manuel González Prada. Prada lived in Peru and found Grumplowicz’s theories on ethnic conflict useful for understanding not only the Spanish conquest of Quechua peoples during the sixteenth century but also how the descendants of the Spanish (and other European immigrants) continued to subordinate the indigenous peoples. Most striking in this regard is González Prada’s essay \"Our Indians\" included in his \"Horas de lucha\" after 1924.  In his publication, \"The Outlines on Sociology\" (1899), Gumplowicz reviews the works of Comte, Spencer, Bastian, and Lippert. He also reviews the relations of economics, politics, the comparative study of law, the philosophy oh history and the history of civilization to the science of society. Many of Gumplowicz's major works are written in German.  Sociologists influenced by him were Gustav Ratzenhofer, Albion W. Small, Franz Oppenheimer. The social scientists Émile Durkheim, León Duguit, Harold J. Laski, and others elaborated Gumplowicz's view of political parties as interest groups. Also influenced Erazm Majewski and Mieczyslaw Szerer. His theories were also highly influential among the first conflict theorists and inspired early theoretical work on the governance on multiethnic states.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "A criticism of Gumplowicz's work is that he presents a rather narrow interpretation of the nature of social phenomena. He placed a large emphasis on social groups as well as the sociological investigation of their conflict as a unit. In doing so, Gumplowicz minimized the importance of the individual and magnified the coercion and determination that is excepted by the group to the individual. This was further than other sociologists, such as Durkheim, Sighele, LeBon, or Trotter went.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ludwig Gumplowicz (March 9, 1838, Kraków – August 20, 1909, Graz, Austria-Hungary), was a Polish sociologist. He was also a jurist and political scientist who taught constitutional and administrative law at the University of Graz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973364}
{"src_title": "Château Margaux", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The estate has been occupied since at least the 12th century, with the site occupied by a fortified castle known as Lamothe or La Mothe (from \"motte\", a small rise in the land), and wine under names such as \"Margou\" and \"Margous\" was known in the 15th century, but it was with the arrival of the Lestonnac family in the 16th century that wine production became of particular importance, and in the 1570s Pierre de Lestonnac expanded the property and cleared many of the grain fields to make way for vines.  The lineage of ownership was to continue in a relatively direct path from the Lestonnacs, though through the female side, with proprietors' names such as d'Aulède, Fumel, d'Hargicourt, including an alliance of marriage with the Pontac family of Château Haut-Brion in 1654, which became crucial to the inclusion of Château Margaux among the four first growths.  By the beginning of the 18th century, the estate comprised with a third devoted to viticulture, which is nearly identical to the modern layout. As with many of Médoc's châteaux, the early 18th century saw the wine develop from a pale watery drink that faded within only a few years, to the dark, complex liquid that has been stored in cellars ever since, and a transformation was largely due to an estate manager named Berlon, who revolutionised techniques of wine-making by introducing novel ideas such as banning harvesting in the early morning to avoid dew-covered grapes and subsequently dilution, and acknowledged the importance of soil quality in the various \"terroir\" found on the estate.  In 1771, wine from the estate became the first claret to be sold at Christie's, and upon visiting Bordeaux in 1787, Thomas Jefferson made note of Château Margaux as one of the \"four vineyards of first quality\".  Following the French Revolution, the owner Elie du Barry was executed by guillotine and the estate expropriated, eventually becoming the property of the citizen Miqueau who neglected its care and maintenance. Briefly rescued by Laure de Fumel, she was soon forced to sell, and in 1802 the estate was purchased by the Marquis de la Colonilla, Bertrand Douat for 654,000 francs.  The estate's old château was torn down and completely rebuilt when Douat commissioned one of Bordeaux' foremost architects,, to create the buildings in the First Empire style, the mansion for the Marquis to move into by 1812. Large portions of shares in the estate were bought by the Bordeaux wine merchant Fernand Ginestet (then owner of the adjacent Château Lascombes) in 1925, and the family share was gradually increased to allow his son Pierre Ginestet to take complete ownership in 1949. In 1965, Pierre Ginestet controversially declared a new estate policy that the vintage year would only be affixed to great vintages, while selling the wine of lesser years as non-vintage wine, like the customary practice of Champagne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "Following the Bordeaux economic crisis of 1973, the Ginestet family were forced to sell Château Margaux. An attempt by National Distillers & Chemical Corporation to acquire Château Margaux was vetoed by the French government on grounds that the estate was a national treasure. (This has since been reported as a Coca-Cola Company effort prevented by French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing.)  A successful acquisition took place in 1976 by French grocery and finance group Félix Potin, headed by Greek André Mentzelopoulos for a sum near 72 million francs, or $16 million. Mentzelopoulos transformed the vineyard through restoring the neglected vineyard, chais, and mansion and the consultancy of oenologist Émile Peynaud. By the time of Mentzelopoulos' death in 1980, Château Margaux was considered substantially restored to its former reputation, with the 1978 and 1979 vintages declared \"exceptional\".  At the beginning of the 1990s, an exchange of shares was negotiated with the Agnelli family but the management remained in the hands of Mentzelopoulos' daughter Corinne Mentzelopoulos. In 2003, Corinne Mentzelopoulos bought back the majority stake and became the sole shareholder of Château Margaux.  A bottle of Château Margaux 1787 holds the record as the most expensive bottle of wine ever broken, insured at $225,000.  Margaux Hemingway received her given name from this wine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The domaine of Château Margaux extends, of which are entitled to the Margaux AOC declaration. are planted with 75% Cabernet Sauvignon, 20% Merlot, with 2% Cabernet Franc and Petit verdot. are cultivated with Sauvignon blanc to make the dry white Pavillon Blanc.  The average annual production of the \"Grand vin\", Château Margaux, is 150,000 bottles, while the second wine Pavillon Rouge du Château Margaux has an average production of 200,000 bottles. The dry white Pavillon Blanc du Château Margaux has a production of around 35,000 bottles, and must be sold under the generic Bordeaux AOC as the cultivation of Sauvignon blanc does not fall under the directives of the Margaux AOC. The remainder of the production, what is determined to be \"lesser grapes\", is sold off in bulk.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Château Margaux, archaically La Mothe de Margaux, is a wine estate of Bordeaux wine, and was one of four wines to achieve \"Premier cru\" (first growth) status in the Bordeaux Classification of 1855. The estate's best wines are very expensive, with a standard-sized bottle of the Château Margaux \"grand vin\" retailing at an average price of $639. The estate is located in the commune of Margaux on the left bank of the Garonne estuary in the Médoc region, in the département of Gironde, and the wine is delimited to the AOC of Margaux.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973365}
{"src_title": "Świętosława of Poland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "Świętosława was the daughter of Duke Casimir I of Poland and his wife Maria Dobroniega of Kiev. She was related to the House of Přemysl, the family of her future husband, through her great-grandmother Dobrawa of Bohemia. Her brothers Boleslaus II the Bold and Vladislaus I Herman were rulers of Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage to Vratislaus.", "content": "Vratislaus married Świętosława in 1062, one year after the death of the previous duchess, Vratislaus' second wife Adelaide of Hungary. His first wife Maria had died after the birth of their stillborn child. According to German historians, Świętosława was 15 years' old at the time of their marriage, while according to Oswald Balzer, she was aged 19 to 22.  With this marriage, the neutrality of Bohemia was ensured in the Polish-German conflict. In addition, Vratislaus demonstrated friendly relationships with Boleslaus II the Bold, but at a later date they disputed the Czech-Polish borders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The first Queen of Bohemia.", "content": "The new duchess gave birth to four children; Vratislaus had four other ones already. The youngest son, Soběslav, was probably born in 1075. Her sons Vladislaus and Soběslav became dukes in the unquiet years after the death of their father, while her daughter Judith was married to Wiprecht, his ally and friend.  There is little information about this duchess, although she was crowned together with her husband as King and Queen in 1085 by archbishop Egilbert. They reigned for the next seven years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Widow.", "content": "In 1092 Świętosława was left a widow and saw a struggle for the throne of Bohemia among the Přemyslids. In 1111, she assisted in negotiations between Vladislaus I and Bolesław III Wrymouth. After Vratislaus' death, she tried to soften clashes between their youngest sons Vladislaus and Soběslav.  In 1125, the dying Vladislaus I confirmed his relative Otto II the Black as his successor, which was also the wish of Vladislaus' wife, Richeza of Berg. Only the intervention of his mother changed his opinion, and Vladislaus reconciled with his brother Soběslav.  Świętosława, who was a widow for thirty years, lived to see the victory of her son Soběslav in the Battle of Chlumec and died in September 1126.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Świętosława of Poland ( (c. 1046–1048 – 1 September 1126)) was the third wife of Duke (later King) Vratislaus II of Bohemia and the first Queen of Bohemia as of 1085.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973366}
{"src_title": "Tarifa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "It was thought that Tarifa was once the site of the Roman settlement of Julia Transducta (also known as Julia Joza, or just Transducta). However, that settlement is now thought to have been where Algeciras now stands, while there is strong evidence that Casas de Porro, Valdevaqueros (Tarifa) was the site of the settlement of Mellaria. Tarifa was given its present name after the attack of Tarif ibn Malik in 710, a Berber military commander of Musa bin Nusayr. The village of Bolonia near Tarifa was also populated in Roman times (called Baelo Claudia). Roman ruins still exist near the village today.  After the Islamic conquest of southern Spain, the city was fortified starting from the 10th century. Later Tarifa was held by the taifa of Algeciras (1031) and by that of Seville (1057), and subsequently by the Almoravids. After the latter's fall, it lived a short period under another taifa of Algeciras (1231), until becoming part of the Kingdom of Granada. In 1292 it was conquered by Sancho IV of Castile, and two years later it resisted a siege by North African Islamic troops. The town resisted another siege in 1340 from Marinid, eventually leading to the Battle of Río Salado.  In 1514 it became the seat of a marquisate (Marquiss of Tarifa), including also Bornos, Espera and Alcalá de los Gazules.  In the course of the Peninsular War, Tarifa was besieged by French troops on 20 December 1810, and again on 18 December 1811. In both of these cases the town was defended by British troops from Gibraltar as the Spanish and British were allies against the French. During the 1811–12 Siege of Tarifa there were 3,000 defending troops with 1,200 of those British, including Colonel Charles Holloway who as commanding Royal Engineer made improvements to Tarifa's defences.  On 19 December the town was attacked again by General Laval, who bombarded the town over Christmas to the point where surrender was demanded on 30 December. Both the British and Spanish commanders refused to comply and their defiance was rewarded by rain that started the next day. By 5 January the attacking force realised that their powder was wet and their guns were bogged down in mud, and retreated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The name \"Tarifa\" is derived from the name of the Umayyad Caliphate military commander, Tarif ibn Malik.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "Historical landmarks of the city include:  Tarifa is located within the Intercontinental Mediterranean Biosphere Reserve, a renowned place to watch migrating birds, in particular the storks which cross the Straits of Gibraltar in spring and autumn. Also whale and dolphin watching can be done as there are several species living on the 14 kilometre-wide Straits, for instance the Pilot whale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cinema.", "content": "Tarifa is renowned for its African Film Festival, whose first edition took place in 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "There are regular ferry services connecting Tarifa with Tangier (40 minutes) and Ceuta (1 hour) from the ferry port.  Bus services run from the bus station on Calle Batalla de Salado. There are regular services between Tarifa and Algeciras, about 20 km to the northeast, and Seville about 200 km to the north. Direct buses also run to Málaga and Cádiz. In high summer a special kitesurfing bus runs along the A7 between Tarifa bus station and Camping Jardin de las Dunas, stopping at popular hotels and campsites along the route.  There is a taxi rank on the Avenida Andalucia. It is about 5 minutes walk from the bus station and is located just outside the Puerto de Jerez (the main entrance to the old town) at the junction of Avenida Andalucia and Calle Batalla de Salado.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Tarifa features a Mediterranean climate with Oceanic influences, with warm summers and very mild winters. Rain is concentrated in winter, with the summers being largely dry. Because of its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, precipitation in the wet period is quite high; monthly averages exceed 80mm in the two wettest months, December and January. The influence of the ocean has the additional effect of creating a very small annual variation in temperature. Winters are warmer than inland Spain - and summers are cooler than most of the country - the average daily high in the hottest month, August, is only 24 °C, more than 10 °C cooler than the temperatures experienced further inland in the Guadalquivir valley, and also significantly cooler than those felt further east along the Mediterranean coast in places such as Málaga and Almería and even further west in Huelva and the Algarve coast of Portugal, as well as nearby Gibraltar and Tanger, which renders Tarifa to be an extreme microclimate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surroundings.", "content": "The intentional community \"Molino de Guadalmesi\", which is part of the Global Ecovillage Network (GEN), is located about 13 km north-east from Tarifa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "https://kitemadworld.com/kitesurfing-in-tarifa-a-guide-to-europes-kiting-capital/==External links==", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tarifa () is a Spanish municipality in the province of Cádiz, Andalusia. Located at the southernmost end of the Iberian Peninsula, it is primarily known as one of the world's most popular destinations for windsports. Tarifa lies on the Costa de la Luz (\"coast of light\") and across the Strait of Gibraltar facing Morocco.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973367}
{"src_title": "Valeriy Brumel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Brumel was born in a far eastern Siberian village to a family of geologists exploring the region. They later moved to Lugansk and taught at a local university.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Athletic career.", "content": "Brumel took up the high jump at age 12 in Lugansk, coached by P. S. Shtein. Aged 16 he cleared using the then dominant straight-leg straddle technique. He improved his skills under the coaching of V. M. Dyachkov in Moscow. In 1960 he broke the USSR record,, and was selected to the Olympic team. At the 1960 Summer Olympics, he cleared the same height as the winner Robert Shavlakadze, but made more attempts and thus was awarded a silver medal. In 1961–1963 he broke the world record in the high jump six times, improving it from to. He also won the high jump at the 1961 and 1963 Universiade, 1962 European Championships, the 1964 Summer Olympics and the USSR Championships of 1961–1963.  After going undefeated during the 1965 season, Brumel suffered a multiple fracture in his right foot in a motorcycle accident, and faced an amputation. He was operated on successfully by professor Gavriil Ilizarov with a new leg-lengthening procedure using his external fixator. Yet even after 29 surgeries he could not fully recover. He retired in 1970 after jumping at local competitions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement from athletics.", "content": "In retirement Brumel turned to acting and writing. He starred in the films \"Sport, Sport, Sport\" (1970) and \"The Right to Jump\" (1971) and wrote numerous novels and plays, including the novel \"Don't Change Yourself\" (1979), which was translated into seven languages, and the libretto to Rauf Hajiyev's operetta \"Golden Caravel\" (Золотая каравелла).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Brumel had two brothers, Oleg (1944–2005) and Igor, a Russian politician born in 1952 in Rostov. Brumel was married three times. His left him with a son in 1965, when Brumel was recovering from his motorcycle accident. In 1973 Brumel married Yelena Petushkova, an equestrian and 1972 Olympic champion in dressage. The couple divorced 18 months later citing irreconcilable differences. They had a daughter, Vlada Petushkova, born in 1974, who was raised by her mother. In 1992 Brumel married Svetlana Belousova, who later founded and managed the Valeriy Brumel Fund. They had a son Viktor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Valeriy Nikolayevich Brumel (; 14 April 1942 – 26 January 2003) was a Soviet high jumper. The 1964 Olympic champion and multiple world record holder, he is regarded as one of the greatest athletes ever to compete in the high jump. His international career was ended by a motorcycle accident in 1965.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973368}
{"src_title": "Protostar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The modern picture of protostars, summarized above, was first suggested by Chushiro Hayashi in 1966. In the first models, the size of protostars was greatly overestimated. Subsequent numerical calculations clarified the issue, and showed that protostars are only modestly larger than main-sequence stars of the same mass. This basic theoretical result has been confirmed by observations, which find that the largest pre-main-sequence stars are also of modest size.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Protostellar evolution.", "content": "Star formation begins in relatively small molecular clouds called dense cores. Each dense core is initially in balance between self-gravity, which tends to compress the object, and both gas pressure and magnetic pressure, which tend to inflate it. As the dense core accrues mass from its larger, surrounding cloud, self-gravity begins to overwhelm pressure, and collapse begins. Theoretical modeling of an idealized spherical cloud initially supported only by gas pressure indicates that the collapse process spreads from the inside toward the outside. Spectroscopic observations of dense cores that do not yet contain stars indicate that contraction indeed occurs. So far, however, the predicted outward spread of the collapse region has not been observed.  The gas that collapses toward the center of the dense core first builds up a low-mass protostar, and then a protoplanetary disk orbiting the object. As the collapse continues, an increasing amount of gas impacts the disk rather than the star, a consequence of angular momentum conservation. Exactly how material in the disk spirals inward onto the protostar is not yet understood, despite a great deal of theoretical effort. This problem is illustrative of the larger issue of accretion disk theory, which plays a role in much of astrophysics.  Regardless of the details, the outer surface of a protostar consists at least partially of shocked gas that has fallen from the inner edge of the disk. The surface is thus very different from the relatively quiescent photosphere of a pre-main sequence or main-sequence star. Within its deep interior, the protostar has lower temperature than an ordinary star. At its center, hydrogen-1 is not yet fusing with itself. Theory predicts, however, that the hydrogen isotope deuterium fuses with hydrogen-1, creating helium-3. The heat from this fusion reaction tends to inflate the protostar, and thereby helps determine the size of the youngest observed pre-main-sequence stars.  The energy generated from ordinary stars comes from the nuclear fusion occurring at their centers. Protostars also generate energy, but it comes from the radiation liberated at the shocks on its surface and on the surface of its surrounding disk. The radiation thus created must traverse the interstellar dust in the surrounding dense core. The dust absorbs all impinging photons and reradiates them at longer wavelengths. Consequently, a protostar is not detectable at optical wavelengths, and cannot be placed in the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, unlike the more evolved pre-main-sequence stars.  The actual radiation emanating from a protostar is predicted to be in the infrared and millimeter regimes. Point-like sources of such long-wavelength radiation are commonly seen in regions that are obscured by molecular clouds. It is commonly believed that those conventionally labeled as Class 0 or Class I sources are protostars. However, there is still no definitive evidence for this identification.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A protostar is a very young star that is still gathering mass from its parent molecular cloud. The protostellar phase is the earliest one in the process of stellar evolution. For a low mass star (i.e. that of the Sun or lower), it lasts about 500,000 years. The phase begins when a molecular cloud fragment first collapses under the force of self-gravity and an opaque, pressure supported core forms inside the collapsing fragment. It ends when the infalling gas is depleted, leaving a pre-main-sequence star, which contracts to later become a main-sequence star at the onset of helium fusion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973369}
{"src_title": "Bow tie", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin and history.", "content": "The bow tie originated among Croatian mercenaries during the Thirty Years' War of the 17th century: the Croat mercenaries used a scarf around the neck to hold together the opening of their shirts. This was soon adopted (under the name \"cravat,\" derived from the French for \"Croat\") by the upper classes in France, then a leader in fashion, and flourished in the 18th and 19th centuries. It is uncertain whether the cravat then evolved into the bow tie and four-in-hand necktie, or whether the cravat gave rise to the bow tie, which in turn led to the four-in-hand necktie.  The most traditional bow ties are usually of a fixed length and are made for a specific size neck. Sizes can vary between approximately 14 and 19 inches as with a comparable shirt collar. Fixed-length bow ties are preferred when worn with the most formal wing-collar shirts, so as not to expose the buckle or clasp of an adjustable bow tie. Adjustable bow ties are the standard when the tie is to be worn with a less formal, lie-down collar shirt that obscures the neckband of the tie. \"One-size-fits-all\" adjustable bow ties are a later invention that helps to moderate production costs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stereotypes of bow tie wearers.", "content": "To its devotees, the bow tie suggests iconoclasm of an Old World sort, a fusty adherence to a contrarian point of view. The bow tie hints at intellectualism, real or feigned, and sometimes suggests technical acumen, perhaps because it is so hard to tie. Bow ties are worn by magicians, country doctors, lawyers and professors and by people hoping to look like the above. But perhaps most of all, wearing a bow tie is a way of broadcasting an aggressive lack of concern for what other people think. <br>- Warren St John in \"The New York Times\"  Popular perception tends to associate bow tie wearers with particular professions, such as architects, finance receipt collectors, attorneys, university professors, teachers, waiters, and politicians. Pediatricians frequently wear bow ties since infants cannot grab them the way they could grab a four-in-hand necktie. Bow ties do not readily droop into places where they would get soiled or where they could, whether accidentally or deliberately, strangle the wearer. Clowns sometimes use an oversize bow tie for its comic effect. Classical musicians traditionally perform in white tie or black tie ensembles, of which both designs are bow ties. Bow ties are also associated with weddings, mainly because of their almost universal inclusion in traditional formal attire.  Bow ties, or slight variations thereof, have also made their way into women's wear, especially business attire. The 1980s saw professional women, especially in law, banking, and the corporate world, donning very conservative tailored suits, with a rise of almost 6 million units in sales. These were often worn with buttoned-up blouses, some with pleats up the front like tuxedo shirts, and accessorized with bow ties that were slightly fuller than the standard bow ties worn by their male counterparts, but typically consisting of the same fabrics, colors, and patterns as men's ties.  Russell Smith, style columnist for Toronto's \"The Globe and Mail,\" records mixed opinions of bow tie wearers. He observed that bow ties were experiencing a potential comeback among men, though \"the class conscious man recoils at the idea\" of pre-tied bow ties and \"[l]eft-wingers... recoil at what they perceive to be a symbol of political conservatism.\" He argues that, however, that anachronism is the point, and that bow tie wearers are making a public statement that they disdain changing fashion. Such people may not be economic conservatives, he argues, but they \"are\" social conservatives. In Smith's view, the bow tie is \"the embodiment of propriety,\" an indicator of fastidiousness, and \"an instant sign of nerddom in Hollywood movies,\" but \"not the mark of a ladies' man\" and \"not exactly sexy.\" To this image, he attributes the association of the bow tie with newspaper editors (because of their fastidiousness with words), high-school principals, and bachelor English teachers. Most men, he observes, only wear bow ties with a formal dress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current.", "content": "The four-in-hand necktie is still more prominent in contemporary Western society, it is seen the most at business meetings, formal functions, schools, and sometimes even at home. However, the bow tie is making a comeback at fun-formal events such as dinners, cocktail parties, and nights out on the town. Bow ties are often worn with suits by those trying to convey a more dressed-up, formal image, whether in business or social venues. Bow ties are still generally popular with men of all ages in the American South, having never gone out of fashion there.  Traditional opinion remains that it is inappropriate to wear anything other than a bow tie with a dinner jacket.  Bow ties are also sometimes worn as an alternative to ascot ties and four-in-hand neckties when wearing morning dress.  The dress code of \"black tie\" requires a black bow tie. Most military mess dress uniforms incorporate a bow tie.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Self-Tie.", "content": "If choosing a self-tie/tie-it-yourself/freestyle bow tie, there are usually two shapes available: the \"bat wing,\" which is parallel-sided like a cricket bat, and the \"thistle,\" also known as the \"butterfly.\" An example of each can also be seen below. Which is worn is a matter of personal preference. Some other shapes do exist; for instance, the Diamond Point, with pointed tips at both ends. This is a double-ended type, with both ends shaped, though occasionally, ties are tied in the single-ended type, in which only one end flares out to give the batwing or thistle shape, and the other remains thin. To tie one of these requires careful consideration, to ensure the broader end finishes in front of the thinner one.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pre-Tie.", "content": "Shown below on the right is one style of pre-tie/ready-tie bow tie. Wearing a ready-tied bow tie at formal occasions requiring a black or white tie dress code is usually considered a faux pas, though at occasions such as Schools Leavers' Proms or ones at which the participants are unlikely to have had much experience wearing bow ties it may be commonplace.  As shown in the pictures below, another type of ready-tie bow tie is the wooden bow tie. A fairly new product made mostly in the U.S and Canada. Other materials are also in use. An example would be bow ties that are made of natural bird feathers. Also a fairly new product made mostly in the U.S. and Europe (in Poland).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clip-On.", "content": "A clip-on does not go around the neck but clips to the collar points.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The bow tie is a type of necktie. A modern bow tie is tied using a common shoelace knot, which is also called the bow knot for that reason. It consists of a ribbon of fabric tied around the collar of a shirt in a symmetrical manner so that the two opposite ends form loops.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973370}
{"src_title": "Herbert Lom", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Lom was born Herbert Charles Angelo Kuchačevič ze Schluderpacheru in Prague to Karl Kuchačevič ze Schluderpacheru, and Olga Gottlieb, who was of Jewish ancestry. Lom claimed that his family had been ennobled and that the family title dated from 1601.  His film debut was in the Czech film \"Žena pod křížem\" (\"A Woman Under Cross\", 1937) followed by the \"Boží mlýny\" (\"Mills of God\", 1938). His early film appearances were mainly supporting roles, with the occasional top billing. At this time he also changed his surname to Lom (\"breakage\" or \"quarry\" in Czech), because it was the shortest he found in a local telephone directory.  Due to German hostilities and the possibility of an invasion of Czechoslovakia, Lom moved to Britain in January 1939. He made numerous appearances in British films throughout the 1940s, usually in villainous roles, although he later appeared in comedies as well. He managed to escape being typecast as a European heavy by securing a diverse range of casting, including as Napoleon Bonaparte in \"The Young Mr. Pitt\" (1942), and again in the King Vidor version of \"War and Peace\" (1956). He secured a seven-picture Hollywood contract after World War II, but was unable to obtain an American visa for \"political reasons\". In a rare starring role, Lom played twin trapeze artists in \"Dual Alibi\" (1946).  Lom starred as the King of Siam in the original London production of Rodgers and Hammerstein's musical, \"The King and I.\" Opening at the Drury Lane Theatre on 8October 1953, it ran for 926 performances. Lom can be heard on the cast recording.  A few years later, he appeared opposite Alec Guinness and Peter Sellers in \"The Ladykillers\" (1955), and with Robert Mitchum, Jack Lemmon and Rita Hayworth in \"Fire Down Below\" (1957). He went on to more film success during the 1960s with a wide range of parts, starting with \"Spartacus\" (1960). Subsequent films in this period included \"El Cid\" (1961), \"Mysterious Island\" (also 1961), playing Captain Nemo, and Hammer Films' remake of \"The Phantom of the Opera\" (1962). Again in the leading role, the phantom's mask in this version was full-face. \"It was wonderful to play such a part, but I was disappointed with the picture\", Lom later said. \"This version of the famous Gaston Leroux story dragged. The Phantom wasn't given enough to do, but at least I wasn't the villain, for a change. Michael Gough was the villain.\"  During this period, Lom starred in his only regular TV series, the British drama \"The Human Jungle\" (1963–64), playing a Harley Street psychiatrist for two seasons. Another low-budget horror film starring Lom was the witch-hunting film \"Mark of the Devil\" (\"Hexen bis aufs Blut gequält\", 1970), which depicted unusually graphic torture scenes. Cinemas reportedly handed out sick bags to patrons at screenings of the film. He appeared in other horror films made in both the US and UK, including \"Asylum\", \"And Now the Screaming Starts!\", \"Murders in the Rue Morgue\", and \"The Dead Zone\".  Lom was perhaps best known for his portrayal of Chief Inspector Charles Dreyfus, Inspector Clouseau's long-suffering superior in several of Blake Edwards' \"Pink Panther\" films, beginning with the second movie in the series, \"A Shot in the Dark\" (1964). He also appeared in two screen versions of the Agatha Christie novel \"And Then There Were None\". In the 1975 version, he played Dr. Armstrong, and later appeared in the 1989 version as General Romensky.  Lom wrote two historical novels, one on the playwright Christopher Marlowe (\"Enter a Spy: The Double Life of Christopher Marlowe\", 1978) and the other on the French Revolution (\"Dr Guillotine: The Eccentric Exploits of an Early Scientist\", 1992). The film rights to the latter have been purchased, but to date no film has been produced.  Lom married Dina Schea in 1948, having two children together before they divorced in 1971. He had a child from a relationship with Brigitta Appleby. He later married Eve Lacik, divorcing in 1990.  Lom died in his sleep on 27 September 2012 at the age of 95.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Herbert Lom (; 11 September 1917 – 27 September 2012) was a Czech-born British film and television actor who moved to the United Kingdom in 1939. In a career lasting more than 60 years, he appeared in character roles, often portraying criminals or villains early in his career and professional men in later years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973371}
{"src_title": "Nyckelharpa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A depiction of two instruments, possibly but not confirmed nyckelharpor, can be found in a relief dating from on one of the gates of Källunge church in Gotland. Early church paintings are found in Siena, Italy, dating to 1408 and in different churches in Denmark and Sweden, such as Tolfta church, Sweden, which dates to. Other very early pictures are to be found in Hildesheim, Germany, dating to.  The (nyckelharpa) is also mentioned in, a famous work written in 1620 by the German organist Michael Praetorius (1571–1621). The Swedish province of Uppland has been a stronghold for nyckelharpa music since the early 17th century, including musicians like Byss-Calle (Carl Ersson Bössa, 1783–1847) from Älvkarleby.  Changes by August Bohlin (1877–1949) in 1929/1930 made the nyckelharpa a chromatic instrument with a straight bow, making it a more violin-like and no longer a bourdon instrument. Composer, player and maker of nyckelharpor Eric Sahlström (1912–1986) used this new instrument and helped to re-popularize it in the mid-20th century. In spite of this, the nyckelharpa's popularity declined until the 1960s roots revival.  The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence in the popularity of the nyckelharpa, with notable artists such as Marco Ambrosini (Italy and Germany), Sture Sahlström, Hasse Gille, Peter Puma Hedlund and Nils Nordström including the nyckelharpa in both early music and contemporary music offerings. Continued refinement of the instrument also contributed to the increase in popularity, with instrument builders like Jean-Claude Condi and Annette Osann bringing innovation to the bow and body.  In 1990s, the nyckelharpa was recognised as one of the instruments available for study at the folk music department of the Royal College of Music in Stockholm (Kungliga Musikhögskolan). It has also been a prominent part of several revival groups in the later part of the century, including the trio Väsen, the more contemporary group Hedningarna, the Finnish folk music group Hyperborea and the Swedish folk music groups Dråm and Nordman. Elizabeth Weis Nord is a notable Nyckelharpa teacher and performer who resides the US. It has also been used in non-Scandinavian musical contexts, for example by the Spanish player Ana Alcaide and the English singer and multi-instrumentalist Anna Tam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technique.", "content": "The nyckelharpa is usually played with a strap around the neck, stabilised by the right arm. Didier François, a violinist and nyckelharpist from Belgium, is noted for using an unusual playing posture, holding the nyckelharpa vertically in front of the chest. This allows a wider range of motion for both arms. It also affects the tone and sound of the instrument. Some players may use a violin bracket to keep the nyckelharpa away from the body so that it can swing freely, causing it to sound more \"open\" as its resonance is not dampened.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "There are four common variants of the nyckelharpa still played today, differing in the number and arrangement of keys, number and arrangement of strings, and general body shape. The predominant type is the three-row so-called \"chromatic nyckelharpa\", with the melody strings tuned A1 - C1 - G, a drone C (from the highest to the lowest string) that is only touched occasionally, and 12 resonance strings (one for each step of the chromatic scale).  The resonance strings, or sympathetic strings, which were added to the instrument during the 2nd half of the 16th century, are not bowed directly but resonate with the other strings.  Traditional variants of the nyckelharpa used to have one or more drone strings. This is not the case for modern chromatic nyckelharpor with three rows of keys for three melody strings and one bass string. But there are today also types with four or even five rows of keys.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A nyckelharpa (, \"keyed fiddle\", or literally \"key harp\", plural ) is a traditional Swedish musical instrument. It is a string instrument or chordophone. Its keys are attached to tangents which, when a key is depressed, serve as frets to change the pitch of the string.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973372}
{"src_title": "Spoleto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Spoleto was situated on the eastern branch of the Via Flaminia, which forked into two roads at Narni and rejoined at \"Forum Flaminii\", near Foligno. An ancient road also ran hence to Nursia. The \"Ponte Sanguinario\" of the 1st century BC still exists. The Forum lies under today's marketplace.  Located at the head of a large, broad valley, surrounded by mountains, Spoleto has long occupied a strategic geographical position. It appears to have been an important town to the original Umbri tribes, who built walls around their settlement in the 5th century BC, some of which are visible today.  The first historical mention of \"Spoletium\" is the notice of the foundation of a colony there in 241 BC; and it was still, according to Cicero \"colonia latina in primis firma et illustris\": a Latin colony in 95 BC. After the Battle of Lake Trasimene (217 BC) Spoletium was attacked by Hannibal, who was repulsed by the inhabitants During the Second Punic War the city was a useful ally to Rome. It suffered greatly during the civil wars of Gaius Marius and Sulla. The latter, after his victory over Marius, confiscated the territory of Spoletium (82 BC). From this time forth it was a \"municipium\".  Under the empire it seems to have flourished once again, but is not often mentioned in history. Martial speaks of its wine. Aemilianus, who had been proclaimed emperor by his soldiers in Moesia, was slain by them here on his way from Rome (AD 253), after a reign of three or four months. Rescripts of Constantine (326) and Julian (362) are dated from Spoleto. The foundation of the episcopal see dates from the 4th century: early martyrs of Spoleto are legends, but a letter to the bishop Caecilianus, from Pope Liberius in 354 constitutes its first historical mention. Owing to its elevated position Spoleto was an important stronghold during the Vandal and Gothic wars; its walls were dismantled by Totila.  Under the Lombards, Spoleto became the capital of an independent duchy, the Duchy of Spoleto (from 570), and its dukes ruled a considerable part of central Italy. In 774 it became part of Holy Roman Empire. Several of its dukes, mainly during the late 9th Century, rose to wear the crown of that Empire. Together with other fiefs, it was bequeathed to Pope Gregory VII by the powerful countess Matilda of Tuscany, but for some time struggled to maintain its independence. In 1155 it was destroyed by Frederick Barbarossa. In 1213 it was definitively occupied by Pope Gregory IX. During the absence of the papal court in Avignon, it was prey to the struggles between Guelphs and Ghibellines, until in 1354 Cardinal Albornoz brought it once more under the authority of the Papal States. After Napoleon's conquest of Italy, in 1809 Spoleto became capital of the short-lived French department of Trasimène, returning to the Papal States after Napoleon's defeat, within five years. In 1860, after a gallant defence, Spoleto was taken by the troops fighting for the unification of Italy. Giovanni Pontano, founder of the Accademia Pontaniana of Naples, was born here. Another child of Spoleto was Francis Possenti who was educated in the Jesuit school and whose father was the Papal assessor, Francis later entered the Passionists and became Saint Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The \"Festival dei Due Mondi\" (Festival of the Two Worlds) was founded in 1958. Because Spoleto was a small town, where real estate and other goods and services were at the time relatively inexpensive, and also because there are two indoor theatres, a Roman theatre and many other spaces, it was chosen by Gian Carlo Menotti as the venue for an arts festival. It is also fairly close to Rome, with good rail connections. It is an important cultural event, held annually in late June-early July.  The festival has developed into one of the most important cultural manifestations in Italy, with a three-week schedule of music, theater and dance performances. For some time it became a reference point for modern sculpture exhibits, and works of art left to the city by Alexander Calder and others are a testimony to this.  In the United States, a parallel festival — Spoleto Festival USA — held in Charleston, South Carolina was founded in 1977 with Menotti's involvement. The twinning only lasted some 15 years and, after growing disputes between the Menotti family and the Spoleto Festival USA board, in the early 1990s a separation was consummated. However, following Menotti's death in February 2007, the city administrations of Spoleto and Charleston started talks to re-unite the two festivals which would climax in Spoleto mayor Massimo Brunini's attending the opening ceremony of Spoleto Festival USA in May 2008. For a short period of time, a third parallel festival was also held in Melbourne, Australia. In 1992, the \"Spoleto Arts Symposium\" was initiated with the purpose of bringing talented people from all around the world to study in Spoleto. The program apparently ceased in 2009, to be replaced by a similar program, started by the College-Conservatory of Music (CCM) of the University of Cincinnati in 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "Spoleto gained its main results in sport with the local Volleyball team, Olio Venturi Spoleto, who classified in the quarter-finals of the Italian championship in sport.  The town's football team, A.D. Voluntas Calcio Spoleto, play in Serie D.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Frazioni\".", "content": "Various suburbs and small villages surrounding the city of Spoleto (collectively referred to as \"Frazioni\") include: Acquaiola, Acquacastagna, Ancaiano, Azzano, Baiano, Bazzano Inferiore, Bazzano Superiore, Beroide, Camporoppolo, Campo Salese, Cerqueto, Cese, Collerisana, Collicelli, Cortaccione, Crocemaroggia, Eggi, Fogliano, Forca di Cerro, Madonna di Baiano, Maiano, Messenano, Milano, Montebiblico, Monteluco, Monte Martano, Morgnano, Morro, Ocenelli, Palazzaccio, Perchia, Petrognano, Pompagnano, Pontebari, Poreta, Protte, Rubbiano, San Brizio, San Giacomo, San Giovanni di Baiano, San Martino in Trignano, San Nicolò, San Silvestro, Santa Croce, Sant'Anastasio, Sant'Angelo in Mercole, San Venanzo, Silvignano, Somma, Strettura, Terraia, Terzo la Pieve, Terzo San Severo, Testaccio, Uncinano, Valdarena, Valle San Martino, Vallocchia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "<BR", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Spoleto (,,, ; ) is an ancient city in the Italian province of Perugia in east-central Umbria on a foothill of the Apennines. It is S. of Trevi, N. of Terni, SE of Perugia; SE of Florence; and N of Rome.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973373}
{"src_title": "Fred Lawrence Whipple", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Whipple was born on November 5, 1906, in Red Oak, Iowa, as the son of a farmer. An early bout with polio ended his ambition of being a professional tennis player. Whipple studied at Occidental College in Southern California, then majored in mathematics at the University of California at Los Angeles, graduating in 1927. Recollecting his path from mathematics to astronomy, Whipple stated in a 1978 autobiography that his \"mathematics major veered [him] through physics and finally focused on astronomy where time, space, mathematics, and physics had a common meeting ground.\"  After taking a class in astronomy, he enlisted at the University of California, Berkeley where he obtained his PhD in Astronomy in 1931. While in graduate school, he helped map the orbit of the then newly discovered dwarf planet Pluto. He joined Harvard College Observatory in 1931 and studied the trajectories of meteors, confirming that they originated within the solar system rather than from interstellar space. In 1933, he discovered the periodic comet 36P/Whipple and the asteroid 1252 Celestia. He also discovered or co-discovered five other non-periodic comets, the first of which was C/1932 P1 Peltier-Whipple, independently discovered by the famed amateur astronomer Leslie Peltier.  During World War II, he invented a device for cutting tinfoil into chaff to confuse enemy radar tracking Allied aircraft. He was awarded a Certificate of Merit for this in 1948. He also invented a \"meteoroid bumper\" or \"Whipple shield\", which protects spacecraft from impact by small particles by vaporizing them.  From 1950 until 1977 he was a professor of Astronomy at Harvard University, including being the Phillips Professor of Astronomy between 1968 and 1977. During these years (in the early 1950s), he wrote a series of influential papers entitled \"A Comet Model\", published in \"Astrophysical Journal\". In these papers, he proposed the \"icy conglomerate\" hypothesis of comet composition (later called the \"dirty snowball\" hypothesis). The basic features of this hypothesis were later confirmed; however, the exact amount (and thus the importance) of ices in a comet is an active field of research, with most of the recently obtained data pointing to a low contribution of ices to a comet's mass (dubbed the \"icy dirtball\" hypothesis). He also anticipated the era of artificial satellites and organized the members of Operation Moonwatch to track them. These groups were the only ones in the US prepared and ready to make observations when the Soviet Union unexpectedly launched Sputnik I in 1957. He became director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory when Loyal Blaine Aldrich retired in 1955, and remained in this post until 1973.  Whipple made at least one media appearance, in the science documentary film \"Target...Earth?\" (1980). He also appeared in the BBC's coverage of the Giotto encounter with Halley's Comet, in 1986.  Whipple died in 2004, aged 97.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "Awards Named after him", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fred Lawrence Whipple (November 5, 1906 – August 30, 2004) was an American astronomer, who worked at the Harvard College Observatory for over 70 years. Amongst his achievements were asteroid and comet discoveries, the \"dirty snowball\" hypothesis of comets, and the invention of the Whipple shield.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973374}
{"src_title": "Ignaz von Born", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born belonged to a noble family of Transylvanian Saxon origin. He started school in his hometown, then was educated in a Jesuit college in Vienna, but left the Jesuits after sixteen months to study law at Prague University. He then travelled extensively to present-day Germany, the Netherlands, and France, studying mineralogy, and on his return to Prague in 1770 entered the department of mines and the mint.  In 1776 he was appointed by Maria Theresa to arrange the imperial museum at Vienna (, the predecessor of today's Naturhistorisches Museum), where he was nominated to the council of mines and the mint, and continued to reside until his death.  He introduced a method of extracting metals by amalgamation (\"Uber des Anquicken der Erze\", 1786), and other improvements in mining and other technical processes. His publications also include \"Lithophylacium Bornianum\" (1772–1775) and \"Bergbaukunde\" (1789), besides several museum catalogues.  Born attempted satire with no great success. \"Die Staatsperücke\", a tale published without his knowledge in 1772. He criticised state bureaucracy in this work. And an attack on Father Hell, the Jesuit, and king's astronomer at Vienna, are two of his satirical works. Part of a satire, entitled \"Monachologia\", in which the monks are described in the technical language of natural history, is also ascribed to him.  Born was well acquainted with Latin and the principal modern languages of Europe, and with many branches of science not immediately connected with metallurgy and mineralogy. He took an active part in the political changes in Hungary. After the death of the emperor Joseph II, the diet of the states of Hungary rescinded many innovations of that ruler, and conferred the rights of denizen on several persons who had been favourable to the cause of the Hungarians, and, amongst others, on Born.  In 1771 Born was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and in 1774 a Fellow of the Royal Society  In 1781 Born proposed that Austria undertake a scientific voyage round the world, emulating those of Cook. The expedition was described in the press in the following terms: Vienna, 20 July 1782. His Majesty the Emperor has ordered Councillor von Born, one of our Monarchy’s most learned savants, to put forward two subjects experienced in Natural History, to send to America in order to make new discoveries there. Mr. Heidinger, Adjunct in the Imperial Natural History Cabinet, and Doctor Maerter, Lecturer in Natural History at the Theresianum, were presented and approved; also, a Gardener and a Painter were included with them. They will go by Cape Horn to Otaheiti, from thence to Sandwich Island, to the American Coast on the North side of California, and finally to China. They both have knowledge of all areas of Natural History; it can therefore be assured that their discoveries will be of much greater ambit and usefulness than all that have been made hitherto, since Banks, Solander, and Forster looked at few other Objects of Natural History than Botany. At the end of August, they will sail on the Ship \"Comte de Cobenzell\". Born himself hoped to lead the expedition, but the poor state of his health meant that he had to relinquish the post of leader in favour of Franz Josef Maerter, who was accompanied by Franz Boos. Subsequently, in July 1789, Born recommended Thaddaeus Haenke to the Spanish Government for appointment as botanist on the Malaspina expedition.  At the time of his death in 1791, he was writing \"Fasti Leopoldini\", probably relating to the prudent conduct of Leopold II, the successor of Joseph, towards the Hungarians.  As an active freemason in the \"Benevolence\" lodge, he introduced and tutored Mozart into the lodge. Born was also the regional head of the Viennese Illuminati lodge, and was a sympathiser with the enlightenment ideas of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. He published an anticlerical satire called \"Monachologien\" in 1783, in which he depicts monks as being of a distinct race that is a mixture between ape and man.  The mineral bornite (CuFeS), a common copper ore mineral was named in his honour.  Drace-Francis, Alex 2006. A provincial imperialist and a Curious Account of Wallachia: Ignaz von Born. European History Quarterly, vol. 36 (2006), pp. 61–89.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species described.", "content": "Species described by Ignatius von Born include:  gastropods:  synonyms of gastropods:  bivalves:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ignaz Edler von Born, also known as Ignatius von Born (,, ) (26 December 1742 in Alba Iulia, Grand Principality of Transylvania, Habsburg Monarchy – 24 July 1791 in Vienna), was a mineralogist and metallurgist. He was a prominent freemason, being head of Vienna's Illuminati lodge and an influential anti-clerical writer. He was the leading scientist in the Holy Roman Empire during the 1770s in the age of Enlightenment.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973375}
{"src_title": "Henri La Fontaine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "La Fontaine was born in Brussels on 22 April 1854 and studied law at the Free University of Brussels (now split into the Université libre de Bruxelles and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel). He was admitted to the bar in 1877 and established a reputation as an authority on international law. He and his sister Léonie La Fontaine were early advocates for women's rights and suffrage, founding in 1890 the Belgian League for the Rights of Women. In 1893, he became professor of international law at the Free University of Brussels and two years later was elected to the Belgian Senate as a member of the Socialist Party. He served as vice chairman of the Senate from 1919 to 1932.  La Fontaine took an early interest in the International Peace Bureau, founded in 1882, and was influential in the Bureau's efforts to bring about The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907. He served as president of the Bureau from 1907 until his death in 1943. World War I convinced La Fontaine that the world would establish an international court when peace returned. He proposed a number of possible members, including Joseph Hodges Choate, Elihu Root, Charles William Eliot, and Andrew Dickson White. La Fontaine also promoted the idea of unification of the world's pacifist organizations.  He was a member of the Belgian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and to the League of Nations Assembly (1920–21). In other efforts to foster world peace, he founded the Centre Intellectuel Mondial (later merged into the League of Nations Institute for Intellectual Co-operation) and proposed such organizations as a world school and university, and a world parliament. In 1907, with Paul Otlet, he founded the Union of International Associations. He also is the co-founder of Institut International de Bibliographie (which later became the International Federation for Information and Documentation, FID) along with Paul Otlet. It was in this role that he and Otlet attended the World Congress of Universal Documentation in 1937.  Henri La Fontaine was a freemason, and a member of the lodge \"Les Amis Philanthropes\" in Brussels. He died on 14 May 1943 in Brussels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Henri La Fontaine was the author of a number of legal handbooks and a documentary history of international arbitration: He was also founder of the review \"La Vie Internationale\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henri La Fontaine (; 22 April 1854 – 14 May 1943), was a Belgian international lawyer and president of the International Peace Bureau. He received the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1913 because \" he was the effective leader of the peace movement in Europe\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973376}
{"src_title": "Mike Portnoy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Portnoy was born April 20, 1967 and raised on Long Island in Long Beach, New York. His father, Howard Portnoy (1940–2009), worked as a DJ at a local radio station. Mike and his father later moved to Carmel-by-the-Sea, California to work at KRML radio station after watching the 1971 film \"Play Misty for Me\". His mother died on November 16, 1984, when the private plane she was riding in, with her boyfriend, crashed off the Atlantic City coastline.  Portnoy's father's job helped him gain an appreciation for music at an early age particularly, as Portnoy has pointed out, because he had access to his father's collection of LPs. He developed a preference for bands including Rush, Queen, Led Zeppelin, The Who, Iron Maiden, and The Beatles, among many others. Portnoy claims to be self-taught as a drummer, though he did take music theory classes in high school. During that period he began playing in local bands, two of which (Rising Power and Inner Sanctum) recorded and released independent albums.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dream Theater: 1985–2010.", "content": "He left Inner Sanctum (his last high school band) after being awarded a scholarship to attend the Berklee College of Music in Boston. In university, he met John Petrucci and John Myung. They formed a band, initially taking the name \"Majesty\" before changing their name to Dream Theater. They left Berklee soon after.  Known for his technical skill as a drummer in Dream Theater, Portnoy has won 30 awards from the \"Modern Drummer\" magazine. He co-produced six Dream Theater albums with guitarist John Petrucci, starting from \"\" through \"Black Clouds and Silver Linings\" and was one of the main songwriters during his tenure. He is the second youngest person (after Neil Peart) to be inducted into the \"Modern Drummer\" Hall of Fame, at 37 years of age.  In the spring of 2010, Portnoy filled in for Avenged Sevenfold's former drummer, Jimmy \"The Rev\" Sullivan, who died during the production of the band's fifth album \"Nightmare\". On May 5, 2010, Portnoy released a statement on his status with Avenged Sevenfold on their official website, concluding his working relationship with the band On September 8, 2010, Mike Portnoy announced he would be leaving Dream Theater. The band hired Mike Mangini to take his place after inviting and holding auditions with seven \"world-class\" drummers. When Avenged Sevenfold later decided to also sever ties with Portnoy, he announced that he had asked to return to Dream Theater, but was turned down by their lawyer since the band had already brought Mangini on board, and Mangini had left his tenured teaching position at Berklee College of Music to join the band.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Former and current projects: 1997–present.", "content": "Portnoy is known for his many side projects and tribute bands. He is a founding member of Liquid Tension Experiment, an instrumental progressive rock band featuring fellow Dream Theater members John Petrucci and Jordan Rudess along with bassist Tony Levin. He is also a founding member of Transatlantic, a progressive rock \"super-group\" featuring former Spock's Beard keyboardist/vocalist Neal Morse, Flower Kings guitarist Roine Stolt and Marillion bassist Pete Trewavas. Portnoy has also recorded and/or toured/performed live with Neal Morse, OSI, Hail!, Stone Sour, Fates Warning, Overkill and G3. Over the years, Portnoy has also created tribute bands to The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Rush, and The Who, which has allowed him to perform the music of his four favorite drummers.  Since his departure, Portnoy has formed several new bands, starting with Adrenaline Mob, a traditional heavy metal/hard rock band with singer Russell Allen (of Symphony X) and guitarist Mike Orlando. On June 4, 2013, however, Portnoy announced his departure from Adrenaline Mob, citing scheduling conflicts. He is also a founding member of Flying Colors, a progressive rock band also featuring Steve Morse, Neal Morse, Dave LaRue, and Casey McPherson; The Winery Dogs, a power trio also featuring bassist Billy Sheehan (Mr. Big) and guitarist Richie Kotzen (formerly of Mr. Big and Poison); Sons of Apollo, a progressive metal supergroup also featuring Sheehan, Derek Sherinian, Jeff Scott Soto and Ron \"Bumblefoot\" Thal; Metal Allegiance, a thrash metal/groove metal band also featuring Mark Menghi, David Ellefson (Megadeth) and Alex Skolnick (Testament); and BPMD, a supergroup/cover band also featuring Menghi, Phil Demmel (Vio-lence) and Bobby \"Blitz\" Ellsworth (Overkill).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artistry and influences.", "content": "Portnoy played John Myung's bass when Dream Theater performed as the fictitious band Nightmare Cinema. Before live performances of \"Trial of Tears\", he would sometimes switch instruments with John Petrucci and play a fragment of \"Eruption\" by Van Halen. In Nightmare Cinema he got the \"alternate stage name\" Max Del Fuvio.  He was seen playing Pink Floyd's Sheep on a sunburst 4-string Music Man Sterling belonging to Myung on \"The Making of Systematic Chaos\". He plays bass guitar and xylophone during a jam by Liquid Trio Experiment 2. He has also contributed lead and harmony vocals to numerous projects.  In the April 2001 edition of \"Modern Drummer\" & Mike Portnoy's website, he names Neil Peart, Carl Palmer, Bill Bruford, Terry Bozzio, Billy Cobham, Alan White, Stewart Copeland, Phil Collins, Chester Thompson, Simon Phillips, Nick D'Virgilio, Andy Sturmer, Dave Lombardo, Jon Fishman, Vinnie Colaiuta, Peter Criss, Ringo Starr, Tommy Lee, John Bonham, Lars Ulrich and Keith Moon as influences.  Portnoy endorses Tama drums, Remo drumheads, Sabian cymbals and Promark drumsticks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Portnoy and his wife Marlene (née Apuzzo) live in Upper Saucon Township in the Lehigh Valley region of Pennsylvania with their children, Melody Ruthandrea and Max John. Marlene used to be a guitarist in the all-female band Meanstreak, and two of the other members, guitarist Rena Sands and bassist Lisa Martens, are married to Dream Theater guitarist John Petrucci and bassist John Myung, respectively.  Max, like his father Mike, is a drummer. His band Next to None opened for Adrenaline Mob in Atlanta on April 6, 2013. As of December 26, 2017 Max currently plays drums in his new band Tallah.  Portnoy is a recovering alcoholic and has openly talked about it. The five-song set \"Twelve-step Suite\" deals with his experience of alcoholism. He quit drinking in April 2000 after the final show on Dream Theater's \"Scenes from a Memory\" tour.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michael Stephen Portnoy (born April 20, 1967) is an American musician and songwriter who is the current drummer for The Neal Morse Band and supergroups Flying Colors, Transatlantic, The Winery Dogs, Metal Allegiance and Sons of Apollo. Portnoy is primarily known as the former drummer, backing vocalist, and a co-founder of the progressive metal band Dream Theater. In September 2010, Portnoy announced his departure from Dream Theater after 25 years, with Mike Mangini taking his place as drummer of the band. Since his departure, Portnoy has formed a variety of new bands and projects, including Adrenaline Mob, Flying Colors, The Winery Dogs, Sons of Apollo, Metal Allegiance, and BPMD.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973377}
{"src_title": "Beryl Markham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Markham was born in the village of Ashwell, in the county of Rutland, England, the daughter of Charles Baldwin Clutterbuck, an accomplished horse trainer, and his wife Clara Agnes (\"née\" Alexander) (1878–1952). She had an older brother, Richard Alexander \"Dickie\" Clutterbuck (1900–1927).  When she was four years old, she moved with her father to Kenya, which was then colonial British East Africa. He built a horse racing farm in Njoro, near the Great Rift Valley between the Mau Escarpment and the Rongai Valley. Markham spent an adventurous childhood learning, playing, and hunting with the local children. On her family's farm, she developed her knowledge of and love for horses, establishing herself as a trainer at the age of 17, after her father left for Peru. Adventurous, independent thinking, and beautiful, Markham was admired and described as a noted non-conformist, even in a colony known for its colourful eccentrics. She was married three times, taking the name Markham from her second husband, the wealthy Mansfield Markham, with whom she had a son, Gervase. She had a public affair in 1929 with Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, the son of King George V, but the Windsors allegedly cut the romance short. She also had an affair with Hubert Broad, who was later named by Mansfield Markham as a co-respondent in his 1937 divorce from Markham. After her Atlantic crossing, she returned to be with Broad, who was also an influence in her flying career.  She befriended the Danish writer Karen Blixen during the years that Blixen was managing her family's coffee farm in the Ngong hills outside Nairobi. When Blixen's romantic connection with the hunter and pilot Denys Finch Hatton was winding down, Markham started her own affair with him. He invited her to tour game lands on what turned out to be his fatal flight, but Markham supposedly declined because of a premonition of her flight instructor, British pilot Tom Campbell Black.  Inspired and coached by Tom Campbell Black, Markham learned to fly. She worked for some time as a bush pilot, spotting game animals from the air and signaling their locations to safaris on the ground.  She also mingled with the notorious Happy Valley set.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Record flight.", "content": "Markham may be best known for her solo flight across the Atlantic, from England to North America in 1936.  When Markham decided to take on the Atlantic crossing, no pilot had yet flown non-stop from Europe to New York, and no one had made the westward flight solo, though several had died trying. Markham hoped to claim both records. On 4 September 1936, she took off from Abingdon, southern England. After a 20-hour flight, her Vega Gull, \"The Messenger\", suffered fuel starvation due to icing of the fuel tank vents, and she crash-landed at Baleine Cove on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada. She became the first person to make it from England to North America non-stop from east to west and was celebrated as an aviation pioneer.  Markham chronicled her many adventures in her memoir, \"West with the Night\", published in 1942. Despite strong reviews in the press, the book sold modestly, and then quickly went out of print. After living for many years in the United States, Markham moved back to Kenya in 1952, becoming for a time the most successful horse trainer in the country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rediscovery.", "content": "Markham's memoir lingered in obscurity until 1982, when California restaurateur George Gutekunst read a collection of Ernest Hemingway's letters, including one in which Hemingway lavishly praised Markham's writing (if not Markham herself):  Intrigued, Gutekunst read \"West with the Night\" and became so enamored of Markham's prose that he helped persuade a California publisher, North Point Press, to re-issue the book in 1983. The re-release of the book launched a remarkable final chapter in the life of the 80-year-old Markham, who was lauded for her three final years as a great author as well as flyer.  When found in Kenya by AP East Africa correspondent Barry Shlachter, Markham was living in poverty. She had recently been badly beaten during a burglary at her house near the Nairobi racetrack, where she still trained thoroughbreds. The success of the re-issue of \"West with the Night\" provided enough income for Markham to finish her life in relative comfort. Earlier, she had been supported by a circle of friends and owners of race horses she trained into her 80s. The book became a surprising best-seller, spurred by the 1986 broadcast of a public television documentary about Markham's life, \"World Without Walls: Beryl Markham's African Memoir,\" produced by Gutekunst, Shlachter, Joan Saffa, Stephen Talbot and Judy Flannery in collaboration with KQED-TV in San Francisco. Gutekunst and Shlachter had approached the station to co-operate on the documentary, directed by Andrew Maxwell-Hyslop. British actress Diana Quick was the voice of Markham in readings from her memoir and Shlachter conducted the interviews. CNN Africa correspondent Gary Streiker did the filming for the well-reviewed, award-winning PBS program.  Markham died in Nairobi in 1986. Her short stories were posthumously collected in \"The Splendid Outcast\", with an introduction by Mary S. Lovell. A tale from \"West with the Night\" was excerpted and illustrated by Don Brown as a children's book, \"The Good Lion\". In 1988, CBS aired the biographical miniseries, \"Beryl Markham: A Shadow on the Sun\", with Stefanie Powers in the title role.  Both \"West with the Night\" and \"Splendid Outcast\" appeared on the New York Times best-seller list of hardcover fiction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Authorship controversy.", "content": "Critics raised questions as to whether Markham was the true, or sole author of \"West with the Night\", when her ex-husband made claims to the book. Evidence abounds that she was indeed the sole author; copies of the manuscripts sent to her editor prior to Markham meeting her ex-husband quickly silenced the critics and his claims.  Author Mary S. Lovell visited Markham in Nairobi and interviewed her extensively shortly before Markham's death, in preparation for her biography, \"Straight on Till Morning\" (1987). From her research, Lovell concluded that Markham was the sole author, although Schumacher made some basic edits to the manuscript. Instead, Lovell suggests Antoine de Saint Exupéry, another of Markham's lovers, may have served as inspiration for Markham's clear, elegant language and storytelling style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and honors.", "content": "The International Astronomical Union has named the impact crater Markham, on the planet Venus, after her.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Beryl Markham (née Clutterbuck; 26 October 1902 – 3 August 1986) was an English-born Kenyan aviator (one of the first bush pilots), adventurer, racehorse trainer and author. She was the first person to fly solo, non-stop across the Atlantic from Britain to the North America. She wrote about her adventures in her memoir, \"West with the Night\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973378}
{"src_title": "Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Christian was the second son of Joachim Ernest, Prince of Anhalt, by his first wife Agnes, daughter of Wolfgang I, Count of Barby-Mühlingen. Born in Bernburg, Christian was trained from 1570 in Dessau by Caspar Gottschalk in Latin, Italian, and French. Still a child, he participated in diplomatic missions, among other places, to Constantinople; thus prepared, he developed into an ambitious, urbane diplomat.  In the early months of 1586 he went to Dresden and remained there several years as the closest friend of his namesake, Christian I, Elector of Saxony, whose Calvinist sympathies he shared. It is known that he suffered from alcoholic excesses during his stay at the electoral court.  Taking possession of his family lands in December of the same year (1586), Christian remained a devoted Calvinist and later served as advisor to Frederick IV, Elector Palatine. In 1591 he led the Palatine army in aid of the French king Henry IV. When a dispute for the possession of the bishopric of Strasbourg—the so-called Bishops' War—erupted in 1592, he supported Brandenburg against Lorraine. In 1595 he was appointed Governor of the Upper Palatinate by Frederick IV and settled in Amberg.  In 1603 the principality of Anhalt was formally divided between Christian and his surviving brothers. He received Bernburg, and with this settlement revived the old principality of the same name that had been extinct since 1468.  As a diplomat, Christian played an important role in the formation of the Protestant Union in 1608. With the death of the Elector Frederick IV, Christian served his son, Frederick V, and was appointed to command the Protestant forces to defend Bohemia against Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II and his allies when that country's nobles elected Frederick as their king in 1619. The same year, Christian was accepted in the Fruitbearing Society. When Bohemian forces were defeated at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, Christian advised Frederick against making a stand in Prague. In 1621, in response to his affiliation with the Palatines, Christian was put under an imperial ban that effectively made him an outlaw within the Holy Roman Empire and stripped him of his lands.  Christian fled first to Sweden, and then became a guest of King Christian IV in Denmark. He appealed to Emperor Ferdinand for mercy in 1624 and was allowed to return to his principality, where he died six years later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In Lorbach on 2 July 1595 Christian married Anna of Bentheim-Tecklenburg (b. Bentheim, 4 January 1579 – d. Bernburg, 9 December 1624), daughter of Arnold III, Count of Bentheim-Steinfurt-Tecklenburg-Limburg. They had sixteen children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg, also known as Christian of Anhalt, (11 May 1568 – 17 April 1630) was a German prince of the House of Ascania. He was ruling prince of Anhalt and, from 1603, ruling prince of the revived principality of Anhalt-Bernburg. From 1595 he was governor of Upper Palatinate, and soon became the advisor-in-chief of Frederick IV, Elector Palatine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973379}
{"src_title": "Burst mode (photography)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Details.", "content": "The speed at which successive photographs can be captured depends on several factors, but mainly on the processing power of the camera. Disabling certain features such as post processing which the camera applies automatically after capturing each image will usually allow a faster rate of capture. While some cheaper point and shoot cameras may have a multi-image burst function which allows them to capture a number of frames within a second with a single shutter button press, most film and digital SLR cameras will continue to actuate the shutter for as long as the button is held down, until the memory card fills or the battery runs out, although the rate of capture may significantly slow when the camera's data buffer becomes full.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Burst rate.", "content": "Frames per second (FPS) tells the rate at which a camera is taking photos. Burst rate tells how many frames can be taken in quick succession, before the frame rate slows down.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "Cameras capable of high continuous shooting rates are much desired when the subjects are in motion, as in sports photography, or where the opportunities are brief. Rather than anticipate the action precisely, photographers can simply start shooting from right before they believe the action will occur, giving a high chance of at least one frame being acceptable. Most modern digital SLR cameras have continuous shooting rates of between 3 and 8 frames per second, although very high end cameras such as the Canon EOS-1D X Mark II are capable of 14 frames per second with full autofocus, or 16 frames per second when in mirror lock-up mode. The Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH2 is capable of recording 40 still images per second in burst mode, at a slightly reduced resolution. In March 2014, Nikon claims its Nikon 1 V3 mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera has the world's fastest burst mode of 20fps Auto Focus tracking and 60fps at the first shot autofocus, both in 18.4MP full resolution. The claim is among digital cameras with interchangeable lenses (including (its) DSLR).  Most high-end camera phones and some mid-range phones, and a few low end ones, provide burst shooting. For example, the Samsung Galaxy SIII Mini can capture 20 photos continuously at 3.3 fps by tapping and holding the shutter button. Other examples include: Samsung Galaxy Note 3 at 4-5 fps, Apple iPhone 5S at 10 fps, or up to 30 fps with special software, and the ASUS Padfone Mini at 16fps.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Burst mode, also called continuous shooting mode, sports mode or continuous high speed mode, is a shooting mode in still cameras. In burst mode, several photographs are captured in quick succession by either pressing the shutter button or holding it down. This is used mainly when the subject is in successive motion, such as sports photography. The photographer can then select the best image of the group or arrange them in a sequence to study the transitions in detail.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973380}
{"src_title": "Ville Ritola", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood and emigration to the United States.", "content": "Ritola's parents were farmers in western Finland near Seinäjoki. He was born in Peräseinäjoki, Finland. He was the 14th child in his family and had altogether 19 siblings, five of whom died in infancy. Six of the children were from his father's first marriage, 14 from the second, including Ville.  In 1913 he followed seven of his siblings and emigrated to the United States to work as a carpenter. There he started training in 1919 when he was already 23 years old. Later he referred many times to this late start of his sports career, and how it put him at a disadvantage compared to his rivals, especially the more famous of the Flying Finns, Paavo Nurmi, who started systematic training in his teens. In 1919 he joined the Finnish-American Athletic Club and trained together with Hannes Kolehmainen, who had moved to the United States after the 1912 Summer Olympics. In spring 1919 he took part in his first competition, a New York street race, and finished 33rd among 700 competitors. It was only after this that he started to train systematically.  Kolehmainen tried to convince the young Ritola to join the Finnish 1920 Summer Olympics team, but Ritola stated that he was not ready yet. He had also just married Selma née Aaltonen. In 1921 he started to compete systematically, and in 1922 he won his first AAU Championship gold medals. The same year he came second in the Boston Marathon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paris Olympics 1924.", "content": "During 1923 American Finns started collecting funds to pay for Ville Ritola's trip to Finland, where in May 1924 he took part in the Finnish Olympic qualification competitions. In the 10,000 m qualifying race Ritola won with a world record time of 30.35.4. This was Ritola's first official world record.  At the 1924 Paris Olympics, he won four gold and two silver medals. He had a start on eight consecutive days to achieve this, all long-distance.  In his first race, the 10,000 m, in the absence of Nurmi, he won by half a lap and obliterated his own fresh world record by more than 12 seconds. Finnish officials had selected Ritola for the race as Nurmi was already running in five other distance events. Three days later, Ritola won the 3000 m steeplechase by 75 metres. The next day he finished second in the 5000 m, 0.2 seconds behind Nurmi. Ritola later earned another silver medal behind Nurmi in the individual cross-country race and gained a gold medal as a member of the Finnish cross-country team. Finally, Ritola joined Nurmi to win the 3000 m team race.  Ritola's 1924 triumph in Paris is historical. His six medals from Paris is still the biggest number of medals won by an athlete in one Olympic games event. His four gold medals put him in second place after Paavo Nurmi in the number of gold medals won by an athlete in one Olympic Games event.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Back to USA.", "content": "After the Olympics, Ritola had to return to the US to find employment, while his pregnant wife remained in Finland. His daughter Anja was born in November 1924. Selma joined her husband in the US with the baby in March 1925.  In winter 1924–1925, Ritola competed in the United States and Canada and beat world record times in the 3000 m (8 min 26.8 sec), 3000 m steeplechase (9 min 18.6 sec), 5000 m (14 min 23.2 sec), 2 miles, 2 mile steeplechase, 3 miles and 5 miles. These were not official world records as they were run indoors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amsterdam Olympics 1928.", "content": "In 1928, Ritola was 32 years old and had worked in construction for more than a decade. He had not trained systematically even though he still had won four gold medals in the AAU Championships 1927.  In the 1928 Summer Olympics, Ritola's main competitor was again Paavo Nurmi. This time each got one win. The first race was 10,000m. Ritola took the lead at 1,500m, and only four competitors followed. At 3,000m, Ray (US) dropped from the leading group and before 4,000m, Beavers (UK). As Wide (Sweden) dropped at 6,500m, only Nurmi followed Ritola. At 100m before the finish Nurmi sprinted and won by 0.6 seconds. Wide was third, losing by a 45.2s margin.  Ritola's last Olympic appearance was in the 5,000 m. Both Ritola and Nurmi had hurt themselves in the steeplechase qualification competitions. Nurmi had a sore hip and Ritola a sore ankle. However, Ritola again took the lead at 2,500m. At 600m before the finish, only Ritola and Nurmi were left in the leading group. This time, Ritola pulled away from Nurmi in the final curve and won by 12 metres - 3 seconds. Wide nearly caught Nurmi, and Nurmi only held on to silver by a 0.2s margin. This victory brought Ritola's career total to five Olympic gold medals and three silver medals.  Ritola never competed in the Finnish championships, but won a handful of medals in the AAU Championships in the United States. He was the AAU champion at in 1927, at road race in 1922, 1923 and from 1925 to 1927, at steeplechase in 1923, 1926 and 1927 and at cross country in 1922, 1923 and from 1925 to 1927.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After sports career.", "content": "Ritola retired from athletics soon after the 1928 Olympic Games. He took part in only a few US competitions after 1928. He returned to American construction sites and worked in physically demanding jobs until 1959. He took US citizenship in 1937. His daughter, now Anja Impola, married and still lives in the US. Ritola's wife Selma died in 1965 and he remarried to Liisa Lauren in 1967. Ritola moved back to Helsinki, Finland with his wife in 1971 and died in Helsinki aged 86.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "-A statue for Ville Ritola was prepared by sculptor Maija Nuotio in 1978 and it is placed in his homeplace Peräseinäjoki (now part of Seinäjoki).  -A sports hall in Peräseinäjoki was named RitolaHalli.  -At Ville Ritola's funeral in 1982 the coffin bearers included other Olympic heroes such as Lasse Viren.  -Kunto-Ritola, annual long-distance event", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Curiosities.", "content": "Ritola's career inspired a phrase into colloquial Finnish. \"\"Ottaa ritolat\"\", translating as something like \"pull a Ritola\", means to make a quick exit from somewhere.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vilho \"Ville\" Eino Ritola (18 January 1896 – 24 April 1982) was a Finnish long-distance runner. Known as one of the \"Flying Finns\", he won five Olympic gold medals and three Olympic silver medals in the 1920s. He holds the record of winning most athletics medals at a single Games – four golds and two silvers in Paris 1924 - and ranks second in terms of most athletics gold medals at a single Games.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973381}
{"src_title": "Andrey Yeryomenko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Military career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Draft and early service.", "content": "Born in Markivka in Kharkov Governorate (today in Ukraine) to a peasant family of Ukrainian (or Russian) ethnicity, Yeryomenko was drafted into the Imperial Army in 1913, serving on the Southwest and Romanian Fronts during World War I. He joined the Red Army in 1918, where he served in the legendary Budyonny Cavalry (First Cavalry Army). He attended the Leningrad Cavalry School and then the Frunze Military Academy, graduating in 1935. In addition to his education, he was appointed to command of a regiment of cavalry in Dec. 1929, then a division in 1937, and then the 6th Cavalry Corps in 1938.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invasion of Eastern Poland.", "content": "On Sept. 17, 1939, Yeryomenko led his 6th Cavalry Corps into eastern Poland as part of the operations agreed to between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In general, this Soviet operation was not efficiently organized. Yeryomenko (whose Corps contained light tank and other motorized elements) was forced to request an emergency airlift of fuel so as to continue his advance. Despite these difficulties, the Corps kept moving, and Yeryomenko earned the nickname \"the Russian Guderian\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Yeryomenko was given command of the prestigious 1st Red Banner Far Eastern Army, deep in eastern Siberia, where he was serving at the outbreak of Operation Barbarossa on June 22, 1941.  Eight days after the invasion began, Yeryomenko was recalled to Moscow, where he was made the Acting Commander of the Soviet Western Front, two days after its original commander, General of the Army Dmitri Pavlov, was dismissed (and later convicted and executed) for incompetence. Yeryomenko was thrust into a very precarious position. The Nazi Blitzkrieg approach to warfare quickly dominated the Western Front, but Yeryomenko motivated the remaining troops, and halted the German offensive just outside Smolensk. During this vicious defensive Battle of Smolensk, Yeryomenko was wounded. Because of his injuries, he was transferred to command the newly created Bryansk Front.  In late August, Yeryomenko was ordered to launch counter-offensive operations along the Bryansk Front, primarily against Guderian's Second Panzer Group as it began to move south to trap Kirponos' Southwestern Front around Kiev. Stavka, particularly Stalin and Shaposhnikov, seemed convinced that Yeryomenko could block or distract Guderian's drive and save Kiev from encirclement. The counter-offensive failed to accomplish its objectives despite a valiant effort, leaving Bryansk Front severely weakened.  In October the Germans launched Operation Typhoon, which was an offensive aimed at capturing Moscow. Most of Yeryomenko's weakened forces (3rd, 13th and 50th Armies) were partially encircled by Oct. 8 although small units managed to escape for days or weeks following. On Oct. 13, Yeryomenko was once again wounded, this time severely. He was evacuated to a military hospital in Moscow, where he spent several weeks recovering. In January 1942, Yeryomenko was appointed commander of the 4th Shock Army, part of the Northwestern Front. During the Soviet Winter Counteroffensive, Yeryomenko's army was part of the highly successful Toropets–Kholm Offensive, which liberated Toropets and much of the surrounding region, helping to create the Rzhev Salient, which became a major battlefield over the next 15 months. On Jan. 20, 1942, Yeryomenko was again wounded, this time in one leg, when German planes bombed his headquarters. Yeryomenko refused to evacuate to a hospital until the battle surrounding him finished.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Battle of Stalingrad.", "content": "Yeryomenko's performance in the winter offensives restored Stalin's confidence, and he was given command of the Southeastern Front, on Aug. 1, 1942, where he proceeded to launch powerful counterattacks against the German offensive into the Caucasus, \"Fall Blau\". Yeryomenko and Commissar Nikita Khrushchev planned the defense of Stalingrad, rallying and re-organizing men and equipment falling back to the city from the Don River and the steppes to the west. When one of his subordinates, Gen. Anton Lopatin, doubted if his 62nd Army would be able to defend Stalingrad, Yeryomenko replaced him with Lt. Gen. Vasily Chuikov as Army commander on Sept. 11, 1942. Chuikov and the 62nd Army went on to prove themselves as the defenders of the city, confirming Yeryomenko's judgement. On Sept. 28, the Southeastern Front was renamed the Stalingrad Front.  During Operation Uranus, November 1942, Yeryomenko's forces helped to surround the German 6th Army from the south, linking up with the northern penetration at Kalach-na-Donu. German General Erich von Manstein soon attempted to counterattack the Soviet forces and break through the line to relieve the surrounded Germans. Yeryomenko successfully repelled the attack, largely with the forces of the 2nd Guards Army along their fall-back positions on the Myshkova River.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "After Stalingrad.", "content": "On January 1, 1943, the Stalingrad Front was renamed Southern Front. After the end of the winter offensive, in March 1943, Yeryomenko was transferred north to the Kalinin Front, which remained relatively quiet until September, when Yeryomenko launched a small, but successful offensive. In December, Yeryomenko was once again sent south, this time to take command of the Separate Coastal Army, which was put together to retake Crimea, which was accomplished with assistance from Fyodor Tolbukhin's 4th Ukrainian Front. In April, Yeryomenko once again was sent north, to command the 2nd Baltic Front. During the summer campaign, 2nd Baltic was very successful in crushing German opposition, and was able to capture Riga, helping to bottle up some 30 German divisions in Latvia. On March 26, 1945, Yeryomenko was transferred to the command of the 4th Ukrainian Front, the unit he controlled until the end of the war. Fourth Ukrainian was positioned in Eastern Hungary. Yeryomenko's subsequent offensive helped capture the rest of Hungary, and paved the way for the Soviet liberation of Czechoslovakia. His army liberated many cities and towns in Czechoslovakia, most notably Ostrava. Today, many streets in the Czech Republic bear his name.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "After the war.", "content": "After the war, Yeryomenko had three major commands: in 1945–1946, he was the Commander in Chief of the Carpathian Military District, in 1946–1952 he was the Commander in Chief of the Western Siberian Military District, and in 1953–1958 he was the Commander in Chief of the North Caucasus Military District. On March 11, 1955, Yeryomenko, along with five other noteworthy commanders, was given the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union. He was made Inspector General for the Ministry of Defense in 1958, a largely ceremonial role that allowed him to retire that same year.  He died November 19, 1970. The urn containing his ashes is buried in the Kremlin Wall.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Commands.", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andrey (Andrei) Ivanovich Yeryomenko (or Yeremenko, Eremenko; ; ; November 19, 1970) was a Ukrainian-Soviet general during World War II and, subsequently, a Marshal of the Soviet Union. During the war, Yeryomenko commanded the Southeastern Front (later renamed the Stalingrad Front) during the Battle of Stalingrad in summer 1942 and planned the successful defense of the city. He later commanded the armies responsible for the liberation of Western Hungary and Czechslovakia in 1945.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973382}
{"src_title": "Stelvio Pass", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The pass is located in the Ortler Alps in Italy between Stilfs (\"Stelvio\" in Italian) in South Tyrol and Bormio in the province of Sondrio. It is about from Bolzano and a mere 200 m from the Swiss border. The Umbrail Pass runs northwards from the Stelvio's western ramp, and the \"Three Languages Peak\" \"(Dreisprachenspitze)\" above the pass is so named because this is where the Italian, German, and Romansh languages meet.  The road connects the Valtellina with the mid Venosta valley (the \"Vinschgau\") and Meran. Adjacent to the pass road there is a large summer skiing area. Important mountains nearby include Ortler, Thurwieserspitze, Trafoier Eiswand, Monte Scorluzzo, Piz Umbrail, and Piz Cotschen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stelvio Bike Day.", "content": "Each year on the last Saturday of August or first Saturday of September the Stelvio National Park administration organizes the Stelvio Bike Day. On that day the roads from Bormio and Prad to the pass, as well as the road from Santa Maria Val Müstair to the Umbrail Pass are closed to all traffic except for bicycles. On average around 12,000 cyclists participate in the Bike Day, with the majority taking the road from Prad to the pass and the descent over the Umbrail pass to Val Müstair.  Since 2017 there has also been a Stelvio Marathon for runners, from Prad to Glurns, back to Prad and thence through Stilfs (Stelvio village) to the pass. The first was held on June 17, 2017, with over 300 participants. The second was held on June 16, 2018 and the third on June 15, 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The original road was built in 1820–25 by the Austrian Empire to connect the former Austrian province of Lombardy with the rest of Austria, covering a climb of The engineer and project manager was Carlo Donegani (1775–1845). Since then, the route has changed very little. Its seventy-five hairpin turns, 48 of them on the northern side numbered with stones, are a challenge to motorists. Stirling Moss went off the road here during a vintage car event in the 1990s, with an onboard video of his incident being shown on satellite TV.  Before the end of World War I, it formed the border between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Italian Kingdom. The Swiss had an outpost and a hotel (which was destroyed) on the \"Dreisprachenspitze\" (literally, Three-Language-Peak). During World War I, fierce battles were fought in the ice and snow of the area, with gun fire even crossing the Swiss area at times. The three nations made an agreement not to fire over Swiss territory, which jutted out in between Austria (to the north) and Italy (to the south). Instead they could fire down the pass, as Swiss territory was up and around the peak. After 1919, with the expansion of Italy, the pass lost its strategic importance. The Stelvio Pass remains important for sport when it is open from May through November. Countless cyclists and motorcyclists struggle to get to the highest stretch of road in the Eastern Alps. It is the highest finish of any Grand Tour. The Giro d'Italia often crosses the Stelvio Pass (it was crossed by the Giro for the first time in 1953, when Coppi beat Koblet). As the highest peak, it has been named the Cima Coppi in each edition. The last winner on the pass was Mikel Landa Meana in 2017. Every year, the pass is closed to motor vehicles on one day in late August when about 8,000 cyclists ride and around 25 runners run to the top of the Stelvio.  Bormio regularly hosts World Cup ski racing, usually in late December for a men's downhill event; its \"Pista Stelvio\" is among the most challenging courses on the circuit.  The Stelvio Pass was also picked by the British automotive show \"Top Gear\" as its choice for the \"greatest driving road in the world\", although their search was concentrated only in Europe. This conclusion was reached in the first episode of the show's 10th series after the team went in search of a road that would satisfy every \"petrolhead's\" driving fantasies. \"Top Gear\" later decided that the Transfăgărășan Highway in Romania was a superior driving road. In 2008, Moto Guzzi started selling a Stelvio model, named after the pass. Alfa Romeo debuted its Stelvio crossover SUV at the 2016 Los Angeles Motor Show.  The Stelvio Pass Glacier in Italy, at an altitude of, normally permits skiing year-round, but was closed to skiing for the first time in 90 years in August 2017 due to a heatwave.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Stelvio Pass (, ; ; ) is a mountain pass in northern Italy bordering Switzerland at an elevation of above sea level. It is the highest paved mountain pass in the Eastern Alps, and the second highest in the Alps, below France's Col de l'Iseran ().", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973383}
{"src_title": "Carbide lamp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mechanism.", "content": "A mining or caving lamp has calcium carbide placed in a lower chamber, the generator. The upper reservoir is then filled with water. A threaded valve or other mechanism is used to control the rate at which the water is allowed to drip into the chamber containing the calcium carbide. By controlling the rate of water flow, the production of acetylene gas is controlled. This, in turn, controls the flow rate of the gas and the size of the flame at the burner, and thus the amount of light it produces.  This type of lamp generally has a reflector behind the flame to help project the light forward. An acetylene gas powered lamp produces a bright, broad light. Many cavers prefer this type of unfocused light as it improves peripheral vision in the complete dark. The reaction of carbide with water is exothermic and produces a fair amount of heat independent of the flame. In cold caves, carbide lamp users can use this heat to help stave off hypothermia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical reactions.", "content": "Acetylene is produced by the reaction:  The acetylene combusts easily in the atmosphere:  When all of the carbide in a lamp has been reacted, the carbide chamber contains a wet paste of slaked lime (Ca(OH)) which can be used to make a cement. This is emptied into a waste bag and the chamber can be refilled.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 1892, Thomas Willson discovered an economically efficient process for creating calcium carbide in an electric arc furnace from a mixture of lime and coke. The arc furnace provides the high temperature required to drive the reaction. Manufacture of calcium carbide was an important part of the industrial revolution in chemistry, and was made possible in the US as a result of massive amounts of inexpensive hydroelectric power produced at Niagara Falls before the turn of the twentieth century. In 1895, Willson sold his patent to Union Carbide. Domestic lighting with acetylene gas was introduced circa 1894 and bicycle lamps from 1896. In France, Gustave Trouvé, a Parisian electrical engineer, also made domestic acetylene lamps and gasometers.  The first carbide bicycle lamp developed in the United States was patented in New York on August 28, 1900 by Frederick Baldwin. Another early lamp design is shown in a patent from Duluth, Minnesota on October 21, 1902. In the early 1900s, Gustaf Dalén invented the Dalén light. This combined two of Dalén's previous inventions: the substrate Agamassan and the Sun valve. Inventions and improvements to carbide lamps continued for decades.  After carbide lamp open flames were implicated in an Illinois coal-seam methane gas explosion that killed 54 miners, the 1932 Moweaqua Coal Mine disaster, carbide lamp use declined in United States coal mines. They continued to be used in the coal pits of other countries, notably USSR.  In the birth of the cinema of Iquitos, a carbide lamp was used as light support to project the first film in the Casa de Fierro, in 1900.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lighting systems.", "content": "Carbide lighting was used in rural and urban areas of the United States which were not served by electrification. Its use began shortly after 1900 and continued past 1950. Calcium carbide pellets were placed in a container outside the home, with water piped to the container and allowed to drip on the pellets releasing acetylene. This gas was piped to lighting fixtures inside the house, where it was burned, creating a very bright flame. Carbide lighting was inexpensive but was prone to gas leaks and explosions.  Early models of the automobile, motorbike and bicycle used carbide lamps as headlamps. Acetylene gas, derived from carbide, enabled early automobiles to drive safely at night. Thick concave mirrors combined with magnifying lenses projected the acetylene flame light. These type of lights were used until reliable batteries and dynamos became available, and manufacturers switched to electric lights.  Acetylene lamps were also used on riverboats for night navigation. The National Museum of Australia has a lamp made in about 1910 that was used on board, a paddle steamer which has been restored to working order and also in the museum's collection.  They are also used for night hunting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in caving.", "content": "Early caving enthusiasts, not yet having the advantage of light-weight electrical illumination, introduced the carbide lamp to their hobby. While increasingly replaced by more modern choices, a substantial percentage of cavers still use this method.  In cave surveys, carbide lamps are favoured for the lead or \"point\" surveyor, who must identify suitable points in the cave to designate as survey stations. The sooty carbide flame may be used to mark cave walls with a station label. Especially favoured for this purpose are all-brass lamps or lamps made with no ferromagnetic metals, as these lamps do not deflect the needles of a magnetic compass, which is typically read while brightly illuminated from above using the caver's lamp.  Apart from their use as cave surveying tools, many cavers favour carbide lamps for their durability and quality of illumination. They were once favoured for their relative illumination per mass of fuel compared to battery powered devices, but this advantage was largely negated with the advent of high-intensity LED illumination.  The acetylene producing reaction is exothermic, which means that the lamp's reactor vessel will become quite warm to the touch; this can be used to warm the hands. The heat from the flame can also be used to warm the body by allowing the exhaust gases to flow under a shirt or poncho pulled out from the body, a technique discovered almost immediately by cold miners, and nicknamed by cavers the \"Palmer furnace\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carbide lamps, or acetylene gas lamps, are simple lamps that produce and burn acetylene (CH) which is created by the reaction of calcium carbide (CaC) with water (HO).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973384}
{"src_title": "Plantago major", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Plantago major\" is an herbaceous perennial plant with a rosette of leaves in diameter.  Each leaf is oval-shaped, long and broad, rarely up to long and broad, with an acute apex, a smooth margin, and a distinct petiole almost as long as the leaf itself. There are five to nine conspicuous veins over the length of the leaf. The flowers are small, greenish-brown with purple stamens, produced in a dense spike long on top of a stem tall and rarely to tall.  Plantain is wind-pollinated, and propagates primarily by seeds, which are held on the long, narrow spikes which rise well above the foliage. Each plant can produce up to 20,000 seeds, which are very small and oval-shaped, with a bitter taste.  There are three subspecies:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Plantago major\" grows in lawns and fields, along roadsides, and in other areas that have been disturbed by humans. It does particularly well in compacted or disturbed soils. It is believed to be one of the first plants to reach North America after European colonisation. Reportedly brought to the Americas by Puritan colonizers, plantain was known among some Native American peoples by the common name \"white man's footprint\", because it thrived in the disturbed and damaged ecosystems surrounding European settlements. The ability of plantain to survive frequent trampling and colonize compacted soils makes it important for soil rehabilitation. Its roots break up hardpan surfaces, while simultaneously holding together the soil to prevent erosion.  The seeds of plantain are a common contaminant in cereal grain and other crop seeds. As a result, it now has a worldwide distribution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The mature plant contains pliable and tough fibres that can be used in survival situations to make small cords, fishing line, sutures, or braiding.  Some cultivars are planted as ornamentals in gardens, including 'Rubrifolia' with purple leaves, and 'Variegata' with variegated leaves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "The leaves are edible as a salad green when young and tender, but they quickly become tough and fibrous as they get older. The older leaves can be cooked in stews. The leaves contain calcium and other minerals, with 100 grams of plantain containing approximately the same amount of beta-carotene as a large carrot. The seeds are so small that they are tedious to gather, but they can be ground into a flour substitute or extender.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Herbal medicine.", "content": "Plantain contains the phytochemicals, allantoin, aucubin, ursolic acid, flavonoids, and asperuloside. Plantain extract has been studied for its potential health effects.  Plantain leaves were used commonly in folk medicine for skin poultices on wounds, sores, or insect stings. The root was used for fever and respiratory infections.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Plantago major (broadleaf plantain, white man's foot, or greater plantain) is a species of flowering plant in the plantain family Plantaginaceae. The plant is native to most of Europe and northern and central Asia, but has widely naturalised elsewhere in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973385}
{"src_title": "Munchkin (card game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "In \"Munchkin\", all players start at level 1, with the goal of reaching level 10 (or level 20 in Epic Level games). Players primarily progress by killing monsters, and level up every time they kill a monster. However, players can freely use cards against monsters and other players during play, allowing them to either assist or to sabotage others during their turn. Each person's turn begins when they \"kick down the door\" by drawing a Door Card face-up. A Door Card can be one of the following types: a Monster Card, which the player must engage by fighting or fleeing; a Curse Card, which applies an effect; or an Item Card, Race Card, or Class Card, which the player adds to their hand. If the card drawn is not a Monster Card, the player can either \"loot the room\" by drawing a face-down door card and adding it to their hand, or \"look for trouble\" by playing a Monster Card from their hand to fight it.  When fighting a monster, the total level of the player (and any supporting players) is weighed against the total level of the monster(s) to determine the victor. A successful player draws the listed amount of treasure cards and levels up either 1 or 2 levels, but an unsuccessful character must roll the dice to try and flee; players who fail to roll a five or six suffer the monster's negative effects (\"Bad Stuff\") or die. Should a player die, their turn immediately ends and they discard their hand, retaining their player level but drawing a new hand for equipment.  Due to the highly competitive nature of the game and the presence of rule-breaking cards, players are encouraged to use unfair tactics against others, to act mercenary to further themselves at the expense of others, or to use cheat cards to affect outcomes (such as fixing the roll of the die). Throughout a player's turn, others are free to intervene: they can passively buff or debuff the player or monsters to alter the outcome; play monster cards of matching types to make the battle more difficult; or offer to assist the player, typically in exchange for treasure cards. Other cards that can enter play include Items, which can be used in combat, Treasure Cards, which act as sellable loot and equipment, and Curse Cards, which apply effects. Additionally, players can equip certain cards (such as armor and weapons) to raise their total level and kill stronger monsters, and can use Class Cards and Race Cards to grant extra abilities or advantages at the cost of a balanced weakness; for example, the elf race can level when helping others kill monsters, but will take additional damage from disgusting enemies.  Standard games typically last around an hour, with the game ending once a player reaches the target level and wins the match. Aside from defeating monsters, players can progress through indirect means such as selling cards (with every 1000 Gold on the sum total granting a level) or by playing special leveling cards. Most games disallow victory through indirect methods, meaning only fighting a monster can win the game. There are a few exceptions, however, such as when a player uses cards that specifically state they override rules.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants, Expansions & Accessories.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "These are themed \"box set\" editions of MUNCHKIN that have been released. (The overall theme parodied by each set is after the title.) Each is a stand-alone version that can be played separately or combined with any other version for a more expansive game. Most of these editions were illustrated by John Kovalic, although some were done by other artists (who are noted if applicable). Some of these have been released in Deluxe versions (which include a gameboard and movers to keep track of levels) and/or Guest Artist Editions (drawn with new art by artists other than those who originally drew them). Certain versions have been co-produced with USAopoly and/or IDW Games, and feature \"character cards\" that grant starting powers and keep track of levels. These games are denoted by a \"(U)\" or an \"(I)\" after the description, respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Expansions.", "content": "These are \"add-on\" sets not meant to be played separately, but in conjunction with the base sets of cards. These include fully boxed expansions (usually of 50+ cards) and \"booster packs\" (less than 50 cards). Some are set-specific, where others can be added to any set or may help combine game sets for an expanded gaming experience.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Non-Set-Specific Expansions.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Generic Expansions.", "content": "These are meant to be used with any Base Set, and may or may not have unique card backs.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Holiday-Themed Expansions.", "content": "These have original \"Munchkin\" backs, but can be used with any Base Set.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Mixed Expansions.", "content": "These expansions contain cards for several different Base Sets.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Promo Items.", "content": "In addition, many Promo Cards and Bookmarks have been released for the various sets. These are individual cards or bookmarks (most with in-game bonuses or effects) usually included with orders from the online store (Warehouse 23), available with special offers or given away at events by company & fan representatives (aka \"Men In Black\").", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Accessories.", "content": "These are items that are Munchkin-themed, but not necessarily used in the main gameplay. Items so themed may include exclusive cards for certain games, and may also have in-game effects when kept near the play area. These include:  A full listing of such accessories can be found on the MUNCHKIN.GAME web page.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "\"Munchkin\"-Themed Games.", "content": "These are games related to the \"Munchkin\" universe, but they do not follow the exact rules and goals of the traditional \"Munchkin\" card game. Some are card games and others are combined board/card games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Published by other game companies.", "content": "\"Munchkin Treasure Hunt\" and \"Munchkin Wonderland\" are aimed at children ages 6 and up, allowing families with young children to be able to enjoy \"Munchkin\" games, while the other Munchkin-themed games are for ages 10 and up like all other \"Munchkin\" games.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "An early review on RPGnet regards \"Munchkin\" as not a very serious game; the rules make this clear with phrases like \"Decide who goes first by rolling the dice and arguing about the results and the meaning of this sentence and whether the fact that a word seems to be missing any effect,\" and \"Any disputes in the rules should be settled by loud arguments with the owner of the game having the last word.\" There are many cards which interact with or are affected by a single other card, despite the rarity of the two cards entering play together (such as the interaction between \"Fowl Fiend\" and \"Chicken on Your Head\" or \"Sword of Slaying Everything Except Squid\" and \"Squidzilla\").  On \"BoardGameGeek\" the average user rating is 6/10. Tom Vasel of The Dice Tower was critical of the game Munchkin feeling it was overpriced, had limited re-playability, and a poor and occasionally tedious gaming experience.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Munchkin is a dedicated deck card game by Steve Jackson Games, written by Steve Jackson and illustrated by John Kovalic. It is a humorous take on role-playing games, based on the concept of munchkins (immature role-players, playing only to \"win\" by having the most powerful character possible).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973386}
{"src_title": "Arctium lappa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Greater burdock is a biennial plant, rather tall, reaching as much as. It has large, alternating, cordiform leaves that have a long petiole and are pubescent on the underside.  The flowers are purple and grouped in globular capitula, united in clusters. They appear in mid-summer, from July to September. The capitula are surrounded by an involucre made out of many bracts, each curving to form a hook, allowing the mature fruits to be carried long distances on the fur of animals. The fruits are achenes; they are long, compressed, with short pappus hairs. These are a potential hazard for humans, horses, and dogs. The minute, sharply-pointed, bristly pappus hairs easily detach from the top of the achenes and are carried by the slightest breeze – attaching to skin, mucous membranes, and eyes where they can cause severe dermal irritation, possible respiratory manifestations, and ophthalmia. The fleshy tap-root can grow up to deep.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and ecology.", "content": "This species is native to the temperate regions of the Old World, from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean, and from the British Isles through Russia, and the Middle East to India, China, Taiwan and Japan.  It is naturalized almost everywhere and is usually found in disturbed areas, especially in soil rich in nitrogen. It is commonly cultivated in Japan where it gives its name to a particular construction technique, burdock piling.  The leaves of greater burdock provide food for the caterpillars of some Lepidoptera, such as the thistle ermine (\"Myelois circumvoluta\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "It prefers a fresh, worked soil, rich in humus, and should be positioned in full sunlight. Burdock is very reactive to nitrogen fertilizer. Propagation is achieved through sowing the seeds midsummer. The harvest occurs three to four months after the seeding until late autumn, when the roots become too fibrous.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary use.", "content": "Greater burdock root is known as \"niúbàng\" () in Chinese, which was borrowed into Japanese as \"gobō\" and Korean as \"ueong\" (), and is widely eaten in Japan, Korea and Taiwan. It was used in Europe during the Middle Ages as a vegetable, but now it is rarely used except in Italy, Brazil and Portugal, where it is known as \"bardana\" or \"garduna\". Plants are cultivated for their slender roots, which can grow about 1 meter long and 2 cm across. The root was traditionally used in Britain as a flavouring in the herbal drink dandelion and burdock, which is still commercially produced.  Immature flower stalks may also be harvested in late spring, before flowers appear. The taste resembles that of artichoke, a burdock relative.  In the second half of the 20th century, burdock achieved international recognition for its culinary use due to the increasing popularity of the macrobiotic diet, which advocates its consumption. The root contains a fair amount of dietary fiber (GDF, 6 g per 100 g), calcium, potassium, amino acids, and is low calorie. It contains polyphenols that causes darkened surface and muddy harshness by formation of tannin-iron complexes. Those polyphenols are caffeoylquinic acid derivatives.  The root is very crisp and has a sweet, mild, and pungent flavor with a little muddy harshness that can be reduced by soaking julienned/shredded roots in water for five to ten minutes. The harshness shows excellent harmonization with pork in miso soup (tonjiru) and takikomi gohan (a Japanese-style pilaf).  A popular Japanese dish is \"kinpira gobō\", julienned or shredded burdock root and carrot, braised with soy sauce, sugar, mirin and/or sake, and sesame oil. Another is burdock makizushi, rolled sushi filled with pickled burdock root; the burdock root is often artificially colored orange to resemble a carrot. Burdock root can also be found as a fried snack food similar in taste and texture to potato chips and is occasionally used as an ingredient in tempura dishes.  Fermentation of the root by \"Aspergillus oryzae\" is also used for making miso and rice wine in Japanese cuisine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in traditional medicine.", "content": "Dried burdock roots (Bardanae radix) are used in folk medicine as a diuretic, diaphoretic, and a blood purifying agent. Anecdotal reports from the 19th century suggest that this medicinal plant has also been used by the Ojibwa tribe, and today, in form of an ingredient in Essiac tea for the alternative treatment of some cancers. As an oily macerate, it is a component of some cosmetics, shampoos and hair care products. The seeds of greater burdock are employed in traditional Chinese medicine particularly for skin conditions and in cold/flu formulas, under the name \"niubangzi\" (; some dictionaries list the Chinese as just 牛蒡 niúbàng.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical constituents.", "content": "Burdock roots contain mucilage, sulfurous acetylene compounds, polyacetylenes and bitter guaianolide-type constituents. Seeds contain arctigenin, arctiin, and butyrolactone lignans.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arctium lappa, commonly called greater burdock,, edible burdock, lappa, beggar's buttons, thorny burr, or happy major is a Eurasian species of plants in the Aster family, cultivated in gardens for its root used as a vegetable. It has become an invasive weed of high-nitrogen soils in North America, Australia, and other regions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973387}
{"src_title": "Swietenia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The genus was introduced into several Asian countries as a replacement source of mahogany timber around the time it was restricted in its native locations in the late 1990s. Trade in Asian grown plantation mahogany is not restricted. Fiji and India are the largest exporters of plantation mahogany and wild mahogany remains commercially unavailable to this day.  It is usually taken to consist of three species, geographically separated. They are medium-sized to large trees growing to 20–45 m tall, and up to trunk diameter. The leaves are 10–30 cm long, pinnate, with 3-6 pairs of leaflets, the terminal leaflet absent; each leaflet is 5–15 cm long. The leaves are deciduous to semi-evergreen, falling shortly before the new foliage grows. The flowers are produced in loose inflorescences, each flower small, with five white to greenish-yellowish petals. The fruit is a pear-shaped five-valved capsule 8–20 cm long, containing numerous winged seeds about 5–9 cm long.  The three species are poorly defined biologically, in part because they hybridize freely when grown in proximity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The genus is famed as the supplier of mahogany, at first yielded by \"Swietenia mahagoni\", a Caribbean species, which was so extensively used locally and exported that its trade ended by the 1950s. These days almost all mahogany is yielded by the mainland species, \"Swietenia macrophylla\" although no longer from its native locations due to the restrictions set by CITES (see following.)  As a timber, both \"Swietenia macrophylla\" and \"Swietenia mahogoni\" are both grown in plantations in several Asian countries such as Fiji, Indonesia, India, and Bangladesh and this plantation mahogany timber is the main source of the world's current supply of \"genuine mahogany\", due to cultivation and trade of it in its native locations being restricted by the Convention On International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) since the late 1990s. Trade in Swietenia grown and harvested in these non-native locations is not restricted. Species of this genus are only occasionally plantation-grown in Central America, in spite of the good growing conditions and high price of the wood, due to the ubiquitous presence of the mahogany shoot borer moth (also known as the cedar tip moth), Hypsipyla grandella, which damages the form of the tree by killing the terminal shoot, causing excessive branching. Control requires extensive and frequent spraying with pesticides, rendering the genus relatively uneconomic wherever the shoot borer is present.  The fruits of \"Swietenia macrophylla\" are called \"sky fruit\", because they seem to hang upwards from the tree. The \"sky fruit\" concentrate is sold as a natural remedy that is said to improve blood circulation and skin. It is also said to have Viagra-like qualities regarding erectile dysfunction.  A somewhat comparable wood is yielded by the related African genus \"Khaya\". This is traded as \"African mahogany\" and is from the same family as \"Swietenia\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "All species of \"Swietenia\" are CITES-listed. \"Swietenia\" timber that crosses a border needs its paperwork in order. International environmental organizations such as Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth, and Rainforest Action Network have focused on \"Swietenia\" so as to expose illegal traffic in the wood, notably from Brazil.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Swietenia is a genus of trees in the chinaberry family, Meliaceae. It occurs natively in the Neotropics, from southern Florida, the Caribbean, Mexico and Central America south to Bolivia. The genus is named for Dutch-Austrian physician Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772). The wood of \"Swietenia\" trees is known as mahogany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973388}
{"src_title": "Kristina Söderbaum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Söderbaum was born in Stockholm, Sweden; her father, Professor Henrik Gustaf Söderbaum (1862–1933), was the permanent secretary of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.  After both her parents died shortly after one another, Söderbaum moved to Berlin and enrolled in a theatre school.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nazi era.", "content": "Beginning in 1935, Söderbaum starred in a number of films with director Veit Harlan, whom she married in 1939. Harlan and Söderbaum made ten films together for the then state-controlled film production company UFA until 1945.  According to film historian Antje Ascheid, Söderbaum is frequently identified as \"most singularly representative of the Nazi ideal, as the quintessential Nazi star\". As a beautiful Swedish blonde, Söderbaum had the baby-doll looks that epitomized the model Aryan woman. In fact, she had already played the role of the innocent Aryan in a number of feature films and was well-known to German audiences. Her youth and beauty made her a symbol of health and purity and thus an exemplary specimen of the Nazi ideal of womanhood.  In a number of her films, she had been imperiled by the threat of \"rassenschande\" (\"racial pollution\"). Two such roles were Dorothea Sturm, the doomed heroine of the antisemitic historical melodrama \"Jud Süß\", who commits suicide by drowning after being raped by the villain and Anna in \"Die goldene Stadt\", a Sudeten German whose desire for the city (in defiance of blood and soil) and whose seduction by a Czech result in her drowning suicide. As a result of her watery fate in these two films, as well as a similar end in her debut in Harlan's 1938 film \"Jugend\", she was given the mock honorary title \"Reichswasserleiche\" (\"Drowned Corpse of the Reich\").  Other roles included Elske in \"Die Reise nach Tilsit\", the wholesome German wife whose husband betrays her with a Polish woman, but finally returns, repentant; Elisabeth in \"Immensee\", who marries a rich landowner to forget her unrequited love, and in the end decides to remain faithful even after she is widowed and her lover returns; Aels in \"Opfergang\", a woman who dies after her love affair; Luise Treskow in \"The Great King\", a miller's daughter who encourages Frederick the Great; and Maria in \"Kolberg\", a peasant girl who loyally supports the resistance to Napoleon and is the only survivor of her family.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Postwar.", "content": "In the first few years after the war, Söderbaum was often heckled off the stage and even had rotten vegetables thrown at her. In subsequent years, she frequently expressed regret for her roles in anti-semitic films.  After her husband was again permitted to direct films, Söderbaum played leading roles in a number of his films. These included \"Blue Hour\" (1952), \"The Prisoner of the Maharaja\" (1953), \"Betrayal of Germany\" (1954), and \"I Will Carry You on My Hands\" (1958). Their last joint project was a 1963 theater production of August Strindberg's \"A Dream Play\" in Aachen.  After Harlan's death in 1964, Söderbaum became a noted fashion photographer. In 1974 she took a role in Hans-Jürgen Syberberg's film \"Karl May\". In 1983 she published her memoirs under the title \"Nichts bleibt immer so\" (\"Nothing Stays That Way Forever\"). In her later years, Söderbaum faded into obscurity but still took roles in three movies and the television series \"The Bergdoktor\". Her last film was with Hugh Grant in the thriller \"Night Train to Venice\" in 1994. She died in 2001 in a nursing home in Hitzacker, Lower Saxony, Germany.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Beata Margareta Kristina Söderbaum (5 September 1912 – 12 February 2001) was a Swedish-born German film actress, producer, and photographer. She is most known for her roles in Nazi-era films.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973389}
{"src_title": "Plantago lanceolata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The plant is a rosette-forming perennial herb, with leafless, silky, hairy flower stems (). The basal leaves are lanceolate spreading or erect, scarcely toothed with 3-5 strong parallel veins narrowed to a short petiole. The flower stalk is deeply furrowed, ending in an ovoid inflorescence of many small flowers each with a pointed bract. Each flower can produce up to two hundred seeds. Flowers are (calyx green, corolla brownish), 4 bent back lobes with brown midribs and long white stamens. It is native to temperate Eurasia, widespread throughout the British Isles, but scarce on the most acidic soils (pH < 4.5). It is present and widespread in the Americas and Australia as an introduced species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Plantago lanceolata\" is native to Eurasia, but has been introduced to North America and many other parts of the world with suitable habitats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Considered to be an indicator of agriculture in pollen diagrams, \"P. lanceolata\" has been found in western Norway from the Early Neolithic onwards, which is considered an indicator of grazing in that area at the time. This would make sense, as \"P. lanceolata\" thrives in open fields where livestock are frequently disturbing the ground.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "\"Plantago lanceolata\" is used frequently in herbal teas and other herbal remedies. A tea from the leaves is used as a cough medicine. In the traditional Austrian medicine \"Plantago lanceolata\" leaves have been used internally (as syrup or tea) or externally (fresh leaves) for treatment of disorders of the respiratory tract, skin, insect bites, and infections.  Songbirds eat the seeds, and the leaves are eaten by rabbits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "\"Plantago lanceolata\" contains phenylethanoids such as acteoside (verbascoside), cistanoside F, lavandulifolioside, plantamajoside and isoacteoside. It also contains the iridoid glycosides aucubin and catalpol. These iridoid glycosides make the plant inedible to some herbivores, but others are unperturbed by them--for example, the buckeye butterfly \"Junonia coenia\", whose larvae eat the leaves of \"P. lanceolata\" and ingest the iridoid glycosides to make themselves unpalatable to predators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "\"Plantago lanceolata\" can live anywhere from very dry meadows to places similar to a rain forest, but it does best in open, disturbed areas. It is therefore common near roadsides where other plants cannot flourish; it grows tall if it can do so, but in frequently-mowed areas it adopts a flat growth habit instead. Historically, the plant has thrived in areas where ungulates graze and turn up the earth with their hooves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The mode of reproduction can vary among populations of \"P. lanceolata\". Reproduction occurs sexually, with the pollen being wind dispersed for the most part, though the plant is occasionally pollinated by bees. \"P. lanceolata\" cannot self (reproduce asexually) in the way that many other species of \"Plantago\" can; instead, it is an obligate outcrosser.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Enemies.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Insect predation.", "content": "\"Plantago lanceolata\" is host to many different species of the order Lepidoptera. Species such as \"Junonia coenia, Spilosoma congrua,\" and \"Melitaea cinxia\" lay their eggs on \"P. lanceolata\" plants so they can serve as a food source for the larvae when they hatch. The iridoid glycosides in the plant leaves accumulate in the caterpillars and make them unpalatable to predators.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Infection by powdery mildew.", "content": "\"Podosphaera plantaginis\" is a powdery mildew fungus that infects \"P. lanceolata\". All of the \"P. lanceolata\" populations are infected by several strains of this powdery mildew fungus. Once the populations are infected, the symptoms are minimal at first. Then, after a few weeks or months lesions start to appear covering the entire surface of the leaves and the stem, making it very noticeable. Another species that infects \"P. lanceolata\" is \"Golovinomyces sordidus\". Both of these mildews are obligate biotrophs, meaning that they can only infect living tissue. They cover the surface of the leaves and extend hyphae into the cell matrix in order to extract nutrients.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resistance to powdery mildew.", "content": "After the populations are infected, they react in different ways. Some populations of \"P. lanceolata\" are more susceptible to different strains of powdery mildew. Also, some populations have multiple resistance phenotypes where on the other hand, others may only have one resistance phenotype. Overall, the populations that have the highest variety of resistance phenotypes will have the highest survival rates particularly when rates of infection are high.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In the UK and Ireland the plant is used by children to play various simple games. In Edinburgh, Scotland this game is called ‘The 1 o’clock gun’ after the gun that fires everyday from Edinburgh Castle. Writer Sean Michael Wilson notes that: \"When I was a kid in Edinburgh we used it for a cute wee game called ‘The 1 o’clock gun’ - we twisted the stalk around into a kind of noose, quickly pulled it (with the left hand pulling back sharply and the right hand moving forward) and then the head of the stalk would go shooting off. Piitttt!! We used to see how far we could get it to go - great fun.\" In the West Country of England the same game is called 'cannonballs'. Another game played with the plant in Scotland and Ireland and possibly also in England is called 'Bishops'. This game is a bit like conkers; a child tries to knock off the head of their friend's stalk using their own stalk, via a fast downward thrust.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Plantago lanceolata is a species of flowering plant in the plantain family Plantaginaceae. It is known by the common names ribwort plantain, narrowleaf plantain, English plantain, ribleaf, lamb's tongue, and buckhorn. It is a common weed on cultivated or disturbed land.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973390}
{"src_title": "John Rabe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Born in Hamburg on 23 November 1882, Rabe pursued a career in business and went to Africa for several years. In 1908 he left for China, and between 1910 and 1938, he worked for the Siemens AG China Corporation in Mukden, Peking, Tientsin, Shanghai and later Nanjing. Rabe suffered from diabetes by the time he was working in Nanking, which required him to have his regular dose of insulin. At the time of the Japanese attack on Nanking, Rabe was a staunch Nazi and the party's local head, as a Deputy Group Leader in the Nazi Party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Establishment of the Nanjing Safety Zone.", "content": "Many Westerners were living in the Chinese capital city of the time as Nanking was, until December 1937, conducting trade or on missionary trips. As the Japanese army approached Nanking and initiated bombing raids on the city, all but 22 foreigners fled the city, with 15 American and European missionaries and businessmen forming part of the remaining group. On 22 November 1937, as the Japanese Army advanced on Nanking, Rabe, along with other foreign nationals, organized the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone and created the Nanking Safety Zone to provide Chinese refugees with food and shelter from the impending Japanese slaughter. He explained his reasons thus: \"...there is a question of morality here... I cannot bring myself for now to betray the trust these people have put in me, and it is touching to see how they believe in me.\" The zones were located in all of the foreign embassies and at Nanking University.  The International Committee was inspired by the establishment in November of a neutral zone in Shanghai, which protected 450,000 civilians.  Rabe was elected as its leader, in part because of his status as a member of the Nazi party and the existence of the German–Japanese bilateral Anti-Comintern Pact. This committee established the Nanking Safety Zone in the western quarter of the city. The Japanese government had agreed not to attack parts of the city that did not contain Chinese military forces, and the members of the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone attempted to persuade the Chinese government to move all their troops out of the area. They were partly successful.  On 1 December 1937, Nanjing Mayor Ma Chao-chun ordered all Chinese citizens remaining in Nanking to move into the Safety Zone and then fled the city. By the fall of Nanjing on 13 December 1937, 500,000 non-combatants remained in the city.  Rabe also opened up his properties to help 650 more refugees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nanking Massacre.", "content": "According to Rabe, the Nanking Massacre resulted in the deaths of 50,000 to 60,000 civilians. Rabe and his zone administrators tried frantically to stop the atrocities. Modern estimates vary, but some put the number of murdered civilians as high as 300,000. Rabe's attempts to appeal to the Japanese by using his Nazi Party membership credentials only delayed them; but that delay allowed hundreds of thousands of refugees to escape. The documentary \"Nanking\" credited him for saving the lives of 250,000 Chinese civilians. Other sources suggest that Rabe rescued between 200,000 and 250,000 Chinese people. In his diary Rabe documented Japanese atrocities committed during the assault upon and occupation of the city.  John Rabe gave a series of lectures in Germany after he came back to Berlin on 15 April 1938, in which he said, \"We Europeans put the number [of civilian casualties] at about 50,000 to 60,000.\" Rabe was not the only figure to record the Japanese atrocity. By December 1937, after the defeat of the Chinese soldiers, the Japanese soldiers would often go house-to-house in Nanking, shooting any civilians they encountered. Evidence of these violent acts come from diaries kept by some Japanese soldiers and by Japanese journalists who were appalled by what was transpiring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Return to Germany.", "content": "On 28 February 1938, Rabe left Nanking. He first traveled to Shanghai and then back to Germany. He took with him a large number of source materials documenting the atrocities committed by the Japanese in Nanking.  Rabe showed films and photographs of Japanese atrocities in lecture presentations in Berlin and wrote to Hitler to use his influence to persuade the Japanese to stop any further inhumane violence. As a result, Rabe was detained and interrogated by the Gestapo and his letter was never delivered to Hitler. Due to the intervention of Siemens AG, Rabe was released. He was allowed to keep evidence of the massacre, excluding the film, but was not allowed to lecture again or write on the subject. Rabe continued working for Siemens, which posted him briefly to the safety of Siemens AG of Afghanistan. Rabe subsequently worked in the Berlin headquarters of the company until the end of the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Postwar.", "content": "After the war, Rabe was arrested first by the Soviet NKVD and then by the British Army. Both, however, let him go after intense interrogation. He worked sporadically for Siemens, earning very little. He was later denounced for his Nazi Party membership by an acquaintance. He was stripped of the work permit that he had previously been given by the British Zone, and had to undergo a very lengthy de-nazification process (his first attempt was rejected and he had to appeal) in the hope of regaining the permission to work. He had to pay his own legal defense costs, which depleted his savings.  Unable to work to support his family and with the savings spent the family survived in a one-room apartment by selling his Chinese art collection, but this did not provide enough to avoid malnutrition. He was formally declared \"de-Nazified\" by the British on 3 June 1946 but thereafter continued to live in poverty. The family lived on wild seeds that the children would eat with soup and on dry bread until that was no longer available either.  In 1948, the citizens of Nanking learned of the very dire situation of the Rabe family in occupied Germany and they quickly raised a very large sum of money, equivalent to US$ 2 000 ($ in ). The city mayor himself went to Germany, via Switzerland where he bought a large amount of food for the Rabe family. From mid-1948 until the communist takeover the people of Nanking also sent a food package each month, for which Rabe in many letters expressed deep gratitude.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "On 5 January 1950, Rabe died of a stroke. In 1997 his tombstone was moved from Berlin to Nanjing (as it is now) where it received a place of honor at the massacre memorial site.  In 2005, Rabe's former residence in Nanking (as it then was) was renovated and now accommodates the \"John Rabe and International Safety Zone Memorial Hall\", which opened in 2006. The Austrian Service Abroad was invited to send a Peace Servant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War diaries.", "content": "His war-time diaries were published in English as \"The Good German of Nanking\" (UK title) or \"The Good Man of Nanking\" (US title) (original German title: \"Der gute Deutsche von Nanking\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portrayals in film.", "content": "John Rabe has been portrayed in numerous films:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Heinrich Detlef Rabe (23 November 1882 – 5 January 1950) was a German businessman and Nazi Party member who is best known for his efforts to stop the atrocities of the Japanese army during the Nanking Occupation and his work to protect and help the Chinese civilians during the event. The Nanking Safety Zone, which he helped to establish, sheltered approximately 200,000 Chinese people from slaughter during the massacre. He officially represented Germany and acted as senior chief of the European–American establishment that remained in Nanking (now Nanjing), the Chinese capital at the time, when the city fell to the Japanese troops.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973391}
{"src_title": "Scroll", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "A scroll is usually divided up into pages, which are sometimes separate sheets of papyrus or parchment glued together at the edges, or may be marked divisions of a continuous roll of writing material. The scroll is usually unrolled so that one page is exposed at a time, for writing or reading, with the remaining pages rolled up to the left and right of the visible page. It is unrolled from side to side, and the text is written in lines from the top to the bottom of the page. Depending on the language, the letters may be written left to right, right to left, or alternating in direction (boustrophedon).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of scroll use.", "content": "Scrolls were the first form of editable record keeping texts, used in Eastern Mediterranean ancient Egyptian civilizations. Parchment scrolls were used by the Israelites among others before the codex or bound book with parchment pages was invented by the Romans, which became popular around the 1st century AD. Scrolls were more highly regarded than codices until well into Roman times, where they were usually written in single latitudinal column.  The ink used in writing scrolls had to adhere to a surface that was rolled and unrolled, so special inks were developed. Even so, ink would slowly flake off of scrolls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rolls.", "content": "Shorter pieces of parchment or paper are called \"rolls\" or \"rotuli\", although usage of the term by modern historians varies with periods. Historians of the classical period tend to use \"roll\" instead of \"scroll\". Rolls may still be many meters or feet long, and were used in the medieval and Early Modern period in Europe and various West Asian cultures for manuscript administrative documents intended for various uses, including accounting, rent-rolls, legal agreements, and inventories. A distinction that sometimes applies is that the lines of writing in rotuli run across the width of the roll (that is to say, are parallel with any unrolled portion) rather than along the length, divided into page-like sections. Rolls may be wider than most scrolls, up to perhaps 60 cm or two feet wide. Rolls were often stored together in a special cupboard on shelves.  A special Chinese form of short book, called the \"whirlwind book,\" consists of several pieces of paper bound at the top with bamboo and then rolled up.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scotland.", "content": "In Scotland, the term \"scrow\" was used from about the 13th to the 17th centuries for scroll, writing, or documents in list or schedule form. There existed an office of Clerk of the Scrow (\"Rotulorum Clericus\") meaning the Clerk of the Rolls or Clerk of the Register.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Replacement by the codex.", "content": "The Romans invented the \"codex\" form of the book, folding the scroll into pages which made reading and handling the document much easier. Legend has it that Julius Caesar was the first to fold scrolls, concertina-fashion, for dispatches to his forces campaigning in Gaul. Scrolls were awkward to read if a reader wished to consult material at opposite ends of the document. Further, scrolls were written only on one side, while both sides of the codex page were used.  Eventually, the folds were cut into sheets, or \"leaves,\" and bound together along one edge. The bound pages were protected by stiff covers, usually of wood enclosed with leather. \"Codex\" is Latin for a \"block of wood\": the Latin \"liber\", the root of \"library,\" and the German \"Buch\", the source of \"book,\" both refer to wood. The codex was not only easier to handle than the scroll, but it also fit conveniently on library shelves. The spine generally held the book's title, facing out, affording easier organization of the collection.  The term \"codex\" technically refers only to manuscript books-those that, at one time, were handwritten. More specifically, a codex is the term used primarily for a bound manuscript from Roman times up through the Middle Ages.  From the fourth century on, the codex became the standard format for books, and scrolls were no longer generally used. After the contents of a parchment scroll were copied in codex format, the scroll was seldom preserved. The majority that did survive were found by archaeologists in burial pits and in the buried trash of forgotten communities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent Torah scroll discovery.", "content": "The oldest complete Torah scroll was discovered stored in an academic library in Bologna, Italy, by Professor Mauro Perani in 2013. It had been mislabeled in 1889 as dating from the 17th century, but Perani suspected it was actually older as it was written in an earlier Babylonian script. Two tests conducted by laboratories at Italy’s University of Salento and at the University of Illinois confirmed that the scroll dates from the second half of the 12th century to the first quarter of the 13th century. Ancient Torah scrolls are rare because when they are damaged they stop being used for liturgies and are buried.  The scroll is made up of 58 sections of soft sheep leather. It is 36 meters long and 64 centimeters wide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern technology.", "content": "Modern technology may be able to assist in reading ancient scrolls. In January 2015, computer software may be making progress in reading 2,000-year-old Herculaneum scrolls, computer scientists report. After working for more than 10 years on unlocking the contents of damaged Herculaneum scrolls, researchers may be able to progress towards reading the scrolls, which cannot be physically opened.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A scroll (from the Old French \"escroe\" or \"escroue\"), also known as a roll, is a roll of papyrus, parchment, or paper containing writing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973392}
{"src_title": "Budapest Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The original metro line 1 (Földalatti) ran for 5 km from Vörösmarty tér to Széchenyi fürdő.  Work on line 2 started in the 1950s, although the first section did not open until 1970. It follows an east–west route, connecting the major \"Keleti\" (Eastern) and \"Déli\" (Southern) railway stations.  Planning for Line 3 began in 1963 and construction started in 1970 with help of Soviet specialists. The first section, consisting of six stations, opened in 1976. It was extended to the south in 1980 with five additional stations, and to the north in 1981, 1984, and 1990, with nine additional stations. With a length of approximately and a total of 20 stations, it is the longest line in Budapest.  In the 1980s and 1990s, Line 1 underwent major reconstruction. Of its 11 stations, eight are original and three were added during reconstruction. The original appearance of the old stations has been preserved, and each station feature displays of historical photographs and information. There is also a Millennium Underground Museum in the Deák Ferenc Square concourse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Routes.", "content": "The metro consists of four lines (M1–M4), each denoted by a different colour. M1 (yellow) Földalatti runs from Mexikói út south-west towards the river. The M2 (red) line travels east–west through the city, crossing the Duna. The M3 (blue) runs in a broadly north–south alignment, interchanging with the three other lines. The M4 (green) line commences at Keleti pályaudvar and travels south-west, crossing the river, to terminate at Kelenföld vasútállomás.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metro line M1.", "content": "Line 1 runs northeast from the city center on the Pest side under Andrássy út to the \"Városliget\", or City Park. Like Metro 3, it does not serve Buda. Line 1, the oldest of the metro lines operating in Budapest, has been in constant operation since 1896. There are plans for the future for a resurrection with more stations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metro line M2.", "content": "Line 2 runs east–west from Déli pályaudvar in Buda's Krisztinaváros, through the city center, to Örs vezér tere in eastern Pest. It offers connections to Hungarian State Railways at Déli and Keleti pályaudvars, to metro Lines 1 and 3 at Deák Ferenc tér, to line 4 at Keleti pályaudvar, to suburban railway lines 8 and 9 at Örs vezér tere, and to suburban railway line 5 at Batthány tér. Prior to line 4's opening, it was (for more than 45 years) the only metro line that served the Buda side of the river. Line 2 underwent major reconstruction in the late oughts, with all of the track and stations completed in 2008.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metro line M3.", "content": "Line 3 runs in a north–south direction (more exactly, from north-northeast to southeast) on the Pest side of the river and connects several populous residential areas with the Inner City. It has a transfer station with Line 1 and Line 2 at Deák Ferenc tér, and a transfer station for Line 4 at Kálvin tér. It is the longest line in the Budapest Metro, its daily ridership is estimated at 610,000.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metro line M4.", "content": "Line 4 runs southwest–northeast from Kelenföldi pályaudvar in Buda's Kelenföld neighborhood to Keleti Railway Station in Józsefváros. With a length of, it connects to Hungarian State Railways at its termini, to the metro's Line 3 at Kálvin tér, and to Line 2 at Keleti. Line 4 was completed in March 2014 and comprises ten stations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Future expansion.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metro line M5.", "content": "The Purple Line 5 is a proposed north–south railway tunnel to connect the currently separated elements of the suburban rail network, namely the H5, H6 and H7 HÉV-lines, and optionally the Budapest-Esztergom and Budapest-Kunszentmiklós-Tass railway lines. Currently the project does not have mainstream political support, only included in long-term plans. The first phase (planned until 2030) would be the extension and connection of the southern H6 and H7 lines to the Astoria metro station via the Kálvin tér, thus connecting these lines to the metro lines M2 M3 and M4. The second phase would create a connection to the metro line M1 as well at the Oktogon, the M3 at Lehel tér then cross the Danube to the Buda side to connect the H5 HÉV towards Szentendre.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "General information.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tickets and transfer system.", "content": "The usual BKK tickets and passes can be used on all lines. Single tickets can be re-used when changing metro lines.  There are plans for an automated fare collection system. A contract for a system was signed in 2014, but terminated in 2018 without completion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "2003 film \"Kontroll\" is a gritty crime thriller set in the metro system, winning various awards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Budapest Metro () is the rapid transit system in the Hungarian capital Budapest. It is the oldest electrified underground railway system in continental Europe, and is only pre-dated by the London Underground. Budapest's iconic Line 1 was completed in 1896.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973393}
{"src_title": "Judith of Thuringia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Judith was the daughter of Landgrave Louis I of Thuringia (d. 1140) and his wife Hedwig of Gudensberg. She was raised at the Thuringian court at Wartburg Castle. In 1153 she was married to Duke Vladislaus II of Bohemia, three years after the death of his first wife Gertrude of Babenberg. The main reason for the marriage was that Judith, by her brother Landgrave Louis II and his wife Judith of Hohenstaufen, was related to the new German King Frederick Barbarossa. Vladislaus' bride was about eighteen years old; he was 15–20 years her senior.  Probably in 1155, two years after the wedding, Judith gave birth to the first son. In medieval times the names for babies were chosen mostly by mothers, so it was probably Judith's idea to name the son Přemysl after the legendary founder of the Přemyslid dynasty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen Judith.", "content": "A chronicler wrote about Judith that she was of great beauty and mind, educated in Latin and politics. It is said that she often deputized for Vladislaus in his absence. When he obtained the royal title from Emperor Frederick and was crowned King of Bohemia in 1158, Judith became Queen consort. Her coronation is not actually documented, but chronicles write about \"Queen\" Judith.  During Vladislaus' rule a new bridge across the Vltava river in Prague was built from about 1160, where the famous Charles Bridge stands today. It was the first stone bridge in central Europe and in honour of the queen it was called Judith Bridge. Drawn away by a 1342 flood, remnants of some pillars and arches are still visible, as well as the preserved bridge tower (\"Juditina věž\") on the Malá Strana bank.  In the ongoing struggle around the Prague throne, Judith backed the inheritance claims of her son Přemysl Ottokar, however, Duke Vladislaus named his stepbrother Frederick his successor. When her husband finally abdicated in 1172, his wife followed him to exile in Thuringia. Vladislaus died two years later at Meerane Castle.  It is not known where Judith died, but her remains were found in the former Benedictine monastery of Teplice, which she had founded about 1160. According to the historian Emanuel Vlček she died about 1210 at the age of 75, living to see the successful reign of her eldest son Přemysl.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Judith of Thuringia (; – 9 September after 1174), a member of the Ludovingian dynasty, was Queen consort of Bohemia from 1158 until 1172 as the second wife of King Vladislaus II. She was the second Queen of Bohemia after Świętosława of Poland, wife of King Vratislaus II, had received the title in 1085.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973394}
{"src_title": "Alexandre Yersin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Yersin was born in 1863, to French parents, in Aubonne, Canton of Vaud, Switzerland. From 1883 to 1884, Yersin studied medicine at Lausanne, Switzerland; and then at Marburg, Germany and Paris (1884–1886). In 1886, he entered Louis Pasteur's research laboratory at the École Normale Supérieure, by invitation of Emile Roux, and participated in the development of the anti-rabies serum. In 1888 he received his doctorate with a dissertation titled \"Étude sur le Développement du Tubercule Expérimental\" and spent two months with Robert Koch in Germany. He joined the recently created Pasteur Institute in 1889 as Roux's collaborator and discovered with him the diphtheric toxin (produced by the \"Corynebacterium diphtheriae\" bacillus).  In order to be able to practice medicine in France, Yersin applied for and obtained French nationality in 1888. Soon afterwards (1890), he left for French Indochina (current Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) in Southeast Asia as a physician for the \"Messageries Maritimes\" company, on the Saigon-Manila line and then on the Saigon-Haiphong line. He participated in one of the Auguste Pavie missions. In 1894 Yersin was sent by request of the French government and the Pasteur Institute to Hong Kong, to investigate the Manchurian pneumonic plague epidemic.  There, in a small hut (according to \"Plague\" by Wendy Orent) since he was denied access to British hospitals at his arrival, he made his greatest discovery: that of the pathogen which causes the disease. Dr Kitasato Shibasaburō, also in Hong Kong, had identified a bacterium several days earlier. There is controversy whether this was the same pneumococci or a mix of the two. Because Kitasato's initial reports were vague and somewhat contradictory, some give Yersin sole credit for the discovery. However, a thorough analysis of the morphology of the organism discovered by Kitasato has determined that \"we are confident that Kitasato had examined the plague bacillus in Hong Kong in late June and early July 1894\", only days after Yersin announced his own discovery on 20 June. Therefore, Kitasato \"should not be denied this credit\". The plague bacillus develops better at lower temperatures, so Yersin's less well-equipped lab turned out to be an advantage in the race with Kitasato, who used an incubator. Therefore, although at first named “Kitasato-Yersin bacillus” by the scientific community, the microbe will later assume only the latter's name because of the one identified by Kitasato, a type of streptococcus, cannot be found in the lymphatic glands. Yersin was also able to demonstrate for the first time that the same bacillus was present in the rodent as well as in the human disease, thus underlining the possible means of transmission. This important discovery was communicated to the French Academy of Sciences in the same year, by his colleague Emile Duclaux, in a classic paper titled \"La peste bubonique à Hong-Kong\".  From 1895 to 1897, Yersin further pursued his studies on the bubonic plague. In 1895 he returned to the Institute Pasteur in Paris and with Émile Roux, Albert Calmette and Amédée Borrel, prepared the first anti-plague serum. In the same year, he returned to Indochina, where he installed a small laboratory at Nha Trang to manufacture the serum (in 1905 this laboratory became a branch of the Pasteur Institute). Yersin tried the serum received from Paris in Canton and Amoy, in 1896, and in Bombay, India, in 1897, with disappointing results. Having decided to stay in his country of adoption, he participated actively in the creation of the Medical School of Ha Noi in 1902, and was its first director, until 1904.  Yersin tried his hand at agriculture and was a pioneer in the cultivation of rubber trees (\"Hevea brasiliensis\") imported from Brazil into Indochina. For this purpose, he obtained in 1897 a concession from the government to establish an agricultural station at Suoi Dau. He opened a new station at Hon Ba in 1915, where he tried to acclimatize the quinine tree (\"Cinchona ledgeriana\"), which was imported from the Andes in South America by the Spaniards, and which produced the first known effective remedy for preventing and treating malaria (a disease which prevails in Southeast Asia to this day).  Alexandre Yersin is well remembered in Vietnam, where he was affectionately called Ông Năm (Mr. Nam/Fifth) by the people.  On 8 January 1902, Yersin was accredited to be the first Headmaster of Hanoi Medical University by the Governor-General of French Indochina, Paul Doumer. Following the country's independence, streets named in his honor kept their designation and his tomb in Suoi Dau was graced by a pagoda where rites are performed in his worship. His house in Nha Trang is now the Yersin Museum, and the epitaph on his tombstone describes him as a \"Benefactor and humanist, venerated by the Vietnamese people\". In Ha Noi, a French lycée has his name. A private university founded in 2004 in Da Lat was named \"Yersin University\" in his honour.  In 1934 he was nominated honorary director of Pasteur Institute and a member of its Board of Administration. He died during World War II at his home in Nha Trang, in 1943.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Miscellaneous.", "content": "Dr. Yersin was credited with finding the site for the town of Dalat (300 km northeast of Saigon) in 1893. Because of the high altitude and European-like climate, Dalat soon became an R&R spot for French officers. There was a high school named after him which was built in the 1920s, the Lycée Yersin, aka Grand Lycée (grade 6 to 12), the Petit Lycée (elementary to grade 5) and a university named for him which was built in the 2000s.  While in Hong Kong, Yersin was helped in his research by an Italian priest of the PIME order, Bernardo Viganò (1837–1901). He provided cadavers and assisted him with his quest to find a remedy for the plague.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexandre Emile Jean Yersin (22 September 1863 – 1 March 1943) was dual national Swiss and French physician and bacteriologist. He is remembered as the co-discoverer of the bacillus responsible for the bubonic plague or pest, which was later named in his honour: \"Yersinia pestis\". Another bacteriologist, Kitasato Shibasaburō, is often credited with independently identifying the bacterium a few days earlier but may have identified a different bacterium and not the pathogen causing plague. Yersin also demonstrated for the first time that the same bacillus was present in the rodent as well as in the human disease, thus underlining the possible means of transmission.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973395}
{"src_title": "Hermann Hoth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in 1885, Hoth joined the army in 1903 and was awarded both classes of the Iron Cross during World War I. He remained in the \"Reichswehr\" (the armed forces of the Weimar Republic) in the interwar period. Following the reorganization of the German military into the Wehrmacht in 1935, he was appointed to command the 18th Infantry Division.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Hoth was promoted to Lieutenant-General and given command of the XV Motorised Corps in 1938, leading it in the invasion of Poland the following year. During the invasion of France in May 1940, his panzer corps was on Guderian's right flank during their advance through the Ardennes, and contained the 5th Panzer and 7th Panzer Divisions. Hoth was promoted to Generaloberst in July 1940.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation Barbarossa.", "content": "In Operation Barbarossa in 1941, Hoth commanded the 3rd Panzer Group which captured Minsk and Vitebsk as part of Army Group Center's operations. In mid July, the 3rd Panzer Group was subordinated to Army Group North to shore up the flanks and attempted to seize Velikie Luki. Hoth's forces were driven back on 20 July when Red Army forces broke through the German lines, prompting criticism from Field Marshal von Bock, commander of Army Group Center for unnecessarily striking out too far to the north east. In mid to late August, Hoth's forces faced another setback owing to heavy losses and dispersal of efforts: facing the heavily reinforced Soviet 19th Army, he committed the 7th Panzer Division without infantry support, which resulted in what the historian David Stahel describes as a \"debacle\". The division's attack ran into fortified Soviet lines and was repulsed with the loss of 30 tanks. As with all German armies on the Eastern Front, Hoth's Panzer Group implemented the Commissar Order. According to reports from subordinate units, the order was carried out on a widespread basis.  In October Hoth was appointed commander of the 17th Army in Ukraine. Hoth was an active supporter of the war of annihilation (\"\") against the Soviet Union, calling on his men to understand the need for \"harsh punishment of Jewry\". Under Hoth's command, units of the 17th Army took part in the hunt for and murder of Jews in its territory of control. Following the issuance of the Severity Order by Walter von Reichenau in October 1941, he issued the following directive to troops under his command in November 1941:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Battle of Stalingrad.", "content": "During the Soviet winter offensives of early 1942, Hoth's 17th Army was driven back in the Second Battle of Kharkov. In June 1942, he took over from General Richard Ruoff as commander of 4th Panzer Army. As part of Operation Blue, the German offensive in southern Russia, the army reached the Don River at Voronezh. Hoth was then ordered to drive to Rostov-on-Don. It then advanced to the north in support of the Sixth Army's attempt to capture Stalingrad.  In November 1942, the Soviet Operation Uranus broke through the Axis lines and trapped the Sixth Army in Stalingrad. Hoth's panzer army led the unsuccessful attempt to relieve the Sixth Army (Operation Winter Storm), under the overall command of Field Marshal Erich von Manstein's Army Group Don. By 25 December, the operation had failed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third Battle of Kharkov.", "content": "In February 1943, Hoth's 4th Panzer Army participated in the counteroffensive against the Soviet forces advancing in the Donbass region. The operation was hastily prepared and did not receive a name. Later known as Third Battle of Kharkov, it commenced on 21 February, as the 4th Panzer Army launched a counter-attack. The German forces cut off the Soviet mobile spearheads and continued the drive north, retaking Kharkov on 15 March and Belgorod on 18 March. Exhaustion of both the Wehrmacht and the Red Army coupled with the loss of mobility due to the onset of the spring rasputitsa resulted in the cessation of operations for both sides by mid-March. The counteroffensive left a salient extending into the German area of control, centered around the city of Kursk, and leading up to Operation Citadel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Battle of Kursk.", "content": "In July 1943, Hoth commanded the 4th Panzer Army in the Battle of Kursk as part of Army Group South. Operation Citadel called for a double envelopment, directed at Kursk, to surround the Soviet defenders and seal off the salient. The Army Group South committed Hoth's 4th Panzer Army, alongside Army Detachment \"Kempf\". Hoth's divisions, reinforced by the II SS Panzer Corps under Paul Hausser, penetrated several Soviet defensive lines, before being brought to a halt in the Battle of Prokhorovka. In the aftermath of Kursk, the Red Army mounted a series of successful offensives that crossed the Dnieper, retook Kiev and pushed the Germans out of eastern Ukraine. In September 1943, Hoth's army was operationally penetrated by Red Army units and was unable to maintain a continuous front line even in retreat. The army crossed the Dnieper south and north of Kiev with heavy losses. On 10 December 1943, Hoth was relieved of command, and was not recalled until April 1945.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trial and conviction.", "content": "Following the end of the war, Hoth was tried at the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials, in the High Command Trial. During his testimony he sought to explain his November 1941 order aimed at elimination of the \"Bolshevik-Jewish resistance\". He claimed that his instructions only meant that his troops should be vigilant and were intended to improve morale: \"The German soldier in his good nature... easily forgot that he was still in enemy territory\" and that the \"power of Bolshevism [had to be] broken\". He insisted that no physical harm came to civilians as the result of this measure, which his troops executed with \"clean hands\". Hoth maintained that if any Jews had been killed it was due to their connection to crimes against the German forces. \"It was a matter of common knowledge in Russia that it was the Jew in particular who participated in a very large extent in sabotage, espionage, etc.,\" Hoth claimed.  Hoth was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity. On 27 October 1948 he was sentenced to 15 years in prison. In January 1951, the sentence was reviewed with no changes. Hoth was released on parole in 1954; his sentence was reduced to time served in 1957.  Hermann Hoth died in 1971.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Citations Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hermann Hoth (12 April 1885 – 25 January 1971) was a German army commander and war criminal during World War II. He fought in the Battle of France and as a panzer commander on the Eastern Front. Hoth commanded the 3rd Panzer Group during Operation Barbarossa in 1941, and the 4th Panzer Army during the Wehrmacht's 1942 summer offensive.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973396}
{"src_title": "Third Intermediate Period of Egypt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twenty-first Dynasty.", "content": "The period of the Twenty-first Dynasty is characterized by the country's fracturing kingship. Already during Ramesses XI's reign, the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt was losing its grip on the city of Thebes, whose priests were becoming increasingly powerful. After his death, his successor, Smendes I, ruled from the city of Tanis, but was mostly active only in Lower Egypt, which he controlled. Meanwhile, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes ruled Middle and Upper Egypt in all but name. However, this division was less significant than it seems, since both the priests and pharaohs came from the same family.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasty.", "content": "The country was firmly reunited by the Twenty-second Dynasty founded by Shoshenq I in 945 BC (or 943 BC), who descended from Meshwesh immigrants, originally from Ancient Libya. This brought stability to the country for well over a century, but after the reign of Osorkon II, particularly, the country had effectively split into two states, with Shoshenq III of the Twenty-second Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC while Takelot II and his son Osorkon (the future Osorkon III) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt. In Thebes, a civil war engulfed the city, pitting the forces of Pedubast I, who had proclaimed himself pharaoh, against the existing line of Takelot II/Osorkon B. The two factions squabbled continuously and the conflict was only resolved in Year 39 of Shoshenq III when Osorkon B comprehensively defeated his enemies. He proceeded to found the Upper Egyptian Libyan Twenty-third Dynasty of Osorkon III – Takelot III – Rudamun, but this kingdom quickly fragmented after Rudamun's death, with the rise of local city states under kings such as Peftjaubast of Herakleopolis, Nimlot of Hermopolis, and Ini at Thebes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twenty-fourth Dynasty.", "content": "The Nubian kingdom to the south took full advantage of this division and the ensuing political instability. Prior to Piye's Year 20 campaign into Egypt, the previous Nubian ruler – Kashta – had already extended his kingdom's influence into Thebes when he compelled Shepenupet, the serving Divine Adoratice of Amun and Takelot III's sister, to adopt his own daughter Amenirdis, to be her successor. Then, 20 years later, around 732 BC his successor, Piye, marched north and defeated the combined might of several native Egyptian rulers: Peftjaubast, Osorkon IV of Tanis, Iuput II of Leontopolis and Tefnakht of Sais.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twenty-fifth Dynasty.", "content": "Piye established the Twenty-fifth Dynasty and appointed the defeated rulers as his provincial governors. He was succeeded first by his brother, Shabaka, and then by his two sons Shebitku and Taharqa. The reunited Nile valley empire of the 25th Dynasty was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. Pharaohs of the dynasty, among them Taharqa, built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal. The 25th Dynasty ended with its rulers retreating to their spiritual homeland at Napata. It was there (at El-Kurru and Nuri) that all 25th Dynasty pharaohs were buried under the first pyramids to be constructed in the Nile valley in hundreds of years. The Napatan dynasty led to the Kingdom of Kush, which flourished in Napata and Meroe until at least the 2nd century AD.  The international prestige of Egypt had declined considerably by this time. The country's international allies had fallen firmly into the sphere of influence of Assyria and from about 700 BC the question became when, not if, there would be war between the two states as Esarhaddon had realised that a conquest of Lower Egypt was necessary to protect Assyrians interests in the Levant.  Despite Egypt's size and wealth, Assyria had a greater supply of timber, while Egypt had a chronic shortage, allowing Assyria to produce more charcoal needed for iron-smelting and thus giving Assyria a greater supply of iron weaponry. This disparity became critical during the Assyrian invasions of Egypt over the period 670-663 BC. Consequently, pharaoh Taharqa's reign, and that of his successor Tantamani, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians. In 664 BC the Assyrians delivered a mortal blow, sacking Thebes and Memphis. Following these events, and starting with Atlanersa, no Kushite ruler would ever rule over Egypt again.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "End of the Third Intermediate Period.", "content": "Upper Egypt remained for a time under the rule of Taharqa and Tantamani, whilst Lower Egypt was ruled from 664 BC by the nascent 26th Dynasty, client kings established by the Assyrians. In 663 BC, Tantamani launched a full-scale invasion of Lower Egypt, taking Memphis in April of this year, killing Necho I of Sais in the process as Necho had remained loyal to Ashurbanipal. Tantamani barely had the time to receive the submission of some Delta kinglets and expel the remaining Assyrians that a large army led by Ashurbanipal and Necho's son Psamtik I came back. Tantamani was defeated north of Memphis and Thebes was thoroughly sacked shortly after. The Kushite king withdrew to Nubia while the Assyrian influence in Upper Egypt quickly waned. Permanently weakened by the sack, Thebes peacefully submitted itself to Psamtik's fleet in 656 BC. To affirm his authority, Psamtik placed his daughter in position to be the future Divine Adoratrice of Amun, thereby also submitting the priesthood of Amun and effectively uniting Egypt. Tantamani's successor Atlanersa was in no position to attempt a reconquest of Egypt as Psamtik also secured the southern border at Elephantine and may even have sent a military campaign to Napata. Concurrently, Psamtik managed to free himself from the Assyrian vassalage while remaining on good terms with Ashurbanipal, possibly owing to an ongoing rebellion in Babylon. By doing so, hebrought increased stability to the country during his 54-year reign from the city of Sais.  Four successive Saite kings continued guiding Egypt into another period of peace and prosperity from 610 to 525 BC. Unfortunately for this dynasty, a new power was growing in the Near East – the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Pharaoh Psamtik III had succeeded his father Ahmose II for only 6 months before he had to face the Persian Empire at Pelusium. The Persians had already taken Babylon and Egypt was no match for them. Psamtik III was defeated and briefly escaped to Memphis, before he was ultimately imprisoned and, later, executed at Susa, the capital of the Persian king Cambyses, who now assumed the formal title of Pharaoh.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historiography.", "content": "The historiography of this period is disputed for a variety of reasons. Firstly, there is a dispute about the utility of a very artificial term that covers an extremely long and complicated period of Egyptian history. The Third Intermediate Period includes long periods of stability as well as chronic instability and civil conflict: its very name rather clouds this fact. Secondly, there are significant problems of chronology stemming from several areas: first, there are the difficulties in dating that are common to all of Egyptian chronology but these are compounded due to synchronisms with Biblical archaeology that also contain heavily disputed dates. James et al. argued contra Kitchen that the period lasted less than 200 years - starting later than 850 BC but ending at the conventional date - as the five dynasties had many years of overlap. Finally, some Egyptologists and biblical scholars, such as Kenneth Kitchen and David Rohl have novel or controversial theories about the family relationships of the dynasties comprising the period.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Third Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt began with the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1070 BC, which ended the New Kingdom, and was eventually followed by the Late Period. Various points are offered as the beginning for the latter era, though it is most often regarded as dating from the foundation of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty by Psamtik I in 664 BC, following the expulsion of the Nubian Kushite rulers of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty by the Assyrians under King Assurbanipal. The concept of a \"Third Intermediate Period\" was coined in 1978 by British Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973397}
{"src_title": "Jakob van Hoddis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Berlin, he was the oldest son of the public health doctor Hermann Davidsohn and his wife Doris, née Kempner. Mrs Davidsohn gave birth to twins, but the other baby was stillborn. He had four other siblings, Marie, Anna, Ludwig, and Ernst. The poet Friederike Kempner (1836-1904) was his great-aunt. He attended the renowned Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium; however, due to his temper (although he was extremely intelligent), he was not a successful student. He left school in 1905, to preempt his exclusion, but obtained his \"Abitur\" degree as an \"external\" student in the following year. The young man began studying architecture at the Technical College of Charlottenburg; in 1907, he joined the University of Jena to study classical philology. Later he returned to Berlin and continued his studies at the Frederick William University; here he met law graduate Kurt Hiller who encouraged him to develop his literary talents.  Davidsohn had already composed poems during his schooldays. In 1909 he and his friend Kurt Hiller created the Expressionist \"Der Neue Club\" (\"The New Club\") artists' society in the Hackesche Höfe courtyards; in March of the following year, they introduced their ideas at literary evenings they called \"Neopathetisches Cabaret\" (\"Neo-pathetic Cabaret\"). They were joined by Georg Heym, Ernst Blass and Erich Unger, soon followed by others, for example Alfred Lichtenstein. Else Lasker-Schüler participated too (she said about van Hoddis' performances \"\"His verses are so ardent that one wants to steal them\"\" ). The last, ninth, evening of the Cabaret took place in the spring of 1912; it was a tribute to the tragically deceased Georg Heym. The Cabaret was very popular, often attracting hundreds of spectators. It was during one of these evenings when \"Weltende\" was recited, and electrified the audience totally. Many artists later remembered the impact the eight lines had on them that day.  He used the pen name \"van Hoddis\" since the death of his father in 1909. During this part of his life, things started to get worse. Not only was he expelled from university for inactivity, but he lost his close friends, Georg Heym and Ernst Balcke, who both drowned in January 1912 ice-skating on the Havel river. He left Berlin for Munich, turned to Catholicism and, after he suffered a nervous breakdown, voluntarily entered a mental hospital. Although he was released and returned to Berlin, he was soon hospitalized again after attacking his mother. His mental health continued to decline, and he lived in private care from 1914 until 1922. In 1915, his younger brother Ludwig was killed in action as a soldier in World War I. From 1922, Van Hoddis lived in Tübingen, where his mother had placed him under the guardianship of his uncle. After 1927, when his mother lost her money, he came under the care of a state clinic (\"Christophsbad\" in Göppingen).  In 1933, immediately after Hitler's nomination as Reich Chancellor, Van Hoddis' family escaped to Tel Aviv (where his broken-hearted mother died a few months later). However, it proved impossible for him to secure an entrance certificate to the British Mandate of Anglo-Palestine due to his mental illness. He thus was forced to remain in Nazi Germany where Expressionism had come to be seen as an absolutely unacceptable or \"degenerate art\" form.  Some Expressionist artists managed to flee the country with many more either committing suicide or who were murdered in Nazi concentration camps. Given that Van Hoddis was Jewish, an Expressionist writer, and also mentally ill (which then meant in Germany that he was subject to \"mercy killing\"), his murder in Nazi Germany was almost guaranteed. On 30 April 1942, he and all the other patients and staff (about 500 people) of his sanatorium near Koblenz were transported to the Sobibór extermination camp via Krasnystaw. None of them survived. The exact date of van Hoddis' death remains unknown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Van Hoddis published numerous poems, characterised by cipher-like Dadaistic elements, in literary magazines such as \"Die Aktion\" or \"Der Sturm\". Only one collection, \"Weltende\", was published during his life, by Franz Pfemfert in 1918. André Breton included van Hoddis in his 1940 \"Anthology of Black Humor\". A major rediscovery of his work began after a new edition by Paul Pörtner in 1958. In the English-speaking world he remains almost unknown.  Posthumous collections:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weltende.", "content": "Van Hoddis’ poem \"Weltende\" was first published in 1911 and has been often translated into English. One of the closest versions—considering both the verse form and the spirit of the original, may be the adaption of Natias Neutert.  Weltende  Dem Bürger fliegt vom spitzen Kopf der Hut, In allen Lüften hallt es wie Geschrei, Dachdecker stürzen ab und gehn entzwei. Und an den Küsten – liest man – steigt die Flut.  Der Sturm ist da, die wilden Meere hupfen An Land, um dicke Dämme zu zerdrücken. Die meisten Menschen haben einen Schnupfen. Die Eisenbahnen fallen von den Brücken. Worlds’ End  From burgher's pointy head the hat flies. In all quarters resounds hullaballoo. Roof tilers plummet down and break in two. Along the coasts— one reads — the floodings rise.  The storm is here, wuthering seas are hopping Ashore to crush dams as if they were midges. Most people have a cold that is not stopping. The railway waggons tumble down from bridges. Fine del mondo  Volano via cappelli dalle teste  aguzze dei borghesi e ad ogni vento  echeggia un solo grido.  Cadono giù le tegole e si spezzano,  sulle coste -si legge- alta marea.  La tempesta è vicina, fiere ondate  percuotono la riva, spezzano gli argini.  Quasi tutta la gente è raffreddata  dai ponti cade giù la via ferrata.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary influence.", "content": "\"Weltende\" is referenced in a poem by Catalan author Gabriel Ferrater called \"Fi del món\" (\"End of the world\"), which paraphrases some of its images.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jakob van Hoddis (16 May 1887 – May/June 1942) was the pen name of the German-Jewish expressionist poet Hans Davidsohn, of which name \"Van Hoddis\" is an anagram. His most famous poem \"Weltende\" (\"End of the world\") published on 11 January 1911 in the \"Der Demokrat\" magazine, is generally regarded as the preliminary Expressionist poem which inspired many other poets to write in a similarly grotesque style; he is also seen as perhaps the only German predecessor of surrealism (which did not exist as a movement in Germany).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973398}
{"src_title": "Russian tortoise", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Both the specific name, \"horsfieldii\", and the common name \"Horsfield's tortoise\" are in honor of the American naturalist Thomas Horsfield.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Systematics.", "content": "This species is traditionally placed in \"Testudo\". Due to distinctly different morphological characteristics, the monotypic genus \"Agrionemys\" was proposed for it in 1966. Today, \"Agrionemys horsfieldii\" is currently being accepted. DNA sequence analysis generally concurs, but not too robustly so. Some sources also list three separate subspecies of Russian tortoise, but they are not widely accepted by taxonomists:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The Russian tortoise is a small tortoise species, with a size range of. Females grow slightly larger () to accommodate more eggs. Males average. Russian tortoises are sexually dimorphic. Males tend to have longer tails generally tucked to the side, and longer claws; females have a short, fat tail, with shorter claws than the males. The male has a slit-shaped vent (cloaca) near the tip of its tail; the female has an asterisk-shaped vent (cloaca). Russian tortoises have four toes. Coloration varies, but the shell is usually a ruddy brown or black, fading to yellow between the scutes, and the body is straw-yellow and brown depending on the subspecies.  The male Russian tortoise courts a female through head bobbing, circling, and biting her forelegs. When she submits, he mounts her from behind, making high-pitched squeaking noises during mating.  The species can spend as much as 9 months of the year in dormancy. Russian tortoises can live up to 100 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In captivity.", "content": "In captivity, diet typically consists of lamb's lettuce, plantains and other dark leafy greens. The diet should be varied and may include juvenile dandelions and different species of lettuce, though like very many plants, they should be fed rarely due to potentially harmful side effects (for the former) or a lack of nutritional value (for the latter). Water is important for all species, but the tortoise, being an arid species, will typically get water from their food, but they still need a constant supply. Tortoises should be soaked in warm water up to the mid shell. Tortoises typically empty their bowels in water as to hide their scent, this is an instinct, and it also helps keep their enclosure cleaner.  Russian tortoises do not require a CITES Article X certificate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1968 Moon flight.", "content": "In September 1968 two Russian tortoises flew to the Moon, circled it, and returned safely to Earth on the Russian Zond 5 mission. Accompanied by mealworms, plants, and other lifeforms, they were the first Earth creatures to travel to the Moon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Russian tortoise (\"Agrionemys horsfieldii\"), also commonly known as the Afghan tortoise, the Central Asian tortoise, Horsfield's tortoise, four-clawed tortoise, and the (Russian) steppe tortoise, is a threatened species of tortoise in the family Testudinidae. The species is endemic to Central Asia. Human activities in its native habitat contribute to its threatened status.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973399}
{"src_title": "Dining philosophers problem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Problem statement.", "content": "Five silent philosophers sit at a round table with bowls of spaghetti. Forks are placed between each pair of adjacent philosophers.  Each philosopher must alternately think and eat. However, a philosopher can only eat spaghetti when they have both left and right forks. Each fork can be held by only one philosopher and so a philosopher can use the fork only if it is not being used by another philosopher. After an individual philosopher finishes eating, they need to put down both forks so that the forks become available to others. A philosopher can only take the fork on their right or the one on their left as they become available and they cannot start eating before getting both forks.  Eating is not limited by the remaining amounts of spaghetti or stomach space; an infinite supply and an infinite demand are assumed.  The problem is how to design a discipline of behavior (a concurrent algorithm) such that no philosopher will starve; \"i.e.\", each can forever continue to alternate between eating and thinking, assuming that no philosopher can know when others may want to eat or think.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Problems.", "content": "The problem was designed to illustrate the challenges of avoiding deadlock, a system state in which no progress is possible. To see that a proper solution to this problem is not obvious, consider a proposal in which each philosopher is instructed to behave as follows:  This attempted solution fails because it allows the system to reach a deadlock state, in which no progress is possible. This is a state in which each philosopher has picked up the fork to the left, and is waiting for the fork to the right to become available. With the given instructions, this state can be reached, and when it is reached, each philosopher will eternally wait for another (the one to the right) to release a fork.  Resource starvation might also occur independently of deadlock if a particular philosopher is unable to acquire both forks because of a timing problem. For example, there might be a rule that the philosophers put down a fork after waiting ten minutes for the other fork to become available and wait a further ten minutes before making their next attempt. This scheme eliminates the possibility of deadlock (the system can always advance to a different state) but still suffers from the problem of livelock. If all five philosophers appear in the dining room at exactly the same time and each picks up the left fork at the same time the philosophers will wait ten minutes until they all put their forks down and then wait a further ten minutes before they all pick them up again.  Mutual exclusion is the basic idea of the problem; the dining philosophers create a generic and abstract scenario useful for explaining issues of this type. The failures these philosophers may experience are analogous to the difficulties that arise in real computer programming when multiple programs need exclusive access to shared resources. These issues are studied in concurrent programming. The original problems of Dijkstra were related to external devices like tape drives. However, the difficulties exemplified by the dining philosophers problem arise far more often when multiple processes access sets of data that are being updated. Complex systems such as operating system kernels use thousands of locks and synchronizations that require strict adherence to methods and protocols if such problems as deadlock, starvation, and data corruption are to be avoided.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Solutions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Resource hierarchy solution.", "content": "This solution to the problem is the one originally proposed by Dijkstra. It assigns a partial order to the resources (the forks, in this case), and establishes the convention that all resources will be requested in order, and that no two resources unrelated by order will ever be used by a single unit of work at the same time. Here, the resources (forks) will be numbered 1 through 5 and each unit of work (philosopher) will always pick up the lower-numbered fork first, and then the higher-numbered fork, from among the two forks they plan to use. The order in which each philosopher puts down the forks does not matter. In this case, if four of the five philosophers simultaneously pick up their lower-numbered fork, only the highest-numbered fork will remain on the table, so the fifth philosopher will not be able to pick up any fork. Moreover, only one philosopher will have access to that highest-numbered fork, so they will be able to eat using two forks.  While the resource hierarchy solution avoids deadlocks, it is not always practical, especially when the list of required resources is not completely known in advance. For example, if a unit of work holds resources 3 and 5 and then determines it needs resource 2, it must release 5, then 3 before acquiring 2, and then it must re-acquire 3 and 5 in that order. Computer programs that access large numbers of database records would not run efficiently if they were required to release all higher-numbered records before accessing a new record, making the method impractical for that purpose.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arbitrator solution.", "content": "Another approach is to guarantee that a philosopher can only pick up both forks or none by introducing an arbitrator, e.g., a waiter. In order to pick up the forks, a philosopher must ask permission of the waiter. The waiter gives permission to only one philosopher at a time until the philosopher has picked up both of their forks. Putting down a fork is always allowed. The waiter can be implemented as a mutex. In addition to introducing a new central entity (the waiter), this approach can result in reduced parallelism: if a philosopher is eating and one of his neighbors is requesting the forks, all other philosophers must wait until this request has been fulfilled even if forks for them are still available.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chandy/Misra solution.", "content": "In 1984, K. Mani Chandy and J. Misra proposed a different solution to the dining philosophers problem to allow for arbitrary agents (numbered \"P\",..., \"P\") to contend for an arbitrary number of resources, unlike Dijkstra's solution. It is also completely distributed and requires no central authority after initialization. However, it violates the requirement that \"the philosophers do not speak to each other\" (due to the request messages).  This solution also allows for a large degree of concurrency, and will solve an arbitrarily large problem.  It also solves the starvation problem. The clean / dirty labels act as a way of giving preference to the most \"starved\" processes, and a disadvantage to processes that have just \"eaten\". One could compare their solution to one where philosophers are not allowed to eat twice in a row without letting others use the forks in between. Chandy and Misra's solution is more flexible than that, but has an element tending in that direction.  In their analysis they derive a system of preference levels from the distribution of the forks and their clean/dirty states. They show that this system may describe an Acyclic Graph, and if so, the operations in their protocol cannot turn that graph into a cyclic one. This guarantees that deadlock cannot occur. However, if the system is initialized to a perfectly symmetric state, like all philosophers holding their left side forks, then the graph is cyclic at the outset, and their solution cannot prevent a deadlock. Initializing the system so that philosophers with lower IDs have dirty forks ensures the graph is initially acyclic.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In computer science, the dining philosophers problem is an example problem often used in concurrent algorithm design to illustrate synchronization issues and techniques for resolving them.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973400}
{"src_title": "Adelaide of Meissen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and Marriage.", "content": "Adelaide was born about 1160 as the daughter of Margrave Otto II of Meissen (1125–1190) and his wife Hedwig of Brandenburg (d. 1203), a daughter of the Ascanian margrave Albert the Bear. She met her future husband in the 1170s, in the time of his exile during internal struggles within the Bohemian Přemyslid dynasty. The couple married in 1178 without attendance and consent from their families. It is possible that the marriage was forced on grounds of her pregnancy. Adelaide gave birth to a son, Vratislaus, soon.  Shortly after the marriage the couple could return to Bohemia, when Ottokar's brother Frederick (Bedřich) assumed the reins and made Ottokar one of the leaders of his armed forces in the Moravian lands. In 1192 Ottokar himself ascended the Prague throne and even achieved his recognition by the Hohenstaufen emperor Henry VI, however, he lost support and was deposed soon after. He again had to leave Bohemia, together with his wife and four children.  Adelaide came to Meissen at the court of her brother Margrave Albert the Proud. Meanwhile, Ottokar became a mercenary of German princes to profit from the German throne dispute between Emperor Henry's brother Philip of Swabia and the Welf duke Otto of Brunswick. In this time the couple got estranged. Ottokar decided to solve the problem in a way exclusive to all dynastic principles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Two queens.", "content": "By the end of 1197 Ottokar came to terms with his younger brother Vladislaus III and succeeded as Bohemian duke for the second time. He finally obtained the hereditary royal title according to the Golden Bull of Sicily issued by Philip of Swabia. Shortly thereafter, he repudiated his wife and also his adult son Vratislav. Ottokar was at least 40 at that time and risked losing the heir. Adelaide and her daughters again stayed in Meissen, while Vratislav became a mercenary in Germany and Italy.  In 1199, King Ottokar divorced Adelaide, officially on grounds of consanguinity. They were both descendants of Margrave Henry of Schweinfurt and the Polish king Mieszko II Lambert and were fifth cousin once removed or fourth cousin once removed. Ottokar married Princess Constance of Hungary, daughter of King Béla III, who was his fourth cousin thrice removed, later in the same year.  Adelaide, however, had no intention to waive her rights nor to have her children considered as illegitimate. She began a litigation in 1199, calling the Hohenstaufen family and Pope Innocent III for help. In the German throne dispute, both the Hohenstaufen and Welf party alternating stood for her rights. In 1205 Adelaide could even return to Prague for a while, after Ottokar had signed an agreement with Philip of Swabia. Moreover, his first-born son with Constance of Hungary had died, and Ottokar decided to marry his daughter with Adelaide, Margaret (Dagmar), to King Valdemar II of Denmark in this time. However, when Constance gave birth to another son, later king Wenceslaus I, in 1205, Adelaide with her daughters had to leave Bohemia permanently. She retired to the Holy Cross monastery in Meissen.  The Pope still used the pending lawsuit for leverage, but finally decided that the cessation of marriage was legal. Adelaide still struggled, though in 1210 she had definitely lost. She died one year later in her Meissen exile.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adelaide of Meissen (, ; – 2 February 1211), a member of the House of Wettin, was Queen of Bohemia from 1198 to 1199 as the first wife of King Ottokar I. When her husband declared their marriage null and void, she began a longstanding legal dispute that involved numerous religious and secular dignitaries of her time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973401}
{"src_title": "Anatoly Sobchak", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet legal scholar.", "content": "Anatoly Sobchak was born in Chita, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, on 10 August 1937. His father, Aleksander Antonovich, was a railroad engineer, and his mother, Nadezhda Andreyevna Litvinova, was an accountant. Anatoly was one of four brothers. In 1939, the family moved to Uzbekistan, where Anatoly lived until 1953 before entering Stavropol Law College. In 1954, he transferred to Leningrad State University. In 1958, he married Nonna Gandzyuk, a student of Hertzen Teacher's College. They had a daughter called Maria Sobchak, born in 1965, who is currently a St Petersburg lawyer while her son Gleb Sobchak, born in 1983, graduated from the Law Faculty of St. Petersburg State University.  After graduating from Leningrad State University, he worked for three years as a lawyer in Stavropol, then returned to Leningrad State University for graduate studies (1962–1965). After obtaining his Ph.D., he taught law at the Leningrad Police School and the Leningrad Institute for Cellulose and Paper Industries' Technology (1965–1973), and between 1973 and 1990 he taught at Leningrad State University. In 1980, he married Lyudmila Narusova, at that time a history student at the Leningrad Academy of Soviet Culture and later a prominent MP. They had a daughter, Ksenia Sobchak.  After obtaining his D.Sc. in 1982, he was appointed Professor and Head of the Department of Common Law in Socialist Economics. He was very popular among law students, especially for his mildly anti-government comments. During his work at Leningrad State University, he established close relations with its then administrator of international affairs, Vladimir Putin, which he maintained for the rest of his life.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legislator.", "content": "In 1989, after election laws changed during Perestroika, he was elected as an independent candidate to the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union. He was one of only a few deputies who had a legal background, so he contributed enormously to most of the laws created from 1989 to 1991. He became one of the founders and a co-chairman of the Inter-Regional Deputies Group along with Andrei Sakharov and Boris Yeltsin. He also was a chairman of the Parliamentary Commission on the Investigation of the events of 9 April 1989 in Tbilisi. The Commission condemned the military, which was blamed for many deaths when dispersing demonstrators. The Commission's report made it more difficult to use military force against civil demonstrations in the Soviet Union and Russia.  He was a member of the President's Consultative Council during Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure and contributed to legislation that originated from the presidential administration.  After the Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991, Sobchak was not a member of the central Parliament but was a member of Yeltsin's Presidential Council and the chairman of the Constitutional Assembly that prepared the Constitution of the Russian Federation in 1993. The constitution is often informally called \"Sobchak's constitution\", although its real authors have been somewhat less known.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mayor of Saint Petersburg.", "content": "In April 1990, Sobchak was elected a deputy of the Leningrad City Council, and in May he became the chairman of the Council. From the beginning, his leadership was marked by a strongly authoritarian bent. The Council decided to change the structure of the city governance so as to have a Mayor elected by direct elections. The first of such elections in June 1991 were combined with the referendum on the city name. Sobchak won the elections, and the city voted to return to its historical name of Saint Petersburg. The name change was established in one of the last sessions of the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union, held on 12 September 1991. The change needed an amendment of the Constitution of the Soviet Union and its passage required much effort by Sobchak.  Sobchak was Mayor of Saint Petersburg from 1991 to 1996. During his tenure, the city became a place of glamorous cultural and sporting events. Most of the everyday control of the city structure was handled by two Mayor's deputies – Vladimir Yakovlev and Vladimir Putin; critics alleged deterioration of city infrastructure, growing corruption, and crime during this time. In the 1996 mayoral election, Sobchak was opposed by his former first deputy Vladimir Yakovlev and lost by a margin of 1.2%. The major pitch of Yakovlev's campaign was that Sobchak's patronage of the arts (with city money) and involvement in federal politics prevented him from solving the real problems of the city.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Emigration and return.", "content": "In 1997, a criminal investigation started against Sobchak. He was accused of irregularities in the privatization of his own apartment, his elder daughter's apartment, and his wife's art studio. By the standards of the 1990s in Russia, the allegations were relatively minor (although the alleged losses for city finances were still in the tens of thousands of dollars). Thus, Sobchak's supporters saw the criminal proceedings as a political repression. According to Ksenia Sobchak, this campaign was started in 1995 from Moscow to prevent her father from running in future presidential elections.  On 7 November 1997, Sobchak flew to Paris on a private plane without passport processing on the Russian side. The formal reason for his departure was medical treatment in a Paris hospital for his heart condition, but Sobchak never checked in at the hospital. Between 1997 and 1999, he lived the typical life of a political émigré in Paris.  In June 1999, his friend Vladimir Putin became much stronger politically (in a few weeks he became the Prime Minister of Russia), and he was able to make the prosecutors drop the charges against Sobchak. On 12 June 1999, Sobchak returned to Russia. After his return, Sobchak became a very active supporter of Putin in his quest for the Russian presidency.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 17 February 2000, Putin met with Sobchak and urged him to travel to Kaliningrad to support his election campaign. Sobchak traveled there, accompanied by two assistants who also served as his bodyguards. On 20 February 2000, Sobchak died suddenly in the town of Svetlogorsk of the Kaliningrad Oblast. The initial suspected cause of death was a heart attack, but the findings of two medical experts were contradictory. A criminal investigation of Sobchak's death as a possible \"premeditated murder with aggravating circumstances\" was opened only on 6 May 2000, more than two months later. After three months, the investigation was closed without a finding. The Democratic Union party led by Valeria Novodvorskaya made an official statement that not only Sobchak, but also two of his aides had heart attacks simultaneously, which indicated poisoning. Two other men were present with Sobchak during his death, but their names were not publicly disclosed.  According to an independent investigation by Arkady Vaksberg, both bodyguards of Sobchak were treated for symptoms of poisoning after Sobchak's death, indicating at a probable contract killing by poisoning. Sobchack's widow Lyudmila had her own autopsy done on her husband's body, but never made the results public; she told the BBC that she keeps the findings in a secure location outside Russia.  He was interred in Nikolskoe Cemetery at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in St. Petersburg, near the grave of Galina Starovoitova.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anatoly Aleksandrovich Sobchak (, 10 August 1937 – 19 February 2000) was a Russian politician, a co-author of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the first democratically elected mayor of Saint Petersburg, and a mentor and teacher of both Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973402}
{"src_title": "Saint Isaac's Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The church on St Isaac's Square was ordered by Tsar Alexander I, to replace an earlier structure by Vincenzo Brenna, and was the fourth consecutive church standing at this place. A specially appointed commission examined several designs, including that of the French-born architect Auguste de Montferrand (1786–1858), who had studied in the atelier of Napoleon's designer, Charles Percier. Montferrand's design was criticised by some members of the commission for the dry and allegedly boring rhythm of its four identical pedimented octastyle porticos. It was also suggested that despite gigantic dimensions, the edifice would look squat and not very impressive. The members of the commission, which consisted of well-known Russian architects, were also particularly concerned by necessity to build a new huge building on the old unsecure foundation. The emperor, who favoured the ponderous Empire style of architecture, had to step in and solve the dispute in Montferrand's favour.  The cathedral took 40 years to construct, under Montferrand's direction, from 1818 to 1858. The building of the cathedral took so long, that it left an idiom to Finnish language: \"rakentaa kuin Iisakinkirkkoa\" (\"To build like the church of Isaac\") when speaking of long-term construction projects.  To secure the construction, the cathedral's foundation was strengthened by driving 25,000 piles into the fenland of Saint Petersburg. Innovative methods were created to erect the giant columns of the portico. The construction costs of the cathedral totalled an incredible sum of 1 000 000 gold rubles. Under the Soviet government, the building was stripped of religious trappings. In 1931, it was turned into the Museum of the History of Religion and Atheism, the dove sculpture was removed, and replaced by a Foucault pendulum. On 12 April 1931, the first public demonstration of the Foucault pendulum was held to visualize Copernicus's theory. In 1937, the museum was transformed into the museum of the cathedral, and former collections were transferred to the Museum of the History of Religion (located in the Kazan Cathedral).  During World War II, the dome was painted over in gray to avoid attracting attention from enemy aircraft. On its top, in the skylight, a geodesical intersection point was placed, to determine the positions of German artillery batteries.  With the fall of communism, the museum was removed and regular worship activity has resumed in the cathedral, but only in the left-hand side chapel. The main body of the cathedral is used for services on feast days only.  On 10 January 2017 Georgy Poltavchenko, the Governor of St. Petersburg, announced that the cathedral would be transferred to the Russian Orthodox Church. The key protocols of the transfer were defined by the order issued by St. Petersburg's Committee on Property Relations on 30 December 2016. The document expired on 30 December 2018. The new order can be issued upon request from the Russian Orthodox Church, but no such request has yet been submitted..  The transfer of Saint Isaac's Cathedral in use the ROC agreed in January 2017, but the decision has caused discontent of the townspeople, who defended the status of the museum. The decision of the city authorities was disputed in the courts. Currently, the status of the building is museum. Today, church services are held here only ecclesiastical occasions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The neoclassical exterior expresses the traditional Russian-Byzantine formula of a Greek-cross ground plan with a large central dome and four subsidiary domes. It is similar to Andrea Palladio's Villa Capra \"La Rotonda\", with a full dome on a high drum substituted for the Villa's low central saucer dome. The design of the cathedral in general and the dome in particular later influenced the design of the United States Capitol dome, Wisconsin State Capitol in Madison, Wisconsin, and the Lutheran Cathedral in Helsinki.  The exterior is faced with gray and pink stone, and features a total of 112 red granite columns with Corinthian capitals, each hewn and erected as a single block: 48 at ground level, 24 on the rotunda of the uppermost dome, 8 on each of four side domes, and 2 framing each of four windows. The rotunda is encircled by a walkway accessible to tourists. 24 statues stand on the roof, and another 24 on top of the rotunda.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dome.", "content": "The cathedral's main dome rises ; its exterior is gilded. The dome is decorated with twelve statues of angels by Josef Hermann. These angels were likely the first large sculptures produced by the then novel process of electrotyping, which was an alternative to traditional bronze casting of sculptures. Montferrand's design of the dome is based on a supporting cast iron structure. It was the third historical instance of cast iron cupola after the Leaning Tower of Nevyansk (1732) and Mainz Cathedral (1826).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The cathedral's bronze doors, covered in reliefs by Ivan Vitali, are patterned after the celebrated doors of the Battistero di San Giovanni in Florence, designed by Lorenzo Ghiberti. Suspended underneath the peak of the dome is a sculpted white dove representing the Holy Spirit. Internal features such as columns, pilasters, floor, and statue of Montferrand are composed of multicolored granites and marbles gathered from all parts of Russia. The iconostasis is framed by eight columns of semiprecious stone: six of malachite and two smaller ones of lazurite. The four pediments are also richly sculpted.  The interior was originally decorated with scores of paintings by Karl Bryullov and other great Russian masters of the day. When these paintings began to deteriorate due to the cold, damp conditions inside the cathedral, Montferrand ordered them to be painstakingly reproduced as mosaics, a technique introduced in Russia by Mikhail Lomonosov. This work was never completed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technologies.", "content": "William Handyside and other engineers used a number of technological innovations in the construction of the building. The portico columns were raised with the use of large wooden frameworks before the walls were erected. The building rests on 10,000 tree trunks that were sunk by a large number of workers into the marshy banks upon which the cathedral is situated. The dome was gilded by a technique similar to spraypainting; the solution used included toxic mercury, the vapors of which caused the deaths of sixty workers. The dozen gilded statues of angels, each six metres tall, facing each other across the interior of the rotunda, were constructed using galvanoplastic technology, making them only millimeters thick and very lightweight. St. Isaac's Cathedral represents the first use of this technique in architecture.  The meticulous and painstakingly detailed work on constructing the St. Isaac's Cathedral took 40 years to complete. This extended construction left an expression in the Finnish language, \"\" (\"to build like St. Isaac's Church\"), for lengthy and never-ending megaprojects.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Isaac's Cathedral or Isaakievskiy Sobor () is a cathedral that currently functions as a museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It is dedicated to Saint Isaac of Dalmatia, a patron saint of Peter the Great, who had been born on the feast day of that saint. It was originally built as a cathedral but was turned into a museum by the Soviet government in 1931 and has remained a museum ever since. In 2017, the Governor of Saint Petersburg offered to transfer the cathedral back to the Russian Orthodox Church, but this was not accomplished due to the protests of St Petersburg citizens opposing the offer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973403}
{"src_title": "Russian Museum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Creation.", "content": "The museum was established on April 13, 1895, upon enthronement of the emperor Nicholas II to commemorate his father, Alexander III. Its original collection was composed of artworks taken from the Hermitage Museum, Alexander Palace, and the Imperial Academy of Arts. The task to restructure the interiors according to the need of future exposition was imposed on Vasily Svinyin. The grand opening took place on the 17 of March, 1898.  After the Russian Revolution of 1917, many private collections were nationalized and relocated to the Russian Museum. These included Kazimir Malevich's \"Black Square\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The main building of the museum is the Mikhailovsky Palace, the Neoclassical former residence of Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich, erected in 1819–25 to a design by Carlo Rossi on Square of Arts in St Petersburg. Upon the death of the Grand Duke the residence was named after his wife as the \"Palace of the Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna\", and became famous for its many theatrical presentations and balls.  Some of the halls of the palace retain the Italianate opulent interiors of the former imperial residence. Other buildings and locations, assigned to the Russian museum, include the Summer Palace of Peter I (1710–14) with the Summer Garden, the Marble Palace of Count Orlov (1768–85), St Michael's Castle of Emperor Paul (1797–1801), the cabin of Peter the Great, and the Rastrelliesque Stroganov Palace on the Nevsky Prospekt (1752–54).  The project of Benois Building (or 'Corpus Benua') was developed in 1910-1912 by the famous Russian architect Leon Benois. The construction started in 1914, but was interrupted by the First World War. After Russian revolution, in 1919 the Benois Building was completed. In 1930s it was assigned to the Russian museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collection.", "content": "Today the collection shows Russian art from the 10th century up to the 21st century, covering all genres from the old Russian icon painting to contemporary art.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibits.", "content": "The Ethnographic Department was originally set up in a building specially designed by Vladimir Svinyin in 1902. The museum soon housed gifts received by Emperor's family from representatives of peoples inhabiting various regions of the Russian Empire. Further exhibits were purchased by Nicholas II and other members of his family as State financing was not enough to purchase new exhibits. In 1934, the Ethnographic Department was given the status of an independent museum: the Russian Museum of Ethnography.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Málaga branch.", "content": "The city of Málaga, home to thousands of Russian expats, has signed an agreement to host the first overseas branch of the State Russian Museum. Works displayed in Malaga will range from Byzantine-inspired icons to social realism of the Soviet era. They will be on display in yards) of exhibition space in La Tabacalera, a 1920s tobacco factory. The new museum is scheduled to open in early 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The State Russian Museum (), formerly the Russian Museum of His Imperial Majesty Alexander III (), on Arts Square in Saint Petersburg, is the world's largest depository of Russian fine art. It is also one of the largest art museums in the world with total area over 30 hectares.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973404}
{"src_title": "RABDe 500", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Services.", "content": "RABDe 500 started commercial operation on 28 May 2000, with services from St. Gallen via Winterthur, Zürich and Biel/Bienne to Lausanne.  As of 2018 the RABDe 500 provide service on the following lines  The trainsets are used on other lines as well, as IC (Intercity) or IR (Interregio) trains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical Information.", "content": "The RABDe 500 is an electrical multiple unit. The (body hung) motors as well as the transformers are located under the second class cars, which are the first two and the last two cars in each trainset. The first class cars and the restaurant car are non-motored, they carry pantograph and transformer. The centre car of each trainset has no traction equipment. Design of the driver's cab as well as the electrical equipment is based on the design of the SBB Re 460 locomotives, using more modern GTO circuits for the traction inverters. The design of the inverters was used for the large class of Italian locomotive FS Class E.464.  The RABDe 500 can operate at up to when under ETCS level 2 supervision, and if the line is equipped with conventional signalling, negotiating curves about 10% faster than non tilting trains. The train was not primarily designed for speed, but to reduce journey time on curvaceous lines such as Olten via Biel/Bienne to Lausanne/Geneva.  The 18 trainsets 500 000 – 500 017 were adapted for operation in the new Gotthard Base Tunnel in 2015/2016. Amongst other measures fire detection equipment was fitted. New non tilting trains RABDe 501 will be used on the Gotthard line in the future, the RABDe 500 are to be used on lines with more curves.  All 44 trainsets are being refurbished between 2012 and 2019, an overhaul taking 25 days per train.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expo.02.", "content": "Train sets used for the Expo.02 national exposition in Switzerland carried a typewriter-font \"permettre le futur\" text on the outside of the train along with literary quotes from various prominent Swiss writers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naming.", "content": "All forty-four RABDe 500 trains are named after famous Swiss scholars, artists, writers, politicians, engineers, and architects. Each RABDe 500 bears the portrait of its namesake, painted by Bernese painter Martin Fivian, in the first class coach No 3; in addition, plaques with short biographical information can be found at every entrance.  List of names:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The RABDe 500 (often nicknamed ICN for Intercity-Neigezug, German for Intercity Tilting Train), is a Swiss high speed passenger train which was introduced in 2000, in time for Expo.02 held in western Switzerland in 2002. Its maximum speed is, which can be reached on the Mattstetten–Rothrist new line; the RABDe 500 uses the branch to Solothurn only; the ICNs reach 200 km/h in the new Gotthard Base Tunnel. The train sets were a joint development by Bombardier, Swiss Federal Railways and Alstom, with an aerodynamic body designed by Pininfarina, bogies and tilting mechanism designed by the then SIG, Schweizerische Industrie Gesellschaft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973405}
{"src_title": "SQLite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "Unlike client–server database management systems, the SQLite engine has no standalone processes with which the application program communicates. Instead, the SQLite library is linked in and thus becomes an integral part of the application program. Linking may be static or dynamic. The application program uses SQLite's functionality through simple function calls, which reduce latency in database access: function calls within a single process are more efficient than inter-process communication.  SQLite stores the entire database (definitions, tables, indices, and the data itself) as a single cross-platform file on a host machine. It implements this simple design by locking the entire database file during writing. SQLite read operations can be multitasked, though writes can only be performed sequentially.  Due to the server-less design, SQLite applications require less configuration than client-server databases. SQLite is called \"zero-conf\" because it does not require service management (such as startup scripts) or access control based on GRANT and passwords. Access control is handled by means of file system permissions given to the database file itself. Databases in client-server systems use file system permissions which give access to the database files only to the daemon process.  Another implication of the serverless design is that several processes may not be able to write to the database file. In server-based databases, several writers will all connect to the same daemon, which is able to handle its locks internally. SQLite on the other hand has to rely on file-system locks. It has less knowledge of the other processes that are accessing the database at the same time. Therefore, SQLite is not the preferred choice for write-intensive deployments. However, for simple queries with little concurrency, SQLite performance profits from avoiding the overhead of passing its data to another process.  SQLite uses PostgreSQL as a reference platform. \"What would PostgreSQL do\" is used to make sense of the SQL standard. One major deviation is that, with the exception of primary keys, SQLite does not enforce type checking; the type of a value is dynamic and not strictly constrained by the schema (although the schema will trigger a conversion when storing, if such a conversion is potentially reversible). SQLite strives to follow Postel's Rule.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "D. Richard Hipp designed SQLite in the spring of 2000 while working for General Dynamics on contract with the United States Navy. Hipp was designing software used for a damage-control system aboard guided missile destroyers, which originally used HP-UX with an IBM Informix database back-end. SQLite began as a Tcl extension.  The design goals of SQLite were to allow the program to be operated without installing a database management system or requiring a database administrator. Hipp based the syntax and semantics on those of PostgreSQL 6.5. In August 2000, version 1.0 of SQLite was released, with storage based on gdbm (GNU Database Manager). SQLite 2.0 replaced gdbm with a custom B-tree implementation, adding transaction capability. SQLite 3.0, partially funded by America Online, added internationalization, manifest typing, and other major improvements.  In 2011 Hipp announced his plans to add a NoSQL interface (managing documents expressed in JSON) to SQLite databases and to develop \"UnQLite\", an embeddable document-oriented database.  SQLite is one of four formats recommended for long term storage of datasets approved for use by the Library of Congress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "SQLite implements most of the SQL-92 standard for SQL but it lacks some features. For example, it partially provides triggers, and it cannot write to views (however it provides INSTEAD OF triggers that provide this functionality). While it provides complex queries, it still has limited ALTER TABLE function, as it cannot modify or delete columns.  SQLite uses an unusual type system for a SQL-compatible DBMS; instead of assigning a type to a column as in most SQL database systems, types are assigned to individual values; in language terms it is \"dynamically typed\". Moreover, it is \"weakly typed\" in some of the same ways that Perl is: one can insert a string into an integer column (although SQLite will try to convert the string to an integer first, if the column's preferred type is integer). This adds flexibility to columns, especially when bound to a dynamically typed scripting language. However, the technique is not portable to other SQL products. A common criticism is that SQLite's type system lacks the data integrity mechanism provided by statically typed columns in other products. The SQLite web site describes a \"strict affinity\" mode, but this feature has not yet been added. However, it can be implemented with constraints like codice_1.  Tables normally include a hidden \"rowid\" index column which gives faster access. If a database includes an Integer Primary Key column SQLite will typically optimize it by treating it as an alias for \"rowid\", causing the contents to be stored as a strictly typed 64-bit signed integer and changing its behavior to be somewhat like an auto-incrementing column. Future versions of SQLite may include a command to introspect whether a column has behavior like that of \"rowid\" to differentiate these columns from weakly-typed, non-autoincrementing Integer Primary Keys.  SQLite with full Unicode function is optional.  Several computer processes or threads may access the same database concurrently. Several read accesses can be satisfied in parallel. A write access can only be satisfied if no other accesses are currently being serviced. Otherwise, the write access fails with an error code (or can automatically be retried until a configurable timeout expires). This concurrent access situation would change when dealing with temporary tables. This restriction is relaxed in version 3.7 when write-ahead logging (WAL) is turned on enabling concurrent reads and writes.  SQLite version 3.7.4 first saw the addition of the FTS4 (full text search) module, which features enhancements over the older FTS3 module. FTS4 allows users to perform full text searches on documents similar to how search engines search webpages. Version 3.8.2 added support for creating tables without rowid, which may provide space and performance improvements. Common table expressions support was added to SQLite in version 3.8.3.  In 2015, with the \"json1 extension\" and new subtype interfaces, SQLite version 3.9 introduced JSON content managing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development and distribution.", "content": "SQLite's code is hosted with Fossil, a distributed version control system that is itself built upon an SQLite database.  A standalone command-line program is provided in SQLite's distribution. It can be used to create a database, define tables, insert and change rows, run queries and manage an SQLite database file. It also serves as an example for writing applications that use the SQLite library.  SQLite uses automated regression testing prior to each release. Over 2 million tests are run as part of a release's verification. Starting with the August 10, 2009 release of SQLite 3.6.17, SQLite releases have 100% branch test coverage, one of the components of code coverage. The tests and test harnesses are partially public domain and partially proprietary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operating systems.", "content": "SQLite is included by default in:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Programming language support.", "content": "Language bindings to SQLite for a large number of programming languages exist, including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SQLite (, ) is a relational database management system (RDBMS) contained in a C library. In contrast to many other database management systems, SQLite is not a client–server database engine. Rather, it is embedded into the end program.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973406}
{"src_title": "Goodstein's theorem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Hereditary base-\"n\" notation.", "content": "Goodstein sequences are defined in terms of a concept called \"hereditary base-\"n\" notation\". This notation is very similar to usual base-\"n\" positional notation, but the usual notation does not suffice for the purposes of Goodstein's theorem.  In ordinary base-\"n\" notation, where \"n\" is a natural number greater than 1, an arbitrary natural number \"m\" is written as a sum of multiples of powers of \"n\": where each coefficient \"a\" satisfies, and. For example, in base 2, Thus the base-2 representation of 35 is 100011, which means. Similarly, 100 represented in base 3 is 10201: Note that the exponents themselves are not written in base-\"n\" notation. For example, the expressions above include 2 and 3, and 5>2, 4>3.  To convert a base-\"n\" representation to hereditary base-\"n\" notation, first rewrite all of the exponents in base-\"n\" notation. Then rewrite any exponents inside the exponents, and continue in this way until every number appearing in the expression has been converted to base-\"n\" notation.  For example, while 35 in ordinary base-2 notation is, it is written in hereditary base-2 notation as using the fact that Similarly, 100 in hereditary base-3 notation is", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Goodstein sequences.", "content": "The Goodstein sequence \"G\"(\"m\") of a number \"m\" is a sequence of natural numbers. The first element in the sequence \"G\"(\"m\") is \"m\" itself. To get the second, \"G\"(\"m\")(2), write \"m\" in hereditary base-2 notation, change all the 2s to 3s, and then subtract 1 from the result. In general, the term of the Goodstein sequence of \"m\" is as follows:  Early Goodstein sequences terminate quickly. For example, \"G\"(3) terminates at the 6th step:  Later Goodstein sequences increase for a very large number of steps. For example, \"G\"(4) starts as follows:  Elements of \"G\"(4) continue to increase for a while, but at base formula_6, they reach the maximum of formula_7, stay there for the next formula_6 steps, and then begin their first and final descent.  The value 0 is reached at base formula_9. (Curiously, this is a Woodall number: formula_10. This is also the case with all other final bases for starting values greater than 4.)  However, even \"G\"(4) doesn't give a good idea of just \"how\" quickly the elements of a Goodstein sequence can increase. \"G\"(19) increases much more rapidly and starts as follows:  In spite of this rapid growth, Goodstein's theorem states that every Goodstein sequence eventually terminates at 0, no matter what the starting value is.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proof of Goodstein's theorem.", "content": "Goodstein's theorem can be proved (using techniques outside Peano arithmetic, see below) as follows: Given a Goodstein sequence \"G\"(\"m\"), we construct a parallel sequence \"P\"(\"m\") of ordinal numbers which is strictly decreasing and terminates. Then \"G\"(\"m\") must terminate too, and it can terminate only when it goes to 0. A common misunderstanding of this proof is to believe that \"G\"(\"m\") goes to 0 \"because\" it is dominated by \"P\"(\"m\"). Actually, the fact that \"P\"(\"m\") dominates \"G\"(\"m\") plays no role at all. The important point is: \"G\"(\"m\")(\"k\") exists if and only if \"P\"(\"m\")(\"k\") exists (parallelism). Then if \"P\"(\"m\") terminates, so does \"G\"(\"m\"). And \"G\"(\"m\") can terminate only when it comes to 0.  We define a function formula_11 which computes the hereditary base representation of and then replaces each occurrence of the base with the first infinite ordinal number ω. For example, formula_12.  Each term \"P\"(\"m\")(\"n\") of the sequence \"P\"(\"m\") is then defined as \"f\"(\"G\"(\"m\")(\"n\"),\"n+1\"). For example, and. Addition, multiplication and exponentiation of ordinal numbers are well defined.  We claim that formula_13:  Let formula_14 be \"G\"(\"m\")(\"n\") after applying the first, \"base-changing\" operation in generating the next element of the Goodstein sequence, but before the second \"minus 1\" operation in this generation. Observe that formula_15.  Then clearly, formula_16. Now we apply the \"minus 1\" operation, and formula_17, as formula_18. For example, formula_19 and formula_20, so formula_21 and formula_22, which is strictly smaller. Note that in order to calculate \"f(G(m)(n),n+1)\", we first need to write \"G\"(\"m\")(\"n\") in hereditary base notation, as for instance the expression formula_23 either makes no sense or is equal to formula_24.  Thus the sequence \"P\"(\"m\") is strictly decreasing. As the standard order < on ordinals is well-founded, an infinite strictly decreasing sequence cannot exist, or equivalently, every strictly decreasing sequence of ordinals terminates (and cannot be infinite). But \"P\"(\"m\")(\"n\") is calculated directly from \"G\"(\"m\")(\"n\"). Hence the sequence \"G\"(\"m\") must terminate as well, meaning that it must reach 0.  While this proof of Goodstein's theorem is fairly easy, the \"Kirby–Paris theorem\", which shows that Goodstein's theorem is not a theorem of Peano arithmetic, is technical and considerably more difficult. It makes use of countable nonstandard models of Peano arithmetic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extended Goodstein's theorem.", "content": "Suppose the definition Goodstein sequence is changed so that instead of replacing each occurrence of the base \"b\" with it replaces it with. Would the sequence still terminate? More generally, let \"b\", \"b\", \"b\",... be any sequences of integers. Then let the term of the extended Goodstein sequence of \"m\" be as follows: take the hereditary base \"b\" representation of \"G\"(\"m\")(\"n\"), and replace each occurrence of the base \"b\" with and then subtract one. The claim is that this sequence still terminates. The extended proof defines as follows: take the hereditary base \"b\" representation of \"G\"(\"m\")(\"n\"), and replace each occurrence of the base \"b\" with the first infinite ordinal number ω. The \"base-changing\" operation of the Goodstein sequence when going from \"G\"(\"m\")(\"n\") to still does not change the value of \"f\". For example, if and if, then formula_25, hence the ordinal formula_26 is strictly greater than the ordinal formula_27", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequence length as a function of the starting value.", "content": "The Goodstein function, formula_28, is defined such that formula_29 is the length of the Goodstein sequence that starts with \"n\". (This is a total function since every Goodstein sequence terminates.) The extreme growth-rate of formula_30 can be calibrated by relating it to various standard ordinal-indexed hierarchies of functions, such as the functions formula_31 in the Hardy hierarchy, and the functions formula_32 in the fast-growing hierarchy of Löb and Wainer:  Some examples:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application to computable functions.", "content": "Goodstein's theorem can be used to construct a total computable function that Peano arithmetic cannot prove to be total. The Goodstein sequence of a number can be effectively enumerated by a Turing machine; thus the function which maps \"n\" to the number of steps required for the Goodstein sequence of \"n\" to terminate is computable by a particular Turing machine. This machine merely enumerates the Goodstein sequence of \"n\" and, when the sequence reaches \"0\", returns the length of the sequence. Because every Goodstein sequence eventually terminates, this function is total. But because Peano arithmetic does not prove that every Goodstein sequence terminates, Peano arithmetic does not prove that this Turing machine computes a total function.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematical logic, Goodstein's theorem is a statement about the natural numbers, proved by Reuben Goodstein in 1944, which states that every \"Goodstein sequence\" eventually terminates at 0. Kirby and Paris showed that it is unprovable in Peano arithmetic (but it can be proven in stronger systems, such as second-order arithmetic). This was the third example of a true statement that is unprovable in Peano arithmetic, after Gödel's incompleteness theorem and Gerhard Gentzen's 1943 direct proof of the unprovability of ε-induction in Peano arithmetic. The Paris–Harrington theorem was a later example.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973407}
{"src_title": "Liancourt Rocks", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Liancourt Rocks consist of two main islets and numerous surrounding rocks. The two main islets, called \"Seodo\" (, \"Western Island\") and \"Dongdo\" (, \"Eastern Island\") in Korean, and \"Ojima\" (, \"Male Island\") and \"Mejima\" (, \"Female Island\") in Japanese, are apart. The Western Island is the larger of the two, with a wider base and higher peak, while the Eastern Island offers more usable surface area.  Altogether, there are about 90 islets and reefs, volcanic rocks formed in the Cenozoic era, more specifically 4.6 to 2.5 million years ago. A total of 37 of these islets are recognized as permanent land.  The total area of the islets is about, with their highest point at on the West Islet. The western islet is about ; the eastern islet is about. The western islet consists of a single peak and features many caves along the coastline. The cliffs of the eastern islet are about high. There are two large caves giving access to the sea, as well as a crater.  In 2006, a geologist reported that the islets formed 4.5 million years ago and are quickly eroding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distances.", "content": "The Liancourt Rocks are located at about. The western islet is located at and the Eastern Islet is located at.  The Liancourt Rocks are situated at a distance of from the main island of Japan (Honshu) and from mainland South Korea. The nearest Japanese island, Oki Islands, is at a distance of., and the nearest Korean island, Ulleungdo, is,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Owing to their location and small size, the Liancourt Rocks can have harsh weather. If the swell is greater than 3 to 5 metres, then landing is not possible so on average ferries can only dock about once in every forty days. Overall, the climate is warm and humid, and heavily influenced by warm sea currents. Precipitation is high throughout the year (annual average—), with occasional snowfall. Fog is common. In summer, southerly winds dominate. The water around the islets is about in early spring, when the water is coldest, warming to about in late summer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The islets are volcanic rocks, with only a thin layer of soil and moss. About 49 plant species, 107 bird species, and 93 insect species have been found to inhabit the islets, in addition to local marine life with 160 algal and 368 invertebrate species identified. Although between 1,100 and 1,200 litres of fresh water flow daily, desalinization plants have been installed on the islets for human consumption because existing spring water suffers from guano contamination. Since the early 1970s trees and some types of flowers were planted. According to historical records, there used to be trees indigenous to Liancourt Rocks, which have supposedly been wiped out by overharvesting and fires caused by bombing drills over the islets. A recent investigation, however, identified ten spindle trees aged 100–120 years. Cetaceans such as Minke whales, orcas, and dolphins are known to migrate through these areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pollution and environmental destruction.", "content": "Records of the human impact on the Liancourt Rocks before the late 20th century are scarce, although both Japanese and Koreans claim to have felled trees and killed Japanese sea lions there for many decades.  There is a serious concern for pollution in the seas surrounding the Liancourt Rocks. The sewage water treatment system established on the islets has malfunctioned and sewage water produced by inhabitants of the Liancourt Rocks such as South Korean Coast Guard and lighthouse staff is being dumped directly into the ocean. Significant water pollution has been observed; sea water has turned milky white, sea vegetation is progressively dying off, and calcification of coral reefs is spreading. The pollution is also causing loss of biodiversity in the surrounding seas. In November 2004, eight tons of malodorous sludge was being dumped into the ocean every day. Efforts have since been made by both public and private organizations to help curb the level of pollution surrounding the Rocks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics and economy.", "content": "As of February 2017, there were two civilian residents, two government officials, six lighthouse managers, and 40 members of the coast guard living on the islets. Since the South Korean coast guard was sent to the islets, civilian travel has been subject to South Korean government approval; they have stated that the reason for this is that the islet group is designated as a nature reserve.  In March 1965, Choi Jong-duk moved from the nearby Ulleungdo to the islets to make a living from fishing. He also helped install facilities from May 1968. In 1981, Choi Jong-duk changed his administrative address to the Liancourt Rocks, making himself the first person to officially live there. He died there in September 1987. His son-in-law, Cho Jun-ki, and his wife also resided there from 1985 until they moved out in 1992. Meanwhile, in 1991, Kim Sung-do and Kim Shin-yeol transferred to the islets as permanent residents, still continuing to live there. In October 2018, Kim Sung-do died, thus Kim Shin-yeol is the last civilian resident still living on the islands.  The South Korean government gave its approval to allow 1,597 visitors to visit the islets in 2004. Since March 2005, more tourists have received approval to visit. The South Korean government lets up to 70 tourists land at any one given time; one ferry provides rides to the islets every day. Tour companies charge around 350,000 Korean won per person (about US$310 ).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "South Korea has carried out construction work on the Liancourt Rocks, by 2009 the islands had a lighthouse and helicopter pad, and a police barracks. In 2007, two desalination plants were built capable of producing 28 tons of clean water every day. Both of the major South Korean telecommunications companies have installed cellular telephone towers on the islets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Whaling.", "content": "American and French whaleships cruised for right whales off the rocks between 1849 and 1892.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sovereignty dispute.", "content": "Sovereignty over the islands has been an ongoing point of contention in Japan–South Korea relations. There are conflicting interpretations about the historical state of sovereignty over the islets.  South Korean claims are partly based on references to an island called \"Usan-do\" () in various medieval historical records, maps, and encyclopedia such as \"Samguk Sagi\", \"Annals of Joseon Dynasty\", \"Dongguk Yeoji Seungnam\", and \"Dongguk munhon bigo\". According to the South Korean view, these refer to today's Liancourt Rocks. Japanese researchers of these documents have claimed the various references to Usan-do refer at different times to Jukdo, its neighboring island Ulleungdo, or a non-existent island between Ulleungdo and Korea. The first printed usage of the name \"Dokdo\" was in a Japanese log book in 1904.  Other key points of the dispute involve the legal basis that Japan used to claim the islands in 1905, and the legal basis of South Korea's claim on the islands in 1952.  North Korea and South Korea agree that the islands are Korean territory and reject Japan's claim.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Liancourt Rocks are a group of small islets in the Sea of Japan. While South Korea controls the islets, its sovereignty over them is contested by Japan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973408}
{"src_title": "Synod of Bishops in the Catholic Church", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Establishment and nature.", "content": "In 1959, Cardinal Silvio Oddi proposed a permanent consultative body of priests drawn from many parts of the world to discuss major concerns of the Church. The same year Cardinal Bernardus Johannes Alfrink proposed a permanent council of specialized bishops to legislate for the Church in union with the Pope and the cardinals. In 1963, during the third session of the Second Vatican Council, Patriarch Maximos IV proposed that the church should be governed by the Pope and the bishops as successors of Peter and the apostles respectively, not by the Pope and the \"Roman clergy\", that is, the College of Cardinals. Maximos proposed that the Council establish a rotating body of bishops in continuous residence in Rome to assist the Pope.  On 15 September 1965, as the Council was drawing to a close, Pope Paul VI established the Synod of Bishops, noting that \"the Ecumenical Council... gave Us the idea of permanently establishing a special Council of bishops, with the aim of providing for a continuance after the Council of the great abundance of benefits that We have been so happy to see flow to the Christian people during the time of the Council as a result of Our close collaboration with the bishops.\" The Pope sought \"to make ever greater use of the bishops' assistance in providing for the good of the universal Church\" and to enjoy \"the consolation of their presence, the help of their wisdom and experience, the support of their counsel, and the voice of their authority.\" This preempted action by the Council and made the Synod \"immediately and directly\" subject to papal authority, ensuring that it would be strictly an advisory body. The Synod of the Bishops does not constitute collegial governance of the Church, but represents a collaboration with the Pope: it discusses topics proposed to it and makes recommendations, but does not settle questions or issue decrees, unless the Pope grants it deliberative power in certain cases.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Under Francis.", "content": "From the beginning of his papacy, Pope Francis expressed his desire to strengthen the collegial aspects of the Church's governance, and he argued for more recognition of charismatic gifts in the Church. He has held major synods on the topics of the family (2014), on youth (2018), and on the Church in the Pan-Amazon region (2019). On September 15, 2018, Francis approved the new apostolic constitution (Episcopal Communion). The constitution states that the Synod's final document, if approved by the members with \"moral unanimity\" and expressly approved by the Pope, becomes part of the Ordinary Magisterium of Catholic teaching. The new constitution also provides for the laity to send their contributions directly to the synod's secretary general. Some analysts surmise that the greatest achievement of Francis' papacy may be his creation of a more synodal Catholic church, where synods serve as a platform for open and energetic debate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Secretariat and Council.", "content": "The Synod of the Bishops has its own permanent general secretariat, composed of the General Secretary and a fifteen-member council, twelve of whom are elected by each general assembly and three are appointed by the Pope. The secretariat assists in preparing the apostolic exhortation which the Pope publishes on the basis of the recommendations of each general assembly, and it prepares the next assembly. Their function ceases with the start of a new general assembly. A similar function is performed by specific special councils elected by the special assemblies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Powers of the pope.", "content": "The pope convokes the Synod of Bishops; ratifies the election of participants; determines the topic of discussion; distributes the material for discussion; sets the agenda; and presides either personally or through delegates.  The pope may also appoint participants of his own choosing, their number limited to 15% of the other delegates who participate either \"ex officio\" or as elected representatives of episcopal conferences or the Union of Superiors General.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assemblies.", "content": "The procedures followed at assemblies of the Synod of the Bishops are indicated in the \"Order of the Synod of Bishops\", originally issued in 1969, the latest revision of which was published on 29 September 2006.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ordinary general assemblies.", "content": "In preparation for each ordinary general assembly, episcopal conferences are asked to suggest up to three themes for discussion. After the secretariat has studied those proposals, the Pope, generally on the basis of the secretariat's recommendation, establishes the topic and agenda of the assembly. Criteria for the choice of the topic are: 1) that it be of universal, not merely regional, interest; 2) that it be pastoral in character with a firm doctrinal base; 3) that it be contemporary and urgent enough to stir up \"new energies and movements in the church towards growth\"; 4) that it can be addressed within the allotted time.  Most participants in the assembly, called \"Synodal fathers\", are elected by the bishops' conferences: one in the case of a conference with no more than 25 members, two if a conference has up to 50 members, three from a conference with up to 100 members, and four from a larger conference. Other representative participants include heads of Eastern Catholic Churches, ten members of religious institutes elected by the Union of Superiors General, and the cardinals who head the Roman Congregations and some other departments of the Roman Curia. Dozens more participate by virtue of synodal functions assigned by the Holy See or as papal appointees, mostly cardinals and other curiate or diocesan prelates.  Fraternal delegates from several Orthodox and Protestant churches (7 each in 2015) have observer status.  The secretariat, which includes various other clerical and lay experts, prepares a preliminary outline document (\"Lineamenta\") which is distributed to all concerned for comment. Based on this feedback, a working document (\"instrumentum laboris\") is prepared and distributed to all churches. This document is the basis for discussions at the synod. The assembly examines proposals (\"propositiones\") put forward by its members and passes to the Pope those that receive the assembly's approval. The Pope uses these as the basis for a papal post-synodal apostolic exhortation.  The first general assemblies attempted to draw up their own concluding documents, but found that the time available was insufficient for doing so properly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Extraordinary general assemblies.", "content": "In view of the greater urgency that justify their convocation, the preparation of extraordinary general assemblies of the Synod of the Bishops is shorter. The participants also are fewer, consisting of the heads of Eastern Catholic Churches, the presidents (only) of episcopal conferences, three members (not ten) of religious institutes and the cardinals who head dicasteries of the Roman Curia. , there have been three such assemblies, in 1969, 1985, and 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Special assemblies.", "content": "Special assemblies of the Synod of the Bishops are limited to a certain geographical area, a country, region, or continent. Their participants, chosen in line with the rules for extraordinary general assemblies, are limited to those directly involved in that geographical area.  Special assemblies have been held for Africa (twice), America, Asia, Europe (twice), Oceania, the Middle East, Lebanon, and the Netherlands. Another is planned for the Amazon region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chronology.", "content": "The Synod of the Bishops has held the following assemblies:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the Roman Catholic Church, the Synod of Bishops is an advisory body for the Pope. It is described in the Code of Canon Law (CIC) as \"a group of bishops who have been chosen from different regions of the world and meet together at fixed times to foster closer unity between the Roman Pontiff and bishops, to assist the Roman Pontiff with their counsel in the preservation and growth of faith and morals and in the observance and strengthening of ecclesiastical discipline, and to consider questions pertaining to the activity of the Church in the world.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973409}
{"src_title": "František Kupka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "František Kupka was born in Opočno (eastern Bohemia) in Austria-Hungary in 1871. From 1889 to 1892, he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Prague. At this time, he painted historical and patriotic themes. Kupka enrolled at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, where he concentrated on symbolic and allegorical subjects. He was influenced by the painter and social reformer Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach (1851–1913) and his naturistic life-style. Kupka exhibited at the Kunstverein, Vienna, in 1894. His involvement with theosophy and Eastern philosophy dates from this period. By spring 1894, Kupka had settled in Paris; there he attended the Académie Julian briefly and then studied with Jean-Pierre Laurens at the École des Beaux-Arts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "Kupka served as a volunteer in the First World War, and is mentioned in \"La Main coupée\" by Blaise Cendrars. Cendrars describes him as a \"proud soldier, calm, placid, strong\"... but really too old to be a soldier, being at least 25 years older than the rest. When the regiment set out from Paris for the front in Picardy (they marched all the way on foot) Mme Kupka met the column as they arrived at the La Défense roundabout, near where they lived. She marched with them, carrying her husband's bag and his rifle. She would have marched all the way to the front, but at the end of the first day the colonel had her arrested and sent back to Paris. She later made her way to the front lines to spend time with her husband. Kupka himself left the front due to frostbite in the foot, caused by nights in the trenches waist-deep in freezing water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Kupka worked as an illustrator of books and posters and, during his early years in Paris, became known for his satirical drawings for newspapers and magazines. In 1906, he settled in Puteaux, a suburb of Paris, and that same year exhibited for the first time at the Salon d'Automne. Kupka was deeply impressed by the first Futurist Manifesto, published in 1909 in Le Figaro. Kupka's 1909 painting \"Piano Keyboard/Lake\" marked a break in his representational style. His work became increasingly abstract around 1910–11, reflecting his theories of motion, color, and the relationship between music and painting (orphism). In 1911, he attended meetings of the Puteaux Group (Section d'Or). In 1912, he exhibited his \"Amorpha. Fugue à deux couleurs\", at the Salon des Indépendants in the Cubist room, although he did not wish to be identified with any movement. \"Creation in the Plastic Arts\", a book Kupka completed in 1913, was published in Prague in 1923. In 1931, he was a founding member of Abstraction-Création. In 1936, his work was included in the exhibition \"Cubism and Abstract Art\" at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, and in an important show with another Czech painter, Alphonse Mucha, at the Jeu de Paume in Paris. A retrospective of his work took place at the Galerie Mánes in Prague in 1946. The same year, Kupka participated in the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles, where he continued to exhibit regularly until his death. During the early 1950s, he gained general recognition and had several solo shows in New York.  Between 1919 and 1938 Kupka was financially supported by his good friend, art collector and industrialist Jindřich Waldes who accumulated a substantial collection of his art. Kupka died in 1957 in Puteaux, France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Kupka had a strong interest in color theory and freeing colors from descriptive associations (which is thought to have possibly influenced other artists like Robert Delaunay). Margit Rowell described his painting \"The Yellow Scale\" (c. 1907) as \"Kupka's first attempt to come to terms with color theory in which the result is both personal and successful\". Although a self-portrait, the subject of the painting was the color yellow. Around 1910 he began developing his own color wheels, adapting a format previously explored by Sir Isaac Newton and Hermann von Helmholtz. This work in turn led Kupka to execute a series of paintings he called \"Discs of Newton\" (1911–12).  Works in Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice, Italy:  Other works include \"The Cathedral (Katedrála)\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "František Kupka (23 September 1871 – 24 June 1957), also known as \"Frank Kupka\" or \"François Kupka,\" was a Czech painter and graphic artist. He was a pioneer and co-founder of the early phases of the abstract art movement and Orphic Cubism (Orphism). Kupka's abstract works arose from a base of realism, but later evolved into pure abstract art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973410}
{"src_title": "Matra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "During 1945, Matra (\"Mécanique Aviation TRAction\") was established, immediately beginning development of an ambition twin-engine aircraft intended to be the fastest propeller-driven plane in the world. In 1951, the sound barrier was broken in horizontal flight for the first time in Europe by an aircraft using a Matra-built engine. During 1961, Matra became involved in the early European space programme, having been appointed as the first prime contractor for satellites.  During 1963, French businessman Jean-Luc Lagardere was appointed CEO of Matra; he would be a key figure at the company for the following three decades. At the time of Lagardere's appointment, the firm had a workforce of 1,450. During 1964, Matra became the owner of car manufacturer Automobiles René Bonnet. For a time, Matra was largely centered around its vehicle division, \"Matra Automobiles\". However, within a decade, Matra had been sold its road car division to American-owned car manufacturer Chrysler Europe, having shifted focus onto its other growing business activities.  During the 1970s, Lagardère pursued an overall strategy of merging Matra with various other companies, or acquiring them outright, to build up a sizable group around the Matra brand. Throughout the 1970s, the company strengthened and grew its position within the aerospace sector, which has been viewed as a core business of Matra. one such company was the electrical equipment manufacturer \"Electronique Moderne de l’Oise\", which became \"Matra Électronique\" following its acquisition during 1975. That same year, National Centre for Space Studies (CNES) and the European Space Agency (ESA) awarded a contract to Mantra for the loading bay of the new Ariane expendable launch system.  Over several decades, Matra eventually diversified into media, weaponry, aeronautics, automobiles, music distribution, and various other state of the art technologies. During 1981, Matra diversified into media activities via the purchase of the Hachette publishing company. Matra invested in several fields of transportation during the 1980s and 1990s. It produced a fiberglass 14 ft sailing dinghy with an innovative double bottom, self-bailing hull, called \"Capricorne\". Though several hundred were sold and a class association briefly existed, it was unable to gain much market share against the better established International 420. During 1983, Matra launched an automatic (driverless) light rubber-tyred metro, the Véhicule Automatique Léger. It later attempted to produce a personal rapid transit system, which it named Aramis. Matra also manufactured a range of electric bicycles and electric scooters. Matra i-step Runner, Tourer and Force as well as Matra i-flow in Romorantin. Matra developed and released a personal computer, the Alice.  During 1988, Matra was privatised, at which point Lagardère acquired 6 per cent of the company's stock; by 1992, his stake in Mantra had risen to 25 per cent. That same year, the Lagardère Group was radically restructured; acquiring more shares in Matra from Floirat, Daimler Benz and GEC, and Hachette from Floirat, Crédit Lyonnais and Aberly. Lagardère merged Matra and Hachette to form Matra Hachette, of which Lagardère Group held 37.6 per cent. Following a share swap in 1994, Lagardère held 93.3 perc cent of Matra Hachette's stock. During 1996, Matra Hachette was formally merged into Lagardère Group.  During February 1999, the firm's defense wing, \"Matra Hautes Technologies\", was merged with French aerospace conglomerate Aérospatiale to form Aérospatiale-Matra. During 2003, following poor financial performance within the sector, \"Matra Automobiles\" became bankrupt and its assets were sold off once more by Matra. Instead, Matra decided to concentrate its resources on its remaining interests within the media and aerospace sectors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Matra Automobiles.", "content": "Matra had been involved in car manufacturing since the acquisition of Automobiles René Bonnet in 1963. The first road car to be sold under the Matra marque was the Renault-powered Matra Djet (pronounced \"jet\"), which was an update of the Bonnet Jet; the Djet was subsequently replaced with the Matra 530, Bagheera, the Murena and the Rancho, an early type of sport utility vehicle (SUV). At its peak, Matra Automobiles was manufacturing 60,000 vehicles per year at its automobile plant in Romorantin-Lanthenay.  Lagardere, recognising the promotion value of the motorsport sector for garnering sales, decided that the company ought to be involved, leading to the creation of Equipe Matra Sports, which entered the French Formula 3 during 1965. Throughout the mid-1960s, Matra enjoyed considerable success in Formula 3 and Formula 2 racing with its MS5 monocoque-based car, winning both the French and European championships. Matra competed as a constructor in Formula One from to and as an engine supplier between to, winning the drivers' and constructors' championships in. Matra also competed in sports car racing from 1966 to 1974 winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1972, 1973 and 1974 and the World Championship for Makes in 1973 and 1974.. However, at the end of the 1974 season, Matra announced that it had decided to withdraw from all motorsport involvement.  During the early 1970s, Matra sold its car division to American-owned car manufacturer Chrysler Europe. Matra Automobiles was subsequently sold by Chrysler Europe to French car company Peugeot; during 1983, Lagardere arranged to buy the division back. Shortly thereafter, a strategic partnership was formed between Matra and French vehicle company Renault, leading to the development of the Espace minivan.  During 1984, the Matra-built Espace was launched onto the market, this car proved to be a commercial success over multiple decades. Due to this success, this single vehicle type became extremely impactful to the fortunes of Matra Automobiles. Following on from the first generation of the Espace, Matra Automobiles went on to manufacture the next two generations as well; however, the fourth iteration was manufactured inhouse by Renault instead. The loss of the Espace business quickly proved detrimental to the firm's finances.  During 2001, production of the Renault Avantime, which was co-designed and built by Matra Automobiles, commenced; unfortunately, this vehicle only ever achieved low sales volumes and was widely regarded as a failure. By the early 2000s, Matra was reportedly keen to end its involvement with the automotive industry. Following the discontinuation of the Avantime, on 27 February 2003, Matra Automobiles announced its intention to close its Romorantin vehicle factory just one month later. The dismantling of the division was necessitated by Matra Automobiles having been declared bankrupt.  During September 2003, Pininfarina SpA acquired Matra Automobile's engineering, testing and prototype businesses; the company was subsequently named Matra Automobile Engineering. On 13 January 2009, Pininfarina sold its share in Matra Automobile Engineering to Segula Technologies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Matra Hautes Technologies.", "content": "\"Matra Hautes Technologies\" (\"MHT\") was the defence arm of the firm. The division was involved in aerospace, defence and telecommunications.  During 1990, Matra Espace and the aerospace division of British electronics specialist GEC Marconi merged together, creating \"Matra Marconi Space\"; the company had claimed this entity to have been the leading aerospace company in the European market at the time. Six years later, Matra Défense and British missile manufacturer BAe Dynamics merged to form Matra BAe Dynamics, a leading weapons manufacturer in Europe as well as the third largest in the world at the time. During February 1999, MHT merged with French aerospace conglomerate Aérospatiale to form Aérospatiale-Matra. On 10 July 2000, Aérospatiale-Matra merged with Spanish aircraft company CASA and German aerospace firm DASA to become part of EADS, which subsequently became the Airbus Group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Football.", "content": "Matra sponsored Racing Club de France in 1987~1989.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mécanique Aviation Traction or Matra was a French conglomerate. During its years of operation, it was engaged a wide range of activities, primarily focused around automobiles, bicycles, aeronautics and weaponry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973411}
{"src_title": "Damien Duff", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blackburn Rovers.", "content": "Duff joined Blackburn Rovers as a trainee in 1996 after playing for Leicester Celtic, Lourdes Celtic and St. Kevin's Boys as a schoolboy in Dublin. He made his Blackburn debut at the age of 18 against Leicester City on the final day of the 1996–97 season for which he won the Man of the match award. In his first full season (1997–98) he scored four goals. Blackburn were relegated the following season.  Duff helped Blackburn achieve promotion back to the Premier League in 2001 and then win the League Cup in 2002, beating Tottenham Hotspur 2–1 at the Millennium Stadium. Following the 2002 World Cup, Duff signed a new four-year contract with Rovers. Despite injury problems in the 2002–03 season, he finished as Blackburn's top goalscorer with 11 goals, which helped his team finish sixth and qualify for the UEFA Cup.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chelsea.", "content": "In the run up to the 2003–04 season, Chelsea made a series of bids for Duff, with a £17 million offer, eventually triggering a release clause in the player's contract. Duff chose to move to West London in July. Signed by manager Claudio Ranieri as part of the development of Chelsea financed by new owner Roman Abramovich, Duff made his debut in August 2003 in the Champions League against Slovakian side MŠK Žilina. Chelsea won 2–0 and Duff was described as the \"star of the show\". He scored his first Chelsea goal on 20 September 2003 in a 5–0 away win against Wolverhampton Wanderers. Duff scored the third Chelsea goal and was named as Man of the match. Duff played 23 games in all competitions for Chelsea in the 2003–04 season scoring five goals. He missed the Champions League semi-finals as Chelsea lost to AS Monaco but was instrumental in securing for Chelsea second place in the Premiership, the club's highest league finish for 49 years as well as being part of the Champions League run, but the season ultimately ended trophyless and with the sacking of manager Claudio Ranieri.  The arrival of Dutch winger Arjen Robben and new manager José Mourinho posed a threat to Duff's place in the starting line-up for the 2004–05 season, but an injury to Robben at the start of the season saw Duff as the only available winger. Mourinho, however, did not play Duff in the early part of the 2004–05 season, preferring a more narrow approach. Duff eventually got into the side after four games and, when Robben returned to the side, Duff's versatility saw him move to the right wing and form a wing partnership with Robben. The season proved to be successful for both Duff and Chelsea. He scored ten goals, including a crucial strike in a 4–2 win against Barcelona in the Champions League, while the team won the Premiership title by 12 points from second placed Arsenal, and the League Cup, in which Duff scored the winning goal in the semi-final against Manchester United. He scored three goals in 28 league appearances in the following season as the club retained their Premier League title.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Newcastle United.", "content": "In July 2006, Duff agreed terms over a £5 million move to Newcastle United, signing a five-year contract.<ref", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Damien Anthony Duff (born 2 March 1979) is an Irish professional football coach and former player who played predominantly as a winger and is a former first team coach at Celtic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973412}
{"src_title": "Gemsbok", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name \"gemsbok\" in English is derived from Afrikaans \"gemsbok\", which itself is derived from Dutch name of the male chamois, \"gemsbok\", and further from German \"Gämse\" (\"chamois\"). Although some superficial similarities in appearance (especially in the facial pattern) are noticed, the chamois and the oryx are not closely related. The usual pronunciation in English is.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Gemsbok are light brownish-grey to tan in colour, with lighter patches toward the bottom rear of the rump. Their tails are long and black in colour. A blackish stripe extends from the chin down the lower edge of the neck, through the juncture of the shoulder and leg along the lower flank of each side to the blackish section of the rear leg. They have muscular necks and shoulders, and their legs have white'socks' with a black patch on the front of both the front legs, and both genders have long, straight horns. Comparably, the East African oryx lacks a dark patch at the base of the tail, has less black on the legs (none on the hindlegs), and less black on the lower flanks. One very rare condition is the \"Golden Oryx\", in which the Gemsboks black markings are muted and now appear golden.  Gemsbok are the largest species in the genus \"Oryx\". They stand about at the shoulder. The body length can vary from and the tail measures. Male gemsbok can weigh between, while females weigh.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Horns.", "content": "Gemsbok are widely hunted for their spectacular horns that average in length. From a distance, the only outward difference between males and females is their horns, and many hunters mistake females for males each year. In males horns tend to be thicker with larger bases. Females have slightly longer, thinner horns.  Female gemsbok use their horns to defend themselves and their offspring from predators, while males primarily use their horns to defend their territories from other males.  Gemsbok are one of the few antelope species where female trophies are sometimes more desirable than male ones. A gemsbok horn can be fashioned into a natural trumpet and, according to some authorities, can be used as a \"shofar\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and biology.", "content": "Gemsbok live in herds of about 10–40 animals, which consist of a dominant male, a few nondominant males, and females. They are mainly desert-dwelling and do not depend on drinking water to supply their physiological needs. They can reach running speeds of up to.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "The gemsbok is generally a grazer but changes to browsing during the dry season or when grass is sparse. It may dig up to a meter deep to find roots and tubers, supplementing its water intake by eating wild tsama melons and cucumbers, which can provide all the water required (3 liters per 100 kg bodyweight and day).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The gemsbok is polygynous, with one resident male mating with the receptive females in the herd. The male is known to secure exclusive mating access to the females by attempting to herd mixed or nursery herds onto his territory. The gemsbok has no specified breeding season, but the young in a given herd tend to be of a similar age due to reproductive synchrony between females. Pregnant females leave the herd before giving birth. The gestation period lasts 270 days and mothers give birth to 1-2 offspring. The calf remains hidden 6 weeks after birth, after which mother and calf rejoin the herd. The calf is weaned at 3.5 months, becomes independent at 4.5 month, and achieves sexual maturity at 1.5–2 years in both sexes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Introduction to North America.", "content": "In 1969, the New Mexico State Department of Game and Fish decided to introduce gemsbok to the Tularosa Basin in the United States. Ninety-three were released from 1969 to 1977, with the current population estimated to be around 3,000 specimens. They thrive because their natural predators, including the lion, are not present.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The gemsbok, gemsbuck or South African oryx (\"Oryx gazella\") is a large antelope in the genus \"Oryx\". It is native to the arid regions of Southern Africa, such as the Kalahari Desert. Some authorities formerly included the East African oryx as a subspecies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973413}
{"src_title": "Whirlpool Galaxy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery.", "content": "What later became known as the Whirlpool Galaxy was discovered on October 13, 1773, by Charles Messier while hunting for objects that could confuse comet hunters, and was designated in Messier's catalogue as M51. Its companion galaxy, NGC 5195, was discovered in 1781 by Pierre Méchain, although it was not known whether it was interacting or merely another galaxy passing at a distance. In 1845, William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse, employing a 72-inch (1.8 m) reflecting telescope at Birr Castle, Ireland, found that the Whirlpool possessed a spiral structure, the first \"nebula\" to be known to have one. These \"spiral nebulae\" were not recognized as galaxies until Edwin Hubble was able to observe Cepheid variables in some of these spiral nebulae, which provided evidence that they were so far away that they must be entirely separate galaxies even though they are seen close together  The advent of radio astronomy and subsequent radio images of M51 unequivocally demonstrated that the Whirlpool and its companion galaxy are indeed interacting. Sometimes the designation M51 is used to refer to the pair of galaxies, in which case the individual galaxies may be referred to as M51a (NGC 5194) and M51b (NGC 5195).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visual appearance.", "content": "Located within the constellation Canes Venatici, M51 is found by following the easternmost star of the Big Dipper, Eta Ursae Majoris, and going 3.5° southwest. Its declination is +47°, making it a circumpolar for observers located above 43°N latitude; it reaches high altitudes throughout the northern hemisphere making it an accessible object from the early hours in winter through the end of spring season, after which observation is hindered in lower latitudes.  M51 is visible through binoculars under dark sky conditions, and it can be resolved in detail with modern amateur telescopes. When seen through a 100 mm telescope the basic outlines of M51 (limited to 5x6') and its companion are visible. Under dark skies, and with a moderate eyepiece through a 150 mm telescope, M51's intrinsic spiral structure can be detected. With larger (>300 mm) instruments under dark sky conditions, the various spiral bands are apparent with HII regions visible, and M51 can be seen to be attached to M51B.  As is usual for galaxies, the true extent of its structure can only be gathered from inspecting photographs; long exposures reveal a large nebula extending beyond the visible circular appearance. In 1984, thanks to the high-speed detector - the so-called image-photon-counting- IPCS - system - developed jointly by the CNRS Laboratoire d'Astronomie Spatiald (L.A.S.- CNRS) and the Observatoire de Haute Provence (O.H.P.) along with the particularly nice seeing offered by the Canada-France-Hawaii-Telescope (C.F.H.T.) 3.60m Cassegrain focus at Mauna Kea summit in Hawaii, Hua et al. detected the double component of the very nucleus of the Whirlpool galaxy (article in Astrophysical Letters and Communications, 1987, vol. 25, pp. 187-204).  In January 2005 the Hubble Heritage Project constructed a 11477 × 7965-pixel composite image (shown in the infobox above) of M51 using Hubble's ACS instrument. The image highlights the galaxy's spiral arms, and shows detail into some of the structures inside the arms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "Whirlpool Galaxy lies 23 million light years from Earth and has an estimated diameter of 76,000 light years. Overall the galaxy is about 43% the size of the Milky Way. Its mass is estimated to be 160 billion solar masses. or around 10.3% of the mass of Milky Way Galaxy.  A black hole, once thought to be surrounded by a ring of dust, but now believed to be partially occluded by dust instead, exists at the heart of the spiral. A pair of ionization cones extend from the active galactic nucleus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spiral structure.", "content": "The pronounced spiral structure of the Whirlpool Galaxy is believed to be the result of the close interaction between it and its companion galaxy NGC 5195, which may have passed through the main disk of M51 about 500 to 600 million years ago. In this proposed scenario, NGC 5195 came from behind M51 through the disk towards the observer and made another disk crossing as recently as 50 to 100 million years ago until it is where we observe it to be now, slightly behind M51.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Star formation.", "content": "The central region of M51 appears to be undergoing a period of enhanced star formation. The present efficiency of star formation, defined as the ratio of mass of new stars to the mass of star-forming gas, is only ~1%, quite comparable to the global value for the Milky Way and other galaxies. It is estimated that the current high rate of star formation can last no more than another 100 million years or so.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transient events.", "content": "Three supernovae have been observed in the Whirlpool Galaxy:  In 1994, SN 1994I was observed in the Whirlpool Galaxy. It was classified as type Ic, indicating that its progenitor star was very massive and had already shed much of its mass, and its brightness peaked at apparent magnitude 12.91.  In June 2005 the type II supernova SN 2005cs was observed in the Whirlpool Galaxy, peaking at apparent magnitude 14.  On 31 May 2011 a type II supernova was detected in the Whirlpool Galaxy, peaking at magnitude 12.1. This supernova, designated SN 2011dh, showed a spectrum much bluer than average, with P Cygni profiles, which indicate rapidly expanding material, in its hydrogen-Balmer lines. The progenitor was probably a yellow supergiant and not a red or blue supergiant, which are thought to be the most common supernova progenitors.  On 22 January 2019, a supernova impostor, designated AT2019abn, was discovered in Messier 51. The transient was later identified as a luminous red nova. The progenitor star was detected in archival Spitzer Space Telescope infrared images. No object could be seen at the position of the transient in archival Hubble images, indicating that the progenitor star was heavily obstructed by interstellar dust. 2019abn peaked at magnitude 17, reaching an intrinsic brightness of formula_1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Companion.", "content": "NGC 5195 (also known as Messier 51b or M51b) is a dwarf galaxy that is interacting with the Whirlpool Galaxy (also known as M51a or NGC 5194). Both galaxies are located approximately 25 million light-years away in the constellation Canes Venatici. Together, the two galaxies are one of the most widely studied interacting galaxy pairs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Galaxy group information.", "content": "The Whirlpool Galaxy is the brightest galaxy in the M51 Group, a small group of galaxies that also includes M63 (the Sunflower Galaxy), NGC 5023, and NGC 5229. This small group may actually be a subclump at the southeast end of a large, elongated group that includes the M101 Group and the NGC 5866 Group, although most group identification methods and catalogs identify the three groups as separate entities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Whirlpool Galaxy, also known as Messier 51a, M51a, and NGC 5194, is an interacting grand-design spiral galaxy with a Seyfert 2 active galactic nucleus. It lies in the constellation Canes Venatici, and was the first galaxy to be classified as a spiral galaxy. Its distance is estimated to be 23 million light-years away from Earth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973414}
{"src_title": "Cat flea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The cat flea belongs to the insect order Siphonaptera which in its adult stage is an obligatory hematophage. Adults of both sexes range from 1–2 mm long and are usually a reddish-brown colour, although the abdomens of gravid females often swell with eggs causing them to appear banded in cream and dark brown. Like all fleas, the cat flea is compressed laterally allowing it to slip between the sometimes dense hairs of its host just above the top layer of the skin, resulting in an extremely thin insect that may be difficult to observe even if the host's coat is pure white.  The cat flea affects both the cat and the dog worldwide. The cat flea can also maintain its life cycle on other carnivores and on omnivores, but these are only chosen when more acceptable hosts become unavailable. Adult cat fleas do not willingly leave their hosts, and inter-animal transfer of \"adult\" fleas is rare except in animals that share sleeping quarters. A flea which becomes separated from its host will often die within hours from starvation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "Fleas go through four life cycle stages of egg, larva, pupa, and imago (adult). Adult fleas must feed on blood before they can become capable of reproduction.  Flea populations are distributed with about 50% eggs, 35% larvae, 10% pupae, and 5% adults.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eggs.", "content": "An adult gravid female flea that has consumed a full blood meal will begin to produce between 20 and 30 microscopic (0.5 mm) non-adhesive white ovoid eggs per day, laying them individually and continually at a rate of about one per hour until she dies (under ideal conditions it might be possible for her to produce between 2,000 and 8,000 eggs in her lifetime, though most only manage to produce around 100 before being consumed by their host during grooming activity). The eggs are dispersed freely into the environment. Within two to seven weeks a certain proportion will then hatch into larvae.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Larvae.", "content": "The larva of the cat flea has a grub-like appearance and is ~2 mm in length. The larvae are negatively phototaxic/phototropic, avoiding light and hiding in the substrate around them. The larvae require adequate ambient moisture and warmth, and will die at temperatures near freezing. While in this developmental stage the larvae will feed on a variety of organic substances, but the most important dietary item for them is the crumbs of dried blood that continually fall like snow out of the haircoat of the host after it has been excreted by the adult fleas as fecal material. Thus, the adult flea population continually feeds the larval population in the animal's environment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pupal stage.", "content": "Flea larvae metamorphose through four stages before spinning a cocoon and entering the pupal stage. The cocoon is adhesive, and quickly acquires a coat of camouflage from surrounding dirt and dust. Pupation depends heavily on temperature and moisture, and takes a week or more to complete, though a fully pupated adult can remain inside of its cocoon in a state of semi-dormancy (called the \"pupal window\") awaiting signs of the presence of a host.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adult.", "content": "Newly emerged fleas use variations in light and shadow along with increases in warmth and CO to detect the presence of a potential host, and will jump to a new host within seconds of emerging from the cocoon. The new flea begins feeding on host blood within minutes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Effects on the hosts.", "content": "A few fleas on adult dogs or cats cause little harm unless the host becomes allergic to substances in the flea's saliva. The disease that results is called flea allergy dermatitis. Small animals with large infestations can lose enough bodily fluid to fleas feeding that dehydration may result. Cat fleas also may be responsible for disease transmission through humans, and have been suspected as transmission agents of plague. Severe flea infestations can result in anemia due to blood loss.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disease transmission.", "content": "Cat fleas can transmit other parasites and infections to dogs and cats and also to humans. The most prominent of these are \"Bartonella\", murine typhus, and apedermatitis. The tapeworm \"Dipylidium caninum\" can be transmitted when an immature flea is swallowed by pets or humans. In addition, cat fleas have been found to carry \"Borrelia burgdorferi\", the etiologic agent of Lyme disease, but their ability to transmit the disease is unclear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Since more than three-quarters of a flea's life is spent somewhere other than on the host animal, it is not adequate to treat only the host; it is important also to treat the host's environment. Thorough vacuuming, washing linens in hot water, and treating all hosts in the immediate environment (the entire household, for example) is essential for successful eradication. These steps should be performed on a regular basis.  <br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The cat flea (scientific name Ctenocephalides felis) is an extremely common parasitic insect whose principal host is the domestic cat, although a high proportion of the fleas found on dogs also belong to this species. This is despite the widespread existence of a separate and well-established \"dog\" flea, \"Ctenocephalides canis\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973415}
{"src_title": "Alarm für Cobra 11 – Die Autobahnpolizei", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The tasks of the Cobra 11 team consist primarily in solving crimes and catching the perpetrators. Typical elements of the action genre are mixed, so that there are regular car crashes, shootouts, explosions and fistfights. These action scenes are elaborately produced in most cases, and appropriately presented in a spectacular way. The high number of unrealistic scenes is a common criticism of the series; for example, large explosions often happen after small collisions while people emerge unharmed out of cars which have sustained catastrophic damage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preamble.", "content": "\"Ihr Revier ist die Autobahn\" (Their precinct is the autobahn)<br> \"Ihr Tempo ist mörderisch\" (They work at break-neck speed)<br> \"Ihre Gegner: Autoschieber, Mörder und Erpresser\" (They're up against car thieves, killers, and extortionists)<br> \"Einsatz rund um die Uhr für die Männer von Cobra 11\" (They're on call around the clock: the men of Cobra 11)<br> \"Unsere Sicherheit ist ihr Job\" (Our safety is their job).  \"Ihr Revier ist die Autobahn\" (Their precinct is the autobahn)<br> \"Ihr Einsatz heißt: volles Tempo\" (Their mission: full speed)<br> \"Ihre Gegner von heute: extrem schnell und gefährlich\" (Their enemies today: extremely fast and dangerous)<br> \"Verbrechen ohne Limit – Jeder Einsatz volles Risiko\" (Crimes without limit – every job at full risk)<br> \"für die Männer von Cobra 11\" (for the men of Cobra 11).  \"Ihr Revier ist die Autobahn.\" (Their precinct is the autobahn) \"Ihre Gegner: extrem schnell und gefährlich.\" (Their enemies: Extremely quick and dangerous) \"Verbrechen ohne Limit.\" (Crimes without limit) \"Jeder Einsatz - volles Risiko\" (Every job: at full risk) \"für die Männer von Cobra 11.\" (for the men of Cobra 11)  \"Ihr Revier ist die Autobahn.\" (Their precinct is the autobahn) \"Ihre Gegner: extrem schnell und gefährlich.\" (Their enemies: Extremely quick and dangerous) \"Volles Risiko\" (Extremely risky) \"für die Männer von Cobra 11.\" (for the men of Cobra 11)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stunts.", "content": "The series is known for its extremely well performed stuntwork, which features the destruction of various vehicles in every episode. Almost every episode has a distinct structure, with at least one daring action sequence and the pre-title sequence usually consisting of the main event (i.e. a devastating crash on the Autobahn). The stuntwork is often so spectacular that it would not look out of place in a full-fledged movie, with cars commonly reaching implausible heights as they vault through the air.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vehicles.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main team vehicles.", "content": "The list below is put in the order of the detectives by the time they joined the police squad of Cobra 11; the cars are listed in the order they were used, as well as their license plate codes. Most of the cars were used by Semir.  Frank Stolte: Audi 100 C3 (TG-A 257, BRB-E 283, BRB-A 404) BMW 325tds E36 (BRB-E 283)  Ingo Fischer: Ford Sierra (SL-K 689, BRB-A 404)  Semir Gerkhan: BMW 323i/328i E36 (HVL-S 199 [black], B-PV 185 [switched to silver], NE-DR 8231); BMW 523i E39 (B-UL 473, B-PW 185); BMW 330i E46 (NE-/:DR 8231); BMW 330i/320si E90 (NE:DR 8231, D:BM 3308); BMW 320d/328i F30 (D:BM 3308)  Andre Fux: BMW 328i E36 (B-DW 8271); Mercedes-Benz C180/C200 W202 (B-DW 8271); Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 C208 (B-DV 8271, NE-LK 3470)  Dieter Bonrath, Hotte Herzberger, and Jenny Dorn: Porsche 996 Carrera (AP-7639, NRW:4-171); Porsche Cayenne Turbo (NRW:4-180); Land Rover Range Rover Sport (NRW:4-180, NRW:4 455); Porsche Cayenne Turbo S (NRW:4 392, NRW:4 418); Porsche 991 Carrera 4S (NRW:4 335); BMW 120d F20 (D:MJ 4495, K:XT 9125)  Tom Kranich: Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 C208 (NE-LK 3470); Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 C209 (NE:LK 3470)  Jan Richter: Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 W208 (NE-LK 3470); Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 W209 (NE:LK 3470)  Chris Ritter: Mercedes-Benz CLK 320 W209 (NE:LK 3470, D:BD 2408 in 'Infarkt'); Mercedes-Benz C350 W204 (D:BD 2408)  Ben Jäger: Mercedes-Benz C350 W204 (D:BD 2408); Mercedes-Benz E500 C207 (D:BD 2408)  Alex Brandt: Mercedes-Benz CLA 250 C117 (D:CL 3508)  Paul Renner: Mercedes-Benz C220d W205 (D:BD 3508)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Backup work vehicles.", "content": "Frank Stolte: BMW 835i E31 (P-RT 241); Saab 99 (BRB-E 283)  Ingo Fischer: N/A  Semir Gerkhan: BMW 325i E36 (UB-E 438); Volkswagen Passat B2 (K:TS 1966) BMW X5 E53 (NE-FL 208, NE:TL 3737); BMW X3 E83 (NE:TL 3737); BMW 330i E90 (NE:TL 3737); Mercedes CLK 320 W209 (D:AA 119); Skoda Octavia Type 1Z (D:AM 391); BMW X6 E71 (D:HB 1711); BMW X1 E84 (K:CM 296, K:ES 453); Mercedes-Benz ML 350 W164 (D:AA 119); BMW X3 F25 (K:QK 789, K:MN 774, K:OI 189); BMW X5 E70 (D:CE 925); BMW 328i F30 (D:EH 304); BMW 528i F10 (D:BM 3308); BMW X4 F26 (D:GC 7646); BMW 535d F10 (D:BH 153); BMW 540i G30 (D:BH 153); BMW 530d G30 (D:BH 153); BMW X5 G05 (D:AN 8596)  Andre Fux: BMW 528i E39 (NE-KH 6321)  Dieter Bonrath, Hotte Herzberger, and Jenny Dorn: Skoda Octavia Type 1U (K:MR 1212, DA:X 9783, K:EA 3245); Lexus RX 300 (K:PR 995); Skoda Octavia Type 1Z (D:AX 9382, DA:X 5879); Mercedes-Benz E350 W211 (NRW:4-180, NRW:4-110); BMW 1 F20 (D:MJ 4495); BMW X1 E84 (NRW:4 372); Kia Cee'd Sportswagon (K:KM 431)  Tom Kranich: Mercedes-Benz SLK 200 R170 (NE:AE 2831)  Jan Richter: Volkswagen Passat B2 (K:PE 4129); Volkswagen Passat Variant B3 (NE:MH 8990)  Chris Ritter: Ford Mondeo Mk I (NE:R 231, K:CC 549); Audi A4 B5 (D:HD 1007)  Ben Jäger: Mercedes-Benz C320 W204 (D:CE 936); BMW 318i E90 (K:ES 476); BMW 320d F30 (D:JE 5127); Mercedes-Benz GL 500 X164 (D:JE 5127); BMW 328i GT F34 (D:CE 928)  Alex Brandt: Mercedes-Benz C180 W205 (K:JM 401)  Paul Renner: Mercedes-Benz GLA 180 X156 (D:BB 343); Mercedes-Benz C300 C205 (D:AF 279)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production locations.", "content": "From 1996 to 1998, the series was produced jointly by Polyphon Film- und Fernsehgesellschaft GmbH (responsible for all other production aspects such as filming/postproduction/location scouting etc.) and ActionConcept (stunts). Those episodes were shot in Berlin, notably in the site of the former Checkpoint Bravo and in the surrounding state of Brandenburg. In 1998, Action Concept took over as the sole production company and shifted all filming/production work to its headquarters in Hürth just south of Cologne. Since then, episodes have been shot in and around Cologne and Düsseldorf as well as on several major Autobahnen (A540/A44 and now mainly on the Filmautobahn Aldenhoven near Düren – ) between Cologne and Düsseldorf in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Game adaptations.", "content": "The series has also spawned numerous game releases in Europe, primarily for PC, but they have generally met with mixed receptions. The latest title is \".\" \"Crash Time\" was also dubbed into English and sold in many other markets worldwide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spin-off.", "content": "In 2002, a spin-off named \"\" (\"Alarm for Cobra 11 – Mission for Team 2\") was started. Because of its limited success, only two seasons were produced.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alarm für Cobra 11 – Die Autobahnpolizei (; ) is a long-running, popular German television series about a two-man team of highway police (Autobahnpolizei), originally set in Berlin and since 1999 in the area of Cologne in North Rhine-Westphalia. The series has been broadcast in 120 countries worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973416}
{"src_title": "Zdislava Berka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Zdislava was from a Moravian family, born in Křižanov, in what is now the Žďár nad Sázavou District of the Czech Republic. She was reportedly an unusually devout child, who at age seven ran away into the forest with the intention of living a hermit's life of prayer and solitude. She was forcibly returned by her family, and made to live a normal childhood from that point on. Later, her family arranged for her to marry Bohemian lord Havel of Markvartice (also known as Gallus of Lämberg or Havel of Lemberk) from prosperous Marquards family, founder of the towns of Jablonné () and Habelschwerdt (now Bystrzyca Kłodzka). Together they would have four children.  As a married woman, Zdislava continued to live a life of remarkable personal austerity, worked tirelessly in the care of the poor and dispossessed, and was, unusually for her era, a frequent recipient of the Eucharist. Tatar invasions of Central Europe (1240–42) were causing large numbers of people to leave their homes during this period, and a large number of refugees sought refuge at the Lemberk Castle in northern Bohemia, where Zdislava lived with her family and assisted these refugees as much as possible.  Her husband was concerned about what he considered the excessive degree of Zdislava's charity to these refugees. In one incident, he is reported to have gone to the bed Zdislava had given to a feverish beggar the night before, but to have found a figure of the crucified Jesus there instead. He is said to have been so impressed by this apparition that he would later allow her to found a Dominican convent in Turnov. Zdislava worked with this convent for the rest of her life, and was eventually buried there.  Several miracles have been attributed to her, including raising from the dead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Shortly after her death Zdislava is reported to have appeared in an apparition to her husband. In 1907, Pope Pius X confirmed her veneration for her native country. She was canonized a saint in 1995 with John Sarkander in a ceremony in Olomouc, Czech Republic, by Pope John Paul II. In artwork, she is commonly depicted as a Dominican tertiary with a crucifix wound around with roses, or lying in the place of a sick person in bed. As a patron saint, she is asked for her intercession in difficult marriages and for people ridiculed for their piety.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zdislava Berka T.O.S.D. (also, Zdislava of Lemberk; 1220–1252) was the wife of Havel of Markvartice, Duke of Lemberk, and is a Czech saint of the Roman Catholic Church. She was a particularly austere and generous woman who founded a convent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973417}
{"src_title": "Ravachol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "François Koenigstein was born in Saint-Chamond, Loire as the eldest child of a Dutch father (Jean Adam Koenigstein) and a French mother (Marie Ravachol). As an adult, he adopted his mother's maiden name as his surname, following years of struggle after his father abandoned the family when François was only eight years old. From that time on he had to support his mother, sister, and brother; he also looked after his nephew. He eventually found work as a dyer's assistant, a job which he later lost. He was very poor throughout his life. For additional income he played accordion at society balls on Sundays at Saint-Étienne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The bombings.", "content": "Ravachol became politically active. He joined the anarchists as well as groups organizing to improve working conditions. Labor unrest resulted in fierce reprisals by police. On 1 May 1891, at Fourmies, a workers' demonstration took place for the eight-hour day; confrontations with the police followed. The police opened fire on the crowd, resulting in nine deaths amongst the demonstrators. The same day, at Clichy, serious incidents erupted in a procession in which anarchists were taking part. Three men were arrested and taken to the commissariat of police. There they were interrogated (and brutalised with beatings, resulting in injuries). A trial (the Clichy Affair) ensued, in which two of the three anarchists were sentenced to prison terms (despite their abuse in jail.) In addition to these events, authorities kept up repression of the communards, which had continued from the time of the insurrection of the Paris Commune of 1871.  Ravachol was aroused to take action in 1892 against members of the judiciary. He placed bombs in the living quarters of the Advocate General, Léon Bulot (executive of the Public Ministry), and Edmond Benoît, the councillor who had presided over the Assises Court during the Clichy Affair.  An informant told of his actions, and Ravachol was arrested on 30 March 1892 for his bombings at the \"Restaurant Véry.\" The day before the trial, anarchists bombed the restaurant where the informant worked. Ravachol was tried at the Assises Court of Seine on 26 April. He was convicted and condemned to prison for life. On 23 June, Ravachol was condemned to death in a second trial at the Assises Court of Loire for three murders. His participation in two of them is disputed (he confessed only to the murder of the hermit of Montbrison, claiming it was due to his own poverty). On 11 July 1892, Ravachol was publicly guillotined.  On 9 December 1893, Auguste Vaillant threw a bomb into the French Chamber of Deputies to avenge Ravachol (the explosion injured one deputy).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The myth of Ravachol.", "content": "Ravachol became a somewhat romanticised symbol of desperate revolt and a number of French songs were composed in his honour, such as \"la Ravachole\", to the tune of \"la Carmagnole\".  Ravachol has also appeared as a minor character in Frank Chadwick's role-playing game \"\" as well as in several of his memoirs.  In 2011, the character of the anarchist \"Claude Ravache\" appeared in the movie \"\". He was clearly inspired by Ravachol.  The 2019 video game developed by ZA/UM, Disco Elysium, takes place in Martinaise, a district of the city of Revachol, a clear reference to Ravachol. Also mentioned in the game is a city known as Koeningsten.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François Claudius Koenigstein, also known as Ravachol (1859–1892), was a French anarchist. He was born on 14 October 1859, at Saint-Chamond, Loire and died by being guillotined on 11 July 1892, at Montbrison after being twice found guilty of complicity in bombings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973418}
{"src_title": "Josef Masopust", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Masopust's first club was lowly \"ZSJ Uhlomost Most\", but \"ZSJ Technomat Teplice\" (renamed to \"ZSJ Vodotechna Teplice\" in 1951) signed him as a 19-year-old left-half and gave him his top-flight debut. Then, in 1952, he joined a Czechoslovak Armed Forces football club under name of \"ATK Praha\" (renamed to \"ÚDA Praha\" in 1953 and to Dukla Prague in Winter 1956). Masopust won eight league championships and three national cups with Dukla. They also reached the semi-finals of the 1966–67 European Cup, losing to the eventual winners of the competition (Celtic).  When he eventually went abroad in 1968, he helped Crossing Molenbeek win promotion to the Belgian first division as player-coach. His coaching career continued at Dukla, however his only Czechoslovak league title as a coach came with Zbrojovka Brno in the 1977–78 season. Later, between 1984 and 1987, he led the Czechoslovakia national football team, overseeing a total of 27 matches. He subsequently had a spell in Indonesia where he coached their national Olympic football team with Milan Bokša between 1988 and 1991.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Masopust made his international debut in October 1954, in a friendly match against Hungary. He helped Czechoslovakia qualify for the 1958 FIFA World Cup, but the team were knocked out after a play-off match against Northern Ireland. Czechoslovakia finished in third place at the 1960 UEFA European Football Championship, losing to the Soviet Union in the semi-final and defeating France in the third place match.  In 1962, Masopust led the Czechoslovakia team that reached the 1962 FIFA World Cup Final, losing to Brazil. He scored the opening goal in the Final, but Brazil came back to win 3–1. Because of his performance at the World Cup Finals, he was named European Footballer of the Year in 1962.  Having represented the Rest of the World team against England in 1963, Masopust was invited to play for a European International XI in the farewell match for Stanley Matthews, when the 50-year-old Matthews retired from football in 1965. Czechoslovakia failed to qualify for the 1966 World Cup; Masopust had only played in one qualification match, a 1–0 defeat against Romania in May 1965. His last international appearance was in May 1966, in a friendly match against the Soviet Union. Overall, he was capped 63 times for his country, scoring ten goals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing style.", "content": "Early in his career, Masopust played as a left half. By the time of the 1962 World Cup, he had moved to the centre half position.  Masopust was in a similar mould to that of the Hungarian József Bozsik; a workhorse of his team, who also created attacking opportunities. He had excellent ball control, which he utilised for both recovering the ball in defence and dribbling past opponents. Like Bozsik, Masopust was also an excellent passer of the ball. He was not great at tackling opponents, but he compensated for this by anticipating his opponents' actions and intercepting their passes.  Shackled by Czechoslovakia's 'no-risk' style philosophy, Masopust's natural inclination for attack was limited, yet he still managed 10 goals in 63 caps for his country. At club level he scored 79 times in 386 appearances for Dukla Prague. Many of his Dukla teammates also played for the national team, which gave them a greater understanding than some of their opponents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International goals.", "content": "\"Scores and results list Czechoslovakia's goal tally first\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "A statue of Masopust was built outside Dukla's Stadion Juliska and was unveiled in June 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Masopust died on 29 June 2015 at his home in Prague at the age of 84. Although no cause of death was given, public Czech Television stated that he had been battling a lengthy serious illness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Dukla Prague", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Czechoslovakia", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Josef Masopust (9 February 1931 – 29 June 2015) was a Czech football player and coach. He played as midfielder and was a key player for Czechoslovakia, helping them reach the 1962 FIFA World Cup Final. He was capped 63 times, scoring 10 goals for his country.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973419}
{"src_title": "Carl Peters", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born at Neuhaus an der Elbe in the Kingdom of Hanover, the son of a Lutheran clergyman. Peters studied history and philosophy at the universities of Göttingen and Tübingen, and at the Humboldt University of Berlin as a student of Heinrich von Treitschke. During 1879 he was awarded a gold medal by the Frederick William University for his dissertation concerning the 1177 Treaty of Venice and habilitated with a treatise concerning Arthur Schopenhauer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "East Africa Company.", "content": "Instead of adopting the career of a teacher, Peters after his studies relocated to London where he resided in the house of his recently widowed maternal uncle Carl Engel on Addison Road. Engel was a distinguished composer and musical essayist, brother-in-law of the ophthalmologist Sir William Bowman, and lived the life of a gentleman. He introduced his nephew into the London society where Peters became acquainted with the British way of life as well as with principles of colonization and imperialism. When he returned to Berlin he initiated the Society for German Colonization \"(Gesellschaft für Deutsche Kolonisation)\" pressure group for the acquisition of colonies. During the autumn of 1884 he proceeded with two companions to East Africa, and concluded in the name of his society treaties with the chiefs of Useguha, Nguru, Ijsagara and Ukami. Returning to Europe early during 1885, he formed the German East Africa Company.  The German government of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, fearing the effect on relations with the British, was originally opposed to these plans, and had refused any funding when Peters began. Bismarck refused a second time when Peters returned to Germany during the last days of the Berlin Conference of 1884, demanding an imperial charter. Peters, however, threatened the Chancellor successfully by threatening to sell his acquisitions to King Leopold II of Belgium who was eager to expand his territory of Congo. As Bismarck's National Liberal Party allies in the Reichstag parliament were pro-colonial anyway, he finally agreed and the charter was granted. This constituted the necessary beginning for further expansion on the East African mainland during the years ensuing. During 1888 Peters achieved an agreement with Sultan Khalifah bin Said of Zanzibar who leased his coastal dominions in what was to be Tanganyika to the German East Africa Company.  During the same year Peters began an expedition from the east coast of Africa, avowedly for the relief of Emin Pasha, actually to extend the area of German influence in Uganda and Equatoria. This expedition was not sanctioned by the German government and was regarded by the British authorities as a filibuster (in the 19th century sense of the word). Reaching Uganda during early 1890, Peters concluded a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga II of Buganda in favour of Germany.  He had to leave Uganda hastily on the approach of an expedition commanded by Frederick Lugard, the representative of the Imperial British East Africa Company. On reaching Zanzibar he learned that his efforts were useless, as on 1 July 1890 the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty between Germany and the UK had been signed, whereby Uganda was left as an area of British influence and Peters' agreement with Mwanga became null and void. Meanwhile, the power of his company had ended when the coastal population rebelled in the Abushiri Revolt against the implementation of the lease agreement between the Sultan and the Germans. The German government had to intervene by sending troops commanded by Hermann Wissmann, ended the insurrection and assumed ownership of the company's possessions as a colony.  Nevertheless, on his return to Germany Peters was received with great honours, and during 1891 published an account of his expedition entitled \"Die deutsche Emin Pasha Expedition\", which was translated into English. He also endorsed the foundation of the \"Alldeutscher Verband\" in protest against the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reichskommissar.", "content": "During 1891 he went out again to East Africa as Reichskommissar (Imperial High Commissioner) for the Kilimanjaro Region in Moshi, however subordinate to Wissmann, and during 1892 was one of the commissioners for delimiting the Anglo-German boundary with the British East Africa Company in that region. During the same time Peters by his brutal behaviour against the local population provoked a rebellion which was to cost him his office. He used local girls as concubines and, when he discovered that his lover Jagodja had an affair with his man-servant Mabruk, he had both of them sentenced for theft and treason and hanged by a court-martial and their home villages destroyed. The incident, at first not reported by Peters, provoked resistance by the local Chaga people and again necessitated costly military action.  Peters was recalled to Berlin and employed in the Imperial Colonial Office from 1893 to 1895, while official accusations were brought against him of excesses in regard to his treatment of the native population. In a session of the Reichstag on 13 March 1896 August Bebel, chairman of the Social Democratic Party, finally made the killings public, citing from a self-exculpatory letter by Peters to Bishop Alfred Tucker. Peters denied the authenticity of the letter but had to admit the executions. After three investigations he was, during 1897, dishonorably deprived of his commission for misuse of official power, losing all his pension benefits.  He evaded the final sentence and further criminal prosecution by relocating to London, where he occupied himself with schemes for exploiting parts of Rhodesia and Portuguese East Africa. In the interests of a gold mining company he formed, Peters explored the Fura district and Macombes country on the Zambezi river, where during 1899 he discovered ruins of cities and deserted gold mines of the medieval Kingdom of Mutapa, which he identified as the legendary ancient lands of Ophir. He returned during 1901 and gave an account of his explorations in \"Im Goldland des Altertums\" (The Eldorado of the Ancients) (1902). During 1905 he again visited the region between the rivers Zambezi and Save.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Besides the books already mentioned and some smaller treatises Peters published a philosophical work entitled \"Willenswelt und Weltwille\" (1883), and a disquisition on early gold production entitled \"Das goldene Ophir Salomo's\" (1895), translated into English during 1898.  Among colonial minded people he was feted as a national hero. During 1914 he was able to return to Germany, after Emperor Wilhelm II by personal decree had bestowed upon him the right to use the title of an Imperial Commissioner again and had given him a pension from his personal budget, while the sentence by the disciplinary court remained in effect. Peters was rehabilitated officially by personal decree of Adolf Hitler 20 years after his death. A propaganda movie \"Carl Peters\" by Herbert Selpin was released during 1941, featuring Hans Albers.  A number of towns in Germany had streets named after Peters but during recent years some of them received different names after debate concerning his legacy. For example, \"Petersallee\" in the Afrikanisches Viertel in Berlin was originally named after Carl Peters, but was rededicated during 1986 to Hans Peters, a member of the anti-Nazi resistance.  Critics among Social Democrats, Catholic and Free-minded politicians considered Peters a national shame. The Austrian Africanist Oscar Baumann referred to him as \"half crazy\". One of his nicknames in the German critical press was \"Hänge-Peters\" (\"Hangman-Peters\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carl Peters (27 September 1856 – 10 September 1918), was a German colonial ruler, explorer, politician and author and a major promoter of the establishment of the German colony of East Africa (part of the modern republic Tanzania). A proponent of Social Darwinism and the \"Völkisch\" philosophy, his attitude towards the indigenous population made him one of the most controversial colonizers even during his lifetime.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973420}
{"src_title": "Unsinkable Sam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The cat's original name is unknown. The name \"Oscar\" was given by the crew of the British destroyer HMS \"Cossack\" that rescued him from the sea following the sinking of the German battleship \"Bismarck\". \"Oscar\" was derived from the International Code of Signals for the letter 'O', which is code for \"Man Overboard\" (the German spelling, \"Oskar\", was sometimes used since he was a German cat).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Bismarck\".", "content": "The black and white patched cat was supposedly owned by an unknown crewman of the German battleship \"Bismarck\" and was on board the ship on 18 May 1941 when she set sail on Operation \"Rheinübung\" (German for Rhine Exercise), \"Bismarck\"s only mission. \"Bismarck\" was sunk after a fierce sea-battle on 27 May, from which only 115 from her crew of over 2,100 survived. Hours later, Oscar was found floating on a board and picked from the water by the British destroyer HMS \"Cossack\". Unaware of what his name had been on \"Bismarck\", the crew of \"Cossack\" named their new mascot \"Oscar\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "HMS \"Cossack\".", "content": "The cat served on board \"Cossack\" for the next few months as the ship carried out convoy escort duties in the Mediterranean Sea and north Atlantic Ocean. On 24 October 1941, \"Cossack\" was escorting a convoy from Gibraltar to Great Britain when she was severely damaged by a torpedo fired by the. Crew were transferred to the destroyer, and an attempt was made to tow the badly listing \"Cossack\" back to Gibraltar. However, worsening weather conditions meant the task became impossible and had to be abandoned. On 27 October, a day after the tow was slipped, \"Cossack\" sank to the west of Gibraltar. The initial explosion had blown off one third of the forward section of the ship, killing 159 of the crew, but Oscar survived this too and was brought to the shore establishment in Gibraltar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "HMS \"Ark Royal\".", "content": "Now nicknamed \"Unsinkable Sam\", the cat was soon transferred to the aircraft carrier, which coincidentally had been instrumental in the destruction of \"Bismarck\" (along with \"Cossack\"). However, Sam was to find no more luck there, and when returning from Malta on 14 November 1941 this ship too was torpedoed, this time by. Attempts were also made to tow \"Ark Royal\" to Gibraltar, but the unstoppable inflow of water made the task futile. The carrier rolled over and sank 30 miles from Gibraltar. The slow rate at which the ship sank meant that all but one of the crew could be saved. The survivors, including Sam, who had been found clinging to a floating plank by a Motor Launch and described as \"angry but quite unharmed\", were transferred to HMS \"Lightning\" and the same HMS \"Legion\" which had rescued the crew of \"Cossack\". \"Legion\" would itself be sunk in 1942, and \"Lightning\" in 1943.  The loss of \"Ark Royal\" proved the end of Sam's shipborne career. He was transferred first to the offices of the Governor of Gibraltar and then sent back to the United Kingdom, where he saw out the remainder of the war living in a seaman's home in Belfast called the \"Home for Sailors\". Sam died in 1955. A pastel portrait of Sam (titled \"Oscar, the Bismarck's Cat\") by the artist Georgina Shaw-Baker is in the possession of the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historicity.", "content": "Some authorities question whether Oskar/Sam's biography might be a \"sea story\", because – for example – there are pictures of two different cats identified as Oskar/Sam. The sinking of \"Bismarck\" and rescue of a limited number of survivors took place in desperate conditions; British ships were ordered not to stop as there was believed to be a U-boat in the area, and many survivors were left to die of exposure. Pointedly, there is no mention of this incident in Ludovic Kennedy's detailed account of the sinking, suggesting that information later gleaned from sailors regarding the cat's true service were apocryphal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Unsinkable Sam (also known as Oskar or Oscar) is the apocryphal nickname of a ship's cat who purportedly served during World War II with both the Kriegsmarine and the Royal Navy and survived the sinking of three ships.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973421}
{"src_title": "Andreas Ivanschitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Born in Eisenstadt, Ivanschitz began his football career as a youth in his town's local team called ASK Baumgarten, where he spent nine years. Soon, Rapid Wien scouts found out about his talent and in 1998, he signed his first professional contract with the Austrian champions. He was only 16 years old when he wore his team's shirt during an Austrian Cup match against Ranshofen on 26 October 1999. His first official League match was in 2000 against Wüstenrot Salzburg. In 177 games for Rapid Wien, Ivanschitz scored 27 times, winning the Austrian Championship title in 2004–05. In 2003, he was elected \"Austrian Footballer of the Year.\"  In January 2006, Ivanschitz transferred to Red Bull Salzburg and then to Greek Super League club Panathinaikos in August 2006 on a two-year loan. On 20 June 2008, Ivanschitz agreed on a permanent deal with Panathinaikos.  After three years in Greece with Panathinaikos he agreed on 18 July 2009 on a two-year loan with 1. FSV Mainz 05 with the view to a two-year permanent contract in the summer of 2011. Mainz took advantage of this contract option prematurely, and signed Ivanschitz permanently in January 2011.  On 10 June 2013, Ivanschitz left Mainz for Levante UD. He scored his first goal in La Liga on 31 August, the winner with the last kick of a 2–1 home win over Rayo Vallecano. He finished his first season in Spain with three goals from 29 games, the last being in a 2–0 win over city rivals Valencia CF on 10 May.  On 4 August 2015, he signed with Seattle Sounders FC in Major League Soccer. After suffering from an injury his debut was postponed to 13 September where he assisted a late Obafemi Martins goal to tie up the game against San Jose Earthquakes. Ivanschitz converted Seattle's second kick from the spot in the 2016 MLS Cup penalty shootout, which the Sounders eventually won after six rounds, securing their first MLS Cup Title.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Ivanschitz made his debut for Austria in a February 2003 friendly match against Greece, coming on as a substitute for Markus Weissenberger. He was also a participant at the UEFA Euro 2008. He has earned 69 caps for Austria and has scored 12 goals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Rapid Wien  Seattle Sounders", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Ivanschitz comes from a musical family and plays various musical instruments in his spare time. He is a part of the Burgenland Croat community.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andreas Ivanschitz (; born 15 October 1983) is an Austrian retired footballer who played as an attacking midfielder. During the career, Ivanschitz played for Rapid Wien, Red Bull Salzburg, 1.FSV Mainz 05, Levante, Seattle Sounders FC and Viktoria Plzen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973422}
{"src_title": "Matilda of England, Duchess of Saxony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Upon the disputed Papal election of 1159 and the succeeding schism, King Henry II established closer ties to the Holy Roman Empire; particularly when he himself came into conflict with the English clergy led by Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. Sent by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, the Cologne archbishop Rainald of Dassel arrived at the court of King Henry II at Rouen in 1165 to negotiate an English–German matrimonial alliance and the Welf duke Henry the Lion was chosen as a match for Matilda. There was conflict during the negotiations, however, when Robert de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Leicester refused to greet the German archbishop, alleging him to be a schismatic and a supporter of the anti-pope, Victor IV. The original plan to match the second daughter of King Henry II, Eleanor Plantagenet, with a son of Emperor Frederick, was abandoned, and instead, Matilda left England with a large dowry in September 1167.  Matilda married Henry the Lion, then Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, on 1 February 1168 at Minden Cathedral in Saxony. The Welf duke had divorced from his first wife, Clementia of Zähringen, in 1162. He and Matilda had four sons and one daughter:  Three other children are listed, by some sources, as having belonged to Henry and Matilda:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regency and exile.", "content": "At the time of their marriage, Duke Henry the Lion was one of the most powerful allies of the Hohenstaufen emperor, and his royal consort added to his dominant position. Matilda governed her husband's vast estates during his pilgrimage to the Holy Land from 1172 to 1173. Back in Germany, Henry built up his residence in Brunswick, where he and Matilda held a magnificent court at Dankwarderode Castle. They had Brunswick Cathedral erected from 1173 onwards and initiated the \"Lucidarius\", the first original German language work in prose, as well as the Gospels of Henry the Lion, a masterpiece of Romanesque book illumination.  Soon after, however, Henry the Lion became involved in a fierce conflict with Emperor Frederick. Allegedly, both men fell out with each other, when they met in Chiavenna in 1176, and Henry refused to support the emperor in his fight against the Italian Lombard League. Frederick's forces were defeated in the Battle of Legnano and the emperor had to make peace with the hostile Pope Alexander III. A number of rivaling princes intrigued against Henry and the duke was finally declared deposed in 1180. Henry submitted to the emperor in November 1181; nevertheless, he and his family were forced to flee Germany and take refuge in Normandy at the court of Matilda's father in 1182. During this time at the royal court at Argentan, Matilda became acquainted with the troubadour Bertran de Born, who, calling her \"Elena\" or \"Lana\", made her the object of his desire in two of his poems of \"courtly love\".  Matilda, her husband, and their family remained under the protection and financial support of King Henry II until 1185, when, by the mediation of the English monarch, they were allowed to return to Saxony. Any hopes to regain the Saxon and Bavarian duchies were disappointed. Early in 1189, the emperor gave Henry the Lion a choice to accompany him on the Third Crusade or go into exile. Henry returned to England, while this time Matilda remained at Brunswick to defend the interests of her husband. However, she died three months later at the age of 33, 8 days before her father. After her death, her husband again entered Germany and finally reconciled with Emperor Frederick's son Henry VI. In 1194, his first-born son Henry the Elder was enfeoffed with the County Palatine of the Rhine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Matilda of England (, also called Maud; 6 January 1156 – 28 June 1189) was the eldest daughter of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. Through her marriage with the Welf duke Henry the Lion, she was Duchess consort of Saxony and Bavaria from 1168 until her husband's deposition in 1180. She was named after her grandmother Matilda of England.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973423}
{"src_title": "Norwegian Lundehund", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Norwegian Lundehund is a small, rectangular Spitz type dog. The Lundehund has a great range of motion in its joints, allowing it to fit into and extricate itself from narrow passages. Dogs of this breed are able to bend their head backwards along their own spine and turn their forelegs to the side at a 90-degree horizontal angle to their body, much like human arms. Their pricked, upright ears can be folded shut to form a near-tight seal by folding forward or backward.  The Norwegian Lundehund is a polydactyl: instead of the normal four toes per foot, the Lundehund normally has six toes, all fully formed, jointed and muscled. Some specimens may on occasion have more or fewer than six toes per foot, but this is then outside the breed standard.  The outercoat is dense and rough with a soft undercoat. The Lundehund is adapted to climb narrow cliff paths in Værøy where it originally would have hunted puffins. Some general information can be found on the Norwegian Lundehund Association webpages", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Lundehund was a valuable working animal, essential in hunting puffin birds along the Norwegian coast for food as well as the commercial export of puffin down from the Viking Age through the 16th and 17th centuries. Its flexibility and extra toes were ideal for hunting the birds in their inaccessible nesting locations on cliffs and in caves. Interest for the breed declined when new methods for hunting puffins were incorporated and a dog tax was created. Around 1900, they were only found in the isolated village of Mostad (spelled Måstad in Norwegian), Lofoten. The breed was nearly extinct around World War II when canine distemper struck Værøy and the surrounding islands. In 1963, the population was further decimated by another outbreak of distemper. This time, only six dogs survived, one on Værøy and five in southern Norway, Hamar. The latter five were from the same mother. This created a population bottleneck. Due to careful breeding with strict guidelines, there are now an estimated 1400 dogs in the world (2010), with around 600 of the population in Norway and ~350 in the United States.  The breed is being tested in Tromsø airport by the Norwegian Air Traffic and Airport Management as a solution to airplane bird strikes. The dog is used to search for bird eggs around the airport for disposal.  Height:. Weight: ; there is no weight range in the American Kennel Club breed standard. The Norwegian Lundehund Association of America, Inc. is recognized by the AKC as the Breed Parent Club for the USA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "A minor issue with the Lundehund is gastroenteropathy which is a set of digestive disorders, and a loss of ability to absorb nutrients from food. In extreme cases the dog can starve due to its inability to derive nutrients and protein from food, regardless of food intake. It is uncertain or not if all Lundehunds have the genetics to have this illness, since not every Lundehund is severely afflicted and some are symptom free. There is no cure, though the disease can be managed. There are indications that for the Lundehund to go on a low fat and higher protein diet has very positive effects on the health with respect to digestive problems.  Primarily the breed suffers from a very high inbreeding. This leads to low fertility, short lifespans, and high puppy mortality. The breed was threatened by extinction and is now undergoing a crossbreeding program spearheaded by the Norwegian Lundehund club with assistance from a group of geneticists. The program aims to employ a strategy of breeding the Norwegian Lundehund with various other Nordic dog breeds in order to reduce deleterious recessive genetic disorders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "AKC recognition.", "content": "The Norwegian Lundehund was approved into the American Kennel Club's Non-Sporting Group on July 1, 2008, after a unanimous vote by the AKC Board of Directors on November 13, 2007. The Lundehund made its AKC conformation debut at the Roaring Fork Kennel Club show in Eagle, Colorado on July 12, 2008. It made its introductory premier at a major US event at the AKC/Eukanuba National Championship in Long Beach, California, on December 13 and 14, 2008.  On February 12, 2010, the Board of Directors of the American Kennel Club voted to accept the Norwegian Lundehund into the AKC stud book on December 1, 2010. On January 1, 2011, it became a part of the Non-Sporting Group.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Norwegian Lundehund (\"Norsk lundehund\") is a small dog breed of the Spitz type that originates from Norway. Its name is a compound noun composed of the elements \"lunde\", meaning puffin (Norwegian \"lunde\", \"puffin\", or \"lundefugl\", \"puffin-bird\"), and \"hund\", meaning dog. The breed was originally developed for the hunting of puffins and their eggs on inaccessible nesting places on cliffs and in caves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973424}
{"src_title": "Snowman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "Snow becomes suitable for packing when it approaches its melting point and becomes moist and compact. Making a snowman of powdered snow is difficult since it will not stick to itself, and if the temperature of packing snow drops, it will form an unusable denser form of powdered snow called crust. Thus, a good time to build a snowman may be the next warm afternoon directly following a snowfall with a sufficient amount of snow. Using more compact snow allows for the construction of a large snowball by simply rolling it until it grows to the desired size. If the snowball reaches the bottom of the grass it may pick up traces of grass, gravel or dirt.  In North America, snowmen are generally built with three spheres representing the head, torso, and lower body. In the United Kingdom, two spheres are used, one sphere representing the body and one representing the head. The usual practice is to then decorate and optionally dress the snowman. Sticks can be used for arms, and a face is traditionally made with stones or coal for eyes and a carrot for a nose. Some like to dress their snowmen in clothing such as a scarf or hat, while others prefer not to risk leaving supplies out doors where they could easily be stolen or become stuck under melting ice.  There are variations to these standard forms; for instance, the popular song \"Frosty the Snowman\" describes a snowman being decorated with a corncob pipe, button nose, coal eyes and an old silk hat (usually depicted as a top hat). These other types range from snow columns to elaborate snow sculptures similar to ice sculptures.  One book describes classic snowman attachments as a black felt top hat, red scarf, coal eye pieces, carrot nose, and corn cob pipe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Documentation of the first snowman is unclear. However, Bob Eckstein, author of \"The History of the Snowman\" documented snowmen from medieval times, by researching artistic depictions in European museums, art galleries, and libraries. The earliest documentation he found was a marginal illustration from a 1380 book of hours, found in the Koninklijke Bibliotheek in The Hague. The earliest known photograph of a snowman was taken in 1853 by Welsh photographer Mary Dillwyn, the original of which is in the collections of the National Library of Wales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In media.", "content": "Snowmen are a popular theme for Christmas and winter decorations and also in children's media. A famous snowman character is Frosty, the titular snowman in the popular holiday song \"Frosty the Snowman\" (later adapted into film and television specials), who was magically brought to life by the old silk hat used on his head. In addition to numerous related music and other media for Frosty, snow-men also feature as:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Snowman-themed items.", "content": "Snowmen can also be a theme for toys, costumes, and decorations. They have been featured on New Year stamps, for example, in Russia and other post-Soviet states.  One common time for snowman-themed decorations is during the winter holiday and Christmas season, where it is celebrated. One craft book suggested a plan making a small snowman doll out of white glove, ribbon, and other craft supplies.  One book on snowmen, which included instructions on working with real snow, also mentions snowman-themed sweets and confections. Some options for snowman-themed dessert items include ice cream, marshmallows, and macaroons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Giant snowmen and records.", "content": "In 2015, a man from the U.S. State of Wisconsin was noted for making a large snowman 22 feet tall and with a base 12 feet wide.  The record for the world's largest snowman was set in 2008 in Bethel, Maine. The snow-woman stood in height, and was named in honor of Olympia Snowe, a U.S. Senator representing the state of Maine.  The previous record was also a snowman built in Bethel, Maine, in February 1999. The snowman was named \"Angus, King of the Mountain\" in honor of the then current governor of Maine, Angus King. It was tall and weighed over.  A large snowman known as \"Snowzilla\" has been built each winter in Anchorage, Alaska.  In December 2016 the smallest snowman of sorts was created in a nano-fabrication facility at University of Western Ontario. It consisted of three roughly 0.9 micron spheres of silica, platinum arms and nose, and a face made by an ion beam.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "In addition to snowmen, other things can be produced. Typical variations on the snowman concept involve producing other snow creatures or snow decorations. The Yuki-Cone, named after the Japanese word for snow, involves building a small cone-shaped structure from snowballs, illuminated from the inside with a tea-light.  Sometimes other raw material might be used to create objects that mimic the snowman concept.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Japan.", "content": "In Japanese, snowmen are called \"Yukidaruma\" (). Possibly because the shape is related to a Daruma doll, they usually only have two sections instead of three. There is also a longstanding tradition in Japan of creating snow rabbits, or \"Yukiusagi\" ().", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A snowman is an anthropomorphic snow sculpture often built in regions with sufficient snowfall. In many places, typical snowmen consist of three large snowballs of different sizes with some additional accoutrements for facial and other features. Due to the sculptability of snow, there is also a wide variety of other styles. Common accessories include branches for arms and a rudimentary smiley face, with a carrot used for a nose. Clothing, such as a hat or scarf, may be included. Low cost and availability are the common issues, since snowmen are usually abandoned to the elements once completed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973425}
{"src_title": "Pierre Janssen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life, work, and interests.", "content": "Janssen was born in Paris into a cultivated family. His father, Antoine César Janssen (born in Paris, 1780 – 1860) was a well known clarinettist from Dutch/Belgian descent (his father emigrated from Walloon Brabant to Paris). His mother Pauline Marie Le Moyne (1789 – 1871) was a daughter of the architect Paul Guillaume Le Moyne.  Pierre Janssen studied mathematics and physics at the faculty of sciences. He taught at the Lycée Charlemagne in 1853, and in the school of architecture 1865 – 1871, but his energies were mainly devoted to various scientific missions entrusted to him. Thus in 1857 he went to Peru in order to determine the magnetic equator; in 1861–1862 and 1864, he studied telluric absorption in the solar spectrum in Italy and Switzerland; in 1867 he carried out optical and magnetic experiments at the Azores; he successfully observed both transits of Venus, that of 1874 in Japan, that of 1882 at Oran in Algeria; and he took part in a long series of solar eclipse-expeditions, e.g. to Trani (1867), Guntur (1868), Algiers (1870), Siam (1875), the Caroline Islands (1883), and to Alcosebre in Spain (1905). To see the eclipse of 1870, he escaped from the Siege of Paris in a balloon. Unfortunately the eclipse was obscured from him by cloud.  In the year 1874, Janssen invented the Revolver of Janssen or Photographic Revolver, instrument that originated the chronophotography. Later this invention was of great use for researchers like Etienne Jules Marey to carry out exhibitions and inventions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery of helium.", "content": "In 1868 Janssen discovered how to observe solar prominences without an eclipse. While observing the solar eclipse of 18 August 1868, at Guntur, Madras State (now in Andhra Pradesh), British India, he noticed bright lines in the spectrum of the chromosphere, showing that the chromosphere is gaseous. Present in the spectrum of the Sun, though not immediately noticed or commented upon, was a bright yellow line later measured to have a wavelength of 587.49 nm. This was the first observation of this particular spectral line, and one possible source for it was an element not yet discovered on the earth. From the brightness of the spectral lines, Janssen realized that the chromospheric spectrum could be observed even without an eclipse, and he proceeded to do so.  On 20 October, Joseph Norman Lockyer in England set up a new, relatively powerful spectroscope. He also observed the emission spectrum of the chromosphere, including the same yellow line. Within a few years, he worked with a chemist and they concluded that it could be caused by an unknown element, after unsuccessfully testing to see if it were some new type of hydrogen. This was the first time a chemical element was discovered on an extraterrestrial body before being found on the earth. Lockyer and the English chemist Edward Frankland named the element after the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (\"helios\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Observatories.", "content": "At the great Indian eclipse of 1868 that occurred in Guntur, Janssen also demonstrated the gaseous nature of the red prominences, and devised a method of observing them under ordinary daylight conditions. One main purpose of his spectroscopic inquiries was to answer the question whether the Sun contains oxygen or not. An indispensable preliminary was the virtual elimination of oxygen-absorption in the Earth's atmosphere, and his bold project of establishing an observatory on the top of Mont Blanc was prompted by a perception of the advantages to be gained by reducing the thickness of air through which observations have to be made. This observatory, the foundations of which were fixed in the hard ice that appeared to cover the summit to a depth of over ten metres, was built in September 1893, and Janssen, in spite of his sixty-nine years, made the ascent and spent four days taking observations.  In 1875, Janssen was appointed director of the new astrophysical observatory established by the French government at Meudon, and set on foot there in 1876 the remarkable series of solar photographs collected in his great \"Atlas de photographies solaires\" (1904). The first volume of the \"Annales de l'observatoire de Meudon\" was published by him in 1896. (see also Meudon Great Refractor)  Janssen was the President of the Société Astronomique de France (SAF), the French astronomical society, from 1895–1897.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International Meridian Conference.", "content": "In 1884 he took part in the International Meridian Conference.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death, honors, and legacy.", "content": "Janssen died at Meudon on 23 December 1907 and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, with the name \"J. Janssen\" inscribed on his tomb. During his life he was made a Knight of the Legion of Honor and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London.  Craters on both Mars and the Moon are named in his honor. The public square in front of Meudon Observatory is named \"Place Jules Janssen\" after him. Two major prizes carry his name: the Prix Jules Janssen of the French Astronomical Society, and the Janssen Medal of the French Academy of Sciences.  Janssen named minor planet 225 Henrietta discovered by Johann Palisa, after his wife, Henrietta.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Jules César Janssen (22 February 1824 – 23 December 1907), also known as Jules Janssen, was a French astronomer who, along with English scientist Joseph Norman Lockyer, is credited with discovering the gaseous nature of the solar chromosphere, and with some justification the element helium.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973426}
{"src_title": "Haggis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and etymology.", "content": "Haggis is popularly assumed to be of Scottish origin, but many countries have produced similar dishes, albeit with different names. However, the recipes as known and standardised now are distinctly Scottish. The first known written recipes for a dish of the name, made with offal and herbs, are as \"hagese\", in the verse cookbook \"Liber Cure Cocorum\" dating from around 1430 in Lancashire, north west England, and, as \"hagws of a schepe\" from an English cookbook also of c. 1430.  The Scottish poem, \"Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedy\", which is dated before 1520 (the generally accepted date prior to the death of William Dunbar, one of the composers), refers to 'haggeis'.  An early printed recipe for haggis appears in 1615 in \"The English Huswife\" by Gervase Markham. It contains a section entitled \"Skill in Oate meale\": \"The use and vertues of these two severall kinds of Oate-meales in maintaining the Family, they are so many (according to the many customes of many Nations) that it is almost impossible to recken all\"; and then proceeds to give a description of \"oat-meale mixed with blood, and the Liver of either Sheepe, Calfe or Swine, maketh that pudding which is called the Haggas or Haggus, of whose goodnesse it is in vaine to boast, because there is hardly to be found a man that doth not affect them.\" (Gervase Markham, \"The English Huswife\")  Food writer Alan Davidson suggests that the ancient Romans were the first known to have made products of the haggis type. Haggis was \"born of necessity, as a way to utilize the least expensive cuts of meat and the innards as well\".  Clarissa Dickson Wright says that it \"came to Scotland in a longship [i.e., from Scandinavia] even before Scotland was a single nation\". She cites etymologist Walter William Skeat as further suggestion of possible Scandinavian origins: Skeat claimed that the \"hag–\" element of the word is derived from the Old Norse \"haggw\" or the Old Icelandic \"hoggva\" (\"höggva\" meaning 'to chop' in modern Icelandic), Modern Scots \"hag\", meaning 'to hew' or strike with a sharp weapon, relating to the chopped-up contents of the dish.  In her book, \"The Haggis: A Little History\", Dickson Wright suggests that haggis was invented as a way of cooking quick-spoiling offal near the site of a hunt, without the need to carry along an additional cooking vessel. The liver and kidneys could be grilled directly over a fire, but this treatment was unsuitable for the stomach, intestines, or lungs. Chopping up the lungs and stuffing the stomach with them and whatever fillers might have been on hand, then boiling the assembly – probably in a vessel made from the animal's hide – was one way to make sure these parts were not wasted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Folklore.", "content": "In the absence of hard facts as to haggis' origins, popular folklore has provided some notions. One is that the dish originates from the days of the old Scottish cattle drovers. When the men left the Highlands to drive their cattle to market in Edinburgh, the women would prepare rations for them to eat during the long journey down through the glens. They used the ingredients that were most readily available in their homes and conveniently packaged them in a sheep's stomach allowing for easy transportation during the journey. Other speculations have been based on Scottish slaughtering practices. When a chieftain or laird required an animal to be slaughtered for meat (whether sheep or cattle) the workmen were allowed to keep the offal as their share.  A joke sometimes maintained is that a haggis is a small Scottish animal with longer legs on one side, so that it can run around the steep hills of the Scottish highlands without falling over. According to one poll, 33 percent of American visitors to Scotland believed haggis to be an animal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern use.", "content": "Haggis is traditionally served as part of the Burns supper on or near January 25, the birthday of Scotland's national poet Robert Burns. Burns wrote the poem \"Address to a Haggis\", which starts \"Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face, Great chieftain o' the puddin-race!\" In Burns's lifetime haggis was a common dish of the poor as it was nourishing yet very cheap, being made from leftover parts of sheep otherwise discarded.  Haggis is widely available in supermarkets in Scotland all year, with cheaper brands normally packed in artificial casings, rather than stomachs. Sometimes haggis is sold in tins or a container which can be cooked in a microwave or conventional oven. Some commercial haggis is largely made from pig, rather than sheep, offal. Kosher haggis, not only pork-free but fully conformant to Jewish dietary laws, is produced.  Haggis is often served in Scottish fast-food establishments, in the shape of a large sausage and deep fried in batter. Together with chips, this comprises a \"haggis supper\". A \"haggis burger\" is a patty of fried haggis served on a bun. A \"haggis pakora\" is another deep fried variant, available in some Indian restaurants in Scotland. Haggis can be used as an ingredient in other dishes, even pizza, rather than the main part of a dish.  A traditional haggis recipe describes haggis as \"sheep's 'pluck' (heart, liver, and lungs), minced with onion, oatmeal, suet, spices, and salt, mixed with stock, and traditionally encased in the animal's stomach and boiled\". Ingredients are sheep stomach, heart and lungs of one lamb, onions, oatmeal, salt, pepper, stock, and water, with optional ingredients dried coriander, cinnamon, and nutmeg. It can be boiled, baked, or deep fried.  In the north-east of Scotland, from Aberdeen northwards, in addition to the customary neeps and tatties, haggis is commonly served with mince.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vegetarian haggis.", "content": "Vegetarian haggis was first available commercially in 1984, and now can account for between 25 - 40% of haggis sales. It substitutes various pulses, nuts and vegetables for the meat. Oats and barley may be included as may different types of lentils, split peas, aduki beans, kidney beans, borlotti beans, peanuts, other nuts and mushrooms, onions, and carrots.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Outside Scotland.", "content": "Haggis remains popular with Scottish immigrants in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, owing to the strong influence of Scottish culture, especially for Burns Suppers. It can easily be made in any country, but is sometimes imported from Scotland. A recipe from the Canadian province of New Brunswick uses pork and bakes it in a loaf pan.  In 1971 it became illegal to import haggis into the US from the UK due to a ban on food containing sheep lung, which constitutes 10–15% of the traditional recipe. The ban encompasses all lungs, as fluids such as stomach acid and phlegm may enter the lung during slaughter. The situation was further complicated in 1989 when all UK beef and lamb was banned from importation to the US due to a BSE crisis. In 2010 a spokeswoman for the US Department of Agriculture stated that they were reviewing the ban on beef and lamb products, but that the ban on food containing sheep lung would remain in force.  As haggis cannot be exported to the United States, it is instead made there, sometimes by Scottish companies. One such uses what is stated to be the same 150-year-old recipe and ingredients as in Scotland, except that sheep lung is not used, and the casing is always artificial.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Haggis () is a savoury pudding containing sheep's pluck (heart, liver, and lungs), minced with onion, oatmeal, suet, spices, and salt, mixed with stock, and cooked while traditionally encased in the animal's stomach though now often in an artificial casing instead. According to the 2001 English edition of the \"Larousse Gastronomique\": \"Although its description is not immediately appealing, haggis has an excellent nutty texture and delicious savoury flavour\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973427}
{"src_title": "Pyatigorsk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The name is derived from the fused Russian words \"\" (\"five mountains\") and the city is so called because of the five peaks of the Beshtau (which also means \"five mountains\" in Turkic) of the Caucasian mountain range overlooking the city. It was founded in 1780, and has been a health spa with mineral springs since 1803. Pyatigorsk is one of the oldest spa resorts in Russia. The health resort provides unique medical resources, and its underground wealth supplies 50 different mineral springs, medical mud taken from Lake Tambukan located from Pyatigorsk, and the mild climate of the area. It is one of 116 historical towns of the Russian Federation.  Russian poet Mikhail Lermontov was shot in a duel at Pyatigorsk on July 27, 1841. There is a museum in the city devoted to his memory. The Zionist activist Joseph Trumpeldor was born in Pyatigorsk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The writings of the 14th-century Arabian traveler Ibn Battuta included the earliest known mention of the mineral springs. Peter the Great (reigned 1682-1725) fostered the earliest scientific study of them, but the information collected on his expedition has not survived. Interest revived at the end of the 18th century with the foundation of the first Russian settlement (Konstantinogorskaya fortress), erected at Mt. Mashuk in 1780.  The value of the Caucasian mineral waters led to the construction of a resort in 1803, and studies of their medical properties began thereafter: on April 24, Alexander I signed a decree which made the mineral waters state property. Many settlements developed near the springs: first Goryachevodsk (now part of Pyatigorsk) at the bottom of Mt. Mashuk, then Kislovodsk, Yessentuki, and Zheleznovodsk.  During World War II the German Wehrmacht temporarily occupied Pyatigorsk. The Einsatzkommando 12 of Einsatzgruppe D had its headquarters in Pyatigorsk in 1942. The German occupation resulted in the killing of many Jewish inhabitants of the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography and climate.", "content": "The city is situated on a small plateau, above sea level, at the foot of Beshtau, Mashuk, and three other outliers of the Caucasus Mountains, which protect it on the north. The snow-covered summits of Mount Elbrus are visible to the south.  The climate of Pyatigorsk falls within humid continental (Dfb) classification under the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system and is characterized by absence of sharp fluctuations of annual and daily temperatures. Summers are steadily warm with the average July temperature of while winters, lasting two to three months, are cold, with the average January temperature of. Spring is cool, with a sharp transition by the summer, and a warm, dry, and long fall. There are an average of ninety-eight sunny days in a year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with two urban-type settlements (Goryachevodsky and Svobody) and five rural localities, incorporated as the city of krai significance of Pyatigorsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of krai significance of Pyatigorsk is incorporated as Pyatigorsk Urban Okrug.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The industry of Pyatigorsk is primarily oriented towards service of the health resort. There is also food industry (a meat-processing plant, a winery, a dairy, a brewery, a confectionery), textiles (clothing, shoe plant, carpet factories), machine industry and metal working (PО \"Pyatigorskselmash\" specializes in machines and equipment for aviculture; a special automobile equipment works, an electromechanical plant, etc.); a chemical factory and a ceramics factory who specialize in porcelain and ceramic gifts such as samovars, figurines, vases, and decorative ceramic wall hanging panels.  In 1991, the Pyatigorsk health resort had ten sanatoria, four boarding houses and five sanatoria-preventoria. The number of people who stayed at the health resort within a year totalled about 170,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Points of interest.", "content": "The state memorial estate of Mikhail Lermontov was founded in 1973. It unites all of the Lermontov memorial places in the region: the place where he fought his duel and was killed, a necropolis, Lermontov's small house, Verzilin's houses, the house of Alexander Alyabyev, the Lermontov square, and monument.  The Aeolian harp is a small stone pavilion in the classical style, constructed by the brothers Bernardacci in 1828.  Diana's grotto was built in 1830, in honor of the first ascent of Mount Elbrus.  Pyatigorsk is well known in the Caucasus region for its excellent restaurants and nightlife, as well as for its extremely large marketplace. A major thoroughfare is known to locals as \"Broadway\", which runs through the center of the city, and on which most of the best restaurants, nightclubs, and attractions are located. Broadway is also a popular spot for people watching. The influence of the Caucasus region is felt here most noticeably in the music and cuisine, which incorporate aspects of many former Soviet republics such as Armenia.  Pyatigorsk features prominently in Jonathan Littell's 2009 novel, \"The Kindly Ones\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "Asteroid 2192 Pyatigoriya discovered in 1972 by Soviet astronomer Tamara Smirnova is named after the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Pyatigorsk is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pyatigorsk (; Circassian: Псыхуабэ, \"Psıxwabæ\") is a city in Stavropol Krai located on the Podkumok River, about from the town of Mineralnye Vody where there is an international airport and about from Kislovodsk. Since January 19, 2010, it has been the administrative center of the North Caucasian Federal District of Russia. Population:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973428}
{"src_title": "Nadar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Gaspard-Félix Tournachon was born in April 1820 in Paris, though some sources state he was born in Lyon. His father, Victor Tournachon, was a printer and bookseller. Nadar began to study medicine but quit for economic reasons after his father's death.  Nadar started working as a caricaturist and novelist for various newspapers. He fell in with the Parisian bohemian group of Gérard de Nerval, Charles Baudelaire, and Théodore de Banville. His friends picked a nickname for him: Tournadar, which later became Nadar. His work was published in \"Le Charivari\" for the first time in 1848. In 1849, he founded \"La Revue Comique à l'Usage des Gens Sérieux\". He also edited \"Le Petit Journal pour Rire\".  From work as a caricaturist, he moved on to photography. He took his first photographs in 1853, and in 1854 opened a photographic studio at 113 rue St. Lazare. He moved to 35 Boulevard des Capucines in 1860. Nadar photographed a wide range of personalities: politicians (Guizot, Proudhon), stage actors (Sarah Bernhardt), writers (Hugo, Baudelaire, Sand, Nerval, Gautier, Dumas), painters (Corot, Delacroix, Millet), and musicians (Liszt, Rossini, Offenbach, Verdi, Berlioz). Portrait photography was going through a period of native industrialization, and Nadar refused to use the traditional sumptuous decors; he preferred natural daylight and despised useless accessories. In 1886, with his son Paul, he did what may be the first photo-report: an interview with the great scientist Michel Eugène Chevreul, who at the time was 100 years old. It was published in \"Le Journal Illustré\".  In 1858, he became the first person to take aerial photographs. This was done using the wet plate collodion process, and since the plates had to be prepared and developed (a process that required a chemically neutral setting) while the basket was aloft, Nadar experienced imaging problems as gas escaped from his balloons. After Nadar invented a gas-proof cotton cover and draped it over his balloon baskets, he was able to capture stable images. He also pioneered the use of artificial lighting in photography, working in the catacombs of Paris. He was thus the first person to photograph from the air with his balloons, as well as the first to photograph underground, in the Catacombs of Paris. In 1867, he published the first magazine to focus on air travel: \"L'Aéronaute\".  In 1863, Nadar commissioned the prominent balloonist Eugène Godard to construct an enormous balloon, high and with a capacity of, and named \"Le Géant\" (The Giant). On his visit to Brussels with \"Le Géant\", on 26 September 1864, Nadar erected mobile barriers to keep the crowd at a safe distance. Crowd control barriers are still known in Belgium as \"Nadar barriers\". \"Le Géant\" was badly damaged at the end of its second flight, but Nadar rebuilt the gondola and the envelope, and continued his flights. In 1867, he was able to take as many as a dozen passengers aloft at once, serving cold chicken and wine.  \"Le Géant\" (The Giant), inspired Jules Verne's \"Five Weeks in a Balloon\". Nadar was the inspiration for the character of Michael Ardan in Verne's \"From the Earth to the Moon\". In 1862, Verne and Nadar established a \"Société pour la recherche de la navigation aérienne\", which later became \"La Société d'encouragement de la locomotion aérienne au moyen du plus lourd que l'air\" (The Society for the Encouragement of Aerial Locomotion by Means of Heavier than Air Machines). Nadar served as president and Verne as secretary.  During the Siege of Paris in 1870–71, Nadar was instrumental in organising balloon flights carrying mail to reconnect the besieged Parisians with the rest of the world, thus establishing the world's first airmail service.  In April 1874, he lent his photo studio to a group of painters to present the first exhibition of the Impressionists. He photographed Victor Hugo on his death-bed in 1885. He is credited with having published (in 1886) the first \"photo-interview\" (of famous chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul, then a centenarian). His photographs of women are notable for their natural poses and individual character.  As of 1 April 1895, Nadar turned over the Paris Nadar Studio to his son Paul. He moved to Marseille, where he established another photography studio in 1897. On 3 January 1909 he returned to Paris.  Nadar died in 1910, aged 89. He was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. The studio continued under the direction of his son and long-term collaborator, Paul Nadar (1856–1939).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Towards the end of his life, Nadar published \"Quand j’étais photographe\", which was translated into English and published by MIT Press in 2015. The book is full of both anecdotes and samples of his photography, including many portraits of recognizable names.  The painter Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres sent some of his clients to Nadar to have their photographs taken as studies for his paintings.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gaspard-Félix Tournachon (6 April 1820 – 20 March 1910), known by the mononymous pseudonym Nadar, was a French photographer, caricaturist, journalist, novelist, balloonist, and proponent of heavier-than-air flight. In 1858 he became the first person to take aerial photographs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973429}
{"src_title": "Thor (rocket family)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Thor-Able.", "content": "Thor was first used as a launch vehicle during the testing program of the warhead reentry vehicle for the Atlas missile. For these three tests a Thor core stage was topped by the Able second stage. Able used the Aerojet AJ-10-40 engine from the Vanguard second stage. The first such launch, 116, was lost on 23 April 1958 due to a turbopump failure in the main engine. The recovery of the reentry vehicles on the succeeding two attempts were not successful. Three mice, one on each vehicle, died in these tests.  The Able stage from the Atlas reentry vehicle tests was upgraded to become the Able I with a third stage consisting of an unguided Altair X-248 solid-fuel rocket motor. A Thor Able I was used in an attempt to place the 84 lb (38 kg) Pioneer 0 spacecraft into lunar orbit where it would take pictures of the lunar surface with a TV camera. The mission ended prematurely at 73.6 seconds after launch on 17 August 1958 due to a turbopump failure.  On 7 August 1959, a Thor-Able was used to successfully launch Explorer 6, the first satellite to transmit pictures of Earth taken from orbit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ablestar.", "content": "Ablestar was a liquid rocket stage burning hypergolic propellants fed from gas-pressurized propellant tanks. It was used as the upper stage, and provided improved performance. On 13 April 1960, a Thor-Ablestar launched Transit 1B, the first experimental satellite of what eventually became the Global Navigation Satellite System. On 22 June 1960, a Thor-Ablestar launched the first Galactic Radiation and Background (GRAB) electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite for the United States Navy. These now-declassified satellites operated under a cover story of providing solar radiation data and included an electronics package to detect Soviet air defense radar signals. GRAB-1 was the world's first successful reconnaissance satellite, preceding the first Corona mission to return film (Discoverer 14 on August 18) by almost two months. On 29 June 1961, the Ablestar stage used to launch Transit 4A, which became the first object to unintentionally explode in space, creating at least 294 trackable pieces of space debris.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Thor-Delta.", "content": "The Delta second stage was derived from the Able second stage. Members of the Delta rocket family derived from the Thor-Delta continue to launch satellites and space probes.  By 1969, the Thor core was being used regularly both in Delta vehicles and in the USAF Standard Space Launch Vehicle (SLV-2), with thrust augmentation and a variety of upper stages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Thor-Agena.", "content": "Together with the Agena upper stage, Thor was the booster of the Thor-Agena vehicle used to launch the early Corona (also known as \"Keyhole\" and \"Discoverer\") satellites from Vandenberg AFB. These were the first photographic spy satellites, used for photographic surveillance of the Soviet Union, China and other areas. Thor-Agenas were used as launch vehicles for Corona satellites from June 1959 through May 1963.  The Thrust Augmented Thor (TAT) was developed to handle the growing satellites of the Corona program. It added three Castor solid-fuel rocket strapon boosters—each providing 53,000 lbf (236 kN) thrust—to the standard Thor core stage. The boosters were lit on the ground and jettisoned after burnout.  The Thrust-Augmented Long Tank Thor/Agena incorporated modifications allowing 49,000 lb (22,000 kg) more propellant and was capable of sending payloads ranging from 1400 to about 2800 pounds into polar circular orbits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thorad-Agena.", "content": "The Thorad-Agena (pictured) was developed from Thor. It used a Long Tank Thor to launch an Agena-D upper stage.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Thor was a US space launch vehicle derived from the PGM-17 Thor intermediate-range ballistic missile. The Thor rocket was the first member of the Delta rocket family of space launch vehicles. The last launch of a direct derivative of the Thor missile occurred in 2018 as the first stage of the final Delta II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973430}
{"src_title": "Ludwik Fleck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Fleck was born in Lemberg (\"Lwów\" in Polish; \"Lvov\" in Russian; now L'viv, Ukraine) and grew up in the cultural autonomy of the Austrian province of Galicia. He graduated from a Polish lyceum (secondary school) in 1914 and enrolled at Lwów's Jan Kazimierz University, where he received his medical degree.  In 1920 he became an assistant to the famous typhus specialist Rudolf Weigl at Jan Kazimierz University. From 1923 to 1935 Fleck worked in the department of internal medicine at Lwów General Hospital, then became director of the bacteriological laboratory at the local social security authority. From 1935 he worked at the private bacteriological laboratory which he had earlier founded.  With Nazi Germany's occupation of L'viv, Fleck was deported with his wife, Ernestina Waldmann, and son Ryszard to the city's Jewish ghetto. He continued his research in the hospital and developed a new procedure in which he procured a vaccine from the urine of typhus patients. Fleck's work was known to the German occupiers and his family were arrested in December 1942 and deported to the Laokoon pharmaceutical factory to produce a typhus serum. He and his family were arrested again and sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp on February 7, 1943. His task was to diagnose syphilis, typhus and other illnesses using serological tests. From December 1943 until the liberation of Poland on April 11, 1945 Fleck was detained in Buchenwald concentration camp; there, he worked with Marian Ciepielowski to produce a working typhus vaccine for camp inmates, while producing a fake vaccine for the SS.  Between 1945 and 1952, he served as the head of the Institute of Microbiology of the School of Medicine of Maria Sklodowska-Curie University of Lublin. In 1952, he moved to Warsaw to become the Director of the Department of Microbiology and Immunology at the Mother and Child State Institute. In 1954 he was elected a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Fleck's research during these years focused on the question of the behavior of leucocytes in infectious and stress situations. Between 1946 and 1957 he published 87 medical and scientific articles in Polish, French, English and Swiss journals. In 1951 Fleck was awarded the National Prize for Scientific Achievements and in 1955 the Officer's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta.  In 1956, after a heart attack and the discovery that he was suffering from lymphosarcoma, Fleck emigrated to Israel where a position was created for him at the Israel Institute for Biological Research. He died in 1961 at the age of 64 of a second heart attack.  The Ludwik Fleck Prize is awarded annually for the best book in the area of science and technology studies. It was created by the 4S Council (Society for the Social Studies of Science) in 1992.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thought collective.", "content": "Fleck wrote that the development of truth in scientific research was an unattainable ideal as different researchers were locked into thought collectives (or thought-styles). This means \"that a pure and direct observation cannot exist: in the act of perceiving objects the observer, i.e. the epistemological subject, is always influenced by the epoch and the environment to which he belongs, that is by what Fleck calls the thought style.\" A \"truth\" was a relative value, expressed in the language or symbolism of the thought collective in which it belonged, and subject to the social and temporal structure of this collective. To state therefore that a specific truth is true or false is impossible. It is true in its own collective, but incomprehensible or unverifiable in most others. He felt that the development of scientific insights was not unidirectional and does not consist of just accumulating new pieces of information, but also in overthrowing the old ones. This overthrowing of old insights is difficult because a collective attains over time a specific way of investigating, bringing with it a blindness to alternative ways of observing and conceptualization. Change was especially possible when members of two thought collectives met and cooperated in observing, formulating hypothesis and ideas. He strongly advocated comparative epistemology. This approach anticipated later developments in social constructionism, and especially the development of critical science and technology studies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ludwik Fleck (11 July 1896 – 5 June 1961) was a Polish and Israeli physician and biologist who did important work in epidemic typhus in Lwów, Poland, with Rudolf Weigl and in the 1930s developed the concepts of the \"\"Denkstil\"\" (\"thought style\") and the \"\"Denkkollektiv\"\" (\"thought collective\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973431}
{"src_title": "Balatonfüred", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The town has two marinas, a string of carbonated mineral water springs, listed buildings from the middle of the 18th and the 19th centuries and fine restaurants. It has modern hotels and guest-houses to accommodate about fifty thousand visitors in the summer. The nearest villages around Balatonfüred are Tihany, Aszófő, Balatonszőlős and Csopak, all renowned for their wine, land and beaches. Highway No 71 crosses the town as well as a single track railway line between Budapest and Tapolca. Although a shipyard was once the town's largest employer, now that place has been taken by the State Hospital for Cardiology. The largest industry is catering and providing boarding and other accommodations. The town has a pier, a harbour, a large camping site and several private marinas.  Visitors come for the mild micro-climate, scenery, the local wine, made of Olaszrizling grapes, and sailing and swimming facilities, as well as to revive the two-century-old tradition of socializing around spas, bathing and vacationing. The main events of the two-month-long summer holiday season include a ball for first-time visitors with a beauty contest and a wine-tasting festival, both in August.  Füred (short for Balatonfüred) has six comprehensive schools, three grammar schools, a secondary modern school for viniculture, the Lajos Loczy High School and Janos Ferencsik Music School (conservatory). A number of choirs, bands and sporting clubs are also present. The town has a local TV studio and a monthly newspaper. Füred has a newly built conference and sport centre as well. There are three churches in town: a typical red-sandstone Catholic church, a white Protestant church and a modern Evangelist church. A Pentecostal, American type of Christian denomination Faith Church is also active in the former Communist party headquarters.  Balatonfüred has a number of conference halls, and a large clinic for heart patients. It also has a number of wine cellars that sell white house wine in the vineyards on the hillside overlooking the town and the lake.  In winter, the lake may freeze over for weeks so that skaters and ice boaters take over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "State Hospital for Cardiology.", "content": "With its 429 beds the State Hospital for Cardiology in Balatonfüred boasts the largest cardiac-rehabilitation center in Hungary. The hospital is built on the lake shore and is flanked by the Tagore promenade, named after the Nobel-laureate Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore, who was treated here. Many other patients come here to heal and recuperate year-round thanks to the carbonated springs and baths, which are one of the best-known healing agents in Balatonfüred since the 17th century. The town was officially declared a spa in 1772. The Kossuth Spring and other springs near the hospital supply water containing free and bound carbon dioxide as well as iron, magnesium, potassium, hydrocarbonate, calcium, sodium, sulfur and other minerals. The temperature of the spring waters is they are collected into a large basin and conducted to the spa building. Then the carbonated water is warmed up to and used for treatment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Balatonfüred is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Balatonfüred () is a resort town in Veszprém county, in Hungary, with a population of 13,000, situated on the northern shore of Lake Balaton. It is considered to be the capital of the Northern lake shore and is a yachting destination. It is also a location for fishing, carp being the most common catch, although the introduction of eels and other non-indigenous species has caused ecological damage in recent years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973432}
{"src_title": "Maria Jeritza", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Jeritza was born in Brno in 1887 as Mitzi Jedlicka or Marie Jedličková. In 1910, she made her debut as \"Elsa\", in Wagner's \"Lohengrin\", at Olomouc. The Emperor Franz Josef heard her and immediately ordered that she be offered a contract at the Imperial Hofoper, Vienna. She created the roles of \"Blanchefleur\" in Kienzl's opera \"Der Kuhreigen\" (1911), Ariadne in Strauss's \"Ariadne auf Naxos\" (1912), the Empress in his \"Die Frau ohne Schatten\" (1919), and Hariette/Juliette in Korngold's \"Die tote Stadt\" (Hamburg, 1920), though later became famous for her leading role of Marietta/Marie in the same opera in its January 1921 Vienna premiere, which was also the role in which she debuted at the Metropolitan Opera on 19 November 1921.  On 16 November 1926, she starred in the title role of Puccini's \"Turandot\" in its North American premiere at the Metropolitan, where she also created the title or leading soprano roles in Janáček's \"Jenůfa\" (1924), Wolf-Ferrari's \"I gioielli della Madonna\" (1925), Korngold's \"Violanta\" (1927), Richard Strauss's \"Die Ägyptische Helena\" (1928), and Suppé's \"Boccaccio\" (1931) and \"Donna Juanita\" (1932). She was as popular at the Metropolitan as in Vienna, especially as Tosca, Carmen and Massenet's Thaïs. She appeared in an early sound film Grossfürstin Alexandra for which Franz Lehár wrote the song 'Du und ich sind für einander bestimmt'.  After a two-year marriage to a man named Wiener, she married an Austrian Baron, Friedrich Leopold Salvator Freiherr Popper von Podhragy (1886-1953). She married her third husband in 1935, Hollywood mogul Winfield R. Sheehan, who died in 1945. In 1948 she married New Jersey businessman Irving Seery and moved to a mansion in the Forest Hill neighborhood of Newark, New Jersey, where she lived until her death in 1982, at the age of 94. She died in Orange, New Jersey, and was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in North Arlington, New Jersey. Richard Strauss dedicated his final song Malven to her, but she would not allow the manuscript to be seen by anyone during her lifetime. After her death, the Strauss family allowed it to be performed in public for the first time by Kiri te Kanawa, who has also recorded it.  Jeritza made a number of 78-rpm recordings which testify to the high quality of her voice. Many of these recordings have been released on CD.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Jeritza (6 October 188710 July 1982) was a Czech soprano singer, long associated with the Vienna State Opera (1912–1935) and the Metropolitan Opera (1921–1932 and 1951). Her rapid rise to fame, beauty and personality earned her the nickname \"The Moravian Thunderbolt\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973433}
{"src_title": "Kurt Student", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "World War I and inter-war years.", "content": "Student entered the Prussian Army as a Fähnrich in 1910 and was commissioned a lieutenant in March 1911. He qualified as a pilot in 1913 and served during World War I. In July 1916, he became a charter member of the Fokker Scourge, when he scored his first confirmed victory, forcing Nieuport 11 no. 1324 to land behind German lines. He then served in aerial units of the Third Army on the Western Front, including \"Jagdstaffel 9\" (\"Jasta 9\"), which he commanded from 5 October 1916 to 2 May 1917, when he was wounded. He scored six air-to-air victories over French aircraft between 1916 and 1917, with two coming after his wound. He left \"Jasta 9\" on 14 March 1918.  In the immediate post-war years, Student was assigned to military research and development. He became involved in military gliders, since gliding was not forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. He also attended the Red Army Air Forces maneuvres, where he first came in contact with the idea of airborne operations. After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, the \"Luftwaffe\" was secretly reestablished. Student transferred from the Army to the air force and was appointed by Hermann Göring to be the head of its training schools. In July 1938, he was named commander of airborne and air-landing troops, and in September commanding general of the 7th Air Division, Germany's first paratroop division.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "After the invasion of Poland, which marked the beginning of the Second World War in Europe, the \"Fallschirmjäger\" were first deployed during the invasions of Norway and Denmark in Operation Weserübung. In this operation the \"Fallschirmjäger\" were deployed on several locations. In Denmark, a small unit dropped on Masnedø island to seize the Storstrøm Bridge linking Falster and Zealand. A paratroop detachment also dropped at Aalborg Airfield, which was crucial for Luftwaffe operations over Norway. In Norway, a company of paratroopers dropped at Oslo's undefended airstrip. Over the course of the morning and early afternoon of April 9, 1940, the Germans flew in sufficient reinforcements to seize the capital, but by that time the Norwegian government had fled. The paratroopers' first major action and the first large scale airborne operation in history, was the Battle for The Hague on 10 May 1940. German paratroopers landed at three airfields near The Hague. From one of these airfields, they were driven out after the first wave of reinforcements, brought in by Ju 52s, was annihilated by anti-aircraft fire and fierce resistance by some remaining Dutch defenders. The other two airfields were recaptured as well. Simultaneously, small packets of paratroopers seized the crucial bridges that led directly across the Netherlands and into the heart of the country. They opened the way for the 9th Panzer Division. Within a day, the Dutch position became undefendable. Nevertheless, Dutch forces inflicted high losses on German transportation aircraft. Moreover, 1200 German elite troops from the \"Luftlandekorps\" taken prisoner around The Hague, were shipped to England just before the capitulation of the Dutch armed forces.  During airborne operations in the Battle of Rotterdam, Student was almost taken prisoner, and was shot in the head – by what was later determined to be a stray German round. His capture was halted by the \"Rotterdam Blitz\" on 14 May and subsequent capitulation of the Netherlands.  On 10 May 1940, the \"Fallschirmjäger\" performed a successful raid on the largest fort in the world at the time, Eben-Emael, manned by 1,200 Belgian troops. The raid was accomplished by an assault group which consisted of only 85 soldiers. It took the \"Fallschirmjäger\" only hours to take control of the fort. The fall of Eben-Emael opened up Belgium for invasion by Army Group B. For his role in the raid, Student was decorated with the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.  In January 1941, Student was named commanding general of the \"XI. Fliegerkorps\", the newly formed command for the expanding German airborne forces. In May 1941, Student directed Operation Mercury (\"Unternehmen Merkur\"), the airborne invasion of Crete, defended by British, Greek and Commonwealth forces. Crete was taken, in what became the \"Fallschirmjäger\"'s greatest victory, but the high casualties caused Hitler to forbid future major airborne operations.  During the invasion of Crete, the German forces encountered unexpected mass resistance from the Cretan civilian population, and several German parachutists were killed by civilians armed only with knives and clubs. The German troops were initially surprised and later outraged. German military intelligence, the \"Abwehr\", had predicted that the Cretan population would welcome the Germans as liberators, due to their strong republican and anti-monarchist feelings and would want to receive the \"... favourable terms which had been arranged on the mainland...\". Student was made the temporary commander of Crete, immediately after the island's surrender on 31 May 1941. On Hermann Göring's orders, Student launched a wave of brutal reprisals against the local population with the Massacre of Kondomari, Alikianos, and the Razing of Kandanos being well-known examples.  In 1943, Student ordered Major Harald Mors to plan Operation Oak (\"Unternehmen Eiche\"), the successful raid conducted by a special \"Fallschirmjäger\" unit to free Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. They landed with gliders and STOL aircraft on a hilltop. Student received the Oak Leaves to the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for his role in the operation.  Student was transferred to Italy and later to France, where he was involved in the battles of Normandy in 1944. He was put in charge of the First Paratroop Army and took part in countering the Allied Operation Market Garden, near Arnhem. After a brief time at the Eastern Front in Mecklenburg in 1945, he was captured by British forces in Schleswig-Holstein in April of that same year, before he could take command of Army Group Vistula.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War crimes conviction.", "content": "In May 1947, Student was put on trial on eight charges of mistreatment and murder of prisoners of war by his men in Crete (but not with crimes against the civilian population of Crete, like those at Kondomari, Alikianos and Kandanos). He was found guilty of three charges, but avoided a stern punishment owing to the testimony of Brigadier Lindsay Inglis, commander of the 4th New Zealand Brigade. Student was sentenced to five years of imprisonment but was given an early discharge in 1948 for medical reasons. He died in 1978.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kurt Arthur Benno Student (12 May 1890 – 1 July 1978) was a German general in the Luftwaffe during World War II. An early pioneer of airborne forces, Student was in overall command of developing a paratrooper force to be known as the \"Fallschirmjäger\", and as the most senior member of the \"Fallschirmjäger\", commanded it throughout the war. Student led the first major airborne attack in history, the Battle for The Hague in May 1940. He also commanded the \"Fallschirmjägers\" in its last major airborne operation, the invasion of Crete in May 1941. The operation was a success despite German losses, and led the Allies to hasten the training and development of their own airborne units.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973434}
{"src_title": "Al-Ahsa Oasis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Al-Ahsa is a plural word of \"Al-Ḥisā\" () which refers to the accumulated sand with an impermeable layer underneath. Thus, when rain comes down, the water will soak through the sand, protected from evaporation by the sand, and be retained by the base layer, forming an aquifer. Hence, the site would become when drilled like a sweet cold spring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Al-Ahsa has been inhabited since prehistoric times, due to its abundance of water in an otherwise arid region. Natural fresh-water springs have surfaced at oases in the region for millennia, encouraging human habitation and agricultural efforts (date palm cultivation especially) since prehistoric times. Recently, Al-Ahsa Oasis has been nominated as one of the seven wonders of the world.  Its early history is similar to that of Eastern Arabia. In 899 A.D., the region came under the control of the Qarmatian leader, Abu Tahir al-Jannabi, and was declared independent from the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad. Its capital was at al-Mu'miniya near modern Hofuf. By circa 1000, Al-Hasa became the 9th largest city worldwide supporting 100,000 inhabitants. In 1077, the Qarmatian state of Al-Ahsa was overthrown by the Uyunids. Al-Ahsa subsequently fell under the rule of the Bahrani dynasty of the Usfurids, followed by their relatives, the Jabrids, who became one of the most formidable powers in the region, retaking the islands of Bahrain from the princes of Hormuz. The last Jabrid ruler of Bahrain was Muqrin ibn Zamil.  In 1521, the Portuguese Empire conquered the Awal Islands (the islands that comprise present day Bahrain) from the Jabrid ruler Muqrin ibn Zamil, who fell strongly in battle. The Jabrids struggled to maintain their position on the mainland in the face of the Ottomans and their tribal allies, the Muntafiq. In 1550, Al-Ahsa and nearby Qatif came under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire with Sultan Suleiman I. Al-Ahsa was nominally the Eyalet of Lahsa in the Ottoman administrative system, and was usually a vassal of the Porte. Qatif was later lost to the Portuguese.  The Ottomans were expelled from Al-Ahsa in 1670, and the region came under the rule of the chiefs of Banu Khalid tribe.  Al-Ahsa, along with Qatif, was incorporated into the Wahhabist Emirate of Diriyah in 1795, but returned to Ottoman control in 1818 with an invasion ordered by Muhammad Ali of Egypt. The Banu Khalid were again installed as rulers of the region but, in 1830, the Emirate of Nejd retook the region.  Direct Ottoman rule was restored in 1871, and Al-Ahsa was placed first under Baghdad Vilayet and with Baghdad's subdivision Basra Vilayet in 1875. In 1913, ibn Saud, the founder of modern Saudi Arabia, annexed Al-Ahsa and Qatif into his domain of Najd.  On December 2, 1922, Percy Cox officially notified Kuwait's Emir Sheikh Ahmad Al-Sabah that Kuwait's borders had been modified. Earlier that year, Major John More, the British representative in Kuwait, had met with Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia to settle the border issue between Kuwait and Najd. The result of the meeting was the Uqair Protocol of 1922, in which Britain recognized ibn Saud's sovereignty over territories claimed by the emir of Kuwait. Al-Ahsa under the control of the al Saud 3rd country, it was taken from the Ottomans in 1913, bringing him control of the Persian Gulf coast and what would become Saudi Arabia's vast oil reserves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Historically, Al-Hasa was one of the few areas in Arabian Peninsula growing rice. In 1938, petroleum deposits were discovered near Dammam, resulting in the rapid modernization of the region. By the early 1960s, production levels reached per day. Today, Al-Hasa engulfs the largest conventional oil field in the world, the Ghawar Field.  Al-Hasa is known for its palm trees and dates. Al-Hasa has over 2 million palm trees which produce over 100 thousand tons of dates every year.  The number of springs and freshwater sources in Al-Hasa oasis range from 60 to 70 like those in \"Ummsaba'ah\", \"Al-Harrah\" and \"Al-Khadod\".  Al-Hasa oasis filled with a number of archaeological sites that give witness to the area's importance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourist sites.", "content": "12 locations were defined as the Cultural Landscape of Al-Hasa Oasis (the World Heritage site):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Al-Aḥsāʾ (, \"al-ʾAhasā\"), also known as al-Ḥasāʾ () or Hajar (), is a traditional oasis historical region in eastern Saudi Arabia whose name is used by the Al-Ahsa Governorate, which makes up much of that country's Eastern Province. The oasis is located about inland from the coast of the Persian Gulf.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973435}
{"src_title": "Frances McDormand", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "McDormand was born Cynthia Ann Smith in Gibson City, Illinois. She was adopted at one and a half years of age by Noreen (Nickelson) and Vernon McDormand and renamed Frances Louise McDormand. Her adoptive mother was a nurse and receptionist while her adoptive father was a Disciples of Christ pastor; both were originally from Canada. McDormand has said that her biological mother, to whom she proudly referred, along with herself, as \"white trash,\" may have been one of the parishioners at Vernon's church. She has a sister, Dorothy A. \"Dot\" McDormand, who is an ordained Disciples of Christ minister and chaplain, as well as another sibling, both of whom were adopted by the McDormands, who had no biological children.  Because her father specialized in restoring congregations, he frequently moved their family, and they lived in several small towns in Illinois, Georgia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, before settling in Monessen, Pennsylvania, where McDormand graduated from Monessen High School in 1975. She attended Bethany College in West Virginia, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in theater in 1979. In 1982, she earned a Master of Fine Arts degree from the Yale School of Drama. She was a roommate of actress Holly Hunter while living in New York City.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "McDormand's first professional acting job was in Derek Walcott's play \"In a Fine Castle\" also known as \"The Last Carnival\", which was funded by the MacArthur Foundation and performed in Trinidad. In 1984 she made her film debut in \"Blood Simple\", the first film by the Coen brothers. In 1987, she appeared as wacky friend Dot in \"Raising Arizona\", starring Holly Hunter and Nicolas Cage. In addition to her early film roles, McDormand played Connie Chapman in the fifth season of the television police drama \"Hill Street Blues\". In 1988, she played Stella Kowalski in a stage production of Tennessee Williams' \"A Streetcar Named Desire\", for which she was nominated for a Tony Award. McDormand is an associate member of the experimental theater company The Wooster Group. In 2002, \"the game and talented\" McDormand performed as Oenone in the Wooster Group's production of an \"exhilarating dissection\" of Racine's tragedy \"Phèdre\" entitled \"To You, the Birdie!\", at Ann's Warehouse in Brooklyn, New York.  After appearing in several theatrical and television roles during the 1980s, McDormand gradually gained renown and critical acclaim for her dramatic work in film. In 1988, she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for \"Mississippi Burning.\" Cast alongside Gene Hackman and Willem Dafoe, McDormand was singled out for praise, with Sheila Benson in her review for the \"Los Angeles Times\" writing, \"Hackman's mastery reaches a peak here, but McDormand soars right with him. And since she is the film's sole voice of morality, it's right that she is so memorable.\" In 1996, she won her first Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance as pregnant police Chief Marge Gunderson in \"Fargo\", written and directed by the Coen brothers. Writing for the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", Roger Ebert called \"Fargo\" \"one of the best films I've ever seen\" and felt that McDormand \"should have a lock on an Academy Award nomination with this performance, which is true in every individual moment, and yet slyly, quietly, over the top in its cumulative effect.\"  In 2000, she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture for her portrayal of an overbearing mother in \"Almost Famous.\" For her role in \"Wonder Boys\" (2000), she won Best Supporting Actress from the Broadcast Film Critics Association, the Florida Film Critics Circle, and the Los Angeles Film Critics Association. In 2006, McDormand received her fourth nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in \"North Country\" (2005). The same year she won an Independent Spirit Award for her supporting role in Nicole Holofcener's dark comedy \"Friends with Money\" (2006). She also voiced the role of the principal Melanie Upfoot in \"The Simpsons\" episode \"Girls Just Want to Have Sums\", which aired on April 30, 2006.  In 2008, McDormand starred in the films \"Burn After Reading\" and \"Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day\". She then appeared in the action movie \"\", playing the US government's National Intelligence Director, alongside her \"Burn After Reading\" co-star John Malkovich. She returned to the stage in the David Lindsay-Abaire play \"Good People\", in a limited engagement on Broadway from February 8, 2011 to May 29, 2011. Her performance earned her the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play. In the animated film \"\" (2012), she voiced Captain Chantel Dubois and also sang a version of the French song \"Non, je ne regrette rien\".  McDormand starred in \"Promised Land\" with Matt Damon, released in December 2012. In November 2014, HBO telecast a four-part mini-series based upon the series of short stories by Elizabeth Strout, \"Olive Kitteridge\", co-produced by and starring McDormand. The role won her the Primetime Emmy Award and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress. With her Emmy win, McDormand became the 12th actress in history to achieve the \"Triple Crown of Acting\", for competitive Oscar, Emmy, and Tony Award wins in the acting categories.  McDormand starred in the 2017 film \"Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri\", for which she won her second Academy Award for Best Actress (her statuette was stolen briefly following the awards ceremony), the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama, and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role. During the award season, she received significant media attention for her feminist provoking speeches which came with the advent of Time's Up and Me Too movement.  In 2019, McDormand played God in \"Good Omens\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "McDormand has been married to director Joel Coen since 1984. In 1995, they adopted a son from Paraguay, Pedro McDormand Coen, when he was six months old. They live in New York City and also own a residence in Bolinas, California.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frances Louise McDormand (born Cynthia Ann Smith, June 23, 1957) is an American actress. She is the recipient of numerous accolades, including two Academy Awards, two Emmy Awards (Primetime) and a Tony Award, making her one of the few performers to achieve the Triple Crown of Acting.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973436}
{"src_title": "Shangri-La", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The phrase \"Shangri-La\" most probably comes from the Tibetan ',\"Shang\" – a district of Ü-Tsang, north of Tashilhunpo\" + ', pronounced \"ri\", \"Mountain\" = \"Shang Mountain\" + \"\", Mountain Pass, which suggests that the area is accessed to, or is named by, \"Shang Mountain Pass\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "Academic scholars believe they have debunked the myth of Shangri-La and argued that this has less to do with an unexplored place and is more connected to a fantasy of the Western world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient sources with similar descriptions.", "content": "In China, the poet Tao Yuanming of the Jin Dynasty (265–420 CE) described a kind of Shangri-La in his work \"The Tale of the Peach Blossom Spring\" (). The story goes that there was a fisherman from Wuling, who came across a beautiful peach grove, and he discovered happy and content people who lived completely cut off from the troubles in the outside world since the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE).  Some scholars believe that the Shangri-La story owes a literary debt to Shambhala, a mythical kingdom in Tibetan Buddhist tradition, which was sought by Eastern and Western explorers. Shambhala is a core concept in Tibetan Buddhism that describes a realm of harmony between man and nature that is also connected with the Kalachakra or \"wheel of time\". The Shambhala ideal is described in detail in the \"Shambhala Sutra\", a historical text written by the Sixth Panchen Lama which describes some of the Shambhala locations as being in Ngari, the western prefecture of Tibet.  Folklore from the Altai Mountains describe Belukha Mountain as a gateway to Shambhala. The Kun Lun Mountains (崑崙山) offer another possible place for valleys like the Shangri-La, since Hilton specifically described the “Kuen-Lun” mountains as its likely location in the book, however, Hilton is not known to have visited or studied the area. Parts of the Kunlun Mountains lie within Ngari, mentioned in the \"Shambhala Sutra\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Possible sources for Hilton.", "content": "In a \"New York Times\" interview in 1936, Hilton states that he used \"Tibetan material\" from the British Museum, particularly the travelogue of two French priests, Evariste Regis Huc and Joseph Gabet, to provide the Tibetan cultural and Buddhist spiritual inspiration for Shangri-La. Huc and Gabet travelled a round trip between Beijing and Lhasa in 1844–1846 on a route more than north of Yunnan. Their famous travelogue, first published in French in 1850, went through many editions in many languages. A popular \"condensed translation\" was published in England in 1928.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Current claimants.", "content": "Today various places, such as parts of southern Kham in northwestern Yunnan province, including the tourist destinations of Lijiang and Zhongdian, claim the title. In modern China, Zhongdian county was renamed Xiānggélǐlā (香格里拉, Shangri-La in Chinese) in 2001, to attract tourists.  Hilton visited the Hunza Valley in northern Pakistan Kashmir, close to the Chinese border, a few years before \"Lost Horizon\" was published; hence it is a popularly believed inspiration for Hilton's physical description of Shangri-La. Being an isolated green valley surrounded by mountains, enclosed on the western end of the Himalayas, it closely matches the description in the novel; also, in an ironic reversal on the story, due to increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation, inhabitants of the high-altitude parts of the valley appear to age quickly.  Places like Sichuan and Tibet also lay claim to the real Shangri-La. In 2001, Tibet Autonomous Region put forward a proposal that the three regions optimise all Shangri-La tourism resources and promote them as one. After failed attempts to establish a China Shangri-la Ecological Tourism Zone in 2002 and 2003, government representatives of Sichuan and Yunnan provinces and Tibet Autonomous Region signed a declaration of co-operation in 2004. Also in 2001, Zhongdian County in northwestern Yunnan officially renamed itself Shangri-La County.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent searches and documentaries.", "content": "American explorers Ted Vaill and Peter Klika visited the Muli area of southern Sichuan Province in 1999, and claimed that the Muli monastery in this remote region was the model for James Hilton's Shangri-La, which they thought Hilton learned about from articles on this area in several \"National Geographic\" magazines in the late 1920s and early 1930s written by Austrian-American explorer Joseph Rock. Vaill completed a film based on their research, \"Finding Shangri-La\", which debuted at the Cannes Film Festival in 2007. However, Michael McRae unearthed an obscure James Hilton interview from a \"New York Times\" gossip column in which he reveals that his cultural inspiration for Shangri-La, if it is any place, is more than 250 km north of Muli on the route travelled by Huc and Gabet.  Between 2002–2004 a series of expeditions were led by author and film maker Laurence Brahm in western China which determined that the Shangri-La mythical location in Hilton's book \"Lost Horizon\" was based on references to northern Yunnan Province from articles published by National Geographic's first resident explorer Joseph Rock.  On 2 December 2010, OPB televised one of Martin Yan's \"Hidden China\" episodes, \"Life in Shangri-La\", in which Yan said that \"Shangri-La\" is the actual name of a real town in the hilly and mountainous region in northwestern Yunnan Province, frequented by both Han and Tibetan locals. Martin Yan visited arts and craft shops and local farmers as they harvested crops, and sampled their cuisine.  Television presenter and historian Michael Wood, in the \"Shangri-La\" episode of the BBC documentary series \"In Search of Myths and Heroes\", suggests that the legendary Shangri-La is the abandoned city of Tsaparang in upper Satluj valley, and that its two great temples were once home to the kings of Guge in modern Tibet.  The Travel Channel in 2016 aired two episodes of \"Expedition Unknown\" that followed host Josh Gates to Nepal and its surrounding areas, including the sky caves found there, in search of Shangri-La. His findings offer no proof that Shangri-La is or was real.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "Shangri-La is often used in a context similar to \"Garden of Eden,\" to represent a paradise hidden from modern man. It is sometimes used as an analogy for a lifelong quest or something elusive but much sought; for a man who spends his life obsessively looking for a cure to a disease, such a cure could be said to be that man's \"Shangri-La.\" It also might be used to represent a sought-for perfection in the form of love, happiness, or Utopian ideals. It may be used in this context alongside other mythical and famous examples of similar metaphors such as El Dorado, The Fountain of Youth, and The Holy Grail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "There are a number of cultural usages of the Shangri-La idea that have developed since 1933 in the wake of the novel and the film made from it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "An unusual consequence of the Doolittle Raid of 1942 came after, when (in the interests of secrecy) President Franklin Roosevelt answered a reporter's question by saying that the raid had been launched from \"Shangri-La\". The true details of the raid were revealed to the public one year later, in April 1943. In 1944, the US Navy commissioned the, with Doolittle's wife Josephine as the sponsor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In astronomy.", "content": "In 2006 the International Astronomical Union gave the equatorial, dark, low-lying area of Saturn's moon Titan the name Shangri-La.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "Eiichi Ikegami wrote a novel titled \"Shangri-La\" (2005); an anime adaptation of the novel was released in 2008.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Shangri-La is a fictional place described in the 1933 novel \"Lost Horizon\" by British author James Hilton. Hilton describes Shangri-La as a mystical, harmonious valley, gently guided from a lamasery, enclosed in the western end of the Kunlun Mountains. Shangri-La has become synonymous with any earthly paradise, particularly a mythical Himalayan utopia – a permanently happy land, isolated from the world. In the novel, the people who live at Shangri-La are almost immortal, living hundreds of years beyond the normal lifespan and only very slowly aging in appearance. The name also evokes the imagery of the exoticism of the Orient.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973437}
{"src_title": "Claude Lemieux", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NHL.", "content": "Lemieux was drafted in the second round of the 1983 NHL Entry Draft by the Montreal Canadiens. He played with the Canadiens from 1983–1990, winning the Stanley Cup with the team in 1986.  In September 1990, Lemieux was traded to the New Jersey Devils for Sylvain Turgeon. Lemieux won his second Stanley Cup in 1995 as New Jersey defeated the Detroit Red Wings. Completing the post-season with 13 goals, he also won the Conn Smythe Trophy that year as the playoff MVP.  Shortly before the beginning of the 1995–96 season, Lemieux was traded to the Colorado Avalanche in a three-team deal that also involved Wendel Clark and Steve Thomas. When the Avalanche won the Stanley Cup in 1996, Lemieux became the tenth player to win back-to-back Stanley Cups with different teams.  In November 1999, Lemieux was traded back to New Jersey in a deal that sent Brian Rolston to Colorado. He won his fourth and final Stanley Cup with the Devils in 2000. In that off-season, Lemieux signed as a free agent with the Phoenix Coyotes.  In January 2003, the Coyotes traded him to the Dallas Stars for Scott Pellerin and a conditional draft pick. Lemieux ended his NHL playing career with Dallas at the conclusion of the 2002–03 season. He played briefly the following season for EV Zug of the Swiss Nationalliga A.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "In 2005, Lemieux became president of the ECHL incarnation of the Phoenix RoadRunners until resigning in 2007. In 2007, Lemieux took part in the second season of the Spike TV television show \"Pros vs. Joes\". In October 2009, Lemieux began competing as a pairs figure skater on the CBC Television reality show \"Battle of the Blades\" with Shae-Lynn Bourne. For one of their routines, the pair skated to Lemieux's recorded version of Leonard Cohen's \"Hallelujah\", which he sang as a duet with Kathryn Rose.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2008 comeback.", "content": "In September 2008, on RDS, Lemieux expressed an interest in making a comeback to the NHL. He began the season with the China Sharks of the Asia League Ice Hockey before signing a contract with the Worcester Sharks on November 25. After scoring 2 goals and 6 points in 14 games with Worcester, Lemieux signed a two-way contract with the San Jose Sharks on December 29, 2008. The following day, he cleared waivers and continued to play for Worcester. On January 19, 2009, the San Jose Sharks recalled Lemieux to the NHL and, on February 19, he recorded the first (and only) NHL point of his comeback, assisting on Milan Michalek's second-period goal against the Los Angeles Kings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Playing style and criticism.", "content": "Throughout his career, Lemieux was noted for playing his best games during the postseason. Once Lemieux was called up to the NHL for good during the 1985-86 season he played in 15 consecutive postseasons. In his career, starting with the 1986 playoffs, he played in the postseason 18 different years, missing only the 2001 playoffs while with the Phoenix Coyotes. Lemieux played in 234 playoff games, which is fourth all-time in the NHL. On three occasions, he scored more goals during the playoffs than he did during the regular season (1985–86 with Montreal, 1994–95 with New Jersey, and 1996–97 with Colorado). Lemieux retired with 80 career playoff goals, ninth all-time in the NHL.  Despite his playoff success, Lemieux also had a reputation as one of the league's hated and dirtiest players; in fact, a recent TSN special entitled \"The Top 10 Most Hated NHL Players of All Time\" ranked him second, behind only Sean Avery. While playing for Montreal, during a playoff game against the Calgary Flames, Lemieux bit Calgary's Jim Peplinski on the finger during a scuffle, prompting the Calgary winger to say, \"I didn't know they allowed cannibalism in the NHL.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hit on Kris Draper.", "content": "Lemieux's title of being a dirty player was solidified in a 1996 incident with the Avalanche when Lemieux checked Kris Draper of the Detroit Red Wings into the boards from behind during a playoff series. Draper suffered a concussion, broken jaw, broken nose and broken cheekbone, all of which all led to Draper having reconstructive surgery on his face and having his jaw wired shut for several weeks. This incident is generally believed to have sparked a bitter rivalry between the two teams. Unhappy with his actions, the NHL suspended him two games, despite outcry from some fans who felt that Lemieux deserved a harsher penalty. Red Wings player Dino Ciccarelli said after the series \"I can't believe I shook this guy's friggin' hand after the game. That pisses me right off\".  Tensions between the two teams would continue to rise, reaching a breaking point the next season. During a fight in the infamous Red Wings–Avalanche brawl, Wings forward Darren McCarty engaged Lemieux shortly after a fight started by Peter Forsberg with Igor Larionov had stopped play. Lemieux turtled on the ice, and was badly beaten before the officials could remove McCarty from him, who was assessed a double minor for roughing. Several fights erupted around the two as both teams, including the goalies, fought. In the next regular season game between the teams, Lemieux switched sides on the opening face off to line up across from McCarty. He challenged him face to face, and the two had their second fight.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Lemieux represented Canada three times in international competitions over the course of his career. He made his first international appearance as a member of the Canadian national junior team at the 1985 World Junior Championships in Helsinki, Finland. Lemieux finished the tournament with 3 goals and 2 assist in 6 games to help Canada win its second World Junior gold medal. Lemieux was also a member of the 1987 Canada Cup winning team where he tallied 2 points in 6 games. His final appearance in international play came when he was selected to the Team Canada roster for the 1996 World Cup of Hockey. Lemieux picked up 19 penalty minutes in the eight games as Canada finished second.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Lemieux was born in Buckingham, Quebec and resides in Huntington Beach, California.  Lemieux is the older brother of former NHL forward Jocelyn Lemieux. Lemieux has another brother, Serge, who was diagnosed with cerebral palsy. Despite his surname, he is not related to hockey great Mario Lemieux.  Lemieux has four children between two marriages; three sons and a daughter. One of his sons, Brendan is a forward for the New York Rangers.  Lemieux became a naturalized U.S. citizen on 26 June 2009.  Since his retirement from the NHL, Lemieux was often a guest of TSN's \"Off the Record with Michael Landsberg\", sharing his personal insight of his playing days in the NHL.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Claude Percy Lemieux (born July 16, 1965) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey player. He last played for the San Jose Sharks before announcing his retirement on July 8, 2009. He is one of only 11 players in Stanley Cup history to win the Cup with three or more different teams. His 80 career playoff goals are the ninth-most in NHL history. Lemieux is also a former president of the ECHL's Phoenix RoadRunners. He is also the father of New York Rangers forward Brendan Lemieux.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973438}
{"src_title": "Sagunto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Achaeans, probably from Zacynthos island (in Greece, founded in the 5th c. BCE the town Zacynthos (now Zakantha or Sagundo), at the foot of the Peñas de Pajarito and on the west bank of river Palancia of the main river Ebro, in Iberia, in the Valencia province [Appian, Wars in Spain, 2], where the vestiges of an Acropolis, Temples of Artemis and Aphrodite, and a small Theater still survive. During the 5th century BC, the Iberians built a walled settlement on the hill overseeing the plain; a stretch of cyclopean limestone slabs from the former temple of Diana survives, close to the modern church of Santa Maria, but the settlement site is still older. The city traded with coastal colonies in the western Mediterranean such as Carthage and, under their influence, minted its own coins. During this period, the city was known as Arse (Ripollès i Alegre 2002). By 219 BC, Saguntum was a large and commercially prosperous town, which sided with the local colonists and Rome against Carthage, and drew Hannibal's first assault, his siege of Saguntum, which triggered the Second Punic War, one of the most important wars of antiquity.  After stiff resistance over the course of eight months, related by the Roman historian Livy and in more detail by Silius Italicus, Saguntum was captured in 219 BC by the armies of Hannibal.  Seven years later, the town was retaken by the Romans. In 214 BC, it became a municipium, was rebuilt and flourished. Hispania was not easily pacified and Romanised, as the Iberian career of Quintus Sertorius makes clear. Saguntum minted coins under his protection, but continued to house a mint in later Roman times. The Romans built a great circus in the lower part of the city and a theatre seating 8,000 spectators. Texts found indicate that the city had an amphitheatre and had about 50,000 inhabitants. This prosperity lasted for most of the empire, and is attested by inscriptions and ruins (notably a theatre, demolished by Napoleon's marshal Louis Gabriel Suchet, who also destroyed the Roman tower of Hercules).  Under the Arian Visigothic kings, Saguntum received its Catholic patron saint, a bishop named Sacerdos, \"the priest\", who died peacefully of natural causes about AD 560.  In the early 8th century, the Muslim Arabs conquered Hispania and the city became part of the Caliphate of Cordoba and at that time the city reached an era of splendor, with baths, palaces, mosques and schools open for its cosmopolitan population. Then, the town was known as \"Morvedre\" (\"Morviedro\" in Spanish), a name derived from Latin \"muri veteres\" \"ancient walls.\" However, as Valencia grew, Saguntum declined.  In 1098, the city was conquered by El Cid but the Muslims recovered it shortly thereafter. The city had been under the Muslim Arab rule for over 500 years when James I of Aragon conquered it in 1238.  During the Peninsular War, a Spanish attempt to raise the French siege of the castle failed in the Battle of Saguntum on 25 October 1811. In the weeks before the battle, the Spanish garrison made a valiant and successful defense; but it surrendered the day after the battle. Historian Charles Oman stated that the site was converted into a fortress in 1810–1811 by General Joaquín Blake at the suggestion of British officer Charles William Doyle. At that time, much of the largely intact Roman theater was dismantled to provide stone for restoring the old walls.  Saguntum was badly damaged in warfare, but has retained many Valencian Gothic structures. In the late 19th century, a steel-making industry grew up that supported the modern city, which extends in the coastal plain below the citadel hill. The last steel oven closed in April 1984. It has been restored and is now a tourist attraction.  The famed composer Don Joaquín Rodrigo, who composed Concierto de Aranjuez, among others, was born in Sagunt.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sagunto (; ) is a city in Eastern Spain, in the modern fertile \"comarca\" of Camp de Morvedre in the province of Valencia. It is located c. 30 km north of Valencia, close to the Costa del Azahar on the Mediterranean Sea.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973439}
{"src_title": "Marcellin Berthelot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He was born in Rue du Mouton, Paris, France, on 25 October 1827 the son of a doctor. He decided with his friend, the great historian Ernest Renan, not to attend a where the vast majority of intellectuals were being educated. After doing well at school in history and philosophy, he became a scientist.  He was an atheist but was very influenced by his wife, who was a Calvinist (his wife came from Louis Breguet's family).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discoveries.", "content": "The fundamental conception that underlay all Berthelot's chemical work was that all chemical phenomena depend on the action of physical forces which can be determined and measured. When he began his active career it was generally believed that, although some instances of the synthetic production of organic substances had been observed, on the whole organic chemistry remained an analytical science and could not become a constructive one, because the formation of the substances with which it deals required the intervention of vital activity in some shape.  To this attitude he offered uncompromising opposition, and by the synthetic production of numerous hydrocarbons, natural fats, sugars and other bodies he proved that organic compounds can be formed by ordinary methods of chemical manipulation and obey the same principles as inorganic substances, thus exhibiting the \"creative character in virtue of which chemistry actually realizes the abstract conceptions of its theories and classifications—a prerogative so far possessed neither by the natural nor by the historical sciences.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition.", "content": "In 1863 he became a member of the Académie Nationale de Médecine; he was also awarded the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1880. In 1881 he became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "His investigations on the synthesis of organic compounds were published in numerous papers and books, including \"Chimie organique fondée sur la synthèse\" (1860) and \"Les Carbures d'hydrogène\" (1901). He stated that chemical phenomena are not governed by any peculiar laws special to themselves, but are explicable in terms of the general laws of mechanics that are in operation throughout the universe; and this view he developed, with the aid of thousands of experiments, in his \"Mécanique chimique\" (1878) and his \"Thermochimie\" (1897). This branch of study naturally conducted him to the investigation of explosives, and on the theoretical side led to the results published in his work \"Sur la force de la poudre et des matières explosives\" (1872), while in practical terms it enabled him to render important services to his country as president of the scientific defence committee during the siege of Paris (1870–1871) and subsequently as chief of the French explosives committee. He performed experiments to determine gas pressures during hydrogen explosions using a special chamber fitted with a piston, and was able to distinguish burning of mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen from true explosions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical and philosophical work.", "content": "During later life he researched and wrote books on the early history of chemistry such as \"Les Origines de l'alchimie\" (1885) and \"Introduction à l'étude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen âge\" (1889), He also translated various old Greek, Syriac and Arabic treatises on alchemy and chemistry: \"Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs\" (1887–1888) and \"La Chimie au moyen âge\" (1893). He was the author of \"Science et philosophie\" (1886), which contains a well-known letter to Renan on \"\"La Science idéale et la science positive\",\" of \"La Révolution chimique, Lavoisier\" (1890), of \"Science et morale\" (1897), and of numerous articles in \"La Grande Encyclopédie\", which he helped to establish.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Berthelot died suddenly on 18 March 1907, immediately after the death of his wife Sophie Niaudet (1837–1907), in Paris. His professorship was filled by Emil Jungfleisch.  He was buried with his wife in the Panthéon. He had six children: Marcel André (1862–1939), Marie-Hélène (1863–1895), Camille (1864–1928), Daniel (1865–1927), Philippe (1866–1934), and René (1872–1960).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In art.", "content": "Auguste Rodin created a bust of Berthelot.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Eugène Marcellin Berthelot (; 1827–1907) was a French chemist and politician noted for the ThomsenBerthelot principle of thermochemistry. He synthesized many organic compounds from inorganic substances, providing a large amount of counter-evidence to the theory of Jöns Jakob Berzelius that organic compounds required organisms in their synthesis. Berthelot was convinced that chemical synthesis would revolutionize the food industry by the year 2000, and that synthesized foods would replace farms and pastures. \"Why not\", he asked, \"if it proved cheaper and better to make the same materials than to grow them?\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973440}
{"src_title": "Somali cat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the 1940s a British breeder named Janet Robertson exported some Abyssinian kittens to Australia, New Zealand and North America. Descendants of these cats occasionally produced kittens with long or fuzzy coats. In 1963, Mary Mailing, a breeder from Canada, entered one into a local pet show. Ken McGill, the show's judge, asked for one for breeding purposes.  The first known long-haired Abyssinian, named 'Raby Chuffa of Selene', appeared in America in 1953. Breeders assume that the long-haired gene was passed down through his ancestry. Most breeders were appalled by the sudden difference in appearance in their litters and refused to mention them. However, some breeders were intrigued and continued to breed the long-haired Abyssinian. At first, other Abyssinian breeders looked down upon the new development of the Somali and refused to associate them with the Abyssinian. They worked hard to keep the long-haired gene out of their own cats.  An American Abyssinian breeder Evelyn Mague also received longhairs from her cats, which she named \"Somalis\". Mague put out a call for other cats to breed with her own long-haired Abyssinians and found the many other breeders internationally that had been breeding long-haired Abyssinians for several years already. Don Richings, another Canadian breeder, used kittens from McGill, and began to work with Mague. The first Somali recognized as such by a fancier organization was Mayling Tutsuta, one of McGill's cats. In 1979, the breed was recognized by the CFA in North America. The new breed was accepted in Europe in 1982. By 1991, the breed was broadly (though not universally) accepted internationally.  The name \"Somali\" is in reference to the African nation, Somalia. Somalia borders Abyssinia, which is modern day Ethiopia. The name of the breed is a unique interpretation of the Ethiopian-Somali conflict; Mague charitably assumed that since the land borders were a human creation, so are the genetic borders between the Abyssinian cat and the long-haired Abyssinian.  Mague also founded the Somali Cat Club of America, which included members from Canada as well. The SCCA worked to grant the breed championship status by the CFA, which occurred in 1979. In 1975, the CFA founded the International Somali Cat Club.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The Somalis are recognized for their bushy tails, large almond eyes, and large pointed ears, earning the breed its nickname of \"Fox Cat.\" Their ticked coats, containing between four and twenty colors on each hair, are very fine in texture, making their coats softer to the touch than those of other cat breeds. The cat itself is medium-large in size.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Colors and patterns.", "content": "The usual or ruddy Somali is golden brown ticked with black. There are 28 colors of Somali in total although certain organizations accept only some of these colors. All organizations that register Somalis permit usual (also known as ruddy), sorrel (a.k.a. red), blue, and fawn. Most clubs also recognize usual/ruddy silver, sorrel/red silver, blue silver, and fawn silver. Other colors that may be accepted by some registries include chocolate, lilac, red, cream, usual-tortie, sorrel-tortie, blue-tortie, fawn-tortie, chocolate-tortie, lilac-tortie, and silver variants of these (e.g. blue-tortie silver).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "The Somali cat is usually healthy, with few breed-related health issues, though some problems may occur. These include gingivitis, tooth decay, and renal amyloidosis, which are also seen in many other breeds of cats. Renal amyloidosis (often called RA) is a condition in which there is a deposition of the protein, amyloid, in various tissues which hinders that part of the body's normal functioning. Other problems that are prevalent in most cat breeds, the Somali included, are feline infectious anemia (FIA) and autoimmune-mediated hemolytic anemia (AIHA). Some AIHA-related diseases are inherited erythrocyte disorders, such as pyruvate kinase deficiency and osmotic fragility.  Recently found in cats has been myelodysplasia. It is normally known to affect humans but was recently found in a litter of Somali kittens. Like AIHA, myelodysplasia causes anemia and is speculated to be the cause of anemia in Somalis in the past.  Somalis may also have hereditary retinal degeneration due to a mutation in the rdAc allele. This mutation is also seen in Abyssinians, Siamese cats, and other related breeds.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Somali cat is often described as a long-haired African cat; a product of a recessive gene in Abyssinian cats, though how the gene was introduced into the Abyssinian gene pool is unknown. It is believed that they originated from Somalia, long lost cousin of the Abyssinian cat; which has origins in Ethiopia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973441}
{"src_title": "Swatch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Swatch began development in the early 1980s, under the leadership of the then ETA SA's CEO, Ernst Thomke with a small team of watch engineers led by Elmar Mock and Jacques Müller.  Conceived as a standard timekeeper in plastic, Franz Sprecher, a marketing consultant hired by Thomke to give the project an outsider's consideration, sought to create a fashionable line of watches.  Swatch was originally intended to re-capture entry level market share lost by Swiss manufacturers during the quartz crisis and the subsequent growth of Japanese companies such as Seiko and Citizen in the 1960s and 1970s, and to re-popularize analog watches at a time when digital watches had achieved wide popularity.  In 1983, the group hired Jacques Irniger—who formerly served as the marketing executive for Colgate, Nestlé—to launch the swatch.  In 1997, the Swatch group opened about 60 stores worldwide.  The first collection of twelve Swatch models was introduced on 1 March 1983 in Zürich, Switzerland. Initially the price ranged from CHF 39.90 to CHF 49.90 but was standardized to CHF 50.00 in autumn of the same year. Sales targets were set to one million timepieces for 1983 and 2.5 million the year after. With an aggressive marketing campaign and relatively low price for a Swiss-made watch, it gained instant popularity in its home market. Compared to conventional watches, a Swatch was 80% cheaper to produce by fully automating assembly and reducing the number of parts from the usual 91 or more to 51 components, with no loss of accuracy.  Lebanese entrepreneur, Nicolas G. Hayek together with a group of Swiss investors took over a majority shareholding of Swatch during 1985 in the newly consolidated group under the name Societe Suisse de Microelectronique et d'Horlogerie, or SMH. He became Chairman of the board of directors, and CEO in 1986. Later he changed company’s name to Swatch Group.  This combination of marketing and manufacturing expertise restored Switzerland as a major player in the world wristwatch market. Synthetic materials were used for the watchcases as well as a new ultra-sonic welding process and assembly technology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Product lines.", "content": "There are families under the Swatch brand:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Swatch Originals.", "content": "The \"Originals\" are plastic-cased watches. They are available in various sizes, shapes, and designs. The \"Originals\" consist of various sub-families as well.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Swatch Irony.", "content": "The \"Irony\" family contains all the metal-cased watches produced by Swatch. These include both quartz driven and serviceable, automatic mechanical watches. The automatics have a 21J/23J ETA 2842 movement. This movement is exclusive to Swatch and is derived from 2824-2. \"Irony Chronograph\" was introduced in Aug 2013.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Swatch Skin.", "content": "The \"Skin\" family contains two sub families: \"Original Skin\" and \"Skin Chronograph\". The \"Original Skin\" was introduced on 6 October 1997 as a thinner version of the original Swatch watch. It is ultra thin, standing at, hence the name \"Swatch Skin\". The \"Swatch Skin\" later went on to enter the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's thinnest plastic watch. The \"Swatch Chronograph\" is simply the \"Swatch Skin\" with a chronograph function, adding two additional buttons on the side of the watch.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Swatch Bijoux.", "content": "The \"Bijoux\" line is the jewelry line that Swatch released in the new millennium. It partnered with Swarovski to encrust the \"Bijoux\" line of watches.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Swatch Digital Touch.", "content": "The \"Digital Touch\" line, launched in 2011, derives its name from the touchscreen technology used. In contrast to other Swatch families, a digital LCD shows the time. Various models in different colors of the display are available, which include backlighting for reading in the dark.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Swatch Bellamy and Pay.", "content": "These Swatch models of wristwatches with a quartz movement are additionally equipped with a near-field communication (NFC) chip to accommodate contactless payment. As an improved second generation, Swatch introduced model \"Pay\" for the Chinese market in July 2017. Unlike the \"Bellamy\", model \"Pay\" can be programmed and activated in Swatch shops using a Cloud Computing service operated by several Chinese banks.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Swatch Sistem51.", "content": "Swatch introduced Sistem51 at Baselworld 2013 as \"the world's first mechanical movement with entirely automated assembly.\" The movement uses 51 components anchored to a central screw with automatic winding and a 90-hour power reserve – and is 100% Swiss made on a automated assembly line in clean-room conditions, without human intervention.  The movement is permanently sealed in its case with structural adhesive securing both the acrylic crystal over the dial and the caseback, making it invulnerable to environmental conditions including moisture, dust or foreign objects – and also making it maintenance free – i.e. impossible to service.  The movement is made from ARCAP, an anti-magnetic alloy of copper, nickel, and zinc – designed to free the movement from adjustment. The escapement has no manual adjustment or regulator; the initial rate is factory laser-set. Swatch reports precision of −5/+5 seconds per day. The design's peripheral bi-directional rotor allows viewing of movement components through the caseback.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Swatch (stylized as swatch) is a Swiss watchmaker founded in 1983 by Nicolas Hayek and a flagship subsidiary of The Swatch Group. The Swatch product line was developed as a response to the \"quartz crisis\" of the 1970s and 1980s, in which Asian-made digital watches were competing against traditional European-made mechanical watches.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973442}
{"src_title": "Douglas fir", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Naming.", "content": "The common name honors David Douglas, a Scottish botanist and collector who first reported the extraordinary nature and potential of the species. The common name is misleading since it is not a true fir, i.e., not a member of the genus \"Abies\". For this reason the name is often written as Douglas-fir (a name also used for the genus \"Pseudotsuga\" as a whole).  The specific epithet \"menziesii\" is after Archibald Menzies, a Scottish physician and rival naturalist to David Douglas. Menzies first documented the tree on Vancouver Island in 1791. Colloquially, the species is also known simply as Doug fir or Douglas pine (although the latter common name may also refer to \"Pinus douglasiana\"). Other names for this tree have included Oregon pine, British Columbian pine, Puget Sound pine, Douglas spruce, false hemlock, red fir, or red pine (although again the latter may refer to a different tree species—\"Pinus resinosa\").  One Coast Salish name for the tree, used in the Halkomelem language, is. In the Lushootseed language, the tree is called.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Douglas-firs are medium-size to extremely large evergreen trees, tall (although only coast Douglas-firs reach such great heights) and up to in diameter. The leaves are flat, soft, linear, long, generally resembling those of the firs, occurring singly rather than in fascicles; they completely encircle the branches, which can be useful in recognizing the species. As the trees grow taller in denser forest, they lose their lower branches, such that the foliage may start as high as off the ground. Douglas-firs in environments with more light may have branches much closer to the ground.  The female cones are pendulous, with persistent scales, unlike those of true firs. They are distinctive in having a long tridentine (three-pointed) bract that protrudes prominently above each scale (it resembles the back half of a mouse, with two feet and a tail).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Pseudotsuga menziesii\" var. \"menziesii\", the coast Douglas-fir, grows in the coastal regions from west-central British Columbia southward to central California. In Oregon and Washington, its range is continuous from the eastern edge of the Cascades west to the Pacific Coast Ranges and Pacific Ocean. In California, it is found in the Klamath and California Coast Ranges as far south as the Santa Lucia Range, with a small stand as far south as the Purisima Hills in Santa Barbara County. One of the last remaining old growth stands of conifers is in the Mattole Watershed, and is under threat of logging. In the Sierra Nevada, it ranges as far south as the Yosemite region. It occurs from near sea level along the coast to above sea level in the mountains of California.  Another variety exists further inland, \"Pseudotsuga menziesii\" var. \"glauca\", the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir or interior Douglas-fir. Interior Douglas-fir intergrades with coast Douglas-fir in the Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia, and from there ranges northward to central British Columbia and southeastward to the Mexican border, becoming increasingly disjunct as latitude decreases and altitude increases. Mexican Douglas-fir (\"P. lindleyana\"), which ranges as far south as Oaxaca, is often considered a variety of \"P. menziesii\".  Fossils (wood, pollen) of \"Pseudotsuga\" are recorded from the Miocene and Pliocene of Europe (Siebengebirge, Gleiwitz, Austria).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Douglas-fir prefers acidic or neutral soils. However, it exhibits considerable morphological plasticity, and on drier sites \"P. menziesii\" var. \"menziesii\" will generate deeper taproots. \"Pseudotsuga menziesii\" var. \"glauca\" exhibits even greater plasticity, occurring in stands of interior temperate rainforest in British Columbia, as well as at the edge of semi-arid sagebrush steppe throughout much of its range, where it generates even deeper taproots than coast Douglas-fir is capable. Mature or \"old-growth\" Douglas-fir forest is the primary habitat of the red tree vole (\"Arborimus longicaudus\") and the spotted owl (\"Strix occidentalis\"). Home range requirements for breeding pairs of spotted owls are at least 400 ha () of old growth. Red tree voles may also be found in immature forests if Douglas-fir is a significant component. The red vole nests almost exclusively in the foliage of the trees, typically above the ground, and its diet consists chiefly of Douglas-fir needles. A parasitic plant sometimes utilizing \"P. menziesii\" is Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe (\"Arceuthobium douglasii\").  The leaves are also used by the woolly conifer aphid \"Adelges cooleyi\"; this 0.5 mm long sap-sucking insect is conspicuous on the undersides of the leaves by the small white \"fluff spots\" of protective wax that it produces. It is often present in large numbers, and can cause the foliage to turn yellowish from the damage it causes. Exceptionally, trees may be partially defoliated by it, but the damage is rarely this severe. Among Lepidoptera, apart from some that feed on \"Pseudotsuga\" in general (see there) the gelechiid moths \"Chionodes abella\" and \"C. periculella\" as well as the cone scale-eating tortrix moth \"Cydia illutana\" have been recorded specifically on \"P. menziesii\". The coast Douglas-fir variety is the dominant tree west of the Cascade Mountains in the Pacific Northwest, occurring in nearly all forest types, competes well on most parent materials, aspects, and slopes. Adapted to a moist, mild climate, it grows larger and faster than Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. Associated trees include western hemlock, Sitka spruce, sugar pine, western white pine, ponderosa pine, grand fir, coast redwood, western redcedar, California incense-cedar, Lawson's cypress, tanoak, bigleaf maple and several others. Pure stands are also common, particularly north of the Umpqua River in Oregon.  Poriol is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid, produced by \"P. menziesii\" in reaction to infection by \"Poria weirii\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The species is extensively used in forestry as a plantation tree for softwood timber. The timber is used for joinery, veneer, flooring and construction due to its strength, hardness and durability. It is also naturalised throughout Europe, Argentina and Chile (called \"Pino Oregón\"), and in New Zealand it is considered to be an invasive species, called a wilding conifer, and subject to control measures.  The species has ornamental value in large parks and gardens.  The buds have been used to flavor eau de vie, a clear, colorless fruit brandy.  Native Hawaiians built \"waʻa kaulua\" (double-hulled canoes) from coast Douglas-fir logs that had drifted ashore.  Douglas-fir has been commonly used as a Christmas tree since the 1920s, and the trees are typically grown on plantations.  Douglas-fir pine leaves can be used to make pine-needle tea.  Many different Native American groups used the bark, resin, and pine needles to make herbal treatments for various diseases.  The only wooden ships still currently in use by the United States Navy are minesweepers, made of Douglas-fir.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pseudotsuga menziesii is an evergreen conifer species in the pine family, Pinaceae. It is native to western North America and is known as Douglas fir, Douglas-fir, Oregon pine, and Columbian pine. Despite its common name, it is not a true fir (i.e. it is not a member of the genus \"Abies\"). There are three varieties: coast Douglas-fir (\"P. menziesii\" var. \"menziesii\"), Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (\"P. menziesii\" var. \"glauca\") and Mexican Douglas fir (\"P. menziesii\" var. \"lindleyana\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973443}
{"src_title": "Horse-chestnut leaf miner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Damage.", "content": "\"Cameraria ohridella\" causes significant damage, mainly late summer browning, to the appearance of horse-chestnut trees. Despite the poor appearance of these infested trees, there is no evidence that damage by the moth leads to tree death. Seed weight, photosynthetic storage and reproductive capacity may however be reduced. Trees survive repeated infestations and re-flush normally in the following year. It appears that most of the damage caused by the moth occurs too late in the growing season to greatly affect tree performance. Consequently, there is no reason to fell and remove trees just because they are attacked by \"C. ohridella\".  The larva feeds in a mine in the leaves of the tree, damaging the leaves and stunting growth. Infected leaves are covered in small brown patches which spread rapidly across the entire tree, giving an autumnal appearance. Eventually the leaves die and drop off; when new ones grow they are again infected. This cycle can repeat itself several times in one season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The moth is up to 5mm long, with shiny, bright brown forewings with thin, silvery white stripes. The hindwings are dark grey with long fringes. Each female moth lays between 20 and 40 eggs singly on the upper surface of leaves, and once these hatch 2–3 weeks later, the larvae develop through five feeding phases (or instars) and two prepupal (spinning) phases before the pupal phase. The first stage creates a small cavity (or mine) parallel to a vein in the leaf and is \"sap-sipping\" rather than \"tissue-feeding\". By the third instar, the larva creates a mine approximately 8mm in diameter; this is further expanded by later instars until one mine can cover several square centimeters. The larva starts to pupate around four weeks after the egg hatches and, except when hibernating as a pupa in the mine, the adult emerges around two weeks later. In severe infestations, the mines of individuals can merge and almost the entire leaf area may be utilised. When this occurs it may lead to high moth mortality as the larvae compete for space and food. The moth is able to go through up to five generations each year, if the weather is hot and dry; on average in western Europe, the moth goes through three generations each year. The last generation of the year pupates for over six months so as to survive the winter. The pupae are extremely frost tolerant and have been recorded to survive temperatures as low as. This allows its populations to increase even after hard winters.  The dead patches that the horse-chestnut leaf miner causes on leaves are similar to damage caused to horse-chestnut trees by the fungus \"Guignardia\" \"aesculi\", but can be distinguished by the fungal infection often being outlined by a conspicuous yellow band which the mines lack. The pupae can be mistaken for pupae of the genus \"Phyllonorycter\" but can be distinguished because \"C. ohridella\" pupae do not have a cremaster and the first five abdominal sections have strong lateral spines on them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and dispersal.", "content": "\"Cameraria ohridella\" has now been found in Albania, Austria, Belgium, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, England and Wales, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Kosovo, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Moldova, Montenegro, the Netherlands, North Macedonia, Poland, Serbia, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and Ukraine. Although horse-chestnut occurs naturally mostly above the 700–1000 m. contours the moth does well in well-watered places such as parks in cities and at low elevation but not well in the hotter parts of Europe e.g. Spain. Probably aided greatly by vehicular transport, the moth has attained a very rapid dispersal rate across Europe of 60 km. per year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin and epidemiology.", "content": "\"Cameraria ohridella\" was first noticed from outbreaks near Ohrid Lake, Yugoslavia in 1984, and was described as a new species by Deschka and Dimić in 1986. A likely Balkan origin for this moth was evidenced from a decrease in genetic diversity from natural towards artificial horse-chestnut stands that were planted around Europe since around 1600. This Balkan origin is further documented by numerous herbarium samples that date back to 1879. These include an outbreak which occurred in horse-chestnut specimens collected by F.K. Meyer in 1961 in Albania. Of the 30 known mitochondrial haplotypes for the species only three (known as A, B and C) have invaded the rest of Europe since 1989, and only A is dominant. It is likely that the frequency of haplotype A has been increasing even in Balkan natural sites, aided by the late development of roads in the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Host plants.", "content": "As well as colonising the leaves of the common horse-chestnut, \"C. ohridella\" is also able to feed on \"Aesculus pavia\", \"Acer platanoides\" and \"Acer pseudoplatanus\", on which in particular one mitochondrial race, haplotype B, seems to develop successfully when nearby horse-chestnut leaves are exhausted, but is not thought to pose such a strong risk to these species unlike to the common horse-chestnut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Control.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parasitoids.", "content": "Over 60 generalist parasitoids have been recorded. However, for biological control a highly specialist parasitoid still needs to be found.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Predators.", "content": "A number of natural predators of the larval stages of \"C. ohridella\" have been recorded. Observations have shown that blue tits (\"Parus caeruleus\"), great tits (\"Parus major\") and marsh tits (\"Parus palustris\") feed on the larvae. Between them, three tit species are thought to prey on between 2 and 4% of the larvae. The southern oak bushcricket (\"Meconema meridionale\") has also been found to prey on \"C. ohridella\", consuming around 10 larvae per day. Overall the predation by the southern oak bushcricket is insignificant compared to that by birds however. Experiments with the predatory mite \"Euseius finlandicus\", bush crickets (\"Phaneroptera\" sp.), ladybirds and lacewings found that none prey on \"C. ohridella\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Procedures.", "content": "Inadvisably, trees can be removed, or better, leaves cleared and burned before adult emergence by the end of March. Use of the systemic insecticide imidacloprid is usually banned as it kills bees. Fenoxycarb causes up to 100% pupal mortality, has low environmental toxicity and can be combined successfully with manual leaf removal. A synthetic pheromone can be used to trap males, but effective control may be hard to thus achieve. In any case, infestation levels could diminish over time as \"Cameraria ohridella\" starts to recruit generalist members of the local parasitoid wasp community.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Projects.", "content": "A number of projects have been launched to investigate the biology and biological control of \"Cameraria ohridella\" and its impact since 2001, for example, an EU-wide multidisciplinary project, CONTROCAM (\"Control of \"Cameraria\"\") and the HAM-CAM Project.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The horse-chestnut leaf miner (\"Cameraria ohridella\") is a leaf-mining moth of the family Gracillariidae. The horse-chestnut leaf miner was first observed in North Macedonia in 1984, and was described as a new species in 1986. Its larvae are leaf miners on the common horse-chestnut (\"Aesculus hippocastanum\"). The horse-chestnut leafminer was first collected and inadvertently pressed in herbarium sheets by the botanist Theodor von Heldreich in central Greece in 1879.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973444}
{"src_title": "Robert Miles", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Robert Miles was born in Fleurier, Switzerland.  Miles became proficient at playing the piano during his youth in Friuli, Italy, in the small town of Fagagna, where his family moved when he was young, and had been in the music scene since 1984. He worked as a DJ in some Italian clubs and private radio networks and in 1990, he used his savings to establish his own recording studio and a pirate radio station.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1994–1997: Breakthrough and \"Dreamland\".", "content": "In 1994, Miles wrote a trance and chill-out piece based on acoustic guitar chords and soft synthesizer effects, \"Children\", which was later developed into a dream house song featuring a piano theme on top. The single picked up sales slowly, but within two weeks of its official release in 1995, it had sold more than 350,000 copies all over Europe and topped the charts in many countries. The single received an unprecedented \"Essential Tune of The Week\", three weeks in a row on Pete Tong's show causing a furious bidding war. It was then signed to Deconstruction Records in the UK by Giles Goodman of Dynamik Music (who represented Platipus Records the initial UK licensee). After occupying the Euro Top 100 chart number 1 spot for thirteen consecutive weeks, by 1997, \"Children\" had sold more than 5 million copies worldwide. It earned Miles platinum records in many countries, a Brit Award (Robert Miles is, to date, the only Italian artist who has received the award) as Best International Male Newcomer 1997, a World Music Award as World's Best Selling Male Newcomer and various other awards.  Miles' next single was \"Fable\". Part of this song was used in the theatrical trailer for the U.S. movie \"Ever After\" starring Drew Barrymore and Dougray Scott. His debut album \"Dreamland\" was released on 7 June 1996 in Europe, and released in the United States about a month later, with covering \"One and One\" of Polish pop diva Edyta Górniak. This cover became very popular (it reached number 1 in the Euro Top 100 Singles Chart during the Christmas period and remained in the top spot for six consecutive weeks) and was later released as a single in Europe and the U.S.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1997–1998: \"23am\".", "content": "In November 1997, Miles released another track, \"Freedom\", which was one of the key tracks on his second album \"23am\" featuring vocals provided by Kathy Sledge of Sister Sledge. Containing a different feel from the previously more club-oriented \"Dreamland\", \"23am\" incorporated more lyrics-driven songs than its predecessor while maintaining Miles' trademark piano sound from the first album.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1998–2002: Departure from label and \"Organik\".", "content": "After splitting from Deconstruction, BMG and his former management in London, he set up his own independent record label Salt Records (stylised as S:alt Records, with S:alt being short for suitably:alternative) in 2001 and released his third album, \"Organik\", featuring the new single \"Paths\" with vocals provided by Nina Miranda of Smoke City. Guests on the album included Trilok Gurtu, Bill Laswell and Nitin Sawhney. Music from \"Organik\" was used on various movie soundtracks such as \"The Bourne Identity\", \"Derrida\", and \"City of Ghosts\". It was licensed to Narada Productions' Shakti Records label in the USA. In 2002, an album containing mainly remixes of songs found on \"Organik\" was released. The album, appropriately entitled \"Organik Remixes\", contained remixes by the winners of the remixing contest held on Robert Miles's Web site, as well as remixes from well-known artists such as Future Sound of London, Riton, and Alexkid among others. The album also had one new track, \"Bhairav\", which featured the vocals of Amelia Cuni.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2004–2005: \"Miles_Gurtu\".", "content": "In 2004, Miles released \"Miles Gurtu\", his fourth album, which was a collaboration with percussionist Trilok Gurtu and included jazz and electronica elements. Also guesting on the album were Nitin Sawhney, Jon Thorne, Mike Patto and Paul Falloon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011–2012: \"Thirteen\".", "content": "His fifth album entitled \"Thirteen\" was released worldwide on Salt Records in February 2011. For this album, Miles produced a blend of alternative and progressive rock with ambient and electronic soundscapes.  In 2012 Miles finished working on the soundtrack for the movie documentary \"The Turn of THIS Century\", directed by Peter Beyak and featuring the photography of Life Magazine. He founded a new FM and online alternative radio station, \"Open Lab\", broadcasting from Ibiza, a project bringing together culture, arts, media, technology and innovation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Miles died in Ibiza, Spain, on 9 May 2017 at the age of 47 after a 9-month battle with stage 4 metastatic cancer.  Miles’ Open Lab station was taken off-air shortly afterwards pending discussions on the future of the station. After receiving many messages from people expressing dismay at the station's suspension, it was announced that the station would be returning soon in 2019 starting with a live radio stream in January 2019 followed by a reboot to radio on 106.4 FM in Ibiza in April 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "Studio albums", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roberto Concina (3 November 1969 – 9 May 2017), known professionally as Robert Miles, was a Swiss-born Italian record producer, composer, musician and DJ. His 1995 composition \"Children\" sold more than 5 million copies and topped the charts in many countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973445}
{"src_title": "Australian Silky Terrier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Australian Silky Terrier is a small and compact short-legged terrier, at the withers, alert and active. The long silky grey and white or blue and tan coat is an identifying feature, hanging straight and parted along the back, and described as \"flat, fine and glossy\". All proportions and aspects of the body and head as well as desirable shades of grey and white and placement of markings are extensively described in the breed standard.  The Silky Terrier should be slightly longer than tall (about one fifth longer than the height at withers). This is a dog that was historically used for hunting and killing rodents and snakes, so its body should have enough substance to fit this role. The coat requires quite a lot of regular grooming and shampooing to retain its silkiness.  The Silky Terrier has a strong, wedge-shaped head. The eyes are small and almond-shaped. According to the standards, light-colored eyes are considered a fault. The ears are small and carried erect. The Silky Terrier has a high-set tail and small, almost catlike, feet. The coat should be long, but not so long to approach floor length. The hair on the face and ears is normally cut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The ancestors of the Australian Silky Terrier include the Yorkshire Terrier and the Australian Terrier (which descends from the rough coated type terriers brought from Great Britain to Australia in the early 19th century); few records indicate whether early dogs were just Australian Terriers born with silky fur, or whether there was an attempt to create a separate breed.<ref name=\"Clark/Brace\"></ref> According to the American Kennel Club, the breed was created at the end of the 19th century when Yorkshire Terriers were crossed with Australian Terriers. At first the breed was known as the Sydney Silky, as it was found primarily in the city of Sydney, Australia. Although most other Australian breeds were working dogs, the Silky Terrier was bred primarily to be an urban pet and companion, although it is also known for killing snakes in Australia. Up until 1929 the Australian Terrier, the Australian Silky Terrier, and the Yorkshire Terrier were not clearly defined. Dogs of three different breeds might be born in the same litter, to be separated by appearance into the different types once they were grown. After 1932 in Australia, further crossbreeding was discouraged, and in 1955 the breed's name officially became the Australian Silky Terrier. The breed was recognised by the Australian National Kennel Council in 1958 in the Toy Group.  During and after World War II American servicemen who had been stationed in Australia brought back to the United States a few Silky Terriers. Newspaper photographs of the breed in 1954 caused an upsurge of popularity and hundreds of Silkies were imported from Australia to the United States. The American Kennel Club recognised the breed as the Silky Terrier in 1959, as did the United Kennel Club (US) in 1965 where it is shown as a Terrier; it is also recognised as the Silky Terrier by the Canadian Kennel Club. The breed is recognised by all the major kennel clubs in the English speaking world, and internationally by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale as breed number 236. It may also be recognised by various minor kennel clubs and internet breed registry businesses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breed Groups.", "content": "The Australian Silky Terrier is a terrier, but is usually placed in the Toy Group rather than the Terrier Group due to its small size. As breed groupings are done mostly to organise groups of breeds for dog shows, it is safer for the little dogs to be with others their own size, rather than with larger dogs. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale has a special section of the Terrier Group that includes only the smallest dogs, while other kennel clubs place the breed in the Toy Group, but it is universally agreed that the breed's type is Terrier.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "The breed standard describe the ideal Australian Silky Terrier temperament as keenly alert and active. They love to be given chances to run and play, but must have a tightly fenced yard. They also enjoy brisk walks and playing ball. The Silky is able to do well in an apartment, although they are also an active indoor breed. It is important they are kept busy and social to discourage boredom. In a survey administered by Dogs 101, ninety-one small breed dogs (16 inches tall and under 22 lbs) were ranked by ability to learn quickly - the Silky Terrier placed in the top twenty. However, training one can be difficult, as this breed is often stubborn and deliberately willful.  They are more independent than other toy breeds, yet are affectionate and loyal to their owners. They bark readily, especially when greeting strangers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Care.", "content": "The Silky Terrier's coat is highly susceptible to tangles and matting and requires daily brushing and combing. This breed requires a deep commitment from the owners. To keep the coat lustrous, regular shampooing is necessary. Use of an aloe and oatmeal shampoo helps alleviate the itchy, dry skin of this breed.  This particular breed should be groomed regularly. Care should also be taken while grooming near the neck area, and a harness leash should be used to protect the Silky Terrier from tracheal collapse.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Australian Silky Terrier or simply Silky Terrier (depending on the breed registry) is a small breed of dog of the terrier dog type. The breed was developed in Australia, although the ancestral types and breeds were from Great Britain. It is closely related to the Australian Terrier and the Yorkshire Terrier. The breed is called the \"Silky Terrier\" in North America, but is called the \"Australian Silky Terrier\" in its country of origin and in the rest of the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973446}
{"src_title": "Rubus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Most species are hermaphrodites, \"Rubus chamaemorus\" being an exception.  The blackberries, as well as various other \"Rubus\" species with mounding or rambling growth habits, are often called brambles. However, this name is not used for those like the raspberry that grow as upright canes, or for trailing or prostrate species, such as most dewberries, or various low-growing boreal, arctic, or alpine species.  The generic name means blackberry in Latin and was derived from the word \"ruber\", meaning \"red\".  The scientific study of brambles is known as \"batology\".  Examples of the hundreds of species of \"Rubus\" include:  The British National Collection of \"Rubus\" is held by Barry Clark at Houghton, Hampshire. His collection stands at over 200 species and, although not within the scope of the National Collection, he also grows many cultivars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hybrid berries.", "content": "The term \"hybrid berry\" is often used collectively for those fruits in the genus \"Rubus\" which have been developed mainly in the USA and UK in the last 130 years. As \"Rubus\" species readily interbreed and are apomicts (able to set seed without fertilisation), the parentage of these plants is often highly complex, but is generally agreed to include cultivars of blackberries, (\"Rubus ursinus\", \"R. fruticosus\") and raspberries (\"R. idaeus\").  The hybrid berries include:-", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific classification.", "content": "The genus \"Rubus\" is a very complex one, particularly the blackberry/dewberry subgenus (\"Rubus\"), with polyploidy, hybridization, and facultative apomixis apparently all frequently occurring, making species classification of the great variation in the subgenus one of the grand challenges of systematic botany.  \"Rubus\" species have a basic chromosome number of seven. Polyploidy from the diploid (14 chromosomes) to the tetradecaploid (98 chromosomes) is exhibited.  Some treatments have recognized dozens of species each for what other, comparably qualified botanists have considered single, more variable species. On the other hand, species in the other \"Rubus\" subgenera (such as the raspberries) are generally distinct, or else involved in more routine one-or-a-few taxonomic debates, such as whether the European and American red raspberries are better treated as one species or two. (In this case, the two-species view is followed here, with \"Rubus idaeus\" and \"R. strigosus\" both recognized; if these species are combined, then the older name \"R. idaeus\" has priority for the broader species.)  Molecular data have backed up classifications based on geography and chromosome number, but following morphological data, such as the structure of the leaves and stems, do not appear to produce a phylogenetic classification.  The classification presented below recognizes 13 subgenera within \"Rubus\", with the largest subgenus (\"Rubus\") in turn divided into 12 sections. Representative examples are presented, but many more species are not mentioned here. A comprehensive 2019 study found subgenera \"Orobatus\" and \"Anoplobatus\" to be monophyletic, while all other subgenera to be paraphyletic or polyphyletic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "The genus has a likely North American origin, with the oldest fossils known from the Eocene, and expansion into Eurasia and elsewhere during the Miocene. Fossil seeds from the early Miocene of \"Rubus\" have been found in the Czech part of the Zittau Basin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rubus is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae, with 250–700 species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973447}
{"src_title": "Battle of Dettingen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The immediate cause of the War of the Austrian Succession was the death in 1740 of Emperor Charles VI, last male Habsburg in the direct line. This left his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, as heir to the Habsburg Monarchy, whose laws excluded women from the succession. The 1713 Pragmatic Sanction waived this and allowed her to inherit, but this was challenged by Charles of Bavaria, the closest male heir.  The dispute became a European issue because the Monarchy formed the most powerful single element in the Holy Roman Empire. A federation of mostly German states, it was headed by the Holy Roman Emperor, in theory an elected position but held by the Habsburgs since 1440. In January 1742, Charles of Bavaria became the first non-Habsburg Emperor in 300 years, with the support of France, Prussia and Saxony. Maria Theresa was backed by the so-called Pragmatic Allies, which in addition to Austria included Britain, Hanover and the Dutch Republic.  In December 1740, Prussia invaded the Austrian province of Silesia, whose mining, weaving and dyeing industries provided 10% of total Imperial income. France, Saxony and Bavaria occupied Habsburg territories in Bohemia, while Spain joined the war, hoping to regain possessions in Northern Italy lost to Austria in 1713. By early 1742, Austria's position seemed desperate; Britain agreed to send a naval squadron to the Mediterranean and 17,000 troops to the Austrian Netherlands, under the Earl of Stair.  However, Austria made peace with Prussia in the June 1742 Treaty of Breslau; by December, they occupied most of Bavaria while the French armies were devastated by disease. The focus of the 1743 campaign switched to Germany; the Austrians defeated the Bavarians at Simbach and in mid-June, the Allied army arrived at Aschaffenburg, on the north bank of the River Main. Here they were joined by George II, who was attending the coronation of a new Elector of Mainz.  By late June, the Allies were running short of supplies; the nearest depot to Aschaffenburg was at Hanau, the road to which ran through Dettingen. Here, French commander, the duc de Noailles, positioned 23,000 troops under his nephew, the duc de Gramont.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "Around 1:00 am on 27 June, the Allies left Aschaffenburg in three columns, and marched along the north bank of the Main, heading for Hanau. The French position at Dettingen was extremely strong; De Gramont's infantry held a line anchored on the village, and running to the Spessart Heights, with the cavalry on level ground to their left. Noailles instructed de Vallière to place his guns on the south bank of the Main, which allowed them to fire into the left flank of the Pragmatic army.  Inadequate reconnaissance was a problem for the Pragmatic Army throughout the war, and the French presence in Dettingen took them by surprise. Their danger became clear when Noailles sent another 12,000 troops over the Main at Aschaffenburg, into the Allied rear; he had high hopes of destroying their entire army. Ilton, commander of the Allied infantry, ordered the British and Hanoverian Foot Guards back to Aschaffenburg, while the remainder changed from column of march into four lines to attack the French position. As they did so, they were fired on by the French artillery, although this caused relatively few casualties.  Despite being ordered three times by Noailles to hold their position, around midday the elite Maison du Roi cavalry charged the Allied lines. Who initiated it is disputed, de Gramont being the most common choice; French historian De Périni suggests the Maison de Roi, who not seen action since Malplaquet in 1709, saw an opportunity to win the battle on their own. They were followed by the Gardes Françaises infantry, in a disjointed and piecemeal attack.  However, led by the duc d'Harcourt, they broke through the first three lines, capturing a number of standards, and throwing the inexperienced British cavalry into confusion. De Vallière ceased fire for fear of hitting his own troops, and the British infantry in the fourth line were able to hold their ground. A Hanoverian artillery battery began firing at close range into the French infantry, while an Austrian brigade took them in the flank. After three hours of fighting, the French retreated to the left bank of the Main, most of their casualties occurring when one of the bridges collapsed.  The Pragmatic army continued towards Hanau; although suggested they could have exploited their victory, they were in no shape to attempt a contested river crossing. Their precarious position was demonstrated by the need to abandon their wounded in order to move faster.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Although George II handed out numerous promotions and rewards to his subordinates, Dettingen was a lucky escape. The Allies, short of supplies and in retreat, had escaped, but had to abandon their wounded, and would have suffered a serious defeat if Noailles' orders had been followed. Unable to agree how to best exploit their 'victory', they ended by doing nothing, and in October, took up winter quarters in the Netherlands.  It was the last battle for several senior officers; in 1744, Noailles was appointed Foreign Minister, while de Gramont was killed at Fontenoy in 1745. The 70 year old Stair retired, and was replaced by the equally elderly George Wade.  The Allied cavalry performed woefully, failing to locate 23,000 men across their line of retreat, less than 8 miles away, while many troopers were allegedly unable to control their horses. Only the infantry's training and discipline saved the army from destruction; in recognition, one of the training companies at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst is named 'Dettingen.'  In honour of the battle, and his patron George II, Handel composed the \"Dettingen Te Deum\" and \"Dettingen Anthem.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Dettingen () took place on 27 June 1743 during the War of the Austrian Succession, at Dettingen, now Karlstein am Main in Bavaria. It was fought between a Pragmatic Army, composed of British, Hanoverian and Austrian troops, and a French army commanded by the duc de Noailles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973448}
{"src_title": "William III of the Netherlands", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "William was born on 19 February 1817 in the Palace of the Nation in Brussels, which was part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands at the time. He was the eldest son of the future king William II of the Netherlands and Anna Pavlovna of Russia. He had three brothers, one of whom died in infancy, and one sister.  In 1827, at the age of ten, he was made an honorary colonel in the Royal Netherlands Army. In the 1830s, he served as lieutenant in the Grenadiers Regiment. In 1834, he was made honorary commander of the Grenadiers Regiment of Kiev nr. 5 in the Imperial Russian Army.  He married his first cousin, Sophie, daughter of King William I of Württemberg and Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna of Russia, in Stuttgart on 18 June 1839. This marriage was unhappy and was characterized by struggles about their children. Sophie was a liberal intellectual, hating everything leaning toward dictatorship, such as the army. William was simpler, more conservative, and loved the military. He prohibited intellectual exercise at home, for which action Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, who corresponded with Princess Sophie, called him an uneducated farmer. His extramarital enthusiasms, however, led the \"New York Times\" to call him \"the greatest debauchee of the age\". Another cause of marital tension (and later political tension) was his capriciousness; he could rage against someone one day, and be extremely polite the next.  William loathed the 1848 constitutional changes initiated by his father (William II) and Johan Rudolf Thorbecke. His father saw them as key to the monarchy's survival in changing times. Sophie, who was a liberal, also shared this view. William himself saw them as useless limitations of royal power, and would have preferred to govern as an enlightened despot in the mold of his grandfather, William I.  He considered relinquishing his right to the throne to his younger brother Henry and later to his older son. His mother convinced him to cancel this action. The Dutch constitution provided no way to relinquish one's claim to the throne.  On 17 March 1849 his father died and William succeeded to the throne of the Netherlands. He was at that moment a guest of the Duchess of Cleveland in Raby Castle. Representatives of the Dutch government traveled to London to meet their new king in London. William was reluctant to return, but he was convinced to do so. Upon arrival the new Queen welcomed her spouse with the question \"did you accept?\". The new king nodded, but he remained uncertain about the matter for some time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "William repeatedly contemplated abdicating as soon as his eldest son William, Prince of Orange, turned eighteen. This occurred in 1858, but as William was uncomfortable making a decision he remained king. His first act was the inauguration of the parliamentary cabinet of Thorbecke, the liberal designer of the 1848 constitution, whom William loathed.  When the Roman Catholic hierarchy of bishops was restored in 1853 he found growing conservative support and a reason to dismiss Thorbecke. In the first two decades of his reign, he dismissed several cabinets and disbanded the States-General several times, installing royal cabinets which ruled as long as there was support in the elected second chamber of parliament.  In what became known as the \"Luxembourg Coup of 1856\", William unilaterally instituted a new, reactionary constitution for Luxembourg, which he ruled personally, separate from the Netherlands crown.  In 1867, France offered to buy Luxembourg, leading to the Luxembourg Crisis, which almost precipitated war between Prussia and France. However, the subsequent Second Treaty of London re-established Luxembourg as a fully independent country.  During his reign, the king became more and more unpopular with his bourgeois-liberal subjects, his whims provoking their resistance and mockery, but remained quite popular with the common man.  The king was a man of immense stature and with a boisterous voice. He could be gentle and kind, then suddenly he could become intimidating and even violent. He kicked and hit his servants about. He was inclined to terrorize and humiliate his courtiers. The king was cruel to animals as well. His ministers were afraid of him. Most people around him agreed that he was, to some degree, insane.  The king could be erratic, he ordered the dismissal and even the arrest and execution of those that he found in lack of respect, including a Mayor of The Hague. Orders like these were disregarded. The king who thought of himself as a specialist on all matters military frequently tried to take command of manoeuvres, creating chaos wherever he went.  In 1877, Queen Sophie died and years of war in the palace came to an end. In the same year, King William announced his intention to marry Émilie Ambre, a French opera singer, whom he ennobled as countess d'Ambroise – without government consent. Under pressure from society and the government, he abandoned these marriage plans.  William remained eager to remarry. In 1878, he first proposed to his niece, Princess Elisabeth of Saxe-Weimar. He then considered marriage with Princess Pauline of Waldeck and Pyrmont, a small German principality, and Princess Thyra of Denmark, who had her own private scandalous history.  He finally decided to marry Pauline's younger sister Emma. Some politicians were quite angry, as she was 41 years the king's junior. Emma showed herself, however, as a cordial woman. William asked permission from parliament, this was easily granted. The couple were quickly married in Arolsen on 7 January 1879.  Emma had a relieving influence on William's capricious personality and the marriage was extremely happy. The last decade was without any doubt the best of his reign. The king had stopped interfering with most aspects of government. In 1880, Wilhelmina was born. She became heiress presumptive in 1884 after the death of the last remaining son from William's first marriage. Many potential male heirs had died between 1878 and 1884.  King William became seriously ill in 1887. He was suffering from a kidney-ailment. However, in 1888, he personally presented a gold medal of honor to the lifeboat hero Dorus Rijkers, for saving the lives of 20 people.  In 1888 and 1889 the ailing king became increasingly demented. The Council of State and then Queen Emma became regents. William III died in Het Loo in 1890. Because Wilhelmina had not yet reached adulthood, Emma became regent for her daughter. She would remain regent until Wilhelmina's eighteenth birthday in 1898.  Because the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg could only be inherited through the male Nassau line under the terms of the house-treaty of the House of Nassau, it went to William's 17th cousin once removed (and incidentally Emma's uncle on her mother's side), Adolphe, Duke of Nassau. His branch of the House of Nassau still governs the Grand Duchy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and issue.", "content": "Of William III's four legitimate children, three reached adulthood, two sons from his marriage to Queen Sophie and one daughter from his marriage to Queen Emma:  Standing at 6'5\" (196 cm) he was an exceptionally large and strong man by the standards of his age. William III was known to be a philanderer and had several dozen illegitimate children from various mistresses. Through one of his out-of-wedlock children, William III was a maternal ancestor of kickboxer Alistair Overeem.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William III (Dutch: \"Willem Alexander Paul Frederik Lodewijk\"; English: \"William Alexander Paul Frederick Louis\"; 19 February 1817 – 23 November 1890) was King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1849 until his death in 1890. He was also the Duke of Limburg from 1849 until the abolition of the duchy in 1866.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973449}
{"src_title": "Jean-Marie Leclair", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Leclair was born in Lyon, but left to study dance and the violin in Turin. In 1716, he married Marie-Rose Casthanie, a dancer, who died about 1728. Leclair had returned to Paris in 1723, where he played at the Concert Spirituel, the main semi-public music series. His works included several sonatas for flute and basso continuo.  In 1730, Leclair married for the second time. His new wife was the engraver Louise Roussel, who prepared for printing all his works from Opus 2 onward. Named \"ordinaire de la musique\" by Louis XV in 1733, Leclair resigned in 1737 after a clash with Guidon over control of the musique du Roy.  Leclair was then engaged by the Princess of Orange – a fine harpsichordist and former student of Handel – and from 1738 until 1743, served three months annually at her court in Leeuwarden, working in The Hague as a private for the remainder of the year. He returned to Paris in 1743. His only opera \"Scylla et Glaucus\" was first performed in 1746 and has been revived in modern times. From 1740 until his death in Paris, he served the Duke of Gramont, in whose private theatre at Puteaux were staged works to which Leclair is known to have contributed. They included, in particular, a lengthy divertissement for the comedy (1749) and one complete entrée,, for the opéra-ballet by various authors, (1750).  Leclair was renowned as a violinist and as a composer. He successfully drew upon all of Europe's national styles. Many suites, sonatas, and concertos survive along with his opera, while some vocal works, ballets, and other stage music are lost.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Murder.", "content": "In 1758, after the break-up of his second marriage, Leclair purchased a small house in a dangerous Parisian neighborhood in the northern part of Le Marais near the old Temple, where he was found stabbed to death on October 23, 1764. Although the murder remains a mystery, there is a possibility that his ex-wife may have been behind it – her motive being financial gain – although the strongest suspicion rests on his nephew, Guillaume-François Vial.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Marie Leclair l'aîné, also known as Jean-Marie Leclair the Elder (10 May 1697 – 22 October 1764), was a Baroque violinist and composer. He is considered to have founded the French violin school. His brothers Jean-Marie Leclair the younger (1703–77), Pierre Leclair (1709–84) and Jean-Benoît Leclair (1714–after 1759) were also musicians.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973450}
{"src_title": "Trifolium repens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The genus name, \"Trifolium\", derives from the Latin ', \"three\", and ', \"leaf\", so called from the characteristic form of the leaf, which usually but not always has three leaflets (trifoliolate); hence the popular name \"trefoil\". The species name, \"\", is Latin for \"creeping\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a herbaceous, perennial plant. It is low growing, with heads of whitish flowers, often with a tinge of pink or cream that may come on with the aging of the plant. The heads are generally wide, and are at the end of 7-cm (2.8-in) peduncles or inflorescence stalks. The flowers are mostly visited by bumblebees and often by honey bees. The leaves are trifoliolate, smooth, elliptic to egg-shaped and long-petioled and usually with light or dark markings. The stems function as stolons, so white clover often forms mats, with the stems creeping as much as a year, and rooting at the nodes. The leaves form the symbol known as shamrock. Almost always, a white clover will be trifoliolate. However, one can, but only rarely, possess four leaflets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "It is native in Europe and Central Asia, ubiquitous throughout the British Isles, introduced in North America, South Africa, New Zealand, Japan and elsewhere, and globally cultivated as a forage crop.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancestry.", "content": "\"Trifolium repens\" is a tetraploid (4n=32) with two diploid ancestors. In order to increase genetic diversity for breeding, research is focused on finding these ancestors. Proposed ancestors of \"Trifolium repens\" include \"Trifolium nigrescens, Trifolium occidentale, Trifolium pallescens,\" and \"Trifolium uniflorum.\"\" \" Additionally, it is possible that one of the diploid ancestors has yet to be analyzed, either because it has not been discovered or is extinct.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Forage.", "content": "White clover has been described as the most important forage legume of the temperate zones. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation (up to 545 kg N per hectare per year, although usually much less, e.g. about 110 to 170 kg N per hectare per year) in root nodules of white clover obviates synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use for maintaining productivity on much temperate zone pasture land. White clover is commonly grown in mixtures with forage grasses, e.g. perennial ryegrass (\"Lolium perenne\"). Such mixtures can not only optimize livestock production, but can also reduce the bloat risk to livestock that can be associated with excessive white clover in pastures. Such species mixtures also tend to avoid issues that could otherwise be associated with cyanogenic glycoside (linamarin and lotaustralin) intake on pure or nearly pure stands of some white clover varieties. However, problems do not inevitably arise with grazing on monocultures of white clover, and superior ruminant production is sometimes achieved on white clover monocultures managed to optimize sward height. Formononetin and biochanin A play a role in arbuscular mycorrhiza formation on white clover roots, and foliar disease can stimulate production of estrogenic coumestans in white clover. However, while there have been a few reports of phytoestrogenic effects of white clover on grazing ruminants, these have been far less common than such reports regarding some varieties of subterranean and red clover. Among forage plants, some white clover varieties tend to be favored by rather close grazing, because of their stoloniferous habit, which can contribute to competitive advantage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Companion planting, green manure, and cover crops.", "content": "White clover grows well as a companion plant among lawns, grain crops, pasture grasses, and vegetable rows. It is often added to lawn seed mixes, as it is able to grow and provide green cover in poorer soils where turfgrasses do not perform well. White clover can tolerate close mowing and grazing, and it can grow on many different types and pHs of soil (although it prefers clay soils). As a leguminous and hardy plant, it is considered to be a beneficial component of natural or organic pasture management and lawn care due to its ability to fix nitrogen and out-compete weeds. Natural nitrogen fixing reduces leaching from the soil and by maintaining soil health can reduce the incidence of some lawn diseases that are enhanced by the availability of synthetic fertilizer. For these reasons, it is often used as a green manure and cover crop.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culinary uses.", "content": "Besides making an excellent forage crop for livestock, its leaves and flowers are a valuable survival food: they are high in proteins, and are widespread and abundant. The fresh plants have been used for centuries as additives to salads and other meals consisting of leafy vegetables. They are not easy for humans to digest raw, however, but this is easily fixed by boiling the harvested plants for 5–10 minutes. Dried white clover flowers may also be smoked as an herbal alternative to tobacco.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medicinal uses.", "content": "In India, \"T. repens\" is considered a folk medicine against intestinal helminthic worms, and an experimental in-vivo study validated that the aerial shoots of \"T. repens\" bear significant anticestodal properties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Trifolium\" means 'trefoil' (three-lobed leaves); this is Pliny’s name for trifoliate plants.  \"Repens\" means 'creeping' or'stoloniferous'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Tangpu, V., Temjenmongla & Yadav, A. K. 2004. Anticestodal activity of Trifolium repens extract. Pharmaceutical Biology 42: 656–658.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Trifolium repens, the white clover (also known as Dutch clover, Ladino clover, or Ladino), is a herbaceous perennial plant in the bean family Fabaceae (previously referred to as Leguminosae). It is native to Europe, including the British Isles, and central Asia and is one of the most widely cultivated types of clover. It has been widely introduced worldwide as a forage crop, and is now also common in most grassy areas (lawns and gardens) of North America and New Zealand. The species includes varieties often classed as small, intermediate and large, according to height, which reflects petiole length. The term “white clover” is applied to the species in general, “Dutch clover” is often applied to intermediate varieties (but sometimes to smaller varieties), and “ladino clover” is applied to large varieties.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973451}
{"src_title": "Trifolium pratense", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Red clover is a herbaceous, short-lived perennial plant, variable in size, growing to tall. It has a deep taproot which makes it tolerant to drought and gives it a good soil structuring effect. The leaves are alternate, trifoliate (with three leaflets), each leaflet long and broad, green with a characteristic pale crescent in the outer half of the leaf; the petiole is long, with two basal stipules that are abruptly narrowed to a bristle-like point. The flowers are dark pink with a paler base, long, produced in a dense inflorescence, and are mostly visited by bumblebees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The red clover is native to Europe, Western Asia, and northwest Africa, but it has been naturalized in other continents, like North and South America. Specifically, the red clover was brought to Argentina and Chile over 100 years ago, although it is not clear how exactly it was introduced. The red clover has become increasingly important as a source of economic stability in Chile, which has made the need for pollinators even more important. One important pollinator, which was also brought from Europe, is \"Bombus ruderatus\", or the large garden bumblebee. This bumblebee has been one of the important pollinators of red clover in South America and other countries such as New Zealand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "It is widely grown as a fodder crop, valued for its nitrogen fixation, which increases soil fertility. For these reasons, it is used as a green manure crop. Several cultivar groups have been selected for agricultural use, mostly derived from \"T. pratense\" var. \"sativum\". It has become naturalised in many temperate areas, including the Americas and Australasia as an escape from cultivation.  Due to its beauty, it is used as an ornamental plant.  Red clover's flowers and leaves are edible, and can be added as garnishes to any dish. They can be ground into a flour.  The flowers often are used to make jelly and tisanes, and are used in essiac recipes. Their essential oil may be extracted and its unique scent used in aromatherapy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical uses of the plant.", "content": "\"Trifolium pratense\" is used in traditional medicine of India as deobstruent, antispasmodic, expectorant, sedative, anti-inflammatory and antidermatosis agent.  In alternative medicine, red clover is promoted as a treatment for a variety of human maladies, including symptoms of menopause, coughs, disorders of the lymphatic system and a variety of cancers. Several systemic reviews and meta-analyses concluded that red clover extract reduces the frequency of menopause hot flashes. Most added that further research is needed to confirm the results. There is no evidence in the human trial literature that red clover has been tested for effects on cough, lymphatic system or cancer prevention/treatment. Dietary amounts of red clover are safe, but dietary supplement extracts may cause rash-like reactions, muscle ache, headache, nausea, vaginal bleeding in women, and slow blood clotting.  Red clover contains coumestrol, a phytoestrogen. Due to its activity on oestrogen receptors, red clover is contraindicated in people with a history of breast cancer, endometriosis, ovarian cancer, uterine cancer, uterine fibroids or other oestrogen-sensitive conditions, although some authors have suggested the high isoflavone content counteracts this, and even provides benefits in these conditions. It is said to be a blood cleanser.  Due to its coumarin derivatives, \"T. pratense\" should be used with caution in individuals with coagulation disorders or currently undergoing anticoagulation therapy.  It is metabolised by CYP3A4 and therefore caution should be used when taking it with other drugs using this metabolic pathway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diseases.", "content": "Red clover is subject to bacterial as well as fungal diseases, including the red clover rust, \"Uromyces trifolii-repentis\" var. \"fallens\". Other problems include parasitic nematodes (roundworms) and viruses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolism.", "content": "\"Trifolium pratense\" is the national flower of Denmark and the state flower of Vermont.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Trifolium pratense, the red clover, is a herbaceous species of flowering plant in the bean family Fabaceae, native to Europe, Western Asia, and northwest Africa, but planted and naturalised in many other regions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973452}
{"src_title": "Carl Theodor Dreyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Dreyer was born illegitimate in Copenhagen, Denmark. His birth mother was an unmarried Scanian maid named Josefine Bernhardine Nilsson, and he was put up for adoption by his birth father, Jens Christian Torp, a married Danish farmer living in Sweden who was his mother's employer. He spent the first two years of his life in orphanages until his adoption by a typographer named Carl Theodor Dreyer, and his wife, Inger Marie (née Olsen). He was named after his adoptive father, but in accordance with Danish practice, there is no \"Senior\" or \"Junior\" added to their names to distinguish them from each other.  His adoptive parents were emotionally distant and his childhood was largely unhappy. He later recalled that his parents \"constantly let me know that I should be grateful for the food I was given and that I strictly had no claim on anything, since my mother got out of paying by lying down to die.\" But he was a highly intelligent school student, who left home and formal education at the age of sixteen. He dissociated himself from his adoptive family, but their teachings were to influence the themes of many of his films.  Dreyer was ideologically conservative. According to David Bordwell, \"As a youth he belonged to the Social Liberal party, a conservative group radical only in their opposition to military expenditures...'Even when I was with \"Ekstrabladet\",' Dreyer recalled, 'I was conservative...I don't believe in revolutions. They have, as a rule, the tedious quality of pulling development back. I believe more in evolution, in the small advances.'\"  Dreyer died of pneumonia in Copenhagen at age 79. The documentary \"\" contains reminiscences from those who knew him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "As a young man, Dreyer worked as a journalist, but he eventually joined the film industry as a writer of title cards for silent films and subsequently of screenplays. He was initially hired by Nordisk Film in 1913.  His first attempts at film direction had limited success, and he left Denmark to work in the French film industry. While living in France he met Jean Cocteau, Jean Hugo and other members of the French artistic scene and in 1928 he made his first classic film, \"The Passion of Joan of Arc\". Working from the transcripts of Joan's trial, he created a masterpiece of emotion that drew equally on realism and expressionism. Dreyer used private finance from Baron Nicolas de Gunzburg to make his next film as the Danish film industry was in financial ruin. \"Vampyr\" (1932) is a surreal meditation on fear. Logic gave way to mood and atmosphere in this story of a man protecting two sisters from a vampire. The movie contains many indelible images, such as the hero, played by de Gunzburg (under the screen name Julian West), dreaming of his own burial and the animal blood lust on the face of one of the sisters as she suffers under the vampire's spell. The film was shot mostly silent but with sparse, cryptic dialogue in three separate versions – English, French and German.  Both films were box office failures, and Dreyer did not make another movie until 1943. Denmark was by now under Nazi occupation, and his \"Day of Wrath\" had as its theme the paranoia surrounding witch hunts in the seventeenth century in a strongly theocratic culture. With this work, Dreyer established the style that would mark his sound films: careful compositions, stark monochrome cinematography, and very long takes. In the more than a decade before his next full-length feature film, Dreyer made two documentaries. In 1955, he made \"Ordet\" (\"The Word\") based on the play of the same name by Kaj Munk. The film combines a love story with a conflict of faith. Dreyer's last film was 1964's \"Gertrud\". Although seen by some as a lesser film than its predecessors, it is a fitting close to Dreyer's career, as it deals with a woman who, through the tribulations of her life, never expresses regret for her choices.  The great, never finished project of Dreyer's career was a film about Jesus. Though a manuscript was written (published 1968) the unstable economic conditions and Dreyer's own demands of realism together with his switching engagement let it remain a dream.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carl Theodor Dreyer (; 3 February 1889 – 20 March 1968), commonly known as Carl Th. Dreyer, was a Danish film director. His movies are renown for their emotional austerity and slow, stately pacing. Frequent themes that his films explore are unequal struggle of women and the innocent against repression and social intolerance, the inescapability of fate and death, the power of evil in earthly life. His 1928 movie The Passion of Joan of Arc is considered to be one of the greatest movies of all time, renown for its cinematography and use of close-ups. It frequently appears on Sight & Sound's lists of the greatest films ever made, and in 2012's poll it was voted the 9th best film ever made by film critics and 37th by film directors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973453}
{"src_title": "What's Eating Gilbert Grape", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In the small town of Endora, Iowa, Gilbert Grape (Johnny Depp) is busy caring for Arnie (Leonardo DiCaprio), his mentally impaired brother, as they wait for the many tourists' trailers to pass through town during an annual Airstreamers' Club gathering at a nearby recreational area. His father had hanged himself 7 years earlier, and since then his mother, Bonnie (Darlene Cates), has spent most of her days on the couch watching TV and eating. With Bonnie's morbid obesity leaving her unable to care for her children on her own, Gilbert has taken responsibility for repairing the old house and looking after Arnie, who has a habit of climbing the town water tower, while his sisters Amy (Laura Harrington) and Ellen (Mary Kate Schellhardt) do the rest. The relationship between the brothers is of both care and protection, as Gilbert continually enforces a \"nobody touches Arnie\" policy. A new FoodLand supermarket has opened, threatening the small Lamson's Grocery where Gilbert works. In addition, Gilbert is having an affair with a married woman, Betty Carver (Mary Steenburgen).  The family is looking forward to Arnie's 18th birthday. A young woman named Becky (Juliette Lewis) and her grandmother are stuck in town when the International Harvester Travelall pulling their trailer breaks down. Gilbert's unusual life circumstances threaten to get in the way of their budding romance. In order to spend time with Becky to watch the sunset, Gilbert leaves Arnie alone in the bath. He returns home late and finds that Arnie is still in the bath the following morning, shivering in the now cold water; his guilt is compounded by his family's anger and Arnie's subsequent aquaphobia. His affair with Betty ends when she leaves town in search of a new life following her husband's death—who drowned in the family's wading pool after suffering a heart attack. Becky becomes close to both Gilbert and Arnie. While they are distracted during one of their talks, Arnie returns to the water tower that he is always trying to climb. Arnie is arrested after being rescued from the top of the tower, causing his mother—who has not left the house in over seven years—to become the object of pointing, laughing, and gawking from the townspeople as she goes to the police station, forcing Arnie's release.  Soon after, Arnie tries to run away from his bath and in his frustration, Gilbert finally snaps, hitting Arnie several times. Guilty and appalled at himself, Gilbert runs out and drives away in his truck without another word. Arnie also runs out and goes to Becky's, who takes care of him for the evening (and helping him overcome his aquaphobia) until he is picked up by his sisters. After some soul searching aided by Becky, Gilbert returns home during the birthday party to make amends to his family for running out and to be forgiven by Arnie which, with only the slightest hesitation, he is. He apologizes to his mother for his behavior and promises that he is not ashamed of her and that he will not let her be hurt anymore. She admits to Gilbert her knowledge of what a burden she has become to the family, and he forgives her. He introduces her to Becky — something he had been reluctant to do earlier.  Following Arnie's 18th birthday party, Bonnie climbs the stairs to her bedroom for the first time since her husband's suicide. Arnie later tries to wake her but discovers that she has died. The children, not willing to let their mother become the joke of the town by having her corpse lifted from the house by crane, empty their family home of possessions and set it on fire with her in it, burning her to ashes and the house down. A year later, Gilbert describes what happened to his family after his mother's death (Amy is managing a bakery while Ellen is looking forward to switching schools) as Gilbert and his brother Arnie wait by the side of a road for Becky, who arrives with her grandmother and picks them up.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "\"What's Eating Gilbert Grape\" was shot in Texas, in various towns and cities; Austin and Pflugerville were primary locations, as well as Manor, where the water tower featured in the film was located.  \"Film Review\" quoted actor Leonardo DiCaprio:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "The film had a limited release on December 17, 1993 and wide release on March 4, 1994. The wide release garnered $2,104,938 on its first weekend. It was considered a box office bomb, with the total domestic gross for the film being $10,032,765.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "The film received positive reviews, with many critics praising the performances by Depp & DiCaprio. The latter was singled out for his performances in the film, with many saying DiCaprio stole the film from the lead actor Depp. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film was given a 90% \"Certified Fresh\" score and an average rating of 7.3/10 based on 49 reviews. The site's consensus states that the film is \"sentimental and somewhat predictable, but those are small complaints, given the tender atmosphere and moving performances at the heart of \"What's Eating Gilbert Grape\".\" \"The New York Times\" film critic Janet Maslin praised DiCaprio's performance, writing \"the film's real show-stopping turn comes from Mr. DiCaprio, who makes Arnie's many tics so startling and vivid that at first he is difficult to watch... The performance has a sharp, desperate intensity from beginning to end.\" Roger Ebert of \"Chicago Sun-Times\" described it as \"... one of the most enchanting films of the year\" and said that DiCaprio deserved to win the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for which he was nominated. Todd McCarthy of \"Variety\" found the film a \"bemused view on life\" and remarked that \"Depp manages to command center screen with a greatly affable, appealing characterization.\" \"The Washington Post\"s Desson Howe thought the film was an earnest but highly predictable effort. \"Film Review\" praised Leonardo DiCaprio as the mentally handicapped brother, calling it \"a performance of astonishing innocence and spontaneity\", bringing \"a touching credibility to a very difficult part\".  The film was nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "What's Eating Gilbert Grape is a 1993 American drama film directed by Lasse Hallström and starring Johnny Depp, Juliette Lewis, Darlene Cates, and Leonardo DiCaprio. The film follows 24-year-old Gilbert (Depp), a grocery store clerk caring for his morbidly obese mother (Cates) and his mentally impaired younger brother (DiCaprio) in a sleepy Midwestern town. Peter Hedges wrote the screenplay, based on his 1991 novel of the same name. The film was well-received; DiCaprio received his first Academy Award nomination for his role.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973454}
{"src_title": "Antonov An-12", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Developed from the Antonov An-8, the An-12 was a military version of the An-10 passenger transport. The first prototype An-12 flew in December 1957 and entered Soviet military service in 1959. Initially, the aircraft was produced at the State Aviation Factory in Irkutsk. From 1962, production was transferred to Tashkent, where 830 were built. Later, production moved to Voronezh and Kazan.  In military use, the An-12 has capacity for up to 100 fully equipped paratroopers or 20,000 kg (44,090 lb) of cargo, which is loaded through the rear loading ramp/door.  In terms of configuration, size, and capability, the aircraft is similar to the United States-built Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Soviet military and former-Soviet An-12s have a defensive tail gun turret.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chinese production.", "content": "In the 1960s, China purchased several An-12 aircraft from the Soviet Union, along with a license to assemble the aircraft locally. Due to the Sino-Soviet split, the Soviet Union withdrew its technical assistance and the first flight of a Chinese-assembled An-12 was delayed until 1974. After USSR ceased production in 1973, the Xi'an Aircraft Company and Xi'an Aircraft Design Institute reverse-engineered the An-12 for local production.  In 1981, the Chinese version of the An-12, designated Y-8, entered production. Since then, the Y-8 has become one of China's most popular military and civilian transport/cargo aircraft, with many variants produced and exported. A Tu-16/H-6 bomber navigator cockpit design was chosen for the Y-8 instead of the original An-12 shorter navigator cockpit design, as the H-6 bomber had been in serial production for some time. Although the An-12 is no longer in use either in Russia or in Ukraine, the Y-8 is upgraded and produced in China. The latest Y8-F600 is a joint venture between the Shaanxi Aircraft Company, Antonov Aeronautical Scientific Technical Complex (ASTC), and Pratt & Whitney Canada. The Y8-F600 has a redesigned fuselage, western avionics, PW150B turboprop engines with an R-408 propeller system, and a two-crew glass cockpit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "In addition to its basic cargo transport role, the An-12 was adapted as a platform for a wide variety of specialist tasks and some 30 different variants were produced. Upgrades included increased take-off weights and additional fuel capacity. The upgraded variant An-12BP became the standard tactical transport of the Soviet and other air forces. In 2019, it was announced at the military \"Army-2019\" Forum that Russia started working on an armed ground-attack and close air support variant of the An-12, similar to the AC-130.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet Air Forces.", "content": "The Aircraft first took flight in 1957 and was produced in the USSR until 1973. It was used in a variety of roles from search and rescue operations to equipment transportation. Its most significant use was seen during the Soviet-Afghan War. Among Soviet Soldiers, it was infamously known that the plane would take off from Afghanistan to Tashkent with \"Cargo 200\" or coffins with the bodies of deceased soldiers. To this regard the aircraft was nicknamed \"Black Tulip\" (Russian: «Чёрный тюльпан»).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operators.", "content": "Currently the An-12 is very popular with cargo operators, especially those in the CIS, Africa and the Indian subcontinent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Civil operators.", "content": "On 12 January 2009, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) issued a temporary ban of the An-12 from flying over their airspace following runway incursions at Sharjah International Airport and the GCAA has advised operators to stop using the aircraft. The ban was made permanent in Feb 2010.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Antonov An-12 (Russian: Антонов Ан-12; NATO reporting name: Cub) is a four-engined turboprop transport aircraft designed in the Soviet Union. It is the military version of the Antonov An-10 and has many variants. For more than three decades the An-12 was the standard medium-range cargo and paratroop transport aircraft of the Soviet air forces. A total of 1,234 were eventually built.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973455}
{"src_title": "Otto Sverdrup", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early and personal life.", "content": "He was born in Bindal as a son of farmer Ulrik Frederik Suhm Sverdrup (1833–1914) and his wife Petra Neumann Knoph (1831–1885). He was a great-grandnephew of Georg Sverdrup and Jacob Liv Borch Sverdrup, first cousin twice removed of Harald Ulrik and Johan Sverdrup, second cousin once removed of Jakob, Georg and Edvard Sverdrup, third cousin of Georg Johan, Jakob, Mimi, Leif and Harald Ulrik Sverdrup. He was a brother-in-law of Johan Vaaler, and Otto himself married his own first cousin, Gretha Andrea Engelschiøn (1866–1937), in October 1891 in Kristiania. Their daughter Audhild Sverdrup (1893–1932) married Carl Johan Sverdrup Marstrander.  His father was born on Buøy in Kolvereid municipality. As oldest son Otto was heir to the Sverdrup properties at Buøy. However, he left it all to his younger brothers and went to Åbygda in Bindal, to the farm named Hårstad, where Otto Sverdrup was born. In 1872, at the age of 17, Otto Sverdrup returned to Nærøy, to Ottersøy where his uncle Søren worked in transportation with his own vessels. Here Sverdrup started his career as a seaman and after a while he was sailing abroad. In 1875, he passed his mate's examination, and some years later the shipmaster's examination.  In 1877 Sverdrup's parents moved from Bindal to the farm Trana outside Steinkjer. At this time O. T. Olsen, a teacher and employee in the bank at Kolvereid and a relative of his mother, had purchased the steamboat \"TRIO\". Sverdrup was employed as captain. Around this time Sverdrup also met the lawyer Alexander Nansen who lived in Namsos. He was the brother of Fridtjof Nansen and through him Sverdrup and Fridtjof Nansen learned to know each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career and expeditions.", "content": "Sverdrup joined Fridtjof Nansen's expedition of 1888 across Greenland. In 1892 he was an advisor to Fridtjof Nansen when the ship \"Fram\" was built. In 1893 Sverdrup was given command of the ship, and in 1895 he was left in charge of it while Nansen attempted to reach the North Pole. Sverdrup managed to free the ship from the ice near Svalbard in August 1896 and sailed to Skjervøy, arriving just 4 days after Nansen had reached Norway.  In the summer of 1897 Sverdrup worked as the shipmaster of \"Lofoten\", a passenger ship to and from Svalbard. In 1898 he embarked on another expedition with \"Fram\". Sverdrup attempted to circumnavigate Greenland via Baffin Bay but failed to make it through the Nares Strait. Forced to overwinter on Ellesmere Island, he and his crew explored and named many uncharted fjords and peninsulas on the western shores of the island, explaining the Norwegian names, such as Hoved Island (\"main island\") and Prince Gustav Adolf Sea (after the Swedish king Gustav VI Adolf) in the Canadian Arctic.  Between 1899 and 1902, he overwintered three more times on Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic with the \"Fram\", continuing to explore and map, culminating in the discovery of the islands to the west of Ellesmere Island, namely Axel Heiberg, Amund Ringnes and Ellef Ringnes, collectively known as the Sverdrup Islands. In adopting Inuit methods, Sverdrup and his crew were able to chart a total of 260,000 square kilometers - more than any other polar exploration. The area was famously mapped by his topographer, Gunnar Isachsen, and 35 academic publications were penned as a result of the expedition. Upon Sverdrup's return in Norway, he was treated as a national hero. However, he remains relatively unknown in North America, and relatively unknown for his Canadian exploration in Norway. Sverdrup officially claimed all three islands he discovered for Norway in 1902, setting off a sovereignty dispute with Canada, which claimed sovereignty over all land, discovered or undiscovered in what is now the Canadian Arctic. The dispute was not settled until 1930 when Norway ceded the islands to Canada. In that year Sverdrup signed a deal with the Canadian Government, who would buy the records of Sverdrup's expeditions for $67,000 Canadian dollars. Sverdrup died just two weeks after the deal was signed, but the money secured the future of his family. The records were archived in the National Archives of Canada, but was later returned to the National Library of Norway.  One of Sverdrup's lesser known exploits was a search-and-rescue expedition aboard ship \"Eklips\" in the Kara Sea in 1914-1915. His aim was to search for two missing Arctic expeditions, that of Captain Georgy Brusilov on the \"St. Anna\" and that of Vladimir Rusanov on the \"Gerkules\". Sverdrup's fourth and last expedition in Arctic Siberian waters was in 1921, when, from the bridge of the Soviet Icebreaker Lenin, he commanded a convoy of five cargo ships on an experimental run through the Kara Sea to the mouths of the Ob and Yenisei. The ships reached their destinations and returned safely. This was considered an important step in the development of the Kara Sea sector of the Northern Sea Route. Sverdrup also has an unsuccessful business venture in Cuba, a plantation project in the Oriente Province in 1904.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and legacy.", "content": "The last years of his life he lived in Sandvika, at the property Homewood on a hill overlooking the town. He died in November 1930. A statue of Sverdrup was erected in Steinkjer in 1957, and in 1999 a statue of Sverdrup was erected in Sandvika, in the square named after him, \"Otto Sverdrups plass\".  He was decorated with the Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav in 1902, was awarded gold medals from the Norwegian Geographical Society in 1889 and the Royal Geographical Society in 1903, and received an honorary degree at the University of St Andrews.  Sverdrup had also been awarded the Grand Cross of the Prussian Order of the Crown in 1902, but in an open letter to the German legation in Oslo on 25 October 1917 declared that he was returning the order in protest against the unrestricted warfare then being waged by the German U-boats in the First World War, causing the deaths of hundreds of Norwegian sailors. The day before Sverdrup's return of his order, fellow explorer Roald Amundsen had also returned his German awards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otto Neumann Knoph Sverdrup (31 October 1854, in Bindal, Helgeland – 26 November 1930) was a Norwegian sailor and Arctic explorer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973456}
{"src_title": "Eugène Sue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Paris, the son of a distinguished surgeon in Napoleon's army, Jean-Joseph Sue, and has had the Empress Joséphine for godmother. Sue himself acted as surgeon both in the 1823 French campaign in Spain and at the Battle of Navarino in 1827. In 1829 his father's death put him in possession of a considerable fortune, and he settled in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "His naval experiences supplied much of the materials of his first novels, \"Kernock le pirate\" (1830), \"Atar-Gull\" (1831), \"La Salamandre\" (2 vols., 1832), \"La Coucaratcha\" (4 vols., 1832–1834), and others, which were composed at the height of the Romantic movement of 1830. In the quasi-historical style he wrote \"Jean Cavalier, ou Les Fanatiques des Cevennes\" (4 vols., 1840) and \"Latréaumont\" (2 vols., 1837). His \"Mathilde\" (6 vols., 1841) contains the first known expression of the popular proverb \"\"La vengeance se mange très-bien froide\"\", translated in 1846 as \"\"Revenge is very good eaten cold\"\" by D.G. Osborne, also constituting the first known English usage of the proverb, and lately expressed in English as \"\"Revenge is a dish best served cold\"\".  He was strongly affected by the socialist ideas of the day, and these prompted his most famous works, the \"anti-Catholic\" novels: \"The Mysteries of Paris\" (\"Les Mystères de Paris\") (published in \"Journal des débats\" from 19 June 1842 until 15 October 1843) and \"The Wandering Jew\" (\"Le Juif errant\"; 10 vols., 1844–1845), which were among the most popular specimens of the serial novel. \"The Wandering Jew\" is a Gothic novel depicting the titular character in conflict with the villain, a murderous Jesuit named Rodin. These works depicted the intrigues of the nobility and the harsh life of the underclass to a wide public. \"Les Mystères de Paris \"spawned a class of imitations all over the world, the city mysteries. Sue's books caused controversy both because of their strongly violent scenes, and because of their socialist and anti-clerical subtexts.  He followed up with some singular books: \"Les Sept pêchés capitaux\" (16 vols., 1847–1849), which contained stories to illustrate each of the seven deadly sins. \"Les Mystères du peuple\" (1849–1856) was a long series of historical novels, which was suppressed by the censor in 1857, and several others, all on a very large scale, though the number of volumes gives an exaggerated idea of their length. \"Les Mystères du peuple\" is a lengthy series of novels and novellas dealing with French history. \"Les Mystères du peuple\" begins with a novel graphically depicting slavery in the Roman Empire, (\"The Iron Collar\"). Other \"Les Mystères du peuple\" novels dealt with Early Christianity (\"The Silver Cross\"), King Clovis I (\"The Poniard's Hilt\"), the creation of the Duchy of Normandy (\"The Iron Arrow-Head\"), the Crusades in Palestine (\"The Pilgrim's Shell\"), the Albigensian Crusade (\"The Iron Pincers\"), the Jacquerie (\"The Iron Trevet\"), Joan of Arc (\"The Executioner's Knife\") and the French Revolution (\"Sword of Honor\"). The novels were translated into English (as the \"Mysteries of the People\") and published in New York by Daniel De Leon and his son, Solon. Some of Sue's books, among them \"The Wandering Jew\" and \"The Mysteries of Paris\", were dramatized by himself, usually in collaboration with others. His period of greatest success and popularity coincided with that of Alexandre Dumas, with whom he has been compared.  According to Umberto Eco, parts of Sue's book \"Les Mystères du peuple\" served as a source for Maurice Joly in his \"Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu\", a book attacking Napoleon III and his political ambitions. The two are depicted in Will Eisner's cartoon book \"The Plot\", co-authored with Eco.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "After the French Revolution of 1848, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly from the Paris-Seine constituency in April 1850. He was exiled from Paris in consequence of his protest against the French coup d'état of 1851. This exile stimulated his literary production. Sue died in Annecy-le-Vieux, Savoy on August 3, 1857 and was buried at the Cimetière de Loverchy (Annecy) in the Non-Catholic's Carré des \"Dissidents\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marie-Joseph \"Eugène\" Sue (; 26 January 18043 August 1857) was a French novelist. He was one of several authors who popularized the genre of the serial novel in France with his very popular and widely imitated \"The Mysteries of Paris\", which was published in a newspaper from 1842 to 1843.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973457}
{"src_title": "Upper Hungary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical usage.", "content": "Historically there are different meanings:  1. The older Hungarian term \"Felső-Magyarország\" (literally: \"Upper Hungary\"; ; ; ; ) formally referred to what is today Slovakia in the 16th-18th centuries and informally to all the northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 19th century.  2. There are some 16th-century sources which refer to the Slovak-inhabited territory of the Kingdom of Hungary as \"Sclavonia\" or \"Slováky\", names that distinguish the region ethnically as well as geographically.  3. The Hungarian \"Felvidék\" (literally: \"Upper Country\", \"Upland\", \"Highland,\" or perhaps more accurately \"Upper Landscape\" or \"Upper Countryside\"; ; ; ) has had several informal meanings:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern usage.", "content": "After World War I, the meaning of \"Felvidék\" in the Hungarian language (\"Felső-Magyarország\" was not used anymore) was restricted to the Slovakian and Carpathian Ruthenian parts of Czechoslovakia. Today the term \"Felvidék\" is sometimes used in Hungary when speaking about Slovakia, and it is exclusively (and anachronistically) used in Hungarian historical literature when speaking about the Middle Ages, i.e., before the name actually came into existence. The three counties of the region that remained in Hungary after World War I, however, are never called Upper Hungary today, only Northern Hungary (\"Észak-Magyarország\"). Any use of the word \"Felvidék\" to denote all of modern Slovakia is considered offensive by Slovaks, and inappropriate by some Hungarians, but it is now commonly used by the sizeable Hungarian minority in the southern border-zone of Slovakia to identify the Hungarian-majority areas where they live. Some of them call themselves \"felvidéki magyarok\", i.e. the \"Upland Hungarians.\" The word \"felvidék\" is also used as a component of the toponym \"Balaton-felvidék,\" describing the hilly area north of Lake Balaton, with no connection to the historical Upper Hungary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "The term \"Upper Hungary\" often occurs in publications on history as a somewhat-anachronistic translation of other, earlier (then Latin) designations denoting approximately the same territory. Some of the other terms were \"Partes Danubii septentrionales\" (Territories to the north of the Danube) or \"Partes regni superiores\" (Upper parts of the Kingdom). The actual name \"Upper Hungary\" arose later from the latter phrase.  In the 15th century, the \"Somorja (Šamorín), Nagyszombat (Trnava), Galgóc (Hlohovec), Nyitra (Nitra), Léva (Levice), Losonc (Lučenec), Rimaszombat (Rimavská Sobota), Rozsnyó (Rožňava), Jászó (Jasov), Kassa (Košice), Gálszécs (Sečovce), Nagymihály (Michalovce)\" line was the northern \"boundary\" of the Hungarian ethnic area.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Affiliation to Hungary.", "content": "The Principality of Nitra emerged in the 8th century and developed into an independent Slavic state; although the polity may have lost its independence when it was still at the stage of development. In the early 9th century, the polity was situated on the north-western territories of present-day Slovakia.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "16th - 17th centuries.", "content": "The term emerged approximately after the conquest of today's Hungary by the Ottomans in the 16th century when \"Felső-Magyarország\" (German: \"Oberungarn;\" Slovak: \"Horné Uhorsko\") referred to present-day eastern Slovakia and the adjacent territories of today's Hungary and Ukraine that were not occupied by the Ottoman Empire. That territory formed a separate military district (the \"Captaincy of Upper Hungary\" (1564–1686) headquartered in Kassa/Kaschau/Košice) within Royal Hungary. At that time, present-day western Slovakia, and sometimes also the remaining territories of Royal Hungary to the south of it, were called Lower Hungary (Hungarian: \"Alsó-Magyarország;\" German: \"Niederungarn;\" Slovak: \"Dolné Uhorsko\").  It was briefly a separate vassal state of the Ottoman Empire under Imre Thököly in the 1680s.  This usage occurs in many texts up to around 1800 – for example, the renowned mining school of Schemnitz/Selmecbánya/Banská Štiavnica in present-day central Slovakia was founded in \"Lower\" Hungary (not in \"Upper\" Hungary) in the 18th century and Pozsony (today's Bratislava) was also referred to as being in \"Lower\" Hungary in the late 18th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "18th century - early 20th century.", "content": "From the 18th century (in many texts however only after around 1800) until 1920, the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary north of the Tisza and the Danube, which comprised present-day Slovakia, Carpathian Ruthenia, and approximately the counties of Nógrád, Heves, and Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, was informally called either \"Upper Hungary\" or \"Upland\" (\"Felső-Magyarország\" or \"Felvidék\"). Although not strictly defined, the name \"Felvidék\" became commonplace to the point that at least one publication concerning the area used it as its title. Other nations used the terms \"Upper Hungary\" (for the northern part of the Kingdom), \"Slovakia\" (only for the territory predominantly inhabited by the Slovaks), and \"Ruthenia\" (the territory predominantly inhabited by the Ruthenians) in parallel. The Slovaks themselves called the territories of the Kingdom of Hungary to the south of Slovakia \"Dolná zem\" (\"Lower Land\").  In the course of the creation of Czechoslovakia at the end of World War I, Czechoslovakia originally demanded that all of the so-called Upper Hungary be added to Czechoslovak territory (i.e. including the territory between the Tisza River and present-day Slovakia). The claim for its acquisition, however, was not based on the whole area having a single common name, \"Upper Hungary\", but on the presence of a Slovak minority in the region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population in the 18th century.", "content": "In 1720 of the 63 largest towns on the territory of present-day Slovakia with at least 100 taxpaying households 40 had Slovak majority, 14 German and 9 Hungarian majority.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Population in the 19th century.", "content": "The first ethnic data of whole Hungarian Kingdom by county was published in 1842. According to this survey the total population of the counties in Upper Hungary exceeded 2.4 million, with the following ethnic distribution: 59.5% Slovaks, 22% Magyars, 8.3% Ruthenians, 6.7% Germans and 3.6% Jews.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Population in the 20th century.", "content": "Upper Hungary included the counties of Pozsony, Nyitra, Bars, Hont, Trencsén, Turóc, Árva, Liptó, Zólyom, Gömör és Kis-Hont, Szespes, Abaúj-Torna, Sáros and Zemplén. In the last census of 1910 in the Kingdom of Hungary, which was based on native language, Slovak language users were a majority in many of these counties.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Upper Hungary is the usual English translation of Felvidék (lit.: \"Upland\"), the Hungarian term for the area that was historically the northern part of the Kingdom of Hungary, now mostly present-day Slovakia. The region has also been called \"Felső-Magyarország\" (lit: \"Upper Hungary\", ).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973458}
{"src_title": "Aristarchus of Samos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Heliocentrism.", "content": "The original text has been lost, but a reference in Archimedes' book \"The Sand Reckoner\" (\"Archimedis Syracusani Arenarius & Dimensio Circuli\") describes a work in which he advanced the heliocentric model as an alternative hypothesis to geocentrism:  Aristarchus suspected the stars were other suns that are very far away, and that in consequence there was no observable parallax, that is, a movement of the stars relative to each other as the Earth moves around the Sun. Since stellar parallax is only detectable with telescopes, his accurate speculation was unprovable at the time.  It is a common misconception that the heliocentric view was held as sacrilegious by the contemporaries of Aristarchus. Lucio Russo traces this to Gilles Ménage's printing of a passage from Plutarch's \"On the Apparent Face in the Orb of the Moon\", in which Aristarchus jokes with Cleanthes, who is head of the Stoics, a sun worshipper, and opposed to heliocentrism. In the manuscript of Plutarch's text, Aristarchus says Cleanthes should be charged with impiety. Ménage's version, published shortly after the trials of Galileo and Giordano Bruno, transposes an accusative and nominative so that it is Aristarchus who is purported to be impious. The resulting misconception of an isolated and persecuted Aristarchus is still transmitted today.  According to Plutarch, while Aristarchus postulated heliocentrism only as a hypothesis, Seleucus of Seleucia, a Hellenistic astronomer who lived a century after Aristarchus, maintained it as a definite opinion and gave a demonstration of it but no full record has been found. In his \"Naturalis Historia\", Pliny the Elder later wondered whether errors in the predictions about the heavens could be attributed to a displacement of the Earth from its central position. Pliny and Seneca referred to the retrograde motion of some planets as an apparent (and not real) phenomenon, which is an implication of heliocentrism rather than geocentrism. Still, no stellar parallax was observed, and Plato, Aristotle, and Ptolemy preferred the geocentric model, which was held as true throughout the Middle Ages.  The heliocentric theory was revived by Copernicus, after which Johannes Kepler described planetary motions with greater accuracy with his three laws. Isaac Newton later gave a theoretical explanation based on laws of gravitational attraction and dynamics.  After realizing that the sun was much larger than the earth and the other planets, Aristarchus concluded that planets revolved around the sun. But this brilliant insight, it turned out, \"was too much for the philosophers of the time to swallow and astronomy had to wait 2000 years more to find the right path.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distance to the Sun (lunar dichotomy).", "content": "The only known surviving work usually attributed to Aristarchus, \"On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon\", is based on a geocentric world view. It has historically been read as stating that the angle subtended by the Sun's diameter is two degrees, but Archimedes states in \"The Sand Reckoner\" that Aristarchus had a value of 1⁄2 degree, which is much closer to the actual average value of 32' or 0.53 degrees. The discrepancy may come from a misinterpretation of what unit of measure was meant by a certain Greek term in the text of Aristarchus.  Aristarchus claimed that at half moon (first or last quarter moon), the angle between the Sun and Moon was 87°. He might have proposed 87° as a lower bound, since gauging the lunar terminator's deviation from linearity to one degree of accuracy is beyond the unaided human ocular limit (with that limit being about three degrees of accuracy). Aristarchus is known to have also studied light and vision.  Using correct geometry, but the insufficiently accurate 87° datum, Aristarchus concluded that the Sun was between 18 and 20 times farther away than the Moon. (The true value of this angle is close to 89° 50', and the Sun's distance is actually about 400 times that of the Moon.) The implicit false solar parallax of slightly under three degrees was used by astronomers up to and including Tycho Brahe, c. AD 1600. Aristarchus pointed out that the Moon and Sun have nearly equal apparent angular sizes, and therefore their diameters must be in proportion to their distances from Earth; thus, the diameter of the Sun was calculated to be between 18 and 20 times the diameter of the Moon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aristarchus of Samos (;, \"Aristarkhos ho Samios\"; c. 310 – c. 230 BC) was an ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician who presented the first known heliocentric model that placed the Sun at the center of the known universe with the Earth revolving around it. He was influenced by Philolaus of Croton, but Aristarchus identified the \"central fire\" with the Sun, and he put the other planets in their correct order of distance around the Sun. Like Anaxagoras before him, he suspected that the stars were just other bodies like the Sun, albeit further away from Earth. His astronomical ideas were often rejected in favor of the geocentric theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy. Nicolaus Copernicus attributed the heliocentric theory to Aristarchus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973459}
{"src_title": "Naginata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "A \"naginata\" consists of a wooden or metal pole with a curved single-edged blade on the end; it is similar to the Chinese guan dao or the European glaive. Similar to the katana, naginata often have a round handguard (\"tsuba\") between the blade and shaft, when mounted in a koshirae. The 30 cm to 60 cm long \"naginata\" blade is forged in the same manner as traditional Japanese swords. The blade has a long tang which is inserted in the.  The blade is removable and is secured by means of a wooden peg called that passes through a hole in both the tang and the shaft. The shaft ranges from 120 cm to 240 cm in length and is oval shaped. The area of the shaft where the tang sits is the. The tachiuchi/tachiuke would be reinforced with metal rings, and/or metal sleeves and wrapped with cord. The end of the shaft has a heavy metal end cap. When not in use the blade would be covered with a.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The \"naginata\" was developed from an earlier weapon type of the later 1st millennium AD, the \"hoko yari\". It's difficult to tell when the \"naginata\" itself first appeared. Though often claimed as being invented by the \"sōhei\" during the Nara period, physical evidence of their existence dates only from the mid-Kamakura period, and earlier literary sources are ambiguous. The earliest clear references to \"naginata\" date from 1146 in the late Heian period, with one suggesting that the weapon may have been recent. Earlier 10th through 12th century sources refer to \"long swords\" that while a common medieval term or orthography for \"naginata\", could also simply be referring to conventional swords; one source describes a \"naginata\" being drawn with the verb \"nuku\", commonly associated with swords, rather than \"hazusu\", the verb otherwise used in medieval texts for unsheathing \"naginata\".  Some 11th and 12th century mentions of \"hoko\" may actually have been referring to \"naginata\". The commonly assumed association of the \"naginata\" and the \"sōhei\" is also unclear. Artwork from the late-13th and 14th centuries depict the \"sōhei\" with \"naginata\" but don't appear to place any special significance to it: the weapons appear as just one of a number of others carried by the monks, and are used by \"samurai\" and commoners as well. Depictions of \"naginata\"-armed \"sōhei\" in earlier periods were created centuries after the fact, and are likely using the \"naginata\" as a symbol to distinguish the \"sōhei\" from other warriors, rather than giving an accurate portrayal of the events.  During the Genpei War (1180–1185), in which the Taira clan was pitted against the Minamoto clan, the \"naginata\" rose to a position of particularly high esteem, being regarded as an extremely effective weapon by warriors. Cavalry battles had become more important by this time, and the \"naginata\" proved excellent at dismounting cavalry and disabling riders. The widespread adoption of the \"naginata\" as a battlefield weapon forced the introduction of greaves as a part of Japanese armor. The rise of importance for the \"naginata\" can be seen as being mirrored by the European pike, another long pole weapon employed against cavalry. The introduction in 1543 of firearms in the form of the matchlock (\"tanegashima\") caused a great decrease in the appearance of the \"naginata\" on the battlefield. As battlefield tactics changed, the \"yari\" (spear) took the place of the \"naginata\" as the pole weapon of choice.  In the peaceful Edo Period, weapons' value as battlefield weapons became diminished and their value for martial arts and self-defense rose. The \"naginata\" was accepted as a status symbol and self-defense weapon for women of nobility, resulting in the image that \"the Naginata is the main weapon used by women\". A \"naginata\" was commonly a dowry of women of the nobility. But historical recordings describing the practice of martial arts by women are rare and uncertain.  In the Meiji era, it gained popularity along sword martial arts. From the Taisho era to the post-War era, the \"naginata\" became popular as a martial art for women, mainly due to the influence of government policies. Due to this influence, the image that “spears are women's weapons” was formed.  Although associated with considerably smaller numbers of practitioners, a number of \"koryu bujutsu\" systems (traditional martial arts) which include older and more combative forms of \"naginatajutsu\" remain existent, including Suio Ryu, Araki Ryu, Tendo Ryu, Jikishinkage ryu, Higo Koryu, Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto Ryu,Toda-ha Buko Ryu and Yoshin ryu, some of which have authorized representatives outside Japan.  In the USA, there are an estimated 200 practitioners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contemporary construction.", "content": "In contemporary \"naginatajutsu\", two types of practice \"naginata\" are in common use.  The \"naginata\" used in \"atarashii naginata\", the \"shiai-yo\", has an oak shaft and a bamboo \"blade\" (\"habu\"). It is used for practice, forms competitions, and sparring. It is between 210 cm and 225 cm in length and must weigh over 650 grams. The \"blade\" is replaceable. They are often broken or damaged during sparring and can be quickly replaced, being attached to the shaft with tape.  The naginata used by \"koryū\" practitioners has an oak shaft and blade, carved from a single piece of wood, and may incorporate a disc-shaped guard (\"Tsuba\"). It is called a \"kihon-yo\".  Many of the \"realistic \"naginata\"\" for sale to the public are not \"naginata\" at all. These imitations have shorter, rounded shafts, very short blades, and screw-together sections.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contemporary usage.", "content": "\"Naginata\" can be used to batter, stab, or hook an opponent, but due to their relatively balanced center of mass, are often spun and turned to proscribe a large radius of reach. The curved blade provides a long cutting surface without increasing the overall length of the weapon.  Historically, the \"naginata\" was often used by foot soldiers to create space on the battlefield. They have several situational advantages over a sword. Their reach is longer, allowing the wielder to keep out of the reach of opponents. The weight of the weapon gave power to strikes and cuts, even though the weight of the weapon is usually thought of as a disadvantage. The weight at the end of the shaft (\"ishizuki\"), and the shaft itself (\"ebu\") can be used offensively and defensively.  The martial art of wielding the \"naginata\" is known as \"naginatajutsu\". Most \"naginata\" practice today is in a modernised form, a \"gendai budō\" called \"atarashii Naginata\" (\"new Naginata\"), which is organized into regional, national, and international federations, who hold competitions and award ranks. Use of the \"naginata\" is also taught within the \"Bujinkan\" and in some \"koryū\" schools such as Suio Ryu and Tendō-ryū.  \"Naginata\" practitioners wear an \"uwagi\", \"obi\", and \"hakama\", similar to that worn by \"kendo\" practitioners, although the \"uwagi\" is generally white. For sparring, armor known as \"bōgu\" is worn. \"Bōgu\" for \"naginatajutsu\" adds shin guards (\"sune-ate\") and the gloves (\"kōte\") have a singulated index finger, unlike the mitten-style gloves used for \"kendo\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The naginata (, ) is a pole weapon and one of several varieties of traditionally made Japanese blades (\"nihonto\"). \"Naginata\" were originally used by the samurai class of feudal Japan, as well as by ashigaru (foot soldiers) and sōhei (warrior monks). The naginata is the iconic weapon of the onna-bugeisha, a type of female warrior belonging to the Japanese nobility.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973460}
{"src_title": "Józef Maria Bocheński", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "After taking part in the 1920 campaign against Soviet Russia, he took up legal studies in Lwów, then studied economics in Poznań. Bocheński earned a doctorate in philosophy (he studied in Fribourg in Switzerland, 1928–31). He was also an alumnus of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, \"Angelicum\" in Rome where he studied Sacred Theology from 1931 to 1934 earning a doctorate in Sacred Theology. Bocheński was a professor of logic at the \"Angelicum\" until 1940.  During World War II he served as chaplain to Polish forces during the 1939 invasion of Poland, was taken prisoner of war, escaped the Germans and reached Rome. He joined the Polish Army and served as chaplain first in France, then in England. He fought as a soldier in 1944 in the Italian campaign of the Polish II Corps at Monte Cassino.  In 1945 he received the chair in the history of twentieth-century philosophy at the University of Fribourg (of which he was rector in 1964-66); he founded and ran the Institute of Eastern Europe there, and published the journal \"Studies in Soviet Thought\" and a book series concerned with the foundations of Marxist philosophy (\"Sovietica\").  Bocheński served as consultant to several governments: West Germany (under Konrad Adenauer), South Africa, the United States, Argentina, and Switzerland.  Before 1989 none of his works were published officially in Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cracow Circle.", "content": "Bocheński is perhaps the most famous exponent of the Cracow Circle Thomism, which has been called \"the most significant expression of Catholic thought between the two World Wars.\" The Circle was founded by a group of philosophers and theologians that, in distinction from traditional neo-Thomism, embraced modern formal logic and applied it to traditional Thomist philosophy and theology. Inspired by the logical clarity of Aquinas, members of the Circle held both philosophy and theology to contain \"propositions with truth-values...a structured body of propositions connected in meaning and subject matter, and linked by logical relations of compatibility and incompatibility, entailment etc.\" \"The Cracow Circle set about investigating and where possible improving this logical structure with the most advanced logical tools available at the time, namely those of modern mathematical logic, then called ‘logistic’.\" Other members of the Circle included and Jan F. Drewnowski.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Précis de logique mathématique\".", "content": "Bochenski said \"that once when he went to visit Lukasiewicz before the war [World War II], Lukasiewicz conveyed him inside excitedly, indicated a complex formula, beginning something like 'CCC...', and said, 'Look at this beautiful and \"self-evidently true\" formula.' Clearly the formula's truth was not immediately evident to the bemused Bochenski.\"  In Bocheński's \"Précis de logique mathématique\", he uses this notation, in the style of Łukasiewicz:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The logical hexagon for the square of opposition.", "content": "Robert Blanché quoted a passage of Bochenski’s \"Formale Logik\" in \"Structure intellectuelles\" (1966, 39): \"Hindu logic knows of three logical propositions and not the four of western logic. For it \"Some S are P\" does not signify \"Some S at least are P\" but \"Some S are P but not all\".\" This passage shows that Indian tradition explicitly speaks of the existence of partial quantity, the third quantity to be considered along with totality apprehended by A the universal affirmative of the square, and zero quantity apprehended by E the universal negative of the square. To the two universals A and E entertaining a relationship of contrariety, one should add the third contrary constituted by the double negation of the first two. As the subcontrary I contradicts E and the subcontrary O contradicts A, the logical proposition apprehending partial quantity can be represented by the conjunction of I and O : I & O. In Blanché’s logical hexagon this conjunction is symbolized by the letter Y. Many scholars think that the logical square of opposition, representing four values, should be replaced by the logical hexagon, which has the power to express more relations of opposition.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Józef Maria Bocheński (Czuszów, Congress Poland, Russian Empire, 30 August 1902 – 8 February 1995, Fribourg, Switzerland) was a Polish Dominican, logician and philosopher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973461}
{"src_title": "NexGen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The company was founded in 1986 by Thampy Thomas, being funded by Compaq, ASCII and Kleiner Perkins. Its first design was targeted at the 80386 generation of processors. But the design was so large and complicated it could only be implemented using eight chips instead of one and by the time it was ready, the industry had moved onto the 80486 generation.  Its second design, the Nx586 CPU, was introduced in 1994, was the first CPU to attempt to compete directly against Intel's Pentium, with its Nx586-P80 and Nx586-P90 CPUs. Unlike competing chips from AMD and Cyrix, the Nx586 was not pin-compatible with the Pentium or any other Intel chip and required its own custom NxVL-based motherboard and chipset. NexGen offered both a VLB and a PCI motherboard for the Nx586 chips.  Like the later Pentium-class CPUs from AMD and Cyrix, clock for clock it was more efficient than the Pentium, so the P80 ran at 75 MHz and the P90 ran at 83.3 MHz. Unfortunately for NexGen, it measured its performance relative to a Pentium using an early chipset; improvements included in Intel's first Triton chipset increased the Pentium's performance relative to the Nx586 and NexGen had difficulty keeping up. Furthermore, PCs identified the Nx586 as an 80386 processor, as a result many applications that require a processor faster than a 386 will not work unless CPU identification software is active. Unlike the Pentium, the Nx586 had no built-in math coprocessor; an optional Nx587 provided this functionality.  In later Nx586's, a x87 math coprocessor was included on-chip. Using IBM's multichip module (MCM) technology, NexGen combined the 586 and 587 die in a single package. The new device, which used the same pinout as its predecessor, was marketed as the Nx586-PF100 to distinguish it from the FPU-less Nx586-P100. Compaq, which had backed the company financially, announced its intention to use the Nx586 and even struck the name \"Pentium\" from its product literature, demos, and boxes, substituting the \"586\" moniker, but never used NexGen's chip widely.  AMD purchased NexGen when AMD's K5 chip failed to meet performance and sales expectations. Some NexGen customers were even given free AMD K5 CPU's with motherboards in exchange for sending in their NexGen hardware.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "NexGen (Milpitas, California) was a private semiconductor company that designed x86 microprocessors until it was purchased by AMD in 1996. NexGen was a fabless design house that designed its chips but relied on other companies for production. NexGen's chips were produced by IBM's Microelectronics division.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973462}
{"src_title": "Thomas Midgley Jr.", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Midgley was born in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, to a father who was also an inventor. He grew up in Columbus, Ohio, and graduated from Cornell University in 1911 with a degree in mechanical engineering.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaded gasoline.", "content": "Midgley began working at General Motors in 1916. In December 1921, while working under the direction of Charles Kettering at Dayton Research Laboratories, a subsidiary of General Motors, Midgley discovered that the addition of tetraethyllead to gasoline prevented \"knocking\" in internal combustion engines. The company named the substance \"Ethyl\", avoiding all mention of lead in reports and advertising. Oil companies and automobile manufacturers, especially General Motors which owned the patent jointly filed by Kettering and Midgley, promoted the TEL additive as an inexpensive alternative superior to ethanol or ethanol-blended fuels, on which they could make very little profit. In December 1922, the American Chemical Society awarded Midgley the 1923 Nichols Medal for the \"Use of Anti-Knock Compounds in Motor Fuels\". This was the first of several major awards he earned during his career.  In 1923, Midgley took a long vacation in Miami, Florida, to cure himself of lead poisoning. He \"[found] that my lungs have been affected and that it is necessary to drop all work and get a large supply of fresh air\".  In April 1923, General Motors created the General Motors Chemical Company (GMCC) to supervise the production of TEL by the DuPont company. Kettering was elected as president, and Midgley was vice president. However, after two deaths and several cases of lead poisoning at the TEL prototype plant in Dayton, Ohio, the staff at Dayton was said in 1924 to be \"depressed to the point of considering giving up the whole tetraethyl lead program\". Over the course of the next year, eight more people died at DuPont's plant in Deepwater, New Jersey.  In 1924, unsatisfied with the speed of DuPont's TEL production using the \"bromide process\", General Motors and the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (now known as ExxonMobil) created the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation to produce and market TEL. Ethyl Corporation built a new chemical plant using a high-temperature ethyl chloride process at the Bayway Refinery in New Jersey. However, within the first two months of its operation, the new plant was plagued by more cases of lead poisoning, hallucinations, insanity, and five deaths.  On October 30, 1924, Midgley participated in a press conference to demonstrate the apparent safety of TEL, in which he poured TEL over his hands, placed a bottle of the chemical under his nose, and inhaled its vapor for 60 seconds, declaring that he could do this every day without succumbing to any problems. However, the State of New Jersey ordered the Bayway plant to be closed a few days later, and Jersey Standard was forbidden to manufacture TEL again without state permission. Midgley would later have to take leave of absence from work after being diagnosed with lead poisoning. He was relieved of his position as vice president of GMCC in April 1925, reportedly due to his inexperience in organizational matters, but he remained an employee of General Motors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Freon.", "content": "In the late 1920s, air conditioning and refrigeration systems employed compounds such as ammonia (NH), chloromethane (CHCl), propane, and sulfur dioxide (SO) as refrigerants. Though effective, these were toxic, flammable or explosive. The Frigidaire division of General Motors, at that time a leading manufacturer of such systems, sought a non-toxic, non-flammable alternative to these refrigerants. Kettering, the vice president of General Motors Research Corporation at that time, assembled a team that included Midgley and Albert Leon Henne to develop such a compound.  The team soon narrowed their focus to alkyl halides (the combination of carbon chains and halogens), which were known to be highly volatile (a requirement for a refrigerant) and also chemically inert. They eventually settled on the concept of incorporating fluorine into a hydrocarbon. They rejected the assumption that such compounds would be toxic, believing that the stability of the carbon–fluorine bond would be sufficient to prevent the release of hydrogen fluoride or other potential breakdown products. The team eventually synthesized dichlorodifluoromethane, the first chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), which they named \"Freon\". This compound is more commonly referred to today as \"Freon 12\", or \"R12\".  Freon and other CFCs soon largely replaced other refrigerants, and later appeared in other applications, such as propellants in aerosol spray cans and asthma inhalers. The Society of Chemical Industry awarded Midgley the Perkin Medal in 1937 for this work.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life and death.", "content": "In 1941, the American Chemical Society gave Midgley its highest award, the Priestley Medal. This was followed by the Willard Gibbs Award in 1942. He also held two honorary degrees and was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences. In 1944, he was elected president and chairman of the American Chemical Society.  In 1940, at the age of 51, Midgley contracted poliomyelitis, which left him severely disabled. He devised an elaborate system of ropes and pulleys to lift himself out of bed. In 1944, he became entangled in the device and died of strangulation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Midgley's legacy has been scarred by the negative environmental impact of leaded gasoline and Freon. Environmental historian J. R. McNeill opined that Midgley \"had more impact on the atmosphere than any other single organism in Earth's history\", and Bill Bryson remarked that Midgley possessed \"an instinct for the regrettable that was almost uncanny\". Use of leaded gasoline, which he invented, released large quantities of lead into the atmosphere all over the world. High atmospheric lead levels have been linked with serious long-term health problems from childhood, including neurological impairment, and with increased levels of violence and criminality in cities. \"Time\" magazine included both leaded gasoline and CFCs on its list of \"The 50 Worst Inventions\".  Midgley died three decades before the ozone-depleting and greenhouse gas effects of CFCs in the atmosphere became widely known. In 1987, the Montreal Protocol phased out the use of CFCs like Freon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas Midgley Jr. (May 18, 1889 – November 2, 1944) was an American mechanical and chemical engineer. He played a major role in developing leaded gasoline (Tetraethyllead) and some of the first chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), better known by its brand name Freon; both products were later banned due to concerns about their impact on human health and the environment. He was granted more than 100 patents over the course of his career.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973463}
{"src_title": "Diogenes Laërtius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Laërtius must have lived after Sextus Empiricus (c. 200), whom he mentions, and before Stephanus of Byzantium and Sopater of Apamea (c. 500), who quote him. His work makes no mention of Neoplatonism, even though it is addressed to a woman who was \"an enthusiastic Platonist\". Hence he is assumed to have flourished in the first half of the 3rd century, during the reign of Alexander Severus (222–235) and his successors.  The precise form of his name is uncertain. The ancient manuscripts invariably refer to a \"Laertius Diogenes\", and this form of the name is repeated by Sopater and the Suda. The modern form \"Diogenes Laertius\" is much rarer, used by Stephanus of Byzantium, and in a lemma to the Greek Anthology. He is also referred to as \"Laertes\" or simply \"Diogenes\".  The origin of the name \"Laertius\" is also uncertain. Stephanus of Byzantium refers to him as \"Διογένης ὁ Λαερτιεύς\" (\"Diogenes ho Laertieus\"), implying that he was the native of some town, perhaps the Laerte in Caria (or another Laerte in Cilicia). Another suggestion is that one of his ancestors had for a patron a member of the Roman family of the Laërtii. The prevailing modern theory is that \"Laertius\" is a nickname (derived from the Homeric epithet \"Diogenes Laertiade\", used in addressing Odysseus) used to distinguish him from the many other people called Diogenes in the ancient world.  His home town is unknown (at best uncertain, even according to a hypothesis that \"Laertius\" refers to his origin). A disputed passage in his writings has been used to suggest that it was Nicaea in Bithynia.  It has been suggested that Diogenes was an Epicurean or a Pyrrhonist. He passionately defends Epicurus in Book 10, which is of high quality and contains three long letters attributed to Epicurus explaining Epicurean doctrines. He is impartial to all schools, in the manner of the Pyrrhonists, and he carries the succession of Pyrrhonism further than that of the other schools. At one point, he even seems to refer to the Pyrrhonists as \"our school.\" On the other hand, most of these points can be explained by the way he uncritically copies from his sources. It is by no means certain that he adhered to any school, and he is usually more attentive to biographical details.  In addition to the \"Lives,\" Diogenes was the author of a work in verse on famous men, in various metres, which he called Epigrammata or Pammetros (Πάμμετρος).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "The work by which he is known, \"Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers\", was written in Greek and professes to give an account of the lives and sayings of the Greek philosophers.  Diogenes divides his subjects into two \"schools\" which he describes as the Ionian/Ionic and the Italian/Italic; the division is somewhat dubious and appears to be drawn from the lost doxography of Sotion. The biographies of the \"Ionian school\" begin with Anaximander and end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and Chrysippus; the \"Italian\" begins with Pythagoras and ends with Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its various branches, is classed with the Ionic, while the Eleatics and Pyrrhonists are treated under the Italic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and assessment.", "content": "Henricus Aristippus, the archdeacon of Catania, produced a Latin translation of Diogenes Laertius's book in southern Italy in the late 1150s, which has since been lost or destroyed. Geremia da Montagnone used this translation as a source for his \"Compedium moralium notabilium\" (1285) and an anonymous Italian author used it as a source for work entitled \"Liber de vita et moribus philosophorum\" (written 1317–1320), which reached international popularity in the Late Middle Ages. The monk Ambrogio Traversari (1386–1439) produced another Latin translation in Florence between 1424 and 1433, for which far better records have survived. The Italian Renaissance scholar, painter, philosopher, and architect Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) borrowed from Traversari's translation of the \"Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers\" in Book 2 of his \"Libri della famiglia\" and modeled his own autobiography on Diogenes Laërtius's \"Life of Thales\".  Diogenes Laërtius's work has had a complicated reception in modern times. The value of his \"Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers\" as an insight into the private lives of the Greek sages led the French Renaissance philosopher Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) to exclaim that he wished that, instead of one Laërtius, there had been a dozen. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) criticized Diogenes Laërtius for his lack of philosophical talent and categorized his work as nothing more than a compilation of previous writers' opinions. Nonetheless, he admitted that Diogenes Laërtius's compilation was an important one given the information that it contained. Hermann Usener (1834–1905) deplored Diogenes Laërtius as a \"complete ass\" (\"asinus germanus\") in his \"Epicurea\" (1887). Werner Jaeger (1888–1961) damned him as \"that great ignoramus\". In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, however, scholars have managed to partially redeem Diogenes Laertius's reputation as a writer by reading his book in a Hellenistic literary context.  Nonetheless, modern scholars treat Diogenes's testimonia with caution, especially when he fails to cite his sources. Herbert S. Long warns: \"Diogenes has acquired an importance out of all proportion to his merits because the loss of many primary sources and of the earlier secondary compilations has accidentally left him the chief continuous source for the history of Greek philosophy.\" Robert M. Strozier offers a somewhat more positive assessment of Diogenes Laertius's reliability, noting that many other ancient writers attempt to reinterpret and expand on the philosophical teachings they describe, something which Diogenes Laërtius rarely does. Strozier concludes, \"Diogenes Laertius is, when he does not conflate hundreds of years of distinctions, reliable simply because he is a less competent thinker than those on whom he writes, is less liable to re-formulate statements and arguments, and especially in the case of Epicurus, less liable to interfere with the texts he quotes. He does, however, simplify.\"  Despite his importance to the history of western philosophy and the controversy surrounding him, according to Gian Mario Cao, Diogenes Laërtius has still not received adequate scholarly attention. Both modern critical editions of his book, by H. S. Long (1964) and by M. Marcovich (1999) have received extensive criticism from scholars.  He is criticized primarily for being overly concerned with superficial details of the philosophers' lives and lacking the intellectual capacity to explore their actual philosophical works with any penetration. However, according to statements of the 14th-century monk Walter Burley in his \"De vita et moribus philosophorum\", the text of Diogenes seems to have been much fuller than that which we now possess.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Diogenes Laërtius ( ; ; ) was a biographer of the Greek philosophers. Nothing is definitively known about his life, but his surviving \"Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers\" is a principal source for the history of ancient Greek philosophy. His reputation is controversial among scholars because he often repeats information from his sources without critically evaluating it. He also frequently focuses on trivial or insignificant details of his subjects' lives while ignoring important details of their philosophical teachings and he sometimes fails to distinguish between earlier and later teachings of specific philosophical schools. However, unlike many other ancient secondary sources, Diogenes Laërtius generally reports philosophical teachings without attempting to reinterpret or expand on them, which means his accounts are often closer to the primary sources. Due to the loss of so many of the primary sources on which Diogenes relied, his work has become the foremost surviving source on the history of Greek philosophy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973464}
{"src_title": "Simon the Zealot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Identity.", "content": "The name Simon occurs in all of the Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts each time there is a list of apostles, without further details:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Zealot.", "content": "To distinguish him from Simon Peter he is called \"Kananaios\" or \"Kananites\", depending on the manuscript ( ), and in the list of apostles in Luke 6:15, repeated in Acts 1:13, \"Zelotes,\" the \"Zealot\". Both titles derive from the Hebrew word קנאי \"qanai\", meaning \"zealous\", although Jerome and others mistook the word to signify the apostle was from the town of קנה Cana, in which case his epithet would have been \"Kanaios\", or even from the region of כנען Canaan. As such, the translation of the word as \"the Cananite\" or \"the Canaanite\" is traditional and without contemporary extra-canonic parallel. Robert Eisenman has pointed out contemporary talmudic references to Zealots as \"kanna'im\" \"but not really as a group — rather as avenging priests in the Temple\". Eisenman's broader conclusions, that the zealot element in the original apostle group was disguised and overwritten to make it support the assimilative Pauline Christianity of the Gentiles, are more controversial. John P. Meier points out that the term \"Zealot\" is a mistranslation and in the context of the Gospels means \"zealous\" or \"jealous\" (in this case, for keeping the Law of Moses), as the Zealot movement did not exist until 30 to 40 years after the events of the Gospels. However, neither Brandon, nor Hengel support this view, both independently concluding that the revolt by Judas of Galilee, arising from the census of Quirinius in 6 AD, was the ultimate origin of the Jewish freedom movement, which developed via the \"Fourth Philosophy\" group into the Zealots, even by the time of Jesus. Both of these researchers suggest that \"Simon Zelotes\" was indeed a Zealot belonging to this movement, and perhaps that other disciples were also. However, Hengel (in particular) concluded that Jesus himself was not a zealot, as much of his teaching was actually contrary to Fourth Philosophy views.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other identifications.", "content": "In the Gospels, Simon the Zealot is never identified with Simon the brother of Jesus mentioned in Mark 6:3:  The Catholic Encyclopedia suggests that Simon the Zealot may be the same person as Simeon of Jerusalem or Simon the brother of Jesus. He could perhaps be the cousin of Jesus or a son of Joseph from a previous marriage.  Another tradition holds that this is the Simeon of Jerusalem who became the second bishop of Jerusalem, although he was born in Galilee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later tradition.", "content": "St. Isidore of Seville drew together the accumulated anecdotes of St. Simon in \"De Vita et Morte\".  According to the Golden Legend, which is a collection of hagiographies, compiled by Jacobus de Varagine in the thirteenth century \"Simon the Cananaean and Judas Thaddeus were brethren of James the Less and sons of Mary Cleophas, which was married to Alpheus.\"  In the apocryphal Arabic Infancy Gospel a fact related to this apostle is mentioned. A boy named Simon is bitten by a snake in his hand; he is healed by Jesus, who told the child \"you shall be my disciple\". The mention ends with the phrase \"this is Simon the Cananite, of whom mention is made in the Gospel.\"  In later tradition, Simon is often associated with Saint Jude as an evangelizing team; in Western Christianity, they share their feast day on 28 October. The most widespread tradition is that after evangelizing in Egypt, Simon joined Jude in Persia and Armenia or Beirut, Lebanon, where both were martyred in 65 AD. This version is the one found in the Golden Legend. He may have suffered crucifixion as the Bishop of Jerusalem.  One tradition states that he traveled in the Middle East and Africa. Christian Ethiopians claim that he was crucified in Samaria, while Justus Lipsius writes that he was sawn in half at Suanir, Persia. However, Moses of Chorene writes that he was martyred at Weriosphora in Caucasian Iberia. Tradition also claims he died peacefully at Edessa.  Another tradition says he visited Roman Britain. In this account, in his second mission to Britain, he arrived during the first year of Boadicea's rebellion (60 AD). He was crucified 10 May 61 AD by the Roman Catus Decianus, at Caistor, modern-day Lincolnshire, Britain.  According to Cardinal Baronius and Hippolytus, Simon's first arrival in Britain was in the year A.D.44, during the Claudian war. Evidently his stay was short, as he returned to the continent. Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople, and Byzantine historian, A.D.758-829, writes:  \"Simon born in Cana of Galilee who for his fervent affection for his Master and great zeal that he showed by all means to the Gospel, was surnamed Zelotes, having received the Holy Ghost from above, travelled through Egypt, and Africa, then through Mauretania and all Lybia, preaching the Gospel. And the same doctrine he taught to the Occidental Sea, and the Isles called Britanniae.\"  Another tradition, doubtless inspired by his title \"the Zealot\", states that he involved in the First Jewish–Roman War (66-73 AD).  The second century \"Epistle of the Apostles\" (\"Epistula Apostolorum\"), a polemic against gnostics, lists him among the apostles purported to be writing the letter (who include Thomas) as Judas Zelotes. Certain Old Latin translations of the Gospel of Matthew substitute \"Judas the Zealot\" for Thaddeus/Lebbaeus in Matthew 10:3. To some readers, this suggests that he may be identical with the \"Judas not Iscariot\" mentioned in John 14:22: \"Judas saith unto him, not Iscariot, Our Lord, how is it that thou wilt manifest thyself unto us, and not unto the world?\" As it has been suggested that Jude is identical with the Apostle Thomas (see Jude Thomas), an identification of \"Simon Zelotes\" with Thomas is also possible. Barbara Thiering identified Simon Zelotes with Simon Magus; however, this view has received no serious acceptance. The New Testament records nothing more of Simon, aside from this multitude of possible but unlikely pseudonyms. He is buried in the same tomb as St. Jude Thaddeus, in the left transept of the St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, under the altar of St. Joseph.  In art, Simon has the identifying attribute of a saw because he was traditionally martyred by being sawn in half.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sainthood.", "content": "Simon, like the other Apostles, is regarded as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Eastern Catholic Churches, the Anglican Church and the Lutheran Church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Islam.", "content": "Muslims accept Jesus as a prophet of Islam. The Qur'an also speaks of Jesus' disciples but does not mention their names, instead referring to them as \"helpers to the work of God\". Muslim exegesis and Qur'an commentary, however, names them and includes Simon amongst the disciples. Muslim tradition says that Simon was sent to preach the faith of God to the Berbers, outside North Africa.  In the Gospel of Barnabas, a book dated to the late 16th century that recounts a life story of Jesus from an Islamic perspective, a list of the twelve apostles is registered. In this list the only apostle that does not match with one of the traditional apostles of Christianity is Simon the Zealot, naming in his place a person who identifies himself as Barnabas, who appears as author of the book.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Simon the Zealot (, ) or Simon the Canaanite or Simon the Cananaean (, ; ; ; ) was one of the most obscure among the apostles of Jesus. A few pseudepigraphical writings were connected to him, but Saint Jerome does not include him in \"De viris illustribus\" written between 392–393 AD.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973465}
{"src_title": "Nicola Porpora", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Porpora was born in Naples. He graduated from the music conservatory Poveri di Gesù Cristo of his native city, where the civic opera scene was dominated by Alessandro Scarlatti. Porpora's first opera, \"Agrippina,\" was successfully performed at the Neapolitan court in 1708. His second, \"Berenice\", was performed at Rome. In a long career, he followed these up by many further operas, supported as \"maestro di cappella\" in the households of aristocratic patrons, such as the commander of military forces at Naples, prince Philip of Hesse-Darmstadt, or of the Portuguese ambassador at Rome, for composing operas alone did not yet make a viable career. However, his enduring fame rests chiefly upon his unequalled power of teaching singing. At the Neapolitan Conservatorio di Sant'Onofrio and with the Poveri di Gesù Cristo he trained Farinelli, Caffarelli, Salimbeni, and other celebrated vocalists, during the period 1715 to 1721. In 1720 and 1721 he wrote two serenades to libretti by a gifted young poet, Metastasio, the beginning of a long, though interrupted, collaboration. In 1722 his operatic successes encouraged him to lay down his conservatory commitments.  After a rebuff from the court of Charles VI at Vienna in 1725, Porpora settled mostly in Venice, composing and teaching regularly in the schools of La Pietà and the Incurabili. In 1729 the anti-Handel clique invited him to London to set up an opera company as a rival to Handel's, without success, and in the 1733–1734 season, even the presence of his pupil, the great Farinelli, failed to save the dramatic company in Lincoln's Inn Fields (the \"Opera of the Nobility\") from bankruptcy.  An interval as \"Kapellmeister\" at the Dresden court of the Elector of Saxony and Polish King Augustus from 1748 ended in strained relations with his rival in Venice and Rome, the hugely successful opera composer Johann Adolph Hasse and his wife, the prima donna Faustina, and resulted in Porpora's departure in 1752.  From Dresden he went to Vienna, where among other pupils he trained the young Marianne von Martinez, a future composer. As his accompanist and valet he hired the youthful Joseph Haydn, who was making his way in Vienna as a struggling freelancer. Haydn later remembered Porpora thus: \"There was no lack of \"Asino\", \"Coglione\", \"Birbante\" [ass, cullion, rascal], and pokes in the ribs, but I put up with it all, for I profited greatly from Porpora in singing, in composition, and in the Italian language.\" He also said that he had learned from the maestro \"the true fundamentals of composition\".  In 1753 Porpora spent three summer months, with Haydn in tow, at the spa town Mannersdorf am Leithagebirge. His function there was to continue the singing lessons of the mistress of the ambassador of Venice to the Austrian Empire, Pietro Correr.  Porpora returned in 1759 to Naples.  From this time Porpora's career was a series of misfortunes: his florid style was becoming old-fashioned, his last opera, \"Camilla\", failed, his pension from Dresden stopped, and he became so poor that the expenses of his funeral were paid by a subscription concert. Yet at the moment of his death, Farinelli and Caffarelli were living in splendid retirement on fortunes largely based on the excellence of the old maestro's teaching.  A good linguist, who was admired for the idiomatic fluency of his recitatives, and a man of considerable literary culture, Porpora was also celebrated for his conversational wit. He was well-read in Latin and Italian literature, wrote poetry and spoke French, German and English.  Besides some four dozen operas, there are oratorios, solo cantatas with keyboard accompaniment, motets and vocal serenades. Among his larger works, his 1720 opera \"Orlando\", one mass, his Venetian Vespers, and the opera \"Arianna in Nasso\" (1733 according to HOASM) have been recorded.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicola (Antonio) Porpora (or Niccolò Porpora) (17 August 16863 March 1768) was an Italian composer and teacher of singing of the Baroque era, whose most famous singing students were the castratos Farinelli and Caffarelli. Other students included composers Matteo Capranica and Joseph Haydn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973466}
{"src_title": "Atelidae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Atelid monkeys are small to moderate in size, ranging from 34 to 72 cm in head-body length, with the howler monkeys being the largest members of the group, and the spider monkeys being the smallest. They have long prehensile tails with a sensitive, almost hairless, tactile pad on the underside of the distal part. The tail is frequently used as 'fifth limb' while moving through the trees where they make their homes. They also have nails on their fingers and toes, enabling them to climb. Most species have predominantly dark brown, grey, or black fur, often with paler markings.  These are arboreal and diurnal animals, with most species restricted to dense rain forest, although some howler monkey species are found in drier forests, or wooded savannah. They mainly eat fruit and leaves, although the smaller species, in particular, may also eat some small insects. They have the dental formula:  Females give birth to a single infant (or, rarely, twins) after a gestation period of 180 to 225 days. In most species, individuals give birth every one to three years, and there is little, if any, seasonal peak in the number of births.  Atelid monkeys are typically polygamous, and live in social groups with anything up to twenty five adults, depending on species. Where groups are relatively small, as is common amongst the howler monkeys, a single male monopolises a 'harem' of females, but larger groups will contain several males, with a clear hierarchy of dominance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Currently, 29 species of atelid monkey are recognized, grouped into five genera, and two subfamilies.  FAMILY ATELIDAE", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Atelidae are one of the five families of New World monkeys now recognised. It was formerly included in the family Cebidae. Atelids are generally larger monkeys; the family includes the howler, spider, woolly, and woolly spider monkeys (the latter being the largest of the New World monkeys). They are found throughout the forested regions of Central and South America, from Mexico to northern Argentina.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973467}
{"src_title": "Mursi people", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Language.", "content": "The Mursi speak the Mursi language as a mother tongue. It is classified as Surmic, which is a branch of the Nilo-Saharan language family. Mursi is closely related (over 80% cognate) to Me'en and Suri, as well as Kwegu. According to the 1994 national census, there were 3,163 people who were identified as Mursi in the SNNPR; 3,158 spoke Mursi as their first language, while 31 spoke it as their second language. According to the analytical volume of the 1994 national census, where Mursi was grouped under Me'en, 89.7% were monolingual, and the second languages spoken were Bench (4.2%), Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia (3.5%), and Kafa (1.1%).  Two orthographies for the Mursi language exist. One is the Amharic-based, although the Mursi language is one the Surmic languages with incompatible vowel structures and stressed and unstressed consonants compared to Amharic. The second is the more suitable Latin-based alphabet. The Latin-based orthography was developed by David Turton and Moges Yigezu of Addis Ababa University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion and culture.", "content": "Like many agro-pastoralists in East Africa, the Mursi experience a force greater than themselves, which they call \"Tumwi\". This is usually located in the Sky, although sometimes \"Tumwi\" manifests itself as a thing of the sky (\"ahi a tumwin\"), such as a rainbow or a bird. The principal religious and ritual office in the society is that of the Kômoru, the Priest or Shaman. This is an inherited office, unlike the more informal political role of the Jalaba. The Kômoru embodies in his person the well-being of the group as a whole and acts as a means of communication between the community and the god (\"Tumwi\"), especially when it is threatened by such events as drought, crop pests and disease. His role is characterized by the performance of public rituals to bring rain, to protect men, cattle and crops from disease, and to ward off threatened attacks from other tribes. Ideally, in order to preserve this link between the people and the Tumwi, the Kômoru should not leave Mursiland or even his local group (\"bhuran\"). One clan in particular, Komortê, is considered to be, par excellence, the priestly clan, but there are priestly families in two other clans, namely Garikuli and Bumai.  The religion of the Mursi people is classified as Animism, although some Mursi have adopted Christianity. There is a Serving in Mission Station in the northeastern corner of Mursiland, which provides education, basic medical care and instruction in Christianity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycles.", "content": "The Mursi undergo various rites of passage, educational or disciplinary processes. Lip plates are a well known aspect of the Mursi and Surma, who are probably the last groups in Africa amongst whom it is still the norm for women to wear large pottery, wooden discs, or ‘plates,’ in their lower lips. Girls' lips are pierced at the age of 15 or 16. Occasionally lip plates are worn to a dance by unmarried women, and increasingly they are worn to attract tourists in order to earn some extra money. Ceremonial duelling (\"thagine\"), a form of ritualised male violence, is a highly valued and popular activity of Mursi men, especially unmarried men, and a key marker of Mursi identity. Age sets are an important political feature, where men are formed into named \"age sets\" and pass through a number of \"age grades\" during the course of their lives; married women have the same age grade status as their husbands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Omo National Park.", "content": "The African Parks Foundation and government park officials are accused of coercing Mursi into giving up their land within the boundaries of the Omo National Park without compensation. The documents are being used to legalize the boundaries of the park, which African Parks has taken over.  A group called \"Native Solutions to Conservation Refugees\" says that the documents will make the Mursi 'illegal squatters' on their own land and that a similar fate is befalling the Suri, Dizi, Me'en, and Nyangatom, who also live within the park. After the African Parks Foundation took over Omo National Park, the Mursi feared that they would eventually be evicted from their land like the Guji-Oromo in Nechasar National Park. Due to mounting pressures from human rights activists, African Parks Foundation announced its plans to leave Omo National Park in 2007. The Mursi have declared their territory a community conservation area as of July, 2008 and have begun a community tourism project.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Gibe III Dam and the Large-Scale Commercial Irrigation Scheme.", "content": "The Gibe III hydroelectric dam, in the middle Basin of the Omo and completed in October 2015, will greatly modify the flood regime upon which thousands of people in the lower basin depend for their livelihoods. By regulating the river flows, and ‘uplifting’ the low flows during the dry season, it will also make possible the development of large-scale commercial irrigation schemes, although the latest report commissioned suggests that there is not enough water in the Omo River to irrigate the proposed area of plantations. The most ambitious of these is already being implemented by the state-run Ethiopian Sugar Corporation on land either taken from the Omo National Park or currently occupied by the Bodi, Mursi, Nyangatom and Kara. If current plans are realised the lower Omo will become by far the largest irrigation complex in Ethiopia, at least doubling the total irrigated area in the country.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mursi (or Mun as they refer to themselves) are a Surmic pastoralist ethnic group in Ethiopia. They principally reside in the Debub Omo Zone of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region, close to the border with South Sudan. According to the 2007 national census, there are 11,500 Mursi, 848 of whom live in urban areas; of the total number, 92.25% live in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region (SNNPR).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973468}
{"src_title": "Carpool", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Operation.", "content": "Drivers and passengers offer and search for journeys through one of the several mediums available. After finding a match they contact each other to arrange any details for the journey(s). Costs, meeting points and other details like space for luggage are agreed on. They then meet and carry out their shared car journey(s) as planned.  Carpooling is commonly implemented for commuting but is increasingly popular for longer one-off journeys, with the formality and regularity of arrangements varying between schemes and journeys.  Carpooling is not always arranged for the whole length of a journey. Especially on long journeys, it is common for passengers to only join for parts of the journey, and give a contribution based on the distance that they travel. This gives carpooling extra flexibility and enables more people to share journeys and save money.  Some carpooling is now organized in online marketplaces or ride-matching websites that allow drivers and passengers to find a travel match and/or make a secured transaction to share the planned travel cost. Like other online marketplaces, they use community-based trust mechanisms, such as user-ratings, to create an optimal experience for users.  Arrangements for carpooling can be made through many different mediums including public websites, social media, acting as marketplaces, employer websites, smartphone applications, carpooling agencies and pick-up points.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Initiatives.", "content": "Many companies and local authorities have introduced programs to promote carpooling.  In an effort to reduce traffic and encourage carpooling, some governments have introduced high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes in which only vehicles with two or more passengers are allowed to drive. HOV lanes can create strong practical incentives for carpooling by reducing travel time and expense. In some countries, it is common to find parking spaces reserved for carpoolers.  In 2011, an organization called Greenxc created a campaign to encourage others to use this form of transportation in order to reduce their own carbon footprint.  Carpooling, or car sharing as it is called in British English, is promoted by a national UK charity, Carplus, whose mission is to promote responsible car use in order to alleviate financial, environmental and social costs of motoring today, and encourage new approaches to car dependency in the UK. Carplus is supported by Transport for London, the British government initiative to reduce congestion and parking pressure and contribute to relieving the burden on the environment and to the reduction of traffic-related air-pollution, in London.  However, not all countries are helping carpooling to spread: in Hungary it is a tax crime to carry someone in a car for a cost share (or any payment) unless the driver has a taxi license and there is an invoice issued and taxes are paid. Several people were fined by undercover tax officers during a 2011 crackdown, posing as passengers looking for a ride on carpooling websites. On 19 March 2012 Endre Spaller, a member of the Hungarian Parliament interpellated Zoltán Cséfalvay, State Secretary for National Economy, about this practice who replied that carpooling should be endorsed instead of punished, however care must be taken for some people trying to turn it into a way to gain untaxed profit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cost sharing.", "content": "Carpooling usually means to divide the travel expenses equally between all the occupants of the vehicle (driver or passenger). The driver doesn’t try to earn money, but to share with several people the cost of a trip he/she would do anyway. The expenses to be divided basically include the fuel and possible tolls. But if we include in the calculation the depreciation of the vehicle purchase and maintenance, insurance and taxes paid by the driver, we get a cost around $1/mile. There are platforms that facilitate carpooling by connecting people seeking respectively passengers and drivers. Usually there is a fare set up by the car driver and accepted by passengers because they get an agreement before trip start.  The second generation of these platforms is designed to manage urban trips in real time, using the travellers’ smartphones. They make possible to occupy the vehicle’s empty seats on the fly, collecting and delivering passengers along its entire route (and not only at common points of origin and destination). This system automatically performs an equitable sharing of travel costs, allowing each passenger to reimburse the driver a fair share according to the benefit actually gained by the vehicle usage, proportional to the distance traveled by the passenger and the number of people that shared the car.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Carpooling first became prominent in the United States as a rationing tactic during World War II. Ridesharing began during World War II through “car clubs” or “car-sharing clubs”. The US Office of Civilian Defense asked neighborhood councils to encourage four workers to share a ride in one car to conserve rubber for the war effort. It also created a ride sharing program called the Car Sharing Club Exchange and Self-Dispatching System. Carpooling returned in the mid-1970s due to the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis. At that time the first employee vanpools were organized at Chrysler and 3M.  Carpooling declined precipitously between the 1970s and the 2000s, peaking in the US in 1970 with a commute mode share of 20.4%. By 2011 it was down to 9.7%. In large part this has been attributed to the dramatic fall in gas prices (45%) during the 1980s. In the 1990s it was popular among college students, where campuses have limited parking space. Together with Prof. James Davidson from Harvard, Dace Campbell, a Washington computer scientist, and several others, began to investigate the feasibility of further development although the comprehensive technologies were not commercially available yet at the time. Their work is considered by many to be a forerunner of carpooling & ridesharing systems using technology developed by Garrett Camp, Travis Kalanick, Oscar Salazar and Conrad Whelan at Uber.  The character of carpool travel has been shifting from \"Dagwood Bumstead\" variety, in which each rider is picked up in sequence, to a \"park and ride\" variety, where all the travelers meet at a common location. Recently, however, the Internet has facilitated growth for carpooling and the commute share mode has grown to 10.7% in 2005. In 2007 with the advent of smart phones and GPS, which became commercially available, John Zimmer and Logan Green, from Cornell University and University of California, Santa Barbara respectively, rediscovered and created carpooling system called Zimride, a precursor to Lyft. The popularity of the Internet and smart phones has greatly helped carpooling to expand, enabling people to offer and find rides thanks to easy-to-use and reliable online transport marketplaces. These websites are commonly used for one-off long-distance journeys with high fuel costs. Carpooling is also becoming popular in Canada, with two companies sharing the market, Kangaride in Eastern Canada and Poparide in Western Canada.  In Europe, long-distance car-pooling has become increasingly popular over the past years, thanks to BlaBlaCar. According to its website,, Blablacar counted more than 80 million users, across Europe and beyond. , Uber and Lyft have suspended carpooling services in the U.S. and Canada in efforts to control the COVID-19 pandemic via social distancing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other forms.", "content": "Carpooling exists in other forms:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carpooling (also car-sharing, ride-sharing and lift-sharing) is the sharing of car journeys so that more than one person travels in a car, and prevents the need for others to have to drive to a location themselves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973469}
{"src_title": "Car-Free Days", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and timeline.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First ten years.", "content": "The Environmental Transport Association set the initial annual Car-Free Day on the first Tuesday in their Green Transport Week (around 17 June). In 2000 it was agreed to make it a self-standing day held on September 22, originally as a pan-European day organised under the auspices of the European Commission and later with international extensions—during which a large number of cities around the world are invited to close their centers to cars. Pedestrians, bicycles, public transit and other forms of sustainable transportation are encouraged on these days. People can reflect on what their city would look like with a lot fewer cars, and what might be needed to make this happen. Advocates claim that over 100 million people in 1,500 cities celebrate International Car-Free Day, though on days and in ways of their choice. This claim, however, is not confirmed. Over the first decade of the car-free day movement (1994–2005), the world has seen hundreds of cities giving the approach a try in very different circumstances, some good, some undeniably bad, some of them on several occasions. Activists in this field wondered what were the actual accomplishments. They suggested that it was agreeable to have a pleasant day with fewer cars and probably fewer accidents at least in some parts of the city, but considered that this was not the bottom line. For them the goal of a car-free day had from the beginning been to serve as a small step, as a catalyst in a much larger and more ambitious process of citywide systemic transformation toward a more truly sustainable mobility system. They suggested that with rare exceptions they were not seeing anything like that. The persons involved in the movement thought that after ten years it was time to stand back and see what, if any, difference this approach had made. They asked themselves if CFDs made here or there had produced any significant permanent impacts on cities and the ways human beings get around in them. They wondered if they could be content with what the great bulk of these projects and programs had achieved and just keep going on as-is, or if it were not time to stand back and look again. They decided to fight complacency with a new international collaborative program starting in 2004.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Timeline: Some major events.", "content": "The following chronology assembles some of the main events of the last decades, which together have gradually built on each other's accomplishments to leave us today with a movement that is only now beginning to get under way. There are a very large number of cities and events that are not covered here.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Car Free Day Call.", "content": "The 1994 Car Free Day Call set out a challenge for a city, neighborhood or group:  The exercise considered car users to be \"addicts\" who need to be \"treated\" in some way. The organisers considered this to mean that motorists should have no choice but to be without cars, at least for a time. In this particular instance the proposed \"treatment\" was to find an answer to the following question in three main parts:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "World Car Free Day, which is celebrated on September 22, encourages motorists to give up their cars for a day. Organized events are held in some cities and countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973470}
{"src_title": "György Cziffra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Cziffra was born to a poor family in Budapest in 1921. In his memoirs Cziffra describes his father as \"a cabaret artist\". His parents had lived in Paris before World War I, when they were expelled as enemy aliens.  His earliest training in piano came from watching his sister practice. She had decided she was going to learn the piano after finding a job which allowed her to save the required amount of money for buying an upright piano. Cziffra, who was weak as a child, often watched his sister practice, and mimicked her. He learned without sheet music, instead repeating and improvising over tunes sung by his parents. Later he earned money as a child improvising on popular music at a local circus.  In 1930 Cziffra began to study at the Franz Liszt Academy under the tuition of Ernő Dohnányi until 1941, when he was conscripted into the Hungarian Army. He gave numerous concerts in Hungary, Scandinavia and the Netherlands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Hungary was allied with the Axis during the Second World War. Cziffra had just married his wife Soleilka, who was pregnant when he entered military training. His unit was sent to the Russian front. He was captured by Russian partisans and held as a prisoner of war. After the war he earned a living playing in Budapest bars and clubs, touring with a European jazz band from 1947–1950 and earning recognition as a superb jazz pianist and virtuoso.  After attempting to escape communist Hungary in 1950 he was again imprisoned and subject to hard labour in the period 1950–1953. In 1956 Cziffra escaped with his wife and son to Vienna, where his recital was warmly received. His successful Paris debut the following year preceded his London debut at the Royal Festival Hall playing Liszt's first piano concerto and \"Hungarian Fantasy\" which was also well received. His career continued with concerts throughout Europe and debuts at the Ravinia Festival (Grieg and Liszt concertos with Carl Schuricht) and Carnegie Hall, New York with Thomas Schippers.  Cziffra always performed with a large leather wristband to support the ligaments of his wrist, which were damaged after he was forced to carry 130 pounds of concrete up six flights of stairs during his two years in a labor camp.  In \"Cannons and Flowers\", his autobiography, which has been described as \"a hallucinatory journey through privation, acclaim, hostility and personal tragedy\", Cziffra recounts his life story up until 1977. In 1966, he founded the Festival de musique de La Chaise-Dieu in the Auvergne, and three years later he inaugurated the piano competition named after him at Versailles. In 1968 he took French citizenship and adopted the first name 'Georges'. In 1977 he founded the Cziffra Foundation, sited in the Saint Frambourg chapel in Senlis, Oise, which he bought and restored, with the aim of helping young musicians at the outset of their careers.  Cziffra's son, György Cziffra Jr., was a professional conductor and participated in several concerts and recordings with his father. However, his promising career was cut short by his death in an apartment fire in 1981. Cziffra never again performed or recorded with an orchestra, and some critics have commented that the severe emotional blow affected his playing quality.  Cziffra died in Longpont-sur-Orge, Essonne, France, aged 72, from a heart attack resulting from a series of complications from lung cancer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Audio.", "content": "In addition to the above discography of commercially-released recordings, there exist audio recordings of complete live concerts, a few of which have been commercially released on disc, several can be obtained non-commercially, some however have been lost.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Video.", "content": "[This list is incomplete. Please help to complete it.]", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "György Cziffra (in Hungarian form Cziffra György ; 5 November 192115 January 1994), also known as Georges Cziffra and George Cziffra, was a Hungarian-French virtuoso pianist and composer. He is considered to be one of the greatest pianists of the twentieth century. Among his teachers was István Thomán, who was a favourite pupil of Franz Liszt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973471}
{"src_title": "Vojtěch Preissig", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Vojtěch Preissig was born on 31 July 1873 in Světec, northern Bohemia. His father was a mining engineer. In 1884 he moved to Prague where he studied at the School of Applied Industrial Art from 1892 to 1896, then at the School of Decorative Architecture from 1897 to 1898. In 1897 he moved to Paris and worked for two years with the Czech Art Nouveau artist, Alphonse Mucha. His early, Secessionist, work was influenced by Japanese art and Symbolism. He returned to Prague in 1903 where he founded the periodical \"Česká grafika\" (\"Czech Graphics\"), published the book \"Barevný lept a barevná rytina\" (\"Color Etchings and Color Engravings\") in 1909 and opened his own graphics studio in 1905. Unfortunately, the graphics studio was not a financial success so he moved to the United States in 1910 and worked as an art instructor. Preissig remained in the United States until 1930. He taught at Columbia University and the Art Students League of New York starting in 1912, then moved to Boston by 1916 and taught a course in graphic arts for the Wentworth Institute. He became the director of the School of Printing and Graphic Arts, until 1926. During his time with the Wentworth Institute he designed recruitment posters for the United States armed forces of World War I, which were principally aimed at Czech immigrants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Membership in Czech resistance.", "content": "Preissig, along with his daughter Irena Bernášková, supported the Czech resistance during both World Wars and was arrested in 1940 for doing graphic design work for one of the most important magazines of the resistance, called \"V boj\" (\"Into the Fight\"), that had been outlawed by German authorities. He died on 11 June 1944 in Dachau concentration camp.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "During World War I he designed recruitment posters for the United States armed forces, which were mainly directed at Czech immigrants. Preissig's work with book design and font design originated from a need for better printing type in the Czech language. Czech printers had traditionally used German typefaces and added additional diacritical marks as needed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preissig Antiqua.", "content": "Preissig's work with typefaces began by creating the Preissig Antiqua typeface. Preissig created 'Preissig Antiqua' roughly around the early 20th Century that would influence the style of print and type designs not only in Czechoslovakia, but also all over Europe in general.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vojtěch Preissig (31 July 1873 – 11 June 1944) was a Czech typographer, printmaker, designer, illustrator, painter and teacher. He studied in Prague at the School of Applied Industrial Art (in Friedrich Ohmann's Decorative Architecture workshop) from 1892 to 1896 and at the School of Decorative Architecture from 1897 to 1898.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973472}
{"src_title": "Reccared I", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Reign.", "content": "Reccared was the younger son of King Leovigild by his first wife Theodosia. Like his father, Reccared had his capital at Toledo. The Visigothic kings and nobles were traditionally Arian Christians, while the Hispano-Roman population were Roman Catholics. The Catholic bishop Leander of Seville was instrumental in converting the elder son and heir of Leovigild, Hermenegild, to Catholicism. Leander supported his rebellion and was exiled for his role.  When King Leovigild died, within a few weeks of April 21, 586, bishop Leander was swift to return to Toledo. The new king had been associated with his father in ruling the kingdom and was acclaimed king by the Visigothic nobles without opposition.  In January 587, Reccared renounced Arianism for Catholicism, the single great event of his reign and the turning point for Visigothic Hispania. Most Arian nobles and ecclesiastics followed his example, certainly those around him at Toledo, but there were Arian uprisings, notably in Septimania, his northernmost province, beyond the Pyrenees, where the leader of opposition was the Arian bishop Athaloc, who had the reputation among his Catholic enemies of being virtually a second Arius. Among the secular leaders of the Septimanian insurrection, the counts Granista and Wildigern appealed to Guntram of Burgundy, who saw his opportunity and sent his \"dux\" Desiderius. Reccared's army defeated the Arian insurgents and their Catholic allies with great slaughter, Desiderius himself being slain.  The next conspiracy broke out in the west, Lusitania, headed by Sunna, the Arian bishop of Mérida, and count Seggo. Claudius, Reccared's \"dux Lusitaniae\", put down the rising, Sunna being banished to Mauritania and Seggo retiring to Gallaecia. In the later part of 588 a third conspiracy was headed by the Arian bishop Uldila and the queen dowager Goiswintha, but they were detected, and the bishop was banished. The Third Council of Toledo, organized by St. Leander but convened in the king's name in May 589, set the tone for the new Catholic kingdom. The public confession of the king, read aloud by a notary, reveals by the emphatic clarity of its theological points and its quotations of scripture that it was ghost-written for the king. Bishop Leander also delivered the triumphant closing sermon, which his brother Isidore entitled \"Homilia de triumpho ecclesiae ob conversionem Gothorum\" a homily upon the \"triumph of the Church upon the conversion of the Goths\". The text of the homily survives. Leander and the Catholic bishops immediately instituted the program of forced conversion of Jews and extirpation of the remains of Arianism as heresy. Catholic history traditionally imputes these persecutions to the Visigothic kings. When, after Reccared's reign, at a synod held at Toledo in 633, the bishops took upon themselves the nobles' right to select a king from among the royal family, the transfer of power was complete. By this time the remaining ethnic distinction between the increasingly Romanized Visigoths and their Hispano-Roman subjects had all but disappeared (the Gothic language lost its last and probably already declining function as a church language with the extirpation of Arianism, and dress & funerary customs also cease to be distinguishing features in ca. 570/580)  Reportedly Reccared engaged in a vigorous policy against the Jews, pursuing zealous and fanatical policies limiting Jewish freedoms as promulgated in the canons of synods. Modern historians have revised this view and see a continuation of traditional Visigothic tolerance. Pope Gregory I was convinced that Reccared refused bribes from the Jewish community, which was large, well-connected throughout the Mediterranean and powerful, and Reccared's laws provided that the offspring of a Christian and a Jew be baptised, which was of little moment to the Jewish community, as whether it was not born of a Jewish mother or was born of a Jewish woman outside her community, the child was not considered a Jew anyway. Reccared eliminated the death penalty for Jews convicted of proselytising among Christians and ignored Gregory's request that the trade in Christian slaves at Narbonne be forbidden to Jews. Among the canons of five synods during Reccared's reign, E. A. Thompson could find none disadvantaging the Jewish community.  The information for the rest of Reccared's reign is scanty. John of Biclaro, Reccared's contemporary, ends his account with the Third Council of Toledo. Isidore of Seville, bishop Leander's brother, praises his peaceful government, clemency, and generosity: standard encomia. He returned various properties, even some private ones, that had been confiscated by his father, and founded many churches and monasteries. Pope Gregory, writing to Reccared in Aug. 599 (\"Epp\". ix. 61, 121), extols him for embracing the true faith and inducing his people to do so, and notably for refusing the bribes offered by Jews to procure the repeal of a law against them. He sent Reccared a piece of the True Cross, some fragments of the chains of St. Peter, and some hairs of St. John the Baptist.  Reccared died a natural death at Toledo and was succeeded by his youthful son Liuva II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Reccared I (or Recared; ; ; 559 – December 601 AD; reigned 586–601) was Visigothic King of Hispania and Septimania. His reign marked a climactic shift in history, with the king's renunciation of Arianism in favour of Catholicism in 587.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973473}
{"src_title": "Yevgeny Zamyatin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Zamyatin was born in Lebedyan, Tambov Governorate, south of Moscow. His father was a Russian Orthodox priest and schoolmaster, and his mother a musician. In a 1922 essay, Zamyatin recalled, \"You will see a very lonely child, without companions of his own age, on his stomach, over a book, or under the piano, on which his mother is playing Chopin.\"  He may have had synesthesia since he gave letters and sounds qualities. For instance, he saw the letter Л as having pale, cold and light blue qualities.  He studied naval engineering in Saint Petersburg from 1902 until 1908, during which time he joined the Bolsheviks. He was arrested during the Russian Revolution of 1905 and sent into internal exile in Siberia. However, he escaped and returned to Saint Petersburg where he lived illegally before moving to the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1906 to finish his studies.  After returning to Russia, he began to write fiction as a hobby. He was arrested and exiled a second time in 1911, but amnestied in 1913. His \"Uyezdnoye\" (\"A Provincial Tale\") in 1913, which satirized life in a small Russian town, brought him a degree of fame. The next year he was tried for maligning the Imperial Russian Military in his story \"Na Kulichkakh\" (\"At the world's end\"). He continued to contribute articles to various Marxist newspapers.  After graduating as an engineer for the Imperial Russian Navy, Zamyatin worked professionally at home and abroad. In 1916 he was sent to the United Kingdom to supervise the construction of icebreakers at the shipyards in Walker and Wallsend while living in Newcastle upon Tyne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "Zamyatin later recalled, \"In England, I built ships, looked at ruined castles, listened to the thud of bombs dropped by German zeppelins, and wrote \"The Islanders\". I regret that I did not see the February Revolution, and know only the October Revolution (I returned to Petersburg, past German submarines, in a ship with lights out, wearing a life belt the whole time, just in time for October). This is the same as never having been in love and waking up one morning already married for ten years or so..\"  Zamyatin's \"The Islanders\", satirizing English life, and the similarly themed \"A Fisher of Men\", were both published after his return to Russia in late 1917. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 he edited several journals, lectured on writing, and edited Russian translations of works by Jack London, O. Henry, H. G. Wells, and others. Zamyatin originally supported the October Revolution, but opposed the increasing use of censorship which followed.  His works became increasingly satirical and critical toward the CPSU. Although he supported them before they came to power he slowly came to disagree more and more with their policies, particularly those regarding censorship of the arts. In his 1921 essay \"I Am Afraid,\" Zamyatin wrote: \"True literature can exist only when it is created, not by diligent and reliable officials, but by madmen, hermits, heretics, dreamers, rebels and skeptics.\" This attitude made his position increasingly difficult as the 1920s wore on. In 1923, Zamyatin arranged for the manuscript of his novel \"We\" to be smuggled to E.P. Dutton and Company in New York City. After being translated into English by Gregory Zilboorg, the novel was published in 1924.  Then, in 1927, Zamyatin went much further. He smuggled the original Russian text to Marc Lvovich Slonim (1894–1976), then editor of a Russian émigré journal and publishing house based in Prague. To the fury of the State, copies of the Slonim edition began being smuggled back to the USSR and secretly passed from hand to hand. Zamyatin's dealing with Western publishers triggered a mass offensive by the Soviet State against him. As a result, he was blacklisted from publishing anything in his homeland.  \"We\" has often been discussed as a political satire aimed at the police state of the Soviet Union. There are many other dimensions, however. It may variously be examined as (1) a polemic against the optimistic scientific socialism of H. G. Wells, whose works Zamyatin had previously published, and with the heroic verses of the (Russian) Proletarian Poets, (2) as an example of Expressionist theory, and (3) as an illustration of the archetype theories of Carl Jung as applied to literature. George Orwell believed that Aldous Huxley's \"Brave New World\" (1932) must be partly derived from \"We\". However, in a 1962 letter to Christopher Collins, Huxley says that he wrote \"Brave New World\" as a reaction to H.G. Wells' utopias long before he had heard of \"We\". Kurt Vonnegut said that in writing \"Player Piano\" (1952) he \"cheerfully ripped off the plot of \"Brave New World\", whose plot had been cheerfully ripped off from Yevgeny Zamyatin's \"We\".\" In 1994, \"We\" received a Prometheus Award in the Libertarian Futurist Society's \"Hall of Fame\" category.  In addition to \"We\", Zamyatin also wrote a number of short stories, in fairy tale form, that constituted satirical criticism of Communist ideology. In one story, the mayor of a city decides that to make everyone happy he must make everyone equal. The mayor then forces everyone, himself included, to live in a big barrack, then to shave their heads to be equal to the bald, and then to become mentally disabled to equate intelligence downward. This plot is very similar to that of \"The New Utopia\" (1891) by Jerome K. Jerome whose collected works were published three times in Russia before 1917. In its turn, Kurt Vonnegut's short story \"Harrison Bergeron\" (1961) bears distinct resemblances to Zamyatin's tale.  Max Eastman, an American communist who had similarly broken with his former beliefs, described the Politburo's campaign against Zamyatin in his book \"Artists in Uniform\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Emigration and death.", "content": "In 1931, Zamyatin appealed directly to Joseph Stalin, requesting permission to leave the Soviet Union. In this letter Zamyatin wrote, \"I do not wish to conceal that the basic reason for my request for permission to go abroad with my wife is my hopeless position here as a writer, the death sentence that has been pronounced upon me as a writer here at home.\". With the encouragement of Maxim Gorky, Stalin agreed to Zamyatin's request.  Zamyatin settled with his wife in Paris, where he collaborated with French film director Jean Renoir. Renoir's 1936 adaptation of Gorky's \"The Lower Depths\" was co-written by Zamyatin.  Yevgeny Zamyatin died in poverty of a heart attack in 1937. Only a small group of friends were present for his burial. However, one of the mourners was his Russian language publisher Marc Slonim, who had befriended the Zamyatins. Zamyatin's grave can be found in Cimetière de Thiais, south of Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "\"We\", the 1921 Russian novel, directly inspired:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yevgeny Ivanovich Zamyatin (; 20 January (Julian) / 1 February (Gregorian), 1884 – 10 March 1937), sometimes anglicized as Eugene Zamyatin, was a Russian author of science fiction and political satire. He is most famous for his 1921 novel \"We\", a story set in a dystopian future police state.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973474}
{"src_title": "Vivant Denon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Galland was born at Rollot in Picardy (now in the department of Somme). After completing school at Noyon, he studied Greek and Latin in Paris, where he also acquired some Arabic. In 1670 he was attached to the French embassy at Istanbul because of his excellent knowledge of Greek and, in 1673, he travelled in Syria and the Levant, where he copied a great number of inscriptions, and sketched and—in some cases—removed historical monuments.  After a brief visit to France, where his collection of ancient coins attracted some attention, Galland returned to the Levant in 1677. In 1679 he undertook a third voyage, being commissioned by the French East India Company to collect for the cabinet of Colbert. On the expiration of this commission, he was instructed by the government to continue his research, and had the title of antiquary to the king (Louis XIV) conferred upon him. During his prolonged residences abroad, he acquired a thorough knowledge of the Arabic, Turkish, and Persian languages and literatures, which, on his final return to France, enabled him to render valuable assistance to Melchisédech Thévenot, the keeper of the royal library, and to Barthélemy d'Herbelot de Molainville. When d'Herbelot died in 1695, Galland continued his \"Bibliothèque orientale\" (\"Oriental Library\"), a huge compendium of information about Islamic culture, and principally a translation of the great Arabic encyclopedia \"Kaşf az-Zunūn\" by the celebrated Ottoman scholar Kâtip Çelebi. It was finally published in 1697 and was a major contribution to European knowledge about the Middle East, influencing writers such as William Beckford (in his oriental tale \"Vathek\").  After the deaths of Thévenot and d'Herbelot, Galland lived for some time at Caen under the roof of Nicolas Foucault, the intendant of Caen, himself no mean archaeologist. There he began, in 1704, the publication of \"Les mille et Une Nuits\", which excited immense interest during the time of its appearance and is still the standard French translation. In 1709 he was appointed to the chair of Arabic in the Collège de France. He continued to discharge the duties of this post until his death in 1715.  Besides a number of archaeological works, especially in the department of numismatics, Galland published in 1694 a compilation from the Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, entitled \"Paroles remarquables, bons mots et maximes des orientaux\", and in 1699 a translation from an Arabic manuscript, \"De l'origine et du progrès du café\". The former of these works appeared in an English translation in 1795. His \"Contes et fables indiennes de Bidpai et de Lokrnan\" was published posthumously in 1724. Among his numerous manuscripts are a translation of the Qur'an and a \"Histoire générale des empereurs Turcs\". His journal was published by Charles Schefer in 1881.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translation of \"The Thousand and One Nights\".", "content": "Galland had come across a manuscript of \"The Tale of Sindbad the Sailor\" in Constantinople during the 1690s and, in 1701, he published his translation of it into French. Its success encouraged him to embark on a translation of a fourteenth- or fifteenth-century Syrian manuscript (now known as the Galland Manuscript) of \"The Thousand and One Nights\". The first two volumes of this work, under the title \"Mille et Une Nuit\", appeared in 1704. The twelfth and final volume was published posthumously in 1717. He translated the first part of his work solely from the Syrian manuscript, but in 1709 he was introduced to a Maronite Christian from Aleppo, Hanna Diab, who recounted fourteen more stories to Galland from memory. He chose to include seven of these tales in his version of the \"Nights\".  Mystery still surrounds the origins of some of the most famous tales. For instance, there are no Arabic manuscripts of \"Aladdin\" and \"Ali Baba\", the so-called \"orphan tales\", which pre-date Galland's translation. This has led some scholars to conclude that Galland invented them himself and the Arabic versions are merely later renderings of his original French.  Galland also adapted his translation to the taste of the time. The immediate success the tales enjoyed was partly due to the vogue for fairy stories (French: \"contes de fees\"), which had been started in France in the 1690s by his friend Charles Perrault. Galland was also eager to conform to the literary canons of the era. He cut many of the erotic passages as well as all of the poetry. This caused Sir Richard Burton to refer to \"Galland's delightful abbreviation and adaptation\" which \"in no wise represent(s) the eastern original.\" His translation was greeted with immense enthusiasm and had soon been translated into many other European languages: English (a \"Grub Street\" version appeared in 1706), German (1712), Italian (1722), Dutch (1732), Russian (1763), and Polish (1768). They produced a wave of imitations and the widespread 18th century fashion for oriental tales. As Jorge Luis Borges wrote:Another fact is undeniable. The most famous and eloquent encomiums of \"The Thousand and One Nights\"—by Coleridge, Thomas de Quincey, Stendhal, Tennyson, Edgar Allan Poe, Newman—are from readers of Galland's translation. Two hundred years and ten better translations have passed, but the man in Europe or the Americas who thinks of the \"Thousand and One Nights\" thinks, invariably, of this first translation. The Spanish adjective \"milyunanochesco\" [thousand-and-one-nights-esque]... has nothing to do with the erudite obscenities of Burton or Mardrus and everything to do with Antoine Galland's bijoux and sorceries.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Dominique Vivant, Baron Denon (4 January 1747 – 27 April 1825) was a French artist, writer, diplomat, author, and archaeologist. He was appointed as the first Director of the Louvre museum by Napoleon after the Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801, and is commemorated in the Denon Wing of the modern museum and in the Dominique-Vivant Denon Research Center. His two-volume \"Voyage dans la basse et la haute Egypte\" (\"Journey in Lower and Upper Egypt\"), 1802, was the foundation of modern Egyptology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973475}
{"src_title": "Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Herouël, a village in the \"département\" of the Aisne, he was the son of a seigneurial landowner. He studied law and in 1774 purchased a position as prosecutor \"procureur\" attached to the Châtelet in Paris. He sold his office in 1781 to pay off his debts and became a clerk under the lieutenant-general of police.  Little is known of the part he played at the outbreak of the Revolution. According to himself, he was part of the National Guard at its formation. He was active in the politics of his section in 1789, and in August 1792, supported the sans culotte movement. Backed by his cousin Camille Desmoulins, Fouquier de Tinville became the foreman of a jury established to pass verdict on crimes of Royalists arrested after the \"[Insurrection of 10 August 1792|journée du 10 août]]\" in 1792.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public prosecutor.", "content": "When the Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris was created by the National Convention on 10 March 1793, he was appointed its public prosecutor, an office that he filled until 1 August 1794. His zeal in prosecution earned him the nickname \"Purveyor to the Guillotine.\" On 26 September 1793 Martial Herman was appointed as president of the tribunal and René-François Dumas as vice president; Coffinhal as one of the judges.  His activity during this time earned him the reputation of one of the most sinister figures of the Revolution. His office as public prosecutor arguably reflected a need to display the appearance of legality during what was essentially political command, more than a need to establish actual guilt. Fouquier de Tinville, like Maximilien Robespierre, was known for his ruthless radicalism.  One of the last groups he prosecuted included seven nuns, aged 32–66, of the former convent of Carmelites, living in Paris, plus an eighth nun, of the Convent of the Visitation,...who were charged with consorting together and scheming to trouble the State by provoking civil war with their fanaticism...Instead of living at peace within the bosom of the Republic, which had provided for their subsistence, and instead of obeying the laws, adopted the idea of residing together in this same house...and of making this house a refuge for refractory priests and counter-revolutionary fanatics, with whom they plotted against the Revolution and against the eternal principles of liberty and equality which are its basis. Apparently the nuns, whom he called criminal assassins, were corrupted by the ex-Jesuit Rousseau de Roseicquet, who led them in a conspiracy to poison minds and subvert the Republic. When the judge read this piece of Fouquier-Tinville's prose, he condemned them to be deported, as well as all those who had given them refuge.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Downfall.", "content": "His career ended with the fall of Robespierre at the start of the Thermidorian Reaction. Although he was briefly kept as the new government's prosecutor, even helping in the arrest of Robespierre, Louis de Saint-Just, and Georges Couthon, and being confirmed by Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac and the Convention on 28 July 1794, he was arrested after being denounced by Louis-Marie Stanislas Fréron.  Imprisoned on 1 August, he was brought to trial in front of the Convention. His defense was that he had only obeyed the decrees of the Committee of Public Safety and the Convention: It is not I who ought to be facing the tribunal, but the chiefs whose orders I have executed. I had only acted in the spirit of the laws passed by a Convention invested with all powers. Through the absence of its members [on trial], I find myself the head of a [political] conspiracy I have never been aware of. Here I am facing slander, [facing] a people always eager to find others responsible.  After a trial lasting forty-one days, he was sentenced to death and guillotined on 7 May 1795, together with 15 former functionaries of the Revolutionary Tribunal, who were sentenced as his accomplices.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Fouquier-Tinville married his first wife, Geneviève-Dorothée Saugnier, with whom he would have five children, in 1775. He was widowed seven years later. Four months after his wife's death, he married Henriette Jeanne Gérard d'Arcourt, with whom he would spend the rest of his life. They had three children together.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Antoine Quentin Fouquier de Tinville (10 June 17467 May 1795) was a French prosecutor during the Revolution and Reign of Terror periods.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973476}
{"src_title": "The 13th Warrior", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Ahmad ibn Fadlan is a court poet to the Caliph of Baghdad, until his amorous encounter with the wife of an influential noble gets him exiled as an \"ambassador\" to the Volga Bulgars. Traveling with his father's old friend, Melchisidek, his caravan is saved from Tatar raiders by the appearance of Norsemen. Taking refuge at their settlement on the Volga river, communications are established through Melchisidek and Herger, a Norseman who speaks Latin. From Herger, the two learn that the celebration being held by the Northmen is in fact a funeral for their recently deceased king. Herger also introduces them to one of the king's sons, Buliwyf. Ahmad and Melchisidek then to witness a fight in which Buliwyf kills his rival (presumably his brother) for the throne in self defense, which establishes Buliwyf as heir apparent, followed by the Viking funeral of their dead king, cremated together with a young woman who agreed to accompany him to Valhalla.  The next day, a young prince named Wulfgar enters the camp requesting Buliwyf's aid: his father's kingdom in the far north is under attack from an ancient evil so frightening that even the bravest warriors dare not name it. The \"angel of death\", a völva (wisewoman) determines the mission will be successful if thirteen warriors go to face this danger—but the thirteenth must not be a Norseman. Ahmad is recruited against his will.  Ahmad learns Norse during their journey by listening intently to his companions' conversations. He is looked down upon by the huge Norsemen, who mock his physical weakness and his small Arabian horse, but he earns a measure of respect by his fast learning of their language, his horsemanship, ingenuity, and ability to write.  Reaching King Hrothgar's kingdom, they confirm that their foe is indeed the ancient \"Wendol\", fiends who come with the mist to kill and take human heads. While the group searches through a raided cabin they find a Venus figurine, said to represent the \"Mother of the Wendol\". On their first night two of their number—Hyglak and Ragnar—are killed. In a string of clashes, Buliwyf's band establishes that the Wendol are humanoid cannibals who appear as, live like, and identify with bears.  Their numbers dwindling, having also lost Skeld, Halga, Roneth and Rethel, and their position all but indefensible, they consult an ancient \"völva\" of the village. She tells them to track the Wendol to their lair and destroy their leaders, the \"Mother of the Wendol\" and their Warlord who wears \"the horns of power\". Buliwyf and the remaining warriors infiltrate the Wendol cave-complex and kill the Mother, but not before Buliwyf is scratched deeply across the shoulder by her poisoned \"fingernail claw\".  The remaining warriors return to the village (losing Helfdane who opts to stay behind and fight) and prepare for a final battle they do not expect to survive. Buliwyf staggers outside before the fight and inspires the warriors with a Viking prayer for the honored dead who will enter Valhalla. Buliwyf succeeds in killing the Wendol warlord, causing their defeat, before succumbing to the poison. Ahmad witnesses Buliwyf's royal funeral before returning to his homeland, grateful to the Norsemen for helping him to \"become a man and a useful servant of God\". He is seen at the movie's end writing down the tale of his time with them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Originally titled \"Eaters of the Dead\", production began in the summer of 1997, but the film went through several re-edits after test audiences did not react well to the initial cut. Crichton took over as director himself due to the poor test audience reception, causing the release date to be pushed back over a year. The film was re-cut, a new ending added, along with a new score. Graeme Revell was replaced by Jerry Goldsmith as composer. The title was changed to \"The 13th Warrior\".  The budget, which was originally around $85 million, reportedly soared to $100 million before principal photography wrapped. With all of the re-shoots and promotional expenses, the total cost of the film was rumored to be as high as $160 million, which given its lackluster box office take (earning US$61.7 million worldwide), made for a loss of $70–130 million.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The film debuted at No. 2 on its opening weekend behind \"The Sixth Sense\".  \"The 13th Warrior\" holds a 33% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 88 reviews. The consensus is: \"Atmospheric, great sets and costumes, but thin plot.\"  Roger Ebert gave the film one and a half stars out of four, remarking that it \"lumber[s] from one expensive set-piece to the next without taking the time to tell a story that might make us care.\" Conversely, James Berardinelli gave \"The 13th Warrior\" three stars out of four, calling it \"a solid offering\" that \"delivers an exhilarating 100 minutes\". Lisa Schwarzbaum of \"Entertainment Weekly\" rated it A− and called it \"the most unexpectedly audacious, exhilarating, and wildly creative adventure thriller I have seen in ages\".  The outcome of the film's production disappointed Omar Sharif so much that he temporarily retired from film acting, not taking a role in another major film until 2003's \"Monsieur Ibrahim\":", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The original soundtrack was composed by Graeme Revell and featured the Dead Can Dance singer Lisa Gerrard. The score was rejected by Michael Crichton and was replaced by one composed by Crichton's usual collaborator, Jerry Goldsmith.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 13th Warrior is a 1999 American historical fiction action film based on Michael Crichton's 1976 novel \"Eaters of the Dead\", which is a loose retelling of the tale of \"Beowulf\" combined with Ahmad ibn Fadlan's historical account of the Volga Vikings. It stars Antonio Banderas as Ahmad ibn Fadlan, as well as Diane Venora and Omar Sharif. It was directed by John McTiernan. Crichton directed some reshoots uncredited. The film was produced by McTiernan, Crichton, and Ned Dowd, with Andrew G. Vajna, James Biggam and Ethan Dubrow as executive producers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973477}
{"src_title": "Blanche of Valois", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Blanche grew up at the French court of her cousin Charles IV of France, who was a nephew to her father. She spent much time with Charles' wife Marie, who was an aunt to her future husband.  A betrothal between Blanche and Charles, eldest son of John of Bohemia was contracted in 1323. Charles had been staying at the French court as he had been sent by his father to be educated; he had been baptised Wenceslaus but changed his name upon the betrothal in honour of King Charles.  The importance of Blanche's position grew when King Charles died without male heirs and so Blanche's brother succeeded as Philip VI of France. He had his son and heir John betrothed and later married to Charles' sister, Jutta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "At Prague in May 1329, Blanche and Charles were married. The couple lived apart for the first several years of marriage as they were both about 13 years old; Blanche lived in Luxembourg whilst Charles was in Italy focusing on securing the Empire with his father. The couple began to live together upon Charles' return in 1334, when they are now about 18 years old, at which time, the couple were made Margrave and Margravine of Moravia. Blanche entered Prague on 12 June with French ladies and courtiers. The couple clashed with the Bohemian nobility who had gained strength because of King John's frequent trips abroad; despite this challenge, Blanche learned Czech and German, had a social life and would remain in Bohemia when Charles traveled abroad. Within the first year of married life, the couple had a short-lived son.  Blanche was close to her mother-in-law, Charles' stepmother Beatrice, as French was the native language of both women, they communicated easily however Blanche was more popular at court than Beatrice; she was always compared unfavourably to Blanche and this was possibly because Beatrice never learned Czech or German whilst Blanche did.  John put pressure on Blanche due to the birth of only a daughter, Margaret and the absence of a living male child. The pressure resulted in Blanche moving to Brno in 1337; for the next several years, Blanche and Charles had no children. However, the couple had a second daughter in 1342 named Katherine. On 11 July 1346, Charles was elected King of Germany in opposition to Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV. His election was supported by Pope Clement VI, who was at odds with Louis. While the conflict in Germany continued, Blanche's father-in-law John allied himself with Blanche's brother, King Philip. John was killed in the Battle of Crécy (26 August 1346). Charles escaped the battlefield relatively unharmed and succeeded to the Kingdom of Bohemia. Blanche became queen consort.  On 11 October 1347, Louis IV died suddenly and Charles gained wider recognition as King of Germany. However, less than a year later on 1 August 1348, Blanche died after a short illness aged thirty-two. Her death was a large blow to Charles who still did not have a son and heir, large political loss with France and a full-fledged marriage. Desperate for a son, Charles remarried the following year to Anna of Bavaria. Seven years after the death of Blanche, Charles became Holy Roman Emperor; he was eventually succeeded by his son Sigismund, whom he had with his fourth wife Elizabeth of Pomerania.  Blanche was buried in Saint Vitus, Prague Castle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Blanche and Charles had two daughters:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In Media.", "content": "Blanche was portrayed by Czech actress Daniela Kolářová in the 1969 film \"Slasti Otce vlasti\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Blanche of Valois (baptised \"Marguerite\"; 1317–1348) was a Queen consort of Germany and Bohemia by her marriage to King and later Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV. She was the youngest daughter of Charles of Valois and his third wife Mahaut of Châtillon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973478}
{"src_title": "Martin JRM Mars", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Glenn L. Martin Company scaled up their PBM Mariner patrol bomber design to produce the prototype XPB2M-1 Mars. The XPB2M-1 was launched on 8 November 1941. After a delay caused by an engine fire during ground runs, the aircraft first flew on 23 June 1942. After flight tests with the XPB2M between 1942 and 1943, she was passed on to the Navy. The original patrol bomber concept was considered obsolete by this time, and the Mars was converted into a transport aircraft designated the XPB2M-1R. The Navy was satisfied with the performance, and ordered 20 of the modified JRM-1 Mars. The first, named \"Hawaii Mars\", was delivered in June 1945, but with the end of World War II the Navy scaled back their order, buying only the five aircraft which were then on the production line. Though the original Hawaii Mars was lost in an accident on Chesapeake Bay a few weeks after it first flew, the other five Mars were completed, and the last delivered in 1947.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "U.S. Navy service.", "content": "Named the \"Marianas Mars\", \"Philippine Mars\", \"Marshall Mars\", \"Caroline Mars\", and a second \"Hawaii Mars\", the five production Mars aircraft entered service ferrying cargo to Hawaii and the Pacific Islands on 23 January 1944. The last production airplane (the \"Caroline Mars\") was designated JRM-2, powered by Pratt & Whitney R-4360 engines, and featured a higher maximum weight and other improvements. On 4 March 1949, the \"Caroline Mars\" set a new world passenger load record by carrying 269 people from San Diego to Alameda, CA. On 5 April 1950, the \"Marshall Mars\" was lost near Hawaii when an engine fire consumed the airplane after her crew had evacuated. The remaining \"Big Four\" flew record amounts of Naval cargo on the San Francisco-Honolulu route efficiently until 1956, when they were beached at NAS Alameda.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Civilian use.", "content": "In 1959, the remaining Mars aircraft were to be sold for scrap, but a Canadian company, Forest Industries Flying Tankers (FIFT), was formed and bid for the four aircraft and a large spares inventory. The company represented a consortium of British Columbia forest companies, and the bid was accepted and the sale completed in December 1959. The four aircraft were flown to Fairey Aviation at Victoria, British Columbia, for conversion into water bombers. The conversion involved the installation of a plywood tank in the cargo bay with retractable pick-up scoops to allow uploading of water while the aircraft was taxiing. The scoops allowed 30 tons of water to be taken on board in 22 seconds. Later some of the hull fuel tanks were replaced with water tanks.  The \"Marianas Mars\" crashed near Northwest Bay, British Columbia, on 23 June 1961 during firefighting operations; all four crew members were lost. Just over a year later, on 12 October 1962 while parked onshore at the Victoria airport, the \"Caroline Mars\" was damaged beyond repair by Typhoon Freda when she was blown 200 yards, breaking her back. The \"Hawaii Mars\" and \"Philippine Mars\" had their conversion into water bombers advanced and entered service in 1963. They appeared at local airshows, demonstrating their water-dropping ability. Flying Tankers Inc. flew the water bombers to hot spots around the province when a need developed, such as in August 2003, when a large forest fire threatened the outskirts of Kelowna, British Columbia.  On 10 November 2006, TimberWest Forest Ltd. announced they were looking for buyers of the Mars. A condition of sale was that the purchaser would have to donate one plane back to Port Alberni when they were retired, as a historic attraction. The Maryland Aviation Museum and British Columbia Aviation Council initiated a joint effort to preserve the aircraft, one for display in Maryland and the other at the current location in Canada. On 13 April 2007, TimberWest announced the sale of both aircraft to Coulson Forest Products, a local forestry company in Port Alberni, British Columbia. The two surviving tankers are presently operated by Coulson Flying Tankers and are based and maintained at Sproat Lake near Port Alberni. On 25 October 2007, the \"Hawaii Mars\" (\"Redtail\") arrived at Lake Elsinore in southern California, on a private contract, to assist with firefighting efforts at the California wildfires of October 2007. Meanwhile, the \"Philippine Mars\" had been undergoing \"extensive maintenance and renovation\" and was expected to be ready to fly again by 2010., the \"Hawaii Mars\" was in service fighting the La Brea fire east of Santa Maria in Southern California. The aircraft can carry 7,200 U.S. gallons (27,276 litres) of water and each deployment can cover an area of up to 4 acres (1.6 hectares). The aircraft can also carry up to 600 U.S. gallons (2,270 litres) of foam concentrate for gelling the load drop. They are mainly used to fight fires along the coast of British Columbia and sometimes in the interior. As of July 29, 2010, the Martin Mars was being used to fight the Mason Lake/Bonaparte Lake fire north of Kamloops.  On 23 August 2012, the Coulson Group announced that the \"Philippine Mars\", due to its lack of use for five years, would be retired and flown to the National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida to become a static exhibit. The aircraft was repainted to its original U.S. Navy colors and was to have been delivered to the museum in November 2012. After many delays, the trade deal of transferring the aircraft to the museum was put on hold by the Navy in June 2016, pending the outcome of the 2016 US Presidential election. On 10 May 2013, the B.C. provincial government announced that the \"Hawaii Mars\" would no longer be placed on contract after the 2013 season, due to not having been used to fight any B.C. fires for two years and the operation of newer and more versatile aircraft by the Coulson group including a Lockheed C-130 Hercules converted to firefighting use. Although Coulson stated that the \"Hawaii Mars\" has been under numerous recent upgrades to make it safer and more reliable, no buyers have come forward to purchase the aircraft. Coulson also cautioned against any plans to open the aircraft as a tourist attraction because of the 2013 closure of the Flying Tankers Bomber Base Museum from poor attendance.  In May 2015, the \"Hawaii Mars\" received a small contract to be used briefly for training Chinese pilots. This was done using the Martin Mars to evaluate against civil certification regulations by The International Test Pilot School, on how to handle such a large amphibious aircraft. These pilots will be involved with the Chinese state owned Aviation Industry Corporation of China as they get ready to launch their forthcoming AVIC TA-600 airplane. Subsequently, in July 2015, the airplane was put back in service after public outcry, being awarded a 30-day contract from the BC Government to help with a particularly bad fire season.  In 2016, the \"Hawaii Mars\" made its first appearance at EAA AirVenture Oshkosh in hopes of being sold or leased to a new home or business. One of the pilots on the way to Oshkosh was well-known Kermit Weeks. According to the Smithsonian Channel episode of Mighty Planes Martin Mars, only one Martin Mars is now flying.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Martin JRM Mars is a large, four-engined cargo transport flying boat designed and built by the Martin Company for the United States Navy during World War II. It was the largest Allied flying boat to enter production, although only seven were built. The United States Navy contracted the development of the XPB2M-1 Mars in 1938 as a long-range ocean patrol flying boat, which later entered production as the JRM Mars long-range transport.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973479}
{"src_title": "Aon Center (Chicago)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The Standard Oil Building was constructed as the headquarters of the Standard Oil Company of Indiana, which had previously been housed at South Michigan Avenue and East 9th Street. When it was completed in 1973, it was the tallest building in Chicago and the fourth-tallest in the world, earning it the nickname \"Big Stan\". (A year later, the Sears Tower took the title as Chicago's and world's tallest.) The building employs a tubular steel-framed structural system with V-shaped perimeter columns to resist earthquakes, reduce sway, minimize column bending, and maximize column-free space. This construction method was also used for the former World Trade Center towers in New York City.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Refacing.", "content": "When completed, it was the world's tallest marble-clad building, sheathed entirely with 43,000 slabs of Italian Carrara marble. The marble used was thinner than previously attempted in cladding a building, which soon proved to be a mistake. On December 25, 1973, during construction a 350-pound marble slab detached from the façade and penetrated the roof of the nearby Prudential Center. In 1985, inspection found numerous cracks and bowing in the marble cladding of the building. To alleviate the problem, stainless steel straps were added to hold the marble in place. Later, from 1990 to 1992, the entire building was refaced with Mount Airy white granite at an estimated cost of over $80 million. Amoco was reluctant to divulge the actual amount, but it was well over half the original price of the building, without adjustment for inflation. Two-thirds of the discarded marble was crushed and used as landscaping decoration at Amoco's refinery in Whiting, Indiana, one-sixth was donated to Governors State University, in University Park, and one-sixth donated to Regalo, a division of Lashcon Inc. Under a grant from the Illinois Department of Rehabilitative Services, Regalo's 25 handicapped workers carved the discarded marble into a variety of specialty items such as corporate gifts and mementos including desk clocks and pen holders. The building's facade somewhat resembles the former World Trade Center due to the upward flow of the columns.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Designation.", "content": "The Standard Oil Building was renamed the Amoco Building when the company changed names in 1985. In 1998, Amoco sold the building to The Blackstone Group for an undisclosed amount, estimated to be between $430 and $440 million. It was renamed as the Aon Center on December 30, 1999, although the Aon Corporation would not become the building's primary tenant until September 2001. In May 2003, Wells Real Estate Investment Trust, Inc. acquired the building for between $465 and $475 million. On August 10, 2007, Wells Real Estate Investment Trust, Inc. changed its name to Piedmont Office Realty Trust, Inc.) Real estate investors Mark Karasick and Victor Gerstein acquired the building from Piedmont in 2015 for $713 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Planned observation deck.", "content": "On May 14, 2018 the owners unveiled $185 million proposal for an observatory featuring a thrill ride on the roof called the Sky Summit, the world’s tallest exterior elevator, and new entrance pavilion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exterior lighting.", "content": "In recent years, the top floors of the building have been lit at night with colors to reflect a particular season or holiday. Orange is used for Thanksgiving, green or red for Christmas, and pink during National Breast Cancer Awareness Month. The lighting commonly matches the nighttime lighting on the antenna of Willis Tower, the John Hancock Center and the upper floors of the Merchandise Mart.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plaza.", "content": "In the plaza, there is a sounding sculpture by Harry Bertoia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Aon Center (200 East Randolph Street, formerly Amoco Building) is a modern supertall skyscraper just east of the Chicago Loop, Chicago, Illinois, United States, designed by architect firms Edward Durell Stone and The Perkins and Will partnership, and completed in 1974 as the Standard Oil Building. With 83 floors and a height of 1,136 feet (346 m), it is the fourth-tallest building in Chicago, surpassed in height by Willis Tower, Trump International Hotel and Tower, and Vista Tower.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973480}
{"src_title": "Frederick IV, Duke of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Frederick was the youngest son of Duke Leopold III (1351–1386) and his wife Viridis (d. 1414), a daughter of Bernabò Visconti, Lord of Milan. According to the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, his father ruled over the Habsburg Inner Austrian territories of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, as well as over Tyrol and the dynasty's original Further Austrian possessions in Swabia. After the early death of Duke Leopold in the 1386 Battle of Sempach, Frederick and his elder brothers William, Leopold IV and Ernest initially remained under the tutelage of their uncle Duke Albert III of Austria.  As an inheritance dispute arose upon Duke Albert's death in 1395, the young Leopoldian dukes insisted on their rights: the next year, William went on to rule the Inner Austrian lands and Leopold IV ascended as Count of Tyrol. When Frederick came of age in 1402, he was formally assigned to administrate his father's inheritance in the scattered Habsburg territories in Swabia, referred to collectively as Further Austria (\"Vorderösterreich\") and took his residence in Freiburg im Breisgau. Another division of the Leopoldian territories took place after William' death in 1406: Duke Leopold IV, now eldest heir, ceded Tyrol to Frederick, however, he did not become sole ruler in Further Austria until Leopold's death in 1411.  The early years of Frederick's reign were marked by external and internal conflicts. He had to overcome the opposition of Tyrolean nobles (who gave him the title \"of the Empty Pockets\") in 1406/07 and a rebellion in the Bishopric of Trent. He also had to deal with the independence movement in the Swabian Appenzell lands, where the conflict with the Prince-Abbots of St Gall had escalated in 1401, sparking the Appenzell Wars. Frederick had to withstand in a series of longstanding military conflicts, until a peace was concluded in 1410. However, the Appenzell area became a protectorate of the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1411. Back in Tyrol, he had to face the invading forces of Duke Stephen III of Bavaria, whom he defeated in the Lower Inn Valley.  Upon the death of Duke Leopold IV in 1411, the surviving younger brothers Frederick and Ernest again divided the Leopoldian possessions. With Further Austria, Frederick became undisputed ruler over the Habsburg territories in the Alsace region and of the Burgau margraviate. In 1417 he also inherited the former Kyburg estates from the extinct comital Habsburg-Laufenburg branch. Several border conflicts with the Republic of Venice led to the loss of Rovereto in the Lagarina Valley.  Under the terms of the Western Schism, Duke Frederick sided with Antipope John XXIII, whom he helped on his flight from the Council of Constance in March 1415. The Luxembourg king Sigismund had John arrested in Breisgau and placed Frederick under the Imperial ban. Thanks to the support of the local populace he managed to keep Tyrol, though he lost the western Aargau, the Freiamt and County of Baden estates, in the old homeland of the Habsburgs, to the Swiss.  In 1420, Frederick also moved his Tyrolean court from Meran to Innsbruck. After several rebellions by local nobles, his rule over Tyrol had stabilized, partially due to the successful beginning of silver mining that brought an increase in prosperity to the region. After the death of his brother Ernest on 10 June 1424, Duke Frederick also took over the regency over Inner Austria for his minor nephews Frederick V (the later Emperor Frederick III) and Albert VI. In his later years, however, he again had to cope with another rebellion against his Tyrolean rule, instigated by Prince-Bishop Alexander of Trent.  Frederick died at his court in Innsbruck, despite his nickname a rich man. His son and heir Sigismund was called \"der Münzreiche\" (\"Rich in Coin\"). Frederick was buried in the Cistercian abbey of Stams, Tyrol.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "On 24 December 1407, Frederick married Elizabeth of the Palatinate (1381–1408), daughter of King Rupert of Germany, in Innsbruck. They had one daughter, Elizabeth, but both mother and child died shortly after the birth on 27 December 1408.  On 11 June 1411, Frederick married Anna (d. 1432), daughter of the Welf duke Frederick I of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; they had four children: Only Sigismund survived until adulthood. He succeeded his father in Tyrol and Further Austria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick IV (1382 – 24 June 1439), also known as Frederick of the Empty Pockets (), a member of the House of Habsburg, was Duke of Austria from 1402 until his death. As a scion of the Habsburg Leopoldian line, he ruled over Further Austria and the County of Tyrol from 1406 onwards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973481}
{"src_title": "Deaflympics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Deaflympics are held every four years, and are the longest running multi-sport event excluding the Olympics themselves. The first games, held in Paris in 1924, were also the first ever international sporting event for athletes with a disability. The event has been held every four years since, apart from a break for World War II, and an additional event, the Deaflympic Winter Games, was added in 1949. The games began as a small gathering of 148 athletes from nine European nations competing in the International Silent Games in Paris, France, in 1924; now, they have grown into a global movement.  Officially, the games were originally called the \"International Games for the Deaf\" from 1924 to 1965, but were sometimes also referred to as the \"International Silent Games\". From 1966 to 1999 they were called the \"World Games for the Deaf\", and occasionally referred to as the \"World Silent Games\". From 2001, the games have been known by their current name Deaflympics (often mistakenly called the Deaf Olympics).  To qualify for the games, athletes must have a hearing loss of at least 55 db in their \"better ear\". Hearing aids, cochlear implants and the like are not allowed to be used in competition, to place all athletes on the same level. Other examples of ways the games vary from hearing competitions are the manner in which they are officiated. To address the issue of Deaflympians not being able to be guided by sounds, certain sports use alternative methods of commencing the game. For example, the football referees wave a flag instead of blowing a whistle; on the track, races are started by using a light, instead of a starter pistol. It is also customary for spectators not to cheer or clap, but rather to wave – usually with both hands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Host nations and cities.", "content": "To date, the Summer Deaflympic Games have been hosted by 21 cities in 17 countries, but by cities outside Europe on only five occasions (Washington, D.C. 1965, Los Angeles 1985, Christchurch 1989, Melbourne 2005 and Taipei 2009). The last summer games were held in Samsun, Turkey in 2017. The Winter Deaflympic Games have been hosted by 16 cities in 11 countries. The last winter games were held in Khanty-Mansiysk, Russian Federation in 2015.  The 2011 Winter Games scheduled to be held in Vysoké Tatry, Slovakia were cancelled due to the lack of readiness by the organizing committee to host the games. The International Committee of Deaf Sports filed a criminal complaint against the Slovak Deaflympics Organizing Committee and its President, Mr. Jaromír Ruda. The criminal complaint demands reimbursement of the funds that were transferred to the Slovak Deaflympics Organizing Committee from national deaf sports federations, to cover hotel accommodations and other Deaflympics-related expenses. According to the Slovak newspaper, \"SME\", \"Jaromír Ruda, head of the Slovak Organising Committee, [is] a champion of promises and someone who is accused of a 1.6 million Euro Deaflympics-related fraud\". In a letter to the United States Deaflympians, International Committee of Sports for the Deaf ICSD President Craig Crowley expressed \"his deep apologies for the cancellation of the 17th Winter Deaflympics\". Currently, the Slovak Deaflympic Committee and the Slovakia Association of Deaf Sportsmen Unions have been suspended. In 2013 the Special Criminal Court in Banská Bystrica sentenced Ruda to a prison term of 14 and a half years for defrauding €1.6 million that should have been used for Winter Deaflympics.  The host cities and NOCs for all past and scheduled games are as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "All-time medal table.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Summer Deaflympics.", "content": "An all-time Summer Deaflympics from 1924 Summer Deaflympics to 2017 Summer Deaflympics, is tabulated below. The table is simply the consequence of the sum of the medal tables of the various editions of the Summer Deaflympics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Winter Deaflympics.", "content": "An all-time Winter Deaflympics from 1949 Winter Deaflympics to 2019 Winter Deaflympics, is tabulated below. The table is simply the consequence of the sum of the medal tables of the various editions of the Winter Deaflympics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Summer Deaflympics.", "content": "The following sports have been contested in a Summer Deaflympic Games programme:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Winter Deaflympics.", "content": "The following sports have been contested in a Winter Deaflympic Games programme:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Deaflympics (previously called World Games for the Deaf, and International Games for the Deaf) are an International Olympic Committee (IOC)-sanctioned event at which deaf athletes compete at an elite level. Unlike the athletes in other IOC-sanctioned events (the Olympics, the Paralympics, and the Special Olympics), the Deaflympians cannot be guided by sounds (e.g., the starter's guns, bullhorn commands or referee whistles). The games have been organized by the \"Comité International des Sports des Sourds\" (CISS, \"The International Committee of Sports for the Deaf\") since the first event in 1924.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973482}
{"src_title": "Saint Remigius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Remigius was born, traditionally, at Cerny-en-Laonnois, near Laon, Picardy, into the highest levels of Gallo-Roman society. He is said to have been son of Emilius, count of Laon (who is not otherwise attested) and of Celina, daughter of the Bishop of Soissons, which Clovis had conquered in 486. He studied at Reims and soon became so noted for his learning and sanctity, and his high status, that he was elected Bishop of Reims at age 21, though still a layman. He was both Lord Chancellor of France and Référendaire of France.  The story of the return of the sacred vessels (most notably the Vase of Soissons), which had been stolen from the church of Soissons, testifies to the friendly relations existing between him and Clovis, King of the Franks, whom he converted to Christianity with the assistance of Saint Vedast (Vedastus, Vaast, Waast) and Saint Clotilde, the Burgundian princess who was wife to Clovis. Even before he embraced Christianity, Clovis had showered benefits upon Remigius and the Christians of Reims, and after his victory over the Alamanni in the battle of Tolbiac (probably 496), he requested Remigius to baptize him at Reims (December 25, 496) in the presence of a large company of Franks and Alamanni; according to Saint Gregory of Tours, 3,000 Franks were baptized with Clovis.  King Clovis granted Remigius stretches of territory, in which Remigius established and endowed many churches. He erected bishoprics at Tournai; Cambrai; Thérouanne, where he personally ordained the first bishop in 499; Arras, where he installed St. Vedast; and Laon, which he gave to his niece's husband Gunband. In 530 he consecrated Medardus, Bishop of Noyon. Remigius' brother Principius was Bishop of Soissons and also corresponded with Sidonius Apollinaris, whose letters give a sense of the highly cultivated courtly literary Gallo-Roman style all three men shared. The chroniclers of \"\"Gallia Christiana\"\" record that numerous donations were made to Remigius by the Frankish nobles, which he presented to the cathedral at Reims.  Though Remigius never attended any of the church councils, in 517 he held a synod at Reims, at which after a heated discussion he converted a bishop of Arian views. Although Remigius's influence over people and prelates was extraordinary, upon one occasion his condoning of the offences of one Claudius, a priest whom Remigius had consecrated, brought upon him the rebukes of his episcopal brethren, who deemed Claudius deserving of degradation. The reply of Remigius, still extant, is able and convincing.  Few authentic works of Remigius remain: his \"\"Declamations\"\" were elaborately admired by Sidonius Apollinaris, in a finely turned letter to Remigius, but are now lost. Four letters survive: one containing his defence in the matter of Claudius, two written to Clovis, and a fourth to Bishop Falco of Tongeren. The \"\"Testament of Saint Remigius\"\" is apocryphal. A brief and strictly legendary \"\"Vita\"\" was formerly ascribed to Venantius Fortunatus. Another, according to Jacobus de Voragine, was written by Ignatius, bishop of Reims. A letter congratulating Pope Hormisdas upon his election (523) is apocryphal, and \"the letter in which Pope Hormisdas appears to have appointed him vicar of the kingdom of Clovis is proved to be spurious; it is presumed to have been an attempt of Hincmar to base his pretensions for the elevation of Reims to the primacy, following the alleged precedent of Remigius.\"  A Commentary on the Pauline Epistles (edited Villalpandus, 1699) is not his work, but that of Remigius of Auxerre.  Remigius' relics were kept in the Cathedral of Reims, whence Hincmar had them translated to Épernay during the Viking invasions and thence, in 1099 to the Abbey of Saint-Rémy. His feast is celebrated on October 1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remigius and the Holy Ampulla.", "content": "Remigius is known through the legend of the Baptism of the Moribund Pagan, according to which a dying pagan asked for baptism at the hands of Remigius, but when it was found that there was no Oil of the Catechumens or sacred Chrism available for the proper administration of the baptismal ceremony, Remigius ordered two empty vials be placed on an altar and as he prayed before them the two vials miraculously filled respectively with the necessary Oil of the Catechumens and Chrism.  Apparently when the sepulchre containing the body of Remigius was opened in the reign of Charles the Bald and while Hincmar was the Archbishop of Reims, two small vials were found, the contents of which gave off an aromatic scent the likes of which was like nothing known to those present. If one recalls that when Remigius died the ancient art of perfumery was still known and practiced in the collapsing Roman Empire, but was unknown in the Carolingian empire four hundred years later, these vials may have originally been bottles of unguents used to cover the scent of decay of Remigius’ corpse during his funeral. But the memory of the two vials miraculously filled in the story of the Baptism of the Moribund Pagan, and the unusual, seemingly otherworldly scents issuing from these two vials found buried with Remigius combined to suggest to those present that these two vials were the miraculously filled vials of the legend.  It should be remembered as well that it was not uncommon for chalices, patens, and other sacred vessels to be buried with high-ranking clergymen.  Hincmar adroitly combined the discovery of, the two vials, the legend of the Moribund Pagan and the historical memory that Saint Remigius had baptized Clovis, into the Legend of the Holy Ampulla (that contained the chrism used by Remigius when he baptized Clovis was miraculously supplied by heaven itself). Hincmar used the new legend to strengthen his claim that his own archepiscopal see of Reims (as the possessor of this heavenly sent chrism) should be recognized as the divinely chosen site for all subsequent anointings of French kings. The fate of the second vial is uncertain. It has been suggested that since in the original form of the legend this would have been the vial containing the Oil of the Catechumens and that the French coronation ordinals prescribe the Oil of the Catechumens, rather than Chrism, for the anointing of queens, it was subsequently used for anointing the queens of France It is possible that a vial currently identified by some of the Bourbon Legitimists as the Sainte Ampoulle is actually this second vial.  See also Frankish Chancellors.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Remigius, or ( – January 13, 533), was the Bishop of Reims and \"Apostle of the Franks\". On 25 December 496 he baptised Clovis I, King of the Franks. This baptism, leading to the conversion of the entire Frankish people to Christianity, was a momentous success for the Church and a seminal event in European history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973483}
{"src_title": "Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (United States)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Auditors took the leading role in developing GAAP for business enterprises.  Accounting standards have historically been set by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) subject to U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) regulations. The AICPA first created the Committee on Accounting Procedure in 1939 and replaced that with the Accounting Principles Board in 1959. In 1973, the Accounting Principles Board was replaced by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) under the supervision of the Financial Accounting Foundation with the Financial Accounting Standards Advisory Council serving to advise and provide input on the accounting standards. Other organizations involved in determining United States accounting standards include the Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB), formed in 1984; and the Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB), formed in 1990.  Circa 2008, the FASB issued the FASB Accounting Standards Codification, which reorganized the thousands of U.S. GAAP pronouncements into roughly 90 accounting topics.  In 2008, the Securities and Exchange Commission issued a preliminary \"roadmap\" that may lead the United States to abandon Generally Accepted Accounting Principles in the future, and to join more than 100 countries around the world instead in using the London-based International Financial Reporting Standards. As of 2010, the convergence project was underway with the FASB meeting routinely with the IASB. The SEC expressed their aim to fully adopt International Financial Reporting Standards in the U.S. by 2014. With the convergence of the U.S. GAAP and the international IFRS accounting systems, as the highest authority over International Financial Reporting Standards, the International Accounting Standards Board is becoming more important in the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Basic characteristic.", "content": "Financial reporting should provide information that is:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Required departures from GAAP.", "content": "Under the AICPA's Code of Professional Ethics under Rule 203 – Accounting Principles, a member must depart from GAAP if following it would lead to a material misstatement on the financial statements, or otherwise be misleading. In the departure, the member must disclose, if practical, the reasons why compliance with the accounting principle would result in a misleading financial statement. Under Rule 203-1-Departures from Established Accounting Principles, the departures are rare, and usually take place when there is new legislation, the evolution of new forms of business transactions, an unusual degree of materiality, or the existence of conflicting industry practices.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Involved in development.", "content": "These organizations influence the development of GAAP in the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Precedence of GAAP-setting authorities.", "content": "In the United States, GAAP derives, in order of importance, from:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Codification in Accounting – FASB Accounting Standards Codification.", "content": "The Codification is effective for interim and annual periods ending after September 15, 2009. All existing accounting standards documents are superseded as described in FASB Statement No. 168, The FASB Accounting Standards Codification and the Hierarchy of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. All other accounting literature not included in the Codification is nonauthoritative.  The Codification reorganizes the thousands of U.S. GAAP pronouncements into roughly 90 accounting topics and displays all topics using a consistent structure. It also includes relevant Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), guidance that follows the same topical structure in separate sections in the Codification.  To prepare users for the change, the AICPA has provided a number of tools and training resources.  While the Codification does not change GAAP, it introduces a new structure—one that is organized in an easily accessible, user-friendly online research system. The FASB expects that the new system will reduce the amount of time and effort required to research an accounting issue, mitigate the risk of noncompliance with standards through improved usability of the literature, provide accurate information with real-time updates as new standards are released, and assist the FASB with the research efforts required during the standard-setting process.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP or U.S. GAAP) is the accounting standard adopted by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). While the SEC previously stated that it intends to move from U.S. GAAP to the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), the latter differ considerably from GAAP and progress has been slow and uncertain. More recently, the SEC has acknowledged that there is no longer a push to move more U.S companies to IFRS so the two sets of standards will \"continue to coexist\" for the foreseeable future.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973484}
{"src_title": "Runlevel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Linux.", "content": "Although systemd is,, used by default in most major Linux distributions, runlevels can still be used through the means provided by the sysvinit project. After the Linux kernel has booted, the program reads the file to determine the behavior for each runlevel. Unless the user specifies another value as a kernel boot parameter, the system will attempt to enter (start) the default runlevel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Linux Standard Base specification.", "content": "Systems conforming to the Linux Standard Base (LSB) need not provide the exact run levels given here or give them the meanings described here, and may map any level described here to a different level which provides the equivalent functionality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Slackware Linux.", "content": "Slackware Linux uses runlevel 1 for maintenance, as on other Linux distributions; runlevels 2, 3 and 5 identically configured for a console (with all services active); and runlevel 4 adds the X Window System.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unix.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Solaris.", "content": "Starting from Solaris 10, SMF (Service Management Facility) is used instead of SVR4 run levels. The latter are emulated to preserve compatibility with legacy startup scripts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AIX.", "content": "AIX does not follow the System V R4 (SVR4) runlevel specification, with runlevels from 0 to 9 available, as well as from a to c (or h). 0 and 1 are reserved, 2 is the default normal multi-user mode and runlevels from 3 to 9 are free to be defined by the administrator. Runlevels from a to c (or h) allow the execution of processes in that runlevel without killing processes started in another.  The S, s, M and m runlevels are not true runlevels, but are used to tell the init command to enter maintenance mode. When the system enters maintenance mode from another runlevel, only the system console is used as the terminal.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A runlevel is a mode of operation in the computer operating systems that implement Unix System V-style initialization. Conventionally, seven runlevels exist, numbered from zero to six. \"S\" is sometimes used as a synonym for one of the levels. Only one runlevel is executed on startup; run levels are not executed one after another (i.e. only runlevel 2, 3, or 4 is executed, not more of them sequentially or in any other order).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973485}
{"src_title": "Column of Marcus Aurelius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "Because the original dedicatory inscription has been destroyed, it is not known whether it was built during the emperor’s reign (on the occasion of the triumph over the Marcomanni, Quadi and Sarmatians in the year 176) or after his death in 180; however, an inscription found in the vicinity attests that the column was completed by 193.  In terms of the topography of ancient Rome, the column stood on the north part of the Campus Martius, in the centre of a square. This square was either between the temple of Hadrian (probably the Hadrianeum) and the temple of Marcus Aurelius (dedicated by his son Commodus, of which nothing now remains – it was probably on the site of Palazzo Wedekind), or within the latter’s sacred precinct, of which nothing remains. Nearby is the site where the emperor’s cremation occurred.  The column’s shaft is high, on a high base, which in turn originally stood on a high platform – the column in total is About 3 metres of the base have been below ground level since the 1589 restoration.  The column consists of 27 or 28 blocks of Carrara marble, each of diameter, hollowed out whilst still at the quarry for a stairway of 190–200 steps within the column up to a platform at the top. Just as with Trajan’s Column, this stairway is illuminated through narrow slits into the relief.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relief.", "content": "The spiral picture relief tells the story of Marcus Aurelius' Danubian or Marcomannic wars, waged by him from 166 to his death. The story begins with the army crossing the river Danube, probably at Carnuntum. A Victory separates the accounts of two expeditions. The exact chronology of the events is disputed; however, the latest theory states that the expeditions against the Marcomanni and Quadi in the years 172 and 173 are in the lower half and the successes of the emperor over the Sarmatians in the years 174 and 175 in the upper half.  One particular episode portrayed is historically attested in Roman propaganda – the so-called \"rain miracle in the territory of the Quadi\", in which a god, answering a prayer from the emperor, rescues Roman troops by a terrible storm, a miracle later claimed by the Christians for the Christian God.  In spite of many similarities to Trajan's column, the style is entirely different, a forerunner of the dramatic style of the 3rd century and closely related to the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus, erected soon after. The figures' heads are disproportionately large so that the viewer can better interpret their facial expressions. The images are carved less finely than at Trajan's Column, through drilling holes more deeply into the stone, so that they stand out better in a contrast of light and dark. As villages are burned down, women and children are captured and displaced, men are killed, the emotion, despair, and suffering of the \"barbarians\" in the war, are represented acutely in single scenes and in the figures' facial expressions and gestures, whilst the emperor is represented as protagonist, in control of his environment.  The symbolic language is altogether clearer and more expressive, if clumsier at first sight, and leaves a wholly different impression on the viewer to the whole artistic style of 100 to 150 as on Trajan's column. There, cool and sober balance – here, drama and empathy. The pictorial language is unambiguous – imperial dominance and authority is emphasised, and its leadership is justified. Overall, it is an anticipation of the development of artistic style into late antiquity, and a first artistic expression of the crisis of the Roman empire that would worsen in the 3rd century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later history.", "content": "In the Middle Ages, climbing the column was so popular that the right to charge the entrance fee was annually auctioned, but it is no longer possible to do so today. Now the Column serves a centrepiece to the piazza in front of the Palazzo Chigi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restoration.", "content": "About three metres of the base have been below ground level since 1589 when, by order of pope Sixtus V, the whole column was restored by Domenico Fontana and adapted to the ground level of that time. Also a bronze statue of the apostle St. Paul was placed on the top platform, to go with that of St. Peter on Trajan's Column (27 October 1588). (Originally the top platform probably had a statue of Marcus Aurelius, but it had been already lost by the 16th century.) That adaptation also removed the damaged or destroyed original reliefs on the base of garland-carrying victories and (on the side facing the via Flaminia ) representations of subjected barbarians, replacing them with the following inscription mistakenly calling this the column of Antoninus Pius, which is now recognised as lost:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Column of Marcus Aurelius (, ) is a Roman victory column in Piazza Colonna, Rome, Italy. It is a Doric column featuring a spiral relief: it was built in honour of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius and modeled on Trajan's Column.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973486}
{"src_title": "Te Deum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Authorship is traditionally ascribed to Saint Ambrose (d. 397) or Saint Augustine (d. 430). In 19th-century scholarship, Saints Hilary of Poitiers (d. 367) and Nicetas of Remesiana (d. 414) were proposed as possible authors. In the 20th century, the association with Nicetas has been deprecated, so that the hymn, while almost certainly dating to the 4th century, is considered as being of uncertain authorship. Authorship of Nicetas of Remesiana was suggested by the association of the name \"Nicetas\" with the hymn in manuscripts from the 10th century onward, and was particularly defended in the 1890s by Germain Morin. Hymnologists of the 20th century, especially Ernst Kähler (1958), have shown the association with \"Nicetas\" to be spurious. It has structural similarities with a eucharistic prayer and it has been proposed that it was originally composed as part of one.  The hymn was part of the Old Hymnal since it was introduced to the Benedictine order in the 6th century, and it was preserved in the Frankish Hymnal of the 8th century. It was, however, removed from the New Hymnal which became prevalent in the 10th century. It was restored in the 12th century in hymnals that attempted to restore the praiseful intent of the rule of St. Benedict.  In the traditional office, the \"Te Deum\" is sung at the end of Matins on all days when the Gloria is said at Mass; those days are all Sundays outside Advent, Septuagesima, Lent, and Passiontide; on all feasts (except the Triduum) and on all ferias during Eastertide.  Before the 1961 reforms of Pope John XXIII, neither the Gloria nor the Te Deum were said on the feast of the Holy Innocents, unless it fell on Sunday, as they were martyred before the death of Christ and therefore could not immediately attain the beatific vision.  In the Liturgy of the Hours of Pope Paul VI, the \"Te Deum\" is sung at the end of the Office of Readings on all Sundays except those of Lent, on all solemnities, on the octaves of Easter and Christmas, and on all feasts. A plenary indulgence is granted, under the usual conditions, to those who recite it in public on New Year's Eve.  It is also used together with the standard canticles in Morning Prayer as prescribed in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, in Matins for Lutherans, and is retained by many churches of the Reformed tradition.  The hymn is in regular use in the Catholic Church, Lutheran Church, Anglican Church and Methodist Church (mostly before the Homily) in the Office of Readings found in the Liturgy of the Hours, and in thanksgiving to God for a special blessing such as the election of a pope, the consecration of a bishop, the canonization of a saint, a religious profession, the publication of a treaty of peace, a royal coronation, etc. It is sung either after Mass or the Divine Office or as a separate religious ceremony. The hymn also remains in use in the Anglican Communion and some Lutheran Churches in similar settings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Text.", "content": "The petitions at the end of the hymn (beginning \"Salvum fac populum tuum\") are a selection of verses from the book of Psalms, appended subsequently to the original hymn.  The hymn follows the outline of the Apostles' Creed, mixing a poetic vision of the heavenly liturgy with its declaration of faith. Calling on the name of God immediately, the hymn proceeds to name all those who praise and venerate God, from the hierarchy of heavenly creatures to those Christian faithful already in heaven to the Church spread throughout the world.  The hymn then returns to its credal formula, naming Christ and recalling his birth, suffering and death, his resurrection and glorification. At this point the hymn turns to the subjects declaiming the praise, both the universal Church and the singer in particular, asking for mercy on past sins, protection from future sin, and the hoped-for reunification with the elect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "The text has been set to music by many composers, with settings by Haydn, Mozart, Berlioz, Verdi, Bruckner, Furtwängler, Dvořák, Britten, Kodály, and Pärt among the better known. Jean-Baptiste Lully wrote a setting of Te Deum for the court of Louis XIV of France, and received a fatal injury while conducting it. Michel Richard de Lalande wrote a setting of \"Te Deum\" S.32. The prelude to Marc-Antoine Charpentier's setting (H.146) is well known in Europe on account of its being used as the theme music for Eurovision network broadcasts of the European Broadcasting Union, most notably the Eurovision Song Contest and \"Jeux Sans Frontières\". He wrote also 3 other settings of Te Deum, H 145, H 147, H148. Henry Desmarets, 2 settings of Te Deum (1687). Louis-Nicolas Clérambault wrote 3 settings of \"Te Deum\" C.135, C.136, C.155. Earlier it had been used as the theme music for Bud Greenspan's documentary series, \"The Olympiad\". Sir William Walton's \"Coronation Te Deum\" was written for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. Other English settings include those by Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Henry Purcell, Edward Elgar, and Herbert Howells, as well as five settings by George Frideric Handel and three settings by Charles Villiers Stanford.  Puccini's opera \"Tosca\" features a dramatic performance of the initial part of the \"Te Deum\" at the end of Act I.  The traditional chant melody was the basis for elaborate \"Te Deum\" compositions by notable French composer organists, Louis Marchand, Guillaume Lasceux, Charles Tournemire (1930), Jean Langlais (1934), and Jeanne Demessieux (1958), which are still widely performed today.  A version by Father Michael Keating is popular in some Charismatic circles. Mark Hayes wrote a setting of the text in 2005, with Latin phrases interpolated amid primarily English lyrics. In 1978, British hymnodist Christopher Idle wrote \"God We Praise You\", a version of the text in 8.7.8.7.D meter, set to the tune \"Rustington\". British composer John Rutter has composed two settings of this hymn, one entitled \"Te Deum\" and the other \"Winchester Te Deum\". Igor Stravinsky set the first 12 lines of the text as part of \"The Flood\" in 1962. Antony Pitts was commissioned by the London Festival of Contemporary Church Music to write a setting for the 2011 10th Anniversary Festival. The 18th-century German hymn \"Großer Gott, wir loben dich\" is a free translation of the Te Deum, which was translated into English in the 19th century as \"Holy God, We Praise Thy Name.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Latin and English text.", "content": "\"In the Book of Common Prayer, verse is written in half-lines, at which reading pauses, indicated by colons in the text.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "A Te Deum service is a short religious service, based upon the singing of the hymn, held to give thanks. In Sweden, for example, it may be held in the Royal Chapel in connection with the birth of a Prince or Princess, christenings, milestone birthdays, jubilees and other important events within the Royal Family of Sweden. In Luxembourg, a service is held annually in the presence of the Grand-Ducal Family to celebrate the Grand Duke's Official Birthday, which is also the nation's national day, on either 23 or 24 June. it is also very common to be held in some South American countries such as Argentina, Chile, Peru etc.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Te Deum (, from its incipit, \"Te Deum laudamus\" \"Thee, O God, we praise\") is a Latin Christian hymn written in 387 A.D. It is central to the Ambrosian hymnal, which spread throughout the Latin Church with other parts of the Milanese Rite in the 6th to 8th centuries, and it is sometimes known as \"the Ambrosian Hymn\" although authorship by Saint Ambrose is unlikely. The term \"Te Deum\" can also refer to a short religious service (of blessing or thanks) based upon the hymn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973487}
{"src_title": "Alvin Kraenzlein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Kraenzlein was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, a son of Johann Georg Kränzlein, a brewer, and Maria Augusta Schmidt, both of a German origin. After his family moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, he attended the Milwaukee's East Side High School, where he became involved in sports. In 1895, during the Wisconsin Interscholastic Championships, he won first places in the 100-yard dash, 120-yard high hurdles, 220-yard low hurdles, high jump, and shot put.  He attended the University of Wisconsin where he studied engineering. In 1896, he won the 220-yard low hurdles, the high jump and placed second in the 100-yard dash and shot put at the freshman-sophomore track-and-field meet. During the 1897 Intercollegiate Athletic Conference Championship, Kraenzlein won the 220-yard low hurdles and the high jump. He led the Wisconsin team to the team title. He also won the 1897 Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) title in the 220-yard low hurdles. In 1897 Alvin Kraenzlein set an indoor world record of 36.6 seconds in the 300-yard low hurdles.  In 1898, after being recruited by Mike Murphy, the University of Pennsylvania track-and-field coach, he moved to Philadelphia, where he studied at the Dental School and graduated in 1900.  After winning his first athletics title in 1897 - the 220 yards hurdles race at the AAU championship, Kraenzlein achieved more notability by winning five AAU titles in both hurdling and long jump events, and eight Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletes of America titles in dash, hurdling and the long jump. Being a student at the University of Philadelphia, he established world records for the 120 metres high hurdles and the 220 metres low hurdles, the last standing for quarter of a century. In 1899, Kraenzlein established the long jump world record of 24' 3 1/2\". He was a leader of the Penn's track-and-field team that won four consecutive team IC4A titles.  Kraenzlein was especially noted for his hurdling technique, as he was among the first to practice the modern method of straight-lead-leg (the first leg over the hurdle remains straight and parallel with the ground) hurdle clearing. Arthur C. M. Croome from Great Britain first attempted the straight-lead-leg style in 1886, however, Alvin Kraenzlein perfected it and turned into a mainstream technique. This was a significant development, as it enabled athletes to overcome the hurdles without reducing speed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The world's spotlight.", "content": "In 1900, Kraenzlein was training for the Summer Olympics in England. He won the British Amateur Athletic Association (BAAA) Championships in London in the 120 yards hurdles and the long jump before entering the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris. He established a world record in the 120 yards hurdles for grass tracks.  Alvin Kraenzlein became the most successful athlete of the 1900 Olympics. There, during three days of competitions he won four titles establishing new Olympic record every time:  In the 60 metres, he ran both the preliminary and final in 7.0 seconds, defeating Walter Tewksbury by bare inches in the finals. His victory in the long jump was remarkable, as Kraenzlein defeated silver medallist Meyer Prinstein, his great rival from Syracuse University, only by a single centimetre. Prinstein's mark had been set in the qualification, and he did not attend the final, because it was held on a Sunday. As it was said, the two had an informal agreement not to compete on Sunday, and when Prinstein learned that Kraenzlein did show up he became violent, allegedly punching Kraenzlein according to some accounts (others claim that Prinstein was restrained before he could land the punch).  Altogether, thirteen student athletes from the University of Pennsylvania competed in the track events in Paris. They distinguished themselves with twenty medals including eleven gold awards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching.", "content": "After the 1900 Olympic Games, Kraenzlein retired from athletic competition in late 1900, as the owner of six world and four Olympic records. He came back to Milwaukee and started a dental practice. Kraenzlein also became a manager of the Milwaukee Athletic Association. In 1902, having returned to Philadelphia, he married Claudine Gilman, whom he knew from the student days. He practiced dentistry in Philadelphia till 1906 when he became the track-and-field coach at Mercersburg Academy, a selective prep school in Pennsylvania. Amongst his students was Ralph Craig, a future Olympic titleholder in both the 100 and 200 metres in 1912 Olympic Games.  In 1910–1913 he was the head track-and-field and football coach (in 1910–1911) at the University of Michigan.  In 1913 he signed a five-year $50,000 contract with the German government to train the 1916 German Olympic track team (this was cancelled due to the outbreak of World War I). With World War I coming, Kraenzlein served in the U.S. Army as a physical training specialist. When the war ended, he became an assistant coach for the University of Pennsylvania track team. He also coached at summer camps and at the Havana Golf and Tennis Club in Cuba in the winter.  In late 1927, he became afflicted with bouts of pleurisy. Alvin Kraenzlein died early 1928 of endocarditis in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alvin Christian \"Al\" Kraenzlein (December 12, 1876 – January 6, 1928), known as \"the father of the modern hurdling technique\", was an American track-and-field athlete, and the first sportsman in the history of Olympic games to win four individual gold medals in a single discipline at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris. Before, Carl Schuhmann, a German athlete, won four Olympic titles in gymnastics and wrestling at the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens., Alvin Kraenzlein is the only track-and-field athlete who has won four individual titles at one Olympics. Kraenzlein is also known for developing a pioneering technique of straight-leg hurdling, which allowed him to set two world hurdle records. He is an Olympic Hall of Fame (1984) and USA Track & Field (1974) inductee.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973488}
{"src_title": "Gusev, Kaliningrad Oblast", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The settlement of Gumbinnen (from : pumpkin) in the Duchy of Prussia was first mentioned in a 1580 deed. A Protestant parish was established in Gumbinnen at the behest of the Hohenzollern thanks to Duke Albert of Prussia about 1545 and the first church was erected in 1582. Gumbinnen became part of Brandenburg-Prussia in 1618.  Between 1709 and 1711 the area was devastated by the Great Northern War plague outbreak and had to be redeveloped under the rule of the \"Soldier King\" Frederick William I of Prussia, who granted Gumbinnen town privileges in 1724 and from 1732 resettled the area with Salzburg Protestants, refugees from Salzburg, who had been expelled by Prince-Archbishop Count Leopold Anton von Firmian. The first filial church of the Salzburg Protestants was erected between 1752 and 1752, and was rebuilt in 1840 in a Neoclassical style according to plans designed by Karl Friedrich Schinkel. The church was restored in 1995 by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Central Asia.  From 1815, Gumbinnen was the capital of Regierungsbezirk Gumbinnen, an administrative district of the Province of East Prussia, and became part of the German Empire upon the unification of Germany in 1871. In 1860 the Prussian State railway line from Königsberg to Stallupönen (now Nesterov) was built and the route passed through Gumbinnen, causing the town to grow in economic importance in the region. By the end of the 19th century, Gumbinnen had a foundry, a machine shop, a furniture factory, a clothing mill, two sawmills, several brickworks, and a dairy.  During World War I the town was the site of the Battle of Gumbinnen, a major battle on the Eastern Front. The battle took place nearby in the opening days of the war in August 1914, and Gumbinnen was subsequently occupied by the Russian Imperial Army for several months. After the war, a power plant, the Ostpreußenwerk, was built in Gumbinnen and powered much of East Prussia. At the beginning of the Nazi era, Gumbinnen was designated a military sub-region of the Königsberg military area. Near the end of World War II, in 1944, the first of Gumbinnen's 24,000 residents began to flee from the advancing Red Army, and a Soviet air attack on October 16, 1944, caused heavy damage to the inner town area. On October 22, 1944, the town was taken by Soviet forces, who engaged in numerous vengeful atrocities against the civilian population before the Wehrmacht retook the town two days later. Although the German forces retook Gumbinnen and managed in late October to stabilize the battle line east of the town, it was quickly re-conquered by the Red Army during the great Soviet East Prussia offensive on 21 January 1945. During the Evacuation of East Prussia, the surviving German residents fled or were forcibly expelled.  Following the end of the war, under border changes promulgated at the Potsdam Conference in 1945, the northern part of East Prussia became a part of the Soviet Union, including Gumbinnen. The town was renamed Gusev, in honour of a Red Army captain, Sergei Ivanovich Gusev, who was killed in action near Gumbinnen in January 1945, and was posthumously given the award of Hero of the Soviet Union on April 19, 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Gusev serves as the administrative center of Gusevsky District. As an administrative division, it is incorporated within Gusevsky District as the town of district significance of Gusev.  Within the framework of municipal divisions, since June 10, 2013, the territories of the town of district significance of Gusev and of four rural okrugs of Gusevsky District are incorporated as Gusevsky Urban Okrug. Before that, the town of district significance was incorporated within Gusevsky Municipal District as Gusevskoye Urban Settlement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Gusev lies on the double-track, broad-gauge rail line connecting the Kaliningrad Oblast exclave through Lithuania and Belarus with the main contiguous territory of Russia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Yantar Special Economic Zone.", "content": "In the 1990s the Yantar Special Economic Zone was established in Kaliningrad Oblast. Some of projects in the zone are located in Gusev, such as NPO CTS.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Gusev is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gusev (), previously known by its German name (; ), is a town and the administrative center of Gusevsky District of Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located at the confluence of the Pissa and Krasnaya Rivers, near the border with Poland and Lithuania, east of Chernyakhovsk. Population figures:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973489}
{"src_title": "Detergent", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Detergent\" is borrowed from the Latin verb \"detergere\", which is a compound of \"de\", \"away from\", and \"tergere\", \"to wipe\". In the English language, it was used as an adjective, \"detergent\", in the 17th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical classifications of detergents.", "content": "Detergents are classified into three broad groupings, depending on the electrical charge of the surfactants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anionic detergents.", "content": "Typical anionic detergents are alkylbenzenesulfonates. The alkylbenzene portion of these anions is lipophilic and the sulfonate is hydrophilic. Two different varieties have been popularized, those with branched alkyl groups and those with linear alkyl groups. The former were largely phased out in economically advanced societies because they are poorly biodegradable. An estimated 6 billion kilograms of anionic detergents are produced annually for domestic markets.  Bile acids, such as deoxycholic acid (DOC), are anionic detergents produced by the liver to aid in digestion and absorption of fats and oils.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cationic detergents.", "content": "Cationic detergents are similar to the anionic ones, with a hydrophilic component, but, instead of the anionic sulfonate group, the cationic surfactants have quaternary ammonium as the polar end. The ammonium sulfate center is positively charged.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Non-ionic and zwitter ionic detergents.", "content": "Non-ionic detergents are characterized by their uncharged, hydrophilic headgroups. Typical non-ionic detergents are based on polyoxyethylene or a glycoside. Common examples of the former include Tween, Triton, and the Brij series. These materials are also known as ethoxylates or PEGylates and their metabolites, nonylphenol. Glycosides have a sugar as their uncharged hydrophilic headgroup. Examples include octyl thioglucoside and maltosides. HEGA and MEGA series detergents are similar, possessing a sugar alcohol as headgroup.  Zwitterionic detergents possess a net zero charge arising from the presence of equal numbers of +1 and −1 charged chemical groups. Examples include CHAPS.  See surfactants for more applications.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In World War I, there was a shortage of oils. Synthetic detergents were first made in Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major applications of detergents.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Household cleaning.", "content": "One of the largest applications of detergents is for household and shop cleaning including dish washing and washing laundry. The formulations are complex, reflecting the diverse demands of the application and the highly competitive consumer market.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fuel additives.", "content": "Both carburetors and fuel injector components of Otto engines benefit from detergents in the fuels to prevent fouling. Concentrations are about 300 ppm. Typical detergents are long-chain amines and amides such as polyisobuteneamine and polyisobuteneamide/succinimide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biological reagent.", "content": "Reagent grade detergents are employed for the isolation and purification of integral membrane proteins found in biological cells. Solubilization of cell membrane bilayers requires a detergent that can enter the inner membrane monolayer. Advancements in the purity and sophistication of detergents have facilitated structural and biophysical characterization of important membrane proteins such as ion channels also the disrupt membrane by binding lipopolysaccharide, transporters, signaling receptors, and photosystem II.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleansing properties in dilute solutions. These substances are usually alkylbenzene sulfonates, a family of compounds that are similar to soap but are more soluble in hard water, because the polar sulfonate (of detergents) is less likely than the polar carboxylate (of soap) to bind to calcium and other ions found in hard water.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973490}
{"src_title": "Zwentibold", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Zwentibold was born during the long reign of his great-grandfather, King Louis the German in East Francia. He was the first-born, yet illegitimate, son of Arnulf of Carinthia (d. 899) and his concubine Vinburga. Zwentibold's father himself was an illegitimate son of Carloman of Bavaria, the eldest son of King Louis. After the king's death in 876, Carloman ruled over the East Frankish territory of Bavaria and ceded the adjacent marches of Pannonia and Carinthia (former Carantania) to his son Arnulf. In 887 Arnulf succeeded the incapable King Charles the Fat as King of East Francia. He was named \"Zwentibold\" after his godfather Svatopluk, ruler of Great Moravia.  When Zwentibold came of age, he intervened in the scramble for the throne in West Francia (France) between Count Odo of Paris and Charles the Simple, but they began to cooperate against Zwentibold, when it became apparent that he intended to become king of West Francia himself. The eldest son of Arnulf was at first marked out for his succession in East Francia. According to the 870 Treaty of Meerssen and the 880 Treaty of Ribemont, the Lotharingian kingdom of former Middle Francia had fallen to the East Frankish realm. When in 893 King Arnulf's wife Ota gave birth to his legitimate son and successor Louis the Child, Zwentibold in compensation received the Lotharingian royal title, which last had been held by Lothair II.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "King of Lotharingia.", "content": "In the summer of 893 Arnulf, received pleas of intervention against [emperor] Wido of Spoleto from pope Formosus and Berengar of Friuli, king of Italy. He sent Zwentibold down the Brenner Pass with an army who joined forces with Berengar in Verona. The two marched to Wido's capital, Pavia, and besieged it unsuccessfully, finally abandoning the siege. According to Liutprand of Cremona, Zwentibold accepted money from Wido in order to leave, although it is not clear if it was in the form of a personal bribe or a tribute to his father. Zwentibold's retreat was nonetheless seen as a failure, but after learning details of the campaign, Arnulf summoned a stronger army and personally led it to Italy and took Pavia a few months later.  As a part of the plans to integrate Lotharingia into the East Frankish realm, the rule of King Zwentibold was enforced by his father, supported by the archbishops Herman I of Cologne and Ratbod of Trier, against the resistance of the local nobility. As he helped the common population too much, he began to be hated in a few years. He was fighting unruly nobles when his father Arnulf died in 899 and the legitimate son Louis the Child became king of East Francia at the age of six.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Zwentibold attempted to take advantage of the succession of his minor half-brother to establish complete independence for his Lotharingian kingdom. However, after he had lost his father's backing, the entire nobility supported Louis and asked him to intervene. In 900, Count Reginar I of Hainault rose against Zwentibold and slew him near present-day Susteren.  After Zwentibold's death, his half-brother King Louis the Child of East Francia also ruled over Lotharingia. However, under his reign the East Frankish realm disintegrated and from 903 Zwentibold's kingdom was administered by the Lahngau Count Gebhard, a scion of the Conradine dynasty, who received the title of a Duke of Lorraine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Zwentibold was named after his godfather, King Svatopluk I of Great Moravia (Zwentibold being a Frankish transcription of Svatopluk). In 897, he married Oda, a daughter of Duke Otto I of Saxony. His mortal remains are buried at Susteren Abbey. He had three daughters, who are mentioned in the \"Gesta episcoporum Leodensium\":", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zwentibold (\"Zventibold\", \"Zwentibald\", \"Swentiboldo\", \"Sventibaldo\", \"Sanderbald\"; – 13 August 900), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was the illegitimate son of Emperor Arnulf. In 895, his father, then king of East Francia, granted him the Kingdom of Lotharingia, which he ruled until his death. After his death he was declared a saint and martyr by the Catholic Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973491}
{"src_title": "Goliath tracked mine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "During and after World War I, a number of inventors devised small, remote-controlled, tracked vehicles intended to carry an explosive charge. During the war, the French developed two vehicles. The \"Crocodile Schneider Torpille Terrestre\" or Land Torpedo Crocodile Schneider carried a 40-kilogram (88 lb) explosive charge and saw limited combat use in June 1916. However, it performed poorly and was eclipsed by the first tanks, then being introduced. The \"Aubriot-Gabet Torpille Electrique\" was driven by a single electric motor powered by a trailing cable. This vehicle may have been steered by clutch control on its tracks, although early versions may have lacked steering. This may not have mattered as its task was simply to cross No man's land to attack the long trenches of the enemy. The \"Wickersham Land Torpedo\" was patented by American inventor Elmer Wickersham in 1918 and in the 1930s, a similar vehicle was developed by the French vehicle designer Adolphe Kégresse.  In late 1940, Kégresse's prototype was recovered by the Germans near the Seine; the Wehrmacht's ordnance office directed the Carl F.W. Borgward automotive company of Bremen, Germany to develop a similar vehicle for the purpose of carrying a minimum of 50 kilograms (110 lb) of explosives. The result was the SdKfz. 302 (\"Sonderkraftfahrzeug\", ‘special-purpose vehicle’), called the \"Leichter Ladungsträger\" (‘light charge carrier’), or Goliath, which carried 60 kilograms (130 lb) of explosives. The vehicle was steered remotely via a joystick control box. The control box was connected to the Goliath by a, triple-strand cable attached to the rear of the vehicle. The cable was used both for control and for transmitting power to the electric driven version. Two of the strands were used to move and steer the Goliath, while the third was used for detonation. Each Goliath was disposable, being intended to be blown up with its target. Early model Goliaths used an electric motor but, as these were costly to make (3,000 \"Reichsmarks\") and difficult to repair in a combat environment, later models (known as the SdKfz. 303) used a simpler, more reliable gasoline engine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "Goliaths were used on all fronts where the Wehrmacht fought, beginning in early 1942. They were used principally by specialized Panzer and combat engineer units. Goliaths were used at Anzio in Italy in April 1944, and against the Polish resistance during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. A few Goliaths were also seen on the beaches of Normandy during D-Day, though most were rendered inoperative due to artillery blasts severing their command cables. Allied troops also encountered a small number of Goliaths in the Maritime Alps following the landings in southern France in August 1944, with at least one being used successfully against a vehicle of the 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion.  Although a total of 7,564 Goliaths were produced, the single-use weapon was not considered a success due to high unit cost, low speed (just above ), poor ground clearance (just 11.4 centimetres), the vulnerable control cable, and thin armour which could not protect the vehicle from small-arms fire. The Goliath was also too big and heavy to be easily man-portable. Mostly, they failed to reach their target although the effect was considerable when they did.  Large numbers of Goliaths were captured by the Allies. Although they were examined with interest by Allied intelligence, they were seen as having little military value. Some were used by the United States Army Air Force as aircraft tugs, although they quickly broke down as the disposable vehicles were not designed for sustained use.  The Goliath did help lay the foundation for post-war advances in remote-controlled vehicle technologies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romanian version.", "content": "During 1944, Romania designed and built its own model of remote-controlled tracked mine, known as \"Romanian Goliath\", due to lack of information about its actual name. However, it was markedly different from its German counterpart. The few surviving photos show that the vehicle had no armour, and it is not known if that was ever changed. It did have some logistical improvements, however, as the Romanian-designed chassis allowed it to cross trenches and craters much better than its German counterparts. Little is known about the vehicle, aside from that it never went beyond the prototype stage and that it weighed about two tonnes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving examples.", "content": "Surviving Goliaths are preserved at:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes.", "content": "Defence against the German Goliath was re-enacted in the 1957 Polish film \"Kanał\", documenting the final days of the Warsaw Uprising, the TV series \"Kolumbowie\" and the 2014 film \"Warsaw 44\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Goliath tracked mine - complete German name: \"Leichter Ladungsträger Goliath\" (Goliath Light Charge Carrier) was a name given to two German Unmanned ground vehicles, disposable demolition vehicles, used during World War II. These were the electrically powered \"Sd.Kfz. 302\" and the petrol-engine powered \"Sd.Kfz. 303a\" and \"303b\". They were known as \"beetle tanks\" by the Allies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973492}
{"src_title": "Cefalù", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The city's Sicilian name is. It was named by the Greeks who settled it as \"Kephaloídion\" () or \"Kephaloidís\" (). These were latinized as \"Cephaloedium\" and \"Cephaloedis\". Under Arab rule, it was known as \"Gafludi\".  Under Carthaginian rule, it was known as \"Cape Melqart\" (, ), after the Tyrian god.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Of Greek foundation, the city evidently derived its name from its situation on a lofty and precipitous rock, forming a bold headland (, \"kephalḗ\", 'head') projecting into the sea. Despite the Greek origin of its name, no mention of it is found in the works of Thucydides, who expressly says that Himera was the only Greek colony on this coast of the island; it is probable that Cephaloedium was at this time merely a fortress (, \"phroúrion\") belonging to the Himeraeans and may very likely have been first peopled by refugees after the destruction of Himera. Its name first appears in history at the time of the Carthaginian expedition under Himilco, 396BC, when that general concluded a treaty with the Himeraeans and the inhabitants of Cephaloedium. But after the defeat of the Carthaginian armament, Dionysius the Elder made himself master of Cephaloedium, which was betrayed into his hands. At a later period we find it again independent, but apparently on friendly terms with the Carthaginians, on which account it was attacked and taken by Agathocles, 307BC. In the First Punic War it was reduced by the Roman fleet under Atilius Calatinus and Scipio Nasica, 254BC, but by treachery and not by force of arms. Cicero speaks of it as apparently a flourishing town, enjoying full municipal privileges; it was, in his time, one of the which paid the tithes of their corn in kind to the Roman state and suffered severely from the oppressions and exactions of Verres. It also minted coins. No subsequent mention of it is found in history, but it is noticed among the towns of Sicily by the geographers Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, and at a later period its name is still found in the itineraries.  After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the town remained part of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and the settlement was eventually moved from the plain to the current spur for defense, like many cities during the Byzantine era, as the Mediterranean was no longer solely controlled by the empire and was subject to Arab incursions. Nevertheless the old town was never entirely abandoned. In AD858, after a long siege, it was conquered by the Arabs. For the following two centuries it was part of the Emirate of Sicily.  In 1063, the Normans captured it. In 1131, Roger II, king of Sicily, transferred it from its almost inaccessible position to one at the foot of the rock, where there was a small but excellent harbor and began construction of the present Byzantine-style cathedral. In addition to Arabs the area was still inhabited by its original Greek speakers (today called Byzantine Greeks, then called Rûm i.e. 'Romans,' by the Arabs), and these Christians were then still members of the Byzantine (Greek Orthodox) church. Between the 13th century and 1451, it was under different feudal families, and then it became a possession of the bishops of Cefalù.  During the Risorgimento, the patriot Salvatore Spinuzza was shot here in 1857. Cefalù became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cathedral.", "content": "The Cathedral, begun in 1131, in a style of Norman architecture which would be more accurately called Sicilian Romanesque. The exterior is well preserved, and is largely decorated with interlacing pointed arches; the windows also are pointed. On each side of the façade is a massive tower of four stories. The round-headed Norman portal is worthy of note. A semi-circular apse is set into the east end wall. Its strengthening counterforts that work like buttresses, are shaped as paired columns to lighten their aspect. The groined vaulting of the roof is visible in the choir and the right transept, while the rest of the church has a wooden roof. Fine cloisters, coeval with the cathedral, adjoin it.  The interior of the cathedral was restored in 1559, though the pointed arches of the nave, borne by ancient granite columns, are still visible; and the only mosaics preserved are those of the apse and the last bay of the choir; they are remarkably fine specimens of the Byzantine art of the period (1148) and, though restored in 1859–62, have suffered much less than those at Palermo and Monreale from the process. The figure of the Pantocrator gracing the apse is especially noteworthy.  The cathedral is one of nine structures comprising the UNESCO World Heritage Site, Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Others.", "content": "Some remains of the ancient city are still visible, on the summit of the rock; but the nature of the site proves that it could never have been more than a small town, and probably owed its importance only to its almost impregnable position. Fazello speaks of the remains of the walls as still existing in his time, as well as those of a temple of Doric architecture, of which the foundations only are now visible. But the most curious monument still remaining of the ancient city is an edifice, consisting of various apartments, and having the appearance of a palace or domestic residence, but constructed wholly of large irregular blocks of limestone, in the style commonly called polygonal or Cyclopean. Rude mouldings approximating to those of the Doric order, are hewn on the face of the massive blocks. The doorways are of finely-cut stone, and of Greek type, and the date, though uncertain, cannot, from the careful jointing of the blocks, be very early. This building, which is almost unique of its kind, is the more remarkable, from its being the only example of this style of masonry, so common in Central Italy, which occurs in the island of Sicily. It is fully described and figured by Dr. Nott in the \"Annali dell'Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica\", for the year 1831 (vol. iii. p. 270-87).  On the summit of the promontory are extensive remains of a Saracenic castle. The town's fortifications formerly extended to the shore, on the side where the modern town now is, in the form of two long walls protecting the port. There are remains of a wall of massive rectangular blocks of stone at the modern Porta Garibaldi on the south.  Other sights include:  Not far from the town are the sanctuary of Gibilmanna and the Gibilmanna Observatory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The \"Breakfast at Tiffany's\" character Salvatore 'Sally' Tomato (\"notorious mafia-notorious Mafia-führer\") was \"believed to have been born in Cefalu\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cefalù (), the classical Cephaloedium (), is a city and comune in the Italian Metropolitan City of Palermo, located on the Tyrrhenian coast of Sicily about east of the provincial capital and west of Messina. The town, with its population of just under 14,000, is one of the major tourist attractions in the region. Despite its size, every year it attracts millions of tourists from all parts of Sicily and also, from all over Italy and Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973493}
{"src_title": "Gentiana lutea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Growth.", "content": "\"Gentiana lutea\" is an herbaceous perennial plant, growing to tall, with broad lanceolate to elliptic leaves long and broad. The flowers are yellow, with the corolla separated nearly to the base into 5–7 narrow petals. It grows in grassy alpine and sub-alpine pastures, usually on calcareous soils.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "\"Gentiana lutea\" is remarkable for the intense bitterness of the root and every part of the herbage. Before the introduction of hops, gentian was used occasionally in brewing.  Gentian root has a long history of use as an herbal bitter and is an ingredient of many proprietary medicines. The parts used include the dried, underground parts of the plant and the fresh, above-ground parts. The root, which can be over thick and has few branches, is harvested in the autumn and dried for later use. Caution should be exercised as to its use because it is endangered, and the closely related \"Centaurium erythraea\" shares many of its constituents and actions.  The name is a tribute to Gentius, an Illyrian king who was thought to have found out that the herb had tonic properties.  In veterinary pharmacopeia in the 1860s, gentian root or gentian radix was considered useful as a tonic and stomachic.  Extracts of gentian root can be found in the American soft drink Moxie, and its unique flavor is attributed to that fact. It is also used in France to produce a Limousin specialty liqueur and aperitif called, with plants gathered from the Auvergne area.  The European Gentian Association in Lausanne, Cercle Européen d'Etude des Gentianacées, has the objective to develop the knowledge and uses of yellow gentian and other species of Gentianaceae.  The \"Gentiana lutea\" is depicted on the reverse of the Albanian 2000 lekë banknote, issued in 2008. The note depicts king Gentius on its obverse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical constituents.", "content": "The bitter principles of gentian root are secoiridoid glycosides amarogentin and gentiopicrin. The former is one of the most bitter natural compounds known and is used as a scientific basis for measuring bitterness.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gentiana lutea, the great yellow gentian, is a species of gentian native to the mountains of central and southern Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973494}
{"src_title": "Austrian schilling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First schilling.", "content": "The schilling was established by the schilling Act (Schillingrechnungsgesetz) of December 20, 1924 at a rate of 1 schilling to 10,000 kronen and issued on March 1, 1925. The schilling was abolished in the wake of Germany's annexation of Austria in 1938, when it was exchanged at a rate of 2 German reichsmark to 3 schilling.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second schilling.", "content": "The schilling was reintroduced after World War II on November 30, 1945 by the Allied Military, who issued paper money (dated 1944) in denominations of 50 groschen up to 100 schilling. The exchange rate to the reichsmark was 1:1, limited to 150 schilling per person. The Nationalbank also began issuing schilling notes in 1945 and the first coins were issued in 1946.  With a second \"schilling\" law on November 21, 1947, new banknotes were introduced. The earlier notes could be exchanged for new notes at par for the first 150 schilling and at a rate of 1 new schilling for 3 old schillings thereafter. Coins were not affected by this reform. The currency stabilised in the 1950s, with the schilling being tied to the U.S. dollar at a rate of $1 = 26 schilling. Following the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, the schilling was initially tied to a basket of currencies and then, in July 1976, the schilling was coupled to the German mark.  Although the euro became the official currency of Austria in 1999, euro coins and notes were not introduced until 2002. Old schilling denominated coins and notes were phased out from circulation because of the introduction of the euro by 28 February of that year. Schilling banknotes and coins which were valid at the time of the introduction of the euro will indefinitely remain exchangeable for euros at any branch of the Oesterreichische Nationalbank.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coins.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First schilling.", "content": "In 1925, bronze 1 and 2 groschen, cupro-nickel 10 groschen, and silver and 1 schilling coins were introduced, followed by cupro-nickel 5 groschen issues in 1931. In 1934, cupro-nickel 50 groschen and 1 schilling were introduced, together with silver 5 schilling. Coins were issued until 1938.  Also issued gold and silver coins: 2 schillings (1937) – 64% silver, 5 schillings (1934) – 83% silver, 25 schillings (1926) – 90% gold, 100 schillings (1924) – 90% gold.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second schilling.", "content": "Between 1947 and 1952, coins in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 groschen; and 1, 2, and 5 schilling were introduced. The 2 and 50 groschen; 1, 2, and 5 schilling were struck in aluminium, as was the second type of 10 groschen coin. The 1 and 5 groschen and the first type of 10 groschen were in zinc, with the 20 groschen struck in aluminium-bronze. The 1 groschen was only struck in 1947, while the 20 groschen and 2 schilling coins were suspended from production in 1954 and 1952, respectively. In 1957, silver 10 schilling coins were introduced, followed in 1959 by aluminium-bronze 50 groschen and 1 schilling, and in 1960 by silver 5 schilling coins. Thus, the 5 schilling coins went from an aluminium composition to a silver one, a highly unusual event made possible by the substantial improvement of the Austrian economy in the 1950s. Cupro-nickel replaced silver in the 5 and 10 schilling coins in 1969 and 1974, respectively. An aluminium-bronze 20 schilling coin was introduced in 1980.  Silver coins were in the value of 25, 50, 100, 200 and 500 schilling, but gold coins also existed for 500 and 1,000 schilling. They were considered legal currency, but were rarely found in actual transactions.  At the time of the changeover to the euro, the coins in circulation were the following. Coins under 10 groschen were rarely seen in circulation during their final years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Banknotes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First schilling.", "content": "In 1925, the Oesterreichische Nationalbank issued notes in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 20, 100 and 1,000 \"Schillinge\" (note the different spelling of the plural on this first 1925-series of notes).  In 1927–1929 a second series was added with 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 schilling notes. The one schilling was substituted by a coin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second schilling.", "content": "In 1945, the Allies introduced notes (dated 1944) in denominations of 50 groschen, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 100 and 1,000 schilling. The Oesterreichische Nationalbank also introduced notes in 1945, in denominations of 10, 20, 100 and 1,000 schilling and the allied currency with small values up to 5 schilling remained valid until 1947. With the banknote reform of 1947, new notes were issued in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 1,000 schilling. Until 1957, the first 500 schilling banknote was issued and the 5 and 10 schilling notes were replaced by coins. However, although 20 schilling coins were issued from 1980, the 20 schilling note continued to be produced, with 5,000 schilling notes added in 1988.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The schilling (German: \"Schilling\") was the currency of Austria from 1925 to 1938 and from 1945 to 1999, and the circulating currency until 2002. The euro was introduced at a fixed parity of €1 = 13.7603 schilling to replace it. The schilling was divided into 100 groschen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973495}
{"src_title": "Slovak Greek Catholic Church", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Since the unanimous acceptance of the Union of Uzhhorod on the territory that includes present day eastern Slovakia in 1646, the history of the Slovak Greek Catholic Church was intertwined with that of the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church for a period of several centuries. At the end of World War I, most Greek Catholic Ruthenians and Slovaks were included within the territory of Czechoslovakia, including two eparchies, Prešov and Mukačevo. The eparchy of Prešov, created on September 22, 1818, was removed in 1937 from the jurisdiction of the Hungarian primate and subjected directly to the Holy See, while the 21 parishes of the eparchy of Prešov that were in Hungary were formed into the new exarchate of Miskolc.  After World War II, the eparchy of Mukačevo in Transcarpathia was annexed by the Soviet Union, thus the eparchy of Prešov included all the Greek Catholics that remained in Czechoslovakia. After communists seized the country in April 1950, a \"synod\" was convoked at Prešov, at which five priests and a number of laymen signed a document declaring that the union with Rome was disbanded and asking to be received into the jurisdiction of the Moscow Patriarchate, later the Orthodox Church of Czechoslovakia. Greek Catholic bishop Blessed Pavel Petro Gojdič of Prešov along with his auxiliary, Blessed Basil Hopko, were imprisoned and bishop Gojdič died in prison in 1960.  During the Prague Spring in 1968, the former Greek Catholic parishes were allowed to restore communion with Rome. Of the 292 parishes involved, 205 voted in favor. This was one of the few reforms by Dubček that survived the Soviet invasion the same year. However, most of their church buildings remained in the hands of Orthodox Church.  After communism was overthrown in the 1989 Velvet Revolution, Church property was gradually returned to the Slovak Greek Catholic Church. This process was almost completed by 1993, the year after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. For Greek Catholics in the Czech Republic, a separate Apostolic Vicariate was created, elevated in 1996 to an exarchate thus forming the Apostolic Exarchate in the Czech Republic (now considered part of Ruthenian Catholic Church); the 2007 \"Annuario Pontificio\" indicated that it had by then grown to having 177,704 faithful, 37 priests and 25 parishes.  In Slovakia itself, Pope John Paul II created an Apostolic Exarchate of Košice in 1997. Pope Benedict XVI raised this to the level of an Eparchy on January 30, 2008 and at the same time erected the new Byzantine-rite Eparchy of Bratislava. He also raised Prešov to the level of a metropolitan see, constituting the Slovak Greek Catholic Church as a \"sui iuris\" metropolitan Church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Slovakia: Canada:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abroad.", "content": "In the United States, the Slovak Greek Catholics are not distinguished from the Ruthenians. Nonetheless, they have an eparchy in Canada, the Eparchy of Saints Cyril and Methodius of Toronto.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Slovak Greek Catholic Church (Slovak: \"Gréckokatolícka cirkev na Slovensku\", \"Greek-Catholic Church in Slovakia\"), or Slovak Byzantine Catholic Church, is a Metropolitan \"sui iuris\" Eastern particular Church in full union with the Catholic Church. Its liturgical rite is the Byzantine Rite. L'Osservatore Romano of January 31, 2008 reported that, in Slovakia alone, it had some 350,000 faithful, 374 priests and 254 parishes. In addition, the 2012 Annuario Pontificio gave its Canadian Eparchy of Saints Cyril and Methodius of Toronto as having 2,000 faithful, 4 priests and 5 parishes. The Slovak Greek Catholic Church is in full communion with the Holy See.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973496}
{"src_title": "Rudolf I of Bohemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Rudolf was the eldest son of Duke Albert I of Austria and his wife Elizabeth of Gorizia-Tyrol, thereby the grandson of King Rudolf I of Germany. After lengthy struggles with Adolf of Nassau, his father was elected King of Germany in 1298 and vested sixteen-year-old Rudolf as a co-ruler with the Austrian hereditary lands of the Habsburg dynasty. According to the Treaty of Rheinfelden, Rudolf acted as regent on behalf of his younger brothers Frederick the Fair and Leopold I.  On 25 May 1300 King Albert I arranged his marriage with Blanche, a daughter of King Philip III of France. The intended union failed as the couple's son and daughter died young and Blanche herself died, probably after a miscarriage, in 1305. Rudolf accompanied his father on his 1304 expedition against King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia, who had placed his son Wenceslaus III on the Hungarian throne after the Árpád dynasty died out in 1301 with the death of King Andrew III.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Bohemia.", "content": "Another opportunity for a Habsburg gain in power opened when in 1306 King Wenceslaus III, the last Bohemian ruler of the Přemyslid dynasty, was killed and Albert I was able to seize his kingdom as an escheated fief. Rudolph was then vested with the Bohemian throne. This was contested by his maternal uncle Duke Henry of Carinthia, husband of Wenceslaus' sister Anne. When several Bohemian nobles elected Henry King of Bohemia, Albert I placed his brother-in-law under the Imperial ban and marched against Prague. Henry fled, first to Bavaria, then back to his Carinthian homelands. To further legitimate the Habsburg claims to the Bohemian and the Polish throne, Albert had Rudolph married to Elizabeth Richeza of Poland, widow of King Wenceslaus II.  Mocked as \"král kaše\" (\"king porridge\") for his thriftiness rather than stomach problems, Rudolf was rejected by several Bohemian nobles, who continued to hold out for Henry. His aims to take hold of the silver deposits at Kutná Hora (\"Kuttenberg\") sparked a rebellion led by the noble House of Strakonice. The king besieged the rebel fortress of Horažďovice, but died at the campsite in the night of 3 to 4 July 1307, probably of gastrointestinal perforation.  As Rudolf left no children, the first grab of the Habsburgs for the Crown of Saint Wenceslas failed when the Bohemian nobles restored Henry as king in return for a charter of privileges, who in turn had to renounce the throne in favour of Count John of Luxembourg three years later. Instead Rudolph's enfeoffment intensified the inner Habsburg inheritance conflict, culminating in the assassination of King Albert I by his nephew John Parricida in 1308. Rudolph is buried at the St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudolf I ( – 3/4 July 1307), a member of the House of Habsburg, was King of Bohemia and titular King of Poland from 1306 until his death. He was also Duke of Austria and Styria from 1298.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973497}
{"src_title": "Human resource management", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The current building, the first stone church in St. Petersburg, was designed by Trezzini and built between 1712 and 1733. Its gold-painted spire reaches a height of and features at its top an angel holding a cross. This angel is one of the most important symbols of St. Petersburg.  The cathedral's architecture also features a unique iconostasis (the screen which separates the nave of the church from the sanctuary). In the Eastern Orthodox Church the iconostasis is normally a flat wall or screen with three doors through it, the central Holy Doors used only for very solemn entrances, and the two side doors, by which the clergy and others enter and leave the sanctuary. However, at St. Peter and Paul, the iconostasis rises to form a sort of tower over the sanctuary.  The cathedral has a typical Flemish carillon, a gift of the Flemish city of Mechelen, Flanders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Church functions.", "content": "The cathedral is dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul, the patron saints of the fortress (Saint Peter being the patron saint of the city). The current cathedral is the second one on the site. The first, built soon after Peter's founding of the city, was consecrated by Archbishop Iov of Novgorod the Great in April 1704.  The cathedral was the cathedral church (i.e., the seat of the bishop; the term \"cathedral\"—\"sobor\" (\"собор\") in Russian—can mean the seat of a bishop, but it can also mean simply a large or important church) of the city until 1859 (when St Isaacs became the city's cathedral.) The current cathedral church of St. Petersburg is the Kazan Cathedral on Nevsky Prospect.  The cathedral was closed in 1919 and turned into a museum in 1924. It is still officially a museum; religious services, however, resumed in 2000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imperial tombs.", "content": "The cathedral houses the remains of almost all the Russian emperors and empresses from Peter the Great to Nicholas II and his family, who were finally laid to rest in July 1998. Among the emperors and empresses buried here was Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia for 34 years.  Of the post-Petrine rulers, only Peter II and Ivan VI are not buried here. Peter II is buried in the Cathedral of Michael the Archangel in the Moscow Kremlin; Ivan VI was executed and buried in the fortress of Shlisselburg or Kholmogory (alleged discovery at Kholmogory in 2010 currently under forensic investigation).  On September 28, 2006, 78 years after her death, Maria Feodorovna, Empress of Russia, was reinterred in the Cathedral of St Peter and Paul. Wife of Tsar Alexander III, and mother of Nicholas II (the last Russian tsar), Maria Feodorovna died on 13 October 1928 in exile in her native Denmark and was buried in Roskilde Cathedral in Denmark. In 2005, the governments of Denmark and Russia agreed that the empress's remains should be returned to Saint Petersburg in accordance with her wish to be interred next to her husband.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bell tower.", "content": "The bell tower (with spire) is the dominant feature of this cathedral and the fortress. It serves several functions as part of the structure: When renovators were cleaning the angel on the spire in 1997, they found a note in a bottle left in one of the folds of the angel's gown. In the note, renovators from 1953 apologized for what they felt was rushed and shoddy work (Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev wanted the angel refurbished for the 250th anniversary of the city that year). It is said that the renovators in 1997 left another message for future generations, but the contents of that message have not been revealed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of the carillon.", "content": "When Tsar Peter I of Russia visited the Netherlands in 1698 he heard the perfectly tuned Hemony carillons in Amsterdam and Leiden pealing all 24 hours of the day, every quarter of an hour automatically. Later in 1717 he visited Flanders incognito and climbed the tower of the Cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp, where he must have heard one of the two Hemony carillons in one of the towers of this cathedral. He was impressed by the sound of a carillon and wanted one like these for his new cathedral in St. Petersburg. So he ordered it in 1720 from the Netherlands. In Amsterdam the only bellfounder at that time,, was married to the widow of Claude Fremy. This Claude Fremy had been a pupil of Hemony. So Jan Albert de Grave was presumably the bellfounder who made these bells. (Some years later he also made a carillon for Potsdam.) The people in St. Petersburg could only listen to this well-tuned instrument for a short time. In 1756 the tower burned down after a thunderstorm. All its bells were lost.  In 1757, only one year after this disaster, a new carillon was ordered from Holland - this time by a bell-founder in Hoorn named Johan Nicolaas Derck. He cast the bells, and clockmaker Barend Oortkras from the Hague brought them to St. Petersburg to install them. When he arrived, the tower was not rebuilt yet so he could not reinstall the bells. Oortkras stayed in St. Petersburg, but in 1764 he died in poverty before the tower was finished. This new carillon was installed in 1776 by the German clockmaker Johann Erdmann Rudiger. Rudiger also was hired to play the bells. Bell founder Derck could not tune his bells well, so Russian bell founders recast some of the bells in the 19th century. Audibly, this was not a success either. Thus in 2001 a new set of 51 bells were made in the south of the Netherlands. The bells were cast and the carillon installed by the Royal foundry workshop Petit & Fritsen from Aarle-Rixtel in North Brabant. The carillon comprises 51 bells with a gross weight of ; the biggest bell weighs about, the smallest only. The carillon has a range of four octaves, so most classical and modern music can be performed on this instrument.  The Peter and Paul carillon is a gift to Saint Petersburg from the Government of Flanders and from more than 350 sponsors from different countries. The contribution was presented in the name of Her Majesty Queen Fabiola of Belgium, the Belgian King Boudewijn Fund, the Government of Flanders, the authorities of various Flemish cities and communities, including businesses, and financial institutions, cultural communities, schools and universities, and also ordinary citizens of Belgium, Russia, England, Germany, Lithuania, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, the USA and Japan.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Human Resource Management (HRM or HR) is the strategic approach to the effective management of people in a company or organization such that they help their business gain a competitive advantage. It is designed to maximize employee performance in service of an employer's strategic objectives. Human resource management is primarily concerned with the management of people within organizations, focusing on policies and systems. HR departments are responsible for overseeing employee-benefits design, employee recruitment, training and development, performance appraisal, and reward management, such as managing pay and benefit systems. HR also concerns itself with organizational change and industrial relations, or the balancing of organizational practices with requirements arising from collective bargaining and governmental laws.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973498}
{"src_title": "Hugues-Bernard Maret, duc de Bassano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born at Dijon in Bourgogne, he received a solid education, and then entered the legal profession – becoming a lawyer at the King's Council in Paris. The ideas of the French Revolution profoundly influenced him, wholly altering his career. The interest aroused by the debates of the first National Assembly suggested to him the idea of publishing them in the \"Bulletin de l'Assemblée\". The journalist Charles-Joseph Panckoucke (1736–1798), owner of the \"Mercure de France\" and publisher of the famous \"Encyclopédie\" (1785), persuaded him to merge this in a larger paper, the \"Moniteur Universel\", which gained a wide repute for correctness and impartiality.  He was a member of the moderate club, the Feuillants, but, with the overthrow of the monarchy and the Insurrection of 10 August, 1792 he accepted a post in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, where he sometimes exercised a steadying influence. On the withdrawal of the British legation, Citizen Maret (as he was then known) went on a mission to London, where he had a favourable interview with William Pitt the Younger on 22 December 1792 – all hope of an accommodation was, however, in vain. After the execution of Bourbon King Louis XVI (21 January 1793), the chief French diplomatic agent, Bernard-François de Chauvelin, was ordered to leave Britain, while the National Convention declared war (1 February 1793 – \"see Campaigns of 1793 in the French Revolutionary Wars\"). These events limited the impact of Maret's second mission to London in January 1794.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Envoy of the Republic.", "content": "After a space in which he held no diplomatic post, he became Ambassador of the French Republic to the Kingdom of Naples; but, while negotiating with Charles de Simonville he was captured by the Austrian Empire and was kept for some thirty months, until, at the close of 1795, the two were set free in return for the liberation of Princess Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte, the daughter of ex-King Louis XVI.  For a time Maret returned to journalism, but he played a useful part in the negotiations for a peace with Britain which went on at Lille during the summer of 1797, until the victory of the Jacobin Club in Paris in the \"coup d'état\" of 18 Fructidor (September 1797) frustrated the hopes of Pitt for peace and inflicted on Maret another reverse of fortune. On Napoleon Bonaparte's return from Egypt in 1799, Maret joined the general's party which came to power with the 18 Brumaire Coup (9 November–10).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consulate and Empire politics.", "content": "Maret now became one of Napoleon's secretaries and shortly afterwards Secretary of State. An experienced politician, he rendered services of major value to the French Consulate and First French Empire.  The \"Moniteur\", which became the official State Journal in 1800, was placed under his control. He sometimes succeeded in toning down the hard, abrupt language of Napoleon's communications, and in every way proved a useful intermediary. It is known that he had a share in the drawing up of the new constitutions for the Batavian and Italian Republics.  In 1804, he became Minister; in 1807, he was created Count; and in 1809, he was granted the title of \"Duc de Bassano\", one of the titles with the status of \"duché grand-fief\" in Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy. This was a rare hereditary honor (extinct in 1906), which gives an insight into how well respected his work was by the Emperor. He was extremely devoted to Napoleon, as shown by his work to pass into law the artifices adopted by the latter in April–May 1808 in order to make himself master of the destinies of Spain (\"see Peninsular War\"). Maret also assisted in drawing up the Spanish Constitution of 1808, which was rejected by almost all Spanish subjects. He accompanied Napoleon through most of his campaigns, including that of 1809 against the Fifth Coalition, and he expressed himself in favour of the marriage alliance with the Archduchess Marie-Louise of Austria, which took place in 1810. In the spring of 1811, the Duc de Bassano replaced Jean-Baptiste de Champagny, as Minister of Foreign Affairs. In this capacity he showed his usual ability and devotion, concluding the treaties between France and Austria and France and Prussia, which preceded the French invasion of Russia in 1812. He was with Napoleon through the greater part of that campaign, and after the major defeat, helped to prepare the new forces with which Napoleon waged the equally unsuccessful campaign of 1813 against the Sixth Coalition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "End of the Empire, exile, and return.", "content": "In November 1813 Napoleon replaced Maret with Armand, Marquis of Caulaincourt, who was known to be devoted to the cause of peace and had a personal connection to the Tsar Alexander I of Russia. Maret, however, as private secretary of Napoleon, remained with him through the campaign of 1814, as well as during that of 1815 and the Hundred Days.  After the restoration of the Bourbons, Maret was exiled. He retired to Graz, where he occupied himself with literary work. In 1820 he was allowed to return to France. After the July Revolution of 1830, the new king Louis-Philippe elevated him as a Peer of France. In November 1834 Maret served a short time as Prime Minister of France.  The Duc de Bassano died at Paris in 1839.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hugues-Bernard Maret, 1st Duc de Bassano (1 May 1763 – 13 May 1839), was a French statesman, diplomat and journalist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973499}
{"src_title": "Battle of Tolbiac", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Franks were two neighboring peoples, and allies: the Salian Franks, whose king was Clovis, and the Ripuarian Franks, whose capital was Cologne and whose king was Sigebert the Lame. Bordering on Sigebert's kingdom were the Alemanni, a confederation of Germanic tribes. Border incidents, looting, and punitive raids multiplied between the Alemanni and Ripuarian Franks, but in 496 Sigebert suffered a real invasion and called on Clovis for help. Clovis responded favorably to his ally and raised an army. It is generally accepted that in defending Tolbiac, Sigebert and his army suffered heavy losses. There may have been two battles of Tolbiac.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The battle.", "content": "Little is known about the battle, except that the Ripuarian Franks were probably of no help after the first battle. Clovis saw his warriors being killed and felt the battle was getting out of hand. Moved to tears, he called upon the God of his wife Clotilde, the God that she had preached to him since their marriage in 493, asking for his help.  Gregory of Tours records Clovis's prayer in chapter II of the \"History of the Franks\": \"O Jesus Christ, you who as Clotilde tells me are the son of the Living God, you who give succor to those who are in danger, and victory to those accorded who hope in Thee, I seek the glory of devotion with your assistance: If you give me victory over these enemies, and if I experience the miracles that the people committed to your name say they have had, I believe in you, and I will be baptized in your name. Indeed, I invoked my gods, and, as I am experiencing, they failed to help me, which makes me believe that they are endowed with no powers, that they do not come to the aid of those who serve. It's to you I cry now, I want to believe in you if only I may be saved from my opponents.\" At these words, the Alemanni began to flee, as their leader had been killed with an axe. The Franks subdued or killed the remaining Alemanni.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Account by Gregory of Tours.", "content": "Gregory of Tours was the first to have mentioned the element that has shaped subsequent interpretations of Tolbiac as climactic in European history: Clovis is said to have attributed his success to a vow that he had made: if he won, he would convert to the religion of the Christian God who had aided him. He became a Christian in a ceremony at Reims on Christmas 496. The traditional date of the battle of Tolbiac has been established to accord with this firmly attested baptismal date, by accepting Gregory's account. A surviving letter from Avitus of Vienne, congratulating Clovis on his baptism, makes no mention of the supposed recent battlefield conversion.  \"Historia Francorum\" ii.30-31 directly affirms a parallel Gregory establishes with the conversion of Constantine the Great before the Battle of Milvian Bridge:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences.", "content": "The Alemanni abandoned the Lower Rhine and left the Ripuarian Franks alone. Clovis, who profited only a little, allowed his ally to retain the territory. Clovis later relied on Sigebert's assistance during the conquest of the northern part of the Visigothic kingdom.  Another consequence was the conversion of Clovis to Arianism as he was baptized by the Arian Bishop Remigius of Rheins, who wrote him a letter regarding his conversion. He was later baptized into Catholicism around 508 CE as indicated by the letter written by Avitus of Vienne after a long period of reflection (most historians believe his conversion dates to 498 or 499), which brought him the support of neighbouring Christians, along with that of the influential clergy. In addition, it allowed Clovis to undertake conquests and crusades to Christianise his new territories or expunge Arianism, considered heretics by the clergy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Date.", "content": "The traditional date of the battle in 496 was challenged by Augustine Van de Vyver, whose revised chronology placed the battle in 506. This was extensively debated and is followed in some modern accounts. The date of 506 also follows Gregory's chronology, which places the death of Clovis' father, Childeric I, around the same time as that of St. Perpetuus, who died in 491. Hence 15 years from 491 would be 506. Childeric's grave contained coins of Emperor Zeno, who died in 491, but none after.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle of Strasbourg (506).", "content": "The Battle of Strasbourg in 506 CE is a battle that several researchers have postulated was the third battle presumed to have taken place between the Alamanni and the Franks and which resulted in the defeat and incorporation of the northern Alamanni into the Frankish Empire, whilst the southern Alamanni placed themselves under the protection of the Ostrogothic king, Theodoric the Great.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical sources.", "content": "The historical sources only make indirect references to a possible third battle between the Alamanni and the Franks. A letter by Theodoric the Great dating to 506/7 to the Merovingian king, Clovis I, speaks of battles in which Clovis had engaged the Alamanni. In this letter, Theodoric calls upon his brother-in-law to moderate his anger against the Alamanni, to punish only those who were disloyal and to cease from fighting the rest of the Alamanni. Theodoric placed the latter under his personal protection. A panegyric by Ennodius about Theodoric the Great speaks exaggeratedly of a victory by Theodoric over the Alamanni.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical background.", "content": "At the Battle of Tolbiac in 496 CE the Alamanni suffered a severe defeat at the hands of Clovis. As a consequence, some of the Alamanni appear to have come under the protection of the Merovingians. From Theodoric's letter it may be assumed that these Alamanni subsequently broke their treaty with Clovis and for that reason they were persecuted and there were further battles between Clovis and the Alamanni. Several researchers believe that in 506 CE a third battle took place between the Alamanni and the Franks. What is certain is that between 496 and 506 there were further clashes. The location of the battle is not mentioned anywhere; that it was explicitly near Strasbourg, remains a theory held by a number of scholars. As a result of Clovis' victory, the northern half of the Alammanian lands went to the Franks while the southern half sought protection under Theoderic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Outcome.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loss of territory.", "content": "A consequence of losing the conflict between 496 and 506 against the Franks was that the territory that had been settled by the northern Alamanni, probably up to the present dialect boundary between the Alemannic and South Franconian dialects, finally came under Frankish rule.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Escape to Theoderic.", "content": "Some of the Alamanni apparently fled southwards to Rhaetia and placed themselves under the protection of the King of the Ostrogoths, Theoderic. He went to his brother-in-law, Clovis I and interceded for the Alamanni, but acknowledged the anger of Clovis as justified. He therefore asked for the leaders to be punished but recommended clemency in sentencing. Theoderic promised that he would see to it that the Alamanni, who were in Rhaetia, also remained peaceful. Between the lines, Theoderic made it clear that he would thereby lay claim to the disputed area of Rhaetia and would use the Alamanni as a means of exerting pressure against Clovis if he did not recognize his supremacy there.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Tolbiac was fought between the Franks, who were fighting under Clovis I, and the Alamanni, whose leader is not known. The date of the battle has traditionally been given as 496, though other accounts suggest it may either have been fought earlier, in the 480s or early 490s, or later, in 506. The site of \"Tolbiac\", or \"Tolbiacum\", is usually given as Zülpich, North Rhine-Westphalia, about 60 km east of what is now the German-Belgian frontier. The Franks were successful at Tolbiac and established their dominance over the Alamanni.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973500}
{"src_title": "Eliot Porter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Porter credited his father, James Porter, with instilling in him a love for nature as well as a commitment to scientific rigor. An amateur photographer since childhood, Eliot Porter found early inspiration photographing the birds on Maine's Great Spruce Head Island owned by his family. Porter earned degrees in chemical engineering (A. B. 1924, Harvard College) and medicine (M.D. 1929, Harvard University), and worked as a biochemical researcher at Harvard. One of Eliot Porter's five siblings was the painter and art critic Fairfield Porter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Fairfield Porter introduced his older brother to photographer and gallerist Alfred Stieglitz in about 1930. Stieglitz, after seeing Porter's work, encouraged Porter to work harder. Finally, in 1938, Stieglitz presented Porter's work, taken with a Linhof view camera, in his New York City gallery, \"An American Place\". The exhibit's success prompted Porter to pursue photography full-time.  Porter became interested in color photography after a publisher rejected a proposal for a book on birds because black and white images wouldn't clearly differentiate the species. Porter began working with a new color film, Kodachrome, introduced in 1935, but it presented considerable technical challenges, especially for capturing fast-moving birds. Drawing on his chemical engineering and research background Porter experimented extensively until he was able to produce satisfactory images. His bird photographs were exhibited in 1943, the first ever exhibition of color photographs at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. His book \"American Birds: 10 Photographs in Color\" was published in 1953. His solo exhibition at Limelight Gallery, NYC., March 21-April 17 1955 was effectively a retrospective of this work.  For twenty years, Porter pursued a project to publish nature photographs combined with quotes from works by Henry David Thoreau. Not until an associate introduced him to the executive director of the Sierra Club did Porter find a willing publisher. His 1962 book, \"In Wildness Is the Preservation of the World\" featured Porter's color nature studies of the New England woods. The book enjoyed considerable success despite its high price, pioneered the genre of the nature photography coffee-table book, and lead to several other titles by Porter in a similar format published by the Sierra Club and others. It increased Porter's reputation greatly, and he served as a director of the Sierra Club from 1965 to 1971. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971. In 1979 the work of Eliot Porter was exhibited in Intimate Landscapes, the first one-person show of color photography at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. This exhibition earned Porter praise as the individual who brought credibility to color photography as a medium of fine art. The image selection defined what is now meant by the term “intimate landscape”: the close-range, quiet compositions of natural elements with muted colors and dense textures, meditative and dense with layered meanings, which were the hallmark of Porter's work at the exclusion of more expansive and spectacular landscapes.  Porter traveled extensively to photograph ecologically important and culturally significant places. He published books of photographs from Glen Canyon in Utah, Maine, Baja California, Galápagos Islands, Antarctica, East Africa, and Iceland. His cultural studies included Mexico, Egypt, China, Czechoslovakia, and ancient Greek sites. His book on Glen Canyon, \"The Place No One Knew\", memorialized the canyon's appearance before its inundation by the Lake Powell reservoir.  James Gleick’s book \"\" (1987) caused Porter to reexamine his work in the context of chaos theory. They collaborated on a project published in 1990 as \"Nature's Chaos,\" which combined his photographs with a new essay by Gleick. Porter died in Santa Fe, New Mexico in 1990 and bequeathed his personal archive to the Amon Carter Museum of American Art in Fort Worth, Texas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Eliot Porter's brother, Fairfield Porter, was a realist painter and art critic. His brother-in-law, Michael W. Straus, was a commissioner of the United States Bureau of Reclamation. Eliot was married to Marian Brown from 1927 until their divorce in 1934. He married Aline Kilham in 1936 and the two moved to Santa Fe, New Mexico together, living in Tesuque, New Mexico from 1946.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eliot Furness Porter (December 6, 1901 – November 2, 1990) was an American photographer best known for his intimate color photographs of nature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973501}
{"src_title": "Ptolemy VIII Physcon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Dalkeith\" is understood to be a Cumbric name, cognate with Welsh \"ddôl\"'meadow, plateau, valley' + \"coed\" 'wood'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "One of the earliest historical references to Dalkeith is found in the Chronicles of Jean Froissart who stayed at Dalkeith Castle for fifteen days. He writes of the Battle of Otterburn and the death of James Douglas, 2nd Earl of Douglas: \"I, author of this book, in my youth had ridden nigh over all the realm of Scotland, and I was then fifteen days in the house of earl William Douglas, father to the same earl James, of whom I spake of now, in a castle of five leagues from Edinburgh which is called in the country Dalkeith. The same time I saw there this earl James, a fair young child, and a sister of his called the lady Blanche.\"  In 1650, Oliver Cromwell's army came to Dalkeith. His officer General George Monck, was Commander in Scotland, and the government of the country was based out of Dalkeith castle.  In the 17th century, Dalkeith had one of Scotland's largest markets in its exceptionally broad High Street.  In 1831, Dalkeith was linked to Edinburgh by a railway line that transported coal, minerals, and agricultural produce. Two decades later, in 1853, a Corn Exchange, at the time the largest indoor grain market in Scotland, was built.  In 1879, Dalkeith was where William Ewart Gladstone started his campaign for British Prime Minister, which became known as the \"Midlothian Campaign\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable buildings.", "content": "The Collegiate Church of St Nicholas Buccleuch, formerly known as Dalkeith Parish Church, stands on High Street. Dedicated to St Nicholas, this medieval church became a collegiate establishment in 1406, founded by Sir James Douglas. The nave and transepts date from 1854, when the inside of the church was greatly altered. The chancel was abandoned in 1590, walled off from the rest of the church, and is now ruinous. Sir James Douglas, 1st Earl of Morton, and his wife Joanna, daughter of James I, are buried in the choir and have stone effigies. St Nicholas Buccleuch Church remains one of the two Church of Scotland parish churches in Dalkeith, the other being St John's and King's Park Church. The Episcopal Church, St Mary's is on High Street, at the entrance to Dalkeith Country Park. St David's Church, on Eskbank Road, is the only Roman Catholic church in the town, it is a category A listed building and was built in 1854.  Dalkeith Palace which replaced the castle in the late 16th century and was rebuilt in the early 18th century, lies at the north-east edge of the town. It is a former seat of the Duke of Buccleuch, surrounded by parkland and follies.  The building on High Street now known as the Tolbooth began to be used as a tolbooth for the administration of the town in the early 18th century. The plaque above the door reads '1648' but this was taken from another building and does not denote when the Tolbooth was built. It served as a place for law and order and featured a prison in the west half, a court room on the east, and a dungeon known as the ‘black hole’ below ground. In front of the building there is a circle of stones to mark the spot where the last public hanging in Dalkeith occurred in 1827.  Other notable buildings include a Watch Tower at the cemetery (1827), a water tower and early 19th-century iron mills.  Edinburgh College has its Midlothian Campus in Eskbank, close to the railway station.  There is a modern Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as Mormon) meeting house on Newbattle Road.  Midlothian Community Hospital is just outside Dalkeith, located off the A7 road on the eastern edge of the neighbouring town of Bonnyrigg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Until 2008, Dalkeith was on the A68, one of the main routes south from Edinburgh to Jedburgh and across the border to Darlington. A bypass to take traffic away from the town centre was completed in September 2008; this then took the A68 number, and the old route of the A68 is now the A6106.  Other main roads serving Dalkeith are:  The re-building of the northern section of the Waverley Railway Line re-connected Dalkeith to the national rail network after a gap of more than 40 years, with a station at Eskbank on the western edge of Dalkeith. Construction commenced in late 2012, and the line re-opened to passenger services on 6 September 2015.  Bus services in Dalkeith are mostly run by Lothian Buses; East Coast Buses and Borders Buses also serve the town.  For walkers, the Penicuik–Dalkeith Walkway passes close by.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Football.", "content": "The town is home to Dalkeith Thistle F.C., based at King's Park. The club was formed in 1892 and now plays in the East of Scotland Football League, having spent most of its history in the Scottish Junior Football Association.  The established club is affiliated to Dalkeith Thistle Community Football Club, based at Cowden Park, Woodburn; The club is 'SFA Quality Mark' accredited and run by volunteers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rugby.", "content": "Dalkeith RFC play in the Scottish Rugby Union East Leagues. The club was the first in Midlothian to open full membership to women and the first in the county to run a women's side. Notable former players include Sir David Murray, whose car crash on the way back from a match in North Berwick ended his rugby career and led to him focusing on his business empire. Adam Robson, who went on to become President of the Scottish Rugby Union, also played for the club.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Dalkeith ( ; ) is a town in Midlothian, Scotland, on the River Esk. It was granted a burgh of barony in 1401 and a burgh of regality in 1540. The settlement of Dalkeith grew southwestwards from its 12th-century castle (now Dalkeith Palace). Dalkeith has a population of 12,342 people according to the 2011 census.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973502}
{"src_title": "Max Simon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Simon was born in Breslau. In 1917 he joined the army and served in the 11th Division. He served in Macedonia and on the Western Front, being awarded the Iron Cross 2nd class (1914). At the end of the war he joined the Freikorps in Silesia and fought against the Polish forces. His unit was later incorporated into the Reichswehr as the 16th Cavalry Regiment and Simon was promoted to Unterfeldwebel.  In May 1933 he joined the SS service number 83 086 and the NSDAP party number 1 350 576, and was assigned to the 47th SS-Standarte in Gera and was promoted to Untersturmführer (Second Lieutenant) in November 1934, until ordered to raise a new unit in 1935, 1st SS Totenkopfstandarte \"Oberbayern\" and given the rank of Standartenführer (Colonel). In 1934 he was appointed as the commander of the Sachsenburg concentration camp. In 1938 he took part in the Anschluss of Austria, the occupation of Bohemia and Moravia and the occupation of the Sudetenland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "At the start of World War II, the SS Regiment was renamed in October 1939. The 1st SS Totenkopfstandarte \"Oberbayern\", as the 1st Panzer Grenadier Regiment SS Totenkopf Division and was later renamed the 5th Panzer Grenadier regiment in 1943. During the Battle of France Simon, led his regiment in the capture of Pixie, Lyon, Orléans, Tours and Bordeaux and then advanced to the border with Spain.  In July 1941 Simon took part in the invasion of Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa, as part of Army Group North, taking Kraslava and breaking through the Stalin line, where Simon was wounded. For the fighting in the Battles of the Demyansk Pocket, Simon was awarded the Knight's Cross and promoted to Oberführer (Brigadier General). In December 1942 Simon was promoted again to Brigadeführer (Major General), prior to being given command of the 16th SS Panzergrenadier Division Reichsführer-SS.  The SS Division Reichsführer-SS was to be formed in Hungary from Simon's old regiment and the Sturmbrigade Reichsführer SS. In 1944 the division was moved to Italy, and fought, never complete, at Anzio and later in the Arno sector, where it gained a reputation for stability although it suffered heavy losses during the battles in the Apennines. The division also fought against partisans behind the lines, perpetrating several major atrocities against civilians (Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre and Marzabotto massacre), for which Simon was awarded the Oakleaves for the Knight's Cross and the German Cross in Gold, in October 1944.  In November 1944, Simon was promoted to was given command of the XIII SS Corps. The XIII SS Corps deployed to the Lorraine region against the United States Army, and from December 1944 defended the Siegfried Line (called the \"Westwall\" by the Germans).  The XIII SS Army Corps was forced to withdraw into the Saarland and the Palatinate where it started to destroy the Rhine bridges. In April 1945 between Main and Jagst it came up against the 4th US Armored Division and took part in heavy fighting around the Tauber – Colombia line and around Würzburg and Nuremberg. The Corps then fought a withdrawal to the Danube and around Munich. On the orders of Simon the bridges over the Isar approaching Austria were not blown up, as he believed there was no need as the end of the war was near.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Killings in Brettheim.", "content": "Brettheim is a village in the Schwäbisch Hall district of Baden-Württemberg. Simon ordered the execution of Friedrich Hanselmann, Leonhard Gackstatter and Leonhard Wolfmeyer for \"Wehrkraftzersetzung\" on 10 April 1945. The farmer Hanselmann had taken away the weapons of 15-year-old boys from the Hitler Youth and had thrown them into the local pond. The boys reported this to their commanding officer SS-\"Sturmbannführer\" Gottschalk, who had Hanselmann arrested. Gottschalk sentenced Hanselmann to death and asked the mayor of Brettheim, Gackstatter, and the teacher Wolfmeyer to confirm the sentence. The two men refused and were subsequently also arrested and sentenced to death. The men were executed by hanging and strung up on a tree at the entrance of the local cemetery. Simon had ordered that the bodies be left hanging for four days. On 17 April 1945 American tanks approached the village. The SS had declared Brettheim a \"cornerstone of the German defense\" and prevented the hoisting of white flags. The Americans opened fire, and within a short time the village became a burning inferno. 17 civilians were killed.  On 1 May 1945 the Corps surrendered to the American forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War crimes conviction.", "content": "After the war, Max Simon was sentenced to death by a British court for his part in the Marzabotto massacre. This sentence was later changed to life imprisonment. Simon was pardoned in 1954 and released from prison.  Simon was subsequently tried three times in the Federal courts for the killings in Brettheim and other crimes, but, \"to the horror of the West German public,\" was found not guilty. Simon died in 1961. Even in death, Simon caused some controversy, as HIAG, an organization of former Waffen-SS members, attempted to place a glorifying obituary for him in the German newspaper \"Frankfurter Allgemeine\". To HIAG's indignation, the newspaper refused to run the obituary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Citations  Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Max Simon (6 January 1899 – 1 February 1961) was a German SS commander and war criminal during World War II. Simon was one of the first members of the SS in the early 1930s. He rose through the ranks of the SS, and became a corps commander during World War II. After the war, Simon was convicted for his role in the Marzabotto massacre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973503}
{"src_title": "Ayacucho", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Vestiges of human settlements more than 15,000 years old have been found in the site of Pikimachay, about 25 km north of Ayacucho. From 500 to 900, the region became occupied by the Wari culture, which became known as the first expansionist empire based in the Andes before the Inca Empire.  The Ayacucho region was inhabited by varying indigenous cultures for thousands of years. During the Early Intermediate period (200 BC – 600 AD) the Nazca culture settled in the south-west, and the Warpa culture arose in the center of the Ayacucho region, the Wari Empire emerged as Huarpa cultures interacted with the nearby Nasca Culture at a time of intense interregional exchanges and widespread disruption to existing cultural traditions. During the Middle Horizon period (600 – 1000 AD), at its zenith the Wari state reigned over most of the highlands and coast of Peru, centered near the present-day city of Ayacucho (Huamanga), the Wari became the largest dominant culture in the Andes region before the Inca came into existence. The Wari civilization collapsed by about 1000 AD, the capital city of Wari was abandoned. With the end of the Wari culture, the Late Intermediate period (1000 AD – 1476 AD) is said to begin, while some post-Wari cultures continued to further develop during this era, particularly cultures from coastal Peru, the Late Intermediate era is marked by population decline and substantial cultural regression over extensive areas of the Peruvian highlands, the Ayacucho region became one of the most affected areas, urban planning ceased to be, people abandoned virtually all cities, if not all, and dispersed into rural hamlets. New tribal cultures — well differentiated from the old Wari — arose in the Ayacucho region, over time these became a series of relatively powerful warlike chiefdoms that controlled region, according to colonial chroniclers these tribes were united into a confederacy by the time Inca began to expand, referred in the Spanish accounts as the \"Chanca confederacy\", an alliance formed by the Chanca, Parinacocha, Vilca, Sora, and Rucana (Lucana) cultures, among other ayllu clans. After a series of fierce battles the Inca managed to defeat and conquer the Chanka confederacy and integrated the area into the Inca Empire, the Inca founded Vilcashuaman within Vilcas' culture territory, one of the most populous cities known to have existed in the Inca Empire, capital of the Inca province (wamani) of Vilcas. Huamanga was another of the administrative centers in the region, founded at a place called Pocra.  The Spanish colonial founding of Huamanga was led by conqueror Francisco Pizarro on April 25, 1540, who named it \"San Juan de la Frontera de Huamanga\". Due to the constant Incan rebellion led by Manco Inca Yupanqui against the Spanish in the zone, Pizarro was quick to populate the settlement with a small number of Spaniards brought from Lima and Cusco. On May 17, 1544, by Royal decree, Ayacucho was titled \"La Muy Noble y Leal Ciudad de Huamanga\" (the most noble and loyal city of Huamanga), the highest designation in the Spanish hierarchy of naming cities. The city's main University was founded on July 3, 1677 as San Cristóbal of Huamanga University. Ayacucho was significant in the colonial era for being an administrative center, a stopping-off point between Lima and Cuzco, and the residence of mercury miner from Huancavelica, as well as local land owners.  On February 15, 1825, Simón Bolívar changed the city's name to \"Ayacucho\", renaming it after the historical Battle of Ayacucho. Upon seeing so many casualties on the battlefield, citizens called the area \"Ayakuchu\", \"aya\" meaning \"dead\" and \"kuchu\" meaning \"corner\" in Ayacucho Quechua. The Battle of Ayacucho was the last armed clash between the Spanish Army (formed mostly by Peruvian mestizos and indigenous peoples) and independentists during the Peruvian War of Independence, and the independents' victory ensured independence. The battle developed in the nearby pampas of La Quinua on December 9, 1824. Independentist forces were led by Antonio José de Sucre, Simón Bolívar's lieutenant. Viceroy José de la Serna e Hinojosa was wounded, and after the battle second commander-in-chief José de Canterac signed the final capitulation of the Royalist army. The independent victory sealed the independence of Peru and South America. La Paz, now the seat of government of Bolivia, was similarly renamed \"La Paz de Ayacucho\" following this battle.  Although the city gained a new name and some fame, the economy declined following independence. There were attempts to revive the city's fortunes, with a planned railway link to Peru's network, but the line was terminated in Huancavelica. A highway was subsequently constructed in 1968. The city's economy is based on agriculture and light manufacturing, including textiles, pottery, leather goods, and filigree ware. It is a regional tourism destination, known for its 33 churches built in the colonial period, and for the nearby battlefield of La Quinua, where the Ayacucho battle was fought in 1824. The University of San Cristóbal was reopened in 1959. The city's population began to increase, but violent political unrest destabilized the region forced migration of many.  In 1980, the far-left terrorist organization known as the Shining Path (\"Sendero Luminoso\") used Ayachucho as its base for its campaign against the Peruvian government, even staging an assault on the Ayacucho prison in 1982. The campaign faded after the leader Abimael Guzmán Reynoso was captured in 1992 and put in prison. The region headed by Ayacucho is rural and one of the poorest of all the country. With the peace of the last 15 years, the citizens work hard to improve the living conditions and attract jobs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ayacucho (, ) is the capital city of Ayacucho Region and of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru. During the Inca Empire and Viceroyalty of Peru periods the city was known by the name of Huamanga (Quechua: Wamanga), and it continues to be the alternative name of the city.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973504}
{"src_title": "Iterated function system", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "Formally, an iterated function system is a finite set of contraction mappings on a complete metric space. Symbolically, is an iterated function system if each formula_2 is a contraction on the complete metric space formula_3.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "Hutchinson (1981) showed that, for the metric space formula_4, or more generally, for a complete metric space formula_3, such a system of functions has a unique nonempty compact (closed and bounded) fixed set \"S\". One way of constructing a fixed set is to start with an initial nonempty closed and bounded set \"S\" and iterate the actions of the \"f\", taking \"S\" to be the union of the images of \"S\" under the \"f\"; then taking \"S\" to be the closure of the union of the \"S\". Symbolically, the unique fixed (nonempty compact) set formula_6 has the property The set \"S\" is thus the fixed set of the Hutchinson operator formula_8 defined for formula_9 via  The existence and uniqueness of \"S\" is a consequence of the contraction mapping principle, as is the fact that for any nonempty compact set formula_12 in formula_3. (For contractive IFS this convergence takes place even for any nonempty closed bounded set formula_12). Random elements arbitrarily close to \"S\" may be obtained by the \"chaos game,\" described below.  Recently it was shown that the IFSs of noncontractive type (i.e. composed of maps that are not contractions with respect to any topologically equivalent metric in \"X\") can yield attractors. These arise naturally in projective spaces, though classical irrational rotation on the circle can be adapted too.  The collection of functions formula_2 generates a monoid under composition. If there are only two such functions, the monoid can be visualized as a binary tree, where, at each node of the tree, one may compose with the one or the other function (\"i.e.\" take the left or the right branch). In general, if there are \"k\" functions, then one may visualize the monoid as a full \"k\"-ary tree, also known as a Cayley tree.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Constructions.", "content": "Sometimes each function formula_2 is required to be a linear, or more generally an affine, transformation, and hence represented by a matrix. However, IFSs may also be built from non-linear functions, including projective transformations and Möbius transformations. The Fractal flame is an example of an IFS with nonlinear functions.  The most common algorithm to compute IFS fractals is called the \"chaos game\". It consists of picking a random point in the plane, then iteratively applying one of the functions chosen at random from the function system to transform the point to get a next point. An alternative algorithm is to generate each possible sequence of functions up to a given maximum length, and then to plot the results of applying each of these sequences of functions to an initial point or shape.  Each of these algorithms provides a global construction which generates points distributed across the whole fractal. If a small area of the fractal is being drawn, many of these points will fall outside of the screen boundaries. This makes zooming into an IFS construction drawn in this manner impractical.  Although the theory of IFS requires each function to be contractive, in practice software that implements IFS only require that the whole system be contractive on average.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Partitioned iterated function systems.", "content": "PIFS (partitioned iterated function systems), also called local iterated function systems, give surprisingly good image compression, even for photographs that don't seem to have the kinds of self-similar structure shown by simple IFS factals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The inverse problem.", "content": "Very fast algorithms exist to generate an image from a set of IFS or PIFS parameters. It is faster and requires much less storage space to store a description of how it was created, transmit that description to a destination device, and regenerate that image anew on the destination device, than to store and transmit the color of each pixel in the image.  The inverse problem is more difficult: given some original arbitrary digital image such as a digital photograph, try to find a set of IFS parameters which, when evaluated by iteration, produces another image visually similar to the original. In 1989, Arnaud Jacquin presented a solution to a restricted form of the inverse problem using only PIFS; the general form of the inverse problem remains unsolved.  As of 1995, all fractal compression software is based on Jacquin's approach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "The diagram shows the construction on an IFS from two affine functions. The functions are represented by their effect on the bi-unit square (the function transforms the outlined square into the shaded square). The combination of the two functions forms the Hutchinson operator. Three iterations of the operator are shown, and then the final image is of the fixed point, the final fractal.  Early examples of fractals which may be generated by an IFS include the Cantor set, first described in 1884; and de Rham curves, a type of self-similar curve described by Georges de Rham in 1957.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "IFSs were conceived in their present form by John E. Hutchinson in 1981 and popularized by Michael Barnsley's book \"Fractals Everywhere\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, iterated function systems (IFSs) are a method of constructing fractals; the resulting fractals are often self-similar. IFS fractals are more related to set theory than fractal geometry. They were introduced in 1981.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973505}
{"src_title": "Delayed neutron", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Principle.", "content": "Delayed neutrons are associated with the beta decay of the fission products. After prompt fission neutron emission the residual fragments are still neutron rich and undergo a beta decay chain. The more neutron rich the fragment, the more energetic and faster the beta decay. In some cases the available energy in the beta decay is high enough to leave the residual nucleus in such a highly excited state that neutron emission instead of gamma emission occurs.  Using U-235 as an example, this nucleus absorbs thermal neutrons, and the immediate mass products of a fission event are two large fission fragments, which are remnants of the formed U-236 nucleus. These fragments emit, on average, two or three free neutrons (in average 2.47), called \"prompt\" neutrons. A subsequent fission fragment occasionally undergoes a stage of radioactive decay (which is a beta minus decay) that yields a new nucleus (the emitter nucleus) in an excited state that emits an additional neutron, called a \"delayed\" neutron, to get to ground state. These neutron-emitting fission fragments are called delayed neutron precursor atoms.  Delayed Neutron Data for Thermal Fission in U-235", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Importance in nuclear fission basic research.", "content": "The standard deviation of the final kinetic energy distribution as a function of mass of final fragments from low energy fission of uranium 234 and uranium 236, presents a peak around light fragment masses region and another on heavy fragment masses region. Simulation by Monte Carlo method of these experiments suggests that those peaks are produced by prompt neutron emission. This effect of prompt neutron emission does not permit to obtain primary mass and kinetic distribution which is important to study fission dynamics from saddle to scission point.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Importance in nuclear reactors.", "content": "If a nuclear reactor happened to be prompt critical - even very slightly - the number of neutrons would increase exponentially at a high rate, and very quickly the reactor would become uncontrollable by means of external mechanisms. The control of the power rise would then be left to its intrinsic physical stability factors, like the thermal dilatation of the core, or the increased resonance absorptions of neutrons, that usually tend to decrease the reactor's reactivity when temperature rises; but the reactor would run the risk of being damaged or destroyed by heat.  However, thanks to the delayed neutrons, it is possible to leave the reactor in a subcritical state as far as only prompt neutrons are concerned: the delayed neutrons come a moment later, just in time to sustain the chain reaction when it is going to die out. In that regime, neutron production overall still grows exponentially, but on a time scale that is governed by the delayed neutron production, which is slow enough to be controlled (just as an otherwise unstable bicycle can be balanced because human reflexes are quick enough on the time scale of its instability). Thus, by widening the margins of non-operation and supercriticality and allowing more time to regulate the reactor, the delayed neutrons are essential to inherent reactor safety and even in reactors requiring active control.  The lower percentage of delayed neutrons makes the use of large percentage of plutonium in nuclear reactors more challenging.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fraction definitions.", "content": "The precursor yield fraction β is defined as:  and it is equal to 0.0064 for U-235.  The delayed neutron fraction (DNF) is defined as:  These two factors, β and \"DNF\", are almost the same thing, but not quite; they differ in the case a rapid (faster than the decay time of the precursor atoms) change in the number of neutrons in the reactor.  Another concept, is the \"effective fraction of delayed neutrons\" β, which is the fraction of delayed neutrons weighted (over space, energy, and angle) on the adjoint neutron flux. This concept arises because delayed neutrons are emitted with an energy spectrum more thermalized relative to prompt neutrons. For low enriched uranium fuel working on a thermal neutron spectrum, the difference between the average and effective delayed neutron fractions can reach 50 pcm.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In nuclear engineering, a delayed neutron is a neutron emitted after a nuclear fission event, by one of the fission products (or actually, a fission product daughter after beta decay), any time from a few milliseconds to a few minutes after the fission event. Neutrons born within 10 seconds of the fission are termed \"prompt neutrons\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973506}
{"src_title": "Obi (sash)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In its early days, an obi was a cord or a ribbon-like sash, approximately in width. Men's and women's obi were similar. At the beginning of the 17th century, both women and men wore a ribbon obi. By the 1680s, the width of women's obi had already doubled from its original size. In the 1730s women's obi were about wide, and at the turn of the 19th century were as wide as. At that time, separate ribbons and cords were already necessary to hold the obi in place. The men's obi was at its widest in the 1730s, at about.  Before the Edo period, which began in 1600, women's kosode robes were fastened with a narrow sash at the hips. The mode of attaching the sleeve widely to the torso part of the garment would have prevented the use of wider obi. When the sleeves of kosode began to grow in width (i.e. in length) at the beginning of the Edo period, the obi widened as well. There were two reasons for this: firstly, to maintain the aesthetic balance of the outfit, the longer sleeves needed a wider sash to accompany them; secondly, unlike today (where they are customary only for unmarried women) married ladies also wore long-sleeved kimono in the 1770s. The use of long sleeves without leaving the underarm open would have hindered movements greatly. These underarm openings in turn made room for even wider obi.  Originally, all obi were tied in the front. Later, fashion began to affect the position of the knot, and obi could be tied to the side or to the back. As obi grew wider the knots grew bigger, and it became cumbersome to tie the obi in the front. In the end of the 17th century obi were mostly tied in the back. However, the custom did not become firmly established before the beginning of the 20th century.  At the end of the 18th century it was fashionable for a woman's kosode to have overly long hems that were allowed to trail behind when in house. For moving outside, the excess cloth was tied up beneath the obi with a wide cloth ribbon called \"shigoki obi\". Contemporary kimono are made similarly over-long, but the hems are not allowed to trail; the excess cloth is tied up to hips, forming a fold called \"ohashori\". Shigoki obi are still used, but only in decorative purposes.  The most formal of obi are about to become obsolete. The heavy and long \"maru obi\" is nowadays used only by maiko and brides as a part of their wedding outfit. The lighter \"fukuro obi\" has taken the place of maru obi. The originally everyday \"Nagoya obi\" is the most common obi used today, and the fancier ones may even be accepted as a part of a semi-ceremonial outfit. The use of \"musubi\", or decorative knots, has also narrowed so that women tie their obi almost solely in the simple \"taiko musubi\", \"drum knot\". \"Tsuke obi\" with ready-made knots are also gaining in popularity.  Tatsumura Textile located in Nishijin in Kyoto is a centre of manufacturing today. Founded by Heizo Tatsumura I in the 19th century, it is renowned for making some of the most luxurious \"obi\". Amongst his students studying design was the later painter Inshō Dōmoto. The technique \"Nishijin-ori\" is intricately woven and can have a three dimensional effect and can cost up to 1 Million Yen.  The \"Kimono Institute\" was founded by Kazuko Hattori in the 20th century and teaches how to tie an obi and wear it properly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Women's obi.", "content": "The wide women's obi is folded in two when worn, to a width of about to. It is considered elegant to tie the obi so that the folded width is in harmony with the wearer's body dimensions. Usually this means about a tenth of her height. The full width of the obi is present only in the decorative knot, \"musubi\".  A woman's obi is worn in a fancy musubi knot. There are ten ways to tie an obi, and different knots are suited to different occasions and different kimono.  There are many different types of women's obi, and the usage of them is regulated by many unwritten rules not unlike those that concern the kimono itself. Certain types of obi are used with certain types of kimono; the obi of married and unmarried women are tied in different ways. Often the obi adjusts the formality and fanciness of the whole kimono outfit: the same kimono can be worn in very different situations depending on what kind of obi is worn with it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Men's obi.", "content": "Formal obis worn by men are much narrower than those of women (the width is about at its most). The men's obi is worn in much simpler fashion than women's: it is wrapped around the waist, below the stomach and tied with a simple knot in the back.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accessories.", "content": "A netsuke is an ornament suspended from the obi worn by men.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children's obi.", "content": "Children are dressed in kimono especially for the \"Shichi-Go-San\" (Seven-Five-Three) celebration, when girls aged three and seven and boys aged five are celebrated. Children's kimono outfits resemble those of adults and their parts are basically miniature versions from adult's pieces. The youngest children wear soft, scarf-like obi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In martial arts.", "content": "Many Japanese martial arts feature an obi as part of their Gi. These obi are often made of thick cotton and are about wide. The martial arts obi are most often worn in the \"koma-musubi\" knot; in practice where hakama is worn, the obi is tied in other ways.  In many martial arts the colour of the obi signifies the wearer's skill level. Usually the colours start from the beginner's white and end in the advanced black, or masters' red and white. When the exercise outfit includes a hakama, the colour of the obi has no significance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knots (musubi).", "content": "The knot of the obi is called. These days, a woman's knot often does not keep the obi in place as much as it functions as a large decorative piece in the back. The actual knot is usually supported by a number of accessories: pads, scarves and cords. While putting on the obi, especially when without assistance, there is a need for several additional temporary ribbons.  There are hundreds of decorative knots and they often represent flowers or birds. As everything else in a kimono outfit, the knots are regulated by a number of unwritten propriety rules. Generally the more complex and showy knots are for young unmarried women in festive situations, the more subdued for married or mature women or for use in ceremonial situations.  In earlier days, the knots were believed to banish malicious spirits. Many knots have a name with an auspicious double meaning.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An is a sash for traditional Japanese dress, \"keikogi\" (uniforms for Japanese martial arts), and part of \"kimono\" outfits. The \"obi\" for men's kimono is rather narrow, wide at most, but a woman's formal \"obi\" can be wide and more than long. Nowadays, a woman's wide and decorative \"obi\" does not keep the \"kimono\" closed; this is done by different undersashes and ribbons worn underneath the \"obi\". The \"obi\" itself often requires the use of stiffeners and ribbons for definition of shape and decoration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973507}
{"src_title": "Bretislav III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ecclesiastical career.", "content": "He was a son of Jindřich (d. after 1169), a younger brother of Duke Vladislaus II of Bohemia, and his wife Margaret. After brilliant studies at the University of Paris, he returned to Bohemia and was named provost at the Basilica of St. Peter and St. Paul in Vyšehrad. In 1182, he accepted the diaconate from the hands of his Přemyslid cousin Archbishop Adalbert III of Salzburg. Henry Bretislaus was elected on March 25 of the same year as successor of the late Prague bishop Valentin, and went to Mainz to receive affirmation by Metropolitan Christian I. He was ordained a priest on 22 May and crowned bishop the following day.  Bretislaus soon came into conflict with Duke Frederick of Bohemia, who had regained the Bohemian throne in 1178 and usurped discretionary power over ecclesiastical properties. In 1187, the bishop officially addressed Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to complain about the duke's infringements. In turn, the emperor elevated Henry Bretislaus to a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, providing that the Prague bishop was only subject to the Holy Roman Emperor. However, the imperial immediacy did not outlast Bretislaus's tenure. In the ongoing quarrels over the Prague throne between Duke Frederick and his successors Conrad II and Wenceslaus II, he supported Ottokar, a younger son of the late King Vladislaus II with his second wife Judith of Thuringia. In 1192, Ottokar usurped the Bohemian throne from Wenceslaus II, allied with his younger brother Vladislaus Henry, Prince of Brno and Znojmo, whom he appointed Margrave of Moravia. Wenceslaus tried to petition Emperor Henry VI for assistance, but was captured. Henry Bretislaus supported Ottokar, but was unable to pay the necessary tribute of 6,000 \"écus\" to the emperor for the Bohemian crown and the Moravian margraviate. While on a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, he was captured by Henry VI, who held him captive at his court.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duke of Bohemia.", "content": "Emperor Henry VI, however, was not ignorant of Bohemian affairs. When Ottokar joined a revolt of several German princes against the ruling House of Hohenstaufen, he and his brother and Vladislaus Henry were declared deposed in June 1193 by a decision of the Imperial Diet at Worms. Ottokar was abandoned by the nobility and fled; the emperor exempted his cousin Bishop Henry Bretislaus from the payment and enfeoffed him with the Bohemian duchy. Margrave Vladislaus Henry was summoned to Prague Castle, where he had to spend the following years suspiciously eyed by Duke Bretislaus.  Bretislaus had to secure his duchy by force of arms. By Christmas 1193, he was keeping court at Prague. In 1195, he drove Vladislaus out of Moravia and installed one of his supporters in the march. Bretislaus also took part in an Imperial campaign in Meissen, where his army plundered the churches. To make amends, he planned to take part in the German Crusade of 1197, decided on at the diet of Worms of December 1195, but due to his prolonged illness it was never actualised. When Ottokar marched against Prague, Henry Bretislaus proceeded to the Imperial Palace in Eger (Cheb), where he died on 15 or 19 June 1197. He is buried in the Doksany monastery church.  On 23 June the Bohemian nobles elected Margrave Vladislaus Henry his successor. Shortly afterwards, he came to terms with his brother Ottokar, who finally ascended the Prague throne and the next year obtained the royal title from Philip of Swabia, confirmed by the German king Frederick II in the 1212 Golden Bull of Sicily.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry Bretislaus (; died 15 or 19 June 1197), a member of the Přemyslid dynasty, was Bishop of Prague from 1182, then Duke of Bohemia as \"Bretislaus III\" from 1193 to his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973508}
{"src_title": "Westerplatte", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Resort.", "content": "The resort was established on the Westerplatte peninsula around 1830 which had a beach, a forested park, an ocean-side bath complex and health spa facilities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The transit depot.", "content": "Following the reestablishment of Polish independence in the aftermath of World War I, much of the surrounding region became a part of the Second Polish Republic. However the city of Danzig (present day Gdańsk), a historically important port city, at that time predominantly ethnically German, became an independent city state, the Free City of Danzig. The Free City was nominally run by the League of Nations, but over time the Free City became increasingly allied with Germany.  In 1921 the League of Nations granted Poland the right to install an ammunition depot near Gdańsk, and station a garrison there. Despite some objections from the Free City, this right was confirmed in 1925, where the location was finally agreed on with the choice of Westerplatte. Westerplatte was primarily separated from the New Port of the Free City of Danzig by the harbour channel, with only a small pier connecting them to the mainland; the Polish-held part of the Westerplatte was separated from the territory of Danzig by a brick wall. The depot was completed in November 1925 and became operational in January 1926. The Polish garrison's size was set at 88 soldiers, and Poland was not allowed to construct fortifications.  On 6 March 1933, in what became known as the Westernmost incident (or crisis), the Polish government landed a marine battalion, briefly strengthening the outpost to about 200 men. This was done to demonstrate the Polish resolve to defend the outpost in response to recent comments by German politicians and media figures about the need of border adjustment and Poland and France were secretly discussing preventive war against Germany; on a local level this was also done to put pressure on the Danzig government which was trying to renounce prior agreement on shared Danzig-Polish control over harbor police and take sole control of that unit. Polish troops were withdrawn by 16 March, after protests from the League, Danzig and Germany, in exchange for Danzig withdrawing its objections to the harbor police agreement. According to another source, on 14 March 1933 the League did authorize Poland to strengthen the garrison.  Over the years, the Poles also constructed clandestine fortifications. However, Polish fortifications built at Westerplatte were not very impressive: there were no real bunkers or tunnels, there were only five small concrete outposts (guardhouses) hidden in the peninsula's forest and a large barracks prepared for defense, supported by a network of field fortifications such as trenches and barricades. Several of the buildings were reinforced with concrete. With tensions rising, in the spring of 1939 the garrison was placed on alert.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Battle of Westerplatte.", "content": "On 1 September 1939, only minutes after the German Luftwaffe (Airforce) had begun the invasion of Poland by dropping bombs in a series of raids on the city of Wieluń by Junkers Ju 87 Stukas, at 04:48 local time, the battleship \"Schleswig-Holstein\", then on a \"courtesy visit\" to the Free City of Danzig, without warning opened fire on the Polish garrison. This was followed by an attack by \"Oblt.\" Wilhelm Henningsen’s storm unit from the Schleswig-Holstein and the \"Marinestosstruppkompanie.\" However, soon after crossing the artillery-breached brick wall, the attackers were ambushed by the Polish defenders, with small arms, mortar and machine-gun fire from concealed and well-positioned firing points that caught them in a crossfire. Another two assaults that day were repelled as well, with the Germans suffering unexpectedly high losses.  Over the coming days, the Germans repeatedly bombarded Westerplatte with naval artillery and heavy field artillery along with dive-bombing raids by Junkers Ju 87 Stukas. Repeated attacks by 570 German soldiers were repelled by the 180 Polish soldiers for seven days. Major Henryk Sucharski had been informed that no help from the Polish Army would come. Cut off, with no reinforcements or chance of resupply, he continued his defence, keeping the main German force stalled at Westerplatte and so preventing further attacks along the Polish coast.  On 7 September the Major decided to surrender, due to lack of ammunition and supplies. As a sign of honor for the soldiers of Westerplatte, German commander, Gen. Eberhardt, allowed Major Sucharski to keep his sword while being taken prisoner.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "The ruins of the defenders' barracks and guardhouses are still there. After the war, one of the guardhouses (#1) was converted into a museum. Two 280mm shells from the \"Schleswig-Holstein\" prop up its entrance.  A Monument of the Coast Defenders (\"Pomnik Obrońców Wybrzeża\") was unveiled in 1966.  Westerplatte Museum dedicated to the 1939 battle was created in 2015.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Westerplatte is a peninsula in Gdańsk, Poland, located on the Baltic Sea coast mouth of the Dead Vistula (one of the Vistula delta estuaries), in the Gdańsk harbour channel. From 1926 to 1939 it was the location of a Polish Military Transit Depot (WST), sanctioned within the territory of the Free City of Danzig (now Gdańsk).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973509}
{"src_title": "ADR (treaty)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Contents.", "content": "The agreement itself is brief and simple, and its most important article is article 2. This article states that with the exception of certain exceptionally dangerous materials, hazardous materials may in general be transported internationally in wheeled vehicles, provided that two sets of conditions be met:  The appendices consist of nine chapters, with the following contents", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hazard classes.", "content": "The classes of dangerous goods according to ADR are the following:  Each entry in the different classes has been assigned a 4 digit UN number. It is not usually possible to deduce the hazard class of a substance from its UN number: they have to be looked up in a table. An exception to this are Class 1 substances whose UN number will always begin with a 0. See List of UN numbers", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tunnel classifications.", "content": "The ADR Secretariat has defined a classification system for major tunnels in Europe. \"The categorization [is] based on the assumption that in tunnels there are three major dangers [that] may cause numerous victims or serious damage to the tunnel structure.\" It is the responsibility of each national authority to categorize its tunnels accordingly. The classes ranges from A (least restrictive), to E (most restrictive)., in the United Kingdom for example, the least restrictive was the tunnel carrying the A299 to the Port of Ramsgate, while the most restrictive were several tunnels in East London, including the Limehouse Link Tunnel, the Rotherhithe Tunnel, the Blackwall Tunnel and the East India Dock Link Tunnel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ADR pictograms.", "content": "ADR pictograms for chemical hazards are based on GHS Transport pictograms and Non-GHS transport pictograms", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "ADR, formally the European Agreement of 30 September 1957 concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road, is a 1957 United Nations treaty that governs transnational transport of hazardous materials. \"ADR\" is derived from the French name for the treaty: \"Accord européen relatif au transport international des marchandises Dangereuses par Route\"). From 1 January 2021, the treaty will be renamed Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road as the term \"European\" in the incorrectly may give the impression that the treaty is only open for accession to European states. Concluded in Geneva on 30 September 1957 under the aegis of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, it entered into force on 29 January 1968. The agreement was modified (article 14, paragraph 3) in New York City on 21 August 1975, though these changes only took effect on 19 April 1985. A new amended ADR 2011 entered into force on 1 January 2011. Annexes A and B have been regularly amended and updated since the entry into force of ADR. Consequently, to the amendments for entry into force on 1 January 2015 (until June 2017), a revised consolidated version has been published as document ECE/TRANS/242, Vol. I and II. A further revision applies from 1 January 2017", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973510}
{"src_title": "Battles of the Isonzo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Italian military plans.", "content": "In April 1915, in the secret Treaty of London, Italy was promised by the Allies some of the territories of Austro-Hungarian Empire which were mainly inhabited by ethnic Slovenes.  Italian Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, initially planned breaking onto the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna. The area between the northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea and the sources of the Isonzo River thus became the scene of twelve successive battles.  As a result, the Austro-Hungarians were forced to move some of their forces from the Eastern Front and a war in the mountains around the Isonzo River began.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The sixty-mile long Soča River at the time ran entirely inside Austria-Hungary in parallel to the border with Italy, from the Vršič and Predil passes in the Julian Alps to the Adriatic Sea, widening dramatically a few kilometers north of Gorizia, thus opening a narrow corridor between Northern Italy and Central Europe, which goes through the Vipava Valley and the relatively low north-eastern edge of the Karst Plateau to Inner Carniola and Ljubljana. The corridor is also known as the \"Ljubljana Gate\".  By the autumn of 1915 one mile had been won by Italian troops, and by October 1917 a few Austrian mountains and some square miles of land had changed hands several times. Italian troops did not reach the port of Trieste, the Italian General Luigi Cadorna's initial target, until after the Armistice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Primary sector for Italian operations.", "content": "With the rest of the mountainous 400-mile length of the Front being almost everywhere dominated by Austro-Hungarian forces, the Soča (Isonzo) was the only practical area for Italian military operations during the war. The Austrians had fortified the mountains ahead of the Italians' entry into the war on 23 May 1915.  Italian Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna judged that Italian gains (from Gorizia to Trieste) were most feasible at the coastal plain east of the lower end of the Soča (Isonzo). However he also believed that the Italian army could strike further north and bypass the mountains on either side of the river so as to come at the Austro-Hungarian forces from the rear.  Cadorna had not expected operations in the Isonzo sector to be easy. He was well aware that the river was prone to flooding — and indeed there were record rainfalls during 1914–18.  Further, when attacking further north the Italian army was faced with something of a dilemma: in order to cross the Isonzo safely it needed to neutralise the Austro-Hungarian defenders on the mountains above, yet to neutralise these forces the Italian forces needed first to cross the river — an obstacle that the Italians never succeeded in overcoming.  In the south (along the coastal zone) geographic peculiarities, including an array of ridges and valleys, also gave an advantage to the Austro-Hungarian defenders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casualties.", "content": "Despite the huge effort and resources poured into the continuing Isonzo struggle, the results were invariably disappointing and without real tactical merit, particularly given the geographical difficulties that were inherent in the campaign.  Cumulative casualties of the numerous battles of the Isonzo were enormous. Half of the entire Italian war death total — some 300,000 of 600,000 — were suffered along the Soča (Isonzo). Austro-Hungarian losses, while by no means as numerous, were nevertheless high at around 200,000 (of an overall total of around 1.2 million casualties).  More than 30,000 casualties were ethnic Slovenes, the majority of them being drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army, while Slovene civilian inhabitants from the Gorizia and Gradisca region also suffered in many thousands because they were resettled in refugee camps where Slovene refugees were treated as state enemies by Italians, and some thousands died of malnutrition in Italian refugee camps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Number of battles.", "content": "With almost continuous combat in the area, the precise number of battles forming the Isonzo campaign is debatable. Some historians have assigned distinct names to a couple of the Isonzo struggles, most notably at Kobarid (Caporetto) in October 1917, which would otherwise form the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo.  The fact that the battles were always named after the Isonzo River, even in Italy, was considered by some a propaganda success for Austria-Hungary: it highlighted the repeated Italian failure to breach this landmark frontier of the Empire.  The Isonzo campaign comprised the following battles:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battles of the Isonzo (known as the Isonzo Front by historians, ) were a series of 12 battles between the Austro-Hungarian and Italian armies in World War I mostly on the territory of present-day Slovenia, and the remainder in Italy along the Isonzo River on the eastern sector of the Italian Front between June 1915 and November 1917.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973511}
{"src_title": "Airline ticket", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Details.", "content": "Regardless of the type, all tickets contain the following information: Times on airline tickets are generally for the local time zone where the flight will be at that moment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issuing air ticket.", "content": "A revenue passenger on an airline must hold a valid issued ticket. In order for a ticket to be issued, there are two distinct process:  A reservation for an itinerary is made in the airline system, either directly with the airline or by an agent. The itinerary includes all the above details needed for the issuance of an air ticket, except the ticket number.  When the reservation the made, a passenger name record (PNR) will be created which is used to manage the reservation and check in. It is possible to have multiple passengers in a single passenger name record.  Having a reservation itself does not entitle the passenger to travel. Only when the airline receives the payment or a passenger redeems miles/points, a ticket is issued which is linked to the reservation which allows the passenger to travel.  Traditionally, reservation and payment are separate steps, which the time between them are defined in the fare rules when the reservation is made. However, it has become more common to require immediate payment on online booking systems.  Each passenger must hold his/her own air ticket, as shown by an individual ticket number, even when the reservations are linked by a single PNR.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Replacement of paper tickets.", "content": "IATA announced that as of June 1, 2008, IATA-member airlines will no longer issue any paper tickets.  A ticket is generally only good on the airline for which it was purchased. However, an airline can endorse the ticket, so that it may be accepted by other airlines, sometimes on standby basis or with a confirmed seat. Usually the ticket is for a specific flight. It is also possible to purchase an 'open' ticket, which allows travel on any flight between the destinations listed on the ticket. The cost for doing this is greater than a ticket for a specific flight. Some tickets are refundable. However, the lower cost tickets are usually not refundable and may carry many additional restrictions.  The carrier is represented by a standardized 2-letter code. In the example above, Thai Airways is TG. The departure and destination cities are represented by International Air Transport Association airport codes. In the example above, Munich is MUC and Bangkok is BKK. The International Air Transport Association is the standard setting organization.  Only one passenger can use a ticket. If multiple passengers are traveling together, the tickets are linked together by the same record locator or reservation number, which are assigned, if the tickets were purchased at the same time. If not, most airlines can cross-reference the tickets together in their reservation systems. This allows all members in a party to be processed in a group, allowing seat assignments to be together (if available at the time of the assignment)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Resale.", "content": "When paper tickets were still frequently used, a practice existed by travellers to get rid of their tickets (which are person-specific), when they decided to alter the course of their trips. This practice consisted of selling the ticket to other travellers (often at discount prices), after which the seller accompanied the buyer at the time of departure to the airport. Here, the original owner checked in under his name and provided the airline with the buyer's baggage. After this, the buyer boarded the airplane at the moment of departure. However, since most airlines check identification on boarding, this procedure is rarely functional. The practice of using another person's ticket is illegal in many jurisdictions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An airline ticket is a document or electronic record, issued by an airline or a travel agency, that confirms that an individual is entitled to a seat on a flight on an aircraft. The airline ticket may be one of two types: a \"paper ticket\", which comprises coupons or vouchers; and an electronic ticket (commonly referred to as an \"e-ticket\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973512}
{"src_title": "Christian Felix Weiße", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Weiße was born as twin on 28 January 1726 in Annaberg in the Ore Mountains as the son of Christian Heinrich Weiße and his wife, Christian Elisabeth. His father was rector at a Latin school and teacher for oriental and modern European languages. When Weiße was one year old, the family moved to Altenburg, Thuringia, 45 km south of Leipzig, where he then attended the Gymnasium and made his first attempts at writing poetry. His father had died in 1730.  His family moved then to Leipzig, where he studied philology and theology from 1745 until 1750 at the University of Leipzig. During this time, he became acquainted with Christian Fürchtegott Gellert, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Friederike Caroline Neuber, Gottlieb Rabener and Ewald Christian von Kleist.  After he finished his studies, Weiße became a private tutor to the Count Geyersberg, also a student in Leipzig. Friedrich Nicolai asked Weiße in 1759 to become editor of the magazine \"Bibliothek der schönen Wissenschaften\" (\"Library of the Beautiful Sciences\") which Nicolai had founded two years before; Weiße published this magazine and its successor until 1788. The same year, 1759, Weiße travelled to Paris; on his return, he relinquished the tutur position and became social companion to Count Schulenburg on the count's in Burgscheidungen.  Weiße became district tax collector in Leipzig in 1762 and married in the following year Christiane Platner, the daughter of a renowned Leipzig surgeon and sister of Ernst Platner. In 1790, the patronage of Count Schulenburg allowed him to acquire the castle in (today part of Leipzig). He redesigned it completely and established an English garden. The property changed from an estate to a summerhouse and garden where a salon sees guests like Christian Garve, Christoph Martin Wieland, Moritz August von Thümmel and Jean Paul. Apart from his poetry and plays, Weiße had great success with his magazine \"Der Kinderfreund\" (\"The Children's Friend\") which he published from 1775 until 1782 in 24 volumes; it is regarded as the first magazine for children in Germany. Four of his poems were set to music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Weiße was not appreciated by the literary representatives of the then new movement, Sturm und Drang. His most lasting success were the librettos to Johann Adam Hiller's \"Singspiele\".  Weiße died on 16 December 1804 in Stötteritz; he is buried in the Alter Johannisfriedhof in Leipzig. He was survived by his wife who died in 1813. A notable child from this marriage was the historian and jurist.  Almost all of the works by Johann Adam Hiller are set to librettos by Weiße, in particular: Works by other composers include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christian Felix Weiße (1726–1804) was a German writer and pedagogue. Weiße was among the leading representatives of the Enlightenment in Germany and is regarded as the founder of German children's literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973513}
{"src_title": "Electro house", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Electro-house is typified by its heavy bass. This is often in the form of buzzing basslines, such as those created with sawtooth waves and distortion. It is also often in the form of large bass drum sounds in a four-on-the-floor pattern. The tempo of electro house is usually between 125 and 135 beats per minute. Electro house sometimes resembles tech house, but it can contain melodic elements and electro-influenced samples and synths.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The genre has been described as a fusion genre of house with electro – either 1980s-style electro or its late-1990s revival, electroclash, which fused it with electropop and techno. More recently, the word \"electro\" has been seen as an adjective that denotes \"hard electronic dance music\".  Early songs that have been labelled retroactively as electro house include \"Dark Invader\" by Arrivers in 1996 and \"Raw S*it\" by Basement Jaxx in 1997. Mr. Oizo's 1999 hit \"Flat Beat\" has also been considered an early example of the genre.  Italian DJ Benny Benassi, with his track \"Satisfaction\" released in 2002, is seen as the forerunner of electro house who brought it to the mainstream. By the mid 2000s, electro house saw an increase in popularity. In November 2006, electro house tracks \"Put Your Hands Up For Detroit\" by Fedde Le Grand and the D. Ramirez remix of \"Yeah Yeah\" by Bodyrox and Luciana held the number one and number two spots, respectively, in the UK Top 40 singles charts. Since then, electro house producers such as Feed Me, Knife Party, The M Machine, Porter Robinson, Yasutaka Nakata and Dada Life have emerged.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subgenres.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Big room.", "content": "In the early 2010s, a type of electro house known as \"big room\" began to develop, particularly gaining popularity through EDM-oriented events and festivals such as Tomorrowland. Big room then began to subside from the classification of a subgenre of electro house and develop more as its own genre. Big room songs resemble Dutch house, often incorporating drops, minimalist percussion, regular beats, sub-bass layered kicks, simple melodies and synth-driven breakdowns. The layout of a big room track is very similar to the layout of a typical electro house song. Big room is thought of as a subgenre of electro house.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complextro.", "content": "Complextro is typified by glitchy, intricate basslines and textures created by sharply cutting between instruments in quick succession. The term, a portmanteau of the words \"complex\" and \"electro\", was coined by Porter Robinson to describe the sound of the music he was making in 2010. He has cited video game sounds, or chiptunes, as an influence on his style of music along with 1980s analog synth music. Other producers of the genre include Adventure Club, Kill The Noise, Knife Party, Lazy Rich, The M Machine, Madeon, Mord Fustang, Savant, Virtual Riot and Wolfgang Gartner.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dutch house.", "content": "Dutch house, sometimes referred to as 'Dirty Dutch', is a style of electro house that originated in the Netherlands and found prominence by 2009, mainly pioneered by Vato Gonzalez and DJ Chuckie. It is primarily defined by complex rhythms made from Latin-influenced drum kits, a lower emphasis on basslines and squeaky, high-pitched lead synths. Influences on the subgenre include Detroit techno, hip hop and other urban styles of music.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fidget house.", "content": "Fidget house, or fidget, is \"defined by snatched vocal snippets, pitch-bent dirty basslines and rave-style synth stabs over glitchy 4/4 beats.\" It contains influences from Chicago house, Detroit techno, Baltimore club, Kuduro, Pimba and hip hop. Purveyors of the genre include The Bloody Beetroots, AC Slater, Danger, Hervé, Sinden, Jack Beats and Switch. The term fidget house was coined by DJs/producers Jesse Rose and Switch, \"as a joke, which has now gone a little too far.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jungle terror.", "content": "Jungle terror is a music genre that developed in the 2010s. It is often described as a \"chaotic\" mix of house with grime and drum 'n' bass rhythms. There are also animal noises as well as vocal cuts and percussions. The Dutch DJ and music producer Wiwek is named as the founder of the genre, who made the style popular in the EDM scene between 2013 and 2016. Meanwhile, musicians such as Skrillex, Diplo and KURA are also associated with the genre.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Melbourne bounce.", "content": "Melbourne bounce is a subgenre of electro house characterized by the progression from the uptempo, horn-infused Dutch house style, tech trance synths, electro house stabs, and scouse House-influenced bass lines from around 128 up to 150 bpm. The term has been used to describe the music of DJ/Producers, including Deorro, Joel Fletcher, Will Sparks, SCNDL, Reece Low, VINAI, and TJR. The genre is generally characterized by a standard 128 bpm. It is composed of bouncy offbeat bass, whiny vocal cut/saw lead, Raucous horns, 8-bar snare fills before the drop. It often features a repetitive beat structure with some amount of build-ups and mild drops throughout. It started as a cross between elements of mákina, acid house, acid techno, psytrance, and underground Melbourne House/minimal style. Melbourne Bounce has gained mainstream popularity around mid to late 2012 and had a steady rise from 2013. In 2014, productions of pioneers like Joey Fletcher, Will Sparks, and Uberjak’d were in huge demand and their songs were not only being played on Aussie commercial radio, but also spreading to worldwide and influencing international EDM style with Steve Aoki, TJR, and more.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further development.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Moombahton.", "content": "Moombahton came as a mixture of slowed-down Dutch house and reggaeton. Its identifying characteristics include \"a thick, spread-out bass line; some dramatic builds; and a two-step pulse, with quick drum fills\", but it has \"no real rules beyond working within a 108 bpm range.\" A portmanteau of \"moombah\" and \"reggaeton\", moombahton was created by DJ Dave Nada when he slowed down the tempo of the Afrojack remix of the Silvio Ecomo & Chuckie song \"Moombah\" to please party-goers with tastes in reggaeton. Other producers of the genre include Dillon Francis, Diplo and Munchi.  \"Moombahcore\" is a style of moombahton with elements of breakcore, dubstep, techstep and newstyle hardcore. Characteristics of the genre include chopped vocals, dubstep-influenced bass sounds and extensive build-ups. Artists who have produced moombahcore include Delta Heavy, Dillon Francis, Feed Me, Knife Party and Noisia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Electro house is a music genre characterized by heavy bass and a tempo around 130 beats per minute. Its origins were influenced by tech house and electro. The term has been used to describe the music of many \"DJ Mag\" Top 100 DJs, including Benny Benassi, Daft Punk, Skrillex, and Steve Aoki.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973514}
{"src_title": "Pinus halepensis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Pinus halepensis\" is generally found at low altitudes, mostly from sea level to, but can grow up to in southern Spain, well over on Crete, and up to in the south, in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The tree is able to quickly colonize open and disturbed areas. It can grow on all substrates and almost in all bioclimates in the Mediterranean.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Pinus halepensis\" is a small to medium-sized tree, tall, with a trunk diameter up to, exceptionally up to. The bark is orange-red, thick, and deeply fissured at the base of the trunk, and thin and flaky in the upper crown. The leaves (\"needles\") are very slender, long, distinctly yellowish green, and produced in pairs (rarely a few in threes). The cones are narrow conic, long and broad at the base when closed, green at first, ripening glossy red-brown when 24 months old. They open slowly over the next few years, a process quickened if they are exposed to heat such as in forest fires. The cones open wide to allow the seeds to disperse. The seeds are long, with a 20-mm wing, and are wind-dispersed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related species.", "content": "The Aleppo pine is closely related to the Turkish pine, Canary Island pine, and maritime pine, which all share many of its characteristics. Some authors include the Turkish pine as a subspecies of the Aleppo pine, as \"Pinus halepensis\" subsp. \"brutia\" (Ten.) Holmboe, but it is usually regarded as a distinct species. It is a relatively nonvariable species, in that its morphological characteristics stay constant over the entire range.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The resin of the Aleppo pine is used to flavor the Greek wine retsina.  From the pine nuts of the Aleppo pine is made a pudding called \"asidet zgougou\" in the Tunisian dialect; it is served in bowls, covered with cream, and topped with almonds and small candies.  Aleppo pine are used for bonsai.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Forestry.", "content": "In its native area, \"P. halepensis\" is widely planted for its fine timber, making it one of the most important forestry trees in Algeria and Morocco. In Israel, the Aleppo pine, along with \"Pinus brutia\", has been planted extensively by the JNF. It proved very successful in Yatir Forest in the northern Negev (on the edge of the desert), where foresters had not expected it to survive. Many Aleppo pine forests exist today in Israel and are used for recreational purposes. Although it is a local species, some argue that the historical replacement of natural oak maquis shrubland and garrigue with tall stands of pine has created \"ecological deserts\" and has significantly changed the species assemblage of these regions. In Israel natural patches of Aleppo pine forests can be found in the Carmel and Galilee regions. The species produces timber which is valued for its hardness, density and unproblematic seasoning. Seasoned timber is inclined to tear out with planing, but this can be avoided by using sharp blades or adjusting the sharpening angle of tools.  The Aleppo pine is considered an invasive species though useful in South Africa; in South Australia, a control program is in place on Eyre Peninsula.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Landscape.", "content": "\"Pinus halepensis\" is a popular ornamental tree, extensively planted in gardens, parks, and private and agency landscapes in hot dry areas such as Southern California and the Karoo in South Africa, where the Aleppo pine's considerable heat and drought tolerance, fast growth, and aesthetic qualities are highly valued.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "Paul Cézanne had an Aleppo pine in his garden at Aix-en-Provence; this tree was the inspiration and model for his painting \"The Big Trees\". As of 2005, the tree is still growing in Cézanne's garden.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pinus halepensis, commonly known as the Aleppo pine, is a pine native to the Mediterranean region. Its range extends from Morocco, Algeria and Spain north to southern France, Italy, Croatia, Montenegro, and Albania, and east to Greece, all over Malta and northern Tunisia, with an outlying population (from which it was first described) in Syria, Lebanon, southern Turkey, Jordan, Israel, and Palestinian territories.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973515}
{"src_title": "Zincography", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Process.", "content": "Zinc plates could be obtained for less expense than fine lithographic limestone, and could be acquired at very large scale. Zinc was coated with a solution containing gallic acid and phosphoric acid that caused hygroscopic salts to form on the plate's surface. A printer would then cover the zinc plate with a coating of asphalt varnish, expose it under a drawing and develop it. The zinc affected by the lines of the drawing proof would be coated with hygroscopic salts. Bathing the plate in acetic acid resulted in the dissolution of the salts, the asphalt varnish protecting the remaining surfaces of the plate. Then the printer would coat the plate with a colored lacquer varnish called fuchsine, dried, dipped in benzene. This would dissolve the varnishes, leaving only the fuchsine varnish in the areas associated with the drawn lines, and hygroscopic salts elsewhere. The printer then wet the plate, the water localizing on the salts. As in lithography, ink applied to the plate was repelled by the hygroscopic areas, and attracted to the fuchsine areas. Sometimes zincographic printers created printing proofs on specially coated papers.  Variants of the zincographic process included a form of early photographic engraving, photogravure: zinc was coated with a light-sensitive albumen/chromium salt mixture, exposed in contact with a glass negative, inked and the albumen removed by washing to create a single proof image. The printer would then transfer the proof design to a zinc plate under a press, and hand-etch the drawing onto the plate with a stylus. The plate was then rubbed with oil, which would not stick to the repellent coating, but adhere in the etched areas. The printer could then ink the plate, and it would remain in the grooves. As in chromolithography, colors were printed in successive passes of the press, the plates kept in register.  Zincography is frequently confused with modern zinc-plate lithographic printing. It directly influenced the development of photozincography, an early form of photogravure.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zincography was a planographic printing process that used zinc plates. Alois Senefelder first mentioned zinc's lithographic use as a substitute for Bavarian limestone in his 1801 English patent specifications. In 1834, Federico Lacelli patented a zincographic printing process, producing large maps called géoramas. In 1837–1842, Eugène-Florent Kaeppelin perfected the process to create a large polychrome geologic map.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973516}
{"src_title": "Auguste and Louis Lumière", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Lumière brothers were born in Besançon, France, to Charles-Antoine Lumière (1840–1911) and Jeanne Joséphine Costille Lumière, who were married in 1861 and moved to Besançon, setting up a small photographic portrait studio where Auguste and Louis were born. They moved to Lyon in 1870, where son Edouard and three daughters were born. Auguste and Louis both attended La Martiniere, the largest technical school in Lyon. Their father Charles-Antoine set up a small factory producing photographic plates, but even with Louis and a young sister working from 5 a.m. to 11 p.m. it teetered on the verge of bankruptcy, and by 1882 it looked as if they would fail, but when Auguste returned from military service the boys designed the machines necessary to automate their father's plate production and devised a very successful new photo plate, 'etiquettes bleue', and by 1884 the factory employed a dozen workers. They patented several significant processes leading up to their film camera, most notably film perforations (originally implemented by Emile Reynaud) as a means of advancing the film through the camera and projector. The original cinématographe had been patented by Léon Guillaume Bouly on 12 February 1892. The cinématographe — a three-in-one device that could record, develop, and project motion pictures — was further developed by the Lumières. The brothers patented their own version on 13 February 1895.  The date of the recording of their first film is in dispute. In an interview with Georges Sadoul given in 1948, Louis Lumière tells that he shot the film in August 1894. This is questioned by historians (Sadoul, Pinel, Chardère) who consider that a functional Lumière camera didn't exist before the end of 1894, and that their first film La Sortie de l'usine Lumière à Lyon was recorded on 19 March 1895, and then publicly projected 22 March 1895 at the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale in Paris.  The Lumière brothers saw film as a novelty and had withdrawn from the film business by 1905. They went on to develop the first practical photographic colour process, the Lumière Autochrome.  Louis died on 6 June 1948 and Auguste on 10 April 1954. They are buried in a family tomb in the New Guillotière Cemetery in Lyon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First film screenings.", "content": "The Lumières presented their invention with a screening on 22 March 1895 in Paris, at the \"Society for the Development of the National Industry\", in front of an audience of 200 people, one of whom was Léon Gaumont, then director of the company the Comptoir géneral de la photographie. The main focus of the conference by Louis Lumière concerned the recent developments in the photograph industry, mainly the research on polychromy (colour photography). It was much to Lumière's surprise that the moving black-and-white images retained more attention than the coloured stills. The American Woodville Latham screened works of film 2 months later on 20 May 1895. The first public screening of films at which admission was charged was a program by the Skladanowsky brothers that was held on 1 November 1895 in Berlin.  The Lumières gave their first paid public screening on 28 December 1895, at Salon Indien du Grand Café in Paris. This history-making presentation consisted of the following 10 short films (in order of presentation):  Each film is 17 meters long, which, when hand cranked through a projector, runs approximately 50 seconds. The Lumières went on tour with the cinématographe in 1896, visiting Brussels (the first place a film was played outside Paris on the Galleries Saint-Hubert on 1 March 1896), Bombay, London, Montreal, New York City, Palestine, and Buenos Aires.  In 1896, only a few months after the initial screenings in Europe, films by the Lumiere Brothers were shown in Egypt, first in the Tousson stock exchange in Alexandria on 5 November 1896 and then in the Hamam Schneider (Schneider Bath) in Cairo. The moving images had an immediate and significant influence on popular culture with \"L'Arrivée d'un Train en Gare de la Ciotat\" (literally, \"the arrival of a train at La Ciotat\", but more commonly known as \"Arrival of a Train at a Station\") and \"Carmaux, défournage du coke\" (Drawing out the coke). Their actuality films, or \"actualités\", are often cited as the first, primitive documentaries. They also made the first steps towards comedy film with the slapstick of \"L'Arroseur Arrosé\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early colour photography.", "content": "The brothers stated that \"the cinema is an invention without any future\" and declined to sell their camera to other filmmakers such as Georges Méliès. This made many film makers upset. Consequently, their role in the history of film was exceedingly brief. In parallel with their cinema work they experimented with colour photography. They worked on a number of colour photographic processes in the 1890s including the Lippmann process (interference heliochromy) and their own 'bichromated glue' process, a subtractive colour process, examples of which were exhibited at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1900. This last process was commercialised by the Lumieres but commercial success had to wait for their next colour process. In 1903 they patented a colour photographic process, the \"Autochrome Lumière\", which was launched on the market in 1907. Throughout much of the 20th century, the Lumière company was a major producer of photographic products in Europe, but the brand name, Lumière, disappeared from the marketplace following merger with Ilford.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Advantages of the Cinématographe Lumière over other systems.", "content": "Earlier moving images in for instance phantasmagoria shows, the phénakisticope, the zoetrope and Émile Reynaud's Théâtre Optique consisted of hand-drawn images. Despite many obvious similarities, animation is usually regarded as a very different medium than cinematography. A system that could record reality in motion, in a fashion much like it is seen by the eyes, had a greater impact on people.  Eadweard Muybridge's Zoopraxiscope lectures showed painted contours based on his chronophotography recordings. The only Zoopraxoscope disc with actual photographs was made with an early form of stop motion. Lesser known predecessors, such as Jules Duboscq's Bioscope were not projected.  Louis Le Prince's \"Roundhay Garden Scene\" (1888) and other films are now widely regarded as the first examples of proper cinematography, but Le Prince disappeared without a trace before he managed to present his work or publish about it.  Ottomar Anschütz's Electrotachyscope projected very short loops. The films of the Lumières initially lasted circa 50 seconds each.  Thomas Edison believed projection of films wasn't as viable a business model as offering the films in the \"peepshow\" kinetoscope device. Watching the images on the screen turned out to be much preferred by audiences.  William Friese-Greene's \"machine camera\", patented in 1889, Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope (developed by William Kennedy Dickson), premiered publicly in 1894. did not impress audiences.  Kazimierz Prószyński had built his camera and projecting device, called Pleograph, in 1894. (no details known)  Lauste and Latham's Eidoloscope was demonstrated for members of the press on April 21, 1895, and opened to the paying public on Broadway on May 20. The Eidoloscope Company was dissolved in 1896 after copyright disputes.  Max and Emil Skladanowsky, inventors of the Bioscop, had offered projected moving images to a paying public in Berlin from 1 November 1895 until the end of the month. Their machinery was relatively cumbersome and their films much shorter. Their planned screening in Paris were cancelled after they had watched the 26 December 1895 Lumière screening and competition seemed futile.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lumière brothers (, ; ), Auguste Marie Louis Nicolas (; 19 October 1862 – 10 April 1954) and Louis Jean (; 5 October 1864 – 7 June 1948), were manufacturers of photography equipment, best known for their Cinématographe motion picture system and the short films they produced between 1895 and 1905. Their screening on 22 March 1895 for circa 200 members of the \"Society for the Development of the National Industry\" in Paris was probably the first presentation of films on a screen for a large audience. Their first commercial public screening on 28 December 1895 for circa 40 paying visitors and invited relations has traditionally been regarded as the birth of cinema. Either the techniques or the business models of earlier filmmakers proved to be less viable than the breakthrough presentations of the Lumières.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973517}
{"src_title": "Adolf Wölfli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Wölfli was born in Bern. He was abused both physically and sexually as a child, and was orphaned at the age of 10. He thereafter grew up in a series of state-run foster homes. He worked as a \"Verdingbub\" (indentured child labourer) and briefly joined the army. He often attempted to perform sexual acts on young girls – often getting away unpunished. Eventually, he was caught in the act and institutionalized for his doings. After being freed, he was re-arrested for a similar offense and in 1895 was admitted to the Waldau Clinic, a psychiatric hospital in Bern where he spent the rest of his adult life. He was very disturbed and sometimes violent on admission, leading to him being kept in isolation for his early time at hospital. He suffered from psychosis, which led to intense hallucinations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Creative works.", "content": "At some point after his admission Wölfli began to draw. His first surviving works (a series of 50 pencil drawings) are dated from between 1904 and 1906.  Walter Morgenthaler, a doctor at the Waldau Clinic, took a particular interest in Wölfli's art and his condition, later publishing \"Ein Geisteskranker als Künstler\" (A Psychiatric Patient as Artist) in 1921 which first brought Wölfli to the attention of the art world.  Morgenthaler's book detailed the works of a patient who seemed to have no previous interest in art and developed his talents and skills independently after being committed for a debilitating condition. In this respect, Wölfli was an iconoclast and influenced the development and acceptance of outsider art, \"Art Brut\" and its champion Jean Dubuffet.  Wölfli produced a huge number of works during his life, often working with the barest of materials and trading smaller works with visitors to the clinic to obtain pencils, paper or other essentials. Morgenthaler closely observed Wölfli's methods, writing in his influential book:  \"\"Every Monday morning Wölfli is given a new pencil and two large sheets of unprinted newsprint. The pencil is used up in two days; then he has to make do with the stubs he has saved or with whatever he can beg off someone else. He often writes with pieces only five to seven millimetres long and even with the broken-off points of lead, which he handles deftly, holding them between his fingernails. He carefully collects packing paper and any other paper he can get from the guards and patients in his area; otherwise he would run out of paper before the next Sunday night. At Christmas the house gives him a box of coloured pencils, which lasts him two or three weeks at the most.\"\"  The images Wölfli produced were complex, intricate and intense. They worked to the very edges of the page with detailed borders. In a manifestation of Wölfli's \"horror vacui\", every empty space was filled with two small holes. Wölfli called the shapes around these holes his \"birds\".  His images also incorporated an idiosyncratic musical notation. This notation seemed to start as a purely decorative affair but later developed into real composition which Wölfli would play on a paper trumpet.  In 1908, he set about creating a semi-autobiographical epic which eventually stretched to 45 volumes, containing a total of over 25,000 pages and 1,600 illustrations. This work was a mix of elements of his own life blended with fantastical stories of his adventures from which he transformed himself from a child to 'Knight Adolf' to 'Emperor Adolf' and finally to 'St Adolf II'. Text and illustrations formed the narrative, sometimes combining multiple elements on kaleidoscopic pages of music, words and colour.  After Wölfli died at Waldau in 1930, his works were taken to the Museum of the Waldau Clinic in Bern. Later the Adolf Wölfli Foundation was formed to preserve his art for future generations. Its collection is now on display at the Museum of Fine Arts in Bern.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and audio recordings.", "content": "Wölfli's work has inspired many composers. Danish composer Per Nørgård, after viewing a Wölfli exhibition in 1979, embarked on a schizoid style lasting for several years; among the works of this time are an opera on the life of Wölfli called \"The Divine Circus\". The chamber opera \"Wölfli Szenen\" (\"Wölfli Scenes\"), which premiered in Graz, Austria, in 1981, featured music by Georg Friedrich Haas, the Austrian composer of spectral music, Gösta Neuwirth, Anton Prestele and Wolfgang Rihm.  On their web site, The Adolph Wölfli Foundation poses the following question:  Naturally enough, the question whether Wölfli's music can be played is asked again and again. The answer is yes, with some difficulty. Parts of the musical manuscripts of 1913 were analyzed in 1976 by Kjell Keller and Peter Streif and were performed. These are dances – as Wölfli indicates – waltzes, mazurkas, and polkas similar in their melody to folk music. How Wölfli acquired his knowledge of music and its signs and terms is not clear. He heard singing in the village church. Perhaps he himself sang along. There he could see song books from the eighteenth century with six-line staffs (explaining, perhaps, his continuous use of six lines in his musical notations). At festivities he heard dance music, and on military occasions he heard the marches he loved so well. More important than the concrete evaluation of his music notations is Wölfli's concept of viewing and designing his whole oeuvre as a big musical composition. The basic element underlying his compositions and his whole oeuvre is rhythm. Rhythm pervades not only his music but his poems and prose, and there is also a distinctive rhythmic flow in his handwriting.  In 1978, \"Adolf Wölfli: Gelesen Und Vertont\", the first recording of Wölfli's work ever to be published, was released by the Adolf Wölfli Foundation, Museum of Fine Arts, Bern. Since that time, a number of German musicians have released adaptations of Wölfli's work. A comprehensive list of these artists can be found at The Adolph Wölfli Foundation's music page.  In 1987, musician and composer Graeme Revell released an LP entitled \"Necropolis, Amphibians & Reptiles: The Music of Adolf Wolfli\". This was on his own Musique Brut label in London, UK in 1987. This audio compilation was based on the works of Wölfli and incorporated digital renditions of Wölfli's compositions, with additional sound effects and ambient soundscapes added to the songs, by Revell, based on the artwork surrounding Wölfli's musical notations. The LP was a collection of musical interpretations by Revell as well as DDAA, & Nurse With Wound. This LP came with a booklet with a biography and images of Wolfli's works. Tracks 8 and 9 are combined into one track. This record was later re-released as \"The Musique Brut Collection\" on CD by the Grey Area record label, a sub-label of UK-based Mute Records, under the parent label EMI UK. This audio compilation also includes the other Musique Brut LP release \"The Insect Musicians\". The CD release also contains a small booklet containing pictures of Wölfli's artwork, information about his history, and a brief write-up on Revell's process of converting Wölfli's lithographs into songs.  Terry Riley composed and performed a two-hour opera entitled \"The Saint Adolf Ring\" based on Wolfli's life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adolf Wölfli (February 29, 1864 – November 6, 1930) (occasionally spelled Adolf Woelfli or Adolf Wolfli) was a Swiss artist who was one of the first artists to be associated with the Art Brut or outsider art label.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973518}
{"src_title": "As Good as It Gets", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Melvin Udall is a misanthropic best-selling romance novelist in New York City, whose obsessive–compulsive disorder has him avoiding stepping on sidewalk cracks while walking through the city, and eating breakfast at the same table in the same restaurant every day. He takes an interest in his waitress, Carol Connelly, the only server at the restaurant who can tolerate his uncouth behavior.  One day, Simon Bishop, a homosexual artist who is Melvin's apartment neighbor, is assaulted and nearly killed during a robbery. Melvin is intimidated by Simon's agent, Frank Sachs, into caring for Simon's dog, Verdell, while Simon is hospitalized. Although he initially does not enjoy caring for the dog, Melvin becomes emotionally attached to it. He simultaneously receives more attention from Carol. When Simon is released from the hospital, Melvin is unable to cope emotionally with returning the dog. Melvin's life is further altered when Carol decides to work closer to her home in Brooklyn so she can care for her acutely asthmatic son Spence. Unable to adjust to another waitress, Melvin arranges through his publisher (whose husband is a doctor) to pay for her son's considerable medical expenses as long as Carol agrees to return to work. She is overwhelmed at his generosity.  Meanwhile, Simon's assault and rehabilitation, coupled with Verdell's preference for Melvin, causes Simon to lose his creative muse. Simon is approaching bankruptcy due to his medical bills. Frank persuades him to go to Baltimore to ask his estranged parents for money. Because Frank is too busy to take injured Simon to Baltimore himself, Melvin reluctantly agrees to do so; Frank lends Melvin the use of his Saab 900 convertible for the trip. Melvin invites Carol to accompany them on the trip to lessen the awkwardness. She reluctantly accepts the invitation, and relationships among the three develop.  Once in Baltimore, Carol persuades Melvin to take her out to have dinner. Melvin's comments during the dinner greatly flatter—and subsequently upset—Carol, and she abruptly leaves. Upon seeing Carol, who is frustrated, Simon begins to sketch her, semi-nude, in his hotel room, which rekindles his creativity, and he once more feels a desire to paint. He briefly reconnects with his parents, but is able to tell them that he will be fine.  After returning to New York, Carol tells Melvin that she does not want him in her life anymore. She later regrets her statement and calls to apologize. The relationship between Melvin and Carol remains complicated, until Simon (whom Melvin has allowed to move in with him, as he had to sell his apartment) persuades Melvin to declare his love for her. Melvin goes to see Carol, who is hesitant, but agrees to try and establish a relationship with him. The film ends with Melvin and Carol walking together. As he opens the door at an early morning pastry shop for Carol, he realizes that he has stepped on a crack in the pavement, but does not seem to mind.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "In 1996, James L. Brooks flew Geoffrey Rush from Sydney to Los Angeles to audition for the part of Simon Bishop, and offered him the role, but Rush declined it.  Owen Wilson served as associate producer, one of his first jobs in Hollywood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The soundtrack features instrumental pieces composed by Hans Zimmer and songs by various artists. Zimmer's work was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score – Musical or Comedy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "\"As Good as It Gets\" was a box office hit, opening at number three at the box office (behind \"Titanic\" and \"Tomorrow Never Dies\") with $12.6 million, and eventually earning over $148 million domestically and $314 million worldwide. It is Jack Nicholson's second highest earning film, behind \"Batman\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "\"Chicago Reader\" film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum wrote that what director James Brooks \"manages to do with [the characters] as they struggle mightily to connect with one another is funny, painful, beautiful, and basically truthful—a triumph for everyone involved.\"  Praise for the film was not uniform among critics. While Roger Ebert gave the film three stars (out of four), he called the film a \"compromise, a film that forces a smile onto material that doesn't wear one easily,\" writing that the film drew \"back to story formulas,\" but had good dialogue and performances. \"The Washington Post\" critic Desson Howe gave a generally negative review of the film, writing that it \"gets bogged down in sentimentality, while its wheels spin futilely in life-solving overdrive.\"  Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 85% of professional critics gave the film a positive review based on 79 reviews, with its consensus stating: \"James L. Brooks and Jack Nicholson, doing what they do best, combine smart dialogue and flawless acting to squeeze fresh entertainment value out of the romantic-comedy genre.\" Metacritic gave the film a score of 67 out of 100, based on reviews from 30 critics, indicating generally favorable reviews.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Accolades.", "content": "The film was nominated for and received many film awards, including Best Actor and Best Actress awards for Nicholson and Hunt at the 70th Academy Awards and the 55th Golden Globe Awards ceremony. It was nominated for a Best Picture Oscar and won Best Picture–Music or Comedy at the Golden Globes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "As Good as It Gets is a 1997 American romantic comedy film directed by James L. Brooks, who co-wrote it with Mark Andrus. The film stars Jack Nicholson as a misanthropic and obsessive-compulsive novelist, Helen Hunt as a single mother with a chronically ill son, and Greg Kinnear as a homosexual artist. The paintings were created for the film by New York artist Billy Sullivan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973519}
{"src_title": "May Sutton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "May Sutton was born on September 25, 1886 in Plymouth, England, the youngest of seven children of Adolphus DeGrouchy Sutton, a captain in the Royal Navy and Adeline Esther Godfray. When she was six years old, Sutton's family moved to a ranch near Pasadena, California. It was there that she and her sisters played tennis on a court built by her father. As young ladies, May and her sisters, Violet, Florence, and Ethel, dominated the California tennis circuit. In addition to being accomplished tennis players, the girls were excellent basketball players. May, Florence and Violet were all on the Pasadena High School basketball team, which went undefeated in 1900. In 1904 at age 17, May Sutton won the singles title at the U.S. Championships on her first attempt. She also teamed with Miriam Hall to win the women's doubles title and came close to making it a clean sweep by advancing to the mixed doubles final.  She was unable to defend her U.S. title as she traveled to England in May 1905 to compete in the Wimbledon Championships. In June, she won the grass court Northern Championships in Manchester, defeating Hilda Lane in the final. Sutton became the first American and first non-British woman to win the Wimbledon singles title when she beat British star and reigning two-time Wimbledon champion Dorothea Douglass Chambers in the challenge round. She did it while shocking the British audience by rolling up her sleeves to bare her elbows and wearing a skirt that showed her ankles. For the next two years, she and Chambers met in the final, with Chambers recapturing the title in 1906 and Sutton winning it back in 1907.  Sutton was the 1908 Rose Parade Queen in Pasadena.  On December 11, 1912, she married Tom Bundy, who was a three-time winner of the men's doubles title at the U.S. Championships, and semi-retired to raise a family. However, in 1921 at the age of 35, she made a comeback and became the fourth-ranked player in the U.S. In 1925, she was a women's doubles finalist at the U.S. Championships and, although almost forty years of age, her game was strong enough to be selected for America's Wightman Cup team. She was a Wimbledon quarterfinalist in 1929 at the age of 42, which was the first time she had played Wimbledon since 1907. In 1928 and 1929, she and her daughter Dorothy Cheney became the only mother/daughter combination to be seeded at the U.S. Championships. Her nephew, John Doeg, won the U.S. Championships in 1930, and in 1938, daughter Dorothy won the Australian Championships.  In 1956, Sutton was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame. She never stopped playing tennis and was playing regularly well into her late 80s.  Sutton died of cancer on October 4, 1975 in Santa Monica, California and was interred in the local Woodlawn Memorial Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing style.", "content": "Eight-time U.S. National Championship winner Molla Bjurstedt Mallory indicated that Sutton was the best player she had met. \"Her drive was the fastest and the...most difficult...to handle, because it dove suddenly to the ground and then jumped up unexpectedly with queer curves. When she could keep her drives near the baseline, they either forced me back farther than I had been accustomed to play or compelled me to make errors. She was also strong overhead when she came to the net and altogether had more power and effectiveness than any other woman tennis player of her time\". Sutton played with an extreme Western grip and had a powerful topspin forehand that made the ball dip and bound high.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "May Godfrey Sutton (September 25, 1886 – October 4, 1975) was an American tennis player who was active during the first decades of the 20th century. At age 17 she won the singles title at the U.S. National Championships and in 1905 she became the first American player to win the singles title at Wimbledon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973520}
{"src_title": "Podenco Canario", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Podenco Canario is a very agile, slender and lightly built but sturdy dog. There are two distinct sizes of Podenco Canarios. One is similar to the Ibizan Hound, medium in size, with height at the withers approximately 55 to 64 cm (21.7 to 25.2 ins) for males, females are slightly smaller. Sizes vary with the terrain on which the dog hunts. A second smaller size Podenco Canario has been recognised within the Canary Islands, with height at the withers approximately 30 to 40 cm for males, females slightly smaller. The short, dense coat should be some shade of red, white, or a combination of red and white, depending on the island and, in some cases, the specific area on some of the islands. There should be no other colour on the coat, or indeed anywhere on the body, as even the dog's nose, nails and skin should be a shade of red, and they are even known to \"blush\" when excited. The neck is long, the head is longer than it is wide, and the large ears are carried fully up. The long tail is usually seen low set but can be raised. The tail is not carried too high when moving. The dog should move in an extended and agile trot. Faults, which indicate that a particular dog should not be bred, include aspects of appearance as well as structural faults that would prevent the dog's ability to move and hunt, such as cow hocks, and crossing of the fore and hind legs at a trot.  It is a slightly elongated and very muscular dog with a brown (chocolate), red, or yellow coat, can be accompanied by white, brown, or tan markings, and usually have short fur. They begin to demonstrate hunting instinct in as little as 3 months but can take up to 14 months to develop. When it is pursuing prey, they emit a characteristic staccato repetitive barking, known to some local hunters as \"song of the rabbit\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Podenco Canario is found on all of the Canary Islands. The legend is that it had descended from ancient dogs brought to the islands in antiquity from North Africa by the earliest human settlers and isolated there. However, recent genetics studies have concluded that the Podenco is a type of dog more closely related to, and no more primitive than, the rest of the European hunting breeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current use.", "content": "Rabbits (\"Oryctolagus cuniculus\") were introduced (first on La Palma) in the 16th century. Rabbit hunting with the Podenco Canario is a very popular sport. Used as a throwaway tool and not seen as pets, these poor hounds are often starved and mistreated throughout the year, and often abandoned at the end of the hunting season or as soon as they can no longer hunt effectively. Bitches are rarely sterilised, as it is more economical to drown or shoot recently born puppies every six months. There are few to no public pounds and the local governments euthanise. Many foreign nationals and foreign organisations export abandoned and unwanted dogs, and the Podenco Canario forms a large percentage of these dogs. The Podenco Canario is recognised by \"La Real Sociedad Canina de España\" (R.S.C.E., the Spanish Kennel Club) as an indigenous breed and is recognised internationally by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale as breed number 329 in Group 5 \"Spitz and primitive types\", Section 7 : \"Primitive type - Hunting Dogs\", Spain. In North America the breed is listed with the United Kennel Club as a hunting dog in the Sighthound & Pariah Group. The breed is also recognized by a number of minor registries, hunting clubs, and internet-based dog registry businesses. Exported from its homeland, it is promoted as a rare breed for those seeking a unique pet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health and temperament.", "content": "Podencos have few health problems. They suffer more often from injury while hunting than disease or predisposition to illnesses. A sexual-development genetic disorder was observed in one dog of this breed, s.p. testicular/ovotesticular disorder, which can result in dogs that are genetically female (XX) developing testes or ovotestes instead of ovaries. This disorder was formerly referred to as SRY-negative XX sex reversal, and is more commonly documented in American and English Cocker Spaniels.  The breed standard states that the typical behaviour is \"nervy, agitated, and of an enthusiastic dynamism\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nomenclature and recognition.", "content": "Within Spain all five types of Podencos are recognised by the people: the Podenco Ibizenco, Mallorquín, Menorquín, Andaluz, and Canario. But while the UKC of the United Kingdom recognises the Podenco Canario and obviously uses the word \"podenco\" in its naming convention, it recognise the Podenco Ibizenco as an \"Ibizan Hound\" and fails to maintain the clarification of \"podenco\". The AKC of the U.S.A. also recognises the \"Ibizan Hound\" as such but as of yet does not recognise the Canary Island Podenco. Many bilingual speakers within Spain, including some veterinarians familiar with the recent history of these dogs believe a more correct naming convention should include the word \"podenco\", of which one breed would be the Ibizan Podenco.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar breeds.", "content": "Breeds also listed in Group 5/Section 7 include the Ibizan Hound, Cirneco dell'Etna, Portuguese Podengo, and the Thai Ridgeback.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iz8DaeS0YsE", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iz8DaeS0YsE", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Podenco Canario (In English: \"Canary Island Podenco\", \"Canary Island Hound\", or \"Canarian Warren Hound\") is a breed of dog from the Canary Islands. The Podenco Canario is still used today, primarily in packs, most often for the sport hunting of rabbits. The word \"podenco\" in Spain refers to a certain type of dog, typically rabbit hunters with the same body shape. \"Canario\" is a reference to its region of origin, the Canary Islands. The Spanish Kennel Club, Real Sociedad Canina de España, recognises the following similar dog breeds that use the identifier \"podenco\" in their names: Podenco Andaluz, Podenco Ibicenco, and Podenco Valenciano.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973521}
{"src_title": "Landtag of Prussia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kingdom of Prussia.", "content": "In the course of the 1848 Revolution King Frederick William IV of Prussia and his Minister Gottfried Ludolf Camphausen had agreed to call for the general election of a national assembly in all Prussian provinces. The Prussian National Assembly however was dismissed by royal decree of 5 December 1848 and the king imposed the Constitution of Prussia. The constitution, though reactionary, at least provided a bicameral parliament, consisting of a First Chamber (\"Erste Kammer\", called House of Lords from 1855), as well as a Second Chamber (\"Zweite Kammer\", from 1855 House of Representatives) whose members were elected according to the three-class franchise system. Both houses and the King of Prussia had the right to introduce bills.  Under the regency of Prince William I and his liberal prime minister Prince Karl Anton von Hohenzollern from 1858 (\"New Era\"), the House of Representatives led by the newly established German Progress Party gradually developed to a serious political actor, culminating in a constitutional conflict in 1861: William I, who had just acceded to the Prussian throne, and his war minister Albrecht von Roon requested the approval for an increment of the military budget, which the deputies refused. Roon urged the king to appoint Otto von Bismarck Prime Minister, who - \"not by speeches and votes of the majority are the great questions of the time decided (...) but by iron and blood\" - acted on an alleged gap in the constitution (\"Lückentheorie\") and openly sidestepped any power of the purse of the Prussian representatives. The assembly raised a blistering protest and over the following years Bismarck's cabinet had to govern without a government budget passed by the legislature. In September 1866 the prime minister, at a peak of his power after the Battle of Königgrätz, reached the passage of the Indemnity Act (\"Indemnitätsgesetz\") subsequently legalising his budget management. The balloting led to the split-off of the National Liberal Party which became a loyal supporter of Bismarck's policies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Free State of Prussia.", "content": "During the German Revolution of 1918–19 the new Prussian government of Majority Social Democrats (MSPD) and Independent Social Democrats (USPD) under Paul Hirsch had the bicameral legislature abolished. A constitutional convention (\"Preußische Landesversamlung\") was elected on 26 January 1919, after the introduction of equal franchise for all men and women. After the failed Kapp Putsch of 1920, the assembly confirmed the first cabinet of Minister-president Otto Braun and finally adopted the new Prussian constitution on 30 November. The \"Preußischer Landtag\" was re-established as the parliament of the Free State of Prussia in 1921. The provinces were represented in the Prussian State Council, which succeeded the former \"Herrenhaus\" as a kind of upper house. The Cologne mayor Konrad Adenauer served as its president until 1933.  A legislative period lasted for no longer than four years. The parliament could be dissolved early by joint resolution of the prime minister and the presidents of the Landtag and the State Council or by a plebiscite. In 1931 just such a referendum took place on the initiative of \"the \"Stahlhelm\"\" veterans' organization, with the support of the Nazi Party and the German Communist Party. Landtag elections took place on 20 February 1921, 7 December 1924, 20 May 1928, 24 April 1932, and 5 March 1933.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Building complex.", "content": "In 1899, the House of Representatives (\"Abgeordnetenhaus\") moved into a building on Prinz-Albrecht-Straße No. 5 (present-day Niederkirchnerstraße), close to Potsdamer Platz and situated opposite to the Martin Gropius Bau. During the German Revolution of 1918–19 the \"Reichsrätekongress\" (national Workers' and Soldiers' Council) held its assemblies here from 16 to 20 December 1918. On 1 January 1919, the Communist Party of Germany was founded here. Since 1993 the building has been the seat of the Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin: colloquially it is still named \"Preußischer Landtag\" just as the nearby building accommodating the Bundestag is still generally referred to as the Reichstag.  The seat of the Prussian House of Lords on Leipziger Straße was inaugurated in 1904. Both buildings were built back-to-back according to plans designed by Friedrich Schulze, they intercommunicate via a common restaurant wing. Upon the Nazi \"Machtergreifung\", the \"Herrenhaus\" building served as an annex of the neighbouring Ministry of Aviation and Hermann Göring's \"Preußenhaus\" foundation. After World War II it housed several departments of the (East) German Academy of Sciences and since 29 September 2000 is the seat of the German Bundesrat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidents of the Prussian Landtag (Free State of Prussia).", "content": "Political Party:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Landtag of Prussia () was the representative assembly of the Kingdom of Prussia implemented in 1849, a bicameral legislature consisting of the upper House of Lords (\"Herrenhaus\") and the lower House of Representatives (\"Abgeordnetenhaus\"). After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–19 the \"Landtag\" diet continued as the parliament of the Free State of Prussia between 1921 and 1933.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973522}
{"src_title": "Nikolay Gumilyov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and poems.", "content": "Nikolay was born in the town of Kronstadt on Kotlin Island, into the family of Stepan Yakovlevich Gumilyov (1836–1920), a naval physician, and Anna Ivanovna L'vova (1854–1942). His childhood nickname was \"Montigomo,\" the Hawk's Claw. He studied at the gymnasium of Tsarskoe Selo, where the Symbolist poet Innokenty Annensky was his teacher. Later, Gumilyov admitted that it was Annensky's influence that turned his mind to writing poetry.  His first publication were verses \"I ran from cities into the forest\" () on September 8, 1902. In 1905 he published his first book of lyrics entitled \"The Way of Conquistadors\". It comprised poems on most exotic subjects imaginable, from Lake Chad giraffes to Caracalla's crocodiles. Although Gumilyov was proud of the book, most critics found his technique sloppy; later he would refer to that collection as \"apprentice's work\".  From 1907 and on, Nikolai Gumilyov traveled extensively in Europe, notably in Italy and France. In 1908 his new collection \"Romantic Flowers\" appeared. While in Paris, he published the literary magazine \"Sirius\", but only three issues were produced. On returning to Russia, he edited and contributed to the artistic periodical \"Apollon\". At that period, he fell in love with a non-existent woman Cherubina de Gabriak. It turned out that Cherubina de Gabriak was the literary pseudonym for two people: and Maximilian Voloshin. On November 22, 1909 he had a duel with Voloshin over the affair.  Gumilev married Anna Akhmatova in April 25, 1910. He dedicated some of his poems to her. On September 18, 1912, their child Lev was born. He would eventually become an influential and controversial historian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Travel to Africa.", "content": "Like Flaubert and Rimbaud before him, but inspired by exploits of Alexander Bulatovich and Nikolay Leontiev, Gumilyov was fascinated with Africa and travelled there almost each year. He explored, helping development of Ethiopia, sometime hunted lions, and brought to the Saint Petersburg museum of anthropology and ethnography a large collection of African artifacts. His landmark collection \"The Tent\" (1921) collected the best of his poems on African themes, one of them \"Giraffe\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Guild of Poets.", "content": "In 1910, Gumilyov fell under the spell of the Russian Symbolist poet and philosopher Vyacheslav Ivanov and absorbed his views on poetry at the evenings held by Ivanov in his celebrated \"Turreted House\". His wife Akhmatova accompanied him to Ivanov's parties as well.  Dissatisfied with the vague mysticism of Russian Symbolism, then prevalent in the Russian poetry, Gumilyov and Sergei Gorodetsky established the so-called \"Guild of Poets\", which was modeled after medieval guilds of Western Europe. They advocated a view that poetry needs craftsmanship just like architecture needs it. Writing a good poem they compared to building a cathedral. To illustrate their ideals, Gumilev published two collections, \"The Pearls\" in 1910 and the \"Alien Sky\" in 1912. It was Osip Mandelstam, however, who produced the movement's most distinctive and durable monument, the collection of poems entitled \"Stone\" (1912).  According to the principles of acmeism (as the movement came to be dubbed by art historians), every person, irrespective of his talent, may learn to produce high-quality poems if only he follows the guild's masters, i.e., Gumilyov and Gorodetsky. Their own model was Théophile Gautier, and they borrowed much of their basic tenets from the French Parnasse. Such a program, combined with colourful and exotic subject matter of Gumilev's poems, attracted to the Guild a large number of adolescents. Several major poets, notably Georgy Ivanov and Vladimir Nabokov, passed the school of Gumilev, albeit informally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War experience.", "content": "When World War I started, Gumilyov hastened to Russia and enthusiastically joined a corps of elite cavalry. He fought in battles in East Prussia and Macedonia. For his bravery he was invested with two St. George crosses (December 24, 1914 and January 5, 1915).  His war poems were assembled in the collection \"The Quiver\" (1916). In 1916 he wrote a verse play, \"Gondla\", which was published the following year; set in ninth-century Iceland, torn between its native paganism and Irish Christianity, it is also clearly autobiographical, Gumilev putting much of himself into the hero Gondla (an Irishman chosen as king but rejected by the jarls, he kills himself to ensure the triumph of Christianity) and basing Gondla's wild bride Lera on Gumilev's wife Akhmatova (or maybe Larissa Reysner). The play was performed in Rostov na Donu in 1920.  During the Russian Revolution, Gumilyov served in the Russian Expeditionary Force in France. Despite advice to the contrary, he rapidly returned to Petrograd. There he published several new collections, \"Tabernacle\" and \"Bonfire\", and finally divorced Akhmatova (August 5, 1918), whom he had left for another woman several years prior. The following year he married Anna Nikolaevna Engelhardt, a noblewoman and daughter of a well-known historian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Execution.", "content": "In 1920 Gumilyov co-founded the \"All-Russia Union of Writers\". Gumilev made no secret of his anti-communist views. He also made the Sign of the Cross in public and didn't care to hide his contempt for half-literate Bolsheviks. On August 3, 1921, he was arrested by the Cheka on charges of participation in a nonexistent monarchist conspiracy known as the \"Petrograd military organization\". On August 24, the Petrograd Cheka decreed execution of 61 participants of the case, including Nikolai Gumilev. They were shot on August 26 in the Kovalevsky Forest (the actual date was established only in 2014; previously it was thought he died on August 25). Maxim Gorky, his friend and fellow writer, hurried to Moscow and appealed to Lenin, but was unable to save Gumilev.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Gumilyov's execution placed a stigma on Anna Akhmatova and on their son, Lev Gumilev. Lev was arrested later in the purges of the 1930s and spent almost two decades in the Gulag.  Despite Gumilyov's execution by the Cheka, \"Gondla\" was again performed in Petrograd in January 1922: \"The play, despite its crowd scenes being enacted on a tiny stage, was a major success. Yet when the Petrograd audience called for the author, who was now officially an executed counter-revolutionary traitor, the play was removed from the repertoire and the theatre disbanded.\"  In February 1934, as they walked along a Moscow street, Osip Mandelstam quoted Gondla's words \"I am ready to die\" to Akhmatova, and she repeated them in her \"Poem without a Hero.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural influence.", "content": "Although banned in the Soviet times, Gumilev was loved for his adolescent longing for travel and giraffes and hippos, for his dreams of a fifteen-year-old captain\" His \"The Tram That Lost Its Way\" is considered one of the greatest poems of the 20th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikolay Stepanovich Gumilyov (; April 15 NS 1886 – August 26, 1921) was an influential Russian poet, literary critic, traveler, and military officer. He was a cofounder of the Acmeist movement. He was husband of Anna Akhmatova and father of Lev Gumilev. Nikolay Gumilev was arrested and executed by the Cheka, the secret Soviet police force, in 1921.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973523}
{"src_title": "Altes Museum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Planning and location.", "content": "In the early nineteenth century, Germany's bourgeoisie had become increasingly self-aware and self-confident. This growing class began to embrace new ideas regarding the relationship between itself and art, and the concepts that art should be open to the public and that citizens should be able to have access to a comprehensive cultural education began to pervade society. King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia was a strong proponent of this humboldtian ideal for education and charged Karl Friedrich Schinkel with planning a public museum for the royal art collection.  Schinkel's plans for the \"Königliches Museum\", as it was then known, were also influenced by drafts of the crown prince, later King Friedrich Wilhelm IV, who desired a building that was heavily influenced by antiquity. The crown prince even sent Schinkel a pencil sketch of a large hall adorned with a classical portico.  Schinkel's plans incorporated the \"Königliches Museum\" into an ensemble of buildings, which surround the \"Berliner Lustgarten\" (pleasure garden). The \"Stadtschloss\" in the south was a symbol of worldly power, the \"Zeughaus\" in the west represented military might, and the \"Berliner Dom\" in the east was the embodiment of divine authority. The museum to the north of the garden, which was to provide for the education of the people, stood as a symbol for science and art—and not least for their torchbearer: the self-aware bourgeoisie. For the front facing the Lustgarten, a simple columned hall in grand style and proportionate to the importance of the location would most certainly give the building character. The arrangement of the eighteen Ionic columns was effected by the Lustgarten. The portico was designed with a function in order to give the museum building an exterior befitting its site, in which the monuments can be placed.  Schinkel had developed plans for the \"Königliches Museum\" as early as 1822/23, but construction did not begin until 1825. Construction was completed in 1828 and the museum was inaugurated on 3 August 1830. Schinkel was also responsible for the renovation of the \"Berliner Dom\" in the neo-classical style (which was originally a \"baroque\" cathedral), and he exercised considerable influence on Peter Joseph Lenné's renovation of the \"Lustgarten\", which coincided with the construction of the museum, resulting in a harmonized and integrated ensemble.  In 1841, King Friedrich Wilhelm IV announced in a royal decree, that the entire northern part of the Spree Island (now known as Museum Island) \"be transformed into a sanctuary for art and science.\" In 1845, with the completion of the \"Neues Museum\", the \"New Museum\", the \"Königliches Museum\" was renamed the \"Altes Museum\", the name it holds to this day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The royally appointed commission, which was responsible for the conception of the museum, decided to display only \"High Art\" in the proposed building which included Old Master paintings and prints and drawings on the upper floor, as well as Classical sculpture from ancient Greece and Rome on the ground floor. This precluded the incorporation of ethnography, prehistory and the excavated treasures of the ancient Near East from Assyria and Persia (and elsewhere); instead, these artifacts were primarily housed in Schloss Monbijou.  With the completion of the \"Neues Museum\" (New Museum) by Friedrich August Stüler in 1855, Museum Island began to take form. This was followed by the \"Nationalgalerie\" (now the \"Alte Nationalgalerie\") by Johann Heinrich Strack (1876), the \"Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum\" (now the Bodemuseum) by Ernst von Ihne after plans by Stüler (1904), and the Pergamonmuseum by Alfred Messel and Ludwig Hoffmann (1930). Thus Museum Island evolved into the institution it is today.  Julius Carl Raschdorff's 1894–1905 reconstruction of the \"Berliner Dom\" into a neo-Renaissance cathedral (replacing the classical cathedral designed by Schinkel) severely disrupted the classical ensemble, especially since the new cathedral has significantly larger dimensions than its predecessor.  During National Socialism, the Altes Museum was used as the backdrop for propaganda, both in the museum itself and upon the parade grounds of the redesigned \"Lustgarten\". Just before the end of Second World War, the museum was badly damaged when a tank truck exploded in front of the museum, and the frescoes designed by Schinkel and Peter Cornelius, which adorned the vestibule and the back wall of the portico, were largely lost.  Under General Director Ludwig Justi, the building was the first museum of Museum Island to undergo reconstruction and restoration, which was carried out from 1951 to 1966 by Hans Erich Bogatzky and Theodor Voissen. Following Schinkel's designs, the murals of the rotunda were restored in 1982. However, neither the ornate ceilings of the ground floor exhibition rooms nor the pairs of columns under the girders were reconstructed. The former connection to the \"Neues Museum\" has also not been rebuilt; instead, an underground passageway connecting all of the museums of Museum Island is planned as part of the \"Museumsinsel 2015\" renovations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Antique Collection.", "content": "The Altes Museum was originally constructed to house all of the city's collections of fine arts, including Old Master paintings, and prints and drawings. However, since 1904, the museum has solely housed the \"Antikensammlung\" (Collection of Classical Antiquities). Since 1998, the Collection of Classical Antiquities has displayed its Greek collection, including the treasury, on the ground floor of the Altes Museum. Special exhibitions are displayed on the second floor of the museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Altes Museum (German for Old Museum) is a museum building on Museum Island in Berlin, Germany. Since restoration work in 2010–11, it houses the \"Antikensammlung\" (antiquities collection) of the Berlin State Museums. The museum building was built between 1823 and 1830 by the architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel in the neoclassical style to house the Prussian royal family's art collection. The historic, protected building counts among the most distinguished in neoclassicism and is a high point of Schinkel's career. Until 1845, it was called the \"Königliches Museum\" (Royal Museum). Along with the other museums and historic buildings on Museum Island, the Altes Museum was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973524}
{"src_title": "Ignacy Mościcki", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ignacy Mościcki was born on 1 December 1867 in Mierzanowo, a small village near Ciechanów, Congress Poland. After completing school in Warsaw, he studied chemistry at the Riga Polytechnicum. There he joined the Polish underground leftist organization, \"Proletariat\".  Upon graduating, he returned to Warsaw, but was threatened by the Tsarist secret police with life imprisonment in Siberia and was forced to emigrate in 1892 to London. In 1896 he was offered an assistantship at the University of Fribourg in Switzerland. There he patented a method for cheap industrial production of nitric acid.  In 1912 Mościcki moved to Lemberg (; modern Lviv, Ukraine), in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, where he accepted a chair in physical chemistry and technical electrochemistry at the Lemberg Polytechnic. In 1925 he was elected rector of the Lwów Polytechnic (as it was now called), but soon moved to Warsaw to continue his research at the Warsaw Polytechnic. In 1926, he became an Honorary Member of the Polish Chemical Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "After Józef Piłsudski's May 1926 coup d'état, on 1 June 1926, Mościcki – an erstwhile associate of Piłsudski's in the Polish Socialist Party – was elected president of Poland by the National Assembly, on Piłsudski's recommendation (after Piłsudski himself refused the office).  As president, Mościcki was subservient to Piłsudski, never openly showing dissent from any aspect of the Marshal's leadership. After Piłsudski's death in 1935, Piłsudski's followers divided into three main factions: those supporting Mościcki as Piłsudski's successor; those supporting General Edward Rydz-Śmigły; and those supporting Prime Minister Walery Sławek.  With a view to eliminating Sławek from the game, Mościcki concluded a power-sharing agreement with Rydz-Śmigły, which saw Sławek marginalized as a serious political player by the end of the year. As a result of this agreement, Rydz-Śmigły would become the \"de facto\" leader of Poland until the outbreak of the war, while Mościcki remained influential by continuing in office as president.  Mościcki was the leading moderate figure in the regime, which was referred to as the \"colonels' government\" due to the major presence of military officers in the Polish government. Mościcki opposed many of the nationalist excesses of the more right-wing Rydz-Śmigły, but their pact remained more or less intact.  Mościcki remained president until September 1939, when he was interned in Romania following the German invasion of Poland, and was forced by France to resign his office. He transferred the office to General Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski, who held it for only one day before General Władysław Sikorski and the French government ousted him in favour of Władysław Raczkiewicz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Mościcki was planning to leave for Switzerland after leaving office as President. From 1908 to 1920, he was a citizen of Switzerland; he was also an honorary citizen of the Fribourg commune. The Romanian authorities gave their provisional consent to his departure, but Germany opposed it. Mościcki was offered to US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who was determined to have Mościcki go to Switzerland. The intervention of the US government forced the Romanian authorities to agree. General Sikorski also ordered the Polish embassy in Bucharest to provide all assistance to Mościcki. The president stayed in Romania until December 1939.  Mościcki came to Switzerland through Milan, where he met with Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski. Initially, he lived in Friborg, where he was allowed to continue his scientific work. During this period, among others, he wrote down his memories, which were published by the New York magazine \"Independence\". Mościcki donated money to soldiers of the Polish Army in France, Warsaw residents in prisoner-of-war camps, concentration camps and labor camps. For five months, he taught at the University of Fribourg. Later, he was forced to take up paid work. In 1940, he moved to Geneva, where he worked in the Hydro-Nitro Chemical Laboratory.  Mościcki's health deteriorated rapidly after 1943. He died on 2 October 1946, in Versoix, near Geneva. In 1984, his descendants requested that the remains of Mościcki and his wife be moved from Switzerland to Poland. The relevant Polish authorities agreed that a funeral was to be held in Warsaw and be completely private, without any state ceremonies. However, the authorities of the Canton of Geneva in Switzerland withdrew their agreement for political reasons after protests related to Solidarity from emigrants. In 1993, Mościcki's remains were transported, on behalf of incumbent President Lech Wałęsa, to Poland and deposited in the crypt of St. John's Archcathedral, Warsaw. Mościcki's symbolic grave is located in the Avenue of Merit at the Powązki Cemetery in Warsaw, where his second wife is buried next to him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ignacy Mościcki (; 1 December 18672 October 1946) was a Polish chemist, politician, and President of Poland from 1926 to 1939. He was the longest serving President in Poland's history. He was serving as the president of Poland when Nazi Germany invaded the country on 1 September 1939, starting World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973525}
{"src_title": "Czechoslovakian Wolfdog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1955, Ing. Karel Hartl began to consider crossing a Carpathian grey wolf (\"Canis lupus lupus\") with a German Shepherd-Dog (,, ) as a scientific experiment at the military kennels in Czechoslovakia. A few years later, however, the idea was born to establish a new breed. The first hybrids of a female wolf named \"Brita\" and a male German Shepherd-Dog named \"Cézar\" were born on 26 May 1958 in Libějovice.  Puppies of the first generation resembled the wolf in appearance and behavior. Their upbringing was difficult; training was possible, but the results hardly matched the effort. In adulthood, they were again bred with German Shepherd-Dogs, decreasing the proportion of \"wolf-blood\" to 6.25% in the fourth generation. Most individuals of the third and fourth generations were able to attend a normal course and could be placed in a service performance. Compared with dogs they had better navigational skills, night vision, hearing, and sense of smell. In tests of endurance, hybrids finished the entire 100 km route without being exhausted.  The lecture of Ing. Karel Hartl, \"Results of crossing wolves with dogs\", brought major attention at the World Dog Show held in June 1965 in Brno and in Prague at the annual meeting of the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) and the International Cynologic Congress. In the following year, Ing. Hartl compiled a draft standard of a new dog breed. Mating of the wolf \"Brita\" with the German Shepherd-Dog \"Kurt\" then created the basis of a second line. A third line was made by joining the wolf \"Argo\" with the female German Shepherd-Dog \"Asta\" from the SNB. In 1977, a 3rd-generation hybrid female named \"Xela\" of the border guards was covered by the wolf \"Sarika\"; he also mated with the female \"Urta\" of the border guards.  However, the breed-in-foundation repeatedly refused recognition, and in the 1970s, most breeding dogs were moved to the Slovakian military kennels near Malacky, under the supervision of Vice-commander Major František Rosík. In 1971–1981, litters were born only in Slovakia. In 1982, the Club of Czechoslovakian Wolfdog Breeders (\"Klub chovatelů československého vlčáka\") was founded in Brno, with authority over the entire territory of the former Czechoslovakia.  In 1982, the breed was again presented for recognition by František Rosík through the Club of Czechoslovakian Wolfdog Breeders (now divided into Czech and Slovakian Breed Club), and this time, it was recognized by the Czechoslovakian breeders associations as a national breed. The last addition of wolf-blood took place in 1983. The wolf \"Lejdy\" of Ohrada Zoo in Hluboká nad Vltavou gave birth to last line of the new breed, the father of the puppies being the German Shepherd-Dog \"Bojar von Shottenhof\". Since that time, breeding has been carried out only in closed populations and the developed breed referred to as Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs.  In 1989, it became provisionally recognized as FCI standard no. 332, group 1, section 1. It won the title of \"World Champion\" at the World Dog Show in Brno in 1990. Ten years later, in 1999, the breed confirmed its viability and met all the criteria of the FCI, earning full recognition of the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog breed.  In 2012, the breed numbered 168 adult females and 170 adult males officially registered in the Czech Republic. As of January 2014, the most puppies each year are registered in Italy (up to two hundred), in the Czech Republic (about 100), and in Slovakia (about 50). The breed is growing in popularity in the UK too, with a number of Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs working in Search and Rescue, supported by a dedicated Breed Club.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "DNA analysis.", "content": "In 2015, a DNA study of the breed compared to German Shepherd-Dogs and Carpathian wolves found only two maternal mitochondrial DNA haplotypes and two paternal Y DNA haplotypes within the breed. Both mDNA haplotypes and one yDNA haplotype originated with German Shepherd-Dogs and was the result of back-crossing. The other yDNA haplotype was unique to the breed. All four haplotypes were distinct from those of the parental populations. The results indicate limited introgression of lupine alleles (genetic expressions) within a higher proportion of the canine genome, which is consistent with the backcrossing used in the breed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "Both the build and the haircoat of the Czechoslovak Wolfdog are reminiscent of a wolf. The lowest shoulder height is for a male and for a female, and there is no upper limit. The body frame is rectangular, with the ratio of the height to length being 9:10 or less. The minimum weight is for males and for females. The expression of the head must indicate the sex. Amber eyes set obliquely and short upright ears in a triangular shape are its characteristic features. The set of teeth is complete (42) and very strong; both scissors-shaped and pliers-shaped dentition are acceptable. The spine is straight, strong in movement, with a short loin. The chest is large and flat rather than barrel-shaped. The belly is strong and drawn in. The back is short and slightly sloped; the tail is high set, and when freely lowered reaches the tarsi. The forelimbs are straight and narrow-set, with the paws slightly turned out, with a long radius and metacarpus. The hind limbs are muscular, with a long calf and instep.  The coat colour is yellow-grey to silver-grey, with a light mask. The hair is straight, close, and very thick. The Czechoslovakian Wolfdog is a typical tenacious canterer; its movement is light and harmonious, and its stride is long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "The Czechoslovak Wolfdog is more versatile than specialized. It is considered to be a handful. Distinct from the character of the Saarloos wolfdog, shyness is a disqualifying fault in the Czechoslovak Wolfdog.  The Czechoslovak Wolfdog develops a very strong social relationship—not only with its owner, but with the whole family. It can easily learn to live with other domestic animals that belong to the family; however, difficulties can occur in encounters with strange animals. It is vital to subdue the Czechoslovak Wolfdog's passion for hunting when it is a puppy to avoid aggressive behavior towards smaller animals as an adult. The puppy should never be isolated in the kennel; it must be socialized and get used to different surroundings. Female Czechoslovak Wolfdogs tend to be more easily controllable, but both sexes often experience a stormy adolescence.  The Czechoslovak Wolfdog is very playful, temperamental, and learns easily. However, it does not train spontaneously, the behavior of the Czechoslovak Wolfdog is strictly purposeful—it is necessary to find motivation for training. The most frequent cause of failure is usually the fact that the dog is tired out with long useless repetitions of the same exercise, which results in the loss of motivation. These dogs have admirable senses and are very good at following trails. They are very independent and can cooperate in the pack with a special purposefulness. If required, they can easily shift their activity to the night hours. Sometimes problems can occur during their training when barking is required. Czechoslovak Wolfdogs have a much wider range of means of expressing themselves and barking is unnatural for them; they try to communicate with their masters in other ways (mainly through body language, but also with quiet noises such as growls, grunts, and whining). Generally, teaching the Czechoslovak Wolfdog stable and reliable performance takes a bit longer than teaching traditional specialized breeds. The Czechoslovak Wolfdog has been successfully employed as a Search And Rescue (SAR) dog in Italy, although, admittedly, handling one requires much more work than other breeds.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Czechoslovak Wolfdog (,, ) is a relatively new dog-breed of wolf-dog that traces its original lineage to an experiment conducted in 1955 in Czechoslovakia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973526}
{"src_title": "William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landgrave.", "content": "William was born in Kassel, the eldest son of Landgrave Philip the Magnanimous and Christine of Saxony. After his father's death in 1567, the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided between the four sons out of the late Landgrave of Hesse's first marriage, and William received the portion around the capital Kassel, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel.  William took a leading part in safeguarding the Lutheran Reformation, and was indefatigable in his endeavours to unite the different sections of Protestantism against Catholicism. However, he was reluctant to use military force in this conflict.  As an administrator he displayed rare energy, issuing numerous ordinances, appointing expert officials, and in particular ordering his slender finances. By a law of primogeniture he secured his Landgraviate's land against such testamentary divisions as had diminished his father's estate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Astronomical work.", "content": "William is most notable for his patronage of the arts and sciences. As a youth he had cultivated close connections with scholars and as a ruler he kept up this connection. His interest in astronomy may have been inspired by Petrus Apianus's \"Astronomicum Caesareum\".  William was a pioneer in astronomical research, and perhaps owes his most lasting fame to his discoveries in this branch of study. Most of the mechanical contrivances which made instruments of Tycho Brahe so superior to those of his contemporaries were adopted in Kassel about 1584. From then on the observations made in Hesse-Kassel seem to have been about as accurate as those of Tycho. However the resulting longitudes were 6' too great in consequence of the adopted solar parallax of 3'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hessian star catalogue.", "content": "The principal product of the astronomical observations was the Hessian star catalogue, a catalogue of about a thousand stars. The locations were determined by the methods usually employed in the 16th century, connecting a fundamental star by means of Venus with the sun, and thus finding its longitude and latitude, while other stars could at any time be referred to the fundamental star. It should be noticed that clocks, on which Tycho depended very little, were used at Kassel for finding the difference of right ascension between Venus and the sun before sunset. Tycho preferred observing the angular distance between the sun and Venus when the latter was visible in the daytime.  The Hessian star catalogue was published in \"Historia coelestis\" (Augsburg, 1666) by Albert Curtz, and a number of other observations are to be found in \"Coeli et siderum in eo errantium observationes Hassiacae\" (Leiden, 1618), edited by Willebrord Snell.  R. Wolf, in his \"Astronomische Mittheilungen,\" No. 45 (Vierteljahrsschrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zurich, 1878), has given a resume of the manuscripts still preserved at Kassel, which throw much light on the methods adopted in the observations and reductions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family and children.", "content": "William was married to Sabine of Württemberg, daughter of Christoph, Duke of Württemberg. They had the following children:  In addition William had a few illegitimate children. Most significant and favored among these was Philipp von Cornberg (1553–1616), William's son by Elisabeth Wallenstein. Philipp was ennobled by his father and became the ancestor of the current Barons von Cornberg.  <BR", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William IV of Hesse-Kassel (24 June 1532 – 25 August 1592), also called \"William the Wise\", was the first Landgrave of the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel). He was the founder of the oldest line, which survives to this day.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973527}
{"src_title": "Louise Arbour", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Arbour was born in Montreal, Quebec to Bernard and Rose (née Ravary) Arbour, the owners of a hotel chain. She attended convent school, during which time her parents divorced. As editor of the school magazine, she earned a reputation for irreverence.  In 1967, she graduated from Collège Regina Assumpta, and proceeded to the Université de Montréal where she completed an LL.B. with distinction in 1970. She became the Law Clerk for Justice Louis-Philippe Pigeon of the Supreme Court of Canada in 1971–72 while completing graduate studies at the Faculty of Law (Civil Section) of the University of Ottawa. This is where she met her long time common-law partner Larry Taman, with whom she lived for 27 years. In a 2014 interview, Arbour named the move from Quebec to Ontario as the \"biggest hurdle [she] had to overcome to succeed in [her] career,\" as her entire education had been in French.  She was called to the Bar of Quebec in 1971 and to the Law Society of Upper Canada in 1977.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "She has three adult children: Emilie, Patrick and Catherine. Her daughter Emilie Taman was an NDP candidate in the 2015 Canadian election in the electoral district of Ottawa—Vanier. She also has three grandchildren. Her long time common law partner, Larry Taman, was once Deputy Attorney General of Ontario, working with Attorney General Ian Scott.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Canada.", "content": "From 1972–73, Arbour was research officer for the Law Reform Commission of Canada. She then taught at Osgoode Hall Law School, York University, first as a Lecturer (1974), then as Assistant Professor (1975), Associate Professor (1977-87), and finally as Associate Professor and Associate Dean (1987). She was Vice-President of the Canadian Civil Liberties Association until her appointment to the Supreme Court of Ontario (High Court of Justice) in 1987 and to the Court of Appeal for Ontario in 1990. In 1995, Arbour was appointed as President of a Commission of Inquiry, under the Inquiries Act, for the purpose of investigating and reporting on events at the Prison for Women in Kingston, Ontario, following allegations by prisoners of abuse.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Hague.", "content": "In 1996, at Richard Goldstone's recommendation, Arbour was appointed as his replacement as Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Arusha, and of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in The Hague. She indicted then-Serbian President Slobodan Milošević for war crimes, the first time a serving head of State was called to account before an international court. Other indictees were Milan Milutinović, President of the Republic of Serbia, Nikola Šainović, Deputy Prime Minister of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Dragoljub Ojdanić, Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and Vlajko Stojiljković, Minister of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Serbia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Supreme Court of Canada.", "content": "In 1999, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien appointed Arbour to the Supreme Court of Canada (oc1999-0941) the 26th of May, just one day before the publication of the indictment of Milosevic by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Works and awards.", "content": "She has been published in the area of criminal procedure and criminal law, in both French and English. At various times, she has served as an editor for the \"Criminal Reports\", the \"Canadian Rights Reporter\", and the \"Osgoode Hall Law Journal\".  Arbour has been awarded honorary doctorates by twenty-seven universities. In 2005, Arbour was awarded the Thomas J. Dodd Prize in International Justice and Human Rights, along with Justice Richard Goldstone, in recognition of her work on the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. She was the subject of a 2005 fact-based Canadian-German made-for-television movie, \"Hunt For Justice\" which follows her quest to indict Bosnian Serb war criminals. Arbour was played by Canadian actress Wendy Crewson.  She was made a Companion to the Order of Canada in 2007 \"for her contributions to the Canadian justice system and for her dedication to the advancement of human rights throughout the world\". She was made a Grand Officer of the National Order of Quebec in 2009.  She was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour in 2011. She has been awarded numerous honorary degrees, including Doctor of Civil Laws from the University of Western Ontario in June 2000, Doctor of Humane Letters from Mount Saint Vincent University in May 2001, and Doctor of Laws degrees from the University of British Columbia in November 2001, the University of Waterloo in October 2006, in June 2009 from the University of Alberta and University of Guelph, and from Simon Fraser University in October 2009.  On January 24, 2008, Arbour welcomed the entry into force of the 2004 version of the \"Arab Charter on Human Rights\", which has been criticized for containing the following:Article 2(3) All forms of racism, Zionism and foreign occupation and domination constitute an impediment to human dignity and a major barrier to the exercise of the fundamental rights of peoples; all such practices must be condemned and efforts must be deployed for their elimination. Following criticisms about this statement, Arbour reportedly distanced herself from some aspects of the charter. The Arab Charter remains listed in the Office of the High Commissioner's website, among many texts adopted by international groups aimed at promoting and consolidating democracy.  In September 2008, Arbour gave a lecture, \"Integrating Security, Development and Human Rights\", at the University of San Diego's Joan B. Kroc Institute for Peace & Justice Distinguished Lecture Series.  In 2013, Arbour courted controversy by questioning the international community's policy toolkit.  On 9 March 2017, Madam Arbour was appointed by the U.N. Secretary-General, António Guterres, to be his Special Representative for International Migration. She will lead the follow-up to the migration-related aspects of the 19 September 2016 High-level Summit on Addressing Large Movements of Refugees and Migrants, with an aim to complete negotiations on a Global Compact on migration-related matters in the fall of 2018. In this pact she does neither address the causal issue of overpopulation nor the responsibilities of the member states in this matter.  She is currently a member of the Whitney R. Harris World Law Institute’s International Council.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Louise Arbour, (born February 10, 1947) is a Canadian lawyer, prosecutor and jurist. She is currently the Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General for International Migration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973528}
{"src_title": "Rank–nullity theorem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Stating the theorem.", "content": "Let formula_1, formula_2 be vector spaces, where formula_1 is finite dimensional. Let formula_4 be a linear transformation. Then  where One can refine this theorem via the splitting lemma to be a statement about an isomorphism of spaces, not just dimensions. Explicitly, since induces an isomorphism from formula_8 to formula_9, the existence of a basis for that extends any given basis of formula_10 implies, via the splitting lemma, that formula_11. Taking dimensions, the Rank-Nullity theorem follows immediately.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Matrices.", "content": "Since formula_12, matrices immediately come to mind when discussing linear maps. In the case of an formula_13 matrix, the dimension of the domain is formula_14, the number of columns in the matrix. Thus the Rank-Nullity theorem for a given matrix formula_15 immediately becomes", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proofs.", "content": "Here we provide two proofs. The first operates in the general case, using linear maps. The second proof looks at the homogeneous system formula_17 for formula_18 with rank formula_19 and shows explicitly that there exists a set of formula_20 linearly independent solutions that span the kernel of formula_21.  While the theorem requires that the domain of the linear map be finite-dimensional, there is no such assumption on the codomain. This means that there are linear maps not given by matrices for which the theorem applies. Despite this, the first proof is not actually more general than the second: since the image of the linear map is finite-dimensional, we can represent the map from its domain to its image by a matrix, prove the theorem for that matrix, then compose with the inclusion of the image into the full codomain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First proof.", "content": "Let formula_22 be vector spaces over some field formula_23 and formula_24 defined as in the statement of the theorem with formula_25.  As formula_26 is a subspace, there exists a basis for it. Suppose formula_27 and let be such a basis.  We may now, by the Steinitz exchange lemma, extend formula_29 with formula_30 linearly independent vectors formula_31 to form a full basis of formula_1.  Let such that is a basis for formula_1.  From this, we know that We now claim that formula_37 is a basis for formula_38. By definition, formula_37 is generating; it remains to be shown that it is also linearly independent to conclude that it is a basis.  To summarise, we have formula_29, a basis for formula_50, and formula_37, a basis for formula_48.  Finally we may state that This concludes our proof.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second proof.", "content": "Let formula_18 with formula_19 linearly independent columns (i.e. formula_56). We will show that: To do this, we will produce a matrix formula_57 whose columns form a basis of the null space of formula_21.  Without loss of generality, assume that the first formula_19 columns of formula_21 are linearly independent. So, we can write where  This means that formula_67 for some formula_68 (see rank factorization) and, hence,  Let where formula_71 is the formula_72 identity matrix. We note that formula_57 satisfies  Therefore, each of the formula_20 columns of formula_76 are particular solutions of formula_77.  Furthermore, the formula_20 columns of formula_76 are linearly independent because formula_80 will imply formula_81 for formula_82: Therefore, the column vectors of formula_76 constitute a set of formula_20 linearly independent solutions for formula_77.  We next prove that \"any\" solution of formula_77 must be a linear combination of the columns of formula_76.  For this, let  be any vector such that formula_90. Note that since the columns of formula_66 are linearly independent, formula_92 implies formula_93.  Therefore,  This proves that any vector formula_96 that is a solution of formula_17 must be a linear combination of the formula_20 special solutions given by the columns of formula_76. And we have already seen that the columns of formula_76 are linearly independent. Hence, the columns of formula_76 constitute a basis for the null space of formula_21. Therefore, the nullity of formula_21 is formula_20. Since formula_19 equals rank of formula_21, it follows that formula_107. This concludes our proof.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reformulations and generalizations.", "content": "This theorem is a statement of the first isomorphism theorem of algebra for the case of vector spaces; it generalizes to the splitting lemma.  In more modern language, the theorem can also be phrased as saying that each short exact sequence of vector spaces splits. Explicitly, given that is a short exact sequence of vector spaces, then formula_109, hence Here \"R\" plays the role of im \"T\" and \"U\" is ker \"T\", i.e.  In the finite-dimensional case, this formulation is susceptible to a generalization: if is an exact sequence of finite-dimensional vector spaces, then The rank–nullity theorem for finite-dimensional vector spaces may also be formulated in terms of the \"index\" of a linear map. The index of a linear map formula_113, where formula_1 and formula_2 are finite-dimensional, is defined by  Intuitively, formula_117 is the number of independent solutions formula_118 of the equation formula_119, and formula_120 is the number of independent restrictions that have to be put on formula_121 to make formula_122 solvable. The rank–nullity theorem for finite-dimensional vector spaces is equivalent to the statement  We see that we can easily read off the index of the linear map formula_24 from the involved spaces, without any need to analyze formula_24 in detail. This effect also occurs in a much deeper result: the Atiyah–Singer index theorem states that the index of certain differential operators can be read off the geometry of the involved spaces.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The rank–nullity theorem is a fundamental theorem in linear algebra which relates the dimensions of a linear map's kernel and image with the dimension of its domain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973529}
{"src_title": "Abba Eban", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Cape Town, South Africa, on 2 February 1915 to Lithuanian Jewish parents, Eban moved to the United Kingdom at an early age. As a child, he recalled being sent to his grandfather's house every weekend to study the Hebrew language, Talmud, and Biblical literature. He lived for a period of time in Belfast.  He was educated at St Olave's Grammar School, then in Southwark and read Classics and Oriental languages at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he achieved a double first. During his time at University and afterwards, Eban was highly involved in the Federation of Zionist Youth and was editor of its ideological journal, \"The Young Zionist\".  After graduating, he researched Arabic and Hebrew as a Fellow of Pembroke College from 1938–39. At the outbreak of World War II, he worked for Chaim Weizmann at the World Zionist Organization in London from December 1939.  He served in the British Army in Egypt and Mandate Palestine, becoming an intelligence officer in Jerusalem, where he coordinated and trained volunteers for resistance in the event of a German invasion, serving as a liaison officer for the Allies to the Jewish Yishuv.  After the war he continued in his post, helping to set up and run the British Foreign Office's Middle East Centre for Arab Studies which was originally based in Jerusalem before relocating to Shemlan near Beirut. He was at that time known as \"Aubrey Evans\".  In 1947, he translated from the original Arabic, \"Maze of Justice: Diary of a Country Prosecutor\", a 1937 novel by Tawfiq al-Hakim.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomacy.", "content": "Eban moved back to London briefly to work in the Jewish Agency's Information Department, from which he was posted to New York, where the United Nations General Assembly was considering the \"Palestine Question\". In 1947, he was appointed as a liaison officer to the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine, where he was successful in attaining approval for the recommendation of partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab segments—Resolution 181. At this stage, he changed his name to the Hebrew word Abba, meaning \"Father\".  Eban continued at the United Nations over the next decade. From 1950 to 1959 he also served as his country's ambassador to the United States. He was renowned for his oratorical skills. As Henry Kissinger stated:I have never encountered anyone who matched his command of the English language. Sentences poured forth in mellifluous constructions complicated enough to test the listener’s intelligence and simultaneously leave him transfixed by the speaker's virtuosity. His knowledge of history and fluency in ten languages enhanced his speech-making in the United Nations, even to skeptical or hostile audiences. In 1952, Eban was elected Vice President of the UN General Assembly. A collection of Eban's speeches before the United Nations' Security Council and General Assembly both at universities and other venues between 1948 and 1968 was compiled in \"Voice of Israel\", recently reissued in eBook form by Plunkett Lake Press.  He was known for his witty remarks. For example, when he was complimented on his perfect Oxford English he replied \"Cambridge actually, but in politics one expects to be smeared.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Eban left the United States in 1959 and returned to Israel, where he was elected to the Knesset (the Israeli parliament) as a member of Mapai. He served under David Ben-Gurion as Minister of Education and Culture from 1960 to 1963, then as deputy to Prime Minister Levi Eshkol until 1966. Through this period (1959–66), he also served as president of the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot.  From 1966 to 1974, Eban served as Israel's foreign minister. He defended the country's reputation after the Six-Day War by asserting, in a speech to the United Nations General Assembly, that Israel acted in response to an imminent threat: \"So on the fateful morning of 5 June, when Egyptian forces moved by air and land against Israel's western coast and southern territory, our country's choice was plain\". Nonetheless, he was a strong supporter of trading parts of the territories occupied in the war in exchange for peace. He played an important part in the shaping of UN Security Council Resolution 242 in 1967, as well as Resolution 338 in 1973. Among his other high level contacts, Eban was received by Pope Paul VI in 1969.  Eban was at times criticized for not voicing his opinions in Israel's internal debate. However, he was generally known to be on the \"dovish\" side of Israeli politics and was increasingly outspoken after leaving the cabinet. In 1977 and 1981, it was widely understood that Shimon Peres intended to name Eban Foreign Minister, had the Labor Party won those elections. Eban was offered the chance to serve as minister without portfolio in the 1984 national unity government, but chose to serve instead as Chair of the Knesset's Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee from 1984 to 1988.  His comment that Arabs \"never miss an opportunity to miss an opportunity\" (i.e., for peace), made after the Geneva peace talks in December 1973, is often quoted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1988, after three decades in the Knesset, he lost his seat over internal splits in the Labour Party. He devoted the rest of his life to writing and teaching, including serving as a visiting academic at Princeton University, Columbia University and George Washington University. He also narrated television documentaries including \"Heritage: Civilization and the Jews\" (PBS, 1984), for which he was host, \"Israel, A Nation Is Born\" (1992), and \"On the Brink of Peace\" (PBS, 1997).  Eban died in 2002 and was buried in Kfar Shmaryahu, north of Tel Aviv. He was survived by his wife, Shoshana \"Suzy\" (née Ambache) (sister of Aura Herzog), who died in 2011, and their two children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Eban's son, Eli Eban, is a clarinetist who teaches at Indiana University. Eli has two children, Yael and Omri Eban.  Eban's brother-in-law was Chaim Herzog, the sixth President of Israel. Herzog's son Isaac Herzog was leader of the Israeli Labor Party from 2013–2018.  Eban's cousin, Oliver Sacks, was a neurologist and author. Eban's nephew, Jonathan Lynn, is a filmmaker and script writer known for satirical BBC shows \"Yes Minister\" and \"Yes, Prime Minister\". Lynn recounts that the plot of an episode of \"Yes, Prime Minister\" (\"A Victory for Democracy\"), which involved the British Prime Minister bypassing his own Arab-centric bureaucracy by taking the Israeli ambassador's advice, was based on an actual incident narrated to him by Eban.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "In 2001, Eban was awarded the Israel Prize for lifetime achievement and special contribution to society and the State.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abba Solomon Meir Eban (; ; born Aubrey Solomon Meir Eban; 2 February 1915 – 17 November 2002) was an Israeli diplomat and politician, and a scholar of the Arabic and Hebrew languages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973530}
{"src_title": "Minsk Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "During the 1950s–1970s the population of the city soared over a million and designs for a rapid transit system were initially put up during the late 1960s. Construction began on 3 May 1977, and the system was opened to the public on 30 June 1984, becoming the ninth metro system in the Soviet Union. The original eight station section has since expanded into a two-line 29 station network with of route.  Despite the dissolution of the Soviet Union the construction of Minsk metro continued uninterrupted throughout the 1990s (as opposed to other ex-Soviet Metros like those of Yerevan and Samara, which were halted due to a complete lack of funding). Some experts attribute it to the slow reform of the Soviet planned economy in Belarus, which turned out to be beneficial for the metro expansion. Currently, station launch dates are ahead of original schedule. For example, the final phase of the Aŭtazavodskaja Line, originally planned for 2006, was opened in late 2005, and similarly the northern extension of the Maskoŭskaja Line, originally scheduled for 2008, opened on 7 November 2007. There were also 3 new stations opened on the southern end of the Maskoŭskaja line in November 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational characteristics.", "content": "The city is located on an almost level surface and on very dry soils. As a result, although all of the Minsk Metro stations are under the surface, there are no deep-level stations that are found in most of the ex-Soviet cities. Out of the current 29 stations 19 are pillar-spans and 10 are of vaulted type. Like most of the Soviet metro systems, all of the stations are vividly decorated. Some (notably, Niamiha) exhibit Belarusian national motifs, others focus on more Soviet socialist themes. Although recent years saw more priority on \"high-tech\" decorations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansion plans.", "content": "At present, there are several projects, only one of which is under construction, the southwestern extension of the Maskowskaya line to the new residential districts in the south-west of the city. This project is fully complete, with 3 out of 4 stations opened November 2012, with Malinawka the final station, opened June 2014. The Maskowskaya and Awtazavodskaya lines can potentially receive an extension on both ends of each line.  However, the major project after 2013 will be a third line running from the south to the north-east of the city via the centre, creating two new transfer points with the existing lines. The construction of the third line was expected to start in 2011, delayed to late 2013, and the first stage of the line is expected to open in 2020. This would follow a northern contour parallel to Maskowskaya, and relieve the extensive congestion in the city area, and then extend south of the city.  A fourth line is not expected to be built before 2020. It is expected to connect south-eastern parts of the city with the north-western residential areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Incidents.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1999 stampede.", "content": "On 30 May 1999, a sudden thunderstorm caused a large crowd, from a nearby rock concert, to seek shelter at the Nyamiha station. The limited size of the subways leading into the ticket hall and the wet pavement caused a human crush. Fifty-three people died.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011 bombing.", "content": "The Kastrychnitskaya station was the site of a terrorist bombing on 11 April 2011. Fifteen people were killed.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Minsk Metro (, ) is a rapid transit system that serves Minsk, the capital of Belarus. Opened in 1984, it presently consists of 2 lines and 29 stations, totaling. In 2013, the system carried 328.3 million passengers, which averages to a daily ridership of approximately 899,450.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973531}
{"src_title": "Frank Wilczek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Mineola, New York, of Polish and Italian origin, Wilczek was educated in the public schools of Queens, attending Martin Van Buren High School. It was around this time Wilczek's parents realized that he was exceptional—in part as a result of Frank Wilczek having been administered an IQ test. He was raised Catholic but later \"lost faith in conventional religion\". He has been described as an agnostic but tweeted in 2013 that \"pantheist\" is \"closer to the mark\".  He received his Bachelor of Science in Mathematics and membership in Phi Beta Kappa at the University of Chicago in 1970, a Master of Arts in Mathematics at Princeton University, 1972, and a Ph.D. in physics at Princeton University in 1974. In 1982, he was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship. Wilczek holds the Herman Feshbach Professorship of Physics at MIT Center for Theoretical Physics. He worked at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton and the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of California, Santa Barbara and was also a visiting professor at NORDITA.  Wilczek became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2000. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 2002. Wilczek won the Lilienfeld Prize of the American Physical Society in 2003. In the same year he was awarded the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics Commemorative Medal from Charles University in Prague. He was the co-recipient of the 2003 High Energy and Particle Physics Prize of the European Physical Society. The Nobel Prize in Physics 2004 was awarded jointly to David J. Gross, H. David Politzer and Frank Wilczek \"for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction.” Wilczek was also the co-recipient of the 2005 King Faisal International Prize for Science. On January 25, 2013 Wilczek received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Science and Technology at Uppsala University, Sweden.  He currently serves on the board for Society for Science & the Public and is a co-founding member of the Kosciuszko Foundation of the Collegium of Eminent Scientists of Polish Origin and Ancestry.  Wilczek was married to Betsy Devine on July 3, 1973, and together they have two daughters, Amity (Academic Dean at Deep Springs College) and Mira (senior partner at Link Ventures.)  Wilczek said that \"the world embodies beautiful ideas\" but \"although this may inspire a spiritual interpretation, it does not require one\".  Wilczek has appeared on an episode of \"\", where Penn referred to him as \"the smartest person [they have] ever had on the show.\"  In 2014, Wilczek penned a letter, along with Stephen Hawking and two other scholars, warning that \"Success in creating AI would be the biggest event in human history. Unfortunately, it might also be the last, unless we learn how to avoid the risks.\" He is a member of the Scientific Advisory Board for the Future of Life Institute, an organization that works to mitigate existential risks facing humanity, particularly existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence. He is also a supporter of the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organisation which advocates for democratic reform in the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system.  Wilczek was elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1990 and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "In 1973, while a graduate student working with David Gross at Princeton University, Wilczek (together with Gross) discovered asymptotic freedom, which holds that the closer quarks are to each other, the less the strong interaction (or color charge) between them; when quarks are in extreme proximity, the nuclear force between them is so weak that they behave almost as free particles. The theory, which was independently discovered by H. David Politzer, was important for the development of quantum chromodynamics.  Wilczek has helped reveal and develop axions, anyons, asymptotic freedom, the color superconducting phases of quark matter, and other aspects of quantum field theory. He has worked on condensed matter physics, astrophysics, and particle physics.  In 2012 he proposed the idea of a time crystal. In 2018, several research teams reported the existence of time crystals. In 2018 he and Qing-Dong Jiang calculated that the so-called \"quantum atmosphere\" of materials should theoretically be capable of being probed using existing technology such as diamond probes with nitrogen-vacancy centers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frank Anthony Wilczek (; born May 15, 1951) is an American theoretical physicist, mathematician and a Nobel laureate. He is currently the Herman Feshbach Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Founding Director of T. D. Lee Institute and Chief Scientist at the Wilczek Quantum Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU), Distinguished Professor at Arizona State University (ASU) and full Professor at Stockholm University.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973532}
{"src_title": "2004 Israeli operation in the northern Gaza Strip", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Following the death of two Israeli children from a Qassam rocket launched by Palestinian militants, Israel launched a major military invasion of the northern Gaza strip, focusing on the towns of Beit Hanoun and Beit Lahia and the Jabaliya refugee camp. The stated goal of the operation, code-named \"Days of Penitence\" (ימי תשובה) by the Israeli Defence Force, was to prevent Palestinians from launching rockets and mortar shells into Israeli settlements in Gaza and the town of Sderot in Israel.  During this 17 day attack the Israeli military killed some 130 Palestinians; demolished at least 85 houses and damaged hundreds more; damaged public facilities, including schools, kindergartens and mosques, and destroyed farmland. According to Israeli soldiers, many of the buildings that were demolished were used by Palestinian militants as a cover for launching Qassam rockets and for shooting anti-tank missiles.  During the UN Security Council deliberations over censuring Israel for this military attack, Israel accused the United Nations Relief and Welfare Agency (UNRWA) of complicity in Palestinian attacks by allowing its vehicles to transport rockets. The Israeli government released a video claiming that it showed rockets being loaded into the UNRWA ambulance. UNRWA denied the accusation and demanded an apology stating that the object was a stretcher, not a rocket (the person in the video was carrying the lightweight object with just one hand). On October 6, Israel retracted the accusation.(Reuters) \"See further discussion here\".  The attack resulted in a proposed Security Council resolution condemning the Israeli action, calling for Israeli withdrawal and respect for human rights of Palestinians. The resolution was vetoed by the United States on October 5 who criticized it for ignoring terrorism against Israelis.  Over the weekend of October 17, the Israeli military announced that its troops withdrew from the Jabalia refugee camp and other populated areas and redeployed to positions nearby and proclaimed the attack a success, with a warning that the troops would return if the rocket attacks resume, which analysts from both sides say is likely.  Both sides claimed victory in the operation.  Capt. Jacob Dallal, an Israeli Defence Forces spokesman, acclaimed the operation's success: \"We really impaired the ability to shoot Qassams from Jabalya. We engaged many cells and now there are fewer Hamas members to shoot rockets,\" he says. \"We dealt a hard blow to the whole Hamas infrastructure in Jabalia.\"  The Palestine Information Center published a statement by Hamas spokesman Ismail Hanneya who asserted that the problem was not in resistance or in Qassam missiles but rather in what Hamas views as the Israeli occupation of Palestinian land: \"Hamas achieved a victory over the Zionist enemy... the blows of the resistance and the steadfastness of the people caused the occupying forces to withdraw without achieving any of their goals.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Allegations of Israeli war crimes.", "content": "In 2005 and 2006 Adalah requested the Military Advocate General (MAG) to initiate a criminal investigation into events that took place during \"Operation Rainbow\". In 2007 also for \"Operation Days of Penitence\". All requests had been denied. On 15 April 2007, Adalah, PCHR and Al-Haq filed a petition, in which they asked the Israeli High Court of Justice to order a criminal investigation, referring to many local and international organizations who had accused Israel of committing war crimes. Not earlier than two years later, on 6 May 2009, the Court held a hearing. Another 1.5 years later, on 8 December 2011, the Court rejected the petition because, according to the Israeli judges, the request was too late and too unspecific, the aim of the operations was justified, and a criminal investigation was not the most appropriate tool.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casualties.", "content": "The casualties from 28 September to 16 October 2004 are as follows:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In 2004 the Israeli Defense Forces launched Operation \"Days of Penitence\" (Hebrew: מבצע ימי תשובה), otherwise known as Operation \"Days of Repentance\" in the northern Gaza Strip. The operation lasted between 29 September and 16 October 2004. About 130 Palestinians, and 1 Israeli were killed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973533}
{"src_title": "Sukhoi Su-7", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Original Su-7 fighters.", "content": "On 14 May 1953, after Joseph Stalin's death, the Sukhoi OKB was reopened and by the summer, it began work on a swept-wing front-line fighter. The first prototype, designated S-1, was designed to use the new Lyulka AL-7 turbojet engine. It was the first Soviet aircraft to utilize the all-moving tailplane and a translating centerbody, a movable inlet cone in the air intake for managing airflow to the engine at supersonic speeds. The aircraft also had a dramatic wing sweep of 60°, irreversible hydraulically boosted controls, and an ejection seat of OKB's own design.  The S-1 first flew on 7 September 1955 with A. G. Kochetkov at the controls. Fitted with an afterburning version of the AL-7 engine after the first eleven flights, the prototype set a Soviet speed record of 2,170 km/h (1,170 kn, 1,350 mph, Mach 2.04) in April 1956. The prototype was intended to be armed with three 37 mm Nudelman N-37 cannon and 32 spin-stabilized 57 mm (2.25 in) unguided rockets in a ventral tray. The second prototype, S-2, introduced some aerodynamic refinements. Testing was complicated by the unreliable engine, and S-1 was lost in a crash on 23 November 1956, killing its pilot I. N. Sokolov. Only 132 had been produced between 1957 and 1960, and the aircraft entered service as Su-7 in 1959.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Su-7B fighter-bomber.", "content": "On 31 July 1958, Soviet tactical aviation (\"Frontovaya Aviatsiya\", фронтовая авиация) tasked Sukhoi with developing a ground-attack variant of the Su-7, which could replace the scrapped Ilyushin Il-10. The resulting prototype, S-22, incorporated structural refinements for high-speed, low-altitude operations. It first flew in March 1959, and entered service in 1961 as the Su-7B.  Operationally, Su-7s were hampered by a high landing speed of 340–360 km/h, as dictated by the thin, highly-swept wing. Combined with poor visibility from the cockpit, and lack of an instrument landing system, it made operations very difficult, especially in poor weather or on poor airfields. In 1961–1962, Sukhoi experimented with blown flaps on S-25 but the benefit was too small to warrant implementation. JATO rockets tested on S-22-4 proved more useful and were incorporated into Su-7BKL. Attempts to improve takeoff and landing performance eventually resulted in the Sukhoi Su-17.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Su-7A fighter.", "content": "The front-line fighter version saw limited operational use in the Far East from 1958, but by 1959, a decision was made to proceed with production of the MiG-21, and less than 200 units were deployed. The Su-7A was retired in 1965. They never saw combat.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Su-7B fighter-bomber.", "content": "Su-7B and its variants became the main Soviet ground-attack aircraft of the 1960s. They were also widely exported (691 planes, including also some trainers). However, the very short combat radius and need for long runways limited its operational usefulness. On the other hand, despite its notoriously heavy controls, the Su-7 was popular with pilots for its docile flight characteristics, simple controls and considerable speed even at low altitudes. It also had a reputation for easy maintenance.  In 1977–1986 the Su-7s remaining in Soviet service were replaced by Su-17 and MiG-27.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Egypt.", "content": "The Su-7 saw combat with Egypt in the 1967 Six-Day War, the subsequent War of Attrition, and saw use in the Yom Kippur War by the Egyptians to attack Israeli ground forces.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "India.", "content": "The Indian Air Force (IAF) used the Su-7 extensively in the 1971 war with Pakistan. Six squadrons, totalling 140 aircraft, flew almost 1,500 offensive sorties during the war, and undertook the bulk of the daytime attack efforts. The IAF managed to retain a very high operational tempo with its Su-7s, peaking at a sortie rate of six per pilot per day. Fourteen Su-7s were lost during the war, mostly due to AA fire. After the war, it was found that the aircraft had a high survivability, being able fly home safely despite receiving heavy damage. For example, Wing Commander H. S. Mangat's Su-7 was badly damaged by a Sidewinder missile fired from Pakistan Air Force J-6. The impact was so severe that half the rudder was missing, the elevators, ailerons and flaps were severely damaged, and half the missile was stuck in the chute pipe. The pilot made it back to his base. The death of at least one Indian pilot can be attributed, at least indirectly, to poor cockpit design. A pilot set his seating at a dangerous position \"because he found the bomb sight and the front gun sight easier to operate\" while in that position, and was killed on ejection.  Indian Su-7BMK shot down at least two Shenyang J-6 in the 1971 war. While lossing 3 Su-7 to the J-6", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "A total of 1,847 Su-7 and its variants were built.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sukhoi Su-7 (NATO designation name: Fitter-A) is a swept wing, supersonic fighter aircraft developed by the Soviet Union in 1955. Originally, it was designed as a tactical, low-level dogfighter, but was not successful in this role. On the other hand, the soon-introduced Su-7B series became the main Soviet fighter-bomber and ground-attack aircraft of the 1960s. The Su-7 was rugged in its simplicity but its shortcomings included short range and light weapon load.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973534}
{"src_title": "Edward Bernard Raczyński", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Count Edward Bernard Maria Raczyński was born December 19, 1891 in Zakopane, to a Polish aristocratic family. His father was Count Edward Aleksander Raczyński of Nałęcz coat of arms, and his mother Róża née Countess Potocka. The Raczyńskis were related to the Austro-Hungarian house of Habsburgs. The full name was \"\"Raczyński z Małyszyna\"\", as they were a branch of the noble family \"Nałęcz-Małyski\" from Greater Poland (the area of the town of Wieluń) and about 1540 took their name from the estate of \"Raczyn\" near Wieluń. However, the Raczyńskis remained relatively unknown until the 18th century, when four of them became Senators of Poland under different reigns. One of the Raczyńskis became a Knight of the Order of the White Eagle during the reign of King August the Strong, six of them were awarded the Virtuti Militari order during the time of Duchy of Warsaw and three received the same distinction during the November Uprising of 1831. The title of Count was awarded to different branches of the family by Prussian Kings Friedrich Wilhelm III (in 1824) and Wilhelm II (in 1905). One of their kin was a Knight of the highest Prussian Order of the Black Eagle.  Raczyński spent most of his childhood in Kraków, in the family palace Pod Baranami and in the family palace in Rogalin in Greater Poland. He studied law in Lipsk, Kraków, and London (the London School of Economics) and was awarded with a doctorate of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków in 1915. In November 1918, Raczynski joined the army of the resuscitated Poland, from which he was called to the diplomatic service in May 1919. Until 1925, he worked in Polish embassies and missions in Bern, Copenhagen and London. Back in Warsaw, he became the head of the department of international agreements. In 1932, Raczyński was appointed Polish ambassador to the League of Nations and in 1934 he became the ambassador of the Republic of Poland in the United Kingdom. On behalf of Poland, he signed the Polish-British alliance (August 25, 1939) which ultimately led the United Kingdom to declare war on Nazi Germany after the country's invasion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Following the September 1, 1939 German Invasion of Poland Raczyński remained in London where he continued to serve as the ambassador of the Polish Government in Exile and one of its prominent members. Between July 22, 1941 and July 14, 1943 he was also the Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs in the cabinet of Władysław Sikorski. In this capacity, he provided the Allies with one of the earliest and most accurate accounts of the ongoing Holocaust (\"The mass extermination of Jews in German occupied Poland\", Raczyński's Note addressed to the Governments of the United Nations on December 10, 1942\") and pleaded for action.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After WWII.", "content": "After 1945, when the government of the United Kingdom broke the pacts with Poland and withdrew support for the Polish government, Raczyński remained in London, where he acted as one of the most notable members of Polish diaspora there. He was active in various political and social organisations in exile, including the Fundusz Pomocy Krajowi (\"Help for the Country Fund\") which actively supported the democratic opposition in communist-controlled Poland. Between 1954 and 1972 he was one of the members of the Council of the Three, the collective presidential body of the Polish government in exile. He was also a member of the Committee for Polish Affairs and an advisor of various British governmental agencies and ministries. In March 1979, Raczyński became President in exile, after being previously chosen by the outgoing President Stanisław Ostrowski. In turn, he chose as his successor Prime Minister Kazimierz Sabbat.  During the Raczyński presidency (1979–1986) the Solidarity movement was established in Poland. Raczyński played an important role in raising awareness about the events in Poland in Western countries and in establishing closer ties with the opposition movement in Poland.  President Raczyński at some point considered naming Władysław Bartoszewski as his successor, as he wanted to choose someone \"from the country\" and with strong ties to the Polish opposition movement. Bartoszewski, however, declined the offer.  After serving a 7-year term he resigned from his post on April 8, 1986. He was the last Polish President-in-Exile who had held an important office during the era of the 2nd Republic: his successors, Kazimierz Sabbat and Ryszard Kaczorowski were in their twenties at the outset of the Second World War. As he left office he received a praise for reuniting the Polish political emigration and reshaping the Government in exile.  Edward Raczyński died July 30, 1993, at his home in London as the last male descendant of his line. His coffin was placed in the mausoleum of his family located at the chapel in Rogalin. In his last will and testament, Count Raczyński bequeathed his family's palace in Rogalin, and his library to the Polish nation. He was the longest living head of state in Poland's history and one of the very few centenarians among European politicians of the 20th century.  In 2004, a blue plaque was installed on the house where he lived and died, No. 8 Lennox Gardens in Brompton.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1925, Edward Raczyński married Joyous Markham, daughter of a British coal mining mogul, Sir Arthur Markham, 1st Baronet, but she died in 1931.  On August 25, 1932 he married his second wife, Cecylia Maria Jaroszyńska, by whom he had three daughters: In 1962, his second wife Cecylia died.  In 1991, at the age of 99, Edward Raczyński married his third wife, Aniela Lilpop (daughter of architect, Franciszek Lilpop), thus legalizing a union of many years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Raczyński's Works Family History  Raczyński's Biography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Count Edward Bernard Raczyński (December 19, 1891 – July 30, 1993) was a Polish diplomat, writer, politician and President of Poland in exile (between 1979 and 1986).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973535}
{"src_title": "Émile Jaques-Dalcroze", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Émile Henri Jaques was born in Vienna, in 1865. He later adapted the name Émile Jaques-Dalcroze. His mother, Julie Jaques, was a music teacher, so he was in contact with music since his childhood. Naturally, by influence of his mother, Dalcroze formally begun his musical studies still in his early years. When he was 10 years old, his family moved to Geneva, Switzerland, and in 1877 Dalcroze joined the \"Conservatoire de Musique\". He also studied at the College of Geneva, which he did not appreciate. Dalcroze considered the College as a \"prison\" where education was basically rules, which were not concerned about the students' interests.  In 1881, he was part of Belles-Lettres Literary Society, a students' group dedicated to acting, writing, and performing music in general. At that time, Dalcroze felt more interested in composing. In the year of 1884, he studied composition with Léo Delibes and Gabriel Fauré. Around the same year he was part of the Comedie Francaise. Further on he studied composition with Mathis Lussy, which influenced him in the process of rhythmic development. By the year 1886 he was the assistant conductor in Argelia, where he discovered Arabia's folk music. In contact with this kind of music, Dalcroze noticed that there were different worlds of rhythmic expression, where each of them would require a particular way of writing, as well a unique performance style. Accordingly, he developed a new kind of music notation. In 1887, he went to Conservatory of Vienna, where he studied with Anton Bruckner.  He was appointed professor of Harmony at the Conservatoire de Musique de Genève in 1892, but in 1910 he left the Conservatory and established his own school in Hellerau, nearby Dresden. Many great exponents of modern dance in the twentieth century spent time at the school including Kurt Jooss and Hanya Holm, Rudolf Laban, Maria Rambert, Uday Shankar and Mary Wigman. In 1911, Dalcroze and his students were invited by Prince Sergei Volkonsky to show their work in St. Petersburg and Moscow, establishing eurhythmics at the Moscow Art Theatre and inspiring Stanislavski's \"tempo-rhythm\". He came back to Geneva in 1914 to open a new institute and in 1920 the school was moved to Helleray Laxenburg, near Vienna. However the school was closed by the Nazis. He died in Geneva, on July 1, 1950.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Educational philosophy.", "content": "In his search for a more intense rhythmic experience, Dalcroze posed some questions. First, he questioned why music theory and notation were taught as abstractions, dissociated from sound, movements and feelings that they represented. Moreover, by taking the pianist as an example, he asked how the finger technique taught by professors could be considered a complete musical education. Finally, he was intrigued that the qualities that characterize a real musician were rarely experienced in a music class.  Dalcroze believed the first instrument that must be trained in music is the body. He developed techniques that combined hearing with a physical response, transferring to a physical response in singing and reading music. He did many experiments with his students, used to help in the process of learning and feeling music. His main goal was to develop the inner ear to facilitate musical thinking, reading and writing music without the help of an instrument. While continuing to build his methodology, he observed his students and noticed that the students who could not play in time in the music world, were able to walk in time in the real world. The walking was completely spontaneous and easy. He observed that some of his best students could tap the beat using their feet, or shake their heads and bodies in response to music. This physical response was natural and common to all ages and cultures.  Moreover, he noticed that students would change their movements when following a crescendo, and would respond physically to the accents of the music. They also relaxed their muscles with the endings of phrases. As they seemed to hear the music, feeling its effects, he concluded that the students themselves were the instruments, not the piano.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dalcroze eurhythmics.", "content": "Dalcroze noticed that students had a mechanical understanding instead of a musical comprehension. They were not able to hear harmonies that they wrote in the music theory classes, and they could not create simple melodies and chord sequences. This resulted in a lack of musical sensitivity that caused problems in the performance. His effort was to find ways to help their students to develop skills of feel more, hear, create, imagine, connect, memorize, reading and writing, as well performance and interpretation in music. He worked in order to free the students from the conflicts between mind and body, feeling and expression.  Dalcroze realized that the aspects of music that are more connected to the senses are the rhythm and the movement. Regarding the three elements of music: pitch, rhythm and dynamic, he recognized that the last two were entirely dependent on the movement. He also found their best models in the muscular system. For him, all degrees of time (tempi) can be experienced, understood and expressed through the body. He felt that the enthusiasm of musical feelings depended on the sharpness of physical sensations. He was convinced that the combination of intense listening and the responses of the body would generate and release a powerful musical force.  Dalcroze needed a laboratory to test his theories. By working with students, he decided to hire his own workspace. He started to look for principles, teaching strategies, teaching styles and methods that could convert music into a practical educational tool. The principles and methods that they developed were unique and new, so they had given a special name: eurhythmics.  In the beginning, Dalcroze thought that the solution to many problems would be basically teaching musicians to contract and relax in a specific time (the speed of sound or time), in a specific space (the duration of a sound), and with a particular force (energy dynamics of a sound). Thus, he worked on a new series of exercises designed to help students strengthen their perception by the metric and its instincts by many streams of the movement, called rhythm. Then, he began to propose exercises by playing music and suggesting that students walk as they would feel the pulse. Surprisingly, students acted differently and had difficulties in different tempos. Therefore, he deduced that people still had trouble reaching the goal of speed, accuracy, and performance by being rhythmically expressive. He realized that there could be some system of quick communication between the brain, which understand and analyzes, and the muscles that performs – a system to e from the brain, which studies the performance of the body and sends the information to be corrected.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Objectives of Dalcroze Eurhythmics.", "content": "1. Mental and Emotional: awareness, concentration, social integration, realization and expression of nuances.  2. Physical: to make the performance easier, to make the performance accurate, to develop personal expressiveness through the performance.  3. Musical: quickness, precision, comfort, expressive personal response to the listening, analysis, writing and improvisation.  Dalcroze Eurhythmics practices 3 concepts:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Techniques of Dalcroze Eurhythmics.", "content": "In 1905, Dalcroze organized thousands of games and exercises by connecting beautiful music, intense listening, and consciously improvised movement. According to him, the professor must be able to improvise the songs for the activities in the music class.  The motion approached by Dalcroze were: movements, postures and gestures to express the tempo, duration, dynamics, accents, and other elements that produce rhythmic material.  https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/ttu-ir/handle/2346/15905", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (6 July 1865 – 1 July 1950) was a Swiss composer, musician and music educator who developed Dalcroze Eurhythmics, an approach to learning and experiencing music through movement. Dalcroze eurhythmics influenced Carl Orff's pedagogy, used in music education throughout the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973536}
{"src_title": "Constantine, Algeria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient history.", "content": "The city was originally founded by the Phoenicians, who called it Sewa (royal city). Later it was renamed Cirta by the Numidian king Syphax, who turned it into his capital. The city was taken over by Numidia, the country of the Berber people, after the Carthaginians were defeated by Rome in the Third Punic War. In 112 B.C., the city was occupied by the Numidian king Jugurtha, who defeated his half-brother Adherbal. The city later served as the base for Roman generals Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus and Gaius Marius in their war against Jugurtha. Later, with the removal of King Juba I and the remaining supporters of Pompey in Africa (c. 46), Julius Caesar gave special rights to the citizens of Cirta, now known as Colonia Sittlanorum.  In 311 AD, during the civil war between emperor Maxentius and usurper Domitius Alexander (a former governor of Africa), the city was destroyed. Rebuilt in 313 AD, it was subsequently named in Latin as \"Colonia Constantiniana\" or \"Constantina\", after emperor Constantine the Great, who had defeated Maxentius. Captured by the Vandals in 432, Constantine returned to the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa (\"i.e.\" North Africa) from 534 to 697. It was conquered by the Arabs in the 8th century, receiving the name of \"Qacentina\".  During the 11th century, Banu Hilal, an Arab tribe living between Nile and Red Sea, settled in Tunisia, Tripolitania (western Libya) and Constantinois (eastern Algeria) which was Constantine party.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "The city recovered in the 12th century and under Almohad and Hafsid rule it was again a prosperous market, with links to Pisa, Genoa and Venice. After 1529 it was intermittently part of Ottoman Empire, ruled by a Turkish bey (governor) subordinate to the dey of Algiers. Salah Bey, who ruled the city in 1770–1792, greatly embellished it and built much of the Muslim architecture still visible today.  In 1826 the last bey, Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif, became the new head of state. He led a fierce resistance against French forces, which had invaded Algeria four years later. By 13 October 1837, the territory was captured by France, and from 1848 on until 1962 it was an integral part of the French motherland and centre of the Constantine Département. In 1880, while working in the military hospital in Constantine, Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran discovered that the cause of malaria is a protozoan. He observed the parasites in a blood smear taken from a soldier who had just died of malaria. For this, he received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. This was the first time that protozoa were shown to be a cause of disease. His work helped inspire researchers and veterinarians today to try to find a cure for malaria in animals.  In 1934, Muslim anti-Jewish riots, the 1934 Constantine Pogrom, caused the death of 34 local Jews.  During World War II, during the campaign in North Africa (1942–43), Allied forces used Constantine and the nearby cities of Sétif and Bone as operational bases.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Constantine is situated on a plateau at an elevation above sea level. The city is framed by a deep ravine and has a dramatic appearance. The city is very picturesque with a number of bridges over Rhumel River and a viaduct crossing the ravine. The ravine is crossed by seven bridges, including Sidi M'Cid bridge. Constantine is the railhead of a prosperous and diverse agricultural area. It is also a centre of the grain trade and has flour mills, a tractor factory, and industries producing textiles, wool, linen and leather goods. Algeria and Tunisia serve as its markets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Constantine has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification \"Csa\"), with hot, dry summers and mild, moist winters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "The city is framed by a deep ravine and has a dramatic appearance. In 1911, Baedeker described it as \"resembling the Kasba of Algiers, the picturesque charm of which has so far been marred by the construction of but a few new streets.\"  Nearby are", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The City of Bridges.", "content": "The topography of the city is unique and it determines the need for bridges. At the end of the 19th century, Guy de Maupassant wrote: \"Eight bridges used to cross this ravine. Six of these bridges are in ruins today.\" Today the most important bridges are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Constantine has in general four universities: two of them are downtown Constantine Mentouri Public University, designed by the Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer, and Algerian architect Rashid Hassaine, including Zerzara technical engineering pole, Zouaghi Slimane Geography and Earth Sciences Pole, and in the City of El-Khroub is the Institute of Veterinary Sciences. Emir Abdelkader University is one of the biggest Islamic universities with many faculties covering religious studies, foreign languages, literature. Constantine's new town \"nouvelle ville ali mendjeli\" has two big universities: Université Constantine 2 known as \"lella nsoumer\" offering maths, computer and economy majors, and the new university is actually a university pole with more than 20,000 students, 17 faculties and more than 40,000 residents. It is now the largest African university under the name of \"Université Salah Boubnider\" known as \"Université Constantine 3\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Constantine is served by Mohamed Boudiaf International Airport.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twin towns—Sister cities.", "content": "Constantine is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "Constantine has been the hometown of many noteworthy people in Algeria and France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Constantine ( \"\"), also spelled \"Qacentina\" or \"Kasantina\", is the capital of Constantine Province in northeastern Algeria. During Roman times it was called Cirta and was renamed \"Constantina\" in honor of emperor Constantine the Great. It was the capital of the French department of Constantine until 1962. Located somewhat inland, Constantine is about from the Mediterranean coast, on the banks of the tiny Rhumel River (more of a brook).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973537}
{"src_title": "National Union (Israel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The National Union was formed in 1999 to contest the elections of that year as an alliance between Moledet, Tkuma, and Herut – The National Movement, winning four seats. In 2001, the party's support was almost doubled by the addition of the predominantly Russian-immigrant party, Yisrael Beiteinu.  After Ariel Sharon won the 2001 Prime Ministerial elections, National Union was brought into the National Unity Government, and party leader Rehavam Zeevi was appointed Minister of Tourism, with Yisrael Beiteinu leader Avigdor Lieberman becoming Minister of National Infrastructure. When Zeevi was assassinated on 17 October 2001, Binyamin Elon of Moledet took his ministerial position, and Lieberman became head of the National Union.  Herut ran independently in the 2003 elections, and did not pass the barrier. The National Union party won seven seats, and was included in Ariel Sharon's coalition, alongside Likud, Shinui, the National Religious Party, and Yisrael BaAliyah. Elon and Lieberman were appointed Minister of Tourism and Minister of Transportation, respectively.  The National Union opposed the withdrawal from the Gaza Strip. Sharon sacked ministers Elon and Lieberman, and the National Union left the coalition (Elon attempted to avoid sacking by going into hiding, but ultimately failed).  However, the National Union was then bolstered by the addition of the Renewed Religious National Zionist Party (later renamed Ahi), which had been formed by NRP dissidents opposed to the Gaza withdrawal after the NRP had decided to remain in the coalition. After withdrawal, the National Union adopted orange as its symbol, the color having been used by anti-disengagement protesters. In 2005, Yisrael Beiteinu left the National Union to run independently in the 2006 elections. At the last minute, the National Religious Party decided to form a joint list with National Union called \"National Union - NRP\". The combined list adopted more social policies, and won the support of the chief rabbis of Religious Zionism (such as Rabbi Abraham Shapira), and the Union of Handicapped (thanks to the NRP's pro-handicapped legislation). The joint list used the slogan \"New Right Rising\" (Hebrew: ימין חדש עולה, \"Yamin Hadash Oleh\"), and won nine seats, of which the National Union took six.  In 2008, in anticipation of the 2009 elections, the National Union and NRP formally unified into a single party, called the Jewish Home. This was intended to unify their political sector and present the public with a new face for the religious Zionist movement. The Jewish Home was to be a single party, rather than a list of separate parties, each with its own agenda and independent leadership. Professor Daniel Hershkowitz was picked to head the newly formed party. However, MK Aryeh Eldad left to form his own list, Hatikva, while MKs Effi Eitam and Yitzhak Levy (formerly of Ahi) re-established Ahi, which later merged into Likud. When the Jewish Home announced its candidate list for the elections, five of the top six slots went to ex-NRP members, with only MK Uri Ariel, formerly of Tkuma, in the top six.  The remaining ex-Moledet members broke off, re-established their party, and allied with MK Eldad's Hatikva, reviving the National Union name. Elon stated that he would not seek re-election, and American immigrant Uri Bank took his place on the Jewish Home list. The split from Jewish Home grew, and polls indicated Hatikva could win three seats. Eretz Yisrael Shelanu also joined the National Union, with member Michael Ben-Ari given fourth spot on the alliance's list. While these issues were being negotiated, Uri Ariel also left Jewish Home and rejoined the National Union list, leaving Jewish Home as little more than a renamed NRP.  In preparation for the 2013 Knesset elections, the Tkuma faction of the National Union merged with The Jewish Home. Ya'akov Katz, chairman of the party, asked to be lower on the list of Tkuma members, and soon after resigned from politics. Hatikva and Eretz Yisrael Shelanu broke off, and merged to form Otzma LeYisrael. while Moledet and Tkuma are merging with The Jewish Home (HaBayit HaYehudi). In the elections held on 22 January 2013, The Jewish Home gained 9.1% of the vote, and twelve seats in the Knesset.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "National Union had come under scrutiny for its sympathy towards right-wing \"price-tag\" militants, who engaged in vandalist activities targeting both the state of Israel and Palestinians, including siding with such militants in clashes with Israeli authorities. When a group of \"hilltop youth\" militants attacked an Israeli army base in late 2011, MK Uri Ariel protested Israeli officials who called the group \"terrorists\", and condemned calls for the use of lethal force to repel such attacks in the future. In January 2012, Ariel admitted to giving IDF troop movement information to such militants in order to facilitate disruption of army activities.  In 2009, MK Michael Ben-Ari was arrested after interfering with police attempts to arrest a settler who had been rioting against Palestinians in protest of proposed settlement evacuations. In March 2011, Ben-Ari criticized arrests of settlers who had thrown stones at the police in order to block the service of an arrest warrant, comparing Internal Security Minister Yitzhak Aharonovitch to Muammar Gaddafi and declaring that \"his days are numbered\".  In 2012, MK Aryeh Eldad and MK Michael Ben-Ari sparked controversy by calling for asylum seekers entering Israel to be shot.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The National Union (, \"HaIhud HaLeumi\") was an alliance of right-wing and nationalist political parties in Israel. In its final full form, the alliance consisted of four parties: Moledet, Hatikva, Eretz Yisrael Shelanu, and Tkuma. Leading up to the 2013 Knesset elections, only Tkuma remained, and joined The Jewish Home. During its existence, it had also included Ahi, Herut – The National Movement, the Jewish National Front, and Yisrael Beiteinu.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973538}
{"src_title": "Cyrenaics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the school.", "content": "The history of the Cyrenaic school begins with Aristippus of Cyrene, who was born around 435 BCE. He came to Athens as a young man and became a pupil of Socrates. We have only limited knowledge of his movements after the execution of Socrates in 399 BCE, although he is said to have lived for a time in the court of Dionysius of Syracuse.  It is uncertain precisely which doctrines ascribed to the Cyrenaic school were formulated by Aristippus. Diogenes Laërtius, based on the authority of Sotion and Panaetius, provided a long list of books said to have been written by Aristippus. However, Diogenes also wrote that Sosicrates had stated that Aristippus had written nothing. Among Aristippus' pupils was his daughter, Arete of Cyrene, who passed on his teachings to her own son Aristippus the Younger. It was he, according to Aristocles, who turned the teachings of his grandfather into a comprehensive system. At the least, however, it can be said that the foundations of Cyrenaic philosophy were ideas originated by the elder Aristippus.  After the time of the younger Aristippus, the school broke up into different factions, represented by Anniceris, Hegesias, and Theodorus, who all developed rival interpretations of Cyrenaic doctrines, many of which were responses to the new system of hedonistic philosophy laid down by Epicurus. By the middle of the 3rd century BC, the Cyrenaic school was obsolete; Epicureanism had successfully beaten its Cyrenaic rivals by offering a system which was more sophisticated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "The Cyrenaics were hedonists and held that pleasure was the supreme good in life, especially physical pleasure, which they thought more intense and more desirable than mental pleasures. Pleasure is the only good in life and pain is the only evil. Socrates had held that virtue was the only human good, but he had also accepted a limited role for its utilitarian side, allowing pleasure to be a secondary goal of moral action. Aristippus and his followers seized upon this, and made pleasure the sole final goal of life, denying that virtue had any intrinsic value.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epistemology.", "content": "The Cyrenaics were known for their skeptical theory of knowledge. They reduced logic to a basic doctrine concerning the criterion of truth. They thought that we can know with certainty our immediate sense-experiences (for instance, that I am having a sweet sensation now) but can know nothing about the nature of the objects that cause these sensations (for instance, that the honey is sweet). They also denied that we can have knowledge of what the experiences of other people are like.  All knowledge is of one's own immediate sensation. These sensations are motions which are purely subjective, and are painful, indifferent or pleasant, according as they are violent, tranquil or gentle. Further they are entirely individual, and can in no way be described as being of the world objectively. Feeling, therefore, is the only possible criterion of knowledge and of conduct. Our ways of being affected are alone knowable. Thus the sole aim for everyone should be pleasure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ethics.", "content": "Cyrenaicism deduces a single, universal aim for all people which is pleasure. Furthermore, all feeling is momentary and homogeneous. It follows that past and future pleasure have no real existence for us, and that among present pleasures there is no distinction of kind. Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures of the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the validity of this distinction and said that bodily pleasures, being more simple and more intense, were preferable. Momentary pleasure, preferably of a physical kind, is the only good for humans.  However some actions which give immediate pleasure can create more than their equivalent of pain. The wise person should be in control of pleasures rather than be enslaved to them, otherwise pain will result, and this requires judgement to evaluate the different pleasures of life. Regard should be paid to law and custom, because even though these things have no intrinsic value on their own, violating them will lead to unpleasant penalties being imposed by others. Likewise, friendship and justice are useful because of the pleasure they provide. Thus the Cyrenaics believed in the hedonistic value of social obligation and altruistic behavior. Like many of the leading modern utilitarians, they combined with their psychological distrust of popular judgments of right and wrong, and their firm conviction that all such distinctions are based solely on law and convention, the equally unwavering principle that the wise person who would pursue pleasure logically must abstain from that which is usually thought wrong or unjust. This idea, which occupies a prominent position in systems like those of Jeremy Bentham, Volney, and even William Paley, was clearly of prime importance to the Cyrenaics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later Cyrenaics.", "content": "The later Cyrenaics, Anniceris, Hegesias, and Theodorus, all developed variations on the standard Cyrenaic doctrine. For Anniceris, pleasure is achieved through individual acts of gratification which are sought for the pleasure that they produce, but Anniceris laid great emphasis on the love of family, country, friendship and gratitude, which provide pleasure even when they demand sacrifice. Hegesias believed that happiness is impossible to achieve, and hence the goal of life becomes the avoidance of pain and sorrow. Conventional values such as wealth, poverty, freedom, and slavery are all indifferent and produce no more pleasure than pain. For Hegesias, Cyrenaic hedonism was simply the least irrational strategy for dealing with the pains of life. For Theodorus, the goal of life is mental pleasure not bodily pleasure, and he placed greater emphasis on the need for moderation and justice. He was also famous for being an atheist. To some extent these philosophers were all trying to meet the challenge laid down by Epicureanism, and the success of Epicurus was in developing a system of philosophy which would prove to be more comprehensive and sophisticated than its rivals'.  The philosophy of the Cyrenaics around the time of Hegesias of Cyrene evolved in a way that has similarities with Skepticism, Epicurianism and also Buddhism. In fact, there are striking similarities with the tenets of Buddhism, in particular the Four Noble Truths and the concept of Dukkha or \"suffering\". Coincidentally, the rulers of Cyrene around the time Hegesias flourished, the Ptolemaic king of Egypt Ptolemy II Philadelphus and from 276 BC the independent king Magas of Cyrene, are both claimed to have been recipients of Buddhist missionaries from the Indian king Ashoka according to the latter's Edicts. It is therefore sometimes thought that Hegesias may have been directly influenced by Buddhist teachings through contacts with the alleged missionaries sent to his rulers in the 3rd century BC.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Cyrenaics or Kyrenaics (; \"Kyrēnaïkoí\") were a sensual hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BCE, supposedly by Aristippus of Cyrene, although many of the principles of the school are believed to have been formalized by his grandson of the same name, Aristippus the Younger. The school was so called after Cyrene, the birthplace of Aristippus. It was one of the earliest Socratic schools. The Cyrenaics taught that the only intrinsic good is pleasure, which meant not just the absence of pain (as it did for Epicurus), but positively enjoyable sensations. Of these, momentary pleasures, especially physical ones, are stronger than those of anticipation or memory. They did, however, recognize the value of social obligation and that pleasure could be gained from altruistic behaviour. The school died out within a century and was replaced by the philosophy of Epicureanism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973539}
{"src_title": "Brussels Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "STIB/MIVB was created in 1954. The first underground tramway (or premetro) line was built between 1965 and 1969, from Schuman to De Brouckère. In 1970 a second line was opened, between Madou and Porte de Namur/Naamsepoort. An underground station at Diamant was opened in 1972 and the \"outer ring\" line was extended from Diamant to Boileau in 1975. This underground tramway section has not been developed further, and it is used by tramway lines 7 and 25. Rogier station was inaugurated in 1974.  On 20 September 1976 the first metro opened. One branch went from De Brouckère to Beaulieu (in Auderghem), and the other one linked De Brouckère with Tomberg (in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert). The same year, the North-South Axis (premetro) was opened between the North Station and Lemonnier. In 1977 two new stations were built: Sainte-Catherine/Sint-Katelijne, which replaced De Brouckère as the last stop in the municipality of Brussels, and Demey, which replaced Beaulieu as the last stop of the southern branch.  The next extension was the opening of stations in Molenbeek-Saint-Jean (Beekkant, the new terminus, Etangs Noirs/Zwarte Vijvers and Comte de Flandre/Graaf van Vlaanderen). In 1982, line 1 was split into line 1A from Bockstael (in Laeken, a former municipality now merged with Brussels) to Demey (Auderghem) and line 1B from Saint-Guidon/Sint-Guido (in Anderlecht) to Alma (at the Université catholique de Louvain campus in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert). Three years later, line 1A was extended to Heysel (near the site of the 1958 World Fair and the Heysel Stadium) at one end and to Herrmann-Debroux at the other. That year also saw the opening of Veeweyde on line 1B, and Louise/Louiza on the premetro line under the small ring (from Louise/Louiza to Rogier).  This line was extended to Simonis the next year and opened as metro line 2 in 1988, from Simonis to the South Station. Kraainem/Crainhem and Stockel/Stokkel opened in 1988 on the line 1B. At the other end of this line, Bizet opened in 1992. It was then the turn of line 2 to reach Clemenceau in 1993. The premetro section known as the North-South Axis, sometimes referred to as line 3, was extended to Albert that year with five new premetro stations (South Station, Porte de Hal/Hallepoort, Parvis de Saint-Gilles/Sint-Gillis Voorplein, Horta and Albert).  In 1998 Roi Baudouin/King Boudewijn opened on line 1A. Four stations opened in 2003 on line 1B: La Roue/Het Rad, CERIA/COOVI, Eddy Merckx and Erasme/Erasmus. With the opening of Delacroix in September 2006, line 2 was extended beyond Clemenceau. A further extension to Gare de l'Ouest/Weststation in April 2009 closed the loop of line 2 and led to a major restructuring of metro service.  On 22 March 2016, the Islamic State bombed Maalbeek metro station in a terrorist attack that coincided with another bomb attack at Brussels Airport. The bombing at Maalbeek station killed twenty people. The incident prompted the temporary closure of the entire system, and a major reduction in service for several weeks. A fundamental review of security procedures on the metro is underway as of 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lines and stations.", "content": "There are four conventional metro lines and,, 59 stations (not including premetro stations). Most stations are underground, although some on lines 5 and 6 are at ground level. On 4 April 2009, the connection at Gare de l'Ouest/Weststation that enables line 2 to form a circular line was put into service. As a consequence, the metro network was significantly reorganised. The development plan for this change and related tram and bus network changes was approved by the Brussels Capital Region in July 2005.  As of 4 April 2009 the four lines are as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Premetro.", "content": "Line 3 and Line 4 are tram lines using the North-South Axis tunnel which crosses the city center from Brussels-North railway station to Brussels-South railway station and Albert premetro station. Line 3 runs from Churchill in the south to Esplanade in the north. Line 4 runs from Brussels-North railway station to the Stalle car park in the south.  Line 7 is the main line of the greater ring, replacing Tram 23 and Tram 24 as of 14 March 2011. It services the Heysel/Heizel, runs under the Laeken Parc and then via the greater ring to the terminus of Line 3 to terminate one stop later at \"Vanderkindere\" for connections to tram lines 3, 4 and 92.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ticketing.", "content": "MoBIB is the STIB/MIVB smart card, introduced in 2007. It uses contactless technology based on the Calypso-system, comparable with London's Oyster card. All Metro stations, buses and trams have MoBIB readers. It is possible to buy monthly passes, yearly passes, 1 and 10-trip tickets and daily and 3-day passes. Customers can now buy these on the Internet with a card reader. GO vending machines accept coins, local and international chip and PIN credit and debit cards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "The Brussels Metro is served by 217 carriages of M1-M5 series, manufactured by La Brugeoise et Nivelles, ACEC, Bombardier Transportation, Alstom and CAF and delivered between 1976 and 1999, as well as 21 six-car trainsets of the new M6 series (also known as \"Boa\"), manufactured by CAF and delivered between 2007 and 2012. A new train type known as M7 series will be commissioned on lines 1 and 5 in 2018 and will be fully automated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future.", "content": "The STIB/MIVB had plans to make lines 1 and 5 fully automatic by 2016 which would have allowed a significant increase in the frequency of trains.  A new metro line will be created from Brussels-North railway station through Schaerbeek towards Bordet railway station. The plan was finally approved in 2013, aiming to start construction in 2018 and operation in 2022. Eventually, this would be linked up with a new southbound line to Uccle (Héros/Helden), which will not be finished before 2025. At this moment, the axis of lines 3 and 4 is being transformed in a new metroline 3. For this, the existing stations will be upgraded. The present station Lemonnier though will be replaced with a new station Constitution/Grondwet.  In 2004, STIB/MIVB commissioned a planning document called STIB/MIVB 2020. More suggestions were made as to future plans, but these will not be enacted before completion of the north- and southbound lines. One suggestion included the construction of a new branch from Merode to Troon via Brussels-Luxembourg Station. This would help to relieve congestion on the central parts of Line 1/5. There may be a further metro line running south-west from Brussels-Luxembourg Station to Ixelles, the Chaussée de Waterloo/Waterloosesteenweg, and the Place Vanderkindereplein. Brussels-Luxembourg Station would become one of the major transfer points of the metro. The plan also hopes to make the railway stations more inter-connected, allowing for easier transfers from Brussels-South railway station, Schuman station, and Luxembourg.  The metro system is complemented by an S-train network serving the broader metropolitan region opened in late 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Brussels Metro (, ) is a rapid transit system serving a large part of the Brussels-Capital Region of Belgium. It consists of four conventional metro lines and three premetro lines. The metro-grade lines are M1, M2, M5, and M6 with some shared sections, covering a total of, with 59 metro-only stations. The premetro network consists of three tram lines (T3, T4, and T7) that partly travel over underground sections that were intended to be eventually converted into metro lines. Underground stations in the premetro network use the same design as metro stations. A few short underground tramway sections exist, so there is a total of of underground metro and tram network. There are a total of 69 metro and premetro stations as of 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973540}
{"src_title": "Margaret of Austria, Queen of Bohemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Margaret was the eldest daughter of Duke Leopold VI of Austria (d. 1230) and his wife Theodora Angelina, a member of the Byzantine Imperial Angelus dynasty. Since 1198 Duke Leopold, according to the Georgenberg Pact, ruled over both the duchies of Austria and Styria. His court in Vienna became known as a centre of medieval Minnesang and he also played an important rule in the Empire's policies, acting as an arbitrator in the struggle between the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First marriage.", "content": "In the Imperial City of Nuremberg, on 29 November 1225, the 21-year-old Margaret was married to the 14-year-old Henry, eldest son of Emperor Frederick II and elected King of the Romans since 1222. Frederick's counsellor Archbishop Engelbert of Cologne had initially planned for a bride from the English royal Angevin dynasty, however, the attempt failed, as did Henry's former engagement with the Přemyslid princess Agnes, daughter of King Ottokar I of Bohemia.  Margaret's coronation as Queen of the Romans took place on 23 March 1227 in Aachen Cathedral. King Henry and Queen Margaret had two short-lived sons, Henry (died ca. 1242/1245) and Frederick (died ca. 1251/1252). In 1228, Henry took over the rule in the German kingdom and tried to limit the powers of the princes, thereby disturbing the Imperial policies of his father who made him pay homage under the threat of excommunication.  In 1235, Henry allied with the princely opposition and openly rebelled against the emperor, however, was defeated by his father's forces and dethroned. Frederick had him confined in several castles in Apulia, where he died on 12 February 1242 after a fall from his horse, probably in an attempted suicide. In the meanwhile, his wife Margaret (who possibly never saw her husband again) retired to the Dominican monastery in Trier and in 1244 moved to Würzburg, where she lived in seclusion in St Marcus Abbey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Claim to Austria and Styria.", "content": "In 1246 Margaret's brother Duke Frederick II of Austria, last scion of the Babenberg dynasty, died childless in the Battle of the Leitha River, leaving a succession crisis. The two principal claimants over the succession in the duchies of Austria and Styria were two women: Margaret (who, as the eldest sister of the late Duke, claimed proximity of blood) and her niece Gertrude, who claimed primogeniture, as the only daughter of Henry of Mödling, the eldest brother of the late Duke Frederick II, who had predeceased their father Duke Leopold VI.  As King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia wanted to take control over the duchies south of his realm, he arranged for the wedding of his eldest son and heir, Margrave Vladislaus III of Moravia, with Gertrude. The couple was even proclaimed Duke and Duchess of Austria, but Vladislaus died in the following year (1247). The next ruler of Austria was Gertrude's second husband, Margrave Herman VI of Baden, who died in 1250, leaving Austria and Styria princeless again.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "The Austrian aristocracy offered the government of the duchies to King Wenceslaus' second son and new heir apparent Ottokar II. However, one condition was imposed by the nobles: Ottokar could only take control of Austria and Styria if he married one of the Babenberg heiresses. Ottokar refused to marry his brother's widow, such marriage being prohibited by the Book of Leviticus, and decided to marry Margaret, 26 years his senior. The ceremony took place on 11 February 1252 in the Castle Chapel (German: \"Burgkapelle\") of Hainburg an der Donau.  Ottokar acquired the imperial privileges sealed with a Golden Bull on the basis of the \"Privilegium Minus\", acknowledged by Emperor Frederick II, which legitimized his claim over Austria and Styria, since Margaret was the heiress of the last duke by proximity of blood. Thereby she transferred the government of the duchies to Austria and Styria to her husband. Pope Innocent IV, who had previously changed sides several times between Gertrude and Margaret, confirmed the lawful government of Ottokar over both duchies on 6 May 1252. Bohemian administrators ruled the duchies in his name.  One year later, on 23 September 1253, King Wenceslaus I died, and Ottokar and Margaret became King and Queen of Bohemia. Once he had obtained the Babenberg duchies, it was evident to Ottokar that Margaret, already 50 years old, would not bear children. The king tried to gain from the Pope the recognition of the illegitimate son whom he had with Agnes of Kuenring, one of Margaret's ladies-in-waiting, as his lawful successor. After the Pope refused this, in 1261 Ottokar obtained the annulment of his marriage with Margaret.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "While Ottokar married Kunigunda of Halych, a grand-daughter of King Béla IV of Hungary, the repudiated Queen Margaret left Bohemia and returned to her Austrian homeland. She took her residence in Krumau am Kamp, spending the winters in Krems. After the annulment she was called \"Romanorum quondam Regina\" (\"former Queen of the Romans\"); however, she maintained the title \"ducissa Austrie et Stirie\" (Duchess of Austria and Styria). In 1266 she changed her title to \"quondam filia Livpoldi illustris ducis Austrie et Stirie et Romanorum Regina\" as a reference to her father.  Prior to her death in Krumau, she chose Lilienfeld Abbey as her burial place, next to her father. The date of her death is controversial. Some sources state 1266, while others state 2/12 October 1267 as the real date. King Ottokar II kept Austria, Styria; he also acquired the Duchy of Carinthia with the March of Carniola in 1269, claiming to be the heir designated by Margaret in their divorce settlement. He even stood as a candidate for the Imperial Crown several times, until he was deposed by King Rudolf I of Germany in 1276 and killed in the Battle on the Marchfeld two years later.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Margaret of Austria (; – 29 October 1266), a member of the House of Babenberg, was German queen from 1225 until 1235, by her first marriage with King Henry (VII), and Queen of Bohemia from 1253 to 1260, by her second marriage with King Ottokar II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973541}
{"src_title": "Chaim Herzog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Chaim Herzog was born on Cliftonpark Avenue in Belfast, Ireland, the son of Rabbi Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog, who was Chief Rabbi of Ireland from 1919 to 1937 (and later of Mandatory Palestine and the State of Israel), and his wife Sarah (née Hillman). His father was born in Łomża, Poland, and his mother in Latvia; his maternal grandfather was the Orthodox Jewish Talmudic scholar Shmuel Yitzchak Hillman. The family home from 1919 was at 33 Bloomfield Avenue, Portobello, Dublin.  Herzog's father, a fluent speaker of the Irish language, was known as \"the Sinn Féin Rabbi\" for his support of the First Dáil and the Irish Republican cause during the Irish War of Independence. Herzog studied at Wesley College, Dublin, and was involved with the Federation of Zionist Youth and Habonim Dror, the Labor Zionist movement, during his teenage years. The family emigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1935; Herzog subsequently served in the Jewish paramilitary group Haganah during the 1936–39 Arab revolt. He went on to earn a degree in law at University College London, and then qualified as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Herzog joined the British Army during World War II, operating primarily in Germany as a tank commander in the Armoured Corps. There, he was given his lifelong nickname of \"Vivian\" because the British could not pronounce the name, \"Chaim\". A Jewish soldier had volunteered that \"Vivian\" was the English equivalent of \"Chaim\". He was commissioned into the Intelligence Corps in 1943. Herzog participated in the liberation of several Nazi concentration camps as well as identifying a captured German soldier as Heinrich Himmler. He left the British Army in 1947 with the rank of Major.  Immediately following the war, he returned to Palestine. After the establishment of the State of Israel, he fought in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, serving as an officer in the battles for Latrun. His intelligence experience during World War II was seen as a valuable asset, and he subsequently became head of the IDF Military Intelligence Branch, a position in which he served from 1948 to 1950 and again from 1959 to 1962. From 1950 to 1954, he served as defence attaché at the Israeli Embassy in the United States. Herzog left Washington in September 1954. A State Department official had informed him that he was about to be declared \"persona non grata\". The decision to expel him had been taken following a FBI investigation into his attempt to recruit a Jordanian diplomat. He retired from the IDF in 1962 with the rank of major-general.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal career.", "content": "After leaving the army, Herzog opened a private law practice. He returned to public life in 1967, when the Six-Day War broke out, as a military commentator for Kol Israel radio news. Following the capture of the West Bank, he was appointed Military Governor of East Jerusalem, and Judea and Samaria.  In 1972, he went into partnership with Michael Fox and Yaakov Neeman, and established the law firm of Herzog, Fox & Neeman, one of the largest law firms in Israel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomatic and political career.", "content": "In 1975, Herzog was appointed Israel's Ambassador to the United Nations, in which capacity he served until 1978. During his term the UN adopted the \"Zionism is Racism\" resolution (General Assembly Resolution 3379), which Herzog condemned and symbolically tore up (as his father had done to one of the British white papers regarding the British Mandate in Palestine), saying: \"For us, the Jewish people, this resolution based on hatred, falsehood and arrogance, is devoid of any moral or legal value. For us, the Jewish people, this is no more than a piece of paper and we shall treat it as such.\" In recent years British historians headed by Simon Sebag-Montefiore have included this speech in a book on speeches that changed the world, which includes others by Martin Luther King, Jr, Nelson Mandela, Winston Churchill and John F. Kennedy.  In the 1981 elections, Herzog entered politics for the first time, winning a seat in the Knesset as a member of the Alignment, the predecessor to the Labor Party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President of Israel.", "content": "On 22 March 1983, Herzog was elected by the Knesset to serve as the sixth President of Israel, by a vote of 61 to 57, against Menachem Elon, the candidate of the right and the government coalition. He assumed office on 5 May 1983 and served two five-year terms (then the maximum permitted by Israeli basic law), retiring from political life in 1993. As president of Israel, Herzog made a number of visits abroad, being the first Israeli president to make an official visit to Germany, as well as visiting several far-east countries, Australia, and New Zealand. He was also noted for pardoning the Shin Bet agent involved in the Kav 300 affair.  In 1985 during his state visit to Ireland, Herzog visited Wesley College Dublin, opened the Irish Jewish Museum in Dublin, and unveiled a sculpture in honour of his childhood friend, Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh, former Chief Justice and later, the fifth President of Ireland, in Sneem Culture Park, County Kerry.  Herzog was an opponent of Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq, to which he referred as a nest \"of world terror\". He said the world largely dismissed Israel's warnings that Baghdad was becoming a capital of world terrorism, adding that some Western countries helped Hussein develop into a military power.  Herzog reduced the sentences of Menachem Livni, Uzi Sharbaf and Shaul Nir, members of the Jewish Underground, who were sentenced to life imprisonment for the 1984 murder of four Palestinians in the West Bank town of Hebron. Herzog reduced the sentences, first to 24 years, then to 15 years, and in 1989, to 10 years, which enabled the men to be released two years later on good behavior.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemorative plaque.", "content": "In 1998, the Ulster History Circle unveiled a commemorative blue plaque to Herzog at his birthplace on Cliftonpark Avenue, Belfast. The plaque was removed in August 2014 because it had been repeatedly vandalized with anti-Israel slogans. DUP councillor Brian Kingston said, \"This is a shocking indication of the level of tension and anti-Semitism which currently exists in parts of Belfast.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Herzog died on 17 April 1997. He is buried on Mount Herzl, Jerusalem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Herzog was the brother-in-law of Abba Eban; the men's wives were sisters. He had three children, including Isaac Herzog, a politician who was the chairman of the Israeli Labor Party, and is now the elected chair of the Jewish Agency.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Major-General Chaim Herzog (; 17 September 1918 – 17 April 1997) was an Israeli politician, general, lawyer and author who served as the sixth President of Israel between 1983 and 1993. Born in Belfast and raised predominantly in Dublin, the son of Ireland's Chief Rabbi Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog, he immigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1935 and served in the Haganah Jewish paramilitary group during the 1936–39 Arab revolt. As an officer in the British Army during World War II, he received the nickname \"Vivian\" because the British could not pronounce \"Chaim\". He returned to Palestine after the war and, following the end of the British Mandate and Israel's Declaration of Independence in 1948, operated in the battles for Latrun during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. He retired from the Israel Defence Forces in 1962 with the rank of major-general.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973542}
{"src_title": "Predjama Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the castle.", "content": "The castle was first mentioned in 1274 with the German name \"Luegg\", when the Patriarch of Aquileia built the castle in Gothic style. The castle was built under a natural rocky arch high in the stone wall to make access to it difficult. It was later acquired and expanded by the Luegg noble family, also known as the Knights of Adelsberg (the German name of Postojna).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legend of Erasmus of Lueg.", "content": "The castle became known as the seat of the knight Erasmus of Lueg (or Luegg, Luegger), lord of the castle in the 15th century and a renowned robber baron. He was the son of the imperial governor of Trieste, Nikolaj Lueger.  According to legend, Erasmus came into conflict with the Habsburgs when he killed the commander of the imperial army, Marshal Pappenheim, who had offended the honour of Erasmus's deceased friend and famous condottiere Andrej Baumkircher of Vipava. Fleeing the vengeance of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III, Erasmus reached the family fortress of Predjama. From there, he allied himself with King Matthias Corvinus and began to attack Habsburg estates and towns in Carniola. The emperor commissioned the governor of Trieste, Andrej Ravbar, with the capture or killing of Erasmus. Erasmus was killed after a long siege. According to a popular but unfounded legend, Erasmus was betrayed by one of his men and was killed by a shot from a cannon in his lavatory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After the reconstruction.", "content": "After the siege and destruction of the original castle, its ruins were acquired by the Oberburg family. In 1511, the second castle, built by the Purgstall family in the first decade of the 16th century, was destroyed in an earthquake. In the year 1567, Archduke Charles of Austria leased the castle to Baron Philipp von Cobenzl, who paid it off after 20 years. In 1570, the current castle was built in the Renaissance style, pressed next to a vertical cliff under the original Medieval fortification. The castle has remained in this form, virtually unchanged, to the present day.  In the 18th century, it became one of the favourite summer residences of the Cobenzl family. Both the Austrian statesman and famous art collector Philipp von Cobenzl and the diplomat Count Ludwig von Cobenzl spent time in the castle.  In 1810, the castle was inherited by Count Michael Coronini von Cronberg, and in 1846 it was sold to the Windischgrätz family, who remained its owners until the end of World War II, when it was confiscated and nationalized by the Yugoslav Communist authorities and turned into a museum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The hidden passageway.", "content": "A vertical natural shaft, which Erasmus ordered to be enlarged, leads out of the original castle, and leads to the exit located at the top of the cliff, 25 meters away from the cliff's edge. This shaft allowed Erasmus to secretly supply the castle with food in the time of the siege; he also used it to continue with his robberies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "Predjama Castle was used as the castle featured in the 1986 movie \"Armour of God\" by Golden Harvest starring Jackie Chan, Alan Tam, Rosamund Kwan and Lola Forner. It was also investigated for paranormal activity in a 2008 episode of \"Ghost Hunters International\" on the Sci Fi Channel. It was also the filming location of Laibach's Sympathy For The Devil cover's music video.  It is also featured in the Alastair MacLean novel \"Air Force One is Down\" under the name Castle Windischgraetz.  The multiplayer map \"Castle\" from the 2014 DLC, \"Operation Breakout\", is based on Predjama Castle.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Predjama Castle ( or, German: \"\", ) is a Renaissance castle built within a cave mouth in south-central Slovenia, in the historical region of Inner Carniola. It is located in the village of Predjama, approximately 11 kilometres from the town of Postojna and 9 kilometres from Postojna Cave.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973543}
{"src_title": "Bohnanza", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rules.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cards.", "content": "These beans were added in an expansion in the German edition. In the English edition of the game, the beans were included in the standard set.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Setup.", "content": "Each player is dealt a hand of cards to start (typically five cards, though hand size varies with expansion sets and number of players). A rule unique to Bohnanza is that \"cards in hand must be kept in the order in which they are dealt at all times\"; they may not be rearranged.  Each player has two fields in which to plant beans. A third field may be bought by any player at any point during the game for three coins. Each field may contain any number of bean cards, of any one bean type. If a bean of a type different from those already growing in a field is planted into that field, the beans previously in it must be \"harvested\" for coins. A field containing just one bean \"may not\" be harvested by a player who also owns a field containing more than one bean. Each player also has a trading area to hold cards gained through trades and a treasury to hold the player's earned coins.  Cards in the hand are kept hidden. Cards in trading areas and fields are visible to all players. The number of cards in each player's treasury is kept secret from the other players. The discard pile is face up, but only the top card is visible; players may not examine the pile. When the deck runs out, the discard pile is reshuffled and re-used as the deck.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Turn sequence.", "content": "During their turn, each player does the following:  This turn sequence can be summarized with these four phrases: \"Must plant, may plant,\" \"Turn up two,\" \"Trade and plant trades,\" and \"Draw three cards.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Harvesting.", "content": "Each bean card carries a list of how many beans of that type are needed in order to obtain one, two, three and four coins when harvesting a field. To harvest a field, a player counts the beans in it and consults the list to determine the largest amount of coins he or she can obtain from them. (If not enough beans were harvested, this may end up being none at all.) The player places that many of the cards face down in his or her treasury (each card has a coin on the back). The rest of the cards go on top of the discard pile, face up. Because some of the cards are set aside as coins, the number of cards in the deck becomes fewer with each reshuffle (in practice, the first reshuffle marks approximately halfway through the game).  As mentioned, a field containing just one bean \"may not\" be harvested by a player who also owns a field containing more than one bean.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Winning.", "content": "When the deck runs out, the discard pile is reshuffled and re-used as the deck; this happens twice. The game ends instantly the third time the deck runs out. At that point, all players harvest all beans in their fields. The player with the most coins in their treasury wins. In case of a tie, the player with the most cards remaining in their hand wins the game.  \"Rules adapted from description at ToothyWiki:Bohnanza, as permitted by ToothyWiki:CopyrightMatters\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Expansions.", "content": "Uwe Rosenberg and Hanno Girke have designed a number of expansions to the game, some of which were released as limited editions by Lookout Games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spinoffs.", "content": "\"Bohnanza\" has inspired six spinoffs; additionally, one Amigo card game, \"Nicht die Bohne\", is named in parody of the game.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bohnanza is a German-style card game based on the game mechanics of trading and politics, designed by Uwe Rosenberg and released in 1997 (in German) by Amigo Spiele and (in English) by Rio Grande Games. It is played with a deck of cards with comical illustrations of eleven different types of beans (some more scarce than others), which the players are trying to first plant and then sell in order to raise money. The principal restriction is that players may only farm two or three types of beans at once (limited by the number of fields), but they obtain beans of all different types \"randomly\" from the deck, and so must engage in trade with the other players to be successful.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973544}
{"src_title": "Christian Friedrich Schönbein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Schönbein (Schoenbein) related to Michael Schoenbein was born at Metzingen in the Duchy of Württemberg. Around the age of 13 he was apprenticed to a chemical and pharmaceutical firm at Böblingen. Through his own efforts, he acquired sufficient scientific skills and knowledge to ask for, and receive, an examination by the professor of chemistry at Tübingen. Schönbein passed the exam and, after a series of moves and university studies, eventually acquired a position at the University of Basel in 1828, becoming a full professor in 1835. He remained there until his death in 1868, and was buried in Basel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fuel cell.", "content": "In 1839, Schönbein published the principle of the fuel cell in the \"Philosophical Magazine\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ozone.", "content": "It was while doing experiments on the electrolysis of water at the University of Basel that Schönbein first began to notice a distinctive odor in his laboratory. This smell gave Schönbein the clue to the presence of a new product from his experiments. Because of the pronounced smell, Schönbein coined the term \"ozone\" for the new gas, from the Greek word \"ozein\", meaning \"to smell\". Schönbein described his discoveries in publications in 1840. He later found that the smell of ozone was similar to that produced by the slow oxidation of white phosphorus.  The ozone smell Schönbein detected is the same as that occurring in the vicinity of lightning storms, an odor that indicates the presence of ozone in the atmosphere.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Explosives.", "content": "Although his wife had forbidden him to do so, Schönbein occasionally experimented at home in the kitchen. One day in 1845, when his wife was away, he spilled a mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid. After using his wife's cotton apron to mop it up, he hung the apron over the stove to dry, only to find that the cloth spontaneously ignited and burned so quickly that it seemed to disappear. Schönbein, in fact, had converted the cellulose of the apron, with the nitro groups (added from the nitric acid) serving as an internal source of oxygen; when heated, the cellulose was completely and suddenly oxidized.  Schönbein recognized the possibilities of the new compound. Ordinary black gunpowder, which had reigned supreme in the battlefield for the past 500 years, exploded into thick smoke, blackening the gunners, fouling cannons and small arms, and obscuring the battlefield. Nitrocellulose was perceived as a possible \"smokeless powder\" and a propellant for artillery shells thus it received the name of guncotton.  Attempts to manufacture guncotton for military use failed at first because the factories were prone to explode and, above all else, the burning speed of straight guncotton was always too high. It was not until 1884 that Paul Vieille tamed guncotton into a successful progressive smokeless gunpowder called Poudre B. Later on, in 1891, James Dewar and Frederick Augustus Abel also managed to transform gelatinized guncotton into a safe mixture, called cordite because it could be extruded into long thin cords before being dried.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 1990 an asteroid was named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christian Friedrich Schönbein HFRSE(18 October 1799 – 29 August 1868) was a German-Swiss chemist who is best known for inventing the fuel cell (1838) at the same time as William Robert Grove and his discoveries of guncotton and ozone.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973545}
{"src_title": "Cinémathèque Française", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The collection emerged from the efforts of Henri Langlois and Lotte H Eisner in the mid 1930s to collect and screen films. Langlois had acquired one of the largest collections in the world by the beginning of World War II, only to have it nearly wiped out by the German authorities in occupied France, who ordered the destruction of all films made prior to 1937. He and his friends smuggled huge numbers of documents and films out of occupied France to protect them until the end of the war.  After the war, the French government provided a small screening room, staff and subsidy for the collection, which was first relocated to the Avenue de Messine. Significant French filmmakers of the 1940s and 1950s, including Robert Bresson, René Clément, Henri-Georges Clouzot and Jacques Becker frequented screenings at the Cinémathèque. Directors of the New Wave (\"la Nouvelle Vague\") school — Alain Resnais, Jacques Rivette, François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol, Roger Vadim, Jacques Doniol-Valcroze, and Pierre Kast — also received much of their film education by attending the collection's screenings.  A meeting in 1945 in Basle between Langlois and Freddy Buache led, via Lausanne's first film club, to the founding in 1950 of the Cinémathèque suisse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The events of May 1968.", "content": "In June 1963, the Cinémathèque had moved to the Palais de Chaillot with funds provided by André Malraux, Minister of Culture, and became subject to the government. In February 1968, under pressure from the Ministry of Finance, Malraux required changes in the management of the Cinémathèque and dismissed Henri Langlois.  A defence committee was formed, uniting the cream of French filmmakers (Alexandre Astruc, Claude Berri, Robert Bresson, Claude Chabrol, Jacques Doniol-Valcroze, Jean Eustache, Georges Franju, Abel Gance, Jean-Luc Godard, Joris Ivens, Pierre Kast, Chris Marker, Alain Resnais, Jacques Rivette, Eric Rohmer, Jean Rouch, François Truffaut) together with major actors (Jean-Pierre Léaud, Claude Jade, Jean Marais and Françoise Rosay). Foreign filmmakers such as Charles Chaplin and Stanley Kubrick added their support. Protests were organized.  Confrontations followed between young people, largely students, and what they saw as an authoritarian centre-right government, out of touch with the concerns of the younger generation. These demonstrations were precursors of and merged into the widespread student revolt that erupted from March 1968 onwards, escalating into nationwide unrest in May. Before then, the government had backed down over the Cinémathèque, reinstating Langlois as head in April 1968.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "After numerous incidents — including multiple relocations from one small screening room to another through the 1950s and a fire in its last premises — the Cinémathèque Française moved to 51, rue de Bercy in the 12th arrondissement of Paris and reopened its doors in a postmodern building designed by Frank Gehry, an American architect. A restaurant on the lower level is open to the public.  The Bibliothèque du Film, which was created in 1992 to show the history of cinema, its production, impact and artistic strength, has recently merged with the Cinémathèque Française.  Cinémathèque Française operates the Musée de la Cinémathèque, formerly known as Musée du Cinéma – Henri Langlois, in the new building.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributes.", "content": "In celebration of the Centennial of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum and the City Center of Music and Drama in New York co-sponsored \"Cinémathèque at the Metropolitan Museum.\" The exhibition showed seventy films dating from the medium's first seventy-five years on thirty-five consecutive evenings from July 29 to September 3, 1970. The films were selected by Henri Langlois for their significance and contributions to the history of filmmaking, including work from official film industries as well as current and early avant garde directors. The program was the most diverse film exhibition held in the United States to date, and was the Museum's first major undertaking in film.  The Cinémathèque's closing is noted in Truffaut's \"Stolen Kisses\". The Cinémathèque also appears in the Paul Auster novel \"The Book of Illusions\" and the Harvey Danger song \"Private Helicopter.\"  The Cinématèque and the events surrounding the dismissal of Henri Langlois in 1968 features heavily in Gilbert Adair's Novel \"The Holy Innocents\" also known as \"The Dreamers\" and in its film adaptation by Bernardo Bertolucci.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cinémathèque Française () is a French non-profit film organization founded in 1936 that holds one of the largest archives of film documents and film-related objects in the world. Based in Paris, the archive offers daily screenings of worldwide films.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973546}
{"src_title": "Nicholas I of Montenegro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Nikola was born in the village of Njeguši, the home of the reigning House of Petrović. His father, Mirko Petrović-Njegoš, a celebrated Montenegrin warrior, was elder brother to Danilo I of Montenegro, who left no male offspring. After 1696, when the dignity of vladika, or prince-bishop, became hereditary in the Petrović family, the sovereign power had descended from uncle to nephew, the vladikas belonging to the order of the black clergy (i.e., monastic clergy) who are forbidden to marry. A change was introduced by Danilo I, who declined the episcopal office, married and declared the principality hereditary in the direct male line. Mirko Petrović-Njegoš having renounced his claim to the throne, his son was nominated heir-presumptive, and the old system of succession was thus incidentally continued.  Prince Nikola, who had been trained from infancy in martial and athletic exercises, spent a portion of his early boyhood at Trieste in the household of the Kustic family, to which his aunt, the princess Darinka, wife of Danilo II, belonged. The princess was an ardent francophile, and at her suggestion the young heir-presumptive of the vladikas was sent to the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. Unlike his contemporary, King Milan of Serbia, Prince Nikola was little influenced in his tastes and habits by his Parisian education; the young highlander, whose keen patriotism, capability for leadership and poetic talents early displayed themselves, showed no inclination for the pleasures of the French capital, and eagerly looked forward to returning to his native land.  Nikola was a member of the \"United Serbian Youth\" (Уједињена омладина српска) during its existence (1866–1871). After the organization was prohibited in the Principality of Serbia and Austro-Hungary, the \"Association for Serb Liberation and Unification\" (Дружина за ослобођење и уједињење српско) was established by Nikola, Marko Popović, Simo Popović, Mašo Vrbica, Vasa Pelagić, and more, in Cetinje (1871).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prince of Montenegro.", "content": "While still in Paris, Nikola succeeded his assassinated uncle Danilo I as prince (13 August 1860). In November 1860 he married Milena, daughter of a vojvoda named Petar Vukotić.  In the period of peace which followed Nikola carried out a series of military, administrative and educational reforms. The country was embroiled in a series of wars with the Ottoman Empire between 1862 and 1878. In 1867 he met the emperor Napoleon III at Paris, and in 1868 he undertook a journey to Russia, where he received an affectionate welcome from the tsar, Alexander II. He afterwards visited the courts of Berlin and Vienna. His efforts to enlist the sympathies of the Russian imperial family produced important results for Montenegro; considerable subsidies were granted by the tsar and tsaritsa for educational and other purposes, and supplies of arms and ammunition were sent to Cetinje. In 1871 Prince Dolgorukov arrived at Montenegro on a special mission from the tsar, and distributed large sums of money among the people. In 1869 Prince Nikola, whose authority was now firmly established, succeeded in preventing the impetuous highlanders from aiding the Krivosians in their revolt against the Austrian government; similarly in 1897 he checked the martial excitement caused by the outbreak of the Greco-Turkish War. In 1876 Nikola declared war against Turkey; his military reputation was enhanced by the ensuing campaign, and still more by that of 1877/78, during which he captured Nikšić, Bar and Ulcinj. The war resulted in a considerable extension of the Montenegrin frontier and the acquisition of a seaboard on the Adriatic. Nikola justified the war as a revenge for the Battle of Kosovo (1389). In 1876 he sent a message to the Montenegrins in Herzegovina:  The Congress of Berlin in 1878 recognised the independence of Montenegro, and in the succeeding decades Montenegro enjoyed considerable prosperity and stability. Education, communications and the army expanded greatly (the latter with support from Imperial Russia). In 1883 Prince Nikola visited the sultan, with whom he subsequently maintained the most cordial relations; in 1896 he celebrated the bicentenary of the Petrović dynasty, and in the same year he attended the coronation of the Tsar Nicholas II; in May 1898 he visited Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Montenegro.", "content": "In 1900 Nikola took the style of \"Royal Highness\".  According to Bolati, the Montenegrin court was not grieving that much over the murder of King Alexander Obrenović, as they saw him as an enemy of Montenegro and obstacle to the unification of Serb Lands. \"Although it wasn't said openly, it was thought that the Petrović dynasty would achieve [the unification]. All procedures of King Nikola shows that he himself believed that\".  He gave Montenegro its first constitution in 1905 following pressure from a population eager for more freedom. He also introduced west-European style press freedom and criminal law codes. In 1906, he introduced Montenegrin currency, the perper. On 28 August 1910, during the celebration of his jubilee, he assumed the title of king, in accordance with a petition from the Skupština. He was at the same time gazetted field-marshal in the Russian army, an honor never previously conferred on any foreigner except the Duke of Wellington. When the Balkan Wars broke out in 1912 King Nikola was one of the most enthusiastic of the allies. He wanted to drive the Ottomans completely out of Europe. He defied the Powers and captured Scutari despite the fact that they blockaded the whole coast of Montenegro. Again in the Great War which began in 1914 he was the first to go to Serbia's aid to repel the Austrian forces from the Balkan Peninsula.  In January 1916, after the defeat of Serbia, Montenegro was also conquered by Austria-Hungary, and the King fled to Italy and then to France. The government transferred its operations to Bordeaux.  After the end of the First World War, a meeting in Podgorica voted to depose Nikola and annex Montenegro to Serbia. A few months later, Serbia (including Montenegro) merged with the former South Slav territories of Austria-Hungary to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. Nikola went into exile in France in 1918, but continued to claim the throne until his death in Antibes three years later. He was buried in Italy. In 1989, the remains of Nikola, his queen Milena, and two of their twelve children were re-buried in Montenegro.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Five of his daughters were married, each to princes and kings, giving Nikola the nickname \"the father-in-law of Europe\", a sobriquet he shared with the contemporary King of Denmark.  The present pretender to the throne is King Nikola's great-grandson Prince Nikola, Prince Michael's son.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Montenegrin  Foreign", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš (; – 1 March 1921) was the ruler of Montenegro from 1860 to 1918, reigning as prince from 1860 to 1910 and as the country's first and only king from 1910 to 1918.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973547}
{"src_title": "Dee Dee Bridgewater", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born Denise Eileen Garrett in Memphis, Tennessee, she was raised Catholic in Flint, Michigan. Her father, Matthew Garrett, was a jazz trumpeter and teacher at Manassas High School, and through his playing, she was exposed to jazz early on. At the age of sixteen, she was a member of a Rock and R&B trio, singing in clubs in Michigan. At 18, she studied at Michigan State University before she went to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. With the school's jazz band, she toured the Soviet Union in 1969.  The next year, she met trumpeter Cecil Bridgewater, and after their marriage, they moved to New York City, where Cecil played in Horace Silver's band. In the early 1970s, Bridgewater joined the Thad Jones-Mel Lewis Jazz Orchestra as lead vocalist. This marked the beginning of her jazz career, and she performed with many of the great jazz musicians of the time, such as Sonny Rollins, Dizzy Gillespie, Dexter Gordon, Max Roach, Rahsaan Roland Kirk, Wayne Garfield, and others. She performed at the Monterey Jazz Festival in 1973. In 1974, her first solo album, entitled \"Afro Blue\", appeared, and she performed on Broadway in the musical \"The Wiz\". For her role as Glinda the Good Witch she won a Tony Award in 1975 as \"Best Featured Actress\", and the musical also won the 1976 Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album. She subsequently appeared in several other stage productions. After touring France in 1984 with the musical \"Sophisticated Ladies\", she moved to Paris in 1986. The same year saw her in \"Lady Day,\" as Billie Holiday, for which role she was nominated for the Laurence Olivier Award, as well as recording the song \"\"Precious Thing\"\" with Ray Charles, featured on her album \"Victim of Love\".  In the late 1980s and early 1990s, she returned from the world of Pop and Contemporary R&B to Jazz. She performed at the Sanremo Music Festival in Italy and the Montreux Jazz Festival in 1990, and four years later, she finally collaborated with Horace Silver, whom she had long admired, and released the album \"Love and Peace: A Tribute to Horace Silver\". Performed also at the San Francisco Jazz Festival (1996). Her 1997 tribute album \"Dear Ella\" won her the 1998 Grammy Award for Best Jazz Vocal Album, and the 1998 album \"Live at Yoshi's\" was also worth a Grammy nomination. Performed again at the Monterey Jazz Festival (1998). She has also explored on \"This Is New\" (2002) the songs of Kurt Weill, and, on her next album \"J'ai Deux Amours\" (2005), the French Classics.  Her album \"Red Earth\", released in 2007, features Africa-inspired themes and contributions by numerous musicians from Mali. Performed at the San Francisco Jazz Festival (2007). On December 8, 2007 she performed with the Terence Blanchard Quintet at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C.. She tours frequently, including overseas gigs around the world. October 16, 2009 found her opening the Shanghai JZ Jazz Festival, in which she sang tunes associated with Ella Fitzgerald, along with Ellington compositions and other jazz standards.  As a Goodwill Ambassador to the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization, Bridgewater continues to appeal for international solidarity to finance global grassroots projects in the fight against world hunger. Awarded Honorary Doctorates from University of Michigan and Berklee College of Music, Bridgewater makes a concerted effort to mentor and nurture young artists.  In April 2017, Bridgewater was the recipient of an NEA Jazz Masters Award with honors bestowed at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. and in 2018 was awarded the 2018 Maria Fisher Founder's Award by the Thelonious Monk/Hancock Institute of Jazz. She is currently on tour worldwide in support of her latest CD, “\"Memphis...Yes, I'm Ready\"”.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting.", "content": "Dee Dee had appeared in such films as the 1979 film \"The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh\" and the 1984 film \"The Brother from Another Planet\". She has made a guest appearance in the hit sitcom \"Benson\" and the hit sci-fi fantasy TV series \"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Bridgewater is the mother to three children, Tulani Bridgewater (from her marriage to Cecil Bridgewater), China Moses (from her marriage to theater, film and television director Gilbert Moses) and Gabriel Durand (from her last marriage to French concert promoter Jean-Marie Durand). Her eldest daughter, Tulani Bridgewater, attended the Mirman School for Gifted Children in Los Angeles, CA. She went on to graduate from the Ecole Active Bilingue in Paris, France at age 16, going on to graduate from Vassar College. She serves as Bridgewater's manager under her firm Bridgewater Artists Management and runs Bridgewater's production company and record label (DDB Productions, Inc. And DDB Records). Daughter China Moses is an accomplished singer, songwriter, producer, radio host and MTV VJ (France). Her critically acclaimed albums have earned her an international reputation as heir to Bridgewater's legacy. Moses tours worldwide, occasionally sharing the bill with Bridgewater.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grammy Awards.", "content": "The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Bridgewater has won two Grammys with eight nominations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "As guest  Film soundtrack", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dee Dee Bridgewater (née Denise Garrett, May 27, 1950) is an American jazz singer. She is a three-time Grammy Award-winning singer-songwriter, as well as a Tony Award-winning stage actress. For 23 years, she was the host of National Public Radio's syndicated radio show \"JazzSet with Dee Dee Bridgewater\". She is a United Nations Goodwill Ambassador for the Food and Agriculture Organization.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973548}
{"src_title": "Centaurus A", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Observational history.", "content": "NGC 5128 was discovered on 29 April 1826 by James Dunlop during a survey at the Parramatta Observatory.  In 1847 John Herschel described the galaxy as \"two semi-ovals of elliptically formed nebula appearing to be cut asunder and separated by a broad obscure band parallel to the larger axis of the nebula, in the midst of which a faint streak of light parallel to the sides of the cut appears.\"  In 1949 John Gatenby Bolton, Bruce Slee and Gordon Stanley localized NGC 5128 as one of the first extragalactic radio sources. Five years later, Walter Baade and Rudolph Minkowski suggested that the peculiar structure is the result of a merge event of a giant elliptical galaxy and a small spiral galaxy. The first detection of X-ray emissions, using a sounding rocket, was performed in 1970. In 1975–76 gamma-ray emissions from Centaurus A were observed through the atmospheric Cerenkov technique.  The Einstein Observatory detected an X-ray jet emanating from the nucleus in 1979. Ten years later, young blue stars were found along the central dust band with the Hubble Space Telescope.  The Chandra X-ray Observatory identified in 1999 more than 200 new point sources. Another space telescope, the Spitzer Space Telescope, found a parallelogram-shaped structure of dust in near infrared images of Centaurus A in 2006.  Evidence of gamma emissions with very high energy (more than 100 GeV) was detected by the H.E.S.S-Observatorium in Namibia in 2009.  The following year, Centaurus A was identified as a source of cosmic rays of highest energies, after years of observations by Pierre Auger Observatory. In 2016 a review of data from Chandra and XMM-Newton, unusual high flares of energy were found in NGC 5128 and the galaxy NGC 4636. Jimmy Erwin of University of Alabama hypothesized the discovery as potentially a black hole in a yet unknown process or an intermediate-mass black hole.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "Centaurus A may be described as having a peculiar morphology. As seen from Earth, the galaxy looks like a lenticular or elliptical galaxy with a superimposed dust lane. The peculiarity of this galaxy was first identified in 1847 by John Herschel, and the galaxy was included in Halton Arp's \"Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies\" (published in 1966) as one of the best examples of a \"disturbed\" galaxy with dust absorption. The galaxy's strange morphology is generally recognized as the result of a merger between two smaller galaxies.  The bulge of this galaxy is composed mainly of evolved red stars. The dusty disk, however, has been the site of more recent star formation; over 100 star formation regions have been identified in the disk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Supernovae.", "content": "Two supernovae have been detected in Centaurus A. The first supernova, named SN 1986G, was discovered within the dark dust lane of the galaxy by R. Evans in 1986. It was later identified as a Type Ia supernova, which forms when a white dwarf's mass grows large enough to ignite carbon fusion in its center, touching off a runaway thermonuclear reaction, as may happen when a white dwarf in a binary star system strips gas away from the other star. SN 1986G was used to demonstrate that the spectra of type Ia supernovae are not all identical, and that type Ia supernovae may differ in the way that they change in brightness over time.  The second supernova, dubbed SN2016adj, was discovered by Backyard Observatory Supernova Search in February 2016 and was initially classified as a Type II supernova based on its H-alpha emission line.  A subsequent classification found the spectrum best resembled the Type Ib core-collapse supernova 1999dn (See Type Ib and Ic supernovae).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distance.", "content": "Distance estimates to Centaurus A established since the 1980s typically range between 3–5 Mpc. Classical Cepheids discovered in the heavily obscured dust lane of Centaurus A yield a distance between ~3–3.5 Mpc, depending on the nature of the extinction law adopted and other considerations. Mira variables and Type II Cepheids were also discovered in Centaurus A, the latter being rarely detected beyond the Local Group. The distance to Centaurus A established from several indicators such as Mira variables and planetary nebulae favour a more distant value of ~3.8 Mpc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nearby galaxies and galaxy group information.", "content": "Centaurus A is at the center of one of two subgroups within the Centaurus A/M83 Group, a nearby group of galaxies. Messier 83 (the Southern Pinwheel Galaxy) is at the center of the other subgroup. These two groups are sometimes identified as one group and sometimes identified as two groups. However, the galaxies around Centaurus A and the galaxies around M83 are physically close to each other, and both subgroups appear not to be moving relative to each other. The Centaurus A/M83 Group is located in the Virgo Supercluster.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visibility.", "content": "Centaurus A is located approximately 4° north of Omega Centauri (a globular cluster visible with the naked eye). Because the galaxy has a high surface brightness and relatively large angular size, it is an ideal target for amateur astronomy observations. The bright central bulge and dark dust lane are visible even in finderscopes and large binoculars, and additional structure may be seen in larger telescopes. Centaurus A is visible to the naked eye under exceptionally good conditions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Centaurus A (also known as NGC 5128 or Caldwell 77) is a galaxy in the constellation of Centaurus. It was discovered in 1826 by Scottish astronomer James Dunlop from his home in Parramatta, in New South Wales, Australia. There is considerable debate in the literature regarding the galaxy's fundamental properties such as its Hubble type (lenticular galaxy or a giant elliptical galaxy) and distance (10–16 million light-years). NGC 5128 is one of the closest radio galaxies to Earth, so its active galactic nucleus has been extensively studied by professional astronomers. The galaxy is also the fifth-brightest in the sky, making it an ideal amateur astronomy target, although the galaxy is only visible from low northern latitudes and the southern hemisphere.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973549}
{"src_title": "Octave Mirbeau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aesthetic and political struggles.", "content": "The grandson of Norman notaries and the son of a doctor, Mirbeau spent his childhood in a village in Normandy, Rémalard, pursuing secondary studies at a Jesuit college in Vannes, which expelled him at the age of fifteen. Two years after the traumatic experience of the 1870 war, he was tempted by a call from the Bonapartist leader Dugué de la Fauconnerie, who hired him as private secretary and introduced him to \"L'Ordre de Paris\".  After his debut in journalism in the service of the Bonapartists, and his debut in literature when he worked as a ghostwriter, Mirbeau began to publish under his own name. Thereafter, he wrote in order to express his own ethical principles and aesthetic values. A supporter of the anarchist cause (cf. La Grève des électeurs) and fervent supporter of Alfred Dreyfus, Mirbeau embodied the intellectual who involved himself in civic issues. Independent of all parties, Mirbeau believed that one's primary duty was to remain lucid.  As an art critic, he campaigned on behalf of the “great gods nearest to his heart”: he sang the praises of Auguste Rodin, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Félicien Rops Auguste Renoir, Félix Vallotton, and Pierre Bonnard, and was an early advocate of Vincent van Gogh, Camille Claudel, Aristide Maillol, and Maurice Utrillo (cf. his \"Combats esthétiques\", 1993).  As a literary critic and early member of Académie Goncourt, he 'discovered' Maurice Maeterlinck and Marguerite Audoux and admired Remy de Gourmont, Marcel Schwob, Léon Bloy, Georges Rodenbach, Alfred Jarry, Charles-Louis Philippe,, Valery Larbaud and Léon Werth (cf. his \"Combats littéraires\", 2006).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mirbeau's novels.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Autobiographical novels.", "content": "Mirbeau ghostwrote ten novels, including three for the Swiss writer Dora Melegari. He made his own literary debut with \"Le Calvaire\" (\"Calvary\", 1886), in which writing allowed him to overcome the traumatic effects of his devastating liaison with the ill-reputed Judith Vinmer (1858-1951), renamed Juliette Roux in the novel.  In 1888, Mirbeau published (\"Abbé Jules\"), the first pre-Freudian novel written under the influence of Dostoyevsky to appear in French literature; the text featured two main characters: l'abbé Jules and Father Pamphile. In (1890) (English translation: \"Sébastien Roch\", 2000), Mirbeau purged the traumatic effects of his experience as a student at a Jesuits school in Vannes. In the novel, the 13-year-old Sébastien is sexually abused by a priest at the school and the abuse destroys his life.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Crisis of the novel.", "content": "Mirbeau then underwent a grave existential and literary crisis, yet during this time, he still published in serial form a pre-existentialist novel about the artist's fate, \"Dans le ciel\" (\"In the Sky\"), introducing the figure of a painter (Lucien), directly modeled on Van Gogh. In the aftermath of the Dreyfus Affair — which exacerbated Mirbeau's pessimism — he published two novels judged to be scandalous by self-styled paragons of virtue: \"(Torture Garden\" (1899) and (\"Diary of a Chambermaid\") (1900), then \"Les Vingt et un Jours d'un neurasthénique\" (The twenty one days of a neurasthenic person) (1901). In the process of writing these works, Mirbeau unsettled traditional novelistic conventions, exercising collage techniques, transgressing codes of verisimilitude and fictional credibility, and defying the hypocritical rules of propriety.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Death of the novel.", "content": "In his last two novels, \"La 628-E8\" (1907) – including \"La Mort de Balzac\" – and \"Dingo\" (1913), he strayed ever further from realism, giving free rein to clinical fantasy elements and casting his cat and his own dog as heroes. These last Mirbeau stories show a complete break with the conventions of realist fiction, also signifying a breakdown of reality.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Mirbeau's theatre.", "content": "In the theatre, Mirbeau made his first steps with a proletarian drama and modern tragedy, \"Les Mauvais bergers\" (\"The Bad Shepherds\", 1897). Then he experienced worldwide acclaim with (\"Business is business\", 1903) — his classical comedy of manners and characters in the tradition of Molière. Here Mirbeau featured the character of Isidore Lechat, predecessor of the modern master of business intrigue, a product of the new world, a figure who makes money from everything and spreads his tentacles out over the world.  In 1908 — at the end of a long legal and media battle — Mirbeau saw his play \"Le Foyer\" (\"Home\") performed by the Comédie-Française. In this work, he broached a new taboo subject, the economic and sexual exploitation of adolescents in a home that pretended to be a charitable one. He also wrote six one act plays, published under the title of \"Farces et moralités\" (1904), among them being \"L'Épidémie\" (\"Epidemics\", 1898). Here, Mirbeau can be seen as anticipating the theatre of Bertolt Brecht, Marcel Aymé, Harold Pinter, and Eugène Ionesco. He calls language itself into question, demystifying law, ridiculing the discourse of politicians, and making fun of the language of love (\"Les Amants\", \"The Lovers\", 1901).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Posthumous fame.", "content": "Mirbeau has never been forgotten, and there has been no interruption in the publication of his works. Yet his immense literary production has largely been known through only three works, and he was considered as literally and politically incorrect.  But, more recently, Mirbeau has been rediscovered and presented in a new light. A fuller appreciation of the role he played in the political, literary, and artistic world of la Belle Époque is emerging.  Mirbeau lies buried in the Passy Cemetery, in the 16th arrondissement of Paris.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Octave Mirbeau (16 February 1848 – 16 February 1917) was a French novelist, art critic, travel writer, pamphleteer, journalist, and playwright, who achieved celebrity in Europe and great success among the public, while still appealing to the literary and artistic avant-garde with highly transgressive novels that explored violence, abuse and psychological detachment. His work has been translated into thirty languages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973550}
{"src_title": "Sebastián de Belalcázar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born Sebastián Moyano in the province of Córdoba, Spain, in either 1479 or 1480. He took the name Belalcázar as that was the name of the castle-town near to his birthplace in Córdoba. According to various sources, he may have left for the New World with Christopher Columbus as early as 1498, but Juan de Castellanos wrote that he killed a mule in 1507, and fled Spain for the West Indies due to fear of punishment, and as a chance to escape the poverty in which he lived.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Americas.", "content": "He was an encomendero in Panama in 1522. He entered Nicaragua with Francisco Hernández de Córdoba in 1524 during the conquest of Nicaragua, and became the first mayor of the city of León in Nicaragua. He remained there until 1527, when he left for Honduras as a result of internal disputes among the Spanish governors. Briefly returning to León, he sailed to the coast of Peru, where he united with the expedition of Francisco Pizarro in 1532.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conquest of Ecuador.", "content": "In 1534, while commanding the settlement of San Miguel for Francisco Pizarro, Sebastian set off to conquer Quito in Ecuador, without orders from Pizarro. Quito had been the northernmost city of the Inca Empire, but while Belalcázar defeated the Inca general Rumiñahui, the local population secreted the city treasure away. Belalcázar then founded the new city of Quito with Diego de Almagro and Baltasar Maldonado, honoring Pizarro by naming it in full \"San Francisco de Quito\".  His battles, though, were not entirely honourable. At a village called Quinche near Puritaco, he found that all the men were away fighting with the national army. To make an example of these people (and to vent his frustration at finding so little treasure), he ordered all the women and children to be slaughtered. 'A feeble excuse to justify cruelty unworthy of a Castilian', was the verdict of Herrera, the official Chronicler of the Conquest, to Belalcázar's excuse that this was done to terrify other natives into returning to their homes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conquest of Colombia.", "content": "Moving northward into present day Colombia in search of \"El Dorado\" in 1535, he entered the Cauca River Valley, founding the southwestern Colombian cities of Santiago de Cali in 1536, and Pasto and Popayán (next in importance after Quito) in 1537. Crossing overland to the Magdalena River Valley, he entered the highlands of central Colombia, which had also been reached by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada and Nikolaus Federmann, a German, in 1539. The three presented their dispute before King and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The King granted Belalcázar rule of the area with the title of governor of Popayán and the honorary title of adelantado in May 1540. As so often happened among the conquistadors, land squabbles developed again, this time between Belalcázar and Pascual de Andagoya (1495–1548), who also claimed the governorship of Popayán. Belalcázar successfully defended his lands, and took over some of Andagoya's. He then intervened in a disagreement between supporters of the families of Pizarro and Almagro in Perú. In 1546, he ordered the execution of Jorge Robledo, who governed a neighboring province in yet another land-related vendetta. He was put to trial in absentia in 1550, convicted and condemned to death for the death of Robledo, and other offenses pertaining to his constant involvement in the various wars between other conquistadors. A victim of his own ambition, he died in 1551 before he could begin the voyage back to Spain to appeal the decision, in Cartagena, Colombia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sebastián de Belalcázar (; 1479/1480 – 1551) was a Spanish conquistador. De Belalcázar, also written as de Benalcázar, is known as the founder of important early colonial cities in the northwestern part of South America; Quito in 1534 and Cali, Pasto and Popayán in 1537. De Belalcázar led expeditions in present-day Ecuador and Colombia and died of natural causes after being sentenced to death in Cartagena, at the Caribbean coast in 1551.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973551}
{"src_title": "Winnaretta Singer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Winnaretta Singer was the twentieth of the 24 children of Isaac Singer. Her mother was his Parisian-born second wife, Isabella Eugénie Boyer. Winnaretta was born in Yonkers, New York. After the American Civil War, the Singer family moved to Paris, where they remained until the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. The family then settled in England, first in London, and then Paignton, Devon where they moved to Oldway Mansion a 115-room palace built by her father.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relatives.", "content": "Winnaretta's older brother, Adam Mortimer Singer, became one of England's landed gentry. Her younger sister, Isabelle-Blanche (1869-1896) married Jean, duc Decazes. Their daughter, Daisy Fellowes, was raised by Winnaretta after Isabelle-Blanche's death and became a noted socialite, magazine editor, and fashion trendsetter. Winnaretta's younger brother, Paris Singer, was one of the architects and financiers of the resort of Palm Beach, Florida; he had a son by Isadora Duncan. Another brother, Washington Singer, became a substantial donor to the University College of the southwest of England, which later became the University of Exeter; one of the university's buildings is named in his honor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriages and relationships.", "content": "After Isaac Singer's death in 1875, Isabelle and her children moved back to Paris. Although known within private social circles to be a lesbian, Winnaretta married at the age of 22 to Prince Louis de Scey-Montbéliard. The marriage was annulled in 1892 by the Catholic church, five years after a wedding night that reportedly included the bride's climbing atop an armoire and threatening to kill the groom if he came near her.  In 1893, at the age of 28, she stepped companionably into an equally chaste marriage with the 59-year-old Prince Edmond de Polignac (1834–1901), a gay amateur composer. Although it was a \"mariage blanc\" (unconsummated marriage), or indeed a lavender marriage (a union between a gay man and a lesbian), it was based on profound love, mutual respect, understanding, and artistic friendship, expressed especially through their love of music. The same year Singer exhibited her work at the Palace of Fine Arts at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lesbian relationships.", "content": "She had affairs with numerous women, never making attempts to conceal them, and never going for any great length of time without a female lover. She had these affairs during her own marriages and afterwards, and often with other married women. The affronted husband of one of her lovers once stood outside the princess's Venetian palazzo, declaring, \"If you are half the man I think you are, you will come out here and fight me.\"  Polignac had a relationship with painter Romaine Brooks, which had begun in 1905, and which effectively ended her affair with Olga de Meyer, who was married at the time and whose godfather (and purported biological father) was Edward VII. Composer and conductor Ethel Smyth fell deeply in love with her during their affair. In the early 1920s Polignac became involved with pianist Renata Borgatti. From 1923 to 1933 her lover was the British socialite and novelist Violet Trefusis, with whom she had a loving but often turbulent relationship. Alvilde Chaplin, the future wife of the author James Lees-Milne, was involved with Singer from 1938 to 1943; the two women were living together in London at the time of Winnaretta's death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Patron of the arts.", "content": "In 1894 the Prince and Princesse de Polignac established a salon in Paris in the music room of their mansion on Avenue Henri-Martin (today, Avenue Georges-Mandel). The Polignac salon came to be known as a haven for avant-garde music. First performances of Chabrier, d'Indy, Debussy, Fauré, and Ravel took place in the Polignac salon. The young Ravel dedicated his piano work, \"Pavane pour une infante défunte\", to the Princesse de Polignac. Many of Marcel Proust's evocations of salon culture were born during his attendance at concerts in the Polignac drawing room.  After her husband's death, Winnaretta Singer-Polignac used her fortune to benefit the arts, sciences, and letters. She decided to honor his memory by commissioning several works of the young composers of her time, amongst others Igor Stravinsky's \"Renard\", Erik Satie's \"Socrate\" (by her intercession Satie was kept out of jail when he was composing this work), Darius Milhaud's \"Les Malheurs d'Orphée\", Francis Poulenc's Concerto for Two Pianos and Organ Concerto, Jean Françaix's \"Le Diable boîteux\" and \"Sérénade pour douze instruments\", Kurt Weill's Second Symphony, and Germaine Tailleferre's First Piano Concerto. Manuel de Falla's \"El retablo de maese Pedro\" was premiered there, with the harpsichord part performed by Wanda Landowska.  In addition to Proust and Antonio de La Gándara, the Princesse de Polignac's salon was frequented by Isadora Duncan, Jean Cocteau, Claude Monet, Sergei Diaghilev, and Colette. She was also patron to many others, including Nadia Boulanger, Clara Haskil, Dinu Lipatti, Arthur Rubinstein, Vladimir Horowitz, Armande de Polignac, Ethel Smyth, Le Corbusier, Adela Maddison, the Ballets Russes, l'Opéra de Paris, and the Orchestre Symphonique de Paris. In addition to performing as pianist and organist in her own salon, she was an accomplished painter who exhibited in the Académie des Beaux-Arts. One canvas eventually appeared in the showcase of an art gallery, advertised as being a Manet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public service.", "content": "Winnaretta Singer-Polignac was also an important leader in the development of public housing in Paris. Her 1911 building of a housing project for the working poor at Rue de la Colonie, in the 13th arrondissement, was considered to be a model for future projects. In the 1920s and 1930s, Singer commissioned the architect Le Corbusier to rebuild or construct several public shelters for Paris's Salvation Army. The plans of Le Corbusier's Salvation Army hostel in Paris show a private apartment at the top floor for \"Miss Singer\". With her friend Madeleine Zillhardt, she bought the barge 'Louise-Catherine' named in memory of Zillhardt's companion Louise Catherine Breslau. The boat was rehabilitated by Le Corbusier in 1929 in order to be a refuge of the Salvation Army for the homeless in winter and a summer camp for children, moored in Paris on the banks of the Seine, at the Pont des Arts and at the Pont d'Austerlitz.  During World War I, working with Marie Curie, Singer-Polignac helped convert private limousines into mobile radiology units to help wounded soldiers at the front.  During the inter-war period, Singer-Polignac worked with Consuelo Vanderbilt Balsan and assisted in the construction of a 360-bed hospital destined to provide medical care to middle-class workers. The result of this effort is the Foch Hospital, located in Suresnes, a suburb of Paris, France. The hospital also includes a school of nursing and is one of the top-ranked hospitals in France, especially for renal transplants. It has remained true to its origins and stayed a private not-for-profit institution that still serves the Paris community. It is managed by the Fondation médicale Franco-américaine du Mont-Valérien, commonly called Fondation Foch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fondation Singer-Polignac.", "content": "After Singer-Polignac's death, her legacy of enlightened generosity was carried on through the work of the Fondation Singer-Polignac. Created in 1928, the goals of the foundation are the promotion, through gifts and bourses, of science, literature, the arts, culture, and French philanthropy. The Foundation continued to present concerts and recitals in the Polignac mansion's music room. The performances were first organized by Nadia Boulanger, who presented programs that juxtaposed early music and modern compositions. After Boulanger's death in 1979, the composer Jean Françaix took over the organization of the concert series.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Winnaretta Singer, Princesse Edmond de Polignac (8 January 186526 November 1943), was an American-born heir to the Singer sewing machine fortune. She used this to fund a wide range of causes, notably a musical salon where her protégés included Debussy and Ravel, and numerous public health projects in Paris, where she lived most of her life. Singer entered into two marriages that were unconsummated, and openly enjoyed many high-profile relationships with women.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973552}
{"src_title": "Bedding", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Materials.", "content": "Lightweight white, solid-color or printed plain weave, satin weave, or flannel cotton or cotton/polyester blends are the most common types of sheeting, although linen and silk may also be used, including in combination. Goose or duck down and other feathers are frequently used as a warm and lightweight filling in duvets, comforters and quilts. But such fill can protrude in part even from tightly-woven fabric, and be an irritant for many people, particularly those with allergies. Natural and synthetic down alternatives are marketed. Cotton, wool or polyester batting is commonly used as fill in quilts and down alternative comforters. These are less expensive and more easily laundered than natural down or feathers. Synthetic fibers are best in the form of thermofused (where fibers cross) batting. Thick-woven or knitted wool, cotton, acrylic or other microfiber synthetics, or blends of these, are typically used for blankets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Around 3400 BC Egyptian pharaohs had their beds moved off the ground and slept on a raised surface. Bed linen was widely evolved in Egypt. It was seen as a symbol of light and purity, as well as a symbol of prosperity. The Egyptian mummies were often wrapped in bed linen.  Roman Empire mattresses were stuffed with wool, feather, reeds or hay. The beds were decorated with paint, bronze, silver, jewels and gold.  In Japan, mattress types were stuffed with cotton and rolled up for storage during the day.  During the Renaissance, mattresses were stuffed with straw and feathers and then covered with silks, velvets or satin material.  In the 18th century, Europeans began to use bed frames made from cast iron, and mattresses that were made of cotton.  In the 19th century the bed spring was invented, also called the box spring.  In the 20th century United States, consumers bought the inner spring mattress, followed in the 1960s by the water bed (originating on the West Coast), and adoption of Japanese-style futons, air mattresses, and foam rubber mattresses and pillows.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sizes.", "content": "Bedding sizes are made with consideration of the dimensions of the bed and mattress for which it is to be used. Bed sizes vary around the world, with countries having their own standards and terminology.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bedding, also known as bedclothes or bed linen, is the materials laid above the mattress of a bed for hygiene, warmth, protection of the mattress, and decorative effect. Bedding is the removable and washable portion of a human sleeping environment. Multiple sets of bedding for each bed are often washed in rotation and/or changed seasonally to improve sleep comfort at varying room temperatures. Most standardised measurements for bedding are rectangular, but there are also some square-shaped sizes, which allows the user to put on bedding without having to consider its lengthwise orientation (i.e. a duvet).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973553}
{"src_title": "Princess Philippine Charlotte of Prussia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Philippine Charlotte was the fourth child and third daughter of Frederick William I of Prussia and his spouse Sophia Dorothea of Hanover (those who reached adulthood; she was otherwise seventh child and fourth daughter).  On 2 July 1733 in Berlin, Princess Philippine Charlotte married Duke Charles of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, eldest son of Ferdinand Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Charles inherited the dukedom on his father's death in 1735, making her Duchess consort.  The double marriage alliance between Prussia and Brunswick by her marriage to Charles I, and that of her brother Frederick to Charles' sister Elisabeth Christine, led to a permanent alliance of the most important North German Protestant houses Prussia and Brunswick. The family ties of the two dynasties resulted the alliance of Brunswick and Prussia in the Seven Years' War, and the career of Philippines sons in the Prussian service.  Philippine Charlotte was described as subtle, highly educated and a child of the enlightenment. She worked independently of an extract of the philosophical writings of Christian von Wolff in French. The Duchess pursued, partly because of the influence of the ducal adviser Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Jerusalem, the German intellectual life very closely. She appreciated the poet Salomon Gessner and maintained a personal relationship Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. The dramatist Lessing were also among her circle.  As Duchess consort, Philippine Charlotte's court life focused on the circle of conversation she held before and after dinner in her state apartments in the Grauer Hof, to which she attracted scholars and men of letters with positions at court. The Brunswick court attended a few opera performances and public balls a year in accordance with court etiquette, but the large expenditure of her spouse soon made it necessary to have a more economic court life.  She raised her son Charles in reverence of her brother, Frederick of Prussia, gave him a humanist education with Abbé Jerusalem among his tutors, and sent him on a Grand Tour with the archaeologist Winckelmann as his companion.  In 1773, Charles I was obliged to make his son regent, and in 1780, he died, and was succeeded by her son.  The Swedish Princess Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte described her, as well as her family, at the time of a visit in August, 1799: Our cousin, the Duke, arrived immediately the next morning. [...] After he left us, I visited the Dowager Duchess, the aunt of my consort. She is an agreeable, highly educated and well respected lady, but by now so old that she has almost lost her memory.  Philippine Charlotte left to the Wolfenbüttel Library her own collection of 4,000 volumes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Philippine Charlotte of Prussia () (13 March 1716, in Berlin – 17 February 1801, in Brunswick) was a Duchess consort of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel by marriage to Charles I of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and a known intellectual in contemporary Germany. She is listed as a female composer as she is thought to have written marches and other music.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973554}
{"src_title": "Common roach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The roach is a small fish, often reaching no more than about ; maximum length is 45–50 cm. The body has a bluish silvery colour and becomes white at the belly. The fins are red. The number of scales along the lateral line is 39–48. The dorsal and anal fins have 12–14 rays. Young specimens have a slender build; older specimens acquire a higher and broader body shape. The roach can often be recognized by the big red spot in the iris above and beside the pupil. Colours of the eye and fins can be very pale, however, in some environments.  In Central and Northern Europe, the common roach can most easily be confused with the common rudd (\"Scardinius erythropthalmus\"), the dace (\"Leuciscus leuciscus\"), or the ide (\"Leuciscus idus\"). They can be distinguished by these characteristics:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The common roach is found throughout Europe except for the area around the Mediterranean, and its distribution reaches eastward into Siberia. Eastern Europe and Asia have several subspecies, some with an oceangoing lifecycle living around the Caspian and Black Seas. Around the Mediterranean and in northwestern part of Spain and Portugal, several closely related species occur with no overlap in their distribution.  It was introduced in Australia in the Murray River and coastal drainages of southern New South Wales and Victoria from Europe during the 1860s and 1880s for sport purposes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The common roach is very adaptable and can be found in any freshwater ecosystem, ranging from small ponds to the largest rivers and lakes. It will feed at any depth, although its preferred food sources tend to be in shallower water. It tolerates organic pollution and is one of the last species to disappear in polluted waters, and is also often the most numerous cyprinid in nutrient-poor waters. It also tolerates brackish water. Roach will survive in temperatures from close to freezing 4 °C (39 °F) up to around 31 °C (88 °F). In most parts of its distribution, it is the most numerous fish, but it can be surpassed by the common bream in biomass in water bodies with high turbidity and sparse vegetation. The roach is a shoaling fish and is not very migratory with the exception of the oceangoing subspecies. In the cold season, they migrate to feed in deeper waters, whereas they prefer to feed near the surface during warmer weather.  The roach mostly inhabits freshwater ecosystems that are somewhat vegetated, because larval and young fish are protected by the vegetation and the mature fish can use it for food. The common roach eats a wide range of foods, from plant material, bottom-dwelling (benthic) invertebrates, to worms and maggots. Young fish feed mainly on plankton, until they are of a size to enjoy a wider diet. The roach can adapt to environments where invertebrates are scarce by slowing their growth, maintaining slender body shapes, and early maturation.  Roach may live for 15 years or more.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The spawning season is generally from March to June, with some variation due to spawning being triggered by the rising of water temperature during spring and summer. Roach generally spawn at the same location each year. Large males form schools, which females enter. Males trail the females and fertilize their eggs. The behaviour is rough and the fish often jump out of the water. A female can lay up to 100,000 eggs. When the pH of the water is below 5.5, the roach cannot reproduce successfully.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The roach (\"Rutilus rutilus\"), also known as the common roach, is a fresh and brackish water fish of the family Cyprinidae, native to most of Europe and western Asia. Fishes called roach can be any species of the genera \"Rutilus\" and \"Hesperoleucus\", depending on locality. The plural of the term is also roach.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973555}
{"src_title": "Karakalpakstan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "From about 500 BC to 500 AD, the region of what is now Karakalpakstan was a thriving agricultural area supported by extensive irrigation. The Karakalpak people, who used to be nomadic herders and fishers, were first recorded in the 16th century. Karakalpakstan was ceded to the Russian Empire by the Khanate of Khiva in 1873. Under Soviet rule, it was an autonomous area within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic before becoming part of Uzbekistan in 1936. The region was probably at its most prosperous in the 1960s and 1970s, when irrigation from the Amu Darya was being expanded. Today, however, the drainage of the Aral Sea has rendered Karakalpakstan one of Uzbekistan's poorest regions. The region is suffering from extensive drought, partly due to weather patterns, but also largely because the Amu and Syr Darya rivers are exploited mostly in the eastern part of the country. Crop failures have deprived about 48,000 people of their main source of income and shortages of potable water have created a surge of infectious diseases.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Karakalpakstan is now mostly desert and is located in western Uzbekistan near the Aral Sea, in the lowest part of the Amu Darya basin. It has an area of 164,900 km2 and is surrounded by desert. The Kyzyl Kum Desert is located to the east and the Karakum Desert is located to the south. A rocky plateau extends west to the Caspian Sea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "The Republic of Karakalpakstan is formally sovereign and shares veto power over decisions concerning it with Uzbekistan. According to the constitution, relations between Karakalpakstan and Uzbekistan are \"regulated by treaties and agreements\" and any disputes are \"settled by way of reconciliation\". Its right to secede is limited by the veto power of Uzbekistan's legislature over any decision to secede. Article 74, chapter XVII, Constitution of Uzbekistan, provides that: \"The Republic of Karakalpakstan shall have the right to secede from the Republic of Uzbekistan on the basis of a nationwide referendum held by the people of Karakalpakstan.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "The population of Karakalpakstan is estimated to be around 1.7 million and in 2007 it was estimated that about 400,000 of the population are of the Karakalpak ethnic group, 400,000 are Uzbeks and 300,000 are Kazakhs. Their name means \"Black Hat\", but Karakalpak culture was so lost through Sovietization that the original meaning of the black hat is now unknown. The Karakalpak language is considered closer to Kazakh than to Uzbek. The language was written in a modified Cyrillic in Soviet times and has been written in the Latin alphabet since 1996.  The population grew to 1.8 million in 2017. The crude birth rate is 2.19%: approximately 39,400 children were born in 2017. Nearly 8,400 people died in the same period. The crude death rate is 0.47%. The natural growth rate is 31,000, or 1.72%.  The median age was 27.7 years old in 2017, which is younger than the rest of Uzbekistan (median age of 28.5 countrywide). Men are 27.1 years old, while women are 28.2 years old.  Other than the capital Nukus, large cities include Xojeli (Cyrillic: ), Taxiatosh (), Shimbai (), Konirat () and Moynaq (), a former Aral Sea port now completely dried up according to NASA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The economy of the region used to be heavily dependent on fisheries in the Aral Sea. It is now supported by cotton, rice and melons. Hydroelectric power from a large Soviet-built station on the Amu Darya is also important.  The Amu Darya delta was once heavily populated and supported extensive irrigation based agriculture for thousands of years. Under the Khorezm, the area attained considerable power and prosperity. However, the gradual climate change over the centuries, accelerated by human induced evaporation of the Aral Sea in the late 20th century has created a desolate scene in the region. The ancient oases of rivers, lakes, reed marshes, forests and farms are drying up and being poisoned by wind-borne salt and by fertilizer and pesticide residues from the dried bed of the Aral Sea. Summer temperatures have risen and winter temperatures have decreased by. The rate of anemia, respiratory diseases and other health problems has risen dramatically.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative divisions.", "content": "<nowiki>*</nowiki>  <nowiki>**</nowiki>", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Radio.", "content": "In 2009, the first radio station of Karakalpakstan was opened. The station is called Nukus FM, which broadcasts on radio frequency 100.4 MHz, only in Nukus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karakalpakstan ( / ; ), officially the Republic of Karakalpakstan ( / ; ), is an autonomous republic within Uzbekistan. It occupies the whole northwestern end of Uzbekistan. The capital is Nukus (\"\" / ). The Republic of Karakalpakstan has an area of. Its territory covers the classical land of Khwarezm, though in classical Persian literature the area was known as ().", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973556}
{"src_title": "Acer griseum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree, reaching tall and wide, with a trunk up to in circumference. The bark is smooth, shiny orange-red, peeling in thin, papery layers; it may become fissured in old trees. The shoots are densely downy at first, this wearing off by the second or third year and the bark exfoliating by the third or fourth year.  The leaves are compound, with a 2–4 cm petiole with three leaflets, each 3–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, dark green above, bright glaucous blue-green beneath, with several blunt teeth on the margins.  The yellow flowers are androdioecious, produced in small pendent corymbs in spring, the fruit being a paired samara with two winged seeds about 1 cm long with a 3 cm wing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "\"Acer griseum\" was introduced to cultivation in Europe in 1901 by Ernest Henry Wilson for the Veitch Nurseries, and to North America shortly after. It is one of many species of maples widely grown as ornamental plants in temperate regions. It is admired for its decorative exfoliating bark, translucent pieces of which often stay attached to the branches until worn away. It also has spectacular autumn foliage which can include red, orange and pink tones.  This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.  In 2015, the North America-China Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC) conducted an expedition specifically targeting \"Acer griseum\" for seed collection with the object of increasing the genetic diversity of plants in cultivation. Propagation of \"Acer griseum\" is somewhat difficult as seeds have the same parthenocarpic tendencies as those of \"Acer maximowiczianum\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Acer griseum, the paperbark maple (), is a species of flowering plant in the family Sapindaceae, native to central China. \"Acer griseum\" is found in the Chinese provinces of Gansu, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, Shanxi and Sichuan, at altitudes of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973557}
{"src_title": "Sfax", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Present-day Sfax was founded in AD849 on the site of the ancient Roman town (\"\") of Taparura. The modern city has also grown to cover some other ancient settlements, most notably Thenae in its southern suburb of Thyna.  By the end of the 10th century, Sfax, had become an independent city-state. The city was conquered by Roger II of Sicily in 1148 and occupied until it was liberated in 1156 by the Almohads, and was briefly occupied by European forces again; this time by the Spanish, in the 16th century, before falling into Ottoman hands this time. Sfax became an integral base of the Barbary piracy, prompting an unsuccessful invasion by Venice in 1785.  When the Bey of Tunis signed the Bardo Treaty, in 1881, making Tunisia a protectorate, an insurrection broke out in Sfax. Six ironclads were dispatched from Toulon (\"Colbert\", \"Friedland\", \"Marengo\", \"Trident\", \"Revanche\", \"Surveillante\") to join the French Navy ships in Tunisian waters. In Sfax, three ironclads from the Division of the Levant were already present (\"Alma\", \"Reine Blanche\", \"La Galissonnière\"), together with four cannon boats. Sfax was bombarded, and on 16 July the city was taken by the French after hard fighting, with 7 dead and 32 wounded for the French.  During World War II, the Axis powers used the city as a major base until British forces took it on 10 April 1943. After World War II, Tunisia was returned to France, but gained independence in 1956.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The A1 motorway connects Sfax with Tunis. A narrow gauge railway system of SNCFT offers passenger services to Tunis and delivers phosphates and iron ore for export. Sfax is served by Sfax–Thyna International Airport and Syphax Airlines has regularly scheduled flights to Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport, Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport, Sabiha Gökçen International Airport, Tripoli International Airport, and charter flights to Jeddah Airport for the pilgrimage to Mecca.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Communications.", "content": "Founded in 1961, Radio Sfax broadcasts twenty hours a day on MW 720 kHz/105.21 MHz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Sfax has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen \"BSh\"). Owing to its sheltered location relative to Mediterranean Sea winter storms, Sfax receives half the rainfall of Tunis and less even than the major cities of Libya (Tripoli and Benghazi). Summers, like all of North Africa, are hot and almost rainless, whilst winters are very pleasant with only light rain usual.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The University of Sfax includes:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Sfax is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sfax ( '; \"Sifaks\") is a city in Tunisia, located southeast of Tunis. The city, founded in AD849 on the ruins of Roman Taparura, is the capital of the Sfax Governorate (about 955,421 inhabitants in 2014), and a Mediterranean port. Sfax has a population of 330,440 (census 2014). The main economic activities of Sfax are industries (phosphate processing), agriculture (olive and olive oil, nuts), fishing (largest fishing port in Tunisia) and trade (import-export). The city is often described as Tunisia's \"second city\", being the second-most populous city after the capital Tunis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973558}
{"src_title": "Kajsa Bergqvist", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Bergqvist was born up in Sollentuna Municipality in Stockholm County. Her interest in sport began when she was 6 years old and tried sports such as football, volleyball, badminton, swimming and cross-country skiing, none of which was able to keep her interest.  When she was 10 years old, she was persuaded by her big brother, Anders, to compete in Rösjöloppet, a long-distance track event. After that event, she began to try out several athletic events.  Bergqvist continued to train in several athletic events until she was 15 years old, when a new coach, Bengt Jönsson, came to her club, Turebergs FK. Soon after his arrival, he and Bergqvist chose to concentrate on the event that was her best, high jump.  She attended Southern Methodist University in Dallas (USA) in 1995–1999, with a degree in Advertising. She was the NCAA champion in 1997 with a clearance of 1.93 in the rain at the Indiana University over Amy Acuff of UCLA ending her streak at two. She won the NCAA meet again in 1999 with a height of 1.90 in Boise. In the season 1999, she tied Acuff's collegiate outdoor record of 1.95 (6-6). That record is sometimes omitted as it was set in international competition after the NCAA meet.  During 2001–2008 she lived in Monaco.  By 2004, lack of progress and long travel distances caused Bergqvist to end the relationship with her coach, Bengt Jönsson. She joined a group of athletes (including Olympic gold medalist Christian Olsson) under Yannick Tregaro.  At a competition in Båstad, on 18 July 2004, Bergqvist tore her Achilles tendon. Due to the injury, she missed the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, but managed to return to form just in time for the 2005 World Championships in Athletics in Helsinki. There she made an impressive series of jumps to edge out Chaunté Howard for the gold medal. Her Helsinki victory earned the Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal for that year.  In 2006, she had been ranked the number one female high jumper in the world but failed to win in that summer's European Championships in front of her home fans in Gothenburg, having to settle for a bronze medal.  At the Hochsprung mit Musik meeting in Arnstadt, Germany, on 4 February 2006, Bergqvist set her first world record: she made an indoor leap of 2.08 on her first attempt, surpassing Heike Henkel's 2.07 m leap on 8 February 1992. The record was not totally unexpected since she jumped 2.00 m already in the warm up for the competition.  Bergqvist chose not to compete in the 2007 European Indoor Athletics Championships, opting, instead, to concentrate on defending her world outdoor crown. She had not started the indoor season well, and was nowhere near the form which had seen her set the world record the year before. It did not pay off as she finished 7th in Osaka.  Bergqvist married director Måns Herngren on New Year's Eve in 2007 and shortly afterwards, on 7 January 2008, announced that she would retire from high jumping. She had found her life entering \"a new phase\" and that she no longer felt as motivated to keep competing, even after her break in 2007.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-athletics.", "content": "Since her retirement, she has been an ambassador for both UNICEF and the IAAF.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Bergqvist married director Måns Herngren on New Year's Eve in 2007. The couple announced their divorce in early 2011.  In December 2011, Bergqvist confirmed in an interview that she is in a relationship with a woman, and stated: \"As lesbian as I feel today, as heterosexual I felt when I was together with Måns. But when I get old and look back on my life, perhaps one can think that I'm bisexual.\" This announcement came after a period of rumours concerning Bergqvist's personal life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kajsa Margareta Bergqvist (; born 12 October 1976 in Sollentuna, Stockholm) is a Swedish former high jumper. She won one bronze medal in the Olympic Games, one gold and two bronze medals in the World Championships in Athletics and one gold and one bronze in the European Championships. Her personal outdoor record of 2.06 m, set in Germany in 2003, is also a Swedish record. Her indoor record of 2.08 m, set at the Hochsprung mit Musik meeting in 2006, is the world indoor record.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973559}
{"src_title": "Particle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Conceptual properties.", "content": "The concept of particles is particularly useful when modelling nature, as the full treatment of many phenomena can be complex and also involve difficult computation. It can be used to make simplifying assumptions concerning the processes involved. Francis Sears and Mark Zemansky, in \"University Physics\", give the example of calculating the landing location and speed of a baseball thrown in the air. They gradually strip the baseball of most of its properties, by first idealizing it as a rigid smooth sphere, then by neglecting rotation, buoyancy and friction, ultimately reducing the problem to the ballistics of a classical point particle. The treatment of large numbers of particles is the realm of statistical physics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "The term \"particle\" is usually applied differently to three classes of sizes. The term \"macroscopic particle\", usually refers to particles much larger than atoms and molecules. These are usually abstracted as point-like particles, even though they have volumes, shapes, structures, etc. Examples of macroscopic particles would include powder, dust, sand, pieces of debris during a car accident, or even objects as big as the stars of a galaxy.  Another type, \"microscopic particles\" usually refers to particles of sizes ranging from atoms to molecules, such as carbon dioxide, nanoparticles, and colloidal particles. These particles are studied in chemistry, as well as atomic and molecular physics. The smallest of particles are the \"subatomic particles\", which refer to particles smaller than atoms. These would include particles such as the constituents of atoms – protons, neutrons, and electrons – as well as other types of particles which can only be produced in particle accelerators or cosmic rays. These particles are studied in particle physics.  Because of their extremely small size, the study of microscopic and subatomic particles fall in the realm of quantum mechanics. They will exhibit phenomena demonstrated in the particle in a box model, including wave–particle duality, and whether particles can be considered distinct or identical is an important question in many situations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "Particles can also be classified according to composition. \"Composite particles\" refer to particles that have composition – that is particles which are made of other particles. For example, a carbon-14 atom is made of six protons, eight neutrons, and six electrons. By contrast, \"elementary particles\" (also called \"fundamental particles\") refer to particles that are not made of other particles. According to our current understanding of the world, only a very small number of these exist, such as leptons, quarks, and gluons. However it is possible that some of these might turn up to be composite particles after all, and merely appear to be elementary for the moment. While composite particles can very often be considered \"point-like\", elementary particles are truly \"punctual\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stability.", "content": "Both elementary (such as muons) and composite particles (such as uranium nuclei), are known to undergo particle decay. Those that do not are called stable particles, such as the electron or a helium-4 nucleus. The lifetime of stable particles can be either infinite or large enough to hinder attempts to observe such decays. In the latter case, those particles are called \"observationally stable\". In general, a particle decays from a high-energy state to a lower-energy state by emitting some form of radiation, such as the emission of photons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"N\"-body simulation.", "content": "In computational physics, \"N\"-body simulations (also called \"N\"-particle simulations) are simulations of dynamical systems of particles under the influence of certain conditions, such as being subject to gravity. These simulations are very common in cosmology and computational fluid dynamics.  \"N\" refers to the number of particles considered. As simulations with higher \"N\" are more computationally intensive, systems with large numbers of actual particles will often be approximated to a smaller number of particles, and simulation algorithms need to be optimized through various methods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution of particles.", "content": "Colloidal particles are the components of a colloid. A colloid is a substance microscopically dispersed evenly throughout another substance. Such colloidal system can be solid, liquid, or gaseous; as well as continuous or dispersed. The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter of between approximately 5 and 200 nanometers. Soluble particles smaller than this will form a solution as opposed to a colloid. Colloidal systems (also called colloidal solutions or colloidal suspensions) are the subject of interface and colloid science. Suspended solids may be held in a liquid, while solid or liquid particles suspended in a gas together form an aerosol. Particles may also be suspended in the form of atmospheric particulate matter, which may constitute air pollution. Larger particles can similarly form marine debris or space debris. A conglomeration of discrete solid, macroscopic particles may be described as a granular material.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscule in older texts) is a small localized object or entity to which can be ascribed several physical or chemical properties such as volume, density or mass. They vary greatly in size or quantity, from subatomic particles like the electron, to microscopic particles like atoms and molecules, to macroscopic particles like powders and other granular materials. Particles can also be used to create scientific models of even larger objects depending on their density, such as humans moving in a crowd or celestial bodies in motion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973560}
{"src_title": "Felix Steiner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "World War I.", "content": "Born in 1896, Felix Steiner joined the Royal Prussian Army as an infantry cadet. During World War I, he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st and 2nd class. In 1919, Steiner joined the paramilitary \"Freikorps\" in the East Prussian city of Memel and was incorporated into the \"Reichswehr\" in 1921. In 1933, he left the army having attained the rank of major.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "SS career.", "content": "Steiner first joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) (membership number: 4,264,295) and the \"Sturmabteilung\" (SA). In 1935 he enlisted in the SS. He took command of a battalion of \"SS-Verfügungstruppen\" (SS-VT) troops, and within a year had been promoted to SS-\"Standartenführer\"; and later was put in command of the \"SS-Deutschland\" Regiment.  At the outbreak of World War II, he was SS-Oberführer (Senior leader) in charge of the Waffen-SS regiment \"SS-Deutschland\". He led this regiment through the Invasion of Poland and the Battle of France, for which he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 15 August 1940. Steiner was introduced to Heinrich Himmler, the head of the SS, to oversee the creation of, and then command the new SS Division Wiking. At the time of its creation, it consisted mostly of non-German volunteers (Dutch, Flemish, Finns and Scandinavians), including the Danish regiment Frikorps Danmark. Steiner was an outstanding soldier, an aggressive commander, of considerable personal courage, a born leader with a shrewd knowledge of panzer warfare: \"Gruppenfuhrer Steiner moved quickly and fearlessly behind the tanks, in his light-coloured dust jacket and with his small battle staff. His command post was up front. Decisions and orders were adjusted to the progress of the fighting - rapidly with no time lapse. The artillery went into position; the forward observers registered and corrected the guns.\"  In April 1943, he was placed in command of a newly formed III SS Panzer Corps. The unit participated in anti-partisan actions in Yugoslavia. In November/December 1943 his corps was transferred to the Eastern Front and positioned in the northern sector at Leningrad under Army Group North. Steiner's Panzer Corps played a leading role during the Battle of Narva and the Battle of Tannenberg Line. His unit then withdrew with the rest of Army Group North to the Courland Peninsula.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle of Berlin.", "content": "In January 1945, Steiner along with the III SS Panzer Corps was transferred by ship from the Courland Pocket to help with the defence of the German homeland. The corps was assigned to Army Group Vistula under the new Eleventh SS Panzer Army, although this army really only existed on paper. Once the Soviet Army reached the Oder river, the Eleventh SS Panzer Army became inactive and the III SS Panzer Corps was reassigned to the German Third Panzer Army as a reserve during the Soviets' Berlin Offensive Operation. During the Battle of Seelow Heights, the first major battle of the offensive, General Gotthard Heinrici, the commander of Army Group Vistula, transferred most of the III SS Panzer Corps' divisions to General Theodor Busse's Ninth Army.  By 21 April, Soviet Marshal Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the German lines on the Seelow Heights. Hitler, ignoring the facts, started to call the ragtag units that came under Steiner's command Army Detachment Steiner (\"Armeeabteilung Steiner\"). An army detachment was something more than a corps but less than an army.  Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the huge salient created by the 1st Belorussian Front's breakout. Steiner's attack was due to coincide with General Busse's Ninth Army, attacking from the south in a pincer attack. The Ninth Army had been pushed to south of the 1st Belorussian Front's salient. To facilitate this attack, Steiner was assigned the three divisions of the Ninth Army's CI Army Corps: the 4th SS Panzergrenadier Division \"Polizei\", the 5th Jäger Division, and the 25th Panzergrenadier Division. All three divisions were north of the Finow Canal on the Northern flank of Zhukov's salient. Weidling's LVI Panzer Corps, which was still east of Berlin with its northern flank just below Werneuchen, was also ordered to participate in the attack. The three divisions from CI Army Corps planned to attack south from Eberswalde on the Finow Canal towards the LVI Panzer Corps. The three divisions from CI Army Corps were 24 kilometres (about 15 miles) east of Berlin and the attack to the south would cut the 1st Belorussian Front's salient in two. Steiner called Heinrici and informed him that the plan could not be implemented because the 5th Jäger Division and the 25th Panzergrenadier Division were deployed defensively and could not be redeployed until the 2nd Naval Division arrived from the coast to relieve them. This left only two battalions of the 4th SS Panzergrenadier Division available and they had no combat weapons.  Based on Steiner's assessment, Heinrici called Hans Krebs, Chief of Staff of the German General Staff of the Army High Command (\"Oberkommando des Heeres\" or OKH), and told him that the plan could not be implemented. Heinrici asked to speak to Hitler, but was told Hitler was too busy to take his call. On 22 April 1945, at his afternoon conference, Hitler became aware that Steiner was not going to attack and he fell into a tearful rage. Hitler declared the war was lost, he blamed the generals and announced that he would stay on in Berlin until the end, then kill himself. On the same day, General Rudolf Holste was given what few mobile forces Steiner commanded so that he could participate in a new plan to relieve Berlin. Holste was to attack from the north while General Walther Wenck attacked from the west and General Theodor Busse attacked from the south. These attacks amounted to little and, on 25 April, the Soviet forces attacking to the north and to the south of Berlin linked up to the west of the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "After the surrender, Steiner was incarcerated until 1948. He faced charges at the Nuremberg Trials, but they were dropped for lack of solid evidence and he was released. With Paul Hausser, Herbert Gille and Otto Kumm, Steiner became a founding member of HIAG, the lobby group founded by former high-ranking Waffen-SS officers in West Germany in 1951.  From his home in West Germany he published \"Die Freiwilligen der Waffen-SS: Idee und Opfergang\"; English: \"The Volunteers of Waffen-SS: Idea and Sacrifice\" in 1958. Steiner's books and memoirs have been characterised by historian Charles Sydnor as one of the \"most important works of apologist literature,\" together with warfare analyses \"Grenadiere\" by Kurt Meyer and \"Waffen-SS in Action\" by Paul Hausser. These works demanded rehabilitation of the military branch of the NSDAP, with Steiner's works being important in stressing the theme of the purely military Waffen-SS.  A second book was published in 1963 under the title \"Die Armee der Geächteten\" (English: \"The Army of the Outlaws\") and was also tendentious.  Steiner died on 12 May 1966, 11 days before his 70th birthday. He never married.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Felix Martin Julius Steiner (23 May 1896 – 12 May 1966) was a German SS commander during the Nazi era. During World War II, he served in the Waffen-SS, the combat branch of the SS, and commanded several SS divisions and corps. He was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords. Together with Paul Hausser, he contributed significantly to the development and transformation of the Waffen-SS into a combat force made up of volunteers and conscripts from both occupied and un-occupied lands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973561}
{"src_title": "Carola of Vasa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "She was the daughter of the former Crown Prince Gustav of Sweden and Princess Louise Amelie of Baden, and a granddaughter of King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden who had been deposed in 1809.  In the early 1850s, she was considered one of the most beautiful princesses of Europe. Suitors were not lacking, and there had been plans for her to marry Napoléon III, Emperor of the French. She was a cousin of the Emperor's through her maternal grandmother Stéphanie de Beauharnais, also the adoptive daughter of Napoleon I and a Princess of the First French Empire. Her father was against the marriage due to the volatile political situation in France and his dynasty's historical dispute with the Bonaparte dynasty. 20 years later, when Napoleon III fell from power, her father is quoted as saying, \"\"I foresaw that correctly!\"\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crown princess.", "content": "In 1852, against her father's wishes, Carola converted to Catholicism. On 18 June 1853, Carola married in Dresden, Crown Prince Albert of Saxony. Their marriage was childless, although she suffered many miscarriages. Her closest heirs were: in paternal side, Frederick II, Grand Duke of Baden (1857–1928), son of her first cousin; and her first cousin King Carol I of Romania (1839–1914) in maternal side.  She had a good relationship to her parents-in-law and was described as their support during difficult times. Already as a crown princess, Carola began the activity within social issues which she would continue as a queen. In 1866, she visited Saxony's field hospitals in Vienna, where she made herself known as a good samaritan. In 1867, she founded the Albert commission, which contributed to the medical care of the German army during the war of 1870-71. For her work, she was decorated with the Prussian Luisen-Orden and the Saxon Order of Sidonia. In 1871, she accompanied Albert to Compiègne after the defeat of France, where she entertained the officers of the victorious armies as a popular hostess.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen.", "content": "In 1873, her spouse succeeded his father as King Albert I, making Carola queen. In 1884, the deposed Swedish branch of the House of Oldenburg made peace with the new Swedish Bernadotte dynasty through her and her first cousin once removed Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden, when the remains of Carola's grandfather, king Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden, her father and her brother Ludvig were taken to Stockholm and interred in the royal crypt. In 1888, Carola and her spouse made an official visit to Sweden.  Queen Carola made an important contribution to the health care organisation in Saxony. In 1867, as Crown princess, she and Marie Simon founded the Albert-Verein. She founded a wet nurse school at Leipziger Tor (1869), the hospital \"Carola-Haus\" (1878), the women employment agency Johannes-Verein (1876), a women's school in Schwarzenberg (1884), the home \"Gustavheim\" for the old, sick and weak in Niederpoyritz (1887), the school Lehrertöchterheim Carola-Stift Klotzsche (1892) and the home for handicapped Amalie hus Löbtau, Friedrichstadt (1896). Carola was a popular queen. She was widowed in 1902.  She was the 499th Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa.  At the time of her death, she was the last surviving grandchild of Gustaf IV Adolf.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carola of Vasa (Karoline Frederikke Franziska Stephanie Amalia Cecilia; 5 August 1833 at Schönbrunn – 15 December 1907 at Dresden) was a titular princess of Sweden, and the queen consort of Saxony. She was the last Queen of Saxony.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973562}
{"src_title": "Theodor Kaluza", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Kaluza was born to a Roman Catholic family from the town of Ratibor (present-day Racibórz in Poland) in the German Empire's Prussian Province of Silesia. Kaluza himself was born in Wilhelmsthal (a village that was incorporated into Oppeln (present-day Opole) in 1899). He spent his youth in Königsberg, where his father, Max Kaluza, was a professor of the English language. He entered the University of Königsberg to study mathematics and gained his doctorate with a thesis on Tschirnhaus transformations. Kaluza was primarily a mathematician but began studying relativity. In April 1919 Kaluza noticed that when he solved Albert Einstein's equations for general relativity using five dimensions, then Maxwellian equations for electromagnetism emerged spontaneously. Kaluza wrote to Einstein who, in turn, encouraged him to publish. Kaluza's theory was published in 1921 in a paper, \"Zum Unitätsproblem der Physik\" with Einstein's support in \"Sitzungsberichte Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften\" 966–972 (1921).  Kaluza's insight is remembered as the Kaluza–Klein theory (also named after physicist Oskar Klein). However, the work was neglected for many years as attention was directed towards quantum mechanics. His idea that fundamental forces can be explained by additional dimensions did not re-emerge until string theory was developed. It is however also notable that many of the aspects of this body of work were already published in 1914 by Gunnar Nordström, but his work also went unnoticed and was not recognized when the ideas re-emerged.  For the rest of his career Kaluza continued to produce ideas about relativity and about models of the atomic nucleus. Despite Einstein's support, Kaluza remained at a low rank (Privatdozent) at Königsberg until 1929 when he was appointed as professor at the University of Kiel. In 1935 he became a full professor at the University of Göttingen where he remained until his death in 1954. Perhaps his finest mathematical work is the textbook \"Höhere Mathematik für die Praktiker\" which was written jointly with Georg Joos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Kaluza was extraordinarily versatile. He spoke or wrote 17 languages. He also had an unusually modest personality. He refused the Nazi ideology and his appointment to the Göttingen chair was possible only with difficulties and by protection of his colleague Helmut Hasse. Strange stories were told of his private life, for example, that he taught himself to swim in his thirties by reading a book and succeeded at his first attempt in the water.  Kaluza had a son (born 1910), also named who was a notable mathematician.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theodor Franz Eduard Kaluza (; 9 November 1885 – 19 January 1954) was a German mathematician and physicist known for the Kaluza–Klein theory involving field equations in five-dimensional space-time. His idea that fundamental forces can be unified by introducing additional dimensions re-emerged much later in string theory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973563}
{"src_title": "Yeshayahu Leibowitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Yeshayahu Leibowitz was born in Riga, Russian Empire (now in Latvia) in 1903, to a religious Zionist family. His father was a lumber trader, and his cousin was future chess grandmaster Aron Nimzowitsch. In 1919, he studied chemistry and philosophy at the University of Berlin. After completing his doctorate in 1924, he went on to study biochemistry and medicine, receiving an MD in 1934 from the University of Basel.  He immigrated to Mandate Palestine in 1935, and settled in Jerusalem. Leibowitz was married to Greta, with whom he had six children. His son, Elia, was chairman of the Tel Aviv University astrophysics department, and the longest-serving director of the Wise Observatory. Another son, Uri, was a professor of medicine at Hadassah University Medical Center.  His daughter, Yiska, is a district prosecutor. His sister, Nechama Leibowitz, was a world-famous biblical scholar. Leibowitz was active until his last day. He died in his sleep on 18 August 1994. Shamai Leibowitz is one of his grandchildren.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic and literary career.", "content": "Leibowitz joined the faculty of mathematics and natural science of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1936. He became a professor of biochemistry in 1941, and was promoted to the position of senior professor of organic chemistry and neurology in 1952. He taught at the Hebrew University for nearly six decades, lecturing in biochemistry, neurophysiology, philosophy, and the history of science.  Leibowitz served as the editor of the \"Encyclopaedia Hebraica\" in its early stages. Apart from his innumerable articles and essays, Leibowitz authored a wide range of books on philosophy, human values, Jewish thought, the teachings of Maimonides, and politics. Many of his lectures and discourses, including those given as part of the \"Broadcast University\" project run by Israeli Army Radio, were subsequently compiled and printed in book form. Leibowitz was a prolific letter-writer, and his advice or comment was sought out widely. A first collection of his letters (in Hebrew) was published posthumously.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious philosophy.", "content": "Leibowitz was an Orthodox Jew who held controversial views on the subject of \"halakha\", or Jewish law. He wrote that the sole purpose of religious commandments was to obey God, and not to receive any kind of reward in this world or the world to come. He maintained that the reasons for religious commandments were beyond man's understanding, as well as irrelevant, and any attempt to attribute emotional significance to the performance of \"mitzvot\" was misguided and akin to idolatry.  The essence of Leibowitz's religious outlook is that a person's faith is his commitment to obey God, meaning God's commandments, and this has nothing to do with a person's image of God. This must be so because Leibowitz thought that God cannot be described, that God's understanding is not man's understanding, and thus, all the questions asked of God are out of place. Leibowitz claimed that a person's decision to believe in God (in other words: to obey him) defines or describes that person, not God.  One result of this approach is that faith, which is a personal commitment to obey God, cannot be challenged by the usual philosophical problem of evil or by historical events that seemingly contradict a divine presence. When someone told Leibowitz that he stopped believing in God after the Holocaust, Leibowitz answered, \"Then you never believed in God\". If a person stops believing after an awful event, it shows that he only obeyed God because he thought he understood God's plan, or because he expected to see a reward. But \"for Leibowitz, religious belief is not an explanation of life, nature, or history, or a promise of a future in this world or another, but a demand\".  Leibowitz believed in the separation of state and religion, and held that mixing the two corrupted faith. He condemned the veneration of Jewish shrines, cynically referring to the Western Wall as the \"Discotel\" (a play on the words \"discothèque\" and \"Kotel\", a transliterated Hebrew word which literally means \"wall\", but capitalized refers to the Western Wall).  In contrast to his strict views on some matters, he was liberal on others. On the subject of homosexuality, for example, Leibowitz believed that despite the ban on homosexual relations in Judaism, homosexuals should do their best to remain observant Jews.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Views and opinions.", "content": "Even before the founding of Israel, Leibowitz was an adamant supporter of a separation between religious institutions and the state – he even personally asked this of David Ben-Gurion. In the 1949 Knesset elections he headed the United List of Religious Workers, which failed to win a seat.  He became progressively critical of government policy following the 1953 Qibya massacre. In his later philosophy, he denied that the state of Israel had any Jewish religious significance, and became an outspoken defender of the complete separation between religion and state. He was among the first Israeli intellectuals to state immediately after the 1967 Six-Day War that if occupation continued, this would lead to the decline in moral stature.  In a 1968 essay titled \"The Territories\", Leibowitz postulated a hellish future:  The Arabs would be the working people and the Jews the administrators, inspectors, officials, and police—mainly secret police. A state ruling a hostile population of 1.5 to 2 million foreigners would necessarily become a secret-police state, with all that this implies for education, free speech and democratic institutions. The corruption characteristic of every colonial regime would also prevail in the State of Israel. The administration would suppress Arab insurgency on the one hand and acquire Arab Quislings on the other. There is also good reason to fear that the Israel Defense Forces, which has been until now a people's army, would, as a result of being transformed into an army of occupation, degenerate, and its commanders, who will have become military governors, resemble their colleagues in other nations.  In an interview in \"Haaretz\" newspaper, Carlo Strenger, who knew Leibowitz personally, stated: Because of his provocativeness, it's easy to miss Leibowitz’s profound moral seriousness and the great relevance of his thought today. He is often pigeonholed as belonging to the extreme left, which is a mistake. Leibowitz, never willing to bow to collective pressure, was the most unlikely of combinations: On the one hand he was a libertarian, an extreme form of classical liberalism, and believed that human beings should be free to determine their way of life without any state interference. On the other hand, he was an ultra-Orthodox Jew who insisted that the state and religion must be separated completely to avoid corrupting each other.  Leibowitz repeatedly called for Israelis to refuse to serve in the occupied territories, and warned that Israel was turning its soldiers in to \"Judeo-Nazis\", writing that if \"the law... can allow the use of torture as a way of getting confessions out of prisoners, then this testifies to a Nazi mentality.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "In 1993, he was selected for the Israel Prize. Before the award ceremony, Leibowitz was invited to speak to the Israel Council for Israeli–Palestinian Peace, where his controversial remarks calling upon Israeli soldiers to refuse orders triggered outrage (and Yitzhak Rabin had threatened to boycott the ceremony). The jury convened to discuss the possibility of withdrawing the prize, but Leibowitz himself announced that he would refuse to accept it, because he did not want to create antagonism when receiving the prize.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yeshayahu Leibowitz (; 29 January 1903 – 18 August 1994) was an Israeli Orthodox Jewish public intellectual and polymath. He was professor of biochemistry, organic chemistry, and neurophysiology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, as well as a prolific writer on Jewish thought and western philosophy. He was known for his outspoken views on ethics, religion, and politics. Leibowitz cautioned that the state of Israel and Zionism had become more sacred than Jewish humanist values and controversially went on to describe Israeli conduct in the occupied Palestinian territories as \"Judeo-Nazi\" in nature, while warning of the dehumanizing effect of the occupation on the victims and the oppressors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973564}
{"src_title": "Pulley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Block and tackle.", "content": "A set of pulleys assembled so that they rotate independently on the same axle form a block. Two blocks with a rope attached to one of the blocks and threaded through the two sets of pulleys form a block and tackle.  A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed mounting point and the other is attached to the moving load. The ideal mechanical advantage of the block and tackle is equal to the number of parts of the rope that support the moving block.  In the diagram on the right the ideal mechanical advantage of each of the block and tackle assemblies shown is as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rope and pulley systems.", "content": "A rope and pulley system—that is, a block and tackle—is characterised by the use of a single continuous rope to transmit a tension force around one or more pulleys to lift or move a load—the rope may be a light line or a strong cable. This system is included in the list of simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists.  If the rope and pulley system does not dissipate or store energy, then its mechanical advantage is the number of parts of the rope that act on the load. This can be shown as follows.  Consider the set of pulleys that form the moving block and the parts of the rope that support this block. If there are \"p\" of these parts of the rope supporting the load \"W,\" then a force balance on the moving block shows that the tension in each of the parts of the rope must be \"W/p.\" This means the input force on the rope is \"T\"=\"W/p.\" Thus, the block and tackle reduces the input force by the factor \"p.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Method of operation.", "content": "The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines are weightless, and that there is no energy loss due to friction. It is also assumed that the lines do not stretch.  In equilibrium, the forces on the moving block must sum to zero. In addition the tension in the rope must be the same for each of its parts. This means that the two parts of the rope supporting the moving block must each support half the load. These are different types of pulley systems:  The mechanical advantage of the gun tackle can be increased by interchanging the fixed and moving blocks so the rope is attached to the moving block and the rope is pulled in the direction of the lifted load. In this case the block and tackle is said to be \"rove to advantage.\" Diagram 3 shows that now three rope parts support the load \"W\" which means the tension in the rope is \"W/3\". Thus, the mechanical advantage is three.  By adding a pulley to the fixed block of a gun tackle the direction of the pulling force is reversed though the mechanical advantage remains the same, Diagram 3a. This is an example of the Luff tackle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Free body diagrams.", "content": "The mechanical advantage of a pulley system can be analyzed using free body diagrams which balance the tension force in the rope with the force of gravity on the load. In an ideal system, the massless and frictionless pulleys do not dissipate energy and allow for a change of direction of a rope that does not stretch or wear. In this case, a force balance on a free body that includes the load, \"W\", and \"n\" supporting sections of a rope with tension \"T\", yields:  The ratio of the load to the input tension force is the mechanical advantage \"MA\" of the pulley system,  Thus, the mechanical advantage of the system is equal to the number of sections of rope supporting the load.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Belt and pulley systems.", "content": "A belt and pulley system is characterized by two or more pulleys in common to a belt. This allows for mechanical power, torque, and speed to be transmitted across axles. If the pulleys are of differing diameters, a mechanical advantage is realized.  A belt drive is analogous to that of a chain drive; however, a belt sheave may be smooth (devoid of discrete interlocking members as would be found on a chain sprocket, spur gear, or timing belt) so that the mechanical advantage is approximately given by the ratio of the pitch diameter of the sheaves only, not fixed exactly by the ratio of teeth as with gears and sprockets.  In the case of a drum-style pulley, without a groove or flanges, the pulley often is slightly convex to keep the flat belt centered. It is sometimes referred to as a crowned pulley. Though once widely used on factory line shafts, this type of pulley is still found driving the rotating brush in upright vacuum cleaners, in belt sanders and bandsaws. Agricultural tractors built up to the early 1950s generally had a belt pulley for a flat belt (which is what \"Belt Pulley\" magazine was named after). It has been replaced by other mechanisms with more flexibility in methods of use, such as power take-off and hydraulics.  Just as the diameters of gears (and, correspondingly, their number of teeth) determine a gear ratio and thus the speed increases or reductions and the mechanical advantage that they can deliver, the diameters of pulleys determine those same factors. and step pulleys (which operate on the same principle, although the names tend to be applied to flat belt versions and V-belt versions, respectively) are a way to provide multiple drive ratios in a belt-and-pulley system that can be shifted as needed, just as a transmission provides this function with a gear train that can be shifted. V-belt step pulleys are the most common way that drill presses deliver a range of spindle speeds.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley supported by a frame or shell that does not transfer power to a shaft, but is used to guide the cable or exert a force, the supporting shell is called a block, and the pulley may be called a sheave.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973565}
{"src_title": "Josef Rheinberger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Josef Gabriel Rheinberger, whose father was the treasurer for Aloys II, Prince of Liechtenstein, showed exceptional musical talent at an early age. When only seven years old, he was already serving as organist of the Vaduz parish church, and his first composition was performed the following year. In 1849, he studied with composer Philipp M. Schmutzer (31 December 1821 – 17 November 1898) in Feldkirch, Vorarlberg.  In 1851, his father, who had initially opposed his son's desire to embark on the life of a professional musician, relented and allowed him to enter the Munich Conservatorium. Not long after graduating, he became professor of piano and of composition at the same institution. When this first version of the Munich Conservatorium was dissolved, he was appointed \"répétiteur\" at the Court Theatre, from which he resigned in 1867. Rheinberger married his former pupil, the poet and socialite Franziska \"Fanny\" von Hoffnaass (eight years his senior) in 1867. The couple remained childless, but the marriage was happy. Franziska wrote the texts for much of her husband's vocal work.  The stylistic influences on Rheinberger ranged from contemporaries such as Brahms to composers from earlier times, such as Mendelssohn, Schumann, Schubert and, above all, Bach. He was also an enthusiast for painting and literature (especially English and German).  In 1877 he was appointed court conductor, responsible for the music in the royal chapel. He was subsequently awarded an honorary doctorate by Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. A distinguished teacher, he numbered many Americans among his pupils, including Horatio Parker, William Berwald, George Whitefield Chadwick, Bruno Klein, Sidney Homer and Henry Holden Huss. Other students of his included important figures from Europe: Italian composer Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, Serbian composer Stevan Stojanovic Mokranjac, and German composers Engelbert Humperdinck and Richard Strauss and the conductor (and composer) Wilhelm Furtwängler. When the second (and present) Munich Conservatorium was founded, Rheinberger was appointed Royal Professor of organ and composition, a post he held for the rest of his life.  On 31 December 1892 his wife died, after suffering a long illness. Two years later, poor health led him to give up the post of Court Music Director. Rheinberger was a prolific composer. His religious works include twelve Masses (one for double chorus, three for four voices \"a cappella\", three for women's voices and organ, two for men's voices and one with orchestra), a Requiem and a Stabat Mater. His other works include several operas, symphonies, chamber music, and choral works.  Today Rheinberger is remembered above all for his elaborate and challenging organ compositions; these include two concertos, 20 sonatas in 20 different keys (of a projected set of 24 sonatas in all the keys), 22 trios, and 36 solo pieces. His organ sonatas were once declared to be  Rheinberger died in 1901 in Munich, and was buried in the Alter Südfriedhof. His grave was destroyed during World War II, and his remains were moved to his home town of Vaduz in 1950.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compositions.", "content": "This list only mentions works that were assigned an opus number by Rheinberger himself.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josef Gabriel Rheinberger (17 March 1839, in Vaduz – 25 November 1901, in Munich) was an organist and composer, born in Liechtenstein and resident for most of his life in Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973566}
{"src_title": "Elisa Radziwill", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Elisa was a daughter of Prince Antoni Radziwiłł and Princess Louise of Prussia, niece of King Frederick the Great and a relative of the Prussian Royal Family. Prince William, her second cousin once removed and the heir presumptive of the Prussian throne, met with and fell in love with her.  William was expected to marry and produce further heirs. His father and her kinsman King Frederick William III were fond of the relationship between Wilhelm and Elisa, but some in the Prussian court had discovered historical allegations that her ancestors had bought their princely title from Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. In the eyes of certain people, she was not deemed of sufficiently high nobility to marry the heir to the Prussian throne (Elisa was not royal, because her father was not a reigning prince). William's older brother, Frederick William IV of Prussia was married to Elisabeth Ludovika of Bavaria, and Elisabeth was descended from both Bogusław Radziwiłł and Prince Janusz Radziwiłł.  Thus in 1824, the King of Prussia turned to the childless Emperor Alexander I of Russia to adopt Elisa, but the Russian ruler declined. The second adoption plan by Elisa's uncle, Prince Augustus of Prussia, likewise failed as the responsible committee considered that adoption \"does not alter the blood\" (a principle which governs noble and royal connections to the present day). Another factor was the influence of the Mecklenburgish kinsmen of the deceased Queen Louise in the German and Russian courts who were not fond of Elisa's father and opposed the possible marriage.  Eventually, in June 1826, Wilhelm's father was obligated to demand the renunciation of a potential marriage to Elisa. Wilhelm spent the next few months looking for a more suitable bride, but did not relinquish his emotional ties to Elisa. Eventually, Wilhelm asked for the hand of Augusta of Saxe-Weimar, fourteen years his junior, in marriage on 29 August 1826 (in writing and through the intervention of his father). Wilhelm saw his cousin, Elisa, for the last time in 1829.  Elisa was later engaged to Prince Friedrich of Schwarzenberg, but the engagement failed. She died, unmarried, in 1834, of tuberculosis while at a spa seeking a cure.  Historian Karin Feuerstein-Prasser has pointed out, on the basis of evaluations of the correspondence between both fiancées, the different expectations Wilhelm had of both marriages: he wrote to his sister, Czarina Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia), wife of Czar Nicholas I of Russia, regarding Elisa Radziwill, that \"One can love only once in life, really\", but confessed regarding Augusta that \"the princess is nice and clever, but she leaves me cold.\" Though Augusta was in love with her future husband and hoped for a happy marriage, theirs was a troubled relationship; Elisa Radziwill was aware of this, and she believed that she herself would have been a better wife to the Prussian prince.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Elisa Radziwill (\"Elisa Friederike Luise Martha\"; ; 28 October 1803, Berlin – 27 August 1834, Bad Freienwalde) was a member of Polish nobility (of the Radziwiłł family, who were elite magnates), of royal ancestry. She was the desired bride of Prince William of Prussia, who later became William I, German Emperor, but they were not allowed to marry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973567}
{"src_title": "Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born at Saint-Gilles, Gard, he was a son of Raymond V and Constance of France. His maternal grandparents were Louis VI of France and his second wife Adélaide de Maurienne. His maternal uncles included Louis VII of France. In 1194 he succeeded his father as count of Toulouse. He immediately re-established peace with both Alfonso II of Aragon and with the Trencavel family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages.", "content": "He was married five times:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Problems with the Church.", "content": "Raymond VI held vast territories but his control of them was problematic. Aside from theoretically owing allegiance to the King of France, Raymond held Provence as a vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor. Henry II of England controlled neighboring Aquitaine through his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, who had a claim to Toulouse through her grandmother, Philippa of Toulouse, daughter of William IV, Count of Toulouse. Alfonso II of Aragon was involved in the affairs of Languedoc, stimulating emigration from the north to colonize newly reconquered lands in Aragon.  In Toulouse, Raymond maintained the communal freedoms, extended exemptions from taxation, and extended his protection to the communal territory. A poet and a man of culture, he hated war but did not lack energy.  According to Henri Pirenne, \"At the end of the 12th century Languedoc was swarming with those mystics who aspired to lead the Church and the age back to apostolic simplicity, condemning both the religious hierarchy and the social order...\" At first Innocent III tried to deal with the Cathars by peaceful conversion, sending into the affected regions a number of legates or representatives. Count Raymond declined to assist, although constantly embroiled with his vassals, and given the autonomy of the towns, Kenneth Setton questions whether Raymond \"could have coped effectively with the challenge of heresy even if he had wished to do so.\"  The legates sent from Rome and France received little support as they were considered foreign reformers. Papal legate Pierre de Castelnau was sent to address Raymond's tolerance for the practice of the Cathars, but withdrew for six months in 1206 out of concerns for his safety.  Pierre's assassination on January 15, 1208 led to Raymond's excommunication. The excommunication was lifted after Raymond humbled himself before the Pope.  After the capture and massacre of Béziers, the siege and capture of Carcassonne, and the death of Raymond Roger Trencavel, all in 1209, he moved his camp, was again excommunicated by the Council of Montpellier in 1211, and tried to organize resistance against the Albigensian Crusade. More of a diplomat than a soldier, he was unable to stop the advance of Simon de Montfort, who conquered Toulouse. Raymond was exiled to England under his former brother-in-law John, King of England.  In November 1215 Raymond and his son (the later Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse) were in Rome with Raymond-Roger, Count of Foix on the occasion of the Fourth Lateran Council to vindicate themselves and dispute the loss of their territories. Raymond's son-in-law, Pierre-Bermond II of Sauve, was also there to lay claim to the county of Toulouse, but this claim failed. Raymond and his son went from Rome to Genoa and thence to Marseille in February 1216. Raymond's son set out from Marseille to regain the family territories in Provence; in May 1216 he besieged Beaucaire and captured it on August 24.  Meanwhile, Raymond went to Aragon, hoping to rally support. From there he engaged in secret negotiations with leaders in Toulouse during 1216. Simon de Montfort possibly believed that Raymond was on his way to the city in September 1216; at any rate he returned in great haste from Beaucaire and conducted a partial sack of the city, apparently intended as punishment. Finally, on September 12, 1217, Raymond re-entered Toulouse again. Simon de Montfort immediately besieged the city once more. Simon was killed during the siege (on 25 June 1218); his son Amaury VI of Montfort took his place, and for five years the Crusade faltered. The failure of Louis VIII's campaigns, from 1219 to 1226, finally permitted Raymond, and his son and successor, to recover most of their territories.  Raymond VI is represented as one of four figures on the ceiling of the Minnesota Supreme Court in the United States of America. His painting is next to Moses, Confucius, and Socrates, each painting representing an aspect of law. Raymond VI's painting is entitled \"The Adjustment of Conflicting Interests\", and the scene is of Raymond VI of Toulouse standing before the papal legate in 1208. Raymond argued successfully for city freedoms, extended exemptions from taxation, and protection of the communal territory from the church. The paintings were made by John LaFarge in 1903.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Raymond VI (; October 27, 1156 – August 2, 1222) was Count of Toulouse and Marquis of Provence from 1194 to 1222. He was also Count of Melgueil (as Raymond IV) from 1173 to 1190.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973568}
{"src_title": "Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and marriages.", "content": "Raymond was born at the Château de Beaucaire, the son of Raymond VI of Toulouse and Joan of England. Through his mother, he was a grandson of Henry II of England and a nephew of kings Richard I and John of England.  In March 1211, Raymond VII married Sancha of Aragon. They had one daughter, Joan, and were divorced in 1241. He was engaged to Sanchia of Provence, but she married Richard of Cornwall instead. In 1243 Raymond married Margaret of Lusignan, the daughter of Hugh X of Lusignan and Isabella of Angoulême. They had no children and the Council of Lyons in 1245 granted Raymond a divorce. He then tried to get support of Blanche, mother of King Louis IX of France, to marry Beatrice of Provence, who had just become Countess of Provence, but Beatrice married Blanche's son Charles instead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "During the Albigensian Crusade in May 1216, Raymond set out from Marseille and besieged Beaucaire, which he captured on 24 August. He fought to reconquer the county of Toulouse from Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester and later Simon's son Amaury VI of Montfort.  He succeeded his father in 1222. At the moment of his accession, he and the new count of Foix, Roger Bernard II the Great, besieged Carcassonne. On 14 September 1224, the Albigensian Crusaders surrendered and the war came to an end, each southern lord making peace with the church. However, in 1225, the council of Bourges excommunicated him and launched a crusade against him, the king of France, Louis VIII, called \"the Lion\", wanting to renew the conflict in order to enforce his royal rights in Languedoc. Roger-Bernard tried to keep the peace, but the king rejected his embassy and the counts of Foix and Toulouse took up arms again. The war was largely a discontinuous series of skirmishes and, in January 1229, Raymond, defeated, was forced to sign the Treaty of Paris (also known as the \"Treaty of Meaux\"). By this treaty he ceded the former viscounty of Trencavel to Louis IX and his daughter Joan was forced to marry Alphonse, brother of the king.  When Raymond died, Alphonse became count of Toulouse, and after Alphonse's death the county was annexed by France. Raymond VII was buried beside his mother Joan in Fontevrault Abbey.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Raymond VII (July 1197 – 27 September 1249) was Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne and Marquis of Provence from 1222 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973569}
{"src_title": "European perch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "European perch are greenish with red pelvic, anal and caudal fins. They have five to eight dark vertical bars on their sides. When the perch grow larger, a hump grows between its head and dorsal fin.  European perch can vary greatly in size between bodies of water. They can live for up to 22 years, and older perch are often much larger than average; the maximum recorded length is. The British record is, but they grow larger in mainland Europe than in Britain. As of May 2016, the official all tackle world record recognised by the International Game Fish Association (IGFA) stands at for a Finnish fish caught September 4, 2010. In January 2010 a perch with a weight of 3.75 kg (8 lb 4 oz) was caught in the River Meuse, Netherlands. Due to the low salinity levels of the Baltic Sea, especially around the Finnish archipelago and Bothnian Sea, many freshwater fish live and thrive there. Perch especially are in abundance and grow to a considerable size due to the diet of Baltic herring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The range of the European perch covers fresh water basins all over Europe, excluding the Iberian peninsula. Their range is known to reach the Kolyma River in Siberia to the east. It is also common in some of the brackish waters of the Baltic Sea.  European perch has been widely introduced, with reported adverse ecological impact after introduction.  The European perch lives in slow-flowing rivers, deep lakes and ponds. It tends to avoid cold or fast-flowing waters but some specimens penetrate waters of these type, although they do not breed in this habitat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and reproduction.", "content": "The perch is a predatory species. Juveniles feed on zooplankton, bottom invertebrate fauna and other perch fry, while adults feed on both invertebrates and fish, mainly sticklebacks, perch, roach and minnows. Perch start eating other fish when they reach a size of around 120 mm.  Male perch become sexually mature at between one and two years of age, females between two and four. In the northern hemisphere they spawn between February and July, depositing their eggs on water plants or the branches of trees or shrubs immersed in the water. There has been speculation, but only anecdotal evidence, that eggs stick to the legs of wading birds and are then transferred to other waters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The first scientific description of the river perch was made by Peter Artedi in 1730. He defined the basic morphological signs of this species after studying perch from Swedish lakes. Artedi described its features, counting the fin rays scales and vertebrae of the typical perch.  In 1758, Carl Linnaeus named it \"Perca fluviatilis\". His description was based on Artedi's research.  Because of their similar appearance and ability to cross-breed, the yellow perch (\"Perca flavescens\") has sometimes been classified as a subspecies of the European perch, in which case its trinomial name would be \"Perca fluviatilis flavescens\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fishing.", "content": "European perch is fished for food and game fishing.  According to FAO statistics 28,920 tonnes were caught in 2013. Largest perch fishing countries were Russia, (15,242 tonnes), Finland (7,666 tonnes), Estonia (2,144 t), Poland (1,121 t) and Kazakhstan (1,103 t).  Baits for perch include minnows, goldfish, weather loaches, pieces of raw squid or pieces of raw fish (mackerel, bluey, jack mackerel, sardine), or brandling, red, marsh, and lob worms, maggots, shrimp (\"Caridina\", \"Neocaridina\", \"Palaemon\", \"Macrobrachium\") and peeled crayfish tails. The tackle needed is fine but strong. Artificial lures are also effective, particularly for medium-sized perch.  It is possible to fly fish for perch using artificial flies tied for the purpose. Often, the flies required are \"streamers\" or bait-fish imitations and use flash, colour and movement to entice a take from the perch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Predators.", "content": "The European perch is a frequent prey of many fish-eating predators, such as the great cormorant and common kingfisher.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diseases and parasites.", "content": "\"Cucullanus elegans\" is a species of parasitic nematode. It is an endoparasite of the European perch. Juvenile perch are commonly infected by \"Camallanus lacustris\" (Nematoda), \"Proteocephalus percae\", \"Bothriocephalus claviceps\", \"Glanitaenia osculata\", \"Triaenophorus nodulosus\" (all Cestoda) and \"Acanthocephalus lucii\" (Acanthocephala)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Perch in culture.", "content": "The European perch is Finland’s national fish.  It is also pictured in emblems of several European towns and municipalities, such as Bad Buchau, Gröningen and Schönberg, Plön.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Perca fluviatilis, commonly known as the common perch, European perch, redfin perch, big-scaled redfin, English perch, Eurasian perch, Eurasian river perch or in Anglophone parts of Europe, simply the perch, is a predatory species of the freshwater perch native to Europe and northern Asia. The species is a popular quarry for anglers, and has been widely introduced beyond its native area, into Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. They have caused substantial damage to native fish populations in Australia and have been proclaimed a noxious species in New South Wales.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973570}
{"src_title": "Reducing sugar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oxidation-reduction.", "content": "A \"reducing sugar\" is one that \"reduces\" another compound and is itself \"oxidized\"; that is, the carbonyl carbon of the sugar is oxidized to a carboxyl group.  A sugar is classified as a reducing sugar only if it has an open-chain form with an aldehyde group or a free hemiacetal group.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aldoses and ketoses.", "content": "Monosaccharides which contain an aldehyde group are known as aldoses, and those with a ketone group are known as ketoses. The aldehyde can be oxidized via a redox reaction in which another compound is reduced. Thus, aldoses are reducing sugars. Sugars with ketone groups in their open chain form are capable of isomerizing via a series of tautomeric shifts to produce an aldehyde group in solution. Therefore, ketones like fructose are considered reducing sugars but it is the isomer containing an aldehyde group which is reducing since ketones cannot be oxidized without decomposition of the sugar. This type of isomerization is catalyzed by the base present in solutions which test for the presence of reducing sugars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reducing end.", "content": "Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides and may be either reducing or nonreducing. Even a reducing disaccharide will only have one reducing end, as disaccharides are held together by glycosidic bonds, which consist of at least one anomeric carbon. With one anomeric carbon unable to convert to the open-chain form, only the free anomeric carbon is available to reduce another compound, and it is called the \"reducing end\" of the disaccharide. A nonreducing disaccharide is that which has both anomeric carbons tied up in the glycosidic bond.  Similarly, most polysaccharides have only one reducing end.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "All monosaccharides are reducing sugars because they either have an aldehyde group (if they are aldoses) or can tautomerize in solution to form an aldehyde group (if they are ketoses). This includes common monosaccharides like galactose, glucose, glyceraldehyde, fructose, ribose, and xylose.  Many disaccharides, like cellobiose, lactose, and maltose, also have a reducing form, as one of the two units may have an open-chain form with an aldehyde group. However, sucrose and trehalose, in which the anomeric carbons of the two units are linked together, are nonreducing disaccharides since neither of the rings is capable of opening.  In glucose polymers such as starch and starch-derivatives like glucose syrup, maltodextrin and dextrin the macromolecule begins with a reducing sugar, a free aldehyde. When starch has been partially hydrolyzed the chains have been split and hence it contains more reducing sugars per gram. The percentage of reducing sugars present in these starch derivatives is called dextrose equivalent (DE).  Glycogen is a highly branched polymer of glucose that serves as the main form of carbohydrate storage in animals. It is a reducing sugar with only one reducing end, no matter how large the glycogen molecule is or how many branches it has (note, however, that the unique reducing end is usually covalently linked to glycogenin and will therefore not be reducing). Each branch ends in a nonreducing sugar residue. When glycogen is broken down to be used as an energy source, glucose units are removed one at a time from the nonreducing ends by enzymes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characterization.", "content": "Several qualitative tests are used to detect the presence of reducing sugars. Two of them use solutions of copper(II) ions: Benedict's reagent (Cu in aqueous sodium citrate) and Fehling's solution (Cu in aqueous sodium tartrate). The reducing sugar reduces the copper(II) ions in these test solutions to copper(I), which then forms a brick red copper(I) oxide precipitate. Reducing sugars can also be detected with the addition of Tollen's reagent, which consist of silver ions (Ag) in aqueous ammonia. When Tollen's reagent is added to an aldehyde, it precipitates silver metal, often forming a silver mirror on clean glassware.  3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid is another test reagent, one that allows quantitative detection. It reacts with a reducing sugar to form 3-amino-5-nitrosalicylic acid, which can be measured by spectrophotometry to determine the amount of reducing sugar that was present.  Sugars having acetal or ketal linkages are not reducing sugars, as they do not have free aldehyde chains. They therefore do not react with any of the reducing-sugar test solutions. However, a non-reducing sugar can be hydrolyzed using dilute hydrochloric acid. After hydrolysis and neutralization of the acid, the product may be a reducing sugar that gives normal reactions with the test solutions.  All carbohydrates respond positively to Molisch's reagent but the test has a faster rate when it comes to monosaccharides.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Importance in medicine.", "content": "Fehling's solution was used for many years as a diagnostic test for diabetes, a disease in which blood glucose levels are dangerously elevated by a failure to produce enough insulin (type 1 diabetes) or by an inability to respond to insulin (type 2 diabetes). Measuring the amount of oxidizing agent (in this case, Fehling's solution) reduced by glucose makes it possible to determine the concentration of glucose in the blood or urine. This then enables the right amount of insulin to be injected to bring blood glucose levels back into the normal range.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Importance in food chemistry.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Maillard reaction.", "content": "The carbonyl groups of reducing sugars react with the amino groups of amino acids in the Maillard reaction, a complex series of reactions that occurs when cooking food. Maillard reaction products (MRPs) are diverse; some are beneficial to human health, while others are toxic. However, the overall effect of the Maillard reaction is to decrease the nutritional value of food. One example of a toxic product of the Mailard reaction is acrylamide, a neurotoxin and possible carcinogen that is formed from free asparagine and reducing sugars when cooking starchy foods at high temperatures (above 120°C).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food quality.", "content": "The level of reducing sugars in wine, juice, and sugarcane are indicative of the quality of these food products, and monitoring the levels of reducing sugars during food production has improved market quality. The conventional method for doing so is the Lane-Eynon method, which involves titrating the reducing sugar with copper(II) in Fehling's solution in the presence of methylene blue, a common redox indicator. However, it is inaccurate, expensive, and sensitive to impurities.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A reducing sugar is any sugar that is capable of acting as a reducing agent because it has a free aldehyde group or a free ketone group. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars, along with some disaccharides, some oligosaccharides, and some polysaccharides. The monosaccharides can be divided into two groups: the aldoses, which have an aldehyde group, and the ketoses, which have a ketone group. Ketoses must first tautomerize to aldoses before they can act as reducing sugars. The common dietary monosaccharides galactose, glucose and fructose are all reducing sugars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973571}
{"src_title": "Pierre Choderlos de Laclos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Amiens into a bourgeois family, in 1760 Laclos began studies at the \"École royale d'artillerie de La Fère\", ancestor of the École Polytechnique. As a young lieutenant he briefly served in a garrison at La Rochelle until the end of the Seven Years' War (1763). Postings to Strasbourg (1765–1769), Grenoble (1769–1775) and Besançon (1775–1776) followed.  In 1763 Laclos became a freemason in \"L'Union\" military lodge in Toul.  Despite a promotion to the rank of captain (1771), Laclos grew increasingly bored with his artillery garrison duties and with the company of soldiers; he began to devote his free time to writing. His first works, several light poems, appeared in the \"Almanach des Muses\". Later he wrote the libretto for an opéra comique, \"Ernestine\", inspired by a novel by Marie Jeanne Riccoboni. The music was composed by the Chevalier de Saint Georges. Its premiere on 19 July 1777, in the presence of Queen Marie Antoinette, proved a failure. In the same year he established a new artillery school in Valence, which would include Napoleon Bonaparte among its students in the mid 1780s. On his return to Besançon in 1778 Laclos was promoted second captain of the Engineers. In this period he wrote several works which showed his great admiration of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778).  In 1776 Laclos requested and received affiliation with the \"Henri IV\" lodge in Paris. There he helped Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans leading the Grand Orient of France. In 1777, in front of the Grand Orient's dignitaries, he delivered a speech in which he urged for the initiation of women into Freemasonry.  In 1779 he was sent to Île-d'Aix (in present-day Charente-Maritime) to assist Marc René, marquis de Montalembert in the construction of fortifications there against the British. However, he spent most of his time writing his new epistolary novel, \"Les Liaisons dangereuses\", as well as a \"Letter to Madame de Montalembert\". When he asked for and received six months of vacation, he spent the time in Paris, writing.  Durand Neveu published \"Les Liaisons Dangereuses\" in four volumes on 23 March 1782; it became a widespread success (1,000 copies sold in a month, an exceptional result for the time). Laclos was immediately ordered to return to his garrison in Brittany; in 1783 he was sent to La Rochelle to collaborate in the construction of the new arsenal. Here he met Marie-Soulange Duperré, whom he would marry on 3 May 1786, and remain with for the rest of his life. The following year, he began a project of numbering the streets of Paris.  In 1788, Laclos left the army, entering the service of Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, for whom, after the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, he carried forward with intense diplomatic activity. Captured by Republican ideals, he left the Duke to obtain a place as commissar in the Ministry of War. His reorganization has been credited as having a role in the French Revolutionary Army's victory in the Battle of Valmy (20 September 1792). Later, after the desertion (April 1793) of general Charles François Dumouriez, he was however arrested as an \"Orleaniste\", being freed after the Thermidorian Reaction of 27 July 1794.  He thenceforth spent some time in ballistic studies, which led him to the invention of the modern artillery shell. In 1795 he requested of the Committee of Public Safety reintegration in the army, a request which the Committee ignored. His attempts to obtain a diplomatic position and to found a bank also proved unsuccessful. Eventually, Laclos met the young general and recently appointed (November 1799) First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, and joined his party. On 16 January 1800 he was reinstated in the Army as Brigadier General in the Army of the Rhine; he took part in the Battle of Biberach (9 May 1800).  Made commander-in-chief of Reserve Artillery in Italy (1803), Laclos died shortly afterward in the former convent of St. Francis of Assisi at Taranto, probably of dysentery and malaria. He was buried in the fort still bearing his name (\"Forte de Laclos\") in the Isola di San Paolo near the city, built under his direction. Following the restoration of the House of Bourbon in southern Italy in 1815, his burial tomb was destroyed; it is believed that his bones were tossed into the sea.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Ambroise François Choderlos de Laclos (; 18 October 1741 – 5 September 1803) was a French novelist, official, freemason and army general, best known for writing the epistolary novel \"Les Liaisons dangereuses\" (\"Dangerous Liaisons\") (1782).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973572}
{"src_title": "Carcharodontosaurus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery and naming.", "content": "In 1924, two teeth were found in the Continental intercalaire of Algeria, showing what were at the time unique characteristics. These teeth were described by Depéret and Savornin (1925) as representing a new taxon, which they named \"Megalosaurus saharicus\" and later categorized in the subgenus \"Dryptosaurus\". Some years later, paleontologist Ernst Stromer described the remains of a partial skull and skeleton from Cenomanian aged rocks in the Bahariya Formation of Egypt (Stromer, 1931); originally excavated in 1914, the remains consisted of a partial skull, teeth, vertebrae, claw bones and assorted hip and leg bones. The teeth in this new finding matched the characteristics of those described by Depéret and Savornin, which led to Stromer conserving the species name \"saharicus\" but finding it necessary to erect a new genus for this species, \"Carcharodontosaurus\", for their strong resemblance to the teeth of \"Carcharodon\" (Great white shark).  The fossils described by Stromer were destroyed in 1944 during World War II, but a new, more complete skull was found in the Kem Kem Formation of Morocco during an expedition led by paleontologist Paul Sereno in 1995, near the Algerian border and the locality where the teeth described by Depéret and Savornin (1925) were found. The teeth found with this new skull matched those described by Depéret and Savornin (1925) and Stromer (1931); the rest of the skull also matched that described by Stromer. This new skull was designated as the neotype by Brusatte and Sereno (2007) who also described a second species of \"Carcharodontosaurus\", \"C. iguidensis\" from the Echkar Formation of Niger, differing from \"C. saharicus\" in aspects of the maxilla and braincase.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Carcharodontosaurus\" includes some of the longest and heaviest known carnivorous dinosaurs, with various scientists proposing length estimates for the species \"C. saharicus\" ranging between and weight estimates between 6.2 and 15.1 metric tons. In 2016 Molina-Pérez & Larramendi gave a length of 12.8 metres and a weight of 7.8 tonnes for \"C. saharicus\", and a length of 11 metres and a weight of 5.2 tonnes for \"C. iguidensis\".  \"Carcharodontosaurus\" were carnivores, with enormous jaws and long, serrated teeth up to eight inches long. A skull length of about 1.53—1.6 meters (5.0—5.2 ft) has been restored for \"C. saharicus\", and the skull of \"C. iguidensis\" is reported to have been about the same size. Currently, the largest-known theropod skull belongs to another huge carcharodontosaurid dinosaur, the closely related \"Giganotosaurus\" (with skull length estimates up to 1.95 m) (6.4 ft). Gregory S. Paul estimates \"Carcharodontosaurus iguidensis\" at and.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brain and inner ear.", "content": "In 2001, Hans C. E. Larsson published a description of the inner ear and endocranium of \"Carcharodontosaurus saharicus\". Starting from the portion of the brain closest to the tip of the animal's snout is the forebrain, which is followed by the midbrain. The midbrain is angled downwards at a 45-degree angle and towards the rear of the animal. This is followed by the hindbrain, which is roughly parallel to the forebrain and forms a roughly 40-degree angle with the midbrain. Overall, the brain of \"C. saharicus\" would have been similar to that of a related dinosaur, \"Allosaurus fragilis\". Larsson found that the ratio of the cerebrum to the volume of the brain overall in \"Carcharodontosaurus\" was typical for a non-avian reptile. \"Carcharodontosaurus\" also had a large optic nerve.  The three semicircular canals of the inner ear of \"Carcharodontosaurus saharicus\" – when viewed from the side – had a subtriangular outline. This subtriangular inner ear configuration is present in \"Allosaurus\", lizards, turtles, but not in birds. The semi-\"circular\" canals themselves were actually very linear, which explains the pointed silhouette. In life, the floccular lobe of the brain would have projected into the area surrounded by the semicircular canals, just like in other non-avian theropods, birds, and pterosaurs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The following cladogram after Apesteguía \"et al.\", 2016, shows the placement of \"Carcharodontosaurus\" within Carcharodontosauridae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paleobiology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hunting.", "content": "A study by Donald Henderson, the curator of dinosaurs at the Royal Tyrrell Museum suggests that \"Carcharodontosaurus\" was able to lift animals weighing a maximum of in its jaws based on the strength of its jaws, neck, and its center of mass.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pathology.", "content": "SGM-Din 1, a \"Carcharodontosaurus saharicus\" skull, has a circular puncture wound in the nasal and \"an abnormal projection of bone on the antorbital rim\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Carcharodontosaurus is a genus of carnivorous carcharodontosaurid dinosaurs that existed during the Cenomanian stage of the mid-Cretaceous Period. It is currently known to include two species: \"C. saharicus\" and \"C. iguidensis\", which were among the larger theropods, nearly as large as or even larger than \"Tyrannosaurus\", \"Giganotosaurus\" and \"Spinosaurus\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973573}
{"src_title": "World Touring Car Championship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First season.", "content": "The first World Touring Car Championship, which was open to Group A Touring Cars, was held in 1987 concurrent to the long-running European Touring Car Championship (ETCC). Additional rounds were held outside Europe at Bathurst and Calder Park Raceway in Australia (Calder used a combined circuit of the road course and the then newly constructed NASCAR speedway), Wellington in New Zealand and Mount Fuji in Japan. The Championship was well-supported by the factory European teams of Ford, BMW, Maserati and Alfa Romeo (until Alfa withdrew following the European races), but was embroiled in controversy. Unfortunately, the leading BMW Motorsport teams and the Ford Europe backed Eggenberger Motorsport had developed a situation of \"you don't protest us, we won't protest you\". While this worked well in the European races, when the championship landed in Australia the local teams took exception to the Europeans somewhat liberal interpretation of the Group A rules. Subsequently, the Eggenberger cars were protested against and eventually disqualified from the Bathurst 1000 results.  The championship was provisionally awarded to West German Eggenberger Ford Sierra RS500 drivers Klaus Ludwig and Klaus Niedzwiedz. It was not until March 1988 when their Bathurst disqualification was finalised that results were confirmed and Italian Schnitzer Motorsport driver Roberto Ravaglia in a BMW M3 was declared the champion. The Entrants Championship was won by the Eggenberger Texaco Ford No 7 entry. The WTCC lasted only one year and was a victim of its own success — the FIA (and Bernie Ecclestone) feared it would take money away from Formula One and stopped sanctioning the Championship. A silhouette formula championship (proposed by Ecclestone) was announced by the FIA for 1988 which would have seen specialist racing chassis carrying bodywork resembling production roadcars powered by the about to be outlawed Formula One 1.5 litre turbo regulations, but manufacturers did not support the concept. Only one car, based on an Alfa Romeo 164 with a 3.5 litre V10 engine was built before it was abandoned.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "European Touring Car Championship.", "content": "In 2001, the European Touring Car Championship (ETCC) was resumed with support from the FIA, the precursor to the current WTCC. In 2001, the Italian Superturismo Championship became the FIA European Super Touring Championship, with an extra class for Super Production cars alongside the main Super Touring class. In 2002, this evolved into the brand new FIA European Touring Car Championship, using Super 2000 rules, dominated by Alfa Romeo and BMW, but popular with the public due to the intense competition and Eurosport live broadcasts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to World Championship status.", "content": "At the request of interested manufacturers, the ETCC was changed to the current WTCC beginning with the 2005 season, continuing to use Super 2000 and Diesel 2000 regulations. 2004 ETCC Champion Andy Priaulx and his BMW 320i were the dominant driver-car pairing during the first three years of the revived championship, winning the 2005, 2006 and 2007 Drivers and Manufacturers Championships.  In 2008, Frenchman Yvan Muller won the title after Race 1 in Macau in his SEAT León TDI. This marked the first time an FIA sanctioned world championship, in any category, being won by a diesel powered racing car. SEAT León TDI won both championships for a second time in 2009, this time in the hands of Gabriele Tarquini. 2010 marked the start of Chevrolet's dominance of the championship with its Cruze model. Frenchman Yvan Muller became World Champion, fending off tough competition from Gabriele Tarquini and Andy Priaulx to win the first world championship for Chevrolet. Muller continued his success into 2011, winning both drivers championship and helping Chevrolet to its second manufacturers championship after Muller's two teammates finished second and third in the drivers standings. This gave Chevrolet a clean sweep of both titles. The 2012 championship saw Chevrolet pick up where they left off in 2011, leading to a second year of championship clean sweeps, this time with Rob Huff taking the drivers title.  The modern series has held events based all around the world including races in Argentina, Morocco, Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, Portugal, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Japan, China, Thailand and Qatar with former races in Brazil, Great Britain, Italy, Macau, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Turkey and the United States.  Technical rules were modified in 2011 to allow 1.6L turbo gasoline engines, and the 2.0L gasoline and turbodiesel engines were outlawed in 2012. In 2014, new car regulations were introduced with the name TC1, with larger wings and more engine power. The old 1.6L turbo cars were renamed TC2 for a year and were dropped for 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Car regulations.", "content": "The WTCC uses Super 2000 and Diesel 2000 cars, as cost control is a major theme in the technical regulation. Super 2000 engines are 1.6 L turbo-charged 4-cylinder engines producing approximately 380 bhp. Wheels are 18\" in diameter, and large front and rear aerodynamic devices are permitted.  Many technologies that have featured in production cars are not allowed, including variable valve timing, variable intake geometry, ABS brakes and traction control system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scoring system.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current scoring system.", "content": "Currently, all WTCC races are awarded equal points. From 2010, these points have been based on the FIA's points system used in the FIA Formula One Championship and the FIA World Rally Championship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Previous points systems.", "content": "Between 2005 and 2009, the championship adopted the following points scoring system:  For the inaugural 1987 season, the championship used the following points scoring system:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Event winners.", "content": "As per FIA WTCC all-time statistics on the official site of the WTCC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manufacturer/constructor entries.", "content": "The WTCC features entries with the backing, funding and technical support of a motor manufacturer. This can sometimes be a motor racing team running cars of behalf of the manufacturer or cars being run directly by the factory. Below is a timeline of manufacturer/constructor entries from the beginning of the championship in 2005.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The FIA World Touring Car Championship was an international touring car championship promoted by Eurosport Events and sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA). It has had several different incarnations, including a single season in 1987 as the World Touring Car Championship and most recently a world championship (WTCC) that has run between 2005 and 2017. Following the 2017 season, an agreement was reached for the FIA WTCC to become FIA WTCR and use the TCR technical regulations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973574}
{"src_title": "Buddleja davidii", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Buddleja davidii\" is a vigorous shrub with an arching habit, growing to in height. The pale brown bark becomes deeply fissured with age. The branches are quadrangular in section, the younger shoots covered in a dense indumentum. The opposite lanceolate leaves are 7–13 cm long, tomentose beneath when young. The honey-scented lilac to purple inflorescences are terminal panicles, < 20 cm long. Flowers are perfect (having both male and female parts), hence are hermaphrodite rather than monoecious (separate male and female flowers on the same plant) as is often incorrectly stated. Ploidy 2\"n\" = 76 (tetraploid).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Buddleja davidii\", after Leeuwenberg.", "content": "In his 1979 revision of the taxonomy of the African and Asiatic species of \"Buddleja\", the Dutch botanist Anthonius Leeuwenberg sank the six varieties of the species as synonyms of the type, considering them to be within the natural variation of a species, and unworthy of varietal recognition. It was Leeuwenberg's taxonomy which was adopted in the \"Flora of China\" published in 1996. However, as the distinctions of the former varieties are still widely recognized in horticulture, they are treated separately here:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Buddleja davidii\" cultivars are much appreciated worldwide as ornamentals and for the value of their flowers as a nectar source for many species of butterfly. However, the plant does not provide food for butterfly larvae, and buddlejas might out-compete the host plants that caterpillars require.  The species and its cultivars are not able to survive the harsh winters of northern or montane climates, being killed by temperatures below about.  Younger wood is more floriferous, so even if frosts do not kill the previous year's growth, the shrub is usually hard-pruned in spring once frosts have finished, to encourage new growth. The removal of spent flower panicles may be undertaken to reduce the nuisance of self-seeding and encourage further flower production; this extends the flowering season which is otherwise limited to about six weeks, although the flowers of the second and third flushes are invariably smaller.  Hardiness: USDA zones 5–9.  There are approximately 180 \"davidii\" cultivars, as well as numerous hybrids, with \"B. globosa\" and \"B. fallowiana\" grown in gardens. Many cultivars are of a dwarf habit, growing to no more than. The following \"davidii\" cultivars held the RHS Award of Garden Merit in 2012:-", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "\"Buddleja davidii\" has been classified as an invasive species in many countries in temperate regions, including the United Kingdom and New Zealand. It is naturalized in Australia and in most cities of central and southern Europe, where it can spread on open lands and in gardens.  Within the United States, it is widely established as an escape from cultivation, and classified as a noxious weed by the states of Oregon and Washington.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Buddleja davidii (spelling variant \"Buddleia davidii\"), also called summer lilac, butterfly-bush, or orange eye, is a species of flowering plant in the family Scrophulariaceae, native to Sichuan and Hubei provinces in central China, and also Japan. It is widely used as an ornamental plant, and many named varieties are in cultivation. \"B. davidii\" is named after the French missionary and explorer in China, Father Armand David, who was the first European to report the shrub. It was found near Ichang by Dr Augustine Henry about 1887 and sent to St Petersburg. Another botanist-missionary in China, Jean-André Soulié, sent seed to the French nursery Vilmorin, and \"B. davidii\" entered commerce in the 1890s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973575}
{"src_title": "Blokus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "The game is played on a square board divided into 20 rows and 20 columns, for a total of 400 squares. There are a total of 84 game tiles, organized into 21 shapes in each of four colors: blue, yellow, red and green. The 21 shapes are based on free polyominoes of from one to five squares (one monomino, one domino, two trominoes/triominoes, five tetrominoes, and 12 pentominoes).  The standard rules of play for all variations of the game are as follows:  When a game ends, the player with the highest score wins. The score is based on the number of squares in each player's pieces on the board (e.g. a tetromino is worth 4 points). A player who played all of his or her pieces is awarded a +20 point bonus if the last piece played was a monomino, or a +15 point bonus for any other piece.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Two and three player variations.", "content": "Blokus rules allow for two and three player games also. In two-player games, each player takes two colors. In three-player games, either one of the players takes two colors or else \"the pieces of the fourth color are placed on the board in a non-strategic way.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansions and spinoffs.", "content": "Sekkoïa and its distributors manufacture four additional versions of the game.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blokus Duo/Travel Blokus.", "content": "\"Blokus Duo\" is for two players only, and uses a smaller (14×14) board; the piece colors are purple and orange. The two starting squares are placed, not in the corner (as in the original Blokus game) but nearer to the centre. This makes a crucial difference in the flavour of the game, because players' pieces may (and usually do) touch after the first move. Even more than with the original game, Blokus Duo is an offence-centred game; it is also a much purer strategy game than the four-player game, since one is not in danger of getting ganged up on by three other players (as sometimes happens with the four-player version).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Blokus Trigon.", "content": "\"Blokus Trigon\" uses pieces made up of triangles rather than squares (polyiamonds), and is played on a hexagonal board, a version optimized for three players but can be played with 2, 3, or 4 players. The same rules apply, meaning that 2 edges cannot touch; however, as it is isometric, a corner touching an edge is allowed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Blokus Giant.", "content": "\"Blokus Giant\" is a larger version, with the game board being about square.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Blokus Junior.", "content": "\"Blokus Junior\" is targeted at younger children. Like Blokus Duo, it is played by two players on a 14×14 board but it uses only a subset of the pieces that have a supposedly simpler shape. There are 12 unique pieces. Each player gets two of each kind, 24 in total. The game also comes with a set of sheets with single-player puzzles, which show positions in which the player needs to connect two pieces following standard Blokus rules.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rumis/Blokus 3D.", "content": "\"Blokus 3D\", originally marketed in a Mayan theme as \"Rumis\", uses pieces made up of unit cubes, in every permutation of three and four cubes in three dimensions. Stefan Kögl created \"Rumis\" independently from Bernard Tavitian, and is thus not related. However, \"Rumis\" was rebranded into \"Blokus 3D\" since the \"Blokus\" brand proved stronger than \"Rumis.\" There is also a major rule change; instead of being required to place pieces so they touch corner-to-corner, a piece must be placed such that it touches a face of another piece of the same color. Also, a player placing a piece cannot do so if it would create any empty space underneath any part of the piece. The object is to build one of four different structures, each with its own placement limitations: the Tower, Wall, Steps, and Pyramid. Players attempt to place their blocks such that at the end of the game, when the structure is viewed from above, their color has the most squares showing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Video games.", "content": "Funkitron developed a PC casual game version of Blokus called \"Blokus World Tour\". Released in December 2007, \"Blokus World Tour\" was similar to the board game version of Blokus, but also featured 16 AI opponents, music and sound effects, and multiple game modes, including a tour mode, quick play, and Blokus Challenges.  For some time, there was an official online version of Blokus where visitors could play with opponents all over the world. Mattel suspended the online game on May 18, 2012, stating it did not meet its playability standards. It is now possible to play blokus online at Pentolla.com.  The PlayStation Portable has \"\", which features characters from \"Steambot Chronicles\" playing the Classic, Travel, and Duo versions of the game.  A Gameloft developed version of Blokus was released for iPhone, iPod touch, and iPad in April 2010, featuring the Classic and Duo versions of the game, local and online multiplayer gameplay, and single player tournament mode. A clone named Quadrus, is available since January 2014.  As of January 2014, the Gameloft version of Blokus is no longer available from the App Store. Currently, the officially licensed Blokus app is developed by Magmic, and is available for iPhone, iPod touch, and iPad. This version includes solo play and multiplayer options, integrating the user's Facebook and Game Center friends and allowing them to compete on a tournament leader-board.  There is also some open source software based on the same concept of polyominoes as blokus does, for example Blokish, Blockem, Freebloks or \"Pentobi\" for desktop and \"Freebloks\" or \"Blokish\" for Android smartphones.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Blokus ( ) is an abstract strategy board game for two to four players, where players try to score points by occupying most of the board with pieces of their colour. It was invented by Bernard Tavitian and first released in 2000 by Sekkoïa, a French company. It has won several awards, including the Mensa Select award and the 2004 Teacher's Choice Award. In 2009, the game was sold to Mattel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973576}
{"src_title": "Jon Hiseman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "In the mid-1960s Hiseman played in sessions such as the early Arthur Brown single, \"Devil's Grip\". In 1966 he replaced Ginger Baker in the Graham Bond Organisation and also played for a brief spell with Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames. He then joined John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers in 1968 playing on the iconic album \"Bare Wires\". In April 1968 he left to form what has been described as the \"seminal\" jazz rock/progressive rock band, Colosseum. Colosseum disbanded in November 1971, although Hiseman later formed Colosseum II with Don Airey and Gary Moore in 1975.  Between these two versions of Colosseum, Hiseman formed the band Tempest with Allan Holdsworth, Paul Williams and Colosseum bandmate Mark Clarke. Ollie Halsall joined the band temporarily making the band a quintet but Holdsworth left the group along with Williams, leaving Halsall to handle all guitar and vocal duties. In the mid 1970's Hiseman played with Dave Greenslade when he toured the album 'Cactus Choir'. Hiseman subsequently played in jazz groups, notably with his wife, saxophonist Barbara Thompson, with whom he recorded and produced more than 15 albums. Andrew Lloyd Webber, searching for a \"sound\" for an album to feature his brother Julian on cello, stumbled upon Colosseum II by accident and imported the whole band into his \"Variations\" project. This was the start of a ten-year relationship with Hiseman, whose drumming features on recordings, TV specials and musicals.  In 1982 Hiseman built what was at the time a state-of-the-art recording studio next to his home, and together with the compositional skills of Barbara Thompson produced many recordings for film and television soundtracks. Hiseman was a founding member of the United Jazz and Rock Ensemble, a German-based \"Band of Band Leaders\", along with Barbara Thompson.  Colosseum reunited in June 1994 with the same line-up of musicians as when they broke up 23 years earlier. They played the Freiburg Zelt Musik Festival and followed it up with a German TV Special (WDR Cologne) in October, which was recorded and released as a CD and a VHS video; a DVD version followed in 2003. Several new studio releases also followed, as well as [4] expanded editions of \"Valentyne Suite\" and \"Colosseum Live\", plus several compilation boxed sets.  Barbara Thompson joined the band on various occasions before the death of Dick Heckstall-Smith in 2004 and since then was a permanent member of the band. Colosseum played its farewell concert on 28 February 2015.  In October 2010, a biography of Hiseman, entitled \"Playing the Band\", was published. It was written by Martyn Hanson and edited by original Colosseum manager, Colin Richardson.  In 2017, Hiseman formed a new trio band called JCM. The band recorded an album \"Heroes\" late in 2017 and it was released in April 2018. JCM began touring on 7 April 2018. Other members are guitarist/vocalist Clem Clempson and bass player/vocalist Mark Clarke.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In May 2018, Hiseman's family reported that he was struggling with a brain tumor. He died at the age of 73 on 12 June 2018 in Sutton, England. He was nine days short of his 74th birthday.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected discography.", "content": "With Jack Bruce  With Colosseum  With Colosseum II  With JCM  With Tempest  Tribute  With United Jazz + Rock Ensemble", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philip John \"Jon\" Hiseman (21 June 1944 – 12 June 2018) was an English drummer, recording engineer, record producer, and music publisher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973577}
{"src_title": "File Manager (Windows)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The program's interface showed a list of directories on the left hand panel, and a list of the current directory's contents on the right hand panel. File Manager allowed a user to create, rename, move, print, copy, search for, and delete files and directories, as well as to set permissions (attributes) such as archive, read-only, hidden or system, and to associate file types with programs. Also available were tools to label and format disks, manage folders for file sharing and to connect and disconnect from a network drive. On Windows NT systems it was also possible to set ACLs on files and folders on NTFS partitions through the shell32 security configuration dialog (also used by Explorer and other Windows file managers). On NTFS drives, individual files or entire folders could be compressed or expanded.  The Windows NT version of File Manager allows users to change directory, file, local, network and user permissions.  From Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0 onward, File Manager was superseded by Windows Explorer. However, the codice_1 program file was still included with Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me (16-bit executable), and Windows NT 4.0 (32-bit executable). The last 32-bit codice_1 build (4.0.1381.318) was distributed as part of Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 6a (SP6a). The last 16-bit codice_1 build (4.90.3000) was distributed as part of Windows Me operating system.  Chris Guzak was the shell developer on the Windows 3.1 team responsible for File Manager.  The source was released on GitHub in 2018 with an MIT license by Microsoft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "16-bit OS/2 and Windows 3.x.", "content": "File Manager was included in OS/2 versions 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3. The name of the executable was codice_4.  The original version of File Manager was a 16-bit program that supported the 8.3 file names that were in use at the time.  It did not support the extended file names that became available in Windows 95 – including long file names and file names containing spaces. Instead, it would display only the first six characters followed by a tilde character (\"~\") and a number, usually 1. More numbers (2, 3, and so on) were added after the tilde if more than one file name with the same initial characters existed in the same directory.  The 16-bit version distributed with Windows 3.1x and Windows for Workgroups 3.1x installations had a Y2K issue due to lexicographic correlation between date representation and the ASCII character set; colons and semicolons replaced what should have been '2000'. Microsoft issued corrected binaries for all Windows 3.1x environments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Windows NT.", "content": "File Manager was rewritten as a 32-bit program for Windows NT. This new version correctly handled long file names in addition to NTFS file systems. It was included with Windows NT 3.1, 3.5, 3.51, and 4.0.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Windows 10.", "content": "On April 6, 2018, Microsoft released binaries and the source code, licensed under the MIT License, for an improved version of File Manager able to be run on Windows 10. This version included changes such as the ability to compile in modern versions of Visual Studio, the ability to compile as a 64-bit application, and numerous usability improvements. Microsoft also released this app in the Microsoft Store for free in late January 2019.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "File Manager is a file manager program bundled with releases of OS/2 and Microsoft Windows between 1990 and 1999 and available from 6 April 2018 as an optional download for all modern releases of Windows, including Windows 10.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973578}
{"src_title": "Norodom Sihamoni", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sihamoni was born in 1953. His given name, Sihamoni, comprises two morphemes from his parents' given names, Sihanouk and Monineath. At the time of his birth and that of his younger brother, his mother Monique Izzi, a Cambodian citizen of Corsican and Khmer ancestry, had been one of King Norodom Sihanouk's consorts after being a constant companion since the day they met in 1951, when she won first prize in a national beauty contest. She was granted the title of Neak Moneang and the name of Monineath at the time of her marriage to King Norodom Sihanouk in 1952. Furthermore, Queen Monineath is a step-granddaughter of the late Prince Norodom Duongchak of Cambodia, and the daughter of Pomme Peang and of her second husband, Jean-François Izzi, a Corsican banker. The Royal Ark website entry about the genealogy of the Cambodian royal family states that Sihanouk and Monineath were married twice, once on 12 April 1952, when she was 15, and again (\"more formally\", according to the website) on 5 March 1955. She is described as Sihanouk's seventh wife.  Sihamoni has 14 half-brothers and half-sisters by his father; his only full sibling, a younger brother, Samdech Norodom Narindrapong, was born in 1954 and died in 2003.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Studies and life abroad.", "content": "He has spent most of his life outside Cambodia. As a child Sihamoni was sent to Prague, in then Czechoslovakia, by his father in 1962. During the 1970 coup d'état by Lon Nol, Sihamoni remained in Czechoslovakia, where he attended all three levels of education - elementary school, high school and AMU - Academy of Performing Arts in Prague, and studied classical dance and music almost continuously until 1975, when he graduated. As he spent almost his entire childhood and youth in Prague, the king is fluent in the Czech language. A movie directed by was shot about the prince in Prague in 1967, under the name \"The Other Little Prince (Jiný malý princ).  After graduation in 1975 he left Prague and began to study filmmaking in North Korea, and in 1977 returned to Cambodia. Immediately, the ruling Khmer Rouge government turned against the monarchy, and put the royal family including Sihamoni under house arrest until the 1979 Vietnamese invasion.  In 1981 he moved to France to teach ballet, and was later president of the Khmer Dance Association. He lived in France for nearly 20 years, regularly visiting Prague, where he had spent his childhood and youth.  In 1993 the prince was appointed Cambodia's delegate to UNESCO in Paris, where he became known for his hard work and his devotion to Cambodian culture. He had previously refused an appointment as Cambodia's ambassador to France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Languages.", "content": "Besides his native Khmer, Norodom Sihamoni is the only ruling monarch in the world who speaks Czech fluently. The king is also fluent in French and is a conversational speaker of English and Russian.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "On 14 October 2004 he was selected by a special nine-member council, part of a selection process that was quickly put in place after the surprise abdication of King Norodom Sihanouk a week before. Sihamoni's selection was endorsed by Prime Minister Hun Sen and National Assembly Speaker Prince Norodom Ranariddh (the new king's half-brother), both members of the privy council. He was inaugurated and formally appointed as King on 29 October 2004. King Sihamoni and his parents, King Father Norodom Sihanouk and Queen Mother Norodom Monineath, specifically requested that the ceremonies not be lavish because they did not wish the impoverished country to spend too much money on the event. On 29 October 2014, there were celebrations to mark the 10th anniversary of his coronation.  Sihamoni remains unmarried and has no children. His father Norodom Sihanouk stated that Sihamoni \"loves women as his sisters\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Title.", "content": "Before he was crowned king, his royal title was: \"Sdech Krom Khun\" (), equating him to the rank of \"Great Prince\". As king, his title is: \"Preah Karuna Preah Bat Sâmdach Preah Bâromneath Norodom Sihamoni Saman Bhumichat Sasana Rakkhata Khattiya Khmeraratrat Putthintra Mohaksat Khemareacheana Samuhobhas Kampuchea Ekareacharath Bureanasanti Subheamagala Sirivibunla Khmera Sri Bireat Preah Chao Krung Kampuchea Dhibodi\" (in romanized Khmer); roughly translating to: \"His Merciful Excellent Majesty Protector, King Norodom Sihamoni, who united the nation, religion, realm, and people of Khmer state, great king who is supported by Buddha and Indra, protector of independence, unification, and peace, King of Cambodia, the Great King in the Kingdom of Cambodia\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Advisory court.", "content": "On 12 December 2008, Sihamoni selected twenty-six members of the Cambodian royal family to his advisory court, among them his half-brother Prince Norodom Ranariddh as chief advisor. Other choices included Prince Sisowath Sirirath, Princess Norodom Marie (estranged wife of Prince Ranariddh) and Prince Sisowath Thomico.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Cambodia had no lèse-majesté laws until recently. In neighbouring Thailand article 7 of the Constitution states the inviolability of the king. In February 2018, Cambodia passed new legislation making it an offence to insult the king.  Some Cambodian opposition figures have criticized the acquiescence of the king, describing it as too lenient towards Hun Sen's decades-long rule in the kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Norodom Sihamoni (; born 14 May 1953) is the King of Cambodia. He became King on 14 October 2004, a week after the abdication of his father, Norodom Sihanouk. He is the eldest son of King Sihanouk and Queen Norodom Monineath. He was Cambodia's ambassador to UNESCO and named by a nine-member throne council to become the next king after his father Norodom Sihanouk abdicated in 2004. Before ascending the throne, Sihamoni was educated in Czechoslovakia and was best known for his work as a cultural ambassador in Europe and as a classical dance instructor. He is unmarried.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973579}
{"src_title": "Paraldehyde", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Stereochemistry.", "content": "Paraldehyde is produced and used as a mixture of two diastereomers, known as \"cis\"- and \"trans-\"paraldehyde. For each diastereomer, two chair conformers are possible. The structures (1), (4) and (2), (3) are conformers of \"cis\"- and \"trans\"-paraldehyde, respectively. The structures (3) (a conformer of (2)) and (4) (a conformer of (1)) are high energy conformers on steric grounds (1,3-diaxial interactions are present) and do not exist to any appreciable extent in a sample of paraldehyde.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Heated with catalytic amounts of acid, it depolymerizes back to acetaldehyde:  Since paraldehyde has better handling characteristics, it may be used indirectly or directly as a synthetic equivalent of anhydrous acetaldehyde (b.p. 20 °C). For example, it is used as-is in the synthesis of bromal (tribromoacetaldehyde):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical applications.", "content": "Paraldehyde was introduced into clinical practice in the UK by the Italian physician Vincenzo Cervello (1854–1918) in 1882.  It is a central nervous system depressant and was soon found to be an effective anticonvulsant, hypnotic and sedative. It was included in some cough medicines as an expectorant (though there is no known mechanism for this function beyond the placebo effect).  Paraldehyde was the last injection given to Edith Alice Morrell in 1950 by the suspected serial killer John Bodkin Adams. He was tried for her murder but acquitted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a hypnotic/sedative.", "content": "It was commonly used to induce sleep in sufferers from delirium tremens but has been replaced by other drugs in this regard. It is one of the safest hypnotics and was regularly given at bedtime in psychiatric hospitals and geriatric wards up to the 1970s. Up to 30% of the dose is excreted via the lungs (the rest via the liver). This contributes to a strong unpleasant odour on the breath.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As anti-seizure.", "content": "It has been used in the treatment of convulsions.  Today, paraldehyde is sometimes used to treat status epilepticus. Unlike diazepam and other benzodiazepines, it does not suppress breathing at therapeutic doses and so is safer when no resuscitation facilities exist or when the patient's breathing is already compromised. This makes it a useful emergency medication for parents and other caretakers of children with epilepsy. Since the dose margin between the anticonvulsant and hypnotic effect is small, paraldehyde treatment usually results in sleep.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "Generic paraldehyde is available in 5 mL sealed glass ampoules. Production in the US has been discontinued, but it was previously marketed as Paral.  Paraldehyde has been given orally, rectally, intravenously and by intramuscular injection. It reacts with rubber and plastic which limits the time it may safely be kept in contact with some syringes or tubing before administration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Industrial applications.", "content": "Paraldehyde is used in resin manufacture, as a preservative, MEP and in other processes as a solvent.  It has been used in the generation of aldehyde fuchsin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paraldehyde is the cyclic trimer of acetaldehyde molecules. Formally, it is a derivative of 1,3,5-trioxane, with a methyl groups substituted for a hydrogen atoms in each carbon. The corresponding tetramer is metaldehyde. A colourless liquid, it is sparingly soluble in water and highly soluble in ethanol. Paraldehyde slowly oxidizes in air, turning brown and producing an odour of acetic acid. It quickly reacts with most plastics and rubber.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973580}
{"src_title": "Muskmelon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The muskmelon is an annual, trailing herb. It grows well in subtropical or warm, temperate climates. Muskmelons prefer warm, well-fertilized soil with good drainage that is rich in nutrients, but are vulnerable to downy mildew and anthracnose. Disease risk is reduced by crop rotation with non-cucurbit crops, avoiding crops susceptible to similar diseases as muskmelons. Cross pollination has resulted in some varieties developing resistance to powdery mildew. Insects attracted to muskmelons include the cucumber beetle, melon aphid, melonworm moth and the pickleworm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "Muskmelons are monoecious plants. They do not cross with watermelon, cucumber, pumpkin, or squash, but varieties within the species intercross frequently. The genome of \"Cucumis melo\" was first sequenced in 2012. Some authors treat \"C. melo\" as having two subspecies, \"C. melo agrestis\" and \"C. melo melo\". Variants within these subspecies fall into groups whose genetics largely agree with their phenotypic traits, such as disease resistance, rind texture, flesh color, and fruit shape. Variants or landraces (some of which were originally classified as species; see the synonyms list to the right) include \"C. melo\" var. \"acidulus\", \"adana\", \"agrestis\", \"ameri\", \"cantalupensis\", \"chandalak\", \"chate\", \"chinensis\", \"chito\", \"conomon\", \"dudaim\", \"flexuosus\", \"inodorus\", \"makuwa\", \"momordica\", \"reticulatus\" and \"tibish\".  Not all varieties are sweet melons. The snake melon, also called the Armenian cucumber and Serpent cucumber, is a non-sweet melon found throughout Asia from Turkey to Japan. It is similar to a cucumber in taste and appearance. Outside Asia, snake melons are grown in the United States, Italy, Sudan and parts of North Africa, including Egypt. The snake melon is more popular in Arab countries.  Other varieties grown in Africa are bitter, cultivated for their edible seeds.  For commercially grown varieties certain features like protective hard netting and firm flesh are preferred for purposes of shipping and other requirements of commercial markets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "Per 100 gram serving, cantaloupe melons provide 34 calories and are a rich source (20% or more the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin A (68% DV) and vitamin C (61% DV), with other nutrients at a negligible level. Melons are 90% water and 9% carbohydrates, with less than 1% each of protein and fat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "In addition to their consumption when fresh, melons are sometimes dried. Other varieties are cooked, or grown for their seeds, which are processed to produce melon oil. Still other varieties are grown only for their pleasant fragrance. The Japanese liqueur, Midori, is flavored with muskmelon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "There is debate among scholars whether the \"abattiach\" in refers to a muskmelon or a watermelon. Both types of melon were known in Ancient Egypt and other settled areas. Some botanists consider muskmelons native to the Levant and Egypt, while others place the origin in Persia, India or Central Asia, but the origin is uncertain. Researchers have shown that seeds and rootstocks were among the good traded along the caravan routes of the Ancient World. Several scientists support an African origin, and in modern times wild muskmelons can still be found in several African countries in East Africa like Ethiopia, Somalia and Tanzania.  Melon was domesticated in West Asia and over time many cultivars developed with variety in shape and sweetness. Iran, India, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and China become centers for melon production. Muskmelons were consumed in Ancient Greece and Rome.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Muskmelon (\"Cucumis melo\") is a species of melon that has been developed into many cultivated varieties. These include smooth-skinned varieties such as honeydew, Crenshaw, and casaba, and different netted cultivars (cantaloupe, Persian melon, and Santa Claus or Christmas melon). The large number of cultivars in this species approaches that found in wild cabbage, though morphological variation is not as extensive. It is a fruit of a type called pepo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973581}
{"src_title": "Schienenzeppelin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Anticipating the design of the Schienenzeppelin, the earlier Aerowagon, an experimental Russian high-speed railcar, was also equipped with an aircraft engine and a propeller.  The railcar was built at the beginning of 1930 in the Hannover-Leinhausen works of the German Imperial Railway Company (\"Deutsche Reichsbahn\"). The work was completed by autumn of the same year. The vehicle was long and had just two axles, with a wheelbase of. The height was. As originally built it had two conjoined BMW IV 6-cylinder petrol aircraft engines (later a single BMW VI 12-cylinder of ) driving a four-bladed (later two-bladed), fixed pitch ash propeller. The driveshaft was raised seven-degrees above the horizontal to give the vehicle some downwards thrust. The body of the Schienenzeppelin was streamlined, having some resemblance to the era's popular Zeppelin airships, and it was built of aluminum in aircraft style to reduce weight. The railcar could carry up to 40 passengers; its interior was spartan and designed in Bauhaus-style.  On 10 May 1931, the Schienenzeppelin exceeded a speed of for the first time. Afterwards, it was exhibited to the general public throughout Germany. On 21 June 1931, it set a new world railway speed record of on the Berlin–Hamburg line between Karstädt and Dergenthin, which was not surpassed by any other rail vehicle until 1954. The railcar still holds the land speed record for a petrol powered rail vehicle. This high speed was attributable, amongst other things, to its low weight, which was only. In 1932 Kruckenberg began a new project with the rail car involving significant modifications. It was cut just behind the forward wheels and received a complete new front end with a two-axle bogie, resembling the later 137 155 railcar. The rear single axle remained as it was. The modifications were completed by November 1932. The aircraft engine was still used; however, the power transmission was hydraulic through two Föttinger Fluid Drives for both directions of travel, fitted on the forward bogie. A pointed fairing was installed in place of the propeller. The resulting vehicle was a B-1 with a powered front bogie. This version of the vehicle reached at the beginning of 1933.  Due to many problems with the Schienenzeppelin prototype, the Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft decided to go their own way in developing a high-speed railcar, leading to the Fliegender Hamburger (Flying Hamburger) in 1933. This new design was suitable for regular service and served also as the basis for later railcar developments. However, many of the Kruckenberg ideas, based on the experiments with Schienenzeppelin and high-speed rail travel, found their way into later DRG railcar designs.  At the beginning of 1934 the Schienenzeppelin was rebuilt for the last time, and a Maybach GO 5 engine was installed. In July 1934 it was sold to Deutsche Reichsbahn (German Imperial Railway) for 10,000 Reichsmarks. Five years later, in 1939 the rail zeppelin was finally dismantled because its material was needed by the German army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disadvantages.", "content": "The failure of Schienenzeppelin has been attributed to everything from the dangers of using an open propeller in crowded railway stations to fierce competition between Kruckenberg's company and the Deutsche Reichsbahn's separate efforts to build high-speed railcars.  One disadvantage of the rail zeppelin was the inherent difficulty of pulling additional wagons to form a train, because of its construction. Furthermore, the vehicle could not use its propeller to climb steep gradients, as the flow would separate when full power was applied. Thus an additional means of propulsion was needed for such circumstances.  Safety concerns have been associated with running high-speed railcars on old track network, with the inadvisability of reversing the vehicle, and with operating a propeller close to passengers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The () or rail zeppelin was an experimental railcar which resembled a Zeppelin airship in appearance. It was designed and developed by the German aircraft engineer Franz Kruckenberg in 1929. Propulsion was by means of a pusher propeller located at the rear: it accelerated the railcar to setting the land speed record for a petrol powered rail vehicle. Only a single example was ever built, which due to safety concerns remained out of service and was finally dismantled in 1939.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973582}
{"src_title": "Stretcher", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "An early stretcher, likely made of wicker over a frame, appears in a manuscript from c.1380. Simple stretchers were common with militaries right through the middle of the 20th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gurney.", "content": "Generally spelled \"gurney\", but also \"guerney\" or \"girney\". The first usage of the term for a wheeled stretcher is unclear, but it is believed to have been derived from Pacific Coast slang. Its use in a hospital context was established by the 1930s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "EMS stretchers used in ambulances have wheels that makes transportation over pavement easier, and have a lock inside the ambulance and straps to secure the patient during transport. An integral lug on the stretcher locks into a sprung latch within the ambulance in order to prevent movement during transport. Modern stretchers may also have battery-powered hydraulics to raise and collapse the legs automatically. This eases the workload on EMS personnel, who are statistically at high risk of back injury from repetitive raising and lowering of patients. Specialized bariatric stretchers are also available, which feature a wider frame and higher weight capacity for heavier patients. Stretchers are usually covered with a disposable sheet or wrapping, and are cleaned after each use to prevent the spread of infection. Shelves, hooks and poles for medical equipment and intravenous medication are also frequently included.  Standard stretchers have several adjustments. The bed can be raised or lowered to facilitate patient transfer. The head of the stretcher can be raised so that the patient is in a sitting position (especially important for those in respiratory distress) or lowered flat in order to perform CPR, or for patients with suspected spinal injury who must be transported on a spinal board. The feet can be raised to what is called the Trendelenburg position, indicated for patients in shock.  Some manufacturers have begun to offer hybrid devices that combine the functionality of a stretcher, a recliner chair, and a treatment or procedural table into one device.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wheeled stretchers.", "content": "For ambulances, a collapsible wheeled stretcher, or gurney, is a type of stretcher on a variable-height wheeled frame. Normally, an integral lug on the stretcher locks into a sprung latch within the ambulance in order to prevent movement during transport, often referred to as antlers due to their shape. It is usually covered with a disposable sheet and cleaned after each patient in order to prevent the spread of infection. Its key value is to facilitate moving the patient and sheet onto a fixed bed or table on arrival at the emergency department. Both types may have straps to secure the patient.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A stretcher, litter, or pram is an apparatus used for moving patients who require medical care. A basic type (cot or litter) must be carried by two or more people. A wheeled stretcher (known as a gurney, trolley, bed or cart) is often equipped with variable height frames, wheels, tracks, or skids. In American English, a wheeled stretcher can also be referred to as a gurney.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973583}
{"src_title": "Amorphophallus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The oldest systematic record of the plants was in 1692, when Van Rheede tot Drakenstein published descriptions of two plants. The name \"\"Amorphophallus\"\" was first mentioned in 1834 by the Dutch botanist Blume. Between 1876 and 1911, Engler merged a number of other genera into \"Amorphophallus\", with a final monograph published in 1911.often referred to as purple aki.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "These are typical lowland plants, growing in the tropical and subtropical zones of the paleotropics, from West Africa to the Pacific Islands. None of them are found in the Americas although a remarkably similar but not closely related genus, \"Dracontium\", has evolved there. Most species are endemic. They grow preferentially on disturbed grounds, such as secondary forests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "These small to massive plants grow from a subterranean tuber. \"Amorphophallus\" tubers vary greatly from species to species, from the quite uniformly globose tuber of \"A. konjac\" to the elongated tubers of \"A. longituberosus\" and \"A. macrorhizus\" to the bizarre clustered rootstock of \"A. coaetaneus\". From the top of this tuber a single leaf, which can be several metres across in larger species, is produced atop a trunk-like petiole followed, on maturity, by a single inflorescence. This leaf consists of a vertical leaf stalk and a horizontal blade, which may consist of a number of small leaflets. The leaf lasts one growing season. The peduncle (the primary flower stalk) can be long or short.  As is typical of the Arum family, these species develop an inflorescence consisting of an elongate or ovate spathe (a sheathing bract) which usually envelops the spadix (a flower spike with a fleshy axis). The spathe can have different colors, but mostly brownish-purple or whitish-green. On the inside, they contain ridges or warts, functioning as insect traps.  The plants are monoecious. The spadix has tiny flowers: female flowers, no more than a pistil, at the bottom, then male flowers, actually a group of stamens, and then a blank sterile area. This last part, called 'the appendix', consists of sterile flowers, called staminodes, and can be especially large. There is no corolla.  Once the spathe opens, pollination must happen the same day. In many species, the inflorescence emits a scent of decaying flesh in order to attract insects, though a number of species give off a pleasant odor. Through a number of ingenious insect traps, pollinating insects are kept inside the spathe to deposit pollen on the female flowers, which stay receptive for only one day, while the male flowers are still closed. These open the next day, but by then the female flowers are no longer receptive and so self-pollination is avoided. The male flowers shower the trapped insects with pollen. Once the insects escape, they can then pollinate another flower. \"Amorphophallus\" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including \"Palpifer sexnotatus\" and \"Palpifer sordida\".  The pollinated flowers then develop a globose berry as a fruit. These can be red, orange-red, white, white and yellow, or blue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable species.", "content": "The species \"Amorphophallus titanum\", 'corpse flower' or titan arum, is the world's largest unbranched inflorescence, with a height of up to and a width of. After an over tall flower opened at Chicago Botanical Gardens on September 29, 2015, thousands lined up to see and smell it. The floriculturalist described it smelling \"like roadkill, a barnyard, a dirty diaper, very strong, a little bit of mothball smell too\". Native to the Indonesian rainforest it takes 10 years to blossom. Dubbed \"Alice\" its bloom was broadcast via live webcam. It is one of two plants at the Botanical Garden, which kept open until 2 am on September 30 to accommodate visitors.  A runner-up is \"Amorphophallus gigas\", which is taller, but has a somewhat smaller flower.  \"Amorphophallus konjac\" tubers are used to make, a Japanese thickening agent and edible jelly containing glucomannan.  Some species are called voodoo lily, as are some species of \"Typhonium\" (also in the Araceae).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Amorphophallus (from Ancient Greek, \"without form, misshapen\" + \"phallos\", \"penis\", referring to the shape of the prominent spadix) is a large genus of some 200 tropical and subtropical tuberous herbaceous plants from the \"Arum\" family (Araceae), native to Asia, Africa, Australia and various oceanic islands. A few species are edible as \"famine foods\" after careful preparation to remove irritating chemicals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973584}
{"src_title": "Reflection (computer programming)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical background.", "content": "The earliest computers were programmed in their native assembly language, which were inherently reflective, as these original architectures could be programmed by defining instructions as data and using self-modifying code. As programming moved to compiled higher-level languages such as Algol, Cobol, and Fortran (but also Pascal and C and many other languages), this reflective ability largely disappeared until programming languages with reflection built into their type systems appeared.  Brian Cantwell Smith's 1982 doctoral dissertation introduced the notion of computational reflection in procedural programming languages and the notion of the meta-circular interpreter as a component of 3-Lisp.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Reflection helps programmers make generic software libraries to display data, process different formats of data, perform serialization or deserialization of data for communication, or do bundling and unbundling of data for containers or bursts of communication.  Effective use of reflection almost always requires a plan: A design framework, encoding description, object library, a map of a database or entity relations.  Reflection makes a language more suited to network-oriented code. For example, it assists languages such as Java to operate well in networks by enabling libraries for serialization, bundling and varying data formats. Languages without reflection (e.g. C) have to use auxiliary compilers, e.g. for Abstract Syntax Notation, to produce code for serialization and bundling.  Reflection can be used for observing and modifying program execution at runtime. A reflection-oriented program component can monitor the execution of an enclosure of code and can modify itself according to a desired goal related to that enclosure. This is typically accomplished by dynamically assigning program code at runtime.  In object-oriented programming languages such as Java, reflection allows \"inspection\" of classes, interfaces, fields and methods at runtime without knowing the names of the interfaces, fields, methods at compile time. It also allows \"instantiation\" of new objects and \"invocation\" of methods.  Reflection is often used as part of software testing, such as for the runtime creation/instantiation of mock objects.  Reflection is also a key strategy for metaprogramming.  In some object-oriented programming languages, such as C# and Java, reflection can be used to bypass member accessibility rules. For C#-properties this can be achieved by writing directly onto the (usually invisible) backing field of a non-public property. It is also possible to find non-public methods of classes and types and manually invoke them. This works for project-internal files as well as external libraries (.Net-assemblies and Java-archives).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "A language supporting reflection provides a number of features available at runtime that would otherwise be difficult to accomplish in a lower-level language. Some of these features are the abilities to:  These features can be implemented in different ways. In MOO, reflection forms a natural part of everyday programming idiom. When verbs (methods) are called, various variables such as \"verb\" (the name of the verb being called) and \"this\" (the object on which the verb is called) are populated to give the context of the call. Security is typically managed by accessing the caller stack programmatically: Since \"callers\"() is a list of the methods by which the current verb was eventually called, performing tests on \"callers\"()[0] (the command invoked by the original user) allows the verb to protect itself against unauthorised use.  Compiled languages rely on their runtime system to provide information about the source code. A compiled Objective-C executable, for example, records the names of all methods in a block of the executable, providing a table to correspond these with the underlying methods (or selectors for these methods) compiled into the program. In a compiled language that supports runtime creation of functions, such as Common Lisp, the runtime environment must include a compiler or an interpreter.  Reflection can be implemented for languages not having built-in reflection facilities by using a program transformation system to define automated source-code changes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "The following code snippets create an instance foo of class Foo and invoke its method PrintHello. For each programming language, normal and reflection-based call sequences are shown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "C#.", "content": "The following is an example in C#:  // Without reflection Foo foo = new Foo(); foo.PrintHello();  // With reflection Object foo = Activator.CreateInstance(\"complete.classpath.and.Foo\"); MethodInfo method = foo.GetType().GetMethod(\"PrintHello\"); method.Invoke(foo, null);", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Delphi.", "content": "This Delphi example assumes that a TFoo class has been declared in a unit called Unit1:  uses RTTI, Unit1;  procedure WithoutReflection; var begin end;  procedure WithReflection; var begin end;", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "eC.", "content": "The following is an example in eC:  // Without reflection Foo foo { }; foo.hello();  // With reflection Class fooClass = eSystem_FindClass(__thisModule, \"Foo\"); Instance foo = eInstance_New(fooClass); Method m = eClass_FindMethod(fooClass, \"hello\", fooClass.module); ((void (*)())(void *)m.function)(foo);", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "ECMAScript.", "content": "The following is an example in ECMAScript, and therefore also applies to JavaScript and ActionScript:  // Without reflection new Foo().hello()  // With reflection  // assuming that Foo resides in this new this['Foo']()['hello']()  // or without assumption new (eval('Foo'))()['hello']()  // or simply eval('new Foo().hello()')  // Using ECMAScript 2015's new Reflect class: Reflect.construct(Foo, [])['hello']()", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Go.", "content": "The following is an example in Go: import \"reflect\"  // Without reflection f.Hello()  // With reflection fT := reflect.TypeOf(Foo{}) fV := reflect.New(fT)  m := fV.MethodByName(\"Hello\") if m.IsValid() {", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Java.", "content": "The following is an example in Java:  import java.lang.reflect.Method;  // Without reflection Foo foo = new Foo(); foo.hello();  // With reflection try {  } catch (Exception e) {", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Objective-C.", "content": "The following is an example in Objective-C, implying either the OpenStep or Foundation Kit framework is used:  // Foo class. @interface Foo : NSObject - (void)hello; @end  // Sending \"hello\" to a Foo instance without reflection. Foo *obj = [[Foo alloc] init]; [obj hello];  // Sending \"hello\" to a Foo instance with reflection. id obj = [[NSClassFromString(@\"Foo\") alloc] init]; [obj performSelector: @selector(hello)];", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Perl.", "content": "The following is an example in [[Perl (programming language)|Perl]]: my $foo = Foo->new; $foo->hello;  Foo->new->hello;  my $class = \"Foo\" my $constructor = \"new\"; my $method = \"hello\";  my $f = $class->$constructor; $f->$method;  $class->$constructor->$method;  eval \"new Foo->hello;\";", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PHP.", "content": "The following is an example in [[PHP]]:  // Without reflection $foo = new Foo(); $foo->hello();  // With reflection, using Reflections API $reflector = new ReflectionClass('Foo'); $foo = $reflector->newInstance(); $hello = $reflector->getMethod('hello'); $hello->invoke($foo);", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Python.", "content": "The following is an example in [[Python (programming language)|Python]]:  obj = Foo() obj.hello()  obj = globals()['Foo']() getattr(obj, 'hello')()  eval('Foo().hello()')", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "R.", "content": "The following is an example in [[R (programming language)|R]]:  obj <- foo() hello(obj)  the.class <- \"foo\" the.method <- \"hello\" obj <- do.call(the.class, list()) do.call(the.method, alist(obj))", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ruby.", "content": "The following is an example in [[Ruby (Programming Language)|Ruby]]:  obj = Foo.new obj.hello  class_name = \"Foo\" method_name = :hello obj = Object.const_get(class_name).new obj.send method_name  eval \"Foo.new.hello\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Xojo.", "content": "The following is an example using [[Xojo]]: 'Without reflection Dim fooInstance As New Foo fooInstance.PrintHello 'With reflection Dim classInfo As Introspection.Typeinfo = GetTypeInfo(Foo) Dim constructors() As Introspection.ConstructorInfo = classInfo.GetConstructors Dim fooInstance As Foo = constructors(0).Invoke Dim methods() As Introspection.MethodInfo = classInfo.GetMethods For Each m As Introspection.MethodInfo In methods Next", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "[[Category:Programming constructs]] [[Category:Articles with example Python code]]", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer science, reflection is the ability of a process to examine, introspect, and modify its own structure and behavior.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973585}
{"src_title": "Sremski Karlovci", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "In Serbian, the town is known as \"Sremski Karlovci\" (Сремски Карловци), in Croatian as \"Srijemski Karlovci\", in German as \"Karlowitz\" or \"Carlowitz\", in Hungarian as \"Karlóca\", in Polish as \"Karłowice\", in Romanian as \"Carloviț\" and in Turkish as \"Karlofça\". The former Serbian name used for the town was \"Karlovci\" (Карловци), which is also used today, albeit unofficially. The name of the town in Serbian is in the plural, and therefore it is grammatically correct to refer to it as \"\"Sremski Karlovci are\"\" instead of \"\"Sremski Karlovci is\"\". A hypothetical singular version of the name would be \"Sremski Karlovac\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is situated along the Danube River in the geographical region of Syrmia. The town of Sremski Karlovci is the only settlement in the municipality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient, medieval and early modern history.", "content": "In ancient times, the Romans maintained a small fortress at this location. The town was first mentioned in historical documents in 1308 with the name \"Karom\". The medieval fortress of Karom was built on the ruins of the ancient Roman one. Until 1521, the Karom was a possession of the Hungarian noble families, of whom the most well known were Báthory and Morović.  In 1521, Turkish military commander Bali-beg conquered Karom under the Ottoman Empire's invasion of Europe. During the next 170 years, the town was part of the Ottoman Empire. The Slavic name for the town - \"Karlovci\", was first recorded in 1532/33. During Ottoman rule, the town was still predominately Serbian in ethnicity, with the smaller part of population composed of Muslims. According to the Ottoman defterler from 1545, the population of Karlovci numbered 547 Christian (Serb) houses. The city also had three Orthodox churches and a monastery. From 1557, it belonged to \"Eparchy of Belgrade and Srem\" of the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Habsburg Monarchy.", "content": "Between 16 November 1698 and 26 January 1699, the town of Karlovci was the site of a congress that ended the hostilities between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League, a coalition of various European powers including Habsburg Monarchy, Poland, Venice and Russia. The congress produced the Treaty of Karlowitz. It was the first time a round table was used in international politics.  After this peace treaty, the town was considered part of the Habsburg Monarchy and was included in its Military Frontier. According to 1702 data, the population was composed of 215 Orthodox and 13 Catholic houses. By 1753, the population of the town numbered 3,843 people, of which 3,110 were classified as ethnic Serbs.  The town was the spiritual, political and cultural center of the Serbs in the Habsburg Monarchy. The Metropolitan of the Serbian Orthodox Church resided here. In the early 21st century, the Serbian Patriarch retains the title of Metropolitan of Karlovci.  The town had the earliest Serb (and Slavic in general) gymnasium (Serbian: \"gimnazija\"/, French: \"lycée\"), founded on 3 August 1791. Three years after this, an Orthodox seminary was founded here. It was the second-oldest Orthodox seminary in the world (after the Spiritual Academy in Kiev), and it still operates.  At the Serb National Assembly in Karlovci in May 1848, Serbs declared the unification of the regions of Srem, Banat, Bačka, and Baranja (including parts of the Military Frontier) into the province of Serbian Vojvodina. In the late 18th century, the Habsburg Monarchy had invited numerous settlers from Bavaria and southern Germany into some of these regions along the Danube, in order to repopulate the area and re-establish agriculture after the effects of the Ottoman invasion and disease. The Germans, who became known as Danube-Swabians, were allowed to keep their language and Catholic religion. For more than a century, they had fairly autonomous settlements.  The first capital of Serbian Vojvodina was in Karlovci; it was later moved to Zemun, Veliki Bečkerek, and Temišvar. At the same time the title of the Orthodox Metropolitan of Karlovci was raised to that of Patriarch.  When Serbian Vojvodina was in 1849 organized as the new province named Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar, the town of Karlovci was not included into this province. It was returned to the administration of the Military Frontier (a Petrovaradin regiment that was part of Slavonian Krajina). With the abolition in 1881 of the Military Frontier, the town was included in Syrmia County of Croatia-Slavonia, the autonomous kingdom within Kingdom of Hungary and Austria-Hungary.  An Orthodox Patriarchate of Karlovci operated in Karlovci until 1920, after World War I. At that time, the position was joined with the Metropolitanate of Belgrade to form the united Serbian Orthodox Church, in what was then the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Yugoslavia (1918–92).", "content": "In 1918, the town became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (also known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In the summer of 1921, the town′s former palace of the Patriarch of Karlovci was used as the residence of Russian metropolitan Antony (Khrapovitsky). Together with some refugee bishops from Russia, he organised what a few years later was instituted as the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR). (Some critics called this ecclesiastical body the \"Karlovatsky Synod\" (), or ′′Karlovatsky group′′, also known in English as Synod of Karlovci.)  In 1922, the town became the headquarters of Russian White émigrés under the leadership of General Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangell. In 1924 he set up the Russian All-Military Union, designed to include all Russian military émigrés the world over. Many emigres went to western Europe, especially France, and to the United States. A monument to Gen Wrangel, sculpted by Vasiliy Azemsha, was unveiled in September 2007 in Karlovci.).  Between 1929 and 1941, the town was part of Danube Banovina, a province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. During World War II (1941–1944), after Nazi Germany's invasion of eastern Europe, the town was occupied by forces of the Axis Powers. It was attached to the Independent State of Croatia. During that time its name was changed to \"Hrvatski Karlovci\". After the end of the war, most ethnic Germans were expelled from eastern Europe. The town became part of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, Serbia.  Between 1980 and 1989, Sremski Karlovci was one of the seven municipalities of the city of Novi Sad. Since the break-up of Yugoslavia, it has been considered part of Serbia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "According to the 2011 census, the municipality of Sremski Karlovci has 8,750 inhabitants.  Ethnic composition of the municipality of Sremski Karlovci:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The following table gives a preview of total number of employed people per their core activity (as of 2017):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Until 1989 Sremski Karlovci formed one of the urban municipalities of the city of Novi Sad. After Novi Sad merged six of its municipalities into one \"Novi Sad municipality\", the municipality of Sremski Karlovci held a referendum to separate from Novi Sad, and established a separate municipality independent from Novi Sad. Although Sremski Karlovci lies in Syrmia region, the municipality belongs in South Bačka District, and not in the Syrmia District, because of its close proximity to Novi Sad.  In the Serbian local elections held on 24 April 2016, Sremski Karlovci elected a new municipality parliament, ending the rule of the DS in the town. Nenad Milenković, of the Serbian progressive Party, was elected as the new mayor of the municipal parliament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Sremski Karlovci is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sremski Karlovci (,, ) is a town and municipality located in the South Bačka District of the autonomous province of Vojvodina, Serbia. It is situated on the banks of the Danube, from Novi Sad. According to the 2011 census results, it has a population of 8,750 inhabitants. The town has traditionally been known as the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church in the Habsburg Monarchy. It was the political and cultural capital of Serbian Vojvodina after the May Assembly and during the Revolution in 1848.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973586}
{"src_title": "Know-how", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Industrial know-how.", "content": "In the context of industrial property (now generally viewed as intellectual property or IP), know-how is a component in the transfer of technology in national and international environments, co-existing with or separate from other IP rights such as patents, trademarks and copyright and is an economic asset. When it is transferred by itself, know-how should be converted into a trade secret before transfer in a legal agreement.  Know-how can be defined as \"confidentially held\", or better, \"closely held\" information in the form of unpatented inventions, formulae, designs, drawings, procedures and methods, together with accumulated skills and experience in the hands of a licensor firm's professional personnel which could assist a transferee/licensee of the object product in its manufacture and use and bring to it a competitive advantage. It can be further supported with privately maintained expert knowledge on the operation, maintenance, use/application of the object product and of its sale, usage or disposition.  The inherent proprietary value of know-how is embedded in the legal protection afforded to trade secrets in general law, particularly, case law. Know-how, in short, is \"private intellectual property\" which can be said to be a form of precursor to other intellectual property rights. The \"trade secret law\" varies from country to country, unlike the case for patents, trademarks and copyright for which there are formal \"conventions\" through which subscribing countries grant the same protection to the \"property\" as the others; examples of which are the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), under United Nations, a supportive organization designed \"to encourage creative activity, [and] to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world\".  The World Trade Organization defined a trade secret by the following criteria:  For purposes of illustration, the following may be a provision in a license agreement serving to define know-how:-", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Show-how.", "content": "\"Show-how\" is a diluted form of know-how since even a walk-through of a manufacturing plant provides valuable insights to the client's representatives into how a product is made, assembled, or processed. Show-how is also used to demonstrate technique.  An enlarged program of show-how is the typical content of \"technical assistance agreements\" where the licensor firm, if one is involved, provides a substantial training program to the client's personnel on-site and off-site. Such training does not imply any grant of \"license\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disclosure agreements.", "content": "There are two sets of agreements associated with the transfer of know-how agreement: (a) the disclosure and (b) the non-disclosure agreements, which are not separately parts of the principal know-how agreement.  The initial need for \"disclosure\" is due to the requirement of a licensee firm to know what is the specific, unique, or general \"content\" of the know-how that a licensor firm possesses that promises value to the licensee on entering into a contract. Disclosure also aids the potential licensee in selecting among competitive offers, if any. Such disclosures are made by licensors only under non-disclosure or confidentiality agreements in which there are express undertakings that should the ultimate license not materialize, the firm to whom the disclosure is made will not reveal, or by any manner apply, any part of the disclosed knowledge which is not in the public domain or previously known to the firm receiving the information.  Non-disclosure agreements are undertaken by those who receive confidential information from the licensee, relating to licensed know-how, so as to perform their tasks. Among them are the personnel of engineering firms who construct the plant for the licensee or those who are key employees of the licensee who have detailed access to disclosed data, etc. to administer their functions in operating the know-how-based plant. These are also in the nature of confidentiality agreements and carry the definition of know-how, in full or truncated part, on a need-to-know basis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Employee knowledge.", "content": "Under English law, employees have a duty of good faith and fidelity until their employment ceases whereby only the former still applies.  It is sometimes unclear what forms \"know how\" that was divulged to an employee in order to carry out their functions and then becomes their own knowledge rather than a secret of their previous employer. Some employers will specify in their employment contracts that a \"grace period\" will apply to know how that starts when a person leaves them as an employee.  Specifying exactly what information this includes would increase the likelihood of it being upheld in court in the event of a breach, i.e. saying \"when your employment contract is terminated, you must keep all information about your previous employment with us secret for four years\" would be difficult to support because that person has to be able to use the skills and knowledge they learnt to gain employment elsewhere.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Know-how (or knowhow, or procedural knowledge) is a term for practical knowledge on how to accomplish something, as opposed to \"know-what\" (facts), \"know-why\" (science), or \"know-who\" (communication). It is also often referred to as street smarts (sometimes conceived as opposed to book smarts), and a person employing their street smarts as \"street wise\". Know-how is often tacit knowledge, which means that it can be difficult to transfer to another person by means of writing it down or verbalising it. The opposite of tacit knowledge is explicit knowledge.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973587}
{"src_title": "Santa Maria in Cosmedin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "According to Byzantine historian Andrew Ekonomou, the church was founded in the 6th century during the Byzantine rule of the city and was placed in the centre of the Greek community in Rome. The Greek part of the city was referred to as the 'Schola Graeca'. The church was dedicated to the Virgin Mary, who was greatly adored as Theotokos (Mother of God) in contemporary Constantinople. The name 'Cosmedin' came from the Latinization of the Greek word κοσμίδιον (cosmidion) that derives from the Greek word κόσμος, which means pure or elegant.  The church was built in the 8th century, during the Byzantine Papacy, over the remains of the \"Templum Herculis Pompeiani\" in the Forum Boarium and of the \"Statio annonae\", one of the food distribution centres of ancient Rome (another is to be found at the Theatre of Balbus). A deaconry was a place where charitable distributions were given to the poor, and it is appropriate that such an institution would have been built near or at a station of the Roman \"annona\".  An eighth century inscription in the church records that Eustathius, the last Byzantine duke of Rome (ca. 752-756) gave a gift of extensive properties to the church's ministry to the poor. The same inscription also mentions a donation by someone named Georgios and his brother David  Since it was located near many Byzantine structures, in 7th century this church was called \"de Schola Graeca\", and a close street is still called \"della Greca\". Greek monks escaping iconoclastic persecutions decorated the church around 782, when pope Adrian I promoted its reconstruction; the church was built with a nave and two aisles and a portico. Because of its beauty, the church received the adjective \"cosmedin\" (from Greek \"kosmidion\"), ornate. A sacristy and an oratory dedicated to St. Nicholas were added in the 9th century, by order of Pope Nicholas I, who also built a papal residence, but they were destroyed in the Sack of Rome (1084) by Robert Guiscard's Norman troops.  Santa Maria in Cosmedin was the titular church of Popes Gelasius II and Celestine III, as well as antipope Benedict XIII. Among the former titular cardinal deacons of the church was Reginald Pole, the last Roman Catholic Archbishop of Canterbury.  The inscriptions found in S. Maria in Cosmedin, a valuable source illustrating the history of the Basilica, have been collected and published by Vincenzo Forcella.  A substantial restoration was accomplished in 1118–1124 under Alfanus, \"camerarius\" of Pope Callixtus II. After being acquired by Benedictines and a period of decay, in 1718 the church was refurbished in the Baroque style, particularly by a new façade, by Giuseppe Sardi. The Baroque additions, however, were removed in the restoration of 1894–1899, together with the coat-of-arms of Pope Clement XI who had sponsored Sardi's work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "In the portico of the church, on the north side, can be found La Bocca della Verità, an ancient sculpture thought to be a drain covering. A legend states that, if a person places his hand inside the mouth (\"bocca\") and then swears falsely, the mouth will close and sever the hand. There is no attested case of such an event taking place.  The church's bell tower is the tallest medieval belfry in Rome.  The current interior of S. Maria in Cosmedin has a nave with two aisles: these are divided by four pilasters and eighteen ancient columns. Built into the side walls, some of the old columns of the \"Statio Annonae\" are visible. Other fragments of the ancient building can be seen in the crypt. Paintings from the 8th-12th centuries, in three layers, are preserved in the upper part of the nave and in the triumphal arch. The church has a very fine Cosmatesque pavement. The \"schola cantorum\" is from the 13th century, while the main altar is a red granite piece from 1123. The Easter candelabrum is also from the 13th century.  The sacristy houses a precious 8th-century mosaic fragment brought here from the Old St. Peter's Basilica. Of the 18th-century restoration, the Crucifix Chapel and the Baptistry can be seen today.  In a side altar on the left of the church is kept the flower crowned skull attributed to St Valentine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "A scene from the 1953 romantic comedy movie \"Roman Holiday\" was filmed in Santa Maria in Cosmedin. In the scene, \"Joe\" played by Gregory Peck shocks the \"Anya/Princess Ann\" played by Audrey Hepburn by pretending to lose his hand in the Bocca della Verità. Likewise it was depicted as the church inside the unnamed abbey in 2019 mini-series adaptation of the novel Name of the Rose.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Basilica of Saint Mary in Cosmedin ( or \"de Schola Graeca\") is a minor basilica church in Rome, Italy. It is located in the rione of Ripa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973588}
{"src_title": "Chukchi people", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cultural history.", "content": "The majority of Chukchi reside within Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, but some also reside in the neighbouring Sakha Republic to the west, Magadan Oblast to the southwest, and Koryak Autonomous Okrug to the south. Some Chukchi also reside in other parts of Russia, as well as in Europe and North America. The total number of Chukchi in the world slightly exceeds 16,000.  The Chukchi are traditionally divided into the \"Maritime Chukchi\", who had settled homes on the coast and lived primarily from sea mammal hunting, and the \"Reindeer Chukchi\", who lived as nomads in the inland tundra region, migrating seasonally with their herds of reindeer. The Russian name \"Chukchi\" is derived from the Chukchi word \"Chauchu\" (\"rich in reindeer\"), which was used by the 'Reindeer Chukchi' to distinguish themselves from the 'Maritime Chukchi,' called \"Anqallyt\" (\"the sea people\"). Their name for a member of the Chukchi ethnic group as a whole is \"Luoravetlan\" (literally 'genuine person').  In Chukchi religion, every object, whether animate or inanimate, is assigned a spirit. This spirit can be either harmful or benevolent. Some of Chukchi myths reveal a dualistic cosmology.  After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the state-run farms were reorganized and nominally privatized. This process was ultimately destructive to the village-based economy in Chukotka. The region has still not fully recovered. Many rural Chukchi, as well as Russians in Chukotka's villages, have survived in recent years only with the help of direct humanitarian aid. Some Chukchi have attained university degrees, becoming poets, writers, politicians, teachers and doctors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subsistence.", "content": "In prehistoric times, the Chukchi engaged in nomadic hunter gatherer modes of existence. In current times, there continue to be some elements of subsistence hunting, including that of polar bears, marine mammals and reindeer. However, there are some differences between the traditional lifestyles of the coastal and inland Chuckchi. The former (coastal Chukchi) were largely settled fishers and hunters (mainly of sea mammals). The inland Chukchi were partial reindeer herders.  Beginning in the 1920s, the Soviets organized the economic activities of both coastal and inland Chukchi and eventually established 28 collectively run, state-owned enterprises in Chukotka. All of these were based on reindeer herding, with the addition of sea mammal hunting and walrus ivory carving in the coastal areas. Chukchi were educated in Soviet schools and today are almost 100% literate and fluent in the Russian language. Only a portion of them today work directly in reindeer herding or sea mammal hunting, and continue to live a nomadic lifestyle in yaranga tents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relations with Russians.", "content": "Russians first began contacting the Chukchi when they reached the Kolyma River (1643) and the Anadyr River (1649). The route from Nizhnekolymsk to the fort at Anadyrsk along the southwest of the main Chukchi area became a major trade route. The overland journey from Yakutsk to Anadyrsk took about six months. The Chukchi were generally ignored for the next fifty years because they were warlike and did not provide furs or other valuable commodities to tax on. Armed skirmishes flared up around 1700 when the Russians began operating in the Kamchatka Peninsula and needed to protect their communications from the Chukchi and Koryak. The first attempt to conquer them was made in 1701. Other expeditions were sent out in 1708, 1709 and 1711 with considerable bloodshed but little success. War was renewed in 1729, when the Chukchi defeated an expedition from Okhotsk and killed its commander. Command passed to Major Dmitry Pavlutsky, who adopted very destructive tactics, burning, killing, driving off reindeer, and capturing women and children. In 1742, the government at Saint Petersburg ordered another war in which the Chukchi and Koryak were to be \"totally extirpated\". The war (1744–7) was conducted with similar brutality and ended when Pavlutsky was killed in the March of 1747. It is said that the Chukchi kept his head as a trophy for a number of years. The Russians waged war again in the 1750s.  In 1762, Saint Petersburg adopted a different policy. Maintaining the fort at Anadyrsk had cost some 1,380,000 rubles, but the area had returned only 29,150 rubles in taxes, the government abandoned Anadyrsk in 1764. The Chukchi, no longer provoked, began to trade peacefully with the Russians. From 1788, they participated in an annual trade fair on the lower Kolyma. Another was established in 1775 on the Angarka, a tributary of the Bolshoy Anyuy River. This trade declined in the late 19th century when American whalers and others began landing goods on the coast. The first Orthodox missionaries entered Chukchi territory some time after 1815.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet period.", "content": "Apart from four Orthodox schools, there were no schools in the Chukchi land until the late 1920s. In 1926, there were 72 literate Chukchis. The Soviets introduced a Latin alphabet in 1932, replacing it with Cyrillic in 1937. In 1934, 71% of the Chukchis were nomadic. In 1941, 90% of the reindeer were still privately owned. So-called kulaks roamed with their private herds up into the 1950s. After 1990 and the fall of the Soviet Union, there was a major exodus of Russians from the area.  Population estimates from Forsyth:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Chukchi, or Chukchee (, ), are an indigenous people inhabiting the Chukchi Peninsula and the shores of the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea region of the Arctic Ocean within the Russian Federation. They speak the Chukchi language. The Chukchi originated from the people living around the Okhotsk Sea. According to recent genomic research, the Chukchi are the closest Asiatic relatives of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973589}
{"src_title": "Mead of poetry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Creation of the mead of poetry and murder of Kvasir.", "content": "After the Æsir-Vanir War, the gods sealed the truce they had just concluded by spitting in a vat. To keep a symbol of this truce, they created from their spittle a man named Kvasir. He was so wise that there were no questions he could not answer. He travelled around the world to give knowledge to mankind. One day, he visited the dwarves Fjalar and Galar. They killed him and poured his blood into two vats and a pot called Boðn, Són and Óðrerir. They mixed his blood with honey, thus creating a mead which made anybody who drank it a \"poet or scholar\" (\"\"skáld eða frœðamaðr\"\"). The dwarves explained to the gods that Kvasir had suffocated in intelligence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "From the dwarves to Suttungr.", "content": "Fjalar and Galar invited a giant, Gilling, and his wife. They took him to sea and capsized their boat and the giant drowned. The dwarves then came back home and broke the news to Gilling's wife, which plunged her deep in grief. Fjallar proposed showing her the place where her husband had drowned but Galar got tired of her weeping, went before her and dropped a millstone on her head when she crossed the threshold.  When Gilling's son, Suttungr, learned what had happened, he went to the dwarves and led them to a reef which was covered with water at high tide. The dwarves implored him and offered him the mead in compensation for his father's death. Suttungr agreed. When he came back home, he stored the mead in a place called Hnitbjörg where his daughter, Gunnlöd, was in charge of guarding it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theft by Odin.", "content": "Odin met nine slaves who were scything hay and offered to sharpen their scythes. His whetstone worked so well that they all wanted to buy it. Odin threw it up in the air and the slaves struggled for it to death, cutting each other's throats.  Then he spent the night at Baugi's place. Baugi was Suttungr's brother. He complained that business did not go well since his slaves had killed each other and he could not get anybody to stand in for them. Odin, who said his name was Bölverk, proposed to do their work in exchange for a draught of Suttungr's mead. Baugi agreed, saying that he would try to persuade his brother. During summer, Bölverk did the work as agreed and, in winter, asked Baugi for his owing. They both went to Suttungr's, who refused to give a single drop of the beverage.  Bölverk then suggested Baugi use a trick. He gave him the drill Rati and asked him to bore into the mountain Hnitbjörg. After Baugi tried to deceive him, a hole was actually dug and Bölverk slipped into it, having taken the form of a snake. Baugi tried in vain to hit him with the drill.  He arrived by Gunnlöd, with whom he spent three nights. Thus he could have three draughts of mead. But with each draught he emptied a whole container. He then transformed into an eagle and flew away. When Suttungr discovered the theft, he too took the shape of an eagle and flew off in hot pursuit. When the Æsir saw Odin coming, they set out vessels in readiness to hold the mead and when, in the nick of time, the god arrived, he spat his loot into them. But Suttungr was so close to him that, in his fear and haste, the god let fall some of the precious liquid from his anus. Anybody could drink of this paltry and sullied portion, which was known as the \"rhymester's share\" (\"\"skáldfífla hlutr\"\"); but the greater portion of the mead of poetry (which had issued from his mouth) Odin gave to the gods and to those truly gifted in poetry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The comic book \"The Magic Mead\" in the Danish comic book series Valhalla, created by Peter Madsen and others, is a retelling of the story of the mead of poetry. Peter Madsen won The SAS Prize for Best Nordic for this comic at the Raptus Festival in Bergen, Norway.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Norse mythology, the Poetic Mead or Mead of Poetry, also known as Mead of Suttungr, is a mythical beverage that whoever \"drinks becomes a skald or scholar\" to recite any information and solve any question. This myth was reported by Snorri Sturluson in Skáldskaparmál. The drink is a vivid metaphor for poetic inspiration, often associated with Odin the god of 'possession' via berserker rage or poetic inspiration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973590}
{"src_title": "Snowcat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Snow groomers.", "content": "A snowcat dedicated to snow maintenance rather than transport is a snow groomer. Other terms are 'piste machines', 'trail groomers' (in North American English) or 'piste bashers' (in British English) because of their use in preparing ski trails (\"pistes\") or snowmobile trails.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other functions.", "content": "In addition to grooming snow they are used for polar expeditions, logging in marsh areas, leveling sugar beet piles, and seismic studies in the wild.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Most snowcats, such as the ones produced by Bombardier or Aktiv in the past, have two sets of tracks, fitted with a Christie suspension or a Horstmann suspension. Others, like the Tucker Sno-Cat and Hägglunds \"Bandvagn 206\" vehicles, have a complex arrangement of four or more tracks.  The tracks are usually made of rubber, aluminum or steel and driven by a single sprocket on each side, and ride over rubber wheels with a solid foam interior. Their design is optimized for a snow surface, or soft grounds such as that of a peat bog.  The cabs are optimized for use in sub-zero weather or cold conditions worsened by wind chill, with strong forced heating and a windshield designed to be kept clear of internal and external ice or condensation through a variety of means such as advanced coatings, external scrapers (windshield wipers of a modified type), and internal ducts blowing hot air on the surface.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The forerunners of the snowcat were the tracked \"motors\" designed by Captain Scott and his engineer Reginald Skelton for the Antarctic Terra Nova Expedition of 1910–1913. These tracked motors were built by the Wolseley Tool and Motor Car Company in Birmingham. In the 1955–1958 Fuchs and Hillary Transantarctic Expedition, four modern snowcats were used, produced by the Tucker Sno-Cat Corporation of Medford, Oregon. These vehicles were highly modified for the purposes of the expedition.  The name \"snowcat\" originates from the 1946 trademark by Tucker Sno-Cat Corporation. This specialized over-snow vehicle dominated the snow transportation market until the 1960s when other manufacturers entered the business. By then \"snowcat\" was such a common description that it was used to describe all over-snow vehicles (see generic trademark). Tucker is also well known for its use of four tracks on its vehicles. Tucker Sno-Cat is arguably the best known of the early manufacturers and remains in business today. Tucker Sno-Cats have been used by numerous military, governmental agencies and utilities.  Another early model was the Swedish made Aktiv Snow Trac of which 2265 were manufactured in Sweden between 1957 and 1981. NATO forces used the Snow Trac successfully during the Cold War between NATO and the USSR. Numerous accounts from Antarctica related successful use of the Snow Trac by research organizations such as A.N.A.R.E. in Antarctica.  Thiokol sold its ski-lift and snowcat operation in 1978 to John DeLorean, and changed its name to DeLorean Motor Company (DMC). DMC was later bought out by its management team and renamed Logan Machine Company (LMC). LMC ceased production in 2000. Thiokol's Imp, Super-Imp and Spryte were popular dual-track snowcats and Thiokol's production continued under DMC and LMC. The Spryte, sold later as 1200 and 1500 series machines, are still popular in commercial and industrial use, nearly 20 years after the end of their production runs. Many of these models are still in use today in the commercial market and are popular as privately owned snowcats.  Between 1956 and 1968, KRISTI snowcat had a limited production of two-track snowcats in Colorado; it never became popular and ceased production with fewer than 200 total units produced.  In 1982, Aktiv Snow Trac ceased assembly when its engine supplier (Volkswagen) ceased production of its air-cooled engines in Europe. Over 1000 Snow Tracs were imported to Canada and the United States, mostly by Canadian utilities and U.S. governmental agencies; the Snow Trac is still in common use in private ownership and to a lesser degree in commerce having produced over 2200 total machines which saw popular use all over the globe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current production.", "content": "Bombardier still continues in business but has radically altered its business model and product selection and sold its snow grooming division and no longer makes commercial snowcats. Bombardier sold over 3000 of its popular snow bus models which are still in use today and in popular demand by dedicated collectors; thousands of other Bombardier models were also produced as ski-slope and snowmobile trail groomers with the Bombi and BR100 to 180 series machines as notable units produced in high quantities. Bombardier Recreational Products still produces the Ski-Doo line of open ridge single-tracked personal snowmobiles.  Russia as one of the snowiest countries in the world has a wide range of snowcat producers, from the big 30-tonnes load capacity two linked tracked Vityaz vehicles to 0.4-2 tonnes load capacity ZZGT vehicles.  The first 100% electric snow groomer was launched by Kässbohrer in June 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A snowcat is an enclosed-cab, truck-sized, fully tracked vehicle designed to move on snow. Major manufacturers are Kässbohrer (Germany), Prinoth (Italy) and Tucker (United States).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973591}
{"src_title": "Caucasian Shepherd Dog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Caucasian Shepherd Dogs is a strongly-boned, muscular, but handsome and even-tempered molossoid dog. Plain dogs have a shorter coat and appear taller as they are less strongly built. Alpine types have a heavier coat and are more muscular.  The Caucasian Ovcharka is a large dog. Minimum weight and height for bitches is /, with a preferred height range of ; for dogs the minimum is /, with a preferred height of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Caucasus Mountains are home to many of the oldest living molossoid landrace dogs, such as the Azerbaijani Volkodav, Azerbaijani Shepherd Dog and Georgian Shepherd Dog. During the 20th century the Soviet breeders selected some of these varieties among Caucasian dogs and created the Caucasian Shepherd Dog breed. The modern show class Caucasian Shepherd is a hybrid of established Caucasian types, fundamentally based on the Georgian Shepherd Dog, which is the largest and most muscularly built dog with attractive long hair.  The breed's first official Show-Ring appearance outside the Caucasus was in the 1930s in Germany.  Since ancient times Caucasian mountain dogs have served shepherds in the Caucasus mountains as livestock guardian dogs, defending sheep from predators, mainly wolves, jackals and bears. Caucasian Shepherd Dogs served as guard dogs, bear hunting dogs and today they work as prison guard dogs in Russia.  The Caucasian Shepherd Dog is a fully standardized breed, recognized by major kennel organizations, including the Fédération Cynologique Internationale and the United Kennel Club.  The Caucasian Ovcharka Working Dog Club of America is seeking full recognition from the American Kennel Club.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "The Caucasian Shepherd Dog is an extremely independent, self-confident, fearless and intelligent dog. It is a highly protective territorial dog that is wary of unfamiliar people.  It is a low-activity dog, seemingly lethargic when not working, but noisy and intimidating when it feels its family is threatened. Although certain strains are more vicious than others, they are often very territorial and aggressive towards other dogs, needing early and careful broad socialization, as well as consistent, but never forceful, handling. This breed can be a good family-dog, if it is well-trained and socialized.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "The Caucasian Shepherd Dog is generally healthy and long-lived, averaging a life span of 10–12 years. Some dogs may have health problems in the form of hip dysplasia, obesity and occasional heart disorders, but the majority of these dogs are healthy if taken care of correctly. Good dog-breeders use genetic testing of their breeding stock to reduce the chances of diseases in the puppies.  The ears of the Caucasian Shepherd Dog are traditionally cropped, although some modern dogs are unaltered, as many people believe that this practice is unethical and cruel. If brought up by someone with extensive knowledge on the needs of a Caucasian Shepherd Dog, a dog should have much less chance of suffering from bad health.  Exercise and play-time are important to help prevent obesity in this breed. Outdoor activities such as hiking, chasing balls and retrieving flying discs can be a way to keep dogs active and mentally stimulated.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Caucasian Shepherd Dog (; ; ) is a large livestock guardian dog breed from the Caucasus Mountains, commonly bred in the mountainous regions of Transcaucasia, especially in Georgia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973592}
{"src_title": "Jean Giraudoux", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Giraudoux was born in Bellac, Haute-Vienne, where his father, Léger Giraudoux, worked for the Ministry of Transport. Giraudoux studied at the Lycée Lakanal in Sceaux and upon graduation traveled extensively in Europe. After his return to France in 1910, he accepted a position with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. With the outbreak of World War I, he served with distinction and in 1915 became the first writer ever to be awarded the wartime Legion of Honour.  He married in 1918 and in the subsequent inter-war period produced the majority of his writing. He first achieved literary success through his novels, notably \"Siegfried et le Limousin\" (1922) and \"Eglantine\" (1927). An ongoing collaboration with actor and theater director Louis Jouvet, beginning in 1928 with Jouvet's radical streamlining of \"Siegfried\" for the stage, stimulated his writing. But it is his plays that gained him international renown. He became well known in the English speaking world largely because of the award-winning adaptations of his plays by Christopher Fry (\"The Trojan War Will Not Take Place\") and Maurice Valency (\"The Madwoman of Chaillot\", \"Ondine\", \"The Enchanted\", \"The Apollo of Bellac\").  Giraudoux served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the Prix Blumenthal, a grant given between 1919 and 1954 to painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians. In politics he was affiliated with the Radical Party, served in the cabinet of Édouard Herriot in 1932, and was appointed as Minister of Information by Édouard Daladier in 1939.  He is buried in the Cimetière de Passy in Paris.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hippolyte Jean Giraudoux (; 29 October 1882 – 31 January 1944) was a French novelist, essayist, diplomat and playwright. He is considered among the most important French dramatists of the period between World War I and World War II. His work is noted for its stylistic elegance and poetic fantasy. Giraudoux's dominant theme is the relationship between man and woman—or in some cases, between man and some unattainable ideal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973593}
{"src_title": "Tyrannius Rufinus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Rufinus was born in 344 or 345 in the Roman city of Julia Concordia (now Concordia Sagittaria), near Aquileia (in modern-day Italy) at the head of the Adriatic Sea. It appears that both of his parents were Christians.  Around 370, he was living in a monastic community in Aquileia when he met Jerome. In about 372, Rufinus travelled to the eastern Mediterranean, where he studied in Alexandria under Didymus the Blind for some time, and became friends with Macarius the elder and other ascetics in the desert. In Egypt, if not even before leaving Italy, he had become intimately acquainted with Melania the Elder, a wealthy and devout Roman widow. When she moved to Palestine, taking with her a number of clergy and monks on whom the persecutions of the Arian Valens had borne heavily, Rufinus followed her, moving to Jerusalem in 380. There, while his patroness lived in a convent of her own in Jerusalem, Rufinus, at her expense, gathered together a number of monks to form a new monastery on the Mount of Olives, devoting himself to the study of Greek theology. This combination of the contemplative life and the life of learning had already developed in the Egyptian monasteries. When Jerome came to Bethlehem in 386, the friendship formed at Aquileia was renewed. Jerome, along with his patroness Paula, set up a similar community in Bethlehem a few years later. Another of the intimates of Rufinus was John II, Bishop of Jerusalem, and formerly a monk of the Natrun desert, by whom he was ordained to the priesthood in 390.  In 394, as a result of the attacks by Epiphanius of Salamis upon the doctrines of Origen made during a visit to Jerusalem, a fierce quarrel broke out, which found Rufinus and Jerome on different sides. Although both Jerome and Rufinus had previously been great admirers of Origen's work, in the light of Epiphanius' criticism of Origen, Jerome felt that Rufinus was not fierce enough in attacking the works of Origen. Three years afterwards a formal reconciliation was brought about between Jerome and Bishop John, with whom Rufinus sided, but this was to prove only temporary.  In the autumn of 397 Rufinus embarked for Rome, where, finding that the theological controversies of the East were exciting much interest and curiosity, he published a Latin translation of the \"Apology of Pamphilus for Origen\", and also (398-99) a somewhat free rendering of the \"Περὶ Αρχῶν\" (or \"De Principiis\") of that author himself. In the preface to the latter work he referred to Jerome as an admirer of Origen, and as having already translated some of his works with modifications of ambiguous doctrinal expressions. This allusion annoyed Jerome, who was exceedingly sensitive as to his reputation for orthodoxy, and the consequence was a bitter pamphlet war, with Rufinus' \"Against Jerome\" and Jerome's \"Against Rufinus\".  At the instigation of Theophilus of Alexandria, Pope Anastasius I (399-401) summoned Rufinus from Aquileia to Rome to vindicate his orthodoxy, but he excused himself from a personal attendance in a written \"Apologia pro fide sua\". The pope in his reply expressly condemned Origen, but left the question of Rufinus' orthodoxy to his own conscience. He was, however, regarded with suspicion in orthodox circles (cf. the \"Decretum Gelasii\", 20).  Rufinus spent most of the first decade of the fifth century translating Origen. He translated Origen's homilies for the whole Heptateuch except Deuteronomy, and others on selected Psalms, the Song of Songs, and 1 Samuel. Rufinus' translation of Origen's \"Commentary on Romans\" (c405-6) gave fresh stimulus to discussions of destiny and free will that had been going on in Roman circles since the mid-390s and would shortly become an issue in Augustine's clash with Pelagius.  Rufinus also translated other works. These include Eusebius' \"Ecclesiastical History\", translated in 401 at the request of Bishop Chromatius of Aquileia as an antidote to the terror caused by the Gothic incursions into Italy. Rufinus omits much of Eusebius' tenth book, and compresses what remains of it into book 9; he also retouches the narrative in several places and adds two books of his own to bring the account down to the death of Theodosius the Great (395).  Such translations often appear to have been done as a result of a commission, or with a local readership in mind, and so it seems likely that Rufinus worked with the support of friends and patrons. Between 397 and 408 he lived in Italy, probably mainly in Rome and Aquileia; in 408 Rufinus was at the monastery of Pinetum (in the Campagna?), having been driven there by the arrival of Alaric in northern Italy. He fled to Sicily when Alaric moved south and pillaged Rome in 410. He was in the company of Melania the Younger in his flight. He died in Sicily in 411.  Many of his extant works are defences of himself against attacks by Jerome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Original works.", "content": "The anti-Origenist \"Liber de fide\" was in the past sometimes attributed to Tyrannius Rufinus, but now it is more often assigned to Rufinus the Syrian.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Translations from Greek to Latin.", "content": "Rufinus translated the \"Historia Ecclesiastica\" of Eusebius of Caesarea and continued the work from the reign of Constantine I to the death of Theodosius I (395). It was published in 402 or 403.  Origen's commentary on the New Testament Epistle to the Romans, along with many of his sermons on the Old Testament, survive only in versions by Rufinus. The full text of Origen's \"De principiis\" (\"On first principals\") also survives only in Rufinus' translation. Jerome, earlier a friend of Rufinus, fell out with him and wrote at least three works opposing his opinions and condemning his translations as flawed. For instance, Jerome prepared a (now lost) translation of Origen's \"De principiis\" to replace Rufinus' translation, which Jerome said was too free.  The other translations of Rufinus are", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quotes from Tyrannius Rufinus.", "content": "He said;  \"[The Incarnation] was that the divine nature of the Son of God might be like a kind of hook hidden beneath the form of human flesh... to lure on the prince of this world to a contest; that the Son might offer him his human flesh as a bait and that the divinity which lay underneath might catch him and hold him fast with its hook... then, just as a fish when it seizes a baited hook not only fails to drag off the bait but is itself dragged out of the water to serve as food for others; so he that had the power of death sees the body of Jesus in death, unaware of the hook of divinity which lay hidden inside. Having swallowed it, he was immediately caught. The gates of hell were broken, and he was, as it were, drawn up from the pit, to become food for others.\" — \"Christian Theology, an Introduction\", Chapter 13, The Doctrine of Salvation in Christ.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "We can hardly overestimate the influence which Rufinus exerted on Western theologians by thus putting the great Greek fathers into the Latin tongue. Dominic Vallarsi's uncompleted edition of Rufinus (vol. i. folio. Verona, 1745) contains the \"De Benedictionibus\", the \"Apologies\", the \"Expositio Symboli\", the \"Historia Eremitica\" and the two original books of the \"Historia Ecclesiastica\". (Vallarsi intended to collect the translations in vol. ii., but it was never published.) See also Migne, \"Patrologia Latina\" (vol. xxi). For the translations, see the various editions of Origen, Eusebius, etc.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tyrannius Rufinus, also called Rufinus of Aquileia (\"Rufinus Aquileiensis\") or Rufinus of Concordia (344/345–411), was a monk, historian, and theologian. He is best known as a translator of Greek patristic material into Latin — especially the work of Origen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973594}
{"src_title": "Hermann Muthesius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Muthesius was born in 1861 in the village of Großneuhausen near Erfurt and received early training from his father, who was a builder. After a period of military service and two years studying philosophy and art history at Frederick William University in Berlin, he enrolled to study architecture at Charlottenburg Technical College in 1883, while also working in the office of Reichstag architect Paul Wallot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Following completion of his studies, Muthesius spent 1887 to 1891 working for German construction firm Ende & Böckmann in Tokyo. There he saw his first building completed—a German Evangelical church in the Gothic Revival style—and was able to travel extensively across Asia. He returned to Germany in 1891 where he worked for the Prussian Ministry of Public Works, studied for a time in Italy on stipend (in 1895), and served for almost two years as the editor of a pair of official construction journals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "London.", "content": "In 1896 Muthesius was offered a position as cultural attaché at the German Embassy in London. Muthesius married Anna Trippenbach who was a fashion designer and singer. This gave him the opportunity to study report on the ways of the British. He focused the next six years investigating and residential architecture and domestic lifestyle and design, ending with a three-volume report published in 1904 and 1905 as \" (\"The English House\"), his most famous work. Although his subjects were wide-ranging, he was particularly interested in the philosophy and practices of the English Arts and Crafts movement, whose emphasis on function, modesty, understatement, individuality and honesty to materials he saw as alternatives to the ostentatious historicism and obsession with ornament in German nineteenth century architecture, and whose efforts to bring a sense of craftsmanship to industrial design he saw as a significant national economic benefit. He visited Glasgow to investigate the innovative work of the Glasgow School exemplified by the designs of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, and wrote about houses in Birmingham by William Bidlake.  As well as his official reports, Muthesius also developed a career as an author, communicating his ideas and observations in an influential series of books and articles that saw him become a significant cultural figure in Germany, culminating in \". His wife wrote about Anti-fashion and how she felt that women were being exploited by German clothing industrialists. Her book which incorporated a novel binding designed by Frances MacDonald is considered an important contribution to the Artistic Dress movement.  Muthesius wrote about Glasgow's Willow Tearooms for an issue of \"\" published in 1905 which was almost entirely devoted to \"A Mackintosh Tea Room in Glasgow\", saying that \"Today any visitor to Glasgow can rest body and soul in Miss Cranston's Tea Rooms and for a few pence drink tea, have breakfast and dream that he is in fairy land.\" At the same time he lamented Mackintosh's unrewarded struggle to \"hold up the banner of Beauty in this dense jungle of ugliness.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Back in Germany.", "content": "Muthesius returned to Germany in 1904 and established himself as an architect in private practice, while retaining a role as an official advisor to the Government of focusing his time on reforming art and design education in order that more emphasis be put on workshop training. Over the next two decades he designed a series of houses throughout Germany, drawing upon and cementing the principles and practices expounded in his famous book.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The \"Muthesius Affair\" and the Deutscher Werkbund.", "content": "By this time Muthesius was widely recognised as an admirer of English culture, but this also laid him open to accusations of divided loyalties. In 1907 he was accused by the \"Fachverband für die wirtschaftlichen Interessen des Kunstgewerbes\" (\"Trade Association for the Economic Interests of the Arts and Crafts\") of criticising the quality of German industrial products in a lecture in Berlin. The resulting controversy saw several influential designers and industrialists withdraw from the association and set up the \"Deutscher Werkbund\" (\"German Association of Craftsmen\"), explicitly aimed at bringing the highest standards of design to mass-produced output.  The Deutscher Werkbund was a major influence on the early careers of Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius and Mies van der Rohe, but although Muthesius was in many ways its spiritual father and served as its chairman from 1910 until 1916, he had little sympathy with the emerging early-modernism, considering both Art Nouveau and the later designs of the Bauhaus to be just as much superficial styles as those of the nineteenth century.  Muthesius was one of the major architects who built Germany's first Garden City, Hellerau, a suburb of Dresden, founded in 1909. Its foundation was closely related with the activities of the Deutscher Werkbund, too. Among the many employees of Muthesius was the German Socialist city planner Martin Wagner, who applied the lessons of the garden city to Berlin on a huge scale, from 1924 to about 1932.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "Muthesius continued designing houses and writing about domestic architecture until 1927, when he died in a road accident after a site visit in Berlin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adam Gottlieb Hermann Muthesius (20 April 1861 – 29 October 1927), known as Hermann Muthesius, was a German architect, author and diplomat, perhaps best known for promoting many of the ideas of the English Arts and Crafts movement within Germany and for his subsequent influence on early pioneers of German architectural modernism such as the Bauhaus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973595}
{"src_title": "Full-text search", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Indexing.", "content": "When dealing with a small number of documents, it is possible for the full-text-search engine to directly scan the contents of the documents with each query, a strategy called \"serial scanning\". This is what some tools, such as grep, do when searching.  However, when the number of documents to search is potentially large, or the quantity of search queries to perform is substantial, the problem of full-text search is often divided into two tasks: indexing and searching. The indexing stage will scan the text of all the documents and build a list of search terms (often called an index, but more correctly named a concordance). In the search stage, when performing a specific query, only the index is referenced, rather than the text of the original documents.  The indexer will make an entry in the index for each term or word found in a document, and possibly note its relative position within the document. Usually the indexer will ignore stop words (such as \"the\" and \"and\") that are both common and insufficiently meaningful to be useful in searching. Some indexers also employ language-specific stemming on the words being indexed. For example, the words \"drives\", \"drove\", and \"driven\" will be recorded in the index under the single concept word \"drive\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The precision vs. recall tradeoff.", "content": "Recall measures the quantity of relevant results returned by a search, while precision is the measure of the quality of the results returned. Recall is the ratio of relevant results returned to all relevant results. Precision is the number of relevant results returned to the total number of results returned.  The diagram at right represents a low-precision, low-recall search. In the diagram the red and green dots represent the total population of potential search results for a given search. Red dots represent irrelevant results, and green dots represent relevant results. Relevancy is indicated by the proximity of search results to the center of the inner circle. Of all possible results shown, those that were actually returned by the search are shown on a light-blue background. In the example only 1 relevant result of 3 possible relevant results was returned, so the recall is a very low ratio of 1/3, or 33%. The precision for the example is a very low 1/4, or 25%, since only 1 of the 4 results returned was relevant.  Due to the ambiguities of natural language, full-text-search systems typically includes options like stop words to increase precision and stemming to increase recall. Controlled-vocabulary searching also helps alleviate low-precision issues by tagging documents in such a way that ambiguities are eliminated. The trade-off between precision and recall is simple: an increase in precision can lower overall recall, while an increase in recall lowers precision.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "False-positive problem.", "content": "Full-text searching is likely to retrieve many documents that are not relevant to the \"intended\" search question. Such documents are called \"false positives\" (see Type I error). The retrieval of irrelevant documents is often caused by the inherent ambiguity of natural language. In the sample diagram at right, false positives are represented by the irrelevant results (red dots) that were returned by the search (on a light-blue background).  Clustering techniques based on Bayesian algorithms can help reduce false positives. For a search term of \"bank\", clustering can be used to categorize the document/data universe into \"financial institution\", \"place to sit\", \"place to store\" etc. Depending on the occurrences of words relevant to the categories, search terms or a search result can be placed in one or more of the categories. This technique is being extensively deployed in the e-discovery domain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance improvements.", "content": "The deficiencies of free text searching have been addressed in two ways: By providing users with tools that enable them to express their search questions more precisely, and by developing new search algorithms that improve retrieval precision.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Improved search algorithms.", "content": "The PageRank algorithm developed by Google gives more prominence to documents to which other Web pages have linked. See Search engine for additional examples.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Software.", "content": "The following is a partial list of available software products whose predominant purpose is to perform full-text indexing and searching. Some of these are accompanied with detailed descriptions of their theory of operation or internal algorithms, which can provide additional insight into how full-text search may be accomplished.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In text retrieval, full-text search refers to techniques for searching a single computer-stored document or a collection in a full-text database. Full-text search is distinguished from searches based on metadata or on parts of the original texts represented in databases (such as titles, abstracts, selected sections, or bibliographical references).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973596}
{"src_title": "Eugène Scribe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Scribe was born in Paris and died there. His father was a silk merchant, and he was well educated, being destined for the law. However, he soon began to write for the stage. His first piece, \"Le Prétendu sans le savoir\", was produced anonymously at the Théâtre des Variétés in 1810 and was a failure. Numerous other plays, written in collaboration with various authors, followed; but Scribe achieved no distinct success till 1815, when he wrote \"Une Nuit de la garde nationale\" (\"Night of the National Guard\", 1815), a collaboration with Delestre Poirson. Much of his later work was also written in collaboration with others. His debut in serious comedy was made at the Théâtre Français in 1822 with \"Valérie\", the first of many successful pieces of the same kind. Among the actors he wrote starring roles for are Mlle Mars and Rachel. Scribe was elected to the Académie Française in 1834.  Scribe's main subject matter was the contemporary bourgeoisie. He mastered his craft writing \"comédies vaudevilles\", short middle-class entertainments, often with songs. Eventually he developed the formulaic \"well-made play\"; popular pieces with elaborate plots featuring clever twists and turns, and usually centering on a misunderstanding (\"quiproquo\") which is revealed early on to the audience but not realised by the protagonists until the final scenes. Characters face a series of obstacles, the resolution of which may create in turn further problems. At the end a \"scène a faire\", with startling revelations, leads to a sensational denouement. Whilst their ingenuity was recognised by contemporary and later critics, the plays lack fine language, depth of character, thought, or social analysis. They thus stand in sharp contrast, for example, to Romantic plays of the same period, such as those of Victor Hugo. Théophile Gautier questioned how it could be that, \"an author without poetry, lyricism, style, philosophy, truth or naturalism could be the most successful writer of his epoch, despite the opposition of literature and the critics?\"  Scribe was prolific; he wrote various dramas — vaudevilles, comedies, tragedies and opera libretti. To the Théâtre du Gymnase alone he is said to have furnished a hundred and fifty pieces before 1830. He had a number of co-workers, (Scribe's 'factory'), one of whom supplied the story, another the dialogue, a third the jokes and so on. He is said in some cases to have sent sums of money for \"copyright in ideas\" to men who were unaware that he had taken suggestions from their work. Among his collaborators were Jean Henri Dupin (1787–1887), Germain Delavigne, Delestre-Poirson, Mélesville, Marc-Antoine Madeleine Désaugiers, Xavier Saintine and Ernest Legouvé.  The mechanical aspect of Scribe's constructions made his works suitable for operatic adaptation, allowing for \"effective contrasting of musical treatment, whilst the confrontations provided excellent opportunities for ensembles.\"  Scribe wrote libretti for operas for many major composers of his time, often for productions destined for the Paris Opéra. Many of these libretti constitute the basis of the Grand Opera genre and changed the whole course of French lyric drama.  He collaborated with Giacomo Meyerbeer on a number of occasions, and also provided the words for works by Giuseppe Verdi (\"Les vêpres siciliennes\"), Vincenzo Bellini, Daniel Auber (\"La muette de Portici\", \"Gustave III\" and others), Fromental Halévy (including \"La Juive, Guido et Ginevra\", and \"Le Juif errant\"), François-Adrien Boieldieu, Gaetano Donizetti (\"Dom Sébastien\") and Gioachino Rossini (\"Le comte Ory\"). At the time of his death, he was working on a revision of the libretto for Meyerbeer's \"L'Africaine\", which he had originally written in 1838.  Of his 'historical' operas it has been written: They exist in a parallel universe, in which colourful historical or geographical milieu display a handful of stereotypes who, as a consequence of some secret manoeuvrings in their own pasts and coincidences in the present, are forced to face some implausible crisis of choice or conscience, preferably accompanied by a simultaneous natural disaster or violent death (or both). Scribe's own hard-headed views on his libretti are summarised in his comments on a dispute over payment with Léon Pillet, the director of the Opéra, in 1841: I want to be paid for them according to what they bring in, that is to say, a great deal. The...director only wants to pay for them according to what they are worth, that is to say, very little. Scribe wrote a few novels, but none of any mark. His \"Œuvres complètes\" appeared in seventy-six volumes between 1874 and 1885.  He has been assumed to be the father of the politician Georges Coulon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "\"See also and \"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes  Cited sources Other sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Augustin Eugène Scribe (; 24 December 179120 February 1861) was a French dramatist and librettist. He is known for the perfection of the so-called \"well-made play\" (\"pièce bien faite\"), a mainstay of popular theatre for over 100 years, and as the librettist of many of the most successful grand operas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973597}
{"src_title": "JavaServer Faces", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 2001, the original Java Specification Request (JSR) for the technology that ultimately became JavaServer Faces proposed developing a package with the name codice_1  By June 2001, \"JavaWorld\" would report on Amy Fowler's team's design of \"the JavaServer Faces API\" (aka \"Moonwalk\") – \"an application framework for creating Web-based user interfaces\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "How it works.", "content": "Based on a component-driven UI design-model, JavaServer Faces uses XML files called view templates or Facelets views. The codice_2 processes requests, loads the appropriate view template, builds a component tree, processes events, and renders the response (typically in the HTML language) to the client. The state of UI components and other objects of scope interest is saved at the end of each request in a process called stateSaving (note: \"transient\" true), and restored upon next creation of that view. Either the client or the server side can save objects and states.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "JSF and Ajax.", "content": "JSF is often used together with Ajax, a Rich Internet application development technique. Ajax is a combination of web development techniques and technologies that make it possible to create rich user interfaces. The user interface components in Mojarra (the JSF reference implementation) and Apache MyFaces were originally developed for HTML only, and Ajax had to be added via JavaScript. This has changed, however:  Because JSF supports multiple output formats, Ajax-enabled components can easily be added to enrich JSF-based user interfaces. The JSF 2.0 specification provides built-in support for Ajax by standardizing the Ajax request lifecycle and providing simple development interfaces to Ajax events, allowing any event triggered by the client to go through proper validation, conversion, and finally method invocation, before returning the result to the browser via an XML DOM update.  JSF 2 includes support for graceful degradation when JavaScript is disabled in the browser.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ajax-enabled components and frameworks.", "content": "The following companies and projects offer Ajax-based JSF frameworks or component libraries:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Latest developments.", "content": "Facelets (that was designed specifically for JavaServer Faces) was adopted as the official view technology for JSF 2.0. This eliminates the life-cycle conflicts that existed with JSP, forcing workarounds by Java developers. Facelets allows easy component/tag creation using XML markup instead of Java code, the chief complaint against JSF 1.x.  The new JSF developments also provide wide accessibility to Java 5 annotations such as codice_3, codice_4 and codice_5 that removes the need for codice_6 in all cases except framework extension. Navigation has been simplified, removing the need for codice_6 navigation cases. Page transitions can be invoked simply by passing the name of the desired View/Facelet.  Addition of Partial State Saving and DOM updates are part of the built-in standardized Ajax support.  The latest JSF release has built-in support for handling resources like images, CSS and Javascript, allowing artifacts to be included with component libraries, separated into JAR files, or simply co-located into a consistent place within the Web application. This includes logical naming and versioning of resources.  JSF 2.0 also includes a number of other changes like adding support for events, separate development, staging, and production modes, similar to codice_8 in Ruby on Rails, and significantly expanding the standard set of components.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticisms.", "content": "In their January 2014 \"Technology Radar\" publication, ThoughtWorks wrote:  In the article published November 2014 in the DZone website, titled \"Why You Should Avoid JSF\", Jens Schauder wrote:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rebuttal to criticisms.", "content": "In February 2014, Çağatay Çivici (PrimeFaces Lead) responded to ThoughtWorks criticisms in a post titled: JSF is not what you’ve been told anymore. Çivici argues that improvements in JSF over the years offer many features that embrace modern web development, providing the option to write your own JavaScript, HTML, and CSS. Also regarding state, Çağatay wrote:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "JavaServer Faces (JSF) is a Java specification for building component-based user interfaces for web applications and was formalized as a standard through the Java Community Process being part of the Java Platform, Enterprise Edition. It is also a MVC web framework that simplifies construction of user interfaces (UI) for server-based applications by using reusable UI components in a page.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973598}
{"src_title": "Battle of Taginae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "From as early as 549 the Emperor Justinian I had planned to dispatch a major army to Italy to conclude the protracted war with the Ostrogoths initiated in 535. During 550-51 a large expeditionary force totaling 20,000 or possibly 25,000 men was gradually assembled at Salona on the Adriatic, comprising regular Byzantine units and a large contingent of foreign allies, notably Lombards, Heruls, and Bulgars. The imperial chamberlain (\"cubicularius\") Narses was appointed to command in mid 551. The following spring Narses led this Byzantine army around the coast of the Adriatic as far as Ancona, and then turned inland aiming to march down the Via Flaminia to Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deployment.", "content": "At a place known as Busta Gallorum (, lit. \"tombs of the Gauls\"), near the village of Taginae or Tadinae (traditionally located somewhere to the north of modern Gualdo Tadino), the Byzantines encountered the Ostrogothic army commanded by King Totila, who had been advancing to intercept them. Finding himself considerably outnumbered, Totila ostensibly entered into negotiations while planning a surprise attack, but Narses was not fooled by this stratagem.  Although he enjoyed superiority in numbers, Narses deployed his army in a strong defensive position. In the centre he massed the large body of Germanic mercenaries dismounted in a dense formation and placed the Byzantine troops to either side. On each wing he stationed 4,000 foot-archers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "Totila initially attempted to outflank his opponent by seizing a small hill on the Byzantine left which dominated the only route to the rear of the Byzantine line, but some of the Byzantine infantry deployed in a compact well-shielded formation managed to beat off successive attacks of the Ostrogothic cavalry.  Having failed to turn Narses' position, and expecting 2,000 reinforcements from Teia, Totila used various expedients to delay the battle, including disingenuous offers of negotiation and duels enacted between the battle-lines. In one such occasion, Totila sent a Byzantine deserter named Coccas out to challenge any Byzantine to single combat. Coccas was large and immensely strong. He had a reputation among the Goths as a ruthless and powerful fighter. An Armenian named Anzalas, one of Narses' bodyguards, answered the challenge. Coccas charged at Anzalas, but at the last moment, Anzalas swerved his horse and stabbed the Gothic champion in the side. It was not the most auspicious omen for the Ostrogoths.  However, the Ostrogothic king had another delaying tactic. Both armies watched as Totila, dressed in shining purple and gold armor, and riding a huge stallion, cantered out towards the space between the two large armies. His horse went circles, reared, pirouetted, and ran backwards as Totila tossed his lance into the air and caught it. At last, he rode back to his own army and changed into battle armor. Teia had arrived.  His reinforcements having arrived, Totila broke formation and retired for lunch. Narses, wary of a possible ruse, permitted his troops to refresh themselves without leaving their positions. Totila, apparently hoping to take his enemy by surprise, launched a sudden large-scale mounted assault upon the Byzantine center. Ancient and modern authors have accused him of folly, but Totila probably sought to close with the enemy as fast as possible in order to avoid the effects of the formidable Byzantine archers. The Byzantines were prepared for such a move, however, and the archers massed on the flanks to incline their front towards the center so that his battle-line became crescent-shaped. Caught in the enfilading fire from both sides, the Ostrogothic cavalry sustained high casualties and their attack faltered. The course and duration of the subsequent battle are uncertain, but towards early evening Narses ordered a general advance, and the Ostrogoths broke and fled. Although accounts vary, it was probably during the subsequent rout that Totila was killed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Narses proceeded to Rome which fell with limited resistance. The Ostrogoths regrouped under Totila's successor Teia, but suffered a final defeat at the Battle of Mons Lactarius (near Mount Vesuvius) and thereafter were most likely absorbed into the Lombards, another Germanic tribe that invaded Italy in the 6th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "At the Battle of Taginae (also known as the Battle of Busta Gallorum) in June/July 552, the forces of the Byzantine Empire under Narses broke the power of the Ostrogoths in Italy, and paved the way for the temporary Byzantine reconquest of the Italian Peninsula.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973599}
{"src_title": "Congress of Erfurt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "At Tilsit, Napoleon had made an admirer of Alexander, but by the time of the meeting at Erfurt anti-French sentiment at the Russian court was beginning to threaten the newly forged alliance. Napoleon and his foreign minister Jean-Baptiste Nompère de Champagny sought to strengthen the alliance once more in order to settle affairs in Spain and prepare for the expected war with Austria. Working at cross-purposes to Napoleon was Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord who had by this time come to the conclusion that Napoleon was leading France to destruction, and who secretly advised Alexander to resist Napoleon's demands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conference.", "content": "The city of Erfurt was under the direct control of the Emperor of the French at this time as Principality of Erfurt. Napoleon attempted to awe Alexander with the glories of the French Empire. The meeting became a great conference involving an array of kings, princes, dukes, barons and notables from all over Europe. Among the attendees was Talma and the entire Comedie Française, who presented sixteen French tragedies over the course of the Congress. Goethe was courted by Napoleon himself and the twenty-year-old Arthur Schopenhauer arrived in Goethe's train and cast a cynical eye over the proceedings.  Out of the meetings came an agreement, the Erfurt Convention, in fourteen articles, calling upon Britain to cease its war against France, recognizing the Russian conquest of Finland from Sweden, and stating that in case of war with Austria, Russia should aid France \"to the best of its ability.\" The two emperors departed for their homelands on 14 October. Six months later the expected war with Austria began, and Alexander barely lived up to his agreement, aiding France as little as possible. By 1810 both emperors were considering war with one another. Erfurt was the last meeting between the two leaders.  By 1812 Russia no longer complied with Napoleon's Continental System of economic warfare against the United Kingdom and anti-French sentiment in the Russian court had reached a new height. Russian defence spending had increased and troops were deployed to the border in preparation for an invasion of Poland. Napoleon pre-empted this by attacking first and with greater force.  From the beginning at Tilsit few onlookers believed these two European powers could peacefully exist side by side, with the Grand Duchy of Warsaw a French satellite state neighbouring Russia. Erfurt may have delayed the eventual outbreak of war, but it was likely the two powers would ultimately come into conflict.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular Culture.", "content": "The congress is an event referred to by Leo Tolstoy in his \"War and Peace\" (Book Two Part Three Chapter 1).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Congress of Erfurt was the meeting between Napoleon, Emperor of the French, and Alexander I, Emperor of All Russia, from Tuesday 27 September to Friday 14 October 1808 intended to reaffirm the alliance concluded the previous year with the Treaties of Tilsit which followed the end of the War of the Fourth Coalition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973600}
{"src_title": "Hannes Meyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Meyer was born in Basel, Switzerland, trained as a mason, and practiced as an architect in Switzerland, Belgium, and Germany. From 1916 to 1918 he briefly served as a department manager at the Krupp works in Essen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early work.", "content": "Between 1919 and 1921 Meyer completed planning the housing estate \"Freidorf\" near the Swiss city of Basel.  In 1923 Meyer co-initiated the architectural magazine 'ABC Beiträge zum Bauen' (Contributions on Building) with Hans Schmidt, Mart Stam, and the Suprematist El Lissitzky in Zurich.  Meyer's design philosophy is represented by the quote following:  \"1. sex life, 2. sleeping habits, 3. pets, 4. gardening, 5. personal hygiene, 6. weather protection, 7. hygiene in the home, 8. car maintenance, 9. cooking, 10. heating, 11. exposure to the sun, 12. services - these are the only motives when building a house. We examine the daily routine of everyone who lives in the house and this gives us the functional diagram - the functional diagram and the economic programme are the determining principles of the building project.\"(Meyer, 1928) In 1926 Meyer established a company with Hans Wittwer and produced his two most famous designs, for the Basel Petersschule (1926) and for the Geneva League of Nations Building (1926/1927). Both projects are strict, inventive, and rely on the new possibilities of structural steel. Neither was built. The Petersschule was designed to be a new primary school for girls, such that the school itself would be raised as high above the ground as possible to allow for sunlight and fresh air.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bauhaus.", "content": "Walter Gropius appointed Meyer director of the Bauhaus architecture department when it was finally established during April 1927, though Mart Stam had been Gropius's first choice. Meyer brought his radical functionalist philosophy which he named, during 1929, \"Die neue Baulehre\" (the new way to build). His philosophy was that architecture was an organizational task without relationship to aesthetics, that buildings should be low cost and designed to fulfill social needs. He was dismissed for allegedly politicizing the school.  Meyer brought the two most significant building commissions for the school, both of which still exist: five apartment buildings in the city of Dessau known as \"Laubenganghäuser\" (\"Houses with Balcony Access\"). The apartments are considered to be'real' Bauhaus buildings because they originated with the Bauhaus department of Architecture. The development bordered on the Törten housing estate which was designed by Walter Gropius.  The other major building commission was the Bundesschule des Allgemeinen Deutschen Gewerkschaftsbundes (ADGB Trade Union School), in Bernau bei Berlin, which was completed during 1930. It was the second largest project ever undertaken by the Bauhaus, after the Bauhaus school buildings in Dessau. The school operated for only three years until the Nazis confiscated it during 1933 for use as a management training school. The building now has historic protection status and it experienced an extensive restoration which was completed during 2007. The restoration project won the World Monuments Fund / Knoll Modernism prize during 2008.  In July 2017 both the Laubenganghäuser and the ADGB Trade Union School were inscribed as part of the Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar, Dessau and Bernau World Heritage Site.  Walter Gropius appointed Meyer to replace him as the school's director on 1 April 1928. Meyer continued with Gropius' innovations to emphasize designing prototypes for serial mass production and functionalist architecture. In the increasingly dangerous political era of the Weimar Republic, Dessau's Mayor, Hesse, alleged that Meyer allowed a Communist student organization to flourish and bring bad publicity to the school, threatening its survival. Hesse dismissed Meyer as head of the Bauhaus school, with a monetary settlement, on August 1, 1930. Meyer's open letter in a left-wing newspaper two weeks later characterizes the Bauhaus as \"Incestuous theories (blocking) all access to healthy, life-oriented design... As head of the Bauhaus, I fought the Bauhaus style\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After Bauhaus.", "content": "In the autumn of 1930, Meyer emigrated to the USSR along with several former Bauhaus students, including Konrad Püschel and. He taught at WASI, a Soviet academy for architecture and civil engineering. During his years in the Soviet Union, he acted as an advisor for urban projects at Giprogor (the Soviet Institute for Urban and Investment Development) and created plans related to aspects of the redevelopment of Moscow as part of the first five-year plan.  Outside of Moscow Meyer realised his ideas especially in the recently created Jewish Autonomous Oblast in the far east of the USSR. Meyer realized not only the buildings (such as worker's dormitory, theatre etc.), and their internal design and furnishings, but also developed the urbanist project for the area's capital, the city of Birobidzhan.  In 1936 Meyer relocated to Geneva for three years, then emigrated to Mexico City to work for the Mexican government as the director of the Instituto del Urbanismo y Planificación from 1939 through 1941. In 1942, he became the director of Estampa Mexicana, the publishing house of the Taller de Gráfica Popular (the Popular Graphic Arts Workshop).  Meyer returned to Switzerland in 1949 and died in 1954.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Emil \"Hannes\" Meyer (November 18, 1889 – July 19, 1954) was a Swiss architect and second director of the Bauhaus Dessau from 1928 to 1930.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973601}
{"src_title": "Stanegate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "It is believed that the Stanegate was probably built under the governorship of Agricola, from 77 to 85 AD, during the reigns of the emperors Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. It is also thought that it was built as a strategic road when the northern frontier was on the line of the Forth and Clyde, and only later became part of the frontier when the Romans withdrew from what is now Scotland. An indication of this is that it was provided with forts at one-day marching intervals (14 Roman miles or modern ), sufficient for a strategic non-frontier road. The forts at Vindolanda (Chesterholm) and Nether Denton have been shown to date from about the same time as Corstopitum and Luguvalium, in the 70s AD and 80s AD. When the Romans decided to withdraw from Scotland, the line of the Stanegate became the new frontier and it became necessary to provide forts at half-day marching intervals. These additional forts were Newbrough, Magnis (Carvoran) and Brampton Old Church. It has been suggested that a series of smaller forts were built in between the 'half-day-march' forts. Haltwhistle Burn and Throp might be such forts, but there is insufficient evidence to confirm a series of such fortlets. The retreat from Scotland took place in about 105 AD, and so the strengthening of the Stanegate defences would date from about that time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Where it left the base of Corstopitum, the Stanegate was wide with covered stone gutters and a foundation of cobbles with of gravel on top.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Route.", "content": "The Stanegate began in the east at Corstopitum, where the important road, Dere Street headed towards Scotland. West of Corstopitum, the Stanegate crossed the Cor Burn, and then followed the north bank of the Tyne until it reached the North Tyne near the village of Wall. A Roman bridge must have taken the road across the North Tyne, from where it headed west past the present village of Fourstones to Newbrough, where the first fort is situated, from Corbridge, and from Vindolanda. It is a small fort occupying less than an acre and is in the graveyard of Newbrough church, which stands alone to the west of the village.  From Newbrough, the Stanegate proceeds west, parallel to the South Tyne until it meets the next major fort, at Vindolanda (Chesterholm). From Vindolanda the Stanegate crosses the route of the present-day Military Road and passes just south of the minor fort of Haltwhistle Burn. From Haltwhistle Burn, the Stanegate continues west away from the course of the South Tyne and passes the major fort of Magnis (Carvoran), from Vindolanda and from Corstopitum. At this point, the road is joined by the Maiden Way coming from Epiacum (Whitley Castle) to the south.  From Magnis, the road turns towards the southwest to follow the course of the River Irthing, passing the minor fort of Throp, and arriving at the major fort of Nether Denton, from Magnis and from Corstopitum. The fort occupies an area of about.  From Nether Denton, the road continues to follow the River Irthing and heads towards present-day Brampton. It passes the minor fort of Castle Hill Boothby and then, west of Brampton, reaches the next major fort, that of Brampton Old Church, from Nether Denton and from Corstopitum. The fort is so called because half of it is buried under Old St Martin's church and its graveyard.  From Brampton Old Church, the road crosses the River Irthing and continues southwest through Irthington and passes through what is now the site of Carlisle Airport, just to the north of the main runway. The curving corner of an associated marching camp can be made out from the air on the south edge of the runway near its western end, and can be seen on Google Earth. The Stanegate then continued through a large cutting in High Crosby, where a small fort has been postulated, based on marching distances, but has not yet been found. The Stanegate then crossed the River Eden near the cricket ground in modern Carlisle and eventually reached the fort of Luguvalium (Carlisle) on the site of Carlisle Castle, from Brampton Old Church and from Corstopitum. It has been suggested that the road may have carried on west for a further to the Roman fort at Kirkbride overlooking Moricambe Bay, an inlet of the Solway Firth. A large camp of was found there but the evidence for a road is insufficient.  It has also been suggested that the Stanegate may have run eastwards from Corstopitum towards Pons Aelius, present-day Newcastle upon Tyne, and possibly linking to Washing Wells Roman Fort in Whickham, but no evidence has yet been found to support this.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subsequent history.", "content": "Much of the Stanegate provided the foundation for the Carelgate (or Carlisle Road), a medieval road running from Corbridge market place and joining the Stanegate west of Corstopitum. The Carelgate eventually deteriorated to such an extent that it was unusable by coaches and wagons. In 1751–1752, a new Military Road was built by General George Wade in the wake of the Jacobite rising of 1745.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Stanegate (meaning \"stone gate\" or \"stone road\" in Northumbrian dialect ), was an important Roman road built in what is now northern England. It linked two forts that guarded important river crossings: Corstopitum (Corbridge) on the River Tyne in the east, and situated on Dere Street, and Luguvalium (Carlisle) on the River Eden in the west. The Stanegate ran through the natural gap formed by the valleys of the River Tyne in Northumberland and the River Irthing in Cumbria. It predated Hadrian's Wall by several decades; the Wall would later follow a similar route, slightly to the north.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973602}
{"src_title": "Orphan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definitions.", "content": "Various groups use different definitions to identify orphans. One legal definition used in the United States is a minor bereft through \"death or disappearance of, abandonment or desertion by, or separation or loss from, both parents\".  In the common use, an orphan does not have any surviving parent to care for them. However, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS (UNAIDS), and other groups label any child who has lost one parent as an orphan. In this approach, a \"maternal orphan\" is a child whose mother has died, a \"paternal orphan\" is a child whose father has died, and a \"double orphan\" is a child/teen/infant who has lost both parents. This contrasts with the older use of \"half-orphan\" to describe children who had lost only one parent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Populations.", "content": "Orphans are relatively rare in developed countries, because most children can expect both of their parents to survive their childhood. Much higher numbers of orphans exist in war-torn nations such as Afghanistan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable orphans.", "content": "Famous orphans include world leaders such as Nelson Mandela, Alexander Hamilton, Kayleigh Chalk, Aaron Burr, Andrew Jackson; the Hebrew prophet Moses and the Muslim prophet Muhammad; writers such as Edgar Allan Poe, and Leo Tolstoy; athletes such as Aaron Hernandez and Jacques Villeneuve. The American orphan Henry Darger portrayed the horrible conditions of his orphanage in his art work. Other notable orphans include entertainment greats such as Louis Armstrong, Marilyn Monroe, Babe Ruth, Ray Charles and Frances McDormand, and innumerable fictional characters in literature and comics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Wars and great epidemics, such as AIDS, have created many orphans. The Second World War, with its massive numbers of deaths and population movements, created large numbers of orphans in many countries—with estimates for Europe ranging from 1,000,000 to 13,000,000. Judt (2006) estimates there were 9,000 orphaned children in Czechoslovakia, 60,000 in the Netherlands 300,000 in Poland and 200,000 in Yugoslavia, plus many more in the Soviet Union, Germany, Italy and elsewhere.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "Orphaned characters are extremely common as literary protagonists, especially in children's and fantasy literature. The lack of parents leaves the characters to pursue more interesting and adventurous lives, by freeing them from familial obligations and controls, and depriving them of more prosaic lives. It creates characters that are self-contained and introspective and who strive for affection. Orphans can metaphorically search for self-understanding through attempting to know their roots. Parents can also be allies and sources of aid for children, and removing the parents makes the character's difficulties more severe. Parents, furthermore, can be irrelevant to the theme a writer is trying to develop, and orphaning the character frees the writer from the necessity to depict such an irrelevant relationship; if one parent-child relationship is important, removing the other parent prevents complicating the necessary relationship. All these characteristics make orphans attractive characters for authors.  Orphans are common in fairy tales, such as most variants of \"Cinderella\".  A number of well-known authors have written books featuring orphans. Examples from classic literature include Charlotte Brontë's \"Jane Eyre\", Charles Dickens's \"Oliver Twist\", Mark Twain's \"Tom Sawyer\", L. M. Montgomery's \"Anne of Green Gables\", Thomas Hardy's \"Jude the Obscure\", and J. R. R. Tolkien's \"The Lord of the Rings\". Among more recent authors, A. J. Cronin, Lemony Snicket, A. F. Coniglio, Roald Dahl and J. K. Rowling, as well as some less well-known authors of famous orphans like Little Orphan Annie have used orphans as major characters. One recurring storyline has been the relationship that the orphan can have with an adult from outside their immediate family as seen in Lyle Kessler's play \"Orphans\".  Orphans are especially common as characters in comic books. Almost all the most popular heroes are orphans: Superman, Batman, Spider-Man, Robin, The Flash, Captain Marvel, Captain America, and Green Arrow were all orphaned. Orphans are also very common among villains: Bane, Catwoman, and Magneto are examples. Lex Luthor, Deadpool, and Carnage can also be included on this list, though they killed one or both of their parents. Supporting characters befriended by the heroes are also often orphans, including the Newsboy Legion and Rick Jones.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cartoons.", "content": "All of the orphan children from the 1936 \"Color Classic\", \"Christmas Comes But Once a Year\" produced by Fleischer Studios, were voiced by Mae Questel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In religious texts.", "content": "Many religious texts, including the Bible and the Quran, contain the idea that helping and defending orphans is a very important and God-pleasing matter. The religious leaders Moses and Muhammad were orphaned as children. Several scriptural citations describe how orphans should be treated:  Bible  Qu'ran", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An orphan (from the ) is a child whose parents have died, are unknown, or have permanently abandoned them. In common usage, only a child who has lost both parents due to death is called an orphan. When referring to animals, only the mother's condition is usually relevant (i.e. if the female parent has gone, the offspring is an orphan, regardless of the father's condition).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973603}
{"src_title": "Lake Tai", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formation.", "content": "Scientific studies suggest that Lake Tai's circular structure is the result of a meteor impact based on the discovery of shatter cones, shock-metamorphosed quartz, microtektites, and shock-metamorphic unloading fractures. The prospective impact crater has been dated to be greater than 70 million years old and possibly from the late Devonian Period. However, new research suggests that present evidence shows no impact crater structure or shock-mineral at Lake Tai. Fossils indicate that Lake Tai was dry land until the ingression of the East China Sea during the Holocene epoch. The growing deltas of the Yangtze and Qiantang rivers eventually sealed off Lake Tai from the sea, and the influx of fresh water from rivers and rains turned it into a freshwater lake.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scenic locations.", "content": "The lake is renowned for its unique limestone formations at the foot of the adjacent Dongting Mountain (). These \"scholar's rocks\" or \"Taihu stones\" are often prized as a decorating material for traditional Chinese gardens, as exemplified by those preserved as museums in nearby Suzhou.  Lake Tai is best seen from atop the Dragon Light Pagoda in western Wuxi's Xihui Park, from which both Wuxi and Lake Tai are visible. Another well-known panoramic view, made famous by an 11th-century poem by Su Shi, is that from Longshan.  Three of the lake's islands are preserved as a national geological park under the name Sanshan. They are famed as a former haunt of local bandits. Mei Yuan is also located in Lake Tai, along with Yuantouzhu. Yuantouzhu received its name (\"Turtle Head Isle\") from the shape of its outline.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ferris wheel.", "content": "The \"Star of Lake Tai\" is a giant, Ferris wheel on the shore of the lake. Completed in 2008, it takes 18 minutes to complete one revolution. Passengers can enjoy the scenery of Lake Tai and the city center. At night, lighting effects are switched on around the wheel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Business and industry.", "content": "The lake is known for its productive fishing industry and is often covered by fleets of small private fishing boats. Since the late 1970s, harvesting food products such as fish and crabs has been invaluable to people living along the lake and has contributed significantly to the economy of the surrounding area.  The lake is home to an extensive ceramic industry, including the Yixing pottery factory, which produces world-renowned Yixing clay teapots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pollution.", "content": "Pollution of the lake has been ongoing for decades despite efforts to reduce pollution that were not sustained and thus proved ineffective. In the 1980s and 1990s, the number of industries in the lake region tripled, and the population also increased significantly. One billion tons of wastewater, 450,000 tons of garbage, and 880,000 tons of animal waste were dumped into the shallow lake in 1993 alone. The central government intervened and initiated a campaign to clean up the lake, setting a deadline to comply with pollution standards. When the deadline was not met, 128 factories were closed on New Year's Eve in 1999. Compliance improved somewhat afterwards, but the pollution problem remained severe.  In May 2007, the lake was overtaken by a major algae bloom and by major pollution with cyanobacteria. The Chinese government called the lake a major natural disaster despite the anthropogenic origin of this environmental catastrophe. With the average price of bottled water rising to six times the normal rate, the government banned all regional water providers from implementing price hikes. (The lake provides water to 30 million residents, including about one million in Wuxi.) By October 2007, it was reported that the Chinese government had shut down or given notice to over 1,300 factories around the lake. Nonetheless, Wu Lihong, one of the leading environmentalists who had been publicizing pollution of the lake, was sentenced to three years in prison for alleged extortion of one of the polluters, but, undeterred, alleged in 2010 that not a single factory was closed.  Jiangsu province planned to clean the lake; chaired by Wen Jiabao, the State Council set a target to complete the task by 2012. However, in 2010 \"The Economist\" reported that pollution had broken out again and that Wu Lihong, released from prison that April, was claiming that the government was trying to suppress news of the outbreak while switching to other supplies in place of lake water.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Taihu (), also known as Lake Tai or Lake Taihu, is a lake in the Yangtze Delta and one of the largest freshwater lakes in China. The lake lies in Jiangsu province and significant part of its southern shore forms its border with Zhejiang. With an area of and an average depth of, it is the third-largest freshwater lake entirely in China, after Poyang and Dongting. The lake holds about 90 islands, ranging in size from a few square meters to several square kilometers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973604}
{"src_title": "USS Iowa (BB-61)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Attitude.", "content": "Animal supporters are, by default, as close to rampant as possible, if the nature of the supporter allows it (this does not need to be mentioned in the blazon), though there are some blazoned exceptions. An example of whales 'non-rampant' is the arms of the Dutch municipality of Zaanstad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional development and entitlement.", "content": "Older writers trace origins of supporters to their usages in tournaments, where the shields of the combatants were exposed for inspection, and guarded by their servants or pages disguised in fanciful attire. However, medieval Scottish seals afford numerous examples in which the 13th and 14th century shields were placed between two creatures resembling lizards or dragons. Also, the seal of John, Duke of Normandy, eldest son of the King of France, before 1316 bears his arms as; France ancient, a bordure \"gules\", between two lions rampant away from the shield, and an eagle with expanded wings standing above it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Canada.", "content": "In Canada, Companions of the Order of Canada, Commanders of the Order of Military Merit, Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order: people granted the style the Right Honourable, and corporations are granted the use of supporters on their coats of arms. Further, on his retirement from office as Chief Herald, Robert Watt was granted supporters as an honour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France.", "content": "In France, writers made a distinctive difference on the subject of supporters, giving the name of \"Supports\" to animals, real or imaginary, thus employed; while human figures or angels similarly used are called \"Tenants\" (i.e. 'holders'). Trees and other inanimate objects which are sometimes used are called \"Soutiens\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New Zealand.", "content": "Knights Grand Companion and Principal Companions of the New Zealand Order of Merit are granted the use of heraldic supporters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "Originally, in England, supporters were regarded as little more than mere decorative and artistic appendages.  In the United Kingdom, supporters are typically an example of special royal favour, granted at the behest of the sovereign. Hereditary supporters are normally limited to hereditary peers, certain members of the Royal Family, and to some chiefs of Scottish clans. Non-hereditary supporters are granted to life peers, Knights and Ladies of the Order of the Garter and Order of the Thistle, Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, Order of St Michael and St George, Royal Victorian Order and Order of the British Empire, and Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross of the Order of St John. Knights banneret were also granted non-hereditary supporters, but no such knight has been created since the time of Charles I.  Supporters may also be granted to corporations which have a royal charter.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "USS \"Iowa\" (BB-61) is a retired battleship, the lead ship of her class, and the fourth in the United States Navy to be named after the state of Iowa. Owing to the cancellation of the s, \"Iowa\" is the last lead ship of any class of United States battleships and was the only ship of her class to have served in the Atlantic Ocean during World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973605}
{"src_title": "Quercus ilex", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The resemblance of the foliage to that of the common European holly, \"Ilex aquifolium\", has led to its common and botanic names. The name \"\" was originally the classical Latin name for the holm oak, but later adopted as a botanical genus name for the hollies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "An evergreen tree of large size, attaining in favourable places a height of 21–28 m, and developing in open situations a huge head of densely leafy branches as much across, the terminal portions of the branches usually pendulous in old trees. The trunk is sometimes over 6 m in girth. The young shoots are clothed with a close grey felt. The leaves are very variable in shape, most frequently narrowly oval or ovate-lanceolate, 4–8 cm long, 1.2–2.5 cm wide, rounded or broadly tapered at the base, pointed, the margins sometimes entire, sometimes (especially on young trees) more or less remotely toothed. When quite young, both surfaces are clothed with whitish down, which soon falls away entirely from the upper surface leaving it a dark glossy green; on the lower surface it turns grey or tawny, and persists until the fall of the leaf; the petiole is 3–16 mm long. Fruits are produced one to three together on a short downy stalk, ripening the first season; the acorns usually 12–18 mm long in the UK, the cups with appressed, downy scales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are two subspecies:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Holm oak grows in pure stands or mixed forest in the Mediterranean and often at low or moderate elevations. One of the plant associations in which holm oak is found is the holm oak/Atlas cedar forests of the Atlas Mountains. In Morocco, some of these mixed forests are habitat to the endangered primate, Barbary macaque, \"Macaca sylvanus\".  Holm oak is prevalent from Portugal to Greece along the northern Mediterranean coastal belt, and from Morocco to Tunisia along the southern Mediterranean coast.  Holm oak is damaging biodiversity in the United Kingdom and is listed as an alien invader. Normally the tree is unable to withstand severe frost, which would prevent it from spreading north, but with climate change, it has successfully penetrated and established itself in areas north of its native range. The largest population of Holm oak in Northern Europe is present on and around St. Boniface Down on the Isle of Wight and into the neighbouring town of Ventnor, a town known for its naturally warmer microclimate, and has shown to tolerate the high winds on the downs. It is thought that this population's propagation (which was established in the late 1800s after having been planted by Victorian residents) has been bolstered by native Eurasian jays (\"Garrulus glandarius\"), which harvest acorns from oak trees and store them by burying them in the ground where they may then germinate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "The wood is hard and tough, and has been used since ancient times for general construction purposes as pillars, tools, wagons (Hesiod, \"Works and Days\" 429), vessels and wine casks. It is also used as firewood and in charcoal manufacture.  The holm oak is one of the top three trees used in the establishment of truffle orchards, or truffières. Truffles grow in an ectomycorrhizal association with the tree's roots.  The acorns, like those of the cork oak, are edible (toasted or as a flour) and are an important food for free-range pigs reared for ibérico ham production. Boiled in water, the acorns can also be used as a medicinal treatment for wound disinfections.  \"Q. ilex\" can be clipped to form a tall hedge, and it is suitable for coastal windbreaks, in any well drained soil. It forms a picturesque rounded head, with pendulous low-hanging branches. Its size and solid evergreen character gives it an imposing architectural presence that makes it valuable in many urban and garden settings. While holm oak can be grown in much of maritime northwestern Europe, it is not tolerant of cold continental winters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable trees.", "content": "The TROBI Champion in Gloucestershire measured in circumference at 1.2 m height in 1993. Another tree at Courtown House, Wexford, Ireland, reputedly planted in 1648, measured 20 m in height, with a spread of 43 m in 2010.An ancient tree reputed to be 500 years old at Fulham Palace, London is listed as one of the Great Trees of London.  The oldest holm oak in Spain, the Encina Tres Patas de Mendaza, located in Navarre, is reputed to be 1,200 years old. A specimen in Milo, in Sicily, is reputed to be 700 years old while a small population on the slopes of northern village of Wardija in Malta are said to be between 500 and 1,000 years old. Prior to the Carthaginian period, holm oak was prevalent on the islands.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Quercus ilex, the evergreen oak, holly oak or holm oak, is a large evergreen oak native to the Mediterranean region. It takes its name from holm, an ancient name for holly. It is a member of the \"Cerris\" section of the genus, with acorns that mature in a single summer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973606}
{"src_title": "Braconidae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "The Braconidae are currently divided into about 47 subfamilies and over 1000 genera, which include \"Aerophilus\", \"Aleiodes\", \"Apanteles\", \"Asobara\", \"Bracon\", \"Cenocoelius\", \"Chaenusa\", \"Chorebus\", \"Cotesia\", \"Dacnusa\", \"Diachasma\", \"Microgaster\", \"Opius\", \"Parapanteles\", \"Phaenocarpa\", \"Spathius\", and \"Syntretus.\"  These fall to two major groups, informally called the cyclostomes and noncyclostomes. In cyclostome braconids, the labrum and the lower part of the clypeus are concave with respect to the upper clypeus and the dorsal margin of the mandibles. These groups may be clades that diverged early in the evolution of braconids.  The former subfamily Trachypetinae, containing three rare Australian genera of large parasitoid wasps, was removed in 2020 to form a new family, Trachypetidae, considered to be sister taxon to the remaining braconids.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "The morphological variation among braconids is notable. They are often black-brown (sometimes with reddish markings), though some species exhibit striking coloration and patterns, being parts of Müllerian mimicry complexes. They have one or no recurrent veins, unlike other members of the other family in Ichneumonoidea (Ichneumonidae), which usually have two. Wing venation patterns are also divergent to apparent randomness. The antennae have 16 segments or more; the hind trochanters have two segments.  Females often have long ovipositors, an organ that largely varies interspecifically. This variation is closely related to the host species upon which the wasp deposits its egg. Species that parasitize microlepidopterans, for instance, have longer ovipositors, presumably to reach the caterpillar through layers of plant tissue. Some wasps also have long ovipositors to bypass caterpillar defense mechanisms such as spines or hairs, or to reach deeply-burrowed Coleoptera larvae in tree trunks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parasitoidy.", "content": "The larvae of most braconids are internal or external primary parasitoids of other insects, especially the larval stages of Coleoptera, Diptera, and Lepidoptera, but also some hemimetabolous insects such as aphids, Heteroptera, or Embiidina. Most species kill their hosts, though some cause the hosts to become sterile and less active. Parasitoidy on adult insects (particularly on Hemiptera and Coleoptera) also occurs. Members of two subfamilies, the Mesostoinae and Doryctinae are known to form galls on plants. Braconids are often used as biological pest control agents, especially against aphids.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples of hosts.", "content": "Thousands of species of insects are used as hosts by braconid wasps. A few notable examples are detailed here.  Some species of braconids are parasitoids of the Asian corn borer (a lepidopteran moth known for being a pest of maize in East Asia), the African sugarcane borer (a moth commonly found in sub-Saharan Africa), the butterfly \"Danaus chrysippus\" in Ghana, and the american serpentine leafminer and tomato hornworm in North America. Braconids often will prey on fruit fly larvae like \"A. suspensa\" as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Polydnaviruses.", "content": "Endoparasitoid species often display elaborate physiological adaptations to enhance larval survival within the host, such as the co-option of endosymbiotic viruses for compromising host immune defenses. These bracoviruses are often used by the wasps instead of, or in addition to, a venom cocktail. The DNA of the wasp actually contains portions that are the templates for the components of the viral particles and they are assembled in an organ in the female's abdomen known as the calyx. A 2009 study has traced the origins of these templates to a 100-million-year-old viral infection whose alterations to its host DNA provided the necessary basis for these virus-like \"templates\".  These viruses suppress the immune system and allow the parasitoid to grow inside the host undetected. The exact function and evolutionary history of these viruses are unknown. Sequences of polydnavirus genes show the possibility that venom-like proteins are expressed inside the host caterpillar. Through the evolutionary history of being used by the wasps, these viruses apparently have become so modified, they appear unlike any other known viruses today. Because of this highly modified system of host immunosuppression, a high level of parasitoid-host specificity is not surprising.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evolutionary history.", "content": "The family seems to date from early Cretaceous (provided that \"Eobracon\" is properly assigned to this family). It underwent extensive diversification from mid or late Cretaceous to early Cenozoic, correlating with the radiation of flowering plants and associated insect herbivores, the main hosts of braconids.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differentiation from Ichneumonidae.", "content": "Braconids are distinguished from their sister group Ichneumonidae by these character combinations. In Braconidae, vein 2m-cu of the forewing is absent except in the Chilean species \"Apozyx penyai\" - this vein is present in 95% of Ichneumonidae. Vein 1/Rs+M of the forewing is 85% present in Braconidae, but absent in all Ichneumonidae. Vein 1r-m of the hind wing is in 95% of Braconidae basal to the separation of R1 and Rs (it is opposite or apical in Ichneumonidae). In Braconidae, metasomal tergum 2 is fused with tergum 3, (secondarily flexible in Aphidiinae) - 90% of Ichneumonidae have a flexible suture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other characteristics.", "content": "The species \"Microplitis croceipes\" possesses an extremely accurate sense of smell and can be trained for use in narcotics and explosives detection.  At least some braconids appear to be very resistant to ionizing radiation. While a dose of 400 to 1000 rads can kill an average human, a dose of 180,000 rads was required to kill a braconid of genus \"Habrobracon\" in an experiment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Species profiles from the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Braconidae are a family of parasitoid wasps. After the closely related Ichneumonidae, braconids make up the second-largest family in the order Hymenoptera, with about 17,000 recognized species and many thousands more undescribed. One analysis estimated a total between 30,000 and 50,000, and another provided a narrower estimate between 42,000 and 43,000 species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973607}
{"src_title": "Picard–Lindelöf theorem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Proof sketch.", "content": "The proof relies on transforming the differential equation, and applying fixed-point theory. By integrating both sides, any function satisfying the differential equation must also satisfy the integral equation  A simple proof of existence of the solution is obtained by successive approximations. In this context, the method is known as Picard iteration.  Set  and  It can then be shown, by using the Banach fixed point theorem, that the sequence of \"Picard iterates\" is convergent and that the limit is a solution to the problem. An application of Grönwall's lemma to, where and are two solutions, shows that, thus proving the global uniqueness (the local uniqueness is a consequence of the uniqueness of the Banach fixed point).  Picard's method is most often stated without proof or graphing. See Newton's method of successive approximation for instruction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example of Picard iteration.", "content": "Let formula_6 the solution to the equation formula_7 with initial condition formula_8 Starting with formula_9 we iterate  so that formula_11:  and so on. Evidently, the functions are computing the Taylor series expansion of our known solution formula_15 Since formula_16 has poles at formula_17 this converges toward a local solution only for formula_18 not on all of R.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example of non-uniqueness.", "content": "To understand uniqueness of solutions, consider the following examples. A differential equation can possess a stationary point. For example, for the equation (formula_19), the stationary solution is, which is obtained for the initial condition. Beginning with another initial condition, the solution \"y\"(\"t\") tends toward the stationary point, but reaches it only at the limit of infinite time, so the uniqueness of solutions (over all finite times) is guaranteed.  However, for an equation in which the stationary solution is reached after a \"finite\" time, the uniqueness fails. This happens for example for the equation, which has at least two solutions corresponding to the initial condition such as: or  so the previous state of the system is not uniquely determined by its state after \"t\" = 0. The uniqueness theorem does not apply because the function has an infinite slope at and therefore is not Lipschitz continuous, violating the hypothesis of the theorem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Detailed proof.", "content": "Let  where:  This is the compact cylinder where is defined. Let  this is, the maximum slope of the function in modulus. Finally, let \"L\" be the Lipschitz constant of with respect to the second variable.  We will proceed to apply Banach fixed point theorem using the metric on formula_24 induced by the uniform norm  We define an operator between two functional spaces of continuous functions, Picard's operator, as follows:  defined by:  We must show that this operator maps a complete non-empty metric space X into itself and also is a contraction mapping.  We first show that, given certain restrictions on formula_28 takes formula_29 into itself in the space of continuous functions with uniform norm. Here, formula_29 is a closed ball in the space of continuous (and bounded) functions \"centered\" at the constant function formula_31. Hence we need to show that  implies  where formula_34 is some number in formula_35 where the maximum is achieved. The last step is true if we impose the requirement.  Now let's try to prove that this operator is a contraction.  Given two functions formula_36, in order to apply the Banach fixed point theorem we want  for some \"q\" < 1. So let \"t\" be such that  then using the definition of Γ  This is a contraction if formula_40  We have established that the Picard's operator is a contraction on the Banach spaces with the metric induced by the uniform norm. This allows us to apply the Banach fixed point theorem to conclude that the operator has a unique fixed point. In particular, there is a unique function  such that. This function is the unique solution of the initial value problem, valid on the interval \"I\" where \"a\" satisfies the condition", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Optimization of the solution's interval.", "content": "Nevertheless, there is a corollary of the Banach fixed point theorem: if an operator \"T\" is a contraction for some \"n\" in N, then \"T\" has a unique fixed point. Before applying this theorem to the Picard operator, recall the following: Lemma: formula_43 \"Proof.\" Induction on \"m\". For the base of the induction we have already seen this, so suppose the inequality holds for, then we have:  This inequality assures that for some large \"m\",  and hence Γ will be a contraction. So by the previous corollary Γ will have a unique fixed point. Finally, we have been able to optimize the interval of the solution by taking  In the end, this result shows the interval of definition of the solution does not depend on the Lipschitz constant of the field, but only on the interval of definition of the field and its maximum absolute value.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other existence theorems.", "content": "The Picard–Lindelöf theorem shows that the solution exists and that it is unique. The Peano existence theorem shows only existence, not uniqueness, but it assumes only that is continuous in, instead of Lipschitz continuous. For example, the right-hand side of the equation with initial condition is continuous but not Lipschitz continuous. Indeed, rather than being unique, this equation has three solutions:  Even more general is Carathéodory's existence theorem, which proves existence (in a more general sense) under weaker conditions on. Although these conditions are only sufficient, there also exist necessary and sufficient conditions for the solution of an initial value problem to be unique, such as Okamura's theorem.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics – specifically, in differential equations – the Picard–Lindelöf theorem, Picard's existence theorem, Cauchy–Lipschitz theorem, or existence and uniqueness theorem gives a set of conditions under which an initial value problem has a unique solution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973608}
{"src_title": "Kunigunda of Halych", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "She was presumably born in Ruthenia, in the domains of her paternal grandfather Michael of Chernigov. Her grandfather was the last Grand Prince of Kiev, who was deposed not by a more powerful prince but by the Mongol Empire. Her parents were Rostislav Mikhailovich, future ruler of Belgrade and Slavonia, and his wife Anna of Hungary. After the death of her father's father, Kunigunda's family relocated to Hungary, where her mother's father, Béla IV of Hungary, made her father governor of certain Serbian-speaking regions in the Danube Valley. Her father proclaimed himself Emperor of Bulgaria in 1256 but did not stay there to defend his title.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Kunigunda was married – as a token of alliance from her maternal grandfather Béla – to King Ottokar II of Bohemia (ca. 1233 – 1278) in Pressburg (now Bratislava) on 25 October 1261. Ottokar was paternally a member of the Přemyslid dynasty whose marriage to Margaret, Duchess of Austria (ca. 1204 – 1266) was annulled.  Kunigunda, 41 years Margaret's junior, bore Ottokar several children including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen and regent of Bohemia.", "content": "However, the peace between Bohemia and Hungary ended after 10 years, when Kunigunda's uncle Stephen came to power as the King of Hungary.  In 1278, King Ottokar tried to recover his lands lost to Rudolph I of Germany in 1276. He made allies and collected a large army, but he was defeated by Rudolph and killed at the Battle of Dürnkrut and Jedenspeigen on the March on 26 August 1278.  Moravia was subdued and its government entrusted to Rudolph's representatives, leaving Kunigunda, now Queen Regent of Bohemia in control of only the province surrounding Prague, while the young Wenceslaus was betrothed and married to one of Rudolph's daughters, Judith.  Kunigunda married secondly a Bohemian magnate Záviš, Lord of Falkenštejn, in Prague in 1285. However, she died only a few months later. Záviš survived her and married again to the Hungarian Princess Elisabeth. He was executed on behalf of the King on 24 August 1290.  Kunigunda's son Wenceslaus II kept the Kingdom of Bohemia, and also succeeded in obtaining Poland and Hungary although not very sustainably. Ultimately, she is one of the pivotal ancestresses of both the House of Luxembourg and the Habsburgs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kunigunda Rostislavna (1245 – 9 September 1285; Czech: \"Kunhuta Uherská\" or \"Kunhuta Haličská\") was Queen consort of Bohemia and its Regent from 1278 until her death. She was a member of the House of Chernigov, and a daughter of Rostislav Mikhailovich.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973609}
{"src_title": "Banská Štiavnica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The fate of Banská Štiavnica has been closely linked to the exploitation of its abundant resources of silver ore. According to evidence from excavations, the site was settled during the Neolithic period.  The first mining settlement was founded by Celts in the 3rd century BC. It was probably occupied by the Celtic Cotini tribe. Roman authors mentioned mining activities of the Cotini, who had lived in present-day central Slovakia until they were deported to Pannonia within the Marcomannic Wars by Rome. The site was also settled by early Slavs and an old Slovak fortified settlement was situated here in the 10th and 11th century. The site was called “terra banensium” (the land of miners) as early as 1156. The local population gave the name „Štiavnica“ (acidic stream) to the settlement in the valley, and the settlement on the hill above (Ligotavá hora, or Glanzenberg – the shiny mountain) came to be called „Bana“ (the mine). The single common name „Schebnyzbana“ was documented for the first time in 1255. The local Slavic population was joined by skilled German settlers who started arriving in the 13th century. They adapted the local name to the German \"Schemnitz\". Banská Štiavnica gained the status of a royal town in 1238, as one of the first towns in the Kingdom of Hungary.  In the High and Late Middle Ages, the town was the main producer of silver and gold in the Kingdom of Hungary. During the Ottoman Wars, the Turks made concerted efforts to conquer rich mining towns in Upper Hungary (Banská Štiavnica, Banská Bystrica, and Kremnica). This new threat led Banská Štiavnica to build powerful fortifications, including two castles, in the 16th century. As one of the most important centers of the Protestant Reformation in the country, the town belonged to the Protestant \"League of Seven Mining Towns\" together with Banská Belá, Banská Bystrica, Kremnica, Ľubietová, Nová Baňa, and Pukanec.  The town was also a leading center of innovation in the mining industry. In 1627, gunpowder was used there in a mine for one of the first times in the world (After Le Thillot, France). To drain water from the flooded mines, a sophisticated system of water reservoirs and channels, known as tajchy, was designed and built by the local scientists Jozef Karol Hell, Maximilian Hell, and Samuel Mikovíny in the 18th century. Tajchy not only saved the mines from being closed, but also provided energy for the early phase of industrialization.  Its Mining Academy, founded there in 1735 by Samuel Mikovíny, was the first mining school in the Kingdom of Hungary. Beginning in 1763, the Hofkammer in Vienna, with support from Queen Maria Theresa, transformed the school into the Academy of Mining. In 1807, a Forestry Institute was \"established under the decision of Emperor Franz I\"; in 1848 the school was renamed the Academy of Mining and Forestry, 'the first technical university in the world'. In 1919, after the creation of Czechoslovakia, the Academy was moved to Sopron in Hungary. The student traditions of the Academy are still living in its successors, the University of Miskolc and Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, and colleges in Sopron, Székesfehérvár, and Dunaújváros.  In 1782, Banská Štiavnica was the third biggest town in the Kingdom of Hungary (with 23,192 or incl. suburbs 40,000 inhabitants), after Pozsony (today Bratislava) and Debrecen. But the town's development was too closely linked to the mining activity which had been progressively declining since the second half of the 19th century. Nowadays, Banská Štiavnica is an important center of recreation and tourism, benefiting from its rich historical heritage.  During World War II, Banská Štiavnica was taken by Soviet troops of the 53rd Army on 7 March 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "The heart of the town is the historical Trinity Square () dominated by a monumental plague column. The square is used for frequent cultural events and there is also a mineralogical museum. Two castles, the so-called “old” one (Slovak: \"Starý zámok\") and “new” one (Slovak: \"Nový zámok\"), have been transformed into museums.  The open air mining museum offers a long underground excursion in mines dating from the 17th century. Visitors will receive helmets, cloaks and lamps to use during the tour. It is also possible to have an English, German or Hungarian speaking guide if this is requested in advance. Another ancient mine open to the public (Slovak: \"Glanzenberg\") is even older. This mine, situated just under the center of the town, has attracted numerous famous visitors, from Emperor Joseph II to Prince Albert of Monaco.  The town is surrounded by ancient artificial mining water reservoirs called \"tajchy\". Sixty reservoirs were built in the 15th through 18th centuries in order to provide energy for the booming mining industry. They are connected by a more than long network of channels. These extraordinary historical monuments are now used mainly for recreation.  In Kalvária Banská Štiavnica there is a complex of churches and chapels situated near Ostry vrch which was built in the eighteenth century by Jesuits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "Banská Štiavnica has a population of 10,674 (as of December 31, 2005). According to the 2001 census, 93.9% of inhabitants were Slovaks and 2% Romani people. Many people are descendants of the Carpathian Germans, who played a very important role in the medieval history of the town. The religious makeup was 65% Roman Catholics, 18.9% people with no religious affiliation, and 7.6% Lutherans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Banská Štiavnica is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genealogical resources.", "content": "The records for genealogical research are available at the state archive, \"Statny Archiv in Banska Bystrica, Slovakia\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Banská Štiavnica (; ;, ) is a town in central Slovakia, in the middle of an immense caldera created by the collapse of an ancient volcano. For its size, the caldera is known as the Štiavnica Mountains. Banská Štiavnica has a population of more than 10,000. It is a completely preserved medieval town. Because of their historical value, the town and its surroundings were proclaimed by the UNESCO to be a World Heritage Site on December 11, 1993.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973610}
{"src_title": "Zamioculcas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The botanical name derives from on the one hand the superficial similarity of its foliage to that of the cycad genus \"Zamia\" and on the other hand its kinship to the genus \"Colocasia\", whose name comes from a word \"culcas\" or \"colcas\" in a Middle Eastern language of antiquity and which is named \"qolqas\" (, ) in Arabic. Botanical synonyms include \"Caladium zamiaefolium, Zamioculcas loddigesii\" and \"Z. lanceolata\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a herbaceous plant growing to tall, from a stout underground, succulent rhizome. It is normally evergreen, but becomes deciduous during drought, surviving drought due to the large potato-like rhizome that stores water until rainfall resumes. The leaves are pinnate, long, with 6–8 pairs of leaflets long; they are smooth, shiny, and dark green. The stems of these pinnate leaves are thickened at the bottom.  The flowers are produced in a small bright yellow to brown or bronze spadix long, partly hidden among the leaf bases; flowering is from mid summer to early autumn.  \"Zamioculcas zamiifolia\" contains an unusually high water contents of leaves (91%) and petioles (95%) and has an individual leaf longevity of at least six months, which may be the reason it can survive extremely well under interior low light levels for four months without water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "It may survive outdoors as long as the temperature does not fall below around 15°C (59°F); though best growth is between 18°C to 26°C (65° to 79°F) while hot temperatures give an increase of leaf production. In temperate regions, it is grown as a houseplant. Over watering may destroy this plant through tuber rot. Bright, indirect light is best for \"Zamioculcas\": some sun will be tolerated.  \"Zamioculcas zamiifolia\" may be propagated by leaf cuttings: typically, the lower ends of detached leaves are inserted into a moist gritty compost and the pot enclosed in a polythene bag. Though the leaves may well decay, succulent bulb-like structures should form in the compost and these may be potted up to produce new plants. The process may take upwards of one year. The plant can also be propagated by division. The plant impresses especially by the thick, dark green, shiny leaves. Due to its strong green leaves, it is especially suitable for open, bright rooms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage in traditional medicine.", "content": "Though little information is available, \"Z. zamiifolia\" is apparently used medicinally in the Mulanje District of Malawi and in the East Usambara mountains of Tanzania where juice from the leaves is used to treat earache.  In Tanzania a poultice of bruised plant material from \"Z. zamiifolia\" is used as a treatment of the inflammatory condition known as \"mshipa\".  Roots from \"Z. zamiifolia\" are used as a local application to treat ulceration by the Sukuma people in north-western Tanzania.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemicals.", "content": "\"Zamioculcas zamiifolia\" contains acylated C-glycosylflavone apigenin 6-C-(6′′-O-(3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaroyl)- β-glucopyranoside)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Air purification.", "content": "The plant has air purifying qualities for the indoor environment. A Study from Department of Plant and Environmental Science at the University of Copenhagen from 2014 shows the plant is able to remove volatile organic compounds in this order of effectiveness, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene at a molar flux of around 0.01 mol/(m day).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "\"Zamioculcas zamiifolia\" is part of the family Araceae, which includes many poisonous genera, such as \"Philodendron\", which contains calcium oxalate.  An initial toxicological experiment conducted by the University of Bergen in 2015 on extracts from \"Z. zamiifolia\" using brine shrimp as a lethality assay did not indicate lethality to the shrimp even at concentrations of extracts up to 1 mg/mL. The scientists conducting the experiment found that \"On the contrary, it could appear as though the extract contributed to improvements in the vitality of the larvae\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Zamioculcas (common names Zanzibar gem, ZZ plant, Zuzu plant, aroid palm, eternity plant or emerald palm) is a genus of flowering plant in the family Araceae, containing the single species Zamioculcas zamiifolia. It is a tropical perennial plant native to eastern Africa, from southern Kenya to northeastern South Africa. \"Zamioculcas\" is grown as an ornamental plant, mainly for its attractive glossy foliage and easy care.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973611}
{"src_title": "Salix cinerea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plant.", "content": "It is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 4-15 metres (13-50 ft) tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, 2-9 cm (1-31⁄2 in) long and 1–3 cm (1⁄2-11⁄2 in) broad (exceptionally up to 16 cm long and 5 cm broad), green above, hairy below, with a crenate margin. The flowers are produced in early spring in catkins 2–5 cm long; it is dioecious with male and female catkins on separate plants. The male catkins are silvery at first, turning yellow when the pollen is released; the female catkins are greenish-grey, maturing in early summer to release the numerous tiny seeds embedded in white cottony down which assists wind dispersal.  The two subspecies are:  Some overlap in the distributions (not indicated in the map, right) occurs, with both occurring in a broad band north to south through France, and scattered specimens of \"S. c. cinerea\" west to Ireland, western France, and Morocco; scattered specimens of \"S. c. oleifolia\" occur east to the Netherlands. Specimens of \"S. c. oleifolia\" in southern Scandinavia are planted or naturalised, not native. Intermediate specimens also occur.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "It usually grows in wetlands. The two subspecies differ slightly in requirements, with \"S. c. cinerea\" generally restricted to basic marshland and fen habitats, while \"S. c. oleifolia\" is less demanding, occurring in both alkaline marshes and acidic bogs and streamsides. A common herbivore of Salix cinerea is Phratora vulgatissima, which prefers and is more common on female plants. Anthocoris nemorum, a natural enemy of Phratora vulgatissima, is also more common on S. cinerea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "\"Salix cinerea\" is an invasive species in New Zealand and is listed on the National Pest Plant Accord, which means it cannot be sold or distributed. \"S. cinerea\" is also highly invasive in south-eastern Australia, with the entire genus listed as a Weed of National Significance. The species was introduced to stop erosion along riverbanks, but has since caused worse erosion over time by widening and shallowing invaded streams.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salix cinerea (common sallow, gray sallow, gray willow, grey sallow, grey willow, grey-leaved sallow, large gray willow, pussy willow, rusty sallow) is a species of willow native to Europe and western Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973612}
{"src_title": "Morinda citrifolia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Growing habitats.", "content": "\"Morinda citrifolia\" grows in shady forests, as well as on open rocky or sandy shores. It reaches maturity in about 18 months, then yields between of fruit every month throughout the year. It is tolerant of saline soils, drought conditions, and secondary soils. It is therefore found in a wide variety of habitats: volcanic terrains, lava-strewn coasts, and clearings or limestone outcrops, as well as in coralline atolls. It can grow up to tall, and has large, simple, dark green, shiny and deeply veined leaves.  The plant bears flowers and fruits all year round. The fruit is a multiple fruit that has a pungent odour when ripening, and is hence also known as cheese fruit or even vomit fruit. It is oval in shape and reaches size. At first green, the fruit turns yellow then almost white as it ripens. It contains many seeds.  \"Morinda citrifolia\" is especially attractive to weaver ants, which make nests from the leaves of the tree. These ants protect the plant from some plant-parasitic insects. The smell of the fruit also attracts fruit bats, which aid in dispersing the seeds. A type of fruit fly, \"Drosophila sechellia\", feeds exclusively on these fruits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary uses.", "content": "A variety of beverages (juice drinks), powders (from dried ripe or unripe fruits), cosmetic products (lotions, soaps), oil (from seeds), leaf powders (for encapsulation or pills) have been introduced into the consumer market.  Noni is sometimes called a \"starvation fruit\", implying that it was used by indigenous peoples as emergency food during times of famine. Despite its strong smell and bitter taste, the fruit was nevertheless eaten as a famine food, and, in some Pacific Islands, even as a staple food, either raw or cooked. Southeast Asians and Australian Aborigines consume the fruit raw with salt or cook it with curry. The seeds are edible when roasted. In Thai cuisine, the leaves (known as \"bai-yo\") are used as a green vegetable and are the main ingredient of \"kaeng bai-yo\", cooked with coconut milk. The fruit (\"luk-yo\") is added as a salad ingredient to some versions of somtam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "Green fruit, leaves, and root or rhizomes might have been used in Polynesian cultures as a general tonic, in addition to its traditional place in Polynesian culture as a famine food. Although \"Morinda\" is considered to have biological properties in traditional medicine, there is no confirmed evidence of clinical efficacy for any intended use. In 2018, a Hawaiian manufacturer of noni food and skincare products was issued an FDA warning letter for marketing unapproved drugs and making false health claims in violation of the US Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dyes.", "content": "Among Austronesian peoples, noni was traditionally used primarily for the production of dyes. It was carried into the Pacific Islands as canoe plants by Austronesian voyagers. Morinda bark produces a brownish-purplish dye that may be used for making batik. In Hawaii, yellowish dye is extracted from its roots to dye cloth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrients and phytochemicals.", "content": "\"Morinda citrifolia\" fruit powder contains carbohydrates and dietary fibre in moderate amounts. These macronutrients evidently reside in the fruit pulp, as \"M. citrifolia\" juice has sparse nutrient content. The main micronutrients of \"M. citrifolia\" pulp powder include vitamin C, niacin (vitamin B), iron and potassium. Vitamin A, calcium and sodium are present in moderate amounts. When \"M. citrifolia\" juice alone is analyzed and compared to pulp powder, only vitamin C is retained in an amount (34 mg per 100 gram juice) that is 64% of the content of a raw navel orange (53 mg per 100 g or 89% of the Daily Value). Sodium levels in \"M. citrifolia\" juice (about 3% of Dietary Reference Intake, DRI) are high compared to an orange, and potassium content is moderate.  \"Morinda citrifolia\" fruit contains a number of phytochemicals, including lignans, oligo- and polysaccharides, flavonoids, iridoids, fatty acids, scopoletin, catechin, beta-sitosterol, damnacanthal, and alkaloids. Although these substances have been studied for bioactivity, research is insufficient to conclude anything about their effects on human health.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Morinda citrifolia is a fruit-bearing tree in the coffee family, Rubiaceae. Its native range extends across Southeast Asia and Australasia, and the species is now cultivated throughout the tropics and widely naturalized. Among some 100 names for the fruit across different regions are the more common English names of great morinda, Indian mulberry, noni, beach mulberry, and cheese fruit.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973613}
{"src_title": "Poincaré group", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "A Minkowski spacetime isometry has the property that the interval between events is left invariant. For example, if everything were postponed by two hours, including the two events and the path you took to go from one to the other, then the time interval between the events recorded by a stop-watch you carried with you would be the same. Or if everything were shifted five kilometres to the west, or turned 60 degrees to the right, you would also see no change in the interval. It turns out that the proper length of an object is also unaffected by such a shift. A time or space reversal (a reflection) is also an isometry of this group.  In Minkowski space (i.e. ignoring the effects of gravity), there are ten degrees of freedom of the isometries, which may be thought of as translation through time or space (four degrees, one per dimension); reflection through a plane (three degrees, the freedom in orientation of this plane); or a \"boost\" in any of the three spatial directions (three degrees). Composition of transformations is the operation of the Poincaré group, with proper rotations being produced as the composition of an even number of reflections.  In classical physics, the Galilean group is a comparable ten-parameter group that acts on absolute time and space. Instead of boosts, it features shear mappings to relate co-moving frames of reference.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poincaré symmetry.", "content": "Poincaré symmetry is the full symmetry of special relativity. It includes:  The last two symmetries, J and K, together make the Lorentz group (see also Lorentz invariance); the semi-direct product of the translations group and the Lorentz group then produce the Poincaré group. Objects which are invariant under this group are then said to possess Poincaré invariance or relativistic invariance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poincaré group.", "content": "The Poincaré group is the group of Minkowski spacetime isometries. It is a ten-dimensional noncompact Lie group. The abelian group of translations is a normal subgroup, while the Lorentz group is also a subgroup, the stabilizer of the origin. The Poincaré group itself is the minimal subgroup of the affine group which includes all translations and Lorentz transformations. More precisely, it is a semidirect product of the translations and the Lorentz group, with group multiplication  Another way of putting this is that the Poincaré group is a group extension of the Lorentz group by a vector representation of it; it is sometimes dubbed, informally, as the inhomogeneous Lorentz group. In turn, it can also be obtained as a group contraction of the de Sitter group SO(4,1) ~ Sp(2,2), as the de Sitter radius goes to infinity.  Its positive energy unitary irreducible representations are indexed by mass (nonnegative number) and spin (integer or half integer) and are associated with particles in quantum mechanics (see Wigner's classification).  In accordance with the Erlangen program, the geometry of Minkowski space is defined by the Poincaré group: Minkowski space is considered as a homogeneous space for the group.  In quantum field theory, the universal cover of the Poincaré group which may be identified with the double cover is more important, because representations of formula_5 are not able to describe fields with spin 1/2, i.e. fermions. Here formula_6 is the group of complex formula_7 matrices with unit determinant, isomorphic to the Lorentz-signature spin group formula_8.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poincaré algebra.", "content": "The Poincaré algebra is the Lie algebra of the Poincaré group. It is a Lie algebra extension of the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group. More specifically, the proper (det\"Λ\"=1), orthochronous () part of the Lorentz subgroup (its identity component), SO(1, 3), is connected to the identity and is thus provided by the exponentiation of this Lie algebra. In component form, the Poincaré algebra is given by the commutation relations:  where is the generator of translations, is the generator of Lorentz transformations, and is the (+,−,−,−) Minkowski metric (see Sign convention).  The bottom commutation relation is the (\"homogeneous\") Lorentz group, consisting of rotations,, and boosts,. In this notation, the entire Poincaré algebra is expressible in noncovariant (but more practical) language as  where the bottom line commutator of two boosts is often referred to as a \"Wigner rotation\". The simplification, which permits reduction of the Lorentz subalgebra to su(2)⊕su(2) and efficient treatment of its associated representations, is important. In terms of the physical parameters, we have  formula_16  formula_17  formula_18  formula_19  formula_20  formula_21  formula_22  formula_23  formula_24  The Casimir invariants of this algebra are and where is the Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector; they serve as labels for the representations of the group. The Poincaré group is the full symmetry group of any relativistic field theory. As a result, all elementary particles fall in representations of this group. These are usually specified by the \"four-momentum\" squared of each particle (i.e. its mass squared) and the intrinsic quantum numbers, where is the spin quantum number, is the parity and is the charge-conjugation quantum number. In practice, charge conjugation and parity are violated by many quantum field theories; where this occurs, and are forfeited. Since CPT symmetry is invariant in quantum field theory, a time-reversal quantum number may be constructed from those given.  As a topological space, the group has four connected components: the component of the identity; the time reversed component; the spatial inversion component; and the component which is both time-reversed and spatially inverted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other dimensions.", "content": "The definitions above can be generalized to arbitrary dimensions in a straightforward manner. The d-dimensional Poincaré group is analogously defined by the semi-direct product  with the analogous multiplication  The Lie algebra retains its form, with indices and now taking values between and. The alternative representation in terms of and has no analogue in higher dimensions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Super-Poincaré algebra.", "content": "A related observation is that the representations of the Lorentz group include a pair of inequivalent two-dimensional complex spinor representations formula_27 and formula_28 whose tensor product formula_29 is the adjoint representation. One may identify this last bit with four-dimensional Minkowski space itself (as opposed to identifying it with a spin-1 particle, as would normally be done for a pair of fermions, e.g. a pion being composed of a quark-anti-quark pair). This strongly suggests that it might be possible to extend the Poincaré algebra to also include spinors. This leads directly to the notion of the super-Poincaré algebra. The mathematical appeal of this idea is that one is working with the fundamental representations, instead of the adjoint representations. The physical appeal of this idea is that the fundamental representations correspond to fermions, which are seen in nature. So far, however, the implied supersymmetry here, of a symmetry between spatial and fermionic directions, cannot be seen experimentally in nature. The experimental issue can roughly be stated as the question: if we live in the adjoint representation (Minkowski spacetime), then where is the fundamental representation hiding?", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Poincaré group, named after Henri Poincaré (1906), was first defined by Hermann Minkowski (1908) as the group of Minkowski spacetime isometries. It is a ten-dimensional non-abelian Lie group of fundamental importance in physics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973614}
{"src_title": "Alexis Bledel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bledel was born in Houston, Texas, to Nanette (née Dozier), who worked as a gift processor and flight attendant, and Martín Bledel. She has a younger brother, Eric. Her father was born and raised in Argentina. Her paternal grandfather, Enrique Einar Bledel Huus, was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and was of Danish and distant German descent; Enrique was Vice President of Coca-Cola Latin America and the Coca-Cola Inter-American Corporation. Bledel's paternal grandmother, Jean (née Campbell), was originally from New York and had Scottish and English ancestry. Bledel's mother, Nanette, was born in Phoenix, Arizona, and moved to Guadalajara, Mexico, at the age of eight; Nanette was raised there and in Mexico City. Of her parents' upbringing in Latin America, Bledel has stated: \"It's the only culture my mom knows from life, and my father as well, and they made the decision to raise their children within the context they had been raised in.\" Bledel grew up in a Spanish-speaking household, and did not learn English until she began school; she considers herself a Latina.  Bledel attended Catholic St. Agnes Academy in Houston, as well as Baptist and Lutheran schools. Her mother encouraged her to try community theater to overcome her shyness. As a child, Bledel appeared in local productions of \"Our Town\" and \"The Wizard of Oz\". She was scouted at a local shopping mall and given work as a fashion model.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career beginnings.", "content": "Bledel made her television debut in 2000 opposite Lauren Graham in The WB comedy-drama \"Gilmore Girls\", which ran for seven seasons from October 5, 2000, to May 15, 2007. She played Rory Gilmore, the daughter of Lorelai Gilmore (Graham), a single mother. Initially, Rory was a high school student at an exclusive private academy, living with her mother in a small town in Connecticut, but later moved on to college at Yale University, where she, among other things, worked as the editor of the \"Yale Daily News\". Bledel made her feature film debut opposite Jonathan Jackson in the fantasy romantic drama \"Tuck Everlasting\" (2002), based on Natalie Babbitt's novel of the same name (1975). Before her work in that film, Bledel was an uncredited extra in the 1998 comedy-drama \"Rushmore\". In 2005, she co-starred in the drama \"The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants\", opposite Amber Tamblyn, America Ferrera, and Blake Lively, and based on Ann Brashares' novel of the same name. She played Lena Kaligaris, an aspiring artist on a journey with her three best friends, linked over the summer by a pair of \"magical\" jeans.  In 2005, Bledel co-starred in the anthology neo-noir crime thriller \"Sin City\" where she played Becky, a prostitute. \"She's a very professional prostitute. She carries a gun and she kicks ass,\" said Bledel of her character. In 2006, Bledel co-starred opposite Jay Baruchel in the romantic comedy \"I'm Reed Fish\" as the fiancée of Baruchel's title character. After the end of \"Gilmore Girls\", she reprised her role of Lena Kaligaris in \"The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2\", released in August 2008. The following year, Bledel starred in the comedy \"Post Grad\", which was released on August 21, 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dramatic roles and critical success.", "content": "Bledel co-starred opposite Scott Porter and Bryan Greenberg in the romantic comedy \"The Good Guy\", which premiered at Tribeca Film Festival April 26, 2009. The film centered around Porter's character Tommy, a Wall Street investment broker whose life falls apart when he helps out Greenberg's character Daniel, a new broker. Bledel played Beth, Tommy's girlfriend. In April 2009, Bledel guest-starred in the NBC medical drama \"ER\" in the two-hour series finale titled \"And in the End...\" as Dr. Julia Wise, a new intern to the hospital. In May 2009, Bledel signed a contract with the modeling division of IMG.  Bledel co-starred opposite James McAvoy and Robin Wright in the historical drama \"The Conspirator\" directed by Robert Redford. She played the girlfriend of McAvoy's character Frederick Aiken, the lawyer who defended Mary Surratt, the first woman to be hanged by the federal government of the United States, played by Wright. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival and was released in the United States on April 15, 2011. Also in 2010, Bledel starred as the title role in the Canadian drama \"The Kate Logan Affair\". The film was presented at Montreal's Festival du Nouveau Cinéma 2010.  Bledel performed in the theatre production \"Regrets\" by the Manhattan Theatre Club, staged at the New York City Center. It was confirmed in early-March 2013 that Bledel would co-star opposite Jason Ritter in the Fox pilot \"Friends & Family\", an adaptation of the British sitcom \"Gavin & Stacey\" as Stacey with Ritter as Gavin. The pilot was picked up for a series and was retitled \"Us & Them\". However, Fox eventually decided not to air the series, which eventually aired in the fall of 2018 on Sony Crackle. 2015 saw Bledel starring with Katherine Heigl as the fiancée to Heigl's character in the film \"Jenny's Wedding\".  On January 29, 2016, Netflix announced a revival of \"Gilmore Girls\" with a series of four 90-minute films set around the four seasons, and Bledel's participation was confirmed. In 2017, she appeared as Ofglen in \"The Handmaid's Tale\" for Hulu; subsequently, her role was expanded to a regular role for the second season. Her critically acclaimed turn in the role earned Bledel her first Emmy Award nomination and win in the 2017 Creative Arts ceremony in the category of Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public image.", "content": "Bledel has graced the cover of numerous fashion magazines, including \"Teen Vogue\", \"Glamour\", \"CosmoGirl\", \"Vanity Fair\", \"Lucky\", \"Elle Girl\", \"Parade\", \"Nylon\" and \"Seventeen\". In 2000, she appeared in print advertisements for Bonne Bell lip balm and Naturistics lip gloss.  She has been included in magazine lists of the world's most beautiful women. In 2002, she was named one of \"Teen People\"'s \"25 Hottest Stars under 25\". Bledel was ranked at number 87 on \"Maxim\" magazine's \"Hot 100 of 2005\" list. Bledel was named one of \"Us Weekly\"s \"25 Most Stylish New Yorkers\" in 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Bledel and fellow former \"Gilmore Girls\" co-star Milo Ventimiglia were in a relationship from December 2002 to June 2006.  In 2012, Bledel began dating Vincent Kartheiser, whose character, Pete Campbell, shared scenes with her character Beth Dawes, during her guest-starring run on \"Mad Men\". The couple announced their engagement in March 2013 and married in California, in June 2014. In May 2016, it was revealed that Bledel gave birth to their first child, a son, in the fall of 2015.  Bledel supported the 2012 re-election of Barack Obama and urged her fans to vote.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kimberly Alexis Bledel ( ; born September 16, 1981) is an American actress and model. She is best known for her role as Rory Gilmore on the television series \"Gilmore Girls\" (2000–2007), for which she received nominations for Satellite, Teen Choice and Young Artist Awards. In 2016, Bledel reprised her role on the Netflix reunion miniseries \"\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973615}
{"src_title": "Jacques Lipchitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Jacques Lipchitz was born Chaim Jacob Lipschitz, in a Litvak family, son of a building contractor in Druskininkai, Lithuania, then within the Russian Empire. He studied at Vilnius grammar school and Vilnius Art School. Under the influence of his father he studied engineering in 1906-1909, but soon after, supported by his mother he moved to Paris (1909) to study at the École des Beaux-Arts and the Académie Julian.  It was there, in the artistic communities of Montmartre and Montparnasse, that he joined a group of artists that included Juan Gris and Pablo Picasso as well as where his friend, Amedeo Modigliani, painted \"Jacques and Berthe Lipchitz\".  Living in this environment, Lipchitz soon began to create Cubist sculpture. In 1912 he exhibited at the Salon de la Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts and the Salon d'Automne with his first solo show held at Léonce Rosenberg's Galerie L'Effort Moderne in Paris in 1920. In 1922 he was commissioned by the Barnes Foundation in Merion, Pennsylvania to execute seven bas-reliefs and two sculptures.  With artistic innovation at its height, in the 1920s he experimented with abstract forms he called \"transparent sculptures\". Later he developed a more dynamic style, which he applied with telling effect to bronze compositions of figures and animals.  In 1924-25 Lipchitz became a French citizen through naturalization and married Berthe Kitrosser. With the German occupation of France during World War II, and the deportation of Jews to the Nazi death camps, Lipchitz had to flee France. With the assistance of the American journalist Varian Fry in Marseille, he escaped the Nazi regime and went to the United States. There, he eventually settled in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York. He was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the Third Sculpture International Exhibition held at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in the summer of 1949. He has been identified among seventy of those sculptors in a photograph \"Life\" magazine published that was taken at the exhibition. In 1954 a Lipchitz retrospective traveled from The Museum of Modern Art in New York to the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis and The Cleveland Museum of Art. In 1959, his series of small bronzes \"To the Limit of the Possible\" was shown at Fine Arts Associates in New York.  In his later years Lipchitz became more involved in his Jewish faith, even referring to himself as a \"religious Jew\" in an interview in 1970. He began abstaining from work on Shabbat and put on Tefillin daily, at the urging of the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Schneerson.  Beginning in 1963 he returned to Europe for several months of each year and worked in Pietrasanta, Italy. He developed a close friendship with fellow sculptor, Fiore de Henriquez. In 1972 his autobiography, co-authored with H. Harvard Arnason, was published on the occasion of an exhibition of his sculpture at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Jacques Lipchitz died in Capri, Italy. His body was flown to Jerusalem for burial. His Tuscan Villa Bozio was donated to Chabad-Lubavitch in Italy and currently hosts an annual Jewish summer camp in its premises.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacques Lipchitz (26 May 1973) was a Cubist sculptor. Lipchitz retained highly figurative and legible components in his work leading up to 1915–16, after which naturalist and descriptive elements were muted, dominated by a synthetic style of Crystal Cubism. In 1920 Lipchitz held his first solo exhibition, at Léonce Rosenberg's Galerie L'Effort Moderne in Paris. Fleeing the Nazis he moved to the US and settled in New York City and eventually Hastings-on-Hudson.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973616}
{"src_title": "Mangas Coloradas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Apache war-leader and chief.", "content": "During the decades of the 1820s and 1830s, the Apaches' main enemy were the Mexicans, who had won their independence from Spain in 1821. By 1835, Mexico had placed a bounty on Apache scalps. After Juan José Compa, the leader of the Coppermine Mimbreño Apaches, was killed for bounty money in 1837 in the massacre at Santa Rita del Cobre, Mangas became a war leader and a chief, and, joining forces with his friend and long-time companion (and possibly brother-in-law) Cuchillo Negro (Spanish: Black Knife), began a series of retaliatory raids against the Mexicans, killing and destroying all around the mining town and placing Santa Rita under siege, finally attacking the column of fleeing Mexicans and slaughtering a large number. Mangas Coloradas became the principal leader of the Coppermine Mimbreños, and led them for about 25 years, while Cuchillo Negro led the Warm Springs Mimbreños.  In 1846, when the United States went to war with Mexico, the Apache Nation promised U.S. soldiers safe passage through Apache lands. Once the U.S. occupied New Mexico in 1846, Mangas Coloradas signed a peace treaty, respecting them as conquerors of the hated Mexican enemy. An uneasy peace between the Apache and the United States lasted until an influx of gold miners into New Mexico's Pinos Altos Mountains led to open conflict.  In 1851 the settlement at Santa Rita del Cobre of the U.S. delegation (with General J.R. Bartlett) in the Mexican-American Border Commission, and the reopening of the Santa Rita del Cobre copper mines, effected the meeting with the Anglo-American newcomers. Mangas Coloradas, like Cuchillo Negro, Delgadito, Ponce, Coleto Amarillo and all the most important Tchihende and Ndendahe chiefs, had to face new problems. In June 1851 Mangas Coloradas, with Delgadito, Ponce and Coleto Amarillo, went to Santa Rita del Cobre to meet Bartlett, and the discussions continued until the Apaches no longer felt disappointed and betrayed by the newcomers. According to John C. Cremony's book, \"Life Among the Apaches\", in 1861, near Pinos Altos mining camp, Mangas Coloradas was attacked by a group of White miners who tied him to a tree and severely flogged him. Yet historian Edwin R. Sweeney finds issue with this claim in his biography of the chief: if it was true, probably Geronimo, who spent a great deal of time with Mangas Coloradas during the 1850s and 1860s, would have mentioned that to his biographer as a reason for the war, yet he did not. The killing of Cuchillo Negro by U.S. troops at Canyon de los Muertos Carneros in May 1857 was an even more bitter business.  In December 1860, 30 miners launched a surprise attack on an encampment of Bedonkohes on the west bank of the Mimbres River. Historian Edwin R. Sweeney reported, the miners \"\"... killed four Indians, wounded others, and captured thirteen women and children.\"\" Shortly after that, Mangas began raids against U.S. citizens and their property.  Mangas Coloradas' daughter Dos-Teh-Seh married Cochise, principal chief of the Tsokanende or Chiricahua Apache. In early February 1861, US Army Lieutenant George N. Bascom, investigating the \"Indian\" kidnapping of a rancher's son, apparently without orders, lured an innocent Cochise, his family and several warriors into a trap at Apache Pass, southeastern Arizona. Cochise managed to escape, but his family and warriors remained in custody. Negotiations were unsuccessful and fighting erupted. This incident, known as the \"Bascom Affair\", ended with Cochise's brother and five other warriors being hanged by Bascom. Later that year, Mangas Coloradas and Cochise struck an alliance, agreeing to drive all Americans out of Apache territory. They were joined in their effort by middle-aged Delgadito and Nana, Victorio, Juh and Geronimo. Although the goal was never achieved, the White population in Apache territory was greatly reduced for a few years during the Civil War, after federal troops had been withdrawn to the east.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In the summer of 1862, after recovering from a bullet wound in the chest, Mangas Coloradas met with an intermediary to call for peace. In January 1863, he decided to meet with U.S. military leaders at Fort McLane (Apache Tejo), in southwestern New Mexico. He was promised provisions in return for peace, but the white people didn't want to have peace with them. Mangas arrived under a flag of truce to meet with Brigadier General Joseph Rodman West, an officer of the California militia and a future Reconstruction senator from Louisiana. Armed soldiers took Mangas into custody. West gave an execution order to the sentries.  That night, Mangas was tortured, shot and killed under the pretext of a supposed escape attempt. While tied on the ground, Mangas was provoked with red hot bayonets until he moved to simulate his attempt to \"escape\".  The following day, U.S. soldiers, fascinated by the size of the Apache (Mangas was 6 feet, 6 inches tall), cut off his head, boiled it and sent the skull to Orson Squire Fowler, a phrenologist in New York City. Phrenological analysis of the skull and two sketches of it appear in Fowler's book. Daklugie, one of informants in Eve Ball's book, said the skull went to the Smithsonian Institution.  However, the Smithsonian has done a thorough search for the skull, and reports that it never received it. Mangas' descendants and sources based on their testimony may have confused the Smithsonian with Fowler's Phrenological Cabinet in New York, where the skull was on display, leading to the misattribution. Another possible fate of the skull was that it was returned to the Apaches by the Smithsonian in a 1990 transfer, but was not individually labeled.  The murder and mutilation of Mangas' body only increased the hostility between Apaches and the United States, resulting in war continuing for nearly another 25 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cinematic references.", "content": "The 1952 film \"Lone Star\" starring Clark Gable, featured Magnus Coloradus, played by Chief Yowlachie, among a group of Apaches, including a child named Geronimo, sitting west of the Pecos with Sam Houston.  He was portrayed by Abel Fernandez in the 1955 film \"Fort Yuma\".  The film \"War Drums\", was a 1957 American Western film directed by Reginald Le Borg and written by Gerald Drayson Adams. It featured Lex Barker as Mangas Coloradas, Joan Taylor and Ben Johnson. The friendship between a white man and an Apache chief is tested when they fall in love with the same woman during a time of frontier conflict.  The 2006 Australian film \"Last Train to Freo\", directed by Jeremy Sims, features a tattoo of \"Red Sleeves\" on the Tall Thug's arm, played by Steve Le Marquand. He then begins a short monologue, detailing the life of the Apache War Chief, in an attempt to gain the attention of Lisa, played by Gigi Edgley.  The 2013 film \"Avenged\", directed by Michael Ojeda, features the vengeful ghost of Mangas Coloradas as possessing a young woman's body and wreaking vengeance upon the descendants of General Joseph Rodman West.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mangas Coloradas or Mangus-Colorado (La-choy Ko-kun-noste, alias \"Red Sleeve\"), or Dasoda-hae (\"He Just Sits There\") (c. 1793 – January 18, 1863) was an Apache tribal chief and a member of the Mimbreño (Tchihende) division of the Central Apaches, whose homeland stretched west from the Rio Grande to include most of what is present-day southwestern New Mexico. He was the father-in-law of the Chiricahua (Tsokanende) Chief Cochise, the Mimbreño Chief Victorio and the Mescalero (Sehende) Chief Kutu-hala or Kutbhalla (probably to be identified with Caballero), and is regarded by historians to be one of the most important Native American leaders of the 19th century due to his fighting achievements against the Mexicans and Americans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973617}
{"src_title": "Alexandre Tansman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and heritage.", "content": "Tansman was born and raised in the Polish city of Łódź during the era when Poland did not exist as an independent state, being part of Tsarist Russia. His parents were both natives of Pinsk — his father Moishe (Mowsza) Tancman (1868-1908) died when Alexandre was 10 and his mother Chana Tancman (nee Hurwicz, 1872—1935) reared him and his older sister Teresa (born in 1895) alone.  The composer wrote the following about his childhood and heritage in a 1980 letter to an American researcher:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Although he began his musical studies at the Łódź Conservatory, his doctoral study was in law at the University of Warsaw. Shortly after completing his studies, Tansman moved to Paris, where his musical ideas were accepted and encouraged by mentors and musical influences Igor Stravinsky and Maurice Ravel, as opposed to the more conservative musical climate in his native Poland. While in Paris, Tansman associated with a crowd of foreign-born musicians known as the \"École de Paris\"; though Honegger and Milhaud tried to persuade him to join \"Les Six\", he declined, stating a need for creative independence. Tansman later wrote a biography of Stravinsky that was extremely well received.  Tansman used to describe himself as a French–Polish composer; he spoke French at home and married a French pianist, Colette Cras, daughter of the French composer and Admiral Jean Cras.  In 1941, Tansman fled Europe, as his Jewish background put him in danger with Hitler's rise to power. He moved to Los Angeles, thanks to the efforts of his friend Charlie Chaplin in founding a committee visa, where he soon joined the circle of famous emigrated artists that included Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and others. Tansman composed the score for at least three Hollywood movies: \"Flesh and Fantasy\", starring Barbara Stanwyck, a biopic of the Australian medical researcher Sister Elizabeth Kenny, starring Rosalind Russell and \"Paris Underground\" starring Constance Bennett. For the 1946 Academy Awards ceremony, he was nominated for an Oscar for Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture, for \"Paris Underground\". There was a huge field of 21 nominations, and the winner was Miklós Rózsa for \"Spellbound\". Tansman also composed scores for films made and released outside the United States.  When Alexandre Tansman returned to Paris after the war, his European musical career started again all over Europe and he composed his main works, which were immediately played by the best orchestras and conductors. In many works, Tansman returned to his musical roots, drawing on his Jewish and Polish background to create some of his greatest works. During the last period of his life, he began to reestablish connections to Poland, though his career and family kept him in France, where he lived until his death in Paris in 1986.  Today, the Alexandre Tansman Competition for promising musicians is held in his honour every other year in his birthplace of Łódź, in order to promote his music and the local culture. Notable students of Tansman include Yüksel Koptagel, Turkish composer and pianist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Tansman was not only an internationally recognized composer, but was also a virtuoso pianist. From 1932–33, Tansman performed worldwide for audiences including Emperor Hirohito of Japan and Mahatma Gandhi; he was regarded as one of the greatest Polish musicians. Later he performed five concert tours in the United States, including as a soloist under Serge Koussevitsky with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, as well as having a thriving career in France as a concert performer.  Many musicologists have said that Tansman's music is written in the French neoclassical style of his adopted home, and the Polish styles of his birthplace, drawing on his Jewish heritage. Already on the edge of musical thought when he left Poland (critics questioned his chromatic and sometimes polytonal writing), he adopted the extended harmonies of Ravel in his work and later was compared to Alexander Scriabin in his departure from conventional tonality.  One of Tansman's letters states that \"it is obvious that I owe much to France, but anyone who has ever heard my compositions cannot have doubt that I have been, am and forever will be a Polish composer.\" After Chopin, Tansman may be the leading proponent of traditional Polish forms such as the polonaise and the mazurka; they were inspired by and often written in homage to Chopin. For these pieces, which ranged from lighthearted miniatures to virtuoso showpieces, Tansman drew on traditional Polish folk themes and adapted them to his distinctive neoclassical style. However, he did not write straight settings of the folk songs themselves, as he states in a radio interview: \"I have never used an actual Polish folk song in its original form, nor have I tried to reharmonize one. I find that modernizing a popular song spoils it. It must be preserved in its original harmonization.\"  Tansman wrote more than 300 works, including 7 operas, 11 ballets, 6 oratorios, 80 orchestral pieces (with 9 symphonies), and numerous works of chamber music, among which are 8 string quartets, 8 concerti, about 100 pieces for piano, many pieces for the radio, and many works for children. He is also known for his guitar pieces, mostly written for Andrés Segovia – in particular the \"Cavatine\" and the \"Suite in modo polonico\" (1962), a collection of Polish dances. Segovia frequently performed the work in recordings and on tour; it is today part of the standard repertoire. Tansman's music has been performed by musicians such as Segovia, Walter Gieseking, José Iturbi, Jascha Heifetz, Jane Bathori, Joseph Szigeti, Pablo Casals, Gregor Piatigorsky, Igor Zubkovsky, and Christopher Parkening. Almost all his works have been now recorded on CDs. One can consult his discography on his website : \"alexandre-tansman.com\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected works.", "content": "For a more complete list of works see Tansman's biography from the university of Hamburg.  Tansman's many hundreds of compositions include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexandre Tansman (; 12 June 1897 – 15 November 1986) was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist of Jewish origin. He spent his early years in his native Poland, but lived in France for most of his life, being granted French citizenship in 1938. His Polish identity influenced several orchestral and chamber works, such as \"Rapsodie polonaise\" and \"Quatre Danses polonaises\", and some guitar works, such as \"Hommage à Lech Walesa\" and \"Hommage à Chopin\". His music is often said to be primarily neoclassical, drawing on his Polish Jewish heritage as well as his French musical influences.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973618}
{"src_title": "Five-prime cap", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "In eukaryotes, the 5′ cap (cap-0), found on the 5′ end of an mRNA molecule, consists of a guanine nucleotide connected to mRNA via an unusual 5′ to 5′ triphosphate linkage. This guanosine is methylated on the 7 position directly after capping \"in vivo\" by a methyltransferase. It is referred to as a 7-methylguanylate cap, abbreviated mG.  In multicellular eukaryotes and some viruses, further modifications exist, including the methylation of the 2′ hydroxy-groups of the first 2 ribose sugars of the 5′ end of the mRNA. cap-1 has a methylated 2′-hydroxy group on the first ribose sugar, while cap-2 has methylated 2′-hydroxy groups on the first two ribose sugars, shown on the right. The 5′ cap is chemically similar to the 3′ end of an RNA molecule (the 5′ carbon of the cap ribose is bonded, and the 3′ unbonded). This provides significant resistance to 5′ exonucleases.  Small nuclear RNAs contain unique 5′-caps. Sm-class snRNAs are found with 5′-trimethylguanosine caps, while Lsm-class snRNAs are found with 5′-monomethylphosphate caps.  In bacteria, and potentially also in higher organisms, some RNAs are capped with NAD, NADH, or 3′-dephospho-coenzyme A.  In all organisms, mRNA molecules can be decapped in a process known as messenger RNA decapping.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capping process.", "content": "The starting point for capping with 7-methylguanylate is the unaltered 5′ end of an RNA molecule, which terminates at a triphosphate group. This features a final nucleotide followed by three phosphate groups attached to the 5′ carbon. The capping process is initiated before the completion of transcription, as the nascent pre-mRNA is being synthesized.  The mechanism of capping with NAD, NADH, or 3′-dephospho-coenzyme A is different. Capping with NAD, NADH, or 3′-dephospho-coenzyme A is accomplished through an \"ab initio capping mechanism,\" in which NAD, NADH, or 3′-desphospho-coenzyme A serves as a \"non-canonical initiating nucleotide\" (NCIN) for transcription initiation by RNA polymerase and thereby directly is incorporated into the RNA product. Both bacterial RNA polymerase and eukaryotic RNA polymerase II are able to carry out this \"ab initio capping mechanism.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Targeting.", "content": "For capping with 7-methylguanylate, the capping enzyme complex (CEC) binds to RNA polymerase II before transcription starts. As soon as the 5′ end of the new transcript emerges from RNA polymerase II, the CEC carries out the capping process (this kind of mechanism ensures capping, as with polyadenylation). The enzymes for capping can only bind to RNA polymerase II, ensuring specificity to only these transcripts, which are almost entirely mRNA.  Capping with NAD, NADH, or 3′-dephospho-coenzyme A is targeted by promoter sequence. Capping with NAD+, NADH, or 3′-dephospho-coenzyme A occurs only at promoters that have certain sequences at and immediately upstream of the transcription start site and therefore occurs only for RNAs synthesized from certain promoters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "The 5′ cap has four main functions:  Nuclear export of RNA is regulated by the cap binding complex (CBC), which binds exclusively to 7-methylguanylate-capped RNA. The CBC is then recognized by the nuclear pore complex and exported. Once in the cytoplasm after the pioneer round of translation, the CBC is replaced by the translation factors eIF4E and eIF4G of the eIF4F complex. This complex is then recognized by other translation initiation machinery including the ribosome.  Capping with 7-methylguanylate prevents 5′ degradation in two ways. First, degradation of the mRNA by 5′ exonucleases is prevented (as mentioned above) by functionally looking like a 3′ end. Second, the CBC and eIF4E/eIF4G block the access of decapping enzymes to the cap. This increases the half-life of the mRNA, essential in eukaryotes as the export and translation processes take significant time.  Decapping of a 7-methylguanylate-capped mRNA is catalyzed by the decapping complex made up of at least Dcp1 and Dcp2, which must compete with eIF4E to bind the cap. Thus the 7-methylguanylate cap is a marker of an actively translating mRNA and is used by cells to regulate mRNA half-lives in response to new stimuli. Undesirable mRNAs are sent to P-bodies for temporary storage or decapping, the details of which are still being resolved.  The mechanism of 5′ proximal intron excision promotion is not well understood, but the 7-methylguanylate cap appears to loop around and interact with the spliceosome in the splicing process, promoting intron excision.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In molecular biology, the five-prime cap (5′ cap) is a specially altered nucleotide on the 5′ end of some primary transcripts such as precursor messenger RNA. This process, known as mRNA capping, is highly regulated and vital in the creation of stable and mature messenger RNA able to undergo translation during protein synthesis. Mitochondrial mRNA and chloroplastic mRNA are not capped.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973619}
{"src_title": "Le Tigre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Le Tigre were initially envisioned as a live backup band for Hanna's solo project Julie Ruin. They took their name from one of many hypothetical bands made up by Hanna circa 1994. After Benning left the band, Samson filled in for them during live performances and eventually became an official member. Samson had previously worked with the band as a roadie and the operator of the band's slideshow during the few live performances before Benning's departure.  In 2003, Le Tigre collaborated with Chicks on Speed on their cover of Tom Tom Club's \"Wordy Rappinghood\" from their album \"99 Cents\" along with other artists such as Miss Kittin, Kevin Blechdom, ADULT.'s Nicola Kuperus, and Tina Weymouth of Tom Tom Club. The cover became a moderate dance hit in Europe, peaking at number five on the Belgian Dance Chart, and at number sixty-six on the UK Singles Chart.  In 2010, Le Tigre briefly returned from an indefinite hiatus to produce Christina Aguilera's \"My Girls\", from her sixth studio album \"Bionic\". The track features Peaches.  Le Tigre members JD Samson and Johanna Fateman collaborated with Russian activists Pussy Riot during a concert organised by Vice (magazine) in 2014, performing Le Tigre's “Deceptacon”. Later, in 2015, they reunited with Pussy Riot to record a song and video for Netflix series House of Cards (American TV series).  In September 2016, the band announced they were reuniting just to release a “special song”. On October 19, 2016, Le Tigre released the song, titled “I’m with Her”, and its accompanying video to voice their support of the 2016 Democratic Presidential Nominee, Hillary Clinton.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Le Tigre (French for \"The Tiger\", pronounced ) was an American electronic rock band formed by Kathleen Hanna (formerly of Bikini Kill), Johanna Fateman and Sadie Benning in 1998 in New York City. Benning left in 2001 and was replaced by JD Samson for the rest of the group's existence. Le Tigre are known for their left-wing sociopolitical lyrics that often dealt with issues of feminism and the LGBT community. They mixed punk's directness and politics with playful samples, eclectic pop, and lo-fi electronics. The group also added multimedia and performance art elements to their live shows, which often featured support from like-minded acts such as The Need.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973620}
{"src_title": "Georg Benda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born into a family of notable musicians in Old Benatek (today Benátky nad Jizerou), Bohemia, he studied at the Piarist Gymnasium (grammar school) in Kosmanos and at the Jesuit Gymnasium in Gitschin from 1735 to 1742. Benda was 19 when Frederick the Great bestowed upon him in 1741 the position of second violinist in the chapel of Berlin. The following year Benda was summoned to Potsdam as a composer and arranger for his older brother Franz, himself an illustrious composer and violinist. Seven years later, in 1749, he entered the service of the Duke of Gotha as \"Kapellmeister,\" where he constantly cultivated his talents for composition, specializing in religious music.  A stipend from the duke allowed Benda to take a study trip to Italy in 1764. He returned to Gotha in 1766, and devoted himself to composition. In all, he wrote about ten operas, several operettas, and the melodramas ', \"Medea\" and '. In 1778 he resigned his position and visited Hamburg, Vienna, and other cities, and finally settled at the little hamlet of Köstritz. Benda's most important contribution lies in the development of the German melodramas, a form of musical stage entertainment which influenced Mozart. In 1774, the Swiss-born director Abel Seyler's theatrical company arrived in Gotha, and Seyler commissioned Benda to write several successful melodramas, including ', \"Medea\" and \"Pygmalion\".'is generally considered his best work. At its debut in 1775, the opera received enthusiastic reviews in Germany and afterwards, in the whole of Europe, with music critics calling attention to its originality, sweetness, and ingenious execution. Besides that he wrote many instrumental pieces including many sinfonias, keyboard sonatas, keyboard concertos, violin concertos and a smaller number of trio sonatas, violin sonatas and flute sonatas.  Benda also wrote music for masonic rituals.  Benda died in Köstritz, in Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, at the age of 73, leaving his son, Friedrich Ludwig Benda (1752–1796), who briefly carried on the family musical tradition, serving as a music director in Hamburg and later in Mecklenburg, before finally becoming the concertmaster in Königsberg. He died less than a year after his father.  Benda's Harpsichord Concerto in C was featured in Apple Computer's 1989 Knowledge Navigator concept video.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georg Anton Benda (), (30 June 17226 November 1795), was a Czech composer, violinist and Kapellmeister of the classical period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973621}
{"src_title": "Sansevieria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "There is great variation within the species formerly placed in the genus; they range from succulent desert plants such as \"Dracaena pinguicula\" to thinner leafed tropical plants such as \"Dracaena trifasciata\". Plants often form dense clumps from a spreading rhizome or stolons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foliage.", "content": "The leaves of former \"Sansevieria\" species are typically arranged in a rosette around the growing point, although some species are distichous. There is a great variation in foliage form. All former species can be divided into one of two basic categories based on their leaves: hard leaved and soft-leaved species. Typically, hard-leaved species originate from arid climates, while soft-leaved species originate from tropical and subtropical regions. Hard leaved species have a number of adaptations for surviving dry regions. These include thick, succulent leaves for storing water and thick leaf cuticles for reducing moisture loss. These leaves may be cylindrical to reduce surface area and are generally shorter than those of their soft leafed tropical counterparts, which are wide and strap-like.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "The flowers of former \"Sansevieria\" species are usually greenish-white, also rose, lilac-red, brownish, produced on a simple or branched raceme. The fruit is a red or orange berry. In nature, they are pollinated by moths, but both flowering and fruiting are erratic and few seeds are produced. The raceme is derived from the apical meristem, and a flowered shoot will no longer produce new leaves. Unlike plants such as agave which die after flowering, a bloomed shoot will simply cease to produce new leaves. The flowered shoot continues to grow by producing plantlets via its rhizomes or stolons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The genus name \"Sansevieria\" honors Italian scientist and inventor Raimondo di Sangro [1710–71], Prince of San Severo. The genus was originally named \"Sanseverinia\" by Vincenzo Petagna in 1787, to honor his patron Pietro Antonio Sanseverino, Count of Chiaromonte (1724–1771), in whose garden Petagna had seen the plant. In 1794, Thunberg, used the name \"Sansevieria\". It is not clear whether Thunberg's name was intended to be new, or was a typographical error for Petagna's name. \"\"Sansevieria\" \" is a conserved name in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, notwithstanding arguments that the author should be given as Petagna. The spellings \"\"Sanseveria\"\" and \"\"Sanseviera\"\" are commonly seen as well, the confusion deriving from alternate spellings of the Italian place name.  Molecular phylogenetic studies showed that \"Sansevieria\" was nested within \"Dracaena\", rendering the latter paraphyletic unless \"Dracaena\" was expanded to include the species formerly placed in \"Sansevieria\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sections.", "content": "As of 2015, the genus was subdivided into three sections, one of which was further subdivided into three subsections:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rope and traditional uses.", "content": "In Africa, the leaves of former \"Sansevieria\" species are used for fiber production; in some species, e.g. \"Dracaena hanningtonii\", the plant's sap has antiseptic qualities, and the leaves are used for bandages in traditional first aid.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ornamental purposes.", "content": "Several former \"Sansevieria\" species are popular houseplants in temperate regions, with \"Dracaena trifasciata\" the most widely sold; numerous cultivars are available. In China, the plant is usually kept potted in a pot often ornamented with dragons and phoenixes. Growth is comparatively slow and the plant will last for many years. There are two main varieties: wild type sansevierias have stiff, erect, scattered, lance-shaped leaves while the bird's nest sansevierias grow in rosettes. As houseplants, sansevierias thrive on warmth and bright light, but will also tolerate shade. They can rot from over-watering, so it is important that they are potted in well-drained soil, and not over-watered. They need to be re-potted or split at the root from time to time because they will sometimes grow so large that they break the pot they are growing in.  In Korea, potted sansevierias are commonly presented as a gift during opening ceremonies of businesses or other auspicious events. In Barbados, sansevieria is also popularly referred to as the \"money plant\", with the belief that the person having it will always have money. The belief seems to be based on an association of the color (green) with the US bills.  Other former \"Sansevieria\" species are less common in cultivation. Another species is \"Sansevieria cylindrica\", which has leaves which look quite different from \"D. trifasciata\", but is equally tough.  Plants can be propagated by seed, leaf-cutting, and division. Seeds are rarely used, as plants can normally be grown much faster from cuttings or divisions. As many cultivars are periclinal chimeras, they do not come true to type from leaf cuttings, and therefore must be propagated by rhizome division to retain the variegation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scenery in film and television.", "content": "Sansevierias have frequently been used as a set decoration in many films and TV shows, both in Hollywood and internationally, since at least the 1930s, including A Serbian Film, Being John Malkovich, Blue Velvet, Duck Soup, Groundhog Day, Homegrown, The Paper, and These Final Hours.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Air purification.", "content": "According to a NASA Clean Air Study, along with other plants such as golden pothos (\"Epipremnum aureum\") and corn plant (\"Dracaena fragrans\"), \"Dracaena trifasciata\" is capable of purifying air by removing some toxins such as formaldehyde, xylene, and toluene. Sansevierias use the crassulacean acid metabolism process, which absorbs carbon dioxide at night, although oxygen is released during daylight. Nighttime absorption of CO2 purportedly makes them especially suitable bedroom plants. However, since the leaves are potentially poisonous if ingested, they are not usually recommended for children's bedrooms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feng shui.", "content": "According to feng shui, because the leaves of sansevierias grow upwards, the plants can be used for feng shui purposes. Some believe that having sansevierias near children helps reduce coarseness, although care must be taken to ensure the child cannot reach the plant's poisonous leaves. Others recommend placing pots near the toilet tank to counter the drain-down vibrations.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sansevieria is a historically recognized genus of flowering plants, native to Africa, Madagascar and southern Asia, now included in the genus Dracaena on the basis of molecular phylogenetic studies. Common names for the 70 or so species formerly placed in the genus include mother-in-law's tongue, devil's tongue, jinn's tongue, bow string hemp, snake plant and snake tongue. In the APG III classification system, \"Dracaena\" is placed in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Nolinoideae (formerly the family Ruscaceae). It has also been placed in the former family Dracaenaceae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973622}
{"src_title": "Alla Pugacheva", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Professional biography.", "content": "Pugacheva was born to Boris Mikhailovich Pugachëv and Zinaida Arkhipovna (née Odegova) Pugachëv in Moscow, on 15 April 1949. In 1956, she enrolled in music school No31, and attended the Ippolitov-Ivanov music college. She went on to study at school No496, finishing her studies there in 1964. She then studied in the choral-conducting department of the college. Pugacheva recorded her first track \"Robot\" in 1965, for a morning programme on Radio Yunost.  Pugacheva finished college in 1966 and subsequently toured with the group Yunost' (\"Youth\") in Western Siberia. The following year she began working as a piano accompanist at the State Circus Musical college. She provided the leading vocals to a number of bands, including Novy Elektron (\"New Electron\"), part of the Lipetsk State Philharmonic Society, in 1966, Moskvichi (\"Muscovites\") in 1971, Oleg Lundstrem's band in 1972–73, and Vesyolye Rebyata (\"Merry Folks\") in 1974–75. She recorded songs throughout that period for numerous movies.  In 1974, she came in 3rd place in the All-Union competition of musicians. In 1975, she received the Grand Prix of the international contest \"Golden Orpheus\" performing the song \"Harlequin\" by Emil Dimitrov. The Amiga label released her winning song as a single in East Germany. Subsequently, in Bulgaria, the Balkanton label released the live recording of \"Harlequin\" from the festival as a single. One year later, Pugacheva returned to the \"Golden Orpheus\" to perform a concert outside the competition. The Balkanton released the live tracks as Pugacheva's first album \"Zolotoy Orfey 76\". In that same year, Pugacheva recorded a number of songs for the musical drama-comedy \"The Irony of Fate\" as the singing voice of Nadja, the female protagonist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Woman Who Sings\".", "content": "Pugacheva went on to work on the musical film \"The Woman who Sings\" in cooperation with the band Ritm (\"Rhythm\") in 1977. She played the leading lady, a famous pop singer who sacrifices her personal life for her career. The soundtrack, which was co-written by Pugacheva and composed of pop songs, culminated with the dramatic title ballad \"Zhenshchina, kotoraya poyot\". The Soviet audience, regarding the film as autobiographical, brought the soundtrack to reach record audience of the year in 1979, as it was bought by 55 million people. The soundtrack was first released in 1977 as part of the double album \"\" (\"Mirror of Soul\"), which was a collection of her songs from 1975 to 1977. The Victor label released a collection album \"Alla Pugacheva\" in the same year in Japan. In 1978, performing the song \"Vsyo mogut koroli\" (\"Kings Can Do Anything\"), Pugacheva received the Amber Nightingale prize at the Sopot International Song Festival which at the time meant automatically winning the Grand Prix of the Intervision Song Contest. In 1980, the Kansan label of Finland released her above listed works as the compilation album \"Huipulla\" (\"At the Top\"). Tonbandausnahmenkompanie Bayer GmbH did the same in West Germany, releasing \"Alla Pugachova\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stockholm (1980–1988).", "content": "During the 1980s, Pugacheva was a frequent visitor to Stockholm. She started out with multiple guest appearances on the popular Swedish radio show \"Galaxen\" (April 1980 year) conducted by Jacob Dahlin, and later frequently appeared on his TV-show \"Jacobs Stege\" (\"Jacob's Ladder\"). Dahlin and Pugacheva used to perform duets, such as \"Superman\" where Dahlin sings as the title character. In Stockholm, Pugacheva recorded an album in English, released by the World Record Music label in Sweden as \"Watch Out\" and by the Melodiya label in the Soviet Union as \"Alla Pugacheva in Stockholm\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In the late 1970s, Pugacheva became one of Russia's most beloved artists for her \"clear mezzo-soprano and a full display of genuine emotions\".  Pugacheva's most notable title is \"People's Artist of the USSR\", the highest honour that could be bestowed to a musical artist in the state, awarded to her in 1991. While the lesser titles of \"Accomplished Artist of the Russian SFSR\", and \"People's Artist of the Russian SFSR\" had been already awarded to her in 1980 and 1985 respectively, the government was hesitant to award her its highest honour, reportedly largely because of statements and actions on her part that were inconsistent with the Party's agenda. At the same time, she grew to represent the government-endorsed pop culture that was forced upon people. Pugacheva listed in the Russian Encyclopedia (2005).  President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev awarded Pugacheva the 3rd Degree Order of Merit for the Fatherland on her 60th birthday (15 April 2009).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours and awards.", "content": "! colspan=\"3\" style=\"background: red;\" | Ovation", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private life.", "content": "In 1969, she married Lithuanian circus performer, and in 1971 she gave birth to a daughter, Kristina Orbakaite, who is also a popular singer. Pugacheva divorced Orbakas after four years of marriage in 1973. She married film director Alexander Stefanovich in 1976, and starred in several of his movies. The union was dissolved in 1980.  In 1985, Pugacheva married producer Yevgeniy Boldin, with whom she had numerous professional collaborations. She had a working and romantic relationship with a young musician and singer, Vladimir Kuzmin during this period. In 1993, she divorced Yevgeniy Boldin stating that their professional lives interfered too much with their personal life.  In 1994, she married a pop singer, Philipp Kirkorov. Their divorce was announced in November 2005.  On 23 December 2011, Alla Pugacheva married Maxim Galkin. The couple has twins delivered by a surrogate mother. Their names are Liza and Harry.  In March 2014 Pugacheva signed a petition against persecution of Andrei Makarevich who protested against annexation of Crimea and war in Donbass.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Original solo albums.", "content": "Official English title.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CD singles.", "content": "There is an unknown number of single and EP releases published all over the world.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alla Borisovna Pugacheva (; sometimes transcribed in English as Pugachova, ; born 15 April 1949), is а Soviet and Russian musical performer. Her career started in 1965 and continues to this day, even though she does not give live performances anymore. For her \"clear mezzo-soprano and a full display of sincere emotions\", she enjoys an iconic status across the former Soviet Union as the most successful Soviet performer in terms of record sales and popularity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973623}
{"src_title": "Malva", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"mallow\" is derived from Old English \"mealwe\", which was imported from Latin \"malva\", cognate with Ancient Greek μαλάχη (malakhē) meaning \"mallow\", both perhaps reflecting a Mediterranean term.  The colour mauve was in 1859 named after the French name for this plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "Several species are widely grown as garden flowers, while some are invasive weeds, particularly in the Americas where they are not native.  Many species are edible as leaf vegetables and commonly foraged in the West. Known as \"ebegümeci\" in Turkish, it is used as vegetable in Turkey in various forms such as stuffing the leaves with bulgur or rice or using the boiled leaves as side dish. \"Malva verticillata\" (, Korean: \"auk\") is grown on a limited commercial scale in China; when made as a herbal infusion, it is used for its colon cleansing properties and as a weight loss supplement.  Very easily grown, short-lived perennials are often grown as ornamental plants. Mild tasting, young mallow leaves can be a substitute for lettuce, whereas older leaves are better cooked as a leafy green vegetable. The buds and flowers can be used in salads. Small fruits that grow on the plants can also be eaten raw.  Cultivation is by sowing the seeds directly outdoors in early spring. The seed is easy to collect, and they will often spread themselves by seed.  In Catalonia (Spain) they use the leaves to cure the sting or paresthesia of the stinging nettle (Urtica dioica).  Bodos of Northeast India cultivate a subspecies of malva called lapha and use it extensively in their traditional cuisine, although its use is not much known among other people of India. Malva leaves are a highly cherished vegetable dish in north Indian state of Kashmir. It is called \"Soachal\".  \"Malva sp.\" leaves have been used in traditional Austrian medicine internally as tea or externally as baths for treatment of disorders of the skin, gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract. The leaves can also be chewed to sooth coughs or sore throats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "This plant is one of the earliest cited in recorded literature. The third century BC physician Diphilus of Siphnus wrote that \"[mallow] juice lubricates the windpipe, nourishes, and is easily digested.\" Horace mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: \"Me pascunt olivae, / me cichorea levesque malvae\" (\"As for me, olives, endives, and mallows provide sustenance\"). Lord Monboddo describes his translation of an ancient epigram that demonstrates malva was planted upon the graves of the ancients, stemming from the belief that the dead could feed on such perfect plants.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Malva is a genus of about 25–30 species of herbaceous annual, biennial, and perennial plants in the family Malvaceae (of which it is the type genus), one of several closely related genera in the family to bear the common English name mallow. The genus is widespread throughout the temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of Africa, Asia and Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973624}
{"src_title": "Battle of Großbeeren", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "Following the Battle of Bautzen, in May 1813, during the War of the Sixth Coalition, both sides agreed to a seven-week truce to plan and better prepare. When the campaign resumed, in August, Napoleon ordered an offensive drive to take the Prussian capital of Berlin. With its capture, he hoped to knock the Prussians out of the war. Meanwhile, he kept the bulk of his army on the strategic defensive, to deal with any potential moves by the large Austrian army, which had now gathered in southeastern Germany. For this task, he chose one of his bravest and best commanders, Marshal Nicolas Oudinot, to lead the offensive. Oudinot tried to turn down this honor due to his poor health. He had been wounded on several occasions during the previous year's disastrous campaign in Russia, and had not yet fully recovered. But the emperor insisted, so Oudinot with three corps of about 60,000 men advanced on Berlin.  Unknown to both Napoleon and Oudinot at the time, this strategy played right into the Coalition's hands. In accordance with the Trachenberg Plan (the Allied plan for the campaign formulated during the truce), in large part created by Bernadotte himself, they would avoid any large, main engagement with Napoleon himself until after they had gathered overwhelming strength and weakened the emperor by defeating his marshals in separate, smaller battles.  Initially, Bernadotte, as commander of the Allied Army of the North, felt that Berlin was not defensible against a large French attack due to the lack of natural barriers to the south of the city and the danger to his line of retreat to Swedish Pomerania in the event Napoleon made the attack against Berlin his main effort. However, for political reasons, and the Prussian insistence that they would defend Berlin by themselves if necessary, the Crown Prince relented and began planning for the defense of the city. Bernadotte made use of the disposition of local road networks and marshy terrain and placed his various corps in position to hold an enemy advance along the few North-South roads long enough for the rest of the Army of the North to take advantage of a larger number of East-West roads, and the open terrain, to arrive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "From its start the offensive was plagued by misfortune. On the same day as the advance began, the 19 August, heavy rain storms broke out turning the roads into muddy quagmires and making it nearly impossible to move the artillery. Further hindering the advance, the area south of Berlin was crisscrossed with small lakes and swamps. In the best of weather there were only a couple of roads by which to approach the city from the south. But rain turned many of the Prussian defensive positions into fortified islands. Oudinot was forced to advance his Corps along three separate roads, with little communication between them.  General Bertrand's 4th Corps of 13,000 and 32 cannons to the right, on the left General Guilleminot's 12th Corps of 20,000, mainly inexperienced recent recruits, (nicknamed \"Marie-Louises\"). In the centre was the main column of General Jean Reynier's 7th Corps of 27,000 largely French allied Saxon troops. Oudinot did not expect any serious opposition and a lack of cavalry kept him unaware of the position of the enemy.  Berlin was defended by the Army of the North, commanded by Crown Prince Charles John of Sweden, formerly French Marshal Bernadotte. When Reynier's corps reached Großbeeren, he encountered the bulk of Prince Charles' army drawn up for battle. Acting without orders or support, he attacked Friedrich von Bülow's corps, which had just been reinforced by the Swedes to 38,000 strong, and was repulsed with heavy casualties. Oudinot, unable to concentrate his army, arrived late in the day just as Reynier's Saxons had begun to waver after that general failed to rally them for another assault. Von Bülow's Corps suffered light casualties, had fought extremely well, and petitioned to set out on an immediate pursuit of the unorganized French but was reined in by Charles John.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Realising the advance had been checked, and believing his army was in an exposed position, Oudinot ordered the retreat to Jüterbog after sustaining heavy losses. Reynier alone lost over 3,000 killed or wounded, 1,500 captured and 13 guns lost.  Bernadotte did not order a pursuit, despite the extreme vulnerability of the demoralized French and the vigorous protests of his Prussian generals. Bülow and Tauentzien argued that the French forces under Oudinot could be utterly destroyed by a rapid pursuit south, and protested Bernadotte's idleness to the senior Prussian commander in the field, Field Marshal Blücher and the King of Prussia. However, Bernadotte feared that moving away from Berlin to chase the French might be falling right into Napoleon's hands as it would mean isolating his Army, endangering his lines of communication by leaving Marshal Davout and his force of 35,000 in Hamburg in his rear, and drawing closer to the French main body thus allowing Napoleon to use interior lines to attack him before any Allied army could intervene. As a consequence, and to the extreme displeasure of the Prussians, the Allied Army of the North remained in its favorable defensive position near Berlin waiting to receive another French attack.  The defeat at Großbeeren, combined with continued ill health, had shaken Oudinot's confidence, and he continued the general retreat to Wittenberg. Napoleon was furious with Oudinot, not so much for his defeat, but for his withdrawal to Wittenberg instead of back to Luckau. He fumed, \"It is truly difficult to have fewer brains than the Duke of Reggio!\". Napoleon then appointed Marshal Michel Ney to lead a second drive on Berlin with the same three, now reduced and demoralized, corps and the ailing Oudinot as Ney's subordinate. The result would be the Battle of Dennewitz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary reference.", "content": "In 1833 Theodor Fontane – then a fourteen-year-old boy – visited the site of the Battle of Großbeeren and was deeply impressed, later writing a school essay about this battle – the first work known to have been penned by a man who would become a major German writer. Fontane recounted this reminiscence in a much later essay, written in his old age (1894). He mentioned also that his mother – at the time a young Berlin woman – had in the aftermath of the battle tended wounded soldiers, both German and French. Being of a Huguenot family who still spoke French among themselves, she was able to speak to dying French soldiers in their own language.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the Battles of Großbeeren and neighboring Blankenfelde and Sputendorf (23 August 1813) an allied Prussian-Swedish army under Crown Prince Charles John – formerly Marshal of France Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte – defeated the French under Marshal Oudinot. Napoleon had hoped to drive the Prussians out of the Sixth Coalition by capturing their capital, but the swamps south of Berlin combined with rain and the Marshal's ill health all contributed to the French defeat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973625}
{"src_title": "Bourges Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The site occupied by the present cathedral, in what was once the northeastern corner of the Gallo-Roman walled city, has been the site of the city's main church at least since Carolingian times and probably since the foundation of the bishopric in the 3rd century.  The present Cathedral was built as a replacement for a mid-11th-century structure, traces of which survive in the crypt. The date when construction began is unknown, although a document of 1195 recording expenditure on rebuilding works suggests that construction was already underway by that date. The fact that the east end protrudes beyond the line of the Gallo-Roman walls and that royal permission to demolish those walls was only granted in 1183 shows that work on the foundations cannot have started before that date. The main phase of construction is therefore roughly contemporaneous with Chartres Cathedral (begun 1194), some to the northwest. As with most Early- and High-Gothic cathedrals, the identity of the architect or master-mason is unknown.  The choir was in use (though not necessarily complete) by 1214 and the nave was finished by 1255. The building was finally consecrated in 1324. Most of the west façade was finished by 1270, though work on the towers proceeded more slowly, partly due to the unfavourable rock strata beneath the site. Structural problems with the South tower led to the building of the adjoining buttress tower in the mid-14th century. The North tower was completed around the end of the 15th century but collapsed in 1506, destroying the Northern portion of the façade in the process. The North tower and its portal were subsequently rebuilt in a more contemporary style.  Important figures in the life of the cathedral during the 13th century include William of Donjeon who was Archbishop from 1200 until his death in 1209 (and was canonised by the Pope in 1218 as St William of Bourges) as well as his nephew, Philip Berruyer (archbishop 1236-61), who oversaw the later stages of construction.  Following the destruction of much of the Ducal Palace and its chapel during the revolution, the tomb effigy of Duke Jean de Berry was relocated to the Cathedral's crypt, along with some stained glass panels showing standing prophets, which were designed for the chapel by André Beauneveu.  Generally the cathedral suffered far less than some of its peers during the French Wars of Religion and in the Revolution. Its location meant it was also relatively safe from the ravages of both World Wars.  The cathedral was added to the list of the World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 1992.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dimensions and structure.", "content": "Bourges Cathedral covers a surface of. The cathedral's nave is wide by high; its arcade is high; the inner aisle is and the outer aisle is high. The use of flying buttresses was employed to help the structure of the building. However, since this was a fairly new technique, one can easily see the walls were still made quite thick to take the force. Sexpartite vaults are used to span the nave.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plan and elevation.", "content": "Bourges Cathedral is notable for the simplicity of its plan, which did without transepts but which adopted the double-aisled design found in earlier high-status churches such as the Early-Christian basilica of St Peter's in Rome or in Notre Dame de Paris. The double aisles continue without interruption beyond the position of the screen (now largely destroyed though a few fragments are preserved in the crypt) to form a double ambulatory around the choir. The inner aisle has a higher vault than the outer one, while both the central nave and the inner aisle have similar three-part elevations with arcade, triforium and clerestory windows; a design which admits considerably more light than one finds in more conventional double-aisled buildings like Notre-Dame. This design, with its distinctive triangular cross section, was subsequently copied at Toledo Cathedral and in the choir at Le Mans. The flying buttresses surrounding the cathedral are relatively slender and efficient, particularly compared to the contemporary but much heavier flyers at Chartres. Their steep angle helps to channel the thrust from the nave vaults and the wind loading on the roof to the outer buttress piers more effectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Portals and façades.", "content": "The west façade is on a particularly grand scale when compared to earlier cathedrals. The four side aisles and central nave each have their own portal reflecting the scale of the spaces beyond. As is often the case with Gothic churches, the central portal carries sculpted scenes related to the Last Judgement, whilst the south portals are dedicated to the lives of saints - here St Ursinus and St Stephen. The north portals were destroyed when the tower collapsed but surviving fragments indicate that their sculptural programmes were dedicated to the life and death of the Virgin. Unifying all five portals is a dado screen of gabled niches which stretches the whole width of the façade. The spandrels between these niches feature an extended Genesis cycle which would originally have told the story from the beginning of Creation to God's Covenant with Noah.  Romanesque carved portals from about 1160-70, probably intended for the façade of the earlier cathedral, have been reused on the south and north doors (occupying the spaces normally reserved for transept portals). Their profuse ornamentation is reminiscent of Burgundian work.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Astronomical clock.", "content": "The astronomical clock of Bourges Cathedral was first installed in November 1424, during the reign of Charles VII, when the royal court was based in Bourges, for the occasion of the baptism of his son the Dauphin (the future Louis XI). Designed by the canon and mathematician and constructed by André Cassart, the clock is housed in a belfry-shaped case painted by Jean Grangier (or Jean of Orléans).  The clock's bells chime on the quarter hour, and chime the \"Salve Regina\" on the hour.  The clock was restored in 1782, 1822, 1841, and completely overhauled in 1872, when the upper dial showing only the time was installed. The zodiac calendar was restored in 1973. The clock was badly damaged by fire in 1986; after a complete restoration, the clock was reinstalled in 1994 with a replica mechanism. The original mechanism is on display in the cathedral.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stained glass.", "content": "Apart from the axial chapel, Bourges Cathedral retains most of its original ambulatory glass, which dates from about 1215 (around the same time as Chartres Cathedral). The glazing programme includes a famous Typological window (similar to examples at Sens and Canterbury), several hagiographic cycles, the story of the Old Testament patriarch, Joseph and symbolic depictions of the Apocalypse and Last Judgement. Other windows show the Passion and three of Christ's parables; the Good Samaritan, the Prodigal Son and the story of Dives and Lazarus. The French art historian Louis Grodecki identified three distinct masters or workshops involved in the glazing, one of whom may also have worked on the windows of Poitiers Cathedral.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Bourges Cathedral (French: \"Cathédrale Saint-Étienne de Bourges\") is a Roman Catholic church located in Bourges, France. The cathedral is dedicated to Saint Stephen and is the seat of the Archbishop of Bourges. It is in the Gothic and Romanesque architectural styles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973626}
{"src_title": "Bird ringing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Length averages, wingspan, and weight. Weight ranges from. Females are larger than males and northern populations are notably larger than southern populations. Adults are larger than whiskered screech owls, with larger feet and a more streaked plumage pattern.  There are several morphs: brown Pacific, grey Pacific, Great Plains, Mojave, and Mexican. All have either brown or dark gray plumage with streaking on the underparts. There is no red morph.  They have a round head with ear tufts, yellow eyes, and a yellowish bill. Their appearance is quite similar to whiskered and eastern screech owls, so it is best to identify them by their calls. They were previously considered to be the same species as the eastern screech owl.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Call.", "content": "The primary call is an accelerating series of short whistles at an increasing tempo or a short then long trill falling slightly at end. Other calls: barking and chuckling, similar to the eastern screech owl. They also make a high pitched screech.  The two primary songs for the Western Screen Owl are the bounce and double trill. In a recent study, researchers utilizes sonographic analysis of tape-recorded vocalizations to analyze whether the songs differ in male and females and if so, how accurately could songs be classified by sex. It was discovered that on average, male bounce songs were ~30% lower in frequency than bounce songs of females. However, song duration, note duration, number of notes per bout, and internet duration did not differ. For trill songs, males were also significantly lower in frequency compared to those of females. In addition, female double trill songs had greater internet distances in the leading portion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range and habitat.", "content": "The western screech owl is native to Canada, United States, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. Its habitat includes temperate forests, subtropical and tropical montane forests, shrubland, desert, rural fields, and even suburban parks and gardens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "They are permanent residents of the northwest North and Central America, breeding in open woods, or mixed woods at forest edges. They often use holes in trees or cacti that were opened by woodpeckers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prey.", "content": "These birds wait on perches to swoop down on unsuspecting prey; they may also catch insects in flight. They are active at dawn, night, or near dusk, using their excellent hearing and night vision to locate prey. Their diet consists mainly of small mammals such as mice or rats, birds, and large insects; however they are opportunistic predators, even taking small trout at night. Motion-activated cameras have photographed the birds eagerly scavenging a road-kill opossum. They have also been known to hunt Mallard ducks and cottontail rabbits, occasionally. Hatching of their young, usually four to five, is synchronized with the spring migration of birds; after migrants pass through screech-owls take fledglings of local birds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are 9 recognized subspecies:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bird ringing or bird banding is the attachment of a small, individually numbered metal or plastic tag to the leg or wing of a wild bird to enable individual identification. This helps in keeping track of the movements of the bird and its life history. It is common to take measurements and examine conditions of feather molt, subcutaneous fat, age indications and sex during capture for ringing. The subsequent recapture or recovery of the bird can provide information on migration, longevity, mortality, population, territoriality, feeding behavior, and other aspects that are studied by ornithologists. Other methods of marking birds may also be used to allow for field based identification that does not require capture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973627}
{"src_title": "Piste", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Piste maintenance.", "content": "Pistes are usually maintained using tracked vehicles known as snowcats to compact or \"groom\" the snow to even out trail conditions, remove moguls, and redistribute snow to extend the ski season. Natural snow is often augmented with snow making machines early in the season or when the snowpack is low.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ratings.", "content": "Typically, grading is done by the resort, and grades are relative to other trails within that resort. As such, they are not classified to an independent standard; although they are likely to be roughly similar, skiers should be cautious about assuming that grades in two different resorts are absolutely equivalent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "North America, Australia and New Zealand.", "content": "In North America, Australia and New Zealand, a color–shape rating system is used to indicate the comparative difficulty of trails (otherwise known as slopes or pistes).  The steepness of ski trails is usually measured by grade (as a percentage) instead of degree angle. In general, beginner slopes (green circle) are between 6% and 25%. Intermediate slopes (blue square) are between 25% and 40%. Difficult slopes (black diamond) are 40% and up. However, this is just a general \"rule of thumb\". Although slope gradient is the primary consideration in assigning a trail difficulty rating, other factors come into play. A trail will be rated by its most difficult part, even if the rest of the trail is easy. Ski resorts assign ratings to their own trails, rating a trail compared only with other trails at that resort. The resort may take into consideration the width of the trail, sharpest turns, terrain roughness, and whether the trail is groomed regularly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "In Europe, pistes are classified by a color-coded system. The actual color system differs in parts for each country, although in all countries blue (easy), red (intermediate) and black (expert) are used. Shapes are often not used, sometimes all ratings are circles as being defined in the basic rules of the German Skiing Association DSV. The three basic color codes of the DSV have been integrated into the national standards DIN 32912 in Germany and ÖNORM S 4610 f in Austria.  Slopes marked green, blue or red are groomed in all countries; blacks are groomed in Italy, Austria and Switzerland, while in France most black slopes are not groomed, but some are. All other classifications are generally not groomed. Sometimes slopes are marked on piste maps as dotted or as dashed lines, this also signifies that the slope is not groomed.  The ratings are:  Alpine slope classification in Europe is less rigidly tied to slope angle than in North America. A lower angle slope may be classified as more difficult than a steeper slope if it requires better skiing ability because, for example, it is narrower, requires carrying speed through flatter sections or controlling speed through sharp hairpin turns, or features off-camber slope angles or exposed rock.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Japan.", "content": "Japan uses a color-coded system, but shapes do not usually accompany them. Some resorts, mainly those catering to foreigners, use the North American or European color-coding system, adding to the confusion. The usual ratings are:  Japan has more than 1000 ski areas (115 in Nagano Prefecture alone), many of them small and family-oriented, so comparisons between slope classifications in Japan and \"equivalent\" slopes in Europe or North America are minimal.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A piste () is a marked ski run or path down a mountain for snow skiing, snowboarding, or other mountain sports.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973628}
{"src_title": "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Summary.", "content": "The themes of \"The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction\" (1935) are initially presented in Benjamin's quotation from the essay \"The Conquest of Ubiquity\" (1928), by Paul Valéry, to establish how works of art developed in the past are different from contemporary works of art; that the understanding and treatment of art and of artistic technique must progressively develop in order to understand a work of art in the modern context.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artistic production.", "content": "The Preface presents Marxist analyses of the construction of a capitalist society and of the place of art in such a society, in the public sphere and in the private sphere; and explains the socio-economic conditions of society to extrapolate future developments of capitalism, which result in the economic exploitation of the proletariat, and so produce the social conditions that would abolish capitalism. Benjamin establishes that artistic reproduction is not a modern human activity, by reviewing the historical and technological developments of the mechanical means for reproducing a work of art, such as an artist manually copying the work of a master artist; the industrial arts of the foundry and the stamp mill in Ancient Greece; and the modern arts of woodcut relief-printing and engraving, etching, lithography, and photography, which are the industrial techniques that permit greater accuracy through mass production.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Authenticity.", "content": "In the discussion of the \"aura\" of authenticity and physical uniqueness, Benjamin said that \"even the most perfect reproduction of a work of art is lacking in one element: Its presence in time and space, its unique existence at the place where it happens to be\"; and that the \"sphere of authenticity is outside the technical [sphere]\" of the reproduction of artworks. Therefore, the original work of art is an \"objet d'art\" independent of the copy; yet, by changing the cultural context of where the art happens to be, the mechanical copy diminishes the aesthetic value of the original work of art. In that way, the \"aura\" — the unique aesthetic authority of a work of art — is absent from the mechanically produced copy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cult value vs exhibition value.", "content": "Benjamin states that \"works of art are received and valued on different planes:.. the cult value... [and] the exhibition value.\" For cult value, \"one may assume that what mattered was their existence, not their being on view.\" He gives as examples \"certain statues of gods are accessible only to the priest in the cella; certain Madonnas remain covered nearly all year round; certain sculptures on medieval cathedrals are invisible to the spectator on ground level.\" The reduction of the cult value of art works (such as when a Venus statue is no longer venerated as an statue of a goddess) increases their fitness and ability to be exhibited to the masses. (\"It is easier to exhibit a portrait bust that can be sent here and there than to exhibit the statue of a divinity that has its fixed place in the interior of a temple.\")  Mechanical reproduction further separates art from its basis in cult. It takes the object away from a fixed location and makes it available to a wider audience. He argues that with “the photographic image, exhibition value for the first time shows its superiority to cult value.” With this newfound emphasis on exhibition value, \"the work of art becomes a creation with entirely new functions\". Functions that we assigned to art objects today, such as the artistic function, \"later may be recognized as incidental.\"  Film as a medium, Benjamin says, is not predisposed to the creation of cult value. \"The audience’s identification with the actor is really an identification with the camera. Consequently the audience takes the position of the camera; its approach is that of testing. This is not the approach to which cult values may be exposed.\" \"The film makes the cult value recede into the background not only by putting the public in the position of the critic, but also by the fact that at the movies this position requires no attention.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art as politics.", "content": "The social value of a work of art changes as a society change their value systems; thus the changes in artistic styles and in the cultural tastes of the public follow \"the manner in which human sense-perception is organized [and] the [artistic] medium in which it is accomplished, [which are] determined not only by Nature, but by historical circumstances, as well.\" Despite the socio-cultural effects of mass-produced, reproduction-art upon the \"aura\" of the original work of art, Benjamin said that \"the uniqueness of a work of art is inseparable from its being embedded in the fabric of tradition\", which separates the original work of art from the reproduction. That the ritualization of the mechanical reproduction of art also emancipated \"the work of art from its parasitical dependence on ritual\", thereby increasing the social-value of exhibiting works of art, which practice progressed from the private sphere of life, the owner's enjoyment of the aesthetics of the artefacts (usually High Art), to the public sphere of life, wherein the public enjoy the same aesthetics in an art gallery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "In the late 20th century, in the television program \"Ways of Seeing\" (1972), John Berger parted from and developed the themes of \"The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction\", to explain the contemporary representations of social class and racial caste inherent to the politics and production of art. That the modern means of artistic production and of artistic reproduction have destroyed the aesthetic, cultural, and political authority of art by its commodification: \"For the first time ever, images of art have become ephemeral, ubiquitous, insubstantial, available, valueless, free\", for being commercial products that lack the \"aura\" of the original work of art.  This essay and Benjamin's \"Passagenwerk\" also influenced Marshal McLuhan's studies in media theory.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction\" (1935), (often translated as The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility) by Walter Benjamin, is an essay of cultural criticism which proposes that the mechanical reproduction of a work of art devalues the \"aura\" of the artefact's uniqueness as art. During the Nazi régime (1933–1945), Benjamin wrote the essay to produce a theory of art that is \"useful for the formulation of revolutionary demands in the politics of art\" in a mass-culture society; that, in the age of mechanical reproduction, and the absence of traditional and ritualistic value, the production of art would be inherently based upon the praxis of politics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973629}
{"src_title": "Passementerie", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Passementerie worked in white linen thread is the origin of bobbin lace, and \"passement\" is an early French word for lace.  Today, passementerie is used with clothing, such as the gold braid on military dress uniforms, and for decorating couture clothing and wedding gowns. They are also used in furniture trimming, such as the Centripetal Spring Armchair of 1849 and some lampshades, draperies, fringes and tassels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In the West, tassels were originally a series of windings of thread or string around a suspending string until the desired curvature was attained. Decades later, turned wooden moulds, which were either covered in simple wrappings or much more elaborate coverings called \"satinings\", were used. This involved an intricate binding of bands of filament silk vertically around the mould by means of an internal \"lacing\" in the bore of the mould. A tassel is primarily an ornament, and was at first the casual termination of a cord to prevent unraveling with a knot. As time went on, various peoples developed variations on this.  In the 16th century, the Guild of Passementiers was created in France. In France practitioners of the art were called \"passementiers\", and an apprenticeship of seven years was required to become a master in one of the subdivisions of the guild.  The Guild documented the art of passementerie. The tassel was its primary expression, but it also included fringes (applied, as opposed to integral), ornamental cords, galloons, pompons, rosettes, and gimps as other forms. Tassels, pompons, and rosettes are \"point\" ornaments; the others are linear ornaments. These constructions were varied and augmented with extensive ornamentations. These constructions were each assigned an idiosyncratic term by their French practitioners.  The French widely exported their very artistic work, and at such low prices that no other nation developed a mature \"trimmings\" industry. Tassels and their associated forms changed style throughout the years, from the small and casual of Renaissance designs, through the medium sizes and more staid designs of the Empire period, and to the Victorian Era with the largest and most elaborate.  In Scotland at the end of the 16th century some passementerie was made with inferior gold and silver thread which quickly tarnished. On 6 May 1593 the Duke of Lennox and his friends decided not to wear any passementerie for a year, especially \"passements great or small, plain or 'a jour', bissets, lilykins, cordons, and fringes\".  Passementerie with clothing was for a long time reserved for the elites as a sign of social distinction among royalty, aristocracy, religious, and military. Since the 18th century, the use became largely obsolete with the simplification of clothing.  Periodically historic designs return to favour by Interior and Fashion Designers. The middle of the 20th century saw a marked decline in the production and range of these products. The latter part of the 20th century has seen a resurgence in interest partly led by the film industry's set designers and costumiers. European and American artisans specialising in hand-made products are increasing in number.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Passementerie (, ) or passementarie is the art of making elaborate trimmings or edgings (in French, \"passements\") of applied braid, gold or silver cord, embroidery, colored silk, or beads for clothing or furnishings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973630}
{"src_title": "Don S. Davis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Davis was born and raised in Aurora, Missouri. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree in theater and art from Southwest Missouri State College. He said that \"during the Vietnam era\" he \"was with the 7th Infantry in Korea\" and at another point was \"a personnel and administration officer; I ran records branches.\" He was a captain at Fort Leonard Wood by the time he left the U.S. Army, \"and worked with General Officers, so I've been able to use that in Hammond and other characters.\"  In 1970 he received a Master's Degree in Theatre from the Southern Illinois University Carbondale (SIU); his thesis was \"Design and Construction of Stage Settings for Black Comedy and The Two Executioners\". He taught for several years before returning to SIUC to complete a Ph.D. in Theatre; his dissertation was \"The Evolution of Scenography in the Western Theater\".  He began working in the film industry in the 1980s, while teaching at the University of British Columbia. In 1987, he stopped teaching in order to pursue acting full-time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "He got the role of the eloquently spoken Major Briggs, he said, when \"I was living in Vancouver and doing local work. But because of my accent in the '80s I couldn't play a Canadian in commercials. So someone suggested that I get an agent in Seattle. I did and was able to get commercial work and acting jobs there. I had a good resume. So when they were casting the \"Twin Peaks\" pilot my agent sent me out to the audition. I met series creator David Lynch and didn't actually read for him — we just visited.... David liked me and started writing for me. He liked the chemistry I had with other players. I did three days on the pilot and then went on to the series. That was the luckiest break I could have had. There are at least a dozen people from that show who are lifelong friends because of that show. It was a life-changing experience.\"  In the TV show \"MacGyver\", Davis was the stunt/photography double for Dana Elcar. He was often mistaken for Elcar, and vice versa. Davis did appear in two episodes of \"MacGyver\", as a different character each time. His first appearance was as a cement truck driver in the episode \"Blow Out\", and his second appearance was as the poacher Wyatt Porter in \"The Endangered\". He also played Dana Scully's father in the series \"The X-Files\". Canadian audiences may also be familiar with Davis thanks to his appearance in one of the famous \"Heritage Minutes\", in which he played an arrogant American gold prospector who pulls a gun on Mountie Sam Steele. He also played the role of the Racine Belles' manager in the movie \"A League of Their Own\". He also had a guest-starring role in the pilot episode of the comedy-drama television series \"Psych\", playing the character of Mr. McCallum.  He was a member of the main cast of \"Stargate SG-1\" during the first seven seasons of that television series, portraying General Hammond, commander of Stargate Command (SGC). He appeared in a recurring role during Seasons 8 to 10, cutting back his commitment due to health problems. He also played the character in one episode of the \"Stargate\" spin-off series \"Stargate Atlantis\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and death.", "content": "Davis, who was living in Gibsons, British Columbia, Canada, died on June 29, 2008, of a heart attack. His ashes were scattered into the Pacific Ocean.  The writers of \"Stargate Atlantis\" paid him homage by mentioning the death of his character George Hammond and naming a spaceship after him in the final episode of the show airing January 9, 2009. He was again honored in October 2009, with the appearance of the spaceship \"Hammond\" in the pilot episode of \"Stargate Universe\". Coincidentally, in episode 16 of season 4 of \"SG-1\", \"2010\" (an episode set in the future which originally aired in January 2001), it is stated that General Hammond had died of a heart attack prior to the episode's events.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Davis married Ruby Fleming in 2003, by which time he had a son, Matt Davis, from a previous marriage. He was given a GMC Envoy as a gift from the producers of \"Stargate SG-1\" which his son still drives to this day. He was also a visual artist, spending most of his free time painting or carving. Davis grew up painting, sculpting and drawing. He continued to pursue these crafts his entire life, supplementing his income with design commissions and art sales. On the DVD commentary track for \"Stargate SG-1\" season 6 episode 17 (\"Disclosure\"), Davis said that he once had a job carving wooden cigar store Indians that were sold at Silver Dollar City.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Don Sinclair Davis (August 4, 1942 – June 29, 2008) was an American character actor best-known for playing General Hammond in the television series \"Stargate SG-1\" (1997–2007), and earlier for playing Major Garland Briggs on the television series \"Twin Peaks\" (1990–1991). He was also a theater professor, painter, and United States Army captain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973631}
{"src_title": "Jeux sans frontières", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The idea of the show came from French President Charles de Gaulle, whose wish was that French and German youth would meet in a series of games to reinforce the friendship between France and Germany. In 1965, Guy Lux and Claude Savarit spread this idea to other European countries. Teams representing France, Germany, Belgium, and Italy took part in the first edition of the show called \"Inter Nations Games\".  At the height of its popularity, the show was watched by 110 million viewers across Europe. The original series run ended in 1982. It was revived in 1988 with a different complexion of nations and in its latest editions was hosted by smaller broadcasters, with the notable exception of Italy's RAI, which hosted three editions with a fixed location in 1996, 1998 and 1999.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "In its original conception, it featured teams from different European countries in outlandish costumes (often large latex suits) competing to complete bizarre tasks in funny games. Each of the teams receive a score for each game, which are umpired by one or two \"international\" judges, with an overall winner at the end of each series. Each participating country hosted one round of the games, presented by the host broadcaster. The games were inspired by the matches between French cities, with some played in swimming pools.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Participating countries and wins.", "content": "Between 1965 and 1999, 20 countries participated in 30 seasons of \"Jeux sans frontières\" (considering Czech Republic and Czechoslovakia as separate participants):  Each country was assigned a unique colour which it used on its uniforms and equipment. In the original series which ended in 1982, the colours were: Belgium - Yellow; Germany - Light Blue; Great Britain - Red; Italy - Dark Blue; Yugoslavia - White. France were originally assigned Purple, but this changed to Green after 1973. Switzerland were assigned Light Brown, but during the 1979 series, they switched to Red and White combined, confusing their teams with the British participants. The Netherlands were assigned Orange, but when the nation left the series after 1977, the colour was reassigned to Portugal from 1979.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revival attempts.", "content": "In 2006, the EBU announced plans to relaunch the series in summer 2007, in collaboration with Mistral Production and Upside Television. Belgium, Croatia, Spain, Greece, Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia and Italy were thought to be participating countries. However, due to financial setbacks, the plans were put on hold—originally for 12 months, but later they were abandoned altogether.  In December 2016, the EBU in strategic planning for 2017–2020 included a new format based on the show, called \"Eurovision Super Games\", a new attempt to revisit the TV program last aired in 1999. Twelve countries had joined and were involved in the project, a competition between eight countries each represented by four athletes playing a series of mental and physical challenges. The audiences at home would have the possibility to elect the 2 athletes of their country to participate in the proposed challenge. However, due to the lack of financial guarantees, the EBU announced in June 2017 that it would not be created.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2019 revivals.", "content": "A revival of the show was confirmed on 18 June 2019 at the annual France Télévisions press conference. The revival will be produced by Nagui and broadcast on France 2.  The Italian version aired on Canale 5 from 19 September 2019 to 24 October 2019, with Ilary Blasi and Alvin as hosts. According to Italian media reports this edition, retitled \"Eurogames\" and filmed at Cinecittà World in Rome, was devoted to lighted matches between the teams of Italy, Spain, Germany and Greece alongside newcomers Poland and Russia but did not use the format of the original show. In Spain, six episodes premiered on the streaming service Mitele Plus on 3 January 2020, with Lara Álvarez and Joaquín Prat as hosts.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jeux sans frontières (\"Games Without Borders\" in French) was a Europe-wide television game show, based on the French programme \"Intervilles\" which was first broadcast in 1962. In its original conception, it was broadcast from 1965 to 1999 under the auspices of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), which owned the format.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973632}
{"src_title": "Giovanni da Pian del Carpine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life before the journey.", "content": "Giovanni appears to have been a native of Umbria, in central Italy. His surname was derived from Pian del Carpine (literally \"Hornbeam Plain\"), an area known later as Magione, between Perugia and Cortona. He was one of the companions and disciples of his near-contemporary and countryman Saint Francis of Assisi.  Highly-esteemed within the Franciscan order, Giovanni had a prominent role in the propagation of its teachings in northern Europe, holding in succession the offices of warden (\"custos\") in Saxony and provincial (\"minister\") of Germany. He may also have held positions in Barbary and Cologne, and been provincial of Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background to his travels.", "content": "Giovanni was provincial of Germany at the time of the great Mongol invasion of eastern Europe and the Battle of Legnica (modern Legnickie Pole) on 9 April 1241. The defeat of European forces at Legnica led almost to Ögedei, Khan of the Mongol Empire, controlling most of Eastern Europe.  In Europe, dread of the \"Tatars\" (Mongols) was still widespread four years later, when Pope Innocent IV decided to dispatch the first formal Catholic mission to the Mongols. The missionaries were sent partly in protest at the Mongol invasion of Christendom and partly to gain information regarding the Khan's intentions and military strength.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Giovanni's travels.", "content": "Pope Innocent IV chose Giovanni to head this mission, and apparently was in charge of nearly everything in the mission. As a papal legate, he bore a letter from the Pope to the Great Khan, \"Cum non solum\". \"At the age of sixty-three Carpini embarked from Lyon,\" where the Pope then resided, on Easter day (16 April 1245), accompanied by another friar, Stephen of Bohemia, who broke down at Kaniv near Kiev and was left behind. After seeking counsel of an old friend, Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, Giovanni was joined at Wrocław by another Franciscan, Benedykt Polak, appointed to act as interpreter.  The route passed by Kiev, entered the Tatar posts at Kaniv, and then ran across the Nepere to the Don and Volga. Giovanni is the first Westerner to give us the modern names for these rivers. On the Volga stood the Ordu, or camp, of Batu, the famous conqueror of eastern Europe and supreme Mongol commander on the western frontiers of the empire. He was one of the most senior princes of the house of Genghis Khan. Here the envoys, with their presents, had to pass between two fires to remove possible injurious thoughts and poisons, before being presented to the prince (beginning of April 1246).  Batu ordered them to proceed to the court of the supreme Khan in Mongolia. On Easter day once more (8 April 1246), they started on the second and most formidable part of their journey. They were \"so ill\", writes the legate, \"that we could scarcely sit a horse; and throughout all that Lent our food had been nought but millet with salt and water, and with only snow melted in a kettle for drink\". Their bodies were tightly bandaged so they could endure the excessive fatigue of this enormous ride, which took them across the Jaec or Ural River, and north of the Caspian Sea and the Aral to the Jaxartes or Syr Darya (\"quidam fluvius magnus cujus nomen ignoramus\", \"a big river whose name we do not know\"), and the Muslim cities that then stood on its banks. Then they went along the shores of the Dzungarian lakes until, on the feast of St Mary Magdalene (22 July), they reached the imperial camp called Sira Orda (i.e., Yellow Pavilion), near Karakorum and the Orkhon River. Giovanni and his companions rode an estimated 3000 miles in 106 days.  Since the death of Ögedei Khan, the imperial authority was in interregnum and Güyük, Ögedei's eldest son, was designated to the throne. His formal election in a great Kurultai, or diet of the tribes, took place while the friars were at Sira Orda, which entailed the gathering of 3000 to 4000 envoys and deputies from all parts of Asia and eastern Europe, bearing homage, tribute and presents. On 24 August they witnessed the formal enthronement at another camp in the vicinity called the Golden Ordu, after which they were presented to the new emperor.  The great Khan, Güyük, refused the invitation to become Christian, and demanded rather that the Pope and rulers of Europe should come to him and swear allegiance to him. The Khan did not dismiss the expedition until November. He gave them a letter to the Pope—written in Mongol, Arabic, and Latin—that was a brief imperious assertion of the Khan's office as the scourge of God. They began a long winter journey home. Often they had to lie on the bare snow, or on ground scraped bare of snow with a foot. They reached Kiev on 10 June 1247. There, and on their further journey, the Slavonic Christians welcomed them as risen from the dead, with festive hospitality. Crossing the Rhine at Cologne, they found the Pope still at Lyon, and delivered their report and the Khan's letter.  Not long afterward, Giovanni was rewarded with the archbishopric of \"Primate of Serbia\" in Antivari in Dalmatia, and was sent as legate to Louis IX of France. He lived only five years following the hardships of his journey. He died, according to the Franciscan Martyrology and other authorities, on 1 August 1252.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "His books.", "content": "The \"Ystoria Mongalorum\" is the report compiled by Carpine, of his trip to the Mongol Empire. Written in the 1240s, it is the oldest European account of the Mongols. Carpine was the first European to try to chronicle Mongol history. Two versions of the \"Ystoria Mongalorum\" are known to exist: Carpine's own and another, usually referred to as the \"Tartar Relation\".  Erik Hildinger translated Giovanni's book into English.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, variously rendered in English as \"John of Pian de Carpine\", \"John of Plano Carpini\" or \"Joannes de Plano\" (\"ca\" 1185 – 1 August 1252), was a medieval Italian diplomat, archbishop and explorer and one of the first Europeans to enter the court of the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. He is the author of the earliest important Western account of northern and central Asia, Rus, and other regions of the Mongol dominion. He was the Primate of Serbia, based in Antivari, from 1247 to 1252.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973633}
{"src_title": "Peruvian Hairless Dog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "According to the FCI breed standard, the most important aspect of its appearance is its hairlessness. The dog may have short hair on top of its head, on its feet, and on the tip of its tail. In Peru, breeders tend to prefer completely hairless dogs. The full-coated variety is disqualified from conformation showing. The color of skin can be chocolate-brown, elephant-grey, copper, or mottled. They can be totally one color or one color with tongue pink spots. Albinism is not allowed. The eye color is linked to the skin color. It is always brown, but dogs with light colors can have clearer eyes than darker-skinned dogs.  Peruvian Hairless Dogs come in three sizes:  Weight is also varied according to size :  The dogs should be slim and elegant, with the impression of force and harmony, without being coarse.  The ears should be candle-flame shaped and erect with the possibility to lay flat.  Proportions of height (at withers) to length (withers to base of tail) are 1:1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "The breed's bald bodies radiate heat. Many in Peru use the dogs as living hot-water bottles for warmth at night, or pain management. They are intelligent, affectionate with family, but wary of strangers, and very protective of women and children in the family. The breed is typically lively, alert and friendly with other dogs. They are agile and fast, and many of them enjoy sight-hunting small rodents. These dogs do not like to be alone, but when trained, can do well. They tend to know their allowed territories and respect it. These dogs are intolerant of extreme temperatures, although they are quite comfortable wearing clothing and will even play in the snow if dressed warmly. They generally require an owner that understands dog language and are not recommended for beginners. They learn fast, and they are very smart, but get bored easily with repetitious games like \"fetch\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Care.", "content": "The lack of hair leads to a reputation for being easy to wash and for a natural lack of fleas. The breed does not cause typical allergic reactions to dog-sensitive humans because they lack the normal dog dander. Dogs should be washed from time to time to remove dirt and prevent clogging of pores. Baby cleaners are a good choice provided that they do not contain \"lanolin\". Some dogs are prone to have acne or at least blackheads. The skin sometimes becomes too dry and can then be treated with moisturizing cream. Again, baby lotion without \"lanolin\" is a good product choice to soften and moisturize cleansed skin. The dogs themselves seem to prefer olive, vegetable or coconut oil, possibly because of the perfumes and other chemicals found in commercial moisturizing creams.  Sunscreen may be useful during summer for lightly colored/white dogs. When out-breeding Peruvians typically select dark-coated dogs to ensure puppies with dark skin.  Protection against cold is necessary when the dog is not able to move around at its own speed under adverse weather conditions. Sensitivity to cold may vary from dog to dog. Smaller dogs seem to be more sensitive to the cold than their larger counterparts. Even so, the dogs are kept in Puno at 3,800 meters altitude, where the average temperature is 15 degrees Celsius, and are fairly common in Cusco at 3,400 meters.  The rims of the ears sometimes need special attention as they can become dry and cracked.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics and health.", "content": "The gene that causes hairlessness also results in the breed often having fewer teeth than other breeds, mostly lacking molars and premolars. All are born with full sets of puppy teeth, but these are not fully replaced by adult teeth as they naturally fall out, leaving them with varying levels of adult dentition.  The hairlessness trait is a dominant double lethal mutation, which means that homozygotic hairlessness does not exist. Homozygous embryos, those with two copies of the gene, do not develop in the womb. This results in an average birthrate of 2:1, hairless : coated. According to Hans Räber \"Enzyklopädie der Rassehunde\" T.I 33% of the population is born coated.  While they are recognized by the American Kennel Club (AKC) for its Foundation Stock Service as Peruvian Inca Orchids, they cannot be shown at AKC shows, they are also registerable with FCI, UKC, NKC, APRI, ACR. Some breeders think that interbreeding with coated (Peruvian) dogs is required to maintain functional teeth and nervous system health in subsequent generations. They say that breeding of hairless with hairless (and common but unacknowledged culling of hairy pups from litters to maintain a \"pure\" image) leads to short-lived dogs with serious health problems. However, other breeders (especially in Peru) think the opposite, and are doing well (for centuries already), too. Peruvian non-breeder families typically out-breed with coated dogs every other or every third generation to keep them healthy.  Like all dog breeds, there are some health problems. These include IBD, seizures, stroke, and skin lesions. They are very sensitive to toxins and care should be taken in use of insecticides. Insecticides are absorbed through the skin, and body fat keeps these toxins from entering the liver too quickly. Since these dogs have very low body fat, toxins are absorbed too quickly and cause severe damage to the nervous system and GI tract.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Peruvian Hairless is an ancient breed in the history of Peru, depicted in pre-Incan art and pottery. Although it is often perceived to be an Incan dog because it is known to have been kept during the Inca Empire (the Spaniards classified them as one of the six different breeds of dogs in the empire), they were also kept as pets in pre-Inca cultures from the Peruvian northern coastal zone. Ceramic hairless dogs from the Chimú, Moche, and Vicus culture are well known. Depictions of Peruvian hairless dogs appear around A.D. 750 on Moche ceramic vessels and continue in later Andean ceramic traditions. The main area of the Inca Empire (the mountains) is too cold for the natural existence of hairless dogs. While they were commonly eaten in ancient times, in the northern coastal areas of Peru, the Inca prohibited the consumption of dogs when they conquered that region.  The Spanish conquest of Peru brought much larger breeds. Many people avoided Peruvian Hairless strays in cities, believing that they lacked fur because of illness. The breed survived in rural areas where the people believed that they held a mystical value, and because of their reputation to treat arthritis.  Peruvian Hairless dogs are now a symbol of Peru and part of its national heritage, celebrated in art and literature. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) accepted the breed and adopted an official breed standard. Before that time, in the United States, some enthusiasts created another type of Peruvian hairless dog, the Peruvian Inca Orchid. The Peruvian Inca Orchid is recognized by the AKC, and all recognized dogs are descendants of 13 dogs brought from Peru in the early 20th century. The UKC also recognized the breed in recent years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "DNA evidence.", "content": "In 2018, an analysis of DNA from the entire cell nucleus indicated that dogs entered North America from Siberia 4,500 years after humans did, were isolated for the next 9,000 years, and after contact with Europeans these no longer exist because they were replaced by Eurasian dogs. The pre-contact dogs exhibit a unique genetic signature that is now gone.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Peruvian Hairless Dog, Peruvian viringo, naked dog, or Chimú dog is one of several breeds of hairless dog. It is native of Peru and it is usually raised as a pet. It has been officially recognized as part of Peru's Cultural Heritage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973634}
{"src_title": "Caorle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The ancient name of the city was \"Caprulae\" (possibly because of the wild goats that grazed in this area, or in honour of pagan goddess Capris); Caorle was founded in the 1st century BC by Romans. Many archeological findings confirm this attribution, for instance the sacrificial altar called \"Ara Licovia\" (\"Licovian Altar\", from the Roman Licovi family), today housed in the cathedral. A safe zone between the estuaries of the Livenza (Latin: \"Liquentia\") and Lemene (Latin: \"Romantinum\") rivers, Caorle gained importance when people from Concordia Sagittaria arrived as refugees during the Barbarian Invasions. In that period was built a Paleo-Christian church, some remains of which are today kept in the cathedral's museum. In the 11th century the cathedral was built, which still stands today. It was once the seat of a bishopric. During the following centuries, Caorle became one of the nine important cities of the Republic of Venice; evidence to that effect are the many Istrian flagstones which compose some monuments in the city, and also the ancient structure of the city with bridge and canals, like a little Venice. At the end of the Republic of Venice, with the Napoleonic invasions, Caorle went into decline; the last diocesan bishop of the diocese was moved in 1807 to Chioggia and the territory of the diocese was attached in 1818 to the Patriarchate of Venice. No longer a residential bishopric, Caorle/Caprulae is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.  Caorle was an important strategic location during World War I, until the Italian Army started its counteroffensive from the Piave.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Territory.", "content": "Since the beginning of the 20th century the territory around Caorle has been deeply modified. Most of the woods of the \"Selva Lupanica\" were cut to give room to fields for cultivation, rivers were embanked, and marshes were reclaimed. This brought a landscape of wide flat areas, with no trees even along the rivers course. Along the coast, interment and erosion constantly modify the scenery.  The landscape is still rather wild, with changing sandbanks and the fishing valleys.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cathedral.", "content": "The Cathedral of St. Stephen was built in 1038, an example of Romanesque and of the Byzantine-Ravennate style. Its façade is simple; near the central door there are two bas-reliefs (St. Agatonicus on the left, St. William on the right); the interior is organized with a nave and two side aisles, divided by pillars and columns which support semi-circular arches, and it has a truss-beam roof. It contains many masterpieces of the Venetian school of art, the most important of which is \"The Last Supper\", painted by Gregorio Lazzarini (master of famous painter Tiepolo). The central apse has the remains of a 17th-century fresco; above the see there is the \"Pala d'oro\" (golden altar-piece), given by the queen Catherine Cornaro when, after a shipwreck, she found refuge in the Caprulan coasts. It is made up of a set of six panels, two for the \"Annunciation\" (Archangel Gabriel and Blessed Virgin Mary) and the other four for the prophets and Christ. From the roof, a 15th-century crucifix hangs above the modern high altar (the ancient one was sold along with many others; only four altars remain today).  Outside, the characteristic bell tower, dating to 1048, rises to a height of 48 meters. It is a typical example of Romanesque style, but it has a cylindrical structure, and it is surmounted by a cone-shaped cusp, that makes it unique in the world.  The cathedral owns a liturgical museum, inaugurated on September 13, 1975 by Patriarch Albino Luciani (future Pope John Paul I) in the old bishops' chapel; it keep vestments, altar cloths and holy vessels of the Caprulan bishops, and of the Pope John XXIII, who was very attached to Caorle since he was also Patriarch of Venice. When he became Pope, his servants were two Caprulan brothers. In the museum, there are also a precious silver \"Capitular Cross\", six icons of the apostles (which formed the ancient iconostasis), painted by Venetian school of art in the 12th - 13th centuries, and a silver-gold reliquary, said of \"the most precious Blood\", which, according to tradition, contains some of the ground on which the bleeding Jesus Christ passed before he was crucified. Another important piece of the museum is the St Stephen reliquary, which contains the skull of Saint Stephen, Patron of Caorle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Church of the Blessed Virgin of the Angel.", "content": "The Church of Blessed Virgin of the Angel is built on a little promontory on the sea. In ancient times, the church had three naves, but the sea repeatedly destroyed one of them, so in the 18th century the church was rebuilt, with the structure that it has today. The legend says that one day a number of fishermen saw a light on the sea; when they approached it, they found a statue of the Virgin Mary with the Child, and they carried it ashore. The bishop and the townspeople tried to carry the statue to the cathedral but it was very heavy; so the bishop called a group of children who, because of their innocence, succeeded in carrying it to the nearby church of Archangel Michael (for reason called the \"Virgin of the Angel\").  Devotion to the \"Virgin of the sea\" is very important to the Caprulans; to her are dedicated two festivals, the annual Feast of Incoronation, during which takes place the traditional \"fire of the bell tower\", with fireworks, and the Feast of the Virgin of the Angel which, in accordance with the wishes of Pope John XXIII, takes place every five years.  Being the Church at the end of the waterfront promenade the bell tower is used as lighthouse.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Caorle is a small city, but is frequented by tourists in all seasons. The old town centre is still structured as a little Venetian corner, with its coloured houses, its \"calli\" (alleys) and \"campielli\" (squares). During the summer many family-oriented activities take place on its long beach. Others are organized in its lagoon (an example of Venetian lagoon), where many characteristic traditional \"casoni\" (the huts where fishermen lived in the winter while fishing) still stand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "Recently, the city of Caorle gave honorary citizenship to Rigoberta Menchú Tum (Nobel Peace Prize) and to Cardinal Angelo Scola, Patriarch of Venice.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Caorle (; ) is a coastal town in the Metropolitan City of Venice, Veneto, northern Italy, located between the estuaries of the Livenza and Lemene rivers. It is situated on the Adriatic Sea between two other tourist towns, Eraclea and Bibione.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973635}
{"src_title": "CASA/IPTN CN-235", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The project was a joint venture between Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA (CASA) and Indonesian Aerospace (\"PT. Dirgantara Indonesia\"), formerly known as IPTN, which formed Airtech International to manage the programme. The partnership applied only to the Series 10 and Series 100/110, with later versions being developed independently. Over 230 of all versions of CN-235 are in service and have accumulated more than 500,000 flight hours.  Design began in January 1980 with the first flight on 11 November 1983. Spanish and Indonesian certification was on 20 June 1986; the first flight of the production aircraft was on 19 August 1986 and CASA's FAA type approval was granted on 3 December 1986. The aircraft entered service on 1 March 1988  In 1994 the Irish Air Corps took delivery of two CN-235 maritime surveillance aircraft having used one on loan from CASA from 1992 while their own aircraft were being built.  In 1995, CASA launched development of a stretched CN-235 as the C-295. In December 2002, the Colombian Navy ordered two CN-235 for patrol and anti-drug trafficking missions.  In April 2005, Venezuela ordered two CN-235 maritime surveillance aircraft plus 10 transport planes but the operation was halted because the United States government refused to allow the transfer of what they deemed to be US technology in the avionics.  In January 2006, Thailand placed an order with Indonesian Aerospace for ten aircraft, six for the Ministry of Defence and four for the Ministry of Agriculture.  In December 2007, Spain ordered two CN-235 maritime patrol aircraft for the Guardia Civil, for delivery 2008–2009.  One CN-235 MPA aircraft was delivered by Indonesian Aerospace to the Indonesian defence ministry in June 2008.  In August 2006, three CASA CN-235-10 aircraft remained in airline service, in Africa, with Safair (two) and Tiko Air (one). Asian Spirit operated a lone CN-235-220 in the Philippines, correct as of June/July 2007.  In early July 2008, the Mexican Navy announced that it would purchase six CASA CN-235s from Spain. In April 2010, Hervé Morin, French Minister of Defence, announced the order of eight CN-235-300s from Spain.  In 2011, Indonesian Aerospace was still working on 4 CN-235-110 MPAs for South Korea Coast Guard with amount of $96 million.  The Senegalese Air Force acquired two CN-235s in 2010 and August 2012 under a $13 million contract. They plan to buy two more aircraft for VIP and cargo duties. The Air Force is also interested in the maritime patrol version of the aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial airliner.", "content": "Although the CN-235 was initially designed as a military transport, it was also offered as a commercial airliner. However, it did not achieve much success in this role compared to competing 50-seat commuter aircraft such as the ATR 42 and De Havilland Canada DHC-8. Iberia LAE, Spain's flag carrier, bought four CN-235s from CASA for regional routes, and in 1992 Aerolíneas Argentinas (then also a subsidiary of Iberia) ordered two aircraft to be operated by its subsidiary, Austral.  In 2015, Indonesian Aerospace announced that they are currently planning a new variant of CN-235 called N-245 that will be designed specially for civil operation and able to carry up to 60 passengers. Previously also known as CN-235NG, this variant planned to be fully launched after Indonesian Aerospace N-219 project is done and expected to be fully certified in 2019. Further planned development is N-270, a stretched version of N-245 that able to carry up to 70–90 passengers and planned to be developed between 2019–2024.  Maritime patrol version with 6 hardpoints to carry AM-39 Exocet-Missiles or Mk.46-Torpedoes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable accidents.", "content": "On 18 Oct 1992, Merpati Nusantara Airlines (Registration PK-MNN) CN-235-10 Flight 5601 crashed on Garut, Indonesia, killing all 31 people on board  On 19 January 2001, a Turkish Air Force CN-235 training mission crashed near Kayseri after entering a spin from which recovery was not possible, killing all 3 people on board  On 16 May 2001, a Turkish Air Force CN-235 crashed after the pilot lost control, killing all 34 people on board.  On 18 May 2001, a Turkish Navy CN-235 crashed after the pilot lost control after reaching an altitude of just 100 feet, killing all 4 people on board.  On 29 August 2001, Binter Mediterráneo Flight 8261 (Registration EC-FBC) crash-landed at Málaga, Spain, killing four of the 44 passengers and crew aboard. The aircraft was scrapped.  On 11 Feb 2013 a CN-235 crashed into a forest 45 km south of Monrovia, Liberia, 8 km to Roberts International Airport, killing 11 people amongst them Souleymane Kelefa Diallo, Guinea army chief.  On 1 Aug 2015 a CN-235-200M operated by the Colombian Air Force crashed in Cesar province, Colombia due to engine failure, killing 11 people.  On 26 February 2016, a CN-235 operated by the Royal Malaysian Air Force crashed in a swamp in Kuala Selangor with no casualties. However, a local fisherman drowned during the rescue.  On 17 January 2018, a Turkish Air Force CN-235 on a training mission crashed with two pilots and a technician on board near Isparta. All on board were killed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The CASA/IPTN CN-235 is a medium-range twin-engined transport aircraft that was jointly developed by Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA (CASA) of Spain and Indonesian manufacturer IPTN, as a regional airliner and military transport. Its primary military roles include maritime patrol, surveillance, and air transport. Its largest user is Turkey, which has 59 aircraft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973636}
{"src_title": "EADS CASA C-295", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The C-295 is manufactured and assembled in the Airbus Military facilities in the San Pablo Airport, in Seville, Spain. It is a development of the Spanish–Indonesian transport aircraft CASA/IPTN CN-235, but with a stretched fuselage, 50% more payload capability and new Pratt & Whitney Canada PW127G turboprop engines. The C-295 made its maiden flight in 1998. The first order came from the Spanish Air Force.  In 2012, Airbus Military announced several enhancements to the base C-295 design, changes included the adoption of winglets and an ability to carry the Marte anti-ship missile; a dedicated airborne early warning and control variant was also planned. In November 2015, a C-295 successfully demonstrated a new self-protection suite, which incorporated elements such as directional infrared countermeasures from Elbit Systems and infrared passive airborne warning system. In January 2016, Airbus was in the process of developing a new probe-and-drogue aerial refuelling rig to be optionally installed in the centerline of the C295 for the aerial refuelling of combat helicopters. Initial 'dry' flight tests are scheduled later in the year. Airbus is also performing flap optimisations and other modifications upon the type for extremely short takeoff and landing capabilities.  The C-295's main competitor is the C-27J Spartan, manufactured initially by Alenia Aeronautica (2006-2012) and Alenia Aermacchi (2012-2016) and now by Leonardo S.p.A.. The C-295 was a major bidder for the US Army–US Air Force Joint Cargo Aircraft (JCA) programme but lost to the L-3 Communications/Alenia team for the C-27J in June 2007. The C-295 was considered a higher risk by the Army due to its use of a new operational mode to meet altitude and range requirements. Among other contracts the C-295 lost to the C-27J are the Peruvian Air Force's Antonov An-32s' replacement and the Royal Australian Air Force's retired de Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribous' replacement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operators.", "content": "The C-295 is in service with the armed forces of 15 countries. As of 31 August 2015, 136 C295s have been ordered with 134 in service and two lost in accidents.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The EADS CASA C-295 is a twin-turboprop tactical military transport aircraft, and is currently manufactured by Airbus Defence and Space in Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973637}
{"src_title": "Glanders", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cause and transmission.", "content": "Glanders is caused by infection with the bacterium \"Burkholderia mallei\", usually by ingestion of contaminated feed or water.  \"B. mallei\" is able to infect humans, so is classed as a zoonotic agent. Transmission occurs by direct contact with infected animals and entry is through skin abrasions, nasal and oral mucosal surfaces, or by inhalation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical signs.", "content": "Signs of glanders include the formation of nodular lesions in the lungs and ulceration of the mucous membranes in the upper respiratory tract. The acute form results in coughing, fever, and the release of an infectious nasal discharge, followed by septicaemia and death within days. In the chronic form, nasal and subcutaneous nodules develop, eventually ulcerating; death can occur within months, while survivors act as carriers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "The mallein test is a sensitive and specific clinical test for glanders. Mallein (ATCvet code: ), a protein fraction of the glanders organism (\"B. mallei\"), is injected intradermopalpebrally or given by eye drop. In infected animals, the eyelid swells markedly in 1 to 2 days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical cases, contagion, and potential use in war.", "content": "Glanders has been known since antiquity, with a description by Hippocrates around 425 BCE. However, historian Lise Wilkinson has described the incredible difficulty of studying outbreaks of glanders in history.  From the Middle Ages to the 1900s, glanders was a significant threat to armies. Before the Battle of Blenheim in 1704, glanders may have afflicted and greatly diminished the horses of Marshal Tallard's cavalry, helping the Duke of Marlborough win the battle.  Glanders was a significant problem for civilian use of horses, as well. In the eighteenth-century veterinary hospital at the École Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, glanders was the most common disease among their equine patients and the one most likely to cause death.  Due to the high mortality rate in humans and the small number of organisms required to establish infection, \"B. mallei\" is regarded as a potential biological warfare or bioterrorism agent, as is the closely related organism, \"B. pseudomallei\", the causative agent of melioidosis. During World War I, glanders was believed to have been spread deliberately by German agents to infect large numbers of Russian horses and mules on the Eastern Front. Other agents attempted to introduce the disease in the United States and Argentina. This had an effect on troop and supply convoys, as well as on artillery movement, which were dependent on horses and mules. Human cases in Russia increased with the infections during and after WWI. The Japanese deliberately infected horses, civilians, and prisoners of war with \"B. mallei\" at the Unit 731 Pingfang (China) Institute and Unit 100 facilities during World War II. The U.S. studied this agent as a possible biological weapon in 1943–44, but did not weaponize it. U.S. interest in glanders (agent LA) continued through the 1950s, except it had an inexplicable tendency to lose virulence in the lab, making it difficult to weaponize. Between 1982 and 1984, the Soviet Union allegedly used weaponized \"B. mallei\" during the Soviet–Afghan War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vaccine research.", "content": "No vaccine is licensed for use in the U.S. Infection with either of these bacteria results in nonspecific symptoms and can be either acute or chronic, impeding rapid diagnosis. The lack of a vaccine for either bacterium also makes them potential candidates for bioweaponization. Together, with their high rate of infectivity by aerosols and resistance to many common antibiotics, both bacteria have been classified as category B priority pathogens by the US NIH and US CDC, which has spurred a dramatic increase in interest in these microorganisms. Attempts have been made to develop vaccines for these infections, which would not only benefit military personnel, a group most likely to be targeted in an intentional release, but also individuals who may come in contact with glanders-infected animals or live in areas where melioidosis is endemic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Glanders is a contagious zoonotic infectious disease that occurs primarily in horses, mules, and donkeys. It can be contracted by other animals, such as dogs, cats, goats and humans. It is caused by infection with the bacterium \"Burkholderia mallei\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973638}
{"src_title": "Hammamet, Tunisia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the 1st century, there was a settlement here known as Pupput. It was a town (now in the suburbs of Hammamet) that became a Roman colony in the 2nd century. In the 13th century, walls around town were built and medina of Hammamet was built in the 15th century. Then it came under Spanish and Turkish rule.  In 1601 it was the object of a successful Spanish attack. At that time the Spanish name for the place was \"La Mahometa\". Alonso de Contreras participated and tells the story in his autobiography. Three hundred men took seven hundred prisoners, mostly women, and children because most of the men in the town had fled.  On 14 August 1605 there was another Spanish attack in which Contreras also participated but this time the result was disastrous for the attackers. It was carried out by six galleys, four from Malta, six from Sicily carrying Spanish and other Christian troops. The initial taking of the town was successful as the Spanish managed to climb the walls and open the gates but then there was an unexpected call to retreat - it could not be later determined where or how it originated. In the confusion, the retreat fell into disorder and the Spanish were massacred at the beach by a much smaller number of Moors. There were 1200 men gathered at the beach trying to get back to their ships but the wind had changed and conditions were difficult. The leader of the expedition, Adelantado de Castilla, lost his life as he tried to swim out to the Spanish ships and as the captain in charge of his skiff fled and ignored his calls for help. That captain was later court-martialed and, when it became clear he would be sentenced to death, his own brother poisoned him. This story and more details can be found in Contreras' autobiography.  In World War II, it became one of the headquarters of the Nazi general Erwin Rommel. Festival international d'Hammamet was established in 1964.  Former Italian prime minister Bettino Craxi moved to Hammamet in 1994 as a fugitive. He died and was buried there in 2000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The climate is very much like the climate in Sousse it borders a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) and a Hot semi-arid climate (BSh) due to such dry ground and hot temperatures in the summer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hammamet ( \"\") is a town in Tunisia. Thanks to its beaches, it is a popular destination for swimming and water sports and is the primary tourist destination in Tunisia. It is located in the south-eastern section of Cap Bon and is part of the Governorate of Nabeul.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973639}
{"src_title": "Nusselt number", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "The Nusselt number is the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer across a boundary. The convection and conduction heat flows are parallel to each other and to the surface normal of the boundary surface, and are all perpendicular to the mean fluid flow in the simple case.  where \"h\" is the convective heat transfer coefficient of the flow, \"L\" is the characteristic length, \"k\" is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.  In contrast to the definition given above, known as \"average Nusselt number\", local Nusselt number is defined by taking the length to be the distance from the surface boundary to the local point of interest.  The \"mean\", or \"average\", number is obtained by integrating the expression over the range of interest, such as:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Context.", "content": "An understanding of convection boundary layers is necessary to understanding convective heat transfer between a surface and a fluid flowing past it. A thermal boundary layer develops if the fluid free stream temperature and the surface temperatures differ. A temperature profile exists due to the energy exchange resulting from this temperature difference. The heat transfer rate can then be written as,  And because heat transfer at the surface is by conduction,  These two terms are equal; thus  Rearranging,  Making it dimensionless by multiplying by representative length L,  The right hand side is now the ratio of the temperature gradient at the surface to the reference temperature gradient, while the left hand side is similar to the Biot modulus. This becomes the ratio of conductive thermal resistance to the convective thermal resistance of the fluid, otherwise known as the Nusselt number, Nu.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derivation.", "content": "The Nusselt number may be obtained by a non-dimensional analysis of Fourier's law since it is equal to the dimensionless temperature gradient at the surface:  Indeed, if: formula_11, and formula_12  we arrive at  then we define  so the equation becomes  By integrating over the surface of the body:  formula_16,  where formula_17", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Empirical Correlations.", "content": "Typically, for free convection, the average Nusselt number is expressed as a function of the Rayleigh number and the Prandtl number, written as: Otherwise, for forced convection, the Nusselt number is generally a function of the Reynolds number and the Prandtl number, or", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Free convection.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Free convection at a vertical wall.", "content": "Cited as coming from Churchill and Chu:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Free convection from horizontal plates.", "content": "If the characteristic length is defined  where formula_22 is the surface area of the plate and formula_23 is its perimeter.  Then for the top surface of a hot object in a colder environment or bottom surface of a cold object in a hotter environment  And for the bottom surface of a hot object in a colder environment or top surface of a cold object in a hotter environment  Forced convection on flat plate", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Flat plate in laminar flow.", "content": "The local Nusselt number for laminar flow over a flat plate, at a distance formula_27 downstream from the edge of the plate, is given by  The average Nusselt number for laminar flow over a flat plate, from the edge of the plate to a downstream distance formula_27, is given by", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sphere in convective flow.", "content": "In some applications, such as the evaporation of spherical liquid droplets in air, the following correlation is used:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Forced convection in turbulent pipe flow.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gnielinski correlation.", "content": "Gnielinski's correlation for turbulent flow in tubes:  where f is the Darcy friction factor that can either be obtained from the Moody chart or for smooth tubes from correlation developed by Petukhov:  The Gnielinski Correlation is valid for:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Dittus-Boelter equation.", "content": "The Dittus-Boelter equation (for turbulent flow) is an explicit function for calculating the Nusselt number. It is easy to solve but is less accurate when there is a large temperature difference across the fluid. It is tailored to smooth tubes, so use for rough tubes (most commercial applications) is cautioned. The Dittus-Boelter equation is:  where:  The Dittus-Boelter equation is valid for  Example The Dittus-Boelter equation is a good approximation where temperature differences between bulk fluid and heat transfer surface are minimal, avoiding equation complexity and iterative solving. Taking water with a bulk fluid average temperature of 20 °C, viscosity 10.07×10 Pa·s and a heat transfer surface temperature of 40 °C (viscosity 6.96×10, a viscosity correction factor for formula_44 can be obtained as 1.45. This increases to 3.57 with a heat transfer surface temperature of 100 °C (viscosity 2.82×10 Pa·s), making a significant difference to the Nusselt number and the heat transfer coefficient.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Sieder-Tate correlation.", "content": "The Sieder-Tate correlation for turbulent flow is an implicit function, as it analyzes the system as a nonlinear boundary value problem. The Sieder-Tate result can be more accurate as it takes into account the change in viscosity (formula_45 and formula_46) due to temperature change between the bulk fluid average temperature and the heat transfer surface temperature, respectively. The Sieder-Tate correlation is normally solved by an iterative process, as the viscosity factor will change as the Nusselt number changes.  where:  The Sieder-Tate correlation is valid for", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Forced convection in fully developed laminar pipe flow.", "content": "For fully developed internal laminar flow, the Nusselt numbers tend towards a constant value for long pipes.  For internal Flow:  where:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Convection with uniform temperature for circular tubes.", "content": "From Incropera & DeWitt,  OEIS sequence gives this value as formula_55.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Convection with uniform heat flux for circular tubes.", "content": "For the case of constant surface heat flux,", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "In fluid dynamics, the Nusselt number (Nu) is the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer at a boundary in a fluid. Convection includes both advection (fluid motion) and diffusion (conduction). The conductive component is measured under the same conditions as the convective but for a hypothetically motionless fluid. It is a dimensionless number, closely related to the fluid's Rayleigh number.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973640}
{"src_title": "Dorcas gazelle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and evolution.", "content": "The scientific name of the dorcas gazelle is \"Gazella dorcas\". It is a member of the genus \"Gazella\" and the family Bovidae. The species was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of \"Systema Naturae\" in 1758.  Although zoologist Theodor Haltenorth considered \"G. d. pelzelnii\" to be an independent species, the following six subspecies are identified:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The dorcas gazelle is similar in appearance to, yet smaller than, the closely related mountain gazelle (\"Gazella gazella\"). Dorcas gazelles have longer ears and more strongly curved horns, which bow outwards then turn inwards and forwards at the tips. Individuals belonging to the Saharan subspecies (\"G. d. osiris\") have very pale, fawn-colored coats. The white underside is bordered with a brown stripe, above which is a sandy stripe. The forehead and face are darker than the body. Subspecies from north of the Sahara tend to be more ochre in color, and have dark flanks and facial stripes. Populations in Israel and around the Red Sea are darker and more reddish. In the last century, the populations of dorcas gazelle were partially destroyed in all the countries where it was found.  Currently, large populations of dorcas gazelles are found in the Negev and the Arava, with other large populations in Sudan, Iraq, and the southern part of the eastern desert of Egypt. In Israel, only 1000–1500 gazelles remain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "Dorcas gazelles are highly adapted to the desert; they can go their entire lives without drinking, as they can get all of the moisture they need from the plants in their diets, though they do drink when water is available. They are able to withstand high temperatures, but when it is very hot, they are active mainly from dusk to dawn. In areas where they face human predation, they tend to be active only at night to minimise the risk of falling prey to hunters. These gazelles feed on leaves, flowers, and pods of many species of acacia trees, as well as the leaves, twigs and fruits of various bushes. They occasionally stand on their hind legs to browse from trees, and after rain, they have been observed digging out bulbs from the ground. Dorcas gazelles are able to run at speeds up to to when threatened, they tail-twitch and make bouncing leaps with their heads held high (stotting), possibly to announce they have seen a predator.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "When conditions are harsh, dorcas gazelles live in pairs, but when conditions are more favorable, they join together in family herds with one adult male, several females, and young. During the breeding season, adult males tend to be territorial, and mark their range with dung middens. In most parts of their range, mating takes place from September to November. Gestation takes six months; a single fawn is typical, although twins have been reported in Algeria. The newborn is well developed at birth, with fur and open eyes. Within the first hour, the fawn attempts to stand, and it will suckle on this first day of life. In the first two weeks, the young gazelle lies curled up in a scrape on the ground or beneath bushes while the mother grazes close by. The young then starts to follow its mother around and begins to take solid food. After around three months, the fawn stops suckling and is fully weaned. Some dorcas gazelles are also known for their dangerous behaviors when surrounded. There have been many reports of deaths involving them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The population of this gazelle has declined throughout its range. Their natural predators include humans, cheetahs, leopards, Arabian wolves, and lions. Due to human hunting, few large cats remain to prey on dorcas gazelles. Mostly unhealthy gazelles are caught successfully by predators, since the healthy gazelles tend to escape them. To escape the cheetah, the fastest of carnivores, they run extremely fast and make zigs-zags, as does the Thomson's gazelle. The serval and caracal also prey on this species. The biggest modern threat to this gazelle is ever-expanding human civilization, which shrinks the gazelle's habitat by converting it to farmland, and by introducing new flocks of domestic sheep and goats which compete with gazelles for grassland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trade.", "content": "Dorcas gazelle pelts and horns are traded in Morocco for decorative and medicinal purposes, where they are the most commonly observed ungulate in markets, despite their protected status under Moroccan law. Given the relatively low numbers of wild dorcas gazelles in the country, if locally sourced, this trade could be having a significant negative impact on the local populations of this species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The dorcas gazelle (\"Gazella dorcas\"), also known as the ariel gazelle, is a small and common gazelle. The dorcas gazelle stands about at the shoulder, with a head and body length of and a weight of. The numerous subspecies survive on vegetation in grassland, steppe, wadis, mountain desert and in semidesert climates of Africa and Arabia. About 35,000–40,000 exist in the wild. The extinct Saudi gazelle from the Arabian Peninsula has been previously considered as a subspecies of the dorcas gazelle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973641}
{"src_title": "Brendan Perry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Perry was born in Whitechapel, London, England, UK, in 1959 to a mother from Cavan, Ireland, and father from London, and raised and schooled in the East End of London until his family moved to Auckland, New Zealand, in 1973. Having received no formal musical education, Perry began to play the guitar at St Paul's College, the Catholic school he attended in Ponsonby. After failing to become a primary school teacher and to join the civil service, Perry worked at a series of jobs until joining the Scavengers in 1977. At first Perry played bass guitar, later taking on the duties of lead vocalist when the original singer left the band. Apart from a handful of original songs, the band covered music from the Stooges, New York Dolls, and late-1960s psychedelia. After two years, having failed to secure a recording deal or live dates, the band moved to Melbourne, Australia, in November 1978 and changed its name to Marching Girls. In 1980, Perry left the Marching Girls to pursue a solo career, experimenting with tape loops, synthesis, and alternative forms of rhythm. In 1981, Perry formed Dead Can Dance with Simon Monroe and Paul Erikson (both of whom were to leave soon after they had relocated to London), and Lisa Gerrard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Scavengers and Marching Girls.", "content": "Though now primarily known for his quiet introspective work with Dead Can Dance, Perry's first musical forays were in a markedly different style. In 1977, Perry was a leading member of New Zealand punk rock band the Scavengers, working under the pseudonym of Ronnie Recent. Perry started as the band's bass player, becoming lead vocalist after a lineup change in 1978. In 1979, the band moved to Melbourne and changed its name to the Marching Girls. Perry left the band in 1980. Perry's work with these two bands can be found on the 1979 compilation album \"AK79\" that was re-released on CD in 1994 and reissued on vinyl in 2020. The Scavengers have released two collections of their tracks in New Zealand, in 2003 and 2014. The Scavengers are regarded as New Zealand's equivalent of the Buzzcocks, with the Perry co-penned song \"Mysterex\" regarded as one of the country's best and most distinctive punk-rock recordings. Marching Girls also reached the New Zealand singles charts in 1980 with \"True Love.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dead Can Dance.", "content": "Dead Can Dance originally formed as a quartet in 1981 in Melbourne, with Perry, drummer Simon Monroe, bass player Paul Erikson, and, last to join the band, Lisa Gerrard. In 1982, Dead Can Dance moved to London leaving Simon Monroe in Australia. Peter Ulrich played drums on the band's first demos, concerts and recordings. Paul Erikson soon left the band to fly back to Australia, leaving the band a duo. The band went on to record eight albums on the 4AD Records record label beginning with the self-titled \"Dead Can Dance\" album, which was released in February 1984.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Solo career.", "content": "In 1999, Perry released his solo album \"Eye of the Hunter\" on 4AD Records. The album contained songs written by Perry and a cover of Tim Buckley's song \"I Must Have Been Blind.\" Perry would eventually cover more Tim Buckley songs: \"Happy Time\", \"Chase the Blues Away\", \"Dream Letter\" and \"Song to the Siren\". Around 2001, Perry did the music for a 10-minute film (\"Mushin\") made by Graham Wood, who designed the artwork of the box set \"Dead Can Dance (1981-1998)\" and the album \"Wake\".  Perry announced his departure from 4AD in September 2008, and promised a new album titled \"Ark\" in early 2009. According to a reply Perry made to a comment on his MySpace blog, the new album would be very different from \"Eye of the Hunter\", notably because it would feature rhythm machines and electric guitars. \"Utopia\", a demo version of a song from the album, was made available on his MySpace blog. \"Ark\" was eventually released on 7 June 2010.  In March 2016 it was announced that he would collaborate with French Musician Olivier Mellano and the Breton traditional band Bagad Cesson on a project titled \"No Land\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Brendan Michael Perry (born 30 June 1959) is a British singer and multi-instrumentalist best known for his work as half of the duo Dead Can Dance with Lisa Gerrard.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973642}
{"src_title": "Chernobyl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The city's name is the same as a Ukrainian name for \"Artemisia vulgaris\", mugwort or common wormwood, which is (or more commonly, 'common artemisia'). The name is inherited from or, a compound of +, the parts related to and,'stalk', so named in distinction to the lighter-stemmed wormwood \"A. absinthium\".  The name in languages used nearby is:  The name in languages formerly used in the area is:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "On the Ptolemy's world map there is the city of Azagarium which, according to \"Dictionary of Ancient Geography\" of Alexander Macbean (published in 1773 in London), is a town of Sarmatia Europaea on the Borysthenes, 36° East longitude and 50°40' latitude. Now supposed to be Czernobol, a town of Poland, in Red Russia, Palatinate of Kiow (see Kiev Voivodeship), not far from the Borystenes. On the map Azagarium is located on the right bank of Borystenes. It also was located just north of the city of Amadoca which was a capital of Amadocium situated between the lake (palus) of Amadoca (in the west) and the mountains (montes) of Amadoca (in the east).  Chernobyl was originally part of the land of Kievan Rus′. The first known mention of Chernobyl is from an 1193 charter, which describes it as a hunting-lodge of Knyaz Rurik Rostislavich. In the 13th century, it was a crown village of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The village was granted to Filon Kmita, a captain of the royal cavalry, as a fiefdom in 1566. The province where Chernobyl is located was transferred to the Kingdom of Poland in 1569, and later annexed by the Russian Empire in 1793. Prior to the 20th century, Chernobyl was inhabited by Ukrainian peasants, some Polish people and a relatively large number of Jews.  Jews were brought to Chernobyl by Filon Kmita, during the Polish campaign of colonization. After 1596, the traditionally Eastern Orthodox Ukrainian peasantry of the district were forcibly converted, by Poland, to the Greek Catholic Uniate religion. Many of these converts returned to Eastern Orthodoxy after the Partitions of Poland.  In 1626, during the Counter-reformation, the Dominican church and monastery were founded by Lukasz Sapieha. A group of Old Catholics opposed the decrees of the Council of Trent. In 1832, following the failed Polish November Uprising, the Dominican monastery was sequestrated. The church of the Old Catholics was disbanded in 1852.  Until the end of the 19th century, Chernobyl was a privately owned city that belonged to the Chodkiewicz family. In 1896 they sold the city to the state, but until 1910 they owned a castle and a house in the city.  In the second half of the 18th century, Chernobyl became a major center of Hasidic Judaism. The Chernobyl Hasidic dynasty had been founded by Rabbi Menachem Nachum Twersky. The Jewish population suffered greatly from pogroms in October 1905 and in March–April 1919; many Jews were killed or robbed at the instigation of the Russian nationalist Black Hundreds. When the Twersky Dynasty left Chernobyl in 1920, it ceased to exist as a center of Hasidism.  Chernobyl had a population of 10,800 in 1898, including 7,200 Jews. Chernobyl was occupied in World War I by German forces; Ukrainians and Bolsheviks fought over the city in the ensuing Civil War. In the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–20, Chernobyl was taken first by the Polish Army and then by cavalry of the Red Army. From 1921 onwards, it was officially incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR.  Between 1929 and 1933, Chernobyl suffered from killings during Stalin's collectivization campaign. It was also affected by the famine that resulted from Stalin's policies. The Polish and German community of Chernobyl was deported to Kazakhstan in 1936, during the Frontier Clearances.  During World War II, Chernobyl was occupied by the German Army from 25 August 1941 to 17 November 1943. The Jewish community was murdered during the Nazi occupation of 1941–44.  Twenty years later, the area was chosen as the site of the first nuclear power station to be built on Ukrainian soil. The Duga over-the-horizon radar array, several miles outside of Chernobyl, was the origin of the Russian Woodpecker; it was designed as part of an anti-ballistic missile early warning radar network. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Chernobyl remained part of Ukraine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster.", "content": "On 26 April 1986, one of the reactors at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded after unsanctioned experiments on the reactor by plant operators were done improperly. The resulting loss of control was due to design flaws of the RBMK reactor, which made it unstable when operated at low power, and prone to thermal runaway where increases in temperature increase reactor power output.  Chernobyl city was evacuated 9 days after the disaster. The level of contamination with caesium-137 was around 555 kBq/m (surface ground deposition in 1986). Later analyses concluded that, even with very conservative estimates, relocation of the city (or of any area below 1500 kBq/m) could not be justified on the grounds of radiological health. This however does not account for the uncertainty in the first few days of the accident about further depositions and weather patterns. Moreover, an earlier short-term evacuation could have averted more significant doses from short-lived isotope radiation (specifically iodine-131, which has a half-life of about eight days). Estimates of health effects are a subject of some controversy, see Effects of the Chernobyl disaster.  In 1998, average caesium-137 doses from the accident (estimated at 1-2mSv per year) did not exceed those from other sources of exposure. Current effective caesium-137 dose rates as of 2019 are 200-250 nSv/h, or roughly 1.7-2.2 mSv per year, which is comparable to the worldwide average background radiation from natural sources.  The base of operations for the administration and monitoring of the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone was moved from Pripyat to Chernobyl. Chernobyl currently contains offices for the State Agency of Ukraine on the Exclusion Zone Management and accommodations for visitors. Apartment blocks have been repurposed as accommodations for employees of the State Agency. The length of time that workers may spend within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone is restricted by regulations that have been implemented to limit radiation exposure. Today, visits are allowed to Chernobyl but limited by strict rules.  In 2003, the United Nations Development Programme launched a project, called the Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme (CRDP), for the recovery of the affected areas. The main goal of the CRDP's activities is supporting the efforts of the Government of Ukraine to mitigate the long-term social, economic, and ecological consequences of the Chernobyl disaster.  The city has become overgrown and many types of animals live there. According to census information collected over an extended period of time, it is estimated that more mammals live there now than before the disaster.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Chernobyl (, ), also called Chornobyl (), is a partially abandoned city in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, situated in the Ivankiv Raion of northern Kiev Oblast, Ukraine. Chernobyl is about north of Kiev, and southwest of the Belarusian city of Gomel. Before its evacuation, the city had about 14,000 residents, while around 1,000 people live in the city now.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973643}
{"src_title": "Papal ferula", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early usage and dispute.", "content": "Traditionally, the popes did not use any \"ferula\", crosier, or pastoral staff as part of the papal liturgy. The use of a staff is not mentioned in descriptions of Papal Masses in the \"Ordines Romani\" (Roman Ordinals). In the early days of the church, a crosier was carried on some occasions by the pope, but this practice disappeared by the time of Pope Innocent III. Innocent III noted in his \"De Sacro altaris mysterio\" (“Concerning the Sacred Mystery of the Altar,” I, 62): “The Roman Pontiff does not use the shepherd's staff.” The reason was that a crosier is often given by the metropolitan archbishop (or by another bishop) to a newly elected bishop during his investiture. In contrast, the pope does not receive investiture from another bishop and is invested with the pallium during his coronation or inauguration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Re-adoption.", "content": "During the High Middle Ages, the popes once again began using a staff known as a \"ferula\" as insignia to signify temporal power and governance, which included \"the power to mete out punishment and impose penances\". The actual form of the staffs from this period is not well known, but were likely staffs topped with a knob with single-barred cross on top. The staff was not a liturgical item, and its use was limited to a few extraordinary ceremonial occasions, such as the opening of the Holy Door and the consecration of churches, during which the pope \"took hold of the staff to knock on the door three times and to trace the Greek and Latin letters on the floor of the church\". Sometimes, the staff also took the form of a triple-barred cross (or papal cross, a symbol of the papacy), but this was rare in contrast to the single-barred cross. Use of the staff was soon again phased out.  In 1877, the Circolo San Pietro (an organization founded in 1869 to support the papacy) presented a staff or \"ferula\" to Pope Pius IX on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of his episcopal consecration and is sometimes referred to as the \"\"ferula\" of Pius IX\". This \"ferula\" was used by popes from Pope Pius IX until Pope Paul VI, again only for extraordinary, non-liturgical ceremonies. Pope Leo XIII at times made use of a crosier in the same shape as that of other bishops. In addition, a triple-barred cross \"ferula\" was made for Leo XIII for the Golden Jubilee of his Priesthood in 1888. Pope John XXIII had begun using the 1877 \"ferula\" of Pius IX for various liturgical celebrations during the Second Vatican Council. It was during the pontificate of Paul VI that the popes more permanently began using a \"ferula\" as a pastoral staff for solemn liturgical celebrations, rather than a symbol of governance. In effect, the papal \"ferula\" became the equivalent of a bishop's crosier or pastoral staff.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern usage.", "content": "The pastoral staff carried by the popes since Pope Paul VI is a contemporary single-barred crucifix, designed by the Italian artist Lello Scorzelli in 1963 and carried and used in the same manner as a bishop uses his crosier. Paul VI had actually used three other \"ferulas\", similar in style, with the other versions having a cross bar which was straight, or bent upward. Scorzelli's well known version has the cross bar bent downward, much like the \"paterissa\" carried by a bishop within the Eastern Catholic Churches. Paul VI first used this staff on 8 December 1965, at the closing of the Second Vatican Council. The Scorzelli staff was the one retained by his successors starting with Pope John Paul I. This \"ferula\" design is often associated with Pope John Paul II.  On 25 March 1983, Pope John Paul II used the \"ferula\" of Leo XIII with three horizontal bars in the opening of the Holy Door during the Jubilee, the Holy Year of the Redemption. In 1990, Scorzelli made a replica of the Paul VI \"ferula\" for John Paul II, which was lighter than the previous one.  On 16 March 2008, at the Palm Sunday celebrations in Saint Peter's Square, Pope Benedict XVI used the \"ferula\" that had been previously used from the pontificate of Pope Pius IX. This cross was used until 28 November 2009 at the First Vespers for Advent. A new \"ferula\" was given to Pope Benedict XVI as a gift of the Circolo San Pietro and, according to Monsignor Guido Marini, the Master of Apostolic Ceremonies and head of the Office for the Liturgical Celebrations of the Supreme Pontiff, it \"can be considered to all intents and purposes the pastoral staff of Benedict XVI.\"  Pope Francis continued to use the \"ferula\" of Benedict XVI at the beginning of his pontificate. On 7 April 2013, at the Mass for the Possession of the Chair of the Bishop of Rome in the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran in Rome, Francis returned to using the original 1965 \"ferula\" of Paul VI with the corpus on it and has alternated its use with the \"ferula\" of Benedict XVI.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The papal ferula (from Latin \"ferula\", 'rod') is the pastoral staff used in the Catholic Church by the pope. It is a rod with a knob on top surmounted by a cross. It differs from a crosier, the staff carried by other bishops of Latin-rite churches, which is curved or bent at the top in the style of a shepherd's crook.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973644}
{"src_title": "Phalaenopsis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Orchids in the genus \"Phalaenopsis\" are monopodial epiphytic, sometimes lithophytic herbs with long, coarse roots and short leafy stems hidden by overlapping leaf bases. The leaves are usually arranged in two rows, relatively large and leathery, oblong to elliptic and sometimes succulent. A few to many, small to large, long-lasting, flat, often fragrant flowers are arranged on erect to hanging racemes or panicles. The sepals and petals are free from and spread widely apart from each other. The lateral sepals are usually larger than the dorsal sepal and the petals much wider than the sepals. The labellum is joined stiffly to the column and has three lobes. The side lobes are erect and more or less parallel to each other and the middle lobe sometimes has a pair of appendages or antennae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy and naming.", "content": "The genus \"Phalaenopsis\" was first formally described in 1825 by Carl Ludwig Blume and the description was published in \"Bijdragen tot de flora van Nederlandsch Indië\". The name \"Phalaenopsis\" is derived from the Ancient Greek word \"phalaina\" (φαλαινα) meaning \"a kind of moth\" with the suffix \"-opsis\" meaning \"having the appearance of\" or \"like\".  The genus name is abbreviated \"Phal.\" horticulturally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Species of \"Phalaenopsis\" are found from India to southern China, Indochina, Malaysia and from Indonesia to the Philippines and New Guinea. There is a single species endemic to Queensland. The greatest disversity of phalaenopsis occurs in Indonesia and the Philippines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "The following is a list of \"Phalaenopsis\" species accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families as at January 2019:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Intergeneric hybrids.", "content": "The following nothogenera have been established for intergeneric hybrids which include species of \"Phalaenopsis\" as ancestors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-pollination changes.", "content": "\"Phalaenopsis\" are unique in that in some species, the flowers turn into green leaves after pollination. As in many other plants, the petals of the orchid flowers serve to attract pollinating insects and protect essential organs. Following pollination, petals usually will undergo senescence (i.e. wilt and disintegrate) because it is metabolically expensive to maintain them. In many \"Phalaenopsis\" species, such as \"P. violacea\", the petals and sepals find new uses following pollination, thus escaping programmed cell death. In producing chloroplasts, they turn green, become fleshy, and apparently, start to photosynthesize, as leaves do.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "In \"Phalaenopsis\", phenylpropanoid enzymes are enhanced in the process of plant acclimatisation at different levels of photosynthetic photon flux.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in horticulture.", "content": "\"Phalaenopsis\", abbreviated Phal in the horticultural trade, are among the most popular orchids sold as potted plants, owing to the ease of propagation and flowering under artificial conditions. They were among the first tropical orchids in Victorian collections. Since the advent of the tetraploid hybrid \"Phalaenopsis\" Doris, they have become extremely easy to grow and flower in the home, as long as some care is taken to provide them with conditions that approximate their native habitats. Their commercial production has become an industry.  If very healthy, a \"Phalaenopsis\" plant may have up to ten or more leaves. They bloom in their full glory for several weeks. If kept in the home, the flowers may last two to three months after which a phalaenopsis orchid will need to conserve energy for further leaf, bud, and root development.  In nature, \"Phalaenopsis\" species are typically fond of warm temperatures, thriving in temperatures around 20 to 35 °C (68–95 °F), but are adaptable to conditions more comfortable for human habitation in temperate zones (15 to 30 °C or 59–86 °F); at temperatures below 18 °C (64.4 °F) overwatering causes root rot. \"Phalaenopsis\" requires high humidity (60–70%) and low light of 12,000 to 20,000 lux. However, Phalaenopsis orchids can adapt to the lower humidity found in most homes. They are also typically hardier than other species of orchids, and this makes them particularly popular among first-time orchid growers.  The flower spikes appear from the pockets near the base of each leaf. The first sign is a light green \"mitten-like\" object that protrudes from the basal leaf tissue. Over approximately three months the spike elongates until it begins to swell fat buds that will bloom.  It previously was believed that flowering is triggered by a night-time drop in temperature of around 5 to 6 degrees over two to four consecutive weeks, usually in the fall, and a day-time drop in temperature to below. Using two \"Phalaenopsis\" clones, Matthew G. Blanchard and Erik S. Runkle (2006) established that, other culture conditions being optimal, flower initiation is controlled by daytime temperatures declining below, with a definite inhibition of flowering at temperatures exceeding. The long-held belief that reduced evening temperatures control flower initiation in \"Phalaenopsis\" was shown to be false. Rather, lower daytime temperatures influence flowering, while night time temperatures do not appear to have any effect.  The effect of fertilizer source and medium composition on vegetative growth and mineral nutrition has been studied.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phalaenopsis, commonly known as moth orchids, is a genus of about seventy species of plants in the family Orchidaceae. Orchids in this genus are monopodial epiphytes or lithophytes with long, coarse roots, short, leafy stems and long-lasting, flat flowers arranged in a flowering stem that often branches near the end. Orchids in this genus are native to India, Taiwan, China, Southeast Asia, New Guinea and Australia with the majority in Indonesia and the Philippines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973645}
{"src_title": "Vasili IV of Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was a son of Ivan Andreyevich Shuisky. Born Prince Vasili Ivanovich Shuisky, he was descended from sovereign princes of Nizhny Novgorod and a 20th generation male line descendant of the Varangian prince Rurik. He was one of the leading boyars of Tsardom of Russia during the reigns of Feodor I and Boris Godunov. In all the court intrigues of the Time of Troubles, Vasily and his younger brother Dmitry Shuisky usually acted together and fought as one.  It was he who, in obedience to the secret orders of Tsar-to-be Boris, went to Uglich to inquire into the cause of the death of the Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, who had perished there in mysterious circumstances. Shuisky reported that it was a case of suicide, though rumors abounded that the Tsarevich had been assassinated on the orders of the regent Boris Godunov. Some suspected that Dmitry escaped the assassination and that another boy was killed in his place, providing impetus for the repeated appearance of impostors (See False Dmitry I, False Dmitry II, and False Dmitry III). On the death of Boris, who had become tsar, and the accession of his son Feodor II, Shuisky went back upon his own words in order to gain favour with the pretender False Dmitriy I, who was attempting to gain the throne by impersonating the dead Tsarevich. Shuisky recognized the pretender as the \"real\" Dmitry despite having earlier determined the boy had committed suicide, thus bringing about the assassination of the young Feodor.  Shuisky then turned against the false Dmitriy and brought about his death (in May 1606) by stating that the real Dmitriy had indeed been slain and that the reigning tsar Dmitriy was an impostor. After Dmitriy's death Shuisky's adherents proclaimed him tsar, on 19 May 1606. He reigned until 19 July 1610, but was never generally recognized. Even in Moscow itself he had little or no authority, and he only avoided deposition by the dominant boyars because they had no one to replace him with.  The popularity of his cousin, Prince Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky, who commanded an army aided by a small allied Swedish army led by Jacob de la Gardie, demanding cessions of Russian territory in Karelia in return, allowed Shuisky, for a time, to remain on his unstable throne. In 1610, he was deposed by his former adherents Princes Vorotynsky and Mstislavsky. He was made a monk and eventually transported together with his two brothers to Warsaw by the Polish hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski. He died a prisoner in the castle of Gostynin, near Warsaw, in 1612, followed soon by his brother Dmitry. The Romanovs, elected in 1613, did recognize Vasili posthumously as a legal tsar, and during their negotiations with the Polish authorities constantly demanded the right to rebury his body in Russia. Following the Treaty of Polyanovka in 1635, Vasili's remains were finally returned to Moscow and laid to rest in the Archangel Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and issue.", "content": "Vasili Shuisky was married twice. His first wife, Elena Mikhailovna Repnina, died prior his election to tsardom, and he had no children from that marriage. After his coronation, Vasili remarried Princess Ekaterina Buynosova-Rostovskaya, whose name was changed to Maria, deemed more suitable for a tsarina consort. They had two daughters together, Princesses Anna and Anastasia of all the Russias, but both died in infancy during their father's reign, and were buried in the Old Maiden's Convent in Kremlin. As both brothers of Vasili, Princes Dmitri Shuisky and Ivan Shuisky the Button, died also childless, the Shuiskys' princely house became extinct after the death of the latter in 1638.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "The future Tsar Vasili IV serves as a character in Alexander Pushkin's blank verse drama \"Boris Godunov\" and Modest Mussorgsky's opera of the same name. In both depictions, the character is an adviser to Boris Godunov and a master of palace intrigue. Despite being fully aware that Tsar Boris ordered the assassination of the child Tsarevich Dmitriy, Vasili Shuisky remains outwardly loyal, only switching his support to the Pretender when the latter appears likely to win. Pushkin later described his intention to write further plays about the Time of Troubles.  About Vasili Shuisky, Pushkin wrote, \"I intend to return to Shuisky also. In the historical account he shows a singular mixture of audacity, flexibility, and strength of character. Lackey of Godunov, he is one of the first boyars to go over to Dmitri's side. He is the first one who conspires, and note this, he is the one who risks himself; he is the one who vociferates, who accuses, who after being chief becomes a soldier in the front ranks. He is about to lose his head, Dmitri pardons him when he's already on the scaffold, he exiles him, and with the thoughtless generousity of this amiable adventurer, he recalls him to court, and covers him with gifts and honors. What does Shuisky do—he who has come so close to the hatchet and the block? He has nothing more important to do than conspire anew, to succeed, to have himself elected Tsar, to fall and during his fall to preserve more dignity and strength of spirit than he had ever had in his entire life.\" Only Pushkin's death in a duel at the age of 37 prevented him from composing further plays about the reigns of Tsars Dmitriy and Vasili IV.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vasili IV (, \"Vasiliy Ivanovich Shuisky\", 22 September 155212 September 1612), also called Basil IV, was Tsar of Russia between 1606 and 1610 after the murder of False Dmitriy I. His reign fell during the Time of Troubles. He was the only member of House of Shuysky to become Tsar and the last member of the Rurikid dynasty to rule until the end of monarchy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973646}
{"src_title": "Vasily II of Moscow", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First ten years of internecine struggle.", "content": "Vasily II was the youngest son of Vasily I of Moscow by Sophia of Lithuania, the only daughter of Vytautas the Great, and the only son to survive his father (his elder brother Ivan died in 1417 at the age of 22). On his father's death Vasily II was proclaimed Grand Duke at the age of 10. His mother acted as a regent. His uncle, Yuri of Zvenigorod (Prince of Galich-Mersky), and his two sons, Vasily the Cross-Eyed and Dmitry Shemyaka, seized on the opportunity to advance their own claims to the throne. These claims were based on the Testament of Dmitri Donskoi, Yuri's father and Vasily II's grandfather, who had stated that if Vasily I died Yuri would succeed his appanage. However, Dmitri had written the testament when Vasily I had no children of his own, and it might be argued that this provision had been made only for the case of Vasily I's childless death. Vasily II's claim was supported by Vytautas, his maternal grandfather.  Upon Vytautas' death in 1430, Yuri went to the Golden Horde, returning with a license to take the Moscow throne. But the Khan did not support him any further, largely due to the devices of the Smolensk princeling and Moscow boyarin Ivan Vsevolzhsky. When Yuri assembled an army and attacked Moscow, Vasily II, betrayed by Vsevolzhsky, was defeated and captured by his enemies (1433). Upon being proclaimed Grand Duke of Moscow, Yuri pardoned his nephew and sent him to reign in the town of Kolomna. That proved to be a mistake, as Vasily II immediately started to plot against his uncle and gather all sort of malcontents. Feeling how insecure his throne was, Yuri resigned and then left Moscow for his northern hometown. When Vasily II returned to Moscow, he had Vsevolzhsky blinded as a traitor.  Meanwhile, Yuri's claim was inherited by his sons who decided to continue the fight. They managed to defeat Vasily II, who had to seek refuge in the Golden Horde. After Yuri died in 1434, Vasili the Cross-Eyed entered the Kremlin and was proclaimed new Grand Duke. Dmitry Shemyaka, who had his own plans for the throne, quarreled with his brother and concluded an alliance with Vasily II. Together they managed to banish Vasily the Cross-Eyed from the Kremlin in 1435. The latter was captured and blinded, which effectively removed him from the contest for the throne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kazan and Shemyaka.", "content": "During Vasily II's reign the Golden Horde collapsed and broke up into smaller Khanates. Now that his throne was relatively secure, he had to deal with the Tatar threat. In 1439, Vasily II had to flee the capital, when it was besieged by Ulugh Muhammad, ruler of the nascent Kazan Khanate. Six years later, he personally led his troops against Ulugh Muhammad, but was defeated and taken prisoner. The Russians were forced to gather an enormous ransom for their prince, so that Vasily II could be released some five months later.  During that time, the control of Moscow passed to Dmitry Shemyaka. Keeping in mind the fate of his own brother, Dmitry had Vasily II blinded and exiled him to Uglich, in 1446; hence, Vasily II's nickname, 'the blind' (\"Tyomniy\", literally 'dark'). As Vasily II still had a number of supporters in Moscow, Dmitry recalled him from exile and gave him Vologda as an appanage. That proved to be a mistake, as Vasily II quickly assembled his supporters and regained the throne.  Vasily II's final victory against his cousin came in the 1450s, when he captured Galich-Mersky and poisoned Dmitry. The latter's children managed to escape to Lithuania. These events finally put to rest the principle of collateral succession, which was a major cause of medieval internecine struggles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later reign and policies.", "content": "Now that the war was over, Vasily II eliminated almost all of the small appanages in Moscow principality, so as to strengthen his sovereign authority. His military campaigns of 1441–60 increased Moscow's hold over Suzdal, the Vyatka lands, and the republican governments of Novgorod and Pskov.  In the meantime, Constantinople fell to the Turks, and the Patriarch agreed to acknowledge the supremacy of the Pope in the Council of Florence. Vasily II promptly rejected this arrangement. By his order in 1448, bishop Jonah was appointed metropolitan of Russia, which was tantamount to declaration of independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from the Patriarch of Constantinople. This move further strengthened Russia's reputation among Orthodox states.  In his later years the blind prince was greatly helped by Metropolitan Jonah, boyars, and then by his older son Ivan III who was styled co-ruler since the late 1450s. On Vasily II's death in 1462 Ivan III succeeded him as Grand Prince of Moscow. Vasily's daughter Anna was married to a prince of Ryazan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vasily Vasiliyevich (; 10 March 141527 March 1462), known as Vasily II the Blind (Василий II Тёмный), was the Grand Prince of Moscow whose long reign (1425–1462) was plagued by the greatest civil war of Old Russian history. At one point, Vasily was captured and blinded by his opponents, yet eventually managed to reclaim the throne. Due to his disability, he made his son, Ivan III the Great, his co-ruler in his late years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973647}
{"src_title": "Grasse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Festivals.", "content": "There is an annual \"Fête du Jasmin\" or \"La Jasminade\", at the beginning of August. The first festival was on August 3–4, 1946. Decorated floats drive through the town, with young women in skimpy costumes on board, throwing flowers into the crowd. Garlands of jasmine decorate the town center, and the fire department fills a fire truck with jasmine-infused water to spray on the crowds. There are also fireworks, free parties, folk music groups and street performers. There is also an annual international exhibition of roses (\"Expo Rose\") held in May each year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The Gare de Grasse railway station offers connections with Cannes, Nice and Ventimiglia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Perfume.", "content": "Grasse has had a prospering perfume industry since the end of the 18th century. Grasse is the centre of the French perfume industry and is known as the world's perfume capital (\"la capitale mondiale des parfums\"). Many \"noses\" (or, in French, \"Les nez\" (plural)/\"Le nez\" (singular)) are trained or have spent time in Grasse to distinguish over 2,000 kinds of scent. Grasse produces over two-thirds of France's natural aromas (for perfume and for food flavourings). This industry turns over more than 600 million euros a year. Grasse's particular microclimate encouraged the flower farming industry. It is warm and sufficiently inland to be sheltered from the sea air. There is an abundance of water, thanks to its situation in the hills and the 1860 construction of the Siagne canal for irrigation purposes. The town is above sea level and from the coast (Côte d'Azur). Jasmine, a key ingredient of many perfumes, was brought to southern France by the Moors in the 16th century. Twenty-seven tonnes of jasmine are now harvested in Grasse annually. There are numerous old 'parfumeries' in Grasse, such as Galimard, Molinard and Fragonard, each with tours and a museum.  The trade in leather and tanning work developed during the twelfth century around the small canal that runs through the city. This activity produced a strong unpleasant odor. At the time of the Renaissance perfume manufacturers began production of gloves, handbags and belt (clothing), to meet the new fashion from Italy with the entourage of Queen Catherine de Medici.  The countryside around the city began to grow fields of flowers, offering new scents from the city. In 1614, the king recognized the new corporation of \"glovers perfumers\". In the middle of the eighteenth century, the perfumery was experiencing a very important development. Leading companies dating from this period includes oldest French perfumerie and third oldest parfumerie in Europe Galimard established in 1747. Introduction of new production methods turned perfume making into a real industry that could adapt to new market demands.  In the nineteenth century, the raw materials began to be imported from abroad. During the twentieth century the creation of synthetic products brought the democratization & affordability of perfumes and their spin-offs; (shampoos and deodorants, cream (pharmaceutical) and detergents, food flavoring for cookies, ice cream and dairy products, beverages, convenience foods, confectionery, preserves and syrups). In 1905, six hundred tons of flowers were harvested while in the 1940s, five thousand tons were produced annually. However, in early 2000, production was less than 30 tons for all flowers combined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical activity.", "content": "In the Middle Ages, Grasse specialized in leather tanning. Once tanned, the hides were often exported to Genoa or Pisa, cities that shared a commercial alliance with Grasse. Several centuries of this intense activity witnessed many technological advances within tanning industries. The hides of Grasse acquired a reputation for high quality. But the leather smelled badly, something that did not please the glove wearing nobility. This is when Galimard, a tanner in Grasse came up with the idea of scented leather gloves. He offered a pair of scented gloves to Catherine de Medici who was seduced by the gift. Thereafter, the product spread through the Royal Court and high society, and this made a worldwide reputation for Grasse. The seventeenth century became the heyday of \"Glovers Perfumers'. However, high taxes on leather and competition from Nice brought a decline for the leather industry in Grasse, and production of leather fragrance ceased. The rare scents from the Grasse (lavender, myrtle, jasmine, rose, orange blossom and wild mimosa) did win the title for the Grasse as the perfume capital of the world. Harvesting jasmine was a labor-intensive business only a few decades ago. Flowers had to be hand picked at dawn, when their scent is the most developed and immediately to be treated by cold enfleurage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern industry.", "content": "A network of sixty companies employs 3,500 people in the city and surrounding area. Additionally about 10,000 residents of Grasse are indirectly employed by the perfume industry. Almost half of the business tax for the city comes from the perfume sector and that is ahead of tourism and services. The main activity of perfumery in Grasse is in the production of natural raw materials (essential oils, concretes, absolutes, resinoids and molecular distillation) and the production of concentrate, also called the juice. A concentrate is the main product that when diluted in at least 80% alcohol provides a perfume. Also food flavorings, which developed since the 1970s, account for over half of production output today.  This represents almost half of the production of French perfumes and aromas and around 7-8% of total global activity. However, during the 1960s and 1970s large international groups gradually bought up local family factories (Chiris, Givaudan-Roure and Lautier, for example). Soon after their production has often been relocated overseas. Just 30 years ago most companies were focused on the production of raw materials. However an overwhelming majority of the modern fragrances contain synthetic chemicals in part or in whole. Grasse perfume companies have therefore adapted by turning to aromatic synthesis and especially to food flavorings and successfully ended a long stagnation. The Grasse perfume industry cannot compete against large chemical multinationals, but it benefits greatly from the advantage of its knowledge of raw materials, facilities, contractors, etc. In addition, major brands such as Dior and Chanel have their own plantations of roses and jasmine in the vicinity of Grasse.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Perfumeries.", "content": "Three perfumeries, Fragonard, Molinard and Galimard opened their doors to the public and offer free tours that explain the processes of producing a perfume. It is possible to create one's own perfume, eau de perfume or eau de toilette and participate in all stages of manufacture from picking flowers to bottling.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The town is the setting in the final chapters of the novel \"Perfume\" by Patrick Süskind. It was featured in the film based on the novel (2006). It was also featured in season 3, episode 16 of the cartoon series Lilly the Witch. The town is the setting in the final chapters of the novel \"The Alice Network\" by Kate Quinn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "Three perfume factories offer daily tours and demonstrations, which draw in many of the region's visitors. In addition to the perfumeries, Grasse's other main attraction is the Cathedral, dedicated to Notre Dame du Puy and founded in the 11th century. In the interior, are three works by Rubens and one by Jean-Honoré Fragonard, a French painter native of the town. Other sights include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "Grasse was the birthplace of:  Grasse was the death place of: Also notable:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns - sister cities.", "content": "Grasse is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Grasse (; Provençal or ; traditional ) is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department (of which it is a sub-prefecture), on the French Riviera.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973648}
{"src_title": "Perro de Presa Canario", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Perro de Presa Canario or \"Canary Dog\" is a large-size dog with a thick and muscular body. The head is broad, massive, square, and powerful brachycephalic shape. Proper head and good expression are part of the breed standard, and are manifest in the best breed specimens. The ears are normally cropped, both to create a more formidable expression and to prevent damage while working with cattle. If cropped, the ears stand erect. In countries where ear-cropping is banned, the ears are close fitting to the head; they hang down and should be pendant or \"rose\" shaped. The upper lip is pendulous, although not excessively. Seen from the front, the upper and lower lips come together to form an inverted V. The flews are slightly divergent. The inside of the lips is a dark colour.  Males have a standard desirable height range of at the withers, with a minimum weight at maturity of and a maximum weight of. Females have a standard desirable height between at the withers, with a minimum weight at maturity of and a maximum weight of.  The breed is also characterized by a sloping topline (with the rear being slightly higher than the shoulders). Another characteristic of the breed is the shape of the paws (cat foot) and the catlike movement of the animal. The body is mesomorphic, that is, slightly longer than the dog is tall, contributing to the feline movement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The historian Agustín Millares Torres, in his \"General History of the Canary Islands\", said that the derivation of large dogs in these islands were [incomplete]. According to his research, these dogs took part in the myths, funeral customs and even gastronomy of the natives (Guanches) of the islands. Demons appeared to these people as big fleecy dogs, known as \"Tibicenas\" in Gran Canaria and \"Irnene\" on the island of La Palma. In the funerary cults, the dogs appear mummified beside their owners (as guides to the afterlife). The dogs were also consumed in small amounts, as has been proven in archaeological discoveries.  In the aftermath of conquest, the presence of these dogs of molosser morphology on the islands is well documented, especially in the cedularios of the councils of Fuerteventura and Tenerife. The first quote after conquest dates from 1501, which allowed the puerqueros (pig farmers) to have \"one of the larges.\" In many periods, these dogs were used to kill the wild dogs that attacked cattle. Success was credited by the presentation of the skins of the heads. In others periods, many of these dogs were ordered to be killed for the damage they did to cattle. At one point, residents were given the opportunity to kill loose and wild dogs without punishment. In other occasions the dogs were ordered to be bound. And still other times, due to the damage caused by these dogs, their possession was banned for anyone who was not a farmer or a hunter. All this occurred between the 16th and 18th centuries.  In addition to the traditional role of cattle dog, the Perros de Presa Canario have been used for dog fighting. Until the 1950s it remained a common practice in all of the islands.  The FCI recognized the breed provisionally in 2001 and completely in 2011 under the name Dogo Canario. In December 2018 it changed the official FCI name to the Presa Canario because the Spanish Kennel Club had wished for it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat and color.", "content": "The coat is short with no undercoating and slightly coarse to the touch. The coat comes in all shades of fawn and brindle. The acceptance of the black coat is a point of contention among fanciers, as it is allowed by the AKC/FSS, UKC and UPPCC standards, but not by the FCI standards (here are works held to have it accepted by FCI). White is allowed up to 20 percent and is most commonly found on the chest and feet, and occasionally on a blaze on the muzzle. The breed standard requires black pigmentation and dogs should have a black mask that does not extend above the eyes. The breed is renowned for its minimal shedding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "Presas require early socialization and obedience training. In some situations, the Perro de Presa Canario can be aggressive toward other dogs and suspicious of strangers. In the past these dogs were used in dog fighting rings due to their size.  In 2001, Diane Whipple, a lacrosse player and coach was killed when she entered her apartment building in San Francisco and was attacked by two dogs, Bane and Hera, owned by Marjorie Knoller and Robert Noel.  In County Galway, Ireland in 2017, a woman was killed when she entered her son's home and was attacked by three of these dogs, which were being used by the son as guard dogs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "As a large breed, the Perro de Presa Canario can be susceptible to hip dysplasia. Other reported health problems include dilated cardiomyopathy- heart problems and mast-cell tumours - cancer patellar luxation and patellar evulsions, skin cysts, epilepsy, osteochondrodysplasias, demodectic mange and cryptorchidism and Canine leishmaniasis. The latter condition is described empirically as highly likely to affect dogs in areas of Spain and academically described as having increased over 22 years prior to 2006, with risk being highest for dogs that were older, large, lived outside, and lived at the meso-Mediterranean level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifespan.", "content": "The average lifespan for the Perro de Presa Canario is between 10 and 12 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Basis for the name and standard.", "content": "The Perro de Presa Canario has a legislative basis in Spain in the form of recognition by a Real Decreto (Royal Decree) of the Ministro de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación (Minister of Agriculture Fishing and Nutrition), which was published in the Official Gazette of the Spanish Government (BOE – Boletin Oficial del Estado). The original Real Decreto 558/2001 can be read on the site of the Spanish Government Gazette. In the decree, the breed is referred to as \"Presa Canario\". A breed standard is attached in the Royal Decree and it includes having a black coat and specifies a maximum weight.  Any other name or standard is not recognized by Spanish law.  In Spain there are two main organizations which are legally recognized by the Minister of Agriculture, Fishing and Nutrition (according to the requirements set by the Real Decreto 558/2001): the RSCE and the FCE. The term \"legally recognized\" means that these organizations have the power to inscribe the litters into the official Book of Origins of Spain (LOE – Libro de Orígenes Español).  The FCE recognizes the breed according to Spanish law, and uses the Presa Canario name and standard, as set by the [http://boe.es/boe/dias/2001/06/14/pdfs/A21156-21182.pdf[Real Decreto 558/2001]].  [http://www.asociacionescaninas.com/sociedades/fci/legislacion/rsce_requerimiento.htm[An official document]] of the Spanish Government has been issued and sent to the RSCE to warn it and to invite it to modify its regulations.  Another recent legal source that identifies the breed is the [http://boe.es/boe/dias/2006/01/12/pdfs/A01349-01351.pdf[Real Decreto 1557/2005]]. This decree also states the breed name as \"Presa Canario\" and gives the legislative power of official association recognition to the local governments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal restrictions on ownership.", "content": "Importation and sale of the breed is prohibited in Australia and New Zealand.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Perro de Presa Canario, also known as the Canary Mastiff, is a rare large Molosser-type dog breed originally bred for working livestock. The name of the breed is Spanish, means \"Canarian catch dog\", and is often shortened to \"Presa Canario\" or simply \"Presa\". The breed is sometimes also called Dogo Canario, meaning \"Canarian Molosser\". It is the animal symbol of the island of Gran Canaria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973649}
{"src_title": "Euryanthe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "\"Euryanthe\" premiered on 25 October 1823, in a year marked by Vienna's interest in Italian operas, particularly those of Rossini. Although the initial reception was enthusiastic, the opera lasted only 20 performances, with complaints about the libretto and the length of the opera. Franz Schubert commented that, \"This is not music\"  In spite of this, the opera has since had several champions. Victor Hugo in \"Les Misérables\" calls the huntsman's chorus in act 3 \"perhaps the most beautiful piece of music ever composed\". During his term as director of the Vienna State Opera, Gustav Mahler mounted a new production of \"Euryanthe\" in 1903. Despite amendments in the libretto by Mahler himself (who described von Chézy as a \"poetess with a full heart and an empty head\") and a few changes in the score there were only five performances. Mahler realised the weaknesses of the libretto and the absurdities of the plot; in particular, in the third act, the ludicrously implausible meeting of all the characters in the middle of a rocky waste, a scene which he always alluded to as 'the merry folk reunited'. Leo Slezak played Adolar, Leopold Demuth played Lysiart.  The composer and musicologist Donald Francis Tovey regarded \"Euryanthe\" as musically superior to Wagner's better-known opera \"Lohengrin\" (whose plot and music echo \"Euryanthe\" in several respects, especially with regard to the use of \"Leitmotiv\" technique) and made a new performing version, while Arturo Toscanini conducted the La Scala premiere in 1902. Carlo Maria Giulini conducted a performance in May 1954 at the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, and a recording is available, along with other historic live recordings. \"Euryanthe\" has also been staged more frequently in recent years.  \"Grove\" notes Weber's use of chromaticism to depict the evil characters, the fine orchestration, and the careful blend of recitative, arioso and set piece.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act 1.", "content": "Euryanthe is betrothed to Count Adolar. In a hall of the palace of King Louis of France in Prémery, the count sings the praises of his promised bride. Lysiart, Count of Forest and Beaujolais, challenges the fidelity of the maiden and asserts that he can win her should he care to try. Adolar stakes his lands and fortune on the faithfulness of Euryanthe and demands that his friend shall show some proof of his victory should he win one.  In her castle at Nevers, Euryanthe has given refuge to Eglantine de Puiset, the daughter of a mutineer. Eglantine is enamoured of Adolar, and under the pretence of friendship for her benefactor, she secretly determines to effect Euryanthe's downfall and rupture her attachment to Adolar. Lysiart, who has unsuccessfully attempted to gain the favor of Euryanthe, assists Eglantine. After questioning by Eglantine, Euryanthe confides a secret given to her by Adolar to Eglantine. The latter's sister Emma had lost her lover in battle, and had killed herself by drinking poison from a ring (the 'ghost' music from the overture is heard). Her soul can find no rest until the ring, lying in her tomb, should be moistened with the tears of an injured and innocent maiden. Euryanthe, who has been praying each night at Emma's tomb, had promised Adolar to keep this secret, and, too late, she repents having told it to Eglantine. After Euryanthe leaves, Eglantine sings how she will denounce Euryanthe to Adolar; Lysiart arrives in order to take Euryanthe to the palace.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 2.", "content": "At night, Lysiart sings both of his guilt and his love. Eglantine visits the tomb, abstracts the ring, and gives it to Lysiart, who had almost given up on his wager with Adolar. She lets him know the secret behind the ring, and he proposes marriage with Eglantine.  Before an assembly in the hall at Prémery, Adolar reveals his anxiety while still longing for his bride, who then arrives. Lysiart displays the jewel to Count Adolar, claiming that Euryanthe had told him about it. Adolar is convinced that his betrothed is unfaithful, since she must have betrayed the secret known to him and her alone. Euryanthe protests her innocence, Adolar gives up his possessions to Lysiart, and rushes off into the forest with Euryanthe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 3.", "content": "In a rocky gorge, Adolar intends to kill Euryanthe, still protesting her innocence, and then himself. They are suddenly attacked by a serpent and the girl throws herself between her lover and the monster; Adolar kills the serpent. He cannot find the heart to kill the one who would have given her life for his, and he goes off, leaving her to her fate. Euryanthe longs for death, but the king and his hunters arrive on the scene, and she recounts the story of her woe and the treachery of Eglantine. Although joyful that she might see Adolar again, she collapses as they lead her away.  Meanwhile, Eglantine has become engaged to Lysiart, and the wedding is about to take place in the Castle of Nevers, when she is stricken with remorse. Adolar has entered in black armour with his visor down. Eglantine, struck by the silence of the courtiers, and still in love with Adolar, thinks that Euryanthe appears to her as a ghost. Adolar shows who he is, and challenges Lysiart to fight. The king appears, and to punish Adolar for his distrust of Euryanthe, tells him that she is dead. Eglantine, triumphant at the supposed death of her rival, makes known the plot and is slain by the furious Lysiart. As Eglantine dies Euryanthe enters and rushes to Adolar. Lysiart is led off, and Adolar's sister finds peace at last because her ring was moistened by the tears of the innocent Euryanthe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes  Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Euryanthe is a German \"grand, heroic, romantic\" opera by Carl Maria von Weber, first performed at the Theater am Kärntnertor, Vienna on 25 October 1823. Though acknowledged as one of Weber's most important operas, the work is rarely staged because of the weak libretto by Helmina von Chézy (who, incidentally, was also the author of the failed play \"Rosamunde\", for which Franz Schubert wrote music). \"Euryanthe\" is based on the 13th-century French romance \"L'Histoire du très-noble et chevalereux prince Gérard, comte de Nevers et la très-virtueuse et très chaste princesse Euriant de Savoye, sa mye\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973650}
{"src_title": "FileZilla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "FileZilla was started as a computer science class project in the second week of January 2001 by Tim Kosse and two classmates.  Before they started to write the code, they discussed under which license they should release it. They decided to make FileZilla an open-source project because many FTP clients were already available, and they didn't think that they would sell a single copy if they made FileZilla commercial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "These are some features of FileZilla Client:  These are some features of FileZilla Server:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "In May 2008, Chris Foresman assessed FTP clients for \"Ars Technica\", saying of FileZilla: \"Some friends in the tech support world often recommend the free and open-source FileZilla, which offers a Mac OS X version in addition to Windows and Linux. But I've never been thrilled about its busy interface, which can be daunting for novice users.\"  Writing for \"Ars Technica\" in August 2008 Emil Protalinski said: \"this week's free, third-party application recommendation is FileZilla... This FTP client is very quick and is regularly updated. It may not have a beautiful GUI, but it certainly is fast and has never let me down.\"  Go Daddy, Clarion University of Pennsylvania and National Capital FreeNet recommend FileZilla for uploading files to their web hosting services.  FileZilla is available in the repositories of many Linux distributions, including Debian, Ubuntu, Trisquel and Parabola GNU/Linux-libre.  In January 2012, CNET gave FileZilla their highest rating of \"spectacular\"—five out of five stars.  Since the project's participation in SourceForge's program to create revenue by adware, several reviewers started warning about downloading FileZilla and discouraged users from using it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bundled adware issues.", "content": "In 2013 the project's hosting site, SourceForge.net, provided the main download of FileZilla with a download wrapper, \"offering\" additional software for the user to install. Numerous users reported that some of the adware installed without consent, despite declining all install requests, or used deception to obtain the user's \"acceptance\" to install. Among the reported effects are: web browser being hijacked, with content, start page and search engines being forcibly changed, popup windows, privacy or spying issues, sudden shutdown and restart events possibly leading to loss of current work. Some of the adware was reported to resist removal or restoration of previous settings, or were said to reinstall after a supposed removal. Also, users reported adware programs to download and install more unwanted software, some causing alerts by security suites, for being malware.  The FileZilla webpage offers additional download options without adware installs, but the link to the adware download appears as the primary link, highlighted and marked as \"recommended\".  As of 2016, FileZilla displays ads (called sponsored updates) when starting the application. These ads appear as part of the \"Check for updates\" dialog.  In 2018, a further controversy about FileZilla's use of a bundled adware installer caused concern.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plain text password storage.", "content": "Until version 3.26 FileZilla stored all saved usernames and passwords as plain text, allowing any malware that had gained even limited access to the user's system to read the data. FileZilla author Tim Kosse was reluctant to add encrypted storage. He stated that it gives a false sense of security, since well-crafted malware can include a keylogger that reads the master password used to secure the data. Users have argued that reading the master password to decrypt the encrypted storage is still harder than just reading the unencrypted storage. A fork called \"FileZilla Secure\" was started in November 2016 to add encrypted storage. In May 2017, encrypted storage was also added to the main version, 10 years after it was first requested. Kosse maintained that the feature did not really increase security, as long as the operating system is not secure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "FileZilla Server.", "content": "FileZilla Server is a sister product to FileZilla Client. It is an FTP server supported by the same project and features support for FTP and FTP over SSL/TLS. FileZilla Server is currently available only on the Windows platform.  FileZilla Server is a free, open-source FTP server. Its source code is hosted on SourceForge.net.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "FileZilla Server supports FTP and FTPS (FTP over SSL/TLS). Other features include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "FileZilla Client issues.", "content": "Unlike some other FTP clients, FileZilla Client does not implement a workaround for an error in the IIS server which causes file corruption when resuming large file downloads.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operating system support.", "content": "FileZilla client:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "FileZilla is a free software, cross-platform FTP application, consisting of FileZilla Client and FileZilla Server. Client binaries are available for Windows, Linux, and macOS, server binaries are available for Windows only. Both server and client support FTP and FTPS (FTP over SSL/TLS), while the client can in addition connect to SFTP servers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973651}
{"src_title": "Spanish Mastiff", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical context.", "content": "The Spanish Mastiff (mastiff) originated in the Spanish territories of Asturias, Cantabria, Province of León and Province of Zamora.  In medieval times, it has accompanied the herds of sheep crossing from northern to southern Spain, defending cattle from attack by wolves and other predators. The mastiff had the protection of chunky metal necklaces with skewers. Its function was primarily protective, unlike its fellow Carea dogs, whose function is grazing, driving the herds in response to indications of the shepherd. In some places it is known as \"perro merinero\" when it accompanies sheep of the Merino breed.  The first breed standard of the Spanish Mastiff was made by the FCI in 1946. In 1981 the Asociación Española del Perro Mastín Español was formed, who organized a breeding program looking for the kind of large and strong mastiff of the past times, and drafted a new breed standard focused on recovering the old cattle dogs, fit as pets, and as guard dog and defense.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Spanish Mastiff is a very large and powerful dog, similar in appearance to the other mastiff breeds. They have a large powerful head and serious and vigilant expression.  Males in this breed are tall at the withers, and range from. Females are at least, and weigh.  It has small eyes and drop ears resembling triangles. This dog's coat is most often fawn, but it can also be brindle, black or 'wolf'-colored. Reddish tones indicate miscegenation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "This noble giant is aloof, dignified, calm and intelligent. It is devoted to its family and may politely accept strangers if it has been socialized properly, although it will be wary of them. It can be aggressive toward other dogs. The Spanish Mastiff may be a less-than-ideal pet in urban situations, where its booming voice and massive size could be problematic. It is a wonderful protector of its home and family.  Socialization and training should begin early to ensure this dog a stable and reliable pet. Supervised exposure in puppyhood to a variety of unfamiliar but non-threatening dogs will help dampen a tendency to aggression toward other dogs. The breed is quite alert and food motivated but can bore easily; training must be consistent and firm but gentle. Once the trainer has established the dog's respect as leader, the Spanish mastiff will be an extremely loyal pet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exercise.", "content": "This dog is more inclined to lumber than gallop, but it can move quite rapidly when necessary. A long daily walk will be sufficient, although it will appreciate a fenced area where it can exercise at its own rate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "In addition to its considered \"official\" variety, which is the current and modern Spanish Mastiff framed in a rigid aesthetic pattern and recognized by the largest canine entities, there is also its more primitive, traditional slope, considered unofficial, that does not meet any aesthetic standards and has as its objective, still today, to serve its owners acting in the protection of flocks against predators. These unofficial strains, for the purpose of differentiation, are termed the Traditional Spanish Mastiff, Working Spanish Mastiff, Leonese Mastiff, and Wolf Dog. These unofficial strains continue to act actively in their original and primitive function.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The mastín Español or Spanish mastiff, is a giant breed of dog from in Spain, originally bred to be a guard dog whose specialized purpose is to be a livestock guardian dog protecting flocks and/or herds from wolves and other predators.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973652}
{"src_title": "Niederaltaich Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Foundation and early history.", "content": "After its foundation in 731 (or 741) by Duke Odilo of Bavaria, the monastery, dedicated to Saint Maurice, was settled by monks from Reichenau Abbey under Saint Pirmin. Eberswind, the first abbot, is considered the compiler of the \"\"Lex Baiuvariorum\"\", the first code of law of the Bavarian people.  The monastery brought great areas of Lower Bavaria into cultivation as far as the territory of the present Czech Republic, and founded 120 settlements in the Bavarian Forest. In the reigns of Charlemagne and Louis the German the abbey extended its possessions as far as the Wachau. Abbot Gozbald (825-855) was the latter's arch-chancellor.  In 848 the monastery received the right of free election of its abbots, and in 857 became \"reichsunmittelbar\" (that is, free of all territorial lordship except that of the monarchy itself). By the end of the 9th century over 50 monks had become abbots in other monasteries or been appointed bishops. The 10th century however brought the turmoil of the Hungarian incursions, and between 950 and 990 the abbey was a collegiate foundation (\"Kollegiatstift\").  Under Abbot Gotthard or Godehard of Hildesheim (996-1022), better known as Saint Gotthard, the abbey entered a renewed golden age. Saint Gotthard, who along with Duke Henry of Bavaria, later Emperor Henry II, was a key supporter of contemporary monastic reform, was probably the abbey's best-known abbot. He later became Bishop of Hildesheim, where he was buried.  The abbey was granted by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to the Bishop of Bamberg in 1152, and as a consequence lost its \"reichsunmittelbar\" status. In 1242 the Wittelsbachs inherited from the Counts of Bogen the office of Vogt (\"lord protector\") of the abbey.  Important abbots from this time on were Hermann (in office from 1242 to 1273), the author of the \"Annales Hermanni\", and the Reformation abbots Kilian Weybeck (1503 to 1534) and Paulus Gmainer (1550 to 1585). Vitus Bacheneder, abbot between 1651 and 1666, created after the Thirty Years' War the foundations of the economic prosperity of the abbey in the Baroque period. Under Abbot Joscio Hamberger (1700–1739) the creation of the Baroque abbey and church took place, as well as the construction of the school. The church was the first commission for the later famous Baroque architect Johann Michael Fischer, who worked on it from 1724–1726.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later history.", "content": "The abbey was dissolved at the secularisation of Bavaria in 1803. A fire in the church in 1813, caused by a bolt of lightning, signalled the beginning of the demolition of the Baroque complex. The monastery buildings were sold off to private individuals. The side chapels of the abbey church, the Gothic cloisters and adjoining buildings, as well as the parish church, were demolished.  In 1918, with the help of a legacy from the theology professor Franz Xaver Knabenbauer, a native of Niederalteich, a monastery was re-established here and settled from Metten Abbey. In 1932 the monastery church received from the pope the title of \"Basilica minor\". In 1949, under Abbot Emmanuel Maria Heufelder, the monastery became once again an independent abbey.  In 1946 the \"St.-Gotthard-Gymnasium\" (\"\"St.-Gotthard-Grammar School\"\") was refounded after having been closed by the Nazis. The remaining parts of the Baroque buildings were incorporated into new buildings in 1953–1954 and gradually renovated. In 1959 the \"Katholische Landvolkshochschule\" (\"\"Catholic State Secondary School\"\") was established here, and between 1971 and 1973 a new school building was erected for the \"St.-Gotthard-Gymnasium\" because the number of pupils had continually risen in the 1960s. Its boarding facilities, however, were shut down in 1994 and converted in 1999–2001 into the St. Pirmin Conference and Hospitality Centre. In 2006 and 2007 the school building of the \"St.-Gotthard-Gymnasium\" was refurbished. The school itself is now a \"Ganztagschule\", which provides obligatory lessons from 7.45 a.m. until 4.00 p.m..  Niederaltaich Abbey has been a member of the Bavarian Congregation of the Benedictine Confederation since its re-foundation in 1918.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecumenism.", "content": "In 1924 Pope Pius XI gave the Benedictines the task of making the theology and spirituality of the east known in the west.  Niederaltaich, as a consequence of these ecumenical goals, has since been a monastery of two ecclesasiatical traditions or rites, one part of the monks living and praying according to the Roman rite, the other part according to the Byzantine rite.  The Eucharist and the Divine Office are celebrated by the monks in the German language in both rites, and in addition, liturgical texts from Church Slavonic and Greek have also been translated.  In 1986 a church and a chapel, both dedicated to Bishop Nicholas of Myra (Saint Nicholas), were set up for the celebration of the Byzantine rite in the buildings of the former monastery brewery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Niederaltaich Abbey (Abtei or Kloster Niederaltaich) is a house of the Benedictine Order founded in 731 (or possibly 741), situated in the village of Niederalteich on the Danube in Bavaria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973653}
{"src_title": "Arum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Inflorescence and pollination.", "content": "The flowers are borne on a poker-shaped inflorescence called a spadix, which is partially enclosed in a spathe or leaf-like hood of varying colour. The flowers are hidden from sight, clustered at the base of the spadix with a ring of female flowers at the bottom and a ring of male flowers above them.  Above the male flowers is a ring of hairs forming an insect trap. The insects are trapped beneath the ring of hairs and are dusted with pollen by the male flowers before escaping and carrying the pollen to the spadices of other plants, where they pollinate the female flowers. Once the plant is pollinated, the small hairs wither away and the trapped insects are released.  After the inflorescence opens, the spadix heats up well above ambient temperature, due to a phenomenon called thermogenesis. This is caused by the rapid consumption of starch in a process called cyanide insensitive respiration, which is biochemically different from the respiration normally found in plants. The heat is used to vaporize odour components, which in species with short \"flower-stalks\" cause a faecal smell. This in turn attracts the small flies and gnats that are to be trapped within the inflorescence. As the time required for successful pollination to occur can be several days, many of the small insects nevertheless die within the flower due to their short lifespan. Therefore, dead insects are frequently found within the inflorescence, when opened, leading the finder to believe it is a carnivorous plant - but that is not the case. No digestive enzymes or similar component is present, and in fact, once pollinated the entire inflorescence starts withering except the central part from which the berries later emerge.  Pollination-wise the species of Arum can be split into two (or three) distinct groups. The so-called \"cryptic\" species have the inflorescence on a relatively short stalk, and the odour released during the thermogenesis is recognizable to the human nose as distinctively faecal. These species are visited by insects with some relation to dung such as owl-midges (Psychodidae) or fungus-gnats (Sciara). In northern Europe we only find the \"cryptic\" species.  The other main group are called \"flag\" species - due to the inflorescence being on a long stalk. These species also exhibit thermogenesis, but if an odour is released it is not recognizable to the human nose, and it is debated if pollinators are attracted by a non-recognizable smell, the thermogenesis itself or visual attraction.  Finally the closely related \"A. idaeum\" and \"A. creticum\" does not seem to fit any of the two groups. \"A. creticum\" appears to be of the \"flag\" group but, as the only species, emits a pleasing lemony smell. The apparently \"cryptic\" \"A. idaeum\" does not emit a recognizable smell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "Formerly placed here:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arum is a genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae, native to Europe, northern Africa, and western and central Asia, with the highest species diversity in the Mediterranean region. Frequently called arum lilies, they are not closely related to the true lilies \"Lilium\". Plants in closely related \"Zantedeschia\" are also called \"arum lilies\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973654}
{"src_title": "Lenin Peak", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The peak was discovered in 1871 and originally named Mount Kaufmann after Konstantin Kaufman, the first Governor-General of Turkestan. In 1928, the mountain was renamed Lenin Peak after the Russian revolutionary and first leader of the Soviet Union, Vladimir Lenin. In Tajikistan, the peak was renamed again in July 2006, and today it is officially called in Tajik \"Qullai Abuali ibni Sino\" (\"қуллаи Абӯалӣ ибни Сино\", Ibn Sina Peak or, alternatively, Avicenna Peak) after Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna).  In Kyrgyzstan, the peak is still officially called \"Lenin Chokusu\" (\"Ленин Чокусу\", Lenin Peak). However, in October 2017, Kyrgyz president Almazbek Atambayev called for renaming the peak \"Manas Peak\", after the hero of the Epic of Manas. A peak named \"Manas Peak\" already exists in Kyrgyzstan; it is a mountain of in the Talas Alatau range in Talas Region.  Local Kyrgyz names include Jel-Aidar (\"Wind's God\") and Achyk-Tash (\"Open Rock\"). \"Achik-Tash\", is also the name of a plateau and a base camp at an elevation of 3,600 m on a popular northern climbing route to Lenin Peak, which starts in the southern Kyrgyz city of Osh, a day's drive north of the border. Another suggested local name, Pik Kaman (\"wild pig\", \"boar\") probably belongs to an officially unnamed peak west of Lenin Peak.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climbing history and routes.", "content": "Initial exploration of this part of Central Asia occurred in the period 1774–82. Arguably the first recorded travel through the region is the involuntary journey of the slave Filipp Efremov (an ethnic Russian), who escaped from slavery in Bukhara. He crossed the Fergana valley, then via Osh, the Chigirik Pass and Terekdavan Pass he reached the Kashgar and finally came over the Karakorum. He was the first European who crossed the Alai Mountains.  Scientific expeditions to the Alai Mountains began in 1871, when Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko discovered the Trans-Alai (Zaalayskiy) Range and its main peak. The first geographical expedition which came nearest to the base of the future Lenin Peak in the early 20th century was arguably the expedition of Nikolai Leopol'dovich Korzhenevskiy.  In September 1928, three mountaineers -the Germans and Karl Wien, and the Austrian - from a Soviet-German scientific expedition, made the first attempt to reach the highest point of the Trans-Alai Range, which at that time had the name Kaufman Peak.  They started climbing upstream of the Saukdara river along the South slope of Trans-Alai Range also Trans-Alay Range. From the river head they continued climbing along the Greater Saukdara Glacier towards a saddle at an elevation of 5820 m (this saddle is also known as the Krilenko Pass). On September 25, 1928 they started climbing from the saddle along the NE Ridge and at 15.30 they reached the summit. At the time, Kaufman Peak was the highest summit reached by men.  The title Lenin Peak was first applied to the highest point of the Trans-Alai Range in the same year (1928). When it was renamed after Lenin it was believed to be the highest point in the USSR.  On September 8, 1934, at 16:20 Kasian Chernuha, Vitaly Abalakov and Ivan Lukin, three members of a Soviet expedition, reached the summit at an elevation of. Their attempt lasted for four days with three camps (5700 m, 6500 m and 7000 m). The expedition started climbing from the Achik-Tash canyon in the Alai valley. The summit attempt itself was started along the Western ice slope of the Lenin glacier. They continued climbing along the North Face, passing the rocks that were later given the name Lipkin's Rocks. At the end of the second day they reached the crest of the NE ridge at an elevation of about 6500 m. During the following day and a half they climbed along the NE Ridge and, utterly exhausted, reached the summit.  The third ascent was three years later, in 1937, when eight Soviet climbers under the direction of Lev Barkhash reached the summit by the same route. This was at the beginning of mass political repressions in the Soviet Union and many of the most prominent Soviet climbers, including Lev Barkhash, were brought to trial.  Subsequent attempts to climb Lenin Peak could not begin until 1950, when the USSR began to recover from the Second World War. On August 14, 1950, twelve climbers (V. Aksenov, K, Zaporojchenko, Y. Izrael, V. Kovalev, A. Kormshikov, Y. Maslov, E. Nagel, V. Narishkin, V. Nikonov, V. Nozdryuhin, I. Rojkov) under the direction of Vladimir Racek reached the summit for the fourth time.  All three Soviet expeditions including Racec's expedition of 1950 were by almost the same route via the NE Ridge.  The route which now is known as the classic route, via the Razdelnaya Peak and NW Ridge, was first climbed in 1954 by the team of Soviet climbers under the direction of V. Kovalev (P. Karpov, E. Nagel, V. Narishkin, V. Nozdryuhin). In 1960, a group of eight Soviet climbers made a successful direct climb along the North Face (15.08.1960).  There are 16 established routes, nine on the southern side and seven on the northern slopes. The peak is quite popular with climbers due to its easy access and some uncomplicated routes. However, the peak is not without its share of disasters. In 1974, an entire team of eight female climbers died high on the mountain in a storm.  In 1987 Anatoli Boukreev achieved the first round trip speed ascent Base camp to Summit to Base camp in 14 hours.  In 1989 The first solo ascent is achieved by the great high altitude mountaineer Anatoli Boukreev. An avalanche triggered by an earthquake killed 43 climbers in 1990.  As it is now, considering the existing infrastructure and BC/ABC locations, there are three most attractive routes from the North (approximately indicated on the Scheme): Lipkin's rocks route and NE Ridge; the classic North Face route; the route via Razdelnaya Peak and the NW Ridge.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lenin Peak (, \"Lenin Çoqusu\", لەنىن چوقۇسۇ;, \"Pik Lenina\";, \"qulla‘i Lenin/qullaji Lenin\", renamed қуллаи Абӯалӣ ибни Сино (qulla‘i Abûalî ibni Sino) in July 2006), or Ibn Sina (Avicenna) Peak, rises to 7,134 metres (23,406 ft) in Gorno-Badakhshan (GBAO) on the border of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and is the second-highest point of both countries. It is considered one of the less technical 7000 m peaks in the world to climb and it has by far the most ascents of any 7000 m or higher peak on Earth, with every year seeing hundreds of mountaineers make their way to the summit. Lenin Peak is the highest mountain in the Trans-Alay Range of Central Asia, and in the Pamir Mountains in Tajikistan it is exceeded only by Ismoil Somoni Peak (7,495 m). It was thought to be the highest point in the Pamirs in Tajikistan until 1933, when Ismoil Somoni Peak (known as \"Stalin Peak\" at the time) was climbed and found to be more than 300 metres higher. Two mountains in the Pamirs in China, Kongur Tagh (7,649 m) and Muztagh Ata (7,546 m), are higher than the Tajik summits.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973655}
{"src_title": "Good", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of ideas.", "content": "Every language has a word expressing \"good\" in the sense of \"having the right or desirable quality\" (ἀρετή) and \"bad\" in the sense \"undesirable\". A sense of moral judgement and a distinction \"right and wrong, good and bad\" are cultural universals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plato and Aristotle.", "content": "Although the history of the origin of the use of the concept and meaning of 'good' are diverse, the notable discussions of Plato and Aristotle on this subject have been of significant historical effect. The first references that are seen in Plato's \"The Republic\" to the Form of the Good are within the conversation between Glaucon and Socrates (454c–d). When trying to answer such difficult questions pertaining to the definition of justice, Plato identifies that we should not “introduce every form of difference and sameness in nature” instead we must focus on \"the one form of sameness and difference that was relevant to the particular ways of life themselves” which is the form of the Good. This form is the basis for understanding all other forms, it is what allows us to understand everything else. Through the conversation between Socrates and Glaucon (508a–c) Plato analogizes the form of the Good with the sun as it is what allows us to see things. Here, Plato describes how the sun allows for sight. But he makes a very important distinction, “sun is not sight” but it is “the cause of sight itself.” As the sun is in the visible realm, the form of Good is in the intelligible realm. It is “what gives truth to the things known and the power to know to the knower”. It is not only the “cause of knowledge and truth, it is also an object of knowledge”. Plato identifies how the form of the Good allows for the cognizance to understand such difficult concepts as justice. He identifies knowledge and truth as important, but through Socrates (508d–e) says, “good is yet more prized”. He then proceeds to explain “although the good is not being” it is “superior to it in rank and power”, it is what “provides for knowledge and truth” (508e).  In contrast to Plato, Aristotle discusses the Forms of Good in critical terms several times in both of his major surviving ethical works, the \"Eudemian\" and \"Nicomachean Ethics\". Aristotle argues that Plato's Form of the Good does not apply to the physical world, for Plato does not assign “goodness” to anything in the existing world. Because Plato's Form of the Good does not explain events in the physical world, humans have no reason to believe that the Form of the Good exists and the Form of the Good is thereby irrelevant to human ethics.  Plato and Aristotle were not the first contributors in ancient Greece to the study of the 'good' and discussion preceding them can be found among the pre-Socratic philosophers. In Western civilisation, the basic meanings of κακός and ἀγαθός are \"bad, cowardly\" and \"good, brave, capable\", and their absolute sense emerges only around 400 BC, with Pre-Socratic philosophy, in particular Democritus. Morality in this absolute sense solidifies in the dialogues of Plato, together with the emergence of monotheistic thought (notably in \"Euthyphro\", which ponders the concept of piety (τὸ ὅσιον) as a moral absolute). The idea is further developed in Late Antiquity by Neoplatonists, Gnostics, and Church Fathers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ancient religions.", "content": "Aside from ancient Greek studies of the 'good', the eastern part of ancient Persia almost five thousand years ago a religious philosopher called Zoroaster simplified the pantheon of early Iranian gods into two opposing forces: Ahura Mazda (Illuminating Wisdom) and Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit) which were in conflict.  For the western world, this idea developed into a religion which spawned many sects, some of which embraced an extreme dualistic belief that the material world should be shunned and the spiritual world should be embraced. Gnostic ideas influenced many ancient religions which teach that \"gnosis\" (variously interpreted as enlightenment, salvation, emancipation or 'oneness with God') may be reached by practising philanthropy to the point of personal poverty, sexual abstinence (as far as possible for \"hearers\", total for \"initiates\") and diligently searching for wisdom by helping others.  This development from the relative or habitual to the absolute is also evident in the terms \"ethics\" and \"morality\" both being derived from terms for \"regional custom\", Greek ἦθος and Latin \"mores\", respectively (see also \"siðr\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medieval period.", "content": "Medieval Christian philosophy was founded on the work of the Bishop Augustine of Hippo and theologian Thomas Aquinas who understood evil in terms of Biblical infallibility and Biblical inerrancy, as well as the influences of Plato and Aristotle in their appreciation of the concept of the Summum bonum. Silent contemplation was the route to appreciation of the Idea of the Good.  Many medieval Christian theologians both broadened and narrowed the basic concept of \"Good and evil\" until it came to have several, sometimes complex definitions such as:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modernity.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kant.", "content": "A significant enlightenment context for studying the 'good' has been its significance in the study of \"the good, the true and the beautiful\" as found in Immanuel Kant and other Enlightenment philosophers and religious thinkers. These discussion were undertaken by Kant particularly in the context of his \"Critique of Practical Reason\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Rawls.", "content": "John Rawls' book \"A Theory of Justice\" prioritized social arrangements and goods based on their contribution to justice. Rawls defined justice as \"fairness\", especially in distributing social goods, defined fairness in terms of procedures, and attempted to prove that just institutions and lives are good, if rational individuals' goods are considered fairly. Rawls's crucial invention was the original position, a procedure in which one tries to make objective moral decisions by refusing to let personal facts about oneself enter one's moral calculations.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Opposition to evil.", "content": "In religion, ethics, and philosophy, \"good and evil\" is a very common dichotomy. In cultures with Manichaean and Abrahamic religious influence, evil is usually perceived as the antagonistic opposite of good. Good is that which should prevail and evil should be defeated. In cultures with Buddhist spiritual influence, this antagonistic duality itself must be overcome through achieving \"Śūnyatā\", or emptiness. This is the recognition of good and evil not being unrelated, but two parts of a greater whole; unity, oneness, a Monism.  As a religious concept, basic ideas of a dichotomy between good and evil has developed so that today:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "Morality is regarded by some biologists (notably Edward O. Wilson, Jeremy Griffith, David Sloan Wilson and Frans de Waal) as an important question to be addressed by the field of biology.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In most contexts, the concept of good denotes the conduct that should be preferred when posed with a choice between possible actions. Good is generally considered to be the opposite of evil, and is of interest in the study of morality, ethics, religion and philosophy. The specific meaning and etymology of the term and its associated translations among ancient and contemporary languages show substantial variation in its inflection and meaning depending on circumstances of place, history, religious, or philosophical context.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973656}
{"src_title": "Charles Maturin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography and works.", "content": "Maturin was descended from Huguenots who found shelter in Ireland, one of whom was Gabriel Jacques Maturin who became Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin after Jonathan Swift in 1745. Charles Robert Maturin was born in Dublin and attended Trinity College. Shortly after being ordained as curate of Loughrea, County Galway, in 1803, he moved back to Dublin as curate of St Peter's Church. He lived in York Street with his father William, a Post Office official, and his mother, Fedelia Watson, and married on 7 October 1804 the acclaimed singer Henrietta Kingsbury.  His first three works were Gothic novels published under the pseudonym Dennis Jasper Murphy, and were critical and commercial failures. They did, however, catch the attention of Sir Walter Scott, who recommended Maturin's work to Lord Byron. With their help, Maturin's play \"Bertram\" was staged in 1816 at the Drury Lane for 22 nights, with Edmund Kean starring in the lead role as Bertram. Financial success, however, eluded Maturin, as the play's run coincided with his father's unemployment and another relative's bankruptcy, both of them assisted by the fledgling writer. To make matters worse, Samuel Taylor Coleridge publicly denounced the play as dull and loathsome, and \"melancholy proof of the depravation of the public mind\", going nearly so far as to decry it as atheistic.  The Church of Ireland took note of these and earlier criticisms and, having discovered the identity of \"Bertram\"s author (Maturin had shed his \"nom de plume\" to collect the profits from the play), subsequently barred Maturin's further clerical advancement. Forced to support his wife and four children by writing (his salary as curate was £80-90 per annum, compared to the £1000 he made for \"Bertram\"), he switched back from playwright to novelist after a string of his plays met with failure. He produced several novels in addition to \"Melmoth the Wanderer\", including some on Irish subjects and \"The Albigenses\", a historical novel which features werewolves. Various poems have also been ascribed to Maturin on dubious grounds and appear to be the work of others. The prize-winning \"Lines on the Battle of Waterloo\" was published in 1816 under the name of the university graduate John Shee. \"The Universe\" appeared with Maturin's name on the title page in 1821, but is now thought to be almost completely the work of James Wills.  The exaggerated effectiveness of Maturin's preaching can be gauged from the two series of sermons that he published. On the occasion of the death of Princess Charlotte, he declared: \"Life is full of death; the steps of the living cannot press the earth without disturbing the ashes of the dead – we walk upon our ancestors – the globe itself is one vast churchyard.\" A contemporary account records that there had seldom been seen such crowds at St Peter's. \"Despite the severe weather, people of all persuasions flocked to the church and listened spellbound to this prince of preachers. In his obituary it was said that, 'did he leave no other monument whereon to rest his fame, these sermons alone would be sufficient'.\"  Maturin died in Dublin on 30 October 1824. A writer in the \"University Magazine\" was later to sum up his character as \"eccentric almost to insanity and compounded of opposites – an insatiable reader of novels; an elegant preacher; an incessant dancer; a coxcomb in dress and manners.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International reputation.", "content": "In 1821 Maturin's successful play was adapted into French as \"Bertram, ou le Pirate\" by Charles Nodier and Baron Isidore Justin Séverin Taylor, and ran successfully for 53 nights in the following year. This version was the source for the even more successful opera \"Il pirata\", with a libretto by Felice Romani and music by Vincenzo Bellini, premiered at La Scala of Milan in 1827. Victor Hugo admired the play and Alexandre Dumas based his \"Antony\" upon its hero in 1831. The play was also printed and frequently produced in the United States.  The novel \"Melmoth the Wanderer\" was also published in French translation in 1821 and served as an influential model for writers in France. In 1835 Honoré de Balzac wrote a parody, \"Melmoth Reconcilié\", in which Maturin's hero goes to Paris, where he finds in its banking world an ethos that \"has replaced the principle of honour by the principle of money\" and easily finds someone to accept damnation in his place. In Balzac's eyes, \"this novel is taken up with the same idea to which we already owe the drama of \"Faust\" and out of which Lord Byron has cut his cloth since \"Manfred\"\". Charles Baudelaire was also an admirer of Maturin's novel, equating it with the poetry of Byron and Edgar Allan Poe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family connections.", "content": "A sister of Maturin's wife married Charles Elgee, whose daughter Jane Francesca became the mother of Oscar Wilde. Thus Charles Maturin was Oscar Wilde's great-uncle by marriage. Wilde discarded his own name and adopted the name of Maturin's novel, Melmoth, during his exile in France.  Maturin's eldest son, William Basil Kingsbury Maturin, followed him into the ministry, as did several of his grandsons. One of these, Basil W. Maturin, died in the sinking of in 1915. The second son was Edward Maturin, who emigrated to the United States and became a novelist and poet there.  William Maturin (1803–1887), a Tractarian, was the Church of Ireland priest at Grangegorman and also librarian of Archbishop Marsh's Library, Dublin, from 1872 until 1887.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Robert Maturin, also known as C. R. Maturin (25 September 1782 – 30 October 1824), was an Irish Protestant clergyman (ordained in the Church of Ireland) and a writer of Gothic plays and novels. His best known work is the novel \"Melmoth the Wanderer\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973657}
{"src_title": "Patagonian mara", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Patagonian mara resembles a jackrabbit. It has distinctive long ears and long limbs. Its hind limbs are longer and more muscular than its fore limbs and it has a longer radius than humerus. The feet are compressed, making them hoof-like. The fore feet have four digits while the hind feet have three digits. Its tail is short, depressed, and hairless. It has a gray dorsal pelage with a white patch on the rump separated from the dorsal fur by a black area. In addition, the mara has a white underside with a somewhat orange flank and chin. The average Patagonian mara has a head and body length of with a tail of. It weighs. Unlike most other cavids, such as guinea pigs and capybaras, the anal glands of the mara are between the anus and the base of the tail rather than being anterior to the anus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and activity.", "content": "Patagonian maras are found only in Argentina, from 28 to 50°S. They prefer to live in habitats with shrub cover, but they also inhabit overgrazed and barren soils in the Monte Desert biome. In northwestern Argentina, they primarily inhabit lowland habitats such as forest and creosote bush or \"larrea\". Maras prefer sandy and low shrub habitat in Valdes Peninsula. They have adapted well to a cursorial lifestyle on the open plains and steppe, with long legs, reduced clavicle, and well-developed sensory organs making them capable of running and communicating in these open habitats. When running, maras have been compared to deer and antelope. Maras are largely herbivorous. They feed primarily on green vegetation and fruit. In the Monte Desert, monocots make up 70% of their diet, while dicots make up 30%. Preferred grass species eaten are those of the genera \"Chloris\", \"Pappophorum\", and \"Trichloris\", while dicots that are eaten include \"Atriplex lampa\", \"Lycium\" spp., and \"Prosopis\" spp.  Maras are primarily diurnal and around 46% of their daily activities involve feeding. Their temporal activity rhythms are related to environmental factors. Light, precipitation, and temperate have positive effects on annual activities, while darkness and relative humidity have negative effects. The daily activity of maras is unimodal in winter and biomodal in other seasons. Their preferred temperature is around C. Females spend more time feeding than the males, due to the demands of gestation and lactation. Males spend most of the day sitting, being vigilant for predators. Predators of maras, particularly the young, are felids, grisons, foxes, and birds of prey. Maras are also hosts for parasites such as the nematode worm \"Wellcomia dolichotis\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social behavior and reproduction.", "content": "Their social organizations have a unique combination of monogamy and communal breeding. Being monogamous, pairs of maras stay together for life, with replacement of partners only occurring after one's death. The male has almost the sole responsibility in maintaining the pair by following the female wherever she goes. A male marks his female with urine and marks the ground around her with secretions from his glands and with feces, making the grounds around the female a mobile territory. Pairs breed together alone or with other pairs in warrens shared by up to 29 pairs. Maras breed, at least in southern Argentina, from August to January. Gestation lasts 100 days in wild. Most births in Patagonia occur between September and October, which is before the summer dry season and after the winter rains. Females produce one litter each year in the wild, but can produce as many as four litters a year in captivity. Young can walk almost immediately postpartum. Dens are dug during the breeding season for the young to be raised. Litters from one to 22 pairs are grouped together in these dens. Communal living provides protection from predators with the survival rate for young being higher in larger groups than in smaller groups. One pair visits the den at a time for around one hour and the other parents circle around the den. One or two pups are nursed at a time by a female. A female may sometimes nurse a young from another pair. While a female may prevent young other than her own from nursing her, some young are able to steal milk. Mothers do not actively cooperate in raising their young. For the first three weeks, young remain near the den. At this time, distance between individuals is low, with frequent body contact, huddling, allogrooming, and extended play among the pups. After this, the young are able to leave the den and graze with their parents. Young are weaned after 13 weeks.  Maras make a number of vocalizations during grazing or slow locomotion. When seeking contact, a mara emits an inflected \"wheet\" while a low, repetitive grunt is made when following a conspecific. Maras tooth chatter and emit low grunts when threatened. They also produce a series of short grunts when grooming. Scent marking is used by maras for complex and intense social interactions. Maras stretch and sniff the soil and then sit upright with an arched back and the anogenital area flattened to the ground, a process known as anal digging. In addition, a male stands on his hind legs and urinates on a female's rump, to which the female responds by spraying a jet of urine backwards into the face of the male. The male's urination is meant to repel other males from his partner, while the female's urination is a rejection of any approaching male when she is not receptive. Both anal digging and urination are more frequent during the breeding season and are more commonly done by males.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status.", "content": "Patagonian maras are considered to be a near threatened species. Historically, maras have ranged from north-central Argentina south almost to Tierra del Fuego. Nevertheless, maras have been greatly affected by hunting and habitat alteration and have been extirpated in some areas, including Buenos Aires Province. The mara skins have been used for bedspreads and rugs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Patagonian mara (\"Dolichotis patagonum\") is a relatively large rodent in the mara genus \"Dolichotis\". It is also known as the Patagonian cavy, Patagonian hare, or dillaby. This herbivorous, somewhat rabbit-like animal is found in open and semiopen habitats in Argentina, including large parts of Patagonia. It is monogamous, but often breeds in warrens shared by several pairs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973658}
{"src_title": "Pietro Aretino", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "His father was Luca Del Tura, a shoemaker from Arezzo, who abandoned his family to join the militia. The father later returned to Arezzo, finally dying in poverty at the age of 85, unforgiven by his son, who never acknowledged the paternal name, taking \"Aretino\" (that is 'Arretine, from Arezzo') as a surname.  His mother was Margherita, known as Tita, Bonci. Either before or after the abandonment (we do not know which), she entered into a lasting relationship with a local noble, Luigi Bacci, who supported Tita, Pietro and his two sisters and brought up Pietro as part of his own family.  Aretino spent a formative decade in Perugia, before being sent, highly recommended, to Rome. There Agostino Chigi, the rich banker and patron of Raphael, took him under his wing.  When Hanno the elephant, pet of Pope Leo X, died in 1516, Aretino penned a satirical pamphlet entitled \"The Last Will and Testament of the Elephant Hanno\". The fictitious will cleverly mocked the leading political and religious figures of Rome at the time, including Pope Leo X himself. The pamphlet was such a success that it started Aretino's career and established him as a famous satirist, ultimately known as \"the Scourge of Princes\".  Aretino prospered, living from hand to mouth as a hanger-on in the literate circle of his patron, sharpening his satirical talents on the gossip of politics and the Papal Curia, and turning the coarse Roman pasquinade into a rapier weapon of satire, until his sixteen ribald \"Sonetti Lussuriosi\" (Lust Sonnets) written to accompany Giulio Romano's exquisitely beautiful but utterly pornographic series of drawings engraved by Marcantonio Raimondi under the title \"I Modi\" finally caused such outrage that he had to temporarily flee Rome.  After Leo's death in 1521, his patron was Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, whose competitors for the papal throne felt the sting of Aretino's scurrilous lash. The installation of the Dutch pope Adrian VI (\"la tedesca tigna\" in Pietro's words) instead encouraged Aretino to seek new patrons away from Rome, mainly with Federico II Gonzaga in Mantua, and with the condottiero Giovanni de' Medici (\"Giovanni delle Bande Nere\"). The election of his old Medici patron as Pope Clement VII sent him briefly back to Rome, but death threats and an attempted assassination from one of the victims of his pen, Bishop Giovanni Giberti, in July 1525, set him wandering through northern Italy in the service of various noblemen, distinguished by his wit, audacity and brilliant and facile talents, until he settled permanently in 1527, in Venice, \"the\" anti-Papal city of Italy, \"seat of all vices\" Aretino noted with gusto.  He was a lover of men, having declared himself \"a sodomite\" since birth. In a letter to Giovanni de' Medici written in 1524 Aretino enclosed a satirical poem saying that due to a sudden aberration he had \"fallen in love with a female cook and temporarily switched from boys to girls...\" (\"My Dear Boy\"). In his comedy \"Il marescalco\", the lead man is overjoyed to discover that the woman he has been forced to marry is really a page boy in disguise. While at court in Mantua he developed a crush on a young man called Bianchino, and annoyed Duke Federico with a request to plead with the boy on the writer's behalf.  Safe in Venice, Aretino became a blackmailer, extorting money from men who had sought his guidance in vice. He \"kept all that was famous in Italy in a kind of state of siege\", in Jakob Burckhardt's estimation. Francis I of France and Charles V pensioned him at the same time, each hoping for some damage to the reputation of the other. \"The rest of his relations with the great is mere beggary and vulgar extortion,\" according to Burckhardt. Addison states that \"he laid half Europe under contribution\".  Apart from both sacred and profane texts—a satire of high-flown Renaissance Neoplatonic dialogues is set in a brothel — and comedies such as \"La cortigiana\" and \"La talenta\", Aretino is remembered above all for his letters, full of literary flattery that could turn to blackmail. They circulated widely in manuscript and he collected them and published them at intervals winning as many enemies as it did fame, and earned him the dangerous nickname Ariosto gave him: \"flagello dei principi\" (\"scourge of princes\"). The first English translations of some of Aretino's racier material have been coming onto the market recently.  \"La cortigiana\" is a brilliant parody of Castiglione's \"Il Cortegiano\", and features the adventures of a Sienese gentleman, Messer Maco, who travels to Rome to become a cardinal. He would also like to win himself a mistress, but when he falls in love with a girl he sees in a window, he realizes that only as a courtier would he be able to win her. In mockery of Castiglione's advice on how to become the perfect courtier, a charlatan proceeds to teach Messer Maco how to behave as a courtier: he must learn how to deceive and flatter, and sit hours in front of the mirror.  Aretino was a close friend of Titian, who painted his portrait (\"illustrations\") at least three times. The early portrait is a psychological study of alarming modernity. Clement VII made Aretino a Knight of Rhodes, and Julius III named him a Knight of St. Peter, but the chain he wears for his 1545 portrait may have merely been jewelry. In his strictly-for-publication letters to patrons Aretino would often add a verbal portrait to Titian's painted one.  Aretino is frequently mentioned in English works of the Elizabethan and later periods and differently appreciated, in comments ranging from 'It was one of the wittiest knaves that ever God made' of Nashe (\"The Unfortunate Traveller\") to 'that notorious ribald of Arezzo' of Milton (\"Areopagitico\")  He is said to have died of suffocation from \"laughing too much\".  The English traveller Sir John Reresby visited \"the obscene profane poet\" Aretino's grave in San Luca, Venice in the mid-1650s. He relates that the following epitaph had been removed by the inquisitors: \"\"Qui jace Aretin, poeta Tusco, qui dice mal d'ogni uno fuora di Dio; scusandosi dicendo, Io no'l cognosco.\"\" This he translates as \"Here Aretin, the Tuscan poet, lies, who all the world abused but God, and why? he said he knew him not.\"  However, the epitaph, in hendecasyllables a maiore, was a sarcastic one, attributed to Catholic Bishop Paolo Giovio, composed when Aretino was still alive: <poem> \"Qui giace l'Aretin, poeta tosco:\" \"Di tutti disse mal fuorché di Cristo,\" \"Scusandosi col dir: non lo conosco\". </poem>", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 2007, the composer Michael Nyman set some of Aretino's \"Sonetti lussuriosi\" to music under the title \"\". Once again, Aretino's texts proved controversial: at a 2008 performance at Cadogan Hall, London, the printed programs were withdrawn following allegations of obscenity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pietro Aretino (, ; 19 or 20 April 1492 – 21 October 1556) was an Italian author, playwright, poet, satirist and blackmailer, who wielded influence on contemporary art and politics. He was one of the most influential writers of his time and an outspoken critic of the powerful.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973659}
{"src_title": "Mygalomorphae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "This group of spiders comprises mostly heavy-bodied, stout-legged spiders including tarantulas, Australian funnel-web spiders, mouse spiders, and various families of spiders commonly called trapdoor spiders.  Like the \"primitive\" suborder of spiders Mesothelae, they have two pairs of book lungs, and downward-pointing chelicerae. Because of this, the two groups were once believed to be closely related. Later it was realized that the common ancestors of all spiders had these features (a state known as symplesiomorphy). Following the branching into the suborders of Mesothelae and Opisthothelae, the mygalomorphs retained them, while their fellow Opisthothelae members, the araneomorphs, evolved new \"modern\" features, including a cribellum and cross-acting fangs. Mesotheles retain the external abdominal segmentation of ancestral arachnids and have at least vestiges of four pairs of spinnerets, whereas mygalomorphs lack abdominal segmentation (like other opistotheles) and have a reduced number of spinnerets, often only two pairs.  Like spiders in general, most species of Mygalomorphae have eight eyes, one pair of principal and three pairs of secondary eyes.  Their chelicerae and fangs are large and powerful and have ample venom glands that lie entirely within their chelicerae. These weapons, combined with their size and strength, make Mygalomorph spiders powerful predators. Many of these spiders are well adapted to killing other large arthropods and will also sometimes kill small mammals, birds, and reptiles. Despite their fearsome appearance and reputation, most mygalomorph spiders are not harmful to humans, with the exception of the Australian funnel-web spiders, especially those of the genus \"Atrax\".  While the world's biggest spiders are mygalomorphs—\"Theraphosa blondi\" has a body length of and a leg span of —some species are less than long. Mygalomorphs are capable of spinning at least slightly adhesive silk, and some build elaborate capture webs that approach a meter in diameter.  Unlike Araneomorphae, which die after about a year, Mygalomorphae can live for up to 25 years, and some do not reach maturity until they are about six years old. Some flies in the family Acroceridae that are endoparasites of mygalomorphs may remain dormant in their book lungs for as long as 20 years before beginning their development and consuming the spider.  One female trapdoor spider, first recorded in a survey in 1974 in Western Australia, is known to have lived for 43 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution and phylogeny.", "content": "\"Megarachne servinei\" was thought to be a giant mygalomorph from the Upper Carboniferous (about 350 million years ago), but was later found to be a eurypterid. The oldest known mygalomorph is \"Rosamygale grauvogeli\" (Hexathelidae) from the Triassic of northeastern France. No mygalomorphs from the Jurassic have yet been found.  The number of families and their relationships have both been undergoing substantial changes since a cladogram showing family relationships was published in 2005, with two significant studies in 2018. The division of Mygalomorphae into two superfamilies, Atypoidea and Avicularioidea, has been established in many studies. The Atypoidea retain some vestiges of abdominal segmentation in the form of dorsal tergites; the Avicularioidea lack these. Molecular phylogenetic studies undertaken between 2012 and 2017 have found somewhat different relationships within the Avicularioidea. Some families appear not to be monophyletic and further changes are possible in the future.  Mygalomorphae tend to be very morphologically conserved, which makes it difficult to find reliable morphological features to use in taxonomy. It has been hypothesized that because Mygalomorphae tend to be fossorial and live in tubular webs, they are subjected to similar selective pressures, so most species should evolve in similar ways. Additionally, this may also mean that homoplasies are more likely to occur, further complicating taxonomy based on morphology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Most members of this infraorder occur in the tropics and subtropics, but their range can extend farther north, e.g. into the southern and western regions of the United States. Only a few occur in Europe: 12 species from the families Atypidae, Nemesiidae, Ctenizidae, Macrothelidae, Theraphosidae, and Cyrtaucheniidae.  Despite their limited range, currently, it is suggested that the Mygalomorphae were distributed worldwide before the breakup of Pangaea.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mygalomorphae, or mygalomorphs, are an infraorder of spiders. The name is derived from the Greek \"mygalē\", meaning \"shrew\", plus \"morphē\" meaning form or shape. An older name for the group is Orthognatha, derived from the orientation of the fangs which point straight down and do not cross each other (as they do in the araneomorphs). In 1802, Charles Athanase Walckenaer separated mygalomorph spiders into a separate genus, \"Mygale\", leaving all other spiders in \"Aranea\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973660}
{"src_title": "University of Wrocław", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leopoldina.", "content": "The oldest mention of a university in Wrocław comes from the foundation deed signed on July 20, 1505, by King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary (also known as Władysław Jagiellończyk) for the \"Generale litterarum Gymnasium\" in Wrocław. However, the new academic institution requested by the town council wasn't built because the King's deed was rejected by Pope Julius II for political reasons. Also, the numerous wars and opposition from the Cracow Academy might have played a role. The first successful founding deed known as the \"Aurea bulla fundationis Universitatis Wratislaviensis\" was signed two centuries later, on October 1, 1702, by the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I of the House of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia.  The predecessor facilities, which existed since 1638, were converted into Jesuit school, and finally, upon instigation of the Jesuits and with the support of the Silesian Oberamtsrat (Second Secretary) Johannes Adrian von Plencken, donated as a university in 1702 by Emperor Leopold I as a School of Philosophy and Catholic Theology with the designated name Leopoldina. On 15 November 1702, the university opened. Johannes Adrian von Plencken also became chancellor of the University. As a Catholic institute in Protestant Breslau, the new university was an important instrument of the Counter-Reformation in Silesia. After Silesia passed to Prussia, the university lost its ideological character but remained a religious institution for the education of Catholic clergy in Prussia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Silesian Friedrich Wilhelm University in Breslau.", "content": "After the defeat of Prussia by Napoleon and the subsequent reorganisation of the Prussian state, the academy was merged on August 3, 1811, with the Protestant Viadrina University, previously located in Frankfurt (Oder), and re-established in Breslau as the Königliche Universität zu Breslau – Universitas litterarum Vratislaviensis (in 1911 named the Schlesische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Breslau, to honour the founder Frederick William III of Prussia). At first, the conjoint academy had five faculties: philosophy, medicine, law, Protestant theology, and Catholic theology.  Connected with the university were three theological seminars, a philological seminar, a seminar for German Philology, another seminar for Romanic and English philology, an historical seminar, a mathematical-physical one, a legal state seminar, and a scientific seminar. From 1842, the University also had a chair of Slavic Studies. The University had twelve different scientific institutes, six clinical centers, and three collections. An agricultural institute with ten teachers and forty-four students, comprising a chemical veterinary institute, a veterinary institute, and a technological institute, was added to the university in 1881. In 1884, the university had 1,481 students in attendance, with a faculty numbering 131. The library in 1885 consisted of approximately 400,000 works, including about 2,400 incunabula, approximately 250 Aldines, and 2840 manuscripts. These volumes came from the libraries of the former universities of Frankfurt and Breslau and from disestablished monasteries, and also included the oriental collections of the Bibliotheca Habichtiana and the academic \"Leseinstitut\".  In addition, the university owned an observatory; a five-hectare botanical garden; a botanical museum and a zoological garden founded in 1862 by a joint stock company; a natural history museum; zoological, chemical, and physical collections; the chemical laboratory; the physiological plant; a mineralogical institute; an anatomical institute; clinical laboratories; a gallery (mostly from churches, monasteries, etc.) full of old German works; the museum of Silesian antiquities; and the state archives of Silesia.  In the late 19th century, numerous internationally renowned and historically notable scholars lectured at the University of Breslau, Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, Ferdinand Cohn, and Gustav Kirchhoff among them. According to Polish professor of history Henryk Barycz in the academic year of 1813/1814 Polish youth constituted the majority of students at the University. All students, including German, Polish and Jewish, established their own student fraternities. Polish student organizations included Concordia, Polonia, and a branch of the Sokol association. Many of the students came from areas of partitioned Poland. The Jewish students unions were the Viadrina (founded 1886) and the Student Union (1899). \"Teutonia\", a German Burschenschaft founded in 1817, was actually one of the oldest student fraternities in Germany, founded only two years after the Urburschenschaft. The Polish fraternities were all eventually disbanded by the German professor Felix Dahn, and in 1913 Prussian authorities established a numerus clausus law that limited the number of Jews from non-German Eastern Europe (so called \"Ostjuden\") that could study in Germany to at most 900. The University of Breslau was allowed to take 100.  As Germany turned to Nazism, the university became influenced by Nazi ideology. Polish students were beaten by NSDAP members just for speaking Polish. In 1939, all Polish students were expelled and an official university declaration stated, \"We are deeply convinced that [another] Polish foot will never cross the threshold of this German university\". In that same year, German scholars from the university worked on a scholarly thesis of historical justification for a \"plan of mass deportation in Eastern territories\"; among the people involved was Walter Kuhn, a specialist of Ostforschung.  In January 2015, the university restored 262 PhD degrees stripped during the Nazi period from Jews and other scholars seen as hostile to the Nazis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable alumni.", "content": "Notable alumni and faculty of the \"Schlesische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Breslau\" include", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "University of Wrocław.", "content": "After the Siege of Breslau, the Soviet Red Army took the city in May 1945. Breslau, now known as Wrocław, became part of the Republic of Poland. The first Polish team of academics arrived in Wrocław in late May 1945 and took custody of the university buildings, which were 70% destroyed. Parts of the collection of the university library were lost during the Red Army's advance in 1945, burned by soldiers on 10 May 1945, four days after the German garrison surrendered the city.  Very quickly some buildings were repaired, and a cadre of professors was built up, many coming from prewar Polish Jan Kazimierz University of Lwów and Stefan Batory University of Wilno. Following postwar border shifts, thousands of former employees of the Lwów Library, the Jan Kazimierz University and the Ossolineum Institute moved to the city. In mid-1948, over 60% of professors at the Wrocław University and Polytechnic were from Kresy, with scholars from prewar Lwów being particularly prominent. Stanisław Kulczyński from the University of Lwów became the first president of the two Polish universities in Wrocław, while Edward Sucharda from the Lwów Polytechnic was the vice-president.  The University of Wrocław was refounded as a Polish state university by the decree of the State National Council issued on 24 August 1945. The first lecture was given on 15 November 1945, by Ludwik Hirszfeld. Between 1952 and 1989 the university was named Bolesław Bierut University of Wrocław (Polish: \"Uniwersytet Wrocławski im. Bolesława Bieruta\") after Bolesław Bierut, President of the Republic of Poland (1947–52).  In 2015, nearly 80 years after the fact, the university restored academic degrees stripped from German Jews by the Nazis owing to German anti-Semitism. \"Wroclaw University estimates that in total some 262 people suffered a similar fate.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Study at the University of Wroclaw.", "content": "There are 10 faculties that provide 44 areas of study, in which the language medium is mostly in Polish, with only some in English. The University of Wrocław provides Bachelor, Master, and Doctoral level programmes. All of the degree certificates awarded by UWr are recognised globally.  Rectors (presidents) of the University since 1945:  Notable students and professors:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The University of Wrocław (UWr; ; ; ) is a public research university located in Wrocław, Poland. The University of Wrocław was founded in 1945, replacing the previous German University of Breslau. Following the territorial changes of Poland's borders, academics primarily from the Jan Kazimierz University of Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine) restored the university building heavily damaged and split as a result of the Battle of Breslau (1945). Nowadays it is one of the most prominent educational institutions in the region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973661}
{"src_title": "Heinrich Vogeler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Bremen, and studied at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf from 1890–95. His artistic studies during this period included visits to Belgium and Italy.  Vogeler was a central member of the original artist colony in Worpswede, which he joined in 1894. In 1895 Vogeler bought a cottage there and planted many birch trees around it, which gave the house its new name: Barkenhoff (Low German for Birkenhof, or \"birch tree cottage\"). In 1901, he married Martha Schröder.  He made book illustrations in an art nouveau style, and executed decorative paintings for the town hall of Bremen shortly before traveling to Ceylon in 1906. During a trip to Łódź, he studied Maxim Gorky's works, which resulted in the development of a deep sympathy for the working class. This feeling reached further heights when he saw life in the slums of Glasgow and Manchester during a trip. In 1908 he and his brother Franz founded the 'Worpsweder Werkstätte', which produced household objects. His paintings increasingly reflected his sympathy for the working class.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "During the First World War.", "content": "He volunteered for military service in World War I in 1914, and he was sent to the eastern front in 1915. Vogeler came to know of the Bolsheviks ideology during his time at the front as well as through his trips to Poland, Romania, Dobrudscha and Russia. After he made a written appeal for peace to the German Emperor, he was briefly sent to a mental hospital in Bremen before being discharged from military service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activism.", "content": "After the war he became a pacifist and joined the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). During the German Revolution of 1918–19, he joined the workers' and soldiers' council of the Bremen Soviet Republic, together with his friend Curt Stoermer. After the end of the Revolution, he was arrested for some time. It was at that time that he and his wife Martha were divorced. From that point on, he wanted to work ideologically, and the romanticism of his earlier work gave way to proletarian content. In 1931 Vogeler and his second wife Zofia \"Sonja\" Marchlewska, daughter of Julian Marchlewski, emigrated to Russia. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union he along with other German citizens was deported in 1941 to Kazakhstan by the Soviet authorities, and died there in 1942. KPD leader Wilhelm Pieck apparently had wanted to prevent his deportation, but Vogeler himself refused privileged treatment. As his wife Zofia and son Jan were Polish citizens they were drafted instead of being deported with him. Jan soon became a founding member of the National Committee for a Free Germany and after a long post-war academic career in Moscow died in his father's Worpswede in 2005. Zofia emigrated to Poland and died in Warsaw in 1983.  Meanwhile, the Barkenhoff became a children's home. It was recently restored and has re-opened as a Heinrich Vogeler Museum in 2004.  Late works from Heinrich Vogeler's ourvre appear to have some Egyptian influences, particularly in images such as Der Aufbau der zentralasiatischen Sowjetrepubliken (1927). The influence remains in Worpswede amongst particular sculptures, and market performances.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heinrich Vogeler (December 12, 1872 – June 14, 1942) was a German painter, designer, and architect, associated with the Düsseldorf school of painting.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973662}
{"src_title": "Lophius piscatorius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It has a very large head which is broad, flat, and depressed; the rest of the body appears to be a mere appendage. The wide mouth extends all the way around the anterior circumference of the head, and both jaws are armed with bands of long, pointed teeth. These are inclined inwards, and can be closed so as to offer no impediment to an object gliding towards the stomach, but to prevent its escape from the mouth.  The pectoral and pelvic fins are so articulated as to perform the functions of feet, so the fish is able to walk along the bottom of the sea, where it generally hides itself in the sand or amongst seaweed. Around its head and also along the body, the skin bears fringed appendages resembling short fronds of seaweed, a structure which, combined with the extraordinary faculty of assimilating the colour of the body to its surroundings, assists this fish greatly in camouflaging itself in the places which it selects on account of the abundance of prey. It has no scales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Angling.", "content": "The fish has long filaments along the middle of its head, which are, in fact, the detached and modified three first spines of the anterior dorsal fin. The filament most important to the angler is the first, which is the longest, terminates in a lappet, and is movable in every direction. The angler is believed to attract other fish by means of its lure, and then to seize them with its enormous jaws. While it is considered probable that smaller fish are attracted in this way experiments have shown that the actions of the jaw is automatic and depends on contact of the prey with the tentacle. Its stomach is expandable and it is not unknown for these fish to swallow prey of their own size.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifecycle.", "content": "The spawn of the angler consists of a thin sheet of transparent gelatinous material wide and long drifting freely in the water. The eggs in this sheet are in a single layer, each in its own little cavity. The larvae are free-swimming and their pelvic fins are elongated into filaments.A male angler matures at the age of 4 and grows to be 16 inches long; whereas the female angler takes 2 years longer to mature.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lophius piscatorius, commonly known as the angler, is a monkfish in the family Lophiidae. It is found in coastal waters of the northeast Atlantic, from the Barents Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Within some of its range, including the Irish Sea, this species comprises a significant commercial fishery.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973663}
{"src_title": "Fruitarianism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Varieties.", "content": "Some fruitarians will eat only what falls (or would fall) naturally from a plant: that is, plant foods that can be harvested without killing or harming the plant. These foods consist primarily of culinary fruits, nuts, and seeds. According to author Adam Gollner, some fruitarians eat only fallen fruit. Some do not eat grains, believing it is unnatural to do so, and some fruitarians feel that it is improper for humans to eat seeds as they contain future plants, or nuts and seeds, or any foods besides juicy fruits. Others believe they should eat only plants that spread seeds when the plant is eaten. Others eat seeds and some cooked foods. Some fruitarians use the botanical definitions of fruits and consume pulses, such as beans, peas, or other legumes. Other fruitarians' diets include raw fruits, dried fruits, nuts, honey and olive oil, or fruits, nuts, beans and chocolate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideology and diet.", "content": "Some fruitarians wish, like Jains, to avoid killing anything, including plants, and refer to ahimsa fruitarianism. For some fruitarians, the motivation comes from a fixation on a utopian past, their hope being to return to a past that pre-dates an agrarian society to when humans were simply hunter gatherers. Another common motivation is the desire to eliminate perceived toxicity from within the body. For others, the appeal of a fruitarian diet comes from the challenge that the restrictive nature of this diet provides.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "According to nutritionists, adults must be careful not to follow a fruit-only diet for too long. A fruitarian diet is wholly unsuitable for children (including teens), and several children have died due to having fruitarian diets imposed on them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutritional effects.", "content": "Fruitarianism is even more restrictive than veganism or raw veganism. Maintaining this diet over a long period can result in dangerous deficiencies, a risk that many fruitarians try to ward off through nutritional testing and vitamin injections. The Health Promotion Program at Columbia University reports that a fruitarian diet can cause deficiencies in calcium, protein, iron, zinc, vitamin D, most B vitamins (especially B), and essential fatty acids.  Although fruits provide a source of carbohydrates, they have very little protein, and because protein cannot be stored in the body as fat and carbohydrates can, fruitarians need to be careful that they consume enough protein each day. When the body does not take in enough protein, it misses out on amino acids, which are essential to making body proteins which support the growth and maintenance of body tissues. Consuming high levels of fruit also poses a risk to those who are diabetic or pre-diabetic, due to the negative effect that the large amounts of sugar in fruits has on blood sugar levels. These high levels of sugar means that fruitarians are at high risk for tooth decay. Another concern that fruitarianism presents is that because fruit is easily digested, the body burns through meals quickly, and is hungry again soon after eating. A side effect of the digestibility is that the body will defecate more frequently. Additionally, the Health Promotion Program at Columbia reports that food restrictions in general may lead to hunger, cravings, food obsessions, social disruptions, and social isolation. The severe dietary restrictions inherent in a fruitarian regime also carries the serious risk of triggering orthorexia nervosa.  Harriet Hall has written that a fruitarian diet \"leads to nutritional deficiencies, especially in children. Fruitarians can develop protein energy malnutrition, anemia, and low levels of iron, calcium, essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vitamin B.", "content": "Vitamin B, a bacterial product, cannot be obtained from fruits. According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health \"natural food sources of vitamin B are limited to foods that come from animals.\" Like raw vegans who do not consume B-fortified foods (certain plant milks and some breakfast cereals, for example), fruitarians may need to include a B supplement in their diet or risk vitamin B deficiency.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Growth and development issues.", "content": "In children, growth and development may be at risk. Some nutritionists state that children should not follow a fruitarian diet. Nutritional problems include severe protein–energy malnutrition, anemia and deficiencies including proteins, iron, calcium, essential fatty acids, raw fibre and a wide range of vitamins and minerals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable adherents.", "content": "Some notable advocates of fruitarianism, or of diets which may be considered fruitarian, or of lifestyles including such a diet, are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fruitarianism () is a subset of dietary veganism that consists entirely or primarily of fruits in the botanical sense, and possibly nuts and seeds, but without animal products. Fruitarian diets are subject to numerous criticisms and health concerns.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973664}
{"src_title": "Redundancy (information theory)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Quantitative definition.", "content": "In describing the redundancy of raw data, the rate of a source of information is the average entropy per symbol. For memoryless sources, this is merely the entropy of each symbol, while, in the most general case of a stochastic process, it is  the limit, as \"n\" goes to infinity, of the joint entropy of the first \"n\" symbols divided by \"n\". It is common in information theory to speak of the \"rate\" or \"entropy\" of a language. This is appropriate, for example, when the source of information is English prose. The rate of a memoryless source is simply formula_3, since by definition there is no interdependence of the successive messages of a memoryless source.  The absolute rate of a language or source is simply  the logarithm of the cardinality of the message space, or alphabet. (This formula is sometimes called the Hartley function.) This is the maximum possible rate of information that can be transmitted with that alphabet. (The logarithm should be taken to a base appropriate for the unit of measurement in use.) The absolute rate is equal to the actual rate if the source is memoryless and has a uniform distribution.  The absolute redundancy can then be defined as  the difference between the absolute rate and the rate.  The quantity formula_6 is called the relative redundancy and gives the maximum possible data compression ratio, when expressed as the percentage by which a file size can be decreased. (When expressed as a ratio of original file size to compressed file size, the quantity formula_7 gives the maximum compression ratio that can be achieved.) Complementary to the concept of relative redundancy is efficiency, defined as formula_8 so that formula_9. A memoryless source with a uniform distribution has zero redundancy (and thus 100% efficiency), and cannot be compressed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other notions.", "content": "A measure of \"redundancy\" between two variables is the mutual information or a normalized variant. A measure of redundancy among many variables is given by the total correlation.  Redundancy of compressed data refers to the difference between the expected compressed data length of formula_10 messages formula_11 (or expected data rate formula_12) and the entropy formula_13 (or entropy rate formula_14). (Here we assume the data is ergodic and stationary, e.g., a memoryless source.) Although the rate difference formula_15 can be arbitrarily small as formula_16 increased, the actual difference formula_17, cannot, although it can be theoretically upper-bounded by 1 in the case of finite-entropy memoryless sources.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Information theory, redundancy measures the fractional difference between the entropy of an ensemble, and its maximum possible value formula_1. Informally, it is the amount of wasted \"space\" used to transmit certain data. Data compression is a way to reduce or eliminate unwanted redundancy, while checksums are a way of adding desired redundancy for purposes of error detection when communicating over a noisy channel of limited capacity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973665}
{"src_title": "Sennheiser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The company was founded in 1945, just a few weeks after the end of World War II, by Fritz Sennheiser (1912–2010) and seven fellow engineers of the University of Hannover in a laboratory called Laboratorium Wennebostel (shortened, \"Lab W\"). The laboratory was named after the village of Wennebostel in the municipality of Wedemark to where it had been moved due to the war. Its first product was a voltmeter. Lab W began building microphones in 1946 with the DM1, and began developing them in 1947 with the DM2. By 1955, the company had 250 employees, and had begun production of many products including geophysical equipment, the Noise-Compensated microphone (DM4), microphone transformers, mixers, and miniature magnetic headphones. Labor W was renamed 'Sennheiser electronic' in 1958.  In the late 1950's/early 1960's, Professor Sennheiser met a gentleman in the hospital by the name of Thomas Schillinger. Mr. Schillinger was tasked with starting Sennheiser's presence in the United States. The culmination of this was a technical Oscar Award in 1987 at the 59th Academy Awards (see below).  Sennheiser was transformed into a limited partnership (KG) in 1973. In 1980, the company entered the aviation market, supplying Lufthansa with headsets.  The company began producing modern wireless microphones in 1982, the same year when founder Fritz Sennheiser handed the management of the company over to his son, Jörg Sennheiser. In 1987, Sennheiser was awarded at the 59th Academy Awards for its MKH 816 shotgun microphone.  Also in 1991, Georg Neumann GmbH, Berlin, which builds studio microphones, became a part of Sennheiser.  In 2003 Sennheiser entered into a joint venture with the Danish company, William-Demant-Holding, a specialist in hearing aids, diagnostic technology and personal communication. Sennheiser Communications A/S was founded.  2005: Sennheiser acquired the speaker manufacturer Klein + Hummel.  Daniel Sennheiser, grandson of the founder, joined the company in 2008. In 2010 his brother Dr. Andreas Sennheiser also did so. Both are shareholders of the company.  On July 1, 2013, Daniel Sennheiser and Andreas Sennheiser were promoted to the position of CEO responsible for Sennheiser electronic GmbH & Co. KG.  In 2014 Sennheiser founded the new subsidiary \"Sennheiser Streaming Technology GmbH (SST)\", which develops streaming solutions for software and hardware.  In 2019 Sennheiser acquired a majority stake in Dear Reality, a company that specializes in spatial audio algorithms and VR/AR audio software.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Locations.", "content": "Sennheiser is headquartered in the municipality of Wedemark, Germany (near Hannover). Its United States headquarters is located in Old Lyme, Connecticut. The company has factories in Wennebostel (Wedemark, near Hannover); Tullamore, Ireland (since 1990); Albuquerque, New Mexico (since 2000) and in Brasov, Romania (since 2019). Some consumer products are made in China. Sennheiser's R&D facilities are located in Germany, Denmark, Switzerland, Singapore, and San Francisco, California.  Sennheiser has a total of 21 sales subsidiaries and trading partners and is active in more than 50 countries. Besides, the company opened its first Sennheiser store in 2016 to make products accessible to customers. Sennheiser now has a total of seven stores in Berlin, San Francisco, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Mexico City and Sydney and at its headquarters in Wedemark. In 2016 there was a temporary store in New York.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "Sennheiser is mainly known for its consumer headphones and professional microphones, such as the MKH 416 short shotgun, which came to be the Hollywood standard shotgun microphone; and the 816, similar in design with longer reach. It also makes the US$55,000 Orpheus headphone set; wireless microphones; aviation, multimedia and gaming headsets; micro-Hifi systems; conferencing systems; speakers; and amplifiers.  Sennheiser consists of two independent business units: its consumer division and the professional audio division. The consumer division offers customers a range of headphones and home entertainment speakers. Regarding professional audio Sennheiser provides audio solutions for live music, DJing, theater, studio, broadcast, film and video as well as 3D audio and AR/VR/XR. It also includes solutions for business communication like presentations, conferences, meetings, visitor guidance, hearing support and the education sector.  Sennheiser has collaborated with fashion companies, including with Swiss bag brand Freitag as well as Dior Homme.  In 2017, the Momentum M2 model in-ear headphones were voted Product of the Year by What Hi-Fi? magazine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CEOs.", "content": "Andreas Sennheiser is a German business executive, known for serving as chief executive officer of Sennheiser. He took over as CEO along with his brother Daniel Sennheiser on July 1, 2013. Andreas was born in 1974 in Zurich, and earned a doctorate in Supply Chain Management from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich in 2004. Sennheiser Electronic was founded by his grandfather, Fritz Sennheiser, and he joined the family business with his brother Daniel. In 2013, both Daniel and Andreas were promoted to the position of CEO. Andreas focused on gaming handsets and affordable wireless headphones including Sennheiser PC350. Along with his brother Daniel, they entered the music business in 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research & development.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "Sennheiser has a total of four research and development sites in Germany, Switzerland, the USA and Singapore. In addition, the Innovation Campus in Wennebostel opened in 2015 with 7,000 square meters of space. According to Sennheiser, the company invested a total of 60.5 million euros in research and development in 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AMBEO 3D Audio.", "content": "The AMBEO technology program is supposed to cover immersive audio products and activities from recording through processing and mixing to playback. According to the company, the technology is applicable in areas such as realistic live concert broadcasts, sports broadcasting, 3D recordings, exhibition installations, VR/AR/XR applications and 3D audio for the home.  Sennheiser has been recording 9.1 music since 2010 and has developed an upmix algorithm that generates 9.1 music from conventional stereo recordings. The AMBEO Music Blueprints provide information about the recording, mixing and playback of live music in 3D audio. The first AMBEO product to be introduced in 2016 was the AMBEO VR Mic for professional VR/AR/XR sound recording.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards & nominations.", "content": "In 2002, founder Fritz Sennheiser received with the Audio Engineering Society's gold medal.In 2004, Prof. Fritz Sennheiser was awarded the Diesel Medal of the German Institute for Inventions, the oldest innovation prize in Germany. In 2013, Sennheiser is honored with the Primetime Emmy Engineering Award, the Philo T. Farnsworth Award. The prize honors the companys's contribution to TV production technology.  In 2015, Prof. Dr. Jörg Sennheiser receives the German Founder's Prize in the Lifetime Achievement category.  In 2017, Dr. Andreas Sennheiser and Daniel Sennheiser are awarded the title Entrepreneur of The Year from Ernest and Young.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sennheiser electronic GmbH & Co. KG (, ) is a German privately held audio company specializing in the design and production of a wide range of high fidelity products, including microphones, headphones, telephone accessories and aviation headsets for personal, professional and business applications. The company's head office is located in Wedemark, near Hanover, and the company is represented in more than 50 countries worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973666}
{"src_title": "Jengish Chokusu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The mountain's official name in Kyrgyz is \"Jengish Choqusu\", which means \"Victory Peak\"; its Russian name is Pik Pobedy (or Peak Pobeda) meaning the same. In Uyghur, it is called Tömür, which is also the official name of the mountain in China. The Chinese name Tuōmù'ěr Fēng () is a combination of the Uighur \"tomur\", meaning 'iron' and Chinese \"feng\" meaning 'peak'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Jengish Chokusu is a massif, with several summits along its lengthy ridge. Only its main summit breaks 7,000 m. It is located southwest of Khan Tengri (7,010 m / 22,998 ft), separated by the South Engilchek glacier, where base camps for both mountains are usually located.  The massif runs at right angles to the glaciers which flow from it into three alpine valleys in Kyrgyzstan on the north, all eventually running to the Engilchek Glacier, the largest in the Tian Shan. Its main summit is usually approached from the Zvozdochka (Russian for \"little star\") glacier, which is coloured red with rocks from Jengish Chokusu.  Administratively, the Kyrgyzstan side of the mountain is in the Ak-Suu District of Issyk-Kul Region and the Chinese side, in Wensu County of the Aksu Prefecture of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Records.", "content": "Jengish Chokusu is the highest mountain in Kyrgyzstan. Jengish Chokusu is considered the most northerly 7,000-metre mountain in the world by geologists; the actual rock summit of Khan Tengri, the Tian Shan's third highest peak, is 6,995m above sea level, though a thick layer of ice adds another 15m to its altitude, such that mountaineers classify it as 7,000m peak.  The South Engilchek Glacier and its side glaciers occupy the entire north side of Peak Jengish Chokusu. This glacier, currently at 60.5 km in length, is the sixth longest outside of the world's polar regions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Although Jengish Chokusu is over 400 metres higher, Khan Tengri was believed to be the highest peak in the range until Jengish Chokusu's survey in 1946.  A Soviet expedition mounted in 1938 to mark the 20th anniversary of the founding of the Communist Youth movement Komsomol claimed to have climbed the highest peak in the area, the summit being reached on 19 September by L. Gutman, E. Ivanov and A. Sidorenko. They measured the altitude as 6,900 metres, and named the peak \"Pik 20-ti letiya Komsomola\" (Peak of the 20th Anniversary of Komsomol).  A survey by another team in 1943 found the peak to be 7,439 metres high. The peak was renamed as \"Pik Pobedy\" (Victory's Peak) in 1946 to commemorate the Soviet victory in World War II. The significant difference in altitude led to the 1938 ascent being called into question, although the official Soviet stand was to uphold the 1938 ascent.  A large-scale attempt on the peak in 1955 was disastrous, when 11 expedition members were killed in a blizzard. Jengish Chokusu's first indisputably verified ascent was in 1956 by Vitaly Abalakov's party.  A Chinese expedition climbed the peak from the Chinese side in 1977: the expedition book makes no mention of the Russian first ascent and gives the impression that the Chinese ascent was the first climb.  The first winter ascent of the peak was made by Valery Khrichtchatyi and Anatoli Boukreev in February 1990. The first solo speed ascent was made by Boukreev in August 1990.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jengish Chokusu (,,, ; ;, \"Pik Pobedy\", ) is the highest mountain in the Tian Shan mountain system at. It lies on the Kyrgyzstan–China border between the raion of Ak-Suu, in the Issyk-Kul Region of far Eastern Kyrgyzstan and Wensu County, Xinjiang, China. It is part of the Kakshaal Too, the highest part of the Tian Shan and located southeast of lake Issyk Kul.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973667}
{"src_title": "Marsilio Ficino", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ficino was born at Figline Valdarno. His father Diotifeci d'Agnolo was a physician under the patronage of Cosimo de' Medici, who took the young man into his household and became the lifelong patron of Marsilio, who was made tutor to his grandson, Lorenzo de' Medici. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, the Italian humanist philosopher and scholar was another of his students.  During the sessions at Florence of the Council of Ferrara-Florence in 1438–1445, during the failed attempts to heal the schism of the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) churches, Cosimo de' Medici and his intellectual circle had made acquaintance with the Neoplatonic philosopher George Gemistos Plethon, whose discourses upon Plato and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated the learned society of Florence that they named him the second Plato. In 1459 John Argyropoulos was lecturing on Greek language and literature at Florence, and Ficino became his pupil.  When Cosimo decided to refound Plato's Academy at Florence he chose Ficino as its head. In 1462, Cosimo supplied Ficino with Greek manuscripts of Plato's work, whereupon Ficino started translating the entire corpus into Latin (draft translation of the dialogues finished 1468–9; published 1484). Ficino also produced a translation of a collection of Hellenistic Greek documents found by Leonardo da Pistoia later called Hermetica, and the writings of many of the Neoplatonists, including Porphyry, Iamblichus and Plotinus.  Among his many students was Francesco Cattani da Diacceto, who was considered by Ficino to be his successor as the head of the Florentine Platonic Academy. Diacceto's student, Giovanni di Bardo Corsi, produced a short biography of Ficino in 1506.  Though trained as a physician, Ficino became a priest in 1473.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "In 1474 Ficino completed his treatise on the immortality of the soul, \"Theologia Platonica de immortalitate animae\" (Platonic Theology). In the rush of enthusiasm for every rediscovery from Antiquity, he exhibited a great interest in the arts of astrology, which landed him in trouble with the Catholic Church. In 1489 he was accused of heresy before Pope Innocent VIII and needed strong defense to preserve him from condemnation.  Writing in 1492 Ficino proclaimed: \"This century, like a golden age, has restored to light the liberal arts, which were almost extinct: grammar, poetry, rhetoric, painting, sculpture, architecture, music... this century appears to have perfected astrology.\"  Ficino's letters, extending over the years 1474–1494, survive and have been published. He wrote \"De amore\" (1484). \"De vita libri tres\" (Three books on life), or \"De triplici vita\", published in 1489, provides a great deal of medical and astrological advice for maintaining health and vigor, as well as espousing the Neoplatonist view of the world's ensoulment and its integration with the human soul: One metaphor for this integrated \"aliveness\" is Ficino's astrology. In the \"Book of Life\", he details the interlinks between behavior and consequence. It talks about a list of things that hold sway over a man's destiny.  Probably due to early influences from his father Diotifeci, who was a doctor to Cosimo de' Medici, Ficino published Latin and Italian treatises on medical subjects such as \"Consiglio contro la pestilenza\" (Recommendations for the treatment of the plague) and \"De vita libri tres\" (Three books on life). His medical works exerted considerable influence on Renaissance physicians such as Paracelsus, with whom he shared the perception on the unity of the micro- and macrocosmos, and their interactions, through somatic and psychological manifestations, with the aim to investigate their signatures to cure diseases. Those works, which were very popular at the time, dealt with astrological and alchemical concepts. Thus Ficino came under the suspicion of heresy; especially after the publication of the third book in 1489, which contained specific instructions on healthful living.  Notably, Ficino coined the term Platonic love, which first appeared in his letter to Alamanno Donati in 1476. In 1492, Ficino published \"Epistulae\" (Epistles), which contained Platonic love letters, written in Latin, to his academic colleague and life-long friend Giovanni Cavalcanti concerning the nature of Platonic love. Importantly, Ficino's letters to Cavalcanti resulted in the popularization of the term Platonic love in Western Europe. Clement Salaman, a modern translator of Ficino’s letters, notes that, “Platonic Love has passed into common parlance as a love independent of physical attraction, a love central to Ficino’s concept of friendship.” Salaman also remarks that the love to which Finico referred in his letters is \"purely spiritual; it was not a polite form of words, still less a reference to homosexual love. It was a love that was all-embracing.\" Despite the claims of modern revisionist historians, there is no evidence that Ficino was erotically attracted to men. Consistent with his life's task of reconciling Platonism with Catholicism, Ficino rejected physical expressions of love between two men as a “wicked crime.” “Love and the desire for physical union,” Ficino wrote, are “not identical impulses, but...opposite ones.” Further, Ficino condemned sodomy in \"Convivium\" and faithfully adhered to the precepts of Catholic moral teaching regarding sexuality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Ficino died on 1 October 1499 at Careggi. In 1521 his memory was honored with a bust sculpted by Andrea Ferrucci, which is located in the south side of the nave in the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marsilio Ficino (; Latin name: \"Marsilius Ficinus\"; 19 October 1433 – 1 October 1499) was an Italian scholar and Catholic priest who was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance. He was an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism in touch with the major academics of his day and the first translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin. His Florentine Academy, an attempt to revive Plato's Academy, influenced the direction and tenor of the Italian Renaissance and the development of European philosophy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973668}
{"src_title": "House of Este", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "According to Edward Gibbon, the family originated from the Roman Attii family, which migrated from Rome to Este to defend Italy against the Ostrogoths. However, there is little evidence to support this hypothesis. The names of the early members of the family indicate that a Frankish origin is much more likely. The first known member of the house was Margrave Adalbert of Mainz, known only as the father of Oberto I, Count palatine of Italy, who died around 975. Oberto's grandson, Albert Azzo II, Margrave of Milan (996–1097) built a castle at Este, near Padua, and named himself after the location. He had three sons from two marriages, two of whom became the ancestors of the two branches of the family:  The two surviving branches, with Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony and Bavaria on the German (Welf dynasty) side, concluded an agreement in 1154 which allocated the family's Italian possessions to the younger line, the Fulc-Este, who in the course of time acquired Ferrara, Modena and Reggio. Este itself was taken over in 1275 by Padua, and in 1405 (together with Padua) by Venice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Elder branch, Guelph, Electors of Hanover.", "content": "The elder branch of the House of Este, the House of Welf, historically rendered as \"Guelf\" or \"Guelph\" in English, produced dukes of Bavaria (1070–1139, 1156–1180), dukes of Saxony (1138–1139, 1142–1180), a German King (1198–1218), the dukes of Brunswick and Lüneburg (1208–1918) (later styled the \"Electors of Hanover\") when the two branches of the family recombined in 1705. The senior branch of the House of Welf continued to be ruled by the princes of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, as undisputed until the death of the ruling duke of Brunswick Prince William VIII, in 1884. Prior to his death, his brother Karl II from Geneva Switzerland, as exiled de jure ruler of the house, had declared the Prussian annexation of the crown and the earlier Hanoverian usurpation absolutely illegal acts of usurpation inside of the German House. At his death, his grandson continued internationally recognized appeals. Hanover formed the Guelph Party (or German Party) to continue political appeals against the Prussian and German annexations of the crown.  After the peace ending the Napoleonic wars reshaped Europe, ushering in the Modern era, the Electorate of Hanover (duchy of Brunswick and Lüneburg, held in personal union by the king of Great Britain, George III) was dissolved by treaty. Its lands were enlarged and the state was promoted to a kingdom. The new kingdom existed from 1815 to 1866, but upon the accession of Queen Victoria (who could not inherit Hanover under Salic law) in 1837, it passed to her uncle, Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover, and thus ceased to be in personal union with the British Crown.  The House of Este gave Great Britain and the United Kingdom the \"Hanoverian monarchs\" (1714–1901).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Younger branch, the Margraves of Este.", "content": "All later generations of the Italian branch are descendants of Fulco d'Este. From 1171 on, his descendants were titled Margraves of Este.  Obizzo I (d. 1193), the first margrave, battled against Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. His nephew Azzo d'Este VI (1170–1212) became podestà of Mantua and Verona. As the dowry of his niece \"the Marchesella\", Ferrara passed to Azzo VI d'Este In 1146, with the last of the Adelardi. In 1242 Azzo VII \"Novello\" was nominated podestà for his lifetime.  The lordship of Ferrara was made hereditary by Obizzo II (d. 1293), who was proclaimed Lord of Ferrara in 1264, Lord of Modena in 1288, and Lord of Reggio in 1289. Ferrara was a papal fief and the Este family were given the position of hereditary papal vicars in 1332.  Ferrara became a significant center of culture under Niccolò d'Este III (1384–1441), who received several popes with great magnificence, especially Eugene IV. He held a Council in Ferrara in 1438, later known as the Council of Florence.  His successors were his illegitimate sons Leonello (1407–1450) and Borso (1413–1471), who was elevated to Duke of Modena and Reggio by Emperor Frederick III in 1452, receiving these duchies as imperial fiefs. In 1471, he received the duchy of Ferrara as papal fief from Pope Paul II, for which occasion splendid frescoes were executed at Palazzo Schifanoia.  Borso was succeeded by a half-brother, Ercole (1431–1505), who was one of the most significant patrons of the arts in late 15th and early 16th century Italy. Ferrara grew into a cultural center renowned especially for music; Josquin des Prez worked for Duke Ercole, Jacob Obrecht came to Ferrara twice, and Antoine Brumel served as principal musician from 1505. Ercole's daughter Beatrice (1475–1497) married Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan; another daughter, Isabella (1474–1539), married Francesco Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua.  Ercole I's successor was his son Alfonso I (1476–1534), third husband of Lucrezia Borgia, daughter of Pope Alexander VI, sister to Cesare Borgia. Alfonso I was a patron of Ariosto.  The son of Alfonso and Lucrezia Borgia, Ercole d'Este II (1508–1559), married Renée of France, daughter of Louis XII of France. His son Alfonso II first married Lucrezia, daughter of grand-duke Cosimo I of Tuscany. After she died, he married Barbara, the sister of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor (1527–1576). His third wife, Margherita Gonzaga, was daughter of the duke of Mantua.  Ercole raised the glory of Ferrara to its highest point, continuing the patron of Torquato Tasso and Giovanni Battista Guarini and in general favoring the arts and sciences, as the princes of his house had always done. The legitimate line ended in 1597 with him; as his heir, Emperor Rudolph II recognized his first cousin Cesare d'Este (1533–1628), member of a cadet branch born out of wedlock, who continued to rule in the imperial duchies and carried on the family name. Ferrara, on the other hand, was annexed by force of arms in 1598 by Pope Clement VIII on grounds of the heir's illegitimacy and incorporated into the Papal States.  The last duke, Ercole III, was deposed in 1796 by the French. His two duchies became the Cispadane Republic which one year later was merged into the Cisalpine Republic and then into the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. Ercole was compensated in 1801 with the small principality of Breisgau in southwestern Germany, whose previous rulers, the Habsburgs, ceded it to him in anticipation of its eventual return to the Habsburgs, since Ercole's daughter Maria Beatrice Ricciarda d'Este was married to a cadet Habsburg, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este. Ercole died in 1803 and Breisgau passed to his daughter and her husband, who in 1806 lost it during the Napoleonic reorganization of the western territories of the defunct Holy Roman Empire to the enlarged and elevated Grand Duchy of Baden.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The House of Este (,, ) was an Italian princely family, linked with several contemporary royal dynasties, including the House of Habsburg and the British royal family.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973669}
{"src_title": "Pripyat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "Access to Pripyat, unlike cities of military importance, was not restricted before the disaster, as the Soviet Union deemed nuclear power stations safer than other types of power plants. Nuclear power stations were presented as achievements of Soviet engineering, harnessing nuclear power for peaceful projects. The slogan \"peaceful atom\" () was popular during those times. The original plan had been to build the plant only from Kiev, but the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, among other bodies, expressed concern that would be too close to the city. As a result, the power station and Pripyat were built at their current locations, about from Kiev. After the disaster, the city of Pripyat was evacuated in two days.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Chernobyl years.", "content": "In 1986, the city of Slavutych was constructed to replace Pripyat. After the city of Chernobyl, this was the second-largest city for accommodating power plant workers and scientists in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).  One notable landmark often featured in photographs of the city and visible from aerial-imaging websites is the long-abandoned Ferris wheel located in the Pripyat amusement park, which had been scheduled to have its official opening five days after the disaster, in time for May Day celebrations. The Azure Swimming Pool and Avanhard Stadium are two other popular tourist sites.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Infrastructure and statistics.", "content": "The following statistics are from January 1, 1986.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "A natural concern is whether it is safe to visit Pripyat and the surroundings. The Zone of Alienation is considered relatively safe to visit, and several Ukrainian companies offer guided tours around the area. In most places within the city, the level of radiation does not exceed an equivalent dose of 1 μSv (one microsievert) per hour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The climate of Pripyat is designated as Dfb (Warm-summer humid continental climate) on the Köppen Climate Classification System.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The city was served by Yaniv station on the Chernihiv–Ovruch railway. It was an important passenger hub of the line and was located between the southern suburb of Pripyat and the village of Yaniv. An electric train terminus of Semikhody, built in 1988 and located in front of the nuclear plant, is currently the only operating station near Pripyat connecting it to Slavutych.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pripyat or Prypiat ( ;, ; ) is a ghost city in northern Ukraine, near the Ukraine–Belarus border. Named after the nearby river Pripyat, the city was founded on February 4, 1970, as the ninth nuclear city (a type of closed city) in the Soviet Union, to serve the nearby Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. It was officially proclaimed a city in 1979 and had grown to a population of 49,360 by the time it was evacuated on the afternoon of April 27, 1986, the day after the Chernobyl disaster.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973670}
{"src_title": "Pons", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "The pons is in the brainstem situated between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata, and in front of the cerebellum. A separating groove between the pons and the medulla is the inferior pontine sulcus. The superior pontine sulcus separates the pons from the midbrain. The pons can be broadly divided into two parts: the basilar part of the pons (ventral pons), and the pontine tegmentum (dorsal pons). Running down the midline of the ventral surface is the basilar sulcus, a groove for the basilar artery. Most of the pons is supplied by the pontine arteries, which arise from the basilar artery. A smaller portion of the pons is supplied by the anterior and posterior inferior cerebellar arteries.  The pons in humans measures about in length. Most of it appears as a broad anterior bulge above the medulla. Posteriorly, it consists mainly of two pairs of thick stalks called cerebellar peduncles. They connect the cerebellum to the pons (middle cerebellar peduncle) and midbrain (superior cerebellar peduncle).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "During embryonic development, the metencephalon develops from the rhombencephalon and gives rise to two structures: the pons and the cerebellum. The alar plate produces sensory neuroblasts, which will give rise to the solitary nucleus and its special visceral afferent (SVA) column; the cochlear and vestibular nuclei, which form the special somatic afferent (SSA) fibers of the vestibulocochlear nerve, the spinal and principal trigeminal nerve nuclei, which form the general somatic afferent column (GSA) of the trigeminal nerve, and the pontine nuclei which relays to the cerebellum.  Basal plate neuroblasts give rise to the abducens nucleus, which forms the general somatic efferent fibers (GSE); the facial and motor trigeminal nuclei, which form the special visceral efferent (SVE) column, and the superior salivatory nucleus, which forms the general visceral efferent fibers (GVE) of the facial nerve.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nuclei.", "content": "A number of cranial nerve nuclei are present in the pons:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "The functions of these four cranial nerves (V-VIII) include regulation of respiration, controls involuntary actions, sensory roles in hearing, equilibrium, and taste, and in facial sensations such as touch and pain, as well as motor roles in eye movement, facial expressions, chewing, swallowing, and the secretion of saliva and tears.  The pons contains nuclei that relay signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum, along with nuclei that deal primarily with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture.  Within the pons is the pneumotaxic center consisting of the subparabrachial and the medial parabrachial nuclei. This center regulates the change from inhalation to exhalation.  The pons is implicated in sleep paralysis, and may also play a role in generating dreams.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other animals.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "The pons first evolved as an offshoot of the medullary reticular formation. Since lampreys possess a pons, it has been argued that it must have evolved as a region distinct from the medulla by the time the first agnathans appeared, 505 million years ago.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The pons (Latin for \"bridge\") is part of the brainstem, and in humans and other bipeds lies inferior to the midbrain, superior to the medulla oblongata and anterior to the cerebellum.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973671}
{"src_title": "Blazer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Wearing a blazer.", "content": "Blazers are worn with a wide variety of other clothes, ranging from a dress shirt and necktie to an open-necked polo shirt, or even just a plain T-shirt. They are seen with trousers of all colours and fabrics, from the classic white cotton or linen, to grey flannel, to brown or beige chinos, and also jeans.  A fitted, classically cut, double-breasted navy blue blazer with navy-style buttons is a popular design and sometimes referred to as a \"reefer\" blazer. Particularly in North America and the United Kingdom, it is now frequently used in business casual attire. Blazers, in a wide range of colours, are worn as part of school uniforms by many schools across the Commonwealth, and are still daily wear for most uniformed pupils in Britain, Australia and New Zealand. These are blazers in the traditional sense: single-breasted, and often of bright colours or with piping. This style is also worn by some boat clubs, such as those in Cambridge or Oxford, with the piped version used only on special occasions such as a boat club dinner. In this case, the piping is in college colours, and college buttons are worn. This traditional style can be seen in many films set in the Edwardian era, such as \"Kind Hearts and Coronets\".  Where the blazer is part of the dress of a school, college, sports club, or armed service regimental association (veterans' organization), it is normal for a badge to be sewn to the breast pocket. In schools, this badge may vary according to the pupil's standing in the school: being a member of the junior or senior school, being a prefect, or having been awarded colours in recognition of particular achievement in some academic or sporting field. In the British Commonwealth, many regimental associations wear \"regimental blazers\" which also sport a similar badge on the breast pocket, usually in the form of a wire badge, and sometimes also regimental blazer buttons.  In the British army, officers do not normally wear badges on their blazers (or boating jackets). Two regimental blazers will rarely be the same, as they are sourced from different civilian suppliers and are not issued by any authority. This results from the fact that the members of the association are no longer serving personnel, but civilians, though still retaining the bond that the badge represents. The standard colour is navy blue, although in some associations different colours are worn, such as rifle green for the associations of rifle regiments.  Blazers, once commonly worn playing or attending traditional \"gentlemen's sports\", persist in only some games now, such as occasional use by tennis players, or in cricket, where in professional matches, such as international test matches, it is considered customary for the captain to wear a blazer with the team's logo or national coat of arms on the breast pocket – at least during the coin toss at the beginning of the match.  Two sporting events where blazers signify victory are the Congressional Cup Regatta at the Long Beach Yacht Club, and the Masters golf tournament, held in Augusta, Georgia. The former event awards a crimson blazer to the winner of several flights of match race sailing of the highest international calibre, while the latter awards a green blazer to the top Masters golfer in the USA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The sartorial term \"blazer\" originated with the red \"blazers\" of the Lady Margaret Boat Club (1825), the rowing club of St. John's College, Cambridge. The Lady Margaret club jackets were termed \"blazers\" because of the bright red cloth, and the term survived the original red coat. A writer to the London \"Daily News\" (22 August 1889) commented that \"In your article of to-day... you speak of 'a striped red and black blazer', 'the blazer', also of 'the pale toned' ones... A blazer is the red flannel boating jacket worn by the Lady Margaret, St. John's College, Cambridge, Boat Club. When I was at Cambridge it meant that and nothing else. It seems from your article that a blazer now means a coloured flannel jacket, whether for cricket, tennis, boating, or seaside wear.\" These early blazers were like later sports jackets, but this term has never referred to blazers, instead describing jackets derived from the later innovation of wearing odd jackets for land-based sports. Assertions that the name is derived from HMS \"Blazer\" are not borne out by contemporary sources, although it is reported that before the standardization of uniform in the Royal Navy, the crew of HMS \"Blazer\" wore \"striped blue and white jackets\", apparently in response to the sailors of HMS \"Harlequin\" being turned out in harlequin suits. As late as 1837 the gig's crew of HMS \"Blazer\" were dressed by their Captain in jackets of blue and white stripes and it is from this that the word \"blazer\", meaning a striped jacket, has entered the language.  The reefer jacket was of naval origin, and described the short double-breasted jacket worn by sailors in harsh weather, when they performed duties such as reefing the sails. It is descendants of this which are now commonly described by the term \"blazer\". Originally with black horn buttons, these jackets evolved to the modern dark blazer, now single as well as double breasted, and with metallic buttons.  Striped blazers became popular among British Mods in the early 1960s, and again during the Mod revival of the late 1970s – particularly in three-colour thick/thin stripe combinations, with three-button single-breasted front, five- or six-inch side or centre vents, and cuffs with multiple buttons. Various photos from 1964 and 1965 show London mods in boating blazers. Photos of mod icons The Who from 1964 (as the High Numbers) variously show Pete Townshend, Keith Moon and John Entwistle wearing boating blazers. Another mod band, Small Faces, and other bands liked by mods – such as The Rolling Stones, The Beatles, The Kinks, Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames, The Animals, The Yardbirds, The Moody Blues and The Troggs – had band members wearing striped blazers/boating jackets, or later, brightly coloured blazers with wide white or other light edging. These later blazers often had non-metal buttons, sometimes in the same colour as the edging. The earlier style of striped blazers can be seen in the film \"Quadrophenia\". The later, bright, style of blazer was affectionately adopted by Austin Powers as part of his Swinging-London look. By the late 2000s the blazer had been adopted as a popular fashion trend amongst women, often having shorter lengths, rolled-up sleeves, various lapels and bright colours.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A blazer is a type of jacket resembling a suit jacket, but cut more casually. A blazer is generally distinguished from a sport coat as a more formal garment and tailored from solid colour fabrics. Blazers often have naval-style metal buttons to reflect their origins as jackets worn by boating club members.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973672}
{"src_title": "Mladá Boleslav District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Complete list of municipalities.", "content": "Bakov nad Jizerou - Bělá pod Bezdězem - Benátky nad Jizerou - Bezno - Bílá Hlína - Bítouchov - Boreč - Boseň - Bradlec - Branžež - Březina - Březno - Březovice - Brodce - Bukovno - Čachovice - Charvatce - Chocnějovice - \"Chotětov\" - Chudíř - Čistá - Ctiměřice - Dalovice - Dlouhá Lhota - Dobrovice - Dobšín - Dolní Bousov - Dolní Krupá - Dolní Slivno - Dolní Stakory - Domousnice - Doubravička - Horky nad Jizerou - Horní Bukovina - Horní Slivno - Hrdlořezy - Hrušov - Husí Lhota - Jabkenice - Jivina - Jizerní Vtelno - Josefův Důl - Katusice - Klášter Hradiště nad Jizerou - Kluky - Kněžmost - Kobylnice - Kochánky - Kolomuty - Koryta - Košátky - Kosmonosy - Kosořice - Kováň - Kovanec - Krásná Ves - Krnsko - Kropáčova Vrutice - Ledce - Lhotky - Lipník - Loukov - Loukovec - Luštěnice - Mečeříž - Mladá Boleslav - Mnichovo Hradiště - Mohelnice nad Jizerou - Mukařov - Němčice - Nemyslovice - Nepřevázka - Neveklovice - Niměřice - Nová Telib - Nová Ves u Bakova - Obrubce - Obruby - Pěčice - Pětikozly - Petkovy - Písková Lhota - Plazy - Plužná - Předměřice nad Jizerou - Přepeře - Prodašice - Ptýrov - Rabakov - Rohatsko - Rokytá - Rokytovec - Řepov - Řitonice - Sedlec - Semčice - Sezemice - Skalsko - Skorkov - Smilovice - Sojovice - \"Sovínky\" - Strašnov - Strážiště - Strenice - Sudoměř - Sukorady - Tuřice - Ujkovice - Velké Všelisy - Veselice - Vinařice - Vinec - Vlkava - Vrátno - Všejany - Žďár - Zdětín - Žerčice - Židněves", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mladá Boleslav District () is a district (\"okres\") within Central Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. Its capital is the city of Mladá Boleslav.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973673}
{"src_title": "Kunlun Mountains", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Extent.", "content": "From the Pamirs of Tajikistan, the Kunlun Mountains run east along the border between Xinjiang and Tibet autonomous regions to the Sino-Tibetan ranges in Qinghai province. They stretch along the southern edge of what is now called the Tarim Basin, the infamous Takla Makan or \"sand-buried houses\" desert, and the Gobi Desert. A number of important rivers flow from the range including the Karakash River ('Black Jade River') and the Yurungkash River ('White Jade River'), which flow through the Khotan Oasis into the Taklamakan Desert.  Altyn-Tagh or Altun Range is one of the chief northern ranges of the Kunlun. Its northeastern extension Qilian Shan is another main northern range of the Kunlun. In the south main extension is the Min Shan. Bayan Har Mountains, a southern branch of the Kunlun Mountains, forms the watershed between the catchment basins of China's two longest rivers, the Yangtze River and the Yellow River.  The highest mountain of the Kunlun Shan is the Kunlun Goddess (7,167 m) in the Keriya area in western Kunlun Shan. Some authorities claim that the Kunlun extends further northwest-wards as far as Kongur Tagh (7,649 m) and the famous Muztagh Ata (7,546 m). But these mountains are physically much more closely linked to the Pamir group (ancient Mount Imeon). The Arka Tagh (Arch Mountain) is in the center of the Kunlun Shan; its highest points are Ulugh Muztagh (6,973 m) and Bukadaban Feng (6,860 m). In the eastern Kunlun Shan the highest peaks are Yuzhu Peak (6,224 m) and Amne Machin [also Dradullungshong] (6,282 m); the latter is the eastern major peak in Kunlun Shan range and is thus considered as the eastern edge of Kunlun Shan range.  The mountain range formed at the northern edges of the Cimmerian Plate during its collision, in the Late Triassic, with Siberia, which resulted in the closing of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean.  The range has very few roads and in its 3,000 km length is crossed by only two. In the west, Highway 219 traverses the range en route from Yecheng, Xinjiang to Lhatse, Tibet. Further east, Highway 109 crosses between Lhasa and Golmud.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kunlun Volcanic Group.", "content": "Over 70 volcanic cones form the Kunlun Volcanic Group. They are not volcanic mountains, but cones. As such, they are not counted among the world volcanic mountain peaks. The group, however, musters the heights of above sea level (). If they were considered volcanic mountains, they would constitute the highest volcano in Asia and China and second highest in the Eastern Hemisphere (after Mount Kilimanjaro) and one of Volcanic Seven Summits by elevation. (Mount Damavand is the highest volcano in Asia, not the Kunlun cones.) The last known eruption in the volcanic group was on May 27, 1951.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mythology.", "content": "Kunlun is originally the name of a mythical mountain believed to be a Taoist paradise. The first to visit this paradise was, according to the legends, King Mu (976-922 BCE) of the Zhou Dynasty. He supposedly discovered there the Jade Palace of the Yellow Emperor, the mythical originator of Chinese culture, and met Hsi Wang Mu (Xi Wang Mu), the 'Spirit Mother of the West' usually called the 'Queen Mother of the West', who was the object of an ancient religious cult which reached its peak in the Han Dynasty, and also had her mythical abode in these mountains. <br>", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The Kunlun mountains (spelled \"Kuen-Lun\" in the book) are described as the location of the Shangri-La monastery in the 1933 novel \"Lost Horizon\" by English writer James Hilton.  The mountains are the site of the fictional city of K'un Lun in the Marvel Comics Iron Fist series and the TV show of the same name.  The Kunlun mountain range serves as the setting for a mission in the 2013 video game \"Battlefield 4\" in which a Chinese high-security prison is located within the mountains. The multiplayer map \"Operation Locker\" features the location as well.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kunlun Mountains (, ;, \"Khöndlön Uuls\"; ) constitute one of the longest mountain chains in Asia, extending for more than. In the broadest sense, the chain forms the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau south of the Tarim Basin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973674}
{"src_title": "Khan Tengri", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The name \"Khan Tengri\" literally means \"King Heaven\" in Kazakh and possibly references the deity Tengri. In some other local languages, it is known as \"Khan Tangiri Shyngy\", \"Kan-Too Chokusu\", \"Pik Khan-Tengry\", and \"Hantengri Feng\". (,, Han Táńiri, حان تأڭئرئ;, حان-تەڭىرى; ;, Xiao'erjing: هًا تٍْ قْ لِ فعْ). Local residents named the mountain Khan-Tengri for the unique beauty of snow giants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "Khan Tengri is a massive marble pyramid, covered in snow and ice. At sunset the marble glows red, giving it the name \"blood mountain\" in Kazakh and Kyrgyz (; ). Located just across the South Engilchek (or Inylchek) glacier, 16 km north of Jengish Chokusu, Khan Tengri was originally thought to be the highest peak in the Tian Shan because of its dramatic, steep shape, compared to the massive bulk of Jengish Chokusu. This perception was probably also due to Khan Tengri's visibility across the plains of southern Kazakhstan while Jengish Chokusu remains out of view of civilization. Khan Tengri is the highest peak in the rugged Tengri Tag subrange, also known as the Mustag, that also contains Chapaev Peak () and Gorky Peak (). Anatoli Boukreev considered Khan Tengri perhaps the world's most beautiful peak because of its geometric ridges and its symmetry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Although it is almost 430 m (1,500 ft) lower than its neighbor, Khan Tengri was believed to be the highest peak in the range until Jengish Chokusu was surveyed in 1943 and determined to be higher.  Peter Semenov was the first European to see the Tengri Tag and its peak, the colossal Khan Tengri (in 1857).  The first ascent of the peak was made in 1931 by Mikhail Pogrebetsky's Ukrainian team by a route from the south (Kyrgyzstan side), then along the west ridge. M. Kuzmin's team made the first ascent from the north (Kazakhstan side) in 1964. Khan Tengri is one of five peaks that a Soviet mountaineer needed to scale to earn the prestigious Snow Leopard award  To conquer the peak, you need serious physical and high- altitude training, since the mountain is technically difficult.  1990 — Anatoli Boukreev achieved the first solo speed ascent.  Austrian mountaineer and expedition leader Toni Dürnberger died while descending after having climbed Khan Tengri on 17 August 1992.  The peak appears on the Kyrgyz 100 som bill. In 2004, more than a dozen mountaineers were killed in a large avalanche on the Pogrebetsky route, the most popular route on the mountain.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Khan Tengri is a mountain of the Tian Shan mountain range. It is located on the China—Kyrgyzstan—Kazakhstan tripoint, east of lake Issyk Kul. Its geologic elevation is, but its glacial cap rises to. For this reason, in mountaineering circles, including for the Soviet Snow Leopard award criteria, it is considered a 7,000-metre peak.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973675}
{"src_title": "Cubane", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synthesis.", "content": "The classic 1964 synthesis starts with the conversion of 2-cyclopentenone to 2-bromocyclopentadienone:  Allylic bromination with \"N\"-bromosuccinimide in carbon tetrachloride followed by addition of molecular bromine to the alkene gives a 2,3,4-tribromocyclopentanone. Treating this compound with diethylamine in diethyl ether causes elimination of two equivalents of hydrogen bromide to give the diene product.  The construction of the eight-carbon cubane framework begins when 2-bromocyclopentadienone undergoes a spontaneous Diels-Alder dimerization, analogous to the dimerization of cyclopentadiene to dicyclopentadiene—two molecules of 1 react to form 2. For the subsequent steps to succeed, only the \"endo\" isomer is useful, and this is the predominant isomer formed in this reaction. This is the most likely product as a result of minimized steric interactions between the bromine of each molecule with the bromine and carbonyl of the other when the reactants approach each other and minimized like-dipole interactions in the transition state of the reaction itself. Both carbonyl groups are protected as acetals with ethylene glycol and \"p\"-toluenesulfonic acid in benzene; one acetal is then selectively deprotected with aqueous hydrochloric acid to 3.  In the next step, the \"endo\" isomer 3 (with both alkene groups in close proximity) forms the cage-like isomer 4 in a photochemical [2+2] cycloaddition. The bromoketone group is converted to ring-contracted carboxylic acid 5 in a Favorskii rearrangement with potassium hydroxide. Next, the thermal decarboxylation takes place through the acid chloride (with thionyl chloride) and the \"tert\"-butyl perester 6 (with \"tert\"-butyl hydroperoxide and pyridine) to 7; afterward, the acetal is once more removed in 8. A second Favorskii rearrangement gives 9, and finally another decarboxylation gives, via 10, cubane (11).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derivatives.", "content": "The synthesis of the octaphenyl derivative from tetraphenylcyclobutadiene nickel bromide by Freedman in 1962 pre-dates that of the parent compound. It is a sparingly soluble colourless compound that melts at 425–427 °C. A hypercubane, with a hypercube-like structure, was predicted to exist in a 2014 publication. Two different isomers of cubene have been synthesized, and a third analyzed computationally. The alkene in \"ortho\"-cubene is exceptionally reactive due to its pyramidalized geometry. At the time of its synthesis, this was the most pyramidalized alkene to have been successfully made. The \"meta\"-cubene isomer is even less stable, and the \"para\"-cubene isomer probably only exists as a diradical rather than an actual diagonal bond.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cubylcubanes and Oligocubanes.", "content": "Cubane (1,2-dehydrocubane) and 1,4-cubanediyl(1,4-dehydrocubane) are enormously strained compounds which both undergo nucleophilic addition very rapidly, and this has enabled chemists to synthesize cubylcubane. X-ray diffraction structure solution has shown that the central cubylcubane bond is exceedingly short (1.458 Angstrom), much shorter than the typical C-C single bond (1.578 Angstrom). This is attributed to the fact that the exocyclic orbitals of cubane are s-rich and close to the nucleus. Chemists at the University of Chicago extended and modified the sequence in a way that permits the preparation of a host of [n]cubylcubane oligomers. The [n]cubylcubanes are rigid molecular rods with the particular promise at the time of making liquid crystals with exceptional UV transparency. As the number of linked cubane units increases, the solubility of [n]cubylcubane plunges; as a result, only limited chain length (up to 40 units) have been successfully synthesized in solutions. The skeleton of [n]cubylcubanes is still composed of enormously strained carbon cubes, which therefore limit its stability. In contrast, researchers at Penn State University showed that poly-cubane synthesized by solid-state reaction is 100% sp3 carbon bonded with a tetrahedral angle (109.5 degree) and exhibits exceptional optical properties (high refractive index).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Cuneane may be produced from cubane by a metal-ion-catalyzed σ-bond rearrangement.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cubane (CH) is a synthetic hydrocarbon molecule that consists of eight carbon atoms arranged at the corners of a cube, with one hydrogen atom attached to each carbon atom. A solid crystalline substance, cubane is one of the Platonic hydrocarbons and a member of the prismanes. It was first synthesized in 1964 by Philip Eaton and Thomas Cole. Before this work, researchers believed that cubic carbon-based molecules would be too unstable to exist. The cubic shape requires the carbon atoms to adopt an unusually sharp 90° bonding angle, which would be highly strained as compared to the 109.45° angle of a tetrahedral carbon. Once formed, cubane is quite kinetically stable, due to a lack of readily available decomposition paths. It is the simplest hydrocarbon with octahedral symmetry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973676}
{"src_title": "Příbram District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Complete list of municipalities.", "content": "Bezděkov pod Třemšínem - Bohostice - Bohutín - Borotice - Bratkovice - Březnice - Buková u Příbramě - Bukovany - Čenkov - Cetyně - Chotilsko - Chrást - Chraštice - Čím - Daleké Dušníky - Dlouhá Lhota - Dobříš - Dolní Hbity - Drahenice - Drahlín - Drásov - Drevníky - Drhovy - Dubenec - Dubno - Dublovice - Háje - Hluboš - Hlubyně - Horčápsko - Hudčice - Hřiměždice - Hvožďany - Jablonná - Jesenice - \"Jince\" - Kamýk nad Vltavou - Klučenice - Kňovice - Korkyně - Kosova Hora - Kotenčice - Koupě - Kozárovice - Krásná Hora nad Vltavou - Křepenice - Křešín - Láz - Lazsko - Lešetice - Lhota u Příbramě - Malá Hraštice - Milešov - Milín - Modřovice - Mokrovraty - Nalžovice - Narysov - Nečín - Nedrahovice - Nechvalice - Nepomuk - Nestrašovice - Nová Ves pod Pleší - Nové Dvory - Nový Knín - Občov - Obecnice - Obory - Obořiště - Ohrazenice - Osečany - Ostrov - Ouběnice - Pečice - Petrovice - Pičín - Počaply - Počepice - Podlesí - Prosenická Lhota - Příbram - Příčovy - Radětice - Radíč - Rosovice - Rožmitál pod Třemšínem - Rybníky - Sádek - Sedlčany - Sedlec-Prčice - Sedlice - Smolotely - Solenice - Stará Huť - Starosedlský Hrádek - Štětkovice - Suchodol - Svaté Pole - Svatý Jan - Svojšice - Těchařovice - Tochovice - Třebsko - Trhové Dušníky - Tušovice - Velká Lečice - Věšín - Višňová - Volenice - Voznice - Vrančice - Vranovice - Vševily - Vysoká u Příbramě - \"Vysoký Chlumec\" - Zalužany - Zbenice - Zduchovice - Županovice", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Příbram District () is a district (\"okres\") within the Central Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. Its capital is the town of Příbram and the towns of Dobříš and Sedlčany are larger centres.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973677}
{"src_title": "Svitavy District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "With a total area of 1,379 km2 it is the largest district of the Pardubice Region. From the total area of the district, agricultural land occupies 835.1 km2 (arable land 628,8 km2, permanent pastures 171.3 km2 and water bodies 10.8 km2). Forests cover 31.3% of the district's area.  The district is divided into drainage basins of the Elbe and the Danube. The main rivers in the district are Svitava (central part of the district), Svratka (south-eastern part), Třebůvka (eastern part), Třebovka and Loučná (both in the north-western part). The former three rivers comprise part of the Danube basin, while the latter two comprise part of the Elbe basin. The largest water body in Svitavy District is the pond Hvězda, with an area of 82 ha.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demography.", "content": "As of 31 December 2012, the district had 104,971 inhabitants from which 53,120 were women and 51,851 were men. The average age was 40.9 years; 15.3% of the inhabitants were 14 years or younger, while 16.5% were 65 years or older. The district's workforce counted 53,955 people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The district has a continental climate which is characterised by significant variations in temperature in the course of the year. There are slight variations between the climate in various parts of the district. The northwestern and southeastern part of the district have an average temperature of 7 °C and precipitation up to 600 mm in one year. The central part of the district is slightly cooler and more humid, with an average temperature of 6 °C and precipitation of 700 mm. The southeastern part of the district is even cooler and even more humid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The district has been suffering from the highest unemployment rate in the Pardubice region, reaching 8.6% at the end of 2012.  The economy of the district is oriented towards agriculture and manufacturing. The share of the district's employment accounted for by agriculture has been steadily decreasing, yet it is still higher than in other districts of the Pardubice Region. The agricultural sector mainly produces cereals and rapeseed.  There is a relatively varied structure of manufacturing in the Svitavy district. Food and textile production comprise the main volume of manufacturing. However, the long-term importance of textile manufacturing is decreasing. Glass fibre production, metalworking and mechanical engineering are other important branches of manufacturing in the district.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Svitavy District () is a district (\"okres\") within Pardubice Region of the Czech Republic. Its capital is the town of Svitavy. As a part of Pardubice Region the district has borders with Ústí nad Orlicí District to the north and Chrudim District to the west. The district was administratively formed in 1960, when the former districts of Litomyšl, Moravská Třebová, Polička and Svitavy were merged.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973678}
{"src_title": "Jičín District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Complete list of municipalities.", "content": "Bačalky - Bašnice - Běchary - Bílsko u Hořic - Boháňka - Borek - Brada-Rybníček - Březina - Bříšťany - Budčeves - Bukvice - Butoves - Bystřice - Cerekvice nad Bystřicí - Červená Třemešná - Češov - Cholenice - Chomutice - Choteč - Chyjice - Dětenice - Dílce - Dobrá Voda u Hořic - Dolní Lochov - Dřevěnice - Holín - Holovousy - Hořice - Jeřice - Jičín - Jičíněves - Jinolice - Kacákova Lhota - Kbelnice - Kněžnice - Konecchlumí - Kopidlno - Kostelec - Kovač - Kozojedy - Kyje - Lázně Bělohrad - Libáň - Libošovice - Libuň - Lískovice - Lukavec u Hořic - Lužany - Markvartice - Miletín - Milovice u Hořic - Mladějov - Mlázovice - Nemyčeves - Nevratice - Nová Paka - Ohařice - Ohaveč - Osek - Ostroměř - Ostružno - Pecka - Petrovičky - Podhorní Újezd a Vojice - Podhradí - Podůlší - Radim - Rašín - Rohoznice - Rokytňany - Samšina - Sběř - Sedliště - Sekeřice - Slatiny - Slavhostice - Sobčice - Soběraz - Sobotka - Stará Paka - Staré Hrady - Staré Místo - Staré Smrkovice - Střevač - Sukorady - Svatojanský Újezd - Šárovcova Lhota - Tetín - Třebnouševes - Třtěnice - Tuř - Úbislavice - Údrnice - Úhlejov - Újezd pod Troskami - Úlibice - Valdice - Veliš - Vidochov - Vitiněves - Volanice - Vrbice - Vršce - Vřesník - Vysoké Veselí - Zámostí-Blata - Zelenecká Lhota - Železnice - Žeretice - Židovice - Žlunice", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The district includes a number of natural reserves. The best known of these is the Bohemian Paradise Landscape Park, which includes the Prachov Rocks range of sandstone formations.  The Kost Castle is the most important cultural sight in the district.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The district is home to the largest deposit of high-quality glass sand within the Czech Republic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jičín District () is a district (\"okres\") within the Hradec Králové Region of the Czech Republic. Its capital is the town of Jičín.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973679}
{"src_title": "Pardubice District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Pardubice District is the smallest district of the region but has the highest population density. Its terrain is mostly flat, dominated by Kunětice Mountain. Agriculture specialises on grain, cattle feed and vegetables. Chemical, engineering and electrotechnical industries are the most important. The city of Pardubice is one of the main focuses of cultural life. Among the city's tourist attractions are the historical center of Pardubice, Kunětice Mountain Castle, the baroque castle in Choltice, the African museum dedicated to Emil Holub in Holice and the recreational area around the river Elbe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Pardubice has an international airport and is a busy railway center. The once important Elbe River transport is in depression. A new highway (in the direction to Olomouc) is planned to relieve congestion on the roads.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complete list of municipalities.", "content": "Barchov - Bezděkov - Borek - Brloh - Břehy - Bukovina nad Labem - Bukovina u Přelouče - Bukovka - Býšť - Časy - Čeperka - Čepí - Černá u Bohdanče - Choltice - Choteč - Chrtníky - Chvaletice - Chvojenec - Chýšť - Dašice - Dolany - Dolní Roveň - Dolní Ředice - Dříteč - Dubany - Hlavečník - Holice - Holotín - Horní Jelení - Horní Ředice - Hrobice - Jankovice - Jaroslav - Jedousov - Jeníkovice - Jezbořice - Kasalice - Kladruby nad Labem - Kojice - Kostěnice - Křičeň - Kunětice - Labské Chrčice - Lány u Dašic - Lázně Bohdaneč - Libišany - Lipoltice - Litošice - Malé Výkleky - Mikulovice - Mokošín - Morašice - Moravany - Němčice - Neratov - Opatovice nad Labem - Ostřešany - Ostřetín - Pardubice - Plch - Poběžovice u Holic - Poběžovice u Přelouče - Podůlšany - Pravy - Přelouč - Přelovice - Přepychy - Ráby - Rohovládova Bělá - Rohoznice - Rokytno - Rybitví - Řečany nad Labem - Selmice - Semín - Sezemice - Slepotice - Sopřeč - Sovolusky - Spojil - Srch - Srnojedy - Staré Hradiště - Staré Jesenčany - Staré Ždánice - Starý Mateřov - Stéblová - Stojice - Strašov - Svinčany - Svojšice - Tetov - Trnávka - Trusnov - Třebosice - Turkovice - Uhersko - Úhřetická Lhota - Újezd u Přelouče - Újezd u Sezemic - Urbanice - Valy - Vápno - Veliny - Veselí - Vlčí Habřina - Voleč - Vysoké Chvojno - Vyšehněvice - Zdechovice - Žáravice - Živanice", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pardubice District () is a district (\"okres\") within the Pardubice Region of the Czech Republic. Its capital is the city of Pardubice.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973680}
{"src_title": "České Budějovice District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Complete list of municipalities.", "content": "Adamov - Bečice - Borek - Borovany - Borovnice - Boršov nad Vltavou - Bošilec - Branišov - Břehov - Čakov - Čejkovice - Čenkov u Bechyně - České Budějovice - Čížkrajice - Chotýčany - Chrášťany - Dasný - Dívčice - Dobrá Voda u Českých Budějovic - Dobšice - \"Dolní Bukovsko\" - Doubravice - Doudleby - Drahotěšice - Dražíč - Dříteň - Dubičné - Dubné - Dynín - Habří - Hartmanice - Heřmaň - Hlavatce - Hlincová Hora - Hluboká nad Vltavou - Homole - Horní Kněžeklady - Horní Stropnice - Hosín - Hosty - Hradce - Hranice - Hrdějovice - Hůry - Hvozdec - Jankov - Jílovice - Jivno - Kamenná - Kamenný Újezd - Komařice - Kvítkovice - \"Ledenice\" - Libín - Libníč - Lipí - Lišov - Litvínovice - Ločenice - Mazelov - Mladošovice - Modrá Hůrka - Mokrý Lom - Mydlovary - Nákří - Nedabyle - Neplachov - Nová Ves - Nové Hrady - Olešnice - Olešník - Ostrolovský Újezd - Petříkov - Pištín - Planá - Plav - Radošovice - Římov - Roudné - Rudolfov - Sedlec - \"Ševětín\" - Slavče - Srubec - Staré Hodějovice - Štěpánovice - Strážkovice - Strýčice - Střížov - Svatý Jan nad Malší - Temelín - Trhové Sviny - Týn nad Vltavou - Úsilné - Včelná - Vidov - Vitín - Vlkov - Vrábče - Vráto - Všemyslice - Záboří - Žabovřesky - Zahájí - Žár - Závraty - Žimutice - Zliv - Zvíkov", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "České Budějovice District () is a district (\"okres\") within the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. Its capital is České Budějovice.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973681}
{"src_title": "Havlíčkův Brod District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Complete list of municipalities.", "content": "Bačkov - Bartoušov - Bělá - Bezděkov - Bojiště - Boňkov - Borek - Břevnice - Čachotín - Čečkovice - \"Česká Bělá\" - Chotěboř - Chrtníč - Chřenovice - Číhošť - Dlouhá Ves - Dolní Krupá - Dolní Město - Dolní Sokolovec - Druhanov - Golčův Jeníkov - Habry - \"Havlíčkova Borová\" - Havlíčkův Brod - Herálec - Heřmanice - Hněvkovice - Horní Krupá - Horní Paseka - Hradec - Hurtova Lhota - Jedlá - Jeřišno - Jilem - Jitkov - Kámen - Kamenná Lhota - Klokočov - Knyk - Kochánov - Kojetín - Kouty - Kozlov - Kožlí - Kraborovice - Krásná Hora - Krátká Ves - \"Krucemburk\" - Kunemil - Květinov - Kyjov - Kynice - Lány - Ledeč nad Sázavou - Leškovice - Leština u Světlé - \"Libice nad Doubravou\" - Lípa - Lipnice nad Sázavou - Lučice - Malčín - Maleč - Michalovice - Modlíkov - Nejepín - Nová Ves u Chotěboře - Nová Ves u Leštiny - Nová Ves u Světlé - Okrouhlice - Okrouhlička - Olešenka - Olešná - Ostrov - Oudoleň - Ovesná Lhota - Pavlov - Podmoklany - Podmoky - Pohled - Přibyslav - Příseka - Prosíčka - Radostín - Rozsochatec - Rušinov - Rybníček - Sázavka - Sedletín - Skorkov - Šlapanov - Skryje - Skuhrov - Slavětín - Slavíkov - Slavníč - Sloupno - Služátky - Sobíňov - \"Štoky\" - Stříbrné Hory - Světlá nad Sázavou - Tis - Trpišovice - \"Uhelná Příbram\" - Úhořilka - \"Úsobí\" - Vepříkov - Veselý Žďár - Věž - Věžnice - \"Vilémov\" - Vilémovice - Víska - Vlkanov - Vysoká - Ždírec - Ždírec nad Doubravou - Žižkovo Pole - Zvěstovice", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Havlíčkův Brod District () is a district (\"okres\") within Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic. Its capital is the town of Havlíčkův Brod.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973682}
{"src_title": "Chrudim District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The district has mostly flat terrain with slopes of Iron Mountains appearing on the south. Seč Dam is the largest water surface in the district (2.2 km), Chrudimka is the longest river in the district (104 km). Industrial centres are Chrudim (mechanical engineering, textile, food industry), Hlinsko (electrotechnical, textile) and Skuteč (textile). Climatic conditions and terrain make the area convenient for agriculture.  Tourism is concentrated on Seč Dam and historical architecture. Of note is historical centre of Chrudim, hippology museum in Slatiňany, castles Košumberk, Lichnice, Rychmburk and Oheb, war memorial in Ležáky and Veselý Kopec Skansen.  Among notable persons associated with the district are inventor Josef Ressel, composers Zdeněk Fibich and Vítězslav Novák, writers Karel Václav Rais and Jaroslav Vrchlický, painters Antonín Slavíček, Antonin Chittussi and Adolf Kosárek.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complete list of municipalities.", "content": "Chrudim - Běstvina - Biskupice - Bítovany - Bojanov - Bor u Skutče - Bořice - Bousov - Bylany - Ctětín - Čankovice - České Lhotice - Dědová - Dolní Bezděkov - Dřenice - Dvakačovice - Hamry - Heřmanův Městec - Hlinsko - Hluboká - Hodonín - Holetín - Honbice - Horka - Horní Bradlo - Hošťalovice - Hrochův Týnec - Hroubovice - Chrast - Chroustovice - Jeníkov - Jenišovice - Kameničky - Kladno - Klešice - Kněžice - Kočí - Kostelec u Heřmanova Městce - Krásné - Krouna - Křižanovice - Lány - Leštinka - Libkov - Liboměřice - Licibořice - Lipovec - Lozice - Lukavice - Luže - Míčov-Sušice - Miřetice - Mladoňovice - Morašice - Mrákotín - Nabočany - Načešice - Nasavrky - Orel - Ostrov - Otradov - Perálec - Podhořany u Ronova - Pokřikov - Prachovice - Proseč - Prosetín - Předhradí - Přestavlky - Raná - Rabštejnská Lhota - Ronov nad Doubravou - Rosice - Rozhovice - Řestoky - Seč - Skuteč - Slatiňany - Smrček - Sobětuchy - Stolany - Střemošice - Studnice - Svídnice - Svratouch - Tisovec - Trhová Kamenice - Trojovice - Třemošnice - Třibřichy - Tuněchody - Úherčice - Úhřetice - Vápenný Podol - Včelákov - Vejvanovice - Vítanov - Vojtěchov - Vortová - Vrbatův Kostelec - Všeradov - Vysočina - Vyžice - Zaječice - Zájezdec - Zderaz - Žlebské Chvalovice - Žumberk", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chrudim District () is a district (\"okres\") within Pardubice Region of the Czech Republic. Its capital is the town of Chrudim.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973683}
{"src_title": "Třebíč District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Complete list of municipalities.", "content": "Babice – Bačice – Bačkovice – Benetice – Biskupice-Pulkov – Blatnice – Bochovice – Bohušice – Bransouze – Březník – \"Budišov\" – Budkov – Čáslavice – Častohostice – Čechočovice – Čechtín – Červená Lhota – Chlístov – Chlum – Chotěbudice – Číchov – Cidlina – Číhalín – Čikov – Číměř – \"Dalešice\" – Dědice – Dešov – Dolní Lažany – Dolní Vilémovice – Domamil – Dukovany – Hartvíkovice – \"Heraltice\" – Hluboké – Hodov – Horní Heřmanice – Horní Smrčné – Horní Újezd – Horní Vilémovice – Hornice – Hrotovice – Hroznatín – Hvězdoňovice – Jakubov u Moravských Budějovic – Jaroměřice nad Rokytnou – Jasenice – Jemnice – Jinošov – Jiratice – Kamenná – Kdousov – Kladeruby nad Oslavou – Klučov – Kojatice – Kojatín – Kojetice – Komárovice – Koněšín – Kostníky – Kouty – Kozlany – Kožichovice – Krahulov – Kralice nad Oslavou – Kramolín – Krhov – Krokočín – Kuroslepy – Láz – Lesná – Lesní Jakubov – Lesonice – Lesůňky – Lhánice – Lhotice – Lipník – Litohoř – Litovany – Lomy – Loukovice – Lovčovice – Lukov – Markvartice – Martínkov – Mastník – Menhartice – Meziříčko – Mikulovice – Mladoňovice – \"Mohelno\" – Moravské Budějovice – Myslibořice – Naloučany – Náměšť nad Oslavou – Nárameč – Nimpšov – Nová Ves – Nové Syrovice – Nový Telečkov – Ocmanice – Odunec – Okarec – Okřešice – \"Okříšky\" – \"Opatov\" – Oponešice – Ostašov – Pálovice – Petrovice – Petrůvky – Pokojovice – Police – Popůvky – Pozďatín – Přeckov – Předín – Přešovice – Přibyslavice – Příštpo – Pucov – Pyšel – Račice – Rácovice – Radkovice u Budče – Radkovice u Hrotovic – Radonín – Radošov – Radotice – Rapotice – Římov – Rohy – \"Rokytnice nad Rokytnou\" – Rouchovany – Rudíkov – Šebkovice – Sedlec – Slavětice – Slavičky – Slavíkovice – Smrk – \"Stařeč\" – Štěměchy – Štěpkov – Stropešín – Střítež – Studenec – Studnice – Sudice – Svatoslav – Třebelovice – Třebenice – Třebíč – Třesov – Trnava – Valdíkov – Valeč – Vícenice – Vícenice u Náměště nad Oslavou – \"Vladislav\" – Vlčatín – Výčapy – Zahrádka – Zárubice – Zašovice – \"Želetava\" – Zvěrkovice  Village of Senorady is (since January 1, 2005) part of Brno-Country District.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Třebíč District () is a district (\"okres\") within the Moravian part of the Vysočina Region in the Czech Republic. Its capital is the town of Třebíč, the second largest town in the Vysočina Region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973684}
{"src_title": "Blansko District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Complete list of municipalities.", "content": "Adamov - Bedřichov - Benešov - Blansko - Borotín - Bořitov - Boskovice - Brťov-Jeneč - Bukovina - Bukovinka - Býkovice - \"Černá Hora\" - Černovice - Cetkovice - Chrudichromy - Crhov - Deštná - Dlouhá Lhota - \"Doubravice nad Svitavou\" - Drnovice - Habrůvka - Hodonín - Holštejn - Horní Poříčí - Horní Smržov - Jabloňany - \"Jedovnice\" - Kněževes - Knínice u Boskovic - Kořenec - Kotvrdovice - Kozárov - Krasová - Křetín - Krhov - Křtěnov - \"Křtiny\" - Kulířov - Kunčina Ves - Kunice - Kuničky - Kunštát - Lazinov - Lažany - Letovice - Lhota Rapotina - Lhota u Lysic - Lhota u Olešnice - Lipovec - Lipůvka - Louka - Lubě - Ludíkov - Lysice - Makov - Malá Lhota - Malá Roudka - Míchov - Milonice - Němčice - Nýrov - Obora - Okrouhlá - Olešnice - Olomučany - \"Ostrov u Macochy\" - Pamětice - Petrov - Petrovice - Prostřední Poříčí - Rájec-Jestřebí - Ráječko - Roubanina - Rozseč nad Kunštátem - Rozsíčka - Rudice - Šebetov - Sebranice - Šebrov-Kateřina - Senetářov - Skalice nad Svitavou - Skrchov - \"Sloup\" - Šošůvka - Spešov - Štěchov - Stvolová - Sudice - Suchý - Sulíkov - Světlá - Svinošice - \"Svitávka\" - Tasovice - Uhřice - Újezd u Boskovic - Újezd u Černé Hory - Úsobrno - Ústup - Valchov - Vanovice - Vavřinec - Vážany - Velenov - Velké Opatovice - Vilémovice - Vísky - Voděrady - Vranová - Vysočany - Závist - Zbraslavec - Žďár - Žďárná - Žernovník - Žerůtky", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Blansko District () is one of seven districts (\"okres\") within South Moravian Region of the Czech Republic. Its capital is the town of Blansko.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973685}
{"src_title": "Žďár nad Sázavou District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Landscape.", "content": "The district's landscape is very picturesque, consisting of a highland of rolling hills around the rivers Sázava, Oslava, Svratka and Chrudimka, covered by deep forests, lakes and fields.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "37% of the active population works in industry. Agriculture is also an important economic activity, especially wheat, potatoes, fruit, timber, and livestock. The contribution of industry and agriculture to the local economy has decreased markedly since 1991. The remaining industrial activity is concentrated in the larger towns and includes mechanic, electric, and steel factories. Furniture and other small manufacturing industries have been installed after the fall of Communism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The area, relatively untouched by pollution, attracts summer and winter tourism. Highlights include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complete list of municipalities.", "content": "Baliny - Blažkov - Blízkov - \"Bobrová\" - Bobrůvka - Bohdalec - \"Bohdalov\" - Bohuňov - Borovnice - Bory - Březejc - Březí nad Oslavou - Březí - Březské - Budeč - Bukov - Býšovec - Bystřice nad Pernštejnem - Černá - Chlumek - Chlumětín - Chlum-Korouhvice - Cikháj - Dalečín - Daňkovice - Dlouhé - Dobrá Voda - Dolní Heřmanice - Dolní Libochová - Dolní Rožínka - Fryšava pod Žákovou horou - Hamry nad Sázavou - Herálec - Heřmanov - Hodíškov - Horní Libochová - Horní Radslavice - Horní Rožínka - Jabloňov - Jámy - Javorek - \"Jimramov\" - Jívoví - Kadolec - Kadov - Karlov - Kněževes - Koroužné - Kotlasy - Kozlov - Krásné - Krásněves - Křídla - Křižánky - \"Křižanov\" - Křoví - Kuklík - Kundratice - Kyjov - Lavičky - Lhotka - Lísek - Líšná - Malá Losenice - Martinice - Matějov - \"Měřín\" - Meziříčko - Milasín - Milešín - Mirošov - Moravec - Moravecké Pavlovice - Netín - Nížkov - Nová Ves - Nová Ves u Nového Města na Moravě - Nové Dvory - Nové Město na Moravě - Nové Sady - \"Nové Veselí\" - Nový Jimramov - Nyklovice - Obyčtov - Ořechov - Oslavice - Osová Bítýška - Osové - \"Ostrov nad Oslavou\" - Otín - Pavlínov - Pavlov - Petráveč - Pikárec - Písečné - Počítky - Poděšín - Podolí - Pokojov - Polnička - Prosetín - Račice - Račín - Radenice - Radešín - Radešínská Svratka - Radkov - Radňoves - Radňovice - \"Radostín nad Oslavou\" - Radostín - Řečice - Rodkov - Rosička - Rousměrov - Rovečné - Rožná - Rozseč - Rozsochy - Ruda - Rudolec - Sázava - Sazomín - Sejřek - Sirákov - Sklené - Sklené nad Oslavou - Skorotice - Škrdlovice - Skřinářov - \"Sněžné\" - Spělkov - \"Štěpánov nad Svratkou\" - Strachujov - Stránecká Zhoř - \"Strážek\" - Střítež - Sulkovec - Světnov - Sviny - Svratka - Tasov - Tři Studně - Ubušínek - Uhřínov - Ujčov - Újezd - Unčín - Vatín - Věchnov - Věcov - Velká Bíteš - Velká Losenice - Velké Janovice - Velké Meziříčí - Velké Tresné - Vepřová - Věstín - Věžná - Vídeň - Vidonín - Vír - Vlachovice - Vlkov - \"Vojnův Městec\" - Vysoké - Záblatí - Zadní Zhořec - Ždánice - Žďár nad Sázavou - Znětínek - Zubří - Zvole  25 villages has been moved from administration of Žďár nad Sázavou District to administration of Brno-Country District, effective from January 1, 2005.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Žďár nad Sázavou District () is a district (\"okres\") within the Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic. Its administrative center is the town of Žďár nad Sázavou.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973686}
{"src_title": "Standard Liège", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "On the first day of school in September 1898, the pupils of Collège Saint-Servais in Liège started a football club, which they called Standard of Liège in reference to Standard Athletic Club of Paris. Standard, whose official name is Royal Standard Club of Liège, was based in Cointe and Grivegnée before settling permanently in 1909 in Sclessin, an industrial neighbourhood in Liège. Standard initially joined the Belgian First League in 1909 before returning to the lower leagues a few years later. The club then gained promotion back to the top division in 1921 and has never been relegated since.  Shortly after World War II, Roger Petit, a former player and team captain, became general secretary of the club. Petit worked alongside President Henrard Paul to establish Standard among the elite of Belgian football. In 1954, Standard won their first club trophy, the Belgian Cup, which was soon followed by a first national title in 1957–58.  At European level, in the 1960s, the club reached the semi-finals of the European Cup in 1961–62, falling to beaten finalists Real Madrid 0–6 on aggregate, and the same stage of the Cup Winners' Cup in the year 1966–67, losing to eventual champions Bayern Munich. The 1960s and early 1970s brought much success to the club, as Standard won six Belgian First Division titles, two Belgian Cups and a League Cup.  Driven by the Austrian Ernst Happel, Standard won the Belgian Cup again in 1981. The following year, Raymond Goethals took control of the team. Playing by the \"Raymond Science\" philosophy of football, the club was twice the champions of Belgium, twice winners of the Belgian Supercup (in three appearances) and reached the final of the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1982. Standard played against Barcelona in the final at the Camp Nou on 12 May 1982, losing the match 1–2 to the Spaniards.  In 1984, these exploits were tainted by the revelation of the Standard-Waterschei Affair. Just days before the match against Barcelona, to secure the championship of Belgium and guard against injuries last minute, Standard had approached Roland Janssen, the captain of Thor Waterschei, to ensure that Thor players' threw the final game of the season. This scandal involved several players, including Eric Gerets, and coach Raymond Goethals, who fled to Portugal to escape suspension. In compensation the Standard players gave their game bonuses to the Waterschei players. Following the scandal, Standard was deprived of many of its playing staff due to long-term suspensions and it took the club several years to recover from the incident.  On 6 June 1993, Standard won the Belgian Cup for the fifth time in its history, defeating Robert Waseige's Charleroi at the Constant Vanden Stock Stadium in Brussels. This led to another appearance in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, ending in a record 10–0 aggregate defeat to Arsenal— having lost 3–0 at Highbury in London, Standard were humiliated 0–7 in the second leg at home.  Following the scandal of 1982, it took 25 years before Standard won the Belgium Championship again, lifting the title on 20 April 2008. The club won the Belgian league again the following year, securing the club's tenth league title on 24 May 2009 after a home-and-away game against rivals Anderlecht. Standard won the national cup once more in 2011, defeating Westerlo 2–0 in the final at the King Baudouin Stadium on 21 May 2011. The club was bought by businessman Roland Duchatelet on 23 June 2011, who then took over English club Charlton in December 2013, creating an affiliation between the two clubs.  On 20 October 2014, Guy Luzon resigned as manager of Standard with the club sitting in 12th position in the Pro League standings and having taken only two points from three UEFA Europa League matches. Luzon later became head coach of Charlton. Assistant and former midfielder Ivan Vukomanović took over as caretaker-manager.  In April 2020, the Belgian Football Association announced that they had revoked Standard Liège's professional football licence, due to \"poor financial management\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Golden Shoe.", "content": "On nine occasions, Standard players have won the Belgian Golden Shoe as the best player in the domestic league. Jean Nicolay won the award in 1963, Wilfried Van Moer in 1969 and 1970, Christian Piot in 1972, Eric Gerets in 1982, Sérgio Conceição in 2005, Steven Defour in 2007, Axel Witsel in 2008 and Milan Jovanović in 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rivalries.", "content": "Standard Liège supporters share a fierce rivalry with RSC Anderlecht, dubbed the Belgian \"Clasico\" The rivalry not only reflects the traditional geographical one between the two cities of Liège and Brussels, but also a class divide, with Anderlecht being perceived as the team of the bourgeois elite and Standard, based in an industrial district, as the workers club. The two teams were also the two most successful teams in Belgium for long periods until the emergence of FC Bruges. Many players have played for both clubs, most notably Standard title winning captain Steven Defour, who when returning to Sclessin under Anderlecht's purple colours was greeted with a large \"tifo\" with his head decapitated.  Standard have also a traditional city derby with RFC Liège. In recent years, they have also developed a rivalry with fellow Walloon club Sporting Charleroi, with several matches having been stopped due to crowd disturbances between the two sets of supporters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European record.", "content": "A = appearances, GP = games played, W = won, D = drawn, L = lost, GF = goals for, GA = goals against.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Summary of best results.", "content": "From the quarter-finals upwards:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "UEFA club coefficient ranking.", "content": "\"(As of 22 November 2012), Source: uefa.com website\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable players.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Captains.", "content": "Player's name in bold when Standard won the title  </div>", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "Standard Liège are mentioned in the song \"This One's for Now\" by the band Half Man Half Biscuit on the album \"Urge for Offal\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Royal Standard de Liège, commonly referred to as Standard Liège (; ; ), is a Belgian professional football club based in the city of Liège. They are one of the most successful clubs in Belgium, having won the Belgian league on ten occasions, most recently in 2007–08 and 2008–09. They have been in the top flight without interruption since 1921, longer than any other Belgian side. They have also won eight Belgian Cups, and in 1981–82 they reached the final of the European Cup Winners' Cup, which they lost 2–1 against Barcelona.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973687}
{"src_title": "Balaclava (clothing)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "This type of headgear was known in the 19th century as an Uhlan cap or a Templar cap.  The name comes from their use at the Battle of Balaclava during the Crimean War of 1854, referring to the town near Sevastopol in the Crimea, where British troops there wore knitted headgear to keep warm. Handmade balaclavas were sent over to the British troops to help protect them from the bitter cold weather. British troops required this aid, as their own supplies (warm clothing, weatherproof quarters, and food) never arrived in time. According to Richard Rutt in his \"History of Handknitting\", the name \"balaclava helmet\" was not used during the war but appears much later, in 1881.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Race drivers In Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile sanctioned events must wear balaclavas made of fire-retardant material underneath their crash helmets. In racing events, hill-climbs, special stages of rallies and selective sections of cross-country events entered on the International Sporting Calendar, all drivers and co-drivers must wear overalls as well as gloves (optional for co-drivers), long underwear, a balaclava, and shoes homologated to the FIA 8856-2000 standard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military and police.", "content": "In the Indian subcontinent, balaclavas are commonly referred to as monkey caps because of their typical earth tone colours, and the fact that they blot out most human facial features. Monkey caps sometimes have a small, decorative, woollen pom-pom on top. They are commonly worn by troops on Himalayan duty for protection from the cold.  The United States Marine Corps has recently begun issuing balaclavas with hinged face guards as part of the Flame Resistant Organizational Gear program.  In the Soviet Union, the balaclava became a part of standard OMON (special police task force) uniform as early as the Perestroyka years of the late 1980s. The original intent was to protect the identity of the officers to avoid intimidation from organized crime. Because of increased problems with organized crime of the 90s, TV shots of armed men in black balaclavas became common. Armed Russian police commonly conduct raids and searches of white-collar premises (typically in Moscow) while wearing balaclavas. Such raids have therefore come to be known in Russia as \"maski shows\", an allusion to a popular comic TV show of the 1990s.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Concealment.", "content": "British Police in Kent confiscated a single copy of the \"War on Terror\" board game partly because of the inclusion of a balaclava. Police said it \"could be used to conceal someone's identity or could be used in the course of a criminal act.\"  Balaclavas are often used by police battling drug cartels and gangs in Latin America to conceal their identity and protect their families.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A balaclava, also known as a balaclava helmet or Bally (UK slang) or ski mask (US slang), is a form of cloth headgear designed to expose only part of the face, usually the eyes and mouth. Depending on style and how it is worn, only the eyes, mouth and nose, or just the front of the face are unprotected. Versions with a full face opening may be rolled into a hat to cover the crown of the head or folded down as a collar around the neck.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973688}
{"src_title": "Verbascum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "They are biennial or perennial plants, rarely annuals or subshrubs, growing to tall. The plants first form a dense rosette of leaves at ground level, subsequently sending up a tall flowering stem. Biennial plants form the rosette the first year and the stem the following season. The leaves are spirally arranged, often densely hairy, though glabrous (hairless) in some species. The flowers have five symmetrical petals; petal colours in different species include yellow (most common), orange, red-brown, purple, blue, or white. The fruit is a capsule containing numerous minute seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "In gardening and landscaping, the mulleins are valued for their tall narrow stature and for flowering over a long period of time, even in dry soils. Many cultivars are available, of which 'Gainsborough','Letitia', 'Pink Domino' and ‘Tropic Sun’ have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.  Since the year 2000, a number of new hybrid cultivars have come out that have increased flower size, shorter heights, and a tendency to be longer-lived plants. A number have new colors for this genus. Many mulleins are raised from seed, including both the short-lived perennial and biennial types.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "The plant has a long history of use as a herbal remedy. Although this plant is a recent arrival to North America, Native Americans used the ground seeds of this plant as a paralytic fish poison due to their high levels of rotenone. \"Verbascum\" flowers have been used in traditional Austrian medicine internally (as tea) or externally (as ointment, tea, baths or compresses) for treatment of disorders of the respiratory tract, skin, veins, gastrointestinal tract, and the locomotor system.  The plant's stem, when dried, can be used in the hand drill method of friction fire lighting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "The following species are accepted by \"The Plant List\":", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Verbascum (), common name mullein (sg. ), is a genus of about 360 species of flowering plants in the figwort family Scrophulariaceae. They are native to Europe and Asia, with the highest species diversity in the Mediterranean.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973689}
{"src_title": "Howard Fast", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Fast was born in New York City. His mother, Ida (née Miller), was a British Jewish immigrant, and his father, Barney Fast, was a Ukrainian Jewish immigrant who shortened his name from Fastovsky upon arrival in America. When his mother died in 1923 and his father became unemployed, Howard's youngest brother, Julius, went to live with relatives, while he and his older brother, Jerome, sold newspapers. Howard credited his early voracious reading to a part-time job in the New York Public Library.  Fast began writing at an early age. While hitchhiking and riding railroads around the country to find odd jobs, he wrote his first novel, \"Two Valleys\", published in 1933 when he was 18. His first popular work was \"Citizen Tom Paine\", a fictional account of the life of Thomas Paine. Always interested in American history, Fast also wrote \"The Last Frontier\" (about the Cheyenne Indians' attempt to return to their native land, and which inspired the 1964 movie \"Cheyenne Autumn\") and \"Freedom Road\" (about the lives of former slaves during Reconstruction).  The novel \"Freedom Road\" is based on a true story and was made into a miniseries of the same name starring Muhammad Ali, who, in a rare acting role, played Gideon Jackson, an ex-slave in 1870s South Carolina who is elected to the U.S. House and battles the Ku Klux Klan and other racist organizations to keep the land that they had tended all their lives.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Contribution to constitutionalism.", "content": "Fast is the author of the prominent \"Why the Fifth Amendment?\" essay. This essay explains in detail the purpose of the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States of America. Fast effectively uses the context of the Red Scare to illustrate the purpose of the \"Fifth.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Fast spent World War II working with the United States Office of War Information, writing for Voice of America. In 1943, he joined the Communist Party USA and in 1950, he was called before the House Committee on Un-American Activities; in his testimony, he refused to disclose the names of contributors to a fund for a home for orphans of American veterans of the Spanish Civil War (one of the contributors was Eleanor Roosevelt), and he was given a three-month prison sentence for contempt of Congress.  While he was at Mill Point Federal Prison, Fast began writing his most famous work, \"Spartacus\", a novel about an uprising among Roman slaves. Blacklisted by major publishing houses following his release from prison, Fast was forced to publish the novel himself. It was a success, going through seven printings in the first four months of publication. (According to Fast in his memoir, 50,000 copies were printed, of which 48,000 were sold.)  He subsequently established the Blue Heron Press, which allowed him to continue publishing under his own name throughout the period of his blacklisting. Just as the production of the film version of \"Spartacus\" (released in 1960) is considered a milestone in the breaking of the Hollywood blacklist, the reissue of Fast's novel by Crown Publishers in 1958 effectively ended his own blacklisting within the American publishing industry.  In 1952, Fast ran for Congress on the American Labor Party ticket. During the 1950s he also worked for the Communist newspaper, the \"Daily Worker\". In 1953, he was awarded the Stalin Peace Prize. Later that decade, Fast broke with the Party over issues of conditions in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, particularly after Nikita Khrushchev's report \"On the Personality Cult and its Consequences\" at a closed session of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in February 1956, denouncing the personality cult and dictatorship of Joseph Stalin, and the Soviet military intervention to suppress the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 in November. In his autobiographical work titled \"The Naked God: The Writer and the Communist Party\" published in 1957, he wrote: \"There was the evil in what we dreamed of as Communists: we took the noblest dreams and hopes of mankind as our credo; the evil we did was to accept the degradation of our own souls—and because we surrendered in ourselves, in our own party existence, all the best and most precious gains and liberties of mankind—because we did this, we betrayed mankind, and the Communist party became a thing of destruction.\"  In the mid-1950s, Fast moved with his family to Teaneck, New Jersey. In 1974, Fast and his family moved to California, where he wrote television scripts, including such television programs as \"How the West Was Won\". In 1977, he published \"The Immigrants\", the first of a six-part series of novels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life and death.", "content": "Fast married his first wife, Bette Cohen, on June 6, 1937. Their children were Jonathan and Rachel. Bette died in 1994. In 1999, he married Mercedes O'Connor, who already had three sons. Fast's son Jonathan Fast, himself a novelist, was married to novelist Erica Jong; their daughter is the novelist Molly Jong-Fast. The writer Julius Fast was his younger brother.  Fast died in Old Greenwich, Connecticut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Short stories.", "content": "Uncollected short stories.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Howard Melvin Fast (November 11, 1914 – March 12, 2003) was an American novelist and television writer. Fast also wrote under the pen names E. V. Cunningham and Walter Ericson.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973690}
{"src_title": "Nikolai Polikarpov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Polikarpov was born in the village of Georgievskoye near Livny in Oryol Governorate. He was the son of a village priest in the Russian Orthodox Church. He initially also trained for the priesthood and studied at the Oryol Seminary before moving to Saint Petersburg Polytechnical University in 1911, where he became fascinated with the fledgling aviation work being carried out under the shipbuilding department. Polikarpov graduated in 1916 and went to work for Igor Sikorski, the head of production at the Russian Baltic Carriage Factory. While working for Sikorski, Polikarpov helped design the massive Ilya Muromets four-engine bomber for the Imperial Russian Air Force.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet career.", "content": "Polikarpov stayed in Russia after the Russian Revolution and rose to become head of the technical department Dux Aircraft factory in 1923. Polikarpov was responsible for some of the first indigenous aircraft designs in the Soviet Union during the 1920s, including the I-1 fighter (1923), R-1 reconnaissance plane (1927), U-2 utility biplane (1927–1928), I-3 fighter (1928), R-5 reconnaissance bomber (1928). Notably, the U-2, Russian nickname \"Kukuruznik, loosely translated: crop-duster\", (post 1944 designation Po-2), remained in mainstream production until 1952 and over 30,000 examples were produced.  In 1928, under provisions of the Five-Year Plan for experimental aircraft design, Polikarpov was assigned to develop the primarily wooden I-6 fighter for delivery by mid-1930. The plan was unrealistic and failed. As such, in October 1929, Polikarpov and around other 450 aircraft designers and engineers were arrested on fabricated charges of sabotage and counter-revolutionary activities, after which he was sentenced to death. In December, after two months of waiting for execution, he was transferred to a Special Design Bureau of OGPU set at Butyrka prison and had the sentence changed to 10 years of forced labor. Polikarpov and the others were moved to Central Design Bureau 39 (TsKB-39) to complete the I-5 project. After a successful demonstration of the new design, the sentence was changed to a conditional one, and in July 1931 he was granted amnesty together with a group of other convicts. It was not until de-Stalinization in 1956 that the criminal charges were officially dropped posthumously.  After the release he initially worked with Pavel Sukhoi since 1931, developing the I-16 in 1933 and I-15 in 1934. Then he worked under Ilyushin in 1937. In 1938, he established an independent design bureau. In 1939, he completed work on the I-153. In 1939, he was ordered to make a trip to Nazi Germany. In his absence, his plant director and chief engineer, along with design engineer Mikhail Gurevich put forth a proposal for a new fighter, the I-200, and received approval to create a new Design Bureau under the leadership of Artem Mikoyan, whose brother Anastas Mikoyan was a senior politician under Joseph Stalin. On his return, Polikarpov found that his Bureau no longer existed, with his engineers at the new MiG bureau. Nine years after his death, in 1953, his plant was given over to the Sukhoi bureau.  Polikarpov was subsequently appointed professor at the Moscow Aviation Institute in 1943. He died on 30 July 1944 from stomach cancer. He is buried in Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow.  Polikarpov was a recipient of numerous awards, including the Stalin Prize (1941, 1943) and Hero of Socialist Labor (1940). \"Polikarpov Peak\" in the Pamir Mountains was named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikolai Nikolaevich Polikarpov (; – 30 July 1944) was a Soviet aeronautical engineer and aircraft designer, known as the \"King of Fighters\". He designed the I-15 series of fighters, and the I-16 Ishak ( phonetically close to its or designation) \"Little Donkey\" fighter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973691}
{"src_title": "Ankylosauria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Paleobiology.", "content": "They sported a very small brain size in proportion to their body, second only to the Saurischian sauropods. They were also rather slow moving, largely because of the shortness of the limbs combined with being incapable of running. Their top speed was likely less than 10 km/hour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Armor.", "content": "All ankylosaurians had armor over much of their bodies, mostly scutes and nodules, with large spines in some cases. The scutes, or plates, are rectangular to oval objects organized in transverse (side to side) rows, often with keels on the upper surface. Smaller nodules and plates filled in the open spaces between large plates. In all three groups, the first two rows of plates tend to form a sort of half-ring around the neck; in nodosaurids, this comes from adjacent plates fusing with each other (and there is a third row as well), while ankylosaurids usually have the plates fused to the top of another band of bone. The skull has armor plastered on to it, including a distinctive piece on the outside-rear of the lower jaw.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diet and feeding.", "content": "Ankylosaurs were built low to the ground, typically one foot off the ground surface. They had small, triangular teeth that were loosely packed, similar to stegosaurs. The large hyoid bones left in skeletons indicates that they had long, flexible tongues. They also had a large, side secondary palate. This means that they could breathe while chewing, unlike crocodiles. Their expanded gut region suggests the use of fermentation to digest their food, using symbiotic bacteria and gut flora. Their diet likely consisted of ferns, cycads, and angiosperms. Mallon et al. (2013) examined herbivore coexistence on the island continent of Laramidia during the Late Cretaceous. It was concluded that ankylosaurs were generally restricted to feeding on vegetation at, or below, the height of 1 meter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Possible neonate-sized ankylosaur fossils have been documented in the scientific literature.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Ankylosauria is usually split into two families: Nodosauridae (the nodosaurids) and Ankylosauridae (the ankylosaurids). A third family, the Polacanthidae, is sometimes used, but is more often found to be a sub-group of one of the primary families.  The first formal definition of Ankylosauria as a clade, a group containing all species of a certain evolutionary branch, was given in 1997 by Carpenter. He defined the group as all dinosaurs (more precisely: all thyreophoran Ornithischia) closer to \"Ankylosaurus\" than to \"Stegosaurus\". This definition is essentially followed by most paleontologists today. This \"stem-based\" definition means that the primitive armored dinosaur \"Scelidosaurus\", which is slightly closer to ankylosaurids than to stegosaurids, is technically a member of Ankylosauria. Upon the discovery of \"Bienosaurus\", Dong Zhiming (2001) erected the family Scelidosauridae for both of these primitive ankylosaurs. In 2001, Carpenter proposed a new group uniting \"Scelidosaurus\", Ankylosauridae, Nodosauridae, and Polacanthidae, with \"Minmi\" (thought to be a primitive ankylosaurian), to the exclusion of \"Stegosaurus\". However, many taxonomists find that Ankylosauromorpha is an invalid group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nodosauridae.", "content": "This group traditionally includes \"Nodosaurus\", \"Edmontonia\", and \"Sauropelta\". The nodosauridae had longer snouts than their ankylosaurid cousins. They did not sport the archetypal 'clubs' at the ends of their tails; but, rather, their most pronounced physical features were their spikes.  Nodosaurids had very muscular shoulders and a specialized knob of bone on each shoulder blade called the acromial process. It served as an attachment site for the muscles that held up their large parascapular spines. These spines would be used for self-defense against predators. They also had wide, flaring hips and thick limbs. They had smaller, narrow beaks than the ankylosaurids, which likely allowed them to be very selective over what plant matter they grazed on.  Most nodosaurid finds are from North America.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ankylosauridae.", "content": "Major differences distinguishing the ankylosaurids from the nodosaurids is that the ankylosaurids had bony clubs at the end of their tails, domed snouts in front of the eyes, and large squamosal plates projecting from the top and bottom of each side of the skull, all of which nodosaurids lacked. The traditional ankylosaurids are from later in the Cretaceous. They had much wider bodies and have even been discovered with bony eyelids. The large clubs at the end of their tails may have been used in self-defense (swung at predators) or in sexual selection. This family included \"Ankylosaurus\", \"Euoplocephalus\", and \"Pinacosaurus\". The clubs were made of several plates of bone that were permeated by soft tissue, allowing them to absorb thousands of pounds of force. Their beaks were larger and broader than the nodosaurids, indicating that these ankylosaurs were generalists in their diet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Polacanthidae.", "content": "The family Polacanthidae was named by George Reber Wieland in 1911 to refer to a group of ankylosaurs that seemed to him to be intermediate between the ankylosaurids and nodosaurids. This grouping was ignored by most researchers until the late 1990s, when it was used as a subfamily (Polacanthinae) by Kirkland for a natural group recovered by his 1998 analysis suggesting that \"Polacanthus\", \"Gastonia\", and \"Mymoorapelta\" were closely related within the family Ankylosauridae. Kenneth Carpenter resurrected the name Polacanthidae for a similar group that he also found to be closer to ankylosaurids than to nodosaurids. Carpenter became the first to define Polacanthidae as all dinosaurs closer to \"Gastonia\" than to either \"Edmontonia\" or \"Euoplocephalus\". Most subsequent researchers placed polacanthines as primitive ankylosaurids, though mostly without any rigorous study to demonstrate this idea. The first comprehensive study of 'polacanthid' relationships, published in 2012, found that they are either an unnatural grouping of primitive nodosaurids, or a valid subfamily at the base of Nodosauridae.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "While ranked taxonomy has largely fallen out of favor among dinosaur paleontologists, a few 21st-century publications have retained the use of ranks, though sources have differed on what its rank should be. Most have listed Thyreophora as an unranked taxon containing the traditional suborders Stegosauria and Ankylosauria, though Thyreophora is also sometimes classified as a suborder, with Ankylosauria and Stegosauria as infraorders. A simplified version of one possible classification follows:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ankylosauria is a group of herbivorous dinosaurs of the order Ornithischia. It includes the great majority of dinosaurs with armor in the form of bony osteoderms, and which it similars to turtles. Ankylosaurs were bulky quadrupeds, with short, powerful limbs. They are known to have first appeared in the early Jurassic Period, and persisted until the end of the Cretaceous Period. They have been found on every continent. The first dinosaur discovered in Antarctica was the ankylosaurian \"Antarctopelta\", fossils of which were recovered from Ross Island in 1986.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973692}
{"src_title": "Saving", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Interest rates.", "content": "Classical economics posited that interest rates would adjust to equate saving and investment, avoiding a pile-up of inventories (general overproduction). A rise in saving would cause a fall in interest rates, stimulating investment, hence always investment would equal saving.  But John Maynard Keynes argued that neither saving nor investment was very responsive to interest rates (i.e., that both were interest-inelastic) so that large interest rate changes were needed to re-equate them after one changed. Further, it was the demand for and supplies of stocks of money that determined interest rates in the short run. Thus, saving could exceed investment for significant amounts of time, causing a general glut and a recession.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Saving in personal finance.", "content": "Within personal finance, the act of \"saving\" corresponds to nominal \"preservation\" of money for future use. A deposit account paying interest is typically used to hold money for future needs, \"i.e.\" an emergency fund, to make a capital purchase (car, house, vacation, etc.) or to give to someone else (children, tax bill etc.).  Within personal finance, money used to purchase stocks, put in an investment fund or used to buy any asset where there is an element of capital risk is deemed an investment. This distinction is important as the investment risk can cause a capital loss when an investment is realized, unlike cash saving(s). Cash savings accounts are considered to have minimal risk. In the United States, all banks are required to have deposit insurance, typically issued by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation or FDIC. In extreme cases, a bank failure can cause deposits to be lost as it happened at the start of the Great Depression. The FDIC has prevented that from happening ever since.  In many instances the terms saving and investment are used interchangeably. For example, many deposit accounts are labeled as \"investment accounts\" by banks for marketing purposes. As a rule of thumb, if money is \"invested\" in cash, then it is savings. If money is used to purchase some asset that is hoped to increase in value over time, but that may fluctuate in market value, then it is an investment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Saving in economics.", "content": "In economics, saving is defined as post-tax income minus consumption. The fraction of income saved is called the average propensity to save, while the fraction of an increment to income that is saved is called the marginal propensity to save. The rate of saving is directly affected by the general level of interest rates. The capital markets equilibrate the sum of (personal) saving, government surpluses, and net exports to physical investment.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saving is income not spent, or deferred consumption. Methods of saving include putting money aside in, for example, a deposit account, a pension account, an investment fund, or as cash. Saving also involves reducing expenditures, such as recurring costs. In terms of personal finance, saving generally specifies low-risk preservation of money, as in a deposit account, versus investment, wherein risk is a lot higher; in economics more broadly, it refers to any income not used for immediate consumption. Saving does not automatically include interest.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973693}
{"src_title": "Hippolyte Bayard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "While working as a civil servant, Bayard experimented with photography. He developed his own method of producing photos called the direct positive process. It involved exposing silver chloride paper to light, which turned the paper completely black. It was then soaked in potassium iodide before being exposed in a camera. After the exposure, it was washed in a bath of hyposulfite of soda and dried. The resulting image was a unique photograph that could not be reproduced. Due to the paper's poor light sensitivity, an exposure of approximately twelve minutes was required. Using this method of photography, still subject matter, such as buildings, were favoured. When used for photographing people, sitters were told to close their eyes so as to eliminate the eerie, \"dead\" quality produced due to blinking and moving one's eyes during such a long exposure.  In the summer of 1851, along with photographers Édouard Baldus, Henri Le Secq, Gustave Le Gray, and O. Mestral, Bayard travelled throughout France to photograph architectural monuments at the request of the Commission des Monuments Historiques.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Self Portrait as a Drowned Man.", "content": "Bayard was persuaded to postpone announcing his process to the French Academy of Sciences by François Arago, a friend of Louis Daguerre, who invented the rival daguerreotype process. Arago's conflict of interest cost Bayard the recognition as one of the principal inventors of photography. He eventually gave details of the process to the French Academy of Sciences on 24 February 1840 in return for money to buy better equipment.  As a reaction to the injustice he felt he had been subjected to, Bayard created the first staged photograph entitled, \"Self Portrait as a Drowned Man\". In the image, he pretends to have committed suicide, sitting and leaning to the right. Bayard wrote on the back of his most notable photograph:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Late career.", "content": "Despite his initial hardships in photography, Bayard continued to be a productive member of the photographic society. He was a founding member of the French Society of Photography. Bayard was also one of the first photographers to be commissioned to document and preserve architecture and historical sites in France for the \"Missions Héliographiques\" in 1851 by the Historic Monument Commission. He used a paper photographic process similar to the one he developed to take pictures for the Commission. Additionally, he suggested combining two negatives to properly expose the sky and then the landscape or building, an idea known as combination printing which began being used in the 1850s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hippolyte Bayard (20 January 1801 – 14 May 1887) was a French photographer and pioneer in the history of photography. He invented his own process that produced direct positive paper prints in the camera and presented the world's first public exhibition of photographs on 24 June 1839. He claimed to have invented photography earlier than Louis-Jacques Mandé Daguerre in France and William Henry Fox Talbot in England, the men traditionally credited with its invention.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973694}
{"src_title": "Battle of Mühldorf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The early 14th century had the powerful dynasties of Habsburg, Luxembourg, and Wittelsbach rivaling for the rule over the Holy Roman Empire, while the prince-electors were anxious not to allow one noble family to install a hereditary monarchy. After the death of Emperor Henry VII of Luxembourg in 1313, the electoral college denied the succession of his son John of Bohemia and instead accorded its favor to Louis of Wittelsbach and Frederick of Habsburg, but were split over the question of whom to choose.  Therefore, in 1314, a double election took place at Frankfurt. Cologne, the Electorate of the Palatinate, Bohemia, and the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg voted for Frederick as \"Rex Romanorum\". Mainz, Archbishopric of Trier, Brandenburg and Elector John II of Saxe-Lauenburg (whose electoral dignity was denied by their Saxe-Wittenberg cousins) adopted Louis.  The draw resulted in a protracted conflict with violent fights, in which both sides tried to gain the support of the Imperial estates. In addition, Louis had to settle the domestic dispute with his brother Count Palatine Rudolf I (who had voted against him), which finally ended with Rudolf's death in 1319. Meanwhile, Frederick continued his campaigns into Bavaria, devastating Louis' duchy several times without meeting much resistance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The battle.", "content": "In 1322, Frederick, encouraged by his previous expeditions, allied with the Bishop of Passau and the Salzburg Archbishopric. Their armed forces met on September 24 near Mühldorf on the Inn River, where Frederick expected the arrival of further troops from Further Austria, led by his brother Leopold.  The battle did not go well for the Austrians. Louis had forged an alliance with John of Bohemia and Burggrave Frederick IV of Nuremberg and on September 28 reached Mühldorf with a sizable army, including 1,800 knights and 500-600 mounted Hungarian archers. Meanwhile, Leopold's relief troops were barred from reaching the battlefield in time. Despite this unfavorable situation Frederick agreed to meet Louis' knights at once. His army was defeated by Louis' outnumbering forces under high losses on both sides. More than 1,000 noblemen from Austria and Salzburg were captured, as was Frederick himself and his younger brother, Henry the Friendly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Though Louis had prevailed, his royal title remained contested, especially by Pope John XXII and Frederick's brother Leopold, who remained a fierce opponent. After three years Louis had to release Frederick from captivity and reconcile with him, even offering him a joint rule and the \"Rex Romanorum\" title in return for his support to receive the Imperial crown. Neither the House of Wittelsbach nor the Habsburgs were able to defend their claims to the royal title, which after Louis' death in 1347 again passed to Charles IV from the House of Luxembourg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "Delbrück, Hans, trans. Walter Renfroe Jr. \"History of the Art of War, Volume III: Medieval Warfare\" (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1982)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Mühldorf (also Battle of Ampfing) was fought near Mühldorf am Inn on September 28, 1322 between the Duchy of (Upper) Bavaria and Austria. The Bavarians were led by the German king Louis of Wittelsbach, while the Austrians were under the command of his cousin, the anti-king Frederick of Habsburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973695}
{"src_title": "Hapax legomenon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Significance.", "content": "\"Hapax legomena\" in ancient texts are usually difficult to decipher, since it is easier to infer meaning from multiple contexts than from just one. For example, many of the remaining undeciphered Mayan glyphs are \"hapax legomena\", and Biblical (particularly Hebrew; see § Hebrew examples) \"hapax legomena\" sometimes pose problems in translation. \"Hapax legomena\" also pose challenges in natural language processing.  Some scholars consider \"Hapax legomena\" useful in determining the authorship of written works. P. N. Harrison, in \"The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles\" (1921) made \"hapax legomena\" popular among Bible scholars, when he argued that there are considerably more of them in the three Pastoral Epistles than in other Pauline Epistles. He argued that the number of \"hapax legomena\" in a putative author's corpus indicates his or her vocabulary and is characteristic of the author as an individual.  Harrison's theory has faded in significance due to a number of problems raised by other scholars. For example, in 1896, W. P. Workman found the following numbers of \"hapax legomena\" in each Pauline Epistle: Romans 113, I Cor. 110, II Cor. 99, Gal. 34, Eph. 43 Phil. 41, Col. 38, I Thess. 23, II Thess. 11, Philemon 5, I Tim. 82, II Tim. 53, Titus 33. At first glance, the last three totals (for the Pastoral Epistles) are not out of line with the others. To take account of the varying length of the epistles, Workman also calculated the average number of \"hapax legomena\" per page of the Greek text, which ranged from 3.6 to 13, as summarized in the diagram on the right. Although the Pastoral Epistles have more \"hapax legomena\" per page, Workman found the differences to be moderate in comparison to the variation among other Epistles. This was reinforced when Workman looked at several plays by Shakespeare, which showed similar variations (from 3.4 to 10.4 per page of Irving's one-volume edition), as summarized in the second diagram on the right.  Apart from author identity, there are several other factors that can explain the number of \"hapax legomena\" in a work:  In the particular case of the Pastoral Epistles, all of these variables are quite different from those in the rest of the Pauline corpus, and \"hapax legomena\" are no longer widely accepted as strong indicators of authorship (although the authorship of the Pastorals is subject to debate on other grounds).  There are also subjective questions over whether two forms amount to \"the same word\": dog vs. dogs, clue vs. clueless, sign vs. signature; many other gray cases also arise. The \"Jewish Encyclopedia\" points out that, although there are 1,500 \"hapaxes\" in the Hebrew Bible, only about 400 are not obviously related to other attested word forms.  It would not be especially difficult for a forger to construct a work with any percentage of \"hapax legomena\" desired. However, it seems unlikely that forgers much before the 20th century would have conceived such a ploy, much less thought it worth the effort.  A final difficulty with the use of \"hapax legomena\" for authorship determination is that there is considerable variation among works known to be by a single author, and disparate authors often show similar values. In other words, \"hapax legomena\" are not a reliable indicator. Authorship studies now usually use a wide range of measures to look for patterns rather than relying upon single measurements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Computer science.", "content": "In the fields of computational linguistics and natural language processing (NLP), esp. corpus linguistics and machine-learned NLP, it is common to disregard \"hapax legomena\" (and sometimes other infrequent words), as they are likely to have little value for computational techniques. This disregard has the added benefit of significantly reducing the memory use of an application, since, by Zipf's law, many words are hapax legomena.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "The following are some examples of \"hapax legomena\" in languages or corpora.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arabic examples.", "content": "In the Qurʾān:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chinese and Japanese characters.", "content": "Classical Chinese and Japanese literature contains many Chinese characters that feature only once in the corpus, and their meaning and pronunciation has often been lost. Known in Japanese as, literally \"lonely characters\", these can be considered a type of \"hapax legomenon\". For example, the \"Classic of Poetry\" (c. 1000 BC) uses the character 篪 exactly once in the verse \"伯氏吹埙,仲氏吹篪\", and it was only through the discovery of a description by Guo Pu (276-324 AD) that the character could be associated with a specific type of ancient flute.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hebrew examples.", "content": "The number of distinct hapax legomena in the Hebrew Bible is 1,480 (out of a total of 8,679 distinct words used). However, due to Hebrew roots, suffixes and prefixes, only 400 are \"true\" hapax legomena. A full list can be seen at the Jewish Encyclopedia entry for \"Hapax Legomena.\"  Some examples include:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In corpus linguistics, a hapax legomenon ( also or ; pl. \"hapax legomena\"; sometimes abbreviated to \"hapax\") is a word that occurs only once within a context, either in the written record of an entire language, in the works of an author, or in a single text. The term is sometimes incorrectly used to describe a word that occurs in just one of an author's works, but more than once in that particular work. \"Hapax legomenon\" is a transliteration of Greek, meaning \"(something) being said (only) once\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973696}
{"src_title": "Etruscan shrew", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Etruscan shrew has a slender (not truncated) body, with a length between excluding the tail, which adds another. The body mass varies between and and is usually about. In comparison, the related greater white-toothed shrew can be twice as long and weighs four to five times more. The head is relatively large, with a long, mobile proboscis, and the hind limbs are relatively small. The ears are relatively large and protuberant. The Etruscan shrew has a very fast heart beating rate, up to 1511 beats/min (25 beats/s) and a relatively large heart muscle mass, 1.2% of body weight. The fur color on the back and sides is pale brown, but is light gray on the stomach. The fur becomes denser and thicker from fall through the winter. The shrew usually has 30 teeth, but the 4th upper intermediate tooth is very small (rudimentary), and is absent in some individuals. Near the mouth grow a dense array of short whiskers, which the shrew actively uses to search for prey, especially in the night. Dimorphism in body features between males and females is absent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activity.", "content": "Etruscan shrews live alone, except during mating periods. Their lifespan is estimated at typically around two years, but with a large uncertainty. They protect their territories by making chirping noises and signs of aggressiveness. They tend to groom themselves constantly when not eating, and are always moving when awake and not hiding. The hiding periods are short, and typically last less than half an hour. Clicking sounds are heard when these shrews are moving, which cease when they rest. The shrews are more active during the night when they make long trips; during the day, they stay near the nest or in a hiding place. They reach their maximum level of activity at dawn.  The movements of the Etruscan shrew are rapid, with a rate of about 780 min (13 s). In cold seasons and during shortages of food, the shrews lower their body temperatures down to about and enter a state of temporary hibernation to reduce energy consumption. Recovery from this state is accompanied by shivering with the frequency of about 3500 min (58 s). This induces heating, with the rate up to 0.83 °C/min, which is among the highest values recorded in mammals; the heart rate increases exponentially with time from 100 to 800–1200 beats/min, and the respiratory rate rises linearly from 50 to 600–800 beats/min.  Etruscan shrews mate primarily from March to October, though they can be pregnant at any time of the year. Pairs usually form in the spring and may tolerate each other and their young for some time at the nest. The gestation period is 27–28 days, and they have 2–6 cubs per litter. Cubs are born naked and blind, weighing only. After their eyes open at 14 to 16 days old, they mature quickly. The mother usually moves the young when they are 9 to 10 days old and if disturbed leads them by caravanning them to a new location. The young Etruscan shrews are weaned at 20 days old. By three to four weeks of age, the young are independent and are soon sexually mature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The Etruscan shrew inhabits a belt extending between 10° and 40°N latitude across Eurasia. In Southern Europe, it has been found in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, France, North Macedonia, Malta, Montenegro, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, and Turkey, with unconfirmed reports in Andorra, Gibraltar and Monaco; it has been introduced by humans to some European islands, such as Canary Islands.  The shrew also occurs in North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia) and around Arabian Peninsula (Bahrain, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Oman, Syria, and Yemen including Socotra). In Asia, it was observed in Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, China (Gengma County only), Burma, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Laos, Malaysia (Malaysian part of Borneo island), Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, Turkey, Turkmenistan and Vietnam. There are unconfirmed reports of the Etruscan shrew in West and East Africa (Guinea, Nigeria, Ethiopia) and in Armenia, Brunei, Indonesia, Kuwait and Uzbekistan.  Overall the species is widespread and not threatened, but its density is generally lower than of the other shrews living in the area. In some regions it is rare, especially in Azerbaijan, Georgia (included into the Red Book), Jordan and Kazakhstan (Red Book).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The Etruscan shrew favors warm and damp habitats covered with shrubs, which it uses to hide from predators. Areas where open terrain such as grasslands and scrub meet deciduous forests are usually inhabited. It can be found at sea level but is usually confined to the foothills and lower belts of mountain ranges, though has been found up to above sea level. It colonizes riparian thickets along the banks of lakes and rivers, as well as human-cultivated areas (abandoned gardens, orchards, vineyards, olive groves and edges of fields). The shrew, however, avoids intensively cultivated areas, as well as dense forests and sand dunes. It is poorly adapted to digging burrows, so it arranges its nests in various natural shelters, crevices and others' uninhabited burrows. They frequent rocks, boulders, stone walls and ruins, darting quickly in and out between them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hunting and feeding.", "content": "Because of its high ratio of surface area to body volume, the Etruscan shrew has an extremely fast metabolism and must eat 1.5–2.0 times its body weight in food per day. It feeds mostly on various invertebrates, including insects, larvae and earthworms, as well as the young of amphibians, lizards and rodents, and can hunt prey of nearly the same body size as itself. It prefers species with a soft, thin exoskeleton, so it avoids ants when given a choice. Grasshoppers, where common, are often regular prey. It kills large prey by a bite to the head and eats it immediately, but takes small insects back to its nest. When hunting, it relies mostly on its sense of touch rather than vision, and may even run into its food at night.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Predators and threats.", "content": "The largest threat to Etruscan shrews originates from human activities, particularly destruction of their nesting grounds and habitats as a result of farming. Etruscan shrews are also sensitive to weather changes, such as cold winters and dry periods. Major predators are birds of prey, especially owls.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Etruscan shrew (\"Suncus etruscus\"), also known as the Etruscan pygmy shrew or the white-toothed pygmy shrew, is the smallest known mammal by mass, weighing only about on average. (The bumblebee bat is regarded as the smallest mammal by skull size and body length.)", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973697}
{"src_title": "Napkin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "\"Serviette\" can be heard in the United Kingdom, Ireland, some parts of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Kenya and South Africa. In Australia and New Zealand, \"serviette\" generally refers to the paper variety and \"napkin\" refers to the cloth variety. The same distinction is used in Canada although \"paper napkin\" may be used interchangeably with \"serviette\".  In the UK, the term \"napkin\" is traditionally \"U\" (upper-class) and \"serviette\" is \"non-U\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description and history.", "content": "Conventionally, the napkin is often folded and placed to the left of the place setting, outside the outermost fork. In a restaurant setting or a caterer's hall, it may be folded into more elaborate shapes and displayed on the empty plate. Origami techniques can be used to create a three-dimensional design. A napkin may also be held together in a bundle with cutlery by a napkin ring. Alternatively, paper napkins may be contained with a napkin holder.  Napkins were used in ancient Roman times. One of the earliest references to table napkins in English dates to 1384–85.  Summaries of napkin history often say that the ancient Greeks used bread to wipe their hands. This is suggested by a passage in one of Alciphron's letters (3:44), and some remarks by the sausage seller in Aristophanes' play, \"The Knights\". The bread in both texts is referred to as \"apomagdalia\", which simply means bread from inside the crust known as \"the crumb\", and not special \"napkin bread\". The use of paper napkins is documented in ancient China, where paper was invented in the 2nd century BC. Paper napkins were known as \"chih pha\", folded in squares, and used for the serving of tea. Textual evidence of paper napkins appears in a description of the possessions of the Yu family, from the city of Hangzhou. Paper napkins were first imported in the US in the late 1800s but didn't gain widespread acceptance until 1948 when Emily Post asserted, \"It’s far better form to use paper napkins than linen napkins that were used at breakfast.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A napkin, serviette or face towelette is a rectangle of cloth used at the table for wiping the mouth and fingers while eating. It is usually small and folded, sometimes in intricate designs and shapes. The word comes from Middle English, borrowing the French \"nappe\"—a cloth covering for a table—and adding \"-kin\", the diminutive suffix.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973698}
{"src_title": "Blue poison dart frog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"D. tinctorius \"azureus\"\" is a medium-sized frog that weighs about 8 g and grows to 3.0-4.5 cm in length. Females are larger and about half a centimeter longer than males, but males have larger toes. The frog has a typical lifespan of five to seven years in the wild. Its bright blue skin, usually darker around its limbs and stomach, serves as a warning to predators. The glands of poisonous alkaloids located a defense mechanism to potential predators. These poisons paralyze and sometimes kill the predator. The black spots are unique to each frog, enabling individuals to be identified. This species of frog has a distinctive hunch-backed posture. Each foot has four toes, which each have a flattened tip with a suction cup pad used for gripping. The tips of the toes in females are round, while males have heart-shaped tips.  As with almost all frogs, tadpoles differ greatly in appearance from adults. They have a long tail, about 6 mm, with a total length around 10 mm. They lack legs and have gills instead of lungs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "\"D. tinctorius \"azureus\"\" is a mainland animal, but stays close to water sources. These frogs spend most of their awake time, during the day, hopping around in short leaps. They are very territorial and aggressive both towards their own species and others. To ward off intruders, they use a series of calls, chases, and wrestling. Although poison dart frogs are known for their skin toxins, used on the tips of arrows or darts of natives, in reality only the species of the genus \"Phyllobates\" are used in this manner. In captivity, the frogs lose toxicity as a result of altered diets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The blue poison dart frog breeds seasonally, usually during February or March when the weather is rainy. To find mates, the males sit on a rock and produce quiet calls, which the females follow to track down the males. The females then physically fight over a male. The male takes the female to a quiet place by water, which becomes the site of the egg-laying. Fertilization occurs externally; once the eggs are laid, the male covers them in his sperm.  Between five and 10 offspring are produced at each mating. Eggs are laid in the male's territory, which he defends. The male takes care of the eggs, sometimes joined by the female. The eggs hatch after 14 to 18 days, and after 10 to 12 weeks the tadpoles are fully mature. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at two years of age. The expected lifespan of \"D. tinctorius azureus\" is between 4 and 6 years in the wild, and about 10 years in captivity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "The blue poison dart frog feeds on ants, beetles, flies, mites, spiders, termites, maggots, and caterpillars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Captive care.", "content": "In captivity, like most captive dart frogs, they eat a staple diet of fruit flies, pinhead crickets, rice flour beetle larvae, and springtails.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The blue poison dart frog or blue poison arrow frog (\"Dendrobates tinctorius \"azureus\"\") is a poison dart frog found in the forests surrounded by the Sipaliwini Savanna, which is located in southern Suriname and adjacent far northern Brazil. \"D. tinctorius azureus\" is also known by its indigenous Tirio name, \"okopipi\". Its scientific name comes from its azure (blue) color. While frequently considered a valid species in the past, recent authorities treat it as a variant of \"D. tinctorius\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973699}
{"src_title": "Theresianum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history (1614–1746).", "content": "In 1614, the Habsburgs purchased Angerfeldhof, a farmstead located just outside Vienna, and renovated it. \"Favorita\", as the Habsburgs would call the re-modeled farmstead, became their imperial summer residence and a well-known venue for performances in the second half of the 17th century.  Although the residence was burned down in the course of the Battle of Vienna in 1683, a bigger and more glamorous \"Neue Favorita\" was rebuilt over the following decades. Three emperors of the Holy Roman Empire – Leopold I, Joseph I and Charles VI – resided in the palace. In 1740, when Charles VI died in \"Neue Favorita\", his eldest daughter Maria Theresa decided not to enter the building again.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Founding and sustaining Theresianum (1746–1964).", "content": "In 1746, Empress Maria Theresa sold the palace to the Jesuits for 30,000 guilders in order to transform it into an educational institution, preparing talented young men for civil service. As stipulated in two founding letters, the newly established “imperial academy” under the auspices of Maria Theresa was based on the principles of strict selection, the highest pedagogic and scientific standards, and instruction in “modern” foreign languages.  In 1773, after Maria Theresa's son Joseph II had dissolved the religious order of the Society of Jesus, Theresianum was temporarily closed. More than 20 years later, in 1797, Francis II re-opened Theresianum under the direction of the Piarists. He also completed the building's present-day neo-classical façade and built ancillary facilities, including a swim school. After the 1848 revolutions in different parts of Europe, Francis II's successor, Franz Joseph I, decided to open admission to “sons of the bourgeoisie” and to put the school under public regulation.  In 1883, the Consular Academy, the world's oldest school of international relations (founded by Maria Theresa as the Oriental Academy in 1754 and later renamed), was relocated to \"Neue Favorita\". It was housed in a separate wing of the building until 1905, when it was moved to a house in Boltzmanngasse, which houses the U.S. embassy today.  By the end of World War I, most of the school's properties in Austria, Hungary and other parts of the Habsburg monarchy were sold. In 1938, after the “Anschluss” to Nazi Germany, Theresianum was transformed into a National Political Institute of Education. During World War II, the school was so heavily damaged that it could only be re-opened following extensive renovation work in 1957.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent history (1964–present).", "content": "In 1964, the Diplomatic Academy was re-opened as a successor to the Consular Academy in \"Neue Favorita\". Its graduates include former U.N. Secretary General and Austrian president Kurt Waldheim, as well as European ministers and senior public officials.  At Theresianum, co-education was introduced at the end of the 1980s – the first female instructors started teaching in 1988, while the first female students were admitted one year later, in 1989; in 1993, the first headmistress was appointed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theresianum today.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Based on Maria Theresa's founding letters, Theresianum today strives to educate students to become “self-confident Austrians as well as Europeans with a global outlook.” By embracing the principles of tolerance and humanity, the school endeavors to prepare its graduates to take on “responsible roles in society.” Theresianum's principles include academic excellence, social responsibility and international achievement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International focus.", "content": "Before World War I, instruction in Hungarian was mandatory, while learning English, French, Italian, Polish, Bohemian, Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian and Romanian was optional. Today, the school's curriculum requires students to learn three spoken foreign languages (English, French and Russian) as well as Latin. Optional coursework includes Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Hungarian, Polish, Japanese and Chinese; native-speaking instructors help teach these classes. Language exchange programs are offered to students in the 4th and 7th grades (U.S. equivalent grades 8 and 11); additional courses are regularly organized in preparation for language competitions. International students from age 15 to 18 can apply for three, five or 10-month study programs at Theresianum; as of 2009, students from 27 different countries attended the school. Theresianum sustains a network of 18 international partner schools, including:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Extra-curricular activities.", "content": "Based on the Theresianum Enrichment Model (THEM), students are offered a set of extra-curricular activities that complement mandatory coursework. These classes include special rhetoric and presentation seminars, community service, cultural and business projects, as well as tailored career advice services. Moreover, Theresianum participates in bi-annually organized Model European Parliament sessions that prepare students for leadership roles in the European Union.  By 1910, a wealth of physical education classes, including swimming, dancing, riding and fencing was offered to students to supplement their academic curriculum. Today, Theresianum offers weekly sports courses across 15 disciplines, organizes three dedicated sports weeks (in the 2nd, 3rd and 5th grade, U.S. equivalent grades 6,7 and 9) and operates a school-owned ski club; 20 musical instruments are taught at the school.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Boarding school model.", "content": "Theresianum operates as a \"Gymnasium\" (U.S. equivalent grades 5 through 12); as of 2010, 815 students attended 33 classes (i.e., 24.7 students per class) and were taught by 130 instructors (i.e., 6.3 students per instructor). In order to develop well-rounded pupils, Theresianum requires students to attend individual or group study sessions in the afternoons with their instructors. School days typically end between 5:30 p.m. and 6:00 p.m., depending on the student's age. Grades 5 to 8 (U.S. equivalent grades 9 to 12) used to attend lectures on Saturday mornings now, however, all students have a 5-day school week. 100 students were also enrolled in Theresianum's full-boarding option as of 2007.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Facilities.", "content": "Throughout its history, Theresianum has retained parts of its historic park in the center of Vienna (approx. 50,000 m), and properties in Süßenbrunn and Strechau, outside the city. The school's sport facilities include an indoor swimming pool, two beach volleyball courts, tennis, soccer and basketball courts, and indoor gyms. All classrooms are equipped with state-of-the-art digital media equipment andscience laboratories are used for biology, physics chemistry classes. The school's historic rooms (library, etc.) can be used for special events.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Outlook.", "content": "A steering committee consisting of the school's headmaster, elected parent and student representatives, and project groups continuously monitor quality standards of existing classes and propose new academic or extra-curricular initiatives. Currently, projects such as a new IT learning platform, an extended business and life science curriculum and initiatives with the European Union are being evaluated.  Moreover, Theresianum plans on opening a new elementary school and/or kindergarten in fall 2011. Academic curricula are currently being developed, with a special emphasis on full-day service, language courses taught by native speakers, advanced-level coursework for talented students, sports and extra-curricular activities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable alumni.", "content": "Often referred to as one of Austria's finest schools, Theresianum has shaped over 260 years of Austrian and European history; its graduates include Nobel Prize winners, political leaders, as well as writers and thinkers across a wide array of disciplines:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theresianum (or Theresian Academy; German: \"Stiftung Theresianische Akademie\") is a private boarding and day school governed by the laws for public schools in Vienna, Austria. It was founded in 1746 by Empress Maria Theresa of Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973700}
{"src_title": "Southern pig-tailed macaque", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and taxonomy.", "content": "The species epithet, \"nemestrina\", is an adjective (derived from Latin \"Nemestrinus\", the god of groves) modified to agree in gender with the feminine generic name. \"Macaca nemestrina\" formerly included the northern pig-tailed, Pagai Island, and Siberut macaques as subspecies. All four are now considered separate species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Macaca nemestrina\" can reach a weight of 5–15 kg in large males. These monkeys are buff-brown with a darker back and lighter lower parts of the body. Their common name refers to the short tail held semi-erect and reminiscent of the tail of a pig.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "They are mainly terrestrial but they also are skilled climbers. Unlike almost all primates they love water. They live in large groups split into smaller groups during the day when they are looking for food. They are omnivorous, feeding mainly on fruits, seeds, berries, cereals, fungi and invertebrates. A study in peninsular Malaysia found them to be the primary, and perhaps only, seed dispersers of the rattan species Daemonorops calicarpa and Calamus (palm) castaneus.  There is a hierarchy among males, based on the strength, and among females, based on heredity. Thus, the daughter of the dominant female will immediately be placed above all other females in the group. The dominant female leads the group, while the male role is more to manage conflict within the group and to defend it.  Sexual maturity is reached at the age of 3–5 years. Female gestation lasts about 6 months. She will give birth to one infant every two years. Weaning occurs at 4–5 months.  In Thailand, they have been trained for 400 years to harvest coconuts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and distribution.", "content": "This macaque is mostly found in rainforest up to 2000 meters, but will also enter plantations and gardens.  It is found in the southern half of the Malay Peninsula (only just extending into southernmost Thailand), Borneo, Sumatra and Bangka Island. There are reports of the species having been present in Singapore before 1950, but these were likely escaped pets. The only pig-tailed macaques in Singapore today are introduced monkeys.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The southern pig-tailed macaque (\"Macaca nemestrina\"), also known as the Sundaland pig-tailed macaque and Sunda pig-tailed macaque, is a medium-sized macaque that lives in southern Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. It is known locally as the beruk.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973701}
{"src_title": "Hadean", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Hadean\" (from Hades, the Greek god of the underworld, and the underworld itself) describes the hellish conditions then prevailing on Earth: the planet had just formed and was still very hot owing to its recent accretion, the abundance of short-lived radioactive elements, and frequent collisions with other Solar System bodies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "Since few geological traces of this eon remain on Earth, there is no official subdivision. However, the Lunar geologic timescale embraces several major divisions relating to the Hadean, so these are sometimes used in an informal sense to refer to the same periods of time on Earth.  The Lunar divisions are:  In 2010, an alternative scale was proposed that includes the addition of the Chaotian and Prenephelean Eons preceding the Hadean, and divides the Hadean into three eras with two periods each. The Paleohadean era consists of the Hephaestean () and the Jacobian periods (). The Mesohadean is divided into the Canadian () and the Procrustean periods (). The Neohadean is divided into the Acastan () and the Promethean periods ()., this has not been adopted by the IUGS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hadean rocks.", "content": "In the last decades of the 20th century geologists identified a few Hadean rocks from western Greenland, northwestern Canada, and Western Australia. In 2015, traces of carbon minerals interpreted as \"remains of biotic life\" were found in 4.1-billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.  The oldest dated zircon crystals, enclosed in a metamorphosed sandstone conglomerate in the Jack Hills of the Narryer Gneiss Terrane of Western Australia, date to 4.404 ± 0.008 Ga. This zircon is a slight outlier, with the oldest consistently-dated zircon falling closer to 4.35 Ga—around 200 million years after the hypothesized time of the Earth's formation.  In many other areas, xenocryst (or relict) Hadean zircons enclosed in older rocks indicate that younger rocks have formed on older terranes and have incorporated some of the older material. One example occurs in the Guiana shield from the Iwokrama Formation of southern Guyana where zircon cores have been dated at 4.22 Ga.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Atmosphere and oceans.", "content": "A sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed the Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation. Hydrogen and helium are expected to continually escape (even to the present day) due to atmospheric escape.  Part of the ancient planet is theorized to have been disrupted by the impact that created the Moon, which should have caused melting of one or two large regions of the Earth. Earth's present composition suggests that there was not complete remelting as it is difficult to completely melt and mix huge rock masses. However, a fair fraction of material should have been vaporized by this impact, creating a \"rock vapor atmosphere\" around the young planet. The rock vapor would have condensed within two thousand years, leaving behind hot volatiles which probably resulted in a heavy atmosphere with hydrogen and water vapor. Liquid water oceans existed despite the surface temperature of because at an atmospheric pressure of above 27 atmospheres, caused by the heavy atmosphere, water is still liquid. As cooling continued, subduction and dissolving in ocean water removed most from the atmosphere but levels oscillated wildly as new surface and mantle cycles appeared.  Studies of zircons have found that liquid water must have existed as long ago as 4.4 billion years ago, very soon after the formation of the Earth. This requires the presence of an atmosphere. The cool early Earth theory covers a range from about 4.4 to about 4.1 billion years.  A September 2008 study of zircons found that Australian Hadean rock holds minerals pointing to the existence of plate tectonics as early as 4 billion years ago (approximately 600 million years after Earth's formation). If this is true, the time when Earth finished its transition from having a hot, molten surface and atmosphere full of carbon dioxide, to being very much like it is today, can be roughly dated to about 4.0 billion years ago. The actions of plate tectonics and the oceans trapped vast amounts of carbon dioxide, thereby reducing the greenhouse effect and leading to a much cooler surface temperature and the formation of solid rock, and possibly even life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hadean ( ) is a geologic eon of the Earth pre-dating the Archean. It began with the formation of the Earth about 4.6 billion years ago and ended, as defined by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), 4 billion years ago., the ICS describes its status as \"informal\". Geologist Preston Cloud coined the term in 1972, originally to label the period before the earliest-known rocks on Earth. W. Brian Harland later coined an almost synonymous term, the \"Priscoan period\", from \"priscus\", the Latin word for 'ancient'. Other, older texts refer to the eon as the Pre-Archean.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973702}
{"src_title": "Yakov Sverdlov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sverdlov was born in Nizhny Novgorod as Solomon Mikhailovich Sverdlov to Jewish parents, Mikhail Izrailevich Sverdlov and Elizaveta Solomonova. His father was a politically active engraver who produced forged documents and stored arms for the revolutionary underground. The Sverdlov family had six children: two daughters (Sophia and Sara) and four sons (Zinovy, Yakov, Veniamin, and Lev). After his wife's death in 1900, Mikhail converted with his family to the Russian Orthodox Church, married Maria Aleksandrovna Kormiltseva, and had two more sons, Herman and Alexander. Yakov's eldest brother Zinovy was adopted by Maxim Gorky, who was a frequent guest at the house.  Yakov Sverdlov joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1902, and then the Bolshevik faction, supporting Vladimir Lenin. He was involved in the 1905 revolution while living in the Ural Mountains.  After four years of high school, he became a major activist and speaker in Nizhny Novgorod. For most of the time from his arrest in June 1906 until 1917 he was either imprisoned or exiled. During the period 1914–1916 he was in internal exile in Turukhansk, Siberia, along with Joseph Stalin. Both had been betrayed by the Okhrana agent Roman Malinovsky. Like Stalin, he was co-opted \"in absentia\" to the 1912 Prague Conference.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Party leader.", "content": "After the 1917 February Revolution Sverdlov returned to Petrograd from exile and was re-elected to the Central Committee of the Communist Party. He played an important role in planning the October Revolution. He first met Lenin in April 1917 and was subsequently trusted as the chairman of the Central Committee Secretariat. Sverdlov was elected chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee in November, becoming thereby \"de jure\" head of state of the Russian SFSR until his death. He played important roles in the decision in January 1918 to end the Russian Constituent Assembly and the subsequent signing on 3 March of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.  Sverdlov had a prodigious memory and was able to retain the names and details of fellow revolutionaries in exile. His organizational capability was well-regarded, and during his chairmanship, thousands of local party committees were initiated. Sverdlov is sometimes regarded as the first head of state of the Soviet Union although it was not established until 1922, three years after his death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romanov family.", "content": "A number of sources claim that Sverdlov played a major role in the execution of Tsar Nicholas II and his family on 17 July 1918.  A book written in 1990 by the Moscow playwright Edvard Radzinsky claims that Sverdlov ordered their execution on 16 July 1918. This book and other Radzinsky books were characterized as \"folk history\" by journalists and academic historians. However Yuri Slezkine in his book \"The Jewish Century\" expressed a slightly different opinion: \"Early in the Civil War, in June 1918, Lenin ordered the killing of Nicholas II and his family. Among the men entrusted with carrying out the orders were Sverdlov, Filipp Goloshchyokin and Yakov Yurovsky\".  The 1922 book by a White Army general, Mikhail Diterikhs, \"The Murder of the Tsar's Family and members of the House of Romanov in the Urals,\" sought to portray the murder of the royal family as a Jewish plot against Russia. It referred to Sverdlov by his Jewish nickname \"Yankel\" and to Goloshchekin as \"Isaac\". This book in turn was based on an account by one Nikolai Sokolov, special investigator for the Omsk regional court, whom Diterikhs assigned with the task of investigating the disappearance of the Romanovs while serving as regional governor under the White regime during the Russian Civil War.  According to Leon Trotsky's diaries, after returning from the front (of the Russian Civil War) he had the following dialogue with Sverdlov:  The investigating magistrate in Ekaterinburg in 1918 saw the signed telegraphic instructions to execute the Imperial Family came from Sverdlov. These details were published in 1966.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Sverdlov is commonly believed to have died of either typhus or most likely influenza, during the Spanish Flu, after a political visit to Oryol. He is buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis, in Moscow. He was succeeded in an interim capacity by Mikhail Vladimirsky, and eventually by Mikhail Kalinin as Chairman of the Central Executive Committee, and by Elena Stasova as Chairwoman of the Secretariat. In 1924, Yekaterinburg was renamed Sverdlovsk in his honour.  His son Andrei had a long career as an officer for the Soviet security organs (NKVD, OGPU). His niece Ida married NKVD chief Genrikh Yagoda.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov (; born Solomon Mikhailovich Sverdlov 3 June 1885 – 16 March 1919), known by the pseudonyms \"Andrei\", \"Mikhalych\", \"Max\", \"Smirnov\", \"Permyakov\", \"Jacob\", was a Bolshevik party administrator and chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973703}
{"src_title": "Wine cellar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Purpose.", "content": "Wine cellars protect alcoholic beverages from potentially harmful external influences, providing darkness, constant temperature, and constant humidity. Wine is a natural, perishable food product issued from fermentation of fruit. Left exposed to heat, light, vibration or fluctuations in temperature and humidity, all types of wine can spoil. When properly stored, wines not only maintain their quality but many actually improve in aroma, flavor, and complexity as they mature. Depending on their level of sugar and alcohol, wines are more or less sensitive to temperature variances; wine with higher alcohol and/or sugar content will be less sensitive to temperature variance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conditions.", "content": "Wine can be stored satisfactorily between as long as any variations are gradual. A temperature of, much like that found in the caves used to store wine in France, is ideal for both short-term storage and long-term aging of wine. Note that wine generally matures differently and more slowly at a lower temperature than it does at a higher temperature. When the temperature swings are significant, 14 degrees or more, it will cause the wine to breathe through the cork which significantly speeds up the aging process. Between, wines will age normally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Active versus passive.", "content": "Wine cellars can be either active or passively cooled. Active wine cellars are highly insulated and need to be properly constructed. They require specialized wine cellar conditioning and cooling systems to maintain the desired temperature and humidity. In a very dry climate, it may be necessary to actively humidify the air, but in most areas this is not necessary. Passive wine cellars must be located in naturally cool and damp areas with minor seasonal and diurnal temperature variations—for example, a basement in a temperate climate. Passive cellars may be less predictable, but cost nothing to operate and are not affected by power outages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Debate on humidity.", "content": "Some wine experts debate the importance of humidity for proper wine storage. In the \"Wine Spectator\", writer Matt Kramer noted a French study which claimed that the relative humidity within a bottle is maintained 100% regardless of the closure used or the orientation of the bottle. However, Alexis Lichine says that low humidity can be a problem because it may cause organic corks to dry prematurely. An inch of gravel covering the floor periodically sprinkled with a little water was recommended to retain the desired humidity.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A wine cellar is a storage room for wine in bottles or barrels, or more rarely in carboys, amphorae, or plastic containers. In an \"active\" wine cellar, important factors such as temperature and humidity are maintained by a climate control system. In contrast, \"passive\" wine cellars are not climate-controlled, and are usually built underground to reduce temperature swings. An aboveground wine cellar is often called a \"wine room\", while a small wine cellar (fewer than 500 bottles) is sometimes termed a \"wine closet\". The household department responsible for the storage, care and service of wine in a great mediaeval house was termed the buttery. Large wine cellars date back over 3700 years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973704}
{"src_title": "Carl von Rokitansky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medical career.", "content": "Carl von Rokitansky was born in Hradec Králové (), Bohemia. He studied at the Charles University in Prague (1821–1824) and attained a doctorate in medicine on 6 March 1828 at the University of Vienna. In 1830, he became assistant to Johann Wagner, the professor of pathological anatomy, and succeeded him in 1834 as prosector, being at the same time made extraordinary professor. He became a full professor ten years later.  In 1847, to his duties as a teacher, Rokitansky added the onerous office of medico-legal anatomist to the city of Vienna.  In 1863, Rokitansky was appointed by Anton von Schmerling as medical adviser to the Ministry of the Interior, wherein he advised on all routine matters of medical teaching, including patronage.  As a young professor, Rokitansky recognized that the still little noted discipline of pathological anatomy could be of great service to clinical work in the hospital, because it could offer new diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities to the bed-side physician.  Ludwig Freiherr Baron von Türkheim (1777-1846) established the Second Vienna Medical School in 1836. Around Rokitansky's autopsies the school began \"one of the most fruitful and brilliant epochs of Viennese medicine\". A paradigm shift occurred, led by Rokitansky, Josef Škoda, and Ferdinand von Hebra, moving from the notion of medicine as a branch of natural philosophy, to the more modern notion of it as a science.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contributions.", "content": "Rokitansky's name is associated with the following diseases/morphologic features of disease:  Rokitansky also developed a method of autopsy which consisted mainly of \"in situ\" dissection. Rokitansky is said \"to have supervised 70,000 autopsies, and personally performed over 30,000, averaging two a day, seven days a week, for 45 years\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philosophical career.", "content": "Although Rokitansky defended the \"materialistic method\" in scientific research, he rejected materialism as a philosophical world view. In his commemorative speech on the occasion of the opening of the Institute of Pathological Anatomy at the General Hospital of Vienna, he warned against the abuse of \"natural science liberties\". Scientists should first regard humans as \"conscious and free-willing subjects\" and only then follow their urge toward knowledge. The feeling of humanity would be lost if physicians regarded human beings purely as research objects. Thus Rokitansky brought up for the first time the question of ethics in medicine. In another speech about the \"solidarity of all animal life\", delivered at the Imperial Academy of Sciences, Rokitansky showed his proximity to Arthur Schopenhauer's writings on compassion: \"if we [... ] preserve and practice compassion\", he explained \"we are able to alleviate part of the load of suffering\" of patients. Human generosity will be shown by our capability to accept the greatest sufferings by voluntarily renouncing aggression. Those who succeed in this should be our greatest ethical role models.  In 1845, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. On 17 July 1848 Rokitansky was elected as an effective member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. In 1866, he became its vice-president and from 1869 until his death in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, on 23 July 1878, its president. Rokitansky felt that this \"was the largest honour which I could enjoy\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "By way of his leading positions in the most diverse academic and political institutions of the Austrian Empire, Rokitansky helped to shape the era of Austrian high liberalism. He represented liberalism among the educated middle class and strove for \"freedom and progress\", both to the university reform and to the substantial improvement of health sciences. Rokitansky was several times the dean of the medical school, and, in 1853, the first freely elected rector of the medical congregation of the University of Vienna and president of the Superior Medical Council. From 1850 until his death, he also presided the Physician's Society of Vienna. On 25 November 1867 he was \"unexpectedly and unprepared\" nominated by Franz Joseph I to the upper house of the Royal Council () in recognition of his public service. Finally, he was elected in 1870 to the presidency of the Anthropological Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Two of Rokitansky's sons became professors at Vienna, one of astronomy and another of medicine, while a third gained distinction on the lyric stage, and another as a composer:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "His published works include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baron Carl von Rokitansky (, ) (19 February 1804 – 23 July 1878), was a Bohemian physician, pathologist, humanist philosopher and liberal politician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973705}
{"src_title": "Alnus alnobetula", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a large shrub or small tree 3–12 m tall with smooth grey bark even in old age. The leaves are shiny green with light green undersurfaces, ovoid, 3–8 cm long and 2–6 cm broad. The flowers are catkins, appearing late in spring after the leaves emerge (unlike other alders which flower before leafing out); the male catkins are pendulous, 4–8 cm long, the female catkins 1 cm long and 0.7 cm broad when mature in late autumn, in clusters of 3–10 on a branched stem. The seeds are small, 1–2 mm long, light brown with a narrow encircling wing.  The roots of \"Alnus viridis subsp. sinuata\" have nitrogen fixing nodules. A study in Alaska showed that Sitka alder seedlings were able to invade coal mine spoils and can be used for revegetation and stripmine reclamation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "There are four to six subspecies, some treated as separate species by some authors:  \"Alnus viridis\" is classed as an environmental weed in New Zealand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Alnus viridis\" has a shallow root system, and is marked not only by vigorous production of stump suckers, but also by root suckers.  \"Alnus viridis\" is a light-demanding, fast-growing shrub that grows well on poorer soils. In many areas, it is a highly characteristic colonist of avalanche chutes in mountains, where potentially competing larger trees are killed by regular avalanche damage. \"A. viridis\" survives the avalanches through its ability to re-grow from the roots and broken stumps. Unlike some other alders, it does require moist soil, and is a colonist of screes and shallow stony slopes. It also commonly grows on subarctic river gravels, particularly in northern Siberia, Alaska and Canada, occupying areas similarly disrupted by ice floes during spring river ice breakup; in this habitat it commonly occurs mixed with shrubby willows.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "It is sometimes used for afforestation on infertile soils which it enriches by means of its nitrogen-fixing nodules, while not growing large enough to compete with the intended timber crop. \"A. sinuata\" can add 55 lbs of nitrogen per acre per year to the soil. \"Alnus viridis\" leaves have been used in the traditional Austrian medicine externally or internally as tea for treatment of infections and fever.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alnus alnobetula is a common tree widespread across much of Europe, Asia, and North America. Many sources refer to it as Alnus viridis, the green alder, but botanically this is considered an illegitimate name synonymous with \"Alnus alnobetula\" subsp. \"fruticosa\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973706}
{"src_title": "Hugo de Vries", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "De Vries was born in 1848, the eldest son of Gerrit de Vries (1818–1900), a lawyer and deacon in the Mennonite congregation in Haarlem and later Prime Minister of the Netherlands from 1872 until 1874, and Maria Everardina Reuvens (1823–1914), daughter of a professor in archaeology at Leiden University. His father became a member of the Dutch Council of State in 1862 and moved his family over to The Hague. From an early age Hugo showed much interest in botany, winning several prizes for his herbariums while attending gymnasium in Haarlem and The Hague.  In 1866 he enrolled at the Leiden University to major in botany. He enthusiastically took part in W.F.R. Suringar's classes and excursions, but was mostly drawn to the experimental botany outlined in Julius von Sachs' 'Lehrbuch der Botanik' from 1868. He was also deeply impressed by Charles Darwin's evolution theory, despite Suringar's skepticism. He wrote a dissertation on the effect of heat on plant roots, including several statements by Darwin to provoke his professor, and graduated in 1870.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "After a short period of teaching, De Vries left in September 1870 to take classes in chemistry and physics at the Heidelberg University and work in the laboratory of Wilhelm Hofmeister. In the second semester of that school year he joined the lab of the esteemed Julius Sachs in Würzburg to study plant growth. From September 1871 until 1875 he taught botany, zoology, and geology at schools in Amsterdam. During each vacation he returned to the lab in Heidelberg to continue his research.  In 1875, the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture offered De Vries a position as professor at the still to be constructed \"Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule\" (\"Royal Agricultural College\") in Berlin. In anticipation, he moved back to Würzburg, where he studied agricultural crops and collaborated with Sachs. By 1877, Berlin's College was still only a plan, and he briefly took up a position teaching at the University of Halle-Wittenberg. The same year he was offered a position as lecturer in plant physiology at the newly founded University of Amsterdam. He was made adjunct professor in 1878 and full professor on his birthday in 1881, partly to keep him from moving to the Berlin College, which finally opened that year. De Vries was also professor and director of Amsterdam's Botanical Institute and Garden from 1885 to 1918.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition of the gene.", "content": "In 1889, De Vries published his book \"Intracellular Pangenesis\", in which, based on a modified version of Charles Darwin's theory of Pangenesis of 1868, he postulated that different characters have different hereditary carriers. He specifically postulated that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles. He called these units \"pangenes\", a term 20 years later to be shortened to genes by Wilhelm Johannsen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rediscovery of genetics.", "content": "To support his theory of pangenes, which was not widely noticed at the time, De Vries conducted a series of experiments hybridising varieties of multiple plant species in the 1890s. Unaware of Mendel's work, De Vries used the laws of dominance and recessiveness, segregation, and independent assortment to explain the 3:1 ratio of phenotypes in the second generation. His observations also confirmed his hypothesis that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles.  He further speculated that genes could cross the species barrier, with the same gene being responsible for hairiness in two different species of flower. Although generally true in a sense (orthologous genes, inherited from a common ancestor of both species, tend to stay responsible for similar phenotypes), De Vries meant a physical cross between species. This actually also happens, though very rarely in higher organisms (see horizontal gene transfer). De Vries' work on genetics inspired the research of Jantina Tammes, who worked with him for a period in 1898.  In the late 1890s, De Vries became aware of Mendel's obscure paper of thirty years earlier and he altered some of his terminology to match. When he published the results of his experiments in the French journal \"Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences\" in 1900, he neglected to mention Mendel's work, but after criticism by Carl Correns he conceded Mendel's priority.  Correns and Erich von Tschermak now share credit for the rediscovery of Mendel’s laws. Correns was a student of Nägeli, a renowned botanist with whom Mendel corresponded about his work with peas but who failed to understand its significance, while, coincidentally, Tschermak's grandfather taught Mendel botany during his student days in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mutation theory.", "content": "In his own time, De Vries was best known for his mutation theory. In 1886, he had discovered new forms among a display of the evening primrose (\"Oenothera lamarckiana\") growing wild in an abandoned potato field near Hilversum, having escaped a nearby garden. Taking seeds from these, he found that they produced many new varieties in his experimental gardens; he introduced the term mutations for these suddenly appearing variations. In his two-volume publication \"The Mutation Theory\" (1900–1903) he postulated that evolution, especially the origin of species, might occur more frequently with such large-scale changes than via Darwinian gradualism, basically suggesting a form of saltationism. De Vries's theory was one of the chief contenders for the explanation of how evolution worked, leading, for example, Thomas Hunt Morgan to study mutations in the fruit fly, until the modern evolutionary synthesis became the dominant model in the 1930s. During the early decades of the twentieth century, de Vries' theory was enormously influential and continued to fascinate non-biologists long after the scientific community had abandoned it. The large-scale primrose variations turned out to be the result of various chromosomal abnormalities, including ring chromosomes, balanced lethals and chromosome duplications (polyploidy), while the term mutation now generally is restricted to discrete changes in the DNA sequence. However, the popular understanding of \"mutation\" as a sudden leap to a new species has remained a staple theme of science fiction, e.g. the X-Men movies (and the comic books that preceded them).  Finally, in a published lecture of 1903 (\"Befruchtung und Bastardierung\", Veit, Leipzig), De Vries was also the first to suggest the occurrence of recombinations between homologous chromosomes, now known as chromosomal crossovers, within a year after chromosomes were implicated in Mendelian inheritance by Walter Sutton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors and retirement.", "content": "In 1878 De Vries became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In May 1905, De Vries was elected Foreign Member of the Royal Society. In 1910, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was awarded the Darwin Medal in 1906 and the Linnean Medal in 1929.  He retired in 1918 from the University of Amsterdam and withdrew to his estate \"De Boeckhorst\" in Lunteren where he had large experimental gardens. He continued his studies with new forms until his death in 1935.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "His best known works are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hugo Marie de Vries () (16 February 1848 – 21 May 1935) was a Dutch botanist and one of the first geneticists. He is known chiefly for suggesting the concept of genes, rediscovering the laws of heredity in the 1890s while apparently unaware of Gregor Mendel's work, for introducing the term \"mutation\", and for developing a mutation theory of evolution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973707}
{"src_title": "Świeradów-Zdrój", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "First mentioned in 1524, the settlement was probably founded at the end of the 13th or the beginning of the 14th century in the Lower Silesian Duchy of Jawor, the southwesternmost duchy of fragmented Piast-ruled Poland. The oldest record concerning Świeradów, which in fact related to the tavern \"Fegebeutel\" from which the local settlement of shepherds and lumbermen was named, comes from 1337, while \"Flinsberg\" was first documented in 1559. It was located on the eastern slope of the Smrk massif, at the tripoint of historic Silesia with the Bohemian and Upper Lusatian regions.  Exceptional properties of Świeradów mineral springs were suspected as early as the 16th century. In 1572, the Swiss doctor Leonard Thurneysser, private physician of Elector John George of Brandenburg wrote for the first time about the discovery of the exoraordinary features of the local healing waters. They were described by the Protestant reformer Caspar Schwenckfeld about 1600, and Fryderyk Luca also wrote about them in 1683 in his Silesian chronicle. The area was heavily devastated during the Thirty Years' War, at first by Imperial troops under General Ottavio Piccolomini, then by Swedish forces in the course of the seize of nearby Gryf Castle in Proszówka. A century later the land owners of the Schaffgotsch noble family established a special commission to gather scientific evidence and describe the healing effects of the Świeradów waters. The commission settled that the water “...agitates appetite, inhibits vomiting, eases anxiety states, stomach and liver illnesses”. The health resort started to develop in 1768 when the owners of land built the first spa house. The peak of health resort development occurred in the 1920s. Direct railway connection to Mirsk (then \"Friedeberg\") operating since 1909 opened Świeradów to the world and contributed to full prosperity of the spa town.  Annexed by Kingdom of Prussia in the 18th century, from 1816 to 1945 the settlement belonged to the Löwenberg in Schlesien district (German: \"\"). In 1945 Bad Flinsberg was occupied by the Red Army and its German population expelled. As part of the Republic of Poland, the health resort resumed its activity on 26 May 1946. Świeradów was also granted town rights in 1946. The town was repopulated by Poles, most of whom were expelled from former eastern Poland annexed by the Soviet Union. Its town limits were expanded in 1973, by incorporating the neighbouring village of as a new district.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "Świeradów-Zdrój has an exceptionally rich acquisition of names. This eventful history begins with the German name \"Fegebeutel\", which meant ‘a place where your purse will be cleaned’ (\"Czyścisakwa\" in Polish). The name was given to the tavern situated here and the nearby settlement. Then, the name was changed to \"Flinsberg\". The origin of that word may be sought in the pantheon of pagan gods of Lusatians. One of them was Flins.  In 1945, Bad Flinsberg became \"Wieniec-Zdrój\". It was the first name of that town in the Polish language after the war, coming from the Polish word ‘wieniec’ (wreath), related to hills surrounding the valley from all directions. The wreath consists of Vulture Mountain (829 m a.s.l.) in the east, Zajęcznik (595 m a.s.l.) in the north, Stóg Izerski (1107 m a.s.l.) in the south-west and Opaleniec (821 m a.s.l.) in the west. Finally, however, it was decided that the town will be called \"Świeradów-Zdrój\" – since 1946. The etymology of the name is ambiguous and two explanations can be found. One explanation says that the name derived from a combination of two words: świerk (spruce) and radon without which the spa would not exist, and the other one mentions Saint Andrew Świerad, who came here from Slovakia about the year 1000.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Balneotherapy and recreation.", "content": "The spa house built in 1899 offers mineral water, radon and mud bath treatments of rheumatism and other adult diseases.  In 2008, a gondola was opened as the fourth such ski lift in Poland improving the position of Świeradów as a winter ski resort.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Świeradów-Zdrój is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Świeradów-Zdrój () is a spa town in Lubań County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland near the border with the Czech Republic. The town is located in the Kwisa valley of the Jizera Mountains, a part of the Sudetes range. It lies approximately south of Lubań, and west of the regional capital Wrocław.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973708}
{"src_title": "François Joseph Lefebvre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Lefebvre was from Rouffach, Alsace, the son of a Hussar. He enlisted in the French Army at the age of 17 and like his close friend, Michel Ordener, he embraced the French Revolution. In 1783 he married Cathérine Hübscher with whom he had 14 children, although none living to survive him (his last son died in battle in 1812).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revolutionary Wars.", "content": "In 1789 he was a sergeant in the Gardes Françaises, and like most of the regiment, he joined the revolution. Promoted to brigadier general in 1793, he took part in the Battle of Fleurus (24 June 1794). After General Louis Lazare Hoche's death he commanded the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse (September 1797). He then commanded the vanguard of the Army of the Danube under Jourdan in March 1799, although for the first week of the campaign he was incapacitated with ringworm and Dominique Vandamme replaced him temporarily. He was later injured at the Battle of Ostrach where the Advance Guard bore the brunt of the early fighting. In November 1799, Lefebvre commanded the Paris troops and agreed to support Napoleon Bonaparte in his \"coup d'état\". In 1800, Bonaparte appointed him senator.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "Napoleon made him a Marshal of the Empire in 1804. Lefebvre commanded a division of the Old Guard in the German campaign of 1805. At the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, on 14 October 1806, Lefebvre commanded the infantry of the Imperial Guard. In command of the X Corps he besieged and took Danzig in 1807, which won him the title of Duc de Danzig (Duke of Danzig).  In 1808 Lefebvre took part in the Peninsula War. In 1809 he commanded the Bavarian army at the battles of Eckmühl and Wagram. Defeated by Tyrolean patriot Andreas Hofer in the same year, he was replaced. He commanded the Old Guard in the French invasion of Russia, Battle of Borodino (1812), and in the German (1813) and French campaigns (1814) of the War of the Sixth Coalition.  He voted for the Emperor's deposition at the Senate and during the First Restoration he was made Peer of France by Louis XVIII (4 June 1814), but rallied to Napoleon during the Hundred Days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After the war.", "content": "He was excluded from the during the Second Restoration. However, he retained his rank of marshal. Louis XVIII restored his peerage on 5 March 1819. He died in 1820 and was buried near André Masséna at the Père-Lachaise Cemetery, Paris.  He never forgot the hard work that brought him rank and wealth. When a friend expressed envy of his estate, Lefebvre said \"Come down in the courtyard, and I'll have ten shots at you with a musket at 30 paces. If I miss, the whole estate is yours.\" The friend naturally declined this offer, and Lefebvre then added, \"I had a thousand bullets shot at me from much closer range before I got all this.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François Joseph Lefebvre (, ; 25 October 1755 – 14 September 1820), Duc de Dantzig, was a French military commander during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and one of the original eighteen Marshals of the Empire created by Napoleon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973709}
{"src_title": "Jean-Baptiste Bessières", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Bessières was born in Prayssac near Cahors in southern France. He served for a short time in the Constitutional Guard of Louis XVI and as a non-commissioned officer took part in the war against Spain.  In the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees and in the Army of the Moselle he repeatedly distinguished himself for valour, and in 1796, as captain, he served in Napoleon Bonaparte's Italian campaign. At Rovereto his conduct brought him to his chief's notice, and after the Battle of Rivoli he was sent to France to deliver the captured colours to the Directory. Hastening back to the front, he accompanied Napoleon in the invasion of Styria in command of the Guides, who formed the nucleus of the later Consular and Imperial Guards.  As a chef de brigade he next served in the Egyptian expedition, and won further distinction at Acre and Aboukir.  Returning to Europe with Napoleon, he was present at Marengo (1800) as second-in-command of the Consular Guard. General Jean Lannes, commanding a corps at Marengo, felt he didn't support his faltering troops sufficiently and a long running feud arose between them. At the close of the battle, Bessières led a successful cavalry charge with the Guard Cavalry though its effect on the battle was not as decisive as Napoleon pretended. It was General François Étienne de Kellermann ́s cavalry charge that won the battle for Marengo but Napoleon gave the credit largely to his own Guard Cavalry.  Promoted to general of division in 1802, he was subsequently promoted to Marshal of France in 1804, a wholly undeserved distinction based on his loyalty and friendship with Napoleon. Auguste de Marmont, a future Marshal, said that if Bessières can be made a Marshal, then everyone can be one. He was also made colonel-general of the Guard Cavalry and would command them in all future campaigns where he proved a very able cavalry commander.  In 1805 he received the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, and in 1809 was entitled Duke of Istria, or duc d'Istrie. It was a duché grand-fief, a rare, nominal, but hereditary honor (extinguished in 1856) in Napoleon's own Kingdom of Italy.  With the outbreak of the Peninsular War, Marshal Bessières had his first opportunity of an independent command. He did well against the Spaniards, scoring a crushing victory in the Battle of Medina del Rio Seco (1808), but proved slow and hesitant in command of a large all-arms force. Bessières was thus soon recalled to lead the Guard Cavalry during Napoleon ́s invasion of Spain, a task more befitting his talents.  As war erupted in 1809 against Austria, he was again with the Grande Armée in the Danube valley as a cavalry leader, a position in which he excelled. At Essling, he led the cavalry in the centre and did a fine job holding it against superior numbers, but once again fell foul of Marshal Lannes. Lannes again felt that Bessières was not providing sufficient support to his faltering troops and ordered him to charge home instead of malingering. Bessières then challenged Lannes to a duel. Marshal André Massena intervened and prevented the duel between two marshals in front of their troops.  At the subsequent Battle of Wagram, Bessières once again led the cavalry reserve and had a horse killed under him which caused consternation amongst the Guard. Napoleon congratulated him on making his Guard cry but also chided him for not netting more prisoners because he lost his horse.  Replacing Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte in the command of the Army of the North a little later in the same year, the newly created Duke of Istria successfully opposed the British Walcheren expedition. In 1811, he was sent back to Spain again to lead the Army of the North. He mostly fought counter-insurgency operations and proved a difficult and touchy colleague to his fellow army commanders, especially Marshal Masséna who was in dire need of support after his failed invasion of Portugal in 1810-1811. He was recalled in some disgrace and once again reverted to his habitual Guard Cavalry post.  For the Russian campaign in 1812, he commanded the enlarged Guard Cavalry. Hardly engaged at the Battle of Borodino, he destroyed his reputation with the rest of the army when he advised Napoleon not to use his Guard for a decisive breakthrough. Although this left the Imperial Guard intact for future battles, it prevented a decisive victory which might have successfully ended the Russian campaign.  With Joachim Murat back in Naples at the beginning of the 1813 campaign, Bessières was appointed to the command of the whole of Napoleon's cavalry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Three days after the opening of the campaign, while reconnoitering the defile of Poserna-Rippach, Bessières was killed by a cannonball which ricocheted off a wall and hit him in the chest. He died instantly. Napoleon deeply felt the loss of one of his truest friends while the remaining Marshals considered it a good death for a soldier.  After his death, Bessières was found to be heavily in debt after spending his fortune on his mistress. Napoleon oversaw his inheritance, settled most of his debts, and looked out for the future of his children. His eldest son Napoléon Bessières was made a member of the Chamber of Peers by Louis XVIII.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "As a commander, Bessières proved out of his depth when leading armies. His background as the commander of Napoleon's headquarters Guard, the Guides of the Army of Italy, deprived him of the wide experience more deserving Marshals had earned before assuming high command. Like Murat, he was however an excellent cavalry commander and he also proved an able administrator of the Guard. His few attempts at independent command were not a success however and Napoleon thereafter preferred using Bessières as a leader of cavalry.  Bessières was not of high birth but he adopted the manners and looks of a gentleman as befitting Napoleon's closest Guard commander. He typically wore the uniform of Napoleon ́s old Guides of the Army of Italy with Marshal ́s distinctions and wore his hair long with white powder in Ancien Régime style, even when the latter went out of fashion. He was known to be well mannered and kind and generous to subordinates but very touchy about his privileges and position.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jean-Baptiste Bessières, 1st Duke of Istria (6 August 17681 May 1813) was a Marshal of the Empire of the Napoleonic Era. His younger brother, Bertrand, followed in his footsteps and eventually became a divisional general. Their cousin, Géraud-Pierre-Henri-Julien, also served Napoleon I as a diplomat and Imperial official.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973710}
{"src_title": "Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Moncey was born on 31 July 1754 in Palise or Moncey, Doubs. His father was a lawyer from Besançon. During his childhood, he twice enlisted in the French Army, but his father procured his discharge on both occasions. His desire was at last gratified in 1778, when he received a commission. He was a captain when, in 1791, he embraced the principles of the French Revolution. Moncey won great distinction in the campaigns of 1793 and 1794 during the War of the Pyrenees, rising from the commander of a battalion to the commander-in-chief of the Army of the Western Pyrenees in a few months, and his successful operations were instrumental in compelling the Spanish government to make peace. After this, he was employed in the highest commands until 1799, when the government, suspecting him of being a royalist, dismissed him.  The \"coup d'état\" of 18 Brumaire in 1799 brought Moncey back to the active list, and during Napoleon's Italian campaign of 1800, he led a corps from Switzerland into Italy, surmounting all the difficulties of bringing horses and guns over the then formidable Gotthard Pass. In 1801, Napoleon made him inspector-general of the French Gendarmerie, and on the assumption of the imperial title, made him a Marshal of the Empire. In 1805, Moncey received the Grand Cordon of the Legion of Honour.  In July 1808, Moncey was made Duke of Conegliano; it was a \"duché grand-fief\", a rare hereditary honor. The title was later confirmed under the Bourbon Restoration, and, since he had no surviving son, Moncey was granted permission to pass it to his son-in-law (with his newly granted title of Baron of Conegliano and Peer of France).  The same year, the first of the Peninsular War, Moncey was sent to Spain in command of an army corps. He distinguished himself by his victorious advance on Valencia, but the effect of that was destroyed by General Pierre Dupont's defeat at the Battle of Bailén. Moncey then took a leading part in the emperor's campaign on the Ebro and in the Second Siege of Saragossa in 1809.  He refused to serve in the invasion of Russia, and therefore had no share in the campaign of the \"Grande Armée\" in 1812 and 1813. However, when France was invaded in 1814, Moncey reappeared in the field and fought the last battle for Paris on the heights of Montmartre and at the barrier of Clichy.  In 1814, he supported Louis XVIII and was made a Peer of France as Baron of Conegliano (confirmed in 1825). He remained neutral during Napoleon's return to power, feeling himself bound to Louis XVIII by his engagements as a Peer of France, but after Waterloo he was punished for refusing to take part in the court martial of Marshal Michel Ney by imprisonment and the loss of his marshalate and peerage.  In 1816, Moncey was given back his title of marshal by the king and he re-entered the Chamber of Peers three years later. He continued his military career as his last active service was as commander of an army corps in the short war with Spain in 1823. From 1833 to 1842, Moncey became governor of the prestigious Hôtel des Invalides (a home for veterans in Paris). Present at the return of Napoleon's remains in December 1840, he said after the ceremony, \"Now, let's go home to die\".  He married Charlotte Prospère Remillet (1761–1842), by whom he had 3 children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey (or Jannot de Moncey), 1st Duke of Conegliano, 1st Baron of Conegliano, Peer of France (31 July 1754 – 20 April 1842), was a prominent soldier in the French Revolutionary Wars and a Marshal of the Empire during the Napoleonic Wars. He later became governor of the Hôtel des Invalides. MONCEY is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 33.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973711}
{"src_title": "Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Mortier was born at Le Cateau-Cambrésis on 13 February 1768, son of Charles Mortier (1730–1808) and his wife Marie Anne Joseph Bonnaire (b. 1735), and entered the army as a sub-lieutenant in 1791.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "Mortier served in the French Revolutionary Wars in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793 on the north-eastern frontier and in the Netherlands, and subsequently on the Meuse and the Rhine. Mortier was tasked by General Jacques Maurice Hatry to negotiate the surrender of the Fortress of Mainz, which he completed successfully and then returned to Paris. During the War of the Second Coalition in 1799, he was promoted to general of brigade and then general of division. During the Second Battle of Zurich, he led a force of 8,000 in the attack from Dieticon on Zurich. His conduct of the French occupation of Hanover, bringing about the Convention of Artlenburg, led Napoleon to include Mortier in the first list of marshals created in 1804.  He commanded a corps of the \"Grande Armée\" in the Ulm campaign in which he distinguished himself. In the campaign of the middle Danube, which culminated in the Battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon placed him in command of the newly formed VIII Corps, composed of divisions from the other corps. Mortier over-extended his line of march on the north shore of the Danube and failed to heed Napoleon's advice to protect his north flank. A combined Russo-Austrian force, under the command of General Mikhail Kutuzov enticed Mortier to send General Théodore Maxime Gazan's 2nd Division into a trap and French troops were caught in a valley between two Russian columns. They were rescued by the timely arrival of a second division, under command of General Pierre Dupont de l'Étang's 1st Division, which covered a day's march in a half-day. The Battle of Dürrenstein (11 November 1805) extended well into the night. Both sides claimed victory, with the French losing more than a third of the participants, and Gazan's division experiencing over 40 percent losses. The Austrians and Russians also suffered heavy losses—close to 16 percent. After Austerlitz, Napoleon dispersed the corps and Gazan received the Legion of Honour, but Mortier was simply reassigned.  When the War of the Fourth Coalition broke out in 1806, Napoleon ordered Mortier to assume command of the reformed VIII Corps on 1 October. He was to coordinate his operations with Louis Bonaparte's Franco-Dutch troops. On 16 October, two days after his crushing victory over Prussia at Jena-Auerstedt, Napoleon ordered Mortier and Louis to conquer the Electorate of Hesse. Mortier was to occupy Fulda and then the capital city of Kassel, rule as military governor, and imprison the Elector of Hesse, William I. Every Hessian officer above the rank of lieutenant would be arrested and Napoleon stated his intention to \"\"wipe the house of Hesse-Kassel from the map\"\". Mortier knew this constituted a violation of Hessian neutrality and boasted on 17 October that its very neutrality made it easy to conquer. On 1 November, the French occupied and looted Kassel, discovering that William had fled. Mortier issued a proclamation in which he claimed to have come to avenge Prussian violation of Hessian neutrality but also accused them of being Prussian allies.  Mortier left a division to hold Hesse-Kassel while the rest of his corps was directed to mopping-up operations in Prussia. Hamelin capitulated on 22 November, along with a garrison of 10,000 Prussian troops. Nienburg fell on 29 November, with 2,911 Prussian soldiers marching into captivity. In 1807, he served in the Friedland campaign, the siege of Stralsund, and the siege of Kolberg.  In 1808, Napoleon made Mortier Duke of Treviso (\"Trévise\" in French) a \"duché grand-fief\" (a rare, but nominal, hereditary honor, extinguished in 1946) in his own Kingdom of Italy, and shortly after he commanded an army corps in Napoleon's campaign for the recapture of Madrid.  Mortier remained in Spain for two campaigns, winning at Ocaña in November 1809. In 1812 and 1813 he commanded the Imperial Guard, and in the defensive campaign of 1814, he rendered brilliant services in command of rearguards and covering detachments. In 1815, after the flight of Bourbon King Louis XVIII, he rejoined Napoleon during the \"Cent Jours\" and was given command of the Imperial Guard once more, but at the opening of the Battle of Waterloo, he was unable to continue due to severe sciatica.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war career.", "content": "Following the second Bourbon Restoration, Mortier was for a time in disgrace, but in 1819 he was readmitted to the Chamber of Peers and in 1825 received the Order of the Holy Spirit, the kingdom's highest honor. In 1830–1831, he was Ambassador of France to Russia at St. Petersburg, and in 1834–1835, Minister of War and President of the Council of Ministers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 28 July 1835, Mortier was one of those accompanying King Louis-Philippe to a review of the Paris National Guard, an annual event that commemorated the July Revolution that brought the king to power in 1830. In the \"Boulevard du Temple\", the royal party was hit by a volley of gunfire from the upstairs window of a house. Eighteen were killed, including Mortier, and 22 injured. The king received only a minor wound.  The weapon used was a home-made volley gun, constructed and fired by Giuseppe Marco Fieschi for the purpose of assassinating the king. Fieschi had fixed twenty-five musket barrels to a wooden frame, and arranged that they could be fired simultaneously. Four of the barrels burst when fired and Fieschi was badly wounded. He was quickly captured and later tried with two co-conspirators. The three went to the guillotine in February 1836.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Mortier married Eve Anne Hymmès (Coblence, 19 August 1779Paris, 13 February 1855), by whom he had six children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adolphe Édouard Casimir Joseph Mortier, 1st Duke of Trévise (13 February 176828 July 1835) was a French military commander and Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon I, who served during both the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He was one of 18 people killed in 1835 during Giuseppe Marco Fieschi's assassination attempt on King Louis Philippe I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973712}
{"src_title": "Team building", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Four approaches.", "content": "Team building describe four approaches to team building:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Setting Goals.", "content": "This emphasizes the importance of clear objectives and individual and team goals. Team members become involved in action planning to identify ways to define success and failure and achieve goals. This is intended to strengthen motivation and foster a sense of ownership. By identifying specific outcomes and tests of incremental success, teams can measure their progress. Many organizations negotiate a team charter with the team and (union leaders)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Role clarification.", "content": "This emphasizes improving team members' understanding of their own and others' respective roles and duties. This is intended to reduce ambiguity and foster understanding of the importance of structure by activities aimed at defining and adjusting roles. It emphasizes the members' interdependence and the value of having each member focus on their own role in the team's success.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Problem solving.", "content": "This emphasizes identifying major problems", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interpersonal-relations.", "content": "This emphasizes increasing teamwork skills such as giving and receiving support, communication and sharing. Teams with fewer interpersonal conflicts generally function more effectively than others. A facilitator guides the conversations to develop mutual trust and open communication between team members.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Effectiveness.", "content": "The effectiveness of team building differs substantially from one organization to another. The most effective efforts occur when team members are interdependent, knowledgeable and experienced and when organizational leadership actively establishes and supports the team.  Effective team building incorporates an awareness of team objectives. Teams must work to develop goals, roles and procedures. As a result, team building is usually associated with increasing task accomplishment, goal meeting, and achievement of results within teams.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effect on performance.", "content": "Team building has been scientifically shown to positively affect team effectiveness. Goal setting and role clarification were shown to have impact on cognitive, affective, process and performance outcomes. They had the most powerful impact on affective and process outcomes, which implies that team building can help benefit teams experiencing issues with negative affect, such as lack of cohesion or trust. It could also improve teams suffering from process issues, such as lack of clarification in roles.  Goal setting and role clarification have the greatest impact because they enhance motivation, reduce conflict and help to set individual purposes, goals and motivation.  Teams with 10 or more members appear to benefit the most from team building. This is attributed to larger teams having – generally speaking – a greater reservoir of cognitive resources and capabilities than smaller teams.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Challenges to team building.", "content": "The term 'team building' is often used as a dodge when organizations are looking for a 'quick fix' to poor communication systems or unclear leadership directives, leading to unproductive teams with no clear of how to be successful. Team work is the best work.  Teams are then assembled to address specific problems, while the underlying causes are not ignored.  Dyer highlighted three challenges for team builders:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application of team building.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Schools.", "content": "Diana and Joseph claim that instructors can motivate students to develop teamwork skills and provide a guideline on how professors can help students build effective study/project teams. This approach emphasizes examples of job situations that require teamwork skills.  Instructor guidelines:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organizations.", "content": "Team building in organizations is a common approach to improving performance.  Fun is an important component to team building, but the intent is to become productive, focused, and aligned. Purely recreational activities can be helpful, but must be timed and consider the capabilities of team members (e.g., sports are not for everyone). Other activities geared toward creating a learning environment, exceeding results and engaging employees must be present.  Employee engagement exercises allow teams to create solutions that are meaningful to them, with direct impact on the individuals, the team and the organization. Experiential learning and ramification methods are effective ways to engage millennials in the workplace. Employee engagement is effective because:  Outdoor activities can be an effective way to engage the team, but there are many different types of team building activities possible.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Team building was introduced in sports in the 1990s. A 2010 study that analyzed the effects of team building found that team building activities increase group cohesion.  According to Yukelson, \"In sports, teams are made up of a collection of interdependent individuals, coordinated and orchestrated into various task efficient roles for the purpose of achieving goals and objectives that are deemed important for that particular team\".  Team building in sports develops behaviors and skills that increase team functioning. One of the fundamental strategies is to emphasize team identity. This can be done by instilling a sense of shared destiny.  A study examined whether a team building intervention program that stressed the importance of goal setting increased cohesion: 86 high school basketball players were studied. The hypothesis employed season-long goal setting. Participants were asked to individually assign targets for the team and negotiate with other team members to finalize a goal score for the team.  In the control branch, the coach occasionally encouraged participants to cheer for and support other team members. The research concluded that at the beginning of the study, all the teams had the same level of cohesion, but the team with the season long goal setting intervention program performed better.  The level of team cohesion did not increase as a result of ceiling effect with the intervention program, but the level decreased significantly for the control group. This was attributed to the lack of emphasis on team goals.  Core components for building a successful sports team:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Team building is a collective term for various types of activities used to enhance social relations and define roles within teams, often involving collaborative tasks. It is distinct from team training, which is designed by a combine of business managers, learning and development/OD (Internal or external) and an HR Business Partner (if the role exists) to improve the efficiency, rather than interpersonal relations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973713}
{"src_title": "Polikarpov I-15", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The design for the 14th fighter for the VVS, the I-14, started as an advanced (for the era) monoplane under the direction of Andrei Tupolev. He grew concerned that the design would not mature, and ordered two backup biplane designs as the I-14A and B just to be safe. Polikarpov had just been released from prison in August 1932, and was handed the I-14A project. When both the I-14 and I-14A were ordered into production, Polikarpov's design, a development of the I-5 fighter became the famous I-15.  The first flight was made in October 1933 with V.P. Chkalov at the controls, powered by an imported Wright R-1820 Cyclone engine. The I-15, also known by its development name TsKB-3, was a small biplane fighter with a gulled upper wing. The single bay wings were of wooden construction, while the fuselage was of mixed steel and duralumin construction, with a fabric covered rear fuselage.  Production started in 1934, initially being powered by the Shvetsov M-22, a license-built version of the Bristol Jupiter radial engine. While less powerful than the Cyclone, the M-22 powered aircraft were still superior to the I-5 which it replaced, demonstrating excellent manoeuvrability. Production switched to the 515 kW (700 hp) Shvetsov M-25 engine (a license-built, metricated Cyclone) in late 1936. A total of 671 I-15s were built, 284 in the Soviet Union and a further 287 under license by CASA in Spain.  The gulled upper wing of the I-15 was unpopular with some pilots, as it was felt to restrict visibility, so Polikarpov's design bureau produced a revised version, again powered by the M-25, with a longer span un-gulled upper wing. This version, the I-15bis, commenced production in 1937, a total of 2,408 I-15bis' being delivered by the time production finished in 1940.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "China.", "content": "In August 1937, the Chinese Kuomintang Government signed a non-aggression pact with the USSR. And, in autumn of the same year, the Soviet Union commenced to ship I-15s as a part of a programme of military aid to the Chinese Air Force (CAF) in its defensive war against Japan. More than 250 Soviet pilots volunteered to fly the 255 I-15s supplied to China in autumn 1937. By 1939, the total number of Polikarpov biplanes delivered to CAF reached 347 I-15/I-15bis. The I-15bis saw a great amount of action in the Soviet–Japanese border conflicts along the China–Mongolia border. In 1937, I-15s in the hands of the Chinese Nationalist Air Force fought against invading Japanese, where the tough biplane began to meet its match in some of the newer, faster Japanese monoplanes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mongolia.", "content": "In 1939 Polikarpov fighters were extensively used during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought around the Khalkha River in Dornod Province. The battles were fought during 11 May–16 September 1939, and involved more than 600 planes. When hostilities commenced, the only I-15bis in the area were 14 aircraft of 70th IAP. Their number increased in the following weeks: on 23 May, 35 I-15bis from 22nd IAP arrived from the Trans-Baikal region. However the Polikarpov pilots had been hastily trained and they suffered heavy losses against the more experienced Japanese. During this conflict, the Soviet Union and Japan lost more than 200 aircraft each. 10 aircraft were delivered to the Mongolian People's Army Air Force in mid-July 1939 and flight personnel were trained for rear air defence. Afterwards, they received more than 30 aircraft in March 1942.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spain.", "content": "The I-15 was used extensively in combat by the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War and proved to be one of the best fighter biplanes of its time. The Nationalists called the fighter \"Curtiss\", apparently believing it to be the Curtiss F9C Sparrowhawk. The first batch of 25 Polikarpovs arrived in Cartagena, Spain, on 28 October 1936, with 15 pilots, led by future ace Pavel Rychagov. A few days later a further group of 10 pilots and 15 aircraft arrived in Bilbao.  The Soviet pilots first went into action 4 November, when I-15s shot down two Junkers Ju 52/3ms and two CR.32s over Madrid, and forced a third Ju 52 and a Heinkel two-seater to crash-land. No losses were reported among the Soviet pilots. During the next two days, \"Chato\" pilots claimed 12 more victories, at the cost of two I-15s lost.  On 16 November, while dogfighting with Fiat CR.32s over Madrid, future ace Rychagov was shot down and four days later the number of combat-ready Polikarpov in the central area had fallen to 15 aircraft: seven had been lost in combat, two had force-landed and one was undergoing repair.  In December 1936 and January 1937, two more shipments of 30 aircraft arrived in Spain, making it possible to form four full-strength I-15 squadrons. Until the spring of 1937, central Spain was the main war theatre for I-15s. And in May 1937, another batch of 31 Polikarpov landed in Spain, taking the total number of I-15s delivered to 116.  \"Chato\" losses in the Spanish Civil War were comparable to those of its principal rival, the Fiat CR.32. By 1 January 1939, 197 Polikarpovs had been lost: 88 shot down by enemy aircraft and nine by anti-aircraft artillery, 27 destroyed on the ground and 67 written off in accidents.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "More than 1,000 I-15bis fighters were still in Soviet use during the German invasion when the biplane was employed in the ground attack role. By late 1942, all I-15s and I-15bis' were relegated to second line duties.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Polikarpov I-15 () was a Soviet biplane fighter aircraft of the 1930s. Nicknamed \"Chaika\" (\"\", \"Seagull\") because of its gulled upper wings, it was operated in large numbers by the Soviet Air Force, and together with the Polikarpov I-16 monoplane, was one of the standard fighters of the Spanish Republicans during the Spanish Civil War, where it was called Chato (snub-nose).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973714}
{"src_title": "False gharial", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Unlike the gharial, the false gharial's snout broadens considerably towards the base and so is more similar to those of true crocodiles than the gharial, whose osteology indicates a distinct lineage from all other living crocodilians. However, preliminary nuclear genetic sequences may indicate the gharial and false gharial had a shared ancestor at some point in prehistory. Other molecular studies have similarly indicated that it is the nearest relative (the sister taxon) of the gharial. Along with close fossil relatives, such as \"Maroccosuchus\", it is thus increasingly classed in the family Gavialidae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The false gharial is dark reddish-brown above with dark brown or black spots and cross-bands on the back and tail. Ventrals are grayish-white, with some lateral dark mottling. Juveniles are mottled with black on the sides of the jaws, body, and tail. The smooth and unornamented snout is extremely long and slender, parallel sided, with a length of 3.0 to 3.5 times the width at the base. All teeth are long and needle-like, interlocking on the insides of the jaws, and are individually socketed. The dorsal scales are broad at midbody and extend onto the sides of the body. The digits are webbed at the base. Integumentary sensory organs are present on the head and body scalation. Scales behind the head are frequently a slightly enlarged single pair. Some individuals bear a number of adjoining small keeled scales. Scalation is divided medially by soft granular skin. Three transverse rows of two enlarged nuchal scales are continuous with the dorsal scales, which consist of 22 transverse rows of six to eight scales, are broad at midbody and extend onto the sides of the body. Nuchal and dorsal rows equals a total of 22 to 23 rows. It has 18 double-crested caudal whorls and 17 single-crested caudal whorls. The flanks have one or two longitudinal rows of six to eight very enlarged scales on each side.  The false gharial has one of the slimmest snouts of any living crocodilian, perhaps comparable to the slender-snouted crocodile and the freshwater crocodile in the extent of slenderness, only that of the gharial is noticeably more slim. The false gharial is a large crocodilian. Males can reportedly grow up to in length. Three mature males kept in captivity measured and weighed, while a female measured and weighed. Females have been recorded at lengths of up to. The false gharial apparently has the largest skull of any extant crocodilian, undoubtedly aided by the great length of the slender snout. Out of the eight longest crocodilian skulls from existing species that could be found in museums around the world, six of these belonged to false gharials. The longest crocodilian skull belonging to an extant species was of this species and measured in length, with a mandibular length of. Most of the owners of these enormous skulls surprisingly had no confirmed (or even anecdotal) total measurements, but based on the known skull-to-total length ratio for the species, they would measure approximately in length.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "False gharials are native to Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak, and Indonesia (Sumatra, and Borneo), but were extirpated in Singapore and Thailand. It is unclear if they remain in Java. Apart from rivers, they inhabit swamps and lakes. The species is almost entirely found today in peat swamps and lowland swamp forests. In the 1990s, information and sightings were available from 39 localities in 10 different river drainages, along with the remote river systems of Borneo.  Prior to the 1950s, \"Tomistoma\" occurred in freshwater ecosystems along the entire length of Sumatra east of the Barisan Mountains. The current distribution in eastern Sumatra has been reduced by 30-40% due to hunting, logging, fires, and agriculture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behaviour.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Until recently, very little was known about the diet or behaviour of the false gharial in the wild. Details are slowly being revealed. In the past, the false gharial was thought to have a diet of only fish and very small vertebrates. But more recent evidence and observation indicate that it has a generalist diet despite its narrow snout. In addition to fish and smaller aquatic animals, mature adults prey on larger vertebrates, including proboscis monkeys, long-tailed macaques, deer, water birds, and reptiles. An eye-witness accounted of a false gharial attacking a cow in East Kalimantan.  The false gharial may be considered an ecological equivalent to Neotropical crocodiles such as the Orinoco and American crocodiles, which both have slender snouts but a broad diet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "False gharials are mound-nesters. Females lay small clutches of 13 to 35 eggs per nest, and appear to produce the largest eggs of extant crocodilians. Sexual maturity in females appears to be attained around, which is large compared to other crocodilians.  It is not known when they breed in the wild or when the nesting season is. Once the eggs are laid, and construction of the mound is completed, the female abandons her nest. Unlike most other crocodilians, the young receive no parental care and are at risk of being eaten by predators, such as mongooses, tigers, leopards, and wild dogs. The young hatch after 90 days and are left to fend for themselves.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conflict.", "content": "In 2008, a 4-m female false gharial attacked and ate a fisherman in central Kalimantan; his remains were found in the gharial's stomach. This was the first verified fatal human attack by a false gharial. However, by 2012, at least two more verified fatal attacks on humans by false gharials had occurred indicating perhaps an increase of human-false gharial conflict possibly correlated to the decline of habitat, habitat quality, and natural prey numbers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The false gharial is threatened with extinction throughout most of its range due to the drainage of its freshwater swamplands and clearance of surrounding rainforests. The species is also hunted frequently for its skin and meat, and the eggs are often harvested for human consumption.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The false gharial is listed on CITES Appendix I. Currently population surveys indicate that while the false gharial is not for the most extirpated from areas it used to inhabit, the distribution of individuals is much more spotty than the previously more connective distribution, putting the animals at risk of genetic isolation. In large part, the isolation of false gharials is due to extremely extensive habitat destruction and disturbance within the species' area of distribution, few areas outside of legally protected areas are likely to bear viable breeding populations.  Steps have been taken by the Malaysian and Indonesian governments to prevent its extinction in the wild. There are reports of some populations rebounding in Indonesia, yet with this slight recovery, mostly irrational fears of attacks have surfaced amongst the local human population. Yayasan Ulin (The Ironwood Foundation) is currently attempting to manage a wetland area in East Kalimantan, which is known to contain the false gharials.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "Although \"Tomistoma schlegelii\" is the only extant species in the genus \"Tomistoma\", fossils of extinct species have been found in Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary-age deposits in Taiwan, Uganda, Italy, Portugal, Egypt, and India, but nearly all of them are likely to be distinct genera due to older age compared to the false gharial.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The false gharial (\"Tomistoma schlegelii\"), also known as the Malayan gharial and the Sunda gharial, is a freshwater crocodilian in the family Gavialidae. It is native to Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, as the global population is estimated at around 2,500 to 10,000 mature individuals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973715}
{"src_title": "Alexandrine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Scope of the term.", "content": "The term \"alexandrine\" may be used with greater or lesser rigor. Peureux suggests that only French syllabic verse with a 6+6 structure is, strictly speaking, an alexandrine. Preminger \"et al\". allow a broader scope: \"Strictly speaking, the term 'alexandrine' is appropriate to French syllabic meters, and it may be applied to other metrical systems only where they too espouse syllabism as their principle, introduce phrasal accentuation, or rigorously observe the medial caesura, as in French.\" Common usage within the literatures of European languages is broader still, embracing lines syllabic, accentual-syllabic, and (inevitably) stationed ambivalently between the two; lines of 12, 13, or even 14 syllables; lines with obligatory, predominant, and optional caesurae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French.", "content": "Although alexandrines occurred in French verse as early as the 12th century, they were slightly looser rhythmically, and vied with the \"décasyllabe\" and \"octosyllabe\" for cultural prominence and use in various genres. \"The alexandrine came into its own in the middle of the sixteenth century with the poets of the Pléiade and was firmly established in the seventeenth century.\" It became the preferred line for the prestigious genres of epic and tragedy. The structure of the classical French alexandrine is  Classical alexandrines are always rhymed, often in couplets alternating masculine rhymes and feminine rhymes, though other configurations (such as quatrains and sonnets) are also common.  Victor Hugo began the process of loosening the strict two-hemistich structure. While retaining the medial caesura, he often reduced it to a mere word-break, creating a three-part line (\"alexandrin ternaire\") with this structure:  The Symbolists further weakened the classical structure, sometimes eliminating any or all of these caesurae. However, at no point did the newer line \"replace\" the older; rather, they were used concurrently, often in the same poem. This loosening process eventually led to \"vers libéré\" and finally to \"vers libre\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English.", "content": "In English verse, \"alexandrine\" is typically used to mean \"iambic hexameter\":  Whereas the French alexandrine is syllabic, the English is accentual-syllabic; and the central caesura (a defining feature of the French) is not always rigidly preserved in English.  Though English alexandrines have occasionally provided the sole metrical line for a poem, for example in lyric poems by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and Sir Philip Sidney, and in two notable long poems, Michael Drayton's \"Poly-Olbion\" and Robert Browning's \"Fifine at the Fair\", they have more often featured alongside other lines. During the Middle Ages they typically occurred with heptameters (seven-beat lines), both exhibiting metrical looseness. Around the mid-16th century stricter alexandrines were popular as the first line of poulter's measure couplets, fourteeners (strict iambic heptameters) providing the second line.  The strict English alexandrine may be exemplified by a passage from \"Poly-Olbion\", which features a rare caesural enjambment (symbolized codice_1) in the first line:  <poem style=\"margin-left:2em\"> Ye sacred Bards, that to ¦ your harps' melodious strings Sung th'ancient Heroes' deeds (the monuments of Kings) And in your dreadful verse ingrav'd the prophecies, The agèd world's descents, and genealogies; (lines 31-34) </poem>  The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser, with its stanzas of eight iambic pentameter lines followed by one alexandrine, exemplifies what came to be its chief role: as a somewhat infrequent variant line in an otherwise iambic pentameter context. Alexandrines provide occasional variation in the blank verse of William Shakespeare and his contemporaries (but rarely; they constitute only about 1% of Shakespeare's blank verse). John Dryden and his contemporaries and followers likewise occasionally employed them as the second (rarely the first) line of heroic couplets, or even more distinctively as the third line of a triplet. In his \"Essay on Criticism\", Alexander Pope denounced (and parodied) the excessive and unskillful use of this practice:  <poem style=\"margin-left:2em\"> Then at the last and only couplet fraught With some unmeaning thing they call a thought, A needless Alexandrine ends the song, That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. (lines 354-357) </poem>", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other languages.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spanish.", "content": "The Spanish \"alejandrino\" is a line of 7+7 syllables, probably developed in imitation of the French alexandrine.  It was used beginning about 1200 for \"mester de clerecía\" (clerical verse), typically occurring in the \"cuaderna vía\", a stanza of four \"alejandrinos\" all with a single end-rhyme.  The \"alejandrino\" was most prominent during the 13th and 14th centuries, after which time it was eclipsed by the metrically more flexible \"arte mayor\". Juan Ruiz's Book of Good Love is one of the best-known examples of \"cuaderna vía\", though other verse forms also appear in the work.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dutch.", "content": "The mid-16th-century poet Jan van der Noot pioneered syllabic Dutch alexandrines on the French model, but within a few decades Dutch alexandrines had been transformed into strict iambic hexameters with a caesura after the third foot. From Holland the accentual-syllabic alexandrine spread to other continental literatures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "German.", "content": "Similarly, in early 17th-century Germany, Georg Rudolf Weckherlin advocated for an alexandrine with free rhythms, reflecting French practice; whereas Martin Opitz advocated for a strict accentual-syllabic iambic alexandrine in imitation of contemporary Dutch practice — and German poets followed Opitz. The alexandrine (strictly iambic with a consistent medial caesura) became the dominant long line of the German baroque.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Polish.", "content": "Unlike many similar lines, the Polish alexandrine developed not from French verse but from Latin, specifically, the 13-syllable goliardic line:  Though looser instances of this (nominally) 13-syllable line were occasionally used in Polish literature, it was Mikołaj Rej and Jan Kochanowski who, in the 16th century, introduced the syllabically strict line as a vehicle for major works.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Czech.", "content": "The Czech alexandrine is a comparatively recent development, based on the French alexandrine and introduced by Karel Hynek Mácha in the 19th century. Its structure forms a halfway point between features usual in syllabic and in accentual-syllabic verse, being more highly constrained than most syllabic verse, and less so than most accentual-syllabic verse. Moreover, it equally encourages the very different rhythms of iambic hexameter and dactylic tetrameter to emerge by preserving the constants of both measures:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern references.", "content": "In the comic book \"Asterix and Cleopatra\", the author Goscinny inserted a pun about alexandrines: when the Druid Panoramix (\"Getafix\" in the English translation) meets his Alexandrian (Egyptian) friend the latter exclaims \"Je suis, mon cher ami, || très heureux de te voir\" at which Panoramix observes \"C'est un Alexandrin\" (\"That's an alexandrine!\"/\"He's an Alexandrian!\"). The pun can also be heard in the theatrical adaptations. The English translation renders this as \"My dear old Getafix || I hope I find you well\", with the reply \"An Alexandrine\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexandrine is a name used for several distinct types of verse line with related metrical structures, most of which are ultimately derived from the classical French alexandrine. The line's name derives from its use in the Medieval French \"Roman d'Alexandre\" of 1170, although it had already been used several decades earlier in \"Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne\". The foundation of most alexandrines consists of two hemistichs (half-lines) of six syllables each, separated by a caesura (a metrical pause or word break, which may or may not be realized as a stronger syntactic break):", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973716}
{"src_title": "Order of St. Andrew", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Russian Empire.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "The Order was established in 1698 by Tsar Peter the Great, in honour of Saint Andrew, the first apostle of Jesus and patron saint of Russia. It was bestowed in a single class and was only awarded for the most outstanding civilian or military merit.  Peter learned of the practice of bestowing awards from his travels in the West during the Great Embassy. In the past, service to the Russian state was rewarded with money or large estates. He witnessed first hand the awards ceremonies for England's Order of the Garter and Austria's Order of the Golden Fleece and noticed the loyalty and pride of the awardees. It also saved the state land and money.  Count Fyodor Golovin was the first recipient of the order. Until its abolition following the Russian Revolution of 1917, just over one thousand awards had been made. During the monarchy, recipients of the Order of St. Andrew also automatically received the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky, the Order of the White Eagle, the Order of St. Anne first class, and the Order St. Stanislaus first class. Moreover, recipients of lower ranks were automatically promoted to the rank of lieutenant general or vice admiral. The Order of Saint Andrew continued to be awarded by the Russian Imperial House in exile. The first post revolutionary presentation was to HH Prince Georgy Konstantinovich of Russia on attaining his dynastic majority in April 1923.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Insignia.", "content": "The insignia of the order consisted of:  The insignia of the order could be awarded \"with diamonds\" as a special distinction. Saint Andrew's Cathedral in Saint Petersburg was the chapter church of this order of chivalry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Russian Federation.", "content": "An order with the same name but with different insignia and statutes was first unofficially re-established by the Orthodox Church of Russia on December 27, 1988. The order was officially re-instated as the highest Russian civilian and military award by Presidential Decree No757 on June 1, 1998. The Order's award criteria were modified by Presidential Decree 1099 of September 7, 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statute of the Order.", "content": "The Order of St. Andrew the Apostle the First-Called is used to award prominent statesmen and public figures, eminent representatives of science, culture, the arts and various industries for exceptional services, for promoting the prosperity, grandeur and glory of Russia.  The Order may also be awarded to foreign heads of states for outstanding service to the Russian Federation.  Unlike the original Imperial institution, the modern Order does not have special robes nor strict rules regulating its wearing. The collar, the sash and the star of the Imperial Order were only worn with uniform or full evening dress; the insignia are nowadays may be worn on lounge suits and at least one recipient was seen wearing the order dressed in lounge suit without a tie, something that would be unheard of during the Imperial era.  The collar of the original Order was worn across the shoulders; modern recipients tend to wear it as a chain around the neck.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Insignia.", "content": "The design of the insignia of the modern Order of St. Andrew has changed very little from the imperial design. It consists of:  The colour of the sash differs from the colour of the Imperial era, and resembles the shade of the sash of the British Order of the Garter. Members of the military division of the Order have crossed swords added below the crown above the two eagles' heads. On the reverse of the eagle on a white ribbon the motto of the Order appears inscribed in gold letters: «За веру и верность» (\"For faith and loyalty\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recipients (partial list).", "content": "Among the recipients of the Order after its re-establishment were:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Order of St. Andrew the Apostle the First-Called () is the highest order of the Russian Federation. Established as the first and highest order of chivalry of the Russian Empire in 1698, it was abolished under the USSR before being re-established as the top Russian order in 1998.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973717}
{"src_title": "Irma Grese", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Irma Ilse Ida Grese was born to Berta Grese and Alfred Grese, a dairy worker, on 7 October 1923. Irma was the third of five children (three girls and two boys). In 1936, her mother committed suicide by drinking hydrochloric acid after discovering that Alfred had had an affair with a local pub owner's daughter. Historian Peter Vronsky speculated that Alfred Grese joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and remarried in 1939.  Irma's sister, Helene Grese, said at Irma's trial that in primary school, when \"girls were quarreling and fighting, [Irma] never had the courage to fight, but... ran away.\" She left school in 1938, aged 15, and worked as an assistant nurse in the sanatorium of the SS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concentration camp guard.", "content": "By her teenage years, she had become active in the Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls. Before her 18th birthday, she moved to the SS Female Helpers’ training base, which was located near Ravensbrück, the all-female concentration camp. After her training, she volunteered to work at Ravensbrück.  She was soon promoted to a guard position at Auschwitz-Birkenau. In 1942, she became an \"Aufseherin\" (guard or overseer) at Ravensbrück, and in March 1943 she transferred to Auschwitz-Birkenau. In 1944, she was promoted to \"Rapportführerin\", the second-highest rank possible for female KZ-wardens.  Grese participated in prisoner selections for the gas chambers at Auschwitz.  In early 1945, Grese accompanied a prisoner evacuation transport from Auschwitz to Ravensbrück. In March 1945, she went to Bergen-Belsen along with a large number of prisoners from Ravensbrück. Grese was captured by the British Army on 17 April 1945, together with other SS personnel who did not flee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War crimes trial.", "content": "Grese was among the 45 people accused of war crimes at the Belsen Trial. She was tried over the first period of the trials (17 September – 17 November 1945) and was represented by Major L. Cranfield. The trials were conducted under British military law in Lüneburg, based on charges derived from the Geneva Convention of 1929 regarding the treatment of prisoners. The accusations against her centred on her ill-treatment and murder of those imprisoned at the camps.  Survivors provided detailed testimony of cruelties. They also claimed that she beat some women using a plaited whip.  Under direct examination, Irma Grese testified about her background: I was born on 7 October 1923. In 1938 I left the elementary school and worked for six months on agricultural jobs at a farm, after which I worked in a shop in Lychen for six months. When I was 15 I went to a hospital in Hohenlychen, where I stayed for two years. I tried to become a nurse but the Labor Exchange would not allow that and sent me to work in a dairy in Fürstenberg. In July 1942, I tried again to become a nurse, but the Labour Exchange sent me to Ravensbrück Concentration Camp, although I protested against it. I stayed there until March 1943, when I went to Birkenau Camp in Auschwitz. I remained in Auschwitz until January 1945.  During the trial, the press labelled Grese as \"the Beautiful Beast\" alongside Kommandant Josef Kramer (\"the Beast of Belsen\"). After a nine-week trial, Grese was sentenced to death by hanging. Although the charges against some of the other female warders (a total of 16 were charged) were as serious as those against Grese, she was one of only three female guards to be sentenced to death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Execution.", "content": "Grese and two other concentration camp workers, Johanna Bormann and Elisabeth Volkenrath, were convicted along with eight men for crimes committed at Auschwitz and Belsen and sentenced to death. As the verdicts were read, Grese was the only prisoner to remain defiant. Her subsequent appeal was rejected.  According to Wendy Adele-Marie Sarti, the night before her execution, Grese sang Nazi songs until the early hours of the morning with Johanna Bormann. On Thursday, 13 December 1945, in, Grese was led to the gallows. The women were executed singly by long-drop hanging and then the men in pairs. Regimental Sergeant Major Richard Anthony O'Neill assisted the British executioner, Albert Pierrepoint:We climbed the stairs to the cells where the condemned were waiting. A German officer at the door leading to the corridor flung open the door and we filed past the row of faces and into the execution chamber. The officers stood at attention. Brigadier Paton-Walsh stood with his wristwatch raised. He gave me the signal, and a sigh of released breath was audible in the chamber, I walked into the corridor. 'Irma Grese', I called. The German guards quickly closed all grilles on twelve of the inspection holes and opened one door. Irma Grese stepped out. The cell was far too small for me to go inside, and I had to pinion her in the corridor. 'Follow me,' I said in English, and O'Neil [sic] repeated the order in German. At 9.34 a.m. she walked into the execution chamber, gazed for a moment at the officials standing round it, then walked on to the centre of the trap, where I had made a chalk mark. She stood on this mark very firmly, and as I placed the white cap over her head she said in her languid voice, 'Schnell'. [English translation: 'Quickly'].  The drop crashed down, and the doctor followed me into the pit and pronounced her dead. After twenty minutes the body was taken down and placed in a coffin ready for burial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dramatizations.", "content": "Grese has been portrayed as a minor character in two films: \"Pierrepoint\" (2005), which portrays her execution following the Belsen war crimes trial; and \"Out of the Ashes\" (2003). Both films feature additional female guards in much smaller roles. Grese was briefly portrayed in a nonspeaking reenactment in \"\" (2005).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Irma Ida Ilse Grese (7 October 1923 – 13 December 1945) was an \"SS\" guard at the Nazi concentration camps of Ravensbrück and Auschwitz, and served as warden of the women's section of Bergen-Belsen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973718}
{"src_title": "Maria Mandl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Mandl was born in Münzkirchen, Upper Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, the daughter of a shoemaker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Camp work.", "content": "After the \"Anschluss\" by Nazi Germany, Mandl moved to Munich, and on 15 October 1938 joined the camp staff as an \"Aufseherin\" at Lichtenburg, an early Nazi concentration camp in the Province of Saxony where she worked with fifty other SS women. On 15 May 1939, along with other guards and prisoners, Mandl was sent to the newly opened Ravensbrück concentration camp near Berlin. She soon impressed her superiors and, after she had joined the Nazi Party on 1 April 1941, was elevated to the rank of a \"SS-Oberaufseherin\" in April 1942. She oversaw daily roll calls, assignments for \"Aufseherinnen\" and punishments such as beatings and floggings.  On 7 October 1942, Mandl was assigned to the Auschwitz II-Birkenau camp where she succeeded Johanna Langefeld as \"SS-Lagerführerin\" of the women camp under \"SS-Kommandant\" Rudolf Höß. As a woman she could never outrank a man, but her control over both female prisoners and her female subordinates was absolute. The only man Mandl reported to was the commandant. She controlled all the female Auschwitz camps and female subcamps including at Hindenburg, Lichtewerden and Raisko.  Mandl promoted Irma Grese to head of the Hungarian women's camp at Birkenau. According to some accounts, Mandl often stood at the gate into Birkenau waiting for an inmate to turn and look at her: any who did were taken out of the lines and never heard from again. At Auschwitz, Mandl was known as The Beast, and for the next two years she participated in selections for death and other documented abuses. She signed inmate lists, sending an estimated half a million women and children to their deaths in the gas chambers at Auschwitz I and II.  Mandl created the Women's Orchestra of Auschwitz to accompany roll calls, executions, selections and transports. An Auschwitz prisoner, Lucia Adelsberger, later described it in her book, \"Auschwitz: Ein Tatsachenbericht\":\"The women who came back from work exhausted had to march in time to the music. Music was ordered for all occasions, for the addresses of the Camp Commanders, for the transports and whenever anybody was hanged.\"  For her services, Mandl was awarded the War Merit Cross 2nd class. In November 1944, she was assigned to the Mühldorf subcamp of Dachau concentration camp and Elisabeth Volkenrath became head of Auschwitz, which were liberated in late January 1945. In May 1945, Mandl fled from Mühldorf into the mountains of southern Bavaria to her birthplace, Münzkirchen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arrest and execution.", "content": "The United States Army arrested Mandl on 10 August 1945. Interrogations reportedly revealed her to be highly intelligent and dedicated to her work in the camps. For some time she was held at Dachau Prison, and was filmed by the US Army in May 1945 sharing a cell with Elizabeth Ruppert. Mandl was handed over to the Polish People’s Republic in November 1946, and in November 1947 she was tried in a Kraków courtroom in the Auschwitz Trial and sentenced to death by hanging.  Stanisława Rachwałowa (a Polish survivor of Auschwitz who was an inmate under Mandl's administration and, after the war, was arrested by Poland's post-war communist authorities as an \"anti-communist activist\") was imprisoned in the cell next to Maria Mandl and Therese Brandl. Rachwałowa was proficient enough in German to interpret for the wardens. She stated that the last time she and the two German war criminals met – after they had been sentenced to death and shortly before their executions took place – both had asked her for forgiveness. Mandl was hanged on 24 January 1948, aged 36.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Mandl (also spelled Mandel; 10 January 1912 – 24 January 1948) was an Austrian \"SS-Helferin\" known for her role in the Holocaust as a top-ranking official at the Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp where she is believed to have been directly complicit in the deaths of over 500,000 female prisoners. She was executed for war crimes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973719}
{"src_title": "François Jacob", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Jacob was born the only child of Simon, a merchant, and Thérèse (Franck) Jacob, in Nancy, France. An inquisitive child, he learned to read at a young age. Albert Franck, Jacob's maternal grandfather, a four-star general, was Jacob's childhood role model. At seven he entered the Lycée Carnot, where he was schooled for the next ten years; in his autobiography he describes his impression of it: \"a cage\". He was antagonized by rightist youth at the Lycée Carnot around 1934.  Though interested (and talented) in physics and mathematics, Jacob was horrified at the prospect of spending two additional years in \"an even more draconian regime\" to prepare for higher study at the Polytechnique. Instead, after observing a surgical operation that cemented his \"slight interest\" in medicine, he entered medical school.  During the German occupation of France—and on the heels of his mother's death—Jacob left France for Great Britain to join the war effort. Jacob, who had only completed his second year of medical studies, joined the medical company of the French 2nd Armored Division in 1940. He was injured in a German air attack in 1944 and returned to now-liberated Paris in on 1 August 1944. For his wartime service, he was awarded France's WWII highest decoration for valor, the Cross of Liberation, as well as Légion d'honneur and croix de guerre.  After his recovery, Jacob returned to medical school and began researching tyrothricin and learning the methods of bacteriology in the process. He completed a thesis he described as \"replicating American work\" on the effectiveness of the antibiotic against local infections, and became a medical doctor in 1947. Though attracted to research as a career, he was discouraged by his own perceived ignorance after attending a microbiology congress that summer. Instead he took a position at the Cabanel Center, where he had done his thesis research; his new work entailed the manufacture of antibiotic, tyrothricin. Later, the center was contracted to convert gunpowder factories for penicillin production (though this proved impossible).  Also in this period, he met and began courting his future wife, Lise Bloch. Jacob remarried in 1999 to Geneviève Barrier.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "In 1961 Jacob and Monod explored the idea that the control of enzyme expression levels in cells is a result of regulation of transcription of DNA sequences. Their experiments and ideas gave impetus to the emerging field of molecular developmental biology, and of transcriptional regulation in particular.  For many years it had been known that bacterial and other cells could respond to external conditions by regulating levels of their key metabolic enzymes, and/or the activity of these enzymes. For instance, if a bacterium finds itself in a broth containing lactose, rather than the simpler sugar glucose, it must adapt itself to the need to 1) import lactose, 2) cleave lactose to its constituents glucose and galactose, and 3) convert the galactose to glucose. It was known that cells ramp up their production of the enzymes that do these steps when exposed to lactose, rather than wastefully producing these enzymes all the time. Studies of enzyme activity control were progressing through theories of the (allosteric) action of small molecules on the enzyme molecule itself (switching it on or off), but the method of controlling the enzyme production was not well understood at the time.  With the earlier determination of the structure and central importance of DNA, it became clear that all proteins were being produced in some way from its genetic code, and that this step might form a key control point. Jacob and Monod made key experimental and theoretical discoveries that demonstrated that in the case of the lactose system outlined above (in the bacterium \"E. coli\"), there are specific proteins that are devoted to repressing the transcription of the DNA to its product (RNA, which in turn is decoded into protein).  This repressor (the lac repressor) is made in all cells, binding directly to DNA at the genes it controls, and physically preventing the transcription apparatus from gaining access to the DNA. In the presence of lactose, some of the lactose is converted to allolactose, which binds to the repressor making it no longer able to bind to DNA, and the transcriptional repression is lifted. In this way, a robust feedback loop is constructed that allows the set of lactose-digesting proteins products to be made only when they are needed.  Jacob and Monod extended this repressor model to all genes in all organisms in their initial exuberance. The regulation of gene activity has developed into a very large sub-discipline of molecular biology, and in truth exhibits enormous variety in mechanism and many levels of complexity. Current researchers find regulatory events at every conceivable level of the processes that express genetic information. In the relatively simple genome of baker's yeast, (\"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\"), 405 of its 6,419 protein-encoding genes are directly involved in transcriptional control, compared to 1,938 that are enzymes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François Jacob (17 June 1920 – 19 April 2013) was a French biologist who, together with Jacques Monod, originated the idea that control of enzyme levels in all cells occurs through regulation of transcription. He shared the 1965 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Jacques Monod and André Lwoff.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973720}
{"src_title": "Marwan II", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Marwan ibn Muhammad was a member of the \"Marwanid\" household of the Umayyad Caliphate. His mother was a most likely a Kurd who was taken captive by Marwans father, Muhammad ibn Marwan, who was the son of the fourth Umayyad Caliph Marwan I (), by a woman named Zaynab, and hence half-brother to fifth Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "In A.H. 114 (732–733) Caliph Hisham appointed Marwan governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan. In A.H. 117 (735–736) Marwan invaded Georgia, devastated it and then took three fortresses of the Alans and made peace with Tumanshah. In A.H. 121 he launched further raids and obtained tribute. In A.H. 126, on hearing news of the plot to overthrow al-Walid II, Marwan wrote to his relatives from Armenia strongly discouraging this. He urged them to harmoniously preserve the stability and well-being of the Umayyad house.  When Yazid III persisted in overthrowing al-Walid II, Marwan at first opposed him, then rendered allegiance to him. On Yazid's early death, Marwan renewed his ambitions, ignored Yazid's named successor Ibrahim and became caliph. Ibrahim initially hid, then requested Marwan give him assurances of personal safety. This Marwan granted and Ibrahim even accompanied the new caliph to Hisham's residence of Rusafah.  Marwan named his two sons Ubaydillah and Abdullah heirs. He appointed governors and proceeded to assert his authority by force. However, anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. As such, Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together.  Marwan took Emesa (Homs) after a bitter ten-month siege. Al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Shaybani led a Kharijite rebellion. He defeated the Syrian forces and took Kufa. Sulayman ibn Hisham turned against Marwan, but suffered a severe defeat. The Kharijites advanced on Mosul and were defeated. Sulayman joined them. Al-Dahhak's successor al-Khaybari was initially successful in pushing back Marwan's centre and even took the caliph's camp and sat on his carpet. However, he and those with him fell in fighting in the camp. Shayban succeeded him. Marwan pursued him and Sulayman to Mosul and besieged them there for six months. Then, reinforced, the caliph drove them out. Shayban fled to Bahrayn where he was killed; Sulayman sailed to India.  In Khurasan there was internal discord with the Umayyad governor Nasr ibn Sayyar facing opposition from al-Harith and al-Kirmani. They also fought each other. In addition Abbasid envoys arrived. There had long been religious fervour and a kind of messianic expectation of Abbasid ascendency. During Ramadan 747 (May 16–June 14), they unfurled the standards of their revolt. Nasr sent his retainer Yazid against them. Yazid, however, was bested, taken and held captive. He was impressed by the Abbasids and when released told Nasr he wanted to join them, but his obligations to Nasr brought him back.  Fighting continued throughout Khurasan with the Abbasids gaining increasing ascendency. Finally, Nasr fell sick and died at Rayy on November 9, 748 at the age of eighty-five.  Marwan campaign in Egypt in 749 to quell the Bashmuric Revolt and secure his rear, but his campaign was a failure. The Abbasids, meanwhile, achieved success in the Hijaz. Marwan suffered a decisive defeat by Abu al-'Abbas al-Saffah on the banks of the Great Zab called Battle of the Zab. At this battle alone, over 300 members of the Umayyad family died. Marwan fled, leaving Damascus, Jordan and Palestine and reaching Egypt, where he was caught and killed on August 6, 750. His heirs Ubaydallah and Abdallah escaped to modern Eritrea. Ubaydallah died in fighting there.  Marwan's death signalled the end of Umayyad fortunes in the East, and was followed by the mass-killing of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince Abd ar-Rahman who escaped to Spain and founded an Umayyad dynasty there.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marwan ibn Muhammad ibn Marwan ibn al-Hakam (; 691–6 August 750), also called Marwan II, was the fourteenth and last caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, ruling from 744 until he was killed in 750. Much of his reign was dominated by the Third Muslim Civil War, and he was the last Umayyad ruler to rule the united Caliphate before the Abbasid Revolution toppled the Umayyad dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973721}
{"src_title": "Kardashev scale", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "In 1964, Kardashev defined three levels of civilizations, based on the order of magnitude of power available to them:  Kardashev believed that a Type 4 civilization was impossible, so he did not go past Type 3. However, new types (0, IV, V, VI) have been proposed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current status of human civilization.", "content": "At the current time, humanity has not yet reached Type 1 civilization status. Physicist and futurist Michio Kaku suggested that, if humans increase their energy consumption at an average rate of 3 percent each year, they may attain Type I status in 100–200 years, Type II status in a few thousand years, and Type III status in 100,000 to a million years.  Carl Sagan suggested defining intermediate values (not considered in Kardashev's original scale) by interpolating and extrapolating the values given above for types I (10 W), II (10 W) and III (10 W), which would produce the formula  where value \"K\" is a civilization's Kardashev rating and \"P\" is the power it uses, in watts. Using this extrapolation, a \"Type 0\" civilization, not defined by Kardashev, would control about 1 MW of power, and humanity's civilization type as of 1973 was about 0.7 (apparently using 10 terawatts (TW) as the value for 1970s humanity).  In 2018, the total world energy consumption was 13864.9 Mtoe (161,249 TWh), equivalent to an average power consumption of 18.40 TW or 0.73 on Sagan's interpolated Kardashev scale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Observational evidence.", "content": "In 2015, a study of galactic mid-infrared emissions came to the conclusion that \"Kardashev Type-III civilizations are either very rare or do not exist in the local Universe\".  On October 14, 2015, the detection of an unusual light curve for star KIC 8462852 raised speculation that a Dyson swarm (Type II civilization) may have been discovered. The SETI Institute's initial radio reconnaissance of KIC 8462852, however, found no evidence of technology-related radio signals from the star.  In 2016, Paul Glister, author of the Centauri Dreams website, described a signal apparently from the star HD 164595 as requiring the power of a Type I or Type II civilization, if produced by extraterrestrial lifeforms. However, in August 2016 it was discovered that the signal's origin was most likely a military satellite orbiting the Earth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Civilization implications.", "content": "There are many historical examples of human civilization undergoing large-scale transitions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The transition between Kardashev scale levels could potentially represent similarly dramatic periods of social upheaval, since they entail surpassing the hard limits of the resources available in a civilization's existing territory. A common speculation suggests that the transition from Type 0 to Type I might carry a strong risk of self-destruction since, in some scenarios, there would no longer be room for further expansion on the civilization's home planet, as in a Malthusian catastrophe. Excessive use of energy without adequate disposal of heat, for example, could plausibly make the planet of a civilization approaching Type I unsuitable to the biology of the dominant life-forms and their food sources. If Earth is an example, then sea temperatures in excess of would jeopardize marine life and make the cooling of mammals to temperatures suitable for their metabolism difficult if not impossible. Of course, these theoretical speculations may not become problems possibly through the applications of future engineering and technology. Also, by the time a civilization reaches Type I it may have colonized other planets or created O'Neill-type colonies, so that waste heat could be distributed throughout the planetary system  The limitation of biological life-form and the evolution of computing technology may lead to the transformation of the civilization through Mind uploading during the transition from Type I to Type II, leading to a digitalized civilization.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extensions to the original scale.", "content": "Many extensions and modifications to the Kardashev scale have been proposed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "It has been argued that, because we cannot understand advanced civilizations, we cannot predict their behavior. Thus, the Kardashev scale may not be relevant or useful for classifying extraterrestrial civilizations. This central argument is found in the 2002 book \"\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kardashev scale is a method of measuring a civilization's level of technological advancement based on the amount of energy they are able to use. The measure was proposed by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Kardashev in 1964. The scale has three designated categories:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973722}
{"src_title": "SU-100", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The SU-85 was developed from the chassis of the T-34 tank replacing the turret with a larger, fixed superstructure that allowed a larger gun to be fitted: the 85 mm D-5 gun, providing dramatically upgraded firepower compared to the T-34's 76.2 mm models. Introduced to service in 1943, the SU-85 was quickly rendered obsolete as a new tank design featured the same gun on the T-34-85.  This prompted the design of a more advanced turretless tank destroyer with an even more powerful cannon. Development was conducted under supervision of L. I. Gorlitskiy, chief designer of all medium Soviet self-propelled guns. The work started in February 1944 and the first prototype of the SU-100, \"Object 138\", was delivered in March. After intensive testing with different models of 100 mm gun Soviet engineers approved the D-10S gun for mass production. This gun was developed in Constructors Bureau of Artillery Factory No. 9 under the guidance of F. F. Petrov. After the Second World War this gun was installed on T-54 and T-55 tanks; these vehicles and their derivatives were in service forty years after initial development.  It was built at the UZTM (Russian abbreviature УЗТМ for Уральский Завод Тяжелого Машиностроения – Ural Heavy Machinery Factory, also called \"Uralmash\") in Yekaterinburg. The SU-100 quickly proved itself to be able to penetrate around of vertical armor from a range of and the sloped front armor of the German Panther from.  The hull of the SU-100 had major improvements over the SU-85; the thickness of the front armour was increased from, and the commander's workplace was made in a small sponson on the right side of the hull; combined with the commander's cupola this improved the commander's effectiveness. Its German \"Jagdpanzer\"-family counterparts — the Jagdpanzer IV, Jagdpanther and Jagdtiger, by comparison, lacked this key piece of observational equipment. On the other hand, the SU-100's optics were inferior. For better ventilation two ventilator units were installed, instead of only one as in the SU-85. Mass production began in September 1944.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service history.", "content": "The SU-100 saw extensive service during the last year of the war. It was used \"en masse\" in Hungary in March 1945, when Soviet forces defeated the German Operation Frühlingserwachen offensive at Lake Balaton. By July 1945, 2,335 SU-100s had been built.  The vehicle remained in service with the Red Army well after the war; production continued in the Soviet Union until 1947 and into the 1950s in Czechoslovakia. It was withdrawn from Soviet service in 1967 but many vehicles were transferred to reserve stocks. Some exist to this day in the Russian Army holding facilities.  Many Warsaw Pact countries also used the SU-100, as did Soviet allies such as Egypt, Angola and Cuba. A few SU-100 were delivered to Yugoslavia after the war, under the designation M-44. The SU-100 saw service in the fighting that accompanied the 1956 Suez Crisis, in which the Egyptians used SU-100s against Israel's M4 Sherman tanks. The vehicle was also utilized in the 1967 Six-Day War and the 1973 Yom Kippur War. It was modified slightly to adapt it to the sandy conditions of the Middle East, thus creating the SU-100M variant. Exported SU-100s continued in service until the 1970s, and in some countries, even later. Yugoslavs used them during the civil war; however, due to lack of spare parts they were quickly retired, despite their satisfactory performance. The SU-100 remains in use by the Vietnam People's Army and the Korean People's Army Ground Force.  SU-100s entered service with the People's Liberation Army (PLA) of China after 1 December 1950 when Soviet forces left Dalian. The armaments in Dalian were sold to China, including 99 SU-100s, 18 IS-2 heavy tanks, and 224 T-34s, with which PLA formed its 1st Mechanised Division.  In April 2015, a SU-100 self-propelled gun was photographed being used in Yemen as part of the ongoing conflict. Video evidence uploaded to YouTube in November 2016 showed an apparent SU-100 being knocked out by an anti-tank guided missile in Yemen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The SU-100 (\"Samokhodnaya Ustanovka\" 100) was a Soviet tank destroyer armed with a 100 mm anti-tank gun in a casemate superstructure. It was used extensively during the last year of World War II and saw service for many years afterwards with the armies of Soviet allies around the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973723}
{"src_title": "Wikimedia Commons", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The project was proposed by Erik Möller in March 2004 and launched on September 7, 2004. A key motivation behind the setup of a central repository was the desire to reduce duplication of effort across the Wikimedia projects and languages, as the same file had to be uploaded to many different wikis separately before Commons was created.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Policies.", "content": "The aim of Wikimedia Commons is to provide a media file repository \"that makes available public domain and freely-licensed educational media content to all, and that acts as a common repository for the various projects of the Wikimedia Foundation.\" The expression \"educational\" is to be understood according to its broad meaning of \"providing knowledge; instructional or informative\".  Most Wikimedia projects still allow local uploads which are not visible to other projects or languages, but this option is meant to be used primarily for material (such as fair use content) which local project policies allow, but which would not be permitted according to the copyright policy of Commons. Wikimedia Commons itself does not allow fair use or uploads under non-free licenses, including licenses which restrict commercial use of materials or disallow derivative works. For this reason, Wikimedia Commons always hosts freely licensed media and deletes copyright violations. Licenses that are acceptable include the Creative Commons Attribution and Attribution/ShareAlike licenses, other free content and free software licenses, and the public domain.  The default language for Commons is English, but registered users can customize their interface to use any other available user interface translations. Many content pages, in particular policy pages and portals, have also been translated into various languages. Files on Wikimedia Commons are categorized using MediaWiki's category system. In addition, they are often collected on individual topical gallery pages. While the project was originally proposed to also contain free text files, these continue to be hosted on a sister project, Wikisource.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversial content.", "content": "The site has been criticized for hosting large amounts of amateur pornography, often uploaded by exhibitionists who exploit the site for personal gratification, and who are enabled by sympathetic administrators. In 2012, BuzzFeed described Wikimedia Commons as \"littered with dicks\".  In 2010, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger reported Wikimedia Commons to the FBI for hosting sexualized images of children known as \"lolicon\". After this was reported in the media, Jimmy Wales, founder of the Wikimedia Foundation which hosts Commons, used his administrator status to delete several images without discussion from the Commons community. Wales responded to the backlash from the Commons community by voluntarily relinquishing some site privileges, including the ability to delete files.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Utilities.", "content": "Over time, additional functionality has been developed to interface Wikimedia Commons with the other Wikimedia projects. Daniel Kinzler wrote applications for finding appropriate categories for uploaded files (\"CommonSense\"), determining the usage of files across the Wikimedia projects (\"CheckUsage\"), locating images with missing copyright information (\"UntaggedImages\"), and relaying information about administrative actions such as deletions to the relevant wikis (\"\").  Specialized uploading tools and scripts such as \"\" have been created to simplify the process of uploading large numbers of files. At one time, in order to review free content photos uploaded to Flickr, users could participate in a now-defunct collaborative external review process (\"\"), which resulted in more than 10,000 uploads to Commons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structured Data.", "content": "Structured Data on Commons (SDC) is a three-year software development project funded by the Sloan Foundation to provide the infrastructure for Wikimedia Commons volunteers to organize data about media files in a consistent manner. This data is structured more, and is made machine-readable. The goals of the functionality are to make contributing to Commons easier by providing new ways to edit, curate, and write software for Commons, and to make general use of Commons easier by expanding capabilities in search and reuse.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quality.", "content": "The site has three mechanisms for recognizing quality works. One is known as \"\", where works are nominated and other community members vote to accept or reject the nomination. This process began in November 2004. Another process known as \"\" began in June 2006, and has a simpler nomination process comparable to \"Featured pictures\". \"Quality images\" only accepts works created by Wikimedia users, whereas \"Featured pictures\" additionally accepts nominations of works by third parties such as NASA. A third image assessment project, known as \"\", began on June 1, 2008 with the purpose of recognizing \"the most valued illustration of its kind\", in contrast to the other two processes which assess images mainly on technical quality.  The three mentioned processes select a slight part (less than 0.1%) from the total number of files. However, Commons collects files of all quality levels, from the most professional level across simple documental and amateur files up to files of very poor quality. Generally, Commons is not a competition but a collection; a quality of the description and organization of files and their descriptive and informational benefits are often more relevant than technical or artistic perfection of the files. Files with specific defects can be tagged for improvement and warning or even proposed for deletion but there exists no process of systematic rating of all files.  The site held its inaugural \"Picture of the Year\" competition, for 2006. All images that were made a Featured picture during 2006 were eligible, and voted on by eligible Wikimedia movement members during two rounds of voting. The winning picture was a picture of the Aurora Borealis over snowlands, taken by an airman from the U.S. Air Force. The competition has since become an annual event.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wikimedia Commons Pictures of the Year.", "content": "The (POTY) is a competition that was first run in 2006. It aims to identify the best freely licensed images from those that during the year have been awarded status.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Content figures.", "content": "\"Source: \"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wikimedia Commons (or simply Commons) is an online repository of free-use images, sounds, other media, and JSON files. It is a project of the Wikimedia Foundation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973724}
{"src_title": "Alta, Norway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "General information.", "content": "The municipality of Alten-Talvig was established on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). On 1 January 1863, the municipality was divided into two: Talvik to the north (population: 1,938) and Alta to the south (population: 2,442). On 1 January 1964, the two municipalities were merged back together to form the new, larger municipality of Alta. Prior to the merger, Alta had 6,629 residents and Talvik had 3,266 residents. The borders have not changed since that time.  On 1 January 2020, the municipality became part of the newly formed Troms og Finnmark county. Previously, it had been part of the old Finnmark county.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The municipality is probably named after the local Altafjorden. The name possibly comes from the Old Norse (\"ǫlpt\" or \"alpt\") which refers to a swan or it is a Norwegianization of the Finnish word (\"alaattia\") which refers to a \"lowland\". Prior to 1918, the name was written \"Alten\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coat of arms.", "content": "The coat of arms is from modern times; they were granted on 9 July 1976. The arms show a white arrow point on a blue background. The arrow is derived from the findings of quartzite arrow points dating back to the late Stone Age and found in the area. The quartzite was quarried in the municipality and tools made from it were used all over Northern Norway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Churches.", "content": "The Church of Norway has two parishes \"(sokn)\" within the municipality of Alta. It is part of the Alta prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Nord-Hålogaland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The rock carvings at Alta, located near the Jiepmaluokta bay, dating from c. 4200 BC to 500 BC, are on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. The Komsa culture was named after the Komsa mountain in Alta municipality, where the first archeological remains of this culture were discovered.  In the aftermath of the Sami Kautokeino rebellion of 1852, rebel leaders Mons Aslaksen Somby and Aslak Jacobsen Hætta were decapitated at Elvebakken in what is now the town of Alta on 14 October 1854.  Their bodies were buried in graves just outside the Kåfjord Church graveyard in the village of Kåfjord in Alta, but their heads were sent on to the \"Anatomisk Institute\" at the Kong Medical Frederiks University in Oslo, where they were kept for more than a century as part of the university's skull collections. The two skulls were only relinquished by the university in 1985, following a controversy and protests by Sami activists, and were in November 1997 buried at the Kåfjord Church in Alta, at the same spot as their bodies were buried over 140 years earlier.  During World War II, the German battleship \"Tirpitz\" used the Kåfjorden, an arm of Altafjorden, as a harbour, and was damaged here by attacking Allied warplanes. The town Alta was seriously destroyed by fire near the end of the World War II. It was rebuilt in subsequent years.  The \"Altasaken\" in 1979 made headlines for weeks, as many people (especially Sami people and environmentalists) demonstrated and used civil disobedience to prevent the building of a dam on the river Altaelva in order to produce hydropower. The dam was built, however, and the river still offers good salmon fishing. The King of Norway usually visits the river once in the summer to fish.  The urban area made up of Bossekop, Elvebakken, and Bukta, also known collectively now as the town of Alta, became a town on 1 January 2000. The population has been growing steadily for many years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "All municipalities in Norway, including Alta, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor. The municipality falls under the Alta District Court and the Hålogaland Court of Appeal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Municipal council.", "content": "The municipal council of Alta is made up of 35 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the council is as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Alta is the second northernmost city in the world surpassing 10,000 inhabitants. Alta municipality covers, in the west of the county, mostly situated along the Altafjord, taking in large tracts of woodlands, as well as parts of the High Plateau of Finnmarksvidda. On its way from the plateau down to the fjord, the river Altaelva has carved out the Sautso canyon, one of the largest canyons in Europe. The large Altafjorden has several notable bays and fjord arms that branch off from it including Langfjorden, Jiepmaluokta, Kåfjorden, and Lille Kufjorden.  Alta is based on the mainland of Norway, but it also includes parts of the islands of Stjernøya and Seiland. Seiland is the home of Seiland National Park where the Seilandsjøkelen glacier and the mountain Seilandstuva are located.  Several of the notable lakes in Alta include Iešjávri, Juovvajávri, Kovvatnet, and Stuorajávri.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Most people live in the town of Alta, stretching along the inner part of the fjord, enjoying a sheltered subarctic climate (Dfc), where daily mean temperatures are above 10 degrees Celsius for only 3 months of the year. Daytime mid-summer temperatures are often comparable to southern parts of Norway, and lowland areas in Alta are mostly sheltered from the winter storms. The mean annual temperature is (1961–90) and the Alta valley does not have permafrost but is dominated by closed-canopy forest of birch and pine. Precipitation is low, with a yearly average precipitation of only. The frequent clear skies are the reason why Alta early was chosen as an excellent location for studying the aurora borealis. The \"midnight sun\" is above the horizon from 18 May to 27 July, lasting a bit longer than the polar night from 26 November to 16 January.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Alta is a transportation center in Finnmark. Alta Airport served 334,132 passengers in 2009. There are direct flights to Oslo, Tromsø, Vadsø, and Kirkenes. The town of Alta also has port facilities in the town center, and European route E6 passes through Alta. The distance to southern Scandinavia is considerably shorter over European route E45 and northern Finland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Main activities in Alta include trading, small industry, education, and public service. The town is also famous for its slate industry. Finnmark University College () is situated in Alta, and there is also a research institution (Norut NIBR Finnmark). The town has the northernmost ice hotel in Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Alta is home to the football club Alta IF. Cross-country skiing is very popular. Alta also has clubs for handball, track and field, alpine skiing, ice skating, taekwondo, and judo.  The bicycle race Finnmark Offroad, with 700- and 300-kilometer long courses, starts and ends in Alta ().  Alta is the starting point for the Finnmarksløpet, a 500- and 1000- kilometer sled dog race—The longest sled dog race in Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Alta is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The municipality is the 7th largest municipality by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Alta is the 60th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 20,789. The municipality's population density is and its population has increased by 11.3% over the last decade.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973725}
{"src_title": "Lyudmila Rudenko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and swimming career.", "content": "Rudenko was born in 1904 in Lubny, in the Poltava region of what is now Ukraine. At age 10, Rudenko was taught how to play chess by her father—although, at first, she was more interested in swimming. After secondary school, she moved to Odessa and took a degree in economics. Rudenko became the swimming champion of Odessa in the breaststroke. In 1925, she was swimming vice-champion of Ukraine (breaststroke). She started a career as an economic planner for the Soviet Union, and chess became a hobby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chess career.", "content": "Rudenko began playing tournament chess in 1925 after a move to Moscow. In 1928, she won the Moscow women's championship. She then moved to Leningrad, where she met and married scientist Lev Davidovich Goldstein; in 1931 they had a son. In Leningrad in 1929 she began training with chess master Peter Romanovsky. She won the Leningrad women's championship three times.  In World War II, Rudenko organized a train to evacuate children from the Siege of Leningrad. She described this as the most important accomplishment in her life.  Women's World Champion Vera Menchik died in 1944 during an air raid. After the war, in the winter of 1949–1950, the World Chess Federation FIDE held a tournament in Moscow to determine the new women's champion. Sixteen women from twelve countries competed, with the four Soviet players taking the top four spots.  At the time Rudenko was roughly 40 years old, and she won (scoring nine wins, one loss, and five draws).  She held the Women's World Championship title until losing it to Elisaveta Bykova in 1953 in the next championship cycle. Her score was 6–8 (five wins, seven losses, and two draws).  Rudenko's post-war chess trainers were Alexander Tolush and Grigory Levenfish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Rudenko was inducted into the World Chess Hall of Fame in 2015. She was honored with a Google Doodle on the 114th anniversary of her birth, 27 July 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lyudmila Vladimirovna Rudenko (, ; 27 July 1904 – 4 March 1986) was a Soviet chess player and the second women's world chess champion, from 1950 until 1953.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973726}
{"src_title": "Franz Walter Stahlecker", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Stahlecker was born into a wealthy family in Sternenfels on 10 October 1900. From 1919–20 Stahlecker was a member of the Deutschvölkischer Schutz und Trutzbund and the Organisation Consul. He studied at the University of Tübingen, where he obtained a doctorate of law in 1927. On 14 October 1932, he married Luise-Gabriele Freiin von Gültlingen; their marriage produced four children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early Nazi career.", "content": "On 1 May 1932, Stahlecker joined the Nazi Party (no. 3,219,015) as well as the SS (no. 73,041). On 29 May 1933, he was appointed deputy director of the Political Office of the Württemberg State Police. In 1934, he was appointed head of the Gestapo in the German state of Württemberg and soon assigned to the main office of the \"Sicherheitsdienst\" (SD). On 11 May 1937, he became head of the Gestapo in Breslau. After the incorporation of Austria in 1938, Stahlecker became SD chief of the Danube district (Vienna), a post he retained even after being promoted to SS-\"Standartenführer\". In the summer of 1938, Stahlecker became Inspector of the Security Police in Austria, succeeding Gestapo chief Heinrich Müller in that position. As of 20 August 1938, Stahlecker was the formal head of the Central Agency for Jewish Emigration in Vienna, though its de facto leader was Adolf Eichmann. Differences of opinion with Reinhard Heydrich motivated Stahlecker to move to the \"Auswärtiges Amt\" (Foreign Office), after which he held posts as the commander of the Security Police and SD in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia under SS-\"Brigadeführer\" Karl Hermann Frank. In mid-October 1939, Eichmann and Stahlecker decided to begin implementation of the Nisko Plan.  On 29 April 1940, Stahlecker arrived in Oslo, Norway, where he held various posts, most notably as commander of about 200 \"Einsatzgruppe\" members of the Security Police and SD. He was promoted to SS-\"Oberführer\". He was succeeded in this position in autumn 1940 by Heinrich Fehlis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Einsatzgruppe A.", "content": "On 6 February 1941 Stahlecker was promoted to SS-\"Brigadeführer\" and \"Generalmajor der Polizei\" and took over as commanding officer of \"Einsatzgruppe A\", in hopes of furthering his career with the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA), Nazi Germany's security police and intelligence organization. In June 1941, \"Einsatzgruppe A\" followed Army Group North and operated in the Baltic states and areas of Russia up to Leningrad. Its mission was to hunt down and murder the Jews, Gypsies, Communists, and other \"undesirables\". In a 15 October 1941 report, Stahlecker wrote:  By winter 1941, Stahlecker reported to Berlin that \"Einsatzgruppe A\" had murdered some 249,420 Jews. He was made Higher SS and Police Leader (\"Höhere SS- und Polizeiführer\"; HSSPF) of \"Reichskommissariat Ostland\", which included the occupied territory of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Belarus, at the end of November 1941. Stahlecker was killed in action on 23 March 1942, by Soviet partisans near Krasnogvardeysk, Russia. Heinz Jost then assumed command of \"Einsatzgruppe A\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Walter Stahlecker (10 October 1900 – 23 March 1942) was commander of the SS security forces (\"Sicherheitspolizei\" (SiPo) and the \"Sicherheitsdienst\" (SD)) for the \"Reichskommissariat Ostland\" in 1941–42. Stahlecker commanded \"Einsatzgruppe A\", the most murderous of the four \"Einsatzgruppen\" (death squads during the Holocaust) active in German-occupied Eastern Europe. He was killed in action by Soviet partisans and was replaced by Heinz Jost.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973727}
{"src_title": "Béla Kiss", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Béla Kiss was born in Izsák, Austria-Hungary to János Kiss and Verona Varga.  A tinsmith, Béla Kiss lived in Cinkota (then a town near Budapest, now a neighborhood within the city itself) since 1900. He was an amateur astrologer and allegedly fond of occult practices. Kiss was married twice, and had two children, Aranka and Ilonka. In 1912, Kiss hired a housekeeper, Mrs. Jakubec, after his wife had reportedly abandoned him for a lover.  Jakubec noticed that Kiss corresponded with a number of women, typically through advertisements he would place in newspapers offering his services as either a matrimonial agent or a fortune teller. He sometimes brought the women individually to his home. However, his housekeeper had little contact with the women.  Kiss was never on intimate terms with his neighbors even though he was well-liked. Townsfolk also noticed that Kiss had collected a number of metal drums. He had told the town police, who questioned him about the drums, that he filled them with gasoline in order to prepare for the rationing in the oncoming war.  When World War I began in 1914, he was conscripted and left his house in Jakubec's care.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criminal activity.", "content": "In July 1916, Budapest police received a call from Kiss’ landlord who had found seven large metal drums. The town constable had remembered Kiss' stockpile of gasoline, and he led needy soldiers to them. Upon attempting to open the drums, a suspicious odour was noted. Detective Chief Károly Nagy headed an investigation and opened one of the drums, against the protests of Jakubec. There they discovered the body of a strangled woman. The other drums yielded similarly gruesome content. A search of Kiss' house resulted in a total of 24 bodies.  Nagy informed the military that they should arrest Kiss immediately, if he was still alive – there was also a possibility that he was a prisoner of war. The name, unfortunately, was very common. Nagy also arrested Jakubec and asked the postal service to hold any possible letters to Kiss, in case he had an accomplice that could warn him. Nagy initially suspected that Jakubec might have had something to do with the murders, especially when Kiss had left her money in his will. Jakubec assured police that she knew absolutely nothing about the murders. She showed them a secret and locked room Kiss had told her never to enter. The room was filled with bookcases but also had a desk that held a number of letters, Kiss' correspondence with 74 women, and a photo album. Many of the books were about poisons or strangulation. From the letters, Nagy discerned several things. The oldest of the letters were from 1903 and it became clear that Kiss was defrauding the women—usually middle-aged—who had been looking for marriage. He had placed ads in the marriage columns of several newspapers and had selected mainly women who had no relatives living nearby and knew no one who would quickly notice their disappearance. He wooed them and convinced them to send him money. Police also found old court records that indicated that two of his victims had initiated court proceedings because he had taken money from them. Both women had disappeared, and the cases had been dismissed.  Each woman who came to the house was strangled. Kiss pickled their corpses in alcohol and sealed them in the airtight metal drums. Police found that the bodies had puncture marks on their necks and that their bodies were drained of blood. This led them to believe that Kiss may have been practicing vampirism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Escape.", "content": "On October 4, 1916, Nagy received a letter that stated that Kiss was recuperating in a Serbian hospital. However, Nagy arrived at the hospital too late; Kiss had fled and substituted the dead body of another soldier in his bed. Nagy alerted all the Hungarian police. However, all the sightings police could check proved to be wrong.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sightings.", "content": "On several later occasions, speculation arose that Kiss had perhaps faked his death by exchanging identities with a dead soldier named Mackaree during the war. He was reportedly sighted numerous times in the following years. Various rumors emanated as to his actual fate, including that he had been imprisoned for burglary in Romania or he had died of yellow fever in Turkey. In 1920, a soldier in the French Foreign Legion reported on another legionnaire named Hoffman (the name Kiss had been used in some letters) who had boasted how good he was at using a garrote, and who fit Kiss' description. \"Hoffman\" deserted before police could reach him.  The last known sighting occurred in New York City in 1932. In 1932, homicide detective Henry Oswald was certain he had observed Kiss emerging from the New York City Subway at Times Square, Manhattan. There were also rumors that Kiss was living in the city and working as a janitor, although these could not be verified. When the police went to interview the janitor, he had already left.  Kiss' eventual fate and exact number of victims remain unknown.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Béla Kiss (; ; 28 July 1877 – after 4 October 1916) was a Hungarian serial killer. He is thought to have murdered at least 23 young women and one man, and attempted to pickle their bodies in large metal drums that he kept on his property.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973728}
{"src_title": "Corylus colurna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is the largest species of hazel, reaching tall, with a stout trunk up to in diameter; the crown is slender and conical in young trees, becoming broader with age. The bark is pale grey-buff, with a thick, corky texture.  The leaves are deciduous, rounded, 6–15 cm long and 5–13 cm across, softly hairy on both surfaces, and with a coarsely double-serrate to shallowly lobed margin. The main limbs are quite small in diameter in relationship to the straight trunk, and arise at almost a 90-degree angle. Making the tree quite durable to urban conditions and helps maintain a symmetrical crown which landscape architects love so much.  The flowers bloom in early spring before the leaves, and are dioecious, with single-sex catkins; the male pale yellow and 5–10 cm long, the female very small and largely concealed in the buds, with only the bright red 1–3 mm long styles visible. The flowers on female trees are not very visible. On male trees, however, the flowers are visible.  The fruit is a nut sometimes called \"Turkish nuts\" about 1–2 cm long, surrounded by a thick, softly spiny and bristly involucre (husk) 3 cm diameter, which encloses all but the tip of the nut; the nuts are borne in tight clusters of 3-8 together, with the involucres fused at the base. The fruit matures in September and is edible, with a taste that is very similar to common hazels. They are occasionally gathered from the wild as well as from urban trees, but their small size (smaller than common hazel nuts) and very hard, thick nut shell (3 mm thick) makes them of little or no commercial value. \"Corylus colurna\" is however important in commercial hazelnut orchards, as it does not sucker, making it the ideal rootstock on which to graft the nut-bearing common hazel cultivars. The nut can only be found on female trees. Nut production is irregular and occurs every two to three years", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Root.", "content": "\"Corylus colurna\" have fibrous roots. The roots of \"Corylus colurna\" are not adventitious, meaning they do not form suckers. This makes \"Corylus colurna\" desirable for grafting on the rootstock over a single stemmed trees. This allows \"Corylus colurna\" to be grown in poorer and rocky soils.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Corylus colurna\" has a medium growth rate. It is occasionally drought tolerant and alkaline soil tolerant. However, it prefers moist, well-drained soil, as well as full sun. Once established \"Corylus colurna\" is tolerant of heat, cold, and drought.  There are no serious pests or problems with \"Corylus colurna\".  \"Corylus colurna\" is not easily transplantable and will need extra watering in summer after transplanting. It will take about two years after transplant for the tree to become established and survive on its own.  \"Corylus colurna' has received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Propagation.", "content": "The most common form of propagation for \"Corylus colurna\" is by seed. It is best sown as soon as it is harvested in autumn in a cold frame. The seed will germinate in late winter or spring. If starting with a stored seed, the seed should be pre-soaked in warm water for 48 hours and then given 2 weeks warm followed by 3 to 4 months cold stratification. This will allow the seed to germinate in 1 to 6 months if kept at 20 °C. Once the seed is large enough to handle, pick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in a cold frame or sheltered place outdoors for their first winter. You can plant the seed into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Identification Features.", "content": "There are a couple distinct features to identify \"Corylus colurna\". Leaves are alternate, simple, broadly ovate to obovate, doubly serrate, glabrous above, and pubescent veins below. \"Corylus colurna\"s buds are 1/3 inch long, green tinted brown. and softly pubescent. Young trees have gray stems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Besides its use as a single-stem rootstock for \"Corylus avellana\", \"Corylus colurna\" is widely cultivated as an ornamental tree in Europe and North America. It is very tolerant of difficult growing conditions in urban situations, which in recent decades has increased its popularity in civic planting schemes. Turkish hazel makes a good shade tree since it produces very dense shade, and its narrow crown and ability to withstand air-pollution make it well suited for use as a street tree in urban areas. It makes a rather formal statement in the landscape due to the tight, consistently-shaped, narrow crown. It is well suited for areas which have restricted overhead. \"Corylus colurna\" is also used in different sized parking lot islands and a variety of wide lawns. It is recommended for a buffer strip around parking lots or highways. Also it is used as a street tree, specimen tree, or in sidewalk cut outs. Other landscape uses for \"Corylus colurna\" are for fruit, difficult and dry sites, naturalistic areas, and street trees.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Corylus colurna, the Turkish hazel or Turkish filbert, is a deciduous tree native to southeast Europe and southwest Asia, from the Balkans through northern Turkey to northern Iran. It is also found grown wildly in the forests of Western Himalayan range in the north Indian state of Himachal Pradesh particularly in the temperate regions of districts of Kullu, Shimla, Kinnaur district and Chamba district.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973729}
{"src_title": "Spooling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Print spooling.", "content": "Nowadays, the most common use of spooling is printing: documents formatted for printing are stored in a queue at the speed of the computer, then retrieved and printed at the speed of the printer. Multiple processes can write documents to the spool without waiting, and can then perform other tasks, while the \"spooler\" process operates the printer.  For example, when a large organization prepares payroll cheques, the computation takes only a few minutes or even seconds, but the printing process might take hours. If the payroll program printed cheques directly, it would be unable to proceed to other computations until all the cheques were printed. Similarly, before spooling was added to PC operating systems, word processors were unable to do anything else, including interact with the user, while printing.  Spooler or print management software often includes a variety of related features, such as allowing priorities to be assigned to print jobs, notifying users when their documents have been printed, distributing print jobs among several printers, selecting appropriate paper for each document, etc.  A print server applies spooling techniques to allow many computers to share the same printer or group of printers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Banner page.", "content": "Print spoolers can be configured to add a banner page, also called a burst page, job sheet, or printer separator, to the beginning and end of each document and job. These separate documents from each other, identify each document (e.g. with its title) and often also state who printed it (e.g. by username or job name). Banner pages are valuable in office environments where many people share a small number of printers. They are also valuable when a single job can produce multiple documents. Depending on the configuration, banner pages might be generated on each client computer, or on a centralized print server, or by the printer itself.  On printers using fanfold continuous forms a leading banner page would often be printed twice, so that one copy would always be face-up when the jobs were separated. The page might include lines printed over the fold, which would be visible along the edge of a stack of printed output, allowing the operator to easily separate the jobs. Some systems would also print a banner page at the end of each job, assuring users that they had collected all of their printout.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other applications.", "content": "Spooling is also used to mediate access to punched card readers and punches, magnetic tape drives, and other slow, sequential I/O devices. It allows the application to run at the speed of the CPU while operating peripheral devices at their full rates speed.  A batch processing system uses spooling to maintain a queue of ready-to-run tasks, which can be started as soon as the system has the resources to process them.  Some store and forward messaging systems, such as uucp, used \"spool\" to refer to their inbound and outbound message queues, and this terminology is still found in the documentation for email and Usenet software, even though messages are often delivered immediately nowadays.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Peripheral devices have always been much slower than core processing units. This was an especially severe problem for early mainframes. For example, a job which read punched cards or generated printed output directly was forced to run at the speed of the slow mechanical devices. The first spooling programs, such as IBM's \"SPOOL System\" (7070-IO-076) copied data from punched cards to magnetic tape, and from tape back to punched cards and printers. Hard disks, which are even faster and support random access, started to replace this use of magnetic tape in the middle 1960s, and by the 1970s had eliminated this use of tape.  Because the unit record equipment on IBM mainframes of the early 1960s was so slow, it was common to use a small offline machine such as a 1401 instead of spooling.  The term \"spool\" probably originates with the Simultaneous Peripheral Operations On-Line (SPOOL) software. Its derivation is uncertain. \"Simultaneous peripheral operations on-line\" may be a backronym. Another explanation is that it refers to \"spools\" or reels of magnetic tape.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computing, spooling is a specialized form of multi-programming for the purpose of copying data between different devices. In contemporary systems, it is usually used for mediating between a computer application and a slow peripheral, such as a printer. Spooling allows programs to \"hand off\" work to be done by the peripheral and then proceed to other tasks, or to not begin until input has been transcribed. A dedicated program, the spooler, maintains an orderly sequence of jobs for the peripheral and feeds it data at its own rate. Conversely, for slow \"input\" peripherals, such as a card reader, a spooler can maintain a sequence of computational jobs waiting for data, starting each job when all of the relevant input is available; see batch processing. The spool itself refers to the sequence of jobs, or the storage area where they are held. In many cases the spooler is able to drive devices at their full rated speed with minimal impact on other processing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973730}
{"src_title": "Bookmobile", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "19th century.", "content": "In the United States of America, The American School Library (1839) was a traveling frontier library published by Harper & Brothers. The Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History has the only complete original set of this series complete with its wooden carrying case.  \"The British Workman\" reported in 1857 about a perambulating library operating in a circle of eight villages, in Cumbria. A Victorian merchant and philanthropist, George Moore, had created the project to \"diffuse good literature among the rural population\".  The Warrington Perambulating Library, set up in 1858, was another early British mobile library. This horse-drawn van was operated by the Warrington Mechanics' Institute, which aimed to increase the lending of its books to enthusiastic local patrons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th century.", "content": "One of the earliest mobile libraries in the United States was a mule-drawn wagon carrying wooden boxes of books. It was created in 1904 by the People's Free Library of Chester County, South Carolina, and served the rural areas there.  Another early mobile library service was developed by Mary Lemist Titcomb (1857–1932). As a librarian in Washington County, Maryland, Titcomb was concerned that the library was not reaching all the people it could. The annual report for 1902 listed 23 \"branches\", each being a collection of 50 books in a case that was placed in a store or post office throughout the county. Realizing that even this did not reach the most rural residents, the Washington County Free Library began a \"book wagon\" in 1905, taking the library materials directly to people's homes in remote parts of the county. With the rise of motorized transport in America, a pioneering librarian in 1920 named Sarah Byrd Askew began driving her specially outfitted Model T to provide library books to rural areas in New Jersey. The automobile remained rare, however, and in Minneapolis, the Hennepin County Public Library operated a horse-drawn book wagon starting in 1922.  Following the Great Depression in the United States, a WPA effort from 1935 to 1943 called the Pack Horse Library Project covered the remote coves and mountainsides of Kentucky and nearby Appalachia, bringing books and similar supplies on foot and on hoof to those who could not make the trip to a library on their own. Sometimes these \"packhorse librarians\" relied on a centralized contact to help them distribute the materials.  At Fairfax County, Virginia, county-wide bookmobile service was begun in 1940, in a truck loaned by the Works Progress Administration (\"WPA\"). The WPA support of the bookmobile ended in 1942, but the service continued. The \"Library in Action\" was a late-1960s bookmobile program in the Bronx, NY, run by interracial staff that brought books to teenagers of color in under-served neighborhoods.  Bookmobiles reached the height of their popularity in the mid-twentieth century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "21st century.", "content": "Bookmobiles are still in use in the 21st century, operated by libraries, schools, activists, and other organizations. Although some feel that the bookmobile is an outmoded service, citing reasons like high costs, advanced technology, impracticality, and ineffectiveness, others cite the ability of the bookmobile to be more cost-efficient than building more branch libraries would be and its high use among its patrons as support for its continuation. To meet the growing demand for \"greener\" bookmobiles that deliver outreach services to their patrons, some bookmobile manufacturers have introduced significant advances to reduce their carbon footprint, such as solar/battery solutions in lieu of traditional generators, and all-electric and hybrid-electric chassis. Bookmobiles have also taken on an updated form in the form of \"m libraries\", also known as \"mobile libraries\" in which patrons are delivered content electronically.  The Internet Archive runs its own bookmobile to print out-of-copyright books on demand. The project has spun off similar efforts elsewhere in the developing world.  The Free Black Women's Library is a mobile library in Brooklyn. Founded by Ola Ronke Akinmowo in 2015, this bookmobile features books written by black women. Titles are available in exchange for other titles written by black female authors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National Bookmobile Day.", "content": "In the U.S., the American Library Association sponsors National Bookmobile Day in April each year, on the Wednesday of National Library Week.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A bookmobile or mobile library is a vehicle designed for use as a library. They have been known by many names throughout history, including traveling library, library wagon, book wagon, book truck, library-on-wheels, and book auto service. Bookmobiles expand the reach of traditional libraries by transporting books to potential readers, providing library services to people in otherwise underserved locations (such as remote areas) and/or circumstances (such as residents of retirement homes). Bookmobile services and materials (such as Internet access, large print books, and audiobooks), may be customized for the locations and populations served.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973731}
{"src_title": "Vissarion Belinsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Sveaborg (now part of Helsinki), Vissarion Belinsky lived in the town of Chembar (now Belinsky in Belinsky District of Penza Oblast) and in Penza, where he studied in (1825–1829). In 1829–1832 he was a student of Moscow University. In Moscow he published his first famous articles.  In 1839 Belinsky went to St. Petersburg, Russia, where he became a respected critic and editor of two major literary magazines: \"Otechestvennye Zapiski\" (\"Notes of the Fatherland\"), and \"Sovremennik\" (\"The Contemporary\"). In both magazines Belinsky worked with younger Nikolay Nekrasov.  He was unlike most of the other Russian intellectuals of the 1830s and 1840s. The son of a rural medical doctor, he was not a wealthy aristocrat. The fact that Belinsky was relatively underprivileged meant, among other effects, that he was mainly self-educated; this was partly due to being expelled from Moscow University for political activity. But it was less for his philosophical skill that Belinsky was admired and more for emotional commitment and fervor. “For me, to think, to feel, to understand and to suffer are one and the same thing,” he liked to say. This was, of course, true to the Romantic ideal, to the beliefs that real understanding comes not only from mere thinking (reason), but also from intuitive insight. This combination of thinking and feeling pervaded Belinsky's life.  Ideologically, Belinsky shared, but with exceptional intellectual and moral passion, the central value of most of Westernizer intelligentsia: the notion of the individual self, a person (lichnost’(личность)), that which makes people human, and gives them dignity and rights. With this idea in hand (which he arrived at through a complex intellectual struggle) faced the world around him armed to do battle. He took on much conventional philosophical thinking among educated Russians, including the dry and abstract philosophizing of the German idealists and their Russian followers. In his words, “What is it to me that the Universal exists when the individual personality [lichnost’] is suffering.” Or: “The fate of the individual, of the person, is more important than the fate of the whole world.” Also upon this principle, Belinsky constructed an extensive critique of the world around him (especially the Russian one). He bitterly criticized autocracy and serfdom (as “trampling upon everything that is even remotely human and noble”) but also poverty, prostitution, drunkenness, bureaucratic coldness, and cruelty toward the less powerful (including women). Belinsky worked most of his short life as a literary critic. His writings on literature were inseparable from these moral judgments. Belinsky believed that the only realm of freedom in the repressive reign of Nicholas I was through the written word. What Belinsky required most of a work of literature was “truth.” This meant not only a probing portrayal of real life (he hated works of mere fantasy, or escape, or aestheticism), but also commitment to “true” ideas — the correct moral stance (above all this meant a concern for the dignity of individual people): As he told Nikolai Gogol (in a famous letter) the public “is always ready to forgive a writer for a bad book [i.e. aesthetically bad], but never for a pernicious one [ideologically and morally bad].” Belinsky viewed Gogol's recent book, \"Correspondence with Friends\", as pernicious because it renounced the need to “awaken in the people a sense of their human dignity, trampled down in the mud and the filth for so many centuries.”  Fyodor Dostoevsky read aloud at several public events Belinsky's letter, which called for the end of serfdom. A secret press was assembled to print and distribute Belinsky's letter. For these offenses Dostoevsky was arrested, convicted and condemned to death in 1849, a sentence later commuted to 4 years incarceration in the prison camps of Siberia.  In his role as perhaps the most influential liberal critic and ideologist of his day, Belinsky advocated literature that was socially conscious. He hailed Fyodor Dostoyevsky's first novel, \"Poor Folk\" (1845), however, Dostoevsky soon thereafter broke with Belinsky.  Inspired by these ideas, which led to thinking about radical changes in society's organization, Belinsky began to call himself a socialist starting in 1841. Among his last great efforts were his move to join Nikolay Nekrasov in the popular magazine \"The Contemporary\" (also known as \"Sovremennik\"), where the two critics established the new literary center of St. Petersburg and Russia. At that time Belinsky published his \"Literary Review for the Year 1847\".  In 1848, shortly before his death, Belinsky granted full rights to Nikolay Nekrasov and his magazine, \"The Contemporary\" (\"Sovremennik\"), to publish various articles and other material originally planned for an almanac, to be called the Leviathan.  Belinsky died of consumption on the eve of his arrest by the Tsar's police on account of his political views. In 1910, Russia celebrated the centenary of his birth with enthusiasm and appreciation.  His surname has variously been spelled \"Belinsky\" or \"Byelinski\". His works, in twelve volumes, were first published in 1859–1862. Following the expiration of the copyright in 1898, several new editions appeared. The best of these is by S. Vengerov; it is supplied with profuse notes.  Belinsky early supported the work of Ivan Turgenev. The two became close friends and Turgenev fondly recalls Belinsky in his book \"Literary Reminiscences and Autobiographical Fragments\". The British writer Isaiah Berlin has a chapter on Belinsky on his 1978 book \"Russian Thinkers\". Here he points out some deficiencies of Belinsky's critical insight:  He was wildly erratic, and all his enthusiasm and seriousness and integrity do not make up for lapses of insight or intellectual power. He declared that Dante was not a poet; that Fenimore Cooper was the equal of Shakespeare; that \"Othello\" was the product of a barbarous age...  But further on in the same essay, Berlin remarks:  Because he was naturally responsive to everything that was living and genuine, he transformed the concept of the critic's calling in his native country. The lasting effect of his work was in altering and altering crucially and irretrievably, the moral and social outlook of the leading younger writers and thinkers of his time. He altered the quality and the tone both of the experience and of the expression of so much Russian thought and feeling that his role as a dominant social influence overshadows his attainments as a literary critic. Berlin's book introduced Belinsky to playwright Tom Stoppard, who included Belinsky as one of the principal characters in his trilogy of plays about Russian writers and activists: \"The Coast of Utopia\" (2002)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Streets named after Belinsky.", "content": "Belinsky Street and Belinsky Lane, close to Red Square in Moscow, were named after Belinsky from 1920–1994.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky (; – ) was a Russian literary critic of Westernizing tendency. Belinsky played one of the key roles in the career of poet and publisher Nikolay Nekrasov and his popular magazine \"Sovremennik\". He was the most influential of the Westernizers, especially among the younger generation. He worked primarily as a literary critic, because that area was less heavily censored than political pamphlets. He agreed with Slavophiles that society had precedence over individualism, but he insisted the society had to allow the expression of individual ideas and rights. He strongly opposed Slavophiles on the role of Orthodoxy, which he considered a retrograde force. He emphasized reason and knowledge, and attacked autocracy and theocracy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973732}
{"src_title": "Stan Mikita", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Mikita was born in Sokolče, Slovak Republic, as Stanislav Guoth and raised in a small farming community there until late 1948, but moved to St. Catharines, Ontario, as a young boy. He was adopted by his aunt and uncle, Anna and Joe Mikita, who gave him their surname. Stan, considered himself Slovak, and mentioned in interviews how proud he was of his Slovak origin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "After three starring junior seasons with the St. Catharines Teepees of the Ontario Hockey Association, Mikita was promoted to the parent Chicago Black Hawks in. In his second full year, in 1961, the Black Hawks won their third Stanley Cup. The young centre led the entire league in goals during the playoffs, scoring a total of six.  The following season was his breakout year. Mikita became a star as centre of the famed \"Scooter Line\", with right wing Ken Wharram and left wingers Ab McDonald and Doug Mohns. Combining skilled defense and a reputation as one of the game's best faceoff men using his innovative curved stick, Mikita led the league in scoring four times in the decade, tying Bobby Hull's year-old single-season scoring mark in with 97 points (a mark broken two years later by former teammate Phil Esposito and currently held by Wayne Gretzky). The season, an 87-point effort from Mikita, was the last year a Chicago player won the scoring title until Patrick Kane's 106-point season.  In his early years, Mikita was among the most penalized players in the league, but he then decided to play a cleaner game and went on to win the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy for particularly sportsmanlike conduct combined with excellence twice. Mikita's drastic change in behavior came after he returned home from a road trip. His wife told him that while their daughter, Meg, was watching the Black Hawks' last road game on television, she turned and said, \"Mommy, why does Daddy spend so much time sitting down?\" The camera had just shown Mikita in the penalty box again.  During his playing career, in 1973, Mikita teamed up with Chicago businessman Irv Tiahnybik to form the American Hearing Impaired Hockey Association (AHIHA), to bring together deaf and hard-of-hearing hockey players from all over the country, and he founded the Stan Mikita School for the Hearing Impaired, inspired by a friend's deaf son who was an aspiring goalie. He also helped bring the Special Olympics to Chicago, bringing his family out to volunteer at races.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Curved stick use.", "content": "Mikita and teammate Bobby Hull were a well-known forward duo in the 1960s, gaining notoriety for using sticks with curved blades. Such sticks gave a comparative advantage to shooters versus goaltenders. As a result, the NHL limited blade curvature to 1⁄2\" in 1970. Mikita reportedly began the practice after his standard stick got caught in a bench door, bending the blade before he hit the ice; he soon was borrowing a propane torch from team trainers to create a deliberate curve.  Mikita was also one of the first players to wear a helmet full-time, after a December 1967 game in which an errant shot tore a piece off one of his ears (it was stitched back on).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "Mikita's later years were marred by chronic back injuries, leading to his retirement during the 1979–80 season. At that time, only Gordie Howe and Phil Esposito had scored more points in the NHL, and just six players had appeared in more games. Mikita was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1983, and into the Slovak Hockey Hall of Fame in 2002.  After retiring, Mikita became a golf pro at Kemper Lakes Golf Club. His other business interests, under Stan Mikita Enterprises, included making the small plastic sauce containers that accompany chicken nuggets at McDonald's. He owned Stan Mikita's Village Inn in the 1960s and 1970s, located in the Oakbrook Shopping Center, Oak Brook, Illinois.  Mikita provided the foreword to the children's book \"My Man Stan\" by Tim Wendel. Mikita is featured as a main character in the book.  He became a goodwill ambassador for the Blackhawks' organization, and in fall of 2011, the Blackhawks raised a statue honouring Mikita at Gate 31⁄2 at Chicago's United Center. For three decades the Blackhawks Alumni Association has hosted an annual golf tournament named in Mikita's honour.  Mikita ranks 14th in regular season points scored in the history of the NHL, and just three other players (Steve Yzerman, Alex Delvecchio, and Nicklas Lidström) have appeared in more games while playing for only one team over their careers.  Mikita appeared as himself in a cameo role in the film \"Wayne's World\", which featured a \"Stan Mikita\" doughnut shop, spoofing the Canadian doughnut chain Tim Hortons (co-founded by Hockey Hall of Fame member Tim Horton). A restaurant named \"Stan Mikita's\" and closely resembling the movie's version opened in 1994 at the Virginia amusement park Kings Dominion and at Paramount Carowinds in Charlotte.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Illness and death.", "content": "On May 24, 2011, Mikita was diagnosed with oral cancer and began external beam radiation therapy. On January 30, 2015, the \"Chicago Tribune\" released this statement from his wife: \"Stan has been diagnosed with suspected Lewy body dementia, a progressive disease, and was under the care of compassionate and understanding care givers\". In June, 2015, it was stated that Mikita had no memory of his former life and was being cared for by his wife Jill.  Mikita died at the age of 78 on August 7, 2018. He was survived by his wife, four children and nine grandchildren. On September 14, 2019, it was reported by the Boston University CTE Center, that upon performing a posthumous study of Mikita's brain, it was found that he suffered from stage 3 chronic traumatic encephalopathy, or CTE, at the time of his death. This marked Mikita as the first hall of famer to ever have been diagnosed with the disease.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "Statistics via HockeyDB", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stanley Mikita (born Stanislav Guoth; May 20, 1940 – August 7, 2018) was a Slovak-born Canadian professional ice hockey player for the Chicago Black Hawks of the National Hockey League, generally regarded as the best centre of the 1960s. In 2017, he was named one of the 100 Greatest NHL Players.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973733}
{"src_title": "Luhansk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The city traces its history to 1795 when the British industrialist Charles Gascoigne founded a metal factory near the Zaporizhian Cossacks settlement Kamianyi Brid. The settlement around the factory was known as \"Luganskiy Zavod\". In 1882 the factory settlement Luganskiy Zavod was merged with the town of Kamianyi Brid into the city of Luhansk. Located in the Donets Basin, Luhansk developed into an important industrial center of Eastern Europe, particularly as a home to the major locomotive-building company Luhanskteplovoz. The city was occupied by Nazi Germany between 14 July 1942 and 14 February 1943.  On 5 November 1935, the city was renamed Voroshilovgrad (; ) in honour of Soviet military commander and politician Kliment Voroshilov. On 5 March 1958, with the call of Khrushchev not to give names of living people to cities, the old name was reinstated. On 5 January 1970, after the death of Voroshilov on 2 December 1969, the name changed again to Voroshilovgrad. Finally, on 4 May 1990, a decree of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR gave the city back its original name.  In 1994 a referendum took place in the Donetsk Oblast and the Luhansk Oblast, with around 90% supporting the Russian language gaining status of an official language alongside Ukrainian, and for the Russian language to be an official language on a regional level; however, the referendum was annulled by the Ukrainian government.  During the War in Donbass, separatists seized governmental buildings in the region, proclaiming the Luhansk People's Republic. An independence referendum, unconstitutional under the Ukrainian law, was held on 11 May 2014. This referendum was not recognized as legitimate by any government except South Ossetia. Ukraine does not recognize the referendum, while the EU and US said the referendums were illegal. The Republic of South Ossetia, a state with very limited international recognition, considered the referendum legitimate and recognized its outcome.  On 25 June 2014, Luhansk was officially pronounced as the capital of the Luhansk People's Republic by the government of the separatist republic.  In August 2014, Ukrainian government forces completely surrounded rebel-held Luhansk. Heavy shelling caused civilian casualties in the city. On 17 August, Ukrainian soldiers entered the rebel-controlled Luhansk and for a time had control over a police station.  After the Ilovaisk counteroffensive, LPR forces regained Lutuhyne and other Luhansk suburbs. Ukrainian forces withdrew from the Luhansk International Airport on 1 September after heavy fighting.  Luhansk became the capital and the administrative center of the rebel state of Luhansk People's Republic. The administration of the Luhansk Oblast was moved to Sievierodonetsk by the government of Ukraine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Higher education.", "content": "Some of the more prestigious universities in Ukraine have their home in Luhansk. Luhansk is the location of the main campus of the Taras Shevchenko National University of Luhansk, East Ukrainian Volodymyr Dahl National University and of Luhansk State Medical University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "In the Ukrainian Census of 2001, 49.6% of the inhabitants declared themselves as ethnically Ukrainians and 47% declared themselves as ethnically Russian. The most widespread native language was Russian, at 85.3% of the population. Ukrainian was the native language for 13.7% of the population, and there was also smaller numbers of speakers of Armenian (0.2%) and Belarusian (0.1%).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "Lugansk is home to Zorya Luhansk which now plays in the Ukrainian Premier League annual football championship and plays at the Avanhard Stadium. The club won the 1972 Soviet Top League.  The other football team was Dynamo Luhansk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Merheleva Ridge.", "content": "On 7 September 2006, archaeologists in Ukraine announced that an ancient structure had been discovered near Luhansk, which the press reported as a pyramid antedating those in Egypt by at least 300 years. The stone foundations of the structure were said to resemble Aztec and Mayan pyramids in Mesoamerica. It was later concluded that the site in question was not a pyramid but was still of great interest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "During 2014 and 2015, Luhansk has been the scene of intense fighting and most of these buildings are damaged to some extent. Some may be destroyed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Luhansk features hot summer humid continental climate (\"Dfa\"), it has both the highest and lowest temperature recorded in Ukraine; a record high of was recorded on 12 August 2010 while a record low of was recorded on 8 January 1935.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Luhansk is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Luhansk or Lugansk (, ;,,, ;, ), formerly known as Voroshilovgrad (1935–1958 and 1970–1990), is internationally recognized as a city in eastern Ukraine, but effectively, Luhansk is the capital and administrative center of the Luhansk People's Republic (LPR), an unrecognized state that was established in 2014.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973734}
{"src_title": "Heimskringla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name \"Heimskringla\" comes from the fact that the first words of the first saga in the compilation (\"Ynglinga saga\") are \"Kringla heimsins\", \"the orb of the Earth\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manuscript history.", "content": "The earliest parchment copy of the work is referred to as \"Kringla\", now in the Reykjavík National Library, catalogued as Lbs fragm 82. This is now a single vellum leaf from c. 1260, a part of the Saga of St. Olaf; the rest of the manuscript was lost to fire in 1728.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Summary.", "content": "\"Heimskringla\" consists of several sagas, often thought of as falling into three groups, giving the overall work the character of a triptych. The saga narrates the contests of the kings, the establishment of the kingdom of Norway, Viking expeditions to various European countries, ranging as far afield as Palestine in the saga of Sigurd the Crusader. The stories are told with a life and freshness, giving a picture of human life in all its reality. The saga is a prose epic, relevant to the history not only of Scandinavia but the regions included in the wider medieval Scandinavian diaspora. The first part of the \"Heimskringla\" is rooted in Norse mythology; as the collection proceeds, fable and fact intermingle, but the accounts become increasingly historically reliable.  The first section tells of the mythological prehistory of the Norwegian royal dynasty, tracing Odin, described here as a mortal man, and his followers from the East, from Asaland and Asgard, its chief city, to their settlement in Scandinavia (more precisely to east-central Sweden, according to Snorri). The subsequent sagas are (with few exceptions) devoted to individual rulers, starting with Halfdan the Black.  A version of \"Óláfs saga helga\", about the saint Olaf II of Norway, is the main and central part of the collection: Olaf's 15-year-long reign takes up about one third of the entire work.  Thereafter, the saga of Harald Hardrada narrates Harald's expedition to the East, his brilliant exploits in Constantinople, Syria, and Sicily, his skaldic accomplishments, and his battles in England against Harold Godwinson, the son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, where he fell at the battle Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 only a few days before Harold fell at the Battle of Hastings. After presenting a series of other kinds, the saga ends with Magnus V of Norway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contents.", "content": "\"Heimskringla\" contains the following sagas (see also List of Norwegian monarchs):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "Snorri explicitly mentions a few prose sources, now mostly lost in the form that he knew them: \"Hryggjarstykki\" ('spine pieces') by Eiríkr Oddsson (covering events 1130-61), \"Skjǫldunga saga\", an unidentified saga about Knútr inn gamli, and a text called \"Jarlasǫgurnar\" ('sagas of the jarls', which seems to correspond to the saga now known as \"Orkneyinga saga\").  Snorri may have had access to a wide range of the early Scandinavian historical texts known today as the'synoptic histories', but made most use of:  Snorri also made extensive use of skaldic verse which he believed to have been composed at the time of the events portrayed and transmitted orally from that time onwards, and clearly made use of other oral accounts, though it is uncertain to what extent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical reliability.", "content": "Up until the mid-19th century, historians put great trust in the factual truth of Snorri's narrative, as well as other old Norse sagas. In the early 20th century, this trust was largely abandoned with the advent of \"saga criticism\", pioneered by Lauritz and Curt Weibull. These historians pointed out that Snorri's work had been written several centuries after most of the events it describes. In Norway, the historian Edvard Bull famously proclaimed that \"we have to give up all illusions that Snorri's mighty epic bears any deeper resemblance to what actually happened\" in the time it describes. A school of historians has come to believe that the motives Snorri and the other saga writers give to their characters owe more to conditions in the 13th century than in earlier times.  \"Heimskringla\" has, however, continued to be used as a historical source, though with more caution. It is not common to believe in the detailed accuracy of the historical narrative and historians tend to see little to no historical truth behind the first few sagas, however, they are still seen by many as a valuable source of knowledge about the society and politics of medieval Norway. The factual content of the work tends to be deemed more credible where it discusses more recent times, as the distance in time between the events described and the composition of the saga was shorter, allowing traditions to be retained in a largely accurate form, and because in the twelfth century the first contemporary written sources begin to emerge in Norway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "Whereas prior to \"Heimskringla\" there seems to have been a diversity of efforts to write histories of kings, Snorri's \"Heimskringla\" seems thereafter to have been the basis for Icelandic writing about Scandinavian kings, and was expanded by scribes rather than entirely revised. \"Flateyjarbók\", from the end of the fourteenth century, is the most extreme example of expansion, interweaving Snorri's text with many \"þættir\" and other whole sagas, prominently \"Orkneyinga saga\", \"Færeyinga saga\", and \"Fóstbrœðra saga\".  The text is also referenced in \"Journey to the Center of the Earth\" by Jules Verne; the work is the one Professor Liedenbrock finds Arne Saknussem's note in.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editions and translations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of translations.", "content": "By the mid-16th century, the Old Norse language was unintelligible to Norwegian, Swedish or Danish readers. At that time several translations of extracts were made in Norway into the Danish language, which was the literary language of Norway at the time. The first complete translation was made around 1600 by Peder Claussøn Friis, and printed in 1633. This was based on a manuscript known as \"Jofraskinna\".  Subsequently, the Stockholm manuscript was translated into Swedish and Latin by Johan Peringskiöld (by order of Charles XI) and published in 1697 at Stockholm under the title \"Heimskringla\", which is the first known use of the name. This edition also included the first printing of the text in Old Norse. A new Danish translation with the text in Old Norse and a Latin translation came out in 1777–83 (by order of Frederick VI as crown prince). An English translation by Samuel Laing was finally published in 1844, with a second edition in 1889. Starting in the 1960s English-language revisions of Laing appeared, as well as fresh English translations.  In the 19th century, as Norway was achieving independence after centuries of union with Denmark and Sweden, the stories of the independent Norwegian medieval kingdom won great popularity in Norway. Heimskringla, although written by an Icelander, became an important national symbol for Norway during the period of romantic nationalism. In 1900, the Norwegian parliament, the Storting, subsidized the publication of new translations of Heimskringla into both Norwegian written forms, landsmål and riksmål, \"in order that the work may achieve wide distribution at a low price\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Translations.", "content": "The most recent English translation of \"Heimskringla\" is by Alison Finlay and Anthony Faulkes and is available open-access.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Heimskringla () is the best known of the Old Norse kings' sagas. It was written in Old Norse in Iceland by the poet and historian Snorri Sturluson (1178/79–1241) 1230. The name \"Heimskringla\" was first used in the 17th century, derived from the first two words of one of the manuscripts (\"kringla heimsins\", \"the circle of the world\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973735}
{"src_title": "Quetta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Quetta\", which is a variation of \"Kōṭ\", is a Pashto word meaning \"fortress\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The immediate area has long been one of pastures and mountains, with varied plants and animals relative to the dry plains to the west.  From 11th century CE and the land of Quetta was owned and ruled by the royal tribe of Pashtuns Kasi. It was captured by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi during his invasion of South Asia. In 1543, Mughal emperor Humayun came to Quetta en route to Safavid Persia, leaving his son and future Mughal emperor Akbar here. In 1709, the region was a part of Afghan Hotak dynasty and stayed a part until 1747 when Ahmed Shah Durrani conquered it and made it a part of Durrani Empire. The first European visited Quetta in 1828, describing it as \"mud-walled fort surrounded by three hundred mud houses\".  In 1876 Quetta was occupied by the British and subsequently incorporated into British India. In 1856, British General John Jacob had urged his government to occupy Quetta given its strategic position on the western frontier. British Troops constructed the infrastructure for their establishment. By the time of the earthquake on 31 May 1935, Quetta had developed into a bustling city with a number of multi-storey buildings and so was known as \"Little London\". The epicenter of the earthquake was close to the city and destroyed most of the city's infrastructure, killing an estimated 40,000 people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Quetta has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen \"BSk\") with a significant variation between summer and winter temperatures. Summer starts about late May and goes on until early September with average temperatures ranging from. The highest temperature in Quetta is which was recorded on 10 July 1998. Autumn starts in mid-September and continues until mid-November with average temperatures in the range. Winter starts in late November and ends in late February, with average temperatures near. The lowest temperature in Quetta is which was recorded on 8 January 1970. Spring starts in early March and ends in mid-May, with average temperatures close to. Unlike more easterly parts of Pakistan, Quetta does not have a monsoon season of heavy rainfall. Highest rainfall during 24 hours in Quetta is which was recorded on 17 December 2000, Highest monthly rainfall of was recorded in March 1982, also the year of the highest annual rainfall, at. In the winter, snowfall has become quite erratic (December, January and February).  The city saw a severe drought from 1999 to 2001, during which the city did not receive snowfall and below normal rains. In 2002 the city received snow after a gap of five years. In 2004 and 2005, the city received normal rains after three years without snowfall while in 2006, 2007 and 2009 the city received no snow. In 2008 Quetta received a snowfall of in four hours on 29 January, followed on 2 February by in 10 hours – the city's heaviest snowfall in a decade. During the winter of 2010 it received no snow and saw below normal rains due to the presence of El-Nino over Pakistan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "The population of the city is around one million. In 2016, it was estimated at 1,140,000, but the 2017 Census revealed a total of 1,001,205. This makes it the largest city in Balochistan province and one of the major cities of Pakistan. The scholars disagree about the demographics of the city. According to some, the city has a Pashtun plurality followed by Baloch people, other indigenous people of Balochistan, Hazaras and lastly the settlers from other areas of Pakistan. Others think the city has a Pashtun majority followed by Balochs Hazaras, Brahui, Punjabis and Muhajir people. Urdu being national language is used and understood by all the residents and serves as a lingua franca.  According to Reuters and the BBC, there are as many as 500,000-600,000 Hazaras living in Quetta and its surrounding areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "At the local level, the city is governed by a municipal corporation consisting of 66 ward members which elects a mayor and a deputy mayor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Quetta is on the western side of Pakistan and is connected to the rest of the country by a network of roads, railways and its international airport close to its center.  At an altitude of above sea level, Quetta Airport is the second highest airport in Pakistan. Pakistan International Airlines has regular flights to and from the other major cities of Pakistan including Islamabad, Gwadar, Karachi, Lahore and Peshawar.  Quetta Railway Station is one of the highest railway stations in Pakistan at above sea level. The railway track was laid in the 1890s during the British era to link Quetta with rest of the country. The extensive network of Pakistan Railways connects Quetta to Karachi in the south, by a track, Lahore in the northeast (1,170 km or 727 miles) and Peshawar further northeast (1,587 km or 986 miles). A metalled road runs alongside the railway that connects Quetta to Karachi via the nearby town of Sibi to Jacobabad and Rohri in the plain of the River Indus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Quetta serves as the learning centre for the Balochistan province. The city has a number of government and private colleges, including the following:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Cricket and football are the two most popular sports among the people of Quetta. Football teams from Quetta include Quetta Zorawar, Muslim FC, Hazara Green Football, Baluch Football and Quetta Bazigars Club. The Quetta Bears represent the city in List A tournaments, while the Quetta Gladiators compete in the Pakistan Super League (PSL).  Boxing is highly popular, as well. In hockey, Quetta has produced Zeeshan Ashraf and Shakeel Abbasi, who were members of the Pakistan's national hockey team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Muhammad Waseem.", "content": "Muhammad Waseem is a professional boxer he is from Quetta. Known for his quick and swift style of boxing, Waseem is nicknamed \"Falcon\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Facilities.", "content": "The Shaheed Nauoroz Stadium is the largest stadium in the city. The city also has Ayub National Stadium, a multipurpose stadium used for football and cricket and Bugti Stadium for cricket.  Local facilities were created in the city for mountain climbing and caving as well as water sports. Hayatullah Khan Durrani (Pride of Performance) is the chief executive of Hayat Durrani Water Sports Academy the Balochistan's first and only Rowing, Canoeing, Kayaking, Sailing, rough swimming and boating academy where all such facilities provides free to the youth members at Hanna Lake. In kayaking, Muhammad Abubakar Durrani, National Junior Champion was selected for the world Junior Canoeing Championship in 2009 in Moscow.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Quetta ( \"Kwaṭa\"; ; ; ; ; formerly known as Shalkot () is the provincial capital and largest city of Balochistan, Pakistan. It is also the 10th largest city of Pakistan. It was largely destroyed in the 1935 Quetta earthquake, but was rebuilt and has a population of 1,001,205 according to the census of 2017. Quetta is at an average elevation of above sea level, making it Pakistan's only high-altitude major city. The city is known as the \"Fruit Garden of Pakistan,\" due to the numerous fruit orchards in and around it, and the large variety of fruits and dried fruit products produced there.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973736}
{"src_title": "Sestriere", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Sestriere has 929 inhabitants and is located on the pass that links Val Chisone and Val Susa, at above mean sea level The village is completely surrounded by mountains, which have been exploited to build one of the biggest ski resorts in Italy. The main mountains around Sestriere are: Monte Fraiteve in the north-east, Monte Sises, Punta Rognosa di Sestriere and Monte Motta in the south-east. Sestriere is divided into several smaller hamlets: Sestriere Colle, on the pass top, Sestriere Borgata, in Val Chisone, Champlas du Col and Champlas Janvier, in Val Susa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Formerly, the pass belonged to the municipality of Cesana, but from 18 October 1934 the area was unified with the hamlet of Borgata (formerly belonging to Pragelato) to create the new municipality of Sestriere. The ski resorts at Sestriere were built in the 1930s by Giovanni Agnelli and have been further developed after the Second World War by his nephew Giovanni Nasi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winter sports.", "content": "Sestriere is a popular skiing resort; during the winter holidays the population goes up to about 20,000 people. Together with the villages of Pragelato, Claviere, Sauze d'Oulx, Cesana Torinese and San Sicario, and Montgenèvre in France, it makes up the Via Lattea (Milky Way) skiing area. Sestriere is connected to 146 skiable pistes, for a total of up to of trails, of which 120 are provided with artificial snow. Sestriere has also one of the few facilities where it is possible to ski at night on a floodlit run.  It regularly hosts FIS Alpine Ski World Cup events, and it hosted the FIS World Championships in 1997, and the IPC World Championships in 2011. It was a main venue during the 2006 Winter Olympic Games and the 2006 Winter Paralympics, hosting all the men's alpine skiing competitions and being the site of one of the three Olympic Villages. The two hotel towers, one of which was part of the Olympic Village, were built in the 1930s by FIAT's founder Giovanni Agnelli, and have become the symbol of the village; these were the first buildings of the village.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Linked resorts (Via Lattea).", "content": "Pragelato - the resort is part of the Via Lattea (Milky Way), is connected to this area by the Pattemouche-Anfiteatro cableway, built in 2006. Claviere - This small resort is just over the border in Italy and is included in the Monts de la lune lift pass. It is where the Olympic cross country ski teams practised for the Olympics in 2006.  San Sicario - The biathlon and Alpine skiing events were held there in the 2006 Winter Olympic Games. They also held the bobsleigh and luge events here. One can attempt the Olympic women's super G and downhill courses.  Sauze d'Oulx - Free Style Skiing Olympic events held here in 2006. The resort is acclaimed for its lively après-ski.  Serre Chevalier - Nearby French resort with over of skiing. There is a free day of skiing here on your lift pass.  Montgenèvre - Nearby French resort with over of pistes. Montgenevre's ski area has 8 green runs, 12 blue, 22 red and 10 black slopes and is linked to the Via Lattea (Milky Way) ski area. There is a free day of skiing here on your lift pass.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Summer sports.", "content": "In the summertime it is possible to play golf on Europe's highest 18-hole course.  It is also a starting and arrival point in the Tour de France and the Giro d'Italia. It was the scene of the moment in Lance Armstrong's career when he rode away from the field in a breakaway uphill finish to take the stage in the 1999 Tour de France, which was the first time he won the race, although he was later stripped of his seven victories.  Due to its location across two valleys, Sestriere is close to several hiking paths.  Sestriere organized an International Athletics Meeting from 1988 until 1995 and in 2004. Due to Sestiere's altitude the organizers aimed to meet conditions that enabled athletes to perform on world record level. The Ferrari company sponsored the meeting and set a new Ferrari car as prize for breaking world records.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Due to its position, Sestriere can only be reached by car or bus.  Trains from Torino stop in Oulx (Val Susa). From there, several buses bring passengers to Sestriere.  The highway also stops in Oulx, but a municipal road leads to the village in 20 minutes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sestriere (,, ) is an alpine village in Italy, a \"comune\" (municipality) of the Metropolitan City of Turin. It is situated in Val Susa, from the French border. Its name derives from Latin: \"ad petram sistrariam\", that is at sixty Roman miles from Turin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973737}
{"src_title": "Wikinews", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "The first recorded proposal of a Wikimedia news site was a two-line anonymous post on January 5, 2003, on Wikipedia community's Meta-Wiki. Daniel Alston, who edited Wikipedia as Fonzy, claimed to have been the one who posted it. The proposal was then further developed by German freelance journalist, software developer, and author Erik Möller. Early opposition from long-time Wikipedia contributors, many of them pointing out the existence of Wikipedia's own news summaries, gave way to detailed discussions and proposals about how it could be implemented as a new project of the Wikimedia Foundation.  In November 2004, a demonstration wiki was established to show how such a collaborative news site might work. A month later, in December 2004, the site was moved out of the \"demo\" stage and into the beta stage. A German language edition was launched at the same time. Soon editions in Italian, Dutch, French, Spanish, Swedish, Bulgarian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Ukrainian, Serbian, Japanese, Russian, Hebrew, Arabic, Thai, Norwegian, Chinese, Turkish, Korean, Hungarian, Greek, Esperanto, Czech, Albanian, and Tamil (in that chronological order) were set up.  On March 13, 2005, the English edition of Wikinews reached 1,000 news articles. A few months later in September 2005, the project moved to the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 license. It reached 5,000 articles on April 29, 2006, and 10,000 on September 5, 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interviews.", "content": "Wikinews reporters have conducted interviews with several notable people, including an interview in December 2007 with Israeli President Shimon Peres by Wikinews reporter David Shankbone. Shankbone had been invited to conduct the interview by the America-Israel Friendship League and the Israeli foreign ministry.  Other notable interviews have included writers, actors, and politicians, such as Augusten Burroughs, several 2008 U.S. Republican Party nomination hopefuls as well as various U.S. independent and third party presidential candidates, Tony Benn, Eric Bogosian, Nick Smith, John Key, and World Wide Web co-inventor Robert Cailliau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Wikinews has been criticized for its perceived inability to be neutral or include only verified and true information. Robert McHenry, former editor-in-chief of the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\", criticized the credibility of the project:  McHenry was skeptical about Wikinews' ability to provide a neutral point of view and its claim to be evenhanded: \"The naïveté is stunning.\"  In a 2007 interview Sue Gardner, at that time a special adviser to the board of the Wikimedia Foundation and former head of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's Internet division, CBC.ca, dismissed McHenry's comment, stating:  Wikinews has also had issues with maintaining a separate identity from Wikipedia, which also covers major news events in real-time. Columnist Jonathan Dee of \"The New York Times\" pointed out in 2007 that \"So indistinct has the line between past and present become that Wikipedia has inadvertently all but strangled one of its sister projects, the three-year-old Wikinews... [Wikinews] has sunk into a kind of torpor; lately it generates just 8 to 10 articles a day... On bigger stories there's just no point in competing with the ruthless purview of the encyclopedia.\" Andrew Lih and Zachary M. Seward commented on the continuing issue in a 2010 piece in the Nieman Journalism Lab, \"Why Wikipedia beats Wikinews as a collaborative journalism project.\" Lih wrote \"it's not clear that the wiki process really gears itself towards deadlines and group narrative writing\" and that \"if you're trying to write something approaching a feature piece, it's much harder to get more than two or three people to stay consistent with the style.\" Lih considers Wikipedia's stricter \"formula\" for article composition an advantage in a large wiki with many editors.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wikinews is a free-content news source wiki and a project of the Wikimedia Foundation. The site works through collaborative journalism. Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has distinguished Wikinews from Wikipedia by saying \"on Wikinews, each story is to be written as a news story as opposed to an encyclopedia article.\" The neutral point of view policy espoused in Wikinews distinguishes it from other citizen journalism efforts such as Indymedia and OhmyNews. In contrast to most projects of the Wikimedia Foundation, Wikinews allows original work under the form of original reporting and interviews.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973738}
{"src_title": "Zostera", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Zostera marina\" is found on sandy substrates or in estuaries, usually submerged or partially floating. Most \"Zostera\" are perennial. They have long, bright green, ribbon-like leaves, the width of which are about. Short stems grow up from extensive, white branching rhizomes. The flowers are enclosed in the sheaths of the leaf bases; the fruits are bladdery and can float.  \"Zostera\" beds are important for sediment deposition, substrate stabilization, as substrate for epiphytic algae and micro-invertebrates, and as nursery grounds for many species of economically important fish and shellfish. \"Zostera\" often forms beds in bay mud in the estuarine setting. It is an important food for brant geese and wigeons, and even (occasionally) caterpillars of the grass moth \"Dolicharthria punctalis\".  The slime mold \"Labyrinthula zosterae\" can cause the wasting disease of \"Zostera\", with \"Z. marina\" being particularly susceptible, causing a decrease in the populations of the fauna that depend on \"Zostera\".  \"Zostera\" is able to maintain its turgor at a constant pressure in response to fluctuations in environmental osmolarity. It achieves this by losing solutes as the tide goes out and gaining solutes as the tide comes in.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The genus as a whole is widespread throughout seashores of much of the Northern Hemisphere as well as Australia, New Zealand, Southeast Asia and southern Africa. The discovery of \"Z. chilensis\" in 2005 adds an isolated population on the Pacific coast of South America to the distribution. One species (\"Z. noltii\") occurs along the land-locked Caspian Sea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Eelgrass has been used for food by the Seri tribe of Native Americans on the coast of Sonora, Mexico. The rhizomes and leaf-bases of eelgrass were eaten fresh or dried into cakes for winter food. It was also used for smoking deer meat. The Seri language has many words related to eelgrass and eelgrass-harvesting. The month of April is called \"xnoois ihaat iizax\", literally \"the month when the eelgrass seed is mature\".  \"Zostera\" has also been used as packing material and as stuffing for mattresses and cushions.  On the Danish island of Læsø it has been used for thatching roofs. Roofs of eelgrass are said to be heavy, but also much longer-lasting and easier to thatch and maintain than roofs done with more conventional thatching material. More recently, the plant has been used in its dried form for insulation in eco-friendly houses and as a ground cover in permaculture gardens, once its salt layer washed off (ex: Friland, Danish eco-village)  \"Zostera\" can also be utilized to produce biomass energy using the Jean Pain method.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zostera is a small genus of widely distributed seagrasses, commonly called marine eelgrass or simply eelgrass. The genus \"Zostera\" contains 15 species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973739}
{"src_title": "Beveridge curve", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Beveridge curve, or UV curve, was developed in 1958 by Christopher Dow and Leslie Arthur Dicks-Mireaux. They were interested in measuring excess demand in the goods market for the guidance of Keynesian fiscal policies and took British data on vacancies and unemployment in the labour market as a proxy, since excess demand is unobservable. By 1958, they had 12 years of data available since the British government had started collecting data on unfilled vacancies from notification at labour exchanges in 1946. Dow and Dicks-Mireaux presented the unemployment and vacancy data in an unemployment-vacancy (UV) space and derived an idealised UV-curve as a rectangular hyperbola after they had connected successive observations. The UV curve, or Beveridge curve, enabled economists to use an analytical method, later known as UV-analysis, to decompose unemployment into different types of unemployment: deficient-demand (or cyclical) unemployment and structural unemployment. In the first half of the 1970s, that method was refined by economists of the National Institute of Economic and Social Research (NIESR), in London, so that a classification arose that corresponded to the 'traditional' classification: a division of unemployment into frictional, structural and deficient demand unemployment. Both the Beveridge curve and the Phillips curve bear implicit macroeconomic notions of equilibrium in markets, but the notions are inconsistent and conflicting. Most likely, because the curve enabled economists to analyze many of the problems that Beveridge had addressed, like mismatch between unemployment and vacancies, at aggregate level and industry levels and trend v. cyclical changes and measurement problems of vacancies, the curve was named in the 1980s after William Beveridge, who never drew the curve, and the exact origin of the name remains obscure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Movements.", "content": "The Beveridge Curve can move for the following reasons:  Skill shortages should not be confused with \"labour shortages\", which identify an objective lack of workers in the market, independently of their skills, and it may arise because of limited geographical mobility, ageing populations or a labour market approaching full employment during an economic boom. Along with labour surpluses, labour shortages are one of the most traditional examples of labour market imbalances. What distinguishes an objective shortage of labour from a skill-related shortage (i.e. a special case of skill mismatch) is just the presence of a pool of unemployed individuals (non-discouraged job seekers) willing to take up jobs in the labour market considered at the ongoing rate. Nevertheless, even in presence of unemployment and assuming that there is an adequate demand for labour in the market, it could still be difficult to point to a skill shortage for at least two reasons: if whether the unemployment we observe is frictional (just a short-term consequence of costly \"search\"), cyclical (caused by the business cycle) or structural cannot be established or if whether the position offered is accessible and/or attractive (such as whether or not the wage posted is competitive or at least rising with respect to other segments of the market that are not reporting unmet labour demands) cannot be established. In addition, skill shortages may be caused by both \"horizontal\" skill mismatch, when workers have qualifications/skills which are different than the one required by the firms, or by \"vertical\" skill mismatch, when workers' skills and qualifications are lower level than what firms require. In the literature, scholars have also referred to skill mismatch and sometimes even to skill shortages to define a situation of the skills of the employed workers and those required by being jobs were different. To avoid any possible confusion, that form of mismatch affecting only employed individuals will be referred as \"on-the-job\" mismatch, in the more general case of workers being both over and under skilled for their jobs (vertical on-the-job mismatch) or have different skills/qualifications (horizontal on-the-job mismatch) and as skill gap to refer to employed workers whose skills are lower than those required by their jobs. It follows that skill mismatch, as it is defined here, can result in the occurrence of both skill shortages and on-the-job mismatches (both vertical and horizontal).  Economists generally believe that labour markets adjust to such imbalances, especially over time, but it is also possible for such mismatches to persist for many years or decades. In such instances, adverse equilibria, characterized by more structural unemployment, long-term unfilled vacancies and/or lower labour force participation may arise, and employers may eventually be forced to hire workers who possess lower or just different skills, giving place to the mismatch \"on the job\". Public policy interventions to change or improve the match of workers to employers might be appropriate in such cases.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Beveridge curve, or UV curve, is a graphical representation of the relationship between unemployment and the job vacancy rate, the number of unfilled jobs expressed as a proportion of the labour force. It typically has vacancies on the vertical axis and unemployment on the horizontal. The curve, named after William Beveridge, is hyperbolic-shaped and slopes downward, as a higher rate of unemployment normally occurs with a lower rate of vacancies. If it moves outward over time, a given level of vacancies would be associated with higher and higher levels of unemployment, which would imply decreasing efficiency in the labour market. Inefficient labour markets are caused by mismatches between available jobs and the unemployed and an immobile labour force.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973740}
{"src_title": "G. W. Pabst", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Pabst was born in Raudnitz, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary (today's Roudnice nad Labem, Czech Republic), the son of a railroad official. While growing up in Vienna, he studied drama at the Academy of Decorative Arts and initially began his career as a stage actor in Switzerland, Austria and Germany. In 1910, Pabst traveled to the United States, where he worked as an actor and director at the German Theater in New York City.  When World War I began, Pabst returned to Europe, where he was interned in a prisoner-of-war camp in Brest. While imprisoned, Pabst organised a theatre group at the camp. Upon his release in 1919, he returned to Vienna, where he became director of the Neue Wiener Bühne, an avant-garde theatre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Pabst began his career as a film director at the behest of Carl Froelich who hired Pabst as an assistant director. He directed his first film, \"The Treasure\", in 1923. He developed a talent for \"discovering\" and developing the talents of actresses, including Greta Garbo, Asta Nielsen, Louise Brooks, and Leni Riefenstahl.  Pabst's best known films concern the plight of women, including \"The Joyless Street\" (1925) with Greta Garbo and Asta Nielsen, \"Secrets of a Soul\" (1926) with Lili Damita, \"The Loves of Jeanne Ney\" (1927) with Brigitte Helm, \"Pandora's Box\" (1929), and \"Diary of a Lost Girl\" (1929) with American actress Louise Brooks. He also co-directed with Arnold Fanck a mountain film entitled \"The White Hell of Pitz Palu\" (1929) starring Leni Riefenstahl.  After the coming of sound, he made a trilogy of films that secured his reputation: \"Westfront 1918\" (1930), \"The Threepenny Opera\" (1931) with Lotte Lenya (based on the Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill musical), and \"Kameradschaft\" (1931). Pabst also filmed three versions of Pierre Benoit's novel \"L'Atlantide\" in 1932, in German, English, and French, titled \"Die Herrin von Atlantis\", \"The Mistress of Atlantis\", and \"L'Atlantide\", respectively. In 1933, Pabst directed \"Don Quixote\", once again in German, English, and French versions.  After making \"A Modern Hero\" (1934) in the USA and \"Street of Shadows\" (1937) in France, Pabst (who was planning to emigrate to the United States) was caught in France in 1938 whilst visiting his mother, when war was declared, and was forced to return to Nazi Germany. Under the auspices of propaganda minister, Josef Goebbels, Pabst made two films in Germany, during this period; \"The Comedians\" (1941) and \"Paracelsus\" (1943).  Pabst directed four opera productions in Italy in 1953: \"La forza del destino\" for the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino in Florence (conducted by Dimitri Mitropoulos, the cast included Renata Tebaldi, Fedora Barbieri, Mario del Monaco, Aldo Protti, Cesare Siepi), and a few weeks later, for the Arena di Verona Festival, a spectacular \"Aïda\", with Maria Callas in the title role (conducted by Tullio Serafin, with del Monaco), \"Il trovatore\" and again \"La forza del destino\".  He directed \"The Last Ten Days\" (1955), the first post-war German feature film to feature Adolf Hitler as a character.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 29 May 1967, Pabst died in Vienna at the age of 81. He was interred at the Zentralfriedhof in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Further reading  \"The Other Eye\", Filmessay on G.W.Pabst, by Hannah Heer & Werner Schmiedel (A/USA 1991/92)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georg Wilhelm Pabst (25 August 1885 – 29 May 1967) was an Austrian film director and screenwriter. He started as an actor and theater director, before becoming one of the most influential German-language filmmakers during the Weimar Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973741}
{"src_title": "CAcert.org", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "CAcert Inc. Association.", "content": "CAcert Inc. is an incorporated non-profit association registered in New South Wales (Australia) since July 2003 which runs CAcert.org. It has members living in many different countries and a board of 7 members. It was founded by Duane Groth in 2003. In 2004, the Dutch internet pioneer Teus Hagen became involved with the community-driven certificate authority and served as board member and in 2008 as president.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Certificate Trust status.", "content": "As per 29 August 2018 the certificates issued by CAcert do not have status of being trusted by most browsers hence users will be warned about untrusted certificate. As for email use, MS Outlook will not accept using these certificates either. CAcert use their own certificate on their HTTPS pages on their website.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Web of trust.", "content": "To create higher-trust certificates, users can participate in a web of trust system whereby users physically meet and verify each other's identities. CAcert maintains the number of assurance points for each account. Assurance points can be gained through various means, primarily by having one's identity physically verified by users classified as \"Assurers\".  Having more assurance points allows users more privileges such as writing a name in the certificate and longer expiration times on certificates. A user with at least 100 assurance points is a Prospective Assurer, and may—after passing an Assurer Challenge—verify other users; more assurance points allow the Assurer to assign more assurance points to others.  CAcert sponsors key signing parties, especially at big events such as CeBIT and FOSDEM. CAcert's web of trust has 365,201 verified users as of 2019-02-14.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Root certificate descriptions.", "content": "Since October 2005, CAcert offers Class 1 and Class 3 root certificates. Class 3 is a high-security subset of Class 1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inclusion status.", "content": "The habit to include a list of CAs in the browser was established with Netscape Navigator v.3.0. It was 1996, the dawn of the first browser war, and little emphasis was put on the security implications of making such a list. The key concern was the users' ability to quickly access secured web pages, almost irrespectively of the signing CA. Browsers needed to not skip any important CA included by their competitors.  CAcert arrived much later. Discussion for inclusion of its root certificate in Mozilla and derivatives (such as Mozilla Firefox) started in 2004. Mozilla had no CA certificate policy at the time. Eventually, they developed a policy which required that CAcert improved their management system and deepened their formal verifications, auditing in particular. CAcert withdrew its request for inclusion at the end of April 2007. Progress toward Mozilla requirements and a new request for inclusion can hardly be expected in the near future. At the same time, the CA/Browser Forum was established to allow peaceful discussion among browser producers. Mozilla's advice was adopted, and, in addition, Extended Validation Certificates began to be issued.  FreeBSD used to include CAcert root certificate but removed it in 2008 following Mozilla's policy. In 2014 it was removed from Ubuntu, Debian, and OpenBSD. In 2018 it was removed from Arch Linux.  The following operating systems or distributions include the CAcert root certificate, or have it available in an installable package:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "CAcert.org is a community-driven certificate authority that issues free public key certificates to the public. CAcert has over 334,000 verified users and has issued over 1,285,000 certificates. CAcert.org heavily relies on automation and therefore issues only Domain-validated certificates (and not Extended validation or Organization Validation certificates).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973742}
{"src_title": "Hitchhiking", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Legal status.", "content": "Hitchhiking is a historically common (autonomous) practice worldwide and hence there are very few places in the world where laws exist to restrict it. However, a minority of countries have laws that restrict hitchhiking at certain locations. In the United States, for example, some local governments have laws outlawing hitchhiking, on the basis of drivers' and hitchhikers' safety. In 1946, New Jersey arrested and imprisoned a hitchhiker, leading to intervention by the American Civil Liberties Union. In Canada, several highways have restrictions on hitchhiking, particularly in British Columbia and the 400-series highways in Ontario. In all countries in Europe, it is legal to hitchhike and in some places even encouraged. However, worldwide, even where hitchhiking is permitted, laws forbid hitchhiking where pedestrians are banned, such as the Autobahn (Germany), Autostrade (Italy), motorways (United Kingdom and continental Europe) or interstate highways (United States), although hitchhikers often obtain rides at entrances and truck stops where it is legal at least throughout Europe with the exception of Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decline.", "content": "In 2011, \"Freakonomics Radio\" reviewed sparse data about hitchhiking, and identified a decline in hitchhiking in the US since the 1970s, which it attributed to a number of factors, including lower air travel costs due to deregulation, the presence of more money in the economy to pay for travel, more numerous and more reliable cars, and a lack of trust of strangers. Fear of hitchhiking is thought to have been spurred by movies such as \"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre\" (1974) and a few real stories of imperiled passengers, notably the kidnapping of Colleen Stan in California. See, below.  Julian Portis points out that the rise of faster highways, such as freeways, motorways, and expressways, has made hitchhiking more difficult. He adds:  Some British researchers discuss reasons for hitchhiking's decline in the UK, and possible means of reviving it in safer and more-organized forms.  In recent years, hitchhikers have started efforts to strengthen their community. Examples include the annual Hitchgathering, an event organized by hitchhikers, for hitchhikers, and websites such as hitchwiki and hitchbase, which are platforms for hitchhikers to share tips and provide a way of looking up good hitchhiking spots around the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Limited data is available regarding the safety of hitchhiking. Compiling good safety data requires counting hitchhikers, counting rides, and counting problems: a difficult task.  Two studies on the topic include a 1974 California Highway Patrol study and a 1989 German federal police study. The California study found that hitchhikers were not disproportionately likely to be victims of crime. The German study concluded that the actual risk is much lower than the publicly-perceived risk; the authors did not advise against hitchhiking in general. They found that in some cases there were verbal disputes or inappropriate comments, but physical attacks were very rare.  Recommended safety practices include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Around the world.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cuba.", "content": "In Cuba, picking up hitchhikers is mandatory for government vehicles, if passenger space is available. Hitchhiking is encouraged, as Cuba has few cars, and hitch hikers use designated spots. Drivers pick up waiting riders on a first come, first served basis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Israel.", "content": "In Israel, hitchhiking is commonplace at designated locations called \"trempiyadas\" ( in Hebrew, derived from the “German” \"trampen\"). Travelers soliciting rides, called \"trempists\", wait at trempiyadas, typically junctions of highways or main roads outside of a city.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nepal.", "content": "In Nepal, hitchhiking is very common in rural areas. Many do not own cars so hitchhiking is a common practice especially in and around villages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Netherlands.", "content": "In the Netherlands, hitchhiking is legal and official signs indicate where one may wait for a ride. These designated hitchhiking locations are called \"liftershalte\" or \"liftplaats\" in Dutch, and they are particularly common in university towns.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Poland.", "content": "Hitchhiking in Poland has a long history and is still popular. It was legalised and formalised in 1957 so hitchhikers could buy booklets including coupons from travel agencies. These coupons were given to drivers who took hitchhikers. By the end of each season drivers who collected the highest number of coupons could exchange them for prizes, and others took part in a lottery. This so-called \"Akcja Autostop\" was popular till the end of the 1970s, but the sale of the booklet was discontinued in 1995.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ireland.", "content": "Hitchhiking in Ireland is legal, unless it takes place on motorways. A backpacker will most likely still get a lift if the car has enough space to park. Local police (Gardaí) usually let backpackers get away with a verbal warning.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Hitchhiking became a common method of traveling during the Great Depression.  Warnings of the potential dangers of picking up hitchhikers were publicized to drivers, who were advised that some hitchhikers would rob drivers and, in some cases, sexually assault or murder them. Other warnings were publicized to the hitchhikers themselves, alerting them to the same types of crimes being carried out by drivers. Still, hitchhiking was part of the American psyche and many people continued to stick out their thumbs, even in states where the practice had been outlawed.  Today, hitchhiking is legal in 44 of the 50 states, provided that the hitchhiker is not standing in the roadway or otherwise hindering the normal flow of traffic. Even in states where hitchhiking is illegal, hitchhikers are rarely ticketed. For example, the Wyoming Highway Patrol approached 524 hitchhikers in 2010, but only eight of them were cited (hitchhiking was subsequently legalized in Wyoming in 2013).  In several urban areas, a variation of hitchhiking called slugging occurs, motivated by HOV lanes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable hitchhikers.", "content": "Numerous victims on the Highway of Tears disappeared while hitchhiking. Notable individual hitchhikers include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hitchhiking (also known as thumbing or hitching) is a means of transportation that is gained by asking individuals, usually strangers, for a ride in their car or other vehicle. The ride is usually, but not always, free.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973743}
{"src_title": "Kalymnos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Naming.", "content": "The island is known as \"Càlino\" in Italian and \"Kilimli\" or \"Kelemez\" in Turkish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The island is roughly rectangular in shape, with a length of and a width of, and covers an area of. Moreover, on the north side there is a peninsula which stretches in a northwest direction.  Kalymnos is mostly mountainous with complicated topography. There are three main chains going from W-NW to E-SE, and a fourth which extends NW the length of the peninsula. The coastline is very irregular, with many sheltered coves. There are some springs, one among them being thermal. The soil is mainly limestone-based, but in the valleys there is a compact bank of volcanic tuff, the relic of an ancient volcano, located in Vigles, between the villages of Myrties and Kantouni. The island is mainly barren, except for the two fertile valleys of Vathys and Pothia, where olives, oranges and vines are grown. There is also an ostrich farm in Argos, near the airport.  Earthquakes are a frequent occurrence around Kalymnos, a fact that is connected with the volcanoes in surrounding islands. The last earthquake occurred was the 2017 Aegean Sea earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7M, which injured two people in Kalymnos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archipelago of Kalymnos.", "content": "Kalymnos is neighbored by the small island of Telendos, which was once part of Kalymnos, but split off after a major earthquake in 554 AD and is now separated from Kalymnos by a channel of water (about 800 m wide).  Between Kalymnos and Kos lies the islet of Pserimos which is inhabited and, with an area of, is one of the largest of the lesser islands of the Dodecanese. Near Pserimos lies the islet of Platí, and about to the NE lies the small islet of Kalolimnos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Inhabited originally by Carians, in Antiquity Kalymnos depended on Kos, and followed its history. The island's Hellenistic Temple of Apollo was excavated by the British archaeologist Charles Newton in the nineteenth century; many of the finds he made, including important epigraphic inscriptions, are in the British Museum's collection. In the Middle Ages it was under the influence of the Byzantine Empire, and during the 13th century it was used by the Venetian Republic as a naval base. In 1310 it came under the control of the Knights of Rhodes, and later (mainly in 1457 and 1460) was often attacked by the Ottomans, who eventually conquered it in 1522. Unlike Rhodes and Kos, during the Ottoman period there was no Turkish immigration to Kalymnos.  According to the Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893, the kaza of Kalymnos had a total population of 9,716, consisting of 9,482 Greeks, 64 Muslims and 170 foreign citizens.  On May 12, 1912, during the Italo-Turkish War, Kalymnos was occupied by Italian sailors of the Regia Marina. Italy took control of the island along with other islands of the Dodecanese (except Kastellorizo initially) until 1947, when the Dodecanese were finally united with mainland Greece, as part of the modern Greek state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "The majority of Kalymnians are Orthodox Christians. The island belongs to that small part of Greece that does not depend on the Church of Greece, but rather on the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople based in Istanbul, Turkey. Kalymnos belongs to the Metropolis of Leros, Kalymnos and Astypalaia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sponge diving.", "content": "Kalymnos is known and billed as the \"Sponge-divers' island\". Sponge diving has long been a common occupation on Kalymnos and sponges were the main source of income of Kalymnians, bringing wealth to the island and making it famous throughout the Mediterranean. The Kalymnians harvested sponges from the sea-bed as close as Pserimos or as far as North Africa. Early diving was done without equipment (free diving), using a harpoon. Sponges are still fished individually, by hand.  The Greek sponge trade was centered close in the Dodecanese, featuring Kalymnos until mid-80s, when a disease hit the eastern Mediterranean destroying a great number of sponges and damaging the sponge-fishing industry as a result. Today, Kalymnos faces a lack of sponges due to the outbreak of a disease which has decimated sponge crops.  An annual celebration, Sponge Week, occurs a week after Easter to honour this \"Kalymnian gold.” Much has been written, sung and filmed about the legendary courage and recklessness of the sponge divers themselves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climbing.", "content": "Kalymnos is a popular rock climbing and bouldering location with more than 3000 climbing routes set in the limestone rock of the island and a climate that allows climbing all year around. The island has seen a boom in climbing related tourism since 1997, when the Italian Andrea di Bari started establishing the first routes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Being mostly barren (only 18% of the land can be cultivated), agriculture has always played a minor role in the economy of the island, except for the valley of Vathi. The island is famous for its citrus fruits grown in this area.  Another industrial activity typical of Kalymnos was the production of painted head scarfs, which were the most original component of the female dress.  In recent times, tourism has become important for the island, particularly for rock climbing. In 2006, the island also acquired an airport, the Kalymnos Island National Airport in Argos, a village between Pothia and Brosta (the villages which are opposite of Telendos), to better link the island with the mainland.  Since the beginning of the 20th century, there has been much emigration from Kalymnos (the 1925 population was some 24,000 inhabitants as compared to 16,500 in 2012), especially to the United States and Australia. The cities of Darwin and Melbourne in Australia, and Tarpon Springs, Gary, IN, and Campbell, OH in the United States are home to large Greek communities of Kalymnian descent.  Kalymnian emigrants and their descendants also form a substantial portion of the bridge painting industry in the USA. Some researchers link this to the sponge diving tradition and way of life as both trades involve dangerous work with long periods away from home.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kalymnos, () is a Greek island and municipality in the southeastern Aegean Sea. It belongs to the Dodecanese island chain, between the islands of Kos (south, at a distance of ) and Leros (north, at a distance of less than ): the latter is linked to it through a series of islets. Kalymnos lies between two and five hours away by sea from Rhodes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973744}
{"src_title": "Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The impulse and preparation of the church.", "content": "The pilgrimage Church of St. John of Nepomuk near the monastery in Žďár(currently Zdar Estate with New generation museum) was built thanks to the longtime, close and immensely fruitful cooperation of two extraordinary people. The impulse was given by Václav Vejmluva, an abbot of the Cistercian monastery in Žďár, who was a proven devotee of John of Nepomuk before he was beatified as well as after he was canonized. The preparation of the project dates back to the period from late April to the beginning of August 1719 and is considered a direct reaction of the abbot to the discovery of preserved tissue in the tomb of John of Nepomuk in the St. Vitus Cathedral on 15 April 1719. The design of the building was entrusted to famous architect Jan Blažej Santini-Aichel to whom abbot Vejmluva is alleged to have presented his ideas about the new sanctuary and the symbols used, which was fully compliant with the requirement of the Church: “Fathers propose, artists create“. The architect then worked on the basis of the outline. Santini dealt with the project quite individually, without any respect to the traditions concerning the shapes of religious buildings; he only accepted the contemporary viewpoint of the structure of a pilgrimage destination. The architect melded the abbot's idea of the church in which the main role was to be played by the pattern of a star, into an extraordinarily impressive form which was only appreciated by the modern time, yet not always. Friedrich Radnitzký, a member of the Central Committee, referred to the church as a \"visually mysterious phenomenon\" as late as 1886. The project was finished unusually quickly but this was nothing exceptional for Santini. Moreover, the abbot and the architect had cooperated together for many years and they were both specialists on symbology and the teaching of the Cabala which they used to a substantial extent in the project. Santini knew very well what the abbot wanted from him. Thus the resulting architecture must have been affected positively by the atmosphere of mutual understanding. The definitive shape of the building does not differ much from the first design and only a few changes were made.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ground plan.", "content": "The central church along with its adjacent cloister is uniformly projected and built structure. Architecture of this building is very minimalistic and enormously effective. It combines Baroque and Gothic elements which in fact points to the age when John of Nepomuk lived, worked and was martyred. The construction of church is based on geometry of circle while constantly repeating number five as a reference to Nepomuk's five stars. Those stars, according to a legend, appeared above his body when he had died. This is a good example of how Santini used to project his structures—practically just by using compass to draft whole building on arcs of circles which radius was generally multiple of building's module. In case of church of Saint Jan Nepomuk Santini used number 5, Nepomuk's stars, number 3 which references to the Trinity, and number 6 which references to Saint Mary because John of Nepomuk was perceived as her adorer. Therefore, on the perimeter of church take turns five chapels with triangular ground plan and five with oval ground plan. At the same time the whole church resembles cut through choir of a Gothic cathedral and its buttress. The centrality of Nepomuk's church builds up a vertical as a symbolical phenomenon. This very vertical tends to raise visitors look up to the symbolical heaven.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Central area.", "content": "In inner area of the church there are oval perimeter chapels which are connected with central cylinder space by narrower ogive arches. The central area which is covered by vault with lunettes, is carried by ten pillars. In first floor there are tribunes corresponding to chapels in the basement. Second floor is decorated with the gallery counting ten pieces of art which are arranged round the heel of the vault. Stucco decoration is limited to motives of intersecting and cut rib arches similar to Gothic vaults. As on the other Santini's buildings, even here light is used to build inner space. This approach is based on baroque interpretation of light as a sign of god's presence. Some call this'sacral light'. The illumination of church's interior creates unique paradox. Meanwhile, central area is illuminated only indirectly the side walkway parts of the church are awash with light. This light permeates into central area of the church by ogive arches placed in places where should stand the bearing pillars. The stucco decoration underlines this paradox by creating relation between wall and arch belonging to that particular wall. This makes a feeling that the wall is only a shell and the whole building is carried by light itself. The entire church is then perceived also as a reliquary in where the relic of tongue of Saint John Nepomuk dwells.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Main altar.", "content": "The main altar on eastern side is placed into high arcade. The peak of the altar reaches to the railing on the gallery on the second floor. Carving of five angels on the main altar (with its count five pointing to John Nepomuk) and four evangelists are made by hands of a sculptor coming from Chrudim named Jan Pavel Čechpauer in years 1725–27. Three of five angels are bearing a sphere standing for heaven sky decorated with five stars. On the sphere stands figure of st. John Nepomuk. The sculpture is a work of Řehoř Theny. He made also the reliefs on the litter for the silver pilgrimage statue of St. John Nepomuk from year 1729 made by prague goldsmith Jan Diesbach. This statue disappeared after year 1784. The choice of contacting sculptors close to Matthias Braun was on purpose because Santini collaborated on his realizations many times actually with Braun whose'sculpture language' was apparently very close to Santini's personality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Surrounding.", "content": "Around the church is built a ring cloister divided into ten sections by five chapels and five gates all this on a circular ground plan. Roof of each chapel originally culminated into five Pylons. These pointed to the meaning of light and symbolized eternity. The cloister along with chapels was a place where pilgrims prayed and also hid when the weather turned bad. Not only the church itself but also its surrounding – cloister with chapels – illustrates Santini's great architectonic and creative potency.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Big fire.", "content": "On the 17 July 1784 the church burned out and there was a real danger of its complete destruction. Fortunately local citizens with great help of Matěj Sychra managed to cover the whole area and in the end saved it for future generations. Permission to restore the church was given by the gubernium (administrative unit) in 1792 with the conditions that the church would no longer be a pilgrimage church, and that the cemetery of Žďár nad Sázavou would be moved to the church area. Nowadays, the cemetery is no longer in use and is in fact being slowly moved out, to give the place the original look as it had in baroque times.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pilgrimage Church of St John of Nepomuk (Czech: \"Poutní kostel svatého Jana Nepomuckého\") at Zelená hora (former German name: \"Grünberg\", meaning \"Green Hill\") is a religious building at the edge of Žďár nad Sázavou, Czech Republic, near the historical border between Moravia and Bohemia. It is the final work of Jan Santini Aichel, a Bohemian architect who combined the Borrominiesque Baroque with references to Gothic elements in both construction and decoration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973745}
{"src_title": "Saverio Mercadante", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Mercadante was born illegitimate in Altamura, near Bari in Apulia; his precise date of birth has not been recorded, but he was baptised on 17 September 1795. Mercadante studied flute, violin and composition at the conservatory in Naples, and organized concerts among his compatriots. The opera composer Gioachino Rossini said to the conservatory Director, Niccolo Zingarelli, \"My compliments, Maestro – your young pupil Mercadante begins where we finish\". In 1817 he was made conductor of the college orchestra, composing a number of symphonies, and concertos for various instruments – including six for flute about 1818–1819, and whose autograph scores are in the Naples conservatory, where they were presumably first performed with him as soloist. The encouragement of Rossini led him to compose for the opera, where he won considerable success with his second such work (\"Violenza e Constanza\"), in 1820. His next three operas are more or less forgotten, but an abridged recording of \"Maria Stuarda, Regina di Scozia\" was issued by Opera Rara in 2006. His next opera \"Elisa e Claudio\" was a huge success, and had occasional revivals in the 20th century, most recently by Wexford Festival Opera in 1988. He worked for a time in Vienna, in Madrid, in Cádiz, and in Lisbon, but re-established himself in Italy in 1831. He was invited by Rossini to Paris in 1836, where he composed \"I Briganti\" for four of the best-known singers of the time, Giulia Grisi, Giovanni Battista Rubini, Antonio Tamburini and Luigi Lablache, all of whom worked closely with Bellini. While there, he had the opportunity to hear operas by Meyerbeer and Halévy, which imparted a strong influence on him, especially the latter's \"La Juive\". This influence took the form of greater stress on the dramatic side.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Italy, 1831.", "content": "When Mercadante returned to Italy after living in Spain and Portugal, Donizetti's music reigned supreme in Naples, an ascendancy which did not end until censorship problems with the latter's \"Poliuto\" caused a final break. But Mercadante's style began to shift with the presentation of \"I Normanni a Parigi\" at the Teatro Regio in Turin in 1832: \"It was with this score that Mercadante entered on the process of development in his musical dramaturgy which, in some aspects, actually presaged the arrival of Verdi, when he launched, from 1837 on, into master works of his artistic maturity: the so-called \"reform operas\".  The beginnings of the so-called \"reform movement\", of which Mercadante was part, arose from the publication of a manifesto by Giuseppe Mazzini which he wrote in 1836, the \"Filosofia della musica\".  In the period after 1831 he composed some of his most important works. These included \"Il giuramento\" which was premiered at La Scala in November 1837. One striking and innovative characteristic of this opera has been noted:..it marks the first successful attempt in an Italian opera premiered in Italy of depriving the prima donna, or some other star singer, of her until-then inalienable right of having the stage to herself at the end. By doing this, Mercadante sounded what was to be the death knell of the age of bel canto.  Early in following year, while composing \"Elena da Feltre\" (which premiered in January 1839), Mercadante wrote to Francesco Florimo, laying out his ideas about how opera should be structured, following the \"revolution\" begun in his previous opera: I have continued the revolution I began in \"Il giuramento\": varied forms, cabalettas banished, crescendos out, vocal lines simplified, fewer repeats, more originality in the cadences, proper regard paid to the drama, orchestration rich but not so as to swamp the voices, no long solos in the ensembles (they only force the other parts to stand idle to the detriment of the action), not much bass drum, and a lot less brass band.  \"Elena da Feltre\" followed; one critic found much to praise in it: These temporarily put him in the forefront of composers then active in Italy, although he was soon passed by Giovanni Pacini with \"Saffo\" and Giuseppe Verdi with several operas, especially \"Ernani\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later works.", "content": "Some of Mercadante's later works, especially \"Orazi e Curiazi\", were also quite successful. Many performances of his operas were given throughout the 19th century and it has been noted that some of them received far more than those of Verdi's early operas over the same period of time.  Throughout his life he generated more instrumental works than most of his contemporary composers of operas due to his lifelong preoccupation with orchestration, and, from 1840, his position as the Director of the Naples conservatory for the last thirty years of his life. From 1863 he was almost totally blind and dictated all his compositions.  In the decades after his death in Naples in 1870, his output was largely forgotten, but it has been occasionally revived and recorded since World War II, although it has yet to achieve anything like the present-day popularity of the most famous compositions by his slightly younger contemporaries: see Donizetti's compositions and Bellini's compositions.  The French soloist Jean-Pierre Rampal notably recorded several Mercadante concertos for flute and string orchestra*, including the grand and romantic E minor concerto, which has since gained some popularity among concert flautists.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giuseppe Saverio Raffaele Mercadante (baptised 17 September 179517 December 1870) was an Italian composer, particularly of operas. While Mercadante may not have retained the international celebrity of Gaetano Donizetti or Gioachino Rossini beyond his own lifetime, he composed as prolific a number of works as either; and his development of operatic structures, melodic styles and orchestration contributed significantly to the foundations upon which Giuseppe Verdi built his dramatic technique.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973746}
{"src_title": "François Boucher", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "A native of Paris, Boucher was the son of a lesser known painter Nicolas Boucher, who gave him his first artistic training. At the age of seventeen, a painting by Boucher was admired by the painter François Lemoyne. Lemoyne later appointed Boucher as his apprentice, but after only three months, he went to work for the engraver Jean-François Cars. In 1720, he won the elite Grand Prix de Rome for painting, but did not take up the consequential opportunity to study in Italy until five years later, due to financial problems at the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture. On his return from studying in Italy he was admitted to the refounded Académie de peinture et de sculpture on 24 November 1731. His \"morceau de réception\" (reception piece) was his \"Rinaldo and Armida\" of 1734.  Boucher married Marie-Jeanne Buzeau in 1733. The couple had three children together. Boucher became a faculty member in 1734 and his career accelerated from this point as he was promoted Professor then Rector of the Academy, becoming inspector at the Royal Gobelins Manufactory and finally \"Premier Peintre du Roi\" (First Painter of the King) in 1765. Boucher died on 30 May 1770 in his native Paris. His name, along with that of his patron Madame de Pompadour, had become synonymous with the French Rococo style, leading the Goncourt brothers to write: \"Boucher is one of those men who represent the taste of a century, who express, personify and embody it.\"  Boucher is famous for saying that nature is \"trop verte et mal éclairée\" (too green and badly lit).  Boucher was associated with the gemstone engraver Jacques Guay, whom he taught to draw. He also mentored the Moravian-Austrian painter Martin Ferdinand Quadal as well as the neoclassical painter Jacques-Louis David in 1767. Later, Boucher made a series of drawings of works by Guay which Madame de Pompadour then engraved and distributed as a handsomely bound volume to favored courtiers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Painting.", "content": "Boucher took inspiration from artists such as Peter Paul Rubens and Antoine Watteau. Boucher's early works celebrate the idyllic and tranquil portrayal of nature and landscape with great elan. However, his art typically forgoes traditional rural innocence to portray scenes with a definitive style of eroticism as his mythological scenes are passionate and intimately amorous rather than traditionally epic. Boucher's paintings of a flirtatious shepherd and shepherdess in a woodland setting, featured in \"The Enjoyable Lesson\" (\"The Flute Players\") of 1748 and \"An Autumn Pastoral\" (\"The Grape Eaters\") of 1749, were based upon characters in a 1745 play by Boucher's close friend Charles-Simon Favart. Boucher's characters in those paintings later inspired a pair of figurines created by the Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory, c. 1757–66. Marquise de Pompadour (mistress of King Louis XV), whose name became synonymous with Rococo art, was a great admirer of his work. Marquise de Pompadour is often referred to as the \"godmother of Rococo\" and Boucher's portraits were central to her self-presentation and cultivation of her image. For instance, Boucher's 'Sketch for a Portrait of Madame de Pompadour', displayed in the Starhemburg room at Waddesdon Manor, acts as a surviving example of the oil preparation prior to the, now lost, portrait. In one hand she holds her hat, in the other she picks up a pearl bracelet with a portrait of the king – symbolising the relationship upon which her status depends.  Boucher's paintings such as \"The Breakfast\" (1739), a familial scene, show how he was as a master of the genre scene, where he regularly used his own wife and children as models. These intimate family scenes are contrasting to the licentious style seen in his \"Odalisque\" portraits.  The dark-haired version of the \"Odalisque\" portraits prompted claims by the art critic Denis Diderot that Boucher was \"prostituting his own wife\", and the \"Blonde Odalisque\" was a portrait that illustrated the extramarital relationships of the King. Boucher gained lasting notoriety through such private commissions for wealthy collectors and, after Diderot expressed his disapproval, his reputation came under increasing critical attack during the last years of his career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theatrical and tapestry designs.", "content": "Along with his painting, Boucher also designed theater costumes and sets, and the ardent intrigues of the comic operas of Charles Simon Favart closely paralleled his own style of painting. Tapestry design was also a concern. For the Beauvais tapestry workshops he first designed a series of \"Fêtes italiennes\" (\"Italian festivals\") in 1736, which proved to be very successful and often rewoven over the years, and then, commissioned in 1737, a suite of the story of Cupid and Psyche. During two decades' involvement with the Beauvais tapestry workshops Boucher produced designs for six series of hangings in all, like.  Boucher was also called upon for designs for court festivities organized by that section of the King's household called the Menus-Plaisirs du Roi and for the opera and for royal châteaux Versailles, Fontainebleau and Choisy. His designs for all of the aforementioned augmented his earlier reputation, resulting in many engravings from his work and even reproduction of his designs on porcelain and biscuit-ware at the Vincennes and Sèvres factories. The death of Oudry in 1755 put an end to its contribution to Beauvais but his collaboration with the Gobelins lasted until 1765, when he stepped down from his position as an inspector.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Drawings and prints.", "content": "Boucher was a very prolific and varied draftsman. His drawings served not only as preparatory studies for his paintings and as designs for printmakers but also as finished works of art for which there was a great demand by collectors. Boucher followed standard studio practices of the time, by first working out the overall composition of his major canvases, and then making chalk studies for individual figures, or groups of figures. He also relied on oil and gouache sketches in the preparation of major commissions.  Gradually he made more and more sketches as independent works for the market. The (Metropolitan Museum of Art), a free and painterly sketch in gouache, was long considered a preparatory sketch for Madame de Pompadour's private altarpiece \"La lumière du monde\" (ca. 1750, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon). Recent scholarship suggests, however, that it was made at least 10 years later as an autonomous work. In the last decade of his career the artist began to favor brown chalk, a fabricated medium.  Boucher was also a gifted engraver and etcher. Boucher etched some 180 original copperplates. He made many etchings after Watteau. He thus helped propagate a taste for reproductions of drawings. When his own drawings began to sell, 266 of them were etched in stipple substitutes by Gilles Demarteau. These were printed in red ink so they resembled red chalk drawings which could be framed as little pictures. They could then be hung in the small blank spaces of the elaborately decorated paneling of luxury dwellings.  Boucher's most original inventions were decorative, and he contributed to the fashionable style of chinoiserie, after having etched 12 'Figures Chinoises' (Chinese figures) by Watteau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works by François Boucher.", "content": "This is an incomplete list of works by François Boucher.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François Boucher (,, ; 29 September 1703 – 30 May 1770) was a French painter, draughtsman and etcher, who worked in the Rococo style. Boucher is known for his idyllic and voluptuous paintings on classical themes, decorative allegories, and pastoral scenes. He was perhaps the most celebrated painter and decorative artist of the 18th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973747}
{"src_title": "Quercus petraea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The sessile oak is a large deciduous tree up to tall, in the white oak section of the genus (\"Quercus\" sect. \"Quercus\") and similar to the pedunculate oak, \"Q. robur\", with which it overlaps extensively in range. The leaves are long and broad, evenly lobed with five to six lobes on each side and a petiole. The male flowers are called catkins, produced in the spring. The fruit is an acorn long and broad, which matures in about six months.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison with pedunculate oak.", "content": "Significant botanical differences from pedunculate oak (\"Quercus robur\") include the stalked leaves, and the stalkless (sessile) acorns from which one of its common names is derived. It occurs in upland areas over with higher rainfall and shallow, acidic, sandy soils. Its specific epithet \"petraea\" means \"of rocky places\". \"Quercus robur\", on the other hand, prefers deeper, richer soils at lower altitude. Fertile hybrids with \"Quercus robur\" named \"Quercus × rosacea\" are found wherever the two parent species occur and share or are intermediate in characters between the parents.  Charles Darwin, in Chapter II of \"On the Origin of Species\", noted that the sessile and pedunculate oaks had been described as both distinct species and mere varieties depending on the authority consulted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Sessile oak is one of the most important species in Europe both economically and ecologically. Oak timber is traditionally used for building, ships and furniture. Today the best woods are used for quality cabinetmaking, veneers and barrel staves. Rougher material is used for fence construction, roof beams and specialist building work. It is also a good fuel wood. During autumns with good acorn crops (the mast years) animals are traditionally grazed under the trees to fatten them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pontfadog Oak.", "content": "The Pontfadog Oak, once considered to be the oldest oak tree in the UK, was a sessile oak. This grew near Chirk in North Wales. It was understood to be over 1,200 years old, an age that was due to regular pollarding for much of its life. The hollow trunk had a girth of. It was lost in April 2013 when it blew down in high winds.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Quercus petraea, commonly known as the sessile oak, Cornish oak, or durmast oak, is a species of oak tree native to most of Europe and into Anatolia and Iran.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973748}
{"src_title": "Arsinoe II", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Arsinoë was the first daughter of Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter, founder of the Hellenistic state of Egypt, and his second wife Berenice I of Egypt.  She was maybe born in Memphis, but was raised in the new city of Alexandria, where her father moved his capital. Nothing is known of her childhood or education, but judging from her later life as patron of scholars and noted for her learning, she is estimated to have been given a high education.Her brothers were tutored by intellectuals hired by their fathers, and it is regarded likely that she attended these lessons as well: she corresponded with the intellectual Strato of Lampsacus later in life, and he may have previously been her tutor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen of Lysimachus.", "content": "At about age 15, Arsinoë married King Lysimachus (who was then around 60 years old),with whom she had three sons: Ptolemy Epigonos, Lysimachus, and Philip.  In order to position her sons for the throne, she had Lysimachus' first son, Agathocles, poisoned on account of treason.  Arsinoe reportedly paid for a rotunda in the Samothrace temple complex, where she was likely an initiate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen of Ptolemy Keraunos.", "content": "After Lysimachus' death in battle in 281 BC, she fled to Cassandreia () and married her paternal half-brother Ptolemy Keraunos, one of the sons of Ptolemy I Soter from his previous wife, Eurydice of Egypt. The marriage was for political reasons as they both claimed the throne of Macedonia and Thrace (by the time of his death Lysimachus was ruler of both regions, and his power extended to southern Greece and Anatolia). Their relationship was never good.  As Ptolemy Keraunos was becoming more powerful, she decided it was time to stop him and conspired against him with her sons. This action caused Ptolemy Keraunus to kill two of her sons, Lysimachus and Philip, while the eldest, Ptolemy, was able to escape and to flee north, to the kingdom of the Dardanians.  She herself sought refuge in the Samothrace temple complex, which she had benefited during her tenure as queen. She eventually left from Samothrace for Alexandria, Egypt, to seek protection from her brother, Ptolemy II Philadelphus.  It is not known which year she left for Egypt. She may have left so early as 280, directly after the murder of the younger sons, or as late as 276, when the claim of her eldest son to the Macedonian throne had clearly failed after the succession of Antigonus II Gonatas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen of Egypt.", "content": "In Egypt, she is believed to have instigated the accusation and exile of her brother Ptolemy II's first wife, Arsinoe I. Whether this was actually true is unknown: it is not known which year she arrived in Egypt, and her sister-in-law may already have been exiled at that point, or her divorce may have taken place without her involvement.  Whatever the case, after the divorce of Ptolemy, Arsinoe II then married her younger brother. As a result, both were given the epithet \"Philadelphoi\" ( \"Sibling-lovers\"). The closer circumstances and reasons behind the marriage is not known.  Her role as queen was unprecedented in the dynasty at the time and became a role model for later Ptolemaic queens: she acted alongside her brother in ritual and public display, became a religious and literal patron and was included in the Egyptian and Greek cults created by him for them. Sharing in all of her brother's titles, she apparently was quite influential, having towns dedicated to her, her own cult (as was Egyptian custom), appearing on coinage and contributing to foreign policy, including Ptolemy II's victory in the First Syrian War between Egypt and the Seleucid Empire.  According to Posidippus, she won three chariot races at the Olympic Games, probably in 272 BC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deification.", "content": "After her death, Ptolemy II established a cult of Arsinoe Philadelphus. She received burial and deification rites at Mendes, where she had been a priestess, which are commemorated in the Mendes stele. This stele also includes the decree of Ptolemy II announcing her cult. All temples in Egypt were required to include a cult statue of Arsinoe II alongside the main god of the sanctuary. In the relief at the top of the stele, Arsinoe is depicted among the deities receiving sacrifice from Ptolemy - an image which recurs throughout the country. Separate temples were also constructed for Arsinoe, at Memphis and elsewhere. The Fayyum region became the Arsinoite nome, with Arsinoe as its patron goddess. From 263 BC, a portion of tax on orchard and vineyard produce in each nome of Egypt was dedicated to funding the nome's cult of Arsinoe.  Arsinoe's cult was also propagated in Alexandria. An annual priesthood, known as the Canephorus of Arsinoe Philadelphus, was established by 269 BC. The holder of the office was included as part of the dating formula in all official documents until the late second century BC. An annual procession was held in Arsinoe's honour, led by the Canephorus. Every household along the procession's route was required to erect a small altar of sand and sacrifice birds and lentils for Arsinoe. A large temple was erected by the harbour in Alexandria. The admiral Callicrates of Samos erected another sanctuary at Cape Zephyrium, at the eastern end of the harbour, where Arsinoe was worshipped as Aphrodite Euploia (Aphrodite of the good-sailing). Similar sanctuaries were established at a number of port-cities under Ptolemaic control, including Citium in Cyprus, Delos in the Nesiotic League, and Thera. As a result of these sanctuaries, Arsinoe became closely associated with protection from shipwrecks. Coinage and statuettes depicting the divine Arsinoe survive. Her divine attributes are a small ram's horn behind her ear - symbolising her connection to the ram of Mendes - and a pair of cornucopiae which she carries. She appears in this guise on a set of mass-produced faience Oenochoae, which seem to have been associated with funerary ritual in Alexandria.  Arsinoe seems to have been a genuinely popular goddess throughout the Ptolemaic period, with both Greeks and Egyptians, in Egypt and beyond. 'Arsinoe' is one of the few Greek names to be naturalised as an Egyptian personal name in the period. Altars and dedicatory plaques in her honour are found throughout Egypt and the Aegean, while hundreds of her faience oenochoae have been found in the cemeteries of Alexandria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Arsinoe married Lysimachus of Thrace in 300 or 299 BC and had three children:  After Lysimachus' death in 281 BC, Arsinoe was briefly married to her half-brother Ptolemy Ceraunus from 280 to 279 BC and then to her full-blooded, younger brother Ptolemy II of Egypt from the late 270s BC until her death. Ptolemy II's children by his first wife Arsinoe I, including his eventual successor Ptolemy III were posthumously declared to be children of Arsinoe II in the late 260s BC.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arsinoë II (, 316 BC – unknown date between July 270 and 260 BC) was a Ptolemaic queen and co-regent of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of ancient Egypt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973749}
{"src_title": "Mountain hut", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Huts.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Alps.", "content": "The construction of refuges and shelters in the Alps date back to ancient times, when Roman roads led across the mountain passes. In the High Middle Ages, \"hospitales\" were erected along the trade routes; cottages and sheds on the high mountain pastures served for Alpine transhumance. The long history of mountaineering from the 19th century onwards has led to a large number of Alpine club huts as well as private huts along the mountaineering paths. These huts are categorised according to their location and facilities. They may have beds or a mattress room (\"Matratzenlager\") for overnight stays.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Britain.", "content": "In the United Kingdom the tradition is of unwardened \"climbing huts\" providing fairly rudimentary accommodation (but superior to that of a bothy) close to a climbing ground; the huts are usually conversions (e.g. of former quarrymen's cottages, or of disused mine buildings), and are not open to passers-by except in emergency. Many climbing clubs in the UK have such huts in Snowdonia or in the Lake District. A well-known example is the 'Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut' (the 'CIC Hut') - a purpose-built hut below the northern crags of Ben Nevis in Scotland. In the past, some shelters in Scotland were built in exposed locations at high elevation, often as part of military training exercises. However, and particularly following the 1971 Cairngorm Plateau Disaster, these were deliberately demolished because they were thought to pose dangers exceeding their benefits.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Norway.", "content": "The Norwegian Trekking Association operates about 460 cabins mostly in the mountains and in forested areas, of which about 400 have lodgings. Many cabins are unstaffed and open all year, while the staffed cabins often are just open during summer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Poland.", "content": "In Poland most of mountains shelters and huts are run by PTTK - Polish Tourist Society. Only few of shelters belong to private investors. In the Polish mountains there are about 100 shelters. Most of mountains shelters offer many-persons rooms and refreshments. Polish mountain huts are obliged by their own regulations to overnight each person who is not able to find any other place before sunset, though the conditions may be tough (e.g. a mattress in hall or warm basement).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Slovakia.", "content": "In Slovakia there is a dense network of mountain huts (\"chata\") in most mountain and forest regions, serving a culture of hiking. In the past they were managed by the official tourist union, but now are mostly in private hands. Official mountain huts are similar to guest houses and are run by full-time managers. In winter, some refuges are closed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "There are many huts in the United States, for example in the Rocky Mountains, the Appalachian Mountains and other ranges. The High Huts of the White Mountains in New Hampshire are generally \"full service\" (cooks serve food) through summer and early fall, while some are open the rest of the year as self-service huts, at which hikers bring and prepare their own food.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Canada.", "content": "The Alpine Club of Canada operates what it calls the \"largest network of backcountry huts in North America.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New Zealand.", "content": "The New Zealand Department of Conservation \"manages a network of over 950 huts of all shapes and sizes.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Himalayas.", "content": "The mountains of Asia do not have a well-developed system of public mountain huts, although hiking, trekking and mountain climbing are common. In 2015, a competition was launched to design huts that could be located along trekking trails of Nepal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "South Africa.", "content": "Many places in Africa have hiking huts but they are usually privately owned and require payment and reservations. At least one hut is open for public use on Table Mountain in South Africa, part of Table Mountain National Park.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A mountain hut is a building located high in the mountains, generally accessible only by foot, intended to provide food and shelter to mountaineers, climbers and hikers. Mountain huts are usually operated by an Alpine Club or some organization dedicated to hiking or mountain recreation. They are known by many names, including alpine hut, mountain shelter, mountain refuge, mountain lodge, and mountain hostel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973750}
{"src_title": "Émile Verhaeren", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Émile Verhaeren was born into a middle-class family in Sint-Amands, a rural commune in Belgium's Province of Antwerp. In addition to the local Dutch dialect, he adopted French as his language of culture, as was common for Belgian elites at the time. At the age of eleven, he was sent to a strict boarding school in Ghent run by Jesuits, the Jesuit College of Sainte Barbe, where he formed a friendship with Georges Rodenbach. He then went to study law at the University of Leuven, where he produced his first literary efforts in a student paper, \"La Semaine\", which he edited in conjunction with the operatic singer Ernest van Dyck. \"La Semaine\" was suppressed by the authorities, as was its successor, \"Le Type\", in which Verhaeren had as fellow-workers Max Waller, Iwan Gilkin and Albert Giraud. His like-minded acquaintances later became his collaborators on the revolutionary artistic magazine \"La Jeune Belgique\".  Having gained his law degree, he became a trainee (1881–1884) with Edmond Picard, a renowned criminal lawyer and influential figure in the Brussels artistic scene. Verhaeren came into frequent contact with young, radical writers and artists at a time of artistic renewal. He spoke in only two cases in a courtroom before deciding to dedicate his life to poetry and literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art criticism.", "content": "He soon became the spokesperson for the artistic revival at the turn of the century. Fascinated by the works of the painters of the artistic circle \"Les XX\", he wrote many articles in \"La Jeune Belgique\" and \"L'Art Moderne\" with flamboyant criticism on the artistic-literary works of the Brussels art world. He made himself especially the champion of the impressionist painters, and his articles brought many promising young talents, such as James Ensor and Fernand Khnopff, to the attention of the public.  Through these articles, he became a lifelong friend of the Neo-impressionist Belgian painter Théo van Rysselberghe, resulting in a vast body of letters. In one of these letters, he was described by Maria van Rysselberghe, as \"a unique personality, a whirlwind with an indomitable character, who didn't bother himself about bourgeois rules and who provoked or overwhelmed everybody by his straightforward directness\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "He was one of the most prolific poets of his era. His first collection of poems, \"Les Flamandes\", was published in 1883. Inspired by the paintings of Jacob Jordaens, David Teniers and Jan Steen, Verhaeren described in a direct and often provocative, naturalistic way his country and the Flemish people. It was an immediate success in avant-garde milieus, but caused a great deal of controversy in Catholic circles. His next book, \"Les Moines\" (1886), was not the success he had hoped for. This, and his health problems, led to a deep crisis. In this period he published \"Les Soirs\" (1888), \"Les Débâcles\" (1888) and \"Les Flambeaux noirs\" (1891), all with Edmond Deman, who became his usual publisher.  On 24 August 1891 he married Marthe Massin, a talented artist from Liège. His new-found happiness found expression in three poetry books: \"Les Heures Claires\" (1896), \"Les Heures d'Après-midi\" (1905) and \"Les Heures du Soir\" (1911). His later poems include \"Les Rythmes souverains\" (1910), \"Les Villes à pignons\" (1910), \"Les Plaines\" (1911) and \"Les Blés Mouvants\" (1912).  He wrote his first play, \"Les Aubes\", in 1898. Here he waged a fight against social injustice and the decline of life in the countryside. In 1912, he produced a tragedy, \"Hélène de Sparte\", which was performed in German and Russian, besides French.  In 1898 he moved to Saint-Cloud, near Paris. By the turn of the century, he had become world-famous. His works were translated into more than twenty languages. His German translator was Stefan Zweig. He travelled, giving lectures, throughout Europe.  The outbreak of World War I had a devastating effect on the poet's deep pacifist feelings. He went to England, where he received honorary degrees from various universities. During his exile, he published \"Les Ailes rouges de la Guerre\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Émile Verhaeren died on 27 November 1916 at Rouen station: he fell under a moving train while trying to board it. Marthe Verhaeren was informed of the death of her husband by Théo van Rysselberghe and his friend, the famous French writer (and later Nobel Prize winner) André Gide.  Verhaeren's vast body of work supports claims that he is one of the most prominent figures in Belgian literature. He narrowly missed the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1911; it was instead awarded to his friend, Maurice Maeterlinck.  St. Amands, his native city, has dedicated a museum to this giant of Belgian literature, showing many original manuscripts of his works and letters along with works of his artistic friends Théo van Rysselberghe, Léon Spilliaert, Constantin Meunier, Paul Signac and Ossip Zadkine. Verhaeren was the cousin of the painter Alfred Verhaeren.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Émile Adolphe Gustave Verhaeren (; 21 May 1855 – 27 November 1916) was a Belgian poet and art critic who wrote in the French language. He was one of the founders of the school of Symbolism and was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature on six occasions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973751}
{"src_title": "Corrientes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Transportation.", "content": "The General Belgrano Bridge crosses the Paraná River that serves as the natural border with the neighbouring Chaco Province. On the other side of the bridge is Resistencia, capital of Chaco. To the west and up the Paraná, between Paraguay and Argentina, lies the Yaciretá dam, one of the largest hydroelectric power generators in the world.  The Doctor Fernando Piragine Niveyro International Airport at coordinates, away from the city, serves the city.  The Ferrocarril Económico Correntino narrow gauge railway line to Mburucuyá operated from 1912 until 1927.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 1516 Juan Díaz de Solís commanded the first expedition to reach the area populated mainly by Guaraní aboriginals, but his expedition was attacked and Solís perished in the adventure.  Sebastian Cabot established in 1527 the \"Sancti Spiritu\" fort upstream of the Paraná River, and in 1536 Pedro de Mendoza reached further north into the basin of the river, searching for the \"Sierras of Silver\".  Juan Torres de Vera y Aragón founded on April 3, 1588 \"San Juan de Vera de las Siete Corrientes\" (\"Saint John of Vera of the Seven Currents\"), which was later shortened to \"Corrientes\". The \"seven currents\" refer to the seven peninsulas on the shore of the river at this place, that produced wild currents that made difficult the navigation of the river through this part.  Nevertheless, its position between Asunción - in present Paraguay - and Buenos Aires made it an important middle point, especially because of its 55-metre-high lands that prevent flooding when the water level rises.  In 1615 Jesuits settled near the Uruguay River. In 1807 the city resisted the British invasions. During the Argentine War of Independence it was in permanent conflict with the centralist government of Buenos Aires, but the Paraguayan War united them after the city was attacked by Paraguayan forces in 1865.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The annual average temperature is, with maximum and minimum averages of respectively. The annual rainfall is around. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is \"Cfa\" (Humid Subtropical Climate). Frosts are rare; with the dates of the first and last frost being July 5 and July 12 respectively, indicating that most of the year is frost free. The highest temperature recorded was on November 15, 1985 while the lowest temperature recorded was on June 15, 1979.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "The Graham Greene spy novel \"The Honorary Consul\" (1973) takes place in Corrientes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Corrientes (; Guaraní: Taragüí, literally: \"Currents\") is the capital city of the province of Corrientes, Argentina, located on the eastern shore of the Paraná River, about from Buenos Aires and from Posadas, on National Route 12. It has a population of 346,334 according to the 2010 Census. It lies opposite its twin city, Resistencia, Chaco.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973752}
{"src_title": "Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Works.", "content": "He wrote a book on insects at the age of 22 and also the nine-volume book \"Die Balearen\" (The Balearic Islands).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "He was the second cousin of Emperor Franz Joseph, of the ruling House of Habsburg-Lorraine, the fourth son of Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany. Ludwig went to Majorca under his title of Count of Neuendorf, arriving in 1867. Falling in love with the clear air, water and dazzling blue skies of Majorca it was to become his base and home for the remainder of his life. He explored on his steam-yacht the \"Nixe\". He was known for his extreme love of animals and nature.  Archduke Ludwig Salvator never married. When he was young he fell in love with a cousin, Archduchess Mathilde, the daughter of the Duke of Teschen. Ludwig wanted to marry her, but she was promised to Prince Umberto of Savoy. On June 6, 1867, Mathilde, then only 18, was getting dressed to attend the theatre. She enjoyed smoking cigarettes, but when her father, who abhorred smoking appeared, she tried to hide the cigarette behind her. Her dress caught fire, and she died in front of her family, sustaining second and third-degree burns. Relationships with women included Catalina Homar. She convinced Ludwig to let her visit Jerusalem and it is believed that it was there that she contracted the leprosy that took her life in 1905. He fathered numerous illegitimate children.  When the First World War broke out, in 1914, the Emperor of Austria ordered Ludwig Salvator to leave Majorca, and in 1915 he died at the family castle of Brandeis-Altbunzlau, in Bohemia. He was buried in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Researcher and chronicler of the Mediterranean sea.", "content": "It was of great importance to Ludwig Salvator to stimulate public interest for landscapes, which he thought were unjustifiably little known rarely traveled. His attention focused less on classical cultural centers, but on small, undiscovered regions, like Collection of costumes and type images of Serbs in the region on the Adriatic Sea between Rijeka and northern Albania by 45 plates with color lithographs based on watercolors Die Serben an der Adria (1870–1878), including the islands of Paxos and Antipaxos, Ithaca, Lefkada and Zakynthos in the Ionian Sea and the Aeolian Islands in the north of Sicily, the islands of Giglio, Ustica and Alboran, and especially the then largely unknown Balearic Islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Eivissa (Ibiza) and Formentera. In 1869, there appeared the first volume, dedicated to emperor Franz Joseph, of his massive \"Die Balearen. In Wort und Bild geschildert\" (The Balearic Islands, portrayed in words and images); the total work encompasses seven separate volumes extending to approximately 6000 pages. For their first two volumes he was awarded the gold medal of the Paris World Exhibition of 1878. This monograph contains descriptions of animals, plants, meteorology, history, folklore, architecture, landscape descriptions and also detailed descriptions of the population, their customs, songs and poems. In 1897 there was published a two-volume popular edition with the same title that contained the main illustrations and texts. It is located on loan from the Österreichische Geographische Gesellschaft (Austrian Geographical Society) in the Austrian State Archives.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria, in Italian Luigi Salvatore Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Battista Dominico Raineri Ferdinando Carlo Zenobio Antonino, in German Ludwig Salvator Maria Joseph Johann Baptist Dominicus Rainerius Ferdinand Carl Zenobius Antonin (Florence, 4 August 1847 – Schloss Brandeis, Brandýs nad Labem-Stará Boleslav, Bohemia, 12 October 1915), is known as a champion for Majorca's wildlife, in an era when the term \"conservation\" meant nothing. The Balearic Islands are commemorating the centenary of the death of Archduke Ludwig Salvator during 2015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973753}
{"src_title": "Sychrov Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Since the 15th century, a fort existed in the place now occupied by Sychrov. During the years between 1690 and 1693, a small baroque castle was constructed here.  In 1820, the castle was bought by the Rohan family, French aristocrats exiled by the French Revolution who decided to stay in the Austrian Empire. The 125-year-long ownership by the Rohans proved to be the most important in the castle's history.  In 1945 the castle was nationalized because of the Beneš decrees. Since 1950, it has been open to the public to a small extent. Since the 1970s, however, large parts of the castle were open to the public. Since the beginning of the 1990s, an extensive reconstruction and restoration of the castle exteriors, interiors, and the park have been underway, the object of which is to make Sychrov look as close to its original form at the time of its biggest boom, i.e., its condition in the second half of the 19th century, as possible. In 1995 it came under the protection of the state as a national cultural heritage site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "A small, dilapidated, Baroque castle was rebuilt by the Rohans and finished in 1834. A second reconstruction (1847–62) put romantic neogothic style into the castle, and this style remains today. The reconstruction was carried out according to the plans of Bernard Grueber, and all works were facilitated by domestic artists and craftsmen.  The owner paid specific attention to the Castle Park, designed in the English style. The park became a model for the establishment of many now-important arboreta such as in Průhonice and Konopiště. During this period, a rare harmonising of the castle exterior, interior, and the park was accomplished. During the late 1920s/early 1930s, the castle interior was renovated. Especially valuable are the interior carvings by Petr Bušek, who worked in the castle for 38 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "The castle boasts a collection of around 250 portraits of the Rohans, related families, and French kings. It is the largest collection of French portrait paintings in Central Europe. Sychrov hosts unique glass paintings by Jan Zachariáš Quast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Park.", "content": "The English park has an area of. The older, classical park was remodeled into the romantic style. Since botany was a hobby of the castle owner, the park received a lot of attention: There are rich dendrological and botanical collections. Unique beech (Fagus silvatica Rohani) was cultivated in the park. See www.zamek-sychrov.cz/en/apark.asp for more information.  Since 2001, Scottish Highland Games (Skotské hry) take place in the park every summer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Today Sychrov is a popular tourist attraction.  The composer Antonín Dvořák visited the castle several times (he was a friend of its administrator), and several of his works were inspired by its beauty. In honor of Dvořák, a classical music festival takes place there every year in June.  The castle is often used as a film location for Czech films and foreign films.  The 1997 comedy film The Beautician and the Beast, starring Fran Drescher and Timothy Dalton, was shot at the castle.  The castle is also a popular place for wedding ceremonies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sychrov Castle can be found near the village Sychrov in the Liberec Region of the Czech Republic. It is a unique example of Neo-Gothic castle architecture from the second half of the 19th century. A large park surrounds the castle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973754}
{"src_title": "Konopiště", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The castle was apparently established in the 1280s by Prague Bishop Tobiaš as a Gothic fortification in the style of a French castle with a rectangular plan and round towers protruding from the corners, making the most effective defence possible. Accounts show that the Benešévic family from nearby Benešov were the owners in 1318, and that in 1327 the castle passed into the hands of the Šternberks. In 1468, it was conquered by the troops of George of Poděbrady after a siege that lasted almost two years.  In 1603, the estate was purchased by Dorota Hodějovská of Hodějov, who made Renaissance alterations to the old gothic fortification. The Hodějovský family fortified their property because of their active participation in the anti-Habsburg rebellion in 1620. Albrecht von Waldstein acquired the castle, and after him it was passed to Adam Michna of Vacínov. Michna gained notoriety through his repression of the serfs, who revolted against him and conquered Konopiště in 1657.  The Swedes occupied and plundered Konopiště in 1648, and the Vrtba family then purchased the dilapidated structure. After 1725, they had it transformed into a Baroque style château. The drawbridge was replaced by a stone bridge, and near the east tower a new entrance was inserted in the wall. The gate which embellished it was designed by František Maxmilián Kaňka and featured statues from the workshop of Matthias Bernard Braun. In 1746, the upper levels of four of the towers were destroyed and one tower was completely demolished. During repair of the interiors, mythological and allegorical frescoes were painted on the ceilings of the great hall, and marble fireplaces with carved decorations by Lazar Wildmann were created.  Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria bought Konopiště in 1887 with his inheritance from the last reigning Duke of Modena. He had it repaired between 1889 and 1894 by the architect Josef Mocker into a luxurious residence, suitable for a future Emperor, which he preferred to his official residence in Vienna. The extensive 225 ha (550-acre) English-style park, with terraces, a rose garden and statues, was established at the same time.  He invited Wilhelm II, German Kaiser to see his roses early in June 1914. Insofar as they discussed politics, they discussed Romania, but undocumented conspiracy theories about their planning an attack on Serbia or a division of the Austro-Hungarian Empire arose at the time.  Since 1921, the castle has been the property of the Czechoslovak and later Czech state, one of 90 such properties in state ownership. The Ministry of Culture was said to spend more than US$800,000 per year to maintain the castle, and it recovers about as much from entrance ticket sales and rental fees for occasional functions.  In 2000, 'Princess' Sophie von Hohenberg, great-granddaughter of Franz Ferdinand and his morganatic wife Sophie von Hohenberg, filed a lawsuit seeking restitution of the castle to the Hohenberg family, which however was never recognized as part of the House of Habsburg. The lawsuit, filed in Benešov (former German name: Beneschau), sought restitution of the castle, of woodland and a brewery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourist attractions.", "content": "Konopiště has been open to the public since 1971. Visitors can observe the residential rooms of Franz Ferdinand, who was also an enthusiastic hunter, a large collection of antlers, the \"Obizzi-Este collection\" (the third largest European collection of armoury and medieval weapons from Castello del Catajo, Padua, Italy), a shooting hall with moving targets, and a garden with Italian Renaissance statues and greenhouses.  The castle can be toured from April to October. It is accessible by train from Prague to Benešov (about a one-hour ride) and then by a walk of about 2.5 km (1.5 mi) from the station, or by one of the infrequent buses.  Part of the film \"The Illusionist\" was filmed in Konopiště, the prince's castle in the movie.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Konopiště Castle (; ) is a four-winged, three-storey castle located in Konopiště, now a part of the town of Benešov in central Bohemia, Czechia. It has become famous as the last residence of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, whose assassination in Sarajevo triggered World War I. The bullet that killed him, fired by Gavrilo Princip, is now an exhibit at the castle's remote museum.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973755}
{"src_title": "Myhill–Nerode theorem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Statement.", "content": "Given a language \"L\", and a pair of strings \"x\" and \"y\", define a distinguishing extension to be a string \"z\" such that exactly one of the two strings \"xz\" and \"yz\" belongs to \"L\". Define a relation \"R\" on strings by the rule that \"x R y\" if there is no distinguishing extension for \"x\" and \"y\". It is easy to show that \"R\" is an equivalence relation on strings, and thus it divides the set of all strings into equivalence classes.  The Myhill–Nerode theorem states that \"L\" is regular if and only if \"R\" has a finite number of equivalence classes, and moreover that the number of states in the smallest deterministic finite automaton (DFA) recognizing \"L\" is equal to the number of equivalence classes in \"R\". In particular, this implies that there is a unique minimal DFA with minimum number of states.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proof.", "content": "If \"L\" is a regular language, then by definition there is a DFA \"A\" that recognizes it, with only finitely many states. If there are \"n\" states, then partition the set of all finite strings into \"n\" subsets, where subset \"S\" is the set of strings that, when given as input to automaton \"A\", cause it to end in state \"i\". For every two strings \"x\" and \"y\" that belong to the same subset, and for every choice of a third string \"z\", automaton \"A\" reaches the same state on input \"xz\" as it reaches on input \"yz\", and therefore must either accept both of the inputs \"xz\" and \"yz\" or reject both of them. Therefore, no string \"z\" can be a distinguishing extension for \"x\" and \"y\", so they must be related by \"R\". Thus, \"S\" is a subset of an equivalence class of \"R\". Combining this fact with the fact that every member of one of these equivalence classes belongs to one of the sets \"S\", this gives a many-to-one relation from states of \"A\" to equivalence classes, implying that the number of equivalence classes is finite and at most \"n\".  In the other direction, suppose that \"R\" has finitely many equivalence classes. In this case, it is possible to design a deterministic finite automaton that has one state for each equivalence class. The start state of the automaton corresponds to the equivalence class containing the empty string, and the transition function from a state \"X\" on input symbol \"y\" takes the automaton to a new state, the state corresponding to the equivalence class containing string \"xy\", where \"x\" is an arbitrarily chosen string in the equivalence class for \"X\". The definition of the Myhill–Nerode relation implies that the transition function is well-defined: no matter which representative string \"x\" is chosen for state \"X\", the same transition function value will result. A state of this automaton is accepting if the corresponding equivalence class contains a string in \"L\"; in this case, again, the definition of the relation implies that all strings in the same equivalence class must also belong to \"L\", for otherwise the empty string would be a distinguishing string for some pairs of strings in the class.  Thus, the existence of a finite automaton recognizing \"L\" implies that the Myhill–Nerode relation has a finite number of equivalence classes, at most equal to the number of states of the automaton, and the existence of a finite number of equivalence classes implies the existence of an automaton with that many states.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use and consequences.", "content": "The Myhill–Nerode theorem may be used to show that a language \"L\" is regular by proving that the number of equivalence classes of \"R\" is finite. This may be done by an exhaustive case analysis in which, beginning from the empty string, distinguishing extensions are used to find additional equivalence classes until no more can be found. For example, the language consisting of binary representations of numbers that can be divided by 3 is regular. Given the empty string, \"00\" (or \"11\"), \"01\" and \"10\" are distinguishing extensions resulting in the three classes (corresponding to numbers that give remainders 0, 1 and 2 when divided by 3), but after this step there is no distinguishing extension anymore. The minimal automaton accepting our language would have three states corresponding to these three equivalence classes.  Another immediate corollary of the theorem is that if a language defines an infinite set of equivalence classes, it is \"not\" regular. It is this corollary that is frequently used to prove that a language is not regular.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Generalization.", "content": "The Myhill–Nerode theorem can be generalized to trees. See tree automaton.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the theory of formal languages, the Myhill–Nerode theorem provides a necessary and sufficient condition for a language to be regular. The theorem is named for John Myhill and Anil Nerode, who proved it at the University of Chicago in 1958.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973756}
{"src_title": "Nikolai Korotkov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Nikolai Korotkov was born to a merchant family at 40 Milenskaia Street in Kursk on February 26, 1874. He attended the Kursk Gymnasium (secondary school). He entered the medical faculty of Kharkov University in 1893 and transferred to Moscow University in 1895, where he graduated with distinction in 1898. He was appointed resident intern to professor Alexander Bobrov at the surgical clinic of Moscow university.  Korotkov was given leave of absence to serve with the Russian military forces in the Far East during the Boxer Rebellion in China 1900. He was attached to the Red Cross in the Iversh Community under Dr Aleksinskii (a pupil of prof. Bobrov). The journey to the Far East entailed extensive travel by way of the Trans-Siberian railroad, through Irkutsk to Vladivostok and he returned to Moscow via Japan, Singapore, Ceylon and the Suez Canal to reach the Black Sea and Feodosiya. Korotkov was honoured with the Order of St. Anna for \"outstandingly zealous labours in helping the sick and wounded soldiers\".  On his return Nikolai Korotkov turned his mind from military to academic pursuits and translated Eduard Albert's monograph \"Die Chirurgische Diagnostik\" from German to Russian. In 1903, Dr Sergey Fedorov was appointed professor of surgery at the Military Medical Academy at St Petersburg, and he invited Korotkov to join him as assistant surgeon. During the Russo-Japanese War in 1904–1905, Korotkov went to Harbin in Manchuria as senior surgeon in charge of the Second St George's Unit of the Red Cross. He became interested in vascular surgery and began to collect cases for his doctoral thesis, which included 41 of 44 case reports of patients who were part of his war experience in the hospital at Harbin.  Returning to St Petersburg in April 1905 he began to prepare his thesis, but it was a presentation to the Imperial Military Medical Academy in 1905 that earned him lasting fame. The technique of blood pressure measurement was reported in less than a page (only 281 words) of the \"Izvestie Imp. Voiennomedicinskoi Akademii\" (Reports of the Imperial Military Medical Academy):  The critical comments of Korotkov's peers were dealt with in an adroit manner, and he appeared a month later at the Imperial Military Academy with animal experiments to support his theory that the sounds he had described were produced locally, rather than in the heart. He earned the approbation of professor M. V. Yanovsky, who declared: \"Korotkov has noticed and intelligently utilised a phenomenon which many observers have overlooked.\" Yanovsky and his pupils verified the accuracy of the technique and described the phases of the auscultatory sounds and for a time technique was known as the Korotkov-Yanovsky method.  Nikolai Korotkov, then serving as research physician to the mining district of Vitimsko-Olekminsky in Siberia, received his doctorate in 1910. After that he served as surgeon to the workers of the gold mines of Lensk. Here he witnessed Tsarist atrocities and was affected deeply by the murder of unarmed striking miners. After this Korotkov returned to St. Petersburg and during the First World War he was surgeon to \"The Charitable House for disabled soldiers\" in Tsarskoe Selo. He welcomed the October Revolution after which he was physician-in-chief of the Mechnikov Hospital in Petrograd until his death from lung tuberculosis on March 14, 1920.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikolai Sergeyevich Korotkov (also romanized Korotkoff; ) ( – 14 March 1920) was a Russian surgeon, a pioneer of 20th century vascular surgery, and the inventor of auscultatory technique for blood pressure measurement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973757}
{"src_title": "Farrier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and ceremonial.", "content": "Historically, the jobs of farrier and blacksmith were practically synonymous, shown by the etymology of the word: \"farrier\" comes from Middle French: \"ferrier\" (blacksmith), from the Latin word \"ferrum\" (iron). A farrier's work in colonial America or pre-Industrial Revolution Europe would have included shoeing horses, as well as the fabrication and repair of tools, the forging of architectural pieces, and so on. Modern-day farriers usually specialize in horseshoeing, focusing their time and effort on the care of the horse's hoof. For this reason, farriers and blacksmiths are considered to be in separate, albeit related, trades.  In the British Army, the Household Cavalry have farriers who march in parade in ceremonial dress, carrying their historical axes with spikes. They are a familiar sight at the annual Trooping the Colour. There is also a farrier on call \"round the clock, twenty-four hours a day, at Hyde Park Barracks\".  In the United Kingdom, the Worshipful Company of Farriers is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London. The Farriers, or horseshoe makers, organised in 1356. It received a Royal Charter of incorporation in 1571. Over the years, the Company has evolved from a trade association for horseshoe makers into an organisation for those devoted to equine welfare, including veterinary surgeons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "A farrier's routine work is primarily hoof trimming and shoeing. In ordinary cases, trimming each hoof so it retains proper foot function is important. If the animal has a heavy work load, works on abrasive footing, needs additional traction, or has pathological changes in the hoof or conformational challenges, then shoes may be required. Additional tasks for the farrier include dealing with injured or diseased hooves and application of special shoes for racing, training, or \"cosmetic\" purposes. Horses with certain diseases or injuries may need remedial procedures for their hooves, or need special shoes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifications.", "content": "In countries such as the United Kingdom, people other than registered farriers cannot legally call themselves a farrier or carry out any farriery work (in the UK, this is under the Farriers (Registration) Act 1975). The primary aim of the act is to \"prevent and avoid suffering by and cruelty to horses arising from the shoeing of horses by unskilled persons\".  However, in other countries, such as the United States, farriery is not regulated, no legal certification exists, and qualifications can vary. In the US, four organizations - the American Farrier's Association (AFA), the Guild of Professional Farriers (GPF), the Brotherhood of Working Farriers, and the Equine Lameness Prevention Organization (ELPO) - maintain voluntary certification programs for farriers. Of these, the AFA's program is the largest, with about 2800 certified farriers. Additionally, the AFA program has a reciprocity agreement with the Farrier Registration Council and the Worshipful Company of Farriers in the UK.  Within the certification programs offered by the AFA, the GPF, and the ELPO,all farrier examinations are conducted by peer panels. The farrier examinations for these organizations are designed so that qualified farriers may obtain a formal credential indicating they meet a meaningful standard of professional competence as determined by technical knowledge and practical skills examinations, length of field experience, and other factors. Farriers who have received a certificate of completion for attending a farrier school or course may represent themselves as having completed a particular course of study. Sometimes, usually for purposes of brevity, they use the term \"certified\" in advertising.  Where professional registration exists, on either a compulsory or voluntary basis, a requirement for continuing professional development activity often exists to maintain a particular license or certification. For instance, farriers voluntarily registered with the American Association of Professional Farriers require at least 16 hours of continuing education every year to maintain their accreditation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A farrier is a specialist in equine hoof care, including the trimming and balancing of horses' hooves and the placing of shoes on their hooves, if necessary. A farrier combines some blacksmith's skills (fabricating, adapting, and adjusting metal shoes) with some veterinarian's skills (knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the lower limb) to care for horses' feet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973758}
{"src_title": "Hydroquinone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production.", "content": "Hydroquinone is produced industrially by two main routes. Other, less common methods include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "The reactivity of hydroquinone's O-H groups resembles that of other phenols, being weakly acidic. The resulting conjugate base undergoes easy O-alkylation to give mono- and diethers. Similarly, hydroquinone is highly susceptible to ring substitution by Friedel-Crafts reactions such as alkylation. This reaction is exploited en route to popular antioxidants such as 2-tert-butyl-4-methoxyphenol (\"BHA\"). The useful dye quinizarin is produced by diacylation of hydroquinone with phthalic anhydride.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Redox.", "content": "Hydroquinone undergoes oxidation under mild conditions to give benzoquinone. This process can be reversed. Some naturally occurring hydroquinone derivatives exhibit this sort of reactivity, one example being coenzyme Q. Industrially this reaction is exploited both with hydroquinone itself but more often with its derivatives where one OH has been replaced by an amine.  When colorless hydroquinone and benzoquinone, a bright yellow solid, are co-crystallized in a 1:1 ratio, a dark-green crystalline charge-transfer complex (m.p. 171 °C) called quinhydrone (CHO•CHO) is formed. This complex dissolves in hot water, where the two molecules dissociate in solution.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Amination.", "content": "An important reaction is the conversion of hydroquinone to the mono- and diamino derivatives. Methylaminophenol, used in photography, is produced in this way: Similarly diamines, useful in the rubber industry as antiozone agents, are produced similarly from aniline:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Hydroquinone has a variety of uses principally associated with its action as a reducing agent that is soluble in water. It is a major component in most black and white photographic developers for film and paper where, with the compound metol, it reduces silver halides to elemental silver.  There are various other uses associated with its reducing power. As a polymerisation inhibitor, exploiting its antioxidant properties, hydroquinone prevents polymerization of acrylic acid, methyl methacrylate, cyanoacrylate, and other monomers that are susceptible to radical-initiated polymerization. By acting as a free radical scavenger, hydroquinone serves to prolong the shelf life of light sensitive resins such as preceramic polymers  Hydroquinone can lose a proton from both hydroxyl groups to form a diphenolate ion. The disodium diphenolate salt of hydroquinone is used as an alternating comonomer unit in the production of the polymer PEEK.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Skin depigmentation.", "content": "Hydroquinone is used as a topical application in skin whitening to reduce the color of skin. It does not have the same predisposition to cause dermatitis as metol does. This is a prescription-only ingredient in some countries, including the member states of the European Union under Directives 76/768/EEC:1976.  In 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration revoked its previous approval of hydroquinone and proposed a ban on all over-the-counter preparations. The FDA stated that hydroquinone cannot be ruled out as a potential carcinogen. This conclusion was reached based on the extent of absorption in humans and the incidence of neoplasms in rats in several studies where adult rats were found to have increased rates of tumours, including thyroid follicular cell hyperplasias, anisokaryosis (variation in nuclei sizes), mononuclear cell leukemia, hepatocellular adenomas and renal tubule cell adenomas. The Campaign for Safe Cosmetics has also highlighted concerns.  Numerous studies have revealed that hydroquinone, if taken orally, can cause exogenous ochronosis, a disfiguring disease in which blue-black pigments are deposited onto the skin; however, skin preparations containing the ingredient are administered topically. The FDA had classified hydroquinone in 1982 as a safe product - generally recognized as safe and effective (GRASE), however additional studies under the National Toxicology Program (NTP) were suggested in order to determine whether there is a risk to humans from the use of hydroquinone. NTP evaluation showed some evidence of long-term carcinogenic and genotoxic effects  While using hydroquinone as a lightening agent can be effective with proper use, it can also cause skin sensitivity. Using a daily sunscreen with a high PPD (persistent pigment darkening) rating reduces the risk of further damage. Hydroquinone is sometimes combined with alpha hydroxy acids that exfoliate the skin to quicken the lightening process. In the United States, topical treatments usually contain up to 2% in hydroquinone. Otherwise, higher concentrations (up to 4%) should be prescribed and used with caution.  While hydroquinone remains widely prescribed for treatment of hyperpigmentation, questions raised about its safety profile by regulatory agencies in the EU, Japan, and USA encourage the search for other agents with comparable efficacy. Several such agents are already available or under research, including azelaic acid, kojic acid, retinoids, cysteamine, topical steroids, glycolic acid, and other substances.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Natural occurrences.", "content": "Hydroquinones are one of the two primary reagents in the defensive glands of bombardier beetles, along with hydrogen peroxide (and perhaps other compounds, depending on the species), which collect in a reservoir. The reservoir opens through a muscle-controlled valve onto a thick-walled reaction chamber. This chamber is lined with cells that secrete catalases and peroxidases. When the contents of the reservoir are forced into the reaction chamber, the catalases and peroxidases rapidly break down the hydrogen peroxide and catalyze the oxidation of the hydroquinones into p-quinones. These reactions release free oxygen and generate enough heat to bring the mixture to the boiling point and vaporize about a fifth of it, producing a hot spray from the beetle's abdomen.  Farnesyl hydroquinone derivatives are the principal irritants exuded by the poodle-dog bush, which can cause severe contact dermatitis in humans.  Hydroquinone is thought to be the active toxin in \"Agaricus hondensis\" mushrooms.  Hydroquinone has been shown to be one of the chemical constituents of the natural product propolis.  It is also one of the chemical compounds found in castoreum. This compound is gathered from the beaver's castor sacs.  In bearberry (\"Arctostaphylos uva-ursi\"), arbutin is converted to hydroquinone.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hydroquinone, also known as benzene-1,4-diol or quinol, is an aromatic organic compound that is a type of phenol, a derivative of benzene, having the chemical formula CH(OH). It has two hydroxyl groups bonded to a benzene ring in a \"para\" position. It is a white granular solid. Substituted derivatives of this parent compound are also referred to as hydroquinones. The name \"hydroquinone\" was coined by Friedrich Wöhler in 1843.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973759}
{"src_title": "Paul Kammerer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "He began his academic career at the Vienna Academy by studying music but graduated with a degree in biology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biological research.", "content": "Kammerer's work in biology largely involved altering the breeding and development of amphibians. He made ovoviviparous fire salamanders become viviparous, and viviparous alpine salamanders become ovoviviparous.  In lesser-known experiments, he manipulated and bred olms. He made olms produce live young and bred dark-colored olms with full vision. He supported the Lamarckian theory of heritability of acquired characteristics, and he experimented extensively in an effort to prove the theory.  Kammerer succeeded in making midwife toads breed in the water by increasing the temperature of their tanks, forcing them to retreat to the water to cool off. The male midwife toads were not genetically programmed for underwater mating so over the span of two generations, Kammerer reported that his midwife toads were exhibiting black nuptial pads on their feet to give them more traction in this underwater mating process.  While the prehistoric ancestors of midwife toads had the pads, Kammerer considered the pads to be an acquired characteristic brought about by adaptation to environment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Accusations of fraud.", "content": "Claims arose that the result of the toad experiment had been falsified. The most notable of these was made by Dr Gladwyn Kingsley Noble, Curator of Reptiles at the American Museum of Natural History, in the scientific journal \"Nature\". After a microscopic examination, Noble claimed that the black pads actually had a far more mundane explanation: they had simply been injected with India ink.  In a letter, Kammerer stated that after reading Noble's paper, he re-examined his specimen and confirmed that India ink had been injected into the pads. Kammerer suggested that his specimens had been altered by a laboratory assistant. Criminologist Edward Sagarin wrote, \"Kammerer maintained his total innocence and declared his ignorance of the forger's identity. There is still doubt about whether an obliging (or hostile) assistant was responsible for the forgery, but Kammerer's scientific credibility was nevertheless irremediably damaged\".  Science historian Peter J. Bowler wrote that most biologists believe that Kammerer was a fraud and that even the others claim that he misinterpreted the results of his experiments.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Seriality theory.", "content": "Kammerer's other passion was collecting coincidences. He published a book with the title \"Das Gesetz der Serie\" (\"The Law of the Series\", never translated into English) in which he recounted some 100 anecdotes of coincidences that had led him to formulate his theory of seriality.  He postulated that all events are connected by waves of seriality. The unknown forces would cause what is perceived as just the peaks, or groupings and coincidences. Kammerer was known, for example, to make notes in public parks of what numbers of people were passing by, how many carried umbrellas etc. Albert Einstein called the idea of seriality \"interesting, and by no means absurd\", and Carl Jung drew upon Kammerer's work in his essay \"Synchronicity\". Arthur Koestler reported that when he was doing research for his biography on Kammerer, he was subjected to \"a meteor shower\" of coincidences, as if Kammerer's ghost were grinning down at him and saying, \"I told you so!\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Six weeks after the accusation by Noble, Kammerer committed suicide in the forest of Schneeberg, an event which is discussed by Arthur Koestler in his book on Kammerer and his theories.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Lamarckian biologist Ernest MacBride supported the experiments of Kammerer but commented that they would have to be repeated to be accepted by other scientists. The British zoologist Harold Munro Fox had attempted to replicate some of Kammerer's experiments but produced negative results. Biology professor Harry Gershenowitz also attempted to duplicate Kammerer's experiment with a related species, \"Bombina orientalis\"; but he had to terminate the experiment for lack of funds.  Interest in Kammerer revived in 1971 with the publication of Arthur Koestler's book \"The Case of the Midwife Toad\". Koestler thought that Kammerer's experiments on the midwife toad may have been tampered with by a Nazi sympathizer at the University of Vienna. Certainly, as Koestler writes, \"the \"Hakenkreuzler\", the swastika-wearers, as the Austrian Nazis of the early days were called, were growing in power. One center of ferment was the University of Vienna where, on the traditional Saturday morning student parades, bloody battles were fought. Kammerer was known by his public lectures and newspaper articles as an ardent pacifist and Socialist; it was also known that he was going to build an institute in Soviet Russia. An act of sabotage in the laboratory would have been... in keeping with the climate of those days.\"  Koestler's claims have been criticized by the scientific community. Gordon Stein noted:  As a consequence of Noble's refutation, interest in Lamarckian inheritance diminished except in the Soviet Union where it was championed by Trofim Lysenko.  Sander Gliboff, a historian of biology and professor in the Department of History and Philosophy of Science, Indiana University, has commented that although Kammerer's conclusions proved false, his evidence was probably genuine and he did not simply argue for Lamarckism and against Darwinism as the theories are now understood. Rather, beyond the scandal, the story shows us much about the competing theories of biological and cultural evolution and the range of new ideas about heredity and variation in early 20th-century biology and the changes in experimental approach that have occurred since then.  In 2009, developmental biologist Alexander Vargas, Professor in the Department of Biology, University of Chile, suggested that the inheritance of acquired traits (Lamarckian inheritance) that Kammerer reported to observe in his toad experiments could be authentic and be explained by results from the emerging field of epigenetics. Kammerer could thus actually be considered the discoverer of non-Mendelian, epigenetic inheritance, with chemical modifications to parental DNA (such as through DNA methylation) being passed on to subsequent generations. Furthermore, In Vargas' view, the parent-of-origin effect, which was poorly understood at the time of Kammerer's, might be explained retrospectively, in relation to similar effects seen in other organisms. Professor Gliboff of Indiana University has subsequently argued that Vargas \"constructed his model without first reading Kammerer's original articles\" and is \"seriously misinformed about what Kammerer did and what the results even were\" so Vargas's \"model... cannot explain the results... originally reported...\". Gliboff goes on to challenge strong that Kammerer was given credit for discovery of parent-of-origin effect and states that \"Vargas' historical inferences about the Kammerer affair... [and] negative reactions of geneticists... are unsupported and do not stand up to scrutiny\".  The reinterpretation of Kammerer's work, in light of epigenetics, remains thus controversial.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul Kammerer (17 August 1880, in Vienna – 23 September 1926, in Puchberg am Schneeberg) was an Austrian biologist who studied and advocated Lamarckism, the theory that organisms may pass to their offspring characteristics acquired in their lifetime.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973760}
{"src_title": "Johann Most", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "According to biographer Frederic Trautmann, Johann Joseph Most was born out of wedlock to a governess and a clerk. Most's mother died of cholera when he was very young. Most was subjected to physical abuse by his stepmother and a schoolteacher; his aversion to religion earned him more beatings at school. To the end of his life Most was \"a militant atheist with the zeal of a religious fanatic\" who \"knew more Scripture than many clergymen knew\".  Most developed frostbite on the left side of his face as a young child. For several years thereafter, flesh rotted and infection spread, with the primitive medicine of the day unable to treat the condition. His condition worsened and Most was diagnosed with terminal cancer. As a last-gasp measure a surgeon was called in. A two-inch section of his jawbone was removed, resulting in permanent disfigurement.  At the age of 12, Most organized a strike of students against a particularly hated teacher, resulting in his expulsion from school. This ended Most's brief period of formal education, forcing him into the workforce as a youth.  Most was apprenticed to a bookbinder, for whom he had to bind books from dawn until sunset, a condition which Most later likened to slavery. At the age of 17 he became a journeyman bookbinder and plied his trade from town to town and job to job, working in 50 cities in 6 countries from 1863 to 1868. In Vienna he was fired and placed on a blacklist for having staged a strike. Unemployable in his trade, he learned to make wooden boxes for hats, cigars, and matches, which he sold on the street until police brought an end to his trade for lacking a license.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "As the 1860s drew to a close, Most was won over to the ideas of international socialism, an emerging political movement in Germany and Austria. Most saw in the doctrines of Karl Marx and Ferdinand Lassalle a blueprint for a new egalitarian society and became a fervid supporter of the Social Democracy, as the Marxist movement was known in the day.  Most engaged himself as editor of socialist newspapers in Chemnitz and Vienna, both suppressed by the authorities, and of the \"Berliner Freie Presse\" (Berlin Free Press). Most was a dedicated advocate of revolutionary socialism, sharing the views expressed by Wilhelm Liebknecht in an 1869 speech that \"Socialism cannot be realized within the present state. Socialism must overturn the present state.\"  In 1873, Most wrote a summary of Karl Marx's \"Das Kapital\". At Liebknecht's request, Marx and Friedrich Engels made some corrections to Most's text for a second edition published in 1876, despite the fact that the pair did not believe the pamphlet represented a satisfactory summary of Marx's work.  In 1874, Most was elected as a Social Democratic deputy in the German Reichstag, in which he served until 1878.  Most was repeatedly arrested for his attacks on patriotism and conventional religion and ethics, and for his gospel of terrorism, preached in prose and in many songs such as those in his \"Proletarier-Liederbuch\" (Proletarian Songbook). Some of his experiences in prison were recounted in the 1876 work, \"Die Bastille am Plötzensee: Blätter aus meinem Gefängniss-Tagebuch\" (The Bastille on Plötzensee: Pages from my Prison Diary).  After advocating violent action, including the use of explosive bombs, as a mechanism to bring about revolutionary change, Most was forced into exile by the government. He went to France but was forced to leave at the end of 1878, settling in London. There he founded his own newspaper, \"Freiheit\" (Freedom), with the first issue coming off the press dated January 4, 1879. Convinced by his own experience of the futility of parliamentary action, Most began to espouse the doctrine of anarchism, which led to his expulsion from the German Social Democratic Party in 1880.  In June 1881, Most expressed his delight in the pages of the \"Freiheit\" over the assassination of Alexander II of Russia and advocated its emulation; for this Most was imprisoned by British authorities for a year and a half.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life in the United States.", "content": "Encouraged by news of labor struggles and industrial disputes in the United States, Most emigrated to the US upon his release from prison in 1882. He promptly began agitating in his adopted land among other German émigrés. Among his associates was August Spies, one of the anarchists hanged for conspiracy in the Haymarket Square bombing, in whose desk police found an 1884 letter from Most promising a shipment of \"medicine,\" his code word for dynamite.  Most resumed the publication of the \"Freiheit\" in New York. He was imprisoned in 1886, again in 1887, and in 1902, the last time for two months for publishing after the assassination of President McKinley an editorial in which he argued that it was no crime to kill a ruler.  \"Whoever looks at America will see: the ship is powered by stupidity, corruption, or prejudice,\" Most said.  Most initially advocated traditional collectivist anarchism, but later embraced anarchist communism. According to right-wing libertarian Jeff Riggenbach:  Most's approach to anarchism stressed two main ideas: first, that it was necessary to abolish not only the state, but also the social institutions known as private property and the free market; second, that the intelligent anarchist must avail himself of what Most and many other anarchists of the time called \"propaganda of the deed\"—acts of violence that would inspire the masses and sweep them up in revolutionary fervor.  Most was famous for stating the concept of the Propaganda of the Deed (\"Attentat\"): \"The existing system will be quickest and most radically overthrown by the annihilation of its exponents. Therefore, massacres of the enemies of the people must be set in motion.\" Most is best known for a pamphlet published in 1885: \"The Science of Revolutionary Warfare,\" a how-to manual on the subject of bomb-making which earned the author the moniker \"Dynamost.\"  A gifted orator, Most propagated these ideas throughout Marxist and anarchist circles in the United States and attracted many adherents, most notably Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman.  Inspired by Most's theories of Attentat, Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman, enraged by the deaths of workers during the Homestead strike, put words into action with Berkman's attempted assassination of Homestead factory manager Henry Clay Frick in 1892. Berkman and Goldman were soon disillusioned as Most became one of Berkman's most outspoken critics. In \"Freiheit\", Most attacked both Goldman and Berkman, implying Berkman's act was designed to arouse sympathy for Frick. Goldman's biographer Alice Wexler suggests that Most's criticisms may have been inspired by jealousy of Berkman. Goldman was enraged, and demanded that Most prove his insinuations. When he refused to respond, she confronted him at next lecture. After he refused to speak to her, she lashed him across the face with a horsewhip, broke the whip over her knee, then threw the pieces at him. She later regretted her assault, confiding to a friend, \"At the age of twenty-three, one does not reason.\"  Most was in Cincinnati, Ohio to give a speech when he fell ill. He was diagnosed with erysipelas. The doctors could do little for him, and he died a few days later.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Johann Joseph \"Hans\" Most (February 5, 1846 in Augsburg, Bavaria – March 17, 1906 in Cincinnati, Ohio) was a German-American anarchist politician, newspaper editor, and orator. He is credited with popularizing the concept of \"propaganda of the deed\". His grandson was Boston Celtics radio play-by-play man Johnny Most.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973761}
{"src_title": "Leopold Ružička", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ružička was born in Vukovar, Croatia, then part of Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, Austro-Hungarian Empire. His family of craftsmen and farmers was mostly of Croat origin, with a Czech great grandparent, Ružička, and a great grandmother and a great grandfather from Austria.  Ružička attended the classics-program secondary school in Osijek. He changed his original idea of becoming a priest and switched to studying technical disciplines. Chemistry was his choice, probably because he hoped to get a position at the newly opened sugar refinery built in Osijek.  Due to the excessive hardship of everyday and political life, he left and chose the High Technical School in Karlsruhe in Germany. He was a good student in areas he liked and that he thought would be necessary and beneficial in future, which was organic chemistry. That is why his physical chemistry professor, Fritz Haber (Nobel laureate in 1918), opposed his \"summa cum laude\" degree. However, in the course of his studies, Ružička set up excellent cooperation with Hermann Staudinger (a Nobel laureate in 1953). Studying within Staudinger's department, he obtained his doctoral degree in 1910, then moving to Zurich as Staudinger's assistant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work and research.", "content": "Ružička's first works originated during that period in the field of chemistry of natural compounds. He remained in this field of research all his life. He investigated the ingredients of the Dalmatian insect powder Pyrethrum (from the herb \"Tanacetum cinerariifolium\"), a highly esteemed insecticide found in pyrethrins. In this way, he came into contact with the chemistry of Terpineol, a fragrant oil of vegetable origin, interesting to the perfume industry. He intended to start individual research and even started successful and productive cooperation with the Chuit & Naef Company (later known as Firmenich) in Geneva.  In 1916–1917, he received the support of the oldest perfume manufacturer in the world \"Haarman & Reimer\", of Holzminden in Germany. With expertise in the terpene field, he became senior lecturer in 1918, and in 1923, honorary professor at the ETH (Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule) as well the University in Zurich. Here, with a group of his doctoral students, he proved the structure of the compounds muscone and civetone, macrocyclic ketone scents derived from the musk deer (\"Moschus moschiferus\") and the civet cat (\"Viverra civetta\"). These were the first natural products shown to have rings with more than six atoms, and at the time that Ružička inferred that civetone as having a 17-member ring, synthetic techniques were only known for rings of up to eight members. Muscone had been isolated in 1904 but was not identified as 3-methylcyclopentadecanone until Ružička suspected a macrocycle, having characterised civetone. He also developed a method for synthesising macrocycles, now known as the Ruzicka large ring synthesis, which he demonstrated by preparing civetone in 1927.  In 1921, the Geneva perfume manufacturers Chuit & Naef asked him to collaborate. Working here, Ružička achieved financial independence, but not as big as he had planned, so he left Zurich to start working for the Ciba, a Basel-based company. In 1927, he took over the organic chemistry chair at Utrecht University in Netherlands. In Netherlands he remained for three years, and then returned to Switzerland, which was superior in its chemical industry.  Back to Zurich, at \"ETH\" he became professor of organic chemistry and started the most brilliant period of his professional career. He widened the area of his research, adding to it the chemistry of higher terpenes and steroids. After the successful synthesis of sex hormones (androsterone and testosterone), his laboratory became the world center of organic chemistry.  In 1939 he won the Nobel prize for chemistry with Adolf Butenandt. In 1940, following the award, he was invited by the Croatian Chemical Association, where he delivered a lecture to an over packed hall of dignitaries. The topic of the lecture was \"From the Dalmatian Insect Powder to Sex Hormones\". In 1940 he became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. During the World War II, some of his excellent collaborators were lost, but Ružička restructured his laboratory with new, younger and promising people; among them was young scientist and future Nobel Laureate Vladimir Prelog. With new people and ideas new research areas were opened.  Following 1950, Ružička returned to chemistry, which had entered a new era of research. Now he turned to the field of biochemistry, the problems of evolution and genesis of life, particularly to the biogenesis of terpenes. He published his hypothesis, the \"Biogenetic Isoprene Rule\" (that the carbon skeleton of terpenes is composed variously of regularly or irregularly linked isoprene units), which was the peak of his scientific career. Ružička retired in 1957, turning over the running of the laboratory to Prelog. In 1965, he became an honorary member of the Polish Chemical Society.  Ružička dedicated significant efforts to the problems of education. He insisted on a better organization of academic education and scientific work in the new Yugoslavia, and established the Swiss-Yugoslav Society. Ružička became an honorary academician at the then Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb. In Switzerland, the Ružička Award was established, for young chemists working in Switzerland. In his native Vukovar, a museum was opened in his honour in 1977.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Ružička married twice: to Anna Hausmann in 1912, and 1951 to Gertrud Acklin. He died in Mammern, Switzerland, a village on Lake Constance.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Leopold Ružička (; 13 September 1887 – 26 September 1976) was a Croatian-Swiss scientist and joint winner of the 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry who worked most of his life in Switzerland. He received eight \"honoris causa\" doctorates in science, medicine, and law; seven prizes and medals; and twenty-four honorary memberships in chemical, biochemical, and other scientific societies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973762}
{"src_title": "Cercis siliquastrum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "This species forms a small tree up to 12 m (39 ft) in height and 10 m (32 ft) in width.  The deep pink flowers are produced on year-old or older growth, including the trunk, in spring. Also, the flowers display a blossom with five free petals and fused sepals. This flower shape is typical of the pea family (Fabaceae). The leaves appear shortly after the first flowers emerge. These are cordate with a blunt apex, which occasionally has a shallow notch at the tip. The tree produces long flat pods that hang vertically. The flowers are edible and purportedly have a sweet-acid taste.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The species was first described by Linnaeus in 1753 and he gave it the specific epithet of \"siliquastrum\" which is derived from the Latin word \"siliqua\", meaning \"pod\". The generic name comes from the Greek \"kerkis\", a \"shuttle\", which refers to the resemblance shown to this weaver's tool by the flat, woody seedpods.  There are several varieties and subspecies including:-", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and ecological aspects.", "content": "The flowers are pollinated by bees, attracted by nectar. Pollen from the protruding stamens is deposited on the bee's body and carried to another flower's stigma.  In Israel the tree has a status of a protected plant.  British journalist Francis McCullagh reported seeing \"innumerable\" flowering specimens of this tree in Yildiz Park in Istanbul in April 1909. This kind of tree is still in the park today.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "The species prefers deep, well-drained soils and a position in full sun or partial shade.  Cultivars include:  The cultivar ‘Bodnant’ has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit. (confirmed 2017).  The tree is susceptible to leafhoppers, scale insects and psyllids (specifically \"Cacopsylla pulchella\") as well as diseases including canker, coral spot and verticillium wilt.  Propagation is by seed, cuttings or budding.  The species produces hard wood with an attractive grain. It is used in veneers and polishes well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "There is a myth that Judas Iscariot hanged himself from a tree of this species, causing its white flowers to turn red. This belief is related to the common name \"Judas tree\", which is possibly a corrupted derivation from the French common name, \"Arbre de Judée\", meaning \"tree of Judea\", referring to the hilly regions of that country where the tree used to be common. Another possible source for the vernacular name is the fact that the flowers and seedpods can dangle direct from the trunk in a way reminiscent of Judas's possible method of suicide.  A sermon illustration on the deadly effects of succumbing to temptation refers to a false idea that the Judas tree killed bees drawn to it: \"Dr. Cuyler forcibly illustrates this by reference to the Judas tree. The blossoms appear before the leaves, and they are of a brilliant crimson. The flaming beauty of the flowers attracts innumerable insects; and the wandering bee is drawn after it to gather honey. But every bee which alights upon the blossom, imbibes a fatal opiate, and drops dead from among the crimson flowers to the earth.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cercis siliquastrum, commonly known as the Judas tree or Judas-tree, is a small deciduous tree from Southern Europe and Western Asia which is noted for its prolific display of deep pink flowers in spring.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973763}
{"src_title": "Georgy Chicherin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood and early career.", "content": "A distant relative of Aleksandr Pushkin, Georgy Chicherin was born into an old noble family. His father, Vasily N. Chicherin, was a diplomat in the service of the Russian Empire. As a young man, Chicherin became fascinated with history as well as classical music, especially Richard Wagner, and with Friedrich Nietzsche, passions that he would pursue throughout his life. He wrote a book about Mozart. He spoke all major European languages and a number of Asian ones. After graduating from St. Petersburg University with a degree in history and languages, Chicherin worked in the archival section of the Russian Ministry for Foreign Affairs from 1897 to 1903.  In 1904 Chicherin inherited the estate of his celebrated uncle, Boris Chicherin, in the Tambov region and became very wealthy. He immediately used his newfound fortune to support revolutionary activities in the runup to the Russian Revolution of 1905 and was forced to flee abroad to avoid arrest later in the year. He spent the next 13 years in London, Paris and Berlin, where he joined the Menshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party and was active in emigre politics. While in Germany, he underwent medical treatment in attempts to cure his homosexuality.  With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Chicherin adopted an antiwar position, which brought him closer to Vladimir Lenin's Bolsheviks. In 1917, he was arrested by the British government for his antiwar writings and spent a few months in Brixton Prison.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bolshevik government.", "content": "The Bolsheviks had come to power in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917. The first head of the Commissariat of Foreign Affairs (which had replaced the Ministry of Foreign Affairs), Leon Trotsky, secured Chicherin's release and safe passage to Russia in exchange for British subjects held in Russia at the time, including George Buchanan, the British ambassador. By now, Chicherin was in poor health and overweight.  Upon his return to Russia in early 1918, Chicherin formally joined the Bolsheviks and was appointed Trotsky's deputy during the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. After the treaty was signed in late February 1918, Trotsky, who had advocated a different policy, resigned his position in early March. Chicherin became the acting head of the Commissariat and was appointed Commissar for Foreign Affairs on 30 May. On 2 March 1919 he was one of five men chairing the first congress of Comintern.  Chicherin followed a pro-German foreign policy in line with his anti-British attitudes. He had developed them during his time in the foreign ministry, when Britain was blocking Russian expansion in Asia. He even suggested to Lenin that English workers should be formed into volunteer units. That was in 1920, when Soviet armies were nearing Warsaw. Lenin agreed but nothing came of it.  In July 1918 his close friend, Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, became the new German ambassador after his predecessor, Count Wilhelm Mirbach, was shot in the Left SR uprising.  In 1922, Chicherin participated in the Genoa Conference and signed the Treaty of Rapallo with Germany. He begged Lenin not to wreck the Genoa Conference (he believed this would make it easier to get foreign loans). He pursued a policy of collaboration with Germany and developed a closer working relationship with Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau. During this period, he also held diplomatic negotiations with nuncio Eugenio Pacelli, the future Pope Pius XII, on the status of the Roman Catholic Church in the newly formed Soviet Union.  Chicherin is thought to have had more phone conversations with Lenin than anyone else. When Joseph Stalin replaced Lenin in 1924 he continued to be Stalin's foreign minister. Stalin valued Chicherin's opinions. In 1928 Chicherin stated that he wanted an improved relationship with the capitalist countries to encourage foreign investment. This policy had Stalin's enthusiastic support and was approved by the Politburo in late 1927 and early 1928. Stalin said: \"it can hardly be doubted that Comrade Chicherin is better informed about the mood in foreign investment circles that any of us.\" It was rare for Stalin to acknowledge that someone was more knowledgeable than himself. Although known for his workaholic habits he became sidelined because from November 1926 to June 1927, and from September 1928 until January 1930 Chicherin was receiving medical treatment in Germany or the French Riviera. Chicherin showed considerable courage in writing letters criticizing current politicians and the policies that were being pursued. In February 1927, Chicherin criticized Nikolai Bukharin for his speeches that had a negative attitude to the relationship between the USSR and Germany. ‘This was particularly dangerous because of the deterioration of the relationship between the USSR and Britain.’ Chicherin said: ‘At a time when the British are working against us, we must take care of our relationship with other states. We have to nurture such relationships.’  On 3 June 1927 Chicherin, while in a sanatorium in Germany, wrote about incidents that were detrimental to Soviet-German relations. Chicherin was exasperated \"by some comrades who can do no better than ruin all our work by attacking Germany, spoiling everything once and for all.\" When Kliment Voroshilov, at the May Day Parade in 1929, made a speech attacking the Weimar Republic, Chicherin dispatched a letter to the Politburo stating that the speech would do irreparable damage to German-Soviet relations.  Chicherin played a major role in establishing formal relations with China, and in designing the Kremlin's China policy. He focused on the Chinese Eastern Railway, Manchuria, and the Mongolian issue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Last years.", "content": "In 1930 Chicherin was formally replaced by his deputy, Maxim Litvinov. A continuing terminal illness burdened his last years, which forced him away from his circle of friends and active work and led to an early death. When Chicherin died in 1936 the official Communist newspaper \"Izvestiya\", summarising his character, described him as highly educated, an exceptional diplomat and a sophisticated art lover. After his death and until the Khrushchev Thaw, he was rarely mentioned in Soviet literature, although he was mentioned in the Soviet Diplomatic dictionary, in an article occupying 52 pages in the 1950 edition, compared with Litvinov's 92 pages and Vyacheslav Molotov's 292.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georgy Vasilyevich Chicherin (24 November 1872 – 7 July 1936), also spelled Tchitcherin, was a Marxist revolutionary and a Soviet politician. He served as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs in the Soviet government from March 1918 to 1930.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973764}
{"src_title": "Hans Richter (artist)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Germany.", "content": "Richter's first contacts with modern art were in 1912 through the \"Blaue Reiter\" and in 1913 through the \"\" gallery \"Der Sturm\", in Berlin. In 1914 he was influenced by cubism. He contributed to the periodical \"Die Aktion\" in Berlin. His first exhibition was in Munich in 1916, and \"Die Aktion\" published as a special edition about him. In the same year he was wounded and discharged from the army and went to Zürich and joined the Dada movement.  Richter believed that the artist's duty was to be actively political, opposing war and supporting the revolution. His first abstract works were made in 1917. In 1918, he befriended Viking Eggeling, and the two experimented together with film. Richter was co-founder, in 1919, of the Association of Revolutionary Artists (\"Artistes Radicaux\") at Zürich. In the same year he created his first \"Prélude\" (an orchestration of a theme developed in eleven drawings). In 1920 he was a member of the November group in Berlin and contributed to the Dutch periodical \"De Stijl\".  Throughout his career, he claimed that his 1921 film, \"Rhythmus 21\", was the first abstract film ever created. This claim is not true: he was preceded by the Italian Futurists Bruno Corra and Arnaldo Ginna between 1911 and 1912 (as they report in the \"Futurist Manifesto of Cinema\"), as well as by fellow German artist Walter Ruttmann who produced \"Lichtspiel Opus 1\" in 1920. Nevertheless, Richter's film \"Rhythmus 21\" is considered an important early abstract film.  About Richter's woodcuts and drawings Michel Seuphor wrote: \"Richter's black-and-whites together with those of Arp and Janco, are the most typical works of the Zürich period of Dada.\" From 1923 to 1926, Richter edited, together with Werner Gräff and Mies van der Rohe, the periodical \"G. Material zur elementaren Gestaltung.\" Richter wrote of his own attitude toward film: I conceive of the film as a modern art form particularly interesting to the sense of sight. Painting has its own peculiar problems and specific sensations, and so has the film. But there are also problems in which the dividing line is obliterated, or where the two infringe upon each other. More especially, the cinema can fulfill certain promises made by the ancient arts, in the realization of which painting and film become close neighbors and work together.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "USA.", "content": "Richter moved from Switzerland to the United States in 1940 and became an American citizen. He taught in the Institute of Film Techniques at the City College of New York.  While living in New York City, Richter directed two feature films, \"Dreams That Money Can Buy\" (1947) and \"\" (1957) in collaboration with Max Ernst, Jean Cocteau, Paul Bowles, Fernand Léger, Alexander Calder, Marcel Duchamp, and others, which was partially filmed on the lawn of his summer house in Southbury, Connecticut.  In 1957, he finished a film entitled \"Dadascope\" with original poems and prose spoken by their creators: Hans Arp, Marcel Duchamp, Raoul Hausmann, Richard Huelsenbeck, and Kurt Schwitters.  After 1958, Richter spent parts of the year in Ascona and Connecticut and returned to painting.  In 1963, he directed the short film \"From the Circus to the Moon\" on the American artist Alexander Calder.  Richter was also the author of a first-hand account of the Dada movement titled \"Dada: Art and Anti-Art\" which also included his reflections on the emerging Neo-Dada artworks.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Richter (6 April 1888 – 1 February 1976) was a German painter, graphic artist, avant-gardist, film-experimenter and producer. He was born in Berlin into a well-to-do family and died in Minusio, near Locarno, Switzerland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973765}
{"src_title": "Gurktal Alps", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "The range is located between the Mur Valley in the north, separating it from the Niedere Tauern, and the Drava in the south, where it borders on the Gailtal Alps and Karavanke ranges of the Southern Limestone Alps. In the west, the Gurktal Alps reach up to the Katschberg Pass and the Ankogel Group of the Hohe Tauern range. In the east, the Neumarkt Pass in Upper Styria separates it from the adjacent Lavanttal Alps.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "The Gurktal Alps may be divided into five subgroups:  At the southern end of the Gurktal Alps is the Klagenfurt Basin. Here there are seven more smaller mountain chains:  Occasionally the Gurktal Alps, along with the Lavanttal Alps to the east, are classified as part of the Noric Alps, but that is not geologically justified.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Peaks.", "content": "The highest peaks are located within the Nock Mountains (\"Nockberge\", from \"Nock\" meaning \"rounded hilltop\", cf. Nockerl) subgroup west of Flattnitz Pass, including Mt. Eisenhut,, in Styria. The \"Nationalpark Nockberge\" along the scenic Nockalm Road in Carinthia since 1987 is a protected landscape area (IUCN V). The Nock Mountains also stretch down to major Carinthian lakes like Millstätter See and Ossiacher See.  Other peaks include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy and tourism.", "content": "The gentle landscape with its numerous mountain pastures had been the site of transhumance agriculture since ancient times. The Gurktal Alps were also a mining area for iron and silver, still magnesite deposits are exploited near Radenthein.  Today tourism is the most important economic sector. The valleys of the Gurktal Alps cater for tourists in summer and for the busy winter season. The leading tourist area is Bad Kleinkirchheim, then Turracher Höhe (Predlitz-Turrach and Reichenau), Falkert (Reichenau) and Innerkrems (Krems in Kärnten), Flattnitz, Afritz and Katschberg (Rennweg am Katschberg). The largest ski areas are \"Katschberg-Aineck\", \"Innerkrems-Schönfeld-Karneralm\", \"Turracher Höhe\" and \"Gerlitzen\" in the Nock Mountains and \"Kreischberg\" in the Metnitz Mountains.  The region of the Nock Mountains is also well known for its healing spas. The Karlbad along the \"Nockalmstraße\" is the oldest farmers healing spring in Austria. The way in which the baths are made (with spring water and hot rocks), has remained unchanged since the 17th century. Their remote location means there is also no electricity. The name of the spa is derived from the little cirque (\"Karl\" from \"Kar\", cirque).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gurktal Alps (, ) are a mountain range of the Central Eastern Alps in Austria, named after the valley of the Gurk River.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973766}
{"src_title": "Pentose phosphate pathway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Outcome.", "content": "The primary results of the pathway are:  Aromatic amino acids, in turn, are precursors for many biosynthetic pathways, including the lignin in wood.  Dietary pentose sugars derived from the digestion of nucleic acids may be metabolized through the pentose phosphate pathway, and the carbon skeletons of dietary carbohydrates may be converted into glycolytic/gluconeogenic intermediates.  In mammals, the PPP occurs exclusively in the cytoplasm. In humans, it is found to be most active in the liver, mammary glands, and adrenal cortex. The PPP is one of the three main ways the body creates molecules with reducing power, accounting for approximately 60% of NADPH production in humans.  One of the uses of NADPH in the cell is to prevent oxidative stress. It reduces glutathione via glutathione reductase, which converts reactive HO into HO by glutathione peroxidase. If absent, the HO would be converted to hydroxyl free radicals by Fenton chemistry, which can attack the cell. Erythrocytes, for example, generate a large amount of NADPH through the pentose phosphate pathway to use in the reduction of glutathione.  Hydrogen peroxide is also generated for phagocytes in a process often referred to as a respiratory burst.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phases.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oxidative phase.", "content": "In this phase, two molecules of NADP are reduced to NADPH, utilizing the energy from the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate into ribulose 5-phosphate.  The entire set of reactions can be summarized as follows:  The overall reaction for this process is:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Non-oxidative phase.", "content": "Net reaction: 3 ribulose-5-phosphate → 1 ribose-5-phosphate + 2 xylulose-5-phosphate → 2 fructose-6-phosphate + glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regulation.", "content": "Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase is the rate-controlling enzyme of this pathway. It is allosterically stimulated by NADP and strongly inhibited by NADPH. The ratio of NADPH:NADP is normally about 100:1 in liver cytosol. This makes the cytosol a highly-reducing environment. An NADPH-utilizing pathway forms NADP, which stimulates Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase to produce more NADPH. This step is also inhibited by acetyl CoA.  G6PD activity is also post-translationally regulated by cytoplasmic deacetylase SIRT2. SIRT2-mediated deacetylation and activation of G6PD stimulates oxidative branch of PPP to supply cytosolic NADPH to counteract oxidative damage or support \"de novo\" lipogenesis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Erythrocytes.", "content": "Several deficiencies in the level of activity (not function) of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase have been observed to be associated with resistance to the malarial parasite \"Plasmodium falciparum\" among individuals of Mediterranean and African descent. The basis for this resistance may be a weakening of the red cell membrane (the erythrocyte is the host cell for the parasite) such that it cannot sustain the parasitic life cycle long enough for productive growth.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The pentose phosphate pathway (also called the phosphogluconate pathway and the hexose monophosphate shunt) is a metabolic pathway parallel to glycolysis. It generates NADPH and pentoses (5-carbon sugars) as well as ribose 5-phosphate, a precursor for the synthesis of Nucleotides. While the pentose phosphate pathway does involve oxidation of glucose, its primary role is anabolic rather than catabolic. The pathway is especially important in red blood cells (erythrocytes).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973767}
{"src_title": "Egerland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Egerland forms the northwestern edge of the Czech Republic. Originally, it was a small region of less than around the historic city of Eger, now named Cheb, roughly corresponding with the present-day Cheb District of the Karlovy Vary Region, originally with the exception of Aš, but including the headwaters of the Ohře river and the area of Marktredwitz in today's Upper Franconia.  In contrast, after the beginning of the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938, Cheb and the historic Egerland were incorporated as part of the \"\"Sudetenland\"\" into an extended area of. Though the seat of the administration was established at Karlovy Vary (Carlsbad) the entity was officially named \"Regierungsbezirk Eger\" in order to reduce territorial claims. It included large Bohemian territories up to the outskirts of Plzeň, comprising cities like Falknov (today Sokolov), Kraslice, Chodov, Mariánské Lázně (Marienbad) and Tachov, which never belonged to historical region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The settlement of \"Eger\" in the Bavaria Slavica was first mentioned in 1061 records of trade routes laid out in the course of the German \"Ostsiedlung\" migration. In 1135 the \"regio Egere\" is recorded as a part of the Bavarian March of the Nordgau under the rule of Count Diepold III of Vohburg. After his death in 1146, the Egerland was inherited by the later German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa of Hohenstaufen by marriage with Diepold's daughter Adelheid. The Staufer finally severed the \"Provincia Egrensis\" from Bavaria and built it up as an exemplary model of a \"Reichsgut\" territory under immediate rule of the Holy Roman Emperor. Along this development Cheb became the site of a \"Kaiserpfalz\" residence \"(Chebský hrad)\", the only one in the present-day Czech Republic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kingdom of Bohemia.", "content": "Cheb, a free imperial city since 1277, and the Imperially immediate Egerland were given as a lien to King John of Bohemia in 1322 by Emperor Louis IV of Wittelsbach. In return for John's support against Louis' rival Frederick of Habsburg at the Battle of Mühldorf, he received Eger as a \"\" (Imperial lien) with the \"guarantee of complete independence from the Kingdom of Bohemia\". This reservation however became meaningless as Louis never redeemed the pawn, and with the accession of Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg in 1346, the crowns of the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia were united in one hand. Charles' successors from the House of Luxembourg and (from 1526) Habsburg continuously eliminated the autonomy of the Egerland against the resistance of the Cheb citizens and the local nobility. While the present-day Franconian parts up to the Fichtelgebirge were acquired by the Principality of Bayreuth under Hohenzollern rule, the remaining territory was administrated within the Bohemian \"kraj\" of Loket from 1751.  The incorporation of the Bohemian kingdom into the Habsburg Monarchy had created ongoing conflicts at first along the fault-lines between the Catholic dynasty and the Protestant nobility culminating in the Thirty Years' War. Cheb and the Egerland insisting on their independence tried to maintain a neutral position, they nevertheless were seized as a stronghold by Albrecht von Wallenstein, who was murdered at Cheb on 25 February 1634. In the following decades the absolute Habsburg rulers aimed at a centralized government. Emperor Joseph II of Habsburg on the one hand issued an Edict of Religious Tolerance in 1781, but also denied the Bohemian autonomy by renouncing the ceremony of the coronation as Bohemian king. With the determination of German as official language in all Habsburg lands (instead of Latin), he laid the foundations for future ethnic conflicts. In the course of the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation in 1806 and the onset of the Austrian Empire, the eastern part of Egerland finally became an ordinary district of the Austrian province of Bohemia.  The suppression during the Age of Metternich led to a second-class status of the Czech people in the Austrian crown land of Bohemia, despite them being much more numerous than the German-speaking population. From about 1830 on Czech scholars like František Palacký encouraged the Austroslavism movement demanding autonomy for the Bohemian crown lands and admission of the Czech language. In the aftermath of the 1848 Spring of Nations, the Czechs, as well as some other Slavic nations, began Pan-Slavic movements aiming at complete independence, fiercely opposed by Pan-German organisations like the German Worker's Party based in Cheb. The rise of ethnic nationalism turned out to be fatal, as, while the central parts of Bohemia were only inhabited by a smaller German-speaking elite, in border regions like the Egerland people who spoke the German language were more numerous.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Czechoslovakia.", "content": "At the end of World War I, the German-speaking population of former Austria–Hungary proclaimed the Republic of German Austria including the Egerland and further peripheral regions of German Bohemia, that were to become part of Czechoslovakia. They demanded the unification with Germany, referring to the self-determination doctrine proclaimed by U.S. president Woodrow Wilson that had been the basis for the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Nevertheless, the Czech majority in the total of Bohemia insisted to \"restore their countries in their historical borders\", as a revision of the former Germanization. Both parties acted unilaterally, the Czechs prevailed establishing the Czechoslovakian Republic comprising all parts of Bohemia including the Egerland, while the German minority drew a completely new border between predominantly Czech- and predominantly German-speaking parts of the country.  With the 1933 Nazi seizure of power in Germany, the separatists of the Sudeten German Party under Konrad Henlein became more and more dominant, calling themselves Sudeten Germans. After Hitler had pushed the situation towards an armed conflict, the prime ministers of Britain and France in the 1938 Munich Agreement backed the annexation of the Sudetenland with the Egerland by Nazi Germany, resulting in flight and expulsion of Czech people. At that time, the term \"Egerland\" came in use for the western district of the Sudetenland, itself a Reichsgau from 1939 on.  Following the German defeat in World War II, the region was rejoined to Czechoslovakia in 1945 and most of the ethnic Germans were expelled to Germany on the basis of the Beneš decrees, nearly 90,000 from Egerland proper and almost 800,000 from the short-lived \"Regierungsbezirk Eger\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Egerland (; ; Egerland German dialect: \"Eghalånd\") is a historical region in the far north west of Bohemia in the Czech Republic at the border with Germany. It is named after the German name \"Eger\" for the city of Cheb and the main river Ohře.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973768}
{"src_title": "HMX", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production.", "content": "HMX is more complicated to manufacture than most explosives, and this confines it to specialist applications. It may be produced by nitration of hexamine in the presence of acetic anhydride, paraformaldehyde and ammonium nitrate. RDX produced using the Bachmann Process usually contains 8–10% HMX.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Also known as cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine, tetrahexamine tetranitramine, or octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine, HMX was first made in 1930. In 1949 it was discovered that HMX can be prepared by nitrolysis of RDX. Nitrolysis of RDX is performed by dissolving RDX in a 55% HNO solution, followed by placing the solution on a steambath for about six hours. HMX is used almost exclusively in military applications, including as the detonator in nuclear weapons, in the form of polymer-bonded explosive, and as a solid rocket propellant.  HMX is used in melt-castable explosives when mixed with TNT, which as a class are referred to as \"octols\". Additionally, polymer-bonded explosive compositions containing HMX are used in the manufacture of missile warheads and armor-piercing shaped charges.  HMX is also used in the process of perforating the steel casing in oil and gas wells. The HMX is built into a shaped charge that is detonated within the wellbore to punch a hole through the steel casing and surrounding cement out into the hydrocarbon bearing formations. The pathway that is created allows formation fluids to flow into the wellbore and onward to the surface.  The Hayabusa 2 space probe used HMX to excavate a hole in an asteroid in order to access material that had not been exposed to the solar wind.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health and environmental fate.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analytical methods.", "content": "HMX enters the environment through air, water, and soil because it is widely used in military and civil applications. At present, reverse-phase HPLC and more sensitive LC-MS methods have been developed to accurately quantify the concentration of HMX in a variety of matrices in environmental assessments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "At present, the information needed to determine if HMX causes cancer is insufficient. Due to the lack of information, EPA has determined that HMX is not classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity.  The available data on the effects on human health of exposure to HMX are limited. HMX causes CNS effects similar to those of RDX, but at considerably higher doses. In one study, volunteers submitted to patch testing, which produced skin irritation. Another study of a cohort of 93 workers at an ammunition plant found no hematological, hepatic, autoimmune, or renal diseases. However, the study did not quantify the levels of exposure to HMX.  HMX exposure has been investigated in several studies on animals. Overall, the toxicity appears to be quite low. HMX is poorly absorbed by ingestion. When applied to the dermis, it induces mild skin irritation but not delayed contact sensitization. Various acute and subchronic neurobehavioral effects have been reported in rabbits and rodents, including ataxia, sedation, hyperkinesia, and convulsions. The chronic effects of HMX that have been documented through animal studies include decreased hemoglobin, increased serum alkaline phosphatase, and decreased albumin. Pathological changes were also observed in the animals' livers and kidneys.  Gas exchange rate was used as an indicator of chemical stress in Northern bobwhite quail (\"Colinus virginianus\") eggs, and no evidence of alterations in metabolic rates associated with HMX exposure was observed. No data are available concerning the possible reproductive, developmental, or carcinogenic effects of HMX. HMX is considered the least toxic amongst TNT and RDX. Remediating HMX contaminated water supplies has proven to be successful.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biodegradation.", "content": "Both wild and transgenic plants can phytoremediate explosives from soil and water.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "HMX, also called octogen, is a powerful and relatively insensitive nitroamine high explosive, chemically related to RDX. Like RDX, the compound's name is the subject of much speculation, having been variously listed as High Melting Explosive, Her Majesty's Explosive, High-velocity Military Explosive, or High-Molecular-weight RDX.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973769}
{"src_title": "Dietrich Mateschitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Mateschitz was born May 20, 1944, in Sankt Marein im Mürztal, Styria, Austria to a family of Croatian ancestry. His parents were both primary school teachers and separated when he was a young child.  Although never married, he has a son. He holds a pilot's licence and enjoys flying a Falcon 900 and a Piper Super Cub.  After taking ten years to graduate from the \"Hochschule für Welthandel\" (now Vienna University of Economics and Business) with a marketing degree in 1972, Mateschitz's first employer was Unilever, where he worked marketing detergents. He subsequently moved to Blendax, the German cosmetics company since bought by Procter & Gamble, where he worked on, among other things, the marketing of Blendax toothpaste. It was as part of his travels for Blendax that he discovered Krating Daeng, the drink that would later become Red Bull. In 1984, he founded Red Bull GmbH with his Thai partners Chaleo and his eldest son Chalerm Yoovidhya, with the launch in Austria in 1987. Subsequently, he turned the Red Bull drink into a world market leader among energy drinks.  He is co-founder of the \"Wings for Life\" foundation that supports spinal cord research together with Heinz Kinigadner. Since 2014, the foundation has organised the Wings for Life World Run to raise funds.  He lives in Fuschl am See, Austria but also owns Laucala Island, off Fiji, which he bought from the Forbes family for £7 million. In 2013, Mateschitz purchased a custom DeepFlight Super Falcon, an extreme $1.7 million submarine for guests at his Laucala Island resort in Fiji.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Mateschitz's brands are consistently marketed as associated with the physical and mental attributes needed for various types of extreme sports through commercial sponsorship. Red Bull formerly owned more than 60 percent of the Sauber Formula One motor racing team, and was the team's main sponsor. However, Red Bull ended its relationship with Sauber at the end of 2001 after the team opted to sign Kimi Räikkönen as one of their drivers for the 2001 season instead of Red Bull protege Enrique Bernoldi. In November 2004, Mateschitz bought the Jaguar Racing Formula One team from its previous owners, Ford, and renamed it Red Bull Racing. In September 2005, Mateschitz joined forces with his close friend and former Formula One driver, Gerhard Berger, to purchase the Italian-registered Minardi team from its Australian owner Paul Stoddart. The team was renamed \"Scuderia Toro Rosso\", \"Toro Rosso\" meaning Red Bull in Italian. In 2010, Red Bull Racing won the Formula One World Constructors' Championship and Drivers' Championship with Sebastian Vettel. They then went on to win both titles for the next three years running in 2011, 2012, and 2013, making Vettel and Red Bull Racing four-time world champions.  From 2006 to 2011, Mateschitz also owned Team Red Bull who competed in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series and the K&N Pro Series East.  In late 2004, he bought the A1-Ring racing circuit, which had formerly hosted the Formula One Austrian Grand Prix, and renamed it the Red Bull Ring. The circuit re-opened in May 2011 and hosted a round of the 2011 Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters season. Although Mateschitz had stated that there were no plans for it to return to the Formula One calendar, in December 2012 Red Bull notified the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile they would be open to hosting a Grand Prix. In July 2013, Red Bull announced the return of the Austrian Grand Prix to the Formula One World Championship in 2014. The race took place on 22 June 2014 and was won by Nico Rosberg, driving for Mercedes.  Mateschitz has his own hangar, where he keeps his collection of old planes, including the last ever Douglas DC-6B to be produced, and which once belonged to Yugoslav Marshal Josip Broz Tito. He also sponsors the World Stunt Awards, an annual fundraiser to benefit his Taurus Foundation, which helps injured stunt professionals.  In April 2005, he bought the Austrian football club SV Austria Salzburg and in March 2006, he bought the American club MetroStars; both clubs were subsequently renamed after his famous drink, as Red Bull Salzburg and New York Red Bulls, respectively. In 2007, Red Bull founded Red Bull Brasil, a football team based in Campinas, Brazil. The team was promoted to the 1st division of the São Paulo championship in 2014, the most competitive state championship of the country. In 2008, Red Bull founded Red Bull Ghana. In May 2009, he founded a German football club called RB Leipzig after he bought the club license of SSV Markranstädt. Since 2012, he is also the owner of the German ice hockey club EHC München, which also changed its name into Red Bull München.  He also owned Seitenblicke, Austria's top society magazine, but avoids the celebrity circuit and watches most Formula One races on TV despite owning two teams.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dietrich Mateschitz (; born 20 May 1944) is an Austrian billionaire businessman. He is the co-founder and 49% owner of the Red Bull energy drink company. As of June 2019, Mateschitz's net worth was estimated at $19.5 billion, making him the 53rd richest person in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973770}
{"src_title": "El Alto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The dry and inclement plain above La Paz was uninhabited until 1903 when the newly built railways from Lake Titicaca and Arica reached the rim of the canyon, where the La Paz terminus, railyards and depots were built along with a settlement of railway workers (a spur line down into the canyon opened in 1905). In 1925, the airfield was built as base for the new air force, which attracted additional settlement. In 1939, El Alto's first elementary school opened. El Alto started to grow tremendously in the 1950s when the settlement was connected to La Paz's water supply (before this, all water had to be transported from La Paz in tanker vehicles) and building land in the canyon became more and more scarce and expensive. In an administrative reform in March 1985, the district of El Alto and surroundings was politically separated from the City of La Paz (this date is officially referred to and celebrated as the city's \"founding day\"). In 1987, El Alto was formally incorporated as a city. In 1994, the city became the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of El Alto.  El Alto, known for its teeming streets and traffic, broke gender barriers by hiring \"cholitas\" in December 2013. These Aymara women dress in traditional, multi-layered Andean skirts and brightly embroidered vests, and work as traffic cops to bring order to its road chaos. In recent years, Bolivia’s cholitas have been breaking social barriers, conducting television programs, working in offices, holding public posts, and participating in native fashion shows and beauty contests.  \"El Alto\" can also mean \"The Halt\" in Spanish,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "El Alto's districts.", "content": "El Alto's autonomous government identifies 14 districts composing the Andean city.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "El Alto is the largest city in Latin America with a mostly Amerindian population. About 76% of its inhabitants are Aymara, 9% are Quechua, 15% are Mestizo (descendants of Amerindian and White Europeans), and less than 0.1% are Criollos (White). El Alto was once known as La Paz's bedroom community, though recent growth of commerce and industry has led some local authorities to claim the title of \"Bolivia's Economic Capital.\" With this industrial growth, there is concern about water pollution by businesses, including tanneries and slaughterhouse, for the city and communities downstream. Rapid population growth means the city struggles to bring potable water and sewer service to parts of the population, especially on the fringes of the expanding urban area. Much of the city's roads are unpaved and most citizens do not have access to running water, sewerage, electricity, or garbage collection for their homes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The city contains La Paz’s El Alto International Airport. El Alto is one of the highest major cities in the world, up to 4,150 meters (13,615 feet) above mean sea level. It has a cold climate, with the highest average monthly maximum temperature being in November. It is one of the fastest-growing cities in Bolivia, due to a trend in migration from Bolivia’s rural areas to the La Paz region that started with the rural reform of 1952 and increased in the last 10 years. Some migrants say the difficulty of growing crops in the countryside drove them to move to the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The Köppen climate classification system classifies El Alto's climate as a rare cold-summer variety of a subtropical highland climate (\"Cwc\").  The water supply in El Alto has been impacted by drought caused by shrinking glaciers. In 2016 the three main dams supplying water to the city were almost dry due to lack of glacial melt water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Attractions.", "content": "Museo de Arte Antonio Paredes Candia opened in 2002. From 2003, access from La Paz to the international airport, as well to oil and gas supplies, has been frequently blocked by protesting social leaders and some of the most powerful players in the politics of Bolivia. El Alto remains one of the major centers of the Bolivian gas conflict.  There is a large open-air market.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "El Alto is a municipality within the province of Murillo. The government of the city is divided into the executive and legislative branches. The mayor of El Alto is the head of the city government, elected for a term of five years by general election. The legislative branch consists of the municipal council, which elects a president, vice president, and secretary from a group of 11 members.  The current mayor is Soledad Chapetón, who became the city's first female mayor in May 2015. The previous election was held April 4, 2010 and results of that regional election are given below:  The Government of El Alto faces competition in providing public services, security and participation with the grassroots and highly successful Fejuve movement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "El Alto is connected to La Paz by two lines of the Mi Teleférico system. The city is connected to domestic and international destinations by El Alto International Airport.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "El Alto (Spanish for \"The Heights\") is the second-largest city in Bolivia, located adjacent to La Paz in Pedro Domingo Murillo Province on the Altiplano highlands. El Alto is today one of Bolivia's fastest-growing urban centers, with an estimated population of 943,558 in 2020. El Alto is the highest major metropolis in the world, with an average elevation of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973771}
{"src_title": "Munich Philharmonic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The orchestra was founded in Munich in 1893 by Franz Kaim, son of a piano manufacturer, as the Kaim Orchestra. In 1895, it took up residence in the city's \"Tonhalle\" (concert hall). It soon attracted distinguished conductors: Gustav Mahler first directed the group in 1897 and premiered his \"Symphony No. 4\" and \"Symphony No. 8\" with the orchestra, while Bruno Walter directed the orchestra for the posthumous premiere of Mahler's \"Das Lied von der Erde\". Felix Weingartner was music director from 1898 to 1905, and the young Wilhelm Furtwängler made his auspicious conducting debut there in 1906. Meanwhile, Anton Bruckner pupil Ferdinand Löwe established an enduring tradition of Bruckner performance which continues to this day.  Throughout this time the orchestra, which by 1910 was known as the Munich Konzertverein Orchestra, was privately funded, but during World War I finances became tight and players were called for military service, forcing the orchestra to cease operation. After the war, the orchestra was taken over by the city of Munich and restarted under the leadership of composer Hans Pfitzner, soon replaced by Bruckner pioneer Siegmund von Hausegger. In 1928, the orchestra acquired its current name.  After the rise of the Nazi party in 1933, the orchestra stamped its scores with swastikas and the words \"The Orchestra of the Fascist Movement\". (The swastikas weren’t removed until the early 1990s.) In 1938, the pro-Nazi conductor Oswald Kabasta became chief conductor, raising its musical standards even as World War II began.  During the war, the Tonhalle was destroyed and the orchestra, homeless, was again shut-down for a period. After the war, fortunes recovered under the music directors Hans Rosbaud and Rudolf Kempe and in 1979, Sergiu Celibidache took over, raising the orchestra to the highest world-class standards. Notoriously demanding of his players, Celibidache created a unique sound for the orchestra. In a well-publicised case, he tried to remove principal trombonist Abbie Conant from her position because of her gender. Conant sued the City of Munich and, after a lengthy legal procedure, in 1993 won pay equal to that of her male colleagues along with being reinstated as full first soloist status as the court found that the orchestra and the City of Munich broke the law concerning equal treatment of men and women. Reportedly, Conant's audition was the last to be held using blind audition.  After Celibidache's sudden death in 1996, James Levine took over as chief conductor of the orchestra, serving until 2004. Christian Thielemann became the orchestra's music director in September 2004, joined by Wouter Hoekstra as \"Intendant\". However, in 2007, Hoekstra was dismissed from his post after reported disputes with Thielemann. In 2009, the orchestra announced the scheduled conclusion of Thielemann's tenure in 2011. Thielemann's demand to have a say over the choice of guest conductors was not approved. In March 2010, Lorin Maazel was named the orchestra's next chief conductor, effective with the 2012–2013 season. Early in 2014, Maazel cancelled concert engagements as a result of ill health. Subsequently, in June 2014, he announced his resignation as music director of the Munich Philharmonic, with immediate effect. In January 2013, the orchestra announced the appointment of Valery Gergiev as its next principal conductor as of 2015, with an initial contract through 2020.  Over the course of its history, the Munich Philharmonic has performed premieres of Günter Bialas, Anton Bruckner, Harald Genzmer, Luigi Nono, Gustav Mahler and others.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Munich Philharmonic () is a German symphony orchestra located in the city of Munich. It is one of Munich's four principal orchestras, along with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, the Munich Radio Orchestra and the Bavarian State Orchestra. Since 1985, the orchestra has been housed in the Gasteig culture centre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973772}
{"src_title": "Pickling (metal)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Process.", "content": "Metal surfaces can contain impurities that may affect usage of the product or further processing like plating with metal or painting. Various chemical solutions are usually used to clean these impurities. Strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid are common, but different applications use various other acids. Also alkaline solutions can be used for cleaning metal surfaces. Solutions usually also contain additives such as wetting agents and corrosion inhibitors. Pickling is sometimes called acid cleaning if descaling is not needed.  Many hot working processes and other processes that occur at high temperatures leave a discoloring oxide layer or scale on the surface. In order to remove the scale the workpiece is dipped into a vat of pickle liquor. Prior to cold rolling operation, hot rolled steel is normally passed through a pickling line so as to eradicate the scale from the surface.  The primary acid used in steelmaking is hydrochloric acid, although sulfuric acid was previously more common. Hydrochloric acid is more expensive than sulfuric acid, but it pickles much faster while minimizing base metal loss. The speed is a requirement for integration in automatic steel mills that run production at speeds as high as 800 ft/min (≈243 metres/min).  Carbon steels, with an alloy content less than or equal to 6%, are often pickled in hydrochloric or sulfuric acid. Steels with an alloy content greater than 6% must be pickled in two steps and other acids are used, such as phosphoric, nitric and hydrofluoric acid. Rust- and acid-resistant chromium-nickel steels are pickled traditionally in a bath of hydrofluoric and nitric acid. Most copper alloys are pickled in dilute sulfuric acid, but brass is pickled in concentrated sulfuric and nitric acid mixed with sodium chloride and soot.  In jewelry making, pickling is used to remove the copper oxide layer that results from heating copper and sterling silver during soldering and annealing. A diluted sulfuric acid pickling bath is traditionally used, but may be replaced with citric acid.  Sheet steel that undergoes acid pickling will oxidize (rust) when exposed to atmospheric conditions of moderately high humidity. For this reason, a thin film of oil or similar waterproof coating is applied to create a barrier to moisture in the air. This oil film must later be removed for many fabrication, plating or painting processes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disadvantages.", "content": "Acid cleaning has limitations in that it is difficult to handle because of its corrosiveness, and it is not applicable to all steels. Hydrogen embrittlement becomes a problem for some alloys and high-carbon steels. The hydrogen from the acid reacts with the surface and makes it brittle and causes cracks. Because of its high reactivity with treatable steels, acid concentrations and solution temperatures must be kept under control to ensure desired pickling rates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Waste products.", "content": "Pickling sludge is the waste product from pickling, and includes acidic rinse waters, iron chlorides, and metallic salts and waste acid. Spent pickle liquor is considered a hazardous waste by the EPA. Pickle sludge from steel processes is usually neutralized with lime and disposed of in a landfill since the EPA no longer deems it a hazardous waste after neutralization. The lime neutralization process raises the pH of the spent acid. The waste material is subject to a waste determination to ensure no characteristic or listed waste is present. Since the 1960s, hydrochloric pickling sludge is often treated in a hydrochloric acid regeneration system, which recovers some of the hydrochloric acid and ferric oxide. The rest must still be neutralized and disposed of in land fills or managed as a hazardous waste based on the waste profile analysis. The by-products of nitric acid pickling are marketable to other industries, such as fertilizer processors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alternatives.", "content": "Smooth clean surface (SCS) and eco pickled surface (EPS) are more recent alternatives. In the SCS process, surface oxidation is removed using an engineered abrasive and the process leaves the surface resistant to subsequent oxidation without the need for oil film or other protective coating. EPS is a more direct replacement for acid pickling. Acid pickling relies on chemical reactions while EPS uses mechanical means. The EPS process is considered \"environmentally friendly\" compared with acid pickling and it imparts to carbon steel a high degree of rust resistance, eliminating the need to apply the oil coating that serves as a barrier to oxidation for acid-pickled carbon steel.  Alternative methods include also mechanical cleaning such as abrasive blasting, grinding, wire brushing and hydrocleaning. These methods generally do not provide as clean a surface as pickling does.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pickling is a metal surface treatment used to remove impurities, such as stains, inorganic contaminants, rust or scale from ferrous metals, copper, precious metals and aluminum alloys. A solution called \"pickle liquor\", which usually contains acid, is used to remove the surface impurities. It is commonly used to descale or clean steel in various steelmaking processes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973773}
{"src_title": "Frank Foley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was the third son of Isabella and Andrew Wood Foley, a Tiverton-born railway worker, whose family may have originated from Roscommon in Ireland in the early 1800s. After attending local schools in Somerset, Foley won a scholarship to Stonyhurst College, Lancashire, where he was educated by the Jesuits. He then went to a Catholic seminary in France to train as a priest but transferred to the Université de France in Poitiers to study Classics. While there he reconsidered his vocation for the priesthood and decided instead to pursue an academic career. He travelled extensively in Europe, becoming fluent in both French and German.  Foley graduated from the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Hertfordshire Regiment on 25 January 1917. He was appointed temporary Captain on 20 September 1917, while commanding an infantry company of the 1st Battalion the Hertfordshire Regiment, and was later with the 2nd/6th Battalion North Staffordshire Regiment, during which time he was mentioned in despatches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Joining secret service.", "content": "The story of his escape from Germany and his language skills had been noted by someone at the War Office. He was encouraged to apply for the Intelligence Corps. On 25 July 1918 Foley was promoted Lieutenant. In July 1918 he became part of a small unit which was responsible for recruiting and running networks of secret agents in France, Belgium and the Netherlands. After the Armistice he served for a short time in the Inter-Allied Military Commission of Control in Cologne. On 19 April 1920 he relinquished the temporary rank of captain, and in December 1921 retired from the Army with the rank of Captain.  After the running down of the Commission, he was subsequently offered the post of passport control officer in Berlin which was a cover for his main duties as head of the British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) station. During the 1920s and 30s, Foley was successful in recruiting agents and acquiring key details of German military research and development.  Foley is primarily remembered as a \"British Schindler\". In his role as passport control officer, he helped thousands of Jews escape from Nazi Germany. At the 1961 trial of former ranking Nazi Adolf Eichmann, he was described as a \"Scarlet Pimpernel\" for the way he risked his own life to save Jews threatened with death by the Nazis. Despite having no diplomatic immunity and being liable to arrest at any time, Foley would bend the rules when stamping passports and issuing visas, to allow Jews to escape \"legally\" to Britain or Palestine, which was then controlled by the British. Sometimes he went further, going into internment camps to get Jews out, hiding them in his home, and helping them get forged passports. One Jewish aid worker estimated that he saved \"tens of thousands\" of people from the Holocaust.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second World War.", "content": "In 1939 and 1940, he was a passport control officer in Norway until the Germans invaded, when he was attached to C-in-C Norwegian Forces in the Field, for which services he received the Norwegian Knight's Cross of the Order of St. Olaf. Foley and Margaret Reid, his assistant, abandoned Oslo on 9 April 1940 during the German advance, and travelled to Lillehammer and Åndalsnes. Before leaving Oslo Foley and Reid burned the documents in the UK legation. Foley helped Norway's commander in chief, general Otto Ruge, contact Britain to request assistance against the invader. Foley had his own radio transmitter that allowed general Ruge to communicate with London independently of Norwegian landlines. Reid was a cipher expert who coded messages sent to Britain. Until minister Cecil Dormer arrived on 16 April, Foley acted as a UK representative with Norwegian authorities. Foley and Reid were evacuated from Molde by the British navy on 1 May. At Åndalsnes Foley presumably met Martin Linge that acted as liasion officer.  On 1 January 1941, he was awarded Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (CMG) as a Captain in respect of his services to the Foreign Office. In 1941, he was given the task of questioning Hitler's Deputy Rudolf Hess after Hess's flight to Scotland. After Hess was hospitalized in 1942, Foley helped coordinate MI5 and MI6 in running a network of double agents, the Double Cross System.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "He returned to Berlin very soon after the war under the cover of Assistant Inspector General of the Public Safety Branch of the Control Commission in Germany, where he was involved in hunting for ex-SS war criminals.  In 1949, Foley retired to Stourbridge, Worcestershire and died there in 1958. He is buried in Stourbridge Cemetery. On 27 April 1961, the \"Daily Mail\" carried the story, written by his widow, of his activities to save as many Jews as he possibly could with visas to the United Kingdom. When no excuse could be found for a visa to Britain, he contacted friends working in the embassies of other nations for their assistance in granting visas to their countries.  His widow, Katharine Eva Foley, died on 17 April 1979 at her home in Sidmouth, Devon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Posthumous recognition.", "content": "Foley was accorded the status of a Righteous Among the Nations by Israel's Yad Vashem as a direct result of testimony from \"living witnesses\" found by Michael Smith while researching his biography of Foley. Lord Janner, chairman of the Holocaust Educational Trust, was instrumental in persuading Yad Vashem to look at Smith's evidence. Some members of the Yad Vashem committee that determines whether someone should be named as a \"righteous gentile\" were initially sceptical that a MI6 officer would not have diplomatic immunity but the then Foreign Office historian Gill Bennett produced previously classified documents that demonstrated this to be the case. The cover of Smith's book features the photograph from Foley's first diplomatic passport with the date it was issued clearly shown as 11 August 1939.  In 2004 a remembrance plaque was dedicated to him at the entrance to Stourbridge's Mary Stevens Park. The following year volunteers from Highbridge, Foley's birthplace, raised money to erect their own tribute.  In 2007, a film about Foley's life was in the planning stages, but the producers were then taking legal action against MI6 to release still-classified documents related to his work.  On 24 November 2004 (the 120th anniversary of his birth) descendants of Foley, relatives of those he saved, representatives of Jewish organisations, British MPs and other well-wishers gathered at the British Embassy in Berlin for the unveiling of a plaque in honour of Foley. At the ceremony Foreign Secretary Jack Straw praised Foley's heroism:  On 31 May 2009, a garden was dedicated in his memory at London's Sternberg Centre, where a plaque was unveiled by Cherie Booth.  In 2010, Foley was named a British Hero of the Holocaust by the British Government.  In 2012 the Foreign Secretary, William Hague, unveiled a plaque to him at the Hoop Lane Jewish Cemetery in Golders Green, London, an initiative led by the Spanish and Portuguese Jews' Congregation and West London Synagogue.  A National Express West Midlands bus is dedicated to him.  On 18 September 2018, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, unveiled a statue of Major Frank Foley in West Midlands town of Stourbridge in the presence of Foley's great-nephew, Stephen Higgs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Major Francis \"Frank\" Edward Foley CMG (24 November 1884, Highbridge, Somerset – 8 May 1958, Stourbridge, Worcestershire) was a British Secret Intelligence Service officer. As a passport control officer for the British embassy in Berlin, Foley \"bent the rules\" and helped thousands of Jewish families escape from Nazi Germany after Kristallnacht and before the outbreak of the Second World War. He is officially recognised as a British Hero of the Holocaust and as a Righteous Among the Nations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973774}
{"src_title": "Birman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "No clear record of the breed's origin exists. They are most often claimed to have originated as the companions of temple priests in northern Burma in the Mount of Lugh. Many stories exist of how the cats first came to France, including pairs of cats being given as a reward for helping defend a temple, or being smuggled out of Burma by a Vanderbilt. Another pair of Birmans (or a pregnant female called \"Poupée de Maldapour\") were said to have been stolen and later imported to France by Thadde Haddisch. The first traces of historical Birmans go back to a Mme Leotardi in Nice, France.  Many believe, as legend will tell, that the breed originated in Burma (now known as Myanmar) among the temples of ancient times and alongside priests; However, there are also some that later believed the felines came to Europe, namely France, from somewhere in Asia, which has been spread from other legends and stories passed around as well. Regardless of the numerous stories and folklore that go around, there is a positivity that the Birman cat breed was found in France as early as the 1920s, and many different stories continue to surface about the mystique that lies behind their history.  Birmans were almost wiped out as a breed during World War II. Only two cats were alive in Europe at the end of the war, a pair named Orloff and Xenia de Kaabaa, both belonging to Baudoin-Crevoisier. The foundation of the breed in postwar France were offspring of this pair. They had to be heavily outcrossed with long-hair breeds such as Persian and Siamese to rebuild the Birman breed. By the early 1950s, pure Birman litters were again being produced. The restored breed was recognized in Britain in 1965 and by the CFA in 1966.  The first Birman cats were seal point. The blue point colour was introduced in 1959 using blue Persian lines. New colours were later added by English breeders including chocolate, red, and tabby/lynx points. Birmans have also been used in the development of new breeds such as the Ragdoll.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "Birmans have a medium-sized, rectangular body with a broad face and distinct Roman nose. Their ears are ideally as wide on the base as they are tall and should be set as much on top of the head as on the side. The eyes are rounded and should be a deep sapphire blue.  The Birman's fur is medium-long and should have a silky texture. Unlike a Persian or Himalayan, they have no undercoat, thus are much less prone to matting. Coat colour is always pointed, save for the contrasting pure white, symmetrical \"gloves\" on each paw that are the trademark of the breed. The white must involve all toes and in front must stop at the articulation or at the transition of toes to metacarpals. These gloves should extend noticeably further up the back of the leg (referred to as the \"laces\"), finishing with an inverted V extended half to three-fourths up the hock. Any other spot of white on the points is considered a serious fault. The base body colour is white to cream, with a wash of colour that corresponds to the points, but is much paler.  Recognized point colours are seal, chocolate, blue, lilac (a softer silver-grey), red, or cream. Tabby and tortie variations in seal, chocolate, blue or lilac are also allowed; other colours are in development.  Like all colour-point breeds, Birman kittens are born white and begin developing their points after one week if a dark colour (i.e. seal point) and 14 days or more if the points are \"clear\" or lighter-coloured (i.e. lilac point). Their coats do not reach full development up until the cats are two years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetic diversity.", "content": "The 2008 study \"The Ascent of Cat Breeds: Genetic Evaluations of Breeds and Worldwide Random-bred Populations\" by Lipinski\" et al.\" found that the Birman has one of the lowest levels of genetic diversity of all the breeds studied. This is no surprise given the breed history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "The most severe threat is feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), the most common heart disease seen in cats. In Birman cats, it is thought to be inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. HCM is a progressive disease and can result in heart failure, paralysis of the hind legs due to clot embolisation originating in the heart, and sudden death.  Paltrinieri, Giraldi, Prolo, Scarpa, \"et al\". (2017) found that Birman cats have a high serum concentration of creatinine and symmetric dimethylarginine, but most Birman cats have higher concentrations of creatinine than SDMA. Creatinine is a creatine phosphate and is produced during metabolism of creatine, and is excreted through urination. SDMA is a methylated form of the amino acid arginine and is released during normal catabolisms of body proteins. Levels of creatinine and SDMA are found when Birman cats are tested for chronic kidney disease, for which they are at high risk. Birman cats are also at risk of developing feline infectious peritonitis; a disease that alters the renal function (creatinine levels in blood and urine) in the cats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Birman naming conventions.", "content": "Many Birman breeders follow the French tradition of assigning all kittens born in a particular year given names that begin with the same letter of the alphabet. Countries with breeders using this convention include Australia, Canada, France, New Zealand, the U.K., and the U.S. Kittens born in 2016 would start with 'N', and in 2017 'O', and so on.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Birman, also called the \"Sacred Cat of Burma\", is a domestic cat breed. The Birman is a long-haired, colour-pointed cat distinguished by a silky coat, deep blue eyes, and contrasting white \"gloves\" or \"socks\" on each paw.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973775}
{"src_title": "Bibliophilia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Profile.", "content": "The classic bibliophile is one who loves to read, admire and collect books, often amassing a large and specialized collection. Bibliophiles usually possess books they love or that hold special value as well as old editions with unusual bindings, autographed, or illustrated copies. \"Bibliophile\" is an appropriate term for a minority of those who are book collectors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage of the term.", "content": "Bibliophilia is not to be confused with bibliomania, a potential symptom of obsessive–compulsive disorder involving the collecting of books to the extent that interpersonal relations or health may be negatively affected, and in which the mere fact that a physical object is a book is sufficient for it to be collected or beloved. Some use the term \"bibliomania\" interchangeably with \"bibliophily\", and in fact, the Library of Congress does not use the term \"bibliophily,\" but rather refers to its readers as either book collectors or bibliomaniacs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "According to Arthur H. Minters, the \"private collecting of books was a fashion indulged in by many Romans, including Cicero and Atticus\". The term \"bibliophile\" entered the English language in 1824. A bibliophile is to be distinguished from the much older notion of a bookman (which dates back to 1583), who is one who loves books, and especially reading; more generally, a bookman is one who participates in writing, publishing, or selling books.  Lord Spencer and the Marquess of Blandford were noted bibliophiles. \"The Roxburghe sale quickly became a foundational myth for the burgeoning secondhand book trade, and remains so to this day\"; this sale is memorable due to the competition between \"Lord Spencer and the marquis of Blandford [which] drove [the price of a probable first edition of Boccaccio's \"Decameron\" up to the astonishing and unprecedented sum of £2,260\". J. P. Morgan was also a noted bibliophile. In 1884, he paid $24,750 for a 1459 edition of the Mainz Psalter.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bibliophilia or bibliophilism is the love of books, and a bibliophile or bookworm is an individual who loves and frequently reads books.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973776}
{"src_title": "Jody Scheckter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Scheckter was born in East London, Eastern Cape, and educated at Selborne College.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formula One.", "content": "He rapidly ascended to the ranks of Formula One after moving to Britain in 1970. His Formula 1 debut occurred at the US Grand Prix at Watkins Glen in 1972 with McLaren, where he ran as high as third place before spinning and finishing ninth. Immediately becoming a name to watch, he continued his development the following year, winning the 1973 SCCA L&M Championship and racing five times in F1. In France, he almost won in only his third start in F1 before crashing into Emerson Fittipaldi, the reigning World Champion, who said after the crash about Scheckter: \"This madman is a menace to himself and everybody else and does not belong in Formula 1.\" In his next start, the British Grand Prix at Silverstone, Scheckter's spin triggered a major accident which took nearly a dozen cars out of the race. The Grand Prix Drivers Association demanded his immediate banishment, which was only put off when McLaren agreed to rest their driver for four races. Scheckter's McLaren M23 bore the number zero during the Canadian and American Grands Prix of 1973. Scheckter is one of only two F1 drivers to compete under this number, the other being Damon Hill. During the practice for the American event at the Watkins Glen circuit, Frenchman François Cevert, who was due to be Scheckter's Tyrrell teammate for 1974, was killed in an appalling accident at the fast uphill Esses corners. Scheckter was behind Cevert when he crashed, and he stopped his McLaren, got out of his car and attempted to help Cevert out of his destroyed Tyrrell, but the 29-year-old Frenchman had been cut in half by the circuit's poorly installed Armco barriers and was already dead. Witnessing Cevert's dreadful accident left an indelible mark on the South African and caused him to abandon his reckless ways, becoming a more mature and calculating driver as a result. Tyrrell in 1974 gave him his first full-time drive in F1. Jody rewarded them with a third-place finish in the Drivers' Championship and a pair of wins in Sweden and Britain. During the year, he scored points in eight consecutive races, one of the longer scoring streaks of the time. A slight off-year followed, although he did become the only South African to win the South African Grand Prix, but his third year with the team in 1976 gave him another third-place finish in the Drivers' Championship. In that season, Tyrrell introduced the most radical car in F1 history, the innovative six-wheeled Tyrrell P34. Although he later went on record as saying the car was \"a piece of junk\", Scheckter gave the six-wheeler its only win on Sweden's Anderstorp circuit and in his twelve races with the car, he scored points ten times. This included a thrilling race-long battle for the lead in the American Grand Prix between himself and his great friend James Hunt.  Scheckter left for Walter Wolf's new team in 1977 and Scheckter gave the team a win in its maiden race. He won twice more with the team and was often on the podium, but finished second on points behind a more dominant Niki Lauda. A seventh-place finish with the team in 1978 followed and he left the team after the season to join Ferrari to partner Gilles Villeneuve in the team's ground effect 312T4 car.  Critics felt he would not get along well with the domineering management at Ferrari, but he far surpassed expectations and helped give F1's most recognisable team another Constructors' Championship, while Scheckter's consistent finishes, with three wins among them, gave him the Drivers' Championship in 1979. However, he struggled badly in his 1980 title defence, even failing to qualify for one race. After managing only two points, Scheckter announced his retirement from the team and the sport. Scheckter was the last driver to win a Drivers' Championship for Ferrari until Michael Schumacher twenty-one years later in.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After Formula One.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcaster.", "content": "In 1981, CBS Sports hired Scheckter as a Pit reporter for its F1 coverage.  Scheckter was brought in by ABC's Wide World Of Sports as a Pit reporter for the 1983 Monaco Grand Prix.  Scheckter was a guest commentator for ITV during the 1999 San Marino Grand Prix, replacing Martin Brundle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other interests.", "content": "In 1981, Scheckter won the World Superstars competition in Key Biscayne, Florida. He defeated athletes such as Russ Francis, Renaldo Nehemiah, Peter Mueller, Rick Barry, Gaétan Boucher and Andy Ripley. In 1983 he was inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame.  After Scheckter's retirement, he founded FATS Inc, a company which built firearms training simulators for military, law enforcement and security organisations. The sale of the company provided funds to allow Scheckter to help the racing careers of his sons Tomas and Toby. Tomas raced in the Indy Racing League where he won two races. Scheckter's brother, Ian, also raced in F1 for a few years.  In 2004 Scheckter was reunited with his championship-winning Ferrari at the South African two-seater F1x2 Charity Grand Prix at Kyalami in South Africa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Present.", "content": "Scheckter now spends his time as a biodynamic farmer, having bought the Laverstoke Park Farm, near Overton, Hampshire, west of London. As an organic farming expert, Scheckter was featured in 2005 on the Visionhealth DVD and TV documentaries \"Asthma: An Integrated Approach\", \"Arthritis: An Integrated Approach\" and \"Diabetes: An Integrated Approach\". On 20 November 2011, he also appeared on the \"Countryfile\" television show to make a case for organic food. Laverstoke Park Farm was also featured on BBC's \"Escape To the Country\" where Jody showed viewers how Buffalo Mozzarella was made. In December 2009, Scheckter announced his intention to produce a biodynamic sparkling wine by 2012. In 2015 the farm was the setting for ITV's Sugar Free Farm where a group of celebrities had to go sugar free for two weeks whilst working on the farm. He is married and has six children: two, Toby and Tomas, from his previous wife Pamela; and four, Hugo, Freddie, Ila and Poppy, from his current marriage to Clare. Daughter Ila died on 17 October 2019, she was 21.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "<br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jody David Scheckter (born 29 January 1950) is a South African business proprietor and former motor racing driver. He competed in Formula One from 1972 to 1980, winning the Drivers' Championship in with Ferrari. Scheckter remains the only driver from the continent of Africa to ever win the Formula One World Championship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973777}
{"src_title": "Tip jet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Austrian Ludwig Wittgenstein investigated the use of tip jets to drive an aircraft propeller while studying aeronautical engineering at Manchester University, UK and patented his ideas. He soon left engineering and would become better known as a philosopher.  The Italian designer V Isacco built \"Helicogyres\" in the 1920s. Although they used piston engines at the ends of the rotary wing, he foresaw that they might be replaceable by jets.  During the Second World War, German engineer Friedrich von Doblhoff suggested powering a helicopter with ramjets on the rotor tips. The first tip jet-powered helicopter was the WNF 342 V1 in 1943. After the war two WNF 342 prototypes ended up with the Americans and Doblhoff joined McDonnell Douglas who subsequently produced the McDonnell XV-1. The engineer who had actually produced the tip jet engines, August Stephan, joined the Fairey Aviation company of the United Kingdom which used them in their Fairey Jet Gyrodyne and Fairey Rotodyne aircraft first flying in 1954 and 1957 respectively.  Eugene Michael Gluhareff was an early pioneer of tip jets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rotorcraft using tip jets.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cold tip jets.", "content": "The compressed air in cold tip jets generally exited at quite high temperatures due to compression-heating effects, but they are referred to as \"cold\" jets to differentiate them from jets that burn fuel to heat the air for greater thrust; similar to the difference between the \"cold\" and \"hot\" exhausts on the Harrier \"Jump Jet\", which uses \"cold\" air heated to several hundred degrees by compression inside the low-pressure compressor of the Pegasus engine.)", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A tip jet is a jet nozzle at the tip of some helicopter rotor blades, used to spin the rotor, much like a Catherine wheel firework. Tip jets replace the normal shaft drive and have the advantage of placing no torque on the airframe, so no tail rotor is required. Some simple monocopters are composed of nothing but a single blade with a tip rocket.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973778}
{"src_title": "Luxor Temple", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "Luxor temple was built with sandstone from the Gebel el-Silsila area, which is located in South-Western Egypt. This sandstone from the Gebel el-Silsila region is referred to as Nubian Sandstone. This sandstone was used for the construction for monuments in Upper Egypt as well as in the course of past and current restoration works.  Like other Egyptian structures a common technique used was symbolism, or illusionism. For example, to the Egyptian, a sanctuary shaped like an Anubis Jackal was really Anubis. At the Luxor temple, the two obelisks (the smaller one closer to the west is now at the Place de la Concorde in Paris) flanking the entrance were not the same height, but they created the illusion that they were. With the layout of the temple they appear to be of equal height, but using illusionism, it enhances the relative distances hence making them look the same size to the wall behind it. Symbolically, it is a visual and spatial effect to emphasize the heights and distance from the wall, enhancing the already existing pathway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Excavation.", "content": "From medieval times, the Muslim population of Luxor had settled in and around the temple, at the southward end of the mount. Due to the Luxor's past city population building on top of and around the Luxor temple, centuries of rubble had accumulated, to the point where there was an artificial hill some 14.5 to 15 metres (48– 50 ft) in height. The Luxor Temple had begun to be excavated by Professor Gaston Maspero after 1884 after he had been given the order to commence operations. The excavations were carried out sporadically until 1960. Over time, accumulated rubbish of the ages had buried three quarters of the temple which contained the courts and colonnades which formed the nucleus of the Arab half of the modern village. Maspero had taken an interest earlier, and he had taken over the post of Mariette Pasha to complete the job in 1881. Not only was there rubbish, but there were also barracks, stores, houses, huts, pigeon towers, which needed to be removed in order to excavate the site. (There still exists a working mosque within the temple which was never removed.) Maspero received from the Egyptian minister of public works the authorization needed to obtain funds in order to negotiate compensation for the pieces of land covered by the houses and dependencies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Festivals.", "content": "The Luxor Temple was dedicated to the Theban Triad of the cult of the Royal Ka, Amun, Mut, and Khonsu and was built during the New Kingdom, the focus of the annual Opet Festival, in which a cult statue of Amun was paraded down the Nile from nearby Karnak Temple (\"ipet-sut\") to stay there for a while, with his consort Mut, in a celebration of fertility – hence its name. However, other studies at the temple by the Epigraphic Survey team present a completely new interpretation of Luxor and its great annual festival (the Feast of Opet). They have concluded that Luxor is the temple dedicated to the divine Egyptian ruler or, more precisely, to the cult of the Royal Ka. Examples of the cult, of the Royal Ka can be seen with the colossal seated figures of the deified Ramesses II before the Pylon and at the entrance to the Colonnade are clearly Ka-statues, cult statues of the king as embodiment of the royal Ka.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shrine stations.", "content": "Six barque shrines, serving as way stations for the barques of the gods during festival processions, were set up on the avenue between the Karnak and Luxor Temple. The avenue which went in a straight line between the Luxor Temple and the Karnak area was recently lined with human-headed sphinxes of Nekhtanebo I,21, in ancient times it is probable that these replaced earlier sphinxes which may have had different heads. Along the avenue the stations were set up for ceremonies such as the Feast of Opet which held significance to temple. Each station had a purpose, for example the fourth station was the station of Kamare, which cooled the oar of Amun. The Fifth station of Kamare was the station which received the beauty of Amun. Lastly the Sixth Station of Kamare was a shrine for Amun, Holy of Steps. A small mud-brick shrine was built, in the courtyard of Nectanebo I, in early second century (126 CE) and was dedicated to Serapis and Isis, it was presented to Roman Emperor Hadrian on his birthday.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abu Haggag Mosque.", "content": "The active Abu Haggag Mosque (Arabic: مسجد أبو الحجاج بالأقصر) is located within the temple, standing on the ancient columns themselves. That part of the Luxor Temple was converted to a church by the Romans in 395 AD, and then to a mosque in 640, more than 3400 years of continuous religious worship. Hence, the Luxor Temple is the oldest building in the world at least partially active for other than archeological or tourist purposes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Defacement.", "content": "In 2013, a Chinese student posted a picture of engraved graffiti that read \"Ding Jinhao was here\" () in Chinese on a sculpture. This discovery spurred debate about increased tourism after the media confirmed a Chinese student caused this and other defacements. The engraving has since been partially cleared.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Luxor Temple (Arabic: معبد الاقصر) is a large Ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the Nile River in the city today known as Luxor (ancient Thebes) and was constructed approximately 1400 BCE. In the Egyptian language it is known as \"ipet resyt\", \"the southern sanctuary\". In Luxor there are several great temples on the east and west banks. Four of the major mortuary temples visited by early travelers include the Temple of Seti I at Gurnah, the Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri, the Temple of Ramesses II (a.k.a. Ramesseum), and the Temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu; the two primary cults' temples on the east bank are known as the Karnak and Luxor. Unlike the other temples in Thebes, Luxor temple is not dedicated to a cult god or a deified version of the pharaoh in death. Instead, Luxor temple is dedicated to the rejuvenation of kingship; it may have been where many of the pharaohs of Egypt were crowned in reality or conceptually (as in the case of Alexander the Great, who claimed he was crowned at Luxor but may never have traveled south of Memphis, near modern Cairo).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973779}
{"src_title": "Bank vole", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The bank vole is a small rodent resembling a mouse when young but developing a stouter body, a slightly rounder head with smaller ears and eyes and a shorter, hairy tail. The dorsal surface is reddish-brown, with a greyish undercoat and the flanks are grey with a reddish-brown sheen. The underparts are whitish-grey sometimes tinged with dull yellow. The ears are larger than those of most voles. The adult head and body length varies between and the tail ranges from. The weight is between. Young animals are darker in colour with greyer underparts. The bank vole is capable of making growling sounds and can utter low-pitched squeaks. In a case of distress and isolation it has been witnessed to emit a sound resembling that of a human sob.  In areas such as Great Britain, where the only other small vole is the short-tailed vole (\"Microtus agrestis\"), the bank vole is distinguished by its more prominent ears, chestnut-brown fur and longer tail which is usually 50% body length. The northern red-backed vole (\"Myodes rutilus\") from northern Scandinavia and Russia, has a shorter tail and is paler with less grey in its pelage. The grey red-backed vole (\"Myodes rufocanus\") from northern Eurasia, is larger with a distinctive reddish back.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The bank vole has a Palearctic distribution. It is native to Europe, Asia Minor and parts of Western Siberia. It does not occur in Iceland or northern Scandinavia (except for Finland) and is absent from most of the Iberian Peninsula and parts of Italy and the Balkans. It was introduced into southwestern Ireland in the 1950s, and there are fears that it may be displacing the native wood mouse (\"Apodemus sylvaticus\"). A subspecies found on the island of Skomer in West Wales, the Skomer vole (\"Myodes glareolus skomerensis\"), is much larger than the mainland bank vole, and there may be 20,000 individuals on the island in late summer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The bank vole is found in forests, especially in deciduous and mixed woodland with scrub, low plants and leaf litter. It is also present in hedgerows, field verges, among bracken and brambles, river banks, swamps and parks. In mountainous regions and the northern part of its range it occurs in coniferous woodland at altitudes of up to. It is not found on bare soil and ample ground cover seems a necessity. In the Mediterranean region, at the southern extent of its range, it is a habitat specialist and is found in moist woodland but not in grassland and bushy places. At the fringes of forested areas it is possible for there to be a metapopulation consisting of a number of spatially separated populations of bank vole that come and go according to the season and local events. Some areas may be devoid of voles during the winter and be repopulated during the summer only to become empty of voles again in October. The further from permanently inhabited forest the location is, the fewer females there are and the more widely the number of individuals fluctuates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "The bank vole is active by day and also at night. It does not hibernate in winter. It excavates long, shallow branching burrows with multiple exits, sometimes tunnelling along beneath the leaf litter. It gathers and stores food underground and makes a nest with moss, dry grasses and leaves close to the surface or even above ground. It is in general quite bold but is also very alert to the cries of other animals such as tits (bird) warning of aerial predators.  The bank vole is primarily a herbivore. Its diet varies with the season but usually consists of leaves, grasses, roots, buds, bark, fruits, nuts, grain and seeds. When feeding on grass stalks it may clip the stalks and lay the cut pieces in piles. Some food is carried back to the burrow where it is kept in dedicated storage chambers. It sometimes eats animal food in the form of insects, spiders and worms and may take eggs from the nests of birds nesting on the ground.  The bank vole climbs well and in the winter it feeds on the bark of trees including beeches, maples and larch up to several metres above the ground. It also eats tree seedlings and reduces the natural regeneration of woodland and when present in large numbers, is considered a forest pest. However, its harmfulness is relatively low in a healthy ecosystem because significant damage only occurs when numbers build up, and because it has a large number of natural enemies its population is normally kept under control.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "Females maintain territories which may overlap somewhat, and males occupy larger territories covering those of several females. The home range of females is usually between. The breeding season lasts from late April to September. Females appear to prefer dominant males and may actively avoid other vagrant males. The gestation period averages 21 days, being longer if the female is still lactating from a previous litter. A litter can be up to ten pups but the average number is four to eight. Females sometimes kill pups in burrows in adjoining territories and males sometimes kill pups before mating with their mother, perhaps as a tactic to ensure his offspring are advantaged. The pups are naked and helpless and their eyes open at about nine days. They are weaned at 20 to 25 days and the females become sexually mature by six weeks with the males reaching maturity by eight weeks. There may be up to four litters per year and as the youngsters start to breed, numbers quickly build up over the summer months. The bank vole lives for up to two years in the wild. In captivity this can increase to over 42 months, with the older voles tending to spend most time resting, less physically agile, though still capable of having a spin on the wheel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The bank vole is plentiful during much of the year and plays an important part in the diet of various predators including the red fox (\"Vulpes vulpes\"), the stoat (\"Mustela erminea\"), the least weasel (\"Mustela nivalis\"), the European mink (\"Mustela lutreola\"), the common kestrel (\"Falco tinnunculus\"), the rough-legged buzzard (\"Buteo lagopus\") and the tawny owl (\"Strix aluco\"). The voles try to prevent being caught by avoiding open areas of ground, by using tunnels and well-worn paths through the undergrowth.  The bank vole acts as a reservoir of infection for the Puumala virus, which can infect humans, causing a haemorrhagic fever known as nephropathia epidemica and, in extreme cases, even death. Although this hantavirus has co-evolved with its host, its presence among populations seems to decrease their over-winter survival rates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status.", "content": "The bank vole has a very wide range across Europe and western Asia. The population density depends on the time of year and location and varies between six and one hundred individuals per hectare. The population size varies from year to year but in the long term appears to be stable. For these reasons, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated the bank vole as being of \"Least Concern\" in its Red List of Threatened Species. When it lives on road verges, the bank vole can suffer from lead toxicity and near farmland it may be affected by pesticides, molluscicides and rodenticides.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The bank vole (\"Myodes glareolus\"; formerly \"Clethrionomys glareolus\") is a small vole with red-brown fur and some grey patches, with a tail about half as long as its body. A rodent, it lives in woodland areas and is around in length. The bank vole is found in much of Europe and in northwestern Asia. It is native to Great Britain but not to Ireland, where it has been accidentally introduced, and has now colonised much of the south and southwest.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973780}
{"src_title": "Mudbrick", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ancient world.", "content": "The 9000 BCE dwellings of Jericho, were constructed from mudbricks, affixed with mud, as would those at numerous sites across the Levant over the following millennia. While well preserved Mudbricks from a site at Tel Tsaf, in the Jordan Valley, have been dated to 5200 BCE, though there is no evidence that either site was the first to use the technology.  The South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh constructed and lived in mud-brick houses between 7000–3300 BC. Mud bricks were used at more than 15 reported sites attributed to the 3rd millennium BC in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization. In the Mature Harappan phase fired bricks were used.  The Mesopotamians used sun-dried bricks in their city construction; typically these bricks were flat on the bottom and curved on the top, called plano-convex mud bricks. Some were formed in a square mould and rounded so that the middle was thicker than the ends. Some walls had a few courses of fired bricks from their bases up to the splash line to extend the life of the building.  In Minoan Crete, at the Knossos site, there is archaeological evidence that sun-dried bricks were used in the Neolithic period (prior to 3400 BC).  In Ancient Egypt, workers gathered mud from the Nile river and poured it into a pit. Workers then tramped on the mud while straw was added to solidify the mold. The mudbricks were chemically suitable as fertilizer, leading to the destruction of many ancient Egyptian ruins, such as at Edfu. A well-preserved site is Amarna. Mudbrick use increased at the time of Roman influence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adobe.", "content": "In areas of Spanish influence, mud-brick construction is called adobe, and developed over time into a complete system of wall protection, flat roofing and finishes which in modern English usage is often referred to as \"adobe style\", regardless of the construction method.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Banco.", "content": "The Great Mosque of Djenné, in central Mali, is the world's largest mudbrick structure. It, like much Sahelian architecture, is built with a mudbrick called Banco, a recipe of mud and grain husks, fermented, and either formed into bricks or applied on surfaces as a plaster like paste in broad strokes. This plaster must be reapplied annually.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A mudbrick or mud-brick is an air-dried brick, made of a mixture of loam, mud, sand and water mixed with a binding material such as rice husks or straw. Mudbricks are known from 9000 BCE, though since 4000 BC, bricks have also been fired, to increase their strength and durability.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973781}
{"src_title": "Anja Pärson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Pärson was born in Umeå, Sweden and has Sami roots. Pärson was introduced to ski racing by her sister, Frida, and is now trained by her father, Anders. Her first World Cup race was a giant slalom at the World Cup Finals at Crans-Montana, Switzerland (on 15 March 1998). She qualified for that race as the new junior World Champion but only finished 25th in last place. She won her first World Cup race, a slalom at Mammoth Mountain, California, in December 1998 at age 17, and her first gold medal at St. Anton, Austria, in 2001. She clinched the silver medal in the giant slalom and the bronze medal in the slalom at the 2002 Winter Olympics, and added the gold in slalom plus two more bronze medals in downhill and combined in 2006 Winter Olympics.  Pärson won the Alpine Skiing World Cup overall title in 2004 and 2005. The latter title was won by the smallest margin ever, only 3 points over her fierce rival, Janica Kostelić. Initially a slalom and giant slalom specialist, she won her first super-G and downhill races in March 2005 at San Sicario, Italy, during the pre-Olympic competitions. In total, she has won 42 World Cup races in all five disciplines.  Pärson has won seven gold medals in the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships, in 2001 (slalom), 2003 (giant slalom), 2005 (giant slalom, super-G) and 2007 (super-G, super combined, downhill). These go along with two silver and three bronze medals in other events in 2001, 2005, 2007 and 2011. With her three gold medals in 2007 at Åre, Sweden, she became the first skier in history to win World Championship golds in all five disciplines.  Pärson has earned a total of 17 individual medals in World Championships and Olympics, exceeding the record by Christl Cranz in women's alpine skiing. In men's alpine skiing this achievement has been beaten only by Kjetil André Aamodt, with 20. After two disappointing seasons (2006/07 and 2007/08 where she finished fifth and sixth in the overall cup), she was back to her best over the 2008/09 season, finishing third in the overall cup.  At the 2010 Winter Olympics, while trying to chase down eventual downhill champion Lindsey Vonn of the United States, Pärson lost her balance on the last jump before the finish, resulting in a 60-metre flight and subsequent fall, without however suffering serious injury. She recovered from the fall and one day later won the bronze medal in the combined event.  With a downhill victory in March 2011, she has won at least one race for ten consecutive World Cup seasons, trailing only Alberto Tomba and Vreni Schneider who won races in eleven consecutive World Cup seasons, and equalling the mark of Renate Götschl and Ingemar Stenmark.  On 12 March 2012, Pärson officially announced her retirement, and that her last competition would be the World Cup final in Schladming the coming weekend.  In 2014 she became an expert commentator for Viasat during the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi.  As of 2015, Pärson works as a sports expert for the broadcaster Sveriges Television, in addition to running a company with her wife.  Pärson competes in the celebrity dance show Let's Dance 2017 broadcast on TV4.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Pärson's athletics club is Fjällvinden, Tärnaby, the same to which skiing legend Ingemar Stenmark and Stig Strand belonged.  Her height is 170 cm (5 ft 7 in). She was awarded the Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal in 2006 and in 2007.  After living several years in Monaco during her sports career, she returned to Sweden and has lived in Umeå since 2012.  In June 2012, Pärson announced on the Swedish radio program \"Sommar\" that she has been in a relationship with a woman, Filippa Rådin, for the past five years, and that they are expecting a child together. Their son, Elvis, was born on 4 July 2012. On 2 August 2014, Anja Pärson and Filippa married in Umeå, Sweden. Former Swedish Social Democratic Party leader Mona Sahlin officiated at the wedding. In January 2015, the couple announced that Pärson was pregnant with their second child, a boy named Maximilian who was born in May 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Cup results.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Season titles.", "content": "7 titles (2 overall, 3 GS, 1 SL, 1 SC)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Individual races.", "content": "42 wins (6 DH, 4 SG, 11 GS, 18 SL, 3 SC)", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anja Sofia Tess Pärson (; born 25 April 1981) is a Swedish former alpine skier. She is an Olympic gold medalist, seven-time gold medalist at the World Championships, and two-time overall Alpine Skiing World Cup champion. She has won a total of 42 World Cup races.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973782}
{"src_title": "Francis, Duke of Guise", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born at Bar-le-Duc (Lorraine), Guise was the son of Claude, Duke of Guise (created Duke of Guise in 1527), and his wife Antoinette de Bourbon. His sister, Mary of Guise, was the wife of James V of Scotland and mother of Mary, Queen of Scots. His younger brother was Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine. He was the youthful cousin of Henry II of France, with whom he was raised, and by birth a prominent individual in France, though his detractors emphasised his \"foreign\" origin (he was a \"prince étranger\"), namely the Duchy of Lorraine.  In 1545, he was seriously wounded at the Second Siege of Boulogne, but recovered. He was struck with a lance through the bars of his helmet. The steel head pierced both cheeks, and of the shaft were snapped off by the violence of the blow. He sat firm in his saddle, and rode back unassisted to his tent; and when the surgeon thought he would die of pain, when the iron was extracted, 'he bore it as easily as if it had been but the plucking of a hair out of his head.' The scar would earn him the nickname \"\"Le Balafre\"\".  In 1548 he was magnificently wedded to Anna d'Este, daughter of the Duke of Ferrara, Ercole II d'Este, and French princess, Renée, the daughter of Louis XII.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "In 1551, he was created Grand Chamberlain of France. He won international renown in 1552 when he successfully defended the city of Metz from the forces of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and defeated the imperial troops again at the Battle of Renty in 1554. but the Truce of Vaucelles temporarily curtailed his military activity.  He led an army into Italy in 1557 to aid Pope Paul IV (and probably to further his family's pretensions to the Angevin inheritance), but was recalled to France and made Lieutenant-General of France after the defeat of the Constable de Montmorency at the Battle of St. Quentin. Taking the field, he captured Calais from the English on 7 January 1558— an enormous propaganda victory for France— then Thionville and Arlon that summer, and was preparing to advance into Luxembourg when the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis was signed. Throughout the reign of Henry II Guise was the premier military figure of France, courteous, affable and frank, and universally popular, the \"grand duc de Guise\" as his contemporary Brantôme called him.  The accession of Francis's niece Mary, Queen of Scots, and her husband, Francis II of France (10 July 1559), however, was a triumph for the Guise family, and the Grand Master of France Montmorency was disgraced and sent from court. The Duke of Guise and his brother, Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine were supreme in the royal council. Occasionally he signed public acts in the royal manner, with his baptismal name only.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Wars of Religion.", "content": "In reaction to the dominating power at court of the ultra-Catholic Guises, La Renaudie, a Protestant gentleman of Périgord, perhaps at the distanced instigation of Louis of Bourbon, Prince of Condé, organized a plot, the conspiracy of Amboise, to seize the person of the Duke of Guise and his brother Charles, the Cardinal of Lorraine. When the ill-organized plot was put off for six days, it was discovered by the court well ahead of time. On 12 March 1560, the Huguenots stormed the Château d'Amboise, to which the Guises had moved the young king and queen for safety. The uprising was violently suppressed, with 1,200 executed, many within sight of the castle. In the immediate aftermath Condé was obliged to flee the court, and the power of the Guises was supreme. The discourse which Coligny, leader of the Huguenots, pronounced against \"les Guises\" in the Assembly of Notables at Fontainebleau (August, 1560), did not influence King Francis II in the least, but resulted rather in the imprisonment of Condé, at Charles's behest.  However, the king died on 5 December 1560—making Mary, Queen of Scots a widow, and of little political importance. The Guises lost status alongside her, thus making a year full of calamity for the Guises both in Scotland and France. Within a year and a half, their influence waxed great and waned. After the accession of Charles IX, the Duke of Guise lived in retirement on his estates.  The regent, Catherine de' Medici, was at first inclined to favour the Protestants. To defend the Catholic cause, the Duke of Guise, together with his old enemy, the Constable de Montmorency and the Maréchal de Saint-André formed the so-called triumvirate opposed to the policy of concessions which Catherine de' Medici attempted to inaugurate in favour of the Protestants. His former military hero's public image was changing: \"he could not serve for long as the military executive of this extreme political, ultra-montane, pro-Spanish junta without attracting his share of odium,\" N. M. Sutherland has observed in describing the lead-up to his assassination.  The plan of the Triumvirate was to treat with Habsburg Spain and the Holy See, and also to come to an understanding with the Lutheran princes of Germany to induce them to abandon the idea of relieving the French Protestants. About July, 1561, Guise wrote to this effect to the Duke of Württemberg. The Colloquy at Poissy (September and October 1561) between theologians of the two confessions was fruitless, and the conciliation policy of Catherine de' Medici was defeated. From 15 to 18 February 1562, Guise visited the Duke of Württemberg at Saverne, and convinced him that if the conference at Poissy had failed, the fault was that of the Calvinists.  As Guise passed through Wassy-sur-Blaise on his way to Paris (1 March 1562), a massacre of Protestants took place. It is not known to what extent he was responsible for this, but the Massacre of Vassy kindled open military conflict in the French Wars of Religion. The siege of Bourges in September was the opening episode, then Rouen was retaken from the Protestants by Guise after a month's siege (October); the Battle of Dreux (19 December), at which Montmorency was taken prisoner and Saint-André slain, was in the end turned by Guise to the advantage of the Catholic cause, and Condé, leader of the Huguenots, was taken prisoner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assassination.", "content": "In the fourth encounter, Guise was about to take Orléans from the Huguenot supporters of Condé when he was wounded on 18 February 1563 by the Huguenot assassin, Jean de Poltrot de Méré, and died six days later, bled to death by his surgeons, at Château Corney.  It was not the first plot against his life. A hunting accident – Francis had been appointed Grand Veneur of France in 1556 – had been planned, as Sir Nicholas Throckmorton informed Queen Elizabeth I of England in May 1560, but the plot was uncovered by one and his five co-conspirators fled.  Guise's unexpected death temporarily interrupted open hostilities. In his testimony, Poltrot implicated Coligny and the Protestant pastor Théodore de Bèze. Though the assassin later retracted his statement and Coligny denied responsibility for Guise's death, a bitter feud arose between Guise's son Henry and Coligny, which culminated in St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Guise married Anna d'Este, daughter of Ercole II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, and Renée of France, in Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 29 April 1548. They had seven children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francis de Lorraine II, Prince of Joinville, Duke of Guise, Duke of Aumale (; 17 February 1519 – 24 February 1563), was a French general and politician. A prominent leader during the Italian War of 1551–1559 and French Wars of Religion, he was assassinated during the siege of Orleans in 1563.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973783}
{"src_title": "Post-production", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Processes.", "content": "Post-production consists of many different processes grouped under one name. These typically include:  The post-production phase of creating a film usually takes longer than the actual shooting of the film and can take several months to complete because it includes the complete editing, color correction, and the addition of music and sound. The process of editing a movie is also seen as the second directing because through post-production it is possible to change the intention of the movie. Furthermore, through the use of color grading tools and the addition of music and sound, the atmosphere of the movie can be heavily influenced. For instance, a blue-tinted movie is associated with a cold atmosphere and the choice of music and sound increases the effect of the shown scenes to the audience.  Post-production was named a \"dying industry\" by Phil Izzo of the Wall Street Journal in 2011. The once exclusive service offered by high-end post-production facilities have been eroded away by video editing software solutions that operate on a non-linear editing system (NLE). As such, many parts of a traditional (analogue) post-production pipeline have been largely surpassed by newer digital workflows.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Television.", "content": "In television, the phases of post-production include: editing, video editing, sound editing, animation and visual effects insertions, viewing and the start of the airing process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photography.", "content": "Professional post-producers usually apply a certain range of image editing operations to the raw image format provided by a photographer or an image-bank. There is a range of proprietary and free and open-source software, running on a range of operating systems available to do this work.  The first of post-production usually requires loading the raw images into the post-production software. If there is more than one image, and they belong to a set, ideally post-producers try to equalize the images before loading them. After that, if necessary, the next step would be to cut the objects in the images with the Pen Tool for a perfect and clean cut. The next stage would be cleaning the image using tools such as the healing tool, clone tool, and patch tool.  The next stages depend on what the client ordered. If it's a photo-montage, the post-producers would usually start assembling the different images into the final document, and start to integrate the images with the background.  In advertising, it usually requires assembling several images together in a photo-composition.  Types of work usually done:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Techniques used in music post-production include comping (compiling the best portions of multiple takes into one superior take), timing and pitch correction (perhaps through beat quantization), and adding effects. This process is typically referred to as mixing and can also involve equalization and adjusting the levels of each individual track to provide an optimal sound experience. Contrary to the name, post-production may occur at any point during the recording and production process.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Post-production is part of the process of filmmaking, video production, and photography. Post-production includes all stages of production occurring after shooting or recording individual program segments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973784}
{"src_title": "Grossglockner High Alpine Road", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Course.", "content": "The road leads from Bruck in the Salzach Valley via the northern toll both at Ferleiten (near Fusch) with numbered hairpin curves up to Hochtor Pass, with a branch-off from Fuscher Törl at to the \"Edelweißspitze\" viewpoint. The scenic route crosses the Alpine divide in a tunnel and runs southwards passing another branch-off which leads to the \"Glocknerhaus\" mountain hut and the \"Kaiser-Franz-Josefs-Höhe\" visitors' centre at.  The popular overlook was named after a visit by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and his consort Elisabeth in 1856. It offers a panoramic view over the Pasterze Glacier, the Grossglockner massif, the Glocknerwand, and the Johannisberg in the northwest. From here the road runs downhill to the southern toll booth near Heiligenblut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "When, in 1924, a group of Austrian experts presented a plan for a road over the \"Hochtor\" (the high pass), they were ridiculed in a time when in Austria, Germany, and Italy there were only 154,000 private automobiles, 92,000 motorcycles, and of long-distance asphalt roads. Austria had suffered from the catastrophic economic results of losing the First World War, had shrunk to a seventh of its imperial size, lost its international markets and suffered devastating inflation.  Even the modest design of a gravel road, with overtaking points, appeared too expensive. The impulse for building a road, which was meant to open up the barren alpine valleys to motorized tourism, was given by the New York stock market slump in 1929. This catastrophe shook an impoverished Austria with terrible force.  Within three years, the economic output dropped by a quarter, and unemployment rate reached 26%. The government then revived the Grossglockner project to give work to 3,200 (from an average of 520,000 jobless). The project was extended to a width of to serve the needs of the \"excessive international traffic\" - which was roundly mocked - in the belief that an annual 120,000 visitors would come. The State advanced the building costs, and the users were to pay off this sum with a toll fee for usage.  On 30 August 1930 at 9:30am, the first explosives roared in Ferleiten. Four years later, the moving force of the road building, the Salzburg provincial head of government Franz Rehrl, and the technician Franz Wallack climbed into their Steyr 100 car, and achieved the first alpine crossing in an automobile on a graded road.  A year later, on 3 August 1935, the \"Grossglockner High Alpine Road\" was opened and put into full service a day later with an international automobile and motorcycle race.  Including the building of the access roads, the Glockner Road cost Austrian Schilling 910 million (at 1990 rates), around seven million less than estimated.  Planners had reckoned with 120,000 visitors in 1930, but the road's attraction for tourists in 1938 brought 375,000 visitors in 98,000 vehicles. After the Second World War it took until 1952 before the pre-war record was surpassed with 412,000 visitors and 91,000 vehicles. In 1962, 360,000 vehicles and 1.3 million visitors crossed the pass. The opening of the Felbertauern Road (1967) and the Tauern Motorway (1975) throttled traffic by nearly 15 per cent, but it also permanently changed the character of the Großglockner High Alpine Road: from the only transalpine road over the main alpine crest between the Brenner Pass and the Katschberg Pass, to an excursion road from a catchment area with a radius of around.  The Glockner Road also reflects the material advance of the people: in the early years, the motorcycle - as the poor man's car - accounted for up to a quarter of the traffic; 1955 was the highpoint with 47,500 motorcycles (26% of the traffic); in 1968, only 2,071 motorcycles were to be counted. The number of motorcycles on the \"Grossglockner High Alpine Road\" then rose by 2003 to over 76,000.  Increasing numbers of visitors made the stage-by-stage modernization of the road necessary after 1953 to a width of, to in place of bend radius, and 4,000 parking places instead of 800 and an annual capacity of up to 350,000 vehicles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Snow clearing.", "content": "In the years 1936 and 1937, 350 men shovelled of snow in an average of seventy days to keep at least one lane on the road free. Since 1953, the five Wallack rotary plows, and twelve GROHAG workers, have been clearing of snow from the road and parking areas in around fourteen days every year in April.  In 1937, the road could only be traversed for 132 days, but in 1963 the road could be traversed for 276 days. The Grossglockner High Alpine Road is normally open from the beginning of May to the end of October.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Giro d'Italia.", "content": "Grossglockner has been featured in the men's Giro d'Italia twice so far. The first time was in the 17th stage of the 1971 Giro d'Italia, won by Pierfranco Vianelli. At that time it became the first, and so far only, Cima Coppi to be located outside of Italy. Grossglockner was featured for a second time in 13th stage of the 2011 Giro d'Italia. It was José Rujano who arrived first, after an escape with Alberto Contador.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Grossglockner High Alpine Road (in German \"Großglockner-Hochalpenstraße\") is the highest surfaced mountain pass road in Austria. It connects Bruck in the state of Salzburg with Heiligenblut in Carinthia via Fuscher Törl and Hochtor Pass at. The road is named after the Grossglockner, Austria's highest mountain. Built as a scenic route, a toll is assessed for passage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973785}
{"src_title": "Nuclear propulsion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Surface ships, submarines, and torpedoes.", "content": "Nuclear-powered vessels are mainly military submarines, and aircraft carriers. Russia is the only country that currently has nuclear-powered civilian surface ships, mainly icebreakers. America currently (as of July 2018) has 11 aircraft carriers in service, and all are powered by nuclear reactors. For more detailed articles see:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Torpedo.", "content": "Russia's Channel One Television news broadcast a picture and details of a nuclear-powered torpedo called \"Status-6\" on about 12 November 2015. The torpedo was stated as having a range of up to 10,000 km, a cruising speed of 100 knots, and operational depth of up to 1000 metres below the surface. The torpedo carried a 100-megaton nuclear warhead.  One of the suggestions emerging in the summer of 1958 from the first meeting of the scientific advisory group that became JASON was for \"\"a nuclear-powered torpedo that could roam the seas almost indefinitely\"\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aircraft and missiles.", "content": "Research into nuclear-powered aircraft was pursued during the Cold War by the United States and the Soviet Union as they would presumably allow a country to keep nuclear bombers in the air for extremely long periods of time, a useful tactic for nuclear deterrence. Neither country created any operational nuclear aircraft. One design problem, never adequately solved, was the need for heavy shielding to protect the crew from radiation sickness. Since the advent of ICBMs in the 1960s the tactical advantage of such aircraft was greatly diminished and respective projects were cancelled. Because the technology was inherently dangerous it was not considered in non-military contexts. Nuclear-powered missiles were also researched and discounted during the same period.  Aircraft Missiles", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spacecraft.", "content": "Many types of nuclear propulsion have been proposed, and some of them (e.g. NERVA) tested for spacecraft applications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russian Federal Space Agency development.", "content": "Anatolij Perminov, head of the Russian Federal Space Agency, announced that it is going to develop a nuclear-powered spacecraft for deep space travel. Preliminary design was done by 2013, and 9 more years are planned for development (in space assembly). The price is set at 17 billion rubles (600 million dollars). The nuclear propulsion would have mega-watt class, provided necessary funding, Roscosmos Head stated.  This system would consist of a space nuclear power and a matrix of ion engines. \"...Hot inert gas temperature of 1500 °C from the reactor turns turbines. The turbine turns the generator and compressor, which circulates the working fluid in a closed circuit. The working fluid is cooled in the radiator. The generator produces electricity for the same ion (plasma) engine...\"  According to him, the propulsion will be able to support human mission to Mars, with cosmonauts staying on the Red planet for 30 days. This journey to Mars with nuclear propulsion and a steady acceleration would take six weeks, instead of eight months by using chemical propulsion – assuming thrust of 300 times higher than that of chemical propulsion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vehicles.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cars.", "content": "The idea of making cars that used radioactive material, radium, for fuel dates back to at least 1903. Analysis of the concept in 1937 indicated that the driver of such a vehicle might need a 50-ton lead barrier to shield them from radiation.  In 1941 Dr R M Langer, a Caltech physicist, espoused the idea of a car powered by uranium-235 in the January edition of \"Popular Mechanics\". He was followed by William Bushnell Stout, designer of the Stout Scarab and former Society of Engineers president, on 7 August 1945 in the \"New York Times\". The problem of shielding the reactor continued to render the idea impractical. In December 1945, a John Wilson of London, announced he had created an atomic car. This created considerable interest. The Minister of Fuel and Power along with a large press contingent turned out to view it. The car did not show and Wilson claimed that it had been sabotaged. A later court case found that he was a fraud and there was no nuclear-powered car.  Despite the shielding problem, through the late 1940s and early 1950s debate continued around the possibility of nuclear-powered cars. The development of nuclear-powered submarines and ships, and experiments to develop a nuclear-powered aircraft at that time kept the idea alive. Russian papers in the mid-1950s reported the development of a nuclear-powered car by Professor V P Romadin, but again shielding proved to be a problem. It was claimed that its laboratories had overcome the shielding problem with a new alloy that absorbed the rays.  In 1958 at the height of the 1950s American automobile culture there were at least four theoretical nuclear-powered concept cars proposed, the American Ford Nucleon and Studebaker Packard Astral, as well as the French Simca Fulgur designed by Robert Opron and the Arbel Symétric. Apart from these concept models, none were built and no automotive nuclear power plants ever made. Chrysler engineer C R Lewis had discounted the idea in 1957 because of estimates that an engine would be required by a car. His view was that an efficient means of storing energy was required for nuclear power to be practical. Despite this, Chrysler's stylists in 1958 drew up some possible designs.  In 1959 it was reported that Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company had developed a new rubber compound that was light and absorbed radiation, obviating the need for heavy shielding. A reporter at the time considered it might make nuclear-powered cars and aircraft a possibility.  Ford made another potentially nuclear-powered model in 1962 for the Seattle World's Fair, the Ford Seattle-ite XXI. This also never went beyond the initial concept.  In 2009, for the hundredth anniversary of General Motors' acquisition of Cadillac, Loren Kulesus created concept art depicting a car powered by thorium.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "The Chrysler TV-8 was an experimental concept tank designed by Chrysler in the 1950s. The tank was intended to be a nuclear-powered medium tank capable of land and amphibious warfare. The design was never mass-produced. The Mars rover Curiosity is powered by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), like the successful Viking 1 and Viking 2 Mars landers in 1976.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nuclear propulsion includes a wide variety of propulsion methods that use some form of nuclear reaction as their primary power source. The idea of using nuclear material for propulsion dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. In 1903 it was hypothesized that radioactive material, radium, might be a suitable fuel for engines to propel cars and boats. H. G. Wells picked up this idea in his 1914 fiction work \"The World Set Free\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973786}
{"src_title": "Ludwig Renn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Youth and the First World War.", "content": "Ludwig Renn was the assumed name of Arnold Vieth von Golßenau who was born into a noble Saxon family whose family seat was in Golßen (Niederlausitz). He adopted the name Ludwig Renn in 1930, after becoming a communist, renouncing his noble title and taking the name of the hero of his first successful novel, \"Krieg\" (1928). His mother, Bertha, maiden name Raspe (1867 – 1949) was the daughter of a Moscow apothecary, whilst his father, Carl Johann Vieth von Golßenau (1856 – 1938), was a teacher of mathematics and physics at the Royal Court of Saxony in Dresden. Through him, Ludwig Renn came to know the Crown Prince of Saxony, Prince Friedrich August Georg von Sachsen (1865 – 1932), later King Friedrich August III, who was destined to be the last King of Saxony after the 1918 Revolution.  From 1911 Renn served as an officer in a prestigious Saxon Guards Regiment, where he served under his friend Prince Friedrich August. Between 1914 and 1918 he fought in the First World War as a company commander, and a field battalion commander on the Western Front. His first book, \"Krieg\" (\"War\"), which appeared in 1928 brought him wide acclaim. After the war he was a captain in the Dresden security police, a paramilitary force set up during the Weimar Republic. In 1920 during the Kapp Putsch, Renn refused to open fire upon striking workers and left the police service shortly afterwards. This is recounted in the novel \"Nachkrieg\" (1930) but confirmed as a fact by some sources.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Studies and travels.", "content": "From 1920 to 1923 Renn studied law, economics, history of art and Russian philology in Göttingen and Munich. In 1923 he worked as an art dealer in Dresden during the time of hyperinflation.  During 1925 and 1926 Renn undertook a journey on foot through Europe and the Near East. In 1927 he undertook further studies in archaeology, art history and Chinese history in Vienna, returning to Germany in the same year to give lectures to workers on the history of China and Russia at the Volkshochschule Zwickau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Renn as a Communist writer and soldier in Spain.", "content": "In 1928, the year in which he published \"Krieg\", Renn became a member of the German Communist Party, a step which the novel \"Nachkrieg\" (1930) reflects. In the same year he joined the Roter Frontkämpferbund (‘Alliance of Red Front-Fighters’) and from 1928 to 1932 was secretary of the Alliance of Proletarian-Revolutionary Writers in Berlin (BPRS). Renn was editor of the communist journal, \"Linkskurve\" and the communist military police journal, \"Aufbruch\". His work for the BPRS brought him into close contact with, amongst others, Anna Seghers and Johannes R Becher.  Renn's growing commitment to communism saw him travel to the USSR in 1929 and 1930. Renn found himself increasingly under attack from the National Socialists and decided to renounce his noble title in 1930, adopting the name of the protagonist of his novel, \"Krieg\": Ludwig Renn. Between 1931 and 1932 he was a lecturer on the history of warfare and military theory at the Marxist Workers’ School (MASCH) in Berlin. His books \"Nachkrieg\" (1930) and \"Rußlandfahrten\" (1932) made him the most important German communist writer of the inter-war period.  In 1933, following the burning of the Reichstag, new laws designed to accelerate Adolf Hitler’s rise to power were passed, leading to Renn, Carl von Ossietzky and Ernst Torgler being arrested together in January 1934. Renn was sentenced to 30 months imprisonment. On his release in August 1935, he travelled to Spain where in July 1936 he joined the International Brigades in support of the Spanish Republican cause as Chief of Staff for the XI International Brigade and the 35th Division. During his service in Spain he spent time with Ernest Hemingway. He wrote an account of his time in his work, \"Der spanische Krieg\" (1955), but was unable to name Hemingway, referring to him only as 'an American', because of the ideological condemnation of Hemingway's work in the GDR at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile and return to Germany.", "content": "After the defeat of the Spanish Republicans, Renn travelled into exile to Mexico, where he remained from 1939 to 1947 and served as president of the Free Germany movement (Freies Deutschland). During this time he promoted the use of the internationalist language Esperanto and the Ludwig Renn Archive at the Academy of the Arts, Berlin, holds several of his translations into Esperanto from foreign languages.  In 1947 he returned to Germany, settling once more in Dresden, which was at the time in the Soviet Occupation Zone and from 1949 part of the GDR. Here he was director of the Kulturwissenschaftliches Institut and held a chair in anthropology at the Dresden Technical University from 1947 to 1951.  From 1952 Renn lived in East Berlin, where he was a freelance writer and a member of the German Academy of the Arts. He also worked as a Spanish–German translator.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Importance.", "content": "Renn was one of the founders of proletarian‒revolutionary literature in Germany. His most important achievement lay in his novels, which were largely autobiographical in nature, and served to document the turbulent times in which he lived.  The novel \"Krieg\" was an international success. Here, Renn was amongst the first to depict the harsh reality of life on the Western Front for the ordinary soldier. Although the protagonist was a simple soldier and Renn in fact an officer, much of the novel reflects autobiographical concerns. Its sequel, \"Nachkrieg\" (1930) shows the same character living in a postwar period of intense political conflict and growing in socialist conviction.  Renn wrote directly about his own life in the work \"Adel im Untergang\" (Mexico 1947, Berlin 1947), as well as other works in the following decades. His final work, published posthumously in 1980, was an autobiography (\"Anstöße in meinem Leben).\" As well as novels, travel writing and memoirs, Renn also wrote imaginative works for children and young people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private life.", "content": "On his return from exile in Mexico in 1947 Renn settled at first in Dresden with his partner Max Hunger (1901 – 1973). In 1949 they were joined by Hans Pierschel (1922 – 1994) and the three men then moved in 1952 to Berlin-Kaulsdorf where they lived together for the rest of their lives. They were buried together in the same grave in the central Friedrichsfelde Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "Albrecht, Kai-Britt\", Renn, Ludwig,\" in \"Neue Deutsche Biographie\" (NDB), Vol. 21. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot (2003) pp. 426–428. (Digital version)  Böttcher, Kurt, \"et al\"., Eds., \"Lexikon deutschsprachiger Schriftsteller: 20. Jahrhundert.\" Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag (1993), pp. 598–600.  Garland, Henry and Mary, Eds.\", Oxford Companion to German Literature\". Oxford: Oxford University Press (1986), pp. 740–741.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ludwig Renn (22 April 1889 in Dresden – 21 July 1979 in Berlin) was a German author. Born a Saxon nobleman, he later became a committed communist and lived in East Berlin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973787}
{"src_title": "Aarhus Convention", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Content.", "content": "The Aarhus Convention is a multilateral environmental agreement through which the opportunities for citizens to access environmental information are increased and transparent and reliable regulation procedure is secured. It is a way of enhancing the environmental governance network, introducing a reactive and trustworthy relationship between civil society and governments and adding the novelty of a mechanism created to empower the value of public participation in the decision making process and guarantee access to justice: a \"governance-by-disclosure\" that leads a shift toward an environmentally responsible society. The Aarhus Convention was drafted by governments, with the highly required participation of NGOs, and is legally binding for all the States who ratified it becoming Parties. Among the latter is included the EC, who therefore has the task to ensure compliance not only within the member States but also for its institutions, all those bodies who carry out public administrative duties. Each Party has the commitment to promote the principles contained in the convention and to fill out a national report, always embracing a consultative and transparent process", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General features.", "content": "The Aarhus Convention is a rights-based approach: the public, both in the present and in future generations, have the right to know and to live in a healthy environment.  A distinction is made between \"the public\", all the civil society's actors, and the \"public concerned\" precisely, those persons or organisations affected or interested in environmental decision-making (e.g. environmental NGOs). \"Public authorities\" are the addressees of the convention, namely, governments, international institutions, and privatized bodies that have public responsibilities or act under the control of public bodies. The private sector, for which information disclosure depends on voluntary, non- mandatory practices, and bodies acting in a judicial or legislative capacity, are excluded.  Other significant provisions are the \"non-discrimination\" principle (all the information has to be provided without taking account of the nationality or citizenship of the applicant), the international nature of the convention, and the importance attributed to the promotion of environmental education of the public.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further reflections.", "content": "The Aarhus convention is a \"proceduralisation of the environmental regulation\", it focuses more on setting and listing procedures rather than establishing standards and specifying outcomes, permitting the parties involved to interpret and implement the convention on the systems and circumstances that characterize their nation. This model embodies a perfect example of a multi-level governance.  The risk could lay in a loss of time and resources that could be otherwise invested in defining the outcomes, notwithstanding the fact that it renders the convention vague, weak and open to multiple interpretations. Other critiques note the fact that private bodies are excluded from the mandatory procedures (Mason, 2010), and that, moreover, it can also be debated whether the NGOs involved are faithfully representing environmental interests, ordinary citizens often do not have the financial means to participate effectively and are therefore have no choice but to be represented by these larger organisations. The relative differences between the participants and social groups' resource inequalities also suggests the possibility for irregular and imbalanced environmental protection.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Compliance Committee.", "content": "The Aarhus Convention Compliance Committee was established to fulfill the requirement of Article 15 of the Convention on review of compliance to establish arrangements for reviewing compliance with the Convention.  The Convention has a unique Compliance Review Mechanism, which can be triggered in four ways: The Compliance mechanism is unique in international environmental law, as it allows members of the public to communicate concerns about a Party's compliance directly to a committee of international legal experts empowered to examine the merits of the case (the Aarhus Convention Compliance Committee). Nonetheless, the Compliance Committee cannot issue binding decisions, but rather makes recommendations to the full Meeting of the Parties (MoP). However, in practise, as MoPs occur infrequently, Parties attempt to comply with the recommendations of the Compliance Committee. As of August 2009, 41 communication from the public – many originating with non-governmental organizations – and one submission from a Party had been lodged with the Convention's Compliance Committee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pollutant Release Protocol.", "content": "The Kiev Protocol on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers to the Aarhus Convention was adopted at an extraordinary meeting of the Parties on 21 May 2003, in Kiev, Ukraine. 36 States and the European Community signed the Protocol. As of May 2016, 34 states plus the European Union have ratified the Protocol.  The Kiev Protocol is the first legally binding international instrument on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTRs). PRTRs are inventories of pollution from industrial sites and other sources such as agriculture and transport. The objective of the Protocol is \"to enhance public access to information through the establishment of coherent, nationwide pollutant release and transfer registers (PRTRs).\" The Protocol places indirect obligations on private enterprises to report annually to their national governments on their releases and transfers of pollutants.  Parties to the Protocol need not be Parties to the Convention. The Protocol is in this sense a free-standing, international agreement. The Kiev Protocol on PRTRs will enter into force 90 days after the sixteenth State ratifies or accedes to the agreement.  An amendment to the Aarhus Convention on \"Public Participation in Decisions on Deliberate Release into the Environment and Placing on the Market of Genetically Modified Organisms\" was adopted at the Second Meeting of the Parties on 27 May 2005, in Almaty, Kazakhstan. As of August 2009, it had been ratified by 21 countries. The GMO amendment will enter into force 90 days after at least three-quarters of the Parties to the Aarhus Convention ratify it.  United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan (1997–2006) has said, \"Although regional in scope, the significance of the Aarhus Convention is global. It is by far the most impressive elaboration of principle 10 of the Rio Declaration, which stresses the need for citizens' participation in environmental issues and for access to information on the environment held by public authorities. As such it is the most ambitious venture in the area of environmental democracy so far undertaken under the auspices of the United Nations.\"  The influence of the Aarhus Convention also extends beyond the environmental field. At the 2nd Internet Governance Forum, held on 12–15 May 2007, in Rio de Janeiro, the Convention was presented as a model of public participation and transparency in the operation of international forums.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The UNECE Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, usually known as the Aarhus Convention, was signed on 25 June 1998 in the Danish city of Aarhus. It entered into force on 30 October 2001. As of March 2014, it has 47 parties—46 states and the European Union. All of the ratifying states are in Europe and Central Asia. The EU has begun applying Aarhus-type principles in its legislation, notably the Water Framework Directive (Directive 2000/60/EC). Liechtenstein and Monaco have signed the convention but have not ratified it.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973788}
{"src_title": "Battleship (game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The game of \"Battleship\" is thought to have its origins in the French game \"L'Attaque\" played during World War I, although parallels have also been drawn to E. I. Horsman's 1890 game \"Basilinda\", and the game is said to have been played by Russian officers before World War I. The first commercial version of the game was \"Salvo\", published in 1931 in the United States by the Starex company. Other versions of the game were printed in the 1930s and 1940s, including the Strathmore Company's \"Combat: The Battleship Game\", Milton Bradley's \"Broadsides: A Game of Naval Strategy\" and Maurice L. Freedman's \"Warfare Naval Combat\". Strategy Games Co. produced a version called \"Wings\" which pictured planes flying over the Los Angeles Coliseum. All of these early editions of the game consisted of pre-printed pads of paper.  In 1967 Milton Bradley introduced a version of the game that used plastic boards and pegs. Conceived by Ed Hutchins, play was on pegboards using miniature plastic ships. In 1977, Milton Bradley also released a computerized \"Electronic Battleship\", followed in 1989 by \"Electronic Talking Battleship\". In 2008, an updated version of \"Battleship\" was released, using hexagonal tiles. In the updated version, each player's board contains several islands on which \"captured man\" figurines can be placed. Ships may be placed only around the islands, and only in the player's half of the board. When the movie \"Battleship\" was released, the board game reverted to the original 1967 style. The 2008 updated version is still available as \"Battleship Islands\".  \"Battleship\" was one of the earliest games to be produced as a computer game, with a version being released for the Z80 Compucolor in 1979. Many computer editions of the game have been produced since. In \"Clubhouse Games\" for the Nintendo DS, \"Battleship\" is known as \"Grid Attack\". It is played on an 8×8 grid, and includes slight variations, such as 4-player gameplay, and various ship sizes and shapes. Versions of \"Battleship\" appear as applications on numerous social networking services.  \"Battleship\" was also part of \"Hasbro Family Game Night\" for the PlayStation 2 and Wii, as well as the Xbox 360 (Xbox Live Arcade). These alter the rules, including the size of the grid (8×12 in the NES version, 8×8 in the Game Boy version), size of ships (it is common to feature a submarine that takes up a single square) and special shot missiles for each ship. For example, in the NES version the cruiser has a five-shot missile which strikes five squares in an X pattern on the grid in one turn. Submarine-tracking sonar and aerial reconnaissance to spot ships are also features.  A minigame version of \"Battleship\" was used in the third season of The Hub's \"Family Game Night\", which uses a 5×5 grid and the first team to sink three ships wins the game.  In 2012, the military science fiction action movie \"Battleship\" was released, which was inspired by the board game. A version of \"Battleship\" based on the movie was released in which one side had alien ship playing pieces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The game is played on four grids, two for each player. The grids are typically square – usually 10×10 – and the individual squares in the grid are identified by letter and number. On one grid the player arranges ships and records the shots by the opponent. On the other grid the player records their own shots.  Before play begins, each player secretly arranges their ships on their primary grid. Each ship occupies a number of consecutive squares on the grid, arranged either horizontally or vertically. The number of squares for each ship is determined by the type of the ship. The ships cannot overlap (i.e., only one ship can occupy any given square in the grid). The types and numbers of ships allowed are the same for each player. These may vary depending on the rules.  The 1990 Milton Bradley version of the rules specify the following ships:  In 2002, Hasbro renamed the Cruiser as \"Destroyer\", taking three squares, and substituted a new two-square ship called the \"Patrol Boat\".  After the ships have been positioned, the game proceeds in a series of rounds. In each round, each player takes a turn to announce a target square in the opponent's grid which is to be shot at. The opponent announces whether or not the square is occupied by a ship. If it is a \"hit\", the player who is hit marks this on their own or \"ocean\" grid (with a red peg in the pegboard version). The attacking player marks the hit or miss on their own \"tracking\" or \"target\" grid with a pencil marking in the paper version of the game, or the appropriate color peg in the pegboard version (red for \"hit\", white for \"miss\"), in order to build up a picture of the opponent's fleet.  When all of the squares of a ship have been hit, the ship's owner announces the sinking of the Carrier, Submarine, Cruiser/Destroyer/Patrol Boat, or the titular Battleship. If all of a player's ships have been sunk, the game is over and their opponent wins. If all ships of both players are sunk by the end of the round, the game is a draw.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "In the 1931 \"Salvo\" edition of the game, players target a specified number of squares at one time, and all of the squares are attacked simultaneously. A player may initially target five (one for each battleship) squares per turn, and the amount of shots decreases when one of the player's ships are lost. In other variants of this mechanic, the number of shots allowed to fire each turn may either be fixed at five for the whole game, be equal to the number of unsunk ships belonging to the player, or be equal to the size of the player's largest undamaged ship. The oppoment player may either call the result of each shot in turn, or simply announce the hits or misses. E.g: \"two hits and three misses\", leaving their opponent to work out the consequences of the salvo. In the modern Milton Bradley rules for \"Battleship\", \"Salvo\" is listed as a variation \"for more experienced players\", with the number of shots being equal to the number of ships that the firing player has remaining.  One variant of Battleship allows players to decline to announce that a ship has been sunk, requiring their opponent to take further shots in order to confirm that an area is clear. Another variant of the rule allows a player to move one of their ships to a new, uncalled location every fourth or fifth move.  Another variant allows multiple players and allow different shapes for the ships as long as each square of a ship touches at least one other square of that ship.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Battleship (also Battleships or Sea Battle) is a strategy type guessing game for two players. It is played on ruled grids (paper or board) on which each player's fleet of ships (including battleships) are marked. The locations of the fleets are concealed from the other player. Players alternate turns calling \"shots\" at the other player's ships, and the objective of the game is to destroy the opposing player's fleet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973789}
{"src_title": "Eredivisie", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "From the foundation of the Dutch national football championship in 1898 until 1954, the title was decided through play-offs by a handful of clubs who had previously won their regional league. The competition was purely an amateur one; the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB) rejected any form of payment and suspended players who were caught receiving salary or transfer fees. The call for professional football grew in the early fifties after many national team members left to play abroad in search for financial benefits. The KNVB would usually suspend these players, preventing them from appearing for the Dutch national team. After the North Sea flood of 1953, the Dutch players abroad (mainly playing in the French league) organised a charity match against the French national team in Paris. The match was boycotted by the KNVB, but after the assembled Dutch players defeated the French (2–1), the Dutch public witnessed the heights that could be achieved through professional football. To serve the growing interest, a dissident professional football association (the NBVB) and league were founded for the 1954–55 season. On 3 July 1954, the KNVB met with a group of concerned amateur club chairmen, who feared the best players would join the professional teams. The meeting, dubbed the \"slaapkamerconferentie\" ('bedroom conference'), led to the Association reluctantly accepting semi-professionalism.  Meanwhile, both the KNVB and the NBVB started their separate competition. The first professional football match was contested between Alkmaar and Venlo. The leagues went on for eleven rounds, before a merger was negotiated between the two federations in November. Both leagues were cancelled and a new, combined competition emerged immediately. De Graafschap, Amsterdam, Alkmaar and Fortuna '54 from the NBVB were accepted to the new league. Other clubs merged, which led to new names like Rapid J.C., Holland Sport and Roda Sport. The first (semi-)professional league was won by Willem II. For the 1956–57 season, the KNVB abandoned the regional league system. The Eredivisie was founded, in which the eighteen best clubs nationwide directly played for the league title without play-offs. The inaugural members of the Eredivisie in 1956 were Ajax, BVC, BVV, DOS, EVV, Elinkwijk, SC Enschede, Feijenoord, Fortuna '54, GVAV, MVV, NAC, NOAD, PSV, Rapid J.C., Sparta, VVV '03 and Willem II. Ajax was the first team to claim the title that season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current teams (2019–20).", "content": "<br>", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attendance.", "content": "Since the beginning of the league, there have been three clubs with an attendance much higher than the others: Ajax, PSV and Feyenoord. Clubs like Heerenveen, FC Utrecht and FC Groningen also have fairly large fanbases. The regular season average league attendance was just over 7,000 in 1990, but this figure has risen sharply over the years thanks to the opening of new stadiums and the expansion of existing ones nationwide. Average attendance for the 2018-19 season was 18,010, with Ajax having the largest (52,987) and Excelsior having the smallest (4,223). Ajax's figures however differ from those provided by the Johan Cruyff Arena since the club counts all tickets sold instead of the number of people going through the turnstiles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eredivisie teams and major UEFA and FIFA competitions.", "content": "The following sixteen international tournaments were won by Eredivisie teams:  The UEFA Super Cup was founded by a Dutch reporter named Anton Witkamp and Ajax's 1973 win was the first time the tournament was contested officially.  The following 24 European finals took place at Dutch venues, or are scheduled to take place at them:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Eredivisie (; \"\"Honour Division\"\" or \"\"Premier Division\"\") is the highest echelon of professional football in the Netherlands. The league was founded in 1956, two years after the start of professional football in the Netherlands. As of the 2019–20 season it is ranked the 9th best league in Europe by UEFA.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973790}
{"src_title": "Juan Sebastián Elcano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Elcano was born in around 1476 to Domingo Sebastián Elcano and Catalina del Puerto. He had three brothers: Domingo Elcano, a Catholic priest, Martín Pérez Elcano, and Antón Martín Elcano.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military life.", "content": "Elcano fought in the Italian Wars under the command of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba in Italy, and in 1509 he joined the Spanish expedition organized by Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros against Algiers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Merchant shipping.", "content": "Elcano settled in Seville and became a merchant ship captain. After breaking Castilian laws by surrendering a ship to Genoan bankers in repayment of a debt, he sought a pardon from the emperor Charles V, by signing on as a subordinate officer for the Magellan expedition to the East Indies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Voyage of circumnavigation.", "content": "Elcano served as a naval commander of the emperor Charles V, and took part in the expedition to the Philippines. In 1519, this 241-man expedition set sail with five ships, \"Trinidad\", \"Concepción\", \"San Antonio\", \"Santiago\", and \"Victoria\". Elcano participated in a fierce mutiny against Magellan before the convoy discovered the passage through South America, the Strait of Magellan. He was spared by Magellan and after five months of hard labour in chains was made captain of the galleon. \"Santiago\" was later destroyed in a storm. The fleet sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to the eastern coast of Brazil and into Puerto San Julián in Argentina. Several months later they discovered a passage now known as the Strait of Magellan located in the southern tip of South America and sailed through the strait. The crew of \"San Antonio\" mutinied and returned to Spain. On 28 November 1520, three ships set sail for the Pacific Ocean and about 19 men died before they reached Guam on 6 March 1521. Conflicts with the nearby island of Rota prevented Magellan and Elcano from resupplying their ships with food and water. They eventually gathered enough supplies and continued their journey to the Philippines and remained there for several weeks. Close relationships developed between the Spaniards and the islanders. They took part in converting the Cebuano tribes to Christianity and became involved in tribal warfare between rival Filipino groups in Mactan Island.  On 27 April 1521, Magellan was killed and the Spaniards defeated by natives in the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines. The surviving members of the expedition could not decide who should succeed Magellan. The men finally voted on a joint command with the leadership divided between Duarte Barbosa and João Serrão. Within four days these two were also dead. They were killed after being betrayed at a feast at the hands of Rajah Humabon. The mission was now teetering on disaster and João Lopes de Carvalho took command of the fleet and led it on a meandering journey through the Philippine archipelago.  During the six-month listless journey after Magellan died, and before reaching the Moluccas, Elcano's stature grew as the men became disillusioned with the weak leadership of Carvalho. The two ships, \"Victoria\" and \"Trinidad\" finally reached their destination, the Moluccas, on 6 November. They rested and re-supplied in this haven, and filled their holds with the precious cargo of cloves and nutmeg. On 18 December, the ships were ready to leave. \"Trinidad\" sprang a leak, and was unable to be repaired. Carvalho stayed with the ship along with 52 others hoping to return later.  \"Victoria\", commanded by Elcano along with 17 other European survivors of the 240 man expedition and 4 (survivors out of 13) Timorese Asians continued its westward voyage to Spain crossing the Indian and Atlantic Oceans. They eventually reached Sanlúcar de Barrameda on 6 September 1522.  Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian scholar, was a crew member of the Magellan and Elcano expedition. He wrote several documents about the events of the expedition. According to Pigafetta the voyage covered 14,460 leagues—about.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Emperor Charles V granted Elcano an augmentation of his coat of arms featuring a world globe with the words \"Primus circumdedisti me\" (Latin: \"You first encircled me\") and an annual pension. His family were given rule over the Marquisate of Buglas in Negros Island, Philippines. In the modern era, the country with the most people surnamed \"Elcano\" is currently the Philippines.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loaísa expedition.", "content": "In 1525, Elcano returned to sea, and became a member of the Loaísa expedition. He was appointed leader along with García Jofre de Loaísa as captains, who commanded seven ships and sent to claim the East Indies for King Charles I of Spain. Both Elcano and Loaísa and many other sailors died of malnutrition in the Pacific Ocean, but the survivors reached their destination and a few of them managed to return to Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family life.", "content": "Elcano never married but he had a son by María Hernández Dernialde named Domingo Elcano, whom he legitimized in his last will and testament. Elcano also fathered a daughter with a different woman named Maria de Vida Urreta.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Juan Sebastián Elcano (sometimes misspelled \"del Cano\"; c. 1476 – 4 August 1526) was a Spanish explorer of Basque origin who completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth. After Magellan's death in the Philippines, Elcano took command of the carrack \"Victoria\" from the Moluccas to Sanlúcar de Barrameda in Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973791}
{"src_title": "George Johnstone Stoney", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and employment.", "content": "Stoney was born at Oakley Park, near Birr, County Offaly, in the Irish Midlands, the son of George Stoney (1792–) and Anne Blood (1801–1883). The Stoney family is an old-established Anglo-Irish family. He attended Trinity College, Dublin, graduating with a B.A. degree in 1848. From 1848 to 1852 he worked as an astronomy assistant to William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse at Birr Castle, County Offaly, where Parsons had built the world's largest telescope, the 72-inch Leviathan of Parsonstown. Simultaneously Stoney continued to study physics and mathematics and was awarded an M.A. by Trinity College Dublin in 1852.  From 1852 to 1857, Stoney was professor of physics at Queen's College Galway. From 1857 to 1882, he was employed as Secretary of the Queen's University of Ireland, an administrative job based in Dublin. In the early 1880s, he moved to the post of superintendent of Civil Service Examinations in Ireland, a post he held until his retirement in 1893. In that year, he took up residence in London, England. Stoney died in 1911 at his home in Notting Hill, London. During his decades of non-scientific employment responsibilities in Dublin, Stoney continued to do scientific research on his own. He also served for decades as honorary secretary and then vice-president of the Royal Dublin Society, a scientific society modelled after the Royal Society of London, and after his move to London Stoney served on the council of that society too. Additionally, he intermittently served on scientific review committees of the British Association for the Advancement of Science from the early 1860s on.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific output.", "content": "Stoney published seventy-five scientific papers in a variety of journals, but chiefly in the journals of the Royal Dublin Society. He made significant contributions to cosmic physics and to the theory of gases. He estimated the number of molecules in a cubic millimetre of gas, at room temperature and pressure, from data obtained from the kinetic theory of gases. Stoney's most important scientific work was the conception and calculation of the magnitude of the \"atom of electricity\". In 1891, he proposed the term 'electron' to describe the fundamental unit of electrical charge, and his contributions to research in this area laid the foundations for the eventual discovery of the particle by J. J. Thomson in 1897.  His scientific work was carried out in his spare time.  Stoney was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1861 on the basis of being \"the author of papers on \"The Propagation of Waves,\" – \"On the Rings seen in Fibrous Specimens of Calc Spar,\" and Molecular Physics, published in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, et cetera, Distinguished for his acquaintance with the science of Astronomy & General Physics\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Stoney scale.", "content": "Contemporary physics has settled on the Planck scale as the most suitable scale for a unified theory. The Planck scale was, however, anticipated by George Stoney. Like Planck after him, Stoney realised that large-scale effects such as gravity and small-scale effects such as electromagnetism naturally imply an intermediate scale where physical differences might be rationalised. This intermediate scale comprises units (Stoney scale units) of mass, length, time etc., yet mass is the cornerstone.  The Stoney mass \"m\" (expressed in contemporary terms):  where ε is the permittivity of free space, \"e\" is the elementary charge and \"G\" is the gravitational constant, and where α is the fine-structure constant and \"m\" is the Planck mass.  Like the Planck scale, the Stoney scale functions as a symmetrical link between microcosmic and macrocosmic processes in general and yet it appears uniquely oriented towards the unification of electromagnetism and gravity. Thus for example whereas the Planck length is the mean square root of the reduced Compton wavelength and half the gravitational radius of any mass, the Stoney length is the mean square root of the 'electromagnetic radius' (see Classical electron radius) and half the gravitational radius of any mass, \"m\":  where formula_4 is the reduced Planck's constant and \"c\" is the speed of light. These are only mathematical constructs since there must be some practical limit to how small a length can get. If the Stoney length is the minimum length then either a body's electromagnetic radius or its half gravitational radius is a physical impossibility, since one of these must be smaller than the Stoney length. If Planck length is the minimum then either a body's reduced Compton wavelength or its half gravitational radius is a physical impossibility since one of these must be smaller than the Planck length. Moreover, the Stoney length and Planck length cannot both be the minimum length.  According to contemporary convention, the Planck scale is the scale of vacuum energy, below which space and time do not retain any physical significance. This prescription mandates general neglect of the Stoney scale within the scientific community today. Previous to this mandate, Hermann Weyl made a notable attempt to construct a unified theory by associating a gravitational unit of charge with the Stoney length. Weyl's theory led to significant mathematical innovations but his theory is generally thought to lack physical significance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Stoney married his cousin, Margaret Sophia Stoney, by whom he had had two sons and three daughters. For most of his decades in Dublin, Stoney resided in the Dundrum, Dublin neighbourhood. The street that he lived on was later renamed Stoney Road in his memory. After Stoney died in London, his cremated ashes were buried in St. Nahi's Church in Dundrum.  One of Stoney's sons, George Gerald Stoney FRS, was a scientist, his daughter Florence Stoney OBE was a radiologist while his daughter Edith is considered to be the first woman medical physicist. But a more scientifically notable relative was Stoney's nephew, the Dublin-based physicist George FitzGerald (1851–1901).  His brother Bindon Blood Stoney was Engineer of Dublin Port is renowned for building a number of the main Dublin bridges, and developing the Quayside, as well as other engineering projects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Stoney received an honorary Doctorate of Science (D.Sc.) from the University of Dublin in June 1902.  Stoney and FitzGerald were in regular communication on scientific matters. In addition, on political matters, both Stoney and FitzGerald were active opponents of the Irish Home Rule Movement. In their political opinion, the spirit of Irish Home Rule and later Irish nationalism was contrary to the spirit of science. Stoney resigned from his job as Secretary of Queen's University of Ireland in 1882 in objection to a government decision to introduce \"sectarianism\" into the system; i.e., Stoney wanted to keep the system non-denominational, but the government acceded to Irish Catholic demands for Catholic institutions.  Craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honour.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George Johnstone Stoney FRS (15 February 1826 – 5 July 1911) was an Irish physicist. He is most famous for introducing the term \"electron\" as the \"fundamental unit quantity of electricity\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973792}
{"src_title": "Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The third of seven children, Van ’t Hoff was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, 30 August 1852. His father was Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Sr., a physician, and his mother was Alida Kolff van 't Hoff. From a young age, he was interested in science and nature, and frequently took part in botanical excursions. In his early school years, he showed a strong interest in poetry and philosophy. He considered Lord Byron to be his idol.  Against the wishes of his father, Van 't Hoff chose to study chemistry. First, he enrolled at Delft University of Technology in September 1869, and studied until 1871, when he passed his final exam on 8 July and obtained a degree of chemical technologist. He passed all his courses in two years, although the time assigned to study was three years. Then he enrolled at University of Leiden to study chemistry. He then studied in Bonn, Germany, with Friedrich Kekulé and in Paris with C. A. Wurtz. He received his doctorate under Eduard Mulder at the University of Utrecht in 1874.  In 1878, Van 't Hoff married Johanna Francina Mees. They had two daughters, Johanna Francina (1880–1964) and Aleida Jacoba (1882–1971), and two sons, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff III (1883–1943) and Govert Jacob (1889–1918). Van 't Hoff died at the age of 58, on 1 March 1911, at Steglitz, near Berlin, of tuberculosis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Van 't Hoff earned his earliest reputation in the field of organic chemistry. In 1874, he accounted for the phenomenon of optical activity by assuming that the chemical bonds between carbon atoms and their neighbors were directed towards the corners of a regular tetrahedron. This three-dimensional structure accounted for the isomers found in nature. He shares credit for this with the French chemist Joseph Le Bel, who independently came up with the same idea.  Three months before his doctoral degree was awarded, Van 't Hoff published this theory, which today is regarded as the foundation of stereochemistry, first in a Dutch pamphlet in the fall of 1874, and then in the following May in a small French book entitled \"La chimie dans l'espace\". A German translation appeared in 1877, at a time when the only job Van 't Hoff could find was at the Veterinary School in Utrecht. In these early years his theory was largely ignored by the scientific community, and was sharply criticized by one prominent chemist, Hermann Kolbe. Kolbe wrote: \"A Dr. J. H. van ’t Hoff of the Veterinary School at Utrecht has no liking, apparently, for exact chemical investigation. He has considered it more convenient to mount Pegasus (apparently borrowed from the Veterinary School) and to proclaim in his \"‘La chimie dans l’espace’\" how, in his bold flight to the top of the chemical Parnassus, the atoms appeared to him to be arranged in cosmic space.\" However, by about 1880 support for Van 't Hoff's theory by such important chemists as Johannes Wislicenus and Viktor Meyer brought recognition.  In 1884, Van 't Hoff published his research on chemical kinetics, titled \"Études de Dynamique chimique\" (\"\"Studies in Chemical Dynamics\"\"), in which he described a new method for determining the order of a reaction using graphics and applied the laws of thermodynamics to chemical equilibria. He also introduced the modern concept of chemical affinity. In 1886, he showed a similarity between the behaviour of dilute solutions and gases. In 1887, he and German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald founded an influential scientific magazine named \"Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie\" (\"\"Journal of Physical Chemistry\"\"). He worked on Svante Arrhenius's theory of the dissociation of electrolytes and in 1889 provided physical justification for the Arrhenius equation. In 1896, he became a professor at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. His studies of the salt deposits at Stassfurt were an important contribution to Prussia's chemical industry.  Van 't Hoff became a lecturer in chemistry and physics at the Veterinary College in Utrecht. He then worked as a professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology at the University of Amsterdam for almost 18 years before eventually becoming the chairman of the chemistry department. In 1896, Van 't Hoff moved to Germany, where he finished his career at the University of Berlin in 1911. In 1901, he received the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work with solutions. His work showed that very dilute solutions follow mathematical laws that closely resemble the laws describing the behavior of gases.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours and awards.", "content": "In 1885, Van 't Hoff was appointed as a Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Other distinctions include honorary doctorates from Harvard and Yale (1901), Victoria University, the University of Manchester (1903), and University of Heidelberg (1908). He was awarded the Davy Medal of the Royal Society in 1893 (along with Le Bel), and elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1897. He was awarded the Helmholtz Medal of the Prussian Academy of Sciences (1911), and appointed Knight of the French Legion of Honour (1894) and Senator in the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft (1911). Van 't Hoff became an Honorary Member of the British Chemical Society in London, the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1892), American Chemical Society (1898), the Académie des Sciences in Paris (1905), and the Netherlands Chemical Society (1908). Of his numerous distinctions, Van 't Hoff regarded winning the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry as the culmination of his career. The following are named after him:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacobus Henricus \"Henry\" van 't Hoff Jr. (; 30 August 1852 – 1 March 1911) was a Dutch physical chemist. A highly influential theoretical chemist of his time, Van 't Hoff was the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His pioneering work helped found the modern theory of chemical affinity, chemical equilibrium, chemical kinetics, and chemical thermodynamics. In his 1874 pamphlet Van 't Hoff formulated the theory of the tetrahedral carbon atom and laid the foundations of stereochemistry. In 1875, he predicted the correct structures of allenes and cumulenes as well as their axial chirality. He is also widely considered one of the founders of physical chemistry as the discipline is known today.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973793}
{"src_title": "Annona squamosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The fruit of \"A. squamosa\" (sugar-apple) has sweet whitish pulp, and is popular in tropical markets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Annona squamosa\" is native to the tropical Americas and West Indies, but the exact origin is unknown. It is now the most widely cultivated of all the species of \"Annona\", being grown for its fruit throughout the tropics and warmer subtropics, such as Indonesia, Thailand, and Taiwan; it was introduced to southern Asia before 1590. It is naturalized as far north as southern Florida in the United States and as south as Bahia in Brazil, Bangladesh, and is an invasive species in some areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate and cultivation.", "content": "Like most species of \"Annona\", it requires a tropical or subtropical climate with summer temperatures from to, and mean winter temperatures above. It is sensitive to cold and frost, being defoliated below and killed by temperatures of a couple of degrees below freezing. It is only moderately drought-tolerant, requiring at least 700 mm of annual rainfall, and will not produce fruit well during droughts.  It will grow from sea level to and does well in hot dry climates, differing in its tolerance of lowland tropics from many of the other fruit bearers in the \"Annona\" family.  It is quite a prolific bearer, and it will produce fruit in as little as two to three years. A five-year-old tree can produce as many as 50 sugar apples. Poor fruit production has been reported in Florida because there are few natural pollinators (honeybees have a difficult time penetrating the tightly closed female flowers); however, hand pollination with a natural fiber brush is effective in increasing yield. Natural pollinators include beetles (coleoptera) of the families Nitidulidae, Staphylinidae, Chrysomelidae, Curculionidae and Scarabeidae.  In the Philippines, the fruit is commonly eaten by the Philippine fruit bat (\"kabag\" or \"kabog\"), which then spreads the seeds from island to island.  It is a host plant for larvae of the butterfly \"Graphium agamemnon\" (tailed jay).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "In traditional Indian, Thai, and American medicine, the leaves are used in a decoction to treat dysentery and urinary tract infection.<ref name=\" doi10.1016/j.hermed.2016.10.003\"></ref> In traditional Indian medicine, they are also crushed and applied to wounds. In Mexico, the leaves are rubbed on floors and put in hens' nests to repel lice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical constituents.", "content": "The diterpenoid alkaloid atisine is the most abundant alkaloid in the root. Other constituents of \"Annona squamosa\" include the alkaloids oxophoebine, reticuline, isocorydine, and methylcorydaldine, and the flavonoid quercetin-3-O-glucoside.  Bayer AG has patented the extraction process and molecular identity of the annonaceous acetogenin annonin, as well as its use as a biopesticide. Other acetogenins have been isolated from the seeds, bark, and leaves.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Annona squamosa is a small, well-branched tree or shrub from the family Annonaceae that bears edible fruits called sugar-apples or sweetsops. It tolerates a tropical lowland climate better than its relatives \"Annona reticulata\" and \"Annona cherimola\" (whose fruits often share the same name) helping make it the most widely cultivated of these species. \"Annona squamosa\" is a small, semi-(or late) deciduous, much branched shrub or small tree to tall similar to soursop (\"Annona muricata\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973794}
{"src_title": "Arctostaphylos uva-ursi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and common names.", "content": "The genus name of \"Arctostaphylos uva-ursi\" comes from the Greek words \"arctos\" (meaning bear) and \"staphyle\" (meaning \"bunch of grapes\") in reference to the fruits which form grape-like clusters. In the wild, the fruits are commonly eaten by bears. The specific epithet, \"uva-ursi\", comes from the Latin words \"uva\" (meaning grape) and \"ursus\" (bear), reflected by the \"bearberry\" nickname.  The common name, \"kinnikinnick\", is an Algonquin word meaning \"smoking mixture\". Native Americans and early pioneers smoked the dried \"uva-ursi\" leaves and bark alone or mixed with other herbs, tobacco or dried dogwood bark in pipes. Numerous common names exist, depending on region, such as mealberry, sandberry, mountain-box, fox-plum, hog-crawberry, and barren myrtle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The distribution of \"Arctostaphylos uva-ursi\" is circumpolar, and it is widespread in northern latitudes, but confined to high altitudes further south:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Arctostaphylos uva-ursi\" is a small procumbent woody groundcover shrub high. The leaves are evergreen, remaining green for 1–3 years before falling. The fruit is a red berry.  The leaves are shiny, small, and feel thick and stiff. They are alternately arranged on the stems. Undersides of leaves are lighter green than on the tops. New stems can be red if the plant is in full sun, but are green in shadier areas. Older stems are brown. In spring, they have white or pink flowers.  Wild stands of \"Arctostaphylos uva-ursi\" can be dense, with heights rarely taller than 6 inches. Erect branching twigs emerge from long flexible prostrate stems, which are produced by single roots. The trailing stems will layer, sending out small roots periodically. The finely textured velvety branches are initially white to pale green, becoming smooth and red-brown with maturity. The small solitary three-scaled buds are dark brown.  The simple leaves of this broadleaf evergreen are alternately arranged on branches. Each leaf is held by a twisted leaf stalk, vertically. The leathery dark green leaves are an inch long and have rounded tips tapering back to the base. In fall, the leaves begin changing from a dark green to a reddish-green to purple, becoming pale on the underside.  Terminal clusters of small urn-shaped flowers bloom from May to June. The flowers are white to pink, and bear round, fleshy or mealy, bright red to pink fruits called drupes. The smooth, glossy skinned fruits range from in diameter. The fruit persist on the plant into early winter. The fruits are bittersweet when raw, but sweeter when boiled and dried. Fruits are edible for humans, but are generally considered to be unpalatable. Each drupe contains 1 to 5 hard seeds, which need to be scarified and stratified prior to germination to reduce the seed coat and break embryo dormancy. There is an average of 40,900 cleaned seeds per pound. It is a fire-tolerant species and may be a seedbanking species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pathology.", "content": "\"Arctostaphylos uva-ursi\" is an alternate host for spruce broom rust.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are some 14 subspecies, including:  For a list of reported North American subspecies and varietals, see \"USDA Plants Profile\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phytochemicals.", "content": "The plant contains diverse phytochemicals, including ursolic acid, tannic acid, gallic acid, some essential oils and resin, hydroquinones (mainly arbutin, up to 17%), tannins (up to 15%), phenolic glycosides and flavonoids. \"Arctostaphylos uva-ursi\" leaves contain arbutin, which metabolizes to form hydroquinone, a potential liver toxin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "Historically, bearberry fruits and leaves were used by the Blackfeet Nation as food. The fruits can be used to make jelly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dye.", "content": "Native Americans used the plant to make yellow dye.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Smoking.", "content": "Dried bearberry leaves are the main component in many traditional North American Native smoking mixes, known collectively as \"kinnikinnick\" (Algonquin for \"smoking mixture\") used especially among western First Nations, often including other herbs and sometimes tobacco.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "Teas and extracts of the leaves have been used in traditional medicine of First Nations people over centuries as urinary tract antiseptics, diuretics, and laxatives. In herbalism, leaf tea is used to treat urinary tract inflammation. Though thought to be an astringent or cure for sexually transmitted diseases, as of 2017, there was no high-quality evidence from clinical research that such treatments are effective or safe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Precautions and adverse effects.", "content": "One review indicated that ingestion of large doses can cause allergic reactions, with nausea and seizures, as a potential emergency condition. Preliminary studies indicate that arbutin may be toxic when ingested in high doses. Uva ursi may cause adverse effects in people with liver or kidney disease, or pregnant and breastfeeding women.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "There are several cultivars that are propagated for use as ornamental plants. It is an attractive year-round evergreen groundcover for gardens, and is useful for controlling erosion on hillsides and slopes due to its deep roots. It is tolerant of sun and dry soils, and is thus common groundcover in urban areas, in naturalized areas, and in native plant or rock gardens.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Arctostaphylos uva-ursi is a plant species of the genus \"Arctostaphylos\" widely distributed across circumboreal regions of the subarctic Northern Hemisphere. Kinnikinnick (First Nations for \"smoking mixture\") is a common name in Canada and the United States. It is one of several related species referred to as bearberry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973795}
{"src_title": "Ferenc Szisz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Szisz was born in the small town of Szeghalom in Békés county of the Hungarian part the former Austro-Hungarian Empire on September 20, 1873. He was trained to be a locksmith and a coppersmith but in his early twenties the growing proliferation of automobiles fascinated Szisz and he studied engineering along with car design. After time spent in several Austrian and German cities, in the spring of 1900 he ended up in Paris, France where he found work at the new Renault automobile company.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grand Prix Career.", "content": "At Renault, Szisz's engineering talent made him an integral part of the testing department, and when the company became involved in racing in 1902 he was chosen as the riding mechanic for Louis Renault. Following the death of Marcel Renault in the 1903 Paris-Madrid race, Szisz took over as a driver. In 1905, he finished fifth in the Gordon Bennett Cup elimination race on the Circuit d'Auvergne at Clermont-Ferrand. In October of that same year, along with other French and Italian automobile manufacturers, Renault sent a team to the United States to compete in the Vanderbilt Cup on Long Island, New York. In a field that included Felice Nazzaro and Louis Chevrolet driving for Fiat, Szisz finished fifth behind the winner, fellow Frenchman Victor Hémery driving a Darracq. Szisz's primary duties as the head of testing at Renault limited the number of races he could compete in. However, in 1906 he achieved a permanent place in the annals of auto racing when he and his riding mechanic M. Marteau drove a Renault AK 90CV to victory in the first Grand Prix race in Le Mans. He averaged. His victory in the French Grand Prix and the commercial success of the race soon led to the establishing of other Grand Prix races throughout Europe. The following year, Italy's Felice Nazzaro, who had finished second behind Szisz, captured the second French Grand Prix. Szisz competed in the 1908 race but did not finish and suffered a similar fate following mechanical problems in Savannah, Georgia at an American Grand Prize race organized by the Automobile Club of America.  In early 1909, Szisz left Renault to open his own garage in Neuilly-sur-Seine. In July 1914, Fernand Charron lured him out of retirement to drive an Alda in the French Grand Prix at Lyon. In a race won by Christian Lautenschlager in a Mercedes, Szisz was honored with the number 1 for his car, but an injury forced him out just past half distance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "European automobile racing ended in September with the onset of World War I and Szisz joined the French army, serving as head of the transport troops in Algeria until being hospitalized with typhoid fever.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "At war's end, he went to work for an aircraft company until his retirement to a cottage in the country at Auffargis not far from Paris, where he died in 1944.  Ferenc Szisz and his wife are buried in the churchyard cemetery in Auffargis. The Szisz Museum is part of the Renault Museum located near the Le Mans racetrack.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferenc Szisz (September 20, 1873 – February 21, 1944), was a Hungarian race car driver and the winner of the first Grand Prix motor racing event on a Renault Grand Prix 90CV on 26 June, 1906.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973796}
{"src_title": "Cable tie", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and use.", "content": "The most common cable tie consists of a flexible nylon tape with an integrated gear rack, and on one end a ratchet within a small open case. Once the pointed tip of the cable tie has been pulled through the case and past the ratchet, it is prevented from being pulled back; the resulting loop may only be pulled tighter. This allows several cables to be bound together into a cable bundle and/or to form a cable tree.  A cable tie tensioning device or tool may be used to apply a cable tie with a specific degree of tension. The tool may cut off the extra tail flush with the head in order to avoid a sharp edge which might otherwise cause injury.  In order to increase resistance to ultraviolet light in outdoor applications, nylon containing a minimum of 2% carbon black is used to protect the polymer chains and extend the cable tie's service life. Blue cable ties are supplied to the food industry and contain a metal additive so they can be detected by industrial metal detectors. Cable ties made of ETFE (Tefzel) are used in radiation-rich environments. Red cable ties made of ECTFE (Halar) are used for plenum cabling.  Stainless steel cable ties are also available for flameproof applications—coated stainless ties are available to prevent galvanic attack from dissimilar metals (e.g. zinc-coated cable tray).  PlastiCuffs are handcuffs based on the cable tie design and are used by law enforcement to restrain prisoners. Cable ties are also sometimes used to prevent hubcaps (also known as wheel trims) from falling off a moving vehicle, and some are sold specifically for this purpose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Cable ties were first invented by Thomas & Betts, an electrical company, in 1958 under the brand name Ty-Rap. Initially they were designed for airplane wire harnesses. The original design used a metal tooth, and these can still be obtained. Manufacturers later changed to the nylon/plastic design.  Over the years the design has been extended and developed into numerous spin-off products. One example was a self-locking loop developed as an alternative to purse-string suture in colon anastomosis.  Ty-Rap cable tie inventor, Maurus C. Logan, worked for Thomas & Betts and finished his career with the company as Vice President of Research and Development. During his tenure at Thomas & Betts, he contributed to the development and marketing of many successful Thomas & Betts products. Logan died on 12 November 2007, at the age of 86.  The idea of the cable tie came to Logan while touring a Boeing aircraft manufacturing facility in 1956. Aircraft wiring was a cumbersome and detailed undertaking, involving thousands of feet of wire organized on sheets of 50-foot-long plywood and held in place with knotted, waxcoated, braided nylon cord. Each knot had to be pulled tight by wrapping the cord around one's finger which sometimes cut the operator's fingers until they developed thick calluses or \"hamburger hands.\" Logan was convinced there had to be an easier, more forgiving, way to accomplish this critical task.  For the next couple of years, Logan experimented with various tools and materials. On June 24, 1958, a patent for the Ty-Rap cable tie was submitted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surgery.", "content": "Self-locking loops are used for closure of the sternum after open chest surgery and at repair of rib fractures in foals.  Within research, there are self-locking loops, based on the construction of the traditional cable tie, designed for surgery. The device is intended for ligation purposes, by compressing tissue hemorrhage is prevented. The same material is used as in surgical suture (resorbable polymers), therefore the implant can be left in the body where after the material is resorbed by the tissue.  Traditional cable ties, due to their non-resorbable material, may not be left in the body permanently due to the risk of development of chronic granulomas. In urology, short term use of cable ties have been described at partial kidney resection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reuse.", "content": "Cable ties are generally single-use devices. Some models have a button to release the pawl and allow re-use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternatives.", "content": "Other methods of bundling cable together securely and semi-permanently include cable lacing, strapping, binding knots such as the surgeon's knot or constrictor knot, Velcro brand hook-and-loop strips, conveyor belt hooks, twist ties, Rapstrap fasteners, or metal buckle.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A cable tie (also known as a hose tie, zip tie, or by the brand name Ty-Rap) is a type of fastener, for holding items together, primarily electrical cables or wires. Because of their low cost and ease of use, cable ties are ubiquitous, finding use in a wide range of other applications.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973797}
{"src_title": "Luděk Pachman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Pachman's first chess championship came in 1940, when he became champion of the nearby village of Cista (population 900). The first break in his chess career came in 1943, when he was invited to an international tournament in Prague. World Champion Alekhine dominated the event, with Keres taking second place. Pachman finished ninth in the nineteen-player tournament. Alekhine paid him a compliment in an article in the \"Frankfurter Zeitung\" and from the fifth round on, invited him every evening to analyze games and opening variations. \"I don't have to tell you how a beginner from a village chess club felt at that time\", Pachman wrote.  Pachman went on to become one of the world's leading players. He was awarded the International Master title in 1950 and the Grandmaster title in 1954. He won fifteen international tournaments, but considered sharing second place in Havana 1963, with Mikhail Tal and Efim Geller, behind Viktor Korchnoi, his best tournament result. Pachman won the Czechoslovak championship seven times between 1946 and 1966. He became the champion of West Germany in 1978. He played in six Interzonal tournaments between Saltsjöbaden 1948 and Manila 1976. He represented Czechoslovakia in eight consecutive Chess Olympiads from 1952 through 1966, usually playing. The most successful year of his career was 1959. After winning the Czechoslovakian championship he went on a South American tour, winning tournaments in Mar del Plata (tied with Miguel Najdorf); Santiago, Chile (tied with Borislav Ivkov); and Lima, Peru (again tied with Ivkov). On this tour he beat the 16-year-old Bobby Fischer twice. Pachman made an even lifetime score against Fischer, +2−2=4.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Pachman was politically active throughout his life, first as a Communist and later as a staunch anti-Communist. In December 1968, he won a tournament in Athens. Upon his return to Prague, the authorities arrested, imprisoned, and tortured him for months. During this time he attempted suicide: On Christmas Eve 1969, doctors called his wife and told her that he probably would not survive the night. In 1972, Pachman was finally allowed to emigrate to West Germany. He soon became known as a strongly anti-Communist political activist, and his eloquence made him a regular guest on political talk shows.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Author.", "content": "Pachman was also a prolific author, publishing eighty books in five languages. In the 1950s, he became the world's leading opening expert with the publication of his four-volume opus, \"Theory of Modern Chess\". Pachman considered \"Modern Chess Strategy\", published in 1959, to be his best book. His book \"Checkmate in Prague\" recounts his treatment at the hands of the Communist authorities.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Luděk Pachman (German: Ludek Pachmann, May 11, 1924 in Bělá pod Bezdězem, today Czech Republic – March 6, 2003 in Passau, Germany) was a Czechoslovak-German chess grandmaster, chess writer, and political activist. In 1972, after being imprisoned and tortured almost to death by the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia, he was allowed to emigrate to West Germany. He lived the remainder of his life there, and resumed his chess career with considerable success, including playing in the Interzonal in 1976 and winning the West German Championship in 1978.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973798}
{"src_title": "Moshe Arens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Arens was born in Kaunas, Lithuania, to a Jewish family. His father was an industrialist and his mother was a dentist. When he was a year old, his family moved to Riga, Latvia. where he attended elementary school. In 1939, Arens and his family immigrated to the United States, where his father had business interests. The family settled in New York City, where Arens attended George Washington High School.  As a youth, Arens was a leader in the Betar youth movement. During World War II, Arens served in the United States Army Corps of Engineers as a technical sergeant. Following the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948, Arens immigrated to the new State of Israel and joined the Irgun, despite the opposition of his father. He was sent to North Africa (mostly Morocco and Algeria) and Europe to help local Jewish communities establish self-defense groups. In March 1949, he returned to Israel, and became a founding member of the Herut party, which had grown out of the Irgun. He worked as an engineer for an American company that designed water systems for Tel Aviv.  In 1951, he returned to the United States, and studied engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and aeronautical engineering at the California Institute of Technology where he was a student of Qian Xuesen, then worked for a time in the aircraft industry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic and research career.", "content": "In 1957, Arens became professor of aeronautics at the Technion, serving in this position until 1962. After retiring from the government, he devoted himself to researching and commemorating the story of the Jewish Military Union (ŻZW), which fought alongside the better known Jewish Combat Organization (ŻOB) in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. Arens is the author of a number of articles on the revolt as well as a book, \"Flags over the Warsaw Ghetto\", which has been published in Hebrew, Polish and English.  Arens was chairman of the International Board of Governors of Ariel University Center of Samaria. He was also a columnist for Haaretz newspaper.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business career.", "content": "From 1962 until 1971, Arens served as Deputy Director General at Israel Aircraft Industries, where he oversaw major development projects, including the Kfir fighter jet project.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "After the Yom Kippur War, Arens entered politics and was elected to the Knesset as a member of Likud in the 1973 elections. After being re-elected in 1977, he became chairman of the Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee. He voted against the Camp David Accords and the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty. In 1980, Prime Minister Menachem Begin offered Arens the post of Minister of Defense, but he turned it down due to his disagreement over the terms of the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty. Arens did not oppose peace with Egypt, but was opposed to certain aspects of the treaty, and thus did not want to have to oversee Israel's evacuation from the Sinai.  He was re-elected again in 1981, but resigned from the Knesset on 19 January 1982 when appointed ambassador to the United States. At this point, he brought his young protégé, Benjamin Netanyahu, then 32, to work for him in Washington. He returned to Israel in February 1983 after being appointed Minister of Defense, replacing Ariel Sharon, who had been forced out of office following the Kahan Commission's report on the Sabra and Shatila massacre. He was re-elected in 1984, but was only appointed Minister without Portfolio. After another re-election in 1988 he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs (with Netanyahu his deputy), and in 1990 returned to the Defense portfolio.  After Likud lost the 1992 elections, Arens retired from politics. He returned in 1999, however, to challenge Netanyahu for the Likud leadership. Although he won only 18% of the vote, Netanyahu appointed him Minister of Defense, replacing Yitzhak Mordechai, who had left Likud to establish the Centre Party. Although Arens returned to the Knesset after the 1999 elections, Likud lost the elections and he left the cabinet. He lost his seat for the final time in 2003.  Arens questioned the wisdom of Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Israeli procurement, given the neglected state of Israeli ground forces. In an article for Fathom Journal, Arens stated that he was a critic of unilateral withdrawal from the West Bank and Gaza, accusing its proponents of suffering from \"unilateral withdrawal syndrome\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "While living in the United States, Arens married Muriel F. Eisenberg from New York City, and she moved to Israel with him. The couple had four children, two boys and two girls; Yigal, Aliza, Raanan, and Rut. Arens died on 7 January 2019 at the age of 93.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "In 1971, Arens won the Israel Defense Prize. In 2016, Nefesh B'Nefesh awarded him the Bonei Zion Prize.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Moshe Arens (27 December 1925 – 7 January 2019) was an Israeli aeronautical engineer, researcher, diplomat and Likud politician. A member of the Knesset between 1973 and 1992 and again from 1999 until 2003, he served as Minister of Defense three times and once as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Arens also served as the Israeli ambassador to the U.S. and was a professor at the Technion in Haifa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973799}
{"src_title": "SYN cookies", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Implementation.", "content": "In order to initiate a TCP connection, the client sends a TCP SYN packet to the server. In response, the server sends a TCP SYN+ACK packet back to the client. One of the values in this packet is a \"sequence number\", which is used by the TCP to reassemble the data stream. According to the TCP specification, that first sequence number sent by an endpoint can be any value as decided by that endpoint. SYN cookies are initial sequence numbers that are carefully constructed according to the following rules:  The initial TCP sequence number, i.e. the \"SYN cookie\", is computed as follows: \"(Note: since m must be encoded using 3 bits, the server is restricted to sending up to 8 unique values for m when SYN cookies are in use.)\"  When a client sends back a TCP ACK packet to the server in response to the server's SYN+ACK packet, the client must (according to the TCP spec) use \"n+1\" in the packet's \"Acknowledgement number\", where \"n\" is the initial sequence number sent by the server. The server then subtracts 1 from the acknowledgement number to reveal the SYN cookie sent to the client.  The server then performs the following operations. From this point forward, the connection proceeds as normal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Drawbacks.", "content": "The use of SYN cookies does not break any protocol specifications, and therefore should be compatible with all TCP implementations. There are, however, two caveats that take effect when SYN cookies are in use. Firstly, the server is limited to only 8 unique MSS values, as that is all that can be encoded in 3 bits. Secondly, the server must reject all TCP options (such as large windows or timestamps), because the server discards the SYN queue entry where that information would otherwise be stored.. Finally, SYN cookies place increased load on server resources. Encrypting responses is computationally expensive. The SYN cookie does not reduce traffic, which makes it ineffective against SYN flooding attacks that target bandwidth as the attack vector.  While these restrictions necessarily lead to a sub-optimal experience, their effect is rarely noticed by clients because they are only applied when under attack. In such a situation, the loss of the TCP options in order to save the connection is usually considered to be a reasonable compromise.  A problem arises when the connection-finalizing ACK packet sent by the client is lost, and the application layer protocol requires the server to speak first (SMTP and SSH are two examples). In this case, the client assumes that the connection was established successfully and waits for the server to send its protocol banner, or resend the SYN+ACK packet; however, the server is not aware of the session and will not resend the SYN+ACK because it discarded the backlog queue entry that would enable it to do so. Eventually, the client will abort the connection due to an application layer timeout, but this may take a relatively long time.  In 2008, Version 2.6.26 of the Linux kernel added limited support of TCP options by encoding them into the timestamp.  TCP Cookie Transactions (TCPCT) standard was designed to overcome these shortcomings of SYN cookies and improve it on a couple of aspects. Unlike SYN cookies, TCPCT is a TCP extension and required support from both endpoints. It was moved to \"Historic\" status by RFC 7805 in 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Security considerations.", "content": "Simple firewalls that are configured to allow all \"outgoing\" connections but to restrict which ports an \"incoming\" connection can reach (for example, allow incoming connections to a Web server on port 80 but restrict all other ports), work by blocking only incoming SYN requests to unwanted ports. If SYN cookies are in operation, care should be taken to ensure an attacker is not able to bypass such a firewall by forging ACKs instead, trying random sequence numbers until one is accepted. SYN cookies should be switched on and off on a \"per-port\" basis, so that SYN cookies being enabled on a public port does not cause them to be recognised on a non-public port. The original Linux kernel implementation misunderstood this part of Bernstein's description and used a single global variable to switch on SYN cookies for all ports; this was pointed out by a research student and subsequently fixed in.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The technique was created by Daniel J. Bernstein and Eric Schenk in September 1996. The first implementation (for SunOS) was released by Jeff Weisberg a month later, and Eric Schenk released his Linux implementation in February 1997. FreeBSD implements syncookies since FreeBSD 4.5 (January 2002).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SYN cookie is a technique used to resist IP Spoofing attacks. The technique's primary inventor Daniel J. Bernstein defines SYN cookies as \"particular choices of initial TCP sequence numbers by TCP servers.\" In particular, the use of SYN cookies allows a server to avoid dropping connections when the SYN queue fills up. Instead of storing additional connections, the SYN queue entry is encoded into the sequence number sent in the SYN+ACK response. If the server then receives a subsequent ACK response from the client with the incremented sequence number, the server is able to reconstruct the SYN queue entry using information encoded in the TCP sequence number and proceed as usual with the connection.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973800}
{"src_title": "Paul Carell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career before and during World War II.", "content": "Paul Karl Schmidt became a member of the Nazi Party in 1931 and a member of the SS in 1938. He graduated from university in 1934, and became an assistant at the Institute of Psychology of the Universität Kiel in Germany. He held several positions in the Nazi Student Association.  In the SS, Schmidt was promoted to the rank of \"Obersturmbannführer\" in 1940. During the same year, he became the chief press spokesman for foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. In this position, he was responsible for the German Foreign Ministry's news and press division.  Schmidt chaired the daily press conferences of the ministry, and was thus one of the most important and influential propagandists for National Socialism during World War II. Recent studies confirm that his influence was at least on the same level as that of Otto Dietrich (Reichspressechef of Adolf Hitler) and of Hans Fritzsche (Pressechef of the Reichspropagandaministerium). Schmidt was also responsible for the German propaganda magazine \"Signal\", which was published in several languages to tell the German side of the story in neutral and occupied countries during the war.  Schmidt justified the Holocaust through his propaganda efforts. In May 1944, he gave advice on how to justify the deportation and murder of Hungarian Jews, to counter the potential accusation of mass murder: Schmidt was arrested on 6 May 1945 and interned for 30 months. It was left open for a long time whether he would appear as one of those indicted, or as a witness for the prosecution, during the war crimes trials. During the Ministries Trial, part of the Nuremberg Trials, he finally appeared as a witness for the prosecution, and portrayed himself as a fighter for democratic freedom of the press.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "After World War II, Schmidt became a writer. Aided by the network of 'old comrades' working in the publishing industry, he was able to secure assignments. Starting in the 1950s, he wrote for the popular magazine \"Kristall\". He first used the pseudonym Paul Karell, and later Paul Carell.  He worked as a freelance author under various noms de plume for newspapers such as \"Die Welt\" and \"Die Zeit\" (as P. C. Holm, among others). He also wrote for the magazines \"Norddeutsche Rundschau\" and \"Der Spiegel\", and published some accounts of war stories for \"Der Landser\", a West German pulp magazine featuring stories predominantly set during World War II. He was seen as an influential adviser to the German Axel Springer AG, where he wrote speeches for Axel Springer.  From 1965 to 1971 the Office of the State Prosecutor of Verden in Germany investigated him for murder. But the investigation, which some claim should have clarified his role in the genocide of Hungarian Jews, ended without an indictment. Schmidt never had to face a trial for his activities during the war.  In 1992 Carell claimed that even after the Battle of Stalingrad there was a possibility for Germany to win the war. In his view, it was primarily the command of Adolf Hitler that led to the defeat. The leadership of the Wehrmacht and very competent commanders such as Erich von Manstein could have achieved victory if not for Hitler's interference. Carell also claimed that the invasion of the Soviet Union was a preemptive attack to forestall an invasion of Germany by the Red Army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing career.", "content": "The success of his books \"Hitler Moves East (Unternehmen Barbarossa)\" and \"Scorched Earth (Verbrannte Erde)\" made Carell a leading post-war chronicler of the German side of World War II on the Eastern Front. His book \"Die Gefangenen\" (1980), dealing with German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union, was published by Ullstein-Verlag. These books generally had a positive media reception; \"Die Welt\" wrote, for example: \"Helps to reduce the dislike between Germans and Russians (...) qualified as an historian.\" Or the \"\": \"Someone for whom the seriousness of the source and the value of documentation are more important than going for cheap thrills – that is Paul Carell!\" Carell also wrote about Rommel and about the Allied invasion of Normandy.  In his books, Carell portrays the Wehrmacht as heroes fighting for a lost cause. Carell presents the post-war revisionist messages first popularized by leading Wehrmacht ex-generals:  Critics point out that Carell's works emphasize the German army's professionalism, sacrifice and positive encounters with civilians, and his books also suggest that the Wehrmacht freed the Russians from their Communist tyrants and restored their religious community.  Critics also suggest that in Carell's works the army thus operated in a world distinct from the political sphere, and the culprits for any calamities that befell the Russian people rule this political sphere, namely the Nazi and the Communist parties. The thrust of this argument thus confirmed the high moral position of the German officer, perpetuating the myth of the \"clean Wehrmacht\". Carell's themes of anti-Communism also appealed to the U.S. public and garnered Carell repeat reprints.  Carell is the author of:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul Carell (born Paul Karl Schmidt; 2 November 1911, Kelbra – 20 June 1997) was a German propagandist who was the chief press spokesman for Joachim von Ribbentrop's Foreign Ministry during the Nazi era. In this capacity during World War II, he maintained close ties with the Wehrmacht, while he served in the \"Allgemeine-SS\" (General SS). One of his specialities was the \"Jewish question\". After the war, Carell became a successful author, although critics claim that his books romanticized and whitewashed the Wehrmacht.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973801}
{"src_title": "Andreas Hammerschmidt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born at Brüx, a small Protestant community in Bohemia, to a Saxon father and a Bohemian mother. In 1626 the family had to flee Bohemia, during the Thirty Years' War, after it had become Catholic; they settled in Freiberg, Saxony, where Andreas must have received his musical education. He probably did not study with composer Christoph Demantius, who was \"Kantor\" at Freiberg and the most significant musician in the city while Hammerschmidt was there; however he may have known him. Many famous musicians of the early Baroque spent time in Freiberg but it is uncertain which of them taught Hammerschmidt; at any rate he received a superb musical training while there.  Hammerschmidt left Freiberg in 1633, through his mentor Stephan Otto, taking a post as organist for Count Rudolf von Bünau in Weesenstein, but returned to Freiberg the next year as an organist. He was married shortly after his return there, and of his six children three died in infancy. In 1639 he left Freiberg again, moving to Zittau, where he succeeded Christoph Schreiber as organist; he remained in Zittau at this post for the rest of his life. While musical life in Zittau was severely damaged by the Thirty Years' War, including the decimation of the choirs and general reduction in musical standards, Hammerschmidt survived; after the end of the war in 1648 musical life slowly regained its former high standard. Exact records of his activities in Zittau are spotty, for the documents were burned in 1757 when the city was destroyed by the Austrians in the Seven Years' War; however Hammerschmidt during this portion of his career became one of the best-known composers in Germany, and the most famous representative of the concertato style of the generation after Heinrich Schütz. While well-respected and called on as an expert in many matters, he seems to have been prone to outbursts of rage, some of which involved him in brawls. He also seems to have profited well from his activities as a musician and civic leader, and evidently lived in some luxury, having a house in town as well as a country estate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and influence.", "content": "Hammerschmidt wrote motets, concertos and arias, and almost all of his output is sacred vocal music in the concertato style. According to Manfred Bukofzer (1947), he \"watered down the achievements of Schütz for the multitude.\" Many of his compositions are in the form of the chorale monody, an adaptation of the early Baroque Italian form to a sacred, and specifically Protestant, purpose. Indeed, Hammerschmidt represents the second generation of composers who distilled a native German Baroque tradition out of forms and styles imported from Italy.  Over 400 works by Hammerschmidt survive, in a total of 14 separate collections. The motets represent a more conservative style, as noted by Hammerschmidt himself, and the concertos—concertato pieces with opposing groups of voices and instruments—are in a current idiom.  Some of his concertos are written for large ensembles, with diverse combinations of instruments and voices (for example, the sets from \"Gespräche über die Evangelia\" of 1655–1656; this was long enough after the war that large ensembles were available again). He wrote these pieces for Sundays and church feast days; their structure and intent foreshadowed the later German church cantata, as exemplified most famously by Johann Sebastian Bach. Even Hammerschmidt's masses conform to the concertato style, and are best seen as concertos.  While Hammerschmidt was an organist all of his life, no organ music of his has survived; indeed there is no evidence he published any. Some instrumental music of his has survived in three publications; most of these are suites of dances influenced by the English style which was prevalent in the northern part of Germany at that time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andreas Hammerschmidt (1611 or 1612 – 29 October 1675), the \"Orpheus of Zittau,\" was a German Bohemian composer and organist of the early to middle Baroque era. He was one of the most significant and popular composers of sacred music in Germany in the middle 17th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973802}
{"src_title": "Brotherhood and Unity Highway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Construction began on the initiative of President Josip Broz Tito, who called the project the \"Road of brotherhood and unity\" (\"Autoput bratstva i jedinstva\") after the motto of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. The first section between Zagreb and Belgrade was built with the effort of the Yugoslav People's Army and volunteer Youth Work Actions and was opened in 1950. The section between Ljubljana and Zagreb was built by 54,000 volunteers in less than eight months in 1958. The southern section from Belgrade was not completed until the mid-1960s.  Its importance caused it to be colloquially named \"autoput\" or \"autocesta\" (generic Serbo-Croatian expressions for \"highway\", \"motorway\"). This use has since largely faded out, after the successor states built further motorways.  In the 1960s and 1970s the \"autoput\" became a much frequented holiday route for Turkish immigrants in West Germany and Austria (then called \"Gastarbeiter\") visiting their original homeland during the summer vacation time, and for tourists to southeastern Europe. Entering communist but non-aligned Yugoslavia was far easier, for people from NATO countries such as West Germany and Turkey, than entering any of the Warsaw Pact communist countries of the Balkan region that might have provided alternative routes.  Originally an ordinary road, the carriageway used to be congested with cars and trucks, especially in summertime, when overtired long-distance drivers caused numerous accidents. Wrecked cars usually remained in place for long periods of time, providing a grim reminder of the dangers of the highway. The situation slightly improved after some parts were brought up to modern motorway standards (two lanes for each direction plus an emergency lane) on the following sections built between 1977 and 1991:  In 1991, several sections were affected by the Yugoslav wars, bringing severe damage, and causing the traffic to be almost completely discontinued in places.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International categorization.", "content": "Since 1975, the road was concurrent with the following routes of the International E-road network:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Since 1994 the route is also part of the Pan-European corridor X that extends from Salzburg to Thessaloniki.  The road has been continuously upgraded. As of 2019, it is a modern motorway in its entire length through:  The most difficult section to engineer and build was the Grdelica Gorge section which was completed in May 2019. The classification as the M-1 Highway continued in Serbia up to 2013, when the road was reorganized as the A1 and A3.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Brotherhood and Unity Highway (; ; or, ), officially classed as the M-1 Highway, was a highway that stretched over across Yugoslavia, from the Austrian border at Rateče near Kranjska Gora in the northwest via Ljubljana, Zagreb, Belgrade and Skopje to Gevgelija on the Greek border in the southeast. It was the main modern highway in the country, connecting four constituent republics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973803}
{"src_title": "Pyrenean desman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Pyrenean desman is long with a rounded scale-covered tail of, and weighs. Pyrenean desmans have a long, sensitive nasal trompe provided with hypertrophic vibrissae and chemo-/mechanosensitive Eimer’s organs helping prey detection, and large webbed feet with fringed hairs to increase the swimming surface, and can close off their nostrils and ears to stop water penetration.  The desman's body is covered in dark, brownish fur, with the exception of its tail and nose. The nose is black and is covered in vibrissae (facial hairs), which it uses to feel the movement of prey as it sticks its nose into mud or crevices while searching for food. The Pyrenean desman can live at least 3.5 years. The animals are mostly nocturnal, and eat small invertebrates, mostly aquatic macroinvertebrates. They breed up to three times a year, with the period of gestation lasting around thirty days.  Three to four young are born in each litter. The males have a slightly larger territory than the female. Both males and females scent mark. They are thought to be aggressive towards other adult members of the species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Pyrenean desmans are proficient swimmers, suited to their aquatic habitat, although their claws also allow them to be good at climbing. They mostly occur in fast-flowing, mountaineous rivers with shallow waters and good riparian galleries. The habitat of the Pyrenean desman is under threat, and recent studies have shown dramatic declines in species occurrence in several parts of its range in the last few decades", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "Threats include habitat fragmentation and alteration, invasive species (e.g. the American mink), and climate change.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Photo Ark\".", "content": "On May 4, 2018, \"National Geographic\" reported that the Pyrenean desman was the 8,000th animal photographed for \"The Photo Ark\" by Joel Sartore.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pyrenean desman (\"Galemys pyrenaicus\") is a small semiaquatic, globally threatened mammal related to moles and shrews, and, along with the Russian desman (\"Desmana moschata\"), is one of the two extant members of the tribe Desmanini. The species occurs in north and central parts of Spain and Portugal, French Pyrenees, and Andorra, but severe range contractions have been documented across its geographic distribution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973804}
{"src_title": "Bartsia alpina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Bartsia alpina\" is a hemiparasitic perennial plant with a woody rhizome, growing to a height of between. The stem is erect and sometimes branched, hairy and purple in colour. The leaves are in opposite pairs, with oval leaf blades up to long and toothed margins. At the base of the plant, the leaves are green, but higher up they are tinged with purple. The corolla is dark purple and is about long. It is narrow at the base and has two lips, an obtuse upper lip and a smaller lower one, with three blunt, equal-sized lobes. It has four stamens fused to the corolla and two ovaries fused to the style. The fruit is an oval brown capsule.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Bartsia alpina\" has a European Arctic-montane distribution, and is also known from North America. It occurs in the mountainous regions of northern Russia, Finland, Norway and Sweden, and in the Alps and other mountains in Central Europe, as far south as the Pyrenees and south‐west Bulgaria; it also occurs in Iceland, Greenland and north‐eastern Canada.  It has a very restricted distribution in the British Isles, occurring only in a few locations in upland areas in northern England, and in the central Scottish Highlands. It used to occur in damp pasture, in basic flushes and runnels and wet, steep, species-rich banks, but it has largely been eliminated from these habitats by over-grazing and trampling by livestock. It has persisted better away from grazing animals in ledge communities on mica-schist crags.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bartsia alpina is a species of perennial flowering plant, known by the common name alpine bartsia or velvetbells. It is found in the mountainous regions of Europe and also occurs in Iceland, Greenland and north‐eastern Canada.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973805}
{"src_title": "Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Maximilian Joseph was born at Bamberg, the only son of Duke Pius August in Bavaria (1786–1837) and his wife, Princess Amélie Louise of Arenberg. On 9 September 1828, at Tegernsee, Maximilian Joseph married Princess Ludovika of Bavaria, the sixth daughter of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria, his father's cousin. They had ten children.  In 1834 he purchased Possenhofen Castle on Lake Starnberg; this was his major residence for the rest of his life. In 1838 he acquired Unterwittelsbach Castle (today housing a \"Sisi\" museum) near the site of Burg Wittelsbach, the ancestral seat of the House of Wittelsbach. Maximilian Joseph died in Munich. He and his wife are buried in the family crypt in Tegernsee Abbey, a former monastery which Ludovika's father, King Maximilian I Joseph, had acquired in 1817. At the same time of the secularisation, Duke Maximilian Joseph's grandfather Duke Wilhelm in Bavaria had also purchased a former monastery, Banz Abbey. Both properties, Tegernsee and Banz, are still today owned by Prince Max, Duke in Bavaria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Middle East trip.", "content": "In 1838 Maximilian Joseph travelled to Egypt and Palestine. He published an account of this trip: \"Wanderung nach dem Orient im Jahre 1838\" (München: Georg Franz, 1839; reprinted Pfaffenhofen: Ludwig, 1978). While climbing the Great Pyramid he arranged for his servants to yodel as if he were climbing in the Alps. He collected a number of antiquities which he brought back to Bavaria and displayed in his father's home, Banz Abbey; they can still be seen there today. Among the items are the mummy of a young woman, three mummies' heads, several animal mummies, shawabtis, and several stones from tombs or temples including one from the Temple of Dendur. He also bought some children in the Cairo slave market and later freed them. When Maximilian Joseph was in Jerusalem, he paid for the restoration of the Church of the Flagellation on the Via Dolorosa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Folk-music.", "content": "Maximilian Joseph was one of the most prominent promoters of Bavarian folk-music in the 19th century. Under his influence the zither started to be used in court circles and eventually became identified as the national musical instrument of Bavaria. Because of his interest he received the nickname \"Zither-Maxl\". He himself played the zither and also composed music for it.  During a visit by his cousin Ludwig II of Bavaria, Ludwig saw some sheet music on Maximilian Joseph's piano by the composer Richard Wagner, which led on to Ludwig's financial support for Wagner from 1863.  Maximilian Joseph's musical compositions have been collected in the work: \"Die im Druck erschienenen Kompositionen von Herzog Maximilian in Bayern: Ländler, Walzer, Polka, Schottisch, Mazurka, Quadrillen und Märsche für Pianoforte, Zither, Gitarre oder Streichinstrumente\" (München: Musikverlag Emil Katzbichler, 1992).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria (4 December 1808 – 15 November 1888), known informally as Max in Bayern, was a member of a junior branch of the House of Wittelsbach and a promoter of Bavarian folk-music. He is most famous today as the father of Empress Elisabeth of Austria (\"Sisi\") and great-grandfather of King Leopold III of Belgium.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973806}
{"src_title": "John Backus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Backus was born in Philadelphia and grew up in nearby Wilmington, Delaware. He studied at The Hill School in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, and was apparently not a diligent student. After entering the University of Virginia to study chemistry, he quit and was conscripted into the U.S. Army. He began medical training at Haverford College and, during an internship at a hospital, he was diagnosed with a cranial bone tumor, which was successfully removed; a plate was installed in his head, and he ended medical training after nine months and a subsequent operation to replace the plate with one of his own design.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fortran.", "content": "After moving to New York City he trained initially as a radio technician and became interested in mathematics. He graduated from Columbia University with a bachelor's degree in 1949 and a master's degree in 1950, both in mathematics, and joined IBM in 1950. During his first three years, he worked on the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC); his first major project was to write a program to calculate positions of the Moon. In 1953 Backus developed the language Speedcoding, the first high-level language created for an IBM computer, to aid in software development for the IBM 701 computer.  Programming was very difficult at this time, and in 1954 Backus assembled a team to define and develop Fortran for the IBM 704 computer. Fortran was the first high-level programming language to be put to broad use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Backus–Naur form.", "content": "Backus served on the international committees that developed ALGOL 58 and the very influential ALGOL 60, which quickly became the \"de facto\" worldwide standard for publishing algorithms. Backus developed the Backus–Naur form (BNF), in the UNESCO report on ALGOL 58. It was a formal notation able to describe any context-free programming language, and was important in the development of compilers. A few deviations from this approach were tried—notably in Lisp and APL—but by the 1970s, following the development of automated compiler generators such as yacc, Backus–Naur context-free specifications for computer languages had become quite standard. This contribution helped Backus win the Turing Award in 1977.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function-level programming.", "content": "Backus later worked on a function-level programming language known as FP, which was described in his Turing Award lecture \"Can Programming be Liberated from the von Neumann Style?\". Sometimes viewed as Backus's apology for creating Fortran, this paper did less to garner interest in the FP language than to spark research into functional programming in general. When Backus publicized the function-level style of programming, his message was mostly misunderstood as being the same as traditional functional programming style languages.  FP was strongly inspired by Kenneth E. Iverson's APL, even using a non-standard character set. An FP interpreter was distributed with the 4.2BSD Unix operating system, but there were relatively few implementations of the language, most of which were used for educational purposes.  Backus spent the latter part of his career developing FL (from \"Function Level\"), a successor to FP. FL was an internal IBM research project, and development of the language stopped when the project was finished. Only a few papers documenting it remain, and the source code of the compiler described in them was not made public. FL was at odds with functional programming languages being developed in the 1980s, most of which were based on the lambda calculus and static typing systems instead of, as in APL, the concatenation of primitive operations. Many of the language's ideas have now been implemented in versions of the J programming language, Iverson's successor to APL.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Warner Backus (December 3, 1924 – March 17, 2007) was an American computer scientist. He directed the team that invented and implemented FORTRAN, the first widely used high-level programming language, and was the inventor of the Backus–Naur form (BNF), a widely used notation to define formal language syntax. He later did research into the function-level programming paradigm, presenting his findings in his influential 1977 Turing Award lecture \"Can Programming Be Liberated from the von Neumann Style?\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973807}
{"src_title": "Hermenegild", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Marriage to Ingund.", "content": "Hermenegild was the eldest son of the Liuvigild and his first wife, Princess Theodosia (a Chalcedonian Christian.) He was brother to Reccared I and brought up an Arian. Liuvigild made his sons co-regents.  In 579 he married Ingund, daughter of the Frankish King Sigebert I of Austrasia who was a Chalcedonian Christian. Her mother was the Visigoth princess Brunhilda of Austrasia. The twelve-year-old Ingund was pressured by Hermenegild's stepmother Goiswintha to abjure her beliefs, but she stayed firm in her faith.  Liuvigild sent Hermenegild to the south to govern on his behalf. There he came under the influence of Leander of Seville, older brother of Isidore of Seville. Hermenegild was converted to Chalcedonian Christianity. His family demanded that he return to Arianism, but he refused.  Around this time, he led a revolt against Liuvigild. Contemporary accounts attribute this to politics rather than primarily to religious differences. He asked for the aid of the Byzantine Empire but they were occupied with defending against territorial incursions by the Sasanian Empire For a time Hermenegild had the support of the Suebi, who had been defeated by Liuvigild in 579. However, Liuvigild forced them to capitulate once again in 583.  Hermenegild fled to Seville and when that fell to a siege in 584 went to Córdoba. After Liuvigild paid 30,000 pieces of gold, the Byzantines withdrew, taking Ingund and her son with them. Hermenegild sought sanctuary in a church. Liuvigild would not violate the sanctuary. He sent Reccared inside to speak with Hermenegild and to offer peace. This was accepted and peace was made for some time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imprisonment and death.", "content": "Goiswintha, however, brought about another alienation within the family. Hermenegild was imprisoned in Tarragona or Toledo. During his captivity in the tower of Seville, an Arian bishop was sent to Hermenegild for Easter but he would not accept the Eucharist from him. King Liuvigild ordered him beheaded; he was executed on 13 April 585.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Hermenegild or Ermengild (died 13 April 585) (, from Gothic \"*Airmana-gild\", \"immense tribute\"), was the son of king Liuvigild of the Visigothic Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula and southern France. He fell out with his father in 579, then revolted the following year. During his rebellion, he converted from Arianism to Chalcedonian Christianity. Hermenegild was defeated in 584 and exiled. His death was later celebrated as a martyrdom due to the influence of Pope Gregory I's \"Dialogues\", in which he portrayed Hermenegild as a \"Catholic martyr rebelling against the tyranny of an Arian father.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973808}
{"src_title": "Travis Walton UFO incident", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Abduction claims.", "content": "According to Walton, on November 5, 1975 he was working with a timber stand improvement crew in the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest near Snowflake, Arizona. While riding in a truck with six of his coworkers, they encountered a saucer-shaped object hovering over the ground approximately 110 feet away, making a high-pitched buzz. Walton claims that after he left the truck and approached the object, a beam of light suddenly appeared from the craft and knocked him unconscious. The other six men were frightened and supposedly drove away. Walton claimed that he awoke in a hospital-like room, being observed by three short, bald creatures. He claimed that he fought with them until a human wearing a helmet led Walton to another room, where he blacked out as three other humans put a clear plastic mask over his face. Walton has claimed he remembers nothing else until he found himself walking along a highway, with the flying saucer departing above him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ufologists.", "content": "In the days following Walton's UFO claim, \"The National Enquirer\" awarded Walton and his co-workers a $5,000 prize for \"best UFO case of the year\" after they allegedly passed polygraph tests administered by the \"Enquirer\" and the Aerial Phenomena Research Organization (APRO). Walton, his older brother, and his mother were described by the Navajo County, Arizona sheriff as \"longtime students of UFOs\". Some UFOlogists believe Walton was abducted by aliens. UFOlogist Jim Ledwith said, “For five days, the authorities thought he’d been murdered by his co-workers, and then he was returned. All of the co-workers who were there, who saw the spacecraft, they all took polygraph tests, and they all passed, except for one, and that one was inconclusive.”", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Skeptical reception.", "content": "Skeptics consider the case to be a hoax, describing it as \"sensationalizing on the part of the media\" and \"a put-up job to make money\". UFO researcher Philip J. Klass considered Walton's story to be a hoax perpetrated for financial gain and discovered many \"discrepancies\" in the accounts of Walton and his co-workers. After investigating the case, Klass reported that the polygraph tests were \"poorly administered\", that Walton used \"polygraph countermeasures,\" such as holding his breath, and that Klass uncovered an earlier failed test administered by an examiner who concluded the case involved \"gross deception\".  Science and skepticism writer Michael Shermer criticized Walton's claims, saying, \"I think the polygraph is not a reliable determiner of truth. I think Travis Walton was not abducted by aliens. In both cases, the power of deception and self-deception is all we need to understand what really happened in 1975 and after.\" Cognitive psychologist Susan Clancy argues that alien abduction reports began only after stories of extraterrestrials appeared in films and on TV, and that Walton was likely influenced by the NBC television movie \"The UFO Incident,\" which aired two weeks before his own claimed abduction and dramatized the alien abduction claims of Barney and Betty Hill. Clancy noted the rise in alien abduction claims following the movie and cites Klass's conclusions that \"after viewing this movie, any person with a little imagination could now become an instant celebrity\", concluding that \"one of those instant celebrities was Travis Walton.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media and publicity.", "content": "In 1978, Walton wrote the book \"The Walton Experience\" detailing his claims, which became the basis for the 1993 film \"Fire in the Sky\". Paramount Pictures decided Walton’s account was \"too fuzzy and too similar to other televised close encounters\", so they ordered screenwriter Tracy Tormé to write a \"flashier, more provocative\" abduction story. Walton has occasionally appeared at UFO conventions or on television. He sponsors his own UFO conference in Arizona called the \"Skyfire Summit\".  Thirty years after the book's release, Walton appeared on the Fox game show \"The Moment of Truth\" and was asked if he in fact was abducted by a UFO on November 5, 1975, to which he replied, \"Yes\". The polygraph test determined he was lying.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Travis Walton UFO incident was an alleged alien abduction of an American forestry worker, Travis Walton, by a UFO on November 5, 1975, while he was working in the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests near Snowflake, Arizona. Walton reappeared after a five-day search. The Walton case received mainstream publicity and remains one of the best-known alien abduction stories. Skeptics consider it a hoax. Walton wrote a book about his purported abduction in 1978 called \"The Walton Experience\", which was adapted into the 1993 film \"Fire in the Sky\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973809}
{"src_title": "Amyntas III of Macedon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Reign.", "content": "He came to the throne after the ten years of confusion which followed the death of Archelaus I. But he had many enemies at home; in 393 he was driven out by the Illyrians, but in the following year, with the aid of the Thessalians, he recovered his kingdom. Medius, head of the house of the Aleuadae of Larissa, is believed to have provided aid to Amyntas in recovering his throne. The mutual relationship between the Argeadae and the Aleuadae dates to the time of Archelaus.  To shore up his country against the threat of the Illyrians, Amyntas established an alliance with the Chalkidian League led by Olynthus. In exchange for this support, Amyntas granted them rights to Macedonian timber, which was sent back to Athens to help fortify their fleet. With money flowing into Olynthus from these exports, their power grew. In response, Amyntas sought additional allies. He established connections with Kotys, chief of the Odrysians. Kotys had already married his daughter to the Athenian general Iphicrates. Prevented from marrying into Kotys' family, Amyntas soon adopted Iphicrates as his son.  After the King's Peace of 387 BC, Sparta was anxious to re-establish its presence in northern Greece. In 385 BC, Bardylis and his Illyrians attacked Epirus instigated and aided by Dionysius I of Syracuse, in an attempt to restore the Molossian king Alcetas I of Epirus to the throne. When Amyntas sought Spartan aid against the growing threat of Olynthus, the Spartans eagerly responded. That Olynthus was backed by Athens and Thebes, rivals to Sparta for the control of Greece, provided them with an additional incentive to break up this growing power in the north. Amyntas thus concluded a treaty with the Spartans, who assisted him in a war against Olynthus. First it Spartan-Macedonian forces suffered two defeats but in 379 they managed to destroy Olynthus. He also entered into a league with Jason of Pherae, and assiduously cultivated the friendship of Athens. In 371 BC at a Panhellenic congress of the Lacedaemonian allies, he voted in support of the Athenians' claim and joined other Greeks in voting to help Athens to recover possession of Amphipolis.  With Olynthus defeated, Amyntas was now able to conclude a treaty with Athens and keep the timber revenues for himself. Amyntas shipped the timber to the house of the Athenian Timotheus, in Piraeus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Amyntas married Eurydice, daughter of Sirras of Lynkestis, circa 390. By her, Amyntas had three sons, all of whom became kings of Macedonia one after the other, and a daughter:  Justin also mentions that Amyntas had three sons by another wife, Gygaea (probably an Argead): Archelaus, Arrhidaeus and Menelaus. The fact that they did not try to take the throne before the 350s suggests that they were younger than Amyntas' children by Eurydice. They were ultimately eliminated by their half-brother Philip II because they had a claim to the throne.  Amyntas died at an advanced age, leaving his throne to his eldest son, Alexander II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Amyntas III (died 370 BC) was king of the ancient kingdom of Macedon in 393 BC, and again from 392 to 370 BC. He was the son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas, one of the sons of Alexander I. His most famous son is Philip II, father of Alexander the Great. He is historically considered the founder of the unified Macedonian state.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973810}
{"src_title": "Bronzino", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bronzino was born in Florence, the son of a butcher. According to his contemporary Vasari, Bronzino was a pupil first of Raffaellino del Garbo, and then of Pontormo, to whom he was apprenticed at 14. Pontormo is thought to have introduced a portrait of Bronzino as a child (seated on a step) into one of his series on \"Joseph in Egypt\" now in the National Gallery, London. Pontormo exercised a dominant influence on Bronzino's developing style, and the two were to remain collaborators for most of the former's life. An early example of Bronzino's hand has often been detected in the Capponi Chapel in the church of Santa Felicita by the Ponte Vecchio in Florence. Pontormo designed the interior and executed the altarpiece, the masterly \"Deposition from the Cross\" and the sidewall fresco \"Annunciation\". Bronzino apparently was assigned the frescoes on the dome, which have not survived. Of the four empanelled \"tondi\" or roundels depicting each of the evangelists, two were said by Vasari to have been painted by Bronzino. His style is so similar to his master's that scholars still debate the specific attributions.  Towards the end of his life, Bronzino took a prominent part in the activities of the Florentine Accademia delle Arti del Disegno, of which he was a founding member in 1563.  The painter Alessandro Allori was his favourite pupil, and Bronzino was living in the Allori family house at the time of his death in Florence in 1572 (Alessandro was also the father of Cristofano Allori). Bronzino spent the majority of his career in Florence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portraits.", "content": "Bronzino first received Medici patronage in 1539, when he was one of the many artists chosen to execute the elaborate decorations for the wedding of Cosimo I de' Medici to Eleonora di Toledo, daughter of the Viceroy of Naples. It was not long before he became, and remained for most of his career, the official court painter of the Duke and his court. His portrait figures—often read as static, elegant, and stylish exemplars of unemotional haughtiness and assurance—influenced the course of European court portraiture for a century. These well known paintings exist in many workshop versions and copies. In addition to images of the Florentine elite, Bronzino also painted idealized portraits of the poets Dante (c. 1530, now in Washington, DC) and Petrarch.  Bronzino's best known works comprise the aforementioned series of the duke and duchess, Cosimo and Eleonora, and figures of their court such as Bartolomeo Panciatichi and his wife Lucrezia. These paintings, especially those of the duchess, are known for their minute attention to the detail of her costume, which almost takes on a personality of its own in the image at right. Here the Duchess is pictured with her second son Giovanni, who died of malaria in 1562, along with his mother; however it is the sumptuous fabric of the dress that takes up more space on the canvas than either of the sitters. Indeed, the dress itself has been the object of some scholarly debate. The elaborate gown has been rumored to be so beloved by the duchess that she was ultimately buried in it; when this myth was debunked, others suggested that perhaps the garment never existed at all and Bronzino invented the entire thing, perhaps working only from a fabric swatch. In any case, this picture was reproduced over and over by Bronzino and his shop, becoming one of the most iconic images of the duchess. The version pictured here is in the Uffizi Gallery, and is one of the finest surviving examples.  Bronzino's so-called \"allegorical portraits\", such as that of a Genoese admiral, \"Portrait of Andrea Doria as Neptune\", are less typical but possibly even more fascinating due to the peculiarity of placing a publicly recognized personality in the nude as a mythical figure. Finally, in addition to being a painter, Bronzino was also a poet, and his most personal portraits are perhaps those of other literary figures such as that of his friend the poet Laura Battiferri. The eroticized nature of these virile nude male portraits, as well as homoerotic references in his poetry, have led scholars to believe that Bronzino was homosexual.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religious and allegorical subjects.", "content": "In 1540/41, Bronzino began work on the fresco decoration of the Chapel of Eleanora di Toledo in the Palazzo Vecchio and an oil on panel \"Deposition of Christ\" to be an altarpiece for the chapel. Before this commission, his style in the religious genre was less Mannerist, and was based in balanced compositions of the High Renaissance. Yet he became elegant and classicizing (cf. Smyth) in this fresco cycle, and his religious works are examples of the mid-16th-century aesthetics of the Florentine court—traditionally interpreted as highly stylized and non-personal or emotive. \"Crossing the Red Sea\" is typical of Bronzino's approach at this time, though it should not be claimed that Bronzino or the court was lacking in religious fervor on the basis of the preferred court fashion. Indeed, the duchess Eleanora was a generous patron to the recently founded Jesuit order.  Bronzino's work tends to include sophisticated references to earlier painters, as in one of his last grand frescoes called \"The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence\" (San Lorenzo, 1569), in which almost every one of the extraordinarily contorted poses can be traced back to Raphael or to Michelangelo, whom Bronzino idolized (cf. Brock). Bronzino's skill with the nude was even more enigmatically deployed in the celebrated \"Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time\", which conveys strong feelings of eroticism under the pretext of a moralizing allegory. His other major works include the design of a series of tapestries on \"The Story of Joseph\", for the Palazzo Vecchio.  Many of Bronzino's works are still in Florence but other examples can be found in the National Gallery, London, and elsewhere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Footnotes Citations", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agnolo di Cosimo (; November 17, 1503November 23, 1572), usually known as Bronzino ( ) or Agnolo Bronzino, was an Italian Mannerist painter from Florence. His sobriquet, \"Bronzino\", may refer to his relatively dark skin or reddish hair.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973811}
{"src_title": "Battle of Bibracte", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "After following the migration of the Helvetii and defeating them, Caesar, around 20 June, moved towards Bibracte (approximately 18 miles away from their camp) to obtain the supplies promised by his allies, the Aedui. Dumnorix, an Aedui chieftain opposed to the Romans, had been delaying supplies from reaching Caesar's army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "Informed by deserters from the allied auxiliary cavalry of Lucius Æmilius (the commander of the cavalry), the Helvetii decided to harass Caesar's rear guard. When Caesar observed this, he sent his cavalry to delay the attack. He then placed the Seventh (Legio VII Claudia), Eighth (Legio VIII Augusta), Ninth (Legio IX Hispana), and Tenth legions (Legio X Equestris), organized in Roman fashion (triplex acies, or \"triple battle order\"), at the foot of a nearby hill, the top of which he occupied himself, along with the Eleventh (Legio XI Claudia) and Twelfth (Legio XII Fulminata) Legions and all his auxiliaries. His baggage train was assembled near the summit, where it could be guarded by the forces there.  Having driven off Caesar's cavalry and with their own baggage train secured, the Helvetii engaged \"In the seventh hour\", approximately noon or one o'clock. According to Caesar, his hilltop battle line easily threw back the onslaught by using pila (javelins/throwing spears). The Roman legionaries then drew swords and advanced downhill wading into their opponents. Many Helvetii warriors had pila sticking out of their shields and threw them aside to fight unencumbered, but this also made them more vulnerable. The legions drove the Helvetii back toward the hill where their baggage train sat.  While the legions pursued the Helvetii across the plain between the hills, the Boii and the Tulingi arrived with fifteen thousand men to assist the Helvetii, flanking the Romans on one side. At that point, the Helvetii returned to the battle in earnest. When the Tulingi and the Boii started circumventing the Romans, Caesar regrouped his third line to resist the assault of the Boii and Tuligni, keeping his primary and secondary committed to chasing the Helvetii.  The battle lasted many hours into the night, until the Romans finally took the Helvetic baggage train, capturing both a daughter and a son of Orgetorix. According to Caesar, 130,000 enemies escaped, of which 110,000 survived the retreat. Unable to pursue on account of battle wounds and the time it took to bury the dead, Caesar rested three days before he followed the fleeing Helvetii. These, in turn, had managed to reach the territory of the Lingones within four days of the battle. Caesar warned the Lingones not to assist them, prompting the Helvetii and their allies to surrender.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casualties.", "content": "Caesar claimed that of the 368,000 Helvetii and allies, only 130,000 got away, of whom 110,000 returned home. Orosius, probably drawing on the works of Caesar's general Asinius Pollio, gave an original strength of 157,000 for the barbarians, adding that 47,000 died during the campaign. Strabo states an even lower figure, with only 8,000 escaping the battle, an estimate assessed as plausible by Hans Delbrück.  Also according to Caesar the census totals of the tribes at the start of the war were:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Bibracte was fought between the Helvetii and six Roman legions, under the command of Gaius Julius Caesar. It was the second major battle of the Gallic Wars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973812}
{"src_title": "Walter Dornberger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rocket development.", "content": "In April 1930, Dornberger was appointed to the Ballistics Council of the German Army (\"Reichswehr\") Weapons Department as Assistant Examiner to secretly develop a military liquid-fuel rocket suitable for mass-production that would surpass the range of artillery. In the spring of 1932, Dornberger, his commander (Captain Ritter von Horstig), and Col. Karl Emil Becker visited the \"Verein für Raumschiffahrt\" (VfR)'s leased \"Raketenflugplatz\" (English: \"Rocket Flight Field\") and subsequently issued a contract for a demonstration launch. On 21 December 1932, Captain Dornberger watched a rocket motor explode at Kummersdorf while Wernher von Braun tried to light it with a flaming gasoline can at the end of a pole.  In 1933, \"Waffenamt Prüfwesen\" (\"Wa Prüf\", English: \"Weapons Testing\") 1/1, under the \"Heereswaffenamt\" (Army Weapons Department), commenced work under the direction of Colonel/Dr. Ing. h. c. Dornberger. Dornberger also took over his last \"military\" command on 1 October 1934, a powder-rocket training battery at Königsbrück. In May 1937, Dornberger and his ninety-man organization were transferred from Kummersdorf to Peenemünde. In September 1942, Dornberger was given two posts: coordinating the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket development programs and directing active operations. The first successful test launch of a V-2 was the third test launch on 3 October 1942. In the early morning of 7 July 1943, Dr. Ernst Steinhoff flew von Braun and Major-General Dornberger in his Heinkel He 111 to Hitler's \"Führerhauptquartier\" \"Wolfsschanze\" headquarters and the next day Hitler viewed the film of the successful V-2 test launch (narrated by von Braun) and the scale models of the Watten bunker and launching-troop vehicles:  In January 1944, Dornberger was named Senior Artillery Commander 191 and was headquartered at Maisons-Lafitte near Saint Germain, and in December 1944, Dornberger was given complete authority for anti-aircraft rocket development (\"Flak E Flugabwehrkanonenentwicklung\"). On 12 January 1945 on Dornberger's proposal, Albert Speer replaced the Long-Range Weapons Commission with \"Working Staff Dornberger\". In February 1945, Dornberger and staff relocated his headquarters from Schwedt-an-der-Oder to Bad Sachsa, then on 6 April 1945, from Bad Sachsa to \"Haus Ingeborg\" in Oberjoch near Hindelang in the Allgäu mountains of Bavaria. Before going to the Alps, General Dornberger hid comprehensive V-2 documentation in a mine near Goslar, which were recovered by the 332nd Engineer Regiment on 16 May 1945 by a secret action when Goslar was already occupied by the British Army.  On 2 May 1945, Dornberger, von Braun, and five other men departed from Haus Ingeborg and travelled through Gaicht Pass and towards the little Austrian village of Schattwald. They met American soldiers who convoyed the group to the Tyrolean town of Reutte for the night. At an internment camp after the war, known as \"CSDIC Camp 11\", the British bugged Dornberger, who in conversation with \"Generalmajor\" Gerhard Bassenge (GOC Air Defences, Tunis & Biserta) said that he and Wernher von Braun had realized in late 1944 that things were going wrong and consequently was in touch with the General Electric Corporation through the German Embassy in Portugal, with a view to coming to some arrangement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Postwar.", "content": "In mid-August 1945, after taking part in Operation Backfire, Dornberger was escorted from Cuxhaven to London for interrogation by the British War Crimes Investigation Unit in connection with the use of slave labor in the production of V-2 rockets; he was subsequently transferred and detained for two years at Bridgend in South Wales.  Along with some other German rocket scientists, Dornberger was released and brought to the United States under the auspices of Operation Paperclip and worked for the United States Air Force for three years, developing guided missiles. From 1950 to 1965, he worked for the Bell Aircraft Corporation, where he worked on several projects, rising to the post of Vice-President. He played a major role in the creation of the North American X-15 aircraft and was a key consultant for the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar project. He also had a role on the creation of ideas and projects, which, in the end, led to the creation of the Space Shuttle. Dornberger also developed Bell's ASM-A-2, the world's first guided nuclear air-to-surface missile developed for the Strategic Air Command. Dornberger advised Germany on a European space program. During the 1950s he had some differences with von Braun and was instrumental in recruiting several engineers out of the Huntsville's team for Air Force projects. The most remarkable of them was Krafft Ehricke, who later created the Centaur rocket stage and actively participated in several more Defense projects.  Following retirement, Dornberger went to Mexico and later returned to Germany, where he died in 1980 in Baden-Württemberg.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Major-General Dr. Walter Robert Dornberger (6 September 1895 – 27 June 1980) was a German Army artillery officer whose career spanned World War I and World War II. He was a leader of Nazi Germany's V-2 rocket program and other projects at the Peenemünde Army Research Center.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973813}
{"src_title": "Park Güell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Park Güell is the reflection of Gaudí's artistic plenitude, which belongs to his naturalist phase (first decade of the 20th century). During this period, the architect perfected his personal style through inspiration from organic shapes. He put into practice a series of new structural solutions rooted in the analysis of geometry. To that, the Catalan artist adds creative liberty and an imaginative, ornamental creation. Starting from a sort of baroquism, his works acquire a structural richness of forms and volumes, free of the rational rigidity or any sort of classic premises. In the design of Park Güell, Gaudí unleashed all his architectonic genius and put to practice much of his innovative structural solutions that would become the symbol of his organic style and that would culminate in the creation of the Basilica and Expiatory Church of the Holy Family (Catalan: Sagrada Familia).  Güell and Gaudí conceived this park, situated within a natural park. They imagined an organized grouping of high-quality homes, decked out with all the latest technological advancements to ensure maximum comfort, finished off with an artistic touch. They also envisioned a community strongly influenced by symbolism, since, in the common elements of the park, they were trying to synthesize many of the political and religious ideals shared by patron and architect: therefore there are noticeable concepts originating from political Catalanism – especially in the entrance stairway where the Catalan countries are represented – and from Catholicism – the Monumento al Calvario, originally designed to be a chapel. The mythological elements are so important: apparently Güell and Gaudí's conception of the park was also inspired by the Temple of Apollo of Delphi.  On the other hand, many experts have tried to link the park to various symbols because of the complex iconography that Gaudí applied to the urban project. Such references go from political vindication to religious exaltation, passing through mythology, history and philosophy. Specifically, many studies claim to see references to Freemasonry, despite the deep religious beliefs of both Gaudí and Count Güell. These references have not been proven in the historiography of the modern architect. The multiplicity of symbols found in the Park Güell is, as previously mentioned, associated to political and religious signs, with a touch of mystery according to the preferences of that time for enigmas and puzzles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins as a housing development.", "content": "The park was originally part of a commercially unsuccessful housing site, the idea of Count Eusebi Güell, after whom the park was named. It was inspired by the English garden city movement; hence the original English name \"Park\" (in Catalan the name is \"Parc Güell\"). The site was a rocky hill with little vegetation and few trees, called \"Muntanya Pelada\" (Bare Mountain). It already included a large country house called Larrard House or Muntaner de Dalt House and was next to a neighbourhood of upper-class houses called \"La Salut\" (The Health). The intention was to exploit the fresh air (well away from smoky factories) and beautiful views from the site, with sixty triangular lots being provided for luxury houses. Count Eusebi Güell added to the prestige of the development by moving in 1906 to live in Larrard House. Ultimately, only two houses were built, neither designed by Gaudí. One was intended to be a show house, but on being completed in 1904 was put up for sale, and as no buyers came forward, Gaudí, at Güell's suggestion, bought it with his savings and moved in with his family and his father in 1906. This house, where Gaudí lived from 1906 to 1926, was built by Francesc Berenguer in 1904. It contains original works by Gaudí and several of his collaborators. It is now the Gaudi House Museum (Casa Museu Gaudí) since 1963. In 1969 it was declared a historical artistic monument of national interest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Municipal garden.", "content": "It has since been converted into a municipal garden. It can be reached by underground railway (although the stations are at a distance from the Park and at a much lower level below the hill), by city buses, or by commercial tourist buses. Since October 2013 there is an entrance fee to visit the Monumental Zone (main entrance, terrace, and the parts containing mosaics), but the entrance to the Park remains free. Gaudí's house, \"la Torre Rosa,\" – containing furniture that he designed – can be only visited for another entrance fee. There is a reduced rate for those wishing to see both Gaudí's house and the Sagrada Família Church.  Park Güell is designed and composed to bring the peace and calm that one would expect from a park. The buildings flanking the entrance, though very original and remarkable with fantastically shaped roofs with unusual pinnacles, fit in well with the use of the park as pleasure gardens and seem relatively inconspicuous in the landscape when one considers the flamboyance of other buildings designed by Gaudí. These two buildings make up the Porter's Lodge pavilion. One of these buildings contains a small room with a telephone booth. The other, while once being the porter's house, is now a permanent exhibition of the Barcelona City History Museum MUHBA focused on the building itself, the park and the city.  The focal point of the park is the main terrace, surrounded by a long bench in the form of a sea serpent. The curves of the serpent bench form a number of enclaves, creating a more social atmosphere. Gaudí incorporated many motifs of Catalan nationalism, and elements from religious mysticism and ancient poetry, into the Park. Much of the design of the benches was the work not of Gaudí but of his often overlooked collaborator Josep Maria Jujol.  Roadways around the park to service the intended houses were designed by Gaudí as structures jutting out from the steep hillside or running on viaducts, with separate footpaths in arcades formed under these structures. This minimized the intrusion of the roads, and Gaudí designed them using local stone in a way that integrates them closely into the landscape. His structures echo natural forms, with columns like tree trunks supporting branching vaulting under the roadway, and the curves of vaulting and alignment of sloping columns designed in a similar way to his Church of Colònia Güell so that the inverted catenary arch shapes form perfect compression structures.  At the park's high-point, there is a stone hill composed of steps leading up to a platform which holds three large crosses. The official name of this is \"El Turó de les Tres Creus,\" however many tourists choose to call it Calvary. Two of the crosses point north–south and east–west, the third, and tallest cross, points skyward. This lookout offers the most complete view of Barcelona and the bay. It is possible to view the main city in panorama, with the Sagrada Família (another one of Antoni Guadí's famous creations), the Agbar Tower, and the Montjuïc area visible at a distance.  The park supports a wide variety of wildlife, notably several of the non-native species of parrot found in the Barcelona area. Other birds can be seen from the park, with records including short-toed eagle. The park also supports a population of hummingbird hawk moths.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Park Güell ( ; ) is a public park system composed of gardens and architectural elements located on Carmel Hill, in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. Carmel Hill belongs to the mountain range of Collserola – the Parc del Carmel is located on the northern face. Park Güell is located in La Salut, a neighborhood in the Gràcia district of Barcelona. With urbanization in mind, Eusebi Güell assigned the design of the park to Antoni Gaudí, a renowned architect and the face of Catalan modernism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973814}
{"src_title": "Jean-Louis Trintignant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Trintignant was born in Piolenc, Vaucluse, France, the son of Claire (née Tourtin) and Raoul Trintignant, an industrialist. At the age of twenty, Trintignant moved to Paris to study drama and made his theatrical debut in 1951, going on to be seen as one of the most gifted French actors of the post-war era. After touring in the early 1950s in several theater productions, his first motion picture appearance came in 1955 and the following year he gained stardom with his performance opposite Brigitte Bardot in Roger Vadim's \"And God Created Woman\".  Trintignant's acting was interrupted for several years by mandatory military service. After serving in Algiers, he returned to Paris and resumed his work in film. He had the leading male role in \"A Man and a Woman\", which at the time was the most successful French film ever screened in the foreign market.  In Italy, he was always dubbed into Italian, and he worked with Italian directors including Sergio Corbucci in \"The Great Silence\", Valerio Zurlini in \"Violent Summer\" and \"The Desert of the Tartars\", Ettore Scola in \"La terrazza\", Bernardo Bertolucci in \"The Conformist\", and Dino Risi in \"The Easy Life\".  Throughout the 1970s, Trintignant starred in numerous films, and in 1983 he made his first English-language feature film, \"Under Fire\". Following this, he starred in François Truffaut's final film, \"Confidentially Yours,\" and reprised his best-known role in the sequel \"\".  In 1994, he starred in Krzysztof Kieślowski's last film, \"\". Since then, he has taken an occasional film role but been focusing on stage work. After a 14-year gap, Trintignant came back on screen for Michael Haneke's film \"Amour\". Haneke sent Trintignant the script, which had been written specifically for him. Trintignant said he chooses the films he does on the basis of the director, and said of Haneke that \"he has the most complete mastery of the cinematic discipline, from technical aspects like sound and photography to the way he handles actors\".  On 20 July 2018 Trintignant announced his retirement from cinema, but in March 2019 he accepted a role in Claude Lelouch's film \"Les plus belles annees d'une vie\", a follow-up to \"Un homme et une femme\" and its sequel \"Un homme et une femme, 20 ans dejà\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Trintignant comes from a wealthy family. He is the nephew of racecar driver Louis Trintignant, who was killed in 1933 while practising on the Péronne racetrack in Picardy. Another uncle, Maurice Trintignant (1917–2005), was a Formula One driver who twice won the Monaco Grand Prix as well as the 24 hours of Le Mans. Raised in and around automobile racing, Trintignant was the natural choice of film director Claude Lelouch for the starring role of a racecar driver in the 1966 film \"A Man and a Woman\". He suffered a leg injury from a motorcycle accident in June 2007.  His first wife was actress Stéphane Audran. His second wife, Nadine Marquand, was an actress, screenwriter and director. They had three children: Vincent Trintignant, Pauline (who died of crib death in 1969) and Marie Trintignant (21 January 1962 – 1 August 2003). At age 17 Marie performed in \"La terrazza\" alongside her father and later became a successful actress. She was killed at the age of 41 by her boyfriend, singer Bertrand Cantat, in a hotel room in Vilnius, Lithuania.  Trintignant is good friends with Anouk Aimée. It was he who recommended Aimée to Lelouch for the female lead in \"A Man and a Woman\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Trintignant was nominated to receive the César five times: in 1987, 1995, 1996, 1999, and in 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Louis Xavier Trintignant (; born 11 December 1930) is a French actor. He won the Best Actor Award at the 1969 Cannes Film Festival as well as the Best Actor Award at the César Awards 2013. He starred in classic films such as \"A Man and a Woman\", \"The Great Silence\", \"The Conformist\", \"\", and \"Amour\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973815}
{"src_title": "Cabaret Voltaire (Zurich)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Switzerland was a neutral country during World War I and among the many refugees coming to Zürich were artists from all over Europe. Ball and Hennings approached Ephraim Jan, patron of the \"Holländische Meierei\" at Spiegelgasse 1, which had already hosted Zürich's first literary cabaret, the \"Pantagruel\" in 1915. Jan permitted them to use the back room for events. The press release on 2 February 1916 announcing the opening of the club reads: The Cabaret Voltaire. Under this name a group of young artists and writers has formed with the object of becoming a center for artistic entertainment. In principle, the Cabaret will be run by artists, permanent guests, who, following their daily reunions, will give musical or literary performances. Young Zürich artists, of all tendencies, are invited to join us with suggestions and proposals.  The cabaret featured spoken word, dance and music. The soirees were often raucous events with artists experimenting with new forms of performance, such as sound poetry and simultaneous poetry. Mirroring the maelstrom of World War I raging around it, the art it exhibited was often chaotic and brutal. On at least one occasion, the audience attacked the cabaret's stage. Though the cabaret was to be the birthplace of the Dadaist movement, it featured artists from every sector of the avant-garde, including Futurism's Marinetti. The cabaret exhibited radically experimental artists, many of whom went on to change the face of their artistic disciplines; featured artists included Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Giorgio de Chirico, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, and Max Ernst.  On July 28, 1916, Ball read out the \"Dada Manifesto\". In June, Ball had also published a journal with the same name. It featured work from artists such as the poet Guillaume Apollinaire and had a cover designed by Arp.  The cabaret closed down in the summer of 1916.  While the Dada movement was just beginning, by 1917 the excitement generated by the cabaret Voltaire had fizzled out and the artists moved on to other places in Zürich such as the Galerie Dada at Bahnhofstrasse 19, then later Paris and Berlin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent events.", "content": "In recent years, the building which had housed Cabaret Voltaire in 1916 fell into disrepair, and in the winter of 2001/2002 a group of artists describing themselves as neo-Dadaists, organised by Mark Divo, squatted the building to protest its planned closure. They declared that it was a signal for a new generation of artists to align themselves with a revival of Dada.  Over a period of three months there was a number of performances, parties, poetry evenings and film nights. Among the participating artists were Ingo Giezendanner, Lennie Lee, Leumund Cult, Mickry3, xeno volcano, elektra sturmschnell, Aiana Calugar, and Dan Jones. The building was decorated on the outside as well as the inside. Thousands of people from around Zürich took part in the experiment. On April 2, 2002 police evicted the occupants.  A new cabaret has since opened in the building, with an extensive programme of events such as, \"Hugo Ball: Fuga saeculi,\" in 2008, curated by Bazon Brock and included a performance of Gabriella Daris' corporeal poem \"LopLop: WORD or WOman biRD\" (an homage to Max Ernst's namesake collage from 1921) as well as a film projection by Werner Nekes\",\" and the Summer 2008 exhibition \"Dreamachine: David Woodard, Sheela Birnstiel, Christian Kracht.\"  Nowadays The Cabaret Voltaire adopts personalities and celebrates them as Dadaists such as Alexander Archipenko, Tatsuo Okada or Mikhail Bakunin. They also sponsored the restoration of Bakunin's grave plate in the Bremgarten cemetery in Berne, adding a portrait by Swiss artist Daniel Garbade and Bakunin's quote: \"By striving to do the impossible, man has always achieved what is possible\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cabaret Voltaire was the name of an artistic nightclub in Zürich, Switzerland. It was founded by Hugo Ball, with his companion Emmy Hennings, in the back room of Holländische Meierei, Spiegelgasse 1, on February 5, 1916, as a cabaret for artistic and political purposes. Other founding members were Marcel Janco, Richard Huelsenbeck, Tristan Tzara, and Sophie Taeuber-Arp and Jean Arp. Events at the cabaret proved pivotal in the founding of the anarchic art movement known as Dada. It closed in the summer of 1916.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973816}
{"src_title": "Robert van Gulik", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Robert van Gulik was born in Zutphen, the son of a medical officer in the Dutch army of what was then called the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia). He was born in the Netherlands, but from the age of three till twelve he lived in Batavia, Dutch East Indies (now Jakarta), where he was tutored in Mandarin and other languages. He went to Leiden University in 1934 and obtained his PhD in 1935. His talents as a linguist suited him for a job in the Dutch Foreign Service, which he joined in 1935; and he was then stationed in various countries, mostly in East Asia (Japan and China).  He was in Tokyo when Japan declared war on the Netherlands in 1941, but he, along with the rest of the Allied diplomatic staff, was evacuated in 1942. He spent most of the rest of World War II as the secretary for the Dutch mission to Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government in Chongqing. While in Chongqing, he married a Chinese woman, Shui Shifang, the daughter of a Qing dynasty Imperial mandarin, and they had four children together.  After the war ended, he returned to the Netherlands, then went to the United States as the counsellor of the Dutch Embassy in Washington, D.C. He returned to Japan in 1949 and stayed there for the next four years. While in Tokyo, he published his first two books, the translation \"Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee\" and a privately published book of erotic colored prints from the Ming dynasty. Later postings took him all over the world, from New Delhi, Kuala Lumpur, and Beirut (during the 1958 Civil War) to The Hague. In 1959 Van Gulik became correspondent of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, he resigned in 1963. In 1964 he became a full member, and the next year he became a foreign member. From 1965 until his death from cancer at The Hague in 1967, he was the Dutch ambassador to Japan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Judge Dee mysteries.", "content": "During World War II van Gulik translated the 18th-century detective novel \"Dee Goong An\" into English under the title \"Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee\" (first published in Tokyo in 1949). The main character of this book, Judge Dee, was based on the real statesman and detective Di Renjie, who lived in the 7th century, during the Tang Dynasty (AD 600–900), though in the novel itself elements of Ming Dynasty China (AD 1300–1600) were mixed in.  Thanks to his translation of this largely forgotten work, van Gulik became interested in Chinese detective fiction. To the translation he appended an essay on the genre in which he suggested that it was easy to imagine rewriting some of the old Chinese case histories with an eye toward modern readers. Not long afterward he himself tried his hand at creating a detective story along these lines. This became the book \"The Chinese Maze Murders\" (completed around 1950). As van Gulik thought the story would have more interest to Japanese and Chinese readers, he had it translated into Japanese by a friend (finished in 1951), and it was sold in Japan under the title \"Meiro-no-satsujin\". With the success of the book, van Gulik produced a translation into Chinese, which was published by a Singapore book publisher in 1953. The reviews were good, and van Gulik wrote two more books (\"The Chinese Bell Murders\" and \"The Chinese Lake Murders\") over the next few years, also with an eye toward Japanese and then Chinese editions. Next, van Gulik found a publisher for English versions of the stories, and the first such version was published in 1957. Later books were written and published in English first; the translations came afterwards.  Van Gulik's intent in writing his first Judge Dee novel was, as he wrote in remarks on \"The Chinese Bell Murders\", \"to show modern Chinese and Japanese writers that their own ancient crime-literature has plenty of source material for detective and mystery-stories\". In 1956, he published a translation of the \"T'ang-yin-pi-shih\" (\"Parallel Cases from Under the Pear Tree\"), a 13th-century casebook for district magistrates. He used many of the cases as plots in his novels (as he states in the postscripts of the novels).  Van Gulik's Judge Dee mysteries follow in the long tradition of Chinese detective fiction, intentionally preserving a number of key elements of that writing culture. Most notably, he had Judge Dee solve three different (and sometimes unrelated) cases in each book, a traditional device in Chinese mysteries. The whodunit element is also less important in the Judge Dee stories than it is in the traditional Western detective story, though still more so than in traditional Chinese detective stories. Nevertheless, van Gulik's fiction was adapted to a more Western audience, avoiding the supernatural and religious traditions of Buddhism and Daoism in favour of rationality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other works.", "content": "Robert van Gulik studied \"Indisch Recht\" (Dutch Indies law) and \"Indologie\" (Indonesian culture) at Leiden University from 1929 until 1934, receiving his doctorate for a dissertation on the horse cult in Northeast Asia. Though he made his career in the Dutch diplomatic service, he kept up his studies. During his life he wrote twenty-odd essays and monographs on various subjects, mainly but not exclusively on aspects of Chinese culture. Typically, much of his scholarly work was first published outside the Netherlands. In his lifetime van Gulik was recognized as a European expert on Imperial Chinese jurisprudence.  Van Gulik was quite interested in Chinese painting. For example, in his book \"The Gibbon in China\" (1967), he devotes quite a few pages to the gibbon-themed paintings in China and Japan, from the Northern Song Dynasty on. Analyzing the portrayal of these apes throughout history, he notes how the realism of the pictures deteriorated as the gibbon population in most of China was extirpated. As an art critic, he greatly admired the portrayal of the apes by such renowned painters as Yi Yuanji and Muqi Fachang. Commenting on one of Ming Emperor Xuande's works, \"Gibbons at Play\", van Gulik says that while it is \"not a great work of art\", it is \"ably executed\". The lifelike images of the apes make one surmise that the emperor painted from the live models that could have been kept in the palace gardens.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Hans van Gulik (, August 9, 1910 – September 24, 1967) was an orientalist, diplomat, musician (of the guqin), and writer, best known for the Judge Dee historical mysteries, the protagonist of which he borrowed from the 18th-century Chinese detective novel \"Dee Goong An\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973817}
{"src_title": "Antonello da Messina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and training.", "content": "Antonello was born at Messina around 1429–1431, to Garita (Margherita) and Giovanni de Antonio Mazonus.  According to a letter written in 1524 by the Neapolitan humanist Pietro Summonte, in about 1450 he was a pupil of the painter Niccolò Colantonio at Naples, where Netherlandish painting was then fashionable. This account of his training is accepted by most art historians.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Antonello returned to Messina from Naples during the 1450s. In around 1455, he painted the so-called \"Sibiu Crucifixion\", inspired by Flemish treatments of the subject, which is now in the Muzeul de Artǎ in Bucharest. A \"Crucifixion\" in the Royal Museum of Antwerp dates from the same period. These early works shows a marked Flemish influence, which is now understood to be inspired by his master Colantonio and from paintings by Rogier van der Weyden and Jan van Eyck that belonged to Colantonio's patron, Alfonso V of Aragon. In his biography of the artist, Giorgio Vasari remarked that Antonello saw an oil painting by Jan Van Eyck (the \"Lomellini Tryptych\") belonging to King Alfonso V of Aragon at Naples and consequently introduced oil painting to Italy. Recent evidence indicates that an Antonello di Sicilia (di Siclia meaning from Sicily) was in contact with Van Eyck's most accomplished follower, Petrus Christus, in Milan in early 1456. It appears likely that Antonello di Sicilia was in fact Antonello da Messina as this would explain why Messina was one of the first Italians to master Eyckian oil painting, and Christus was the first Netherlandish painter to learn Italian linear perspective. Messina's paintings after that date show an observation of almost microscopic detail and of minute gradations of light on reflecting or light absorbent objects that is very close to the style of the Netherlandish masters, suggesting Messina had personal instruction from Christus. As well, his works' calmer expressions on peoples' faces and calmness in the works' overall composition also appears to be a Netherlandish influence.  Between the years of 1456 and 1457, Antonello proved himself to be a master painter in Messina. He also shared his home with Paolo di Ciacio, a student from Calabria. The artist's earliest documented commission, in 1457, was for a banner for the Confraternità di San Michele dei Gerbini in Reggio Calabria, where he set up a workshop for the production of such banners and devotional images. At this date, he was already married, and his son Jacobello had been born.  In 1460, his father is mentioned leasing a brigantine to bring back Antonello and his family from Amantea in Calabria. In that year, Antonello painted the so-called \"Salting Madonna\", in which standard iconography and Flemish style are combined with a greater attention in the volumetric proportions of the figures, probably indicating a knowledge of works by Piero della Francesca. Also from around 1460 are two small panels depicting \"Abraham Served by the Angels\" and \"St. Jerome Penitent\" now in the Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia in Reggio Calabria. In 1461 Antonello's younger brother Giordano entered his workshop, signing a three-year contract. In that year Antonello painted a \"Madonna with Child\" for the Messinese nobleman Giovanni Mirulla, now lost.  Historians believe that Antonello painted his first portraits in the late 1460s. They follow a Netherlandish model, the subject being shown bust-length, against a dark background, full face or in three-quarter view, while most previous Italian painters had adopted the medal-style profile pose for individual portraits. John Pope-Hennessy described him as \"the first Italian painter for whom the individual portrait was an art form in its own right\". Although Antonello is mentioned in many documents between 1460 and 1465, establishing his presence in Messina in those years, a gap in the sources between 1465 and 1471 suggests that he may have spent these years on the mainland. In 1474, he painted the \"Annunciation\", now in Syracuse, and the \"St. Jerome in His Study\" also dates from around this time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Venice.", "content": "Antonello went to Venice in 1475 and remained there until the fall of 1476. His works of this period begin to show a greater attention to the human figure, regarding both anatomy and expressivity, indicating the influence of Piero della Francesca and Giovanni Bellini. His most famous pictures from this period include the \"Condottiero\" (Louvre), the \"San Cassiano Altarpiece\" and the \"St. Sebastian\". The \"San Cassiano Altarpiece\" was especially influential on Venetian painters, as it was one of the first of the large compositions in the \"sacra conversazione\" format which was perfected by Giovanni Bellini (Antonello's surviving work in Vienna is only a fragment of a much larger original). It is also likely that Antonello passed on both the techniques of using oil paints and the principles of calmness on subjects' faces and in the composition of paintings to Giovanni Bellini and other Venetian painters during that visit. While in Venice he was offered, but did not accept, the opportunity to become the court portrait painter to the Duke of Milan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Messina and death.", "content": "Antonello had returned to Sicily by September 1476. Works from near the end of his life include the famous \"Virgin Annunciate\", now in the Palazzo Abatellis in Palermo, and the San Gregorio Polyptych.  He died at Messina in 1479. His testament dates from February of that year, and he is documented as no longer alive two months later. Some of his last works remained unfinished, but were completed by his son Jacobello.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Style and legacy.", "content": "Antonello's style is remarkable for its union of Italian simplicity with Flemish concern for detail. He exercised an enormous influence on Italian painting, not only by the introduction of the Flemish invention, but also by the transmission of Flemish tendencies. However, no school of painting formed after his death, with the exception of the Sicilian Marco Costanzo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antonello da Messina, properly Antonello di Giovanni di Antonio, but also called Antonello degli Antoni and Anglicized as Anthony of Messina ( 1430February 1479), was an Italian painter from Messina, Sicily, active during the Early Italian Renaissance. His work shows strong influences from Early Netherlandish painting although there is no documentary evidence that he ever travelled beyond Italy. Giorgio Vasari credited him with the introduction of oil painting into Italy. Unusually for a south Italian artist of the Renaissance, his work proved influential on painters in northern Italy, especially in Venice.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973818}
{"src_title": "Tzolkʼin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The twenty day names.", "content": "The tzolkʼin calendar combines a cycle of twenty named days with another cycle of thirteen numbers (the \"trecena\"), to produce 260 unique days (20 × 13 = 260). Each successive named day is numbered from 1 to 13, and then starting again at 1.  The 20 individual named days are the following:  The tzolkʼin does not have a generally recognized start and end, although there are specific references in the books of \"Chilam Balam\" to 1 Imix as the beginning day.  Each of the twenty days has its specific primary association connected to the day name's meaning.  The variant names and associations below are common to three post-conquest Guatemalan highland calendars. Their interpretations are based primarily on an 1854 manuscript by Hernandez Spina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The tzolkʼin was extensively used in Mayan inscriptions and codices. Symbolism related to the tzolkʼin is also observed in the Popol Vuh (which, though written in the early post-conquest period, is probably based on older texts). For instance, when Ixbalanque has set an impossible task for Ix Quic of collecting a netful of corn from one stalk and Ix Quic successfully completes it, she leaves the imprint of her net in the ground, and the day \"net\" is the opening of the Venus cycle which follows \"ahau\" (\"ajpu\" in Kʼicheʼ), just as her child is the heir of Hun Hunajpu.  The uses to which the ancient Maya applied the calendar are unknown, nonetheless modern Maya communities employ the calendar as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "The 260-day calendar spread throughout the Mesoamerican cultural region and is regarded as the oldest and most important of the calendar systems, with an origin predating its first appearances in Maya inscriptions. The earliest evidence of this calendar comes from a possible day sign with a dot numeral coefficient in an Olmec-like inscription in Oxtotitlán cave dated to 800-500 BCE. Some of the next oldest calendric inscriptions are from early strata of Zapotec in the Oaxacan highlands at sites such as Monte Albán, dating from mid-1st millennium BCE. A few earlier-dated inscriptions and artifacts have what appear to be calendric glyphs, such as at San José Mogote and in the Olmec Gulf Coast region. However, either the dating method or the calendric nature of the glyphs are disputed by scholars.  The original purpose of such a calendar, with no obvious relation to any astronomical or geophysical cycle, is not securely known, but there are several theories. One theory is that the calendar came from mathematical operations based on the numbers thirteen and twenty, which were important numbers to the Maya, (Thompson 1950: Maya Hieroglyphic Writing:Introduction). The number twenty was the basis of the Maya counting system, taken from the total number of human digits. (See Maya numerals). Thirteen symbolized the number of levels in the Upperworld where the gods lived, and is also cited by modern daykeepers as the number of \"joints\" in the human body (ankles, knees, hips, shoulders, elbows, wrists, and neck). The numbers multiplied together equal 260.  Barbara Tedlock, studied this system in the contemporary Kʼiche Maya community of the municipality of Momostenango in highland Guatemala. She underwent a formal apprenticeship in calendar divination with a local adept, and was initiated as a diviner in 1976. She says: \"The Momostecan calendar embraces both the 260-day cycle and the 365-day solar year, with the four Classic Maya Year-bearers, or Mam, systematically linking the two. The 260-day cycle is conceived as linked firmly to worldly or earthly affairs, mirroring no astronomical period but rather the period of human gestation. Past ethnographic accounts of this cycle contain various conflicting opinions as to what its first day is, but a comparison of the present results and those of previous studies indicates that there is no fixed first day.\"  Anthony Aveni asserts, \"Once a Maya genius may have recognized that somewhere deep within the calendar system lay the miraculous union, the magical crossing point of a host of time cycles: 9 moons, 13 times 20, a birth cycle, a planting cycle, a Venus cycle, a sun cycle, an eclipse cycle. The number 260 was tailor made for the Maya\". Others have observed that the \"Venus Table\" in the Dresden Codex, is an accurate ephemeris for predicting Venus positions. Others have also observed a basis for the 260-day cycle in the agricultural cycle of highland Guatemala, which is also about 260 days. Aveni notes that \"the average duration between successive halves of the eclipse season, at 173 1⁄2 days, fits into the tzolkin in the ratio of 3 to 2.\" This may seem contrived, but the Maya did employ the tzolkin to predict positions of Venus and eclipses.  Another theory is that the 260-day period is the length of human pregnancy. This is close to the average number of days between the \"first missed\" menstrual period and birth, unlike Naegele's rule which is 40 weeks (280 days) between the \"last\" menstrual period and birth. It is postulated that midwives originally developed the calendar to predict babies' expected birth dates.  Vincent Malmström identifies a correlation between the 260-day cycle and the 260-day gap between zenithal passages of the sun. According to this hypothesis, the 260-day cycle originated in the narrow latitudinal band (14°42′N to 15°N) in which the sun is vertically overhead about 12–13 August and again 260 days later about 30 April – 1 May (Malmström identifies the proto-Classic Izapan culture as one suitable candidate at this latitude). This period may have been used for the planting schedule of maize. However, others object to this conception, noting that while the 260-day calendar runs continuously the interval between autumn-spring and spring-autumn positions alternates between 260 and 105 days, and that the earliest-known calendric inscriptions are from considerably further north of this zone. Consequently, this theory is not widely supported.  It is also possible that the number 260 has multiple sources.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The tzolkʼin and the New Age movement.", "content": "The tzolkʼin is the basis for the modern, New Age invention of the \"Dreamspell\" calendar, developed by the esoteric author José Argüelles. The Dreamspell calendar is sometimes mistakenly identified as an authentic interpretation or extension of the original Maya calendar, although Argüelles himself acknowledges the Dreamspell calendar is a new and syncretic creation, inspired by elements from Mesoamerican and non-Mesoamerican sources.  In 1987, before the Harmonic Convergence, inspired by a single paragraph of Argüelles's book \"The Mayan Factor\" (wherein he refers to each day as a \"tone\"), singer/songwriter and sound healer, Alyras (aka Mirai), translated the tzolkʼin's harmonic values into sound, with the tutelage of Barbara Hero. Eschewing extensions of the tzolkʼin, Alyras opted for strict mathematical adherence to the tzolkʼin's fundamental structure and sequences, in order to present a truly authentic sonic expression of its inner workings.  In 1995, Maria von Boisse translated the mathematical matrix of the tzolkʼin to musical notes and set them into music. The final version of the work was developed in collaboration with Hubert Bognermayr in the \"Electronic Försterhaus\" in Linz, Austria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tzolkʼin (, formerly and commonly tzolkin) is the name bestowed by Mayanists on the 260-day Mesoamerican calendar originated by the Maya civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973819}
{"src_title": "Pyrus pyraster", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Pyrus pyraster\" is a deciduous plant reaching in height as medium-sized shrub and as a tree. Unlike the cultivated form the branches have thorns. The leaves are ovate with serrated margins. The flowers have white petals. The stamens are equal to the length of styles. The flowering period extends from April through May. The fruits reach in diameter. and ripens in late Summer to early Autumn.They are quite hard and astringent, but they have a sweet taste and are edible when they are really ripe and fall from the tree. The seeds ripen in September.  Under good growing conditions, wild pear trees have a remarkably slender form with a characteristic rising crown. In less favourable conditions they show other characteristic growth forms, such as one-sided or extremely low crowns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The distribution of wild pear ranges from Western Europe to the Caucasus. It does not appear in Northern Europe. The wild pear has become quite rare. It is sympatric with \"Pyrus elaeagrifolia\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Wild pear can grow on almost all soils, except the most acidic ones. However, owing to its weak competitive ability, the species exists mostly on extreme or marginal sites. Its tap roots enable it to grow on very dry soils. The tree requires a lot of light and is often found in the open landscape. It occurs in thickets and open woods with cool-temperate climates, in lowlands, hills and sometimes in the mountains, at above sea level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wild pears in Britain.", "content": "The “wild pears” of England and Wales are actually thought to be domesticates that escaped cultivation. They appear to be archaeophytes, with charcoal and carbonised pips having been found at several Neolithic sites and are occasionally mentioned in medieval documents. It is likely that pears spread to Britain after their domestication with early farmers and subsequently escaped into the wild. Its establishment in the British Isles is probably due to human migration, with the trees belonging to one of the \"Pyrus communis\" subspecies instead of the true wild pear species of \"P. pyraster\", which is native to much of continental Europe but absent from Britain.  Another species of pear found wild in South West England, the Plymouth pear (\"Pyrus cordata\"), is now thought to have originated from hedging plants imported from Brittany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pyrus pyraster (syn. \"Pyrus communis subsp. pyraster\"), also called European wild pear, is a species of pear of the family Rosaceae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973820}
{"src_title": "Jacopo Bassano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born around 1510 in the town of Bassano del Grappa, located about 65 km from the city of Venice. His father, Francesco il Vecchio, was a locally successful painter who had established a family workshop that primarily produced religious works in the local style. During his early youth Bassano was an apprentice in his father's workshop. He eventually made his way to Venice in the 1530s, during which he studied under Bonifazio de Pitati (also known as Bonifazio Veronese) and was exposed to such famous artists as Titian and il Pordenone. After his father's death in 1539 he returned to Bassano del Grappa and permanently set up residence there, even taking a local woman, Elisabetta Merzari, as his wife in 1546. He took over the management of his family workshop, which would eventually come to include his four sons, Leandro Bassano, Francesco Bassano the Younger, Giovanni Battista da Ponte, and Girolamo da Ponte. After his death in 1592, his sons continued to produce numerous works in his style, making it difficult for later art historians to establish which pieces were created by Jacopo himself and which works were created at the hands of his progeny.  Jacopo Bassano was considered unique amongst his fellow Renaissance artists by his ability to incorporate diverse artistic influences (including Dürer, Parmigianino, Tintoretto, and Raphael) into his work despite his reluctance to leave the comfort of his home town. He is believed to have learned about their art by seeing their prints, of which he was most likely an avid collector.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early period.", "content": "Bassano's ability to experiment and absorb stylistic qualities from other contemporary artists is evident in the four distinct periods seen in his artistic legacy. Each period shows the artist's work in reconciling his own aesthetics with the styles of his peers.  Early works, 1530s and onward. Bonifazio de Pitati imparted upon his young pupil a lasting appreciation of Titian's work, the influence of which is clearly seen in his early pieces. Bassano's earliest paintings exhibit his lifelong obsession with brilliant colors that he had seen in Titian's beginning works, particularly in Bassano's \"Supper at Emmaus\" (1538). In this commission for a local church, Bassano fills the canvas with rich, luminous colors that help the distinguish the figures from their surrounding environment. He breaks away from the practices of his contemporaries by placing the figure of Christ towards the back of the scene and allowing the lay-people around him to play a more significant part in the composition of the piece. They are also unique in their dress. Instead of clothing his figures in the draping, shapeless fabrics many Renaissance artists equated with Classical Roman fashion, Bassano chose to feature figures in 16th-century clothing. The details of this piece are the most often discussed aspect of it. To many art historians his inclusion of various food on the tables, a dog lying down and a cat slinking around the chairs, as well as numerous secondary characters is a testament to Bassano's practice of drawing from life instead of relying on stylistic conventions of the age.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mannerism.", "content": "Bassano's piece, \"The Last Supper\" (1542), shows his new interest in Mannerism in Italian art. Within the piece he expressed influences related to contemporary prints of Dürer and paintings of Raphael. This is especially expressed in the highly charged emotions of the subjects and the dynamic and highly stylized posture of the figures. The Mannerist preoccupation with highly developed design elements is evident in Bassano's careful placement and \"character\" of the figures to create an active composition that leads the viewer's eyes around every detail of the canvas. Compared to earlier figures, which were more staid, Bassano's figures in \"The Last Supper\" seem alive, their skin suggesting muscles and sinews below rather than the wooden, tired postures of his early work.  Bassano started experimenting with light and his subjects around 1550s–1570s. It was during this period that he was one of the first artists to paint a \"nocturne\", or a painting in a nighttime landscape with artificial lighting. This type of painting was extremely popular with local audiences and made Bassano paintings highly valued. His works also began to feature more prominently pastoral elements, which were both painted by his father and part of his environment. Rather than placing religious scenes in Classical Roman settings (as his Renaissance counterparts did), he placed figures in a more natural landscape, where the trees and the flowers were as carefully rendered as his figures.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jacopo Bassano (ca. 1510 – 14 February 1592), known also as Jacopo dal Ponte, was an Italian painter who was born and died in Bassano del Grappa near Venice, and took the village as his surname. Trained in the workshop of his father, Francesco the Elder, and studying under Bonifazio Veronese in Venice, he painted mostly religious paintings including landscape and genre scenes. Bassano's pictures were very popular in Venice because of their depiction of animals and nocturnal scenes. His four sons: Francesco Bassano the Younger, Giovanni Battista da Ponte, Leandro Bassano, and Girolamo da Ponte, also became artists and followed him closely in style and subject matter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973821}
{"src_title": "Minor planet designation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Syntax.", "content": "A formal designation consists of two parts: a catalog \"number\", historically assigned in approximate order of discovery, and either a \"name\", typically assigned by the discoverer, or, the minor planet's \"provisional\" designation.  The permanent syntax is:  For example, the unnamed minor planet has its number always written in parentheses, while for named minor planets such as (274301) Wikipedia, the parentheses may be dropped as in 274301 Wikipedia. Parentheses are now often omitted in prominent databases such as the JPL Small-Body Database (SBDB).  Since minor planet designations change over time, different versions may be used in astronomy journals. When the main-belt asteroid 274301 Wikipedia was discovered in August 2008, it was provisionally designated, before it received a number and was then written as. On 27 January 2013, it was named \"Wikipedia\" after being published in the Minor Planet Circulars.  According to the preference of the astronomer and publishing date of the journal, 274301 Wikipedia may be referred to as, or simply as. In practice, for any reasonably well-known object the number is mostly a catalogue entry, and the name or provisional designation is generally used in place of the formal designation. So Pluto is rarely written as 134340 Pluto, and is more commonly used than the longer version.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "By 1851 there were 15 known asteroids, all but one with their own symbol. The symbols grew increasingly complex as the number of objects grew, and, as they had to be drawn by hand, astronomers found some of them difficult. This difficulty was addressed by Benjamin Apthorp Gould in 1851, who suggested numbering asteroids in their order of discovery, and placing this number in a circle as the symbol for the asteroid, such as 4 for the fourth asteroid, Vesta. This practice was soon coupled with the name itself into an official number-name designation, \"4 Vesta\", as the number of minor planets increased. By the late 1850s, the circle had been simplified to parentheses, \"(4)\" and \"(4) Vesta\", which was easier to typeset. Other punctuation such as \"4) Vesta\" and \"4, Vesta\" was also used, but had more or less completely died out by 1949.  The major exception to the convention that the number tracks the order of discovery or determination of orbit is the case of Pluto. Since Pluto was initially classified as a planet, it was not given a number until a 2006 redefinition of \"planet\" that excluded it. At that point, Pluto was given the formal designation (134340) Pluto.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A formal minor planet designation is, in its final form, a number–name combination given to a minor planet (asteroid, centaur, trans-Neptunian object and dwarf planet but not comet). Such designation always features a leading number (catalog or IAU number) assigned to a body once its orbital path is sufficiently secured (so-called \"numbering\"). The formal designation is based on the minor planet's provisional designation, which was previously assigned automatically when it had been observed for the first time. Later on, the provisional part of the formal designation may be replaced with a name (so-called \"naming\"). Both formal and provisional designations are overseen by the Minor Planet Center (MPC), a branch of the International Astronomical Union.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973822}
{"src_title": "House of Habsburg-Lorraine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the dynasty.", "content": "The first member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine to rule over the Holy Roman Empire was Joseph II, a sovereign raised during the Enlightenment. By the new ideals he brought, he implemented many reforms, most of which were to the detriment of the clergy. Upon his death in 1790, he was succeeded by his brother Leopold II, who in 1791 invited Europe's powers to help the French royal family to stifle the ideals of the revolution without military intervention. He died a few days before France declared war on Austria.  In 1792, Leopold's son, Francis II, was crowned emperor in Frankfurt. After the beheading of the French sovereigns, he, along with the other European sovereigns created the First Coalition against Revolutionary France. The coalition initially recorded some success, but soon began to withdraw, especially in Italy, where the Austrians were repeatedly defeated by the Corsican general Napoleon Bonaparte.  With the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, the Milanese were handed over to France, while the Austrians retained Veneto, Istria and Dalmatia. This pact was followed by others that reduced the dominion of the Habsburgs to Austria, Bohemia and Hungary; Francis II was also forced to renounce the imperial title, but he later proclaimed himself Emperor of Austria, to remedy this loss.  After the defeats at Lipzig (1813) and Waterloo (1815), Napoleon was exiled to the island of Saint Helena, where he died.  In the years that followed, Francis II pursued a centralization policy, on the advice of Prime Minister Metternich; but precisely because of it, and emerging ideals of independence, the riots of 1848 broke out, which devastated all of Europe. This led to the expulsion of the Prime Minister from the Imperial Chancellery, and the rise of Franz Joseph, replacing Ferdinand I who was forced to abdicate in favour of the 18-year-old man.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End of the rule of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine in Europe.", "content": "Franz Joseph I (1830-1916), was the last great personality of the House of Habsburg. Under his reign (1848-1916), Austria seemed to relive its great splendor and Vienna became the largest and most beautiful city in Middle Europe. The emperor, however, waged the Italian War of Independence and the Austro-Prussian war; both ended in defeats, puttng an end to Austrian supremacy in Italy and Germany and accelerating the gradual decline of the dynasty.  In 1867 Franz Joseph granted effective autonomy to the Kingdom of Hungary within the Austrian Empire under the terms of the Ausgleich; politically and militarily they were united, but in terms of internal policy and administration they remained separate entities. The title of the Head of State became \"Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary\", although he was also referred to as \"Emperor of Austria-Hungary\".  With the growing interest of Austria-Hungary and Russia in the Balkans, strong tensions were created between the Habsburgs and Russia, eventually leading Austria to enter into alliance with Germany and Italy.  In 1914, with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo the First World War broke out between the Central Powers of Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire and the Entente Powers—the British Empire, France, Russia, among others.  In 1916 Franz Joseph died and was succeeded by Charles I. Charles – the last sovereign – upon losing the war, renounced the exercise of power, but did not abdicate. He was forced into exile on April 3, 1919. The Habsburg dominions were subsequently divided into independent republics.  The House of Habsburg-Lorraine refused to swear its allegiance to the new Republic of Austria, therefore family members were forced into exile and their property was confiscated. The law of exile still applies to the descendants of Emperor Charles under the same conditions. Otto von Habsburg, the late head of the House and formerly a member of the European Parliament, signed the Act of Recognition of the Republic of Austria. In doing so, he relinquished the monarchy and the succession rights of his descendants in exchange for an end to exile. He was known in the Republic of Austria as Dr. Otto Habsburg-Lothringen, since the Republic does not officially recognise titles of nobility. There are Habsburg-Lorraine descendants not descended from Otto who continue to live abroad.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The House of Habsburg-Lorraine today.", "content": "The current leader of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine is Karl von Habsburg, who succeeded his father Otto as head of the royal house after his death in 2011. Karl is the eldest grandson of the last emperor of Austria-Hungary, Charles I.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The House of Habsburg-Lorraine () originated from the marriage in 1736 of Francis III, Duke of Lorraine and Bar, and Maria Theresa of Austria, later successively Queen of Bohemia, Queen of Hungary and Archduchess of Austria. Its members are the legitimate surviving line of the House of Habsburg and the House of Lorraine, inheriting their patrimonial possessions and vocation to the Empire from the female descendants of the House of Habsburg and the male line of the House of Lorraine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973823}
{"src_title": "Le postillon de Lonjumeau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "The opera was premiered by the Opéra-Comique at the Salle de la Bourse in Paris on 13 October 1836. Performances followed at the St. James Theatre, London on 13 March 1837, and in New Orleans at the Théâtre d'Orléans on 19 April 1838.  Recent productions have been mounted in the Berlin Staatsoper Unter den Linden (from 4 August 2000) and at the Grand Théâtre, Dijon (from 30 March 2004 under Philippe Cambreling, with Isabelle Poulenard (Madeleine / Madame de Latour). The latter was a co-production of Opéra Paris-Sud and Opéra de Dijon. The work was performed in Paris for the first time in 125 years in a new production at the Opèra Comique in March 2019 with Michael Spyres in the title role, in a production by Michel Fau. Sébastien Rouland conducted, with Florie Valiquette as Madeleine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "\"Act 1\"  The newly married postilion, or coachman, (Chapelou) and his wife (Madeleine), an innkeeper, to ensure that their marriage will be a joyous one, decide to consult a clairvoyant, who predicts that things will not go smoothly in their marriage but does not state exactly what will occur nor when. Initially concerned, their thoughts are temporarily forgotten as they enjoy their wedding night. Several days into the marriage, the Marquis de Corcy (who is also the director of the Royal Paris Opera House) arrives at the inn that Madeleine owns and Chapelou works at. He is immediately smitten with Chapelou's wife, but doesn't say anything to her. Then he overhears her husband singing his ‘usual’ song with other guests at the inn, and is impressed with his beautiful voice. He decides to invite the young coachman to join the Marquis’s company, but they have to leave immediately. With excitement, Chapelou asks his friend, Biju, to tell his wife where he has gone and what he plans to do. Chapelou and the Marquis then quickly depart for Paris, leaving Madeleine in a state of shock.  \"Act 2\"  Ten years later. By now Madeleine has come into an inheritance and is known as Madame Latour, and Chapelou has become a star at the Paris Opera. After a performance, the Marquis holds a reception to which he has invited Madame Latour. As soon as they meet at the reception, Chapelou falls for the Madame's charms, not recognising the wife he left behind. He proposes, she accepts, and a wedding occurs.  \"Act 3\"  The Marquis has gone to inform the police and denounce this apparent act of bigamy. On the wedding night, Madeleine appears in her old peasant clothes and Chapelou recognises her. Then she transforms before his eyes into Madame Latour, the rich heiress. She reveals her deception to the Marquis, as he arrives with the police and declares to them her game – the couple have married twice and vow from that day on to love like good village people. This induces a hearty response from the chorus to provide a stirring finale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "In 1936 the opera was loosely adapted into an Austrian-Swiss comedy film \"The Postman from Longjumeau\" directed by Carl Lamac.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Le postillon de Lonjumeau (\"The Postillion of Lonjumeau\") is an opéra-comique in three acts by Adolphe Adam to a French libretto by 'Adolphe de Leuven' and 'Brunswick' (pen names of Adolphe von Ribbing and Léon Lévy).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973824}
{"src_title": "Silistra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name Silistra is possibly derived from the root of the old Thracian name of the lower part of the Danube \"Istrum\". By another theory, the city's name comes from the Latin words \"silo\" and \"stra\", meaning \"awl\" and \"strategy\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Silistra is in the northeastern part of Bulgaria on the southern bank of the Danube River. It is located in the Bulgarian part of Dobrudzha.  The municipality of Silistra covers an area of 516 km and includes the town and 18 villages. The area of the city-proper is 27.159 km.  Silistra is 431 km from Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria; 141 km from Varna; and 119 km from Ruse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Romans built a fortress in AD 29 on the site of an earlier Thracian settlement and kept its name, \"Durostorum\" (or \"Dorostorum\"). The earliest saints of Bulgaria are Roman soldiers executed at Durostorum during the Diocletian Persecution (303–313), including St. Dasius and St. Julius the Veteran. Durostorum became an important military center of the Roman province of Moesia, and grew into a city at the time of Marcus Aurelius. Durostorum became the seat of a Christian bishopric and a center of Christianity in the region. Auxentius was expelled from Durostorum by an edict of Theodosius depriving Arian bishops in 383, and took refuge at Milan where he became embroiled in controversy with St Ambrose. The Roman general Flavius Aëtius was born in the town in 396. When the Roman Empire split into the Eastern and Western empires, the town (known as, in Byzantine Greek) became part of the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire. As part of the Bulgarian Empire Durostolon was known as \"Drastar\" in Medieval times.  Around the end of the 7th century, the town was incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire and the bishop of ( in Bulgarian) was proclaimed the first patriarch of Bulgaria. In 895 (during the Bulgarian-Hungarian War of 894-896), the Hungarians, allies of the Byzantines, besieged the Bulgarian army under the personal command of Simeon I the Great in the fortress of the town but were repulsed. The next year the Hungarians were decisively defeated in the battle of Southern Buh.  The town was captured by the forces of Sviatoslav I of Kiev in 969, but two years later it was taken by the Byzantines during the Battle of Dorostolon. It was renamed Theodoropolis, after military saint Theodore Stratelates, who is said to have come to the aid of Emperor John I Tzimiskes during the battle. In 976, Tsar Samuel restored Bulgarian rule in the region until 1001, when it once again became part of the Byzantine Empire.  In 1186, after the Rebellion of Asen and Peter, the town became part of the Second Bulgarian Empire and renamed Drastar.  In 1279, under Emperor Ivailo, Drastar was attacked by the Mongols; but after a three-month-long siege the Bulgarians managed to break through. The town remained part of the Bulgarian Empire until the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans around 1400. Throughout the Middle Ages, Drastar (possibly known by the name Silistra too) was among Bulgaria's largest and most important cities.  During Ottoman rule, Silistra (Ottoman Turkish: ) was part of Rumelia Province and was the administrative centre of the Silistra district (\"sanjak\"). This district was later upgraded to become the Silistra Province and stretched over most of the western Black Sea littoral.  The town was captured and recaptured by Russian forces numerous times during several Russo-Turkish Wars and was besieged between 14 April and 23 June 1854 during the Crimean War. Namık Kemal wrote his most famous play, \"Vatan Yahut Silistre\" (\"Homeland or Silistre\"), a drama about the siege of Silistra, in which he expounded on the ideas of patriotism and liberalism. The play was first staged on 1 April 1873 and led to his exile to Famagusta.  The Ottoman Silistra Province was reduced in size, as the districts of Özi and Hocabey and the region of Bessarabia were ceded to the Russian Empire at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. Edirne Province was created from its southern regions in 1830. Finally, Silistra Province merged with the provinces of Vidin and Niš in 1864 to form Danube Province. Silistra was downgraded to a \"kaza\" centre in Ruse district in this province in the same year.  Between 1819 and 1826, Eliezer Papo — a renowned Jewish scholar — was the rabbi of the community of Silistra, making this town famous among observant Jews. Up to the present, his grave is a focus of pilgrimage, some pilgrims flying from Israel and even from Latin America to Bulgaria for that purpose.  In 1878, following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, Silistra was included in Bulgaria.  In May 1913, following the Second Balkan War and after unsuccessful Bulgarian-Romanian negotiations in London, the two countries accepted the mediation of the Great Powers, who awarded Silistra and the area in a 3 km radius around it to the Kingdom of Romania at the Saint Petersburg Conference. The 1913 Treaty of Bucharest ceded Silistra and the whole of Southern Dobruja to Romania. Silistra was renamed \"Dârstor\" by the Romanians. Bulgaria regained the town between 1916 and 1918 during World War I with the Treaty of Bucharest (1918), in which Romania surrendered to the Central Powers (including Bulgaria). The Treaty of Neuilly (1919) following World War I returned it to Romania. Silistra remained a part of Romania until the Axis-sponsored Treaty of Craiova in 1940, when the town once again became part of Bulgaria, a transfer confirmed by the Paris Peace Treaties in 1947. Between 1913 and 1938, Silistra was the capital of Durostor County, (except during Bulgarian rule). It became part of Ţinutul Mării (Sea District) between 1938-1940 during Romanian rule. Following the establishment of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, Silistra developed as a center of industry and agriculture in the region, comparable to Ruse (because of the strategic position on the Danube) and Dobrich (due to the abundant fertile lands). This led to a major population increase which continued until 1985. After that, the population slowly started to decrease. Following the collapse of the People's Republic in 1989, many of its inhabitants migrated to other parts of the country or emigrated outside Bulgaria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Silistra has a temperate climate, with cold snowy winters and hot summers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "In January 2012, Silistra was inhabited by 35 230 people within the city limits, while the Silistra Municipality along with the legally affiliated adjacent villages had 50 780 inhabitants. The number of the residents of the city (not the municipality) reached its peak in the period 1986–1991, when it exceeded 70,000. The following table presents the change of the population after 1887.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnic, linguistic and religious composition.", "content": "According to the latest 2011 census data, the individuals declared their ethnic identity were distributed as follows: Total: 35,607  The ethnic composition of Silistra Municipality is 40707 Bulgarians, 6258 as Turks and 899 Roma among others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honour.", "content": "Silistra Knoll on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Silistra.  \"Silistra\" is also the name of a fictional planet in Janet Morris' book \"High Couch of Silistra\" (1977).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Silistra () is a town in Northeastern Bulgaria. The town lies on the southern bank of the lower Danube river, and is also the part of the Romanian border where it stops following the Danube. Silistra is the administrative center of the Silistra Province and one of the important towns of the historical region of Southern Dobrudzha.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973825}
{"src_title": "Crested porcupine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Physical attributes.", "content": "The more common name for this species is the crested porcupine. The adult crested porcupine has an average head and body length around long, discounting the tail, and weighs from.  Almost the entire body is covered with bristles which are either dark brown or black and rather coarse. This mammal is recognizable by the quills that run along the head, nape, and back that can be raised into a crest, hence the name crested porcupine. Also, some sturdier quills which are about in length run along the sides and back half of the body. These sturdier quills are used, for the most part, for defense and are usually marked with light and dark bands which alternate; these are not firmly attached. This porcupine has a shorter tail which has rattle quills at the end. The rattle quills broaden at the terminal end and the broad portion is hollow with thin walls. When these quills are vibrated, they produce a hiss-like rattle.  The front feet of the crested porcupine have four developed and clawed digits with a regressed thumb, the rear feet have five. The paws have naked and padded soles and have a plantigrade gait. The ears are external and both the eyes and ears are very small with long vibrissae on its head. The skull is specific in many ways; first, the infraorbital foramen is greatly enlarged so portions of the masseter extend through it and attach from the frontal side surface of the snout. Second, the angular process is inflected on the lower jaw, and third, the nasal cavity is enlarged. Prominent pockets create enlarged areas of attachment for chewing muscles. Collar bones are very much reduced, and one incisor, one premolar and three molars are present in each quadrant. The male's penis is directed caudally when not erect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food and digestion.", "content": "The crested porcupine is for the most part herbivorous, eating roots, bulbs, and leaves, but occasionally they do consume insects, small vertebrates, and carrion. To ingest calcium and sharpen incisors, they often gnaw on bones. These animals often travel long distances looking for food. They have high crowned teeth that grind plant tissues which are digested in the stomach, and the undigested fibers are retained in an enlarged appendix and anterior large intestine, where they are broken down by microorganisms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Most of what is known about reproduction in the crested porcupine comes from individuals in captivity. Usually, female crested porcupines have one litter every year. One or two very well developed young are born in a chamber within the burrow that is usually lined with grass, after a 66-day gestation period, on average. The young weigh about at birth, which is about 5% of the mother's weight. They leave the den after one week. At this time, the spines begin to harden. Crested porcupines reach adult weight at one to two years and are often sexually mature just before then. Breeding occurs throughout the year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "The crested porcupine is a terrestrial mammal; they very seldom climb trees, but can swim. They are nocturnal and monogamous. The crested porcupine takes care of the young for a long time and small family groups consist of the adult pair and young of various ages. In defense, when disturbed, they raise and fan their quills to make themselves look bigger. If continually bothered, the crested porcupine will stamp its feet, whirr the quills, and charge the disturber back end first trying to stab the enemy with the thicker, shorter quills. These attacks are known to have killed lions, leopards, hyenas, and even humans.  Crested porcupines have been known to collect thousands of bones that they find at night. They are mostly nocturnal, and they may wander upon the skeletons of many animals. They collect these bones, and store them in an underground chamber, or cave. Sometimes, humans dig up these bones.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "Eight species are placed in the genus \"Hystrix\", only two of which are found outside of Asia. Although it is favored in many parts of its range as food, its conservation status is set at least concern.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "The crested porcupine is found in Italy, North Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa. In the Mediterranean, it is known from mainland Italy and the island of Sicily, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia; they are also recorded in Ghana, Libya and along the Egyptian coast. It has been recorded from sea level to in Moroccan Anti-Atlas. The porcupine was thought to have been introduced to Italy by the Romans, but fossil and subfossil remains suggest it was possibly present in Europe in the Upper Pleistocene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Countries.", "content": "These are the countries from which the crested porcupine is known:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The crested porcupine (\"Hystrix cristata\") also known as the African crested porcupine, is a species of rodent in the family Hystricidae found in Italy, North Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973826}
{"src_title": "Frederick Marryat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and naval career.", "content": "Marryat was born in Great George Street, Westminster, London, the son of Joseph Marryat, a \"merchant prince\" and member of Parliament, and his American wife, Charlotte, \"née\" von Geyer. Marryat tried to run away to sea several times before he was permitted to enter the Royal Navy in 1806 as a midshipman on board, a frigate commanded by Lord Cochrane (who later served as inspiration for Marryat and other authors).  Marryat's time aboard the \"Imperieuse\" included action off the Gironde, the rescue of a fellow midshipman who had fallen overboard, captures of many ships off the Mediterranean coast of Spain, and the capture of the castle of Montgat. The \"Imperieuse\" shifted to operations in the Scheldt in 1809, where Marryat contracted malaria; he returned to England on the 74-gun HMS \"Victorious\". After recuperating, he returned to the Mediterranean in the 74-gun HMS \"Centaur\" and again saved a shipmate by leaping into the sea after him. He then sailed as a passenger to Bermuda in the 64-gun HMS \"Atlas\", and from there to Halifax, Nova Scotia on the schooner HMS \"Chubb\", where he joined the 32-gun frigate HMS \"Aeolus\" on 27 April 1811.  A few months later, Marryat again earned distinction by leading the effort to cut away the \"Aeolus\"'s mainyard to save the ship during a storm, and continuing a pattern, saved one of the men from the sea. Shortly after, he moved to the frigate HMS \"Spartan\", participating in the capture of a number of American ships during the War of 1812. On 26 December 1812, he was promoted to lieutenant, and as such served in the sloop HMS \"Espiegle\" and in. Marryat led four barges from the \"Newcastle\" on a raid against Orleans, Massachusetts on December 19, 1814, the last combat in New England during the war. The affair had mixed results. Initially, Marryat cut out an American schooner and three sloops, but he managed to escape with just one sloop. The local militia avoided casualties while killing one Royal marine. Marryat was promoted to commander on 13 June 1815, just as the war ended.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After the war.", "content": "Marryat then turned to scientific studies. He invented a lifeboat which earned him a gold medal from the Royal Humane Society and the nickname \"Lifeboat\". He developed a practical, widely used system of maritime flag signalling known as Marryat's Code based on his experience in the Napoleonic Wars escorting merchant ships in convoys. He also described a new gastropod genus \"Cyclostrema\" with the type species \"Cyclostrema cancellatum\".  In 1819, Marryat married Catherine Shairp with whom he had four sons and seven daughters, including Florence, a prolific novelist and his biographer; Emilia, a writer of moralist adventure novels in her father's vein; and Augusta, also a writer of adventure fiction. Around this time, Marryat collaborated with George Cruikshank the caricaturist to produce \"The New Union Club\", an extravagant satire against abolitionism.  In 1820, Marryat commanded the sloop HMS \"Beaver\" and temporarily commanded HMS \"Rosario\" for the purpose of bringing back the despatches announcing the death of Napoleon on Saint Helena. He also took the opportunity to make a sketch of Napoleon's body on his deathbed, which was later published as a lithograph. His artistic skills were modest, but he made numerous sketches of shipboard life above and below deck.  In 1823, Marryat was appointed to HMS \"Larne\" and took part in an expedition against Burma in 1824, which resulted in large losses from disease. He was promoted to command the 28-gun HMS \"Tees\", which gave him the rank of post-captain. He was back in England in 1826. In 1829, he was commanding the frigate HMS \"Ariadne\" on a mission to search for shoals around the Madeira and Canary Islands. This was an uninspiring exercise, and as his first novel \"The Naval Officer\" had just been published, he decided to resign his commission in November 1830 and take up writing full time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "From 1832 to 1835, Marryat edited \"The Metropolitan Magazine\". Additionally, he kept producing novels; his biggest success came with \"Mr Midshipman Easy\" in 1836. He lived in Brussels for a year, travelled in Canada and the United States, then moved to London in 1839, where he was in the literary circle of Charles Dickens and others. He was in North America in 1837 when the Rebellion of that year broke out in Lower Canada, and served with the British forces in suppressing it.  Marryat was named a Fellow of the Royal Society in recognition of his invention and other achievements. In 1843, he moved to a small farm at Manor Cottage at Langham in Norfolk, where he died in 1848. His daughter Florence Marryat later became well known as a writer and actress. His son Francis Samuel Marryat completed his late novel \"The Little Savage\".  Marryat's novels are characteristic of their time, with concerns of family connections and social status often overshadowing the naval action, but they are interesting as fictional renditions of the author's 25 years' experience at sea, and were much admired by men such as Mark Twain, Joseph Conrad, and Ernest Hemingway. They were among the first nautical novels, serving as models for later works by C. S. Forester and Patrick O'Brian, also set in the time of Nelson and telling of young men rising through the ranks through successes as naval officers.  Along with his novels, Marryat was known for his short writings on nautical subjects. These short stories, plays, pieces of travel journalism, and essays appeared in \"The Metropolitan Magazine\" too, and were later published in book form as \"Olla Podrida\". Marryat's 1839 Gothic novel \"The Phantom Ship\" contained \"The White Wolf of the Hartz Mountains\", which includes the first female werewolf in a short story.  In 1839, Marryat also published his \"Diary in America\", a travelogue that reflects his criticisms of American culture and society. The book and the author were both subject to acts of violence, including the burning of the book and of Marryat's effigy in public.  Controversy existed amongst readers of Marryat's work. Some criticized him for carelessness in his writing. Others admired how he wrote about his experiences at sea with vivacity. His later novels were generally for the children's market, including his most famous novel for contemporary readers \"The Children of the New Forest\", which was published in 1847 and set in the countryside surrounding the village of Sway, Hampshire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family connections.", "content": "Marryat's niece, Augusta Sophia Marryat, married Sir Henry Young, who served as Governor of South Australia and Tasmania. A suburb, Marryatville, and the town of Port Augusta were named after her. His nephew (Augusta's brother) was Charles Marryat, first Anglican Dean of Adelaide.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Captain Frederick Marryat (10 July 1792 – 9 August 1848) was a Royal Navy officer, a novelist, and an acquaintance of Charles Dickens. He is noted today as an early pioneer of the sea story, particularly for his semi-autobiographical novel \"Mr Midshipman Easy\" (1836), for his children's novel \"The Children of the New Forest\" (1847), and for a widely used system of maritime flag signalling known as Marryat's Code.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973827}
{"src_title": "Léon Bonnat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bonnat was born in Bayonne, but from 1846 to 1853 he lived in Madrid, where his father owned a bookshop. While tending his father's shop, he copied engravings of works by the Old Masters, developing a passion for drawing. In Madrid he received his artistic training under Madrazo. He later worked in Paris, where he became known as a leading portraitist, never without a commission. His many portraits show the influence of Velázquez, Jusepe de Ribera and other Spanish masters, as well as Titian and Van Dyke, whose works he studied in the Prado, which placed him at the forefront of painting in France in the 1850s, opposing neoclassicism and academicism. Following the period in Spain, Bonnat worked the studios of the history painters Paul Delaroche and Leon Cogniet (1854) in Paris. Despite repeated attempts, he failed to win the prix de Rome, finally receiving only a second prize. However, a scholarship from his native Bayonne allowed him to spend three years in Rome (1858–60) independently. During his stay in Rome, he became friends with Edgar Degas, Gustave Moreau, Jean-Jacques Henner and the sculptor Henri Chapu.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Bonnat won a medal of honour in Paris in 1869, going on to become one of the leading artists of his day. Bonnat went on to win the Grand Officer of the Légion d'honneur and became a professor at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in 1882. Bonnat was quite popular with American students in Paris. In addition to his native French, he spoke Spanish and Italian and knew English well, to the relief of many monolingual Americans. In May 1905 he succeeded Paul Dubois as director of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Julius Kaplan characterised Bonnat as \"a liberal teacher who stressed simplicity in art above high academic finish, as well as overall effect rather than detail.\" Bonnat's emphasis on overall effect on the one hand, and rigorous drawing on the other, put him in a middle position with respect to the Impressionists and academic painters like his friend Jean-Léon Gérôme. In 1917, Bonnat was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Corresponding member.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paintings.", "content": "Bonnat's vivid portraits of contemporary celebrities are his most characteristic works, but his most important works are arguably his powerful religious paintings, such as his \"Christ on the Cross\" (now in the collection of the Musée du Petit Palais in Paris, but not currently on display), \"Job\" (in the Musée Bonnat), \"St Vincent Taking the Place of Two Galley Slaves\" (at the church of Saint-Nicholas des Champs in Paris), and the large \"Martyrdom of St Denis\" for the Pantheon in Paris. However, he received few commissions for religious and historical paintings, and most of his output consists of portraits. He also produced genre paintings of Italian peasants, and a small number of Orientalist scenes.  The writers Émile Zola and Théophile Gautier were among Bonnat's supporters. Gautier hailed him as \"the antithesis of Bouguereau,\" because of the stark naturalism and lack of surface finish that characterize Bonnat's work. Bonnat is an academic painter. He was a member of the Institute, one of the only 14 painters who had administrative power over the Academy des Beaux Arts and thereby the Ecole des Beaux Arts. He had friends and connections among the independent artists of his time as well, such as Edgar Degas, whom he met during his stay in Rome and who painted two portraits of Bonnat, and Édouard Manet, who shared his predilection for Spanish painting. He taught together with Pierre Puvis de Chavannes in the private atelier he ran before becoming professor at the École. He supported Auguste Rodin's candidacy for the Institut, and defended Gustave Courbet's submissions to the salon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teacher.", "content": "As a teacher he encouraged freedom of expression and execution. He recommended traveling to Madrid to visit the Prado Museum, and introduced in Paris the tendency paint in the Spanish way, which influenced the evolution of French painting.  Some of Bonnat's more notable students include: John Singer Sargent, Stanhope Forbes, Gustave Caillebotte, Prince Eugen, Duke of Närke, Gustaf Cederström, Laurits Tuxen, P. S. Krøyer, Suzor-Coté, Alfred Philippe Roll, Georges Braque, Thomas Eakins, Raoul Dufy, Jean Béraud, Franklin Brownell, Marius Vasselon, Hubert-Denis Etcheverry, Fred Barnard, Louis Béroud, Paul de la Boulaye, Aloysius O'Kelly, Erik Werenskiold, Edvard Munch, Alphonse Osbert, Henry Siddons Mowbray, Charles Sprague Pearce, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Hyakutake Kaneyuki, Nils Forsberg, Walter Tyndale, Émile-Louis Foubert, and Harry Watrous.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In his last years he made his painting evolve, from the influence of seventeenth-century painters and Goya, towards a more modern freedom of execution, scratching the brush and using the spatula, as well as a more colorful color gamut, as can be seen in his \"Self-portrait\" of the Prado Museum. In a gesture of gratitude for the help he had been provided in his youth, Bonnat built a museum in his native city of Bayonne, the Musée Bonnat. Most of the works in the museum are from Bonnat's personal collection of works of art, amassed over a lifetime of travelling around Europe. It includes an exceptionally fine collection of Old Master drawings from Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo to Ingres and Géricault. Bonnat died on 8 September 1922 at Monchy-Saint-Éloi, and was buried at the Cimitiére Saint-Etienne, Bayonne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Bonnat never married, and lived for much of his life with his mother and sister in the Place Vintimille (renamed Place Adolphe-Max in 1940).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticisms.", "content": "\"We wonder why Velázquez's infant has fake shoulders and why the head doesn't join properly...And how good it looks. While a head by Bonnat joins actual shoulders...And how bad it looks!\" - Paul Gauguin (from \"Ramblings of a Wannabe Painter\" Publication 2017, David Zwirner Books)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Léon Joseph Florentin Bonnat (20 June 1833 – 8 September 1922) was a French painter, Grand Officer of the Légion d'honneur and professor at the Ecole des Beaux Arts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973828}
{"src_title": "John Petrucci", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "John Peter Petrucci was born on July 12, 1967, in Kings Park, New York, to an Italian American family. He picked up the guitar at around the age of eight because his older sister was allowed to go to bed later in order to practice the organ. However, he decided to quit the guitar when his attempts to stay up late were unsuccessful. He picked up the guitar again at the age of 12. Petrucci has said he committed to practicing guitar 6 hours a day when he discovered it was his passion. His early influences were bands like Led Zeppelin, Black Sabbath, AC/DC, and later developed an interest in progressive rock and heavy metal, exemplified by Rush, Yes, Iron Maiden, Dixie Dregs and Metallica.  Eventually, his childhood friend and future Dream Theater keyboardist Kevin Moore invited Petrucci to join his cover band. Petrucci attended Berklee College of Music in Boston with childhood friend John Myung (bass), where they met future bandmate Mike Portnoy (drums). While in Berklee they often covered two of their biggest influences, Iron Maiden and Rush. These three, in addition to Kevin Moore, formed the band Majesty. Because there was already another band with the same name, the group later became Dream Theater.  While Petrucci is most commonly associated with Dream Theater, he is also in the project band Liquid Tension Experiment, and has appeared as a guest on records by other artists, such as the \"Age of Impact\" album by the Explorer's Club.  Petrucci has released a guitar instructional video, \"Rock Discipline\", which covers warm-up exercises, exercises to avoid injury while playing, alternate picking, sweep picking, chords and other techniques for developing one's guitar playing. Petrucci also has a book named \"Guitar World presents John Petrucci's Wild Stringdom\", which was compiled from columns he wrote for Guitar World magazine under that title.  In 2001, Joe Satriani and Steve Vai invited Petrucci to tour with them on the popular G3 guitar tour, which exposed him to a massive number of new fans and inspired a solo album. The album, \"Suspended Animation\", was released on March 1, 2005, and was available for order from his web site. Petrucci also appeared on the 2005 and 2006 G3 tours, and in 2007, went on G3 tour again, this time with Paul Gilbert and Joe Satriani. In a recent video with Larry DiMarzio, Petrucci announced that he is working on a follow-up to his 2005 album, \"Suspended Animation\" and a new Dream Theater album.  Petrucci also wrote and recorded two instrumental soundtrack songs for a Sega Saturn game titled \"Digital Pinball: Necronomicon\". Each track is roughly two minutes long, and are named simply \"Prologue\" and \"Epilogue\". In a spoof rock band, Nightmare Cinema (which was the Dream Theater members changing instruments for encores), he used the \"alternate stage name\" Johnny James.  In 2012, Petrucci was invited once again to join Joe Satriani on the G3 tour, along with Steve Morse. He was accompanied by bassist Dave LaRue and drummer and Dream Theater bandmate Mike Mangini.  Dream Theater bandmate Jordan Rudess revealed in an interview that Petrucci is a practicing Catholic. He currently lives in St. James, New York, with his wife Rena Sands, a guitarist in the all-female heavy metal band Meanstreak, and they have three children—twins Samantha and Renato, and Kiara. He is the uncle of Jake Bowen, a guitarist in the progressive metal band Periphery. He is also an avid fan of bodybuilding and dedicates much of his off time to weight training. He is a voting member of NARAS.  In 2018, Petrucci joined Joe Satriani on the G3 tour. They were accompanied by Uli Jon Roth on the European leg of the tour, and Phil Collen in North America. His second solo album, titled \"Terminal Velocity\" will be released in 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical style.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Guitar technique.", "content": "Petrucci is respected for his variety of guitar styles and skills. One of the most notable of these is his high-speed alternate picking which, as he himself claims, requires a \"strong sense of synchronization between the two [playing] hands.\" John is notable for frequent use of the seven-string electric guitar, which he says he uses as a writing tool, taking advantage of the extended range for heavier riffing and to play extended range runs as part of a solo. Moreover, Petrucci often combines his metal shredding technique with a slower, emotive soloing style. His influences as a guitarist include Jimmy Page, Brian May, Eddie Van Halen, Steve Morse, Al Di Meola, Steve Howe, Allan Holdsworth, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Randy Rhoads, Joe Satriani, Steve Vai, Alex Lifeson, Yngwie Malmsteen and David Gilmour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lyrics.", "content": "Petrucci is Dream Theater's most prolific lyricist, with each album including at least three songs featuring his lyrics. Some of Petrucci's notable songs include \"Metropolis, Pt. 1: The Miracle and the Sleeper\", \"The Spirit Carries On\", \"The Great Debate\", \"In the Presence of Enemies\", and \"Through Her Eyes\". Petrucci has occasionally used real-life experiences for lyrical inspiration, as heard in songs such as \"The Count of Tuscany\", \"A Nightmare to Remember\" and \"Endless Sacrifice\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Singing.", "content": "Petrucci has acted as a backing vocalist live since the \"Awake\" Tour. He is a baritone, producing a sound darker than that of James LaBrie's tenor voice. He has also written vocal melodies for Dream Theater. Petrucci's role as a vocalist expanded following the departure of Mike Portnoy, who had been Dream Theater's primary backing vocalist and occasionally even shared lead vocals with LaBrie. In live performances, Petrucci now replicates some vocal parts originally sung by Portnoy, with others being recorded samples.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Petrucci is a long-time user of Music Man JP and Majesty series guitars and Mesa/Boogie amplifiers. While his pedalboard, controller, effects and overdrives have undergone changes over the years, the core of Petrucci's guitar sound remains Dimarzio pickups and Mesa/Boogie amplifiers. Most recently the signature JP-2C amplifier based on the Mark IIC+ series and other Mark and Rectifier series amplifiers, such as during the recording of Train of Thought.  A number of brands have released signature guitar equipment designed or endorsed by Petrucci:  At the beginning of 2016 two new releases were announced: the Dunlop John Petrucci signature Cry-Baby wah, and the Mesa/Boogie JP-2C John Petrucci head, a three-channel amplifier which is available both as a stand-alone amp head and as a rack-mounted amp head, and differs from other Mesa/Boogie Mark series amps in that it features two separate graphic EQs, midi controllable and channel assignable, \"Shred\" circuit and \"pull\" functionality on several settings resulting in increased versatility.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Peter Petrucci (born July 12, 1967) is an American guitarist, composer and producer. He is best known as a founding member of the progressive metal band Dream Theater. He produced or co-produced (often with former member Mike Portnoy before he departed the band in 2010) all Dream Theater albums from 1999's \"\" to 2019's \"Distance Over Time\". He has been the sole producer of the band's albums released since Portnoy's departure in 2010. Petrucci was named as the third player on the G3 tour seven times, more than any other invited guitarist and he's arguably one of the most highly regarded guitarists of all time. He was voted \"The Best Prog guitarist\" by \"The Prog Magazine\" and \"The Greatest Guitarist\" by the Burrn magazine and Mariskalrock. \"Guitar World magazine\" lists Petrucci among the Fastest Guitarists of All Time and calls him \"the most celebrated and popular guitarist in the world of progressive metal\" and \"arguably the most versatile and proficient player in his realm, with a highly developed melodic sense and an alternate picking technique that is virtually untouchable as far as speed and precision.\", also ranking him among the top 5 Best Guitarists of the Decade. In 2019, Petrucci won the SENA Performers European Award. Joel McIver's 2009 book \"The 100 Greatest Metal Guitarists\" ranks Petrucci second, after Dave Mustaine. He was also named as one of the \"Top 10 Greatest Guitar Shredders of All Time\" by \"GuitarOne\" magazine. In 2012, Petrucci was ranked the 17th greatest guitarist of all time by a \"Guitar World\" magazine reader's poll.. Petrucci's signature guitar model \"Majesty\" (by Ernie Ball Music Man) is the best selling signature guitar model of all time, according to Forbes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973829}
{"src_title": "House of Sforza", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Francesco I Sforza ruled Milan, having acquired the title of Duke of Milan (1450–1466) after marrying in 1441 the natural daughter and only heir of the last Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, Bianca Maria (1425–1468), making the Sforzas the heirs of the house of Visconti.  The family also held the seigniory of Pesaro, starting with Muzio Attendolo's second son, Alessandro (1409–1473). The Sforza held Pesaro until 1512, after the death of Costanzo II Sforza.  Muzio's third son, Bosio (1411–1476), founded the branch of Santa Fiora, who held the title of count of Cotignola; the Sforza ruled the small county of Santa Fiora in southern Tuscany until 1624. Members of this family also held important ecclesiastical and political positions in the Papal States, and moved to Rome in 1674, taking the name of Sforza Cesarini.  The Sforza became allied with the Borgia family through the arranged marriage (1493–1497) between Lucrezia Borgia and Giovanni (the illegitimate son of Costanzo I of Pesaro). This alliance failed, as the Borgia family annulled the marriage once the Sforza family were no longer needed.  In 1499, in the course of the Italian Wars, the army of Louis XII of France took Milan from Ludovico Sforza (known as \"Ludovico il Moro\", famous for taking Leonardo da Vinci into his service).  After Imperial German troops drove out the French, Maximilian Sforza, son of Ludovico, became Duke of Milan (1512–1515) until the French returned under Francis I of France and imprisoned him.  In 1521 Charles V drove out the French and restored the younger son of Ludovico, Francesco II Sforza to the duchy. Francesco remained the ruler of Milan until his death in 1535 and as he was childless the Duchy reverted to the Emperor, who passed it to his son Philip II in 1540, thus beginning the period of Spanish rule in Milan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The House of Sforza () was a ruling family of Renaissance Italy, based in Milan. They acquired the Duchy of Milan following the extinction of the Visconti family in the mid-15th century, Sforza rule ending in Milan with the death of the last member of the family's main branch in 1535.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973830}
{"src_title": "Tuatha Dé Danann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The Old Irish word \"tuath\" (plural \"tuatha\") means \"people, tribe, nation\"; \"dé\" is the genitive case of \"día\" and, depending on context, can mean \"god, gods, goddess\" or more broadly \"supernatural being, object of worship\". In the earliest writings, the mythical race are referred to as the \"Tuath Dé\" (plural \"Tuatha Dé\"). However, Irish monks also began using the term \"Tuath Dé\" to refer to the Israelites, with the meaning \"People of God\". Apparently to avoid confusion with the Israelites, writers began to refer to the mythical race as the \"Tuath Dé Danann\" (plural \"Tuatha Dé Danann\"). The Old Irish pronunciation is and the Modern Irish pronunciation is in the West and North, and in the South. In Latin they are referred to as the \"Plebes Deorum\" or \"folk of gods.\" A poem included in the Lebór Gábala Érenn also refers to the Tuath Dé as the \"clann Eladan\".  \"Danann\" is generally believed to be the genitive of a female name, for which the nominative case is not attested. It has been reconstructed as \"Danu\", of which \"Anu\" (genitive \"Anann\") may be an alternative form. \"Anu\" is called \"mother of the Irish gods\" by Cormac mac Cuilennáin. This may be linked to the Welsh mythical figure Dôn. Hindu mythology also has a goddess called Danu, who may be an Indo-European parallel. However, this reconstruction is not universally accepted. It has also been suggested that \"Danann\" is a conflation of \"dán\" (\"skill, craft\") and the goddess name \"Anann\". The name is also found as \"Donann\" and \"Domnann\", which may point to the origin being proto-Celtic \"*don\", meaning \"earth\" (compare the Old Irish word for earth, \"doman\"). There may be a link with the mythical Fir Domnann and the British Dumnonii.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legend.", "content": "The Tuatha Dé Danann were descended from Nemed, leader of a previous wave of inhabitants of Ireland. They came from four cities to the north of Ireland—Falias, Gorias, Murias and Finias—where they taught their skills in the sciences, including architecture, the arts, and magic, including necromancy. According to \"Lebor Gabála Érenn\", they came to Ireland \"in dark clouds\" and \"landed on the mountains of [the] Conmaicne Rein in Connachta\", otherwise Sliabh an Iarainn, \"and they brought a darkness over the sun for three days and three nights\". They immediately burnt the ships \"so that they should not think of retreating to them, and the smoke and the mist that came from the vessels filled the neighbouring land and air. Therefore it was conceived that they had arrived in clouds of mist\".  A poem in the \"Lebor Gabála Érenn\" says of their arrival: <poem>It is God who suffered them, though He restrained them they landed with horror, with lofty deed, in their cloud of mighty combat of spectres, upon a mountain of Conmaicne of Connacht.  Without distinction to discerning Ireland, Without ships, a ruthless course the truth was not known beneath the sky of stars, whether they were of heaven or of earth.</poem> According to Tuan: From them are the Tuatha Dé and Andé, whose origin the learned do not know, but that it seems likely to them that they came from heaven, on account of their intelligence and for the excellence of their knowledge.  Led by king Nuada, they fought the First Battle of Magh Tuireadh on the west coast, in which they defeated and displaced the native Fir Bolg, who then inhabited Ireland. In the battle, Nuada lost an arm to their champion, Sreng. Since Nuada was no longer \"unblemished\", he could not continue as king and was replaced by the half-Fomorian Bres, who turned out to be a tyrant. The physician Dian Cecht replaced Nuada's arm with a working silver one and he was reinstated as king. However, Dian Cecht's son Miach was dissatisfied with the replacement so he recited the spell, \"\"ault fri halt dí & féith fri féth\"\" (joint to joint of it and sinew to sinew), which caused flesh to grow over the silver prosthesis over the course of nine days and nights. However, in a fit of jealous rage Dian Cecht slew his own son. Because of Nuada's restoration as the leader, Bres complained to his family and his father, Elatha, who sent him to seek assistance from Balor, king of the Fomorians.  The Tuatha Dé Danann then fought the Second Battle of Magh Tuireadh against the Fomorians. Nuada was killed by the Fomorian king Balor's poisonous eye, but Balor was killed by Lugh, champion of the Tuatha Dé, and who then took over as king.  A third battle was fought against a subsequent wave of invaders, the Milesians, from the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Galicia and Northern Portugal), descendants of Míl Espáine (who are thought to represent the Goidelic Celts). The Milesians encountered three Tuatha Dé Danann goddesses, Ériu, Banba and Fodla, who asked that the island be named after them; Ériu is the origin of the modern name Éire, and Banba and Fodla are still sometimes used as poetic names for Ireland.  Their three husbands, Mac Cuill, Mac Cecht and Mac Gréine, were kings of the Tuatha Dé Danann at that time, and asked for a truce of three days, during which the Milesians would lie at anchor nine waves' distance from the shore. The Milesians complied, but the Tuatha Dé Danann created a magical storm in an attempt to drive them away. The Milesian poet Amergin calmed the sea with his verse, then his people landed and defeated the Tuatha Dé Danann at Tailtiu. When Amergin was called upon to divide the land between the Tuatha Dé Danann and his own people, he cleverly allotted the portion above ground to the Milesians and the portion underground to the Tuatha Dé Danann. The Tuatha Dé Danann were led underground into the Sidhe mounds by Manannán mac Lir and Tir na nOg onto a flowery plain/plain of honey attested to in the Voyage of Bran.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Four Treasures.", "content": "The Tuatha Dé Danann brought four magical treasures with them to Ireland, one apiece from their Four Cities:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tuatha Dé Danann High Kings of Ireland.", "content": "The following is a chronology from the Annals of the Four Masters; based on reign-lengths given in Geoffrey Keating's \"Forus Feasa ar Erinn\". Nuada's original reign lacks a precise start date.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Additional references.", "content": "In the Irish version of the Historia Britonum of Nennius, the chief men of science of the \"Tuatha Dé Danann\" are listed with their partly Latin names and associations as follows:  In the Annals of Inisfallen, the following are listed as members of the \"Tuatha Dé\" who overcame the Fir Bolg:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tuath(a) Dé Danann (, meaning \"the folk of the goddess Danu\"), also known by the earlier name Tuath Dé (\"tribe of the gods\"), are a supernatural race in Irish mythology. They are thought to represent the main deities of pre-Christian Gaelic Ireland. The Tuatha Dé Danann constitute a pantheon whose attributes appeared in a number of forms throughout the Celtic world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973831}
{"src_title": "Raymond Goethals", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career and early coaching career.", "content": "Goethals began his career as a goalkeeper in the 1930s with Daring Brussels, making his way through the youth ranks of the club before joining Racing Club Brussel in 1947. He remained at Racing Club Brussel until 1948. After a period spent playing for Renaisiènne, he moved into coaching with Hannutois and Waremme, and led Sint-Truiden to second place in the Belgian First Division in 1966.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Belgium national coach.", "content": "Goethals took charge of the Belgian national side in 1968. Belgium would succeed in qualifying for the 1970 World Cup in Mexico, although they were eliminated in the first round of the tournament. Belgium hosted the 1972 European Championship, having knocked out holders Italy in the qualifying stages, and defeated Hungary in the match for third place after losing in the semi-final to eventual tournament winners Germany. That marked Goethals' greatest success as national team coach. He also took great pride in the fact that Belgium had held the emergent Dutch national team scoreless in both their meetings in 1974 World Cup qualifying. Belgium completed their qualifying campaign without having conceded a single goal, but lost out to the Netherlands on account of their inferior goal difference.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to club coaching.", "content": "In 1976 Goethals' tenure as coach of the national side ended, and he joined Anderlecht as coach. In his first season, Anderlecht reached the final of the European Cup Winners' Cup, where they lost to German side Hamburger SV, but won the trophy the following year with a comprehensive victory over FK Austria/WAC. After spells coaching in France at Bordeaux and in Brazil with São Paulo, Goethals returned to Belgium to coach Standard Liège. Standard Liège were Belgian champions in 1982 and 1983, and they reached the Cup Winners' Cup Final in 1982, losing to Barcelona, who were at a considerable advantage in that the final was played at their home ground, Camp Nou.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy and Goethals' return to Anderlecht.", "content": "Standard Liège's 1982 championship win was to become the subject of great controversy in 1984. Seemingly preoccupied with winning his first Belgian title, Goethals had suggested and initiated the bribing of the Waterschei players prior to the teams' meeting in the final match of the season, in order to secure championship honours for Standard Liège and ensure that none of his players would miss their European final against Barcelona through injury. Goethals was forced to resign in the wake of the scandal, and he moved to Portugal to take charge of Vitória Guimarães. He then returned to Belgium to coach Racing Jet de Bruxelles before a second spell in charge of Anderlecht, where he won Belgian Cup trophy in 1989. Bordeaux again recruited Goethals, and they finished runners-up in the French championship in 1989–90 behind Marseille. Approaching 70 years of age, Goethals' greatest triumph as a coach was yet to come.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Olympique de Marseille.", "content": "In 1990, Goethals was named coach of Marseille and was entrusted with the task of leading the club to European Cup success. In his first season, the club narrowly missed out on European glory, losing on penalties in the European Cup Final to Red Star Belgrade. There was recognition for Goethals' coaching abilities, as he was voted 1991 European Coach of the Year. In 1993, Marseille again reached the European Cup final, where they defeated favourites A.C. Milan with a headed goal by Basile Boli. Having achieved his primary objective at Marseille, Goethals left the club.  Marseille were later stripped of their 1993 French championship when it emerged that three Valenciennes players had been offered money to underperform in a crucial match against Marseille. The club were not allowed to defend their European title as a result, and were punished with relegation to the French second division.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "Goethals' coaching career ended at Anderlecht in season 1995–96, but he remained in demand as a television analyst for his insights into football. He died of bowel cancer aged 83. In 2005, the year following his death, he was voted 38th in De Grootste Belg, a Flemish television programme based on the BBC's 100 Greatest Britons. The number 2 stand at F.C. Brussels' home ground, Edmond Machtens Stadium, was renamed in honour of Goethals in late 2005. He remains today as the oldest winning manager of UEFA Champions League.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manager.", "content": "Anderlecht  Standard Liège  Marseille  Belgium", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Raymond Goethals (; 7 October 1921 – 6 December 2004) was a Belgian football coach who led Marseille to victory in the UEFA Champions League final in 1993, becoming the first coach to win a European trophy with a French club.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973832}
{"src_title": "Volkswagen Kübelwagen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early.", "content": "Theophilos was the son of the Byzantine Emperor Michael II and his wife Thekla, and the godson of Emperor Leo V the Armenian. Michael II crowned Theophilos co-emperor in 822, shortly after his own accession. Unlike his father, Theophilos received an extensive education from John Hylilas, the grammarian, and was a great admirer of music and art. On 2 October 829, Theophilos succeeded his father as sole emperor.  Theophilos continued in his predecessors' iconoclasm, though without his father's more conciliatory tone, issuing an edict in 832 forbidding the veneration of icons. He also saw himself as the champion of justice, which he served most ostentatiously by executing his father's co-conspirators against Leo V immediately after his accession. His reputation as a judge endured, and in the literary composition \"Timarion\" Theophilos is featured as one of the judges in the Netherworld.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War against the Arabs.", "content": "At the time of his accession, Theophilos was obliged to wage wars against the Arabs on two fronts. Sicily was once again invaded by the Arabs, who took Palermo after a year-long siege in 831, established the Emirate of Sicily, and gradually continued to expand across the island. The defence after the invasion of Anatolia by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun in 830 was led by the Emperor himself, but the Byzantines were defeated and lost several fortresses. In 831 Theophilos retaliated by leading a large army into Cilicia and capturing Tarsus. The Emperor returned to Constantinople in triumph, but in the autumn he was defeated in Cappadocia. Another defeat in the same province in 833 forced Theophilos to sue for peace (Theophilos offered 100,000 gold dinars and the return of 7,000 prisoners), which he obtained the next year, after the death of Al-Ma'mun.  During the respite from the war against the Abbasids, Theophilos arranged for the abduction of the Byzantine captives settled north of the Danube by Krum of Bulgaria. The rescue operation was carried out with success in c. 836, and the peace between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire was quickly restored. However, it proved impossible to maintain peace in the East. Theophilos had given asylum to a number of refugees from the east in 834, including Nasr, a Persian. He baptized Theophobos, who married the Emperor's aunt Irene and became one of his generals. As relations with the Abbasids deteriorated, Theophilos prepared for a new war.  In 837 Theophilos led a vast army of 70,000 men towards Mesopotamia and captured Melitene and Arsamosata. The Emperor also took and destroyed Zapetra (Zibatra, Sozopetra), which some sources claim as the birthplace of Caliph al-Mu'tasim. Theophilos returned to Constantinople in triumph. Eager for revenge, Al-Mu'tasim assembled a vast army and launched a two-pronged invasion of Anatolia in 838. Theophilos decided to strike one division of the caliph's army before they could combine. On 21 July 838 at the Battle of Anzen in Dazimon, Theophilos personally led a Byzantine army of 25,000 to 40,000 men against the troops commanded by al-Afshin. Afshin withstood the Byzantine attack, counter-attacked, and won the battle. The Byzantine survivors fell back in disorder and did not interfere in the caliph's continuing campaign.  Al-Mu'tasim took Ancyra, and al-Afshin joined him there. The full Abbasid army advanced against Amorium, the cradle of the dynasty. Initially there was determined resistance. Then a Muslim captive escaped and informed the caliph where there was a section of the wall that had only a front facade. Al-Mu'tasim concentrated his bombardment on this section, and the wall was breached. Having heroically held for fifty-five days, the city now fell to al-Mu'tasim on 12 or 15 August 838.  In 838, in order to impress the Caliph of Baghdad, Theophilus had John the Grammarian distribute 36,000 \"nomismata\" to the citizens of Baghdad. Around 841, the Republic of Venice sent a fleet of 60 galleys (each carrying 200 men) to assist the Byzantines in driving the Arabs from Crotone, but it failed.  During this campaign Al-Mu'tasim discovered that some of his top generals were plotting against him. Many of these leading commanders were arrested and some executed before he arrived home. Al-Afshin seems not to have been involved in this, but he was detected in other intrigues and died in prison in the spring of 841. Caliph al-Mu'tasim fell sick in October 841 and died on 5 January 842.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relations with Bulgaria and Serbia.", "content": "In 836, following the expiration of the 20-year peace treaty between the Empire and Bulgaria, Theophilos ravaged the Bulgarian frontier. The Bulgarians retaliated, and under the leadership of Isbul they reached Adrianople. At this time, if not earlier, the Bulgarians annexed Philippopolis (Plovdiv) and its environs. Khan Malamir died in 836.  The peace between the Serbs, Byzantine foederati, and the Bulgars lasted until 839. Vlastimir of Serbia united several tribes, and Theophilos granted the Serbs independence; Vlastimir acknowledged nominal overlordship of the Emperor. The annexation of western Macedonia by the Bulgars changed the political situation. Malamir or his successor may have seen a threat in the Serb consolidation and opted to subjugate them in the midst of the conquest of Slav lands. Another cause might have been that the Byzantines wanted to divert attention so that they could cope with the Slavic uprising in the Peloponnese, meaning they sent the Serbs to instigate the war. It is thought that the rapid extension of Bulgars over Slavs prompted the Serbs to unite into a state.  Khan Presian I (r. 836–852) invaded Serbian territory in 839 (see Bulgarian–Serbian Wars). The invasion led to a three-year war, in which Vlastimir was victorious; Presian was heavily defeated, made no territorial gains, and lost many of his men. The Serbs had a tactical advantage in the hills, and the Bulgars were driven out by the army of Vlastimir. The war ended with the death of Theophilos, which released Vlastimir from his obligations to the Byzantine Empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "The health of Theophilos gradually failed, and he died on 20 January 842. Theophilos strengthened the Walls of Constantinople and built a hospital, which continued to exist until the twilight of the Byzantine Empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "By his marriage with Theodora, Theophilos had seven children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Volkswagen Kübelwagen () (a back-formation as literally, 'tub' car), was a light military vehicle designed by Ferdinand Porsche and built by Volkswagen during World War II for use by the German military (both \"Wehrmacht\" and \"Waffen-SS\"). Based heavily on the Volkswagen Beetle, it was prototyped as the Type 62, but eventually became known internally as the Type 82.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973833}
{"src_title": "Ningbo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The first character in the city's name \"ning\" ( or ) means \"serene\", while its second character \"bo\" () translates to \"wave\". The city is abbreviated \"\" () for the eponymous \"Yong Hill\" (), a prominent coastal hill near the city, and the Yong River that flows through Ningbo. (The abbreviation Ning is used more commonly for Nanjing.)  It was once named Mingzhou (). The first character () is composed of two parts, representing two lakes inside the city wall: Sun Lake () and Moon Lake (). Today, only Moon Lake remains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Ningbo is one of China's oldest cities, with a history dating to the Hemudu culture in 4800 BC. Ningbo was known as a trade city on the silk road at least two thousand years ago, and then as a major port for foreign trade along with Yangzhou and Guangzhou in the Tang Dynasty, and Quanzhou and Guangzhou in the Sung dynasty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tang and Song dynasty.", "content": "Since the Tang dynasty Ningbo has been an important commercial port. Arab traders lived in Ningbo during the Song dynasty when it was known as Mingzhou, as the ocean-going trade passages took precedence over land trade during this time. Another name for Mingzhou/Ningbo was Siming. It was a well known center of ocean-going commerce with the foreign world. These merchants did not intermingle with native Chinese, instead practicing their own customs and religion and inhabiting ghettos. They did not try to proselytize Islam to the Chinese. Jews also lived in Ningbo, as evidenced by the fact that, after a major flood destroyed Torah scrolls in Kaifeng in 1642, a replacement was sent to the Kaifeng Jews by the Ningbo Jewish community.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ming dynasty.", "content": "The city of Ningbo was known in Europe for a long time under the name of Liampó. This is the usual spelling used e.g. in the standard Portuguese history, João de Barros's \"Décadas da Ásia\", although Barros explained that Liampó was a Portuguese \"corruption\" of the more correct Nimpó. The spelling Liampó is also attested in the \"Peregrination\" (\"Peregrinação\") by Fernão Mendes Pinto, a (so-called) autobiography written in Portuguese during the 16th century. For the mid-16th-century Portuguese, the nearby promontory, which they called the cape of Liampó, after the nearby \"illustrious city\" was the easternmost known point of the mainland Asia. The Portuguese began trading in Ningbo around 1522. By 1542, the Portuguese had a sizable community in Ningbo (or, more likely, on nearby small islands such as Shuangyu). Portuguese activities from their Ningbo base included pillaging and attacking multiple Chinese port cities around Ningbo for plunder and spoil. They also enslaved people during their raids. The Portuguese were ousted from the Ningbo area in 1548.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Qing dynasty.", "content": "Ningbo was one of the five Chinese \"treaty ports\" opened by the Treaty of Nanjing (signed in 1842) at the end of the First Opium War between Britain and China. During the war, British forces briefly took possession of the walled city of Ningbo after storming the fortified town of Zhenhai at the mouth of the Yong River on October 10, 1841. The British subsequently repulsed a Chinese attempt to retake the city in the Battle of Ningpo on March 10, 1842. In 1861, the forces of the Taiping Rebellion took the city relatively unopposed as the defending garrison fled; they held the town for six months. In March 1885, during the Sino-French War, Admiral Courbet's naval squadron blockaded several Chinese warships in Zhenhai Bay and exchanged fire with the shore defenses.  Ningbo was also once famed for traditional Chinese furniture production. During the Qing dynasty, western encyclopedias described Ningbo as a center of craftsmanship and industry.  During the late Qing dynasty, in the 1800s, the Ningbo authorities contracted Cantonese pirates to exterminate and massacre Portuguese pirates who had raided Cantonese shipping around Ningbo. The massacre was \"successful\", with 40 Portuguese dead and only 2 Chinese dead, being dubbed \"The Ningpo Massacre\" by an English correspondent, who noted that the Portuguese pirates had behaved savagely towards the Chinese, and that the Portuguese authorities at Macau should have reined in the pirates.  During late Qing era, Western missionaries set up a Presbyterian Church in Ningbo. Li Veng-eing was a Reverend of the Ningpo Church. The Ningpo College was managed by Rev. Robert F. Fitch. The four trustees were natives of Ningbo, three of them had Taotai rank. Rev. George Evans Moule, B. A. was appointed a missionary to China by the Church of England Missionary Society, and arrived at Ningpo with Mrs. Moule in February 1858. He then began a mission station at Hang-chow, between which and Ningpo his time had been chiefly divided. He wrote Christian publications in the Ningbo dialect.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Republican era.", "content": "During World War II in 1940, Japan bombed Ningbo with ceramic bombs full of fleas carrying the bubonic plague. According to Daniel Barenblatt, Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda received, with Prince Mikasa, a special screening by Shiro Ishii of a film showing imperial planes loading germ bombs for bubonic dissemination over Ningbo in 1940.  Between 80% to 90% of Ningbo's population fled the city during the Japanese invasion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Ningbo ranges in latitude from 28° 51' to 30° 33' N and in longitude from 120° 55' to 122° 16' E, bounded on the east by the East China Sea and Zhoushan Archipelago, on the north by Hangzhou Bay, across which it faces Jiaxing and Shanghai, on the west by Shaoxing, and on the south by Taizhou. Its land area is, while oceanic territory amounts to ; there is a total of coastline including of mainland coastline and of island coastline, together accounting for one-third of the entire provincial coastline. There are 531 islands accounting for under the city's administration.  Ningbo's city proper is sandwiched between the ocean and low-lying mountains to the southwest, with coastal plain and valleys in between. Important peninsulas include the Chuanshan Peninsula (), located in Beilun District and containing mainland Zhejiang's easternmost point, and the Xiangshan Peninsula () in Xiangshan County. The Siming Mountains () run north from Mount Tiantai and within Ningbo City, traverse Yuyao City, Haishu District, and Fenghua District, reaching a height of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Ningbo has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen \"Cfa\") with four distinctive seasons, characterized by hot, humid summers and chilly, cloudy and dry winters (with occasional snow). The mean annual temperature is, with monthly daily averages ranging from in January to in July. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from on 12 January 1955 to on 8 August 2013. The city receives an average annual rainfall of and is affected by the plum rains of the Asian monsoon in June, when average relative humidity also peaks. From August to October, Ningbo experiences the effects of typhoons, and is affected by an average 1.8 storms annually, though the city is not often struck directly by these systems. A 2012 OECD study lists Ningbo among the top 20 cities worldwide most at risk of flooding due to anthropogenic climate change.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ningbo (;, ), formerly romanized as Ningpo, is a sub-provincial city in northeast Zhejiang province, People's Republic of China. It comprises the urban districts of Ningbo proper, three satellite cities, and a number of rural counties including islands in Hangzhou Bay and the East China Sea. Its port, the port of Ningbo–Zhoushan, spread across several locations, is among the busiest in the world and the municipality possesses a separate state-planning status. As of the 2010 census, the entire administrated area had a population of 7.6 million, with 3.5 million in the built-up area made of six urban districts of Ningbo proper. To the north, Hangzhou Bay separates Ningbo from Shanghai; to the east lies Zhoushan in the East China Sea; on the west and south, Ningbo borders Shaoxing and Taizhou respectively.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973834}
{"src_title": "Hebrew numerals", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Numbers.", "content": "The Hebrew language has names for common numbers that range from zero to one million. Letters of the Hebrew alphabet are used to represent numbers in a few traditional contexts, for example in calendars. In other situations Arabic numerals are used. Cardinal and ordinal numbers must agree in gender with the noun they are describing. If there is no such noun (e.g. telephone numbers), the feminine form is used. For ordinal numbers greater than ten the cardinal is used and numbers above the value 20 have no gender.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ordinal values.", "content": "Note: For ordinal numbers greater than 10, cardinal numbers are used instead.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cardinal values.", "content": "Note: For numbers greater than 20, gender does not apply. Officially, numbers greater than a million were represented by the long scale; However, since January 21, 2013, the modified short scale (under which the long scale milliard is substituted for the strict short scale billion), which was already the colloquial standard, became official.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Speaking and writing.", "content": "Cardinal and ordinal numbers must agree in gender (masculine or feminine; mixed groups are treated as masculine) with the noun they are describing. If there is no such noun (e.g. a telephone number or a house number in a street address), the feminine form is used. Ordinal numbers must also agree in number and definite status like other adjectives. The cardinal number precedes the noun (e.g., \"shlosha yeladim\"), except for the number one which succeeds it (e.g., \"yeled echad\"). The number two is special: \"shnayim\" (m.) and \"shtayim\" (f.) become \"shney\" (m.) and \"shtey\" (f.) when followed by the noun they count. For ordinal numbers (numbers indicating position) greater than ten the cardinal is used.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Calculations.", "content": "The Hebrew numeric system operates on the additive principle in which the numeric values of the letters are added together to form the total. For example, 177 is represented as which (from right to left) corresponds to 100 + 70 + 7 = 177.  Mathematically, this type of system requires 27 letters (1-9, 10-90, 100-900). In practice the last letter, \"tav\" (which has the value 400) is used in combination with itself and/or other letters from \"qof\" (100) onwards, to generate numbers from 500 and above. Alternatively, the 22-letter Hebrew numeral set is sometimes extended to 27 by using 5 \"sofit\" (final) forms of the Hebrew letters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Key exceptions.", "content": "By convention, the numbers 15 and 16 are represented as (9 + 6) and (9 + 7), respectively, in order to refrain from using the two-letter combinations (10 + 5) and (10 + 6), which are alternate written forms for the Name of God in everyday writing. In the calendar, this manifests every full moon, since all Hebrew months start on a new moon (see for example: Tu BiShvat).  Combinations which would spell out words with negative connotations are sometimes avoided by switching the order of the letters. For instance, 744 which should be written as (meaning \"you/it will be destroyed\") might instead be written as or (meaning \"end to demon\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use of final letters.", "content": "The Hebrew numeral system has sometimes been extended to include the five final letter forms— for 500, for 600, for 700, for 800, for 900—which are then used to indicate the numbers from 500 to 900.  The ordinary additive forms for 500 to 900 are,,, and.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gershayim.", "content": "Gershayim (U+05F4 in Unicode, and resembling a double quote mark) (sometimes erroneously referred to as \"merkha'ot\", which is Hebrew for double quote) are inserted before (to the right of) the last (leftmost) letter to indicate that the sequence of letters represents a number rather than a word. This is used in the case where a number is represented by two or more Hebrew numerals (\"e.g.,\" 28 → ).  Similarly, a single geresh (U+05F3 in Unicode, and resembling a single quote mark) is appended after (to the left of) a single letter to indicate that the letter represents a number rather than a (one-letter) word. This is used in the case where a number is represented by a single Hebrew numeral (\"e.g.\" 100 → ).  Note that geresh and gershayim merely indicate \"\"not a (normal) word.\"\" Context usually determines whether they indicate a number or something else (such as \"\"abbreviation\"\").  An alternative method found in old manuscripts and still found on modern-day tombstones is to put a dot above each letter of the number.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decimals.", "content": "In print, Arabic numerals are employed in Modern Hebrew for most purposes. Hebrew numerals are used nowadays primarily for writing the days and years of the Hebrew calendar; for references to traditional Jewish texts (particularly for Biblical chapter and verse and for Talmudic folios); for bulleted or numbered lists (similar to \"A\", \"B\", \"C\", \"etc.\", in English); and in numerology (gematria).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thousands and date formats.", "content": "Thousands are counted separately, and the thousands count precedes the rest of the number (to the \"right\", since Hebrew is read from right to left). There are no special marks to signify that the “count” is starting over with thousands, which can theoretically lead to ambiguity, although a single quote mark is sometimes used after the letter. When specifying years of the Hebrew calendar in the present millennium, writers usually omit the thousands (which is presently 5 []), but if they do not this is accepted to mean 5,000, with no ambiguity. The current Israeli coinage includes the thousands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Date examples.", "content": "“Monday, 15 Adar 5764” (where 5764 = 5(×1000) + 400 + 300 + 60 + 4, and 15 = 9 + 6):  “Thursday, 3 Nisan 5767” (where 5767 = 5(×1000) + 400 + 300 + 60 + 7):  To see how \"today's\" date in the Hebrew calendar is written, see, for example, Hebcal date converter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent years.", "content": "5780 (2019–20) =  5779 (2018–19) =  5772 (2011–12) =  5771 (2010–11) =  5770 (2009–10) =  5769 (2008–09) =  5761 (2000–01) =  5760 (1999–2000) =", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Similar systems.", "content": "The Abjad numerals are equivalent to the Hebrew numerals up to 400. The Greek numerals differ from the Hebrew ones from 90 upwards because in the Greek alphabet there is no equivalent for \"tsade\" ().", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The system of Hebrew numerals is a quasi-decimal alphabetic numeral system using the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The system was adapted from that of the Greek numerals in the late 2nd century BCE.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973835}
{"src_title": "Ravenala", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "It has been given the name \"traveller's palm\" because the sheaths of the stems hold rainwater, which supposedly could be used as an emergency drinking supply for needy travellers. However, the water inside the plant is murky, black and smelly and should not be consumed without purification. Another plausible reason for its name is that the fan tends to grow on an east-west line, providing a crude compass.  The scientific name \"Ravenala\" comes from Malagasy \"ravinala\" meaning \"forest leaves\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The enormous paddle-shaped leaves are borne on long petioles, in a distinctive fan shape aligned in a single plane (distichous). The large white flowers are structurally similar to those of its relatives, the bird-of-paradise flowers \"Strelitzia reginae\" and \"Strelitzia nicolai\", but are generally considered less attractive, with a green bract. These flowers, upon being pollinated, produce brilliant blue seeds; possibly the only blue seeds found in nature. In tropical and subtropical regions, the plant is widely cultivated for its distinctive habit and foliage. As the plant grows older, it progressively loses the lowest or oldest leaves and reveals a sturdy grey trunk. Of the four forms, varieties or subspecies, the largest is the \"Bemavo\", from the hills of eastern Madagascar, which can be 100 feet (30 metres) in height with a trunk 2 feet (60 cm) thick. The foliar fan consists of 20 to 35 leaves, each as much as 36 feet (11 metres) in length.  The chromosome number is 2n = 22.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Ruffed lemurs are a known pollinator of this plant, and given the size and structure of the inflorescences, as well as the lemur's selectivity, method of feeding, and long muzzle, this relationship is thought to have coevolved.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "The plant requires a sunny spot (not full sun until it is larger). It responds well to fertiliser, especially if it is high in nitrogen during the growing season. This produces better growth and foliage. The plant grows to an average height of and requires moderate water.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ravenala is a genus of flowering plants with a single species, Ravenala madagascariensis, commonly known as the traveller's tree, traveller's palm or East-West palm, from Madagascar. It is not a true palm (family Arecaceae) but a member of a monocotyledonous flowering plant family, Strelitziaceae. The genus is closely related to the southern African genus \"Strelitzia\" and the South American genus \"Phenakospermum\". Some older classifications include these genera in the banana family (Musaceae). Although it is usually considered to be a single species, four different forms have been distinguished.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973836}
{"src_title": "Galalith", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery.", "content": "In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize casein by immersion in formaldehyde. In 1897, Wilhelm Krische, a printer from Hanover, Germany was commissioned to develop white, non-flammable, erasable chalkboards. He had difficulty in making the casein adhere to the supporting cardboard, and asked German chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846–1940) for help. The resultant horn-like plastic was unsuitable for the original purpose, but other applications were soon found.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production and usage.", "content": "Galalith could not be moulded once set, so it had to be produced in sheets, but it had the advantage that it was inexpensive to produce. It could be cut, drilled, embossed and dyed without difficulty, and its structure could be manipulated to create a range of effects. One limitation on the uses of Galalith was that when made into items above a certain size it tended to splinter or warp. No other plastic at the time could compete on price, however, and with ivory, horn and bone products becoming far more expensive, it found a natural home in the fashion industry.  This new plastic was presented at Paris Universal Exhibition in 1900. In France, Galalith was distributed by the Compagnie Française de Galalithe located near Paris in Levallois-Perret. As a result, the Jura area became the first to use the material.  Galalith was marketed in boards, pipes and rods. In 1913, thirty million litres (eight million US gallons) of milk were used to produce Galalith in Germany alone. In 1914, Syrolit Ltd gained the license for manufacture in the United Kingdom. Renaming itself Erinoid Ltd., it started manufacture in the former Lightpill wool mill in Dudbridge, Stroud, Gloucestershire. Casein from rennet produces a superior plastic to acid-precipitated casein.  Galalith could produce gemstone imitations that looked strikingly real. In 1926, Gabrielle “Coco” Chanel published a picture of a short, simple black dress in \"Vogue\". It was calf-length, straight, and decorated only by a few diagonal lines. Vogue called it \"\"Chanel’s Ford,”\" as like the Model T, the little black dress was simple and accessible for women of all social classes. To accessorize the little black dress, Chanel revamped her designs, thus facilitating the breakthrough and mass popularity of costume jewelry. Galalith was used for striking Art Deco jewelry designs by artists such as Jacob Bengel and Auguste Bonaz, as well as for hair combs and accessories. By the 1930s, Galalith was also used for knitting needles, pens, umbrella handles, white piano keys (replacing natural ivory), and electrical goods, with world production at that time reaching 10,000 tons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "Although Galalith was historically cheap, the fact it could not be moulded led to its demise by commercial end users. Production slowed as the restrictions of World War II led to a need for milk as a food, and due to new oil-derived wartime plastic developments. Production continued in Brazil until the 1960s.  Nowadays \"Galalith\" still continues to be produced in small quantities, mainly for buttons.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Galalith (Erinoid in the United Kingdom) is a synthetic plastic material manufactured by the interaction of casein and formaldehyde. The commercial name is derived from the Greek words \"gala\" (milk) and \"lithos\" (stone). It is odourless, insoluble in water, biodegradable, non-allergenic, antistatic and virtually nonflammable. It was produced under other names such as aladdinite (in the USA), Casolith (in the Netherlands) and lactoloid (in Japan).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973837}
{"src_title": "Grail Movement", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Grail Movement had its beginnings when Oskar Ernst Bernhardt took up residence in Vomperberg, Tyrol (Austria) in 1928, in order to focus on the writing of his major work \"In the Light of Truth\" - The Grail Message (as Abd Ru Shin), which was then followed by other works.  The establishment of the Grail Settlement on Vomperberg came about when groups of readers of The Grail Message, wishing to live and work in his immediate vicinity, took up residence there. The Settlement developed gradually; adding residences, work and administration buildings and then a small hall with seating for about 300 people. This hall was used by Abd-ru-shin for Sunday Hours of Worship and for the three annual Grail Festivals, Easter Festival etc., to which adherents of the Grail Message also journeyed.  This development was interrupted in 1938 when the Nazi regime annexed Austria and expropriated the Grail Settlement. Abd-ru-shin was arrested on the first day of the annexation and taken to Innsbruck prison. All residents were expelled so that the Settlement could be used as a Nazi training camp. Abd-ru-shin was eventually released but kept under house arrest and surveillance until he died in 1941 in Kipsdorf, Germany.  It was not until late in 1945 when the Allies returned the Settlement to his widow Maria Bernhardt that, under her direction, new development began. During this time the term \"Grail Movement\" was in common use, as a group designation for adherents of the Grail Message. Over the years national Grail Movements have formed in many countries, some of which, (e.g., Canada, Switzerland, Germany, the Netherlands, Congo (Zaire) and Nigeria) have built their own Halls of Worship although Abd-ru-shin had explicitly stated in his writings that he had not come to establish a new religion.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Grail Movement is an organization which originated in Germany in the late 1940s, inspired by the work of the self-proclaimed Messiah Oskar Ernst Bernhardt (also known by his pen name Abd-ru-shin), principally \"\". Abd-ru-shin did not establish the organization; the Movement as it exists today was formally organized by followers. The Grail Movement is a new spiritual movement dedicated to the dissemination and spread of the work \"\" by Abd-ru-shin. Most members reside in 16 countries across Europe, primarily Germany and France, with the Grail Movement reporting hundreds of members in Britain and in the USA. It can also be found in Canada, Brazil and currently established in 22 African countries such as Nigeria, Zaire (DR Congo) and Côte d'Ivoire, as well as in South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Ecuador amongst others.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973838}
{"src_title": "Pre-ejaculate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin and composition.", "content": "The fluid is discharged from the urethra of the penis during arousal, masturbation, foreplay or at an early stage during sexual intercourse, some time before the individual fully reaches orgasm and semen is ejaculated. It is primarily produced by the bulbourethral glands (Cowper's glands), with the glands of Littre (the mucus-secreting urethral glands) also contributing. The amount of fluid that is issued varies widely among individuals. Some individuals do not produce any pre-ejaculate fluid, while others emit as much as.  Pre-ejaculate contains some chemicals associated with semen, such as acid phosphatase. However, other semen markers, such as gamma-glutamyltransferase, are completely absent from pre-ejaculate fluid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function and risks.", "content": "Pre-ejaculate neutralizes residual acidity in the urethra caused by urine, creating a more favorable environment for the passage of sperm. The vagina is normally acidic, so the deposit of pre-ejaculate before the emission of semen may change the vaginal environment to promote sperm survival. Pre-ejaculate also acts as a lubricant during sexual activity, and plays a role in semen coagulation.  Low levels or no sperm exists in pre-ejaculate, although studies examined small samples of men. Two contrary studies found mixed evidence, including individual cases of a high sperm concentration. Popular belief – dating to a 1966 Masters and Johnson study – stated that pre-ejaculate may contain sperm that can cause pregnancy, which is a common basis of argument against the use of coitus interruptus (withdrawal) as a contraceptive method. However, pre-ejaculate is ineffectual at causing pregnancy.  Studies have demonstrated the presence of HIV in most pre-ejaculate samples from infected men.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overproduction.", "content": "In rare cases, an individual may produce an excessive amount of pre-ejaculate fluid that can be a cause of embarrassment or irritation. A few case reports have indicated satisfactory results when such individuals are treated with a 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor, such as finasteride.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pre-ejaculate (also known as pre-ejaculatory fluid, pre-seminal fluid or Cowper's fluid, and colloquially as \"pre-cum\") is a clear, colorless, viscous fluid that is emitted from the urethra of the penis during sexual arousal. It is similar in composition to semen but has distinct chemical differences. The presence of sperm in the fluid is variable from low to absent. Pre-ejaculate functions as a lubricant and an acid neutralizer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973839}
{"src_title": "Giacomo Carissimi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Carissimi's exact birthdate is not known, but it was probably in 1604 or 1605 in Marino near Rome, Italy. Of his early life almost nothing is known. Giacomo's parents, Amico (1548–1633, a cooper by trade) and Livia (1565–1622), were married on 14 May 1595 and had four daughters and two sons; Giacomo was the youngest.  Nothing is known of his early musical training. His first known appointments were at Tivoli Cathedral, under the maestri di cappella Aurelio Briganti Colonna, Alessandro Capece and Francesco Manelli; from October 1623 he sang in the choir, and from October 1624 to October 1627 he was the organist. In 1628 Carissimi moved north to Assisi, as maestro di cappella (chapel master) at the Cathedral of San Rufino. In 1628 he obtained the same position at the church of Sant'Apollinare belonging to the Collegium Germanicum in Rome, which he held until his death. This was despite him receiving several offers to work in very prominent establishments, including an offer to take over from Claudio Monteverdi at San Marco di Venezia in Venice. In 1637 he was ordained a priest. He seems to have never left Italy at all during his entire lifetime. He died in 1674 in Rome.  Carissimi's successor as \"maestro di cappella\" at the Collegium Germanicum in 1686 described him as tall, thin, very frugal in his domestic affairs, with very noble manners towards his friends and acquaintances, and prone to melancholy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "The great achievements generally ascribed to Carissimi are the further development of the recitative, introduced by Monteverdi, which is highly important to the history of dramatic music; the further development of the chamber cantata, by which Carissimi superseded the concertato madrigals which had themselves replaced the madrigals of the late Renaissance; and the development of the oratorio, of which he was the first significant composer.  Carissimi's position in the history of church, vocal and chamber music is somewhat similar to that of Francesco Cavalli in the history of opera. While Luigi Rossi was his predecessor in developing the chamber cantata, Carissimi was the composer who first made this form the vehicle for the most intellectual style of chamber music, a function which it continued to perform until the death of Alessandro Scarlatti, Emanuele d'Astorga and Benedetto Marcello.  Carissimi is also noted as one of the first composers of oratorios, with \"Jephte\" as probably his best known work, along with \"Jonas\". These works and others are important for establishing the form of oratorio unaccompanied by dramatic action, which maintained its hold for 200 years. The name comes from their presentation at the Oratory of Santissimo Crocifisso in Rome. He may also be credited for having given greater variety and interest to the instrumental accompaniments of vocal compositions. Charles Burney and John Hawkins both published specimens of his compositions in their works on the history of music, while Henry Aldrich collected an almost complete set of his compositions, which are currently housed at the library of Christ Church, Oxford. The British Museum also possesses numerous works by Carissimi. Most of his oratorios are in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris.  Carissimi was active at the time when secular music was about to usurp the dominance of sacred music in Italy. The change was decisive and permanent. When Carissimi began composing, the influence of the previous generations of Roman composers was still heavy (for instance, the style of Palestrina) and when his career came to a close the operatic forms, as well as the instrumental secular forms, were predominant. In addition, Carissimi was important as a teacher, and his influence spread far into Germany and France. Much of the musical style of Marc-Antoine Charpentier, for instance, was influenced by Carissimi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Samuel Pepys was delighted with Carissimi's music. His Diary records that he met \"Mr. Hill, and Andrews, and one slovenly and ugly fellow, Seignor Pedro, who sings Italian songs to the theorbo most neatly, and they spent the whole evening in singing the best piece of musique counted of all hands in the world, made by Seignor Charissimi, the famous master in Rome. Fine it was, indeed, and too fine for me to judge of.\"  Carissimi is the viewpoint character for the \"Euterpe\" series of short stories by Enrico M. Toro within the 1632 series of books edited by Eric Flint.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giacomo Carissimi (; baptized 18 April 160512 January 1674) was an Italian composer and music teacher. He is one of the most celebrated masters of the early Baroque or, more accurately, the Roman School of music. Carissimi established the characteristic features of the Latin oratorio and was a prolific composer of motets and cantatas. He was highly influential in musical developments in north European countries through his pupils and the wide dissemination of his music.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973840}
{"src_title": "Anatoly Lunacharsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Lunacharsky was born on 23 or 24 November 1875 in Poltava, Ukraine (then part of the Russian Empire) as the illegitimate child of Alexander Antonov and Alexandra Lunacharskaya, née Rostovtseva. His mother was then married to statesman Vasily Lunacharsky, whence Anatoly's surname and patronym. She later divorced Vasily Lunacharsky and married Antonov, but Anatoly kept his former name. In 1890, at the age of 15, Lunacharsky became a Marxist. From 1894, he studied at the University of Zurich under Richard Avenarius for two years without taking a degree. In Zürich, he met European socialists including Rosa Luxemburg and Leo Jogiches and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1896, Luncharsky returned to Russia, where he was arrested and sent to Kaluga in Siberia through 1901–1902, when he returned to Kiev. In February 1902, he moved in with Alexander Bogdanov, who was working in a mental hospital in Vologda, Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vpered.", "content": "In 1903, the party split into Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin and Mensheviks led by Julius Martov and Lunacharsky sided with the former. In 1907, he attended the International Socialist Congress, held in Stuttgart. When the Bolsheviks in turn split into Lenin's supporters and Alexander Bogdanov's followers in 1908, Lunacharsky supported his brother-in-law Bogdanov in setting up \"Vpered\". Like many contemporary socialists (including Bogdanov), Lunacharsky was influenced by the empirio-criticism philosophy of Ernst Mach and Avenarius. Lenin opposed Machism as a form of subjective idealism and strongly criticised its proponents in his book \"Materialism and Empirio-criticism\" (1908). In 1909, Lunacharsky joined Bogdanov and Gorky at the latter's villa on the island of Capri, where they started a school for Russian socialist workers. In 1910, Bogdanov, Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky and their supporters moved the school to Bologna, where they continued teaching classes through 1911. In 1913, Lunacharsky moved to Paris, where he started his own Circle of Proletarian Culture.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Lunacharsky adopted an internationalist antiwar position which put him on a course of convergence with Lenin and Leon Trotsky. In 1915, Lunacharsky and Pavel Lebedev-Poliansky restarted the social democratic newspaper \"Vpered\" with an emphasis on proletarian culture.  After the February Revolution of 1917, Lunacharsky left his family in Switzerland and returned to Russia. Like other internationalist social democrats returning from abroad, he briefly joined the Mezhraiontsy before they merged with the Bolsheviks in July–August 1917. In July 1917, the Kerensky government jailed him.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "People's Commissariat for Education (Narkompros).", "content": "After the October Revolution of 1917, Lunacharsky was appointed head of the People's Commissariat for Education (Narkompros) in the first Soviet government and remained in that position until 1929. In 1921, \"The New York Times\" reported his resignation.  Lunacharsky was associated with the establishment of the Bolshoi Drama Theater in 1919, working with Maxim Gorky, Alexander Blok and Maria Andreyeva. He was also in charge of the Soviet state's first censorship system. Lunacharsky helped his former colleague Alexander Bogdanov start a semi-independent proletarian art movement called Proletkult. Lunacharsky also oversaw improvements in Russia's literacy rate. By arguing for their architectural Importance, he argued for the protection of historic buildings against elements in the Bolshevik Party who wanted to destroy them.  Lunacharsky directed some of the great experiments in public arts after the Revolution such as the agit-trains and agit-boats that circulated over all Russia spreading Revolution and revolutionary arts. He also gave support to constructivism's theatrical experiments and the initiatives such as the ROSTA Windows, revolutionary posters designed and written by Mayakovsky, Rodchenko and others.  While commissar, Lunacharsky's initiatives included the establishment of Isadora Duncan's school in Moscow, but he was also a playwright, critic, essayist and a widely admired man of culture. As the first Commissar of Enlightenment after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, he was credited with preserving much of Russia's cultural heritage.  In June 1919, \"The New York Times\" decried Lunacharsky's efforts in education in an article entitle \"Reds Are Ruining Children of Russia\". It claimed that he was instilling a \"system of calculated moral depravity [...] in one of the most diabolical of all measures conceived by the Bolshevik rulers of Russia\".  In 1929, Lunacharsky supported a change in the Soviet Union from Cyrillic to Latin alphabet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "In 1929 Lunacharsky was appointed to the Learned Council of the Soviet Union Central Executive Committee. He also became an editor for the Literature Encyclopedia (published 1929–1939).  In 1930, Lunacharsky represented the Soviet Union at the League of Nations through 1932.  In 1933, he was appointed ambassador to Spain, a post he never assumed as he died en route.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Lunacharsky died at 58 on 26 December 1933 in Menton, France en route to take up the post of Soviet ambassador to Spain as the conflict that would become the Spanish Civil War appeared increasingly inevitable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1902, he married Anna Alexandrovna Malinovkaya, Alexander Bogdanov's sister. They had one child, a daughter named Irina Lunacharsky. In 1922, he met Natalya Rozenel, an actress at the Maly Theater. He left his family and married her.  Lunacharsky was known as an art connoisseur and a critic. Besides Marxist dialectics, he had been interested in philosophy since he was a student. For instance, he was fond of the ideas of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Frederich Nietzsche and Richard Avenarius. He could read six modern languages and two dead ones. Lunacharsky corresponded with H. G. Wells, Bernard Shaw and Romain Rolland. He met numerous other famous cultural figures such as Rabindranath Tagore and Nicholas Roerich.  Lunacharsky once described Nadezhda Krupskaya as the \"soul of Narkompros\".  Friends included Igor Moiseyev.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Lunacharsky's remains were returned to Moscow where his urn was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis, a rare privilege during the Soviet era. During the Great Purge of 1936-1938, Lunacharsky's name was erased from the Communist Party's history and his memoirs were banned. A revival came in the late 1950s and 1960s, with a surge of memoirs about Lunacharsky and many streets and organizations named or renamed in his honor. During that era, Lunacharsky was viewed by the Soviet intelligentsia as an educated, refined and tolerant Soviet politician.  In the 1960s, his daughter Irina Lunacharsky helped revive his popularity. Several streets and institutions were named in his honor.  In 1971, Asteroid 2446 was named after Lunacharsky.  Some Soviet-built orchestral harps also bear the name of Lunacharsky, presumably in his honor. These concert pedal harps were produced in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg, Russia).  \"The New York Times\" dubbed Nikolai Gubenko, last culture commissar of the Soviet Union, \"the first arts professional since Anatoly V. Lunacharsky\" because he seemed to \"identify\" with Lunacharsky.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Lunacharsky was also a prolific writer. He wrote literary essays on the works of several writers, including Alexander Pushkin, George Bernard Shaw and Marcel Proust. However, his most notable work is his memoirs, \"Revolutionary Silhouettes\", which describe anecdotes and Lunacharsky's general impressions of Lenin, Trotsky and eight other revolutionaries. Trotsky reacted to some of Lunacharsky's opinions in his own autobiography, \"My Life.\"  In the 1920s, Lunacharsky produced Lyubov Popova's \"The Locksmith and the Chancellor\" at the Comedy Theater.  Some of his works include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anatoly Vasilyevich Lunacharsky (born Anatoly Aleksandrovich Antonov, – 26 December 1933) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and the first Bolshevik Soviet People's Commissar (Narkompros) responsible for Ministry and Education as well as active playwright, critic, essayist and journalist throughout his career.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973841}
{"src_title": "Battle of Cambrai (1917)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early observations.", "content": "After the discovery of M100 by Méchain, Charles Messier made observations of the galaxy depicting it as a nebula without a star. He pointed out that it was difficult to recognize the nebula because of its faintness. William Herschel was able to identify a bright cluster of stars within the nebula during observations he did before John Herschel expanded the findings in 1833. With the advent of better telescopes, John Herschel was able to see a round, brighter galaxy; however, he also mentioned that it was barely visible through clouds. William Henry Smyth extended the studies of M100, detailing it as a pearly white nebula and pointing out diffuse spots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Star formation.", "content": "Messier 100 is considered a starburst galaxy with the strongest star formation activity concentrated in its center, within a ring - actually two tightly wound spiral arms attached to a small nuclear bar with a radius of 1 kilo-parsec – where star formation has been taking place since at least 500 million years ago in separate bursts.  As usual on spiral galaxies of the Virgo Cluster, in the rest of the disk both star formation and neutral hydrogen, of which M100 is deficient compared to isolated spiral galaxies of similar Hubble type, are truncated within the galaxy's disk, which is caused by interactions with the intracluster medium of Virgo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Supernovae.", "content": "Seven supernovae have been identified in M100. In March 1901 the first supernova of M100 was found, SN 1901B, a type I supernova found with a magnitude of 15.6 at 110\"W and 4\"N from its nucleus. SN 1914A was then discovered in February to March 1914; its type was undeterminable but was found with a magnitude of 15.7 at 24\"E and 111\"S from its nucleus. Observations of M100 from February 21, 1960 to June 17, 1960 led to the discovery of SN 1959E, another type I supernova, with the faintest magnitude, 17.5, among the five found, at 58\"E and 21\"S from its nucleus. On April 15, 1979, the first type II supernova found in the M100 galaxy was discovered; however the star SN 1979C faded quickly; later observations from x-ray to radio wavelengths revealed its remnant. The fifth supernova was discovered February 7, 2006; the star SN 2006X had a magnitude of 15.3 when discovered two weeks before fading to magnitude +17. Supernova SN 2019ehk, discovered on April 29, 2019, reached a peak magnitude of approximately 15.8. The seventh supernova, SN 2020oi, was discovered on January 7, 2020.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Cambrai (Battle of Cambrai, 1917, First Battle of Cambrai and Schlacht von Cambrai) was a British attack followed by the biggest German counter-attack against the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) since 1914, in the First World War. The town of Cambrai, in the département of Nord, was an important supply point for the German (known to the British as the Hindenburg Line) and capture of the town and the nearby Bourlon Ridge would threaten the rear of the German line to the north. Major General Henry Tudor, Commander, Royal Artillery (CRA) of the 9th (Scottish) Division, advocated the use of new artillery-infantry techniques on his sector of the front. During preparations, J. F. C. Fuller, a staff officer with the Tank Corps, looked for places to use tanks for raids. General Julian Byng, commander of the British Third Army, decided to combine both plans. The French and British armies had used tanks in mass earlier in 1917, although to considerably less effect.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973842}
{"src_title": "Minna von Barnhelm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Wounded and dishonourably discharged from the Prussian Army and threatened by financial troubles and serious bribery allegations, Major von Tellheim waits at a Berlin hotel, with his servant, Just, for the outcome of his trial. His penniless condition is because repayment of a large sum advanced to the government during the recent war is being held up and his honor in making the loan questioned. During Tellheim's absence from the inn, the landlord has caused Tellheim's effects to be removed, ostensibly because his rooms were needed for a lady and her maid. In reality, the landlord doubts Tellheim's ability to pay, since he is already in arrears.  In the removal of the Major's possessions, the landlord comes upon a sealed envelope marked as containing five hundred thalers. This discovery makes him anxious to placate Tellheim. What he does not know is that the money has been left with the Major by Paul Werner, his former sergeant. Werner, knowing Tellheim's predicament, is in hope that he will use the money as his own. Tellheim is too honorable to borrow when he has no assurance of repaying. Instead, he bids his servant to take his last possession of value, an expensive ring, and pawn it to satisfy the landlord's bill and his own back wages.  Just pledges the ring with the landlord but refuses to accept either wages or dismissal on the plea that he is in Tellheim's debt and will have to work it out. The garrulous landlord shows the ring to some newly-arrived guests, revealing considerable concerning the owner's circumstances. The lady, Minna von Barnhelm, recognizes the ring as one of the betrothal rings which she and Tellheim had exchanged, and is overjoyed that her search for her missing lover is ended.  When Tellheim appears, however, he refuses to accept her hand or to continue the engagement on account of his precarious circumstances. When no argument can move him, Minna, with the help of her maid, Franziska, pretends that she, too, is penniless and in dire straits. Under these circumstances Tellheim immediately claims the privilege of marrying and protecting her.  At this point a delayed letter from the King is delivered. It announces the restoration of Tellheim's fortune and the vindication of his honor. To punish him for making her suffer, Minna now pretends that she cannot marry Tellheim because of the inequality of their circumstances. In answer to his pleas, she uses his own recent arguments to confound him. Only when Tellheim is reduced to the verge of despair and the belated arrival of Minna's uncle and guardian threatens to give the whole thing away does Minna relent and reveal the truth. In a final scene of celebration, matters are settled to the satisfaction of everyone, including Franziska and Paul Werner who have discovered a lively interest in each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance history.", "content": "The play had its world premiere at 30 September 1767 at the Hamburg National Theatre, which Lessing had just joined as a dramaturg. In Prussia it was then briefly banned from performance in a dispute with the Berlin censors. It then won huge stage success and was performed in all the main theatres in the German-speaking countries and then abroad. Goethe celebrated \"Minna\" to Eckermann in retrospect as \"a shining Meteor. It made us aware something else existed, higher than the concept of that literary era.\" Later productions were particularly influenced by Goethe's comment that \"One work, however, is the truest product of the Seven Years' War, a perfect north-German national product, one which I must honourably mention above all, the first theatrical production of real-life, set in a specific time, which had a more calculated effect than anything that came before: Minna von Barnhelm.\" Lessing modeled the character of the sergeant in on the famous lieutenant general of the Prussian army, Paul von Werner, commander of the Brown hussars ( Hussar Regiment No 6): the character's name was even Paul von Werner. The play was a characteristic \"Soldatenstücke\" (soldier plays) popular in the latter half of the 18th century. In one amateur production a young Johann Wolfgang von Goethe played the part of Werner.  To date it is one of the most-performed plays in Germany. Scenes from it were performed at Bunce Court School, an exiled German Jewish refugee school in England. It was performed by refugee children under the direction of Wilhelm Marckwald, also a refugee and a former director at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin.  A production also premiered on 16 December 2005 at the Wiener Burgtheater, with the lead roles taken by Sven-Eric Bechtolf and Sabine Haupt – its key point was that money was in lieu of honour. Another was put on at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin in January 2005, with Martina Gedeck as Minna, Ulrich Matthes as Tellheim and Nina Hoss as Franziska.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical.", "content": "An adaptation as a musical (with book and lyrics by Michael Wildenhain, the idea and concept by Klaus Wagner, and the music by Konstantin Wecker and Nicolas Kemmer) premiered on 2 December 2000 at the Theater Heilbronn, with 22 performances in a run until 7 April 2001.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Minna von Barnhelm or the Soldiers' Happiness () is a \"lustspiel\" or comedy by the German author Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. It has five acts, was begun in 1763 and completed in 1767 – its author put the year 1763 on the official title page, presumably to emphasize that the recent Seven Years' War plays a major part in the play, which is set on 22 August 1763. It is one of the most important comedies in German literature. It was first performed in 1767 by the Hamburg National Theatre, where Lessing worked as a dramaturg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973843}
{"src_title": "Aimé Bonpland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Bonpland was born as Aimé Jacques Alexandre Goujaud in La Rochelle, France, on 22, 28, or 29 August 1773. His father was a physician and, around 1790, he joined his brother Michael in Paris, where they both studied medicine. From 1791, they attended courses given at Paris's Botanical Museum of Natural History. Their teachers included Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, and René Louiche Desfontaines; Aimé further studied under Jean-Nicolas Corvisart and may have attended classes given by Pierre-Joseph Desault at the Hôtel-Dieu. During this period, Aimé also befriended his fellow student, Xavier Bichat.  Amid the turmoil of the French Revolution and Revolutionary Wars, Bonpland served as a surgeon in the French army or navy.  Having befriended Alexander von Humboldt at Corvisart's house, he joined him on a five-year journey through the Canary islands, Venezuela, Cuba, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, and the United States, as well as the Orinoco and Amazon basins. During this trip, he collected and classified about 6,000 plants that were mostly unknown in Europe up to that time. His account of these findings was published as a series of volumes from 1808 to 1816 entitled \"Equatorial Plants\" ().  Upon his return to Paris, Napoleon granted him a pension of 3000 francs per year in return for the many specimens he bestowed upon the Museum of Natural History. The Empress Josephine was very fond of him and installed him as superintendent over the gardens at Malmaison, where many seeds he had brought from the Americas were cultivated. In 1813, he published his \"Description of the Rare Plants Cultivated at Malmaison and in Navarre\" (\"\"). During this period, he also became acquainted with Gay-Lussac, Arago, and other eminent scientists and, after the abdication of Fontainebleau, vainly pleaded with Napoleon to retire to Venezuela. He was present at Josephine's deathbed.  In 1816, he took various European plants to Buenos Aires, where he was elected professor of natural history. He soon left his post, however, to explore the interior of South America. In 1821, he established a colony at Santa Ana near the Paraná for the specific object of harvesting and selling yerba mate. The colony was located in territory claimed by both Paraguay and Argentina; further, José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, governor of Paraguay, \"feared that Bonpland's success in cultivating \"mate\" would interfere with his own attempt to monopolize that business.\" The Paraguayans therefore destroyed the colony on December 8,1821, and Bonpland was arrested as a spy and detained at Santa Maria, Paraguay until 1829. During his captivity, he married and had several children. He was given freedom of movement and acted as a physician for the local poor and the military garrison. At the same epoch, the Swiss naturalist Johann Rudolph Rengger also stayed in Paraguay: he was not allowed to cross the strictly guarded border, but was free to circulate pending the request of a special permit for each excursion.  Bonpland was freed in 1829 and in 1831 returned to Argentina, where he settled at San Borja in Corrientes. There, aged 58, he married a local woman and made a living farming and trading in yerba mate. In 1853, he returned to Santa Ana, where he cultivated the orange trees he had introduced. He received a piastre estate from the Corrientes government in gratitude for his work in the province. The small town around it is now known as \"Bonpland\" in his honor. A different small town in Misiones province just south of Santa Ana (Misiones) is also named Bonpland.  He died at age 84, at San Borja, Santa Ana, or Restauración on 4 or 11 May 1858, before his planned return to Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Bonpland's biography was written by Adolphe Brunel. A fictionalized account of his travels with Humboldt occurs in Daniel Kehlmann's \"Die Vermessung der Welt\", translated by Carol Brown Janeway as \"Measuring the World: A Novel\".  Bonpland Street in the ritzy Buenos Aires neighborhood of Palermo Hollywood lies among streets named after Charles Darwin, Robert FitzRoy, and Alexander von Humboldt. There is also a Bonpland Street in the city of Bahía Blanca, Argentina, in Caracas, Venezuela, and in Montevideo, Uruguay.  Many animals and plants are also named in his honor, including the squid \"Grimalditeuthis bonplandi\" and the orchid \"Ornithocephalus bonplandi\".  The lunar crater Bonpland is named after him. Also Pico Bonpland in the Venezuelan Andes is named to his honor, although he never visited the Venezuelan Andes. A peak of over in New Zealand also bears his name. The mountain is near the head of Lake Wakatipu in the South Island.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomic descriptions.", "content": "The following genera and species have been named or described by Aimé Bonpland.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aimé Jacques Alexandre Bonpland (August 1773 – May 1858) was a French explorer and botanist who traveled with Alexander von Humboldt in Latin America from 1799 to 1804. He co-authored volumes of the scientific results of their expedition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973844}
{"src_title": "Santiago Carrillo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood and early youth.", "content": "Born in Gijón, Asturias province, into the House of Carrillo, Santiago Carrillo was the son of Socialist leader Wenceslao Carrillo and María Rosalía Solares Martínez. When he was six years old, his family moved to Madrid. After attending school, he began to work in \"El Socialista\", the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) newspaper at the age of 13. At the same time, he joined the Socialist Union, the Workers' General Union and the Socialist Youth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second Republic and Civil War.", "content": "In 1932, Carrillo joined the Executive Commission of the Socialist Youth and became editor of its newspaper, \"Renovación\". Carrillo belonged to the left wing of the organisation. In 1933, as the Socialist Youth was becoming more radical, Carrillo was elected as General Secretary. From October 1934 to February 1936 he was jailed, due to his participation in the failed 1934 leftist coup (Carrillo was a member of the National Revolutionary Committee).  After his release, in March 1936, Carrillo and the executive of the Socialist Youth travelled to Moscow to meet the leaders of the Young Communist International and prepare the unification of Socialist and Communist youth leagues. He was accompanied on the visit to Moscow by Leandro Carro and Juan Astigarrabía. The result was the creation of the Unified Socialist Youth (\"Juventudes Socialistas Unificadas\").  After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, Carrillo joined the Communist Party and did so on the day the government left Madrid in November. During the war, he was intensely pro-Soviet. On 7 November 1936 Carrillo was elected Councillor for Public Order in the Defence Council of Madrid, which was given supreme power in besieged Madrid, after the government left the city.  During his term, several thousand military and civilian prisoners, including many women and children, were killed by communist groups in the Paracuellos massacres at Paracuellos del Jarama and Torrejón de Ardoz (the biggest mass killings by the Republican side during the Civil War). The dead were buried in common graves. Carrillo denied any knowledge of the massacres in his memoirs but some historians like César Vidal or Pío Moa maintain that Carrillo was involved. In an interview with the historian Ian Gibson, Carrillo set out his version of events concerning the massacre.  In March 1939 Madrid surrendered after Casado's coup against the Negrín administration and its close ally, the Communist Party, which sought to continue the resistance until the expected outbreak of the World War. Carrillo's father, Wenceslao, a member of the PSOE, was among those who led the coup and was a member of Casado's Junta. Some weeks before, Carrillo's mother had died. Carrillo then wrote an open letter to his father describing the coup as counter-revolutionary and as a betrayal, reproaching him for his anti-communism, and renouncing any further communication with him. In his memoirs, Carrillo states that the letter was written on 7 March. However, journalist and historian Carlos Fernández published the letter in 1983, as it had been published in \"Correspondance International\"; it was dated 15 May.  After the military collapse of the Republican Government, Carrillo fled to Paris and worked to reorganise the party. Carrillo spent 38 years in exile, most of the time in France, but also in the USSR and other countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile.", "content": "In 1944 Carrillo led the retreat of the communist guerrillas from the Aran Valley.  According to the historian Ricardo de la Cierva, in 1945 Carrillo ordered the execution of fellow communist party member Gabriel León Trilla and helped the Francoist forces to detain his fellow communist Jesús Monzón. According to Enrique Líster and de la Cierva, Carrillo also ordered the 1949 execution of fellow communist Joan Comorera, who was saved by the precautions he took. In 2005 Carrillo said \"\"yo he tenido que eliminar a alguna persona\"\" (I have had to eliminate someone).  In August 1948, Carrillo met Soviet leader Joseph Stalin.  Carrillo became the General Secretary of the PCE in 1960, replacing Dolores Ibárruri (\"La Pasionaria\"), who was given the honorary post of Party Chairman. Carrillo's policies were aimed at strengthening the party's position among the working class and intellectual groups, and survived opposition from Marxist-Leninist, Stalinist and social democratic factions. In 1968, when the Soviets and Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia, Carrillo distanced the party from Moscow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spanish transition and Eurocommunism.", "content": "Carrillo returned secretly to Spain in 1976 after the death of long-time Spanish \"caudillo\" Francisco Franco. Arrested by the police, he was released within days. Together with communist party leaders Georges Marchais of France and Enrico Berlinguer of Italy, he launched the Eurocommunist movement in a meeting held in Madrid on March 2, 1977.  In the first democratic elections in 1977, shortly after the legalization of the PCE (9 April 1977) by the government of Adolfo Suárez, Carrillo was elected to the Spanish Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados), the lower house of the Spanish Parliament, the Cortes Generales to represent the Madrid district. Throughout the transition period, Carrillo's authority and leadership were decisive in securing peaceful evolution towards a democratic system, a constructive approach based on dialogue with opponents, and a healing of the wounds from the Civil War (the \"Reconciliation\" policy). It is widely acknowledged that this policy played a key role in making possible a peaceful transition to democracy.  Carrillo was re-elected in 1979, but the failed right-wing coup d'état attempt on 23 February 1981 reduced support for the PCE, as Spanish society was still recovering from the trauma of the Civil War and subsequent repression and dictatorship. This was despite Carrillo's celebrated and highly public defiance of the coup plotters in the chamber of deputies - he was one of the few members who refused to obey their instructions and did not duck when they shot into the air - and his equally famous claim to be a royalist after the King faced down the plotters.  Fear of another military uprising increased support for moderate left-wing forces in the 1982 elections, in which Carrillo held his parliamentary seat. He was forced to leave his post as party leader on 6 November 1982, owing to the party's poor electoral performance. The new General Secretary, the much younger Gerardo Iglesias, a member of the \"renovators\" wing, had been at odds with him from the beginning of his tenure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaving the Spanish Communist Party.", "content": "On 15 April 1985, Carrillo and his followers were expelled from the PCE, and in 1986 they formed their own political group, the Workers Party of Spain-Communist Unity (PTE-UC). This tiny party was unable to attract enough voters, so on 27 October 1991, Carrillo announced that it would be disbanded. Subsequently, the PTE-UC merged into the ruling PSOE, but Carrillo declined PSOE membership considering his many years as a communist member.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement and death.", "content": "On 20 October 2005, Carrillo was granted an honorary doctorate by the Autonomous University of Madrid. The action of the university was strongly criticized by right-wing commentators. Carrillo had retired from public life at the time of his death at his home in Madrid at the age of 97 on 18 September 2012. He was cremated in Madrid on 20 September.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Santiago José Carrillo Solares (18 January 1915 – 18 September 2012) was a Spanish politician who served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of Spain (PCE) from 1960 to 1982. His role in the Paracuellos massacres during the Civil War was particularly controversial. He would later be exiled during the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, becoming a leader of the democratic opposition to the regime. His role as leader of the PCE would later make him a key figure in the transition to democracy. He later embraced Eurocommunism and democratic socialism, and was a member of the Congress of Deputies from 1977 to 1986.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973845}
{"src_title": "Nikephoros I", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Both Syriac sources such as Michael the Syrian and Arabic ones like al-Tabari and Mas'udi hold that the emperor was of a Ghassanid Arab origin. Byzantine chronicles, however, although generally hostile to him, make no explicit mention about his ethnic background. On the other hand, al-Tabari claims that he learned of Nikephoros' Arab origins from Byzantine sources. Some scholars, like Paul Julius Alexander, accept al-Tabari's account, citing a Byzantine apocalyptic text in which the emperor is said to be \"from the race of Gopsin\". The word \"Gopsin\" could be a Greek rendering of the name \"Ghassan\", or the name \"Gafna\", the eponym of the Ghassanids.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "A patrician from Seleucia Sidera, Nikephoros was appointed finance minister (\"logothetēs tou genikou\") by the Empress Irene. With the help of the patricians and eunuchs he contrived to dethrone and exile Irene, and to be chosen as Emperor in her stead on 31 October 802. He crowned his son Staurakios co-emperor in 803.  His rule was endangered by Bardanes Tourkos, one of his ablest generals, who revolted and received support from other commanders, notably the later emperors Leo V the Armenian and Michael II the Amorian in 803.  But Nikephoros gained over the latter two, and by inducing the rebel army to disperse achieved the submission of Bardanes, who was blinded and relegated to a monastery. A conspiracy headed by the patrician Arsaber had a similar result.  Nikephoros embarked on a general reorganization of the Roman Empire, creating new themes in the Balkans (where he initiated the re-Hellenization by resettling Greeks from Anatolia) and strengthening the frontiers. Needing large sums to increase his military forces, he set himself with great energy to increase the Empire's revenue. By his rigorous tax imposts he alienated his subjects, especially the clergy, whom he otherwise sought to control firmly. Although he appointed an iconodule, Nikephoros, as patriarch, Emperor Nikephoros was portrayed as a villain by ecclesiastical historians like Theophanes the Confessor.  In 803, Nikephoros concluded a treaty, called the \"Pax Nicephori\", with Charlemagne, but refused to recognize the latter's imperial dignity. Relations deteriorated and led to a war over Venice in 806–810. In the process, Nikephoros had quelled a Venetian rebellion in 807, but suffered extensive losses to the Franks. The conflict was resolved only after Nikephoros' death, and Venice, Istria, the Dalmatian coast and South Italy were assigned to the East, while Rome, Ravenna and the Pentapolis were included in the Western realm.  By withholding the tribute which Irene had agreed to pay to the caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd, Nikephoros committed himself to a war against the Arabs. Compelled by Bardanes' disloyalty to take the field himself, he sustained a severe defeat at the Battle of Krasos in Phrygia (805). In 806 a Muslim army of 135,000 men invaded the Empire. Unable to counter the Muslim numbers, Nikephoros agreed to make peace on condition of paying 50,000 nomismata immediately and a yearly tribute of 30,000 nomismata. With a succession struggle enveloping the caliphate on the death of Hārūn al-Rashīd in 809, Nikephoros was free to deal with Krum, Khan of Bulgaria, who was harassing his northern frontiers and had just conquered Serdica (Sofia).  In 811, Nikephoros invaded Bulgaria, defeated Krum twice, and sacked the Bulgarian capital Pliska. The Chronicle of the 12th-century patriarch of the Syrian Jacobites, Michael the Syrian, describes the brutalities and atrocities of Nikephoros: \"Nikephoros, emperor of the Byzantine empire, walked into the Bulgarians' land: he was victorious and killed great number of them. He reached their capital, seized it and devastated it. His savagery went to the point that he ordered to bring their small children, got them tied down on earth and made thresh grain stones to smash them.\" During Nikephoros' retreat, the imperial army was ambushed and destroyed in Varbishki mountain passes on 26 July by Krum. Nikephoros was captured during the battle and sent to Pliska, where Krum ordered his decapitation. Krum is said to have made a drinking-cup of Nikephoros' skull.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "By an unknown wife Nikephoros I had at least two children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikephoros I, or Nicephorus I (, \"Nikēphoros I\"; 750 – 26 July 811) was Byzantine Emperor from 802 to 811, when he was killed in the Battle of Pliska. Prior to his accession, he had served as \"genikos logothetēs\", whence he is sometimes surnamed \"the Logothete\" (ὁ Λογοθέτης) and \"Genikos\" or \"Genicus\" (ὁ Γενικός).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973846}
{"src_title": "Polikarpov I-153", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1937, the Polikarpov design bureau carried out studies to improve on the performance of its I-15 and I-15bis biplane fighters without sacrificing manoeuvrability, as Soviet tactical doctrine was based on a mix of high performance monoplane fighters (met by the Polikarpov I-16) and agile biplanes. Early combat experience from the Spanish Civil War had shown that the I-16 had problems dealing with the Fiat CR.32 biplanes used by the Italian forces supporting the Nationalists, which suggested a need to continue the use of biplane fighters, and as a result, Polikarpov's proposals were accepted, and his design bureau was instructed to design a new biplane fighter. Polikarpov assigned the task to the design team led by Aleksei Ya Shcherbakov, who was assisted by Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich (who would later set up the MiG design bureau).  The new fighter (designated I-15ter by the design bureau and I-153 by the Soviet Air Forces (VVS)) was based closely on the design of the I-15bis, with a stronger structure, but was fitted with a manually retractable undercarriage to reduce drag. It reverted to the \"gulled\" upper wing of the original I-15 but used the Clark YH aerofoil of the I-15bis. The four 7.62 mm PV-1 machine guns of the I-15bis were replaced by four ShKAS machine guns. While still rifle-calibre weapons, these fired much faster than the PV-1s, (1,800 rounds per minute rather than 750 rounds per minute) giving a much greater weight of fire. The new fighter was to be powered by a Shvetsov M-62 an improved derivative of the Shvetsov M-25 that powered the I-15 and I-15bis with twin superchargers.  The aircraft was of mixed metal and wood construction, with the fuselage structure being based on chromium-molybdenum steel with duralumin skinning on the forward fuselage, and fabric covering on the fuselage aft of the front of the cockpit. The aircraft's wings were made of fabric covered wood, while the tail surfaces were of fabric covered duralumin. The aircraft was fitted with a tailwheel undercarriage, with the mainwheels retracting rearwards, rotating through 90 degrees to lie flat in the wing roots, being actuated by cables operated by a pilot-driven handwheel. The solid rubber tailwheel did not retract, but moved in conjunction with the rudder.  The M-62 was not ready by the time the first prototype was complete, so it was fitted with a 750 hp (560 kW) M-25V engine when it made its maiden flight in August 1938. The first prototype failed factory testing due to numerous defects, but this did not stop production, with the aircraft entering production concurrently with ongoing testing and development. Early production I-153s powered by the M25 engine passed state testing during 1939, despite the loss of one aircraft which disintegrated in a 500 km/h (311 mph) dive. In test flights, the I-153 (M-25) achieved the top speed of 424 km/h (264 mph), service ceiling of 8,700 m (28,500 ft), and required 6 minutes 24 seconds to reach 5,000 m (16,404 ft). This performance was well in excess of that demonstrated by the I-15bis.  During 1939, production switched to a version powered by the originally planned M-62 engine, with an M-62 powered prototype undergoing state testing from 16 June 1939. While speed at sea level was virtually unchanged, the new engine improved performance at altitude. A speed of 443 km/h (275 mph) at 4,600 m (15,100 ft) was recorded, with a service ceiling of 9,800 m (32,100 ft). This performance was disappointing, and caused the aircraft to fail the state acceptance trials, although this did not disrupt production. While it was recognised that the I-153's performance was inadequate, the over-riding requirement was to not disrupt production until more advanced fighters could enter production.  While numerous improvements were proposed, many were too radical to be implemented since the aircraft was already in production. Desperate to improve performance, Polikarpov tested two I-153 with the Shvetsov M-63 engine with 820 kW (1,100 hp). However, the results were disappointing and it was becoming painfully obvious that the biplane airframe was incapable of higher speeds.  One of the rarely mentioned characteristics of the I-153 was its poor performance in a spin. While the Polikarpov I-16 had gained notoriety for entering spins, pilots found it easy to recover from a spin. In contrast, while the I-153 was difficult to spin, once it lost control, recovery was difficult to the point where intentional spinning was forbidden for some time. A spin recovery procedure was eventually developed but, while effective, it required flawless timing and execution.  By the end of production in 1941, a total of 3,437 I-153s were built.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The I-153 first saw combat in 1939 during the Soviet-Japanese Battle of Khalkin Gol in Mongolia. The Japanese Army Air Forces' Type 97 Fighter (Nakajima Ki-27) \"Nate\" proved a formidable opponent for the I-15bis and I-16, but was more evenly matched with the I-153, which retained agility inherent to biplanes while featuring improved performance. While the overall I-153 performance was satisfactory, some significant problems were revealed. Most troublesome was the absence of a firewall between the fuel tank mounted in front of the cockpit and the pilot. Combined with strong draft coming in through the wheel wells, fuel tank fires invariably resulted in rapid engulfment of the cockpit and severe burns to the pilot. In addition, the M-62 engine suffered from a service life of only 60–80 hours due to failures of the two-speed supercharger.  The Polikarpov I-153 Chaika never flew with any Spanish Air Force units during or after the Spanish Civil War. Two earlier variants of this aircraft, the I-15 and the I-15bis, did fly with the Republican Air Force during the conflict and, later, captured examples of both types were used by the \"Fuerzas Aéreas\" till the early 1950s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "While attempts to improve performance proved largely fruitless, Polikarpov had some success in upgrading the armament. The I-153 series underwent trials with two synchronized 12.7 mm (0.5 in) TKB-150 (later designated Berezin BS) machine guns, and about 150 aircraft were built with a single TKB-150 in the fuselage and two ShKAS in the wings (a single TKB-150 was used because of the shortage of this weapon which was shared with I-16 Type 29). Late in production, about 400 aircraft were modified with metal plates under the wings to accommodate RS-82 unguided rockets.  Other variants included:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "There are four complete survivors of this plane, three of which can fly. In the early 1990s, New Zealand pilot and entrepreneur Tim Wallis' Alpine Fighter Collection organised the restoration of three I-153s and six I-16s to an airworthy condition, this project being completed in 1999 as the third and final I-153 arrived in New Zealand. These aircraft were equipped with AZsh-62IR geared radials instead of the M-62, which were non-geared. The reason is that AZsh-62IR is just a version of M-62, with absolute equality in all instead of a frontal gearbox and weapon synchronizer absence. Also, none of original engines from recovered wrecks could have been brought to life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Polikarpov I-153 \"Chaika\" (Russian \"Чайка\", \"Seagull\") was a late 1930s Soviet biplane fighter. Developed as an advanced version of the I-15 with a retractable undercarriage, the I-153 fought in the Soviet-Japanese combats in Mongolia and was one of the Soviets' major fighter types in the early years of the Second World War. Three I-153s are still flying.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973847}
{"src_title": "Michael I Rangabe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Michael survived Nikephoros' disastrous campaign against Krum of Bulgaria, and was considered a more appropriate candidate for the throne than his severely injured brother-in-law Staurakios. When Michael's wife Prokopia failed to persuade her brother to name Michael as his successor, a group of senior officials (the \"magistros\" Theoktistos, the Domestic of the Schools Stephen, and Patriarch Nikephoros) forced Staurakios to abdicate in his favor on 2 October 811.  Michael I attempted to carry out a policy of reconciliation, abandoning the exacting taxation instituted by Nikephoros I. While reducing imperial income, Michael generously distributed money to the army, the bureaucracy, and the Church. Elected with the support of the Orthodox party in the Church, Michael diligently persecuted the iconoclasts and forced the Patriarch Nikephoros to back down in his dispute with Theodore of Stoudios, the influential abbot of the monastery of Stoudios. Michael's piety won him a very positive estimation in the work of the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor.  In 812 Michael I reopened negotiations with the Franks, and recognized Charlemagne as \"imperator\" and \"basileus\" (Emperor), but not Emperor of the Romans. In exchange for that recognition, Venice was returned to the Empire. However, under the influence of Theodore, Michael rejected the peace terms offered by Krum and provoked the capture of Mesembria (Nesebar) by the Bulgarians. After an initial success in spring 813, Michael's army prepared for a major engagement at Versinikia near Adrianople in June. The imperial army was defeated, while Leo the Armenian fled from the battle. With conspiracy in the air, Michael preempted events by abdicating on 11 July 813 in favor of the general Leo the Armenian and becoming a monk (under the name Athanasios). His sons were castrated and relegated into monasteries, one of them, Niketas (renamed Ignatios), eventually becoming Patriarch of Constantinople. Michael died 11 January 844.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "By his wife Prokopia, Michael I had at least five children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michael I Rhangabe (, \"Michaēl Rhangabe\"; \"c\". 770 – 11 January 844) was Byzantine Emperor from 811 to 813. Michael was the son of the patrician Theophylact Rhangabe, the admiral of the Aegean fleet. He married Prokopia, the daughter of the future Emperor Nikephoros I, and received the high court dignity of \"kouropalatēs\" after his father-in-law's accession in 802.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973848}
{"src_title": "Arcesilaus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Arcesilaus was born in Pitane in Aeolis. His early education was provided by Autolycus the mathematician, with whom he migrated to Sardis. Afterwards, he studied rhetoric in Athens. He then studied philosophy, becoming a disciple first of Theophrastus and afterwards of Crantor. He also attended the school of Pyrrho, whose philosophy he maintained, except in name. He subsequently became intimate with Polemo and Crates of Athens, who made Arcesilaus his successor as scholarch (head) of the Platonic Academy.  Diogenes Laërtius says that, like his successor Lacydes, Arcesilaus died of excessive drinking, but the testimony of others (e.g. Cleanthes) and his own precepts discredit the story. He is known to have been much respected by the Athenians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Arcesilaus committed nothing to writing. His opinions were imperfectly known to his contemporaries, and can now only be gathered from the statements of later writers. This makes his philosophy difficult to evaluate and partly inconsistent. This led scholars to see his skepticism in several ways. Some see his philosophy as completely negative or destructive of all philosophical views. Others regard him as taking the position that nothing can be known on the basis of his philosophical arguments. Others claimed he held no positive views on any philosophical topic, including the possibility of knowledge. Sextus Empiricus said that Arcesilaus' philosophy appeared essentially the same as Pyrrhonism, but granted that this might have been superficial.  On the one hand, Arcesilaus is said to have restored the doctrines of Plato in an uncorrupted form; while, on the other hand, according to Cicero, he summed up his opinions in the formula, \"that he knew nothing, not even his own ignorance.\" There are two ways of reconciling the difficulty: either we may suppose him to have thrown out such aphorisms as an exercise for his pupils, as Sextus Empiricus, who calls him a \"skeptic\", would have us believe; or he may have really doubted the esoteric meaning of Plato, and have supposed himself to have been stripping his works of the figments of the Dogmatists, while he was in fact taking from them all certain principles.  Cicero attributes the following argument to Arcesilaus:  (i) it is rash and shameful to assent to something false or unknown, but since (ii) nothing can be known (and obviously we shouldn’t do what is rash and shameful), (iii) we should suspend judgment about everything  Zeno of Citium and the other Stoics were the chief opponents of Arcesilaus. He attacked their dogma of katalêptikê phantasia (i.e., a convincing conception) as understood to be a mean between \"episteme\" (knowledge) and \"doxa\" (opinion). He argued that this mean could not exist. It involved a contradiction in terms, as the very idea of \"phantasia\" implied the possibility of false as well as true conceptions of the same object. As such, it was merely the interpolation of a name.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commentary on Arcesilaus.", "content": "The Pyrrhonist philosopher and contemporary of Arcesilaus, Timon of Phlius ridiculed Arcesilaus in his \"Silloi\", but also praised him in \"Funeral Banquet of Arcesilaus\". Fragments from Timon about Arcesilaus include:  Blaise Pascal wrote of Arcesilaus in his \"Pensées\" (1669, para. 375):  I have seen changes in all nations and men, and thus after many changes of judgement regarding true justice, I have recognized that our nature was but in continual change, and I have not changed since; and if I changed, I would confirm my opinion. The skeptic Arcesilaus, who became a dogmatist.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arcesilaus (; ; 316/5–241/0 BC) was a Greek Hellenistic philosopher. He was the founder of Academic Skepticism and what is variously called the Second or Middle or New Academy—the phase of the Academy in which it embraced philosophical skepticism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973849}
{"src_title": "Rudolf Slánský", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born at Nezvěstice, now in Plzeň-City District, Slánský was Jewish. He attended secondary school in Plzeň at the Commercial Academy. After the end of World War I, he went to Prague, the capital, where he discovered a leftist intellectual scene in institutions such as the Marxist Club. In 1921, Slánský joined the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia when it broke away from the Social Democratic Party. He rose within the party and became a senior lieutenant of its leader, Klement Gottwald. At the Fifth Party Congress in 1929, Slánský was named a member of the party Presidium and the Politburo, and Gottwald became General Secretary.  From 1929 to 1935, Slánský lived in hiding due to the illegal status of the Communist Party. In 1935, after the party was allowed to participate in politics, both he and Gottwald were elected to the National Assembly. Their gains were halted, however, when Czechoslovakia was carved up at the Munich Conference in 1938. When Nazi Germany occupied the Sudetenland in October 1938, Slánský, along with much of the rest of the Czechoslovak communist leadership, fled to the Soviet Union.  In Moscow, Slánský worked on broadcasts to Czechoslovakia over Radio Moscow. He lived through the defense of Moscow against the Germans during the winter of 1941-42. His experience in Moscow brought him into contact with Soviet Communists and the often brutal methods they favored for maintaining party discipline.  In 1943 Slánský's infant daughter, Naďa (Nadia) was forcibly abducted from her baby carriage by a woman while in the company of her eight-year-old brother, Rudolf, who put up resistance. The woman knew details about Mrs. Slánský, including her job with Radio Moscow. Neither Nadia nor the perpetrators were ever found. Slánský's widow has recounted that written inquiries were made to the police and to Stalin himself, all of which went unanswered.  While in exile in the Soviet Union, Slánský also organized Czechoslovak army units, with which he returned to Czechoslovakia in 1944 to participate in the Slovak National Uprising.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Power in the postwar period.", "content": "In 1945, after World War II, Czechoslovak leaders back from exile in London and Moscow, Slánský among them, held meetings that led to a new National Front government under Edvard Beneš. At the 8th Party Congress of the Czechoslovakian Communist Party in March 1946, Slánský became General Secretary of the Communist Party. This made him the number two man in the party behind party chairman Gottwald, who became leader of a coalition government after elections held that year.  In 1948 the Communist Party seized power in the February coup. Slánský thus became the second most powerful man in the country behind Gottwald. Two years later, in an ominous sign of things to come, Gottwald accused two of Slánský's close associates, Otto Šling and Bedřich Reicin, of crimes against the Communist Party. Slánský participated in purging them because he did not have enough clout to fight the accusations. Slánský was also blamed for economic and industrial troubles, costing him popular support. Nevertheless, he received the Order of Socialism, a top decoration, on 30 July 1951, and a book of his speeches in support of socialism was going to be published under the title \"Towards the Victory of Socialism\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial.", "content": "In November 1952 Slánský and 13 other high-ranking Communist bureaucrats (10 of whom were Jews) were arrested and charged with being Titoists and Zionists, official USSR rhetoric having turned against Zionism.  Party rhetoric asserted that Slánský was spying as part of an international western capitalist conspiracy to undermine socialism and that punishing him would avenge the Nazi murders of Czech communists Jan Šverma and Julius Fučík during World War II.  Some historians state that Stalin desired complete obedience and threatened purges for the \"national communists\". According to this theory, Gottwald, fearing for his own safety, decided to sacrifice his longtime collaborator and associate Slánský.  Other historians, though, say that the rivalry between Slánský and Gottwald escalated after the 1948 coup. Slánský began consolidating his power within the party secretariat and placing more of his party supporters in governmental positions, encroaching on Gottwald’s position as president after the resignation of Beneš. Stalin backed Gottwald because he was believed to have a better chance of building up the Czechoslovak economy into a position where it could start producing useful goods for the Soviet Union.  Whatever the case, Slánský was hurt by his image as a \"cosmopolitan\" figure (he was Jewish, at a time when through the Eastern bloc, influenced by the USSR, Jewish leaders were being used as scapegoats for shortages and economic problems), which had allowed Gottwald and his ally Antonín Zápotocký, both populists, to tar him with charges of belonging to the bourgeoisie. Slánský and his allies were also opposed by old-time party members, the government, and the party’s Political Bureau. In prison after his arrest, Slánský was tortured and he attempted suicide.  The trial of the 14 national leaders began on 20 November 1952, in the Senate of the State Court, with the prosecutor being Josef Urválek. It lasted eight days. It was notable for its strong anti-Semitic overtones: Slánský and 10 of his 13 codefendants were Jewish. As in the Moscow show trials of the late 1930s, the defendants were craven in court, admitting guilt and requesting to be punished with death. Slánský was found guilty of \"Trotskyite-Titoist-Zionist activities in the service of American imperialism\" and publicly hanged at Pankrác Prison on 3 December 1952. His body was cremated and the ashes were scattered on an icy road outside of Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Posthumously.", "content": "After the death of Stalin, Slánský was reviled by Antonín Novotný for having introduced Stalinist methods of interrogation into Czechoslovakia. Slánský and other victims of the purge trials were cleared under the penal code in April 1963 and fully rehabilitated and exonerated in May 1968. After the Velvet Revolution of 1989, the new president Václav Havel, named Slánský’s son, also named Rudolf, as the Czech ambassador to the Soviet Union.  Slánský was the most powerful politician executed during the rule of the Communist Party in Czechoslovakia. Afterwards the treatment of leaders fallen out of favour became civilized by comparison: they were merely stripped of power and put into retirement.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudolf Slánský (31 July 1901 – 3 December 1952) was a leading Czech Communist politician. Holding the post of the party's General Secretary after World War II, he was one of the leading creators and organizers of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. After the split between Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia and Soviet premier Joseph Stalin, the latter instigated a wave of \"purges\" of the respective Communist Party leaderships, to prevent more splits between the Soviet Union and its Central European \"satellite\" countries. In Czechoslovakia, Slánský was one of 14 leaders arrested in 1951 and put on show trial \"en masse\" in November 1952, charged with high treason. After eight days, 11 of the 14 were sentenced to death. Slánský's sentence was carried out five days later.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973850}
{"src_title": "STS-5", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission summary.", "content": "\"Columbia\" launched on schedule from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) at 7:19 am EST, 11 November 1982. The shuttle carried a crew of four – the largest spacecraft crew up to that time – and the first two commercial communications satellites to be flown aboard a shuttle.  The commercial satellites were deployed successfully and subsequently propelled into their operational geosynchronous orbits by McDonnell Douglas PAM-D kickmotors. The two satellites were SBS 3, owned by Satellite Business Systems, and Anik C3, owned by Telesat Canada; both were Hughes-built HS-376-series satellites. In addition, STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity GAS experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.  Lenoir and Allen were to perform a spacewalk, the first of the Shuttle program, to test newly developed space suits. The space suits were developed as cheaper and less complicated alternatives to the Apollo versions. The test was delayed by one day due to Lenoir succumbing to motion sickness. Then a poorly functioning oxygen regulator in Lenoir's suit and a broken recirculation fan in Allen's caused them to cancel the extravehicular activity (EVA) entirely. It was the first time in the history of the space program that an EVA had been cancelled due to space suit issues.  \"Columbia\" landed on Runway 22 at Edwards Air Force Base on 16 November 1982, at 6:33 am PST, having traveled 2 million miles in 81 orbits during a mission that lasted 5 days, 2 hours, 14 minutes and 26 seconds. \"Columbia\" was returned to KSC on 22 November 1982. STS-5 was the first shuttle flight in which the crew did not wear pressure suits for the launch, reentry, and landing portions of the flight, similar to the Soviet Voskhod and Soyuz missions prior to the ill-fated Soyuz 11 mission in 1971.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational status.", "content": "The shuttle was formally declared \"operational\" after STS-4. However, the Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB), in its report on the loss with all crew aboard of \"Columbia\" during STS-107 in 2003, asserted that the orbiter should never have been considered operational and that, while not intrinsically unsafe, it was in fact an experimental vehicle. The CAIB's rationale was that civilian and military aircraft that are considered operational must have been tested and proven over thousands of safe flights in their final operational configurations, whereas the shuttle had conducted under 200 flights, with continuous modification. NASA operated the Space Shuttle as an experimental vehicle for the remainder of the program.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission insignia.", "content": "The five points of the blue star of the mission patch indicate the flight's numerical designation in the Space Transportation System's mission sequence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wake-up calls.", "content": "NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Gemini program, and first used music to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15. Each track is specially chosen, often by the astronauts' families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle \"Columbia\". It launched on 11 November 1982 and landed five days later on 16 November. STS-5 was the first shuttle mission to deploy communications satellites into orbit, and the first officially \"operational\" shuttle mission.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973851}
{"src_title": "Erwin Schulhoff", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Schulhoff was born in Prague into a German-Jewish family. His father Gustav Schulhoff was a wool merchant from Prague and his mother Louise Wolff from Frankfurt. The noted pianist and composer Julius Schulhoff was his great-uncle.  Antonín Dvořák encouraged Schulhoff's earliest musical studies, which began at the Prague Conservatory when he was ten years old. He studied composition and piano there and later in Vienna, Leipzig, and Cologne, where his teachers included Claude Debussy, Max Reger, Fritz Steinbach, and Willi Thern. He won the Mendelssohn Prize twice, for piano in 1913 and for composition in 1918. He served on the Russian front in the Austro-Hungarian army during World War I. He was wounded and was in an Italian prisoner-of-war camp when the war ended. He lived in Germany after the war before returning in 1923 to Prague, where he joined the faculty of the conservatory in 1929.  He was one of the first generation of classical composers to find inspiration in the rhythms of jazz music. Schulhoff also embraced the avant-garde influence of Dadaism in his performances and compositions after World War I. When organizing concerts of avant-garde music in 1919, he included this manifesto: Schulhoff occasionally performed as a pianist in the Prague Free Theatre. He also toured Germany, France and England performing his own works, contemporary classical compositions, and jazz.  His 1921 Suite for Chamber Orchestra, in one critic's words, \"is stylistically mixed, with jazz-like numbers...encompassing two slow affecting ones...as if the clown of \"Die Wolkenpumpe\" has let the mask slip as he recalled the horrors and absurdities of the trenches.\" He wrote his friend Alban Berg in 1921: Olin Downes praised a Salzburg performance of his \"Five Pieces for String Quartet\" in 1924: Downes reported that following the performance Schulhoff played American ragtime numbers on piano at a local inn \"till the walls tottered\".  In 1928, the Flonzaley Quartet played the String Quartet No. 1 at their farewell New York concert between works of Beethoven and Brahms, and it was greeted enthusiastically. A 1930 performance of Schulhoff's \"Partita\" by Walter Gieseking proved to be the audience's favorite work of the recital \"to judge from the applause and laughter\" wrote one reviewer, \"which greeted the sections bearing such titles as 'All Art Is Useless' and 'Alexander, Alexander, You Are a Salamander'.\"  He composed his Concerto for String Quartet and Wind Orchestra in 1930, which provides, in one critic's estimation, \"a fascinating inversion of the traditional concerto grosso style, with winds providing the framework of the piece as a whole, within which the string quartet appears as contrast and solo.\"  In the 1930s, Schulhoff faced mounting personal and professional difficulties. Because of his Jewish descent and his radical politics, he and his works were labelled \"degenerate\" and blacklisted by the Nazi regime. He could no longer give recitals in Germany, nor could his works be performed publicly.  His communist sympathies, which became increasingly evident in his works, also brought him trouble in Czechoslovakia. In 1932 he composed a musical version of \"The Communist Manifesto\" (Op. 82). Taking refuge in Prague, Schulhoff found employment as a radio pianist, but earned barely enough to cover the cost of everyday essentials. When the Nazis invaded Czechoslovakia in 1939, he had to perform under a pseudonym. In 1941, the Soviet Union approved his petition for citizenship, but he was arrested and imprisoned before he could leave Czechoslovakia.  In June 1941, Schulhoff was deported to the Wülzburg concentration camp near Weißenburg, Bavaria. He died there on 18 August 1942 from tuberculosis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical style.", "content": "Schulhoff went through a number of distinct stylistic periods, ranging, in Anne Midgette's words, \"from the endearing self-consciousness of talented youth in the Suite for Chamber Orchestra to the fierce somber aggression of the Fifth Symphony.\" She found that even as his style changed there was a certain commonality, so that even the \"angular, forceful, even raw style\" of the late Fifth Symphony reflected \"the late Romantic tradition of orchestral color\".  His early works exhibit the influence of composers from the preceding generation, including Debussy, Scriabin, and Richard Strauss. Later, during his Dadaist phase, Schulhoff composed a number of pieces with absurdist elements. Anticipating John Cage's \"4′33′′\" by more than thirty years, Schulhoff's \"In futurum\" (part of \"Fünf Pittoresken\" for piano, written in 1919) is a silent piece composed entirely of rests, with the interpretative instruction \"tutto il canzone con espressione e sentimento ad libitum, sempre, sin al fine\" (\"the whole piece with free expression and feeling, always, until the end\"). The composition is notated in great rhythmic detail, employing bizarre time signatures and intricate rhythmic patterns. A 1923 report of a Bochum performance puts Schulhoff in the context of his contemporaries: Schulhoff's third period dates from approximately 1923 to 1932. The pieces composed during these years, his most prolific years as a composer, are the most frequently performed of his works, including the String Quartet No. 1 and \"Five Pieces for String Quartet\", which integrate modernist vocabulary, neoclassical elements, jazz, and dance rhythms from a variety of sources and cultures. He thought of jazz as a dance idiom and in a 1924 essay expressed the view that no one, including Stravinsky and Auric, had yet successfully blended jazz and art music. Performers of his Sonata for Violin and Piano No. 2 (1927) have described how it \"draws liberally on the composers interests and abilities as a bona fide jazzman, acerbic wit and dance aficionado\" and said its andante has \"the kind of expressivity you find in the music of Berg\". One critic has written that \"Schulhoff's notion of what constitutes jazz are as surreal as some of the Dadaist texts he set...; some of the music is rather more indebted to de Falla and Russian Orientalism than ragtime or anything trans-Atlantic.\" He thought that innovations like an entire movement of the Suite for Chamber Orchestra (1921) for percussion alone and the use of the siren in another \"would have seemed outlandish enough in 1921, even if it all sounds a bit tame now [1995].\" A \"New York Times\" critic in 1932 called the \"Duo for violin and cello\" (1925) \"long-winded and even insincere\", while a performance in 2012 noted it was dedicated to Janáček, evokes Ravel's Sonata for Violin and Cello and \"blends folk and contemporary elements\" while employing \"a range of sonorities and effects like dramatic pizzicatos\" while \"vivacious Hungarian fiddle playing enlivens the Zingaresca movement\".  His jazz oratorio \"H.M.S. Royal Oak\" tells the story of a naval mutiny against a superior who prohibits jazz on board ship.  The final period of his career was dedicated to socialist realism, with Communist ideology frequently in the foreground.  In general, Schulhoff's music remains connected to Western tonality, though—like Prokofiev, among others—the fundamentally triadic conception of his music is often embellished by passages of intense dissonance. Other features characteristic of Schulhoff's compositional style are use of modal and quartal harmonies, dance rhythms, and a comparatively free approach to form. Also important to Schulhoff was the work of the Second Viennese School, though Schulhoff never adopted serialism as a compositional tool.  The papers of conferences in Cologne (1992) and in Düsseldorf (1994) focused on Schulhoff's work have been published.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erwin Schulhoff (; 8 June 189418 August 1942) was a Czech composer and pianist. He was one of the figures in the generation of European musicians whose successful careers were prematurely terminated by the rise of the Nazi regime in Germany and whose works have been rarely noted or performed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973852}
{"src_title": "Thermal design power", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The TDP of a CPU has been underestimated in some cases, leading to certain real applications (typically strenuous, such as video encoding or games) causing the CPU to exceed its specified TDP and resulting in overloading the computer's cooling system. In this case, CPUs either cause a system failure (a \"therm-trip\") or throttle their speed down. Most modern processors will cause a therm-trip only upon a catastrophic cooling failure, such as a no longer operational fan or an incorrectly mounted heatsink.  For example, a laptop's CPU cooling system may be designed for a 20 W TDP, which means that it can dissipate up to 20 watts of heat without exceeding the maximum junction temperature for the laptop's CPU. A cooling system can do this using an active cooling method (e.g. forced convection) such as a fan, or any of the three passive cooling methods: convection, thermal radiation or conduction. Typically, a combination of these methods is used.  Since safety margins and the definition of what constitutes a real application vary among manufacturers, TDP values between different manufacturers cannot be accurately compared. For example, while a processor with a TDP of 100 W will almost certainly use more power at full load than a processor with a 10 W TDP from the same manufacturer, it may or may not use more power than a processor from a different manufacturer that has a 90 W TDP. Additionally, TDPs are often specified for families of processors, with the low-end models usually using significantly less power than those at the high end of the family.  The dynamic power consumed by a switching circuit is approximately proportional to the square of the voltage: where is capacitance, is frequency, and is voltage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variable TDP.", "content": "TDP specifications for some processors may allow them to work under multiple different power levels, depending on the usage scenario, available cooling capacities and desired power consumption. Technologies that provide such variable TDPs include Intel's \"configurable TDP\" (cTDP) and \"scenario design power\" (SDP), and AMD's \"TDP power cap\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Configurable TDP.", "content": "\"Configurable TDP\" (\"cTDP\"), also known as \"programmable TDP\" or \"TDP power cap\", is an operating mode of later generations of Intel mobile processors () and AMD processors () that allows adjustments in their TDP values. By modifying the processor behavior and its performance levels, power consumption of a processor can be changed altering its TDP at the same time. That way, a processor can operate at higher or lower performance levels, depending on the available cooling capacities and desired power consumption.  Intel processors that support cTDP provide three operating modes:  For example, some of the mobile Haswell processors support cTDP up, cTDP down, or both modes. As another example, some of the AMD Opteron processors and Kaveri APUs can be configured for lower TDP values. IBM's POWER8 processor implements a similar power capping functionality through its embedded on-chip controller (OCC).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scenario design power.", "content": "Intel's description of \"scenario design power (SDP)\": \"SDP is an additional thermal reference point meant to represent thermally relevant device usage in real-world environmental scenarios. It balances performance and power requirements across system workloads to represent real-world power usage.\"  \"Scenario design power\" (\"SDP\") is not an additional power state of a processor. The SDP only states the average power consumption of a processor using a certain mix of benchmark programs to simulate \"real-world\" scenarios\". For example, Y-series (extreme-low power) mobile Haswell processor show the difference between TDP and SDP.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The thermal design power (TDP), sometimes called thermal design point, is the maximum amount of heat generated by a computer chip or component (often a CPU, GPU or system on a chip) that the cooling system in a computer is designed to dissipate under any workload.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973853}
{"src_title": "Tia Carrere", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Carrere was born in Honolulu, Hawaii. She is the daughter of Audrey Lee Janairo, a computer supervisor, and Alexander Janairo, a banker. According to Carrere, she is of Chinese, Filipino and Spanish ancestry.  Carrere attended Sacred Hearts Academy, an all-girls school. She longed to be a singer as a child. Although she was eliminated during the first round of her 1985 \"Star Search\" appearance at the age of 17, she was spotted by a local producer while shopping at a Waikiki grocery store and was cast in the movie \"Aloha Summer\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film and television career.", "content": "Following this success, Carrere returned to Los Angeles, and after working several months as a model, landed her first role in the American television series \"Airwolf\" in early 1985. Her first major breakthrough was in the daytime soap opera \"General Hospital\". She played the role of Jade Soong Chung from 1985 to 1987. She also had a guest appearance on \"Tour of Duty\" and \"The A-Team\", which was supposed to lead to her joining the cast; her \"General Hospital\" obligations, however, prevented her from joining the team. Her character was dropped after one episode, and was never mentioned again. She also made guest appearances on the shows \"MacGyver\" (\"The Wish Child\") as a karate instructor, and a different assassin character in a later episode (\"Murderer's Sky\"), on \"Anything but Love\" as the adopted daughter of Marty Gold (Richard Lewis), and on \"Married... with Children\" as Piper Bauman, a rival of Kelly Bundy, who attempted to steal a modeling job from her.  After appearing in the 1991 action films \"Harley Davidson and the Marlboro Man\" and \"Showdown in Little Tokyo\", she emerged into the public spotlight when cast as Cassandra, a rock singer and love interest of Mike Myers's character, Wayne Campbell, in \"Wayne's World\" (1992), a role she reprised the next year in \"Wayne's World 2.\" A trained singer, Carrere performed all of her own songs in the first film, and the \"Wayne's World\" soundtrack features her vocals. She turned down a role in \"Baywatch\" to audition for \"Wayne's World.\" In 1992, \"People\" named her to its annual \"50 most beautiful people\" list.  Other roles in prominent films include the parts of smuggler Juno Skinner in \"True Lies,\" a 1994 Arnold Schwarzenegger action film; a mixed African-Japanese computer expert in \"Rising Sun,\" a thriller co-written for the screen by Michael Crichton and based on his novel, starring Sean Connery and Wesley Snipes; robber Gina Walker in \"The Immortals\" in 1995; and secretary Victoria Chappell in \"High School High,\" a 1996 parody. She also starred as Ari, a space marine turned pirate, in the 1995 adventure/puzzle game \"The Daedalus Encounter.\" She also starred as the evil witch/queen in the 1997 Universal Films picture \"Kull the Conqueror,\" co-starring versus Kevin Sorbo, and starred in late-'90s M&M's commercials as herself. At the end of the decade, she was cast as Ana Ishikawa in the motion picture of the comic book character \"Shi\", but the film wasn't concreted. From 1999 to 2002, Carrere starred as archeology professor Sydney Fox in \"Relic Hunter,\" a syndicated action-adventure series strongly reminiscent of the Indiana Jones and \"Tomb Raider\" films and video games. At this time, Carrere was featured in the men's magazine \"Maxim.\" \"Relic Hunter\" lasted for a total of three contracted television seasons. Carrere then provided the voice of Lilo's sister Nani in the animated film \"Lilo & Stitch\" (2002) and its spinoffs, as well as the voice of Queen Tyr'ahnee from the 2003 \"Duck Dodgers\" animated series. She also provided the voice of Snookie in the 2005 animated film \"Aloha, Scooby-Doo!\"  She participated as a contestant on the popular reality show \"Dancing with the Stars\", and eventually placed sixth overall. Carrere later participated in the fifth season of \"The Celebrity Apprentice,\" but her \"apprenticeship\" to Donald Trump, the \"boss\" of the show, was terminated in that season's fifth week.  Carrere posed nude for the January 2003 issue of \"Playboy\". The photos were republished in the German December 2006 issue of the magazine. She has appeared as a guest star on a number of television shows, including \"Back to You\", \"Nip/Tuck\", and \"Warehouse 13\". She has also appeared in several episodes of season six of \"Curb Your Enthusiasm\" as Richard Lewis's girlfriend. In 2020, Carrere began a regular role as Lady Danger on the Netflix series \"AJ and the Queen.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music career.", "content": "Carrere has continued to nurture her singing career. In 1993, her first solo album, \"Dream\", produced by Matt Prinz, was released, and went platinum in the Philippines. That same year, she was featured on the soundtrack of \"\", performing the ending theme, \"I Never Even Told You\". Her second album, \"Hawaiiana\", was released in June 2007 and takes Carrere back to her Hawaiian roots with four-time Grammy Award-winning record producer Daniel Ho accompanying her on classic solo slack-key guitar and ukulele. The album was nominated for a 2008 Grammy Award under the category Best Hawaiian Music Album.  In 2009, she acted as co-host for the pre-Grammy Awards telecast online event alongside Wayne Brady. She won a Grammy Award in 2009 for her third album \"Ikena\", which was also produced by Ho, and was a finalist at the 2010 for \"He Nani\", the third album she had recorded with Ho as her producer. In 2011, she won another Grammy Award (Best Hawaiian Music Album) for her album \"Huana Ke Aloha\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Carrere married film producer Elie Samaha in 1992. Samaha and Carrere divorced in February 2000.  On November 30, 2002, she married photojournalist Simon Wakelin. They have a daughter. On April 2, 2010, Carrere filed for divorce in person at Los Angeles County Superior Court. According to court documents she cited irreconcilable differences as the reason for the divorce and asked for sole physical custody of their daughter. Their divorce was finalized in August 2010, with the two of them reportedly sharing custody of their daughter. She lives in Los Angeles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and nominations.", "content": "The following is a list of awards and nominations received by Carrere", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Althea Rae Duhinio Janairo (born January 2, 1967), known professionally as Tia Carrere (), is an American actress, singer, and former model, who obtained her first big break as a regular on the daytime soap opera \"General Hospital\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973854}
{"src_title": "Province of Silesia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The territory on both sides of the Oder river formed the southeastern part of the Prussian kingdom. It comprised the bulk of the former Bohemian crown land of Upper and Lower Silesia as well as the adjacent County of Kladsko, which the Prussian King Frederick the Great had all conquered from the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy under Empress Maria Theresa in the 18th century Silesian Wars. It furthermore included the northeastern part of Upper Lusatia around Görlitz and Lauban, ceded to Prussia by the Kingdom of Saxony according to the resolutions of the Vienna Congress in 1815.  The province bordered on the Prussian heartland of Brandenburg (including the newly acquired lands of Lower Lusatia) in the northwest, and on the Grand Duchy of Posen (Province of Posen from 1848) in the north, i.e. the Greater Polish lands that before the 18th century Partitions of Poland had belonged to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the northeast, Upper Silesia bordered on remaining Congress Poland, the Russian partition that was incorporated as Vistula Land by 1867. In the east lay the Austrian share, the Lesser Polish kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Free City of Kraków (until 1846), and in the south the remaining Bohemian crown lands of Austrian Silesia, Moravia and Bohemia proper. The incorporated Upper Lusatian strip of land in the west touched the remaining territory of the Saxon kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prussian Silesia, 1740–1815.", "content": "The coronation of Maria Theresa as queen regnant of the Kingdom of Bohemia immediately triggered an invasion of the region of Silesia by King Frederick the Great of Prussia, thereby starting the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). By the end of the First Silesian War in 1742, the Prussian forces had conquered almost all of the Habsburg crown land in Silesia, while according to the peace treaties of Breslau and Berlin, only some smaller parts in the extreme southeast, like the Duchy of Teschen as well as the southern parts of the duchies of Troppau and Nysa, remained possessions of the Habsburg Monarchy as Austrian Silesia. Attempts by Maria Theresa to regain the crown land in the Second Silesian War (1744–1745) failed and she ultimately had to relinquish her claims over Silesia by the Treaty of Dresden.  The Third Silesian War (1756–1763), a theatre of the Seven Years' War, once again confirmed Prussian control over most of Silesia, and due to its predominantly Protestant population especially in Lower Silesia, it became one of the most loyal territories of the House of Hohenzollern. When the Prussian territories were reorganized upon the Congress of Vienna, the Province of Silesia was created out of the territories acquired by Prussia in the Silesian Wars, as well as those Upper Lusatian territories which King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony had to relinquish due to his indecisive attitude in the Napoleonic Wars. As the lands had been part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1806, Silesia was among the western Prussian provinces that laid within the borders of the German Confederation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Province of Silesia.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1815–1919.", "content": "In 1815, after the Napoleonic wars, Prussian Silesia was formally reorganized into the Province of Silesia. The character of the province's eastern third, Upper Silesia, had been much lesser shaped by the medieval German \"Ostsiedlung\". According to the census of 1905, about three-quarters of the Silesian inhabitants were German–speaking, while a majority of the population to the east of the Oder river spoke Polish (including Silesian and Lach dialects). Because of the extended iron ore and black coal deposits of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin, there was considerable industrialization and urbanization in Upper Silesia and many people from neighbouring Posen and Congress Poland immigrated at that time. In 1871, Silesia became part of the German Empire as a province of Prussia following the unification of Germany. The Upper Silesian Industrial Region was the second largest industrial agglomeration of the German Empire after the Ruhr area. Over decades the mainly Catholic Upper Silesian citizens in majority voted for the German Centre Party, while the Lower Silesian constituencies were dominated by the Free-minded Party and the Social Democrats. Ethnic tensions rose on the eve of World War I, with politicians like Wojciech Korfanty separating from the Centre Party and giving utterance to distinct Polish interests.  In 1919, a year after the war ended, the parts of Silesia remaining in Weimar Germany were re-organized into the two provinces of Lower Silesia (\"Niederschlesien\") and Upper Silesia (\"Oberschlesien\", the former \"Regierungsbezirk Oppeln\"). After three Silesian Uprisings and the 1921 Upper Silesia plebiscite, the East Upper Silesian part of the province around the industrial town of Kattowitz was transferred to the Second Polish Republic and incorporated into the Silesian Voivodeship in 1922. Further, in 1920 the Hlučín Region was ceded to Czechoslovakia according to the Treaty of Versailles.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "1939–1945.", "content": "In 1938 the Province of Silesia was re-established by Nazi Germany by uniting the existing Upper Silesia and Lower Silesia provinces, then following the conquest of Poland, the border was extended eastwards when parts of Polish Silesia were merged into the province. In 1941, during World War II, the province of Silesia was divided again by reverting into Upper Silesia and Lower Silesia.  Upon the implementation of the Oder-Neisse line according to the 1945 Potsdam Agreement, most of the Prussian Silesia Province became part of Poland, incorporated into the Lubusz, Lower Silesian, Opole and Silesian Voivodeships. The German-speaking population left or was expelled following World War II, though a minority remains. A smaller western part of the former Silesia Province lies within modern German states of Saxony and Brandenburg.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "The Province of Silesia (; ; Silesian: \"Prowincyjŏ Ślōnskŏ\") was a province of Prussia from 1815 to 1919. The Silesia region was part of the Prussian realm since 1740 and established as an official province in 1815, then became part of the German Empire in 1871. In 1919, as part of the Free State of Prussia within Weimar Germany, Silesia was divided into the provinces of Upper Silesia and Lower Silesia. Silesia was reunified briefly from 1938 to 1941 as a province of Nazi Germany before being divided back into Upper Silesia and Lower Silesia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973855}
{"src_title": "Arunachal macaque", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery.", "content": "It was discovered as a new taxon in 1997 by the noted Indian primatologist Anwaruddin Choudhury, but he thought it to be a new subspecies of the Tibetan macaque (\"M. thibetana\"). It was described as a new species in 2005 by a group of scientists from the Nature Conservation Foundation, India. It is the first species of macaque to have been discovered since 1903, when the Indonesian Pagai Island macaque was discovered. This monkey was reported on the basis of a good quality photograph as the holotype. In 2011, some researchers suggested, on the basis of morphological variation within the Assamese macaque, that it might be better treated as a subspecies.  Subsequently, it was also discovered in Bhutan, where it was observed and photographed in the Trashi Yangshi area in 2006.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The Arunachal macaque is compactly built and has a very dark face. It lives at high altitudes, between 2000 m and 3500 m above sea level, making it one of the highest-dwelling primates. It belongs to the \"M. sinica\" species-group of macaques, along with the Assamese macaque (\"M. assamensis\"), the Tibetan macaque, the bonnet macaque (\"M. radiata\") and the toque macaque (\"M. sinica\").  The Arunachal macaque is apparently physically similar to the Assam and Tibetan macaques, while genetically closely related to the bonnet macaque of southern India. This is probably the result of convergent evolution, where organisms evolve similar physical features due to similar environmental selection pressure, while genetically they may have different origins. However, its full specific status is not beyond doubt and further research might show it to be a new subspecies of Assamese or Tibetan macaques.  This monkey is severely persecuted in some parts of its known distribution by locals retaliating against crop raiding. Recent surveys suggest that this species may be highly endangered in some parts of Arunachal Pradesh.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Arunachal macaque (\"Macaca munzala\") is a macaque native to Arunachal Pradesh in North-east India. It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. It was scientifically described in 2005.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973856}
{"src_title": "Arado Ar 240", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Ar 240 came about as the response to a 1938 request for a much more capable second-generation heavy fighter to replace the Messerschmitt Bf 110, which was becoming outdated. Both Arado and Messerschmitt responded. Messerschmitt's response, the Me 210, was a totally new design, but thanks to Messerschmitt's experience with the \"Zerstörer\" (\"Destroyer\") concept, it would be able to enter service quickly. Arado's design was considerably more ambitious for the smaller firm, a dream project of Arado's chief designer, Walter Blume, since the mid-1930s. While it would take some time before deliveries of the Arado design could begin, the \"Reichsluftfahrtministerium\" (German Aviation Ministry, RLM) was nevertheless interested enough to order prototypes of both designs.  Prior to this point, Arado had invested heavily in several lines of basic research. One was the development of the \"Arado travelling flap\" which offered excellent low-speed lift performance. Another was ongoing work in the design and construction of pressurized cockpits, which dramatically lowered pilot fatigue for any flight above about 4,500 m (14,760 ft). Finally, they had also invested in a technically advanced remote-control defensive gun system, which they had been experimenting with for several years. The system used a gunsight located in the rear cockpit, operated by the navigator/gunner, which had optics on both the top and bottom of the aircraft, allowing aim in any direction. The gunsight was hydraulically connected to well-streamlined pancake-shaped, remotely-operated turrets on the top and bottom of the aircraft. For the Ar 240 design, the Arado engineers combined all this research into a single airframe.  For outright performance, they used as small a wing as reasonable, thereby lowering parasite drag (at the expense of greater lift-induced drag). Normally this would make the plane have \"impossibly high\" landing speeds, but this was offset by the use of a huge travelling flap and leading edge slats for high low-speed lift. When the flaps were extended, the upper portion of the ailerons would remain in place while the lower portion extended rearward, essentially increasing the wing area. The Daimler-Benz DB 601 inline engines were conventionally installed and equipped with three-blade, fully adjustable propellers. The radiators were somewhat unusual however, quite similar to those fitted to the Junkers Ju 88 which pioneered them - but much more closely resembling the intended installation of the radiators intended for the Junkers Ju 288, when powered by its intended multibank Junkers Jumo 222 liquid-cooled 24-cylinder engines - for both types, consisting of an annular block located in front of each engine, but with the Ar 240 partially covering each of them with an oversized, ducted flow-through propeller spinner forward of each radiator unit, with air entering through a large hole in the front of the spinner and exiting out of the cowl flaps, as the Jumo 222-powered Ju 288 design was intended to have. As with the Jumo inline-powered versions of the Ju 88, this made the plane look as if it were mounting a radial engine, and the Ar 240, like later Jumo inline-powered fighter aircraft from the Focke-Wulf firm (the Fw 190 D, Ta 152 and twin-engined Ta 154) also benefitted from the simpler setup of an annular radiator just forward of the engine.  The fuel cells in the wings were provided with a newly developed self-sealing system that used thinner tank liners, allowing for more fuel storage. The liners could not be easily removed as they stuck to the outer surface of the tank, so in order to service them, the wing panelling had to be removable. This led to a complex system for providing skinning stiff enough to be handled in the field, complicating construction and driving up weight.  As with all German multi-use aircraft designs of the era, the aircraft was required to be a credible dive bomber. The thick wing panelling was not suitable for piercing for conventional dive brakes, so a \"petal\"-type brake was installed at the extreme rear of the fuselage — appearing much like what had been trialled with the Dornier Do 217 — which, unlike the Do 217's vertically-opening \"petals\", opened to the sides instead when activated. When closed the brake looked like a stinger, extending beyond the horizontal stabilizer and twin fins.  Finally, the cockpit was fully pressurized. This would not have been easy if the armament had to be hand-operated by the gunner, as it would have required the guns to penetrate the rear of the cockpit canopy. However, the remote control system allowed them to be located in turrets in the unpressurized rear of the fuselage.  All of this added weight, and combined with the small wing, led to a very high wing loading of 330 kg/m (221 lb/ft), compared to an average of about a 100 for a single-seat fighter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Testing and evaluation.", "content": "Technical specifications were first published in October 1938, followed by detailed plans later that year. In May 1939, the RLM ordered a batch of six prototypes. The first Ar 240 V1 prototype, DD+QL, took to the air on 25 June 1940, and immediately proved to have poor handling in all axes, also tending to overheat during taxiing.  The handling was thought to be the result of the ailerons being too small, given the thick wing, so the second prototype was modified to have larger ones, as well as additional vertical fin area on the dive brakes to reduce yaw. In addition, small radiators were added to the landing gear legs to improve cooling at low speeds, when the gear would normally be opened. Ar 240 V2, KK+CD, first flew on 6 April 1941, and spent most of its life at the factory in an experimental role.  Ar 240 V3 followed, the first to be equipped with the FA 9 rear-firing armament system, developed jointly by Arado and DVL, armed with a 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 81Z machine gun. Ar 240 V4 was the first to include an operational dive brake, and flew on 19 June 1941. Ar 240 V5 and the V6 followed in December and January, including the upgraded FA 13 system, using two 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 machine guns in place of the MG 81Z for a considerable boost in firepower. Ar 240 V7 and V8 acted as prototypes for the planned Ar 240 B, which was to use two Daimler Benz DB 605As, while Ar 240 V9, V10, and V11, and V12 served as prototypes of the Ar 240 C.  The Ar 240's excellent performance quickly led to the V3, V5 and V6 being stripped of their armament, including the defensive guns, and used as reconnaissance aircraft over England, where no other two-seater could venture by 1942. A number of pre-production Ar 240s served on the Eastern Front overflying Soviet military positions.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Arado Ar 240 was a German twin-engine, multi-role heavy fighter aircraft, developed for the \"Luftwaffe\" during World War II by Arado Flugzeugwerke. Its first flight was in 1940, but problems with the design hampered development, and it remained only marginally stable throughout the prototype phase. The project was eventually cancelled, with the existing airframes used for a variety of test purposes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973857}
{"src_title": "Haim Bar-Lev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born Haim Brotzlewsky in Vienna, Austria in 1924, Bar-Lev made aliyah to Mandate Palestine in 1939. From 1942 through 1948, Bar-Lev served in various Jewish military units, such as the Palmach. He became both a pilot and a parachutist, which would later serve him in developing both of these military branches in the young Israel Defense Forces.  In 1946 Bar-Lev blew up the Allenby Bridge near Jericho to prevent Arab militiamen in Trans-Jordan from entering Jewish towns west of the Jordan River. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Bar-Lev was the commander of the Eighth Battalion (Mechanized) in the Negev Brigade, which fought in the southern part of the country and the Sinai.  During the 1956 Suez Crisis he commanded the 27th Armored Brigade, which captured the Gaza Strip before turning southwest and reaching the Suez Canal. By 1964 he became of Director of Operations within the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).  During the June 1967 Six-Day War he served as the Deputy Chief of Staff in the IDF. In late 1968 he accepted Maj. Gen. Adan's proposal that a high sand-dune wall be built along the east bank of the Suez Canal to prevent the Egyptian military from observing Israeli defenses along the Suez Canal. Behind the sand dune a line of fixed fortifications was constructed. This became known as the Bar Lev Line.  Between 1968 and 1971, Bar-Lev served as IDF's Chief of General Staff, which made him the highest-ranking military officer.  During the October 1973 Yom Kippur War, although retired from the IDF and serving as the Minister of Trade and Industry, he was recalled by Prime Minister Golda Meir back into military service to replace Shmuel \"Gorodish\" Gonen as chief of the Southern Command, which defended the Sinai Peninsula. Bar-Lev played a pivotal role in the war. Before his appointment the Southern front was in disarray to the point of near total collapse and Gonen was proving unable to effectively control the situation. Bar-Lev immediately took charge and worked towards stabilizing the front. His political and negotiating skills also proved instrumental in controlling his field generals who were feuding amongst themselves since each had their own notions, sometimes competing ones, regarding how the war in the South should be carried out. The effect that Bar-Lev's arrival had on the chaotic Southern command headquarters was described by Gonen's deputy, Uri Ben-Ari, in testimony to the Israeli military's historical department:  Bar-Lev brought calmness on all of us. Finally there was a feeling that we had a real commander in charge. This feeling spread between us and later also in the battlefield radios like fire. Bar-Lev also managed to calm Gorodish down. Prior to his arrival, general staff meetings were one loud shout out of Gorodish's mouth. Bar Lev instituted orderly working routines. No one challenged his authority. The country owes much to him. \"Dovaleh\" went back to being a real war-room, a compartmentalized one. No one [who did not belong there] was allowed entry. Serenity descended on the war room. The general staff officers switched to carrying out their tasks in well organized shifts. Even Arik [Ariel Sharon]'s tone of voice changed when Bar Lev arrived.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Bar-Lev remained Minister of Trade and Industry until the Alignment government was defeated and replaced by the Likud under the leadership of Menachem Begin following the 1977 elections, in which Bar-Lev was elected to the Knesset for the first time. Between 1977 and 1984 he served as General Secretary of the Labor Party, the largest faction in the Alignment. When the Alignment joined the national unity governments that held office between 1984 and 1990, Bar-Lev served as Minister of Police and as a member of the \"inner cabinet\". He retired from the Knesset at the time of the 1992 elections, and was appointed ambassador to Russia, serving until 1994.  He died in Tel Aviv on 7 May 1994.  His son Omer Bar-Lev is an Israeli politician member of the Labor Party.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Haim \"Kidoni\" Bar-Lev (, 16 November 1924 – 7 May 1994) was a military officer during Israel's pre-state and early statehood eras and later a government minister.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973858}
{"src_title": "Mircea Geoană", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "From 28 December 2000 to 28 December 2004, Geoană was the Foreign Minister of Romania, as part of the PSD government of Adrian Năstase. After the Romanian legislative elections of 2004, he was replaced by Mihai Răzvan Ungureanu from the Justice and Truth Alliance.  In 2001, Geoană was the chairman of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. In 2004, during the local government elections in Romania, he ran for Mayor of Bucharest, but lost to Traian Băsescu of the Democratic Party.  A career diplomat, from 1996 to 2000 Geoană served as Romania's ambassador to the United States. At the time, he was the youngest ambassador in Romania's diplomatic corps.  Considered a young reformer, Geoană was elected president of the party on 25 April 2005 by delegates at a PSD Party Congress held in Bucharest. His victory represented a surprise defeat for the former president and founder of the PSD Ion Iliescu, who was expected to defeat Geoană handily. Geoană's win was attributed by the media to last minute backroom dealing by party leaders opposed to Iliescu as well as to public gaffes made by Iliescu at the Party Congress, including using the term \"comrades\" when referring to his party colleagues.  At the PSD Congress on 10 December 2006, Geoană was re-elected as party President, with his platform, \"Social Romania\", defeating Sorin Oprescu's.  On 3 December 2009, candidates in the second round, Băsescu and Geoană met in a televised debate that marked the final confrontation of the campaign. The event was held at the Palace of the Parliament. The debate started with a presentation of arguments that Băsescu and Geoană tried in turn to explain why Romanians should vote for them. The candidate of the PSD + PC Alliance said he came up with a project to develop the country and has demonstrated that he can unite the Romanians and keep \"a constructive tone and a positive approach.\" He discussed the three pillars that he sustains: redefining the way that Romania is working, agriculture, and developing the working field. Geoană specified that his alliance with the liberals, initialed in Timișoara, is sincere and not based on political interests. He expressed hope that Băsescu will not use in the debate means and personal attacks, \"like the way in which designed the campaign, which was based on lies and personal attacks on the family.\" In turn, Băsescu said that the presidency is a privilege and a \"huge obligation\" which marked him every day in the five-year term when he was president of Romania. His speech was focused on supporting the accelerated reform of the state in which the \"voice of Romanians must be heard\". The head of state proposed \"a government of politicians for politicians\". Băsescu spoke about the Social Democrats, whom he accused that they do not understand the country's priorities, and acquire political privileges. The candidate supported by the Liberal Democrats recalled the possibility of returning to power former communist government and Iliescu. Băsescu promised that it would immediately pass Romanians outcome of the referendum of 22 November to reduce the number of MPs and creating a unicameral parliament, which he never did. The two candidates' approaches were often strewn during the three hours of debate with personal attacks and mutual accusations. The President stated that the support structure of Geoană's campaign was linked to television of Sorin Ovidiu Vântu, Dan Voiculescu, and Dinu Patriciu's public interventions. The two presidential candidates swore with the hand on a Bible provided by Robert Turcescu, the moderator of the debate. While Geoană vowed not promised benefits Patriciu, Vântu, and Voiculescu, Băsescu vowed that he \"never punched a child in the plex or in the face\".  On 22 November 2011, after refusing to step down as the President of the Senate of Romania following the request of the PSD leadership, he was ousted as member of the party, losing the confidence of his colleagues in the Executive National Council of PSD where his dismissal was voted 50 to 5 while 3 abstained. In the following days he will have to step down as President of the Upper House of the Romanian Parliament as he no longer has the support of a party group in the Senate. The following day he was revoked by the senators in the plenary meeting with 112 votes for, 2 against and 5 abstentions. He remains an independent senator. He was readmitted into the party banks in Autumn 2012, after a reconciliation with the PSD leadership.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He is married to Mihaela Geoană, Former President of the Romanian Red Cross from 2007 to 2015; They both have a daughter and son together: Maria and Alexandru Ion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dan Mircea Geoană (; born 14 July 1958 in Bucharest) is a Romanian politician and former ambassador who served as president of the upper chamber of the Romanian Parliament, the Senate from 20 December 2008 until he was revoked on 23 November 2011. From 21 April 2005 until 21 February 2010 he was the head of the Partidul Social Democrat (PSD, Social Democratic Party), Romania's largest party. He was the candidate of the party for the position of President of Romania in the 2009 presidential election.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973859}
{"src_title": "Stephen Timoshenko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Timoshenko was born in the village of Shpotovka in the Chernigov Governorate which at that time was a territory of the Russian Empire (today in Konotop Raion, Ukraine). He studied at a Realschule () in Romny, Poltava Governorate (now in Sumy Oblast) from 1889 to 1896. In Romny his schoolmate and friend was future famous semiconductor physicist Abram Ioffe. Timoshenko continued his education towards a university degree at the St Petersburg Institute of engineers Ways of Communication. After graduating in 1901, he stayed on teaching in this same institution from 1901 to 1903 and then worked at the Saint Petersburg Polytechnical Institute under Viktor Kirpichov 1903–1906. In 1905 he was sent for one year to the University of Göttingen where he worked under Ludwig Prandtl.  In the fall of 1906 he was appointed to the Chair of Strengths of Materials at the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute. The return to his native Ukraine turned out to be an important part of his career and also influenced his future personal life. From 1907 to 1911 as a professor at the Polytechnic Institute he did research in the earlier variant of the Finite Element Method of elastic calculations, the so-called Rayleigh method. During those years he also pioneered work on buckling, and published the first version of his famous \"Strength of Materials\" textbook. He was elected dean of the Division of Structural Engineering in 1909.  In 1911 he signed a protest against Minister for Education Kasso and was fired from the Kiev Polytechnic Institute. In 1911 he was awarded the D. I. Zhuravski prize of the St.Petersburg Ways of Communication Institute that helped him survive after losing his job. He went to St Petersburg where he worked as a lecturer and then a Professor in the \"Electrotechnical Institute\" and the St Petersburg Institute of the Railways (1911–1917). During that time he developed the theory of elasticity and the theory of beam deflection, and continued to study buckling. In 1918 he returned to Kiev and assisted Vladimir Vernadsky in establishing the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences – the oldest academy among the Soviet republics other than Russia. In 1918–1920 Timoshenko headed the newly established Institute of Mechanics of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, which today carries his name. Younger brother of Stephen, Serhiy Tymoshenko, was a Ukrainian Minister of Communication and participated in the Second Winter Campaign against the Soviet regime.  After the Armed Forces of South Russia of general Denikin had taken Kiev in 1919, Timoshenko moved from Kiev to Rostov-on-Don. After travel via Novorossiysk, Crimea and Constantinople to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, he arrived in Zagreb, where he got professorship at the Zagreb Polytechnic Institute. In 1920, during the brief liberation of Kiev from Bolsheviks, Timoshenko travelled to the city, reunited with his family and returned with his family to Zagreb.  He is remembered for delivering lectures in Russian while using as many words in Croatian as he could; the students were able to understand him well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "In 1922 Timoshenko moved to the United States where he worked for the Westinghouse Electric Corporation from 1923 to 1927, after which he became a faculty professor in the University of Michigan where he created the first bachelor's and doctoral programs in engineering mechanics. His textbooks have been published in 36 languages. His first textbooks and papers were written in Russian; later in his life, he published mostly in English. In 1928 he was an Invited Speaker of the ICM in Bologna. From 1936 onward he was a professor at Stanford University.  In 1957 ASME established a medal named after Stephen Timoshenko; he became its first recipient. The Timoshenko Medal honors Stephen P. Timoshenko as the world-renowned authority in the field of mechanical engineering and it commemorates his contributions as author and teacher. The Timoshenko Medal is given annually for distinguished contributions in applied mechanics.  In addition to his textbooks, Timoshenko wrote \"Engineering Education in Russia\" and an autobiography, \"As I Remember\", the latter first published in Russian in 1963 with its English translation appearing in 1968.  In 1960 he moved to Wuppertal (Western Germany) to be with his daughter. He died in 1972 and his ashes are buried in Alta Mesa Memorial Park, Palo Alto, California.  In 1963 Timoshenko wrote a book \"As I Remember\" in the Russian language. It was translated into English in 1968 by sponsorship of the Stanford University. Jacob Pieter den Hartog (1901-1989), who was Timoshenko's co-worker in early 1920s at Westinghouse, wrote a review in the magazine \"Science\" stating that \"... Between 1922 and 1962 he [S.P. Timoshenko] wrote a dozen books on all aspects of engineering mechanics, which are in their third or fourth U.S. edition and which have been translated into half a dozen foreign languages each, so that his name as an author and scholar is known to nearly every mechanical and civil engineer in the entire world.. Then, Den Hartog stressed: \"There is no question that Timoshenko did much for America. It is an equally obvious truth that America did much for Timoshenko, as it did for millions of other immigrants for all over the world. However, our autobiographer has never admitted as much to his associates and pupils who, like myself often have been pained by his casual statements in conversation. That pain is not diminished by reading these statements on the printed page and one would have wished for a little less acid and a little more human kindness.\"  It should be emphasized that the celebrated theory that takes into account shear deformation and rotary inertia was developed by Timoshenko in collaboration with Paul Ehrenfest (1880-1933), famous Austrian-Dutch physicist, as the recent handbook by Elishakoff shows, and thus, should be referred to as Timoshenko-Ehrenfest beam theory. This fact was testified by Timoshenko. The interrelation between Timoshenko-Ehrenfest beam and Euler-Bernoulli beam theories was investigated in the book by Wang, Reddy and Lee.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Stepan Prokofyevich Timoshenko (, ) (December 23, 1878 – May 29, 1972), was a Ukrainian-born Russian and, later, an American engineer and academician. He is considered to be the father of modern engineering mechanics. An inventor and one of the pioneering mechanical engineers at the St. Petersburg Polytechnic University. A founding member of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Timoshenko wrote seminal works in the areas of engineering mechanics, elasticity and strength of materials, many of which are still widely used today. Having started his scientific career in the Russian Empire, Timoshenko emigrated to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes during the Russian Civil War and then to the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973860}
{"src_title": "Michael VII Doukas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Michael VII was born 1050 in Constantinople, the eldest son of Constantine X Doukas and Eudokia Makrembolitissa. He was associated with his father on the throne late in 1059, together with or shortly before his newly born brother Konstantios Doukas. When Constantine X died in 1067, Michael VII was 17 years old and should have been able to rule by himself. He exhibited little interest in politics, however, and his mother Eudokia and uncle John Doukas governed the empire as effective regents.  On January 1, 1068, Eudokia married the general Romanos Diogenes, who now became senior co-emperor alongside Michael VII, Konstantios, and another brother, Andronikos. When Romanos IV was defeated and captured by Alp Arslan of the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in August 1071, Michael VII remained in the background, while the initiative was taken by his uncle John Doukas and his tutor Michael Psellos. They conspired to keep Romanos from regaining power after his release from captivity, while Michael felt no obligation to honor the agreement that Romanos struck with the Sultan. After the dispatch of Eudokia to a monastery, Michael VII was crowned again on October 24, 1071 as senior emperor.  Although still advised by Michael Psellos and John Doukas, Michael VII became increasingly reliant on his finance minister Nikephoritzes. The emperor's chief interests, shaped by Psellos, were in academic pursuits, and he allowed Nikephoritzes to increase both taxation and luxury spending without properly financing the army. As an emperor he was incompetent, surrounded by sycophantic court officials, and blind to the empire collapsing around him. In dire straits, imperial officials resorted to property confiscations and even expropriated some of the wealth of the church. The underpaid army tended to mutiny, and the Byzantines lost Bari, their last possession in Italy, to the Normans of Robert Guiscard in 1071. Simultaneously, they faced a serious revolt in the Balkans, where they faced an attempt for the restoration of the Bulgarian state. Although this revolt was suppressed by the general Nikephoros Bryennios, the Byzantine Empire was unable to recover its losses in Asia Minor.  After Manzikert, the Byzantine government sent a new army to contain the Seljuk Turks under Isaac Komnenos, a brother of the future emperor Alexios I Komnenos, but this army was defeated and its commander captured in 1073. The problem was made worse by the desertion of the Byzantines' western mercenaries, who became the object of the next military expedition in the area, led by the \"Caesar\" John Doukas. This campaign also ended in failure, and its commander was likewise captured by the enemy. The victorious mercenaries now forced John Doukas to stand as pretender to the throne. The government of Michael VII was forced to recognize the conquests of the Seljuks in Asia Minor in 1074, and to seek their support. A new army under Alexios Komnenos, reinforced by Seljuk troops sent by Malik Shah I, finally defeated the mercenaries and captured John Doukas in 1074.  These misfortunes caused widespread dissatisfaction, exacerbated by the devaluation of the currency, which gave the emperor his nickname \"Parapinakēs\", \"minus a quarter\". In 1078 two generals, Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates, simultaneously revolted in the Balkans and Anatolia, respectively. Botaneiates gained the support of the Seljuk Turks, and he reached Constantinople first. Michael VII resigned the throne with hardly a struggle on March 31, 1078 and retired into the Monastery of Stoudios. He later became metropolitan of Ephesus and died in Constantinople in c. 1090.  Before his resignation from the throne, Michael VII may have sent an embassy to Song China, following a series of Byzantine embassies to the earlier Tang Empire of China. From the \"Wenxian Tongkao\", written by Chinese historian Ma Duanlin (1245–1322), and the \"History of Song\" it is known that the Byzantine emperor Michael VII Parapinakēs Caesar (\"Mie li sha ling kai sa\" 滅力沙靈改撒) of \"Fu lin\" (i.e. Byzantium) sent an embassy to China's Song dynasty that arrived in November 1081, during the reign of Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067–1085). The \"History of Song\" mentions how the Byzantine diplomat and official named \"Ni-si-tu-ling-si-meng-p'an\" offered saddled horses, sword-blades, and real pearls as tributary gifts to the Song court.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usurpers.", "content": "Various usurpers attempted to overthrow Michael VII or rule parts of the empire. These included:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Michael VII Doukas married Maria of Alania, daughter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia. By her he had at least one son, Constantine Doukas, co-emperor from c. 1075 to 1078 and from 1081 to 1087/8. He died c. 1095.  Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michael VII Doukas or Dukas/Ducas (, \"Mikhaēl VII Doukas\"), nicknamed Parapinakes (, lit. \"minus a quarter\", with reference to the devaluation of the Byzantine currency under his rule), was Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973861}
{"src_title": "Solvated electron", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Properties.", "content": "Focusing on ammonia solutions, all of the alkali metals, as well as Ca, Sr, Ba, Eu, and Yb (also Mg using an electrolytic process), dissolve to give the characteristic blue solutions. Other amines, such as methylamine and ethylamine, are also suitable solvents.  A lithium ammonia solution at −60 °C is saturated at about 15 mol% metal (MPM). When the concentration is increased in this range electrical conductivity increases from 10 to 10 ohmcm (larger than liquid mercury). At around 8 MPM, a \"transition to the metallic state\" (TMS) takes place (also called a \"metal to nonmetal transition\" (MNMT)). At 4 MPM a liquid-liquid phase separation takes place: the less dense gold-color phase becomes immiscible from a more dense blue phase. Above 8 MPM the solution is bronze/gold-colored. In the same concentration range the overall density decreases by 30%.  Dilute solutions are paramagnetic and at around 0.5 MPM all electrons are paired up and the solution becomes diamagnetic. Several models exist to describe the spin-paired species: as an ion trimer; as an ion-triple—a cluster of two single-electron solvated-electron species in association with a cation; or as a cluster of two solvated electrons and two solvated cations.  Solvated electrons produced by dissolution of reducing metals in ammonia and amines are the anions of salts called electrides. Such salts can be isolated by the addition of macrocyclic ligands such as crown ether and cryptands. These ligands bind strongly the cations and prevent their re-reduction by the electron.  Its standard electrode potential value is -2.77 V. Equivalent conductivity 177 Mho cm is similar to that of hydroxide ion. This value of equivalent conductivity corresponds to a diffusivity of 4,75*10 cms.  Some thermodynamic properties of the solvated electron have been investigated by Joshua Jortner and Richard M. Noyes (1966)  Alkaline aqueous solutions above pH = 9.6 regenerate the hydrated electron through the reaction of hydrated atomic hydrogen with hydroxide ion giving water beside hydrated electrons.  Below pH = 9.6 the hydrated electron reacts with the hydronium ion giving atomic hydrogen, which in turn can react with the hydrated electron giving hydroxide ion and usual molecular hydrogen H.  The properties of solvated electron can be investigated using the rotating ring-disk electrode.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactivity and applications.", "content": "The solvated electron reacts with oxygen to form a superoxide radical (O). With nitrous oxide, solvated electrons react to form hydroxyl radicals (HO). The solvated electrons can be scavenged from both aqueous and organic systems with nitrobenzene or sulfur hexafluoride.  A common use of sodium dissolved in liquid ammonia is the Birch reduction. Other reactions where sodium is used as a reducing agent also are assumed to involve solvated electrons, e.g. the use of sodium in ethanol as in the Bouveault–Blanc reduction.  Solvated electrons are involved in the reaction of sodium metal with water. Two solvated electrons combine to form molecular hydrogen and hydroxide ion.  Solvated electrons are also involved in electrode processes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diffusion.", "content": "The diffusivity of the solvated electron in liquid ammonia can be determined using potential-step chronoamperometry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In gas phase and upper atmosphere of Earth.", "content": "Solvated electrons can be found even in the gas phase. This implies their possible existence in the upper atmosphere of Earth and involvement in nucleation and aerosol formation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Past.", "content": "The observation of the color of metal-electride solutions is generally attributed to Humphry Davy. In 1807–1809, he examined the addition of grains of potassium to gaseous ammonia (liquefaction of ammonia was invented in 1823). James Ballantyne Hannay and J. Hogarth repeated the experiments with sodium in 1879–1880. W. Weyl in 1844 and C. A. Seely in 1871 used liquid ammonia while Hamilton Cady in 1897 related the ionizing properties of ammonia to that of water. Charles A. Kraus measured the electrical conductance of metal ammonia solutions and in 1907 attributed it to the electrons liberated from the metal. In 1918, G. E. Gibson and W. L. Argo introduced the solvated electron concept. They noted based on absorption spectra that different metals and different solvents (methylamine, ethylamine) produce the same blue color, attributed to a common species, the solvated electron. In the 1970s, solid salts containing electrons as the anion were characterized.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A solvated electron is a free electron in (solvated in) a solution, and is the smallest possible anion. Solvated electrons occur widely, although it is difficult to observe it directly since their lifetimes are so short. The deep color of solutions of alkali metals in ammonia arises from the presence of solvated electrons: blue when dilute and copper-colored when more concentrated (> 3 molar). Classically, discussions of solvated electrons focus on their solutions in ammonia, which are stable for days, but solvated electrons also occur in water and other solvents in fact, in any solvent that mediates outer-sphere electron transfer. The real hydration energy of the solvated electron can be estimated by using the hydration energy of proton in water combined with kinetic data from pulse radiolysis experiments. The solvated electron forms an acid-base pair with atomic hydrogen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973862}
{"src_title": "Castell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The Castell.", "content": "In Catalan, the word \"castell\" means castle.  A \"master' is considered a success when assembly and disassembly can be done in complete succession. The assembly is complete once all \"castellers\" have climbed into their designated places, and the \"enxaneta\" climbs into place at the top and raises one open hand. The \"enxaneta\" then climbs down the other side of the \"castell\", after which the remaining levels of \"castellers\" descend in highest to lowest order until all have reached safety.  Aside from the people who climb to form the upper parts of the tower, others are needed to form the \"pinya\", or bottom base of the \"castell\", to sustain its weight. Members of the \"pinya\" (most often men) also act as a'safety net' if the tower structure collapses, cushioning the fall of people from the upper levels. It is not uncommon—when not in competitions—for other \"colles\" to assist in the \"pinya\" when a small \"colla\" is attempting a specially demanding structure in terms of people needed.  The \"castell\" is built in two phases. First, the \"pinya\"— the base of the tower — is formed. People forming higher levels of the tower move to a position from which they can easily get to their places in the tower. This is done slowly and carefully, and as subsequent base levels are completed the \"castellers\" in the \"pinya\" determine if their base is solid enough for construction to continue. Then, when the signal to proceed is given, bands begin to play the traditional \"Toc de Castells\" music as a hush comes over spectators of the event. The upper layers of the tower are built as quickly as possible in order to put minimal strain on the lower \"castellers\", who bear most of the weight of the \"castell\". The disassembly of the \"castell\", done amidst the cheering of the crowd, is often the most treacherous stage of the event.  A 'rising' \"castell\" consists of successive layers added from the bottom by lifting the \"castell\" into the air, stage by stage and is regarded as taking a great deal of practice, skill, and strength.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attire.", "content": "Typically \"castellers\" wear white trousers, a black sash (\"faixa\"), a bandana (\"mocador\"), and a shirt in a color characteristic of a given \"colla\", often bearing the team's emblem. For instance, \"Castellers de Barcelona\" team wear red shirts while \"Castellers de Vilafranca\" wear green shirts.  The sash (\"faixa\") is the most important part of their outfit, since it supports the lower back and is used by other castellers in the team as a foothold or handhold when climbing up the tower. This tasselled piece of cloth varies in length and width and depends on the \"casteller's\" position inside the tower and also on choice. The length of the sash ranges from 1.5 to 12m and usually is shorter for those higher up in the \"castell\". Performing \"castellers\" usually go barefoot as to minimise injuries upon each other as they climb to their positions and also for sensitivity when balancing and to have better feel and hold each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "The arrangement of \"castellers\" can be into a multi-tiered structure and the highest has a height spanning of nine or ten people from ground up. The motto of \"Castellers\" is \"\"Força, equilibri, valor i seny\"\" (Strength, balance, courage and common sense).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Accidents are rare during the construction of a castell; however, as in every other crowded cultural event, ambulances are stationed nearby in case a person needs immediate attention. Fatal accidents do occur; the most recent was on July 23, 2006, in Mataró, when a young \"casteller\" fell off the formation of a \"castell\" and died. This led to the requirement of specially designed helmets for all children participating in \"castells\". Prior to this, the last death of a participant was in 1983 in Torredembarra. Since the introduction of the helmets, there have been no cases of traumatic brain injury among children participating in castells.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terminology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Castell\" nomenclature.", "content": "\"Castells\" are primarily described by the number of people in each level of the \"tronc\" and the total number of levels and, where applicable, any special construction technique used. Levels are composed of between one and five individuals standing on the shoulders of the level below.  Common terms indicating the number of people for each level of a tower:  \"Castells\" with more than four people per level are composite structures. For example, the levels of a \"cinc\" are not pentagons; instead, the \"cinc\" amounts to a \"tres \" and a \"torre\" fused together (3 + 2 = 5), each level forming a figure-eight shape if seen from above.  Numbers of levels most commonly built:  For example, a \"tres de vuit\" (abbreviated 3d8) denotes a tower with three people per level and eight levels. (In fact, only the first five levels will have three people per level. The \"pom de dalt\"—see below—is reckoned as making up the top three levels.)  Very high towers and ones with a small number of people on each level normally need extra support from the base or bottom levels. These base levels are frequently indicated as part of the name of the tower. Three kinds of base levels are most commonly used:  The term amb l'agulla \"(\"with the needle\")\" refers to a high column of one person per level which is built inside the main tower. When the \"castell\" is being dismantled, the \"agulla\" must remain standing until the outside part of the \"castell\" is already down.  Terms denoting special construction techniques include:  Another aspect of \"castell\" nomenclature refers to how successfully the tower was completed. Four terms are used:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Human Tower Museum of Catalonia in Valls.", "content": "In Valls, is being built Món Casteller. The Human Tower Museum of Catalonia. The project is designed as a place of reference for the human tower universe where experiences can be lived out.  See the complete page: Món Casteller. The Human Tower Experience.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A castell () is a human tower built traditionally at festivals in Catalonia, the Balearic islands and the Valencian Community. At these festivals, several 'colles castelleres Muixeranga of Algemesí in Valencia, the tradition of \"castells\" within Catalonia originated in the \"Ball dels Valencians\" (Valencian Dance) in Valls, near the city of Tarragona, first documented in 1712. Over the course of the 18th century, they spread to other towns and cities in the area, including Vilafranca del Penedès and Tarragona, though it was not until the last 50 years that the practice of building \"castells\" began to spread to the rest of Catalonia. Interest in castells began to grow in the 1960s and 1970s. In the 1980s, the inclusion of women in the formerly male-only discipline ushered in the \"època d'or\" (golden age) of castells; the presence of women is credited with allowing castells to be built lighter and stronger, permitting the construction of previously undreamed-of 9- and 10-story castells.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973863}
{"src_title": "Philip Carteret", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Carteret entered the navy in 1747, serving aboard the, and then under Captain John Byron from 1751 to 1755. Between 1757 and 1758 he was in the on the Mediterranean Station. As a lieutenant in the he accompanied Byron during his voyage of circumnavigation, from June 1764 to May 1766.  In 1766 he was made a commander and given the command of HMS \"Swallow\" to circumnavigate the world, as consort to the under the command of Samuel Wallis. The two ships were parted shortly after sailing through the Strait of Magellan, Carteret discovering Pitcairn Island and the Carteret Islands, which were subsequently named after him. In 1767, he also discovered a new archipelago inside Saint George's Channel between New Ireland and New Britain Islands (Papua New Guinea) and named it Duke of York Islands, as well as rediscovered the Solomon Islands first sighted by the Spaniard Álvaro de Mendaña in 1568, and the Juan Fernández Islands first discovered by Juan Fernández in 1574. Weakened by severe illness, he arrived back in England, at Spithead, on 20 March 1769, having been ably assisted by Lieutenant Erasmus Gower who was, for much of the voyage, the only fit person on board \"Swallow\" who could navigate.  The following year he returned to Jersey as seigneur of Trinity and took part in Jersey politics. He was promoted to post captain in 1771 and was in London on 5 May 1772, when he married Mary Rachel Silvester (1741–1815), a doctor's daughter. Four of their five children survived to adulthood, including:  Carteret's health was ruined by his voyage of exploration, and he received little reward from the Admiralty. He did not have the patrons which were necessary for naval promotion at this time, and this and his complaints before the voyage on the \"Swallow\"'s ill-suitedness to the voyage ensured that his requests for a new ship in 1769 fell on deaf ears. Put on half-pay, the petition for increasing half-pay which he got together helped many officers, but not Carteret himself. In the meantime, in 1773, his journals of the voyage were published as part of \"An Account of the Voyages undertaken by Byron, Wallis, Carteret and Cook\", but that volume's editor John Hawkesworth made many changes to his account and so Carteret drafted a correct version of his own (which, however, only got published in 1965, by the Hakluyt Society. His new ship, HMS \"Endymion\", at last came on 1 August 1779 and despite problems in the Channel, off Senegal and off the Leeward Islands (at the last of which Carteret was nearly killed in a hurricane) he arrived in the West Indies as instructed. Despite having a share in four prize ships, he was paid off and the \"Endymion\" transferred to another captain. All his petitions for a new ship were unsuccessful and he suffered a stroke in 1792, retiring to Southampton in 1794 with the rank of rear admiral. He died there two years later and was buried in the catacombs of All Saints' Church, Southampton. In 1940 the church was destroyed by German bombing. In 1944 the bodies beneath it were reburied in Hollybrook Cemetery in Southampton.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philip Carteret, Seigneur of Trinity (22 January 1733, Trinity Manor, Jersey – 21 July 1796, Southampton) was a British naval officer and explorer who participated in two of the Royal Navy's circumnavigation expeditions in 1764–66 and 1766–69.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973864}
{"src_title": "Bernabò Visconti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born in Milan, the son of Stefano Visconti and Valentina Doria. From 1346 to 1349 he lived in exile, until he was called back by his uncle Giovanni Visconti. On 27 September 1350 Bernabò married Beatrice Regina della Scala, daughter of Mastino II, Lord of Verona and Taddea da Carrara, and forged both a political and cultural alliance between the two cities. His intrigues and ambitions kept him at war almost continuously with Pope Urban V, the Florentines, Venice and Savoy. In 1354, at the death of Giovanni, he inherited the power of Milan, together with his brothers Matteo and Galeazzo. Bernabò received the eastern lands (Bergamo, Brescia, Cremona and Crema), that bordered the Veronese territories. Milan itself was to be ruled in turn by the three brothers. The vicious Matteo was murdered in 1355 at the order of his brothers, who divided his inheritance between them.  In 1356, after having offended the emperor, he pushed back a first attack upon Milan by the imperial vicar Markward von Randeck, imprisoning him. In 1360 he was declared heretic by Innocent VI at Avignon and condemned by Emperor Charles IV. The ensuing conflict ended with a dismaying defeat at San Ruffillo against the imperial troops under Galeotto I Malatesta (29 July 1361). In 1362, after the death of his sister's husband, Ugolino Gonzaga, caused him to attack also Mantua. Warring on several different fronts, in December of that year he sued for peace with the new pope, Urban V, through the mediation of King John II of France. However, because Barnabò neglected to return the papal city of Bologna and to present himself at Avignon, on 4 March 1363 he was excommunicated once more, together with his children, one of whom, Ambrogio, was captured by the Papal commander Gil de Albornoz. With the peace signed on 13 March 1364, Visconti left the occupied Papal lands, in exchange for the raising of the ban upon a payment of 500,000 florins.  In spring 1368 Visconti allied with Cansignorio della Scala of Verona, and attacked Mantua, still ruled by Ugolino Gonzaga. The situation was settled later in the year through an agreement between him and emperor. Two years later he besieged Reggio, which he managed to acquire from Gonzaga in 1371. The following war against the Este of Modena and Ferrara raised again Papal enmity against the Milanese, now on the part of Gregory XI. In 1370, he ordered the construction of the Trezzo Bridge, then the largest single-arch bridge in the world.  In 1373, the pope sent two papal delegates to serve Bernabò and Galeazzo their excommunication papers (consisting of a parchment bearing a leaden seal rolled in a silken cord). Bernabò, infuriated, placed the two papal delegates under arrest and refused their release until they had eaten the parchment, seal, and silken cord which they had served him. He managed to resist, despite also the outbreak of a plague in Milan, whose consequences he suppressed with frantic energy. In 1378 he allied with the Republic of Venice in its War of Chioggia against Genoa. His troops were however defeated in September 1379 in the Val Bisagno.  Bernabò, whose despotism and taxes had enraged the Milanese — he is featured among the \"exempla\" of tyrants as victims of Fortune in Chaucer's \"Monk's Tale\" as \"god of delit and scourge of Lumbardye\" — was deposed by his nephew Gian Galeazzo Visconti in 1385. Imprisoned in the castle of Trezzo, he was poisoned in December of that year.  Bonino da Campione sculpted the equestrian statue of Bernabò Visconti for the church of San Giovanni in Conca around 1363. Its positioning near the church's main altar was regarded as highly problematic by contemporaries and it was commented on by poet and intellectual Petrarch among others. The equestrian statue was reused – with changes and additions carried out by the same Bonino in 1385-86 – as Bernabò's funerary monument in the same church. It is now preserved in the Castello Sforzesco in Milan.An erratic small-size male head in marble now in the storerooms of Castello Sforzesco has recently been rediscovered and tentatively identified as a portrait of the elderly Bernabò. This work too has been attributed to Bonino da Campione.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Bernabò was an ally of Stephen II, Duke of Bavaria: three of his daughters were married with Stephen's descendants. He had 17 legitimate children with his wife Beatrice Regina della Scala:  His illegitimate offspring by Donnina del Porri, legitimated in a ceremony after the death of his wife in 1384, were as follows:  In addition, Bernabò had other illegitimate offspring by other mistresses:  —With Beltramola Grassi:  —With Montanina de Lazzari:  —With Giovanolla Montebretto:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bernabò or Barnabò Visconti (1323 – 19 December 1385) was an Italian soldier and statesman who was Lord of Milan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973865}
{"src_title": "Valentina Visconti, Duchess of Orléans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Valentina was born in Milan as the second of the four children of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the first Duke of Milan, and his first wife Isabelle, a daughter of King John II the Good of France. She was probably named after her paternal great-grandmother Valentina Doria, wife of Stefano Visconti.  After her mother's death in childbirth in 1373, Valentina and her siblings were raised by their paternal grandmother Bianca of Savoy and aunt Violante Visconti. The deaths of her brothers Carlo (1374), Gian Galeazzo (1376) and Azzone (1381) left Valentina as the only surviving child of her parents' marriage and the Countess of Vertus, a title she shared with her spouse.  In 1380, a marriage was negotiated with her cousin Carlo Visconti, Lord of Parma (fourth son of Bernabò Visconti, Lord of Milan) and a papal dispensation was even granted; however, Bernabò later annulled the betrothal and, in 1382, married his son to a French noblewoman, Beatrice of Armagnac.  The death of Bernabò in 1385 left Gian Galeazzo as the sole ruler over the Visconti inheritance, and with this Valentina's status changed considerably. At this point, the new Lord of Milan opened negotiations with King Wenceslaus of Germany and Bohemia for a marriage between Valentina and his half-brother John of Görlitz; at the same time, he also negotiated a union with Louis II of Anjou, titular King of Naples (who was at that time was betrothed to Lucia Visconti, one of Bernabò's daughters). However, Marie of Blois, Dowager Duchess of Anjou finally cancelled the negotiations, and then Gian Galeazzo turned his attention to his nephew-by-marriage Louis, Duke of Touraine, second son of King Charles V of France and brother of the reigning Charles VI. King Wenceslaus became aware of the double game of Gian Galeazzo, and broke off the negotiations with a letter full of insults, leaving Louis the only suitor of Valentina, his first cousin.  Because of the close relationship between bride and groom, a papal dispensation was granted on 25 November 1386, and the marriage contract was signed on 27 January 1387 in Paris. Valentina received as a dowry the County of Vertus (which was the dowry of her own mother at the time of her marriage in 1348) and the city of Asti, with the sums of 450,000 florins in cash and 75,000 florins in jewelry. In the contract was also stipulated that in absence of male heirs, Valentina would inherit the Visconti dominions. It was because of this, that her grandson Louis XII of France claimed the Duchy of Milan and embarked on the Italian Wars. The marriage by proxy was celebrated three months later, on 8 April, in both the Milanese and French courts.  Valentina was only able to leave Milan for France on 23 June 1389, because of \"reasons of security\" given to her father: in fact, Gian Galeazzo wanted to amend the marriage contract after the pregnancy of his second wife Caterina Visconti (another Bernabò's daughters) ended. Only after the birth of his son Gian Maria on 7 September 1388 did he feel secure enough to send his daughter to France.  Escorted by her paternal cousin Amadeus VII, Count of Savoy and a retinue of 300 knights, Valentina was finally handed to Louis's envoys. The formal marriage took place in the city of Melun, on 17 August 1389.  The union produced eight children:  In 1392 her husband exchanged the Duchy of Touraine for the Duchy of Orléans; since then, Valentina was styled \"Duchess of Orléans\".  Because of intrigues at the court of Charles VI of France and the enmity of the queen, Isabeau of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, Valentina was exiled from the court and had to leave Paris. There were rumours that Isabeau was having an affair with Louis and that Valentina was very close to the King, who was in poor mental health.  A patroness of Eustache Deschamps, who wrote poetry in her honour, she was also the mother of one of France's most famous poets, Charles of Orléans.  Louis de Valois' murder was orchestrated by his cousin and political rival John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy in 1407. Valentina outlived her husband by only a little over a year, dying at Blois at the age of 37.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Valentina Visconti (1371 – 4 December 1408) was a Countess of Vertus, and Duchess consort of Orléans as the wife of Louis de Valois, Duke of Orléans, the younger brother of King Charles VI of France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973866}
{"src_title": "Petrus Christus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Christus was born in Baarle, near Antwerp and Breda. Long considered a student of and successor to Jan van Eyck, his paintings have sometimes been confused with those of van Eyck. At the death of van Eyck in 1441, it is thought that Christus took over his master's workshop. Christus purchased his Bruges citizenship in 1444, exactly three years after van Eyck's death, taking advantage of a decree set down by Philip the Good allowing in men indebted to him after the Bruges Revolt of 1436–38. Had he been an active pupil in van Eyck's Bruges workshop in 1441, he would have received his citizenship automatically after the customary period of one year and one day. Christus may have been van Eyck's successor in the Bruges school, but perhaps not his pupil. Recent research reveals that Christus, long seen only in his predecessor's light, was an independent painter whose work shows just as much influence from, among others, Dirk Bouts, Robert Campin and Rogier van der Weyden.  It is unknown whether Christus visited Italy, and brought style and technical accomplishments of the Northern European painters directly to Antonello da Messina and other Italian artists, but it is known that his paintings were purchased by Italians. A document testifying to the presence of a \"Piero da Bruggia\" (Petrus from Bruges?) in Milan may suggest that he visited that city at the same time as Antonello, and the two artists may even have met. This might account for the remarkable similarities between the \"Portrait of a Man\" attributed to Christus in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and many of Antonello's portraits, including the supposed self-portrait in the National Gallery in London. It would also explain how Italian painters learned about oil painting and how Northern painters learned about linear perspective. Antonello, along with Giovanni Bellini, was one of the first Italian painters to use oil paint like his Netherlandish contemporaries. And Christus' \"Virgin and Child Enthroned with Saints Francis and Jerome\" in Frankfurt, seemingly dated 1457 (the third digit is illegible), is the first known Northern picture to demonstrate accurate linear perspective.  The composition of a \"Lamentation\", now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, seems so closely inspired a marble relief by Antonello Gagini in the cathedral at Palermo that it has been suggested that the picture may have been painted for an Italian client.  A late work, the reserved \"Portrait of a Young Girl\" belongs among the masterworks of Early Netherlandish painting, marking a new development in Netherlandish portraiture. It no longer shows the sitter in front of a neutral background, but in a concrete space defined by the background wall panels. Christus had already perfected this format in his two portraits of 1446. The unknown woman, whose exquisite clothing suggests that she might come from France, radiates an aura of discretion and of nobility, while appearing slightly unreal in the elegant stylization of her form.  Christus died in Bruges in 1475 or 1476. Hans Memling succeeded him as the next great painter in Bruges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Christus produced at least six signed and dated works, which form the basis for any other attributions to him. These are: the \"Portrait of Edward Grymeston\" (on loan to the National Gallery, London, 1446), the Portrait of a Carthusian (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1446), the so-called \"St. Eligius in His Shop\" (Metropolitan Museum of Art Robert Lehman Collection, New York, 1449), the \"Virgin Nursing the Child\" (now in the Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp, 1449), the so-called \"\"Berlin Altar Wings\"\" with the Annunciation, Nativity, and Last Judgment (Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 1452), and the \"Virgin and Child Enthroned with Saints Jerome and Francis\" (Stadelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1457?—the digits are not clear). In addition, a pair of panels in the Groeningemuseum in Bruges (showing the Annunciation and Nativity) bears a date of 1452, but its authenticity is suspect.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Petrus Christus ( 1410/1420 – 1475/1476) was an Early Netherlandish painter active in Bruges from 1444, where, along with Hans Memling, he became the leading painter after the death of Jan van Eyck. He was influenced by van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden and is noted for his innovations with linear perspective and a meticulous technique which seems derived from miniatures and manuscript illumination. Today, some 30 works are confidently attributed to him. The best-known include the 1446 \"Portrait of a Carthusian\" and c. 1470 Berlin \"Portrait of a Young Girl\", both are highly innovative in presentation of the figure against detailed, rather than flat, backgrounds.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973867}
{"src_title": "Roger Garaudy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Roger Garaudy was born in Marseille. During World War II, Garaudy joined the French Resistance, for which he was imprisoned in Djelfa, Algeria, as a prisoner of war of Vichy France.  Garaudy converted to Islam in 1982 after marrying a Palestinian woman, later writing that \"The Christ of Paul is not the Jesus of the Bible,\" and also forming other critical scholarly conclusions regarding the Old and New Testaments. As a Muslim, he adopted the name \"Ragaa\" and became an Islamic commentator and supporter of the Palestinian cause.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political and academic career.", "content": "Following the war, Garaudy joined the French Communist Party. As a political candidate, he succeeded in being elected to the National Assembly and eventually rose to the position of deputy speaker, and later senator.  Garaudy lectured in the faculty of arts department of the University of Clermont-Ferrand from 1962-1965. Due to controversies between Garaudy and Michel Foucault, Garaudy left. He later taught in Poitiers from 1969-1972.  Garaudy remained a Christian and eventually re-converted to Catholicism during his political career. He was befriended by one of France's most prominent clerics of the time, the Abbé Pierre, who in later years supported Garaudy, even regarding the latter's most controversial views.  In 1970, Garaudy was expelled from the Communist Party following his outspoken criticism of the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia.  Garaudy wrote more than 50 books, mainly on political philosophy and Marxism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Holocaust denial.", "content": "In 1996, Garaudy published, with his editor Pierre Guillaume, the work \"Les Mythes fondateurs de la politique israelienne\" (literally, \"The Founding Myths of Israeli Politics\"), later translated into English as \"The Founding Myths of Modern Israel\". In the book he wrote of \"the myth of the six million\" Jewish victims of the Holocaust. Because of this breach of French law concerning Holocaust denial, the courts banned any further publication and on 27 February 1998 fined Garaudy 240,000 French francs. He was sentenced to a suspended jail sentence of several years. Garaudy appealed this decision to the European Court of Human Rights, but his appeal was rejected as inadmissible. At his hearing, Garaudy stated that his book in no way condoned National Socialist methods, and that book was an attack on the mythologizing and use of \"the holocaust\" by Israeli government as policy. He argued that his book dealt with the Israeli government's use of \"the holocaust\" as a \"justifying dogma\" for its actions, mainly in Palestine and toward Palestinians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Support from the Islamic World.", "content": "In the Islamic Republic of Iran, 160 members of the parliament signed a petition in Garaudy's support. Senior Iranian officials invited him to Tehran and received him warmly. Iranian leaders condemned Israel and the West for bringing Garaudy to trial. Iran's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei cited Garaudy for his work in exposing the Zionists’ \"Nazi-like behavior.\" Iranian President Mohammad Khatami described Garaudy as \"a thinker\" and \"a believer\" who was brought to trial merely for publishing research which was \"displeasing to the West.\".  Garaudy has been praised throughout the Islamic World:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later activities and death.", "content": "In later interviews, Garaudy stated that the attacks of 11 September 2001 were organized by the United States government. He also repeated his claim on the Holocaust, stating that it was \"invented as a myth by Churchill, Eisenhower and De Gaulle\" to justify the destruction and occupation of Germany.  In December 2006, Garaudy was unable to attend the International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust in Tehran, Iran owing to ill health. He reportedly sent a videotaped message supporting Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's view that Israel should cease to exist.  Roger Garaudy died in Paris on 13 June 2012, aged 98.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Praise for Garaudy after his death.", "content": "Following his death in June 2012, Garaudy subsequently received praise from a number of sources (as translated by MEMRI):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "The author of more than 70 books, some his translated works include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roger Garaudy, later Ragaa Garaudy (; 17 July 1913 – 13 June 2012), was a French philosopher, French resistance fighter and a communist author. He converted to Islam in 1982. In 1998, he was convicted and fined for Holocaust denial under French law for claiming that the death of six million Jews was a \"myth\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973868}
{"src_title": "Utica, Tunisia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "Utica is an unusual latinization of the Punic name () or (). These derived from Phoenician \"ˁAtiq\" (), cognate with Arabic \"ˁatiqah\" () and Hebrew \"ˁatiq\" (). These all mean \"Old\" and contrast the settlement with the later colony Carthage, whose own name literally meant \"New Town\". The latinization is a little unusual in that the Latin U more often transcribed the letter W (i.e., waw) in Punic names.  The Greeks called it Ἰτύκη.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phoenician colony.", "content": "Utica was founded as a port located on the trade route leading from Phoenicia to the Straits of Gibraltar and the Atlantic Ocean, facilitating trade in commodities like tin.  The exact founding date of Utica is a matter of controversy. Several classical authors date its foundation to around 1100BC. The archaeological evidence, however, suggests a foundation no earlier than the eighth centuryBC. The inland settlement used Rusucmona (\"Cape Eshmun\") on Cape Farina to the northeast as its chief port, although continued silting has rendered the present-day settlement at Ghar el-Melh a small farming community. Although Carthage was later founded about 40 km from Utica, records suggest \"that until 540BC Utica was still maintaining political and economic autonomy in relation to its powerful Carthaginian neighbor\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Carthaginian rule.", "content": "By the fourth century BC, Utica came under Punic control, but continued to exist as a privileged ally of Carthage. Soon, commercial rivalry created problems between Carthage and Utica.  This relationship between Carthage and Utica began to disintegrate after the First Punic War, with the outbreak of rebellion among mercenaries who had not received compensation for their service to Carthage. Originally, Utica refused to participate in this rebellion, so that the Libu forces led by Spendius and Matho laid siege to Utica and nearby Hippocritae.  The Carthaginian generals Hanno and Hamilcar then came to Utica's defense, managing to raise the siege, but \"the severest blow of all... was the defection of Hippacritae and Utica, the only two cities in Libya which had...bravely faced the present war...indeed they never had on any occasion given the least sign of hostility to Carthage.\" Eventually, the forces of Carthage proved victorious, forcing Utica and Hippacritae to surrender after a short siege.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roman rule.", "content": "Utica again defied Carthage in the Third Punic War, when it surrendered to Rome shortly before the breakout of war in 150 BC. After its victory, Rome rewarded Utica by granting it an expanse of territory stretching from Carthage to Hippo.  As a result of the war, Rome created a new province of Africa, and Utica became its capital, which meant that the governor's residence was there along with a small garrison. Over the following decades Utica also attracted Roman citizens who settled there to do business. During the Roman Civil War between the supporters of Pompey and Caesar, the remaining Pompeians, including Cato the Younger, fled to Utica after being defeated at the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC. Caesar pursued them to Utica, meeting no resistance from the inhabitants. Cato, who was the leader of the Pompeians, ensured the escape of his fellow senators and anyone else who desired to leave, then committed suicide, unwilling to accept the clemency of Caesar.  Displaying their fondness for Cato, \"the people of Utica...called Cato their saviour and benefactor... And this they continued to do even when word was brought that Caesar was approaching. They decked his body in splendid fashion, gave it an illustrious escort, and buried it near the sea, where a statue of him now stands, sword in hand\". After his death, Cato was given the name of Uticensis, due to the place of his death as well as to his public glorification and burial by the citizens of Utica.  Utica obtained the formal status of a municipium in 36 BC and its inhabitants became members of the Quirina tribe. The city was chosen by the Romans as the place where the governor of their new Africa Province was resident, but the silting of the port (because of the Medjerda River) damaged the importance of Utica.  During the reign of Augustus, however, the seat of provincial government was moved to a since rebuilt Carthage, although Utica did not lose its status as one of the foremost cities in the province. When Hadrian was emperor, Utica requested to become a full Roman colony, but this request was not granted until Septimius Severus, a native of the Province of Africa, took the throne.  The city and all the area east of the \"Fossatum Africae\" was nearly fully romanised by the time of Septimius Severus. According to historian Theodore Mommsen, all the inhabitants of Utica spoke Latin and practised Christianity in the fourth and early fifth century. The Peutinger Map from around this time shows the town.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Destruction.", "content": "In AD 439, the Vandals captured Utica, in AD 534 the Byzantines captured it once more. Finally the Arabs were responsible for its ultimate destruction around AD 700. \"Excavations at the site have yielded two Punic cemeteries and Roman ruins, including baths and a villa with mosaics\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diocese of Utica.", "content": "Roman Utica was a Christian city with an important diocese in Africa Proconsularis.  Indeed, there are more than a dozen bishops documented in Utica. The first, Aurelius, intervened at the council held at Carthage in 256 AD by St. Cyprian to discuss the question of the \"lapsi\". Maurus, the second bishop, was accused of apostasy during the persecution of 303 AD. The third, Victorius, took part in the Council of Arles in 314 AD along with Cecilianus of Carthage; he is mentioned in the \"Roman Martyrology\" on 23 August. Then the fourth, Quietus, assisted at the Council of Carthage (349) proclaimed by Gratus.  At the Conference of Carthage (411) which saw gathered together the bishops of Nicene Christianity and of heretical Donatism Victorius II took part for the Church and Gedudus for the Donatists. The historian Morcelli added the bishop Gallonianus, present at the Council of Carthage (419), who, according to J. Mesnage, instead belonged to the Diocese of Utina. Then the Bishop Florentinus, who intervened at the Synod of Carthage (484), was met by the Vandal king Huneric, after which he was exiled.  Faustinianus participated at the Council of Carthage (525). He was followed by the bishop Giunilius, an ecclesiastical writer, who dedicated his works to Primasius of Hadrumetum. In the seventh century was the bishop Flavianus, who assisted at the Council of Carthage (646) against Monothelitism; and Potentinus, who was exiled in Spain and intervened at the Council of Toledo (684).  With the Arab conquest, Utica was destroyed and disappeared even as an independent diocese. Only during the early Renaissance Utica was again a diocese, when the Spanish Empire conquered the region for some decades and Pedro del Campo was named bishop of the recreated Diocese of Utica in 1516 AD.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ruins.", "content": "The site of the ruins of Utica is set on a low hill, composed of several Roman villas. Their walls still preserve decorative floor mosaics. To the northwest of these villas is a Punic necropolis, with Punic sarcophagi below the Roman level.  Currently, the site is located about 30 km from Tunis and 30 km from Bizerte and near cities with four other historical sites:  The House of the Cascade at Utica is typical of most Roman houses excavated in North Africa.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Utica () was an ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian city located near the outflow of the Medjerda River into the Mediterranean, between Carthage in the south and Hippo Diarrhytus (present-day Bizerte) in the north. It is traditionally considered to be the first colony to have been founded by the Phoenicians in North Africa. After Carthage's loss to Rome in the Punic Wars, Utica was an important Roman colony for seven centuries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973869}
{"src_title": "Amalasuintha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 515, Amalasuintha married Eutharic (522), an Ostrogoth noble of the old Amali dynasty who had been previously living in the Arian Kingdom of Hispania. Her husband was the son of Widerich (born ), grandson of Berismund (born ), and great-grandson of Thorismund (died after 400), king of the Ostrogoths. It was important to Amalasuintha's father, Theoderic the Great, that she marry into a legitimate royal family, lest her own family's legitimacy be questioned.  She was very much an intellectual, and was well known for her extensive knowledge and reading, which included fluency in Latin, Greek and Gothic. In addition, she was a student of philosophy and was said to possess the wisdom of Solomon. Amalasuintha was also described in her day as possessing all of the central Roman virtues expected of a noble woman: happiness, fertility, and patience, although more emphasis was placed on her virtues within the political realm versus the feminine, something that separates her from other Ostrogoth princesses. Like most Ostrogoths, Amalasuintha was an Arian Christian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rule.", "content": "Eutharic died, apparently in the early years of his marriage to Amalasuintha, leaving her with two children, Athalaric and Matasuntha (after 550). On the death of her father on 30 August 526, her son succeeded him at the age of ten, but she held the power as regent for her son. Her tremendous influence in her position as regent can be seen in a diptych of Rufius Gennadius Probus Orestes she appears in alongside her son, Athalaric, in 530. Deeply imbued with the old Roman culture, she gave to that son's education a more refined and literary turn than suited the ideas of her Gothic subjects. Conscious of her unpopularity she banished — and afterwards put to death — three Gothic nobles whom she suspected of conspiring against her rule. At the same time, she opened negotiations with the Byzantine emperor Justinian I with the view of removing herself and the Gothic treasure to Constantinople. Her son's death on 2 October 534 initially made little apparent change in the state of affairs.  After Athalaric's death, Amalasuintha became queen, ruling alone only for a short while before making her cousin Theodahad co-ruler (not, as sometimes stated, her husband, for his wife was still living), with the intent of strengthening her position. Theodahad was a prominent leader of the Gothic military aristocracy, the very group that so opposed her pro-Roman stances. Amalasuintha believed this pairing would help to make supporters out of her harshest critics. The choice was unfortunate, for Theodahad fostered the disaffection of the Goths, and either by his orders or with his permission, Amalasuintha was imprisoned on the island of Martana, located in lake of Bolsena in northern Lazio, where on 30 April in the spring of 534/535 she was murdered in her bath.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "The death of Amalasuintha gave Justinian I a reason to go to war with the Ostrogoths and attempt to take Italy. According to the Eastern Roman historian Procopius, it is believed that Amalasuintha and Justinian I had a very close diplomatic relationship. More specifically, Procopius believed that Amalasuintha was thinking about handing over Italy to Justinian around the time of her death. Shortly after Amalasuintha's murder, Theodahad was replaced by Witigis, Amalasuintha's son-in-law. With the people's support, Witigis had Theodahad put to death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "The letters of Cassiodorus, chief minister and literary adviser of Amalasuintha, and the histories of Procopius and Jordanes, give us our chief information as to the character of Amalasuintha. Cassiodorus was a part of a greater pro-Roman party that desired to Romanize the traditional Ostrogothic kingship, further evidence of the pro-Roman circle that Amalasuintha surrounded herself with.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The life of Amalasuintha was made the subject of a tragedy, the first play written by the young Carlo Goldoni and presented at Milan in 1733.  Romanian poet George Coșbuc wrote a poem entitled \"The Queen Of The Ostrogoths\" in which Amalasuintha speaks to Theodahad (named Teodat in the poem) shortly before he kills her.  Asteroid 650 Amalasuntha is named in her honour.  Amalasuintha is portrayed by Honor Blackman in the 1968 film \"Kampf um Rom.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Amalasuintha (30 April 534/535) ruled the Ostrogoths as regent during the minority of her son from 526 to 534 and then as queen regnant from 534 to 535. She was the youngest daughter of Theoderic the Great, and firmly believed in the upholding of Roman virtues and values. She is best known for her diplomatic relationship with Justinian I, who invaded Italy in response to her assassination.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973870}
{"src_title": "Ada Kaleh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Habsburg Monarchy built a Vauban-type fort there to defend it from the Ottoman Empire, and that fort would remain a bone of contention for the two empires. In 1699 the island came under Ottoman control, however, it was recaptured by the Austrians in the 1716–18 war, and the fortress of New Orșova was built by Austrian colonel Nicolas Doxat. After a four-month siege in 1738 it became Ottoman again, followed by the Austrians re-conquering it in 1789, but they had to return the island with the Treaty of Sistova (1791), which ended the 1787–91 war between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Monarchy (and, by extension, the Ottoman–Habsburg wars). Thereafter, the island lost its military importance.  In 1804, during the First Serbian Uprising, Serbian rebels, led by Milenko Stojković, caught and executed the Dahije (renegade Janissary junta in the Sanjak of Smederevo) that had fled Belgrade and taken refuge on the island, thereby ending Dahije tyranny.  Even though the Ottomans lost the areas surrounding the island after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) (and the Romanian War of Independence which was a part of the same conflict) the island was totally forgotten during the peace talks at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which allowed it to remain a \"de jure\" Ottoman territory and the Ottoman sultan's private possession (although \"de facto\", in 1913, Austria-Hungary unilaterally declared its sovereignty over the island) until the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.  Between 1878 and 1918 the areas surrounding the island were controlled by Austria-Hungary to the north and Serbia to the south, but the island was under Ottoman sovereignty. The Ottoman Government continued to appoint and send a \"nahiye müdürü\" (administrative head of a unit smaller than a district and bigger than a village) and a \"kadı\" (judge) regularly. The island's inhabitants (officially citizens of the Ottoman Empire) enjoyed exemption from taxes and customs and were not subject to conscription. The islanders also had the right to vote during the Ottoman general elections of 1908. On May 12, 1913, taking advantage of the Balkan Wars, dr. Zoltán Medve, the lord-lieutenant of Krassó-Szörény County sailed to the island under Austro-Hungarian ensign and introduced Hungarian administration by the representation of the Dual Monarchy. The island was transformed to a municipality became known as Újorsova assigned into the Orsova district of Krassó-Szörény County. This was the last territorial expansion of Hungary before the outbreak of the First World War; the seizure was never officially recognized by the Ottoman government.  Following the end of World War I, Romania unilaterally declared its sovereignty in 1919 and strengthened its claim with the Treaty of Trianon in 1920. On July 24, 1923, the new Republic of Turkey officially ceded Ada Kaleh to Romania with Articles 25 and 26 of the Treaty of Lausanne; by formally recognizing the related provisions in the Treaty of Trianon.  The population lived primarily on the cultivation of tobacco and fishery, and later on tourism. In its last years of existence, the island's population ranged between 600 and 1,000 inhabitants. Before the island was covered by the waters of the Iron Gates dam, part of the population moved to Constanța in Romania and the rest to Turkey, invited by Prime Minister Demirel during his visit to the island.  The Ada Kaleh Mosque, dating from 1903, was built on the site of an earlier Franciscan monastery. The carpet of the mosque, a gift from the Turkish Sultan Abdülhamid II, was relocated to the Constanţa Mosque in 1965.  The island was visited by King Carol II of Romania in 1931, and by Prime Minister Süleyman Demirel of Turkey on September 13, 1967.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "During the construction of the dam, some of the structures that were built on the island were relocated to the nearby Şimian Island, including part of the masonry of the fortress' catacombs, the mosque, the bazaar, Mahmut Pasha's house, the graveyard and various other objects. However, the Ada Kaleh community decided to emigrate to Turkey after the evacuation of the island, instead of re-settling on Șimian Island. Also, a smaller part went to Dobruja, another Romanian territory with a Turkish minority, so the reconstruction of the \"New Ada Kaleh\" was never completed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "Ada Kaleh plays an important part in the novel of one of the most famous Hungarian authors, Mór Jókai. In the novel \"The Golden Man\" (\"Az Arany Ember\"), published in 1872, Ada Kaleh is called the \"No One's Isle\" and it becomes an almost mythical symbol of peace, seclusion and beauty, juxtaposed with the material outside world.  In \"Between the Woods and the Water\", the second volume of Patrick Leigh Fermor's narrative of his journey across Europe, the author describes a delightful visit in 1934 with a group of elderly inhabitants and discusses the history of the island.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ada Kaleh ( from meaning \"Island Fortress\", or, Serbian and Bulgarian: Адакале / \"Adakale\") was a small island on the Danube in what is modern Romania, populated mostly by Turks of Romania, that was submerged during the construction of the Iron Gates hydroelectric plant in 1970. The island was about 3 km downstream from Orșova and was less than two kilometers long and approximately half a kilometer wide (1.75 x 0.4–0.5 km).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973871}
{"src_title": "Alexios III Angelos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Alexios III Angelos was the second son of Andronikos Doukas Angelos and Euphrosyne Kastamonitissa. Andronikos was himself a son of Theodora Komnene, the youngest daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina. Thus Alexios Angelos was a member of the extended imperial family. Together with his father and brothers, Alexios had conspired against Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos (), and thus he spent several years in exile in Muslim courts, including that of Saladin.  His younger brother Isaac was threatened with execution under orders of Andronikos I, their first-cousin once-removed, on September 11, 1185. Isaac made a desperate attack on the imperial agents and soon killed their leader Stephen Hagiochristophorites. He then took refuge in the church of Hagia Sophia and from there appealed to the populace. His actions provoked a riot, which resulted in the deposition of Andronikos I and the proclamation of Isaac as Emperor. Alexios was now closer to the imperial throne than ever before.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "By 1190 Alexios had returned to the court of his younger brother, from whom he received the elevated title of \"sebastokratōr\". In March 1195 while Isaac II was away hunting in Thrace, Alexios was acclaimed as emperor by the troops with the covert support of Alexios' wife Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera. Alexios captured Isaac at Stagira in Macedonia, put out his eyes, and thenceforth kept him a close prisoner, despite having previously been redeemed by Alexios from captivity at Antioch and showered with honours.  To compensate for this crime and to solidify his position as emperor, Alexios had to scatter money so lavishly as to empty his treasury, and to allow such licence to the officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically defenceless. These actions inevitably led to the financial ruin of the state. At Christmas 1196, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI attempted to force Alexios to pay him a tribute of 5,000 pounds (later negotiated down to 1,600 pounds) of gold or face invasion. Alexios gathered the money by plundering imperial tombs at the church of the Holy Apostles and heavily taxing the people through the \"Alamanikon\". Because of Henry's death in September 1197, the gold was never dispatched. The able and forceful empress Euphrosyne tried in vain to sustain his credit and his court; Vatatzes, the favourite instrument in her attempts at reform, was assassinated by the emperor's orders.  In the east the Empire was overrun by the Seljuk Turks; from the north, the Kingdom of Hungary and the rebellious Bulgarians and Vlachs descended unchecked to ravage the Balkan provinces of the Empire, sometimes penetrating as far as Greece, while Alexios squandered the public treasure on his palaces and gardens and attempted to deal with the crisis through diplomatic means. The Emperor's attempts to bolster the empire's defences by special concessions to \"pronoiars\" (notables) in the frontier zone backfired, as the latter increased their regional autonomy. Byzantine authority survived, but in a much weakened state. In 1197, local lord Dobromir Chrysos established himself in region of Vardar Macedonia, defying the imperial power for several years.  During first years of Alexios reign, relations between Byzantium and Serbia were good, since his daughter Eudokia Angelina was married to Serbian Grand Prince Stefan Nemanjić, who was granted the title of \"sebastokrator\". But in 1200, those relations deteriorated. Marriage between Stefan and Eudokia was dissolved, and alliance between Serbia and Byzantium ended, leaving Byzantium without a single ally in Southeastern Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fourth Crusade.", "content": "Soon Alexios was threatened by a new and more formidable danger. In 1202, soldiers assembled at Venice to launch the Fourth Crusade. Alexios IV Angelos, the son of the deposed Isaac II, had recently escaped from Constantinople and now appealed for support to the crusaders, promising to end the East-West Schism, to pay for their transport, and to provide military support if they would help him depose his uncle and ascend to his father's throne.  The crusaders, whose objective had been Egypt, were persuaded to set their course for Constantinople, arriving there in June 1203, proclaiming Alexios IV as Emperor, and inviting the populace of the capital to depose his uncle. Alexios III took no effective measures to resist, and his attempts to bribe the crusaders failed. His son-in-law, Theodore Laskaris, who was the only one to attempt anything significant, was defeated at Scutari, and the siege of Constantinople began. Unfortunately for the city, misgovernment by Alexios III had left the Byzantine navy with only 20 worm-eaten hulks by the time the crusaders arrived.  In July, the crusaders, led by the aged Doge Enrico Dandolo, scaled the walls and took control of a major section of the city. In the ensuing fighting, the crusaders set the city on fire, ultimately leaving 20,000 people homeless. On 17 July Alexios III finally took action and led 17 divisions from the St. Romanus Gate, vastly outnumbering the crusaders. His courage failed, however, and the Byzantine army returned to the city without a fight. His courtiers demanded action, and Alexios III promised to fight. Instead, that night (July 17/18), Alexios III hid in the palace, and finally, with one of his daughters, Eirene, and as much treasure (1,000 pounds of gold) as he could collect, got into a boat and escaped to Debeltos in Thrace, leaving his wife and his other daughters behind. Isaac II, drawn from his prison and robed once more in the imperial purple, received his son, Alexios IV, in state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life in exile.", "content": "Alexios III attempted to organize resistance to the new regime from Adrianople and then Mosynopolis, where he was joined by the later usurper Alexios V Doukas \"Mourtzouphlos\" in April 1204, after the definitive fall of Constantinople to the crusaders and the establishment of the Latin Empire. At first Alexios III received Alexios V well, even allowing him to marry his daughter Eudokia Angelina. Later Alexios V was blinded and deserted by his father-in-law, who fled from the crusaders into Thessaly. Here Alexios III eventually surrendered, with Euphrosyne, to Marquis Boniface of Montferrat, who was establishing himself as ruler of the Kingdom of Thessalonica.  Alexios III attempted to escape Boniface's \"protection\" in 1205, seeking shelter with Michael I Komnenos Doukas, the ruler of Epirus. Captured by Boniface, Alexios and his retinue were sent to Montferrat before being brought back to Thessalonica in. At that point the deposed emperor was ransomed by Michael I, who sent him to Asia Minor, where Alexios' son-in-law Theodore Laskaris - now emperor of Nicaea - was holding his own against the Latins. Here Alexios conspired against his son-in-law after the latter refused to recognize Alexios' authority, receiving the support of Kaykhusraw I, the sultan of Rûm. In the Battle of Antioch on the Meander in 1211, the sultan was defeated and killed, and Alexios was captured by Theodore Laskaris. Alexios was then confined to a monastery at Nicaea, where he died later in 1211.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "By his marriage to Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera, Alexios had three daughters:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexios III Angelos () (1211) was Byzantine Emperor from March 1195 to July 17/18, 1203. A member of the extended imperial family, Alexios came to throne after deposing, blinding, and imprisoning his younger brother Isaac II Angelos. The most significant event of his reign was the attack of the Fourth Crusade on Constantinople in 1203, on behalf of Alexios IV Angelos. Alexios III took over the defense of the city, which he mismanaged, then fled the city at night with one of his three daughters. From Adrianople, and then Mosynopolis, he unsuccessfully attempted to rally his supporters, only to end up a captive of Marquis Boniface of Montferrat. He was ransomed, sent to Asia Minor where he plotted against his son-in-law Theodore Laskaris, but was eventually captured and spent his last days confined to the Monastery of Hyakinthos in Nicaea, where he died.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973872}
{"src_title": "Supine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Latin.", "content": "There are two supines, I (first) and II (second). They are originally the accusative and dative or ablative forms of a verbal noun in the fourth declension, respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First supine.", "content": "The first supine ends in \"-um\". It has two uses.  The first supine comes with verbs of motion. In one usage, it indicates purpose. For example, \"mater pompam me spectatum duxit\" is Latin for \"Mother took me to watch the procession\", and \"legati ad Caesarem gratulatum convenerunt\" is Latin for \"Ambassadors came to Caesar to congratulate him\". The translation of this first usage of the first supine is similar to, if not identical to, the Latin clause of purpose.  A second usage is in combination with the future passive infinitive. In this second usage it indicates fate; for example \"occisum iri\" means \"to be going to be killed\". It mostly appears in indirect statements, for example \"occisum iri a Milone video\", meaning \"I foresee that he is going to be killed by Milo\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second supine.", "content": "The second supine, which comes with adjectives, is rarely used; only a few verbs have been seen to commonly adopt the form. It is derived from the dative of purpose, which expresses the purpose of a thing or action, or the ablative of respect, which can translate as \"with regard/respect to\" and is used to indicate to what extent or in what way the main clause is true. It is the same as the first supine but replacing final \"-um\" by \"-ū\", with a lengthened \"u\". \"Mirabile dictū\", for example, translates as \"amazing to say\", where \"dictū\" is the supine form. The sense is generally passive, even if usually not explicitly marked as such in idiomatic English translation; for example, \"difficile creditū\", \"hard to believe\", is more literally \"hard to be believed\", or \"hardly believable\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germanic languages.", "content": "In English grammar, the term \"supine\" is sometimes used to refer to the \"to\"-infinitive. The \"to\"-infinitive is seen in sentences like \"To err is human; to forgive divine.\"  In Swedish, the supine is used with an auxiliary verb to produce some compound verb forms (perfect forms). \"See\" Swedish grammar.  In Icelandic grammar, \"sagnbót\" (usually translated as \"supine\") is a verbal form identical to the neuter participle, used to form certain verb tenses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Finnic languages.", "content": "In Estonian, the supine is called \"ma-tegevusnimi\" (lit. \"ma-action name\") because all the words in supine have \"ma\" in the end (as in \"tegema\", \"jooksma\", \"kõndima\"), and they act similarly to the Latin example. The supine is also the common dictionary form for verbs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romance languages.", "content": "In Romanian, the supine generally corresponds to an English construction like \"for doing\": \"Această carte este de citit\" means \"This book is for reading\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Slavic languages.", "content": "The Slovene and the Lower Sorbian supine is used after verbs of movement; \"see\" Slovenian verbs. The supine was used in Proto-Slavic but it was replaced in most Slavic languages by the infinitive in later periods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Baltic languages.", "content": "In some dialects of Lithuanian, the supine is used with verbs of motion to indicate purpose: \"Moterys eina miestan duonos pirktų \", which means \"The women are going to the town to buy some bread\". The standard language uses the infinitive, pirkti, instead of the supine. In the past, the supine was much more widespread form than now.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In grammar, a supine is a form of verbal noun used in some languages. The term is most often used for Latin, where it is one of the four principal parts of a verb. The word refers to a position of lying on one's back (as opposed to 'prone', lying face downward), but there exists no widely accepted etymology that explains why or how the term came to be used to also describe this form of a verb.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973873}
{"src_title": "Alport syndrome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "These descriptions refer to 'classic' Alport syndrome, which usually causes significant disease from young adult or late childhood life. Some individuals, usually with milder mutations or 'carrier' status, develop disease later, or show only some of the features of classic disease.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hematuria and proteinuria.", "content": "Blood in urine is a usual feature of Alport syndrome from early infancy, identifiable on urine dipsticks. In young children, episodes of visible (macroscopic) haematuria may occur. Protein begins to appear in urine as the disease progresses. This is now regarded as an indication for treatment with ACE inhibitors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hearing loss.", "content": "Alport syndrome can also cause hearing loss although some patients are not affected. Hearing in Alport syndrome patients is normal at birth. Hearing loss in affected patients develops progressively, usually at the stage when kidney function is normal, but there is substantial proteinuria. However, in some patients, hearing loss is only noted after kidney function has been lost. Characteristically the early changes are reduced ability to hear high-frequency sounds, 'high-tone hearing loss'. This becomes more severe and affects lower frequencies too. Hearing loss is not usually complete in Alport syndrome; good communication is almost always possible with the use of hearing aids.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leiomyomatosis.", "content": "Diffuse leiomyomatosis of the esophagus and tracheobronchial tree has been reported in some families with Alport syndrome. Symptoms usually appear in late childhood and include dysphagia, postprandial vomiting, substernal or epigastric pain, recurrent bronchitis, dyspnea, cough, and stridor. Leiomyomatosis is confirmed by computed tomography (CT) scanning or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eye changes.", "content": "Various eye abnormalities are often seen including lenticonus, keratoconus, cataracts as well as retinal flecks in the macula and mid-periphery. These rarely threaten vision. Lenticonus (cone-shaped lens) can be treated by replacement of the lens, as for cataracts. Mild keratoconus can be managed with hard, scleral, piggy-back or other specialty medical contact lenses; progressive cases may be halted with corneal collagen cross linking; and severe cases may require a corneal transplant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other abnormalities.", "content": "Aortic dissection has been described very rarely in patients with early-onset disease. Leiomyomas, tumours of smooth muscle affecting the oesophagus and female genital tract, may occur in a rare overlap syndrome involving the adjacent \"COL4A5\" and \"COL4A6\" genes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pathophysiology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "Alport syndrome is caused by mutations in \"COL\"4A3, \"COL4A4\", and \"COL4A5\", three of six human genes involved in basement membrane (type IV) collagen biosynthesis. Mutations in any of these genes prevent the proper production or assembly of the specialised type IV collagen '345' network which is an important structural component of basement membranes in the kidney, inner ear, and eye. It is also found in other locations, including the alveoli of the lungs. Basement membranes are thin, sheet-like structures that separate and support cells in many tissues. Type IV collagen '112' type is found in both vertebrates and invertebrates, and is the major isoform in most human basement membranes. When mutations prevent the formation of 345 type IV collagen network in the glomerulus, the 112 network, which is formed in fetal development but usually replaced by 345, persists into adult life.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inheritance patterns.", "content": "Alport syndrome can have different inheritance patterns depending on which specific mutation is present.  Clinical utility gene card for: Alport syndrome.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "The diagnosis can usually be made on a combination of clinical, family history and biopsy criteria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biopsy of kidneys or skin.", "content": "To be helpful, kidney biopsies need to be taken before the disease is too advanced. Changes on conventional (light) microscopy are not characteristic, and the possibility of other diagnoses, particularly focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), may be raised. Electron microscopy shows a characteristic sequence of changes from thinning of the glomerular basement membrane (GBM), developing into areas of thinning and thickening, and finally into a complex appearance with apparent splitting, often described as a 'basketweave' appearance. Early or very localised changes on this spectrum are not diagnostic, but the later changes are considered diagnostic.  Immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence studies to identify the COL3-4-5 proteins in GBM can be helpful. However, these studies may be normal in some patients with Alport syndrome, especially milder variants.  Skin contains type IV collagen in a '556' network. Skin biopsies have been used to show absence of the \"COL4A5\" gene product, but these techniques are not straightforward, only apply to patients with severe \"COL4A5\" mutations, and are not widely available. Genetic testing is now a better alternative if kidney biopsy is not possible.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family history.", "content": "A family history of end-stage renal disease with hearing impairment is suggestive of Alport syndrome, but other conditions can cause this combination of abnormalities. Most can be distinguished by clinical features. The finding of haematuria in relatives is suggestive. While X-linked inheritance is the most common pattern, genetic testing is revealing that atypical presentations may be more common than currently thought.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genetic testing.", "content": "Genetic testing plays an increasingly important role in confirming the diagnosis where the clinical features do not amount to proof.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other tests.", "content": "The use of eye examinations for screening has been proposed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kidney disease and renal failure.", "content": "In addition to measures for chronic kidney disease (CKD) of any cause, there is evidence that ACE inhibitors can slow the deterioration of kidney function in Alport syndrome, delaying the need for dialysis or transplantation. The development of proteinuria has been recommended as an indication for commencing treatment.  Once kidney failure has developed, patients usually do well on dialysis or with a kidney transplant. Transplantation can rarely be associated with the formation of antibodies to type IV collagen in the donor kidney resulting in progressive graft failure as a result of Goodpasture syndrome ('Alport post-transplant anti-GBM disease').  Gene therapy has been frequently discussed, but delivering it to the podocytes in the glomerulus that normally produce the type IV collagen in the glomerular basement membrane is challenging.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hearing loss.", "content": "It is not known whether ACE inhibitors or other treatments affect hearing loss. For those with classic Alport syndrome, hearing aids are often required in teenage or young adult years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prognosis.", "content": "Studies of the life expectancy of patients with Alport syndrome are rare, but one 2012 study of 456 male patients from across Europe who received a kidney transplant found that they had somewhat increased life expectancy compared to matched controls (the controls were \"randomly selected from the same age, year, and modality categories\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alport syndrome is a genetic disorder affecting around 1 in 5,000-10,000 children, characterized by glomerulonephritis, end-stage kidney disease, and hearing loss. Alport syndrome can also affect the eyes, though the changes do not usually affect sight, except when changes to the lens occur in later life. Blood in urine is universal. Proteinuria is a feature as kidney disease progresses.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973874}
{"src_title": "Antipodes Islands", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word antipodes derives from the Greek: ἀντίποδες, plural of \"antipous\" (ἀντίπους) \"with feet opposite (ours)\", from \"anti-\" \"opposed\" and \"pous\" \"foot\".  The island group was originally called the \"Penantipodes\" meaning \"next to the antipodes\", because it lies near to the antipodes of London (located around 51.5°S, 180°W). Over time the name has been shortened to \"Antipodes\". The island's actual antipodes are situated on the territory of the French village Gatteville-le-Phare, near Cherbourg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The volcanic Antipodes Islands lie southeast of Stewart Island/Rakiura. They consist of a main island (Antipodes Island), area, surrounded by a series of small offshore islands and rocks. These islands include Bollons Island, at the second largest in the group, to the northeast of the main island's North Cape, and the nearby smaller Archway Island; Leeward Island, situated just off the centre of the main island's east coast (to which it is connected by a rocky bar at low tide); the two Windward Islands, situated apart, the easternmost of which is to the immediate north of Cave Point, the main island's westernmost point; and the tiny Orde Lees Islet, located close to the main island's northwestern shore. Numerous small islets and stacks further surround the coast of the main island.  The islands are steep, and cliffs and rocky reefs line the majority of the coasts. The highest point is Mount Galloway at in the north of the main island, which also forms part of the group's most recently active volcano. Mount Waterhouse, to Galloway's southwest, also reaches over. Several other heights on the main island reach above, as does the highest point of Bollons Island. A ridge of peaks, the Reliance Ridge, runs along the main island's south coast. Several small streams run from the slopes of the main island's peaks, with the largest of these being the Dougall Stream, which runs northeast from the eastern slopes of Mount Waterhouse to reach the east coast not far from its closest point to Leeward Island. The Ringdove Stream runs east along the northern flanks of the Reliance Ridge to reach the large, rocky Ringdove Bay in the southeast of the main island. A further prominent stream runs southwest from the northwestern slopes of Mount Waterhouse to reach Stack Bay to the south of the Cave Point Peninsula, and a fourth runs north from the slopes of Mount Galloway, reaching the sea to the west of North Cape, close to Reef Point.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prehistory.", "content": "There is no archaeological evidence of human visitation prior to European discovery of the islands. Descriptions of a shard of early Polynesian pottery having been discovered below the surface on the main island in 1886, and housed in the collections of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa are unsubstantiated. The Museum has not been able to locate such a shard in its collection, and the original reference to the object in the Museum's collection documentation indicates no reference to Polynesian influences.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sealing.", "content": "The island group was discovered in 1800 by Captain Henry Waterhouse commanding HMS \"Reliance\". Matthew Flinders was first lieutenant, and his younger brother Samuel, was a midshipman on the vessel: Samuel prepared the chart of the islands. Waterhouse reported the presence of seals. In 1803 Waterhouse's brother-in-law George Bass applied to Governor Philip Gidley King of New South Wales for a fishing monopoly from a line bisecting southern New Zealand from Dusky Sound to the Otago Harbour to cover all the lands and seas to the south, including the Antipodes Islands, probably because he knew the latter were home to large populations of fur seals. Bass sailed from Sydney to the south that year and was never heard of again but his information led to a sealing boom at the islands in 1805 to 1807. In February 1805, the first sealing gangs arrived on the island from the American schooners \"Favorite\" and \"Independence\". They killed about 60,000 seals over the course of the year they were stationed on the islands.  At one time eighty men were present; there was a battle between American and British-led gangs and a single cargo of more than 80,000 skins—one of the greatest ever shipped from Australasia—was on-sold in Canton for one pound sterling a skin, a multimillion-dollar return in modern terms. Prominent Sydney merchants such as Simeon Lord, Henry Kable and James Underwood were engaged in the trade as well as the Americans Daniel Whitney and Owen Folger Smith. William W. Stewart, who claimed to have charted Stewart Island, and probably William Tucker who started the retail trade in preserved Maori heads, were present during the boom. After 1807, sealing was occasional and cargoes small, no doubt because the animals had been all but exterminated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shipwrecks.", "content": "A much later attempt to establish cattle on the islands was short-lived (as were the cattle). When the ship (with a crew of 16) foundered off the main island's coast in 1893, the eleven surviving crew spent nearly three months living as castaways on the island, living on raw muttonbirds, mussels and roots for 87 days before gaining the attention of the government steamer by a flag made from their sail. A well-supplied castaway depot was available on the other end of the island, but the survivors' weak condition and the island's mountainous terrain prevented them from searching for depots.  The depot was found and used by the crew of the French barque \"President Felix Faure\", wrecked in Anchorage bay in 1908, who were stranded for sixty days until rescued by.  The last wreck at the Antipodes was the yacht \"Totorore\" with the loss of two lives, Gerry Clark and Roger Sale, in June 1999.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nuclear testing proposals.", "content": "In 1955 the British Government required a large site remote from population centres to test the new thermonuclear devices it was developing. Various islands in the South Pacific and Southern Oceans were considered, along with Antarctica. The Admiralty suggested the Antipodes Islands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "The flora of the islands has been recorded in detail, and includes megaherbs. The islands are also home to numerous bird species including the endemic Antipodes snipe, Antipodes parakeet, Reischek's parakeet, as well as several albatrosses, petrels and penguins, including half of the world population of the erect-crested penguin.  Original population of fur seals seems to be regionally extinct or in serious peril where \"Upland Seals\" once found on Antipodes and Macquarie Island have been claimed as a distinct subspecies with thicker furs by scientists although it is unclear whether these seals were genetically distinct.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Important Bird Area.", "content": "The Antipodes group has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because of its significance as a breeding site for several species of seabirds. The seabirds are southern rockhopper and erect-crested penguins, Antipodean, black-browed, light-mantled and white-capped albatrosses, and northern giant, grey and white-chinned petrels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "As with many other islands, introduced rodents have caused problems by preying on the indigenous wildlife. A \"Million Dollar Mouse\" campaign was launched in 2012 to raise funds for an eradication programme as part of the New Zealand government's \"Predator Free 2050\" project. In the winter of 2016, the Department of Conservation carried out bait drops totalling 65 tonnes from three helicopters, and searched with trained dogs for any remaining rodents, which eliminated the estimated 200,000 mice on Antipodes Island.  The island group is surrounded by the Moutere Mahue / Antipodes Island Marine Reserve.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Antipodes Islands are inhospitable and uninhabited volcanic islands in subantarctic waters to the south of – and territorially part of – New Zealand. The archipelago lies to the southeast of Stewart Island/Rakiura, and to the northeast of Campbell Island. They are very close to being the antipodal point to Normandy in France, meaning that the furthest away city from here is Cherbourg, France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973875}
{"src_title": "Columbus (ISS module)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The laboratory is a cylindrical module, made from stainless steel, with two end cones. It is in external diameter and in overall length, excluding the projecting external experiment racks. Its shape is very similar to that of the Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules (MPLMs), since both were designed to fit in the cargo bay of a Space Shuttle orbiter. The starboard end cone contains most of the laboratory's on-board computers. The port end cone contains the Common Berthing Mechanism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "ESA chose EADS Astrium Space Transportation as prime contractor for \"Columbus\" manufacturing. The module was tested at the European Space Research and Technology Centre. The \"Columbus\" flight structure, the micro-meteorite protection system, the active and passive thermal control, the environmental control, the harness and all the related ground support equipment were designed and qualified by Alcatel Alenia Space in Turin, Italy as defined by the PICA – Principle (for definition see History below); the related hardware was pre-integrated and sent as PICA in September 2001 to Bremen. The lab was built and qualified on system level at the EADS Astrium Space Transportation facilities in Bremen, Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Launch, berthing and outfitting.", "content": "In November 2007, \"Columbus\" was moved out of the KSC Space Station Processing Facility, and installed into the payload bay of the \"Atlantis\" orbiter for launch on ISS assembly flight 1E (STS-122).  During cryo-filling of the Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen prior to the first launch attempt on December 6, 2007, two of four LH2 ECO sensors failed a test. Mission rules called for at least three of the four sensors to be in working order for a launch attempt to proceed. As a result of the failure, the Launch Director Doug Lyons postponed the launch, initially for 24 hours. This was later revised into a 72-hour delay, resulting in a next launch attempt set for Sunday December 9, 2007. This launch attempt was scrubbed when one of the ECO sensors again failed during fuelling.  The ECO sensors external connector was changed on the Space Shuttle external tank, causing a two-month delay in the launch. \"Columbus\" was finally launched successfully on the third attempt at 2:45pm EST, February 7, 2008. Once at the station, Canadarm2 removed \"Columbus\" from the docked shuttle's cargo bay and attached it to the starboard hatch of \"Harmony\" (also known as Node 2), with the cylinder pointing outwards on February 11, 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research activities and payloads.", "content": "Activities in the lab are controlled on the ground by the Columbus Control Center (at DLR Oberpfaffenhofen in Germany) and by the associated User Support Operations Centres throughout Europe.  The laboratory can accommodate ten active International Standard Payload Racks (ISPRs) for science payloads. Agreements with NASA allocate to ESA 51% usage of the \"Columbus\" Laboratory. ESA is thus allocated five active rack locations, with the other five being allocated to NASA. Four active rack locations are on the forward side of the deck, four on the aft side, and two are in overhead locations. Three of the deck racks are filled with life support and cooling systems. The remaining deck rack and the two remaining overhead racks are storage racks.  In addition, four un-pressurized payload platforms can be attached outside the starboard cone, on the \"Columbus\" External Payload Facility (CEPF). Each external payload is mounted on an adaptor able to accommodate small instruments and experiments totalling up to.  The following European ISPRs have been initially installed inside \"Columbus\":  The first external payloads were mounted on \"Columbus\" by crew members of the mission STS-122 mission. The three payloads mounted are:  Planned additional external payloads:  See also:  In 2014 the ISS-RapidScat instrument was installed, which was operated until late 2016. ISS-RapidScat was transported to ISS by the SpaceX CRS-4 spaceflight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "\"Columbus\" was originally planned as part of the Columbus program, an ESA program to develop an autonomous crewed space station that could be used for a variety of microgravity experiments. The program ran from 1986 to 1991 and included three components: a \"Man-Tended Free Flyer\" (MTFF) element serviced by the Hermes shuttle, an \"Attached Pressurized Module\" (APM), and a Polar Platform (\"PPF\"). After several budget cuts and cancellation of Hermes shuttle, all that remained in the Columbus program was the APM, finally renamed to \"Columbus\".  When only the APM was left in the program there were not enough tasks for the two main contributors Germany and Italy represented by MBB-ERNO and Alenia respectively. As compromise the PICA (Pre Integrated Columbus APM) – Principle was invented meaning a split responsibility where Alenia as a co-prime is responsible for the overall Columbus configuration, the mechanical and thermal/life support systems, HFE and harness design/manufacturing whereas EADS Astrium Space Transportation is responsible for the overall Columbus design and all Avionics systems including electrical harness design and software. Splitting off systems engineering responsibility and harness design under separate fixed-price contracts was found not to be advantageous with respect to efficiency and fast decision making as financial reasonings were pre-dominant in the last phase of development and verification.  The structure used for \"Columbus\" is based on the MPLM module built for NASA by Thales Alenia Space. In 2000 the pre-integrated module (structure including harness and tubing) was delivered to Bremen in Germany by the Co-prime contractor Alenia. The final integration and system testing was performed by the overall prime contractor EADS Astrium Space Transportation, after that the initial Payload was integrated and the overall complement checked-out.  On May 27, 2006 \"Columbus\" was flown from Bremen, Germany to Kennedy Space Center on board an Airbus Beluga.  The final schedule was much longer than originally planned due to development problems (several caused by the complex responsibility splitting between the Co-prime and the Overall prime contractor) and design changes introduced by ESA but being affordable due to the Shuttle problems delaying the \"Columbus\" launch for several years. The main design change was the addition of the \"External Payload Facility\" (EPF), which was driven by the different European Payload organizations being more interested in outer space than internal experiments. Also the addition of a terminal for direct communications to/from ground, which could have been used also as back-up for the \"ISS\" system, was studied but not implemented for cost reasons.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Columbus is a science laboratory that is part of the International Space Station (ISS) and is the largest single contribution to the ISS made by the European Space Agency (ESA).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973876}
{"src_title": "Lenka Reinerová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Reinerová grew up in a German-speaking Jewish family, her mother a German-Bohemian from Saaz (Žatec) and her father an ironware dealer from Prague. Prior to World War II, she worked as a translator, an interpreter and an editor for the \"Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung\". She fled to Paris in 1938 and later travelled to Morocco. She was visiting Mexico with the communist and writer Egon Erwin Kisch in March 1939 and was the only member of her family to survive the Holocaust. She returned to what was then Czechoslovakia after 1948. In the 1950s, she was jailed by Czechoslovakia's Socialist authorities and spent 15 months in prison; she recorded this experience in one of her novels, \"Alle Farben der Sonne und der Nacht\". After her release she published sporadically. In 1968 she was the Editor in Chief of the English language publication 'Czechoslovak Life' published by the Orbis Publishing House in Prague. From the summer of 1968, and throughout the period following the Warsaw Pact invasion, Czechoslovak Life continued to support the Action Programme of the Communist Party. She remained as Editor in Chief until at least the end of 1969. Later she was not allowed to publish at all until the fall of communism. Her works are mostly published at Aufbau Verlagsgruppe, Berlin.  On January 25, 2008, a speech Reinerová wrote but could not longer deliver personally due to ill health was read in German parliament in the course of an hour of remembrance for the victims of the Third Reich.  Reinerová had been largely a recluse ever since a spell in hospital in 2007, with the cause of her death not immediately known. Reinerová, the oldest living German-language writer in Prague, died June 27, 2008, in Prague, in her apartment, at 92. Lucie Cernhousova, head of Literaturhaus, the Prague publisher of German-language writers, disclosed her death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "In 1999, she was awarded the Schiller Prize. In 2003, she won the prestigious Goethe Medal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lenka Reinerová () (May 17, 1916 – June 27, 2008) was an author from the Czech Republic who wrote exclusively in German. She was born in Prague.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973877}
{"src_title": "Andronikos II Palaiologos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Andronikos II was born Andronikos Doukas Angelos Komnenos Palaiologos () at Nicaea. He was the eldest surviving son of Michael VIII Palaiologos and Theodora Palaiologina, grandniece of John III Doukas Vatatzes.  Andronikos was acclaimed co-emperor in 1261, after his father Michael VIII recovered Constantinople from the Latin Empire, but he was not crowned until 1272. Sole emperor from 1282, Andronikos II immediately repudiated his father's unpopular Church union with the Papacy, which he had been forced to support while his father was still alive, but he was unable to resolve the related schism within the Orthodox clergy until 1310.  Andronikos II was also plagued by economic difficulties. During his reign the value of the Byzantine \"hyperpyron\" depreciated precipitously, while the state treasury accumulated less than one seventh the revenue (in nominal coins) that it had previously. Seeking to increase revenue and reduce expenses, Andronikos II raised taxes, reduced tax exemptions, and dismantled the Byzantine fleet (80 ships) in 1285, thereby making the Empire increasingly dependent on the rival republics of Venice and Genoa. In 1291, he hired 50–60 Genoese ships, but the Byzantine weakness resulting from the lack of a navy became painfully apparent in the two wars with Venice in 1296–1302 and 1306–10. Later, in 1320, he tried to resurrect the navy by constructing 20 galleys, but failed.  Andronikos II Palaiologos sought to resolve some of the problems facing the Byzantine Empire through diplomacy. After the death of his first wife Anne of Hungary, he married Yolanda (renamed Irene) of Montferrat, putting an end to the Montferrat claim to the Kingdom of Thessalonica. Andronikos II also attempted to marry off his son and co-emperor Michael IX Palaiologos to the Latin Empress Catherine I of Courtenay, thus seeking to eliminate Western agitation for a restoration of the Latin Empire. Another marriage alliance attempted to resolve the potential conflict with Serbia in Macedonia, as Andronikos II married off his five-year-old daughter Simonis to King Stefan Milutin in 1298.  In spite of the resolution of problems in Europe, Andronikos II was faced with the collapse of the Byzantine frontier in Asia Minor, despite the successful, but short, governorships of Alexios Philanthropenos and John Tarchaneiotes. The successful military victories in Asia Minor by Alexios Philanthropenos and John Tarchaneiotes against the Turks were largely dependent on a considerable military contingent of Cretan escapees, or exiles from Venetian-occupied Crete, headed by Hortatzis, whom Michael VIII had repatriated to Byzantium through a treaty agreement with the Venetians ratified in 1277. Andronikos II had resettled those Cretans in the region of Meander river, the southeastern Asia Minor frontier of Byzantium with the Turks.  After the failure of the co-emperor Michael IX to stem the Turkish advance in Asia Minor in 1302 and the disastrous Battle of Bapheus, the Byzantine government hired the Catalan Company of Almogavars (adventurers from Catalonia) led by Roger de Flor to clear Byzantine Asia Minor of the enemy. In spite of some successes, the Catalans were unable to secure lasting gains. Being more ruthless and savage than the enemy they intended to subdue they quarreled with Michael IX, and eventually openly turned on their Byzantine employers after the murder of Roger de Flor in 1305; together with a party of willing Turks they devastated Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly on their road to Latin occupied southern Greece. There they conquered the Duchy of Athens and Thebes. The Turks continued to penetrate the Byzantine possessions, and Prusa fell in 1326. By the end of Andronikos II's reign, much of Bithynia was in the hands of the Ottoman Turks of Osman I and his son and heir Orhan. Also, Karasids conquered Mysia-region with Paleokastron after 1296, Germiyan conquered Simav in 1328, Saruhan captured Magnesia in 1313, and Aydinids captured Smyrna in 1310.  The Empire's problems were exploited by Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria, who defeated Michael IX and conquered much of northeastern Thrace in. The conflict ended with yet another dynastic marriage, between Michael IX's daughter Theodora and the Bulgarian emperor. The dissolute behavior of Michael IX's son Andronikos III Palaiologos led to a rift in the family, and after Michael IX's death in 1320, Andronikos II disowned his grandson, prompting a civil war that raged, with interruptions, until 1328. The conflict precipitated Bulgarian involvement, and Michael Asen III of Bulgaria attempted to capture Andronikos II under the guise of sending him military support. In 1328 Andronikos III entered Constantinople in triumph and Andronikos II was forced to abdicate.  Andronikos II died as a monk at Constantinople in 1332.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "On 8 November 1273 Andronikos II married as his first wife Anna of Hungary, daughter of Stephen V of Hungary and Elizabeth the Cuman, with whom he had two sons:  Anna died in 1281, and in 1284 Andronikos married Yolanda (renamed Irene), a daughter of William VII of Montferrat, with whom he had:  Andronikos II also had at least three illegitimate daughters:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andronikos II Palaiologos (; 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332), usually Latinized as Andronicus II Palaeologus, reigned as Byzantine Emperor from 1282 to 1328. Andronikos' reign was marked by the beginning of the decline of the Byzantine Empire. During his reign, the Turks conquered most of the Western Anatolian territories of the Empire and, during the last years of his reign, he also had to fight his grandson Andronikos in the First Palaiologan Civil War. The civil war ended in Andronikos II's forced abdication in 1328 after which he retired to a monastery.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973878}
{"src_title": "Soldier of Fortune (video game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Soldier of Fortune\" is best known for its graphic depictions of firearms dismembering the human body. This graphic violence is the game's main stylistic attraction, much like the destructible environments of \"Red Faction\" or bullet time of \"Max Payne\". The GHOUL engine enables depiction of extreme graphic violence, in which character models are based on body parts that can each independently sustain damage (gore zones). There are 26 zones in total: a shot to the head with a powerful gun will often make the target's head explode, leaving nothing but the bloody stump of the neck remaining; a close-range shot to the stomach with a shotgun will leave an enemy's bowels in a bloody mess, and a shot to the nether regions will cause the victims to clutch their groin in agony for a few seconds before kneeling over dead. It is possible to shoot off an enemy's limbs (head, arms, legs) leaving nothing left but a bloody torso. In the last mission there is also a fictional microwave weapon, causing the enemies to fry or explode, depending on the firing mode. However, nonviolence is a possibility, if the player is a good shot it is possible to shoot an enemy's weapon out of their hand, causing them to cower on the floor to surrender. The game also came with password-protected options to disable all gore and there is even a version of the game with the extreme violence permanently locked-out, titled \"Soldier of Fortune: Tactical Low-Violence Version\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Multiplayer.", "content": "In multiplayer mode, there are seven gametypes: Arsenal, Assassination, Capture the Flag, Conquer the Bunker, Control, Deathmatch and Realistic Deathmatch.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plot.", "content": "The story involves the theft of nuclear weapons, and the main enemy turns out to be an Afrikaner neo-fascist group based in Germany, led by South African exile Sergei Dekker. At the beginning of the game, terrorists steal four nuclear weapons from a storage facility in Russia, and proceed to sell them to various nations. This is a prelude to the acquisition of advanced weapons of mass destruction by this terrorist group. John Mullins, working for a U.S.-based mercenary (\"soldier of fortune\") organization known only as \"The Shop\", and his partner, Aaron \"Hawk\" Parsons, are assigned to prevent the nukes from falling into the wrong hands, and stop the terrorists in their plans. His missions take him to New York City, Sudan, Siberia, Tokyo, Kosovo, Iraq, Uganda and finally Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Raven Software acquired a license from the mercenary magazine \"Soldier of Fortune\" to produce a video game based on the publication. The game was built around a modified version of the \"Quake II\" game engine. It was the first game to utilize the GHOUL damage model engine developed by Raven Software. This introduced the ability to dismember enemies in combat, adding to the realism of the game. Upgraded versions of the GHOUL system were later used in other Raven titles, such as \"\" and \"\".  The game was originally supposed to be much more realistic, featuring mostly real weapons, and the players taking damage would impede their movement and dexterity, depending on where and how many times they were hit. In 1998 (prior to the Kosovo War) the game was also supposed to be partially based in Bosnia instead of Kosovo.  The game is AMD Eyefinity validated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rerelease.", "content": "GOG.com re-released \"Soldier of Fortune\" alongside its two successors digitally on October 1, 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "According to PC Data, a firm that tracked sales in the United States, \"Soldier of Fortune\" sold 100,919 units by November 2000. NPD Techworld, which also covered the United States, reported 298,563 units sold for the game's computer version by December 2002.  Chris Kramer reviewed the PC version of the game for \"Next Generation\", rating it four stars out of five, and stated that \"Sure, it's not for kids, but it's as good an FPS as you could ever ask for. Go ahead, be antisocial for a while.\"  Jim Preston reviewed the Dreamcast version of the game for \"Next Generation\", rating it three stars out of five, and stated that \"It's hardly revolutionary, and certainly not for younger gamers, but Dreamcast owners looking for that last shot of action will be satisfied.\"  Critical reaction was positive, with the GameRankings averaged rating of 82.30% for the PC version. However, the Dreamcast version's reception was less enthusiastic, with the 71.06% average rating (reviewers criticized the loading times, which were both frequent and extremely lengthy).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Violence controversy.", "content": "In 2000, after receiving a complaint from a member of the public about the explicit content of the game, the British Columbia Film Classification Office investigated and decided the violence, gore and acts of torture were not suitable for persons under 18 years of age. In a controversial decision, the game was labeled an \"adult motion picture\" and was rated as a pornographic film. In Germany, the game was placed on the Index List of the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sequels.", "content": "Based on its success, Raven Software and Activision later published \"\" in 2002, based on the \"Quake III: Team Arena\" engine. Initially released for Windows, the sequel was later ported to the Xbox.  A third game in the series, \"\" was made by Cauldron HQ and released on November 14, 2007.  An MMOFPS based on the series, \"Soldier of Fortune Online\" was published in Korea by Dragonfly and went in Closed Beta on August 12, 2010 and ended on August 16, 2010.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Soldier of Fortune is a first-person shooter video game developed by Raven Software and published by Activision on February 29, 2000, for Microsoft Windows. It was later released for the PlayStation 2, as well as the Dreamcast, while Loki Software also made a port for Linux. It was digitally re-released on GOG.com on October 2, 2018, along with its two successors. The player takes on the role of a U.S. mercenary as he trots around the globe hoping to halt a terrorist nuclear weapons plot.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973879}
{"src_title": "Peugeot 307", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The 307 was presented as the 307 Prométhée prototype at the 2000 Mondial de l'Automobile. The production hatchback versions were introduced to the European markets on 26 April 2001, as a successor to the Peugeot 306. The 307 was also sold in Australia, New Zealand, Asia, and (in 1.6 and 2.0 petrol versions) Mexico.  In Brazil, the 307 is sold with 1.6 and 2.0 flex (gas/ethanol) engines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design and engineering.", "content": "The 307 makes use of a reworked 306 platform, that can also be found on the Citroën Xsara as well as the 1991 Citroën ZX. However, the car is larger than the 306 in every direction. The 307 continued the company's styling first seen on the Peugeot 206 and Peugeot 607.  With upswept front lights and a steeply rising bonnet leading to a highly sloped windscreen (and the upright rear doors first seen on the 206), the 307 departed from the Pininfarina designed themes employed on the previous two generations of Peugeots, as introduced with the Peugeot 205, and ending with the (evolutionary) Peugeot 406.  Its height is, which is in the middle of the spectrum between small family cars (between 1400 and 1450 mm) and compact MPVs (between 1600 and 1650 mm). Some consider the 307 as a low compact MPV rather than a tall small family car, because of its height and profile.  One advertisement for the 307, which was first released in 2001, featured the hit song from 1987, \"(Something Inside) So Strong\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Top Gear\".", "content": "In a report from \"Top Gear Magazine\" in June 2001, the new Peugeot 307 1.6 16v TU5 JP4 went head to head with its competitors, the Ford Focus 1.6L I4 Zetec-SE and Honda Civic 1.6 VTEC. The Peugeot received high praise in all areas of the road test, beating both the Ford and Honda on price, space, handling, running costs and refinement.  The Peugeot won the road test, followed by the Ford, then the Honda.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Facelift.", "content": "In October 2005, the 307 was revised to meet the onslaught of rivals which had been launched since the introduction of the 307 four years earlier in 2001.  The front of the car was restyled featuring mildly revised lights, a new bonnet and the removal of the trademark Peugeot grille between the headlights. With the latter change, along with a new front bumper, the front of the car was now dominated by a larger air intake, as first established on the Peugeot 407, and which was now effectively the company's new grille.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Body styles.", "content": "The 307 was launched as a three and five door hatchback, though in June 2002, the range of the 307 was expanded with the introduction of two estates, the 307 Break and 307 SW. Externally the two estates are almost identical, however the SW version has silver roof bars and a three/four length panoramic glass roof as standard equipment.  Internally though, the 307 Break is a conventional estate, while the SW features an optional third row of removable seats, so it is more flexible due to its MPV like configuration. The SW exists because Peugeot did not develop a compact MPV spinoff as Citroën did with the Xsara Picasso, instead preferring to offer a more flexible version, but maintaining the style and road manners of an estate.  Unlike the previous model, there was no saloon version, but one was designed for emerging markets, such as China and the Latin American market, as saloons were much preferred to hatchbacks. The 307 CC, a cabriolet with a retractable hardtop, was launched in August 2003, to compete against the new European coupé cabriolets.  In June 2004, a four door saloon version of the 307 was launched in China. The 307 is produced for the Chinese market by the Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën Automobile, a joint venture with the PSA Group. This model was also built in Argentina between May 2006 and November 2010. Production ended in China in 2014.  For the 1.6 L setup also available (from 09/2007 onwards) is a version called 1.6 BioFlex that can as well run on ethanol E85.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engines.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hybrid HDi.", "content": "In January 2006, Peugeot announced a prototype diesel-electric hybrid engine for the 307 that could achieve, but was not intended for sale until at least 2010, by which time the 307 was replaced by the 308, and the hybrid was still not launched.  The Citroën C4 Hybride HDi was announced at the same time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reliability.", "content": "According to some sources, the 307 suffers from below average build quality and reliability, having featured at the bottom of the German Automobile Club breakdown statistics for 3 to 5 year old small family cars in 2009. However, June 2005 saw a facelift within the model and reliability increased, making it a more popular model. 2006/2007 models were referenced as a lot more reliable and trustworthy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motorsport.", "content": "The Peugeot 307 WRC, a World Rally Car based on the 307 CC, replaced the championship-winning 206 WRC in the World Rally Championship for the season of 2004.  The vehicle was plagued by transmission problems throughout its career, and the works team's drivers' driving styles did not suit the car's handling characteristics. In 2004, the car took seven podiums and a maiden win in Rally Finland, but it was not able to challenge for the championship as Marcus Grönholm finished fifth in the drivers' championship and Peugeot fourth in the manufacturers' championship.  The season of 2005 was more successful, and Peugeot was a serious challenger for the manufacturers' championship, leading the championship after round 10, but the challenge faded after Markko Märtin's retirement from rallying. Peugeot ultimately finished second in the manufacturers' championship, while Grönholm finished third in the drivers' championship, tied on points with second-placed Petter Solberg. Grönholm took victories at Rally Finland and Rally Japan along with six other podium finishes, while Märtin took four further podiums.  The car saw its factory supported competition life cut short at the end of 2005 by PSA's decision to withdraw the factory teams of both Citroën and Peugeot from top level rallying. A private undertaking by seasoned Peugeot preparatory firm Bozian Racing, dubbed \"OMV Peugeot Norway World Rally Team\", largely assumed responsibility for the running of WRC specification 307s for the following season of 2006. Manfred Stohl and Henning Solberg were named as the driving personnel. Stohl impressively placed fourth in the overall drivers' standings, and the 307 WRC took seven podiums by privateer teams that season.  Overall, the car has three WRC victories and 26 podiums to its name, Marcus Grönholm having driven it to the top of the podium in the series at the Rally Finland in 2004 and 2005 as well as at the Rally Japan in 2005.  The 307 WRC will be remembered for the accident that befell WRC competitors Markko Märtin and Michael Park on September 18, 2005, which resulted in co-driver Park's death. On stage 15 of Wales Rally GB, Märtin lost control of his 307 WRC and collided with a tree, killing Park instantly. This was the first fatality in a WRC event since Rodger Freeth in 1993.  The Peugeot 307 has also been raced in the World Touring Car Championship, the British Touring Car Championship, Stock Car Brasil, TC2000 and the Danish Touring Car Championship.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Peugeot 307 is a small family car produced by the French manufacturer Peugeot since 2001, following the Peugeot 306 which ceased production in 2002. It was awarded the European Car of the Year title for 2002, and continued to be offered in China and certain South American markets through 2014, despite the French launch of the 308 (its intended successor) in September 2007.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973880}
{"src_title": "Supervolcano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The term \"supervolcano\" was first used in a volcanic context in 1949.  Its origins lie in an early 20th-century scientific debate about the geological history and features of the Three Sisters volcanic region of Oregon in the United States. In 1925, Edwin T. Hodge suggested that a very large volcano, which he named Mount Multnomah, had existed in that region. He believed that several peaks in the Three Sisters area were the remnants of Mount Multnomah after it had been largely destroyed by violent volcanic explosions, similar to Mount Mazama. In 1948, the possible existence of Mount Multnomah was ignored by volcanologist Howel Williams in his book \"The Ancient Volcanoes of Oregon\". This book was reviewed in 1949 by another volcanologist, F. M. Byers Jr. In the review, Byers refers to Mount Multnomah as a supervolcano.  More than fifty years after Byers' review was published, the term \"supervolcano\" was popularised by the BBC popular science television program \"Horizon\" in 2000, referring to eruptions that produce extremely large amounts of ejecta.  The term \"megacaldera\" is sometimes used for caldera supervolcanoes, such as the Blake River Megacaldera Complex in the Abitibi greenstone belt of Ontario and Quebec, Canada.  Eruptions that rate VEI 8 are termed \"super eruptions\". Though there is no well-defined minimum explosive size for a \"supervolcano\", there are at least two types of volcanic eruptions that have been identified as supervolcanoes: large igneous provinces and massive eruptions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Large igneous provinces.", "content": "Large igneous provinces, such as Iceland, the Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, and the Ontong Java Plateau, are extensive regions of basalts on a continental scale resulting from flood basalt eruptions. When created, these regions often occupy several thousand square kilometres and have volumes on the order of millions of cubic kilometers. In most cases, the lavas are normally laid down over several million years. They release large amounts of gases.  The Réunion hotspot produced the Deccan Traps about 66 million years ago, coincident with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The scientific consensus is that a meteor impact was the cause of the extinction event, but the volcanic activity may have caused environmental stresses on extant species up to the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary. Additionally, the largest flood basalt event (the Siberian Traps) occurred around 250 million years ago and was coincident with the largest mass extinction in history, the Permian–Triassic extinction event, although it is unknown whether it was solely responsible for the extinction event.  Such outpourings are not explosive, though lava fountains may occur. Many volcanologists consider Iceland to be a large igneous province that is currently being formed. The last major outpouring occurred in 1783–84 from the Laki fissure, which is approximately long. An estimated of basaltic lava was poured out during the eruption (VEI 4).  The Ontong Java Plateau has an area of about, and the province was at least 50% larger before the Manihiki and Hikurangi Plateaus broke away.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Massive explosive eruptions.", "content": "Volcanic eruptions are classified using the Volcanic Explosivity Index, or VEI. It is a logarithmic scale, which means that an increase of one in VEI number is equivalent to a tenfold increase in volume of erupted material. VEI 7 or VEI 8 eruptions are so powerful that they often form circular calderas rather than cones because the downward withdrawal of magma causes the overlying rock mass to collapse into the empty magma chamber beneath it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Known super eruptions.", "content": "Based on incomplete statistics, at least 60 VEI 8 eruptions have been identified. <nowiki>*</nowiki> means DRE (dense rock equivalent).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A supervolcano is a large volcano that has had an eruption with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 8, the largest recorded value on the index. This means the volume of deposits for that eruption is greater than 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cubic miles).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973881}
{"src_title": "John William Waterhouse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Waterhouse was born in the city of Rome to the English painters William and Isabella Waterhouse in 1849, in the same year that the members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, including Dante Gabriel Rossetti, John Everett Millais and William Holman Hunt, were first causing a stir in the London art scene. The exact date of his birth is unknown, though he was baptised on 6 April, and the later scholar of Waterhouse's work, Peter Trippi, believed that he was born between 1 and 23 January. His early life in Italy has been cited as one of the reasons many of his later paintings were set in ancient Rome or based upon scenes taken from Roman mythology.  In 1854, the Waterhouses returned to England and moved to a newly built house in South Kensington, London, which was near to the newly founded Victoria and Albert Museum. Waterhouse, or 'Nino' as he was nicknamed, coming from an artistic family, was encouraged to become involved in drawing, and often sketched artworks that he found in the British Museum and the National Gallery. In 1871 he entered the Royal Academy of Art school, initially to study sculpture, before moving on to painting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Waterhouse's early works were not Pre-Raphaelite in nature, but were of classical themes in the spirit of Alma-Tadema and Frederic Leighton. These early works were exhibited at the Dudley Gallery, and the Society of British Artists, and in 1874 his painting \"Sleep and his Half-brother Death\" was exhibited at the Royal Academy summer exhibition. The painting was a success and Waterhouse would exhibit at the annual exhibition every year until 1916, with the exception of 1890 and 1915. He then went from strength to strength in the London art scene, his 1876 piece \"After the Dance\" being given the prime position in that year's summer exhibition. Perhaps due to his success, his paintings typically became larger and larger in size.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "In 1883, Waterhouse married Esther Kenworthy, the daughter of an art schoolmaster from Ealing who had exhibited her own flower-paintings at the Royal Academy and elsewhere. In 1895 Waterhouse was elected to the status of full Academician. He taught at the St. John's Wood Art School, joined the St John's Wood Arts Club, and served on the Royal Academy Council.  One of Waterhouse's best known subjects is \"The Lady of Shalott\", a study of Elaine of Astolat as depicted in the 1832 poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who dies of a mysterious curse after looking directly at the beautiful Lancelot. He actually painted three different versions of this character, in 1888, 1894, and 1916. Another of Waterhouse's favorite subjects was Ophelia; the most familiar of his paintings of Ophelia depicts her just before her death, putting flowers in her hair as she sits on a tree branch leaning over a lake. Like \"The Lady of Shalott\" and other Waterhouse paintings, it deals with a woman dying in or near water. He may also have been inspired by paintings of Ophelia by Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais. He submitted his 1888 \"Ophelia\" painting in order to receive his diploma from the Royal Academy. (He had originally wanted to submit a painting titled \"A Mermaid\", but it was not completed in time.) After this, the painting was lost until the 20th century. It is now displayed in the collection of Lord Lloyd-Webber. Waterhouse would paint Ophelia again in 1894 and 1909 or 1910, and he planned another painting in the series, called \"Ophelia in the Churchyard\".  Waterhouse could not finish the series of Ophelia paintings because he was gravely ill with cancer by 1915. He died two years later, and his grave can be found at Kensal Green Cemetery in London.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "In total he produced 118 paintings. See List of paintings by John William Waterhouse for an almost complete list.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John William Waterhouse (6 April 184910 February 1917) was an English painter known for working first in the Academic style and for then embracing the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood's style and subject matter. His artworks were known for their depictions of women from both ancient Greek mythology and Arthurian legend.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973882}
{"src_title": "Place des Vosges", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally known as place Royale, \"Place des Vosges\" was built by Henri IV from 1605 to 1612. A true square (140 m × 140 m), it embodied the first European program of royal city planning. It was built on the site of the Hôtel des Tournelles and its gardens: at a tournament at the Tournelles, a royal residence, Henri II was wounded and died. Catherine de' Medici had the Gothic complex demolished, and she moved to the Louvre Palace.  Place des Vosges, inaugurated in 1612 with a grand \"carrousel\" to celebrate the engagement of Louis XIII and Anne of Austria, is a prototype of the residential squares of European cities that were to come. What was new about the \"place Royale\" in 1612 was that the housefronts were all built to the same design, probably by Jean Baptiste Androuet du Cerceau, of red brick with strips of stone quoins over vaulted arcades that stand on square pillars. The steeply-pitched blue slate roofs are pierced with discreet small-paned dormers above the pedimented dormers that stand upon the cornices. Only the north range was built with the vaulted ceilings that the “galleries” were meant to have. Two pavilions that rise higher than the unified roofline of the square center the north and south faces and offer access to the square through triple arches. Though they are designated the Pavilion of the King and of the Queen, no royal has ever lived in the aristocratic square, except for Anne of Austria in the pavilion de la Reine, for a short while. Place des Vosges initiated subsequent developments of Paris that created a suitable urban background for the French aristocracy and nobility.  The square was often the place for the nobility to chat, and served as a meeting place for them. This was so until the Revolution.  Before the square was completed, Henri IV ordered Place Dauphine to be laid out. Within a mere five-year period the king oversaw an unmatched building scheme for the ravaged medieval city: additions to the Louvre Palace, the Pont Neuf, and the Hôpital Saint Louis as well as the two royal squares.  Cardinal Richelieu had an equestrian bronze of Louis XIII erected in the center (there were no garden plots until 1680). In the late 18th century, while most of the nobility moved to the Faubourg Saint-Germain district, the square managed to keep some of its aristocratic owners until the Revolution. It was renamed in 1799 when the \"département\" of the Vosges became the first to pay taxes supporting a campaign of the Revolutionary army. The Restoration returned the old royal name, but the short-lived Second Republic restored the revolutionary one in 1870.  Today the square is planted with a bosquet of mature lindens set in grass and gravel, surrounded by clipped lindens.  Residents of place des Vosges", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Place des Vosges (), originally Place Royale, is the oldest planned square in Paris, France. It is located in the \"Marais\" district, and it straddles the dividing-line between the 3rd and 4th arrondissements of Paris. It was a fashionable and expensive square to live in during the 17th and 18th centuries, and one of the central reasons of the fashionable nature of Le Marais for the Parisian nobility.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973883}
{"src_title": "Michael Thonet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Thonet was the son of the master tanner Franz Anton Thonet of Boppard. Following a carpenter's apprenticeship, Thonet set himself up as an independent cabinetmaker in 1819. A year later, he married Anna Grahs, with whom he had seven sons and six daughters. Only five of the sons, however, survived early childhood.  In the 1830s, Thonet began trying to make furniture out of glued and bent wooden slats. His first success was the \"Bopparder Schichtholzstuhl\" (Boppard layerwood chair) in 1836. Thonet gained substantial independence by acquiring the \"Michelsmühle\", the glue factory that made the glue for this process, in 1837. However, his attempts to patent the technology failed in Germany (1840) as well as in Great Britain, France and Russia (1841). Thonet's essential breakthrough was his success in having light, strong wood bent into curved, graceful shapes by forming the wood in hot steam. This enabled him to design entirely novel, elegant, lightweight, durable and comfortable furniture, which appealed strongly to fashion – a complete departure from the heavy, carved designs of the past – and whose aesthetic and functional appeal remains to this day.  At the Koblenz trade fair of 1841, Thonet met Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, who was enthusiastic about Thonet's furniture and invited him to the Vienna court. In the next year, Thonet was able to present his furniture, and his chairs in particular, to the Imperial Family.  As the Boppard establishment got into financial difficulties, Thonet sold it and emigrated to Vienna with his family. There, he worked with his sons on the interior decoration of the Stadtpalais Liechtenstein for the Carl Leistler establishment. In 1849, he again opened his own shop together with his four sons. A few years later, in 1853, he transferred the company to his sons under the name Gebrüder Thonet. In 1850 he produced his \"Nr 1\" chair. The Great Exhibition in London 1851 saw him receive the bronze medal for his \"Vienna bentwood chairs\". This was his international breakthrough. At the next World's Fair, \"Exposition Universelle\" in Paris 1855, he was awarded the silver medal as he continued to improve his production methods. In 1856 he was able to open up a new factory in Koryčany, Moravia  The 1859 chair \"Nr. 14\" – better known as \"Konsumstuhl Nr. 14\", coffee shop chair no. 14 – is still called the \"chair of chairs\" with some 50 million produced and still in production today. The innovative bending technique allowed for the industrial production of a chair for the first time ever. What was revolutionary about the former no.14, which is today's no. 214, was the fact that it could be disassembled into a few components and thus produced in work-sharing processes. The chair could be exported to all nations of the world in simple, space saving packages: 36 disassembled chairs could fit into a one cubic meter box. It yielded a gold medal for Thonet's enterprise at the 1867 Paris World's Fair.  At the time, the chair no. 14 cleared the way for Thonet to become a global company. Numerous pieces of bentwood furniture followed. Some models also became icons of design history: the rocking chair no. 1 from 1860, later on in the 19th century the successful models no. 18 and no. 56, around 1900 the elegant no. 209 with its curved armrests, which Le Corbusier adored, and in 1904 the art nouveau armchair 247 by Otto Wagner, the so-called postal savings bank chair, to name but a few. Thonet production peaked in 1912: two million different products were manufactured and sold worldwide.  In 1857, Michael Thonet's sons as Gebrüder Thonet commissioned the first Thonet furniture factory to be built in the Moravian town of Koryčany using their father's plans. In the coming years, five more production sites were established in Eastern Europe, and in 1889 the seventh and last production site was added in the Hessian town of Frankenberg, Hesse, Germany. After World War I and World War II, this one was the only one to remain. It is Thonet's head office until today.  As Michael Thonet died 1871 in Vienna, the Fa. Gebrüder Thonet had sales locations across Europe as well as Chicago and New York. Today, a museum in the factory in Frankenberg showcases the firm's history and the Thonet design.  In 1976 Thonet was divided into a German and an Austrian company (Thonet Vienna). The two companies are independent of each other. In 2006 Gebrüder Thonet became Thonet GmbH.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thonet Today.", "content": "The success of the company Thonet GmbH in Frankenberg, Germany, began with the work of master joiner Michael Thonet (1796–1871). Since he founded his first woodworking shop in 1819 in Boppard, the name Thonet has stood for high-quality, innovative and elegant furniture. Today, Thorsten Muck runs the company with its head offices and production facilities in Frankenberg. Michael Thonet's direct descendants in the fifth and sixth generation remain involved in the company's business as associates and sales partners. The collection comprises famous bentwood furniture, tubular steel classics from the Bauhaus era, and current designs by famous contemporary architects and designers.  Often mispronounced \"Tho-nay\" the name is pronounced \"toe-net\" with a hard beginning and ending \"t\".  The Museum of Applied Arts, MAK Vienna hosts the largest collection of original Thonet chairs in Austria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michael Thonet (2 July 1796 – 3 March 1871) was a German-Austrian cabinet maker, known for the invention of bentwood furniture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973884}
{"src_title": "Hyperrealism (visual arts)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Belgian art dealer Isy Brachot coined the French word \"Hyperréalisme\", meaning Hyperrealism, as the title of a major exhibition and catalogue at his gallery in Brussels in 1973. The exhibition was dominated by such American Photorealists as Ralph Goings, Chuck Close, Don Eddy, Robert Bechtle and Richard McLean; but it included such influential European artists as Domenico Gnoli, Gerhard Richter, Konrad Klapheck, and. Since then, \"Hyperealisme\" has been used by European artists and dealers to apply to painters influenced by the Photorealists. Among contemporary European hyperrealist painters we find Gottfried Helnwein (Austrian), Willem van Veldhuizen and Tjalf Sparnaay (Dutch), Roger Wittevrongel (Belgian), as well as the French Pierre Barraya, Jacques Bodin, Ronald Bowen, François Bricq, Gérard Schlosser, Jacques Monory, Bernard Rancillac, Gilles Aillaud and Gérard Fromanger.  Early 21st century Hyperrealism was founded on the aesthetic principles of Photorealism. American painter Denis Peterson, whose pioneering works are universally viewed as an offshoot of Photorealism, first used \"Hyperrealism\" to apply to the new movement and its splinter group of artists. Graham Thompson wrote \"One demonstration of the way photography became assimilated into the art world is the success of photorealist painting in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It is also called super-realism or hyper-realism and painters like Richard Estes, Denis Peterson, Audrey Flack, and Chuck Close often worked from photographic stills to create paintings that appeared to be photographs.\"  However, Hyperrealism is contrasted with the literal approach found in traditional photorealist paintings of the late 20th century. Hyperrealist painters and sculptors use photographic images as a reference source from which to create a more definitive and detailed rendering, one that often, unlike Photorealism, is narrative and emotive in its depictions. Strict Photorealist painters tended to imitate photographic images, omitting or abstracting certain finite detail to maintain a consistent over-all pictorial design. They often omitted human emotion, political value, and narrative elements. Since it evolved from Pop Art, the photorealistic style of painting was uniquely tight, precise, and sharply mechanical with an emphasis on mundane, everyday imagery.  Hyperrealism, although photographic in essence, often entails a softer, much more complex focus on the subject depicted, presenting it as a living, tangible object. These objects and scenes in Hyperrealism paintings and sculptures are meticulously detailed to create the illusion of a reality not seen in the original photo. That is not to say they're surreal, as the illusion is a convincing depiction of (simulated) reality. Textures, surfaces, lighting effects, and shadows appear clearer and more distinct than the reference photo or even the actual subject itself.  Hyperrealism has its roots in the philosophy of Jean Baudrillard, \"the simulation of something which never really existed.\" As such, Hyperrealists create a false reality, a convincing illusion based on a simulation of reality, the digital photograph. Hyperreal paintings and sculptures are an outgrowth of extremely high-resolution images produced by digital cameras and displayed on computers. As Photorealism emulated analog photography, Hyperrealism uses digital imagery and expands on it to create a new sense of reality. Hyperrealistic paintings and sculptures confront the viewer with the illusion of manipulated high-resolution images, though more meticulous.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style and methods.", "content": "The Hyperrealist style focuses much more of its emphasis on details and the subjects. Hyperreal paintings and sculptures are not strict interpretations of photographs, nor are they literal illustrations of a particular scene or subject. Instead, they use additional, often subtle, pictorial elements to create the illusion of a reality which in fact either does not exist or cannot be seen by the human eye. Furthermore, they may incorporate emotional, social, cultural and political thematic elements as an extension of the painted visual illusion; a distinct departure from the older and considerably more literal school of Photorealism.  Hyperrealist painters and sculptors make allowances for some mechanical means of transferring images to the canvas or mold, including preliminary drawings or grisaille underpaintings and molds. Photographic slide projections or multi media projectors are used to project images onto canvases and rudimentary techniques such as gridding may also be used to ensure accuracy. Sculptures utilize polyesters applied directly onto the human body or mold. Hyperrealism requires a high level of technical prowess and virtuosity to simulate a false reality. As such, Hyperrealism incorporates and often capitalizes upon photographic limitations such as depth of field, perspective and range of focus. Anomalies found in digital images, such as fractalization, are also exploited to emphasize their digital origins by some Hyperrealist painters, such as Chuck Close, Denis Peterson, Bert Monroy and Robert Bechtle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "Subject matter ranges from portraits, figurative art, still life, landscapes, cityscapes and narrative scenes. The more recent hyperrealist style is much more literal than Photorealism as to exact pictorial detail with an emphasis on social, cultural or political themes. This also is in stark contrast to the newer concurrent Photorealism with its continued avoidance of photographic anomalies. Hyperrealist painters at once simulate and improve upon precise photographic images to produce optically convincing visual illusions of reality, often in a social or cultural context.  Some hyperrealists have exposed totalitarian regimes and third world military governments through their narrative depictions of the legacy of hatred and intolerance. Denis Peterson and Gottfried Helnwein depicted political and cultural deviations of societal decadence in their work. Peterson's work focused on diasporas, genocides and refugees. Helnwein developed unconventionally narrative work that centered on past, present and future deviations of the Holocaust. Provocative subjects include enigmatic imagery of genocides, their tragic aftermath and the ideological consequences. Thematically, these controversial hyperreal artists aggressively confronted the corrupted human condition through narrative paintings as a phenomenological medium. These lifelike paintings are an historical commentary on the grotesque mistreatment of human beings.  Hyperreal paintings and sculptures further create a tangible solidity and physical presence through subtle lighting and shading effects. Shapes, forms and areas closest to the forefront of the image visually appear beyond the frontal plane of the canvas; and in the case of sculptures, details have more clarity than in nature. Hyperrealistic images are typically 10 to 20 times the size of the original photographic reference source, yet retain an extremely high resolution in color, precision and detail. Many of the paintings are achieved with an airbrush, using acrylics, oils or a combination of both. Ron Mueck's lifelike sculptures are scaled much larger or smaller than life and finished in incredibly convincing detail through the meticulous use of polyester resins and multiple molds. Bert Monroy's digital images appear to be actual paintings taken from photographs, yet they are fully created on computers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hyperrealism is a genre of painting and sculpture resembling a high-resolution photograph. Hyperrealism is considered an advancement of Photorealism by the methods used to create the resulting paintings or sculptures. The term is primarily applied to an independent art movement and art style in the United States and Europe that has developed since the early 1970s. Carole Feuerman is the forerunner in the hyperrealism movement along with Duane Hanson and John De Andrea.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973885}
{"src_title": "Peter II of Courtenay", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Peter II was a son of Peter I of Courtenay (died 1183), the youngest son of Louis VI of France and his second wife, Adélaide de Maurienne. His mother was Elisabeth de Courtenay, daughter of Renaud de Courtenay (died 1194) and Hawise du Donjon.  Peter first married Agnes I, via whom he obtained the three counties of Nevers, Auxerre, and Tonnerre. He took for his second wife Yolanda of Flanders (died 1219), a sister of Baldwin and Henry of Flanders, who were afterwards the first and second emperors of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. Peter accompanied his cousin, King Philip Augustus, on the crusade of 1190 and fought (alongside his brother Robert) in the Albigensian Crusade in 1209 and 1211, when he took part in the siege of Lavaur. He was present at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214.  When his brother-in-law, the emperor Henry, died without sons in 1216, Peter was chosen as his successor, and with a small army he left his residence of château de Druyes in France to take possession of his throne. He was consecrated emperor at the Basilica of Saint Lawrence outside the Walls in Rome by Pope Honorius III on 9 April 1217. He then borrowed some ships from the Venetians, promising in return to conquer Durazzo for them, but he failed in this enterprise, and sought to make his way to Constantinople by land. On the journey he was seized by the despot of Epirus, Theodore Komnenos Doukas, and, after an imprisonment of two years, died, probably by foul means. Peter thus never governed his empire, which, however, was ruled for a time by his wife, Yolanda, who had succeeded in reaching Constantinople. Two of his sons, Robert and Baldwin, reigned in turn as emperors of the Latin Empire of Constantinople.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "By his first wife Agnes I, Countess of Nevers he had one child, Matilda I, Countess of Nevers.  By his second wife Yolanda of Flanders, he had 10 children:  He had an illegitimate son:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter, also Peter II of Courtenay (; died 1219), was emperor of the Latin Empire of Constantinople from 1216 to 1217.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973886}
{"src_title": "Baldwin II, Latin Emperor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Baldwin II was born in Constantinople (the only Latin emperor to be born there), a younger son of Yolanda of Flanders, sister of the first two emperors, Baldwin I and Henry of Flanders. Her husband, Peter of Courtenay, was third emperor of the Latin Empire, and had been followed by his son Robert of Courtenay, on whose death in 1228 the succession passed to Baldwin, then an 11-year-old boy.  The barons chose John of Brienne as emperor-regent for life. Baldwin was also to marry Marie of Brienne, daughter of John and his third wife Berenguela of Leon, and on John's death to enjoy the full imperial sovereignty. The marriage contract was carried out in 1234. Since the death of Baldwin's uncle Emperor Henry in 1216, the Latin Empire had declined and the Byzantine (Nicene) power advanced; and the hopes that John of Brienne might restore it were disappointed. The realm Baldwin governed was little more than the city of Constantinople. He adopted the Byzantine title of \"porphyrogenetos\". His financial situation was desperate, and his life was chiefly occupied in begging at European courts. He went to the West in 1236, visited Rome, France and Flanders, trying to raise money and men to recover the lost territory of his realm. In 1237, with the support of the King of France and the Countess of Flanders, he chased his sister Margaret from power to become the next Count of Namur. But Baldwin was practically never present, and after the invasion and conquest of Namur by Henry V, Count of Luxembourg in 1256, he sold the rights on the County to his cousin Guy, Count of Flanders.  In around March 1238, Baldwin II's regency council pawned the Crown of Thorns to the Venetian Podestà of Constantinople for 13,134 \"hyperpera\" from a \"consortium of creditors\". His efforts met with success, and in 1240 he returned to Constantinople (through Germany and Hungary) at the head of a considerable army. Circumstances hindered him from accomplishing anything with this help, and in 1245 he traveled again to the West, first to Italy and then to France, where he spent two years. The empress Marie and Philip of Toucy governed during his absence. He was happy to be able to get money from King Louis IX in exchange for relics. In 1249 he was with King Louis at Damietta. The extremity of his financial straits reduced him soon afterwards to handing over his only son, Philip, to Venetian merchants as a pledge for loans of money. Philip was later redeemed by Alfonso X of Castile. The rest of his reign was spent by Baldwin in mendicant tours in western Europe.  On the night of 24 July 1261, a group of soldiers under Alexios Strategopoulos managed to enter Constantinople through a secret passageway and captured the city. Baldwin was asleep in the Blachernae Palace when the noise of the fighting awoke him; upon seeing the Byzantine troops advance upon him, he fled in such haste that he left his crown and sceptre behind him. Baldwin made his way to the harbor where he boarded a Venetian galley to Negropont. From there he proceeded to Athens, thence to Apulia, finally to France. As titular emperor, his role was still the same, to beg help from the western powers. In 1267 he went to Italy; his hopes were centred on Charles of Anjou. Charles seriously entertained the idea of conquering Constantinople, though his efforts were destroyed during the Sicilian Vespers, an event perhaps engineered by Michael VIII Palaeologus of Constantinople. To this intent, he signed the Treaty of Viterbo with Baldwin (May 1267). During the next year Baldwin and his son Philip lived on pensions from Charles. In October 1273 Philip married Beatrice, daughter of Charles, at Foggia. A few days later Baldwin died in Naples. Under Baldwin II, Constantinople's population had fallen to a mere 35,000 people.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baldwin II, also known as Baldwin of Courtenay or Baldwin the Broke (; late 1217 – October 1273), was the last Latin Emperor ruling from Constantinople.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973887}
{"src_title": "Rose-ringed parakeet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Four subspecies are recognised, though they differ little: The Indian subspecies are both larger than the African subspecies. The genus name \"Psittacula\" is a diminutive of Latin \"psittacus\", \"parrot\", and the specific \"krameri\" commemorates the Austrian naturalist Wilhelm Heinrich Kramer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Since the 19th Century, the rose-ringed parakeet has successfully colonised many other countries. It breeds further north than any other parrot species. It has established itself on a large scale in Germany, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, and especially the UK. See Feral Birds section below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behaviour.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "In the wild, rose-ringed parakeets usually feed on buds, fruits, vegetables, nuts, berries, and seeds. Wild flocks also fly several miles to forage in farmlands and orchards, causing extensive damage.  In India, they feed on cereal grains, and during winter also on pigeon peas. In Egypt during the spring, they feed on mulberry and in summer they feed on dates and nest inside palm trees and eat from sunflower and corn fields.  In captivity, rose-ringed parakeets will take a large variety of food and can be fed on a number of fruits, vegetables, pellets, seeds, and even small amounts of cooked meat for protein. Oils, salts, chocolate, alcohol, and other preservatives should be avoided.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "In north-west India, Indian rose-ringed parakeets form pairs from September to December. They do not have life mates and often breed with another partner during the following breeding season. During this cold season, they select and defend nest sites, thus avoiding competition for sites with other birds. Feeding on winter pea crops provides the female with nutrients necessary for egg production. From April to June, they care for their young. Fledglings are ready to leave the nest before monsoon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aviculture.", "content": "Rose-ringed parakeets are popular as pets and they have a long history in aviculture. The ancient Greeks kept the Indian subspecies \"P. krameri manillensis\", and the ancient Romans kept the African subspecies \"P. krameri krameri\". Colour mutations of the Indian rose-ringed parakeet subspecies have become widely available in recent years. A blue colour morph mutation of the rose ringed parakeet is also commonly kept in aviculture. Birds that display this mutation have solid light blue feathers instead of green, and lack the rings of their normal counterparts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mimicry.", "content": "Both males and females have the ability to mimic human speech. First, the bird listens to its surroundings, and then it copies the voice of the human speaker. Some people hand-raise rose-ringed parakeet chicks for this purpose. Such parrots then become quite tame and receptive to learning.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feral birds.", "content": "A popular pet, the rose-ringed parakeet has been released in a wide range of cities around the world, giving it an environment with few predators where their preferred diet of seeds, nuts, fruits, and berries is available from suburban gardens and bird feeders. Its adaptations to cold winters in the Himalayan foothills allow it to easily withstand European winter conditions. It has established feral populations in a number of European cities, South Africa and Japan. There are also apparently stable populations in the US (Florida, California and Hawaii) and small self-sustaining populations in Ankara (concentrated in parks), Tunis, Tripoli and Tehran (concentrated in the north side of the city). It is also found throughout Lebanon, Israel, the UAE, Bahrain, Qatar, and Oman. A small number of escaped birds are in Australia.  The European populations became established during the mid-to-late 20th century. There is a burgeoning population of feral parakeets in Great Britain which is centred around suburban London and the Home Counties of South-East England. Parakeet numbers have been highest in the south-west of London, although the population has since spread rapidly, and large flocks of birds can be observed in places such as Crystal Palace Park, Battersea Park, Buckhurst Hill, Richmond Park, Wimbledon Common, Greenwich Park, and Hampstead Heath, as well as Surrey and Berkshire. Feral parakeets have also been observed in Abbey Wood, Bostall Heath, Bostall Woods and Plumstead Common. The winter of 2006 had three separate roosts of about 6000 birds around London. A smaller population occurs around Margate, Broadstairs and Ramsgate, Kent. There is also an established population to the North East of London in Essex at Loughton and Theydon Bois by Epping Forest. Elsewhere in Britain, smaller feral populations have become established from time to time (e.g., at Sefton Park and Greenbank Park in Liverpool, Studland, Dorset, Kensington Gardens, Nottingham, south Manchester and even as far north as Edinburgh). It has been suggested that feral parrots could endanger populations of native British birds, and that the rose-ringed parakeet could even be culled as a result, although this is not currently recommended by conservation organisations. A major agricultural pest in locations such as India, as of 2011 the rose-ringed parakeet population was growing rapidly, but is generally limited to urban areas in southern England  A Europe-wide count was held in 2015 and found 85,220 Rose-ringed parakeets in 10 European countries. In the Netherlands, the feral population in the four largest urban areas (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht and especially in The Hague) was estimated at 10,000 birds in 2010, almost double the number of birds estimated in 2004. There also exists a feral population in Belgium, with as many as 5,000 pairs estimated in Brussels. These originate from an original population that was set free in 1974 by the owner of the Meli Zoo and Attraction Park near the Atomium who wanted to make Brussels more colourful. In Germany, these birds are found along the Rhine in all major urban areas such as Cologne, Düsseldorf (about 800 birds), Bonn, Ludwigshafen, Heidelberg and Speyer, Wiesbaden and Mainz, and Worms. Other populations are found around Paris, Rome — notably in the gardens of the Palatine Hill, the trees of the Trastevere and Janiculum and at Villa Borghese, in the Orto Botanico di Palermo in Palermo, in Genoa, in Barcelona and in Lisbon.  The specimens in these naturalised populations often represent intra-specific hybrids, originally between varying numbers (according to locality) of the subspecies \"manillensis\", \"borealis\", and/or (to a lesser extent) \"krameri\" along with some inter-specific hybrids with naturalised \"Psittacula eupatria\" (Alexandrine parakeet).  Where introduced, rose-ringed parakeets may affect native biodiversity and human economy and wellness.  In the United Kingdom and especially within London, parakeets face predation by native birds of prey and owls, including the Peregrine falcon (\"Falco peregrinus\"), Eurasian hobby (\"F. subbuteo\") and Tawny owl (\"Strix aluco\").  There is a feral population of the birds in Japan. In the 1960s many Japanese people became pet owners for the first time and the parakeet was widely imported as a pet. Some escaped or were released and formed populations around the country. By the 1980s groups could be found in Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Niigata and Kyushu. Some groups since died out, but as of 2009 there was a large population residing at the Tokyo Institute of Technology's main campus at Ookayama, along with small groups in Maebashi and Chiba city.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The rose-ringed parakeet (\"Psittacula krameri\"), also known as the ring-necked parakeet, is a medium-sized parrot in the genus Psittacula, of the family Psittacidae. It has disjunct native ranges in Africa and South Asia, and is now introduced into many other parts of the world where feral populations have established themselves and are bred for the exotic pet trade.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973888}
{"src_title": "Solvay S.A.", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Founded in 1863 by Ernest Solvay and his brother Alfred Solvay to produce sodium carbonate by the Solvay process, the company has diversified into two main sectors of activity: chemicals and plastics. Before World War I, Solvay was the largest multinational company in the world. It was formerly also active in pharmaceuticals, but agreed to sell that entire division to Abbott Labs for €4.5 billion in September 2009, a deal completed in February 2010.  In April 2011, the firm agreed to the €3.4 billion acquisition of French-based chemicals company Rhodia which was completed in September 2011.  Since January 2012, the new Solvay is listed on the NYSE Euronext in Paris and joined the CAC 40 index in September 2012. Solvay is historically listed on the NYSE Euronext in Brussels and part of BEL20 index.  Following its integration with Rhodia, the Committee of Executive Members at Solvay reorganised its various business units into five segments – Consumer Chemicals, Advanced Materials, Performance Chemicals, Functional Polymers and Corporate & Business Services, effective from 2013.  The company is a supporter of the Solvay Conferences that were started by Ernest Solvay in 1911.  On December 3, 2015, Solvay launched a share issue sent to existing shareholders, completing funding for the $5.5 billion purchase of Cytec Industries Inc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Corporate affairs.", "content": "The company's head office is located in Brussels, Belgium. It was previously in Ixelles, Brussels  Solvay's United States subsidiary, Solvay America, Inc., is based in Houston, Texas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "Solvay is a main partner of Solar Impulse and has contributed research and development resources to their solar powered airplane project. That aircraft conducted its first test flight on 3 December 2009, and since then has made solar-powered flights from Switzerland to Spain and Morocco in 2012.  Currently, Solar Impulse II is attempting a round the world flight.  Fuel cell technology SolviCore, a joint venture by Umicore and Solvay in the field of fuel cells is already pre-marketing membrane-electrode assemblies for different types of fuel cells for portable or mobile use. New generation lithium batteries for hybrid vehicles components make use of Solvay fluorinated polymers inorder to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.  Soil remediation Novosol: sodium bicarbonate-based process for treating and recovering mineral residues contaminated with heavy metals. Renewable feedstock Development and industrialization of proprietary Epicerol process for manufacturing epichlorohydrin from natural glycerin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Solvay is a Belgian chemical company founded in 1863, with its head office in Neder-Over-Heembeek, Brussels, Belgium. In 2015, it realized €12.4 billion in revenues, €2.336 billion of REBITDA, 43% of its sales in emerging high-growth countries, 90% of its sales in markets where it is ranked among the top three manufacturers. With 145 sites, Solvay employs 30,900 people in 53 countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973889}
{"src_title": "Muzio Attendolo Sforza", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born as Giacomo or Jacopo Attendolo in Cotignola (Romagna) to a rich family of rural nobility, son of Giovanni Attendolo (d. 1385/86) and Elisa, perhaps daughter of Ugolino Petraccini. Muzzo or Muzio was the short form of the nickname of Giacomuzzo, who was the name of his paternal grandfather. He had eight known siblings: Bosio (d. 1411), Margherita (by her first mariage de’ Ravignani and by her second Countess of Morcone), Francesco (d. 1412), Bartolo (d. 1412), Giorgio, Matteo (killed in 1388), Tonduzzo (killed with his brother in 1388) and Maria (d. 1412; by marriage Marchioness Pallavicino).  According to tradition, young Giacomo was plowing a field when a platoon of mercenaries led by Boldrino da Panicale passed nearby in search of recruits. He then stole one of his father's horses and followed the soldiers to follow the same career.  Later, together with his brothers Bosio, Francesco and Bartolo and two cousins, he joined the company of Alberico da Barbiano, who nicknamed him \"Sforza\" (\"Strong\") for his staunchness and his abilities to suddenly reverse the fortunes of battles. In 1398 he was at the service of Perugia against the Milanese troops of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, to whom Muzio soon switched his loyalty following the typical behavior of mercenary chieftains of the time. Later he fought for Florence against Visconti but in 1402, at the battle of Casalecchio, was defeated by his former master Alberico da Barbiano. In 1406 he captured Pisa and was subsequently hired by Niccolò III d'Este of Ferrara, who was being menaced by Ottobono Terzi of Parma.  King Ladislaus of Naples named him Gran Connestabile of his kingdom. Sforza's military qualities were mostly needed against Florence and the Pope. He remained for the rest of his life in the Kingdom of Naples, after the King's death (1414), at the service of queen Joan II. However, he attracted the jealousy of Joan's favorite, Pandolfello Alopo, who had him arrested and imprisoned. However, when Sforza's troops intervened, Alopo freed him and Joan gave him the fiefdoms of Benevento and Manfredonia. On this occasion Sforza married Caterina Alopo, Pandolfello's sister. A few months later Sforza was again arrested after a quarrel with James of Bourbon. He was freed only in 1416, after James' fall from power, and Joan gave him back the title of \"Conestabile\".  In 1417 Sforza was sent by Joan to help the pope against Braccio da Montone, together with his son Francesco. Later he returned briefly to Naples, but here he was opposed by Giovanni (Sergianni) Caracciolo, Joan's new lover. In the following, confused, events that led to the arrival of Louis III of Anjou in Naples in opposition to Alfonso V of Aragon, Sforza helped Joan and Sergianni to flee to Aversa.  In 1423, the city of L'Aquila rebelled against Braccio da Montone and he was sent to support it. In an attempt to save one of his pages during the fording of the Pescara River, Sforza drowned and his body was swept away by the waters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Sforza had sixteen known children born from three marriages and two mistresses:  In 1409, Sforza married firstly with Antonia (d. 1411), widow of Francesco Casali, Lord of Cortona and daughter of Francesco Salimbeni, Patrician of Siena and Lord of Chiusi, Radicofani, Bagno Vignoni, Carsoli and Sarteano. They had one son:  On 16 June 1413, Sforza married secondly with Caterina (also named \"Catella\"; d. 1418 in childbirth), a sister of Pandolfello Piscopo \"\"Alopo\"\", Grand Chamberlain of the Kingdom of Naples and lover of Queen Joanna II. They had three children:  In 1421, Sforza married thirdly with Maria (d. 1440), daughter of Giacomo da Marzano, 1st Duke of Sessa, and Sovereign Countess of Celano after inherited from her first husband Nicola de Berardi. They had two children:  With his mistress Tamira di Cagli, Sforza had two children:  With his mistress Lucia Terzani da Marsciano (or \"Lucia da Torsano\" according to other sources; d. 1461), Sforza had eight children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "The Italian Regia Marina launched a cruiser called \"Muzio Attendolo\" in 1935. See also Condottieri class cruiser.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Muzio Attendolo Sforza (28 May 1369 – 4 January 1424), was an Italian \"condottiero\". Founder of the Sforza dynasty, he led a Bolognese-Florentine army at the Battle of Casalecchio.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973890}
{"src_title": "Fritz ter Meer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Fritz ter Meer was the son of Edmund ter Meer (1852–1931), who founded the chemical company Teerfarbenfabrik Dr. E. ter Meer & Cie in Uerdingen, which in 1925 became part of IG Farben. His family tree can be traced back to the 15th Century. After completing his schooling from 1903 to 1908 ter Meer studied in France and Germany also briefly chemistry and law. He received his doctorate in 1909 in Berlin with regard to the thesis of the ether Isonitrosoketonen. Subsequently, in-depth studies followed the dye chemistry in Krefeld and abroad in France and England.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Thereafter, he worked in the family-owned company Dr. E. ter Meer & Co., where he held senior positions and in 1919 became a member of the Board. After the merger he worked for IG Farben until 1945. Meer was responsible for running negotiations between IG Farben and Standard Oil.  From 1925 to 1945 Fritz ter Meer was on the board of IG Farben AG. He was also from 1932 a member of the Working Committee and the Technical Committee, Head of Division II in the War Ministry and the defense industry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nazi support during World War II.", "content": "In May 1937, he joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP). On 7 September 1939 he and Henry agreed with the Army Ordnance Hörlein the production of the gas Tabun, an extremely toxic nerve agent. More than 100 prisoners of war were used during construction of the designated poison gas factory in Dyhernfurth.  He was involved in the planning of Monowitz concentration camp, a satellite camp of KZ Auschwitz and responsible for helping build the IG Farben Buna Werke factory at Auschwitz, which conducted human experiments and held some 25,000 slave labourers under deplorable conditions.  In September 1943 he became General Agent for Italy, the Reich Minister for armaments and war production. In 1943 ter Meer received the Knight's Cross of War Merit Cross.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War crimes trial.", "content": "In 1945 the US began investigating the IG Farben for potential war crime violations, and US attorneys began questioning Farben executives. In 1946 Meer began writing company memos that tried to hide IG Farben's service to the Nazi party and the Hitler administration. On May 3, 1947, Meer along with 23 other board members and executives of IG Farben were charged with five counts of war crimes by US attorneys at the Nuremberg Military Tribunals: On August 27, 1947, the IG Farben Trial began. The trial lasted 152 days, ending on May 28, 1948. On July 29, 1948 the verdict was announced. On counts 1 and 5, specifically relating to the waging of wars, the defendants were found not guilty; while the court found the defendants had worked to assist the Nazi party there was not evidence the executives were directly advising Hitler. However, on the rest of the counts (mass murder/enslavement, plunder, SS membership), Meer - along with other executives- was found guilty as charged. He was sentenced to seven years imprisonment. The court, in part of its findings regarding Meer wrote: \"The inference is strong that Farben officials subordinate to Ter Meer took the initiative in securing the services of these inmates at the plant site. This inference is further supported by the fact that Farben at its own expense and with funds appropriated by the TEA [Technical Committee], of which Ter Meer was chairman, built Camp Monowitz for the specific purpose of housing its concentration-camp workers. We are convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that the officials in charge of Farben construction went beyond the necessity created by the pressure of government officials and may be justly charged with taking the initiative in planning for and availing themselves of the use of concentration-camp labor. Of these officials Ter Meer had greatest authority.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bayer chairmanship and later life.", "content": "He was released early in the summer of 1950 because of \"good behaviour\" from Landsberg Prison. In 1956 Meer became Chairman of the board for IG Farben spinoff, Bayer AG. He held the position of supervisory board chairman until 1964. In subsequent years, he also took on board positions at a number of other companies, including, inter alia, Theodor Goldschmidt AG, Commerzbank AG, Bank Association, Duewag, VIAG and Union Bank AG, West Germany.  He retired in 1961.  In his memory, his employer set up the Fritz-ter-Meer-Stiftung, now called the Bayer Science & Education Foundation, which promotes chemistry students through scholarships.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Fritz ter Meer (4 July 1884 – 27 October 1967) was a German chemist, Bayer board chairman, Nazi Party member and war criminal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973891}
{"src_title": "Guy Laliberté", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Laliberté was born in 1959 in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. His interest in show business began at a relatively young age. His parents took him to watch the Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey Circus, an experience which led Laliberté to read the biography of P. T. Barnum. While he was still in school, Guy produced several performing arts events. After school, he became a street performer, playing the harmonica and accordion on the streets of Quebec. Laliberté joined a performing troupe called Les Échassiers, which included fire-breathers, jugglers, and acrobats who hitchhiked around the country to shows. He later returned to Quebec, where he obtained a full-time job at a hydroelectric dam. However, soon after his employment began, the company's employees went on strike. Laliberté took the opportunity to return to his life as a street performer.  In 1980, he ran as a Rhinoceros Party candidate for the electoral district of Charlevoix in the 1980 federal election.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cirque du Soleil.", "content": "Guy Laliberté co-founded Quebec's first internationally renowned circus with Gilles Ste-Croix and a small group of colleagues. He recognized and cultivated the talents of the buskers from the Fête foraine de Baie-Saint-Paul and created Cirque du Soleil in 1984 with the support of a government grant for the celebration of the 450th anniversary of Jacques Cartier's discovery of Canada. Cirque du Soleil was originally set up as a one-year project. However, the government of Quebec wanted a touring event that would perform in other provinces.  The name 'Cirque du Soleil' (\"circus of the sun\"), which Laliberté came up with while he was in Hawaii, reflects his notion that \"the sun stands for energy and youth\" and that the circus is about those two words. In founding the company, Guy Laliberté was assisted by Gilles Ste-Croix. It is said that Laliberté is the \"father\" of Cirque du Soleil while Ste-Croix is the \"grandfather.\"  Since 1984, Laliberté has participated in the creation of every Cirque du Soleil show.  Cirque du Soleil has become a sprawling international operation, as much in terms of its makeup as in the scope of its activities and influence. The organization now has activities on five continents. Its shows employ approximately 4,000 people from over 40 countries and generate an estimated annual revenue exceeding US$810 million.  In 2015 he sold 90% of his stock in the company. On February 17, 2020, he sold the remaining 10% to Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Poker career.", "content": "In April 2007, Laliberté finished fourth in the World Poker Tour Season Five event at Bellagio in Las Vegas and won $696,220. Laliberté also played on GSN's \"High Stakes Poker\" Season 4 show and took part in \"Poker After Dark\" season 4. He was also known for frequenting the highest stakes games on Full Tilt Poker. In 2011 Laliberté announced the Big One, a $1 million dollar buy-in tournament which was featured at the 2012 World Series of Poker. Part of the prize money was donated to Laliberté's philanthropic organization One Drop Foundation. 48 players participated in the tournament and Antonio Esfandiari won the $18,346,673 first-place prize. The tournament raised $5,333,328 for the One Drop foundation.  Laliberté has lost the most amount of money on online poker cash games. Over his six accounts, noataima, patatino, lady marmelade, elmariachimacho, Esvedra and Zypherin, Laliberté has lost approximately US$31,000,000.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spaceflight.", "content": "In September 2009, Laliberté became the first Canadian space tourist. His spaceflight was dedicated to raising awareness on water issues facing humankind, making his spaceflight the first, in his words, \"poetic social mission\" in space. The event was accompanied by a 120-minute webcast program featuring various artistic performances in 14 cities on five continents, including the International Space Station.  In May 2020, Canada's Federal Court of Appeals ruled that his trip should be considered primarily personal, and not work related, and directed income tax be assessed on 90% of the cost of the trip.  In June 2011, Laliberté published a book, entitled \"Gaia\", containing photos of Earth from his 2009 trip to the International Space Station. Proceeds from his book are to go to the One Drop Foundation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Atoll of Nukutepipi.", "content": "Guy Laliberté became in 2007 the owner of the atoll of Nukutepipi in the French Polynesia. Major works that took place there were expected to end in 2016 at the cost of approximately CA$20 million, according to \"Journal de Montréal\" (see below).  In May 2014, Guy Laliberté told the \"Journal de Montréal\" that he wanted to make of this place a shelter that could accommodate his family and friends in the event of a global catastrophe. \"Because of all that's happening in the world, I said to myself: that could be the place where, in case of an epidemic or a total war, I could bring people I like and my family so that we'd be protected. It will be completely autonomous on the level operation: solar, environmental, ecologic.\"  On 13 November 2019, following his arrest for cannabis cultivation, Laliberté's investment firm Lune Rouge stated that \"Laliberté is being questioned in respect of cultivation of cannabis for his personal use only at the residence on the island of Nukutepipi\" in Tahiti..", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards and honours.", "content": "In 1997, Guy Laliberté received the National Order of Quebec, the highest distinction awarded by the Government of Quebec. In 2001, he was named a Great Montrealer by the Académie des Grands Montréalais. In 2003, he was honored by the Condé Nast group as part of the Never Follow Program, a tribute to creators and innovators. In 2004, he received the Order of Canada, the highest distinction in the country, from the Governor General of Canada. The same year, he was recognized by \"Time Magazine\" as one of the 100 most influential people in the world.  In 2006, Laliberté took the Ernst & Young Entrepreneur of the Year award for all three levels: Quebec, Canada and international. Entrepreneur of the Year, then, in 2007, was named Ernst & Young World Entrepreneur Of The Year.  Université Laval (Québec) awarded an honorary doctorate to Guy Laliberté in 2008. On 22 November 2010, he and Cirque du Soleil were honoured with the 2,424th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Laliberté's son Kami is a racing driver competing in the European junior formulae. He recorded one race victory in F4 but has no record of racing after 2017. His daughter Naïma is a competitive dressage rider.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Guy Laliberté, (born 2 September 1959) is a Canadian billionaire businessman, and poker player. Along with Gilles Ste-Croix, he is the co-founder of Cirque du Soleil. In January 2018, Laliberté was ranked by \"Forbes\" as the 11th wealthiest Canadian.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973892}
{"src_title": "Bianca Maria Sforza", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bianca was born in Pavia as the eldest daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan, by his second wife, Bona of Savoy. Bianca's paternal grandparents were Francesco I Sforza and Bianca Maria Visconti, for whom she was named.  When Bianca was not yet five years old, her father was assassinated inside the Church of Santo Stefano in Milan on 26 December 1476, which was the Feast Day of St. Stephen. He was stabbed to death by three high-ranking officials of the Milanese court.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First marriage.", "content": "On 6 January 1474 the 21-month-old Bianca married her first cousin Philibert I, Duke of Savoy, the son of her uncle Amadeus IX of Savoy, and Yolande of France. Duke Philibert I died in the spring of 1482, leaving Bianca a widow at the age of ten. She returned to Milan, under the tutelage of her uncle Ludovico \"Il Moro\", who cared little about her education and allowed her to indulge her own interests, mainly needlework.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Betrothals.", "content": "Three years later, on 31 July 1485, the engagement between Bianca and Janus Corvinus, the only (though illegitimate) son of King Matthias of Hungary was formally announced. With this marriage, the Hungarian ruler wanted to secure his son's future inheritance of Hungary and Bohemia and to make him Duke of Austria. The marriage by proxy was signed on 25 November 1487, and according to the terms of the contract, Bianca received several Hungarian counties. However, due to the opposition and intrigues of Queen Beatrix, wife of Matthias, the formal marriage never took place. In March 1492 a marriage between Bianca and King James IV of Scotland was considered, but the idea was soon abandoned.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen and Empress.", "content": "On 16 March 1494 in Hall, Tyrol, she married for the second time, to the King of the Holy Roman Empire, Maximilian I, who had been a widower since the death of his first wife Mary of Burgundy, who was fatally injured on 27 March 1482 after falling from her horse. Bianca's second marriage was arranged by her uncle, who wanted recognition and the title of Duke confirmed by the Emperor; in exchange, the Emperor received a large dowry along with Bianca. Her magnificent retinue on her way to her wedding aroused much attention.  At her wedding, Bianca wore a bodice \"with eighty pieces of the jeweler's art pinned thereon, with each piece consisting of one ruby and four pearls\". She also brought her husband a rich dowry of 400,000 ducats, and through his marriage, Maximilian was able to assert his right to the Imperial overlordship of Milan. This angered Anne of France, regent of France for her brother King Charles VIII, and brought about French intervention in Italy, thus inaugurating the lengthy Italian Wars.  The union was unhappy: shortly after the consummation of the marriage, Maximilian complained that Bianca may have been more beautiful than his first wife but was not as wise. It was impossible for the young bride to win the affection of her husband, who considered her too uneducated, talkative, naive, wasteful with money, and careless. He did wish to have children with her, but all their attempts failed: despite Bianca's several pregnancies, none produced a living child. She very much liked his two surviving legitimate children (Philip the Handsome, who married Joanna of Castile, and Archduchess Margaret of Austria, who first married John, Prince of Asturias, and later Philibert II, Duke of Savoy), but was criticized for forgetting her dignity when she sat on the floor with them to play.  After 1500, Maximilian lost all interest in Bianca. She lived with her own court of Milanese people in various castles in Tyrol. On several occasions he left her behind as security when he could not pay for his rooms on trips.  Maximilian took the title of Holy Roman Emperor Elect in 1508. Bianca was, by marriage, Empress of the Holy Roman Empire.  Bianca Maria Sforza died at Innsbruck on 31 December 1510. She was buried at Stams. Her husband did not attend her funeral or even dedicate a gravestone to her.  A noteworthy portrait of Bianca Maria Sforza by Ambrogio de Predis hangs in the National Gallery of Art of the United States in Washington, D.C.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Bianca Maria Sforza (5 April 1472 – 31 December 1510) was a Queen of the Romans and Holy Roman Empress as the third spouse of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. She was the eldest legitimate daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan, by his second wife, Bona of Savoy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973893}
{"src_title": "Furfural", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Furfural was first isolated in 1821 (published in 1832) by the German chemist Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, who produced a small sample as a byproduct of formic acid synthesis. At the time, formic acid was formed by the distillation of dead ants, and Döbereiner's ant bodies probably contained some plant matter. In 1840, the Scottish chemist John Stenhouse found that the same chemical could be produced by distilling a wide variety of crop materials, including corn, oats, bran, and sawdust, with aqueous sulfuric acid; he also determined an empirical formula of (CHO). George Fownes named this oil furfurol in 1845 (from \"furfur\" - bran, and \"oleum\"). This name persisted prominently in the literature until 1901 when the German chemist Carl Harries deduced furfural's structure.  Furfural remained relatively obscure until 1922, when the Quaker Oats Company began mass-producing it from oat hulls. Today, furfural is still produced from agricultural byproducts like sugarcane bagasse and corn cobs. The main countries producing furfural today are the Dominican Republic, South Africa and China.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "Furfural dissolves readily in most polar organic solvents, but it is only slightly soluble in either water or alkanes.  Furfural participates in the same kinds of reactions as other aldehydes and other aromatic compounds. It exhibits less aromatic character than benzene, as can be seen from the fact that furfural is readily hydrogenated to tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol. When heated in the presence of acids, furfural irreversibly polymerizes, acting as a thermosetting polymer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Furfural may be obtained by the acid catalyzed dehydration of 5-carbon sugars (pentoses), particularly xylose.  These sugars may be obtained from hemicellulose present in lignocellulosic biomass, which can be extracted from most terrestrial plants.  Between 3% and 10% of the mass of crop residue feedstocks can be recovered as furfural, depending on the type of feedstock. Furfural and water evaporate together from the reaction mixture, and separate upon condensation. The global production capacity is about 800,000 tons as of 2012. China is the biggest supplier of furfural, and accounts for the greater part of global capacity. The other two major commercial producers are Illovo Sugar in the Republic of South Africa and Central Romana in the Dominican Republic  In the laboratory, furfural can be synthesized from plant material by reflux with dilute sulfuric acid or other acids.  In industrial production, some lignocellulosic residue remains after the removal of the furfural. This residue is dried and burned to provide steam for the operation of the furfural plant. Newer and more energy efficient plants have excess residue, which is or can be used for co-generation of electricity, cattle feed, activated carbon, mulch/fertiliser, etc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses and occurrence.", "content": "It is found in many foods: coffee (55–255 mg/kg) and whole grain bread (26 mg/kg).  Furfural is an important renewable, non-petroleum based, chemical feedstock. It can be converted into a variety of solvents, polymers, fuels and other useful chemicals by a range of catalytic reductions.  Hydrogenation of furfural provides furfuryl alcohol (FA), which is used to produce Furan resins, which are exploited in thermoset polymer matrix composites, cements, adhesives, casting resins and coatings. Further hydrogenation of furfuryl alcohol leads to tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol (THFA), which is used as a solvent in agricultural formulations and as an adjuvant to help herbicides penetrate the leaf structure.  Another important solvent made from furfural is methyltetrahydrofuran. Furfural is used to make other furan derivatives, such as furoic acid, via oxidation, and furan itself via palladium catalyzed vapor phase decarbonylation.  Furfural is also a specialized chemical solvent.  There is a good market for value added chemicals that can be obtained from furfural.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Furfural is carcinogenic in lab animals and mutagenic in single cell organisms, but there is no data on human subjects. It is classified in IARC Group 3 due to the lack of data on humans and too few tests on animals to satisfy Group 2A/2B criteria. It is hepatotoxic.  The median lethal dose is low 650–900 mg/kg (oral, dogs), consistent with its pervasiveness in foods.  The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set a permissible exposure limit for furfural at 5ppm over an eight-hour time-weighted average (TWA), and also designates furfural as a risk for skin absorption.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Furfural is an organic compound with the formula CHOCHO. It is a colorless liquid, although commercial samples are often brown. It has an aldehyde group attached to the 2-position of furan. It is a product of the dehydration of sugars, as occur in a variety of agricultural byproducts, including corncobs, oat, wheat bran, and sawdust. The name \"furfural\" comes from the Latin word, meaning bran, referring to its usual source. Furfural is only derived from lignocellulosic biomass, i.e. its origin is non-food or non-coal/oil based. Aside from ethanol, acetic acid and sugar it is one of the oldest renewable chemicals. It is also found in many processed foods and beverages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973894}
{"src_title": "Skipping rope", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Skipping rope techniques.", "content": "There are many techniques which can be used when skipping. These can be used individually, or combined in a series, to create a routine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Solo participants.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Basic jump or easy jump.", "content": "Jump with both feet slightly apart over the rope. Beginners usually master this technique first before moving onto more advanced techniques.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Alternate foot jump (speed step).", "content": "Use alternate feet to jump off the ground. This technique can be used to effectively double the number of jumps per minute as compared to the above technique. This step can be used for speed events.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Criss-cross.", "content": "Also known as crossover or cross arms. Perform the basic jump whilst crossing arms in front of the body.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Side Swing.", "content": "The rope is passed by the side of the participant's body, without jumping it.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "EB (front-back cross or sailor).", "content": "Perform the criss-cross whilst crossing one arm behind the back.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Double under.", "content": "A high basic jump, turning the rope twice under the feet. Turning the rope three times is called a triple under. In competitions, participants may attempt quadruple (quads) and quintuple unders (quins) using the same method.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Toad.", "content": "Perform the criss-cross with one arm crossing under the opposite leg from the inside.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Leg over / Crougar.", "content": "A basic jump with one arm hooked under the adjacent leg.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Awesome Annie.", "content": "Also known as Awesome Anna or swish. Alternates between a leg over and a toad without a jump in between.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Inverse toad.", "content": "Perform the toad whilst one arm crosses the adjacent leg from the outside.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Elephant.", "content": "A cross between the inverse toad and the toad, with both arms crossing under one leg.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Frog or Donkey kick.", "content": "The participant does a handstand, returns to their feet and turns the rope under them. A more advanced version turns the rope during the return to the ground.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "TJ.", "content": "A triple-under where the first 'jump' is a side swing, middle jump is a toad, and the final jump in an open.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Competition techniques.", "content": "In competitions, participants are required to demonstrate competence using specific techniques. The selection depend on the judging system and country in which the tournament is held.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health effects.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Skipping as exercise.", "content": "Skipping may be used as a cardiovascular workout, similar to jogging or bicycle riding, and has a high MET or intensity level. This aerobic exercise can achieve a \"burn rate\" of up to 700 to over 1200 calories per hour of vigorous activity, with about 0.1 to nearly 1.1 calories consumed per jump mainly depending upon the speed and intensity of jumps and leg foldings. Ten minutes of skipping is roughly the equivalent of running an eight-minute mile. Skipping for 15–20 minutes is enough to burn off the calories from a candy bar and is equivalent to 45–60 minutes of running depending upon the intensity of jumps and leg swings. Many professional trainers, fitness experts and professional fighters greatly recommend skipping for burning fat over any other alternative exercises like running and jogging.  Weighted skipping ropes are available for such athletes to increase the difficulty and effectiveness of such exercise. Individuals or groups can participate in the exercise, and learning proper techniques is relatively simple compared to many other athletic activities. The exercise is also appropriate for a wide range of ages and fitness levels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Competition.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International.", "content": "There are two main world organisations: International Rope Skipping Federation (FISAC-IRSF), and the World Jump Rope Federation (WJRF). There have been 11 World Championships on every alternate year by (FISAC), with the most recent held in Shanghai, China. There have been 7 World Jump Rope Championships held every year by (WJRF); the most recent taking place in Orlando, Florida. Other locations of this championship include Washington DC, France, and Portugal.  Merger Recently International Rope Skipping Federation (FISAC-IRSF) and World Jump Rope Federation (WJRF) both announced merged organisation called International Jump Rope Union.The International Jump Rope Union (IJRU) has become the 10th International Federation to gain GAISF Observer status. The decision was taken by the Global Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF) Council, which met during SportAccord in Bangkok. Observer status is the first step on a clear pathway for new International Federations towards the top of the Olympic Family pyramid. Those who wish to proceed will be assisted by GAISF, leading them into full GAISF membership through the Alliance of Independent Recognised Members of Sport (AIMS), and the Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF).  International Rope Skipping Organisation later in 2019 International Rope Skipping Organisations IRSO re-emerged and reactivated its activities. The organisation is headed by the founder of Rope Skipping / Jump Rope sport Richard Cendali. IRSO disagree and was not happy the way both organisations International Rope Skipping Federation and World Jump Rope Federation ignored several long-standing organisations in this merger. Various organisations that have long-standing for the development of the sport but eft out of the merger came under IRSO under the leadership of Richard Cendali. USA Jump Rope Federation and newly formed Asian Rope Skipping Association also joined IRSO and decided to host their World Championship in conjunction with AAU.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World Inter School.", "content": "The first World Inter-School Rope Skipping Championship was held at Dubai, November 2015. The second World Inter-School Rope Skipping Championship was held at Eger, Hungary. The Championship was organised by World Inter School Rope Skipping Organisation (WIRSO). Second, third and fourth World Inter-School championships held in Hungary 2017, Hong Kong 2018 and Belgium 2019 respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Historically in the United States there were two competing jump rope organizations: the International Rope Skipping Organization (IRSO), and the World Rope Skipping Federation (WRSF). IRSO focused on stunt-oriented and gymnastic/athletic type moves, while the WRSF appreciated the aesthetics and form of the exercise. In 1995 these two organizations merged to form the United States Amateur Jump Rope Federation (now, USA Jump Rope). USA Jump Rope hosts annual national tournaments, as well as camps, workshops, and clinics on instruction. Jump rope is also part of the Amateur Athletic Union and participates in their annual AAU Junior Olympic Games.  Speed jump ropes are made from a thin vinyl cord. They are best for indoor use, because they will wear down fast on concrete or other harsh surfaces. The beaded ropes make rhythmic jumping very easy, because the jumper can hear the beads hitting the ground and strive for a rhythmic pattern. The leather jump rope tangles less than the speed rope.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A skipping rope (British English) or jump rope (American English) is a tool used in the sport of skipping/jump rope where one or more participants jump over a rope swung so that it passes under their feet and over their heads. There are multiple subsets of skipping/jump rope, including single freestyle, single speed, pairs, three-person speed (Double Dutch), and three-person freestyle (Double Dutch freestyle). Often separated by sex and age, events include hundreds of competitive teams all around the world. There are a few major organizations that support jump rope as a sport as seen below. In the US, schools rarely have jump rope teams, and states do not sanction official events for high school or elementary school. In freestyle events, jumpers use a variety of basic and advanced techniques in a routine of one minute, which is judged by a head judge, content judges, and performance judges. In speed events, a jumper alternates their feet with the rope going around the jumper every time one of their feet hit the ground for 30 seconds, one minute, or three minutes. The jumper is judged on the number of times the right foot touches the ground in those times.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973895}
{"src_title": "Paul Blobel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in the city of Potsdam, Blobel fought in the First World War, in which by all accounts he served well, being decorated with the Iron Cross first class. After the war, Blobel studied architecture and practiced this profession from 1924 until 1931, when upon losing his job he joined the Nazi Party, the SA, and the SS (he had joined all of these by 1 December 1931).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "SS career.", "content": "In 1933 Blobel joined the police force in Düsseldorf. In June 1934 he was recruited into the SD Security Service. During World War II, following Operation Barbarossa, in June 1941 Blobel became the commanding officer of \"Sonderkommando 4a\" of Einsatzgruppe C, active in Reichskommissariat Ukraine. Both, \"Einsatzgruppen\" and the Order Police battalions were responsible for massacres of Jews behind the Wehrmacht lines in the Soviet Union. The murder campaign included all political and racial undesirables. In August 1941 Blobel was put in charge of creating a Nazi ghetto in Zhytomyr to enclose around 3,000 Jews who were murdered a month later.  On 10 or 11 August 1941, Friedrich Jeckeln ordered him, on behalf of Adolf Hitler, to exterminate the entire Jewish population. On 22 August 1941, the \"Sonderkommando\" murdered Jewish women and children at Bila Tserkva with the consent of Field Marshal Walther von Reichenau, commander of the 6th Army. SS-\"Obersturmführer\" August Häfner testified at his own 1942 trial:  Blobel, in conjunction with Reichenau's and Friedrich Jeckeln's units, organised the Babi Yar massacre in late September 1941 in Kiev, where 33,771 Jews were murdered. In November 1941, Blobel received and activated the first gas vans at Poltava.  Blobel was relieved of his command on 13 January 1942, officially for health reasons, but mostly due to his alcoholism. In June 1942 he was put in charge of Aktion 1005, with the task of destroying the evidence of all Nazi atrocities in Eastern Europe. This entailed exhumation of mass graves, then incinerating the bodies. Blobel developed efficient disposal techniques such as alternating layers of bodies with firewood on a frame of iron rails.  In October 1944 he headed an anti-partisan group in Yugoslavia. Gitta Sereny related the conversation about Blobel she once had with one-time Chief of the Church Information Branch at the Reich Security Head Office, Albert Hartl.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial and conviction.", "content": "Up to 59,018 killings are attributable to Blobel, though during testimony he was alleged to have killed 10,000–15,000 people. He was later sentenced to death by the U.S. Nuremberg Military Tribunal in the Einsatzgruppen trial. He was hanged at Landsberg Prison shortly after midnight on June 7, 1951.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul Blobel (13 August 1894 – 7 June 1951) was a German SS commander and convicted war criminal. He was the key figure in organising and executing the Babi Yar massacre of 1941. In June 1942, Blobel was put in charge of Sonderaktion 1005, with the task of destroying the evidence of Nazi atrocities in Eastern Europe. After the war, he was convicted at the Einsatzgruppen Trial and executed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973896}
{"src_title": "Paneuropean Union", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Members.", "content": "The Paneuropean Union is one of the largest European organizations and in 2020 has member organizations in", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The organisation was prohibited by Nazi Germany in 1933, and was founded again after the Second World War. Otto von Habsburg, the head of the Habsburg dynasty and former Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary, became involved with the Paneuropean Union in the 1930s, was elected its Vice President in 1957 and became its International President in 1973, after Coudenhove's death. The President of the Union since 2004 is Alain Terrenoire, former Member of Parliament in France and MEP and Director of the French Paneuropa-Union. Otto Habsburg became the International Honorary President of the International Paneuropean Union in 2004. Its Vice President is Walburga Habsburg Douglas, a member of the Swedish Parliament.  The Union has branches in many European countries, with the General Secretariat located in Munich. In France, the Pan-Europa Union was founded by later President Georges Pompidou and later cabinet minister Louis Terrenoire, with the support of Charles de Gaulle. The Union achieved high political influence in France, particularly within the Gaullist segment of French politics.  Winston Churchill lauded the movement's work for a unified Europe prior to the war in his famous Zurich speech in 1946.  In 1947, the group formed around Duncan Sandys, Winston Churchill, Edvard Beneš and others split into newly formed European Movement in opposition of the Union's strong Christian right.  Grounded in liberal values, the Paneuropean Union was considered staunchly anti-communist from its inception and especially during the Cold War. For this reason, the organisation was much reviled by the communist regimes of the Eastern Bloc. The organisation became renowned for its role in organising the Pan-European Picnic, an important event during the Revolutions of 1989.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prominent Members.", "content": "The Paneuropean Union lists the following as historical members:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The International Paneuropean Union, also referred to as the Paneuropean Movement and the Pan-Europa Movement, is the oldest European unification movement. It began with the publishing of Count Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi's manifesto \"Paneuropa\" (1923), which presented the idea of a unified European State. Coudenhove-Kalergi, a member of the Bohemian Coudenhove-Kalergi family and the son of an Austro-Hungarian diplomat and a Japanese mother, was the organisation's central figure and President until his death in 1972.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973897}
{"src_title": "Ba Jin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and anarchism.", "content": "Born in Chengdu, Sichuan, Li was born into a scholarly family of officials. His paternal grandfather ruled the large, five generation household with an autocratic hand, which young Li found stifling, not unlike that depicted in his famous novel, \"The Family\". As a child Li was taught to read and write first by his mother, and later by privately engaged house tutors. It was not until the death of this grandfather in 1917, causing a power struggle which ended with an elder uncle emerging victorious, that he was released to explore the world. As a youngster, Li read widely and was deeply influenced by Piotr Kropotkin's famous pamphlet, \"An Appeal to the Young\", which he read at age fifteen. Hugely impressed by Emma Goldman, whom he later referred to as his \"spiritual mother\", Li started a lifelong correspondence with her.  In 1920, Li enrolled, with an elder brother, in the Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School to study English. It was there he first engaged in the organization of literary journal \"Crescent\" and wrote a number of vers libre. Joining an anarchist organization, the Equality Society, Li became its most prominent member, actively distributing propaganda leaflets.  Three years later, Li moved to Shanghai and subsequently to Dongnan University, Nanjing on the pretext of study, but mainly, as he put it, to escape the feudalistic (fengjian) influence of his family. There, he mastered Esperanto within one year of study and took part in leftist socialist strikes, while remaining active in the anarchist movement, writing a pamphlet on the Chicago Anarchist Martyrs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France (1927–1928).", "content": "On graduation, he left on board a liner on February 15, 1927, with a friend for Paris, France, for further studies, where he lodged at the 5th arrondissement (three months at Rue Banville, then Rue Tournefort, No. 2). He described his life there as boring and monotonous, taking daily afternoon walks at the Jardin du Luxembourg and evening French lessons at Alliance Francaise. He recalled especially Rousseau's statue at the Panthéon (\"I almost knelt before it...he whom Tolstoy described as the conscience of the 18th century\"), the River Seine and the tolling of the Notre Dame. In Paris, Li writes:  It was partly owing to boredom when Li began to write his first novel, \"Miewang\" (“Destruction”). In France, Li continued his anarchist activism, translated many anarchist works, including Kropotkin's \"Ethics\", into Chinese, which was mailed back to Shanghai's anarchist magazines for publication. Alexander Berkman was one of many anarchist leaders he met there.  The trials of Italian immigrants Sacco and Vanzetti filled the fervent writer with anger and Ba Jin worked tirelessly to champion their release. Vanzetti apparently was moved enough to reply to the young man from his American prison, with a package of anarchist texts for his readings. Their short correspondence ceased when Vanzetti was executed, along with Sacco, on August 23, 1927. Li published in late 1932 the short story \"The Electric Chair\" (), to protest against their execution.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shanghai and later life.", "content": "On his return to Shanghai in 1928, Ba Jin continued writing and working on translations. His first novel, \"Destruction\", was released serially by \"Fiction Monthly\" in 1929, a foremost literary magazine, and earned him many admirers.  During the next 10 years, Li acted as editor to several important publishing firms and periodicals, as well as composing the works which he is best known for – \"The Family\" (1931), The Love Trilogy \"Fog\" (1931), \"Rain\" (1933) and \"Lightning\" (1935), the novellas \"Autumn in Spring\" and \"A Dream of the Sea\", the short story collection \"Mengya\" (“Germination”) and prose writings in \"Fuchou\" (\"Vengeance\") and \"Shen, Gui, Ren\" (\"Gods, Ghosts and Men\").  During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Ba Jin was actively involved in propaganda work against the Japanese invasion, working on the publication \"Nahan\" (“Outcries”, later renamed \"Fenghuo\", “Beacons”) with Mao Dun. In the later stages of the war, Ba Jin completed the famous Torrents Trilogy — of which \"The Family\" (1931) was the first written — with \"Spring\" (1938) and \"Autumn\" (1940). Other works of the post-war period, like the short novels \"A Garden of Repose\" (1944), \"Ward Four\" (1946) and \"Cold Nights\" (1947), contain some of his strongest writing. He ceased fiction writing after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, choosing to concentrate on nonfiction instead.  During the Cultural Revolution, Ba Jin was heavily persecuted as a counter-revolutionary. His wife, Xiao Shan, died during the Revolution after being denied medical care, and the manner of her death traumatized Ba Jin for the rest of his life. He was rehabilitated in 1977, after which he was elected to many important national literary posts, including chairman of the Chinese Writers' Association (since 1983). The most significant work of his later years is the discursive writings in \"Suixiang Lu\" (translated as \"Random Thoughts\", five volumes, composed between 1978 and 1986), in which, among other things, he reflected on the Cultural Revolution in a painfully honest manner and asked specifically for a Cultural Revolution Museum to be set up as a deterrent for future generations.  He spoke and advocated Esperanto and in the 1980s was the vice-president of the Chinese Esperanto League.  Ba Jin's works were heavily influenced by foreign writers, including Émile Zola, Ivan Turgenev, Alexandr Herzen, Anton Chekhov, and Emma Goldman, and a substantial amount of his collected works are devoted to translations. His writing style, characterized by simplicity, avoids difficult, abstruse words, making him one of the most popular of all modern Chinese writers.  Ba Jin suffered from Parkinson's disease beginning in 1983, and the ailment almost completely debilitated him in his later years. The illness confined him to a hospital unable to speak and walk during the last few years of his life. Ba Jin died of cancer in Shanghai at the age of 100 (101 by Chinese reckoning) in 2005. His death marked the end of an era for Chinese literature, especially since he was the last major writer to live through the May Fourth Movement. He received the Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize in 1990.  Asteroid 8315 Bajin is named in his honor.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Li Yaotang (25 November 190417 October 2005), better known by his pen name Ba Jin and also known as Li Pei Kan, was a Chinese author and political activist best known for his novel \"The Family\". He is considered to be one of the most important and widely read Chinese writers of the 20th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973898}
{"src_title": "Battle of Pliska", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Initial campaigns.", "content": "When Nicephorus I became emperor in 802, he planned to reincorporate Bulgar-held territory back into the empire. In 807 he launched a campaign but only reached Odrin and achieved nothing because of a conspiracy in his capital. That attempted attack, however, gave reason for the Bulgar Khan Krum to undertake military operations against the Byzantine Empire. The main objective was an extension to the south and south-west. In the next year a Bulgar army penetrated the Struma Valley and defeated the Byzantines. The Bulgar troops captured 1,100 \"litres\" (roughly 332 to 348 kilograms) of gold and killed many enemy soldiers including all \"strategoi\" and most of the commanders. In 809 the Khan personally besieged the strong fortress of Serdica and seized the city, killing the whole garrison of 6,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation for an invasion.", "content": "In 811, the Byzantine Emperor organised a large campaign to conquer Bulgaria once and for all. He gathered an enormous army from the Anatolian and European \"themata\", and the imperial bodyguard (the \"tagmata\"); they were joined by a number of irregular troops who expected a swift victory and plunder. The conquest was supposed to be easy, and most of the high-ranking officials and aristocrats accompanied him, including his son Stauracius and his brother-in-law Michael I Rangabe. The whole army consisted of around 60,000 to 80,000 soldiers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sack of Pliska.", "content": "The army gathered in May, and by 10 July had set up camp at the fortress of Marcelae (present-day Karnobat) near the Bulgarian frontier. Nicephorus intended to confuse them and over the next ten days launched several supposed attacks, which were immediately called back. Krum assessed the situation and estimated that he could not repulse the enemy and offered peace, which Nicephorus haughtily rejected. Theophanes wrote that the Emperor, \"was deterred from his own ill thoughts and the suggestions of his advisors who were thinking like him\". Some of his military chiefs considered the invasion of Bulgaria to be imprudent and too risky, but Nicephorus was convinced of his ultimate success.  In June he invaded the Bulgarian lands and marched through the Balkan passes towards the capital of Pliska. On 20 July Nicephorus divided the army into three columns, each marching by a different route towards Pliska. He met little resistance and after three days he reached the capital where the Byzantines met an army of 12,000 elite soldiers who guarded the stronghold. The Bulgarians were defeated and most of them perished. Another hastily assembled army of 15,000 soldiers had a similar fate. On 23 July the Byzantines quickly captured the defenseless capital. The city was sacked and the countryside destroyed. Khan Krum attempted once more to negotiate for peace. According to the historian Theophanes, Krum's proclamation stated, \"Here you are, you have won. So take what you please and go with peace.\" Nicephorus, overconfident from his success, ignored him. He believed that Bulgaria was thoroughly conquered.  Michael the Syrian, patriarch of the Syrian Jacobites in the twelfth century, described in his Chronicle the brutalities and atrocities of Nicephorus's troops: \"Nicephorus, emperor of the Romans, walked in Bulgarians land: he was victorious and killed a great number of them. He reached their capital, took it over and devastated it. His savagery went to such a point that he ordered to bring their small children, got them tied down on earth and made thresh grain stones to smash them.\" The Byzantine soldiers looted and plundered; burnt down the unharvested fields, cut the tendons of the oxen, slaughtered sheep and pigs.\" The Emperor took over Krum's treasury, locked it and did not allow his troops to reach it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "While Nicephorus and his army were busy plundering the Bulgarian capital, Krum mobilized his people (including women and Avar mercenaries) to set traps and ambushes in the mountain passes. Initially Nicephorus intended to march through Moesia and reach Serdica before returning to Constantinople but the news of these preparations for a battle changed his decision and he chose the shortest way to his capital. The overconfident Emperor neglected to scout ahead. On 25 July his army entered the Varbica Pass but his cavalry told him the road was barred with thick wooden walls and Krum's detachments watched from the heights around. The Emperor became panicked by the situation and repeatedly stated to his companions \"Even if we have had wings we could not have escaped from peril.\" Before they could retreat, the Bulgars blocked the valley entrance too.  Nicephorus, unable to face attacking one of the palisades, simply set up camp, despite his generals' misgivings. By the third night Byzantine morale was shattered, while Bulgar troops banged their shields and taunted them.  On that night the Bulgarians gathered their troops and tightened the belt around the trapped enemy. At dawn they rushed down and started to kill the panicked and totally confused Byzantines. The \"tagmata\" were the first to be attacked. The Byzantines fruitlessly resisted for a short time and perished. Upon seeing their comrades' fate, the next units immediately ran away.  On their way south the Byzantine forces hit a muddy river which was difficult to cross. As they could not find a ford quickly enough, many Byzantines fell into the river. The first stalled in the mud with their horses and were trampled by those who came next. The river was filled with so many dead that the chasing Bulgarians easily passed over them and continued the pursuit. Those who passed through the river reached the wooden wall which was high and thick. The Byzantines left their horses and began climbing the wall with hands and legs and hung over the other side. The Bulgarians had dug a deep moat from the inner side and when the Byzantine soldiers were getting across the ramparts, they fell from the high wall, breaking their limbs. Some of them died instantly, others hobbled some time before falling to the ground and dying from thirst and hunger. The Byzantine troops burned the wall at several places but as they were rushing to get across it, they too fell into the moat along with the burning parts of the palisade. Almost everyone perished; some were killed by the sword, others drowned in the river or were mortally injured after falling from the wall and some of them died in the fire. Among the nobles killed were the patricians Theodosios Salibaras and Sisinnios Triphyllios; the \"strategos\" of the Anatolics Romanos and the \"strategos\" of Thrace; as well as the commanders of the Excubitors and Vigla \"tagmata\". Reportedly, only a few survived the defeat. The most notable person to be killed, however, was Emperor Nicephorus, who according to historians died on a dunghill on the day of the battle. Nicephorus's son, Stauracius, was carried to safety by the Imperial bodyguard after receiving a paralyzing wound to his neck. Six months later, his wounds finally killed him. According to tradition, Krum had the Emperor's head on a spike, then lined his skull with silver and used it as a drinking cup.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Pliska or Battle of Vărbitsa Pass was a series of battles between troops, gathered from all parts of the Byzantine Empire, led by the Emperor Nicephorus I Genik, and the First Bulgarian Empire, governed by Khan Krum. The Byzantines plundered and burned the Bulgar capital Pliska which gave time for the Bulgarians to block passes in the Balkan Mountains that served as exits out of Bulgaria. The final battle took place on 26 July 811, in some of the passes in the eastern part of the Balkans, most probably the Vărbitsa Pass. There, the Bulgarians used the tactics of ambush and surprise night attacks to effectively trap and immobilize the Byzantine army, thus annihilating almost the whole army, including the Emperor. After the battle, Krum encased Nicephorus's skull in silver, and used it as a cup for wine-drinking. This is one of the best documented instances of the custom of the skull cup.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973899}
{"src_title": "Fiat Barchetta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Barchetta was developed between 1990 and 1994, under the project name \"Tipo B Spider 176\". It was designed by Andreas Zapatinas and Alessandro Cavazza, under the supervision of Peter Barrett Davis and other car designers at the \"Centro Stile Fiat\", and prototyping was carried out by Stola.  Production began in February 1995 and lasted until June 2005, with a brief pause, due to the bankruptcy of coachbuilder Maggiora. The Barchetta was based on the chassis of the Mark 1 Fiat Punto. The Barchetta has 1,747 cc DOHC petrol engine fitted with variable camshaft timing, used for the first time in a Fiat production car, after being patented in 1970.  The engine has and of torque. The Barchetta weighs 1056 kg (2328 lb) without air conditioning and can accelerate to in just over 7 seconds and has a top speed of 217 km/h (124 mph).  It came in various trim levels which offered different features, for example, diamond cross stitch, patterned red leather instead of the standard black leather or fabric seats, alloy wheels instead of steel wheels, or fog-lights as an option. Arguably one of the biggest external cosmetic changes was made by the addition of the third brake light, first introduced by Fiat on the Lido and Riviera in 2000, and on sub models thereafter.  The Barchetta was revised in August 2003 ahead of its relaunch the following year, with some alterations inside and out. The most notable changes were the revised front spoiler and rear bumper. Production of the car eventually stopped in June 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Car bodies were welded at ILCAS in \"Sparone Canavese\", and final assembly was done in Chivasso by the coachbuilder Maggiora. After Maggiora's bankruptcy in May 2002, Fiat relocated production of the Barchetta to its Mirafiori plant and resumed production two years later. Around 57,700 cars were built up to 2005.  Production of the Barchetta was limited to LHD cars only, even though the car was marketed and sold in two RHD markets, the United Kingdom and Japan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bertone concept car.", "content": "The Italian styling house of Bertone created a one off roadster show car for Fiat called the Barchetta in March 2007, at the Geneva Motor Show.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable examples.", "content": "A Barchetta featured in the \"\" television episode, which aired in December 2010.  In the episode, the three presenters (Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond and James May) attempted to follow the path of the Three Wise Men to Bethlehem. Hammond drove the Fiat Barchetta (specifically a Riviera Special Edition featuring a black paint job and red quilted leather), compared to Clarkson's Mazda MX-5 and May's BMW Z3.  At the end of the episode, the Barchetta was declared the most desirable, and most reliable of the three cars.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fiat Barchetta () (Type 183) is a roadster produced by the Italian manufacturer Fiat from 1995 to 2005. \"Barchetta\" in Italian means \"little boat\", and also denotes a type of open-top sports car body style.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973900}
{"src_title": "Crucian carp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The crucian carp is a widely distributed European species, its range spanning from England to Russia; it is found as far north as the Arctic Circle in the Scandinavian countries, and as far south as central France and the region of the Black Sea. Its habitat includes lakes, ponds, and slow-moving rivers. It has been established that the fish is native to England and not introduced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description and taxonomy.", "content": "The crucian carp is a medium-sized cyprinid, typically in body length, and rarely exceeds in weight over, but a maximum total length of has been reported for a male, and the heaviest published weighed.  They are broadly described as having a body of \"golden-green shining color\", but a more precise source states that young fish are golden-bronze but darken with maturity, until they gain a dark green back, deep bronze upper flanks, and gold on the lower flanks and belly, and reddish or orange fins, although other colour variations exist. One distinguishing characteristic is a convexly rounded fin, as opposed to goldfish (or \"C. gibelio\") hybrids which have concave fins.  The variation in shape of a crucian carp can be very high. When cohabiting waters where predatory such as pike or perch fish are present, there occurs an induced change in the morphology of the population, from a sleeker to a deeper bodied form, into almost perfect disc shape with well-rounded fins, making it difficult for predators to swallow the crucian carp.  The crucian carp is also the type species for the genus, which has led to confusion in the taxonomy of species native to East Asia.  There are reports of hybridisation between the crucian and domestic or feral goldfish, which has been verified by production of viable hybrids in laboratory conditions. Although the hybrids thus produced were sterile or nearly so, genetic contamination of the native population has been raised as a concern; even if the hybrids cannot continue to propagate, the F1 hybrids exhibit hybrid vigour or heterosis, being much more adept at finding food and evading predators than either of their parents, which has been proposed to constitute a possible threat to the native crucian carp population.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physiology.", "content": "\"Carassius\" species exhibit some remarkable physiological adaptations to their environment. For example, in entirely anoxic conditions during winter \"Carassius carassius\" can survive for considerable periods by anaerobic respiration, with ethanol as the major metabolic end product; a facility that is highly unusual among vertebrates. During summer the fish also may survive anaerobic conditions by this metabolic expedient, though only to a far more limited extent; the winter phenotype can sustain fermentation as a substitute for respiration for several weeks on end. Experimentally the fish have been maintained under anoxic conditions for 140 days. Anoxia can be tolerated longest in the coldest water, even down to 0 °C, because colder conditions lower the metabolic rate. Alcohol production occurs mainly in the muscle tissues, but also in the liver, where the process is thought to have originated. Similarly goldfish can produce alcohol in muscle tissues, but to a much more limited extent.  Experimentally it has been demonstrated that the metabolic process involves the production of pyruvate from lactate, followed by decarboxylation to acetaldehyde which then is hydrogenated to ethanol as the major metabolic end product. In turn the fish largely excretes the ethanol into the water rather than accumulating it to toxic levels in the tissues. Excretion of lactate in significant quantities is not a common nor a desirable metabolic facility, but the excretion of ethanol presents no serious metabolic challenges. This metabolic expedient avoids the fatal accumulation of acid end-products of anaerobic glycolysis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport fishing.", "content": "In Britain, leisurely or competitive catching of this fish by rod and tackle belong in the coarse fishing category. The British rod-caught record for largest crucian is four pounds, nine ounces, (2.085 kg) landed by Martin Bowler in 2003, tied by Joshua Blavins in 2011. There have been various bids for a breakage of this record since, but they were rejected as not \"true\" crucians\" but rather, e.g. a \"brown goldfish variant\" (i.e., hybrid born between the non-native goldfish or \"gibelo\" species and the British crucian). In the Netherlands, a typical crucian specimen of 54 cm, weighing 3 kg has been caught and photographed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relation to goldfish.", "content": "Some sources state that the goldfish (\"Carassius auratus\") is a cultivated breed of crucian carp taken from the wild.  Aside from confusion in nomenclature, there is the practical issue of distinguishing true crucian carp from goldfish hybrids in, e.g., competitive coarse fishing. The following is based on a similar table of guidelines constructed by the Farnham Angling Society:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "These carp are also occasionally kept as freshwater aquarium fish, as well as in water gardens, although they are not commonly available commercially, mainly because they are not in particularly high demand due to the presence of more colourful fish such as the koi or orfe.  It has been suggested that this is a heavily farmed fish worldwide; FAO's newest statistics from 2008 (pub. 2011) shows total production \"C. Crassius\" at 1,957,337 tonnes, worth US$2,135,857,000, ranked 9th in worldwide in aquaculture, including marine fish and crustaceans, however this statistics treats the Asian C. gibelio carp as a subspecies of the European crucian carp, and it is evident that the greater bulk of this number is from the Asian fish farmed in China.  In terms of freshwater catches of \"C. crassius\" (read \"Carassius\" spp.), FAO's 2006 statistics show 5.53 thousand tons harvested, which ranked 13th worldwide among freshwater fishes caught. The breakdown was Kazakhstan 2.2, Japan 1.12, Serbia 0.84, Moldova 0.19, Uzbekistan 0.19, Poland 0.13. In these figures, the tonnage from European countries may represent C. crassius in some part.  In Poland, crucian carp () is considered the best-tasting pan fish, and traditionally served with sour cream (\"karasie w śmietanie\"). King's carp (previously Galician carp as in Galicia in the Austro-Hungarian Empire) – the breed of carp created in Poland, the \"hump\" is bigger than average and the scales are larger than average. Carp is included amongst the holiday foods in Poland. The tradition might have Jewish origins.  In Russia, this particular species is called Золотой карась meaning \"golden crucian\", and is one of the fish used in a borscht recipe called \"borshch c karasej\" (Борщ с карасе́й) or \"borshch c karasyami\" (Борщ с карася́ми).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The crucian carp (\"Carassius carassius\") is a medium-sized member of the common carp family Cyprinidae. It occurs widely in northern European regions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973901}
{"src_title": "Moritz Moszkowski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "He was born in Breslau, Prussia (now the Polish city of Wrocław), into a wealthy Polish-Jewish family whose parents had come to Breslau from Pilica, near Zawiercie, in 1854. He was an ardent Jew at a time when many Jews downplayed their Jewishness. He showed early talent from a very tender age, beginning his musical training at home until 1865, when his family moved to Dresden. There he continued his piano studies at the conservatory. He moved to Berlin in 1869 to continue his studies first at the Julius Stern Conservatory, where he studied piano with Eduard Franck and composition with Friedrich Kiel, and then at Theodor Kullak's \"Neue Akademie der Tonkunst,\" where he studied composition with Richard Wüerst and orchestration with Heinrich Dorn. There he became close friends with the Scharwenka brothers, Xaver and Philipp. In 1871 he accepted Kullak's offer to become a teacher in his academy; as he was also a more than competent violinist, he sometimes played first violin in the orchestra.  In 1873 Moszkowski made his first successful appearance as a pianist, and soon began touring the nearby cities in order to gain experience and establish his reputation. Two years later he was already playing his piano concerto on two pianos with Franz Liszt at a matinée before a selected audience invited by Liszt himself.  Retaining his post as a teacher at the Berlin conservatory from 1875, he had among his pupils Frank Damrosch, Joaquín Nin, Ernest Schelling, Joaquín Turina, Carl Lachmund, Bernhard Pollack, Ernst Jonas, Wilhelm Sachs, Helene von Schack, Albert Ulrich and Johanna Wenzel. Moszkowski then travelled successfully throughout Europe with the reputation of being an exceptional concert pianist and brilliant composer, having also gained some recognition as a conductor. In 1884 Moszkowski married the younger sister of pianist and composer Cécile Chaminade, Henriette Chaminade, with whom he had a son named Marcel and a daughter named Sylvia. By the mid-1880s, Moszkowski began suffering from a neurological problem in his arm and gradually diminished his recital activity in favor of composing, teaching and conducting. In 1887 he was invited to London where he had the chance to introduce many of his orchestral pieces. There he was awarded honorary membership of the Royal Philharmonic Society. Three years later his wife left him for the poet Ludwig Fulda and a divorce was issued two years later.  In 1897, famous and wealthy, Moszkowski moved to Paris, where he lived on rue Blanche with his daughter. In Paris he was frequently sought after as a teacher, and was always generous in investing his time on aspiring musicians. Among his Parisian students were Vlado Perlemuter, Thomas Beecham (who took private lessons in orchestration with him on the advice of André Messager in 1904), Josef Hofmann (of whom he claimed once that there was nothing anyone could teach him), Wanda Landowska, and, informally, Gaby Casadesus. In the summer he rented a villa near Montigny-sur-Loing owned by the French novelist and poet Henri Murger. In 1899 the Berlin Academy elected him a member. He was many times invited by piano manufacturers to appear in the United States to show off their pianos, but despite being offered massive fees, he always refused.  In 1908, by the age of 54, Moszkowski had already become a recluse as he began to suffer from poor health. His popularity began to fade and his career slowly went into decline. He stopped taking composition pupils because \"they wanted to write like artistic madmen such as Scriabin, Schoenberg, Debussy, Satie...\".  His last years he spent in poverty for he had sold all his copyrights and invested the whole lot in German, Polish and Russian bonds and securities, which were rendered worthless on the outbreak of the war. Two of his former pupils, Josef Hofmann and Bernhard Pollack came to his aid. Through the intervention of Pollack, who sent new piano arrangements of Moszkowski's opera \"Boabdil\" to Peters Publishing House in Leipzig, he collected an extra 10,000 francs camouflaged as royalties besides a gift of 10,000 marks and personal donations of 10,000 marks from Hofmann and 5,000 marks from himself. On 21 December 1924, when he was ill and heavily in debt, his friends and admirers arranged a grand testimonial concert on his behalf at Carnegie Hall, involving 15 grand pianos on stage. Ossip Gabrilowitsch, Percy Grainger, Josef Lhévinne, Elly Ney, Wilhelm Backhaus and Harold Bauer were among the performers, and Frank Damrosch conducted (Paderewski telegrammed his apologies). The concert netted US$13,275 (the equivalent of US$187,793.67 in May 2017), with one part transferred to the Paris branch of the National City Bank of New York in order to provide immediate relief from his financial problems, and an annuity purchased at the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, whereby he would receive US$1,250 annually for the rest of his life. However, Moszkowski's illness lingered and he died from stomach cancer on 4 March of the next year, before the supply of funds could reach him. The money raised went instead to pay his funeral expenses and to his wife and son.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Despite the balance and bright limpidity of his playing and his wonderful technique, which aroused the enthusiasm of admirers throughout Europe, his music has also been described as \"devoid of the masculine and the feminine\". He was a master in his pianistic repertoire, but it was in his own compositions that he was more admired. His music rapidly became a sensation, but he also had legitimate success in major works for the stage and the concert hall.  Moszkowski was quite prolific, composing over two hundred small-scale piano pieces, which brought him much popularity – notably his set of \"Spanish Dances\" Op. 12, for piano duet (later arranged for solo piano, and for orchestra by Phillip Scharwenka).  His early \"Serenade\", Op. 15, was world-famous and appeared in many guises, including the song \"Liebe, kleine Nachtigall\". Today he is probably best known for his fifteen \"Études de Virtuosité\", Op. 72, which have been performed by virtuoso pianists such as Vladimir Horowitz and Marc-André Hamelin. Ilana Vered made the first complete recording in 1970. Many of his small but brilliant piano pieces, such as \"Étincelles\" (\"Sparks\"), are used as encore performances at the end of classical concerts.  He also wrote larger scale works including two piano concertos (one in B minor, Op. 3, in 1874, only rediscovered in 2011 and published in 2013, and the much better known Concerto in E major, Op. 59, from 1898), a Violin Concerto in C major, Op. 30, three orchestral suites (Opp. 39, 47, 79), and a symphonic poem \"Jeanne d'Arc\", Op. 19. His opera \"Boabdil der letzte Maurenkönig,\" Op. 49, on the historical theme of the capture of Granada, premiered at the Berlin Court Opera on 21 April 1892, and appeared in Prague and New York City the following year. It did not stay in the repertoire, but its ballet music was very popular for a number of years. He wrote the three-act ballet \"Laurin\" in 1896.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "Ilana Vered made the first complete recording of Moszkowski's \"Études de Virtuosité\", Op. 72, in 1970. Seta Tanyel has recorded three volumes of Moszkowski's solo piano works for Hyperion Records.  The Piano Concerto in E major was first recorded by Michael Ponti, and more recently by Piers Lane and Joseph Moog. The Suite in G minor for 2 violins and piano, Op. 71, has been recorded by such duos as Itzhak Perlman and Pinchas Zukerman.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Moritz Moszkowski (; 23 August 18544 March 1925) was a German composer, pianist, and teacher of Polish-Jewish descent. His brother Alexander Moszkowski was a famous writer and satirist in Berlin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973902}
{"src_title": "Parthenocissus quinquefolia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Parthenocissus\" is derived from Greek and means \"virgin ivy\". \"Quinquefolia\" means \"five-leaved\". \"Quinque\" – \"five\" and \"folia\" – \"foliage\", \"leaves\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Names.", "content": "The name \"Virginia creeper\", referring to one of its native locations, is also used for the whole genus \"Parthenocissus\", and for other species within the genus. The name \"Parthenocissus\" is from the Greek literally meaning \"virgin ivy\", and may derive from the common English name of this species. It is not closely related to the true ivy, \"Hedera\". The specific epithet \"quinquefolia\" means \"five-leaved\", referring to the leaflets on each compound (palmate) leaf.  This plant is also known in North America as woodbine, although woodbine can refer to other plant species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Parthenocissus quinquefolia\" is a prolific deciduous climber, reaching heights of in the wild. It climbs smooth surfaces using small forked tendrils tipped with small strongly adhesive pads in size.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaves.", "content": "The leaves are palmately compound, composed of five leaflets (rarely three leaflets, particularly on younger vines, and sometimes seven) joined from a central point on the leafstalk, and range from (rarely to ) across. The leaflets have a toothed margin. The species is often confused with \"P. vitacea\" or \"False Virginia creeper\", which has the same leaves, but does not have the adhesive pads at the end of its tendrils.  It is sometimes mistaken for \"Toxicodendron radicans\" (poison ivy), despite having five leaflets (poison ivy has three). While the leaves of \"P. quinquefolia\" do not produce urushiol, the sap within the leaves and stem contains raphides (needle-shaped crystals of calcium oxalate) which can puncture the skin causing irritation and blisters in sensitive people.  The leaves sometimes turn a decorative bright red in the fall.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers and berries.", "content": "The flowers are small and greenish, produced in inconspicuous clusters in late spring, and mature in late summer or early fall into small hard purplish-black berries diameter. These berries contain toxic amounts of oxalic acid and have been known to cause kidney damage and death to humans. The berries are not toxic to birds and provide an important winter food source for many bird species.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "\"Parthenocissus quinquefolia\" is grown as an ornamental plant, because of its ability to rapidly cover walls and buildings, and its deep red to burgundy fall (autumn) foliage.  It is frequently seen covering telephone poles or trees. It may kill other plants it covers by shading its support and thus limiting the supporting plants' ability to photosynthesize. With its aggressive growth, it can overburden slower-growing understory trees with its weight, damaging them. Its ability to propagate via its extensive root system makes it difficult to eradicate. This plant is listed on Schedule 9 of the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 as an invasive non-native species. While this does not prevent it from being sold in the UK, or from being grown in gardens, the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) encourages those that do grow it to take great care with managing it and with disposing of unwanted material. The RHS also encourages gardeners to find alternative plants to grow to those listed on Schedule 9. For suggested alternative plants see the Plantlife/RHS guide: Gardening without harmful invasive plants  \"Parthenocissus quinquefolia\" can be used as a shading vine for buildings on masonry walls. Because the vine, like its relative \"P. tricuspidata\" (Boston ivy), adheres to the surface by disks rather than penetrating roots, it does not harm the masonry but will keep a building cooler by shading the wall surface during the summer. As with ivy, ripping the plant from the wall will leave the adhesive disks behind. If the plant clings to fragile surfaces it can first be killed by severing the vine from the root. The adhesive pads will then eventually deteriorate and release their grip. This plant should be trimmed regularly to keep it from growing into areas where it is not wanted. If allowed to penetrate into the wall of a frame house, it will grow upward within the wall until it finds a place to emerge.  The roots can penetrate a rock foundation and grow into the basement of an old house, extending long distances in search of moisture, and growing into floor cracks or drains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "https://www.consultant360.com/articles/virginia-creeper-phytodermatitis", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Parthenocissus quinquefolia, known as Virginia creeper, Victoria creeper, five-leaved ivy, or five-finger, is a species of flowering plant in the grape family, Vitaceae. It is native to eastern and central North America, from southeastern Canada and the eastern United States west to Manitoba and Utah, and south to eastern Mexico and Guatemala.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973903}
{"src_title": "Henry of Bohemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Henry was a younger son of Count Meinhard II of Görz-Tyrol and Elizabeth of Bavaria, widow of King Conrad IV of Germany. Upon the partition of the Meinhardiner estates in 1271, his father maintained the Tyrolean lands, while Henry's uncle Albert received the County of Gorizia. In 1276 Count Meinhard married his eldest daughter, Henry's sister Elizabeth, to Albert, son of King Rudolph I of Germany, and in turn was enfeoffed with the Duchy of Carinthia in 1286.  After his father's death in late October 1295, Henry inherited the Tyrolean and Carinthian estates. At first he ruled jointly with his brothers Otto (d. 1310) and Louis (d. 1305), until he outlived them. He secured his position by supporting his brother-in-law Albert I of Habsburg, who thereby was able to defeat rivalling Adolf of Nassau at the 1298 Battle of Göllheim and was elected King of the Romans in the same year. He also helped King Albert and his Wittelsbach ally Louis IV to lay siege against Louis' revolting brother Rudolf I of the Palatinate at his Heidelberg residence in 1301.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Bohemia.", "content": "However tensions with the House of Habsburg arose, when in 1306 Duke Henry married the Přemyslid princess Anne, the elder sister of King Wenceslaus III of Bohemia. In the same year, the Bohemian ruler prepared for a military campaign against Poland and appointed his brother-in-law regent. Upon Wenceslaus' assassination on August 4, the Přemyslids became extinct in the male line and Henry was elected his successor by the Bohemian nobility—against the will of his former ally King Albert I of Germany, who intended to install his eldest son Rudolf of Habsburg on the Bohemian throne.  King Albert's troops immediately campaigned Bohemia, besieged Prague Castle and deposed Henry, who had to yield to their superior forces. Nevertheless, Rudolf of Habsburg (mocked as \"král kaše\", \"King Porridge\") was never accepted by the Bohemian nobles, and after his sudden death on 4 July 1307, Henry was elected King of Bohemia again, on 15 August. Another attack by King Albert was rejected and the threat by the Habsburg dynasty finally fell apart with Albert's assassination by his nephew John in 1308.  Henry was now on par with the most powerful dynasties in the Empire, however, his rule was not stabilized: as he turned out to be a weak and wasteful ruler, the Bohemian nobility began to look for a capable successor. Meanwhile, the new German king Henry VII, a member of the House of Luxembourg, also had cast a covetous eye on the Bohemian kingdom. In 1310 Henry VII arranged the marriage of his eldest son John with Elizabeth, the younger sister of the late King Wenceslaus III.  Backed by local nobles and his father, John's troops campaigned Bohemia in October. He captured Prague on 3 December and deposed Henry for the second time while the German king seized the Bohemian fief and ceded it his son John, who was crowned king the next year. Henry was forced to retire to Carinthia, where his wife Anna died without children in 1313.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "Henry at least managed to retain Carinthia and Tyrol by reconciliation with the Habsburg dynasty, ceding the March on the Sann (Savinja Valley in today Slovenia) to their Styrian duchy. He also retained the \"de facto\" control over Carniola. He nevertheless was not able to acquire the Carinthian estates that were held by the prince-bishops of Bamberg with the consent of Emperor Henry VII. Centered in a compact territory between Villach and Tarvis, these possessions enjoyed the status of a virtually sovereign principality, and had a crucial geostrategic position on the only major route from Carinthia to Friuli and Italy. On the other hand, Henry could reinforce his overlordship in Tyrol against the resistance of the Trient and Brixen prince-bishops.  Despite his deposition, Henry claimed the title of king of Bohemia and the accompanying electoral dignity: he took part in the 1314 double election of the \"rex Romanorum\" at Frankfurt, voting for the Habsburg candidate Frederick the Fair. His contested right to vote was one of the reasons for the ambiguous result, as Henry's rival, the Luxembourg king John, gave his Bohemian vote to Louis IV of Bavaria. After Louis' victory in the 1322 Battle of Mühldorf, Henry helped to arrange an amicable settlement between the competitors.  Henry also reconciled with the Luxembourgs and in 1330 married his daughter Margaret off to King John's son John Henry. Since he was the last male heir of the Tyrolean branch of the Meinhardiner dynasty, he attempted to maintain their possessions, but ultimately failed. Even though Emperor Louis IV, in return for Henry's mediation in the dispute with Frederick the Fair, had assured him in 1330 that his daughter could succeed him, Louis reneged on his promise in a secret treaty with the House of Habsburg in the same year.  After Henry's death in 1335, the Habsburg duke Albert II of Austria and his brother Otto took control of Carinthia and Carniola. Henry's daughter Margaret could only succeed him in Tyrol with the support of the local nobles; however, in 1363 she ultimately had to bequeath her lands to Albert's II son Duke Rudolf IV of Austria as well. The Gorizia branch of the Meinhardiner dynasty ruled their county until the extinction of the line 1500, whereafter the estates likewise fell to the Habsburgs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Henry was married three times:  In 1306, he married Anna Přemyslovna (1290–1313). This marriage produced no children.  In 1313, he wed Adelaide of Brunswick (1285 – 16 Aug 1324), daughter of the Welf duke Henry I of Brunswick-Grubenhagen. This marriage produced two daughters:  In 1327, he married Beatrice (1310–1331), daughter of Count Amadeus V of Savoy. This marriage produced no children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry (, ; – 2 April 1335), a member of the House of Gorizia (\"Meinhardiner\"), was Duke of Carinthia and Landgrave of Carniola (as Henry VI) and Count of Tyrol from 1295 until his death, as well as King of Bohemia, Margrave of Moravia and titular King of Poland in 1306 and again from 1307 until 1310. After his death, the Habsburgs took over Carinthia and Carniola, and held them almost without interruption until 1918.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973904}
{"src_title": "Leopold Joseph von Daun", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Leopold Joseph Maria was born at Vienna, the son of Count Wirich Philipp von Daun (1669–1741). The Daun noble family originated from the Rhineland and derived its name from the ancestral seat at Daun south of the High Eifel range.  He was intended for the church, but his natural inclination for the army, in which his father and grandfather had been distinguished generals, proved irresistible. In 1718 he served in the War of the Quadruple Alliance in Sicily, in his father's regiment. He had already risen to the rank of \"Oberst\" (Colonel) when he saw further active service in Italy and on the Rhine in the War of the Polish Succession (1734–35). He continued to add to his distinctions in the Turkish War of 1737–39, in which he attained the rank of \"Feldmarschallleutnant\" (Major-General).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War of the Austrian Succession.", "content": "In the War of the Austrian Succession from 1740, Daun distinguished himself by the careful leadership which was afterwards his greatest military quality.  In Austria's First Silesian War against Prussia, he was present at Chotusitz and Prague, and led the advanced guard of Khevenhüller's army in the victorious Danube campaign of 1743. Field Marshal Count Traun, who succeeded Khevenhüller in 1744, thought equally highly of Daun, and entrusted him with the rearguard of the Austrian army when it escaped from the French to attack Frederick the Great. He held important commands in the battles of Hohenfriedberg and Soor, and in the same year (1745) was promoted to the rank of \"Feldzeugmeister\" (Lieutenant General). After this he served in the Low Countries, and was present at the Battle of Val. He was highly valued by Maria Theresa, who made him commandant of Vienna and a Knight of the Golden Fleece, and in 1754 he was elevated to the rank of \"Feldmarschall\" (Field-Marshal).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seven Years' War.", "content": "During the interval of peace that preceded the Seven Years' War he was engaged in carrying out an elaborate scheme for the reorganization of the Austrian army, and it was chiefly through his efforts that the Theresian Military Academy was established at Wiener-Neustadt in 1751. When a Third Silesian War broke out, he was not actively employed in the first campaigns of the war, but in 1757 he was placed at the head of the army which was raised to relieve Prague. On 18 June 1757 Daun decisively defeated Frederick for the first time in his career in the desperately fought Battle of Kolin. In commemoration of this brilliant exploit, the queen immediately instituted a military order bearing her name, and Daun was awarded the first Grand Cross of that order. The union of the relieving army with the forces of Prince Charles at Prague reduced Daun to the position of second in command, and in that capacity he took part in the pursuit of the Prussians and the victory of Breslau.  Frederick now reappeared and won the most brilliant victory of the age at Leuthen. Daun was present on that field, but was not held accountable for the disaster, and when Prince Charles resigned his command, Daun was appointed in his place. With the campaign of 1758 began the war of manoeuvre in which Daun, though missing some opportunities to crush the Prussians through over-caution, at least maintained a steady and cool resistance to the fiery strategy of Frederick. In 1758 Major-General Laudon, acting under Daun's instructions, forced the king to raise the siege of Olmütz (Battle of Domstadtl), and later in the same year Daun himself surprised Frederick at the Battle of Hochkirch and inflicted a severe defeat upon him (14 October). Despite the tactical success and capture of many munitions and supplies that Daun achieved at Hochkirch, his failure to pursue Frederick allowed the Prussians to block his path into Silesia, meaning that his victory counted for little. In the following year the war of manoeuvre continued, and on 20 and 21 November he surrounded the entire corps of General Finck at Maxen, forcing the Prussians to surrender. These successes were counterbalanced in the following year by the defeat of Laudon at Liegnitz, which was attributed partly to the dilatoriness of Daun, and Daun's own subsequent defeat by Zieten's bold attack in the great Battle of Torgau. In this engagement, Daun was so severely wounded that he had to return to Vienna to recuperate. However, Daun and his forces inflicted heavy casualties on the Prussians and were able to retreat in good order.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Daun continued to command until the end of the war, and afterwards worked with the greatest energy at the reorganization of the imperial forces. In 1762 he had been appointed president of the \"Hofkriegsrat\". By order of Maria Theresa, a monument to his memory was erected by Balthasar Ferdinand Moll in the church of the Augustinians, with an inscription describing him as the \"saviour of her states.\" In 1888, the 56th Regiment of Austrian Infantry was named after him.  Called the Austrian Fabius Cunctator, Daun has been criticized for the dilatoriness of his operations, but wariness was not misplaced when one faced a general like Frederick, who was quick and unpredictable. His inability to exploit a victory, on the other hand, might not be so easily excused. The relationship with his daring general Ernst Gideon von Laudon remained tense.  His first cousin Eleonora Ernestina married the Marquis of Pombal, the noted Portuguese statesman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes.", "content": "For an overview of the system of military ranks that existed in the Austro-Hungarian Empire up to the first World War see Comparative military ranks of World War I", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "See \"Der deutsche Fabius Cunctator, oder Leben und Thaten seiner Excellentz, des Herrn Leopold Joseph Maria Reichsgrafen von Daun... \" (S.l.: s.n., 1759–1760), and works dealing with the wars of the period.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Count Leopold Joseph von Daun (; 24 September 17055 February 1766), later Prince of Thiano, was an Austrian field marshal of the Imperial Army in the War of the Austrian Succession and Seven Years' War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973905}
{"src_title": "Tisza", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The river was known as the \"Tisia\" in antiquity; other ancient names for it included \"Tissus\" (in Latin) and \"Pathissus\" ( in Ancient Greek), (Pliny, \"Naturalis historia\", 4.25). It may be referred to as the \"Theiss\" in older English references, after the German name for the river, \"\". It is known as the \"Tibisco\" in Italian, and in older French references (as for instance in relation to the naval battles on the Danube between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Empire in the 17th and 18th centuries) it is often referred to as the \"Tibisque\".  Modern names for the Tisza in the languages of the countries it flows through include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regulation.", "content": "The length of the Tisza in Hungary used to be. It flowed through the Great Hungarian Plain, which is one of the largest flat areas in central Europe. Since plains can cause a river to flow very slowly, the Tisza used to follow a path with many curves and turns, which led to many large floods in the area.  After several small-scale attempts, István Széchenyi organised the \"regulation of the Tisza\" () which started on August 27 1846, and substantially ended in 1880. The new length of the river in Hungary was reduced to in total, with of dead channels and of new riverbed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lake Tisza.", "content": "In the 1970s, the building of the Tisza Dam at Kisköre started with the purpose of helping to control floods as well as storing water for drought seasons. However, the resulting Lake Tisza became one of the most popular tourist destinations in Hungary since it had similar features to Lake Balaton at drastically cheaper prices and was not crowded.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Navigation.", "content": "The Tisza is navigable over much of its course. The river opened up for international navigation only recently; before, Hungary distinguished \"national rivers\" and \"international rivers\", indicating whether non-Hungarian vessels were allowed or not. After Hungary joined the European Union, this distinction was lifted and vessels were allowed on the Tisza.  Conditions of navigation differ with the circumstances: when the river is in flood, it is often unnavigable, just as it is at times of extreme drought.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wildlife.", "content": "The Tisza has a rich and varied wildlife. Over 200 species of birds reside in the bird reserve of Tiszafüred. The flood plains along the river boast large amounts of diverse plant and animal life. In particular, the yearly \"flowering\" of the Tisza is considered a local natural wonder. The flowering attracts vast numbers of mayflies which is a well known spectacle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pollution.", "content": "In early 2000, there was a sequence of serious pollution incidents originating from accidental industrial discharges in Romania. The first, in January 2000, occurred when there was a release of sludge containing cyanide from a Romanian mine and killed of fish. The second, from a mine pond at Baia Borsa, northern Romania, resulted in the release of of sludge containing zinc, lead and copper occurred in early March 2000. A week later, the third spill occurred at the same mining site at Baia Borsa, staining the river black, possibly including heavy metals.  This series of incidents were described at the time as the most serious environmental disaster to hit central Europe since the Chernobyl disaster. Use of river water for any purpose was temporarily banned and the Hungarian government pressed the Romanians and the European Union to close all installations that could lead to further pollution.  Examination of river sediments indicates that pollution incidents from mines have occurred for over a century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries.", "content": "The following rivers are tributaries to the river Tisza:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cities and towns.", "content": "The Tisza (\"Tisa\") flows through the following countries and cities (ordered from the source to mouth):", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Tisza, Tysa or Tisa, is one of the main rivers of Central and Eastern Europe. Once, it was called \"the most Hungarian river\" because it flowed entirely within the Kingdom of Hungary. Today, it crosses several national borders.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973906}
{"src_title": "Mahidol Adulyadej", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Like the other sons of King Chulalongkorn, Prince Mahidol started his education at the Royal School within the Grand Palace. He received the title of Prince of Songkla at age 13.  He was sent to London in 1905, and after spending a year and a half in Harrow School, he moved to Germany to join the Royal Prussian Military Preparatory College at Potsdam according to the wish of his father, then continued his military education at the Imperial Military Academy at Groß–Lichterfelde in Berlin. Following the wish of his half-brother, King Vajiravudh, he then entered the Imperial German Naval Academy at Flensburg-Mürwik. While there, he won a competition in submarine design. He was commissioned Lieutenant in both the Imperial German Navy and the Royal Thai Navy in 1912.  The start of World War I compelled the Prince to come back to Thailand in 1914; he was assigned to a teaching post at the Royal Naval Academy. He continued his interest in smaller vessels, including submarines and torpedo boats; this later led to conflict at a meeting, where he was overruled by senior naval officers, most of whom were British graduates and preferred larger vessels. The Prince, feeling that his expertise would never be used, resigned his post nine months after joining the Navy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical career.", "content": "His half-brother and old friend Prince Rangsit then came into play. He was at that time Chief of the Royal Medical College. Medical and public health education at that time lagged behind the Western standard. The Medical College and its hospital, Siriraj, were small, crowded, underfunded, understaffed and ill-equipped.  Prince Rangsit, himself a lesser-class prince (as his mother was a commoner), thought that to have someone of high prestige like Prince Mahidol (who was a first-class celestial prince as he was born to a royal mother who was also a daughter of a king) supporting the movement to improve medical practice and public health in Thailand would generate more interest and probably more funding. He strategically invited Prince Mahidol to a boat trip along the Bangkok Yai and Bangkok Noi canals. His office, Siriraj Hospital, was on the route, and this was where he invited his half-brother to stop and have a look around. Having seen Mahidol's reaction to the poor state of the hospital, Prince Rangsit asked him if he wanted to help; Mahidol's answer at that time was, however, not very positive as he was concerned that he knew nothing about medicine himself. However, a few days elapsed and he agreed to help. He also decided he would study in related fields himself.  Thus the Prince went to Cambridge, Massachusetts to study public health at Harvard. He also asked Prince Rangsit to select four students to be sent to the U.S.: two medical students who would be funded by Mahidol himself and two nursing students who would be funded by his mother, Queen Savang Vadhana. It was said that the Prince went to the train station to greet the students himself. This was when an unintended sequel of Prince Rangsit's scheme occurred: one of the nursing students who arrived was the 18-year-old Miss Sangwal Talabhat, future wife of Prince Mahidol and mother of two future kings of Thailand. Mahidol diligently looked after his students, and thus became close to Miss Talabhat, who then accompanied him back to Thailand three years later to attend the funeral of Queen Saovabha. While there, they married under the royal blessing of his half-brother King Vajiravudh at Sapathum Palace before returning to Harvard. He received his Certificate in Public Health on the following year (1921).  After his study, he went to Edinburgh for a break, but was also asked to represent the Thai government in liaising with the Rockefeller Foundation, which was offering monetary and technical help to improve Thailand's medical and public health education. His first child, Princess Galyani Vadhana, was born in London in 1923. He returned to Thailand in the same year to take the position of Director-General of the University Department in the Ministry of Education. Apart from his administrative duties, he also taught pre-clinical medical students at the Royal Medical College.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1925 he went to Heidelberg, Germany to have his kidneys treated before going back to his alma mater Harvard University, this time to study medicine. It was in Heidelberg where his first son Prince Ananda Mahidol was born in the same year. His youngest son Prince Bhumibol was born in Massachusetts in 1927; six months later he received his M.D. cum laude. He returned to Thailand in December 1928.  One of the first things he did when he returned was to set up scholarships for students in the fields of medicine, nursing, and public health. He was planning to return to Siriraj Hospital for internship. However, his princely status then became a problem as it was felt that he was too prestigious to be allowed internship. Undeterred, Mahidol chose another hospital in a more egalitarian environment – the missionary-run McCormick Hospital in Chiang Mai. He worked there, day and night, as a resident doctor. His patients fondly called him \"Mho Chao Fa\" ('Doctor Prince').  Before long, complications with his kidney resurfaced. Three weeks after he started working, he visited Bangkok to attend a funeral of his uncle, and was never able to return to Chiang Mai. It appeared that he also suffered from liver abscess, and his health continually deteriorated. Prince Mahidol died on 24 September 1929 at Sapathum Palace.  He was posthumously given the title of the Prince Father (Somdej Phra Mahittalathibet Adulyadejvikrom Phra Borommarajachanok – สมเด็จพระมหิตลาธิเบศ อดุลยเดชวิกรม พระบรมราชชนก) with a special royal rank equivalent to front palaces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Prince Mahidol of Songkla taught at Chulalongkorn University. Apart from being an instructor and administrator at the university, he was also of one its great benefactors. He donated a large amount of his own fortune to set up scholarships which enabled university lecturers in science and medicine to furtheir their studies. He negotiated with Rockefeller Foundation in helping the university improve from its poor academic foundation. His legacies remain to this day. The students sent abroad under his scholarships became key players in modern medicine of Thailand: many were regarded as great teachers, and some helped establish new medical schools and universities. The Royal Medical School later became the Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Chulalongkorn University. It was key source of faculty of Medical University when it was founded in 1943. In 1969 the Medical University was granted the Prince's name by royal decree and became Mahidol University. The \"Prince of Songkla\" title became the name of Prince of Songkla University in 1967.  In commemoration of the centenary of the Prince's birth, the Prince Mahidol Award was created in 1992. This is an international award in the fields of medicine, public health, and social services. The anniversary of his passing is observed as Mahidol Day  Posthumous titles:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mahitala Dhibesra Adulyadej Vikrom, the Prince Father (, 1 January 1892 – 24 September 1929), formerly Mahidol Adulyadej, Prince of Songkla () or Mahidol Songkla, was the father of King Ananda Mahidol (Rama VIII) and King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX) of Thailand. He was also regarded as the father of modern medicine and public health of Thailand. He also founded the House of Mahidol or the present Royal Family of Thailand.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973907}
{"src_title": "Small hive beetle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The small hive beetle was first discovered in the United States in 1996 and has now spread to many U.S. states including, California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia. The movement of migratory beekeepers from Florida may have transported the beetle to other states. Recent findings also indicate transport of the beetles in packages.  In Canada, the small hive beetle has been detected in Manitoba (2002 and 2006), Alberta (2006), Québec (2008, 2009), Ontario (2010), British Columbia (2015), and New Brunswick (2017). In the Prairie Provinces, measures were taken to control the pest, and small hive beetles failed to establish a population. It is still to be determined whether the small hive beetle has been able to establish a resident population in Ontario or Québec. In the summer of 2015, the discovery of a number of adult beetles as well as one infestation in all stages of brood in British Columbia's Fraser Valley triggered a temporary quarantine.  In Mexico, the small hive beetle has become established in at least eight states. Infestation levels are especially high in tropical areas such as the Yucatán.  The small hive beetle was first detected in Belize in 2016 in the Corozal District.  The small hive beetle has also spread to Australia, being first identified at Richmond, NSW in 2002. Subsequently, it has affected many areas of Queensland and New South Wales. It seems plausible to assume that the import of package bees, honeybee or bumblebee colonies, queens, hive equipment or even soil constituted the potential invasion pathway of the small hive beetle; however, at the current state of evidence it is still unclear how small hive beetles actually reached Australia.  The small hive beetle has now reached the southern Philippines in southern Mindanao, and there is great concern that it will spread through the country if hives and bees are moved from the southern Mindanao area where the beetle has already been identified.  Since 2015 the beetle is present in Southern Italy (Calabria and Sicily) and some areas have been quarantined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life history.", "content": "\"Aethina tumida\" was previously known only from the sub-Saharan regions of Africa where it has been considered a minor pest of bees. The life cycle information is known primarily from studies in South Africa.  The small hive beetle is a member of the family of scavengers or sap beetles. The adult beetle is dark brown to black and about 5–6 mm in length. The adults may live up to 6 months and can be observed almost anywhere in a hive, although they are most often found on the rear portion of the bottom board of a hive. Female beetles lay irregular masses of eggs in cracks or crevices in a hive. The eggs hatch in 2–3 days into white-colored larvae that will grow to 10–11 mm in length. Larvae feed on pollen and honey, damaging combs, and require about 10–16 days to mature. Larvae that are ready to pupate leave the hive and burrow into soil near the hive. The pupation period may last approximately 3–4 weeks. Newly emerged adults seek out hives, and females generally mate and begin egg laying about a week after emergence. Adult female small hive beetles generally are longer at 5.7 mm than males which are 5.5 mm long, but both are nearly identical in width at about 3.2 mm, although they can vary greatly in size, possibly depending on diet, climate, and other environmental factors. 6 July 2010. Hive beetles may have 4–5 generations a year during the warmer seasons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Damage to colonies and stored honey.", "content": "The primary damage to colonies and stored honey caused by the small hive beetle is through the feeding activity of the larvae. Larvae tunnel through comb with stored honey or pollen, damaging or destroying cappings and comb. Larvae defecate in honey, and the honey becomes discolored from the feces. Activity of the larvae causes fermentation and a frothiness in the honey; the honey develops a characteristic odor of decaying oranges. Damage and fermentation cause honey to run out of combs, creating a mess in hives or extracting rooms. Heavy infestations cause bees to abscond; some beekeepers have reported the rapid collapse of even strong colonies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Control.", "content": "The small hive beetle is considered a secondary pest in South Africa, and as such, has not been the subject of major control efforts. The beetle is most often found in weak or failing hives and rarely affects strong hives. However, differences in the housecleaning traits of the bees found in South Africa and the U.S. may mean very different responses to the beetles. Some early reports from Florida and South Carolina suggest the beetles may be more damaging there than in Africa. Para-dichlorobenzene (PDB) has been used for protecting empty stored combs. Coumaphos bee strips (Bayer Corporation) have been approved for use in hives for the control of small hive beetles in some states under an emergency registration.  Biological control through beneficial soil nematodes specific to the SHB is also effective.  Beneficial nematodes are used by applying them to the soil while suspended in water. They may be applied as a pressurized spray or simply poured from a watering can. Nematodes applied to the soil, burrow downward in search of insect pests. Once found, nematodes enter the body of the insect and release a powerful bacterium which quickly kills the pest. Released bacteria dissolve the internal tissues of the insect which becomes food for nematode growth and development. Matured nematodes then mate and lay eggs to produce more nematodes within the dead insect. Several such generations may occur over just a few days. After the inside of an insect is consumed, tiny infective stage nematodes leave the dead insect shell and begin searching for more pests. As many as 350,000 nematodes may emerge from a single dead insect after only 10–15 days. Numbers depend on insect size.  There are also several traps currently on the market. The more effective ones are the Beetlejail Baitable, Hood Trap, the Freeman Beetle Trap, the West trap, the Australian, AJ's Beetle Eater, and the Beetle Blaster. All these traps use non-toxic oil to suffocate the beetles. This allows beekeepers to avoid having toxic chemicals in their beehives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regulations.", "content": "In New South Wales, Australia, infestation of hives by small hive beetle is notifiable as a honey bee pest under the Stock Diseases Act 1923. The maximum penalty for failing to notify is $11,000.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The small hive beetle (\"Aethina tumida\") is a beekeeping pest. It is endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, but has spread to many other locations, including North America, Australia, and the Philippines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973908}
{"src_title": "Kazimierz Deyna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Deyna was born in Starogard Gdański to Franciszek (1911–1976) – a dairy worker, and Jadwiga (1917–1981) – a housewife. He had six sisters and two brothers – Henryk and Franciszek, who also were footballers; Henryk played for Włókniarz Starogard Gdański, while Franciszek was a Starogardzki KS player.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legia Warsaw.", "content": "Deyna began playing youth football in 1958 at his local club Włókniarz Starogard Gdański. In 1966 he made one appearance for ŁKS Łódź (on 8 October in a 0–0 draw against Górnik Zabrze). But he was quickly snapped up by Legia Warsaw. In communist Poland each team had its own \"sponsor\". The Warsaw club was much more powerful as it was the military club. Moreover, it was the favourite club of the authorities. Deyna was called up into the army and in this way he had to play for Legia Warsaw. He made a name for himself during his first season, becoming one of Legia's most important players. In 1969 and 1970 his team won the Polish Championship. After his performances at the 1974 World Cup, European top-teams like AS Saint-Étienne, A.C. Milan, Inter Milan, AS Monaco, Real Madrid and Bayern Munich tried to acquire his services but he was unable to join, since the communist regime in Poland prevented him from moving to Western Europe. Real Madrid was so determined to acquire Deyna that they sent a shirt to Warsaw with his name and number \"14\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "On 24 April 1968, he made his debut for the national team of Poland in a match against Turkey in Chorzów. He won the gold medal in the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, and the bronze in Football World Cup 1974, after a match against Brazil. In 1972, he was also the Top Goalscorer of the Olympic Games, with a total of nine goals. In 1976 Summer Olympics his team yet again reached the finals and won the silver medal. Additionally, he was ranked third in the European Footballer of the Year for 1974, behind Johan Cruyff and Franz Beckenbauer.  Deyna played for Poland on 97 (84 after the deduction of Olympic Football Tournament competition games) occasions, scoring 41 goals, and often captained the side. He had the ability to score from unusual positions, for example directly from a corner. Because of his achievements and talents, he was chosen \"Football Player of the Year\" several times by Polish fans. In 1978, he captained Poland at the Football World Cup in Argentina, where the team reached the second phase.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manchester City.", "content": "Soon afterwards Deyna was transferred to English club Manchester City, making his debut in November 1978, and being one of the first wave of overseas players to play in the English league. His time in England was marred by a series of injuries, and he left in January 1981, shortly after Manchester City made a managerial change, having made only 43 appearances in all competitions. However, he was regarded as an exceptionally gifted playmaker and became a cult figure with City fans. Deyna scored thirteen goals in his time with the club. Furthermore, his seven goals in the last eight games of the 1978/79 season were crucial for Manchester City in their relegation battle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "San Diego Sockers.", "content": "He appeared in the 1981 film \"Escape to Victory\" as Paul Wolcheck. In the same year, he emigrated to the United States, where he signed with the San Diego Sockers of the North American Soccer League in January 1981. During the next seven years, he played four NASL outdoor seasons, one NASL indoor season and five Major Indoor Soccer League seasons with the Sockers, winning five championships. The Sockers released him in June 1987. He was a 1983 NASL Second Team All Star.  He died in a car accident in San Diego, California, aged 41. In 1994, he was chosen by the Polish Football Association (PZPN) and the readers of all Polish sports-related newspapers as the Polish Football Player of All Time. His number 10 is retired by Legia Warsaw and the Sockers. In June 2012 Kazimierz Deyna was buried in Warsaw's Powązki Military Cemetery.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Legia Warsaw", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Poland", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kazimierz Deyna (; 23 October 1947 – 1 September 1989) was a Polish footballer, who played as an offensive midfielder in the playmaker role and was one of the most highly regarded players of his generation, due to his excellent vision.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973909}
{"src_title": "Rysy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "Experts assume that the Polish and Slovak name \"Rysy\", meaning \"scratches\" or \"crevices\", refers to a series of gullies, either those on the western slopes of Żabie Ridge or the very prominent high gully and numerous smaller ones on the northern side. A folk explanation on the Slovak side says that the name comes from the plural word \"rysy\" meaning \"lynxes\", although the habitat of the lynx does not extend above the timberline.  The Hungarian name \"Tengerszem-csúcs\" and the German name \"Meeraugspitze\" mean \"eye-of-the-sea peak\", from the glacial lake at the northern foot of the mountain, called \"eye of the sea\" (\"Morskie Oko\" in Polish).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first known ascent was made in 1840, by Ede Blásy and his guide Ján Ruman-Driečny, Sr. The first winter ascent was completed in 1884, by Theodor Wundt and Jakob Horvay. In the 20th century, the communist authorities claimed Vladimir Lenin climbed the mountain sometime in the early 1910s. Rysy is the highest point in Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Rysy is the highest peak in the Tatra Mountains that is accessible to individual tourists on foot without a mountain guide. It is possible to ascend the peak from the Slovak side, starting at Štrbské pleso and passing \"Chata pod Rysmi\", a mountain chalet at an altitude of, open during the summer season (from June 15 to October 31). The mountain can also be ascended from the Polish side coming from the Morskie Oko lake, which is a harder and steeper route.  Between November 1 and June 14, the trail on the Slovak side is closed.  The winter ascent from the Polish side is a serious climb requiring the right equipment (crampons, Ice axe) and skills, often with a large avalanche threat. There have been serious avalanche events, including fatal ones. The average slope of the slope above the Czarny Staw is around 30 degrees. In the Rysa couloir, about 40 degrees to its half. In the upper part, the incline reaches up to 44 degrees.  Since the accession of Poland and Slovakia to the Schengen Agreement in 2007, the border between the two countries may be easily crossed at this point like at any other.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rysy (, ;, ) is a mountain in the crest of the High Tatras, eastern part of the Tatra Mountains, lying on the border between Poland and Slovakia. Rysy has three summits: the middle at ; the north-western at ; and the south-eastern at. The north-western summit is the highest point of Poland and belongs to the Crown of Polish Mountains; the other two summits are on the Slovak side of the border.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973910}
{"src_title": "Château d'Yquem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Ramon Felipe Eyquem had made a fortune as a herring and wine merchant, and bought the estate in 1477 from Guilhem Duboys, seigneur de Juillac. Pierre Eyquem, Seigneur of Montaigne, had been the mayor of Bordeaux. His son Michel Eyquem de Montaigne died in 1592. Château d'Yquem was acquired by Jacques de Sauvage in December 1593. De Sauvage acquired the property from the French monarchy by exchanging other lands that he owned for what was then referred to as the 'House of Yquem'. The site has been home to a vineyard since at least 1711 when the estate became fully owned by Léon de Sauvage d'Yquem. In 1785 it passed to the Lur-Saluces family when Françoise-Joséphine de Sauvage d'Yquem married Count Louis-Amédée de Lur-Saluces, a godson of Louis XV and Lady Victoire de France. Monsieur Lur-Saluces died three years later, and his wife subsequently focused her energy on sustaining and improving the estate.  While Minister Plenipotentiary to France, Thomas Jefferson visited the château and later wrote, \"Sauterne. This is the best white wine of France and the best of it is made by Monsieur de Lur-Saluces.\" Jefferson ordered 250 bottles of the 1784 vintage for himself, and additional bottles for George Washington. However, at that time the technique of allowing noble rot to infect grapes had not yet been discovered, so the wine Jefferson was drinking was a different sweet wine.  The 1811 Château d'Yquem, a comet vintage, has exhibited what wine experts like Robert Parker have described as exceptional longevity with Parker scoring the wine a perfect 100 points when tasted in 1996.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Since 1968.", "content": "After the 1968 death of the Marquis Bernard de Lur-Saluces, the château was run by Comte Alexandre de Lur-Saluces, a minority (7%) owner. The Comte inherited a typical annual production of 66,000 bottles a year. After the 1973 oil crisis, demand fell and prices plummeted. The price of a bottle of d'Yquem dropped to 35 francs; prices began to rise only in the 1980s. Under the Comte's leadership, \"tractors replaced horses, collapsing cellars were renovated, and unused acreage was planted\", with production in good years reaching 100,000 bottles and sales about $10 million.  Following a bitter family feud and the decision of Eugene de Lur-Saluces (Alexandre's other brother) to sell part of his 47% share of the business, on 28 November 1996, the French luxury goods giant LVMH Moët Hennessy – Louis Vuitton bought 55% of Château d'Yquem from the family of the Comte Alexandre de Lur-Saluces for about $100 million. The Comte, after first challenging the sale in court for over two years, was kept as the manager of the estate.  On 17 May 2004, the Comte retired and was replaced by the current managing director of Château Cheval Blanc, Pierre Lurton. The Comte had been known for being particularly dedicated towards maintaining quality, going so far as to reject an entire batch of the wine if he did not like the results of a randomised testing.  In 2006, a 135-year vertical (containing every vintage from 1860 to 2003) was sold by The Antique Wine Company in London for $1.5 million, one of the highest prices ever paid for a single lot of wine. Also that year, Dior and Château d'Yquem together created a skin care product made from the sap of the Yquem vines.  In July 2011, an 1811 bottle of Château d'Yquem sold for £75,000 ($117,000) at The Ritz Hotel, London to a private collector, Christian Vannequé, to become the most expensive bottle of white wine ever sold.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The vineyard has in the Sauternes appellation, though only are in production at any time. Each year, vines from two to three hectares are grubbed up and left fallow for a year. Since grapes from newly planted vines are not worthy of the chateau name for five to seven years, about 20 hectares are held in reserve each year. The vines consist of 80% Sémillon and 20% Sauvignon blanc, though the latter's vigour implies the proportions are more nearly equal in the final wine.  Harvesting is carefully timed, and on average six tries through the vineyard are undertaken each year to ensure that only the botrytized grapes are selected. The yield averages nine hectolitres per hectare (2.5 acres), compared to the usual twelve to twenty hectolitres per hectare in Sauternes. The grapes are pressed three times and transferred to oak barrels for maturation over a period of about three years.  On average, 65,000 bottles are produced each year. In a poor vintage, the entire crop is deemed unworthy of bearing the Château's name and sold anonymously; this happened nine times in the 20th century: 1910, 1915, 1930, 1951, 1952, 1964, 1972, 1974, and 1992 and in the 21st century one time: 2012.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Château d'Yquem () is a \"Premier Cru Supérieur\" (Fr: \"Superior First Growth\") wine from the Sauternes, Gironde region in the southern part of the Bordeaux vineyards known as Graves. In the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855, Château d'Yquem was the only Sauternes given this rating, indicating its perceived superiority and higher prices over all other wines of its type. Yquem's success stems largely from the site's susceptibility to attack by \"noble rot\" (a particular kind of infestation by \"Botrytis cinerea\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973911}
{"src_title": "Korosten", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The city was founded over a millennium ago and was the capital of the Drevlyans, an ancient Slavic tribe that was later incorporated into Kievan Rus′. The name may be derived from the word \"korost\" 'brushwood, bushes, shrubbery'; the form \"Iskorosten\"' sometimes found in early sources is probably based on the common repetition of prepositions in Old East Slavic: \"iz grada iz\"... 'from the city from...'.  During World War II, Korosten was occupied by the German Army from August 7, 1941 to December 28, 1943 (it was briefly captured by Red Army forces during the Kiev offensive on November 17, 1943, but they had to retreat after a strong German counterattack). The city was destroyed during the war.  After the nuclear incident in Chernobyl, which is around 90 kilometers away, in May 1986, the city was declared a zone of voluntary evacuation, as it had suffered considerable fallout.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Korosten Industrial Park (KIP) is an industrial zone within the city. Total area — 246 hectares (0.94 sq mi). Conceptual design of the park was developed by Czech design bureau DHV. The project envisages the creation of the territory of the KIP high-tech enterprises, enterprises of light and medium industrial production - the assembly, integration, surface processing, light engineering and electrical industries.  The project is designed for 10 years and is divided into three phases:  By October 2010 all communications are already conducted. Construction of a plant manufacturing MDF boards is almost complete. This plant will become the first manufacturer of MDF boards in Ukraine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Potato pancakes festival.", "content": "Annually on the third Saturday of September in the city park International potato pancakes (, translit. \"deruni’\") festival is held.  During the festival, competitions in “potato pancakes triathlon” is held. Triathlon includes such contests:  At the festival works a potato pancakes school :experienced cooks will teach everyone to cook these pancakes.  However, the main intrigue of the festival is the competition for the tastiest pancake. Jury determines the winner. For a few hryvnias each taster can get a patent and thus become a member of the jury.  Various competitions, exhibitions, tasting traditional Polesia beverages, exhibits, performances by folk music ensembles are usually conducted.  September 25, 2010 the festival was held for the third time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Korosten is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Korosten (, historically also \"Iskorosten\" ) is a historic city and a large railway node in the Zhytomyr Oblast (province) of northern Ukraine. It is located on the Uzh River. Korosten serves as the administrative center of the Korosten Raion (district), though administratively it is not part of the raion and is incorporated as a city of regional significance. Its population is approximately, 63525 (January 1, 2018 est.)", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973912}
{"src_title": "Wood mouse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Habitat and distribution.", "content": "Wood mice inhabit forests, grasslands, and cultivated fields, tending to seek out more wooded areas in winter. Almost entirely nocturnal and terrestrial, wood mice burrow extensively, build nests of plants and live in buildings during harsh seasons. It is one of the most intensively studied species in the genus. In Europe it ranges north to Scandinavia and east to Ukraine. The wood mouse is also found in northwestern Africa and on many Mediterranean islands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Wood mice are primarily seed eaters, particularly seeds of trees such as oak, beech, ash, lime, hawthorn, and sycamore. If seeds are plentiful on the ground, they carry them back to their nests/burrows for storage. They may eat small invertebrates such as snails and insects, particularly in late spring and early summer when seeds are least available. Later in the season they will eat berries, fruits, fungi and roots. In winter, they may prey on hibernating bats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "Wood mice are mainly active during the dark, probably having evolved so to avoid predation, employing several anti-predatory strategies, though breeding females may be more active in daylight in order to collect sufficient food. While foraging, wood mice pick up and distribute visually conspicuous objects, such as leaves and twigs, which they then use as landmarks during exploration. If a wood mouse is caught by its tail, it can quickly shed the end of it, which may never regrow. Despite its name, it prefers hedgerows to woodland. During the colder months, wood mice do not hibernate; however, during severe winter seasons they can fall into a torpid state, a decrease in physiological activity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Predation.", "content": "Predators of wood mice include foxes, snakes, weasels, hawks, owls, domestic dogs and domestic cats. To avoid predation, wood mice tend to forage in covered microsites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The wood mouse has a breeding season from February to October in which multiple matings occur between males and females, resulting in scramble competition. Such behavioral characteristics result in sperm competition and multiple paternity litters. The society is polygynous with copulation resulting from scramble competition during reproductive periods. Males possess a sac known as the cauda epididymis, which stores sperm and lies underneath the scrotal protrusion. Temperature regulation ensures maximum sperm output.  One interesting observation about the species, in particular the males, is the morphology of the spermatozoa. They develop falciform (sickle-shaped) heads after meiosis and before spermiation (release during ejaculation). The hook located at the tip of the head adheres to the surface of the head prior to deployment. Propidium iodide staining revealed that only the basal surface of the hook is of nuclear origin. These apical hooks are deployed in female reproductive tract (mechanism responsible involved the remodeling of actin filaments in the hook). Deployed apical hooks combine with apical hooks and flagella of other spermatozoa. The aggregates of spermatozoa that result form \"mobile trains\", which have experimentally been determined to possess better motility in the female reproductive tract. The mobility of these mobile trains was also found to be influenced by premature acrosome reactions, altruistic acts performed by some spermatozoa for the benefit of other genetically similar gametocytes. This altruism follows a \"green beard\" mechanism in which spermatozoa discern the genetic similarity of surrounding gametocytes (such mechanisms are rare because they must code for a recognizable phenotype, as well as response mechanisms). Once spermatozoa of similar genotypes are identified, altruism genes are turned on to elicit a response that seeks to conserve the genes present in the other cell, even if it results in the destruction of the cell performing the action.  The gestation period of wood mice is of 25–26 days and each female produces on average five young. The offspring become independent after about three weeks and become sexually active after two months.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Fairley, J.S. 1975. \"An Irish Beast Book\". Blackstaff Press Limited. SBN 85640-090-4", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The wood mouse (\"Apodemus sylvaticus\") is a murid rodent native to Europe and northwestern Africa. It is closely related to the yellow-necked mouse (\"Apodemus flavicollis\") but differs in that it has no band of yellow fur around the neck, has slightly smaller ears, and is usually slightly smaller overall: around 90 mm (3.54 in) in length and 23 g in weight. It is found across most of Europe and is a very common and widespread species, is commensal with people and is sometimes considered a pest. Other common names are long-tailed field mouse, field mouse, common field mouse, and European wood mouse.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973913}
{"src_title": "SOS Children's Villages", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Second World War resulted in many children becoming homeless and orphaned. Hermann Gmeiner (23 June 1919 – 26 April 1986), who himself participated in the war as an Austrian soldier, founded the first SOS Children's Village in Imst in the Austrian Federal State of Tyrol in 1949. Originally, the SOS Children's Village was established to look after the orphans of the Second World War. But later the organization eventually started looking after other children such as the abandoned, neglected, abused, and children in difficult economic circumstances.  In the second half of the 20th century, the organization spread all over Europe. In 1959, SOS Children's Village national associations were established in Italy, France, and Germany, and in the same year, the first SOS Youth Facility was founded in Innsbruck, Austria. As the organization grew, the umbrella organization SOS-Kinderdorf International was established to oversee all the national associations in the world in 1960. In the same year, the first SOS Children's Village in South America was founded in Uruguay. In 1963, the organization reached Asia with the first Villages established in North Korea and India. Seven years later, the organization founded Villages in Africa in the Republic of Ivory Coast, Kenya, Ghana, and Sierra Leone. In North America, the first Village was established in 1991 in the United States. Today, there are now more than 570 SOS Children's Villages present in 135 countries and territories.  Hermann Gmeiner was the SOS Children's Village president until 1985 when he was succeeded by Helmut Kutin. Helmut Kutin, born in 1941 in Bolzano, Italy, who was one of the first children admitted in SOS Austria, led the organization SOS Children's Villages International for 27 years after which in 2012 he was succeeded by the current president Siddhartha Kaul, born in 1951 in Pilana, India", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governance.", "content": "Each 118 national SOS Children's Villages associations carries out the international organizations’ missions, protocols, and policies. Regional offices guide this work and provide fundraising, marketing, and technical assistance to country offices as needed. Overall management and administration of the organization takes place at the headquarter in Innsbruck, Austria. The highest decision-making body is the General Assembly responsible for electing the President, Vice-President, and other members of the international senate. Guiding and monitoring of all SOS’ work is the responsibility of the International Senate made up of 22 members. They establish policies, formulate policy changes, and procedural guidelines. The International Senate's work is coordinated by the Management Council, comprising eight representatives from member associations chaired by the President. The Management Council makes recommendations for Senate decisions, approves work plans developed by the Management Team, and defines the federation's targets. The General Secretariat comprises the international offices in Austria, and other regional offices responsible for implementing strategic decisions, developing and monitoring the organization's quality standards, and representing the organization in international communications and forums SOS Children's Villages Governance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International frameworks.", "content": "The organization follows three international frameworks that serve as guidelines for their work. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) adopted in 1989 is a human rights treaty that sets out the civil, political, economic, social, health, and cultural rights of children. The UN Guidelines for Alternative Care of Children adopted in 2009 provides a framework for governments to acknowledge and deliver alternative care to children in need. And the UN Sustainable Development Goal adopted in 2015 and valid until 2030 in which SOS' work focuses mainly on vulnerable children and families.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campaigns.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "No Child Should Grow Up Alone.", "content": "In 2017, the organization launched the No Child Should Grow Up Alone campaign which aims to emphasize research showing that 1 in 10 children (220 million) worldwide is growing up alone. The campaign is based on a global research called the 'Care Effect' claiming that children growing up without adequate parental care are particularly vulnerable to different forms of human rights violations such as child labor, violence, and sex trafficking.  The report concluded that:\"If we provide care for today’s children in vulnerable circumstances, giving them the foundation they need for learning and developing life skills, we stand a better chance of building a better future for the world”", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Care For Me.", "content": "In 2012, the organization launched the Care For ME! Campaign to encourage research and assessment on alternative child care and to advocate the need to protect the human rights of children from various violations committed against them. Participating countries need to assess whether their national alternative care system complies with the UN Guidelines for Alternative Care of Children.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "I Matter.", "content": "In 2009, the organization launched the \"I Matter\" campaign to improve legislation surrounding the practice on leaving care. The aim is to support youth ageing out of care in their transition toward independence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regional and national network.", "content": "SOS is present in over 135 countries around the world. These are listed below by region. SOS organizations in these countries provide active support to children and families. Exceptions are countries marked with an asterisk, in which SOS maintains representative offices which focus on fundraising and building awareness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "In January 2018, the branch of the association in Ethiopia was accused of supporting Islam, including forcible conversion of children. The organization denies the allegations, but does admit that a mosque (now closed) had been built on SOS land, contrary to policy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prominent supporters.", "content": "The first prominent supporter was the German-British businesswoman Béatrice von Boch-Galhau, wife of the largest shareholder of the ceramic manufacturer Villeroy & Boch. She became friends with the at-the-time unknown Hermann Gmeiner. In 1959, she employed some of her private fortune to pay for the first Kinderdorf in Germany located in Merzig Hilbringen. She also used her husband's political connections to promote the SOS Kinderdorf idea which was first meeting resistance from the local majors.  Prominent supporters include Nelson Mandela; the Dalai Lama; international footballers Kakha Kaladze, Andriy Shevchenko, Vincent Kompany, Ruud van Nistelrooy, Cesc Fàbregas and Javier Zanetti; opera singer Anna Netrebko; writer Henning Mankell; Belgian tennis player Kim Clijsters; French writer & actress Anny Dupérey; Sarah, Duchess of York; English Child Actress Georgie Henley; former model Princess Salimah Aga Khan; actress and singer Cher; businessman and television host Mike Holmes; Grammy Award-winning singer-songwriter and entertainer June Carter Cash; and Johnny Cash whose memorial fund is towards the work of SOS Children's Villages worldwide. The organisation received the 2002 Conrad N. Hilton Humanitarian Prize.  SOS also receive significant funds through Genworth Financial's Putts4Charity initiative, which they run on golf's European Tour. In November 2012, the initiative reached €1 million in total money raised since 2007.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SOS Children's Villages is an independent, non-governmental, nonprofit international development organization headquartered in Innsbruck, Austria. The organization provides humanitarian and developmental assistance to children in need and protects their interests and rights around the world. The first SOS Children's Village was founded in 1949 in Tyrol, Austria by an Austrian philanthropist Hermann Gmeiner. Today, SOS Children's Villages is active in 135 countries and territories worldwide", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973914}
{"src_title": "Arete", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Ancient Greeks applied the term to anything: for example, the excellence of a chimney, the excellence of a bull for breeding, and the excellence of a man. The meaning of the word changes depending on what it describes since everything has its own peculiar excellence; the \"arete\" of a man is different from the \"arete\" of a horse. This way of thinking comes first from Plato, where it can be seen in the Allegory of the Cave. In particular, the aristocratic class was presumed, essentially by definition, to be exemplary of \"arete\": \"The root of the word is the same as \"aristos\", the word which shows superlative ability and superiority, and \"aristos\" was constantly used in the plural to denote the nobility.\"  By the 5th and 4th centuries BC, \"arete\" as applied to men had developed to include quieter virtues, such as \"dikaiosyne\" (justice) and \"sophrosyne\" (self-restraint). Plato attempted to produce a moral philosophy that incorporated this new usage, but it was in the work of Aristotle that the doctrine of \"arete\" found its fullest flowering. Aristotle's \"Doctrine of the Mean\" is a paradigm example of his thinking.  \"Arete\" has also been used by Plato when talking about athletic training and also the education of young boys. Stephen G. Miller delves into this usage in his book \"Ancient Greek Athletics\". Aristotle is quoted as deliberating between education towards \"arete\" \"...or those that are theoretical\". Educating towards \"arete\" in this sense means that the boy would be educated towards things that are useful in life. However, even Plato himself says that \"arete\" is not something that can be agreed upon. He says, \"Nor is there even an agreement about what constitutes \"arete\", something that leads logically to a disagreement about the appropriate training for \"arete\".\" To say that \"arete\" has a common definition of excellence or fulfillment may be an overstatement simply because it was very difficult to pinpoint \"arete\", much less the proper ways to go about obtaining it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Athletics.", "content": "It was commonly believed that the mind, body, and soul each had to be developed and prepared for a man to live a life of arete. This led to the thought that athletics had to be present in order to obtain arete. They did not need to consume one's life, merely exercise the body into the right condition for arete, just like the mind and soul would be exercised by other means.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Homer.", "content": "In Homer's \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\", \"\"arete\"\" is used mainly to describe heroes and nobles and their mobile dexterity, with special reference to strength and courage, but it is not limited to this. Penelope's \"arete\", for example, relates to co-operation, for which she is praised by Agamemnon. The excellence of the gods generally included their power, but, in the \"Odyssey\" (13.42), the gods can grant excellence to a life, which is contextually understood to mean prosperity.  According to Bernard Knox's notes found in the Robert Fagles translation of \"The Odyssey\", \"arete\" is also associated with the Greek word for \"pray\", \"araomai\".  In regards to the Iliad the way Homer describes Achilles is an example of Arete (187). Arete is associated with the goodness and prowess of a warrior (187). Debra Hawhee points out that the norms and practices of Athenian virtuosity “operate within the politics of reputation, whose normative poles are honor and shame” (187). This means Arete functions as an external phenomenon depending on outside reception and acknowledgement for its instantiation (188). Dying in battle or securing a victory in the Olympic Games were considered \"agathos\" (good) and, hence, deserving of \"timê\" (honor). So, not only is Achilles a brave and brilliant warrior but also, from the outset, he is destined to die in battle at Troy with the utmost glory—a guarantor of Arete.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personification.", "content": "Arete was occasionally personified as a goddess, the sister of Homonoia (not to be confused with Harmonia), and the daughter of the goddess of justice, Praxidike. She is not to be confused with the mythological Queen Arete mentioned in the \"Argonautica\" and the \"Odyssey\", whose name in Greek is spelled (with a different vowel in the second syllable).  Arete and Homonoia were known jointly as the \"Praxidikai\" (Exacters of Justice). As with many minor Greek deities, there is little or no real mythical background to Arete, who is used at most as a personification of virtue.  The only story involving Arete was originally told in the 5th century BC by the sophist Prodicus, and concerns the early life of the hero Heracles. The story has become known as Hercules at the crossroads. At a crossroads, Arete appeared to Heracles as a young maiden, and offered him glory and a life of struggle against evil; her counterpart Kakia (κακία, \"badness\"), offered him wealth and pleasure. Heracles chose to follow the path of Arete.  This story was later used by Christian writers, such as Methodius of Olympus, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and Basil of Caesarea. Justin and Basil portray Arete as a squalidly dressed and unattractive figure, but Methodius portrays her positively in \"Banquet of the Ten Virgins\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paideia.", "content": "Arete is a significant part of the paideia of ancient Greeks: the training of the boy to manhood. This training in arete included physical training, for which the Greeks developed the gymnasion; mental training, which included oratory, rhetoric, and basic sciences; and spiritual training, which included music and what is called virtue.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arete (Greek: ἀρετή), in its basic sense, means \"excellence\" of any kind. The term may also mean \"moral virtue\". In its earliest appearance in Greek, this notion of excellence was ultimately bound up with the notion of the fulfillment of purpose or function: the act of living up to one's full potential.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973915}
{"src_title": "Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Emma was born a princess of Waldeck and Pyrmont on 2 August 1858 in Arolsen Castle in Arolsen, the capital of the small German principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont. She was the fourth daughter of Georg Viktor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont, and Princess Helena of Nassau-Weilburg. Her brother, Friedrich, was the last reigning prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont. Her sister, Helena, was the wife of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, a son of Queen Victoria.  Her maternal grandfather was William, Duke of Nassau, a grandson of Princess Carolina of Orange-Nassau, through which she inherited a place in the line of succession to the Dutch Crown until 1887.  Emma had a religious education from a very liberal minded pastor. With her English governess, Emma studied crafts, drawing, and French literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Princess Emma married the elderly King William III in Arolsen on 7 January 1879, two years after the death of his first wife, Sophie of Württemberg.  With William, Emma had her only child, the future Queen Wilhelmina, on 31 August 1880. The king also had three sons from his first marriage, William, Maurice, and Alexander, all of whom died before him without any legitimate offspring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Widowhood.", "content": "Three days before William died on 23 November 1890, Emma became regent for her incapacitated husband. She continued her regency into the reign of his successor, their underage daughter, Wilhelmina, until Wilhelmina's eighteenth birthday on 31 August 1898. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the crown of which according to the House-Treaty should not be inherited by a woman, passed to Adolf, Duke of Nassau, who happened to be Queen Emma's maternal uncle.  Emma took her position of regent seriously. She met personally with every government minister at least once every two weeks and strictly adhered to the rules of the constitutional monarchy. In addition to her administrative duties, Emma paid great attention to the education of her daughter. When Wilhelmina reached the age of 16, Emma considered her childhood over and Wilhelmina spent the next two years being prepared for her job as a reigning queen.  The queen mother died in The Hague on 20 March 1934, of complications from bronchitis at the age of 75, and was buried in Delft.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont (Adelheid Emma Wilhelmina Theresia; 2 August 1858 – 20 March 1934) was Queen consort of the Netherlands and Grand Duchess consort of Luxembourg by marriage to King-Grand Duke William III. An immensely popular member of the Dutch Royal Family, Queen Emma served as regent for her daughter, Queen Wilhelmina, during the latter's minority from 1890 until 1898.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973916}
{"src_title": "Robert Campin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Campin first appears as settled in Tournai from the archives of 1405–06, as a free master of the guild of goldsmiths and painters, and there has been a lot of speculation about his origin and birthplace which is actually unknown, although he is sometimes listed as having been born in Valenciennes. In 1408 he had purchased the house that he had been leasing since 1406 near the Tournai Cathedral. In 1410 he bought into the full citizenship. Records show a large number of commissions from individuals and guilds, as well as from ecclesiastical and civic authorities. Campin owned several houses, purchased city bonds and invested in mortgages.  Between 1423 and 1429, the city government was dominated by the guilds. Campin was the deputy dean of the guild of goldsmiths and painters in 1423/24 and 1425. In 1427 he represented the guild on the city council. After restoration of the oligarchy of full citizens, the leaders of the guild regime, including Robert Campin, were brought to court. Campin was ordered to make a pilgrimage to Saint-Gilles and pay the fine.  Campin was married to Ysabel de Stocquain (Elisabeth van Stokkem). The couple was childless. He had an affair with Laurence Polette, for which he was prosecuted in 1432 and sentenced to banishment for a year. Margaret of Burgundy, wife of the Count of Holland and sister of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy intervened on his behalf, and this was reduced to a fine. Short time after the verdict Campin's apprentices Rogier van der Weyden and Jacques Daret were accepted as masters into the guild of painters. However, the dated \"Werl Altarpiece\" (1438) shows he continued to work (the two outer wings are in the Prado; the main panel is lost). He died in his adopted city of Tournai in 1444.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Identity and style.", "content": "Although heavily indebted to late 14th-century manuscript illumination aesthetics, Campin displayed greater powers of realistic observation than any other painter before him. He was one of the first to experiment with the use of oil-based colours, in lieu of egg-based tempera, to achieve the brilliance of color typical for this period. Campin used the new technique to convey strong, rounded characters by modelling light and shade in compositions of complex perspectives. It remains a matter of debate how far the complex symbolism that is generally accepted as existing in the work of Van Eyck also exists in the work of Campin. Art historians have long been keen to trace the beginnings of the Northern Renaissance - with far less evidence to go on than in Italy. For a long time it was thought that Jan van Eyck was the first painter to make full use of the innovations apparent in manuscript illumination in panel painting. By the end of the 19th century it became clear, however, that Van Eyck was the contemporary of an artist who painted a number of works, including the \"Mérode Altarpiece\". Dated to about 1428, the altarpiece (now in the Cloisters of the Metropolitan Museum of Art) is permeated with loving attention to details and realism. Three other panels in a similar manner, supposed to come from the so-called abbey of Flémalle (it has been established that there was, in fact, no such abbey), are now in Frankfurt. It was argued that these works belong to one \"Master of Flémalle\", whose identity at that time could not be established.  In the 20th century, several scholars suggested that the Master of Flémalle may be Robert Campin, documented as a master painter in Tournai from 1406. The argument turns around a paper mentioning two pupils entering his studio in 1427 - Jacques Daret and Rogelet de la Pasture. The latter was probably Rogier van der Weyden. A very well-documented altarpiece by Daret shows striking similarities with the works of Master of Flémalle, as do early works by Rogier. Therefore, it is tempting to assume that both Daret and Rogier were disciples of the Master of Flémalle, i.e. Robert Campin. Another possibility, however, is that the Flémalle panels were painted by Rogier himself when he was still in his twenties. Some scholars have even attributed the famous \"Deposition\" in the Prado (Madrid) to Campin rather than Van der Weyden.  The tightest definition of the works from his own hand includes only the \"Flémalle\" panels, a \"'Nativity\" at Dijon, a \"Crucified Thief\" (fragment of a \"Crucifixion\") in Frankfurt, two portraits of a man and woman in London (of around 1430), and perhaps the \"Seilern Triptych\". This, which excludes the best known works usually attributed to him, which are then assigned to his workshop or followers, is the position taken by Lorne Campbell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "The \"Entombment Triptych\" (or \"\"Seilern Triptych\"\" Courtauld Institute, London) is dated to around 1425. The central panel shows his debt to the sculpture of the time (Campin was known to have polychromed several statues). After this, he painted the \"Marriage of the Virgin\" (Museo del Prado, Madrid) and \"Nativity\" (Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon) around 1420–1425.  Around 1425-1428 Campin painted the \"Mérode Altarpiece\", a triptych (three paneled paintings) commissioned for private use. The Annunciation occupies the central panel. The Archangel Gabriel is shown approaching Mary, who sits reading. She is depicted in a well-kept middle-class Flemish home. Several works attributed to Robert Campin may be seen in the Hermitage, including diptych panels depicting \"The Holy Trinity\" and \"The Virgin and Child\". Other works are displayed in the Prado, and the London National Gallery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Campin (c. 1375 – 26 April 1444), now usually identified with the Master of Flémalle (earlier the Master of the Merode Triptych, before the discovery of three other similar panels), was the first great master of Flemish and Early Netherlandish painting. Campin's identity and the attribution of the paintings in both the \"Campin\" and \"Master of Flémalle\" groupings have been a matter of controversy for decades. Campin was highly successful during his lifetime, and thus his activities are relatively well documented, but he did not sign or date his works, and none can be securely connected with him. A corpus of work attached to the unidentified \"Master of Flémalle\", so named in the 19th century after three religious panels said to have come from a monastery in Flémalle. They are each assumed to be wings of triptychs or polyptychs, and are the \"Virgin and Child with a Firescreen\" now in London, a panel fragment with the \"Thief on the Cross\" in Frankfurt, and the Brussels version of the \"Mérode Altarpiece\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973917}
{"src_title": "Citation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Concept.", "content": "A bibliographic citation is a reference to a book, article, web page, or other published item. Citations should supply detail to identify the item uniquely. Different citation systems and styles are used in scientific citation, legal citation, prior art, the arts, and the humanities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Content.", "content": "Citation content can vary depending on the type of source and may include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unique identifiers.", "content": "Along with information such as author(s), date of publication, title and page numbers, citations may also include unique identifiers depending on the type of work being referred to.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Systems.", "content": "Broadly speaking, there are two types of citation systems, the Vancouver system and parenthetical referencing. However, the Council of Science Editors (CSE) adds a third, the\" citation-name system\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vancouver system.", "content": "The Vancouver system uses sequential numbers in the text, either bracketed or superscript or both. The numbers refer to either footnotes (notes at the end of the page) or endnotes (notes on a page at the end of the paper) that provide source detail. The notes system may or may not require a full bibliography, depending on whether the writer has used a full-note form or a shortened-note form.  For example, an excerpt from the text of a paper using a notes system \"without\" a full bibliography could look like:  The note, located either at the foot of the page (footnote) or at the end of the paper (endnote) would look like this:  In a paper with a full bibliography, the shortened note might look like:  The bibliography entry, which is required with a shortened note, would look like this:  In the humanities, many authors also use footnotes or endnotes to supply anecdotal information. In this way, what looks like a citation is actually supplementary material, or suggestions for further reading.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Parenthetical referencing.", "content": "Parenthetical referencing, also known as Harvard referencing, has full or partial, in-text, citations enclosed in circular brackets and embedded in the paragraph.  An example of a parenthetical reference:  Depending on the choice of style, fully cited parenthetical references may require no end section. Other styles include a list of the citations, with complete bibliographical references, in an end section, sorted alphabetically by author. This section is often called \"References\", \"Bibliography\", \"Works cited\" or \"Works consulted\".  In-text references for online publications may differ from conventional parenthetical referencing. A full reference can be hidden, only displayed when wanted by the reader, in the form of a tooltip. This style makes citing easier and improves the reader's experience.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Citation-name system.", "content": "Superscripted numbers are inserted at the point of reference, just as in the citation‐sequence system, but the citations are numbered according to the order of cited works at the end of the paper or book; this list is often sorted alphabetically by author.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Styles.", "content": "Citation styles can be broadly divided into styles common to the Humanities and the Sciences, though there is considerable overlap. Some style guides, such as the Chicago Manual of Style, are quite flexible and cover both parenthetical and note citation systems. Others, such as MLA and APA styles, specify formats within the context of a single citation system. These may be referred to as citation formats as well as citation styles. The various guides thus specify order of appearance, for example, of publication date, title, and page numbers following the author name, in addition to conventions of punctuation, use of italics, emphasis, parenthesis, quotation marks, etc., particular to their style.  A number of organizations have created styles to fit their needs; consequently, a number of different guides exist. Individual publishers often have their own in-house variations as well, and some works are so long-established as to have their own citation methods too: Stephanus pagination for Plato; Bekker numbers for Aristotle; citing the Bible by book, chapter and verse; or Shakespeare notation by play.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Humanities.", "content": "In some areas of the Humanities, footnotes are used exclusively for references, and their use for conventional footnotes (explanations or examples) is avoided. In these areas, the term \"footnote\" is actually used as a synonym for \"reference\", and care must be taken by editors and typesetters to ensure that they understand how the term is being used by their authors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issues.", "content": "In their research on footnotes in scholarly journals in the field of communication, Michael Bugeja and Daniela V. Dimitrova have found that citations to online sources have a rate of decay (as cited pages are taken down), which they call a \"half-life\", that renders footnotes in those journals less useful for scholarship over time.  Other experts have found that published replications do not have as many citations as original publications.  Another important issue is citation errors, which often occur due to carelessness on either the researcher or journal editor's part in the publication procedure. Experts have found that simple precautions, such as consulting the author of a cited source about proper citations, reduce the likelihood of citation errors and thus increase the quality of research.  Research suggests the impact of an article can be, partly, explained by superficial factors and not only by the scientific merits of an article. Field-dependent factors are usually listed as an issue to be tackled not only when comparison across disciplines are made, but also when different fields of research of one discipline are being compared. For example, in medicine, among other factors, the number of authors, the number of references, the article length, and the presence of a colon in the title influence the impact; while in sociology the number of references, the article length, and title length are among the factors.  \"Nature Index\" recognizes that citations remain a controversial and yet important metric for academics. They report five ways to increase citation counts: (1) watch the title length and punctuation; (2) release the results early as preprints; (3) avoid referring to a country in the title, abstract, or keywords; (4) link the article to supporting data in a repository; and (5) avoid hyphens in the titles of research articles.  Citation patterns are also known to be affected by unethical behavior of both the authors and journal staff. Such behavior is called impact factor boosting, and was reported to involve even the top-tier journals. Specifically the high-ranking journals of medical science, including \"The Lancet\", \"JAMA\" and \"The New England Journal of Medicine\", are thought to be associated with such behavior, with up to 30% of citations to these journals being generated by commissioned opinion articles. On the other hand, the phenomenon of citation cartels is rising. Citation cartels are defined as groups of authors that cite each other disproportionately more than they do other groups of authors who work on the same subject.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A citation is a reference to a source. More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression embedded in the body of an intellectual work that denotes an entry in the bibliographic references section of the work for the purpose of acknowledging the relevance of the works of others to the topic of discussion at the spot where the citation appears.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973918}
{"src_title": "Bechyně", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The area of today's town was settled already in prehistorical era. During the reconstruction of Square of TGM in 2011 ceramic shards and Celtic settlement from 1st century BC were found.  In 9th century a Slavic hillfort was built on cape above the Lužnice river (one of the most important in Bohemia at that time, according to Kosmas's Chronicle). In 1268, Přemysl Otakar II. decided to build his castle there. Jan Lucemburský established a town in castle's surroundings in 1323. In the second half of 16th century were the owners Rožmberks and they rebuilt the castle to renaissance mansion.  Bechyně was the capital of South Bohemian Region until 1776, then it became less important (at first capital of the district and finally nothing).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ceramic tradition.", "content": "Ceramic tradition in Bechyně began in 15th century by small pottery shops. This ceramic tradition has evolved from pottery to a big sanitary ceramic factory of Schweizer Keramik Holding AG Laufen company. There is also the oldest vocational school of ceramics in Bohemia, which is still functioning. Among its student were people like Karel Roden or Karel Kryl.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "A local spa, which is here since 17th century, is specialized in body treatment using therapeutic mud.  Fireman museum on Square of TGM has a unique collection of old fire engines.  Bechyně has a rich theatre tradition since 1855, since 1990s there are 5 theatre festivals every year.  Thanks to river Lužnice and brooks Smutná and Židova strouha, Bechyně is visited by many tourists and rafters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bechyn, Minnesota.", "content": "In the USA in Minnesota is a little town called Bechyn, probably established by people from Bechyně who emigrated to USA to work there. They still say they have Czech origin and celebrate it every year by organizing \"Bechyn Czechfest\", where they keep old traditions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bechyně (, is a town in the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. Also known as Bechin or Beching in German. as It is located on the Lužnice River 20 km southwest of Tábor and has a population of around 5,000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973919}
{"src_title": "Jean Mabillon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Mabillon was born in the town of Saint-Pierremont, then in the ancient Province of Champagne, now a part of the Department of Ardennes. He was the son of Estienne Mabillon (who died in 1692 at the age of 104) and his wife Jeanne Guérin. At the age of 12 he became a pupil at the Collège des Bons Enfants in Reims. Having entered the seminary in 1650, he left after three years and in 1653 became instead a monk in the Maurist Abbey of Saint-Remi. There his dedication to his studies left him ill, and in 1658 he was sent to Corbie Abbey to regain his strength. In 1663 he was transferred again to Saint-Denis Abbey near Paris, and the following year to the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés in Paris. This was a move which offered wide opportunities for scholarly acquaintances and Mabillon was to meet and work, among others, with Luc d'Achery, Charles du Fresne, Sieur du Cange, Étienne Baluze, and Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As editor and compiler.", "content": "At Saint-Germain, Mabillon prepared an edition of the works of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (published in 1667), and also worked on a monumental collection of the lives of the Benedictine Saints, under the title \"Acta Ordinis S. Benedicti\" (published in nine volumes between 1668 and 1701). The later work was undertaken in collaboration with Dom Luc d'Achery. This monk had long been the librarian of Saint-Germain-des-Prés and was senior to Mabillon. It was upon historical materials which d'Achery had collected that Mabillon drew for his \"Acta\". A foreword subsequently added by Mabillon used the lives of the saints in order to illustrate the history of the early Middle Ages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"De re diplomatica\".", "content": "In 1681, prompted by the doubts raised by the Jesuit Daniel van Papenbroek over the authenticity of supposed Merovingian documents held at the Abbey of Saint-Denis, Mabillon published his \"De re diplomatica\". This work investigated different types of medieval documents and manuscripts, including scrutiny of their script, style, seals, signatures, \"testimonia\", and other intrinsic and extrinsic factors, using an acquired \"taste\" derived from long experience, and consulting the views of other document scholars. Manuscripts from many archives are addressed, and references made to items dating back to Dagobert I (King of the Franks, c.629-639). Concerned often with \"distinguishing genuine documents from forgeries\" the work is now seen as the foundation work of palaeography and diplomatics. Mabillon writes:  I do not deny that in fact some documents are false and others interpolated, but all of them should not be dismissed for that reason. Rather, it is necessary to devise and hand down rules for distinguishing genuine manuscripts from those that are false and interpolated.... I undertook this task after long familiarity and daily experience with these documents. For almost twenty years I had devoted my studies and energies to reading and examining ancient manuscripts and archives, and the published collections of ancient documents.... I compared and weighed them with one another that I might be able to compile a body of knowledge which was not merely scanty and meager, but as accurate and as well-tested as possible in a field which had not been previously investigated.  This work brought Mabillon to the attention of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who offered him a pension (which he declined), and King Louis XIV. He began to travel throughout Europe, to Flanders, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, in search of medieval manuscripts and books for the royal library.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Some of the less scholarly monks in Mabillon's own abbey criticized his \"Lives\" for being too academic; while Armand de Rancé, Abbot of La Trappe, declared that he was breaking the rules of his Order by devoting his life to study rather than manual labour. He also caused trouble by denouncing the veneration of the relics of \"unknown saints\", wrote a controversial critique of the works of St. Augustine of Hippo, and was accused of Jansenism, but at all times he was supported by the king and the Church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later career and legacy.", "content": "In 1701 Mabillon was appointed by the king as one of the founding members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, and in 1704 a supplement to \"De re diplomatica\" was published. In 1707 he died and was buried in the church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, in Paris.  According to Fritz Stern, writing in 1956, Mabillon was the \"greatest historical scholar of his century\". The Mabillon station of the Paris Métro is named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dom Jean Mabillon, O.S.B., (23 November 1632 – 27 December 1707) was a French Benedictine monk and scholar of the Congregation of Saint Maur. He is considered the founder of the disciplines of palaeography and diplomatics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973920}
{"src_title": "Royal Library, Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The library was founded in 1648 by King Frederik III, who contributed a comprehensive collection of European works. It was opened to the public in 1793.  In 1989, it was merged with the prestigious Copenhagen University Library (founded in 1482) (UB1). In 2005, it was merged with the Danish National Library for Science and Medicine (UB2), now the Faculty Library of Natural and Health Sciences. The official name of the organization as of 1 January 2006 is The Royal Library, the National Library of Denmark and the Copenhagen University Library. In 2008, the Danish Folklore Archive was merged with the Royal Library.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Librarians.", "content": "The first librarian was Marcus Meibom, followed 1663-1671 by Peder Griffenfeld. Later librarians included J. H. Schlegel, Jon Erichsen, Daniel Gotthilf Moldenhawer (1787-1823 notorious for stealing numerous books to enrich the library collections) and Chr. Bruun. Since 1900 the former librarians are H.O. Lange (1901-1924), Carl S. Petersen (1924-1943), Svend Dahl (1943-1952), Palle Birkelund (1952-1982), Torkil Olsen (1982-1986), Erland Kolding Nielsen (1986-2017), followed by the present Director General Svend Larsen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Items collected.", "content": "Books, journals, newspapers, pamphlets and corporate publications, manuscripts and archives, maps, prints and photographs, music scores, documentation of folkways and popular traditions, four annual electronic copies of the Danish Internet by legal deposit.  As of 2017, there Royal Library had 36,975,069 physical units and 2,438,978 electronic titles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Royal Library today.", "content": "Today, The Royal Library has five sites: The main library at Slotsholmen, Copenhagen harbour (in the Black Diamond), covering all subjects and special collections; one at Nørre Alle, Faculty Library of Natural and Health Sciences; one at Gothersgade, central Copenhagen, Faculty Library of Social Sciences; one at Amager, Faculty Library of Humanities; and, one in Studiestræde, central Copenhagen, The Faculty of Law Library. The annual circulation is 11,400,000 loans (10,900,000 of these are electronic loans). The members are 32,196 active users. The annual budget: 394M Danish Kroner (58M US Dollars), including building expenses and maintenance.  The library is open to anyone above the age of 18 with a genuine need to use the collections. Special rules apply for use of rare and valuable items.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buildings at the Slotsholmen site.", "content": "The old building of the Slotsholmen site was built in 1906 by Hans Jørgen Holm. The central hall is a copy of Charlemagne's Palace chapel in the Aachen Cathedral. The building is still being used by the library. In 1999, a new building adjacent to the old one was opened at Slotsholmen, known as the Black Diamond. The Black Diamond building was designed by Danish architects schmidt hammer lassen. Named for its outside cover of black marble and glass, the Black Diamond building houses a concert hall in addition to the library.  The Black Diamond is formed by two black cubes that are slightly tilted over the street. In between, there is an eight-storey atrium whose walls are white and wave-shaped, with a couple of transversal corridors that link both sides, and balconies on every floor. The atrium's exterior wall is made of glass; so, you can see the sea; and, on the opposite shore, you can see Christianshavn's luxury buildings.  Three bridges connect the Black Diamond with the old part of the Royal Library; those three bridges (two small ones for internal transport and a big one with the circulation desk) go over the road. At the ceiling of the big bridge, there is a huge painting by Danish painter Per Kirkeby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Significant holdings.", "content": "The Royal Library acquires Danish books through legal deposit. The holdings include an almost complete collection of all Danish printed books back from 1482. In 2006, legal deposit was extended to electronic publications and now the library harvests four electronic copies of the Danish Internet each year. The library also holds a large and significant collection of old foreign scholarly and scientific literature, including precious books of high value and of importance for book history, including a rare copy of the Gutenberg Bible.  The library holds treasures which are inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register: A collection of about 2,000 books by and about Carl Linné (1997); the manuscripts and correspondence of Hans Christian Andersen (1997); the Søren Kierkegaard Archives (manuscripts and personal papers) (1997); Guamán Poma de Ayala's \"El Primer Nueva Coronica y Buen Gobierno\", an autographed manuscript of 1,200 pages including 400 full-page drawings depicting the indigenous point of view on pre-conquest Andean life and Inca rule, the Spanish conquest in 1532, early Spanish colonial rule, and the systematic abuse of the rights of the indigenous populationt (2007). \"Biblia Latina\". Commonly called the Hamburg Bible or \"the Bible of Bertoldus\" (MS. GKS 4 2°), a richly illuminated Bible in three very large volumes made for the Cathedral of Hamburg in 1255. The 89 illuminated initials in the book are unique both as expressions of medieval art and as sources to the craft and history of the medieval book. (2011);  Other treasures are the Copenhagen Psalter, the Dalby Book (a Latin Gospel on parchment), the Angers fragment (parts of Denmark's first national chronicle), and maps of the Polar Region. The library also holds important collections of Icelandic manuscripts, primarily in \"Den gamle kongelige samling\" (The Old Royal Collection) and \"Den nye kongelige samling\" (The New Royal Collection). Denmark's most outstanding Icelandic collection, the Arnamagnæan Manuscript Collection, is however not a holding of The Royal Library but of the University of Copenhagen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Book thefts.", "content": "Between 1968 and 1978, the library saw one of the largest book thefts in history. Someone had managed to steal some 1,600 historical books worth more than $50 million, including prints by Martin Luther and first editions by Immanuel Kant, Thomas More and John Milton. The theft remained undetected until 1975. Between 1998 and 2002, the thief succeeded in selling books worth about $2 million at various auctions. The case was finally solved in September 2003, after a stolen book had surfaced at Christie's auction house in London. The thief, a director of the library's oriental department named Frede Møller-Kristensen, had died in January 2003. His family then became careless in selling the remaining books. At a coordinated raid of the family's homes in Germany and Denmark in November 2003, some 1,500 books were recovered. In June 2004, his wife, son, daughter-in-law and a family friend were sentenced to prison terms ranging from 18 months to three years; the friend was acquitted on appeal. In April 2005, a daughter of the thief was also found guilty.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Royal Library () in Copenhagen is the national library of Denmark and the university library of the University of Copenhagen. It is among the largest libraries in the world and the largest in the Nordic countries. In 2017 it merged with the State and University Library in Aarhus to form a combined national library. The combined library organisation (the separate library locations in Copenhagen and Aarhus are maintained) is known as the Royal Danish Library ().", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973921}
{"src_title": "The Thompson Travel Agency", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The novel begins in London, where the impoverished French teacher Robert Morgand applies at the travel agency Baker & Company for the post of guide and interpreter on a tour of three archipelagos: the Azores, the Madeira Islands, and the Canary Islands. Because Morgand speaks fluent English, Spanish and Portuguese, he easily wins the job. In the following days, however, Morgand sees an advertisement for a rival agency, Thompson & Company, offering the same tour at a better price. Both travel agents compete until Morgan's employer Baker is forced to cancel its tour. The triumphant Thompson agency, however, also needs an interpreter, so Morgand immediately finds a job, though at far less pay.  Morgand begins his services on the steamer \"Seamew\". On board are more than a hundred tourists as well as Mr. Thompson himself, the owner of the travel agency. During the voyage it becomes clear that Mr. Thompson, an irresponsible and money-obsessed businessman, has planned neither the ocean voyage nor the visits to land; everything has to be arranged on the spot. Problems build up, food spoils, and travelers become increasingly dissatisfied on the way from the Azores to Madeira. During the voyage, Morgand falls in love with a female passenger, a young American widow named Alice Lindsay. Their romance is threatened by her brother-in-law and rejected admirer, Jack Lindsay, who is pursuing Alice for her money. Meanwhile, Alice Lindsay's nineteen-year-old sister Dolly falls in love with a kindly French officer-on-leave, Roger de Sorgues.  The journey continues through Gran Canaria and Tenerife, where the travelers climb Mount Teide. During the return voyage to Britain, however, the engines of the \"Seamew\" fail, and the ship is forced to proceed at a much slower pace, driven by sail only. The ship is finally wrecked near Cape Verde, but the survivors make it to the shore and eventually to continental Africa, where they are captured by Bedouins who attempt to ransom them. In the ensuing adventures, Jack Lindsay is killed in battle, but the other survivors are finally rescued. The novel ends happily with a double wedding: Robert Morgand with Alice Lindsay, and Roger de Sorgues with Dolly. The voyage turns out well even for Mr. Thompson, who, despite his creditors and disgruntled passengers, cleverly manages to escape bankruptcy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication history.", "content": "The novel was serialized in \"Le Journal\" from October 17, 1907 to December 25, 1907, and published by Hetzel et Cie in book form the same year. An English translation by I. O. Evans was published in two volumes (\"Package Holiday\" and \"End of the Journey\") in 1965.  The publisher's claim that the novel was a posthumous work by Jules Verne was accepted for more than a century, until the discovery of the original manuscript proved Michel Verne's authorship.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Thompson Travel Agency (, literally \"The Agency Thompson & Co.\") is a 1907 novel attributed to Jules Verne but written by his son Michel Verne.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973922}
{"src_title": "Nazarene movement", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1809, six students at the Vienna Academy formed an artistic cooperative in Vienna called the Brotherhood of St. Luke or \"Lukasbund,\" following a common name for medieval guilds of painters. In 1810 four of them, Johann Friedrich Overbeck, Franz Pforr, Ludwig Vogel and Johann Konrad Hottinger moved to Rome, where they occupied the abandoned monastery of San Isidoro. They were joined by Philipp Veit, Peter von Cornelius, Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow and a loose grouping of other German-speaking artists. They met up with Austrian romantic landscape artist Joseph Anton Koch (1768–1839) who became an unofficial tutor to the group. In 1827 they were joined by Joseph von Führich (1800–1876) (\"illustration above right\").  The principal motivation of the Nazarenes was a reaction against Neoclassicism and the routine art education of the academy system. They hoped to return to art which embodied spiritual values, and sought inspiration in artists of the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, rejecting what they saw as the superficial virtuosity of later art.  In Rome the group lived a semi-monastic existence, as a way of re-creating the nature of the medieval artist's workshop. Religious subjects dominated their output, and two major commissions allowed them to attempt a revival of the medieval art of fresco painting. Two fresco series were completed in Rome for the Casa Bartholdy (1816–17) (moved to the Alte Nationalgalerie in Berlin) and the Casino Massimo (1817–29), and gained international attention for the work of the \"Nazarenes\". However, by 1830 all except Overbeck had returned to Germany and the group had disbanded. Many Nazarenes became influential teachers in German art academies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The programme of the Nazarenes—the adoption of honest expression in art and the inspiration of artists before Raphael—was to exert considerable influence in Germany, and in England upon the Pre-Raphaelite movement. They were also direct influences on the British artists William Dyce and Frederick Leighton and Ford Madox Brown.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The epithet Nazarene was adopted by a group of early 19th century German Romantic painters who aimed to revive spirituality in art. The name Nazarene came from a term of derision used against them for their affectation of a biblical manner of clothing and hair style.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973923}
{"src_title": "Sarod", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Many scholars of Indian classical music believe that the sarod is a combination of the ancient chitravina, the medieval Indian rabab (aka the seniya rabab) and modern sursingar. Some scholars even contend that a similar instrument may have existed about two thousand years ago in ancient India during the ages of the Gupta kings. In fact, a Gupta period coin depicts the great king Samudragupta playing a veena, which many believe to be the precursor of the sarod. The present Indian Traces of similar Rabab style instruments can also be found in southern India, especially in the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, where it is known as the swarbat. The folk rabab, an instrument popular in north India, had a wooden fingerboard, its strings were made of silk, cotton or gut, and it was played with a wooden pick. In history, reference is also made to a Sharadiya Veena from which the name Sarod have been derived. The sarod is also believed to have descended from the Afghan rubab, a similar instrument originating in Central Asia and Afghanistan.  The word \"sarod\" roughly translates to \"beautiful sound\" or \"melody\" in Persian. Although the sarod has been referred to as a \"bass rubab\" its tonal bandwidth is actually considerably greater than that of the rubab, especially in the middle and high registers. Lalmani Misra opines in his \"Bharatiya Sangeet Vadya\" that the sarod is a combination of the ancient chitravina, the medieval rubab and modern sursingar. Another instrument, the Sur-rabab, is known to exist, which has the characteristics of both the dhrupad rabab/seniya rabab and the sarod. The sur-rabab has the structure of the dhrupad rabab but has a metal fretboard and uses metal strings.  Among the many conflicting and contested histories of the sarod, there is one that attributes its invention to the ancestors of the present-day sarod maestro, Amjad Ali Khan. Amjad Ali Khan’s ancestor Mohammad Hashmi Khan Bangash, a musician and horse trader, came to India with the Afghan rubab in the mid-18th century, and became a court musician to the Maharajah of Rewa (now in Madhya Pradesh). It was his descendants, notably his grandson Ghulam Ali Khan Bangash, a court musician in Gwalior, who changed the rubab into the sarod we know today. A parallel theory credits descendants of Madar Khan, Niyamatullah Khan in particular, with the same innovation around 1820. The sarod in its present form dates back to approximately 1820, when it started gaining recognition as a serious instrument in Rewa, Shahjahanpur, Gwalior and Lucknow. In the 20th century, the sarod was improved significantly by Allauddin Khan and his brother Ayet Ali Khan. They increased the number of chikari (drone) strings and increased the number of tarafdar (sympathetic) strings. However, as is the case with most young, evolving instruments, much work remains to be done in the area of sarod luthiery in order to achieve reliable customization, and precise replication of successful instruments. This reflects the general state of Indian instrument-making in the present day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The design of the instrument depends on the school (gharana) of playing. There are three distinguishable types:  The conventional sarod is a 17 to 25-stringed lute-like instrument — four to five main strings used for playing the melody, one or two drone strings, two \"chikari\" strings and nine to eleven sympathetic strings. The design of this early model is generally credited to Niyamatullah Khan of the Lucknow Gharana as well as Ghulam Ali Khan of the Gwalior-Bangash Gharana. Among the contemporary sarod players, this basic design is kept intact by two streams of sarod playing. Amjad Ali Khan and his disciples play this model, as do the followers of Radhika Mohan Maitra. Both Amjad Ali Khan and Buddhadev Dasgupta have introduced minor changes to their respective instruments which have become the design templates for their followers. Both musicians use sarods made of teak wood, and a soundboard made of goat skin stretched across the face of the resonator. Buddhadev Dasgupta prefers a polished stainless steel fingerboard for the ease of maintenance while Amjad Ali Khan uses the conventional chrome or nickel-plated cast steel fingerboard. Visually, the two variants are similar, with six pegs in the main pegbox, two rounded chikari pegs and 11 (Amjad) to 15 (Buddhadev) sympathetic strings. The descendants of Niyamatullah Khan (namely Irfan Khan and Ghulfam Khan) also play similar instruments. Some of the followers of Radhika Mohan Maitra still carry the second resonator on their sarods. Amjad Ali Khan and his followers have rejected the resonator altogether. These instruments are typically tuned to B, which is the traditional setting.  Another type is that designed by Allauddin Khan and his brother Ayet Ali Khan. This instrument, referred to by David Trasoff as the 1934 Maihar Prototype, is larger and longer than the conventional instrument, though the fingerboard is identical to the traditional sarod. This instrument has 25 strings in all. These include four main strings, four \"jod\" strings (tuned to \"Ni\" or \"Dha\", \"R/r\", \"G/g\" and \"Sa\" respectively), two \"chikari\" strings (tuned to \"Sa\" of the upper octave) and fifteen \"tarab\" strings. The main strings are tuned to \"Ma\" (\"fa\"), \"Sa\" (\"do\"), lower \"Pa\" (\"so\") and lower \"Sa\", giving the instrument a range of three octaves. The Maihar sarod lends itself extremely well to the presentation of alap with the four \"jod\" strings providing a backdrop for the ambiance of the raga. This variant is, however, not conducive to the performance of clean right-hand picking on individual strings. The instrument is typically tuned to C.  Sarod strings are either made of steel or phosphor bronze. Most contemporary sarod players use German or American-made strings, such as Roslau (Germany), Pyramid (Germany) and Precision (USA). The strings are plucked with a triangular plectrum (\"java\") made of polished coconut shell, ebony, cocobolo wood, horn, cowbone, Delrin, or other such materials. Early sarod players used plain wire plectrums, which yielded a soft, ringing tone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing technique.", "content": "The lack of frets and the tension of the strings make the sarod a very demanding instrument to play, as the strings must be pressed hard against the fingerboard.  There are two approaches to stopping the strings of the sarod. One involves using the tip of one's fingernails to stop the strings, and the other uses a combination of the nail and the fingertip to stop the strings against the fingerboard.  Fingering techniques and how they are taught depends largely on the personal preferences of musicians rather than on the basis of school affiliation. Radhika Mohan Maitra, for example, used the index, middle and ring finger of his left hand to stop the string, just like followers of Allauddin Khan do. Maitra, however, made much more extensive use of the third fingernail for slides and hammers. Amjad Ali Khan, while a member of approximately the same stylistic school as Radhika Mohan, prefers to use just the index and middle fingers of his left hand. Amjad Ali is, however, pictured circa 1960 playing with all three fingers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The sarod or sarode is a stringed instrument, used mainly in Hindustani music on the Indian subcontinent. Along with the sitar, it is among the most popular and prominent instruments. The sarod is known for a deep, weighty, introspective sound, in contrast with the sweet, overtone-rich texture of the sitar, with sympathetic strings that give it a resonant, reverberant quality. It is a fretless instrument able to produce the continuous slides between notes known as meend (glissandi), which are important in Indian music.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973924}
{"src_title": "Bosphorus Bridge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Precedents and proposals.", "content": "The idea of a bridge crossing the Bosphorus dates back to antiquity. For Emperor Darius the Great of the Achaemenid Empire (522 BC–485 BC), as recorded by the Greek writer Herodotus in his Histories, Mandrocles of Samos once engineered a pontoon bridge across the Bosphorus, linking Asia to Europe, enabling Darius to pursue the fleeing Scythians as well as position his army in the Balkans to overwhelm Macedon. Leonardo da Vinci proposed a suspension bridge to Sultan Bayezid II in 1502 or 1503. The first modern project for a permanent bridge across the Bosphorus was proposed to Sultan Abdul Hamid II of the Ottoman Empire by the Bosphorus Railroad Company in 1900, which included a rail link between the continents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The decision to build a bridge across the Bosphorus was taken in 1957 by Prime Minister Adnan Menderes. For the structural engineering work, a contract was signed with the British firm Freeman Fox & Partners in 1968. The bridge was designed by the British civil engineers Gilbert Roberts, William Brown and Michael Parsons, who also designed the Humber Bridge, Severn Bridge, and Forth Road Bridge. Construction started in February 1970 and ceremonies were attended by President Cevdet Sunay and Prime Minister Süleyman Demirel. The bridge was built by the Turkish firm Enka Construction & Industry Co. along with the co-contractors Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company (England) and Hochtief AG (Germany). Thirty-five engineers and 400 men worked on the project.  The bridge was completed on 30 October 1973, one day after the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of Turkey, and opened by President Fahri Korutürk and Prime Minister Naim Talu. The cost of the bridge was US$200 million ($ in dollars).  Upon the bridge's opening, much was made of its being the first bridge between Europe and Asia since the pontoon bridge of Xerxes in 480 BCE. That bridge, however, spanned the Hellespont (Dardanelles), some distance away from the Bosphorus, and was the second bridge after the above-mentioned bridge built by Emperor Darius I The Great across the Bosphorus in 513 BCE.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "The bridge highway is eight lanes wide. Three standard lanes, one emergency lane and one pedestrian lane serve each direction. On weekday mornings, most commuter traffic flows westbound to Europe, so four of the six lanes run westbound and only two eastbound. Conversely, on weekday evenings, four lanes are dedicated to eastbound traffic and two lanes, to westbound traffic.  For the first three years, pedestrians could walk over the bridge, reaching it with elevators inside the towers on both sides. No pedestrians or commercial vehicles, such as trucks, are allowed to use the bridge today.  Today, around 180,000 vehicles pass daily in both directions, with almost 85% being cars. On 29 December 1997, the one-billionth vehicle passed the bridge. Fully loaded, the bridge sags about in the middle of the span.  It is a toll bridge, and a toll plaza with 13 toll booths is situated near the bridge on the Asian side. A toll is charged for passing from Europe to Asia, but not for passing in the reverse direction.  Since 1999, some of the toll booths (#9 - #13), located to the far left as motorists approach them, are unmanned and equipped only with a remote payment system (Turkish: OGS) in order to not delay traffic. In addition to OGS, another toll pay system with special contactless smart cards (Turkish: KGS) was installed at specific toll booths in 2005.  Since 3 April 2006, toll booths accept no cash but only OGS or KGS. An OGS device or KGS card can be obtained at various stations before reaching the toll plazas of highways and bridges. In 2006 the toll was 3.00 TL or about $2.00.  Since April 2007, a computerised LED lighting system of changing colours and patterns, developed by Philips, illuminates the bridge at night.  In 2012, KGS was replaced with the new HGS system, which uses radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Every October, the annual Intercontinental Istanbul Eurasia Marathon crosses the bridge on its way from Asia to Europe. During the marathon, the bridge is closed to vehicular traffic.  In October, visitors participate in the 'fun run' and cross the bridge on foot. Many take picnics to enjoy the view.  The bridge was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 1000 lira banknotes of 1978-1986.  On 15 May 2005 at 07:00 local time, U.S. tennis star Venus Williams played a show game with Turkish player İpek Şenoğlu on the bridge, the first tennis match played on two continents. The event promoted the upcoming 2005 WTA Istanbul Cup and lasted five minutes. After the exhibition, they both threw a tennis ball into the Bosphorus.  On 17 July 2005 at 10:30 local time, British Formula One driver David Coulthard drove his Red Bull racing car across the bridge from the European side to the Asian side, then, after turning with a powerslide at the toll plaza, back to the European side for show. He parked his car in the garden of Dolmabahçe Palace where his ride had started. While crossing the bridge with his Formula 1 car, Coulthard was picked up by the automatic surveillance system and charged with a fine of 20 Euros because he passed through the toll booths without payment. His team agreed to pay for him.  On 5 November 2013, World No. 1 golfer Tiger Woods, visiting for the 2013 Turkish Airlines Open golf tournament held between 7 and 10 November, was brought to the bridge by helicopter and made a couple of show shots on the bridge, hitting balls from the Asian side to the European side on one side of the bridge, which was closed to traffic for about one hour.  On 15 July 2016, the bridge was blocked by a faction of the Turkish Armed Forces during a coup attempt. They also arrested civilians and police officers. Some tanks ran over vehicles. The soldiers involved surrendered to police and to civilians the next day.  On 25 July 2016, prime minister Binali Yıldırım announced that the bridge would be renamed as the \"15 Temmuz Şehitler Köprüsü\" (July 15 Martyrs Bridge).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bosphorus Bridge (), known officially as the 15 July Martyrs Bridge () and unofficially as the First Bridge (), is one of the three suspension bridges spanning the Bosphorus strait (Turkish: \"Boğaziçi\") in Istanbul, Turkey, thus connecting Europe and Asia (alongside Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge and Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge). The bridge extends between Ortaköy (in Europe) and Beylerbeyi (in Asia).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973925}
{"src_title": "Carlo Crivelli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Crivelli was born around 1430–35 in Venice to a family of painters and received his artistic formation there and in Padua. The details of Crivelli's career are still sparse: He is said to have studied under Jacobello del Fiore, who was painting as late as 1436; at that time Crivelli was probably only a boy. He also studied at the school of Vivarini in Venice, then left Venice for Padua, where he is believed to have worked in the workshop of Francesco Squarcione and then, after being sentenced in 1457 to a six-month prison term for an affair with a married woman, left in 1459 for Zadar in Dalmatia (now part of Croatia, but then a Venetian territory).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "He was master of his own shop when sent to prison for adultery in 1457. The dates he signed on the pictures that survive extend from 1468 on an altarpiece in the church of San Silvestro at Massa Fermana near Fermo to 1493 on \"The Dead Christ between St John, the Virgin and Mary Magdalene\" in Milan's Brera Gallery.  Though the artist advertised his Venetian origins with his signature, often some variation on \"Carolus Crivellus Venetos\" (\"Carlo Crivelli of Venice\"), Crivelli seems to have worked chiefly in the March of Ancona, and especially in and near Ascoli Piceno. Only two pictures can be found today in Venice, both in the church of San Sebastiano.  He painted in tempera only, despite the increasing popularity of oil painting during his lifetime, and on panels, though some of his paintings have been transferred to canvas. His predilection for decoratively punched gilded backgrounds is one of the marks of this conservative taste, in part imposed by his patrons. Of his early polyptychs, only one, the altarpiece from Ascoli Piceno, dated 1473, survives in its entirety in its original frame, and still in its original location (the city's Cathedral). All the others have been disassembled and their panels and predella scenes are divided among several museums.  An amorphous band of contemporaries, imitators and followers, termed \"Crivelleschi\", reflect to varying degrees aspects of his style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Unlike the naturalistic trends arising in Florence during his lifetime, Crivelli's style continues to represent the courtly International Gothic sensibility. His urban settings are jewel-like and full of elaborate allegorical detail. He favored verdant landscape backgrounds, and his works can be identified by his characteristic use of fruits and flowers as decorative motifs, often depicted in pendant festoons, which are also a hallmark of the Paduan studio of Francesco Squarcione, where Crivelli may have worked.  His paintings have a linear quality identified with his Umbrian contemporaries. Crivelli is a painter of marked individuality. Unlike Giovanni Bellini, his contemporary, his works are not \"soft\", but clear and definite in contour with marked attention to detail. His use of \"trompe l'oeil\", often compared with that found in the works of Northern Renaissance painters like Rogier van der Weyden, includes raised objects, such as jewels and armor modeled in gesso on the panel.  Commissioned by the Franciscans and Dominicans of Ascoli, Crivelli's work is exclusively religious in nature. His paintings consist largely of \"Madonna and Child\" images, \"Pietà\", and the altarpieces known as polyptychs that were increasingly unfashionable. Often filled with images of suffering, such as gaping wounds in Christ's hands and side and the mouths of mourners twisted in agony, Crivelli's work fulfills the spiritual needs of his patrons. These ultra-realistic, sometimes disturbing qualities have often led critics to label Crivelli's paintings \"grotesque\", much like his fellow Northern Italian painter, Cosimo Tura. His work attracted numerous prestigious commissions and must have appealed to the taste of his patrons.  Carlo Crivelli died in the Marche (probably Ascoli Piceno) around 1495. Vittorio Crivelli, with whom he occasionally collaborated, was his younger brother. Pietro Alemanno, a painter who immigrated to the March of Ancona from Germany/Austria, was his pupil and collaborator. Donato Crivelli, who was also a pupil of Jacobello and was working in 1459, may be of the same family as Carlo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reputation.", "content": "His work fell out of favor following his death and Vasari's \"Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects\", which is notably Florentine in its outlook, does not mention him. He had something of a revival, especially in the UK, during the time of the pre-Raphaelite painters, several of whom, including Edward Burne-Jones, admired his work. His reputation faded with that movement, but recent writings on his work and a rehanging of his work in the National Gallery, London, have brought him renewed attention.  Susan Sontag in \"Notes on \"Camp\"\" (1992) wrote: \"Camp is the paintings of Carlo Crivelli, with their real jewels and trompe-l'oeil insects and cracks in the masonry.\"  Another of his principal pictures is in San Francesco di Matelica.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carlo Crivelli (Venice c. 1430 – Ascoli Piceno 1495) was an Italian Renaissance painter of conservative Late Gothic decorative sensibility, who spent his early years in the Veneto, where he absorbed influences from the Vivarini, Squarcione and Mantegna. He left the Veneto by 1458 and spent most of the remainder of his career in the March of Ancona, where he developed a distinctive personal style that contrasts with that of his Venetian contemporary Giovanni Bellini.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973926}
{"src_title": "Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "When the \"Kunstkammer\" (Art Chamber) of the Electors of Saxony in Dresden was founded by Augustus, Elector of Saxony in 1560, paintings were subordinate to collectors' pieces from science, other art works and curiosities. It was not until the beginning of the 18th century that Augustus II the Strong and his son Frederick Augustus II started to collect paintings systematically. Over a period of less than 60 years, these two art-loving Electors of Saxony, who were also Kings of Poland, expanded the collections significantly. In 1745, the 100 best pieces of the collection belonging to the Duke of Modena (Francesco III) were purchased, arriving in Dresden the following year.  As the fast-growing painting collection soon required more space for storage and presentation, it was moved from Dresden Castle to the adjacent \"Stallgebäude\" (the Electors’ Stables Building) in 1747.  In the meantime the collection had achieved European fame. Paintings from all over Europe, especially from Italy, Paris, Amsterdam and Prague, were acquired and sent to Dresden. The purchasing activities of the Electors were crowned by the acquisition of Raphael’s \"Sistine Madonna\" in 1754. The Dresden painting gallery became not only one of the most famous Old Masters collections in Northern European, but also a prototyp of the modern museums that would emergence in the late 18th century.  In 1838, the architect Gottfried Semper was invited by a gallery commission working for King Frederick Augustus II, to design an appropriate architectural setting for the collection. The new gallery wing of the Zwinger was consequently built from 1847 to 1854. On 25 September 1855, the \"Neues Königliches Museum\" (New Royal Museum) opened in the Semper Gallery where it is still located today.  Due to shortage of space, the Modern Department of the museum with paintings from the 19th and 20th centuries moved into a separate building on Brühl's Terrace, laying the foundations for what is now known as the New Masters Gallery.  When World War II was imminent in 1938, the museum was closed. The artworks were mostly safely stored away when the gallery building itself was severely damaged in the bombing of Dresden on 13 February 1945. At the end of the war in 1945, most of the paintings were confiscated by the Red Army and transported to Moscow and Kiev. On their return to Dresden in 1955, part of the collection was displayed on the ground floor of the still partly destroyed Semper Gallery. The Old Masters Gallery re-opened in 1960 after the reconstruction of the gallery building was completed. While the most important paintings survived this period, the losses were significant. Records from 1963 state that 206 paintings had been destroyed and 507 were missing. Of these, some 450 are still missing today.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collection.", "content": "Some 750 paintings, or 40 percent of the entire collection, are exhibited in the gallery. They date from the 15th to the 18th centuries. Paintings from the 19th century onwards are displayed in the New Masters Gallery (\"Gemäldegalerie Neue Meister\") in the Albertinum.  Renaissance and Baroque masterpieces by Italian painters such as Raphael, Titian, Giorgione, Correggio, Tintoretto and Guercino are displayed. The collection contains a large number of 17th-century Flemish and Dutch paintings by Rubens, Rembrandt, Jordaens, Van Dyck and Vermeer. Outstanding works by German, French and Spanish painters are also among the gallery's attractions.  With 58 paintings by Lucas Cranach the Elder and Lucas Cranach the Younger, the gallery houses the world's largest collection of Cranach paintings. Panels and canvases of the early Renaissance are also exhibited, including the recently restored \"Saint Sebastian\" by Antonello da Messina.  The color of the walls is used to structure the collection. Italian artwork is exhibited in rooms with deep red walls. Dutch and Flemish paintings are shown on green backgrounds. Spanish and French pictures from the 17th century are displayed on gray walls.  The Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister receives more than 500,000 visitors a year.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (, \"Old Masters Gallery\") in Dresden, Germany, displays around 750 paintings from the 15th to the 18th centuries. It includes major Italian Renaissance works as well as Dutch and Flemish paintings. Outstanding works by German, French and Spanish painters of the period are also among the gallery's attractions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973927}
{"src_title": "Mark Taimanov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Taimanov was born in Kharkiv, where his parents studied at the time. They moved to Leningrad when he was six months old. His father Evgeny Zakharovich Taimanov was half-Cossack and half-Jewish; his family escaped to Kharkiv from Smolensk during the World War I. He was a student at the Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute and later made a career as a head engineer at the Kirov Plant and the Hydraulic Plant, but left it to work as an engineer at the Leningrad Conservatory and various Leningrad theaters after his brother and his wife's relatives were imprisoned in 1937. Taimanov's mother Serafima Ivanovna Ilyina came from an Orthodox Russian family; she studied at the Kharkiv National Kotlyarevsky University of Arts. As a piano teacher she later introduced her son to music. Mark was the eldest of three children. When he was nine, he performed as a young violinist in the Soviet children's film \"Beethoven Concerto\" that was released in 1937. During the Great Patriotic War he and his father evacuated to Tashkent shortly before the Siege of Leningrad started; his mother along with his two siblings decided to stay in the city and had to survive the siege up till their evacuation in March 1942.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chess career.", "content": "He was awarded the International Master title in 1950, and the International Grandmaster title in 1952 by FIDE. He played in the Candidates Tournament in Zurich in 1953, where he tied for eighth place. He was regularly in the world's top 20 players for over 25 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet team play.", "content": "He represented Leningrad in internal Soviet regional team competitions, scoring (+36−24=56) in 116 games, across 15 events, between 1948 and 1983. He represented the sports society \"Burevestnik\" (Students) in internal Soviet club team competitions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soviet championships.", "content": "He played in 23 USSR Chess Championships (a record equalled by Efim Geller), tying for first place twice. In 1952 he lost the playoff match to Mikhail Botvinnik, who was World Champion at the time. In 1956, after finishing equal with Yuri Averbakh and Boris Spassky in the tournament proper, he won a match-tournament ahead of them, for the title.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loss to Fischer.", "content": "Taimanov lost to Bobby Fischer in the 1971 Candidates quarterfinal by the unprecedented score of 6–0. About this match, Taimanov later recalled that Fischer \"was an incredibly tough defender\" and that \"the third game proved to be the turning point of the match\". After his loss to Fischer, the Soviet government was embarrassed, and, as Taimanov later put it in a 2002 interview, found it \"unthinkable\" that he could have lost the match so badly to an American without a \"political explanation\". Soviet officials took away Taimanov's salary and no longer allowed him to travel overseas. The official reason given for punishing Taimanov was that he had brought a book by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn into the country, but that explanation was merely a bureaucratic pretext. The officials later \"forgave\" Taimanov, and lifted the sanctions against him. Fischer's overwhelming match wins later in 1971, first by 6–0 against Bent Larsen, then by 61⁄2–21⁄2 against Tigran Petrosian, may have helped contribute to their change of mind. Taimanov considered this match \"the culminating point\" of his chess career and later wrote a book about the match, titled \"How I Became Fischer's Victim\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International teams.", "content": "Taimanov represented the USSR in international team play with enormous success. At the 1956 Chess Olympiad in Moscow, as first reserve he scored (+6−0=5), winning team gold and board bronze medals. This was his only Olympiad appearance.  Taimanov represented the USSR four times in the European Team Chess Championship. At Vienna 1957, he played board seven, scored (+2−0=3), winning team and board gold medals. At Oberhausen 1961, he played board eight, scored (+6−0=3), and won team and board gold medals. At Hamburg 1965, he played board seven, scored (+3−1=4), and won team and board gold medals. At Kapfenberg 1970, he played board six, scored (+4−0=2), and won team and board gold medals.  In the inaugural Russia (USSR) vs Rest of the World team match, Belgrade 1970, he played board seven, and scored (+2−1=1) against Wolfgang Uhlmann.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chess legacy.", "content": "Taimanov was one of the few players to have beaten six world champions (Botvinnik, Vasily Smyslov, Mikhail Tal, Tigran Petrosian, Spassky, and Anatoly Karpov). Opening variations are named after Taimanov in the Sicilian Defence, Modern Benoni and Nimzo-Indian Defence. He wrote books on two of his named variations, as well as an autobiographical best games collection. Taimanov's favorite chess players were Alexander Alekhine, Mikhail Tal, and Garry Kasparov.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Major chess writings.", "content": "Note that several of Taimanov's books are available in Russian, German, and English languages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music career.", "content": "Taimanov was a top concert pianist in the Soviet Union. With his first wife, Lyubov Bruk, he formed a piano duo, some of whose recordings were included in the Philips and Steinway series \"Great Pianists of the 20th Century\". Taimanov personally knew composer Dmitri Shostakovich, cellist Mstislav Rostropovich and pianist Sviatoslav Richter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and death.", "content": "Taimanov married four times. He remarried late in life, and became the father of twins at the age of 78. Fifty-seven years separate his oldest child and his twins.  His younger sister Irina Taimanova (born 1941) is a prominent opera director, TV presenter and professor at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory.  Taimanov died on 28 November 2016 in Saint Petersburg, at the age of 90.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mark Evgenievich Taimanov (; 7 February 1926 – 28 November 2016) was one of the leading Soviet and Russian chess players, among the world's top 20 players from 1946 to 1971. Also a prolific chess author, Taimanov was awarded the title of Grandmaster in 1952 and in 1956 won the USSR Chess Championship. Several chess variations are named after him. A modern Renaissance man, Taimanov was also a world-class concert pianist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973928}
{"src_title": "Sabiha Gökçen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "According to official Turkish sources and interviews with Sabiha Gökçen, she was the daughter of Mustafa Izzet Bey and Hayriye Hanım, both of whom were of Bosniak origin. During Atatürk's visit to Bursa in 1925, Sabiha, who was only twelve years old, asked for permission to talk with Atatürk and expressed her wish to study at a boarding school. After learning her story and about her miserable living conditions, Atatürk decided to adopt her and asked Sabiha's brother for permission to take her to the Çankaya Presidential Residence in Ankara, where Sabiha would live with Atatürk's other adoptive daughters, Zehra, Afet and Rukiye. Sabiha attended the Çankaya Primary School in Ankara and the Üsküdar American Academy in Istanbul.  In February 2004 an article in the newspaper \"Agos\", headlined \"The Secret of Sabiha Hatun\", contained an interview with Hripsime Sebilciyan, a former resident of Gaziantep, who claimed to be Gökçen's niece and that Gökçen herself was of Armenian ancestry. Mustafa Kemal had also adopted Gökçen, who was in an orphanage shortly after the Armenian Genocide. According to Turkish-Armenian linguist Pars Tuğlacı, who deemed Sebilciyan's claim false, Gökçen herself found out about her Armenian roots while in Ankara, when members of her family contacted her from Beirut. It is claimed that Gökçen visited her Armenian relatives in Beirut and had four brothers, Sarkis, Boğos, Haçik and Hovhannes.  However, along with Turkish sources and interviews with Sabiha, her adopted sister Ülkü Adatepe, also in an interview, disputed these claims and reiterated that Sabiha and her both parents, Mustafa İzzet Bey and Hayriye Hanım, were of Bosniak ancestry.  After the introduction of the Surname Law, Atatürk gave her the family name Gökçen on 19 December 1934. 'Gök' means sky in Turkish and Gökçen means 'belonging or relating to the sky'. However, she was not an aviator at that time, and it was only six months later that Sabiha developed a passion for flying.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Atatürk attached great importance to aviation and for that purpose oversaw the foundation of the Turkish Aeronautical Association in 1925. He took Sabiha along with him to the opening ceremony of \"Türkkuşu\" (\"Turkishbird\") \"Flight School\" on 5 May 1935. During the airshow of gliders and parachutists invited from foreign countries, she got very excited. As Atatürk asked her whether she would also want to become a skydiver, she nodded \"yes indeed, I am ready right now\". Atatürk instructed Fuat Bulca, the head of the school, to enroll her as the first female trainee. She was meant to become a skydiver, but she was much more interested in flying, so she earned her pilot's licence. Gökçen was sent to Russia, together with seven male students, for an advanced course in glider and powered aircraft piloting. However, when she was in Moscow, she learned the news that her sister Zehra had died, and with collapsed morale, she immediately returned to Turkey, isolating herself from social activities for some time.  As girls were not being accepted by the Turkish War Academies in those years, Sabiha Gökçen was provided, on Atatürk's orders, with a personalized uniform, and attended a special education programme of eleven months at the \"Tayyare Mektebi\" (Aviation School) in Eskişehir in the academic year 1936-1937. After receiving her flight patents (diploma) she trained to become a war pilot at the 1st Airplane Regiment in Eskişehir for six months.  She improved her skills by flying bomber and fighter planes at the 1st Aircraft Regiment in Eskişehir Airbase and gained experience after participating in the Aegean and Thrace exercises in 1937. In that same year, she took part in military operations at the Dersim rebellion and became the first Turkish female air force combat pilot. A report of the General Staff mentioned the \"serious damage\" that had been caused by her 50 kg bomb to a group of fifty fleeing \"bandits\" and she was awarded with a \"takdirname\" (letter of appreciation). She was also awarded the Turkish Aeronautical Association's first \"\"Murassa\" (Jeweled) Medal\" for her superior performance in this operation.  In 1938, she carried out a five-day flight around the Balkan countries to great acclaim. In the same year, she was appointed \"chief trainer\" of the Türkkuşu Flight School of the Turkish Aeronautical Association, where she served until 1954 as a flight instructor and became a member of the association's executive board. She trained four female aviators, Edibe Subaşı, Yıldız Uçman, Sahavet Karapas and Nezihe Viranyalı. Sabiha Gökçen flew around the world for a period of 28 years until 1964. Her book entitled \"\"A Life Along the Path of Atatürk\"\" was published in 1981 by the Turkish Aeronautical Association to commemorate Atatürk's 100th birthday.  Throughout her career in the Turkish Air Force, Gökçen flew 22 different types of aircraft for more than 8,000 hours, 32 hours of which were active combat and bombardment missions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "Gökçen made headlines and sparked controversy, in 2004, when Hrant Dink, a journalist of Turkish-Armenian descent, published an interview with a person claiming to be Sabiha's niece that claimed that she was of Armenian origin. Many rightfully contested the matter, including her adopted sister and the last living daughter of Atatürk, Ülkü Adatepe, disputing this during an interview and stating that Sabiha was of Bosniak ancestry. According to Adatepe, Sabiha's mother Hayriye and father Mustafa İzzet were ethnic Bosniaks. The notion that Gökçen could have been Armenian caused controversy in the country; the Turkish General Staff said the debate \"mocked national values\" and was \"not conducive to social peace\". Hrant Dink, the journalist who wrote the article, came under criticism, most notably from newspaper columnists and Turkish nationalist groups. A US consul dispatch leaked by WikiLeaks and penned by an official from the consulate in Istanbul observed that the entire affair \"exposed an ugly streak of racism in Turkish society.\" It is also believed that the affair was one of the reasons that led to Hrant Dink's assassination in Istanbul in January 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and recognition.", "content": "Sabiha Gökçen International Airport in Istanbul is named after her.  She is recognized as the first female combat pilot by The Guinness Book of World Records.  She was selected as the only female pilot for the poster of \"\"The 20 Greatest Aviators in History\"\" published by the United States Air Force in 1996.  That year, she was also honored at the Air Command and Staff College's Gathering of Eagles at Maxwell Air Force Base. The program encourages the study of aviation history by emphasizing the contributions of aviation pioneers.  She was the subject of a Google Doodle honouring her birthday which was displayed in Turkey on 22 March 2009.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sabiha Gökçen (; 22 March 1913 – 22 March 2001) was a Turkish aviator. She was the world's first female fighter pilot, aged 23. Others such as Marie Marvingt and Evgeniya Shakhovskaya preceded her as military pilots in other roles, but not as fighter pilots and without military academy enrollment. She was an orphan, and one of the thirteen adopted children of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973929}
{"src_title": "Claude Goudimel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Claude Goudimel was born in Besançon, France. Few details of his life are known until he is documented in Paris in 1549, where he was studying at the University of Paris; in that year he also published a book of chansons. In the early 1550s he worked with printer, and may have still been studying at the University of Paris until 1555; by 1555 he was also Du Chemin's partner in the publishing business.  Goudimel moved to Metz in 1557, converting to Protestantism, and is known to have been associated with the Huguenot cause there; however he left Metz due to the increasing hostility of the city authorities to Protestants during the Wars of Religion. First he settled in his native town of Besançon, and later moved to Lyon.  It is supposed Goudimel was murdered in Lyon in August 1572, during the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, along with much of the Huguenot population of the city. His last letter to his close friend and poet Melissus showing Goudimel sick with fever on August 23, 1572, allowed M. Weckerlin to suppose that instead of dying in the massacre of Saint Barthelemy, the master could have died quite simply in his bed. However, there is no definitive evidence to support or contradict either theory of his passing.  The death of Goudimel inspired among the versifiers of this time a respectable number of epitaphs, sonnets and other famous pieces in French, Latin and Greek. That by J. Posthius begins with these lines:  'Claudius, the sweet,  was preferred above the song of the swans, and [was] the Orpheus of our time.'", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and influence.", "content": "Goudimel is most famous for his four-part settings of the psalms of the Genevan Psalter, in the French versions of Clément Marot. In one of his four complete editions he puts - unlike other settings at the time - the melody in the topmost voice, the method which has prevailed in hymnody to the present day. In addition he composed masses, motets, and a considerable body of secular chansons, almost all of which date from before his conversion to Protestantism (probably around 1560).  In 1554, he became the editor of a large collection of masses, motets and Magnificat of several composers, a collection printed by Nicolas Duchemin, and in which Goudimel appeared as the author of seven Latin and Catholic works. In the year following, Goudimel, still at Duchemin's, brought out a book of pieces for four voices of his composition on the Odes of Horace. However, he felt some contrition about setting work of the pagan poet, and in 1557 he wrote: \"To Monsieur de La Bloctière, Mr. Claude Belot, Angevin, advocate in the court of Parliament of Paris, C. Goudimel, his good friend, wishes good health. Sir,... [I] present to you this third book of Music of mine on the divine verses of the divine and royal Prophet. Also in no way could I choose the man, who seems to me to favor this little work of better heart than you, who alone amiably forced me to change, even quit, the profane lyre of the profane poet Horace, to memorize in hand and boldly undertake to touch and wield the sacred harp of our great David.\"  Goudimel's stay in Metz lasted several years. It was there that he addressed, in 1564, the dedication of his first complete psalter to \"Mgr Roger de Bellegarde, ordinary gentleman of the king's room,\" and, in 1565, that of the second psalter to \"Mgr d'Auzances, knight of the Order and lieutenant general of the king.\" On March 18, 1565, he was named godfather of a child at the reformed church of this city. in 1566, he published his seventh book of psalms in the form of motets. It was, therefore, after his departure from Paris that the celebrities Adrien le Roy and Robert Ballard published his masses in 1558; and it was also during his time in Metz that Goudimel began to concentrate all of his artistic ability in the various musical interpretations of the French translation of the psalms by Clément Marot and Théodore de Bèze. He worked on the continuation of his large collection of motet-shaped psalms, and wrote almost simultaneously two different versions of the complete psalter, each containing one hundred and fifty psalms.  Goudimel's style tends to be homophonic, with an intriguing use of syncopated rhythm and melisma and staggered voice entries to bring out inner parts, especially in the chansons. His Psalm settings, however, are more polyphonic, characteristic of the moderate contrapuntal style exemplified by the chansons of Jacques Arcadelt, an approximate contemporary.  The widespread claim that he taught Palestrina is now regarded as untenable. His Opera Omnia extends to 14 volumes, though several of his works are fragmentary, missing one or more voices.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Claude Goudimel (c. 1514 to 1520 – between 28 August and 31 August 1572) was a French composer, music editor and publisher, and music theorist of the High Renaissance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973930}
{"src_title": "Vladko Maček", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Maček was born in Kupinec near Jastrebarsko, southwest of Zagreb. His father Ivan was a Slovene, originally from Lesično, and his mother Ida was of mixed Croatian, on her father's side, and Polish descent on her mother's. At the age of six, Maček started attending elementary school in Kupinec, but continued his education in Zagreb, as his father, a public employee, was transferred there. In Zagreb, Maček enrolled at a gymnasium, which he finished when he was 18 and enrolled at the Faculty of Law, University of Zagreb. He earned a law degree at University of Zagreb. After clerking at various Croatian courts he opened a private law practice in 1908 in Sv. Ivan Zelina. He joined the Croatian Peasant Party at its founding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "At the outbreak of the World War I, Maček was a reserve officer. As such, he was mobilised into 25th People's Regiment of the Austro-Hungarian Army as a commander of the 3rd company on 27 July 1914. Maček participated in the Serbian Campaign and was wounded in the Battle of Kolubara while crossing the river Kolubara in November. After returning from hospital in Novi Sad to Zagreb before the Christmas, he was decorated for bravery and promoted to the rank of first lieutenant. Due to his astigmatism, he was declared unfit to serve on the battlefield, and was appointed a commander of an engineer company, composed of Poles and Ukrainians. His company prepared defenses of Budapest, and later Austrian-Hungarian port in Pulj, where he served until autumn 1916. From 15 October 1916 until 15 March 1917 he served in occupying forces in Albania.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After World War I.", "content": "After World War I, during which he served in the Austro-Hungarian Army, he became a close associate of Stjepan Radić. In 1925, after Radić's visit to Moscow and the Croatian Peasant Party joining the Peasants International, Maček was arrested by the Royal Yugoslav authorities. While in jail, he was elected to the National Assembly. In July 1925, after HSS had joined the government, Maček was released.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "HSS leadership and Banovina of Croatia.", "content": "Maček became the leader of the party on 13 August 1928 following Radić's assassination. He quickly became a main opponent of King Alexander and was arrested in April 1933 and sentenced to three years in jail for treason.  Maček was released following Alexander's assassination in 1934. His stated aim during that period was to transform Yugoslavia from a unitary state, dominated by ethnic Serbs, into a new form of state organization in which Croatian statehood would be restored. His ideas appealed to a majority of Croats, and the Croatian Peasant Party gradually gained popularity. He nurtured close relations with other opposition parties in Yugoslavia and, although his coalition lost elections in 1938, it remained a force for reckoning. His persistence and political skills finally paid off in August 1939 with Dragiša Cvetković in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement and the creation of the Banovina of Croatia (Banovina), a semi-autonomous entity which contained Croatia and large sections of today's Bosnia and Herzegovina. HSS became part of the coalition government while Maček himself became deputy prime minister of Yugoslavia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "This triumph proved to be short-lived as Banovina collapsed along with Yugoslavia when it was invaded by the Axis invasion in April 1941. Seen by Nazi Germany as an ideal leader of a new Axis puppet state—the Independent State of Croatia—Maček was offered the opportunity to become prime minister, but refused the offer twice. He called on the supporters of HSS to respect and co-operate with the new regime of Ante Pavelić, while at the same time delegating Juraj Krnjević to represent the Croatian people in the Yugoslav government-in-exile.  Maček's strategy proved to be detrimental both for his party and himself. In October 1941 he was arrested and interned in Jasenovac concentration camp where he was put under the watch of Ljubo Miloš for some time. Five months later, on 16 March 1942, he was placed under house arrest together with his family at his home in Kupinec. His family shared his internment first in Kupinec, then two months of 1943 (9 January to 9 March) in Luburić's Zagreb apartment (which they shared with Luburić's aged mother and his two sisters), and finally from 9 December 1943 until the collapse of Pavelić's Ustaša regime in May 1945 in his Prilaz 9 house in Zagreb. In the meantime, HSS began to fracture along ideological lines—some of its members joined the Ustaše, while others joined Tito's Partisans. Although bitterly opposed to the former, Maček was equally distrustful of the latter and in 1945 emigrated, first to France, then to the U.S.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "On 12 June 1945 Maček was received by French foreign minister Georges Bidault who offered him the right of domicile in France. He visited the United States for the first time in 1946 after receiving a visa by order of the Department of State. He was received by mayor David L. Lawrence of Pittsburgh while delivering a speech in that city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Last years/death.", "content": "Maček helped found the International Peasants' Union along with Georgi Mihov Dimitrov in 1947. He was offered the leadership of the numerous Croatian émigré groups, but refused. During 1949, he provided much of the material on Yugoslavia for \"Communists Crush Churches in Eastern Europe,\" edited by Reuben H. Markham.He died of a heart attack in Washington D.C. on 15 May 1964, aged 84. His remains were taken to Croatia in 1996 and buried in the Mirogoj cemetery in Zagreb. He was posthumously awarded the Grand Order of King Dmitar Zvonimir in 2004.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vladimir \"Vladko\" Maček (20 June 1879 – 15 May 1964) was a politician in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. As a leader of the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS) following the 1928 assassination of Stjepan Radić, Maček had been a leading Croatian political figure until the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941. As a leader of the HSS, Maček played a key role in establishment of the Banovina of Croatia, an autonomous banovina in Yugoslavia in 1939.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973931}
{"src_title": "Albertinum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Albertinum was built between 1884 and 1887 by extending a former armoury, or arsenal, that had been constructed between 1559 and 1563 at the same location. The new building was designed by the regional master builder Carl Adolf Canzler in the Renaissance Revival style to house the royal \"Collection of Antique and Modern Sculptures\". The building was named after the Saxonian King Albert who reigned at the time. In 1889, the Sculpture Collection was moved in and has since remained there.  Damaged in the February 13, 1945 bombing of Dresden in World War II, the Albertinum was restored by 1953.  Besides the Sculpture Collection, the Albertinum has housed the New Masters Gallery (\"Galerie Neue Meister\") in the upper rooms since 1965. It was also the temporary postwar home of the Numismatic Cabinet (\"Münzkabinett\") and the Green Vault (\"Grünes Gewölbe\") until the exhibitions were moved to the rebuilt Dresden Castle in 2002 and 2004, respectively.  The floods of 2002 necessitated renovating the Albertinum and building a new flood-proof depository. After closing in 2006, the building was finally reopened on June 20, 2010 as a \"house of the modern\" with the New Masters Gallery and the Sculpture Collection, \"designed for encounters between painting and sculpture, between the Romantic and the Modern\". The most important improvement has been the roofing of the inner courtyard to form an atrium, called \"an ark for the art\". Furthermore, the glazed walling of the establishment's depositories gives visitors views of the inner workings of a museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museums.", "content": "The Albertinum houses the New Masters Gallery (\"Galerie Neue Meister\") and the Sculpture Collection (\"Skulpturensammlung\"). The holdings of the two museums, with paintings ranging from Caspar David Friedrich to Ludwig Richter and sculptures from Auguste Rodin to the 21st century, are displayed on three floors in exhibition halls with a modern look.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Albertinum () is a modern art museum. The sandstone-clad Renaissance Revival building is located on Brühl's Terrace in the historic center of Dresden, Germany. It is named after King Albert of Saxony.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973932}
{"src_title": "Laetiporus sulphureus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and phylogenetics.", "content": "\"Laetiporus sulphureus\" was first described as \"Boletus sulphureus\" by French mycologist Pierre Bulliard in 1789. It has had many synonyms and was finally given its current name in 1920 by American mycologist William Murrill. \"Laetiporus\" means \"with bright pores\" and \"sulphureus\" means the colour of sulphur.  Investigations in North America have shown that there are several similar species within what has been considered \"L. sulphureus\", and that the true \"L. sulphureus\" may be restricted to regions east of the Rocky Mountains. Phylogenetic analyses of ITS, nuclear large subunit and mitochondrial small subunit rDNA sequences from North American collections have delineated five distinct clades within the core \"Laetiporus\" clade:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The fruiting body emerges directly from the trunk of a tree and is initially knob-shaped, but soon expands to fan-shaped shelves, typically growing in overlapping tiers. It is sulphur-yellow to bright orange in color and has a suedelike texture. Old fruitbodies fade to tan or whitish. Each shelf may be anywhere from across and up to thick. The fertile surface is sulphur-yellow with small pores or tubes and produces a white spore print. When fresh, the flesh is succulent with a strong fungal aroma and exudes a yellowish, transparent juice, but soon becomes dry and brittle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Laetiporus sulphureus\" is widely distributed across Europe and North America, although its range may be restricted to areas east of the Rockies. It grows on dead or mature hardwoods and has been reported from a very wide variety of host trees, such as \"Quercus\", \"Prunus\", \"Pyrus\", \"Populus\", \"Salix\", \"Robinia\", and \"Fagus\", occasionally also from conifers, from August to October or later, sometimes as early as June. In the Mediterranean region, this species is usually found on \"Ceratonia\" and \"Eucalyptus\". It can usually be found growing in clusters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parasitism.", "content": "The fungus causes brown cubical rot of heartwood in the roots, tree base and stem. After infection, the wood is at first discolored yellowish to red but subsequently becomes reddish-brown and brittle. At the final stages of decay, the wood can be rubbed like powder between the fingers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Guinness world record.", "content": "A specimen weighing was found in the New Forest, Hampshire, United Kingdom, on 15 October 1990.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Palatability.", "content": "Due to its taste, Laetiporus sulphureus has been called the \"chicken polypore\" and \"chicken-of-the-woods\" (not to be confused with \"Grifola frondosa\", the so-called \"hen-of-the-woods\").  Many people think that the mushroom tastes like crab or lobster leading to the nickname \"lobster-of-the-woods\". The authors of \"Mushrooms in Color\" said that the mushroom tastes good sauteed in butter or prepared in a cream sauce served on toast or rice. It is highly regarded in Germany and North America.  Young specimens are edible if they exude large amounts of a clear to pale yellow watery liquid. The mushroom should not be eaten raw. Certain species of deer consume this type of mushroom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Allergic effects.", "content": "Some people have experienced gastrointestinal upset after eating this mushroom, and it should not be consumed raw.  Severe adverse reactions can occur, including vomiting and fever, in about 10% of the population, but this is now thought to be the result of confusion with morphologically similar species such as \"Laetiporus huroniensis\", which grows on hemlock trees, and \"L. gilbertsonii\", which grows on \"Eucalyptus\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medicinal.", "content": "The fungus produces the Laetiporus sulphureus lectin (LSL) which exhibits haemolytic and haemagglutination activities. Haemolytic lectins are sugar-binding proteins that lyse and agglutinate cells. These biochemical activities are promoted when bound to carbohydrates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Compared with species such as \"Agaricus bisporus\" (Swiss Brown mushroom) and the oyster mushroom, commercial cultivation of \"Laetiporus\" is non-existent except for outdoor log cultivation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Laetiporus sulphureus is a species of bracket fungus (fungi that grow on trees) found in Europe and North America. Its common names are crab-of-the-woods, sulphur polypore, sulphur shelf, and chicken-of-the-woods. Its fruit bodies grow as striking golden-yellow shelf-like structures on tree trunks and branches. Old fruitbodies fade to pale beige or pale grey. The undersurface of the fruit body is made up of tubelike pores rather than gills.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973933}
{"src_title": "Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Warsaw, Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz was a son of the painter, architect and an art critic Stanisław Witkiewicz. His mother was Maria Pietrzkiewicz Witkiewiczowa. Both of his parents were born in the Samogitian region of Lithuania. His godmother was the internationally famous actress Helena Modrzejewska.  Witkiewicz was reared at the family home in Zakopane. In accordance with his father's antipathy to the \"servitude of the school,\" he was home-schooled and encouraged to develop his talents across a range of creative fields. Against his fathers wishes he studied at the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts with Józef Mehoffer and Jan Stanisławski.  Witkiewicz was close friends with composer Karol Szymanowski and, from childhood, with Bronisław Malinowski and Zofia Romer. Romer was romantically linked to both Bronisław Malinowski and Witkiewicz. He had a tumultuous affair with prominent actress Irena Solska who according to Anna Micińska is represented as the heroine Akne Montecalfi in his first novel, \"The 622 Downfalls of Bungo or The Demonic Woman\", 1911. According to Micińska he also represented himself as the character Bungo and Malinowski as the Duke of Nevermore. The unfinished novel, which was not published until 1972, also describes erotic encounters between Bungo and the Duke of Nevermore. Taught wet plate photography by his father, it was during this period that he also began producing the intimate portrait photography for which he is known; producing striking portraits of his circle in Zakopane and many self-portraits.  In 1914 following a crisis in Witkiewicz's personal life due to the suicide of his fiancée, for which he blamed himself, he was invited by Malinowski to act as draftsman and photographer on his anthropological expedition to the then Territory of Papua, by way of Ceylon and Australia. The venture was interrupted by the onset of World War I. After quarrelling with Malinowski in Australia, Witkiewicz who was by birth a subject of the Russian Empire, travelled to St Petersburg (then Petrograd) from Sydney and was commissioned as an officer in the Pavlovsky Regiment of the Imperial Russian Army. His ailing father, a Polish patriot, was deeply grieved by his son's decision and died in 1915 without seeing him again.  In July 1916 he was seriously wounded in the battle on Stokhid River in what is now Ukraine and was evacuated to St Petersburg where he witnessed the Russian Revolution. He claimed that he worked out his philosophical principles during an artillery barrage, and that when the Revolution broke out he was elected political commissar of his regiment. His later works would show his fear of social revolution and foreign invasion, often couched in absurdist language. He had begun to support himself through portrait painting and continued to do so on his return to Zakopane in Poland. He soon entered into a major creative phase, setting out his principles in \"New Forms in Painting\" and \"Introduction to the Theory of Pure Form in the Theatre\". He associated with a group of \"formist\" artists in the early 1920s and wrote most of his plays during this period. Of about forty plays written by Witkiewicz between 1918 and 1925, twenty-one survive, and only \"Jan Maciej Karol Hellcat\" met with any public success during the author's lifetime. The original Polish manuscript of \"The Crazy Locomotive\" was also lost; the play, back-translated from two French versions, was not published until 1962. After 1925, and taking the name 'Witkacy', the artist ironically re-branded his portrait painting which provided his economic sustenance as \"The S.I. Witkiewicz Portrait Painting Company\", with the tongue in cheek motto: \"The customer must always be satisfied\". Several of the so-called grades of portraits were offered, from the merely representational to the more expressionistic and the narcotics-assisted. Many of his paintings were annotated with mnemonics listing the drugs taken while painting a particular painting, even if this happened to be only a cup of coffee. He also varied the spelling of his name, signing himself \"Witkac, Witkatze, Witkacjusz, Vitkacius\" and \"Vitecasse\" — the last being French for \"breaks quickly\".  In the late 1920s he turned to novel-writing, writing two works, \"Farewell to Autumn\" and \"Insatiability\". The latter, his major work, encompasses geopolitics, psychoactive drugs, and philosophy. In 1935 he was awarded the Golden Laurel of the Polish Academy of Literature for his novels.  During the 1930s, Witkiewicz published a text on his experiences of narcotics, including peyote, and pursued his interests in philosophy writing, \"Concepts and Principles Implied by the Concept of Existence\" 1935. He also promoted emerging writers such as Bruno Schulz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Shortly after Poland was invaded by Germany in September 1939, Witkiewicz escaped with his young lover Czesława to the rural frontier town of Jeziory, in what was then eastern Poland. After hearing the news of the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September 1939, Witkacy committed suicide on 18 September by taking a drug overdose and trying to slit his wrists. He convinced Czesława to attempt suicide with him by consuming Luminal, but she survived. The film \"Mystification\" 2010, written and directed by Jacek Koprowicz proposed that Witkiewicz faked his own death and lived secretly in Poland until 1968.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Witkiewicz had died in some obscurity but his reputation began to rise soon after the war, which had destroyed his life and devastated Poland. Outside of Poland his work was discussed as a precursor to post-ww2 European drama in Martin Esslin's influential \"Theatre of the Absurd\" 1961, and later in Hans-Theis Lehmann's \"Postdramatic Theatre\" 2006. collected his surviving dramatic writings in two volumes in \"Dramaty\" (Dramas) 1962 which revived interest in his plays in Poland. Through his translations and scholarship, Daniel Gerould introduced English-language audiences to the writings of Witkiewicz.  Czesław Miłosz framed his argument in \"The Captive Mind\" around a discussion of Witkiewicz's novel, \"Insatiability\". The artist and theater director Tadeusz Kantor was inspired by the \"Cricot\" group, through which Witkiewicz had presented his final plays in Kraków. Kantor brought many of the plays back into currency, first in Poland and then internationally, including \"The Cuttlefish\" (1956) and \"The Water Hen\" (1969). Visual artist Paulina Olowska produced Witkiewicz's \"Mother\" at the Tate Modern in 2015.  Films which have Witkiewicz as the subject include \"Tumor Witkacego\" 1985, \"Mystification\" 2010 and \"Witkacy and Malinowski: a cinematic séance in 23 scenes\" 2017. Films based on his works include \"Ludiot i kalugericata\" 1968,\"Farewell to Autumn\" 1990, \"Insatiability\" 2003,\"Madame Tutli-Putli\" 2007 and \"Nursery Rhyme of a Madman\" 2017.  Witkiewicz's paintings and pastel drawings are in the collections of the National Museum, Warsaw, the National Museum, Kraków, Museum of Literature, Warsaw and the Museum of Central Pomerania with 125 works in Słupsk Castle. The Metropolitan Museum of Art and Museum of Modern Art in New York, and the Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney hold important examples of his photography.  In the postwar period, Communist Poland's Ministry of Culture decided to exhume Witkiewicz's body, move it to Zakopane, and give it a solemn funeral. This was carried out according to plan, though no one was allowed to open the coffin that had been delivered by the Soviet authorities.  On 26 November 1994, the Polish Ministry of Culture and Art ordered the exhumation of the presumed grave of Witkiewicz in Zakopane. Genetic tests on the remaining bones proved that the body had belonged to an unknown woman — a final absurdist joke, fifty years after the publication of Witkacy's last novel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz (; 24 February 188518 September 1939), commonly known as Witkacy, was a Polish writer, painter, philosopher, theorist, playwright, novelist, and photographer active before World War I and during the interwar period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973934}
{"src_title": "Norwegian Forest cat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Norwegian Forest cat is adapted to survive Norway's cold weather. Its ancestors may include black and white shorthair cats brought to Norway from Great Britain some time after 1000 AD by the Vikings, and longhaired cats brought to Norway by Crusaders. These cats could have reproduced with farm and feral stock and may have eventually evolved into the modern-day Norwegian Forest breed. The Siberian and the Turkish Angora, longhaired cats from Russia and Turkey, respectively, are also possible ancestors of the breed. Norse legends refer to the \"skogkatt\" as a \"mountain-dwelling fairy cat with an ability to climb sheer rock faces that other cats could not manage.\" Since the Norwegian Forest cat is a very adept climber, author Claire Bessant believes that the \"skogkatt\" folktale could be about the ancestor of the modern Norwegian Forest breed. The name \"Norse skogkatt\" is used by some breeder and fancier organisations for the modern breed.  Most likely the ancestors of the Norwegian Forest cat served as ships' cats (mousers) on Viking ships. The original landrace lived in the Norwegian forests for many centuries, but were later prized for their hunting skills and were used on Norwegian farms, until they were discovered in the early twentieth century by cat enthusiasts.  In 1938 the first organisation devoted to the breed, the Norwegian Forest Cat Club, was formed in Oslo, Norway. The club's movement to preserve the breed was interrupted by World War II. Owing to cross-breeding with free-ranging domestic cats during the war, the Norwegian Forest cat became endangered and nearly extinct until the Norwegian Forest Cat Club helped the breed make a comeback by developing an official breeding program. In the 1950s, King Olaf V declared them the official cat of Norway. Since the cat did not leave Norway until the 1970s, it was not registered as a breed in the Fédération Internationale Féline (FIFe), the pan-European federation of cat registries, until Carl-Fredrik Nordane, a Norwegian cat fancier, took notice of the breed, and made efforts to register it. The breed was registered in Europe by the 1970s, and in the American Cat Fanciers Association in 1994. In 1978, it was recognized in Sweden as an official breed, and in 1989, they were accepted as a breed in the United Kingdom by the Norwegian Cat Club of Britain.  The Norwegian Forest breed is very popular in Norway and Sweden. Since 2003, it has been the fifth most popular cat breed in France, where there are about 400 to 500 births per year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breed description.", "content": "The Norwegian Forest cat is strongly built and larger than an average cat. Adult females of this breed will typically weigh 3.6 – 8 kg (8 - 18 lbs), while males tend to weigh 4.5 to 9 kg (10 - 20 lbs). The breed has a long, sturdy body, long legs and a bushy tail. The coat consists of a long, glossy, thick and water-repellent top layer and a woolly undercoat and is thickest at the legs, chest and head. The profile of the breed is generally straight. Their water-resistant coat with a dense undercoat developed to help the cat survive in the harsh Scandinavian climate.  Those cats that live primarily outdoors become swift and effective hunters, but the breed can also adapt to indoor life. If bought from a registered breeder in the US, they tend to cost from $800 to $1500. The cats usually live to be 14 to 16 years old. As they are heavy-boned and tall, they eat more food than most other domestic breeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personality.", "content": "They are friendly, intelligent, and generally good with people. The Norwegian Forest cat has a lot of energy. Although they are muscular, they tend not to do well with dogs and high-energy pets. They get easily afraid and do not like having high-energy pets around. They are very interactive cats who enjoy being part of their family environment and love to play games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health issues.", "content": "Kidney and heart diseases have been reported in the breed. In an experiment directed by John C. Fyfea, Rebeccah L. Kurzhals, and others, it was concluded that a complex rearrangement in the breed's Glycogen branching enzyme (GBE1) can cause both a perinatal hypoglycemic collapse and a late-juvenile-onset neuromuscular degeneration in glycogen storage disease type IV in the breed. This disorder, while rare, can prove fatal to cats that have it. There are DNA tests available for GSD IV, and it is highly recommended (some cat associations obligate their Norwegian Forest cat breeder members) to carry out the DNA test before using such animals for breeding. PawPeds provide a pedigree database which comes together with health programmes, through publishing each single cat's test result, to provide useful information for breeders to make a well-informed breeding decision. The breed has also been known to suffer from hip dysplasia, which is a rare, partially hereditary disease of the hip joint.  Patella luxation is found more in the British Shorthair, Abyssinian and Devon Rex breeds, but it is recognized in Norwegian Forest cats as well. It is a condition in which patella moves out of its original physiological position.  A pedigree with 871 Norwegian Forest cats show that familial cardiomyopathy in this breed. There is also high prevalence of eosinophilic granuloma complex in Norwegian Forest cats which is suggestive of a genetic background.  The main factors causing Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity on cats are age, raw meat and outdoor access. A study shows that T. gondii seropositivity varies by cat breeds. Norwegian Forest cats have a relatively high rate of Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity (4.66%) comparing with other pure-bred cats (Birman:4.16%, British Shorthair: 3.39%, Korat: 2.03%, Ocicat: 4.26%, Siamese: 2.57%), but slightly lower than Persian cats(6.99%).  Glycogen storage disease type IV due to branching enzyme deficiency was found in an inbred family of Norwegian forest cats.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Norwegian Forest cat ( or ) is a breed of domestic cat originating in Northern Europe. This natural breed is adapted to a very cold climate, with a top coat of glossy, long, water-shedding hairs and a woolly undercoat for insulation. Although this is uncertain, the breed's ancestors may have been a landrace of short-haired cats brought to Norway by the Vikings around 1000 AD, who may also have brought with them long-haired cats, like those ancestral to the modern Siberian and Turkish Angora. During World War II, the breed became nearly extinct until efforts by the Norwegian Forest Cat Club helped the breed by creating an official breeding program. It was registered as a breed with the European Fédération Internationale Féline in the 1970s, when a local cat fancier, Carl-Fredrik Nordane, took notice of the breed and made efforts to register it. Currently, the Norwegian Forest breed is very popular in Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Iceland and France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973935}
{"src_title": "Angelos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The lineage was founded by Constantine Angelos, a minor noble from Philadelphia (Asia Minor), who married Theodora Komnene, a daughter of emperor Alexios I Komnenos. According to the 12th-century historian John Zonaras, Constantine was brave, skilled and handsome, but of lowly origin. The family's surname, \"Angelos\", is commonly held to have derived from the Greek word for \"angel\", but such an origin is rarely attested in Byzantine times, and it is possible that their name instead derives from A[n]gel, a district near Amida in Upper Mesopotamia. The historian Suzanne Wittek-de Jongh suggested that Constantine was the son of a certain \"patrikios\" Manuel Angelos, whose possessions near Serres were confirmed by a chrysobull of Emperor Nikephoros III (), but this is considered unlikely by most scholars.  Constantine and Theodora had seven children, three sons and four daughters. Through his sons, Constantine was the progenitor of the Angelos dynasty, which produced three Byzantine emperors in 1185–1204, as well as the \"Angelos Komnenos Doukas\" dynasty that ruled over Epirus and Thessalonica in the 13th–14th centuries.  Constantine's third son Andronikos Doukas Angelos was the progenitor of the imperial Angelos dynasty. In 1185, Andronikos' son Isaac II Angelos deposed Andronikos I Komnenos and was proclaimed Byzantine Emperor. Irene Angelina, a daughter of Isaac II Angelos, married Philip of Swabia, King of the Germans. Their daughters married into a number of western European royal and princely families. Many of the extant aristocratic families of Europe are, therefore, descendants of the Angeloi. Isaac was deposed by his brother Alexios III Angelos, who was in turn overthrown by Alexios IV Angelos with the aid of the Fourth Crusade. Under the corrupt and dissolute reign of the Angelos dynasty, the Byzantine empire deteriorated and soon fell prey to Latin crusaders and Venetians in the Fourth Crusade.  The Angelos line was continued by the descendants of Constantine's eldest son, John Doukas. After the fall of Constantinople and the establishment of the Latin Empire in 1204, John Doukas' illegitimate son, Michael I Komnenos Doukas, founded the Despotate of Epirus, choosing the city of Arta as its capital. In 1224, Michael's half-brother Theodore captured the Kingdom of Thessalonica from the crusaders and proclaimed himself as the legitimate Byzantine emperor (\"basileus\") in Thessalonica. However, Theodore was defeated and captured by John II Asen in the Battle of Klokotnitsa in 1230, and the Empire of Thessalonica quickly declined. During Theodore's captivity, his brother Manuel ruled over Thessalonica, succeeded by Theodore's sons John and Demetrios. Eventually, the city was lost to the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes in 1246, marking the end of the rule of the Angeloi in Thessalonica.  In 1230, Theodore's nephew Michael II, son of Michael I, established himself as ruler of Epirus and Thessaly. After the death of Michael II in 1271, Epirus was ruled by his legitimate son Nikephoros I, while Thessaly was given to his illegitimate son John I Doukas. In 1318, Nicholas Orsini murdered Nikephoros' son Thomas, ending the rule of the family in Epirus. In Thessaly, John I Doukas was succeeded by his son Constantine, followed by John II, who ruled from 1302/03 until his death in 1318. In the same year, the south of Thessaly was seized by the Catalan Grand Company and annexed to the Duchy of Athens, while the north passed to a series of autonomous magnates.  Having re-established Byzantine control over Epirou and Thessaly in 1340, emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos appointed the \"pinkernes\" (cup-bearer) John Angelos, a nephew of \"megas domestikos\" John Kantakouzenos, to the governorship of Epirus. John extended his rule to Thessaly in 1342, but died from the plague in 1348. Epirus and Thessaly were conquered by the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan soon afterwards.  Descendants of John Angelos continued to govern Thessaly under Simeon Uroš and John Uroš. John Uroš, the last Nemanjić, abdicated in favour of Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos, the \"kaisar\" of Thessaly. Alexios' brother Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos was the last Byzantine Greek ruler of Thessaly.  After the Ottoman conquest of Thessaly in 1394, the Angeloi Philanthropenoi took refuge in Serbia. A grandson of either Alexios or Manuel, Mihailo Anđelović, served as an official at the court of Đurađ and Lazar Branković. Mihailo's brother Mahmud, captured in his infancy by Ottoman soldiers, was brought to Edirne, where he converted to Islam. He later rose to the highest ranks of the Ottoman Empire, becoming beylerbey of Rumelia in 1451 and Grand Vizier in 1455. Thus, in the negotiations between Serb despot Lazar Branković and Mehmed II in 1457, the two sides were represented by the brothers Mihailo and Mahmud Anđelović.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Angelos family (; ), feminine form Angelina (), plural Angeloi (), was a Byzantine Greek noble lineage which gave rise to three Byzantine emperors who ruled between 1185 and 1204. From the 13th to the 14th century, a branch of the family ruled Epiros, Thessaly and Thessaloniki under the name of Komnenos Doukas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973936}
{"src_title": "Cardamine pratensis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Cardamine pratensis\" is a herbaceous, hairless, perennial plant growing to 40–60 cm tall, with pinnate leaves 5–12 cm long with 3–15 leaflets, each leaflet about 1 cm long. The flowers are produced on a spike 10–30 cm long, each flower 1–2 cm in diameter with four very pale violet-pink (rarely white) petals. The style of the fruit is short or longish. It grows best close to water.  Its common name \"cuckooflower\" derives from the formation of the plant's flowers at around the same time as the arrival each spring of the first cuckoos in the British Isles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The species is commonly found throughout the British Isles.  Recorded in Ireland from all 40 of the \"vice-counties\" (a system adopted by Praeger in 1901).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "It is grown as an ornamental plant in gardens, and has become naturalised in North America as a result of cultivation. In some European countries, including parts of Germany, the plant is now under threat.  It is a food plant for the orange tip butterfly (\"Anthocharis cardamines\") and makes a valuable addition to any garden which aims at attracting wildlife. It was once used as a substitute for watercress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Folklore.", "content": "In folklore it was said to be sacred to the fairies, and so was unlucky if brought indoors. It was not included in May Day garlands for the same reason.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Additional general information.", "content": "It is the county flower of the English county of Cheshire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cardamine pratensis, the cuckoo flower, lady's smock, mayflower, or milkmaids, is a flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae, native throughout most of Europe and Western Asia. The specific name \"pratensis\" is Latin for \"meadow\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973937}
{"src_title": "Giacinto Scelsi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in the village of Pitelli near La Spezia, Scelsi spent most of his time in his mother's old castle where he received education from a private tutor who taught him Latin, chess and fencing. Later, his family moved to Rome and his musical talents were encouraged by private lessons with Giacinto Sallustio. In Vienna, he studied with Walther Klein, a pupil of Arnold Schoenberg. He became the first exponent of dodecaphony in Italy, although he did not continue to use this system.  In the 1920s, Scelsi made friends with intellectuals like Jean Cocteau and Virginia Woolf, and traveled abroad extensively. He first came into contact with non-European music in Egypt in 1927. His first composition was \"Chemin du coeur\" (1929). Then followed \"Rotativa\", first conducted by Pierre Monteux at Salle Pleyel, Paris, on 20 December 1931.  In 1937, he organised a series of concerts of contemporary works, introducing the music of (among others) Paul Hindemith, Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, Dmitri Shostakovich, and Sergei Prokofiev to an Italian audience for the first time. Due to the enforcement of racial laws under the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, which prevented the performance of works by Jewish composers, these concerts did not continue for long. Scelsi refused to comply, and gradually distanced himself from Italy. In 1940, when Italy entered the war, Scelsi was in Switzerland, where he remained until the end of the conflict, composing and honing his conception of music. He married Dorothy Kate Ramsden, a divorced Englishwoman.  Back in Rome after the war, his wife left him (eventually inspiring \"Elegia per Ty\"), and he underwent a profound psychological crisis that eventually led him to the discovery of Eastern spirituality, and also to a radical transformation of his view of music. In this so-called second period, he rejected the notions of composition and authorship in favour of sheer improvisation. His improvisations were recorded on tape and later transcribed by collaborators under his guidance. They were then orchestrated and filled out by his meticulous performance instructions, or adjusted from time to time in close collaboration with the performers.  Scelsi came to conceive of artistic creation as a means of communicating a higher, transcendent reality to the listener. In this view, the artist is considered a mere intermediary. For this reason, Scelsi never allowed his image to be shown in connection with his music; he preferred instead to identify himself by a line under a circle, as a symbol of Eastern provenance. Some photographs of Scelsi have emerged since his death.  One of the earliest interpreters Scelsi closely worked with was the singer Michiko Hirayama, whom he met in 1957 in Rome. From 1962 to 1972 he wrote the extensive song cycle \"Canti del Capricorno\" directly for her in view of her special and unique vocal range. The writing process of the piece set an example for Scelsi's very personal way of working: developing pieces through improvisation, recording, and then making a final transcription.  From the late 1970s, he met several leading interpreters who have promoted his music all over the world and gradually opened the gates to wider audiences, such as the Arditti String Quartet, the cellist Frances-Marie Uitti, and the pianists Yvar Mikhashoff and Marianne Schroeder.  Scelsi was a friend and a mentor to Alvin Curran (whose \"VSTO\" is a tribute) and other expatriate American composers such as Frederic Rzewski who were residing in Rome during the 1960s (Curran, 2003, in NewMusicBox). Scelsi also collaborated with other American composers including John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Earle Brown (who visited him in Rome).  Frances-Marie Uitti, dedicatee of all Scelsi's cello works, collaborated intensively with him for over 10 years editing and then recording La Trilogia, a massive 3 part work of 45 minutes in length which Morton Feldman called his \"autobiography in sound\". It was first premiered in Festival di Como, and recorded on Fore records (Raretone) with Scelsi in the studio and later for Etcetera Records. A more recent acclaimed version with several of the Latin Prayers is to be found on ECM under the title Natura Renovatur. Uitti also transcribed many of the chamber works for contrabass, contrabass and cello, viola, and two improvisations based on the ondiolina tapes that are found under the title Voyages.  Alvin Curran recalled that: \"Scelsi... came to all my concerts in Rome even right up to the very last one I gave just a few days before he died. This was in the summer time, and he was such a nut about being outdoors. He was there in a fur coat and a fur hat. It was an outdoor concert. He waved from a distance, beautiful sparking eyes and smile that he always had, and that's the last time I saw him\" (Ross, 2005).  Scelsi died of a cerebral hemorrhage on 9 August 1988, in Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Scelsi remained largely unknown for most of his career. A series of concerts in the mid to late 1980s finally premiered many of his pieces to great acclaim, notably his orchestral masterpieces in October 1987 in Cologne, about a quarter of a century after those works had been composed and less than a year before the composer's death. Scelsi was able to attend the premieres and personally supervised the rehearsals. The impact caused by the late discovery of Scelsi's works was described by Belgian musicologist Harry Halbreich:  Dutch musicologist Henk de Velde, alluding to Adorno speaking of Alban Berg, called Scelsi \"the Master of the yet smaller transition,\" to which Harry Halbreich added that \"in fact, his music is \"only\" transition.\"  Scelsi was also an idol of Ennio Morricone's Gruppo di Improvvisazione di Nuova Consonanza, whose sixteen-minute track 'Omaggio a Giacinto Scelsi' features on their live album 'Musica Su Schemi', released in 1976.  The music of Scelsi was heard by millions in Martin Scorsese's \"Shutter Island\", in which excerpts of his two works \"Quattro pezzi su una nota sola\" and \"Uaxuctum\" (3rd movement) were featured alongside the music of his contemporaries György Ligeti, Krzysztof Penderecki, John Cage and Morton Feldman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "The French company published writings of Giacinto Scelsi in three volumes, the majority of which are now out of print:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giacinto Scelsi (; 8 January 1905 9 August 1988) was an Italian composer who also wrote surrealist poetry in French.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973938}
{"src_title": "Friedrich Spee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Spee was born at Kaiserswerth on the Rhine. On finishing his early education at Cologne, he entered the Society of Jesus in 1610, and pursued extensive studies and activity as a teacher at Trier, Fulda, Würzburg, Speyer, Worms and Mainz, where he was ordained a Catholic priest in 1622. He became professor at the University of Paderborn in 1624. From 1626 he taught at Speyer, Wesel, Trier and Cologne, and preached at Paderborn, Cologne and Hildesheim.  An attempt to assassinate Spee was made at Peine in 1629. He resumed his activity as professor and priest at Paderborn and later at Cologne, and in 1633 removed to Trier. During the storming of the city by the imperial forces in March 1635 (in the Thirty Years' War), he distinguished himself in the care of the suffering, and died soon afterwards of a plague infection contracted while ministering to wounded soldiers in a hospital. His name is often incorrectly cited as \"Friedrich von Spee\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Spee's literary activity was largely confined to the last years of his life, the details of which are relatively obscure. Two of his works were not published until after his death: \"Goldenes Tugendbuch\" (Golden Book of Virtues), a book of devotion highly prized by Leibniz, and \"Trutznachtigall\" (Rivaling the Nightingale), a collection of fifty to sixty sacred songs, which take a prominent place among religious lyrics of the 17th century and have been repeatedly printed and updated through the present.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cautio Criminalis.", "content": "His principal work \"Cautio Criminalis\" is a passionate plea on behalf of those accused of witchcraft. The book was first printed anonymously in 1631 at Rinteln and attributed to an \"unknown Roman theologian [\"Incerto Theologo Romano\"].\" It is based on his own experiences in the time and place (along the Rhine) that experienced some of the most intense and fatal witch-hunts. Spee was present as a Jesuit confessor during sessions of torture and executions. \"If the reader will allow me to say something here, I confess that I myself have accompanied several women to their deaths in various places over the years and I am now so certain of their innocence that I feel there's no effort that would not be worth my undertaking to try to reveal this truth.\"  Spee wrote in direct opposition to many of the most well-known witch-phobic writers of his time and, like those works and most others in the witch-phobic lineage going back to the 15th century, Spee also wrote in Latin. \"I pronounce from my soul that for a long time I have not known what trust I can place in those authors, Remy, Binsfeld, Delrio, and others... since virtually every one of their teachings concerning witches is based on no other foundations than fables or confessions extracted through torture.\"  Spee pleaded for measures of reform, such as a new German imperial law on the subject, and liability to damages on the part of the judges. \"Cautio Criminalis\" contains 51 \"doubts\" [\"dubiorum\"] which Spee discussed and carefully de-constructed. Amongst his more notable conclusions were:  Spee was particularly concerned about cases where a person was tortured and forced to denounce (accuse) accomplices, who were then tortured and forced to denounce more accomplices, until everyone was under suspicion:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "\"Cautio Criminalis\" helped bring an end to witch-hunting. The moral impact created by the publication was considerable. Already within the 17th century, a number of new editions and translations had appeared. Among the members of Spee's Jesuit order, his treatise found a favorable reception.  Philipp van Limborch was a Dutch Protestant but his influential \"History of the Inquisition\" (1692) refers favorably to the work of the Jesuit Spee. Limborch was close with the Englishman John Locke as the two pushed for religious toleration.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Hymns.", "content": "Spee wrote the lyrics and tunes of dozens of hymns, and is still the most heavily attributed author in German Catholic hymnals today. Although an anonymous hymnist during his lifetime, today he is credited with several popular works including the Advent song \"O Heiland, reiß die Himmel auf\", the Christmas carols \"Vom Himmel hoch, o Engel, kommt\" and \"\", and the Easter hymn \"Lasst uns erfreuen\" widely used with the 20th-century English texts \"Ye Watchers and Ye Holy Ones\" and \"All Creatures of Our God and King\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Other prominent contemporary critics of witch hunts:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Spee (also \"Friedrich Spee von Langenfeld\"; February 25, 1591 – August 7, 1635) was a German Jesuit priest, professor, and poet, most well-known as a forceful opponent of witch trials and one who was an insider writing from the epicenter of the European witch-phobia. Spee argued strongly against the use of torture, and as an eyewitness he gathered a book full of details regarding its cruelty and unreliability. He wrote, \"Torture has the power to create witches where none exist.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973939}
{"src_title": "Rakvere", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest signs of human settlement dating back to the 3rd–5th centuries AD have been found on the present theatre hill. Probably to protect that settlement, a wooden stronghold was built on the present Vallimägi. When it changed owners in 1220, the Danes started to erect buildings from stone. A settlement called \"Tarvanpea\" was first mentioned in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia in 1226. The new Danish stronghold was called \"Wesenbergh\" in Middle Low German for the first time in 1252. The battle of Wesenberg between the Danish and German knights and Russians occurred nearby on 18 February 1268.  On 12 June 1302, Rakvere was granted Lübeck rights. When the Danish king sold Danish Estonia to the Livonian Order in 1346, a large castle was built on top of the previous stronghold. The Ordensburg was protected by towers and courtyards. The building of a Franciscan monastery was started in 1508.  During the Livonian War from 1558 to 1581, Rakvere was under Russian rule and was heavily damaged. Sweden, after the disastrous Siege of Wesenberg (1574), captured the town in 1581 before it passed to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1602; Poles destroyed the castle in 1605. After being returned to Swedish control in that year, a mansion was built on the ruins of the monastery. During the Great Northern War, Rakvere was burned down in 1703. With the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the subsequent Treaty of Nystad in 1721, Rakvere passed to the Russian Empire, where it remained until Estonia's independence in 1918 following World War I.  During the first period of independence, many prominent buildings were built, such as the market building, the old bank building (current SEB Eesti Ühispank), and Rakvere Gymnasium. In 1930, the town stadium was opened, during the tenure of mayor Heinrich Aviksoo. Local newspapers started to emerge, including the county paper \"Virumaa Teataja\", which was first published in 1925. The idea of Rakvere's own professional theatre started to take shape as well. The construction of the theatre house was completed at the end of the 1930s and it was festively opened on 24 February 1940. The theatre survived World War II and is active to this day.  Rakvere also has a professional theatre and it is believed that it is the smallest town in Europe which has a professional theatre. Its roots date back to 1882 and it is still active and very popular. The theatre of Rakvere has given Estonia many famous actors and actresses such as Volli Käro, Üllar Saaremäe, Indrek Saar, Ülle Lichtfeldt, Aarne Üksküla etc. It also holds the biannual event \"Baltoscandal\", which gathers avant-garde plays and groups from all over the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main landmarks.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tarvas statue.", "content": "Rakvere is also known now for its Tarvas statue of an aurochs, which was made by the Estonian sculptor Tauno Kangro. It is thought to be the largest animal statue in the Baltic countries.  It is situated on the edge of Vallimägi hill and was erected for the town's 700th birthday. Along with the granite block it sits on, the statue is seven meters long and four meters high and weighs about seven tons.  The statue is made out of bronze. The names of the companies and private people who financed it are engraved in the granite block.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rakvere Trinity church.", "content": "The Lutheran church of Rakvere, the Trinity church, originally dates from the 15th century and was designed to also be able to function as a stronghold in times of trouble. It was severely damaged during the Livonian War and renovation started only in 1684. During the Great Northern War, the church once more was damaged by fire twice. Renovations were carried out 1727–1730, and again during the middle of the 19th century, when the church received its present look, dominated by its neo-Gothic spire. The interior displays some fine craftsmanship, including a Baroque pulpit from 1690 made by Christian Ackermann.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twin towns - sister cities.", "content": "Rakvere is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rakvere is a town in northern Estonia and the capital of Lääne-Viru County, 20 km south of the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea. Until early 20th century Rakvere was more widely known by its historical German name \"Wesenberg(h)\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973940}
{"src_title": "Plagues of Egypt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plagues.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "4. Wild animals or flies: Ex. 8:20–32.", "content": "The fourth plague of Egypt was of creatures capable of harming people and livestock. The Torah emphasizes that the \"‘arob\" (עָרוֹב \"mixture\" or \"swarm\") only came against the Egyptians and did not affect the Israelites. Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to grant the Israelites their freedom. However, after the plague was gone, the \"hardened Pharaoh's heart\", and he refused to keep his promise.  Various sources use either \"wild animals\" or \"flies\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "10. Death of firstborn: Ex. 11:1–12:36.", "content": "Before this final plague God commands Moses to tell the Israelites to mark a lamb's blood above their doors in order that Yahweh will pass over them (i.e., that they will not be touched by the death of the firstborn). Pharaoh orders the Israelites to leave, taking whatever they want, and asks Moses to bless him in the name of the Lord. The passage goes on to state that the passover sacrifice recalls the time when the \"passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Composition and theology.", "content": "Scholars are in broad agreement that the publication of the Torah took place in the mid-Persian period (the 5th century BCE). The Book of Deuteronomy, composed in stages between the 7th and 6th centuries, mentions the \"diseases of Egypt\" (Deuteronomy 7:15 and 28:60) but refers to something that afflicted the Israelites, not the Egyptians, and never specifies the plagues.  The traditional number of ten plagues is not actually mentioned in Exodus, and other sources differ; Psalms 78 and 105 seem to list only seven or eight plagues and order them differently. It appears that originally there were only seven (which included the tenth), to which were added the third, sixth, and ninth, bringing the count to ten.  In this final version, the first nine plagues form three triads, each of which God introduces by informing Moses of the main lesson it will teach. In the first triad, the Egyptians begin to experience the power of God; in the second, God demonstrates that he is directing events; and in the third, the incomparability of Yahweh is displayed. Overall, the plagues are \"signs and marvels\" given by the God of Israel to answer Pharaoh's taunt that he does not know Yahweh: \"The Egyptians shall know that I am the \".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historicity.", "content": "Scholars broadly agree that the Exodus is not a historical account, and that the Israelites originated in Canaan and from the Canaanites. The Ipuwer Papyrus, written probably in the late Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt (c. 1991–1803 BCE), has been put forward in popular literature as confirmation of the Biblical account, most notably because of its statement that \"the river is blood\" and its frequent references to servants running away; however, these arguments ignore the many points on which Ipuwer contradicts Exodus, such as Asiatics arriving in Egypt rather than leaving and the likelihood that the \"river is blood\" phrase is simply a poetic image of turmoil. Attempts to find natural explanations for the plagues (e.g., a volcanic eruption to explain the \"darkness\" plague) have been dismissed by biblical scholars on the grounds that their pattern, timing, rapid succession, and above all, control by Moses mark them as supernatural.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artistic representation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visual art.", "content": "In visual art, the plagues have generally been reserved for works in series, especially engravings. Still, relatively few depictions in art emerged compared to other religious themes until the 19th century, when the plagues became more common subjects, with John Martin and Joseph Turner producing notable canvases. This trend probably reflected a Romantic attraction to landscape and nature painting, for which the plagues were suited, a Gothic attraction to morbid stories, and a rise in Orientalism, wherein exotic Egyptian themes found currency. Given the importance of noble patronage throughout Western art history, the plagues may have found consistent disfavor because the stories emphasize the limits of a monarch's power, and images of lice, locusts, darkness, and boils were ill-suited for decoration in palaces and churches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Taking direct inspiration from the ten plagues, Iced Earth's eleventh studio album \"Plagues of Babylon\" contains many references and allusions to the plagues. Metallica's song \"Creeping Death\" (from their second album, \"Ride the Lightning\") makes references to a few of the plagues, in addition to the rest of the story of the Exodus.  Perhaps the most successful artistic representation of the plagues is Handel's oratorio \"Israel in Egypt\", which, like his perennial favorite, \"Messiah\", takes a libretto entirely from scripture. The work was especially popular in the 19th century because of its numerous choruses, generally one for each plague, and its playful musical depiction of the plagues. For example, the plague of frogs is performed as a light aria for alto, depicting frogs jumping in the violins, and the plague of flies and lice is a light chorus with fast scurrying runs in the violins.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Plagues of Egypt (), in the story of the book of Exodus, are ten disasters inflicted on Egypt by the God of Israel in order to force the Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to depart from slavery; they serve as \"signs and marvels\" given by God to answer Pharaoh's taunt that he does not know Yahweh: \"The Egyptians shall know that I am the \".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973941}
{"src_title": "Bağlama", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Turkish bağlama.", "content": "The most commonly used string folk instrument in Turkey, the bağlama has seven strings divided into courses of two, two and three. It can be tuned in various ways and takes different names according to region and size: Bağlama, Divan Sazı, Bozuk, Çöğür, Kopuz Irızva, Cura, Tambura, etc. The cura is the smallest member of the bağlama family: larger than the cura is the tambura, tuned an octave lower. The Divan sazı, the largest instrument in the family, is tuned one octave lower still.  A bağlama has three main parts, the bowl (called \"tekne\"), made from mulberry wood or juniper, beech, spruce or walnut, the spruce sound board (\"göğüs\") and a neck of beech or juniper (\"sap\"). The tuning pegs are known as \"burgu\" (literally screw). Frets are tied to the \"sap\" with fishing line, which allows them to be adjusted. The bağlama is usually played with a \"mızrap\" or \"tezene\" (similar to a guitar pick) made from cherrywood bark or plastic. In some regions, it is played with the fingers in a style known as \"Şelpe\" or \"Şerpe\".  There are also electric bağlamas, which can be connected to an amplifier. These can have either single or double pickups.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Azerbaijani bağlama.", "content": "The Azerbaijani saz was mainly used by Ashiqs. The art of Azerbaijani Ashiqs combines poetry, storytelling, dance and vocal and instrumental music into a traditional performance art. This art is one of the symbols of Azerbaijani culture and considered an emblem of national identity and the guardian of Azerbaijani language, literature and music.  Characterized by the accompaniment of the kopuz, a stringed musical instrument, the classical repertoire of Azerbaijani Ashiqs includes 200 songs, 150 literary-musical compositions known as dastans, nearly 2,000 poems and numerous stories.  Since 2009 the art of Azerbaijani Ashiqs has been inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The kopuz and the bağlama.", "content": "The bağlama is a synthesis of historical musical instruments in Central Asia and pre-Turkish Anatolia. It is partly descended from the Turkic komuz. The \"kopuz\", or \"komuz\", differs from the bağlama in that it has a leather-covered body and two or three strings made of sheep gut, wolf gut, or horsehair. It is played with the fingers rather than a plectrum and has a fingerboard without frets. \"Bağlama\" literally translates as \"something that is tied up\", probably a reference to the tied-on frets of the instrument. The word bağlama is first used in 18th-century texts. The French traveler Jean Benjamin de Laborde, who visited Turkey during that century, recorded that \"the bağlama or tambura is in form exactly like the cogur, but smaller.\" He was probably referring to the smallest of the bağlama family, the cura.  According to the historian Hammer, metal strings were first used on a type of komuz with a long fingerboard known as the \"kolca kopuz\" in 15th-century Anatolia. This was the first step in the emergence of the çöğür (cogur), a transitional instrument between the komuz and the bağlama. According to 17th-century writer Evliya Çelebi, the cogur was first made in the city of Kütahya in western Turkey. To take the strain of the metal strings the leather body was replaced with wood, the fingerboard was lengthened and frets were introduced. Instead of five hair strings there were now twelve metal strings arranged in four groups of three. Today, the cogur is smaller than a medium-size bağlama.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bağlama tunings.", "content": "There are three string groups, or courses, on the bağlama, with strings double or tripled. These string groups can be tuned in a variety of ways, known as \"düzen\" (literally, \"order\"). For the \"bağlama düzeni\", the most common tuning, the courses are tuned from top downward, A-G-D. Some other \"düzen\"s are \"Kara Düzen\" (C-G-D), \"Misket Düzeni\" (A-D-F#), \"Müstezat\" (A-D-F), \"Abdal Düzeni\", and \"Rast Düzeni\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bağlama scale.", "content": "The musical scale of the bağlama differs from that of many western instruments – such as the guitar – in that it features ratios that are close to quarter tones. The traditional ratios for bağlama frets are listed by Yalçın Tura:  However, as confirmed by Okan Öztürk, instrument makers now often set frets on the bağlama with the aid of fret calculators and tuners based on the 24-tone equal temperament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The bağlama (, from \"bağlamak\", \"to tie\", ) is a stringed musical instrument. It is sometimes referred to as the saz, from the Persian, meaning an instrument. However, the term \"saz\" actually refers to a family of plucked string instruments, long-necked lutes used in Ottoman classical music, Turkish folk music, Azerbaijani music, Kurdish music, Armenian music and in parts of Syria, Iraq and the Balkan countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973942}
{"src_title": "A Midsummer Night's Dream (opera)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "\"A Midsummer Night's Dream\" was first performed on 11 June 1960 at the Jubilee Hall, Aldeburgh, UK as part of the Aldeburgh Festival. Conducted by the composer, it was directed by the choreographer John Cranko.  The work received wide critical approval following its early performances. Howard Taubman in his review of the Aldeburgh premiere wrote that the orchestral colors of the score conveyed a sense of \"soaring illusion\" that never wavered and concluded: Not every problem posed by Shakespeare has been solved, but Mr. Britten has accomplished so much that one may safely predict a wide vogue for his latest and happiest opera.  A dissenting voice was Britten's estranged collaborator W. H. Auden. In a letter to Stephen Spender after seeing the 1961 London production, Auden dismissed it as \"Dreadful! Pure Kensington\".  \"Dream\" was performed at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, in 1961, produced by John Gielgud and conducted by Georg Solti. This production was revived six times to 1984.  The English Music Theatre Company staged the opera at Snape Maltings in 1980, directed by Christopher Renshaw and designed by Robin Don; the production was revived at the Royal Opera House for one performance in 1986.  In 2005, the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, produced a version directed by Olivia Fuchs at the Linbury Studio Theatre with the Tiffin Boys' Choir. William Towers was Oberon, and Gillian Keith Tytania.  English National Opera's production of 2011, directed by Christopher Alden, set the opera in a mid-20th-century school, with Oberon (Iestyn Davies) and Tytania (Anna Christy) as teachers and Puck and the fairies as schoolboys. Oberon's relationship with Puck (Jamie Manton) is given overtly sexual overtones, and Puck responds with alternate anger and despair to Oberon's new-found interest in Tytania's Changeling boy. The silent older man who stalks the action in the first two acts is revealed to be Theseus (Paul Whelan); reviewers have suggested that in this staging Theseus himself was once the object of Oberon's attentions, and is either watching history repeating itself, or is in fact daydreaming the magical events of the opera prior to his marriage to Hippolyta.  Baz Luhrmann directed a music video of an arrangement of \"Now Until the Break of Day\" from the finale of act 3 for his 1998 album \"Something for Everybody\" featuring Christine Anu and David Hobson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "Britten delineated the three tiers of characters, the rustics being given folk-like \"simple\" music, the lovers a more romantic sound-world and the fairies being represented in a very ethereal way. Almost all of the action now takes place in the woods around Athens, and the fairies inhabit a much more prominent place in the drama. The comic performance by the rustics of \"Pyramus and Thisbe\" at the final wedding takes on an added dimension as a parody of nineteenth-century Italian opera. Thisbe's lament, accompanied by obbligato flute, is a parody of a Donizetti \"mad scene\" (\"Il dolce suono\").  The opera contains several innovations: it is extremely rare in opera that the lead male role is written for the countertenor voice to sing. The part of Oberon was created by Alfred Deller. Britten wrote specifically for his voice, which, despite its ethereal quality, had a low range compared to more modern countertenors. Oberon's music almost never requires the countertenor to sing both at the top of the alto range and \"forte\".  The plot of the opera follows that of the play, with several alterations. Most of Shakespeare's act 1 is cut, compensated for by the opera's only added line: \"Compelling thee to marry with Demetrius.\" Therefore, much greater precedence is given to the wood, and to the fairies. This is also indicated by the opening \"portamenti\" strings, and by the ethereal countertenor voice that is Oberon, the male lead, who throughout is accompanied by a characteristic texture of harp and celeste, in the same way that Puck's appearance is heralded by the combination of trumpet and snare-drum.  The opera opens with a chorus, \"Over hill, over dale\" from Tytania's attendant fairies, played by boy sopranos. Other highlights include Oberon's florid – the exotic celeste is especially notable – aria,\"I know a bank\" (inspired by Purcell's \"Sweeter than roses\", which Britten had previously arranged for Pears to sing), Tytania's equally florid \"Come now, a roundel\", the chorus's energetic \"You spotted snakes\", the hilarious comedy of \"Pyramus and Thisbe\", and the final trio for Oberon, Tytania and the chorus.  The original play is an anomaly among Shakespeare's works, in that it is very little concerned with character, and very largely concerned with psychology. Britten follows this to a large extent, but subtly alters the psychological focus of the work. The introduction of a chorus of boy-fairies means that the opera becomes greatly concerned with the theme of purity. It is these juvenile fairies who eventually quell the libidinous activities of the quartet of lovers, as they sing a beautiful melody on the three \"motto chords\" (also on the four \"magic\" chords) of the second act: \"Jack shall have Jill/Naught shall go ill/The man shall have his mare again/And all shall be well.\" Sung by boys, it could be considered that this goes beyond irony, and represents an idealised vision of a paradise of innocence and purity that Britten seems to have been captivated by throughout his life.  Britten also pays attention to the play's central motif: the madness of love. Curiously he took the one relationship in the play that is grotesque (that of Tytania and Bottom) and placed it in the centre of his opera (in the middle of act 2). Women in Britten operas tend to run to extremes, being either predators or vulnerable prey, but Tytania is an amalgam; she dominates Bottom, but is herself completely dominated by Oberon and Puck, the couple that are usually considered to really hold power in The Dream. Their cruel pranks eventually quell her coloratura, which until she is freed from the power of the love-juice is fiendishly difficult to sing.  Britten also parodied operatic convention in less obvious ways than \"Pyramus and Thisbe\". Like many other operas, \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\" opens with a chorus, but it is a chorus of unbroken boys' voices, singing in unison. After this comes the entrance of the prima donna and the male lead, who is as far away as possible from Wagner's heldentenors, and as close as it is possible to get to Handel's castrati of the 18th century.: \"There is an air of baroque fantasy in the music.\" Britten's treatment of Puck also suggests parody. In opera, the hero's assistant is traditionally sung by baritones, yet here we have an adolescent youth who speaks, rather than sings.  Britten thought the character of Puck \"absolutely amoral and yet innocent.\" Describing the speaking, tumbling Puck of the opera, Britten wrote \"I got the idea of doing Puck like this in Stockholm, where I saw some Swedish child acrobats with extraordinary agility and powers of mimicry, and suddenly realised we could do Puck this way.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "There are many recordings available, including two conducted by the composer, one a live recording of the 11 June 1960 premiere with the complete original cast, the second a studio recording made in 1967 with some of the original cast, Deller as Oberon, Owen Brannigan as Bottom, and Peter Pears elevated from Flute to Lysander, which omits some music from the lovers' awakening early in act 3.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Midsummer Night's Dream, Op. 64, is an opera with music by Benjamin Britten and set to a libretto adapted by the composer and Peter Pears from William Shakespeare's play, \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\". It was premiered on 11 June 1960 at the Aldeburgh Festival, conducted by the composer and with set and costume designs by Carl Toms. Stylistically, the work is typical of Britten, with a highly individual sound-world – not strikingly dissonant or atonal, but replete with subtly atmospheric harmonies and tone painting. The role of Oberon was composed for the countertenor Alfred Deller. Atypically for Britten, the opera did not include a leading role for his partner Pears, who instead was given the comic drag role of Flute/Thisbe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973943}
{"src_title": "Italian Football Federation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Federation was established in Turin on 26 March 1898 as the Federazione Italiana del Football (FIF), on the initiative of a Constituent Assembly established on 15 March by Enrico D'Ovidio. Mario Vicary was elected the first official president of the FIF on 26 March.  When, in 1909, it was suggested to change the Federation's name at an annual board elections held in Milan, the few teams attending, representing less than 50% the active clubs, decided to send a postcard asking all teams to vote for the five new names discussed during the meeting. The new name approved was \"Federazione Italiana Giuoco del Calcio\" (FIGC), and since then has been the name of the Italian Football Federation. The debut of the Men's National Team was on 15 May 1910, at Arena Civica, wearing a white jersey where Italy defeated France 6–2. The following year, the blue jersey was introduced on the occasion of the match against Hungary, as a tribute to the colour of the House of Savoy.  This Italian Federation was an \"amateur\" federation respecting FIFA rules when it became a member in 1905. At the end of World War I, the federation had seen impressive development and several footballers were judged to be professional players and banned according to FIFA agreements.<br> From 1922 to 1926, new and more severe rules were approved for keeping the \"amateur\" status real and effective, such as footballers' residence and transfer controls but the best players were secretly paid and moved from other provinces illegally. Foreigners had to live in the country in order to get a residence visa and the players' card. When, in 1926, the Italian Federation Board resigned following a very difficult referees' strike, the fascist Lando Ferretti, president of the Italian Olympic Committee (C.O.N.I.), nominated a Commission to reform all Leagues and federal rules. The Commission signed a document called the \"\"Carta di Viareggio\"\" (Rules issued in Viareggio) where football players were recognized as \"non-amateurs\" and able to apply for refunds for the money they had lost while playing for the football teams. They had to sign the declaration not being professional players so that FIFA rules were respected because for FIGC they were appearing as \"amateurs\" receiving just refunds. It was the beginning of the professionalism in Italy. The Carta di Viareggio reduced the number of foreign players to be fielded to just one per match so that the majority of Hungarians remained jobless and got back to their country.  Commissioner Bruno Zauli led the FIGC renovation process (1959), with the establishment of three Leagues (Professional, Semi-professional, Amateur) and the creation of the Technical and the Youth Sectors.  Between 1964 and 1980, foreign players were banned from the Italian league, primarily to revive the national team.  In December 1998, the FIGC celebrated its centenary at the Stadio Olimpico in a match featuring Italy vs World XI, with Italy winning 6–2.  The FIGC was placed in administration in May 2006 as a result of the 2006 Italian football scandal and was put under the management of Guido Rossi.<br> In May 2006, Rossi was chosen and accepted the role of President of Telecom Italia. This appointment caused angry reactions from club presidents in Italy.<br> On 19 September, Rossi resigned as Commissioner of FIGC. On 21 September, Luca Pancalli, head of the Italian Paralympic Committee, was chosen to replace Rossi.<br> On 2 April 2007, a new President was elected, with former Vice-President Giancarlo Abete being voted by 264 grand electors out of 271.  Following the 2014 FIFA World Cup Abete resigned and Carlo Tavecchio was elected President of the Federation and Michele Uva as general manager. The new governance began many reforms on the main aspects of Italian football, particularly through the use of young players trained in Italy, on the economic sustainability - financial professional clubs; start the reorganization of the operating structure of the FIGC. In support of the activity and with a view of maximum transparency, the FIGC public a series of documents: Football Report, Integrated Budget (evolution of the Social Report), Management Report, Income Statement of Italian football. On 20 November 2017, Tavecchio resigned as Italian Football Federation president, seven days after Italy failed to qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, the first time since 1958.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Italian Football Federation (; FIGC), known colloquially as \"Federcalcio\", is the governing body of football in Italy. It is based in Rome and the technical department is in Coverciano, Florence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973944}
{"src_title": "Viterbi algorithm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Viterbi algorithm is named after Andrew Viterbi, who proposed it in 1967 as a decoding algorithm for convolutional codes over noisy digital communication links. It has, however, a history of multiple invention, with at least seven independent discoveries, including those by Viterbi, Needleman and Wunsch, and Wagner and Fischer.  \"Viterbi path\" and \"Viterbi algorithm\" have become standard terms for the application of dynamic programming algorithms to maximization problems involving probabilities. For example, in statistical parsing a dynamic programming algorithm can be used to discover the single most likely context-free derivation (parse) of a string, which is commonly called the \"Viterbi parse\". Another application is in target tracking, where the track is computed that assigns a maximum likelihood to a sequence of observations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extensions.", "content": "A generalization of the Viterbi algorithm, termed the \"max-sum algorithm\" (or \"max-product algorithm\") can be used to find the most likely assignment of all or some subset of latent variables in a large number of graphical models, e.g. Bayesian networks, Markov random fields and conditional random fields. The latent variables need in general to be connected in a way somewhat similar to an HMM, with a limited number of connections between variables and some type of linear structure among the variables. The general algorithm involves \"message passing\" and is substantially similar to the belief propagation algorithm (which is the generalization of the forward-backward algorithm).  With the algorithm called iterative Viterbi decoding one can find the subsequence of an observation that matches best (on average) to a given hidden Markov model. This algorithm is proposed by Qi Wang et al. to deal with turbo code. Iterative Viterbi decoding works by iteratively invoking a modified Viterbi algorithm, reestimating the score for a filler until convergence.  An alternative algorithm, the Lazy Viterbi algorithm, has been proposed. For many applications of practical interest, under reasonable noise conditions, the lazy decoder (using Lazy Viterbi algorithm) is much faster than the original Viterbi decoder (using Viterbi algorithm). While the original Viterbi algorithm calculates every node in the trellis of possible outcomes, the Lazy Viterbi algorithm maintains a prioritized list of nodes to evaluate in order, and the number of calculations required is typically fewer (and never more) than the ordinary Viterbi algorithm for the same result. However, it is not so easy to parallelize in hardware.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pseudocode.", "content": "This algorithm generates a path formula_1, which is a sequence of states formula_2 that generate the observations formula_3 with formula_4, where formula_5 is the number of possible observations in the observation space formula_6.  Two 2-dimensional tables of size formula_7 are constructed:  The table entries formula_18 are filled by increasing order of formula_19:  with formula_22 and formula_23 as defined below. Note that formula_23 does not need to appear in the latter expression, as it's non-negative and independent of formula_25 and thus does not affect the argmax.  function \"VITERBI\"formula_46  Suppose we are given a hidden Markov model (HMM) with state space formula_57, initial probabilities formula_58 of being in state formula_59 and transition probabilities formula_60 of transitioning from state formula_59 to state formula_62. Say, we observe outputs formula_63. The most likely state sequence formula_64 that produces the observations is given by the recurrence relations  Here formula_66 is the probability of the most probable state sequence formula_67 responsible for the first formula_68 observations that have formula_25 as its final state. The Viterbi path can be retrieved by saving back pointers that remember which state formula_70 was used in the second equation. Let formula_71 be the function that returns the value of formula_70 used to compute formula_66 if formula_74, or formula_25 if formula_76. Then  Here we're using the standard definition of arg max.  The complexity of this implementation is formula_78. A better estimation exists if the maximum in the internal loop is instead found by iterating only over states that directly link to the current state (i.e. there is an edge from formula_25 to formula_62). Then using amortized analysis one can show that the complexity is formula_81, where formula_82 is the number of edges in the graph.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "Consider a village where all villagers are either healthy or have a fever and only the village doctor can determine whether each has a fever. The doctor diagnoses fever by asking patients how they feel. The villagers may only answer that they feel normal, dizzy, or cold.  The doctor believes that the health condition of his patients operates as a discrete Markov chain. There are two states, \"Healthy\" and \"Fever\", but the doctor cannot observe them directly; they are \"hidden\" from him. On each day, there is a certain chance that the patient will tell the doctor he is \"normal\", \"cold\", or \"dizzy\", depending on their health condition.  The \"observations\" (normal, cold, dizzy) along with a \"hidden\" state (healthy, fever) form a hidden Markov model (HMM), and can be represented as follows in the Python programming language:  obs = ('normal', 'cold', 'dizzy') states = ('Healthy', 'Fever') trans_p = { emit_p = {  In this piece of code, codice_1 represents the doctor's belief about which state the HMM is in when the patient first visits (all he knows is that the patient tends to be healthy). The particular probability distribution used here is not the equilibrium one, which is (given the transition probabilities) approximately codice_2. The codice_3 represents the change of the health condition in the underlying Markov chain. In this example, there is only a 30% chance that tomorrow the patient will have a fever if he is healthy today. The codice_4 represents how likely each possible observation, normal, cold, or dizzy is given their underlying condition, healthy or fever. If the patient is healthy, there is a 50% chance that he feels normal; if he has a fever, there is a 60% chance that he feels dizzy.  The patient visits three days in a row and the doctor discovers that on the first day he feels normal, on the second day he feels cold, on the third day he feels dizzy. The doctor has a question: what is the most likely sequence of health conditions of the patient that would explain these observations? This is answered by the Viterbi algorithm. def viterbi(obs, states, start_p, trans_p, emit_p):  def dptable(V):  The function codice_5 takes the following arguments: codice_6 is the sequence of observations, e.g. codice_7; codice_8 is the set of hidden states; codice_1 is the start probability; codice_10 are the transition probabilities; and codice_11 are the emission probabilities. For simplicity of code, we assume that the observation sequence codice_6 is non-empty and that codice_13 and codice_14 is defined for all states i,j.  In the running example, the forward/Viterbi algorithm is used as follows: viterbi(obs,  The output of the script is $ python viterbi_example.py Healthy: 0.30000 0.08400 0.00588 Fever: 0.04000 0.02700 0.01512 The steps of states are Healthy Healthy Fever with highest probability of 0.01512 This reveals that the observations codice_7 were most likely generated by states codice_16. In other words, given the observed activities, the patient was most likely to have been healthy both on the first day when he felt normal as well as on the second day when he felt cold, and then he contracted a fever the third day.  The operation of Viterbi's algorithm can be visualized by means of a trellis diagram. The Viterbi path is essentially the shortest path through this trellis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Viterbi algorithm is a dynamic programming algorithm for finding the most likely sequence of hidden states—called the Viterbi path—that results in a sequence of observed events, especially in the context of Markov information sources and hidden Markov models (HMM).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973945}
{"src_title": "The Rape of Lucretia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "The opera was first performed at Glyndebourne in England on 12 July 1946. It is the first work to which Britten applied his term \"chamber opera.\" The opera debuted in the United States on Broadway at the Ziegfeld Theatre in a production staged by Agnes de Mille which opened on 29 December 1948 and closed on 15 January 1949 after 23 performances. The cast notably included Giorgio Tozzi as Tarquinius, Kitty Carlisle as Lucretia, Lidija Franklin as Bianca, Brenda Lewis as the Female Chorus, and Adelaide Bishop as Lucia.  In 1996 the opera was presented at the Opera Theatre of St. Louis directed by Britten expert and friend, Colin Graham. It also appeared in the Opera Company of Philadelphia's 2009 season. In 2013, the opera was performed for the first time by Glyndebourne since its premiere, directed by actress Fiona Shaw. This production opened on tour to great acclaim. Shaw's production premiered at Glyndebourne's festival in 2015 to similar acclaim.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prologue.", "content": "The Male and Female Choruses explain the situation in Rome: ruled by the foreigner Tarquinius Superbus and fighting off a Greek invasion, the city has sunk into depravity. The two choruses describe their own role as Christian interpreters of the pagan story about to begin. Throughout the opera the Male Chorus will narrate the thoughts of the male characters, and the Female Chorus those of the female characters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 1.", "content": "In an armed camp outside Rome, Tarquinius, Collatinus and Junius are drinking together. The previous night, a group of soldiers rode home unexpectedly to Rome to check on their wives, all of whom were caught betraying their husbands, with the single exception of Collatinus' wife Lucretia. Junius, whose wife was among the faithless majority, goads young Tarquinius, the king's son, into testing Lucretia's chastity himself. The impulsive prince calls for his horse and gallops off to the city alone.  At Collatinus' house in Rome, Lucretia is patiently spinning with her servants Bianca and Lucia. She longs for her absent husband. As the women prepare for bed, there is a knock at the door: Tarquinius. Though fearful, they cannot refuse to offer the prince hospitality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 2.", "content": "As Lucretia sleeps, Tarquinius creeps into her bedroom and awakens her with a kiss. She begs him to go, but certain that she desires him, he rapes her.  The following morning, Lucia and Bianca are glad to discover that Tarquinius has already left the house. Lucretia enters, calm but obviously devastated. She sends a messenger asking Collatinus to come home. Bianca tries to stop the messenger, but Collatinus arrives at once (accompanied by Junius). He comforts his wife lovingly, but she feels that she will never be clean again. She stabs herself and dies. All mourn. Junius plans to use this crime by the prince to spark a rebellion against the king.  The Female Chorus is left in despair at the moral emptiness of this story. But the Male Chorus tells her that all pain is given meaning, and all sin redeemed, in the suffering of Christ. The two end the opera with a prayer.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Rape of Lucretia (Op. 37) is an opera in two acts by Benjamin Britten, written for Kathleen Ferrier, who performed the title role. Ronald Duncan based his English libretto on André Obey's play \"\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973946}
{"src_title": "Fiat 130", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The saloon was launched at the 39th Geneva Motor Show in March 1969, replacing the previous largest and most exclusive Fiat saloon, the Fiat 2300. It was a thoroughly modern car, with four-wheel independent suspension (modified MacPherson struts front and rear, with torsion bars in the front and coil springs in the rear).  The Coupé, based on the same platform, was introduced in March 1971 having been designed by Paolo Martin of Pininfarina, who also manufactured the car. With a unique interior design (adopted in the saloon when it was upgraded to the 130B version which also featured the Coupé's enlarged 3235 cc V6), it featured a button-operated mechanism allowing the driver to open the passenger-side door. In addition to this model, there were two one-off variations built, a 2-door estate named \"Maremma\" and a 4-door saloon named \"Opera\".  Production of the saloon ended in 1976, with 15,093 produced (including 4 Familiare’s built by Officine Introzzo of Como) The Coupé continued until the following year, and 4,294 were built in total.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Specifications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engine and transmission.", "content": "Using the \"128 type A\" motor as a basis, a new crossflow V6 engine, with a 60° vee angle and rubber-toothed-belt driven twin overhead camshafts was developed for the model by Aurelio Lampredi. It became known as the \"130 type A\" engine with a capacity of 2,866 cc and a power output of at 5,600 rpm.  The engine was uprated to for 1970, which involved raising the compression ratio from 8.3:1 to 9.0:1, increasing the size of the carburettor choke from 42 to 45 mm and reducing back pressure by extending the portion of the exhaust manifold that used individual pipes on each side of the V format engine. This provided useful performance improvements in a market-segment where relatively new models from Mercedes-Benz and Jaguar were setting an increasingly competitive pace.  In 1971, the \"130 type B\" engine was introduced, featuring a slightly increased bore (102 mm instead of 96 mm), displacing 3,235 cc and producing at 5,600 rpm.  Power was delivered to the rear axle via standard Borg-Warner three-speed automatic transmission, and a five-speed ZF S5-18/3 ZF manual was an option.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Suspension.", "content": "Front suspension was a modified MacPherson strut, with longitudinal torsion bars acting at base of the control arms instead of coil springs on the struts, to allow room for the wide V6 and the optional air conditioning. The height of the front suspension is adjustable, using eccentric cams in the ends of the torsion bars, where they are attached to the body.  The rear suspension is a modified Chapman strut, using nearly trailing arms carrying the coil springs, axle shafts as lateral control links, and toe control links, with good wheel geometry control. Axle shafts are connected by universal joints at both the hubs and the limited-slip differential. The rear suspension geometry can be finely tuned.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Steering.", "content": "The 130 had ZF power steering. The steering column was adjustable for rake and reach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Models.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fiat 130 Saloon type \"A\".", "content": "Launched in 1969, with the 2866 cc engine. The press soon concluded that the was insufficient in view of the weight of about, hence the Fiat 130 berlina type \"A\" did not compete with the big BMW and Mercedes sedans. Interior design was not ambitious, with rectangular dials in the dashboard, a black plastic centre console and black plastic everywhere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fiat 130 Coupé.", "content": "Identified as type \"BC\" on their chassis, the 130 Coupé appeared in 1971 at Geneva motor show exhibiting a completely new 2-door body and a completely new interior. Both exterior and interior styling were the work of Paolo Martin at Pininfarina. The car won a design prize, attributed to Pininfarina, and this helped Pininfarina begin a new life after all those years relying on the \"Fiat 1800/Peugeot 404/Austin A60\" concepts. Pininfarina extended the Fiat 130 Coupé line with two proposals that were rejected by Fiat: the Maremma in 1974 (2-door shooting brake) and the Opera in 1975 (4-door saloon). Paolo Martin never got involved in these Fiat 130 Coupé variations, as he left the company soon after the design prize in 1971.  The seats were shaped and designed by Paolo Martin with the collaboration of Giovanni Gottin, a specialist established in Turin. The dashboard was redesigned with sporty round dials, using white needles.  The central console was redesigned by Paolo Martin, featuring wooden veneer, a row of switches and soft illumination throughout using state of the art fibre optics. The steering column is adjustable for rake and reach. The driver's seat has a degree of height adjustment. \"*stated by Pininfarina production records\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fiat 130 Berlina type \"B\".", "content": "These cars were improved in 1971, taking on board some Paolo Martin innovations conceived for the Coupé. The steering column, the dashboard, the central console and the ventilation are identical to the Coupé. The seats, the steering wheel and the door panels were improved, but differently from the Coupé. One can say the 1971 \"B\" version from 1971 is significantly more refined than the \"A\" version dating from 1969. Retrospectively, if one compares the 130 with big BMW and Mercedes sedans, the Fiat 130 Berlina type \"B\" may be the winner in terms of interior design and some comfort elements. But if one is considering the dynamic elements like power and ride comfort, the Fiat 130 type \"B\" is still lagging as the engine is not blessed with fuel injection (somewhat difficult to start—depending on the conditions), the engine does not have hydraulic self-adjusting valves, and the engine is simply not powerful enough. All this combines with a worryingly high fuel consumption. And this lack of dash and lack of efficiency are not compensated for with an extra smooth ride.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical appraisal.", "content": "British \"Motor\" magazine reviewed the 130 and decided that the car's strong points were excellent handling and road-holding, smooth ride, very high standard of interior and comfort plus an enormous boot. Against the car were its noisy engine, heavy fuel consumption and price. Motor described ultimate cornering power as very high. The UK's \"Autocar\" tested the car and described it as a dignified Italian. The overall verdict from \"Autocar\" was similar to that of \"Motor\", but they added that the brakes were spongy [and] road noise was obtrusive, though to its credit the car was very well appointed and finished and had first-class visibility. Concerning the handling, the road-testers went on to write, \"seldom have we encountered such excellent handling in a car of this size. Its superbly balanced feel inspires tremendous confidence, allowing high averages to be achieved without conscious driver effort\". Under a review of the coupe version of the 130, \"Car\" described the engine as providing a comfortable level of overall performance with good intermediate range torque. According to \"Car\" the saloon had a less-controlled ride than the coupe and less positive handling, the hard-driven saloon getting \"more wallowy at times\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fiat 130 is a large six cylinder executive car produced by Italian car manufacturer Fiat from 1969 to 1977. It was available as a 4-door saloon and as a 2-door coupé.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973947}
{"src_title": "Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Florence, he was recognized by the majority of his contemporaries as the only son of Lorenzo II de' Medici (grandson of Lorenzo de' Medici \"the Magnificent\"). A few believed him to be in fact the illegitimate son of Giulio de' Medici (later Pope Clement VII), nephew of Lorenzo the Magnificent, but at the time that was a minority view.  Alessandro's nickname \"il Moro\" (\"the Moor\") is said to derive from his features. Some historians (such as Christopher Hibbert) believe he had been born to a servant of African descent who was working in the Medici household, identified in documents as Simonetta da Collevecchio. The French author Jean Nestor, writing in the 1560s, reported that the claim of a Moorish slave origin was a false rumor first spread by Alessandro's exiled enemies in Naples.  When Emperor Charles V sacked Rome in 1527, a faction of Florentines took advantage of the turmoil in Italy to reinstall the Florentine Republic. Both Alessandro and Ippolito de' Medici fled, along with most of the Medici and their main supporters, including Cardinal Silvio Passerini (the regent for young Alessandro and Ippolito, and de facto ruler of Florence for Pope Clement VII). Eight-year-old Catherine de' Medici was left behind. Michelangelo, then occupied in creating a funerary chapel for the Medici, initially took charge of building fortifications around Florence in support of the Republic; however, he later fled the city, fearing retribution. Eventually Clement made his peace with the Emperor, and in the summer of 1530, following a lengthy siege supported by Imperial troops, the Medici were restored to power. In 1530, Clement VII assigned Florence to nineteen-year-old Alessandro, choosing him for the position over Ippolito (the latter was made a cardinal). In the meantime, Alessandro had become Duke of Penne, an appointment purchased from the Emperor. He arrived in Florence to take up his rule on 5 July 1531, and nine months later was made hereditary Duke of Florence by Charles V (as Tuscany lay outside the Papal States). This signaled the end of the Republic.  Alessandro's many enemies among the Florentine exiles declared that his rule was harsh, depraved and incompetent, an assessment debated by historians. One relic of his rule sometimes pointed out as a symbol of oppression is the massive \"Fortezza da Basso\", a fortress that is today the largest historical monument of Florence. In 1535, the Florentine opposition sent his cousin Ippolito to appeal to Emperor Charles V against some actions of the duke, but Ippolito died en route. Rumors spread that he had been poisoned at Alessandro's orders.  In a late replay of the kind of medieval civil politics that had long revolved around pope and emperor, commune and lord, Emperor Charles V supported Alessandro against the Florentine exiles. In 1536, Charles V married his natural daughter Margaret of Austria to Alessandro. For his own inclinations, Alessandro seems to have remained faithful to one mistress, Taddea Malaspina, who bore his only children: Giulio de' Medici (c. 1533/37 – 1600), who also had illegitimate issue, and Giulia de' Medici.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In 1537 his distant cousin Lorenzino de' Medici, nicknamed \"Lorenzaccio\" (\"bad Lorenzo\"), assassinated him. (This event is the subject of Alfred de Musset's play \"Lorenzaccio\".) Lorenzino entrapped Alessandro through the ruse of a promised arranged sexual encounter with Lorenzino's sister Laudomia, a beautiful widow. For fear of starting an uprising if news of his death got out, Medici officials wrapped Alessandro's corpse in a carpet and secretly carried it to the cemetery of San Lorenzo, where it was hurriedly buried.  In Valladolid (Spain), where the imperial court of Charles V was established, a solemn funeral was celebrated.  Lorenzino, in a declaration published later, said that he had killed Alessandro for the sake of the republic. When the anti-Medici faction failed to rise, Lorenzino fled to Venice, where he was killed in 1548. The Medici supporters (called \"\"Palleschi\"\" from the balls on the Medici arms) ensured that power then passed to Cosimo I de' Medici, the first of the \"junior\" branch of the Medici to rule Florence.  Alessandro was survived by two natural children of Taddea's: a son, Giulio (aged four at the time of his father's death) married to Lucrezia Gaetani, and a daughter, Giulia, married firstly to Francesco Cantelmo, the Duke of Popoli, and then to Bernadetto de' Medici, the Prince of Ottajano.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alessandro de' Medici (22 July 1510 – 6 January 1537), nicknamed \"il Moro\" (\"the Moor\") due to his dark complexion, Duke of Penne and also Duke of Florence (from 1532), was ruler of Florence from 1531 to his death in 1537. The first Medici to rule Florence as a hereditary monarch, Alessandro was also the last Medici from the senior line of the family to lead the city. His assassination at the hands of a distant cousin, Lorenzaccio, caused the duchy of Florence to pass to Cosimo I de Medici, from the family's junior branch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973948}
{"src_title": "Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Florence, he was the son of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Eleanor of Toledo. He served as regent for his father Cosimo after he retired from his governing duties in 1564.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage to Joanna of Austria.", "content": "On 18 December 1565, he married Joanna of Austria, youngest daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I and his wife Anne of Bohemia and Hungary, after Princess Elizabeth of Sweden, among others, had been considered. By all reports, it was not a happy marriage. Joanna was homesick for her native Austria, and Francesco was neither charming nor faithful. Joanna died at the age of thirty-one in 1578.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bianca Cappello.", "content": "Soon after Grand Duchess Joanna had died, Francesco went on to marry his Venetian mistress, Bianca Cappello, after aptly disposing of her husband, a Florentine bureaucrat. Because of the quick remarriage and similar occurrences among the Medici (Francesco's younger brother Pietro had reportedly killed his wife), rumours spread that Francesco and Bianca had conspired to poison Joanna. Francesco reportedly built and decorated the Villa di Pratolino for Bianca. She was, however, not always popular among Florentines. They had no legitimate children, but Bianca had borne him a son, Antonio (29 August 1576 – 2 May 1621), in his first wife's lifetime. Following the death of Francesco's legitimate son Filippo in 1582, Antonio was proclaimed heir. Francesco also adopted Bianca's daughter by her first marriage, Pellegrina (1564-?). Like his father, Francesco was often despotic, but while Cosimo had known how to maintain Florentine independence, Francesco acted more like a vassal of the Habsburgs of Austria and Spain. He continued the heavy taxation of his subjects to pay large sums to the empire.  He had an avid interest in manufacturing and sciences. He founded porcelain and stoneware manufacture, but these did not thrive until after his death. He continued his father's patronage of the arts, supporting artists and building the Medici Theater as well as founding the Accademia della Crusca. He was also passionately interested in chemistry and alchemy and spent many hours in his private laboratory and curio collection, the Studiolo in the Palazzo Vecchio, which held his collections of natural items and stones and allowed him to dabble in chemistry and alchemical schemes.  Francesco and Bianca died on 19 and 20 October, both at the Medici Villa in Poggio a Caiano. Although the original death certificates mention malaria, it has been widely speculated that the couple was poisoned, possibly by Francesco's brother Ferdinando. While some early forensic research supported the latter theory, forensic evidence from a study in 2010 found the parasite \"Plasmodium falciparum\", which causes malaria, in the skeletal remains of Francesco I, which strongly bolstered the infection theory and the credibility of the official documents. Francesco was succeeded by his younger brother Ferdinando.  In 1857, all members of the Medici family were exhumed and reburied in the place where they still lie today. The painter Giuseppe Moricci attended the ceremony and depicted Francesco with a facial droop, a right claw hand appearance, the right shoulder internally rotated, the right calf muscle wasted and a right clubfoot confirmed by orthopaedic footwear within the coffin. These are the signs of a right-sided stroke possibly within the internal capsule. The presence of the orthopaedic footwear suggests that this stroke happened significantly before his death. During life, in his official portraits, the grand duke was always depicted as being in perfect physical condition. The cause of his stroke is not known, but malaria is known to cause this condition  There is a famous portrait of Francesco as a child by Bronzino that hangs in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. Francesco's marriage to Bianca and the couple's death was exploited by Thomas Middleton for his tragedy \"Women Beware Women\", published in 1658.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Francesco and Joanna had seven children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francesco I (25 March 1541 – 19 October 1587) was the second Grand Duke of Tuscany, ruling from 1574 until his death in 1587, a member of the House of Medici.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973949}
{"src_title": "Elizabeth of Bohemia (1292–1330)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "She was the daughter of Wenceslaus II of Bohemia and Judith of Habsburg. Her mother died when Elizabeth was five years old, and of her ten children only four of them lived to adulthood: Wenceslaus, Anne, Elizabeth and Margaret. Elizabeth and her siblings also had a half-sister called Agnes. Six years after the death of her mother, her father remarried, to a Polish princess called Elizabeth Richeza, from the Piast dynasty. Elizabeth's father then gained the Crown of Poland.  Many notable events occurred during Elizabeth's youth, including a devastating fire at Prague Castle in 1303, the death of her father, and the assassination of her brother Wenceslaus. Elizabeth was orphaned by the age of thirteen and lived with her sister, Anne. Her other sister, Margaret was married at the age of seven to Bolesław III the Generous, after he had come to the court of Bohemia with his mother, Elisabeth of Greater Poland.  Elizabeth went to live with her aunt Kunigunde in a nunnery near Prague Castle. Without a mother, Elizabeth was strongly influenced by her aunt. Her sister-in-law, Viola of Teschen and her stepmother, Elizabeth Richeza, came to live with Anne and Elizabeth until the relationship between the sisters deteriorated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The fight for the throne.", "content": "In 1306, after the murder of Elizabeth's brother Wenceslaus, Elizabeth's brother-in-law Henry became King of Bohemia. Elizabeth was now the only unmarried princess in the family, and at fourteen she was considered a good age to marry, and as a result played an important role in the power struggle for the Kingdom of Bohemia.  The quarrels of the Bohemian throne between Henry of Bohemia and Rudolph of Habsburg resulted in Rudolph taking Bohemia and marrying Queen Elizabeth Richeza. Elizabeth went to live in Prague Castle with her brother's widow, Viola Elisabeth of Cieszyn. However, on Rudolph's death in 1307 the crown returned to her brother-in-law and sister, who wanted Elizabeth to marry the Lord of Bergova (Otto of Löbdaburg) for political reasons. Elizabeth refused to marry Otto and so Elizabeth and Anne fell out with each other.  An opposition group was formed against Henry and Anne, with Elizabeth as the figurehead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage to John of Luxembourg.", "content": "Elizabeth married the son of Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor, John of Luxembourg. She knew Anna and Henry's weaknesses and this marriage was one of them. The wedding took place on 1 September 1310, after John was forced to invade Bohemia. Henry and Anne fled to Carinthia where Anne died in 1313. The coronation of John and Elizabeth took place on 7 February 1311.  The marriage was initially a disaster, as Elizabeth needed to give birth to a son to prevent the inheritance of the descendants of her sisters, Margaret and Agnes, but did not have a son until six years into the marriage, when she gave birth to Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor.  The marriage improved for a while as the succession was safely secured, but after a while, Elizabeth grew jealous of John, who had listened to her but whose political opinions differed to hers. In 1319 an alleged plot was uncovered, to depose John and replace him with their eldest son Charles. John had the culprits punished.  John decided to prevent his wife from interfering in the education of their children, and took the three eldest children: Margaret, Bonne, and Charles, from Elizabeth's custody. Queen Elizabeth then lived at Mělník Castle and young Charles was imprisoned by his own father, before being sent to France in 1323. He never saw his mother again.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In total isolation and abandoned by all, Elizabeth left Bohemia and went to live in exile in Bavaria. Her actions were considered an act of open hostility towards John and his nobles. In exile Elizabeth gave birth to her last children, twin daughters Anne and Elizabeth. John did not support Elizabeth during her exile. Elizabeth returned to Bohemia in 1325, with her daughter Anne, Elizabeth having died a few months before. When she returned she was ill, but she lived for another five years. Her final years were affected by her lack of finances, which made her unable to maintain a court. She eventually died of tuberculosis in 1330, at the age of thirty-eight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Elizabeth and John were parents to seven children", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elizabeth of Bohemia () (20 January 1292 – 28 September 1330) was a princess of the Bohemian Přemyslid dynasty who became queen consort of Bohemia as the first wife of King John the Blind. She was the mother of Emperor Charles IV, King of Bohemia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973950}
{"src_title": "Agadez", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Agadez was founded before the 14th century, and, by growing around trans-Saharan trade, gradually became the most important city of the Tuareg people, supplanting Assodé. The city still sees the arrival of caravans, bringing salt from Bilma.  In 1449 Agadez became a sultanate, but was later conquered by the Songhai Empire, remaining a part of that empire until 1591. At this point, the city had a population of around 30,000 people and was a key passage for the medieval caravans trading between the West African cities of Kano (the source of the Hausa language which is the traditional lingua franca between different ethnic groups in the city, especially in the area of trade, religion and administration) and Timbuktu, and the North African oases of Ghat, Ghadames, and Tripoli, on the Mediterranean shore. Internal fighting led to the gradual decline of the sultanate, and by the mid 19th century the town was a shadow of its former self.  Some contend that Agadez was the furthermost extent of the Ottoman Empire on the African continent until the 19th century, before being occupied by the French colonial empire, though this claim has not been verified by historians. The city was ruled by the French from 1906. A rebellion by Kaocen Ag Mohammed occurred in 1916, but was defeated by French forces. The French, unable to effectively administer this remote region, ruled semi-indirectly via a restored sultan. Later, Agadez became an important location in the Tuareg Rebellion of the 1990s in central and northern Niger.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2007 violence.", "content": "As a result of the Second Tuareg Rebellion, sporadic violence and the displacement of thousands of people affected the Agadez area from late 2007 into 2009. All of northern Niger was placed on the United States State Department list of areas which are unsafe for travel by United States citizens, covering late 2007 to the end of 2008. Tourist flights to Agadez were suspended by European airlines for the 2007–2008 tourist season (September – March). The burgeoning tourist industry, which prior to 2007 had surpassed that of Niamey and the rest of the nation, essentially came to an end. The entire region was placed under a Nigerien government \"State of Exception\" (limiting travel, gatherings, political activities, etc.) in October 2007, renewed through early 2009. Roads to and from Agadez were reported to have been mined, and the government closed the area to international journalists and aid organizations. An unknown number (reported as several thousands) of internally displaced people converged on the city as a result of the unrest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Immigration towards Europe.", "content": "In the 2010s Agadez became a major transit town for West African migrants heading to Libya and then on to Europe. Crackdowns in 2016 slowed the flow of migrants, but recent Displacement Tracking Matrix data showed a daily average of 1,212 individuals crossing at six monitored points in Niger, many of whom would have been coming through Agadez.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture and tourism.", "content": "Today, Agadez flourishes as a market town and as a centre for the transportation of the uranium mined in the surrounding area. Notable buildings in the city include the Agadez Grand Mosque (originally dating from 1515 but rebuilt in the same style in 1844), the Kaocen Palace (now a hotel), and the Agadez Sultan's Palace. The city is also known for its camel market and its silver and leatherwork.  Some well-known musicians from the town include Tuareg guitar player Bombino and his band Group Bombino, and Group Inerane. Mdou Moctar's film, \"Akounak Teggdalit Taha Tazoughai\", is set and filmed on location in Agadez.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Airport and military usage.", "content": "Agadez's air transport hub, Mano Dayak International Airport, was named after Mano Dayak, the Tuareg leader who is native to the region.  The United States is building Nigerien Air Base 201, a dedicated drone airbase in Agadez from which it can more easily monitor what it calls terrorist activities in West and North Africa, and the Sahel. It was revealed in 2016 that the military base in Niger cost the U.S. $100 million.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Agadez has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification \"BWh\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agadez, formerly spelled Agadès, is the 5th largest city in Niger, with a population of 110,497 (2012 census). The capital of Agadez Region, it lies in the Sahara desert, and is also the capital of Aïr, one of the traditional Tuareg–Berber federations. The historic centre of the town has been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973951}
{"src_title": "Saint-Germain-des-Prés (abbey)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Abbey was founded in the 6th century by the son of Clovis I, Childebert I (ruled 511–558). Under royal patronage the Abbey became one of the richest in France, as demonstrated by its ninth-century polyptych; it housed an important scriptorium in the eleventh century and remained a center of intellectual life in the French Catholic church until it was disbanded during the French Revolution. An explosion of saltpetre in storage levelled the Abbey and its cloisters, but the church was spared. the statues in the portal were removed (\"illustration\") and some destroyed, and in a fire in 1794 the library vanished in smoke. The abbey church remains as the Église de Saint-Germain-des-Prés, one of the oldest churches in Paris.  In 542, while making war in Spain, Childebert raised his siege of Zaragoza when he heard that the inhabitants had placed themselves under the protection of the martyr Saint Vincent. In gratitude the bishop of Zaragoza presented him with the saint's stole. When Childebert returned to Paris, he caused a church to be erected to house the relic, dedicated to the Holy Cross and Saint Vincent, placed where he could see it across the fields from the royal palace on the Île de la Cité.  In 558, St. Vincent's church was completed and dedicated by Germain, Bishop of Paris on 23 December, the very day that Childebert died. Close by the church a monastery was erected. Its abbots had both spiritual and temporal jurisdiction over the suburbs of Saint-Germain (lasting till about the year 1670). The church was frequently plundered and set on fire by Vikings in the ninth century. It was rebuilt in 1014 and rededicated in 1163 by Pope Alexander III to Saint Germain of Paris, the canonized Bishop of Paris and Childeric's chief counsellor. The great wall of Paris subsequently built during the reign of Philip II of France did not encompass the abbey, leaving the residents to fend for themselves. This also had the effect of splitting the Abbey's holdings into two. A new refectory was built for the monastery by Peter of Montereau in around 1239 - he was later the architect of the Sainte-Chapelle.  The abbey church's west end tower was pierced by a portal, completed in the twelfth century, which collapsed in 1604 and was replaced in 1606 by the present classicising portal, by Marcel Le Roy. Its choir, with its apsidal east end, provides an early example of flying buttresses.  It gave its name to the quarter of Saint-Germain-des-Prés that developed around the abbey. This area is also part of the Latin Quarter, because the Abbey donated some of its lands along the Seine—the \"Pré aux Clercs\" (\"fields of the scholars\") for the erection of buildings to house the University of Paris, where Latin was the \"lingua franca\" among students who arrived from all over Europe and shared no other language.  Until the late 17th century, the Abbey owned most of the land in the Left Bank west of the current Boulevard Saint-Michel and had administrative autonomy in it, most clearly for the part outside the walls of Paris.  Louis-César de Bourbon, son of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan, was an abbot here.  In the 17th century the district of Saint-Germain was among the most desirable on the Left Bank. Marguerite de Valois pressured the abbot to donate abbey land to her, too. She built a palace on it, and set a fashionable tone for the area that lasted until the Saint-Honoré district north of the Champs-Élysées eclipsed it in the early eighteenth century. Her palace was located at the current numbers 2-10 rue de Seine. The gardens of the estate extended west to the current rue Bellechasse.  The tomb of philosopher René Descartes is located in one of the church's side chapels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Former configuration.", "content": "At its apogee, the Abbey extended to the area now bordered to the north by the (current) rue Jacob, to the East by the rue de l'Echaudée, to the south by the south side of the Boulevard Saint-Germain and the rue Gozlin, and to the west by the rue St-Benoit.  A lady chapel was build (c. 1244-7), with glazed windows including a scene showing the death of St Germain; this is currently in the collection of Winchester College.  From 1275 to 1636, the pillory of the Abbey was located in the current Place d'Acadie, better known to Parisians as the Mabillon due to the eponymous Métro station located there. This square was therefore called the \"Place du Pilori\" and the current rue de Buci leading to it was called the \"rue du Pilori\".  The pillory was removed upon the rebuilding of the Abbey's prison in 1635 (a prison had stood there since the Middle Ages). It was located in what is now the Boulevard Saint-Germain, just west of the current Passage de la Petite Boucherie. In 1675 it was requisitioned for a military prison. The prison was known for its extremely poor condition, for example, in 1836, Benjamin Appert wrote :  The prison was the site of one of the September massacres of 1792 and was eventually destroyed to make way for the Boulevard Saint-Germain.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint-Germain-des-Prés () is a parish church located in the Saint-Germain-des-Prés quarter of Paris. Founded by Childebert I in the 540s as the Abbaye Sainte-Croix-Saint-Vincent, by the middle of the 8th century it had taken on the name of Saint Germanus (French: Germain), the man appointed bishop of Paris by Childebert and later canonized. Originally located beyond the outskirts of early medieval Paris, it became a rich and important abbey complex and was the burial place of Germanus and of Childebert and other Merovingian kings of Neustria. At that time, the Left Bank was prone to flooding from the Seine, so much of the land could not be built upon and the Abbey stood in the middle of meadows, or \"prés\" in French, thereby explaining its appellation, which also serves to distinguish it from the church of Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois near the Louvre. The oldest part of the current church is the prominent western tower (partly restored and modified), which was built by Abbot Morard around the year 1000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973952}
{"src_title": "Brassaï", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Gyula (Julius) Halász, Brassaï (pseudonym) was born on 9 September 1899 in Brassó, Kingdom of Hungary (today Brașov, Romania) to an Armenian mother and a Hungarian father. He grew up speaking Hungarian and Romanian. When he was three, his family lived in Paris for a year, while his father, a professor of French literature, taught at the Sorbonne.  As a young man, Halász studied painting and sculpture at the Hungarian Academy of Fine Arts (Magyar Képzőművészeti Egyetem) in Budapest. He joined a cavalry regiment of the Austro-Hungarian army, where he served until the end of the First World War.  He cited Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec as an artistic influence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1920, Halász went to Berlin, where he worked as a journalist for the Hungarian papers \"Keleti\" and \"Napkelet\". He started studies at the Berlin-Charlottenburg Academy of Fine Arts (\"Hochschule für Bildende Künste\"), now Universität der Künste Berlin. There he became friends with several older Hungarian artists and writers, including the painters Lajos Tihanyi and Bertalan Pór, and the writer György Bölöni, each of whom later moved to Paris and became part of the Hungarian circle.  In 1924, Halasz moved to Paris to live, where he would stay for the rest of his life. He began teaching himself the French language by reading the works of Marcel Proust. Living among the gathering of young artists in the Montparnasse quarter, he took a job as a journalist. He soon became friends with the American writer Henry Miller, and the French writers Léon-Paul Fargue and Jacques Prévert. In the late 1920s, he lived in the same hotel as Tihanyi.  Miller later played down Brassai's claims of friendship. In 1976 he wrote of Brassai: \"Fred [Perles] and I used to steer shy of him – he bored us.\" Miller added that the biography Brassai had written of him was typically \"padded\", \"full of factual errors, full of suppositions, rumors, documents he filched which are largely false or give a false impression.\"  Halász's job and his love of the city, whose streets he often wandered late at night, led to photography. He first used it to supplement some of his articles for more money, but rapidly explored the city through this medium, in which he was tutored by his fellow Hungarian André Kertész. He later wrote that he used photography \"to capture the beauty of streets and gardens in the rain and fog, and to capture Paris by night.\" Using the name of his birthplace, Halász went by the pseudonym \"Brassaï,\" which means \"from Brasso.\"  Brassaï captured the essence of the city in his photographs, published as his first collection in the 1933 book entitled \"Paris de nuit\" (Paris by Night). His book gained great success, resulting in being called \"the eye of Paris\" in an essay by Henry Miller. In addition to photos of the seedier side of Paris, Brassai portrayed scenes from the life of the city's high society, its intellectuals, its ballet, and the grand operas. He had been befriended by a French family who gave him access to the upper classes. Brassai photographed many of his artist friends, including Salvador Dalí, Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Alberto Giacometti, and several of the prominent writers of his time, such as Jean Genet and Henri Michaux.  Young Hungarian artists continued to arrive in Paris through the 1930s and the Hungarian circle absorbed most of them. Kertèsz immigrated to New York City in 1936. Brassai befriended many of the new arrivals, including Ervin Marton, a nephew of Tihanyi, whom he had been friends with since 1920. Marton developed his own reputation in street photography in the 1940s and 1950s. Brassaï continued to earn a living with commercial work, also taking photographs for the U.S. magazine \"Harper's Bazaar\".  He was a founding member of the Rapho agency, created in Paris by Charles Rado in 1933.  Brassaï's photographs brought him international fame. In 1948, he had a one-man show at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City, which travelled to George Eastman House in Rochester, New York; and the Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois. MoMA exhibited more of Brassai's works in 1953, 1956, and 1968. He was presented at the Rencontres d'Arles festival in France in 1970 (screening at the Théâtre Antique, \"Brassaï\" by Jean-Marie Drot), in 1972 (screening \"Brassaï si, Vominino\" by René Burri), and in 1974 (as guest of honour).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "In 1948, Brassaï married Gilberte Boyer, a French woman. She worked with him in supporting his photography. In 1949, he became a naturalized French citizen after years of being stateless.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Brassaï died on 8 July 1984 at his home on the French Riviera near Nice. He was 84 years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "Brassaï's work is held in the following public collections:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Brassaï (; pseudonym of Gyula Halász; 9 September 1899 – 8 July 1984) was a Hungarian–French photographer, sculptor, medalist, writer, and filmmaker who rose to international fame in France in the 20th century. He was one of the numerous Hungarian artists who flourished in Paris beginning between the world wars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973953}
{"src_title": "Pontigny Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Hildebert (or Ansius), a canon of Auxerre, petitioned Abbot Stephen Harding of Cîteaux to found a monastery in a place he had selected for this purpose. Accordingly in 1114 Saint Stephen sent twelve monks under the guidance of Hugh of Mâcon, the first abbot and a friend and kinsman of Bernard of Clairvaux, to establish the new foundation. Under Abbot Hugh and his successor, Guichard, the new monastery developed such a reputation for sanctity that it attracted sufficient numbers to be able to establish another twenty-two Cistercian monasteries.  Many members of the community of Pontigny went on to occupy high positions in the church and many distinguished personages sought refuge there. Amongst the former were, for example, Blessed Hugh of Mâcon, Bishop of Auxerre (d. 1151); Girard Mainard, Cardinal Bishop of Praeneste (d. 1202); and Robert, Cardinal Titular of St. Pudentiana (d. 1294). The latter included three Archbishops of Canterbury: Saint Thomas Becket,and Stephen Langton. Saint Edmund of Abingdon was taken ill here on his way to a conclave in Rome, and died and was buried in the Abbey.  Over the centuries, however, the original strict discipline relaxed, especially from 1456, when the abbey was given \"in commendam\". In 1569 it was pillaged and burnt by the Huguenots, only the relics of Saint Edmund being saved. Partly restored, it continued in existence until it was suppressed during the French Revolution. The monastic buildings were largely destroyed, but the church was saved, due to the respect in which the cult of Saint Edmund was still held, and continued in use after the Revolution as a parish church.  In 1843 a community of the Fathers of St. Edmund was established here by J. B. Muard.  In 1909 the remaining southern wing (refectory and dormitories of the lay brothers) was bought by the philosopher Paul Desjardins, who from 1910 to 1914 held meetings every year at the abbey, known as \"Decades of Pontigny\", or conferences of ten days' duration, where the intellectual élite of Europe met including inter alia Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, T. S. Eliot, Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann, Nikolai Berdyaev. Between 1922 and 1939, after the end of World War I, Desjardins reorganized the conferences to evaluate the future of Europe, annually bringing together such notables as Charles du Bos, Roger Martin du Gard, André Gide, Paul Langevin, André Malraux, François Mauriac, Jacques Rivière and Alice Voinescu, among others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Burials.", "content": "Among the burials in the abbey church are the following:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Viticulture.", "content": "Next to their religious duties the monks of Pontigny were also much occupied in the cultivation of vineyards. They established the original vineyard from which the present Chablis wine traces its descent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pilgrims' Route.", "content": "The abbey is a stopping-point on one of the pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pontigny Abbey (), the church of which in recent decades has also been the cathedral of the Mission de France, otherwise the Territorial Prelature of Pontigny (), was a Cistercian monastery located in Pontigny on the River Serein, in the present diocese of Sens and department of Yonne, Burgundy, France. Founded in 1114, it was the second of the four great daughter houses of Cîteaux Abbey. It was suppressed in 1791 in the French Revolution and destroyed except for the church. In 1843 it was re-founded as a community of the Fathers of St. Edmund. In 1909 it passed into private ownership. In 1941 it became the mother house of the Mission de France, a territorial prelature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973954}
{"src_title": "Anna von Schweidnitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Anne was the daughter of Polish Duke Henry II of Świdnica-Jawor from the Silesian branch of the Piast dynasty. Her mother was Katherine of Hungary, the daughter of Charles I of Hungary. In his autobiography written in Latin, which covers only his youth prior to marrying Anna, emperor Charles mentions \"civitatem Swidnitz\" and \"dux Swidnicensis\", as depicted in the coat of arms room of his Wenzelschloss castle at Lauf an der Pegnitz near Nuremberg.  Anne's father died when she was four years old, and her childless uncle, Bolko II, Duke of Świdnica-Jawor became her guardian. She was brought up and educated by her mother at Visegrád in Hungary. At the age of 11, Anne had been promised to Wenceslaus, newborn son and successor to Charles IV. After the infant Wenceslaus and his mother Anna of the Palatinate died, the now-widowed Emperor asked to marry Anne himself. The planned marriage was part of the strategies devised by Charles and his then-deceased father John to gain control of the Piast Duchies of Silesia as \"vedlejší země\" (\"neighboring countries\") for the Kingdom of Bohemia. Anne's uncle, Louis I of Hungary, the future King of Poland, was able to assist her by renouncing his rights to Świdnica in favor of the House of Luxemburg.  At the instigation of archbishop Arnošt of Pardubice, Pope Innocent VI issued a dispensation for the marriage, which was required because of the degree of relationship between the bride and groom (they were second cousins once removed through their common ancestors Rudolf I of Germany and Gertrude of Hohenberg). The two were married on 27 May 1353, when Anne was 14; her new husband was 37. The wedding was attended by Anne's guardian Bolko II of Świdnica, Duke Albert II of Austria, King Louis of Hungary, Margrave Louis of Brandenburg, Duke Rudolf of Saxony, an envoy of King Casimir III of Poland, and an envoy of the Republic of Venice.  On 28 July 1353, Anna was crowned Queen of Bohemia in Prague by Archbishop Arnošt of Pardubice. On 9 February 1354, in Aachen, she was crowned German queen. As part of the coronation of Charles as Holy Roman Emperor on 5 April 1355, in the Roman Basilica of Saint Peter, Anne was crowned Empress of the Holy Roman Empire. She was thereby the first Queen of Bohemia to become Empress.  In 1358, Anne bore a daughter, Elisabeth, who was named after Elisabeth of Bohemia (1292–1330). In February 1361 she became mother of the desired successor to the throne, Wenceslaus, who was born in Nuremberg, and baptized on 11 April in the Sebalduskirche by the Archbishops of Prague, Cologne, and Mainz. She did not live to see the coronation of the two-year-old Wenceslaus, however. At age 23, she died in childbirth on 11 July 1362. She is buried in St. Vitus Cathedral. The emperor married Elisabeth of Pomerania one year later. The Duchies of Świdnica and Jawor passed to Bohemia after Bolko's death in 1368.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna of Schweidnitz (Świdnica) (also known as Anne or Anna of Świdnica,,, ) (Świdnica, 1339 – 11 July 1362 in Prague) was Queen of Bohemia, German Queen, and Empress of the Holy Roman Empire. She was the third wife of Emperor Charles IV.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973955}
{"src_title": "Vinca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Vinca\" plants are subshrubs or herbaceous, and have slender trailing stems long but not growing more than above ground; the stems frequently take root where they touch the ground, enabling the plant to spread widely. The leaves are opposite, simple broad laneolate to ovate, long and broad; they are evergreen in four species, but deciduous in the herbaceous \"V. herbacea\", which dies back to the root system in winter.  The flowers, produced through most of the growing season, are salverform (like those of \"Phlox\"), simple, broad, with five usually violet (occasionally white) petals joined together at the base to form a tube. The fruit consists of a pair of divergent follicles; the dry fruit dehisces along one rupture site to release seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gardens.", "content": "Two of the species, \"Vinca major\" and \"Vinca minor\", are extensively cultivated as a flowering evergreen ornamental plant. Because the plants are low and spread quickly, they are often used as groundcover in garden landscapes and container gardens. They are also traditionally used in older cemeteries as an evergreen maintenance-free ground cover. Many cultivars are available, with different plant, leaf, and flower colors, sizes, and habits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive plant species.", "content": "Although attractive, both \"Vinca major\" and \"Vinca minor\" may be invasive in some regions where they are introduced species because the rapid spreading chokes out native plant species and alters habitats. Areas affected include parts of Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States, especially coastal California.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medicinal use.", "content": "The vinca alkaloids include at least 86 alkaloids extracted from plants in the genus \"Vinca\". The chemotherapy agent vincristine is extracted from a closely related species, \"Catharanthus roseus\", and is used to treat some leukemias, lymphomas, and childhood cancers, as well as several other types of cancer and some non-cancerous conditions. Vinblastine is a chemical analogue of vincristine and is also used to treat various forms of cancer. Dimeric alkaloids such as vincristine and vinblastine are produced by the coupling the smaller indole alkaloids vindoline and catharanthine. In addition, the nootropic agent vincamine is derived from \"Vinca minor\". Vinorelbine, a newer semi-synthetic chemotherapeutic agent, is used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer and is prepared either from the natural products leurosine or catharanthine and vindoline, in both cases by first preparing anhydrovinblastine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "Accepted species:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vinca (; Latin: \"vincire\" \"to bind, fetter\") is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, native to Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia. The English name periwinkle is shared with the related genus \"Catharanthus\" (and also with the common seashore mollusc, \"Littorina littorea\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973956}
{"src_title": "Eduard Strauss", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and music.", "content": "Eduard Strauss' style was individual and did not attempt to emulate the works of his other brothers or his contemporaries. But he was primarily remembered and recognized as a dance music conductor rather than as a major composer in the, and his popularity was overshadowed by that of his elder brothers. Realising this, he stamped his own mark with the quick polka, known in German as the \"polka-schnell\". Among the more popular polkas that he penned for the Strauss Orchestra, which he continued to conduct until its disbandment on 13 February 1901, were \"\", Op. 45, \"Ausser Rand und Band\", Op. 168, and \"Ohne Bremse\", Op. 238. He also found time to pen a few lovely waltzes, of which only a handful survived obscurity. The most famous is probably \"Doctrinen\", Op.79.  Strauss's musical career was pervaded with rivalry, not only from his brothers, but also from the military bandmaster and dance music composer Karl Michael Ziehrer, who even formed a rival orchestra called \"Formerly Eduard Strauss Orchestra\", and began giving concerts in Vienna under this new title. Eduard Strauss successfully filed a court action against Ziehrer for the improper and misleading use of his name, but Ziehrer would eventually surpass the Strauss family in popularity in Vienna, particularly after the deaths of his more talented brothers, Johann Strauss II and Josef Strauss. Their rivalry was to extend until the Strauss Orchestra was disbanded.  Strauss married Maria Klenkhart on 8 January 1863 and had two sons, Johann Strauss III and Josef Eduard Strauss. The elder son, Johann Strauss III, was to lead the Strauss revival well into the 20th century. Josef Eduard's son, Eduard Strauss II, was active as conductor.  However, personal setbacks in the 1890s, such as the death of brother Johann Strauss II in 1899, and his realization that his immediate family had squandered his personal fortune, led Eduard Strauss to decide on retirement. Eduard Strauss engaged in the final tour of his musical career to North America in 1899 and in 1901, disbanded the Strauss Orchestra, and returned to Vienna, where he died in 1916. He retired from public life and never actively took part in any public musical activity, although he did document his family memoirs titled \"Erinnerungen\" in 1906. He is buried in Zentralfriedhof (Vienna) cemetery.  Since 1825, the Strauss Orchestra Archives collected the compositions of not only Eduard, but of Johann II and the rest of the Strauss family. In 1907, Eduard instructed that the archives be burned. Eighty years later, conductors Alfred Walker and Klaus Heymann managed to put together a semi-complete collection of Johann's works (according to Johann Strauss II: The Complete Orchestral Edition).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eduard \"Edi\" Strauss (15 March 1835 – 28 December 1916) was an Austrian composer who, together with his brothers Johann Strauss II and Josef Strauss made up the Strauss musical dynasty. He was the son of Johann Strauss I and Maria Anna Streim. The family dominated the Viennese light music world for decades, creating many waltzes and polkas for many Austrian nobility as well as dance-music enthusiasts around Europe. He was affectionately known in his family as 'Edi'.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973957}
{"src_title": "Anagallis arvensis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "When found as a summer annual, the scarlet pimpernel has a low-growing creeping habit, but as a winter annual, it forms a half-rosette with an upright stem. It has weak sprawling stems with square cross-section growing to about long. They bear bright green, soft, ovate sessile leaves in opposite pairs. The orange, red or blue, radially symmetric flowers, about in diameter, are produced singly in the leaf axils from spring to autumn. The petal margins are somewhat crenate and have small glandular hairs. The stamens have lollipop hairs and therefore attract a variety of pollinators, especially flies, but the flowers are also capable of autopollination. The dehiscent capsule fruits ripen from August to October in the northern hemisphere. The weight of the fruiting body bends the stem, and the seeds are transported by the wind or rain. Blue-flowered plants (\"A. arvensis\" Forma \"azurea\") are common in some areas, such as the Mediterranean region, and should not be confused with the related blue pimpernel, \"Anagallis foemina\", sometimes \"Anagalis arvensis\" ssp. \"foemina\". In 2007, a molecular phylogenetic study showed that \"Anagallis foemina\" is more closely related to \"Anagallis monelli\" than to \"Anagallis arvensis\", and should be treated as a separate species. The taxonomy has however not yet been resolved and various authorities propose either the subspecies \"Anagallis arvensis subsp. foemina\" (Mill.) Schinz & Thell, or the species \"Anagallis foemina\" Mill. The plant has a diploid chromosome count of 2n=40.  Scarlet pimpernel flowers open only when the sun shines, and even close in overcast conditions. This habit leads to names such as \"shepherd's weather glass\". It has recently started to occur along the verges of salted roads, creating a broad red band along the roadside.  Scarlet pimpernel has a wide variety of flower colours. The petals of the type \"arvensis\" are bright red to minium-coloured; \"carnea\" is deep peach, \"lilacina\" is lilac; \"pallida\" is white; and \"azurea\" is blue. The blue form can be difficult to distinguish from \"A. foemina\", but the petal margins are diagnostic: whereas \"foemina\" has clearly irregular petal margins with only 5 to 15 glandular hairs, \"A. arvensis\" f. \"azurea\" has 50 to 70 hairs on only slightly irregular margins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical and agricultural significance.", "content": "\"Anagallis arvensis\" is generally unwelcome as a cosmopolitan invasive species; it is harmfully toxic in several respects and accordingly undesirable in pastures. Perhaps fortunately, the plant is and bitter, and grazing livestock generally avoid eating it except in conditions of overgrazing or grazing of unsatisfying stubble. Experimental feeding of the plant material to various animals, such as horses and dogs, caused gastroenteritis. Sufficiently high doses proved fatal. Less specifically the herb has been reported as being toxic to poultry and rabbits, and the seed to birds.  Understandably, \"Anagallis arvensis\" is less often used in folk medicine worldwide than where it has long been familiar in its countries of origin. In various countries however, the plant material has been applied externally to slow-healing ulcers and wounds. It also has been applied as an expectorant and as a remedy for pruritus, rheumatism, haemorrhoids, rabies, leprosy, and snake-bite. \"Anagallis\" has been used in treatment of non-specified types of phthisis, and of kidney-related conditions such as dropsy and chronic nephritis. It was used as an antidepressant in ancient Greece, and to treat various mental disorders in European folk medicine, leading to the German name \"Gauchheil\" (\"Gauch\" meaning \"fool\" or \"cuckoo\", and \"heil\" meaning \"heal\"). Generally however, documented evidence for clinical efficacy is lacking. \"Anagallis arvensis\" is traditionally known by pharmacists as \"Arvensis Herba\"  \"Anagallis arvensis\" is insecticidal, or at least is repellent to some insects, possibly by virtue of its pungent essential oil which has a characteristic smell. Taken by mouth, experimental doses of the liquid in humans caused twenty-four hours of intense nausea, headache and bodily pain. Some people also experience dermatitis from contact with the leaf. Reports from Australia state that when grain crops have been infested by the weed, chaff that contains much of the material becomes unpalatable to stock as fodder. When grazing in pasture, livestock usually leave the plant alone, but when they do nonetheless eat significant quantities, they suffer diuretic and narcotic effects sufficiently intense to justify regarding the plant as poisonous. Reportedly an Indian practice of expelling leeches from dog nostrils can lead to fatal results if the animal swallows the fluid.  The herb and its seed contain saponins, which could explain why fresh material is strongly haemolytic. Among other possible glycosides, the root yields the triterpenoid glycoside which is highly toxic and occurs in \"Cyclamen\" species, also a member of the subfamily Myrsinoideae, and arguably also in the Primulaceae.  The plant contains tanning agents, bitters, and the proteolytic enzyme primverase.  Antibacterial tests of the green parts failed to show any encouraging positive effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "Scarlet pimpernel (\"anicham\" in Tamil) is one of the two flowers mentioned in the Tirukkural.  \"The Scarlet Pimpernel\" is the alias of Sir Percy Blakeney in the novel of the same name by Baroness Emma Orczy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anagallis arvensis or Lysimachia arvensis, commonly known as scarlet pimpernel, blue-scarlet pimpernel, red pimpernel, red chickweed, poor man's barometer, poor man's weather-glass, shepherd's weather glass or shepherd's clock, is a low-growing annual plant with brightly coloured flowers, most often scarlet but also bright blue and sometimes pink. The native range of the species is Europe and Western Asia and North Africa. The species has been distributed widely by humans, either deliberately as an ornamental flower or accidentally. \"A. arvensis\" is now naturalised almost worldwide, with a range that encompasses the Americas, Central and East Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, Malesia, the Pacific Islands, Australasia and Southern Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973958}
{"src_title": "Ernst Neufert", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Ernst Neufert was born in Freyburg an der Unstrut. At the age of 17, after five years of working as a bricklayer, Neufert entered the school of construction (Baugewerbeschule) in Weimar. His teacher recommended him to Walter Gropius in 1919 as one of his first students of the Bauhaus. He finished his studies in 1920, and together with the expressionist architect Paul Linder (1897-1968) embarked on a year-long study tour of Spain, where he sketched medieval churches. In Barcelona he met Antonio Gaudi, whose architecture made a deep impression on the young student. Neufert later became one of the first advocates of Gaudi in Germany. After 1921 he returned to the Bauhaus and became chief architect under Gropius in one of the most prominent architecture studios of the Weimar Republic.  In 1923 he met the painter Alice Spies-Neufert, a student of the Bauhaus masters Georg Muche and Paul Klee, and married her in 1924. They had four children (Peter, Christa, Ingrid and Ilas).  In 1925 Neufert worked in close collaboration with Gropius on the realization of the new Bauhaus buildings in Dessau and the completion of the masters' houses for Muche, Klee, and Wassily Kandinsky. In 1926 he returned to Weimar and became a teacher under Otto Bartning at the Bauhochschule (Building College), known as \"the other Bauhaus\". From 1928 to 1930 he realized various projects, such as the Mensa am Philosophenweg and the Abbeanum in Jena. In 1929 he built his private home in Gelmeroda, a village near Weimar (today the home of the Neufert Foundation and Neufert Box, a small museum with changing exhibitions). After closure of the Bauhochschule by the Nazis, he moved to Berlin and worked in a private school for art and architecture founded by Johannes Itten, which was forced to close as well in 1934.  Very early Neufert recognized the possibilities for rationalization of building processes, but also the need for normative rules.  In 1934 he became the resident architect of Vereinigte Lausitzer Glaswerke (United Lusatia Glassworks). He designed the private home of its director Dr. Kindt (with colour glass by Charles Crodel) and various housing, office, and factory buildings in Weißwasser, Tschernitz and Kamenz. At the same time he worked on his \"Architects' Data\", which was published in March 1936 and which remains an essential reference work, having been translated into 18 languages.  In 1936 traveled to New York City and Taliesin to visit Frank Lloyd Wright and gauge his prospects of finding work in the United States. But in New York he was notified of the enormous success of the first edition of his book and returned to Berlin to prepare the second edition. New industrial commissions for his studio led to his decision to remain in Germany. In 1939 he was appointed by Albert Speer to work on the standardization of German industrial architecture.  After World War II, Neufert was appointed professor at the Technische Universität Darmstadt. He opened his own office, Neufert und Neufert, with his son Peter in 1953 and realized numerous projects, including many industrial buildings. He died in 1986 in his home in Bugneaux-sur-Rolle in Switzerland.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernst Neufert (15 March 1900 – 23 February 1986) was a German architect who is known as an assistant of Walter Gropius, as a teacher and member of various standardization organizations, and especially for his essential handbook \"Architects' data\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973959}
{"src_title": "Jacques Hadamard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The son of a teacher, Amédée Hadamard, of Jewish descent, and Claire Marie Jeanne Picard, Hadamard was born in Versailles, France and attended the Lycée Charlemagne and Lycée Louis-le-Grand, where his father taught. In 1884 Hadamard entered the École Normale Supérieure, having placed first in the entrance examinations both there and at the École Polytechnique. His teachers included Tannery, Hermite, Darboux, Appell, Goursat and Picard. He obtained his doctorate in 1892 and in the same year was awarded the \"Grand Prix des Sciences Mathématiques\" for his essay on the Riemann zeta function.  In 1892 Hadamard married Louise-Anna Trénel, also of Jewish descent, with whom he had three sons and two daughters. The following year he took up a lectureship in the University of Bordeaux, where he proved his celebrated inequality on determinants, which led to the discovery of Hadamard matrices when equality holds. In 1896 he made two important contributions: he proved the prime number theorem, using complex function theory (also proved independently by Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin); and he was awarded the Bordin Prize of the French Academy of Sciences for his work on geodesics in the differential geometry of surfaces and dynamical systems. In the same year he was appointed Professor of Astronomy and Rational Mechanics in Bordeaux. His foundational work on geometry and symbolic dynamics continued in 1898 with the study of geodesics on surfaces of negative curvature. For his cumulative work, he was awarded the Prix Poncelet in 1898.  After the Dreyfus affair, which involved him personally because his second cousin Lucie was the wife of Dreyfus, Hadamard became politically active and a staunch supporter of Jewish causes though he professed to be an atheist in his religion.  In 1897 he moved back to Paris, holding positions in the Sorbonne and the Collège de France, where he was appointed Professor of Mechanics in 1909. In addition to this post, he was appointed to chairs of analysis at the École Polytechnique in 1912 and at the École Centrale in 1920, succeeding Jordan and Appell. In Paris Hadamard concentrated his interests on the problems of mathematical physics, in particular partial differential equations, the calculus of variations and the foundations of functional analysis. He introduced the idea of \"well-posed problem\" and the \"method of descent\" in the theory of partial differential equations, culminating in his seminal book on the subject, based on lectures given at Yale University in 1922. Later in his life he wrote on probability theory and mathematical education.  Hadamard was elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 1916, in succession to Poincaré, whose complete works he helped edit. He became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1920. He was elected a foreign member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1929. He visited the Soviet Union in 1930 and 1934 and China in 1936 at the invitation of Soviet and Chinese mathematicians.  Hadamard stayed in France at the beginning of the Second World War and escaped to southern France in 1940. The Vichy government permitted him to leave for the United States in 1941 and he obtained a visiting position at Columbia University in New York. He moved to London in 1944 and returned to France when the war ended in 1945.  Hadamard was awarded an honorary doctorate (LL.D.) by Yale University in October 1901, during celebrations for the bicentenary of the university. He was awarded the CNRS Gold medal for his lifetime achievements in 1956. He died in Paris in 1963, aged ninety-seven.  Hadamard's students included Maurice Fréchet, Paul Lévy, Szolem Mandelbrojt and André Weil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "On creativity.", "content": "In his book \"Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field\", Hadamard uses introspection to describe mathematical thought processes. In sharp contrast to authors who identify language and cognition, he describes his own mathematical thinking as largely wordless, often accompanied by mental images that represent the entire solution to a problem. He surveyed 100 of the leading physicists of the day (approximately 1900), asking them how they did their work.  Hadamard described the experiences of the mathematicians/theoretical physicists Carl Friedrich Gauss, Hermann von Helmholtz, Henri Poincaré and others as viewing entire solutions with \"sudden spontaneousness\".  Hadamard described the process as having four steps of the five-step Graham Wallas creative process model, with the first three also having been put forth by Helmholtz: Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, and Verification.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacques Salomon Hadamard ForMemRS (; 8 December 1865 – 17 October 1963) was a French mathematician who made major contributions in number theory, complex analysis, differential geometry and partial differential equations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973960}
{"src_title": "Sivapithecus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery.", "content": "The first incomplete specimens of \"Sivapithecus\" were found in northern India in the late 19th century.  Another find was made in Nepal on the bank of Tinau River, dovan v.c. of Palpa; a western part of the country in 1932. Now it is in Nature Museum Kathmandu. This find was named \"\"Ramapithecus\"\". The discoverer, G. Edward Lewis, claimed that it was distinct from \"Sivapithecus\", as the jaw was more like a human's than any other fossil ape then known, a claim revived in the 1960s. At that time, it was believed that the ancestors of humans had diverged from other apes 14 million years ago. Biochemical studies upset this view, suggesting that there was an early split between orangutan ancestors and the common ancestors of chimpanzees, gorillas and humans.  Meanwhile, more complete specimens of \"Ramapithecus\" were found in 1975 and 1976, which showed that it was less human-like than had been thought. It began to look more and more like \"Sivapithecus\", meaning that the older name must take priority. It is also possible that fossils assigned to \"Ramapithecus\" belonged to the female form of \"Sivapithecus\". They were definitely members of the same genus. It is also likely that they were already separate from the common ancestor of chimps, gorillas and humans, which may be represented by the prehistoric great ape \"Nakalipithecus nakayamai\". Siwalik specimens once assigned to the genus \"Ramapithecus\" are now considered by most researchers to belong to one or more species of \"Sivapithecus\". \"Ramapithecus\" is no longer regarded as a likely ancestor of humans.  In 1982, David Pilbeam published a description of a significant fossil find, formed by a large part of the face and jaw of a \"Sivapithecus\". The specimen bore many similarities to the orangutan skull and strengthened the theory (previously suggested by others) that \"Sivapithecus\" was closely related to orangutans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Sivapithecus\" was about in body length, similar in size to a modern orangutan. In most respects, it would have resembled a chimpanzee, but its face was closer to that of an orangutan. The shape of its wrists and general body proportions suggest that it spent a significant amount of its time on the ground, as well as in trees. It had large canine teeth, and heavy molars, suggesting a diet of relatively tough food, such as seeds and savannah grasses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "Currently three species are generally recognized:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sivapithecus (Shiva's Ape) (syn: \"Ramapithecus)\" is a genus of extinct apes. Fossil remains of animals now assigned to this genus, dated from 12.2 million years old in the Miocene, have been found since the 19th century in the Siwalik Hills of the Indian subcontinent. Any one of the species in this genus may have been the ancestor to the modern orangutans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973961}
{"src_title": "Svetlana Savitskaya", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and early career.", "content": "Svetlana Savitskaya was born in a privileged family. Her father, Yevgeny Savitsky, was a highly decorated fighter pilot during the Second World War, which later brought him to the position of Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Soviet Air Defense.  Without the knowledge of her parents, Savitskaya began parachuting at the age of 16. When her father heard about it, he further promoted this tendency. On her seventeenth birthday she already had 450 parachute jumps. Over the next year, she led record stratosphere jumps from 13,800 m and 14,250 m.  After graduating in 1966, she enrolled in the Moscow State Aviation Institute (MAI), where she also took flight lessons. In 1971 she was licensed as a flight instructor. After graduating from the MAI in 1972, she trained as a test pilot at the Fedotov Test Pilot School, graduating in 1976. In May 1978 she went to work for the aircraft manufacturer Yakovlev, as a test pilot.  Between 1969 and 1977 she was a member of the Soviet national team for aerobatics. At the FAI World Aerobatic Championships in July 1970 at Hullavington, she flew a Yak-18 and won the world championship together with an all-female team. At the 1972 World Championships in Salon-de-Provence she placed third; in 1976 in Kiev with a Yak-50, fifth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet space program.", "content": "In 1979, Savitskaya participated in the selection process for the second group of female cosmonauts. On June 30, 1980, she was officially admitted to the cosmonaut group. She passed her exams on February 24, 1982.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First flight: Soyuz T-7 / T-5.", "content": "In December 1981, Savitskaya prepared for her first space flight, a short-term flight to the space station Salyut 7, replacing the original crew. The commander of this mission was Leonid Popov, with his third flight; it was flight engineer Alexander Serebrov's first flight.  The launch of Soyuz T-7 took place on August 19, 1982. This made Savitskaya the second woman in space, 19 years after Valentina Tereshkova. The three cosmonauts docked with the space station the following day, where they were welcomed by Anatoly Berezovoy and Valentin Lebedev. This was the first time a space station had a mixed gender crew. Savitskaya was assigned the orbital module of Soyuz T-7 as a private area, but slept as well as the men in the space station. On August 27, 1982, Popov, Savitskaya, and Serebrov returned to Earth in Soyuz T-5.  In 1995, Savitskaya gave an interview to \"Baltimore Sun\" journalist Clara Germani. She recalled encountering some sexism from her male crewmates and that upon entering Salyut 7 for the first time, Valentin Lebedev presented her with an apron and told her \"to get to work\". She stated that \"I was quickly able to establish a working, professional relationship with them.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second flight: Soyuz T-12.", "content": "In December 1983 she was assigned to her second flight, including an EVA, three weeks after American astronaut Kathy Sullivan's flight and EVA assignment were made public. Again, it was to be a short-term mission to Salyut 7, this time bringing tools to the station so that the third resident crew, the Salyut 7 EO-3, could repair a fuel line.  On July 17, 1984 Savitskaya launched aboard Soyuz T-12, together with Commander Vladimir Dzhanibekov and research cosmonaut Igor Volk. On July 25, 1984, Savitskaya became the first woman to spacewalk, conducting EVA outside the Salyut 7 space station for 3 hours and 35 minutes, during which she cut and welded metals in space along with her colleague Vladimir Dzhanibekov. Of the 57 Soviet/Russian spacewalkers through 2010, she is the only woman, and as of April 2020 is still the only Soviet/Russian woman to walk in space. The return to Earth took place on July 29, 1984.  Savitskaya recalled that, during her second mission, she expressed concern about the extravehicular welding exercises, as \"I did not understand the point of it. We might burn our spacesuits or the exterior of the station.\" but her overall excellent performance on both flights silenced critics who questioned a woman's capability to perform space missions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Possible third spaceflight.", "content": "Upon returning to Earth, Savitskaya was assigned as the commander of an all-female Soyuz crew to Salyut 7 in commemoration of International Women's Day. In February 1985, however, the radio contact with Salyut 7 was lost; the space station was rescued by the Soyuz T-13 mission in the summer of 1985. When the next mission had to be stopped in November 1985, due to an illness of the commander Vladimir Vasyutin, the women's flight was finally canceled. In addition, after two unsuccessful flights in 1983, Soyuz T-8 and Soyuz T-10-1, not enough Soyuz spacecraft were available. Later it would have been possible to fly with a Soyuz-TM to the space station Mir. However, this plan was not pursued due to Savitskaya's pregnancy in 1986.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "Savitskaya is married, with one child, a son born in 1986. In February 1986, she graduated from the Bauman Moscow Higher Technical School. From 1983 to 1994 Savitskaya held a position of Deputy Head of NPO Energia.  A committed communist, Savitskaya was elected as a people's deputy of the USSR from 1989 and a people's deputy of Russia in 1990, a position she held until 1992. She did not welcome the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, noting that everything her parents had worked hard to build was destroyed almost overnight and she was \"glad they did not live to see it\".  Savitskaya retired in 1993 from the Russian Air Force with the rank of Major. In 1994/95 she worked as an Assistant Professor in Economics and Investment at the Moscow State Aviation Institute. In 1996, she was elected a deputy of the State Duma representing the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, and has been re-elected four times since then. She presently serves as Deputy Chair of the Committee on Defence, and is also a member of the Coordination council presidium of the National Patriotic Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours and awards.", "content": "Savitskaya was one of five cosmonauts selected to raise the Russian flag at the Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics opening ceremony.  The asteroid 4118 Sveta is named after her.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Svetlana Yevgenyevna Savitskaya (; born 8 August 1948) is a retired Soviet aviator and cosmonaut who flew aboard Soyuz T-7 in 1982, becoming the second woman in space. On her 1984 Soyuz T-12 mission she became the first woman to fly to space twice, and the first woman to perform a spacewalk.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973962}
{"src_title": "Sophia of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "Sophia was a member of the House of Wittelsbach and was the youngest child and only daughter of John II, Duke of Bavaria, and his spouse Catherine of Gorizia. Sophia's two brothers were Ernest, Duke of Bavaria, and William III, Duke of Bavaria.  Her paternal grandparents were Stephen II, Duke of Bavaria and his first wife Elisabetta of Sicily, daughter of Frederick III of Sicily and Eleanor of Anjou. Sophia was a cousin of Isabeau of Bavaria, Queen of France. Sophia's maternal grandparents were Count Meinhard VI of Gorizia and Catharina of Pfannberg.  Sophia grew up in the care of her uncle, Frederick, Duke of Bavaria, in Landshut. Sophia liked hunting, which was one thing she had in common with her future husband. In 1388 uncle took her to Prague, where he worked through political negotiations to have his niece married off. He said that the twelve-year-old princess was impressed with Wenceslaus, moreover, the marriage was for political reasons. Sophia's father was represented in the negotiation of the marriage by her uncle Duke Frederick.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen.", "content": "On 2 May 1389 in Prague, Sophia married Wenceslaus, King of the Romans. Wenceslas and Sophie were probably married by the king's chancellor, Bishop Jan. Wenceslaus was in a dispute with the Archbishop of Prague, which threatened Sophia's coronation. She could have only been crowned queen by an archbishop.  Wenceslaus celebrated the marriage by making a number of excellent manuscripts such as the Wenceslas Bible. There was also a manuscript on marital fidelity. The relationship was described as happy. Sophia had no children.  Sophia's husband was certainly not an incompetent ruler, in chronicles he was described in a biased manner. Sophia is described as economically talented. In March 1393, her confessor John of Nepomuk died under torture. It was said that he died refusing to reveal her confession, but he was also at that time involved in a conflict with Jan of Jenštejn. During the rebellion and the imprisonment of her spouse in 1402–1403, she lived in Hradec Králové. Queen Sophia was initially a follower of Jan Hus and listened to his sermons, and like Wenceslas, she gave him her protection. After Hus was banned by the Pope in 1410, however, she withdraw her support. She was convinced that the death of Hus, in 1415, would lead to a riot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen dowager and regent.", "content": "Wenceslaus died in 1419. As a queen dowager, Sophia sought refuge with her brother-in-law, Sigismund of Hungary, whose claims on the throne of Bohemia she supported. For a period of time, Sophia was the official regent of Bohemia. In October 1419, the leading Bohemians signed a treaty with queen dowager Sophia with a promise to protect law and order. She soon lost authority, however. Sophia and Sigismund were involved in managing a property in Prešpurk together. There were rumours that Sophia and Sigismund had an affair. Sigismund remarked that the Queen dowager of Bohemia would surely marry again – possibly to Wladyslaw II of Poland.  Sophia died on 4 November 1428.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sophia of Bavaria (; ; 1376 – 4 November 1428) was a Queen of Bohemia and the spouse of Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia and King of the Romans. She was briefly interim regent of Bohemia after the death of Wenceslaus in 1419.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973963}
{"src_title": "Francis Borgia, 4th Duke of Gandía", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Duchy of Gandía, Valencia, on 28 October 1510. His father was Juan Borgia, 3rd Duke of Gandía, the son of Giovanni Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia). His mother was Juana, daughter of Alonso de Aragón, Archbishop of Zaragoza, who, in turn, was the illegitimate son of King Ferdinand II of Aragon. His brother, Tomás de Borja y Castro, also became a clergyman, becoming the Bishop of Málaga, and later the Archbishop of Zaragoza.  Although as a child he was very pious and wished to become a monk, his family sent him instead to the court of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (who was also King Charles I of Spain), where he was welcomed as a kinsman. He distinguished himself there, accompanying the Emperor on several campaigns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adult life and career.", "content": "In September 1529, he married a Portuguese noblewoman in Madrid, Leonor de Castro Mello y Meneses. They had eight children: Carlos in 1530, Isabel in 1532, Juan in 1533, Álvaro circa 1535, Juana also circa 1535, Fernando in 1537, Dorotea in 1538, and Alfonso in 1539. Charles V appointed him Marquess of Lombay, master of the hounds, and equerry to the empress.  In 1539, he convoyed the corpse of Isabella of Portugal, Philip II of Spain's mother, to her burial place in Granada. In that same year (1539), he became Viceroy of Catalonia, replacing Fadrique de Portugal y Noroña, though he was only 29.  He delighted above all in producing ecclesiastical compositions, and these display a remarkable contrapuntal style and bear witness to the skill of the composer, justifying indeed the assertion that, in the sixteenth century and prior to Palestrina, Borgia was one of the chief restorers of sacred music.  In 1543 upon the death of his father, the 3rd Duke, Francis became the 4th Duke of Gandía. His diplomatic abilities came into question when his attempt to arrange a marriage between Prince Philip and the Princess of Portugal failed, thus ending an attempt to bring these two countries together and resulting in his retirement. By then 33 years old, he had retired to his native place and devoted himself to religious activities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jesuit priest.", "content": "In 1546 his wife Eleanor died, and Francis then decided to enter the newly formed Society of Jesus, after making adequate provisions for his children. He put his affairs in order circa 1551, renounced his titles in favour of his eldest son Carlos de Borja-Aragon y de Castro-Melo, and became a Jesuit priest. He helped in the establishment of what is now the Gregorian University in Rome. Upon Francis’ return from a journey to Peru, Pope Julius III made known his intention to make him a cardinal. To prevent this, Borgia decided, in agreement with St. Ignatius, to leave the city secretly and go to the Basque Country, where it was thought he would be safe from the papal desires. He felt drawn to spend time in seclusion and prayer, but his administrative talents also made him a natural for other tasks. In time his friends persuaded him to accept the leadership role that nature and circumstances had destined him for: in 1554, he became the Jesuit commissary-general in Spain, where he founded a dozen colleges. After only two years, St. Francis was also given responsibility for missions in the East and West Indies. In 1565, he was elected the third \"Father General\" or Superior General of the Society of Jesus, after the death in January 1565 of Diego Laynez, (Almazán, Spain, 1512 – January 1565).  His successes during the period 1565–1572 have caused historians to describe Francis as the greatest General after Saint Ignatius. He founded the \"Collegium Romanum\", which was to become the Gregorian University, advised kings and popes, and closely supervised all the affairs of the rapidly expanding order. Yet, despite the great power of his office, Francis led a humble life and was widely regarded in his own lifetime as a saint.  Francis Borgia died in 1572.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Francis Borgia died on 30 September 1572, in Rome. He was beatified in Madrid on 23 November 1624, by Pope Urban VIII. He was canonized nearly 35 years later on 20 June 1670, by Pope Clement X. His liturgical feast was inserted into the General Roman Calendar in 1688 for celebration on 10 October, the date then free from other celebrations that was closest to that of his death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Parishes are dedicated to St. Francis Borgia in Chicago, Illinois, Sturgis, Kentucky, Washington, Missouri, Blair, Nebraska, and Cedarburg, Wisconsin. Also in the village of Isio in the town of Cauayan, Negros Occidental, Philippines. The Jesuit-founded city of São Borja, in southern Brazil, is named after him.  Saint Francis Borgia Regional High School is located in Washington, Missouri.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descendants.", "content": "As the great-great grandfather of Doña Luisa de Guzmán, queen consort of King John IV of Portugal, he is an ancestor of many of the royal houses of Europe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Francis Borgia, 4th Duke of Gandía (Valencian: \"Francesc de Borja\", ) (1510–1572) was a great-grandson of Pope Alexander VI, a Grandee of Spain, a Spanish Jesuit, and third Superior General of the Society of Jesus. He was canonized on 20 June 1670 by Pope Clement X.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973964}
{"src_title": "Vorticism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The Vorticism group began with the Rebel Art Centre which Wyndham Lewis and others established after disagreeing with Omega Workshops founder Roger Fry, and has roots in the Bloomsbury Group, Cubism and Futurism. Lewis himself saw Vorticism as an independent alternative to Cubism, Futurism and Expressionism.  Though the style grew out of Cubism, it is more closely related to Futurism in its embrace of dynamism, the machine age and all things modern (cf. Cubo-Futurism). However, Vorticism diverged from Futurism in the way it tried to capture movement in an image. In a Vorticist painting modern life is shown as an array of bold lines and harsh colours drawing the viewer's eye into the centre of the canvas.  The name \"Vorticism\" was given to the movement by Ezra Pound in 1913, although Lewis, usually seen as the central figure in the movement, had been producing paintings in the same style for a year or so previously.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Participants.", "content": "The eleven signatories of the Vorticist manifesto were:  Other contributors to the development of the movement were David Bomberg, Alvin Langdon Coburn, Jacob Epstein (notably \"Rock Drill\"), Frederick Etchells, Christopher Nevinson and Dorothy Shakespear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"BLAST\".", "content": "The Vorticists published two issues of the literary magazine \"BLAST\", edited by Lewis, in June 1914 and July 1915. It contained work by Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot as well as by the Vorticists themselves. In the first issue, Ford Madox Ford, writing under his real name, Ford Madox Hueffer, submitted \"The Saddest Story\", a ten-page excerpt from the beginning of his novel, 'The Good Soldier'. Its typographical adventurousness was cited by El Lissitzky as one of the major forerunners of the revolution in graphic design in the 1920s and 1930s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demise and legacy.", "content": "Experimental paintings and sculpture using angular simplification and abstraction, by Lewis, Wadsworth, Shakespear and others, were shown at the Rebel Art Centre in 1914, before the formation of the Vorticist Group. This work was contemporary with and comparable to abstraction by European artists such as Wassily Kandinsky, František Kupka and the Russian Rayist Group. The Vorticists held only one exhibition, in 1915, at the Doré Gallery in London. The main section of the exhibition included work by Jessica Dismorr, Frederick Etchells, Lewis, Gaudier-Brzeska, William Roberts, Helen Saunders and Edward Wadsworth. There was a smaller section area titled \"Those Invited To Show\" that included several other artists. Jacob Epstein was notably not represented, although did have his drawings reproduced in \"BLAST\".  After this, the movement broke up, largely due to the onset of World War I and public apathy towards the work. Gaudier-Brzeska was killed in military service, while leading figures such as Epstein distanced themselves stylistically from Lewis. A brief attempt by Lewis to revive the movement in 1920 under the name \"Group X\" proved unsuccessful. Pound, however, through his correspondence with Lewis, was understood to hold a commitment to the goals of the movement as much as forty years after its demise.  While Lewis is generally seen as the central figure in the movement, it has been suggested that this was more due to his contacts and ability as a self-publicist and polemicist than the quality of his works. A 1956 exhibition at the Tate Gallery was called \"Wyndham Lewis and Vorticism\", highlighting his prominent place in the movement. This angered other members of the group. Bomberg and Roberts (who published a series of \"Vortex Pamphlets\" on the matter) both protested strongly the assertion of Lewis, which was printed in the exhibition catalogue: \"Vorticism, in fact, was what I, personally, did, and said, at a certain period.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vorticism was a short-lived modernist movement in British art and poetry of the early 20th century, partly inspired by Cubism. The movement was announced in 1914 in the first issue of \"BLAST\", which contained its manifesto and the movement's rejection of landscape and nudes in favour of a geometric style tending towards abstraction. Ultimately, it was their witnessing of unfolding human disaster in World War I that \"drained these artists of their Vorticist zeal\". Vorticism was based in London but was international in make-up and ambition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973965}
{"src_title": "Cesária Évora", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Cesária Évora was born on 27 August 1941 in Mindelo, São Vicente, Cape Verde. When she was seven years old her father, Justino da Cruz Évora, who was a part-time musician, died, and at the age of ten she was placed in an orphanage, as her mother Dona Joana could not raise all six children. At the age of 16, she was persuaded by a friend to sing in a sailors' tavern.  She grew up at the house in Mindelo which other singers used from the 1940s to the 1970s, at 35 Rua de Moeda. Other Cape Verdean singers came to the house, including Djô d'Eloy, Bana, Eddy Moreno, Luis Morais and Manuel de Novas (also known as Manuel d'Novas), and it was there she received her musical education.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Musical career.", "content": "In the 1960s, she started singing on Portuguese cruise ships stopping at Mindelo and on the local radio. In 1985, at the invitation of Cape Verdean singer Bana, she went to perform in Portugal. In Lisbon she was discovered by the producer José da Silva and invited to record in Paris.  She recorded the track \"Ausência\", composed by Yugoslav musician Goran Bregovic, which was released as the second track of the soundtrack of the film \"Underground\" (1995) by Emir Kusturica.  Évora's international success came only in 1988 with the release of her first commercial album \"La Diva Aux Pieds Nus\", recorded in France. Before that album had been released, she recorded her first LP titled \"Cesária\" in 1987. This album was later released on CD in 1995 as Audiophile Legends. Her 1992 album \"Miss Perfumado\" sold over 300,000 copies worldwide. It included one of her most celebrated songs, \"Sodade\".  In 1994, Bau joined her touring band and two years later, he became her musical director up to September 1999.  Her 1995 album \"Cesária\" brought her international success and the first Grammy Award nomination. In 1997, she won the KORA All African Music Awards in three categories, including \"Best Artist of West Africa\", \"Best Album\" and \"Merit of the Jury\". In 2003, her album \"Voz d'Amor\" was awarded a Grammy in the World Music category.  In 2006, Cesária met with Alberto Zeppieri, an Italian songwriter, journalist and record producer and agreed to duet with Gianni Morandi, Gigi D'Alessio and Ron CESARIA EVORA & RON - La voce dell' amore (voz d'amor). The project, now in its fifth volume, gives visibility and raises funds for the UN World Food Programme, for which Cesária was the Ambassador from 2003.  Later in 2006, she released her next album \"Rogamar\". It was a success and charted in six European countries including France, Poland and the Netherlands. On her tour in Australia in 2008, she suffered a stroke. In 2009, she released her final album \"Nha Sentimento\" which was recorded in Mindelo and Paris by José da Silva. The album reached number 6 in Poland and number 21 in France.  In 2009, she was made a knightess of the French Legion of Honour by the French Minister of Culture and Communications, Christine Albanel, the first Cape Verdean to become one.  She received her last award at the 2010 Kora All African Music Awards, the \"Merit of the Jury\" award for the second time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Cesária Évora dated Eduardo de Jon Xalino when she lived at Rua de Moeda. She was also a relative of the great Bana.  Her cousin was another singer Hermínia da Cruz Fortes. She was an aunt of António da Rocha Évora and Xavier da Cruz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In 2010, Évora performed a series of concerts, the last of which was in Lisbon on 8 May. Two days later, after a heart attack, she underwent surgery at a local hospital in Paris. On the morning of 11 May 2010 she was taken off artificial pulmonary ventilation, and on 16 May she was discharged from the intensive-care unit and transported to a clinic for further treatment. In late September 2011, Évora's agent announced that she was ending her career due to poor health.  On 17 December 2011, aged 70, Évora died in São Vicente, Cape Verde, from respiratory failure and hypertension. A Spanish newspaper reported that 36 hours before her death she was still receiving people – and smoking – in her home in Mindelo, popular for always having its doors open.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cesária Évora (; 27 August 194117 December 2011), more commonly known as Cize, was a Cape Verdean singer-songwriter. She received a Grammy Award in 2004 for her album Voz d'Amor. Nicknamed the \"Barefoot Diva\" for performing without shoes, she was known as the \"Queen of Morna\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973966}
{"src_title": "Tré Cool", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Frank Edwin Wright III was born in Frankfurt, West Germany, to American parents Frank Edwin Wright, Jr. and Linda Wright. He lived in Willits, California, with his father and elder sister Lori. He has German heritage, and his father was a helicopter pilot during the Vietnam War. Wright's closest neighbor was Larry Livermore, who at the time was the singer of the punk band The Lookouts. When Wright was 12, Livermore recruited him as the drummer of The Lookouts and Tre took on the name of \"Tré Cool,\" using both the French word \"très\" (meaning \"very\") and the English word \"cool\" as a way of saying he was \"very cool.\" Trey, a play on Wright's family's generational titles, had already been Wright's nickname prior to the addition of \"Cool.\"  When Green Day's drummer, John Kiffmeyer, left the band, the group recruited Tré Cool to be their drummer. In his second year, Tré Cool dropped out of high school and opted to earn a GED. He began taking classes at a local community college but would again drop out as the band became a more time-consuming priority. During this time the band considered breaking up because it took a long time to adjust to playing with Tré Cool. Tré Cool's father was supportive and overhauled a bookmobile to transport the band. He would later say: \"I watched them go from a bunch of kids to a group of musicians with work ethic,\" also adding: \"On their first tour or two, it was more of a party than anything else. I still scratch my head and say, 'How in the hell did they make it?' They used to practice in my living room here – a lot of the songs they did on Dookie. You hear it coming together, and you don't expect people are going to go out and buy it. But when it does, you just say, 'Wow that's so cool.'\"  In 1998, after Green Day won a \"Moon Man\" Trophy at the MTV Music Awards, Tré Cool famously climbed on the Universal Globe at Universal Studios. He and Jai Brooks are the only two people to ever do this.  Tré Cool won \"Best Punk Drummer\" in DRUM! Magazine's 2011 Drummies, which recognizes some of the best drummers across music genres. He was also featured in the Nitpick Six: The Six Best Drum Fills and ranked in at number 6 for the intro to \"Basket Case\". In 2014, \"LA Weekly\" named Tré Cool #2 of the \"Top 5 Punk Drummers of All Time.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical style.", "content": "Before joining Green Day, Tré Cool employed a more intricate drumming style. He explained that \"When I started, I had too many drums. I was a little reggae-happy and into fancier beats than was needed. It took me a while to get it: play the song, don't play the instrument. I started figuring out how to make the band a stronger unit, to make it jump.\" After playing with Green Day bassist Mike Dirnt, Tré Cool adopted a more rhythmic style with fewer drum fills to match Dirnt's bass lines.  Greg Kot of the \"Chicago Tribune\" referred to Tré Cool as \"Green Day's most potent weapon\", adding that \"His monstrous kick-drum wallop evokes John Bonham, while his manic fills make him punk's answer to Keith Moon.\" His stage persona has also been compared to Moon. Sound engineer Neill King, who worked with Green Day on \"Dookie\", noted that Tré Cool shares Moon's \"wild animal approach\" to playing drums, and explained that the band encountered difficulties while recording \"Basket Case\" due to his unpredictable style: \"It's not that Tré wasn’t a good drummer, but in terms of his performances we wanted the best of the best...So, although we wanted him to do all of his wild fills and crazy drumming, we couldn’t just let him go. He’d drift in and out of time, which is terrific live, but which was unacceptable on radio at that time.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences and favorite drummers.", "content": "During a speech at Green Day's Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction in 2015, Cool credited Ringo Starr from The Beatles, Keith Moon from The Who, John Bonham from Led Zeppelin, Mitch Mitchell from The Jimi Hendrix Experience, Charlie Watts from The Rolling Stones, jazz and big band drummer Buddy Rich, John Wright from NoMeansNo, Alex Van Halen from Van Halen and Dave Mello from Operation Ivy as his favourite drummers. Green Day performed the Beatles hit \"Boys\" with Starr at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ceremony that same year, in which Cool drummed alongside his idol.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Singing and songwriting.", "content": "He also sang on \"That Girl's from Outer Space\" and \"Sonny Boy\" from Lookouts album \"Spy Rock Road\". He then sang and played the guitar on \"Dominated Love Slave\" from \"Kerplunk\" and the hidden track \"All by Myself\" from \"Dookie\", both of which he wrote and composed (on \"Dominated Love Slave\", guitarist and vocalist Billie Joe Armstrong played drums). He wrote and sang the subtrack \"Rock and Roll Girlfriend\" from the medley \"Homecoming\" featured on the album \"American Idiot\". He also sang and composed the track \"DUI\" (\"Driving Under the Influence\"), which was recorded for Green Day's fifth studio album \"Nimrod\" (1997) and was due to be released on the compilation album \"Shenanigans\" in 2002, but was omitted and can only be found on promotional unmastered copies of the album and online.  During a radio interview at Washington DC's alternative station DC 101, Tré Cool sang and played acoustic guitar on a short song entitled \"Like a Rat Does Cheese,\" a song about the pleasure of fellatio.  Several live tracks also exist, usually from around 1993, such as \"Food Around the Corner\", a song from the 1943 Elmer Fudd cartoon \"An Itch in Time\". Another live track, \"Billie Joe's Mom\" was also recorded.  Tré Cool has also recorded a version of Tay Zonday's \"Chocolate Rain.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frank Edwin Wright III (born December 9, 1972), known professionally as Tré Cool, is an American musician, singer, and songwriter, best known as the drummer for the punk rock band Green Day. He replaced the band's former drummer, John Kiffmeyer, in 1990 as Kiffmeyer felt that he should focus on college. Cool has also played in The Lookouts, Samiam, Dead Mermaids, Bubu and the Brood and the Green Day side-projects The Network and the Foxboro Hot Tubs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973967}
{"src_title": "Alfred Redl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Lemberg, Galicia, Austrian Empire (now Lviv, Ukraine), Redl came from a relatively poor family, his father being a railway clerk. His ability enabled Redl to rise quickly within the officer ranks of the Austro-Hungarian Army, in spite of lacking the advantages of wealth or family connections. Redl attended the War School in Vienna, which normally accepted only 50 entrants a year from about a thousand applicants. Acquiring a specialist interest in Russian military issues, Redl joined the Intelligence Bureau of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff and in 1900 was assigned to the Russian Section.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Counter-intelligence work.", "content": "By 1907 Redl had become head of the counter-intelligence branch of the Intelligence Bureau. Promoted to the rank of colonel, Redl greatly improved the methods used by the Austro-Hungarian counter-espionage service, introducing such technological innovations as the use of cameras and primitive recording devices, while creating a database of fingerprint records of persons of interest. However, at the same time, Redl himself became a spy for Russia and his subsequent exposure was largely due to the improvements he had developed himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treason.", "content": "Redl's motives for treason are still unclear. He may have been caught in a compromising position by Russian agents, because he was homosexual and being exposed as such would have been fatal to his career prospects. Actually, Russian military intelligence, based in Warsaw at the time, under the command of Colonel Nikolai Batyushin, had discovered Redl's homosexuality as early as 1901, information that was used to blackmail him into revealing classified information. In 1902, he reportedly passed a copy of Austro-Hungarian war plans to the Russians. General von Gieslingen, head of Austro-Hungarian military intelligence, delegated Redl himself to investigate the source of this leak. In consultation with his Russian contacts, Redl identified several low-level agents as Russian spies, thereby protecting himself and enhancing his reputation for efficiency.  Redl was paid well by the Imperial Russian government for his services, and acquired a lifestyle far beyond what his official salary could cover. It would appear that there was also a strong element of vanity involved, as well as a taste for danger. A Russian report of 1907 describes Redl as \"more sly and false than intelligent and talented\", a cynic \"who enjoys dissipation.\"  From 1903 to 1913, Redl was Russia's leading spy. Before World War I, he provided the Russians with information of Plan III, the entire Austrian invasion plan for Serbia. The Russians then informed the Serbian military command about Plan III. As a result, when the Austro-Hungarian Army invaded Serbia, the Serbians were well prepared. Redl not only provided many of Austria's military secrets and plans, but he also supplied incorrect estimates of Russian military strength to his own military authorities. Redl has been called one of history's greatest traitors because purportedly his actions were responsible for the deaths of half a million of his countrymen.  Redl is thought to have sold to Russia one of Austria's principal attack plans, along with its order of battle, its mobilization plans (at a time when mobilization was viewed as one of the critical keys to victory) and detailed plans of Austrian fortifications that were soon overrun by Russia. He is known beyond question to have sent Austrian agents into Russia and then to have sold them out. He also had Austrian agents within the Russian Imperial Staff, but betrayed them too, to be hanged or to commit suicide. He is also believed to have informed on various Russian officers who contacted Austro-Hungarian intelligence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exposure.", "content": "In 1912, Redl became chief of staff of the VIII Corps under his old commander, Arthur Giesl von Gieslingen. When he left the counter-intelligence service, Redl was succeeded by Major Maximilian Ronge, a man trained by Redl himself. Ronge instigated the practice of checking suspicious mail. One suspect envelope – a poste restante letter to be returned unclaimed – was found to contain a large sum of money as well as references to known espionage cover addresses.  On 9 May 1913, a duplicate letter with money was posted to the same cover name, \"Nikon Nizetas\". Police detectives were assigned to monitor the post office and follow whoever claimed it. When the letter was finally claimed on 25 May, police pursued, but lost contact when the person who had picked up the letter left in a taxi. But while the detectives stood wondering what to do, the taxi that the suspect had taken returned.  The police detectives took the taxi and asked to be driven to the address that the previous customer had been taken to. The taxi driver took them to the hotel Klomser and during the ride there, they found a pen-knife sheath in the taxi. Arriving at the hotel, they told the management to ask the guests if any of them had lost the sheath and then waited in the lobby. When a guest arrived to claim it, the detectives recognized their former boss, Colonel Alfred Redl.  Redl was subsequently confronted in his apartment by a party of military officers. In the course of a brief interrogation he admitted to having sold military intelligence to a foreign power. Field Marshall Conrad von Hötzendorf, the Austro-Hungarian Army's Chief of Staff, ordered that Colonel Redl was to be left alone with a loaded revolver. Redl shot himself in the early morning of 25 May 1913.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Redl's death was regretted both by the Emperor Franz Josef, who would have preferred that the colonel avoided dying in mortal sin, and by Austrian Intelligence, which would have preferred to interrogate him on the full extent of his disclosures to the Russians.  In the political post-mortem one Hungarian newspaper noted that \"the Redl affair cannot be seen as a private matter. Redl is not an individual but a system. Whilst soldiers elsewhere are taught to love their homelands, lack of patriotism is held to be the greatest military virtue in this unfortunate monarchy. With us military education culminates in all national feeling being driven out of our soldiers... In the Redl affair this spirit has had its revenge. The Austrian and the Hungarian soldiers possess no fatherland; they only have a war lord.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfred Redl (14 March 1864 – 25 May 1913) was an Austrian military officer who rose to head the \"Evidenzbureau\", the counter-intelligence wing of the General Staff of the Austro-Hungarian Army. Redl was one of the leading figures of pre-World War I espionage; his term in office was marked by radical innovations and the use of advanced technology to ensnare foreign spies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973968}
{"src_title": "Axel Heiberg Island", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Axel Heiberg Island has been inhabited in the past by Inuit people, but was uninhabited by the time it was named by Otto Sverdrup, who explored it in 1900–01. He named it after Axel Heiberg, financial director of the Norwegian Ringnes brewery which sponsored the expedition. Other explorers visited the island during the early 20th century, during which time it was claimed by Norway until 1930. It is now part of Nunavut Territory, Canada. It wasn't until the late 1940s that the island was aerially photographed by the United States Army Air Forces' Operation Polaris. In 1955 two geologists of the Geological Survey of Canada, N.J. McMillan and Souther traversed the interior as part of Operation Franklin. McMillan's observations of Bunde Glacier, in northwest Axel Heiberg Island, are the earliest glaciological observations on the ground to have found their way into a scientific publication.  In 1959, scientists from McGill University explored Expedition Fiord (previously Sør Fjord or South Fiord) in central Axel Heiberg Island. This resulted in the establishment of the McGill Arctic Research Station (), constructed inland from Expedition Fjord in 1960. It consists of a small research hut, a cookhouse and 2 temporary structures that can comfortably accommodate 8–12 persons. The station was initially heavily utilized during the early 1960s, during which a population of 20 was present. The McGill Arctic Research Station is active from March to August with research currently focused on polar geomorphology, geology, glaciology, permafrost, climate change, and polar microbiology. Over the last 10–15 years, it has served as a significant Mars analogue for astrobiology investigations studying life and habitability of polar cryoenvironments and field-testing planetary exploration instrumentation platforms.  In the summer of 1972, a British Army Mountaineering Association expedition resulted in the naming of Scaife Glacier.  During the summer of 1986, a Canadian expedition headed by Dr. James Basinger set out to investigate a very unusual fossil forest on Axel Heiberg. The findings of these and subsequent expeditions have since been popularly reported in Canada. Over 40 million years ago during the Eocene epoch, a forest of tall trees flourished on Axel Heiberg Island. The trees reached up to in height; some may have grown for 500 to 1,000 years. At the time, the polar climate was warm, but the winters were still continuously dark for three months. As the trees fell, the fine sediment in which the forest grew protected the plants. Instead of turning into petrified \"stone\" fossils, they were ultimately mummified by the cold, dry Arctic climate, and only recently exposed by erosion. As late as 1999, the preservation of this unique site was a concern, as the fossil wood was easily damaged and eroded once exposed. There were concerns that wood was being taken by Arctic cruise ship tourists, and that the site was being disturbed by Canadian military helicopters from a nearby base, and even by scientists themselves in their studies. There were calls for more protection for the area. It currently has no official status, in part because land claims had to be settled. But now Nunavut is looking at how best to protect the fossil forest, possibly by setting up a territorial park to be called Napaaqtulik, \"where there are trees\".  Interesting animal fossils have been discovered on the island, including a remarkably preserved specimen of an ancient \"Aurorachelys\" turtle and, identified in 2016, the humerus of a \"Tingmiatornis\" bird.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Glaciation.", "content": "White Glacier is a valley glacier occupying in the Expedition Fiord area of Axel Heiberg Island (). It extends in elevation from above sea level, a range which, as noted by Dyurgerov (2002), is exceeded only by Devon Ice Cap in the world list of glaciers with measured mass balance. Ice thickness reaches or exceeds. Its maximum extension in recent history, marking the advance of the glacier in response to the cooling of the Little Ice Age, was reached not earlier than the late 18th century, and more probably at the beginning of the 20th century. There is evidence that the retreat of the terminus, previously at about per year, is decelerating (Cogley et al. 1996a; Cogley and Adams 2000). White Glacier has been the subject of many papers in the glaciological literature since 1960, e.g. Müller (1962) was the source of a now-classical diagram elaborating and illustrating the concept of \"glacier facies\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "The island is uninhabited except for the seasonal McGill Arctic Research Station operated by McGill University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lost Hammer Spring.", "content": "The Lost Hammer Spring, located in the central west region of the island () is the coldest and saltiest of all Arctic springs described to date. It is characterized by a perennial hypersaline (24%) discharge at subzero temperatures (~) flowing to the surface through a hollow, high cone-shaped salt tufa structure. Continuous gas emissions from the spring indicate an underlying thermogenic methane source. On the basis of these properties, this spring is considered a significant astrobiology analogue site for possible habitats currently present on Mars and the cold moons Europa and Enceladus.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Axel Heiberg Island (Inuktitut: \"ᐅᒥᖕᒪᑦ ᓄᓈᑦ,\" \"Umingmat Nunaat\") is an island in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada. Located in the Arctic Ocean, it is the 32nd largest island in the world and Canada's seventh largest island. According to Statistics Canada, it has an area of. It is named after Axel Heiberg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973969}
{"src_title": "Ivry-sur-Seine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "Originally, Ivry-sur-Seine was called simply Ivry. The name Ivry comes from Medieval Latin \"Ivriacum\" or \"Ibriacum\", perhaps meaning \"estate of Eburius (the Latinized form of the Gallic patronym Eburos)\", a Gallo-Roman landowner.  In 1897, the name of the commune officially became Ivry-sur-Seine (meaning \"Ivry upon Seine\"), in order to distinguish it from other communes of France also called Ivry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "On 1 January 1860, the city of Paris was enlarged by annexing neighbouring communes. On that occasion, about a third of the commune of Ivry-sur-Seine was annexed to Paris, and now forms the Chinatown area of the 13th arrondissement of Paris.  Ivry-sur-Seine is perhaps most famous as the place of execution of Jean Bastien-Thiry in March 1963. Richard Ellman also notes that James Joyce's daughter, Lucia, received psychiatric treatment in the commune's hospital in 1936 and was visited by both Joyce and Samuel Beckett.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Fnac has its head office in the commune. The head office moved there in 2008. E.Leclerc's head office is in the commune.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Ivry-sur-Seine is served by two railway stations on the Paris Métro Line 7: Pierre et Marie Curie and Mairie d'Ivry.  The east of the commune is served by Ivry-sur-Seine station on Paris RER line C with stops at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France and the city centre.  Orly Airport is located to the south of Ivry-sur-Seine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Senior high schools:  Colleges and universities:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Immigration.", "content": "As of circa 1998 Ivry and Vitry-sur-Seine had a combined Asian population of 3,600. That year about 250 Asians from those communes worked in the 13th arrondissement of Paris, and the overall demographics of Ivry and Vitry Asians were similar to those in the 13th arrondissement.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ivry-sur-Seine () is a commune in the Val-de-Marne department in the southeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the center of Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973970}
{"src_title": "Forsythia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Forsythia\" are deciduous shrubs typically growing to a height of and, rarely, up to with rough grey-brown bark. The leaves are borne oppositely and are usually simple, though sometimes trifoliate with a basal pair of small leaflets; they range between in length and, rarely, up to, with a margin that is serrated or entire (smooth).  The flowers are produced in the early spring before the leaves, bright yellow with a deeply four-lobed flower, the petals joined only at the base. These become pendent in rainy weather thus shielding the reproductive parts. The fruit is a dry capsule, containing several winged seeds.  It is widely stated that forsythia flowers are able to produce lactose (the milk sugar). Lactose is very rarely established in other natural sources except milk. However, the presence of lactose could not be confirmed.  The genus is named after William Forsyth (1737–1804), a Scottish botanist who was royal head gardener and a founding member of the Royal Horticultural Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "The following species of Forsythia have been documented:  A genetic study does not fully match the traditionally accepted species listed above, and groups the species in four clades: (1) \"F. suspensa\"; (2) \"F. europaea—F. giraldiana\"; (3) \"F. ovata—F. japonica—F. viridissima\"; and (4) \"F. koreana—F. mandschurica—F. saxatilis\". Of the additional species, \"F. koreana\" is usually cited as a variety of \"F. viridissima\", and \"F. saxatilis\" as a variety of \"F. japonica\"; the genetic evidence suggests they may be better treated as distinct species.  Forsythias are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the brown-tail and Gothic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Garden history.", "content": "Two species of forsythia are at the heart of the selected forms, for both species are variable, and garden hybrids: \"Forsythia suspensa\" and \"F. viridissima\". \"These two species are, as it were, the founder-members of the forsythia family\" writes Alice Coats; they were the earliest species brought into Western gardens from the Far East and they have each played a role in the modern garden shrubs.  \"Forsythia suspensa\", the first to be noticed by a Westerner, was seen in a Japanese garden by the botanist-surgeon Carl Peter Thunberg, who included it (as a lilac) in his \"Flora Japonica\" 1784. Thunberg's professional connections lay with the Dutch East India Company, and \"F. suspensa\" reached Holland first, by 1833. In England, when it was being offered by Veitch Nurseries in Exeter at mid-century, it was still considered a rarity. Not all the varieties of \"suspensa\" are splaying and drooping, best seen hanging over a retaining wall; an erect form found by Fortune near Peking in 1861 was for a time classed as a species—\"F. fortunei\".  \"Forsythia viridissma\", meanwhile, had overtaken it in European gardens. The Scottish plant-hunter Robert Fortune \"discovered\" it—in a mandarin's garden of the coastal city of Chusan (Zhoushan)—before he ever saw it growing wild in the mountains in Zhejiang's province, Zhejiang.  \"Forsythia\" × \"intermedia\", as its name suggests, is a hybrid of \"F. suspensa\" and \"F. viridissima\", introduced in continental Europe about 1880. Repeated crosses of the same two parents have made reiterations of \"F.\" × \"intermedia\" quite variable. A bud sport of a particularly showy (\"spectabilis\") form is widely marketed as \"F.\" × \"intermedia\" 'Lynwood Variety'. This cultivar has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit, as have \"F.\" × \"intermedia\" 'Courtalyn' and \"F.\" 'Courtasol'.  About the time of the First World War further species were discovered by plant hunters in China: \"F. giraldian\" (found in Gansu, 1910) and \"F. ovata\" (collected from seed in Korea by E.H. \"Chinese\" Wilson) have been particularly useful as seed parents in 20th-century American crosses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "The hybrids \"Forsythia × intermedia\" (\"F. suspensa\" × \"F. viridissima\") and \"Forsythia\" × \"×variabilis\" (\"F. ovata\" × \"F. suspensa\") have been produced in cultivation. \"Forsythia intermedia\" is a hybrid between \"F. suspensa\" and \"F. viridissima\". Many cultivars have been selected from this cross including dwarf and compact forms.  Forsythias are popular early spring flowering shrubs in gardens and parks, especially during Eastertide; Forsythias are nicknamed the \"Easter Tree\", the symbol of the coming spring.. Two are commonly cultivated for ornament, \"Forsythia × intermedia\" and \"Forsythia suspensa\". They are both spring flowering shrubs, with yellow flowers. They are grown and prized for being tough, reliable garden plants. \"Forsythia × intermedia\" is the more commonly grown, is smaller, has an upright habit, and produces strongly coloured flowers. \"Forsythia suspensa\" is a large to very large shrub, can be grown as a weeping shrub on banks, and has paler flowers. Many named garden cultivars can also be found. Forsythia is frequently kept indoors in the early spring.  Commercial propagation is usually by cuttings, taken from green wood after flowering in late spring to early summer; alternatively, cuttings may be taken between November and February. Low hanging boughs often take root, and can be removed for transplanting. A common practice (known as layering) is to place a weight over a branch to keep it on the ground and, after it has rooted, to dig up the roots and cut the rooted part from the main branch; this can then be planted.  \"Forsythia suspensa\" is considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs in Chinese herbology. Forsythia sticks are used to bow a Korean string instrument called \"ajaeng\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Forsythia is used as a conspiracy theorist's supposed \"cure\", causing pharmacies to be over-run in the 2011 film \"Contagion\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Forsythia is a genus of flowering plants in the olive family Oleaceae. There are about 11 species, mostly native to eastern Asia, but one native to southeastern Europe. Forsythia is also one of the plant's common names, along with Easter tree; the genus is named after William Forsyth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973971}
{"src_title": "Adiantum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "They are distinctive in appearance, with dark, often black stipes and rachises, and bright green, often delicately cut leaf tissue. The sori are borne submarginally, and are covered by reflexed flaps of leaf tissue which resemble indusia. Dimorphism between sterile and fertile fronds is generally subtle.  They generally prefer humus-rich, moist, well-drained sites, ranging from bottomland soils to vertical rock walls. Many species are especially known for growing on rock walls around waterfalls and water seepage areas.  The highest species diversity is in the Andes. Fairly high diversity also occurs in eastern Asia, with nearly 40 species in China.  Species native to North America include \"A. pedatum\" (five-fingered fern) and the closely related \"A. aleuticum\", which are distinctive in having a bifurcating frond that radiates pinnae on one side only. The cosmopolitan \"A. capillus-veneris\" (Venus-hair fern) has a native distribution that extends into the eastern continent. \"A. jordanii\" (California Maidenhair) is native to the west coast.  There is a rich \"Adiantum\" flora in New Zealand with 3 endemic species (\"A. cunninghamii\", \"A. viridescens\" and \"A. fulvum\") in a total of 10 recorded species. Many of these are common especially in the west and south of the islands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cladistics.", "content": "It is now known that this genus is paraphyletic, and that the vittarioid ferns are derived from this larger paraphyletic genus. However, if \"Adiantum raddianum\", and possibly a few other species, are removed, the remaining plants (genus type: \"Adiantum capillus-veneris\") are then monophyletic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Many species are grown in the horticultural trade, including all three of the species mentioned, as well as a number of tropical species, including \"A. raddianum\" and \"A. peruvianum\". Both \"A. pedatum\" and \"A. aleuticum\" are hardy to zone 3, and are by far the most cold-hardy members of the genus. \"A. venustum\" is also cold-hardy to zone 5. \"A. capillus-veneris\" is hardy to zone 7.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adiantum, the maidenhair fern, is a genus of about 250 species of ferns in the Vittarioideae subfamily of the family Pteridaceae, though some researchers place it in its own family, \"Adiantaceae\". The genus name comes from Greek, meaning \"unwetted\", referring to the fronds' ability to shed water without becoming wet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973972}
{"src_title": "FIFA World Cup Trophy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Jules Rimet Trophy.", "content": "The Jules Rimet Trophy was the original prize for winning the FIFA World Cup. Originally called \"Victory\", but generally known simply as the \"World Cup\" or \"Coupe du Monde\", it was renamed in 1946 to honour the FIFA President Jules Rimet who in 1929 passed a vote to initiate the competition. It was designed by French sculptor Abel Lafleur and made of gold-plated sterling silver on a lapis lazuli base. In 1954 this base was replaced with a taller version to accommodate more winner's details. It stood 35 centimetres (14 in) high and weighed 3.8 kilograms (8.4 lb). It comprised a decagonal cup, supported by a winged figure representing Nike, the ancient Greek goddess of victory. The Jules Rimet Trophy was taken to Uruguay for the first FIFA World Cup aboard the \"Conte Verde\", which set sail from Villefranche-sur-Mer, just southeast of Nice, on 21 June 1930. This was the same ship that carried Jules Rimet and the footballers representing France, Romania, and Belgium who were participating in the tournament that year. The first team to be awarded the trophy was Uruguay, the winners of the 1930 World Cup.  During World War II, the trophy was held by 1938 champion Italy. Ottorino Barassi, the Italian vice-president of FIFA and president of FIGC, secretly transported the trophy from a bank in Rome and hid it in a shoe-box under his bed to prevent the Nazis from taking it. The 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden marked the beginning of a tradition regarding the trophy. As Brazilian captain Hilderaldo Bellini heard photographers' requests for a better view of the Jules Rimet Trophy, he lifted it up in the air. Every Cup-winning captain ever since has repeated the gesture. On 20 March 1966, four months before the 1966 FIFA World Cup in England, the trophy was stolen during a public exhibition at Westminster Central Hall. It was found just seven days later wrapped in newspaper at the bottom of a suburban garden hedge on Beulah Hill, Upper Norwood, South London, by a black and white mongrel dog named Pickles.  As a security measure, The Football Association secretly manufactured a replica of the trophy for use in exhibitions rather than the original. This replica was used on subsequent occasions up until 1970 when the original trophy had to be handed back to FIFA for the next competition. Since FIFA had explicitly denied the FA permission to create a replica, the replica also had to disappear from public view and was for many years kept under its creator's bed. This replica was eventually sold at an auction in 1997 for £254,500, when it was purchased by FIFA. The high auction price, ten times the reserve price of £20,000–£30,000, was led by speculation that the auctioned trophy was not the replica trophy but the original itself. Subsequent testing by FIFA, however, confirmed the auctioned trophy was indeed a replica and FIFA soon afterwards arranged for the replica to be lent for display at the English National Football Museum, which was then based in Preston but is now in Manchester.  The Brazilian team won the tournament for the third time in 1970, allowing them to keep the real trophy in perpetuity, as had been stipulated by Jules Rimet in 1930. It was put on display at the Brazilian Football Confederation headquarters in Rio de Janeiro in a cabinet with a front of bullet-proof glass.  On 19 December 1983, the wooden rear of the cabinet was opened by force with a crowbar and the cup was stolen again. Four men were tried and convicted in absentia for the crime. The trophy has never been recovered, and it is widely believed to have been melted down and sold. Only one piece of the Jules Rimet Trophy has been found, the original base which FIFA had kept in a basement of the federation's Zürich headquarters prior to 2015.  The Confederation commissioned a replica of their own, made by Eastman Kodak, using of gold. This replica was presented to Brazilian military president João Figueiredo in 1984. The trophy was the subject of a 2014 documentary \"Mysteries of the Rimet Trophy\" shown as part of ESPN's series during the 2014 World Cup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "New trophy.", "content": "A replacement trophy was commissioned by FIFA for the 1974 World Cup. Fifty-three submissions were received from sculptors in seven countries. Italian artist Silvio Gazzaniga was awarded the commission. The trophy stands tall and is made of of 18 carat (75%) gold, worth approximately US$161,000 in 2018, with a base in diameter containing two layers of malachite. It has been asserted by Sir Martyn Poliakoff of \"Periodic Videos\" that the trophy is hollow; if, as is claimed, it were solid, the trophy would weigh and would be too heavy to lift. Produced by \"Bertoni, Milano\" in Paderno Dugnano, it weighs in total and depicts two human figures holding up the Earth. Gazzaniga described the trophy thus, \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory\". Miguel Delaney, football writer for \"The Independent\", wrote, \"Those two arms on the trophy \"stretching out to receive the world... at the stirring moment of victory\" – in the words of designer Silvio Gazzinaga – are so representative in more ways than one. This is what everyone in the game is ultimately reaching for: immortality.”  The trophy has the engraving \"FIFA World Cup\" on its base. After the 1994 FIFA World Cup a plate was added to the bottom side of the trophy on which the names of winning countries are engraved, names therefore not visible when the trophy is standing upright. The inscriptions state the year in figures and the name of the winning nation in its national language; for example, \"1974 Deutschland\" or \"1994 Brasil\". In 2010, however, the name of the winning nation was engraved as \"2010 Spain\", in English, not in Spanish. As of 2018, twelve winners have been engraved on the base. The plate is replaced each World Cup cycle and the names of the trophy winners are rearranged into a spiral to accommodate future winners, with Spain on later occasions written in Spanish (\"España\"). FIFA's regulations now state that the trophy, unlike its predecessor, cannot be won outright: the winners of the tournament receive a bronze replica which is gold-plated rather than solid gold. Germany became the first nation to win the new trophy for the third time when they won the 2014 FIFA World Cup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winners.", "content": "Jules Rimet Trophy  FIFA World Cup Trophy", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The World Cup is a gold trophy that is awarded to the winners of the FIFA World Cup association football tournament. Since the advent of the World Cup in 1930, two trophies have been used: the Jules Rimet Trophy from 1930 to 1970, and the FIFA World Cup Trophy from 1974 to the present day.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973973}
{"src_title": "Grande Chartreuse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally, the château belonged to the See of Grenoble. In 1084, Saint Hugh gave it to hermit Saint Bruno and his followers who founded the Carthusian Order.  The recipe of the alcoholic beverage Chartreuse is said to have been given to the monks of Grande Chartreuse in 1605 by the French Marshal François Annibal d'Estrées. For over a century, the monks worked on perfecting the 130-ingredient recipe. In 1764, the monks expanded their distillery for the first time to meet the demand of their popular \"Elixir Végétal de la Grande Chartreuse\". The distillery has then been moved several times in more remote areas because it represents a major explosion hazard for the surrounding habitations.  The château went through many severe casualties, reconstructions and renovations. The building standing today (2019) was erected in 1688. In 1789, following the French Revolution, the monks were expelled from the monastery, and waited until 1838 to be reauthorized on the premises.  Following the establishment of the Association Law of 1901 and its interpretation that effectively banned religious associations en masse, many notable religious institutions across France, including Grand Chartreuse, were closed by the French government. While some monks found refuge in Italy until 1929, others settled in the Tarragona region of Spain and relaunched a liqueur-producing activity. Private companies bought back the Chartreuse brand and tried to recreate the monk's beverage, to no avail. The Grande Chartreuse was sold in 1927 to a group of local entrepreneurs who invited the monks back in their monastery.  In 1940, the Grande Chartreuse was reopened under the Pétain regime. At the end of World War II, the Grand Chartreuse was used as a hospital by the Allied Forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Visitors are not permitted at Grand Chartreuse, and motor vehicles are prohibited on the surrounding roads.  A museum of the Carthusian order and the lives of its monks and nuns is located about two kilometers away. The order is supported by the sales of Chartreuse liqueur which has been popular in France and later around the world since the early 18th century. In 2015, the order sold 1.5 million bottles of Chartreuse (50 euros a bottle), and all the proceedings went into financing the order and its charity projects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "English poet Matthew Arnold wrote one of his finest poems, \"Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse\", while briefly staying at the monastery around 1850. The quiet, serenity, and monastic calm became, for him, the susurrations of a dying world which contrasted with what he saw as the violent emerging age of machinery. Grand Chartreuse was also described by William Wordsworth's in his 1792 \"Descriptive Sketches\" (lines 53-73), and in the 1850 revision of \"The Prelude, Book VI\" (lines 416-18), (Wordsworth visited the monastery in 1790, but he describes the 1792 expulsion of the monks by French forces); and John Ruskin's \"Praeterita\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Grande Chartreuse () is the head monastery of the Carthusian religious order. It is located in the Chartreuse Mountains, north of the city of Grenoble, in the commune of Saint-Pierre-de-Chartreuse (Isère), France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973974}
{"src_title": "Jaroslav Pelikan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Jaroslav Jan Pelikan Jr. was born on December 17, 1923, in Akron, Ohio, to a Slovak father and Slovak mother from Sid in Serbia, Jaroslav Jan Pelikan Sr. and Anna Buzekova Pelikan. His father was pastor of Trinity Slovak Lutheran Church in Chicago, Illinois, and his paternal grandfather a bishop of the Synod of Evangelical Lutheran Churches, then known as the Slovak Lutheran Church in America.  According to family members, Pelikan's mother taught him how to use a typewriter when he was three years old, as he could not yet hold a pen properly but wanted to write. Pelikan's facility with languages may be traced to his multilingual childhood and early training. That facility was to serve him well in the career he ultimately chose (after contemplating becoming a concert pianist) as an historian of Christian doctrine. He did not confine his studies to Roman Catholic and Protestant theological history, but also embraced that of the Christian East.  In 1946 when he was 22, he earned both a seminary degree from Concordia Seminary in Saint Louis, Missouri, and a PhD at the University of Chicago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings and interviews.", "content": "Pelikan wrote more than 30 books, including the five-volume \"The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine\" (1971–1989). Some of his later works attained crossover appeal, reaching beyond the scholarly sphere into the general reading public (notably, \"Mary Through the Centuries\", \"Jesus Through the Centuries\" and \"Whose Bible Is It?\").  His 1983 Jefferson Lecture, \"The Vindication of Tradition\" included an often quoted one liner, which he elaborated in a 1989 interview in \"U.S. News & World Report\". He said:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Yale University professor.", "content": "He joined Yale University in 1962 as the Titus Street Professor of Ecclesiastical History and in 1972 was named Sterling Professor of History, a position he held until achieving emeritus status in 1996. He served as acting dean and then dean of the Graduate School from 1973 to 1978 and was the William Clyde DeVane Lecturer 1984–1986 and again in the fall of 1995. Awards include the Graduate School's 1979 Wilbur Cross Medal and the Medieval Academy of America's 1985 Haskins Medal.  While at Yale, Pelikan won a contest sponsored by \"Field & Stream\" magazine for Ed Zern's column \"Exit Laughing\" to translate the motto of the Madison Avenue Rod, Gun, Bloody Mary & Labrador Retriever Benevolent Association (\"Keep your powder, your trout flies and your martinis dry\") into Latin. Pelikan's winning entry mentioned the martini first, but Pelikan explained that it seemed no less than fitting to have the apéritif come first. His winning entry:  <poem>Semper siccandae sunt: potio Pulvis, et pelliculatio.</poem>  Pelikan was appointed to numerous leadership positions in American intellectual life. He was the president of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was editor of the religion section of \"Encyclopædia Britannica\", and in 1980 he founded the Council of Scholars at the Library of Congress.  In 1983 the National Endowment for the Humanities selected him to deliver the 12th annual Jefferson Lecture, the highest honor conferred by the federal government for outstanding achievement in the humanities. Pelikan's lecture became the basis for his book \"The Vindication of Tradition\".  Pelikan gave the 1992–1993 Gifford lectures at the University of Aberdeen, which were published as the book \"Christianity and Classical Culture\".  President Bill Clinton appointed Pelikan to serve on the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities. Pelikan received honorary degrees from 42 universities around the world. At the age of 80, he was appointed scholarly director for the \"Institutions of Democracy Project\" at the Annenberg Foundation.  In 2004, having received the John W. Kluge Prize for Lifetime Achievement in the Human Sciences, an honor he shared with the French philosopher Paul Ricoeur, Pelikan donated his award ($500,000) to Saint Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary, of which he was a trustee. At the ceremony, he quoted a leitmotif passage from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe that had moved him all his life: \"\"Was du ererbt von deinen Vaetern hast, Erwirb es um es zu besitzen\"\" (\"Take what you have inherited from your fathers and work to make it your own.\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lutheran pastor to Orthodox layman.", "content": "For most of his life Pelikan was a Lutheran and was an ordained pastor in that tradition. In 1998, however, he and his wife Sylvia were received into the Orthodox Church in America at the Chapel of St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary in Crestwood, New York. According to family members (with some mild dislike of the conversion), his conversion followed his meeting Pope John Paul II. Members of Pelikan's family remember him saying that he had not as much converted to Orthodoxy as \"returned to it, peeling back the layers of my own belief to reveal the Orthodoxy that was always there.\" Delighted with this turn of phrase, he used it (or close variants) several times among family and friends, including during a visit to St. Vladimir's for Divine Liturgy, the \"last before his death.\"  Nevertheless, Pelikan was still ecumenical in many ways. Not long before his own death, he praised Pope John Paul II in an article in \"The New York Times\" when the pope died in 2005:  It will be a celebration of the legacy of Pope John Paul II and an answer to his prayers (and to those of all Christians, beginning with their Lord himself) if the Eastern and Western churches can produce the necessary mixture of charity and sincere effort to continue to work toward the time when they all may be one.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Pelikan died on May 13, 2006, at his home in Hamden, Connecticut, at the age of 82, after a seventeen-month battle with lung cancer. He was interred at Grove Street Cemetery in New Haven, Connecticut, on May 17, 2006. Pelikan was honored by a memorial service in Yale's Battell Chapel on October 10, 2006, with speeches by distinguished scholars and musical performances by cellist Yo-Yo Ma and the Yale Russian Chorus.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jaroslav Jan Pelikan Jr. (December 17, 1923 – May 13, 2006) was an American scholar of the history of Christianity, Christian theology, and medieval intellectual history at Yale University.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973975}
{"src_title": "SILC (protocol)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Components.", "content": "The SILC protocol can be divided in three main parts: SILC Key Exchange (SKE) protocol, SILC Authentication protocol and SILC Packet protocol. SILC protocol additionally defines SILC Commands that are used to manage the SILC session. SILC provides channels (groups), nicknames, private messages, and other common features. However, SILC nicknames, in contrast to many other protocols (\"e.g.\" IRC), are not unique; a user is able to use any nickname, even if one is already in use. The real identification in the protocol is performed by unique Client ID. The SILC protocol uses this to overcome nickname collision, a problem present in many other protocols. All messages sent in a SILC network are binary, allowing them to contain any type of data, including text, video, audio, and other multimedia data. The SKE protocol is used to establish session key and other security parameters for protecting the SILC Packet protocol. The SKE itself is based on the Diffie–Hellman key exchange algorithm (a form of asymmetric cryptography) and the exchange is protected with digital signatures. The SILC Authentication protocol is performed after successful SKE protocol execution to authenticate a client and/or a server. The authentication may be based on passphrase or on digital signatures, and if successful gives access to the relevant SILC network. The SILC Packet protocol is intended to be a secure binary packet protocol, assuring that the content of each packet (consisting of a packet header and packet payload) is secured and authenticated. The packets are secured using algorithms based on symmetric cryptography and authenticated by using Message Authentication Code algorithm, HMAC.  SILC channels (groups) are protected by using symmetric channel keys. It is optionally possible to digitally sign all channel messages. It is also possible to protect messages with a privately generated channel key that has been previously agreed upon by channel members. Private messages between users in a SILC network are protected with session keys. It is, however, possible to execute SKE protocol between two users and use the generated key to protect private messages. Private messages may be optionally digitally signed. When messages are secured with key material generated with the SKE protocol or previously agreed upon key material (for example, passphrases) SILC provides security even when the SILC server may be compromised.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "SILC was designed by Pekka Riikonen between 1996 and 1999 and first released in public in summer 2000. A client and a server were written. Protocol specifications were proposed, but ultimately request for publication was denied in June 2004 by IESG and no RFC has been published to date.  At present time, there are several clients, the most advanced being the official SILC client and an irssi plugin. SILC protocol is also integrated to the popular Pidgin instant messaging client. Other GUI clients are Silky and Colloquy. The Silky client was put on hold and abandoned on the 18th of July 2007, due to inactivity for several years. The latest news on the Silky website was that the client was to be completely rewritten.  As of 2008, three SILC protocol implementations have been written. Most SILC clients use libsilc, part of the SILC Toolkit. The SILC Toolkit is dual-licensed and distributed under both the GNU General Public License (GPL) and the revised BSD license.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Security.", "content": "As described in the SILC FAQ, chats are secured through the generation of symmetric encryption keys. These keys have to be generated somewhere, and this occurs on the server. This means that chats might be compromised, if the server itself is compromised. This is just a version of the man-in-the-middle attack. The solution offered is that chat members generate their own public-private keypair for asymmetric encryption. The private key is shared only by the chat members, and this is done out of band. The public key is used to encrypt messages into the channel. This approach is still open to compromise, if one of the members of the chat should have their private key compromised, or if they should share the key with another, without agreement of the group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Networks.", "content": "SILC uses a similar pattern to IRC, in that there is no global \"SILC network\" but many small independent networks consisting of one or several servers each, although it is claimed that SILC can scale better with many servers in a single network.  The \"original\" network is called SILCNet, at the silc.silcnet.org round-robin. However, as of May 2014, it has only one active (though unstable) server out of four.  Most SILC networks have shut down due to declining popularity of SILC.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SILC (Secure Internet Live Conferencing protocol) is a protocol that provides secure synchronous conferencing services (very much like IRC) over the Internet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973976}
{"src_title": "R-7 Semyorka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The R-7 was long, in diameter and weighed ; it had two stages, powered by rocket engines using liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene and capable of delivering its payload up to, with an accuracy (CEP) of around. A single thermonuclear warhead was carried with a nominal yield of 3 megatons of TNT. The initial launch was boosted by four strap-on liquid rocket boosters making up the first stage, with a central'sustainer' engine powering through both the first and the second stage. Each strap-on booster included two vernier thrusters and the core stage included four. The guidance system was inertial with radio control of the vernier thrusters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Design work began in 1953 at OKB-1 in Kaliningrad in Moscow Oblast (presently Korolyov, Moscow Oblast) and other divisions with the requirement for a two-stage missile of with a range of and the maximum speed of 20 mach carrying a warhead. Following first ground tests in late 1953 the initial design was heavily reworked and the final design was not approved until May 1954 and Korolev reportedly reviewed more than 100 design proposals. In 1954, the draft project was completed. For the first time the development of the project was created a separate volume dedicated to the testing of missile technology. This volume was developed under the leadership of Arcady Ilyich Ostashev. Instead of using jet vanes for control, which increased resistance generated at the engine nozzle exhaust outlet, the R-7 used special control engines. These same engines served as the last stage's vernier thrusters.  Because of clustered design, each booster had its own propellant tanks. The design team had to develop a system to regulate the propellant component consumption ratio and to synchronize the consumption between the boosters.  Starting from the R-1, which was a copy of the German V-2, a free-standing missile was launched from a horizontal pad. It turned out that assembling a cluster of a central core and four boosters on the pad is almost impossible without it falling apart. Also, a wind gust could knock the missile off of the pad. The solution was to eliminate the pad and to suspend the entire rocket in the trusses that bear both vertical weight load as well as horizontal wind forces. The launch system simulated flight conditions with strap-on boosters pushing the central core forward.  The R-7 rocket was another Soviet attempt to build a successful rocket to get to space. The rocket had some key features to it that made it unique. One of the main features to the rocket were the many different engines that were utilized for propulsion. Of the four strap on propulsion engines, they were all powered by the RD-107 engine. Vernier engines were utilized for steering, and the R-7 contained four of them. Powering the vernier capabilities for the rocket was the RD-108 engine.  The new missile's GRAU index was 8K71. The first flight-ready vehicle was delivered to the Baikonur Cosmodrome on 1 May 1957, and flown on 15 May. A fire broke out in the Blok D strap-on almost immediately at liftoff. It broke away from the booster at T+88 seconds, which crashed 400 km (248 miles) downrange. The next attempt on 11 June (the same day the United States conducted its first test launch of an ICBM), an electrical short caused the missile to start rolling uncontrollably and disintegrate 33 seconds after liftoff. The first successful long flight, of, was made on 21 August 1957. The dummy warhead impacted in the Pacific Ocean and five days later, TASS announced that the Soviet Union had \"successfully tested a multi-stage intercontinental ballistic missile\". A modified version of the missile (8K71PS) placed Sputnik 1 in orbit from Baikonur on 4 October 1957 and Sputnik 2 on 3 November 1957.  The next ICBM test took place on 30 January 1958, but the strap-ons failed to separate cleanly and damaged plumbing in the core stage, which lost thrust and impacted far off target. These early flights revealed assorted design flaws in the R-7 which necessitated multiple modifications to the missile. Testing continued into December 1959, and the last original 8K71 flew on 27 February 1961. The additional development resulted in the 8K74 (also known as R-7A), which was lighter, had better navigation systems, more powerful engines, extended its range to 12,000 km by carrying more fuel, and increased payload to. Aside from the initial Sputnik launches, the 8K71 formed the basis of the 8K72 booster used for the first generation Luna probes. Six out of nine Luna probes launched on the 8K72 failed. Combined with the failed Sputnik launch on 27 April 1958, this brought the booster's total space launch record to 6 successes in 13 attempts. The improved 8K74 formed the basis for the later Vostok and Molniya boosters, greatly increasing reliability.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first strategic-missile unit became operational on 9 February 1959 at Plesetsk in the north-west of the USSR. On 15 December 1959 the R-7 missile was tested at Plesetsk for the first time. The missiles were fully deployed by 1962.  Total service was limited to no more than ten nuclear-armed missiles active at any time. A single launch pad was operational at Baikonur and from six to eight were in operation at Plesetsk.  The costs of the system were high, mostly due to the difficulty of constructing in remote areas the large launch sites required. At one point, each launch site was projected to cost 5% of the total Soviet defense budget.  Besides the cost, the missile system faced other operational challenges. With the U-2 overflights, the huge R-7 launch complexes could not be hidden and therefore could be expected to be destroyed quickly in any nuclear war. Also, the R-7 took almost twenty hours to prepare for launching, and it could not be left on alert for more than a day due to its cryogenic fuel system. Therefore, the Soviet force could not be kept on permanent alert and could have been subject to an air strike before launching. Additionally, the huge payload for which it was designed, adapted to early heavy H-bombs, became irrelevant with the coming of lighter bomb technology.  The limitations of the R-7 pushed the Soviet Union into rapidly developing second-generation missiles which would be more viable weapons systems. The R-7 was phased out of military service by 1968.  While the R-7 turned out to be impractical as a weapon, it became the basis for a series of Soviet expendable space launch vehicles, the Soyuz family of launchers. As of 2018, in modified versions (Soyuz-U, Soyuz-FG, and the Soyuz-2 (including the boosterless 2.1v variant), the vehicle is still in service, having launched over 1840 times.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "Note: Much developed variants of the R-7 are still active:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The R-7 Semyorka () was a Soviet missile developed during the Cold War, and the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile. The R-7 made 28 launches between 1957 and 1961, but was never deployed operationally. A derivative, the R-7A, was deployed from 1959 to 1968. To the West it was known by the NATO reporting name SS-6 Sapwood and within the Soviet Union by the GRAU index 8K71. In modified form, it launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, into orbit, and became the basis for the R-7 family which includes Sputnik, Luna, Molniya, Vostok, and Voskhod space launchers, as well as later Soyuz variants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973977}
{"src_title": "Symphonie fantastique", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "\"Symphonie fantastique\" is a piece of program music that tells the story of an artist gifted with a lively imagination who has poisoned himself with opium in the depths of despair because of hopeless, unrequited love. Berlioz provided his own preface and program notes for each movement of the work. They exist in two principal versions – one from 1845 in the first score of the work and the second from 1855. From the revised preface and notes, it can be seen how Berlioz, later in his life, downplayed the programmatic aspect of the work.  In the first score from 1845, he writes:  In the 1855 preface, a different outlook towards the work's programmatic undertones is established by Berlioz:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inspiration.", "content": "After attending a performance of Shakespeare's \"Hamlet\" on 11 September 1827, Berlioz fell in love with the Irish actress Harriet Smithson who had played the role of Ophelia. He sent her numerous love letters, all of which went unanswered. When she left Paris, they had still not met. Berlioz then wrote \"Symphonie fantastique\" as a way to express his unrequited love. Harriet did not attend the premiere in 1830, but she heard the work in 1832 and realized Berlioz's genius. The two finally met and were married on 3 October 1833. However, their marriage became increasingly bitter, and they eventually separated after several years of unhappiness.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Instrumentation.", "content": "The score calls for a total of over 90 instruments:  Berlioz specified at least 15 1st violins, 15 2nd violins, 10 violas, 11 celli and 9 basses on the score.  Berlioz originally wrote for 1 serpent and one ophicleide, but quickly switched to two ophicleides after the serpent proved to be difficult to use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Movements.", "content": "The symphony has five movements, instead of four as was conventional for symphonies of the time:  Each movement depicts an episode in the protagonist's life that is described by Berlioz in the program notes to the 1845 score. These program notes are quoted in each section below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "I. \"Rêveries – Passions\".", "content": "The first movement is radical in its harmonic outline, building a vast arch back to the home key; while similar to the sonata form of the classical period, Parisian critics regarded this as unconventional. It is here that the listener is introduced to the theme of the artist's beloved, or the \"idée fixe\". The \"idée fixe\" begins:  </score>  Throughout the movement there is a simplicity in the way melodies and themes are presented, which Robert Schumann likened to Beethoven's epigrams' ideas that could be extended had the composer chosen to. In part, it is because Berlioz rejected writing the more symmetrical melodies then in academic fashion, and instead looked for melodies that were \"so intense in every note as to defy normal harmonization\", as Schumann put it. The theme itself was taken from Berlioz's \"scène lyrique\" \"Herminie\", composed in 1828.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "II. \"Un bal\".", "content": "The second movement is a waltz in. It begins with a mysterious introduction that creates an atmosphere of impending excitement, followed by a passage dominated by two harps; then the flowing waltz theme appears, derived from the \"idée fixe\" at first, then transforming it. More formal statements of the \"idée fixe\" twice interrupt the waltz.  </score>  The movement is the only one to feature the two harps, providing the glamour and sensual richness of the ball, and may also symbolize the object of the young man's affection. Berlioz wrote extensively in his memoirs of his trials and tribulations in having this symphony performed, due to a lack of capable harpists and harps, especially in Germany.  Another feature of this movement is that Berlioz added a part for solo cornet to his autograph score, although it was not included in the score published in his lifetime. The work has most often been played and recorded without the solo cornet part. However, conductors Jean Martinon, Colin Davis, Otto Klemperer, Gustavo Dudamel, John Eliot Gardiner, Charles Mackerras, Jos van Immerseel and Leonard Slatkin have employed this part for cornet in performances of the symphony.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "III. \"Scène aux champs\".", "content": "The third movement is a slow movement, marked \"Adagio\", in. The two shepherds mentioned in the program notes are depicted by a cor anglais (English horn) and an offstage oboe tossing an evocative melody back and forth. After the cor anglais–oboe conversation, the principal theme of the movement appears on solo flute and violins. It begins with:  </score>  Berlioz salvaged this theme from his abandoned \"Messe solennelle\". The \"idée fixe\" returns in the middle of the movement, played by oboe and flute. The sound of distant thunder at the end of the movement is a striking passage for four timpani.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "IV. \"Marche au supplice\".", "content": "Berlioz claimed to have written the fourth movement in a single night, reconstructing music from an unfinished project, the opera \"Les francs-juges\". The movement begins with timpani sextuplets in thirds, for which he directs: \"The first quaver of each half-bar is to be played with two drumsticks, and the other five with the right hand drumsticks\". The movement proceeds as a march filled with blaring horns and rushing passages, and scurrying figures that later show up in the last movement.  </score>  Before the musical depiction of his execution, there is a brief, nostalgic recollection of the \"idée fixe\" in a solo clarinet, as though representing the last conscious thought of the soon-to-be-executed man.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "V. \"Songe d'une nuit du sabbat\".", "content": "This movement can be divided into sections according to tempo changes:  </score>  There are a host of effects, including trilling in the woodwinds and \"col legno\" in the strings. The climactic finale combines the somber Dies Irae melody, now in A minor, with the fugue of the \"Ronde du Sabbat\", building to a modulation into E-flat major, then chromatically into C major, ending on a C chord.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Leonard Bernstein described the symphony as the first musical expedition into psychedelia because of its hallucinatory and dream-like nature, and because history suggests Berlioz composed at least a portion of it under the influence of opium. According to Bernstein, \"Berlioz tells it like it is. You take a trip, you wind up screaming at your own funeral.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973978}
{"src_title": "Phrygian language", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Inscriptions.", "content": "Phrygian is attested by two corpora, one dated to between about the 8th and the 4th century BC (Paleo-Phrygian), and then after a period of several centuries from between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD (Neo-Phrygian). The Paleo-Phrygian corpus is further divided (geographically) into inscriptions of Midas City (M, W), Gordion, Central (C), Bithynia (B), Pteria (P), Tyana (T), Daskyleion (Dask), Bayindir (Bay), and \"various\" (Dd, \"documents divers\"). The Mysian inscriptions seem to be in a separate dialect (in an alphabet with an additional letter, \"Mysian s\").  The last mentions of the language date to the 5th century AD, and it was likely extinct by the 7th century AD.  Paleo-Phrygian used a Phoenician-derived script (its ties with Greek are debated), while Neo-Phrygian used the Greek script.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grammar.", "content": "Its structure, what can be recovered of it, was typically Indo-European, with nouns declined for case (at least four), gender (three), and number (singular and plural), while the verbs are conjugated for tense, voice, mood, person, and number. No single word is attested in all its inflectional forms.  Phrygian seems to exhibit an augment, like Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Armenian; cf., probably corresponding to Proto-Indo-European'(' with loss of the final \"t\", \")\", although comparison to examples like \"ios... addaket\" 'who does... to', which is not a past tense form (perhaps subjunctive), shows that \"-et\" may be from the PIE primary ending.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phonology.", "content": "It has long been claimed that Phrygian exhibits a sound change of stop consonants, similar to Grimm's Law in Germanic and, more to the point, sound laws found in Proto-Armenian; i.e., voicing of PIE aspirates, devoicing of PIE voiced stops and aspiration of voiceless stops. This hypothesis was rejected by Lejeune (1979) and Brixhe (1984) but revived by Lubotsky (2004) and Woodhouse (2006), who argue that there is evidence of a partial shift of obstruent series; i.e., voicing of PIE aspirates (\"*bh\" > \"b\") and devoicing of PIE voiced stops (\"*d\" > \"t\").  The affricates \"ts\" and \"dz\" developed from velars before front vowels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vocabulary.", "content": "Phrygian is attested fragmentarily, known only from a comparatively small corpus of inscriptions. A few hundred Phrygian words are attested; however, the meaning and etymologies of many of these remain unknown.  A famous Phrygian word is \"bekos\", meaning 'bread'. According to Herodotus (\"Histories\" 2.2) Pharaoh Psammetichus I wanted to determine the oldest nation and establish the world's original language. For this purpose, he ordered two children to be reared by a shepherd, forbidding him to let them hear a single word, and charging him to report the children's first utterance. After two years, the shepherd reported that on entering their chamber, the children came up to him, extending their hands, calling \"bekos\". Upon enquiry, the pharaoh discovered that this was the Phrygian word for 'wheat bread', after which the Egyptians conceded that the Phrygian nation was older than theirs. The word \"bekos\" is also attested several times in Palaeo-Phrygian inscriptions on funerary stelae. It may be cognate to the English \"bake\" (PIE *\"bheh3g-\"). Hittite, Luwian (both also influenced Phrygian morphology), Galatian and Greek (which also exhibits a high amount of isoglosses with Phrygian) all influenced Phrygian vocabulary.  According to Clement of Alexandria, the Phrygian word \"bedu\" () meaning 'water' (PIE *\"wed-\") appeared in Orphic ritual.  The Greek theonym Zeus appears in Phrygian with the stem \"Ti-\" (genitive \"Tios\" = Greek \"Dios\", from earlier \"*Diwos\"; the nominative is unattested); perhaps with the general meaning 'god, deity'. It is possible that \"tiveya\" means 'goddess'. The shift of \"*d\" to \"t\" in Phrygian and the loss of \"*w\" before \"o\" appears to be regular. Stephanus Byzantius records that according to Demosthenes, Zeus was known as \"Tios\" in Bithynia.  Another possible theonym is \"bago-\" (cf. Old Persian \"baga-\", Proto-Slavic \"*bogъ\" \"god\"), attested as the accusative singular \"bag̣un\" in G-136. Lejeune identified the term as \"*bhagom\", in the meaning 'a gift, dedication' (PIE \"*bhag-\" 'to apportion, give a share'). But Hesychius of Alexandria mentions a \"Bagaios, Phrygian Zeus\" () and interprets the name as 'giver of good things'.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Phrygian language was the Indo-European language of the Phrygians, spoken in Asia Minor during Classical Antiquity (c. 8th century BC to 5th century AD).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973979}
{"src_title": "Consolidated financial statement", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Consolidated Statement of Financial Position.", "content": "While preparing a consolidated financial statement, there are two basic procedures that need to be followed: first, you cancel out all the items that are accounted as an asset in one company and a liability in another, and then add together all uncancelled items.  There are two main type of items that cancel each other out from the consolidated statement of financial position.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Goodwill arising on consolidation.", "content": "Goodwill is treated as an intangible asset in the consolidated statement of financial position. It arises in cases, where the cost of purchase of shares is not equal to their par value. For example, if a company buys shares of another company worth $40,000 for $60,000, we conclude that there is a goodwill worth or $20,000.  Proforma for calculating goodwill is as follows :  Goodwill  Fair value of consideration transferred  Plus fair value of non-controlled interest at acquisition  Less ordinary share capital of subsidiary company  Less share premium of subsidiary company  Less retained earnings of subsidiary company at acquisition date  Less fair value adjustments at acquisition date", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Non-controlled interest.", "content": "If the parent company does not buy 100% of shares of the subsidiary company, there is a proportion of the net assets that is owned by the external company. This proportion that is related to outside investors is called the non-controlling interest (NCI).  The proforma for calculating the NCI is as follows:  Non-controlling interest  Fair value of NCI at acquisition date  Plus NCI's share of post-acquisition retained earnings or other reserves", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "NCI at the reporting date.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Intra-group trading.", "content": "In a group of companies, they can have trade relations with each other. For example, company A buys goods for one price and sells them to another company inside the group for another price. Thus, company A has earned some revenue from selling, but the group as a whole didn't make any profit out of that transaction. Until those goods are sold to an outsider company, the group has unrealised profit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Alexander, D., Britton, A., Jorissen, A., \"International Financial Reporting and Analysis\", Second Edition, 2005,,", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Consolidated financial statements - are the \"Financial statements of a group in which the assets, liabilities, equity, income, expenses and cash flows of the parent company and its subsidiaries are presented as those of a single economic entity\", according to International Accounting Standard 27 \"Consolidated and separate financial statements\", and International Financial Reporting Standard 10 \"Consolidated financial statements\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973980}
{"src_title": "Anna Pavlovna of Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Youth.", "content": "She was born in 1795 at Gatchina Palace, the eighth child and sixth daughter of Paul I of Russia and Empress Maria Feodorovna (born Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg), and thus was \"Her Imperial Highness Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna of Russia\". Anna was raised by her mother at the summer residence of the Romanovs, Tsarskoye Selo. She spent her childhood there with her two younger brothers, Nicholas (1796–1855) and Michael (1798–1849). Anna received a broad education, including foreign languages and mathematics. She was good at handicrafts and painting.  In 1809, after failing to secure her elder sister Ekaterina, Emperor Napoleon I of France asked for Anna's hand in marriage. Her mother managed to delay her reply long enough for Napoleon to lose interest and marry Archduchess Marie Louise, the eighteen-year-old daughter of the Austrian emperor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 21 February 1816 at the Chapel of the Winter Palace in St Petersburg, she married the Prince of Orange, who would later become King William II of the Netherlands. The marriage had been suggested by her brother the Tsar Alexander I in 1815, as a symbol of the alliance created after the Congress of Vienna. As it had been decided that no member of the Romanov family should be forced to marry against their will, William was invited to Russia before the wedding so that Anna could get to know him and consent to marry him, which she did. At the time of their marriage, it was agreed that Prince Willem's children should be raised as Protestants, although Anna herself remained Russian Orthodox. Alexander Pushkin celebrated the marriage in a special poem entitled \"To the Prince of Orange\". The couple remained in Russia for one year.  Anna Pavlovna was shocked over the differences between Russia and her new home country, especially when it came to the class system and the separation between the classes, which was much less strict in the Netherlands, where the distance between royalty and the public was not as great as in Russia, and she had difficulties adjusting herself to this. The couple lived in Brussels until the Belgian revolution forced them to leave in 1830. Anna liked Brussels much more than the North, as it reminded her more of her native country. She founded a school where poor women and girls were educated in sewing (1832), and a hospital for soldiers wounded in the Belgian revolution (1830). Her marriage was stormy. From the beginning, Anna considered herself superior in rank to William. In 1829, several pieces of her jewellery were stolen, and she suspected her spouse of stealing them, as he was at the time in debt and mixing with people she considered to be questionable. The adultery of her spouse created conflicts between them. They lived separated until 1843. Despite this, Anna continued to profess undiminished love for William. Anna also acted as a mediator between her husband and her father-in-law and tried to ease the tension between them during political conflicts. Otherwise, she was not politically active, despite her strong political convictions. As a person, she was described as intelligent, sensitive, loyal to her family and with a violent temperament. During her time in Holland, she studied the Dutch language, history and culture, and founded more than fifty orphanages.  On 7 October 1840, on the abdication of her father-in-law, William I of the Netherlands, she became queen consort of the Netherlands. She became the 343rd Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa on 1 February 1842.  As a queen, Anna is described as dignified, arrogant and distant towards the public. She did in fact learn to speak better Dutch than her often French-speaking spouse, but she upheld a strict etiquette and never became very popular as queen. She valued pomp, etiquette and formal ceremonies and rituals. Anna Pavlovna corresponded with her mother and brothers in Russia and treasured the memory of her birth country: she founded a Russian boys' choir, where the members were to be dressed in traditional Russian costume, and it has been said of her that she remained a Russian Grand Duchess more than she ever became Queen of the Netherlands.  As a queen dowager, Anna left the royal palace, retired from court life and lived a discreet life. She did not get along with her daughter-in-law, Sophie, who was the daughter of her sister, Catherine, as she was allegedly jealous of Catherine's beauty and status as their mother's favourite child. She had plans to return to Russia after a conflict with her son, King William III, in 1855, but in the end, she did not.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Anna and William II of the Netherlands had five children:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The municipality Anna Paulowna in the Dutch province of Noord Holland is named after her.  The genus of trees \"Paulownia\" was coined by the German botanist Philipp Franz von Siebold to honour Anna Pavlovna. The common name of \"Paulownia tomentosa\" is Royal Paulownia, (also known as Empress Tree, Princess Tree, and Foxglove Tree.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anna Pavlovna of Russia (; Dutch: \"Anna Paulowna\"; 18 January 1795 [OS 7 January] — 1 March 1865) was a queen consort of the Netherlands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973981}
{"src_title": "Paulownia tomentosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The generic name \"Paulownia\" honors Anna Pavlovna of Russia. The specific epithet \"tomentosa\" is a Latin word meaning ‘covered in hairs’.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "This tree grows tall, with large heart-shaped to five-lobed leaves across, arranged in opposite pairs on the stem. On young growth, the leaves may be in whorls of three and be much bigger than the leaves on more mature growth. The leaves can be mistaken for those of the catalpa.  The very fragrant flowers are produced before the leaves in early spring, on panicles 10–30 cm long, with a tubular purple corolla 4–6 cm long resembling a foxglove flower. The fruit is a dry egg-shaped capsule 3–4 cm long, containing numerous tiny seeds. The seeds are winged and disperse by wind and water. Pollarded trees do not produce flowers, as these form only on mature wood.  \"Paulownia tomentosa\" requires full sun for proper growth. It is tolerant of pollution and can tolerate many soil types. It can also grow from small cracks in pavements and walls. \"Paulownia\" can survive wildfire because the roots can regenerate new, very fast-growing stems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "\"Paulownia tomentosa\" is cultivated as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.  Because of its tolerance and flexibility, \"Paulownia\" functions ecologically as a pioneer plant. Its nitrogen-rich leaves provide good fodder and its roots prevent soil erosion. Eventually, \"Paulownia\" is succeeded by taller trees that shade it and in whose shade it cannot thrive.  An acre of empress trees can absorb 103 metric tons of carbon dioxide a year. Once the trees reach maturity, farmers harvest their wood for use in houses or musical instruments.  The characteristic large size of the young growth is exploited by gardeners: by pollarding the tree and ensuring there is vigorous new growth every year, massive leaves are produced (up to 23in/60 cm across). These are popular in the modern style of gardening which uses large-foliaged and \"architectural\" plants.  In Japan, the tree is planted at the birth of a girl. The fast-growing tree matures when she does. When she is eligible for marriage the tree is cut down and carved into wooden articles for her dowry. Carving the wood of \"Paulownia\" is an art form in Japan. In legend, it is said that the phoenix will land only on this tree, and only when a good ruler is in power. Several Asian string instruments are made from \"P. tomentosa\", including the Japanese \"koto\" and Korean \"gayageum\" zithers.  The soft, lightweight seeds were commonly used as a packing material by Chinese porcelain exporters in the 19th century, before the development of polystyrene packaging. Packing cases would often leak or burst open in transit and scatter the seeds along rail tracks. The magnitude of the numbers of seeds used for packaging, together with seeds deliberately planted for ornament, has allowed the species to be viewed as an invasive species in areas where the climate is suitable for its growth, notably Japan and the eastern United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "Some geranylflavonoids can be found in \"P. tomentosa\".  Verbascoside can also be produced in hairy roots cultures of \"P. tomentosa\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paulownia tomentosa (common names princess tree, empress tree, or foxglove-tree, is a deciduous tree in the family Paulowniaceae, native to central and western China. It is an extremely fast-growing tree, and is a persistent exotic invasive in North America. It's also increasingly escaping and spreading in Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973982}
{"src_title": "Norge (airship)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "\"Norge\" was the first N class semi-rigid airship designed by Umberto Nobile and its construction started in 1923. As part of the selling contract [as the \"Norge\"] it was refitted for Arctic conditions. The pressurised envelope was reinforced with metal frames at the nose and tail, with a flexible tubular metal keel connecting the two. This was covered with fabric and used as storage and crew space. Three engine gondolas and the separate control cabin were attached to the bottom of the keel. \"Norge\" was the first Italian semi-rigid to be fitted with the cruciform tail fins first developed by the Schütte-Lanz company.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Polar expedition.", "content": "In 1925, Amundsen telegraphed Nobile asking to meet him at Oslo, where he proposed an airship trip across the Arctic. With a contract in place Nobile modified the N-1 for cold conditions. As the expedition was being financed by the Aero Club of Norway the modified N-1 was given the name \"Norge\" (English: \"Norway\"). On 29 March 1926 at a ceremony at Ciampino aerodrome the \"Norge\" was handed over to the Aero Club of Norway. The flight north was due to leave Rome on 6 April but was delayed due to strong winds and departed at 09:25 on 10 April. The ship arrived at RNAS Pulham Airship Station in England at 15:20; because of the bad weather it was not hangared until 18:30. Delayed again by weather, the \"Norge\" left Pulham for Oslo at 11:45 on 12 April.  On 15 April at 01:00 the \"Norge\" left the mooring mast at Ekeberg in Oslo for Gatchina near Leningrad; after a 17-hour flight it arrived at 19:30, delayed by dense fog along the way. Following the arrival at Gatchina, Nobile announced that the \"Norge\" would remain in the airship shed for a week for overhaul and maintenance; this included the addition of collapsible rubber boats for emergency use. Although expected to leave Gatchina as soon as the weather allowed after the 24 April, the departure was delayed a week as the mast at King's Bay, Spitzbergen, was not ready. Although Nobile was keen to get to Spitsbergen even if the mast and shed were not completed as he was concerned about the weather, the departure from Gatchina was postponed again. The airship finally left Gatchina at 09:40 on 5 May to proceed to Vadsø in northern Norway, where the airship mast is still standing today. The expedition then crossed the Barents Sea to reach King's Bay at Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard. There Nobile met Richard Evelyn Byrd preparing his Fokker Trimotor for his North Pole attempt. Nobile explained the \"Norge\" trip was to observe the uncharted sea between the Pole and Alaska where some thought land was; at the time he believed Robert Edwin Peary had already reached the pole. This would be the last stop before crossing the pole. The airship left Ny-Ålesund for the final stretch across the polar ice on 11 May at 9:55. The 16-man expedition included Amundsen, the expedition leader and navigator; Umberto Nobile the airship's designer and pilot; polar explorer and expedition sponsor Lincoln Ellsworth; as well as polar explorer Oscar Wisting who served as helmsman. Other crew members were 1st Lt. Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen, navigator; 1st Lt. Emil Horgen, elevatorman; Capt. Birger Gottwaldt, radio expert, Dr Finn Malmgren of Uppsala University, meteorologist; Fredrik Ramm, journalist; Frithjof Storm-Johnsen, radioman; Flying Lt. Oscar Omdal, flight engineer; Natale Cecioni, chief mechanic; Renato Alessandrini, rigger; Ettore Arduino, Attilio Caratti and Vincenzo Pomella, mechanics. Nobile's dog, Titina, also came aboard as mascot.  On 12 May at 01.25 (GMT) they reached the North Pole, at which point the Norwegian, American and Italian flags were dropped from the airship onto the ice. Relations between Amundsen and Nobile, which had been strained in the freezing, cramped and noisy conditions became even worse when Amundsen saw that the Italian flag dropped was larger than either of the others. Amundsen later recalled with scorn that under Nobile, the airship had become \"a circus wagon in the sky\".  After crossing the pole, ice encrustations kept growing on the airship to such an extent that pieces breaking off would be blown by the propellers and strike the fabric hull. On 14 May the \"Norge\" reached the Inupiat village of Teller, Alaska where in view of worsening weather, the decision was made to land rather than continue to Nome. The airship was reportedly damaged during the landing and was dismantled and shipped back to Italy.  The three previous claims to have arrived at the North Pole—by Frederick Cook in 1908, Robert Peary in 1909, and Richard E. Byrd in 1926 (just a few days before the \"Norge\")—are all disputed as being either of dubious accuracy or outright fraud. Some of those disputing these earlier claims therefore consider the crew of the \"Norge\" to be the first verified explorers to have reached the North Pole.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Norge was a semi-rigid Italian-built airship that carried out the first verified trip of any kind to the North Pole, an overflight on 12 May 1926. It was also the first aircraft to fly over the polar ice cap between Europe and America. The expedition was the brainchild of polar explorer and expedition leader Roald Amundsen, the airship's designer and pilot Umberto Nobile and American explorer Lincoln Ellsworth who, along with the Aero Club of Norway, financed the trip which was known as the Amundsen-Ellsworth 1926 Transpolar Flight.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973983}
{"src_title": "Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born of humble parents at Étaples, in Picardy. He appears later to have been possessed of considerable means. He had already been ordained a priest when he entered the University of Paris for higher education. Hermonymus of Sparta was his master in Greek.  He visited Italy before 1486, for he heard the lectures of Argyropulus, who died in that year; he formed a friendship with Paulus Aemilius of Verona. In 1492 he again travelled in Italy, studying in Florence, Rome and Venice, making himself familiar with the writings of Aristotle, though greatly influenced by the Platonic philosophy. Returning to the University of Paris, he became a professor in the College of Cardinal Lemoine. Among his famous pupils were F. W. Vatable, Charles de Bovelles, and Guillaume Farel; his connection with the last drew him closer to the Calvinistic side of the movement of reform. Farel joined Lefèvre at Meaux to help in the training of preachers, before Farel left for Switzerland where he was one of the founders of the Reformed churches.  In 1507 he took up his residence in the Benedictine Abbey of St Germain des Prés, near Paris; this was due to his connexion with the family of Briçonnet (one of whom was the superior), especially with Guillaume Briçonnet, cardinal bishop of Saint-Malo, father of Guillaume Briçonnet, the later bishop of Meaux. He now began to give himself to Biblical studies, the first-fruit of which was his \"Quintuplex Psalterium: Gallicum, Romanum, Hebraicum, Vetus, Conciliatum\" (1509); the \"Conciliatum\" was his own version. This was followed by \"S. Pauli Epistolae xiv. ex vulgata editione, adjecta intelligentia ex Graeco cum commentariis\" (1512), a work of great independence and judgment.  His \"De Maria Magdalena et triduo Christi disceptatio\" (1517), which argued that Mary the sister of Lazarus, Mary Magdalene and the penitent woman who anointed Christ's feet were different people, provoked violent controversy and was condemned by the Sorbonne (1521) and Saint John Fisher. He had left Paris during the whole of 1520, and, removing to Meaux, was appointed (1 May, 1523) vicar-general to Bishop Briconnet, and published his French version of the New Testament (1523). This (contemporary with Luther's German version) has been the basis of all subsequent translations into French. From this, in the same year, he extracted the versions of the Gospels and Epistles \"a l'usage du diocese de Meaux\". The prefaces and notes to both these expressed the view that Holy Scripture is the only rule of doctrine, and that justification is by faith alone.  He incurred much hostility, but was protected by Francis I and his intellectual sister Marguerite d'Angoulême. After Francis was taken captive at the battle of Pavia (25 February, 1525), Lefèvre was condemned and his works suppressed by commission of the parlement; these measures were quashed on the return of Francis some months later. He issued \"Le Psautier de David\" (1525), and was appointed royal librarian at Blois (1526); his version of the Pentateuch appeared two years later. His complete version of the Bible (1530), on the basis of Jerome's Vulgate, took the same place as his version of the New Testament. The publication and its revised edition based on the Hebrew and the Greek texts were printed by Merten de Keyser in Antwerp in 1534. Marguerite (now queen of Navarre) led him to take refuge (1531) at Nérac from persecution. He is said to have been visited (1533) by John Calvin on his flight from France. He died in 1536 or 1537 in Nérac.  The publication, with critical apparatus, of Boetius, \"De Arithmetica\". Paris: Johannes Higman and Wolfgang Hopyl, 22 July 1496.  He was a prolific translator of the Bible. He completed a translation of the Old Testament in 1528, and was famous for his French translation of the Psalms and the Pauline epistles, which he finished early in his career. His completed translation of the entire Christian Bible, published in 1530, was the first in the French language.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples or Jacobus Faber Stapulensis (c. 1455 – 1536) was a French theologian and humanist. He was a precursor of the Protestant movement in France. The \"d'Étaples\" was not part of his name as such, but used to distinguish him from Jacques Lefèvre of Deventer, a less significant contemporary, a friend and correspondent of Erasmus. Both are also sometimes called by the German version of their name, Jacob/Jakob Faber. He himself had a sometimes tense relationship with Erasmus, whose work on Biblical translation and in theology closely paralleled his own.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973984}
{"src_title": "Chinese guardian lions", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Statues of guardian lions have traditionally stood in front of Chinese Imperial palaces, Imperial tombs, government offices, temples, and the homes of government officials and the wealthy, and were believed to have powerful mythic protective benefits. They are also used in other artistic contexts, for example on door-knockers, and in pottery. Pairs of guardian lion statues are still common decorative and symbolic elements at the entrances to restaurants, hotels, supermarkets and other structures, with one sitting on each side of the entrance, in China and in other places around the world where the Chinese people have immigrated and settled, especially in local Chinatowns.  The lions are usually depicted in pairs. When used as statuary the pair would consist of a male leaning his paw upon an embroidered ball (in imperial contexts, representing supremacy over the world) and a female restraining a playful cub that is on its back (representing nurture).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Guardian lions are referred to in various ways depending on language and context. In Chinese they are traditionally called simply \"shi\" () meaning lion—the word \"shi\" itself is thought to be derived from the Persian word \"šer\". Lions were first presented to the Han court by emissaries from Central Asia and Persia, and were already popularly depicted as guardian figures by the sixth century AD. Today the guardian lions are more usually specified by reference to the medium or material, for example:  and less commonly:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Western names.", "content": "In English and several Western languages, the guardian lions are often referred in a multitude of name such as: \"Fu Dogs\", \"Foo Dogs\", \"Fu Lions\", \"Fo Lions\", and \"Lion Dogs\". The term \"\"Fo\"\" or \"\"Fu\"\" may be transliterations to the words () or (), which means \"Buddha\" or \"prosperity\" in Chinese, respectively. However, Chinese reference to the guardian lions are seldom prefixed with or, and more importantly never referred to as \"dogs\".  Reference to guardian lions as dogs in Western cultures may be due to the Japanese reference to them as \"Korean dogs\" () due to their transmission from China through Korea into Japan. It may also be due to the misidentification of the guardian lion figures as representing certain Chinese dog breeds such as the Chow Chow () or Pekingese ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The lions are traditionally carved from decorative stone, such as marble and granite or cast in bronze or iron. Because of the high cost of these materials and the labor required to produce them, private use of guardian lions was traditionally reserved for wealthy or elite families. Indeed, a traditional symbol of a family's wealth or social status was the placement of guardian lions in front of the family home. However, in modern times less expensive lions, mass-produced in concrete and resin, have become available and their use is therefore no longer restricted to the elite.  The lions are always presented in pairs, a manifestation of yin and yang, the female representing yin and the male yang. The male lion has its right front paw on a type of cloth ball simply called an \"embroidered ball\" (), which is sometimes carved with a geometric pattern. The female is essentially identical, but has a cub under the left paw, representing the cycle of life. Symbolically, the female lion protects those dwelling inside (the living soul within), while the male guards the structure (the external material elements). Sometimes the female has her mouth closed, and the male open. This symbolizes the enunciation of the sacred word \"om\". However, Japanese adaptations state that the male is inhaling, representing life, while the female exhales, representing death. Other styles have both lions with a single large pearl in each of their partially opened mouths. The pearl is carved so that it can roll about in the lion's mouth but sized just large enough so that it can never be removed.  According to feng shui, correct placement of the lions is important to ensure their beneficial effect. When looking at the entrance from outside the building, facing the lions, the male lion with the ball is on the right, and the female with the cub is on the left.  Chinese lions are intended to reflect the emotion of the animal as opposed to the reality of the lion. This is in distinct opposition to the traditional English lion which is a lifelike depiction of the animal. The claws, teeth and eyes of the Chinese lion represent power. Few if any muscles are visible in the Chinese lion whereas the English lion shows its power through its life-like characteristics rather than through stylized representation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Asiatic lions are believed to be the ones depicted by the guardian lions in Chinese culture.  With increased trade during the Han dynasty and cultural exchanges through the Silk road, lions were introduced into China from the ancient states of Central Asia by peoples of Sogdiana, Samarkand, and the Yuezhi () in the form of pelts and live tribute, along with stories about them from Buddhist priests and travelers of the time.  Several instances of lions as imperial tributes from Central Asia were recorded in the document \"Book of the Later Han\" () written from 25-220 CE. On one particular event, on the eleventh lunar month of 87 CE, \"... an envoy from Parthia offered as tribute a lion and an ostrich\" to the Han court. Indeed, the lion was associated by the Han Chinese to earlier venerated creatures of the ancient Chinese, most notably by the monk Huilin () who stated that \"the mythic suan-ni () is actually the lion, coming from the Western Regions\" ().  The Buddhist version of the Lion was originally introduced to Han China as the protector of dharma and these lions have been found in religious art as early as 208 BC. Gradually they were incorporated as guardians of the Chinese Imperial dharm. Lions seemed appropriately regal beasts to guard the emperor's gates and have been used as such since. There are various styles of guardian lions reflecting influences from different time periods, imperial dynasties, and regions of China. These styles vary in their artistic detail and adornment as well as in the depiction of the lions from fierce to serene.  Although the form of the Chinese guardian lion was quite varied during its early history in China, the appearance, pose, and accessories of the lions eventually became standardized and formalized during the Ming and Qing dynasties into more or less its present form.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chinese or Imperial guardian lions are a traditional Chinese architectural ornament. Typically made of stone, they are also known as stonelions or shishi(石狮). They are known in colloquial English as liondogs or foodogs. The concept, which originated and became popular in Chinese Buddhism, features a pair of highly stylized lions—often one male with a ball and one female with a cub—which were thought to protect the building from harmful spiritual influences and harmful people that might be a threat. Used in imperial Chinese palaces and tombs, the lions subsequently spread to other parts of Asia including Japan (see komainu), Korea, Tibet, Thailand, Burma, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Cambodia, Laos, Taiwan, and Singapore.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973985}
{"src_title": "Hanns Jelinek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Jelinek was born and died in Vienna. His father was a machine operator (died 1917). At the age of 6 he began violin lessons and at age 7, began learning the piano. In 1918 he became a member of the newly founded Communist Party of Austria.  In 1918–19 Jelinek studied briefly with Arnold Schoenberg in the composition seminar which Schoenberg gave at Eugenie Schwarzwald's School in Vienna (with a focus on counterpoint and harmony), and privately with Alban Berg. These two influenced him to write many works in the twelve-tone technique. In 1920 he started the study with Franz Schmidt at the Vienna Academy of Music. However, in 1922 he broke off his studies for financial reasons, and thereafter studied music on his own.  In order to support himself as a self-employed composer in Vienna, he appeared as a pianist in bars and cinemas and composed popular music under the pseudonym \"Hanns Elin\".  From 1958 on, he was a lecturer and, after 1965, a professor at the Vienna Academy of Music. In 1966, he was awarded the Grand Austrian State Prize.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compositions.", "content": "Since 1934 (starting with his \"Second String Quartet\" op. 13) he used the twelve-tone technique in all of the works to which he gave an opus number. In 1956 in his \"Three Blue Sketches\" op. 25 he combined dodecaphony with jazz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pupils.", "content": "Among his pupils were: Petr Kotík, Gunnar Sonstevold, Maj Sønstevold, Igor Štuhec, Erich Urbanner, Junsang Bahk, Anne-Marie Ørbeck, Gregory Rose, Dawid Engela and Heinz Karl Gruber. Alireza Mashayekhi, one of the most important representatives of new music in Persia (Iran), studied under Jelinek for a while.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hanns Jelinek (5 December 1901 – 27 January 1969) was an Austrian composer of Czech descent who is also known under the pseudonyms Hanns Elin, H. J. Hirsch, Jakob Fidelbogen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973986}
{"src_title": "Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Maria Anna was the eldest daughter of Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria and his wife Princess Henriette Adelaide of Savoy. Her maternal grandparents were Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy and Christine Marie of France, the second daughter of Henry IV of France and Marie de' Medici, thus her husband the dauphin was her second cousin.  Born in Munich, capital of the Electorate of Bavaria, Maria Anna was betrothed to the dauphin of France in 1668, at the age of eight, and was carefully educated to fulfill that role. Besides her native language of German, she was taught to speak French, Italian and Latin. She was said to have looked forward to the fate of becoming dauphine of France. Maria Anna was very close to her mother, who died in 1676. Her siblings included Violante of Bavaria, future wife of Ferdinando de' Medici as well as the future Elector of Bavaria, Maximilian II Emanuel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dauphine.", "content": "Prior to her marriage to the dauphin, there was a proxy ceremony in Munich on 28 January 1680; the couple would meet for the first time on 7 March 1680 in Châlons-sur-Marne. She was the first dauphine of France since Mary, Queen of Scots married Francis II of France in 1558.  Upon her marriage, Maria Anna took on the rank of her husband as a \"Fille de France\" (Daughter of France); this meant that she was entitled to the style \"Royal Highness\" and the form of address \"Madame la Dauphine\".  When she first arrived in France, Maria Anna made a good impression with her good French. When she entered Strasbourg, she was addressed in German, but interrupted the greeting by saying, \"Gentlemen, I speak French!\" The impression of her appearance, however, was not as good, and she was called \"terribly ugly\". Others said that although she may not have been beautiful, she did have personal charm. As soon as she married the dauphin, Maria Anna was the second most important woman at court after her mother-in-law, Queen Maria Theresa of Spain. When the queen died in July 1683, Maria Anna ranked as the most prominent female at court and was given the apartments of the late queen. The king expected her to perform the functions of the first lady at court, but her ill health made it very difficult for her to carry out her duties. The king was completely unsympathetic to her situation and accused her falsely of hypochondria.  Her husband took mistresses, and she lived an isolated life in her apartments, where she spoke with her friends in German, a language her husband could not understand. She was very close to a fellow German at court, Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, the wife of the king's younger brother Philippe. She was said to be depressed having to live at a court where beauty was so much prized, not being beautiful herself. She died in 1690. An autopsy revealed a multitude of internal disorders that completely vindicated her complaints of chronic and severe illness.  Maria Anna was buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria (28 November 1660 – 20 April 1690) was Dauphine of France by marriage to Louis, Grand Dauphin, son and heir of Louis XIV. She was known as the \"Dauphine Marie Anne Victoire\" or \"la Grande Dauphine\". The dauphine was regarded a \"pathetic\" figure at the court of France, isolated and unappreciated due to the perception that she was dull, unattractive and sickly.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973987}
{"src_title": "Pitot tube", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Theory of operation.", "content": "The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow. As this tube contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the moving fluid is brought to rest (stagnates) as there is no outlet to allow flow to continue. This pressure is the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total pressure or (particularly in aviation) the pitot pressure.  The measured stagnation pressure cannot itself be used to determine the fluid flow velocity (airspeed in aviation). However, Bernoulli's equation states:  Which can also be written  Solving that for flow velocity gives  where  NOTE: The above equation applies only to fluids that can be treated as incompressible. Liquids are treated as incompressible under almost all conditions. Gases under certain conditions can be approximated as incompressible. See Compressibility.  The dynamic pressure, then, is the difference between the stagnation pressure and the static pressure. The dynamic pressure is then determined using a diaphragm inside an enclosed container. If the air on one side of the diaphragm is at the static pressure, and the other at the stagnation pressure, then the deflection of the diaphragm is proportional to the dynamic pressure.  In aircraft, the static pressure is generally measured using the static ports on the side of the fuselage. The dynamic pressure measured can be used to determine the indicated airspeed of the aircraft. The diaphragm arrangement described above is typically contained within the airspeed indicator, which converts the dynamic pressure to an airspeed reading by means of mechanical levers.  Instead of separate pitot and static ports, a pitot-static tube (also called a Prandtl tube) may be employed, which has a second tube coaxial with the pitot tube with holes on the sides, outside the direct airflow, to measure the static pressure.  If a liquid column manometer is used to measure the pressure difference formula_7, where  Therefore,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aircraft.", "content": "A pitot-static system is a system of pressure-sensitive instruments that is most often used in aviation to determine an aircraft's airspeed, Mach number, altitude, and altitude trend. A pitot-static system generally consists of a pitot tube, a static port, and the pitot-static instruments. Errors in pitot-static system readings can be extremely dangerous as the information obtained from the pitot static system, such as airspeed, is potentially safety-critical.  Several commercial airline incidents and accidents have been traced to a failure of the pitot-static system. Examples include Austral Líneas Aéreas Flight 2553, Northwest Airlines Flight 6231, Birgenair Flight 301 and one of the two X-31s. The French air safety authority BEA said that pitot tube icing was a contributing factor in the crash of Air France Flight 447 into the Atlantic Ocean. In 2008 Air Caraïbes reported two incidents of pitot tube icing malfunctions on its A330s.  Birgenair Flight 301 had a fatal pitot tube failure which investigators suspected was due to insects creating a nest inside the pitot tube; the prime suspect is the black and yellow mud dauber wasp.  Aeroperú Flight 603 had a pitot-static system failure due to the cleaning crew leaving the static port blocked with tape.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry applications.", "content": "In industry, the flow velocities being measured are often those flowing in ducts and tubing where measurements by an anemometer would be difficult to obtain. In these kinds of measurements, the most practical instrument to use is the pitot tube. The pitot tube can be inserted through a small hole in the duct with the pitot connected to a U-tube water gauge or some other differential pressure gauge for determining the flow velocity inside the ducted wind tunnel. One use of this technique is to determine the volume of air that is being delivered to a conditioned space.  The fluid flow rate in a duct can then be estimated from:  In aviation, airspeed is typically measured in knots.  In weather stations with high wind speeds, the pitot tube is modified to create a special type of anemometer called pitot tube static anemometer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A pitot ( ) tube, also known as pitot probe, is a flow measurement device used to measure fluid flow velocity. The pitot tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in the early 18th century and was modified to its modern form in the mid-19th century by French scientist Henry Darcy. It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft, water speed of a boat, and to measure liquid, air and gas flow velocities in certain industrial applications.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973988}
{"src_title": "Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Geoffrey was the elder son of Fulk V of Anjou and Ermengarde of Maine. Geoffrey received his nickname from the yellow sprig of broom blossom (\"genêt\" is the French name for the \"planta genista\", or broom shrub) he wore in his hat. The chronicler John of Marmoutier described Geoffrey as handsome, red haired, jovial, and a great warrior. King Henry I of England, having heard reports on Geoffrey's talents and prowess, sent legates to Anjou to negotiate a marriage between Geoffrey and his daughter, Matilda. Consent was obtained from both parties, and on 10 June 1128 the fifteen-year-old Geoffrey was knighted in Rouen by King Henry, in preparation for the wedding.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Geoffrey and Matilda's marriage took place in 1128. The marriage was meant to seal a lasting peace between England, Normandy (an English possession since William I) and Anjou. She was eleven years older than Geoffrey, and very proud of her status as dowager Empress (as opposed to being a mere countess), and which she kept for the remainder of her life. Their marriage was a stormy but happy one with frequent long separations; she bore him three sons and survived him by over 15 years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Count of Anjou.", "content": "The year after the marriage Geoffrey's father left for Jerusalem (where he was to later become King of Jerusalem), leaving Geoffrey behind as count of Anjou.  When his father in law, King Henry I of England died in 1135, Geoffrey supported Matilda in entering Normandy to claim her rightful inheritance. The border districts submitted to her, but England chose her first cousin Stephen of Blois for its king, and Normandy soon followed suit. The following year, Geoffrey gave Ambrieres, Gorron, and Chatilon-sur-Colmont to Juhel de Mayenne, on condition that he help obtain the inheritance of Geoffrey's wife.  In 1139 Matilda landed in England with 140 knights, where she was besieged at Arundel Castle by King Stephen. In the 'Anarchy' which ensued, Stephen was captured at Lincoln in February 1141, and imprisoned at Bristol. A legatine council of the English church held at Winchester in April 1141 declared Stephen deposed and proclaimed Matilda \"\"Lady of the English\"\".  During 1142 and 1143, Geoffrey secured all of Normandy west and south of the Seine, and, on 14 January 1144, he crossed the Seine and entered Rouen. He assumed the title of Duke of Normandy in the summer of 1144. In 1144, he founded an Augustine priory at Château-l'Hermitage in Anjou. Geoffrey held the duchy until 1149, when he and Matilda conjointly ceded it to their son, Henry, which cession was formally ratified by King Louis VII of France the following year.  Geoffrey also put down three baronial rebellions in Anjou, in 1129, 1135 and 1145–1151. He was often at odds with his younger brother, Elias, whom he had imprisoned until Elias died in 1151. The threat of rebellion slowed his progress in Normandy, and is one reason he could never intervene in England. Geoffrey died later the same year, aged 38, and Henry took his father’s place as head of the Plantagenet ducal house. In 1153, the Treaty of Wallingford stipulated that Stephen should remain King of England for life and that Henry, the son of Geoffrey and Matilda should succeed him, beginning the Plantagenet era in English history.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Geoffrey died suddenly on 7 September 1151. According to John of Marmoutier, Geoffrey was returning from a royal council when he was stricken with fever. He arrived at Château-du-Loir, collapsed on a couch, made bequests of gifts and charities, and died. His wife and sons outlived him. He was buried at St Julien's Cathedral in Le Mans France, and his son Henry succeeded him as Duke of Normandy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Geoffrey and Matilda's children were:  Geoffrey also had illegitimate children by an unknown mistress (or mistresses): Hamelin who married Isabel de Warenne, 4th Countess of Surrey; Emme, who married Dafydd Ab Owain Gwynedd, Prince of North Wales; and Mary, who became a nun and Abbess of Shaftesbury and who may be the poet Marie de France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early heraldry.", "content": "An enamel effigy (funerary plaque) commissioned by his widow to decorate the tomb of Geoffrey of Anjou is one of the earliest examples of European heraldry. Jean de Marmentier, a late-12th-century chronicler, reported that in 1128 Henry I of England knighted his son-in-law Geoffrey and granted him a badge of gold lions. A gold lion may already have been Henry's own badge, and different lion motifs would later be used by many of his descendants. The enamel shows Geoffrey with a blue shield depicting gold lions, apparently the same motif later used by a grandson of Geoffrey, William Longespee. In addition to being one of the first authentic representations of a coat of arms, according to British historian Jim Bradbury it \"suggests possible evidence for the early use of what became the English royal arms\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Geoffrey V (24 August 1113 – 7 September 1151), called the Handsome, the Fair () or Plantagenet, was the Count of Anjou, Touraine and Maine by inheritance from 1129, and also Duke of Normandy by conquest from 1144. His marriage to the Empress Matilda, daughter and heiress of Henry I of England, which produced a son, Henry Curtmantle, who succeeded to the English throne as King Henry II (1154–1189) and was the first of the Plantagenet dynasty to rule England for centuries. The name \"Plantagenet\" was taken from Geoffrey's epithet. Geoffrey's ancestral domain of Anjou gave rise to the name Angevin, and what became known as the Angevin Empire in the 12th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973989}
{"src_title": "Street punk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Street punk music is characterized by single-note guitar lines and short solos. Unlike similar genres, such as traditional hardcore punk, street punk bands sometimes consisted of two guitarists, one of which plays guitar melodies while not singing. Street punk also makes frequent use of communal vocals, gang vocals, and sing–along choruses. Street punk lyrics commonly address topics including fighting, drinking, partying, inner-city turmoil or personal relationships. Street punk bands sometimes express political viewpoints, typically of a left-wing variety, although some street punks eschew politics altogether in favor of a more hedonistic, nihilistic outlook.  Punk veteran Felix Havoc said:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins (1980s).", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "UK 82.", "content": "UK 82 (also known as \"UK hardcore\", \"second wave punk\" or \"No Future punk\") took the existing punk sound and added faster drumbeats and an aggressive distorted guitar sound. The term \"UK 82\" is taken from the title of a song by The Exploited. Cross-pollination existed between this era of British street punk and American hardcore punk.  The lyrics of UK 82 bands tended to be much darker and more violent than the lyrics of earlier punk bands. They tended to focus on the possibilities of a nuclear holocaust, and other apocalyptic themes, partially due to the military tension of the Cold War atmosphere. The other mainstay of the lyrics of the era was unemployment, and the policies of the Conservative Party government. Lyrics frequently denounced the Conservative leader Margaret Thatcher in the same way that American hardcore punk bands addressed the Ronald Reagan administration.  The three most prominent UK82 bands, according to Ian Glasper, are The Exploited, Discharge, and Charged GBH. The Exploited were controversial due to their aggressive lyrics and rowdy concerts, and were considered by Glasper to be \"cartoon punks\". Glasper wrote: \"For many, The Exploited were the quintessential second wave punk band with their senses-searing high-speed outbursts against the system, and wild-eyed frontman Walter 'Wattie' Buchan's archetypal orange mohican.\" Discharge's early work proved to be enormously influential, providing the blueprint for an entire subgenre. Their later work, however, has been described as moving into heavy metal.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "D-beat.", "content": "D-beat (also known as \"Discore\" or \"käng\" (boot), in Sweden) was developed in the early 1980s by imitators of the band Discharge, for whom the genre is named. The first such group was The Varukers. The vocal content of D-beat tends towards shouted slogans. The style is distinct from its predecessors by its minimal lyrical content and greater proximity to heavy metal. It is closely associated with crust punk, which is a heavier, more complex variation. D-beat bands typically have anti-war, anarchist messages and closely follow the bleak nuclear war imagery of 1980s anarcho-punk bands. The style was particularly popular in Sweden, and was developed there by groups such as Anti Cimex and Mob 47.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Revival (1990s and 2000s).", "content": "In the 1990s, a new era of street punk began with emerging street punk bands like The Casualties, Rancid Cheap Sex, The Unseen, The Virus, A Global Threat, Clit 45, Career Soldiers, The Krays, Defiance, and Lower Class Brats. Many of these bands were signed by Punk Core Records.  The Casualties became one of the most well-known street punk bands and achieved underground success. Their 2004 album \"On the Front Line\" peaked at number 8 on the Independent Albums chart. \"On the Front Line\" and The Casualties' 2006 album \"Under Attack\" peaked at numbers 7 and 9 on the Heatseekers Albums chart, respectively.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Street punk (sometimes alternatively spelled streetpunk) is an urban working class-based subgenre of hardcore punk, partly as a rebellion against the perceived artistic pretensions of the first wave of British punk. Street punk emerged from the style of early Oi! bands such as Sham 69 and Cockney Rejects, and the Oi! bands that followed them such as Blitz, The Business and Angelic Upstarts. A key band in defining the aesthetic was The Exploited. However, street punk continued beyond the confines of the original Oi! form with bands such as GBH, Chaos UK, Discharge, The Anti-Nowhere League and Oxymoron. Street punks generally have a much more ostentatious and flamboyant appearance than the working class or skinhead image cultivated by many Oi! groups. Street punks commonly sported multi-coloured hair, mohawks, tattoos, heavily studded vests and leather jackets, and clothing, especially plaids, adorned with political slogans, patches, and/or the names of punk bands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973990}
{"src_title": "Wilhelm Miklas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born as the son of a post official in Krems, in the Cisleithanian crown land of Lower Austria, Miklas graduated from high school at and went on to study history and geography at the University of Vienna. From 1905 to 1922, Miklas was headmaster of the in Horn, a small town in the Lower Austrian Waldviertel region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early political career.", "content": "While serving in his role for the Christian Social Party, he was, 1907, elected to the Imperial Council (\"Reichsrat\") parliament. Re-elected in 1911, Miklas held a parliamentary seat in the provisional assembly of German-Austria and in the Constitutional Assembly of the First Austrian Republic. A rare opponent of German nationalism, he declared himself against a closer connection with the Weimar Republic and played a pivotal role in adopting the red-white-red Austrian flag.  In 1919, Miklas was appointed state secretary in the Austrian government of Chancellor Karl Renner. From 1923 to 1928, he was the speaker of the National Council (\"Nationalrat\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "On 10 December 1928, the representatives of the Federal Assembly elected him President, which he served until the position ceased to exist ten years later. Miklas did not intervene, when on 4 March 1933 after a heated discussion in the \"Nationalrat\" parliament over a strike of federal railways employees Speaker Karl Renner as well as his deputies Rudolf Ramek and Sepp Straffner resigned their offices. The assembly was no longer capable for actions and decisions, which gave Miklas' party fellow Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss the pretext to declare the parliament's \"self-elimination\". The government obstructed any resumption of the session by massive presence of police forces as well as of paramilitary \"Heimwehr\" troops led by Emil Fey, a self-coup Thar enabled Dollfuss to rule by \"emergency decrees\" following the Article 48 example set by German President Paul von Hindenburg.  The president remained passive on 20 May, when the government established the Fatherland's Front as a prospective single-party, followed by the ban of the Communist Party, the Austrian branch of the Nazi Party and the Social Democratic \"Republikanischer Schutzbund\" paramilitary organisation. The prohibition of the \"Arbeiter-Zeitung\" (Worker's Newspaper) and the measures against the Austrian labour movement led to the outbreak of the Austrian Civil War on 12 February 1934. As a result, also the Social Democratic Party was banned and the Austrofascist ideology finally realized with the implementation of the Federal State of Austria (\"Ständestaat\"). The authoritarian measures had no effect on the office of the President. In his private records, Miklas clearly condemned the violation of the constitution by Dollfuss and his successor Kurt Schuschnigg, but he did not openly criticise the government's policies.  Miklas was highly unpopular among Austrian Nazis, as he refused to commute the death sentences imposed on assassins of Dollfuss after the failed July Putsch in 1934. In view of the rising pressure by Nazi Germany, the Austrofascist state approached the Kingdom of Italy under \"Duce\" Benito Mussolini and the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1936, Miklas entertained Regent Miklós Horthy at Wörthersee.  After Schuschnigg on 12 February 1938 had been summoned to the Berghof by Adolf Hitler to receive German demands, Miklas offered amnesty to the jailed Nazi members but initially refused to turn over the national police force to their leader Arthur Seyss-Inquart. However, when Hitler ordered Wehrmacht operations along the border, the president was forced to give in and installed Seyss-Inquart as Austrian Minister of the Interior.  On 9 March 1938, Schuschnigg announced a plebiscite on Austrian independence to be held within four days. In turn, on 11 March Hermann Göring demanded that Seyss-Inquart replace Schuschnigg as chancellor; otherwise, German forces would overrun Austria the following day. While a Nazi mob invaded the chancellery, Schuschnigg declared his resignation (\"yielding to force\"). Miklas again refused to appoint Seyss-Inquart but was not able to present a non-Nazi candidate. After Hitler received the confirmation from Mussolini that Italy would not interfere, he gave orders that German troops would invade at dawn the following day (\"Unternehmen Otto\"). Miklas capitulated at midnight, announcing that he had instated Seyss-Inquart as new chancellor. Seyss-Inquart hectically spoke on the phone with the Nazi authorities in Berlin, but it was too late. When German troops rolled over the border at dawn the next day, they met with no resistance by the Austrian Armed Forces and were largely greeted as heroes.  Miklas, for his initial refusal, ended up under house arrest but was protected from Nazi mistreatment by the future Waffen-SS Colonel Otto Skorzeny during the days of the \"Anschluss\". With the promulgation of a \"law concerning the re-unification of Austria with the German Reich\" by Seyss-Inquart on 13 March, the offices of both the Austrian chancellor and of the Austrian president were terminated. While Schuschnigg was imprisoned, Miklas abandoned the political sphere and retired, receiving his pension unmolested.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After World War II.", "content": "After World War II, Miklas refused to run again for presidency, in favour of Karl Renner.  He died on 20 March 1956 in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wilhelm Miklas (15 October 187220 March 1956) was an Austrian politician who served as President of Austria from 1928 until the \"Anschluss\" to Nazi Germany in 1938.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973991}
{"src_title": "Mötley Crüe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1981–1983: Early history and \"Too Fast for Love\".", "content": "Mötley Crüe was formed on January 17, 1981, when bassist Nikki Sixx left the band London and began rehearsing with drummer Tommy Lee and vocalist/guitarist Greg Leon. Lee had previously worked with Leon in a band called Suite 19 and the trio practiced together for some time; Leon eventually decided not to continue with them. Sixx and Lee then began a search for new members and soon met guitarist Bob Deal, better known as Mick Mars, after answering an advertisement that he placed in \"The Recycler\" that read: \"Loud, rude and aggressive guitar player available\". Mars auditioned for Sixx and Lee, and was subsequently hired. Although a lead vocalist named O'Dean was auditioned, Lee had known Vince Neil from their high school days at Charter Oak", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1983–1991: International fame and addiction struggles.", "content": "The band became rapidly successful in the United States after playing at the US Festival and also with the aid of the new medium of MTV. Their second album, \"Shout at the Devil\", was released in September 1983. The album represented the band's mainstream breakthrough and would eventually be certified 4x platinum. The album generated controversy for its title track and album imagery, both of which invoked Satanism. They then gained the attention of heavy metal legend Ozzy Osbourne and found themselves as the opening act for Osbourne on his 1984 Bark at the Moon Tour. The band members were well known for their backstage antics, outrageous clothing, extreme high-heeled boots, heavily applied make-up, and seemingly endless abuse of alcohol and drugs as well.  The band members also had their share of scrapes with the law. On December 8, 1984, Neil was driving home from a liquor run in his De Tomaso Pantera which ended in a head-on collision; his passenger, Hanoi Rocks drummer Nicholas \"Razzle\" Dingley, was killed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1992–2003: Years of turmoil.", "content": "After \"Decade of Decadence\", Neil left in February 1992, at a time when other bands in the 1980s glam metal scene (Ratt, Stryper, White Lion, Winger, Europe, and Britny Fox) broke up amid the advent of grunge. Controversy persists over whether Neil was fired or quit. Sixx has long maintained that Neil quit. However, Neil insists that he was fired. \"Any band has its little spats,\" Neil observed in 2000, \"and this one basically just stemmed from a bunch of 'fuck you's in a rehearsal studio. It went from 'I quit' to 'You're fired'... It was handled idiotically. The management just let one of the biggest bands in the world break up.\"  In the running for the vacant frontman position was Kik Tracee vocalist Stephen Shareaux. Ultimately Neil was replaced by John Corabi (formerly of Angora and the Scream). Although Mötley's self-titled March 1994 release made the \"Billboard\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2004–2007: Reunion and renewed success.", "content": "A promoter in England, Mags Revell, began clamoring for a Mötley Crüe reunion, ostensibly presenting himself as the voice of anxious fans waiting for more from the band. After meeting with management several times, in September 2004, Sixx announced that he and Neil had returned to the studio and had begun recording new material. In December 2004, the four original members announced a reunion tour, staging an announcement event in which they arrived at the Hollywood Palladium in a hearse. The tour began on February 14,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2008–2010: \"Saints of Los Angeles\".", "content": "The band hosted the Motley Cruise from January 24 to 28 in 2008; this featured Ratt, Skid Row & Slaughter.  On June 11, 2008, Mötley Crüe and manager Burt Stein filed suit against each other. Stein was Neil's personal manager and also, according to the band and rival manager Kovac, served as the band's manager at one time. The band and Kovac sued in Los Angeles County Superior Court, claiming Stein was not entitled to a cut of Mötley Crüe's earnings. Stein", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011–2015: The Final Tour and retirement from touring.", "content": "Mötley Crüe co-headlined a mid-year tour with Poison and special guests New York Dolls in 2011 for the band's 30th Anniversary and Poison's 25th anniversary. On August 30, 2011, Mötley Crüe, along with co-headliners Def Leppard and special guests Steel Panther, announced a UK Tour commencing in December 2011.  In February 2012 the band appeared along with supermodel Adriana Lima in a commercial for the Kia Optima, which premiered during Super Bowl XLVI. February 2012 also saw the band host its first residency at the Hard Rock Hotel", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018–present: Reunion, \"The Dirt\" autobiography, film, new music and return to touring.", "content": "On September 13, 2018, frontman Vince Neil announced on his Twitter account that Mötley Crüe was recording four new songs; this was later also confirmed by bassist Nikki Sixx, who said that the new material was recorded for the film adaptation of the band's biography, \"The Dirt\". Neil also clarified that, though the band has signed a contract to no longer tour, they still plan to continue putting out new music for the future.  Netflix released \"The Dirt\" biopic based on the book", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy and influence.", "content": "Music critic Martin Popoff's book \"The Top 500 Heavy Metal Songs of All Time\" lists seven of the band's songs in its ranking. Mötley Crüe was ranked tenth on MTV's list of \"Top 10 Heavy Metal Bands of All-Time\" and ninth on \"VH1's All Time Top Ten Metal Bands\". Music website Loudwire named the band the 22nd greatest metal band of all-time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Band members.", "content": "Current members  Former members  Touring musicians", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mötley Crüe is an American heavy metal band formed in Los Angeles in 1981. The group was founded by bassist Nikki Sixx, drummer Tommy Lee, lead guitarist Mick Mars and lead singer Vince Neil. Mötley Crüe has sold over 100 million albums worldwide. They have also achieved seven platinum or multi-platinum certifications, nine Top 10 albums on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart (including 1989's \"Dr. Feelgood\", which is Mötley Crüe's only album to reach number one), twenty-two Top 40 mainstream rock hits, and six Top 20 pop singles. The band experienced several short-term lineup changes in the 1990s and 2000s; these included the introduction of vocalist John Corabi (who was Neil's replacement from 1992 to 1996) and drummers Randy Castillo and Samantha Maloney, both of whom filled in for Lee during his absence from the band from 1999 to 2004.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973992}
{"src_title": "Georges Florovsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Georgiy Vasilievich Florovsky was born in Russian Empire on 9 September 1893 at Odessa (then in the Kherson Governorate of the Russian Empire), as the fourth child of an Orthodox Christian priest. Raised in an erudite environment, he learned English, German, French, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew while a schoolboy, and at eighteen he started to study philosophy and history. He graduated from the University of Odessa in 1916.  After his first graduation he taught for three years at high schools in Odessa, and then made his full graduation including the licentia docendi at all universities in the Russian empire.  In 1919 Florovsky began to teach at the University of Odessa; but in 1920 his family was forced to leave Russia. Florovsky realized at that time that there would be no return for him, because Marxism did not accept the history and philosophy he taught. He was part of the emigration of Russian intelligentsia, which also included Nikolai Berdyaev, Sergei Bulgakov, Nicholas Lossky and his son Vladimir Lossky, Alexander Schmemann, and John Meyendorff (the last two of whom would follow him in the USA as Dean of Saint Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary, New York).  In the 1920s Florovsky had a personal and vocational friendship with the existentialist philosopher Nikolai Berdyaev, but the two became distanced later, through Berdyaev's not understanding Florovsky's ordination to the presbyterate (1932), and because of the critical attitude to Berdyaev's philosophy of religion expressed in Florovsky's \"Ways of Russian Theology\" (1937).  In 1924 Florovsky received his M.A. in Prague. In 1925 he became professor of patristics at the St. Serge Institute of Orthodox Theology in Paris. In this subject he found his vocation. The lively debates of the thinkers of the early Church became for him a benchmark for Christian theology and exegesis, as well as a base for his critique of the ecumenical movement, and despite his not having earned an academic degree in theology (he was later awarded several honorary degrees) he would spend the rest of his life teaching at theological institutions. In 1932 Florovsky was ordained priest of the Orthodox Church. During the 1930s he undertook extensive research in European libraries and published in Russian valuable patristic studies, such as his book on 'Eastern fathers of the fourth century' (1931) and 'The Byzantine fathers fifth to eighth centuries' (1933). These were followed by his magnum opus, \"Ways of Russian Theology\" (1937). In this work he questioned the Western-European Christian influences of scholasticism, pietism, and idealism on Orthodox, and especially Russian, Christian theology, and called for its reformulation in the light of patristic writings. The work was received with enthusiasm or condemnation—there was no neutral attitude to it among Russian émigrés. One of his most prominent critics was Nikolai Berdyaev. Florovsky remained professor of patristics at the Institute until 1939, and from 1939 to 1948 taught there as professor of dogmatics.  In 1949 Florovsky moved to the United States of America, to take a position as Dean of Saint Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary in New York City. There his development of the curriculum led to the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York granting the Seminary an Absolute Charter in 1953.  In 1955 Florovsky was asked by his synod overseers to \"lay down the deanship.\" He became a professor of divinity at Harvard University, and ended his academic years as a professor at Princeton University.  He died on 11 August 1979.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georges Vasilievich Florovsky (Russian: Гео́ргий Васи́льевич Флоро́вский; September 9 [O.S. August 28], 1893 – August 11, 1979) was an Orthodox Christian priest, theologian, historian and ecumenist. Born in Odessa, in the Russian Empire, he spent his working life in Paris (1920–1949) and New York (1949–1979). With Sergei Bulgakov, Vladimir Lossky, Justin Popović and Dumitru Stăniloae he was one of the more influential Orthodox Christian theologians of the mid-20th century. He was particularly concerned that modern Christian theology might receive inspiration from the lively intellectual debates of the patristic traditions of the undivided Church rather than from later Scholastic or Reformation categories of thought.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973993}
{"src_title": "Fashion photography", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Fashion photography has been in existence since the earliest days of photography. In 1856, Adolphe Braun published a book containing 288 photographs of Virginia Oldoini, Countess di Castiglione, a Tuscan noblewoman at the court of Napoleon III. The photos depict her in her official court garb, making her the first fashion model.  In the first decade of the 20th century, advances in halftone printing allowed fashion photographs to be used in magazines. Fashion photography made its first appearance in French and American magazines such as \"La mode pratique\" and \"Harper's Bazaar\". In 1909, Condé Nast took over \"Vogue\" magazine and also contributed to the beginnings of fashion photography. In 1911, photographer Edward Steichen was \"dared\" by Lucien Vogel, the publisher of \"Jardin des Modes\" and \"La Gazette du Bon Ton\", to promote fashion as a fine art by the use of photography. Steichen then took photos of gowns designed by \"couturier\" Paul Poiret. These photographs were published in the April 1911 issue of the magazine \"Art et Décoration\". According to Jesse Alexander, This is \"...now considered to be the first ever modern fashion photography shoot. That is, photographing the garments in such a way as to convey a sense of their physical quality as well as their formal appearance, as opposed to simply illustrating the object.\"  \"Vogue\" was followed by its rival, \"Harper's Bazaar\", and the two companies were leaders in the field of fashion photography throughout the 1920s and 1930s. House photographers such as Steichen, George Hoyningen-Huene, Horst P. Horst and Cecil Beaton transformed the genre into an outstanding art form.  In the mid-1930s as World War II approached, the focus shifted to the United States, where \"Vogue\" and \"Harper's\" continued their old rivalry. In 1936, Martin Munkacsi made the first photographs of models in sporty poses at the beach. Under the artistic direction of Alexey Brodovitch, \"Harper's Bazaar\" quickly introduced this new style into its magazine.House photographers such as Irving Penn, Martin Munkacsi, Richard Avedon, and Louise Dahl-Wolfe would shape the look of fashion photography for the following decades. Richard Avedon revolutionized fashion photography — and redefined the role of the fashion photographer — in the post-World War II era with his imaginative images of the modern woman.  From 1939 and onward, what had previously been the flourishing and sizeable industry of fashion photography all but stopped due to the beginnings of World War II. The United States and Europe quickly diverged from one another. What had previously been a togetherness and inspired working relationship diverged with Paris occupied and London under siege. Paris, the main fashion-power house of the time quickly became isolated from the United States—especially with \"Vogue Paris\" shutting down for a brief hiatus in 1940. With these changes, the photography based out of the USA gained a distinct Americana vibe—models often posed with flags, American brand cars, and generally just fulfilling the American ideal. What did remain of the French and British fashion photography on the other hand often had a wartime overlay to the content. Cecil Beaton’s ‘Fashion is Indestructible’ from 1941 displays a well-dressed woman viewing the rubble that once was Middle Temple in London. Similarly, Lee Miller began taking photos of women in Paris and London, modeling the latest designs for gas masks and bicycling with pincurlers in their hair, as they did not have electricity with which to curl their hair. Images such as these remain scarred into the face of fashion photography of the time and display a common sentiment among the fashionable world and the public. Even fashion photographers worked to document the issues surrounding and work towards a documentation of the time—even if within the frame of fashion. These photos are an especially good indication of the fashionable emotions of the time. Many felt that fashion photography, during wartime especially, was frivolous and unnecessary. Yet, the few who worked to preserve the industry did so in new and inventive ways throughout the duration of the war.  In postwar London, John French pioneered a new form of fashion photography suited to reproduction in newsprint, involving natural light and low contrast.  In the recent years fashion photography gained an even greater popularity due to the expansion of internet and ecommerce. Clean product, knolling and ghost mannequin photography have become a usual practice in the fashion industry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contemporary fashion photography.", "content": "After the deaths of Richard Avedon, Helmut Newton, Francesco Scavullo, Herb Ritts, Gleb Derujinsky and Peter Lindbergh, some of today's most famous fashion photographers are Patrick Demarchelier, Steven Meisel, Mario Testino and Annie Leibovitz.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fashion photography is a genre of photography which is devoted to displaying clothing and other fashion items. Fashion photography is most often conducted for advertisements or fashion magazines such as \"Vogue\", \"Vanity Fair\", or \"Elle\". Fashion photography has developed its own aesthetic in which the clothes and fashions are enhanced by the presence of exotic locations or accessories.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973994}
{"src_title": "Pierre Pflimlin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Pflimlin was born in Roubaix in the Nord department.  A lawyer and a member of the Christian democratic Popular Republican Movement (MRP), he was elected deputy of département Bas Rhin in 1945. With his personal roots in Alsace, Pflimlin numbered among his MRP party colleagues the Luxembourg-born Robert Schuman; for both, relations with Germany played an important role in their political thinking.  He held some governmental offices during the Fourth Republic, notably as Minister of Agriculture (1947–1949 and 1950–1951) and as Minister of Economy and Finance (1955–1956 and 1957–1958).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime minister of France.", "content": "On 13 May 1958, the French National Assembly approved his nomination as Prime Minister. But the same day, riots took place in Algiers. The French generals in Algeria feared he would arrange for a negotiated solution with the Algerian nationalists giving them control of Algeria. They refused to recognize his cabinet. At this point the leading politicians deserted him, including Guy Mollet, Vincent Auriol, and Antoine Pinay. The crisis brought Charles de Gaulle as Prime Minister on 1 June.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subsequent public offices.", "content": "Pflimlin was Minister of State until 1959. As Minister of Cooperation in 1962, he resigned with the other MRP ministers in order to protest against the euro-scepticism of de Gaulle.  Pflimlin served as the first Catholic mayor of Strasbourg from 1959 to 1983.  He also was the President of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe from 1963 to 1966 and President of the European Parliament from 1984 to 1987.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "The Pierre Pflimlin bridge over the Rhine south of Strasbourg, connecting France to Germany, is named after him and was opened in 2002.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government (14 May – 1 June 1958).", "content": "Changes:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Eugène Jean Pflimlin (; 5 February 1907 – 27 June 2000) was a French Christian democratic politician who served as the Prime Minister of the Fourth Republic for a few weeks in 1958, before being replaced by Charles de Gaulle during the crisis of that year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973995}
{"src_title": "FL Studio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first version of FruityLoops (1.0.0) was developed by Didier Dambrin and was partially released in December 1997. Its official launch was in early 1998, when it was still a four-channel MIDI drum machine. Dambrin became Chief Software Architect for the program, and it quickly underwent a series of large upgrades that made it into a popular and complex digital audio workstation.  FruityLoops was renamed FL Studio in 2003, after the threat of a lawsuit from Kellogg's and to improve the software's marketability. Software piracy was a major issue in the company's early days, and it took nearly five years for the company to earn money from users purchasing legitimate licenses.  On 22 May 2018, a macOS-compatible version of FL Studio was released.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "FL Studio comes in several editions with different levels of functionality. The free demo version includes all of the program's features, all plugins, and allows users to render project audio to WAV, MIDI, MP3, and OGG. Projects saved while in demo mode, however, can only be opened once FL Studio and its plugins have been registered. Also, instrument presets cannot be saved and the audio output of some instruments will cut out momentarily every few minutes until the program and its plugins have been registered.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "FL Studio Express.", "content": "This version allows for step sequencer-only editing and is intended for 64-step loop creation. Each pattern can consist of an unlimited number of instruments—either samples, native instruments, or VST instruments. Instruments in the pattern can be routed to the Mixer tool for effects processing, and effects as of version 10.0 include Delay, Delay Bank, EQUO, Flangus, Love Philter, Vocoder, Parametric EQ & EQ2, Multiband Compressor, Spectroman, Stereo Enhancer, Wave Candy, Wave Shaper, and Soundgoodizer. There is no piano roll, playlist ability, automation, audio recording, or VST/ReWire client.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Fruity Edition.", "content": "The Fruity Edition allows users to access the playlist, piano roll, and event automation features, which allow for complex and lengthy arranging and sequencing. There is also VST/ReWire support so that FL Studio can be an instrument in other hosts such as Cubase, Sonic Solutions, Logic, and other software. As of version 10.0 this edition includes the Simsynth Live synthesizer instrument, the DrumSynth live percussion synthesizer, the DX10FM synthesizer, and the Wasp/Wasp XT synthesizers. There is no audio recording feature. In FL Studio 12, this edition was given (spline-based) automation.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Producer Edition.", "content": "The Producer Edition includes all of the features of the Fruity Edition, as well as full recording for internal and external audio and post-production tools. It allows for hand-drawing point and curve based splines (referred to as \"Automation Clips\"). Plugins include Edison, Slicex (loop slicer and re-arranger), Sytrus, Maximus, Vocodex and Synthmaker. It also allows for waveform viewing of audio clips and the ability to add cue points.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Signature Bundle.", "content": "This edition includes the Producer Edition as well as a series of plugins such as the Fruity Video player, DirectWave Sampler, Harmless, NewTone, Pitcher, Gross Beat and the Hardcore Guitar Effects Suite.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "All Plugins Bundle.", "content": "The All Plugins Bundle includes the Signature Bundle along with extra plugins, particularly synthesizers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Mobile.", "content": "On June 21, 2011, Image-Line released FL Studio Mobile for iOS and in April 2013 for Android. Both support the ability to create multi-track projects on mobile devices including iPod Touches, iPhones, iPads., Android 2.3.3 and higher Smart Phones and Tablets.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Groove.", "content": "On September 2, 2013, a new standalone app for Windows 8 was released. It is a Groovebox-style application optimised for touch-based music creation.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "System requirements.", "content": "FL Studio 20 works on Windows 8/10 (32-bit or 64-bit versions) or on macOS 10.13. FL Studio requires a 2 GHz AMD or Intel Pentium 3 CPU with full SSE1 support. It requires 2 GB of free disk space and 4 GB of RAM is recommended. The website states that \"the more powerful your CPU, the more instruments and FX you can run.\"  FL Studio processes audio using an internal 32-bit floating point engine. It supports sampling rates up to 192 kHz using either WDM or ASIO enabled drivers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Program features.", "content": "The mixer interface allows for any number of channel configurations. This allows mixing in 2.1, 5.1, or 7.1 surround sound, as long as the output hardware interface has an equivalent number of outputs. The mixer also supports audio-in, enabling FL Studio to record multitrack audio.  FL Studio supports audio time stretching and pitch scaling, beat slicing, chopping, and editing of audio, and as of version 12.9 it can record up to 125 simultaneous audio tracks. Other key features include a digital piano roll. Audio can be imported or exported as WAV, MP3, OGG, FLAC, MIDI, ZIP, or the native project format with an.FLP filename extension.  The demo allows users to save projects, but does not allow re-opening them. Tracks may be exported to any of the available file formats.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plug-ins.", "content": "FL Studio comes with a variety of plugins and generators (software synthesizers) written in the program's own native plugin architecture. FL Studio also has support for third-party VST and DirectX plugins. The API has a built in wrapper for full VST, VST2, VST3, DX, and ReWire compatibility. Many of the plugins also function independently as standalone programs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Virtual effects.", "content": "FL Studio is bundled with a variety of sound processing effects, including common audio effects such as chorus, compression, distortion, delay, flanger, phaser, reverb, gate, equalization, vocoding, maximization, and limiting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Synthesizers.", "content": "FL Studio is bundled with 32 generator plugins (October 2011). Some are demos whilst some are full versions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "FL Studio has been praised for its simplicity, power, and ease of use. Jamie Lendino of \"PCMag\" wrote that \"While [FL Studio is] still clearly geared for electronic music production 'in the box,' as opposed to recording live musicians playing acoustic instruments, you can record or create just about any kind of audio project with it.\" Criticisms include a difficult audio recording system, poor support for bulk manipulation of instruments, and an unappealing user interface.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "FL Studio (until 2003 known as FruityLoops) is a digital audio workstation (DAW) developed by the Belgian company Image-Line. FL Studio features a graphical user interface with a pattern-based music sequencer. The program is available in four different editions for Microsoft Windows and macOS.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973996}
{"src_title": "Iberian ibex", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The Iberian ibex \"Capra pyrenaica\" populates the Iberian Peninsula and consisted originally of four subspecies. However, with recent extinctions occurring within the last century, only two of the subspecies still exist. These two subspecies of ibexes, \"C. p. hispanica\" and \"C. p. victoriae\", can be found along the Spanish Iberian Peninsula and have even migrated and settled into the coast of Portugal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "\"C. pyrenaica\" are strong mountainous animals characterized by their large and flexible hooves and short legs. These physical adaptations allow them to be able to run and leap on bare, rocky, rough, and steep slopes. This gives them an advantage over potential predators that cannot reach them because of the terrain. The Iberian ibex also shows remarkable sexual dimorphism, with males being greater in size and weight and also having larger horns than the females. The horns of the ibexes are different among wild caprids as they curve out and up and then back, inward, and, depending on subspecies, either up again or down. The annual horn growth is influenced principally by age but can also be contributed by environmental factors and the growth made in the previous year. Even though the female ibexes are smaller, they have a faster ossification process and typically finish full bone development nearly two years before males.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mating.", "content": "Iberian ibex establish two types of social groups: male-only groups and females with young juvenile groups. It is during rutting season (November/December) that the males interact with the females in order to reproduce. Allocation to testes mass was greatest in the rutting season, particularly at ages that are associated with a subordinate status and a coursing, rather than mate-guarding, reproductive strategy. Mixed groups are also common during the rest of the winter. During the birth season, the yearling are separated from the female groups at the time of the new births. The males are the first to separate and return to their male-only groups while the female yearlings eventually return to their mothers and spend their next few years with the group.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Predatory response.", "content": "The Spanish ibex has a unique way of signaling others when a potential predator has been spotted. First the ibex will have an erect posture with its ears and head pointing in the direction of the potential predator. The caller will then signal the other ibexes in the group with one or more alarm calls. Once the group has heard the alarm calls, they will flee to another area that is usually an advantageous vantage point like a rocky slope where the predator cannot reach. The ibex usually flees in a very coordinated fashion that is led by an experienced adult female in female-juvenile groups and an experienced male in male-only groups. This possibly allows the group to escape in a more efficient way as the more experienced ibex will know which slope to run to. However, since their alarm calls consists of an abrupt explosive whistle, it can easily be heard by predators and quickly be located even from a distance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "The Iberian ibex is generally a mixed feeder between a browser and a grazer, depending on the plant availability in their home range. Thus, the percentage of each type of resource that is consumed will vary altitudinally, geographically, and seasonally. The ibex also has a special mechanism in the kidney that stores fat in order to be used as energy during the cold winter times. The highest body storage of kidney fat can be found during the productive warm seasons and the lowest during the cold period. The body storage is characterized by the limited food resources. Foraging in ibexes is also different depending on the season. When food resources are low during the winter, ibexes would reduce their rates of movement when foraging. However, during the spring season, when food is more available, they would increase their rate of movement and become more mobile in finding food. This would be the ideal trend of movement since the spring season is more abundant in food resources meaning that there is more competition for food resources forcing some to trek farther in order to obtain food.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Preservation.", "content": "The populations of \"Capra pyrenaica\" have decreased significantly over the last centuries. This is probably due to a combination of contributing factors such as hunting pressure, agricultural development and habitat deterioration. Around 1890, one of its subspecies, \"C. pyrenaica lusitanica\", also known as the Portuguese ibex, became extinct from its range in the Portuguese Serra do Gerês and Galicia. By the mid-nineteenth century, another of the four subspecies, the Pyrenean ibex, had lost most of its range. It finally became extinct in January 2000, when the last adult female died in the Ordesa National Park. There are also a number of threats to the future preservation of the Spanish ibex such as population overabundance, disease, and potential competition with domestic livestock and other ungulates, along with the negative effects of human disturbance through tourism and hunting. Recently ibexes from southern Spain have become exposed to disease outbreaks such as sarcoptic mange. This disease, potentially fatal for infected individuals, unequally affects males and females and it limits the reproductive investment of individuals. Scabies has become the main destabilizing factor in many populations of Iberian ibex.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Iberian ibex, Spanish ibex, Spanish wild goat, or Iberian wild goat (\"Capra pyrenaica\") is a species of ibex with four subspecies. Of these, two can still be found on the Iberian Peninsula, but the remaining two are now extinct. The Portuguese subspecies became extinct in 1892 and the Pyrenean subspecies became extinct in 2000. An ongoing project to clone to the Pyrenean subspecies resulted in one clone being born alive in July 2003. This is the first taxon to become \"un-extinct\", although the clone died a few minutes after birth due to physical defects in lungs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973997}
{"src_title": "Ján Chryzostom Korec", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life under Communism.", "content": "Jan Korec was born to a working-class family. His father Ján Korec and his mother Mária Drábiková were laborers at a local leather factory in Bošany. he had two older siblings: brother Anton, who was imprisoned during the first wave of communist persecution in 1951, and sister Štefánia. Korec's family lived a humble life with limited resources. Korec entered the Society of Jesus in 1939 and studied Catholic theology and philosophy. During the order's suppression by the Communists, he was forced to discontinue his philosophical studies. He entered the priesthood in 1950. One year later, at the age of twenty-seven, he was secretly consecrated a bishop by Bishop Pavol Hnilica on 24 August 1951, becoming the youngest Catholic bishop in the world. The following three years he worked at the Tatrachema company and then at the Institute of Work Hygiene and Work-Related Diseases. On 30 June 1958, he was forced to leave the Institute, and on 10 September he began working as a night watchman for the Prefa company. He next worked as a maintenance worker at the Juraj Dimitrov Chemical Company, one of the largest companies in Bratislava.  He was imprisoned from 1960 to 1968. While he was in prison, Korec cared for the spiritual welfare of his fellow prisoners. Korec spent most of this period in Valdice, a prison in the Czech Republic. There were at least 250 priests and several bishops being held: Vojtašák, Zela, Otčenášek, Hlad, and Hopko. These clergymen were forced to share prison cells with some of the country's worst criminals. He described his experiences in \"Night of the Barbarians\". After many petitions, he was released during a general amnesty in 1968.  Despite bad health, Korec continued to work as a street cleaner and as a factory worker. During this time, he also continued his active life as a leader of the underground Church. He led spiritual retreats for students; he counseled young people, seminarians, and priests. His private apartment in Petržalka on Vilova Street 7 became a highly sought-out center of his underground ministry. Many people, lay persons, and priests went to him for spiritual advice. Because the publication of Christian literature was proscribed, Korec wrote \"samizdat\" books that were secretly printed and distributed. He also secretly ordained priests because the law allowed for the ordination by government-approved clerics and limited ordinations to restrict church activity.  The Secret Police (Štátna Tajná Bezpečnost) watched Korec's apartment closely, and two attempts were made to assassinate him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After the fall of Communism.", "content": "In 1990, after the fall of the Iron Curtain, Pope John Paul II appointed him Bishop of Nitra. On 29 May 1991, John Paul named Korec a cardinal. He was invested as a cardinal in a consistory on 28 June and named Cardinal-Priest of Santi Fabiano e Venanzio a Villa Fiorelli.  On 13 June 2012, Cardinal Korec was admitted to the hospital due to a ruptured appendix. He suffered a perforated appendicitis, severe peritonitis, and his vital signs were beginning to fail. The doctors operated on him, but even afterwards, his condition remained critical. By 18 June, it was announced that his condition had not improved and that he was breathing only through a respirator. On 20 June, it was announced that the condition of Cardinal Korec had significantly improved. It was a great surprise for all of Slovakia.  Korec remained active in the Church and in his social life. He received three honorary degrees from universities in the United States. He published regularly, especially in the Slovak magazine, \"Kultúrny Život.\"  After the fall of the Iron Curtain and the revival of democracy in Czechoslovakia, Ján Cardinal Korec became an influential leader in all aspects of social-economic and political developments in Slovakia. He supported Slovak independence. He opposed the Christian Democrats, who implemented stringent free-market policies, which caused a rapid rise in unemployment and economic hardship, and allied himself more closely with the left-oriented parties and the Slovak Prime Minister Mečiar, who played a significant role in the \"velvet divorce\" between the Czechs and Slovaks, while trying maintain a certain political neutrality.  Forty years of communist domination left the Slovak Catholic Church in ruins. There was a shortage of priests, and church buildings needed to be renovated. In addition, Catholic education had suffered severe drawbacks and new schools needed to be built. There was also a shortage of teachers and Catholic media was non-existent. Besides restoring the Church and Catholic education, he restored a good relationship with the Jewish minority.  In 1987, Cardinal Korec was one of the 24 Slovak activists who signed the \"Declaration of Apology,\" an official apology to all Jews in Slovakia who suffered deportation during WWII. The Cardinal condemned the deportations and called it \"an inhumane act.\"  In retirement, Korec lived in Nitra and remained active as a writer and adviser.  In February 2014 Liverpool Hope University in Great Britain awarded him an honorary doctorate for his lifelong achievements on behalf of freedom, democracy and world peace.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "For proper footing and steadfast faith, it has been granted several awards and honorary doctorates. His life's work was also appreciated at foreign universities, including the University of Notre Dame South Bend (1986), University of Sacred Heart in Bridgeport (1992) and the Catholic University in Washington (1993). Other honorary doctorates were awarded to him by the Polish Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski (2003) and Liverpool Hope University, UK (2014).  In 1993 he won the state prize of the French Republic, in 1995 state award Rad Stur Class and in 1999 state award Order of Andrej Hlinka.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "He was high criticised by some segments of the community due to a perceived perception of him having a positive attitude towards Jozef Tiso and the first Slovak Republic. Critics cite for example the 1990 unveiling of a commemorative plaque for Jozef Tiso in Banovce nad Bebravou or the memorial service he held for Tiso and the 50th anniversary of Tiso's execution. In August 1997 he publicly defended the exiled historian Stanislav Durica Milan in connection with his controversial book \"\"History of Slovakia and Slovaks\"\" which advocated several policies from the period of the first Slovak Republic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing.", "content": "His book production accounts for more than 80 titles each with several editions and is a prominent part of the Slovak Christian literature of the 20th century. His writing is also included in numerous and various Samizdat magazines. These publications include:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ján Chryzostom Korec, SJ (22 January 1924 – 24 October 2015) was a Slovak Jesuit priest and a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He was ordained a priest in 1950 and consecrated bishop in 1951. Because of government suppression of the Catholic Church, he spent 39 years working as a priest without government authorization, either in prison or supporting himself as a laborer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973998}
{"src_title": "Primula veris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The common name \"cowslip\" may derive from the old English for cow dung, probably because the plant was often found growing amongst the manure in cow pastures. An alternative derivation simply refers to slippery or boggy ground; again, a typical habitat for this plant.  The species name \"veris\" (of spring) is the genitive case form of Latin \"ver\" (spring). However, primrose \"P. vulgaris\", flowers earlier, from December to May in the British isles.  Other common names include cuy lippe, herb peter, paigle, peggle, key flower, key of heaven, fairy cups, petty mulleins, crewel, buckles, palsywort, and plumrocks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Primula veris\" is a variable evergreen or semi-evergreen perennial plant growing to tall and broad, with a rosette of leaves 5–15 cm long and 2–6 cm broad. The deep yellow flowers are produced in spring, in clusters of 10–30 blooms together on a single stem. Each flower is 9–15 mm broad. Red- and orange-flowered plants occur rarely but can be locally widespread in areas where coloured primula hybrids bloom at the same time as the native cowslip, enabling cross-pollination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and conservation.", "content": "The cowslip is frequently found on more open ground than the primrose, including open fields, meadows, coastal dunes and clifftops. The plant suffered a decline due to changing agricultural practices throughout the 1970s and 1980s in Britain. It may therefore be rare locally, though where found it may be abundant. Additionally the seeds are now often included in wildflower seed mixes used to landscape motorway banks and similar civil engineering earthworks where the plants may be seen in dense stands. This practice has led to a revival in its fortunes.  In cultivation this plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "The cowslip may be confused with the closely related \"Primula elatior\" (oxlip) which has a similar general appearance and habitat, although the oxlip has larger, pale yellow flowers more like a primrose, and a corolla tube without folds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical constituents.", "content": "The roots of \"Primula veris\" contain several glycosides of 5-methoxysalicylic methyl ester, such as primeverin and primulaverin. In the dried crude root, their phenolic aglycones are responsible for the typical odour reminiscent of methyl salicylate or anethole. The dried roots contain significant amounts of triterpene saponins, such as primula acid I/II, while in the flower these constituents are located in the sepals, and the dominating constituents are flavonoids. Rare side effects of the saponins can be nausea or diarrhoea while some of the phenolic constituents are possibly responsible for allergic reactions.  The subspecies \"macrocalyx\", growing in Siberia, contains the phenolic compound riccardin C.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cuisine.", "content": "Cowslip leaves have been traditionally used in Spanish cooking as a salad green. Uses in English cookery include using the flowers to flavor country wine and vinegars; sugaring to be a sweet or eaten as part of a composed salad while the juice of the cowslip is used to prepare tansy for frying. The close cousin of the cowslip, the primrose \"P. vulgaris\" has often been confused with the cowslip and its uses in cuisine are similar with the addition of its flowers being used as a colouring agent in desserts.  English children's writer Alison Uttley in her story \"The Country Child\" (1931) of family life on an English farm from the perspective of a 9-year-old farmer's daughter Susan describes cowslips among the favourite flowers of her heroine and mentions her participation in preparing them for making cowslip wine, a locally important process. After its initial preparation, cowslip wine \"would change to sparkling yellow wine\" offered in \"little fluted glasses\" with a biscuit to important \"morning visitors\" of the farm: such as the curate coming for subscriptions, the local squire (landowner) and an occasional dealer (of their produce). This wine \"was more precious than elderberry wine, which was the drink for cold weather, for snow and sleet\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Myth and folklore.", "content": "This herb was already mentioned by Pliny the Elder for its early blooming attributes. Species from the genus \"Primula\" along with other ritual plants played a significant role in the pharmacy and mythology of the Celtic druids, likely as an ingredient of magical potions to increase the absorption of other herbal constituents. In the Middle-Ages it was also known as St. Peter's herb or Petrella and was sought after by Florentine apothecaries. Hildegard von Bingen recommended the medicinal parts only for topical use but the leaves were also consumed as food. Other common names at the time were 'Herba paralysis', 'Verbascum', primrose or mullein leaves. It was frequently misidentified as or confused with similar species from the genus \"Primula\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Primula veris, the cowslip, common cowslip, or cowslip primrose (syn. \"Primula officinalis\" Hill), is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant in the primrose family Primulaceae. The species is native throughout most of temperate Europe and western Asia, and although absent from more northerly areas including much of northwest Scotland, it reappears in northernmost Sutherland and Orkney and in Scandinavia. This species frequently hybridizes with other \"Primulas\" such as \"Primula vulgaris\" to form false oxlip (\"Primula\" × \"polyantha\") which is often confused with true oxlip (\"Primula elatior\"), a much rarer plant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4973999}
{"src_title": "Fest Noz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Fest-noz.", "content": "A fest-noz (plurial festoù-noz) is a traditional dance festival in Brittany. Most Breton dances are social dances, in a group. Currently, many festoù-noz are also held outside Brittany within diaspora, bringing the Breton culture to life outside Breton territory. This term is known since the end of the 19th century but is given as a name only since the 1950s.  In the past, the dances were sometimes used to trample the ground to make a firm earth floor in a house or a solid surface for farm work (the \"aire neuve\" dances), to which people from the neighbourhood were invited, which explains the presence of stamping movements in some of the dances. For a long time the church banned \"kof-ha-kof\" (stomach-to-stomach) dances, meaning dancing in pairs. These festivals were a chance for young people to meet and size each other up, on a social level, by their clothes, and to see how quickly they got tired, since dances sometimes continued for a long time and involved complex and swift steps that required effort and skill.  These days, \"Festoù Noz\" are still very popular, mixing the different generations. Most of the villages have a fest-noz at least once a year, organised by the sports clubs, the school, etc... It is a way to express their culture and identity, and to share common values with friends of a night. As in many group folk dances, one talks of sometimes reaching a trance state because of repetitive music, and physical exertion. During the summer and tourist season, in many ways, taking part in a fest-noz is for many people like an alternative way of going to a night club.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The dances.", "content": "There are hundreds of traditional dances, of which the most well-known are gavottes, the an dro, the 'hanter dro, the plinn and the Scottish. During the fest-noz, most dances are practised in a chain or in a circle (everyone holds hands), but there are also dances in pairs and \"choreographed\" dances, meaning dances enriched with precise artistic elements (sequences, figures, etc.).  The major study on Breton dancing is \"La tradition populaire de danse en Basse-Bretagne\", book written from his thesis dissertation, by Jean-Michel Guilcher - new edition by Coop-Breizh - Chasse-Marée/Armen - 1995.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The music.", "content": "There are principally two types of music at these festivals: music sung a cappella (kan ha diskan,...), accompanied with music or purely instrumental. Before the invention of microphones and amplified instruments, the instruments that were most often used were the bombarde (a sort of oboe or shawm) and the Breton bagpipes (binioù kozh), due to their high volume. Also popular was the diatonic accordion, the clarinet, and occasionally the violin and the hurdy-gurdy. After the Second World War, the Scottish bagpipes (binioù bras) also became common in Brittany thanks to bagadoù (pipe bands) and thus often replaced the binioù-kozh. The basic clarinet (treujenn-gaol - \"cabbage core\" in Breton) had all but disappeared but has regained popularity over the past few years.  Other than the traditional instruments, there are nowadays groups with many different styles of music ranging from rock, jazz, to punk and also mixes with styles from other countries. String instruments (the violin, the double-bass, the acoustic guitar, the electric guitar, the bass guitar) and North-African percussion instruments have long since been adopted. To varying degrees, some Fest-Noz groups also use electronic keyboards and synthesisers (Strobinell, Sonerien Du, Les Baragouineurs, Plantec...). Brass instruments are becoming increasingly commonplace, often bringing with them sounds approaching those of oriental music.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The programme.", "content": "Just after the revival of the 1970s, the standard was to alternate a couple of singers (a cappella or \"kan a diskan\") and a couple of musicians (biniou - bombarde generally). It was common to see the holding of «free stages». Currently, couples of singers (kanerien) and couples of musicians (sonerien) play alternately with a band. Bands play more instrumental music and often the practice of the dance is different from the two other ways to conduct the dancers.  Between every \"suite\" (three dances), there are short breaks where dancers socialise by chatting to other dancers or visiting the traditional buffet of local dishes like crêpes, galettes-saucisses, far Breton, kouign-amann with local cider, beer, and chouchen, a mead-like drink made from fermented honey.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Fest Noz (Breton for \"night festival\") is a Breton traditional festival, with dancing in groups and live musicians playing acoustic instruments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974000}
{"src_title": "Sengoku period", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Summary.", "content": "During this period, although the Emperor of Japan was officially the ruler of his nation and every lord swore loyalty to him, he was largely a marginalized, ceremonial, and religious figure who delegated power to the \"shōgun\", a noble who was roughly equivalent to a general. In the years preceding this era, the shogunate gradually lost influence and control over the \"daimyōs\" (local lords). Although the Ashikaga shogunate had retained the structure of the Kamakura shogunate and instituted a warrior government based on the same social economic rights and obligations established by the Hōjō with the \"Jōei\" Code in 1232, it failed to win the loyalty of many \"daimyō\", especially those whose domains were far from the capital, Kyoto. Many of these lords began to fight uncontrollably with each other for control over land and influence over the shogunate. As trade with Ming China grew, the economy developed, and the use of money became widespread as markets and commercial cities appeared. Combined with developments in agriculture and small-scale trading, this led to the desire for greater local autonomy throughout all levels of the social hierarchy. As early as the beginning of the 15th century, the suffering caused by earthquakes and famines often served to trigger armed uprisings by farmers weary of debt and taxes.  The Ōnin War (1467–1477), a conflict rooted in economic distress and brought on by a dispute over shogunal succession, is generally regarded as the onset of the Sengoku period. The \"eastern\" army of the Hosokawa family and its allies clashed with the \"western\" army of the Yamana. Fighting in and around Kyoto lasted for nearly 11 years, leaving the city almost completely destroyed. The conflict in Kyoto then spread to outlying provinces.  The period culminated with a series of three warlords, Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, who gradually unified Japan. After Tokugawa Ieyasu's final victory at the siege of Osaka in 1615, Japan settled down into over two-hundred years of peace under the Tokugawa shogunate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timeline.", "content": "The Ōnin War in 1467 is usually considered the starting point of the Sengoku period. There are several events which could be considered the end of it: Nobunaga's entry to Kyoto (1568) or abolition of the Muromachi shogunate (1573), the Siege of Odawara (1590), the Battle of Sekigahara (1600), the establishment of the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603), or the Siege of Osaka (1615).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Gekokujō\".", "content": "The upheaval resulted in the further weakening of central authority, and throughout Japan, regional lords, called \"daimyōs\", rose to fill the vacuum. In the course of this power shift, well-established clans such as the Takeda and the Imagawa, who had ruled under the authority of both the Kamakura and Muromachi \"bakufu\", were able to expand their spheres of influence. There were many, however, whose positions eroded and were eventually usurped by more capable underlings. This phenomenon of social meritocracy, in which capable subordinates rejected the status quo and forcefully overthrew an emancipated aristocracy, became known as, which means \"low conquers high\".  One of the earliest instances of this was Hōjō Sōun, who rose from relatively humble origins and eventually seized power in Izu Province in 1493. Building on the accomplishments of Sōun, the Hōjō clan remained a major power in the Kantō region until its subjugation by Toyotomi Hideyoshi late in the Sengoku period. Other notable examples include the supplanting of the Hosokawa clan by the Miyoshi, the Toki by the Saitō, and the Shiba clan by the Oda clan, which was in turn replaced by its underling, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a son of a peasant with no family name.  Well-organized religious groups also gained political power at this time by uniting farmers in resistance and rebellion against the rule of the \"daimyōs\". The monks of the Buddhist True Pure Land sect formed numerous \"Ikkō-ikki\", the most successful of which, in Kaga Province, remained independent for nearly 100 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unification.", "content": "After nearly a century of political instability and warfare, Japan was on the verge of unification by Oda Nobunaga, who had emerged from obscurity in the province of Owari (present-day Aichi Prefecture) to dominate central Japan. In 1582, Oda was assassinated by one of his generals, Akechi Mitsuhide, and allowed Toyotomi Hideyoshi the opportunity to establish himself as Oda's successor after rising through the ranks from \"ashigaru\" (footsoldier) to become one of Oda's most trusted generals. Toyotomi eventually consolidated his control over the remaining \"daimyōs\" but ruled as \"Kampaku\" (Imperial Regent) as his common birth excluded him from the title of \"Sei-i Taishōgun.\" During his short reign as Kampaku, Toyotomi attempted two invasions of Korea. The first attempt, spanning from 1592 to 1596, was initially successful but suffered setbacks from the Joseon Navy and ended in a stalemate. The second attempt began in 1597 but was less successful as the Koreans, especially their navy, led by Admiral Yi Sun-Sin, were prepared from their first encounter. In 1598, Toyotomi called for retreat from Korea prior to his death.  Without leaving a capable successor, the country was once again thrust into political turmoil, and Tokugawa Ieyasu took advantage of the opportunity.  On his deathbed, Toyotomi appointed a group of the most powerful lords in Japan—Tokugawa, Maeda Toshiie, Ukita Hideie, Uesugi Kagekatsu, and Mōri Terumoto—to govern as the Council of Five Regents until his infant son, Hideyori, came of age. An uneasy peace lasted until the death of Maeda in 1599. Thereafter a number of high-ranking figures, notably Ishida Mitsunari, accused Tokugawa of disloyalty to the Toyotomi regime.  This precipitated a crisis that led to the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, during which Tokugawa and his allies, who controlled the east of the country, defeated the anti-Tokugawa forces, which had control of the west. Generally regarded as the last major conflict of the Sengoku period, Tokugawa's victory at Sekigahara effectively marked the end of the Toyotomi regime, the last remnants of which were finally destroyed in the Siege of Osaka in 1615.  The contrasting personalities of the three leaders who contributed the most to Japan's final unification—Oda, Toyotomi, and Tokugawa—are encapsulated in a series of three well known \"senryū\":", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Three unifiers of Japan.", "content": "Oda, known for his ruthlessness, is the subject of the first; Toyotomi, known for his resourcefulness, is the subject of the second; and Tokugawa, known for his perseverance, is the subject of the third verse.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The is a period in Japanese history of near-constant civil war, social upheaval, and political intrigue from 1467 to 1615.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974001}
{"src_title": "Francis Picabia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Francis Picabia was born in Paris of a French mother and a Cuban father who was an attaché at the Cuban legation in Paris. His mother died of tuberculosis when he was seven. Some sources would have his father as of aristocratic Spanish descent, whereas others consider him of non-aristocratic Spanish descent, from the region of Galicia. Financially independent, Picabia studied under Fernand Cormon and others at the École des Arts Decoratifs in the late 1890s.  In 1894, Picabia financed his stamp collection by copying a collection of Spanish paintings that belonged to his father, switching the originals for the copies, without his father's knowledge, and selling the originals. Fernand Cormon took him into his academy at 104 boulevard de Clichy, where Van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec had also studied. From the age of 20, he lived by painting; he subsequently inherited money from his mother. In the beginning of his career, from 1903 to 1908, Picabia was influenced by the Impressionist paintings of Alfred Sisley. Little churches, lanes, roofs of Paris, riverbanks, wash houses, lanes, barges—these were his subject matter. Some however, began to question his sincerity and said he copied Sisley, or that his cathedrals looked like Monet, or that he painted like Signac. From 1909, he came under the influence of those that would soon be called Cubists and later form the Golden Section (Section d'Or). The same year, he married Gabrielle Buffet.  Around 1911 Picabia joined the Puteaux Group, members of which he met at the studio of Jacques Villon in Puteaux; a commune in the western suburbs of Paris. There he became friends with artist Marcel Duchamp and close friends with Guillaume Apollinaire. Other group members included Albert Gleizes, Roger de La Fresnaye, Fernand Léger and Jean Metzinger.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proto-Dada.", "content": "Picabia was the only member of the Cubist group to personally attend the Armory Show, and Alfred Stieglitz gave him a solo show, \"Exhibition of New York studies by Francis Picabia\", at his gallery 291 (formerly \"Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession\"), 17 March – 5 April 1913.  From 1913 to 1915 Picabia traveled to New York City several times and took active part in the avant-garde movements, introducing Modern art to America. When he landed in NewYork in June 1915, though it was ostensibly meant to be a simple port of call en route to Cuba to buy molasses for a friend of his—the director of a sugar refinery—the city snapped him up and the stay became prolonged. The magazine \"291\" devoted an entire issue to him, he met Man Ray, Gabrielle and Duchamp joined him, drugs and alcohol became a problem and his health declined. He suffered from dropsy and tachycardia. These years can be characterized as Picabia's proto-Dada period, consisting mainly of his \"portraits mécaniques\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manifesto.", "content": "Later, in 1916, while in Barcelona and within a small circle of refugee artists that included Albert Gleizes and his wife Juliette Roche, Marie Laurencin, Olga Sacharoff, Robert Delaunay and Sonia Delaunay, he started his Dada periodical \"391\" (published by Galeries Dalmau), modeled on Stieglitz's own periodical. He continued the periodical with the help of Marcel Duchamp in the United States. In Zurich, seeking treatment for depression and suicidal impulses, he had met Tristan Tzara, whose radical ideas thrilled Picabia. Back in Paris, and now with his mistress Germaine Everling, he was in the city of \"les assises dada\" where André Breton, Paul Éluard, Philippe Soupault and Louis Aragon met at Certa, a Basque bar in the Passage de l'Opera. Picabia, the provocateur, was back home. Picabia continued his involvement in the Dada movement through 1919 in Zürich and Paris, before breaking away from it after developing an interest in Surrealist art. (See \"Cannibale\", 1921.) He denounced Dada in 1921, and issued a personal attack against Breton in the final issue of \"391\", in 1924.  The same year, he put in an appearance in the René Clair surrealist film \"Entr'acte\", firing a cannon from a rooftop. The film served as an intermission piece for Picabia's avant-garde ballet, \"Relâche\", premiered at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, with music by Erik Satie.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In 1922, André Breton relaunched \"Littérature\" magazine with cover images by Picabia, to whom he gave carte blanche for each issue. Picabia drew on religious imagery, erotic iconography, and the iconography of games of chance.  In 1925, Picabia returned to figurative painting, and during the 1930s became a close friend of the modernist novelist Gertrude Stein. In the early 1940s he moved to the South of France, where his work took a surprising turn: he produced a series of paintings based on the nude glamour photos in French \"girlie\" magazines like \"Paris Sex-Appeal\", in a garish style which appears to subvert traditional, academic nude painting. Some of these went to an Algerian merchant who sold them, and so it passed that Picabia came to decorate brothels across North Africa under the Occupation.  Before the end of World War II, he returned to Paris where he resumed abstract painting and writing poetry. A large retrospective of his work was held at the Galerie René Drouin in Paris in the spring of 1949. Francis Picabia died in Paris in 1953 and was interred in the Cimetière de Montmartre.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Public collections holding works by Picabia include the Museum of Modern Art and Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York; the Philadelphia Museum of Art; the Art Institute of Chicago; the Tate Gallery, London; the Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris; and Museum de Fundatie, Zwolle, Netherlands.  From 6 June through to 25 September 2016 at Kunsthaus Zürich and then from 21 November 2016 through 19 March 2017, the first retrospective of Picabia's work in the United States, \"Francis Picabia: Our Heads Are Round so Our Thoughts Can Change Direction\", took place at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, co-curated by Anne Umland and Cathérine Hug. The retrospective was widely discussed by international art critics such as Philippe Dagen from Le Monde.  Among the artists influenced by Picabia's work are the American artists David Salle and Julian Schnabel, the German artist Sigmar Polke, and the Italian artist Francesco Clemente. in 1996, French artist Jean-Jacques Lebel initiated and co-curated the exhibition \"Picabia, Dalmau 1922\" (with reference to Picabia's solo exhibition at Galeries Dalmau in 1922) shown at Fundació Antoni Tàpies in Barcelona and the Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Pompidou. In 2002, the artists Peter Fischli & David Weiss installed Suzanne Pagé's retrospective devoted to Picabia at the musée d'art moderne de la ville de Paris (MAMVP). The Museum of Modern Art, New York, organized a major retrospective of his entire career, shown from 21 November 2016 to 19 March 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Art market.", "content": "In 2003, a Picabia painting once owned by André Breton sold for US$1.6million.  On 16 November 2013, at Sotheby's Impressionist & Modern Art Evening Sale in New York, Picabia's \"Volucelle II\" (c. 1922, Ripolin on canvas, 198,5 x 249 cm) sold for US$8,789,000.  Dada is the groundwork to abstract art and sound poetry, a starting point for performance art, a prelude to postmodernism, an influence on pop art, a celebration of antiart to be later embraced for anarcho-political uses in the 1960s and the movement that lay the foundation for Surrealism.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Francis Picabia (: born Francis-Marie Martinez de Picabia; 22January 1879 – 30November 1953) was a French avant-garde painter, poet and typographist. After experimenting with Impressionism and Pointillism, Picabia became associated with Cubism. His highly abstract planar compositions were colourful and rich in contrasts. He was one of the early major figures of the Dada movement in the United States and in France. He was later briefly associated with Surrealism, but would soon turn his back on the art establishment.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974002}
{"src_title": "Joseph Woelfl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Woelfl was born at Salzburg, where he studied music under Leopold Mozart and Michael Haydn.  He first appeared in public as a soloist on the violin at the age of seven. Moving to Vienna in 1790 he visited Wolfgang Mozart and may have taken lessons from him. His first opera, \"Der Höllenberg\", appeared there in 1795.  Woelfl was very tall (over 6 feet), and with an enormous finger span (his hand could strike a thirteenth, according to his contemporary Václav Tomášek); to his wide grasp of the keyboard he owed a facility of execution which he turned to good account, especially in his \"extempore\" performances.  Although he dedicated his 1798 sonatas op. 6 to Beethoven, the two were rivals. Beethoven however bested Woelfl in a piano 'duel' at the house of Count Wetzlar in 1799, after which Woelfl's local popularity waned. After spending the years 1801 -1805 in Paris, Woelfl moved to London, where his first concert performance was on 27 May 1805.  In England, he enjoyed commercial if not critical success. In 1808 he published his Sonata, Op. 41, which, on account of its technical difficulty, he entitled \"Non Plus Ultra\"; and, in reply to the challenge, a sonata by Dussek, originally called \"Le Retour à Paris\", was reprinted with the title \"Plus Ultra\", and an ironic dedication to \"Non Plus Ultra\". He also completed for publication an unfinished sonata of George Pinto.  Woelfl died in Great Marylebone Street, London, on 21 May 1812. He is buried in St. Marylebone Churchyard.  Woelfl's works have long disappeared from the concert repertory. However, in 2003 four selected piano sonatas of his (Op. 25 and Op. 33) were recorded by the pianist Jon Nakamatsu (Harmonia Mundi CD # 907324). (An Adda CD in 1988 contained his three opus 28 sonatas, played by Laure Colladant, who also recorded the sonatas opus 6 for Adès in 1993 and the three opus 33 sonatas for the label Mandala in 1995.) In 2006, German pianist Yorck Kronenberg recorded Woelfl's piano concertos 1, 5 and 6 in addition to a movement from the piano concerto 4. The piano concertos closely resemble the later piano concertos of Mozart, who had pioneered the genre; they can be distinguished from Mozart's works by the larger range of the piano, which had been extended shortly after Mozart's death.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Johann Baptist Woelfl (surname sometimes written in the German form Wölfl) (24 December 1773 - 21 May 1812) was an Austrian pianist and composer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974003}
{"src_title": "Georges de La Tour", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Georges de La Tour was born in the town of Vic-sur-Seille in the Diocese of Metz, which was technically part of the Holy Roman Empire, but had been ruled by France since 1552. Baptism documentation revealed that he was the son of Jean de La Tour, a baker, and Sybille de La Tour, née Molian. It has been suggested that Sybille came from a partly noble family. His parents had seven children in all, with Georges being the second-born.  La Tour's educational background remains somewhat unclear, but it is assumed that he traveled either to Italy or the Netherlands early in his career. He may possibly have trained under Jacques Bellange in Nancy, the capital of Lorraine, although their styles are very different. His paintings reflect the Baroque naturalism of Caravaggio, but this probably reached him through the Dutch \"Caravaggisti\" of the Utrecht School and other Northern (French and Dutch) contemporaries. In particular, La Tour is often compared to the Dutch painter Hendrick Terbrugghen.  In 1617 he married Diane Le Nerf, from a minor noble family, and in 1620 he established his studio in her quiet provincial home-town of Lunéville, part of the independent Duchy of Lorraine which was occupied by France, during his lifetime, in the period 1641–1648. He painted mainly religious and some genre scenes. He was given the title \"Painter to the King\" (of France) in 1638, and he also worked for the Dukes of Lorraine in 1623–4, but the local bourgeoisie provided his main market, and he achieved a certain affluence. He is not recorded in Lunéville between 1639 and 1642, and may have traveled again; Anthony Blunt detected the influence of Gerrit van Honthorst in his paintings after this point. He was involved in a Franciscan-led religious revival in Lorraine, and over the course of his career he moved to painting almost entirely religious subjects, but in treatments with influence from \"genre\" painting.  Georges de La Tour and his family died in 1652 in an epidemic in Lunéville. His son Étienne (born 1621) was his pupil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "La Tour's early work shows influences from Caravaggio, probably via his Dutch followers, and the genre scenes of cheats—as in \"The Fortune Teller\"—and fighting beggars clearly derive from the Dutch Caravaggisti, and probably also his fellow-Lorrainer, Jacques Bellange. These are believed to date from relatively early in his career.  La Tour is best known for the nocturnal light effects which he developed much further than his artistic predecessors had done, and transferred their use in the genre subjects in the paintings of the Dutch \"Caravaggisti\" to religious painting in his. Unlike Caravaggio his religious paintings lack dramatic effects. He painted these in a second phase of his style, perhaps beginning in the 1640s, using chiaroscuro, careful geometrical compositions, and very simplified painting of forms. His work moves during his career towards greater simplicity and stillness—taking from Caravaggio very different qualities than Jusepe de Ribera and his Tenebrist followers did. He often painted several variations on the same subjects, and his surviving output is relatively small. His son Étienne was his pupil, and distinguishing between their work in versions of La Tour's compositions is difficult. The version of the \"Education of the Virgin\" in the Frick Collection in New York is an example, as the Museum itself admits. Another group of paintings (example left), of great skill but claimed to be different in style to those of La Tour, have been attributed to an unknown \"Hurdy-gurdy Master\". All show older male figures (one group in Malibu includes a female), mostly solitary, either beggars or saints.  After his death at Lunéville in 1652, La Tour's work was forgotten until rediscovered by Hermann Voss, a German scholar, in 1915; some of La Tour's work had in fact been confused with Vermeer, when the Dutch artist underwent his own rediscovery in the nineteenth century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In film.", "content": "Director Peter Greenaway has described La Tour's work as a primary influence on his 1982 film \"The Draughtsman's Contract\".  \"Job Mocked by His Wife\" by La Tour appears in the 2003 Francis Veber film \"Le Dîner de Cons\".  A reference to a work purportedly by La Tour is featured prominently in the 2003 Merchant Ivory film \"Le Divorce\".  \"Magdalene with the Smoking Flame\" (not \"Penitent Magdalene\") is the painting in Ariel's grotto she longingly motions toward when she yearns to know about fire while singing \"Part of Your World\" in Disney's 1989 film \"The Little Mermaid\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georges de La Tour (March 13, 1593 – January 30, 1652) was a French Baroque painter, who spent most of his working life in the Duchy of Lorraine, which was temporarily absorbed into France between 1641 and 1648. He painted mostly religious chiaroscuro scenes lit by candlelight.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974004}
{"src_title": "Kärcher", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The inventor Alfred Kärcher (1901–59) from Baden-Württemberg founded the company in 1935 in Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt. Initially Kärcher specialised in the design of industrial submersible heating elements, i.e. in salt smelters which were heated with immersion heaters. After numerous experiments, a hardening furnace for alloys was produced, the so-called “Kärcher Salt-Bath Furnace”. Some 1,200 units were sold up to 1945. Karcher invented the first modern pressure washer, the DS 350 in 1950. The company’s main focus then switched to cleaning equipment for professional and private users. Since then, Kärcher has made lead in the design and development of pressure washers. The company’s product range was expanded and now covers the entire field of cleaning (sweepers, detergents, scrubber-driers, wet and dry vacuums, vacuum cleaners, battery-powered brooms, steam cleaners, dry ice blasting equipment, parts cleaners, water treatment systems, vehicle washes and wastewater recycling systems). Kärcher also offers pumps and watering systems.  In 1974 the corporate color was changed from blue to yellow. From that year, under the leadership of Alfred Kärcher’s widow Irene Kärcher, the company launched the HD 555, the first pressure washer for private users.  Today the family-owned company, which is based in Winnenden near Stuttgart, is represented in 160 countries with 100 subsidiaries all over the world, selling commercial cleaning equipment as well as cleaning equipment for the private consumer.  Kärcher owns the American brands of Landa, Hotsy, and Shark pressure washers, Cuda parts washers, Watermaze water treatment systems, and Windsor Kärcher Group floor cleaning systems, and Italian manufacturing company Hawk Pumps, or Woma Pumps in Germany. They are the primary supplier of cleaning systems to both NATO and the US Military.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Common noun.", "content": "In some countries such as Germany, France, Poland, Russia, Georgia, Mexico and the United States the term \"Kärcher\" is colloquially used synonymously with a pressure washer used to clean cars, outdoor equipment etc.  French politician Nicolas Sarkozy once declared that La Courneuve, a \"banlieue\" outside of Paris where a boy was killed by a stray gunshot, would be \"cleaned out with a Kärcher\" (\"nettoyer la cité au Kärcher\") — meaning all criminals and other undesirables should be removed and washed out. This comment was highly controversial, as many French associate the banlieues with immigrants, especially North Africans.  Sarkozy's use of the word led to it becoming a verb: \"to Karcher\" or \"Karcherize\". Presidential candidate Jean-Marie Le Pen told residents of Argenteuil, many of them immigrants, \"If some want to Karcherize you, to exclude you, we want to help you get out of these ghettos.\" As a response, Kärcher France sent a letter to all of the candidates in the 2007 presidential election asking them not to use the company's name this way, and has run ads in newspapers disassociating itself from the remarks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural sponsorship.", "content": "Under its cultural sponsorship program, Kärcher has supported more than 90 projects to clean internationally prominent buildings such as the London Eye in London (2013), the Space Needle in Seattle (2008), the Presidents’ heads at the Mount Rushmore National Memorial (2005), the Colossi of Memnon in Luxor (2003), the Colonnades on St Peter’s Square in Rome (1998), the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin (1990) the Statue of Liberty in New York City (1985) and the Statue of Christ in Rio de Janeiro (1980). In 2011 it cleaned the Loreley open-air stage and the N Seoul Tower. Kärcher is also a partner of SOS Children’s Villages and a member of the UN Global Compact network.  Kärcher is the official cleaning equipment supplier to the 2016 Summer Olympics and the Sochi 2014 winter Olympic Games.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfred Kärcher SE & Co. KG is a German family-owned company that operates worldwide and is known for its high-pressure cleaners, floor care equipment, parts cleaning systems, wash water treatment, military decontamination equipment and window vacuum cleaners.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974005}
{"src_title": "Bearded reedling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and systematics.", "content": "The bearded reedling was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 10th edition of \"Systema Naturae\" in 1758. He placed it in the genus \"Parus\" with the tits. The species has since been placed with the parrotbills in the family Paradoxornithidae, after they were removed from the true tits in the family. More recent research suggests it is a unique songbird – no other living species seems to be particularly closely related to it. The species is now placed in the monotypic family Panuridae. Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the bearded reedling is most closely related to the lark family Alaudidae. The current genus name, \"Panurus\", is from Ancient Greek \"panu\", \"exceedingly\", and \"ουρά\", \"tail\". The specific \"biarmicus\" is from \"Biarmia\", a Latinised form of Bjarmaland, formerly part of what is now the Arkhangelsk Oblast area of Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "This is a small orange-brown bird, L 16.5 cm, with a long tail and an undulating flight. The bill is yellow-orange. The male has a grey head and black moustaches (not a beard); the lower tail coverts are also black. The female is generally paler, with no black moustache. Flocks often betray their presence in a reedbed by their characteristic \"ping\" call.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "This species is a wetland specialist, breeding colonially in large reed beds by lakes or swamps. It eats reed aphids in summer, and reed seeds in winter, its digestive system changing to cope with the very different seasonal diets.  The bearded reedling is a species of temperate Europe and across the Palearctic. It is resident, and most birds do not migrate other than eruptive or cold weather movements. It is vulnerable to hard winters, which may kill many birds. The English population of about 500 pairs is largely confined to the south and east with a small population in Leighton Moss in north Lancashire. In Ireland there is a small but growing population mainly in County Wexford. The largest single population in Great Britain is to be found in the reedbeds at the mouth of the River Tay in Perth and Kinross, Scotland, where there may be in excess of 250 pairs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The bearded reedling (\"Panurus biarmicus\") is a small, sexually dimorphic reed-bed passerine bird. It is frequently known as the bearded tit, due to some similarities to the long-tailed tit, or the bearded parrotbill. It is the only species in the family Panuridae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974006}
{"src_title": "The Net (1995 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "United States Under Secretary of Defense Michael Bergstrom commits suicide after being informed that he has tested positive for HIV.  Angela Bennett is a systems analyst in Venice, California who telecommutes to Cathedral Software in San Francisco. Her interpersonal relationships are almost completely online and on the phone, with the exception of forgettable interactions with her neighbors and visits to her mother, who is institutionalized with Alzheimer's disease and often forgets who Bennett is. Bennett's co-worker Dale sends her a floppy disk with a backdoor labeled \"π\" that permits access to a commonly used computer security system called \"Gatekeeper\" sold by Gregg Microsystems, a software company led by CEO Jeff Gregg. Dale and Bennett agree to meet, but the navigation system in Dale's private aircraft malfunctions and it crashes into a tower, killing him.  Bennett travels to Cozumel, on vacation, where she meets Jack Devlin. After seducing Bennett, Devlin pays a mugger to steal her purse as they walk along the beach. He chases the mugger into the foliage, catches the mugger, and roots through the purse to find the disk before shooting the mugger. He takes Bennett out on his speedboat to kill her as well, but she finds his gun and confronts him. While fleeing with the disk and Devlin's wallet, Bennett's dinghy collides with rocks, destroying the disk and hospitalizing her. She is unconscious for three days.  When Bennett wakes up, she finds that all records of her life have been deleted: She was checked out of her hotel room in Cozumel, her car is no longer at the airport parking lot, and her credit cards are invalid. Bennett's home is now empty and listed for sale. Moreover, because none of the neighbors remember her, they cannot confirm her identity. Bennett's Social Security number is now assigned to a \"Ruth Marx,\" for whom Devlin has entered an arrest record by hacking the police computer system. When Bennett calls her own desk at Cathedral Software, an impostor answers and offers Bennett her old life back in exchange for the disk. She contacts the only other person who knows her by sight, psychiatrist and former lover Alan Champion. He checks her into a hotel, offers to contact a friend at the FBI, and arranges to have her mother moved for her safety.  Using her knowledge of the backdoor and a password found in Devlin's wallet, Bennett logs into the Bethesda Naval Hospital's computers and learns that Under Secretary of Defense Bergstrom, who had opposed Gatekeeper's use by the federal government, was misdiagnosed. Fellow hacker \"Cyberbob\" connects π with the \"Praetorians,\" a notorious group of cyberterrorists linked to recent computer failures around the country. Bennett and Cyberbob plan to meet, but the Praetorians intercept their online chat. Bennett escapes from Devlin—a contract killer for the cyberterrorists, but the Praetorians kill Champion by tampering with pharmacy and hospital computer records. After Bennett is arrested by the California Highway Patrol, a man identifying himself as Champion's FBI friend frees her from jail. She realises he is an impostor and escapes again.  Now wanted for murder and thought to be Ruth Marx, Bennett hitchhikes to Cathedral's office where, using her impostor's computer, she connects the cyberterrorists to Gregg Microsystems and uncovers their scheme: once the Praetorians sabotage an organization's computer system, Gregg sells Gatekeeper to it and gains unlimited access through the backdoor. Bennett emails evidence of the backdoor and Gregg's involvement with the Praetorians to the FBI from the Moscone Center and tricks Devlin into releasing a virus into Gregg's mainframe, destroying Gatekeeper and undoing the erasing of her identity. During a battle on the catwalks of the convention center, in which Devlin accidentally kills the Bennett impostor from Cathedral Software (the real Ruth Marx), Bennett ambushes Devlin with a fire extinguisher, causing him to fall to his death. Bennett regains her identity, home, and life. She then reunites with her mother, and the conspiracy is exposed, with Jeff Gregg being arrested by the FBI.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "In October 1994, Bullock committed to filming \"The Net\" from mid-January through April 10, 1995. \"The Net\" was filmed in San Francisco's Moscone Center and Macworld on January 5, 1995, as well as at Washington, D.C. locations in April 1995.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "With an estimated budget of $22 million and a release date of, \"The Net\" earned $50,727,965 in domestic box office. Including foreign markets, the film grossed $110,627,965 worldwide, with an additional $23,771,600 in United States rentals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical Reception.", "content": "Based on 48 reviews, it has an average score of 5.1 out of 10 on Rotten Tomatoes with 40% of critics giving positive reviews. Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars. Owen Gleiberman, writing for \"Entertainment Weekly\", complimented Sandra Bullock's performance, saying \"Bullock pulls you into the movie. Her overripe smile and clear, imploring eyes are sometimes evocative of Julia Roberts\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B\" on an A+ to F scale.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sequel and spin-off tv series.", "content": "A sequel named \"The Net 2.0\", starring Nikki DeLoach as Hope Cassidy and directed by Charles Winkler, son of Irwin Winkler, was announced in February 2005. It was released direct-to-video in 2006, and was about a young systems analyst who arrives in Istanbul for her new job to find that her identity has been stolen.  The film spawned an American spinoff TV series starring Brooke Langton as Angela Bennett.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Net is a 1995 American action thriller film directed by Irwin Winkler and starring Sandra Bullock, Jeremy Northam and Dennis Miller. The film was released on 28 July 1995.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974007}
{"src_title": "26th of July Movement", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The 26th of July Movement's name originated from the failed attack on the Moncada Barracks, an army facility in the city of Santiago de Cuba, on 26 July 1953. This attack was led by a young Fidel Castro, who was a legislative candidate in a free election that had been cancelled by Batista. The attack had been intended as a rallying cry for the revolution. Castro was captured and sentenced to 15 years in prison but, along with his group, was granted an amnesty after two years following a political campaign on their behalf. Castro traveled to Mexico to reorganize the movement in 1955 with several other exiled revolutionaries (including Raúl Castro, Camilo Cienfuegos, and Juan Almeida Bosque). Their task was to form a disciplined guerrilla force to overthrow Batista.  The original core of the group was organized around the attack on the Moncada Barracks merged with the National Revolutionary Movement led and Rafael García Bárcenas and with a majority of the Orthodox Youth. Soon after, National Revolutionary Action led by Frank País would join. Because of the commonality in their ideology and their goal of wanting to topple the Batista regime, the M-26-7 would quickly add more young people from diverse political backgrounds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in the Cuban Revolution.", "content": "On 2 December 1956, 82 men landed in Cuba, having sailed in the boat \"Granma\" from Tuxpan, Veracruz, ready to organize and lead a revolution. The early signs were not good for the movement. They landed in daylight, were attacked by the Cuban Air Force, and suffered numerous casualties. The landing party was split into two and wandered lost for two days, most of their supplies abandoned where they landed. They were also betrayed by their peasant guide in an ambush, which killed more of those who had landed. Batista mistakenly announced Fidel Castro's death at this point. Of the 82 who sailed aboard the \"Granma,\" only 12 eventually regrouped in the Sierra Maestra mountain range. While the revolutionaries were setting up camp in the mountains, \"Civic Resistance\" groups were formulating in the cities, putting pressure on the Batista regime. Many middle-class and professional persons flocked toward Castro and his movement. While in the Sierra Maestra mountains the guerrilla forces attracted hundreds of Cuban volunteers and won several battles against the Cuban Army. Ernesto 'Che' Guevara was shot in the neck and chest during the fighting, but was not severely injured. (Guevara, who had studied medicine, continued to give first aid to other wounded guerrillas.) This was the opening phase of the war of the Cuban Revolution, which continued for the next two years. It ended in January 1959, after Batista fled Cuba for Dominican Republic, on New Year's Eve when the Movement's forces marched into Havana.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political and Military Action.", "content": "The guerrillas increased their ranks to 400 men in February 1958. In comparison, the forces of Batista reached 50,000 men, but only 10,000 were able to be used at once to confront the guerrillas. Batista launched an offensive of 10,000 with air and land support to encircle and destroy the guerrillas hidden in the Sierra between April and August 1958, this campaign ended in a decisive failure for the development of the conflict. Finally, after two years of war, the rebels defeated the Batista forces, causing them to flee to the Dominican Republic and take power January 1, 1959. At that time they added around 20,000 to 30,000 guerrillas and the war had cost the lives of between 1,000 and 2,500 people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-1959.", "content": "After the takeover, anti-Batistas, liberals, urban workers, peasants, and idealists became the dominant followers of the M-26-7 movement, which gained control over Cuba. The Movement was joined with other bodies to form the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution, which in turn became the Communist Party of Cuba in 1965. Cuba modeled itself after the Eastern European nations that made up the Warsaw Pact, becoming the first socialistic government in the Americas. Once it was learned that Cuba would adopt a strict Marxist–Leninist political and economic system, opposition was raised not only by dissident party members, but by the United States as well. Fidel Castro's government seized private land, nationalized hundreds of private companies—including several local subsidiaries of U.S. corporations—and taxed American products so heavily that U.S. exports were cut half in just two years. The Eisenhower Administration then imposed trade restrictions on everything except food and medical supplies. As a result, Cuba turned to the Soviet Union for trade instead. The US responded by cutting all diplomatic ties to Cuba, and have had a rocky relationship ever since. In April 1961, a CIA-trained force of Cuban exiles and dissidents launched the unsuccessful Bay of Pigs Invasion against Cuba, shortly after Castro had declared the revolution socialist. After the invasion, Castro formally proclaimed himself a communist.  The flag of the 26th of July Movement is on the shoulder of the Cuban military uniform, and continues to be used as a symbol of the Cuban revolution.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 26th of July Movement (; M-26-7) was a Cuban vanguard revolutionary organization and later a political party led by Fidel Castro. The movement's name commemorates its 26th July 1953 attack on the army barracks on Santiago de Cuba in an attempt to start the overthrowing of the dictator Fulgencio Batista. Fidel Castro's left-wing nationalist ideology was founded in the liberal ideas of José Martí.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974008}
{"src_title": "Communist Party of Cuba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Cuba had a number of communist and anarchist organizations from the early period of the Republic (founded in 1902). The original \"internationalised\" Communist Party of Cuba formed in the 1920s. In 1944, it renamed itself as the Popular Socialist Party for electoral reasons. In July 1961, two years after the successful overthrow of Fulgencio Batista and the creation of a revolutionary government, the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (ORI) was formed from the merger of:  On 26 March 1962, the ORI became the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution (PURSC), which in turn became the Communist Party of Cuba on 3 October 1965. In Article 5 of the Cuban constitution of 1976, the Communist Party is recognized as \"the superior guiding force of society and of the State, that organizes and orients common efforts toward the high goals of the construction of socialism and the advancement toward communist society\". All parties, including the Communist Party, are prohibited from publicly advertizing their organizations.  For the first fifteen years of its formal existence, the Communist Party was almost completely inactive outside of the Politburo. The 100 person Central Committee rarely met and it was ten years after its founding that the first regular party Congress was held. In 1969, membership of the party was only 55,000 or 0.7% of the population, making the PCC the smallest ruling communist party in the world. In the 1970s, the party's apparatus began to develop. By the time of the first party Congress in 1975, the party had grown to just over two hundred thousand members, the Central Committee was meeting regularly and provided the organizational apparatus giving the party the leading role in society that ruling Communist parties generally hold. By 1980, the party had grown to over 430,000 members and it grew further to 520,000 by 1985. Apparatuses of the party had grown to ensure that its leading cadres were appointed to key government positions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Congresses.", "content": "The Communist Party of Cuba held its first party Congress in 1975 and has had additional congresses in 1980, 1986, 1991, 1997 and 2011. The Seventh Congress took place from 19 April to 22 April 2016, around the 55th anniversary of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, concluding with remarks by Fidel Castro.  The Eighth Congress is scheduled to take place 16 to 19 April 2021.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Central Committee.", "content": "\"See also: \"  The leading bodies of the party were the Politburo and the Secretariat until 1991 when the two bodies were merged into an expanded Politburo with over twenty members. However, the Secretariat was re-introduced in 2002. There is also a Central Committee which meets between party congresses. At the Fifth Congress, the size of the Central Committee was reduced to 150 members from the previous membership of 225. Fidel Castro was the party's First Secretary (or leader) since its inception while Raúl Castro was the Second Secretary. Upon Fidel Castro's 2008 resignation from the party and Cuban government, Raúl Castro became First Secretary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politburo.", "content": "The 7th Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Cuba was elected by the Central Committee on 19 April 2016 following the 7th Congress.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Secretariat.", "content": "The 6th Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Cuba was elected by the Central Committee on 19 April 2011 following the 6th Congress.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Youth.", "content": "The Communist Party of Cuba has a youth wing, the Young Communist League (\"Unión de Jóvenes Comunistas\", UJC) which is a member organization of the World Federation of Democratic Youth. It also has a children's group, the José Martí Pioneer Organization.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideology.", "content": "Compared with other ruling Communist Parties, such as in Vietnam, China, and Laos, the Communist Party of Cuba retains a stricter adherence to the tradition of Marxism–Leninism and the traditional Soviet model. The party has been more reluctant in engaging in market reforms, though it has been forced to accept some market measures in its economy due to the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the resultant loss of economic subsidies. The Communist Party of Cuba has favored supporting revolutions abroad and was active in assisting the ELN in Colombia, the FMLN in El Salvador, the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, and Maurice Bishop's New Jewel Movement in Grenada. Their most significant international role was in the civil war in Angola, where there was Cuban direction of a joint Angolan/Soviet/Cuban force that was involved in the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale. This led to the withdrawal of intervening forces and in the following peace agreement the independence of Namibia from South African rule.  The party maintains a policy of sending thousands of Cuban doctors, agricultural technicians, and other professionals to other countries throughout the developing world. More recently, the party has sought to support left-wing leaders such as Hugo Chávez and later Nicolás Maduro in Venezuela and Evo Morales in Bolivia.  Raúl Castro is campaigning to \"renew\" Cuba's socialist economy through incorporating new exchange and distribution systems that have been traditionally seen as \"market\" oriented. This has led to some speculation that Cuba may transition towards a model more similar to that of China and Vietnam.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Communist Party of Cuba is the ruling political party in the Republic of Cuba. It is a communist party of the Marxist–Leninist model. The Cuban constitution ascribes the role of the party to be the \"leading force of society and of the state\". Since April 2011, the First Secretary of the Central Committee has been Raúl Castro, younger brother of the previous First Secretary Fidel Castro, who died on 25 November 2016. The Second Secretary has been José Ramón Machado Ventura.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974009}
{"src_title": "Jan Matejko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Giessen came into being as a moated castle in 1152 built by Count Wilhelm von Gleiberg, although the history of the community in the northeast and in today's suburb called \"Wieseck\" dates back to 775. The town became part of Hesse-Marburg in 1567, passing to Hesse-Darmstadt in 1604. The University of Giessen was founded in 1607. Giessen was included within the Grand Duchy of Hesse created in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. After the First World War, it was part of the People's State of Hesse.  During the Second World War, a subcamp of the Buchenwald concentration camp was in the. Heavy bombing destroyed about 75 percent of Gießen in 1944, including most of the town's historic buildings. It became part of the modern state of Hesse after the war.  In 1977, Giessen was merged with the neighbouring city Wetzlar to form the new city of Lahn. However, this attempt to reorganize the administration was reversed in 1979. It was part of the Darmstadt region (regierungsbezirk) between 1945 and 1981, until the Giessen (region) was founded on 1 January 1981.  A U.S. military base was located in Giessen after the Second World War. The U.S. Army Garrison of Gießen had a population of 800 Americans. The base is a converted German Army Air Field which is reflected in some of the buildings including the housing area. A theatre, known as the Keller Theatre, is a converted German Army Officers' Club. As of 28 September 2007, the Giessen Depot and all other U.S. facilities in the greater Giessen area were turned back to local German authorities. The former U.S. Army buildings were used to house refugees after the large intake of 2016.  After the war, the city was twinned with Winchester, UK.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Giessen is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "Giessen is home to the basketball club Giessen 46ers, five-time champion of the Basketball Bundesliga. Its home games take place at the Sporthalle Gießen-Ost. Also, Giessen has an American football team called Giessen Golden Dragons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "The Catholic Scouts of Europe were founded in Giessen in 1975.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manisch.", "content": "Manisch is a dialect of rotwelsch spoken in and around Giessen by people in lower income neighbourhoods, some of which are known as \"Eulenkopf\", \"Gummiinsel\", \"Heyerweg\" and \"Margaretenhütte\". Approximately 700–750 residents spoke the dialect fluently as of 1976. Although the dialect still influences the Giessen vernacular, it is nearly extinct in terms of fluent speakers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is \"\". (Marine West Coast Climate).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jan (Alojzy) Matejko (; also known as Jan Mateyko; 24 June 1838 – 1 November 1893) was a Polish painter known for paintings of notable historical Polish political and military events. His works include large oil on canvas paintings like \"Rejtan\" (1866), \"Union of Lublin\" (1869) or \"Battle of Grunwald\" (1878), numerous portraits, a gallery of Polish kings, and murals in St. Mary's Basilica, Kraków. He is referred to as the most famous Polish painter or even the \"national painter\" of Poland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974010}
{"src_title": "Claus process", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The process was invented by Carl Friedrich Claus, a German chemist working in England. A British patent was issued to him in 1883. The process was later significantly modified by IG Farben.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Process description.", "content": "A schematic process flow diagram of a basic 2+1-reactor (converter) SuperClaus unit is shown below:  The Claus technology can be divided into two process steps, thermal and catalytic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thermal step.", "content": "In the thermal step, hydrogen sulfide-laden gas reacts in a substoichiometric combustion at temperatures above 850 °C such that elemental sulfur precipitates in the downstream process gas cooler.  The HS content and the concentration of other combustible components (hydrocarbons or ammonia) determine the location where the feed gas is burned. Claus gases (acid gas) with no further combustible contents apart from HS are burned in lances surrounding a central muffle by the following chemical reaction:  This is a strongly exothermic free-flame total oxidation of hydrogen sulfide generating sulfur dioxide that reacts away in subsequent reactions. The most important one is the Claus reaction:  The overall equation is:  The temperature inside Claus furnace is often maintained above 1050°C. This ensures BTEX (Benzene, Toluene, Ethyl benzene and Xylene) destruction which otherwise would clog downstream Claus catalyst.  Gases containing ammonia, such as the gas from the refinery's sour water stripper (SWS), or hydrocarbons are converted in the burner muffle. Sufficient air is injected into the muffle for the complete combustion of all hydrocarbons and ammonia. The air to the acid gas ratio is controlled such that in total 1/3 of all hydrogen sulfide (HS) is converted to SO. This ensures a stoichiometric reaction for the Claus reaction in the second catalytic step (see next section below).  The separation of the combustion processes ensures an accurate dosage of the required air volume needed as a function of the feed gas composition. To reduce the process gas volume or obtain higher combustion temperatures, the air requirement can also be covered by injecting pure oxygen. Several technologies utilizing high-level and low-level oxygen enrichment are available in industry, which requires the use of a special burner in the reaction furnace for this process option.  Usually, 60 to 70% of the total amount of elemental sulfur produced in the process is obtained in the thermal process step.  The main portion of the hot gas from the combustion chamber flows through the tube of the process gas cooler and is cooled down such that the sulfur formed in the reaction step condenses. The heat given off by the process gas and the condensation heat evolved are utilized to produce medium or low-pressure steam. The condensed sulfur is removed at the liquid outlet section of the process gas cooler.  The sulfur forms in the thermal phase as highly reactive S diradicals which combine exclusively to the S allotrope:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Side reactions.", "content": "Other chemical processes taking place in the thermal step of the Claus reaction are:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Catalytic step.", "content": "The Claus reaction continues in the catalytic step with activated aluminum(III) or titanium(IV) oxide, and serves to boost the sulfur yield. More hydrogen sulfide (HS) reacts with the SO formed during combustion in the reaction furnace in the Claus reaction, and results in gaseous, elemental sulfur.  One suggested mechanism is that S and S desorb from the catalyst's active sites with simultaneous formation of stable cyclic elemental sulfur.  The catalytic recovery of sulfur consists of three substeps: heating, catalytic reaction and cooling plus condensation. These three steps are normally repeated a maximum of three times. Where an incineration or tail-gas treatment unit (TGTU) is added downstream of the Claus plant, only two catalytic stages are usually installed.  The first process step in the catalytic stage is the gas heating process. It is necessary to prevent sulfur condensation in the catalyst bed, which can lead to catalyst fouling. The required bed operating temperature in the individual catalytic stages is achieved by heating the process gas in a reheater until the desired operating bed temperature is reached.  Several methods of reheating are used in industry:  The typically recommended operating temperature of the first catalyst stage is 315 °C to 330 °C (bottom bed temperature). The high temperature in the first stage also helps to hydrolyze COS and CS, which is formed in the furnace and would not otherwise be converted in the modified Claus process.  The catalytic conversion is maximized at lower temperatures, but care must be taken to ensure that each bed is operated above the dew point of sulfur. The operating temperatures of the subsequent catalytic stages are typically 240 °C for the second stage and 200 °C for the third stage (bottom bed temperatures).  In the sulfur condenser, the process gas coming from the catalytic reactor is cooled to between 150 and 130 °C. The condensation heat is used to generate steam at the shell side of the condenser.  Before storage, liquid sulfur streams from the process gas cooler, the sulfur condensers and from the final sulfur separator are routed to the degassing unit, where the gases (primarily HS) dissolved in the sulfur are removed.  The tail gas from the Claus process still containing combustible components and sulfur compounds (HS, H and CO) is either burned in an incineration unit or further desulfurized in a downstream tail gas treatment unit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sub dew point Claus process.", "content": "The conventional Claus process described above is limited in its conversion due to the reaction equilibrium being reached. Like all exothermic reactions, greater conversion can be achieved at lower temperatures, however as mentioned the Claus reactor must be operated above the sulfur dew point (120–150 °C) to avoid liquid sulfur physically deactivating the catalyst. To overcome this problem, the sub dew point Clauss reactors are oriented in parallel, with one operating and one spare. When one reactor has become saturated with adsorbed sulfur, the process flow is diverted to the standby reactor. The reactor is then regenerated by sending process gas that has been heated to 300–350 °C to vaporize the sulfur. This stream is sent to a condenser to recover the sulfur.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Process performance.", "content": "Over 2.6 tons of steam will be generated for each ton of sulfur yield.  The physical properties of elemental sulfur obtained in the Claus process can differ from that obtained by other processes. Sulfur is usually transported as a liquid (melting point 115 °C). In elementary sulfur viscosity increases rapidly at temperatures in excess of 160 °C due to the formation of polymeric sulfur chains. Another anomaly is found in the solubility of residual HS in liquid sulfur as a function of temperature. Ordinarily the solubility of a gas decreases with increasing temperature but with HS it is the opposite. This means that toxic and explosive HS gas can build up in the headspace of any cooling liquid sulfur reservoir. The explanation for this anomaly is the endothermic reaction of sulfur with HS to polysulfanes HS.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Claus process is the most significant gas desulfurizing process, recovering elemental sulfur from gaseous hydrogen sulfide. First patented in 1883 by the chemist Carl Friedrich Claus, the Claus process has become the industry standard. C. F. Claus was born in Kassel in the German State of Hessen in 1827, and studied chemistry in Marburg before he emigrated to England in 1852. Claus died in London in the year 1900.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974011}
{"src_title": "Common redpoll", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The common redpoll was listed in 1758 by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his \"Systema Naturae\" under the binomial name \"Fringilla flammea\". The current genus name \"Acanthis\" is from the Ancient Greek \"akanthis\", a name for a small now-unidentifiable bird, and \"flammea\" is the Latin for \"flame-coloured\".  The common redpoll was previously placed in the genus \"Carduelis\". Molecular phylogenetic studies showed that the Arctic and common redpolls formed a distinct lineage, so the two species were grouped together in the resurrected genus \"Acanthis\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "The nominate subspecies \"A. f. flammea\", the mealy redpoll, breeds across the northern parts of North America and the Palearctic. There is also a subspecies that breeds in Iceland called the Icelandic redpoll (\"A. f. islandica\"), and one that breeds in Greenland and Baffin Island called the Greenland redpoll (\"A. f. rostrata\"). Many taxonomic authorities consider the lesser redpoll a subspecies of the common redpoll. Together, the Icelandic and Greenland forms are sometimes known as the 'northwestern redpolls'. All the subspecies migrate south into Canada, the northern U.S., or Eurasia. These birds are remarkably resistant to cold temperatures and winter movements are mainly driven by the availability of food. There are two distinct populations (one lighter, one darker) united in \"islandica\", the relationships of which are unresolved.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The common redpoll is a small brownish-grey finch with dark streaks and a bright red patch on its forehead. It has a black bib and two pale stripes on the wings. Males often have their breasts suffused with red. It is smaller, browner and more streaked than the generally similar Arctic redpoll, adults measuring between in length and weighing between. The rump is streaked and there is a broad dark brown streak across the vent. It has brown legs, dark-tipped yellowish bills and dark brown irises.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "The mealy redpoll is larger and paler than the lesser redpoll with which it often mixes, apparently without significant interbreeding, though sympatry was established too recently to draw firm conclusions. The male mealy redpolls are darker than the similarly sized Arctic redpolls, but the females are almost identical.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "The range of the common redpoll extends through northern Europe and Asia to northern North America, Greenland and Iceland. It is a partial migrant, moving southward in late autumn and northward again in March and April. Its typical habitat is boreal forests of pines, spruces and larches. It feeds mainly on seeds, principally birch and alder seeds in the winter.  The common redpoll builds its nest low down in a tree or bush. The nest has an outer layer of thin twigs, a middle layer of root fibres, fragments of juniper bark and lichens and an inner layer of down, willow buds and reindeer hair. Three to seven speckled eggs are laid and incubated by the female. They hatch after about 11 days and the young fledge in about a further 13 days.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The common redpoll (\"Acanthis flammea\") is a species of bird in the finch family. It breeds somewhat further south than the Arctic redpoll, also in habitats with thickets or shrubs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974012}
{"src_title": "Douglas DC-7", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1945 Pan American World Airways requested a DC-7, a civil version of the Douglas C-74 Globemaster military transport. Pan Am soon canceled their order. That proposed DC-7 was unrelated to the later airliner.  American Airlines revived the designation when they requested an aircraft that could fly the USA coast-to-coast non-stop in about eight hours. (Civil Air Regulations then limited domestic flight crews to 8 hours' flight time in any 24-hour period.) Douglas was reluctant to build the aircraft until American Airlines president C. R. Smith ordered 25 at a price of $40 million, thus covering Douglas' development costs.  The DC-7 wing was based on that of the DC-4 and DC-6, with the same span; the fuselage was 40 inches longer than the DC-6B. Four eighteen-cylinder Wright R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone Turbo-Compound engines provided power. The prototype flew in May 1953 and American received their first DC-7 in November, inaugurating the first non-stop east-coast-to-west-coast service in the country (unrealistically scheduled just under the eight-hour limit for one crew) and forcing rival TWA to offer a similar service with its Super Constellations. Both aircraft frequently experienced inflight engine failures, causing many flights to be diverted. Some blamed this on the need for high-power settings to meet the notional schedules, causing overheating and failure of the engines' power recovery turbines.  The DC-7 was followed by the DC-7B with slightly more power, and on some DC-7Bs (Pan Am and South African Airways), fuel tanks over the wing in the rear of the engine nacelles, each carrying. South African Airways used this variant to fly Johannesburg to London with one stop. Pan Am's DC-7Bs started flying transatlantic in summer 1955, scheduled 1 hr 45 min faster than the Super Stratocruiser from New York to London or Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Early DC-7s were purchased only by U.S. carriers. European carriers could not take advantage of the small range-increase of the early DC-7, so Douglas released an extended-range variant, the DC-7C (Seven Seas) in 1956. Two wingroot inserts added fuel capacity, reduced interference drag and made the cabin quieter by moving the engines farther outboard; all DC-7Cs had the nacelle fuel tanks previously seen on Pan American's and South African's DC-7Bs. The fuselage, which had been extended over the DC-6Bs with a plug behind the wing for the DC-7 and DC-7B, was lengthened again with a 40-inch plug ahead of the wing to give the DC-7C a total length of.  Since the late 1940s Pan Am and other airlines had scheduled a few non-stop flights from New York to Europe, but westward non-stops against the prevailing wind were rarely possible with an economic payload. The L1049G and DC-7B that appeared in 1955 could occasionally make the westward trip, but in summer 1956 Pan Am's DC-7C finally started doing it fairly reliably. BOAC was forced to respond by purchasing DC-7Cs rather than wait on the delivery of the Bristol Britannia. The DC-7C found its way into several other overseas airlines' fleets, including SAS, which used them on cross-polar flights to North America and Asia. The DC-7C sold better than its rival, the Lockheed L-1649A Starliner, which entered service a year later, but sales were cut short by the arrival of Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 jets in 1958–60.  Starting in 1959 Douglas began converting DC-7s and DC-7Cs into DC-7F freighters to extend their useful lives. The airframes were fitted with large forward and rear freight doors and some cabin windows were removed.  The predecessor DC-6, especially the DC-6B, established a reputation for straightforward engineering and reliability. Pratt & Whitney, manufacturer of the DC-6s Double Wasp engines, did not offer an effective larger engine apart from the Wasp Major, which had a reputation for poor reliability. Douglas turned to Wright Aeronautical for a more powerful engine. The Duplex-Cyclone had reliability issues of its own, and this affected the DC-7's service record. Carriers who had both DC-6s and DC-7s in their fleets usually replaced the newer DC-7s first once jets started to arrive. Some airlines retired their DC-7s after little more than five years of service, whereas most DC-6s lasted longer and sold more readily on the secondhand market.  Basic price of a new DC-7 was around £570,000 ($823,308).  Price of a DC-7B was around £680,000 ($982,226) in 1955, rising to £820,000 ($1,184,490) in 1957.  Similarly, the price of a DC-7C was £800,000 ($1,155,560) in 1956, increasing to £930,000 ($1,343,385) by 1958.  Cost of the DC-7F \"Speedfreighter\" conversion was around £115,000 ($166,112) per aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operators.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Airlines.", "content": "DC-7s were used by Alitalia, American Airlines, BOAC, Braniff Airways, Caledonian Airways, Delta Air Lines, Eastern Air Lines, Flying Tigers, Japan Airlines, KLM, Mexicana de Aviacion, National Airlines, Northwest Orient, Panair do Brasil, Pan American World Airways, Riddle Airlines, Sabena, SAS, South African Airways, Swissair, Turkish Airlines, Transports Aériens Intercontinentaux, and United Airlines.  Seventeen DC-7s remained on the U.S. registry in 2010, used mainly for cargo and as aerial firefighting airtankers. Due to its engine problems, the DC-7 has not had the same longevity as the DC-6, which is still used by a number of commercial operators.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Accidents and incidents.", "content": "The Douglas DC-7 suffered 79 incidents and accidents with a total of 714 fatalities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "Few DC-7s are in operation today. A small number survive as freighters while others are used for firebombing. One is on display at Epic Flight Academy in New Smyrna Beach, Florida.  A DC-7 tail number C-0921 (nicknamed \"Charlie 21\") was installed at Iliff Preschool in Denver in 1971 and is still serving as a kindergarten classroom.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Douglas DC-7 is a transport aircraft built by the Douglas Aircraft Company from 1953 to 1958. It was the last major piston engine-powered transport made by Douglas, being developed shortly after the earliest jet airliner—the de Havilland Comet—entered service and only a few years before the jet-powered Douglas DC-8 first flew. Like other aircraft in Douglas's collection of propeller-driven aircraft, examples remain in service in the present day, albeit in significantly lower numbers than the far more successful DC-3 and DC-6.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974013}
{"src_title": "Władysław Sikorski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Eirik was the eldest surviving son of King Magnus the Lawmender of Norway, and his wife Ingeborg Eriksdatter, daughter of King Eric IV of Denmark. In 1273, when he was 5 years old, he was given the title of king, alongside his father, who planned to hold a coronation for Eirik as his subordinate co-ruler in the summer of 1280. However, King Magnus died before this could be arranged, and Eirik became sole king and was crowned as such in Bergen in the summer of 1280. During his minority, the kingdom was ruled by a royal council consisting of prominent barons and probably also his mother, the dowager queen Ingeborg. After Eirik came of age in 1282, this royal council is still thought to have had a major influence over his reign. His brother, Haakon, was in 1273 given the title \"Duke of Norway\", and from 1280 ruled a large area around Oslo in Eastern Norway and Stavanger in the southwest, subordinate to King Eirik. The king's main residence was in Bergen in Western Norway.  Eirik married princess Margaret of Scotland, daughter of King Alexander III of Scotland in Bergen in 1281. Margaret died two years later in childbirth, giving birth to Margaret, Maid of Norway, who became queen of Scotland in 1286 until her death in 1290. Her death sparked the disputed succession which led to the Wars of Scottish Independence. Eirik briefly and unsuccessfully laid claim to the Scottish crown as inheritance from his daughter.  Eirik later married Isabel Bruce, sister of King Robert I of Scotland. Their marriage did not produce a surviving male heir, though it did produce a daughter, Ingeborg Eriksdottir of Norway, who married Valdemar Magnusson of Sweden, Duke of Finland, in 1312. Ingeborg Eriksdotter was styled Duchess of Öland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "A prominent feature of Eirik's reign was the war with Denmark, called the War of the Outlaws (De fredløses krig), which was waged on and off from 1287 until 1295. A major motivation for this warfare was Eirik's claim on his mother's Danish inheritance. In 1287, he also entered into an alliance with a group of Danish nobles, most prominently Jacob Nielsen, Count of Halland and Stig Andersen Hvide, who were outlawed in Denmark for allegedly murdering the Danish king Eric V. Eirik gave the outlaws sanctuary in Norway in 1287. King Eirik himself led a large Norwegian fleet which, along with the Danish outlaws, attacked Denmark in 1289, burning Elsinore and threatening Copenhagen. Renewed naval attacks on Denmark were made in 1290 and 1293, before peace was made in 1295.  Eirik received the nickname \"Priest Hater\" from his unsuccessful relations with the church.  As Eirik died without sons, he was succeeded by his brother, as Haakon V of Norway. He was buried in the old cathedral of Bergen, which was demolished in 1531. Its site is marked by a memorial, in present-day Bergenhus Fortress.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eric Magnusson (1268 – 15 July 1299) (Old Norse: \"Eiríkr Magnússon\"; Norwegian: \"Eirik Magnusson\") was the King of Norway from 1280 until 1299.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974014}
{"src_title": "Polyus (spacecraft)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Polyus spacecraft was launched 15 May 1987 from Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 250 as part of the first flight of the Energia system, but failed to reach orbit.  According to Yuri Kornilov, Chief Designer of the Salyut Design Bureau, shortly before Polyus' launch, Mikhail Gorbachev visited the Baikonur Cosmodrome and expressly forbade the in-orbit testing of its capabilities. Kornilov claims that Gorbachev was worried that it would be possible for Western governments to view this activity as an attempt to create a weapon in space and that such an attempt would contradict the country's previous statements on the USSR's peaceful intent.  For technical reasons, the payload was launched upside down. It was designed to separate from the Energia, rotate 180 degrees in yaw, then 90 degrees in roll and then fire its engine to complete its boost to orbit. The Energia functioned perfectly. However, after separation from Energia, the Polyus spun a full 360 degrees instead of the planned 180 degrees. When the engine fired, it slowed and burned up in the atmosphere over the south Pacific Ocean. This failure was attributed to a faulty inertial guidance system that had not been rigorously tested due to the rushed production schedule.  Parts of the Polyus project's hardware were re-used in Kvant-2, Kristall, Spektr and Priroda Mir modules, as well as in the ISS module Zarya.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "NPO \"Energia\" received orders from the Soviet government to begin research on space-based strike weapons in the mid-1970s. Even before, the USSR had been developing maneuverable satellites for the purpose of satellite interception. By the beginning of the 1980s, \"Energia\" had proposed two programs: laser-equipped \"Skif\" and guided missiles platform \"Kaskad\" (where \"Skif\" would cover the low-orbit targets, \"Kaskad\" engaged targets in high and geosynchronous orbits). Together with NPO \"Astrofizika\" and KB \"Salyut\", they began developing their orbital weapons platform based on the Salyut DOS-17K frame.  Later, when the objective of ICBM interception proved too difficult, the aims of the project were shifted towards anti-satellite weapons. The 1983 announcement by the US of their SDI program prompted further political and financial support for the satellite interceptor program. In the nuclear exchange scenario, the interceptors would destroy the SDI satellites, followed by a so-called \"pre-emptive retaliation\" large-scale Soviet ICBM launch.  The laser chosen for the \"Skif\" spacecraft was the 1-megawatt carbon dioxide laser, developed for the Beriev A-60 aircraft (an Il-76 flying laboratory with a combat laser). The introduction of the \"Energia\", capable of launching about 95 tonnes into orbit, finally allowed the spacecraft to accommodate the massive laser. The massive exhaust of the carbon-dioxide laser precipitated the objective of making the laser \"recoil-less\". The \"zero-torque exhaust system\" (SBM) was developed to that end. Its testing in orbit meant the release of a large cloud of carbon dioxide, which would hint at the satellite's purpose. Instead, the xenon-krypton mix would be used to simultaneously test the SBM and perform an innocent experiment on Earth's ionosphere.  In 1985, the decision was made to test-launch the new \"Energia\" launch vehicle, which was still in the testbed phase. A 100-ton dummy payload was initially considered for the launch, but in a series of last-minute changes, it was decided that the almost-completed \"Skif\" spacecraft would be launched instead for a 30-day mission.  The development of the real \"Skif\" was completed in just one year, from September 1985 to September 1986. Testing and tweaking the \"Energia\" launch vehicle, the launch pad and the \"Skif\" itself moved the launch to February, and later to May 1987. According to Boris Gubanov, the head designer of the \"Energia\" launch vehicle, the work schedule of the preceding years was exhausting, and at the point of Mikhail Gorbachev's visit on 11 May, he asked the Soviet premier to clear the launch now, because \"there will be heart attacks\".  The catastrophic malfunction that led to \"Skif\" entering the atmosphere in the same area as \"Energia's\" second stage was successfully investigated. It was found that 568 seconds after launch, the timing control device gave the logical block a command to discard the side modules' covers and laser exhaust covers. Unknowingly, the same command was earlier used to open the solar panels and disengage the maneuvering thrusters. This wasn't discovered because of the logistics of the testing process and overall haste. Main thrusters engaged while the \"Skif\" kept turning, overshooting the intended 180-degree turn. The spacecraft lost speed and reverted to the ballistic trajectory.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Polyus spacecraft (, \"pole\"), also known as Polus, Skif-DM, GRAU index 17F19DM, was a prototype orbital weapons platform designed to destroy Strategic Defense Initiative satellites with a megawatt carbon-dioxide laser. It had a Functional Cargo Block derived from a TKS spacecraft to control its orbit and it could launch test targets to demonstrate the fire control system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974015}
{"src_title": "Angelo Scola", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Scola was born in Malgrate, Milan, to Carlo Scola, a truck driver, and Regina Colombo. He was the younger of two sons; Pietro, his elder brother, died in 1983. He attended high school at the Manzoni Lyceum in Lecco, where he participated in the youth movement \"Gioventù Studentesca\" (Student Youth).  He studied philosophy at the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart from 1964 to 1967, obtaining his doctorate with a dissertation on Christian philosophy. During this time served as vice-president and thereafter President of the Milanese diocesan chapter of the \"Federazione Universitaria Cattolica Italiana\", the university student wing of Catholic Action.  At the university Scola met Luigi Giussani, the founder of the Catholic movement Communion and Liberation. After earning his degree in philosophy and teaching in high schools, Scola entered the Archiepiscopal seminary of Milan, studying one year in Saronno and the others in Venegono. In 1969 Scola was denied permission to be ordained subdeacon a year early. Following the advice of Luigi Giussani, in summer 1969 Scola moved to the seminary of the Diocese of Teramo-Atri where he studied one year. On 18 July 1970 Scola was ordained to the priesthood in Teramo by Bishop Abele Conigli.  He earned a second doctorate in theology from the University of Fribourg, Switzerland. He wrote his dissertation on St. Thomas Aquinas. An active collaborator in the Communion and Liberation movement from the early 1970s, Scola was the Italian editor of the journal \"Communio\" founded by Henri de Lubac, Hans Urs von Balthasar, and Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI). He conducted book-length interviews with de Lubac and von Balthasar.  After studying in Munich and Paris and doing pastoral work, Scola returned to Fribourg to work as research assistant to the chair of political philosophy from 1979 and then Assistant Professor of Fundamental Moral Theology until 1982 when he was appointed Professor of Theological Anthropology at the Pontifical John Paul II Institute for Studies on Marriage and Family and Professor of Contemporary Christology at the Pontifical Lateran University.  He founded the Studium Generale Marcianum, an academic institute, and the journal \"Oasis\", published in Italian, English, French, Arabic and Urdu as an outreach to Christians in the Muslim world.  From 1986 to 1991 Scola served as consultor to the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. At the various institutes where he taught he promoted the establishment of bursaries to enable foreign students, particularly those from poorer countries, to study in Italy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bishop of Grosseto.", "content": "Scola was named Bishop of Grosseto on 18 July 1991, and was consecrated by Cardinal Bernardin Gantin (with Bishops Abele Conigli and Adelmo Tacconi serving as co-consecrators) on the following 21 September. As Bishop of Grosseto he promoted a renewal of catechesis in the diocese. Scola chose as his episcopal motto \"Sufficit gratia tua\" (\"Your grace suffices\", 2 Corinthians 12:9).  Among Scola's chief pastoral concerns in Grosseto were the education of children and youths, vocations and clergy formation (he reopened the diocesan seminary), new approaches to parish life, the pastoral care of labourers (particularly during the difficult period of the dismantling of mines in Grosseto), culture and the family, and the opening of a diocesan mission in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. During this period he wrote and published a book aimed at young people on the subject of the educative mission of the Church. In his pastoral capacity as bishop, Scola paid particular attention to the issues of education, youth, clergy formation, renewal of parish life, pastoral care of workers, culture and the family.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rector of Lateran University and offices in Roman Curia.", "content": "Scola in 1995 resigned as bishop of Grosseto to serve as rector of the Pontifical Lateran University in Rome and President of the Pontifical John Paul II Institute for Studies on Marriage and Family in Rome, with a term spent as visiting professor at the counterpart Institute in Washington, D.C., during which time he wrote a monograph on the theology of von Balthasar.  In 1995 he became a member of the Congregation for the Clergy. He also served as member of the Episcopal Commission for Catholic Education of the Italian Bishops' Conference and, from 1996, as president of the Committee for Institutes of Religious Studies which addresses questions of the theological formation of the laity in Italy.  From 1996 to 2001 Scola was a member of the Pontifical Council for Health Workers and wrote several texts on issues around health care. In 1996 he was named a member to the Pontifical Council for the Family.  On 17 January 2009 he was appointed a member of the Pontifical Council for Culture by Pope Benedict. On 5 January 2011 he was appointed among the first members of the newly created Pontifical Council for the Promotion of the New Evangelisation. He is also a member of the Congregation for Divine Worship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Patriarch of Venice.", "content": "Scola was appointed Patriarch of Venice on 5 January 2002, elected President of the Bishops' Conference of the Triveneta region on 9 April 2002 and created Cardinal-Priest of Santi XII Apostoli on 21 October 2003. As Patriarch Scola developed a reputation of openness and pastoral concern. In Venice, for instance, he set aside Wednesday mornings to meet anyone who wanted to see him, whether or not they had an appointment.  After the death of Pope John Paul II in 2005, Scola was considered to be among the \"papabili\" in the 2005 papal conclave that elected Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVI.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Archbishop of Milan.", "content": "On 28 June 2011 he was appointed to replace Cardinal Dionigi Tettamanzi as Archbishop of Milan. On 9 September 2011 he took possession of the Archdiocese of Milan by proxy. Scola received from Pope Benedict XVI the pallium of Metropolitan Archbishop of Milan on 21 September 2011 at Castel Gandolfo. On 25 September 2011 he was enthroned in Milan.  On 7 March 2012 he was appointed a member of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches. On 21 April he was appointed a member of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.  Scola knows Italian (as well as Lecchese dialect), English, German, French and a little Spanish.  In 2013, Scola again was a leading candidate to be elected pope—and the press service of the Italian Bishops' Conference mistakenly announced Scola's election—in the conclave that elected Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio, Pope Francis.  Pope Francis accepted Scola's resignation on 7 July 2017 and appointed Bishop Mario Delpini as his successor. In retirement, Scola plans to live in Imberido, a village near Lake Annone. In 2018 Scola expressed his opposition to communion for the divorced and civilly remarried unless they live in complete continence, the possibility of which has been the focus of controversy surrounding Pope Francis's apostolic exhortation \"Amoris laetitia\". Scola said withholding Communion is \"not a punishment that can be taken away or reduced, but is inherent in the very character of Christian marriage\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Scola is the author of numerous theological and pedagogical works on topics such as bio-medical ethics, theological anthropology, human sexuality and marriage and the family, which have been translated into several languages. In addition, he is the author of more than 120 articles published in scholarly journals of philosophy and theology.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Angelo Scola (; born 7 November 1941) is an Italian Cardinal of the Catholic Church, philosopher and theologian. He was Archbishop of Milan from 2011 to 2017. He had served as Patriarch of Venice from 2002 to 2011. He has been a cardinal since 2003 and a bishop since 1991.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974016}
{"src_title": "Bormio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Bormio lies in the northeast of the Lombardy region at the top of the Valtellina, a broad glacial valley formed by the Adda River that flows down into Lake Como. It is linked to other valleys via four passes:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Due to its thermal baths at \"Bagni Vecchi\", \"Bagni Nuovi\" and \"Terme di Bormio\", Bormio has long been a tourist attraction. Members of the Roman aristocracy already travelled to Bormio in order to enjoy warm baths in the mountainous scenery. Most of these thermal baths are still in use today.  The town is centred on the historic Piazza Cavour and Via Roma, a historic main trading point on the route from Venice to Switzerland. Bormio retains its unique medieval town centre, attracting many tourists, mainly Italian, from Milan and other cities. It will host alpine skiing in the 2026 Winter Olympics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alpine skiing.", "content": "The village hosted the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships twice, in 1985 and 2005, both cohosted with Santa Caterina di Valfurva. There are of marked ski runs, the longest run of which is, served by fifteen lifts and several ski schools.  Bormio is a regular stop on the World Cup circuit, usually with a men's downhill in late December. The Pista Stelvio, named after Stelvio Pass, is one of the most challenging downhill courses in the world; it is second-longest on the World Cup circuit, behind only the Lauberhorn in Wengen, Switzerland.  For the World Cup race in December 2017, the Stelvio started at an elevation of, with a vertical drop of and course length of. The winning time of Italian Dominik Paris was just under two yielding an average speed of and a vertical descent rate of over per second.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin cities and towns.", "content": "Bormio is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bormio (,, ) is a town and \"comune\" with a population of about 4,100 located in the Province of Sondrio, Lombardy region of the Alps in northern Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974017}
{"src_title": "Ninety-Three", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The year is 1793. In Brittany during the Royalist insurrection of the Chouannerie, a troop of “Blues” (soldiers of the French Republic) encounter in the bocage Michelle Fléchard, a peasant woman, and her three young children, who are fleeing from the conflict. She explains that her husband and parents have been killed in the peasant revolt that started the insurrection. The troop’s commander, Sergeant Radoub, convinces them to look after the family.  Meanwhile, at sea, a group of Royalist “Whites” are planning to land the Marquis de Lantenac, a Breton aristocrat whose leadership could transform the fortunes of the rebellion. While at sea, a sailor fails to properly secure his cannon, which rolls out of control and damages the ship. The sailor risks his life to secure the cannon and save their ship. Lantenac awards the man a medal for his bravery and then executes him (without trial) for failing in his duty. Their corvette is spotted by ships of the Republic. Lantenac slips away in a boat with one supporter, Halmalo, the brother of the executed sailor, and the corvette distracts the Republican ships by provoking a battle the damaged ship cannot win. The corvette is destroyed, but Lantenac lands safely in Brittany and sends Halmalo ahead as a messenger.  Lantenac is hunted by the Blues, but is protected by a local beggar, to whom he gave alms in the past. He meets up with his supporters, and they immediately launch an attack on the Blues. Part of the troop with the family is captured. Lantenac orders them all to be shot, including Michelle. He takes the children with him as hostages. The beggar finds the bodies, and discovers that Michelle is still alive. He nurses her back to health.  Lantenac’s ruthless methods have turned the revolt into a major threat to the Republic. In Paris, Danton, Robespierre and Marat argue about the threat, while also sniping at each other. They promulgate a decree that all rebels and anyone who helps them will be executed. Cimourdain, a committed revolutionary and former priest, is deputed to carry out their orders in Brittany. He is also told to keep an eye on Gauvain, the commander of the Republican troops there, who is related to Lantenac and thought to be too lenient to rebels. Unknown to the revolutionary leaders, Cimourdain was Gauvain’s childhood tutor, and thinks of him as a son.  Lantenac has taken control of Dol-de-Bretagne, in order to secure a landing place for British troops to be sent to support the Royalists. Gauvain launches a surprise attack and uses deception to dislodge and disperse them. Forced to retreat, Lantenac is constantly kept from the coast by Gauvain. With British troops unavailable his supporters melt away. Eventually he and a last few fanatical followers are trapped in his castle.  Meanwhile Michelle has recovered and goes in search of her children. She wanders aimlessly, but eventually hears that they are being held hostage in Lantenac’s castle. At the castle Sergeant Radoub, fighting with the besiegers, spots the children. He persuades Gauvain to let him lead an assault. He manages to break through the defences and kill several rebels, but with Halmalo's aid, Lantenac and a few survivors escape through a secret passage after setting fire to the building. As the fire takes hold, Michelle arrives, and sees that her children are trapped. Her hysterical cries of despair are heard by Lantenac. Struck with guilt, he returns through the passage to the castle and rescues the children, helped by Radoub. He then gives himself up.  Gauvain knows that Cimourdain will guillotine Lantenac after a show trial. He visits him in prison, where Lantenac expresses his uncompromising conservative vision of society ordered by hierarchy, deference and duty. Gauvain insists that humane values transcend tradition. To prove it, he allows Lantenac to escape and then gives himself up to the tribunal that was convened to try him. Gauvain's forgiveness after Lantenac's courageous act contrasts with Lantenac's executing the sailor at the beginning of the novel. Gauvain is then tried for treason. The tribunal comprises Cimourdain, Radoub and Gauvain’s deputy, Guéchamp. Radoub votes to acquit, but the others vote to condemn Gauvain to be executed, with Cimourdain casting the deciding vote. Visited by Cimourdain in prison, Gauvain outlines his own vision of a future society with minimal government, no taxes, technological progress and sexual equality. The following morning he is executed by guillotine. At the same moment, Cimourdain shoots himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing and reception.", "content": "Hugo makes clear where he himself stands—in favour of the revolutionaries—in several explicit comments and remarks made by the omniscient narrator. Nevertheless, the Royalist counter-revolutionaries are in no way villainous or despicable. Quite the contrary: Republicans and Royalists alike are depicted as idealistic and high-minded, completely devoted to their respective antagonistic causes (though, to be sure, ready to perform sundry cruel and ruthless acts perceived as necessary in the ongoing titanic struggle). Among the considerable cast of characters, there is hardly any on either side depicted as opportunistic, mercenary or cynical.  However, while being fair to both Republicans and Monarchists, Hugo has been criticised for his portrayal of the Bretons, whom he describes as \"savages\" and as speaking \"a dead language\". A sympathetic portrait is however made of Michelle Fléchard, the young Breton mother, who is originally loyal to the king, but is \"adopted\" by a revolutionary battalion. Her children are later saved by the French royalist leader. Michelle Fléchard is a classical \"civilian caught between parties\".  The former priest who is considered by some to be the novel's villain, Cimourdain, purportedly \"made a deep impression on a young Georgian seminarian named Dzhugashvili, who was confined to his cell for reading \"Ninety-Three\" and later changed his name to Stalin\", according to a biographer of Hugo.  Herbert Butterfield expressed admiration for \"Ninety-Three\" in his essay \"The Historical Novel\" (1924), describing the book as \"a striking example of the epic of national freedom\".  Ayn Rand greatly praised this book (and Hugo's writing in general), acknowledged it as a source of inspiration, and even wrote an introduction to one of its English-language editions which was later reprinted with edits as an essay in \"The Romantic Manifesto.\" Its influence can be especially discernible in the passages describing the Russian Civil War in Rand's \"We the Living\"—where, uncharacteristically for this staunchly anti-Communist writer, \"Reds\" as well as \"Whites\" are recognized for the sincerity of their convictions and presented as courageous and heroic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ninety-Three (\"Quatrevingt-treize\") is the last novel by the French writer Victor Hugo. Published in 1874, eighty years after the bloody upheaval of the Paris Commune of the French Revolution, the novel concerns the Revolt in the Vendée and Chouannerie – the counter-revolutionary revolts in 1793 during the French Revolution. It is divided into three parts, but not chronologically; each part tells a different story, offering a different view of historical general events. The action mainly takes place in Brittany and in Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974018}
{"src_title": "American Philosophical Society", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Philosophical Society, as it was originally called, was founded in 1743 by Benjamin Franklin, James Alexander (lawyer), Francis Hopkinson, John Bartram, Philip Syng, Jr. and others as an offshoot of an earlier club called the Junto.  Since its inception, the society attracted America's finest minds. Early members included John Dickinson,George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, James McHenry, Thomas Paine, David Rittenhouse, Nicholas Biddle, Owen Biddle, Benjamin Rush, James Madison, Michael Hillegas, John Marshall, and John Andrews.  It was common for intellectual societies to invite members from around the world at the time. And so the society also recruited members from other countries, including Alexander von Humboldt, the Marquis de Lafayette, Baron von Steuben, Tadeusz Kościuszko, and Princess Dashkova.  The society lapsed into inactivity by 1746, but in 1767 it was revived. And on January 2, 1769, it united with the American Society for Promoting Useful Knowledge under the name American Philosophical Society Held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge. Benjamin Franklin was elected the first president. During this time, the society maintained a standing Committee on American Improvements; one of its investigations was to study the prospects of a canal to connect the Chesapeake Bay and the Delaware River. The canal, which had been proposed by Thomas Gilpin, Sr., would not become reality until the 1820s.  After the American Revolution, the society looked for leadership to Francis Hopkinson, one of the signatories of the Declaration of Independence. Under his influence, the society received land from the government of Pennsylvania, along with a plot of land in Philadelphia where Philosophical Hall now stands.  Illustrious names have continually been added to the membership roster, reflecting the society's scope. Charles Darwin, Robert Frost, Louis Pasteur, Elizabeth Cabot Agassiz, John James Audubon, Linus Pauling, Margaret Mead, Maria Mitchell, and Thomas Edison became members of the society. The society continues to attract names of high renown today, with a current membership list (as of the April 2005 elections) of 920 members, including 772 resident members (citizens or residents of the United States) and 148 foreign members representing more than two dozen countries.  Many members of the Society of the Cincinnati were among the APS's first board members and contributors; today the APS and SOC still maintain an informal, collegial relationship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "In 1786, the society established the Magellanic Premium, a prize for achievement in \"navigation, astronomy, or natural philosophy,\" the oldest scientific prize awarded by an American institution, which it still awards. Other awards include the Barzun Prize for cultural history, Judson Daland Prize for Outstanding Achievement in Clinical Investigation, the Benjamin Franklin Medal, the Lashley Award for neurobiology, the Lewis Award, and the Thomas Jefferson Medal for distinguished achievement in the arts, humanities, or social sciences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications, Archive.", "content": "The APS has published the \"Transactions of the American Philosophical Society\" since 1771. Currently five issues appear each year. The \"Proceedings\" have appeared since 1838: they publish the papers delivered at the biannual meetings of the society. The society has also published the collected papers of Benjamin Franklin, Joseph Henry, William Penn, and Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Jane Aitken bound some 400 volumes for the society.  The society also holds an expansive archive regarding Framer of the U.S. Constitution John Dickinson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buildings.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophical Hall.", "content": "Philosophical Hall, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at 104 South Fifth Street, between Chestnut and Walnut Streets, immediately south of Old City Hall, was built in 1785–89 to house the society and was designed by Samuel Vaughan in the Federal style. A third floor was added in 1890, to accommodate the expanding library, but was removed in 1948–50 when the building was restored to its original appearance for the creation of Independence National Historical Park. In 2001, it was opened to the public as The American Philosophical Society Museum, hosting revolving, thematic exhibitions that explore the intersections of history, art, and science. The museum features works of art, scientific instruments, original manuscripts, rare books, natural history specimens, and curiosities of all kinds from the APS's own collections, along with objects on loan from other institutions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Library Hall.", "content": "In 1789–90, the Library Company of Philadelphia (LCP) built its headquarters directly across 5th Street from APS. LCP sold its building in 1884, which was demolished for the expansion of the Drexel & Company Building in 1887. This building itself was demolished in the mid-1950s, during the creation of Independence National Historical Park.  APS built a library on the site in 1958, and recreated the facade of the old LCP building.  According to historical ghost stories, Benjamin Franklin's spirit haunts the library, and his statue at the front of the building \"comes to life and dances in the streets.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Benjamin Franklin Hall.", "content": "APS restored the former Farmers' & Mechanics' Bank building at 425–29 Chestnut Street, which was built in 1854–5 to the design of John M. Gries in the Italianate style, to serve as a lecture hall. It is the site of meetings and most major events hosted or produced by the society.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Richardson Hall.", "content": "Constance C. and Edgar P. Richardson Hall at 431 Chestnut Street, immediately west of Benjamin Franklin Hall, is the former Pennsylvania Company for Insurances on Lives and Granting Annuities Building, which was built in 1871–73 and was designed by Addison Hutton. It now contains offices and the Consortium for History of Science, Technology and Medicine.  (Wayback Machine copy)", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The American Philosophical Society (APS), founded in 1743 and located in Philadelphia, is an eminent scholarly organization of international reputation that promotes useful knowledge in the sciences and humanities through excellence in scholarly research, professional meetings, publications, library resources, and community outreach. Considered the first learned society in the United States, it has played an important role in American cultural and intellectual life for over 270 years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974019}
{"src_title": "Kick scooter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Models and history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early scooters.", "content": "Kick scooters have been handmade in industrial urban areas in Europe and the United States since the 1920s or earlier, often as play items made for children to roam the streets. One common home-made version is made by attaching roller skate wheelsets to a board with some kind of handle, usually an old box. Riders can lean to turn, or by using a second board connected by a crude pivot. The construction was all wood, with 3–4 inch (75–100 mm) wheels with steel ball bearings. An additional advantage of this construction was a loud noise, just like from a \"real\" vehicle. An alternative construction consists of one steel clamp on a roller skate divided into front and rear parts and attached to a wood beam.  The German \"Bundesarchiv\" for \"roller\" details that both homemade and manufactured children's scooters were used and even raced in Paris, Berlin and Leipzig in 1930, 1948 and 1951. They are similar to later designs.  The short movie \"A Trip Through the Streets of Amsterdam\" from 1922 shows a number of children on scooters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kick scooter.", "content": "In 1974, the Honda company made the Kick 'n Go, a scooter driven by a pedal on a lever. While it seemed to be as much effort to \"kick\" as a regular scooter, the novelty of it caught on and it became popular nevertheless.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pneumatic tires.", "content": "Before bicycles became popular among children, steel scooters with two small bicycle wheels were more common. Around 1987, many BMX manufacturers produced BMX-like scooters as, such as Scoot. Those manufacturers discontinued their scooters, but some scooter manufacturers were established in later years and remain in business; some are still used in dense urban areas for utility purposes, since they are faster than a folding scooter and more convenient than a utility bicycle. Some are made for off-road use and are described as mountain scooters. In addition to commuting, sports competition, and off-road use, large wheel scooters are a favorite for dog scootering, an activity in which single or team dogs such as huskies pull a scooter and its rider in the same way that a sled is pulled across snow. Some Amish are not allowed to ride bicycles, so they ride scooters instead. Today, variations on the kicksled with scooter design features are also available, such as the Kickspark.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kickbike.", "content": "The development of the kickbike in Finland in 1994 changed the way scooters are viewed. The Kickbike has a large standard size bicycle front wheel and a much smaller rear wheel, which allows for a much faster ride. The Footbike Eurocup has been held since 2001.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Folding scooters.", "content": "In 1996, a foldable aluminium scooter with inline skates wheels was created by Wim Ouboter of Micro Mobility Systems in Switzerland. The scooter was sold as \"Micro Skate Scooter,\" \"Razor,\" and \"JDBUG/JDRAZOR MS-130A\". The Razor was introduced to Japan in 1999, with many early adopters being young Japanese people who used it for portable transport. It later became a worldwide fad and small scooters also became popular toys for children.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pro scooters.", "content": "Kick scooters used for extreme sport stunts and tricks and made to withstand stresses and frustrations, are called pro scooters. Numerous brands specialize in stunt scooters and accessories including helmets, pegs, grind wax, griptape clamps, and clothing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Three wheels.", "content": "Three-wheeled scooters similar to tricycles have been produced for little children.  In 1999, Micro Mobility Systems and K2 Sports produced a reverse-three-wheeled scooter called \"Kickboard.\" Micro also produced the Kickboard-like children's scooters \"Mini Micro\" and \"Maxi Micro.\" The reverse design inherently provides greater stability than the standard: a standing person will tend to stand at the front of a scooter rather than at the back. However, the steering geometry is inherently weak and requires design adaptation to improve its response. An example is the Mini Micro, which uses a spring-loaded system to translate lateral force on the handbars (child leaning) into turning motion on the wheels, referred by its makers as \"lean and steer.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Four wheels.", "content": "The early scooters, which were made with roller skates, were four-wheeled like skateboards.  Around 2000, a Swiss company produced a four-wheeled scooter called \"Wetzer Stickboard.\" The Wetzer Stickboard was a narrow skateboard with a foldable pole on the nose.  In 2006, a company called Nextsport started producing a line of four-wheeled scooters, known as Fuzions. Fuzion scooters are typically bigger and heavier than Razor and Micro models. The early Fuzion models come with large, wide wheels, and an oversized deck for carving stability. Later scooters, such as the Fuzion NX, include smaller, harder wheels, and 360 degree handlebar spinning capabilities, unlike its predecessors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electric kick scooters.", "content": "Electric models surpassed gas-powered scooters about 2000. They are often manufactured for fleet rentals, such as Lime e-scooters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Difference from bicycles.", "content": "Unlike a kick scooter, a bicycle has a seat and drive train, which add speed, cost, weight, and bulk. A folding scooter can be more easily carried than a folding bicycle or even a portable bicycle. Even a non-folding scooter is easier to maneuver between obstacles, since there are no protruding pedals. A bicycle has its advantages on longer journeys and open spaces, while a kick scooter is easier to use for shorter distances and in more crowded locations. Kick scooters seldom have a luggage rack, so the rider usually carries any cargo on his back.  At low speeds a bicycle is difficult to control while pedalling, which is why cyclists occasionally kick their way through dense traffic or in other conditions where they cannot take advantage of the speed of their machines. Thanks to the low-speed stability of a kick scooter, it is allowed on many footpaths where riding a bicycle is forbidden.  Since the feet are nearer to the ground on a scooter, it is easier to step on and off than on a step-through frame bicycle. Hence, the rider can alternate between walking and pushing as energy and route dictate. Large-wheel scooters afford a more effective cross training workout than standard bicycles as the whole body is engaged in the effort of kicking. Although the bicycle is a much more effective and efficient long distance machine, in 2001 Jim Delzer propelled a kick scooter across the United States.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A kick scooter (also referred to as a push-scooter or scooter) is a human-powered street vehicle with a handlebar, deck, and wheels propelled by a rider pushing off the ground. Today, the most common scooters are made of aluminum, titanium, and steel. Some kick scooters made for younger children have 3 to 4 wheels (but most common ones are known to have 2 wheels) and are made of plastic or don't fold. High-performance racing scooters made for adults resemble the old \"penny-farthing\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974020}
{"src_title": "Social fact", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Durkheim's social fact.", "content": "In \"The Rules of Sociological Method\" Durkheim laid out a theory of sociology as \"the science of social facts\". He considered social facts to \"consist of representations and actions\" which meant that \"they cannot be confused with organic phenomena, nor with physical phenomena, which have no existence save in and through the individual consciousness.\" Durkheim says that a social fact is a thing that many people do very similarly because the socialized community that they belong to has influenced them to do these things.  Durkheim defined the social fact this way:  He viewed it as a concrete idea that affected a person's everyday life.  Durkheim's examples of social facts included social institutions such as kinship and marriage, currency, language, religion, political organization, and all societal institutions we must account for in everyday interactions with other members of our societies. Deviating from the norms of such institutions makes the individual unacceptable or misfit in the group.  Among the most noted of Durkheim's work was his discovery of the \"social fact\" of suicide rates. By carefully examining police suicide statistics in different districts, Durkheim demonstrated that the suicide rate of Catholic communities is lower than that of Protestant communities. He ascribed this to a \"social\" (as opposed to individual) cause. This was considered groundbreaking and remains influential.  Durkheim's discovery of social facts was significant because it promised to make it possible to study the behaviour of entire societies, rather than just of particular individuals. Durkheim points to individual actions as instances or representations of different types of actions in society. Some contemporary, interpretivist, sociologists like Max Atkinson and Jack Douglas refer to Durkheim's studies for two quite different purposes, however:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mauss's total social fact.", "content": "For Marcel Mauss (Durkheim's nephew and sometime collaborator) a \"total social fact\" (French \"fait social total\") is \"an activity that has implications throughout society, in the economic, legal, political, and religious spheres\". Diverse strands of social and psychological life are woven together through what he came to call \"total social facts\". A total social fact informs and organizes seemingly quite distinct practices and institutions. Marcel Mauss popularized the term in his book, \"The Gift\":", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In sociology, social facts are values, cultural norms, and social structures that transcend the individual and can exercise social control. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim defined the term, and argued that the discipline of sociology should be understood as the empirical study of social facts. For Durkheim, social facts \"consist of manners of acting, thinking and feeling external to the individual, which are invested with a coercive power by virtue of which they exercise control over him.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974021}
{"src_title": "Château Lafite Rothschild", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Situated in the wine-producing village of Pauillac in the Médoc region to the north-west of Bordeaux, the estate was the property of Gombaud de Lafite in 1234. In the 17th century, the property of Château Lafite was purchased by the Ségur family, including the 16th century manor house that still stands. Although vines almost certainly already existed on the site, around 1680, Jacques de Ségur planted the majority of the vineyard.  In the early 18th century, Nicolas-Alexandre, marquis de Ségur refined the wine-making techniques of the estate, and introduced his wines to the upper echelons of European society. Before long he was known as the \"Wine Prince\", and the wine of Château Lafite called \"The King's Wine\" thanks to the influential support of the Maréchal de Richelieu. Towards the end of the 18th century, Lafite's reputation was assured and even Thomas Jefferson visited the estate and became a lifelong customer.  Following the French Revolution, the period known as Reign of Terror led to the execution of Nicolas Pierre de Pichard on 30 June 1794, bringing an end to the Ségur family's ownership of the estate which became public property. In 1797 the vineyards were sold to a group of Dutch merchants.  The first half of the 19th century saw Lafite in the hands of the Vanlerberghe family and the wine improved more, including the great vintages of 1795, 1798 and 1818. In 1868 the Château was purchased by Baron James Mayer Rothschild for 4.4 million francs, and the estate became Château Lafite Rothschild. Rothschild, however, died just three months after purchasing Lafite. The estate then became the joint property of his three sons: Alphonse, Gustave and Edmond Rothschild.  The 20th century has seen periods of success and difficulty, coping with post-phylloxera vines, and two world wars. During the Second World War the Château was occupied by the German army, and suffered heavily from plundering of its cellars. Succeeding his uncle Élie de Rothschild, Lafite has been under the direction of Éric de Rothschild since 1974.  At the 5 December 1985 Christie's auction, a new record price of approximately was paid for a bottle of wine a 1787 Château Lafite which was thought to be owned by Thomas Jefferson. The authenticity of the bottle has been challenged. On 29 October 2010 the record was broken at a Sotheby's auction in Hong Kong three bottles of 1869 Chateau Lafite-Rothschild were sold for (US$232,692) each.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Counterfeiting.", "content": "In early November 2012, police in the city of Wenzhou, China, seized nearly 10,000 bottles of suspected counterfeit Châteaux Lafite Rothschild. Lafite is very popular among China's nouveau riche, but analysts suspect that between 50 and 70 per cent of wine labeled \"Château Lafite Rothschild\" in China is fake. If genuine, the collection seized in Wenzhou would have been worth up to US$16 million.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vineyard.", "content": "The vineyard is one of the largest in the Médoc at 107 hectares, and produces around 35,000 cases annually, of which between 15,000 and 25,000 are first growth. Its vines are around 70% Cabernet Sauvignon, 25% Merlot, 3% Cabernet Franc, and 2% Petit Verdot, whereas the final wine is between 80% and 95% Cabernet Sauvignon, 5% and 20% Merlot, and up to 3% Cabernet Franc and Petit Verdot. Occasionally exceptions are made, such as the 1961 vintage which was 100% Cabernet Sauvignon.  A second Château Lafite Rothschild vineyard was established in the Chinese province of Shandong, where 250,000 vine stocks from France are planted on 30 hectares. Its vines are Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Marselan. In 2019, the estate debuted its first vintage from its Domaine de Long Dai winery in Shandong.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wines.", "content": "In addition to the first growth, around a third of the wine is released as a second wine under the label \"Carruades de Lafite\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Price.", "content": "Across all vintages Lafite Rothschild is one of the most expensive wines in the world, with the average price per 750 ml bottle reaching $911. Prices for Carruades de Lafite rose dramatically due in part to Chinese demand, with the prices of its 2005 and 2000 vintage fetching over £10,000 per case. After peaking in 2011, however, the price of some vintages halved in two years.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Château Lafite Rothschild is a wine estate in France, owned by members of the Rothschild family since the 19th century. The name Lafite comes from the surname of the \"La Fite\" family.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974022}
{"src_title": "Mor ve Ötesi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Mor ve Ötesi was formed in 1995 with the line-up of Kerem Kabadayı (drums), Harun Tekin (vocals & guitar), Derin Esmer (vocals & guitar) and Alper Tekin (bass), who were then students at the Deutsche Schule Istanbul. They released their first album \"Şehir\" (\"The City\") in September 1996 and played their first live concert in Ankara. That year, Burak Güven replaced Alper Tekin on bass.  \"Bırak Zaman Aksın\" (\"Let Time Flow\"), their second album was released in January 1999 to massive success. Just after its release, Derin Esmer moved to the United States and was replaced by prominent guitarist Kerem Özyeğen. After the devastating 1999 Kocaeli earthquake, Mor ve Ötesi started playing more on social and political themes. They were also very active in the opposition against the use of nuclear energy in Turkey.  In August 2001, they released their third album, \"Gül Kendine\" (\"Smile at Yourself\"). With Kerem Özyeğen, there was a noticeable change in the music, and after 17 August there was a noticeable change in lyrics. In May 2003, Mor ve Ötesi's released the \"Yaz\" EP, which included a cover of the Ajda Pekkan song \"Yaz Yaz Yaz\".  Their fourth album \"Dünya Yalan Söylüyor\" (\"The World is Lying\") was released in March 2004. The album became their most popular album in Turkey, reaching 250.000 sales. Since their previous work was not as well known, many new fans were not aware that they weren't a new band. Although this album has been their best selling album, it is not admired by their old fans as much as their previous work, and some have even seen it as \"sell-out\". The album contained considerable political criticism against the activities of the USA both in Iraq and the rest of the world. In the same year they received a Golden Orange Award for their single \"Bir Derdim Var\", included on the soundtrack of the Çağan Irmak film \"Mustafa Hakkında Her Şey\". Their fifth album \"Büyük Düşler\" (\"Great Hopes\") was released on 9 May 2006. This is an album mainly dealing with the political problems of Turkey and the personal problems of the group members, including loss of family members and their relationships. It has a darker sound compared to their previous albums. This album is regarded as a homage to their old fan base and a return to a style closer to their earlier albums. Three singles were released from the album: \"Şirket\", \"Küçük Sevgilim\", and \"Ayıp Olmaz Mı?\". Büyük Düşler was named Best Album of the Year by Rolling Stone Turkey and Best Rock Album of the Year by Blue Jean magazine.  On 10 December 2007 TRT's general manager İbrahim Şahin announced that Mor ve Ötesi were to represent Turkey in Eurovision Song Contest 2008 with the song 'Deli'. Mor ve Ötesi qualified to finals through the second half of the half finals on 22 May. They had the 12th performance on the finals and finished the contest in 7th place with 138 points, which was held in Belgrade on 24 May 2008. During the contest, BBC commentator Terry Wogan described the lead singer as \"a sinister James Bond\".  The band's sixth album, \"Başıbozuk\", was released in late 2008, and included three studio and four live tracks, including their Eurovision entry, as well as remixes.  Their seventh album \"Masumiyetin Ziyan Olmaz\" (\"Your Innocence Won't Go To Waste\") came out on 12 May 2010. The first video clip was \"Yorma Kendini\"  Their eighth (their seventh studio album) album \"Gunesi Beklerken\" was released on 17 December 2012. The first video clip was taken for \"Oyunbozan\".  After three years, the band met music lovers with the single \"Anlatamıyorum\" which came out with DMC label. The clip was shot together with director Serdar Ferit. Two sets were set up for shooting in Istanbul and Helsinki. Also, in twentieth anniversary of the bands foundation, In the 20th year of its foundation, their cult album \"Dünya Yalan Söylüyor\" were, for the first time introduced to the fans in the record format.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mor ve ötesi (literally \"Purple and Beyond\"; a play on the word \"morötesi\", meaning ultraviolet) is a Turkish alternative rock band from Istanbul. Its four current members are Harun Tekin (vocals and rhythm guitar), Kerem Kabadayı (drums), Burak Güven (bass) and Kerem Özyeğen (lead guitar). Former members include Alper Tekin (no relation to Harun) and Derin Esmer. The band achieved mainstream success with the release of the album \"Dünya Yalan Söylüyor\". In 2008, the band represented Turkey in the Eurovision Song Contest in Belgrade with the song \"Deli\" (Insane).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974023}
{"src_title": "Laxenburg castles", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Old Laxenburg Castle became a Habsburg possession in 1333 and was extended in the 17th century by Lodovico Burnacini. The \"Blauer Hof\" (German for: blue court) or \"Neues Schloss\" (German for: new castle) was built around 1745 during the reign of empress Maria Theresa and has a Rococo interior.  The church of Laxenburg, which was the first building north of the Alps containing swung facade components (characteristics of the high baroque), was built between 1693 and 1703 by Carlo Antonio Carlone and continued between 1703 and 1724 by Matthias Steinl.  After 1780, the castle garden was rearranged as an English landscape garden. It contains several artificial ponds, and, on an island, the Franzensburg castle, named after emperor Franz I, can be found. In 1919, the city of Vienna took over the war-damaged castle and became the property owner of the park area of Laxenburg.  After the Anschluss of Austria in 1938, the municipality of Laxenburg became part of the city Vienna. In 1954, the place became independent again and was returned to Lower Austria. In 1972, Schloss Laxenburg became the home to the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, (IIASA), and brought together the best scientists from either side of the iron curtain to study global problems. After the Cold War, the Institute broadened its mandate from the East and West to a truly global focus and, today, it brings together researchers from all over the world to provide science-based insights into critical policy issues in international and national debates on global change.  Several members of the imperial family were born at Laxenburg:  Archduke Maximilian married at Laxenburg in 1917.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Laxenburg castles are imperial palaces and castles outside Vienna, in the town of Laxenburg, Lower Austria. The castles became a Habsburg possession in 1333 and formerly served as a summer retreat, along with Schönbrunn palace, for the imperial Habsburg dynasty. \"Blauer Hof\" Palace was the birthplace of some members of the royal family, including Crown Prince Rudolf. Another castle nearby is named Franzensburg castle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974024}
{"src_title": "Snowshoe cat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the 1960s, a cat, owned by Siamese cat breeder Dorothy Hinds-Daugherty, produced a litter of Siamese kittens in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Three of the kittens had unique markings, consisting of white points and feet. Intrigued by their looks, she began working to breed cats like them, using seal point Siamese with bicolor American Shorthairs. The offspring of those cats lacked the Siamese points, but by breeding the offspring to Siamese cats, the desired look was accomplished. Hinds-Daugherty named the breed \"Snowshoe\" because of their white feet. Hinds-Daugherty promoted the Snowshoe at local cats shows, though they were not recognized at the time. Hinds-Daughtery eventually abandoned the Snowshoe breeding program, and it was taken up by Vikki Olander.  Olander wrote the first breed standard for the Snowshoe, and succeeded in obtaining the Cat Fanciers Federation (CFF) and the American Cat Association's (ACA) \"experimental breed\" status for the Snowshoe in 1974. However, by 1977, Olander was the last breeder of the Snowshoe in the United States. After struggling to keep the breed alive, Olander was contacted by Jim Hoffman and Georgia Kuhnell, who were interested in the breed. Other breeders joined Olander, Hoffman, and Kuhnell, and they obtained the champion status from the CFF in 1983. In 1989, Olander left the program, as her fiancé was allergic to cats. However, by then the Snowshoe had a strong following, and the breed attained champion status with the American Cat Fanciers Association in 1990 and was recognized by The International Cat Association in 1993. Currently, breeders work to attain acceptance with the Cat Fanciers Association, but struggle with the lack of cats and breeders needed for the association's requirements.  In the UK a breeding program was started in 1986. By 1998, Mollie Southall of Coldenufforsnow Cattery joined the program, there was only one breeder left, Maureen Shackell. Between them, they had five cats to save the breed. Mollie's senior male, Ferry Vom Friedewald, is an import from Germany and gave us a completely new bloodline. Concerned with progressing the breed and widening the gene pool even further Kelly Cruse of Destrier Cats got involved in 2006, introducing new colours and patterns. Destrier Dodge Viper son of the famous Southpole JFK (face of the Snowshoe Cat Club) was the first Apricot Snowshoe known worldwide. Ultimately with team effort and dedicated breeders all over the UK bringing the Snowshoe Cat to full breed Status with the GCCF elected during the council meeting on 26 June 2013. Snowshoe Cats from 26 October 2013 will be officially be allowed to be shown at Championship level with the GCCF.  The Snowshoe Cat Association was the first Snowshoe club to establish in the UK, now called The Snowshoe Cat Club In April 2005 the Snowshoe Cat Society was born.  Snowshoes are also fully recognized by the Fédération Internationale Féline, and the Cat Fanciers Federation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popularity and breeding.", "content": "The Snowshoe is a rare breed, partly due to the difficulty of breeding cats with markings and patterns that conform well to breed standards. The Snowshoe's pattern relies on recessive genes and other factors to produce desired results. One gene, which causes the \"V\" facial pattern is an example of incomplete dominance. If the offspring produced has two dominant genes for the marking, then the feature will be larger than a cat with one dominant gene. However, other factors may influence the feature, which makes it difficult to predict the outcome. Another issue is the white boots, which can be caused by a piebalding gene or a gloving gene. The genes are difficult to control, and many cats' boots extend too far up the leg, do not reach far enough up the leg, or the cat completely lacks white. As such, pet-quality Snowshoes usually have too much white, too little white, or white features are mismarked. The cats' body type further complicates breeding, as the breeder must achieve the correct head shape and ear set, while still maintaining the American Shorthair's body structure and the length of the Siamese.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Breed description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anatomy.", "content": "The ear size ranges from medium to medium-large with slightly rounded tips. The head may be triangular, however can be an \"applehead\" shape with a traditional cat look. The short-haired coat consists of solid and white patterns. Points (ears, tail, face-mask and sometimes legs) are solid black-based colors. White patterns vary, typically falling along the face, chest, stomach, and paws. The body is an even coloration, subtle shading to point color on back, shoulders and hips; toning to a lighter shade near chest and stomach. Paw pads may be white, point color, flesh tone, or mottled. Their color will darken with age, even to the point of turning a chocolate brown shade. In purebreds, the eyes are always blue. The tail is medium-sized. Snowshoe cats come in blue, lilac, lynx, fawn, chocolate, and seal points. The Snowshoe is a medium-large cat and longer length wise than many cats, with many males reaching 14 lbs or more.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coat.", "content": "In registries and cat associations, the recognized Snowshoe coat color is point coloration, with a light body color and darker ears, face, legs, and tail. The American Cat Fanciers Association recognizes seal point coloration and blue point coloration while the Fédération Internationale Féline recognizes seal, blue, black, chocolate, red, cream, cinnamon, and fawn point coloration. Additionally, the FIF recognizes the colors in tortoiseshell, tabby, and tortoiseshell-tabby coat patterns. The International Cat Association recognizes all pointed colors. Snowshoe kittens are born white, and markings appear within 1 to 3 weeks. Each Snowshoe has a pattern unique to the individual cat.  The Snowshoe's coat should be of medium to short in length, and should be bright and smooth with no noticeable undercoat. It is considered a fault within cat associations if the Snowshoe has a plush or double coat. The Snowshoe's coat undergoes seasonal changes and does not require much grooming.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personality.", "content": "Snowshoes are generally affectionate, sweet-tempered, and mellow. They enjoy the company of humans and being given attention, and are compatible with children and other pets. Snowshoes are very social and docile, and show great devotion and love towards their owners. Consequently, the breed dislike being left alone for long periods of time and are able to cope with working hours better if they have another cat companion. Snowshoes may express themselves and their complaints vocally, though their meows are not as loud as the Siamese. It is not unusual for a snowshoe to look concerned, they generally have a worried or concerned expression on their face for the majority of the time. The cats are also noted as being intelligent; they can learn to open various types of doors, and can be taught tricks, especially fetch. Snowshoes also enjoy water, particularly running water, and may on occasion swim. Though very active, they are not restless or easily agitated, and they have a fondness for perching in high places.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Famous Snowshoe Cats.", "content": "The internet celebrity Grumpy Cat was a mixed-breed cat with possible snowshoe traces.  Dusty the Klepto Kitty is a domestic Snowshoe cat burglar from San Mateo, California. He earned the nickname Klepto Kitty after bringing home more than 600 items from the gardens he prowled at night", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Snowshoe is a breed of cat originating in the United States of America in the 1960s. Snowshoes were first produced in Philadelphia when a Siamese breeder's cat gave birth to three kittens with white feet. The breeder, Dorothy Hinds-Daugherty, then began a breeding program to produce what were originally called \"Silver Laces\", crossing the strangely marked Siamese cats with bi-color American Shorthair cats and other breeds. When Hinds-Daugherty left the program, Vikki Olander began working with the cats and recruited new breeders, as well as worked towards full recognition within cat associations. Despite having existed for 45 years, Snowshoes are rare due to the difficulty of reproducing the correct coat markings. The marks are based on recessive genes for color points and on the co-dominant but variably-expressed piebald pattern gene, making it difficult to predict the appearance of offspring.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974025}
{"src_title": "Belshazzar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In history.", "content": "The most important sources for the time of Belshazzar are the Nabonidus Chronicle, the Cyrus Cylinder, and the Verse Account of Nabonidus—which, despite its name, was commissioned by the Persian conqueror Cyrus the Great.  Belshazzar was the son of Nabonidus, the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The Nabonidus Chronicle describes him as a grandson of Nebuchadnezzar, but this may have been propaganda to justify the reign of his father, who was not of the royal line. He played a pivotal role in the \"coup d'etat\" that overthrew King Labashi-Marduk and brought Nabonidus to power in 556 BCE, although unlike his co-conspirators he was not a member of the old Babylonian aristocracy. Nabonidus spent the years c. 553–543 BCE in the oasis of Teima in the northern areas of the Arabian Peninsula, leaving Belshazzar to govern Babylon. During his father's prolonged absence Belshazzar ruled as regent or co-regent, but was never called King and never took part in the Babylonian New Year Festival, at which the king's presence was essential. His duties as Crown Prince (the title that appears in documents) included overseeing temple estates and leasing out temple land, and he worked at restoring the Babylonian god Marduk, demoted by Nabonidus in favor of the moon god Sin.  Nabonidus returned to Babylon about 543 BCE, and the status of Belshazzar thereafter is unclear. The king's return may have been connected with the increasing threat posed by the Persian conqueror Cyrus the Great, who ruled a huge empire to the north and east of Babylon. Open hostilities commenced in late 539 BCE, and on 12 October \"Ugbaru, governor of the district of Gutium, and the army of Cyrus entered Babylon without a battle\" (Babylonian Chronicle)—this is presumably the same individual as Gobryas, a Babylonian provincial governor who switched to the Persian side, mentioned by the Greek historian Xenophon. Nabonidus was captured and his life apparently spared, but Belshazzar may have died during the fall of the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the Book of Daniel.", "content": "In the Book of Daniel, Belshazzar plays a significant role in the tale of Belshazzar's feast, a variation on the story of Nebuchadnezzar's madness showing what happens when a gentile king does not repent. During a feast, Babylonians eat and drink from the holy vessels of Yahweh's temple, and \"king\" Belshazzar sees a hand writing the words \"mene, mene, tekel, upharsin\" on a wall. Daniel interprets the writing as a judgment from Yahweh, the god of Israel, foretelling the fall of Babylon. Daniel tells Belshazzar that because he has not given honor to God, his kingdom will be given to the Medes and Persians. Belshazzar is killed that night, and Darius the Mede takes the kingdom.  The Book of Daniel was compiled shortly after 164 BCE, following the Maccabean Revolt. The story of Belshazzar's feast is historical fiction, and several details are not consistent with historical facts. Belshazzar is portrayed as the king of Babylon and \"son\" of Nebuchadnezzar, though he was actually the son of Nabonidus—one of Nebuchadnezzar's successors—and he never became king in his own right. In the story, the conqueror who inherits Babylon is Darius the Mede, but no such individual is known to history, and the invaders were actually Persians. This is typical of the \"tale of court contest\" in which historical accuracy is not an essential element.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In later Jewish tradition.", "content": "In the Book of Daniel, Belshazzar is not malevolent (he rewards Daniel and raises him to high office). The later authors of the Talmud and the Midrash emphasize his tyrannous oppression of his Jewish subjects, with several passages in the Prophets interpreted as referring to him and his predecessors. For example, in the passage, \"As if a man did flee from a lion, and a bear met him\" (Amos ), the lion is said to represent Nebuchadnezzar, and the bear, equally ferocious if not equally courageous, is Belshazzar. The Babylonian kings are often mentioned together as forming a succession of impious and tyrannical monarchs who oppressed Israel and were therefore foredoomed to disgrace and destruction. Isaiah, \"And I will rise up against them, saith the Lord of hosts, and cut off from Babylon name and remnant and son and grandchild, saith the Lord\", is applied to the trio: \"Name\" to Nebuchadnezzar, \"remnant\" to Amel-Marduk, \"son\" to Belshazzar, and \"grandchild\" Vashti (ib.). The command given to Abraham to cut in pieces three heifers () as a part of the covenant established between him and his God was thus elucidated as symbolizing Babylonia, which gave rise to three kings, Nebuchadnezzar, Amel-Marduk, and Belshazzar, whose doom is prefigured by this act of \"cutting to pieces\" (Midrash Genesis Rabbah xliv.).  The Midrash literature enters into the details of Belshazzar's death. Thus the later tradition states that Cyrus and Darius were employed as doorkeepers of the royal palace. Belshazzar, being greatly alarmed at the mysterious handwriting on the wall, and apprehending that someone in disguise might enter the palace with murderous intent, ordered his doorkeepers to behead anyone who attempted to force an entrance that night, even though such person should claim to be the king himself. Belshazzar, overcome by sickness, left the palace unobserved during the night through a rear exit. On his return the doorkeepers refused to admit him. In vain did he plead that he was the king. They said, \"Has not the king ordered us to put to death any one who attempts to enter the palace, though he claim to be the king himself?\" Suiting the action to the word, Cyrus and Darius grasped a heavy ornament forming part of a candelabrum, and with it shattered the skull of their royal master (Shir ha-Shirim Rabbah 3:4).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Belshazzar (;, \"Bēlšaʾṣṣar\", Greek: Βαλτάζαρ, \"Baltázar\", from Akkadian: 𒂗𒈗𒋀, \"Bēl-šar-uṣur\", meaning \"Bel protect the king\") was the eldest son of Nabonidus, the last king of the Neo-Babylonian empire, and regent for his father during the latter's prolonged absence from the city. He may have been killed when Babylon fell to the Persians in 539 BCE.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974026}
{"src_title": "Hervé Bazin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Bazin, born Jean-Pierre Hervé-Bazin in Angers, Maine-et-Loire, France came from a high-bourgeois Catholic family. He was the great-nephew of the writer René Bazin. His father was a magistrate who with his wife had been sent to China to take up a diplomatic post. Hervé and his brother were brought up in the ancestral home, the chateau of Le Patys, by their grandmother. When she died, his mother returned from Hanoi with reluctance. She sent Bazin to a variety of clerical establishments and then to the military academy, the Prytanée de la Fleche, from which he was expelled as incompetent. He opposed his authoritarian mother, ran away several times during his teens, and refused Catholic teachings. At the age of 20 he broke up with his family.  Leaving his home for Paris, he took a degree in literature at the Sorbonne. During fifteen years of writing poetry with little success, Bazin worked in lots of small jobs. Notable work of this period included founding a poetic review, \"la Coquille\" (\"The Shell\", only eight volumes), named after the medieval poet-beggars, the \"coquillards\" of Villon's days, and \"À la poursuite d'Iris\" in 1948. He won the 1947 Prix Apollinaire for \"Jour\", his first book of poetry.  Following the advice of Paul Valéry, he left poetry to focus on prose.  Childhood conflicts with his mother inspired the novel \"Viper in the Fist\" in 1948. The novel portrays the hatred between a mother nicknamed Folcoche (from the French \"folle\" (crazy) and \"cochonne\" (pig) and her children, including the narrator Jean Rezeau, called \"Brasse-bouillon\". Maurice Nadeau described the novel as \"Atrides in duffle-coat\". The book was immensely successful in postwar France, and was followed by \"La Mort du Petit Cheval\" and \"Le Cri de la Chouette\" to create a trilogy. In other works, Bazin returned to the theme of the family. In addition to novels, he also wrote short stories and essays.  Bazin became a member of the Académie Goncourt in 1958, replacing Francis Carco. He became its president in 1973, and was replaced, after his death, by Jorge Semprún, while the presidency was given to François Nourissier.  Politically, Bazin belonged to the \"Mouvement de la Paix\", in relation with the communist party of which he was a sympathizer. He obtained the Lenin Peace Prize in 1979. This made Roger Peyrefitte say jokingly: \"Hervé Bazin had two prizes which fitted each other: the Lenin Peace Prize and the black humour prize.\"  In 1995, he gave his manuscripts and letters to the record office of the town of Nancy, which already owned the archives of the Goncourt brothers, who originated from the town. Bazin died in Angers.  Due to a juridical imbroglio, the six children of his first marriages obtained, against the will of his last spouse and last son, the auction of the archive at the Hôtel Drouot on 29 October 2004. With help from the district's authorities, the university library of Angers managed to preempt almost the whole of the estate, meaning 22 manuscripts and about 9000 letters which were made available to the research community, as the author wished.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orthography and punctuation.", "content": "In his 1966 essay \"Plumons l’Oiseau\" (\"Let's pluck the bird\"): Bazin proposed a nearly phonemic orthography for the French language called \"l’ortografiǝ lojikǝ\" (logical orthography). In doing this, he proposed six new \"points d’intonation\" (punctuation marks):  Example:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hervé Bazin (; 17 April 191117 February 1996) was a French writer, whose best-known novels covered semi-autobiographical topics of teenage rebellion and dysfunctional families.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974027}
{"src_title": "Hugo Claus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Hugo Claus was born on 5 April 1929 at Sint-Janshospitaal in Bruges, Belgium. He was the eldest of four sons born to Jozef Claus and Germaine Vanderlinden. Jozef worked as a printer but was also fond of theatre.  Hugo was educated at a boarding school led by nuns in Aalbeke and experienced the German occupation of Belgium during World War II. The experience was formative, and would later be adapted by Claus into his semi-autobiographical \"The Sorrow of Belgium\" (1983). Many of Claus' teachers were Flemish nationalists who were sympathetic to fascism, and Claus joined the pro-German youth wing of the Flemish National Union. His father was also briefly detained after the Liberation for collaborationism. A sympathizer of the political left at a more mature period in his life, Claus lauded the socialist model after a visit to Cuba in the 1960s.  Claus' prominence in literary circles and his debut as a novelist came in 1950, with the publication of his \"De Metsiers\" at age twenty-one. His first published poems had in fact been printed by his father as early as 1947. He lived in Paris from 1950 until 1952, where he met many of the members of the CoBrA art movement.  From February 1953 until the beginning of 1955, Hugo Claus lived in Italy where his girlfriend (born in 1928) acted in a few films. They were married on 26 May 1955, and had a son, Thomas, on 7 October 1963. In the early 1970s, he had an affair with actress Sylvia Kristel, who was 23 years younger, with whom he had a son, Arthur, in 1975. They lived in the Raamgracht 5-7 building in Amsterdam. The relationship ended in 1977, when she left him for actor Ian McShane.  He was a \"contrarian\", of \"anarchist spirit\". Journalist Guy Duplat recalls that Claus had organized in Knokke the election of a \"Miss Knokke Festival\", which was a typical beauty contest, except for the Claus ruling that the members of the all-male jury would have to be naked.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "Hugo Claus was considered to be one of the most important contemporary Belgian authors. Claus published the novel \"Schola Nostra\" (1971) under the pseudonym Dorothea Van Male. He also used the pseudonyms Jan Hyoens and Thea Streiner. The 1962 \"De verwondering\" (\"The Astonishment\") and the 1983 \"Het verdriet van België\" (\"The Sorrow of Belgium\") rank among Claus' most significant works as a novelist. Lee views \"Het verdriet van België\" as a postmodern critique of national identity.  Most prolific in literary endeavors as a dramatist, Claus wrote 35 original pieces and 31 translations from English, Greek, Latin, French and Spanish plays and novels. His dramatic sketch \"Masscheroen\" was first staged at Knokke Casino and featured an all-nude cast: three naked men were given the task of portraying the Christian Holy Trinity of God the father, God the son, and the Holy Spirit; the work also made light of the Holy Virgin, a Belgian saint, and the Three Wise Men. Attacked as blasphemous and deleterious to the public's moral well-being, the light-hearted play's performance triggered a notable legal case in which Claus was prosecuted: convicted on charges of public indecency, Claus was ordered to pay a ten-thousand-Belgian franc fine and serve a four-month prison sentence. The prison term was reduced to a suspended sentence after a public outcry.  Claus also wrote the script of a satirical comic strip, \"De Avonturen van Belgman\" (\"The Adventures of Belgian Man\") in 1967, which spoofed the Belgian bi-lingual troubles. The strip itself was drawn by artist \"Hugoké\" (Hugo de Kempeneer).  Hugo Claus' name had been put forward many times for the Nobel Prize in literature, on which he would casually comment \"this prize money would suit me fine\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Painting and film.", "content": "As a painter, Claus was a participant in the CoBrA art movement from 1950. He had developed friendships with some of its members, and illustrated a book by Pierre Alechinsky in 1949. He collaborated with key figures in the movement including Karel Appel and Corneille and participated in some exhibitions. He later used his experiences of this time in his book \"Een zachte vernieling\" (\"Mild Destruction\").  Claus directed seven films between 1964 and 2001. His film \"Het sacrament\" was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1990 Cannes Film Festival.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Claus suffered from Alzheimer's disease and requested his life to be terminated through euthanasia, a legal procedure in Belgium, at the Middelheim Hospital in Antwerp on 19 March 2008.  Bert Anciaux, then Flemish Minister of Culture, stated \"I knew him well enough to know that he wanted to depart with pride and dignity.\" Former Belgian Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt said that he imagined the onset of Alzheimer's must have been \"inevitable and unbearable torture\". \"I can live with the fact that he decided thus,\" he said, \"because he left us as a great glowing star, right on time, just before he would have collapsed into a Stellar black hole.\"  His death by euthanasia has received criticism from the Roman Catholic Church and the Belgian Alzheimer League. The Roman Catholic Church criticized the media coverage; Belgian Cardinal Godfried Danneels referred to Claus' euthanasia in his Easter Homily. The Belgian Alzheimer League respects Claus' decision, but believes the media coverage of his death neglects other options for Alzheimer's patients.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prizes.", "content": "Amongst others:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Claus wrote over a thousand pages of poetry, more than sixty plays, over twenty novels and several essays, film scripts, libretti and translations. Only a small part of this œuvre has been translated into English:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hugo Maurice Julien Claus (; 5 April 1929 – 19 March 2008) was a leading Belgian author who published under his own name as well as various pseudonyms. Claus' literary contributions spanned the genres of drama, the novel, and poetry; he also left a legacy as a painter and film director. He wrote primarily in Dutch, although he also wrote some poetry in English.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974028}
{"src_title": "Data buffer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Applications.", "content": "Buffers are often used in conjunction with I/O to hardware, such as disk drives, sending or receiving data to or from a network, or playing sound on a speaker. A line to a rollercoaster in an amusement park shares many similarities. People who ride the coaster come in at an unknown and often variable pace, but the roller coaster will be able to load people in bursts (as a coaster arrives and is loaded). The queue area acts as a buffer—a temporary space where those wishing to ride wait until the ride is available. Buffers are usually used in a FIFO (first in, first out) method, outputting data in the order it arrived.  Buffers can increase application performance by allowing synchronous operations such as file reads or writes to complete quickly instead of blocking while waiting for hardware interrupts to access a physical disk subsystem; instead, an operating system can immediately return a successful result from an API call, allowing an application to continue processing while the kernel completes the disk operation in the background. Further benefits can be achieved if the application is reading or writing small blocks of data that do not correspond to the block size of the disk subsystem, allowing a buffer to be used to aggregate many smaller read or write operations into block sizes that are more efficient for the disk subsystem, or in the case of a read, sometimes to completely avoid having to physically access a disk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Telecommunication buffer.", "content": "A buffer routine or storage medium used in telecommunications compensates for a difference in rate of flow of data, or time of occurrence of events, when transferring data from one device to another.  Buffers are used for many purposes, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "An early mention of a print buffer is the \"Outscriber\" devised by image processing pioneer Russel A. Kirsch for the SEAC computer in 1952:  One of the most important", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer science, a data buffer (or just buffer) is a region of a physical memory storage used to temporarily store data while it is being moved from one place to another. Typically, the data is stored in a buffer as it is retrieved from an input device (such as a microphone) or just before it is sent to an output device (such as speakers). However, a buffer may be used when moving data between processes within a computer. This is comparable to buffers in telecommunication. Buffers can be implemented in a fixed memory location in hardware—or by using a virtual data buffer in software, pointing at a location in the physical memory. In all cases, the data stored in a data buffer are stored on a physical storage medium. A majority of buffers are implemented in software, which typically use the faster RAM to store temporary data, due to the much faster access time compared with hard disk drives. Buffers are typically used when there is a difference between the rate at which data is received and the rate at which it can be processed, or in the case that these rates are variable, for example in a printer spooler or in online video streaming. In the distributed computing environment, data buffer is often implemented in the form of burst buffer that provides distributed buffering service.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974029}
{"src_title": "Greensleeves", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Form.", "content": "\"Greensleeves\" can have a ground either of the form called a \"romanesca\"; or its slight variant, the \"passamezzo antico\"; or the \"passamezzo antico\" in its verses and the \"romanesca\" in its reprise; or of the Andalusian progression in its verses and the \"romanesca\" or \"passamezzo antico\" in its reprise. The romanesca originated in Spain and is composed of a sequence of four chords with a simple, repeating bass, which provide the groundwork for variations and improvisation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "A broadside ballad by this name was registered at the London Stationer's Company in September 1580, by Richard Jones, as \"A Newe Northen Dittye of ye Ladye Greene Sleves\". Six more ballads followed in less than a year, one on the same day, 3 September 1580 (\"Ye Ladie Greene Sleeves answere to Donkyn hir frende\" by Edward White), then on 15 and 18 September (by Henry Carr and again by White), 14 December (Richard Jones again), 13 February 1581 (Wiliam Elderton), and August 1581 (White's third contribution, \"Greene Sleeves is worne awaie, Yellow Sleeves Comme to decaie, Blacke Sleeves I holde in despite, But White Sleeves is my delighte\"). It then appears in the surviving \"A Handful of Pleasant Delights\" (1584) as \"A New Courtly Sonnet of the Lady Green Sleeves. To the new tune of Green Sleeves\".  There is a persistent belief that Greensleeves was composed by Henry VIII for his lover and future queen consort Anne Boleyn. Boleyn allegedly rejected King Henry's attempts to seduce her and this rejection may be referred to in the song when the writer's love \"cast me off discourteously\". However, the piece is based on an Italian style of composition that did not reach England until after Henry's death, making it more likely to be Elizabethan in origin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lyrical interpretation.", "content": "A possible interpretation of the lyrics is that Lady Green Sleeves was a promiscuous young woman, perhaps even a prostitute. At the time, the word \"green\" had sexual connotations, most notably in the phrase \"a green gown\", a reference to the grass stains on a woman's dress from engaging in sexual intercourse outdoors.  An alternative explanation is that Lady Green Sleeves was, through her costume, incorrectly assumed to be sexually promiscuous. Her \"discourteous\" rejection of the singer's advances supports the contention that she is not.  In Nevill Coghill's translation of \"The Canterbury Tales\", he explains that \"green [for Chaucer’s age] was the colour of lightness in love. This is echoed in 'Greensleeves is my delight' and elsewhere.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternative lyrics.", "content": "Christmas and New Year texts were associated with the tune from as early as 1686, and by the 19th century almost every printed collection of Christmas carols included some version of words and music together, most of them ending with the refrain \"On Christmas Day in the morning\". One of the most popular of these is \"What Child Is This?\", written in 1865 by William Chatterton Dix.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early literary references.", "content": "In Shakespeare's \"The Merry Wives of Windsor\" (written c. 1597; first published in 1602), the character Mistress Ford refers twice to \"the tune of 'Greensleeves'\", and Falstaff later exclaims: These allusions indicate the song was already well known at that time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tune.", "content": "<score vorbis=\"1\">  \\new Staff { </score", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Greensleeves\" is a traditional English folk song. A broadside ballad by the name \"A Newe Northen Dittye of ye Ladye Greene Sleves\" was registered by Richard Jones at the London Stationer's Company in September 1580, and the tune is found in several late-16th-century and early-17th-century sources, such as \"Ballet's MS Lute Book\" and \"Het Luitboek van Thysius\", as well as various manuscripts preserved in the Seeley Historical Library in the University of Cambridge.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974030}
{"src_title": "Rietveld Schröder House", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The Rietveld Schröder House constitutes both inside and outside a radical break with all architecture before it. The two-story house is situated in Utrecht, at the end of a terrace, but it makes no attempt to relate to its neighbouring buildings (although it shares an exterior wall with the last house in the terrace). It faces a motorway built in the 1960s.  Inside there is no static accumulation of rooms, but a dynamic, changeable open zone. The ground floor can still be termed traditional; ranged around a central staircase are kitchen and three sit/bedrooms. Additionally, the house included a garage, which was very strange because Truus did not own a car. The living area upstairs, stated as being an attic to satisfy the fire regulations of the planning authorities, in fact forms a large open zone except for a separate toilet and a bathroom. Rietveld wanted to leave the upper level as it was. Mrs Schröder, however, felt that as living space it should be usable in either form, open or subdivided. This was achieved with a system of sliding and revolving panels. Mrs Schröder used these panels to open up the space of the second floor to allow more of an open area for her and her 3 children, leaving the option of closing or separating the rooms when desired. A sliding wall between the living area and the son's room blocks a cupboard as well as a light switch. Therefore, a circular opening was made within the sliding wall. When entirely partitioned in, the living level comprises three bedrooms, bathroom and living room. In-between this and the open state is a wide variety of possible permutations, each providing its own spatial experience. The facades are a collage of planes and lines whose components are purposely detached from, and seem to glide past, one another. This enabled the provision of several balconies. Like Rietveld's Red and Blue Chair, each component has its own form, position and colour. Colours were chosen as to strengthen the plasticity of the facades; surfaces in white and shades of grey, black window and doorframes, and a number of linear elements in primary colours.  There is little distinction between interior and exterior space. The rectilinear lines and planes flow from outside to inside, with the same colour palette and surfaces. Even the windows are hinged so that they can only open 90 degrees to the wall, preserving strict design standards about intersecting planes, and further blurring the delineation of inside and out.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Initially, Rietveld wanted to construct the house out of concrete. It turned out that it would be too expensive to do that on such a small building. The foundations and the balconies were the only parts of the building that were made out of concrete. The walls were made of brick and plaster. The window frames and doors were made from wood as well as the floors, which were supported by wooden beams. To support the building, steel girders with wire mesh were used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Heritage Site.", "content": "The World Heritage Committee inscribed the Rietveld Schröder House on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites on 2 December 2000, during the 24th session in Cairns, Australia. The committee decided to apply criterion i and ii, and said about the house:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Only few years after construction of this building Polish architect Stanisław Brukalski built in Warsaw in 1929 supposedly inspired by Rietveld Schröderhuis which he visited. His Polish example of modern house was awarded bronze medal in Paris expo in 1937.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemorations.", "content": "The house was honored in two euro coins issued by the Royal Dutch Mint in 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "“Schröder House.” Plans, Sections and Elevations: Key Buildings of the Twentieth Century, by Richard Weston, Laurence King, 2004, pp. 48–49.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Rietveld Schröder House () (also known as the Schröder House) in Utrecht (Prins Hendriklaan 50) was built in 1924 by Dutch architect Gerrit Rietveld for Mrs. Truus Schröder-Schräder and her three children.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974031}
{"src_title": "The Surrender of Breda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "\"The Surrender of Breda\" depicts a military victory, the 1624 Siege of Breda, during the Eighty Years War. This war began due to a revolt against Philip II of Spain by the Seventeen Provinces, which today includes the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. Velázquez captured the end of the battle, as he also differentiated the two sides, one which is the Dutch, and the other side, the Spanish. The painting presents the Spanish as a strong force, while including both sides of the battle and depicting facial expressions of fatigue that reflect the reality of war.  The painting was commissioned by Philip IV of Spain between 1630 and 1635 for the palace of Buen Retiro along the eastern city limits of Madrid. The painting was intended to glorify the military accomplishments and acquisition by the Spanish, uplifting Philip IV. At the time, Spain was in economic decline. \"The Surrender of Breda\" was displayed in the Hall of Realms with nineteen other paintings.  The decoration of the Hall of Realms was directed by the Spanish minister, Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares. Velazquez was requested to paint relating to the subject of horse riding, one battle scene, and \"The Surrender of Breda.\" This work completed by Velazquez represents the most significant and undaunted painting in the Hall of Realms, as well as one of Velazquez's best works. Through the hundreds of paintings that Guzmán made use of,\"The Surrender of Breda\" would become the most important piece in the Hall of Realms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "Velázquez addresses the details of many individuals by painting the setting across two halves, where the battle takes place in the background. The surrender portion of the scene takes place in the foreground, with the leading individuals placed clearly in the center. The focus of the composition is in the foreground, where the exchange of the keys is shown in the very front, while in the background, the smoky sky shows evidence of destruction and death.  The painting depicts many Spanish soldiers in comparison to the fewer number of Dutch soldiers, and the Dutch weapons appear to have been either destroyed, thrown away, or even surrendered as a result of their performance of the battle. In contrast, the victorious Spaniards stand before a mass of upright lances on the right side of the composition. José Ortega y Gasset described these lances as \"the backbone of the entire picture and largely responsible for the impression of calm permeating this essentially lively scene.\" Velázquez used effective perception and aerial techniques that support \"The Surrender of Breda\" as one of the finest works by Velázquez.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Color.", "content": "The painting's relatively light tonality and bright colors reveal the influence of Venetian painting. There is no use of violent reds or bright blues; rather calm brown colors with dark shadows in the foreground are used. Also, there is believed to be a connection between Velázquez's use of color, as he had taken a trip to Italy to study Renaissance art. In addition to the color techniques he became equipped to, Velázquez also gained improved skills with space, perspective and light.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subject matter.", "content": "At the center of the composition, Justinus van Nassau is seen surrendering and handing over the key of the city to Spinola and Spain. Spinola, the Genoese general, commanded the Spanish tercios which included pikeman, swordsman, and musketeers as displayed in the painting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Painting materials.", "content": "An in-depth analysis and investigation was conducted to examine the painting around 1989 in Museo Prado. The analysis found that Velázquez used many of the same pigments that he had used in other paintings. These pigments included lead white with calcite, azurite mixed with small amounts of charcoal black, ochres and vermilion. The painted was produced on canvas that is sized 307 cm x 367 cm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The response to Velazquez's artwork was grand at the very least, with the critical reaction being that \"The Surrender of Breda\" was the most impressive Spanish works of art. Also, the artwork solidified Velazquez's effort as the most superb depiction of Spanish Baroque, provided that Baroque art was closely connected to humanity and how people should be seen and represented.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "One of Velázquez's contemporaries, Peter Paul Rubens, has been cited to be an inspiration for the work connected to \"The Surrender of Breda\". Despite differences in style between the two Baroque artists, Ruben's prior works such as The Reconciliation of Esau and Jacob, produced in 1624, has resemblance in terms of its composition and philosophical concepts. More commonly, Velázquez's piece has been tied to Rubens' \"Meeting of King Ferdinand of Hungary and Cardinal\", completed in 1635. The possibility of influence on Rubens' later work has been argued, as both Velazquez and Rubens completed their work around the same time. More likely, both artists produced very similar work in addition to having such a close relationship. Velázquez's work also seems to have been inspired by his trip to Italy with Spinola.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical accuracy.", "content": "The painting illustrates the exchange of keys that occurred three days after the capitulation between Spain and the Netherlands was signed on June 5, 1625. Hence, the focus of the painting is not on the battle itself, but rather the reconciliation. At the center of the painting, literally and figuratively, is the key given to Ambrogio Spinola by Justin of Nassau. This battle painting is notable for its static and sentimental qualities, as Velázquez left out the blood and gore that would normally be linked to the violence of such battles.  According to the statement made by eye-witnesses, both [Spinola and Nassau] had dismounted and Spinola awaited the arrival of Justin surrounded by a “crown” of princes and officers of high birth. The governor then presented himself with his family, kinsfolk and distinguished students of the military academy, who had been shut up in the place during the siege. Spinola greeted and embraced his vanquished opponent with a kindly expression and still more kindly words, in which praised the courage and endurance of the protracted defense. The extraordinary respect and dignity Spinola demonstrated towards the Dutch army is praised through \"The Surrender of Breda.\" Spinola “had forbidden his troops to jeer at, or otherwise abuse the vanquished Dutch, and, according to a contemporary report, he himself saluted Justin.” The painting demonstrates the glimpses of humanity that can be exposed as a result of the war and commends Spinola's consideration for Nassau and the Dutch army. Velázquez's relationship with Spinola makes \"The Surrender of Breda\" especially historically accurate. The depiction of Spinola is undoubtedly accurate, and Spinola's memory of the battle contributed to the perspective with which Velázquez composed the painting. Velázquez “desired in his modest way to raise a monument to one of the most humane captains of the day, by giving permanence to his true figure in a manner of which he alone had the secret.”", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The motion picture \"Alatriste\", a 2006 Spanish epic historical fiction war film directed by Agustín Díaz Yanes, contains a scene showing the surrender of Breda as the basis for the painting.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "La rendición de Breda (English: The Surrender of Breda, also known as Las lanzas – \"The Lances\") is a painting by the Spanish Golden Age painter Diego Velázquez. It was completed during the years 1634–35, inspired by Velázquez's visit to Italy with Ambrogio Spinola, the Genoese-born Spanish general who conquered Breda on June 5, 1625. The painting depicts the exchange of the key of Breda from the Dutch's possession, to the Spanish.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974032}
{"src_title": "Albert Cohen (novelist)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Abraham Albert Cohen () was born in Corfu, Greece, in 1895, to Greek Jewish parents. Albert's parents, who owned a soap factory, moved to Marseille, France, when he was a child. Albert Cohen discusses this period in his novel \"Le Livre de ma mère\" (The Book of my Mother). He studied at a private Catholic school. In 1904, he started high school at Lycée Thiers, where he met and started a lifelong friendship with Marcel Pagnol, and graduated in 1913.  In 1914, he left Marseille for Geneva, Switzerland, and enrolled in Law school. He graduated from Law School in 1917 and enrolled in Literature School in 1917, where he remained until 1919. In 1919, he became a Swiss citizen. That same year he married Elisabeth Brocher, who in 1921 gave birth to their daughter, Myriam. In 1924, his wife died of cancer. In 1925, Albert Cohen became director of \"Revue Juive\" (\"The Jewish Review\"), a periodical whose writers included Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud. From 1926 to 1931, he served as a civil servant in Geneva. In 1933, he married his second wife, Marianne Goss.  During the German occupation, in 1940, Cohen fled to Bordeaux, then to London. The Jewish Agency for Palestine then made him responsible for establishing contacts with exiled governments. On January 10, 1943, Cohen's mother died in Marseille. That same year, he met his future third wife, Bella Berkowich. In 1944, he became an attorney for the Intergovernmental Committee for Refugees. In 1947, Cohen returned to Geneva. In 1957, he turned down the post of Israeli Ambassador in order to pursue his literary career.  He died in Geneva at the age of 86 and is buried in the Jewish Cemetery of Veyrier, near Geneva.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cohen's literature.", "content": "Through four different books, Cohen's fiction can be considered as one long autobiographical fiction. It is the story of the radiant Solal – Cohen's double – a handsome and successful civil servant of the League of Nations whose charismatic identity is a constant struggle between his Jewish roots and his social status.  His masterpiece, \"Belle du Seigneur\", originally included the novel that was later published as \"Les Valeureux\". \"Belle du Seigneur\" is called \"the book of love\", and tells Solal's passionate, cruel yet realistic love affair with \"Ariane Deume\" – a married non-Jewish woman. In 1968, the novel received the French Academy award. Since then, the novel has been one of the biggest sellers of the prestigious Gallimard White Collection.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albert Cohen (August 16, 1895 – October 17, 1981) was a Greek-born Romaniote Jewish Swiss novelist who wrote in French. He worked as a civil servant for various international organizations, such as the International Labour Organization. He became a Swiss citizen in 1919.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974033}
{"src_title": "Jan Václav Voříšek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Voříšek was born in the town of Vamberk, Bohemia, where his father was schoolmaster, choirmaster and organist. As a child prodigy, he started to perform publicly in Bohemian towns at the age of nine. His father taught him music, encouraged his playing the piano and helped him get a scholarship to attend the University of Prague, where he studied philosophy. He also had lessons in piano and composition from Václav Tomášek. He found it impossible to obtain sufficient work as a musician in Prague, so in 1813 at the age of 22, Voříšek moved to Vienna to study law and, he hoped, to meet Beethoven. In Vienna he was able to greatly improve his piano technique under Johann Nepomuk Hummel, but once more failed to gain full-time employment as a musician.  Although Voříšek was enthralled by the classical style of Mozart, he was more intrigued by the incipient romanticism of Beethoven.  In 1814, as he was starting to compose, he did indeed meet Beethoven in Vienna. He also met other leading musicians there, including the composers Louis Spohr, Ignaz Moscheles, Hummel, and especially Franz Schubert with whom he became fast friends.  He completed his law studies in 1821 and was appointed barrister to the Court Military Privy Councillor, for whom he mainly drafted legal documents. But in 1822, he at last found musical employment as second court organist and ended his legal career. He was appointed first organist in 1824.  He soon won esteem as a composer of orchestral, vocal and piano music for orchestra. In 1818 he became conductor of the Friends of Music Society (\"Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde\") of Vienna.  Vorišek died, in Vienna, of respiratory arrest in 1825 at the age of 34. He was buried at the common cemetery in Währing (today's Währinger Park).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Voříšek wrote only one symphony, his Symphony in D major, in 1821. Its style has been likened to Beethoven's first two symphonies, but its melodically inventive early Romantic idiom was similar to Schubert's.  In his capacity as imperial court organist, Voříšek composed a Mass in B-flat major. Together with his single symphony, some of his piano works and his Violin Sonata in G major, Op. 5, the Mass has been recorded.  The first recorded use of impromptu as a musical term occurred in 1817, in the \"Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung\", an idea of the publisher to describe a piano piece by Voříšek. His Impromptus Op. 7 were published in 1822, pieces known to his friend Schubert who subsequently used the description for several sets of music for piano, as did Frederic Chopin and numerous other composers.  In 1823-24, like Schubert, he was one of the 50 composers to contribute a variation on the same waltz by Anton Diabelli for the \"Vaterländischer Künstlerverein\" on which Beethoven composed his 33 variations (Op. 120).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jan Václav Hugo Voříšek (; \"Johann Hugo Worzischek\", 11 May 1791, in Vamberk, Bohemia – 19 November 1825, in Vienna, Austria) was a Czech composer, pianist and organist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974034}
{"src_title": "Habsburg Monarchy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins and expansion.", "content": "The Habsburg family originated with the Habsburg Castle in modern Switzerland, and after 1279 came to rule in Austria. The Duchy of Austria was part of the elective Kingdom of Germany within the Holy Roman Empire. King Rudolf I of Germany of the Habsburg family assigned the Duchy of Austria to his sons at the Diet of Augsburg (1282), thus establishing the \"Austrian hereditary lands\". From that moment, the Habsburg dynasty was also known as the House of Austria. Between 1438 and 1806, with few exceptions, the Habsburg Archduke of Austria was elected Holy Roman Emperor.  The Habsburgs grew to European prominence as a result of the dynastic policy pursued by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. Maximilian I married Mary of Burgundy, thus bringing the Burgundian Netherlands into the Habsburg inheritance. Their son, Philip the Handsome, married Joanna the Mad of Spain (daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile). Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (son of Philip and Joanna) inherited the Habsburg Netherlands in 1506, Habsburg Spain and its territories in 1516, and Habsburg Austria in 1519.  At this point, the Habsburg Empire was so vast that Charles V was constantly travelling throughout his dominions and therefore needed deputies and regents, such as Isabella of Portugal in Spain and Margaret of Austria in the Low Countries, to govern his various realms. At the Diet of Worms in 1521, Emperor Charles V came to terms with his younger brother Ferdinand. According to the Habsburg \"compact\" of Worms (1521), confirmed a year later in Brussels, Ferdinand was made Archduke, as a regent of Charles V in the Austrian hereditary lands.  Following the death of Louis II of Hungary in the Battle of Mohács against the Ottoman Turks, Archduke Ferdinand (who was his brother-in-law by virtue of an adoption treaty signed by Maximilian and Louis at the First Congress of Vienna) was also elected the next King of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526. Bohemia and Hungary became hereditary Habsburg domains only in the 17th century: Following victory in the Battle of White Mountain (1620) over the Bohemian rebels, Ferdinand II promulgated a \"Renewed Constitution\" (1627) that established hereditary succession over Bohemia. Following the Battle of Mohács (1687), in which Leopold I reconquered almost all of Hungary from the Ottoman Turks, the emperor held a diet in Pressburg to establish hereditary succession in the Hungarian kingdom.  Charles V divided the House in 1556 by ceding Austria along with the Imperial crown to Ferdinand (as decided at the Imperial election, 1531), and the Spanish empire to his son Philip. The Spanish branch (which also held the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Portugal between 1580 and 1640, and the Mezzogiorno of Italy) went extinct in 1700. The Austrian branch (which also ruled the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary and Bohemia) was itself divided between different branches of the family from 1564 until 1665, but thereafter it remained a single personal union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Austrian monarchy.", "content": "Around 1700 the term \"monarchia austriaca\" came into use as a term of convenience for the Habsburg territories.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Names.", "content": "The Hungarian parts of the Empire were called \"Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen\" or \"Lands of Holy (St.) Stephen's Crown\" (\"Länder der Heiligen Stephans Krone\"). The Bohemian (Czech) Lands were called \"Lands of the St. Wenceslaus' Crown\" (\"Länder der Wenzels-Krone\").  Names of some smaller territories:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Territories.", "content": "The territories ruled of the Austrian monarchy changed over the centuries, but the core always consisted of four blocs:  Over the course of its history, other lands were, at times, under Austrian Habsburg rule (some of these territories were secundogenitures, i.e. ruled by other lines of Habsburg dynasty):  The boundaries of some of these territories varied over the period indicated, and others were ruled by a subordinate (secundogeniture) Habsburg line. The Habsburgs also held the title of Holy Roman Emperor between 1438 and 1740, and again from 1745 to 1806.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Within the early modern Habsburg Monarchy, each entity was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same person—junior members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. Serious attempts at centralization began under Maria Theresa and especially her son Joseph II in the mid to late 18th century, but many of these were abandoned following large scale resistance to Joseph's more radical reform attempts, although a more cautious policy of centralization continued during the revolutionary period and the Metternichian period that followed.  Another attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the various revolutions of 1848. For the first time, ministers tried to transform the monarchy into a centralized bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary was placed under martial law, being divided into a series of military districts, the centralized neo-absolutism tried to as well to nullify Hungary's constitution and Diet. Following the Habsburg defeats in the Wars of 1859 and 1866, these policies were step by step abandoned.  After experimentation in the early 1860s, the famous Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was arrived at, by which the so-called Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary was set up. In this system, the Kingdom of Hungary (\"Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen.\") was an equal sovereign with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. Although the non-Hungarian Habsburg lands were referred to as \"Austria\", received their own central parliament (the \"Reichsrat\", or Imperial Council) and ministries, as their official name – the \"Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council\". When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed (after a long period of occupation and administration), it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy. Instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance.  Austria-Hungary collapsed under the weight of the various unsolved ethnic problems that came to a head with its defeat in World War I. After its dissolution, the new republics of Austria (the German-Austrian territories of the Hereditary lands) and the First Hungarian Republic were created. In the peace settlement that followed, significant territories were ceded to Romania and Italy and the remainder of the monarchy's territory was shared out among the new states of Poland, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), and Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other lines.", "content": "A junior line ruled over the Grand Duchy of Tuscany between 1765 and 1801, and again from 1814 to 1859. While exiled from Tuscany, this line ruled at Salzburg from 1803 to 1805, and in Grand Duchy of Würzburg from 1805 to 1814. Another line ruled the Duchy of Modena from 1814 to 1859, while Empress Marie Louise, Napoleon's second wife and the daughter of Austrian Emperor Francis, ruled over the Duchy of Parma between 1814 and 1847. Also, the Second Mexican Empire, from 1863 to 1867, was headed by Maximilian I of Mexico, the brother of Emperor Franz Josef of Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rulers 1508–1918.", "content": "The so-called \"Habsburg monarchs\" or \"Habsburg emperors\" held many different titles and ruled each kingdom with a different name and position.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "The most famous memoir on the decline of the Habsburg Empire is Stefan Zweig's \"The World of Yesterday\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Habsburg Monarchy (or Habsburg Empire) is an umbrella term used by historians for the numerous lands and kingdoms of the Habsburg dynasty, especially for those of the Austrian line. Although from 1438 until 1806 (with the exception of 1742–1745) a member of the House of Habsburg was also Holy Roman Emperor, the Empire itself is not considered a part of the Habsburg Monarchy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974035}
{"src_title": "Marco Hietala", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Marco Hietala was born in Tervo, and is the youngest child of the Hietala family. Hietala lived in Tervo until the age of 15, after which he moved to Kuopio to study classical guitar, vocals and musical theory in high school. In 1984, he and his brother, Zachary Hietala, formed heavy metal band Tarot under the name \"Purgatory\". In 1986, Tarot received a deal for their first album and went on tour. Before becoming a full-time musician, he worked as a live and studio sound engineer.  Hietala joined Nightwish in 2001 when Tuomas Holopainen and the band's manager called him and said that there would be a place in the band for a vocalist and a bass player. \"Century Child\" was his first Nightwish album, following the departure of previous bassist Sami Vänskä. He was a prominent guest musician in Delain, a project involving many members of the gothic and symphonic metal community. He also participated in the recording of \"Invitation\", by Altaria, providing backing vocals. Hietala has also been part of the bands Sinergy and Northern Kings.  Upon his arrival to Nightwish, several songs were written to contain duets with then Nightwish vocalist Tarja Turunen, allowing songwriter and band leader Tuomas Holopainen to take advantage of Hietala's distinctive raucous voice to add a new dimension to the band. A famous example is Nightwish's cover of \"The Phantom of the Opera,\" from the album \"Century Child.\"  During Nightwish's shows, Turunen would take a break halfway through the set. Before Hietala joined the band, the band would perform an instrumental song during this time. After Hietala joined the band, they performed covers of well-known songs, with Hietala singing the lead vocal part in this break. The band has performed Ozzy Osbourne's \"Crazy Train\", W.A.S.P.'s \"Wild Child\", Dio's \"Don't Talk to Strangers\", Megadeth's \"Symphony of Destruction\" and Pink Floyd's \"High Hopes\". Some of these songs have been put up for sale as well on various Nightwish album releases. Following Turunen's departure from Nightwish, Hietala was much more involved with the production of \"Dark Passion Play\", which was released in September 2007. He sang some songs, completely, and wrote the music for the song \"The Islander\", on which he also plays acoustic guitar instead of bass. Hietala is also credited alongside Holopainen for co-writing the song \"The Crow, the Owl and the Dove\" from Nightwish's 2011 album, \"Imaginaerum\".  In Delain, Hietala played bass for the album \"Lucidity\" and was also the main male vocalist on the album with featured vocals on the song \"The Gathering\". He is also featured as vocalist in two of the songs on Delain's second album \"April Rain\" and two songs from Delain's fourth album \"The Human Contradiction\".  In March 2009, Hietala joined the band Sapattivuosi. They cover Black Sabbath songs in Finnish. In this band, however, Hietala does not play bass; he only performs vocals.  On 1 April 2010 it was said that Hietala would leave the band to concentrate on a choir career. This was identified as an April Fool's joke, but was also a reference to his participation in \"Kuorosota\" (the localized Finnish version of \"Clash of the Choirs\") in 2010. Hietala was the master of the Kuopio choir in the program's second season. He came second in the contest, losing in the finals to the Joensuu choir, headed by pop rock singer Ilkka Alanko. Tarot's single \"I Walk Forever,\" from the \"Gravity of Light\" album, was performed for the first time by Hietala, Tommi \"Tuple\" Salmela and the Kuopio choir during Kuorosota 2010; other songs performed included \"The Phantom of the Opera,\" which Hietala has covered with Nightwish as well.  In June 2010, Hietala joined the heavy metal supergroup HAIL! on two occasions, performing Black Sabbath's Neon Knights with Ripper Owens, Andreas Kisser, James LoMenzo and Paul Bostaph at two of their shows in Finland.  On 14 August 2013 Hietala was the first singer to be confirmed by Arjen Lucassen to guest on Ayreon's new album \"The Theory of Everything\".  Hietala released his first solo album \"Mustan sydämen rovio\" in May 2019. He released the album under his birthname Marko Hietala and will be using the name also in his other projects in the future. Hietala has described his solo material as \"hard prog\". An English version of the album, titled \"Pyre of the Black Heart\" (Nuclear Blast), followed in January 2020. Joining him on the albums are drummer Anssi Nykänen, keyboardist Vili Ollila and guitarist Tuomas Wäinölä with whom he also toured in Finland in the summer and autum of 2019. The band will embark on a European tour in February 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Hietala uses Warwick bass guitars, particularly the Infinity NT (birdseye maple top) and Vampyre NT (flame maple top) 4-string models tuned D Standard (DGCF) and Drop C (CGCF). He also owns a Warwick Buzzard JE with a rusty finish equipped with a detuner (Used, among others, in the music videoes for Elan and Endless Forms Most Beautiful), and a Kramer bass. He uses Warwick's Hellborg amplifier and cabs. After joining Nightwish he used a SansAmp GT2 distortion pedal for some time. ̈ ̈  Hietala also uses a custom made Warwick/Framus doubleneck bass/electric guitar, based on the Warwick Infinity.  From Century Child until the End of an Era Hietala used an Infinity almost exclusively for live and studio applications. Later, the Vampyre became his axe of choice (almost for the whole period with Anette as Nightwish's vocalist). The first time he can be seen with a Vampyre is the Bye Bye Beautiful music video. From the Imaginaerum tour going forward Buzzard became his preferred brand, but occasionally he still can be seen with an Infinity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Hietala has stated that the biggest influence on him as a bassist is Geezer Butler and Bob Daisley, while Ronnie James Dio and Rob Halford are his biggest influence as a vocalist. He has also stated that he listens to wide array of music ranging from \"really sensitive stuff to a lot of really hard stuff\", saying that he \"tend[s] to soak up almost everything\" which \"somehow ends up being used\" when he writes his own music.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Hietala has two children with his ex-wife Manki, twin boys Antto and Miro. He and his family currently live in Kuopio, Finland. When he is not touring, he enjoys reading books, playing video games, and watching movies. He especially likes fantasy, horror and science fiction books. In 2016, a Finnish newspaper reported that Hietala had filed for divorce. In August 2018 he married Camila Cavalcanti", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marko Tapani \"Marco\" Hietala (born 14 January 1966) is a Finnish heavy metal vocalist, bassist and songwriter. Internationally, he is most known as the current bassist, male vocalist and secondary composer to Tuomas Holopainen, of the symphonic metal band Nightwish. He is also the vocalist and bassist as well as composer and lyricist for the heavy metal band Tarot.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974036}
{"src_title": "Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "14th century.", "content": "The monastery was founded in 1337 by one of the most venerated Russian saints, Sergius of Radonezh, who built a wooden church in honour of the Holy Trinity on Makovets Hill. Early development of the monastic community is well documented in contemporary lives of Sergius and his disciples.  In 1355, Sergius introduced a charter which required the construction of auxiliary buildings, such as refectory, kitchen, and bakery. This charter was a model for Sergius' numerous followers who founded more than 400 cloisters all over Russia, including the celebrated Solovetsky, Kirillov, and Simonov monasteries.  St. Sergius supported Dmitri Donskoi in his struggle against the Tatars and sent two of his monks, Peresvet and Oslyabya, to participate in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). At the outbreak of the battle, Peresvet died in a single combat against a Tatar bogatyr. The monastery was devastated by fire, when a Tatar unit raided the area in 1408.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "15th century.", "content": "St. Sergius was declared patron saint of the Russian state in 1422. The same year the first stone cathedral was built by a team of Serbian monks who had found refuge in the monastery after the Battle of Kosovo. The relics of St. Sergius still may be seen in this cathedral, dedicated to the Holy Trinity. The greatest icon painters of medieval Russia, Andrei Rublev and Daniil Chyorny, were summoned to decorate the cathedral with frescoes. Traditionally, Muscovite royals were baptized in this cathedral and held thanksgiving services here.  In 1476, Ivan III invited several Pskovian masters to build the church of the Holy Spirit. This graceful structure is one of the few remaining examples of a Russian church topped with a belltower. The interior contains the earliest specimens of the use of glazed tiles for decoration. In the early 16th century, Vasily III added the Nikon annex and the Serapion tent, where several of Sergius' disciples were interred.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "16th century.", "content": "It took 26 years to construct the six-pillared Assumption Cathedral, which was commissioned by Ivan the Terrible in 1559. The cathedral is much larger than its model and namesake in the Moscow Kremlin. The magnificent iconostasis of the 16th–18th centuries features Simon Ushakov's masterpiece,. Interior walls were painted with violet and blue frescoes by a team of Yaroslavl masters in 1684. The vault contains burials of Boris Godunov, his family and several 20th-century patriarchs.  As the monastery grew into one of the wealthiest landowners in Russia, the woods where it had stood were cleared and a village (or posad) sprang up near the monastery walls. It gradually developed into the modern town of Sergiyev Posad. The cloister itself was a notable centre of chronicle-writing and icon painting. Just opposite the monastery walls St. Paraskeva's Convent was established, among whose buildings St. Paraskeva's Church (1547), Introduction Church (1547), and a 17th-century chapel over St. Paraskeva's well are still visible.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "17th century.", "content": "In 1550s, a wooden palisade surrounding the cloister was replaced with 1.5 km-long stone walls, featuring twelve towers, which helped the monastery to withstand a celebrated 16-month Polish-Lithuanian siege in 1608–1610. A shell-hole in the cathedral gates is preserved as a reminder of Wladyslaw IV's abortive siege in 1618.  By the end of the 17th century, when young Peter I twice found refuge within the monastery from his enemies, numerous buildings had been added. These include a small baroque palace of the patriarchs, noted for its luxurious interiors, and a royal palace, with its facades painted in checkerboard design. The refectory of St. Sergius, covering 510 square meters and also painted in dazzling checkerboard design, used to be the largest hall in Russia. The five-domed Church of John the Baptist's Nativity (1693–1699) was commissioned by the Stroganovs and built over one of the gates. Other 17th-century structures include the monks' cells, a hospital topped with a tented church, and a chapel built over a holy well discovered in 1644.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "18th and 19th centuries.", "content": "In 1744, Empress Elizabeth conferred on the cloister the dignity of a Lavra. The metropolitan of Moscow was henceforth also the Archimandrite of the Lavra. Elizabeth particularly favoured the Trinity and annually proceeded afoot from Moscow to the cloister. Her secret spouse Alexey Razumovsky accompanied her on such journeys and commissioned a baroque church to the Virgin of Smolensk, the last major shrine to be erected in the Lavra. Another pledge of Elizabeth's affection for the monastery is a white-and-blue baroque belltower, which, at 88 meters, was one of the tallest structures built in Russia up to that date. Its architects were Ivan Michurin and Dmitry Ukhtomsky.  Throughout the 19th century, the Lavra maintained its status as the richest Russian monastery. A seminary founded in 1742 was replaced by an ecclesiastical academy in 1814. The monastery boasted a supreme collection of manuscripts and books. Medieval collections of the Lavra sacristy attracted thousands of visitors. In Sergiyev Posad, the monastery maintained several sketes, one of which is a place of burial for the conservative philosophers Konstantin Leontiev and Vasily Rozanov.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th century.", "content": "After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Soviet government closed the lavra in 1920. Its buildings were assigned to different civic institutions or declared museums. In 1930, monastery bells, including the Tsar-Bell of 65 tons, were destroyed. Pavel Florensky and his followers prevented the authorities from stealing and selling the sacristy collection but overall many valuables were lost or transferred to other collections.  In 1945, following Joseph Stalin's temporary tolerance of the church during World War II, the Lavra was returned to the Russian Orthodox Church. On April 16, 1946 divine service was renewed at the Assumption Cathedral. The lavra continued as the seat of the Moscow Patriarchate until 1983, when the patriarch was allowed to settle at the Danilov Monastery in Moscow. After that, the monastery continued as a prime centre of religious education. Important restoration works were conducted in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1993, the Trinity Lavra was inscribed on the UN World Heritage List.  The Lavra has a number of representative churches (\"podvorie\" or \"metochia\") in its vicinity and throughout Russia. The Lavra's hieromonks have manned a number of sketes at remote locations (such as the Anzer Island in the Solovki Archipelago in the White Sea), as well as the Trinity Church on the King George Island in the Antarctic.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius () is the most important Russian monastery and the spiritual centre of the Russian Orthodox Church. The monastery is situated in the town of Sergiyev Posad, about 70 km to the north-east from Moscow by the road leading to Yaroslavl, and currently is home to over 300 monks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974037}
{"src_title": "Fartlek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gösta Holmér.", "content": "Swedish coach Gösta Holmér developed fartlek in 1930, and, since then, many physiologists have adopted it. It was designed for the downtrodden Swedish cross country running teams that had been beaten throughout the 1920s by Paavo Nurmi and the Finns. Holmér's plan used a faster-than-race pace and concentrated on both speed and endurance training.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First fartlek sessions.", "content": "This is the first session that was designed by Gösta Holmér for a cross country (multi-terrain) runner. This is also an example of what a fartlek session might look like, but fartlek sessions should be designed for an athlete's own event or sport, as well as catering to their individual needs. Sessions should be at an intensity that causes the athlete to work at 60% to 80% of his or her maximum heart rate. This should mean that the body will not experience too much discomfort while exercising. An athlete should also include a good warm up at the beginning of the session, and a cool down at the end of the session, to improve performance, minimize post-workout muscle soreness, to decrease the chances of injury and for other reasons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fartlek variations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mailbox version.", "content": "Runners hypothetically “run hard for two mailboxes, recover for three, run hard for three, recover for two.\" When executing this type, the runner continues like this for the allotted time or distance determined.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dog park version.", "content": "Runners speed up when they get close to a dog in order to pass them; after passing the dog, they would then slow down for the recovery period.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music version.", "content": "Many runners use music while they run. Runners can use their music as a template for their fartlek run by changing their speed according to different parts of a song. For example, they can speed up during the chorus and slow down for the rest of the song.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Three speeds version.", "content": "In order to add more variety and complexity, runners can add another speed into the run. Within any run, “there is no reason why three different paces should not be included.\" This would change a normal fartlek by doing a jog, run, and a full out sprint.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mona fartlek.", "content": "Steve Moneghetti (Mona) devised this session with his coach Chris Wardlaw over the phone back in 1983 when he was just 20. He wanted a solid fartlek session, one that would help improve his speed as well as endurance and stimulate an ability to change pace mid-run, something that helped later on his career when competing against African athletes, who tended to speed up mid-race. A session would consist of: 2×90sec, 4×60sec, 4×30sec, 4×15sec with a slower tempo for recovery of the same time between each repetition. The session takes 20 minutes in total.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Benefits.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Easily adjustable.", "content": "Since this workout is very easily manipulated, “fartlek training allows you to add an endless variety of intervals to your aerobic workouts, which helps to keep you stimulated.\" A great plus to performing this workout is the variety it adds to fitness regimens; it is possible to change the amount of distance, time, fast bursts, recovery periods, and even the time at which you do each component.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Race day readiness.", "content": "For competitive runners, fartleks and all other types of interval runs are the key for race day readiness. The alternating speeds that are the defining point of fartleks allow runners to work “both the aerobic and anaerobic training systems while simulating the ebb and flow nature of competitive running.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Body strengthening.", "content": "Fartleks keep runners' bodies at top shape so that they can keep racing. Putting fartlek runs in a workout routine keeps “muscles, tendons, nerves, etc. used in running going at top capacity.\" In other words, regularly implementing fartleks keeps your body strong enough to maintain the mechanics of racing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fat burn.", "content": "By alternating the “intensity of your workouts, you will burn more calories than you would by keeping a steady pace.\" While running, the runner's body uses a combination of carbohydrate and fat, with relatively more carbohydrate metabolized at faster speeds and relatively more fat the longer the workout lasts. A fartlek workout will allow the body to adapt to using both sources of energy, with the desired adaptation towards fat metabolism occurring during slower periods. In addition, varying speeds improves cardiovascular endurance slightly better than running at a steady pace for the same time and total distance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports training variability.", "content": "Fartleks can be specially tailored to fit the needs of different types of athletes. An example includes basketball, where “you must exert maximum effort while running a fast break, while you exert very little effort while standing at the foul line.\" It is possible to alter the type and timing of the fartlek in order to mimic the intensity of an average basketball game. This can be done for other sports such as tennis, rugby, soccer, and football as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Comparing other running exercises.", "content": "Comparable runs include the traditional interval training, tempo runs, and ladders. These workouts are very similar to fartleks, but there are slight differences that distinguish one from another.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tempo runs.", "content": "Tempo runs are typically run for 20 to 25 minutes at a 6 or 7 RPE. This exercise is “like an Oreo cookie, with the warmup and cooldown as the cookie, and a run at an effort at or slightly above your anaerobic threshold (the place where your body shifts to using more glycogen for energy) as the filling.\" What runners do here is warm up at a slow and steady pace, then run harder than they would on a normal distance jog for an allotted amount of time, and then do a cool down with a very similar speed to the warm up.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interval runs.", "content": "Intervals “are short, intense efforts followed by equal or slightly longer recovery time.\" By the end of a short burst of speed, the runner is barely able to keep up that pace. Unlike fartleks, interval runs are much more structured; usually running the fast and slow spurts at exact times or distances. Interval runs and tempo runs differ in the fact that tempo runs maintain a slightly fast pace for a set amount of time, while interval runs consist of alternating between sprints and slow sections instead of keeping one speed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ladders.", "content": "This workout is defined as “a speed workout in which the fast parts vary in length.\" Basically, athletes will run a small amount at a hard pace, work their way up, and work their way back down with timed breaks in between. Ladders are similar to interval training in that they require more structure, but they are different because the faster speed sections vary in time or distance. Although ladders are most similar to interval runs, the fact that the portions performed at the faster speed vary in length or time mirrors fartlek runs.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Fartlek, which means \"speed play\" in Swedish, is continuous training with interval training. Fartlek runs are a very simple form of a long distance run. Fartlek training “is simply defined as periods of fast running intermixed with periods of slower running.\" For some people, this could be a mix of jogging and sprinting, but for beginners it could be walking with jogging sections added in when possible. A simple example of what a runner would do during a fartlek run is “sprint all out from one light pole to the next, jog to the corner, give a medium effort for a couple of blocks, jog between four light poles and sprint to a stop sign, and so on, for a set total time or distance.\" The variable intensity and continuous nature of the exercise places stress on both the aerobic and anaerobic systems. It differs from traditional interval training in that it is unstructured; intensity and/or speed varies, as the athlete wishes. Fartlek training is generally associated with running, but can include almost any kind of exercise.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974038}
{"src_title": "Mitropa Cup", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A first \"International\" competition for football clubs was founded in 1897 in Vienna. The Challenge Cup was invented by John Gramlick Sr., a co-founder of the Vienna Cricket and Football-Club. In this cup competition all clubs of the Austro-Hungarian Empire that normally would not meet could take part, though actually almost only clubs from the Empire's three major cities Vienna, Budapest and Prague participated. The Challenge Cup was carried out until the year 1911 and is today seen as the predecessor to the Mitropa Cup and consequently the European Cup and Champions League. The last winner of the cup was Wiener Sport-Club, one of the oldest and most traditional football clubs of Austria where the cup still remains.  The idea of a European cup competition was shaped after World War I which brought the defeat and collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The centre of this idea were the Central European countries that, at this time, were still leading in continental football. In the early 1920s they introduced professional leagues, the first continental countries to do so. Austria started in 1924, followed by Hungary in 1925 and Czechoslovakia in 1926. In order to strengthen the dominance of these countries in European football and to financially support the professional clubs, the introduction of the Mitropa Cup was decided at a meeting in Venice on 17 July, following the initiative of the head of the Austrian Football Association (ÖFB), Hugo Meisl. Moreover, the creation of a European Cup for national teams - that unlike the Challenge Cup and the Mitropa Cup would not be annual - was also part of the agreement. The first matches were played on 14 August 1927. The competition was between the top professional teams of Central Europe. Initially two teams each from Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia entered, competing in a knock-out competition. The countries involved could either send their respective league winners and runners-up, or league winners and cup winners to take part. The first winners were the Czech side, AC Sparta Prague. In 1929 Italian teams replaced the Yugoslavian ones. The competition was expanded to four teams from each of the competing countries in 1934. Other countries were invited to participate - Switzerland in 1936, and Romania, Switzerland and Yugoslavia in 1937. Austria was withdrawn from the competition following the Anschluss in 1938. In 1939, prior to the start of WW II, the cup involved only eight teams (two each from Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Italy and one each from Romania and Yugoslavia). The level of the competing nations is clearly shown by Italy's two World Cup titles (1934 & 1938), Czechoslovakia's (1934) and Hungary's (1938) World Cup final, and Austria's (1934) and Yugoslavia's (1930) semi-finals. Out of the eleven different teams competing in the first three World Cups, five were part of the Mitropa Cup.  A tournament was started in 1940, but abandoned before the final match due to World War II. Again, only eight teams competed, three each from Hungary and Yugoslavia and two from Romania. Hungarian Ferencváros and Romanian Rapid (which had won on lots after three draws) qualified for the final, but did not meet because the northern part of Transylvania (lost shortly after World War I) was ceded to Hungary from Romania.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performances.", "content": "Note: The 1960 edition is not included in the list because was not won by a club, it was won by a nation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mitropa Super Cup Final.", "content": "Additionally, a \"Mitropa Super Cup\" was contested in 1989 between the winners of 1988 and 1989.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mitropa Cup, officially called the La Coupe de l'Europe Centrale or Central European Cup, was one of the first international major European football cups for club sides. It was conducted among the successor states of the former Austria-Hungary. After World War II in 1951 a replacement tournament named \"Zentropa Cup\" was held, but just for one season, the Mitropa Cup name was revived, and again in 1958 the name of the tournament changed to \"Danube Cup\" but only for one season. The tournament was discontinued after 1992.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974039}
{"src_title": "Karl Polanyi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Polanyi was born into a Jewish family. His younger brother was Michael Polanyi, a philosopher, and his niece was Eva Zeisel, a world-renowned ceramist. He was born in Vienna, at the time the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His father, Mihály Pollacsek, was a railway entrepreneur. Mihály never changed the name Pollacsek and is buried in the Jewish cemetery in Budapest. Mihály died in January 1905, which was an emotional shock to Karl, and he commemorated the anniversary of Mihály's death throughout his life. Karl and Michael Polanyi's mother was Cecília Wohl. The name change to Polanyi (not von Polanyi) was made by Karl and his siblings. Polanyi was well educated despite the ups and downs of his father's fortune, and he immersed himself in Budapest's active intellectual and artistic scene.  Polanyi founded the radical and influential Galileo Circle while at the University of Budapest, a club which would have far reaching effects on Hungarian intellectual thought. During this time, he was actively engaged with other notable thinkers, such as György Lukács, Oszkár Jászi, and Karl Mannheim. Polanyi graduated from Budapest University in 1912 with a doctorate in Law. In 1914, he helped found the Hungarian Radical Party and served as its secretary.  Polanyi was a cavalry officer in the Austro-Hungarian Army in World War I, in active service at the Russian Front and hospitalized in Budapest. Polanyi supported the republican government of Mihály Károlyi and its Social Democratic regime. The republic was short-lived, however, and when Béla Kun toppled the Karolyi government to create the Hungarian Soviet Republic Polanyi left for Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Vienna.", "content": "From 1924 to 1933 he was employed as a senior editor of the prestigious \"Der Österreichische Volkswirt\" ('The Austrian Economist') magazine. It was at this time that he first began criticizing the Austrian School of economists, who he felt created abstract models which lost sight of the organic, interrelated reality of economic processes. Polanyi himself was attracted to Fabianism and the works of G. D. H. Cole. It was also during this period that Polanyi grew interested in Christian socialism.  He married the communist revolutionary Ilona Duczyńska, of Polish-Hungarian background.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In London.", "content": "Polanyi was asked to resign from \"Der Oesterreichische Volkswirt\" because the liberal publisher of the journal could not keep on a prominent socialist after the accession of Hitler to office in January 1933 and the suspension of the Austrian parliament by the rising tide of clerical fascism in Austria. He left for London in 1933, where he earned a living as a journalist and tutor and obtained a position as a lecturer for the Workers' Educational Association in 1936. His lecture notes contained the research for what later became \"The Great Transformation\". However, he would not start writing this work until 1940, when he moved to Vermont to take up a position at Bennington College. The book was published in 1944, to great acclaim. In it, Polanyi described the enclosure process in England and the creation of the contemporary economic system at the beginning of the 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States and Canada.", "content": "Polanyi joined the staff of Bennington College in 1940, teaching a series of five timely lectures on the \"Present Age of Transformation.\". The lectures, The Passing of the 19th Century, The Trend Towards an Integrated Society, The Breakdown of the International System, Is America an Exception and Marxism and the Inner History of the Russian Revolution, took place during the early stages of World War II. Polanyi participated in Bennington's Humanism Lecture Series (1941) and The Bennington College Lecture Series (1943) where his topic was \"Jean Jacques Rousseau: Or is a Free Society Possible?\"  After the war, Polanyi received a teaching position at Columbia University (1947–1953). However, his wife, Ilona Duczyńska (1897–1978), had a background as a former communist, which made gaining an entrance visa in the United States impossible. As a result, they moved to Canada, and Polanyi commuted to New York City. In the early 1950s, Polanyi received a large grant from the Ford Foundation to study the economic systems of ancient empires.  Having described the emergence of the modern economic system, Polanyi now sought to understand how \"the economy\" emerged as a distinct sphere in the distant past. His seminar at Columbia drew several famous scholars and influenced a generation of teachers, resulting in the 1957 volume \"Trade and Markets in the Early Empires\". Polanyi continued to write in his later years and established a new journal entitled \"Coexistence\". In Canada he resided in Pickering, Ontario, where he died in 1964.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Paul Polanyi (; ; October 25, 1886 – April 23, 1964) was an Austro-Hungarian economic historian, economic anthropologist, economic sociologist, political economist, historical sociologist and social philosopher. He is known for his opposition to traditional economic thought and for his book, \"The Great Transformation\", which argued that the emergence of market-based societies in modern Europe was not inevitable but historically contingent. Polanyi is remembered today as the originator of substantivism, a cultural approach to economics, which emphasized the way economies are embedded in society and culture. This view ran counter to mainstream economics but is popular in anthropology, economic history, economic sociology and political science.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974040}
{"src_title": "Madame de La Fayette", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Christened Marie-Madeleine Pioche de La Vergne, she was born in Paris to a family of minor but wealthy nobility. At 16, de la Vergne became the maid of honour to Queen Anne of Austria and began also to acquire a literary education from Gilles Ménage, who gave her lessons in Italian and Latin. Ménage would lead her to join the fashionable salons of Madame de Rambouillet and Madeleine de Scudéry. Her father, Marc Pioche de la Vergne, had died a year before, and the same year her mother married Renaud de Sévigné, uncle of Madame de Sévigné, who would remain her lifelong intimate friend.  In 1655, de la Vergne married François Motier, comte de La Fayette, a widowed nobleman some eighteen years her senior, with whom she would have two sons. She accompanied him to country estates in Auvergne and Bourbonnais although she made frequent trips back to Paris, where she began to mix with court society and formed her own successful salon. Her sister-in-law was Louise de La Fayette (1618–1665), favourite of Louis XIII of France. Some of her acquaintances included Henrietta of England, future Duchess of Orleans, who asked La Fayette to write her biography; Antoine Arnauld; and the leading French writers Segrais and Huet. Earlier on, during the Fronde, La Fayette had also befriended the Cardinal de Retz with whom her stepfather was associated.  Settling permanently in Paris in 1659, La Fayette published, anonymously, \"La Princesse de Montpensier\" in 1662. From 1665 onwards she formed a close relationship with François de La Rochefoucauld, author of \"Maximes\", who introduced her to many literary luminaries of the time, including Racine and Boileau. 1669 saw the publication of the first volume of \"Zaïde\", a Hispano-Moorish romance which was signed by Segrais but is almost certainly attributable to La Fayette. The second volume appeared in 1671. The title ran through reprints and translations mostly thanks to the preface Huet had offered.  La Fayette's most famous novel was \"La Princesse de Clèves\", first published anonymously in March 1678. An immense success, the work is often taken to be the first true French novel and a prototype of the early psychological novel.  Her correspondence showed her as the acute diplomatic agent of Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours, duchess of Savoy, at the court of Louis XIV.  The death of La Rochefoucauld in 1680 and her husband in 1683 led La Fayette to lead a less active social life in her later years. Three works were published posthumously: \"La Comtesse de Tende\" (1718), \"Histoire d'Henriette d'Angleterre\" (1720), and \"Memoires de la Cour de France\" (1731).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Marie-Madeleine Pioche de La Vergne was the eldest daughter of Marc Pioche (–1649), Esquire to the King, Sieur de La Vergne and the tutor to Cardinal Richelieu's nephew, Jean Armand de Maille-Breze, and Isabella Pena (–1656) daughter of François Pena, physician of the King, and his wife, Michelle Coupe.  Her baptism took place March 18, 1634 in the Church of Saint-Sulpice. Her godfather was Urbain de Maillé-Brézé, Marshal of France, and her godmother was Marie-Madelaine de Vignerot, lady Combalet, later Duchess of Aiguillon, a niece of Richelieu.  Her marriage took place in the Church of Saint-Sulpice.  She is buried in the Church of Saint-Sulpice.  Mary Magdalene had two younger sisters:  Her mother, Isabella Pena, remarried in 1650 to René Renaud de Sevigne (–1656), uncle of the Marquise de Sevigne.  She married on February 15, 1655 to François Motier, comte de La Fayette (brother of Louise de La Fayette) (1616–1683). He held several lands in the Auvergne region such as de La Fayette, de Goutenoutouse, de Médat and de Forest. They had two sons:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marie-Madeleine Pioche de La Vergne, comtesse de La Fayette (baptized 18 March 1634 – 25 May 1693), better known as Madame de La Fayette, was a French writer, the author of \"La Princesse de Clèves\", France's first historical novel and one of the earliest novels in literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974041}
{"src_title": "Gilda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Johnny Farrell (Glenn Ford), a small-time American gambler newly arrived in Buenos Aires, Argentina, wins a lot of money cheating at craps. He is rescued from a robbery attempt by a complete stranger, Ballin Mundson (George Macready). Mundson tells him about an illegal high-class casino, but warns him not to practice his cheating skills there. Farrell ignores his advice, cheats at blackjack, and is taken by two men to see the casino's owner, who turns out to be Mundson. Farrell talks Mundson into hiring him and soon becomes the casino's manager.  Mundson returns from a trip and announces he has a new wife, Gilda (Rita Hayworth), whom he has married after only knowing her for a day. Johnny and Gilda instantly recognize each other, though both deny it when Mundson questions them. Mundson assigns Farrell to watch over Gilda. Johnny and Gilda are consumed with hatred for each other, and she cavorts with men at all hours in increasingly more blatant efforts to enrage Johnny, and in return he grows more abusive and spiteful towards her.  Mundson is visited by two German mobsters (Ludwig Donath and Lionel Royce). Their organization financed a tungsten cartel, with everything put in Mundson's name in order to hide their connection to it. They have decided that it is safe to take over the cartel now that World War II has ended, but Mundson refuses to transfer ownership. The Argentinian police are suspicious of the Germans and assign agent Obregon (Joseph Calleia) to try and obtain information from Farrell, but he knows nothing about this aspect of Mundson's operations. The Germans return to the casino during a carnival celebration, and Mundson ends up killing one of them.  Farrell rushes to take Gilda to safety and alone in Mundson's house, they have another confrontation and after declaring their undying hatred for each other, passionately kiss. After hearing the front door slam, they realise Mundson has overheard and a guilt-ridden Farrell pursues him to a waiting private airplane. The plane explodes in midair and plummets into the ocean; Farrell concludes that Mundson has committed suicide.  Gilda inherits his estate. Farrell and she immediately marry, but unknown to her, Johnny is marrying her to punish her for her betrayal of Mundson. He abandons her, but has her followed day and night by his men to torment her. Gilda tries to escape the tortured marriage a number of times, but Farrell, now rich and powerful, thwarts every attempt.  Obregon confiscates the casino and informs Farrell that Gilda was never truly unfaithful to Mundson or to him, prompting Farrell to try to reconcile with her. At that moment, Mundson reappears, revealing he faked his suicide. He tries to kill both Gilda and Farrell, but bartender Uncle Pio (Steven Geray) fatally stabs him. When Obregon arrives, Johnny tries to take the blame for the murder, but Obregon points out that Mundson was already declared legally dead and declines to arrest him. Farrell gives Obregon incriminating documents from Mundson's safe. Farrell and Gilda reconcile.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cast.", "content": "Cast notes", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "\"Gilda\" was filmed from September 4 to December 10, 1945.  Hayworth's introductory scene was shot twice. While the action of her popping her head into the frame and the subsequent dialogue remains the same, she is dressed in different costumes—in a striped blouse and dark skirt in one film print, and the more famous off-the-shoulder dressing gown in the other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "When first released, the staff at \"Variety\" magazine liked the film and wrote, \"Hayworth is photographed most beguilingly. The producers have created nothing subtle in the projection of her s.a. [sex appeal], and that's probably been wise. Glenn Ford is the vis-a-vis, in his first picture part in several years... \"Gilda\" is obviously an expensive production—and shows it. The direction is static, but that's more the fault of the writers.\"  \"Gilda\" screened in competition at the 1946 Cannes Film Festival, the first time the festival was held.  More recently, Emanuel Levy wrote a positive review: \"Featuring Rita Hayworth in her best-known performance, \"Gilda\", released just after the end of WWII, draws much of its peculiar power from its mixture of genres and the way its characters interact with each other... \"Gilda\" was a cross between a hardcore noir adventure of the 1940s and the cycle of 'women's pictures.' Imbued with a modern perspective, the film is quite remarkable in the way it deals with sexual issues.\"  The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 96% of critics gave the film a positive review, based on 25 reviews.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation Crossroads nuclear test.", "content": "While \"Gilda\" was in release, it was widely reported that an atomic bomb to be tested at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean's Marshall Islands would bear an image of Hayworth, a reference to her bombshell status. The fourth atomic bomb ever to be detonated was decorated with a photograph of Hayworth cut from the June 1946 issue of \"Esquire\" magazine. Above it was stenciled the device's nickname, \"Gilda\", in two-inch black letters. Although the gesture was meant as a compliment, Hayworth was deeply offended.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memorabilia.", "content": "The two-piece costume worn by Hayworth in the \"Amado Mio\" nightclub sequence was offered as part of the \"TCM Presents... There's No Place Like Hollywood\" auction November 24, 2014, at Bonhams in New York. It was estimated that the costume would fetch between $40,000 and $60,000; in the event it sold for $161,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "In January 2016 The Criterion Collection released DVD and Blu-ray Disc versions of \"Gilda\", featuring a new 2K digital film restoration, with uncompressed monaural soundtrack on the Blu-ray version.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gilda is a 1946 American film noir directed by Charles Vidor and starring Rita Hayworth in her signature role and Glenn Ford as a young thug. The film is known for cinematographer Rudolph Maté's lush photography, costume designer Jean Louis's wardrobe for Hayworth (particularly for the dance numbers), and choreographer Jack Cole's staging of \"Put the Blame on Mame\" and \"Amado Mio\", sung by Anita Ellis. In 2013, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically or aesthetically significant\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974042}
{"src_title": "Clawfinger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Band history.", "content": "The band's origin dates back to mid-1989, when Zak Tell and Jocke Skog met while working together at Rosenlund Hospital in Stockholm. In 1990, they were joined by the Norwegian guitarists Bård Torstensen and Erlend Ottem who were also working at the hospital. The four soon realized their similar interests in music. Bård and Erlend played previously in a band called Theo in their hometown Arendal in Norway. They invested their free time exploring the musical world, composing and writing songs while eventually evolving into a band.  Their original demo comprising three tracks (\"Waste of Time\", \"Nigger\" and \"Profit Preacher\") quickly secured local radio airplay for them and consequently brought them to the attention of the music label MVG Records. \"Nigger\" is an anti-racism statement that caused quite a stir and was a massive success; it was also released as a single. By the beginning of the 1990s, Clawfinger self-released their debut \"Deaf Dumb Blind\". This sold in over 600,000 copies worldwide and was critically acclaimed by the Swedish press. With the addition of André Skaug and drummer Morten Skaug, Clawfinger went on tour and played at European festivals, including opening for Anthrax and Alice in Chains.  The band received many awards, including two Grammies \"at home\" during the Swedish Grammy Awards in 1994 for best hard rock band and for best music video. After the subsequent touring, they went straight back in the studio to record their second album, \"Use Your Brain\". The album was released 1995 and yet another touring campaign followed, most notably participating at Ozzy Osbourne's Monsters of Rock Festival in Argentina, Brazil and Chile in that year, rocking alongside American metal counterparts like Megadeth, Faith No More, and Alice Cooper. Back in Europe they continued the touring campaign by taking part at festivals and countless gigs.  Their self-titled album \"Clawfinger\" was released in 1997. The first song on the album is \"Two Sides\", which expanded the band's reach by using female choir vocals and a Middle Eastern sound. The rest of the album continues with the band's typical aggressive voice and socio-political lyrics.  \"Clawfinger\" contains 12 songs with an additional 3 bonus tracks on the limited edition. They released three singles and two videos (Biggest & the Best and Two Sides).  \"A Whole Lot of Nothing\" was the fourth album released on 23 July 2001. The music showcases the same aggressive guitars, with more distortion effects and sounds, adding a new level of diversification. Synthesizers are much more present on this particular album than on any other of Clawfinger's works.  \"A Whole Lot of Nothing\" contains 13 tracks and 2 bonus tracks on the limited edition. Clawfinger also released four singles, two of which are limited editions.  \"Zeros & Heroes\" caused controversy upon its 2003 release in America due to open critique of former head of state George W. Bush and US military politics following the 11 September 2001 attacks, particularly in the song \"Step Aside\". It offers yet another change of style for the listener. The electronic sound and synthesizers from \"A Whole Lot of Nothing\" are gone and replaced by a more complex and melodic guitar riffing.  \"Hate Yourself With Style\" was released in 2005. The album continued the path entered on \"Zeros & Heroes\" and is characterized by hard rock style melodic speedy guitar riffs. The keyboards which particularly characterized \"A Whole Lot of Nothing\" have completely disappeared.  Unlike previous albums, where the limited edition featured two or more bonus-tracks, the limited edition of this album features a DVD with live footage from the Greenfield festival and video clips of all singles up to Clawfinger's third album.  \"Life Will Kill You\" was released in 2007. It has spawned three singles: \"Prisoners\", \"The Price We Pay\", and \"Little Baby\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disbandment and reunions.", "content": "Clawfinger had been working on a re-recording of their debut album \"Deaf Dumb Blind\". The plan was to re-record all the album's songs, additionally featuring guest musicians. Zak Tell has stated, that talks were held with members of Rammstein and Peter Tägtgren from the bands Pain and Hypocrisy.  In 2008 and 2009 the band played at the biggest open-air festival in Europe (400,000–500,000 rock fans every year)—Przystanek Woodstock in Poland.  On 24 August 2013 the band's Facebook page announced that the group is disbanding.  On 5 October 2013, another announcement was made that Jocke Skog had joined the Swedish death metal band Feared as their new bassist.  In May 2014, the Facebook page of the band announced a one-off show at the ZAKHID festival in Ukraine on 8 August 2014. The band has been occasional one-off reunion shows since then, performing two in 2015, two in 2016 for Denmark's CopenHell Festival and Bulgaria's Summer Chaos Festival, and most recently on the \"Irreversible Festival 2017\" in Monthey, Switzerland.  On 4 August 2017, the band released the new single \"Save Our Souls\" via iTunes and YouTube.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Members.", "content": "Current line-up  Former members", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clawfinger is a heavy metal band from Sweden. Clawfinger is known for aggressive but melodic music and tackling political and anti-racist themes in their songs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974043}
{"src_title": "Dodgeball", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Equipment.", "content": "There are many different ball types used around the world, including 8.5-inch rubber, \"no-sting\" rubber, foam and cloth. USA Dodgeball uses all ball types across multiple tournaments held by them and their member organizations. The World Dodgeball Federation uses primarily foam for their World Championships with plans to include cloth in the coming years, as those are the two balls used most widely across the world.  The WDBF specifies the use of 6 balls with six players per side for their World Championships. Various rule sets governing number of balls and players are used around the world depending on the court size, level of play, and the organization's discretion.  The WDA specifies the use of five balls; certain national rule sets, such as in Austria, specify six. Amateur games typically use from three to ten balls, the number tailored to the size of the court and the number of players. More balls generally adds to the amount of action in a game, but can result in stalemate with many blocks. If there are too few balls, the element of stealth is removed, as players can see all the balls that might hit them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Court.", "content": "Dodgeball can be played on any surface that has clearly marked boundaries and a center line, such as a basketball or volleyball court or fenced area. Elite Dodgeball specifies a court by, where a zone wide at the junction of the areas is a neutral zone.  Games can also be played outdoors on a soccer pitch or football field. The WDBF organizes games on beaches and USA Dodgeball hosts tournaments at trampoline parks. WDBF specifies a court by with no neutral zone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Matchplay.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Length of game.", "content": "Informal matches of dodgeball are typically played until all players on one side are out. In WDBF guidelines, matches last a total of 40 minutes. These are split into two 20-minute halves, during which as many sets as possible are played. A set lasts until all players on one side are out. One point is awarded for every set won. Teams switch sides at halftime.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Starting the game.", "content": "In informal dodgeball, balls are initially distributed to players by one of the following methods:  In this latter option, players then rush toward the center line to grab one of the balls. This is called the opening rush. It is never legal to immediately throw such a ball at an opponent; a player grabbing a ball on the center line retreats or throws it back to a teammate.  In WDBF regulations, the ball must be returned behind an \"attack line\", roughly a third of the way from the back of court. Players may only run for the balls on the right side of the court.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "Following distribution, players aim to hit one another. A ball is considered \"live\" from the moment it leaves a player's hand up until it touches the floor, wall, or ceiling, when it becomes \"dead\". If a player is hit by an opponent's live ball, they are \"out\"; if the ball is dead, there is no hit. If a player catches a live ball, the opponent who threw the ball is out and a player on the catcher's team is \"revived\" from the outbox; however, if they fail to secure the catch, leading to them dropping the ball, the failed catcher is out.  In WDBF regulations, players may \"block\" a throw with another ball. In this situation, the thrown ball remains live, as it has not hit the floor or a wall, and so can be caught or can still hit a player out. If the blocker drops the ball used to block, they have failed to keep their ball secure and are out.  Dead balls that leave the court can only be returned to players by each team's designated ball retrievers. Stepping outside the court, including stepping on a boundary line or entering the opponents' zone, is a violation. Other violations include kicking a ball, displaying bad sportsmanship, and stalling (having a ball for over ten seconds and doing nothing with it). The penalty is that the violator is out.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Optional rules.", "content": "Optional rules may be in effect in informal games of dodgeball or in open matches by agreement:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tactics.", "content": "The following basic tactics are useful:  Many local teams and international teams develop their own tactics and calling systems specific to their style of play. These become more complex in higher leagues, which often requires specific training for the players in calling positions such that they can make rapid, tactical decisions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dodgeball is a team sport in which players on two teams try to throw balls and hit opponents, while avoiding being hit themselves. The objective of each team is to eliminate all members of the opposing team by hitting them with thrown balls, catching a ball thrown by an opponent, or inducing an opponent to commit a violation, such as stepping outside the court.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974044}
{"src_title": "Yakovlev Yak-11", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Yakovlev design bureau began work on an advanced trainer based on the successful Yak-3 fighter in mid-1944, although the trainer was of low priority owing to the ongoing Second World War. The first prototype of the new trainer, designated Yak-UTI or Yak-3UTI flew in late 1945. It was based on the radial-powered Yak-3U, but with the new Shvetsov ASh-21 seven-cylinder radial replacing the ASh-82 of the Yak-3U. It used the same all-metal wings as the Yak-3U, with a fuselage of mixed metal and wood construction. The pilot and observer sat in tandem under a long canopy with separate sliding hoods. A single synchronised UBS 12.7 mm machine gun and wing racks for two 100 kg (220 lb) bombs comprised the aircraft's armament. An improved prototype flew in 1946, with revised cockpits and a modified engine installation with the engine mounted on shock absorbing mounts. This aircraft successfully passed state testing in October 1946, with production beginning at factories in Saratov and Leningrad in 1947.  Production Yak-11s were heavier than the prototypes, with later batches fitted with non-retractable tailwheels and revised propellers. A 7.62 mm ShKAS machine gun was sometimes fitted instead of the UBS, while some were fitted with rear-view periscopes above the windscreen. In total, Soviet production amounted to 3,859 aircraft between 1947 and 1955. with a further 707 licence-built by Let in Czechoslovakia as the C-11.  The Yak-11 set five world-class records.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Yak-11U.", "content": "In 1951, Yakovlev revised the design of the Yak-11, adding a retractable tricycle landing gear, with two variants proposed, the Yak-11U basic trainer and Yak-11T proficiency trainer, which carried similar equipment to contemporary jet fighters. The new aircraft had reduced fuel capacity and was unsuitable for operations on rough or snow-covered runways, and so was rejected for Soviet service, although a few examples were built in Czechoslovakia as the C-11U.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Yak-11 entered service in 1947, serving as a standard advanced trainer with the Soviet Air Forces and DOSAAF. Both the Yak-11 and C-11 were used in all Warsaw Pact countries and were exported to eighteen countries, including many African, Middle Eastern and Asian countries.  North Korean Yak-11s were used in combat in the Korean War, with one Yak-11 being the first North Korean aircraft shot down by US forces when it was shot down by a North American F-82 Twin Mustang over Kimpo Airfield on 27 June 1950. East Germany used the Yak-11 to intercept American reconnaissance balloons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Survivors.", "content": "Due to its Yak-3 lineage, the Yak-11 has recently seen widespread popularity among warbird enthusiasts. Highly modified versions of the Yak-11 can be frequently seen at air races. About 120 Yak-11s remain in airworthy condition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Mixed construction (metal and wood) trainer aircraft. Seven-cylinder radial engine with two-blade fixed propeller. Conventional retractable landing gear with fixed tailwheel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Yakovlev Yak-11 (; NATO reporting name: \"Moose\") is a trainer aircraft used by the Soviet Air Force and other Soviet-influenced air forces from 1947 until 1962.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974045}
{"src_title": "Dornier Do 215", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Do 17 fast bomber elicited renewed interest from foreign air forces (after the initial Do 17K series production). In July 1937, Dornier therefore prepared a pre-series Do 17 Z-0 as a demonstrator for export customers. It was given the civil registration D-AAIV. While this aircraft was essentially identical to the production Do 17Z, the assigned the designation Do 215 to the export version. However, in spite of the Do 215 being designated as an export version, many Do 215s were used by the Luftwaffe.  The first prototype, Do 215 V1, retained the nine-cylinder Bramo 323 \"Fafnir\" radial engine of the Do 17Z. It crashed during testing. The second prototype, Do 215 V2, was equipped with the Gnome-Rhône 14-NO radial engine. It safely completed testing, but did not attract export orders because it did not offer a notable performance increase over the Do 17Z. The third prototype, Do 215 V3, used a 1,175 PS (1,159 hp) Daimler-Benz DB 601 Ba inline engine. In 1937, Dornier had used the earlier Daimler-Benz DB 600 powerplants in the Do 17L and Do 17M subtypes. The Do 215 V3, which first flew in the spring of 1939, demonstrated a noticeable improvement in flight performance compared to the earlier prototypes.  Series production of the Do 215 A-1 began in 1939. The order, intended for the Swedish Air Force, was stopped in August 1939, due to the political situation. The 18 extant aircraft were embargoed and pressed into \"Luftwaffe\" service upon the outbreak of World War II.  Some modifications were made and the resulting aircraft were redesignated as Do 215 B-0 through Do 215 B-5. This was the standard production version. According to official figures, 105 Do 215s were produced between 1939 and 1941 by Dornier in its factory at Oberpfaffenhofen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The \"Luftwaffe\" initially operated the Do 215 as a bomber and reconnaissance aircraft. Aircraft equipped with Rb 20/30 and Rb 50/30 cameras were used for long-range reconnaissance missions, primarily at the Ob.d.L (). Later aircraft operated as night fighters. The last of the Do 215s were retired in late 1944.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "Of the versions of the Do 215 that existed, the A-1 bomber with DB 601 engines, and the B-0 and B-1 export machines were both re-equipped with FuG 10 navigation devices for the \"Luftwaffe\". The Do 215 B-5 was the first night fighter to be equipped with the FuG 202 Lichtenstein B/C navigation device. These aircraft saw action from January 1941 to May 1944 with I. and IV./NJG 1 and II./NJG 2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "Until recently, none of the Dornier twin-engined bomber variants were thought to have survived. In September 2007, a Dornier Do 215 B was found largely intact in the shallow waters of the Waddenzee, the Netherlands. This aircraft was flown by a Luftwaffe fighter ace Helmut Woltersdorf. On the night of 6/7 July 1941, Woltersdorf shot down a Vickers Wellington, but his Dornier was damaged by return fire and crash-landed off the Dutch Coast. The area where the Dornier came down was named as a seal sanctuary and thus it escaped the attentions of scrap merchants and souvenir hunters. At low tide the aircraft becomes visible.  The Aircraft Recovery Group from the Airwar Museum at Fort Veldhuis in Heemskerk received permission to partially recover the Do 215. The only missing part of the aircraft is the tail section which lies to the rear of the main wreckage. The Daimler-Benz DB 601 engines were recovered along with the starboard portion of the cockpit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dornier Do 215 was a light bomber, aerial reconnaissance aircraft and later a night fighter, produced by Dornier originally for export, but in the event most served in the \"Luftwaffe\". Like its predecessor, the Dornier Do 17, it inherited the title \"The Flying Pencil\" because of its slim fuselage. The successor of the Do 215 was the Do 217.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974046}
{"src_title": "Martín Demichelis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "River Plate.", "content": "Born in Justiniano Posse, Córdoba, Demichelis started playing professionally in 2001, with Buenos Aires-based Club Atlético River Plate, having arrived at the club's youth system three years earlier.  He made his first-team – and first division – debut on 2 September 2001 in a game against Estudiantes de La Plata, scoring his only goal for the team against Rosario Central.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bayern Munich.", "content": "Demichelis signed for FC Bayern Munich in the 2003 summer, for €4.5 million. His first season in the Bundesliga was not very positive as he suffered a number of minor injuries, appearing in only 14 league games (21 in total) as the Bavarians finished in second position; in early 2004 he appeared in his only game with the reserves, against Stuttgarter Kickers.  Under new coach Felix Magath, Demichelis became a regular starter for Bayern, appearing in 75 official matches in two seasons combined as the team won back-to-back doubles, achieving a total of four during his spell.  New Bayern boss Ottmar Hitzfeld successfully reconverted Demichelis from a defensive midfielder into a central defender. In 2008–09 he netted a career-best four goals in 29 games, but the title was lost to VfL Wolfsburg. However, the player often clashed with the new manager Louis van Gaal, starting immediately after the first matchday after being dropped from the starting XI for the 2010–11 opener against Wolfsburg, with Demichelis requesting that van Gaal omit him from the squad altogether, which the coach did; the player thereafter voiced to the press that it would be probable that he and the club went separate ways.  On 29 October 2010, benefitting from a run of injuries in the squad, Demichelis made one of his last appearances for Bayern, heading a goal in a 4–2 home win against SC Freiburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Málaga / Atlético Madrid.", "content": "In late December 2010, Demichelis agreed to a deal with Spanish club Málaga CF, initially until the end of the 2010–11 season, with the latter retaining the option to extend the contract for a further two seasons. He rejoined former River Plate manager Manuel Pellegrini, and made his La Liga debut on 8 January 2011, scoring in a 1–1 home draw against Athletic Bilbao.  During his first four months with Málaga, Demichelis was sent off twice, but also started in all the matches he was available, being essential – as another January 2011 signee, Júlio Baptista – as the club eventually avoided relegation. On 22 August 2012 he scored the club's first-ever UEFA Champions League goal, netting the opener in the 2–0 playoff home win against Panathinaikos FC (also the aggregate score).  On 11 July 2013, Demichelis signed for Atlético Madrid on a one-year contract, after his link with Málaga expired. In December he started legal action against the latter over \"non-payments\", relating to \"€400,000 of unpaid wages as well as bonuses\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manchester City.", "content": "On 1 September 2013, Demichelis joined former Málaga boss Pellegrini and signed with Manchester City, penning a two-year contract for a reported £4.2 million. He had been with Atlético for less than two months, and had yet to make an appearance.  Demichelis made his first appearance for his new club on 27 October 2013, starting in a 1–2 Premier League loss at Chelsea after recovering from a knee injury. On 18 February of the following year, he was sent off against FC Barcelona in the club's Champions League round-of-16 0–2 home defeat, after fouling Lionel Messi and giving away a penalty.  Despite Demichelis's rocky start at City, Pellegrini kept faith in him. On 15 March 2014, after club captain Vincent Kompany was sent off, he was instrumental in a 2–0 victory over Hull City. The following weekend he scored his first goal, contributing to a 5–0 home win over Fulham; his good run of form in the last two months of the season helped his team win the league title, and also helped him rejoin the national side.  On 12 March 2015, Demichelis renewed his expiring contract until June of the following year. A year later, he was charged by The Football Association for 12 breaches of their rules against gambling on matches, and accepted the charge; he was fined £22,058 for the breach.  On 10 June 2016, Demichelis was released.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Espanyol.", "content": "On 10 August 2016, at nearly 36, Demichelis signed a one-year contract with Spanish club RCD Espanyol. On 10 January 2017, however, after only two appearances, he was released.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Málaga return.", "content": "Demichelis returned to the La Rosaleda Stadium on 17 January 2017, agreeing to a five-month deal. On 15 May, he announced his retirement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Demichelis made his debut for Argentina in 2005. Also in that year he was selected by national team manager José Pekerman for the FIFA Confederations Cup, but did not leave the bench during the tournament.  On 11 September 2007, Demichelis scored his first international goal, in a friendly match against Australia, his header being the game's only goal. On 3 March 2010 he suffered a facial injury during an exhibition game with Germany, being sidelined for three weeks, but was nonetheless summoned for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.  Under Diego Maradona, Demichelis played in all of Argentina's games at the World Cup in South Africa, partnering Nicolás Burdisso in central defense in an eventual quarter-final exit. On 22 June 2010, he scored the first goal in the 2–0 group stage win against Greece.  Demichelis lost his place in the national side in November 2011, after a World Cup qualifier against Bolivia. A two-and-a-half-year absence followed, until he was included in Alejandro Sabella's provisional 30-man squad for the 2014 World Cup. He ending up making the final list. On the bench for the team's first four games, Demichelis made his debut in the tournament in the 1–0 quarter-final win over Belgium in which he played the full 90 minutes, taking the place of Federico Fernandez. He went on to start in the semi-finals where his team eliminated the Netherlands in a penalty shootout after a 0-0 draw, and again in the final against Germany and picked up the runners-up medal as Argentina lost 1–0 after extra time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Demichelis also holds an Italian passport. He married model Evangelina Anderson in July 2015 in Buenos Aires, after the couple's child, Martín Bastian, had been born in Munich on 3 May 2009. On 19 February 2019, a group of burglars broke into his house. Demichelis reportedly found four hooded men in his Spanish property and protected his family by scaring them off. Some valuable items including cash and jewellery were stolen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "River Plate  Bayern Munich  Manchester City", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Argentina", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Martín Gastón Demichelis (; born 20 December 1980) is an Argentine retired professional footballer who played usually as a central defender, although he could also operate as a defensive midfielder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974047}
{"src_title": "Ethylenediamine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synthesis.", "content": "Ethylenediamine is produced industrially by treating 1,2-dichloroethane with ammonia under pressure at 180 °C in an aqueous medium:  In this reaction hydrogen chloride is generated, which forms a salt with the amine. The amine is liberated by addition of sodium hydroxide and can then be recovered by. Diethylenetriamine (DETA) and triethylenetetramine (TETA) are formed as by-products.  Another industrial route to ethylenediamine involves the reaction of ethanolamine and ammonia: This process involves passing the gaseous reactants over a bed of nickel heterogeneous catalysts.  Ethylenediamine can be purified by treatment with sodium hydroxide to remove water followed by distillation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Ethylenediamine is used in large quantities for production of many industrial chemicals. It forms derivatives with carboxylic acids (including fatty acids), nitriles, alcohols (at elevated temperatures), alkylating agents, carbon disulfide, and aldehydes and ketones. Because of its bifunctional nature, having two amines, it readily forms heterocycles such as imidazolidines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Precursor to chelation agents, drugs, and agrochemicals.", "content": "A most prominent derivative of ethylenediamine is the chelating agent EDTA, which is derived from ethylenediamine via a Strecker synthesis involving cyanide and formaldehyde. Hydroxyethylethylenediamine is another commercially significant chelating agent. Numerous bio-active compounds and drugs contain the N-CH-CH-N linkage, including some antihistamines. Salts of ethylenebisdithiocarbamate are commercially significant fungicides under the brand names Maneb, Mancozeb, Zineb, and Metiram. Some imidazoline-containing fungicides are derived from ethylenediamine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pharmaceutical ingredient.", "content": "Ethylenediamine is an ingredient in the common bronchodilator drug aminophylline, where it serves to solubilize the active ingredient theophylline. Ethylenediamine has also been used in dermatologic preparations, but has been removed from some because of causing contact dermatitis. When used as a pharmaceutical excipient, after oral administration its bioavailability is about 0.34, due to a substantial first-pass effect. Less than 20% is eliminated by urinal excretion.  Ethylenediamine-derived antihistamines are the oldest of the five classes of first-generation antihistamines, beginning with piperoxan aka benodain, discovered in 1933 at the Pasteur Institute in France, and also including mepyramine, tripelennamine, and antazoline. The other classes are derivatives of ethanolamine, alkylamine, piperazine, and others (primarily tricyclic and tetracyclic compounds related to phenothiazines, tricyclic antidepressants, as well as the cyproheptadine-phenindamine family)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Role in polymers.", "content": "Ethylenediamine, because it contains two amine groups, is a widely used precursor to various polymers. Condensates derived from formaldehyde are plasticizers. It is widely used in the production of polyurethane fibers. The PAMAM class of dendrimers are derived from ethylenediamine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tetraacetylethylenediamine.", "content": "The bleaching activator tetraacetylethylenediamine is generated from ethylenediamine. The derivative \"N\",\"N\"-ethylenebis(stearamide) (EBS) is a commercially significant mold-release agent and a surfactant in gasoline and motor oil.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coordination chemistry.", "content": "Ethylenediamine is a well-known bidentate chelating ligand for coordination compounds, with the two nitrogen atoms donating their lone pairs of electrons when ethylenediamine acts as a ligand. It is often abbreviated \"en\" in inorganic chemistry. The complex [Co(ethylenediamine)] is an archetypical chiral tris-chelate complex. The salen ligands, some of which are used in catalysis, are derived from the condensation of salicylaldehydes and ethylenediamine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related ligands.", "content": "Related derivatives of ethylenediamine include ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA), and tetraethylethylenediamine (TEEDA). Chiral analogs of ethylenediamine include 1,2-diaminopropane and \"trans\"-diaminocyclohexane.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Ethylenediamine, like ammonia and other low-molecular weight amines, is a skin and respiratory irritant. Unless tightly contained, liquid ethylenediamine will release toxic and irritating vapors into its surroundings, especially on heating. The vapors react with moisture in humid air to form a characteristic white mist, which is extremely irritating to skin, eyes, lungs and mucus membranes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ethylenediamine (abbreviated as en when a ligand) is the organic compound with the formula CH(NH). This colorless liquid with an ammonia-like odor is a strongly basic amine. It is a widely used building block in chemical synthesis, with approximately 500,000 tonnes produced in 1998. Ethylenediamine readily reacts with moisture in humid air to produce a corrosive, toxic and irritating mist, to which even short exposures can cause serious damage to health (see safety). Ethylenediamine is the first member of the so-called polyethylene amines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974048}
{"src_title": "Anny Ondra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Ondra was born in Tarnów to Czech parents, Bohumír Ondrák, an officer in the Austro-Hungarian Army, and Anna Ondráková (\"née\" Mracek). She had two brothers, Tomáš and Jindřich. She spent her childhood in Tarnów, Pula and Prague. At seventeen she acted in the theatre and in her first film, which was directed by her then boyfriend, director and actor Karel Lamač. When her family learned of it, they had a shouting match in which the teenager received a beating from her father - to be an actress, soon after the First World War, was socially almost at the level of a being a beggar. Anna had been educated at a convent school and her father had found an official government position for her. Anna preferred a film career and began to live with Karel Lamač. \"I swim like a fish, ride like a cowboy, and I would do it all if the film required it,\" summarised the nineteen-year-old. After some years she wanted to start a family, but Lamač did not want to marry. So, after a three-year romance, on 6 July 1933 in Bad Saarow, Ondra married German boxer Max Schmeling. Schmeling had acquired the summer house in Bad Saarow belonging to the expressionist painter Bruno Krauskopf, who had fled exile from the Nazis, in 1933. Ondra and Schmeling appeared together in the film \"Knock-out\" (1935). Throughout their marriage, German fascists tried to exploit the fame and popularity of Ondra and Schmeling. They were often seen in photos with Joseph Goebbels and Adolf Hitler - Schmeling portrayed as a German superman (he was heavyweight champion of the world between 1930 and 1932) and Ondra as a blonde Aryan, despite her Slavic origins. However, they never collaborated: Schmeling refused to accept honours and even secretly helped to hide two Jewish children, saving their lives; in Nazi Germany this was a capital offence. After the war, they were penalised financially for collaboration, and an arrest warrant was issued in Czechoslovakia. Nazi propaganda was taken literally and Schmeling never visited Ondra's homeland.  After the war, they were left without funds and assets. In 1949 they moved to Hollenstedt near Hamburg, and in the 1950s Schmeling began working for The Coca-Cola Company.  Their marriage was a happy one, although childless: Ondra miscarried after a car accident in 1936, and it was to be her only pregnancy. Later, Ondra sponsored the granddaughter of her friend Hermann Gronen, born in 1942, who was married to Rosa Gronen (née Schmeling) in his first marriage. Max Schmeling gave the granddaughter Rosa Maria Gronen (today Winters) a pair of boxing gloves at her christening.  Ondra and Schmeling were married until her death in 1987. Lamač remained her friend throughout his lifetime. He died in her arms in 1952 in Hamburg.  Ondra was buried in the Saint Andreas Friedhof cemetery in Hollenstedt, West Germany. Schmeling died in 2005 and was buried next to her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film career.", "content": "Her breakthrough was in the 1920 film \"Gilly in Prague for the First Time\", and she acted in Czech and Austrian comedies in the 1920s. With the films \"Eve's Daughters\" (1928) and \"Sinful and Sweet\" (1929) she conquered the German market.  She also appeared in some British dramas, most notably Alfred Hitchcock's \"The Manxman\" and \"Blackmail\" (both 1929); in the latter, her character is the first “Hitchcock blonde\". \"Blackmail\" was started as a silent film; in the course of production, however, it was decided to make it the first English sound film. A minute-long test film where Ondra speaks English has survived, in which Hitchcock chauvinistically asks the actress if she is a \"bad woman\" and if she slept with men, making her leave before the reel ends. Ondra's accent was considered unacceptable, but Hitchcock didn't want to do without her as an actress, so he had her part dubbed by British actress Joan Barry. Barry thus became the first voice actress and Anny Ondra the first foreign-language dubbed actress in film history, the dubbing taking place in an unusual way: Ondra moved her lips, Barry spoke the text outside the picture.  After returning to Germany, Ondra formed a production company, Ondra-Lamač-Films, with Karel Lamač, which lasted until 1936. Lamač directed her in several silent films, acted with her in films directed by other filmmakers, and continued to work together after her marriage to Max Schmeling. She played her first self-spoken sound film role alongside Sig Arno in \"Fairground People\" (1930).  Ondra made some forty more films in the sound era, the last in 1957, and in total over 90 films.  Ondra was portrayed by Britt Ekland in the television movie \"Ring of Passion\" (1978), wherein the character was named \"Amy Ondra Schmeling\". She was also portrayed by Peta Wilson in the historical boxing docudrama \"Joe and Max\" (2002).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anny Ondra (born Anna Sophie Ondráková, 15 May 1903 – 28 February 1987) was a Czech film actress. She began her career in 1920 and appeared in Czech, German, Austrian, French and English films. In 1933, she married German boxing champion Max Schmeling.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974049}
{"src_title": "Marco d'Aviano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Carlo Domenico Cristofori was born in Aviano, a small community in the Republic of Venice (Italy). Educated at the Jesuit College in Gorizia, at 16 he tried to reach the island of Crete, where the Venetians were at war with the Ottoman Turks, in order to preach the Gospel and convert the Muslims to Christianity. On his way, he sought asylum at a Capuchin convent in Capodistria, where he was welcomed by the Superior, who knew his family, and who, after providing him with food and rest, advised him to return home.  Inspired by his encounter with the Capuchins, he felt that God was calling on him to enter their Order. In 1648, he began his novitiate. A year later, he professed his vows and took his father's name, Marco, becoming Fra' Marco d'Aviano. On 18 September 1655 he was ordained a priest in Chioggia. His ministry entered a new phase in 1664, when he received a licence to preach throughout the Republic of Venice and other Italian states, particularly during Advent and Lent. He was also given more responsibility when he was elected Superior of the convents of Belluno in 1672, and Oderzo in 1674.  His life took an unexpected turn in 1676, when he gave his blessing to a nun, bedridden for some 13 years: she was miraculously healed. The news spread far and wide, and it was not long before the sick, and many others from all social strata, began to seek him out.  Among those who sought his help was Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, whose wife had been unable to conceive a male heir. From 1680 to the end of his life, Marco d'Aviano became a close confidant and adviser to him, providing the irresolute and often indecisive emperor with guidance and advice for all problems, political, economic, military or spiritual. His forceful, energetic and sometimes passionate and fiery personality proved a good complement for Leopold's Hamlet-like tendency to allow endless doubts and scruples to paralyse his capacity for action. As the danger of war with the Ottoman Turks grew near, Marco d'Aviano was appointed by Pope Innocent XI as his personal envoy to the Emperor. An impassioned preacher and a skillful mediator, Marco d'Aviano played a crucial role in resolving disputes, restoring unity, and energizing the armies of the Holy League, which included Austria, Poland, Venice, and the Papal States under the leadership of the Polish king Jan III Sobieski. In the decisive Battle of Vienna (1683), the Holy League succeeded in inflicting a defeat on the invading Ottoman Turks. This marked the end of the last Turkish attempt to expand their power in Europe, and the beginning of the long European counter-offensive that was to continue ultimately until the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire in 1918. This may therefore be considered one of the decisive battles of history. It also put an end to the period of Ottoman revival under the Koprulu Grand Vizirs and their protégé and successor, Kara Mustapha, who was in command of the Ottoman army at Vienna.  From 1683 to 1689 Marco participated in the military campaigns, playing a crucial role in promoting good relations within the Imperial army and encouraging the soldiers. He was present at the liberation of Buda in 1686 and at the siege of Belgrade in 1688. He always maintained a strictly religious spirit, to which any violence and cruelty were repugnant. As a result, at the siege of Belgrade several hundred Muslim soldiers successfully appealed to him personally, in order to avoid being massacred upon capture.  In the judgement of historians, Marco's influence over Leopold was exercised responsibly, in the sole interests of Christianity and of the House of Austria. In one of his private letters to the Emperor, Marco actually scolds him quite forcefully for granting a benefit to one of his brothers, reminding him that, by so doing, he was only providing ammunition for the enemies of their cause.  Marco d' Aviano died of cancer on August 13, 1699 in Vienna. He is buried in the Kapuzinerkirche, in whose vault the Habsburg emperors are buried.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honorary protection.", "content": "Notable people who are baptised under protection of Marcus are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "In the 2012 Polish and Italian historical drama film \"\" about the Battle of Vienna, Marco d'Aviano is portrayed by F. Murray Abraham [IMDb].", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trivia.", "content": "A popular myth concerning d'Aviano says that he invented the Cappuccino after the Battle of Vienna. No mention of this occurs in any of d'Aviano's biographies or in any contemporary historical sources. Indeed, the story does not appear until the late 1980s, which indicates that it was possibly made up as a joke.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marco d'Aviano, born Carlo Domenico Cristofori (November 17, 1631 – August 13, 1699) was an Italian Capuchin friar. In 2003, he was beatified by Pope John Paul II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974050}
{"src_title": "County of Edessa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Founding.", "content": "In 1098, Baldwin of Boulogne left the main Crusading army, which was travelling south towards Antioch and Jerusalem. He went first south into Cilicia, then east to Edessa, where he convinced its lord, Thoros, to adopt him as son and heir. He also married Thoros' daughter, Arda of Armenia, who eventually became the first queen of Jerusalem. Thoros was a Christian of Armenian origin but of Greek Orthodox religion and largely disliked by his Armenian Orthodox subjects, which led to his removal from power in March 1098. Different sources claim he was assassinated or abdicated, but it is unknown if Baldwin had any part in this. Nonetheless, Baldwin succeeded Thoros as ruler, taking the title of count (having been Count of Verdun as a vassal of his brother in Europe).  In 1100, Baldwin became King of Jerusalem when his brother, Godfrey of Bouillon, died. The County of Edessa passed to his cousin Baldwin of Bourcq. He was joined by Joscelin of Courtenay, who became lord of the fortress of Turbessel on the Euphrates, an important outpost against the Seljuk Turks.  The Frankish lords formed a good rapport with their Armenian subjects, and there were frequent intermarriages; the first three counts all married Armenians. Count Baldwin's wife had died in Maraş in 1097, and after he succeeded to Edessa he married Arda, a granddaughter of the Armenian Roupenid Prince Constantine. Baldwin of Bourcq married Morphia, a daughter of Gabriel of Melitene, and Joscelin of Courtenay married a daughter of Constantine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conflicts with Muslim neighbours.", "content": "Baldwin II quickly became involved in the affairs of northern Syria and Asia Minor. He helped secure the ransom of Bohemond I of Antioch from the Danishmends in 1103, and, with Antioch, attacked the Byzantine Empire in Cilicia in 1104. Later in 1104, Edessa was attacked by Mosul, and both Baldwin and Joscelin were taken prisoner after their defeat at the Battle of Harran. Bohemond's cousin Tancred became regent in Edessa (although Richard of Salerno actually governed the territory), until Baldwin and Joscelin were ransomed in 1108. Baldwin had to fight to regain control of the city; Tancred was eventually defeated, though Baldwin had to ally with some of the local Muslim rulers.  In 1110, all lands east of the Euphrates were lost to Mawdud of Mosul. This was not followed by an assault on Edessa itself as the Muslim rulers were more concerned with consolidating their own power.  Baldwin II became King of Jerusalem (also as Baldwin II) when Baldwin I died in 1118. Although Eustace of Boulogne had a better claim as the late Baldwin's brother, he was in France and did not want the title. Edessa was given to Joscelin in 1119. Joscelin was taken prisoner once again in 1122; when Baldwin came to rescue him, he too was captured, and Jerusalem was left without its king. Joscelin escaped in 1123, and obtained Baldwin's release the next year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fall of the county.", "content": "Joscelin was gravely injured during a siege in 1131 and was succeeded by his son Joscelin II. By this time, Zengi had united Aleppo and Mosul and began to threaten Edessa. Meanwhile, Joscelin II paid little attention to the security of his county, and argued with the counts of Tripoli who then refused to come to his aid. Zengi besieged the city in 1144, capturing it on December 24 of that year. Joscelin continued to rule his lands west of the Euphrates, and he also managed to take advantage of the death of Zengi in September 1146 to regain and briefly hold his old capital. The city was again lost in November, and Joscelin barely escaped. In 1150 he was captured by Zengi's son Nur ad-Din, and was kept a prisoner in Aleppo until he died in 1159. His wife sold Turbessel and what was left of the County to the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenus, but these lands were conquered by Nur ad-Din and the Sultan of Rum within a year. Edessa was the first Crusader state to be created, and also the first to be lost.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Population and demographics.", "content": "Edessa was one of the largest of the Crusader states in terms of territory but had one of the smallest populations. Edessa itself had about 10,000 inhabitants. The rest of the county consisted mostly of fortresses. The county's territory extended from Antioch in the west to across the Euphrates in the east at its greatest extent. It also often occupied land as far north as Armenia proper. To the south and east were the powerful Muslim cities of Aleppo and Mosul, and the Jazira (northern Iraq). The inhabitants were mostly Syriac Orthodox and Armenian Orthodox Christians, with some Greek Orthodox Christians and Arab Muslims. Although the numbers of Latins always remained small, there was a Roman Catholic Patriarch. The fall of the city was the catalyst for the Second Crusade in 1146.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lordship of Turbessel.", "content": "Turbessel was firstly the lordship of Joscelin I when he was not yet the Count of Edessa. It controlled the area west of the Euphrates, and held the border against Antioch. It then was a special holding of Courtenay counts of Edessa, and again became their seat after the loss of the city of Edessa. It was sold with the remaining parts of the County to the Byzantines just before it was conquered by Muslims. After the sale, the wife and family of Joscelin II moved with the proceeds to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, near Acre.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The County of Edessa (Latin: \"Comitatus Edessanus\") was one of the Crusader states in the 12th century. Its seat was the city of Edessa (present-day Şanlıurfa, Turkey).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974051}
{"src_title": "Turkish Angora", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Like all domestic cats, Turkish Angoras descended from the African wildcat (\"Felis silvestris lybica\"). Their ancestors were among the cats that were first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. Cats from eastern mountainous regions of Anatolia developed into longhaired breeds like the Turkish Van and the Turkish Angora through inbreeding and natural selection.  Longhaired cats were imported to Britain and France from Asia Minor, Persia and Russia as early as the late 16th century, though there are indications that they appeared in Europe as early as the 14th century due to the Crusades. The Turkish Angora was used to improve the coat on the Persian, almost to the point of extinction. The Turkish Angora was recognized as a distinct breed in Europe by the 17th century. However, there is a strong connection between Angoras and Persians. Charles Catton, in his 1788 book \"Animals Drawn from Nature and Engraved in Aqua-tinta\", gave \"Persian cat\" and \"Angora cat\" as alternative names for the same breed.  The Persian cat was developed from Turkish angora mutations by British and American cat fanciers. Although some cat associations think the Persian cat is a natural breed, in the 19th century Persians and Angoras were identical. In 1903, F. Simpson wrote in her book \"The Book of the Cat\": \"In classing all long-haired cats as Persians I may be wrong, but the distinctions, apparently with hardly any difference, between Angoras and Persians are of so fine a nature that I must be pardoned if I ignore the class of cat commonly called Angora, which seems gradually to have disappeared from our midst. Certainly, at our large shows there is no special classification given for Angoras, and in response to many inquiries from animal fanciers I have never been able to obtain any definite information as to the difference between a Persian and an Angora cat.\"  The Angora of the 20th century was used for improvement in the Persian coat, but the type has always been divergent from the Persian – particularly as the increasingly flat-faced show cat Persian has been developed in the last few decades.  In the early 20th century, Ankara Zoo began a breeding program to protect and preserve pure white Angora cats. The zoo particularly prized odd-eyed specimens (i.e., with one blue and one amber eye); however the cats were chosen only by their color (white)—no other criterion was used. Despite the lack of selective breeding and no consideration given for the deafness problem, Ankara Zoo cats have a very similar type.  The Turkish Angora, which was brought to Canada in 1963, was accepted as a championship pedigreed breed in 1973 by the Cat Fanciers' Association. However, until 1978 only white Angoras were recognized. Today, all North American registries accept the Turkish Angora in many colors and patterns. While numbers are still relatively small, the gene pool and base of fanciers are growing.  Breeders in Turkey feel that the cat fancy’s fine-boned version of their national breed is unrepresentative of the true Turkish cats, which are much sturdier. American “Turkish” Angoras may have only a minimal remnant of the original Ankara Zoo DNA and are only “purebred on paper\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "Turkish Angora cats have long, silky coats and elegant, sinuous bodies. A younger Turkish Angora can often be mistaken for a snow weasel. Though it is known for a shimmery white coat and posh tail, Turkish Angora cats can display a variety of colors. They come in tabby and tabby-white, along with black with an undercoat of chocolate brown, and lastly smoke varieties, and are in every color other than those that indicate crossbreeding, such as pointed, chocolate and lavender.  Eyes may be blue, green, amber, yellow, or heterochromatic (e.g., one blue and one amber or green). Ears are pointed, large and wide-set. The eyes are almond shaped and the profile forms two straight planes. The plumed tail is often carried upright, perpendicular to the back.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "Turkish Angora cats are playful, intelligent, athletic and involved. They bond with humans, but often select a particular member of the family to be their constant companion. They are, in turn, very protective of their person. They seek to be \"helpful\" in any way they can with their humans, and their intelligence is at times remarkable, showing basic problem solving skills. They are easily trained, including deaf Turkish Angoras, both because of their intelligence and their desire to interact with humans.  Turkish angoras are energetic, and often seek out \"high ground\" (or perch) in the home. This perch is then used as a way to observe activity of the home. This could include tops of doors, refrigerators, bookshelves, and other furniture. Some ride on their owners' shoulders. Their personality makes the breed desirable to certain people. They get along well in homes with other animals, children, and high activity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "The W gene responsible for the white coat and blue eye is closely related to the hearing ability, in this and other breeds, and presence of a blue eye can indicate the cat is deaf to the side the blue eye is located, with some being totally deaf if bearing two blue eyes. However, a great many blue and odd-eyed white cats have normal hearing, and even deaf cats lead a normal life if kept indoors.  Some Turkish Angora kittens suffer from hereditary ataxia, a rare condition thought to be inherited as an autosomal recessive. The kittens affected by ataxia have shaking movements, and do not survive to adulthood.  Another genetic illness that is rare but known to the breed is hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, which is a cardiac condition usually found between the ages of 2 - 6, with males being affected more commonly and more severely than females. In the Maine Coon, HCM is thought to be an autosomal dominant gene and researchers are working to identify markers for this disease. However, in the Turkish Angora, the disease has not yet been studied at length primarily due to its rarity of occurrence, and is likely to result from a different mutation of genes, with a different gene location than that of the Maine Coon cat. HCM also affects many other breeds, including Ragdolls, Persians and Bengals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "A genetic study of pedigree cat breeds (using DNA taken from pedigreed cats in US and Europe) and worldwide random-bred populations showed the Turkish Van as a distinct population from the Turkish Angora despite their geographical association. The Turkish Angora was grouped with the pedigreed Egyptian Mau and random-bred Tunisian cats. Turkish random-bred cats were grouped with Israeli random-bred cats while the Turkish Van was grouped with Egyptian random-bred cats. However, the UC Davis only studied American cat fancy registered Angoras rather than the “true” Turkish Angora or Ankara Kedisi directly from Turkey, and especially from the Ankara Zoo.  A genetic study published in 2012 included a few cats imported from Turkey. The study found that ′′Turkish- versus USA-originating Turkish Angoras (...) are resolved as separate breed populations The American Turkish Angoras are categorized as descendants of European random-bred cats, and cats imported from Turkey ′′were assigned to the Eastern Mediterranean′′ group.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Turkish Angora (, 'Ankara cat') is a breed of domestic cat. Turkish Angoras are one of the ancient, natural breeds of cat, having originated in central Turkey, in the Ankara region. The breed has been documented as early as the 17th century and is believed to be the origin of the mutations for both the color white and long hair. The breed is also sometimes referred to as simply the Angora or Ankara cat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974052}
{"src_title": "Saint Monica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Monica is assumed to have been born in Thagaste (present-day Souk Ahras, Algeria). She is believed to have been a Berber on the basis of her name. She was married early in life to Patricius, a Roman pagan, who held an official position in Thagaste. Patricius had a violent temper and appears to have been of dissolute habits; apparently his mother was the same way. Monica's alms, deeds and prayer habits annoyed Patricius, but it is said that he always held her in respect.  Monica had three children who survived infancy, two sons Augustine and Navigius, and a daughter, 'Perpetua' of Hippo. Unable to secure baptism for them, she grieved heavily when Augustine fell ill. In her distress she asked Patricius to allow Augustine to be baptized; he agreed, then withdrew this consent when the boy recovered.  But Monica's joy and relief at Augustine's recovery turned to anxiety as he misspent his renewed life being wayward and, as he himself tells us, lazy. He was finally sent to school at Madauros. He was 17 and studying rhetoric in Carthage when Patricius died.  Augustine had become a Manichaean at Carthage; when upon his return home he shared his views regarding Manichaeism, Monica drove him away from her table. However, she is said to have experienced a vision that convinced her to reconcile with him.  At this time she visited a certain (unnamed) holy bishop who consoled her with the now-famous words, \"the child of those tears shall never perish.\" Monica followed her wayward son to Rome, where he had gone secretly; when she arrived he had already gone to Milan, but she followed him. Here she found Ambrose and through him, she ultimately had the joy of seeing Augustine convert to Christianity after 17 years of resistance.  In his book \"Confessions\", Augustine wrote of a peculiar practice of his mother in which she \"brought to certain oratories, erected in the memory of the saints, offerings of porridge, bread, water and wine.\" When she moved to Milan, the bishop Ambrose forbade her to use the offering of wine, since \"it might be an occasion of gluttony for those who were already given to drink\". So, Augustine wrote of her:  Monica and her son spent six months of true peace at \"Rus Cassiciacum\" (present-day Cassago Brianza) after which Augustine was baptized by Ambrose in the church of St. John the Baptist at Milan. Monica and Augustine left for Africa and they set out on their journey, stopping at Civitavecchia and at Ostia. Here Monica passed away, and Augustine's grief inspired his \"Confessions\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Saint Monica was buried at Ostia, and at first seems to have been almost forgotten, though her body was removed during the 6th century to a hidden crypt in the church of Santa Aurea in Ostia. Monica was buried near the tomb of St. Aurea of Ostia. Her tomb was later transferred to the Basilica of Sant'Agostino, Rome.  Anicius Auchenius Bassus wrote Monica's funerary epitaph, which survived in ancient manuscripts. The actual stone on which it was written was rediscovered in the summer of 1945 in the church of Santa Aurea. The fragment was discovered after two boys were digging a hole to plant a football post in the courtyard beside Santa Aurea.  A translation from the Latin, by Douglas Boin, reads:  During the 13th century, however, the cult of St. Monica began to spread and a feast in her honour was kept on 4 May. In 1430, Pope Martin V ordered the relics to be brought to Rome. Many miracles are said to have occurred on the way, and the cultus of St. Monica was definitely established. Later the archbishop of Rouen, Guillaume d'Estouteville, built a church at Rome in honour of St. Augustine, the Basilica di Sant'Agostino, and deposited the relics of St. Monica in a chapel to the left of the high altar. The Office of St. Monica, however, does not seem to have found a place in the Roman Breviary before the 19th century.  In 1934, in the Dutch city of Utrecht, the order of the 'Zusters Augustinessen van Sint-Monica' was founded, doing social work, offering a shelter for women with unwanted pregnancies or women who were the victims of domestic violence or abuse. The sisters also started a number of primary schools. In their heyday the order had six convents, in Amsterdam, Utrecht, Sittard, Maastricht, Hilversum and Arnouville on the outskirts of Paris. Since the Hilversum convent, City of God, was closed in 2014, only Utrecht remains as a rest home for the elderly among the sisters, and Casella, a woodland retreat near Hilversum, where young people are still welcome for a meditative sojourn.  The city of Santa Monica, California, is named after Monica. A legend states that in the 18th century Father Juan Crespí named a local dripping spring \"Las Lagrimas de Santa Monica\" (\"Saint Monica’s Tears\") (today known as the Serra Springs) that was reminiscent of the tears that Saint Monica shed over her son's early impiety. As recorded in his diary, however, Crespí actually named the place \"San Gregorio\". What is known for certain is that by the 1820s, the name Santa Monica was in use and its first official mention occurred in 1827 in the form of a grazing permit. There is a statue of this saint in Santa Monica's Palisades Park by sculptor Eugene Morahan; it was completed in 1934.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Patricia McGerr fictionalized her life in the 1964 novel, \"My Brothers, Remember Monica: A Novel of the Mother of Augustine\".  In the 2010 film \"\", Saint Monica is portrayed by Italian actress Monica Guerritore.  In the oratorio \"La conversione di Sant'Agostino\" (1750) composed by Johann Adolph Hasse (libretto by Duchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria), Saint Monica's role in the conversion of her son Saint Augustine is dramatized.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Monica (c.331/2−387) (AD 322–387) was an early Christian saint and the mother of St. Augustine of Hippo. She is remembered and honored in the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, albeit on different feast days, for her outstanding Christian virtues, particularly the suffering caused by her husband's adultery, and her prayerful life dedicated to the reformation of her son, who wrote extensively of her pious acts and life with her in his \"Confessions\". Popular Christian legends recall Saint Monica weeping every night for her son Augustine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974053}
{"src_title": "Trams in Dresden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The origins of the Dresden tramway network can be traced back to the year 1872, when the first horse-drawn line opened between the city centre and the former village of Blasewitz, now a borough of Dresden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lines.", "content": "The Dresden tramway network is a mixed system of traditional street running, especially in the inner city boroughs close to the city centre, and modern light rail. The network uses the unusual gauge of, which is just wider than.  In recent years, street running has been replaced by independent right-of-way arrangements wherever possible, and new extensions created in the same form. In November 2008, a extension of line 7 was opened from Gorbitz to Pennrich, in Dresden's south eastern suburbs. In May 2011, a extension of line 10 opened from Friedrichstrasse to the city's \"Messe\" or exhibition centre, involving construction of a long, wide and high bridge across the floodplain of the River Elbe. In July 2019, routes 9 and 13 were realigned along a section to provide better connections with regional trains at Dresden-Strehlen station.  Unlike many other German cities of comparable size, no stadtbahn style tunnel sections or high platform stops have been created. However many tram stops have been rebuilt so as to be fully accessible to physically disabled persons, and to allow level boarding to the low floor trams that now operate most services.  Different lines can be identified by a line number and a colour code. The current lines are: Future plans, as part of the \"Stadtbahnprogrammn 2020\", include of new tram line, with work starting in 2014. Some would be on reserved track, and the new lines would replace bus lines 61 and 62, some of the city's busiest, with an estimated cost of 223 million euros. The new lines comprise:  On all tram lines except line 4, a general 10-minute headway is offered on weekdays, extending to 15 minutes on Saturday, Sunday and in the evening. On the main routes through the inner city, where different lines intertwine, vehicles run up to every two minutes. Line 4, which extends a considerable distance beyond the city boundary to the towns of Radebeul, Coswig and Weinböhla, operates the standard 10 or 15 minute interval service as far as Radebeul West, and a 30-minute service beyond that to Coswig and Weinböhla.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fleet.", "content": ", Dresden's tram fleet was made up of 166 modern tramsets (with 31 older trams). Most of the trams operating in Dresden are articulated low floor cars, of two different basic designs, each of which has several variants.  The first generation of low floor cars was built by Deutsche Waggonbau (DWA) in Bautzen between 1995 and 2002; both 6 and 8 axle variants exist. The second generation of low floor cars have been built since 2003 by Bombardier Transportation, also in Bautzen, and are of that manufacturer's Flexity Classic design; both 8 and 12 axle variants exist. The articulated cars vary in length from long; all run as single car sets.  The fleet used to be composed of ČKD Tatra trams that provided service towards the end of the GDR era. At present some Tatra T4 cars built between 1968 and 1984 are still in service, but it is intended that they will all be replaced by 2010. The Tatra cars are all high floor, precluding level boarding from tram stops, and run in two car sets with a set length of some.  The DVB tram fleet operates out of three depots; at Gorbitz on routes 2,6 and 7 in south west Dresden, at Trachenberge on route 3 in the north-west, and Reick on routes 1, 9 and 13 in the south-east. Gorbitz is new facility opened in 1996 and includes a new central workshops. Trachenberge and Reick are older facilities that have both been heavily rebuilt to similar standards, whilst several other older depots have been closed. The former central workshops at Trachenberge, adjacent to the current depot, now house the Dresden Tram Museum, which has a collection including examples of many former Dresden trams.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CarGoTram.", "content": "The CarGoTram is a freight carrying tram that supplies Volkswagen's Transparent Factory, crossing the city. The two trams, up to long, are the longest vehicles allowed to use roads in Dresden. The connection by tram was established to reduce the number of trucks used. The factory is located to the east of the city centre, next to the Großer Garten, whilst the distribution depot that loads the parts is to the west of the city centre.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dresden tramway network () is a network of tramways forming the backbone of the public transport system in Dresden, a city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. Opened in 1872, it has been operated since 1993 by Dresdner Verkehrsbetriebe (DVB).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974054}
{"src_title": "Ecballium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Elaterium.", "content": "Elaterium is the plant extract used as a purgative. It is extracted from the juice of the fruit of \"Ecballium elaterium\". It was discovered by Dr J. D. M. Stirling in 1835.  To prepare the extract, the fruit is sliced lengthwise and slightly pressed, the greenish and slightly turbid juice obtained is strained and set aside, and the deposit of elaterium formed after a few hours is collected on a linen filter, rapidly drained, and dried on porous tiles at a gentle heat. Elaterium has been produced in light, thin, friable, flat or slightly incurved opaque cakes, of a greyish-green color, bitter taste and tea-like smell. The extract is soluble in ethanol, but insoluble in water and diethyl ether. The official dose used to be grain, and the \"British pharmacopeia\" at the beginning of the 20th century directs that the drug is to contain from 20 to 25% of the active principle elaterinum or elaterin. A resin in the natural product aids its action.  Elaterin is extracted from elaterium by chloroform and then precipitated by ether. It has the formula CHO. It forms colorless scales which have a bitter taste, but it is highly inadvisable to taste either this substance or elaterium. The \"British pharmacopeia\" contained a useful preparation, the \"Pulvis Elaterini Compositus\", which contains one part of the active principle in 40.  According to the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" Eleventh Edition, \"[t]he action of this extract resembles that of the saline aperients, but is much more powerful. It is the most active hydragogue purgative known, 'causing also much depression and violent griping'. When injected subcutaneously it is inert, as its action is entirely dependent upon its admixture with the bile. The drug is undoubtedly valuable in cases of dropsy and Bright's disease, and also in cases of cerebral haemorrhage, threatened or present. It must not be used except in urgent cases, and must invariably be employed with the utmost care, especially if the state of the heart be unsatisfactory.\" Some of these contemporaneous statements are now outdated.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ecballium is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cucurbitaceae containing a single species, Ecballium elaterium, also called the squirting cucumber or exploding cucumber (but not to be confused with \"Cyclanthera brachystachya\"). It gets its unusual name from the fact that, when ripe, it squirts a stream of mucilaginous liquid containing its seeds, which can be seen with the naked eye. It is thus considered to have rapid plant movement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974055}
{"src_title": "Faure Gnassingbé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Born in Afagnan in Lacs Prefecture, Faure Essozimna Gnassingbé is of Kabye descent and is one of Gnassingbé Eyadéma's many children; his mother is Séna Sabine Mensah. Gnassingbé received his secondary education in Lomé before studying in Paris at the Sorbonne, where he received a degree in financial business management; he subsequently obtained a Master of Business Administration degree from The George Washington University in the United States. He was elected to the National Assembly of Togo in the October 2002 parliamentary election as a Deputy for Blitta, and in the National Assembly he was coordinator of the commission in charge of privatization. On July 29, 2003 he was appointed as Minister of Equipment, Mines, Posts, and Telecommunications, serving in that position until becoming President in February 2005.  Some in the opposition claimed that the amendment of the Constitution in December 2002, lowering the minimum age for the President from 45 years to 35 years, was intended to benefit Gnassingbé. His appointment to the government in July 2003 came after he had already been appearing with his father at official functions and contributed to speculation that he was intended as his father's successor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Eyadéma died suddenly on February 5, 2005. According to the Togolese Constitution, after the President's death, the President of the National Assembly should become acting President. At the time of Eyadéma's death, National Assembly President Fambaré Ouattara Natchaba was out of the country, and Gnassingbé was sworn in as acting President to \"ensure stability\". Many believe that Natchaba did not want to come back to Togo due to fears of assassination by the Gnassingbé clan. The army wanted him to resign his position and allow Gnassingbé to legally take over. The African Union denounced Gnassingbé's assumption of power as a military coup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legitimacy.", "content": "A day after his father's death, the National Assembly received clear instructions to dismiss Natchaba and elect Gnassingbé in his place, which would legalize his succession, which took place on 6 February 2005. Gnassingbé's election was unanimously approved by the deputies (98% of them were members of the ruling party) who were present in the National Assembly at the time; the opposition was not represented in the National Assembly due to its boycott of the 2002 parliamentary election. The members of Gnassingbé's party did not want to challenge the army's choice. The parliament also eliminated a constitutional requirement that elections be held within 60 days of the president's death, enabling the younger Gnassingbé to rule until the expiration of his father's term in 2008.  Under pressure from others in the region, and particularly Nigeria, later in February 2005 Gnassingbé announced that new elections would be held within 60 days, but said that he would remain in office in the meantime. However, on February 21, the National Assembly reversed some of the constitutional changes that it had made so as to allow Gnassingbé to assume power, although it did not instruct him to resign. This was construed as a way of pressuring him to stand down with dignity. To change the constitution during a period of transition was itself an unconstitutional act, but this did not deter Gnassingbé's allies.  On February 25, Gnassingbé was nominated by delegates of the ruling party, the Rally for the Togolese People, as the party's presidential candidate. He was also chosen as head of the party. Shortly afterwards, he announced that he would step down as President during the interim period. Bonfoh Abass was appointed by the National Assembly to replace him until the election on April 24, 2005. Bonfoh was considered by some to be a puppet of the military elite and the Gnassingbé family. Gnassingbé competed with the main opposition candidate, Emmanuel Bob-Akitani, a retired engineer of the state-owned mining company and the second most important person in the opposition coalition after Gilchrist Olympio. Olympio could not take part in the election, since the constitution required that any candidate must have lived for at least 12 months in Togo, and Olympio had been in self-imposed exile for fear that he would be murdered by the Eyadema clan like his father.  In the election, Gnassingbé received slightly more than 60% of the votes, according to official results. The RPT refused to allow oversight during the counting of the ballots. The EU and the Carter Center deemed the elections to be fraudulent. Mass protests by the coalition of opposition parties led to the killing of over 1,000 citizens by security forces. 40,000 refugees fled to neighboring Benin and Ghana, most of whom have since been repatriated despite concerns.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Corruption.", "content": "The phosphates sector - accounting for 40% of export revenues - is managed at the office of the president, and it is alleged that contracts and permits to manage the sector are sold to profit the president.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Faure Essozimna Gnassingbé Eyadéma (; born 6 June 1966) is a Togolese politician and dictator who has been the President of Togo since 2005. Before assuming the presidency, he was appointed by his father, President Gnassingbé Eyadéma, as Minister of Equipment, Mines, Posts, and Telecommunications, serving from 2003 to 2005.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974056}
{"src_title": "Audi RS 2 Avant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Murray was born in Moffat, Scotland, and was educated at St. Andrews University, where he received with honours a bachelor's degree in mathematics in 1953, he took his PhD there in 1956.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research and career.", "content": "His first post was at the University of Durham, UK; later he has held positions at Harvard University, London and Oxford, becoming professor of mechanical engineering at the University of Michigan in 1965, at the age of 34.  He later became professor of mathematical biology at the University of Oxford, a fellow and tutor in mathematics at Corpus Christi College, Oxford and founder and director of the Centre for Mathematical Biology. He left Oxford in the late 1980s for the University of Washington in Seattle, where he spent the rest of his career as professor of mathematics and adjunct professor of zoology.  His research is characterised by its great range and depth: an early example is his fundamental contributions to understanding the biomechanics of the human body when launched from an aircraft in an ejection seat. He has made contributions to many other areas, ranging from understanding and preventing severe scarring; fingerprint formation; sex determination, modelling of animal coat and territory formation in wolf-deer interacting populations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honours.", "content": "Murray was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1979 and a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1985.  In 2008 Murray and Professor T. J. Pedley, FRS were jointly awarded the Gold Medal of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications in recognition of their \"outstanding contributions to mathematics and its applications over a period of years\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "James Dickson Murray FRSE FRS, (born 2 January 1931) is professor emeritus of applied mathematics at University of Washington and University of Oxford. He is best known for his authoritative and extensive work entitled \"Mathematical Biology\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974057}
{"src_title": "Saint Ursula", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Legend of the Eleven Thousand Companions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lack of historical credibility.", "content": "The \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" (1912) article on Saint Ursula states that \"this legend, with its countless variants and increasingly fabulous developments, would fill more than a hundred pages. Various characteristics of it were already regarded with suspicion by certain medieval writers, and since [Caesar] Baronius have been universally rejected\". Neither Jerome nor Gregory of Tours refers to Ursula in his writings. Gregory of Tours mentions the legend of the Theban Legion, to whom a church that once stood in Cologne was dedicated. The most important hagiographers (Bede, Ado, Usuard, Notker the Stammerer, Hrabanus Maurus) of the early Middle Ages also do not enter Ursula under October 21, her feast day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "10th-century legend.", "content": "A legend resembling Ursula's appeared in the first half of the tenth century; it does not mention the name \"Ursula\", but rather gives the leader of the martyred group as \"Pinnosa\" or \"Vinnosa\". Pinnosa's relics were transferred about 947 from Cologne to Essen, and from this point forward Ursula's role was emphasised. In 970, for example, the first \"Passio Ursulae\" was written, naming Ursula rather than Pinnosa as the group's leader (although Pinnosa is mentioned as one of the group's members). This change might also be due in part to the discovery at this time of an epitaph speaking of Ursula, the \"innocent virgin\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Misreading of Latin.", "content": "According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, a 12th-century British cleric and writer, Ursula was the daughter of Dionotus, ruler of Cornwall. However, this may have been based on his misreading of the words \"Deo notus\" in the second \"Passio Ursulae\", written about 1105. The plot may have been influenced by a story told by the 6th-century writer Procopius about a British queen sailing with 100,000 soldiers to the mouth of the Rhine in order to compel her unwilling groom Radigis, king of the Varni, to marry her.  While there was a tradition of virgin martyrs in Cologne by the fifth century, their number may have been limited to between two and eleven, according to different sources. Yet the cleric Wandelbert of the Abbey of Prüm stated in his martyrology in 848 that the number of martyrs counted \"thousands of saints\" who were slaughtered on the boards of the River Rhine. The 11,000 were first mentioned in the late 9th century; suggestions as to where this number came from have included the reading of the name \"Undecimillia\" or \"Ximillia\" as a number, or reading the abbreviation \"XI. M. V.\" as 'eleven thousand [in Roman numerals] virgins' rather than 'eleven martyred virgins'. One scholar has suggested that in the eighth or ninth century, when the relics of virgin martyrs were found, they included those of a girl named Ursula, who was eleven years old—in Latin, \"undecimilia\". This was subsequently misread or misinterpreted as \"undicimila\" ('eleven thousand'), thus producing the legend of the 11,000 virgins. In fact, the stone bearing the virgin Ursula's name states that she lived eight years and two months. Another theory is that there was only one virgin martyr, named Undecimilla, \"which by some blundering monk was changed into eleven thousand\". It has also been suggested that \"cum [...] militibus\", \"with [...] soldiers\", was misread as \"cum [...] millibus\", \"with [...] thousands\". Most contemporary sources, however, cling to the number 11,000. The \"Passio\" from the 970s tries to bridge conflicting traditions by stating that the eleven maidens each commanded a ship containing one thousand virgins. Implicitly, the legend also refers to the twelve heavenly legions, mentioned in Matthew 26:53.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Skeletal remains.", "content": "The Basilica of St. Ursula in Cologne holds the alleged relics of Ursula and her 11,000 companions. It contains what has been described as a \"veritable tsunami of ribs, shoulder blades, and femurs... arranged in zigzags and swirls and even in the shapes of Latin words\". The Goldene Kammer (Golden Chamber), a 17th-century chapel attached to the Basilica of St. Ursula, contains sculptures of their heads and torsos, \"some of the heads encased in silver, others covered with stuff of gold and caps of cloth of gold and velvet; loose bones thickly texture the upper walls\". The peculiarities of the relics themselves have thrown doubt upon the historicity of Ursula and her 11,000 maidens. When skeletons of little children ranging in age from two months to seven years were found buried with one of the sacred virgins in 1183, Hermann Joseph, a Praemonstratensian canon at Steinfeld, explained that they were distant relatives of the eleven thousand. A surgeon of eminence was once banished from Cologne for suggesting that, among the collection of bones which are said to pertain to the heads, there were several belonging to full-grown mastiffs. The relics may have come from a forgotten burial ground.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pagan roots theories.", "content": "It has also been theorised that Ursula is a Christianised form of the goddess Freya, who welcomed the souls of dead maidens. Other 19th-century scholars have referred to the goddesses Nehalennia, Nerthus and Holda.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Catholic official stance.", "content": "Nothing reliable is known about the girls said to have been martyred at the spot. A commemoration of Saint Ursula and her companions in the Mass of Saint Hilarion, formerly in the General Roman Calendar on October 21, was removed in 1969, because \"their \"Passio\" is entirely fabulous: nothing, not even their names, is known about the virgin saints who were killed at Cologne at some uncertain time\". However, they are still mentioned in the Roman Martyrology, the official but professedly incomplete list of saints recognised by the Catholic Church, which speaks of them as follows: \"At Cologne in Germany, commemoration of virgin saints who ended their life in martyrdom for Christ in the place where afterwards the city's basilica was built, dedicated in honour of the innocent young girl Ursula who is looked on as their leader\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cordula, Ursula's companion.", "content": "Cordula was, according to a legend in an edition of the Roman Martyrology presented in an English translation on a traditionalist Catholic website, one of Ursula's companions: \"Being terrified by the punishments and slaughter of the others, Cordula hid herself, but repenting her deed, on the next day she declared herself to the Huns of her own accord, and thus was the last of them all to receive the crown of martyrdom\". In his \"Albert the Great\", Joachim Sighart recounts that, on February 14, 1277, while work was being done at the church of St John the Baptist (\"Johanniterkirche\") in Cologne, Cordula's body was discovered; it was fragrant and on her forehead was written: \"Cordula, Queen and Virgin\". When Albert the Great heard of the finding, he sang mass and transferred the relics. Later, Cordula's supposed remains were moved to Königswinter and Rimini. Cordula's head was claimed by the Cathedral of Palencia. She is listed in the Roman Martyrology on October 22.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similarities with Sunniva.", "content": "There are striking parallels between the 11th-century legend of Ursula and the story of Sunniva of Selje. Their names were sometimes confused by contemporaries. Both saints were considered to be Christian princesses who fled their homeland by ship in order to postpone or avert an undesired marriage with a pagan king. Both were accompanied by a large group of associates, both became victims of hostile foes. The development of their legends may have been interdependent. The martyrdom of Sunniva, however, took place after the first draft of the \"Passio Ursulae\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Ursula (Latin for 'little female bear') is a legendary Romano-British Christian saint, died on October 21, 383. Her feast day in the pre-1970 General Roman Calendar is October 21. There is little definite information about her and the anonymous group of holy virgins who accompanied her and on some uncertain date were killed at Cologne. They remain in the Roman Martyrology, although their commemoration does not appear in the simplified Calendarium Romanum Generale (General Roman Calendar) of the 1970 Missale Romanum.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974058}
{"src_title": "Virgil Widrich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Salzburg, Virgil Widrich spent his childhood in a house that is over 500 years old and stands on the Mönchsberg. While there he became acquainted with artists such as Peter Handke, who was his neighbour, and Wim Wenders, a frequent visitor. He gained his first experience with film at a very young age and was given his first camera, a Super-8, at the age of 13. That same year (1980) he made three films, \"My Homelife\", \"Gebratenes Fleisch\" and \"3 mal Ulf\". He followed that with an animated cartoon titled \"Auch Farbe kann träumen\". At the age of 15 he made \"Monster in Salzburg\", on which he worked with actors for the first time. He created the rampaging monster using stop-motion photography. In 1983 he began work on \"Vom Geist der Zeit\" (\"Spirit of Time\"). Even bad grades at school were not enough to prevent him finishing his first feature-length movie, which took him 14 months. During this time he also took on a job as an extra and props manager at the Salzburg Festival to finance his films. In 1984 he began to take an interest in computers and programmed a number of simple games.  After passing his school-leaving exams at the \"Akademisches Gymnasium\" in Salzburg he entered the \"Vienna Film Academy\", only to leave again after a matter of weeks to work on the script for a science fiction film which, in the end, he never made. In 1987 he founded the film distributing company \"Classic Films\" with two partners with the aim of distributing mainly artistic films. Later on he became assistant to John Bailey, a camera man and director, and in 1990 he went to Hollywood to work with Bailey on the science fiction comedy \"The Search for Intelligent Life in the Universe\". After selling \"Classic Films\" in 1991 Widrich again turned his attention to the computer and the possibilities it offered for creating art. His next major project, which saw him working as production manager, was a new festival for Austrian film, held for the first time in 1993 under the name Diagonale. In the second year he also compiled a film database. More databases relating to film followed, and he was also involved in the creation of an interactive CD-ROM.  In 1997 Widrich started concentrating more on making his own films again, producing the short film \"tx-transform\", which was a great success at the Ars Electronica festival. He also returned to his script for \"Heller als der Mond\" (\"Brighter than the Moon\"), which he filmed in 1999. The film premiered in 2000 in Rotterdam. \"Copy Shop\" was his next project, and one of his most successful to date. Following its premiere in 2001 the film won 35 awards, was nominated for the Oscar and was shown on television and at over 200 film festivals. His next short, \"Fast Film\", was likewise very successful, won 36 international awards and was shown on over 300 film festivals. A large number of multimedia projects for companies followed (in 2001 he founded the company, checkpointmedia AG, and is its CEO) and he continued producing films with his company Virgil Widrich Film- und Multimediaproduktionen G.m.b.H. Together with other filmmakers he also co-founded the production company Amour Fou Film in 2001, focusing on arthouse movies from young directors.  In 2004 Widrich was a member of the jury for Ars Electronica and became chairman of the Austrian Film Directors’ Association until 2007. He is also a member of the Academy of Austrian Film. From 2007 to 2010 Virgil Widrich taught as Professor at the University of Applied Arts Vienna, teaching the class of “digital arts”. Since 2010 he is the leading Professor of the post-graduate Master Programme \"Art & Science\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "Since 2011 project development for a feature-length animated film titles \"Micromeo\", screenplay in collaboration with Jean-Claude Carrière).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards (selection).", "content": "In total, Virgil Widrich's work has been awarded more than 150 international awards.  for \"Heller als der Mond (Brighter than the Moon)\" (Europe 2000):  for \"Copy Shop\" (A 2001):  for \"Fast Film\" (A, LUX 2003):  for \"Nena & Dave Stewart: Be my Rebel\" (A 2018)  for checkpointmedia:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Virgil Widrich (* 16 May 1967 in Salzburg) is an Austrian director, screenwriter, filmmaker and multimedia artist. Widrich works on a large number of films and multimedia projects, sometimes as part of a creative team. He is known especially for his numerous short films and multimedia works.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974059}
{"src_title": "Francisco J. Ayala", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "He is known for his research on population and evolutionary genetics, and has been called the \"Renaissance Man of Evolutionary Biology\". His \"discoveries have opened up new approaches to the prevention and treatment of diseases that affect hundreds of millions of individuals worldwide\", including demonstrating the reproduction of \"Trypanosoma cruzi\", the agent of Chagas disease, is mostly the product of cloning, and that only a few clones account for most of this widespread, mostly untreatable South American disease that affects 16 million to 18 million people.  He served on the advisory board of the now defunct Campaign to Defend the Constitution, an organization that has lobbied in support the separation of church and state. He has been publicly critical of U.S. restrictions on federal funding of embryonic stem cell research. He is also a critic of intelligent design theories, claiming that they are not only pseudoscience, but also misunderstood from a theological point of view. He suggests that the theory of evolution resolves the problem of evil, thus being a kind of theodicy. Although Ayala generally does not discuss his religious views, he has stated that \"science is compatible with religious faith in a personal, omnipotent and benevolent God.\" He also briefly served, in 1960, as a Dominican priest. Ayala does not say whether he remains a religious believer, not wanting to be \"tagged by one side or the other.\"  He attended the symposium on November 2006. Ayala debated Christian apologist William Lane Craig in November 2009 on the topic of intelligent design.  On October 18, 2011, the University of California, Irvine (UCI) announced that Professor Ayala would be donating $10 million to the university's School of Biological Sciences. The gift was to be \"$1 million a year for the next decade.\"  Since 2013, Ayala has been listed on the Advisory Council of the National Center for Science Education.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sexual harassment investigation and resignation.", "content": "In June 2018, UCI announced that it had investigated and confirmed the accusations of four women who claimed that Ayala had sexually harassed them. Ayala resigned, without becoming a professor emeritus, and the university removed his name from the School of Biological Sciences, Science Library, and endowed chairs that had been named after Ayala. The complete report of the investigation was made public (and then later removed at the request of people close to the case) on the website of the journal \"Science\", detailing multiple incidents of gender-biased and inappropriate comments and actions towards female faculty and students. The American Association for the Advancement of Science removed his fellowship status because of his actions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "In 2001, Ayala was awarded the National Medal of Science. On April 13, 2007, he was awarded the first of 100 bicentennial medals at Mount Saint Mary's University for lecturing there as the first presenter for the Bicentennial Distinguished Lecture Series. His lecture was entitled \"The Biological Foundations of Morality\". Other awards he has received include the Gold Honorary Gregor Mendel Medal of the Czech Academy of Sciences, the Gold Medal of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, the Gold Medal of the Stazione Zoologica in Naples, the President's Award of the American Institute of Biological Sciences, the Scientific Freedom and Responsibility Award and 150th Anniversary Leadership Medal of the AAAS, the Medal of the College of France, the UCI Medal of the University of California, the 1998 Distinguished Scientist Award from the SACNAS, and Sigma Xi's William Procter Prize for Scientific Achievement, 2000. In 2010, he was awarded the Templeton Prize. The science library at UCI was named after him from 2010 to 2018, when his name was removed after substantiated allegations of sexual harassment. Ayala delivered a lecture at the Trotter Prize ceremony in 2011 entitled \"Darwin's Gift to Science and Religion.\" In 2014, UCI named its School of Biological Sciences the Francisco J. Ayala School of Biological Sciences after Ayala. UCI removed his name from the library and school in 2018, after finding that he sexually harassed at least four women.  Ayala was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1977. He is a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society. He is also a foreign member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei in Rome, the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences, the Mexican Academy of Sciences, and the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. He has honorary degrees from the University of Athens, the University of Bologna, the University of Barcelona, the University of the Balearic Islands, the University of León, the University of Madrid, the University of Salamanca, the University of Valencia, the University of Vigo, Far Eastern National University, Masaryk University and University of Warsaw.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Francisco Ayala was born to Francisco Ayala and Soledad Pereda. In the late 1960s he met Mary Henderson, they married on May 27, 1968. They had two sons: Francisco José (b. 1969) and Carlos Alberto (b. 1972). Their marriage ended in divorce, and in 1985 he married an ecologist named Hana Ayala (née Lostáková, born 1956). They live in Irvine, California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "Ayala has published 950 publications and 30 books. Recently published books include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francisco José Ayala Pereda (born March 12, 1934) is a Spanish-American evolutionary biologist and philosopher who was a longtime faculty member at the University of California, Irvine and University of California, Davis. He is a former Dominican priest, ordained in 1960, but left the priesthood that same year. After graduating from the University of Salamanca, he moved to the United States in 1961 to study for a PhD at Columbia University. There, he studied for his doctorate under Theodosius Dobzhansky, graduating in 1964. He became a US citizen in 1971.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974060}
{"src_title": "Lexa Doig", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Doig was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. She is the younger child of Gloria B. Lecciones and David W. Doig. Her mother is a registered nurse who originally came from Dumaguete City, Philippines, and her father is a Canadian engineer of Scottish and Irish ancestry who was a petroleum executive officer in Toronto.  As a child, Doig studied rhythmic gymnastics and, as a teenager, she studied American Sign Language. She developed a strong interest in acting and was inspired to become an actor at age 9 after she watched a theatre production of \"Porgy and Bess\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early modeling.", "content": "While completing compulsory secondary education at Don Mills Collegiate Institute, she enrolled in a vocational modelling program. There, at age 16, she was immediately offered representation by a talent agent and booked in various modelling projects. She chose to drop out from her final year in high school to pursue an acting career.  The initial media exposure led to her co-hosting the Canadian game show \"Video & Arcade Top 10\" (1991–2006). While auditioning for television and film roles, she worked on theatre productions of \"Romeo and Juliet\" and \"Arsenic and Old Lace\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Acting.", "content": "Her first television acting role was as \"Second Girl\" on \"The Hidden Room\" in 1993. Her first recurring role was in the TV series \"TekWar\" in 1994 where she portrayed the role of Cowgirl. Her first movie role was in \"Jungleground\" (1995). Doig got her first big break with a starring role in the movie \"No Alibi\" in 2000. She also landed the title role in Gene Roddenberry's sci-fi TV series \"Andromeda\" where, from 2000 to 2005, she portrayed the Andromeda Ascendant ship's computer in three personas — as the ship's powerful AI (artificial intelligence) on the ship's screen, as the AI's hologram, and as Rommie, the android avatar of the AI.  In 2001, she played the female lead role of \"Dr. Rowan LaFontaine\" in the horror film \"Jason X\", the tenth installment of the \"Friday the 13th\" film series. In a recurring role as Dr. Carolyn Lam, Doig appeared in 11 episodes of the ninth and tenth seasons of \"Stargate SG-1\" between 2005–2007. In 2010, Doig appeared in six episodes in the remake of \"V\" as the alien physician Dr. Leah Pearlman. In 2012, she began playing the role of Liber8 terrorist Sonya Valentine in the Canadian science fiction TV series \"Continuum\".  In 2017, Doig began playing the recurring role of Talia al Ghul in the fifth season of \"Arrow\". The same year she began portraying DeAnn Anderson, one of the main roles in the E! television series \"The Arrangement\".  In 2019, Doig joined the cast of the upcoming Netflix television series \"Virgin River\", based on the \"Virgin River\" series of novels by Robyn Carr, playing Paige Lassiter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Doig dated actor Michael Shanks after they met on the set of \"Andromeda\", where the former starred and the latter guest-starred in the 2001 episode \"Star Crossed.\" They married on August 2, 2003, and they worked together again in the 2003 episode \"Day of Judgment, Day of Wrath\" of the same TV series. The couple were castmates in the final two seasons of \"Stargate SG-1\". They worked together in the action thriller \"Tactical Force\" (2011), in which Doig portrayed an LAPD SWAT officer and Shanks played the role of a Russian mob leader. They have most recently worked together on the Netflix Original series \"Virgin River (TV series)\" (2019). They have two children, a son and a daughter, in addition to Shanks' child from a previous relationship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charity.", "content": "Doig and Shanks are actively involved as charity fundraising partners for the Multiple Sclerosis Society of Canada.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alexandra Lecciones Doig (born June 8, 1973) is a Canadian actress. She portrayed the title role in the 2000–2005 Canadian-American science fiction-adventure television series \"Andromeda\". She also portrayed the female lead role of Rowan in the science fiction-action horror film \"Jason X\" (2001), the tenth installment of the \"Friday the 13th\" film series and currently appears in the Aurora Teagarden mystery films on the Hallmark Movies & Mysteries Channel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974061}
{"src_title": "Elf Aquitaine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Elf Aquitaine's heritage is rooted among three French oil companies: Régie Autonome des Pétroles (RAP), Société Nationale des Pétroles d'Aquitaine (SNPA), and Bureau de Recherches de Pétroles (BRP). These companies were formed to exploit the discovery of a gas field in Saint-Marcet in the Aquitaine region of south-western France. In December 1965 RAP and BRP were merged to form Entreprise de Recherches et d'Activités Pétrolières (ERAP). ERAP had SNPA, Union Générale des Pétroles (UGP), and Union Industrielle des Pétroles (UIP) as subsidiaries. The resulting company achieved vertical integration, owning assets in all phases of the petrol business from exploration and production to the filling station.  On April 28, 1967, the company's disparate brands and products were unified under the Elf brand, Essence et Lubrifiants de France. Elf was the first company to pioneer a completely synthetic racing oil.  In 1973, the subsidiary SNPA set up a pharmaceuticals subsidiary called Sanofi and acquired the pharmaceutical groups Labaz, Castaigne, and Robilliart, and also bought interests in a cosmetics company.  In 1976 Elf-ERAP merged with Antar Pétroles de l'Atlantique and became Société Nationale Elf Aquitaine (SNEA), later Elf Aquitaine. Elf Aquitaine was listed on the NYSE in 1991. In 1993 Elf was awarded the exclusive contract to the Iraqi oil fields by Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein. In 1996 the French government sold its stake, retaining a golden share. In 2000 Elf Aquitaine merged with Total Fina to form TotalFinaElf, which changed its name to Total in 2003.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hoax.", "content": "Elf Aquitaine spent millions of dollars in the 1979 Great Oil Sniffer Hoax to develop a new \"gravity wave-based oil detection system\", which was later revealed to be a scam, and lost over $150 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fraud scandal.", "content": "The Elf scandal which came to light in 1994 in France was according to \"The Guardian\", 'the biggest fraud inquiry in Europe since the Second World War... Elf became a private bank for executives who spent £200 million on political favours, mistresses, jewellery, fine art, villas and apartments'. Iraqi-born Nadhmi Auchi, at that time rumoured to be among the ten richest men in Britain, received a 15-month suspended sentence and a £1.5m fine for his involvement taking illegal commissions. Auchi was also linked to the Clearstream scandal. He is BNP Paribas bank's main private share-holder; and until 2001, the money for the Oil-for-Food programme transited through the escrow account of BNP Paribas. Magistrate Eva Joly investigated the case. In the Leuna/Minol deal following German reunification, Elf Aquitaine took over circa 2,500 vacated gas station allottments in the former East Germany without paying the rightful owners.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Automobile and motorcycle partnerships.", "content": "Elf Aquitaine is an official recommended fuel and motor oil for Renault (shared with BP), Nissan, Dacia, Datsun, Honda (including Acura. shared with BP and ExxonMobil), Alpine, Renault Samsung Motors, Infiniti, Brough Superior and Acura for automobiles only as well as Kawasaki and Honda for motorcycles only.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motorsport.", "content": "From its very beginnings Elf used motor racing as a means of promotion. It began with a four-year association with Matra in a French Formula Three program. This resulted in Henri Pescarolo winning the title. The European Formula Two Championship fell to Matra the following year with Jean-Pierre Beltoise. In 1969, the combination won the Formula One World Championship with Tyrrell and Jackie Stewart.  The goal of winning the Le Mans 24 Hours was not achieved until 1972, by which time Elf and Matra had gone their separate ways. Elf, at that time owned by France, then undertook a policy to rebuild and promote French motor racing. began a long-term relationship with Renault, which was also owned by the French government at the time. Renault promoted the use of Elf oils in its road cars, while its Formula One racing cars also carried Elf sponsorship. This changed in 2009, when the Renault Formula One cars replaced the Elf logos with Total logos.  The most famous of the schemes to promote young drivers dates back to the start of the 1970s, when Francois Guiter of Elf established what was known as the \"Volant Elf\". The fastest drivers on each course at the Winfield Racing Schools, Magny Cours and Paul Ricard, were asked to return to the school in the autumn to establish the fastest driver of the year. The two winners were each given a full budget to race the following year in Formula Renault. If they were fast enough they would be retained by Elf in Formula Three and then Formula Two (or later Formula 3000), and eventually they would get a drive in Formula One. The first two \"Pilotes Elf\" were Patrick Tambay and Didier Pironi. Both went on to win Grands Prix.  When Guiter retired Elf decided to change the policy and a revised program was implemented. This aimed to create a scheme for drivers, mechanics and engineers. Called \"La Filière;\" it funded as many as eight drivers each year in Formula Renault Elf Campus and four in Formula Three. Budget cuts between 2008–2012 reduced the number of French drivers moving on to Formula One positions.  Elf also supplying fuels and lubricants for two Formula One junior feeder open-wheel single-seater formula auto racing tournaments GP2 Series (later rebranded as FIA Formula 2 Championship in 2017) since 2005 and GP3 Series since 2010 (later rebranded as FIA Formula 3 Championship in 2019) respectively due to in fact Mecachrome has a long-term technical partnership with Elf since 1969.  Elf also supplying standard Ethanol E10 fuels for all SRO-owned GT championships.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elf Aquitaine was a French oil company which merged with TotalFina to form TotalFinaElf. The new company changed its name to Total in 2003. Elf has been maintained as a major brand of Total.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974062}
{"src_title": "Financial analysis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Goals.", "content": "Financial analysts often assess the following elements of a firm:  1. Profitability - its ability to earn income and sustain growth in both the short- and long-term. A company's degree of profitability is usually based on the income statement, which reports on the company's results of operations;  2. Solvency - its ability to pay its obligation to creditors and other third parties in the long-term; <br> 3. Liquidity - its ability to maintain positive cash flow, while satisfying immediate obligations;  \"Both 2 and 3 are based on the company's balance sheet, which indicates the financial condition of a business as of a given point in time.\"  4. Stability - the firm's ability to remain in business in the long run, without having to sustain significant losses in the conduct of its business. Assessing a company's stability requires the use of both the income statement and the balance sheet, as well as other financial and non-financial indicators. etc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Method.", "content": "Financial analysts often compare financial ratios (of solvency, profitability, growth, etc.):  These ratios are calculated by dividing a (group of) account balance(s), taken from the balance sheet and/or the income statement, by another, for example :  Comparing financial ratios is merely one way of conducting financial analysis. Financial ratios face several theoretical challenges:  Financial analysts can also use percentage analysis which involves reducing a series of figures as a percentage of some base amount. For example, a group of items can be expressed as a percentage of net income. When proportionate changes in the same figure over a given time period expressed as a percentage is known as horizontal analysis. Vertical or common-size analysis reduces all items on a statement to a \"common size\" as a percentage of some base value which assists in comparability with other companies of different sizes. As a result, all Income Statement items are divided by Sales, and all Balance Sheet items are divided by Total Assets.  Another method is comparative analysis. This provides a better way to determine trends. Comparative analysis presents the same information for two or more time periods and is presented side-by-side to allow for easy analysis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Financial analysis (also referred to as financial statement analysis or accounting analysis or Analysis of finance) refers to an assessment of the viability, stability, and profitability of a business, sub-business or project.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974063}
{"src_title": "IRAS", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission.", "content": "IRAS was the first observatory to perform an all-sky survey at infrared wavelengths. It mapped 96% of the sky four times, at 12, 25, 60 and 100 micrometers, with resolutions ranging from 30 arcseconds at 12 micrometers to 2 arcminutes at 100 micrometers. It discovered about 350,000 sources, many of which are still awaiting identification. About 75,000 of those are believed to be starburst galaxies, still enduring their star-formation stage. Many other sources are normal stars with disks of dust around them, possibly the early stage of planetary system formation. New discoveries included a dust disk around Vega and the first images of the Milky Way core.  IRAS's life, like that of most infrared satellites that followed, was limited by its cooling system. To effectively work in the infrared domain, a telescope must be cooled to cryogenic temperatures. In IRAS's case, of superfluid helium kept the telescope at a temperature of, keeping the satellite cool by evaporation. The on-board supply of liquid helium was depleted after 10 months on 21 November 1983, causing the telescope temperature to rise, preventing further observations. The spacecraft continues to orbit the Earth.  IRAS was designed to catalog fixed sources, so it scanned the same region of sky several times. Jack Meadows led a team at Leicester University, including John K. Davies and Simon F. Green, which searched the rejected sources for moving objects. This led to the discovery of three asteroids, including 3200 Phaethon (an Apollo asteroid and the parent body of the Geminid meteor shower), six comets, and a huge dust trail associated with comet 10P/Tempel. The comets included 126P/IRAS, 161P/Hartley–IRAS, and comet IRAS–Araki–Alcock (C/1983 H1), which made a close approach to the Earth in 1983. Out of the six comets IRAS found, four were long period and two were short period comets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discoveries.", "content": "Overall, over a quarter million discrete targets were observed during its operations, both inside and beyond Earth's solar system. In addition, new objects were discovered including asteroids and comets. The observatory made headlines briefly with the announcement on 10 December 1983 of the discovery of an \"unknown object\" at first described as \"possibly as large as the giant planet Jupiter and possibly so close to Earth that it would be part of this solar system\". Further analysis revealed that, of several unidentified objects, nine were distant galaxies and the tenth was \"intergalactic cirrus\". None were found to be Solar System bodies.  During its mission, IRAS (and later the Spitzer Space Telescope) detected odd infrared signatures around several stars. This led to the systems being targeted by the Hubble Space Telescope's NICMOS instrument between 1999 and 2006, but nothing was detected. In 2014, using new image processing techniques on the Hubble data, researchers discovered planetary disks around these stars.  IRAS discovered six comets, out of total of 22 discoveries and recoveries of all comets that year. This was a lot for this period, before the launch of SOHO in 1995, which would allow the discovery of many more comets in the next decade (it would detect 1000 comets in ten years).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later surveys.", "content": "Several infrared space telescopes have continued and greatly expanded the study of the infrared Universe, such as the Infrared Space Observatory launched in 1995, the Spitzer Space Telescope launched in 2003, and the Akari Space Telescope launched in 2006.  A next generation of infrared space telescopes began when NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer launched on 14 December 2009 aboard a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base. Known as WISE, the telescope provided results hundreds of times more sensitive than IRAS at the shorter wavelengths; it also had an extended mission dubbed NEOWISE beginning in October 2010 after its coolant supply ran out.  A planned mission is NASA's Near-Earth Object Surveillance Mission (NEOSM), which is a successor to the NEOWISE mission.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2020 near-miss.", "content": "On, IRAS was expected to pass as closely as 12 meters from the U.S. Air Force's Gravity Gradient Stabilization Experiment (GGSE-4) of 1967, another un-deorbited satellite left aloft; the 14.7-kilometer per second pass had an estimated risk of collision of 5%. Further complications arose from the fact that GGSE-4 was outfitted with an 18 meter long stabilization boom that was in an unknown orientation and may have struck the satellite even if the spacecraft's main body did not. Initial observations from amateur astronomers seemed to indicate that both satellites had survived the pass, with the California-based debris tracking organization LeoLabs later confirming that they had detected no new tracked debris following the incident.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) was the first-ever space telescope to perform a survey of the entire night sky at infrared wavelengths. Following the end of its mission, the 1.1 metric-ton satellite was not deorbited and constitutes a space hazard.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974064}
{"src_title": "Joseph Nye", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Changes since \"Rerum novarum\".", "content": "Pope Pius XI issued his encyclical exactly forty years after \"Rerum novarum\". In the interim there were other papal statements from Leo XIII, and also the encyclical \"Singulari Quadam\" of Pope Pius X. Pius XI subtitled his encyclical \"Reconstruction of the Social Order\". In the first part he reviews and applauds the encyclical of his predecessor. The Church can be credited with participating in the progress made and contributing to it. It developed a new social conscience.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private property.", "content": "The Church has a role in discussing these issues. Social and economic issues are vital to her not from a technical point of view but in terms of moral and ethical issues involved. Ethical considerations include the nature of private property concerning which, within the Catholic Church, several conflicting views had developed. Pius XI proclaims private property to be essential for the development and freedom of the individual. Those who deny private property deny personal freedom and development. But, says Pius, private property has a social function as well. Private property loses its morality if it is not subordinated to the common good. Therefore, governments have a right to pursue redistribution policies. In extreme cases, the Pope recognizes that the State has a right to expropriate private property.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capital and labour.", "content": "A related issue, says Pius, is the relation between capital and labour and the determination of fair wages. Pius develops the following ethical mandate: The Church considers it a perversion of industrial society, to have developed sharp opposite camps based on income. He welcomes all attempts to alleviate these cross differences. Three elements determine a fair wage: The worker's family responsibilities, the economic condition of the enterprise and the economy as a whole. The family has an innate right to development, but this is only possible within the framework of a functioning economy and sound enterprises. For this, Pius XI concludes that solidarity, not conflict, is a necessary condition given the mutual interdependence of the parties involved.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social order.", "content": "Industrialization, says Pius XI, resulted in less freedom at the individual and communal level, because numerous free social entities got absorbed by larger ones. A society of individuals became a mass and class society. Today people are much less interdependent than in ancient times and become egoistic or class-conscious in order to recover some freedom for themselves. The pope demands more solidarity, especially between employers and employees through new forms of cooperation and communication. Pius draws a negative view of capitalism, especially of the anonymous international finance markets. He identifies here problems: dangers for small and medium-size enterprises who have insufficient access to capital markets and are squeezed or destroyed by the larger ones. He warns that capital interests can become a danger for states, who would be reduced to be \"chained slaves of individual interests\". The encyclical has been an important inspiration to modern distributist thought on seeking greater solidarity and subsidiarity than present capitalism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Communism and socialism.", "content": "Regarding communism and socialism, Pius XI notes increasing differences. He condemns communism but also the social conditions which nourish it. He wants moderate socialism to distance itself from totalitarian communism as a practical matter and also on principle, in light of the dignity of the human person. Dignity and human freedom are ethical considerations, which cannot be solved by a hostile class confrontation. Ethics are based on religion and this is the realm where the Church meets industrial society.  117 \"Whether considered as a doctrine, or an historical fact, or a movement, Socialism, if it remains truly Socialism, even after it has yielded to truth and justice on the points which we have mentioned, cannot be reconciled with the teachings of the Catholic Church because its concept of society itself is utterly foreign to Christian truth.\"  118 \"Socialism, on the other hand, wholly ignoring and indifferent to this sublime end of both man and society, affirms that human association has been instituted for the sake of material advantage alone.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Ramsay MacDonald, the head of the British affiliate of the Socialist International, inquired to Cardinal Bourne, Archbishop of Westminster, on how the encyclical's statements on socialism applied to Catholics voting for or participating in socialist parties. The Cardinal stated \"There is nothing in the encyclical which should deter Catholics from becoming members of the British Labour Party...\"  Franklin D. Roosevelt had high praise for the encyclical and quoted it extensively on the evils of concentrated economic power.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Samuel Nye Jr. (born January 19, 1937) is an American political scientist. He is the co-founder, along with Robert Keohane, of the international relations theory of neoliberalism, developed in their 1977 book \"Power and Interdependence\". Together with Keohane, he developed the concepts of asymmetrical and complex interdependence. They also explored transnational relations and world politics in an edited volume in the 1970s. More recently, he explained the distinction between hard power and soft power, and pioneered the theory of soft power. His notion of \"smart power\" (\"the ability to combine hard and soft power into a successful strategy\") became popular with the use of this phrase by members of the Clinton Administration, and more recently the Obama Administration. He is the former Dean of the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, where he currently holds the position of University Distinguished Service Professor, Emeritus. In October 2014, Secretary of State John Kerry appointed Nye to the Foreign Affairs Policy Board. He is also a member of the Defense Policy Board.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974065}
{"src_title": "Agostino Casaroli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Casaroli was born in Castel San Giovanni in the province of Piacenza, Italy, to a family of humble roots. His father was a tailor in Piacenza. He was educated at the Collegio Alberoni in Piacenza the Episcopal Seminary of Bedonia, Piacenza, the Pontifical Lateran University in Rome where he earned a doctorate in canon law, and at the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "He was ordained to the priesthood on 27 May 1937 in Piacenza. He studied in Rome from 1937 to 1939. Beginning in 1940 he served in the Vatican Secretariat of State while also participating in pastoral ministry in the diocese of Rome from 1943. He was named Privy Chamberlain of His Holiness on 4 January 1945. He served as chaplain of Villa Agnese from 1950 to 1998. He was raised to the rank of Domestic prelate of His Holiness on 22 December 1954.  He served as an assistant to Cardinal Adeodato Giovanni Piazza at the First General Conference of the Latin American Bishops in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1955. He served as a faculty member of the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy from 1958 to 1961. On 24 February 1961, he was appointed Undersecretary of the Sacred Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, effectively deputy foreign minister. In 1964, he represented the Holy See at the exchange of instruments in ratification of the \"modus vivendi\" with Tunisia, concerning the situation of the Catholic Church. He was a signatory of the partial agreement between the Holy See and Hungary in Budapest on 15 September 1964. He negotiated with the Communist Czechoslovak government over the appointment of František Tomášek as apostolic administrator of the Archdiocese of Prague in February 1965. He was appointed secretary of the Sacred Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs on 29 June 1967.  During the period following Vatican II, Casaroli gained a reputation as a highly skilled diplomat who was able to negotiate with regimes hostile to the Church. He headed the CSCE conference in Helsinki from 30 July to 1 August 1975.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cardinal.", "content": "Casaroli was made a Cardinal-Priest of Ss. XII Apostoli in John Paul II's first consistory in 1979, and at the same time he became Secretary of State. Although he was seen as less hardline than any other close associate of John Paul, Casaroli's skillful diplomacy was seen by Wojtyła as an irreplaceable asset in the struggle against the Soviet Union. In 1985 he became Cardinal Bishop of the suburbicarian diocese of Porto-Santa-Rufina, and in 1990 he retired as Secretary of State, being succeeded by Angelo Sodano. He was Vice-Dean of the College of Cardinals from 1993 until his 1998 death of cardiorespiratory disease.  In November 2010, Mehmet Ali Ağca, who shot and wounded Pope John Paul II in 1981, alleged that Cardinal Casaroli was behind that assassination attempt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Views.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relations with Communism.", "content": "Casaroli's signing of treaties with Hungary in 1964 and Yugoslavia in 1966 was the first time the Holy See had opened itself in this way to Communist regimes, which had killed a great many Catholics since coming to power. Although his 2000 memoirs revealed a man hostile to Communism, his remarkable diplomatic skill made this hostility appear non-existent.  According to John O. Koehler, the KGB and its \"brother organs\" in Eastern Europe were well aware of Cardinal Casaroli's real opinions and influence. Therefore, his personal office was one of the primary espionage targets inside the Vatican.  The KGB was assisted in this by the Cardinal's own nephew, Marco Torreta, and Torreta's Czechoslovakian wife Irene Trollerova. According to Italian intelligence officials, Torreta had been a KGB informant since 1950.  According to Koehler: Irene returned from Czechoslovakia in the early 1980s, with a ceramic statue of the Virgin Mary, about 10 inches high, a beautiful work of renowned Czech ceramic art. The couple presented the statue to Cardinal Casaroli, who accepted gratefully. What a betrayal by his own nephew! Inside the revered religious icon was a \"bug\", a tiny but powerful transmitter, which was monitored from outside the building by the couple's handlers from the Soviet Embassy in Rome. The statue had been placed in an armoire in the dining room close to Cardinal Casaroli's office. Another eavesdropping device inside a rectangular piece of wood was hidden in the same armoire. Both were not discovered til 1990 during a massive probe initiated by Magistrate Rosario Priore in the aftermath of the assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II. The bugs had been transmitting until that time.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teilhard de Chardin.", "content": "On 10 June 1981, on the 100th anniversary of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin's birth, \"L'Osservatore Romano\", the official Vatican newspaper, published a letter by Casaroli that praised the \"astonishing resonance of his research, as well as the brilliance of his personality and richness of his thinking.\" Casaroli wrote that Teilhard had anticipated John Paul II's call to \"be not afraid\", embracing \"culture, civilization and progress\". The letter was antedated 12 May 1981, the day prior to the attempted assassination of Pope John Paul II, but was published during his convalescence. On 20 July 1981, a communiqué of the Press Office of the Holy See stated that the letter did not change the position of the warning issued by the Holy Office on 30 June 1962, which pointed out that Chardin's work contained ambiguities and grave doctrinal errors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Cardinal Casaroli was portrayed by veteran character actor Ben Gazzara in the 2005 miniseries, \"Pope John Paul II\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agostino Casaroli (24 November 1914 – 9 June 1998) was an Italian Catholic priest and diplomat for the Holy See, who became Cardinal Secretary of State. He was the most important figure behind the Vatican's efforts to deal with the persecution of the Church in the nations of the Soviet bloc after the Second Vatican Council.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974066}
{"src_title": "Lagotto Romagnolo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Lagotto Romagnolo is a curly coated dog with an appearance of being robust and hardy. All colors are allowed except black, the coat is dense and wooly in texture. The body is square and classified as medium in size.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "The Lagotto is a Sporting breed. They generally have sharp senses, although their eyesight is more sensitive to motion than to detail. The breed is very loyal and loving, making them the perfect family companion. Some are easy to train, and many get along with other animals quite easily if they are socialized as puppies. Lagotti vary in their need for exercise, but should always be given stimulation to keep their minds occupied. In 1996 the first pair (Reno and Rosetta) in the UK, came from the Mandriole kennels near Comacchio where the dogs were still worked from traditional flat-bottomed punts as duck retrievers. These Lagotti, through subsequent exports from the UK which provided the foundation stock for Canada, USA and Australia, can be found behind many Lagotti worldwide. Visitors to the Lagotto Romagnolo Club of Great Britain breed, which stand at the world-famous Crufts Dog Show in the UK, will have seen photographs of British Lagotti (including Rosetta) retrieving hare, rabbit and various types of wildfowl. It is also worth noting that the photograph on the back of the first official video produced in Italy circa 1996, showed a group of Lagotti working - not truffling, but duck-shooting from a punt. In that punt were the parents and grandparents of Rosetta and Reno. The instinct to hunt, swim and retrieve is inborn and does not have to be encouraged. Lagotti have to be trained from an early age to look for truffles.  In modern times, the Lagotto has been bred primarily as a truffle-searching dog, and not as a retriever or hunting dog. Its highly developed nose makes it a prime search dog.  Some Lagotti are excellent swimmers, while some will only paddle. Some will retrieve from lakes, streams and other bodies of water without hesitation. They are lovable family pets and tend to like attention. Lagotti love to dig. Many owners give them a sandbox, or have a designated place to allow them to satisfy their digging urges. They also love to play seeking games and have very active and clever minds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Grooming.", "content": "There are conflicting ideas on how to groom this breed. Some say they should be brushed regularly and others believe their coat should be allowed to grow to a naturally fluffy coat. The Lagotto coat gets matted easily, and the mats should be carefully pulled apart without tearing the coat. The Lagotto has a thick, waterproof double coat of hair rather than fur and should be groomed on a regular basis. It is recommended that the coat be cut down at least once every year.  If the coat is kept trimmed to approximately 1.5 inches all over the body and slightly longer on the head, it will be easier to maintain. Hair on the ears should be trimmed around the edges to the leather. If the ears show irritation or buildup of dirt and earwax, the hairs from the ear canal should be gently plucked out regularly. Some coats matt more easily than others. If left untended, Lagotti hair will grow to cover the eyes. The hair around their eyes should be clipped periodically to ensure that they can see.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Show grooming.", "content": "In the United States, the coat should be shown in a rustic style with no fluffing or blowing out. The coat should match the lines of the dog and the curls should be evident. The dog should have the appearance of the working dog that it is. If clipped down, the coat will need about 3 months of growth to be ready to show. Otherwise, shaping can be performed before a competition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "Lagotto live roughly 15–17 years. Some health issues, especially neurological disorders are associated with this breed; however, these are mostly attributable to poor breeding. Genetically testing prior to breeding is necessary to avoid the most common diseases in the breed. Issues include:  A new neurodegenerative disorder, called \"Neuroaxonal Dystrophy\", that was originally identified in Spanish Water Dogs has been identified in the breed in 2016. It is not known yet whether it is related to the disorders already associated with the Lagotto Romagnolo. https://os.genoscoper.com/crm/disorders/323_TECPR2_SWD/os/323_TECPR2_SWD.pdf  Lagotto puppies are crucial in research regarding epilepsy. In July 2011, researchers in Finland reported the discovery of a mutation in a gene called Lgi2 that may be a new candidate gene for human benign childhood epilepsy. Lgi2 is the first gene that can be linked directly to the remission that carriers experience after the age of ten. Lagotto breeders are now using genetic tests to screen for the mutation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Lagotto is a breed of water retriever from the lowlands of Comacchio and marshlands of Ravenna, Italy. Modern water retrieving dog breeds are believed to have descended in part from the Lagotto Romagnolo.  Andrea Mantegna in the 1474 work titled \"The Meeting\" depicts a small dog in the lower left corner that resembles a Lagotto.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lagotto Romagnolo (plural Lagotti) is a breed of dog that comes from the Romagna sub-region of Italy. The name derives from Romagnol \"can lagòt\", meaning \"water dog\". Its traditional function is a gundog, specifically a water retriever; however, it is often used to hunt for truffles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974067}
{"src_title": "Yakovlev Yak-42", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1972, the Yakovlev design bureau started work on a short- to medium-range airliner capable of carrying 100–120 passengers. It was intended to be a replacement for the Tupolev Tu-134 jet as well as the Ilyushin Il-18, Antonov An-24 and An-26 turboprop airliners. While the new airliner was required to operate out of relatively small airfields while maintaining good economy, as many Soviet airports had been upgraded to accommodate more advanced aircraft, it did not have to have the same ability to operate from grass strips as Yakovlev's smaller Yak-40. The requirement resulted in the largest, heaviest and most powerful aircraft designed by Yakovlev, until the even larger MC-21 took flight in 2017.  Initial design proposals included a straight-wing airliner powered by two Soloviev D-30 turbofans and resembling an enlarged Yak-40, but this was rejected as it was considered uncompetitive compared to Western airliners powered by high bypass ratio turbofans. Yakovlev settled on a design powered by three of the new Lotarev D-36 three-shaft high-bypass turbofans, which were to provide 63.90 kN (14,330 lbf) of thrust. Unlike the Yak-40, the new airliner would have swept wings.  The Yak-42 is a low-winged monoplane of all-metal construction, with a design lifespan of 30,000 one-hour flights. It has a pressurised fuselage of circular section, with the cabin designed to carry 120 passengers in six-abreast layout (or 100 passengers for local services with greater space allocated to carry-on luggage and coat stowage). The aircraft is flown by a flight crew of two pilots sitting side by side in a flight deck forward of the cabin. Access is via two airstairs, one in the underside of the rear fuselage, like that of the Yak-40, and one forward of the cabin on the port side. Two holds are located under the cabin, carrying baggage, cargo and mail.  All of the prototypes had main landing gear with two wheels each, with the first serial production aircraft, four main wheels were introduced. The wing layout underwent considerable revision during the design process, with the first prototype being built with a wing sweep of 11 degrees and the second prototype with a sweep of 23 degrees. After evaluation, the greater sweep of the second prototype was chosen for production. Early aircraft had a clean wing leading edge with no control surfaces, and plain trailing edge flaps. This changed in later aircraft, which were fitted with leading edge slats, with the trailing edge flaps slotted. Two engines were mounted in pods on either side of the rear fuselage, with the third embedded inside the rear fuselage, fed with air via an \"S-duct\" air inlet. An auxiliary power unit (APU) is also fitted in the rear fuselage. No thrust reversers are fitted. The aircraft has a T-tail, with both the vertical fin and the horizontal surfaces swept.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Testing.", "content": "The first of three prototypes, which was fitted with an 11-degree wing and registered \"SSSR-1974\", made its maiden flight on 7 March 1975. It was followed by the second prototype, (\"SSSR-1975\") with the 23-degree wing and a cabin with 20 rows of windows instead of 17 in the first prototype, and a third prototype (\"SSSR-1976\") fitted with improved de-icing gear.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In service.", "content": "The first production aircraft was completed on 28 April 1978, with the first scheduled passenger flight, on the Aeroflot Moscow-Krasnodar route taking place on 22 December 1980. Production was at first slow, with only 10 flown by mid-1981. Initial aircraft were fitted for 120 seats in a three-plus-three arrangement. This was soon changed to a first class section with two-plus-two seating, and a main cabin with 96 seats, giving a total of 104 seats.  In its first year of operation Aeroflot's Yak-42s carried about 200,000 passengers, mainly on routes from Moscow, but also on international services from Leningrad to Helsinki and from Donetsk to Prague, with the type being planned to enter wider service throughout the Aeroflot fleet. On 28 June 1982, however, the tailplane detached from an Aeroflot Yak-42 in flight owing to a failure of the actuator screw jack, causing the aircraft to crash fatally near Mazyr. The type was grounded as a result, not returning to service until October 1984.  An export order for seven aircraft was announced in 1982 by Aviogenex of Yugoslavia, but the contract lapsed. The availability of the longer-range Yak-42D variant from 1991 onwards gave rise to a few more export sales, to Bosnia, China, Cuba, and Iran. As of 1 January 1995 a total of 185 Yak-42 had been produced, including 105 Yak-42Ds.  Original production version. Max. takeoff weight 54,000 kg (119,050 lb). Version with modified avionics for use on international use (\"mezhdunarodnyye linii\" – international services). Entered service in July 1981 on the Leningrad-Helsinki route. Long-range version (\"Dahl'niy\" – long range) increased fuel. Replaced standard Yak-42 in production.  Derivative of Yak-42D with updated, western AlliedSignal avionics, spoilers to allow faster descent and enlarged cabin door to accommodate jet bridge. Also designated Yak-42A, Yak-42-100 and Yak-42D-100. Yak-42 used as testbed for radar for Yakovlev Yak-141 fighter. Conversion of a Yak-42 for geophysical survey and environmental monitoring. Fitted with large underwing pods containing electro-optical sensors. Conversion as testbed for Progress D-236 propfan engine. Single D-236 (rated at 8,090 kW (10,850shp)) mounted in place of starboard engine, on special pylon to give sufficient clearance for 4.2 m (13 ft 93⁄4 in) propellers. First flew 15 March 1991. A projected but unbuilt stretched airliner. Planned to be powered by three Progress D-436 turbofans, a stretched fuselage and new wings. Design developed into Yak-242. Further developed Yak-42M, with two underwing Aviadvigatel PS-90 turbofans. Design evolved into Irkut MC-21.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operators.", "content": "As of July 2019, 22 Yak-42s remained in commercial airline service. Operators are Izhavia (8), KrasAvia (10) and Turuhan Aviacompany (4).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accidents and incidents.", "content": "As of 15 February 2018, nine fatal Yak-42 accidents have occurred with a total of 570 casualties.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Yakovlev Yak-42 (; NATO reporting name: \"Clobber\") is a 100/120-seat three-engined mid-range passenger jet. It was the first airliner produced in the Soviet Union to be powered by modern high-bypass turbofan engines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974068}
{"src_title": "Ismail I", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"Tabiteuea\" is Gilbertese for \"no chief allowed\"; the island is traditionally egalitarian. In the late 1800s, the two islands were the site of a religious war when the populace of Tabiteuea North converted to Christianity and, led by a Hawaiian pastor called Kapu who had assembled a \"hymn-singing army on a crusade\", invaded and conquered Tabiteuea South, which had maintained traditional religious practice.  The Battle of Drummond's Island occurred during the United States Exploring Expedition in April 1841 at Tabiteuea, then known as Drummond's Island. After one sailor from sloop USS \"Peacock\", was captured by the islanders, the US party decided on exacting redress for the incident. Twelve islanders were killed in the fighting and others were wounded.  During the US Civil War, the Confederate States Navy steamer CSS Shenandoah visited the island on March 23, 1865 in search of United States whalers, but the whalers had fled the area. Captain James Waddell described the islanders as \"of copper colour, short of statue, athletic in form, intelligent and docile\" and were \"without a stitch of clothing\".  Tabiteuea Post Office opened around 1911 and was renamed Tabiteuea North around 1972. Tabiteuea South Post Office opened on 13 September 1965.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "There is a government high school, Tabiteuea North Senior Secondary School, also known as Teabike College. Located in Eita, it serves the entire island.  There is also a government junior high school, Takoronga School in Terikiai, serving all of Tab North.  The elementary schools on Tab North are all government schools. They include:  Students from Bangai may attend either Nukantewaa School or Ueen Maungan te Raoi School; Bangai does not have enough residents, so the Kiribati authorities do not operate a school there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Exhibit: The Alfred Agate Collection: The United States Exploring Expedition, 1838-1842 from the Navy Art Gallery", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ismail I (, ; July 17, 1487 – May 23, 1524), also known as Shah Ismail I (), was the founder of the Safavid dynasty, ruling from 1501 to 23 May 1524 as Shah of Iran (Persia).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974069}
{"src_title": "José Sanjurjo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sanjurjo was born in Pamplona. His father, Captain Justo Sanjurjo Bonrostra, was a Carlist. His mother was Carlota Sacanell Desojo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "He served in Cuba in 1896, in the Rif War (1909) in Morocco, and in the Rif War (1920), including the regaining of the territory in Melilla lost after the Battle of Annual in 1921. In 1922, he was assigned to investigate corruption in the army command of Larache. He was High Commissioner of Spain in Morocco and reached the rank of lieutenant general. In 1925 he participated in the amphibious landing at Alhucemas. With the completion of the 1920 Rif War, King Alfonso XIII awarded him the \"Gran Cruz de Carlos III\" on 28 March 1931. In 1928 he was made chief of a main directorate of the Civil Guard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "During the Second Republic.", "content": "In 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera came to power in a military coup, ruling Spain as dictator. Gradually, Primo de Rivera's support faded, and he resigned in January 1930. General Dámaso Berenguer was ordered by the king to form a replacement government, which annoyed Sanjurjo, who considered himself far better qualified. Berenguer's dictablanda dictatorship failed to provide a viable alternative to Primo de Rivera. In the municipal elections of 12 April 1931, little support was shown for pro-monarchy parties in the major cities, and large numbers of people gathered in the streets of Madrid. Asked if the government could count on the support of Sanjurjo's Civil Guard, he rejected the suggestion. King Alfonso XIII abdicated, and the Second Spanish Republic was formed.  Despite Azaña's military reforms of 1931, Sanjurjo retained his post as the commander of the Civil Guard; under his command they continued to use their traditionally brutal tactics such as the \"ley de fugas\", the excuse of shooting prisoners and later claiming that they were attempting to escape during an incident of unrest in Seville.  Sanjurjo became one of the first generals appointed to the command of the Spanish Republican Army. His sympathies, however, remained with the monarchist cause. When he clashed with Prime Minister Manuel Azaña over the military reforms, he was replaced by General Miguel Cabanellas. He was demoted to chief of the customs officers in 1932 as a result of the events of Castilblanco and Arnedo involving the Civil Guard. His confrontation with the ministry, Azaña's military reforms, and the grants of regional autonomy to Catalonia and the Basque Country, led Sanjurjo to plot a rebellion with some Carlists under Manuel Fal Conde, Tomás Domínguez Arévalo, and other military officers. This rebellion, which was known as the Sanjurjada, was proclaimed in Seville on 10 August 1932. Sanjurjo asserted that the rebellion was only against the current ministry and not against the Republic. It achieved initial success in Seville but absolute failure in Madrid. Sanjurjo attempted to flee to Portugal, but in Huelva he decided to give himself up.  He was condemned to death, a sentence which was later commuted to life imprisonment in the penitentiary of the Dueso. In March 1934 he was granted amnesty by the Lerroux government and went into exile in Estoril, Portugal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coup.", "content": "When Niceto Alcalá-Zamora was replaced as President of the Republic by Azaña on 10 May 1936, Sanjurjo joined with Generals Emilio Mola, Francisco Franco and Gonzalo Queipo de Llano in a plot to overthrow the republican government. This led to the Nationalist uprising on 17 July 1936, which started the Spanish Civil War.  Determined to annihilate the Spanish Republic, when he was asked to become the leader of the rebellion by envoy Luis Bolín on 12 July 1936, Sanjurjo declared:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 20 July 1936, Sanjurjo was killed in Estoril in a plane crash, when he tried to fly back to Spain. He chose to fly in a small biplane aircraft piloted by Juan Antonio Ansaldo. One of the main reasons for the crash was the heavy luggage that Sanjurjo insisted on bringing. Ansaldo had warned him that the load was too heavy, but Sanjurjo answered back: \"I need to wear proper clothes as the new caudillo of Spain.\"  Unaccountably, Sanjurjo chose to fly in Ansaldo's plane rather than a much larger and more suitable airplane that was available. The larger plane was an 8-passenger de Havilland Dragon Rapide, the same one which had transported Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco. Sanjurjo, however, apparently preferred the drama of flying with a \"daring aviator\" such as Ansaldo (who himself survived the crash).  When Mola also died in an aircraft accident, Franco was left as the sole effective leader of the Nationalist cause. This led to rumors that Franco had arranged the deaths of his two rivals, but no evidence has ever been produced to support that allegation.  In 2017 the Historical Memory Law was applied by the authorities of Navarre and required that the general's remains be disinterred, over the objections of surviving family, and reburied in the military section of a municipal cemetery in the Spanish city of Melilla—an enclave on the coast of Morocco where the general had once been in command. Further controversy ensued when the general was buried with military honors in a military Pantheon of Heroes, as confirmed by the army. The government of Navarre received assurances from the Ministry of Defense that special \"honors were not offered\" and that the remains were received as \"just one more soldier\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "The opening of the alternate history fiction writer Harry Turtledove's novel \"Hitler's War\", in his series \"The War That Came Early\", begins with Sanjurjo's flight from Portugal. The point of divergence is that he accepts the pilot's advice and abandons the luggage, the flight no longer being overloaded and thus arriving safely. His behaviour from that point on is described as if he diverged from that of the actual Franco, with Spain taking a less isolated role in World War II, joining the Axis Powers.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "General José Sanjurjo y Sacanell, 1st Marquess of the Rif (; 28 March 1872 – 20 July 1936), was the senior of the three leaders of the Nationalist coup of July 1936, which started the Spanish Civil War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974070}
{"src_title": "Second Council of Lyon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Union of the Churches.", "content": "Wishing to end the Great Schism that divided the Catholic Church from Eastern Orthodoxy, Pope Gregory X sent an embassy to Michael VIII, who had reconquered Constantinople, putting an end to the remnants of the Latin Empire in the East, and he asked Latin despots in the East to curb their ambitions. Eastern dignitaries arrived at Lyon on 24 June 1274 presenting a letter from the Emperor. On 29 June 1274 (the Feast of Peter and Paul, patronal feast of the popes), Gregory celebrated Mass in St John's Church where both sides took part. The Greeks read the Nicene Creed, with the Western addition of the Filioque clause sung three times. The council was seemingly a success, but did not provide a lasting solution to the schism; the Emperor was anxious to heal the schism, but the Eastern clergy opposed the decisions of the Council. Patriarch Joseph of Constantinople abdicated, and was replaced by John Bekkos, a convert to the cause of union. In spite of a sustained campaign by Bekkos to defend the union intellectually, and vigorous and brutal repression of opponents by Michael, the vast majority of Byzantine Christians remained implacably opposed to union with the Latin \"heretics\". Michael's death in December 1282 put an end to the union of Lyons. His son and successor Andronicus II repudiated the union in the Council of Blachernae (1285), and Bekkos was forced to abdicate, being eventually exiled and imprisoned under house arrest until his death in 1297.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plans for a Crusade.", "content": "The council drew up plans for a crusade to recover the Holy Land, which was to be financed by a tithe imposed for 6 years on all the benefices of Christendom. The plans were approved but nothing concrete was done. James I of Aragon wished to organize the expedition at once, but this was opposed by the Knights Templar.  Ambassadors of the Khan of the Tatars negotiated with the Pope, who asked them to leave Christians in peace during their war against Islam. The Mongol leader Abaqa Khan sent a delegation of 13-16 Mongols to the Council, which created a great stir, particularly when their leader underwent a public baptism. Among the embassy were David of Ashby, and the clerk Rychaldus. According to one chronicler, \"The Mongols came, not because of the Faith, but to conclude an alliance with the Christians\".  Abaqa's Latin secretary Rychaldus delivered a report to the Council, which outlined previous European-Ilkhanid relations under Abaqa's father, Hulagu, where after welcoming the Christian ambassadors to his court, Hulagu had agreed to exempt Latin Christians from taxes and charges, in exchange for their prayers for the Qaghan. According to Richardus, Hulagu had also prohibited the molestation of Frank establishments, and had committed to return Jerusalem to the Franks. Richardus told the assembly that even after Hulagu's death, Abaqa was still determined to drive the Mamluks from Syria.  At the Council, Pope Gregory promulgated a new Crusade to start in 1278 in liaison with the Mongols. The Pope put in place a vast program to launch the Crusade, which was written down in his “Constitutions for the zeal of the faith”. This text puts forward four main decisions to accomplish the Crusade: the imposition of a new tax during three years, the interdiction of any kind of trade with the Saracens, the supply of ships by the Italian maritime Republics, and the alliance of the West with Byzantium and the Il-Khan Abagha. However, despite papal plans, there was little support from European monarchs, who at this point were more likely to give lip service to the idea of a Crusade than to commit actual troops. The Pope's death in 1276 put an end to any such plans, and the money that had been gathered was instead distributed in Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other topics debated.", "content": "The council dealt with the reform of the Church, regarding which Gregory had sent out inquiries. Several bishops and abbots were deposed for unworthiness, and some mendicant orders were suppressed. On the other hand, the two new orders of Dominicans and Franciscans were approved.  There had been several lengthy vacancies of the Holy See, most recently the \"sede vacante\" that had lasted from the death of Clement IV, 29 November 1268, until Gregory's election, 1 September 1271. The council decided that in future the cardinals should not leave the conclave until they had elected a pope. This decision was suspended in 1276 by Pope Adrian V, and then revoked by Pope John XXI. It has since been re-established, and is the basis of present legislation on papal elections.  Lyon II was the first council to define the doctrine of Purgatory.  Finally, the council dealt with the Imperial throne, which Alfonso X of Castile claimed. His claim was disallowed by the Pope, and Rudolph I was proclaimed King of the Romans and future emperor on 6 June 1274.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Second Council of Lyon was the fourteenth ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, convoked on 31 March 1272 and convened in Lyon, Kingdom of Arles (in modern France), in 1274. Pope Gregory X presided over the council, called to act on a pledge by Byzantine emperor Michael VIII to reunite the Eastern church with the West. The council was attended by about 300 bishops, 60 abbots and more than a thousand prelates or their procurators, among whom were the representatives of the universities. Due to the great number of attendees, those who had come to Lyon without being specifically summoned were given \"leave to depart with the blessing of God\" and of the Pope. Among others who attended the council were James I of Aragon, the ambassador of the Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos with members of the Greek clergy and the ambassadors of Abaqa Khan of the Ilkhanate. Thomas Aquinas had been summoned to the council, but died en route at Fossanova Abbey. Bonaventure was present at the first four sessions, but died at Lyon on 15 July 1274. As at the First Council of Lyon, Thomas Cantilupe was an English attender and a papal chaplain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974071}
{"src_title": "Konstantin Feoktistov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "During the Nazi occupation of Voronezh, at the age of just 16, Feoktistov fought with the Soviet Army against the German troops, carrying out reconnaissance missions for the Voronezh Front. After being captured by a Waffen-SS Army patrol, Feoktistov was shot by a German officer. However, the bullet went right through his chin and neck and did not kill him. Feoktistov was able to crawl out later and then make his way to the Soviet lines.  After the war was over, Feoktistov enrolled in the Bauman Moscow Higher Technical School as an engineering student and he graduated in 1949. Feoktistov also later earned a doctorate in physics. He joined Mikhail Tikhonravov's OKB (design bureau), and in 1955, Feoktistov formed part of the team that went on to design the Sputnik satellites, the Vostok space capsule, the Voskhod space capsule, and the Soyuz space capsule under the leadership of the Soviet Chief Designer Sergey Korolev. During this time, Feoktistov also worked on a design for an ion-propelled spacecraft to be capable of taking humans to Mars.  In 1964, Feoktistov was selected as part of a group of engineers for cosmonaut training, and in October of that very same year, he was hastily assigned to the multi-disciplinary Voskhod 1 crew. He was the first civilian to make a space flight, and the only cosmonaut in the Soviet Union who was not a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. During his space flight, he spent just over 24 hours and 17 minutes in space.  After the flight of Voskhod 1, Feoktistov's training for any further space mission was discontinued for medical reasons. However, Feoktistov continued his outer space engineering work, and he later became the head of the Soviet space design bureau that designed the Salyut and Mir space stations.  In October 1969, Konstantin Feoktistov and Georgi Beregovoi traveled as guests of NASA throughout the US, visiting any city they chose and Disneyland in California – they were joined on the trip by US astronauts as hosts, including Eugene Cernan, Neil Armstrong and others. Kirk Douglas and others hosted receptions for them in Hollywood – they were protected by special agents of the US State Department on request of NASA. Almost every place they went when accompanied by Eugene Cernan, if a band was present the song \"Fly Me to the Moon\" was played – when they visited Disneyland they enjoyed the ride Trip To The Moon, then joked with the US astronauts that they went to Disneyland and not the moon. It was a trip that all enjoyed and international friendships were made. Feoktistov resigned from his engineering position with Energia and then returned to Bauman Moscow Higher Technical School as a professor in 1990.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Konstantin Petrovich Feoktistov (; 7 February 1926 – 21 November 2009) was a Soviet cosmonaut and an eminent space engineer. As a cosmonaut Feoktistov flew on Voskhod 1, the first spacecraft to carry three crew members. Feoktistov also wrote several books on space technology and exploration. The Feoktistov crater on the far side of the Moon is named in his honor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974072}
{"src_title": "Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born Laurent Gouvion in Toul, Three Bishoprics (now Meurthe-et-Moselle), the eldest child of Jean-Baptiste Gouvion, a tanner, and his wife Anne-Marie Mercier. He adopted the name Saint-Cyr after his mother, who had abandoned him at an early age.  He went to Rome when he was eighteen in order to study painting, but, although he continued his artistic studies after his return to Paris in 1784, he never adopted the profession of a painter.  He married Anne Gouvion (Toul, 2 November 1775 - Paris, 18 June 1844) and had issue, including Laurent François, Marquis de Gouvion Saint-Cyr (30 December 1815 - 30 January 1904), married in Saint-Bouize on 17 August 1847 to Marie Adélaïde Bachasson de Montalivet (5 November 1828 - 14 April 1880), daughter of Marthe Camille Bachasson, Count of Montalivet, and had issue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revolutionary Wars.", "content": "In 1792 he was chosen a captain in a volunteer battalion, and served on the staff of General Custine. Promotion rapidly followed, and in the course of two years he rose to \"chef de brigade\", \"général de brigade\" and \"général de division\". He commanded the centre division of Jean Victor Marie Moreau's army in the Rhine Campaign of 1796, aiding in the celebrated retreat from Bavaria to the Rhine.  In 1798 he succeeded André Masséna in the command of the army of Italy. In the following year he commanded the left wing of Jean-Baptiste Jourdan's army fighting in Germany; when Jourdan was succeeded by Masséna, he joined the army of Moreau in Italy, where he distinguished himself in face of the great difficulties that followed the defeat of Novi. Moreau disliked Saint-Cyr for his sense of righteousness and incorruptibility. Rumours were soon spreading that Saint-Cyr was a \"bad bed fellow\". Moreau also accused him of not supporting his brother generals though General Ney and Davout often thanked him for support after battles. When Moreau, in 1800, was appointed to the command of the army of the Rhine, Gouvion Saint-Cyr was named his principal lieutenant, and on 9 May gained a victory over General Kray at Biberach. He was not, however, on good terms with his commander and retired to France after the first operations of the campaign.  In 1801 he was sent to Spain to command the army intended for the invasion of Portugal (\"see War of the Oranges\"), and was named grand officer of the Legion of Honour. When a treaty of peace was shortly afterwards concluded with Portugal, he succeeded Lucien Bonaparte as ambassador at Madrid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "Saint-Cyr was a stoic in an age of pragmatism and glory. His refusal to sign the proclamation of congratulation for declaring the birth of the empire resulted in his name not being included in the first list of Napoleonic Marshals, while commanders such as Lannes, Bessières and Soult who had not had independent command experience were included. For the whole of his life Saint-Cyr believed that Napoleon deliberately refused him troops just to disgrace him. In 1803 he was appointed to the command of an army corps in Italy, in 1805 he served with distinction under Masséna, and in 1806 he was engaged in the campaign in southern Italy. When he returned to Paris to protest his treatment in Naples, Napoleon sent him back to his post on pain of death. He took part in the 1807 campaigns in Prussia and Poland, and in 1808, in which year he was made a count, he commanded an army corps in Catalonia; but, not wishing to comply with certain orders he received from Paris, he resigned his command and remained in disgrace till 1811.  He was still a \"général de division\", having been excluded from the first list of marshals. On the opening of the Russian campaign, Saint-Cyr received command of the VI Corps, and on 18 August 1812 won a victory over the Russians at Polotsk, in recognition of which he was made a marshal. The Russians, under Barclay de Tolly, were burning everything as they retreated back towards Moscow, and had just burned nearby Smolensk. It was just prior to the victory at Polotsk on the banks of the Daugava river, however, that Oudinot was wounded, and thus Saint-Cyr assumed his command.  In October 1812 Saint-Cyr was driven out of Polotsk. He received a severe wound in one of the battles during the general retreat. Saint-Cyr distinguished himself at the battle of Dresden (26–27 August 1813) and in the defence of that place against the Allies after the battle of Leipzig, capitulating only on 11 November, when Napoleon had retreated to the Rhine. In this year, Saint Cyr's relation with the Emperor warmed as Napoleon commented that Saint Cyr had no match in all of the marshalate and was the equal of Napoleon himself in defence. On the day he received his long overdue baton he wrote a lengthy letter to his wife and true to his character he devoted only one line to his promotion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Last years.", "content": "On the Bourbon Restoration he was created a Peer of France, and in July 1815 was appointed War Minister, but resigned his office in the following November. During this appointment he tried to assist long-time friend and fellow marshal Michel Ney by providing him a jury of four other Napoleonic Marshals, but was disgraced when Marshal Moncey refused to even sit in it. In June 1817 he was appointed Marine Minister a pretext for him to resume the place of War Minister, which he did in September and continued to discharge till November 1819. During this time he initiated many reforms, particularly in respect of measures tending to make the army a national rather than a dynastic force. He made efforts to safeguard the rights of veteran soldiers of the Empire, organized the General Staff, and revised the code of military law and the pension regulations. He was made a marquess in 1817. Laurent de Gouvion-Saint-Cyr died on 17 March 1830 in Hyères, a town in the southeast of France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "Marshal Saint-Cyr is mentioned in Joseph Conrad's short story \"The Duel\" (as well as Ridley Scott's film adaptation The Duellists) as the commander of Armand d'Hubert after the second and final restoration of Louis XVIII as King of France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, 1st Marquis of Gouvion-Saint-Cyr (13 April 1764 – 17 March 1830) was a French commander in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars who rose to Marshal of the Empire and Marquis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974073}
{"src_title": "M. King Hubbert", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Hubbert was born in San Saba, Texas. He attended the University of Chicago, where he received his B.S. in 1926, his M.S. in 1928, and his Ph.D in 1937, studying geology, mathematics, and physics. He worked as an assistant geologist for the Amerada Petroleum Company for two years while pursuing his Ph.D., additionally teaching geophysics at Columbia University. He also served as a senior analyst at the Board of Economic Warfare. He joined the Shell Oil Company in 1943, retiring from that firm in 1964. After he retired from Shell, he became a senior research geophysicist for the United States Geological Survey until his retirement in 1976. He also held positions as a professor of geology and geophysics at Stanford University from 1963 to 1968, and as a professor at UC Berkeley from 1973 to 1976.  Hubbert was an avid technocrat. He co-founded Technocracy Incorporated with Howard Scott. Hubbert wrote a study course that was published without attribution called the Technocracy Study Course, which advocates a non-market economics form of energy accounting, in contrast to the current price system method. Hubbert was a member of the board of governors, and served as secretary of education in that organization.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Hubbert made several contributions to geophysics, including a mathematical demonstration that rock in the earth's crust, because it is under immense pressure in large areas, should exhibit plasticity, similar to clay. This demonstration explained the observed results that the earth's crust deforms over time. He also studied the flow of underground fluids.  Based on theoretical arguments, Hubbert (1940) proposed a constitutive equation formula_1 for absolute permeability formula_2 of an underground water or oil reservoir where formula_3 is the average grain diameter and formula_4 is a dimensionless proportionality constant. However, Kozeny (1927) proposed a constitutive equation for absolute permeability which contains Hubbert's proposal as a factor. Hubbert (1940, 1956) also presented a force potential, denoted formula_5 or formula_6, that bears his name:  Some years later Hubbert (1956) showed that Darcy's law can be derived from the Navier-Stokes equation of motion of a viscous fluid.  Hubbert is best known for his studies on the size of oil fields and natural gas reserves, and the limits these impose on rates of oil and gas production. He predicted that, for an oil-producing area, from an oil-producing province, a nation, or the planet as a whole, the rate of petroleum production of the reserve over time would resemble a bell curve. Based on his theory, he presented a paper to the 1956 meeting of the American Petroleum Institute in San Antonio, Texas, which predicted that overall petroleum production would peak in the United States between 1965, which he considered most likely, and 1970, which he considered an upper-bound. At first his prediction received much criticism, for the most part because many other predictions of oil capacity had been made over the preceding half century, but these had usually been based on the reserves-to-production ratio, had not taken into account future discoveries, and had proven false. Hubbert became famous when U.S. oil production peaked in 1970 and began to decline, as he had predicted.  In 1974, Hubbert projected that global oil production would peak in 1995 \"if current trends continue\". Various subsequent predictions have been made by others as trends have fluctuated in the intervening years.  Hubbert believed that solar power would be a practical renewable energy replacement for fossil fuels, and that nuclear energy in breeder reactors would be able to sustain us for centuries. He also states that \"provided world population can somehow be brought under control, we may at last have found an energy supply (uranium) adequate for our needs for at least the next few centuries of the 'foreseeable future'.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contributions.", "content": "Hubbert's contributions to science have been summarized as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Accolades.", "content": "Hubbert was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was long affiliated with the Geological Society of America, receiving their Arthur L. Day Medal in 1954, being elected President of the Society in 1962, and receiving the Society's Penrose Medal in 1973. He received the Vetlesen Prize from the G. Unger Vetlesen Foundation and Columbia University in 1981. He also received the Elliott Cresson Medal in 1981.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marion King Hubbert (October 5, 1903 – October 11, 1989) was an American geologist and geophysicist. He worked at the Shell research lab in Houston, Texas. He made several important contributions to geology, geophysics, and petroleum geology, most notably the Hubbert curve and Hubbert peak theory (a basic component of peak oil), with important political ramifications. He was often referred to as \"M. King Hubbert\" or \"King Hubbert\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974074}
{"src_title": "Heinrich Glarean", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "After a thorough early training in music, Glarean enrolled in the University of Cologne, where he studied theology, philosophy, and mathematics as well as music. It was there that he wrote a famous poem as a tribute to Emperor Maximilian I. Shortly afterwards, in Basle, he met Erasmus and the two humanists became lifelong friends.  Glarean's first publication on music, a modest volume entitled \"Isagoge in musicen\", was in 1516. In it he discusses the basic elements of music; probably it was used for teaching. But his most famous book, and one of the most famous and influential works on music theory written during the Renaissance, was the \"Dodecachordon\", which he published in Basle in 1547. This massive work includes writings on philosophy and biography in addition to music theory, and includes no less than 120 complete compositions by composers of the preceding generation (including Josquin, Ockeghem, Obrecht, Isaac and many others). In three parts, it begins with a study of Boethius, who wrote extensively on music in the sixth century; it traces the use of the musical modes in plainsong (e.g. Gregorian chant) and monophony; and it closes with an extended study of the use of modes in polyphony.  The most significant feature of the \"Dodecachordon\" (literally, \"12-stringed instrument\") is Glarean's proposal that there are actually twelve modes, not eight, as had long been assumed, for instance in the works of the contemporary theorist Pietro Aron. The additional four modes included authentic and plagal forms of Aeolian (modes 9 and 10) and Ionian (modes 11 and 12) — the modes equivalent to minor and major scales, respectively. Glarean went so far as to say that the Ionian mode was the one most frequently used by composers in his day.  The influence of his work was immense. Many later theorists, including Zarlino, accepted the twelve modes, and though the distinction between plagal and authentic forms of the modes is no longer of contemporary interest (reducing the number from twelve to six), Glarean's explanation of the musical modes remains current today.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heinrich Glarean (also Glareanus) (28 February or 3 June 1488 – 28 March 1563) was a Swiss music theorist, poet and humanist. He was born in Mollis (in the canton of Glarus, hence his name) and died in Freiburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974075}
{"src_title": "Princess Friederike Luise of Prussia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "As the sixth child and third daughter of Frederick William I, Friederike Luise was a sister of Frederick II of Prussia, Queen Louisa Ulrika of Sweden, and Philippine Charlotte, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.  Through her mother, she was a granddaughter of George I of Great Britain, who became King of Britain the year she was born and died when she was 13. This thus made her a niece of George II of Great Britain, who was the king from 1727 to 1760 and died at age 77 when she was 46,and a cousin of Frederick, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess of Orange, and Queen Louise of Denmark and Norway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "On 30 May 1729 in Berlin, Friederike Luise married her Hohenzollern kinsman Karl Wilhelm Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (12 May 1712 – 3 August 1757). They had two children :", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "After the death of her older sister Charlotte Albertine (1713–1714), she was given special consideration and was allowed to grow up as she pleased. Her sister Wilhelmine of Bayreuth describes her in her memoirs as possessing a \"capricious and petty nature\". However, she also praised her talent and beauty.  Her marriage was arranged by her mother-in-law, the regent of Ansbach, and her father, who wished to gain influence in Ansbach. Her brother, King Frederick II, extended her appanage and received in return a regiment of soldiers from Ansbach.  The marriage was not happy; her spouse Karl Wilhelm Friedrich was known as \"The wild margrave\". He even remarked to King Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia that he had cheated by the marriage. Even on the trip to Ansbach in June 1729 for her wedding, Luise Friederike was suffering from symptoms of the metabolic disease porphyria. She suffered from nausea, vomiting and faintings during which she was \"dead as it seemed\". Her spouse claimed she was lame and had bad teeth. Initially, he would not sleep with her. Crown Prince Frederick of Prussia commented on the marriage in February 1732 in these terms: \"My sister and her husband the Ansbacher hate each other like fire.\" (»... ma soeur d'Anspac et son mari qui se Mr. haïssent comme le feu. \") At a window in the family room of the Ansbacher Residenz, she scratched this plea with a diamond in the glass:\" Je souffre sans oser le dire. \" (I suffer without daring to say it.)  At the birth of her son, Friederike Louise was given Hofmark Unterschwaningen as a residence. However, the Hereditary Prince Carl Friedrich August died on 9 May 1737. The Margrave and the whole court blamed Friederike Louise for his death. She separated from her spouse and lived more and more in the seclusion of Unterschwaningen, which she expanded artistically. Friederike Louise did not return to Ansbach until she became a widow in 1757. Her unhappiness was further compounded by the refusal of her surviving son to see or acknowledge her.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Friederike Luise of Prussia () (29 August 1714 – 4 February 1784) was a daughter of Frederick William I of Prussia and Sophia Dorothea of Hanover and Margravine of Brandenburg-Ansbach.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974076}
{"src_title": "Otto Christian Archibald von Bismarck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and diplomatic career.", "content": "He was the eldest of the three sons of Herbert von Bismarck, as well as the grandson of the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck and elder brother of Gottfried Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen. A lawyer, he became the owner of the family estate in Schönhausen and joined the diplomatic service in 1927, serving in Stockholm (1927–28), London (1928–37), with the Foreign Ministry in Berlin (1937–40), as Envoy to Rome (Kingdom of Italy) (1940–43), and finally as head of the Italian section of the Foreign Ministry (1943–44).  In August 1942, Bismarck was directed to request that Italy turn over Jewish refugees in Italian-occupied Croatia for deportation to the East. He disclosed to the Italian Foreign Minister Count Ciano that the goal was the \"dispersion and elimination\" of these Jews.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "He was a member of the DNVP (the conservative party) in the Weimar Republic, and served as a Member of Parliament from 1924 to 1928. In 1933 he joined the Nazi Party, which he represented in the Reichstag (an almost purely ceremonial roll in the Third Reich) until the end of the Second World War in 1945. In 1935 he became a member of the Anglo-German Fellowship. In the 1950s he considered becoming a member of the FDP (the liberal party), which offered him a nomination for Parliament, but eventually joined the conservative CDU instead. He served as a Member of Parliament for the constituency of \"Herzogtum Lauenburg\" (Duchy of Lauenburg, his grandfather held the title Duke of Lauenburg) from 1953 to 1965, and as a member of the foreign affairs committee. He was also a member of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, and served as its Vice President from 1959 to 1960 and from 1961 to 1966. He was also chairman of the Deutsche Parlamentarische Gesellschaft from 1957 to 1961. He received the Great Cross of Merit in 1965.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Bismarck married Ann-Mari Tengbom (1907–1999), a native of Sweden, daughter of Ivar Tengbom, on 18 April 1928, and they had six children:  His grandson Carl-Eduard von Bismarck served as a Member of Parliament, representing the CDU for the constituency \"Herzogtum Lauenburg\", from 2005 to 2007.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otto Christian Archibald, Prince of Bismarck (25 September 1897 in Schönhausen, Brandenburg – 24 December 1975), was a German politician and diplomat, and the Prince of Bismarck from 1904 to his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974077}
{"src_title": "Material conditional", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definitions.", "content": "Logicians have many different views on the nature of material implication and approaches to explain its sense.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a truth function.", "content": "The compound is \"false\" if and only if \"p\" is true and \"q\" is false. By the same stroke, is \"true\" if and only if either \"p\" is false or \"q\" is true (or both). The → symbol is a function that uses pairs of truth values of the components \"p,\" \"q\" (e.g., \"p\" is True, q is True... p is False, q is False) and maps it to the truth values of the compound. The truth value of is a function of the truth values of its components (\"p, q\"). Hence, this interpretation is called \"truth-functional\".  The compound is logically equivalent also to (either not \"p\", or \"q\" (or both)), and to (if not \"q\" then not \"p\"). It is, however, not equivalent to, which is instead equivalent to.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Truth table.", "content": "The truth table associated with the material conditional is identical to that of. It is as follows: In Boolean algebra, true and false can be denoted as 1 and 0 respectively with an equivalent table.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "As a formal connective.", "content": "The material conditional can be considered as a symbol of a formal theory, taken as a set of sentences, satisfying all the classical inferences involving →, in particular the following characteristic rules:  Unlike the truth-functional one, this approach to logical connectives permits the examination of structurally identical propositional forms in various logical systems, where somewhat different properties may be demonstrated. For example, in intuitionistic logic which rejects proofs by contraposition as valid rules of inference, is not a propositional theorem, but the material conditional is used to define negation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Natural language.", "content": "\"It is not the case that given formula_1 true, formula_2 won't be true.\"  \"Impossible formula_1 without formula_2.\" The word \"without\" doesn't mean \"because of the lack of\", but \"in absence of the consequent\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formal properties.", "content": "When studying logic formally, the material conditional is distinguished from the semantic consequence relation formula_5. We say formula_6 if every interpretation that makes \"A\" true also makes \"B\" true. However, there is a close relationship between the two in most logics, including classical logic. For example, the following principles hold:  These principles do not hold in all logics, however. Obviously they do not hold in non-monotonic logics, nor do they hold in relevance logics.  Other properties of implication (the following expressions are always true, for any logical values of variables):  Note that formula_21 is logically equivalent to formula_22; this property is sometimes called un/currying. Because of these properties, it is convenient to adopt a right-associative notation for → where formula_23 denotes formula_21.  Comparison of Boolean truth tables shows that formula_25 is equivalent to formula_26, and one is an equivalent replacement for the other in classical logic. See material implication (rule of inference).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophical problems with material conditional.", "content": "Outside of mathematics, it is a matter of some controversy as to whether the truth function for material implication provides an adequate treatment of conditional statements in a natural language such as English, i.e., indicative conditionals and counterfactual conditionals. An indicative conditional is a sentence in the indicative mood with a conditional clause attached. A counterfactual conditional is a false-to-fact sentence in the subjunctive mood. That is to say, critics argue that in some non-mathematical cases, the truth value of a compound statement, \"if \"p\" then \"q\"\", is not adequately determined by the truth values of \"p\" and \"q\". Examples of non-truth-functional statements include: \"\"q\" because \"p\"\", \"\"p\" before \"q\"\" and \"it is possible that \"p\"\".  \"[Of] the sixteen possible truth-functions of \"A\" and \"B\", material implication is the only serious candidate. First, it is uncontroversial that when \"A\" is true and \"B\" is false, \"If \"A\", \"B\"\" is false. A basic rule of inference is modus ponens: from \"If \"A\", \"B\"\" and \"A\", we can infer \"B\". If it were possible to have \"A\" true, \"B\" false and \"If \"A\", \"B\"\" true, this inference would be invalid. Second, it is uncontroversial that \"If \"A\", \"B\"\" is sometimes true when \"A\" and \"B\" are respectively (true, true), or (false, true), or (false, false)... Non-truth-functional accounts agree that \"If \"A\", \"B\"\" is false when \"A\" is true and \"B\" is false; and they agree that the conditional is sometimes true for the other three combinations of truth-values for the components; but they deny that the conditional is always true in each of these three cases. Some agree with the truth-functionalist that when \"A\" and \"B\" are both true, \"If \"A\", \"B\"\" must be true. Some do not, demanding a further relation between the facts that \"A\" and that \"B\".\"  The meaning of the material conditional can sometimes be used in the English \"if \"condition\" then \"consequence\"\" construction (a kind of conditional sentence), where \"condition\" and \"consequence\" are to be filled with English sentences. However, this construction also implies a \"reasonable\" connection between the condition (protasis) and consequence (apodosis) (see Connexive logic).  The material conditional can yield some unexpected truths when expressed in natural language. For example, any material conditional statement with a false antecedent is true (see vacuous truth). So the statement \"if 2 is odd then 2 is even\" is true. Similarly, any material conditional with a true consequent is true. So the statement \"if I have a penny in my pocket then Paris is in France\" is always true, regardless of whether or not there is a penny in my pocket. These problems are known as the paradoxes of material implication, though they are not really paradoxes in the strict sense; that is, they do not elicit logical contradictions. These unexpected truths arise because speakers of English (and other natural languages) are tempted to equivocate between the material conditional and the indicative conditional, or other conditional statements, like the counterfactual conditional and the material biconditional.  It is not surprising that a rigorously defined truth-functional operator does not correspond exactly to all notions of implication or otherwise expressed by \"if... then...\" sentences in natural languages. For an overview of some of the various analyses, formal and informal, of conditionals, see the \"References\" section below. Relevance logic attempts to capture these alternate concepts of implication that material implication glosses over.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The material conditional (also known as material implication, material consequence, or simply implication, implies, or conditional) is a logical connective (or a binary operator) that is often symbolized by a forward arrow \"→\". The material conditional is used to form statements of the form (termed a \"conditional statement\") which is read as \"if \"p\" then \"q\"\". Unlike the English construction \"if... then...\", the material conditional statement does not conventionally specify a causal relationship between \"p\" and \"q\"; \"\"p\" is the cause and \"q\" is the consequence from it\" is not a generally valid interpretation of. It merely means \"if \"p\" is true then \"q\" is also true\" such that the statement is false only when \"p\" is true and \"q\" is false. In a bivalent truth table of, if \"p\" is false then is true regardless of whether \"q\" is true or false (Latin phrase: \"ex falso quod libet\") since (1) \"p\" → \"q\" is always true as long \"q\" is true and (2) is true when both \"p\" and \"q\" are false. This truth table is useful to prove some mathematical theorems (e.g., defining a subset).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974078}
{"src_title": "Jean Daniélou", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and studies.", "content": "Jean-Guenolé-Marie Daniélou was born on 14 May 1905 in Neuilly-sur-Seine. He was the son of Charles Daniélou and Madeleine Clamorgan. His father was an anticlerical politician who served in the French government several times as a minister, while his mother was an educator and the founder of institutions for women's education. His brother Alain (1907–1994) was a noted Indologist and a renowned historian.  Daniélou studied at La Sorbonne and passed his agrégation in grammar in 1927. He joined the Society of Jesus in 1929 and during his regency taught at a boys' school in Poitiers, from 1934 to 1936. He then studied theology at Fourvière in Lyon under Henri de Lubac, who introduced him to patristics and the Fathers of the Church. He was ordained a priest on 20 August 1938.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Priesthood, episcopate and cardinalate.", "content": "During World War II, Daniélou served with the Air Force in 1939–1940. With the fall of France to Nazi Germany he was returned to civilian life and entered doctoral studies, completing in 1942 his thesis on the spiritual doctrine of St. Gregory of Nyssa. He was then appointed chaplain to the female section of the École Normale Supérieure, at Sèvres. He spent most of his time on research in patristics, and became one of the founders of the Sources Chrétiennes collection. In 1944 he was named Professor of Early Christian History at the Institut Catholique de Paris, later becoming dean there. Beginning in the 1950s he produced several historical studies which included \"The Bible and the Liturgy\", \"The Lord of History\", and \"From Shadows to Reality\" that furnished background for the development of Covenantal Theology.  Thoroughly grounded in the Fathers of the church, who worked from Scripture, Daniélou generally avoided the neo-Thomistic terminology and approach and used a more relational vocabulary, emphasizing our self-gift in response to God's gift in Jesus Christ, with the gradual unveiling of the Trinitarian life in history.  Pope John XXIII appointed Daniélou a \"peritus\" for the Second Vatican Council. In 1969 Pope Paul VI made him a cardinal, with the episcopal titular see of Taormina, and Cardinal-Deacon of San Saba. Similar to his theology professor Henri de Lubac he twice refused the cardinalate but accepted on the insistence of Paul VI. He was elected to the Académie française on 9 November 1972, to succeed Cardinal Eugène Tisserant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "He died unexpectedly in 1974 in the home of a woman who was alleged to be a prostitute. The Society of Jesus, after an investigation, determined that Daniélou was bringing money to pay for the bail of the woman's husband. His brother defended him strongly, pointing out that he had always gone out of his way to serve those in most need.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "A number of his works on the early Church abridged for a popular audience remain in print.  French works, with English translations  Other works Other English translations", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Guenolé-Marie Daniélou (; 14 May 1905 – 20 May 1974) was a French member of the Jesuit order and a Roman Catholic cardinal. He was also a theologian and historian and a member of the Académie française.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974079}
{"src_title": "Šárka Strachová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ski racing career.", "content": "Záhrobská won the gold medal in slalom at the 2007 World Championships and narrowly missed a bronze in the super combined, finishing in 4th place by 0.20 seconds. Two years earlier, she won her first medal at the 2005 World Championships, taking the bronze in slalom while placing fifth in the combined. It was the first World Championships medal for a Czech alpine skier. In the 2006 Winter Olympics, Strachová finished 13th in slalom, 19th in the combined, and 27th in super-G; she did not finish the second run of the giant slalom.  On the World Cup circuit, Záhrobská made her debut in December 2002 at age 17 and finished 5th in her first race, a parallel slalom (an experimental format using a series of elimination races) in Sestriere, Italy. She ended the 2004 and 2006 seasons ranked in the top 10 in slalom, and broke into the top 30 in the overall ranking in 2006. She reached her first World Cup podium in January 2007, with a third place in the slalom on at Zagreb, Croatia, and followed it up with a 2nd place in the slalom three days later at Kranjska Gora, Slovenia. This ended a 21-year-long drought for Czech alpine skiers on the World Cup podium, since Olga Charvátová took 2nd place in Bromont, Quebec, on 22 March 1986. She won her first World Cup race in November 2008 in Aspen, Colorado, and reached the podium two additional times in the 2009 season to finish as the runner-up in the season slalom standings. She won again at Aspen in November 2009.  At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Strachová took the bronze medal in the slalom at Whistler. This made her the first Czech to ever medal in alpine skiing for the Czech Republic and just the second Czech ever, once again joining Olga Charvátová, who won a bronze in the 1984 Winter Olympics while competing for Czechoslovakia.  Strachová has also won numerous medals at the National Alpine Skiing Championships of the Czech Republic and other nations. She has been the National Champion (i.e. gold medalist) at the Czech (2002: slalom; 2003: slalom, giant slalom and super-G; 2004: slalom, giant slalom; 2005: slalom, giant slalom; 2006: super-G), Slovenian (2006: giant slalom), and Croatian (2006: giant slalom) national championships. Her giant slalom victory at the 2006 Croatian championships was by a narrow 0.15 second margin over Janica Kostelić, who had just beaten Strachová for the super-G title the previous day and was coming off one of the most dominant seasons in World Cup skiing history.  Šárka Strachová and her brother Petr Záhrobský are the only skiers of the Ski Team Krkonoš. Their personal coach is their father Petr Záhrobský. The team has not had good relationships with the Czech Ski Association. The coach protested, especially after the association officials approved the rule that Czech skiers have to prefer their home competitions to the foreign ones, and refused to follow it, stating that Strachová needs better rivals to remain a premier international skier. Šárka Strachová also does not prepare with the rest of the Czech national team because her father believes it would disadvantage her career.  Both Šárka Strachová and her brother Petr race on Fischer skis.  On 28 March 2017 Strachová announced her retirement from professional skiing aged 32.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2013, she married her long-time boyfriend, Antonín Strach and became Šárka Strachová. On 14 November 2017 Strachová announced her pregnancy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Šárka Strachová (; born Záhrobská on 11 February 1985) is a retired Czech World Cup alpine ski racer. Born in Benecko, she specializes in the slalom event. Strachová is the first alpine racer representing the Czech Republic to medal at the Winter Olympics and at the World Championships and just the second Czech alpine skier ever to medal in the Olympics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974080}
{"src_title": "Jane Digby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Jane Elizabeth Digby was born in Holkham Hall, Norfolk, on 3 April 1807, daughter of Admiral Henry Digby and Lady Jane Elizabeth Coke. Jane's father seized the Spanish treasure ship \"Santa Brígida\" in the action of 16 October 1799 and his share of the prize money established the family fortune. Holkham Hall was the family seat of her maternal grandfather Thomas Coke and in 1815 her father inherited and settled in Minterne House and estate, Dorset.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages, scandal, and affairs.", "content": "Considered promiscuous for her times, Digby was first married to Edward Law, 2nd Baron Ellenborough (later Earl of Ellenborough), who became Governor General of India, on 15 October 1824. They had one son, Arthur Dudley Law (15 February 1828 – 1 February 1830), who died in infancy.  After successive affairs with her maternal cousin Colonel George Anson and Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg, she was divorced from Lord Ellenborough in 1830 by an act of Parliament. This caused considerable scandal at the time. Digby had two children with Felix; Mathilde \"Didi\" (born 12 November 1829 Basel, Switzerland and raised by Felix's sister) and Felix (born December 1830 Paris, France) who died just a few weeks after his birth. The affair with Felix ended shortly after the death of their son.  She then moved on to Germany and became the lover of Ludwig I of Bavaria. In Munich, she met Baron Karl von Venningen (6 January 1806 – 10 June 1874). They married in November 1833 and had a son, Heribert (27 January 1833 Palermo, Italy – 1885 Munich, Germany), and a daughter, Bertha (4 September 1834 Mannheim, Germany – 22 September 1907).  In 1838, Digby found a new lover in the Greek Count Spyridon Theotokis (born 1805). Venningen found out and challenged Theotokis to a duel, in which the latter was wounded. Venningen released Digby from their marriage and took care of their children. They remained friends for the rest of their lives.  Though she was not legally divorced from Venningen until 1842, Digby converted to the Greek Orthodox faith and married Theotokis in Marseille, France in 1841. The couple moved to Greece with their son Leonidas (21 March 1840 Paris, France – 1846 Bagni di Lucca, Italy). In 1846, after their son's fatal fall off a balcony, Theotokis and Digby divorced. Greece's King Otto became her next lover.  Subsequently came an affair with a hero of the Greek War of Independence, the Thessalian general Christodoulos Chatzipetros, acting as 'queen' of his army, living in caves, riding horses and hunting in the mountains. She walked out on him when he was unfaithful.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life in Syria.", "content": "At age 46, Digby travelled to the Middle East and fell in love with Sheik Medjuel el Mezrab. The sheik's name has also been spelled as \"Mijwal al Mezrab\" and as \"Mijwal al-Musrab\". Twentieth-century sources sometimes incorrectly report it as \"Abdul Medjuel el Mezrab\". Medjuel was a sheik of the Mezrab section of the Sba'a, a sub-tribe of \"the great Anizzah tribe of Syria\". He was 20 years her junior. The two were married under Muslim law and she took the name Jane Elizabeth Digby el Mezrab. Their marriage was a happy one and lasted until her death 28 years later. It has been written that Jane Digby was referred to as Shaikhah Umm al-Laban (literally \"sheikha mother of milk\") due to the colour of her skin.  Digby adopted Arab dress and learned Arabic in addition to the other eight languages in which she was fluent. Half of each year was spent in the nomadic style, living in goat-hair tents in the desert, while the rest was enjoyed in a palatial villa that she had built in Damascus. She spent the rest of her life in the city, where she befriended Sir Richard Burton and Lady Isabel Burton while the former was serving as the British consul, and Abd al-Kader al-Jazairi, a prominent exiled leader of the Algerian revolution.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Digby died of fever and dysentery in Damascus on 11 August 1881, and was buried in the Protestant Cemetery. She was buried with her horse in attendance at the funeral. Upon her footstone—a block of pink limestone from Palmyra—is her name, written in Arabic by Medjuel in charcoal and carved into the stone by a local mason. After her death her house was rented and the family of the young H. R. P. Dickson were among its tenants. A small part of the house survives, and is in the ownership of the same family who purchased it from Medjuel's son in the 1930s.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jane Elizabeth Digby, Lady Ellenborough (3 April 1807 – 11 August 1881) was an English aristocrat, famed for her remarkable love life and lifestyle. She had four husbands and many lovers, including King Ludwig I of Bavaria and his son King Otto of Greece, Bohemian nobleman and Austrian statesman Prince Felix zu Schwarzenberg, and the Greek general Christodoulos Hatzipetros. She died in Damascus, Syria, as the wife of Arab Sheikh Medjuel el Mezrab, who was 20 years her junior.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974081}
{"src_title": "Spinalonga", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin of the name.", "content": "According to Venetian documents, the name of the island originated in the Greek expression στην Ελούντα \"stin Elounda\" (meaning \"to Elounda\"). The Venetians could not understand the expression so they familiarized it using their own language, and called it \"spina\" \"thorn\" \"longa\" \"long\", an expression that was also maintained by the locals. The Venetians were inspired for this expression by the name of an island near Venice called by the same name and which is known today as the island of Giudecca.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Because of its position the island was fortified from its earliest years in order to protect the entranceway of the port of Ancient Olous.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arab raids.", "content": "Olous, and accordingly the wider region, were depopulated at the middle of the 7th century because of the raids of the Arab pirates in the Mediterranean. Olous remained deserted until the mid-15th century when the Venetians began to construct salt-pans in the shallow and salty waters of the gulf. Subsequently, the region acquired commercial value and became inhabited. This, in combination with the emergent Turkish threat, particularly after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the continuous pirate raids, forced the Venetians to fortify the island.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Venetian rule.", "content": "In 1578 the Venetians charged the engineer Genese Bressani to plan the island's fortifications. He created blockhouses at the highest points of the northern and southern side of the island, as well as a fortification ring along the coast that closed out any hostile disembarkation. In 1579, the \"Provveditore generale di Candia\", Luca Michiel, put the foundation stone of the fortifications, built over the ruins of an acropolis. There are two inscriptions that cite this event, one on the transom of the main gate of the castle and the other on the base of the rampart at the north side of the castle. In 1584, the Venetians, realising that the coastal fortifications were easy to conquer by the enemies attacking from the nearby hills, decided to strengthen their defense by constructing new fortifications at the top of the hill. The Venetian fire would thus have bigger range, rendering Spinalonga an impregnable sea fortress, one of the most important in the Mediterranean basin.  Spinalonga, along with Gramvousa and Souda, remained in Venetian hands even after the rest of Crete fell to the Ottomans in the Cretan War (1645–1669) and until 1715, when they fell to the Ottomans during the last Ottoman–Venetian War. These three forts defended Venetian trade routes and were also useful bases in the event of a new Venetian-Turkish war for Crete. Many Christians found refuge in these fortresses to escape persecution from the Ottoman Turks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ottoman rule.", "content": "In 1715, the Ottoman Turks captured Spinalonga taking over the last remaining Venetian fortress and removing the last trace of Venetian military presence from the island of Crete.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cretan revolt.", "content": "At the end of the Ottoman occupation the island, together with the fort at Ierapetra, was the refuge of many Ottoman families that feared Christian reprisals. After the revolution of 1866 other Ottoman families came to the island from all the region of Mirabello. During the Cretan revolt of 1878, only Spinalonga and the fortress at Ierapetra were not taken by the Christian Cretan insurgents. In 1881 the 1112 Ottomans formed their own community and later, in 1903, the last Turks left the island.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th-century leper colony.", "content": "The island was subsequently used as a leper colony from 1903 to 1957. The last inhabitant, a priest, did not leave the island till 1962, in order to maintain the Greek Orthodox tradition of commemorating a buried person 40 days, 6 months, 1 year, 3 years, and 5 years after their death. Spinalonga was one of the last active leper colonies in Europe; others that have survived Spinalonga include Tichileşti in eastern Romania, Fontilles in Spain and Talsi in Latvia. As of 2002, few lazarettos remain in Europe.  There were two entrances to Spinalonga, one being the lepers entrance, a tunnel known as \"Dante's Gate\". This was so named because the patients did not know what was going to happen to them once they arrived. However, once on the island they received food, water, medical attention and social security payments. Previously, such amenities had been unavailable to Crete's leprosy patients, as they mostly lived in the area's caves, away from civilization.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spinalonga today.", "content": "Today, the uninhabited island is a popular tourist attraction in Crete. In addition to the abandoned leper colony and the fortress, Spinalonga is known for its small pebble beaches and shallow waters. The island can easily be accessed from Plaka, Elounda and Agios Nikolaos. Tourist boats depart from all three towns on a daily basis (every 30 minutes from Elounda). Since there is no accommodation on Spinalonga, the tours last only a few hours.  Spinalonga is under consideration to become a World Heritage Site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Spinalonga featured in the 1977 British television series \"Who Pays the Ferryman?\" and Werner Herzog's experimental short film \"Last Words\". It is the (unnamed) setting of Ali Smith's short story \"The Touching of Wood\" (in \"Free Love and Other Stories\", 1995). It is also the setting for the 2005 novel \"The Island\" by Victoria Hislop, the story of a family's ties to the leper colony; the book was adapted for television in the television series \"To Nisi\" by Mega Channel Greece.  The short story \"Spinalonga\" by John Ware, about a tourist group that visits the island, was included in the 13th Pan Book of Horror.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Spinalonga () is an island located in the Gulf of Elounda in north-eastern Crete, in Lasithi, next to the town of Plaka. The island is further assigned to the area of Kalydon. It is near the Spinalonga peninsula (\"large Spinalonga\") – which often causes confusion as the same name is used for both. The official Greek name of the island today is Kalydon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974082}
{"src_title": "Mieszkowice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The town now called Mieszkowice was known from the late 13th century until 1945 under the German name of \"Berenwalde\" and later of \"Bärwalde\". To distinguish it from the town of Bärwalde in Pomerania (present-day Barwice), it carried the abbreviation \"Nm.\" for Neumark (New March). In 1945 it was renamed Mieszkowice, after the first historical Polish duke Mieszko I, a scion of the Piast dynasty.  Mieszko I included the area within the early Polish state in the 10th century and fought the victorious Battle of Cedynia against the Saxon margrave Odo I nearby in 972.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "In the High Middle Ages, a Slavic settlement existed there, located on a trade route connecting Lubusz Land with Pomerania.  The first record of Bärwalde is a 1295 deed under the name of \"Berenwalde\". Most likely, the settlement was owned by a knight of the \"von Behr\" family. The settlement was developed following a grid of rectangular streets with a central market place. In 1297, St. Mary's Church was first mentioned, and another document gives 1298 as the year when Bärwalde was granted German town law. In the late 13th and early 14th century the city walls were constructed, much of which still exist, while the city gates were pulled down in 1867.  In 1319, the last Ascanian margrave Waldemar died in the town, After his death a war broke out over control of the region, and the town came again under control of the Duchy of Pomerania, but it fell back to Brandenburg after 1328. Therefater, throughout the 14th century, Bärwalde was subordinated directly to the Holy Roman Emperor and the regional center to 29 surrounding villages. During this period, it was strongly affected by the Waldensians (Waldenser) movement. Since 1353 coins for Brandenburg's New March were struck at the Bärwalde mint.  In 1373, the region became part of the Czech Crown Lands, ruled by the Luxembourg dynasty. In 1402, the Luxembourgs reached an agreement with Poland in Kraków, according to which Poland was to purchase and re-incorporate the region, but eventually the Luxembourgs sold it to the Teutonic Order. Under Teutonic rule, the region was neglected, resulting in the town's economic decline, and robberies became widespread. In addition, in the course of the Polish–Teutonic War the town was burnt down in 1433 by Hussite forces marching through. When another Polish-Teutonic war broke out in 1454, the Teutonic Knights sold the region to Brandenburg in order to raise funds for war.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern era.", "content": "The town suffered fires in 1540 and 1568. During the Thirty Years' War, the Swedish field marshal Gustav Horn on 23 January 1631 signed the Treaty of Bärwalde with France against Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg, whereafter the town was devastated by Swedish and Imperial troops several times. The devastations of the war resulted in a severe population drop: only 30 inhabitants remained. From 1650-73 Elias Loccelius, also known as Elias Lockelius or Löckel, (1621–1704) was pastor in Bärwalde and from there he moved to Drossen (today Ośno Lubuskie). He is known as a chronicler of the New March and was an electoral church inspector for Torzym Land (at that time Sternberg Land) as well. Löckel documented the wartime devastation of the area, including Bärwalde, in his \"Marchia Illustrata\".  Over the next centuries, the town slowly recovered: in 1750, it had about 1,500 inhabitants, and more than 3,500 in 1850, occupied primarily with agriculture. From that period, several 18th-century timber framed buildings and the early 19th-century town hall are preserved. During the Napoleonic Wars and Polish national liberation fights, in 1807, French and Polish troops marched through the town. When the Kingdom of Prussia reformed her administrative organization after the Napoleonic Wars, the town became part of the Province of Brandenburg created from the territory of the former margraviate. In 1853 a railroad connected it with Kostschin (Kostrzyn). Twenty-three years later the town was connected with Stettin (Szczecin). Gottfried Benn (1886–1956) spent his childhood in the nearby village Sellin (Zielin). During World War II, forced laborers, mostly Poles, worked in the town.  Bärwalde was captured on 4 February 1945 by the Red Army during the Vistula–Oder Offensive in the final period of World War II, and as it was east of the Oder-Neisse line, became part of Poland. Only 30% of the town was destroyed. The remaining inhabitants were expelled and the town was resettled by Poles, including settlers from Central Poland and expellees from former Eastern Poland (Kresy). Bärwalde was first renamed Barwice, later Mieszkowice after Mieszko I of Poland. The final name was chosen for political purposes: the Communist regime sought to legitimize its presence at the Oder by referring to the medieval Piast dynasty, whose territory had also extended to the Oder, and propagated the \"return\" to ancient Polish lands. To that effect, a legend was popularized in Mieszkowice, linking the town's foundation to a hunting expedition of Mieszko I: Allegedly, the town was founded at a spot where Mieszko once slew two bears. In 1957, a statue of Mieszko I created by Sławomir Lewiński was unveiled on the town square.  Development of Mieszkowice continued in the following years, especially in the period between 1970-1992 when many new buildings were constructed. In 1997 the whole town was connected to the gas pipeline. In 1998 a new sport centre was opened. Since 2007, a ferry service connects Mieszkowice with on the opposite bank of the Oder.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "Among the landmarks and sights of Mieszkowice are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Mieszkowice is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mieszkowice (; Kashubian: \"Berwôłd\") is a town in Gryfino County, West Pomeranian Voivodeship in northwestern Poland, about east of the Oder river and the border with Germany. It is the administrative seat of the urban-rural gmina (municipality) of Mieszkowice.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974083}
{"src_title": "Curtiss F9C Sparrowhawk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "On 20 August 1929, off the coast of New Jersey, a biplane hooked itself to the bottom of a dirigible and was carried along by the larger craft. This was the second such incident. The “snapon, snapoff” experiment was accomplished by the Navy airship, under Lt. Com. Herbert Wiley, and a Navy biplane. The biplane, regulating its speed to that of the dirigible, flew close under the Los Angeles. A large hook had been attached to the middle of the top wing of the biplane, and from the bottom of the Los Angeles hung a U-shaped yoke. Maneuvering the ship under the dirigible, the plane pilot slipped the hook into the Los Angeles’ yoke and for 3 or 4 minutes the dirigible carried the biplane. The plane pilot, by a cord arrangement in his cabin, withdrew the hook from the yoke and flew clear of the dirigible.  Although designed as a pursuit plane or fighter, the Sparrowhawk's primary duty in service was reconnaissance, enabling the airships it served to search a much wider area of ocean. The Sparrowhawk was primarily chosen for service aboard the large rigid-framed airships \"Akron\" and \"Macon\" because of its small size ( long and with only a wingspan), though its weight, handling and range characteristics, and also downward visibility from the cockpit, were not ideal for its reconnaissance role. The theoretical maximum capacity of the airships' hangar was five aircraft, one in each hangar bay and one stored on the trapeze but, in the \"Akron\", two structural girders obstructed the aft two hangar bays, limiting her to a maximum complement of three Sparrowhawks. A modification to remove this limitation was pending at the time of the airship's loss. \"Macon\" had no such limitation and she routinely carried four airplanes.  To achieve launching and recovery from the airship in flight, a'skyhook' system was developed. The Sparrowhawk had a hook mounted above its top wing that attached to the cross-bar of a trapeze mounted on the carrier airship. For launching, the biplane's hook was engaged on the trapeze inside the airship's (internal) hangar, the trapeze was lowered clear of the hull into the (moving) airship's slipstream and, engine running, the Sparrowhawk would then disengage its hook and fall away from the airship. For recovery, the biplane would fly underneath its mother ship, until beneath the trapeze, climb up from below, and hook onto the cross-bar. The width of the trapeze cross-bar allowed a certain lateral lee-way in approach, the biplane's hook mounting had a guide rail to provide protection for the turning propeller (see photo), and engagement of the hook was automatic on positive contact between hook and trapeze. More than one attempt might have to be made before a successful engagement was achieved, for example in gusty conditions. Once the Sparrowhawk was securely caught, it could then be hoisted by the trapeze back within the airship's hull, the engine being cut as it passed the hangar door. Although seemingly a tricky maneuver, pilots soon learned the technique and it was described as being much easier than landing on a moving, pitching and rolling aircraft carrier. Almost inevitably, the pilots soon acquired the epithet \"The men on the Flying Trapeze\" and their aircraft were decorated with appropriate unit emblems.  Once the system was fully developed, in order to increase their scouting endurance while the airship was on over-water operations, the Sparrowhawks would have their landing gear removed and replaced by a fuel tank. When the airship was returning to base, the biplanes' landing gear would be replaced so that they could land independently again.  For much of their service with the airships, the Sparrowhawks' effectiveness was greatly hampered by their poor radio equipment, and they were effectively limited to remaining within sight of the airship. However, in 1934 new direction-finding sets and new voice radios were fitted which allowed operations beyond visual range, exploiting the extended range offered by the belly fuel tanks and allowing the more vulnerable mother ship to stay clear of trouble.  One interesting use of the Sparrowhawks was to act as 'flying ballast'. The airship could take off with additional ballast or fuel aboard instead of its airplanes. Once the airship was cruising, the aircraft would be flown aboard, the additional weight being supported by dynamic lift until the airship lightened.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "Only one intact Sparrowhawk survives today. BuAer number 9056 was pending write-off at NAS Hampton Roads in 1939 when it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution. In later years it had been rebuilt, using parts from the surviving F9C-2 (BuAer number 9057) and the XF9C-2 (9264). It was previously at the National Museum of Naval Aviation, at NAS Pensacola, and is currently displayed at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum collection, wearing the markings of F9C-2 A9056 of USS \"Macon\". The remains of a further four aircraft lie at the underwater wreck-site of the \"Macon\"; the aircraft were found in their hangar when the wreck was discovered and documented in 1990 and 1991. These are known to have been BuAer number 9058 - 9060.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Curtiss F9C Sparrowhawk is a light 1930s biplane fighter aircraft that was carried by the United States Navy airships and. It is an example of a parasite fighter, a small airplane designed to be deployed from a larger aircraft such as an airship or bomber.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974084}
{"src_title": "Aloysia citrodora", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Lemon verbena is a perennial shrub or subshrub growing to high. The -long, glossy, pointed leaves are slightly rough to the touch and emit a strong lemon scent when bruised (hence the Latin specific epithet \"citrodora\"—lemon-scented).  Sprays of tiny purple or white flowers appear in late spring or early summer, although potted lemon verbenas may not flower. It is evergreen in tropical locations, but is sensitive to cold, losing leaves at temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F), although the wood is hardy to −10 °C (14 °F). Pruning is recommended in spring to encourage a bushy form. Due to its many culinary uses, it is widely listed and marketed as a plant for the herb garden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Lemon verbena leaves are used to add a lemon flavor to fish and poultry dishes, vegetable marinades, salad dressings, jams, puddings, Greek yogurt, and beverages. The leaves are also used in potpourri. Lemon verbena is used to make herbal teas and as a liqueur flavoring. It is used in traditional medicine in Latin-American countries. The oil was historically steam-distilled from the leaves for use in the perfume industry, but it has skin-sensitising and phototoxic properties. In the European Union, verbena essential oils (\"Lippia citriodora\" Kunth.) and derivatives other than absolute are prohibited when used as a fragrance ingredient (Regulation No 1223/2009, Annex II).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The major isolates in lemon verbena oil are citral (30–35%), nerol, and geraniol. Extracts of lemon verbena also contain verbascoside. As the plant has several phytochemicals which may act as substrates for drug-metabolizing enzymes, lemon verbena may cause herb-drug interactions. However, lemon verbena oil is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration when used as a flavoring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synonyms.", "content": "Synonyms for lemon verbena are \"Verbena triphylla\" L'Hér., \"Verbena citriodora\" Cav., \"Lippia triphylla\", and \"Lippia citriodora\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Garden history.", "content": "The first European botanist who publicly noticed this plant was the French Philibert Commerson, who collected in Buenos Aires on his botanical circumnavigation with Bougainville, about 1767. The plant had already been imported directly into the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid, where in 1797 professors Casimiro Gómez Ortega and named it, though they did not yet effectively publish it, \"Aloysia citriodora\" in Latin and \"Hierba de la Princesa\" in Spanish, to compliment Maria Louisa of Parma, Princess of Asturias the wife of the Garden's patron Infante Carlos de Borbon, Prince of Asturias and son of king Carlos III. The name was later effectively published in the first volume of Palau's \"Parte Práctica de Botánica\" in 1784.  Unofficial importations from Spanish America seldom fared well: when another French botanist Joseph Dombey landed his collections at Cadiz in 1785, the plants were impounded and left to rot in warehouses, while Dombey was refused permission even to have seeds planted. Among the bare handful of plants Dombey had assembled during eight years at Lima, lemon verbena survived. Gómez Ortega sent seeds and specimens of the plant to Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle in Paris; L'Héritier published it as \"Verbena triphylla\" in his \"Stirpes Novae\", published in December 1785 or January 1786. From Paris John Sibthorp, professor of Botany at Oxford, obtained the specimen that he introduced to British horticulture: by 1797 lemon verbena was common in greenhouses around London, and its popularity as essential in a fragrant bouquet increased through the following century.  This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aloysia citrodora, lemon verbena, is a species of flowering plant in the verbena family Verbenaceae, native to South America. Other common names include lemon beebrush. It was brought to Europe by the Spanish and the Portuguese in the 17th century and cultivated for its oil.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974085}
{"src_title": "Lubomyr Husar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and ordination.", "content": "He was born in what is now the city of Lviv (now in Ukraine), in the family of Yaroslav Husar and Rostyslava Demchuk. Luka Demchuk, the Priest of the Parish of village Kal'ne from 1909 to 1929, was the maternal grandfather of Cardinal Lubomyr Husar. Husar emigrated with his parents in 1944 during World War II due to the advancing Soviet Army. At first the Husar family briefly lived in Salzburg, Austria, then emigrated to the United States in 1949.  From 1950 to 1954 he studied at St. Basil College Seminary in Stamford, Connecticut. He studied at The Catholic University of America and Fordham University in the United States, and was ordained a priest on 30 March 1958 for the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Stamford.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pastoral work.", "content": "From 1958 to 1969, he taught at St. Basil College Seminary and was pastor at Holy Trinity Ukrainian Catholic Church in Kerhonkson, New York between 1966 and 1969. In 1969, Husar went to Rome, where he spent three years earning a doctorate in theology at the Pontifical Urbaniana University. He then entered the Monastery of the Studites in Castel Gandolfo in Italy, and was named its Superior in 1974.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bishop.", "content": "He was consecrated a bishop in 1977 in the Castel Gandolfo chapel by Major Archbishop Josyf Slipyj with help of titular bishop of Zigris Ivan Prasko and bishop of Toronto Isidore Borecky without papal approval (apostolic mandate) in an act which caused many irritations in the Roman Curia, as Roman canon law required papal permission for the consecration of a bishop, but at that time Eastern canon law did not. He was named Archimandrite (Archabbot) of the Studite Monks in Europe and America in 1978. He organized a new Studite monastery in Ternopil, Ukraine, in 1994, and was elected by the Synod of Bishops of the Ukrainian Church as exarch of the archiepiscopal exarchy of Kiev and Vyshhorod in 1995, confirmed by the Pope the following year (February of 1996) by nominating to the titular see of. On 14 October 1996 the UGCC Synod of Bishops named Husar auxiliary of the Archbishop Major of Lviv as coadjutor with special delegations. In October of 1999 he attended the 2nd Special Assembly for Europe. Although once a citizen of the United States, Husar gave up his U.S. citizenship after transferring to Ukraine, and adopted the citizenship of Ukraine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Major Archbishop and Cardinal.", "content": "In December 2000, Pope John Paul II named Husar apostolic administrator of the Ukrainian Greek Major-Archeparchy of Lviv, and in January 2001 the Ukrainian Greek synod elected him Major Archbishop which was approved by the Pope the next day. On 21 February of that year Pope John Paul II made Husar Cardinal-Priest of Santa Sofia a Via Boccea. Cardinal Husar was one of the three Eastern Catholics to participate in the papal conclave, 2005, the others being Ignace Daoud of the Syriac Catholic Church and Varkey Vithayathil of the Syro-Malabar Church. (Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir and Stéphanos II Ghattas of the Maronite Church and Coptic Catholic Church respectively were both over 80 and therefore could not take part.) At that papal conclave, he was one of the cardinals considered \"papabile\", something unusual for an Eastern Catholic. Also at that conclave, Cardinal Husar was the first Major-Archbishop from the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church ever to participate in a papal conclave as cardinal-elector.  Husar was one of about a dozen like-minded European prelates who met annually from 1995 to 2006 in St. Gallen, Switzerland, to discuss reforms with respect to the appointment of bishops, collegiality, bishops' conferences, the primacy of the papacy and sexual morality; they differed among themselves, but shared the view that Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger was not the sort of candidate they hoped to see elected at the next conclave.  The major archiepiscopal see of Lviv was moved on 21 August 2005, to the city of Kiev, the capital of Ukraine. He was acclaimed by his followers as Patriarch of Kiev-Galicia, a title not recognized by the Holy See.  In October 2007, Husar received an honorary doctorate from the Catholic University of America in conjunction with the 100th anniversary of the first assigning of a bishop of the UGCC to the United States.  In February 2008, a celebratory liturgy was held in the Basilica of Santa Sophia in Rome on the occasion of the 75th birthday and 50th anniversary of priesthood of Cardinal Husar. The Head of the UGCC was greeted by Pope Benedict XVI, whose address was read by the secretary of Cardinal Leonardo Sandri, Monsignor Maurizio Malvestiti.  In 2008 Viktor Yushchenko signed a decree to decorate Cardinal Husar with the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise (the 3rd class). He was honoured with the highest state award \"for his outstanding personal contribution in spiritual revival of the Ukrainian nation, longstanding church work, and to mark his 75th birthday\".  With failing eyesight due to poorly treated eye disease forcing him to perform the church's intricate liturgical rites from memory, his early resignation was accepted on 10 February 2011 although normally the major archbishop serves for life. Cardinal Husar's resignation triggered a meeting of the Synod of the Ukrainian church, comprising its global body of bishops, to elect a new major archbishop, which must begin within a month. In the interim, Ihor Vozniak, C.SS.R., Archeparch of Lviv, served as administrator. The last time a Ukrainian Major Archbishop left office while living was in 1882. The new Major Archbishop, Sviatoslav Shevchuk, was elected by the Ukrainian Synod on 23 March and confirmed by Pope Benedict XVI on 25 March 2011.  On 26 February 2013, 2 days before the announced resignation of Pope Benedict XVI, Cardinal Husar turned 80 and lost his right to participate in a conclave.  He died on 31 May 2017 at the age of 84.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lubomyr Husar MSU (, Liubomyr Huzar; 26 February 1933 – 31 May 2017) was the major archbishop (first elected in independent Ukraine) of the Ukrainian Catholic Church, a minority church in Ukraine but the largest \"sui juris\" Eastern church in full communion with the Holy See. He was also a Cardinal of the Catholic Church. After the transfer of the see of Lviv to Kiev in 2005, he was the Ukrainian Catholic Major Archbishop of Kiev-Galicia. In February 2011 he became Major Archeparch Emeritus after he resigned due to ill health.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974086}
{"src_title": "Henry II, Count of Champagne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Henry was the elder son of Count Henry I of Champagne and Marie, daughter of King Louis VII of France and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine. His aunt Adela of Champagne was Louis VII's third wife. In 1171, Henry was betrothed to Isabella of Hainault. When she married Philip II of France instead, his father, aunt and other members of his family were angered. It made Queen Adela's faction hostile to Isabella's family and so caused tension at the French court. Henry's father died in 1181, and his mother ruled, as regent, until 1187.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crusade.", "content": "In 1190 Henry left for the East, after having his barons swear to recognize his younger brother Theobald as his successor should he fail to return. He joined the Third Crusade, arriving ahead of his uncles, Kings Philip II of France and Richard I of England. Initially, he was one of the leaders of the French contingent at the siege of Acre before Philip's arrival. He is said to have been a member of the group involved in the abduction of Queen Isabella I of Jerusalem, to get her to consent to a divorce from Humphrey IV of Toron so that she could be married to Conrad of Montferrat. Henry was related to Conrad through both his maternal grandparents. According to Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad, he was wounded at Acre on 15 November.  Later on in the campaign, Henry shifted his allegiance to Richard who, in April 1192, sent Henry as his representative from Acre to Tyre, to inform Conrad of Montferrat of his election as king of Jerusalem. Henry then returned to Acre. A few days later, Conrad was murdered by two Assassins. Henry came back to Tyre two days later, ostensibly to help organise Conrad's coronation, but found that a funeral was being prepared instead. He was immediately betrothed to the newly widowed—and pregnant—queen of Jerusalem. They were married just eight days after Conrad's death.  The marriage was glossed romantically by some of the chroniclers: that Isabella was so taken with Henry's physical attractions (he was 20 years younger than Conrad) that she asked him to marry her. Since she was already known to be pregnant with Conrad's child, Maria of Montferrat, the marriage was considered scandalous by some, but it was politically vital for her to acquire another husband to defend the kingdom. However, some consultation with the \"Haute Cour\" might have been expected. The couple went on to have two daughters, Alice and Philippa.  Henry asked for permission from his uncle Richard, who gave it promptly: however, since Richard was suspected of Conrad's murder, this raises further questions about the whole episode. Indeed, Henry, who was known to the Arabs as \"\"al-kond Herri\"\", later sought an alliance with the Hashshashin, and was invited to visit their fortress stronghold, al-Kahf. To demonstrate his authority, the grand master of the Hashshashin beckoned to two adherents, who immediately flung themselves from the ramparts to their deaths. The Hashshashin then offered to commit a murder for Henry, as an honour to their guest. Henry demurred, concluded the treaty, and departed. Patrick A. Williams has suggested Henry himself as a suspect in Conrad's murder, although it would have been a risky undertaking without his uncle's support.  Henry died in 1197, falling from a first-floor window at his palace in Acre. There are varying accounts in different manuscripts of the \"Old French Continuation of William of Tyre\", also known as \"The Chronicle of Ernoul\". The majority suggest that a window-lattice or balcony gave way as he leaned against it. A servant, possibly a dwarf named Scarlet, also fell, after trying to save him by catching hold of his hanging sleeve, but he weighed too little to pull the king (who was tall and strongly built) back. Another version suggests that Henry had been watching a parade from the window, when a party of Pisan envoys entered the room. Turning to greet them, he stepped backwards and overbalanced. Whatever the exact circumstances, Henry was killed outright; the servant, who suffered a fractured femur, raised the alarm, but later died of his injury. Some accounts suggest that Henry might have survived if his servant had not landed on top of him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "His widow Queen Isabella remarried soon after his death. Her fourth (and last) husband was Amalric of Lusignan, king of Cyprus. Henry's heir-general was his elder daughter Alice who was soon married to her stepbrother King Hugh I of Cyprus and whose heirs represent the senior line of Counts of Champagne.  Henry left behind several difficulties for Champagne. He had borrowed a great deal of money to finance his expedition to Jerusalem, and for his marriage; and the succession to the county of Champagne would later be contested by his daughters. In 1213, supporters of his nephew Theobald IV of Champagne alleged to a papal legate that the annulment of Isabella's marriage to Humphrey of Toron (who was still alive during her marriage to Henry) was invalid, and therefore the girls were illegitimate. However, this was questionable: the legitimacy of Isabella's daughter by Conrad, Maria, and the right of her descendants to the throne of Jerusalem was never challenged, and if Maria was legitimate, so too were Isabella's daughters by Henry. Theobald eventually had to buy off both Alice and Philippa at considerable cost.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry II of Champagne (or Henry I of Jerusalem) (29 July 1166 – 10 September 1197) was count of Champagne from 1181 to 1197, and king of Jerusalem from 1192 to 1197 by virtue of his marriage to Queen Isabella I of Jerusalem.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974087}
{"src_title": "Isabella II of Jerusalem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Infant Queen.", "content": "Isabella II was born in Andria, in the southern Italian Kingdom of Sicily. She was the only child of Maria of Montferrat, Queen of Jerusalem, and John of Brienne. Maria was the daughter of Queen Isabella I of Jerusalem by her second husband Conrad I, and heiress, on her mother's death, of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.  Maria died shortly after giving birth to Isabella II in 1212, possibly by puerperal fever. Because of this, Isabella II was proclaimed Queen of Jerusalem when she was only a few days old. Because her father John did not have a direct claim on the throne, he ruled as regent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage with Frederick II.", "content": "During a meeting between John of Brienne, the Pope Honorius III and Frederick II in the city of Ferentino in 1223, Isabella's fate was decided: Frederick accepted to finally go to the Crusade, but only as the legitimate King of Jerusalem, and this was only possible if he agreed to take the young Queen Isabella II as his wife (by this time, Frederick was a widower). This was planned by the Pope, who hoped by this bond to attach the Emperor firmly to the Sixth Crusade. The betrothal was confirmed, but the Emperor still delayed his departure until August 1225, when he and Isabella were married by proxy in the City of Acre. Days later, Isabella II was crowned as Queen of Jerusalem.  Isabella arrived in Italy with twenty galleys sent by Frederick II to bring her to her father and married in person to Frederick II in the cathedral of Brindisi, on 9 November 1225. During the ceremony, Frederick declared himself King of Jerusalem and immediately saw to it that his new father-in-law John of Brienne, the current regent of Jerusalem, was dispossessed and his rights transferred to him. The contemporary chronicles described the exotic wedding celebrations, which took place in the Castle of Oria, and the indignant reaction of her father John of Brienne, now without royal authority.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "After the wedding, Isabella was kept in seclusion by her husband, in Palermo. Aged 14, in November 1226, she gave birth to her first child, a daughter (referred to by some sources as Margaret); the baby died in August 1227. Isabella died 4 May after giving birth to her second child, a son, Conrad, in Andria, Bari, on 25 April 1228. She was buried in the Andria Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Isabella II (121225 April 1228) also known as Yolande of Brienne, was a princess of French origin who became monarch of Jerusalem.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974088}
{"src_title": "Hampton Court Palace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mechanism.", "content": "Someone with two X chromosomes (such as most human females) has only one Barr body per somatic cell, while someone with one X chromosome (such as most human males) has none.  Mammalian X-chromosome inactivation is initiated from the X inactivation centre or \"Xic\", usually found near the centromere. The center contains twelve genes, seven of which code for proteins, five for untranslated RNAs, of which only two are known to play an active role in the X inactivation process, \"Xist\" and \"Tsix\". The centre also appears to be important in chromosome counting: ensuring that random inactivation only takes place when two or more X-chromosomes are present. The provision of an extra artificial \"Xic\" in early embryogenesis can induce inactivation of the single X found in male cells.  The roles of \"Xist\" and \"Tsix\" appear to be antagonistic. The loss of \"Tsix\" expression on the future inactive X chromosome results in an increase in levels of \"Xist\" around the \"Xic\". Meanwhile, on the future active X \"Tsix\" levels are maintained; thus the levels of \"Xist\" remain low. This shift allows \"Xist\" to begin coating the future inactive chromosome, spreading out from the \"Xic\". In non-random inactivation this choice appears to be fixed and current evidence suggests that the maternally inherited gene may be imprinted. Variations in Xi frequency have been reported with age, pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives, fluctuations in menstrual cycle and neoplasia.  It is thought that this constitutes the mechanism of choice, and allows downstream processes to establish the compact state of the Barr body. These changes include histone modifications, such as histone H3 methylation (i.e. H3K27me3 by PRC2 which is recruited by Xist) and histone H2A ubiquitination, as well as direct modification of the DNA itself, via the methylation of CpG sites. These changes help inactivate gene expression on the inactive X-chromosome and to bring about its compaction to form the Barr body.  Reactivation of a Barr body is also possible, and has been seen in breast cancer patients. One study showed that the frequency of Barr bodies in breast carcinoma were significantly lower than in healthy controls, indicating reactivation of these once inactivated X chromosomes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Links to full text articles are provided where access is free, in other cases only the abstract has been linked.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hampton Court Palace is a royal palace in the borough of Richmond upon Thames, south west and upstream of central London on the River Thames. Building of the palace began in 1515 for Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, a favourite of King Henry VIII. In 1529, as Wolsey fell from favour, the cardinal gave the palace to the king to check his disgrace. The palace went on to become one of Henry's most favoured residences; soon after acquiring the property, he arranged for it to be enlarged so that it might more easily accommodate his sizeable retinue of courtiers. Along with St James' Palace, it is one of only two surviving palaces out of the many the king owned. The palace is currently in the possession of Queen Elizabeth II and the Crown.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974089}
{"src_title": "Historical school of economics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Tenets.", "content": "The historical school held that history was the key source of knowledge about human actions and economic matters, since economics was culture-specific, and hence not generalizable over space and time. The school rejected the universal validity of economic theorems. They saw economics as resulting from careful empirical and historical analysis instead of from logic and mathematics. The school also preferred reality, historical, political, and social, as well as economic, to mathematical modelling.  Most members of the school were also \"Sozialpolitiker\" (social policy advocates), i.e. concerned with social reform and improved conditions for the common man during a period of heavy industrialization. They were more disparagingly referred to as \"Kathedersozialisten,\" rendered in English as \"socialists of the chair\" (compare armchair revolutionary), due to their positions as professors.  The historical school can be divided into three tendencies:  Predecessors included Friedrich List.  The historical school largely controlled appointments to chairs of economics in German universities, as many of the advisors of Friedrich Althoff, head of the university department in the Prussian Ministry of Education 1882–1907, had studied under members of the school. Moreover, Prussia was the intellectual powerhouse of Germany, so dominated academia, not only in central Europe, but also in the United States until about 1900, because the American economics profession was led by holders of German PhDs. The historical school was involved in the \"Methodenstreit\" (\"strife over method\") with the Austrian school, whose orientation was more theoretical and aprioristic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence in Britain and the United States.", "content": "The historical school had a significant impact on Britain, 1860s–1930s. Thorold Rogers (1823–1890) was the Tooke Professor of Statistics and Economic Science at King's College London, from 1859 until his death. He is best known for compiling the monumental \"A History of Agriculture and Prices in England from 1259 to 1793\" (7 vol. 1866–1902), which is still useful to scholars. William Ashley (1860–1927) introduced British scholars to the historical school as developed in Germany. In the United States the school influenced the institutional economists, such as Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929) and especially the Wisconsin school of labor history led by John R. Commons (1862–1945). More importantly, numerous aspiring economists undertook graduate studies at German universities, including John Bates Clark, Richard T. Ely, Jeremiah Jenks, Simon Patten, and Frank William Taussig.  Canadian scholars influenced by the school were led by Harold Innis (1894–1952) at Toronto. His staples thesis holds that Canada's culture, political history and economy have been decisively influenced by the exploitation and export of a series of \"staples\" such as fur, fishing, lumber, wheat, mined metals and coal. The staple thesis dominated economic history in Canada 1930s–1960s, and is still used by some.  After 1930 the historical school declined or disappeared in most economics departments. It lingered in history departments and business schools. The major influence in the 1930s and 1940s was Joseph Schumpeter with his dynamic, change-oriented, and innovation-based economics. Although his writings could be critical of the school, Schumpeter's work on the role of innovation and entrepreneurship can be seen as a continuation of ideas originated by the historical school, especially the work of von Schmoller and Sombart. Alfred D. Chandler, Jr. (1918–2007), had a major impact on approaching business issues through historical studies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English school.", "content": "Although not nearly as famous as its German counterpart, there was also an English historical school, whose figures included Francis Bacon and Herbert Spencer. This school heavily critiqued the deductive approach of the classical economists, especially the writings of David Ricardo. This school revered the inductive process and called for the merging of historical fact with those of the present period. Included in this school are: William Whewell, Richard Jones, Walter Bagehot, Thorold Rogers, Arnold Toynbee, and William Cunningham, to name a few.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The historical school of economics was an approach to academic economics and to public administration that emerged in the 19th century in Germany, and held sway there until well into the 20th century. The professors involved compiled massive economic histories of Germany and Europe. Numerous Americans were their students. The school was opposed by theoretical economists. Prominent leaders included Gustav von Schmoller (1838–1917), and Max Weber (1864–1920) in Germany, and Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950) in Austria and the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974090}
{"src_title": "Joscelin III, Count of Edessa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was the son of Joscelin II and his wife Beatrice of Saone. He inherited the title of Count of Edessa from his father, Joscelin II, although Edessa had been captured in 1144 and its remnants (including the Lordship of Turbessel) conquered or sold years before he took the title.  Joscelin lived in the Kingdom of Jerusalem and managed to gather enough land around Acre to set up the \"Seigneurie of Joscelin.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royal Guardian.", "content": "His sister, Agnes of Courtenay, had been the first wife of King Amalric I before he succeeded to the throne, and was the mother of Baldwin IV and Sibylla. In 1164 Joscelin was taken captive by Nur ad-Din Zengi at the Battle of Harim. He remained a prisoner until 1176 when Agnes paid his ransom of 50,000 dinars, probably with support from the royal treasury. His nephew Baldwin then made him seneschal of Jerusalem. He faced some rivalry from the king's paternal kindred, led by Raymond III, Count of Tripoli.  In 1180 Joscelin went as an ambassador to the Byzantine Empire. After the betrothal of Baldwin's half-sister Isabella to Humphrey IV of Toron that year, the Toron estates passed to the crown in exchange for a money fief. Baldwin IV granted part of them, Chastel Neuf, to Joscelin, and awarded Agnes an income from the usufruct, or produce, of Toron. Agnes died in late 1184, a few months before her son.  In 1185, Joscelin became guardian of his young great-nephew, Baldwin V, while Raymond III was regent. Raymond feared that, if he were the child's personal guardian, he would be blamed if he died in his care, because he had a claim to the throne himself. Joscelin, as the king's maternal grandmother's brother, had no claim, but rather had strong family interests in keeping him alive. Additional support came with the arrival of Baldwin's paternal grandfather, William V of Montferrat, from Italy. However, Baldwin seems to have been sickly, and died at Acre in 1186. Joscelin and William escorted his coffin to Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Raymond went to Nablus to attempt a coup with Balian of Ibelin to install Isabella as queen. This failed, and Sibylla was crowned, also crowning her second husband, Guy of Lusignan.  In 1186, Guy and Sibylla granted Chastel Neuf and Toron, with other territory, to Joscelin. He, in turn, gave them as the dowry of his elder daughter, Beatrice, whom he betrothed to Guy’s younger brother, William of Valence. Her younger sister, Agnes, was to marry one of Guy’s nephews, but if Beatrice died while still a minor, William was to marry Agnes instead.  At the Battle of Hattin in 1187, Joscelin commanded the rearguard with Balian of Ibelin. Both escaped the disastrous defeat and fled to Tyre. All his estates were captured by Saladin. Joscelin joined in the siege of Acre in the Third Crusade. He last witnessed a charter on 25 October 1190, after Sibylla's death. There is a strong likelihood that he died during the siege. A month later, Isabella, who was now claiming the crown from Guy, restored Humphrey of Toron's claim to Chastel Neuf and Toron (should they be reconquered) when she accepted the annulment of their marriage. If Joscelin was still alive, he made no recorded objection. However, this seems to have ended the prospect of his daughters' Lusignan marriages. He was definitely dead by October 1200.  Joscelin's \"seigneurie\" was acquired by the Teutonic Knights, in 1220.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "After his release from captivity in 1176, Joscelin married Agnes of Milly, () third daughter of Henry \"the Buffalo\" of Milly, () Lord of Petra, (and a sister of Stephanie of Milly and ); by whom he had two daughters:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joscelin III of Edessa (1139 – after 1190) was the titular Count of Edessa, who during his lifetime managed to amass enough land to establish the \"Seigneurie of Joscelin.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974091}
{"src_title": "February strike", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Netherlands surrendered to Nazi Germany in May 1940, and the first anti-Jewish measures (the barring of Jews from the air-raid defence services) began in June 1940. These culminated in November 1940 in the removal of all Jews from public positions, including universities, which led directly to student protests in Leiden and elsewhere. At the same time, there was an increasing feeling of unrest amongst workers in Amsterdam, especially the workers at the shipyards in Amsterdam-Noord, who were threatened with forced labour in Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "As tensions rose, the Dutch pro-Nazi movement NSB and its streetfighting arm, the WA (\"\"Weerbaarheidsafdeling\"\" - defence section), were involved in a series of provocations in Jewish neighbourhoods in Amsterdam. This eventually led to a series of street battles between the WA and Jewish self-defence groups and their supporters, culminating in a pitched battle on 11 February 1941 on the Waterlooplein in which WA member Hendrik Koot was badly wounded. He died of his injuries on 14 February 1941.  On 12 February 1941, German soldiers, assisted by Dutch police, encircled the old Jewish neighbourhood and cordoned it off from the rest of the city by putting up barbed wire, opening bridges and putting in police checkpoints. This neighbourhood was now forbidden for non-Jews.  On 19 February, the German Grüne Polizei stormed into the Koco ice-cream salon in the Van Woustraat. In the fight that ensued, several police officers were wounded. Revenge for this and other fights came in the weekend of 22–23 February, when a large scale pogrom was undertaken by the Germans. 425 Jewish men, age 20-35 were taken hostage and imprisoned in Kamp Schoorl and eventually sent to the Buchenwald and Mauthausen concentration camps, where most of them died within the year. Out of 425, only two survived.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The strike.", "content": "Following this pogrom, on 24 February, an open-air meeting was held on the Noordermarkt to organise a strike to protest against the pogrom as well as the forced labour in Germany. The Communist Party of the Netherlands, made illegal by the Germans, printed and spread a call to strike throughout the city the next morning. The first to strike were the city's tram drivers, followed by other city services as well as companies like De Bijenkorf and schools. Eventually 300,000 people joined in the strike, bringing much of the city to a halt and catching the Germans by surprise. Though the Germans immediately took measures to suppress the strike, which had grown spontaneously as other workers followed the example of the tram drivers, it still spread to other areas, including Zaanstad, Kennemerland in the west, Bussum, Hilversum and Utrecht in the east and the south. The strike did not last long. By 27 February, much of it had been suppressed by the German police. Although ultimately unsuccessful, it was significant in that it was the first and only direct action against the Nazis' treatment of Jews in Europe.  The next strike would be student strikes in November 1941, and after that the large April–May strikes in 1943 that ushered in a period of armed covert resistance on a national scale.  In the rest of Nazi-occupied Europe the Greeks in April 1942, the Danes starting in the summer of 1943, the Luxemburgers in August 1942, the Belgians in May 1941, the Norwegians in September 1941 and the North French miners in May–June 1941 also went on strike, but not as early as the Dutch strike of February 1941 and it has to be noted that the February strike in Amsterdam was the only strike against the way Jews were treated by the Germans in Nazi-occupied Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historiography.", "content": "The book \"De februaristaking\" (\"The February strike\") by historian was published in 1954.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remembrance.", "content": "The strike is remembered each year on 25 February, with a march past the \"\", the memorial made for the strike in 1951 and first unveiled in December 1952. This statue was made by Dutch sculptor Mari Andriessen. All political parties, as well as the city public transport authorities and organisations of Holocaust survivors, participate in the remembrance. Although three communist organizers were shot to death after the strike and 12 communist organizers were sent to jails in Germany, during the Cold War the communists were forced to remember the strike separately from other political groups. For many years after the war, Dutch officials publicly denied contributions by the communists to the strike.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The February Strike () was a general strike in the German-occupied Netherlands in 1941, during World War II, organized by the then-outlawed Communist Party of the Netherlands in defence of persecuted Dutch Jews and against the anti-Jewish measures and activities of the Nazis in general.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974092}
{"src_title": "Blitum bonus-henricus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is an annual or perennial plant growing up to 400–800 mm tall. The leaves are 50–100 mm long and broad, triangular to diamond-shaped, with a pair of broad pointed lobes near the base, with a slightly waxy, succulent texture. The flowers are produced in a tall, nearly leafless spike 100–300 mm long; each flower is very small (3–5 mm diameter), green, with five sepals. The seeds are reddish-green, 2–3 mm diameter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The species was described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus as \"Chenopodium bonus-henricus\" in \"Species Plantarum\". Until 2012, the species was usually included in genus \"Chenopodium\", but molecular genetical research revealed that it does not really belong to this genus. It seems to be more closely related to the genus \"Spinacia\", and is now placed in the genus \"Blitum\" in the tribe Anserineae. The scientific name \"Blitum bonus-henricus\" was first used by Ludwig Reichenbach in 1832.  Synonyms basing on the same type specimen are: \"Agathophytum bonus-henricus\", \"Anserina bonus-henricus\", \"Atriplex bonus-henricus\", \"Chenopodium bonus-henricus\", \"Orthospermum bonus-henricus\", and \"Orthosporum bonus-henricus\" Heterotypic synonyms are: \"Blitum perenne\", \"Chenopodium hastatum\", \"Chenopodium ruderale\", \"Chenopodium ruderale\", \"Chenopodium sagittatum\", \"Chenopodium spinacifolium\", \"Chenopodium triangulare\", \"Chenopodium triangularifolia\", and \"Orthosporum unctuosum\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "It should be planted in a fertile, sunny location which is free from perennial weeds. Seeds must be cold-stratified in order to germinate. The plants should be regularly weeded and well watered. Typically, very little is produced in the first season. Good King Henry does not respond well to transplantation.  The foliage can be cut in autumn, and a mulch, such as leaf mould or well-rotted compost applied to the plot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary uses.", "content": "Cropping can begin in spring. Some of the new shoots can be thinned out as they appear (usually from mid spring to early summer) and cooked like asparagus. All cutting should then cease so that shoots are allowed to develop. The succulent triangular leaves may be harvested a few at a time until the end of August and cooked like spinach.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Blitum bonus-henricus (syn. \"Chenopodium bonus-henricus\"), also called Good-King-Henry, poor-man's asparagus, perennial goosefoot, Lincolnshire spinach, Markery, English mercury, or mercury goosefoot, is a species of goosefoot which is native to much of central and southern Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974093}
{"src_title": "Ivan Dias", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and ordination.", "content": "Ivan Dias was born in Bandra, a suburb of Bombay, to Carlos Nazaro Dias (d. 1953) and Maria Martins e Dias (d. 1991), both natives of Goa. Dias' ancestral village is Velsao, Salcete, Goa. His father was undersecretary of the Home Department of the government of Maharashtra. The second oldest of four children, he has three brothers: Francis (a retired lieutenant general in the Indian military), Ralph and Olaf (a doctor). After graduating from the Jesuit St. Stanislaus High School, he entered the seminary of the Archdiocese of Bombay and was later ordained to the priesthood by Valerian Gracias on 8 December 1958. He then did pastoral work in Bombay as curate at St. Stephen's Church until 1961, when he was sent to Rome to further his studies. He there attended the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy and the Pontifical Lateran University, from where he obtained a doctorate in canon law in 1964.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Secretariat of State.", "content": "Dias worked in the Vatican Secretariat of State preparing the 1964 visit of Pope Paul VI to India, during which he was raised to the rank of Privy Chamberlain of His Holiness on 4 December. From 1965 to 1973, he served as secretary of the nunciatures in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Finland, Indonesia, Madagascar, Réunion, the Comoro Islands and Mauritius. Returning to the Secretariat of State in Vatican City, he was head of the section for the Soviet Union, the Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, Bulgaria, China, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, South Africa, Namibia, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Zambia, Kenya and Tanzania until 1982.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nuncio and bishop.", "content": "On 8 May 1982, Dias was appointed Titular Archbishop of \"Rusibisir\" and Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to Ghana, Togo and Benin by Pope John Paul II. He received his episcopal consecration on the following 19 June from Cardinal Agostino Casaroli, with Archbishops Achille Silvestrini and Duraisamy Simon Lourdusamy serving as co-consecrators, at St. Peter's Basilica. He selected as his episcopal motto: \"\"Servus\"\" (Latin: \"Servant\"). Dias was later named Apostolic Nuncio to Korea on 20 June 1987, and Apostolic Nuncio to Albania on 28 October 1991. In Albania, he was charged with rebuilding the local church after nearly five decades of communist rule, inviting foreign missionaries to the country and working with the Albanian government to recover Catholic churches and schools.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Archbishop.", "content": "Recalled from the Vatican's diplomatic service, Dias was appointed the ninth Archbishop of Bombay on 8 November 1996. He was an outspoken supporter of the controversial 2000 document of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith \"Dominus Iesus\", which declared that non-Catholics \"are in a gravely deficient situation in comparison with those who, in the Church, have the fullness of the means of salvation.\" Dias said the document was \"a reaffirmation...[that] Jesus is the only savior of the world. We have a right to say who we are, and others can accept it or not.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cardinal.", "content": "John Paul II appointed him Cardinal-Priest of Spirito Santo alla Ferratella in the consistory of 21 February 2001. He was shortly afterwards named to the Council of Cardinals for the Study of the Organizational and Economic Problems of the Holy See on 10 March 2001, and served as one of the three presidents at the 10th Ordinary Assembly of the World Synod of Bishops from September to October 2001.  In 2003, he delivered the homily at the beatification Mass of Mother Teresa, whom Dias had befriended during his tenure as a nuncio in Albania; he once said, \"Reaching out to our fellow human beings, embracing the poor as Mother Teresa did, must become a common service for every Christian.\" Lamenting the domination of the world \"by information technology, by New Age teaching and by the decline of ethical values,\" Dias once stated that entire countries are being \"crushed down by godless ideologies and enticing proposals that exalt the anti-God cultures, including the culture of death.\" He was one of the Cardinals considered \"papabile\" at the 2005 Papal conclave that selected Pope Benedict XVI. \"TIME\" Magazine noted his \"[s]trong diplomatic experience\" and said his election \"would represent a bold choice from the developing world.\"  On 20 May 2006, he was appointed Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, the top post overseeing the Catholic missions. He was also \"ex officio\" the Grand Chancellor of the Pontifical Urbaniana University. He presented his resignation as required on reaching the age of 75. It was accepted on 10 May 2011 when he was succeeded as Prefect by Fernando Filoni.  Cardinal Dias was a member of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, the Congregation for Catholic Education, the Pontifical Council for Culture, the Pontifical Council for the Laity, the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity, the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, the Pontifical Council for Social Communications, the Pontifical Commission for the Cultural Heritage of the Church and the Pontifical Council for Legislative Texts.  Dias was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2013 papal conclave that selected Pope Francis.  Dias died in Rome on 19 June 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Views.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anti-Christian violence.", "content": "During his tenure as Archbishop, Dias frequently condemned anti-Christian discrimination in Indian society by Hindu fundamentalists. In December 2001, he invited leaders of all Bombay's religious communities to his home for \"a meeting for peace in a world torn apart by war and hatred.\" In 2002, he denounced pressures put by Indian authorities on Catholic schools, which have \"had to put up with uncooperative and abusive public officials as well intimidation.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Abortion and homosexuality.", "content": "Dias also established himself as theologically conservative, strongly maintaining the Church's stances against abortion and homosexuality. He believed that gays and lesbians could be \"cured\" of their \"unnatural tendencies\" through the Sacrament of Penance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anglican communion.", "content": "During a speech he gave at the Lambeth Conference, he expressed unrestrained disapproval of the changes the Anglican communion was experiencing. He said: \"When we live myopically in the fleeting present, oblivious of our past heritage and apostolic traditions, we could well be suffering from spiritual Alzheimer's. [...] or ecclesial Parkinson's\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ivan Cornelius Dias (14 April 1936 – 19 June 2017) was an Indian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He was Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples from 2006 to 2011, Archbishop of Bombay from 1996 to 2006, and before that a papal diplomat in the Balkans, East Asia, and West Africa. He was elevated to the rank of cardinal in 2001.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974094}
{"src_title": "Alexander Ankvab", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Born in the Abkhazian capital Sukhumi, Ankvab graduated with a degree in law from the Rostov State University in southern Russia and worked in the Komsomol, the Justice Ministry of the Abkhaz ASSR, and the Interior Ministry of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic until his resignation in 1990.  He was elected to the Abkhazian Supreme Soviet in 1991. He was appointed interior minister of Abkhazia's separatist government during the 1992–1993 conflict with the Georgian central government. Following the Abkhaz victory, he moved to Moscow in 1994 and became a successful businessman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2004 Presidential election.", "content": "Ankvab returned to Abkhazian politics in 2000, setting up the movement Aitaira (\"Revival\") in opposition to the government of President Vladislav Ardzinba. In 2004 he announced that he would run for president, but was disqualified as ineligible on the grounds that he could not speak Abkhaz (a requirement for public office in the republic) and had lived in Abkhazia for too short a time. Ankvab decided to support Bagapsh instead and was crucial to the latter's electoral success. His appointment as prime minister was widely predicted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2009 Presidential election.", "content": "Ankvab was Sergei Bagapsh's Vice Presidential candidate in the 12 December 2009 presidential election. As required by law, Ankvab was therefore officially suspended from his post on 11 November, his duties to be carried out by First Vice Premier Leonid Lakerbaia. Bagapsh and Ankvab won the election, and they were sworn in on 12 February 2010. The following day, Ankvab was succeeded as Prime Minister by Foreign Minister Sergei Shamba.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2011 Presidential election.", "content": "After Bagapsh's unexpected death after lung surgery, Ankvab became an acting president. He was nominated for presidency by an initiative group for a snap presidential elections held in the region on 26 August 2011. During the election campaign, on 15 August, supporters of Ankvab's opponent Sergei Shamba organised an outdoor screening of a video interview of Moscow-based retired Georgian general Tengiz Kitovani, a Georgian commander during the 1990s war in Abkhazia, in which he claimed that Ankvab had cooperated with the Georgian intelligence service during the conflict. Ankvab accused Shamba of resorting to black PR, while Shamba's campaign team issued a statement calling on the prosecutor's office to investigate Ankvab's war-time activities. According to the preliminary results Ankvab garnered up to 55% of votes, defeating Shamba and ex-vice president and opposition candidate Raul Khajimba.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assassination attempts.", "content": "Alexander Ankvab has survived six assassination attempts since becoming Prime Minister in February 2005: in February and April 2005, in June and July 2007, in September 2010 and most recently in February 2012. The last assassination attempt killed two of Ankvab's security guards, he himself was injured in the two previous attacks. Only after the February 2012 assassination attempt arrests were made. Former Interior Minister Almasbei Kchach was one of two suspects who subsequently committed suicide. One man was subsequently indicted and arrested for the July 2007 attack.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Downfall.", "content": "On 27 May 2014, thousands of protesters, led by Raul Khadjimba, rallied against Ankvab in Sukhumi, accusing him of \"authoritarian\" rule, inappropriate spending of Russian aid funds, and of failure to tackle corruption and economic problems, and demanded his resignation. One of the other issues that sparked the rebellion was Ankvab's relatively liberal citizenship policy (he allowed ethnic Georgians to register as voters and receive Abkhazian passports). Within hours, the protesters stormed the presidential headquarters and forced Ankvab to flee Sukhumi to a Russian military base in Gudauta. Ankvab denounced the events in Sukhumi as an \"armed coup attempt\" and refused to resign. The Russian government dispatched Vladimir Putin's aide Vladislav Surkov to mediate between the opposition and Ankvab's government. On 31 May, the Parliament of Abkhazia declared Ankvab \"unable\" to perform his presidential duties, appointed the parliamentary chairman Valery Bganba as an interim president and called snap presidential election for 24 August. On 1 June 2014, Ankvab stepped down as president.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aleksandr Ankvab ( ;,, ; born 26 December 1952) is an Abkhaz politician and businessman who was President of Abkhazia from 29 May 2011, until his resignation on 1 June 2014. Under President Sergei Bagapsh, he previously served as Prime Minister from 2005 to 2010 and Vice-President from 2010 to 2011. He was appointed Prime Minister again on 23 April 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974095}
{"src_title": "Peshitta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Peshitta\" is derived from the Syriac \"mappaqtâ pšîṭtâ\" (ܡܦܩܬܐ ܦܫܝܛܬܐ), literally meaning \"simple version\". However, it is also possible to translate \"pšîṭtâ\" as \"common\" (that is, for all people), or \"straight\", as well as the usual translation as \"simple\". Syriac is a dialect, or group of dialects, of Eastern Aramaic, originating around Edessa. It is written in the Syriac alphabet and is transliterated into the Latin script in a number of ways, generating different spellings of the name: \"Peshitta\", \"Peshittâ\", \"Pshitta\", \"Pšittâ\", \"Pshitto\", \"Fshitto\". All of these are acceptable, but \"Peshitta\" is the most conventional spelling in English.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brief history.", "content": "The Peshitta had from the 5th century onward a wide circulation in the East, and was accepted and honored by the whole diversity of sects of Syriac Christianity. It had a great missionary influence: the Armenian and Georgian versions, as well as the Arabic and the Persian, owe not a little to the Syriac. The famous Nestorian tablet of Chang'an witnesses to the presence of the Syriac scriptures in the heart of China in the 8th century. The Peshitta was first brought to the West by Moses of Mindin, a noted Syrian ecclesiastic who unsuccessfully sought a patron for the work of printing it in Rome and Venice. However, he was successful in finding such a patron in the Imperial Chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire at Vienna in 1555—Albert Widmanstadt. He undertook the printing of the New Testament, and the emperor bore the cost of the special types which had to be cast for its issue in Syriac. Immanuel Tremellius, the converted Jew whose scholarship was so valuable to the English reformers and divines, made use of it, and in 1569 issued a Syriac New Testament in Hebrew letters. In 1645, the \"editio princeps\" of the Old Testament was prepared by Gabriel Sionita for the Paris Polyglot, and in 1657 the whole Peshitta found a place in Walton's \"London Polyglot\". For long the best edition of the Peshitta was that of John Leusden and Karl Schaaf, and it is still quoted under the symbol \"Syrschaaf\", or \"SyrSch\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "New Testament.", "content": "In a detailed examination of Matthew 1–14, Gwilliam found that the Peshitta agrees with the \"Textus Receptus\" only 108 times and with the \"Codex Vaticanus\" 65 times. Meanwhile, in 137 instances it differs from both, usually with the support of the Old Syriac and the Old Latin, and in 31 instances it stands alone.  To this end, and in reference to the originality of the Peshitta, the words of Patriarch Shimun XXI Eshai are summarized as follows:  In the first century CE, Josephus, the Jewish historian, testified that Aramaic was widely spoken and understood accurately by Parthians, Babylonians, the remotest Arabians, and those of his nation beyond Euphrates with Adiabeni. He says: \"I have proposed to myself, for the sake of such as live under the government of the Romans, 'to translate those books into the Greek tongue, which I formerly composed in the language of our country, and sent to the Upper Barbarians'. Joseph, the son of Matthias, by birth a Hebrew, a priest also, and one who at first fought against the Romans myself, and was forced to be present at what was done afterwards, [am the author of this work]\", Jewish Wars (Book 1, Preface, Paragraph 1)(1:3)  and continuing,  \"I thought it therefore an absurd thing to see the truth falsified in affairs of such great consequence, and to take no notice of it; but to suffer those Greeks and Romans that were not in the wars to be ignorant of these things, and to read either flatteries or fictions, 'while the Parthians, and the Babylonians, and the remotest Arabians, and those of our nation beyond Euphrates, with the Adiabeni, by my means, knew accurately both whence the war begun, what miseries it brought upon us, and after what manner it ended'.\" Jewish Wars (Book 1 Preface, Paragraph 2) (1:6) Yigael Yadin, an archeologist working on the Qumran find, also agrees with Josephus' testimony, pointing out that Aramaic was the \"lingua franca\" of this time period. Josephus' testimony on Aramaic is also supported by the gospel accounts of the New Testament (specifically in Matthew 4:24-25, Mark 3:7-8, and Luke 6:17), in which people from Galilee, Judaea, Jerusalem, Idumaea, Tyre, Sidon, Syria, Decapolis, and \"from beyond Jordan\" came to see Jesus for healing and to hear his discourse.  A statement by Eusebius that Hegesippus \"made some quotations from the Gospel according to the Hebrews and from the Syriac Gospel,\" means we should have a reference to a Syriac New Testament as early as 160–180 AD, the time of that Hebrew Christian writer. The translation of the New Testament is careful, faithful and literal, and the simplicity, directness and transparency of the style are admired by all Syriac scholars and have earned it the title of \"Queen of the versions.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical edition of the New Testament.", "content": "The standard United Bible Societies 1905 edition of the New Testament of the Peshitta was based on editions prepared by Syriacists Philip E. Pusey (d. 1880), George Gwilliam (d. 1914) and John Gwyn. These editions comprised Gwilliam & Pusey's 1901 critical edition of the gospels, Gwilliam's critical edition of Acts, Gwilliam & Pinkerton's critical edition of Paul's Epistles and John Gwynn's critical edition of the General Epistles and later Revelation. This critical Peshitta text is based on a collation of more than seventy Peshitta and a few other Aramaic manuscripts. All 27 books of the common Western Canon of the New Testament are included in this British & Foreign Bible Society's 1905 Peshitta edition, as is the adultery pericope (John 7:53–8:11). The 1979 Syriac Bible, United Bible Society, uses the same text for its New Testament. The Online Bible reproduces the 1905 Syriac Peshitta NT in Hebrew characters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manuscripts.", "content": "Although physical evidence has yet to be found, J.S. Assemane in his Bibliotheca stated that a Syriac Gospel dated 78 A.D. was found in Mesopotamia.  The following manuscripts are in the British Archives:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Peshitta ( \"or\" \"\") is the standard version of the Bible for churches in the Syriac tradition, including the Maronite Church, the Chaldean Catholic Church, Syriac Catholic Church, Syriac Orthodox Church, Syro Malankara Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East and the Syro Malabar Catholic Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974096}
{"src_title": "Robert Kocharyan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Robert Kocharyan was born in Stepanakert, NKAO, Azerbaijan SSR. He received his secondary education there and from 1972 to 1974 served in the Soviet Army.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "After his predecessor Levon Ter-Petrossian was ousted as President, Kocharyan was elected Armenia's second President on 30 March 1998, defeating his main rival, Karen Demirchyan, in an early presidential election marred by irregularities and violations by both sides as reported by international electoral observers. Complaints included that Kocharyan had not been an Armenian citizen for ten years as required by the constitution, even though it would have been impossible for him to be a 10-year citizen of a republic that was less than 7 years old; however, the Armenian constitution recognized the Armenian SSR as its predecessor state.  During his presidency, several opposition leaders in the Armenian Parliament and the Prime Minister of Armenia were killed by gunmen in an episode known as the 1999 Armenian parliament shooting. Kocharyan himself negotiated with the terrorists to release the MP hostages.  In 2001 Kocharyan was attending a jazz performance at Poplavok cafe in Yerevan, and was greeted by former classmate Poghos Poghosyan with the words \"Hi Rob\". The casualness of the greeting was taken as an insult, and Kocharyan's bodyguards took Poghosyan into the cafe toilet and killed him. The bodyguard, Aghamal Harutiunyan, received a one-year suspended jail term for the killing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2003 election.", "content": "The 2003 Armenian Presidential election was held on 19 February and 5 March 2003. No candidate received a majority in the first round of the election with the incumbent President Kocharyan winning slightly under 50% of the vote. Therefore, a second round was held and Kocharyan defeated Stepan Demirchyan with official results showed him winning just over 67% of the vote.  In both rounds, electoral observers from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe reported significant amounts of electoral fraud by Demirchyan's supporters and numerous supporters of Demirchyan were arrested before the second round took place. Demirchyan described the election as having been rigged and called on his supporters to rally against the results. Tens of thousands of Armenians protested in the days after the election against the results and called on President Kocharyan to step down. However Kocharyan was sworn in for a second term in early April and the constitutional court upheld the election, while recommending that a referendum be held within a year to confirm the election result. On April 14, 2004 Armenian poet Silva Kaputikyan wrote an open letter \"Kocharyan Must Go\", where she protested Kocharyan's harsh methods towards the demonstrators on April 12–13, 2004. She also turned back Mesrop Mashtots Medal awarded by Kocharyan some years ago.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2008 election.", "content": "A presidential election was held in Armenia on 19 February 2008. The incumbent President Kocharyan, who was ineligible for a third consecutive term, backed the candidacy of Prime Minister of Armenia Serzh Sargsyan.  Following the election result, protests organized by supporters of unsuccessful candidate Levon Ter-Petrossian began in Yerevan's Freedom Square and accompanied by mass disorders. On March 1, the demonstrators were dispersed by police and military forces. Ten people were killed during skirmishes between police and crowd, and President Kocharyan declared a 20-day state of emergency. This was followed by mass arrests and purges of prominent members of the opposition, as well as a de facto ban on any further anti-government protests.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Foreign policy.", "content": "As President, Kocharyan continued to negotiate a peaceful resolution with Azerbaijani Presidents Heydar Aliyev and Ilham Aliyev on the status of Nagorno-Karabakh. In October 1999, Kocharyan became the first President of Armenia to visit Azerbaijan, holding talks with Aliyev at the border of the two countries. Talks between Ilham Aliyev and Kocharyan were held in September 2004 in Astana, Kazakhstan, on the sidelines of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) summit. Reportedly, one of the suggestions put forward was the withdrawal of Armenian forces from the Azeri territories adjacent to Nagorno-Karabakh, and holding referendums (plebiscites) in Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan proper regarding the future status of the region. On 10–11 February 2006, Kocharyan and Aliyev met in Rambouillet, France to discuss the fundamental principles of a settlement to the conflict, including the withdrawal of troops, formation of international peacekeeping troops, and the status of Nagorno-Karabakh.  During the weeks and days before the talks in France, OSCE Minsk Group co-chairmen expressed cautious optimism that some form of an agreement was possible. French President Jacques Chirac met with both leaders separately and expressed hope that the talks would be fruitful. Contrary to the initial optimism, the Rambouillet talks did not produce any agreement, with key issues such as the status of Nagorno-Karabakh and whether Armenian troops would withdraw from Kalbajar still being contentious. The next session of the talks was held in March 2006 in Washington, D.C. Russian President, Vladimir Putin applied pressure to both parties to settle the disputes. Later in 2006 there was a meeting of the Armenian and Azerbaijani Presidents in Minsk on 28 November and ministerial meetings were held in Moscow. \"These talks did not initiate any progress, but I hope that the time for a solution will come\" said Peter Semneby, EU envoy for the South Caucasus.  In September 2006, in his congratulatory message on the occasion of 15th anniversary of Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, Kocharyan said \"The Karabakhi people made their historic choice, defended their national interests in the war that was forced upon them. Today, they are building a free and independent state.\" The accompanying message said that the duty of the Republic of Armenia and all Armenians is to contribute to the strengthening and development of Nagorno-Karabakh, as well as to the international recognition of the republic's independence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arrest.", "content": "On July 26, 2018 the Special Investigative Service (SIS) of Armenia charged Kocharian with “overthrowing constitutional order of Armenia” during the final weeks of his rule. The SIS asked a Yerevan court to remand him in pre-trial custody. On July 27, 2018 he was arrested. On August 13, 2018 Kocharyan was freed from custody following a court ruling, but remained accused of the charges he was arrested for. On December 7, 2018 Kocharyan was arrested again following another ruling by the Court of Appeals. In 2019, all property of Robert Kocharyan, other than his pension, was arrested by the court. On May 18, 2019 Kocharyan was freed on bail from pre-trial detention. On June 25, 2019 he was arrested for the third time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He and his wife, Bella Kocharyan, have three children: Sedrak, Gayane, and Levon; all of whom were born in Stepanakert. In addition to his native Armenian, Kocharyan speaks Russian and English.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Sedraki Kocharyan ( ; born 31 August 1954) is an Armenian politician who served as the second President of Armenia between 1998 and 2008. He was previously President of Nagorno-Karabakh from 1994 to 1997 and Prime Minister of Armenia from 1997 to 1998.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974097}
{"src_title": "Sandwich tern", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The terns are small to medium-sized seabirds, gull-like in appearance, but usually with a more delicate, lighter build and shorter, weaker legs. They have long, pointed wings, which gives them a fast buoyant flight, and often a deeply forked tail. Most species are grey above and white below, and have a black cap which is reduced or flecked with white in the winter.  The Sandwich tern was originally described by ornithologist John Latham in 1787 as \"Sterna sandvicensis\", but was recently moved to its current genus \"Thalasseus\" (Boie, 1822) following mitochondrial DNA studies which confirmed that the three types of head pattern (white crown, black cap, and black cap with a white blaze on the forehead) found amongst the terns corresponded to distinct clades. The current genus name is derived from Greek \"Thalassa\", \"sea\", and \"sandvicensis\", like the English name, refers to Sandwich, Kent, Latham's type locality. In birds, the specific name \"sandvicensis\" usually denotes that the species was first described from Hawaii, formerly known as the \"Sandwich Islands\", but the Sandwich tern does not occur there.  This bird has no subspecies. A former subspecies are now treated as a separate species called Cabot's tern (\"T. acuflavidus\"), which breeds on the Atlantic coasts of North America, northern and eastern South America, and has wandered to Western Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "This is a medium-large tern, long with an wingspan, which is unlikely to be confused within most of its range, although the South American race could be confused with the elegant tern.  The Sandwich tern's thin sharp bill is black with a yellow tip, except in the yellow or orange billed South American race. Its short legs are black. Its upperwings are pale grey and its underparts white, and this tern looks very pale in flight, although the primary flight feathers darken during the summer. The lesser crested tern and elegant tern differ in having all-orange bills; lesser crested also differs in having a grey rump and marginally stouter bill, and elegant in having a slightly longer, slenderer bill. Chinese crested tern is the most similar to Sandwich, but has a reversal of the bill colour, yellow with a black tip; it does not overlap in range with Sandwich tern so confusion is unlikely.  In winter, the adult Sandwich tern's forehead becomes white. Juvenile Sandwich terns have dark tips to their tails, and a scaly appearance on their back and wings, like juvenile roseate terns.  The Sandwich tern is a vocal bird; its call is a characteristic loud grating \"kear-ik\" or \"kerr ink\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "This species breeds in very dense colonies on coasts and islands, and exceptionally inland on suitable large freshwater lakes close to the coast. It nests in a ground scrape and lays one to three eggs. Unlike some of the smaller white terns, it is not very aggressive toward potential predators, relying on the sheer density of the nests—often only apart and nesting close to other more aggressive species such as Arctic terns and black-headed gulls to avoid predation.  Like all \"Thalasseus\" terns, the Sandwich tern feeds by plunge-diving for fish, almost invariably from the sea. It usually dives directly, and not from the \"stepped-hover\" favoured by Arctic terns. The offering of fish by the male to the female is part of the courtship display.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status.", "content": "The Sandwich tern has an extensive global range estimated at. It has a population estimated at 460,000–500,000 individuals. Population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as least concern.  The Sandwich tern is among the taxa to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. Parties to the agreement are required to engage in a wide range of conservation actions which are describes in a detailed action plan. This plan should address key issues such as species and habitat conservation, management of human activities, research, education, and implementation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sandwich tern (\"Thalasseus sandvicensis\") is a tern in the family Laridae. It is very closely related to the lesser crested tern (\"T. bengalensis\"), Chinese crested tern (\"T. bernsteini\"), Cabot's tern (\"T. acuflavidus\"), and elegant tern (\"T. elegans\") and has been known to interbreed with the lesser crested. It breeds in the Palearctic from Europe to the Caspian Sea wintering to S Africa, India and Sri Lanka", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974098}
{"src_title": "Upper Mustang", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Mustang was once an independent kingdom, although closely tied by language and culture to Tibet. From the 15th century to the 17th century, its strategic location granted Mustang control over the trade between the Himalayas and India. At the end of the 18th century the kingdom was annexed by Nepal and became a dependency of the Kingdom of Nepal since 1795  Kingdom of Lo Manthang supported Tibet and the Qing Empire during the Sino-Nepalese War.  Though still recognized by many Mustang residents, the monarchy ceased to exist on October 7, 2008, by order of the Government of Nepal. The last official and later unofficial king (raja or \"gyelpo\") was Jigme Dorje Palbar Bista (1930–2016), who traced his lineage directly back to Ame Pal, the warrior who founded this Buddhist kingdom in 1380. Ame Pal oversaw the founding and building of much of the Lo and Mustang capital of Lo Manthang, a walled city that has changed little in appearance since that time period.  In 2007, a shepherd in Mustang discovered a collection of 55 cave paintings depicting the life of the Buddha.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Upper Mustang has a \"trans-Himalayan climate\" which is cool and semi-arid with precipitation in the range of. It is in the rain shadow of the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri ranges.  The Day and Night Temperature in Upper Mustang according to the months is shown below:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "The population of the whole Mustang District in 2001 was 14,981, spread between three towns and approximately thirty smaller settlements. The inhabitants are either Thakalis, Gurung or, in traditional Mustang, primarily Tibetan.  Most of the population of Mustang lives near the Kali Gandaki River, above sea level. The tough conditions cause a large winter migration into lower regions of Nepal. The administrative center of Mustang District is at Jomsom ( south of Kagbeni) which has had an airport since 1962 and has become the main tourist entry point since Mustang was opened to western tourism in 1992.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The main hydrographic feature of Mustang is the Gandaki River. The river runs southward towards Nepal Terai, bisecting Mustang. Routes paralleling the river once served as a major trade route between Tibet and India, especially for salt. Part of the river valley in the southern Mustang District forms the Kali Gandaki Gorge, by some measures the deepest gorge in the world.  Traditional Mustang (the Lo Kingdom) is north–south at its longest, east–west at its widest and ranges from a low point of above sea level on the Kali Gandaki River just north of Kagbeni to at Khamjung Himal, a peak in southeast Mustang.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Upper Mustang is on an ancient trade route between Nepal and Tibet exploiting the lowest pass Kora La through the Himalaya west of Sikkim. This route remained in use until China's annexation of Tibet in 1950.  Mechanized access inside Nepal began with the opening of an airstrip at Jomsom at the approximate boundary between the southern \"Thak\" and northern \"Lo\" sections of the valley, which was in operation by the 1960s.  China eventually decided to revitalize trade and in 2001 completed a road from the international border to Lo Manthang. Across the TAR border is Zhongba County of Shigatse Prefecture. China National Highway 219 follows the valley of the Yarlung Tsangpo River some north of the border.  Meanwhile, road-building from the south was inhibited by difficulties along the Kali Gandaki Gorge to the south, but proceeded incrementally. In 2010, a gap remained but the road was completed before 2015 and is suitable for high clearance and four wheel drive vehicles. Currently, the easiest and only widely used road corridor, from Kathmandu to Lhasa—named Arniko Highway in Nepal and China National Highway 318 in the TAR—traverses a pass. This is some higher than Kora La.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Foreign visitors have been allowed to the region since 1992, but tourism to Upper Mustang is regulated. Foreigners need to obtain a special permit to enter, costing US$50 per day per person. Most tourists travel by foot over largely the same trade route used in the 15th century. Over a thousand western trekkers now visit each year, with over 2,000 in 2008. August and October are the peak visiting months. On August 27, 2010, local youth leaders in Mustang threatened to bar tourists beginning October 1, 2010 due to the refusal of the Nepalese government to provide any of the $50 per day fee to the local economy. Visitation, however, continued uninterrupted beyond that date.  Mustang is rich in Buddhist culture, similar to the area of the Tibet Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. It is an alternate way to experience the Tibetan culture and landscape to the tours provided by the Chinese government. The Tiji festival in Lo-Manthang is another popular destination for tourists in the area seeking to experience the native culture.  The first westerner in Mustang was Toni Hagen, Swiss explorer and geologist, who visited the Kingdom in 1952 during one of his travels across the Himalayas. French Michel Peissel is considered the first westerner to stay in Lo Manthang, during the first authorised exploration of Mustang in 1964.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Upper Mustang Permit.", "content": "You need two permits to visit Upper Mustang.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mustang (from the Tibetan \"möntang\" (), \"Mustāṃg\" \"fertile plain\"), formerly Kingdom of Lo, is a remote and isolated region of the Nepalese Himalayas. The \"Upper Mustang\" was a restricted demilitarized area until 1992 which makes it one of the most preserved regions in the world, with a majority of the population still speaking traditional Tibetic languages. Tibetan culture has been preserved by the relative isolation of the region from the outside world. Life in Mustang revolves around tourism, animal husbandry and trade.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974099}
{"src_title": "Émile Chartier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Alain was born in 1868 in Mortagne-au-Perche (Orne). He entered lycée d'Alençon in 1881 and studied there for five years. On 13 June 1956, the lycée was renamed lycée Alain, after its most famous student.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After Alain qualified at the École Normale Supérieure and received the agrégation in philosophy, he taught at various institutions: Pontivy, Lorient, \"Lycée Pierre Corneille\" in Rouen, and, in Paris: (Lycée Condorcet and Lycée Michelet). From 1903, he contributed to several journals using his pseudonym, Alain. He was most commonly referred to as \"Alain\" by his pupils and peers.  In 1909, he was appointed a teacher (or professor) at the Lycée Henri-IV in Paris. He deeply influenced his pupils, who included Raymond Aron, Simone Weil, Georges Canguilhem, and André Maurois. Reviewing the beneficial effect he had on his former pupils Simone Weil and Simone de Beauvoir, Professor John Hellman writes that Alain was the greatest teacher of their generation.  Alain foretold and denounced the First World War but, when hostilities began, he enlisted as a soldier and, refusing promotion, served in the ranks for the whole war. During those years, while in the trenches, he wrote \"Mars, ou la guerre jugée\" (1921) [Mars, or The Truth about War], \"Quatre-vingt-un chapitres sur l'esprit et les passions\" (1917) [Eighty-One Chapters about the Spirit and Passions], and \"Le système des beaux-arts\" (1920) [System of the Fine Arts].  He later wrote many other books including \"Propos sur le bonheur\" (1925) [About Happiness], \"Le citoyen contre les pouvoirs\" (1926) [The Citizen against the Powers], \"Les Idées et les âges\" (1927) [Ideas and Ages], \"Entretiens au bord de la mer\" (1931) [Conversations by the Edge of the Sea], \"Propos sur l'éducation\" (1932) [About Education], \"Idées\" (1932) [Ideas], \"Les Dieux\" (1934) [The Gods], \"Histoire de mes pensées\" (1936) [History of my Thoughts], and \"Les Aventures de coeur\" (1945) [Adventures of the Heart].  He was a leading theorist of radicalism, and his influence extended through the Third and Fourth Republics. He stressed individualism, seeking to defend the citizen against the state. He warned against all forms of power – military, clerical, and economic. To oppose them he exalted the small farmer, the small shopkeeper, the small town, and the little man. He idealized country life and saw Paris as a dangerous font of power. Despite the liberalism of his published work, during World War II he expressed right-wing views in some of his private writings: in July 1940 he expressed hope that the Free French Forces would be defeated, and he also described Adolf Hitler as \"a modern mind, an invincible spirit\", who dealt with the \"Jewish question\" with \"extraordinary eloquence and remarkable sincerity\".  In his diary published under the title \"Journal inédit\" by Emmanuel Blondel, Alain writes \"I would like, as far as I am concerned, to get rid of antisemitism, but I can't achieve this.\" (\"Journal inédit\", Editions des equateurs). He calls his own antisemitism, in a self-disapproving manner, a \"sad passion\" using a spinozist expression meaning \"a passion that expresses weakness, powerlessness\". In 1946, in a new Preface to his book \"Spinoza\" Alain writes: \" Tel est donc le sens du Spinozisme, sens bien positif et bien aisé à saisir, pourvu qu'on soit persuadé que l'on est en présence de l'Esprit universel. Cette persuasion vous rendra la pensée supportable, et soudain vous vous reconnaîtrez homme, toujours à la lumière de l'axiome : Homo homini deus, qui est la clef de la future République et de l'égalité 1848. Je dis égalité, parce qu'il ne se peut pas que l'homme n'ait pas de passions et parce que toute affection cesse d'être une passion dès qu'on en forme une idée adéquate. Là est le secret de la Paix, qui dans tous les cas est la Paix de l'âme, vérité très méconnue. Par ce moyen vous formerez le parti Spinoza, que vous vous garderez d'appeler le parti juif, mais qui n'en sera pas moins ce parti-là. Alors, sans combat, le nazisme, le fascisme et toute sorte de despotisme seront vaincus, et la méchanceté exactement impuissante, comme elle est (car elle n'est rien). Tel est l'avenir prochain, que renferme ce petit livre.\" The last lines of this quotation, expressing Alain's public thought regarding antisemitic hatred and nazism, deserve attention: \"Then [when enlightened men have formed the \"Spinoza party\", the \"jewish party\"] without fight, nazism, fascism and all other kinds of despotism will be defeated and malevolence will be properly powerless, as it is actually (for malevolence by itself is nothing). Such is the future that is coming, the future that is contained in this little book.\" (Alain, \"Spinoza\", Gallimard, Collection TEL, Preface, 1946).  The same ambiguity can be observed as to Alain's attitude towards Hitler. In his \"Propos\", Alain writes that Hitler is \"a great patriot\". But he adds \"When I say that Hitler is one of these great leaders, understand carefully that I feel sorry for the people that have such leaders, and also sorry for their neighbours\". (\"Propos d'Alain\", Propos du 10 avril 1936, Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, Copyright 1956, page 1305).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "He died in 1951. He is buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Émile-Auguste Chartier (; 3 March 1868 – 2 June 1951), commonly known as Alain (), was a French philosopher, journalist, and pacifist. He adopted his pseudonym in homage to the 15th-century Norman poet Alain Chartier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974100}
{"src_title": "Tupolev Tu-16", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "In the late 1940s, the Soviet Union was strongly committed to matching the United States in strategic bombing capability. The Soviets' only long-range bomber at the time was Tupolev's Tu-4 'Bull', a reverse-engineered copy of the American B-29 Superfortress. The development of the notably powerful Mikulin AM-3 turbojet led to the possibility of a large, jet-powered bomber.  The Tupolev design bureau began work on the Tu-88 (\"Aircraft N\") prototypes in 1950. The Tu-88 first flew on 27 April 1952. After winning a competition against the Ilyushin Il-46, it was approved for production in December 1952. The first production bombers entered service with Frontal Aviation in 1954, receiving the service designation Tu-16. It received the NATO reporting name Badger-A.  It had a new, large swept wing and two large Mikulin AM-3 turbojets, one in each wing root. It could carry a single massive FAB-9000 conventional bomb (the Russian equivalent of the British Grand Slam (bomb)) or various nuclear weapons for a range of around Production took place in 3 aviation plants - in Kazan, Kuybyshev and Voronezh.  Although the Tu-16 began as a high-altitude, free-fall bomber, in the mid-1950s it was equipped to carry early Soviet cruise missiles. The Tu-16KS-1 (Badger-B) version could carry AS-1 missiles over a combat radius of. These very large weapons were aerodynamically similar to the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 fighter, fitted with either a nuclear or conventional warhead, having a range of about. They were intended for use primarily against US Navy aircraft carriers and other large surface ships. Subsequent Tu-16s were converted to carry later, more advanced missiles, while their designations changed several times.  A versatile design, the Tu-16 was built in numerous specialized variants for aerial reconnaissance, maritime surveillance, electronic intelligence gathering (ELINT), and electronic warfare (ECM). A total of 1,507 aircraft were constructed in three plants in the Soviet Union, in 1954–1962. A civilian adaptation, the Tupolev Tu-104, saw passenger service with Aeroflot. The Tu-16 was also exported to Indonesia, Egypt, and Iraq. It continued to be used by the Air Forces and naval aviation of the Soviet Union and subsequently Russia, until 1993.  Delivery of the Tu-16 to China began in 1958, and the Xi'an Aircraft Industrial Corporation (XAC) license-produced the aircraft under the Chinese designation Xian H-6. At least 120 of these aircraft remain in service. On 14 May 1965, one of the PLAAF Tu-16 bombers carried out the first airborne nuclear weapon test inside China.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "Among the main production variants of the Badger were the Tu-16 and Tu-16A bombers and Tu-16KS and Tu-16K-10 missile carriers, Tu-16SPS, \"Elka\", and Tu-16Ye ECM aircraft, Tu-16R reconnaissance aircraft, and Tu-16T torpedo bombers; others were produced from conversions. Individual aircraft could be modified several times, with designations changed, especially concerning missile-carrying aircraft.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tupolev Tu-16 (NATO reporting name: Badger) was a twin-engined jet strategic heavy bomber used by the Soviet Union. It has flown for more than 60 years, and the Chinese licence-built Xian H-6 remains in service with the People's Liberation Army Air Force.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974101}
{"src_title": "JFET", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A succession of FET-like devices was patented by Julius Lilienfeld in the 1920s and 1930s. However, materials science and fabrication technology would require decades of advances before FETs could actually be manufactured.  JFET was first patented by Heinrich Welker in 1945. During 1940s, researchers John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Shockley were trying to build a FET, but failed in their repeated attempts. They discovered the point-contact transistor in the course of trying to diagnose the reasons for their failures. Following Shockley's theoretical treatment on JFET in 1952, a working practical JFET was made in 1953 by George F. Dacey and Ian M. Ross. Japanese engineers Jun-ichi Nishizawa and Y. Watanabe applied for a patent for a similar device in 1950 termed Static induction transistor (SIT). The SIT is a type of JFET with a short channel length.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "The JFET is a long channel of semiconductor material, doped to contain an abundance of positive charge carriers or holes (\"p-type\"), or of negative carriers or electrons (\"n-type\"). Ohmic contacts at each end form the source (S) and the drain (D). A pn-junction is formed on one or both sides of the channel, or surrounding it, using a region with doping opposite to that of the channel, and biased using an ohmic gate contact (G).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "JFET operation can be compared to that of a garden hose. The flow of water through a hose can be controlled by squeezing it to reduce the cross section and the flow of electric charge through a JFET is controlled by constricting the current-carrying channel. The current also depends on the electric field between source and drain (analogous to the difference in pressure on either end of the hose). This current dependency is not supported by the characteristics shown in the diagram above a certain applied voltage. This is the \"saturation region\", and the JFET is normally operated in this constant-current region where device current is virtually unaffected by drain-source voltage. The JFET shares this constant-current characteristic with junction transistors and with thermionic tube (valve) tetrodes and pentodes.  Constriction of the conducting channel is accomplished using the field effect: a voltage between the gate and the source is applied to reverse bias the gate-source pn-junction, thereby widening the depletion layer of this junction (see top figure), encroaching upon the conducting channel and restricting its cross-sectional area. The depletion layer is so-called because it is depleted of mobile carriers and so is electrically non-conducting for practical purposes.  When the depletion layer spans the width of the conduction channel, \"pinch-off\" is achieved and drain-to-source conduction stops. Pinch-off occurs at a particular reverse bias (V) of the gate-source junction. The pinch-off voltage (V) varies considerably, even among devices of the same type. For example, V for the Temic J202 device varies from to. Typical values vary from to.  To switch off an n-channel device requires a negative gate-source voltage (V). Conversely, to switch off a p-channel device requires positive V.  In normal operation, the electric field developed by the gate blocks source-drain conduction to some extent.  Some JFET devices are symmetrical with respect to the source and drain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Schematic symbols.", "content": "The JFET gate is sometimes drawn in the middle of the channel (instead of at the drain or source electrode as in these examples). This symmetry suggests that \"drain\" and \"source\" are interchangeable, so the symbol should be used only for those JFETs where they are indeed interchangeable.  Officially, the style of the symbol should show the component inside a circle (representing the envelope of a discrete device). This is true in both the US and Europe. The symbol is usually drawn without the circle when drawing schematics of integrated circuits. More recently, the symbol is often drawn without its circle even for discrete devices.  In every case the arrow head shows the polarity of the P-N junction formed between the channel and the gate. As with an ordinary diode, the arrow points from P to N, the direction of conventional current when forward-biased. An English mnemonic is that the arrow of an N-channel device \"points in\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison with other transistors.", "content": "At room temperature, JFET gate current (the reverse leakage of the gate-to-channel junction) is comparable to that of a MOSFET (which has insulating oxide between gate and channel), but much less than the base current of a bipolar junction transistor. The JFET has higher gain (transconductance) than the MOSFET, as well as lower flicker noise, and is therefore used in some low-noise, high input-impedance op-amps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematical model.", "content": "The current in N-JFET due to a small voltage V (that is, in the linear ohmic region) is given by treating the channel as a rectangular bar of material of electrical conductivity formula_1: where", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Linear region.", "content": "Then the drain current in the \"linear region\" can be approximated as:  In terms of formula_4, the drain current can be expressed as:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Constant current region.", "content": "The drain current in the \"saturation region\" is often approximated in terms of gate bias as:  where  In the \"saturation region\", the JFET drain current is most significantly affected by the gate–source voltage and barely affected by the drain–source voltage.  If the channel doping is uniform, such that the depletion region thickness will grow in proportion to the square root of the absolute value of the gate–source voltage, then the channel thickness \"b\" can be expressed in terms of the zero-bias channel thickness \"a\" as:  where", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transconductance.", "content": "The transconductance for the junction FET is given by formula_8, where V is the pinchoff voltage and I is the maximum drain current.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET) is one of the simplest types of field-effect transistor. JFETs are three-terminal semiconductor devices that can be used as electronically-controlled switches, amplifiers, or voltage-controlled resistors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974102}
{"src_title": "Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Charles was born in Kassel on 19 December 1744 as the second surviving son of Hesse-Kassel's then hereditary prince, the future Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel and his first wife Princess Mary of Great Britain. His mother was a daughter of King George II of Great Britain and Princess Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach and a sister of Queen Louise of Denmark.  His father, the future landgrave (who reigned from 1760 and died in 1785), left the family in 1747 and converted to Catholicism in 1749. In 1755 he formally ended the marriage with Mary. The grandfather, William VIII, Landgrave of Hesse, granted the county of Hanau and its revenues to Mary and her sons.  The young Prince Charles and his two brothers, William and Frederick, were raised by their mother and fostered by Protestant relatives since 1747.  In 1756, Mary moved to Denmark to look after her sister, Queen Louise of Denmark's children. She took her own children with her and they were raised at the royal court at Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen. The Hessian princes later remained in Denmark, becoming important lords and royal functionaries. Only the eldest brother William returned to Hesse, in 1785, upon ascending the landgraviate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Charles began a military career in Denmark. In 1758 he was appointed colonel, at the age of 20 major general and in 1765 was put in charge of the artillery. After his cousin, King Christian VII, acceded to the throne in 1766, he was appointed lieutenant general, commander of the Royal Guard, knight of the Order of the Elephant and member of the Privy Council.  In 1766, he was appointed Governor-General of Norway as successor to Jacob Benzon (1688–1775). He held the position until 1768 but which remained mostly titular, as he never went to Norway during this period.  In 1763, his elder brother William married their first cousin, Danish Princess Caroline. Charles followed suit on 30 August 1766 at Christiansborg Palace — his wife was Louise of Denmark, and Charles thus became brother-in-law to his cousin, King Christian VII of Denmark. The marriage took place despite advice given against it, due to many accusations of debauchery by Prince Charles and the poor influence he had on the King.  Shortly after, Charles fell into disfavour at court, and in early 1767 he and Louise left Copenhagen to live with his mother in the county of Hanau. They would have their first child, Marie Sophie, there in 1767 and then their second child, William, in 1769.  In 1768, Charles purchased the landed property and village of Offenbach-Rumpenheim from the Edelsheim family. In 1771 he had the manor expanded into a castle and princely seat. His mother Mary lived in the palace until her death in 1772. In 1781, Charles sold the Rumpenheim Palace to his younger brother, Frederick.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governor of Schleswig-Holstein.", "content": "In 1769, Prince Charles of Hesse was appointed royal Governor of the twin duchies of Schleswig and Holstein (initially only the royal share, so-called Holstein-Glückstadt before in 1773 the king also acquired the ducal share in Holstein) on behalf of the government of his brother-in-law, King Christian VII of Denmark and Norway. Charles took up residence at Gottorp Castle in Schleswig with his family. They would have their third child Frederick there in 1771.  In 1770, King Christian VII gave his sister the estate of Tegelhof in Güby between the City of Schleswig and Eckernförde. From 1772 to 1776, Charles had a summer residence constructed on the site which he named Louisenlund in honour of his wife.  In September 1772, Charles was appointed commander-in-chief of the Norwegian army and he and Louise moved to Christiana. The assignment was a consequence of the coup d'état of King Gustav III of Sweden on 19 August 1772 and the subsequent prospect of war with Sweden. While in Norway, Princess Louise gave birth to their fourth child Juliane in 1773. Even though Charles returned to Schleswig-Holstein in 1774, he continued to function as commander-in-chief of the Norwegian army until 1814. At the time of his return from Norway, he was appointed field marshal.  During the War of the Bavarian Succession in 1778-79, he acted as a volunteer in the army of Frederick the Great and gained the trust of the Prussian king. Once, when Frederick was speaking against Christianity, he noticed a lack of sympathy of Charles' part. In response to an inquiry from the king, Charles said, \"Sire, I am not more sure of having the honour of seeing you, than I am that Jesus Christ existed and died for us as our Saviour on the cross.\" After a moment of surprised silence, Frederick declared, \"You are the first man who has ever declared such a belief in my hearing.\"  In 1788, the Swedish attack on Russia during the Russo Swedish War forced Denmark-Norway to declare war on Sweden in accordance with its 1773 treaty obligations to Russia. Prince Charles was put in command of a Norwegian army which briefly invaded Sweden through Bohuslän and won the Battle of Kvistrum Bridge. The army was closing in on Gothenburg, when peace was signed on 9 July 1789 following the diplomatic intervention of Great Britain and Prussia, bringing this so-called Lingonberry War to an end. On 12 November, the Norwegian army retreated back to Norway. During the retreat, the Danish-Norwegian army lost 1,500-3,000 men to hunger, disease, poor sanitary conditions, and exposure to continual autumn rainfall. Prince Charles was later criticised for his direction of the campaign and although he continued to function as commander-in-chief, he had lost his popularity in Norway.  When the crown prince and regent of Denmark, the future Frederick VI married Charles's eldest daughter Marie Sophie in 1790, he made several unsuccessful attempts at substantially influencing decisions of the government and the regent.  Charles was a remarkable patron of theater and opera. He had his own court theater in Schleswig, and he involved himself extensively in its operations.  During the Napoleonic Wars, he was in command of the army which briefly occupied Hamburg and Lübeck in 1801.  On 25 January 1805, Charles was granted the title \"Landgrave of Hesse\" by his elder brother, who had assumed the higher dignity and titulary of Imperial Prince-Elector.  In 1807, the manor and village of Gereby by the Schlei near Kappeln in Schwansen was renamed Carlsburg in honour of Prince Charles. Charles had purchased the property of Gereby in 1785, where he abolished serfdom in 1790.  Following the death of his father's first cousin, prince Friedrich Wilhelm von Hessenstein, he inherited the estate of Panker in Holstein in 1808.  In 1814 he was appointed general field marshal, and in 1816 Grand Commander of the Order of the Dannebrog.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "On 30 August 1766 at Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen, Charles married Princess Louise of Denmark, his first cousin, the youngest daughter of his aunt, Princess Louise of Great Britain, and King Frederick V of Denmark and Norway, who died the same year. The couple had the following children:  Princess Louise died at Gottorp Castle on 12 January 1831. Prince Charles died on 17 August 1836 in the castle of Louisenlund in Güby, Schleswig.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel (); (); () (19 December 1744 – 17 August 1836) was a cadet member of the house of Hesse-Kassel and a Danish general field marshal. Brought up with relatives at the Danish court, he spent most of his life in Denmark, serving as royal governor of the twin duchies of Schleswig-Holstein from 1769 to 1836 and commander-in-chief of the Norwegian army from 1772 to 1814.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974103}
{"src_title": "Musée National d'Art Moderne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Collections.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern art (1905–1960).", "content": "Many styles of modern art, including Fauvism, Expressionism, Cubism, Dada, Abstract art, Surrealism are represented with works by Matisse, André Derain, Maurice de Vlaminck, Raoul Dufy, Albert Marquet, Le Douanier Rousseau, Paul Signac, Georges Braque, Pablo Picasso, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Frida Kahlo, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, August Macke, Alexej von Jawlensky, Emil Nolde, Oskar Kokoschka, Otto Dix, George Grosz, Kurt Schwitters, Marcel Duchamp, Francis Picabia, Carlo Carrà, Umberto Boccioni, Giacomo Balla, Gino Severini, Marc Chagall, Natalia Goncharova, Mikhail Larionov, Alexander Rodchenko, František Kupka, Piet Mondrian, Theo van Doesburg, Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky, Kasimir Malevich, Jacques Villon, Robert Delaunay, Sonia Delaunay, Georges Rouault, Balthus, Max Beckmann, Constantin Brâncuși, Alexander Calder, Chaïm Soutine, Amedeo Modigliani, Kees van Dongen, Jean Arp, Giorgio de Chirico, André Breton, Magritte, Max Ernst, Joan Miró, Man Ray, Alberto Giacometti, René Iché, Nicolas de Staël, André Masson, Yves Tanguy, Jean Tinguely, Simon Hantaï, Yves Klein, Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, Willem de Kooning, and Francis Bacon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Contemporary art (art from 1960 on).", "content": "Pop Art, Nouveau Réalisme, Conceptual art and other tendencies or groups are represented with works by Andy Warhol, Richard Hamilton, Rauschenberg, Dan Flavin, Eduardo Arroyo, Dan Graham, Daniel Buren, George Brecht, Arman, César, Bill Viola, Anish Kapoor, Wim Delvoye, Yves Klein, Niki de Saint-Phalle, Yaacov Agam, Vasarely, John Cage, Cindy Sherman, Dieter Roth, Beuys, Roy Lichtenstein, Burhan Dogancay, Dubuffet, Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell, Gilbert & George, David Hockney, Louise Bourgeois, and Art & Language.  Works of architecture and design include Philippe Starck, Jean Nouvel, and Dominique Perrault.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Musée National d'Art Moderne (, \"National Museum of Modern Art\") is the national museum for modern art of France. It is located in Paris and is housed in the Centre Pompidou in the 4th arrondissement of the city. It is among the most visited art museums in the world and one of the largest for modern and contemporary art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974104}
{"src_title": "Immortal Game", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Adolf Anderssen was one of the strongest players of his time, and many consider him to have been the world's strongest player after his victory in the London 1851 chess tournament. Lionel Kieseritzky lived in France much of his life, where he gave chess lessons, and played games for five francs an hour at the Café de la Régence in Paris. His strength was shown most favourably when giving great odds to weak players; against masters, he was less convincing.  Played between the two great players in London, the Immortal Game was an informal one, played during a break in a formal tournament. Kieseritzky was very impressed when the game was over, and telegraphed the moves of the game to his Parisian chess club. The French chess magazine \"La Régence\" published the game in July 1851. This game was nicknamed \"The Immortal Game\" in 1855 by the Austrian Ernst Falkbeer.  This game is acclaimed as an exemplar of the romantic style of chess play in the 19th century, where rapid and attack were considered the most effective way to win, where many gambits and counter-gambits were offered (and not accepting them would be considered slightly ungentlemanly), and where was often held in contempt. These games, with their rapid attacks and counter-attacks, are often entertaining to review, even if some of the moves would no longer be considered optimal by modern standards.  In this game, Anderssen won despite sacrificing a bishop (on move 11), both rooks (starting on move 18), and the queen (on move 22) to produce checkmate against Kieseritzky, who only lost three pawns. He offered both rooks to show that two active pieces are worth a dozen inactive pieces. Anderssen later demonstrated the same kind of approach in the Evergreen Game.  Some published versions of the game have errors, as described in the annotations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Annotated game.", "content": "White: Adolf Anderssen Black: Lionel Kieseritzky Opening: Bishop's Gambit (\"ECO\" C33)  1. e4 e5 2. f4  2... exf4 3. Bc4  3... Qh4+ 4. Kf1 b5 (see diagram)  5. Bxb5 Nf6 6. Nf3  6... Qh6 7. d3  7... Nh5  8. Nh4 Qg5  9. Nf5 c6  10. g4 Nf6 11. Rg1 (see diagram)  11... cxb5?  12. h4!  12... Qg6 13. h5 Qg5 14. Qf3  14... Ng8  15. Bxf4 Qf6 16. Nc3 Bc5  17. Nd5  17... Qxb2 (see diagram)  18. Bd6!  18... Bxg1?  19. e5!  19... Qxa1+ 20. Ke2  20... Na6  21. Nxg7+ Kd8 22. Qf6+! (see diagram)  22... Nxf6 23. Be7#  Savielly Tartakower described this as \"a beautiful game\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Immortal Game was a chess game played by Adolf Anderssen and Lionel Kieseritzky on 21 June 1851 in London, during a break of the first international tournament. The bold sacrifices made by Anderssen to secure victory have made it one of the most famous chess games of all time. Anderssen gave up both rooks and a bishop, then his queen, checkmating his opponent with his three remaining. In 1996, Bill Hartston called the game an achievement \"perhaps unparalleled in chess literature\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974105}
{"src_title": "Countess Louise Henriette of Nassau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Louise Henriëtte was born in The Hague, the eldest daughter of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. She grew up at the court of her father, the \"Stadtholder\" of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Louise Henriëtte had to abandon her love for Henri Charles de La Trémoille, Prince of Talmant, son of Henry de La Trémoille, as her mother had royal ambitions for her. However, attempts to conclude an engagement with King Charles II of England came to nothing. Finally she was forced to marry Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg (1620-1688), \"the Great Elector,\" at The Hague on 7 December 1646, her nineteenth birthday.  The Electorate of Brandenburg regarded this marriage as beneficial by reason of the connections with the Orange family it created in the hope of obtaining assistance for Brandenburg's struggle for influence in Pomerania.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electress.", "content": "The couple lived in Cleves for the first years of their marriage, but they moved to Brandenburg, Frederick William's seat, in 1648. During her marriage, Luise Henriette followed her spouse and traveled between The Hague, Königsberg, Berlin and Cleves on campaigns, inspections, war and battle fields in Poland and Denmark. She acted as her husband's political adviser and was described as a pragmatist. She managed, through correspondence with the Queen of Poland, Marie Louise Gonzaga, to make an alliance with Poland in exchange for the Polish recognition of Prussia as a province of Brandenburg. It was said of her : \"Few Electresses had been allowed so much influence\". Luise Henriette had a new castle in Dutch style built in Bötzow in 1650-52 and called it Oranienburg, which became the name for the entire town in 1653. She was also involved in the design and development of the Lustgarten in Berlin. In 1663, she installed the first porcelain cabinet in Europe. In 1665, she founded an orphanage with places for 24 children. She was described as truly kind and gentle with a sharp intellect: her advice was vital for her spouse, and their marriage was considered a role model. During time of war, she made great efforts to soften the damages upon society.  A Protestant religious community known as the \"Luise-Henrietten-Stift\" in nearby Lehnin Abbey was named after her.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "With Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, she had six children.  Luise Henriette died in Berlin and was buried in the Berliner Dom.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Louise Henrietta of Nassau (, ; 7 December 1627 – 18 June 1667) was a Countess of Nassau, granddaughter of William I, Prince of Orange, \"William the Silent\", and an Electress of Brandenburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974106}
{"src_title": "Voskhod (spacecraft)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The Voskhod spacecraft was, essentially, a Vostok spacecraft that had a backup solid fuel retrorocket added to the top of the descent module. The ejection seat was removed for more space and two or three crew couches were added to the interior at a 90° angle to that of the Vostok crew position. There was no provision for crew escape in the event of a launch or landing emergency.  Lack of space meant that the three crew members of Voskhod 1 did not wear space suits. Both crew members wore spacesuits on the Voskhod 2 mission, as it involved an EVA and used an inflatable airlock. This allowed cosmonaut Alexei Leonov to exit and re-enter the craft. It was needed because the vehicle's electrical and environmental systems were air-cooled, and complete capsule depressurization would lead to overheating. The airlock weighed, was in diameter, high when collapsed for launch. When extended in orbit, it was long, had an internal diameter of and an external diameter of. The second crew member wore a spacesuit as a precaution against accidental descent module depressurization. The airlock was jettisoned after use.  The lack of ejection seats meant that the Voskhod crew would return to Earth inside their spacecraft, unlike the Vostok cosmonauts who ejected and parachuted down separately. Because of this, a new landing system was developed, which added a small solid-fuel rocket to the parachute lines. It fired as the descent module neared touchdown, providing a softer landing.  A backup solid-fueled retrorocket was added to the top of the descent module in the event that the main retrorocket failed. This had not been necessary on Vostok as the orbit was low enough that the spacecraft would decay in ten days if the retrorocket failed, there being enough onboard consumables to sustain the cosmonaut that long. In any case, the Blok E equipped R-7 booster lacked sufficient lift capacity for a backup retrorocket. Since Voskhod was well below the maximum lift capacity of the larger Blok I equipped R-7, it would be put into a quite high orbit and not decay in ten days.  Voskhod utilized the 11A57 booster, essentially the Molniya 8K78L with the Blok L stage removed to create a medium-lift LEO launcher, and later the launch vehicle for the Soyuz program.  The spacecraft notably lacked any launch escape system, meaning that the crew would not survive a booster failure that occurred in the first 2.5 minutes of launch (after payload shroud jettison, the descent module could simply be detached). Although work had begun on an LES in 1962, it was not ready yet and so the engineers and cosmonauts simply had to gamble that the booster functioned properly during ascent, as by 1964, the R-7's success rate was improving but still not perfect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vostok 3KV (1964).", "content": "Also known as Voskhod. Adaptation of the Vostok spacecraft for three cosmonauts. This version flew twice, on 6 October 1964 uncrewed (as Kosmos 47) and on 12 October 1964 crewed as Voskhod 1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Voskhod 3KD (1965).", "content": "This version flew twice, on 22 February 1965 uncrewed (as Kosmos 57) and on 18 March 1965 crewed as the Voskhod 2 spacecraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reentry Module.", "content": "Reentry Module: Voskhod SA. Also known as: (sphere).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equipment Module.", "content": "Equipment Module: Voskhod PA. Also known as:.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Auxiliary Retrorocket Module.", "content": "Auxiliary Retrorocket Module: Voskhod KDU. Also known as: Engine unit", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Voskhod (, \"\"Sunrise\"\") was a spacecraft built by the Soviet Union's space program for human spaceflight as part of the Voskhod programme. It was a development of and a follow-on to the Vostok spacecraft. Voskhod 1 was used for a three-man flight whereas Voskhod 2 had a crew of two. They consisted of a spherical descent module (diameter ), which housed the cosmonauts, and instruments, and a conical equipment module (mass, long, wide), which contained propellant and the engine system. Voskhod was superseded by the Soyuz spacecraft in 1967.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974107}
{"src_title": "White lead", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "What is commonly known today as the \"Dutch method\" for the preparation of white lead was described as early as Theophrastus of Eresos (ca. 300 BC), in his brief work on rocks or minerals, \"On Stones\" or \"History of Stones.\" His directions for the process were repeated throughout history by many authors of chemical and alchemical literature. The uses of cerussa were described as an external medication and pigment.  Clifford Dyer Holley quotes from Theophrastus' \"History of Stones\" as follows, in his book \"The Lead and Zinc Pigments\".  Lead is placed in earthen vessels over sharp vinegar, and after it has acquired some thickness of a sort of rust, which it commonly does in about ten days, they open the vessels and scrape it off, as it were, in a sort of foulness; they then place the lead over vinegar again, repeating over and over again the same method of scraping it till it has wholly dissolved. What has been scraped off they then beat to powder and boil for a long time, and what at last subsides to the bottom of the vessel is ceruse. Later descriptions of the Dutch process involved casting metallic lead as thin buckles and corroded with acetic acid in the presence of carbon dioxide. This was done by placing them over pots with a little vinegar (which contains acetic acid). These were stacked up and covered with a mixture of decaying dung and spent tanner's bark, which supplied the CO, and left for six to fourteen weeks, by which time the blue-grey lead had corroded to white lead. The pots were then taken to a separating table where scraping and pounding removed the white lead from the buckles. The powder was then dried and packed for shipment or shipped as a paste. One benefit of the process was that it was not necessary to dry the paste of white lead, removing its water. All that needed was to mill the paste with linseed oil, and the white lead would take up the oil and reject the residual water, to give white lead in oil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paints.", "content": "White lead has been the principal white pigment of classical European oil painting. There have been claims that it is partly responsible for darkening of old paintings over time, reacting with trace amounts of hydrogen sulfide in the air to produce black lead sulfide. Other authorities dispute this; the most traditional view is that impermanent pigments and dirty varnish (which is often cleanable) are more likely responsible for darkening.  Paintings and the role of varnish, which might protect the white lead yet itself darken, aside—according to Michelle Facini, a paper conservator at the National Gallery of Art, lead carbonate to lead sulfide is indeed what happens to some lead chalks/paints in drawings and watercolors and other works done on paper and unvarnished. Varnish is meant to be removable from an oil painting, to strip off when it dirties or cracks; but on paper it soaks through and becomes inseparable from the paper fibers, ruinous as it ages. This is why works on paper are never, or should never, be varnished.  In any event, white lead has been mostly supplanted in artistic use by titanium white, which has much higher tinting strength than white lead. Critics argue that many of these substitutes are much less permanent. White lead is less used by today's painters, not because of its toxicity directly; but simply because its toxicity in other contexts has led to trade restrictions that make white lead difficult for artists to obtain in sufficient quantities. Winsor & Newton, the English paint company, was restricted in 2014 from selling its flake white in tubes and now must sell exclusively in tins.  In the eighteenth century, white lead paints were routinely used to repaint the hulls and floors of Royal Navy vessels, to waterproof the timbers and limit infestation by shipworm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other synonyms (as an art pigment).", "content": "Among the synonyms for white lead are Berlin white, Cremnitz white, Dutch white lead, flake white, Flemish white, Krems white, London white, Pigment White 1, Roman white, silver white, slate white, Vienna white, and white lead.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "White lead is the basic lead carbonate, 2PbCO·Pb(OH). It is a complex salt, containing both carbonate and hydroxide ions. White lead occurs naturally as a mineral, in which context it is known as hydrocerussite, a hydrate of cerussite. It was formerly used as an ingredient for lead paint and a cosmetic called Venetian ceruse, because of its opacity and the satiny smooth mixture it made with dryable oils. However, it tended to cause lead poisoning, and its use has been banned in most countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974108}
{"src_title": "Imi Lichtenfeld", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Lichtenfeld was born on May 26, 1910, to a Hungarians-Jewish family in Budapest in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He grew up in Pressburg (Pozsony, today's Bratislava). His family moved to Bratislava, where his father, Samuel Lichtenfeld, was a chief inspector on the Bratislava police force and a former circus acrobat. Lichtenfeld trained at the Hercules Gymnasium, which was owned by his father, who taught self-defense.  Lichtenfeld was a successful boxer, wrestler, and gymnast since his youth. He competed at national and international levels and was a champion and member of the Slovak National Wrestling Team. In 1928, he won the Slovak Youth Wrestling Championship, and in 1929, the adult championship in the light and middleweight divisions. That year, he also won the national boxing championship and an international gymnastics championship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development of Krav Maga.", "content": "In the late 1930s, anti-Semitic riots threatened the Jewish population of Bratislava. Together with other Jewish boxers and wrestlers, Lichtenfeld helped to defend his Jewish neighborhood against racist gangs. He quickly decided that sport has little in common with real combat and began developing a system of techniques for practical self-defense in life-threatening situations.  In 1935, Lichtenfeld visited Mandatory Palestine with a team of Jewish wrestlers to participate in the Maccabiah Games but could not participate because of a broken rib that resulted from his training while en route. This led to the fundamental Krav Maga precept, 'do not get hurt' while training. Lichtenfeld returned to Czechoslovakia to face increasing anti-Semitic violence. Lichtenfeld organized a group of young Jews to protect his community. On the streets, he acquired hard won experience and the crucial understanding of the differences between sport fighting and street fighting. He developed his fundamental self-defense principle: 'use natural movements and reactions' for defense, combined with an immediate and decisive counterattack. From this evolved the refined theory of'simultaneous defense and attack' while 'never occupying two hands in the same defensive movement.'  In 1940, Lichtenfeld fled the rise of Nazism in Slovakia, heading for Palestine on the Aliyah Bet vessel, \"Pencho\", which shipwrecked on the Dodecanese Islands in the Aegean Sea. He reached Palestine in 1942 after serving with distinction in the British supervised Free Czechoslovak Legion in North Africa. The Haganah's leaders immediately recognized Lichtenfeld's fighting prowess and ingenuity. In 1944 Lichtenfeld began training fighters in his areas of expertise: physical fitness, swimming, wrestling, use of the knife, and defenses against knife attacks. During this period, Lichtenfeld trained several elite units of the Haganah and Palmach (striking force of the Haganah and forerunner of the special units of the IDF), including the Pal-yam, as well as groups of police officers. In 1948, when the State of Israel was founded and the IDF was formed, Lichtenfeld became Chief Instructor for Physical Fitness and Krav Maga at the IDF School of Combat Fitness. He served in the IDF for about 20 years, during which time he developed and refined his unique method for self-defense and hand-to-hand combat. After he finished his active duty, Lichtenfeld began adapting and modifying Krav Maga to civilian needs.  The method was formulated to suit everyone – man and woman, boy or girl, who might need it to save his or her life or survive an attack while sustaining minimal harm, whatever the background of the attack – criminal, nationalistic, or other. To disseminate his method, Lichtenfeld established two training centers, one in Tel Aviv and the other in Netanya.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1964, Lichtenfeld retired from the Israeli military. He then modified Krav Maga to fit the needs of police forces and ordinary civilians. He trained teams of Krav Maga instructors, who were accredited by him and the Israeli Ministry of Education. He also created the Israeli Krav Maga Association (IKMA) on October 22, 1978, and the International Krav Maga Federation in 1995. On January 9, 1998, Lichtenfeld died in Netanya, Israel, at the age of 87.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emrich \"Imre\" Lichtenfeld () (May 26, 1910 – January 9, 1998) was a Hungarian-born Israeli martial artist who founded the Krav Maga self-defense system. He was also known as Imi Sde-Or (), the Hebrew calque of his surname.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974109}
{"src_title": "Theodora Komnene, Queen of Jerusalem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Theodora was a daughter of the \"sebastokratōr\" Isaac Komnenos by his second wife, Eirene Synadene. Her father was a son of Emperor John II Komnenos and Piroska of Hungary, daughter of King Ladislaus I of Hungary.  Her paternal uncles included Emperor Manuel I Komnenos. Her half-sister Maria Komnene married King Stephen IV of Hungary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen consort of Jerusalem.", "content": "Baldwin III of Jerusalem had taken control of the Kingdom of Jerusalem from his mother and Regent Queen Melisende in 1153. He was unmarried, however, and around 1157 it was decided by the \"Haute Cour\" that a wife should be sought from the Byzantine Empire, the kingdom's most powerful and wealthy neighbour. A Byzantine alliance would hopefully also bring much-needed money and military assistance against Nūr al-Dīn, sultan of Syria and Jerusalem's greatest enemy.  Attard, archbishop of Nazareth, Humphrey II of Toron, constable of Jerusalem, Joscelin Piscellus, and William de Barris were sent to Constantinople to negotiate a marriage for the king (Attard died while on the mission). The ambassadors were delayed in Constantinople for almost an entire year but it was finally decided that Theodora would be chosen as Baldwin's wife. She was at the time only 12 or 13 years old, but was already renowned for her beauty. Her dowry was worth 100,000 hyperpyra, and William of Tyre estimated that her extravagant wedding clothes cost another 14,000 hyperpyra. As a dower from Baldwin, Theodora was granted the city of Acre, which she would hold as her own should Baldwin die childless.  The ambassadors arrived in Jerusalem with Theodora in September 1158. Aimery of Limoges, the patriarch of Antioch, performed the marriage, as the patriarch of Jerusalem had not yet been consecrated. Baldwin was previously known for his frivolous lifestyle, but now became a devoted and loyal husband. The marriage was short and childless: Baldwin died only a few years later in 1162, leaving Theodora a widow at the age of about 17. Theodora received the city of Acre, as promised.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with Andronikos I Komnenos.", "content": "A few years later in 1166, Theodora's kinsman Andronikos, a first cousin of her father, visited the kingdom and was named lord of Beirut by Baldwin's brother and successor Amalric I. Andronikos invited Theodora to Beirut, and the two eloped to Damascus, or as William says, Andronikos abducted her in collusion with Nūr al-Dīn. It was likely not an abduction; Andronikos was already married, and had already had an affair with Philippa, a sister of Prince Bohemund III of Antioch and of Manuel's wife Maria of Antioch, and he was likely trying to escape persecution by Manuel, who did not approve of these incestuous affairs. As there was no legal marriage, Acre was returned to King Amalric. Amalric had also married a Byzantine princess, Maria Komnene, and the imperial alliance remained intact.  At the court of Nūr al-Dīn in Damascus, Andronikos and Theodora had two children together, Alexios and Eirene, although Andronikos was inevitably excommunicated. They also travelled to Baghdad, and then to the Sultanate of Rum where Andronikos was made lord of a castle in Paphlagonia.  Some years later Theodora and her children were captured and handed over to the emperor Manuel, who kept them in Constantinople as a bait to encourage Andronikos to return to his Byzantine allegiance. He did in fact capitulate and visited Constantinople in 1180 to submit to Manuel.  When he finally returned to Constantinople in 1182, becoming emperor in 1183, there is no evidence that Theodora went back to live with him. It was at this time, however, that their daughter Eirene married Alexios Komnenos, an illegitimate son of Emperor Manuel I by of Theodora Vatatzina. At this time, too, Theodora interceded with Andronikos to pay the ransom for her nephew, Isaac, a former Byzantine governor of Isauria now a captive in Armenia; Andronikos afterwards regretted doing so, since Isaac rebelled and seized control of Cyprus.  K. Varzos suggests that Theodora Komnene and Theodora Vatatzina eventually conspired against Andronikos, but there seems to be no positive evidence of this. Her later history is not known.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Namesakes.", "content": "Another Theodora Komnene was the wife of Prince Bohemund III of Antioch and sister of Queen Maria Komnene of Jerusalem. A third Theodora Komnene was the wife of Duke Henry II of Austria and mother of Duke Leopold V of Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theodora Komnene or Comnena ( ) (born ) was a niece of Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus, and wife of King Baldwin III of Jerusalem.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974110}
{"src_title": "Armin Zöggeler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Zöggeler was born in Meran, South Tyrol, into a farming family. A Carabiniere by profession, he began to luge at a very young age, over natural tracks. He won the junior World Cup when he was 14, and made his debut with the Italian national team at the age of 19. He also took three medals at the Junior World Championships: a silver in 1992 followed by two golds in 1993 and 1994. Despite a lack of tracks in Italy until the construction of the Cesana Pariol track for the 2006 Winter Olympics, he evolved into one of the most effective lugers ever.  Zöggeler lives in the town of Lana, in South Tyrol. He got married on 12 May 2007, and had two children, Nina and Thomas. During times when he is not training, Zöggeler enjoys swimming, field hockey, and collecting and watching television dramas. He is the uncle of fellow luger Sandra Robatscher.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Achievements.", "content": "At the Winter Olympics, Zöggeler has won six medals in the same individual competition in six consecutive Olympics, the first to do so; including two golds (2002, 2006), one silver (1998), and three bronze (1994, 2010, 2014).  He has sixteen medals at the FIL World Luge Championships, including six golds (Men's singles: 1995, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2011), five silvers (Men's singles: 2000, 2007, 2009; Mixed team: 1995, 2007), and five bronzes (Mixed team: 1996, 1997, 2004, 2005, 2012).  At the FIL European Luge Championships, Zöggeler has earned eighteen medals. This includes four golds (Men's singles: 2004, 2008 and 2014; Mixed team: 1994), six silvers (Men's singles: 2006, 2012; Mixed team: 1998, 2004, 2006 and 2013), and eight bronzes (Men's singles: 1994, 2000, 2002; Mixed team: 1996, 2000, 2008, 2012 and 2014).  He won the overall Luge World Cup in men's singles ten times (1997–98, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2003–04, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2009–10 and 2010–11). This is another record together with Markus Prock.  Zöggeler's 57 individual wins in the World Cup (), he is first of all time, beating the previous record of 33 wins by both German Georg Hackl and Austrian Markus Prock. He also took 26 seconds and 20 thirds in World Cup races.  He also won 20 Italian national championship titles between 1993 and 2013.  Zöggeler was made a Commander of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic in 2010.  In March 2018 a 37-minute documentary film \"Armin Zöggeler: La leggenda dello slittino\" (\"Armin Zöggeler: the Legend of Luge\") was exhibited and made available for loan free of charge in Bolzano, with Zöggeler meeting members of the audience after the screening.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports career.", "content": "Zöggeler carried the Italian flag at the closing ceremonies of the 2006 Torino Winter Olympics.  For the 2010 Winter Olympics, Zöggeler was given the opportunity to carry the flag for Italy at the opening ceremony, but he declined because the first two runs of the Olympic luge competition were scheduled at the Whistler Sliding Centre for the following evening. The honour instead went to cross-country skier Giorgio Di Centa.  He carried the flag for the 2014 Winter Olympics opening ceremony.  On 9 February 2014, Zöggeler became the first person in history to win six medals in the same individual competition in six consecutive Olympics, by winning a bronze. Other athletes who won medals in six consecutive Olympics did not do so in the same individual competition: Aladár Gerevich, a fencer from Hungary, won six gold medals between 1932 and 1960 with the Hungarian team; Elisabeta Lipă, a rower from Romania, won her medals between 1984 and 2004 in different disciplines (single scull, double scull, quadruple scull and eight).  In October 2014, Zöggeler announced his retirement from competition, taking up a post as head of materials research and development for the Italian luge team, working with the Italian National Olympic Committee, the Italian Winter Sports Federation and Ferrari. He joined the Italian National Olympic Committee's Athletes' Commission in 2016.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Armin Zöggeler OMRI (born 4 January 1974) is a retired Italian luger and double Olympic champion. He is one of the most successful men in the sport, nicknamed \"Il Cannibale\" (\"The Cannibal\"), for his notable series of victories, or \"The Iceblood Champion\", for his always cold, rational approach to the races. Fellow luger Tucker West described Zöggeler as the sport's equivalent of Michael Jordan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974111}
{"src_title": "Scalable Link Interface", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Implementation.", "content": "SLI allows two, three, or four graphics processing units (GPUs) to share the workload when rendering real-time 3D computer graphics. Ideally, identical GPUs are installed on the motherboard that contains enough PCI Express slots, set up in a master–slave configuration. All graphics cards are given an equal workload to render, but the final output of each card is sent to the master card via a connector called the SLI Bridge. For example, in a two graphics card setup, the master works on the top half of the scene, the slave the bottom half. Once the slave is done, it sends its render to the master to combine into one image before sending it to the monitor.  The SLI bridge is used to reduce bandwidth constraints and send data between both graphics cards directly. It is possible to run SLI without using the bridge connector on a pair of \"low-end to mid-range\" graphics cards (e.g. 7100GS or 6600GT) with Nvidia's Forceware drivers 80.XX or later. Since these graphics cards do not use as much bandwidth, data can be relayed through just the chipsets on the motherboard. However, if there are two \"high-end\" graphics cards installed and the SLI bridge is omitted, the performance will suffer severely, as the chipset does not have enough bandwidth.  Configurations currently include: Nvidia has created a set of custom video game profiles in cooperation with video game publishers that will automatically enable SLI in the mode that gives the largest performance boost.  Nvidia has 3 types of SLI bridges: The Standard Bridge is traditionally included with motherboards that support SLI and is recommended for monitors up to 1920×1080 and 2560×1440@60 Hz. The LED Bridge is sold by Nvidia, EVGA, and others and is recommended for monitors up to 2560×1440@120 Hz+ and 4K. The LED Bridges can only function at the increased Pixel Clock if the GPU supports that clock. The High-Bandwidth Bridge is only sold by Nvidia and is recommended for monitors up to 5K and Surround.  The following table provides an overview on the maximum theoretical bandwidth for data transfers depending on bridge type specifications as found on the open market:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "SLI Modes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Split Frame Rendering (SFR).", "content": "This analyzes the rendered image in order to split the workload equally between the two GPUs. To do this, the frame is split horizontally in varying ratios depending on geometry. For example, in a scene where the top half of the frame is mostly empty sky, the dividing line will lower, balancing geometry workload between the two GPUs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alternate Frame Rendering (AFR).", "content": "Each GPU renders entire frames in sequence. For example, in a Two-Way setup, one GPU renders the odd frames, the other the even frames, one after the other. Finished outputs are sent to the master for display. Ideally, this would result in the rendering time being cut by the number of GPUs available. In their advertising, Nvidia claims up to 1.9x the performance of one card with the Two-Way setup. While AFR may produce higher overall framerates than SFR, it also exhibits the temporal artifact known as Micro stuttering, which may affect frame rate perception. It is noteworthy that while the frequency at which frames arrive may be doubled, the time to produce the frame is not reduced - which means that AFR is not a viable method of reducing input lag.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "SLI Antialiasing.", "content": "This is a standalone rendering mode that offers up to double the antialiasing performance by splitting the antialiasing workload between the two graphics cards, offering superior image quality. One GPU performs an antialiasing pattern which is slightly offset to the usual pattern (for example, slightly up and to the right), and the second GPU uses a pattern offset by an equal amount in the opposite direction (down and to the left). Compositing both the results gives higher image quality than is normally possible. This mode is not intended for higher frame rates, and can actually lower performance, but is instead intended for games which are not GPU-bound, offering a clearer image in place of better performance. When enabled, SLI Antialiasing offers advanced antialiasing options: SLI 8X, SLI 16X, and SLI 32x (for Quad SLI systems only).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hybrid SLI.", "content": "Hybrid SLI is the generic name for two technologies, GeForce Boost and HybridPower.  GeForce Boost allowed the rendering power of an IGP and a discrete GPU to be combined in order to increase performance.  HybridPower, on the other hand, is another mode that is not for performance enhancement. The setup consists of an IGP as well as a GPU on MXM module. The IGP would assist the GPU to boost performance when the laptop is plugged to a power socket while the MXM module would be shut down when the laptop was unplugged from power socket to lower overall graphics power consumption. Hybrid SLI is also available on desktop Motherboards and PCs with PCI-E discrete video cards. NVIDIA claims that twice the performance can be achieved with a Hybrid SLI capable IGP motherboard and a GeForce 8400 GS video card.  HybridPower was later renamed as Nvidia Optimus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "SLI HB.", "content": "In May 2016 Nvidia announced that the GeForce 10 series would feature a new SLI HB (High Bandwidth) bridge; this bridge uses 2 SLI fingers on the PCB of each card and essentially doubles the available bandwidth between them. Currently, only GeForce 10 series cards support SLI HB and only 2-way SLI is supported over this bridge for single-GPU cards. SLI HB interface runs at 650 MHz, while legacy SLI interface runs at slower 400 MHz.  Electrically there is little difference between the regular SLI bridge and the SLI HB bridge. It is similar to two regular bridges combined in one PCB. The signal quality of the bridge improved, however, as the SLI HB bridge has an adjusted trace-length to make sure all traces on the bridge have exactly the same length.  A PC gaming magazine has done research with x-rays for comparing SLI bridges with their SLI HB successors and found adjusted signal lengths by planned Meandering of certain wires so that clock rates can go up from 400 MHz to 650 MHz and thus the data rates along with that. With the increased bus width a noticeable bandwidth increase should be expected. Tests with a GTX 1080 GPU-board model showed that the improvements in gaming performance is quite marginal. Other than that it got found that LED illuminated bridges (often back-side-illuminating some logo) will mainly result in a noticeable increased market price at a comparable base functionality.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Scalable Link Interface (SLI) is a brand name for a multi-GPU technology developed by Nvidia for linking two or more video cards together to produce a single output. SLI is a parallel processing algorithm for computer graphics, meant to increase the available processing power.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974112}
{"src_title": "Ferdinando Carulli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Carulli was born to an affluent, upper-class family in Naples. His father, Michele, was a distinguished literator, secretary to the delegate of the Neapolitan Jurisdiction. Like many of his contemporaries, he was taught musical theory by a priest, who was also an amateur musician. Carulli's first instrument was the cello, but when he was twenty he discovered the guitar and devoted his life to the study and advancement of the guitar. As there were no professional guitar teachers in Naples at the time, Carulli developed his own style of playing.  Carulli was a gifted performer. His concerts in Naples were so popular that he soon began touring Europe. Around 1801 Carulli married a French woman, Marie-Josephine Boyer, and had a son with her. A few years later Carulli started to compose in Milan, where he contributed to local publications. After a highly successful Paris tour, Carulli moved there. At the time the city was known as the'music-capital' of the world, and he stayed there for the rest of his life.  Carulli became highly successful as a guitar teacher in Paris. It was also here that the majority of his works were published. Later in his life he became a self-publisher and, in addition to his own music, published the works of other prominent guitarists including Filippo Gragnani whom he befriended and who later dedicated three guitar duets to Carulli.  Carulli also began to experiment with instrument making toward the end of his life and, in collaboration with the Parisian luthier René Lacôte, developed a 10-string instrument, the \"Decacorde\".  Carulli died in Paris on 17 February 1841, eight days after his 71st birthday.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music/style.", "content": "Carulli was among the most prolific composers of his time. He wrote more than four hundred works for the guitar, and countless others for various instrumental combinations, always including the guitar. His most influential work, the \"Method, op. 27\", published in 1810, contains pieces still widely used today in training students of the classical guitar. Along with numerous works for two guitars, works for guitar with violin or flute, and three concertos for guitar with chamber orchestra, Carulli also composed several works for guitar and piano (in collaboration with his son, Gustavo).  Many of the pieces now regarded as Carulli's finest were initially turned down by publishers who considered them too difficult for the average recreational guitarist. It is likely that many of his best works remained unpublished and are now lost. Nevertheless, several of Carulli's published works point at the likely quality and sophistication of his concert music, the \"Six Andantes Op. 320\" (dedicated to the guitarist Matteo Carcassi) being a good example. The great majority of Carulli's surviving works, however, were those considered marketable enough by mainstream Parisian publishers aiming at an amateur recreational market.  In addition to his highly successful \"Methode Op. 27\" (which went through four editions during his lifetime and a major revision, as Op. 241), Carulli also published several supplements to the method, along with a method without explanatory text (\"L'Anti Methode Op. 272\"), a method for the decacorde, a harmony treatise, a treatise dealing with guitar accompaniment of the voice, and several collections of vocalises and solfèges. The latter studies were intended to exploit the guitar’s accompanying capabilities, and to be used by both singer-guitarists amateurs, and voice teachers who were not proficient figured bass readers.  Classical guitarists have recorded many of his works. Arguably his most famous work is a duet for guitar and flute, which was recorded by Alexander Lagoya and Jean-Pierre Rampal, although his Duo in G Op.34 achieved a measure of indirect fame in Britain as the theme tune of cult 1980s science fiction/television game show \"The Adventure Game\". The Duo in G has been recorded several times, most famously by Julian Bream and John Williams.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Instruments used by Carulli.", "content": "Among the guitars used by Carulli, one finds", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferdinando Maria Meinrado Francesco Pascale Rosario Carulli (9 February 1770 – 17 February 1841) was an Italian composer for classical guitar and the author of the influential \"Méthode complète pour guitare ou lyre\", op. 27 (1810), which contains music still used by student guitarists today. He wrote a variety of works for classical guitar, including numerous solo and chamber works and several concertos. He was an extremely prolific writer, composing over 400 works for the instrument.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974113}
{"src_title": "Bézout's identity", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure of solutions.", "content": "When one pair of Bézout coefficients has been computed (e.g., using extended Euclidean algorithm), all pairs can be represented in the form  where is an arbitrary integer and the fractions simplify to integers.  Among these pairs of Bézout coefficients, exactly two of them satisfy and equality may occur only if one of and divides the other.  This relies on a property of Euclidean division: given two integers \"c\" and \"d\", if \"d\" does not divide \"c\", there is exactly one pair such that and, and another one such that and.  The two pairs of small Bézout's coefficients are obtained from the given one by choosing for in the above formula either of the two integers next to formula_5.  The Extended Euclidean algorithm always produces one of these two minimal pairs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "Let \"a\" = 12 and \"b\" = 42, gcd (12, 42) = 6. Then we have the following Bézout's identities, with the Bézout coefficients written in red for the minimal pairs and in blue for the other ones.  If is the original pair of Bézout coefficients, then formula_7 yields the minimal pairs via resp. : and.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proof.", "content": "Given any nonzero integers and, let formula_8 The set is nonempty since it contains either or (with and ). Since is a nonempty set of positive integers, it has a minimum element formula_9, by the Well-ordering principle. To prove that is the greatest common divisor of and, we must prove that is a common divisor of and, and that for any other common divisor, one has.  The Euclidean division of by may be written The remainder is in formula_11, because Thus is of the form formula_13, and hence formula_14. However,, and is the smallest positive integer in : the remainder can therefore not be in, making necessarily 0. This implies that is a divisor of. Similarly is also a divisor of, and is a common divisor of and.  Now, let be any common divisor of and ; that is, there exist and such that That is is a divisor of, and, therefore", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Generalizations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "For three or more integers.", "content": "Bézout's identity can be extended to more than two integers: if  then there are integers formula_17 such that  has the following properties:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "For polynomials.", "content": "Bézout's identity works for univariate polynomials over a field exactly in the same ways as for integers. In particular the Bézout's coefficients and the greatest common divisor may be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm.  As the common roots of two polynomials are the roots of their greatest common divisor, Bézout's identity and fundamental theorem of algebra imply the following result:  The generalization of this result to any number of polynomials and indeterminates is Hilbert's Nullstellensatz.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "For principal ideal domains.", "content": "As noted in the introduction, Bézout's identity works not only in the ring of integers, but also in any other principal ideal domain (PID). That is, if \"R\" is a PID, and \"a\" and \"b\" are elements of \"R\", and \"d\" is a greatest common divisor of \"a\" and \"b\", then there are elements \"x\" and \"y\" in \"R\" such that \"ax\" + \"by\" = \"d\". The reason is that the ideal \"Ra\"+\"Rb\" is principal and equal to \"Rd\".  An integral domain in which Bézout's identity holds is called a Bézout domain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "French mathematician Étienne Bézout (1730–1783) proved this identity for polynomials. However, this statement for integers can be found already in the work of another French mathematician, Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac (1581–1638).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In elementary number theory, Bézout's identity (also called Bézout's lemma) is the following theorem: The integers \"x\" and \"y\" are called Bézout coefficients for (\"a\", \"b\"); they are not unique. A pair of Bézout coefficients can be computed by the extended Euclidean algorithm. If both \"a\" and \"b\" are nonzero, the extended Euclidean algorithm produces one of the two pairs such that formula_1 and formula_2 (equality may occur only if one of \"a\" and \"b\" is a multiple of the other).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974114}
{"src_title": "Czechoslovak border fortifications", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "With the rise of Hitler and his demands for unification of German minorities, including the Sudeten Germans, and return of other claimed territories—Sudetenland—the alarmed Czechoslovak leadership began defensive plans. While some basic defensive structures were built early on, it was not until after conferences with French military on their design that a full scale effort began.  A change in the design philosophy was noticeable in the \"pillboxes\" and larger blockhouses similar to the French Maginot line when the massive construction program began in 1936. The original plan was to have the first stage of construction finished in 1941–1942, whilst the full system should have been completed by the early 1950s.  Construction was very rapid, and by the time of the Munich Agreement in September 1938, there were completed in total 264 heavy blockhouses (small forts or elements of strongholds) and 10,014 light pillboxes, which means about 20 percent of the heavy objects and 70 percent of the light objects. Moreover, many other objects were near completion and would have been functional at least as shelters despite missing certain heavy armaments in some structures.  After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia border regions as a result of the Sudeten Crisis, the Germans used these objects to test and develop new weapons and tactics, plan, and practise the attacks eventually used against the Maginot Line and Belgium's forts, resulting in astounding success. After the fall of Belgium, France and the Low Countries, the Germans began to dismantle the \"Beneš Wall\", blowing up the cupolas, or removing them and the embrasures, some of which were eventually installed in the Atlantic Wall.  Later in the war, with the Soviet forces to the east collapsing the German front, the Germans hurriedly repaired what they could of the fortifications, often just bricking up the holes where the embrasures once were, leaving a small hole for a machine gun. The east–west portion of the line that ran from Ostrava to Opava which is a river valley with a steep rise to the south, became the scene of intense fighting. It is unknown how vital those fortifications were to German defense, but after hurried patching of some buildings leaving holes for machine-gun nests they were used against the Soviet advance from 17 to 26 April 1945.  During World War II the Germans had removed many armored parts like domes, cupolas and embrasures from the majority of the objects. Some objects became subjects of German penetration shells or explosives testing and are heavily damaged. In the post-war period, many of the remaining armoured parts were scrapped as a result of a loss of their strategic value and general drive for steel.  After the war they were further stripped of useful materials, and then sealed. A couple of the large underground structures continued to be used long after as military hardware storage, and some still are to this day, by the once again independent Czech Army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The basic philosophy of the design was a mutual defensive line, that is, most of the firepower was directed laterally from the approaching enemy. The facing wall of all the fortifications, large and small, was the thickest, covered with boulders and debris, and covered again with soil so even the largest caliber shells would have lost most of their energy before reaching the concrete. The only frontal armament was machine gun ports in cupolas designed for observation and anti-infantry purposes. Any enemy units that tried to go between the blockhouses would have been stopped by anti-tank, anti-infantry barricades, machine gun and cannon fire. A few of the larger blockhouses, or artillery forts, had indirect fire mortars and heavy cannon mounts. Behind the major structures were two rows of smaller four-to-seven-man pillboxes that mirrored their larger relatives, with a well protected front and lateral cross fire to stop any enemy that managed to get on top of the fort, or come up from behind. Most of the lines consisted of just the smaller pillboxes.  The \"light objects\" were simple hollow boxes with one or two machine gun positions, a retractable observation periscope, grenade tubes, hand-operated air blower, and a solid inner door at 90 degrees to a steel bar outer door. The machine gun was mounted near the end of the barrel, so that the port hole was only large enough for the bullets and a scope to see through, unlike most other designs where a large opening is used. A heavy steel plate could be slid down to quickly close the tiny hole for added protection.  The \"heavy objects\" were infantry blockhouses very similar to the southern part of the Maginot Line, but with substantial improvements. Just like the pillboxes, the cannons and machine guns were pivoted at the tip, and this time fully enclosed, protecting the occupants from all but the heaviest of cannons. The fortresses had a full ventilation system with filtration so even chemical attacks would not affect the defenders. Besides grid power, a two-cylinder diesel engine provided internal power. These fortifications also had full toilet and wash basin amenities, a luxury compared to its French counterpart casemates – however, these facilities were designed to be used only during the combat. While largely hollow with a few concrete walls as part of the structure, each chamber was further divided into smaller rooms by simple brick and mortar walls, with a last gap at the ceiling filled with tarred cork, since construction of a few of the casemates stopped before the internal walls were finished.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current state.", "content": "Today almost all of the remaining light objects are freely accessible. Some of the heavy objects are also accessible, others may be rented or sold to enthusiasts. A certain number were turned into museums and very few into depots. The \"Hanička\" Artillery Fort was being rebuilt into a modern shelter for the Ministry of Interior between 1979 and 1993, but declared unneeded in 1995. A museum has been created here.  Many of the open museums are located between Ostrava and Opava, close to the present Polish border which had been the German border before World War II. Of the eight artillery forts that were either completed or under construction by September 1938, six now function as museums while two are still used by the military.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Czechoslovakia built a system of border fortifications as well as some fortified defensive lines inland, from 1935 to 1938 as a defensive countermeasure against the rising threat of Nazi Germany. The objective of the fortifications was to prevent the taking of key areas by an enemy—not only Germany but also Hungary and Poland—by means of a sudden attack before the mobilization of the Czechoslovak Army could be completed, and to enable effective defense until allies—Britain and France, and possibly the Soviet Union—could help.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974115}
{"src_title": "McLaren F1", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classical bulges.", "content": "Bulges that have properties similar to those of elliptical galaxies are often called \"classical bulges\" due to their similarity to the historic view of bulges. These bulges are composed primarily of stars that are older, Population II stars, and hence have a reddish hue (see stellar evolution). These stars are also in orbits that are essentially random compared to the plane of the galaxy, giving the bulge a distinct spherical form. Due to the lack of dust and gases, bulges tend to have almost no star formation. The distribution of light is described by a Sersic profile.  Classical bulges are thought to be the result of collisions of smaller structures. Convulsing gravitational forces and torques disrupt the orbital paths of stars, resulting in the randomised bulge orbits. If either progenitor galaxy was gas-rich, the tidal forces can also cause inflows to the newly merged galaxy nucleus. Following a major merger, gas clouds are more likely to convert into stars, due to shocks (see star formation). One study has suggested that about 80% of galaxies in the field lack a classical bulge, indicating that they have never experienced a major merger. The bulgeless galaxy fraction of the Universe has remained roughly constant for at least the last 8 billion years. In contrast, about two thirds of galaxies in dense galaxy clusters (such as the Virgo Cluster) do possess a classical bulge, demonstrating the disruptive effect of their crowding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disk-like bulges.", "content": "Many bulges have properties more similar to those of the central regions of spiral galaxies than elliptical galaxies. They are often referred to as \"pseudobulges\" or \"disky-bulges.\" These bulges have stars that are not orbiting randomly, but rather orbit in an ordered fashion in the same plane as the stars in the outer disk. This contrasts greatly with elliptical galaxies.  Subsequent studies (using the Hubble Space Telescope) show that the bulges of many galaxies are not devoid of dust, but rather show a varied and complex structure. This structure often looks similar to a spiral galaxy, but is much smaller. Giant spiral galaxies are typically 2–100 times the size of those spirals that exist in bulges. Where they exist, these central spirals dominate the light of the bulge in which they reside. Typically the rate at which new stars are formed in pseudobulges is similar to the rate at which stars form in disk galaxies. Sometimes bulges contain nuclear rings that are forming stars at much higher rate (per area) than is typically found in outer disks, as shown in NGC 4314 (see photo).  Properties such as spiral structure and young stars suggest that some bulges did not form through the same process that made elliptical galaxies and classical bulges. Yet the theories for the formation of pseudobulges are less certain than those for classical bulges. Pseudobulges may be the result of extremely gas-rich mergers that happened more recently than those mergers that formed classical bulges (within the last 5 billion years). However, it is difficult for disks to survive the merging process, casting doubt on this scenario.  Many astronomers suggest that bulges that appear similar to disks form outside of the disk, and are not the product of a merging process. When left alone, disk galaxies can rearrange their stars and gas (as a response to instabilities). The products of this process (called secular evolution) are often observed in such galaxies; both spiral disks and galactic bars can result from secular evolution of galaxy disks. Secular evolution is also expected to send gas and stars to the center of a galaxy. If this happens that would increase the density at the center of the galaxy, and thus make a bulge that has properties similar to those of disk galaxies.  If secular evolution, or the slow, steady evolution of a galaxy, is responsible for the formation of a significant number of bulges, then that many galaxies have not experienced a merger since the formation of their disk. This would then mean that current theories of galaxy formation and evolution greatly over-predict the number of mergers in the past few billion years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Central compact mass.", "content": "Most bulges and pseudo-bulges are thought to host a central relativistic compact mass, which is traditionally assumed to be a supermassive black hole. Such black holes by definition can not be observed directly (light cannot escape them), but various pieces of evidence suggest their existence, both in the bulges of spiral galaxies and in the centers of ellipticals. The masses of the black holes correlate tightly with bulge properties. The M–sigma relation relates black hole mass to the velocity dispersion of bulge stars, while other correlations involve the total stellar mass or luminosity of the bulge the central concentration of stars in the bulge, the richness of the globular cluster system orbiting in the galaxy's far outskirts, and the winding angle of the spiral arms.  Until recently it was thought that one could not have a supermassive black hole without a surrounding bulge. Galaxies hosting supermassive black holes without accompanying bulges have now been observed. The implication is that the bulge environment is not strictly essential to the initial seeding and growth of massive black holes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The McLaren F1 is a sports car designed and manufactured by British automobile manufacturer McLaren Cars, and powered by the BMW S70/2 V12 engine. Originally a concept conceived by Gordon Murray, he convinced Ron Dennis to back the project and engaged Peter Stevens to design the exterior and interior of the car. On 31 March 1998, the XP5 prototype with a modified rev limiter set the Guinness World Record for the world's fastest production car, reaching, surpassing the modified Jaguar XJ220's record from 1992.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974116}
{"src_title": "Georgian Military Road", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Route.", "content": "The Georgian Military Road (\"ca\". 212 kilometres long) runs between Tbilisi (Georgia) and Vladikavkaz (Russia) and follows the traditional route used by invaders and traders throughout the ages. From Vladikavkaz, the road stretches southwards up the valley of the Terek before passing through the Darial Gorge (which marks the border between Russia and Georgia). It then passes Mount Kazbek and Gergeti Trinity Church before heading south-west through the Georgian region of Khevi to the Jvari Pass, where it reaches its maximum altitude of 2,379 meters (7,815 feet) (). Not long after the pass the road passes the Russia–Georgia Friendship Monument, a large concrete monument built in 1983 to commemorate relations between the two countries and the bicentennial of the Treaty of Georgievsk. The road then turns south-eastwards, following the Tetri Aragvi River through Mtiuleti down to the town of Pasanauri, before heading due south. It then passes below the walls of the medieval fortress of Ananuri before cutting across the wide floodplain of the Tetri Aragvi down to a point just north of Georgia's historic capital, Mtskheta, where it merges into Georgia's main East-West highway (the E60). In this guise, the Georgian Military Road technically continues along the right bank of the Kura (Mtkvari) River before reaching nearby Tbilisi.  The 1914 edition of \"Baedeker's Russia\" describes the Georgian Military Road as 'one of the most beautiful mountain roads in the world', and mentions the fact that, as early as its date of publication,'motor omnibuses of the \"Société française des transports automobiles du Caucase\" ply regularly from April 15 to Oct. 15th, [accomplishing] the journey in 10 hrs.'", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "People have used this route since antiquity - both Strabo (in his \"Geographica\") and Pliny the Elder mention it. Russian troops first travelled it in 1769. Pavel Potemkin sent 800 men to improve the road so that by October 1783 he was able to drive to Tiflis in a carriage drawn by eight horses. The Georgian Military Road in its present form was begun by the Russian military in 1799, after the Georgians had abjured centuries of Persian suzerainty and became a Russian protectorate under the 1783 Treaty of Georgievsk. Russian control of the Georgian Military Highway in the center of the Caucasus divided the Caucasian War (1817-1864) into the Russo-Circassian War (1763-1864) in the west and the Murid War in the east.  After the Russian Empire officially annexed the Kingdom of Georgia in 1801, Tsar Alexander I ordered General Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov, the commander-in-chief of Russian forces in the Caucasus, to improve the road surface to facilitate troop movement and communications. When Yermolov announced the completion of work in 1817, the highway was heralded as the \"Russian Simplon\". However, work continued until 1863. By this stage, it had cost £4,000,000 (a staggering sum in the 1860s) but according to Bryce in 1876 the work was of a high quality, with two or three lanes and \"iron bridges over the torrents\", something he considered astonishing given that within Russia proper at this time decent roads were virtually non-existent.  The Georgian Military Road played an important role in the economic development of Transcaucasia and in the Russo-Circassian War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Georgian Military Road today.", "content": "The importance of the Georgian Military Road as a through route has diminished in recent years, primarily due to delays at the border crossing between Russia and Georgia, natural disasters such as landslides, and the outright closure of the border crossing by Russia in 2006.  However, since 2013, when Russia finally agreed to re-open its side of the border as a result of Armenian demands, the road has once again become an important transport artery, mainly for trailer lorries linking Armenia and Russia.  Various restrictions, however, remained (and still remain) in place, particularly for Georgian citizens, but by 2013 a representative of the Russian side of the border could tell the Interfax news agency that around 3 million people had passed through the Kazbegi-Verkhni Lars customs checkpoint.  Currently (2015), the Georgian end of the Road is frequently clogged with lorries, apparently due to the length of time needed for vehicles transiting Georgia to be admitted into Russia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Georgian Military Road or Georgian Military Highway (, [\"sakartvelos samkhedro gza\"],, [\"Arvykomy fændag\"]) is the historic name for a major route through the Caucasus from Georgia to Russia. Alternative routes across the mountains include the Ossetian Military Road and the Transkam.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974117}
{"src_title": "Common sandpiper", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The common sandpiper was one of the many bird species originally described by Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his \"Systema Naturae\", where it was given the binomial name of \"Tringa hypoleucos\". The current scientific name is from Ancient Greek. \"Actitis\" is from \"aktites\", \"coast-dweller\" derived from \"akte\", \"coast\", and \"hypoleucos\" is from \"hupo\", \"beneath\", and \"leukos\" \"white\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The adult is long with a wingspan. It has greyish-brown upperparts, white underparts, short dark-yellowish legs and feet, and a bill with a pale base and dark tip. In winter plumage, they are duller and have more conspicuous barring on the wings, though this is still only visible at close range. Juveniles are more heavily barred above and have buff edges to the wing feathers.  This species is very similar to the slightly larger spotted sandpiper (\"A. macularia\") in non-breeding plumage. But its darker legs and feet and the crisper wing pattern (visible in flight) tend to give it away, and of course they are only rarely found in the same location.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "It is a gregarious bird and is seen in large flocks, and has the distinctive stiff-winged flight, low over the water, of \"Actitis\" waders. The common sandpiper breeds across most of temperate and subtropical Europe and Asia, and migrates to Africa, southern Asia and Australia in winter. The eastern edge of its migration route passes by Palau in Micronesia, where hundreds of birds may gather for a stop-over. They depart the Palau region for their breeding quarters around the last week of April to the first week of May.  The common sandpiper forages by sight on the ground or in shallow water, picking up small food items such as insects, crustaceans and other invertebrates; it may even catch insects in flight. In the Nukumanu language of the Nukumanu Islands (Papua New Guinea), this species is usually called tiritavoi. Another Nukumanu name for it, matakakoni, exists, but this is considered somewhat taboo and not used when children and women are around. The reason for this is that \"matakakoni\" means \"bird that walks a little, then copulates\", in reference to the pumping tail and thrusting head movements the \"Actitis\" species characteristically perform during foraging.  It nests on the ground near freshwater. When threatened, the young may cling to their parent's body to be flown away to safety.  The common sandpiper is one of the species to which the \"Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds\" (AEWA) applies.  It is widespread and common, and therefore classified as a species of least concern by the IUCN but is a vulnerable species in some states of Australia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The common sandpiper (\"Actitis hypoleucos\") is a small Palearctic wader. This bird and its American sister species, the spotted sandpiper (\"A. macularia\"), make up the genus \"Actitis\". They are parapatric and replace each other geographically; stray birds of either species may settle down with breeders of the other and hybridize. Hybridization has also been reported between the common sandpiper and the green sandpiper, a basal species of the closely related shank genus \"Tringa\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974118}
{"src_title": "Raymond of Poitiers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Assuming control.", "content": "Following the death of Prince Bohemund II of Antioch in 1130, the principality came under the regency first of King Baldwin II (1130–31), then King Fulk (1131–35), and finally Princess Alice (1135–36), Bohemond's widow. The reigning princess was Bohemond II's daughter, Constance (born 1127). Against the wishes of Alice, a marriage was arranged for Constance with Raymond, at the time staying in England, which he left only after the death of Henry I on 1 December 1135.  Upon hearing word that Raymond was going to pass through his lands in order to marry the princess of Antioch, King Roger II of Sicily ordered him arrested. By a series of subterfuges, Raymond passed through southern Italy and only arrived at Antioch after 19 April 1136. Patriarch Ralph of Domfront then convinced Alice that Raymond was there to marry her, whereupon she allowed him to enter Antioch (whose loyal garrison had refused him entry) and the patriarch married him to Constance. Alice then left the city, now under the control of Raymond and Ralph.  The first years of their joint rule were spent in conflicts with the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus, who had come south partly to recover Cilicia from Leo of Armenia, and to reassert his rights over Antioch. Raymond was forced to pay homage, and even to promise to cede his principality as soon as he was recompensed by a new fief, which John promised to carve out for him in the Muslim territory to the east of Antioch. The expedition of 1138, in which Raymond joined with John, and which was to conquer this territory, proved a failure. The expedition culminated in the unsuccessful Siege of Shaizar. Raymond was not anxious to help the emperor to acquire new territories, when their acquisition only meant for him the loss of Antioch. John Comnenus returned unsuccessful to Constantinople, after demanding from Raymond, without response, the surrender of the citadel of Antioch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Struggles.", "content": "There followed a struggle between Raymond and the patriarch. Raymond was annoyed by the homage which he had been forced to pay to the patriarch in 1135 and the dubious validity of the patriarch's election offered a handle for opposition. Eventually Raymond triumphed, and the patriarch was deposed (1139). In 1142 John Comnenus returned to the attack, but Raymond refused to recognize or renew his previous submission, and John, though he ravaged the neighborhood of Antioch, was unable to effect anything against him. When, however Raymond demanded from Manuel, who had succeeded John in 1143, the cession of some of the Cilician towns, he found that he had met his match. Manuel forced him to a humiliating visit to Constantinople, during which he renewed his oath of homage and promised to acknowledge a Greek patriarch.  In the last year of Raymond's life Louis VII and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine (Raymond's niece) visited Antioch during the Second Crusade. Raymond sought to prevent Louis from going south to Jerusalem and to induce him to stay in Antioch and help in the conquest of Aleppo and Caesarea. Raymond was also suspected of having an incestuous affair with his beautiful niece Eleanor. According to John of Salisbury, Louis became suspicious of the attention Raymond lavished on Eleanor, and the long conversations they enjoyed. William of Tyre claims that Raymond seduced Eleanor to get revenge on her husband, who refused to aid him in his wars against the Saracens, and that \"\"contrary to [Eleanor's] royal dignity, she disregarded her marriage vows and was unfaithful to her husband.\"\" Most modern historians dismiss such rumours, however, pointing out the closeness of Raymond and his niece during her early childhood, and the effulgent Aquitainian manner of behaviour. Also, as the pious Louis continued to have relations with his wife, it is doubtful that he believed his charge of incest.  Louis hastily left Antioch and Raymond was balked in his plans. In 1149 he was killed in the Battle of Inab during an expedition against Nur ad-Din Zangi. He was beheaded by Shirkuh, the uncle of Saladin, and his head was placed in a silver box and sent to the Caliph Al-Muqtafi of Baghdad as a gift.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personality and family.", "content": "Raymond is described by William of Tyre (the main authority for his career) as \"\"a lord of noble descent, of tall and elegant figure, the handsomest of the princes of the earth, a man of charming affability and conversation, open-handed and magnificent beyond measure\"\"; pre-eminent in the use of arms and military experience; \"litteratorum, licet ipse esset, cultor\" (\"although he was himself illiterate, he was a cultivator of literature\" – he caused the \"Chanson des chétifs\" to be composed); a regular churchman and faithful husband; but headstrong, irascible and unreasonable, with too great a passion for gambling (bk. xiv. c. xxi.). For his career see Rey, in the \"Revue de l'orient latin\", vol. iv.  With Constance he had the following children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Raymond of Poitiers (c. 1099–29 June 1149) was Prince of Antioch from 1136 to 1149. He was the younger son of William IX, Duke of Aquitaine and his wife Philippa, Countess of Toulouse, born in the very year that his father the Duke began his infamous liaison with Dangereuse de Chatelherault.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974119}
{"src_title": "RM-81 Agena", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Agena was 5.0 feet (1.5 m) in diameter, three-axis stabilized (for the benefit of the reconnaissance system cameras) and its Bell Aircraft XLR81 engine produced 16,000 lbs (71 kN) of thrust using unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) as the fuel, and inhibited red fuming nitric acid (IRFNA) as the oxidizer. This is a hypergolic fuel/oxidizer combination, and as such, it does not need an ignition system. This rocket engine could be restarted multiple times in orbit, by radio command, and it frequently was. The engine was notable for its unusual aluminum construction. The regeneratively-cooled channels that cooled the throat and nozzle were formed from straight gun drill formed channels. The parabolic shape of the chamber throat made for a difficult gun-drilling problem, which Bell Aerosystems engineers solved by arranging the cooling channels in a \"One-Sheeted Circular Hyperboloid\" shape, allowing machinists to gun-drill straight cooling channels through the curved surfaces of the combustion chamber. The engine was derived from the XLR-81 propulsion unit for the canceled rocket-propelled nuclear warhead pod of the Convair B-58 Hustler bomber. Until 1959, the Agena was also known as the Discoverer Vehicle or Bell Hustler.  Attitude control of the horizontal flying Agena was provided by an inertial reference package with three gyroscopes, two horizon sensors, and micro-jets using a nitrogen-freon mixture of cold gas. Pitch and roll were sensed by two hermetic integrating gyro units. A rate gyro unit determined yaw error by sensing orbital rate. Pitch and roll gyro errors were corrected from the horizon sensors, which were later supplemented by Sun and star trackers. This enabled the Agena to accommodate the higher pointing stability required for better ground resolution imaging with the improved Corona cameras.  As the Agena was designed to hold a fixed orientation in space while orbiting Earth, a passive thermal control system was devised.  The main source of the Agena's electrical power was silver peroxide-zinc batteries, which from the early 1960s on were supplemented by solar arrays. An S-band beacon enabled the Agena to receive ground command sequences (image motion compensation, altered attitude, etc.), which could be stored for later execution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions.", "content": "Three versions of the Agena were flown:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Agena-A.", "content": "The Agena A was the first type of Agena to be built. It was launched atop Thor and Atlas rockets, mostly into polar orbits from Vandenberg Air Force Base Launch Complex 75 and Point Arguello Launch Complex 1 respectively. Two Atlas launches occurred from Launch Complex 14 at Cape Canaveral. The Agena-A was propelled by a Bell 8048 (XLR-81-BA-5) engine, which could produce 69 kilonewtons of thrust for two minutes. Eighteen Agena As were launched in 1959–61, all of them for the Discoverer, MIDAS, and Samos programs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Agena-B.", "content": "During 1960, Lockheed introduced the improved Agena B, which could be restarted in orbit and had longer propellant tanks for increased burn time. It was equipped with a Bell 8081 engine, which could generate 71 kilonewtons of thrust, and be restarted in orbit. The stage carried enough propellant for the engine to burn for a total of four minutes. These launched the SAMOS-E, SAMOS-F (ELINT Ferret), and MIDAS (Missile Defense Alarm System) military early-warning satellites, Ranger lunar probes, Mariner planetary probes, OGO, and Nimbus satellites. Agena B's first flight was the (unsuccessful) launch of Discoverer 16 on October 26, 1960. The Agena B took months to be ready for Atlas launches and did not fly on that booster until Midas 3 on July 12, 1961. The final Agena B flight was the launch of OGO 3 on June 7, 1966. A total of 75 were launched.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Agena-D.", "content": "The Agena D was the result of a proposal by Lockheed engineering executive Lawrence Edwards, who suggested standardizing the basic Agena configuration (up to this point, each Agena was custom-built for both the payload and the launch vehicle it was used with), and adding additional features depending on payload requirements, and a requirement from the Pentagon that the Agena be made compatible with the Titan rocket. This proposal originated in late 1962 when mounting frustration over the high failure rate of Thor and Atlas-Agena prompted the suggestion that greater standardization of launch vehicles would improve reliability. David N. Spires summarizes the standardization as follows: Its orbital configuration had a diameter of and a length of, and provided 19,500 Wh of electrical power from batteries. As of 2014, the Agena-D is the most-launched US upper stage. A special production line was set up to turn out 40 Agena-D spacecraft per year. Edwards remained responsible for the engineering for several years, until the Air Force declared the Agena-D as operational and froze its design. By the time of its retirement, the reliability of the Agena-D exceeded 95 percent. The first Agena D launch was of KH-4 #7 on June 28, 1963, and a total of 269 Agena Ds were launched.  Thor-Agena flew for the last time in 1972 when it launched a KH-4B satellite. The last Atlas-Agena used an Agena D stage atop a refurbished Atlas F missile to launch Seasat in 1978. Twelve more Agenas were launched on Titan vehicles through 1987 before the stage was completely retired.  The Agena-D was used to launch KH-7 GAMBIT and KH-8 Gambit 3 reconnaissance satellites, three Mariner probes to Venus and the two Mariner space probes to Mars. The final Agena-D upper stage was launched on a Titan IIIB rocket on February 12, 1987, carrying USA-21, the last SDS-1 satellite.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Agena Target Vehicle.", "content": "The Agena Target Vehicle was based around the Agena-D, with equipment fitted to support use as a rendezvous and docking target for missions conducted as part of Project Gemini. It was equipped with a Bell Aerospace Model 8247 engine, which was qualified for up to 15 restarts. On later missions, the Agena's engine was fired while the Gemini spacecraft was docked, in order to boost the spacecraft to a higher orbit, and to bring it back again. During the Gemini 11 mission, an elliptical orbit with an apogee of was reached, which set an altitude record for crewed spaceflight that held until Apollo 8, the first crewed mission to the Moon, was launched.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Other variants.", "content": "In the early 1970s Lockheed studied the use of Agena as a payload booster in the Space Shuttle payload bay. An Agena-C with an increased diameter was proposed, but never built.  The Agena-2000 was intended as a modernized Agena, and would have been used on the Atlas V Light Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle. The Atlas V Light was cancelled in favor of standardizing the Medium configuration, and as a result the Agena-2000 was never built.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Launches.", "content": "The first launch of an Agena-D was Agena Flight #64 on 27 June 1962. By the end of 1967, a total of 162 Agena-D had been launched:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The RM-81 Agena was an American rocket upper stage and satellite bus which was developed by Lockheed initially for the canceled WS-117L reconnaissance satellite program. Following the split-up of WS-117L into SAMOS and Corona for image intelligence, and MIDAS for early warning, the Agena was later used as an upper stage, and an integrated component, for several programs, including Corona reconnaissance satellites and the Agena Target Vehicle used to demonstrate rendezvous and docking during Project Gemini. It was used as an upper stage on the Atlas, Thor, Thorad and Titan IIIB rockets, and considered for others including the Space Shuttle and Atlas V. A total of 365 Agena rockets were launched between February 28, 1959 and February 1987. Only 33 Agenas carried NASA payloads and the vast majority were for DoD programs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974120}
{"src_title": "Ford–Fulkerson algorithm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Algorithm.", "content": "Let formula_1 be a graph, and for each edge from to, let formula_2 be the capacity and formula_3 be the flow. We want to find the maximum flow from the source to the sink. After every step in the algorithm the following is maintained:  This means that the flow through the network is a \"legal flow\" after each round in the algorithm. We define the residual network formula_4 to be the network with capacity formula_5 and no flow. Notice that it can happen that a flow from to is allowed in the residual network, though disallowed in the original network: if formula_6 and formula_7 then formula_8. The path in step 2 can be found with for example a breadth-first search (BFS) or a depth-first search in formula_4. If you use the former, the algorithm is called Edmonds–Karp.  When no more paths in step 2 can be found, will not be able to reach in the residual network. If is the set of nodes reachable by in the residual network, then the total capacity in the original network of edges from to the remainder of is on the one hand equal to the total flow we found from to, and on the other hand serves as an upper bound for all such flows. This proves that the flow we found is maximal. See also Max-flow Min-cut theorem.  If the graph formula_1 has multiple sources and sinks, we act as follows: Suppose that formula_21 and formula_22. Add a new source formula_23 with an edge formula_24 from formula_25 to every node formula_26, with capacity formula_27. And add a new sink formula_28 with an edge formula_29 from every node formula_30 to formula_31, with capacity formula_32. Then apply the Ford–Fulkerson algorithm.  Also, if a node has capacity constraint formula_33, we replace this node with two nodes formula_34, and an edge formula_35, with capacity formula_36. Then apply the Ford–Fulkerson algorithm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complexity.", "content": "By adding the flow augmenting path to the flow already established in the graph, the maximum flow will be reached when no more flow augmenting paths can be found in the graph. However, there is no certainty that this situation will ever be reached, so the best that can be guaranteed is that the answer will be correct if the algorithm terminates. In the case that the algorithm runs forever, the flow might not even converge towards the maximum flow. However, this situation only occurs with irrational flow values. When the capacities are integers, the runtime of Ford–Fulkerson is bounded by formula_37 (see big O notation), where formula_38 is the number of edges in the graph and formula_39 is the maximum flow in the graph. This is because each augmenting path can be found in formula_40 time and increases the flow by an integer amount of at least formula_41, with the upper bound formula_39.  A variation of the Ford–Fulkerson algorithm with guaranteed termination and a runtime independent of the maximum flow value is the Edmonds–Karp algorithm, which runs in formula_43 time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Integral example.", "content": "The following example shows the first steps of Ford–Fulkerson in a flow network with 4 nodes, source formula_44 and sink formula_45. This example shows the worst-case behaviour of the algorithm. In each step, only a flow of formula_41 is sent across the network. If breadth-first-search were used instead, only two steps would be needed.  Notice how flow is \"pushed back\" from formula_47 to formula_48 when finding the path formula_49.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Non-terminating example.", "content": "Consider the flow network shown on the right, with source formula_50, sink formula_51, capacities of edges formula_52, formula_53 and formula_54 respectively formula_41, formula_56 and formula_41 and the capacity of all other edges some integer formula_58. The constant formula_59 was chosen so, that formula_60. We use augmenting paths according to the following table, where formula_61, formula_62 and formula_63.  Note that after step 1 as well as after step 5, the residual capacities of edges formula_52, formula_53 and formula_54 are in the form formula_67, formula_68 and formula_69, respectively, for some formula_70. This means that we can use augmenting paths formula_71, formula_72, formula_71 and formula_74 infinitely many times and residual capacities of these edges will always be in the same form. Total flow in the network after step 5 is formula_75. If we continue to use augmenting paths as above, the total flow converges to formula_76. However, note that there is a flow of value formula_77, by sending formula_78 units of flow along formula_79, 1 unit of flow along formula_80, and formula_78 units of flow along formula_82. Therefore, the algorithm never terminates and the flow does not even converge to the maximum flow.  Another non-terminating example based on the Euclidean algorithm is given by, where they also show that the worst case running-time of the Ford-Fulkerson algorithm on a network formula_1 in ordinal numbers is formula_84.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Python implementation of Edmonds–Karp algorithm.", "content": "import collections class Graph:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ford–Fulkerson method or Ford–Fulkerson algorithm (FFA) is a greedy algorithm that computes the maximum flow in a flow network. It is sometimes called a \"method\" instead of an \"algorithm\" as the approach to finding augmenting paths in a residual graph is not fully specified or it is specified in several implementations with different running times. It was published in 1956 by L. R. Ford Jr. and D. R. Fulkerson. The name \"Ford–Fulkerson\" is often also used for the Edmonds–Karp algorithm, which is a fully defined implementation of the Ford–Fulkerson method.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974121}
{"src_title": "Pierre Henry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Pierre Henry was born in Paris, France (; ), and began experimenting at the age of 15 with sounds produced by various objects. He became fascinated with the integration of noise into music. He studied with Nadia Boulanger, Olivier Messiaen, and Félix Passerone at the Paris Conservatoire from 1938 to 1948.  Between 1949 and 1958, Henry worked at the Club d'Essai studio at RTF, which had been founded by Pierre Schaeffer in 1943. During this period, he wrote the 1950 piece \"Symphonie pour un homme seul\", in cooperation with Schaeffer; he also composed the first musique concrète to appear in a commercial film, the 1952 short film \"Astrologie ou le miroir de la vie\". Henry scored numerous additional films and ballets.  Two years after leaving the RTF, he founded with Jean Baronnet the first private electronic studio in France, the Apsone-Cabasse Studio.  Among Henry's works is the 1967 ballet \"Messe pour le temps présent\", a collaboration with choreographer Maurice Béjart that debuted in Avignon (, ). In 1970 Henry collaborated with British rock band Spooky Tooth on the album \"Ceremony\".  Composer Christopher Tyng was heavily inspired by Henry's \"Psyché Rock\" when writing the theme to the popular animated cartoon show \"Futurama\". The theme is so reminiscent of Henry's song, it is considered a variation of the original.  Henry died on Wednesday 5 July 2017 at Saint Joseph's Hospital in Paris, at the age of 89 (; ; ; ).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Georges Henry (9 December 1927 – 5 July 2017) was a French composer, considered a pioneer of musique concrète.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974122}
{"src_title": "Émile Loubet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Loubet was born on 30 December 1838, the son of a peasant proprietor and mayor of Marsanne (Drôme). Admitted to the Parisian bar in 1862, he took his doctorate in law the next year. He was still a student when he witnessed the sweeping triumph of the Republican party in Paris at the general election in 1863, during the Second French Empire. He settled down to the exercise of his profession in Montélimar, where in 1869 he married Marie-Louise Picard. He also inherited a small estate at Grignan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical description.", "content": "American politician William Jennings Bryan described Loubet as \"below the medium height, even for Frenchmen. His shoulders are broad and his frame indicative of great physical strength. His hair is snow white, as are also his beard and mustache. He wears his beard square cut at the chin.... His voice is soft, and he speaks with great vivacity, emphasizing his words by expressive gestures.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "At the crisis of 1870, which brought about the Empire's end, he became mayor of Montélimar, and thenceforward was a steady supporter of Léon Gambetta. Elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1876 by Montélimar, he was one of the notable 363 parliamentarians who in the 16 May 1877 crisis passed a vote of no confidence in the ministry of Albert, the duke of Broglie.  In the general election of October he was re-elected, local enthusiasm for him being increased by the fact that the government had driven him from the mayoralty. In the Chamber he occupied himself especially with education, fighting the clerical system established by the \"Loi Falloux\", and working for the establishment of free, obligatory and secular primary instruction. In 1880 he became president of the departmental council in Drôme. His support of the second Jules Ferry ministry and his zeal for the colonial expansion of France gave him considerable weight in the moderate Republican party.  He had entered the Senate in 1885, and he became minister of public works in the Tirard ministry (December 1887 to March 1888). In 1892 President Sadi Carnot, who was his personal friend, asked him to form a cabinet. Loubet held the portfolio of the interior with the premiership, and had to deal with the anarchist crimes of that year and with the great strike of Carmaux, in which he acted as arbitrator, giving a decision regarded in many quarters as too favourable to the strikers. He was defeated in November on the question of the Panama scandals, but he retained the ministry of the interior in the next cabinet under Alexandre Ribot, though he resigned on its reconstruction in January.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President of the French Republic (1899–1906).", "content": "His reputation as an orator of great force and lucidity of exposition and as a safe and honest statesman procured for him in 1896 the presidency of the Senate, and in February 1899 he was chosen president of the republic in succession to Félix Faure by 483 votes as against 279 recorded by Jules Méline, his only serious competitor. He was marked out for fierce opposition and bitter insult, as the representative of that section of the Republican party which sought the revision of the Dreyfus affair. On the day of President Faure's funeral Paul Déroulède met the troops under General Roget on their return to barracks, and demanded that the general should march on the Elysée. Roget sensibly took his troops back to barracks. At the Auteuil steeplechase in June, the president was struck on the head with a cane by an anti-Dreyfusard. In that month President Loubet summoned Waldeck-Rousseau to form a cabinet, and at the same time entreated Republicans of all shades of opinion to rally to the defence of the state. By the efforts of Loubet and Waldeck-Rousseau the Dreyfus affair was settled, when Loubet, acting on the advice of General Galliffet, minister of war, remitted the ten years' imprisonment to which Dreyfus was condemned at Rennes.  Loubet's presidency saw an acute stage of the clerical question, which was attacked by Waldeck-Rousseau and in still more drastic fashion by the Combes ministry. The French ambassador was recalled from the Vatican in April 1905, and in July the separation of church and state was voted in the Chamber of Deputies. Feeling had run high between France and Britain over the mutual criticisms passed on the conduct of the South African War and the Dreyfus affair respectively. These differences were composed, by the Anglo-French \"entente\", and in 1904 a convention between the two countries secured the recognition of French claims in Morocco in exchange for non-interference with the British occupation of Egypt. President Loubet belonged to the peasant-proprietor class, and had none of the aristocratic proclivities of President Faure. He inaugurated the Paris Exhibition of 1900, received the emperor Nicholas II of Russia at the French maneuvers of 1901 and paid a visit to Russia in 1902.  On 4 July 1902 President Loubet was elected an honorary member of the Rhode Island Society of the Cincinnati.  Loubet also exchanged visits with King Edward VII, with the king of Portugal, the king of Italy and the king of Spain. During the king of Spain's visit in 1905, an attempt was made on his life, a bomb being thrown under his carriage as he and with his guest left the Opéra Garnier. When his presidency came to an end in January 1906, he became the first President of the Third Republic to have served a full term and without resigning a second one. He retired into private life and died on 20 December 1929 at the age of 90.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Loubet's Ministry, 27 February6 December 1892.", "content": "Changes", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Émile François Loubet (; 30 December 183820 December 1929) was the 45th Prime Minister of France and later President of France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974123}
{"src_title": "Roger Williamson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Williamson was born in Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire. He won the 1971 and 1972 British Formula 3 Championship titles. In 1973, he was offered a drive in the March Engineering works Formula One team. Williamson originally tested for the BRM team, but his manager advised him to take the March offer, as March had a slightly stronger performance in the previous season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "After his Formula One debut at the 1973 British Grand Prix, Williamson's second Formula One appearance was at the 1973 Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort Circuit. On his eighth lap, a suspected tyre failure caused his car to flip upside down and catch fire. Williamson had not been seriously injured by the impact, but was trapped under the car which was swiftly engulfed in flame. The track marshals were both poorly trained and badly equipped, and did not assist him. Another driver, David Purley, upon witnessing the crash of his friend, abandoned his own race and pulled over in a desperate and valiant attempt to rescue Williamson. He ran across the track to Williamson's car and tried to turn it upright, before grabbing a fire extinguisher from a marshal and returning to the engulfed car. He emptied it on the car and signalled for others to help. Purley's efforts to turn the car upright and extinguish the flames were in vain, and the marshals were unable to handle the vehicle without flame retardant overalls. Purley later stated he could hear Williamson's screams from underneath the car, but by the time the first fire engine arrived and the fire was extinguished, Williamson had died of asphyxiation. As most racers mistakenly identified Purley as the driver of the crashed car, and therefore thought the burning car to be empty, none of them stopped to help and the race continued, even as Purley stood on the circuit and gestured with his hands for them to stop. Furthermore, the track marshals were wearing normal blazers and not the fire-resistant overalls which the drivers wore, and thus were not able to go near the large flames. Purley was later awarded the George Medal for the bravery he displayed in attempting to rescue Williamson. A series of photos of the incident, showing a clearly desperate and ultimately dejected Purley, won that year's World Press Photo award for Photo Sequences. Williamson's body was later cremated with his ashes being taken to an undisclosed location. In the years following the accident, fire-resistant clothing would become mandatory for all trackside marshals so that they would be able to assist in the event of a fire. The next few years also saw a noticeable increase in drivers stopping at accident sites to assist in rescue efforts, notably at the 1976 German Grand Prix. Williamson was 25 years old at the time of his death.  In 2003, on the thirtieth anniversary of his fatal crash, a bronze statue of Williamson was unveiled at the Donington Park circuit in his native Leicestershire. Then-owner Tom Wheatcroft had provided financial backing to Williamson, and described the day Williamson died as \"the saddest day of my life\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roger Williamson (2 February 1948 – 29 July 1973) was a British racing driver, a two time British Formula 3 champion, who died during his second Formula One race, the 1973 Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort Circuit in the Netherlands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974124}
{"src_title": "Flocking (texture)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "Flocking is used in many ways. One example is in model building, where a grassy texture may be applied to a surface to make it look more realistic. Similarly, it is used by model car builders to get a scale carpet effect. Another use is on a Christmas tree, which may be flocked with a fluffy white spray to simulate snow. Other things may be flocked to give them a texture similar to velvet, velveteen, or velour, such as t-shirts, wallpaper, gift/jewelry boxes, and upholstery.  Besides the application of velvety coatings to surfaces and objects there exist various flocking techniques as a means of color and product design. They range from screen printing to modern digital printing in order to refine for instance fabric, clothes or books by multicolor patterns. Presently, the exploration of the flock phenomenon can be seen in the fine arts. Artist, Electric Coffin, is known for their many colorful flocked works, including a 50-foot piece in Facebook's Seattle headquarters.  Flocking in the automotive industry is used for decorative purposes and may be applied to a number of different materials. Many rally cars also have a flocked dashboard to cut down on the sun reflecting through the windscreen. A view on the present state-of-the-art of flocking can be found in the first international exhibition \"Flockage: the flock phenomenon\" in the Russell-Cotes Art Gallery & Museum in Bournemouth.  In the photographic industry, flocking is one method used to reduce the reflectivity of surfaces, including the insides of some bellows and lens hoods. It is also used to produce light-tight passages for film such as in 135 film cartridges.  Flock consists of synthetic fibers that look like tiny hairs. Flock print feels somewhat velvet and a bit elevated. The length of the fibers can vary in thickness which co-determines the appearance of the flocked product. Thin fibers produce a soft velvety surface, thicker fibers a more bristle-like surface.  High-quality model cars are known to use flocking for decorative purposes. Premium model maker AUTOart is well known for its use of flocking in their model cars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Process.", "content": "Flocking is defined as the application of fine particles to adhesive coated surfaces, usually by the application of a high-voltage electric field. In a flocking machine the \"flock\" is given a negative charge whilst the substrate is earthed. Flock material flies vertically onto the substrate attaching to previously applied glue. A number of different substrates can be flocked including textiles, fabric, woven fabric, paper, PVC, sponge, toys, and automotive plastic.  The majority of flocking done worldwide uses finely cut natural or synthetic fibers. A flocked finish imparts a decorative and/or functional characteristic to the surface. The variety of materials that are applied to numerous surfaces through different flocking methods create a wide range of end products. The flocking process is used on items ranging from retail consumer goods to products with high technology military applications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Historians write that flocking can be traced back to circa 1000 B.C.E., when the Chinese used resin glue to bond natural fibers to fabrics. Fiber dust was strewn onto adhesive coated surfaces to produce flocked wall coverings in Germany during the Middle Ages. In France, flocked wall coverings became popular during the reign of Louis XIV of France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health issues.", "content": "Flocking can expose workers to small nylon particulates, which inhaled can cause flock worker's lung, a type of interstitial lung disease. Other exposure in the flocking industry can include acrylic adhesives, ammonium ether of potato starch, heat transfer oil, tannic acid, and zeolite.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Flocking is the process of depositing many small fiber particles (called flock) onto a surface. It can also refer to the texture produced by the process, or to any material used primarily for its flocked surface. Flocking of an article can be performed for the purpose of increasing its value in terms of the tactile sensation, aesthetics, color and appearance. It can also be performed for functional reasons including insulation, slip-or-grip friction, and low reflectivity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974125}
{"src_title": "Chair of Saint Peter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The relic itself is described as an oaken chair damaged by cuts and worms. The Chair has metal rings attached to each side, allowing use as a \"sedia gestatoria\". The back and front of the chair are trimmed with carved ivory. This description comes from 1867, when the relic was photographed and displayed for veneration.  The reliquary, like many of the medieval period, takes the form of the relic it protects, i.e. the form of a chair. Symbolically, the chair Bernini designed had no earthly counterpart in actual contemporary furnishings. It is formed entirely of scrolling members, enclosing a coved panel where the upholstery pattern is rendered as a low relief of Christ instructing Peter to tend to His sheep. Large angelic figures flank an openwork panel beneath a highly realistic bronze seat cushion, vividly empty: the relic is encased within.  The cathedra is lofted on splayed scrolling bars that appear to be effortlessly supported by four over-lifesize bronze Doctors of the Church: Western doctors Saint Ambrose and Saint Augustine of Hippo on the outsides, wearing miters, and Eastern doctors Saint John Chrysostom and Saint Athanasius on the insides, both bare-headed. The cathedra appears to hover over the altar in the basilica's apse, lit by a central tinted window through which light streams, illuminating the gilded glory of sunrays and sculpted clouds that surrounds the window. Like Bernini's \"Ecstasy of Saint Theresa\", this is a definitive fusion of the Baroque arts, unifying sculpture and richly polychrome architecture and manipulating effects of light.  Above, on the golden background of the frieze, is the Latin inscription: \" (O Shepherd of the Church, you feed all Christ's lambs and sheep). On the right is the same writing in Greek. Behind the altar is placed Bernini's monument enclosing the wooden chair, both of which are seen as symbolic of the authority of the Bishop of Rome as Vicar of Christ and successor of Saint Peter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feast of the Chair of Saint Peter.", "content": "Early martyrologies indicate that two liturgical feasts were celebrated in Rome, centuries before the time of Charles the Bald, in honour of earlier chairs associated with Saint Peter, one of which was kept in the baptismal chapel of St. Peter's Basilica, the other at the catacomb of Priscilla. The dates of these celebrations were January 18 and February 22. No surviving chair has been identified with either of these chairs. The feasts thus became associated with an abstract understanding of the \"Chair of Peter\", which by synecdoche signifies the episcopal office of the Pope as Bishop of Rome, an office considered to have been first held by Saint Peter, and thus extended to the diocese, the See of Rome. Though both feasts were originally associated with Saint Peter's stay in Rome, the ninth-century form of the \"Martyrologium Hieronymianum\" associated the January 18 feast with his stay in Rome, and the February 22 feast with his stay at Antioch. The two feasts were included in the Tridentine Calendar with the rank of Double, which Pope Clement VIII raised in 1604 to the newly invented rank of Greater Double.  In 1960 Pope John XXIII removed from the General Roman Calendar the January 18 feast of the Chair of Peter, along with seven other feast days that were second feasts of a single saint or mystery. The February 22 celebration became a Second-Class Feast. This calendar was incorporated in the 1962 Roman Missal of Pope John XXIII, whose continued use Pope Benedict XVI authorized under the conditions indicated in his motu proprio \"Summorum Pontificum\". Those Catholics who follow the pre-1962 calendar continue to celebrate both feast days: \"Saint Peter's Chair at Rome\" on January 18 and the \"Chair of Saint Peter at Antioch\" on February 22.  In the new classification introduced in 1969 the February 22 celebration appears in the Roman Calendar with the rank of Feast.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Chair of Saint Peter (), also known as the Throne of Saint Peter, is a relic conserved in St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City, the sovereign enclave of the Pope inside Rome, Italy. The relic is a wooden throne that tradition claims the Apostle Saint Peter, the leader of the Early Christians in Rome and first Pope, used as Bishop of Rome. The relic is enclosed in a sculpted gilt bronze casing designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and executed between 1647 and 1653. In 2012, Pope Benedict XVI described the chair as \"a symbol of the special mission of Peter and his Successors to tend Christ’s flock, keeping it united in faith and in charity.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974126}
{"src_title": "Hemma of Gurk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Little is known about Hemma's descent; she was probably born between 995 and 1000 (other sources mention 980 AD), her ancestors were related to the Bavarian Luitpoldings and thus to Emperor Henry II. Her grandmother Imma (\"Emma\") was vested with market and minting rights at her estates in Lieding (today part of Straßburg) by Emperor Otto II in 975. The bestowal raised objections by the Archbishop of Salzburg and the privileges were later transferred to Gurk, Carinthia. According to her hagiography, Hemma was a member of a noble dynasty descending from Pilštanj (\"Peilenstein\") in the Mark an der Sann (in present-day Slovenian Styria) and was brought up at the Imperial court in Bamberg by Empress Saint Cunigunde.  Hemma married the Carinthian count William II of Friesach, mentioned as margrave an der Sann in 1016, by whom she had two sons, Hartwig and William. Her husband had received vast estates on the Savinja (\"Sann\") river from the hands of the Emperor. Both her sons and her husband were murdered, Margrave William II probably in 1036 by the deposed duke Adalbero of Carinthia in revenge. Hemma became wealthy through inheritance upon the death of her husband and sons.  Countess Hemma used her great wealth for the benefit of the poor and was already venerated as a saint during her lifetime. In addition, she founded ten churches throughout present-day Carinthia, Austria. In 1043 she founded the Benedictine double monastery of Gurk Abbey, where she withdrew during the last years of her life.  After her death, Gurk Abbey was dissolved by the Archbishop of Salzburg, Gebhard, who instead used the funds to set up the Diocese of Gurk-Klagenfurt in 1072. Admont Abbey, another Benedictine foundation in Austria, was founded in 1074 by the same Gebhard, and also owes its existence to Hemma's wealth. Since 1174 Hemma's relics have been buried in the crypt of Gurk Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Emma Pilgrimage.", "content": "Saint Hemma is the patron saint of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Gurk and her intercession is sought for childbirth and diseases of the eye. She is venerated not only in Carinthia (the Austrian state coterminous with the Diocese of Gurk), but also in neighboring Styria (another Austrian state) and Slovenia. From about 300 years ago, the pious and those seeking assistance have been coming to her tomb in Gurk Cathedral, travelling from Carniola over the Loibl Pass. This pilgrimage took place every year on the fourth Sunday after Easter, but fell out of use as a result of the political circumstances of the 20th century.  In recent years, however, the routes of pilgrimage from Slovenia and Styria to Gurk have gradually reopened and are becoming increasingly used.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hemma of Gurk (; 27 June 1045), also called Emma of Gurk (), was a noblewoman and founder of several churches and monasteries in the Duchy of Carinthia. Buried at Gurk Cathedral since 1174, she was beatified on 21 November 1287 and canonised on 5 January 1938 by Pope Pius XI. Her feast day is 27 June. Hemma is venerated as a saint by both the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, and as patroness of the current Austrian state of Carinthia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974127}
{"src_title": "Robert II, Count of Flanders", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Robert was the eldest son of Robert I of Flanders (also known as Robert the Frisian) and Gertrude of Saxony. His father, hoping to place the cadet branch (or \"Baldwinite\" branch) of Flanders over the county, began to associate him with his rule around 1086. From 1085 to 1091 he was regent of the county while his father was away on pilgrimage to the Holy Land.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Crusade.", "content": "After becoming count in 1093, Robert joined the First Crusade, launched by Pope Urban II in 1095. He made his wife, Clementia of Burgundy, regent in Flanders, and formed an army that followed the retinue of his kinsman Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine. After reaching Constantinople, the crusaders were obliged to swear an oath of fealty to Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus and promise to return to the Byzantine Empire any land they might capture. Robert, whose father had already served Alexius during his pilgrimage in the 1080s, had no problem swearing this oath, but some of the other leaders did and there was some delay in leaving the city. Robert then participated in the Siege of Nicaea, after which the army was split into two groups. Robert marched with Stephen of Blois, Bohemund of Taranto, Robert Curthose, and the Byzantine guides, one day ahead of the rest of the crusaders. This army was surrounded by the Seljuk sultan Kilij Arslan I at the Battle of Dorylaeum on 30 June 1097. The next day, the second army, led by Raymond IV of Toulouse, Godfrey of Bouillon, and Hugh of Vermandois, arrived and broke the encirclement; the two armies joined together, with Robert and Raymond forming the centre. The Turks were defeated and the crusaders continued their march.  At the end of 1097 the crusaders arrived at Antioch. The Siege of Antioch lasted many months; in December, Robert and Bohemund briefly left the army to raid the surrounding territory for food, and on 30 December they defeated an army sent to relieve Antioch, led by Duqaq of Damascus. Antioch was eventually betrayed to Bohemund by an Armenian guard, and Robert was among the first to enter the city, but only a few days later they were themselves besieged by Kerbogha of Mosul. On 28 June 1098, the crusaders marched out to meet him in battle; Robert and Hugh of Vermandois led the first of six divisions. Kerbogha was defeated and the Muslim-held citadel finally surrendered to the crusaders. Robert, along with Bohemund, Raymond, and Godfrey, occupied the citadel, but Bohemund soon claimed the city for himself. Raymond also claimed it, but Robert supported Bohemund in this dispute.  The dispute delayed the crusade even further. Raymond left Antioch to attack Ma'arrat al-Numan, which was captured; Robert took part in this siege as well. Raymond then tried to bribe Robert and the other leaders to follow him instead of Bohemund; Robert was offered six thousand \"sous\", but each attempted bribe was ignored. Raymond continued south to Jerusalem in January, 1099, but Robert and Godfrey remained behind in Antioch until February. They rejoined Raymond's army at the Siege of Arqa. In June, Robert and Gaston IV of Bearn led the vanguard which arrived at Ramla, and with Tancred of Taranto he led an expedition into Samaria to find wood in order to construct siege engines for the Siege of Jerusalem. When Jerusalem was captured on 15 July, Robert supported Godfrey's claim over that of Raymond, and on August 9 marched out with him to meet the Fatimid army under al-Afdal Shahanshah which was coming to relieve Jerusalem. Robert formed part of the centre wing in the ensuing Battle of Ascalon, which resulted in a crusader victory. However, Godfrey and Raymond quarrelled over possession of Ascalon, and even Robert could not support Godfrey in this dispute; the city remained uncaptured, although the victory allowed for the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.  At the end of August, Robert returned home with Robert Curthose and Raymond. On the way back they captured Latakia, which was returned to the Byzantine emperor, as promised years before. Raymond remained there but both Roberts continued home by way of Constantinople, after declining Alexius' request to stay there in his service. Robert brought back with him a precious relic, the arm of Saint George, a gift from Alexius. The relic was placed in the church of Anchin Abbey in Flanders. After he returned, Robert built the monastery of St. Andrew in Sevenkerke (now Zevenkerke, near Bruges. Because of his crusade and the spoils he brought home, he was nicknamed Robert of Jerusalem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "During his absence, Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV had tried to seize imperial Flanders. Robert responded by supporting the revolt of the Commune of Cambrai against the emperor and his supporter, Bishop Gaulcher, and seized a number of castles. Peace was restored in 1102 paid homage to the emperor for imperial Flanders, but after 1105, the new emperor, Henry V, marched on Flanders, with the aid of Count Baldwin III of Hainaut and an army from Holland. Robert stopped them outside of Douai and a new peace was signed, in which the emperor recognized Robert's claim to Douai and Cambrai.  In 1103 he made an alliance with King Henry I of England, offering 1000 cavalry in exchange for an annual tribute of £500, but when Henry refused to pay, Robert allied with his nominal overlord, Louis VI of France, and attacked Normandy. With the king diverted, Theobald IV of Blois led a revolt of the French barons. Robert led an army against Meaux; during the battle he fell off his horse and was trampled to death on 5 October 1111.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "He married Clementia of Burgundy, sister of Pope Callistus II and daughter of William I, Count of Burgundy. They had three children, but only the oldest survived to adulthood. He succeeded Robert as Baldwin VII of Flanders.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert II (c. 1065 – 5 October 1111) was Count of Flanders from 1093 to 1111. He became known as \"Robert of Jerusalem\" (\"Robertus Hierosolimitanus\") or \"Robert the Crusader\" after his exploits in the First Crusade.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974128}
{"src_title": "Donatella Versace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Finntroll was founded in 1997 with a line-up which included guitarist Teemu \"Somnium\" Raimoranta and vocalist/lyricist Jan \"Katla\" Jämsen. A year later they were joined by guitarist Samuli \"Skrymer\" Ponsimaa, drummer Samu \"Beast Dominator\" Ruotsalainen, keyboardist Henri \"Trollhorn\" Sorvali and bassist Sami \"Tundra\" Uusitalo, creating the first stable line-up of the band. The band's first demo, \"Rivfader\", released the same year.  Their second album, \"Jaktens Tid\", was released in 2001. The following summer, the band had their first time playing festivals in Finland and other countries.  The year after the release of the album \"Jaktens Tid\" proved to be a misfortune for Finntroll: some tours had to be cancelled, and vocalist Jämsen had to retire from the band due to a viral-based tumor in his vocal cords which could not be removed surgically; he retired after the release of the EP \"Visor Om Slutet\". The EP was recorded in early January 2003, in a forest cabin near Helsinki. It was an \"acoustical experiment\", where Jämsen and the new vocalist Tapio Wilska (of Sethian and Lyijykomppania) shared the singing duties among them. \"Visor Om Slutet\" was released as a mid-price EP and held rank on the Finnish midprice chart for several weeks.  On March 16, 2003, shortly before the release of \"Visor Om Slutet\", guitarist Teemu Raimoranta died when he fell off a bridge in Hakaniemi, Helsinki. Although they had lost their last remaining founding members in this tragic event, the band did not dissolve, but after some time decided to go on, touring Europe for two weeks, supported by the band Katatonia. Guitarist Mikael Karlbom was hired as a replacement for Raimoranta.  In 2004, the band released an EP, \"Trollhammaren\" \"(\"The Trollhammer\")\", a prequel to the soon to follow album \"Nattfödd\" \"(\"Nightborn\")\". Also in 2004, Trollhorn stopped touring with the band, prompting touring musicians to be hired to fill the void left in his absence. Aleksi \"Virta\" Virta joined the band in an official capacity as second keyboardist in 2005.  On January 29, 2006, Tapio Wilska, vocalist of the band since 2003, was fired from the band. In a statement issued on the band's website, Wilska stated that he would like to keep the reason for his dismissal private.  Following Wilska's parting with the band, they decided to take on Mathias \"Vreth\" Lillmåns of Chtonian and Twilight Moon as a full-time member on vocals.  A new album, titled \"Ur Jordens Djup\" \"(\"From the Depths of the Earth\")\", was released March, 2007. This fourth album put more emphasis on epic keyboard riffs with very loud but melodic guitar. Former vocalist Katla was brought in to write the lyrics for this album, and continues in this capacity with the band. The last song contains an acoustic hidden track entitled \"Trollvisan\" which can be heard at 11:03 minutes. It is commonly believed to be the installment's \"Aamund och Kettil-Song\", yet there is no mention of the two priests in the lyrics, the song rather refers to \"de kristna\" (\"the Christians\") in general.  The band has recorded a live performance for its upcoming first live DVD. A release date is yet to be confirmed. They have released their fifth album, titled \"Nifelvind\" \"(\"Underworld's Winds\")\", and Katla has again written the lyrics. The progress on the album was recorded by Trollhorn in a studio diary. On January 15, 2010 Finntroll released a music video for the new song \"Solsagan\" on their \"MySpace\" page in preparation for the album release. The new album was then released in February 2010.  The band's sixth studio album Blodsvept was released on March 25, 2013.  On May 13, 2014, drummer Samu Ruotsalainen revealed that he would be departing the band in July of that year; the parting was confirmed to be amicable by the band. He was replaced by Heikki \"Mörkö\" Saari.  In June 2014, the band released a live album, \"Natten Med De Levande Finntroll\" (\"Night of the Living Finntroll\"). Thomas Woroniak of RockRevolt Magazine stated \"\"Natten Med De Levande Finntroll\" is a must-have for any dedicated Finntroll fan. Followers of the group have been waiting a long time for a live recording...the music is unique and vibrant in color and tonality, and the performance is exceptional.\"  On October 31st 2019, the band updated the cover photo for their official Facebook page with obscured numbers and 2020 currently being the only visible number, possibly indicating a new album or tour.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Finntroll is a folk metal band from Helsinki, Finland. They combine elements of black metal and folk metal. Finntroll's lyrics are mostly in Swedish, the only exception being the song \"Madon Laulu\" on \"Visor Om Slutet\". Finntroll's original singer, Katla, decided to use Swedish over Finnish since he was part of a Swedish-speaking minority in Finland and the sound of the language seemed to better suit the band's \"trollish\" outfit. Despite several vocalist changes, this tradition has continued.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974129}
{"src_title": "Herman Kahn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Kahn was born in Bayonne, New Jersey, the son of Yetta (née Koslowsky) and Abraham Kahn, a tailor. His parents were Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe. He was raised in the Bronx, then in Los Angeles following his parents' divorce. Raised Jewish, he later became an atheist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cold War theories.", "content": "Kahn's major contributions were the several strategies he developed during the Cold War to contemplate \"the unthinkable\"namely, nuclear warfareby using applications of game theory. Kahn is often cited (with Pierre Wack) as a father of scenario planning.  Kahn argued for deterrence and believed that if the Soviet Union believed that the United States had a second strike capability then it would offer greater deterrence, which he wrote in his paper titled \"The Nature and Feasibility of War and Deterrence\".  The bases of his work were systems theory and game theory as applied to economics and military strategy. Kahn argued that for deterrence to succeed, the Soviet Union had to be convinced that the United States had second-strike capability in order to leave the Politburo in no doubt that even a perfectly coordinated massive attack would guarantee a measure of retaliation that would leave them devastated as well:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hudson Institute.", "content": "In 1961, Kahn, Max Singer and Oscar Ruebhausen founded the Hudson Institute, a policy research organization initially located in Croton-on-Hudson, New York, where Kahn was living at the time. Luminaries such as sociologist Daniel Bell, political philosopher Raymond Aron and novelist Ralph Ellison (author of the 1952 classic \"Invisible Man\") were recruited.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Year 2000\".", "content": "In 1967, Herman Kahn and Anthony J. Wiener published \"The Year 2000: A Framework for Speculation on the Next Thirty-Three Years\", which included contributions from staff members of the Hudson Institute and an introduction by Daniel Bell. Table XVIII in the document contains a list called \"One Hundred Technical Innovations Very Likely in the Last Third of the Twentieth Century\". The first ten predictions were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In Kahn's view, capitalism and technology held nearly boundless potential for progress, while the colonization of space lay in the near, not the distant, future. Kahn's 1976 book \"The Next 200 Years\", written with William Brown and Leon Martel, presented an optimistic scenario of economic conditions in the year 2176. He also wrote a number of books extrapolating the future of the American, Japanese and Australian economies and several works on systems theory, including the well-received 1957 monograph \"Techniques of System Analysis\".  During the mid-1970s, when South Korea's GDP per capita was one of the lowest in the world, Kahn predicted that the country would become one of the top 10 most powerful countries in the world by the year 2000.  In his last year, 1983, Kahn wrote approvingly of Ronald Reagan's political agenda in \"The Coming Boom: Economic, Political, and Social\" and bluntly derided Jonathan Schell's claims about the long-term effects of nuclear war. On July 7 that year, he died of a stroke, aged 61.  Herman Kahn was the son of Abraham Kahn and Yetta Kahn. His wife was Rosalie \"Jane\" Kahn. He and Jane had two children, David and Debbie.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural influence.", "content": "Along with John von Neumann, Edward Teller and Wernher von Braun, Kahn was, reportedly, an inspiration for the character \"Dr. Strangelove\" in the eponymous film by Stanley Kubrick released in 1964. It was also said that Kubrick immersed himself in Kahn's book \"On Thermonuclear War\". In the film, Dr. Strangelove refers to a report on the Doomsday Machine by the \"BLAND Corporation\". Kahn gave Kubrick the idea for the \"Doomsday Machine\", a device which would immediately cause the destruction of the entire planet in the event of a nuclear attack. Both the name and the concept of the weapon are drawn from the text of \"On Thermonuclear War\". Louis Menand observes, \"In Kahn’s book, the Doomsday Machine is an example of the sort of deterrent that appeals to the military mind but that is dangerously destabilizing. Since nations are not suicidal, its only use is to threaten.\"  In \"The Politics of Ecstasy\", Timothy Leary suggests that Kahn had taken LSD.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Outside physics and statistics, works written by Kahn include:  Works published by the RAND Corporation involving Kahn:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Herman Kahn (February 15, 1922 – July 7, 1983) was a founder of the Hudson Institute and one of the preeminent futurists of the latter part of the twentieth century. He originally came to prominence as a military strategist and systems theorist while employed at the RAND Corporation. He became known for analyzing the likely consequences of nuclear war and recommending ways to improve survivability, making him one of the historical inspirations for the title character of Stanley Kubrick's classic black comedy film satire \"Dr. Strangelove\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974130}
{"src_title": "Margat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Fortress.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Margat is located on a hill formed by an extinct volcano high about above sea level on the road between Tripoli and Latakia, overlooking the Mediterranean Sea.  According to Arab sources, the site of Margat Castle was first fortified in 1062 by Muslims who continued to hold it within the Christian Principality of Antioch in the aftermath of the First Crusade. When the Principality was defeated at the Battle of Harran in 1104, the Byzantine Empire took advantage of their weakness and captured Margat from the Muslims. A few years later it was captured by Tancred, Prince of Galilee, regent of Antioch, and became part of the Principality.  In the 1170s it was controlled by of Antioch as a vassal of the count of Tripoli. The fortress was so large that it had its own household officials and a number of rear-vassals. Reynaud's son Bertrand sold it to the Hospitallers in 1186 as it was too expensive for the Mazoir family to maintain. After some rebuilding and expansion by the Hospitallers it became their headquarters in Syria. Under Hospitaller control, its fourteen towers were thought to be impregnable.  In 1188, Saladin marched on Margat having left Krak des Chevaliers in search of easier prey. According to Abu'l-Fida, \"Recognising that Maqab was impregnable and that he had no hope of capturing it, he passed on to Jabala\". It was one of the few remaining territories left in Christian hands after Saladin's conquests.  By the beginning of the 13th century the Hospitallers controlled the surrounding land and roads and made a large profit from travellers and pilgrims passing through. Isaac Comnenus of Cyprus was imprisoned there after Richard I of England captured Cyprus from him during the Third Crusade. The bishop of nearby Valenia also used Margat as his headquarters after around 1240. Margat was second in size and power only to the other Hospitaller fortress to the south, Krak des Chevaliers. In September 1281 the Hospitallers of Margat dispatched a contingent of troops to support the Mongol invasion of Syria, which the Mamluk sultan of Egypt Qalawun successfully prevented after defeating the coalition at Homs. To punish the Hospitallers, Qalawun clandestinely raised an army in Damascus and besieged Margat on 17 April 1285. After a 38-day siege during which sappers and miners managed to dig several tunnels underneath the fortress's walls, a mine destroyed a salient of the southernmost wall. The defenders panicked and on discovering the numerous tunnels around the fortress, surrendered to the Mamluk commander Fakhr al-Din Mukri on 23 May, with Qalwun entering Margat two days later. The siege was witnessed by eleven-year-old Abu'l Fida and his father, the Ayyubid governor of Hama. Qalawun allowed the Hospitallers to leave with everything they could carry. Rather than destroy Margat as he did with other fortresses, he repaired its defences and placed a strong garrison there due to its strategic value.  Marqat, known as \"Marqab\" by the Muslims, became a district of the Mamluk province of Tripoli with maintenance of the area financed by the sultan. Intrepid traveller Ibn Battuta visited the fortress and noted that a suburb was built outside of it for foreigners, who were not allowed entry into the fortress. The district governor based at the Marqab fortress held the military rank of \"Emir of 20 Mamluks.\" He was charged with defending the coast, particularly from threats from the island of Cyprus, and maintaining the guard towers and observation posts. During the Burji Mamluk period, Margat was well known in the region for containing an imperial prison with many high-profile inmates. The 15th-century Muslim historian Khalil al-Zahiri noted that Marqab fortress was among the most important sites of Tripoli province. Marqab was \"clearly impregnable and controls a territory containing numerous villages.\"  During the Ottoman era, Margat became the administrative center of a \"kaza\" (\"district\") of the same name, which contained three \"nahiyas\" (\"subdistricts\") — Margat, Qadmus and Khawabi. In the 1890s there was a total of 393 localities with a collective population of 39,671, of whom 21,121 were Alawites. The chief agricultural products were olives, onions, tobacco and silk, which were largely marketed to Beirut-based merchants. The fortress served as the residence of the kaymakam (\"military governor\") of the district until 1884 when the seat was transferred to Baniyas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Castles in Europe provided lordly accommodation for their owners and acted as centres of administration. In the Levant the need for defence was paramount and this was reflected in castle design. Historian Hugh Kennedy suggests that \"The castle scientifically designed as a fighting machine surely reached its apogee in great buildings like Margat and Crac des Chevaliers.\" Like the Krak des Chevaliers, Margat is a large spur castle with many typical elements of a concentric castle. It has a bent entrance leading through the base of a gate tower. A notable feature of the inner defences is a large circular tower, sometimes referred to as a donjon (though it should not be confused with a central keep). Unlike the Krak Des Chevaliers, Margat has a large outer ward, giving it a larger total area.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Village of al-Marqab.", "content": "The village of al-Marqab () is located just north of the castle, straddling the road leading north to the coastal city of Baniyas. Nearby localities besides Baniyas, include Talin to the east, Osaibah to the southeast with Basatin al-Assad and al-Bayda to the south. According to the Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), al-Marqab had a population of 2,618 as of the 2004 census. Its inhabitants are predominantly Sunni Muslims. Together, al-Marqab, Basatin al-Assad anf al-Bayda form a mostly Sunni Muslim-inhabited enclave in an area largely populated by members of the Alawite community.  A suburb has existed outside the fortress since at least the late 12th century, during Crusader rule. During this period, its chief exports were sumac, wine, must, almonds, figs and pottery. In 1325 North African geographer Ibn Batuta visited the suburb. In 1938 al-Marqab stood near the foot of the fortress and was among five Sunni Muslim villages in the area, which also contained several Alawite, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic and Maronite villages. In 1945, at the end of the French Mandate, al-Marqab had a population of 832. Starting in 1968, it experienced significant prosperity due to the construction of the Iraq Petroleum Company pipeline and petroleum port at Baniyas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Margat, also known as Marqab, (), is a castle near Baniyas, Syria, which was a Crusader fortress and one of the major strongholds of the Knights Hospitaller. It is located around from the Mediterranean coast and approximately south of Baniyas. The castle remained in a poor state of preservation until 2007 when some reconstruction and renovation began.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974131}
{"src_title": "Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Construction of the Basilica probably began around 1232, just one year after the death of St. Anthony. It was completed in 1310 although several structural modifications (including the falling of the ambulatory and the construction of a new choir screen) took place between the end of the 14th and the mid-15th century. The Saint, according to his will, had been buried in the small church of \"Santa Maria Mater Domini\", probably dating from the late 12th century and near which a convent was founded by him in 1229. This church was incorporated into the present basilica as the \"Cappella della Madonna Mora\" (Chapel of the Dark Madonna).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Sant'Antonio is a giant edifice without a precise architectural style. Over the centuries, it has grown under a variety of different influences as shown by the exterior details.  The new basilica was begun as a single-naved church, like that of St Francis of Assisi, with an apsidal chancel, broad transepts and two square nave bays roofed with hemispherical domes like that of San Marco, Venice. The exterior style is a mixing of mainly Romanesque and Byzantine elements, with some Gothic features.  Later in the 13th century, the aisles were added in a more Gothic style, the length of each nave bay being divided into two aisle bays with pointed arches and quadripartite vaults.  The eastern apse was also extended in the Gothic style, receiving a ribbed vault and nine radiating chapels in the French manner. Later also, the Treasury chapel was built in 1691 in the Baroque style by Filippo Parodi, a pupil of Bernini.  Externally, the brick facade has a Romanesque central section which was extended outwards when the aisles were built, acquiring in the process four deep Gothic recesses and an elegant arcaded balcony which stretches across the broad front of the building. The facade gable shows little differentiation between the nave and aisle, screening the very large buttresses that have the same profile and form a richly sculptural feature when the building is viewed from the side.  The domes, like the domes of St. Mark's Basilica, were raised in height externally, giving a Byzantine appearance to the building, while the multitude of small belfries which accompany the domes recall Turkish minarets. Externally, at the main roof line each section of the building is marked by a low gable decorated with blind arcading in brick. These gables combine with the domes, the broad buttresses and the little towers to create a massive sculptural form, both diverse and unified in its conglomeration of features. As a work of architecture the building is particularly effective when viewed from the north west, an extra dimension being added to the facade by the huge plinth and dynamic equestrian monument of the Condottiero \"Gattamelata\" by Donatello.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art works and treasures.", "content": "The interior of the church contains numerous funerary monuments, some of noteworthy artistic value. The Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament (Cappella del Santissimo Sacramento, also known as Cappella Gattamelata), in the right aisle, houses the tomb of the famous condottiero Gattamelata and of his son Giannantonio. The bronze tabernacle is made by Girolamo Campagna. This chapel, with its broad bands of polychrome and carved Gothic details, has had many stages of decoration, the final stage being the creation of an mosaic in the tall rear niche representing the Holy Spirit with rays of golden light descending against a background of intensely blue sky. This work was created by Lodovico Pogliaghi between 1927–36.  Relics of St Anthony are to be found in the ornate Baroque Treasury Chapel (begun in 1691). The body of the saint, which was in the Madonna Mora Chapel, has, from 1350, lain in a separate transept chapel, the Chapel of St Anthony, the interior decoration being attributed to Tullio Lombardo, who also provided the sixth and seventh reliefs depicting the miracles of St Anthony (\"Miracle of the stingy man's heart\", \"Miracle of the repentant man\"). The third relief \"Saint bringing back to life a man who had been murdered\" is a masterpiece by Girolamo Campagna. The late-16th century statues are by Tiziano Aspetti  The Basilica contains several important images of the Madonna. The \"Madonna Mora\" is a statue of the Madonna with the Christ Child by the French sculptor Rainaldino di Puy-l'Evéque, dating from 1396. Her name refers to her black hair and olive skin tone, being interpreted as \"swarthy\".  The \"Madonna del Pilastro\" is a mid-14th-century fresco by Stefano da Ferrara, located on the pier adjacent the left aisle.  Among other sculptural work is the Easter candelabrum in the apse, finished in 1515 by Andrea Briosco and considered his masterwork. The high altar area features the bronze \"Madonna with Child\" and six statues of \"Saints\" by Donatello, who also executed four reliefs with episodes of life of St. Anthony.  To the right hand side of the nave, opposite the tomb of the Saint is the large Chapel of St. James, commissioned by Bonifacio Lupi in the 1370s in Gothic style, with frescoed walls depicting the \"Stories of St. James\" and the Crucifixion by Altichiero da Zevio. Altichiero's \"Crucifixion\" is one of the most significant paintings of the late 14th century. There are several frescoes created by Girolamo Tessari.  The chin and tongue of St. Anthony are displayed in a gold reliquary at the Basilica.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical history.", "content": "The composer Francesco Antonio Calegari served as maestro di cappella in the 1720s. Giuseppe Tartini, the Baroque composer and violinist, also served as maestro di cappella in the 18th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pontifical Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua () is a Roman Catholic church and minor basilica in Padua, Veneto, Northern Italy, dedicated to St. Anthony. Although the Basilica is visited as a place of pilgrimage by people from all over the world, it is not the titular cathedral of the city, a title belonging to the Cathedral-Basilica of St. Mary of Padua. The basilica is known locally as \"il Santo\". It is one of the eight international shrines recognized by the Holy See.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974132}
{"src_title": "Peter Benenson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in London as Peter James Henry Solomon, to a large Jewish family, the only son of British-born Harold Solomon and Russian-born Flora Benenson; Peter Benenson adopted his mother's maiden name later in life. His army officer father died from a long-term injury when Benenson was aged nine, and he was tutored privately by W. H. Auden before going to Eton. At the age of sixteen, he helped to establish a relief fund with other schoolboys for children orphaned by the Spanish Civil War. He took his mother's maiden name of Benenson as a tribute to his grandfather, the Russian gold tycoon Grigori Benenson, following his grandfather's death.  He enrolled for study at Balliol College, Oxford but World War II interrupted his education. He served in the Intelligence Corps at the Ministry of Information where he met his first wife, Margaret Anderson. He worked at Bletchley Park during World War II in the Testery. He is listed as RSM Benenson in room 41 as a cryptographer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After demobilisation in 1946, Benenson began practising as a barrister before joining the Labour Party and standing unsuccessfully for election at Streatham in 1950 and for North Herts constituency till 1959. He was one of a group of British lawyers who, in 1957, founded JUSTICE, the UK-based human rights and law reform organisation. In 1958, he fell ill and moved to Italy to convalesce. In the same year, he converted to the Roman Catholic Church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activism.", "content": "Benenson claimed to have been shocked and angered by a newspaper report of two Portuguese students from Coimbra sentenced to seven years in prison for raising their glasses in a toast to freedom during the regime of António de Oliveira Salazar, though this story has been shown to be a myth.. At this time, Portugal was ruled by the authoritarian Estado Novo regime, and anti-regime conspiracies were vigorously repressed by the Portuguese state police and deemed anti-Portuguese. He wrote to David Astor, editor of \"The Observer\". On 28 May 1961, Benenson's article, entitled \"The Forgotten Prisoners\", was published. The letter asked readers to write letters showing support for all those imprisoned for their political or religious beliefs. To co-ordinate such letter-writing campaigns, Amnesty International was founded in London in July 1961 at a meeting of Benenson and six other men, who included a Conservative, a Liberal and a Labour MP. The response was so overwhelming that within a year various groups of letter-writers had formed in more than a dozen countries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Amnesty International.", "content": "Initially appointed general secretary of AI, Benenson stood down in 1964 owing to ill health. By 1966, Amnesty International faced an internal crisis. The advisory position of president of the International Executive was then created for him. In 1966, after a report of British use of torture in Yemen, he began to make allegations that the British government had infiltrated the governance of AI. An inquiry was set up which reported at Elsinore in Denmark in 1967. The allegations were rejected and Benenson resigned from AI.  While never again active in the organisation, Benenson was later personally reconciled with other executives, including Seán MacBride.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Marriage to his first wife Margaret Anderson ended in divorce in 1972. He married Susan Booth in 1973. They had two children and were married until his death in 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "He died of pneumonia on 25 February 2005 at the John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, aged 83, having been a resident of the nearby village of Nuneham Courtenay where he was buried.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Benenson (31 July 1921 – 25 February 2005) was a British lawyer, human rights activist and the founder of human rights group Amnesty International (AI). Benenson refused all honours but in his 80s, largely to please his family, he accepted the Pride of Britain Award for Lifetime Achievement in 2001.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974133}
{"src_title": "Josef Jungmann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Jungmann was the sixth child (out of ten) of a cobbler. His father was of Bohemian German descent and his mother was of Czech descent. The children grew up speaking both languages at home, which contributed heavily to Jungmann's later role as a revivalist of the Czech language. In his youth, he wanted to become a priest. After he completed grammar school in 1788-1792 however, he went on to study Philosophy and Law. Beginning in 1799, he started teaching at the local high school (\"Gymnasium\") in Litoměřice (\"Leitmeritz\"), which had a German majority at that time. In 1815, he moved to Prague, where he worked until 1845 in the Old Town Academic Grammar School as a Czech professor. He earned a doctorate in Philosophy and Mathematics in 1817; he was the dean of the Faculty of Arts in 1827 and 1838. In 1840, he became the rector of Charles University in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Jungmann was a rigorous advocate of the rebirth of written Czech language. In contrast to his teacher, Josef Dobrovský, he also wrote his works in Czech. In 1805, he published a translation of Chateaubriand's \"Atala\". By this, he intended to prove that the Czech language is suitable for complicated artistic texts. Later, he published translations of Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Friedrich Schiller and John Milton. Translation of \"Paradise Lost\" by Milton was called by Derek Sayer \"the cornerstone\" of modern literary Czech language. Jungmann’s original poems are few, but include two early Revival sonnets and the short narrative poem Oldřich a Božena.  In following years, he published a series of polemic texts, most notably the \"Talks on Czech Language\". In 1820, he published \"Slovesnost\", which was a kind of a stylistic textbook. In 1825, a \"History of Czech literature\" followed.  His most important work is the Czech-German dictionary in five volumes (1834–39). In this dictionary, he laid out the basis for the modern Czech vocabulary. In order to achieve the stylistic range of vocabulary he desired, for poetic effect, and in order to expand the lexical resources of Czech, Jungmann revived archaic words, for which he studied historical documents, or borrowed from other Slavic languages, and created neologisms. Many of his words became a permanent part of the language.  Jungmannova Street and Jungmannovo náměstí (Jungmann's Square) in Prague are named after him; the square contains a large statue of Jungmann.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josef Jungmann (16 July 1773 in Hudlice, near Beroun – 14 November 1847 in Prague) was a Czech poet and linguist, and a leading figure of the Czech National Revival. Together with Josef Dobrovský, he is considered to be a creator of the modern Czech language.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974134}
{"src_title": "Elio de Angelis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "De Angelis was born in Rome. His father Giulio was an inshore and offshore powerboat racer who won many world championships in the 1960s and 1970s.  After a brief spell with karts, de Angelis went on to win the Italian Formula Three Championship in 1977. In 1978 he raced in Formula Two for Minardi and then for the ICI British F2 Team, he also competed in one round of the British Formula One championship and won the prestigious Monaco F3 race.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formula One.", "content": "At the end of the 1977 season, de Angelis was on Enzo Ferrari's short list to replace Niki Lauda. De Angelis successfully tested the Ferrari at the Fiorano circuit but eventually Ferrari decided to hire Gilles Villeneuve. De Angelis's debut Formula One season was in with Shadow. He finished seventh in his maiden Grand Prix in Argentina and 15th in the championship with three points.  De Angelis's performance with Shadow caught the eye of Lotus boss Colin Chapman, who hired him to partner Mario Andretti in. At the age of 21, de Angelis nearly became the youngest Grand Prix winner of all time when he finished second at the Brazilian Grand Prix, run at the Interlagos circuit.  His first victory came in the 1982 Austrian Grand Prix at the Österreichring, 0.05 seconds ahead of the Williams of eventual World Champion Keke Rosberg. The win was the last hailed by Colin Chapman's act of throwing his cloth cap into the air. Chapman died in December that year and Peter Warr became the new Lotus team manager.  In Lotus switched from the Cosworth DFV they had been using since, to Renault turbo engines, but it was a disappointing season, suffering multiple mechanical failures. De Angelis's best result was a fifth place in the 1983 Italian Grand Prix.  In de Angelis had a much better season, scoring a total of 34 points and finishing third in the standings with three podiums. His best result was a second place at the Detroit Grand Prix. De Angelis was the only driver to finish in the top 5 in 1984 not to score a race win, showing his consistent performances throughout the season with the improving Lotus-Renault.  In, de Angelis was joined at Lotus by Ayrton Senna, who had left the Toleman team. De Angelis's second win came in the third race of the season, at the 1985 San Marino Grand Prix, after Alain Prost was disqualified when his McLaren MP4/2B was found 2 kg underweight. De Angelis also claimed his last Formula One pole position that year in Canada. He finished fifth in the championship, with 33 points, five points behind his teammate. However, de Angelis chose to leave Lotus at the end of the season, frustrated that the team's efforts were being focused mostly on Senna.  De Angelis's drive for was with Brabham, as a replacement for twice World Champion Nelson Piquet, who had moved to Williams to join de Angelis's former Lotus teammate Nigel Mansell. Fellow Italian Riccardo Patrese was his teammate. Patrese was returning to the Bernie Ecclestone owned team after two unhappy years with Alfa Romeo.  The 1986 Brabham-BMW, the BT55, was the brainchild of long time Brabham designer Gordon Murray. The BT55 was a lowline car with a reduced frontal area, the idea being to have a cleaner airflow over the car to create more downforce, while at the same time reducing the car's drag. The chassis proved effective, unlike the l4 BMW turbo that had to be tilted to an angle of 72°. This caused severe oil surge and an even greater lack of throttle response than the BMW had become famous for. Although the team worked hard to overcome these problems, it was clear from early in the season that Brabham had fallen behind the leading pack.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and aftermath.", "content": "In that year, during tests at the Paul Ricard circuit in France, the rear wing of de Angelis's BT55 detached at high speed resulting in the car losing downforce on the rear wheels, which instigated a cartwheel over a sidetrack barrier, causing the car to catch fire. The impact itself did not kill de Angelis but he was unable to extract himself from the car unassisted. The situation was exacerbated by the lack of track marshals on the circuit who could have provided him with emergency assistance. A 30-minute delay ensued before a helicopter arrived and de Angelis died 29 hours later, at the hospital in Marseille where he had been taken, from smoke inhalation. His actual crash impact injuries were only a broken collar bone and light burns on his back.  De Angelis's death also saw the end of Formula One using the full 5.81 km (3.61 mi) Paul Ricard Circuit. F1 cars started using the 3.812 km (2.369 mi) \"Club\" version of the circuit, bypassing the Verriere curves where the Brabham had crashed, and cutting the length of the Mistral Straight from 1.8 to 1 km in length. The move was unpopular with many of the drivers, although most did like the reduced straight length as it was easier on the engines. Paul Ricard would not host a race on the full layout until, which featured sharper Verriere curves and a chicane on Mistral effectively cutting the straight to two 800m straights.  De Angelis's place in the Brabham team was subsequently taken by Derek Warwick, allegedly because Warwick was the only available top level driver who did not contact team owner Bernie Ecclestone immediately after de Angelis's death asking to replace him. McLaren driver Keke Rosberg, who was a close friend of de Angelis, retired at the end of the 1986 season.  De Angelis was the last driver to die in a Formula One car until Roland Ratzenberger died during qualifying for the San Marino Grand Prix at Imola eight years later. The day after Ratzenberger's death, de Angelis's former Lotus teammate (and by then a triple World Champion) Ayrton Senna was killed on the seventh lap when his Williams-Renault crashed into the Tamburello Curve wall at over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "De Angelis was a concert-standard pianist, and famously kept his fellow Formula One drivers entertained with his skills while they locked themselves in a Johannesburg hotel before the 1982 South African Grand Prix at Kyalami when the Grand Prix Drivers Association held a strike in protest at the new Super Licence conditions imposed by the governing body, the FIA.  The French-Italian driver Jean Alesi, who broke into the sport in, wore a helmet that matched de Angelis's design, in tribute to his semi-compatriot.  In 2016, in an academic paper that reported a mathematical modelling study that assessed the relative influence of driver and machine, de Angelis was ranked the 20th best Formula One driver of all time.  In 2017 de Angelis was honoured at the Ludovico Scarfiotti Memorial in Rome.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elio de Angelis (26 March 1958 – 15 May 1986) was an Italian racing driver who participated in Formula One between and, racing for the Shadow, Lotus and Brabham teams. He was killed in an accident while testing the Brabham BT55 at the Paul Ricard circuit, near the \"commune\" of Le Castellet, France, in 1986. De Angelis was a very competitive and highly popular presence in Formula One during the 1980s, and is sometimes referred to as Formula One's \"last gentleman player\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974135}
{"src_title": "Eurasian coot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The Eurasian coot was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his \"Systema Naturae\" under its current binomial name \"Fulica atra\". Linnaeus specified the locality as Europe but this is now restricted to Sweden. The binomial name is from Latin: \"Fulica\" means \"coot\", and \"atra\" mean \"black\".  Four subspecies are recognised:  An extinct subspecies \"F. atra pontica\", has been described from the Chalcolithic (around 4800-4400 BP) from the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The Eurasian coot is in length with a wing-span of ; males weigh around and females. It largely black except for the white bill and frontal shield (which gives rise to the phrase \"as bald as a coot\", in use as early as 1430). As a swimming species, the coot has partial webbing on its long strong toes. The sexes are similar in appearance.  The juvenile is paler than the adult, has a whitish breast, and lacks the facial shield; the adult black plumage develops when about 3–4 months old, but the white shield is only fully developed at about one year old.  This is a noisy bird with a wide repertoire of crackling, explosive, or trumpeting calls, often given at night.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The coot breeds across much of the Old World on freshwater lakes and ponds. It occurs and breeds in Europe, Asia, Australia, and Africa. The species has recently expanded its range into New Zealand. It is resident in the milder parts of its range, but migrates further south and west from much of Asia in winter as the waters freeze.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "The Eurasian coot is much less secretive than most of the rail family, and can be seen swimming on open water or walking across waterside grasslands. It is an aggressive species, and strongly territorial during the breeding season, and both parents are involved in territorial defence. During the non-breeding season they may form large flocks, possibly related to predator avoidance.  It is reluctant to fly and when taking off runs across the water surface with much splashing. It does the same, but without actually flying, when travelling a short distance at speed in territorial disputes or on land to escape from intruders. As with many rails, its weak flight does not inspire confidence, but on migration, usually at night, it can cover surprisingly large distances. It bobs its head as it swims, and makes short dives from a little jump.  When fighting other waterbirds (especially other coots), the coot attacks by charging its opponent and striking them with its long legs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "The nest is a bulky structure that is placed on the bottom in shallow water. It is constructed of plant stems and leaves with a lining of finer material. Normally concealed in vegetation the nest can sometimes be placed in the open. It is built by both sexes with the male collecting most of the material which is incorporated by the female. The eggs are laid at daily intervals. The clutch contains between six and ten smooth and slightly glossy buff coloured eggs that are covered with black or dark brown speckles. On average they are and weigh. The eggs are incubated by both sexes beginning after the second egg is laid and hatch asynchronously after 21 to 24 days. The chicks are precocial and nidifugous. The chicks are covered with a black down. On the body the down has yellow hair-like tips. On the sides of the head, nape and throat the hair-like tips are longer and orange-red. Between the eyes and on the lores, the tips are red. The shield is bright red and the bill is red with a white tip. The young are brooded by the female for the first three to four days during which time food is brought by the male. The male also builds one or more platforms that is used for roosting and brooding the chicks. On leaving the nest, the brood is sometimes split up with each parent taking care of a separate group. The young can feed themselves when they are around 30 days and fledge at 55 to 60 days. Eurasian coots normally only have a single brood each year but in some areas such as Britain they will sometimes attempt a second brood. They first breed when they are one to two years old.  Chick mortality occurs mainly due to starvation rather than predation. Most chicks died in the first 10 days after hatching, when they are most dependent on adults for food. Coots can be very brutal to their own young under pressure such as the lack of food. They will bite young that are begging for food and repeatedly do this until it stops begging. If the begging continues, they may bite so hard that the chick is killed. Coots will also lay their eggs in the nests of other coots when their environment or physical condition limits their ability to breed, or to lengthen their reproductive life.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "The coot is an omnivore, and will take a variety of small live prey including the eggs of other water birds, as well as algae, vegetation, seeds and fruit. It shows considerable variation in its feeding techniques, grazing on land or in the water. In the water it may upend in the fashion of a mallard or dive in search of food.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Status.", "content": "The Eurasian coot is one of the species to which the \"Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds\" (AEWA) applies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Eurasian coot (\"Fulica atra\"), also known as the common coot, or Australian coot, is a member of the rail and crake bird family, the Rallidae. It is found in Europe, Asia, Australia, New Zealand and parts of North Africa. It has a slaty-black body, a glossy black head and a white bill with a white frontal shield. The sexes are similar.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974136}
{"src_title": "Twosret", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Twosret or Tausret's birth date is unknown. Twosret is thought to have been a daughter of Merenptah, possibly a daughter of Takhat, thereby making her sister to Amenmesse. She was thought to be the second royal wife of Seti II. There are no children for Twosret and Seti II, unless tomb KV56 represents the burial of their daughter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen, regent and pharaoh.", "content": "Theodore Davis identified Twosret and her husband in a cache of jewelry found in tomb KV56 in the Valley of the Kings. This tomb also contained objects bearing the name of Rameses II. There is no consensus about the nature of this tomb. Some (Aldred) thought this was the tomb of a daughter of Seti II and Tawosret, but others (Maspero) thought this was a cache of objects originally belonging with the tomb of Tawosret herself.  After her husband's death, she became first regent to Seti's heir Siptah jointly with Chancellor Bay. Siptah was likely a stepson of Twosret since his mother is now known to be a certain Sutailja or Shoteraja from Louvre Relief E 26901. When Siptah died, Twosret officially assumed the throne for herself, as the \"\"Daughter of Re, Lady of Ta-merit, Twosret of Mut\"\", and assumed the role of a Pharaoh.  While it was commonly believed that she ruled Egypt with the aid of Chancellor Bay, a recently published document by Pierre Grandet in a BIFAO 100 (2000) paper shows that Bay was executed on Siptah's orders during Year 5 of this king's reign. The document is a hieratic ostracon or inscribed potshard and contains an announcement to the workmen of Deir El-Medina of the king's actions. No immediate reason was given to show what caused Siptah to turn against \"the great enemy Bay,\" as the ostracon states. The recto of the document reads thus:  This date accords well with Bay's last known public appearance in Year 4 of Siptah. The ostracon's information was essentially a royal order for the workmen to stop all further work on Bay's tomb since the latter had now been deemed a traitor to the state.  Meanwhile, Egyptian territories in Canaan seem to have become effectively independent under the overlordship of a man called Irsu. Papyrus Harris I, the main source on these events, seems to claim that Irsu and Twosret had allied themselves, leaving Irsu free to plunder and neglect the land.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End of Twosret's reign.", "content": "Twosret's reign ended in a civil war, which is documented in the Elephantine stela of her successor Setnakhte, who became the founder of the Twentieth dynasty. It is not known if she was overthrown by Setnakhte or whether she died peacefully in her own reign; if the latter is the case, then a struggle may have ensued among various factions at court for the throne in which Setnakhte emerged victorious. However, Setnakhte and his son Ramesses III described the late 19th dynasty as a time of chaos. Setnakhte usurped the joint KV14 tomb of Seti II and Twosret but reburied Seti II in tomb KV15, while deliberately replastering and redrawing all images of Twosret in tomb KV14 with those of himself. Setnakhte's decisions here may demonstrate his dislike and presumably hatred for Twosret since he chose to reinter Seti II but not Twosret.  Setnakhte's son, Ramesses III, later excluded Twosret and even Siptah of the 19th dynasty from his Medinet Habu list of Egyptian kings thereby delegitimizing them in the eyes of the citizenry. It appears more likely that Setnakhte overthrew Twosret from power in a civil war.  Twosret's highest known date is a Year 8 II Shemu day 29 hieratic inscription found on one of the foundation blocks (FB 2) of her mortuary temple at Gournah in 2011 by the University of Arizona Egyptian Expedition. Since this was only a foundation inscription and Twosret's temple, although never finished as planned, was at least partially completed, it is logical to assume that some time must have passed before her downfall and the termination of work on her temple project. Richard Wilkinson stressed that Twosret's mortuary temple was \"largely structurally completed,\" although bearing minimal decoration; therefore, she would have ruled for several more months beyond II Shemu 29 of her 8th Year for her temple to reach completion. Further study by Pearce Paul Creasman has concluded that the temple was \"functionally complete.\" She could, hence, have possibly ruled for 6 to 20 more months after the inscription date to achieve these levels of completion, thus starting her 9th regnal year around the interval of IV Akhet/I Peret—when her husband died (since she assumed Siptah's reign as her own) or perhaps longer—before Setnakhte's rule began. Or she could have had a nearly full 9th year reign, including the 6-year reign of Siptah.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monuments and inscriptions.", "content": "It is believed that expeditions were conducted during her reign to the turquoise mines in Sinai and in Palestine and statues have been found of her at Heliopolis and Thebes. Her name is also found at Abydos, Hermopolis, Memphis, and in Nubia.  Inscriptions with Twosret's name appear in several locations:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tomb.", "content": "Twosret's KV14 tomb in the Valley of the Kings has a complicated history; it was started in the reign of Seti II. Scenes show Tawosret accompanying Siptah, but Siptah's name had later been replaced by that of Seti II. The tomb was then usurped by Setnakht, and extended to become the deepest royal tomb in the valley while Tawosret's sarcophagus was reused by Amenherkhepeshef in KV13. Altenmuller believes that Seti II was buried in one of the rooms in KV14 and later reburied in KV15. Others question this scenario.  A mummy found in KV35 and known as Unknown Woman D has been identified by some scholars as possibly belonging to Twosret, but there is no other evidence for this other than the correct Nineteenth Dynasty period of mummification.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Twosret (\"Tawosret, Tausret\", d. 1189 BC conventional chronology) was the last known ruler and the final Pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974137}
{"src_title": "Fiat Seicento", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "EuroNCAP performance.", "content": "In EuroNCAP crash tests, the Fiat Seicento was only awarded a 1.5 star rating, and fractionally beat the worst contenders in the history of EuroNCAP, namely the Rover 100 (a restyled Rover Metro, in turn directly based on the Austin Metro) and the original Chrysler Voyager MPV.  This is not so surprising, as the car has an extremely short front end and keeps many components from its predecessor, originally conceived in the end of 1991. In comparison, another small car, the Smart Fortwo (which has a shorter front end), earned three stars in the crash test. These cars started production in 1997, and are not designed for EuroNCAP tests, which commenced in 1997.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trims/Equipment.", "content": "At launch, the Seicento was available with three trim levels; a basic 'S' with black bumpers and spartan equipment and initially the 899 cc FIAT 100 series engine; the 'SX', which was a slight upgrade over the 'S' and included colour coded bumpers, electric windows, central locking and a sunroof. The 'SX' was also available as a 'Citymatic' which features clutchless manual gearchange, and a 'Sporting' with the larger FIAT FIRE series 1,108 cc engine, lower suspension and anti roll bars added.  Cosmetically, this version gained 13\" alloy wheels and sports seats. An Abarth styling kit was also available consisting of a body kit with optional Abarth 14\" wheels. A close ratio gearbox, sill kick plates, embroidered headrests, leather gear lever and steering wheel, colour highlighted trim in the bumpers, side skirts and a spoiler also available.  Both the 'Sporting' and the Abarths were available with ABS, air conditioning and power steering, but due to cost, not very many owners took up the options.  In 1999, the FIRE engine was used in the special 'Suite' version, which came with air conditioning. A special edition called the 'Soleil' was available in some markets, which was based on the 'SX' model, but came with a full length electrically folding fabric roof.  In October 2000, after the update, all cars were given clear indicator lenses, with the Sporting model getting a restyled bodykit. Power steering was still optional on lower end Seicentos.  A 'Michael Schumacher' edition of the Sporting, with ABS and the Abarth styling kit, was also launched at this time to celebrate the Ferrari driver's Formula One success. This model was almost identical to the 'Sporting' with the Abarth kit with the exception of a chrome gear lever surrounds and Michael's signature on the boot lid and side skirt. A limited edition plate and number was located on the passenger door.  The model was officially withdrawn from the market in the United Kingdom in 2004, and production of right hand drive models ceased, following the arrival of the new and more practical Panda. The left hand drive model was facelifted, gaining a new design for the wheels, and the introduction of the new Fiat logo to the rear.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fiat 600.", "content": "In 2005, the name \"Seicento\" was replaced by \"600\" (in celebration of the 50th anniversary of the first edition, in 1955) together with some changes to the front fascia and in the interior with the name Fiat now written on the seats. The new versions now are named \"Class\" and \"50th Anniversary\", denoting the strict relationship between this model and the previous one.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Engines.", "content": "The Seicento was available with two engines: the old 899 cc Overhead valve engine used in early base S and SX models (which was removed from West European markets due to emissions regulations), and the 1,108 cc FIRE and used in the Sporting version since launch). Both used single point injection.  The latter was fitted universally with multi point fuel injection from 2001, replacing the old 899 cc unit due to the tightening emission regulations. There was also a version with an electric engine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Elettra.", "content": "Until 2005, Fiat also produced a battery-electric version of the Seicento called the Seicento Elettra. Originally produced in serial quantities in Italy from 1996 to 1998, production moved to Poland for the remaining years where it was built to order. The Seicento Elettra featured a 30 kW three-phase asynchronous electric motor powered by eighteen 12V lead-acid batteries in the engine bay and beneath the rear seats.  The Seicento Elettra's top speed was and its range was.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tuning.", "content": "German tuner Novitec created a special edition of the Fiat Seicento, adding a turbocharger and six speed gearbox to the little car. The German tuner is able to extract from the 1,108 cc FIRE engine. Other tuners include the venerable Giannini company, who produced an aggressive bodykit and also considered installing a 1.6 litre engine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Future replacement.", "content": "The car ceased production in 2010. Although no direct replacement was announced, much of the market territory it once occupied had already been filled by the new Fiat Panda (2003) and the 500 (2007), as well as the budget model Fiat Palio.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fiat Seicento (Type 187) was a city car produced by the Italian company Fiat, introduced at the end of 1997 as a replacement for the Fiat Cinquecento, although it was also based on the Cinquecento. The Seicento did not differ much from its predecessor, retaining the same engines, chassis and general dimensions, although it did gain a minor 90 mm in length (total length of 3,340 mm).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974138}
{"src_title": "Cerro Torre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First ascent.", "content": "Cesare Maestri claimed in 1959 that he and Toni Egger had reached the summit and that Egger had been swept to his death by an avalanche while they were descending. Maestri declared that Egger had the camera with the pictures of the summit, but this camera was never found. Inconsistencies in Maestri's account, and the lack of bolts, pitons or fixed ropes on the route, have led most mountaineers to doubt Maestri's claim. In 2005, Ermanno Salvaterra, Rolando Garibotti and Alessandro Beltrami, after many attempts by world-class alpinists, put up a confirmed route on the face that Maestri claimed to have climbed. They did not find any evidence of previous climbing on the route described by Maestri and found the route significantly different from Maestri's description. In 2015, Rolando Garibotti published evidence that the information provided by Maestri does not agree with respect to the alleged summit ascent. Instead, he and Egger were on the western flank of Perfil de Indio.  Maestri went back to Cerro Torre in 1970 with Ezio Alimonta, Daniele Angeli, Claudio Baldessarri, Carlo Claus and Pietro Vidi, trying a new route on the southeast face. With the aid of a gas-powered compressor drill, Maestri equipped of rock with bolts and got to the end of the rocky part of the mountain, just below the ice mushroom. Maestri claimed that \"the mushroom is not part of the mountain\" and did not continue to the summit. The compressor was left, tied to the last bolts, below the top. Maestri was heavily criticized for the \"unfair\" methods he used to climb the mountain.  The route Maestri followed is now known as the \"Compressor route\" and was climbed to the summit in 1979 by Jim Bridwell and Steve Brewer. Most parties consider the ascent complete only if they summit the often-difficult ice-rime mushroom.  The first undisputed ascent was made in 1974 by the \"Ragni di Lecco\" climbers Daniele Chiappa, Mario Conti, Casimiro Ferrari, and Pino Negri. The controversies regarding Maestri's claims are the focus of the 2014 book on Cerre Torre, \"The Tower\", by Kelly Cordes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subsequent ascents.", "content": "In 1977, the first Alpine style ascent was completed by Dave Carman, John Bragg and Jay Wilson (USA). They took a week to summit Cerro Torre, which had taken the Italian group two months to summit. In 1980, Bill Denz (New Zealand) attempted the first solo of the Compressor Route. Over a five-month period, he made 13 concerted attempts but was driven back by storms on every occasion. On his last attempt, in November 1980, he got to within of the summit.  In January 2008, Rolando Garibotti and Colin Haley made the first complete traverse of the entire massif, climbing Aguja Standhardt, Punta Herron, Torre Egger and Cerro Torre together. They rate their route at Grade VI 5.11 A1 WI6 Mushroom Ice 6, with total vertical gain. This had been \"one of the world's most iconic, unclimbed lines\", first attempted by Ermanno Salvaterra.  In 2010, Austrian climber David Lama was held responsible for around 30 new bolts and hundreds of meters of fixed rope added to the Compressor Route on the mountain (due to bad weather conditions, much of the gear was left on the mountain and later removed by local climbers). Although the bolts were drilled by Austrian guide Markus Pucher, and not by Lama himself, it was done as part of his trip sponsored by Red Bull, and many climbers regard Lama and Red Bull as responsible. Many of the bolts were drilled next to cracks, which are usually used by climbers for protection on the route. This has caused a large controversy in certain climbers' circles, as his actions are unethical according to climbing purists. Although Lama was not aware of the sheer number of bolts that were drilled, he took full responsibility for the actions. In the upcoming years, he publicly regretted what happened.  On 16 January 2012, American Hayden Kennedy and Canadian Jason Kruk made the first \"fair-means\" (a term used to describe a reasonable use of bolts for safety and aesthetics, \"a long-accepted practice in [the Patagonian] mountain range\") ascent of the Southeast Ridge, near the controversial Compressor Route, using only two of Maestri's original belay anchors on the headwall. After summiting, Kennedy and Kruk removed 125 of the bolt-ladder bolts during their descent. Colin Haley, who watched the ascent from Norwegos, estimated the climb took them thirteen hours from their bivy on the shoulder to the summit. \"The speed with which they navigated virgin ground on the upper headwall is certainly testament to Hayden's great skills on rock\", Haley reported. There has been much discussion concerning the removal of bolts from the compressor route by Kennedy and Kruk. However, the consensus amongst the climbing community is that of agreement for removing the bolts and it has embraced their actions as having \"restored Cerro Torre's southeast ridge to the realm of genuine adventure\".  In contrast to David Lama's free ascent (also \"fair-means\"; January 2012, together with Peter Ortner), Kennedy and Kruk used bolts (although not Maestri's) during their ascent. Lama estimated the difficulties of his free ascent (which followed a new line circumventing the bolt traverse and in the upper headwall) as grade X- (hard 8a but mentally highly demanding; e.g., climbing on loose flakes, long runouts). Lama stated that a free repetition of the original Compressor Route is virtually impossible (in particular as the rock of the last pitches comprise no climbable features).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Cerro Torre was featured in the 1991 film \"Scream of Stone\", directed by Werner Herzog and starring Vittorio Mezzogiorno, Hans Kammerlander, and Donald Sutherland.  Jon Krakauer, aside from the detailed recounting of the climb of the mountain in his book \"Eiger Dreams\", mentions it briefly in \"Into Thin Air\" as one of his earlier difficult ascents (1992): \"I'd scaled a frightening, mile-high spike of vertical and overhanging granite called Cerro Torre; buffeted by hundred-knot winds, plastered with frangible atmospheric rime, it was once (though no longer) thought to be the world's hardest mountain\".  In March 2014, an adventure documentary was released following the \"first ever free ascent\" of Cerro Torre, featuring David Lama. \"Cerro Torre - A Snowball's Chance in Hell\" premiered at San Sebastián International Film Festival in September 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cerro Torre is one of the mountains of the Southern Patagonian Ice Field in South America. It is located in a region which is disputed between Argentina and Chile, west of Fitz Roy (also known as Cerro Chaltén). The peak is the highest of a four mountain chain: the other peaks are Torre Egger (), Punta Herron, and Cerro Standhardt. The top of the mountain often has a mushroom of rime ice, formed by the constant strong winds, increasing the difficulty of reaching the actual summit.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974139}
{"src_title": "Roger I of Sicily", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Conquest of Calabria and Sicily.", "content": "Roger was the youngest son of Tancred of Hauteville by his second wife Fredisenda. Roger arrived in Southern Italy in the summer of 1057. The Benedictine monk, Goffredo Malaterra, who compares Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger to \"Joseph and Benjamin of old,\" said of Roger: In 1057 he shared the conquest of nearly all of Calabria excepting Reggio with his brother Robert. For a time Roger lived like a bandit in his castle of Scalea, near Cosenza. In a treaty of 1062, the brothers divided the conquest so that each was to have half of every castle and town in Calabria. It was about this same time that Roger married Judith d'Évreux.  Roger had first thought of conquering Sicily when he and his brother conquered Calabria. At the time, it was ruled by Muslims and the population were mostly Byzantine Greek Christians. The Arab princes had become all but independent of the sultan of Tunis. In May 1061 the brothers crossed from Reggio and captured Messina. In June 1063, Roger defeated a Muslim army at the Battle of Cerami. After they took Palermo in January 1072, Robert Guiscard, as suzerain, invested Roger as Count of Sicily. Robert retained Palermo, half of Messina, and the north-east portion (the Val Demone). Not till 1085 was Roger able to undertake a systematic conquest.  In March 1086 Syracuse surrendered, and when in February 1091 Noto yielded, the conquest of Sicily was complete. Much of Robert's success had been due to Roger's support. Similarly, when the leadership of the Hautevilles passed to Roger, he supported his nephew Duke Roger against Bohemund I of Antioch, Lando IV of Capua, and other rebels. In return for his uncle's aid against Bohemund and the rebels, the duke Roger surrendered his share in the castles of Calabria to his uncle in 1085, and in 1091 his inheritance in Palermo.  Roger's rule in Sicily became more absolute than that of Robert Guiscard's in Italy. In addition, due to immigration by Lombards and Normans, Latin Christianity gradually replaced that of the Greek Byzantine tradition. At the enfeoffments of 1072 and 1092, no great undivided fiefs were created. The mixed Norman, French and Italian vassals all owed their benefices to the count. No feudal revolt of importance arose against Roger.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conquest of Malta.", "content": "In 1091 Roger, in order to avoid an attack from North Africa, set sail with a fleet to conquer Malta. His ship reached the island before the rest. On landing, the few defenders the Normans encountered retreated and the following day Roger marched to the capital Mdina. Terms were discussed with the local \"qadi\". It was agreed that the islands would become tributaries of the count himself and that the \"qadi\" should continue to administer the islands. With the treaty many Greek and other Christian prisoners were released, who chanted to Roger the \"Kyrie eleison\". He left the islands with many who wished to join him and so many were on his ship that it nearly sank, according to Geoffrey Malaterra. The invasion was romanticized in later centuries, and legends arose that the Count gave the Maltese their red and white flag by cutting a part of his banner. Mass is said once a year in remembrance of the Count at the Cathedral of Mdina, as a recognition for the Count's role in liberating Maltese Christians from Muslim dominance and rule.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rule of Sicily.", "content": "Politically supreme, the count also became master of the insular church. The Papacy, favouring a prince who had recovered Sicily from Greeks and Muslims, in 1098 granted Roger and his heirs the Apostolic Legateship of the island. Roger created new Latin bishoprics at Syracuse, Girgenti and elsewhere, nominating the bishops personally, while he turned the archbishopric of Palermo into a Catholic see. Of these bishops and other important clergy positions, a minority were French, and of those even fewer were Norman. Of the five new sees he founded, one bishop was Norman and three others were from other parts of France. He practiced general toleration towards Arabs and Greeks, even sponsoring the construction of over twelve Greek monasteries in the Val Demone region. In the cities, the Muslims, who had generally secured such rights in their terms of surrender, retained their mosques, their qadis, and freedom of trade; in the country, however, they became serfs. Roger drew the mass of his infantry from the Muslims; Saint Anselm, visiting him at the siege of Capua, 1098, found \"the brown tents of the Arabs innumerable\". Nevertheless, the Latin element began to prevail, as Lombards and other Italians flocked to the island in the wake of the conquest, and the conquest of Sicily proved decisive in the steady decline of Muslim power in the western Mediterranean from this time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and succession.", "content": "Roger I died on 22 of June 1101 in Mileto and was buried at the Benedictine Abbey of the Holy Trinity. The abbey was destroyed in the earthquake of 1783. Its ruins are currently located in the Mileto Antica archaeological park.  Upon Roger's death, his son, Simon of Hauteville, became the Count of Sicily, with his mother, Adelaide del Vasto, acting as his regent. On 28 September 1105, at the age of 12, Simon died, and the title of count passed to his younger brother, Roger II of Sicily, with Adelaide continuing on as regent, being the mother of Roger II as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Roger's eldest son, Jordan, predeceased him. Roger's second son, Geoffrey, possibly illegitimate, was a leper with no chance of inheriting.  Roger's first marriage took place in 1062, to Judith d'Évreux. She died in 1076, leaving daughters:  In 1077, Roger married a second time, to Eremburga of Mortain, and their children were:  Roger's last wife was Adelaide del Vasto, a sister of aforementioned Henry. They married in 1087. Roger and Adelaide's children were:  Roger's other daughter called Matilda married Guigues III, Count of Albon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roger I ( – 22 June 1101), nicknamed Roger Bosso and The Great Count, was a Norman nobleman who became the first Count of Sicily from 1071 to 1101. He was a member of the House of Hauteville, and his descendants in the male line continued to rule Sicily down to 1194.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974140}
{"src_title": "Freddie Hubbard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career beginnings.", "content": "Hubbard started playing the mellophone and trumpet in his school band at Arsenal Technical High School in Indianapolis, Indiana. Trumpeter Lee Katzman, former sideman with Stan Kenton, recommended that he begin studying at the Arthur Jordan Conservatory of Music (now the Jordan College of the Arts at Butler University) with Max Woodbury, the principal trumpeter of the Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra. In his teens, Hubbard worked locally with brothers Wes and Monk Montgomery and worked with bassist Larry Ridley and saxophonist James Spaulding. In 1958, at the age of 20, he moved to New York and began playing with some of the best jazz players of the era, including Philly Joe Jones, Sonny Rollins, Slide Hampton, Eric Dolphy, J. J. Johnson, and Quincy Jones. On 19 June 1960 Hubbard made his first record as a leader, \"Open Sesame\" at the beginning of his contract with Blue Note Records, with saxophonist Tina Brooks, pianist McCoy Tyner, bassist Sam Jones, and drummer Clifford Jarvis. Six days later he returned the favor to Brooks and recorded with him on \"True Blue\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1960s.", "content": "In December 1960, Hubbard was invited to play on Ornette Coleman's \"\" after Coleman had heard him performing with Don Cherry.  Then in May 1961, Hubbard played on \"Olé Coltrane\", John Coltrane's final recording session for Atlantic Records. Together with Eric Dolphy and Art Davis, Hubbard was the only sideman who appeared on both \"Olé\" and \"Africa/Brass\", Coltrane's first album with Impulse!. Later, in August 1961, Hubbard recorded \"Ready for Freddie\" (Blue Note), which was also his first collaboration with saxophonist Wayne Shorter. Hubbard joined Shorter later in 1961 when he replaced Lee Morgan in Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. He played on several Blakey recordings, including \"Caravan\", \"Ugetsu\", \"Mosaic\", and \"Free for All\". In all, during the 1960s, he recorded eight studio albums as a bandleader for Blue Note, and more than two dozen as a sideman. Hubbard remained with Blakey until 1966, leaving to form the first of several small groups of his own, which featured, among others, his Blue note associate James Spaulding, pianist Kenny Barron and drummer Louis Hayes. This group recorded for Atlantic.  It was during this time that he began to develop his own sound, distancing himself from the early influences of Clifford Brown and Morgan, and won the \"DownBeat\" jazz magazine \"New Star\" award on trumpet.  Throughout the 1960s Hubbard played as a sideman on some of the most important albums from that era, including Oliver Nelson's \"The Blues and the Abstract Truth\", Eric Dolphy's \"Out to Lunch!\", Herbie Hancock's \"Maiden Voyage\", and Wayne Shorter's \"Speak No Evil\". Hubbard was described as \"the most brilliant trumpeter of a generation of musicians who stand with one foot in 'tonal' jazz and the other in the atonal camp\". Though he never fully embraced the free jazz of the 1960s, he appeared on two of its landmark albums: Coleman's \"\" and Coltrane's \"Ascension\", as well as on Sonny Rollins' \"new thing\" track, \"East Broadway Run Down\" (on the 1966 album of the same name), with Elvin Jones and Jimmy Garrison.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1970s.", "content": "Hubbard achieved his greatest popular success in the 1970s with a series of albums for Creed Taylor and his record label CTI Records, overshadowing Stanley Turrentine, Hubert Laws, and George Benson. Although his early 1970s jazz albums \"Red Clay\", \"First Light\", \"Straight Life\", and \"Sky Dive\" were particularly well received and considered among his best work, the albums he recorded later in the decade were attacked by critics for their commercialism. \"First Light\" won a 1972 Grammy Award and included pianists Herbie Hancock and Richard Wyands, guitarists Eric Gale and George Benson, bassist Ron Carter, drummer Jack DeJohnette, and percussionist Airto Moreira. In 1994, Hubbard, collaborating with Chicago jazz vocalist/co-writer Catherine Whitney, had lyrics set to the music of \"First Light\".  In 1977 Hubbard joined with Herbie Hancock, Tony Williams, Ron Carter and Wayne Shorter, members of the mid-sixties Miles Davis Quintet, for a series of performances. Several live recordings of this group were released as \"V.S.O.P\", \"V.S.O.P. The Quintet\", \"V.S.O.P. Tempest in the Colosseum\" (all 1977) and \"V.S.O.P. Live Under the Sky\" (1979).  Hubbard's trumpet playing was featured on the track \"Zanzibar\", on the 1978 Billy Joel album \"52nd Street\" (the 1979 Grammy Award Winner for Best Album). The track ends with a fade during Hubbard's performance. An \"unfaded\" version was released on the 2004 Billy Joel box set \"My Lives\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In the 1980s Hubbard was again leading his own jazz group – this time with Billy Childs and Larry Klein, among others, as members – attracting favorable reviews, playing at concerts and festivals in the US and Europe, often in the company of Joe Henderson, playing a repertory of hard bop and modal jazz pieces. Hubbard played at the Monterey Jazz Festival in 1980 and in 1989 (with Bobby Hutcherson). He played with Woody Shaw, recording with him in 1985, and two years later recorded \"Stardust\" with Benny Golson. In 1988 he teamed up once more with Blakey at an engagement in the Netherlands, from which came \"Feel the Wind\". In 1988, Hubbard played with Elton John, contributing trumpet and flugelhorn and trumpet solos on the track \"Mona Lisas and Mad Hatters (Part Two)\" for John's \"Reg Strikes Back\" album. In 1990 he appeared in Japan headlining an American-Japanese concert package which also featured Elvin Jones, Sonny Fortune, pianists George Duke and Benny Green, bass players Ron Carter, and Rufus Reid, with jazz and vocalist Salena Jones. He also performed at the Warsaw Jazz Festival, at which \"Live at the Warsaw Jazz Festival\" (Jazzmen 1992) was recorded.  Following a long setback of health problems and a serious lip injury in 1992 where he ruptured his upper lip and subsequently developed an infection, Hubbard was again playing and recording occasionally, even if not at the high level that he set for himself during his earlier career. His best records ranked with the finest in his field.  On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Freddie Hubbard among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and honors.", "content": "In 2006, the National Endowment for the Arts accorded Hubbard its highest honor in jazz, the NEA Jazz Masters Award.  On December 29, 2008, Hubbard died in Sherman Oaks, California from complications caused by a heart attack he suffered on November 26.  Freddie Hubbard had close ties to the Jazz Foundation of America in his later years. He is quoted as saying, \"When I had congestive heart failure and couldn't work, The Jazz Foundation paid my mortgage for several months and saved my home! Thank God for those people.\" The Jazz Foundation of America's Musicians' Emergency Fund took care of him during times of illness. After his death, Hubbard's estate requested that tax-deductible donations be made in his name to the Jazz Foundation of America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As leader/co-leader.", "content": "\"Sortable table with last recording session for each release as primal order.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As sideman.", "content": "\"Sortable table with main artist alphabetically as primal order.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Frederick Dewayne Hubbard (April 7, 1938 – December 29, 2008) was an American jazz trumpeter. He played bebop, hard bop, and post-bop styles from the early 1960s onwards. His unmistakable and influential tone contributed to new perspectives for modern jazz and bebop.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974141}
{"src_title": "Trams in Saint Petersburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early days.", "content": "Saint Petersburg saw the arrival of street rail transport during the 1860s in form of horse-drawn rail carriages. The first, freight-only street railway track was opened in 1854 to serve one of the industrial city suburbs. In 1863, three passenger lines in the city centre came into operation. Several private companies were formed, and the horsecar network eventually expanded to 25 routes covering over 100 kilometres of track. Carrying over two million passengers a year, the street rail network in Saint Petersburg proved a successful commercial venture.  The first demonstration of an electric tram in Saint Petersburg occurred on August 22, 1880. Fyodor Pirotsky, an engineer who demonstrated the tram to the public, hoped that the \"Horsecar Stock Company\", which possessed a monopoly on all rail transportation in the city, would consider replacing traditional horse-drawn rail carriages with electric-powered ones. Despite the fact that all tests were successful, Pirotsky's proposal was dismissed on the grounds that equipping existing tram tracks for electric traction and purchasing or building compatible tram vehicles would be too expensive.  In the winter of 1894, electric tramways came back to Saint Petersburg. This time, however, they ran on tracks over ice (during winter season) covering the Neva river. An electric public transit company was formed, and several routes crossing the river in various places began regular operation. Even though the \"Horsecar Stock Company\" still possessed absolute rights on city street railways, and hence filed a lawsuit against the electric tram operators, it eventually lost the case because the judge claimed that the horsecar company's monopolizing agreement with the city did not cover laying tracks on ice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beginning of service.", "content": "On September 3, 1902, the contract between the city administration and the horsecar company expired and the entire horsecar street rail system, including track, carriages, horses, maintenance buildings and other equipment, became property of the city of Saint Petersburg - on the condition that the city would pay for the takeover over the period of 12 years. Immediately following this, Saint Petersburg began planning out the future electric tramway network, which was due to replace the ageing horsecar one. A number of issues had to be resolved; in particular, the narrow-gauge horsecar tracks were to be replaced by the heavy rail-grade ones; the network had to be electrified, and new depots suitable for electric trams had to be constructed. The project was delegated to the American Westinghouse Electric Corporation. On September 29, 1907, the electric tramway network opened in Saint Petersburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II and Soviet era.", "content": "During 1918–1921 development of the Petrograd tram network stalled due to the Civil War. In 1921 the tram deal was eventually improved and new lines were constructed. In 1922 the last line was electrified and tram movement was re-established in the old city center. The tram network then further developed as the first automated needles appeared, three tram parks and a few substations were built. Among the passenger lines, the city had cargo and service tram lines; every big company had its branch from the main tram lines. However, from 1936, the development of Leningrad trams practically stopped due the introduction of the trolleybus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Soviet Era.", "content": "Following the demise of the Soviet Union, the public transportation in Saint Petersburg has been continuously underfunded, resulting in poor maintenance and an unreliable service. A lot of existing tramway track has been demolished, and this trend continues up until today, which upsets both passengers and public transit enthusiasts. There are currently no officially proclaimed plans to abandon the network completely, although mass track removals, which started in 2000, still continue.  On the other hand, two new branch lines were opened in 1999 to connect recent residential developments in the northwest (Dolgoe Ozero, Komendantsky Aerodrom, Lakhtinsky Razliv) to the newly opened Staraya Derevnya station on the Saint Petersburg Metro. Following a change in 'Gorelectrotrans' management in September 2005, more than 20 additional km of unduplicated track was removed, including not only centrally located lines, but also a 3 km section in a suburban residential area. This removal seriously affected the system's logistical capabilities. There is a strong lobby for more removals from the road construction administration, which believes that decreasing tram traffic will give more freedom to automobile traffic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Current operations.", "content": ", 41 tramway routes currently operate in Saint Petersburg. About one third of the tracks are operated with frequencies of 10 minutes and lower. Other sections are operated with frequencies of up to 30 minutes. The remaining lines through the city center have been more or less abandoned, carrying no passengers. Also, the fleet is still decreasing in size; by the autumn of 2006 there were about 950 cars, operating from 5 depots, most of which were the older four-axle type. About half the fleet is out-of-date, with new cars limited to 30 each year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "Most of the tramway vehicles currently in use on the network were built locally by the PTMF, which was affiliated with the tramway system. Tram vehicles of the following series are currently in operation:  Former tram models include the \"LM-33 (ЛМ-33)\", \"LM-47 (ЛМ-47)\", and \"LM-57 (ЛМ-57)\". The \"KTM-5M3\" series, which was produced in the town of Ust-Katav in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, was used in Saint Petersburg until 18 September 2007.  PTMF is no longer in business. As a result, the system has since acquired some batches of cars from other builders to determine what will be best for fleet replacement in an ongoing basis.  Between in 1907 and late 1960s, the Saint Petersburg tramway network operated British-built Brush tram engines. Several cars of this series, as well as other model types built by PTMF but no longer in operation, are kept in working condition in a museum; all types of cars that ever operated in Saint Petersburg were demonstrated during a parade in 1997, on the occasion of the 90th anniversary of the tramway network. In 2006, a tram route number 0 was operated with museumcars by Retro Tram. The historical rolling stock was stored in the former Depot No. 2 on Vasilyevsky island; however, this depot was closed for passenger services on January, 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today in the museum.", "content": "Museum offers the exhibition of the retro-transport to visit. Anyone can rent tramway or trolleybus by contacting the partner-company Event-TRAM.ru. They offer organized excursions and private events in different languages.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Trams in Saint Petersburg are a major mode of public transit in the city of Saint Petersburg, Russia. Saint Petersburg once had the second-largest tram network in the world, consisting of about of unduplicated track in the late 1980s. However, since 1995 the tramway network has declined sharply in size as major portions of track were removed, particularly in the city centre. Saint Petersburg lost its record to Melbourne, Australia. While it still had of length in 2002, by early 2007 the tram network's had declined to just over, and by the 2010s operated on just of network.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974142}
{"src_title": "André Derain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Derain was born in 1880 in Chatou, Yvelines, Île-de-France, just outside Paris. In 1895 he began to study on his own, contrary to claims that meeting Vlaminck or Matisse began his efforts to paint, and occasionally went to the countryside with an old friend of Cézanne's, Father Jacomin along with his two sons. In 1898, while studying to be an engineer at the Académie Camillo, he attended painting classes under Eugène Carrière, and there met Matisse. In 1900, he met and shared a studio with Maurice de Vlaminck and together they began to paint scenes in the neighbourhood, but this was interrupted by military service at Commercy from September 1901 to 1904. Following his release from service, Matisse persuaded Derain's parents to allow him to abandon his engineering career and devote himself solely to painting; subsequently Derain attended the Académie Julian.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fauvism.", "content": "Derain and Matisse worked together through the summer of 1905 in the Mediterranean village of Collioure and later that year displayed their highly innovative paintings at the Salon d'Automne. The vivid, unnatural colors led the critic Louis Vauxcelles to derisively dub their works as \"les Fauves\", or \"the wild beasts\", marking the start of the Fauvist movement. In March 1906, the noted art dealer Ambroise Vollard sent Derain to London to produce a series of paintings with the city as subject. In 30 paintings (29 of which are still extant), Derain presented a portrait of London that was radically different from anything done by previous painters of the city such as Whistler or Monet. With bold colors and compositions, Derain painted multiple pictures of the Thames and Tower Bridge. These London paintings remain among his most popular work. Art critic T. G Rosenthal: \"Not since Monet has anyone made London seem so fresh and yet remain quintessentially English. Some of his views of the Thames use the Pointillist technique of multiple dots, although by this time, because the dots have become much larger, it is rather more simply the separation of colours called Divisionism and it is peculiarly effective in conveying the fragmentation of colour in moving water in sunlight.\"  In 1907 art dealer Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler purchased Derain's entire studio, granting Derain financial stability. He experimented with stone sculpture and moved to Montmartre to be near his friend Pablo Picasso and other noted artists. Fernande Olivier, Picasso's mistress at the time, described Derain as: Slim, elegant, with a lively colour and enamelled black hair. With an English chic, somewhat striking. Fancy waistcoats, ties in crude colours, red and green. Always a pipe in his mouth, phlegmatic, mocking, cold, an arguer.  At Montmartre, Derain began to shift from the brilliant Fauvist palette to more muted tones, showing the influence of Cubism and Paul Cézanne. (According to Gertrude Stein, there is a tradition that Derain discovered and was influenced by African sculpture before the Cubists did.) Derain supplied woodcuts in primitivist style for an edition of Guillaume Apollinaire's first book of prose, \"L'enchanteur pourrissant\" (1909). He displayed works at the Neue Künstlervereinigung in Munich in 1910, in 1912 at the secessionist Der Blaue Reiter and in 1913 at the seminal Armory Show in New York. He also illustrated a collection of poems by Max Jacob in 1912.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Towards a new classicism.", "content": "At about this time Derain's work began overtly reflecting his study of the Old Masters. The role of color was reduced and forms became austere; the years 1911–1914 are sometimes referred to as his gothic period. In 1914 he was mobilized for military service in World War I and until his release in 1919 he would have little time for painting, although in 1916 he provided a set of illustrations for André Breton's first book, \"Mont de Piete\".  After the war, Derain won new acclaim as a leader of the renewed classicism then ascendant. With the wildness of his Fauve years far behind, he was admired as an upholder of tradition. In 1919 he designed the ballet \"La Boutique fantasque\" for Diaghilev, leader of the Ballets Russes. A major success, it would lead to his creating many ballet designs.  The 1920s marked the height of his success, as he was awarded the Carnegie Prize in 1928 for his \"Still-life with Dead Game\" and began to exhibit extensively abroad—in London, Berlin, Frankfurt, Düsseldorf, New York City and Cincinnati, Ohio.  During the German occupation of France in World War II, Derain lived primarily in Paris and was much courted by the Germans because he represented the prestige of French culture. Derain accepted an invitation to make an official visit to Germany in 1941, and traveled with other French artists to Berlin to attend a Nazi exhibition of an officially endorsed artist, Arno Breker. Derain's presence in Germany was used effectively by Nazi propaganda, and after the Liberation he was branded a collaborator and ostracized by many former supporters.  A year before his death, he contracted an eye infection from which he never fully recovered. He died in Garches, Hauts-de-Seine, Île-de-France, France in 1954 when he was struck by a moving vehicle.  Derain's London paintings were the subject of a major exhibition at the Courtauld Institute from 27 October 2005 to 22 January 2006.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public collections.", "content": "Among the public collections holding works by André Derain are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "André Derain (, ; 10 June 1880 – 8 September 1954) was a French artist, painter, sculptor and co-founder of Fauvism with Henri Matisse.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974143}
{"src_title": "Margery Allingham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Childhood and schooling.", "content": "Margery Louise Allingham was born on 20 May 1904 in Ealing, London, the eldest daughter of Herbert John (1868-1936) and Emmie Allingham, née Emily Jane Hughes (1879-1960). She had a younger brother Philip William, and a younger sister Emily Joyce Allingham. Her family was immersed in literature, her parents were both writers. Her father was editor of the \"Christian Globe\" and \"The New London Journal\", to which Margery later contributed articles and Sexton Blake stories, and he had become a successful pulp fiction writer, and her mother, as Emmie Allingham was a contributor of stories to women's magazines. Soon after Margery's birth the family left London for Essex, where they lived in an old house in Layer Breton, a village near Colchester. She attended a local school and then the Perse School for Girls in Cambridge, all the while writing stories and plays. She earned her first fee at the age of eight, for a story printed in her aunt's magazine.  Upon returning to London in 1920 she studied drama and speech training at Regent Street Polytechnic, which cured a stammer from which she had suffered since childhood. At this time she first met her future husband, Philip Youngman Carter, whom she married in 1927. He collaborated with her and designed the jackets for many of her books. They lived on the edge of the Essex Marshes in Tolleshunt D'Arcy, near Maldon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early writings.", "content": "While she was enrolled at the Regent Street Polytechnic she wrote a verse play, \"Dido and Aeneas\", which was performed at St George's Hall and the Cripplegate Theatre. Allingham played the role of Dido and the scenery was designed by Philip Youngman Carter. Her first novel, \"Blackkerchief Dick\", was published in 1923, when she was 19. It was allegedly based on a story she had heard during a séance, though later in life this was debunked by her husband. Nevertheless, Allingham continued to include occult themes in many of her novels. \"Blackkerchief Dick\" was well received, but was not a financial success. She wrote several plays in this period and attempted to write a serious novel, but finding that her themes clashed with her natural light-heartedness, she decided instead to try the mystery genre.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Campion and success.", "content": "Her breakthrough occurred in 1929 with the publication of \"The Crime at Black Dudley\". This introduced Albert Campion, initially as a minor character, thought to be a parody of Dorothy Sayers’s Lord Peter Wimsey. Campion returned in \"Mystery Mile\", thanks in part to pressure from her American publishers, who had been taken with the character.  With a strong central character and a format to work in, she began to produce a series of Campion novels. At first she also continued writing short stories and articles for magazines such as \"The Strand Magazine\", but as her Campion saga went on her sales grew steadily. Campion proved so successful that Allingham made him the centrepiece of another 17 novels and more than 20 short stories, continuing into the 1960s.  Campion is a mysterious upper-class character (early novels hint that his family is in the line of succession to the throne), working under an assumed name. He floats between the upper echelons of the nobility and government on the one hand, and the shady world of the criminal class on the other, often accompanied by his scurrilous ex-burglar servant Magersfontein Lugg. During the course of his career Campion is sometimes a detective, sometimes an adventurer.  The first three Campion novels, \"The Crime at Black Dudley\", \"Mystery Mile\" and \"Look to the Lady\", were all written by what Allingham referred to as the \"plum pudding\" method, focused less on methods of murder or the formal strictures of the whodunit and more on mixing possibilities together. As the series progresses, however, Campion comes to work more closely with the police and MI6 counter-intelligence. He also falls in love, gets married and has a child, and as time goes by he grows in wisdom and matures emotionally.  The style and format of the books moved on: while the early novels are light-hearted whodunnits or \"fantastical\" adventures, \"The Tiger in the Smoke\" (1952) is more a character study than a crime novel, focusing on the serial killer Jack Havoc. In many of the later books Campion plays a subsidiary role, no more prominent than the roles of his wife Amanda and his police associates, and in the last novel he is a minor character.  In 1941 Allingham published a non-fiction work, \"The Oaken Heart\", which describes her experiences in Essex when an invasion from Germany was expected and actively being planned for, potentially placing the civilian population of Essex in the front line.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Allingham suffered from breast cancer and died at Severalls Hospital, Colchester, England, on 30 June 1966, aged 62. Her final Campion novel, \"Cargo of Eagles\", was completed by her husband at her request, and was published in 1968.  Compilations of her work, both with and without Albert Campion, continued to be released through the 1970s. The \"Margery Allingham Omnibus\", comprising \"Sweet Danger\", \"The Case of the Late Pig\" and \"The Tiger in the Smoke\", with a critical introduction by Jane Stevenson, was published in 2006.  Allingham was buried in the newer cemetery in Tolleshunt D'Arcy, which is across the road from the graveyard of St Nicholas's Church and about half a mile to the south.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "A film version of \"Tiger in the Smoke\" was made in 1956 and a highly popular series of Campion adaptations, now available on DVD, was shown by the BBC in 1989–90. It is titled simply \"Campion\" and stars Peter Davison as Campion and Brian Glover as Lugg.  Several books have been written about Allingham and her work, including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Margery Louise Allingham (20 May 1904 – 30 June 1966) was an English novelist from the \"Golden Age of Detective Fiction\", best remembered for her hero, the gentleman sleuth Albert Campion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974144}
{"src_title": "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The event can be dated to 31 January 1632: the Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons, of which Tulp was official City Anatomist, permitted only one public dissection a year, and the body would have to be that of an executed criminal.  Anatomy lessons were a social event in the 17th century, taking place in lecture rooms that were actual theatres, with students, colleagues and the general public being permitted to attend on payment of an entrance fee. The spectators are appropriately dressed for this social occasion. It is thought that the uppermost (not holding the paper) and farthest left figures were added to the picture later.  Every five to ten years, the Surgeon's Guild would commission a portrait by a leading portraitist of the period; Rembrandt was commissioned for this task when he was 26 years old, and newly arrived in Amsterdam. It was his first major commission in Amsterdam. Each of the men included in the portrait would have paid a certain amount of money to be included in the work, and the more central figures (in this case, Dr. Tulp) probably paid more, even twice as much. Rembrandt's anatomical portrait radically altered the conventions of the genre, by including a full length corpse in the center of the image (using Christ-like iconography) and creating not just a portrait but a dramatic \"mise-en-scène\". Rembrandt's image is a fiction; in a typical anatomy lesson, the surgeon would begin by opening the chest cavity and thorax because the internal organs there decay most rapidly.  One person is missing: the Preparator, whose task was to prepare the body for the lesson. In the 17th century an important scientist such as Dr. Tulp would not be involved in menial and bloody work like dissection, and such tasks would be left to others. It is for this reason that the picture shows no cutting instruments. Instead we see in the lower right corner an enormous open textbook on anatomy, possibly the 1543 \"De humani corporis fabrica\" (\"Fabric of the Human Body\") by Andreas Vesalius.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The corpse.", "content": "The corpse is that of the criminal Aris Kindt (alias of Adriaan Adriaanszoon), who was convicted for armed robbery and sentenced to death by hanging. He was executed earlier on the same day of the scene. The face of the corpse is partially shaded, a suggestion of \"umbra mortis\" (shadow of death), a technique that Rembrandt was to use frequently. The French art historian Jean-Marie Clarke points out that the navel of the corpse has the shape of a capital R and connects this observation to the fact that Rembrandt worked intensively on his signatures in 1632, using three types consecutively before settling on the final, first name form in 1633.  Kindt was discussed in the 1999 novel \"The Rings of Saturn\" by W. G. Sebald, and plays a significant role in Laird Hunt's 2006 novel \"The Exquisite\". In her 2014 novel \"The Anatomy Lesson\", author and journalist Nina Siegal tells the life story of Aris Kindt, based on documents about his criminal history that she discovered in the Amsterdam city archives.  Medical specialists have commented on the accuracy of muscles and tendons painted by the 26-year-old Rembrandt. It is not known where he obtained such knowledge; it is possible that he copied the details from an anatomical textbook. However, in 2006 Dutch researchers recreated the scene with a male cadaver, revealing several discrepancies of the exposed left forearm compared to that of a real corpse. The surgically astute will notice that the origin of the exposed forearm muscles would seem to indicate that the flexor compartment originates at the lateral epicondyle, when it is, in fact, the medial epicondyle. It is the common extensor origin that originates at the lateral epicondyle.  In a 2007 study, the American artist and anatomist David J. Jackowe and his colleagues demonstrated that the mysterious white cord that courses along the ulnar aspect of the cadaver's carpus and little finger, long thought to be either an ulnar nerve variant or artistic error, is most likely the tendon of an anomalous forearm muscle, the accessory abductor digiti minimi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related works.", "content": "\"The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deijman\", painted by Rembrandt in 1656, was intended to be displayed in the Anatomical Hall in Amsterdam alongside \"The anatomy lesson of Tulp\". Deijman was Tulp's immediate successor in the post of \"praelector chirugic et anatomie\". The painting was damaged by fire in 1723, and only a central fragment survives.  Around 1856 Édouard Manet visited The Hague and made a small oil on panel copy of \"The Anatomy Lesson\". Broadly painted in a limited palette, Manet gave the painting to his physician, Dr. Siredey.  A less detailed copy of \"The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp\" by an unknown artist hangs in Edinburgh as part of The University of Edinburgh Fine Art Collection.  \"The Gross Clinic\" of 1875 and \"The Agnew Clinic\" of 1889 are paintings by the American artist Thomas Eakins which treat a similar subject, operations on live patients in the presence of medical students.  In 2010, Yiull Damaso created a parody of the painting depicting prominent South Africans. Nelson Mandela was the cadaver, Nkosi Johnson was the instructor, and the students were Desmond Tutu, F. W. de Klerk, Thabo Mbeki, Jacob Zuma, Cyril Ramaphosa, Trevor Manuel, and Helen Zille. The African National Congress condemned the work as disrespectful to Mandela, racist, and culturally insensitive to African taboos on depiction of living people as dead.  The 2012 painting \"The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Freeman\" by Susan Dorothea White references the Rembrandt composition but renders each of the onlookers as an anatomical prosection and skeleton in a contemporary university laboratory; the enormous book is replaced by a computer screen and the background chart by a projection screen; the tendon orientation in the cadaver's left forearm is corrected.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "\"The Body Snatcher\" (1945) quotes this scene when Dr. Macfarlane dissects a cadaver in front of his medical students.  In \"Asterix and the Soothsayer\" (1972), Uderzo and Goscinny referenced the painting at the bottom of page 10, where the characters observe the disembowelment of a fish.  The 2011 video game \"\" references the painting in both in-game portraits that can be found on the wall and in a certain cinematic trailer, featuring the main protagonist Adam Jensen as the cadaver as Dr. Nicolaes and his students study his charred and ruined arms, which in the actual story become amputated and replaced with mechanical limbs.  In the 2012 German film \"Barbara\", there is a scene in which a doctor offers his interpretation of the painting to a colleague (the protagonist) when she points out the inaccuracy of Aris Kindt's left hand.  The painting is discussed by the narrator (a young man) and his mother during a visit to the Met in \"The Goldfinch\", a 2013 novel by Donna Tartt.  2014's \"The Anatomy Lesson\" by Nina Siegal is a fictionalized account of the painting's creation and backstory, based on six years of historical research and archival documents about Aris Kindt's life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp is a 1632 oil painting on canvas by Rembrandt housed in the Mauritshuis museum in The Hague, the Netherlands. The painting is regarded as one of Rembrandt's early masterpieces.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974145}
{"src_title": "Maria Reiche", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Maria Reiche was born in Dresden on 15 May 1903. She studied mathematics, astronomy, geography and foreign languages at the Dresden Technical University. She learned to speak five languages.  In 1932 as a young woman, she went to Peru to work as a governess and tutor for the children of the German consul in Cusco. In 1934, while still in Cusco, she accidentally stabbed herself with a cactus and lost a finger to gangrene.  In 1939, she became a teacher in Lima and also worked on scientific translations. When World War II broke out that year, Reiche stayed in Peru. The next year she met American Paul Kosok, who was researching ancient irrigation systems in the country. She assisted him with making arrangements in the country, including a flight in 1941 by which she first saw the lines and figures of Nazca from the air. They collaborated for years on further studies of these earthworks, trying to determine how they were made and, with more difficulty, for what purpose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nazca lines.", "content": "In 1940, Reiche became an assistant to Paul Kosok, an American historian from Long Island University in Brooklyn, New York, who was studying ancient irrigation systems in Peru.  In June 1941 Kosok noticed lines in the desert that converged at the point of the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. Together he and Reiche began to map and assess the lines for their relation to astronomical events. Later Reiche found lines converging at the summer solstice and developed the theory that the lines formed a large-scale celestial calendar. Around 1946, Reiche began to map the figures represented by the Nazca Lines and determined there were 18 different kinds of animals and birds.  After Kosok left in 1948, after his second study period in Peru, Reiche continued the work and mapped the area. She used her background as a mathematician to analyze how the Nazca may have created such huge-scale figures. She found these to have a mathematical precision that was highly sophisticated. Reiche theorized that the builders of the lines used them as a sun calendar and an observatory for astronomical cycles. Because the lines can be best seen from above, she persuaded the Peruvian Air Force to help her make aerial photographic surveys. She worked alone from her home in Nazca. Reiche published her theories in the book \"The Mystery on the Desert\" (1949, reprint 1968). She believed that the large drawing of a giant monkey represented the constellation now called Ursa Major (Great Bear). Her book had a mixed response from scholars. Eventually scholars concluded that the lines were not chiefly for astronomical purposes, but Reiche's and Kosok's work had brought scholarly attention to the great resource. Some researchers believe that the lines were made as part of worship and religious ceremonies related to the \"calling of water from the gods.\"  Reiche used the profits from the book to campaign for preservation of the Nazca desert and to hire guards for the property and assistants for her work. Wanting to preserve the Nazca Lines from encroaching traffic, after one figure was cut through by the Pan American Highway government development, Reiche spent considerable money in the effort to lobby and educate officials and the public about the lines. After paying for private security, she convinced the government to restrict public access to the area. She sponsored construction of a tower near the highway so that visitors could have an overview of the lines to appreciate them without damaging them. Reiche contributed to the lines becoming a World Heritage site in 1994.  In 1977, Reiche became a founding member of South American Explorers, a non-profit travel, scientific and educational organization. She was on the organization's advisory board and was interviewed for the \"South American Explorer\" on the lines' significance and importance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Reiche's partner was Amy Meredith, who helped her in her work.  Reiche's health deteriorated as she aged. She used a wheelchair, suffered from skin ailments, and lost her sight. In her later years, she also suffered from Parkinson's disease. At the age of 90 she published <nowiki>\"</nowiki>\"Contributions to Geometry and Astronomy in Ancient Peru<nowiki>\"</nowiki>.\" Maria Reiche died of ovarian cancer on 8 June 1998, in an Air Force Hospital in Lima. Reiche was buried with her sister near Nazca with official honors. A street and school in Nazca are named for her.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Reiche (15 May 1903 – 8 June 1998) was a German-born Peruvian mathematician, archaeologist, and technical translator. She is known for her research into the Nazca Lines, which she first saw in 1941 together with American historian Paul Kosok. Known as the \"Lady of the Lines\", Reiche made the documentation, preservation and public dissemination of the Nazca Lines her life's work.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974146}
{"src_title": "Basil Poledouris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Born in Kansas City, Missouri, he credited two influences with guiding him towards music: the first was composer Miklós Rózsa; the second his own Greek Orthodox heritage. Poledouris was raised in the Church, and he used to sit in services enthralled by the choir's sound. At the age of seven, Poledouris began piano lessons, and after graduation from Garden Grove High School, he enrolled at the University of Southern California to study both filmmaking and music. Several short films to which he contributed are still kept in the university's archives. At USC, Poledouris met movie directors John Milius and Randal Kleiser, with whom he would later collaborate as a music composer. He appeared as a background extra in several episodes of \"\". In 1985, Poledouris wrote the music for Paul Verhoeven's \"Flesh & Blood\", establishing a durable collaboration.  Poledouris became renowned for his powerfully epic style of orchestral composition and his intricate thematic designs. He scored the soundtrack for \"The Blue Lagoon\" (1980; dir: Kleiser); \"Conan the Barbarian\" (1982; dir: Milius); \"Conan the Destroyer\" (1984); \"Red Dawn\" (1984; dir: Milius), \"Iron Eagle\" (1986); \"RoboCop\" (1987; dir: Verhoeven); \"The Hunt for Red October\" (1990); \"Quigley Down Under\" (1990 Simon Wincer); \"Free Willy\" (1993) and its first sequel \"\" (1995); \"Starship Troopers\" (1997; dir: Verhoeven); and \"For Love of the Game\" (1999).  Poledouris' studio, \"Blowtorch Flats\", was located in Venice, California, and was a professional mixing facility specializing in film and media production.  Poledouris married his wife Bobbie in 1969; they had two daughters, Zoë and Alexis. His elder daughter, Zoë Poledouris, is an actress and film composer, who occasionally collaborated with her father in composing film soundtracks.  In 1996, Poledouris, alongside James Horner, composed \"The Tradition of the Games\" for the Atlanta Olympics opening ceremony that accompanied the memorable dance tribute to the athletes and goddesses of victory of the ancient Greek Olympics using silhouette imagery.  Poledouris spent the last four years of his life residing on Vashon Island, in Washington State. He died on November 8, 2006, in Los Angeles, California, aged 61, from cancer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Basil Konstantine Poledouris (; August 21, 1945 – November 8, 2006) was a Greek-American composer, conductor, and orchestrator of film and television scores, best known for his long-running collaborations with directors John Milius and Paul Verhoeven. Among his works are scores for the films \"Conan the Barbarian\" (1982), \"Red Dawn\" (1984), \"Iron Eagle\" (1986), \"RoboCop\" (1987), \"The Hunt for Red October\" (1990), \"Free Willy\" (1993), \"Starship Troopers\" (1997) and \"Les Miserables\" (1998). Poledouris won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Limited Series, Movie, or Special for his work on the four-part miniseries \"Lonesome Dove\" in 1989, and was a four-time recipient of the BMI Film Music Award.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974147}
{"src_title": "Richard C. Tolman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Tolman was born in West Newton, Massachusetts and studied chemical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, receiving his bachelor's degree in 1903 and Ph.D. in 1910 under A. A. Noyes.  He married Ruth Sherman Tolman in 1924.  In 1912, he conceived of the concept of relativistic mass, writing that \"the expression formula_1 is best suited for the mass of a moving body.\"  In a 1916 experiment with Thomas Dale Stewart, Tolman demonstrated that electricity consists of electrons flowing through a metallic conductor. A by-product of this experiment was a measured value of the mass of the electron. Overall, however, he was primarily known as a theorist.  Tolman was a member of the Technical Alliance in 1919, a forerunner of the Technocracy movement where he helped conduct an energy survey analyzing the possibility of applying science to social and industrial affairs.  Tolman was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1922. The same year, he joined the faculty of the California Institute of Technology, where he became professor of physical chemistry and mathematical physics and later dean of the graduate school. One of Tolman's early students at Caltech was the theoretical chemist Linus Pauling, to whom Tolman taught the old quantum theory.  In 1927, Tolman published a text on statistical mechanics whose background was the old quantum theory of Max Planck, Niels Bohr and Arnold Sommerfeld. In 1938, he published a new detailed work that covered the application of statistical mechanics to classical and quantum systems. It was the standard work on the subject for many years and remains of interest today.  In the later years of his career, Tolman became increasingly interested in the application of thermodynamics to relativistic systems and cosmology. An important monograph he published in 1934 titled \"Relativity, Thermodynamics, and Cosmology\" demonstrated how black body radiation in an expanding universe cools but remains thermala key pointer toward the properties of the cosmic microwave background. Also in this monograph, Tolman was the first person to document and explain how a closed universe could equal zero energy. He explained how all mass energy is positive and all gravitational energy is negative and they cancel each other out, leading to a universe of zero energy. His investigation of the oscillatory universe hypothesis, which Alexander Friedmann had proposed in 1922, drew attention to difficulties as regards entropy and resulted in its demise until the late 1960s.  During World War II, Tolman served as scientific advisor to General Leslie Groves on the Manhattan Project. At the time of his death in Pasadena, he was chief advisor to Bernard Baruch, the U.S. representative to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission.  Each year, the southern California section of the American Chemical Society honors Tolman by awarding its Tolman Medal \"in recognition of outstanding contributions to chemistry.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Tolman's brother was the behavioral psychologist Edward Chace Tolman.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Chace Tolman (March 4, 1881 – September 5, 1948) was an American mathematical physicist and physical chemist who made many contributions to statistical mechanics. He also made important contributions to theoretical cosmology in the years soon after Einstein's discovery of general relativity. He was a professor of physical chemistry and mathematical physics at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974148}
{"src_title": "Robert H. Dicke", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in St. Louis, Missouri, Dicke completed his bachelor's degree at Princeton University and his doctorate, in 1939, from the University of Rochester in nuclear physics. During the Second World War he worked in the Radiation Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he worked on the development of radar and designed the Dicke radiometer, a microwave receiver. He used this to set a limit on the temperature of the microwave background radiation, from the roof of the Radiation Laboratory, of less than 20 kelvins.  In 1946, he returned to Princeton University, where he remained for the rest of his career. He did some work in atomic physics, particularly on the laser and measuring the gyromagnetic ratio of the electron. An important contribution to the field of spectroscopy and radiative transfer was his prediction of the phenomenon called Dicke narrowing: When the mean free path of an atom is much smaller than the wavelength of one of its radiation transitions, the atom changes velocity and direction many times during the emission or absorption of a photon. This causes an averaging over different Doppler states and results in an atomic linewidth that is much narrower than the Doppler width. Dicke narrowing occurs at relatively low pressures in the millimeter wave and microwave regions (where it is used in atomic clocks to improve precision). Dicke narrowing is analogous to the Mössbauer effect for gamma rays.  In 1956, about two years before Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow filed their patent application, Dicke filed a patent titled \"Molecular Amplification Generation Systems and Methods\" with claims of how to build an infrared laser and the use of an open resonator and the patent was awarded on September 9, 1958.  He spent the remainder of his career developing a program of precision tests of general relativity using the framework of the equivalence principle. In 1957, he first proposed an alternative theory of gravitation inspired by Mach's principle and Paul Dirac's large numbers hypothesis. In 1961, this led to the Brans–Dicke theory of gravitation, developed with Carl H. Brans, an equivalence-principle violating modification of general relativity. A highlight experiment was the test of the equivalence principle by Roll, Krotkov and Dicke, which was a factor of 100 more accurate than previous work. He also made measurements of solar oblateness which were useful in understanding the perihelion precession of Mercury's orbit, one of the classical tests of general relativity.  Dirac had hypothesized that because the gravitational constant \"G\" is very roughly equal to the inverse age of the universe in certain units, then \"G\" must vary to maintain this equality. Dicke realized that Dirac's relation could be a selection effect: fundamental physical laws connect \"G\" to the lifetime of what are called main sequence stars, such as our Sun, and these stars, according to Dicke, are necessary for the existence of life. At any other epoch, when the equality did not hold, there would be no intelligent life around to notice the discrepancy. This was the first modern application of what is now called the weak anthropic principle.  In the early 1960s, work on Brans–Dicke theory led Dicke to think about the early Universe, and with Jim Peebles he re-derived the prediction of a cosmic microwave background (having allegedly forgotten the earlier prediction of George Gamow and co-workers). Dicke, with David Todd Wilkinson and Peter G. Roll, immediately set about building a Dicke radiometer to search for the radiation, but they were scooped by the accidental detection made by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson (also using a Dicke radiometer), who were working at Bell Labs just a few miles from Princeton. Nevertheless, Dicke's group made the second clean detection, and their theoretical interpretation of Penzias and Wilson's results showed that theories of the early universe had moved from pure speculation into well-tested physics.  In 1970, Dicke argued that the universe must have very nearly the critical density of matter needed to stop it expanding forever. Standard models of the universe pass through stages dominated by radiation, matter, curvature etc. Transitions between stages are very special cosmic times which \"a priori\" could differ by many orders of magnitude. Since there is a non-negligible amount of matter, either we are coincidentally living close to the transition to or from the matter-dominated stage, or we are in the middle of it; the latter is preferred since the coincidences are highly unlikely (an application of the Copernican principle). This implies a negligible curvature, so the universe must have almost critical density. This has been called the \"Dicke coincidence\" argument. In fact it gives the wrong answer, since we seem to be living at the time of transition between the matter and dark energy stages. An anthropic explanation of the failure of Dicke's argument was given by Weinberg.  Dicke was also responsible for developing the lock-in amplifier, which is an indispensable tool in the area of applied science and engineering. Some believe that Robert Dicke deserved a Nobel Prize just for the invention of such a powerful and ubiquitous device. Many of Dicke's experiments capitalize on lock-in in some way or another. However, in an interview with Martin Harwit he claims that even though he is often credited with the invention of the device; he believes he read about it in a review of scientific equipment written by Walter C. Michels, a professor at Bryn Mawr.  Dicke is also credited with the invention of a kind of radio receiver, called a \"Dicke Radiometric Receiver\" or simply \"Dicke Radiometer\", developed by Dicke during WWII. His radiometer was characterized by a noise temperature calibration technique using a switchable resistor, known as \"Dicke Resistor\".  In 1970, Dicke was awarded the National Medal of Science. In 1973 he was awarded the Comstock Prize in Physics from the National Academy of Sciences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family life.", "content": "Dicke married Annie Currie in 1942. Currie, of Scottish descent, was born in Barrow-in-Furness in England in 1920 and as a young girl immigrated to Rochester, New York, via Australia and New Zealand, of which Annie had very fond memories.  At the beginning of World War II, Dicke was asked to assist the war effort by applying his skills to the development of radar with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Therefore, this is where they began their married life. During this time, Annie became friends with a number of the wives of other professors working on similar projects. However, due to security concerns, none of them knew what their husbands' work entailed and could never discuss it.  At the end of the war, Dicke and Currie moved to Princeton, New Jersey, where Robert was on the faculty at Princeton University. Dicke died there March 4, 1997. Currie continued to live in Princeton until 2002. For the last years of her life she lived in Hightstown, New Jersey at Meadow Lakes Retirement Community until her death in 2005.  They had one daughter, Nancy born in 1945, and two sons, John born in 1946 and James born in 1953. At the time of Dicke's death they had six grandchildren and a great grandchild.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Henry Dicke (; May 6, 1916 – March 4, 1997) was an American astronomer and physicist who made important contributions to the fields of astrophysics, atomic physics, cosmology and gravity. He was the Albert Einstein Professor in Science at Princeton University (1975 - 1984).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974149}
{"src_title": "Castro Laboreiro Dog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Portuguese name, meaning 'dog from Castro Laboreiro', refers to a small town in the far north of Portugal, now a parish in the Melgaço urban area. It is in the same mountains as the Peneda-Gerês National Park. Although now served by modern highways, the mountainous, rocky area was once quite remote. The modern breed is descended from a very old molosser type, which worked with livestock herders in the mountains, defending against wolves and other large predators.  The origin of the breed is not known, although many legends are given. The Portuguese breed club notes that \"Everything that is written about their origins is pure fiction, without any scientific or historical accuracy... data is rare, or does not exist... most guardian and herding breeds do not have records before 1900\".  There are mentions of the Castro Laboreiro in the 19th century but none before 1800. Camilo Castelo Branco in his novella \"A Brasileira de Prazins\" (1882) mentions \"the dogs of Castro Laboreiro, very fierce...\"  The modern breed today is of the general type of livestock guardian dog that moved with the pastoralist nomads of the transhumance into many areas of the world, possibly arriving before 3000 BCE in the Iberian Peninsula. It is generally theorised that the origin was in Mesopotamia where modern sheep and goats were domesticated. Modern genetic studies have shown that the modern breed is unique from other similar breeds in Portugal.  It is said to be \"ferocious against wolves.\"  With the eradication of wolves and other large predators the Castro Laboreiro Dog lost its original use. Changes in agricultural methods over the last hundred years led to many of these dogs being abandoned, turning feral and becoming a problem for those that raise cattle and horses.  Today, the breed has mostly been removed from its native range and purpose, and is kept as a companion and guard dog. It was first exhibited at a dog show in 1914, and the first written breed standard was by veterinarian Manuel Marques in 1935, when the breed was recognised by the Clube Portugues de Canicultura, the official Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) kennel club for Portugal founded in 1897. The Castro Laboreiro Dog is recognised by the FCI in Group 2, Section 2.2: Mastiffs, Mountain Type, Portugal (breed number 150). It is also recognised, under its Portuguese name, by the United Kennel Club in the United States, in their Guardian dog group. It may also be listed under the name, similar-sounding names, or different English versions of the name (such as Portuguese cattle dog or Portuguese watchdog) by large commercial breeders, minor kennel clubs that require little to no breed verification for registration, and Internet-based dog registry businesses, where it is promoted as a rare breed for those seeking a fashionably novel or unique pet. Nevertheless, the number of specimens of this breed does not exceed 500 in the whole world. In Portugal, there are a half-dozen breeders, plus a couple more elsewhere in Europe (in United Kingdom and Germany), and one in the US.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The standardised appearance for which the Castro Laboreiro Dog has been bred is somewhat wolf-like in outline. It is a large dog, but not oversize. Height should not be above 60 cm (24 in) at the withers and weight should not be more than 40 kg (88 lbs); females somewhat smaller. Coat colours are ofte described in wolf terms: \"dark wolf colour\", \"light wolf colour\". Most breeders prefer what is considered the most authentic, called \"mountain colour\" (), also described as similar to the coat of a wolf, but a mixed light and dark grey interspersed with individual hairs (not spots) that are brown (called \"pine-seed\") or dark red (called \"mahogany\"), forming overall a brindle pattern.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health issues.", "content": "Health issues specific to the breed have not been documented. Dogs represented as Castro Laboreiros may be mixed with other breeds, which may have other genetic health problems. Puppy buyers should enquire of breeders about types of health testing done on the sire and dam; responsible breeders will be able to provide information. Being a \"rare breed\" does not guarantee immunity from inherited disease or disability.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Castro Laboreiro Dog (, 'dog of Castro Laboreiro'), also known as the Portuguese cattle dog or Portuguese watchdog, is an \"extremely ancient\" dog breed of the livestock guardian type, originating from Castro Laboreiro in the northern mountains of Portugal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974150}
{"src_title": "Afar people", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "Afar society has traditionally been organized into independent kingdoms, each ruled by its own Sultan. Among these were the Sultanate of Aussa, Sultanate of Girrifo, Sultanate of Dawe, Sultanate of Tadjourah, Sultanate of Rahaito, and Sultanate of Goobad.  The earliest surviving written mention of the Afar is from the 13th-century Andalusian writer Ibn Sa'id, who reported that they inhabited the area around the port of Suakin, as far south as Mandeb, near Zeila. They are mentioned intermittently in Ethiopian records, first as helping Emperor Amda Seyon in a campaign beyond the Awash River, then over a century later when they assisted Emperor Baeda Maryam when he campaigned against their neighbors the Dobe'a.  Along with the closely related Somali and other adjacent Afro-Asiatic-speaking Muslim peoples, the Afar are also associated with the medieval Adal Sultanate that controlled large parts of the northern Horn of Africa. After the death of the Adal leader Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, Afar settlements were overtaken in Hararghe by the result of the Oromo migrations. The Issa Somali also took advantage of the crippled Afar and occupied large swaths of their territory in the north west of East Africa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aussa States.", "content": "In 1577, the Adal leader Imam Muhammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Aussa in modern Afar region. In 1647, the rulers of the Emirate of Harar broke away to form their own polity. Harari imams continued to have a presence in the southern Afar Region until they were overthrown in the eighteenth century by the Mudaito dynasty of Afar who later established the Sultanate of Aussa. The primary symbol of the Sultan was a silver baton, which was considered to have magical properties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Afar Liberation Front.", "content": "Following an unsuccessful rebellion led by the Afar Sultan, Alimirah Hanfare, the Afar Liberation Front was founded in 1975 to promote the interests of the Afar people. Sultan Hanfadhe was shortly afterwards exiled to Saudi Arabia. Ethiopia's then-ruling communist Derg regime later established the Autonomous Region of Assab (now called Aseb and located in Eritrea), although low level insurrection continued until the early 1990s. In Djibouti, a similar movement simmered throughout the 1980s, eventually culminating in the Afar Insurgency in 1991. After the fall of the Derg that same year, Sultan Hanfadhe returned from exile.  In March 1993, the Afar Revolutionary Democratic Front (ARDUF) was established. It constituted a coalition of three Afar organizations: the Afar Revolutionary Democratic Unity Union (ARDUU), founded in 1991 and led by Mohamooda Gaas (or Gaaz); the \"Afar Ummatah Demokrasiyyoh Focca\" (AUDF); and the Afar Revolutionary Forces (ARF). A political party, it aims to protect Afar interests. As of 2012, the ARDUF is part of the United Ethiopian Democratic Forces (UEDF) coalition opposition party.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geographical distribution.", "content": "The Afar principally reside in the Danakil Desert in the Afar Region of Ethiopia, as well as in Eritrea and Djibouti. They number 2,276,867 people in Ethiopia (or 2.73% of the total population), of whom 105,551 are urban inhabitants, according to the most recent census (2007). The Afar make up over a third of the population of Djibouti, and are one of the nine recognized ethnic divisions (\"kililoch\") of Ethiopia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "Afars speak the Afar language as a mother tongue. It is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family.  The Afar language is spoken by ethnic Afars in the Afar Region of Ethiopia, as well as in southern Eritrea and northern Djibouti. However, since the Afar are traditionally nomadic herders, Afar speakers may be found further afield.  Together, with the Saho language, Afar constitutes the Saho–Afar dialect cluster.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "Afar people are predominantly Muslim. They have a long association with Islam through the various local Muslim polities and practice the Sunni form of Islam, or non-denominational Islam. The Afar mainly follow the Shafi'i school of Sunni Islam. Sufi orders like the Qadiriyya are also widespread among the Afar. Afar religious life is somewhat syncretic with a blend of Islamic concepts and pre-Islamic ones such as rain sacrifices on sacred locations, divination, and folk healing. Another strand or self-identification adopted by the Afar is that of the non-denominational Muslim.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Socially, they are organized into clan families led by elders and two main classes: the \"asaimara\" ('reds') who are the dominant class politically, and the \"adoimara\" ('whites') who are a working class and are found in the Mabla Mountains. Clans can be fluid and even include outsiders like Somalis.  In addition, the Afar are reputed for their martial prowess. Men traditionally sport the \"jile\", a famous curved knife. They also have an extensive repertoire of battle songs.  The Afar are mainly livestock holders. They mostly raise camels but also tend to goats, sheep, and cattle. However, shrinking pastures for their livestock and environmental degradation have made some Afar instead turn to cultivation, migrant labor, and trade. The Ethiopian Afar have traditionally engaged in salt trading but recently Tigrayans have taken much of this occupation.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Afar (), also known as the Danakil, Adali and Odali, are an ethnic Cushitic people inhabiting the Horn of Africa. They primarily live in the Afar Region of Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, as well as the entire southern coast of Eritrea. The Afar speak the Afar language, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. Afars are the only Horners whose traditional territories borders both the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974151}
{"src_title": "Montréal (castle)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The castle was built in 1115 by Baldwin I of Jerusalem during his expedition to the area where he captured Aqaba on the Red Sea in 1116. Originally called 'Krak de Montreal' or 'Mons Regalis', it was named in honor of the king's own contribution to its construction (Mont Royal). The castle is located on a round hilltop site that is separated from the rest of the plateau of Edom, which along with the Moab formed the core of Oultrejourdain. Despite appearance, the Edom plain was a relatively fertile location, which made the site, along with its strategic importance, highly desirable. The castle was strategically important due to the fact that it also dominated the main passage from Egypt to Syria. This allowed who ever to hold the castle to tax not only traders, both those who were on pilgrimages to Mecca and Medina. One of the major disadvantages of the site was an issue that the Crusaders encountered all over the Middle East, that issue is the lack of a reliable source of water. This problem was solved by the construction of a tunnel down the hill to two spring-fed cisterns. The tunnel allowed for defenders to go and retrieve water without exposing themselves to any attackers.  It remained property of the royal family of the Kingdom of Jerusalem until 1142, when it became part of the Lordship of Oultrejordain. At the same time the center of the Lordship was moved to Kerak, a stronger fortress to the north of Montreal. Along with Kerak, the castle owed sixty knights to the kingdom. The first Lord of Oultrejordain was Philip of Nablus. It was held by Philip de Milly, and then passed to Raynald of Châtillon when he married Stephanie de Milly. Raynald used the castle to attack the rich caravans that had previously been allowed to pass unharmed. He also built ships there, then transported them overland to the Red Sea, planning to attack Mecca itself. This was intolerable to the Ayyubid sultan Saladin, who invaded the kingdom in 1187. After capturing Jerusalem, later in the year he besieged Montreal. During the siege the defenders are said to have sold their wives and children for food, and to have gone blind from \"lack of salt.\" Because of the hill Saladin was unable to use siege engines, but after almost two years the castle finally fell to his troops in May 1189, after which the defenders' families were returned to them. After its capture, Salah al-Din awarded it to his brother, al- 'Adil who held it until after his brothers death in 1193. During negotiations between the crusaders and the Ayyubids in 1218-19, the Ayyubids unwillingness to hand back over the ownership of Montreal and Kerak was a major reason the negotiations broke down. In 1261, the Mamluk Sultan Baybars, stormed the castle bringing it under the control of Egypt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Little remains of the original Crusader fortifications. Although it has never been fully excavated, it is known that there was a set of three walls, which partially remain. The most significant remains of the crusader portions of the crusader castle is the remains of a curtain wall that ran inside the later Muslim additions and two chapels. The towers and walls are decorated with carved inscriptions dating from 14th century Mameluke renovations, but the inside is ruinous. The pilgrim Thietmar, who saw the castle in 1217 after the Muslim conquest, referred to it as \"a most excellent fortress, surrounded by triple walls and as strong as any I have ever seen\". The External walls and towers are attributed to the patronage of the Mamluk Sultan Lajin.  The castle is currently being investigated by an Italian archaeological team from the University of Florence", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Montréal (; ) is a Crusader castle on the eastern side of the Arabah, perched on the side of a rocky, conical mountain, looking out over fruit trees below. The ruins, called Shoubak (), are located in modern town of Shoubak in Jordan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974152}
{"src_title": "Yigal Allon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Yigal Peikowitz (later Allon) was born in Kfar Tavor. His father immigrated to Palestine in 1890.  After graduating from Kadoorie Agricultural High School in 1937, Allon became one of the founders of Kibbutz Ginosar. Allon was married to Ruth. Their eldest daughter Nurit, was on the Autism spectrum.  In 1950-1952, he studied philosophy and history at St Antony's College, Oxford.  Allon died of heart failure in Afula on 29 February 1980. He was buried on the shore of Sea of Galilee in the cemetery of Kibbutz Ginosar (Kibbutz Ginosar Cemetery) in the Northern District. The funeral was attended by tens of thousands of mourners, with condolences extended by many world leaders, including Egyptian president Anwar Sadat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Allon joined Haganah in 1931 and went on to command a field unit and then a mobile patrol in northern Palestine during the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine. During this period he participated in several operations of the Special Night Squads (SNS), under the command of Orde Charles Wingate and Bala Bredin. In 1941 he became one of the founding members of the Palmach. In 1941 and 1942, he was a scout with the British forces who fought in Syria and Lebanon. In 1945, he became Commander in Chief of the Palmach.  On 22 June 1948, at the climax of David Ben-Gurion's confrontation with the Irgun over the distribution of weapons from the \"Altalena\", Allon commanded the troops ordered to shell the vessel. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Allon led several of the major operations on all three fronts, including Yiftach in the Galilee, Danny in the Centre, Yoav, and Horev in the Negev. His last major military roles as commander were in October and December 1948: Operation Yoav towards the Hebron Hills and Operation Horev along the Southern Egyptian Front. As Operational Commander of the Southern Command he was responsible for security along the borders with Egypt and parts of Jordan. On 4 June 1949 he declared a wide closed military zone along the border. On 18 October 1949, while he was in an official visit in Paris, Allon was told by his French hosts that Ben Gurion had decided to replace Allon as OC Southern Command and appointed Moshe Dayan in his place. Most of Allon’s staff officers resigned in protest. He retired from active service in 1950.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In January 1948, Allon helped form the left-wing Mapam party. However, after the 1948 war, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion told Allon to dissociate himself from the party, a rival of his own governing Mapai party, as he saw it as too left-wing and a threat to state security. In December 1948, Mapam co-leader Meir Ya'ari criticized Allon's use of tens of thousands of Palestinian refugees to achieve strategic goals.  After ending his military career, Allon embarked on a public political career. He became a prominent leader in Ahdut HaAvoda, which had split from Mapam in 1954, and was first elected to the Knesset in 1955, where he served until his death. He was a member of the Economic Affairs Committee, Constitution, Law and Justice Committee, Education and Culture Committee, Joint Committee on the Motion for the Agenda Regarding Sports in Israel, and the Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee.  Allon served as the Minister of Labour from 1961–1968. In this role he worked to improve the state employment service, extend the road network, and fought to get legislation on labor relations passed. From 1968–69 he served as the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Immigrant Absorption. Allon served briefly as interim Prime Minister following the death of Levi Eshkol on 26 February 1969. He held office until 17 March 1969, when Golda Meir took over after being appointed leader of the Labor Party. He became the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Education and Culture in Meir's government, and served in that post until 1974. During the September 1970 crisis in Jordan he advocated supporting King Hussein in his conflict with the PLO. In 1974 he was a part of the delegation to the Separation of Forces Agreement. He became the Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1974, and held this post until 1977. At the time of his sudden death in 1980, he was a candidate for the leadership of the Alignment, challenging the incumbent party head Shimon Peres.  Allon was the architect of the Allon Plan, a proposal to end Israeli occupation of parts of the West Bank with a negotiated partition of territories. The plan was presented to the cabinet in July 1967, right after the Six-Day War. According to the plan, Israel would retain one-third of the West Bank and protect itself from invasion from the east by a strip of settlements and military installations along the Jordan Valley. The mountain ridge west of this strip, which was populated by Arabs, would be confederated with Jordan. A strip of land flanking the Jericho-Jerusalem road, Gush Etzion and a large part of the Hebron Hills area, would be annexed. Minor territorial changes would be made along the Green Line, specifically in the area of Latrun. Allon also called for the development of Jewish neighborhoods in east Jerusalem, the rehabilitation of the Old City's Jewish Quarter, and the annexation of Gaza, whose Arab inhabitants would be resettled elsewhere.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemoration.", "content": "Explaining the growing admiration for Yigal Allon three decades after his death, Oren Dagan of the Society for the Preservation of Israel Heritage Sites said, \"people wish to live in the kind of state Yigal Allon dreamed of, for example on the Arab-Jewish issue. This isn't a post-Zionist approach, neither hesitant nor apologetic. It's an approach of safety and security that says, 'Our place is here,' but still emphasizes the importance of dialogue, and never through condescension or arrogance. Allon extended a hand in peace, and that's the approach we want leaders to adopt today.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yigal Allon (; 10 October 1918 – 29 February 1980) was an Israeli politician, a commander of the Palmach, and a general in the IDF. He served as one of the leaders of Ahdut HaAvoda party and the Israeli Labor party, and acting Prime Minister of Israel. He was a Knesset member and government minister from the third Knesset to the ninth inclusive.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974153}
{"src_title": "Michelle Trachtenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Trachtenberg was born in New York City, the younger of two daughters of Lana, a bank manager, and Michael Trachtenberg, a fiber-optics engineer, Jewish immigrants from Russia and Germany, respectively. Trachtenberg had a religious upbringing, and her grandparents reside in Israel. She was raised with her older sister, Irene, in Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, where she attended junior high school at The Bay Academy for the Arts and Sciences. She later attended Notre Dame High School in Sherman Oaks, California. She is fluent in Russian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beginnings (1988–2003).", "content": "Trachtenberg made her first television appearance at the age of three, in a commercial for Wisk detergent. She went on to feature in over 100 more commercials. Her first television role was in the second season of \"Law & Order\"; her first credited role was as Nona F. Mecklenberg on the Nickelodeon series \"The Adventures of Pete & Pete\" from 1994 until 1996. During the same period she played Lily Montgomery on the soap opera \"All My Children\".  Trachtenberg's film career began in 1996 with the title role in \"Harriet the Spy\", for which she had to leave \"The Adventures of Pete & Pete\" while its third season was running. She then starred in the short-lived television series \"Meego\", which garnered her a Young Artist Award. She returned to film in 1999 for \"Inspector Gadget\". She also starred in the film \"Can't Be Heaven\". In the summer of 2000, she took on the role of Dawn Summers in \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\", remaining in the role until the show ended in 2003. She also hosted the Discovery Kids series \"Truth or Scare\" from 2001 to 2003.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rise to fame (2004–2007).", "content": "After \"Buffy\" and \"Truth or Scare\", Trachtenberg appeared in the comedy film \"EuroTrip\". She also had a recurring role in the HBO series \"Six Feet Under\", as Celeste, a spoiled pop star for whom Keith Charles served as a bodyguard. In March 2005, she played the title character in Walt Disney Pictures' comedy sports drama film \"Ice Princess\". Trachtenberg played Casey Carlyle, a science whiz, who is torn between a future in academia and her newfound dream of being a professional figure skater.  In 2004, Trachtenberg played Wendy in Gregg Araki’s film adaptation of Scott Heim’s novel, “Mysterious Skin.” Wendy is the best friend of Neil (Joseph Gordon Levitt), a teenage hustler in small-town Kansas. The film debuted at the 2004 Venice Film Festival.  In April 2006, Trachtenberg guest-starred in the episode of \"House\", \"Safe\". She revealed on the December 22, 2006, episode of \"Late Night with Conan O'Brien\" that \"House\" was her favorite show, and that she was friends with one of the producers and had asked to be a guest star.  In November 2006, Trachtenberg guest starred in season six of the crime drama \"\". In the episode \"\", she played the role of Willow, a kidnapped video blogger, likely based on lonelygirl15. Trachtenberg also appeared in the Fall Out Boy music video for \"This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race\", the Joaquin Phoenix-directed music video for \"Tired of Being Sorry\" by Ringside, and the video for the Trapt song \"Echo\".  In 2006, Trachtenberg starred in \"Black Christmas\", the remake of the 1974 slasher of the same name. In 2007, she was cast as the female lead in an ABC comedy pilot called \"The Hill\", based on the newspaper of the same name in Washington, D.C.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Worldwide recognition (2008–2010).", "content": "Trachtenberg provided the voice of Tika Waylan for \"\", a direct-to-video animated film based on the novel of the same name. She appeared on The CW hit show \"Gossip Girl\", as Georgina Sparks, who recently left rehab and brings back the dark past Serena van der Woodsen desperately wants to leave behind. She returned to the show for a multiple-episode story arc towards the end of season two. Trachtenberg appeared in the season-three finale and in season four. She also appeared several times in season five, and in almost every episode of season six, the show's final season. In 2009, Trachtenberg was a cast member on the NBC drama \"Mercy\"; the series lasted one season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent works (2011–present).", "content": "On June 9, 2011, Trachtenberg guest-starred on \"Love Bites\", as Jodie, who, after being unceremoniously dumped, decides – with a vengeance – to accept her ex's offer to \"be friends\". She reprised the role on June 16, 2011, and in the series finale on July 21, 2011. In the same year, Trachtenberg was a guest-star on \"Weeds\" during its seventh season, portraying Emma, a rival pot dealer who causes problems for Silas Botwin. In June 2012, Trachtenberg was cast in the film \"The Scribbler\", produced by Gabriel Cowan.  In the \"Criminal Minds\" episode \"Zugzwang\", Trachtenberg played Diane Turner, the criminal stalker to Spencer Reid's girlfriend, Maeve Donovan. She returned to film with the 2009 film \"17 Again\". She also had a small role in the comedy film \"Cop Out\". In March 2011, she was the featured cover girl in \"Maxim\".  In fall of 2015, Trachtenberg starred in the online series \"Guidance\" as Anna, the high school guidance counselor.  In early April 2017 on the occasion of \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\"'s 20th anniversary, Trachtenberg reflected on the backlash her \"Buffy\" character, Dawn, received from fans over the years to \"Entertainment Weekly\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Michelle Christine Trachtenberg (; born October 11, 1985) is an American actress and model. She played Jenny in \"EuroTrip\" (2004), Nona Mecklenberg in \"The Adventures of Pete & Pete\" (1994–1996), Dawn Summers in \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" (2000–2003), Harriet M. Welsch in \"Harriet the Spy\" (1996), and Georgina Sparks in \"Gossip Girl\" (2007–2012).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974154}
{"src_title": "Charles, Duke of Orléans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Accession.", "content": "Charles was born in Paris. Acceding to the duchy at the age of thirteen after his father had been assassinated, he was expected to carry on his father's leadership against the Burgundians, a French faction which supported the Duke of Burgundy. The latter was never punished for his role in Louis' assassination, and Charles had to watch as his grief-stricken mother Valentina Visconti succumbed to illness not long afterwards. At her deathbed, Charles and the other boys of the family were made to swear the traditional oath of vengeance for their father's murder.  During the early years of his reign as duke, the orphaned Charles was heavily influenced by the guidance of his father-in-law, Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, for which reason Charles' faction came to be known as the Armagnacs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imprisonment.", "content": "After war with the Kingdom of England was renewed in 1415, Charles was one of the many French noblemen at the Battle of Agincourt on 25 October 1415. He was discovered unwounded but trapped under a pile of corpses. He was taken prisoner by the English, and spent the next twenty-four years being moved from one castle to another in England, including the Tower of London, and Pontefract Castle – the castle where England's young King Richard II, cousin once removed of the then incumbent English King Henry V, had been imprisoned and died 15 years earlier at the age of 33. The conditions of his confinement were not strict; he was allowed to live more or less in the manner to which he had become accustomed, like so many other captured nobles. However, he was not offered release in exchange for a ransom, since the English King Henry V had left instructions forbidding any release: Charles was the natural head of the Armagnac faction and in the line of succession to the French throne, and was therefore deemed too important to be returned to circulation.  After his capture, his entire library was moved by Yolande of Aragon to Saumur, to prevent it from falling into enemy hands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poetry.", "content": "It was during these twenty-four years that Charles would write most of his poetry, including melancholy works which seem to be commenting on the captivity itself, such as \"En la forêt de longue attente\". He is often credited with writing the first Valentine's Day poem.  The majority of his output consists of two books, one in French and the other in English, in the \"ballade\" and \"rondeau\" fixed forms. Though once controversial, it is now abundantly clear that Charles wrote the English poems which he left behind when he was released in 1440. Unfortunately, his acceptance in the English canon has been slow. A. E. B. Coldiron has argued that the problem relates to his \"approach to the erotic, his use of puns, wordplay, and rhetorical devices, his formal complexity and experimentation, his stance or voice: all these place him well outside the fifteenth-century literary milieu in which he found himself in England.\"  One of his poems \"Is she not passing fair?\", translated by Louisa Stuart Costello, was set to music by Edward Elgar. Claude Debussy set three of his poems to music in his \"Trois Chansons de Charles d'Orléans\", L.92, for unaccompanied mixed choir.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Freedom.", "content": "Finally freed in 1440 by the efforts of his former enemies, Philip the Good and Isabella of Portugal, the Duke and Duchess of Burgundy, he set foot on French soil again after 25 years, by now a middle aged man at 46 and \"speaking better English than French,\" according to the English chronicler Raphael Holinshed. Philip the Good had made it a condition that the murder of Charles' father Louis of Orleans by Philip's own father, John the Fearless, would not be avenged. (John himself had been assassinated in 1419.) Charles agreed to this condition prior to his release. Meeting the Duchess of Burgundy after disembarking, the gallant Charles said: \"M'Lady, I make myself your prisoner.\" At the celebration of his third marriage, with Marie of Cleves, he was created a Knight of the Golden Fleece. His subsequent return to Orléans was marked by a splendid celebration organised by the citizens.  He made an unsuccessful attempt to press his claims to Asti in Italy, before settling down as a celebrated patron of the arts. He died at Amboise in his 71st year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Charles married three times. His first wife Isabella of Valois (daughter of Charles VI of France and widow of Richard II of England), whom he married in Compiègne in 1406, died in childbirth. Their daughter, Joan married John II of Alençon in 1424 in Blois.  Afterwards, he married Bonne of Armagnac, the daughter of Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, in 1410. Bonne died before he returned from captivity. The couple had no issue.  On his return to France in 1440, Charles married Marie of Cleves in Saint-Omer (daughter of Adolph I, Duke of Cleves) and had three children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction and popular culture.", "content": "Charles appears as \"Duke of Orléans\" in William Shakespeare's \"Henry V.\" In the 2012 television adaptation \"The Hollow Crown,\" Charles is played by French actor Stanley Weber and is inaccurately portrayed as dying at Agincourt.  The critically acclaimed historical novel \"Het Woud der Verwachting / Le Forêt de Longue Attente\" (1949) by Hella Haasse (translated into English in 1989 under the title \"In a Dark Wood Wandering\") gives a sympathetic description of the life of Charles, Duke of Orléans.  Charles is also a major character in Margaret Frazer's \"The Maiden's Tale\", a historical mystery and fictional account of a few weeks of his life in England in the autumn of 1439, shortly before his release in 1440.  Charles is a minor character in the historical fiction novel \"Crown in Candlelight\" by Rosemary Hawley Jarman.  Charles is referenced as the author of \"the first known Valentine\" in Netflix original \"Big Mouth\"'s Valentine's Day special, \"My Furry Valentine\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles of Orléans (24 November 1394 – 5 January 1465) was Duke of Orléans from 1407, following the murder of his father, Louis I, Duke of Orléans, on the orders of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. He was also Duke of Valois, Count of Beaumont-sur-Oise and of Blois, Lord of Coucy, and the inheritor of Asti in Italy via his mother Valentina Visconti, daughter of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974155}
{"src_title": "Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Johann II was the elder son of Aloys II, Prince of Liechtenstein and Countess Franziska Kinsky of Wchinitz and Tettau. He ascended to the throne shortly after his 18th birthday, and as such his reign is the longest precisely documented tenure of any European monarch since antiquity in which a regent was never employed. Rama IX of Thailand exceeded this reign by just 35 days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Law and reform.", "content": "In 1862, Johann II issued Liechtenstein's first constitution. Later, after Liechtenstein left the German confederation in 1866 and after World War I, Johann II granted a new constitution in 1921. It granted considerable political rights to common Liechtensteiners, the latter making the principality a constitutional monarchy. This constitution survives today but with revisions, most notably in 2003.  Liechtenstein left the German Confederation in 1866. Not long after, the army of Liechtenstein was abolished as it was regarded as an unnecessary expense.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign affairs.", "content": "Johann II somewhat cooled relations with Liechtenstein's traditional ally, Austria-Hungary and its successor states, to forge closer relations with Switzerland, particularly after World War I. Liechtenstein was neutral during World War I, but the war broke Liechtenstein's alliance with Austria-Hungary and led it to go into a customs union with Switzerland. Late in Johann's reign, in 1924, the Swiss franc became Liechtenstein's official currency.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patron of the arts.", "content": "Johann II added much to the Liechtenstein Princely Collections. Although considered a prominent patron of the arts and sciences during his long reign, Johann II was also considered to be rather unsociable and did not participate in social events. He never married or had any children, like several other members of his family.  Between 1905–1920, Schloss Vaduz was renovated and expanded. Prince Johann II did not live in the castle or even Liechtenstein, though his successors would eventually move there in 1938. Schloss Vaduz would be their home.  Upon his death in 1929, Johann II was succeeded by his brother Franz I.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann II (; 5 October 1840 – 11 February 1929), also known as Johann II the Good (\"Johann II der Gute\"), was the Prince of Liechtenstein between 1858 and 1929. His reign of 70 years and 91 days is the second-longest of any monarch in European history, after that of Louis XIV of France, and third-longest overall after Louis XIV and Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974156}
{"src_title": "Labour Party (Norway)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The party was founded in 1887 in Arendal and first ran in elections to the Storting in 1894. It entered the parliament in 1903 and steadily increased its vote until 1927, when it became the largest party in Norway. The party were members of Communist International (Comintern), a communist organisation, between 1918 and 1923.  From the establishment of \"Vort Arbeide\" in 1884, the party had a growing and notable organisation of newspapers and other press outlets. The party press system eventually resulted in \"Norsk Arbeiderpresse\" (\"Norwegian Labour Press\", now \"A-pressen\"). In January 1913, the party had 24 newspapers and 6 more newspapers were founded in 1913. The party also had the periodical \"Det 20de Aarhundre\". In 1920, the party had 33 newspapers and 6 semi-affiliated newspapers. The party had its own publishing house, Det norske Arbeiderpartis forlag, succeeded by Tiden Norsk Forlag. In addition to books and pamphlets, Det norske Arbeiderpartis forlag published \"Maidagen\" (annual May Day publication), \"Arbeidets Jul\" (annual Christmas publication) and \"Arbeiderkalenderen\" (calendar).  From its roots as a radical alternative to the political establishment, the party grew to its current dominance through several eras. The party experienced a split in 1921 caused by a decision made two years earlier to join the Comintern and the Social Democratic Labour Party of Norway was formed. In 1923, the party left the Comintern while a significant minority of its members left the party to form the Communist Party of Norway. In 1927, the Social Democrats were reunited with Labour. Some Communists also joined Labour whereas other Communists tried a failed merger endeavor which culminated in the formation of the \"Arbeiderklassens Samlingsparti\".  In 1928, Christopher Hornsrud formed Labour's first government, but it lasted only two weeks. During the early 1930s, Labour abandoned its revolutionary profile and set a reformist course. Labour then returned to government in 1935 and remained in power until 1965 (except for the World War II exile period between 1940–1945 and one month in 1963). During most of the first twenty years after World War II, Einar Gerhardsen led the party and the country. He is often referred to as \"Landsfaderen\" (Father of the Nation) and is generally considered one of the main architects of the rebuilding of Norway after World War II. This is often considered the golden age of the Norwegian Labour Party. The party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1938 and 1940. In 1958, two Workers' Youth League members (Berge Furre and Kåre Sollund) contacted MPs of the Labour Party to have MPs sign a petition as a part of what is known as the Easter Uprising of the Labour Party. All the MPs who signed, except one, later retracted their signatures.  Other periods of the Labour Party's leadership of the national government have been 1971–1972, 1973–1981, 1986–1989, 1990–1997 and 2000–2001. In the 2001 Norwegian parliamentary election, the party reached a low point of 24.3% of the popular vote, but it was still the largest party in the Storting. In the 2005 Norwegian parliamentary election, the party regained support and received 32.7% of the popular vote. It was the leading partner in the centre-left red–green coalition which won a majority in the 2005 Norwegian parliamentary election. Labour leader Jens Stoltenberg became prime minister and lead a coalition government, the first coalition government that the Labour Party has entered. Stoltenberg was previously prime minister from 2000 to 2001.  In 2011, the party changed its official name from the Norwegian Labour Party (\"Det norske arbeiderparti\") to the Labour Party (\"Arbeiderpartiet\"). The party claimed there had been confusion among voters at polling stations because of the difference between the official name and the common use name of Labour Party. The name change caused \"Arbeiderpartiet\" to appear on the ballot, eliminating any potential confusion. On 22 July 2011, a terrorist opened fire at the Labour Party's youth camp (ages 13–25), killing 69 people and killing 8 more in Oslo by a bomb towards a government building (which was led by the Labour Party).  In the 2013 Norwegian parliamentary election, the party-led coalition lost the election, but Labour remained the largest party in the Storting. This election ended the nearly ten years rule of Stoltenberg, who remained the party leader until he stepped down to be appointed Secretary General of NATO. Jonas Gahr Støre was chosen as new party leader on 14 June 2014. In 2017, the party was targeted by hackers suspected to be from Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organisation.", "content": "As of 2015, the party has about 56,000 members. They are organised at county level, municipality level and in about 2,500 local associations. The party had about 200,500 members at its peak in 1950.  The supreme body of the party is the Party Congress which is held every two years. The highest body in between the congresses is the National Delegate's Meeting which is made up of the Executive Board and two delegates from each of the 19 counties.  The executive board consists of 16 elected members as well as the leadership of the party. As of 2015, the leadership is party leader Støre, deputy leaders Hadia Tajik and Trond Giske and general secretary Kjersti Stenseng. The party has varied between having one of two deputy leaders  Since 2005, the party has a policy requiring full gender parity at each level of the organisation above ordinary membership.  The party's youth organisation is the Workers' Youth League and there is a network for women within the party. The party participates in elections to the Sami Parliament of Norway and work related to this has its own organisational structure with seven local groups, a bi-yearly congress, a national council and the Labour group in the Sami parliament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Labour Party (Bokmål: \"Arbeiderpartiet\"; Nynorsk: \"Arbeidarpartiet\"; A/Ap), formerly the Norwegian Labour Party (Norsk: \"Det norske Arbeiderparti\", DNA), is a social-democratic political party in Norway. It was the senior partner of the governing red–green coalition from 2005–2013 and its leader Jens Stoltenberg served as Prime Minister. The party is led by Jonas Gahr Støre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974157}
{"src_title": "Osorkon II", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Foreign policy and monumental program.", "content": "Despite his astuteness in dealings with matters at home, Osorkon II was forced to be aggressive on the international scene. The growing power of Assyria was accompanied with increased meddling in the affairs of Israel and Syria – territories well within Egypt's sphere of influence.  Osorkon II devoted considerable resources into his building projects by adding to the temple of Bastet at Bubastis, which featured a substantial new hall decorated with scenes depicting his Sed festival and images of his queen, Karomama. Monumental construction during his reign also was performed at Thebes, Memphis, Tanis, and Leontopolis. Osorkon II also built Temple J at Karnak during the final years of his reign and it was decorated by his high priest, Takelot F (the future king, Takelot II). Takelot F was the son of the deceased high priest Nimlot C and, thus, Osorkon II's grandson.  Now, all of Osorkon II's sizeable stone statues are known to be re-used works of earlier periods that merely were re-inscribed for Osorkon II, including the famous \"Cairo-Philadelphia statue of Osorkon II\". Osorkon II was the last great Twenty-second Dynasty king of Tanis, ruling Egypt from the Delta to Upper Egypt. His successor, Shoshenq III, lost the effective control of Middle and Upper Egypt that Osorkon II had assembled into a united Egypt.  Many officials may be dated to the reign of Osorkon II. Ankhkherednefer was \"inspector of the palace\", Paanmeny probably was his chief physician, Djeddjehutyiuefankh was the \"fourth prophet of Amun\", and Bakenkhons was another \"prophet of Amun\" during his reign.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign length.", "content": "Approximately 837 BC, Osorkon II died and he was buried in Tomb NRT I at Tanis. Currently, he is believed to have reigned for more than 30 years, rather than just 25 years as had been interpreted earlier. The celebration of his first Sed Jubilee previously was thought to have occurred in his Year 22, but the Heb Sed date in his Great Temple of Bubastis is damaged and also may be read as Year 30, as Edward Wente notes. The fact that this king's own grandson, Takelot F, served him as High Priest of Amun at Thebes–as the inscribed walls of Temple J prove – supports the hypothesis of a longer reign for Osorkon II.  Recently, it has been demonstrated that Nile Level Text 14 (dated to Year 29 of an Usimare Setepenamun) belongs to Osorkon II on palaeographical grounds. This finding suggests that Osorkon II likely did celebrate his first Heb Sed in his Year 30 as was traditionally the case with other Libyan era kings, such as Shoshenq III and Shoshenq V. In addition, a Year 22 Stela from his reign preserves no mention of any Heb Sed celebrations in that year, as would be expected (see Von Beckerath, 'infra').  While Osorkon II's precise reign length is unknown, some Egyptologists, such as Jürgen von Beckerath – in his 1997 book Chronology of the Egyptian Pharaohs – and Aidan Dodson have suggested a range of between 38 and 39 years. However, these much higher figures are not verified by the current monumental evidence. Gerard Broekman gives Osorkon II a slightly shorter reign of 34 years. English Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen, in a 2006 \"Agypten und Levante\" article, now accepts that if Nile Level Text 14 is correctly attributed to Year 29 of Osorkon II, then the reference to Osorkon's Sed Festival jubilee should be amended from Year 22 to Year 30. Kitchen suggests that Osorkon II would have died shortly afterward, in his Year 31.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and children.", "content": "Osorkon II is known to have had at least four wives: Other children of record included:  Other possible children attributed to Osorkon II include his successor Shoshenq III and the King's Daughter Tentsepeh (D), the wife of General Ptahudjankhef, who was a son of Nimlot C and hence, a grandson of Osorkon II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Successor.", "content": "David Aston has argued in a JEA 75 (1989) paper that Osorkon II was succeeded by Shoshenq III at Tanis rather than Takelot II Si-Ese as Kitchen presumed because none of Takelot II's monuments have been found in Lower Egypt where other genuine Tanite kings, such as Osorkon II, Shoshenq III, and even the short-lived Pami (at 6-7 years) are attested on donation stelas, temple walls, and annal documents. Other Egyptologists, such as Gerard Broekman, Karl Jansen-Winkeln, Aidan Dodson, and Jürgen von Beckerath have endorsed this position as well. Von Beckerath also identifies Shoshenq III as the immediate successor of Osorkon II and places Takelot II as a separate king in Upper Egypt. Gerard Broekman writes in a recent 2005 GM article that, \"in light of the monumental and genealogical evidence\", Aston's chronology for the position of the twenty-second dynasty kings \"is highly preferable\" to Kitchen's chronology. The only documents that mention a king Takelot in Lower Egypt, such as a royal tomb at Tanis, a Year 9 donation stela from Bubastis, and a heart scarab featuring the nomen 'Takelot Meryamun' — now have been attributed exclusively to king Takelot I by Egyptologists today, including Kitchen.  The English Egyptologist Aidan Dodson, in his book \"The Canopic Equipment of the Kings of Egypt\", observes that Shoshenq III built \"a dividing wall, with a double scene showing Osorkon II\" and him \"each adoring an unnamed deity\" in the antechamber of Osorkon II's tomb. Dodson concludes that while one may argue Shoshenq III erected the wall to hide Osorkon II's sarcophagus, it made no sense for Shoshenq to create such an elaborate relief if Takelot II really had intervened between him and Osorkon II at Tanis for 25 years, unless Shoshenq III was Osorkon II's immediate successor. Shoshenq III must, hence, have wished to associate himself with his predecessor – Osorkon II. Consequently, the case for establishing Takelot II as a Twenty-second Dynasty king and successor to Osorkon II disappears, as Dodson writes. Takelot II instead founded the twenty-third dynasty of Egypt and ruled a divided Egypt by administering Middle and Upper Egypt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tomb.", "content": "The French excavator Pierre Montet discovered Osorkon II's plundered royal tomb at Tanis on February 27, 1939. It revealed that Osorkon II was buried in a massive granite sarcophagus with a lid carved from a Ramesside-era statue. Only some fragments of a hawk-headed coffin and canopic jars remained in the robbed tomb to identify him. While the tomb had been looted in antiquity, what jewellery that remained \"was of such high quality that existing conceptions of the wealth of the northern Twenty-first and Twenty-second dynasties had to be revised.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Usermaatre Setepenamun Osorkon II was the fifth king of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Ancient Egypt and the son of King Takelot I and Queen Kapes. He ruled Egypt from approximately 872 BC to 837 BC from Tanis, the capital of that dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974158}
{"src_title": "John Smeaton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Law and physics.", "content": "Smeaton was born in Austhorpe, Leeds, England. After studying at Leeds Grammar School he joined his father's law firm, but left to become a mathematical instrument maker (working with Henry Hindley), developing, among other instruments, a pyrometer to study material expansion. In 1750, his premises were in the Great Turnstile in Holborn.  He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1753 and in 1759 won the Copley Medal for his research into the mechanics of waterwheels and windmills. His 1759 paper \"An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Natural Powers of Water and Wind to Turn Mills and Other Machines Depending on Circular Motion\"<ref name=\"Phil. Trans. 1759 51:100-174; doi:10.1098/rstl.1759.0019\"></ref> addressed the relationship between pressure and velocity for objects moving in air (Smeaton noted that the table doing so was actually contributed by \"my friend Mr Rouse\" \"an ingenious gentleman of Harborough, Leicestershire\" and calculated on the basis of Rouse's experiments), and his concepts were subsequently developed to devise the 'Smeaton Coefficient'. Smeaton's water wheel experiments were conducted on a small scale model with which he tested various configurations over a period of seven years. The resulting increasing efficiency in water power contributed to the Industrial Revolution.  Over the period 1759–1782 he performed a series of further experiments and measurements on water wheels that led him to support and champion the \"vis viva\" theory of German Gottfried Leibniz, an early formulation of conservation of energy. This led him into conflict with members of the academic establishment who rejected Leibniz's theory, believing it inconsistent with Sir Isaac Newton's conservation of momentum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Smeaton coefficient.", "content": "In his 1759 paper \"An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Natural Powers of Water and Wind to Turn Mills and Other Machines Depending on Circular Motion\" Smeaton developed the concepts and data which became the basis for the \"Smeaton coefficient\", the lift equation used by the Wright brothers. It has the form:  where:  The Wright brothers determined with wind tunnels that the Smeaton coefficient value of 0.005 was incorrect and should have been 0.0033. In modern analysis, the lift coefficient is normalised by the dynamic pressure instead of the Smeaton coefficient.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Civil engineering.", "content": "Smeaton is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern cement, identifying the compositional requirements needed to obtain \"hydraulicity\" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of Portland cement. Portland cement led to the re-emergence of concrete as a modern building material, largely due to Smeaton's influence.  Recommended by the Royal Society, Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59). He pioneered the use of 'hydraulic lime' (a form of mortar that will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. His lighthouse remained in use until 1877 when the rock underlying the structure's foundations had begun to erode; it was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeaton's Tower. Deciding that he wanted to focus on the lucrative field of civil engineering, he commenced an extensive series of commissions, including: Smeaton is considered to be the first expert witness to appear in an English court. Because of his expertise in engineering, he was called to testify in court for a case related to the silting-up of the harbour at Wells-next-the-Sea in Norfolk in 1782. He also acted as a consultant on the disastrous 63-year-long New Harbour at Rye, designed to combat the silting of the port of Winchelsea. The project is now known informally as \"Smeaton's Harbour\", but despite the name his involvement was limited and occurred more than 30 years after work on the harbour commenced. It closed in 1839.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanical engineer.", "content": "Employing his skills as a mechanical engineer, he devised a water engine for the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew in 1761 and a watermill at Alston, Cumbria in 1767 (he is credited by some with inventing the cast-iron axle shaft for water wheels). In 1782 he built the Chimney Mill at Spital Tongues in Newcastle upon Tyne, the first 5-sailed smock mill in Britain. He also improved Thomas Newcomen's atmospheric engine, erecting one at Chacewater mine, Wheal Busy, in Cornwall in 1775.  In 1789 Smeaton applied an idea by Denis Papin, by using a force pump to maintain the pressure and fresh air inside a diving bell. This bell, built for the Hexham Bridge project, was not intended for underwater work, but in 1790 the design was updated to enable it to be used underwater on the breakwater at Ramsgate Harbour. Smeaton is also credited with explaining the fundamental differences and benefits of overshot versus undershot water wheels. Smeaton experimented with the Newcomen steam engine and made marked improvements around the time James Watt was building his first engines ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Smeaton died after suffering a stroke while walking in the garden of his family home at Austhorpe, and was buried in the parish church at Whitkirk, West Yorkshire. He is highly regarded by other engineers, having contributed to the Lunar Society and founded the Society of Civil Engineers in 1771. He coined the term \"civil engineers\" to distinguish them from military engineers graduating from the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. The Society was a forerunner of the Institution of Civil Engineers, established in 1818, and was renamed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers in 1830. His pupils included canal engineer William Jessop and architect and engineer Benjamin Latrobe.  The pioneering constant of proportionality describing pressure varying as the square of the velocity when applied to objects moving in air was named \"Smeaton's coefficient\" in his honor. Based on his concepts and data, it was used by the Wright brothers in their pursuit of the first successful heavier-than-air aircraft.  Smeaton is one of six civil engineers depicted in the Stephenson stained glass window, designed by William Wailes and unveiled in Westminster Abbey in 1862. A memorial stone commemorating Smeaton himself was unveiled in the Abbey on 7 November 1994, by Noel Ordman, President of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers.  John Smeaton Academy, a secondary school in the suburbs of Leeds adjacent to the Pendas Fields estate near Austhorpe, is named after Smeaton. He is also commemorated at the University of Plymouth, where the Mathematics and Technology Department is housed in a building named after him. A viaduct in the final stage of the Leeds Inner Ring Road, opened in 2008, was named after him.  In 2003 Smeaton was named among the top 10 technological innovators in \"Human Accomplishment: The Pursuit of Excellence in the Arts and Sciences, 800 B.C. to 1950\". He is mentioned in the song \"I Predict a Riot\" (as a symbol of a more dignified and peaceful epoch in Leeds history; and in reference to a Junior School House at Leeds Grammar School, which lead singer Ricky Wilson attended) by the indie rock band Kaiser Chiefs, who are natives of Leeds.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Smeaton (8 June 1724 – 28 October 1792) was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and lighthouses. He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed \"civil engineer\", and is often regarded as the \"father of civil engineering\". He pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate. Smeaton was associated with the Lunar Society.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974159}
{"src_title": "Ronnie Coleman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ronnie Dean Coleman was born on May 13, 1964, in Monroe, Louisiana. In 1984 he graduated \"cum laude\" from Grambling State University (GSU) with a BSc in accounting. While at the university, he played American football as a middle linebacker with the GSU Tigers under coach Eddie Robinson. After graduation, he failed to find work as an accountant and instead went to work at a Domino's Pizza outlet, where he would eat the complimentary pizza every day due to being so poor that he could barely afford to eat outside of work. He then became a police officer in Arlington, Texas, where he served as an officer from 1989 to 2000 and a reserve officer until 2003.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bodybuilding.", "content": "Coleman's fellow officer Gustavo Arlotta suggested he attend the Metroflex gym, owned by amateur bodybuilder Brian Dobson. Dobson offered Coleman a free lifetime membership if he allowed Dobson to train him for the upcoming Mr. Texas bodybuilding competition that year. After training for Mr. Texas, Coleman won first place in both the heavyweight and overall categories. He also defeated Dobson himself. Coleman won his first competition as a professional, the Canada Pro Cup, in 1995. The following year, he won the contest again, then went on to win the 1997 Russian Grand Prix. He also participated in powerlifting competitions in the mid-1990s.  His rise at the top in the professional circuit of bodybuilding was relatively slow: for his first participation at the Mr. Olympia contest (the most prestigious worldwide) in 1992, he wasn't ranked; then in 1994 he placed 15th, then 10th in 1995, 6th in 1996, and 9th in 1997 when Dorian Yates won his sixth and last title before retiring. At the 1998 Mr. Olympia, the favorite was Kenneth Wheeler, with Nasser El Sonbaty, Kevin Levrone and Shawn Ray considered as the most serious contenders; but Coleman – who had won the Night of Champions earlier that year and was starting to be recognized as one of the very best in the discipline – appeared greatly improved and won his first title, beating Wheeler by a few points, and beginning the longest streak of victories in the history of the contest (tied with Lee Haney), with eight titles from 1998 to 2005. In 2001, he became the first man to win both the Arnold Classic and the Mr. Olympia titles the same year (only Dexter Jackson has repeated this feat, in 2008). He finally lost the Mr. Olympia title in 2006 when Jay Cutler finally beat him after placing second three consecutive years; it was only the second time in the history of the contest that a reigning champion having won more than once lost his title while still competing (after Sergio Oliva losing to Arnold Schwarzenegger in 1970). Coleman placed 4th in 2007, which was his last participation.  Coleman's success as a professional bodybuilder has led to many product endorsements and other opportunities in his career. He has visited places such as Brazil, Austria, China, and Australia. He also made many guest appearances at gym openings all around the United States. When training, Coleman preferred to use free weights rather than machines in order to maximize his flexibility and range of motion. He has made three training videos: \"The Unbelievable\", \"The Cost of Redemption\", and \"On the Road\". In these videos, he gives tips for more experienced weightlifters, while warning against overexertion and improper form.  Coleman supports the Inner City Games, an organization co-founded by Arnold Schwarzenegger in 1991. He was the recipient of the 2001 Admiral in the Texas Navy Certificate Award from Texas Governor Rick Perry for outstanding achievements in bodybuilding and for the promotion of physical fitness. In 2011, he launched Ronnie Coleman Signature Series, a company that provides sports nutrition and wellness products for bodybuilders and other athletes.  The extreme weights he used over the course of his career competing as a powerlifter and then a bodybuilder (like squats and deadlifts with 800 lbs) took a toll on his body, and since 2007 he has had to undergo a series of surgeries: two hip replacements and various attempts at alleviating chronic pain from damaged intervertebral discs. Coleman later revealed that he has continued to train despite his deteriorated condition, but could only use light weights now to try to prevent muscle loss, and that some of those surgeries (each one costing between $300,000 and $500,000) had such poor outcomes that he may never be able to walk unassisted again. He feels no regret, though, considering that he was determined to be at the top at any cost, and that, if anything, he regrets not having done even more to set his mark and consolidate his legacy.  In 2018, Vlad Yudin documented Coleman's life and career in the documentary \"Ronnie Coleman: The King\", released on Netflix. For the film, rap artist Quan made a song called \"Flexin' on Them (Ronnie Coleman)\" inspired by Coleman's bodybuilding career.  Some of Coleman's vocal gimmicks, popularized in his training videos where he regularly utters them as a form of self-encouragement, like \"Yeah buddy!\", \"Light weight baby!\" or \"Nothing but a peanut!\", have become commonplace in the bodybuilding community all over the world.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Coleman is a devout Christian.  Coleman met French-Lebanese personal trainer Rouaida Christine Achkar at a sports exposition in Paris on March 22, 1998, and they were married in Beirut on December 28, 2007. They divorced shortly after.  On April 11, 2016, Coleman married personal trainer Susan Williamson. They have four children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ronnie Dean Coleman (born May 13, 1964) is an American retired professional bodybuilder. The winner of the Mr. Olympia title for eight years in a row, he is widely regarded as one of the greatest bodybuilders of all time. Alongside his eight Mr. Olympia wins, he held the record for most wins as an IFBB professional with 26 titles (since broken by Dexter Jackson).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974160}
{"src_title": "Kingdom of Thessalonica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "After the fall of Constantinople to the crusaders in 1204, Boniface of Montferrat, the leader of the crusade, was expected by both the Crusaders and the defeated Byzantines to become the new emperor. However, the Venetians felt that Boniface was too closely tied to the Byzantine Empire, as his brother Conrad had married into the Byzantine imperial family. The Venetians wanted an emperor whom they could control more easily, and with their influence, Baldwin of Flanders was elected as emperor of the new Latin Empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Establishment.", "content": "Boniface reluctantly accepted this, and set out to conquer Thessalonica, the second-largest Byzantine city after Constantinople. At first he had to compete with Emperor Baldwin, who also wanted the city. He then went on to capture the city later in 1204 and set up a kingdom there, subordinate to Baldwin, although the title of \"king\" was never officially used. Late 13th and 14th century sources suggest that Boniface based his claim to Thessalonica on the statement that his younger brother Renier had been granted Thessalonica on his marriage to Maria Komnene in 1180.  In 1204–05, Boniface was able to extend his rule south into Greece, advancing through Thessaly, Boeotia, Euboea, and Attica. The boundaries of the actual Kingdom of Thessalonica seem to have extended only up to Domokos, Pharsalus, and Velestino: southern Thessaly, with the towns of Zetounion and Ravennika, was under governors appointed by the Latin Emperor, and the principalities of southern Greece were only Boniface's feudal vassals. Emperor Henry of Flanders' expedition against the rebellious Lombard barons of Thessalonica in 1208–09, however, ended the feudal dependency of the southern principalities—the Duchy of Athens, the Marquisate of Bodonitsa, the Lordship of Salona, and the Triarchy of Negroponte—on Thessalonica, replacing it with direct imperial suzerainty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Lombard Rebellion.", "content": "Boniface's rule lasted less than two years before he was ambushed by Tsar Kaloyan of Bulgaria and killed on September 4, 1207. The kingdom passed to Boniface's son Demetrius, who was still a baby, so actual power was held by various minor nobles of Lombard origin. These nobles, under the regent Oberto, began plotting to place William VI of Montferrat, Boniface's elder son, on the throne, and openly defied the Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders. Henry marched against them in 1209 and forced their submission. As a result, Henry's brother Eustace then became regent for Demetrius.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War with Epirus and fall.", "content": "Taking advantage of this situation, Michael I of Epirus, a former ally of Boniface, attacked the kingdom in 1210, as did the Bulgarians. Henry of Flanders eventually defeated both, but after Michael's death in 1214, his brother and successor Theodore began anew the assault on the kingdom. Over the next nine years Theodore gradually conquered all of Thessalonica except the city itself, as the Latin Empire could spare no army to defend it while they were busy fighting the Byzantine Empire of Nicaea in Asia. In 1224, just as Demetrius had become old enough to take power for himself, Theodore finally captured Thessalonica and the kingdom became part of the Despotate of Epirus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Titular claimants.", "content": "The kingdom was claimed by titular kings of the house of Montferrat until 1284 and also by the dukes of Burgundy; Baldwin II of Constantinople had promised the title to Hugh IV should he regain the Latin Empire.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Kingdom of Thessalonica () was a short-lived Crusader State founded after the Fourth Crusade over conquered Byzantine lands in Macedonia and Thessaly.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974161}
{"src_title": "Marie Casimire Louise de La Grange d'Arquien", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Marie Casimire and her sister were the only surviving children of Henri de la Grange d'Arquien, a French nobleman. She came to Poland at the age of five years as a lady in waiting to Marie Louise Gonzaga, the French-born Queen of Poland from 1645 to 1672, wife and consort to two Polish kings — Władysław IV Vasa and later his brother (who succeeded him) John II Casimir Vasa. At the court she met John Sobieski, who arrived there in 1656, but she was first married to Jan \"Sobiepan\" Zamoyski in 1658, with whom she had four children, all died in infancy. Zamoyski died in 1665 and the widowed Marie Casimire eventually married Sobieski on the 14 July the same year. The couple had thirteen children together, but only four of them survived until adult age — Jakub, Aleksander, Konstanty and Teresa (who later became \"Kurfürstin\" of Bavaria and mother to Emperor Karl VII).  John Sobieski was elected King of Poland in 1674, not without the influence of his wife. As the Queen of Poland, Marie Casimire quickly became unpopular, as she supported the proposed Polish–French alliance, while at the same time striving to gain privileges for her family from the French king Louis XIV.  The Royal couple became famous for their love letters, most of which were written from 1665 to 1683, when they were parted either due to John III Sobieski's military engagements or her travels to Paris. The letters give insight not only into the authentic feelings of the loving couple, but also their reflections on contemporary issues and difficulties, as well as down-to-earth matters concerning the royal household and little day-to-day decisions made by the monarch, who often consulted his wife about them. Published long after the death of both of them, they can be credited with popularizing the King's way of addressing the Queen by the very diminutive form of her first name — \"Marysieńka\". She is widely remembered and referred to in Poland that way.  Marie Casimire was a hard, arrogant, self-centered woman. With all their love, the king and the queen quarreled, and after the king's death, their son hurried to send his mother to a distinguished exile in Rome, where she was expected to be accepted with the same respect and prestige as Christina, Queen of Sweden, a well-known art patron and founder of the Academy of Arcadia. But Marie Casimire did not enjoy Queen Christina's virtues, neither her nobility, her intelligence, nor her intellect. She believed that her devoted support of Catholicism vis-a-vis the Turks would receive an enthusiastic reception from the church in Rome, but that the Swedish queen, who had converted from Protestantism to Catholicism, had also elevated her status in the eyes of the Vatican. Nevertheless, Marie Casimire was well received and became a music patron who was mainly patronized by Domenico Scarlatti. In his role as maestro di Capella, he composed and produced seven operas with her, as a continuation of the operas written by his father, Alessandro.  Marysieńka spent the last one and a half years of her life in France, where in January 1716 she died after rinsing the stomach administered by a doctor. The coffin was moved to the chapel of St. Eustace in the church of St. Savior in Blois. On the other hand, the heart was put in a casket in the local Jesuit church (it was later lost during the French Revolution). Then in 1717, the coffin with Marysieńka's body was buried in the Capuchin church in Warsaw, next to John III. In 1733, both bodies were transported to the Wawel Cathedral in Krakow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Marie Casimire first married Jan \"Sobiepan\" Zamoyski (1627–1665) on March 3, 1658 in Warsaw. They had four children, all of whom died in infancy:  Zamoyski himself died April 2, 1665. Marie Casimire remarried in July of that year to the future Jan III Sobieski. This marriage was famously happy and the couple had thirteen children, though many did not survive to adulthood:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marie Casimire Louise de La Grange d'Arquien (), known also by the diminutive form \"Marysieńka\" (28 June 1641, Nevers – 30 January 1716, Blois) was queen consort to King John III Sobieski, from 1674 to 1696.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974162}
{"src_title": "Boniface I, Marquis of Montferrat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Boniface was the third son of William V of Montferrat and Judith of Babenberg, born after his father's return from the Second Crusade. He was a younger brother of William \"Longsword\", Count of Jaffa and Ascalon, and of Conrad I of Jerusalem. His youthful exploits in the late 1170s are recalled in the famous \"epic letter\", \"Valen marques, senher de Monferrat\", by his good friend and court troubadour, Raimbaut de Vaqueiras. These included the rescue of the heiress Jacopina of Ventimiglia from her uncle Count Otto, who was intending to deprive her of her inheritance and send her to Sardinia. Boniface arranged a marriage for her. When Albert of Malaspina (husband of one of Boniface's sisters) abducted Saldina de Mar, a daughter of a prominent Genoese family, Boniface rescued her and restored her to her lover, Ponset d'Aguilar. Like the rest of the family, he also supported his cousin Frederick I Barbarossa in their wars against the independent city communes of the Lombard League.  Boniface's eldest brother, William, had died in 1177, soon after marrying Sibylla, the heiress presumptive to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1179, the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos offered his daughter Maria Porphyrogenita as a bride to one of the sons of William V. Since Boniface, like his older brother Conrad, was already married, and Frederick was a priest, the youngest brother, Renier, married her instead, only to be murdered along with her during the usurpation of Andronikos.  In 1183, Boniface's nephew Baldwin V was crowned co-king of Jerusalem. William V went out to the kingdom to support his grandson, leaving Conrad and Boniface in charge of Montferrat. However, in 1187, Conrad also left for the East: Isaac II Angelos had offered his sister Theodora to Boniface as a wife, to renew the family's Byzantine alliance, but Boniface had just married for the second time, while Conrad was a recent widower.  In 1189, Boniface joined the council of regency for Thomas I of Savoy, son of his cousin Humbert III, until the boy came of age about two years later. In 1191, after the new Emperor Henry VI granted him the county of Incisa, a fifteen-year war broke out against the neighbouring communes of Asti and Alessandria. Boniface joined the Cremona League, while the two cities joined the League of Milan. Boniface defeated the cities at Montiglio in June that year, but the war as a whole went badly for the dynasty's interests. At Quarto, he and Vaqueiras saved his brother-in-law Alberto of Malaspina when he was unhorsed. The first phase of the war ended with a truce in April 1193. By now, Boniface was Marquis of Montferrat, following the deaths of his father in 1191 and of Conrad, the newly elected king of Jerusalem, in 1192. No claim to Montferrat ever seems to have been made on behalf of Conrad's posthumous daughter, Maria.  In June 1194, Boniface was appointed one of the leaders of Henry VI's expedition to Sicily. At Messina, amid the fighting between the Genoese and Pisan fleets, Vaqueiras protected his lord with his own shield – an act which helped the troubador win a knighthood from Boniface that year, after the campaign's successful conclusion: Henry's coronation in Palermo. In October 1197, the truce with Asti ended. Boniface made an alliance with Acqui in June 1198. There were numerous skirmishes and raids, including at Ricaldone and Caranzano, but by 1199 it was clear the war was lost, and Boniface entered into negotiations.  Throughout the 1180s and 1190s, despite the wars, Boniface had nevertheless presided over one of the most prestigious courts of chivalric culture and troubador song. In the 12th century, the Piedmontese language (which in the present day reflects more French and Italian influences) was virtually indistinguishable from the Occitan of Southern France and Catalonia. Besides Vaqueiras, visitors included Peire Vidal, Gaucelm Faidit, and Arnaut de Mareuil. Boniface's patronage was celebrated widely. To Gaucelm, he was \"Mon Thesaur\" (\"My Treasure\"). Curiously, Vaqueiras sometimes addressed him as \"N'Engles\" (\"Lord Englishman\"), but the in-joke is never explained. His sister Azalaïs, Marchioness of Saluzzo, also shared this interest and was mentioned by Vidal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fourth Crusade.", "content": "When the original leader of the Fourth Crusade, Count Theobald III of Champagne, died in 1201, Boniface was chosen as its new leader. He was an experienced soldier, and it was an opportunity to reassert his dynasty's reputation after defeat at home. Boniface's family was well known in the east: his nephew Baldwin and brother Conrad had been kings of Jerusalem, and his niece Maria was the heir presumptive to the kingdom.  Boniface's cousin Philip of Swabia was married to Irene Angelina, a daughter of the deposed Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos and niece of Conrad's second wife Theodora. In the winter of 1201 Boniface spent Christmas with Phillip in Hagenau, and while there also met with Alexios Angelos, Isaac II's son, who had escaped from the custody of his uncle Alexios III Angelos. At this time the three discussed the possibility of using the crusading army to restore Alexius' right to the throne. Both Boniface and Alexius travelled separately to Rome to ask for Pope Innocent III's blessing for the endeavour; however, Boniface was specifically told by Innocent not to attack any Christians, including the Byzantines.  The Crusader army was in debt to the doge of Venice, who had provided their fleet. He instructed them to attack the rebellious cities of Trieste, Moglia, and Zara and beat them into submission before sailing for Cairo. The Pope was angered by these Christian cities being attacked by a Crusader army. The doge, Enrico Dandolo, was now the true war leader of this Crusade, with Boniface as only a figurehead. Alexius Angelus made many promises to the Crusaders and their principal financer, the doge of Venice, for riches and honors if they would help him reclaim his empire. Dandolo placated the Pope by having Alexius Angelus promise to submit the Orthodox Church to Rome when he was restored to his throne in Constantinople. This being done, the fleet set sail for Constantinople in 1203.  After the conquest of Constantinople in 1204, Boniface was assumed to be the new emperor, both by the western knights and the conquered Byzantine citizens. However, the Venetians vetoed him, believing that he already had too many connections in the Empire and, likely, felt that they would not have as much influence in the empire if Boniface was in control. Instead, they chose Baldwin of Flanders. Boniface founded the Kingdom of Thessalonica and also held all the territories that lay east of Bosphorus and territories in Crete, though he later conceded Crete to Baldwin. Late 13th and 14th century sources suggest that Boniface based his claim to Thessalonica on the statement that his younger brother Renier had been granted Thessalonica on his marriage to Maria Komnene in 1180.  Boniface was killed in an ambush by the Bulgarians on 4 September 1207, and his head was sent to Bulgarian Tsar Kaloyan. The loyal Raimbaut de Vaqueiras, who had followed him to the East, probably died with him: it is significant that he composed no \"planh\" (lament) in his memory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Boniface was first married c. 1170 to Helena del Bosco. They had three children:  In 1205 in Constantinople he married Margaret of Hungary, daughter of King Béla III of Hungary and widow of Emperor Isaac II Angelos. They had one child:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "<br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Boniface I, usually known as Boniface of Montferrat (;, \"Vonifatios Momferratikos\") (c. 1150 – 4 September 1207), was the ninth Marquis of Montferrat (from 1192), the leader of the Fourth Crusade (1201–04) and king of Thessalonica (from 1205).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974163}
{"src_title": "Eurasian wigeon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The Eurasian wigeon was described by Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of his \"Systema Naturae\" under the binomial name \"Anas penelope\". \"Anas\" is the Latin for \"duck\", and \"penelope\" refers to a duck that was supposed to have rescued Penelope when she was thrown into the sea. Her name derives from Ancient Greek πήνη \"pene\", \"braid\" and ὤψ \"ops\" \"appearance\", from the ruse she used to deter suitors while her husband Ulysses was absent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "This dabbling duck is long with a wingspan, and a weight of. The breeding male has grey flanks and back, with a black rear end, a dark green speculum and a brilliant white patch on upper wings, obvious in flight or at rest. It has a pink breast, white belly, and a chestnut head with a creamy crown. In non-breeding (eclipse) plumage, the drake looks more like the female. The female is light brown, with plumage much like a female American wigeon. It can be distinguished from most other ducks, apart from American wigeon, on shape. However, that species has a paler head and white axillaries on its underwing. The female can be a rufous morph with a redder head, and a gray morph with a more gray head.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "It breeds in the northernmost areas of Europe and the Palearctic. It is the Old World counterpart of North America's American wigeon. It is strongly migratory and winters further south than its breeding range. It migrates to southern Asia and Africa. In Great Britain and Ireland, the Eurasian wigeon is common as a winter visitor, but scarce as a breeding bird in Scotland, the Lake District, the Pennines and occasionally further south, with only a handful of breeding pairs in Ireland. It can be found as an uncommon winter visitor in the United States on the mid-Atlantic and Pacific coasts. It is a rare visitor to the rest of the United States except for the Four Corners and the southern Appalachians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and habitat.", "content": "The Eurasian wigeon is a bird of open wetlands, such as wet grassland or marshes with some taller vegetation, and usually feeds by dabbling for plant food or grazing, which it does very readily. It nests on the ground, near water and under cover. It is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season and will form large flocks. They will join with flocks of the American wigeon in the United States, and they also hybridize with them. This is a noisy species. The male has a clear whistle that sounds like: \"pjiew pjiew\", whereas the female has a low growl : \"rawr\".  The Eurasian wigeon is one of the species to which the \"Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds\" (AEWA) applies. Its conservation status is Least Concern.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Eurasian wigeon, also known as widgeon (\"Mareca penelope\") is one of three species of wigeon in the dabbling duck genus \"Mareca\". It is common and widespread within its Palearcticrange.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974164}
{"src_title": "Pollard's p − 1 algorithm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Base concepts.", "content": "Let \"n\" be a composite integer with prime factor \"p\". By Fermat's little theorem, we know that for all integers \"a\" coprime to \"p\" and for all positive integers \"K\":  If a number \"x\" is congruent to 1 modulo a factor of \"n\", then the will be divisible by that factor.  The idea is to make the exponent a large multiple of \"p\" − 1 by making it a number with very many prime factors; generally, we take the product of all prime powers less than some limit \"B\". Start with a random \"x\", and repeatedly replace it by formula_2 as \"w\" runs through those prime powers. Check at each stage, or once at the end if you prefer, whether is not equal to 1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Multiple factors.", "content": "It is possible that for all the prime factors \"p\" of \"n\", \"p\" − 1 is divisible by small primes, at which point the Pollard \"p\" − 1 algorithm gives you \"n\" again.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Algorithm and running time.", "content": "The basic algorithm can be written as follows:  If in step 6, this indicates there are no prime factors \"p\" for which \"p-1\" is \"B\"-powersmooth. If in step 7, this usually indicates that all factors were \"B\"-powersmooth, but in rare cases it could indicate that \"a\" had a small order modulo \"n\". By the way, when the maximum prime factors of \"p-1\" for each prime factors \"p\" of \"n\" are all the same in some rare cases, this algorithm will fail.  The running time of this algorithm is ; larger values of \"B\" make it run slower, but are more likely to produce a factor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "If we want to factor the number \"n\" = 299.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "How to choose \"B\"?", "content": "Since the algorithm is incremental, it can just keep running with the bound constantly increasing.  Assume that \"p\" − 1, where \"p\" is the smallest prime factor of \"n\", can be modelled as a random number of size less than. By Dixon's theorem, the probability that the largest factor of such a number is less than (\"p\" − 1) is roughly \"ε\"; so there is a probability of about 3 = 1/27 that a \"B\" value of \"n\" will yield a factorisation.  In practice, the elliptic curve method is faster than the Pollard \"p\" − 1 method once the factors are at all large; running the \"p\" − 1 method up to \"B\" = 2 will find a quarter of all 64-bit factors and 1/27 of all 96-bit factors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Two-stage variant.", "content": "A variant of the basic algorithm is sometimes used; instead of requiring that \"p\" − 1 has all its factors less than \"B\", we require it to have all but one of its factors less than some \"B\", and the remaining factor less than some. After completing the first stage, which is the same as the basic algorithm, instead of computing a new  for \"B\" and checking, we compute  where and check if produces a nontrivial factor of \"n\". As before, exponentiations can be done modulo \"n\".  Let {\"q\", \"q\",...} be successive prime numbers in the interval and \"d\" = \"q\" − \"q\" the difference between consecutive prime numbers. Since typically, are even numbers. The distribution of prime numbers is such that the \"d\" will all be relatively small. It is suggested that. Hence, the values of,,,... (mod \"n\") can be stored in a table, and be computed from, saving the need for exponentiations.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pollard's \"p\" − 1 algorithm is a number theoretic integer factorization algorithm, invented by John Pollard in 1974. It is a special-purpose algorithm, meaning that it is only suitable for integers with specific types of factors; it is the simplest example of an algebraic-group factorisation algorithm.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974165}
{"src_title": "Geoffrey of Villehardouin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "A layman and a soldier, Geoffroi was appointed Marshal of Champagne from 1185 and joined the Crusade in 1199 during a tournament held by Count Thibaud III of Champagne. Thibaud named him one of the ambassadors to Venice to procure ships for the voyage, and he helped to elect Boniface of Montferrat as the new leader of the Crusade when Thibaud died.  Although Geoffroi does not say so specifically in his own account, he probably supported the diversion of the Crusade first to Zara and then to Constantinople. While at Constantinople he also served as an ambassador to Isaac II Angelus, and was in the embassy that demanded that Isaac appoint Alexius IV co-emperor.  After the conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 he served as a military leader, and led the retreat from the Battle of Adrianople in 1205 after Baldwin I was captured by the forces of the Second Bulgarian Empire. In recognition of his services, Boniface of Montferrat gave to Geoffroi the city of Messinopolis in Thrace. After the Crusade, he was named Marshal of the Latin Empire.  In 1207 Geoffroi began to write his chronicle of the Crusade, \"On the Conquest of Constantinople\". It was in French rather than Latin, making it one of the earliest works of French prose. Villehardouin's account is generally read alongside that of Robert of Clari, a French knight of low station, Niketas Choniates, a high-ranking Byzantine official and historian who gives an eyewitness account, and Gunther of Pairis, a Cistercian monk who tells the story from the perspective of Abbot Martin who accompanied the Crusaders.  Villehardouin's nephew Geoffroi I of Villehardouin went on to become Prince of Achaea in Morea (the medieval name for the Peloponnesus) in 1209. Villehardouin himself seems to have died shortly afterwards. His son Erard had taken, in 1213, the title of \"seigneur de Villehardouin\". There is evidence of his children raising memorials for him in 1218, suggesting he died around this time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Geoffroi de Villehardouin (c. 1150 – c. 1213–1218) was a knight and historian who participated in and chronicled the Fourth Crusade. He is considered one of the most important historians of the time period, best known for writing the eyewitness account \"De la Conquête de Constantinople\" (\"On the Conquest of Constantinople\"), about the battle for Constantinople between the Christians of the West and the Christians of the East on 13 April 1204. The \"Conquest\" is the earliest French historical prose narrative that has survived to modern times. Ηis full title was: \"Geoffroi of Villehardouin, Marshal of Champagne and of Romania\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974166}
{"src_title": "Alexandre Koyré", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Koyré was born in the city of Taganrog, Russia on 29 August 1892 into a Jewish family. His original name was Alexandr Vladimirovich Koyre (Александр Владимирович (Вольфович) Койре). In Russia he studied in Tiflis, Rostov-on-Don and Odessa, before pursuing his studies abroad.  At Göttingen, Germany (1908–1911) he studied under Edmund Husserl and David Hilbert. Husserl did not approve of Koyré's dissertation, whereupon Koyré left for Paris, to study at the Collège de France and the Sorbonne during the period 1912–1913 under Bergson, Brunschvicg, Lalande, Delbos and Picavet. Following Husserl's \"Cartesian Meditations\", a series of lectures given in Paris in February 1929 (and one of the more important of Husserl's later works), Koyré met again with Husserl repeatedly.  In 1914 he joined the French Foreign Legion as soon as the war broke out. In 1916 he volunteered for a Russian regiment fighting on the Russian front, following a cooperation agreement between the French and Russian governments.  In 1922 Koyré completed his two State doctorate (then called \"Doctorat ès lettres\") theses. The same year he started teaching in Paris at the École pratique des hautes études (EPHE), and became a colleague of Alexandre Kojève, who eventually replaced him as lecturer on Hegel. In 1932 the EPHE created a Department of History of Religious Thought in Modern Europe for him to chair. He retained this position until his death.  During the years 1932–34, 1936–38, and 1940–41, Koyré taught in Fuad University (later Cairo University) where, along with André Lalande and others, he introduced the study of modern philosophy to Egyptian academia. His most important student in Cairo was Abdel Rahman Badawi (1917–2002) who is considered the first systematic modern Arab philosopher. Koyré later joined the Egyptian National Committee of the Free French.  During World War II, Koyré lived in New York City, and taught at the New School for Social Research. After World War II, he was a frequent visitor to the United States, spending half a year at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton each year from 1955 to 1962 and also teaching as a visiting professor at Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, the University of Wisconsin, and Johns Hopkins. His lectures at Johns Hopkins would form the nucleus of one of his best known publications, \"From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe\" (1957). Koyré was general secretary and Vice President of the Institut International de Philosophie, a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a recipient of the George Sarton Medal of the History of Science Society, and of the Silver Medal of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.  He died in Paris on 28 April 1964.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Though best known as a philosopher of science, Koyré started out as a historian of religion. Much of his originality for the period rests on his ability to ground his studies of modern science on the history of religion and metaphysics.  Koyré focused on Galileo, Plato and Isaac Newton. His most famous work is \"From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe\", a series of lectures given at The Johns Hopkins University in 1959 on the rise of early modern science and the change of scientists' perception of the world during the period from Nicholas of Cusa and Giordano Bruno through Newton. Though the book has been widely heralded, it was a summation of Koyré's perspective rather than an original new work.  Koyré was suspicious of scientists' claims to prove natural or fundamental truths through experiments. He argued these experiments were based on complicated premises, and that they tended to prove the outlook behind these premises, rather than any real truth. He repeatedly critiqued Galileo's experiments, claiming that some of them could not have taken place, and disputed the results Galileo claimed and which modern historians of science had hitherto accepted.  According to Koyré, it was not the experimental or empirical nature of Galileo's and Newton's discoveries that carried the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, but a shift in perspective, a change in theoretical outlook toward the world. Koyré strongly criticized what he called the \"positivist\" notion that science should only discover given phenomena, the relations between them and certain laws that would help to describe or predict them. To Koyré science was, at its heart, theory: an aspiration to know the truth of the world, of uncovering the essential structures from which phenomena, and the basic laws that relate them, spring.  Koyré was also interested in the correlations between scientific discoveries and religious or philosophical worldviews. Like Husserl in his later studies, Koyré claimed that modern science had succeeded in overcoming the split, inherent in traditional Aristotelian science, between Earth and Space, since these were now both seen as governed by the same laws. On the other hand, another split had now been created, between the phenomenal world inhabited by man and the purely abstract, mathematical world of science. Koyré aimed to show how this \"first world\", the world of human dwelling (personal and historical), apparently irrelevant to modern naturalistic research, was by no means irrelevant for the very constitution and development of this research. Koyré consistently sought to show how scientific truth is always discovered in correlation with specific historical, even purely personal, circumstances.  Koyré's work can be seen as a systematic analysis of the constitutive achievements that resulted in scientific knowledge, but with particular emphasis on the historical, and specifically human, circumstances that generate the scientists' phenomenal world and serve as foundation for all scientific constitutions of meaning.  Koyré influenced major European and American philosophers of science, most significantly Thomas Kuhn, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend. In 1961 he was awarded the Sarton Medal by the History of Science Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "In the course of his studies of Galileo, Koyré famously claimed that the experiments with weights falling and rolling on inclined planes that Galileo described in his writings probably had not been carried out in practice, but were instead thought experiments intended to illustrate his deductions. Koyré argued that the precision of the results reported by Galileo was not possible with the technology available to him and quoted the contemporary judgement of Marin Mersenne, who had questioned the feasibility of reproducing Galileo's results. Furthermore, according to Koyré, Galileo's science was largely a product of his Platonist philosophy and did not really derive from experimental observations.  Koyré's conclusions were first challenged in 1961 by Thomas B. Settle, who as a graduate student at Cornell University succeeded in reproducing Galileo's experiments with inclined planes using the methods and technologies described in Galileo's writing. Later, Stillman Drake and others worked through Galileo's notes and demonstrated that Galileo was a careful experimentalist whose observations did play a pivotal role in the development of his scientific system that he later claimed in his published work. Koyré has been further criticised for his claim about Galileo's Platonism, which he saw as a synonym with mathematics and mathematization of nature. As the Italian scholar Lodovico Geymonat has proved, in fact, Platonism as a tradition does not helpfully illuminate the development of Galileo's mathematical studies which are mostly concerned with applied mathematics, engineering and mechanics fields that neither Plato nor Platonist authors were much interested in.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alexandre Koyré (, ; 29 August 1892 – 28 April 1964), also anglicized as Alexander Koyre, was a French philosopher of Russian origin who wrote on the history and philosophy of science.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974167}
{"src_title": "P. D. James", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "James was born in Oxford, the daughter of Sidney James, a tax inspector, and educated at the British School in Ludlow and Cambridge High School for Girls. She had to leave school at the age of sixteen to work because her family did not have much money and her father did not believe in higher education for girls. She worked in a tax office for three years and later found a job as an assistant stage manager for a theatre group. In 1941, she married Ernest Connor Bantry White, an army doctor. They had two daughters, Clare and Jane.  When White returned from the Second World War, he was experiencing mental illness, and James was forced to provide for the whole family until her husband's death in 1964. With her husband in a psychiatric institution and their daughters being mostly cared for by his parents, James studied hospital administration and from 1949 to 1968 worked for a hospital board in London. She began writing in the mid-1950s, using her maiden name (\"My genes are James genes\").  Her first novel, \"Cover Her Face\", featuring the investigator and poet Adam Dalgliesh of New Scotland Yard, named after a teacher at Cambridge High School, was published in 1962. Many of James's mystery novels take place against the backdrop of UK bureaucracies, such as the criminal justice system and the National Health Service, in which she worked for decades starting in the 1940s. Two years after the publication of \"Cover Her Face\", James's husband died, and she took a position as a civil servant within the criminal section of the Home Office. She worked in government service until her retirement in 1979.  On 7 February 1991, James was created a life peer as Baroness James of Holland Park, \"of Southwold in the County of Suffolk\". She sat in the House of Lords as a Conservative. She was an Anglican and a lay patron of the Prayer Book Society. Her 2001 work, \"Death in Holy Orders\", displays her familiarity with the inner workings of church hierarchy. Her later novels were often set in a community closed in some way, such as a publishing house or barristers' chambers, a theological college, an island or a private clinic. \"Talking About Detective Fiction\" was published in 2009. Over her writing career, James also wrote many essays and short stories for periodicals and anthologies, which have yet to be collected. She revealed in 2011 that \"The Private Patient\" was the final Dalgliesh novel.  As guest editor of BBC Radio 4's \"Today\" programme in December 2009, James conducted an interview with the Director General of the BBC, Mark Thompson, in which she seemed critical of some of his decisions. Regular \"Today\" presenter Evan Davis commented that \"She shouldn't be guest editing; she should be permanently presenting the programme.\" In 2008, she was inducted into the International Crime Writing Hall of Fame at the inaugural ITV3 Crime Thriller Awards.  In August 2014, James was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to \"The Guardian\" opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue.  James' main home was her house on Holland Park Avenue, the area from which she took her title: she also owned homes in Oxford, and Southwold.  James died at her home in Oxford on 27 November 2014, aged 94. She is survived by her two daughters, Clare and Jane, five grandchildren and eight great-grandchildren.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film and television.", "content": "During the 1980s, many of James's mystery novels were adapted for television by Anglia Television for the ITV network in the UK. These productions have been broadcast in other countries, including the US on the PBS network. They featured Roy Marsden as Adam Dalgliesh. According to James in conversation with Bill Link on 3 May 2001 at the Writer's Guild Theatre, Los Angeles, Marsden \"is not my idea of Dalgliesh, but I would be very surprised if he were.\" The BBC adapted \"Death in Holy Orders\" in 2003, and \"The Murder Room\" in 2004, both as one-off dramas starring Martin Shaw as Dalgliesh.  Her novel \"The Children of Men\" (1992) was the basis for the feature film \"Children of Men\" (2006), directed by Alfonso Cuarón and starring Clive Owen, Julianne Moore and Michael Caine. Despite substantial changes from the book, James was reportedly pleased with the adaptation and proud to be associated with the film.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Novels.", "content": "Adam Dalgliesh mysteries  Cordelia Gray mysteries  Miscellaneous novels  Short stories Omnibus editions", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Selected awards and honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Honorary doctorates  Honorary fellowships", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Phyllis Dorothy James, Baroness James of Holland Park, (3 August 1920 – 27 November 2014), known professionally as P. D. James, was an English crime writer. She rose to fame for her series of detective novels featuring police commander and poet Adam Dalgliesh.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974168}
{"src_title": "Egyptian plover", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Egyptian plover is a striking and unmistakable species. The 19–21 cm long adult has a black crown, back, eye-mask and breast band. The rest of the head is white. The remaining upperpart plumage is blue-grey, and the underparts are orange. The longish legs are blue-grey.  In flight, it is even more spectacular, with the black crown and back contrasting with the grey of the upperparts and wings. The flight feathers are brilliant white crossed by a black bar. From below, the flying bird is entirely white, apart from the orange belly and black wing bar. After landing, members of a pair greet each other by raising their wings in an elaborate ceremony that shows off the black and white markings. The sexes are similar, but juveniles are duller and the black marking are intermixed with brown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and range.", "content": "The Egyptian plover is a localised resident in tropical sub-Saharan Africa. It breeds on sandbars in very large rivers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "This usually very tame bird is found in pairs or small groups near water. It feeds by pecking for insects. The call is a high-pitched \"krrr-krrr-krrr\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "Its two or three eggs are not incubated, but are buried in warm sand, temperature control being achieved by the adult sitting on the eggs with a water-soaked belly to cool them. If the adult leaves the nest, it smooths sand over the eggs, though if it is frightened the job may be hasty. The chicks are precocial, and can run as soon as they are hatched and feed themselves shortly afterwards. The adults cool the chicks in the same way as with the eggs. The chicks may drink water from the adult's belly feathers. The adults bury the chicks in the sand temporarily if danger threatens.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Supposed relationship with crocodiles.", "content": "The bird is sometimes referred to as the crocodile bird for its alleged symbiotic relationship with crocodiles. According to Herodotus, the crocodiles lie on the shore with their mouths open and a bird called \"trochilus\" flies into the crocodiles' mouths so as to feed on decaying meat lodged between the crocodiles' teeth. The identification of the trochilus with any particular plover is doubtful, as is the cleaning symbiosis itself; no known photographic evidence exists, and the written accounts are considered suspect by the biologist Thomas Howell.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Egyptian plover (\"Pluvianus aegyptius\"), also known as the crocodile bird, is a wader, the only member of the genus \"Pluvianus\". Formerly placed in the pratincole and courser family, Glareolidae, it is now regarded as the sole member of its own monotypic family Pluvianidae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974169}
{"src_title": "Lands of the Bohemian Crown", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The Lands of the Bohemian Crown () are called \"země Koruny české\" or simply \"Koruna česká\" (Crown of Bohemia or Bohemian Crown) and \"České země\" (i.e. Czech lands) in Czech language, the adjective \"český\" referring to both \"Bohemian\" and \"Czech\". The German term \"Länder der Böhmischen Krone\" is likewise shortened to \"Böhmische Krone\" or \"Böhmische Kronländer\". Native names include,, and. The denotation Lands of the Crown of Saint Wenceslas (\"země Koruny svatováclavské\") refers to the Crown of Saint Wenceslas, part of the regalia of the Bohemian monarchs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Přemyslids.", "content": "In the 10th and 11th century the Duchy of Bohemia, together with Moravia (the Margraviate of Moravia from 1182 on), and Kłodzko Land were consolidated under the ruling Přemyslid dynasty.  Duke Ottokar I of Bohemia gained the hereditary royal title to the Duchy of Bohemia in 1198, from the German (anti)−king Philip of Swabia, for his support. Along with the title, Philip also raised the duchy to the Kingdom of Bohemia rank. The regality was ultimately confirmed by Philip's nephew the German king Frederick II, later the Holy Roman Emperor (1220−1250), in the Golden Bull of Sicily issued in 1212.  The Přemyslid king Ottokar II of Bohemia acquired the Duchy of Austria in 1251, the Duchy of Styria in 1261, the Egerland in 1266, the Duchy of Carinthia with the March of Carniola and the Windic March in 1269 as well as the March of Friuli in 1272. His plans to turn Bohemia into the leading Imperial State were aborted by his Habsburg rival King Rudolph I of Germany, who seized his acquisitions and finally defeated him in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Luxembourgs.", "content": "In 1306 the House of Luxembourg began producing Bohemian kings upon the extinction of the Přemyslids. They significantly enlarged the Bohemian lands again, including when King John the Blind vassalized most Polish Piast dukes of Silesia. His suzerainty was acknowledged by the Polish king Casimir III the Great in the 1335 Treaty of Trentschin. John also achieved the enfeoffment with the Upper Lusatian lands of Bautzen (1319) and Görlitz (1329), by the German king Louis IV. King John's eldest son Charles IV was elected King of the Romans in 1346 and succeeded his father as King of Bohemia in the same year. In 1348, Charles IV introduced the concept of the \"Crown of Bohemia\" (\"Corona regni Bohemiae\" in Latin), a term which designated the whole state hereditarily ruled by the kings of Bohemia, not only its core territory of Bohemia but also the incorporated provinces.  The Luxembourg dynasty reached its high point, when Charles was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1355. By his Imperial authority he decreed that the united Bohemian lands should endure regardless of dynastic developments, even if the Luxembourgs should die out.  In 1367 he purchased Lower Lusatia from his stepson Margrave Otto V of Brandenburg and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Beside their home County of Luxembourg itself, the dynasty held further non-contiguous Imperial fiefs in the Low Countries, such as: the Duchy of Brabant and Duchy of Limburg, acquired through marriage by Charles' younger half-brother Wenceslaus of Luxembourg in 1355; as well as the Margraviate of Brandenburg purchased in 1373. As both the King of Bohemia and the Margrave of Brandenburg had been designated Prince-electors in the Golden Bull of 1356, the Luxembourgs held two votes in the electoral college, securing the succession of Charles's son Wenceslaus in 1376.  With King Wenceslaus, the decline of the Luxembourg dynasty began. He himself was deposed as King of the Romans in 1400. The Duchies of Brabant, Limburg (in 1406), and even Luxembourg itself (in 1411) were ceded to the French House of Valois-Burgundy; while the Margraviate of Brandenburg passed to the House of Hohenzollern (in 1415). Nevertheless, the joint rule of the Bohemian Lands outlived the Hussite Wars and the extinction of the Luxembourg male line upon the death of Emperor Sigismund in 1437.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jagiellons.", "content": "Vladislas II of the Jagiellon dynasty, son of the Polish king Casimir IV, was designated King of Bohemia in 1471, while the crown lands of Moravia, Silesia, and the Lusatias were occupied by rivaling King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. In 1479 both kings signed the Treaty of Olomouc, whereby the unity of the Bohemian crown lands was officially retained unchanged and the monarchs appointed each other as sole heir. Upon the death of King Matthias in 1490, Vladislas ruled the Bohemian crown lands and the Kingdom of Hungary in personal union.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Habsburgs.", "content": "When Vladislas' only son Louis was killed at the Battle of Mohács in 1526 ending the Jagiellon dynasty rule in Bohemia, a convention of Bohemian nobles elected his brother-in-law, the Habsburg archduke Ferdinand I of Austria, as the new king of the Bohemian crown lands. Together with the Archduchy of Austria \"hereditary lands\" and the Hungarian kingdom, they formed the Habsburg Monarchy, which in the following centuries grew out of the Holy Roman Empire into a separate European power. Attempts by the Bohemian Protestant Reformation estates to build up an autonomous confederation were dashed at the 1620 Battle of White Mountain, whereafter the administration was centralised at Vienna. Moreover, the Habsburg rulers lost the Lusatias to the Electorate of Saxony after the Thirty Years' War in the 1635 Peace of Prague, and also most of Silesia with Kladsko to the Kingdom of Prussia after the First Silesian War in the 1742 Treaty of Breslau.  In the Modern era, the remaining crown lands of Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia became constituent parts of the Austrian Empire in 1804, and later the Cisleithanian half of Austria-Hungary in 1867.  After World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, these became the historic regions usually referred to as the Czech lands forming the Czech Republic. Austrian Silesia with the Hlučín Region is today known as Czech Silesia, with the exception of eastern Cieszyn Silesia which passed to the Second Polish Republic in 1920.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Lands of the Bohemian Crown, sometimes called \"Czech lands\" in modern times, were a number of incorporated states in Central Europe during the medieval and early modern periods connected by feudal relations under the Bohemian kings. The crown lands primarily consisted of the Kingdom of Bohemia, an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire according to the Golden Bull of 1356, the Margraviate of Moravia, the Duchies of Silesia, and the two Lusatias, known as the Margraviate of Upper Lusatia and the Margraviate of Lower Lusatia, as well as other territories throughout its history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974170}
{"src_title": "Mary Rand", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Mary Rand is the daughter of Eric and Hilda Bignal. She was born and grew up in Wells, Somerset, England. At 16, Millfield School offered her an athletics scholarship. She excelled in all sports and won All-England Schools' titles. She was outstanding at high jump, long jump and hurdles. In 1956, she was a guest of the Olympic squad at a training camp in Brighton, where she beat Britain's best high jumpers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Athletics career.", "content": "At 17, Rand set a British record of 4046 points in the pentathlon. She won a silver medal in the 1958 Commonwealth Games long jump and came fifth in the high jump. One month later she came seventh in the European pentathlon championship.  In the 1960 Olympics in Rome, she set a British record of 6.33m in the qualifying round of the long jump, which if repeated, would have won a silver in the final. In the final she fouled two of the three jumps and finished ninth. She also finished fourth in the 80m hurdles. She won a bronze medal in the European championship long jump in 1962.  At the 1964 Olympics in Tokyo, Rand set an Olympic record in the long jump in the qualifying rounds, jumping 6.52m. In the final she beat the favourite, world record holder Tatyana Schelkanova of the USSR and Poland's Irena Kirszenstein. Her first jump of 6.59m was a British record. However, in the fifth round, on a wet runway with a headwind of 1.6 metres a second, she broke the world record, leaping 6.76m to take gold. Her record lasted four years until it was broken at altitude by Viorica Viscopoleanu in the subsequent Olympics.  Rand won silver medal in the pentathlon, her 5035 points putting her second in the all-time rankings. She was beaten to the gold by Irina Press, whose biological sex has been the subject of speculation. She also won a bronze as a member of the Great Britain team that finished third in the 4×100 metres relay.  Six days after Rand won the gold medal, her roommate Ann Packer won the 800 metres. Packer said: \"Mary was the most gifted athlete I ever saw. She was as good as athletes get, there has never been anything like her since. And I don't believe there ever will.\"  Rand was made an MBE (Member of the Order of the British Empire) in the 1965 New Year's Honours List and voted BBC Sports Personality of the Year for 1964.  After Tokyo, her training was less intensive, but she won a gold the long jump at the 1966 Commonwealth Games. Due to injury, she failed to make the 1968 British Olympic team and retired in September that year.  Rand also held the world record in the triple jump from 1959 to 1981; it was unofficial as a world record in the women's triple jump was not recognised by the International Association of Athletics Federations until 1990.  There is a plaque commemorating the world record long jump (6.76 metres) by Rand at the 1964 Olympic Games in the Market Place in Wells. She was succeeded as Golden Girl of British athletics by her friend and London Olympiades club-mate, Lillian Board.  In 2009, Rand was inducted into the England Athletics Hall of Fame.  On 26 January 2012 Wells awarded her the Freedom of the City, following a campaign started by Wells resident Tony Williams.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Around 1960 Bignal dated Dutch decathlete Eef Kamerbeek. In 1961 she met rower Sid Rand. Three days after meeting she agreed to marry him and they married five weeks later. They had a daughter, Alison. The marriage lasted five years.  In December 1969, she married her second husband, American Bill Toomey, the 1968 Olympics' decathlon champion. This marriage lasted 22 years and they had two daughters, Samantha and Sarah. She later married John Reese and lives with him in Atascadero, California, in the United States. She holds dual UK/US citizenship.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mary Denise Rand, MBE (née Bignal on 10 February 1940) is a former English track and field athlete. She won the long jump at the 1964 Summer Olympics by breaking the world record, the first British female to win an Olympic gold medal in track and field. She remains the only Great Britain female athlete to win three medals in a single Games.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974171}
{"src_title": "Pre-Romanesque art and architecture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Examples of Frankish buildings.", "content": "Merovingian, Carolingian and Ottonian  Ottonian and Holy Roman Empire", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imperial styles.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Carolingian art.", "content": "Carolingian art is the roughly 120-year period from about 780 to 900, during Charlemagne's and his immediate heirs' rule, popularly known as the Carolingian Renaissance. Although brief, it was very influential; northern European kings promoted classical Mediterranean Roman art forms for the first time, while also creating innovative new forms such as naturalistic figure line drawings that would have lasting influence. Carolingian churches generally are basilican, like the Early Christian churches of Rome, and commonly incorporated westworks, which is arguably the precedent for the western facades of later medieval cathedrals. An original westwork survives today at the Abbey of Corvey, built in 885. After a rather chaotic interval following the Carolingian period, the new Ottonian dynasty revived Imperial art from about 950, building on and further developing Carolingian style in Ottonian art.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ottonian art.", "content": "Germanic pre-Romanesque art during the 120-year period from 936 to 1056 is commonly called Ottonian art after the three Saxon emperors named Otto (Otto I, Otto II, and Otto III) who ruled the Holy Roman Empire from 936 to 1001.  After the decline of the Carolingian Empire, the Holy Roman Empire was re-established under the Saxon (Ottonian) dynasty. From this emerged a renewed faith in the idea of Empire and a reformed Church, creating a period of heightened cultural and artistic fervour. It was in this atmosphere that masterpieces were created that fused the traditions from which Ottonian artists derived their inspiration: models of Late Antique, Carolingian, and Byzantine origin.  Much Ottonian art reflected the dynasty's desire to establish visually a link to the Christian rulers of Late Antiquity, such as Constantine, Theoderich, and Justinian as well as to their Carolingian predecessors, particularly Charlemagne.  Ottonian monasteries produced some of the most magnificent medieval illuminated manuscripts. They were a major art form of the time, and monasteries received direct sponsorship from emperors and bishops, having the best in equipment and talent available.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regional styles.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Croatia.", "content": "In the 7th century the Croats, with other Slavs and Avars, came from Northern Europe to the region where they live today. The first Croatian churches were built as royal sanctuaries, and the influence of Roman art was strongest in Dalmatia where urbanization was thickest. Gradually that influence was neglected and certain simplifications and alterations of inherited forms, and even creation of original buildings, appeared.  All of them (a dozen large ones and hundreds of small ones) were built with roughly cut stone bounded with a thick layer of malter on the outside. Large churches are longitudinal with one or three naves like Church of Holy Salvation () at the spring of the river Cetina, built in the 9th century, along with the Church of Saint Cross in Nin. The largest and most complicated central based church from the 9th century is dedicated to Saint Donatus in Zadar.  Altar rails and windows of those churches were highly decorated with transparent shallow string-like ornament that is called \"pleter\" (meaning to weed) because the strings were threaded and rethreaded through itself. Motifs of those reliefs were taken from Roman art; sometimes figures from the Bible appeared alongside this decoration, like \"relief in Holy Nedjeljica\" in Zadar, and then they were subdued by their pattern. This also happened to engravings in early Croatian script – Glagolitic. Soon, the Glagolitic writings were replaced with Latin on altar rails and architraves of old-Croatian churches.  From the \"Crown Church of King Zvonimir\" (so called \"Hollow Church\" in Solin) comes the altar board with \"figure of Croatian King\" on the throne with Carolingian crown, servant by his side and subject bowed to the king.  By joining the Hungarian crown in the twelfth century, Croatia lost its full independence, but it did not lose its ties with the south and the west, and instead this ensured the beginning of a new era of Central European cultural influence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "England.", "content": "Anglo-Saxon art covers the period from the time of King Alfred (885), with the revival of English culture after the end of the Viking raids, to the early 12th century, when Romanesque art became the new movement. Prior to King Alfred there had been the Hiberno-Saxon culture, producing in Insular art the fusion of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic techniques and motifs, which had largely ceased in Ireland and Northern England with the Viking invasions. Anglo-Saxon art is mainly known today through illuminated manuscripts and metalwork.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France.", "content": "After the demise of the Carolingian Empire, France split into a number of feuding provinces, so that lacking any organized Imperial patronage, French art of the 10th and 11th centuries became localised around the large monasteries, and lacked the sophistication of a court-directed style.  Multiple regional styles developed based on the chance availability of Carolingian manuscripts (as models to draw from), and the availability of itinerant artists. The monastery of Saint Bertin became an important centre under its abbot Odbert (986–1007) who created a new style based on Anglo-Saxon and Carolingian forms. The nearby abbey of Saint Vaast created a number of works. In southwestern France at the monastery of Saint Martial in Limoges a number of manuscripts were produced around year 1000, as were produced in Albi, Figeac and Saint-Sever-de-Rustan in Gascony. In Paris there developed a style at the abbey of Saint Germain-des-Prés. In Normandy a new style developed from 975 onward.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spain and Portugal.", "content": "The first form of Pre-Romanesque in Spain and Portugal was the Visigothic art, that brought the horse-shoe arches to the latter Moorish architecture and developed jewellery.  After the Moorish occupation, Pre-Romanesque art was first reduced to the Kingdom of Asturias, the only Christian realm in the area at the time which reached high levels of artistic depuration. (See \"Asturian art\"). The Christians who lived in Moorish territory, the Mozarabs, created their own architectural and illumination style, Mozarabic art.  The best preserved Visigothic monument in Portugal is the Saint Frutuoso Chapel in Braga.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italy.", "content": "Southern Italy benefited from the presence and cross-fertilization of the Byzantines, the Arabs, and the Normans, while the north was mostly controlled first by the Carolingians. The Normans in Sicily chose to commission Byzantine workshops to decorate their churches such as Monreale and Cefalù Cathedrals where full iconographic programmes of mosaics have survived. Important frescos and illuminated manuscripts were produced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pre-Romanesque art and architecture is the period in European art from either the emergence of the Merovingian kingdom in about 500 CE or from the Carolingian Renaissance in the late 8th century, to the beginning of the 11th century Romanesque period. The term is generally used in English only for architecture and monumental sculpture, but here all the arts of the period are briefly described.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974172}
{"src_title": "Osculating circle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description in lay terms.", "content": "Imagine a car moving along a curved road on a vast flat plane. Suddenly, at one point along the road, the steering wheel locks in its present position. Thereafter, the car moves in a circle that \"kisses\" the road at the point of locking. The curvature of the circle is equal to that of the road at that point. That circle is the osculating circle of the road curve at that point.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematical description.", "content": "Let formula_1(\"s\") be a regular parametric plane curve, where \"s\" is the arc length (the natural parameter). This determines the \"unit tangent vector\" T(\"s\"), the \"unit normal vector\" N(\"s\"), the signed curvature \"k(s\") and the \"radius of curvature\" \"R(s\") at each point for which \"s\" is composed:  Suppose that \"P\" is a point on \"γ\" where \"k\" ≠ 0. The corresponding center of curvature is the point \"Q\" at distance \"R\" along \"N\", in the same direction if \"k\" is positive and in the opposite direction if \"k\" is negative. The circle with center at \"Q\" and with radius \"R\" is called the osculating circle to the curve \"γ\" at the point \"P\".  If \"C\" is a regular space curve then the osculating circle is defined in a similar way, using the principal normal vector \"N\". It lies in the \"osculating plane\", the plane spanned by the tangent and principal normal vectors \"T\" and \"N\" at the point \"P\".  The plane curve can also be given in a different regular parametrization  formula_3  where regular means that formula_4 for all formula_5. Then the formulas for the signed curvature \"k\"(\"t\"), the normal unit vector \"N\"(\"t\"), the radius of curvature \"R\"(\"t\"), and the center \"Q\"(\"t\") of the osculating circle are", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cartesian coordinates.", "content": "We can obtain the center of the osculating circle in Cartesian coordinates if we substitute formula_8 and formula_9 for some f function. If we do the calculations the results for the X and Y coordinates of the center of the osculating circle are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "For a curve \"C\" given by a sufficiently smooth parametric equations (twice continuously differentiable), the osculating circle may be obtained by a limiting procedure: it is the limit of the circles passing through three distinct points on \"C\" as these points approach \"P\". This is entirely analogous to the construction of the tangent to a curve as a limit of the secant lines through pairs of distinct points on \"C\" approaching \"P\".  The osculating circle \"S\" to a plane curve \"C\" at a regular point \"P\" can be characterized by the following properties: This is usually expressed as \"the curve and its osculating circle have the second or higher order contact\" at \"P\". Loosely speaking, the vector functions representing \"C\" and \"S\" agree together with their first and second derivatives at \"P\".  If the derivative of the curvature with respect to \"s\" is nonzero at \"P\" then the osculating circle crosses the curve \"C\" at \"P\". Points \"P\" at which the derivative of the curvature is zero are called vertices. If \"P\" is a vertex then \"C\" and its osculating circle have contact of order at least three. If, moreover, the curvature has a non-zero local maximum or minimum at \"P\" then the osculating circle touches the curve \"C\" at \"P\" but does not cross it.  The curve \"C\" may be obtained as the envelope of the one-parameter family of its osculating circles. Their centers, i.e. the centers of curvature, form another curve, called the \"evolute\" of \"C\". Vertices of \"C\" correspond to singular points on its evolute.  Within any arc of a curve \"C\" within which the curvature is monotonic (that is, away from any vertex of the curve), the osculating circles are all disjoint and nested within each other. This result is known as the Tait-Kneser theorem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parabola.", "content": "For the parabola the radius of curvature is At the vertex formula_13 the radius of curvature equals \"R(0)=0.5\" (see figure). The parabola has fourth order contact with its osculating circle there. For large \"t\" the radius of curvature increases ~ \"t\", that is, the curve straightens more and more.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lissajous curve.", "content": "A Lissajous curve with ratio of frequencies (3:2) can be parametrized as follows  It has signed curvature \"k\"(\"t\"), normal unit vector \"N\"(\"t\") and radius of curvature \"R\"(\"t\") given by  and  See the figure for an animation. There the \"acceleration vector\" is the second derivative formula_18 with respect to the arc length formula_19.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cycloid.", "content": "A cycloid with radius of r can be parametrized as follows:  Its curvature is given by the following formula:  which gives:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "For some historical notes on the study of curvature, see For application to maneuvering vehicles see", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In differential geometry of curves, the osculating circle of a sufficiently smooth plane curve at a given point \"p\" on the curve has been traditionally defined as the circle passing through \"p\" and a pair of additional points on the curve infinitesimally close to \"p\". Its center lies on the inner normal line, and its curvature defines the curvature of the given curve at that point. This circle, which is the one among all tangent circles at the given point that approaches the curve most tightly, was named \"circulus osculans\" (Latin for \"kissing circle\") by Leibniz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974173}
{"src_title": "Ol Doinyo Lengai", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geology.", "content": "Ol Doinyo Lengai is unique among active volcanoes in that it produces natrocarbonatite lava, a unique occurrence of volcanic carbonatite. A few older extinct carbonatite volcanoes are located nearby, including Homa Mountain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lava.", "content": "Whereas most lavas are rich in silicate minerals, the lava of Ol Doinyo Lengai is a carbonatite. It is rich in the rare sodium and potassium carbonates, nyerereite and gregoryite. Due to this unusual composition, the lava erupts at relatively low temperatures of approximately. This temperature is so low that the molten lava appears black in sunlight, rather than having the red glow common to most lavas. It is also much more fluid than silicate lavas, often less viscous than water. The sodium and potassium carbonate minerals of the lavas erupted at Ol Doinyo Lengai are unstable at the Earth's surface and susceptible to rapid weathering, quickly turning from black to grey in colour. The resulting volcanic landscape is different from any other in the world.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The carbonatite ash spread over the surrounding grasslands leads to a uniquely succulent, enriched pasture. This makes the area a vital stage on the annual wildebeest migration, where it becomes the nursery for the birth of several thousand calves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eruptive activity.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1883-1915.", "content": "The record of eruptions on the mountain dates to 1883. Flows were recorded between 1904 and 1910 and between 1913 and 1915.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1917.", "content": "A major eruption in June 1917 deposited volcanic ash up to away.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1926.", "content": "An eruption took place for several months in 1926.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1940.", "content": "An eruption between July and December 1940 deposited ash as far as Loliondo, away.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1950s.", "content": "Several minor eruptions of lava were observed in 1954, 1955, and 1958.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1960s.", "content": "Minor eruptions of lava were observed in the early 1960s.  A major eruption occurred on 14 August 1966. Geologists J. B. Dawson and G. C. Clark visited the crater a week later and reported seeing \"a thick column of black ash\" that rose for approximately above the volcano and drifted away northwards towards Lake Natron. When they climbed the cone-shaped vent, they reported seeing a continuous discharge of gas and whitish-grey ash and dust from the centre of the pit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2007.", "content": "Volcanic activity in the mountain caused daily earth tremors in Kenya and Tanzania from 12 July 2007 until 18 July 2007 at 8.30pm in Nairobi. The strongest tremor measured 6.0 on the Richter scale. Geologists suspected that the sudden increase of tremors was indicative of the movement of magma through the Ol Doinyo Lengai. The volcano erupted on 4 September 2007, sending a plume of ash and steam at least downwind and covering the north and west flanks in fresh lava flows.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2008.", "content": "The 2007 eruption continued intermittently into 2008. At the end of February it was reported to be gathering strength, with a major outburst taking place on 5 March. Periods of inactivity were followed by eruptions on 8 and 17 April. Eruptive activity continued until late August 2008. A visit to the summit in September 2008 discovered that lava emission had resumed from two vents in the floor of the new crater. Visits to the crater in March/April 2009 showed that this activity appeared to have ceased.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010.", "content": "In October 2010, two separate lava flows and a small lava lake were photographed in an overflight.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013.", "content": "The volcano resumed natrocarbonatite lava flow which started to fill the large crater from the 2007-2008 eruption. As of July 2013, there is a large active hornito on the western edge of the crater floor. During June, residents near the volcano reported several earthquakes. The new crater is inaccessible and climbers have only occasionally glimpsed into it.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ol Doinyo Lengai (Oldoinyo Lengai), \"Mountain of God\" in the Maasai language, is an active volcano located in the Gregory Rift, south of Lake Natron within the Arusha Region of Tanzania, Africa. Part of the volcanic system of the East African Rift, it uniquely produces natrocarbonatite lava. The 1960 eruption of Ol Doinyo Lengai led to geological investigations that finally confirmed the view that carbonatite rock is derived from magma.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974174}
{"src_title": "Sebastokrator", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The title was created by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos () to honour his elder brother Isaac Komnenos. According to Anna Komnene, Alexios did this to raise Isaac above the rank of \"Caesar\", which he had already promised to his brother-in-law, Nikephoros Melissenos. Anna Komnene compares the rank of \"sebastokratōr\" to \"a second emperor\", and also records that along with the \"Caesar\" a \"sebastokratōr\" was granted the right to wear a crown (but not the imperial diadem). During the Komnenian dynasty (1081–1185), the title continued to be the highest below that of Emperor until 1163, when Emperor Manuel I created the title of \"despotes\". During that period, it was given exclusively to members of the imperial family, chiefly younger sons of the emperor.  After the dismemberment of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the title was adopted in the Latin Empire, the Empire of Nicaea, and the Bulgarian Empire. In Nicaea and the post-1261 restored Byzantine Empire, the title remained one of the highest court dignities, and was almost always restricted to members of the imperial family. The last known holder of the title was Demetrios Kantakouzenos, a ruler in the Peloponnese in the late 14th century.  According to the sources, the distinctive colour associated with the title was blue: the \"sebastokratōr\"′s ceremonial costume included blue stockings and blue boots. In circa 1260, according to George Akropolites, the \"sebastokratores\" who were members of the imperial family were distinguished from those who were not by having embroidered golden eagles on their shoes. By the time of pseudo-Kodinos in the mid-14th century, the insignia associated with the rank were a \"skiadion\" hat in red and gold, decorated with gold-wire embroideries, with a veil bearing the wearer's name and pendants identical to those of the \"despotēs\". He wore a red tunic (\"rouchon\") similar to the emperor's, but without the \"rizai\" decorations and the insignia of military power. His mantle (\"tamparion\") was no longer known, but the stockings were blue; under John VI Kantakouzenos (), however, when the emperor raised his brothers-in-law Manuel and John Asanes to the rank, he permitted them to wear \"tamparia\" and stockings like those of the \"despotēs\". The \"sebastokratōr\"s shoes and stockings were blue, with gold-embroidered eagles on red background; and his horse tack was also of blue, his saddle blanket featuring furthermore four red-embroidered eagles. His tent was white with blue decorations. The form of the domed \"skaranikon\", on the other hand, for the \"sebastokratōr\" was unknown to pseudo-Kodinos. The \"sebastokratōr\" also had the prerogative of signing documents with a special blue ink.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bulgaria.", "content": "Kaloyan inherited the title possibly from his father Aleksandar (d. after 1232), a son of Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Serbia.", "content": "This title was also adopted in the court of medieval Serbia, under the Nemanjić dynasty, the Serbian Kings and Emperors (1217–1346; 1346–1371).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sebastokrator (, \"sebastokrátor\"; Bulgarian and Serbian Cyrillic: севастократор; both pronounced \"sevastokrator\"), was a senior court title in the late Byzantine Empire. It was also used by other rulers whose states bordered the Empire or were within its sphere of influence (Bulgarian Empire, Serbian Empire). The word is a compound of \"\"sebastos\"\" (\"venerable\", the Greek equivalent of the Latin \"Augustus\") and \"\"krátor\"\" (\"ruler\", the same element as is found in \"\"autokrator\"\", \"emperor\"). The wife of a \"Sebastokrator\" was named sebastokratorissa (σεβαστοκρατόρισσα, \"sevastokratórissa\") in Greek or sevastokratitsa (севастократица) in Bulgarian and sevastokratica (севастократица) in Serbian.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974175}
{"src_title": "Lakshmi Mittal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Mittal was born in a Baniya Family. He studied at Shri Daulatram Nopany Vidyalaya, Calcutta from 1957 to 1964. He graduated from St. Xavier's College, affiliated to the University of Calcutta, with a B.Com degree in the first class. His father, Mohanlal Mittal, ran a steel business, Nippon Denro Ispat.  In 1976, due to the curb of steel production by the Indian government, the 26-year-old Mittal opened his first steel factory PT Ispat Indo in Sidoarjo, East Java, Indonesia. Until the 1990s, the family's main assets in India were a cold-rolling mill for sheet steels in Nagpur and an alloy steels plant near Pune. Today, the family business, including a large integrated steel plant near Mumbai, is run by his younger brothers Pramod Mittal and Vinod Mittal, but Lakshmi has no connection with it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "After witnessing India win only one medal, bronze, in the 2000 Summer Olympics, and one medal, silver, at the 2004 Summer Olympics, Mittal decided to set up the Mittal Champions Trust with $9 million to support ten Indian athletes with world-beating potential. In 2008, Mittal awarded Abhinav Bindra with Rs. 1.5 Crore (Rs. 15 million), for getting India its first individual Olympic gold medal in shooting. ArcelorMittal also provided steel for the construction of the ArcelorMittal Orbit for the 2012 Summer Olympics.  For Comic Relief he matched the money raised (~£1 million) on the celebrity special BBC programme, \"The Apprentice\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "In 2003, the Lakshmi Niwas Mittal and Usha Mittal Foundation and the Government of Rajasthan partnered together to establish a university, the LNM Institute of Information Technology (LNMIIT) in Jaipur as an autonomous non-profit organisation.  In 2009, the Foundation along with Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan founded the Usha Lakshmi Mittal Institute of Management in New Delhi.  SNDT Women's University renamed the Institute of Technology for Women (ITW) as Usha Mittal Institute of Technology after a large donation from the Lakshmi Niwas Mittal Foundation.  He completed his Primary and Secondary school from Nopany High formerly known as Shri Daulatram Nopany Vidyalaya.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medical.", "content": "In 2008 the Mittals made a donation of £15 million to Great Ormond Street Hospital in London, the largest private contribution the hospital had ever received. The donation was used to help fund their new facility, the Mittal Children's Medical Centre.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "COVID-19 pandemic.", "content": "He made a donation of ₹100 crores to PM cares fund during the COVID-19 pandemic in India in 2020.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Criticism and allegations.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PHS.", "content": "Mittal successfully employed Marek Dochnal's consultancy to influence Polish officials in the privatisation of PHS steel group, which was Poland's largest. Dochnal was later arrested for bribing Polish officials on behalf of Russian agents in a separate affair.  In 2007, the Polish government said it wanted to renegotiate the 2004 sale to ArcelorMittal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Slave-labour allegations and questionable safety records.", "content": "Employees of Mittal have accused him of allowing \"slave labour\" conditions after multiple fatalities in his mines. During December 2004, twenty-three miners died in explosions in his mines in Kazakhstan caused by faulty gas detectors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Mittal Affair: \"Cash for Influence\".", "content": "In 2002 Plaid Cymru MP Adam Price obtained a letter written by Tony Blair to the Romanian Government in support of Mittal's LNM steel company, which was in the process of bidding to buy Romania's state-owned steel industry. This revelation caused controversy, because Mittal had given £125,000 to the British Labour Party the previous year. Although Blair defended his letter as simply \"celebrating the success\" of a British company, he was criticised because LNM was registered in the Dutch Antilles and employed less than 1% of its workforce in the UK. LNM was a \"major global competitor of Britain's own struggling steel industry\".  Blair's letter hinted that the privatisation of the firm and sale to Mittal might help smooth the way for Romania's entry into the European Union. It also had a passage, removed just prior to Blair's signing of it, describing Mittal as \"a friend\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queens Park Rangers.", "content": "Mittal had emerged as a leading contender to buy and sell Barclays Premiership clubs Wigan and Everton. However, on 20 December 2007 it was announced that the Mittal family had purchased a 20 per cent shareholding in Queens Park Rangers football club joining Flavio Briatore and Mittal's friend Bernie Ecclestone. As part of the investment Mittal's son-in-law, Amit Bhatia, took a place on the board of directors. The combined investment in the struggling club sparked suggestions that Mittal might be looking to join the growing ranks of wealthy individuals investing heavily in English football and emulating similar benefactors such as Roman Abramovich.  On 19 February 2010, Briatore resigned as QPR chairman, and sold further shares in the club to Ecclestone, making Ecclestone the single largest shareholder.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Environmental damage.", "content": "Mittal purchased the Irish Steel plant based in Cork, Ireland, from the government for a nominal fee of £1 million. Three years later, in 2001, it was closed, leaving 400 people redundant. Subsequent environmental issues at the site have been a cause for criticism. The government tried to sue in the High Court to have him pay for the clean-up of Cork Harbour but failed. The clean up was expected to cost €70 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Mittal was born on 15 June 1950 in Rajasthani marwari family in Sadulpur, Rajasthan. He is married to Usha Mittal. They have a son Aditya Mittal and a daughter Vanisha Mittal.  Lakshmi Mittal has two brothers, Pramod Mittal and Vinod Mittal, and a sister, Seema Lohia, who married Indonesian businessman, Sri Prakash Lohia. His residence at 18–19 Kensington Palace Gardens—which was purchased from Formula One boss Bernie Ecclestone in 2004 for £67 million (US$128 million)—made it the world's most expensive house at the time. The house is decorated with marble taken from the same quarry that supplied the Taj Mahal. The extravagant show of wealth has been referred to as the \"Taj Mittal\". It has 12 bedrooms, an indoor pool, Turkish baths and parking for 20 cars. He is a lacto-vegetarian.  Mittal bought No. 9A Palace Greens, Kensington Gardens, formerly the Philippines Embassy, for £70 million in 2008 for his daughter Vanisha Mittal who is married to Amit Bhatia, a businessman and philanthropist. Mittal threw a lavish \"vegetarian reception\" for Vanisha in the Palace of Versailles, France.  In 2005, he also bought a colonial bungalow for $30 million at No. 22, Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Road, New Delhi, one of the most exclusive streets in India, occupied by embassies and billionaires, and rebuilt it as a house.  In December 2013, Mittal's niece Shrishti Mittal got married in a three-day celebration that is said to have brought Barcelona to a standstill and cost up to £50 million. Some 200 butlers, cooks and secretaries were reportedly flown into Spain from India and Thailand while the 500 guests were made to sign confidentiality agreements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal wealth.", "content": "According to the \"Sunday Times Rich List 2016\", Mittal and his family had an estimated personal net worth of 7.12 billion, a decrease of $2.08 billion on the previous year. Meanwhile, in 2016 \"Forbes\" magazine's annual billionaires list assessed estimated Mittal's wealth in 2016 at as the 135th-wealthiest billionaire with a net worth of 8.4 billion. Mittal's net worth peaked in 2008, assessed by \"The Sunday Times\" at £27.70 billion, and by \"Forbes\" at 45.0 billion, and rated as the fourth-wealthiest individual in the world.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lakshmi Niwas Mittal (; born 15 June 1950) is an Indian steel magnate, based in the United Kingdom. He is the chairman and CEO of ArcelorMittal, the world's largest steelmaking company. Mittal owns 38% of ArcelorMittal and holds an 20% stake in Queens Park Rangers F.C..", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974176}
{"src_title": "Ilyushin Il-76", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "The aircraft was first conceived by Ilyushin in 1967 to meet a requirement for a freighter able to carry a payload of 40 tons (88,000 lb) over a range of 5,000 km (2,700 nmi; 3,100 mi) in less than six hours, able to operate from short and unprepared airstrips, and capable of coping with the worst weather conditions likely to be experienced in Siberia and the Soviet Union's Arctic regions. It was intended to replace the Antonov An-12. Another intended version was a double-decked 250-passenger airliner but that project was cancelled. The Il-76 first flew in.  Production of Il-76s was allocated to the Tashkent Aviation Production Association in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, then a republic of the Soviet Union. Some 860 of the basic transport variants were manufactured. In the 1990s, modernized variants also equipped with Soloviev D-30 turbofan engines were developed (MF, TF), with a cargo compartment long by wide by tall; these larger variants were not produced in significant quantity due to the financial difficulties being experienced by the Russian Air Force, which was the primary operator of the type. The prototype of the Il-76MF, conducted its first flight on 1 August 1995.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further development.", "content": "From 2004 onwards, a number of aircraft in commercial service were modernized to the Il-76TD-90VD version; this involved the adoption of the newly developed PS-90 engine to comply with European noise limitations. In 2005, the People's Republic of China placed an order for 34 new Il-76MDs and four Il-78 tankers. In June 2013, Russian military export agency Rosoboronexport announced an order by China for 12 Il-76MD aircraft. The Il-76 has also been modified into an airborne refuelling tanker, designated the Il-78, around 50 aircraft having been produced. A variant of the Il-76 also serves as a firefighting waterbomber. Its airframe was used as a base for the Beriev A-50 'Mainstay' AEW&C (airborne early warning and control) aircraft; around 25 aircraft were made. Another application for the type was found in Antarctic support flights and for conducting simulated weightlessness training for cosmonauts (akin to the \"Vomit Comet\" used by NASA). Beriev and NPO Almaz also developed an airborne laser flying laboratory designated A-60, of which two were built, much of this project's details remaining classified.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Il-76MD-90A.", "content": "It was announced in 2010 that the production of a modernized Il-76, the Il-76MD-90A (also known as \"project Il-476\" during the design stage), would begin; a proposed new production line would be located in Aviastar's facility in Ulyanovsk, Russia, and be operated in cooperation with the Tashkent works. At that point, the construction of two Il-76MD-90A prototypes had begun at the Ulyanovsk facility. The 1st Il-76MD-90A was rolled out at Aviastar's Ulyanovsk plant on 16 June 2014. On 29 April 2015, it was reported that the Russian Air Force received the first Il-76MD-90A built at the Ulyanovsk plant \"Aviastar-SP\" from the 2012 contract for 39 aircraft. The Russian Ministry of Defence (MoD) received its first serial production Ilyushin Il-76MD-90A airlifter on 2 April 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "First aircraft were delivered to the Soviet Air Force in June 1974. Next it became the main Soviet strategic transport aircraft. From 1976 it was operated by Aeroflot.  Between 1979 and 1991, the Soviet Air Force Il-76s made 14,700 flights into Afghanistan, transporting 786,200 servicemen, and 315,800 tons of freight. The Il-76 carried 89% of Soviet troops and 74% of the freight that was airlifted. As Afghan rebels were unable to shoot down high-flying Il-76s, their tactics were to try and damage it on takeoff or landing. Il-76s were often hit by shoulder-launched Stinger and Strela heat-seeking missiles and large-calibre machine gun fire, but because the strong airframes were able to take substantial damage and still remain operational, the aircraft had a remarkably low attrition rate during this period of conflict. Building on that experience, the bulk of the Canadian Forces equipment into Afghanistan was flown in using civilian Il-76s. In 2006, the Russian Air Force had about 200 Il-76s. Civilian users in Russia have 108.  On August 3, 1995, an Il-76 piloted by a Russian crew was forced down by a Taliban fighter plane sparking the Airstan incident. In 2004, a Chinese People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) Il-76 carried out a flight mission in Afghanistan, and later in 2011, PLAAF Il-76s were sent to Libya to evacuate Chinese citizens. The two missions were the reported first steps of PLAAF developing long-range transportation capability.  On 23 March 2007, a Transaviaexport Il-76 was shot down by an anti-aircraft missile while taking off from Mogadishu, Somalia. Everybody on board, seven crew and four passengers, was killed.  Syrian Air Force Il-76s, operating as civil Syrianair aircraft, have been reportedly used to ship weapons, money, and other cargo from Russia and Iran to Syria, according to a defected Syrian military pilot. Since the start of the war, in April 2011 (and up to July 2012), around 20 military flights have been conducted to and from Tehran, via Iraqi airspace. Further information exposes that since around 2012, Syrian Il-76s have regularly flown to Moscow's Vnukovo Airport to fetch shipments of Syrian banknotes that have been useful to Bashar al-Assad's government to survive Western sanctions.  On 14 June 2014, a Ukrainian Air Force Il-76 was shot down by ground fire from pro-Russian separatists while on approach to landing at Luhansk, resulting in the deaths of 40 soldiers and nine crew members on board.  On 30 January 2017, an IL-76 firebomber of the Russian EMERCOM agency was deployed to Chile to assist firefighters. This assignment took 39 days.  All Il-76 transport aircraft in service with the RF Aerospace Forces will receive anti-missile systems. The aircraft reconfiguration started in the spring of 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operators.", "content": "Military and civil operators in 38 countries have operated 850+ Il-76 in large numbers. While Russia is the largest military operator of the Il-76, followed by Ukraine and India, Belarus' TransAVIAexport Airlines is the largest civilian operator.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accidents.", "content": "As of April 2018 a total of 80 Il-76 series aircraft have been written off in crashes and other incidents, including the following:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ilyushin Il-76 (; NATO reporting name: Candid) is a multi-purpose four-engine turbofan strategic airlifter designed by the Soviet Union's Ilyushin design bureau. It was first planned as a commercial freighter in 1967, as a replacement for the Antonov An-12. It was designed to deliver heavy machinery to remote, poorly served areas. Military versions of the Il-76 have been widely used in Europe, Asia and Africa, including use as an aerial refueling tanker or command center.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974177}
{"src_title": "Button", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Buttons and button-like objects used as ornaments or seals rather than fasteners have been discovered in the Indus Valley Civilization during its Kot Diji phase (c. 2800–2600 BC) as well as Bronze Age sites in China (c. 2000–1500 BC) and Ancient Rome.  Buttons made from seashell were used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BC. Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing with thread. Ian McNeil (1990) holds that \"the button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old.\"  Functional buttons with buttonholes for fastening or closing clothes appeared first in Germany in the 13th century. They soon became widespread with the rise of snug-fitting garments in 13th- and 14th-century Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As containers.", "content": "Since at least the seventeenth century, when box-like metal buttons were constructed especially for the purpose, buttons have been one of the items in which drug smugglers have attempted to hide and transport illegal substances. At least one modern smuggler has tried to use this method.  Also making use of the storage possibilities of metal buttons, during the World Wars, British and U.S. military locket buttons were made, containing miniature working compasses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Materials and manufacture.", "content": "Because buttons have been manufactured from almost every possible material, both natural and synthetic, and combinations of both, the history of the material composition of buttons reflects the timeline of materials technology.  Buttons can be individually crafted by artisans, craftspeople or artists from raw materials or found objects (for example fossils), or a combination of both. Alternatively, they can be the product of low-tech cottage industry or can be mass-produced in high-tech factories. Buttons made by artists are art objects, known to button collectors as \"studio buttons\" (or simply \"studios\", from studio craft).  In 1918, the US government made an extensive survey of the international button market, which listed buttons made of vegetable ivory, metal, glass, galalith, silk, linen, cotton-covered crochet, lead, snap fasteners, enamel, rubber, buckhorn, wood, horn, bone, leather, paper, pressed cardboard, mother-of-pearl, celluloid, porcelain, composition, tin, zinc, xylonite, stone, cloth-covered wooden forms, and papier-mâché. Vegetable ivory was said to be the most popular for suits and shirts, and papier-mâché far and away the commonest sort of shoe button.  Nowadays, hard plastic, seashell, metals, and wood are the most common materials used in button-making; the others tending to be used only in premium or antique apparel, or found in collections.  Over 60% of the world's button supply comes from Qiaotou, Yongjia County, China.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decoration and coating techniques.", "content": "Historically, fashions in buttons have also reflected trends in applied aesthetics and the applied visual arts, with buttonmakers using techniques from jewellery making, ceramics, sculpture, painting, printmaking, metalworking, weaving and others. The following are just a few of the construction and decoration techniques that have been used in button-making:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Button sizes.", "content": "The size of the button depends on its use. Shirt buttons are generally small, and spaced close together, whereas coat buttons are larger and spaced further apart. Buttons are commonly measured in lignes (also called \"lines\" and abbreviated \"L\"), with 40 lignes equal to 1 inch. For example, some standard sizes of buttons are 16 lignes (10.16 mm, standard button of men's shirts) and 32 lignes (20.32 mm, typical button on suit jackets).  The American National Button Society (NBS) has its own button sizing system which divides button sizes into'small','medium' and 'large'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In museums and galleries.", "content": "Some museums and art galleries hold culturally, historically, politically, and/or artistically significant buttons in their collections. The Victoria & Albert Museum has many buttons, particularly in its jewellery collection, as does the Smithsonian Institution.  Hammond Turner & Sons, a button-making company in Birmingham, hosts an online museum with an image gallery and historical button-related articles, including an 1852 article on button-making by Charles Dickens. In the US, large button collections are on public display at the Waterbury Button Museum of Waterbury, Connecticut, the Keep Homestead Museum of Monson, Massachusetts, which also hosts an extensive button archive, and in Gurnee, Illinois at The Button Room.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In politics.", "content": "The mainly American tradition of politically significant clothing buttons appears to have begun with the first presidential inauguration of George Washington in 1789. Known to collectors as \"Washington Inaugurals\", they were made of copper, brass or Sheffield plate, in large sizes for coats and smaller sizes for breeches. Made in twenty-two patterns and hand-stamped, they are now extremely valuable cultural artifacts.  Between about 1840 and 1916, clothing buttons were used in American political campaigns, and still exist in collections today. Initially, these buttons were predominantly made of brass (though horn and rubber buttons with stamped or moulded designs also exist) and had loop shanks. Around 1860 the badge or pin-back style of construction, which replaced the shanks with long pins, probably for use on lapels and ties, began to appear.  One common practice that survived until recent times on campaign buttons and badges was to include the image of George Washington with that of the candidate in question.  Some of the most famous campaign buttons are those made for Abraham Lincoln. Memorial buttons commemorating Lincoln's inaugurations and other life events, including his birth and death, were also made, and are also considered highly collectible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phobia.", "content": "Koumpounophobia, the fear of buttons, is a surprisingly common phobia. Sufferers frequently report being repulsed by the sight of buttons, even on other people, and being unable to wear clothing with them. Sufferers also report buttons being dirty and smelling. The phobia may bear some passing resemblance to trypophobia and obsessive–compulsive disorder, but is separate and distinct.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In modern clothing and fashion design, a button is a small fastener, now most commonly made of plastic but also may be made of metal, wood, or seashell, that joins two pieces of fabric together. In archaeology, a button can be a significant artifact. In the applied arts and in craft, a button can be an example of folk art, studio craft, or even a miniature work of art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974178}
{"src_title": "Dagen H", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "There were various arguments for the change:  However, the change was unpopular; in a 1955 referendum, 83 percent voted to keep driving on the left. Nevertheless, the Swedish Parliament approved Prime Minister Tage Erlander's proposal on 10 May 1963 of right hand traffic beginning in 1967, as the number of cars on the road tripled from 500,000 to 1.5 million and was expected to reach 2.8 million by 1975. The \"Statens Högertrafikkommission\" (HTK) (\"the state right-hand traffic commission\") was established to oversee the change. It also began implementing a four-year education programme on the advice of psychologists.  The campaign included displaying the \"Dagen H\" logo on various commemorative items, including milk cartons and underwear. Swedish television held a contest for songs about the change, and the winning entry was \"Håll dig till höger, Svensson\" ('Keep to the right, Svensson') written by \"Expressen\" journalist Peter Himmelstrand and performed by The Telstars.  As \"Dagen H\" neared, every intersection was equipped with an extra set of poles and traffic signals wrapped in black plastic. Workers roamed the streets early in the morning on \"Dagen H\" to remove the plastic. A parallel set of lines was painted on the roads with white paint, then covered with black tape. Before \"Dagen H\", Swedish roads had used yellow lines. Approximately 350,000 signs had to be removed or replaced, 20,000 in Stockholm alone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The switch.", "content": "On \"Dagen H\", Sunday, 3 September, all non-essential traffic was banned from the roads from 01:00 to 06:00. Any vehicles on the roads during that time had to follow special rules. All vehicles had to come to a complete stop at 04:50, then carefully change to the right-hand side of the road and stop again (to give others time to switch sides of the road and avoid a head-on collision) before being allowed to proceed at 05:00. In Stockholm and Malmö, however, the ban was longerfrom 10:00 on Saturday until 15:00 on Sundayto allow work crews to reconfigure intersections. Certain other towns also saw an extended ban, from 15:00 on Saturday until 15:00 on Sunday.  One-way streets presented unique problems. Bus stops had to be constructed on the other side of the street. Intersections had to be reshaped to allow traffic to merge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "The relatively smooth changeover saw a temporary reduction in the number of accidents. On the day of the change, only 157 minor accidents were reported, of which only 32 involved personal injuries, with only a handful serious. On the Monday following \"Dagen H\", there were 125 reported traffic accidents, compared to a range of 130 to 198 for previous Mondays, none of them fatal. Experts suggested that changing to driving on the right reduced accidents while overtaking, as people already drove left-hand drive vehicles, thereby having a better view of the road ahead; additionally, the change made a marked surge in perceived risk that exceeded the target level and thus was followed by very cautious behaviour that caused a major decrease in road fatalities. Indeed, fatal car-to-car and car-to-pedestrian accidents dropped sharply as a result, and the number of motor insurance claims went down by 40%.  These initial improvements did not last, however. The number of motor insurance claims returned to 'normal' over the next six weeks and, by 1969, the accident rates were back to the levels seen before the change.  Trams in central Stockholm, in Helsingborg and most lines in Malmö were withdrawn and replaced by buses, and over one thousand new buses were purchased with doors on the right-hand side. Some 8,000 older buses were retrofitted to provide doors on both sides, while Gothenburg and Malmö exported their right-hand drive (RHD) buses to Pakistan and Kenya. The modification of buses, paid by the state, was the largest cost of the change.  Although all road traffic in Sweden became right handed, metro and railways did not switch to new rules and continue to drive on the left, with the exception of tram systems. Additionally, many of them were abandoned as a result of \"Dagen H\"; only the trams in Norrköping and Gothenburg and three suburban lines in the Stockholm area (Nockebybanan and Lidingöbanan) survived. Gothenburg had high cost for rebuilding trams, while Stockholm had cost only for bus purchasing, since the remaining lines had bidirectional trams with doors on both sides. In any event, most trams in Stockholm were replaced by the metro, a decision made long before the Dagen H decision.  Fellow Nordic country Iceland changed to driving on the right in May 1968, on a day known as H-dagurinn.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dagen H (H day), today usually called \"Högertrafikomläggningen\" (\"The right-hand traffic diversion\"), was the day on 3 September 1967, in which the traffic in Sweden switched from driving on the left-hand side of the road to the right. The \"H\" stands for \"\"Högertrafik\"\", the Swedish word for \"right traffic\". It was by far the largest logistical event in Sweden's history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974179}
{"src_title": "Yacyretá Dam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Yacyreta is located southeast of Asunción. It is located in the region of a city called Ayolas, downstream from Encarnación and away from the rapids of Apipé. The main dam is near the islands Jasyretâ and Talavera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chronology.", "content": "The initial protocol to determine the use of the waterfalls was signed on February 1, 1925 in the United States. However, it was not until January 1958 that the Technical Argentine-Paraguayan Commission was created to undertake technical studies of uses of the river. The studies were presented on December 3, 1973 in Asunción and the Treaty of Yasyreta was signed; both countries compromised to embark together in the construction. For that the Bi-National Organization Yasyreta was founded. Each state would share jurisdiction and responsibility for executing studies and projects related to the dam.  The construction started on December 3, 1983; on April 26, 1989, agreements were signed that defined the definitive plans for the protection of the valleys and streams to the right side of the river (Paraguay). In June of the same year the main branch of the river was closed and on May 19, the other branch, Aña Kuá, was also closed. On June 1, 1993 the navigational ship lock was opened, and on September 2, 1994 the first hydroelectric Kaplan turbine began operation. The 20 programmed units functioned for the first time together on July 7, 1998.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "In addition to the dam, a barrage of materials long closes both arms of the river divided by the island Jasyretâ; the hydroelectric dam is in part located over this. Both extremes are settled in the Argentine coast, in the locality of Rincón Santa María and in the Paraguayan coast, near the city of San Cosme y Damián. The artificial lake formed by the dam rises above the original level and covers.  Each branch has a slope. The turbines are in the main branch, in a slope with eighteen gates that allow a maximum flow of 55,000 cubic meters per second. The other branch of the river has sixteen more gates with a capacity for another 40,000 cubic meters per second.  A ship lock excavated in the basaltic layer allows passage of boats with draft up to 12 feet (3.6 m). A fish ladder, designed after the ecological studies proved that the presence of the dam inhibited the reproduction of certain migratory species of the Paraná River, especially the dorado and surubí, allows fish that swim upstream to cover the 25-meter difference to spawn in the Alto Paraná.  The machine house is 70 meters high. The waterfall, currently 15 meters high, has an average volume of 8,000 cubic meters per second that pass through the turbines and produce energy continuously. For comparison, the falls of Iguazú are 70 meters high, with a volume of 1,750 cubic meters per second.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population and ecological impact.", "content": "The lake created by the dam displaced 40,000 people. The elevation of the water level also affected the road infrastructure and sewage of the region in a way that many studies undertaken prior to construction of the dam did not take into account ; independent research later confirmed that the census of INDEC in 1990 was altered to reduce the amount of money the Yacyreta Organization would have to pay to compensate the people displaced.  Ecologically, the construction of the dam most greatly affected the environment of the region in three ways. Firstly, it altered aquatic habitats via the elevation of the water level and the flooding of previously dry areas, which produced chemical changes in the water, including a drop in water oxygen levels. Besides, the alteration of the streams of water affected the dynamics of the floating vegetation that in the system Iberá is the habitat of many endemic species. The more calm water behind the dam has also allowed the spread of waterborne diseases and disease vectors, such as schistosomiasis, dengue fever and malaria.  The structure and composition of the productive activities of the primary sector, that in addition to the direct flooding also modifies the level of humidity of thousand of hectares destined to agriculture and the exploit of wood, thousands of cattle were lost in the process of formation of the lake.  Destruction of the habitat submerged by the dam could cause great loss of biodiversity. Numerous protected species have been affected in one of the few spaces in which they survive in Argentina and Paraguay, including pampas deer, capybara, certain water birds and yacare caiman. The consequences for the fish population of Paraná have been very severe, causing a large drop in the volume of some species, especially when the dam was first constructed. Aquatic invertebrates also declined. For example, among four \"Aylacostoma\" aquatic snails restricted to the area, two became extinct, one extinct in the wild, and the final is seriously threatened. The construction of the system of elevators helped reduce this effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current state.", "content": "Before February 2011, the water level was above sea level, less than planned. This caused the hydroelectric component of the dam to operate at only 60% of its capacity. The water level was raised, bringing it to above sea level and covering another of land surface, affecting more than 50,000 people. This brought the installed capacity to its final design of 3,100 MW and the annual generation to about 20,000 GWh.  The plan to finish the Yacyretá project included:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Navigation.", "content": "To ease navigation a ship lock was built in the locality of Santa María in the Argentine side. This has a length of 270 meters, and width of 27 meters and a depth of 5 meters, which allows the passage of 12-foot draft boats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The area has an abundant fauna and there are areas for fishing. Fishing is regulated to protect and maintain fish populations, requiring fishing permits that can be obtained in the regional Office of Fishing.  Even though the hydroelectric power station produces a relatively low amount of contaminants, the Bi-National Organization has set aside areas for the preservation and recuperation of the local flora and fauna, trying to reduce the consequences of the construction. From flooding, 11,000 animals from 110 different species were relocated. Currently, the Organization has a protected area of about 58,000 hectares, with plans for an eventual increase to 187,000 hectares. There is a centre for visitors and a track of 2,500 meters called \"Akuti po’i\" that serves to take guided tours. There are several hotels to stay in when visiting the place, such as the Hotel Nacional de Turismo and the Jasyretâ Apart Hotel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Yacyretá Dam or Jasyretâ-Apipé Hydroelectric Power Station (from Guaraní \"jasy retã\", \"land of the moon\") is a dam and hydroelectric power plant built over the waterfalls of Jasyretâ-Apipé in the Paraná River, between the Argentine Province of Corrientes and the Paraguayan City of Ayolas. The dam is named for Yacyretá Island just upstream, much of which the dam submerged. The word \"Yacyreta\" is the Hispanicized spelling of the original Guaraní term Jasyretâ.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974180}
{"src_title": "Handheld electronic game", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Early handheld games used simple mechanisms to interact with players, often limited to illuminated buttons and sound effects. Notable early handheld games included Mattel Auto Race (1976), and Mattel Electronic Football (1977), which featured very simple red-LED displays; gameplay involved the player pressing buttons to move his car or quarterback icon (represented by a bright dot) to avoid obstacles (represented by less bright dots). In 1978 the Milton Bradley Company entered the handheld market with Simon, a simple color-and-sound-matching game. Simon had no dedicated display, but featured four colored, lighted buttons; the original version was large enough to be used as a tabletop game or a handheld; later versions became increasingly smaller. The same year, Parker Brothers also released Merlin, a more sophisticated handheld which could play six different games using an array of 11 buttons with integrated LEDs. Despite their relative simplicity, each of these early games was highly successful.  The initial success of Mattel and Parker Brothers' entries spawned a wave of similar handheld devices which were released through the early 1980s. Notable among these were a series of popular 2-player \"head-to-head\" games from Coleco. Other games were miniaturized versions of popular arcade video games.  In 1979, Gunpei Yokoi, traveling on a bullet train, saw a bored businessman playing with an LCD calculator by pressing the buttons. Yokoi then thought of an idea for a watch that doubled as a miniature game machine for killing time. Starting in 1980, Nintendo began to release a series of electronic games designed by Yokoi called the Game & Watch games. Taking advantage of the technology used in the credit-card-sized calculators that had appeared on the market, Yokoi designed the series of LCD-based games to include a digital time display in the corner of the screen. For later, more complicated Game & Watch games, Yokoi invented a cross shaped directional pad or \"D-pad\" for control of on-screen characters. Yokoi also included his directional pad on the Famicom game console's controllers, and the cross-shaped thumb controller soon became standard on game console controllers and ubiquitous across the video game industry as a replacement for the joystick.  During the 1980s, LCDs became inexpensive and largely replaced LED displays in handheld games. The use of custom images in LCD and VFD games allows them to have greater detail and avoid the blocky, pixellated look of console screens, but not without drawbacks. All graphics are fixed in place, so every possible location and state of game objects has to be preset (and are usually visible when resetting a game), with no overlap. Illusion of movement is created by sequentially flashing objects between their possible states. Backgrounds for these games are static drawings, layered behind the \"moving\" graphics which are transparent when not in use. Partly due to these limitations, the gameplay of early LCD games was often even more crude than for their LED antecedents.  Some of the more well-known handheld games of the LCD era are the Game & Watch series by Nintendo and the games by Tiger Electronics, and many titles from other companies were also popular, especially conversions of arcade games. New games are still being made, but most are based on relatively simple card and board games.  In 1982, the Bandai LCD Solarpower series were the first solar-powered gaming devices. Some of its games, such as the horror-themed game \"Terror House\", featured two LCD panels, one stacked on the other, for an early 3D effect. In 1983, Takara Tomy's Tomytronic 3D series simulated 3D by having two LED panels that were lit by external light through a window on top of the device, making it the first dedicated home video 3D hardware.  Other handheld games were built as flipcases and had two or even three LCDs with different foreground and background scenes, offering some variety in the gameplay.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Handhelds today.", "content": "Despite the increasing sophistication of handheld consoles such as the Nintendo Switch, dedicated handhelds continue to find a niche. Among technophilic gamer subcultures like Akiba-kei, unique control schemes like that of the 2008 Tuttuki Bako have been proven salable due to novelty, however dedicated handhelds such as this are uncommon.  Adult fads such as blackjack, poker, and Sudoku also spawn dozens of original and knockoff handheld games. Devices like Brick Game (E-Star E-23) include games using the block grid as a crude, low resolution dot matrix screen. Such devices often have many variations of Tetris and sometimes even other kinds of games like racing or even space shooters, such as \"Space Invaders\", where one box projects boxes at the enemy boxes. The most advanced of these designs can easily have more than 20 distinct games implemented and feature multi-channel sound, voice synthesis or digital sounds samples, and internal CMOS memory which can save the current game progress and high scores when the system is turned off. Many of these handhelds with a dozen such games are marketed as having hundreds or even thousands of games, though the vast majority are just different speed and difficulty settings. The most basic can now be sold for less than the cost of a glossy magazine.  At the lowest end of handheld game sophistication, there is also the \"avoid/catch the falling objects\" game. These games are controlled with 2 movement buttons, and sport a screen with a column of player positions, and rows of projectiles to animate towards the player. The player and projectiles could be any picture, from tanks dodging missiles to a dog catching sausages.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Handheld electronic games are very small, portable devices for playing interactive electronic games, often miniaturized versions of video games. The controls, display and speakers are all part of a single unit. Rather than a general-purpose screen made up of a grid of small pixels, they usually have custom displays designed to play one game. This simplicity means they can be made as small as a smartwatch, and sometimes are. The visual output of these games can range from a few small light bulbs or LED lights to calculator-like alphanumerical screens; later these were mostly displaced by liquid crystal and vacuum fluorescent display screens with detailed images and in the case of VFD games, color. Handhelds were at their most popular from the late 1970s into the early 1990s. They are the precursors to the handheld game console.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974181}
{"src_title": "Szymon Winawer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Tournament and match results.", "content": "At the Paris 1867 tournament held at the Café de la Régence, his first international tournament, Winawer finished in second place, tied with Wilhelm Steinitz behind Ignatz Von Kolisch. He remained one of the world's best players for the next 15 years.  At Warsaw 1868 Winawer won the first chess tournament conducted in Poland. He won an 1875 match in Saint Petersburg against Russian master Ilya Shumov, 5–2. At Paris 1878 Winawer tied for first place (+14−3=5) with Johannes Zukertort, ahead of Joseph Henry Blackburne and George Henry Mackenzie, but took second prize after the play-off. At Berlin 1881 he finished =3rd with Mikhail Chigorin. Winawer's best result was a first place tie with Steinitz at Vienna 1882, in what was the strongest chess tournament in history up to that time. At London 1883 he failed to place for the first time, but later that year at Nuremberg (3rd German Congress) he finished first, defeating Blackburne who took second place.  After a long absence Winawer returned to chess in the 1890s, but by then he had been surpassed by younger players including Siegbert Tarrasch and Emanuel Lasker. At Dresden 1892 and Budapest 1896 he placed sixth. He lost an 1896 match to Dawid Janowski 2–5. He turned 63 during his final international tournament, Monte Carlo 1901, and did not place among the prizewinners. Winawer continued to play competitive chess into his 60s, and in his career he faced all of the top players from the last third of the 19th century, from Adolf Anderssen to Lasker. His rivalry with Blackburne stretched from 1870 to 1901, and they met in competitive games in five consecutive decades. Winawer died in Warsaw on November 29, 1919.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Winawer has several opening variations named for him. The most popular is the Winawer Variation of the French Defence (1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4). His name is also associated with the Winawer Attack in the Ruy Lopez. At Monte Carlo 1901, Winawer's last international tournament, he introduced the Winawer Countergambit in the Slav Defense in a game against Frank Marshall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sample game.", "content": "In one of his best known games, he beat Steinitz in Nuremberg in 1896: 1.e4 e5 2.d4 exd4 3.Qxd4 Nc6 4.Qe3 Nf6 5.Nc3 Bb4 6.Bd2 O-O 7.O-O-O Re8 8.Bc4 Bxc3 9.Bxc3 Nxe4 10.Qf4 Nf6 11.Nf3 d6 12.Ng5 Be6 13.Bd3 h6 14.h4 Nd5 15.Bh7+ Kh8 16.Rxd5 Bxd5 17.Be4 f6 18.Bxd5 fxg5 19.hxg5 Ne5 20.g6 1–0", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Szymon Abramowicz Winawer (Warsaw, March 6, 1838 – Warsaw, November 29, 1919) was a leading Polish chess player who won the German Chess Championship in 1883.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974182}
{"src_title": "Gerhard Fieseler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "From birth to the 1918 armistice.", "content": "Fieseler was born in Glesch. He joined the Air Service of the German Army in 1915. Despite a crash during training hospitalizing him until February 1916, he was assigned as an observation pilot by October 1916, flying first with FFA 243, then with FFA 41. In 1917, he qualified as a fighter pilot and was posted on 12 July to the Macedonian front, initially flying a Roland D.II with Jasta 25. Fieseler scored his first aerial victory on 20 August 1917. A serious illness removed him from active duty from 21 September until 5 November 1917.  Fieseler would not score his second success until 30 January 1918. He was eventually credited with nineteen confirmed aerial victories, with three others unconfirmed. Commissioned in October 1918, he was the highest-scoring German ace on the Eastern Front to survive World War I. He was awarded the Golden Military Merit Cross and the Iron Cross, first and second class.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Between the World Wars.", "content": "Following the war, he returned to printing, but yearned to return to flying. In 1926, he closed his print shop in Eschweiler and became a flight instructor with the Raab-Katzenstein aircraft company in Kassel and continued to hone his flying skills, becoming an accomplished stunt pilot. In 1927, he performed a particularly daring routine in Zürich and started to command increasingly high fees for appearances. In 1928, he designed his own stunt plane, the Fieseler F1, built by Raab-Katzenstein. He also designed Raab-Katzenstein RK-26 Tigerschwalbe aircraft in the end of the 1920s which was offered and sold to a Swedish company called AB Svenska Järnvägverkstäderna (ASJ), which built 25 of the type for Swedish Air Force in the beginning of the 1930s.  In 1930, Raab-Katzenstien was bankrupt, and Fieseler decided to strike out on his own. Using money he had been saving from his aerobatics, he bought the Segelflugzeugbau Kassel sailplane factory and renamed it Fieseler Flugzeugbau. Although he continued with some sailplane manufacturing, from 1932, he set up to start manufacturing sports planes of his own design. In one of these aircraft, he went on to win the inaugural World Aerobatic Championship in Paris in 1934, taking home a FF 100,000 prize, which he invested into the company.  A NSDAP member, Fieseler won contracts to licence-build military aircraft for the new Luftwaffe in 1935. Real success would come the following year, when his firm won a design contract against entries from Messerschmitt and Siebel for a STOL liaison/observation plane, that his firm then went on to produce as the Fieseler Fi 156 \"Storch\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "\"Gerhard Fieseler Werke\" produced aircraft for the German military throughout World War II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post World War II.", "content": "Following the war, Fieseler spent some time in US custody. When he was released, he re-opened part of this factory and spent some years building automotive components. He also published an autobiography, \"Meine Bahn am Himmel (My Road in the Sky)\".  Fieseler died in Kassel, aged 91.  The aerobatic manoeuvre Fieseler is named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gerhard Fieseler (April 15, 1896 – September 1, 1987) was a German World War I flying ace, aerobatics champion, and aircraft designer and manufacturer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974183}
{"src_title": "Baker Island", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "A cemetery and rubble from earlier settlements are located near the middle of the west coast, where the boat landing area is located. There are no ports or harbors, with anchorage prohibited offshore. The narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard, so there is a day beacon near the old village site. Baker's abandoned World War II runway, long, is completely covered with vegetation and is unserviceable.  The United States claims an exclusive economic zone of and territorial sea of around Baker Island.  During a 1935–1942 colonization attempt, the island was most likely on Hawaii time, which was then 10.5 hours behind UTC. Since it is uninhabited the island's time zone is unspecified, but it lies within a nautical time zone 12 hours behind UTC ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Baker was discovered in 1818 by Captain Elisha Folger of the Nantucket whaling ship \"Equator\", who called the island \"New Nantucket\". In August 1825 Baker was sighted by Captain Obed Starbuck of the \"Loper\", also a Nantucket whaler. The island is named for Michael Baker, who visited the island in 1834. Other references state that he visited in 1832, and again on August 14, 1839, in the whaler \"Gideon Howland\", to bury an American seaman. Captain Baker claimed the island in 1855, then he sold his interest to a group who later formed the American Guano Company.  The United States took possession of the island in 1857, claiming it under the Guano Islands Act of 1856. Its guano deposits were mined by the American Guano Company from 1859 to 1878. As an example of the scale of the guano mining and its destination the following ship movements were reported in late 1868.  On February 27, 1869 the British ship \"Shaftsbury\" under Captain John Davies, which had arrived at Baker's Island on 5 February from Montevideo, was wrecked after being driven onto the reef by a sudden wind shift and squall from the northwest, dragging her moorings with her. American ship \"Robin Hood\" was destroyed by fire while loading on 30 August 1869. On 7 December 1886, the American Guano Company sold all its rights to the British firm John T. Arundel and Company, which made the island its headquarters for guano digging operations in the Pacific from 1886 to 1891. Arundel applied in 1897 to the British Colonial Office for a licence to work the island on the presumption that the U.S. had abandoned their claim. The United Kingdom then considered Baker Island to be a British territory, although they never formally annexed it. The United States raised the question at the beginning of the 1920s and after some diplomatic exchanges, they launched in 1935 the American Equatorial Islands Colonization Project and issued on May 1936 Executive Order 7358 to clarify their sovereignty.  This short-lived attempt at colonization, via the American Equatorial Islands Colonization Project, began when American colonists arrived aboard the USCGC \"Itasca\", the same vessel that brought colonists to neighboring Howland Island, on April 3, 1935. They built a lighthouse and substantial dwellings, and they attempted to grow various plants. The settlement was named Meyerton, after Captain H.A. Meyer of the United States Army, who helped establish the camps in 1935. One sad-looking clump of coconut palms was jokingly called King–Doyle Park after two well-known citizens of Hawaii who visited on the \"Taney\" in 1938. This clump was the best on the island, planted near a water seep, but the dry climate and seabirds, eager for anything upon which to perch, did not give the trees or shrubs much of a chance to survive. King–Doyle Park was later adopted as a geographic name by the United States Geological Survey. Its population was four American civilians, all of whom were evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks. During World War II it was occupied by the U.S. military.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Airfield.", "content": "On August 11, 1943, a US Army defense force arrived on Baker Island as part of the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign. In September 1943 a airfield was opened and was subsequently used as a staging base by Seventh Air Force B-24 Liberator bombers for attacks on Mili Atoll. The 45th Fighter Squadron operating P-40 fighters operated from the airfield from September 1 - November 27, 1943. By January 1, 1944 the airfield was abandoned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "LORAN Station Baker.", "content": "LORAN radio navigation station Baker was a radio operations base in operation from September 1944 to July 1946. The station unit number was 91 and the radio call sign was NRN-1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "Baker has no natural fresh water sources. It is treeless, with sparse vegetation consisting of four kinds of grass, prostrate vines and low-growing shrubs. The island is primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife.  Several varieties of shorebirds and other species inhabit the island and nearby waters, some considered endangered. The ruddy turnstone, bar-tailed godwit, sanderling and Pacific golden plover are considered species of least concern. The bristle-thighed curlew is considered vulnerable on the national conservation priority scheme. Green turtles and hawksbill turtles, both critically endangered, can be found along the reef.  Seabird species such as the lesser frigatebird, brown noddy and sooty tern use the island for nesting and roosting. The island is also believed to be a rest stop for arctic-breeding shorebirds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National Wildlife Refuge.", "content": "On June 27, 1974, Secretary of the Interior Rogers Morton created Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge which was expanded in 2009 to add submerged lands within of the island. The refuge now includes of land and of water. Baker, along with six other islands, was administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex. In January 2009, that entity was redesignated the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument by President George W. Bush.  Environmental challenges include abandoned military debris from World War II and illegal fishing offshore. Invasive exotics introduced by human activity, including cockroaches and coconut palms, have also displaced native wildlife. Feral cats, first introduced in 1937, were eradicated in 1965.  Public entry to the island is only by special use permit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and it is generally restricted to scientists and educators. Representatives from the agency visit the island on average once every two years, usually coordinating transportation with an NOAA vessel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ruins and artifacts.", "content": "Debris from past human occupation is scattered throughout the island and in offshore waters. Most is from the U.S. military occupation of the island from 1942 to 1946. The most noticeable remnant is the airstrip. It is completely overgrown with vegetation and unusable. In the northeast section, apparently the main camp area, are the remains of several buildings and heavy equipment. Five wooden antenna poles about in height remain standing in the camp. Debris from several crashed airplanes and large equipment such as bulldozers is scattered around the island. Numerous bulldozer excavations containing the remnants of metal, fuel and water drums are scattered about the north central portion and northern edge of the island. The Navy reported the loss of 11 landing craft in the surf during World War II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baker Island (previously New Nantucket) is an uninhabited atoll located just north of the equator in the central Pacific Ocean about southwest of Honolulu. The island lies almost halfway between Hawaii and Australia. Its nearest neighbor is Howland Island, to the north-northwest; both have been claimed as territories of the United States since 1857, though the United Kingdom considered them part of the British Empire between 1897 and 1936.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974184}
{"src_title": "Leopold I, Duke of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "After the death of his eldest brother Duke Rudolph III in 1307 and the assassination of King Albert in 1308, Leopold became head of the Habsburg dynasty and administrator of the Swabian home territories, where he started a retaliation campaign against his father's murderers. The energetic man converged with the royal House of Luxembourg and accompanied King Henry VII on his Italian campaign. In 1311 he helped to suppress a Guelph revolt at Milan under Guido della Torre and to lay siege to the city of Brescia.  Upon Emperor Henry's death, he strongly supported his brother Frederick in the 1314 election as King of the Romans. Despite all efforts (and bribes), the Habsburgs only gained the votes of four Prince-electors, while Louis IV of Wittelsbach, with support of the Luxembourgs, was elected by five. In the following armed conflict between the rivals, the forces of Leopold were supportive of his brother's claims. In his ancestral homeland however, he incurred a decisive defeat by the Swiss Confederacy at the 1315 Battle of Morgarten.  When Frederick and their younger brother Henry had been captured at the Battle of Mühldorf in 1322, Leopold struggled for their release. He entered into negotiations with King Louis IV and even surrendered the Imperial Regalia he had kept at Kyburg castle. The parleys failed and Leopold continued to attack the Bavarian forces of Louis, who unsuccessfully laid siege to the Swabian town of Burgau in 1324. After the king had failed to reach the approval of his election by Pope John XXII and was even banned, he released Frederick in 1325. The captive however had to promise to swear his brother to acknowledge Louis as his suzerain, which Leopold refused. Frederick as a man of honour voluntarily returned to the Bavarian court, where he and Louis finally agreed upon a joint rule.  Leopold died in Straßburg shortly afterwards, aged 35. His remains were buried at Königsfelden Monastery in the Swiss town of Windisch in the Aargau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In 1315, Leopold married Catherine of Savoy (1284–1336), daughter of Amadeus V, Count of Savoy by his second wife, Marie of Brabant. They had two daughters:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leopold I (4 August 1290 – 28 February 1326) from the House of Habsburg was Duke of Austria and Styria – as co-ruler with his elder brother Frederick the Fair – from 1308 until his death. Born at Vienna, he was the third son of King Albert I of Germany and Elisabeth of Gorizia-Tyrol, a scion of the Meinhardiner dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974185}
{"src_title": "Tour guide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 18th-century Japan, a traveler could pay for a tour guide or consult guide books such as Kaibara Ekken's \"Keijō Shōran\" (The Excellent Views of Kyoto).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The CEN (European Committee for Standardization) definition for \"tourist guide\" – part of the work by CEN on definitions for terminology within the tourism industry – is a \"person who guides visitors in the language of their choice and interprets the cultural and natural heritage of an area, which person normally possesses an area-specific qualification usually issued and/or recognized by the appropriate authority\". CEN also defines a \"tour manager\" as a \"person who manages and supervises the itinerary on behalf of the tour operator, ensuring the programme is carried out as described in the tour operator's literature and sold to the traveller/consumer and who gives local practical information\".  In Europe, tourist guides are represented by FEG, the European Federation of Tourist Guide Associations. In Europe, the tourist guiding qualification is specific to each and every country; in some cases the qualification is national, in some cases it is broken up into regions. In all cases it is embedded in the educational and training ethic of that country. EN15565 is a European Standard for the Training and Qualification of Tourist Guides.  In Australia, tour guides are qualified to a minimum of Certificate III Guiding.]. They belong to a couple of organisations, notably the \"Professional Tour Guide Association of Australia\" [PTGAA] and \"Guides of Australia\" [GOA].  In Japan, tour guides are required to pass a certification exam by the Commissioner of the Japan Tourism Agency and register with the relevant prefectures. Non-licensed guides caught performing guide-interpreter activities can face a fine up to 500,000 Yen  In India its mandatory to own the license approved by the Ministry of Tourism (India) to work officially as a tourist guide. The government provides the license to regional level tour guide and also runs a Regional Level Guide Training Program (RLGTP). These programs and training sessions are conducted under the guidance of Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management (IITTM) or other government recognized institutes.  In South Africa tourist guides are required to register in terms of the Tourism Act 3, 2014. Training must be done through a trainer accredited by the Culture, Arts, Tourism, Hospitality and Sport Sector Education and Training Authority.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A tour guide (U.S.) or a tourist guide (European) is a person who provides assistance, information on cultural, historical and contemporary heritage to people on organized tours and individual clients at educational establishments, religious and historical sites, museums, and at venues of other significant interest, attractions sites.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974186}
{"src_title": "Carbonara", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin and history.", "content": "As with many recipes, the origins of the dish and its name are obscure, however, most sources trace its origin to the region of Lazio.  The dish forms part of a family of dishes involving pasta with bacon, cheese and pepper, one of which is \"pasta alla gricia\". Indeed, it is very similar to \"pasta cacio e uova\", a dish dressed with melted lard and a mixture of eggs and cheese, which is documented as long ago as 1839, and, according to some researchers and older Italians, may have been the pre-Second World War name of carbonara.  There are many theories for the origin of the name \"carbonara\", which is likely more recent than the dish itself. Since the name is derived from \"carbonaro\" (the Italian word for 'charcoal burner'), some believe the dish was first made as a hearty meal for Italian charcoal workers. In parts of the United States, this etymology gave rise to the term \"coal miner's spaghetti\". It has even been suggested that it was created as a tribute to the \"Carbonari\" ('charcoalmen') secret society prominent in the early, repressed stages of Italian unification in the early 19th century. It seems more likely that it is an \"urban dish\" from Rome, perhaps popularized by the Roman restaurant of the same name.  The names \"pasta alla carbonara\" and \"spaghetti alla carbonara\" are unrecorded before the Second World War; notably, it is absent from Ada Boni's 1930 \"La Cucina Romana\" ('Roman cuisine'). The \"carbonara\" name is first attested in 1950, when it was described in the Italian newspaper \"La Stampa\" as a dish sought by the American officers after the Allied liberation of Rome in 1944. It was described as a \"Roman dish\" at a time when many Italians were eating eggs and bacon supplied by troops from the United States. In 1954, it was included in Elizabeth David's \"Italian Food\", an English-language cookbook published in Great Britain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "The pasta is cooked in moderately salted boiling water. The guanciale is briefly fried in a pan in its own fat. A mixture of raw eggs (or yolks), grated Pecorino (or a mixture with Parmesan), and a liberal amount of ground black pepper is combined with the hot pasta either in the pasta pot or in a serving dish, but away from direct heat, to avoid curdling the egg. The fried guanciale is then added, and the mixture is tossed, creating a rich, creamy sauce with bits of meat spread throughout. Although various shapes of pasta can be used, the raw egg can only cook properly with a shape that has a sufficiently large ratio of surface area to volume, such as the long, thin types fettucine, linguine, or spaghetti.  Guanciale is the most commonly used meat for the dish in Italy, but pancetta and smoked pancetta affumicata are also used, and in English-speaking countries, bacon is often used as a substitute. The usual cheese is Pecorino Romano; occasionally Parmesan. Recipes differ as to how eggs are used—some use the whole egg, some others only the yolk, and still others a mixture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "Some preparations have more sauce and therefore use tubular-shaped pasta, such as penne, which is better suited to holding sauce.  Cream is not used in most Italian recipes, though there are exceptions; it is often employed elsewhere. Similarly, garlic is found in some recipes, mostly outside Italy.  Outside Italy, variations on carbonara may include green peas, broccoli, broccolini, leeks, onions, other vegetables, and/or mushrooms, and may substitute a meat like ham or \"coppa\" for the fattier guanciale or pancetta.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Carbonara sauce.", "content": "Carbonara sauce is often sold as a ready-to-eat convenience food in grocery stores in many countries. Unlike the original preparation, which is inseparable from its dish as its creamy texture is created on the pasta itself, the commercial versions of carbonara are prepared sauces to be applied onto separately cooked pasta. They may be thickened with cream and sometimes food starch, while often using bacon or cubed pancetta slices as its meat of choice instead of guanciale.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carbonara () is an Italian pasta dish from Rome made with egg, hard cheese, cured pork, and black pepper. The dish arrived at its modern form, with its current name, in the middle of the 20th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974187}
{"src_title": "Karolos Papoulias", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Karolos Papoulias was born in Ioannina and is the son of Major general Gregorios Papoulias. He obtained a Law degree from the University of Athens, a master's degree in Public International Law and International Relations from the University of Milan, and a doctorate in Private International Law from the University of Cologne. He is an associate of the Munich Institute for Southeast Europe. Apart from his native Greek, he also speaks French, German and Italian. A former pole-vault and volleyball champion, Papoulias has been chairman of the National Sports Association since 1985. He is also a founding member and until recently president of the Association for the Greek Linguistic Heritage.  He was active in the left-wing EPON youth as a young man.  Karolos Papoulias is married to Mary Panou and has three daughters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in PASOK, parliamentary and government offices.", "content": "Papoulias was a founding member of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) and a close associate of its leader Andreas Papandreou. Since December 1974 he was continually elected to the PASOK Central Committee. He was also member of the Coordination Council, the Executive Bureau and the Political Secretariat, as well as Secretary of the PASOK International Relations Committee from April 1975 to 1985. For a number of years he was also a member of the Coordinating Committee of the Socialist and Progressive Parties of the Mediterranean.  He was first elected to the Greek Parliament in 1977 for Ioannina, and held his seat continuously through the subsequent legislative elections until his 2004 election as President of the Republic. He held several high offices during the PASOK cabinets:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Papoulias as Minister for Foreign Affairs.", "content": "In the 1980s, Papoulias played a key role in trying to reach a solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. He mediated a safe departure of trapped Palestinian militants and Yasser Arafat from Lebanon on board Greek vessels in 1983.  He created diplomatic relations with the Arab world and achieved, among other things, the normalization of relations between Greece and Egypt and the establishment of tripartite cooperation between Iran, Armenia and Greece. He held talks with a total of 12 Turkish Foreign Ministers to normalize Greco-Turkish relations. This resulted in the signing of the Papoulias-Yılmaz memorandum in 1988.  He supported Turkey's European aspirations conditional on their respect for international law and European Union values.  In the period 1993–1996 and particularly at the crucial Essen Summit he played an important role in starting accession talks between the Republic of Cyprus and the European Union.  As president-in-office of the European Union and member of the contact group for the former Yugoslavia he worked to bring about a resolution of the crisis in Bosnia and Herzegovina. He signed the Interim Agreement with the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, aiming at the establishment of better relations between that country and Greece.  He was very interested in relations between Greece and the Balkan states and it was upon his initiative that the first meeting of the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of the Balkans was organized in Belgrade in 1988. There, he began talks with Bulgaria and the then Soviet Union on the Burgas-Alexandroupolis oil pipeline.  He was responsible for the signing of the protocol of mutual civil and military assistance with Bulgaria in the 1980s. He restored friendly and neighbourly relations with Albania by ending the state of war between that country and Greece.  Papoulias has been supportive of any step towards détente, peace and disarmament e.g. the \"Initiative of the Six\" for peace and disarmament, the participation of Greece in the Conference on Disarmament and Peace in Europe and in the Conference for the Abolition of Chemical Weapons, his proposals to create a nuclear-free zone in the Balkans and the promotion of the idea of making the Mediterranean a sea of peace and cooperation. The JANNINA 1 tripartite cooperation conference, between Greece, Bulgaria and Romania, was his idea and he was a strong supporter of the Black Sea Conference, which he also chaired.  With his visit to Washington in 1985 and the return visit of Secretary of State George Shultz, he revitalized Greek-American relations which had gone through a delicate phase during the previous years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Election to the Presidency.", "content": "On 12 December 2004, Prime Minister Kostas Karamanlis, leader of the governing New Democracy party, and George Papandreou, leader of the PASOK opposition, nominated Papoulias for the presidency, which is chosen by the Parliament. On 8 February 2005, he was elected by 279 of 300 votes to a five-year term. He was sworn in as the 6th President of the Third Hellenic Republic on 12 March 2005, succeeding Konstantinos Stephanopoulos. After securing the support of the two major political parties, he was re-elected to a second and final term on 3 February 2010 with a parliamentary majority of 266 votes. His presidential term ended in March 2015 and was replaced by Prokopis Pavlopoulos, who was elected Greece’s new president in a parliamentary vote in February 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "https://archive.is/20130208185608/http://news.silobreaker.com/biography-for-karolos-papoulias-5_2258120401743773696_4", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karolos Papoulias ( ; born 4 June 1929) is a Greek politician who served as President of Greece from 2005 to 2015. A member of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), he previously was Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1985 to 1989 and again from 1993 until 1996.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974188}
{"src_title": "Ibrahim Ferrer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ferrer was born at a dance club in San Luis, near the city of Santiago de Cuba. His mother died when he was 12, leaving him orphaned and forcing him to sing on the streets (busk) to earn money.  The following year, Ferrer joined his first ever musical group—a duet with his cousin—called Jovenes del Son (). They performed at private functions and the two youths managed to scrape together enough money to live.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Over the next few years, Ferrer would perform with many musical groups, including Conjunto Sorpresa and Chepín y su Orquesta Oriental. As lead singer of the latter, Ferrer recorded in 1956 his biggest hit: \"El platanal de Bartolo\". In 1961, he also sang lead for Mario Patterson y su Orquesta Oriental on \"Cariño falso\", a standard of the guaracha repertoire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Los Bocucos.", "content": "In 1953, Ferrer began performing with Pacho Alonso's group in Santiago, Cuba. In 1959, the group moved permanently to Havana, renaming themselves Los Bocucos, after a type of drum widely used in Santiago, the \"bocú\". With Alonso, Ferrer primarily performed sones, guarachas and other up-tempo songs. However, he yearned to sing boleros.  Ferrer remained a member of Los Bocucos until his retirement in 1991. Starting in 1967, Los Bocucos became an independent group, since Pacho Alonso started a new band, Los Pachucos. Since then, Ferrer began to sing lead more often, instead of performing as a backing singer. The group released several LPs in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1998, Cuban label EGREM released on CD \"Tierra caliente\", a compilation of tracks recorded by Los Bocucos between 1970 and 1988, featuring Ferrer as lead singer. The songs were directed and arranged by Roberto Correra, the group's lead trumpeter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career revival.", "content": "In 1996, Ferrer took part in Nick Gold’s World Circuit sessions, when it was announced that an old-style bolero singer would be required. He first participated in the recording of the album \"A Toda Cuba le Gusta\" with the Afro-Cuban All Stars, which was nominated for a Grammy Award. This project was immediately followed by the recording of Ry Cooder's Grammy Award winning \"Buena Vista Social Club\" album, which showcased Ferrer's talent as a bolero singer and made him widely known outside Cuba.  In 1999, Ry Cooder recorded Ferrer's first solo album. In 2000, Ferrer, at the age of 72, received a Latin Grammy for Best New Artist.  In 2001, he appeared on the track \"Latin Simone (¿Qué Pasa Contigo?)\" on the self-titled debut album of virtual band Gorillaz. Following Ferrer's death, Gorillaz played the song live as a tribute to him at concerts in 2005 and 2006, and again in 2018.  In 2004, Ferrer won a Grammy, but was denied permission by the U.S. government to enter the U.S. to receive his award\" as a result of extremely restrictive visa laws enacted in the wake of 9/11.  Ferrer released his second solo recording, \"Buenos Hermanos\", in 2003 and continued touring in Europe into 2005. Ferrer's contributed in 2005 to the APE Vision Artists Project Earth album Rhythms Del Mundo: Cuba, a collaboration with artists Coldplay, U2, Sting, Dido, Faithless, Jack Johnson, Maroon 5 and others. Ferrer's last recording was \"Mi sueño\", an album devoted to the bolero. It was released posthumously in 2006.  Ferrer was posthumously featured in the Gorillaz documentary films \"Bananaz\" and \"Reject False Icons\" in 2008 and 2019, respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Ibrahim Ferrer died at age 78 of multiple organ failure on August 6, 2005 at CIMEQ hospital in Havana, Cuba after returning from a European tour. He was buried in the Colón Cemetery, Havana.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Ferrer was an adherent of the Santería faith, a blending of traditional African religions and Catholicism.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ibrahim Ferrer (February 20, 1927 – August 6, 2005) was a Cuban singer who played with Los Bocucos for nearly forty years. He also performed with Conjunto Sorpresa, Chepín y su Orquesta Oriental and Mario Patterson. After his retirement in 1991, he was brought back in the studio to record with the Afro-Cuban All Stars and Buena Vista Social Club in March 1996. He then toured internationally with these revival groups and recorded several solo albums for World Circuit before his death in 2005.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974189}
{"src_title": "Rachel Bilson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bilson was born in Los Angeles, the daughter of Janice Stango, a sex therapist, and Danny Bilson, a writer, director, and producer. She has an older brother and two younger half-sisters, Rosemary and Hattie. Her father is Jewish; her mother is Italian-American.  Bilson's father comes from a show business family: her paternal grandfather is producer-director Bruce Bilson. Her great-grandfather George Bilson, born in Leeds, West Riding of Yorkshire, UK, worked for RKO Pictures, where he headed the movie trailer department, and her great-grandmother Hattie Bilson was a screenwriter whose credits include \"Pal, Canine Detective\" (1950). Bilson's classmates at Notre Dame High School in Sherman Oaks, California, included actress Kirsten Dunst, actor Rami Malek, and \"American Idol\" runner-up singer Katharine McPhee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Bilson attended Grossmont College, a community college in a suburb of San Diego, taking her father's advice to pursue a professional acting career. She then made several appearances in commercials, including advertisements for Subway restaurants, Raisin Bran and Pepto-Bismol.  She made her screen acting debut in early 2003, appearing in one episode of \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" and \"8 Simple Rules for Dating My Teenage Daughter\". Bilson was subsequently cast in \"The O.C.\", which debuted in August 2003. Her character, Summer Roberts, was initially intended to appear in only a few episodes but became a series regular after a successful run, as Bilson's on-screen romance with Seth Cohen (Adam Brody) became a noted aspect of the series.  At the 2005 Teen Choice Awards, she collected three awards: \"Choice Hottie Female,\" \"Choice TV Actress (Drama)\" and \"Best Onscreen TV Chemistry\" (jointly won with Adam Brody). In 2005, \"Maxim\" magazine named her sixth in their annual \"Hot 100 List\"; in 2006, the publication awarded her #14.  The UK edition of FHM Magazine named her 28th in the 2006 100 Sexiest Women in the World list, while the US Edition Ranked her 77th in 2005. Bilson was also named one of \"People\" magazine's \"World's Most Beautiful People\" in 2006. Before appearing in \"Maxim\", Bilson had turned down requests to appear seminude in men's magazines, specifying that she feels that her body \"is sacred\" and \"not there for the whole world to see.\"  Bilson's first film role was in \"The Last Kiss\", a romantic comedy-drama also starring Zach Braff in 2006. She played a college student who seduces Braff's character. One review of the film noted that Bilson played the role with \"surprising depth,\" although another critic described her role as \"Glenn Close in \"Fatal Attraction\" as an airhead valley girl with a hot bod.\"  In late 2006, Bilson was cast in the film Doug Liman's thriller \"Jumper\", as the replacement for actress Teresa Palmer; the film was released on February 14, 2008. She appeared in a two-episode arc on \"The O.C.\" creator Josh Schwartz's NBC comedy, \"Chuck\", and in the film \"New York, I Love You\". She appeared in the 100th episode of \"How I Met Your Mother\" (\"Girls Versus Suits\") as Ted Mosby's latest love interest and the Mother's roommate.  In September 2008, she started shooting the indie romantic film \"Waiting for Forever\", directed by James Keach. In September 2009 Rachel appeared as a celebrity guest judge in the third episode of \"Project Runway\" (season 6). Bilson starred in the 2011 indie film \"L!fe Happens\". In 2011, Bilson began starring in The CW series \"Hart of Dixie\", executive produced by \"The O.C.\" creator Josh Schwartz. On May 7, 2015, the CW officially canceled the show after four seasons. In 2017, Bilson joined the cast of CMT's \"Nashville\" which reunites her with her former \"The O.C.\" co-star Chris Carmack.  Bilson starred in the ABC drama series \"Take Two\" which premiered in June 2018; however, on November 21, 2018, ABC cancelled the series after one season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fashion design.", "content": "Bilson has been recognized by several media sources as being a \"fashion junkie\". She has described herself as having a \"vintage\" sense of style and has noted Kate Moss and Diane Keaton as inspirations.  Bilson approached DKNY Jeans in late 2007 with a view to design a clothing line with the fashion brand. Together they created Edie Rose. The collection was launched in September 2008. Her idea was to keep fashionable items accessible to young women by keeping the prices of each piece under $100. An advertising image was released in July 2008 which featured Bilson modelling her Edie Rose collection.  Bilson stated that she wanted to keep her fashion line \"as separate as possible from Rachel Bilson, the actress. I'm hoping people will appreciate it for the clothes, not the person behind them.\" Much of her fashion collection was lost when her home was burglarized in May 2009. Bilson's fashions and sense of style made her the unwitting target of the Bling Ring, who burglarized her home on several occasions.  In 2011, Bilson collaborated with her personal stylist Nicole Chavez, and shoe industry leader Steve Madden, to launch the footwear destination, ShoeMint, an \"online customized shoe shopping experience.\"  In 2013, Bilson designed a shirt for Invisible Children.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Bilson and Adam Brody, her co-star on \"The O.C.\", dated for three years.  After she and Brody broke up, Bilson began a relationship with actor Hayden Christensen, with whom she co-starred on the film \"Jumper\". By January 2008, the pair had been seen and photographed together around Los Angeles for almost a year, without confirming a relationship. In February 2009, Bilson appeared publicly with what seemed to be an engagement ring, though no official announcement was made. In August 2010, Bilson's representative confirmed there had been an engagement that had since been called off, giving no other details. The two reconciled three months afterward, and had a daughter in October 2014. Bilson and Christensen separated in September 2017.  Bilson and Christensen were both supporters of the coalition No Kids Policy, which seeks to prevent children of celebrities from being photographed without parental consent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rachel Bilson (born August 25, 1981) is an American actress. Born to a California show business family, Bilson made her television debut in 2003, and then landed the role of Summer Roberts on the prime-time drama series \"The O.C.\" Bilson made her movie debut in \"The Last Kiss\" (2006) and starred in the science-fiction-action film \"Jumper\" (2008). From 2011 to 2015, she starred as Dr. Zoe Hart on The CW series \"Hart of Dixie\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974190}
{"src_title": "Willem Janszoon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Willem Janszoon (Willem Jansz) was born around 1570, but nothing is known of his early life nor of his parents.  Janszoon is first recorded as entering into the service of the \"Oude compagnie\", one of the predecessors of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), in 1598 as a mate aboard the \"Hollandia\", part of the second fleet under Jacob Cornelisz. van Neck, dispatched by the Dutch to the Dutch East Indies. On 5 May 1601, he again sailed for the East Indies as master of the \"Lam\", one of three ships in the fleet of Joris van Spilbergen.  Janszoon sailed from the Netherlands for the East Indies for the third time on 18 December 1603, as captain of the (or \"Duijfken\", meaning \"Little Dove\"), one of twelve ships of the great fleet of Steven van der Hagen. When the other ships left Java, Janszoon was sent to search for other outlets of trade, particularly in \"the great land of New Guinea and other East and Southlands\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exploration and discovery.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First voyage to Australia.", "content": "On 18 November 1605, the \"Duyfken\" sailed from Bantam to the coast of western New Guinea. After that, Janszoon crossed the eastern end of the Arafura Sea into the Gulf of Carpentaria, without being aware of the existence of Torres Strait. The \"Duyfken\" was actually in Torres Strait in February 1606, a few months before Spanish explorer Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through it. On 26 February 1606, Janzoon made landfall at the Pennefather River on the western shore of Cape York in Queensland, near what is now the town of Weipa. This is the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent. Janszoon proceeded to chart some of the coastline, which he thought was a southerly extension of New Guinea.  Finding the land swampy and the people inhospitable (ten of his men were killed on various shore expeditions), Janszoon decided to return at a place he named Cape Keerweer (\"Turnabout\"), south of Albatross Bay, and arrived back at Bantam in June 1606. He called the land he had discovered \"Nieu Zeland\", after the Dutch province of Zeeland, but the name was not adopted, and was later used by Dutch cartographers for New Zealand.  In 1607, Admiral Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge sent Janzoon to Ambon and Banda. In 1611, Janzoon returned to the Netherlands, believing that the south coast of New Guinea was joined to the land along which he had sailed, and Dutch maps reproduced that error for many years. Though there have been suggestions that earlier navigators from China, France or Portugal may have discovered parts of Australia earlier, the \"Duyfken\" is the first European vessel definitely known to have done so.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second voyage to Australia.", "content": "Janszoon reported that on 31 July 1618, he had landed on an island at 22° South with a length of 22 miles and 240 miles SSE of the Sunda Strait. This is generally interpreted as a description of the peninsula from Point Cloates () to North West Cape () on the Western Australian coast, which Janszoon presumed was an island, without fully circumnavigating it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political life.", "content": "Around 1617/18 he was back in the Netherlands and was appointed as a member of the Council of the Indies. He served as admiral of the Dutch Defence fleet. Janszoon was awarded a gold chain worth 1,000 guilders in 1619 for his part in capturing four ships of the British East India Company near Tiku on West Sumatra, which had aided the Javanese in their defence of the town of Jakarta against the Dutch. In 1620 he was one of the negotiators with the English. In a combined fleet they sailed to Manila to prevent Chinese merchants dealing with the Spanish. Janszoon became vice-admiral, and the year later admiral. Near the end of his life, Janszoon served as governor of Banda (16231627). He returned to Batavia in June 1627 and soon afterwards, as admiral of a fleet of eight vessels, went on a diplomatic mission to India. On 4 December 1628, he sailed for Holland and on 16 July 1629, reported on the state of the Indies at The Hague. He was now probably about sixty years old and ready to retire from his strenuous and successful career in the service of his country. Nothing is known of his last days, but he is thought to have died in 1630.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Records.", "content": "The original journal and log made during Janszoon’s 1606 voyage have been lost. The Duyfken chart, which shows the location of the first landfall in Australia by the \"Duyfken\", had a better fate. It was still in existence in Amsterdam when Hessel Gerritszoon made his Map of the Pacific in 1622, and placed the Duyfken geography upon it, thus providing us with the first map to contain any part of Australia. The chart was still in existence around 1670, when a copy was made. This eventually went to the Imperial Library in Vienna and remained forgotten for two hundred years. The map is part of the \"Atlas Blaeu Van der Hem\", brought to Vienna in 1730 by Prince Eugene of Savoy. The information from his charts was included in the marble and copper maps of the hemispheres on the floor of The Citizens’ Hall of the Royal Palace in Amsterdam.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Willem Janszoon (; ), sometimes abbreviated to Willem Jansz., was a Dutch navigator and colonial governor. Janszoon served in the Netherlands East Indies in the periods 16031611 and 16121616, including as governor of Fort Henricus on the island of Solor. He is the first European known to have seen the coast of Australia during his voyage of 16051606.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974191}
{"src_title": "Turin Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The history of metro in Turin begins in 1930s, when the first project of an underground railway was put forward. However, only a part of the first tunnel was built, and the actual project was put aside. Nowadays, the tunnel is part of an underground parking system.  A new company committed to the development of a metro system in Turin was founded in 1960s. Several projects and feasibility studies were made for a 7 km underground line under the city centre and then for a line connecting FIAT factories to surrounding neighborhoods, but eventually all the proposals were rejected.  In the mid-1980s a new proposal for a system of 5 fast tram lines at-grade was approved. However, only the planned line 3 was built following the original project, while the others eventually were built either as regular tram lines, with no dedicated lane, or as bus lines.  A new project was approved in 1995 for a line running from \"Campo Volo\" on the west border of the city to \"Porta Nuova\", the main railway station in Turin. The project was put in hold due to lack of funds.  The project for the underground line was resumed in April 1999 with a longer route to Lingotto based on the VAL system. Works on the line began on 19 December 2000, part of the works for the Turin 2006 Winter Olympics. The first section from \"Fermi\" to \"XVIII Dicembre\" was opened on 4 February 2006, while the second section on the south to \"Porta Nuova\" opened on 5 October 2007. \"Porta Susa\" station opened later on 9 September 2011. The last part of the line on the south to \"Lingotto\" was inaugurated on 6 March 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ticketing.", "content": "The single journey ticket costed €1.50 and was valid also outside of the metro for unlimited trips on other public transport in the city for 90 minutes. From May 2018 the single journey ticket costs €1.70 and it includes the urban line and the suburban line for 100 minutes. Moreover, any form of urban transport season ticket is valid also for the metro system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Opening hours.", "content": "Turin metro starts operating at 5:30 from Monday to Saturday and at 7:00 on Sundays. It closes at 22:00 on Mondays, at 00:30 from Tuesday to Thursday, at 1:30 on Friday and Saturday and at 1:00 on Sundays.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plans.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Line 1.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lingotto – Bengasi southern extension.", "content": "Two additional stations, reaching the Southern boundary of the city, are currently under construction. These stations will be known as Italia '61, serving the new Piedmont Region Headquarters, and Bengasi, named for the piazza under which it will be located. Recent estimates suggest this southern extension will be completed not before February 2021.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Collegno – Cascine Vica westward extension.", "content": "A further Western extension is planned to reach the boundaries of Collegno and the city of Rivoli. In December 2017, the city approved the first stage of the project, valued at €123.7 million, to construct two already named stations: Certosa, which will interchange with the central railway station of the city of Collegno, and Collegno Centro, serving its central market area. An additional two stations, including one in the Leumann Village neighbourhood and another in the Cascine Vica district of Rivoli, were allocated €148 million. The Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport expects the extension to Cascine Vica to be completed by Summer 2023.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Line 2.", "content": "On 30 August 2017, a contract to create the preliminary design for a second line was awarded to Systra, a French conglomerate. The line will connect South-Western suburbs of the city (Orbassano and Beinasco) with the northern district of \"Barriera di Milano\". The first 26 stations had already been defined, starting from Mirafiori Sud district to Barriera di Milano, crossing the Line 1 at \"Porta Nuova\" station and serving key points as Politecnico di Torino University and Piazza Castello, one of the major central squares of the city.  Part of the Southern track will be elevated to reduce building costs (starting from Piazza Cattaneo to Cimitero Sud). On Northern side, from Vanchiglia to Rebaudengo, it will follow an old (currently abandoned) railway track, which was used to connect the old and abandoned scalo Vanchiglia to the main Turin railway.  Preliminary analysis conducted by Systra in the Spring of 2018 resulted in some changes to this original alignment. The following June, public consultations were announced and the new alignment, with the list of 23 planned stations was published on the city's website. In December 2018, the preliminary project was submitted to the Ministry of Transportation for funding approval, with an objective to start the bidding process by 2021. In 2019 the Italian government committed to €828 million of funding for Line 2's total projected €3 billion cost, with construction due to begin in 2021 for a 2028 opening.  In the future, a 4 station extension could cover suburbs of Beinasco and Orbassano to reach terminus \"Pasta di Rivalta\" in the city of Rivalta di Torino.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Potential Line 3.", "content": "The current mayor of Turin, Chiara Appendino, publicly supports the idea of a third line for the city's Metro system. Campaign literature, published on the then candidate's website during the Turin municipal election, 2016, show Line 3 using tracks that formally served the Ferrovia Torino-Ceres railway. Potential stations would serve the community of Venaria Reale, the Juventus Stadium and Turin International Airport. Since the election, Deputy Mayor and Chief of Urban Planning Guido Montanari has expressed interest in readapting the Torino-Ceres line to be part of the city's Metro network. After which the city council decided to keep the railway line Torino-Ceres with a new tunnel and a new station, called Torino Grosseto.  In 2019 the mayor of Venaria, together with the first citizens of Pianezza, Druento, Cafasse, Alpignano, Fiano and Val della Torre, presented a new proposal of metro to the mayor of Turin Chiara Appendino. The area will include the west part of the city: Torino Dora railway station, Juventus Stadium, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, Maria Vittoria Hospital, The Court of Turin, Cenisia district, San Paolo district and the Torino Lingotto railway station. The metro will would provide for interchange in three stations: Bernini, Pitagora and Italia ‘61.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Turin Metro () is the modern VAL rapid transit system serving Turin. It is operated by Gruppo Torinese Trasporti (GTT), a public company controlled by the municipality of Turin. The system comprises one line with 21 stations connecting Fermi station in Collegno with the Lingotto multifunctional centre in Turin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974192}
{"src_title": "Strategy (game theory)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Strategy set.", "content": "A player's strategy set defines what strategies are available for them to play.  A player has a finite strategy set if they have a number of discrete strategies available to them. For instance, a game of rock paper scissors comprises a single move by each player—and each player's move is made without knowledge of the other's, not as a response—so each player has the finite strategy set {rock paper scissors}.  A strategy set is infinite otherwise. For instance the cake cutting game has a bounded continuum of strategies in the strategy set {Cut anywhere between zero percent and 100 percent of the cake}.  In a dynamic game, the strategy set consists of the possible rules a player could give to a robot or agent on how to play the game. For instance, in the ultimatum game, the strategy set for the second player would consist of every possible rule for which offers to accept and which to reject.  In a Bayesian game, the strategy set is similar to that in a dynamic game. It consists of rules for what action to take for any possible private information.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Choosing a strategy set.", "content": "In applied game theory, the definition of the strategy sets is an important part of the art of making a game simultaneously solvable and meaningful. The game theorist can use knowledge of the overall problem to limit the strategy spaces, and ease the solution.  For instance, strictly speaking in the Ultimatum game a player can have strategies such as: \"Reject offers of ($1, $3, $5,..., $19), accept offers of ($0, $2, $4,..., $20)\". Including all such strategies makes for a very large strategy space and a somewhat difficult problem. A game theorist might instead believe they can limit the strategy set to: {Reject any offer ≤ \"x\", accept any offer > \"x\"; for \"x\" in ($0, $1, $2,..., $20)}.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pure and mixed strategies.", "content": "A pure strategy provides a complete definition of how a player will play a game. In particular, it determines the move a player will make for any situation they could face. A player's strategy set is the set of pure strategies available to that player.  A mixed strategy is an assignment of a probability to each pure strategy. This allows for a player to randomly select a pure strategy. (See the following section for an illustration.) Since probabilities are continuous, there are infinitely many mixed strategies available to a player.  Of course, one can regard a pure strategy as a degenerate case of a mixed strategy, in which that particular pure strategy is selected with probability \"1\" and every other strategy with probability \"0\".  A totally mixed strategy is a mixed strategy in which the player assigns a strictly positive probability to every pure strategy. (Totally mixed strategies are important for equilibrium refinement such as trembling hand perfect equilibrium.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mixed strategy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Illustration.", "content": "Consider the payoff matrix pictured to the right (known as a coordination game). Here one player chooses the row and the other chooses a column. The row player receives the first payoff, the column player the second. If row opts to play A with probability 1 (i.e. play A for sure), then he is said to be playing a pure strategy. If column opts to flip a coin and play A if the coin lands heads and B if the coin lands tails, then he is said to be playing a mixed strategy, and not a pure strategy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Significance.", "content": "In his famous paper, John Forbes Nash proved that there is an equilibrium for every finite game. One can divide Nash equilibria into two types. \"Pure strategy Nash equilibria\" are Nash equilibria where all players are playing pure strategies. \"Mixed strategy Nash equilibria\" are equilibria where at least one player is playing a mixed strategy. While Nash proved that every finite game has a Nash equilibrium, not all have pure strategy Nash equilibria. For an example of a game that does not have a Nash equilibrium in pure strategies, see Matching pennies. However, many games do have pure strategy Nash equilibria (e.g. the Coordination game, the Prisoner's dilemma, the Stag hunt). Further, games can have both pure strategy and mixed strategy equilibria. An easy example is the pure coordination game, where in addition to the pure strategies (A,A) and (B,B) a mixed equilibrium exists in which both players play either strategy with probability 1/2.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "A disputed meaning.", "content": "During the 1980s, the concept of mixed strategies came under heavy fire for being \"intuitively problematic\". Randomization, central in mixed strategies, lacks behavioral support. Seldom do people make their choices following a lottery. This behavioral problem is compounded by the cognitive difficulty that people are unable to generate random outcomes without the aid of a random or pseudo-random generator.  In 1991, game theorist Ariel Rubinstein described alternative ways of understanding the concept. The first, due to Harsanyi (1973), is called \"purification\", and supposes that the mixed strategies interpretation merely reflects our lack of knowledge of the players' information and decision-making process. Apparently random choices are then seen as consequences of non-specified, payoff-irrelevant exogenous factors. However, it is unsatisfying to have results that hang on unspecified factors.  A second interpretation imagines the game players standing for a large population of agents. Each of the agents chooses a pure strategy, and the payoff depends on the fraction of agents choosing each strategy. The mixed strategy hence represents the distribution of pure strategies chosen by each population. However, this does not provide any justification for the case when players are individual agents.  Later, Aumann and Brandenburger (1995), re-interpreted Nash equilibrium as an equilibrium in \"beliefs\", rather than actions. For instance, in rock paper scissors an equilibrium in beliefs would have each player \"believing\" the other was equally likely to play each strategy. This interpretation weakens the predictive power of Nash equilibrium, however, since it is possible in such an equilibrium for each player to \"actually\" play a pure strategy of Rock.  Ever since, game theorists' attitude towards mixed strategies-based results have been ambivalent. Mixed strategies are still widely used for their capacity to provide Nash equilibria in games where no equilibrium in pure strategies exists, but the model does not specify why and how players randomize their decisions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Behavior strategy.", "content": "While a mixed strategy assigns a probability distribution over pure strategies, a behavior strategy assigns at each information set a probability distribution over the set of possible actions. While the two concepts are very closely related in the context of normal form games, they have very different implications for extensive form games. Roughly, a mixed strategy randomly chooses a deterministic path through the game tree, while a behavior strategy can be seen as a stochastic path.  The relationship between mixed and behavior strategies is the subject of Kuhn's theorem. The result establishes that in any finite extensive-form game with perfect recall, for any player and any mixed strategy, there exists a behavior strategy that, against all profiles of strategies (of other players), induces the same distribution over terminal nodes as the mixed strategy does. The converse is also true.  A famous example of why perfect recall is required for the equivalence is given by Piccione and Rubinstein (1997) with their \"Absent-Minded Driver\" game.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In game theory, a player's strategy is any of the options which he or she chooses in a setting where the outcome depends \"not only\" on their own actions \"but\" on the actions of others. A player's strategy will determine the action which the player will take at any stage of the game.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974193}
{"src_title": "J. C. R. Licklider", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Licklider was born on March 11, 1915, in St. Louis, Missouri, United States. He was the only child of Joseph Parron Licklider, a Baptist minister, and Margaret Robnett Licklider. Despite his father's religious background, he was not religious in later life.  He studied at Washington University in St. Louis, where he received a B.A. with a triple major in physics, mathematics, and psychology in 1937 and an M.A. in psychology in 1938. He received a Ph.D. in psychoacoustics from the University of Rochester in 1942. Thereafter, he worked at Harvard University as a research fellow and lecturer in the Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory from 1943 to 1950.  He became interested in information technology, and moved to MIT in 1950 as an associate professor, where he served on a committee that established MIT Lincoln Laboratory and a psychology program for engineering students. While at MIT, Licklider was involved in the SAGE project as head of the team concerned with human factors.  In 1957, he received the Franklin V. Taylor Award from the Society of Engineering Psychologists. In 1958, he was elected President of the Acoustical Society of America, and in 1990 he received the Commonwealth Award for Distinguished Service.  Licklider left MIT to become a vice president at Bolt Beranek and Newman in 1957. He learned about time-sharing from Christopher Strachey at a UNESCO-sponsored conference on Information Processing in Paris in 1959. At BBN, he developed the BBN Time-Sharing System and conducted the first public demonstration of time-sharing.  In October 1962, Licklider was appointed head of the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) at ARPA, the United States Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, an appointment he kept through July 1964. In April 1963, he sent a memo to his colleagues in outlining the early challenges presented in establishing a time-sharing network of computers with the software of that time. Ultimately, his vision led to ARPANet, the precursor of today's Internet.  After serving as manager of information sciences, systems and applications at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York from 1964 to 1967, Licklider rejoined MIT as a professor of electrical engineering in 1968. During this period, he concurrently served as director of Project MAC until 1970. Project MAC had produced the first computer time-sharing system, CTSS, and one of the first online setups with the development of Multics (work on which commenced in 1964). Multics provided inspiration for some elements of the Unix operating system developed at Bell Labs by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie in 1970.  Following a second stint as IPTO director (1974–1975), his MIT faculty line was transferred to the Institute's Laboratory for Computer Science, where he was based for the remainder of his career. He was a founder member of Infocom in 1979, known for their interactive fiction computer games. He retired and became professor emeritus in 1985. He died in 1990 in Arlington, Massachusetts; his cremated remains are interred in Mount Auburn Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Psychoacoustics.", "content": "In the psychoacoustics field, Licklider is most remembered for his 1951 \"Duplex Theory of Pitch Perception\", presented in a paper that has been cited hundreds of times, was reprinted in a 1979 book, and formed the basis for modern models of pitch perception. He was also the first to report binaural unmasking of speech.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-Automatic Ground Environment.", "content": "While at MIT in the 1950s, Licklider worked on Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE), a Cold War project to create a computer-aided air defense system. The SAGE system included computers that collected and presented data to a human operator, who then chose the appropriate response. Licklider worked as a human factors expert, which helped convince him of the great potential for human/computer interfaces.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Information technology.", "content": "Licklider became interested in information technology early in his career. His ideas foretold of graphical computing, point-and-click interfaces, digital libraries, e-commerce, online banking, and software that would exist on a network and migrate wherever it was needed. Much like Vannevar Bush's, Licklider's contribution to the development of the Internet consists of ideas, not inventions. He foresaw the need for networked computers with easy user interfaces.  Licklider was instrumental in conceiving, funding and managing the research that led to modern personal computers and the Internet. In 1960 his seminal paper on \"Man-Computer Symbiosis\" foreshadowed interactive computing, and he went on to fund early efforts in time-sharing and application development, most notably the work of Douglas Engelbart, who founded the Augmentation Research Center at Stanford Research Institute and created the famous On-Line System where the computer mouse was invented.  He also did some seminal early work for the Council on Library Resources, imagining what libraries of the future might look like, which he had described as \"thinking centers\" in his 1960 paper.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Man–computer symbiosis.", "content": "In \"Man-Computer Symbiosis\", Licklider outlined the need for simpler interaction between computers and computer users. Licklider has been credited as an early pioneer of cybernetics and artificial intelligence (AI), but unlike many AI practitioners, Licklider never felt that men would be replaced by computer-based beings. As he wrote in that article: \"Men will set the goals, formulate the hypotheses, determine the criteria, and perform the evaluations. Computing machines will do the routinizable work that must be done to prepare the way for insights and decisions in technical and scientific thinking\". This approach, focusing on effective use of information technology in augmenting human intelligence, is sometimes called Intelligence amplification (IA).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Project MAC.", "content": "During his time as director of ARPA's Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) from 1962 to 1964, he funded Project MAC at MIT. A large mainframe computer was designed to be shared by up to 30 simultaneous users, each sitting at a separate \"typewriter terminal\". He also funded similar projects at Stanford University, UCLA, UC Berkeley, and the AN/FSQ-32 at System Development Corporation.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Global computer network.", "content": "Licklider played a similar role in conceiving of and funding early networking research. He formulated the earliest ideas of a global computer network in August 1962 at BBN, in a series of memos discussing the \"Intergalactic Computer Network\" concept. These ideas contained almost everything that the Internet is today, including cloud computing.  While at IPTO, he convinced Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor, and Lawrence G. Roberts that an all-encompassing computer network was a very important concept. He met with Donald Davies in 1965 and inspired his interest in data communications.  In 1967 Licklider submitted the paper \"Televistas: Looking ahead through side windows\" to the Carnegie Commission on Educational Television. This paper describes a radical departure from the \"broadcast\" model of television. Instead, Licklider advocates a two-way communications network. The Carnegie Commission led to the creation of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Although the Commission's report explains that \"Dr. Licklider's paper was completed after the Commission had formulated its own conclusions,\" President Johnson said at the signing of the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967, \"So I think we must consider new ways to build a great network for knowledge—not just a broadcast system, but one that employs every means of sending and of storing information that the individual can use\".  His 1968 paper \"The Computer as a Communication Device\" illustrates his vision of network applications and predicts the use of computer networks to support communities of common interest and collaboration without regard to location.  The Licklider Transmission Protocol is named after him.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Licklider wrote numerous articles and lectures, and one book:  Articles, a selection:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider (; March 11, 1915 – June 26, 1990), known simply as J. C. R. or \"Lick\", was an American psychologist and computer scientist who is considered one of the most important figures in computer science and general computing history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974194}
{"src_title": "Yazd", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "\"Yazd\" means \"clean\" and \"holy\"; Yazd city means god city and holy land.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The name is derived from Yazdegerd I, a Sassanid ruler of Persia. The city has been a center for Zoroastrianism since the 3rd century AD. The word \"yazd\" means God. After the Arab conquest of Iran, many Zoroastrians migrated to Yazd from neighboring provinces. By paying a levy, Yazd was allowed to remain Zoroastrian even after its conquest, and Islam only gradually became the dominant religion in the city.  Because of its remote desert location and the difficulty of access, Yazd remained largely immune to large battles and the destruction and ravages of war. For instance, it was a haven for those fleeing from destruction in other parts of Persian Empire during the Mongol invasion. In 1272 it was visited by Marco Polo, who remarked on the city's fine silk-weaving industry. In the book \"The Travels of Marco Polo\", he described Yazd in the following way:  Yazd briefly served as the capital of the Muzaffarid Dynasty in the fourteenth century, and was unsuccessfully besieged in 1350–1351 by the Injuids under Shaikh Abu Ishaq. The Friday (or Congregation) mosque, arguably the city's greatest architectural landmark, as well as other important buildings, date to this period. During the Qajar dynasty (18th century AD) it was ruled by the Bakhtiari Khans.  Under the rule of the Safavid (16th century), some people migrated from Yazd and settled in an area that is today on the Iran-Afghanistan border. The settlement, which was named Yazdi, was located in what is now Farah City in the province of the same name in Afghanistan. Even today, people from this area speak with an accent very similar to that of the people of Yazd.  One of the notable things about Yazd is its family-centered culture. According to official statistics from Iran's National Organization for Civil Registration, Yazd is among the three cities with the lowest divorce rates in Iran.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language and ethnic groups.", "content": "The majority of the people of Yazd are Persians, and they speak Persian with Yazdi accent different from Persian accent of Tehran.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "The majority of people in Yazd are Muslims. There is also a sizable population of Zoroastrians in the city. In 2013, Sepanta Niknam was elected to the city council of Yazd and became the first Zoroastrian councillor in Iran. There was once a relatively large Jewish-Yazdi community, however, after the creation of Israel, many have moved there for varying reasons. Former president of Israel Moshe Katsav is an example.  The Pir-e-Naraki sanctuary is one the important pilgrimage destinations for Zoroastrians, where an annual congregation is held and frequent visits are made during the year; it is now also a famous tourist spot.  The story of the last Persian prince to come to Yazd before the arrival of Islam adds to its importance. Such a transformation has occurred several times.  Several other city traditions are the Muslim parades and gatherings, which are mainly processions called \"azadari\" held to commemorate the events experienced by the main Islamic martyrs and other important figures. These huge public gatherings created a series of spaces which, since most are near important urban monuments, are used at other times as hubs from which visitors can tour the main spots in the city.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "According to the Iranian Census of 2011 the population of Yazd is 486,152 people from 168,528 families, which includes 297,546 men and 285,136 women.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical sites.", "content": "Yazd is an important centre of Persian architecture. Because of its climate, it has one of the largest networks of \"qanats\" in the world, and Yazdi \"qanat\" makers are considered the most skilled in Iran.  To deal with the extremely hot summers, many old buildings in Yazd have magnificent wind towers and large underground areas.  The city is also home to prime examples of \"yakhchals\", which were used to store ice retrieved from glaciers in the nearby mountains. Yazd is also one of the largest cities built almost entirely out of adobe.  Yazd's heritage as a center of Zoroastrianism is also important. There is a Tower of Silence on the outskirts, and the city has an \"ateshkadeh\" which holds a fire that has been kept alight continuously since 470 AD. Zoroastrians make up a significant minority of the population, around 20,000–40,000 or 5 to 10 percent.  The 11th-century brick mausoleum and shrine Davāzdah Imām is the oldest dated building in the city.  Built in 12th century and still in use, Jame Mosque of Yazd is an example of the finest Persian mosaics and excellent architecture. Its minarets are the highest in the country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Yazd has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification \"BWh\"). It is the driest major city in Iran, with a yearly precipitation amount of and only 23 days of precipitation, with summer temperatures very frequently above in blazing sunshine with no humidity. Even at night the temperatures in summer are rather uncomfortable. In the winter, the days remain mild and sunny, but in the morning the thin air and low cloudiness cause cold temperatures that can sometimes fall well below.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Always known for the quality of its silk and carpets, Yazd today is one of Iran's industrial centers for textiles. There is also a considerable ceramics and construction materials industry and unique confectionery and jewellery industries. A significant portion of the population is also employed in other industries including agriculture, dairy, metal works, and machine manufacturing. There are a number of companies involved in the growing information technology industry, mainly manufacturing primary materials such as cables and connectors. Currently Yazd is the home of the largest manufacturer of fibre optics in Iran.  Yazd's confectioneries have a tremendous following throughout Iran and have been a source of tourism for the city. Confectioners workshops (\"khalifehs\", or experts) keep their recipes a guarded secret, and there are many that have remained a private family business for many generations. Baklava, ghotab and pashmak are the most popular sweets made in the city.  In 2000 the Yazd Water Museum opened; it features exhibits of water storage vessels and historical technologies related to water.  Yazd has expanded its industrial fields since the 1980s. With at least three main industrial areas each containing over 70 different factories, Yazd has become one of the most technologically advanced cities of Iran.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "In addition to its connection with major Iranian cities via Iranian Railways, Yazd is served by the Shahid Sadooghi Airport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The University of Yazd was established in 1988. It has a college of architecture specializing in traditional Persian art and architecture. Yazd and its nearby towns contain the following institutes of higher education:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Yazd is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yazd ( ), formerly also known as Yezd, is the capital of Yazd Province, Iran. The city is located southeast of Esfahan. At the 2011 census, the population was 529,673, and it is currently the 15th largest city in Iran. Since 2017, the historical city of Yazd is recognized as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974195}
{"src_title": "Thomas Gresham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Born in London and descended from an old Norfolk family, Gresham was one of two sons and two daughters of Sir Richard Gresham, a leading City merchant mercer and Lord Mayor of London, who was knighted by King Henry VIII for negotiating favourable loans with foreign merchants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Gresham was educated at St Paul's School. After this, although his father wanted Thomas to become a merchant, Sir Richard first sent him to university at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. He was concurrently apprenticed in the Mercers' Company to his uncle Sir John Gresham, founder of Gresham's School, while he was still at Cambridge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Agent in the Low Countries.", "content": "In 1543 the Mercers' Company admitted the 24-year-old Gresham as a liveryman, and later that year he left England for the Low Countries, where, either on his own account or that of his father or uncle, he both carried on business as a merchant whilst acting in various matters as agent for King Henry VIII. In 1544 he married Anne Ferneley, widow of the London merchant Sir William Read, but maintained residence principally in the Low Countries, basing his headquarters at Antwerp in present-day Belgium (then the Spanish Netherlands), where he became renowned for his adept market-play.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Financial acumen.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rescues the pound.", "content": "When in 1551 the mismanagement of Sir William Dansell, King's Merchant to the Low Countries, had caused the English Government much financial embarrassment, the authorities called Gresham for advice, thereafter following his proposals. Gresham advocated the adoption of various methods – highly ingenious, but quite arbitrary and unfair — for raising the value of the pound sterling on the Antwerp bourse which proved so successful that in just a few years King Edward VI had discharged almost all of his debts. The Government sought Gresham's advice in all their money difficulties, and also frequently employed him in various diplomatic missions. He had no stated salary, but in reward of his services received from King Edward various grants of lands, the annual value of which at that time amounted ultimately to about 400 pounds a year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later services to the Crown.", "content": "On the accession of Queen Mary in 1553 Gresham fell out of favour at Court for a short time with Alderman William Dauntsey displacing him. But Dauntsey's financial operations proved unsuccessful and Gresham was soon re-instated; and as he professed his zealous desire to serve the Queen, and manifested great adroitness both in negotiating loans and in smuggling money, arms and foreign goods, not only were his services retained throughout her reign (1553–1558), but besides his salary of twenty shillings \"per diem\" he received grants of church lands to the yearly value of 200 pounds. Under Queen Elizabeth's reign (1558–1603), besides continuing in his post as financial agent of the Crown, Gresham acted as Ambassador Plenipotentiary to the Court of Duchess Margaret of Parma, Governor of the Netherlands, and was appointed a Knight Bachelor in 1559 prior to his departure. The unsettled times preceding the Dutch revolt compelled him to leave Antwerp on 10 March 1567; but, though he spent the remainder of his life in London, he continued his business as merchant and government financial agent in much the same way as he had always done. His enterprises made him one of the richest men of his generation in England.  Queen Elizabeth also found Gresham's abilities useful in a variety of other ways, including acting as gaoler to Lady Mary Grey (sister of Lady Jane Grey), who, as a punishment for marrying Thomas Keyes the sergeant-porter, was imprisoned in his house from June 1569 to the end of 1572.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Founding of the Royal Exchange.", "content": "In 1565 Gresham made a proposal to the City's Court of Aldermen to build, at his own expense, a bourse or exchange – what became the Royal Exchange, modelled on the Antwerp bourse;– on condition that the Corporation provided for this purpose a suitable location. In this proposal he seems to have had a good eye for his self-interest as well as for the general good of the City's merchants, for by a yearly rental of £700 obtained for the shops in the upper part of the building he received more than sufficient return for his trouble and expense.  The foundation of the Royal Exchange is the background of Thomas Heywood's play: \"If You Know Not Me, You Know Nobody part 2\", in which a Lord extols the quality of the building when asked if he has ever seen \"a goodlier frame\":", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage and progeny.", "content": "In 1544 he married Anne Ferneley, widow of Sir William Read, a London merchant. By his wife he had an only son who predeceased him. He also had an illegitimate daughter who married Sir Nathaniel Bacon (\"c.\" 1546–1622), half-brother of Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Albans, becoming \"Anne, Lady Bacon\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and burial.", "content": "Gresham died suddenly, apparently of apoplexy, on 21 November 1579 and was buried at St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate in the City of London.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bequest for the foundation of Gresham College.", "content": "Apart from some small sums to various charities, Gresham bequeathed the bulk of his property (consisting of estates in London and around England giving an income of more than 2,300 pounds a year) to his widow and her heirs, with the stipulation that after her death his own house in Bishopsgate Street and the rents from the Royal Exchange should be vested in the Corporation of London and the Mercers Company, for the purpose of instituting a college in which seven professors should read lectures, one each day of the week, in astronomy, geometry, physic, law, divinity, rhetoric and music. Thus, Gresham College, the first institution of higher learning in London, came to be established in 1597.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gresham's Law.", "content": "Gresham's Law (stated simply as: \"Bad money drives out good\") takes its name from him (although others, including the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, had recognised the concept for years) because he urged Queen Elizabeth to restore the debased currency of England. However, Sir Thomas never formulated anything like \"Gresham's Law,\" which was the 1857 conception of Henry Dunning Macleod, an economist with a knack for reading into a text that which was not written.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Gresham grasshopper.", "content": "The Gresham family crest is: \"On a Mount Vert a Grasshopper Or\", (a golden grasshopper on a green mound); it is displayed by Gresham College, which he founded, and also forms the weathervane on the Royal Exchange in the City of London, also founded by him in 1565. The Faneuil Hall at Boston, Massachusetts, has also borrowed this heraldic device. The Gresham coat of arms is blazoned: \"Argent, a Chevron Erminés between three Mullets pierced Sable\".  According to ancient legend, the founder of the family, Roger de Gresham, was a foundling abandoned as a new-born baby among long grass in Norfolk during the 13th century and found there by a woman whose attention was drawn to the child by a grasshopper. Although a beautiful story, it is more likely that the grasshopper is simply a canting heraldic crest playing on the sound \"grassh-\" and \"Gresh-\". The Gresham family uses as its motto \"Fiat Voluntas Tua\" ('Thy will be done').", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sir Thomas Gresham the Elder (; c. 1519 – 21 November 1579), was an English merchant and financier who acted on behalf of King Edward VI (1547–1553) and Edward's half-sisters, queens Mary I (1553–1558) and Elizabeth I (1558–1603).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974196}
{"src_title": "Hevea brasiliensis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"H. brasiliensis\" is a tall deciduous tree growing to a height of up to in the wild, but cultivated trees are usually much smaller because drawing off the latex restricts the growth of the tree. The trunk is cylindrical and may have a swollen, bottle-shaped base. The bark is some shade of brown, and the inner bark oozes latex when damaged. The leaves have three leaflets and are spirally arranged. The inflorescence include separate male and female flowers. The flowers are pungent, creamy-yellow and have no petals. The fruit is a capsule that contains three large seeds; it opens explosively when ripe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rubber Tree plantation.", "content": "In the wild, the tree can reach a height of up to. The white or yellow latex occurs in latex vessels in the bark, mostly outside the phloem. These vessels spiral up the tree in a right-handed helix which forms an angle of about 30 degrees with the horizontal, and can grow as high as 45 ft.  In plantations, the trees are generally smaller for two reasons: 1) trees grow more slowly when they are tapped for latex, and 2) trees are generally cut down after only 30 years, because latex production declines as trees age, and they are no longer economically productive. The tree requires a tropical or subtropical climate with a minimum of about 1,200 mm per year of rainfall, and no frost. If frost does occur, the results can be disastrous for production. One frost can cause the rubber from an entire plantation to become brittle and break once it has been refined.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Latex tapping.", "content": "The natural rubber tree takes between seven and ten years to deliver the first harvest. Harvesters make incisions across the latex vessels, just deep enough to tap the vessels without harming the tree's growth, and the latex is collected in small buckets. This process is known as rubber tapping. Latex production is highly variable from tree to tree and across clone types.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wood harvesting.", "content": "As latex production declines with age, rubber trees are generally felled when they reach the age of 25 to 30 years. The earlier practice was to burn the trees, but in recent decades, the wood has been harvested for furniture making.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The South American rubber tree grew only in the Amazon rainforest, and increasing demand and the discovery of the vulcanization procedure in 1839 led to the rubber boom in that region, enriching the cities of Belém, Santarém, Manaus in Brazil and Iquitos, Peru, from 1840 to 1913. In Brazil, before the name was changed to 'Seringueira' the initial name of the plant was 'pará rubber tree', derived from the name of the state Pará. In Peru, the tree was called 'árbol del caucho', and the latex extracted from it was called 'caucho'. The tree was used to obtain rubber by the natives who inhabited its geographical distribution. The Olmec people of Mesoamerica extracted and produced similar forms of primitive rubber from analogous latex-producing trees such as \"Castilla elastica\" as early as 3,600 years ago. The rubber was used, among other things, to make the balls used in the Mesoamerican ballgame. Early attempts were made in 1873 to grow \"H. brasilensis\" outside Brazil. After some effort, 12 seedlings were germinated at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. These were sent to India for cultivation, but died. A second attempt was then made, some 70,000 seeds being smuggled to Kew in 1875, by Henry Wickham, in the service of the British Empire. About four percent of these germinated, and in 1876, about 2,000 seedlings were sent, in Wardian cases, to Ceylon (modern day Sri Lanka) and 22 were sent to the Botanic Gardens in Singapore.  Once established outside its native country, rubber was extensively propagated in the British colonies. Rubber trees were brought to the botanical gardens at Buitenzorg, Java, in 1883. By 1898, a rubber plantation had been established in Malaya, with imported Chinese field workers being the dominant work force in rubber production in the early 20th-century.  The cultivation of the tree in South America (Amazon) ended early in the 20th century because of indigenous blights that targeted the rubber tree. The blight, called South American leaf blight, is caused by the ascomycetes \"Microcyclus ulei\",also called \"Pseudocercospora ulei\" or \"Dothidella ulei\". Rubber production then moved to parts of the world where it is not indigenous, and therefore not affected by local plant diseases. Today, most rubber tree plantations are in South and Southeast Asia, the top rubber producing countries in 2011 being Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Vietnam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environmental concerns.", "content": "The toxicity of arsenic to insects, bacteria, and fungi has led to the heavy use of arsenic trioxide on rubber plantations, especially in Malaysia.  The majority of the rubber trees in Southeast Asia are clones of varieties highly susceptible to the South American leaf blight—\"Microcyclus ulei\". For these reasons, environmental historian Charles C. Mann, in his 2011 book, \"1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created\", predicted that the Southeast Asian rubber plantations will be ravaged by the blight in the not-too-distant future, thus creating a potential calamity for international industry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synonyms.", "content": "The genus \"Hevea\" is also known as:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hevea brasiliensis, the Pará rubber tree, \"sharinga\" tree, seringueira, or, most commonly, the rubber tree or rubber plant, is a flowering plant belonging to the spurge family Euphorbiaceae. It is the most economically important member of the genus \"Hevea\" because the milky latex extracted from the tree is the primary source of natural rubber.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974197}
{"src_title": "Thorny devil", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The thorny devil was first described by the biologist John Edward Gray in 1841. While it is the only species contained in the genus \"Moloch\", many taxonomists suspect another species might remain to be found in the wild. The thorny devil is only distantly related to the morphologically similar North American horned lizards of the genus \"Phrynosoma\". This similarity is usually thought of as an example of convergent evolution.  The names given to this lizard reflect its appearance: the two large horned scales on its head complete the illusion of a dragon or devil. The name Moloch was used for a deity of the ancient Near East, usually depicted as a hideous beast. The thorny devil also has other nicknames people have given it such as the \"devil lizard\", \"horned lizard\", and the \"thorny toad\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The thorny devil grows up to in total length (including tail), and can live for 15 to 20 years. The females are larger than the males. Most specimens are coloured in camouflaging shades of desert browns and tans. These colours change from pale colours during warm weather to darker colours during cold weather. The thorny devil is covered entirely with conical spines that are mostly uncalcified. An intimidating array of spikes covers the entire upper side of the body of the thorny devil. These thorny scales also help to defend it from predators. Camouflage and deception may also be used to evade predation. This lizard's unusual gait involves freezing and rocking as it moves about slowly in search of food, water, and mates.  The thorny devil also features a spiny \"false head\" on the back of its neck, and the lizard presents this to potential predators by dipping its real head. The \"false head\" is made of soft tissue.  The thorny devil's scales are ridged, enabling the animal to collect water by simply touching it with any part of the body, usually the limbs; the capillary principle allows the water to be transported to the mouth through the skin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The thorny devil usually lives in the arid scrubland and desert that covers most of central Australia, sandplain and sandridge desert in the deep interior and the mallee belt.  The habitat of the thorny devil coincides more with the regions of sandy loam soils than with a particular climate in Western Australia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Self-defense.", "content": "The thorny devil is covered in hard, rather sharp spines that dissuade attacks by predators by making it difficult to swallow. It also has a false head on its back. When it feels threatened by other animals, it lowers its head between its front legs, and then presents its false head. Predators that consume the thorny devil include wild birds and goannas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "The thorny devil mainly subsists on ants, especially \"Ochetellus flavipes\" and other species in the \"Iridomyrmex\" or \"Ochetellus\" genera. Thorny devils often eat thousands of ants in one day.  The thorny devil collects moisture in the dry desert by the condensation of dew. This dew forms on its skin in the early morning as it begins to warm outside. Then the dew is channeled to its mouth in hygroscopic grooves between its spines. During rainfalls, capillary action allows the thorny devil to absorb water from all over its body. Capillary action also allows the thorny devil to absorb water from damp sand. Absorption through sand is the thorny devils main source of water intake.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The female thorny devil lays a clutch of three to ten eggs between September and December. She puts these in a nesting burrow about 30 cm underground. The eggs hatch after about three to four months.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular reference.", "content": "The popular appeal of the thorny devil is the basis of an anecdotal petty scam. American servicemen stationed in Southwest Australia decades ago (such as during World War II) were supposedly sold the thorny fruits of a species of weeds, the so-called \"double gee\" (\"Emex australis\"), but those were called \"thorny devil eggs\" as a part of the scam. Thorny devils have been kept in captivity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The thorny devil (\"Moloch horridus\"), also known commonly as the mountain devil, thorny lizard, thorny dragon, and moloch, is a species of lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is endemic to Australia. It is the sole species in the genus Moloch. It grows up to in total length (including tail), with females generally larger than males.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974198}
{"src_title": "Milarepa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Life of Milarepa\".", "content": "Milarepa's life-story is famous in the Tibetan culture, and retold many times. The best-known biography, \"The Life of Milarepa\", written by Tsangnyön Heruka (1452–1507) in the fifteenth century and drawing from older biographies, is still very popular. Most of the present-day stories on Milarepa come from this single source, with oral lineage predominating this as well as relics including his bear skinned coat. While \"very little [is known] about him as a historical person at all,\" Milarepa is venerated by all Tibetan schools \"as an exemplar of religious dedication and mastery,\" and his lifestory established the lineage of the Kagyu sect and its key figures.  According to \"The Life of Milarepa\", Milarepa was born in western Tibet to a prosperous family. When his father died, his family was deprived of their wealth by his aunt and uncle. At his mother's request, Milarepa left home and studied sorcery to take revenge, killing many people. Later he felt sorrow about his deeds, and became student of Marpa the Translator. Before Marpa would teach Milarepa, he had him undergo abuse and trials, such as letting him build and then demolish three towers in turn. Milarepa was asked to build one final multi-story tower by Marpa at Lhodrag, which still stands. Eventually, Marpa accepted him, explaining that the trials were a means to purify Milarepa's negative karma. Marpa transmitted Tantric initiations and instructions to Milarepa, including \"tummo\" (\"yogic heat\"), the \"aural transmissions\" (), and \"mahamudra\". Marpa told Milarepa to practice solitary meditation in caves and mountain retreats, which, according to the biography, after many years of practice resulted in \"a deep experiential realization about the true nature of reality.\" Thereafter he lived as a fully realized yogi, and eventually even forgave his aunt, who caused the misfortune of his family.  According to Lopez, \"The Life of Milarepa\" represents \"Buddhism as it was understood and practiced in Tibet in the fifteenth century, projected back in time,\" and contains \"many of the key terms and doctrines of Buddhism.\" Tsangnyön Heruka did his best to establish a lineage of teachers which connects the Kagyu tradition with the Indian \"siddha\" tradition, portraying Marpa as a student of Naropa, though Naropa had already died when Marpa went to India.  Lopez notes that Tsangnyön Heruka used stylistic elements from the biography of Gautama Buddha to portray Milarepa effectively as a Tibetan Buddha, \"born and enlightened in Tibet, without going to India or receiving the direct instructions of an Indian master.\" The lifestory of Milarepa portrays \"the rapid method of the Tantric path,\" in which liberation is gained in one lifetime. It describes how Milarepa practiced the generation stage and completion stage, to achieve \"mahamudra\", \"spontaneous realization of the most profound nature of mind.\" Yet, in his instructions to his Tibetan audiences, Milarepa refers to the basic Buddhist teachings of \"impermanence, the sufferings of \"saṃsāra\", the certainty of death and the uncertainty of its arrival, the frightful rebirth that is the direct result of our benighted deeds.\" But, his own life also is an example that even a murderer can transform into a Buddha. Lopez further notes that \"The Life of Milarepa\" portrays two parallel worlds, a profane world and a sacred world, which are ultimately one, showing that the world itself is sacred.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa\".", "content": "Previous biographies of Milarepa were enlarged with religious poetry and song cycles, which doubled the volume of biographical information. Tsangnyön Heruka published these songs in a separate volume as \"The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa\", summarizing the various song cycles in chapter eleven of \"The Life of Milarepa\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical context.", "content": "Milarepa lived during the so-called second dissemination of Buddhism in Tibet (10th–12th century), when Buddhism was re-introduced. Three pivotal figures in this Tibetan Renaissance were Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055), who translated sutras, tantras and commentaries; Atiśa (982–1054), whose student Dromtön founded the Kadam school of Tibetan Buddhism; and Marpa the Translator, the teacher of Milarepa, and himself regarded as student of Naropa. Marpa introduced tantric texts and oral instructions from the Bengali siddha tradition into Tibet, and Marpa's purported connection with Naropa established the lineage of the Kagyu school, thereby reaching back to the Buddha himself.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jetsun Milarepa (, 1028/40–1111/23) was a Tibetan siddha, who famously was a murderer as a young man then turned to Buddhism to become an accomplished buddhist disciple despite his past. He is generally considered as one of Tibet's most famous yogis and poets, serving as an example for the Buddhist life. He was a student of Marpa Lotsawa, and a major figure in the history of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism. He is also famous for climbing the great Mount Kailash.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974199}
{"src_title": "Buchach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest recorded mention of Buchach is in 1260 by Bartosz Paprocki in his book \"Gniazdo Cnoty, zkąd herby Rycerstwa Polskiego swój początek mają\", Kraków, 1578. The validity of this date was reasonably refuted by the Polish scientist Józef Apolinary Rolle.  In 1349, the region of Halychyna (Galicia) became part of the Kingdom of Poland. As a part of Ruthenian Voivodeship remained in Poland from 1434 until 1772 (see Partitions of Poland). It was during this time that the area experienced a large influx of Polish, Jewish and Armenian settlers. In the late 14th century, Polish nobleman (szlachta), Michał Awdaniec, Abdank coat of arms became the owner of the town on 1360-s or 1370-s. On July 28, 1379, Michał Awdaniec founded a Roman Catholic parish church, and built a castle. agreed to grant Magdeburg rights to Buchach (Buczacz): it was first Magdeburg-style city, located in the Halych Land. In the early 15th century, the Awdaniec family of Buchach changed its last name into Buczacki, after its main residence. Frequent invasions of the Crimean Tatars brought destruction to the town, and in 1515, it once again received the Magdeburg rights. In 1558 Katarzyna Tworowska nee Buczacka get the king's grant for market in Buchach. In 1580, local castle was rebuilt: the castle was twice besieged by the Tatars (1665, 1667), who finally captured it in 1672, during the Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676). Buchach was a temporary residence of Mehmed IV; here, on October 18, 1672, the Treaty of Buchach was signed between Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. According to this treaty, Poland handed the provinces of Ukraine and Podolia to Turkey.  In the 17th and 18th centuries, Buchach belonged to the Potocki family. Mikołaj Bazyli Potocki, the Starosta of Kaniv, Bohuslav, the son of Stefan Aleksander Potocki, Voivode of Belz, who became a Greek-Catholic about 1758, built here Buchach cityhall with a 35-meter tower (near 1751), a late Baroque Roman Catholic Church of Assumption of Mary (1761–1763), and rebuilt the castle, destroyed by the Turks. With the unification of Poland and Lithuania in 1569, the newly united kingdom extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Owing to its importance as a market town, Buchach had become a prominent trading centre linking Poland and the Ottoman Empire.  In 1772, Eastern Galicia together with other areas of south-western Poland, became a part of Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria — a crownland of the Habsburg Monarchy as part of the First Partition of Poland. Industry came to Buchach around the end of the 19th century. Among the small-scale industries there included a brickworks, and candle and soap factory, (modern) flour mills, a textile plant, and a necktie factory. The town also boasted a brewery and a winery. The largest factory was established early in the 1900s, when the Hilfesverein concern of Vienna set up a plant for the manufacture of wooden toys in Buchach employing some 200 workers, mainly young girls. In 1912 the Stanislaviv-based Savings and Credit Union opened a branch in Buchach, and this served as a bank for local industrialists and business.  Buchach remained a part of Austria and its successor states until the end of the First World War in 1918. The town was briefly a part of the independent West Ukrainian People's Republic before it was captured by the Republic of Poland in July 1919 after Ukrainian-Polish War. Also, between August 10 and September 15, 1920, it was occupied by the Red Army (see Polish-Soviet War). In the Second Polish Republic, Buchach was the seat of a county (powiat) in Tarnopol Voivodeship. In the 1920s, Buchach was inhabited by Jews (~60%), Poles (~25%), and Ukrainians (~15%). On September 18, 1939, during the Soviet Invasion of Poland, Buchach was occupied by the Red Army, and incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR (see Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact). In 1941, it was invaded by Nazi Germany. Before World War II, approximately 10,000 Jews (half of the local population) lived in Buchach. According to the Soviet Extraordinary Commission, approximately 7,000 Jews were killed in Buchach during the Nazi occupation. Some were sent to Belzec, others murdered in the streets or in killing places in the forests. A few escaped to the Soviet Union or lived in the forests and fields. In May 1943, Buchach was proclaimed Judenfrei town. When Soviets retook the town on July 21, 1944, only about 100 Jewish survivors remained. In 1945, its Polish residents were resettled into the lands of western Poland that had previously been German, and Communist authorities closed the parish church, turning it into a storage facility. Bones of the members of the Potocki family, kept in the church cellar, were thrown out, and later buried at the local cemetery.  In 1965, the neighboring village of Nahirianka was annexed to Buchach. After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, Buchach became a part of independent Ukraine, and new, Ukrainian government returned the church to its rightful owners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat of arms.", "content": "The coat of arms of Buchach originated from the Piława coat of arms, which was used by the Potocki family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "The city has religious communities of different churches: Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kyiv Patriarchate, Adventist Church and others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Communications.", "content": "The closest international airports are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Buchach is currently twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Buchach (; ; or (Bitshtosh); \"Buch'ach\"; ) is a city located on the Strypa River (a tributary of the Dniester) in Ternopil Oblast (province) of Western Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Buchach Raion, and rests south-east of Lviv, in the historic region of Halychyna (Galicia). The city was located in Habsburg Monarchy (1772—1804), Austrian empire (1804—1867), Austro-Hungary (1867—1918), West Ukrainian People's Republic (1918—1919), and Poland (1919—1939). The estimated population was around 12,500, according to the 2001 Ukrainian census.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974200}
{"src_title": "Santa Maria in Ara Coeli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally the church was named \"Sancta Maria in Capitolio\", since it was sited on the Capitoline Hill (Campidoglio, in Italian) of Ancient Rome; by the 14th century it had been renamed. A medieval legend included in the mid-12th-century guide to Rome, \"Mirabilia Urbis Romae\", claimed that the church was built over an Augustan \"Ara primogeniti Dei\", in the place where the Tiburtine Sibyl prophesied to Augustus the coming of the Christ. \"For this reason the figures of Augustus and of the Tiburtine sibyl are painted on either side of the arch above the high altar\" (Lanciani chapter 1). A later legend substituted an apparition of the Virgin Mary.  In \"The History of Money\", anthropologist Jack Weatherford goes into some detail about the church's previous incarnation as the temple of Juno Moneta—on the Arx—after whom Money is named.  According to Roman historians, in the fourth century B.C., the irritated honking of the sacred geese around Juno's temple on Capitoline Hill warned the people of an impending night attack by the Gauls, who were secretly scaling the walls of the citadel. From this event, the goddess acquired [the] surname-Juno Moneta, from Latin monere (to warn)...As patroness of the state, Juno Moneta presided over various activities of the state, including the primary activity of issuing money. ... from Moneta came the modem English words mint and money and, ultimately, from the Latin word meaning warning.  Today, the site of the Temple of Juno Moneta, the source of the great stream of Roman currency, has given way to the ancient... brick church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli. Centuries ago, church architects incorporated the ruins of the ancient temple into the new building.  The church is also thought to have replaced the \"auguraculum\", the seat of the augurs.  The foundation of the church was laid on the site of a Byzantine abbey mentioned in 574. Many buildings were built around the first church; in the upper part they gave rise to a cloister, while on the slopes of the hill a little quarter and a market grew up. Remains of these buildings - such as the little church of San Biagio de Mercato and the underlying \"Insula Romana\") - were discovered in the 1930s. At first the church followed the Greek rite, a sign of the power of the Byzantine exarch. Taken over by the papacy by the 9th century, the church was given first to the Benedictines, then, by papal bull to the Franciscans in 1249–1250; under the Franciscans it received its Romanesque-Gothic aspect. The arches that divide the nave from the aisles are supported on columns, no two precisely alike, scavenged from Roman ruins.  During the Middle Ages, this church became the centre of the religious and civil life of the city. in particular during the republican experience of the 14th century, when self-proclaimed Tribune and reviver of the Roman Republic Cola di Rienzo inaugurated the monumental stairway of 124 steps in front of the church, designed in 1348 by Simone Andreozzi, on the occasion of the Black Death. Condemned criminals were executed at the foot of the steps; there Cola di Rienzo met his death, near the spot where his statue commemorates him.  In 1571, Santa Maria in Aracoeli hosted the celebrations honoring Marcantonio Colonna after the victorious Battle of Lepanto over the Turkish fleet. Marking this occasion, the compartmented ceiling was gilded and painted (finished 1575), to thank the Blessed Virgin for the victory. In 1797, with the Roman Republic, the basilica was deconsecrated and turned into a stable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The original unfinished façade has lost the mosaics and subsequent frescoes that originally decorated it, save a mosaic in the tympanum of the main door, one of three doors that are later additions. The Gothic window is the main detail that tourists can see from the bottom of the stairs, but it is the sole truly Gothic detail of the church.  The church is built as a nave and two aisles that are divided by Roman columns, all different, taken from diverse antique monuments. Among its numerous treasures are Pinturicchio's 15th-century frescoes depicting the life of Saint Bernardino of Siena in the Bufalini Chapel, the first chapel on the right. Other features are the wooden ceiling, the inlaid cosmatesque floor, a \"Transfiguration\" painted on wood by Girolamo Siciolante da Sermoneta, and works by other artists like Pietro Cavallini (of his frescoes only one survives), Benozzo Gozzoli and Giulio Romano.  It houses also \"Madonna Aracoeli\" (Our Lady of the Golden Hands), (Byzantian icon, the 10-11th-century) in the Altar. This Marian image was Pontifically crowned on 29 March 1636 by Pope Urban VIII. Pope Pius XII consecrated the people of Rome to the Most Blessed Virgin Mary and her Immaculate Heart in front of this image in 1948, May 30. In the transept there is a sepulchral monument by Arnolfo di Cambio. The church was also famous in Rome for the wooden statue of the Santo Bambino of Aracoeli, carved in the 15th century of olive wood coming from the Gethsemane garden and covered with valuable \"ex-votos\". Many people of Rome believed in the power of this statue. It had been taken by the French in 1797, was later recovered, yet stolen again in February 1994. A copy was made from Gethsemane wood, which is now displayed in its own chapel by the sacristy. At midnight Mass on Christmas Eve the image is brought out to a throne before the high altar and unveiled at the \"Gloria\". Until Epiphany the jewel-encrusted image resides in the Nativity crib in the left nave.  The relics of Saint Helena, mother of Constantine the Great are housed at Santa Maria in Aracoeli, as is the tablet with the monogram of Jesus that Saint Bernardino of Siena used to promote devotion to the Holy Name of Jesus is kept in Aracoeli.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Basilica of St. Mary of the Altar of Heaven (, ) is a titular basilica in Rome, located on the highest summit of the Campidoglio. It is still the designated Church of the city council of Rome, which uses the ancient title of \"Senatus Populusque Romanus\". The present Cardinal Priest of the \"Titulus Sanctae Mariae de Aracoeli\" is Salvatore De Giorgi.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974201}
{"src_title": "RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The RIM-116 was developed by General Dynamics Pomona and Valley Systems divisions under a July 1976 agreement with Denmark and West Germany (the General Dynamics missile business was later acquired by Hughes Aircraft and is today part of Raytheon). Denmark dropped out of the program, but the US Navy joined in as the major partner. The Mk 49 launcher was evaluated on board the destroyer in the late 1980s. The first 30 missiles were built in FY85 and they became operational on 14 November 1992, on board.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "The RIM-116 is in service on several American and 30 German warships. All new German Navy warships will be equipped with the RAM, such as the new s, which will mount two RAM launchers per ship. The Greek Navy has equipped the new Super Vita–class fast attack craft with the RAM. South Korea has signed license-production contracts for their navy's KDX-II, KDX-III, and.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "US Navy.", "content": "The U.S. Navy plans to purchase a total of about 1,600 RAMs and 115 launchers to equip 74 ships. The missile is currently active aboard s, s, s, ships,, s, and littoral combat ships (LCS).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Block 0.", "content": "The original version of the missile, called \"Block 0\", was based on the AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile, whose rocket motor, fuze, and warhead were used. Block 0 missiles were designed to initially home in on radiation emitted from a target (such as the active radar of an incoming antiship missile), switching to an infrared seeker derived from that of the FIM-92 Stinger missile for terminal guidance. In test firings, the Block 0 missiles achieved hit rates of over 95%.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Block 1.", "content": "The \"Block 1\" (RIM-116B) is an improved version of the RAM missile that adds an overall infrared-only guidance system that enables it to intercept missiles that are not emitting any radar signals. The Block 0's radar homing capabilities have been retained.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Block 2.", "content": "The RAM Block 2 is an upgraded version of the RAM missile aimed at more effectively countering more maneuverable antiship missiles through a four-axis independent control actuator system, increased rocket motor capability, an improved passive radio frequency seeker and upgraded components of the infrared seeker, and advanced kinematics. On 8 May 2007, the US Navy awarded Raytheon Missile Systems a $105 million development contract; development was expected to be completed by December 2010. LRIP began in 2012. 51 missiles were initially ordered. On 22 October 2012, the RAM Block 2 completed its third guided test vehicle flight, firing two missiles in a salvo and directly hitting the target, to verify the system's command and control capabilities, kinematic performance, guidance system, and airframe capabilities. Raytheon was scheduled to deliver 25 Block 2 missiles during the program's integrated testing phase. The Block 2 RAM was delivered to the U.S. Navy in August 2014, with 502 missiles to be acquired from 2015 to 2019. Initial Operational Capability (IOC) for the Block 2 RAM was achieved on 15 May 2015.  In early 2018 the U.S. State Department approved the sale of RIM-116 Block II to the Mexican Navy for use on their future Sigma-class design frigates, the first of which was jointly built by Damen Schelde Naval Shipbuilding and launched in November 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "HAS mode.", "content": "In 1998, a memorandum of understanding was signed by the defense departments of Germany and the United States to improve the system, so that it could also engage so-called \"HAS\", Helicopter, Aircraft, and Surface targets. As developed, the \"HAS\" upgrade just required software modifications that can be applied to all Block 1 RAM missiles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "SeaRAM weapon system.", "content": "The SeaRAM combines the radar and electrooptical system of the Phalanx CIWS Mk-15 Block 1B (CRDC) with an 11-cell RAM launcher to produce an autonomous system—one which does not need any external information to engage threats. Like the Phalanx, SeaRAM can be fitted to any class of ship. In 2008, the first SeaRAM system was delivered to be installed on., one SeaRAM is fitted to each \"Independence\"-class vessel. In late 2014, the Navy revealed it had chosen to install the SeaRAM on its Small Surface Combatant LCS follow-on ships. Beginning in November 2015, the Navy will complete installation of a SeaRAM on the first of four s patrolling within the U.S. 6th Fleet. The SeaRAM will equip the Royal Saudi Navy's multi-mission surface combat (MMSC) based on the s.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile (RAM) is a small, lightweight, infrared homing surface-to-air missile in use by the German, Japanese, Greek, Turkish, South Korean, Saudi Arabian, Egyptian, Mexican and U.S. Navies. It was intended originally and used primarily as a point-defense weapon against antiship cruise missiles. The missile is so named because it rolls around its longitudinal axis to stabilize its flight path, much like a bullet fired from a rifled barrel., it is the only U.S. Navy missile to operate in this manner.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974202}
{"src_title": "Stanisław Mikołajczyk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background and early life.", "content": "Mikołajczyk's family came from Poznań in western Poland, which in the 19th century was part of the German Empire and known as the Province of Posen. He was born in Westphalia in western Germany, where his parents had gone to look for work in the wealthy mining regions, as many Poles—known as Ruhr Poles—did in the 19th century. He returned to Poznań as a boy of ten.  As a teenager he worked in a sugar beet refinery and was active in Polish patriotic organisations. He was 18 when Poland recovered its independence, and in 1920 he joined the Polish Army and took part in the Polish–Soviet War. He was discharged after being wounded near Warsaw and returned to inherit his father's farm near Poznań.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early political career.", "content": "In the 1920s Mikołajczyk became active in the Polish People's Party \"Piast\" (PSL), and after holding a number of offices in the government of Poznań province, he was elected to the Sejm (the Polish Parliament) in 1929. In 1935 he became Vice-Chairman of the executive committee of the PSL, and in 1937 he became party President. He was an active opponent of the authoritarian regime established in Poland after the death of Józef Piłsudski in 1935.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "When Nazi Germany invaded Poland in September of 1939, Mikołajczyk was a private in the Polish army, and served in the defence of Warsaw. After the fall of Warsaw he escaped to Hungary, where he was interned. He soon escaped and made his way to Paris via Yugoslavia and Italy. By the end of November, Mikołajczyk had reached France where he was immediately asked to join the Polish government in exile as deputy Chairman of the Polish National Council. In 1941 he was appointed Minister of the Interior and became Prime Minister Władysław Sikorski's Deputy Prime Minister. In April 1943 the Germans had announced that they had discovered the graves of almost 22,000 Polish officers who had been murdered by the Soviets at Katyń Wood. The Soviet government said that the Germans had fabricated the discovery. The Allied governments, for diplomatic reasons, formally accepted this, but Mikołajczyk's government refused to do so, and Stalin then severed relations with the government in exile.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prime Minister in exile.", "content": "When Sikorski was killed in a plane crash in July 1943, Mikołajczyk was appointed as his successor. \"We do not wish to see only a formal democracy in Poland,\" he said in his broadcast to Poland on taking office, \"but a social democracy which will put into practice not only political, religious and personal freedom but also social and economic freedom, the Four Freedoms of which Franklin Delano Roosevelt spoke so finely. In any case there is and will be no place in Poland for any kind of totalitarian government in any shape or form.\"  But Mikołajczyk faced daunting challenges. It was obvious by this time that the Soviet armed forces, not those of the western Allies, would seize Poland from German occupation, and the Poles feared that Stalin intended both imposing Communism on Poland and annexing Poland's eastern territories, which were populated by Poles, Ukrainians and Belarusians.  During 1944 the Allied leaders, particularly Winston Churchill, tried to bring about a resumption talks between Mikołajczyk and Stalin, but these efforts broke down over several issues. One was the Katyń massacre. Another was Poland's postwar borders. Stalin insisted that the eastern territories should remain in Soviet hands. Mikołajczyk also opposed Stalin's plan to set up a Communist government in postwar Poland.  As a result, Stalin agreed that there would be a coalition government in the Soviet seized territories of Poland. A Socialist, Edward Osóbka-Morawski, became Prime Minister of the new Provisional Government of National Unity (\"Tymczasowy Rząd Jedności Narodowej\" – TRJN), and the Communist leader Władysław Gomułka became one of two Deputy Prime Ministers. Mikołajczyk resigned as Prime Minister of the government in exile to return to Poland and become the other Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Agriculture. Many of the Polish exiles opposed this action, believing that this government was a façade for the establishment of Communist rule in Poland. The government in exile maintained its existence, although it no longer had diplomatic recognition as the legal government of Poland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Poland.", "content": "Mikołajczyk immediately set about reviving the PSL, which soon became by far the largest party in Poland. He was helped, ironically, by the radical land reform pushed through with the support of the Communists, which created a new class of small farmers who became a firm political base for the PSL. The Communists knew they would never win a free election in Poland, and so they set about preventing one, despite the pledges given by Stalin at the Yalta Conference.  In June 1946 the 3xTAK referendum was held on a number of issues. The PSL decided to oppose the referendum calling for the abolition of the Senate as a test of strength against the Communists: two-thirds of voters supported Mikołajczyk, but the Communist-controlled Interior Ministry issued faked results showing the opposite result. Between then and the January 1947 general elections, the PSL was subjected to ruthless persecution, and hundreds of its candidates were prevented from campaigning.  From 1946 to 1948, military courts sentenced 32,477 people, most of them members of democratic parties for 'crimes against the state'. Only then the elections were held. In order to be sure that the elections would produce the 'correct' results, the Polish security apparatus recruited 47% of the members of electoral committees as agents.  The elections produced a parliament with 394 seats for the Communist-controlled \"Democratic Bloc\" and 28 for the PSL, a result which everyone knew could only been obtained through massive electoral fraud. Indeed, the opposition claimed that it would have won as much as 80 percent of the vote had the election been conducted in a fair manner.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Mikołajczyk, who would have likely become Prime Minister had the election been honest, immediately resigned from the government in protest. Facing arrest, he left the country in April. Winston Churchill, upon seeing him in London, remarked: \"I am surprised you made it out alive\". In London the Polish government in exile regarded him as a traitor for having co-operated with the Communists. He emigrated to the United States, where he died in 1966. In June 2000 his remains were returned for burial in Poland. His papers are in the Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace at Stanford University.  A film, \"The Right to Vote\" (\"O Prawo Głosu\", 2008, directed by Janusz Petelski), tells the story of Mikołajczyk's (played by Adam Ferency) struggle.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Stanisław Mikołajczyk (18 July 1901 – 13 December 1966; ) was a Polish politician. He was Prime Minister of the Polish government in exile during World War II, and later Deputy Prime Minister in post-war Poland until 1947.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974203}
{"src_title": "Plumeria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Plumeria\" flowers are most fragrant at night in order to lure sphinx moths to pollinate them. The flowers yield no nectar, however, and simply trick their pollinators. The moths inadvertently pollinate them by transferring pollen from flower to flower in their fruitless search for nectar. Insects or human pollination can help create new varieties of plumeria. Plumeria trees from cross pollinated seeds may show characteristics of the mother tree or their flowers might just have a totally new look.  \"Plumeria\" species may be propagated easily by cutting leafless stem tips in spring. Cuttings are allowed to dry at the base before planting in well-drained soil. Cuttings are particularly susceptible to rot in moist soil. One optional method to root cuttings is applying rooting hormone to the clean fresh-cut end to enable callusing. Plumeria cuttings could also be propagated by grafting a cutting to an already rooted system. The Plumeria Society of America lists 368 registered cultivars of \"Plumeria\" as of 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology and common names.", "content": "The genus is named in honor of the seventeenth-century French botanist and Catholic monk Charles Plumier, who traveled to the New World documenting many plant and animal species. The common name \"frangipani\" comes from a sixteenth-century marquis of the noble family in Italy who claimed to invent a plumeria-scented perfume, but in reality made a synthetic perfume that was said at the time to resemble the odor of the recently discovered flowers. Many English speakers also simply use the generic name \"plumeria\".  In South East Asia this tree and its flower is considered sacred. A relief in Penataran temple in East Java shows a plumeria tree with its distinct flower-petals and skeleton-like branches. Another relief in Borobudur, at the west side, 1st zone also depict plumeria. These reliefs, which were created before European exploration (Brobudur constructed in ~ 9th CE and Penataran in ~ 14 CE) makes a difficult question about when plumeria came to South East Asia.  In eastern India and Bangladesh,it is traditionally considered as a variety of champak flower, the golok chapa (গোলোক চাঁপা), meaning the champaka that resides the heavenly home of Sree Krishna, a hindu god residing at the highest realm of heaven. This flower is considered sacred and also adorned by the name of gulancha and kath golap (literally, wood rose)!", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "In Mesoamerica, plumerias have carried complex symbolic significance for over two millennia, with striking examples from the Maya and Aztec periods into the present. Among the Maya, plumerias have been associated with deities representing life and fertility, and the flowers also became strongly connected with female sexuality. Nahuatl-speaking people during the height of the Aztec Empire used plumerias to signify elite status, and planted plumeria trees in the gardens of nobles.  These are now common naturalized plants in southern and southeastern Asia. In local folk beliefs they provide shelter to ghosts and demons. They are also associated with temples in both Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cultures.  In several Pacific islands, such as Tahiti, Fiji, Samoa, Hawaii, New Zealand, Tonga, and the Cook Islands plumeria species are used for making leis. In modern Polynesian culture, the flower can be worn by women to indicate their relationship status—over the right ear if seeking a relationship, and over the left if taken.  \"Plumeria rubra\" is the national flower of Nicaragua, where it is known under the local name \"\"sacuanjoche\"\".  \"Plumeria alba\" is the national flower of Laos, where it is known under the local name \"champa\" or \"dok champa\".  In Bengali culture, most white flowers, and in particular, plumeria (Bengali, চম্পা \"chômpa\" or চাঁপা \"chãpa\"), are associated with funerals and death.  Also in the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia, the plumeria is often associated with ghosts and cemeteries. Plumerias often are planted on burial grounds in all three nations. They are also common ornamental plants in houses, parks, parking lots and other open-air establishments in the Philippines. Balinese Hindus use the flowers in their temple offerings. The plumeria's fragrance is also associated with the kuntilanak, an evil vampiric spirit of a dead mother in Malaysian-Indonesian folklores.  Indian incenses fragranced with \"Plumeria rubra\" have \"\"champa\"\" in their names. For example, \"Nag Champa\" is an incense containing a fragrance combining plumeria and sandalwood. While plumeria is an ingredient in Indian \"champa\" incense, the extent of its use varies between family recipes. Most \"champa\" incenses also incorporate other tree resins, such as Halmaddi (\"Ailanthus triphysa\") and benzoin resin, as well as other floral ingredients, including champaca (\"Magnolia champaca\"), geranium (\"Pelargonium graveolens\"), and vanilla (\"Vanilla planifolia\") to produce a more intense, plumeria-like aroma.  In the Western Ghats of Karnataka, the bride and groom exchange garlands of cream-coloured plumeria during weddings. Red colored flowers are not used in weddings. Plumeria plants are found in most of the temples in these regions.  In Sri Lankan tradition, plumeria is associated with worship. One of the heavenly damsels in the frescoes of the fifth-century rock fortress Sigiriya holds a 5-petalled flower in her right hand that is indistinguishable from plumeria.  In Eastern Africa, frangipani are sometimes referred to in Swahili love poems.  Some species of plumeria have been studied for their potential medicinal value.  There are a few more new hybrids now (Nui Delight, Nui's Diamond Rose, Nui's Dragon Heart, Nui's Light of Hope), named after Nui Leera from Thailand, who has planted over 100,000 plumeria seeds (2018).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The genus \"Plumeria\" includes about a dozen accepted species, and one or two dozen open to review, with over a hundred regarded as synonyms.  \"Plumeria\" species have a milky latex that, like many other Apocynaceae contains poisonous compounds that irritate the eyes and skin. The various species differ in their leaf shape and arrangement. The leaves of \"Plumeria alba\" are narrow and corrugated, whereas leaves of \"Plumeria pudica\" have an elongated shape and glossy, dark-green color. \"Plumeria pudica\" is one of the everblooming types with non-deciduous, evergreen leaves. Another species that retains leaves and flowers in winter is \"Plumeria obtusa\"; though its common name is \"Singapore,\" it is originally from Colombia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "\"Plants of the World Online\" lists the following:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Plumeria () is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae. Most species are deciduous shrubs or small trees. The species variously are endemic to Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, and as far south as Brazil and north as Florida, but are grown as cosmopolitan ornamentals in warm regions. Common names for plants in the genus vary widely according to region, variety, and whim, but frangipani or variations on that theme are the most common. Plumeria is also used as a common name, especially in horticultural circles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974204}
{"src_title": "Nikolai Marr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Marr was born on 25 December 1864 in Kutaisi, Georgia (then part of the Russian Empire). His father, James Murray (phonetically adapted: Marr), was a Scot and was 71 at the time of Marr's birth, and his mother was a young Georgian woman (Agrafina Magularia). James Marr founded the botanical garden of Kutaisi. Marr's parents spoke different languages (James spoke English and Agrafina spoke the Gurian dialect of Georgian), and thus could hardly understand each other. Having graduated from the St Petersburg University, he taught there beginning in 1891, becoming dean of the Oriental faculty in 1911 and member of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1912. Between 1904 and 1917 he undertook yearly excavations at the ancient Armenian capital of Ani.  After a visit to Turkey in 1933 Marr developed influenza, followed several months later by a stroke. He died from complications of these ailments in Leningrad on 20 December 1934.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Japhetic theory.", "content": "Marr gained some recognition with his Japhetic theory, postulating the common origin of Caucasian, Semitic-Hamitic, and Basque languages. In 1924, he went even further and proclaimed that all the languages of the world descended from a single proto-language which had consisted of four \"diffused exclamations\": \"sal, ber, yon, rosh\". Although the languages undergo certain stages of development, his method of \"linguistic paleontology\" claims to make it possible to discern elements of primordial exclamations in any given language. One of his followers was Valerian Borisovich Aptekar, and one of his opponents was Arnold Chikobava.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Selected works:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikolai Yakovlevich Marr (, \"Nikolay Yakovlevich Marr\";, \"Nikoloz Iak'obis dze Mari\"; – 20 December 1934) was a Georgia-born historian and linguist who gained a reputation as a scholar of the Caucasus during the 1910s before embarking on his \"Japhetic theory\" on the origin of language (from 1924), now considered as pseudo-scientific, and related speculative linguistic hypotheses.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974205}
{"src_title": "St Peter's Abbey, Salzburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "St Peter's Abbey was founded in 696 by Saint Rupert at the site of a Late Antique church stemming from the first Christianization in the area in the days of Severinus of Noricum. Likewise the establishment of the monastery was meant to forward the missionary work in the Eastern Alps. Until 987, the office of the abbot was joined to that of the Archbishop of Salzburg: the two were always held together by one man.  In the Middle Ages, St Peter's was known for its exceptional writing school. In 1074, Archbishop Gebhard of Salzburg sent several monks to the newly established filial monastery of Admont in the March of Styria. In the 15th century, the abbey adopted the Melk Reforms. In 1623, Archbishop Paris Graf von Lodron founded the Benedictine University of Salzburg, which until its dissolution in 1810 was closely connected to the abbey.  From 1641, the abbey was a member of the Salzburg Congregation, merged in 1930 into the present Austrian Congregation (of which it is the principal house) of the Benedictine Confederation.  In 1926, the endeavours for the establishment of a Catholic university led to the foundation of the Benedictine college (\"\"Kolleg St. Benedikt\"\"), on which later the re-foundation of the University of Salzburg was based. In 1927, St Peter's was raised to the status of an Archabbey. Upon the Austrian \"Anschluss\" to Nazi Germany in 1938, the premises were seized and the monks expelled. Nevertheless, the monastery was not dissolved and the monks returned after the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abbey church.", "content": "The present-day Romanesque abbey church at the northern foot of the Mönchsberg was erected from about 1130 onwards at the site of a previous Carolingian church building, it was dedicated to Saint Peter in 1147. One of the organs had been built on the rood screen in 1444 by Heinrich Traxdorf of Mainz. While the steeple received its onion dome in 1756, the interior, already re-modelled several times, was refurbished in the Rococo style between 1760 and 1782 under Abbot Beda Seeauer by Franz Xaver König, Lorenz Härmbler, Johann Högler, Benedikt Zöpf and others. The high altar is a work by Martin Johann Schmidt. The St Mary's Chapel contains the grave of Abbot Johann von Staupitz (d. 1524), a friend of Martin Luther.  Mozart's \"Great Mass in C minor\" was scheduled to premiere in the church, probably on 26 October 1783, with his wife Constanze singing first soprano. However, the work remained incomplete.  Next to the altar where St. Rupert is entombed lies the tombs of Mozart's sister Maria Anna Mozart (\"Nannerl\"), and Johann Michael Haydn. Also entombed at St. Peter's Abbey is St. Vitalis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Library, archives and other collections.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Library.", "content": "St Peter's houses the oldest library in Austria. Among the 800 manuscripts the most precious is the \"Verbrüderungsbuch\", which was deposited in 784 by Bishop Virgil. Through continual acquisition, the library has grown to 100,000 volumes, focusing particularly on Benedictine monasticism, medieval church history, history of art, and items relating to the local history of Salzburg, or \"Salisburgensia\". Special collections include incunabula and early editions, graphics including the devotional images collection of Father Gregor Reitlechner and the map collection.  In 1768, Abbot Beda Seeauer had the medieval \"Zellenbibliothek\" converted to the Rococo style. In 1999, it was restored and is now only accessible by special permission.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Archives.", "content": "The archive is for the purposes of abbey administration and the researching of its history. It contains documents from the 8th to the 20th centuries, in the following series:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music archive.", "content": "As a result of contact with notable musicians of Salzburg, St Peter's possesses a significant collection, much of it in holograph, with works by Johann Ernst Eberlin, Anton Cajetan Adlgasser, Leopold and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Sigismund von Neukomm, Robert Führer, and Karl Santner.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other collections.", "content": "The abbey also owns collections of paintings, church treasures, artworks, minerals, furniture, musical instruments, a coin cabinet, and a cabinet of natural curiosities (not accessible).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Institutes in St Peter's.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Institute for Benedictine Studies.", "content": "In order to give young German-speaking Benedictine monks and nuns the opportunity to advance their education on monastic subjects, the Salzburg Abbots' Conference of 2000 set up the Institute for Benedictine Studies to serve the study of and research into the Rule of St Benedict (\"Regula Benedicti\"). The director is Dr. Michaela Puzicha OSB.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Austrian Liturgical Institute.", "content": "Through the endeavours of Father Adalbero Raffelsberger, St Peter's was one of the earliest homes of liturgical revival in Austria. In 2001, the Liturgical Institute of the Austrian Bishops' Conference was attached to it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cemetery.", "content": "The \"Petersfriedhof\" was probably laid out during the foundation of the monastery about 700. The burial ground was first mentioned under the rule of Archbishop Conrad I in 1139, with the oldest preserved graves from 1288 and 1300. It is centred around Lathe Gothic St Margaret's Chapel and the Chapel of the Cross, dedicated about 1170 and refurbished as a mausoleum according to plans by Santino Solari in 1614/15. Several tombs are located in arcades built at the foot of the Festungsberg hill.  The cemetery grounds are known for its 'catacombs' carved out of the conglomerate rocks of the Festungsberg. They probably date back to Late Antiquity, when they served as an Early Christian place of assembly and hermitage. The include two chapels dedicated to Saint Gertrude and one Christian martyr Maximus by Archbishop Conrad of Wittelsbach in 1172 and 1178.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stiftskulinarium.", "content": "The \"St. Peter Stiftskulinarium\" was first mentioned in an 803 deed issued by Alcuin of York, an English scholar attendant Emperor Charlemagne; it therefore claims to be the oldest restaurant in Central Europe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "St Peter's Abbey (), or St Peter's Archabbey (German: \"Erzabtei Sankt Peter\", ), is a Benedictine monastery and former cathedral in the Austrian city of Salzburg. It is considered one of the oldest monasteries in the German-speaking area, and in fact the oldest with a continuous history since its foundation in 696.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974206}
{"src_title": "Ghatam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing.", "content": "The pot is usually placed on the lap of the performer, with the mouth facing the belly. The performer uses the fingers, thumbs, palms, and heels of the hands to strike its outer surface to produce different sounds. Different tones can be produced by hitting areas of the pot with different parts of the hands. Sometimes the ghatam is turned around so that the mouth faces the audience and the performer plays on the neck of the instrument. The ghatam can be moved to other positions while being played. Occasionally, the performer will, to the amusement of the audience, toss the instrument up in the air and catch it. The ghatam is ideal for playing rhythmic patterns in very fast tempo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"ghaṭa\" in Sanskrit means \"pot\". Variations of this term are used in modern Indian languages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar instruments.", "content": "The \"madga\" is a north Indian version of the south Indian \"ghaṭam\" and is made from a very special clay. The maker sometimes adds some kind of metal or graphite dust to the clay which is responsible for the blue-gray appearance and for the special sound.  The \"madga\" can be played similarly to the \"ghaṭam\". Loud bass tones can be produced if one hits with the flat hand the opening at the top of the instrument. The madga can be played with mallets (sticks) and there are many sounds which can be produced with this instrument. It is thinner than a ghaṭam but very stable and not as fragile as one might think.  In Gujarat and Rajasthan,", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The ghaṭam ( \"ghatam\", \"ghaṭah\", \"ghatam\", \"ghatam\",, \"ghatam\") is a percussion instrument used in various repertoires across India. A variant played in Punjab and known as \"gharha\" as is a part of Punjabi folk traditions. Its analogue in Rajasthan is known as the \"madga\" and \"pani mataqa\" (\"water jug\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974207}
{"src_title": "Roland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The only historical mention of the actual Roland is in the \"Vita Karoli Magni\" by Charlemagne's courtier and biographer Einhard. Einhard refers to him as \"Hruodlandus Brittannici limitis praefectus\" (\"Roland, prefect of the borders of Brittany\"), indicating that he presided over the Breton March, Francia's border territory against the Bretons. The passage, which appears in Chapter 9, mentions that \"Hroudlandus\" (a Latinization of the Frankish \"*Hrōþiland\", from \"*hrōþi\", \"praise\"/\"fame\" and *\"land\", \"country\") was among those killed in the Battle of Roncevaux Pass: Roland was evidently the first official appointed to direct Frankish policy in Breton affairs, as local Franks under the Merovingian dynasty had not previously pursued any specific relationship with the Bretons. Their frontier castle districts such as Vitré, Ille-et-Vilaine, south of Mont Saint-Michel, are now divided between Normandy and Brittany. The distinctive culture of this region preserves the present-day Gallo language and legends of local heroes such as Roland. Roland's successor in \"Brittania Nova\" was Guy of Nantes, who like Roland, was unable to exert Frankish expansion over Brittany and merely sustained a Breton presence in the Carolingian Empire.  According to legend, Roland was laid to rest in the basilica at Blaye, near Bordeaux, on the site of the citadel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Roland was a popular and iconic figure in medieval Europe and its minstrel culture. Many tales made him a nephew of Charlemagne and turned his life into an epic tale of the noble Christian killed by hostile forces, which forms part of the medieval Matter of France.  The tale of Roland's death is retold in the 11th-century poem \"The Song of Roland\", where he is equipped with the olifant (a signaling horn) and an unbreakable sword, enchanted by various Christian relics, named Durendal. The \"Song\" contains a highly romanticized account of the Battle of Roncevaux Pass and Roland's death, setting the tone for later fantastical depiction of Charlemagne's court.  It was adapted and modified throughout the Middle Ages, including an influential Latin prose version \"Historia Caroli Magni\" (latterly known as the \"Pseudo-Turpin Chronicle\"), which also includes Roland's battle with a Saracen giant named Ferracutus who is only vulnerable at his navel. The story was later adapted in the anonymous Franco-Venetian epic \"L'Entrée d'Espagne\" ( 1320) and in the 14th-century Italian epic \"La Spagna\", attributed to the Florentine Sostegno di Zanobi and likely composed between 1350 and 1360.  Other texts give further legendary accounts of Roland's life. His friendship with Olivier and his engagement with Olivier's sister Aude are told in \"Girart de Vienne\" by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube. Roland's youth and the acquisition of his horse Veillantif and sword are described in \"Aspremont\". Roland also appears in \"Quatre Fils Aymon\", where he is contrasted with Renaud de Montauban against whom he occasionally fights.  In Norway, the tales of Roland are part of the 13th-century \"Karlamagnús saga\".  In the \"Divine Comedy\" Dante sees Roland, named Orlando as it is usual in Italian literature, in the Heaven of Mars together with others who fought for the faith.  Roland appears in \"Entrée d'Espagne\", a 14th-century Franco-Venetian chanson de geste (in which he is transformed into a knight errant, similar to heroes from the Arthurian romances) and \"La Spagna\", a 14th-century Italian epic.  From the 15th century onwards, he appears as a central character in a sequence of Italian verse romances as \"Orlando\", including \"Morgante\" by Luigi Pulci, \"Orlando Innamorato\" by Matteo Maria Boiardo, and \"Orlando furioso\" by Ludovico Ariosto. (See below for his later history in Italian verse.) The \"Orlandino\" of Pietro Aretino then waxed satirical about the \"cult of personality\" of Orlando the hero. The Orlando narrative inspired several composers, amongst whom were Claudio Monteverdi, Jean-Baptiste Lully, Antonio Vivaldi and George Frideric Handel, who composed an Italian-language opera with \"Orlando\".  In Germany, Roland gradually became a symbol of the independence of the growing cities from the local nobility. In the late Middle Ages many cities featured defiant statues of Roland in their marketplaces. The Roland in Wedel was erected in 1450 as symbol of market and Hanseatic justice, and the Roland statue in front of Bremen City Hall (1404) has been listed together with the city hall itself on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites since 2004.  In Aragón there are several placenames related to Roldán or Rolando, including the mountain pass Roland's Breach and the rock formation Salto de Roldán.  In Catalonia Roland (or \"Rotllà\", as it is rendered in Catalan) became a legendary giant. Numerous places in Catalonia (both North and South) have a name related to \"Rotllà\". In step with the trace left by the character in the whole Pyrenean area, Basque \"Errolan\" turns up in numerous legends and place-names associated with a mighty giant, usually a heathen, capable of launching huge stones. The Basque word \"erraldoi\" (giant) stems from \"Errol(d)an\", as pointed out by the linguist Koldo Mitxelena.  In the Faroe Islands, Roland appears in the ballad of \"Runtsivalstríðið\" (Battle of Roncevaux).  A statue of Roland also stands in the city of Rolândia in Brazil. This city was established by German immigrants, many of whom were refugees from Nazi Germany, who named their new home after Roland to represent freedom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Figure of speech.", "content": "The English expression \"to give a Roland for an Oliver\", meaning either to offer a or \"to give as good as one gets\", recalls the \"Chanson de Roland\" and Roland's companion Oliver.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roland (; ; or \"Rotholandus\"; or \"Rolando\"; died 15 August 778) was a Frankish military leader under Charlemagne who became one of the principal figures in the literary cycle known as the Matter of France. The historical Roland was military governor of the Breton March, responsible for defending Francia's frontier against the Bretons. His only historical attestation is in Einhard's \"Vita Karoli Magni\", which notes he was part of the Frankish rearguard killed by rebellious Basques in Iberia at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974208}
{"src_title": "Paul Landers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Paul Landers was born in East Berlin, Germany, as son of the Slavists Anton and Erika Hiersche. His mother comes from Ełk in Mazuria, Poland, and his father from Böhmisch Kahn, today Velké Chvojno, Czech Republic. Both parents had to leave their home countries after the Second World War and met during their studies in Halle (Saale). Landers lived in Moscow for a short time as a child. He can speak Russian a little; however, he can not read or write it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music career.", "content": "In 1983, at the age of 18, Landers became part of the East German punk band Feeling B, which was founded by singer Aljoscha Rompe and drummer Alexander Kriening. Some weeks later they recruited 16 year-old Christian \"Flake\" Lorenz to play bass, though Flake played just an organ at this point of time. Lorenz used his organ to create bass sounds for the new band. The band had various temporary drummers, including Christoph \"Doom\" Schneider later in their career. Landers also played in a number of other bands including Die Firma and Die Magdalene Keibel Combo.  In the late 1980s, Landers met Till Lindemann during some showings of the GDR documentary \"flüstern und SCHREIEN\", which showed first of all some varieties of young music culture in the GDR. He also met Richard Kruspe, a friend of Lindemann, during this period. Some time after this, Landers played guitar in Lindemanns and Kruspe's band First Arsch. In 1992, that band released their only album, \"Saddle up\". Lindemann, Kruspe, Schneider, and bassist Oliver Riedel formed a new band called Templeprayers in 1993. They won the Berlin Senate Metro Beat Contest in 1994 that enabled them to have a four-track demo professionally recorded. Landers and Flake soon joined this band, which became known as Rammstein.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "When he married Nikki Landers in 1984 (at the age of 20), he took his wife's surname and switched his middle and first name, thus making his name \"Paul Landers\". Paul also has a son born in 1990, Emil Reinke, and a younger daughter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Guitars Amps  Also uses signature Paul Landers PL1 Tech 21 FLyrig multi effect pedal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul Landers (born \"Heiko Paul Hiersche;\" 9 December 1964) is a German musician, notable as the guitarist for German Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein, and the punk rock band Feeling B.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974209}
{"src_title": "František Palacký", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "František Palacký was born in the northeastern Moravian village of Hodslavice, now part of the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. His ancestors had been members of the community of the Bohemian Brethren, and had clandestinely maintained their Protestant belief throughout the period of religious persecution, eventually giving their adherence to the Augsburg confession as approximate to their original faith. Palacký's father was a schoolmaster and a man of some learning. The son was sent in 1812 to the Evangelic Lutheran Lyceum at then-Hungarian city of Bratislava, where he came in contact with the philologist Pavel J. Šafařík and became a zealous student of Slavic languages (he mastered 11 languages and became familiar with a few others). After some years spent in private teaching, Palacký settled in 1823 at Prague. Here he found a warm friend in Josef Dobrovský, whose good relations with the Austrian authorities shielded him from the hostility shown by the government to students of Slav subjects. Dobrovský introduced him to Count Sternberg and his brother Francis, both of whom took an enthusiastic interest in Bohemian history. Count Francis was the principal founder of the Society of the Bohemian Museum, devoted to the collection of documents bearing on Bohemian history, with the object of reawakening national sentiment by the study of the national records.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Joining of Czech national movement.", "content": "Public interest in the movement was stimulated in 1825 by the new \"Časopis Českého musea\" (\"Journal of the Bohemian Museum\"), of which Palacký was the first editor. The journal was at first published in Czech and German, and the Czech edition survived to become the most important literary organ of Bohemia. Palacký had received a modest appointment as archivist to Count Sternberg and in 1829 the Bohemian estates sought to confer on him the title of historiographer of Bohemia, with a small salary, but it was ten years before the consent of the Viennese authorities was obtained. Meanwhile, the estates, with the tardy assent of Vienna, had undertaken to pay the expenses of publishing Palacký's capital work, \"Dějiny národu českého v Čechách a v Moravě\" (\"The History of the Czech Nation in Bohemia and Moravia\"). This book, which comes down to the year 1526 and the extinction of Czech independence (Palacký admitted that in writing about the national history since 1526, he \"would have to lie\"), was founded on laborious research in the local archives of Bohemia and in the libraries of the chief cities of Europe, and remains the standard authority. The first volume was printed in German in 1836, and subsequently translated into Czech. The publication of the work was hindered by the police-censorship, which was especially active in criticizing his account of the Hussite movement.  Palacký, though entirely national and Protestant in his sympathies, was careful to avoid an uncritical approbation of the Reformers' methods, but his statements were held by the authorities to be dangerous to the Catholic faith. He was compelled to cut out parts of his narrative and to accept as integral parts of his work passages interpolated by the censors. After the abolition of the police-censorship in 1848 he published a new edition, completed in 1876, restoring the original form of the work. The fairest and most considerable of Palacký's antagonists in the controversy aroused by his narrative of the early reformation in Bohemia was Baron Helfert, who received a brief from Vienna to write his \"Huss und Hieronymus\" (1853) to counteract the impression made by Palacký's \"History\". Konstantin von Höfler, a German professor of history at Prague, edited the historical authorities for the period in a similar sense in his \"Geschichte der hussitischen Bewegung\" in Bohmen. Palacký replied in his \"Geschichte des Hussitenthumes und Professor Löffler\" (Prague, 1868) and \"Zur böhmischen Geschichtschreibung\" (Prague, 1871).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political activism.", "content": "The Revolution of 1848 forced the historian into practical politics. In his famous \"Psaní do Frankfurtu\" (\"A Letter to Frankfurt\") he refused to take part in the preliminary parliament consisting of 500 former deputies to the all-German Diet, which met at Frankfurt, on the grounds that as a Czech he had no interest in German affairs. In early June oversaw the Slavic Congress at Prague as its president. Later that year he was deputed to the Reichstag which sat at town of Kroměříž (Kremsier) between October 1848 and March 1849. He was at this time in favour of a strong Austrian empire, which should consist of a federation of the southern German and the Slavonic states, allowing the retention of their individual rights. This movement was called Austroslavism. Its views met with some degree of consideration at Vienna, and Palacký was even offered a portfolio in the Pillersdorf cabinet. The collapse of the federal idea and the definite triumph of the party of reaction in 1852 led to his retirement from politics.  After the liberal concessions of 1860 and 1861, however, he became a life member of the Austrian senate. His views met with small support from the assembly, and with the exception of a short period after the decree of September 1871, by which the emperor raised hopes for Bohemian self-government, he ceased to appear in the senate from 1861 onwards. In the Bohemian Diet (\"zemský sněm\") he became the acknowledged leader of the nationalist-federal party (\"staročeši\"). He sought the establishment of a Czech kingdom that should include Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, and in his zeal for Czech autonomy he even entered into an alliance with the Conservative nobility and with the extreme Catholics. He attended the Panslavist congress in Moscow in 1867. He died in Prague on 26 May 1876.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Palacký is considered as one of the three Fathers of the nation – the first being the King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV, the second is František Palacký and the third is President of Czechoslovakia Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. Various individuals like to emphasize one over the other. As to historians, none have surpassed his history of Bohemia except when they have focused on a narrower time period. Even these have been directly or indirectly influenced by his work.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "František Palacký (; 14 June 1798 – 26 May 1876) was a Czech historian and politician, the most influential person of the Czech National Revival, called \"Father of the Nation\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974210}
{"src_title": "Lewis Hine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hine was born in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, on September 26, 1874. After his father was killed in an accident, Hine began working and saved his money for a college education. He studied sociology at the University of Chicago, Columbia University and New York University. He became a teacher in New York City at the Ethical Culture School, where he encouraged his students to use photography as an educational medium. Hine led his sociology classes to Ellis Island in New York Harbor, photographing the thousands of immigrants who arrived each day. Between 1904 and 1909, Hine took over 200 plates (photographs) and came to the realization that documentary photography could be employed as a tool for social change and reform.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Documentary photography.", "content": "In 1907, Hine became the staff photographer of the Russell Sage Foundation; he photographed life in the steel-making districts and people of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, for the influential sociological study called The Pittsburgh Survey.  In 1908 Hine became the photographer for the National Child Labor Committee (NCLC), leaving his teaching position. Over the next decade, Hine documented child labor, with focus on the use of child labor in the Carolina Piedmont, to aid the NCLC's lobbying efforts to end the practice. In 1913, he documented child laborers among cotton mill workers with a series of Francis Galton's composite portraits.  Hine's work for the NCLC was often dangerous. As a photographer, he was frequently threatened with violence or even death by factory police and foremen. At the time, the immorality of child labor was meant to be hidden from the public. Photography was not only prohibited but also posed a serious threat to the industry. To gain entry to the mills, mines and factories, Hine was forced to assume many guises. At times he was a fire inspector, postcard vendor, bible salesman, or even an industrial photographer making a record of factory machinery. During and after World War I, he photographed American Red Cross relief work in Europe. In the 1920s and early 1930s, Hine made a series of \"work portraits,\" which emphasized the human contribution to modern industry. In 1930, Hine was commissioned to document the construction of the Empire State Building. He photographed the workers in precarious positions while they secured the steel framework of the structure, taking many of the same risks that the workers endured. To obtain the best vantage points, Hine was swung out in a specially-designed basket 1,000 ft above Fifth Avenue. At times, he remembered, he hung above the city with nothing below but \"a sheer drop of nearly a quarter-mile.\" During the Great Depression Hine again worked for the Red Cross, photographing drought relief in the American South, and for the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), documenting life in the mountains of eastern Tennessee. He also served as chief photographer for the Works Progress Administration's National Research Project, which studied changes in industry and their effect on employment. Hine was also a faculty member of the Ethical Culture Fieldston School.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1936, Hine was selected as the photographer for the National Research Project of the Works Projects Administration, but his work there was not completed.  The last years of his life were filled with professional struggles by loss of government and corporate patronage. Hine hoped to join the Farm Security Administration photography project, but despite writing repeatedly to Roy Stryker, Stryker always refused. Few people were interested in his work, past or present, and Hine lost his house and applied for welfare. He died on November 3, 1940 at Dobbs Ferry Hospital in Dobbs Ferry, New York, after an operation. He was 66 years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Hine's photographs supported the NCLC's lobbying to end child labor and in 1912 the Children's Bureau was created. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 eventually brought child labour in the US to an end.  After Hine's death, his son Corydon donated his prints and negatives to the Photo League, which was dismantled in 1951. The Museum of Modern Art was offered his pictures and did not accept them, but the George Eastman House did.  In 2006, author Elizabeth Winthrop Alsop's historical fiction middle-grade novel, \"Counting on Grace\" was published by Wendy Lamb Books. The latter chapters center on 12-year-old Grace and her life-changing encounter with Hine, during his 1910 visit to a Vermont cotton mill known to have many child laborers. On the cover is the iconic photo of Grace's real-life counterpart, Addie Card (1897–1993), taken during Hine's undercover visit to the Pownal Cotton Mill.  In 2016, \"Time\" published colorized versions of several of Hine's photographs of child labor in the US.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "Hine's work is held in the following public collections:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lewis Wickes Hine (September 26, 1874 – November 3, 1940) was an American sociologist and photographer. Hine used his camera as a tool for social reform. His photographs were instrumental in changing child labor laws in the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974211}
{"src_title": "Ligier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The firm entered the automobile business with the Ligier JS2, a mid-engined sports car for the road initially powered by a Ford V6 and from 1971 by the same Maserati V6 engine as the Citroën SM. The JS2 was considered by many as a well-designed car with a very good power-to-weight ratio. The Ligier motorcars were all designated with the prefix \"JS\" in honour of Ligier's great friend and cohort Jo Schlesser who was killed in the 1968 French Grand Prix while driving for Honda. The final SMs were also produced in the Ligier factory in Vichy. The 1973 energy crisis caused such a decline in the market for the JS2 that production ceased soon after, and the firm changed its focus to microcars, for example, 1984 moped-powered Ligier JS6.  One of the world's first experimental prototypes of automatic parallel parking was developed on a Ligier electric car at INRIA in the mid-1990s.  In September 2008, Ligier Automobiles completed its acquisition of Beneteau Group's Microcar division, with financing provided by 21 Investimenti Partners. Phillipe Ligier, son of the company's founder, remains as CEO. The Ligier and Microcar brands are to retain their separate identities and manufacturing facilities. The merger creates Europe's second largest microcar manufacturer (after Daimler's Smart unit, if one considers that a microcar), and largest manufacturer of drivers license-exempt vehicles. In August 2018, Ligier teased a new road-going sports car to celebrate their 50th anniversary. The car will be built in collaboration with Onroak. It will feature a 3.7 liter V6 producing approximately 330 hp, and a 6-speed manual transmission. It will be homologated to FIA E II-SH regulation. More details are to be released in September 2018, and it is expected to go on sale in November 2018 at a price of €89,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Models.", "content": "The Ligier model line currently consists of the JS50 line of mini cars, the X-Pro line of small commercial vehicles, and the Be Up/Be Two line of open-air, roadster-type vehicles. The company also produces a line of quad bikes and off-road utility vehicles sold as the Be Pro, Be Four, and Be Truck.  The JS50, Ixo, Xtoo, Nova or Ambra are about two and a half meters long and have two seats. They are front-engined. Power units include two 2-cylinder four-stroke diesels of about half a liter displacement and feature a CVT for power transfer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "EZ10.", "content": "The Ligier vehicle that's gained the most attention, is EZ10 \"EasyMile\", a self-driving shuttle bus for light city transit. EasyMile SAS develops and markets the autonomous vehicles, and is a joint venture formed in June 2014 by Ligier and Robosoft Technology PTE Ltd (France). The joint venture is the result of the CityMobil2 project co-funded by the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme for research and technological development (FP7).  One EZ10 minibus can house between 8–10 passengers, and its speed is up to 40 km/h. In 2017, EZ-10 was introduced on the grounds of National Taiwan University in Taipei, and in Tallinn, Estonia.  In conjunction with Estonia's presidency of the EU Council, the minibus was presented in Tallinn on 14 July 2017 by EasyMile, and the tech companies in Estonia that co-financed the month-and-a-half-long project to bring the shuttle bus to the country. The buses will serve one line, including a stretch of tram line under reconstruction, and will run in Tallinn until the end of August.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ligier in motorsport.", "content": "Ligier is best known for its Formula One team that operated from to. Ligier entered Formula One in with a Matra V12-powered car, winning its first Grand Prix with Jacques Laffite in.  Ligier also competed in the 24 Hours of Le Mans from to.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ligier is a French automobile and minibus maker created by former racing driver and rugby player Guy Ligier, specialized in the manufacturing of microcars. Ligier is best known for its involvement in the Formula 1 World Championship between 1976 and 1996.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974212}
{"src_title": "Fleury Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Churches.", "content": "Anscar Vonier, writing in the \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" says that \"from the very start the abbey boasted of two churches, one in honour of St. Peter and the other in honour of the Blessed Virgin.\" The church of St Peter was demolished in the eighteenth century; the existing church dedicated to the Virgin pre-existed the founding of the monastery. After the ravages of the Normans, who penetrated via the Loire and burned the monastery buildings, which suffered a catastrophic fire in 1026, this became the great late eleventh-century Romanesque basilica, which occasioned the erection of a great tower, that was intended as the west front of the abbey church, which was completed in 1218. It was here that the \"Fleury Playbook\" was compiled, perhaps in dedication to the new church. The tower of Abbot Gauzlin, resting on fifty columns, forms a unique porch. The Carolingian style church is about three hundred feet long, its transept one hundred and forty feet. The choir of the church contains the tomb of a French monarch, Philip I of France, buried there in 1108. Of the mediaeval abbey's buildings, only this basilica survives in the modern monastery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medieval history.", "content": "The seventeenth-century Benedictine scholar Jean Mabillon accepted the traditional founding of Fleury as by Leodebaldus, abbot of St-Aignan (Orléans) about 640, in the existing Gallo-Roman villa of \"Floriacum\", in the \"Vallis Aurea\", the \"Golden Valley\". This was the spot selected by the Abbot of St-Aignan for his Benedictine foundation. Rigomarus was its first abbot.  The most famous of the Merovingian abbots was St. Mommolus, who effected the translation of the relics there of Benedict of Nursia. The monastery underwent a season of reform in its monastic life, about 930, along the lines first laid out at Cluny. The monastery enjoyed the patronage of the Carolingian dynasty for generations; it was also central to the political ambitions of the \"Robertian\" house descended from Robert I of France, several of whom had held the title Duke of the Franks. The monk of Fleury named Helgaud (died ca 1068), was chaplain to King Robert II and wrote a brief \"Epitoma vitae Roberti regis\". Fleury had particular significance in lending legitimacy to its patrons. Although royal and ducal patronage had material advantages, there was also a price to be paid in terms of monastic autonomy when the ducal candidate conflicted with the choice of the monastic community.  Theodulphus, bishop of Orléans established at Fleury a school for young noblemen recommended there by Charlemagne. By the mid-ninth century its library was one of the most comprehensive ever assembled in the West, and scholars such as Lupus of Ferrières (d. 862) traveled there to consult its texts. Later under St. Abbo of Fleury (abbot 988-1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age; it kept up close relations with abbeys in England. Later, among the non-resident abbots \"in commendam\" were Cardinals Odet de Coligny and Antoine Sanguin in the reign of François I and Cardinal Richelieu.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "Like all Benedictine monasteries in France, the community was scattered by the French revolution. Nevertheless, a Benedictine presence remained continually: the parish was held by a monk disguised as a secular priest, and there were numerous attempts to restore the monastery throughout the 19th century. Finally, in 1944, the community (which had been resident at Pierre-qui-Vire) was restored to the abbey, which was rebuilt as a member of the Subiaco Congregation. The monastery is remembered each day at Evensong in Winchester Cathedral with an additional short said prayer at the conclusion of The Responses - The Fleury Prayer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Benedict of Nursia's relics.", "content": "Fleury is reputed to contain the relics of St. Benedict of Nursia, the father of Western monasticism, a claim disputed by the monks of Monte Cassino. Mommolus, the second Abbot of Fleury, is said to have effected their transfer when that abbey fell into decay after the ravages of the Lombards in the seventh century. Benedict's relics, and the \"Miracula S. Benedicti\" developed over three centuries by five monks of Fleury, including Andreas of Fleury (c.1043), attracted pilgrims, bringing wealth and fame. The monks of Monte Cassino impugned the claims of Fleury, but without ever showing any relics to make good their contention that they possess the body of the founder.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fleury Abbey (Floriacum) in Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire, Loiret, France, founded about 640, is one of the most celebrated Benedictine monasteries of Western Europe, which possesses the relics of St. Benedict of Nursia. Its site on the banks of the Loire has always made it easily accessible from Orléans, a center of culture unbroken since Roman times. Today the abbey has over forty monks and is headed by the abbot Etienne Ricaud.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974213}
{"src_title": "Les Liaisons dangereuses", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The Vicomte de Valmont is determined to seduce the virtuous, married, and therefore inaccessible Madame de Tourvel, who is staying with Valmont's aunt while her husband is away on a court case. At the same time, the Marquise de Merteuil is determined to corrupt the young Cécile de Volanges, whose mother has only recently brought her out of a convent to be married—to Merteuil's previous lover, who has rudely discarded her. Cécile falls in love with the Chevalier Danceny (her young music tutor), and Merteuil and Valmont pretend to help the secret lovers in order to gain their trust and manipulate them later to benefit their own schemes.  Merteuil suggests that the Vicomte should seduce Cécile in order to enact her revenge on Cécile's future husband. Valmont refuses, finding the challenge too easy and preferring to devote himself to seducing Madame de Tourvel. Merteuil promises Valmont that if he seduces Madame de Tourvel and provides her with written proof of seduction, she will spend the night with him. He expects rapid success, but does not find it as easy as his many other conquests. During the course of his pursuit, Valmont discovers that Cécile's mother has written to Madame de Tourvel about his bad reputation. He avenges himself by seducing Cécile as Merteuil had suggested. Meanwhile, Merteuil takes Danceny as her lover.  By the time Valmont has succeeded in seducing Madame de Tourvel, he seems to have fallen in love with her. Jealous, Merteuil tricks him into deserting Madame de Tourvel—and reneges on her promise of spending the night with him. In retaliation, Valmont reveals that he prompted Danceny to reunite with Cécile, leaving Merteuil abandoned yet again. Merteuil declares war on Valmont and reveals to Danceny that Valmont has seduced Cécile.  Danceny and Valmont duel, and Valmont is fatally wounded. Before he dies, he gives Danceny the letters proving Merteuil's own involvement. These letters are sufficient to ruin her reputation so she flees to the countryside, where she contracts smallpox. Her face is left permanently scarred and she is rendered blind in one eye, so she loses her greatest asset: her beauty. But the innocent also suffer from the protagonist's schemes: desperate with guilt and grief, Madame de Tourvel succumbs to a fever and dies, while Cécile returns to the convent, dishonoured.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary significance and criticism.", "content": "\"Les Liaisons dangereuses\" is celebrated for its exploration of seduction, revenge, and human malice, presented in the form of fictional letters collected and published by a fictional author.  The book was viewed as scandalous at the time of its initial publication, though the real intentions of the author remain unknown. It has been suggested that Laclos's intention was the same as that of his fictional author in the novel; to write a morality tale about the French nobility of the Ancien Régime. However, this theory has been questioned on several grounds. In the first place, Laclos enjoyed the patronage of France's most senior aristocrat—Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. Secondly, all the characters in the story are aristocrats, including the virtuous ones like Madame de Tourvel and Madame de Rosemonde. Finally, many royalist and conservative figures enjoyed the book, including Queen Marie Antoinette, which suggests that—despite its scandalous reputation—it was not viewed as a political work until the French Revolution made it appear as such, with the benefit of hindsight.  Wayland Young notes that most critics have viewed the work as... a sort of celebration, or at least a neutral statement, of libertinism... pernicious and damnable... Almost everyone who has written about it has noted how perfunctory are the wages of sin...\"  He argues, however, that... the mere analysis of libertinism... carried out by a novelist with such a prodigious command of his medium... was enough to condemn it and play a large part in its destruction.  In a well-known essay on \"Les Liaisons dangereuses\", which has often been used as a preface to French editions of the novel, André Malraux argues that, despite its debt to the libertine tradition, \"Les Liaisons dangereuses\" is more significant as the introduction of a new kind of character in French fiction. Malraux writes that the Marquise de Merteuil and the Vicomte de Valmont are creations \"without precedent\"; they are \"the first [in European literature] whose acts are determined by an ideology\".  In a manner, \"Les Liaisons dangereuses\" is a literary counterthesis to the epistolary novel as exemplified by Richardson's \"Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded\". Whereas Richardson uses the technique of letters to provide the reader with a feeling of knowing the protagonist's true and intimate thoughts, Laclos' use of this literary device is exactly opposite: by presenting the reader with grossly conflicting views from the same writer when addressing different recipients, it is left to the reader to reconcile story, intentions and characters behind the letters. The use of duplicitous characters with one virtuous face can be viewed as a complex criticism of the immensely popular naïve moral epistolary novel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The novel has been adapted into various media, under many different names.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Les Liaisons dangereuses (; English: Dangerous Liaisons) is a French epistolary novel by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, first published in four volumes by Durand Neveu from March 23, 1782.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974214}
{"src_title": "Eastern Rumelia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Eastern Rumelia was created as an autonomous province within the Ottoman Empire by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The region roughly corresponded to today's southern Bulgaria, which was also the name the Russians proposed for it; this proposal was rejected by the British. It encompassed the territory between the Balkan Mountains, the Rhodope Mountains and Strandzha, a region known to all its inhabitantsBulgarians, Ottoman Turks, Greeks, Roma, Armenians and Jewsas Northern Thrace. The artificial name, Eastern Rumelia, was given to the province on the insistence of the British delegates to the Congress of Berlin: the Ottoman notion of \"Rumelia\" refers to all European regions of the empire, i.e. those that were in Antiquity under the Roman Empire. Some twenty Pomak (Bulgarian Muslim) villages in the Rhodope Mountains refused to recognize Eastern Rumelian authority and formed the so-called \"Republic of Tamrash\".  The province is remembered today by philatelists for having issued postage stamps from 1880 on. See the main article, Postage stamps and postal history of Eastern Rumelia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unification with Bulgaria.", "content": "After a bloodless revolution on 6 September 1885, the province was annexed by the Principality of Bulgaria, which was \"de jure\" an Ottoman tributary state but \"de facto\" functioned as independent. After the Bulgarian victory in the subsequent Serbo-Bulgarian War, the \"status quo\" was recognized by the Porte with the Tophane Agreement on 24 March 1886. With the Tophane Act, Sultan Abdul Hamid II appointed the Prince of Bulgaria (without mentioning the name of the incumbent prince Alexander of Bulgaria) as Governor-General of Eastern Rumelia, thus retaining the formal distinction between the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia and preserving the letter of the Berlin Treaty. However, it was clear to the Great Powers that the union between the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia was permanent, and not to be dissolved. The Republic of Tamrash and the region of Kardzhali were reincorporated in the Ottoman Empire. The province was nominally under Ottoman suzerainty until Bulgaria became \"de jure\" independent in 1908. 6 September, Unification Day, is a national holiday in Bulgaria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "According to the Treaty of Berlin, Eastern Rumelia was to remain under the political and military jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire with significant administrative autonomy (Article 13). The law frame of Eastern Rumelia was defined with the Organic Statute which was adopted on 14 April 1879 and was in force until the Unification with Bulgaria in 1885. According to the Organic Statute the head of the province was a Christian Governor-General appointed by the Sublime Porte with the approval of the Great Powers. The legislative organ was a Provincial Counsel which consisted of 56 persons, of which 10 were appointed by the Governor-General, 10 were permanent and 36 were directly elected by the people.  The first Governor-General was \"Knyaz\" (Prince) Alexander Bogoridi (1879–1884), a Bulgarian aristocrat, who was acceptable to both Bulgarians and Greeks in the province. The second Governor-General was Gavril Krastevich (1884–1885), a famous Bulgarian historian. Before the first Governor-General, Arkady Stolypin was the Russian Civil Administrator from 9 October 1878 to 18 May 1879.  During the period of Bulgarian annexation Georgi Stranski was appointed as a \"Commissioner for South Bulgaria\" (9 September 1885 – 5 April 1886), and when the province was restored to nominal Ottoman sovereignty, but still under Bulgarian control, the \"Knyaz\" (or Prince) of Bulgaria was recognised by the Sublime Porte as the Governor-General in the Tophane Agreement of 1886.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative divisions.", "content": "Eastern Rumelia consisted of the departments (called in Bulgarian окръзи \"okrazi\", in Ottoman terminology \"sanjaks\") of Plovdiv (Пловдив, Filibe), Tatarpazardzhik (Татарпазарджик, Tatarpazarcığı), Haskovo (Хасково, Hasköy), Stara Zagora (Стара Загора, Eski Zağra), Sliven (Сливен, İslimye) and Burgas (Бургас, Burgaz), in turn divided into 28 cantons (equivalent to Bulgarian околии \"okolii\", Ottoman \"kazas\").  The cantons were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population and ethnic demographics.", "content": "The earliest information on the ethnic demographics of Eastern Rumelia, before the first census was conducted, comes from ethnographic maps of the Balkans by Western cartographers. There is however little information on the actual population numbers of the different ethnic groups before 1878. According to a British report before the 1877–1878 war, the non-Muslim population (consisting mostly of Bulgarians) of Eastern Rumelia was about 60%, a proportion that grew due to the flight and emigration of Muslims during and after the war. The 1878 census show a population of 815,946 people- 573,231 Bulgarians (70.29%), 174,759 Muslims (21.43%), 42,516 Greeks (5.21%), 19,524 Roma, 4,177 Jews, and 1,306 Armenians.  The results of the first Regional Assembly elections of 17 October 1879 show a predominantly Bulgarian character: Of the 36 elected deputies, 31 were Bulgarians (86.1%), 3 were Greeks (8.3%) and two were Turks (5.6%). The ethnic statistics from the censuses of 1880 and 1884 show a Bulgarian majority in the province. In the discredited census of 1880, out of total population of 815,951 people some 590,000 (72.3%) self-identified as Bulgarians, 158,000 (19.4%) as Turks, 19,500 (2.4%) as Roma, and 48,000 (5.9%) belonged to other ethnicities, notably Greeks, Armenians and Jews. The repetition of the census in 1884 returned similar data: 70.0% Bulgarians, 20.6% Turks, 2.8% Roma and 6.7% others.  The Greek inhabitants of Eastern Rumelia were concentrated on the coast, where they were strong in numbers, and certain cities in the interior such as Plovdiv (known in Greek as \"Philippopolis\"), where they formed a substantial minority. Most of the Greek population of the region was exchanged with Bulgarians from the Greek provinces of Macedonia and Thrace in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars and World War I.  Eastern Rumelia was also inhabited by foreign nationals, most notably Austrians, Czechs, Hungarians, French people and Italians.  The ethnic composition of the population of Eastern Rumelia, according to the provincial census taken in 1884, was the following: The population's ethnic composition in the Bulgarian provinces of Pazardzhik, Plovdiv, Stara Zagora, Haskovo, Sliven, Yambol and Burgas, which have approximately the same territory as Eastern Rumelia according to the 2001 census is the following:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Property rights.", "content": "Property abandoned by Muslims fleeing the Imperial Russian Army during the 1877–1878 war was appropriated by the local Christian population. The former owners, mostly large landholders, were threatened with trial by military court if they had committed crimes during the war so that they would not return. Two Turkish landowners who did return were in fact sentenced to death thus preventing others from desiring to come back. Those Turkish landowners who were not able to take possession of their land were financially compensated, with the funds collected by the Bulgarian peasants, some of whom were indebted as a result. For those who did return a 10% property tax was issued, forcing many to sell off their property in order to pay the tax. Michael Palairet claimed that land rights of Muslim owners were largely disregarded, despite being guaranteed by the great powers, and the de-Ottomanization of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia led to economic decline in the region. Though this is contradicted by many other authors, who show rapid growth of the economy as well as rapid industrial development and growth of exports in Bulgaria after 1878.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes and references.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes.", "content": "<br> <br> <br", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Eastern Rumelia (, \"Iztochna Rumeliya\";, \"Rumeli-i Şarkî\";, \"Anatoliki Romylia\") was an autonomous territory (\"oblast\" in Bulgarian, \"vilayet\" in Turkish) in the Ottoman Empire, created in 1878 by the Treaty of Berlin and \"de facto\" ended in 1885, when it was united with the Principality of Bulgaria, also under Ottoman suzerainty. It continued to be an Ottoman province \"de jure\" until 1908, when Bulgaria declared independence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974215}
{"src_title": "Mel Sheppard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in the Almonesson section of Deptford Township, New Jersey, he moved from there with his family to Clayton at the age of nine and worked in a glass factory before moving to Haddonfield and then the Grays Ferry neighborhood of Philadelphia during his mid-teens. Sheppard, or \"Peerless Mel\" as he was nicknamed, was rejected by the New York Police because he had a slightly enlarged heart. Cardiopulmonary problems notwithstanding, Sheppard won three consecutive AAU titles in the 880 yards (805 m) from 1906 to 1908 and became a main favorite for the middle distance events at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. By late 1907 Sheppard held the world indoor records for 600 yards, 880 yards, 1000 yards and the mile.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sheppard and Guy Haskins.", "content": "During the indoor season of 1907/08 Sheppard raced Guy Haskins 3 times and losing all 3. In the first he was well beaten, in the second when about to be beaten again he threw Haskins to the floor with a flying mare (which he also did to another runner, Adam O'Shea, in the Millrose Games) and was disqualified, and in the third he walked off the track when about to be beaten again. By May the \"New York Times\" reported that Haskins, \"unquestionably the best half-mile and mile performer in the country\", had been refused selection for the United States team to the 1908 Olympics for which he had been trying. He was not selected for the Australasian team either, largely for financial reasons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1908 Olympic Games.", "content": "The 1908 Olympics were the first true championships for the 1500 metres, as the previous Olympics were not well attended by the top milers of the day. However, the heats for the final were capricious in their format: only the winner of each of the eight heats would qualify for the final, and there was no seeding to ensure that top runners were separated in their heats. Accordingly, top runners like 1904 and 1906 Olympic champion James Lightbody, John Halstead, second-fastest in history in the event and three-time AAA champion George Butterfield all failed to advance.  Sheppard won the 1500 metres, setting an Olympic record at 4:05.0 in the first round that fell in the very next heat, when Norman Hallows ran a 4:03.6. Sheppard matched Hallows' time in the final the next day to win the first running gold medal awarded at the 1908 Games.  In the 800 metres, Sheppard won his first round (semifinal) heat with a time of 1:58.0; James Lintott remained close throughout the race and threatened to eliminate Sheppard from the competition. Noted for being a frontrunner, Sheppard ran the first 400 metres of the 800 metres final in 53 seconds and went on to win in the world record time of 1.52.8.  He earned his third gold medal on the medley relay race. He was the final runner on the American team, running fully half of the 1600 metre race. He was passed the baton by fellow Irish American Athletic Club member John Baxter Taylor, Jr., who would become the first African-American to win an Olympic Gold medal. Even without being in as good of form as he had been in the individual races, Sheppard had little trouble retaining the leads giving to him by his teammates, William Hamilton, Nate Cartmell, and John Taylor. The team won both the first round and final, in times of 3:27.2 and 3:29.4. Sheppard's 800 metre split for the final was 1:55.4.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1 Mile Relay World's Record.", "content": "At the Amateur Athletic Union metropolitan championships held at Travers Island in 1909, Sheppard was part of the Irish American Athletic Club's four-man relay team that broke the world's record for the one mile relay, with a time of 3 minutes 20 2/5 seconds. The other three men on the record breaking team were; C.S. Cassara, William Robbins and James Rosenberger. His 1910 trading card called him \"undoubtedly the greatest mid-distance runner the world has ever seen.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1912 Olympic Games.", "content": "After winning Amateur Athletic Union titles at in 1911 and 1912, Sheppard was a favourite to defend his Olympic 800 metres title at the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm. At Stockholm, he tried the same tactics as in London, but after an opening lap of 52.4, he was overtaken by teammate Ted Meredith who set a new world record of 1.51.9. Sheppard won his fourth gold medal as lead-off runner on the 4 × 400 m relay team that set a world record of 3:16.6.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-competition career.", "content": "Sheppard was a member of the New Jersey National Guard and the 69th Regiment. During World War I, he served as an athletic director at a number of military training camps. After the war he coached for a number of amateur athletic clubs. Sheppard worked for John Wanamaker and was the recreational director for the Millrose A.A., which was formed by Wanamaker's employees. Sheppard coached the U.S. women's track and field team at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Sheppard died at his home in Bayside, Queens, New York City. He was buried in New Camden Cemetery in Camden, New Jersey. His obituary cites \"acute indigestion\" as the cause of death. He was survived by his wife Estelle (née) Symon, his daughter Adelaide Kohler of Wildwood, New Jersey and his son Melvin Sheppard Jr., who was on the track and cross-country team at Princeton University in 1932.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "While it is widely claimed that \"after retiring from sports Sheppard became a lawyer (he was one of the defenders of the Lindbergh child kidnapper Bruno Hauptmann)\" this is apparently an Internet myth. The lead attorney for Bruno Hauptmann was a Mr. Edward J. Reilly. \"The Trial of Bruno Richard Hauptmann,\" by Sidney B. Whipple, (originally published by Doubleday, Doran & Co., NY, 1937) makes no mention of Sheppard. Whipple lists the defense team present for the first day of trial as \"Mr. Reilly, Mr. Fisher, Mr. Pope, Mr. Rosecrans.\" There is no evidence that Mel Sheppard ever practiced law, or had anything to do with the Lindbergh child kidnapper.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Melvin Whinfield \"Peerless Mel\" Sheppard (September 5, 1883 – January 4, 1942) was an American athlete, member of the Irish American Athletic Club and winner of four gold medals and one silver medal at the 1908 Summer Olympics and 1912 Summer Olympics. Along with Henry Taylor of the United Kingdom, he was the most successful athlete at the 1908 Olympics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974216}
{"src_title": "Nokia 3310", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The 3310 was developed at the Copenhagen Nokia site in Denmark and unveiled at the \"Don't be bored. Be totally board.\" lifestyle event in Oberhausen, Germany, as well as \"Nokia Unplugged\" concerts in the Asia-Pacific region. It is a compact and sturdy phone featuring an 84 × 48 pixel pure monochrome display. It has a lighter battery variant which has fewer features; for example the 133 g battery version has the start-up image of two hands touching while the 115 g version does not. It is a slightly rounded rectangular unit that is typically held in the palm of a hand, with the buttons operated with the thumb. The blue button is the main button for selecting options, with \"C\" button as a \"backspace\", \"back\" or \"undo\" button. Up and down buttons are used for navigation purposes. The on/off/profile button is a stiff black button located on the top of the phone. Like its predecessor Nokia 3210, the 3310 was marketed as a customisable consumer-oriented handset targeting the youth. It is about a centimetre shorter than the 3210.  The 3310 is known for being reasonably durable due to its casing and construction, a feature which is often humorously exaggerated in online communities. Numerous videos also exist of the phone being put through increasingly-severe damage tests to test the phone's strength, including being dropped from a great height (sometimes while being protected with makeshift cases made from various objects), being crushed by heavy objects or being struck by vehicles or hammers, many times of which the phone proved its record. The 3310's reputation for durability led HMD Global to develop the Nokia 800 Tough with MIL-STD-810G standard compliance in mind.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "The Nokia 3310's main new feature introduced over its predecessors was a Chat function. This is an instant messaging-like feature that works on standard SMS. The 3310 was popular for SMS text messaging because of Chat and also because it allowed long messages three times the size of a standard SMS text message, at 459 characters. It also featured threaded SMS writing and voice dialing for the quick dialing of selected numbers.  The 3310 is known for having many features that were rare for the time. These include many utilities, such as a calculator, Nokia network monitor, stop watch and a reminder function. It has four games: \"Pairs II\", \"Space Impact\", \"Bantumi\", and the hugely popular \"Snake II\". The \"Snake\" series of games had been popular on Nokia handsets since the late 1990s. \"CNET\" remembered \"Space Impact\", a shoot 'em up in which the player fires projectiles at oncoming aliens, as a mediocre game overall but impressive for fitting a mobile device with its complexity and length. It was later recreated for other mobile devices.  The Nokia 3310 runs on Nokia's proprietary Series 20 software.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Customization.", "content": "The Nokia 3310 can be customized with interchangeable \"Xpress-On\" covers, and thousands of different designs have been produced by various companies. It also has over 35 ringtones built-in with space for seven custom tones. These can either be downloaded, or composed by the user on the handset. The phone has various \"profiles\" that can set a number of preferences such as silent mode where the phone will not ring, useful for situations where it is inappropriate to do so. Screensavers can be made from received picture messages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "3315, 3390 and 3395.", "content": "An enhanced version of the 3310 is the Nokia 3315, which has some additional features: The 3315 was also released in Australia. Most versions of the 3310 could be upgraded to include the additional features of the 3315 by using a data cable.  There are two North American variants of the 3310; one is the Nokia 3390, which operates on GSM 1900. The Nokia 3395 is an updated version of the 3390 which includes the additional features of the Asian 3315 model, and it has poor reception if connected to a GSM 850 area.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "WAP-enhanced models (3330 and 3350).", "content": "The Nokia 3330 added a CSD-based WAP capability, animated screensavers, a pinball game named 'Bumper' and phonebook (stored in the phone memory as opposed to the SIM card in earlier models) with a 100 entry capacity to the model. It also has the capability of downloading Java MIDP apps via WAP (Snake II mazes, Bumper tables, Space Impact chapters).  An Asia-Pacific only version, known as the Nokia 3350, was in essence an improved 3330 with WAP, rhythmic backlight alert, animated screensavers, two-way Navi-Key, dedicated call and hang buttons, Chinese lunar calendar and a 96×65-pixel screen. Some 3350s have back covers that feature a photo-insert window, allowing users to put personal pictures from photographs, magazine cut-outs, etc.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AMPS/D-AMPS-based versions (3320 and 3360).", "content": "The Nokia 3360 and 3320 are related models designed for the U.S. and Canadian markets respectively. They are externally similar to the 3310 and 3390, but use Digital AMPS (\"TDMA\")/AMPS technology rather than GSM.  Like the Asian 3350, they include two dedicated call and hang buttons and two soft keys. They also feature an infrared port. Unlike the 3390, the 3360 and 3320 do not support voice dialing. At 136 gram each, they are also slightly heavier than the 3390, which weighs 119 grams.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In a retrospective piece, TechRepublic called the Nokia 3310 \"a big tough cockroach of a phone\" and praised its \"legendary durability\".  In November 2015, the Nokia 3310 was chosen as one of the first three \"National Emojis\" for Finland. The emoji is referred to as \"The Unbreakable\", as the phone was known for its toughness and durability.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revival.", "content": "On 14 February 2017, it was reported that a revived version of the 3310 would be unveiled at the 2017 Mobile World Congress in Barcelona by HMD Global Oy, the Finnish manufacturer with rights to market phones under the Nokia brand, with the price point of 49 euros. On 26 February 2017, the modernised version of the 3310 was relaunched at a price of €49.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nokia 3310 is a GSM mobile phone announced on 1 September 2000, and released in the fourth quarter of the year, replacing the popular Nokia 3210. It sold very well, being one of the most successful phones with 126 million units sold worldwide, and being one of Nokia's most iconic devices. The phone is still widely acclaimed and has gained a cult status due to its durability.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974217}
{"src_title": "Dmanisi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The town of Dmanisi is first mentioned in the 9th century as a possession of the Arab emirate of Tbilisi, though the area had been settled since the Early Bronze Age. An Orthodox Christian cathedral – \"Dmanisi Sioni\" – was built there in the 6th century. Located on the confluence of trading routes and cultural influences, Dmanisi was of particular importance, growing into a major commercial center of medieval Georgia. The town was conquered by the Seljuk Turks in the 1080s, but was later liberated by the Georgian kings David the Builder and Demetrios I between 1123 and 1125. The Turco-Mongol armies under Timur laid waste to the town in the 14th century. Sacked again by the Turkomans in 1486, Dmanisi never recovered and declined to a scarcely inhabited village by the 18th century. The castle was controlled by the House of Orbeliani.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeological site.", "content": "Extensive archaeological studies began in the area in 1936 and continued in the 1960s. Beyond a rich collection of ancient and medieval artifacts and the ruins of various buildings and structures, unique remains of prehistoric animals and humans have been unearthed. Some of the animal bones were identified by the Georgian paleontologist A. Vekua with the teeth of the extinct rhino \"Dicerorhinus etruscus etruscus\" in 1983. This species dates back presumably to the early Pleistocene epoch.  The discovery of primitive stone tools in 1984 led to increasing interest to the archaeological site. In 1991, a team of Georgian scholars was joined by the German archaeologists from Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, and later the U.S., French and Spanish researchers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Homo erectus georgicus\".", "content": "Early human (or hominin) fossils, originally named \"Homo georgicus\" and now considered \"Homo erectus georgicus\", were found at Dmanisi between 1991 and 2005. At 1.8 million years old, they are now believed to be a subspecies of \"Homo erectus\" and not a separate species of \"Homo\". These fossils represent the earliest known human presence in the Caucasus.  Subsequently, four fossil skeletons were found, showing a species primitive in its skull and upper body but with relatively advanced spines and lower limbs. They are now thought to represent a stage soon after the transition from \"Australopithecus\" to \"Homo erectus\".  Human habitation in the Caucasus goes back to the remotest antiquity. The hominin remains discovered in 1991 by David Lordkipanidze at Dmanisi, Kvemo Kartli (1.8 million years old) are the oldest found outside Africa. Neanderthal remains have been found at Ortvale K’lde (1973) and elsewhere in the Caucasus (36,000–50,000 years old).  The Dmanisi hominin remains are still making an impact on the paleontological community. the Dmanisi skull 5 is in the middle of a controversy: many hominin fossils formerly thought to be different species may not have been separate species at all. Several early members of the genus Homo were possibly one evolving lineage.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Dmanisi (, ) is a town and archaeological site in the Kvemo Kartli region of Georgia approximately 93 km southwest of the nation’s capital Tbilisi in the river valley of Mashavera. The hominin site is dated to 1.8 million years ago.<ref name=\"doi10.1073/pnas.1106638108\">1.85-1.78 Ma 95% CI. It was the earliest known evidence of hominins outside Africa before stone tools dated to 2.1 million years were discovered in 2018 in Shangchen, China.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974218}
{"src_title": "Frederick Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Frederick Augustus succeeded his father in Anhalt-Zerbst in 1747, at the age of thirteen. His mother, the Dowager Princess Johanna Elisabeth, acted as regent on his behalf until 1752.  He was one of the sovereigns who supported Britain in the American Revolutionary War with soldiers. For this, he received a substantial monetary compensation.  In 1776 he granted religious tolerance in his lands.  Due to a quarrel with the Kingdom of Prussia, he was forced to flee into exile in Basel and later Luxembourg, where he died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and succession.", "content": "In Zerbst on 17 November 1753 Frederick Augustus married firstly Caroline (b. Kassel, 10 May 1732 – d. Zerbst, 22 May 1759), daughter of Prince Maximilian of Hesse-Kassel and granddaughter of Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel. The marriage was childless.  In Ballenstedt on 27 May 1764 Frederick Augustus married secondly Fredericka Auguste Sophie (b. Ballenstedt, 28 August 1744 – d. Coswig, 12 April 1827), daughter of Victor Frederick, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg. Like the first marriage, this union was childless.  On his death the line of Anhalt-Zerbst became extinct and the succession to the principality was disputed between the other branches of Anhalt-Bernburg, Anhalt-Köthen and Anhalt-Dessau; finally, in 1796 Anhalt-Zerbst was divided and ceased to exist.  The dominion of Jever (which was annexed to Zerbst by the marriage of Prince Rudolph with Magdalene of Oldenburg, heiress of that land) was ruled under the Semi-Salic Law; for this, was given to the Empress Catherine II of Russia, born Princess Sophie Auguste Fredericka of Anhalt-Zerbst and Frederick Augustus's only surviving sibling.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederick Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (8 August 1734 in Alt Stettin – 3 March 1793 in Luxembourg), was a German prince of the House of Ascania and the last ruler of the Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974219}
{"src_title": "Pepin of Italy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "The issue of Pepin's relationships is not entirely clear. A litany of Liber confrater augiensis attributes to him as his wife a certain Chrotais (or Ruadheid), married shortly before 796,. However, the Vita Hludowici written by Thégan around 840 says that King Bernard of Italy was born of a concubine ( ex concubina natus ), an affirmation reinforced by a litany of St. Gallen placing Bernard in a list of Carolingians of illegitimate birth.  We do not know the origin of Chrotais but his name, that of Bernard of Italy and the fact that Adalard de Corbie and his half-brother Wala are then the protectors of Bernard of Italy suggests a close relationship between Chrotais and these. This hypothesis is reinforced by the fact that the first names of Bernard, Gundrada and Theodrada are found in the brothers and sisters of Wala and Adalard. Only, it is chronologically improbable that Chrotais is daughter of Wala, impossible that it is daughter of a brother or sister of Wala, who were too young, and the Vita Adalhardiis formal about the fact that Bernard had only five children. It remains as an explanation that the wife of Pepin d'Italie is a grand-niece of his namesake, the third wife of Charles Martel.  Pepin had one son and five daughters (they were: Adelaide, married Lambert I of Nantes; Atala; Gundrada; Bertha; and Tetrada), all of whom but the eldest were born between 800 and Pepin's death. All except Adelaide and Tetrada died before their grandfather's death in 814. Tetrada married Adelaide's stepson, Lambert II of Nantes. Pepin's son was Bernard. Pepin was expected to inherit a third of his father's empire, but he predeceased him. The Lombard crown passed on to his illegitimate son Bernard, but the empire went to Pepin's younger brother, Louis the Pious.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pepin or Pippin (or \"Pepin Carloman\", \"Pepinno\", April 777 – 8 July 810), born Carloman, was the son of Charlemagne and King of the Lombards (781–810) under the authority of his father.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974220}
{"src_title": "Franz Reichleitner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "SS career.", "content": "Reichleitner joined the Nazi Party in 1936 as member number 6,369,213 and the Schutzstaffel in 1937 as member number 357,065. He began his career as a \"Kriminalsekretär\" of the Gestapo in Linz. Later Reichleitner was assigned to work in the Action T4 euthanasia program at the nearby Hartheim Euthanasia Centre. He first served as an assistant supervisor (together with Franz Stangl) under officer Christian Wirth before assuming Wirth's position of chief supervisor at Hartheim. Reichleitner was also partly responsible for getting Stangl a supervising job in T-4.  Reichleitner was married to Anna Baumgartner from Steyr.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sobibor death camp.", "content": "On 1 September 1942, at the rank of \"SS-Obersturmführer\" (First Lieutenant), on the orders of Wirth and Odilo Globocnik, Reichleitner took command of the Sobibór extermination camp with Franz Stangl's departure to Treblinka. Reichleitner rarely showed his face in the camp, and it has been claimed that he was a heavy drinker, but his reign of Sobibór was even more strict than that of his predecessor. Moshe Bahir, a camp inmate, wrote:  Reichleitner, a man in his late forties, with an Austrian accent, was dressed always with great elegance and wore gloves. He did not have direct contact with the Jews and the transports. He knew that he could rely on his subordinates, who were very frightened of him. He ran the camp with German precision. During his time the \"Aktionen\" went smoothly, and all the transports that arrived on a certain day were liquidated. He never left them for the following day...  On one occasion, when an old man from the transports slapped SS officer Karl Frenzel, Reichleitner took the man aside and shot him on the spot in front of his family and the entire convoy of people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sobibor revolt.", "content": "After \"Reichsführer-SS\" Heinrich Himmler visited Sobibór on 12 February 1943, he promoted Reichleitner to \"SS-Hauptsturmführer\" (Captain). Reichleitner was on leave on the day of the successful Sobibór revolt, 14 October 1943. With about 300 of the 600 prisoners having escaped, the remainder were shot dead per the direct orders of Himmler. Sobibór was closed within a few days and the Nazis attempted to remove any traces of its existence.  In autumn 1943, like so many of the perpetrators of Operation Reinhard, Reichleitner was then transferred to the Fiume area of Italy to kill Jews and quell the partisan resistance movement there. Franz Reichleitner was killed by partisans on 3 January 1944 at Fiume, Italy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Karl Reichleitner (2 December 1906 – 3 January 1944) was an Austrian member in the SS of Nazi Germany who participated in Operation Reinhard during the Holocaust. Reichleitner served as the second and last commandant of Sobibór extermination camp from 1 September 1942 until the camp's closure on or about 17 October 1943. As the commanding officer of the camp, Franz Reichleitner directly perpetrated the genocide of Jews.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974221}
{"src_title": "St Martin's Cathedral, Bratislava", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure, shape and characteristics.", "content": "The nave of the structure consists of three aisles divided by two rows of eight columns. It has an overall floor area of with a maximum height of. The tower is high and at one time was part of the medieval city fortifications. The cathedral is constructed in the traditional crucifix shape.  Together with the castle on the hill adjacent, and somewhat similar in its striking but fairly stark Gothic lines and colouring, St Martin's 85 m spire dominates Old Town's skyline.  As with the castle, the surroundings of St Martin's are as memorable as the structure itself. The cathedral sits amid picturesque remains of outbuildings in a spacious staired courtyard, and a working seminary with robed adepts on a cobblestoned side-street. The tower is capped by a replica of the Hungarian Crown resting on a gilded pillow.  The altar is dominated by an equestrian statue group depicting St. Martin in a typical Hungarian hussar dress. The saint is dividing his cloak to give part to a beggar as protection from the cold.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction history.", "content": "Long before the construction of the cathedral, the site had been the crossroads and contained the former centre of the town, a market and probably also a chapel. Worship services were held at Bratislava Castle, where the chapter and provost's office had their seat. As the visits became less bearable and the castle's safety was threatened, King Emeric of Hungary requested the Pope Innocent II for permission to relocate the provost's office into forecastle, and The Pope assented in 1204. The church was relocated in 1221, and was originally built in Romanesque style and sanctified to the Holy Savior.  As the town grew into a city and received additional privileges in 1291, the sanctuary became insufficient for its needs. Construction of a new Gothic cathedral began in 1311 on the site of the earlier church and an adjacent cemetery.  Construction continued until 1452 due to the difficulty of construction and lack of funding. For a period in the early fifteenth century, construction halted due to the Hussite Wars. In 1452, the church was finally completed and consecrated, however, work continued until the sixteenth century. During this period, a new long presbytery and the Gothic chapels of Czech Queen Sofia and of Saint Anne were added in the 15th century.  Eighteenth century additions to the sanctuary include the Baroque Chapel of St. John the Merciful, and serves as a mausoleum. It was constructed at the price of 2000 pieces of gold at the expense of Cardinal Péter Pázmány and the famous Baroque equestrian sculpture of St Martin was added in 1744. Both works were designed by Georg Rafael Donner  In 1760, the top of the Gothic tower was struck by lightning and later replaced by a Baroque one, which was subsequently destroyed by fire in 1835 and reconstructed in 1847 (with some modifications), and topped by the crown of St Stephen  The church attained its present-day appearance during the period 1869 to 1877, when it was re-Gothicised after suffering damage by fire, war, earthquake and other disasters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coronations.", "content": "The cathedral became the coronation church of the sovereigns of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1563, succeeding the \"Virgin Mary Church\" in Székesfehérvár, after the Ottoman Empire conquered that city. On 8 September 1563, the Crown of St. Stephen was placed on the head of Maximilian II, son of Emperor Ferdinand I of Habsburg. In total, the coronations of 11 kings and queens plus 8 of their consorts occurred here between 1563 and 1830, including that of Maria Theresa of Austria.  List of crowned kings/queens and of their consorts, with dates in parentheses:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crown of St Stephen.", "content": "The tower is topped by a gold-plated replica of the Crown of St. Stephen. It was placed in 1847 following restoration of the damaged tower, to commemorate the cathedral's importance as a coronation church. It weighs, measures over in diameter, and rests on a gold-plated pillow and stands high. The pillow and crown contain a total of of gold and were restored in August 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Catacombs, crypts and sepulchres.", "content": "Since the cathedral was built over a cemetery, it contains catacombs of unknown length and crypts holding the sepulchres of many significant historical figures, up to below the church. To date, three crypts have been discovered:  Over the centuries, the cathedral's sepulchres filled with many significant figures, such as ecclesiastic dignitaries, presidents of the historic Pozsony county as well as Jozef Ignác Bajza, the author of the first Slovak novel, but also with dozens of bishops, canons, French priests fleeing the French revolution and many people outside the Catholic Church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Present.", "content": "Today, the church is deteriorating due to vibrations caused by heavy traffic on the access ramp to the nearby Nový Most bridge. Restoration efforts began in 1997 and the cathedral has been a national cultural monument since 11 November 2002.  Since 2003, it has hosted the \"Korunovačné slávnosti\" (Coronation Feasts) festival which re-enacts the coronation of one of the monarchs crowned in the cathedral. From 1995 to February 2008 it was the co-cathedral of the Archdiocese of Bratislava-Trnava.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Additional information.", "content": "Video and Photo of reconstruction of gold-plated representation of the Crown of St. Stephen (in Slovak).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The St Martin's Cathedral (, or, ) is a church in Bratislava, Slovakia, and the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bratislava.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974222}
{"src_title": "Heracleum sphondylium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The species name \"sphondylium\", meaning \"vertebrate\", refers to the shape of the segmented stem. It was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Heracleum sphondylium\" reaches on average of height, with a maximum of. The hollow, ridged stem with bristly hairs arises from a large tap root. The leaves can reach of length. They are once or twice pinnate, hairy and serrated, divided into 3–5 lobed segments.  Hogweed has 5-petalled pinkish or white flowers, arranged in umbels usually less than 30 cm of diameter with 15 to 30 rays. The peripheral flowers have a radial symmetry (zygomorphic). The terminal umbels are flat-topped and the outermost petals are enlarged. Flowering typically occurs between June and October. The flowers are pollinated by insects, such as beetles, wasps and especially flies. The small fruits are schizocarps, flattened and winged, elliptical to rounded and glabrous, up to 1 cm long. The seed dispersal is by wind (\"anemochory\").  The characteristic pig-like smell of the flowers gives it its name. The leaves are commonly mined by the larvae of the leaf miner \"Phytomyza spondylii\".  \"H. sphondylium\" is smaller than dangerous \"Heracleum mantegazzianum\" (giant hogweed) and \"Heracleum sosnowskyi\" (Sosnowsky's hogweed), and should not be confused. However, it contains some of the same phytophototoxic compounds (furanocoumarins), albeit at lower concentrations, and there is evidence that the sap from common hogweed can also produce phytophotodermatitis (burns and rashes) when contaminated skin is exposed to sunlight. Care therefore needs to be used when cutting or trimming it, to prevent'strimmers rash'.  The small picture-winged fly \"Euleia heraclei\" is, as its name suggests, found on hogweed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"H. sphondylium\" has an Eurasian distribution, growing throughout Europe and eastwards to central Asia. Its native range just extends into North Africa. The species has been introduced to suitable habitats elsewhere, such as Canada and the U.S. In particular, \"H. sphondylium\" is recorded as introduced to Ontario by the Database of Vascular Plants of Canada but reports of \"H. sphondylium\" in Canada are rare..", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The plant is common in grassland, herb-rich meadows, in hedges, meadows and woods, road verges and railway embankments, waste and cultivated ground. It prefers moist, nitrogen-rich soils. It can occur in mountain areas up to of altitude.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "In the 18th century, people on the Kamchatka Peninsula distilled a spirit called \"raka\" from a \"sweet grass\" that was most likely \"H. sphondylium\". The raka was flavored with blue-berried honeysuckle (\"Lonicera caerulea\").  Borscht derives from an ancient soup originally cooked from pickled stems, leaves and umbels of common hogweed. The young shoots are considered excellent eating by many foragers.  In eastern European countries and especially Romania, \"H. sphondylium\" is used as an aphrodisiac and to treat gynecological and fertility problems and impotence. It is also sometimes recommended for epilepsy. However, there are no clinical studies to prove its efficacy at treating any of these problems.  The seeds can be dried and used as a spice, with a flavour similar to that of cardamom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "This species has variable characteristics and many forms have been described. The following names are accepted by The Plant List:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "The water parsnip (\"Sium suave\"), western water hemlock (\"Cicuta douglasii\") and spotted water hemlock (\"Cicuta maculata\") all have white flowers in large compound umbels, which can lead to misidentification. All water hemlock and poison hemlock are highly poisonous, but water parsnip is not. Both have clusters of small white flowers shaped like umbrellas, and have the same habitat near the shore line of lakes and rivers. Water parsnip has leaves only once compound, and water hemlock has leaves which are three times compound. Water hemlock has a large swelling at the stem base, and has bracts at the base of each small flower cluster, not at the base of the main flower head. The water parsnip has small bracts at the base of flowers and main flower head as well. The cow parsnips (\"Heracleum lanatum\", \"Heracleum maximum\") are also confused in this group with similar flower groupings. However, the cow parsnips have large, broad leaves, and an unpleasant odour.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heracleum sphondylium, commonly known as hogweed, common hogweed or cow parsnip, is a herbaceous perennial or biennial plant, in the umbelliferous family Apiaceae that includes fennel, cow parsley, ground elder and giant hogweed. It is native to Europe and Asia. The common name eltrot may also be applied, but is not specific to this species. Umbelliferous plants are so named because of the umbrella-like arrangement of flowers they produce. The North American species \"Heracleum maximum\" (also called cow parsnip) is sometimes included as a subspecies of \"H. sphondylium\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974223}
{"src_title": "Arapaima gigas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Arapaima gigas\" was originally regarded as the only species in the genus \"Arapaima\", but the subsequent identification of further species, together with the rarity of specimens and the loss of several type specimens, has led to some uncertainty regarding classification within the genus and the identity of described individuals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The species is among the largest known freshwater fish, commonly measuring and reportedly exceptionally reaching lengths of up to. Adults may weigh up to. \"A. gigas\" has a streamlined body with dorsal and anal fins set well back towards the tail. While the body is mainly gray to gray-green, its Brazilian local name \"pirarucu\" derives from an indigenous word for \"red fish\", thought to refer to either the red flecks on the scales towards the tail, or the reddish-orange color of its meat. The fish have \"flexible armor-like scales\" made up of \"a hard mineralized outer layer\" and \"a tough-but-flexible inner layer\" that help protect it from attacks by piranhas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"A. gigas\" is native to freshwater in the basin of the Amazon River; it is known to occur in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Guyana and Peru. In Bolivia, the paiche is considered an invasive species, affecting local native species and the ecosystem. It was first found in 1976 and presumably introduced from Peru being washed out of a Peruvian fish farm by a flood. The species has been introduced to parts of East Asia, both for fishing purposes and accidentally.  Fossils of arapaima (or very similar species) have been found in Colombia, in the Villavieja Formation, which dates from the Miocene era.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"A. gigas\" has the capability to breathe surface air to supplement the oxygen it derives from the use of its gills, and indeed is dependent on surfacing every 5–15 minutes to loudly gulp air at the surface. As in other species in the genus, a modified swim bladder that contains lung-like tissue is used for this purpose.  The species primarily feeds on fish, although juveniles will prefer insects and fish larvae until fully grown. They will also consume birds, mammals, fruits and seeds on the water surface.  Spawning occurs in lakes and river channels during the time of low water levels (August to March). After the young hatch from eggs laid in a nest constructed by both parents, the male remains to protect them for a period of about three months. The young reach sexual maturity at an age of four to five years; average life span in captivity is 15–20 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The species has in the past been heavily impacted by overfishing, exacerbated by their easily exploited habit of surfacing regularly for air-gulping. The IUCN is currently not assigning a conservation status to \"A. gigas\" due to a lack of detailed information about population developments. Arapaima fishing was banned outright in Brazil from 1996 to 1999, due to declining populations; since then, both subsistence and commercial fishing have been permitted in specially designated areas, and a sophisticated sustainable management strategy has led to massive recovery of stocks, from 2,500 in 1999 to over 170,000 in 2017. For Bolivia, the paiche as an invasive species is itself considered a threat to local native species according to reports. There are various reports on a correlation between the spreading of paiche and the decline in numbers of native fish species in parts of the Bolivian amazon. Effects on local fish species populations and on fishing behaviors vary strongly by region. A joint study of the Bolivian government and different research organizations from 2017 points out the necessity to further evaluate the complex environmental and socioeconomic impact of paiche in the country.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arapaima gigas, also known as pirarucu, is a species of arapaima native to the basin of the Amazon River. Once believed to be the sole species in the genus, it is among the largest freshwater fish. The species is an obligate air-breather and needs to come to the surface regularly to gulp air.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974224}
{"src_title": "David d'Angers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born in Angers in 1788. His father was a wood carver and ornamental sculptor, who had joined the volunteer Republican army as a musketeer, fighting against the Chouans of La Vendée. He studied in the studio of Jean-Jacques Delusse and in 1808 traveled to Paris to study in the studio of Philippe-Laurent Roland.  While in Paris he did work both on the Arc de Triomphe and the exterior of the Louvre. In 1810 he succeeded in taking the second place prize at the École des Beaux-Arts for his Othryades. In 1811 David's \"La Douleur\" won the École's competition for \"tête d'expression\" followed by his taking of the Prix de Rome for his \"Epaminondas\" in the same year. He spent five years in Rome, during which time he frequented the studio of Antonio Canova and made small trips around Italy to Venice, Naples and Florence.  Returning from Rome around the time of the restoration of the Bourbons and their accompanying foreign conquerors and returned royalists, David d'Angers would not remain in the neighborhood of the Tuileries, opting instead to travel to London. Here John Flaxman and others took him to task for the political sins of David the painter, to whom he was erroneously supposed to be related.  With great difficulty he made his way to Paris again, where a comparatively prosperous career opened before him. His medallions and busts were in much request, as well as orders for monumental works. One of the most famous of these was that of \"Gutenberg at Strassburg\"; but those he himself valued most were the statue of \"Barra\" (Joseph Bara), a drummer boy who purportedly continued to beat his drum until the moment of death in the war in La Vendée, and the monument to the Greek liberator Markos Botsaris.  David's busts and medallions were very numerous, and among his sitters may be found not only the illustrious men and women of France, but many others both of England and Germany countries which he visited professionally in 1827 and 1829. His medallions number over 500.  David's fame rests firmly on his pediment of the Pantheon, his marble \"Wounded Philopoemen\" in the Louvre and his equestrian monument to General Jacques-Nicolas Gobert in Père Lachaise Cemetery. In addition to that of Gobert, he did sculptures for seven other tombs at Père Lachaise, including the bronze busts of the writer, Honoré de Balzac and physician Samuel Hahnemann.  In the \"Musée David\" in Angers is an almost complete collection of his works either in the form of copies or in the original moulds. As an example of his benevolence of character may be mentioned his rushing off to the sickbed of Rouget de Lisle, the author of the \"Marseillaise Hymn\", modelling and carving him in marble without delay, making a lottery of the work, and sending to the poet in the extremity of need the proceeds.  Of \"Reviving Greece\", his monument to the Greek liberator Markos Botsaris, showing a Greek child reading his name, Victor Hugo said, \"It is difficult to see anything more beautiful in the world; this statue joins the grandeur of Pheidias to the expressive manner of Puget.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre-Jean David (12 March 17884 January 1856) was a French sculptor, medalist and active freemason. He adopted the name David d'Angers, following his entry into the studio of the painter Jacques-Louis David in 1809 as a way of both expressing his patrimony and distinguishing himself from the master painter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974225}
{"src_title": "Place de la Bastille", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history of the Bastille.", "content": "The Bastille was built between 1370 and 1383 during the reign of King Charles V as part of the defenses of Paris, the structure was converted into a state prison in the 17th century by Richelieu, who was king Louis XIII's chief minister. At that time it primarily housed political prisoners, but also religious prisoners, \"seditious\" writers, and young rakes held at the request of their families. It began to acquire a poor reputation when it became the main prison for those taken under lettres de cachet issued by the King of France.  By the late 18th century, the building was made up of eight close-packed towers, around 24 m (80 ft) high, surrounding two courtyards and the armoury. The prisoners were held within the 5-7 story towers, each having a room around 4.6 m (15 ft) across and containing various articles of furniture. The infamous cachots (dungeons), the oozing, vermin-infested subterranean cells were no longer in use, since the respective reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI, who both worked on reforming the penal system in France. The governor of the prison was given a daily allowance per prisoner, the amount depending on their status—from nineteen livres per diem for scientists and academics down to three for commoners. In terms of standards, there were many worse prisons in France, including the dreaded Bicêtre, also in Paris. However, in terms of popular literary accounts, the Bastille was a place of horror and oppression, a symbol of autocratic cruelty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Storming of the Bastille.", "content": "The confrontation between the commoners and the Ancien Régime ultimately led to the people of Paris storming the Bastille on July 14, 1789, following several days of disturbances. At this point, the prison was nearly empty, with only seven inmates: four counterfeiters, two madmen, and a young aristocrat who had displeased his father. The regular garrison consisted of about 80 'invalides' (veteran soldiers no longer capable of service in the field) under Governor Bernard-René de Launay. They had however been reinforced by a detachment of 32 grenadiers from one of the Swiss mercenary regiments summoned to Paris by the Monarchy shortly before 14 July.  A crowd of around 600 people gathered outside around mid-morning, calling for the surrender of the prison, the removal of the guns and the release of the arms and gunpowder. Two people chosen to represent those gathered were invited into the fortress and slow negotiations began.  In the early afternoon, the crowd broke into the undefended outer courtyard and the chains on the drawbridge to the inner courtyard were cut. A spasmodic exchange of gunfire began; in mid-afternoon the crowd was reinforced by mutinous Gardes Françaises of the Royal Army and two cannons. De Launay ordered a ceasefire; despite his surrender demands being refused, he capitulated and the victors swept in to liberate the fortress at around 5:30.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later history.", "content": "On 16 June 1792, the area occupied by the Bastille was turned into a square celebrating liberty, and a column would be erected there. The first stone was laid by Palloy; however, construction never took place, and a fountain was built instead in 1793.  In 1808, as part of several urban improvement projects for Paris, Napoléon planned to have a monument in the shape of an elephant built here, the Elephant of the Bastille. It was designed to be 24 m (78 ft) in height, and to be cast from the bronze of cannons taken from the Spanish. Access to the top was to be achieved by a stairway set in one of the legs. However, only a full-scale plaster model was built. Victor Hugo immortalized the monument in the novel \"Les Misérables\" where it is used as a shelter by Gavroche. The monument was demolished in 1846.  In 1833, Louis-Philippe decided to build the July Column as originally planned in 1792. It was inaugurated in 1840.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The area today.", "content": "The former location of the fort is currently called \"Place de la Bastille\". It is home to the Opéra Bastille. The large ditch (\"fossé\") behind the fort has been transformed into a marina for pleasure boats, the Bassin de l'Arsenal, to the south, which is bordered by the Boulevard de la Bastille. To the north, a covered canal, the Canal Saint-Martin, extends north from the marina beneath the vehicular roundabout that borders the location of the fort, and then continues for about 4.4 kilometers to the Place de la Bataille-de-Stalingrad.  On Thursdays and Sundays, a large, open-air market occupies part of the park to the north of the Place de la Bastille, along the Boulevard Richard-Lenoir. Consumers can find fresh fruit, fish, meat, cheese and bread along with clothing and typical flea market items.  Some undemolished remains of one tower of the fort were discovered during excavation for the Métro (rail mass-transit system) in 1899, and were moved to a park (the Square Henri-Galli) a few hundred metres away, where they are displayed today. The original outline of the fort is also marked on the pavement of streets and pathways that pass over its former location, in the form of special paving stones. A café and some other businesses largely occupy the location of the fort, and the Rue Saint-Antoine passes directly over it as it opens onto the roundabout of the Bastille.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Place de la Bastille is a square in Paris where the Bastille prison stood until the storming of the Bastille and its subsequent physical destruction between 14 July 1789 and 14 July 1790 during the French Revolution. No vestige of the prison remains.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974226}
{"src_title": "Temple of Heaven", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The temple complex was constructed from 1406 to 1420 during the reign of the Yongle Emperor of Ming Dynasty, who was also responsible for the construction of the Forbidden City in Beijing. It is currently located in Dongcheng Beijing, China. The complex was extended and renamed Temple of Heaven during the reign of the Jiajing Emperor in the 16th century. Jia ging also built three other prominent temples in Beijing, the Temple of the Sun (日壇) in the east, the Temple of Earth (地壇) in the north, and the Temple of Moon (月壇) in the west. The Temple of Heaven was renovated in the 18th century under the Qianlong Emperor. By then, the state budget was insufficient, so this was the last large-scale renovation of the temple complex in imperial times.  The temple was occupied by the Anglo-French Alliance during the Second Opium War. In 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion, the Eight Nation Alliance occupied the temple complex and turned it into the force's temporary command in Beijing, which lasted for one year. The occupation desecrated the temple and resulted in serious damage to the building complex and the garden. Robberies of temple artifacts by the Alliance were also reported. With the downfall of the Qing, the temple complex was left un-managed. The neglect of the temple complex led to the collapse of several halls in the following years.[2]  In 1914, Yuan Shikai, then President of the Republic of China, performed a Ming prayer ceremony at the temple, as part of an effort to have himself declared Emperor of China. In 1918 the temple was turned into a park and for the first time open to the public.  The Temple of Heaven was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998 and was described as \"a masterpiece of architecture and landscape design which simply and graphically illustrates a cosmogony of great importance for the evolution of one of the world’s great civilizations...\" as the \"symbolic layout and design of the Temple of Heaven had a profound influence on architecture and planning in the Far East over many centuries.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buildings and layout.", "content": "The Temple grounds cover of parkland and comprises three main groups of constructions, all built according to strict philosophical requirements:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ceremony.", "content": "In ancient China, the Emperor of China was regarded as the \"Son of Heaven\", who administered earthly matters on behalf of, and representing, heavenly authority. To be seen to be showing respect to the source of his authority, in the form of sacrifices to heaven, was extremely important. The temple was built for these ceremonies, mostly comprising prayers for good harvests.  Twice a year the Emperor and all his retinue would move from the Forbidden City through Beijing to encamp within the complex, wearing special robes and abstaining from eating meat. No ordinary Chinese was allowed to view this procession or the following ceremony. In the temple complex the Emperor would personally pray to Heaven for good harvests. The highpoint of the ceremony at the winter solstice was performed by the Emperor on the Earthly Mount. The ceremony had to be perfectly completed; it was widely held that the smallest of mistakes would constitute a bad omen for the whole nation in the coming year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolism.", "content": "Earth was represented by a square and Heaven by a circle; several features of the temple complex symbolize the connection of Heaven and Earth, of circle and square. The whole temple complex is surrounded by two cordons of walls; the outer wall has a taller, semi-circular northern end, representing Heaven, and a shorter, rectangular southern end, representing the Earth. Both the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests and the Circular Mound Altar are round, each standing on a square yard, again representing Heaven and Earth. The number nine represents the Emperor and is evident in the design of the Circular Mound Altar: a single round marmor plate is surrounded by a ring of nine plates, then a ring of 18 plates, and so on for a total of nine surrounding rings, the outermost having 9×9 plates.  The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests has four inner, twelve middle and twelve outer pillars, representing the four seasons, twelve months and twelve traditional Chinese hours respectively. Combined together, the twelve middle and twelve outer pillars represent the traditional solar terms. All the buildings within the Temple have special dark blue roof tiles, representing the Heaven.  The Seven-Star Stone Group, east of the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvest, represents the seven peaks of Taishan Mountain, a place of Heaven worship in classical China.  There are four main supportive, dragon pillars each representing a season. The structure, held up by these dragons, imitates the style of an ancient Chinese royal palace. Twelve inner pillars symbolize the lunar months, and it is thought that the twelve outer pillars refer to the 12 two-hour periods of the day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Park.", "content": "The surrounding park is quite extensive, with the entire complex totaling. Some of it consists of playgrounds, exercise and game areas. These facilities are well used by adults, as well as by parents and grandparents bringing children to play. Some of the open spaces and side buildings are often used, particularly in the morning, for choral shows, ethnic dances, and other presentations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Access.", "content": "The Temple of Heaven is located in southern Dongcheng District, which until 2010 was part of Chongwen District. The park itself is open daily from 6:00am–10:00 pm. The relic sites inside the park open at 8:00 and close at 17:30 from April 1 to October 31, and close at 17:00 from November 1 to March 31. There is a nominal entry charge which varies according to whether it is peak season or off season. Tickets stop selling one hour and half before gate closing.  All four of the park's gates are accessible by public transportation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Temple of Heaven () is an imperial complex of religious buildings situated in the southeastern part of central Beijing. The complex was visited by the Emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties for annual ceremonies of prayer to Heaven for good harvest.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974227}
{"src_title": "Isabella of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Isabella spent her childhood in the Netherlands under the tutorage of the regent of the Netherlands, Margaret of Austria. Her fortune, her succession rights, and her connections made her a valuable pawn in the royal marriage market. The king of Denmark had first intended to marry her eldest sister Eleanor of Austria, but the Habsburgs considered Eleanor too valuable for the throne of Denmark, because as the eldest sister, there was a likelihood that her progeny may succeed. Therefore, Isabella was selected for the Danish king.  On 11 July 1514, one week short of her 13th birthday, Isabella was married by proxy to King Christian II of Denmark with Emperor Maximilian I, her grandfather, standing in for the king. She remained in the Netherlands, but is said to have fallen in love with her spouse at the sight of his painting, and asked to be taken to Denmark. A year after the wedding, the Archbishop of Nidaros was sent to escort her to Copenhagen. The marriage was ratified on 12 August 1515 (she was 14 years old).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen.", "content": "Isabella was crowned Queen of Denmark and Norway and began using another version of her name, Elisabeth, but the relationship between her and her new family and Christian was quite cool during the first years of the marriage. The King's Dutch mistress, Dyveke Sigbritsdatter, had been with him since 1507, and he was not about to give her up for a teenager. Dyveke's mother, Sigbrit Willoms, was also influential at court, and Isabella was given less influence than both of them. This angered the Emperor, and caused some diplomatic strife between him and King Christian, but the matter was resolved when Dyveke died in 1517, and Isabella's relationship with her husband improved vastly over the next few years; her relationship with Sigbrit Willoms improved as well, and both women acted as political advisors to the king. From 1516, Anne Meinstrup was head lady-in-waiting of her court.  In 1520, Christian took the throne of Sweden, thereby making Isabella Queen of Sweden. After taking Stockholm, he asked the Swedish representatives to turn it and the regency of Sweden over to Isabella if he himself should die when his children were minors. She was to be the last Queen of Sweden who was also Queen of Denmark during the Kalmar union, but she in fact never visited Sweden; pregnant at the time of her spouse's accession to the throne of Sweden, she did not follow him there. Isabella served as the regent of Denmark during Christian's stay in Sweden. Her husband was deposed as king of Sweden the following year. King Christian imprisoned many Swedish noblewomen, related to rebellious Swedish nobles, at the infamous \"Blåtårn\" (\"Blue Tower\") of Copenhagen Castle, including Christina Gyllenstierna, Cecilia Månsdotter and Margareta Eriksdotter Vasa, and King Gustav I of Sweden used their purported harsh treatment in captivity in his propaganda against Christian II and claimed that the Danish monarch starved the women and children, who only survived by the mercy showed them by the queen of Denmark, Isabella of Austria.  When King Christian was deposed in 1523 by disloyal noblemen supporting his uncle Duke Frederick, the new king wanted to be on good terms with Isabella's family. He wrote her a personal letter in her native German, offering her a dowager queen's pension and permitting her to stay in Denmark under his protection while King Christian fled to the Low Countries. But Isabella wrote back to Duke Frederick in Latin, stating that : \"ubi rex meus, ibi regnum meum\", that is \"where my king is, there is my kingdom\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile.", "content": "Isabella left Denmark with her husband and their children after her husband was deposed in 1523 and travelled to the Netherlands. Isabella and Christian travelled around Germany in an attempt to gain help for Christian's restoration to the throne. Isabella made her own negotiations with her relatives, and also accompanied her husband on his travels. They visited Saxony in 1523 and Berlin in 1523–1524. In Berlin, Isabella became interested in the teachings of Luther, and felt sympathy for Protestantism, however she never converted officially. When she visited Nürnberg in 1524, she received communion in the Protestant way, which so enraged her birth family, the Habsburgs, that Christian decided that she should hide her Protestant views in the future, for political reasons  In the spring of 1525, Isabella caught some kind of serious illness, which worsened after she travelled through a storm later that year, and lasted all summer. The former queen died at the castle of Zwijnaarde near Ghent aged twenty-four. She received both Protestant and Catholic communion, but the Habsburgs declared that she had died a convinced Catholic. Her religious sympathies, and whether she was a Protestant or a Catholic after 1524, have been debated. At her deathbed, she gave the cause of her husband's restoration to her aunt, the regent of the Netherlands, Margaret of Austria.  Her fifteenth generation great-granddaughter, Princess Isabella of Denmark, was named after her.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Isabella of Austria ( 18 July 1501 – 19 January 1526), also known as Elizabeth, was queen of Denmark, Norway and Sweden as the wife of King Christian II. She was the daughter of King Philip I and Queen Joanna of Castile and the sister of Emperor Charles V. She was born at Brussels. She ruled Denmark as regent in 1520.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974228}
{"src_title": "Halfdan the Black", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "According to \"Heimskringla\" and \"Fagsrkinna\", Halfdan was the son of the Yngling King Gudrød the Hunter. \"Heimskringla\" also names his mother, as Åsa, daughter of King Harald of Agder, and his half-brother as Olaf Geirstad-Alf. Heimskringla relates that when Halfdan's father was killed, Åsa took the 1 year-old Halfdan and returned to Agder, where Halfdan was raised. When he was 18 or 19 years old, Halfdan became king of Agder. He quickly began adding to his kingdom, through political negotiation and military conquest. He divided the kingdom of Vestfold with his brother Olaf and, through military action, persuaded King Gandalf of Vingulmark to cede half his kingdom. Based on the formulaic nature of his ties to his predecessors, his strong affiliation with Agder, and the failure of an early saga dedicated to him to name any family connections, some scholars have suggested that the linkage to the earlier Yngling dynasty of Vestfold was a later invention, created to associate a conquering Halfdan and his son Harald Fairhair with the family glorified in the \"Ynglingatal\", whom he had displaced. Halfdan next is said to have subdued an area called Raumarike. To secure his claim to Raumarike, Halfdan first defeated and killed the previous ruler, Sigtryg Eysteinsson, in battle. He then defeated Sigtryg's brother and successor Eystein, in a series of battles. This established Halfdan's claim not only to Raumarike, but also to half of Hedmark, the core of Sigtryg and Eystein's kingdom. These details are only mentioned in \"Heimskringla\".  \"Fagrskinna\" and \"Heimskringla\" both agree that Halfdan's first wife was Ragnhild, daughter of King Harald Gulskeg (Goldbeard) of Sogn. Halfdan and Ragnhild had a son named \"Harald\" after his grandfather, and they sent him to be raised at his grandfather's court. Harald Gulskeg, being elderly, named his grandson as his successor, shortly before his death. Ragnhild died shortly after her father, and the young king Harald fell sick and died the next spring. When Halfdan heard about his son's death, he travelled to Sogn and laid claim to the title of king. No resistance was offered, and Halfdan added Sogn to his realm.  The narrative in \"Heimskringla\" then adds another conquest for King Halfdan. In Vingulmark, the sons of Gandalf of Vingulmark, Hysing, Helsing, and Hake, attempted to ambush Halfdan at night, but he escaped into the forest. After raising an army, he returned to defeat the brothers, killing Hysing and Helsing. Hake fled the country, and Halfdan became king of all of Vingulmark.  According to \"Heimskringla\", Halfdan's second wife, also named Ragnhild, had been kidnapped from her home by Hake, a \"berserker\" who encountered her father in Hadeland and killed him. Halfdan had her kidnapped from Hake, so that he could marry her. \"Fagrskinna\" does not mention any of these details. However, both sagas agree that Ragnhild and Halfdan had a son who was also named Harald. (Among the more unlikely claims in \"Fagrskinna\" and \"Heimskringla\" are that this woman was Ragnhild Sigurdsdotter, daughter of Sigurd Hjort, king of Ringerike. This would make Ragnhild the granddaughter or even great-granddaughter of Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye – an impossibility, given that most sources suggest that Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye was active only in the \"late\" 9th century, which would mean that he was born a generation or two \"after\" Halfdan the Black.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Halvdanshaugen.", "content": "\"Heimskringla\", \"Fagrskinna\", \"Ágrip\" and \"Historia Norwegiæ\" all relate that Halfdan drowned when he fell through the ice at the inlet Røykenvik in the lake Randsfjorden on his return home from Hadeland. His horse and sleigh broke through ice weakened by cattle dung near a watering hole dug in the frozen lake. He was buried in a mound at Stein in Ringerike (\"Halvdanshaugen på Stein\") \"Heimskringla\"s narrative adds that each of the districts of his kingdom wanted to claim his grave, and that it was agreed to divide his body into four pieces so each district could bury a piece of it, resulting in four different sites called \"Halvdanshaugen\" (from the Old Norse word \"haugr\" meaning mound). According to this version, only his head is buried in Ringerike.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "No contemporary sources mention Halfdan, and the details of his life that are provided by later kings' sagas are considered semi-legendary by modern historians. Although he has his own saga in Heimskringla, it lacks any skaldic verse, which is normally used by Snorri as supporting evidence and this, combined with its rather legendary character, leads historians to be wary of seeing much veracity in it. The \"Black\" nickname was given to him because of his black hair.  Halfdan is mentioned in Snorri Sturluson's \"Heimskringla\" (c. 1230), \"Fagrskinna\" (c. 1220), \"Ágrip\" (c. 1190) and \"Historia Norwegiæ\" (late 12th century). The most elaborate story is found in the latest saga, \"Heimskringla\". According to the Latin \"Historia Norwegiæ\", Halvdan was a king \"in montanis\" (in the mountains), which is usually equivalent to Oppland in the Old Norse. This conflicts with the version told in \"Heimskringla\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Halfdan the Black (Old Norse: \"Halfdanr Svarti\") ( – ) was a ninth-century king of Vestfold. He belonged to the House of Yngling and was the father of Harald Fairhair, the first king of a unified Norway.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974229}
{"src_title": "Domenico Tardini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He attended the Angelo Braschi School and entered the Pontifical Roman Seminary in 1903 from which he graduated with honours in philosophy and theology. 21 September 1912 he was ordained a priest. He accepted a call to teach liturgy and theology at the Roman Seminary and the \"Collegio Urbano\" of the Propaganda Fide. In 1923, he was nominated by Pope Pius XI to be general assistant of the Catholic Action movement. In 1925, the Pope nominated him to a second organisation, \"Societa della Gioventu Cattolica Italiana\". From 1921 onward, he worked as well in the Congregation of Ordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs where he was named Sustituto in 1929 and Secretary in 1937. With Giovanni Battista Montini, he was the main assistant to Cardinal Secretary of State Eugenio Pacelli until 1939.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secretariat of State.", "content": "After his election as Pope Pius XII, Pacelli appointed Luigi Maglione as his successor as Cardinal Secretary of State. Maglione did not exercise the influence of his predecessor, who as Pope continued his close relation with Monsignori Giovanni Battista Montini and Tardini. After the death of Maglione in 1944, Pius left the position vacant and named Tardini head of its foreign section and Montini head of the internal section. Tardini and Montini continued serving there until 1952, when Pius XII decided to elevate both of them into the College of Cardinals an honour which both turned down. When Tardini thanked him for not appointing him, Pius XII replied with a smile:  In November 1952, he was named Pro-Secretary of the State for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs by Pope Pius XII, essentially co-serving as functional Secretary of State with Giovanni Battista Montini, who became Pro-Secretary of State for Ordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs. In addition they were granted the privilege to wear Episcopal Insignia. Tardini continued in that position until the death of Pius XII.  Tardini loved children and \"adopted\" the orphans of Villa Nazareth, for whom he organised recognition and assistance. Televised audiences with Pope Pius XII, and visits of Pope John XXIII and high-ranking foreign dignitaries, all arranged by Tardini, facilitated fundraising for the needy children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Papabile and Cardinal Secretary of State.", "content": "After the death of Pope Pius on 9 October 1958, Tardini, though not a cardinal and not even a bishop, was prominently mentioned as a possible successor because of his familiarity with and closeness to Pius XII. Instead, Tardini was named Secretary of State by the newly elected Pope John XXIII, filling the previous vacancy. Having declined being made Cardinal by Pius XII in 1953, he accepted the red hat in the consistory of 15 December 1958 with the title of Cardinal-Deacon of \"S. Apollinare alle Terme Neroniane-Alessandrine\". He was ordained as a titular archbishop later that month.  Tardini did not seek the honour of the appointment. On the very night of the election or as the first papal appointment next morning (biographers differ on this) Tardini was asked to see the new Pope John XXIII, who asked him to become his Secretary of State. He went reluctantly:  As Secretary of State, Tardini broke the taboo on discussing Vatican finances in October 1959, holding a press conference with Vatican-accredited journalists during a pay dispute with Vatican employees. On 20 January 1959, Pope John summoned Cardinal Tardini to float the idea of an Ecumenical Council. It would involve all bishops of every rite. Tardini's response was positive to the point that the Pope was surprised. John XXIII later referred to this discussion as the decisive moment for his decision to hold an ecumenical council. He assisted in the preparation of the Council giving at times his own interpretation of the forthcoming epochal event. Reportedly, he tried to resign several times for health reasons but was asked to stay on by the disarmingly witty John XXIII.  Tardini died in Rome on 30 July 1961 of a massive heart attack. He was buried in the Carmel at Vetralla. At the first anniversary of his death, Pope John XXIII left the Vatican to pay his respects at his burial site.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Domenico Tardini (29 February 1888 – 30 July 1961) was a longtime aide to Pope Pius XII in the Secretariat of State. Pope John XXIII named him Cardinal Secretary of State and, in this position the most prominent member of the Roman Curia in Vatican City.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974230}
{"src_title": "Cornus sanguinea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a medium to large deciduous shrub, growing tall, with dark greenish-brown branches and twigs. The leaves are opposite, long and broad, with an ovate to oblong shape and an entire margin; they are green above, slightly paler below, and rough with short stiff pubescence. The hermaphrodite flowers are small, diameter, with four creamy white petals, produced in clusters diameter, and are insect pollinated. The fruit is a globose black berry diameter, containing a single seed. The berries are sometimes called \"dogberries\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "It prefers moderate warmth in sunny places, though it can tolerate shade and in the more southern areas of its distribution area grows in the mountains. In cooler areas such as Scandinavia it grows at sea level.  It requires light, often alkaline soils. The species spreads by seeds and stolons. Its natural range covers most of Europe and western Asia. It is especially abundant in riversides, especially in shady areas and ravines. It grows in the margins of forests or unforested areas as woods in regeneration, prickly woodland fringes, with other thorny shrub species (for example, \"Clematis vitalba\", \"Crataegus monogyna\", \"Malus sylvestris\", \"Prunus spinosa\", \"Rubus idaeus\" or \"Rubus ulmifolius\").  It reproduces by seed and root sprouts, which makes it effective at occupying areas of land and forming dense groves. Depending on circumstances, it can be invasive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The leaves provide food for some animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth \"Coleophora anatipennella\". Dogberries are eaten by some mammals and many birds. Many frugivorous passerines find them irresistible, and prefer them over fruits grown by humans. The plant is thus often grown in organic gardening and permaculture to prevent harm to orchard crops, while benefitting from the fact that even frugivorous birds will hunt pest insects during the breeding season, as their young require much protein to grow.  Garden varieties are often called \"winter fire\" because the leaves turn orange-yellow in autumn and then fall to reveal striking red winter stems.  The straight woody shoots produced by the plant can be used as prods, skewers or arrows. The prehistoric archer known as Ötzi the Iceman, discovered in 1991 on the border between Italy and Austria, was carrying arrow shafts made from dogwood.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cornus sanguinea, the common dogwood or bloody dogwood, is a species of dogwood native to most of Europe and western Asia, from England and central Scotland east to the Caspian Sea. It is widely grown as an ornamental plant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974231}
{"src_title": "John of Salisbury", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "He was of Anglo-Saxon, not of Norman extraction, and therefore apparently a clerk from a modest background, whose career depended upon his education. Beyond that, and that he applied to himself the cognomen of \"Parvus\", \"short\", or \"small\", few details are known regarding his early life. From his own statements it is gathered that he crossed to France about 1136, and began regular studies in Paris under Peter Abelard, who had for a brief period re-opened his famous school there on Montagne Sainte-Geneviève.  His vivid accounts of teachers and students provide some of the most valuable insights into the early days of the University of Paris. When Abelard withdrew from Paris John studied under Master Alberic and Robert of Melun. In 1137 John went to Chartres, where he studied grammar under William of Conches, and rhetoric, logic and the classics under Richard l'Evêque, a disciple of Bernard of Chartres. Bernard's teaching was distinguished partly by its pronounced Platonic tendency, and partly by the stress laid upon literary study of the greater Latin writers. The influence of the latter feature is noticeable in all John of Salisbury's works.  Around 1140 John returned to Paris to study theology under Gilbert de la Porrée, then under Robert Pullus and Simon of Poissy, supporting himself as a tutor to young noblemen. In 1148 he resided at the Abbey of Moutiers-la-Celle in the diocese of Troyes, with his friend Peter of Celle. He was present at the Council of Reims in 1148, presided over by Pope Eugene III. It is conjectured that while there, he was introduced by St. Bernard of Clairvaux to Theobald, whose secretary he became.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secretary to the Archbishop of Canterbury.", "content": "John of Salisbury was secretary to Archbishop Theobald for seven years. While at Canterbury he became acquainted with Thomas Becket, one of the significant potent influences in John's life. During this period he went on many missions to the Papal See; it was probably on one of these that he made the acquaintance of Nicholas Breakspear, who in 1154 became Pope Adrian IV. The following year John visited him, remaining at Benevento with him for several months. He was at the court of Rome at least twice afterward.  During this time he composed his greatest works, published almost certainly in 1159, the \"Policraticus, sive de nugis curialium et de vestigiis philosophorum\" and the \"Metalogicon\", writings invaluable as storehouses of information regarding the matter and form of scholastic education, and remarkable for their cultivated style and humanist tendency. The \"Policraticus\" also sheds light on the decadence of the 12th-century court manners and the lax ethics of royalty. The idea of contemporaries \"standing on the shoulders of giants\" of Antiquity first appears in written form in the \"Metalogicon\". After the death of Theobald in 1161, John continued as secretary to his successor, Thomas Becket, and took an active part in the long disputes between that primate and his sovereign, Henry II, who looked upon John as a papal agent.  His letters throw light on the constitutional struggle then agitating England. In 1163, John fell into disfavor with the king for reasons that remain obscure, and withdrew to France. The next six years he spent with his friend Peter of La Celle, now Abbot of St. Remigius at Reims. Here he wrote \"Historia Pontificalis\". In 1170 he led the delegation charged with preparing for Becket's return to England, and was in Canterbury at the time of Becket's assassination. In 1174 John became treasurer of Exeter cathedral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bishop of Chartres.", "content": "In 1176 he was made bishop of Chartres, where he passed the remainder of his life. In 1179 he took an active part in the Third Council of the Lateran. He died at or near Chartres on October 25, 1180.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scholarship and influences.", "content": "John's writings are excellent at clarifying the literary and scientific position of 12th century Western Europe. Though he was well versed in the new logic and dialectical rhetoric of the university, John's views imply a cultivated intelligence well versed in practical affairs, opposing to the extremes of both nominalism and realism a practical common sense. His doctrine is a kind of utilitarianism, with a strong leaning on the speculative side to the modified literary scepticism of Cicero, for whom he had unbounded admiration and on whose style he based his own. His view that the end of education was moral, rather than merely intellectual, became one of the prime educational doctrines of western civilization, but his influence is to be found, not in his immediate contemporaries but in the world-view of Renaissance humanism.  Of Greek writers he appears to have known nothing at first hand, and very little in translations. He was one of the best Latinists of his age. The \"Timaeus\" of Plato in the Latin version of Chalcidius was known to him as to his contemporaries and predecessors, and probably he had access to translations of the \"Phaedo\" and \"Meno\". Of Aristotle he possessed the whole of the \"Organon\" in Latin; he is, indeed, the first of the medieval writers of note to whom the whole was known.  He first coined the term \"theatrum mundi\", a notion that influences the theater several centuries later. In several chapters of the third book of his \"Policraticus\", he meditates on the fact that \"the life of man on earth is a comedy, where each forgetting his own plays another's role\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fictional portrayals.", "content": "John was portrayed by actor Alex G. Hunter in the 1923 silent film \"Becket\", based on a play by Alfred Lord Tennyson.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John of Salisbury (late 1110s – 25 October 1180), who described himself as Johannes Parvus (\"John the Little\"), was an English author, philosopher, educationalist, diplomat and bishop of Chartres, and was born at Salisbury, England.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974232}
{"src_title": "Consolidated PB4Y-2 Privateer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Privateer was externally similar to the Liberator, but the fuselage was longer to accommodate a flight engineer's station, and it had a tall single vertical stabilizer rather than the B-24's twin tail configuration. The Navy wanted a flight engineer crewmember to reduce pilot fatigue on long duration over water patrols. The single vertical tail was adopted from the USAAF's canceled B-24N design (and was slightly taller on the Privateer) because it would increase stability at low to medium altitudes for maritime patrol. The Ford Motor Company, which produced B-24s for the United States Army Air Forces, had earlier built an experimental variant (B-24K) using a single tail. Aircraft handling was improved. The single tail design was used on the B-32 Dominator and PB4Y-2 and was slated for the Air Corps' proposed B-24N production model to be built by Ford, but that order (for several thousand bombers) was canceled on 31 May 1945.  Defensive armament on the PB4Y-2 was increased to twelve.50-in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns in six power operated turrets (two dorsal, two waist, nose and tail); the B-24's ventral, retractable Sperry ball turret was omitted. Turbosuperchargers were not fitted to the Privateer's engines since maritime patrol missions were not usually flown at high altitude, improving performance and also saving weight.  The navigator's astrodome was moved from its (B-24/PB4Y-1) position on the aircraft's upper nose to behind the first dorsal gun turret. Electronic countermeasure (ECM), communication and radar antennas also protruded or were enclosed in fairings at various locations on the fuselage of the Privateer, including a manually retractable AN/APS-2 radome behind the nose wheel well.  The Navy eventually took delivery of 739 Privateers, the majority after the end of the war. Several PB4Y-2 squadrons saw operational service in the Pacific theater through August 1945 in the reconnaissance, search and rescue, electronic countermeasures, communication relay, and anti-shipping roles (the latter with the \"Bat\" radar-guided bomb).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Privateer entered U.S. Navy service during late 1944, Patrol Bomber Squadrons 118 and 119 (VPB-118 and VPB-119) being the first Fleet squadrons to equip with the aircraft. The first overseas deployment began on 6 January 1945, when VPB-118 left for operations in the Marianas. On 2 March 1945 VPB-119 began \"offensive search\" missions out of Clark Field, Luzon in the Philippines, flying sectored searches of the seas and coastlines extending from the Gulf of Tonkin in the south, along the Chinese coast, and beyond Okinawa in the north.  Privateers were used as typhoon/hurricane hunters from 1945 to the mid-1950s. One aircraft, designated BuNo 59415 of VPB-119, went down when it experienced mechanical trouble while investigating a Category 1 typhoon near Batan Island in the Philippines. It attempted to land on the island, but was unable to do so and crashed. It was one of only six hurricane hunter flights that were ever lost, and the only one found. Another P4Y-2S, designated BuNo 59716 of Squadron VW-3 (formerly VJ-1), was lost during reconnaissance of Super Typhoon Doris on 16 December 1953. Flying out of NAS Agana, Guam, the Privateer with a crew of nine was tracking Typhoon Doris with sustained winds of 90-95 knots near the small island of Agrihan north of Guam. No sign of the crew nor wreckage of the plane was ever found.  PB4Y-2s were also used during the Korean War to fly \"Firefly\" night illumination missions dropping parachute flares to detect North Korean and Chinese seaborne infiltrators. In addition, Privateers were used by the U.S. Navy for signals intelligence (SIGINT) flights off of the coast of the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. On 8 April 1950, Soviet La-11 fighters shot down a U.S. Navy PB4Y-2 Privateer (BuNo 59645) over the Baltic Sea, off the coast of Liepāja, Latvia. Named the \"Turbulent Turtle\", the aircraft was assigned to Patrol Squadron 26 (VP-26), Det A.  The French \"Aéronavale\" was supplied with Privateers via the Mutual Defense Assistance Act, which they used as bombers during the Indochina War and later operated out of Bizerte, Tunisia and Algiers.  All U.S. Navy PB4Y-2s were retired by 1954, though unarmed PB4Y-2G Privateers served until 1958 with the Coast Guard before being auctioned off for salvage.  The Navy dropped the patrol-bomber designation in 1951 and its remaining PB4Y-2s were redesignated P4Y-2 Privateer. (The earlier XP4Y-1 Corregidor was a completely different design, based on the Consolidated Model 31 twin-engine flying boat.) PB4Y-2s were still being used as drones in the 1950s/early 1960s, designated PB4Y-2K, and P4Y-2K after 1951. They were then redesignated QP-4B under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system, becoming part of the new patrol number series between the Lockheed P-3 Orion and the Martin P-5 Marlin.  A number of PB4Ys were supplied to the Republic of China Air Force for use in missions over the People's Republic of China. One was shot down by ground fire on 12 September 1954, near Xiamen, People's Republic of China. The crew of nine were killed. Another was shot down on 15 February 1961 by Burmese Hawker Sea Fury fighter aircraft, near the Thai-Burmese border, killing five members of the crew. Two other crew members were taken prisoner. This aircraft was carrying supplies for Chinese Kuomintang forces fighting in northern Burma.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Privateers in aerial firefighting.", "content": "A limited number of refitted PB4Ys and P4Ys continued in civilian service as airtankers, dropping fire retardant on forest fires throughout the western United States. On 18 July 2002, one such refitted P4Y, BuNo 66260 (seen in picture to right) operated by Hawkins and Powers Aviation of Greybull, Wyoming broke up in flight while fighting a wildfire near Rocky Mountain National Park. Both crew members were killed in the accident, and the Federal Aviation Administration temporarily grounded all large air tankers in the region. Despite the fact that the crash was the result of poor maintenance, and a much newer C-130 based aircraft also broke apart due to similar stresses, all remaining Privateers were retired. (See 2002 United States airtanker crashes.)", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Consolidated PB4Y-2 Privateer is a World War II and Korean War era patrol bomber of the United States Navy derived from the Consolidated B-24 Liberator. The Navy had been using B-24s with only minor modifications as the PB4Y-1 Liberator, and along with maritime patrol Liberators used by RAF Coastal Command this type of patrol plane was proven successful. A fully navalized design was desired, and Consolidated developed a dedicated long-range patrol bomber in 1943, designated PB4Y-2 Privateer. In 1951, the type was redesignated P4Y-2 Privateer. A further designation change occurred in September 1962, when the remaining Navy Privateers (all having previously been converted to drone configuration as P4Y-2K) were redesignated QP-4B.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974233}
{"src_title": "Galanthus nivalis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Naming.", "content": "The generic name \"Galanthus\", from the Greek \"gala\" (milk) and \"anthos\" (flower), was given to the genus by Carl Linnaeus in 1735. He described \"Galanthus nivalis\" in his \"\" published in 1753. The epithet means \"of the snow\", referring either to the snow-like flower or the plant's early flowering.  The common name snowdrop first appeared in the 1633 edition of John Gerard's \"Great Herbal\" (in the first edition (1597) he described it as the \"Timely flowring Bulbus violet\"). The derivation of the name is uncertain, although it may have come from the German word \"Schneetropfen\", which was a type of earring popular around that time. Other British traditional common names include \"February fairmaids\", \"dingle-dangle\", \"Candlemas bells\", \"Mary's tapers\" and, in parts of Yorkshire, \"snow piercers\" (like the French name \"\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Galanthus nivalis\" is widely grown in gardens, particularly in northern Europe, and is widely naturalised in woodlands in the regions where it is grown. It is, however, native to a large area of Europe, from Spain in the west, eastwards to Ukraine. It is native to Albania, Armenia, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, and Ukraine. It is considered naturalised in Great Britain, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and parts of North America (Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Ontario, Massachusetts, Alabama, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, Indiana, Washington State, New York State, Michigan, Utah, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina).  Although often thought of as a British native wild flower, or to have been brought to the British Isles by the Romans, it is now thought that it was probably introduced much later, perhaps around the early sixteenth century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Galanthus nivalis\" grows to around 7–15 cm tall, flowering between January and April in the northern temperate zone (January–May in the wild). They are perennial, herbaceous plants which grow from bulbs. Each bulb generally produces two linear, or very narrowly lanceolate, greyish-green leaves and an erect, leafless scape (flowering stalk), which bears at the top a pair of bract-like spathe valves joined by a papery membrane. From between them emerges a solitary, pendulous, bell-shaped white flower, held on a slender pedicel.  The flower consists of six tepals, also referred to as segments. The outer three are larger and more convex than the inner ones. The inner flower segments are usually marked on their outer surface with a green or greenish-yellow V- or U-shaped mark (sometimes described as \"bridge-shaped\") over the small sinus (notch) at the tip of each tepal. The inner surface has a faint green mark covering all or most of it. Occasionally plants are found with green markings on the outer surface of the outer tepals.  The six long, pointed anthers open by pores or short slits. The ovary is three-celled, ripening into a three-celled capsule. Each whitish seed has a small, fleshy tail (the elaiosome) containing substances attractive to ants which distribute the seeds. The leaves die back a few weeks after the flowers have faded.  \"G. nivalis\" is a cross-pollinating plant, but sometimes self-pollination takes place. It is pollinated by bees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and propagation.", "content": "See \"Galanthus\": Propagation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Active substances.", "content": "Snowdrops contain an active substance called galantamine (or galanthamine) which can be helpful in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, though it is not a cure.  Snowdrops contain also an active lectin or agglutinin named GNA for \"Galanthus nivalis agglutinin\". Potatoes have been genetically modified with the GNA gene. In 1998 Árpád Pusztai said in an interview on a World in Action programme that his group had observed damage to the intestines and immune systems of rats fed the genetically modified potatoes. He also said \"If I had the choice I would certainly not eat it\", and that \"I find it's very unfair to use our fellow citizens as guinea pigs\". These remarks started the so-called Pusztai affair.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "The common double snowdrop, \"Galanthus nivalis\" f. \"pleniflorus\" 'Flore Pleno', had appeared by 1703, when it was illustrated in \"The Duchess of Beaufort's Book\". It spread (and was spread) rapidly through northern Europe (by vegetative means, as it sets no seed). With 3–5 outer segments and 12–21 inner segments, which are often misshapen, the flowers may be less attractive to the eye of the purist than single-flowered or neater double cultivars, but they are good value in the garden as the bulbs spread rapidly and the large flowers show up well.  There are numerous named cultivars of \"G. nivalis\", single, semi-double, double and \"poculiform\" (meaning goblet or cup-shaped, this refers to flowers with inner segments that are almost the same shape and length as the outer ones). Apart from these traits they differ particularly in the size and markings of the flower and the period of flowering; other characteristics are less obvious to the untrained eye and are mainly of interest to \"galanthophiles\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Snowdrop gardens.", "content": "In the UK and Ireland, many gardens open specially in February for visitors to admire the flowers. These displays may attract large numbers of sightseers. Some feature extensive displays of naturalised \"G. nivalis\"; others have more specialised collections of many species, forms and cultivars.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Galanthus nivalis, the snowdrop or common snowdrop, is the best-known and most widespread of the 20 species in its genus, \"Galanthus\". Snowdrops are among the first bulbs to bloom in spring and can form impressive carpets of white in areas where they are native or have been naturalised. They should not be confused with the snowflakes, in the genera \"Leucojum\" and \"Acis\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974234}
{"src_title": "Dmitry Bortniansky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Student.", "content": "Dmitry Bortniansky was born on 28 October 1751 in the city of Glukhov, Cossack Hetmanate, Russian Empire (in present-day Ukraine). His father was Stefan Skurat (or Shkurat), a Lemko-Rusyn Orthodox religious refugee from the village of Bartne in the Malopolska region of Poland. Stefan Skurat served as a Cossack under Kirill Razumovsky, he was entered in the Cossack register in 1755. Dmitry's mother was a Cossack origin woman, her surname after the first marriage was Marina Dmitrievna Tolstaya, she was a widow of a Russian landlord Tolstoy, who lived in Glukhov. At the age of seven, Dmitry's prodigious talent at the local church choir afforded him the opportunity to go the capital of the empire and sing with the Imperial Chapel Choir in St. Petersburg. Dmitry's half brother Ivan Tolstoy also sang with the Imperial Chapel Choir. There Dmitry Bortniansky studied music and composition under the director of the Imperial Chapel Choir, the Italian master Baldassare Galuppi. When Galuppi left for Italy in 1769, he took the boy with him. In Italy, Bortniansky gained considerable success composing operas: \"Creonte\" (1776) and \"Alcide\" (1778) in Venice, and \"Quinto Fabio\" (1779) at Modena. He also composed sacred works in Latin and German, both a cappella and with orchestral accompaniment (including an \"Ave Maria\" for two voices and orchestra).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Master.", "content": "Bortniansky returned to the Saint Petersburg Court Capella in 1779 and flourished creatively. He composed at least four more operas (all in French, with libretti by Franz-Hermann Lafermière): \"Le Faucon\" (1786), \"La fête du seigneur\" (1786), \"Don Carlos\" (1786), and \"Le fils-rival ou La moderne Stratonice\" (1787). Bortniansky wrote a number of instrumental works at this time, including piano sonatas and a piano quintet with harp, and a cycle of French songs. He also composed liturgical music for the Orthodox Church, combining the Eastern and Western European styles of sacred music, incorporating the polyphony he learned in Italy; some works were polychoral, using a style descended from the Venetian polychoral technique of the Gabrielis.  After a while, Bortniansky's genius proved too great to ignore, and in 1796 he was appointed Director of the Imperial Chapel Choir, the first director not to have been imported from outside of the Russian Empire. With such a great instrument at his disposal, he produced scores upon scores of compositions, including over 100 religious works, sacred concertos (35 for four-part mixed choir, 10 for double choruses), cantatas, and hymns.  Dmitry Bortniansky died in St. Petersburg on 10 October 1825, and was interred at the Smolensky Cemetery in St. Petersburg. His remains were transferred to the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in the 20th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Musical legacy.", "content": "In 1882, Pyotr Tchaikovsky edited the liturgical works of Bortniansky, which were published in ten volumes. While Bortniansky wrote operas and instrumental compositions, it is his sacred choral works that are performed most often today. This vast body of work remains central not only to understanding 18th-century Orthodox sacred music, but also served as inspiration to his fellow Ukrainian composers in the 19th century.  The tune he wrote for the Latin hymn \"Tantum Ergo\" eventually became known in Slavic lands as \"Коль славен (Kol slaven)\", in which form it is still sung as a church hymn today. The tune was also popular with freemasons. It travelled to English-speaking countries and came to be known by the names \"Russia\", \"St. Petersburg\" or \"Wells\". In Germany, the song was paired with a text by Gerhard Tersteegen, and became a well-known chorale and traditional part of the military ceremony \"Großer Zapfenstreich (the Grand Tattoo)\", the highest ceremonial act of the German army, rendered as an honor for distinguished persons on special occasions. Prior to the October revolution in 1917, the tune was played by the Moscow Kremlin carillon every day at midday.  James Blish, who novelized many episodes of the original series of \"Star Trek\", noted in one story, \"\", that Bortniansky's \"Ich bete an die Macht der Liebe\" was the theme \"to which all Starfleet Academy classes marched to their graduation.\"  He composed \"The Angel Greeted the Gracious One\" (hymn to the Mother of God used at Pascha) as a trio used by many Orthodox churches in the Easter season.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dmitry Stepanovich Bortniansky (, Ukrainian: Дмитро Степанович Бортнянський; alternative transcriptions of names are \"Dmitri Bortnianskii\", and \"Bortnyansky\"; 28 October 1751, Glukhov, St. Petersburg) was a Russian and Ukrainian composer, harpsichordist and conductor, who served at the court of Catherine the Great. Bortniansky was critical to the musical history of both Ukraine and Russia, with both nations claiming him as their own.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974235}
{"src_title": "Gingivitis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "The symptoms of gingivitis are somewhat non-specific and manifest in the gum tissue as the classic signs of inflammation:  Additionally, the stippling that normally exists in the gum tissue of some individuals will often disappear and the gums may appear shiny when the gum tissue becomes swollen and stretched over the inflamed underlying connective tissue. The accumulation may also emit an unpleasant odor. When the gingiva are swollen, the epithelial lining of the gingival crevice becomes ulcerated and the gums will bleed more easily with even gentle brushing, and especially when flossing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complications.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alzheimer's and dementia.", "content": "A new study from 2018 found compelling evidence that gingivitis bacteria may be linked to Alzheimer's disease. Scientists agree that more research is needed to prove a cause and effect link. \"Studies have also found this bacteria, P. gingivalis – which is responsible for many forms of gum disease – can migrate from the mouth to the brain in mice. And on entry to the brain, P. gingivalis can reproduce all of the characteristic features of Alzheimer’s disease.\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "The cause of plaque-induced gingivitis is bacterial plaque, which acts to initiate the body's host response. This, in turn, can lead to destruction of the gingival tissues, which may progress to destruction of the periodontal attachment apparatus. The plaque accumulates in the small gaps between teeth, in the gingival grooves and in areas known as \"plaque traps\": locations that serve to accumulate and maintain plaque. Examples of plaque traps include bulky and overhanging restorative margins, clasps of removable partial dentures and calculus (tartar) that forms on teeth. Although these accumulations may be tiny, the bacteria in them produce chemicals, such as degradative enzymes, and toxins, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS, otherwise known as endotoxin) or lipoteichoic acid (LTA), that promote an inflammatory response in the gum tissue. This inflammation can cause an enlargement of the gingiva and subsequent formation. Early plaque in health consists of a relatively simple bacterial community dominated by Gram-positive cocci and rods. As plaque matures and gingivitis develops, the communities become increasingly complex with higher proportions of Gram-negative rods, fusiforms, filaments, spirilla and spirochetes. Later experimental gingivitis studies, using culture, provided more information regarding the specific bacterial species present in plaque. Taxa associated with gingivitis included \"Fusobacterium nucleatum\" subspecies \"polymorphum\", \"Lachnospiraceae\" [G-2] species HOT100, \"Lautropia\" species HOTA94, and \"Prevotella oulorum\" (a species of \"Prevotella\" bacterium), whilst \"Rothia dentocariosa\" was associated with periodontal health. Further study of these taxa is warranted and may lead to new therapeutic approaches to prevent periodontal disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Risk factors.", "content": "Risk factors associated with gingivitis include the following:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Gingivitis is a category of periodontal disease in which there is no loss of bone but inflammation and bleeding are present.  Each tooth is divided into four gingival units (mesial, distal, buccal, and lingual) and given a score from 0–3 based on the gingival index. The four scores are then averaged to give each tooth a single score.  The diagnosis of the periodontal disease gingivitis is done by a dentist. The diagnosis is based on clinical assessment data acquired during a comprehensive periodontal exam. Either a registered dental hygienist or a dentist may perform the comprehensive periodontal exam but the data interpretation and diagnosis are done by the dentist. The comprehensive periodontal exam consists of a visual exam, a series of radiographs, probing of the gingiva, determining the extent of current or past damage to the periodontium and a comprehensive review of the medical and dental histories.  Current research shows that activity levels of the following enzymes in saliva samples are associated with periodontal destruction: aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and acid phosphatase (ACP). Therefore, these enzyme biomarkers may be used to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of gingivitis and periodontitis.  A dental hygienist or dentist will check for the symptoms of gingivitis, and may also examine the amount of plaque in the oral cavity. A dental hygienist or dentist will also look for signs of periodontitis using X-rays or periodontal probing as well as other methods.  If gingivitis is not responsive to treatment, referral to a periodontist (a specialist in diseases of the gingiva and bone around teeth and dental implants) for further treatment may be necessary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1999 Classification.", "content": "As defined by the 1999 World Workshop in Clinical Periodontics, there are two primary categories of gingival diseases, each with numerous subgroups:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2017 Classification.", "content": "As defined by the 2017 World Workshop, periodontal health, gingival diseases/ conditions have been categorised into the following:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Prevention.", "content": "Gingivitis can be prevented through regular oral hygiene that includes daily brushing and flossing. Hydrogen peroxide, saline, alcohol or chlorhexidine mouth washes may also be employed. In a 2004 clinical study, the beneficial effect of hydrogen peroxide on gingivitis has been highlighted. The use of oscillation type brushes might reduce the risk of gingivitis compared to manual brushing.  Rigorous plaque control programs along with periodontal scaling and curettage also have proved to be helpful, although according to the American Dental Association, periodontal scaling and root planing are considered as a treatment for periodontal disease, not as a preventive treatment for periodontal disease. In a 1997 review of effectiveness data, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) found clear evidence showing that toothpaste containing triclosan was effective in preventing gingivitis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "The focus of treatment is to remove plaque. Therapy is aimed at the reduction of oral bacteria and may take the form of regular periodic visits to a dental professional together with adequate oral hygiene home care. Thus, several of the methods used in the prevention of gingivitis can also be used for the treatment of manifest gingivitis, such as scaling, root planing, curettage, mouth washes containing chlorhexidine or hydrogen peroxide, and flossing. Interdental brushes also help remove any causative agents.  Powered toothbrushes work better than manual toothbrushes in reducing the disease.  The active ingredients that \"reduce plaque and demonstrate effective reduction of gingival inflammation over a period of time\" are triclosan, chlorhexidine digluconate, and a combination of thymol, menthol, eucalyptol, and methyl salicylate. These ingredients are found in toothpaste and mouthwash. Hydrogen peroxide was long considered a suitable over-the-counter agent to treat gingivitis. There has been evidence to show the positive effect on controlling gingivitis in short-term use. A study indicates the fluoridated hydrogen peroxide-based mouth rinse can remove teeth stain and reduce gingivitis.  Based on a limited evidence, mouthwashes with essential oils may also be useful, as they contain ingredients with anti-inflammatory properties, such as thymol, menthol and eucalyptol.  The bacteria that causes gingivitis can be controlled by using an oral irrigator daily with a mouthwash containing an antibiotic. Either amoxicillin, cephalexin, or minocycline in 500 grams of a non-alcoholic fluoride mouthwash is an effective mixture.  Overall, intensive oral hygiene care has been shown to improve gingival health in individuals with well-controlled type 2 diabetes. Periodontal destruction is also slowed due to the extensive oral care. Intensive oral hygiene care (oral health education plus supra-gingival scaling) without any periodontal therapy improves gingival health, and may prevent progression of gingivitis in well-controlled diabetes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gingivitis is a non-destructive disease that causes inflammation of the gums. The most common form of gingivitis, and the most common form of periodontal disease overall, is in response to bacterial biofilms (also called plaque) that is attached to tooth surfaces, termed \"plaque-induced gingivitis\". Most forms of gingivitis are plaque-induced. While some cases of gingivitis never progress to periodontitis, periodontitis is always preceded by gingivitis. Gingivitis is reversible with good oral hygiene; however, without treatment, gingivitis can progress to periodontitis, in which the inflammation of the gums results in tissue destruction and bone resorption around the teeth. Periodontitis can ultimately lead to tooth loss.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974236}
{"src_title": "Albert Anker", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Ins as the son of veterinarian Samuel Anker (then a member of the constituent assembly of the Canton of Bern), Anker attended school in Neuchâtel, where he and Auguste Bachelin, later a fellow artist, took early drawing lessons with Louis Wallinger in 1845–48. In 1849–51, he attended the in Bern, graduating with the \"Matura.\" Afterwards, he studied theology, beginning in 1851 in Bern and continuing at the university of Halle, Germany. But in Germany he was inspired by the great art collections, and in 1854 he convinced his father to agree to an artistic career. In Neuchâtel he began using the name Albert, because it was easier to pronounce for his French-speaking classmates.  Anker moved to Paris, where he studied with Charles Gleyre and attended the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in 1855–60. He installed a studio in the attic of his parents' house and participated regularly in exhibitions in Switzerland and in Paris. Anker married Anna Rüfli in 1864, and they had six children together; the four children who did not die at an early age – Louise, Marie, Maurice and Cécile – appear in some of Anker's paintings. In 1866, he was awarded a gold medal at the Paris Salon for \"Schlafendes Mädchen im Walde\" (1865) und \"Schreibunterricht\" (1865); in 1878 he was made a knight of the Légion d'honneur. In 1870–74 he was a member of the Grand Council of Bern, where he advocated the construction of the Kunstmuseum Bern.  Apart from his regular wintertime stays in Paris, Anker frequently travelled to Italy and other European countries. In 1889–93 and 1895–98 he was a member of the Swiss Federal Art Commission and in 1900 he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Bern. A stroke in 1901 reduced his ability to work. Only after his death in 1910 was there a first exposition dedicated to him, held at the Musée d'art et d'histoire in Neuchâtel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "During his studies, Anker produced a series of works with historical and biblical themes, including paintings of Luther and Calvin. Soon after returning to Ins, though, he turned to what would become his signature theme: the everyday life of people in rural communities. His paintings depict his fellow citizens in an unpretentious and plain manner, without idealising country life, but also without the critical examination of social conditions that can be found in the works of contemporaries such as Daumier, Courbet or Millet. Although Anker did paint occasional scenes with a social significance, such as visits by usurers or charlatans to the village, his affirmative and idealistic Christian world-view did not include an inclination to issue any sort of overt challenge.  Also prominent in Anker's work are the more than 30 still lifes he created. They depict both rural and urban table settings in the tradition of Chardin, their realist solidity reflecting Anker's vision of a harmonic and stable world order. In addition, Anker created hundreds of commissioned watercolours and drawings, mostly portraits and illustrations, including for an edition of Jeremias Gotthelf's collected works. To provide for a steady income, Anker also decorated more than 500 faience plates for the Alsatian producer Théodore Deck.  Anker was quick to reach his artistic objectives and never strayed from his chosen path. His works, though, exude a sense of conciliation and understanding as well as a calm trust in Swiss democracy; they are executed with great skill, providing brilliance to everyday scenes through subtle choices in colouring and lighting. Their parochial motives belie the open-mindedness towards contemporary European art and events that Anker's correspondence reflects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Albert Anker's work made him Switzerland's most popular genre painter of the 19th century, and his paintings have continued to enjoy a great popularity due to their general accessibility. Indeed, as a student, Anker summed up his approach to art as follows: \"One has to shape an idea in one's imagination, and then one has to make that idea accessible to the people.\"  Many Swiss postage stamps and other media have incorporated Anker's work. His studio in Ins has been preserved as a museum by the Albert Anker Foundation. One of Anker's greatest admirers and collectors is former Swiss Federal Councillor Christoph Blocher, since the 1980s Switzerland's most influential conservative politician, who also published an apologetic essay on Anker.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albrecht Samuel Anker (April 1, 1831 – July 16, 1910) was a Swiss painter and illustrator who has been called the \"national painter\" of Switzerland because of his enduringly popular depictions of 19th-century Swiss village life.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974237}
{"src_title": "Christian Lorenz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Lorenz was brought up in East Germany and still lives in Prenzlauer Berg area of East Berlin (now a part of the borough of Pankow). He chose to play the piano because a childhood friend of his played from the age of three. His parents sent him to a music school, where he said he \"began by painting the keys on a window ledge\" and \"practiced one-half-year on the window ledge\". His parents bought him a piano for one hundred East German marks for his 15th birthday.  Lorenz became \"addicted\" to rock and roll as a boy. He stopped his lessons in order to play with his father's jazz records. \"When I joined my first band\", Flake has said, \"I noticed that I couldn't play modern music. I still can't!\" At the age of sixteen, he apprenticed as a toolmaker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeling B.", "content": "In 1983, at age sixteen, he began to play in the band Feeling B with Paul Landers and Aljoscha Rompe, a Swiss singer living in East Berlin. He stayed with the band for about ten years. Feeling B started out firmly grounded in the underground punk scene.  Lorenz lived in an apartment with Landers during their early years. When they were not playing gigs, they would sell jackets made from cut-up bed sheets and dusters on the black market. Two jackets a month meant as much money as an average salaried worker. \"It was quite easy to make a living; not to work and stay out of trouble,\" said Landers, \"You only got problems if you were caught.\"  The group disbanded in the mid-1990s. On special occasions, the band members would get together for concerts at punk festivals, until Rompe died in November 2000 of an asthma attack.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rammstein.", "content": "In 1994, Till Lindemann, Richard Kruspe, Oliver Riedel and Christoph Schneider entered and won the Berlin Senate Metro beat contest that allowed them to professionally record a four track demo. Paul Landers formally joined the band, followed by Lorenz. He was initially reluctant to join his five bandmates and had to be pestered into becoming a member of Rammstein, as he thought they would be too boring. Eventually, he agreed to join, and the group began work on their first album, \"Herzeleid\" (\"Heartache\").  In early live performances of the song \"Bück dich\" (\"Bend down\" or \"Bend over\"), Lorenz and vocalist Till Lindemann engaged in simulated sodomy with a liquor-squirting dildo. On 23 September 1998, in Worcester, Massachusetts (USA) Lindemann and Lorenz were arrested and charged with lewd and lascivious behavior. A statement from Sergeant Thomas Radula of the Worcester Police Department stated that Lindemann was simulating sex with Lorenz onstage \"using a phallic object that shot water over the crowd\". They were held and released the following day on US$25 bail. After months of legal debate, they were eventually fined US$100.  Until 2002, Lorenz would \"surf\" the audience in an inflatable rubber dinghy during the performance of \"Seemann\" (\"Seaman\"). Riedel took his place in 2002. According to Lorenz, the change occurred because he was injured too often. During a 2001 concert in St. Petersburg, Flake was tipped out of the boat by the crowd and almost completely undressed. Despite this, Lorenz returned to riding the dinghy for Rammstein's 2009 tour during the performance of \"Haifisch\" (\"Shark\").  During a concert in Gothenburg, Sweden on 30 July 2005, Till Lindemann suffered a knee injury when Lorenz accidentally ran into him with the Segway he rides during the performance of \"Amerika\" (\"America\"). This caused concerts scheduled in Asia to be cancelled.  In 2005, Lorenz suffered from mumps, causing concerts in South America to be cancelled.  In January 2012, Lorenz, along with Lindemann, was interviewed by heavy metal anthropologist Sam Dunn for the VH1 Classic series \"Metal Evolution\", on the topic of shock rock.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Lorenz has been divorced once and has five children. On 12 September 2008, Lorenz married artist Jenny Rosemeyer, who provided the whistling for Rammstein's song \"Roter Sand\". He has a brother who is four years older. Lorenz is an amateur painter and likes classic cars. He has a Mercedes and is involved in vintage car hire business. In November 2011 Lorenz's house was set on fire. The police managed to identify and capture the arsonist, a 28-year-old male with a criminal record. After Lorenz escaped, he crashed his car nearby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nicknames.", "content": "Lorenz commonly goes by the nicknames \"Flake\" (pronounced as \"Flak-eh\" in German) and \"Doktor\". \"Doktor\" came about because at one point he wanted to be a surgeon, but he was unable to study to become one because of his refusal to join the East German military. In a 16 December 2000 interview, he stated that \"Flake\" is his proper name.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religion and politics.", "content": "Lorenz has stated \"I disapprove of religions which are made into rigid institutions. I also think that religious fanaticism and missionary work are dangerous.\"  Lorenz has a distaste towards the United States, which he has called a \"sick and decadent country with no culture\". On 5 October 2005, Lorenz appeared briefly on Deutsche Welle. When asked how he felt about the reunification of Germany, he said he misses the way things were then. \"Even if the GDR survived, I still would've stayed a musician. The increased size of the world also brought the danger of being compared to all of the international acts. The bands which were in the east were the only ones there, and if you were successful there, you were successful. I miss the simplicity. You went into a bar, ordered a beer, and you got a beer!... They didn't ask if you wanted... with a head or without a head, foam top or bottom... It really gets on my nerves having all of these choices I really don't want\". In 2014, in an essay titled \"I'm missing the GDR\" Flake Lorenz stated \"I miss the GDR even today. More so than the bands from that time.\" In a 2014 interview with Rolling Stone, Lindemann stated that \"Flake is still a citizen of the GDR, and he will die a citizen of the GDR\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Christian \"Flake\" Lorenz (; born 16 November 1966) is a German musician and keyboard player for the Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein. He was also a member of the East German punk band Feeling B.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974238}
{"src_title": "Georges Feydeau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Georges Feydeau was born in Paris, the son of novelist Ernest-Aimé Feydeau and Léocadie Boguslawa Zalewska. At the age of twenty, he wrote his first comic monologue in earnest. He found his first success four years later with \"Tailleur pour dames\" (\"Ladies' Dressmaker\", 1889). That year Feydeau married Marianne Carolus-Duran, the daughter of the famous portrait painter Carolus-Duran. To Feydeau, the marriage brought wealth that would sustain him until he found greater success. The marriage lasted 15 years after which the couple underwent a judicial separation and were formally divorced in 1916. Feydeau began investigating the great farces in 1890, studying the works of Eugène Labiche, Henri Meilhac and Alfred Hennequin. This study inspired him to write his acclaimed play \"Champignol malgré lui\" (\"Champignol in Spite of Himself\", 1892). Following this, Feydeau made a name for himself both in France and abroad, some of his plays opening overseas and in other languages before they opened in France.  These farces often involved Paris' \"demi-monde\". They are noted for their great wit and complex plots, featuring misunderstandings and coincidences, and what one critic called a \"jack-in-the-box construction\".  Among his 60 plays, his most famous are: \"Une puce à l'oreille\" (\"A Flea in Her Ear\", 1907), \"Le Système Ribadier\" (1892), \"La Dame de Chez Maxim\" (\"The Girl from Maxim's\", 1899), and \"Hortense a dit: \"Je m'en fous!\"\" (\"Hortense says, \"I don't give a damn!\"\", 1916). Other notable Feydeau farces include \"L'Hôtel du libre échange\", \"Le Dindon\" (\"Sauce for the Goose\", 1896) and the series of plays he wrote after 1908, grouped under the title \"Du Mariage au Divorce\": \"On purge bébé\", \"Feu la mère de madame\", \"Léonie est en avance\" and \"Mais ne te promène donc pas toute nue\").  Though critics at the time dismissed Feydeau's works as light entertainment, he is now recognized as one of the great French playwrights of his era. His plays are seen today as precursors of Surrealist and Dada theatre, and the vaudeville. They have been continuously revived and are still performed today, 17 of them having been performed on Broadway between 1895 and 1992. In Serbia, Ljubisa Ristic directed \"A Flea in Her Ear\", which has been performed more than 1,600 times. The play's premiere was on June 7, 1971, and up to 2016 had been performed continuously for more than 45 years.  Despite being a phenomenally successful playwright during his lifetime, his propensity for high living (he had a table permanently reserved for him at Maxim's), gambling, and the failure of his marriage led to financial difficulties.  During the winter of 1918, Feydeau contracted syphilis and slowly descended into madness until his death three years later at age 58. He is buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theatrical adaptations.", "content": "\"The Party's Over\", a one-act play by Jay Parker is loosely based on Feydeau's one-act \"Par la Fenêtre\".  Feydeau's one-act farce \"Maisn'te promène donc pas toute nue!\", translated by Olivier Bernier as \"Please don't walk around in the nude\" was produced at Harvard in 1960.  John Cleese's adaption of Feydeau's \"Monsieur Chasse!\" – entitled \"Bang Bang!\" in 2020.  Paxton Whitehead and Suzanne Grossman adapted three of Feydeau's plays: \"There's One in Every Marriage\" for the Broadway stage in 1971, \"Chemin de Fer\" in 1974 and \"A Flea in Her Ear\" in 1982.  Charles Morey's English adaptation of \"Tailleur pour dames\", titled \"The Ladies Man\", was first performed in 2007.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georges Feydeau (; 8 December 1862 – 5 June 1921) was a French playwright of the era known as the Belle Époque. He is remembered for his many lively farces. He wrote over sixty plays and was a forerunner of vaudeville.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974239}
{"src_title": "Province of Upper Silesia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical population.", "content": "Perhaps the earliest exact census figures on ethnic or national structure of Regierungsbezirk Oppeln (Regierungsbezirk Kattowitz did not yet exist) are from 1819. In 1819 the Oppeln Region had 561,203 inhabitants, including the following \"Nationalverschiedenheit\":  The population more than doubled during the next five decades, reaching over 1,2 million inhabitants by year 1867, including around 742 thousand Poles and around 457 thousand Germans. The last pre-World War I general census figures available, are from 1910 (if not including the 1911 census of school children - Sprachzählung unter den Schulkindern - which revealed a higher percent of Polish-speakers among school children than the 1910 census among the general populace). Large demographic changes took place between 1819 and 1910, with the region's total population quadrupling, the percent of German-speakers increasing significantly, and that of Polish-speakers declining considerably. Also the total land area in which Polish was spoken, as well as the land area in which it was spoken by the majority, declined between 1790 and 1890. Polish authors before 1918 estimated the number of ethnic Poles in Prussian Upper Silesia as slightly higher than according to figures from official German censuses.  Exact ethnolinguistic figures for the 19th century and early 20th century can be found in Table 1.:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Weimar Republic.", "content": "From 1919-1921 three Silesian Uprisings occurred among the Polish-speaking populace of Upper Silesia; the Battle of Annaberg was fought in the region in 1921. In the Upper Silesia plebiscite of March 1921, a majority of 59,4% voted against merging with Poland and a minority of 40,6% voted for, with clear lines dividing Polish and German communities. The exact border, the maintenance of cross-border railway traffic and other necessary co-operations, as well as equal rights for all inhabitants in both parts of Upper Silesia, were all fixed by the German-Polish Accord on East Silesia, signed in Geneva on May 15, 1922. On June 20, the Weimar Republic ceded, \"de facto\", the eastern parts of Upper Silesia, becoming part of Silesian Voivodeship of the Second Polish Republic. Within Weimar Germany, the Prussian Province of Silesia was so divided into the provinces of Upper Silesia and Lower Silesia The territory remaining in Prussian Upper Silesia was administered within the Oppeln Region and — according to Polish sources — had 530,000 Poles within it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nazi Germany.", "content": "After the Nazis' takeover in Germany, anti-Semitic laws were also introduced in German Upper Silesia, against the \"German-Polish Accord on East Silesia\" of 1922. Among other stipulations, according to the treaty each contractual party guaranteed in its respective part of Upper Silesia equal civil rights for all the inhabitants. The German Upper Silesian Franz Bernheim succeeded in convincing the League of Nations to force Nazi Germany to abide by the Accord, by filing the Bernheim petition. Accordingly, in September 1933 the Reich's Nazi government suspended in German Upper Silesia all anti-Semitic discrimination laws already imposed and excepted the province from all new such future decrees, until the Accord expired in May 1937.  The Province of Upper Silesia was joined to Lower Silesia to form the Province of Silesia in 1938.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "After the invasion of Poland in 1939, Polish Upper Silesia, including the Polish industrial city of Kattowitz, was directly annexed into the Province of Silesia. This annexed territory, also known as East Upper Silesia (\"Ostoberschlesien\"), became part of the new Regierungsbezirk Kattowitz.  German occupation forces began a policy of repression against the Polish population of eastern Upper Silesia, which started as early as September 1939 based on lists made before the war that pointed out Poles active in social and political life. A second wave of arrests happened during October and November in \"Intelligenzaktion Schlesien\", aimed against Polish intellectuals, many of whom perished in prison camps. A third wave of arrests came in April and May 1940 during the AB Aktion.  In Katowice, according to the historian Czesław Madajczyk, one of the harshests centres of oppression was the prison on Mikołowska street where people were reported to be murdered by Germans through the use of guillotine. A prison and penal camp were also established in the region in which Polish activists from Upper Silesia were held.  At the same time, Polish population was expelled from eastern Upper Silesia; from 1939 until 1942, 40,000 Poles were expelled. In their place, ethnic Germans from Volhynia and the Baltic countries were settled in Upper Silesia's urban areas. Until 1943, about 230,000 ethnic Germans were located on the Polish territories of eastern Upper Silesia and the Wartheland. The death toll of the Polish population in Upper Silesia at the hands of Germans is about 25,000 victims, with 20,000 of them being from urban population. In 1941, the Province of Silesia was again divided into the Provinces of Upper and Lower Silesia; Kattowitz (Katowice, in the former Autonomous Silesian Voivodeship of pre-war Poland) was made the capital of Upper Silesia instead of the smaller town of Oppeln.  The German province of Upper Silesia was conquered by the Soviet Red Army from February until the end of March 1945 during World War II's Lower and Upper Silesian Offensives. The post-war Potsdam Agreement granted the entire province's territory to the People's Republic of Poland; the territory is now in the Polish Opole and Silesian Voivodeships. Most Germans remaining in the territory were expelled westward. The Landsmannschaft Schlesien represents German Silesians from Upper and Lower Silesia. Near and in Opole, a German minority remains.  Upper Silesia was known to be a poor, but heavily industrialised and polluted area. This was one of the Areas that P. G. Wodehouse was sent to after he was captured in the North of France as an Enemy Alien. He was said to have commented on the state of the area \"If this is Upper Silesia, one has to wonder what Lower Silesia is like.\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Post-war period.", "content": "During the Polish post-war census of December 1950, data about the pre-war places of residence of the inhabitants as of August 1939 was collected. In case of children born between September 1939 and December 1950, their origin was reported based on the pre-war places of residence of their mothers. Thanks to this data it is possible to reconstruct the pre-war geographical origin of the post-war population. The same territory corresponding to pre-1938 Province of Upper Silesia (which became part of Poland in 1945) was inhabited as of December 1950 by:  Before the war, German Upper Silesia was home to a very large ethnically Polish/Silesian minority in Germany, so the flight and expulsion of Germans did not affect the region as much. In 1950, most of the region's population were its autochthons, who had had German citizenship before World War II, and were granted Polish citizenship after 1945. There were also many newcomers, especially from Eastern Poland annexed by the USSR and from pre-war Polish Upper Silesia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Province of Upper Silesia (; Silesian German: \"Provinz Oberschläsing\"; ; ) was a province of the Free State of Prussia from 1919 to 1945. It comprised much of the region of Upper Silesia and was eventually divided into two government regions (\"Regierungsbezirke\") called \"Kattowitz\" (1939-1945), and \"Oppeln\" (1819-1945). The provincial capital was Oppeln (1919–1938) and Kattowitz (1941–1945), while other major towns included Beuthen, Gleiwitz, Hindenburg O.S., Neiße, Ratibor and Auschwitz, added in 1941 (the place of future extermination of Jews in World War II). Between 1938 and 1941 it was reunited with Lower Silesia as the Province of Silesia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974240}
{"src_title": "Typhoon-class submarine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Besides their missile armament, the Typhoon class features six torpedo tubes designed to handle RPK-2 (SS-N-15) missiles or Type 53 torpedoes. A Typhoon-class submarine can stay submerged for 120 days in normal conditions, and potentially more if deemed necessary (e.g., in the case of a nuclear war). Their primary weapons system is composed of 20 R-39 (NATO: SS-N-20) ballistic missiles (SLBM) with a maximum of 10 MIRV nuclear warheads each. Technically, Typhoons were able to deploy their long-range nuclear missiles while moored at their docks.  Typhoon-class submarines feature multiple pressure hulls, similar to the World War II Japanese, that simplifies internal design while making the vessel much wider than a normal submarine. In the main body of the sub, two long pressure hulls lie parallel with a third, smaller pressure hull above them (which protrudes just below the sail), and two other pressure hulls for torpedoes and steering gear. This also greatly increases their survivability – even if one pressure hull is breached, the crew members in the other are safe and there is less potential for flooding.  The Typhoon is capable of traveling at underwater.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Typhoon class was developed under Project 941 as the Russian \"Akula\" class (Акула), meaning shark. It is sometimes confused with other submarines, as Akula is the name NATO uses to designate the Russian Project 971 \"Shchuka-B\" (Щука-Б)-class attack submarines. The project was developed with the objective to match the SLBM armament of s, capable of carrying 192 nuclear warheads, 100 kt each, but with significantly longer range. To accommodate this increase in range, Soviet SLBMs were substantially larger and heavier than their American counterparts (the R-39 Rif is more than twice as heavy as the UGM-96 Trident I; it remains the heaviest SLBM to have been in service worldwide). The submarine had to be scaled accordingly.  In the early 1990s, there were also proposals to rebuild some of the Typhoon-class submarines to submarine cargo vessels for shipping oil, gas and cargo under polar ice to Russia's far flung northern territories. The submarines could take up to 10,000 tonnes of cargo on-board and ship it under the polar ice to tankers waiting in the Barents Sea. These ships – after the considerable engineering required to develop technologies to transfer oil from drilling platforms to the submarines, and later, to the waiting tankers – would then deliver their cargo world-wide.  Six Typhoon-class submarines were built. Originally, the submarines were designated by hull numbers only. Names were later assigned to the four vessels retained by the Russian Navy, which were sponsored by either a city or company. The construction order for an additional vessel (hull number TK-210) was cancelled and never completed. Only the first of these submarines to be constructed, \"Dmitriy Donskoy\", is still in active service with the Russian Navy, serving as a test platform for the Bulava (SS-NX-32) missile. \"Arkhangelsk\" (TK-17) and \"Severstal\" (TK-20) remain in reserve, not currently active with the Russian fleet. All the R-39 missiles have been retired. The Typhoons have been replaced by the Borei class since 2010-2011.  In late December 2008, a senior Navy official announced that the two Typhoon-class submarines, TK-17 \"Arkhangelsk\" and TK-20 \"Severstal\", that are in reserve would not be rearmed with the new Bulava SLBM missile system. They could however be modified to carry cruise missiles or to lay mines, or could be used in special operations. In late June 2009, the Navy Commander-in-Chief, Admiral Vladimir Vysotskiy told reporters that the two submarines would be reserved for possible future repairs and modernisation. In May 2010, the Navy Commander-in-Chief reported that Russia's Typhoon-class submarines would remain in service with the Navy until 2019. In September 2011, the Russian defense ministry decided to write off all Project 941 \"Akula\" nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines until 2014. The reasons for decommissioning the Typhoon-class vessels are the restrictions imposed on Russia by the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty and successful trials of new Borei-class submarine.  Despite being a replacement for many types of submarines, the Borei-class submarines are slightly shorter than the Typhoon class ( as opposed to ), and have a smaller crew (107 people as opposed to 160). These changes were in part designed to reduce the cost to build and maintain the submarines. In addition, the United States and Canada provided 80% of funds for scrapping the older Typhoon-class submarines, making it much more economical to build a new submarine. However, according to other sources at the Russian defence ministry, no such decision has been made; in that case, the submarines would remain with the Russian Navy.  In 2013, the state-run RIA Novosti news has announced that the Navy will scrap two Typhoons beginning in 2018. They will be TK-17 \"Arkhangelsk\" and TK-20 \"Severstal\". As of 2017, the decision about scrapping of TK-17 and TK-20 is still not certain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timeline.", "content": "TK-208 \"Dmitriy Donskoy\" (Typhoon #1)  TK-17 \"Arkhangelsk\" (Typhoon #5)  TK-20 \"Severstal\" (Typhoon #6)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photos.", "content": "Satellite photos Interior photos", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable appearances in media.", "content": "Probably the best-known fictional Typhoon-class submarine was the stealth equipped \"Red October\", the subject of the Tom Clancy novel \"The Hunt for Red October\" and its 1990 movie adaptation, starring Sean Connery as the fictional Captain Marko Ramius.  The 2001 documentary \"Mission Invisible\" about the Russian submarine \"Severstal\" was produced by Corona Films for Discovery Channel with the participation of ZED, France 5, ZDF, RTBF, TV5 Monde and the Scottish Screen Fund.  In 2008 National Geographic released a documentary about the scrapping of one of the Typhoons in the series \"Break It Down\". This boat is TK-13, which was scrapped over the time period 2007–2009.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Typhoon class, Soviet designation Project 941 \"Akula\" () is a class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines designed and built by the Soviet Union for the Soviet Navy. With a submerged displacement of 48,000 tonnes, the Typhoons are the largest submarines ever built, able to accommodate comfortable living facilities for the crew when submerged for months on end. The source of the NATO reporting name remains unclear, although it is often claimed to be related to the use of the word \"typhoon\" (\"тайфун\") by General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev of the Communist Party in a 1974 speech while describing a new type of nuclear ballistic missile submarine, as a reaction to the United States Navy's new.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974241}
{"src_title": "Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the Order.", "content": "The Order of the Visitation was founded in 1610 by Saint Francis de Sales and Saint Jane Frances de Chantal in Annecy, Haute-Savoie, France. At first the founder had not a religious order in mind; he wished to form a congregation without external vows, where the cloister should be observed only during the year of novitiate, after which the sisters should be free to go out by turns to visit the sick and poor. The order was given the name of The Visitation of Holy Mary with the intention that the sisters would follow the example of Virgin Mary and her joyful visit to her kinswoman Elizabeth, (known as \"The Visitation\" in the Roman Catholic Church).  He invited Jane de Chantal to join him in establishing a new type of religious life, one open to older women and those of delicate constitution, that would stress the hidden, inner virtues of humility, obedience, poverty, even-tempered charity, and patience, and founded on the example of Mary in her journey of mercy to her cousin Elizabeth. The order was established to welcome those not able to practice austerities required in other orders. Instead of chanting the canonical office in the middle of the night the sisters recited the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin at half-past eight in the evening. There was no perpetual abstinence nor prolonged fast. The Order of the Visitation of Mary was canonically erected in 1618 by Paul V who granted it all the privileges enjoyed by the other orders. A Bull of Urban VIII solemnly approved it in 1626.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charism.", "content": "The special charism of the Visitation Order is an interior discipline expressed primarily through the practice of two virtues: humility and gentleness. The motto of the order is \"Live Jesus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansion.", "content": "A foundation was established in Lyons in 1615 followed by Moulines (1616), Grenoble (1618), Bourges (1618), and Paris (1619). When Saint Francis de Sales died (1622) there were 13 convents established; at the death of Saint Jane Frances de Chantal in 1641 there were 86. The Order spread from France throughout Europe and to North America. As of 2017, there are about 160 autonomous Visitation monasteries throughout the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portugal.", "content": "The Order of the Visitation has been present in Portugal since 1784, maintaining today three monasteries: in Braga, in Vila das Aves and in Batalha. The Sisters of the Visitation in Portugal produce and distribute the emblems of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (like devotional scapulars) as Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque did in the past.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "England.", "content": "At the French Revolution in 1789 when all the religious houses were suppressed many of the French Sisters took refuge in other Catholic countries. The sisters in Rouen, northern France, fled to Portuguese monasteries, having only escaped the guillotine by the death of Robespierre in 1794. In 1803 six sisters left Lisbon in an English packet ship and while at sea they were attacked by French pirates. They were spared because of their nationality (they were French not English) and were returned safely to the Spanish seaport of Vigo. After a brief sojourn in Spain three of the Sisters made a second attempt to cross from Porto and without further encounters with pirates arrived in Falmouth on 29 January 1804. They later journeyed to Acton and founded the first monastery of the Visitation on English soil on 19 March 1804.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "In 1835, the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary of Dietramszell acquired Beuerberg Abbey (Kloster Beuerberg), in Eurasburg, Germany. Between 1846 and 1938 they ran a girls' school and a home for nursing mothers at Beuerberg Abbey, and afterwards an old people's convalescent home. The abbey still belongs to the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Colombia.", "content": "The nine Visitation Sisters from Madrid, Spain came to Colombia in 1892 and founded the first Monastery at Santa Fe, Bogotá.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ireland.", "content": "The Visitation Sisters came to Ireland in 1955 and founded a Monastery at Stamullen, Co. Meath. When Mother Mary Teresa O’ Dwyer, Superior of the Visitation Monastery of Roseland, England learned that the Brothers of St. John of God were moving out of Silverstream, she applied to the Bishop of Meath, Dr. Kyne for permission for the order of the Visitation to enter his diocese. Staffing problems were solved by borrowing three Sisters from America. The Visitation Monasteries of St. Paul Minnesota, Brooklyn New York and Atlanta Georgia each lent a Sister.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Korea.", "content": "In 2005, The six Visitation Sisters from Manizales, Colombia came to South Korea. The Monastery of the Visitation was established in Jeongok-eup, Yeoncheon County in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In the United States.", "content": "In the United States there are 10 monasteries in two federations. The monasteries of the First Federation live the purely contemplative life, observing papal enclosure, with solemn vows, and have retained the traditional habit of the Order. Of the ten monasteries of the Visitation in the United States, six belong to the First Federation,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second federation.", "content": "Sisters of the Second Federation add apostolic monasteries to their contemplative life.  The Mount de Chantal Visitation Academy was founded in 1848 as the Wheeling Female Academy in downtown Wheeling, West Virginia and in 1865 assumed its current name. While grades five through twelve were all female, Mount de Chantal's Montessori and Elementary schools were co-ed. The school ceased operations on May 31, 2008, and the nuns re-located to the Georgetown Visitation in Washington, D.C. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, before being razed on November 7, 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Noted Visitandines.", "content": "The best known saint of the Order is St. Margaret Mary Alacoque, who reportedly received the revelations of the Sacred Heart resulting in the First Friday Devotions and Holy Hours. On May 10, 1998, seven Visitandines of the First Monastery of Madrid, Spain, martyred during the Spanish Revolution of 1936, were beatified in Rome by Pope John Paul II.  The nuns were members of the Madrid House of the Order of the Visitation. In early 1936, during the Spanish Civil War, as religious persecution intensified, most of the community moved to Oronoz, leaving a group of six nuns in the charge of Sr Maria Gabriela de Hinojosa. By July they were confined to their apartment, When a neighbour reported them to the authorities, and in November 1936 their apartment searched. Nevertheless, they refused to seek refuge in the consulates.  The following evening, a patrol of the Iberian Anarchist Federation broke into the apartment and ordered all the sisters to leave. They were taken by van to a vacant area and shot. Sr Maria Cecilia, who had run when she felt the sister next to her fall, surrendered shortly after and was shot five days later at the cemetery wall in Vallecas on the outskirts of Madrid.  In 2010, in honor of the worldwide Jubilee Year for the Visitation order, Pope Benedict XVI granted a plenary indulgence to those who would make a visit to and pray in a Visitation monastery.  Léonie Martin, the sister of Saint Thérèse of the Child Jesus and the Holy Face, became a nun of the Order of the Visitation. She received the veil on the 2nd of July 1900 and took the name Sister Françoise-Thérèse Martin. On the 24 January 2015 the process for Leonie's beatification began and she is now known as Servant of God.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary ( V.H.M., Latin: \"Ordo Visitationis Beatissimae Mariae Virginis\") or the Visitation Order is an enclosed Roman Catholic religious order for women. Members of the order are also known as the Salesian Sisters (not to be confused with the Salesian Sisters of Don Bosco) or, more commonly, as the Visitandines or Visitation Sisters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974242}
{"src_title": "Layering", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Method and process.", "content": "A low-growing stem is bent down to touch a hole dug in the ground, then pinned in place using something shaped like a clothes hanger hook and covered over with soil. However, a few inches of leafy growth must remain above the ground for the bent stem to grow into a new plant. Removing a section of skin from the lower-facing stem part before burying may help the rooting process. If using rooting hormone, the stem should be cut just beneath a node. The resultant notch should be wedged open with a toothpick or similar piece of wood and the hormone applied before burying.  The buried stem part then grows new roots which take hold in the soil while the above parts grow as individual new plants. Once the end of the stem has grown long enough the process can be repeated, creating the appearance of a row of plants linked by humped, intermittently buried stems. Better results can be achieved when the top of the plant is closer to the vertical.  Once the process is completed, the buried section should be kept well-watered until roots begin to form. The new individual plant may require one to two years before it is strong enough to survive on its own. When it is, the original stem should be cut where it enters the ground, thereby separating the two plants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plant types and benefits.", "content": "As layering does not involve sexual reproduction, new plants are effectively clones of the original plant and will exhibit the same characteristics. This includes flower, fruit and foliage. Plant selection usually involves plants with a flexible stem.  Simple layering can be more attractive when managing a cascading or spreading plant. These plants tend to propagate in this manner anyway, and potting a new limb will give extra plants without having to sow new seed.  Simple layering can also help when a plant has overgrown its pot and is drooping over the side. The long stem is layered into another pot until it roots, thus bringing it back to soil level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ground layering.", "content": "Ground layering or mound layering is the typical propagation technique for the popular Malling-Merton series of clonal apple root stocks, in which the original plants are set in the ground with the stem nearly horizontal, which forces side buds to grow upward. After these are started, the original stem is buried up to some distance from the tip. At the end of the growing season, the side branches will have rooted, and can be separated while the plant is dormant. Some of these will be used for grafting rootstocks, and some can be reused in the nursery for the next growing season's crop.  Ground layering is used in the formation of visible surface roots, known as \"nebari\", on bonsai trees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Air layering.", "content": "In air layering (or marcotting), the target region is wounded by an upward 4 cm long cut and held open with a toothpick or similar, or a strip of bark is removed. The wound is then surrounded with a lump of moisture-retaining medium such as sphagnum moss or cloth, and then further surrounded by a moisture barrier such as plastic film tied or taped to the branch to prevent moisture loss or ingress of too much water as from rain. Rooting hormone is often applied to the wound to encourage root growth. When sufficient roots have grown from the wound, the stem is removed from the parent plant and planted, taking care to shield it from too much sun and to protect it from drying out until the new roots take hold. It can take the layer from a few weeks to one or more growing seasons to produce sufficient roots; this is largely dependent on the plant species and the vigor of the parent plant.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Layering has evolved as a common means of vegetative propagation of numerous species in natural environments. Layering is also utilized by horticulturists to propagate desirable plants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974243}
{"src_title": "Christopher of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coming to power.", "content": "He was the son of John, Count Palatine of Neumarkt (1383–1443) and Catherine of Pomerania (c. 1390–1426). Catherine was the daughter of Wartislaw VII, Duke of Pomerania in Pomerania-Stolp, and sister of the Scandinavian king, Eric of Pomerania. Count Palatine John was a son of King Rupert of Germany (1352–1410). Christopher was probably born at Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz in Upper Palatinate, in Bavaria, Germany. In 1445, Christopher married Dorothea of Brandenburg (1430 – 25 November 1495) in Copenhagen.  Eric of Pomerania was deposed as king of Denmark and Sweden in 1439. As Eric's nephew, Christopher, who was rather unfamiliar with Scandinavian conditions, was elected by the Danish State Council as the successor to his uncle, first as regent from 1439, and then proclaimed King of Denmark at the Viborg Assembly (Danish \"landsting\") on 9 April 1440. He was meant to be a puppet, as evidenced by the saying: \"Had the Council demanded the stars of heaven from him, he would have ordered it.\" However he succeeded in maintaining some personal control. As a whole his rule, according to the politics of the nobility and his succession, might be called the start of the long period of balance between royal power and nobility which lasted until 1660. He was later elected king of Sweden in 1441, and Norway in June 1442.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Peasant rebellions.", "content": "At the start of his reign, he put down peasant rebellions in Funen and Jutland. Once the rebellion on Funen was suppressed, he turned his attention the uprising in Jutland. North Jutland, especially Vendsyssel, was so restive that a peasant army of 25,000 led by Henrik Tagesen Reventlow (executed 1441) posed a serious threat to Christopher's continued reign. Before the king could act, Jutland's noble families raised their own army and marched west of Aalborg to meet Reventlow's forces.  The peasants had created a gigantic wagon fortress three layers deep to protect themselves from the mounted knights they knew would come against them. They also placed tree branches across the bog in front of the camp and then cast earth on top to make it look like solid ground. The overconfident army of nobles led by Eske Jensen Brock appeared at St Jorgen's Hill (\"St. Jørgensbjerg\") on 3 May 1441. The knights charged the camp, and were quickly mired down in the bog. The peasants moved in for the kill. Brock was killed in the Battle of St Jorgen's Hill (\"Slaget ved Skt. Jørgensbjerg\") and dismembered and the pieces sent to the towns in the area as a warning. The peasants then raided Aalborghus (the area's most important manor) forcing the noble Niels Guldenstierne to flee.  The treatment of the captives after the battle strengthened Christopher's determination to put down the peasants. With his own army Christopher rode north to the rebel camp at Husby Hole near St Jorgen's Hill in northern Jutland. Because the rebels outnumbered his troops, Christopher sent word that anyone who left the camp and went home would not be punished for rebellion. The men from the island of Mors and Thisted left, for which they were called cowards and traitors ever after. Christopher ordered the attack on the rebel camp on 8 June 1441 and despite fighting ferociously the rebels could not overcome the heavily armed knights. Thousands of rebels were killed, those who survived were fined heavily. The more severe consequence was that rebels lost their free status and became serfs on the farms where they worked. The king made it a capital crime for peasants to carry weapons longer than a short knife. The subjugation of Denmark's once free peasants was complete.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coronation, relations with Swedes.", "content": "In May 1442 Christopher traveled to Lödöse to meet with the nobles from all three kingdoms. He was elected King of Norway there and then went to Oslo where he was crowned on 2 July 1442. The next year he was proclaimed King of Denmark at the Urnehoved Assembly near Ribe. When his residence at Roskilde burned down, Christopher moved to Copenhagen and made it the capital of Denmark.  The Swedish nobles were not happy to relinquish any power and thus didn't like him, claiming he was too German for them and that he allowed his uncle (ex-King Eric) to plunder shipping from his castle on Gotland without any attempt to stop him. They blamed a series of bad harvests on him. People were so hungry they mixed ground tree bark with the little flour they could find. Christopher was contemptuously nicknamed the \"Bark King\" in Sweden. On the other hand, he tried to support the cities and their merchants as far as the limits of nobility and Hanseatic cities allowed. During his reign Copenhagen was made permanently the capital of Denmark (municipal charter of 1443).  He carried on an ineffective policy of war and negotiations against Eric in Gotland which did little to help the dissatisfaction within both Sweden and the Hanseatic League. The Kalmar Union Treaty was changed so that the aristocracy had most of the policy-making powers, and the king lost many of the powers monarchs had acquired since Viking times. The results of this policy of balance were still not reached when he suddenly died as the last descendant of Valdemar IV of Denmark.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In 1448, Christopher died suddenly at Helsingborg at age 32. King Christopher was buried in Roskilde Cathedral. On 28 October 1449, his widow Dorothea married King Christian I of Denmark. They were the parents of John, King of Denmark (\"Kong Hans\") who succeeded King Christian.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Full title.", "content": "Christopher's full title was: \"By the Grace of God, King of Denmark, Sweden and Norway, the Wends and the Goths, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Duke of Bavaria\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christopher of Bavaria (26 February 1416 – 5/6 January 1448) was King of Denmark (1440–48, as Christopher III), Sweden (1441–48) and Norway (1442–48) during the era of the Kalmar Union.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974244}
{"src_title": "Christopher II of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Being the brother of King Eric VI who served as king of Denmark from 1286 til 1319, Christopher was a possible heir to the throne. As a young man with the title of Duke of Estonia, he supported the politics of his brother. Among other things he arrested Archbishop Jens Grand in 1294. But later on he joined the opposition and went into exile at the death of Eric in 1319.  The magnates wanted a weak royal power, and Christopher was elected as king in January 1320; in return he signed a contractual håndfæstning, the first time this kind of document was used as a coronation charter. He received a \"bankrupt estate\" in which entire regions of the kingdom were mortgaged to German and Danish magnates. The conditions of the charter were very hard, because they limited his ability to assess taxes, as well as demanded payments on the mortgages. Christopher could make no decision regarding the realm without the consent of the nobility and the bishops. The privileges of the nobility and the church were included in the charter and new ones were included. No bishop could be imprisoned, exiled, or fined without the pope's approval, no secular court could try any churchman, no church land or property could be taxed, the nobles could raise fees or rents on peasants, no noble could be forced to fight abroad or forced to pay to outfit soldiers to fight abroad, the king was required to ransom captured noblemen within a year, all taxes imposed since the reign of Valdemar Sejr on nobles or church were to be lifted, but the kingdom's debts were to be paid. This shift of power away from the king would last until 1660.  Despite signing the charter, King Christopher ruled as if it did not exist. Since he could not tax the church or Danish nobles he levied disastrous taxes on the German territories and peasants. During the following years Christopher tried to strengthen his position by reviving Erik’s policy of warfare against the duchies, counties, and cities of northern Germany. This resulted in new mortgages and taxes, and very soon he was in conflict with both the church and the magnates.  During a rebellion in 1326 he was overthrown by an alliance between Danish magnates and Gerhard III, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg and John I, Count of Holstein-Kiel, son of Adolf IV of Holstein). Christopher was forced into abdication and exile, while the 12-year-old Duke Valdemar of Southern Jutland was made king of Denmark, with Count Gerhard as regent. They forced Valdemar in his coronation charter to separate southern Jutland from Denmark so that never again would the King of Denmark rule there. Danish nobleman Knud Porse took Halland for himself for his services to Count Gerhard and Count Johann. The squabbling over who got which pieces of Denmark broke down the alliances which had forced Christopher out of the country. Until 1329 Christopher lived in exile, but a growing chaos in the \"magnates’ republic\" of Denmark gave him another chance. Frictions developed between Gerhard and his cousin Johan the mild, Count of Schauenburg and Holstein-Plön and Holstein-Kiel who was also Christopher’s half-brother through his widowed mother's marriage to Gerhard II, Count of Holstein-Plön. Suddenly, with the help of Henry of Mecklenburg, Christopher stood poised at Vordingborg with 2000 mounted German knights. Unfortunately for Christopher they allowed themselves to be surrounded and were forced to surrender. After a peasant uprising in Jutland which was crushed ruthlessly by Count Gerhard, the peasants in Skåne begged King Magnus IV of Sweden to rule them. He readily accepted and Denmark ceased to exist as a united kingdom. Christopher was restored as Danish king in 1329–1330 with the cooperation of Count Johan, but this time he was reduced to the position of a puppet from the start. Most of his country was mortgaged, and he had no chance of holding real royal power. Jutland for example was mortgaged for 100,000 silver marks which had to be \"laid on the table all at once\" or the mortgage was not redeemed. It was an enormous mortgage and impossible to pay. Count Gerhard took all of Jutland as his personal property. Count Johan did the same on Funen and Zealand. In 1331 Christopher attempted to exploit a conflict between Counts Gerhard and Johan by joining the latter, but it ended in a clear military defeat at Dannevirke. Under the terms of the settlement between the counts, Christopher was allowed to retain the title of king, but in reality had no power whatsoever. He was given a simple house at Sakskøbing on Lolland, but even that was burned by German mercenaries. Christopher was imprisoned at Ålholm Castle on Lolland where he died a ruined and broken man the next year. He was buried at Sorø Abbey.  Upon his death Denmark ceased being a formal kingdom, and for the next eight years it was subdued by various mortgagees to German military rule.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "History's judgment of Christopher has been extremely hard, and he has often been regarded as a weak, unreliable and incapable tyrant— \"the king who mortgaged Denmark to the Germans\". He in many ways simply carried on the policy of his predecessor. The policy of mortgaging parts of Denmark was common practice by nobles and kings alike to raise money. It would be incorrect to call him a passive ruler; the power of the Danish and German high nobility and their co-operation with church establishment undermined his freedom of action.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "With his wife, Euphemia of Pomerania, whom he wed in 1300;  Illegitimate with? Lunge:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christopher II (; 29 September 1276 – 2 August 1332) was king of Denmark from 1320 to 1326 and again from 1329 until his death. He was a younger son of Eric V. His name is connected with national disaster, as his rule ended in an almost total dissolution of the Danish state.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974245}
{"src_title": "Vine weevil", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The adult weevil is matte black with fused wing covers, and is unable to fly. It feeds at night on the outer edges of leaves, causing the leaves to have a notched margin. Broadleaved evergreen plants such as \"Camellia\", \"Rhododendron\", \"Euonymus\" and \"Bergenia\" are particularly prone to damage, although a wide range of different garden plants is susceptible to attack.  Female weevils have the ability to reproduce parthenogenetically with fertilisation of eggs required to produce males, though no males have been observed. This form of parthenogenesis is known as thelytoky. Grubs grow up to 1 cm in length, have a slightly curved, legless body, creamy-white in colour, with a tan-brown head. They live below the soil surface, and feed on roots and cambium at the base of the trunk. They cause most damage to herbaceous plants, particularly those growing in containers, where root growth is restricted. Severe infestations can result in complete root destruction and hence plant death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Host plants.", "content": "The host plants include the following, listed by genus:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controls.", "content": "The soil dwelling grubs can be difficult to control with chemical insecticides and products showing some efficacy, such as chlorpyrifos have been withdrawn from many markets: especially garden centres. Besides their environmental benefits, certain 'cruiser' entomopathogenic nematode species (also see below) have the additional capacity to search for their prey underground.  Adult weevils can be controlled by using sticky barriers on the trunks of affected plants, as the weevils return to the soil each day.  Adults can also be manually removed from plants at night when they can be found feeding on leaf edges. Use only a dim torch or candlelight to search by, as they will drop to the ground if startled by bright light.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biological controls.", "content": "Larvae can be controlled using parasitic nematodes, for example \"Steinernema kraussei\" and \"Heterorhabditis bacteriophora\" (a 'cruiser' species), which can be bought from some garden centres and by mail order. They are simply mixed with water, and watered onto the soil.  Adults may also be controlled using products based on the fungi \"Metarhizium brunneum\" and \"Beauveria bassiana\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Black vine weevil (\"Otiorhynchus sulcatus\") is an insect native to Europe but common in North America as well. It is a pest of many garden plants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974246}
{"src_title": "Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Crown Princess of Prussia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "As the maternal niece of the king of Prussia and the paternal niece of the queen of Prussia, she was selected to marry her cousin Crown Prince Frederick William, by his uncle, the childless King, with the purpose of producing heirs to the Prussian throne.  The marriage ceremony between Elisabeth Christine and Crown Prince Frederick William was originally planned to take place at Charlottenburg Palace's Chapel, but in the end took place on 14 July 1765, on the family country estate Schloss Salzdahlum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crown Princess.", "content": "Elisabeth Christine was described as handsome to her appearance, engaging and graceful in manner, lively, high-spirited and impetuous in disposition, and was admired for the grace of her dancing. Her beauty, intelligence and spirited manner made her a favorite of her uncle the king, otherwise very seldom interested in women, who considered her to be witty and had very little sympathy for the adultery of her spouse.  Soon it became clear the couple was not happy with each other. King Frederick had hoped that the marriage would lead to the production of an heir, but instead noticed that Frederick William neglected his wife and was unfaithful to her on a daily basis with a series of dancers and actresses. When their first child proved to be a girl, Princess Frederica Charlotte, their relationship deteriorated.  This was described in \"Vertraute Briefe\" as: \"Frederic William was now twenty-one years of age; his disposition was good, but his capacity was slender; he resembled the Bruns wicks in person, being six feet two in height, and proportionally stout. But he was unfortunately addicted to the grossest sensuality, and his time, when not occupied by his military duties, was spent with vile women and other loose companions. His young wife resented this conduct in the highest degree; wounded alike in her wifehood and her womanhood, she not only separated herself from the crown Prince, and haughtily refused him admission to her presence, but, alas! She sacrificed even virtue to revenge.\"  Wounded by her husband's neglect and infidelity, the Crown Princess began to have affairs with young officers of the Potsdam Guard. In a letter wrote to his sister (and Elisabeth Christine's mother) Philippine Charlotte, the concerned King says:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Divorce.", "content": "This scandal finally erupted when, as was noted by Friedrich Wilhelm von Thulemeyer, the Crown Princess became pregnant by her lover, a musician called Pietro. By late January 1769 they planned to escape to Italy, but she was betrayed. On a masked ball given by Prince Henry in celebration of the king's birthday on 24 January 1769, the crown prince was informed of her affairs by an anonymous person hidden behind a mask, which enraged him despite his own adultery, and made him demand a divorce.  King Frederick was initially unwilling to agree to a divorce, as his sympathy was greater for Elisabeth Christine than for Frederick William, but the crown prince insisted in his demand for a divorce, and urged in agreement with the King the annulment of his marriage on grounds to avoid claims of illegitimate offspring on the Prussian throne, to which the Brunswick court agreed. The musician Pietro was arrested and taken to Magdeburg, where he was reportedly beheaded. Elisabeth Christine terminated her pregnancy with drugs. Her brother, Prince William of Brunswick, was aware of her affairs, and his attempts to hide them and defend her exposed him to suspicions that he himself had been involved in them.  The divorce was officially pronounced on 18 April 1769. Frederick the Great forced his nephew to remarry only three months after the separation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Elisabeth Christine was firstly banished to Küstrin Fortress and later placed under house arrest as a Prisoner of state in the Ducal Castle of Stettin under the care of her cousin, Duke Augustus William of Brunswick-Bevern. She lost the title of Royal Highness and was given the title of Serene Highness.  At first, she lived in harsh circumstances. Being of an extrovert nature, she suffered from her isolation: reportedly, she sometimes placed all the chairs in a long row in her apartments, and dance \"Anglaises\" between them to ease her boredom. She did at one point attempt to escape, and made an agreement with an officer to help her escape to Venice, but the plan was never put in fruition as her accomplice suddenly disappeared. Eventually, King Frederick improved her living conditions, and in 1774, she was given a summer residence in the medieval cloister in Jasenitz.  After the death of Frederick the Great in 1786, she received a visit from her former spouse, and during his reign, her conditions improved: she was given permission to entertain visitors, and to walk, and ride on horseback in the areas of the town. According to Mirabeau, she was offered her release, but declined, as she had by that time grown used to her lifestyle. An incident is known, when she slapped an officer who insisted upon opening a New Year's gift from her mother: when he sent a complaint to the king, he answered \"no man could ever be insulted by a blow from the hand of so fair a lady.\"  Elisabeth Christine never saw her daughter or siblings again; during her later life, King Frederick William IV was the only one who visited her. When the French army occupied Stettin in 1806, the so-called \"Elisabeth of Stettin\" moved to a small country estate outside the city walls, which she called \"Landhaus Friedrichsgnade\" ('Villa Frederick's mercy').  Elisabeth Christine died at the age of 93. At her death, all the bells of the city rang. She had a mausoleum built for herself in her beloved park because she didn't want to be buried with her relatives in the Ducal Brunswick Crypt. When the park was handed to private hands, she was reburied in the Chapel of the Ducal Castle of Stettin on the night of 19 July 1849. Other sources, however, indicated that she was later reburied in the cathedral of Kraków.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (Elisabeth Christine Ulrike; 8 November 1746 – 18 February 1840), was a Crown Princess of Prussia as the first wife of Crown Prince Frederick William, her cousin and the future king Frederick William II of Prussia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974247}
{"src_title": "Red-necked wallaby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Red-necked wallabies are distinguished by their black nose and paws, white stripe on the upper lip, and grizzled medium grey coat with a reddish wash across the shoulders. They can weigh and attain a head-body length of, although males are generally bigger than females. Red-necked wallabies are very similar in appearance to the Black-striped wallaby, the only difference being that Red-necked wallabies are larger, lack a black stripe down the back, and have softer fur. Red-necked wallabies may live up to 9 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Red-necked wallabies are found in coastal scrub and sclerophyll forest throughout coastal and highland eastern Australia, from Bundaberg, Queensland to the South Australian border; in Tasmania and on many of the Bass Strait islands. It is unclear which of the Tasmanian islands have native populations as opposed to introduced ones.  In Tasmania and coastal Queensland, their numbers have expanded over the past 30 years because of a reduction in hunting pressure and the partial clearing of forest to result in a mosaic of pastures where wallabies can feed at night, alongside bushland where they can shelter by day. For reasons not altogether clear, they are less common in Victoria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "Red-necked wallabies are mainly solitary but will gather together when there is an abundance of resources such as food, water or shelter. When they do gather in groups, they have a social hierarchy similar to other wallaby species. A recent study has demonstrated that wallabies, as other social or gregarious mammals, are able to manage conflict via reconciliation, involving the post-conflict reunion, after a fight, of former opponents, which engage in affinitive contacts. Red-necked wallabies are mainly nocturnal. They spend most of the daytime resting.  A female's estrus lasts 33 days. During courting, the female first licks the male's neck. The male will then rub his cheek against the female's. Then the male and female will fight briefly, standing upright like two males. After that they finally mate. A couple will stay together for one day before separating. A female bears one offspring at a time; young stay in the pouch for about 280 days, after which females and their offspring stay together for only a month. However, females may stay in the home range of their mothers for life while males leave at the age of two. Also, red-necked wallabies engage in alloparental care, in which one individual may adopt the child of another. This is a common behavior seen in many other animal species like wolves, elephants, and fathead minnows.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Red-necked wallabies diets consists of grasses, roots, tree leaves, and weeds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are three subspecies.  The Tasmanian form, \"Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus\", usually known as Bennett's wallaby, is smaller (as island subspecies often are), has longer, darker, shaggier fur, and breeds in the late summer, mostly between February and April. They have adapted to living in proximity to humans and can be found grazing on lawns in the fringes of Hobart and other urban areas.  The mainland Australian form, \"Macropus rufogriseus banksianus\", usually known as the red-necked wallaby, breeds all year round. Captive animals maintain their breeding schedules; Tasmanian females that become pregnant out of their normal season delay birth until summer, which can be anywhere up to eight months later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Introduction to other countries.", "content": "There are significant introduced populations in the Canterbury region of New Zealand's South Island. In 1870, several wallabies were transported from Tasmania to Christchurch, New Zealand. Two females and one male from this stock were later released about Te Waimate, the property of Waimate's first European settler Michael Studholme. The year 1874 saw them freed in the Hunters Hills, where over the years their population has dramatically increased. Wallabies are now resident on approximately 350,000 ha of terrain centred upon the Hunters Hills, including the Two Thumb Ranges, the Kirkliston Range and the Grampians. They have been declared an animal pest in the Canterbury region and land occupiers must contain the wallabies within specified areas. The wallaby is now widely regarded as a symbol of Waimate.  There are also colonies in England: in the Peak District, Derbyshire, and the Ashdown Forest in East Sussex. These were established circa 1900. There are also other smaller groups frequently spotted in West Sussex and Hampshire.  There is a small colony of red-necked wallabies on the island of Inchconnachan, Loch Lomond in Argyll and Bute, Scotland. This was founded in 1975 with two pairs taken from the Whipsnade Zoo, and had risen to 26 individuals by 1993. There is also a large group of approximately 250 wallabies living wild on the Isle of Man, which are the descendants of a pair that escaped from a wildlife park on the island in the 1970s, as well as from subsequent escapes.  The Baring family, who owned Lambay Island (), off the east coast of Ireland introduced wallabies to the island in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980s, the red-necked wallaby population at the Dublin Zoo was growing out of control. Unable to find another zoo to take them, and unwilling to euthanize them, zoo director Peter Wilson donated seven individuals to the Barings. The animals have thrived since then and the current population is estimated to be between 30–50.  In France, in the southern part of the Forest of Rambouillet, west from Paris, there is a wild group of around 50-100 Bennett's wallabies. This population has been present since the 1970s, when some individuals escaped from the zoological park of Émancé after a storm. In Germany, around 10 wallabies live as a wild population in the federated state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern since 2001.  In October 2014, three captive Bennett's wallabies escaped into the wild in northern Austria and one of them roamed the area for three months before being recaptured, surviving the harsh winter. The case attracted media attention, as it humorously defeated the popular slogan \"There are no kangaroos in Austria.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The red-necked wallaby or Bennett's wallaby (\"Macropus rufogriseus\") is a medium-sized macropod marsupial (wallaby), common in the more temperate and fertile parts of eastern Australia, including Tasmania. Red-necked wallabies have been introduced to several other countries, including New Zealand, England, Scotland, Ireland, France and the Isle of Man.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974248}
{"src_title": "Domestic goose", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins and characteristics.", "content": "In Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia, the original domesticated geese are derived from the greylag goose (\"Anser anser\"). In eastern Asia, the original domesticated geese are derived from the swan goose (\"Anser cygnoides\"); these are commonly known as Chinese geese. Both have been widely introduced in more recent times, and modern flocks in both areas (and elsewhere, such as Australia and North America) may consist of either species or hybrids between them. Chinese geese may be readily distinguished from European geese by the large knob at the base of the bill, though hybrids may exhibit every degree of variation between the two species.  The domestication, as Charles Darwin remarks (\"The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication\" i. 287), is of very ancient date; archaeological evidence for domesticated geese in Egypt more than 4,000 years ago. They have been selected for larger size, with domesticated breeds weighing up to, compared to the maximum of for the wild swan goose and for the wild greylag goose. This affects their body structure; whereas wild geese have a horizontal posture and slim rear end, domesticated geese lay down large fat deposits toward the tail end, giving a fat rear and forcing the bird into a more upright posture. Although their heavy weight affects their ability to fly, most breeds of domestic geese are capable of flight.  Geese have also been strongly selected for fecundity, with females laying up to 50 eggs per year, compared to 5–12 eggs for a wild goose.  As most domestic geese display little sexual dimorphism, sexing is based primarily on physical characteristics and behaviour. Males are typically taller and larger than females, and have longer necks. In addition, males can be distinguished by the protective behaviour they exhibit towards their mates and their offspring - the male will typically stand between his partner and any perceived threat.  Changes to the plumage are variable; many have been selected to lose dark brown tones of the wild bird. The result is an animal marked, or completely covered in white feathers. Others retain plumage close to the natural; some, such as the modern Toulouse goose look almost identical to the greylag in plumage, differing only in structure. White geese are often preferred as they look better plucked and dressed, with any small down feathers remaining being less conspicuous. From the time of the Romans, white geese have been held in great esteem.  Geese produce large edible eggs, weighing. They can be used in cooking just like chicken's eggs, though they have proportionally more yolk, and this cooks to a slightly denser consistency. The taste is much the same as that of a chicken egg, but gamier.  Like their wild ancestors, domestic geese are very protective of their offspring and other members of the flock. The gander will normally place himself between any perceived threat and his family. Owing to their highly aggressive nature, loud call and sensitivity to unusual movements, geese can contribute towards the security of a property. In late 1950s South Vietnam, the VNAF used flocks of geese to guard their parked aircraft at night due to the noise they would make at intruders.  Because domestic geese descended from the Greylag goose are effectively the same species as their wild ancestor (being a subspecies formed through domestication), escaped individuals readily breed with wild populations, resulting in the offspring sometimes resembling either one of their parents, or bearing mixed plumage with patterns of grey and white feathers and orange beaks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geese in fiction and myth.", "content": "When Aphrodite first came ashore she was welcomed by the Charites (Roman \"Graces\"), whose chariot was drawn by geese.  There are Mother Goose tales, such as a farmwife might have told; there is the proverbial goose that laid the golden eggs, warning about the perils of greed.  The geese in the temple of Juno on the Capitoline Hill were said by Livy to have saved Rome from the Gauls around 390 BC when they were disturbed in a night attack. The story may be an attempt to explain the origin of the sacred flock of geese at Rome.  Liliane Bodson and Daniel Marcolungo, \"L'oie de bon aloi: Aspects de l'histoire ancienne de l'oie domestique\" [The goose in ancient life and folklore]. Vise (Musée Regional d'Archeologie et d'Histoire de Vise), 1994, discusses the image and lore of domestic geese in classical antiquity, with a separate chapter on the goose in folklore.  The 2019 video game Untitled Goose Game features a domestic goose as its protagonist.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Domestic geese (\"Anser anser domesticus\" or \"Anser cygnoides domesticus\") are domesticated grey geese (either greylag geese or swan geese) that are kept by humans as poultry for their meat, eggs and down feathers since ancient times. Approximately 700 million geese are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974249}
{"src_title": "Tumult of Thorn (Toruń)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical background.", "content": "The castle of Thorn (Toruń) was built by crusading German knights of the Teutonic Order, next to an existing Slavic town. In 1233 the town was granted Kulm law city rights. More settlers soon arrived with Franciscan and Dominican friars. In the 15th century, after becoming increasingly dissatisfied with the policy of the Order, citizens of the Order's monastic state organized themselves into the Prussian Confederation, and seceded in 1454 with the help of the Polish Crown. The resulting Thirteen Years' War ended in 1466 with the Second Peace of Thorn, in which the province of Royal Prussia was created and incorporated into the Kingdom of Poland.  After the secularization of the Teutonic Order, the newly formed Duchy of Prussia and the remaining Prussian territory adopted Lutheranism in 1525, the first state to do so. During the Protestant Reformation, the mostly German-populated Royal Prussia also adopted Protestantism in 1557, while the majority of the Kingdom of Poland remained Roman Catholic. During the tenure of mayor (Bürgermeister) Heinrich Stroband (1586–1609), the city became centralised and power passed into the hands of its city council.  At that time, Poland was largely tolerant in religious affairs. However, this gradually changed with the advent of the Counter-Reformation. In 1595, the Jesuits arrived to promote the Counter-Reformation, taking control of the Church of St. John. Protestant city officials tried to limit the influx of a Catholic population into the city, as Catholics (Jesuits and Dominicans) already controlled most churches, leaving only St. Mary to the Protestant citizens.  In the second half of the 17th century, tensions between Catholics and Protestants grew. In 1645, a \"Colloquium Charitativum\", a discussion between the leaders of the rival creeds, resulted in no agreement. Just as the religious tensions in the rest of Europe were settling down after the bloody Thirty Years' War and Peace of Westphalia, in the once very tolerant Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the situation was worsening. From 1682, St. Mary's Church had to be guarded by a Lutheran \"Bürgerwehr\" (militia) during the Feast of Corpus Christi processions, as the assembled Catholics might have occupied this church as well. Further violent conflicts occurred in 1688 and 1721.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1724 Events.", "content": "On 16 and 17 July 1724, when the Jesuits held another procession, fights between pupils of the Jesuits and Lutheran inhabitants occurred as Jesuit pupils accused the gathered Lutherans of showing disrespect to Holy Mary by not taking their hats off during the procession and not kneeling before her statue. In the following argument, a Catholic student named Stanisław Lisiecki was arrested by Lutheran militia. In response, pupils of the Jesuits dragged a pupil named Jan Nagórny of the Lutheran Gymnasium into their monastery, demanding that Lisiecki be released. After a crowd assembled in front of the monastery to demand Nagórny's release. Johann Gottfried Rösner, who in that year served as president of the town council, ordered the town militia to dissolve the angry mob, but the commander disobeyed, as did the \"citizen guards\". Only the \"crown guards\", loyal to the king, could eventually pacify the scene, yet only after the crowd had entered the Jesuit building, causing damage.  Several Jesuits were beaten, portraits of Catholic saints were defiled, and the main altar was partially destroyed. Afterwards many books and paintings were thrown out into a pile and set on fire. After this event, both Jesuits and Dominicans tried to persuade Rösner and ten other leading citizens, all of them German Protestants, to convert to Roman Catholicism. They refused and remained in the city despite the pressure applied when the Jesuits sued them at the royal supreme court in Warsaw. The court was held during the second monarchy of August II the Strong of Saxony in the era of the Silent Sejm, a time in which the Russian Empire dictated Polish internal policy. August, a former Lutheran who had been required to convert to Roman Catholicism in order to be elected to the Polish throne, regretted not being in a position to pardon the convicts.  Rösner and twelve other Lutherans were sentenced to death on 16 November. Prince Jerzy Dominik Lubomirski led a regiment of soldiers to the city to execute the verdict. Rösner and other officials were to be decapitated for \"neglecting their duty and countenancing tumult\", while two others, accused of profaning the Virgin, were to be quartered, and burned.  One of the convicts converted to Roman Catholicism and was spared, as was Rösner's predecessor and proxy, Jakob Heinrich Zerneke (1672–1741), a well-respected historian who had written the \"Chronica Thornica\" in 1711. He received amnesty on 12 December and emigrated to Danzig (Gdańsk).  The last remaining Protestant church, Saint Mary's, was made Catholic and given to Franciscan friars who celebrated a mass there on the day of the execution, 7 December 1724, a date which is now observed in remembrance of the Protestant martyrs. In addition, the majority of the town council was required to be Catholic from then on. A Protestant school, chapel, and printing press were required to be handed over to Catholic control.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The event was used by what Karin Friedrich calls \"Brandenburg-Prussia's efficient propaganda machine\", as an example of Polish intolerance, even as states which protested most vocally engaged in religious persecution themselves. In large parts of Protestant Europe, the event damaged Poland's reputation for religious tolerance.  Over contemporary 165 publications and hundreds of newspapers reported on the alleged oppression of Protestants in Thorn. Decades later, during the Partitions of Poland, Voltaire recalled the sentencing of Protestants as an example \"of the religious intolerance of the Poles\" and glorified the Russian army.  In Polish history books, the event rarely found mention before 1979. Norman Davies states that it was the sole event for which the name of Copernicus's birthplace was remembered in Protestant Europe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tumult of Thorn (Toruń), or Blood-Bath of Thorn (,, literally Bloody court of Thorn) refers to executions ordered in 1724 by the Polish supreme court under Augustus II the Strong of Saxony. During a religious conflict between Protestant townsfolk represented by mayor Johann Gottfried Rösner, and the Roman Catholic students of the Jesuit college in the city of Thorn (Toruń) in Royal Prussia, the college had been vandalised by a crowd of German Protestants. The mayor and nine other Lutheran officials were blamed for neglect of duty, sentenced to death, and executed on 7 December 1724.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974250}
{"src_title": "Lesser horseshoe bat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Physical description.", "content": "The lesser horseshoe bat is one of the world's smallest bats, weighing only 5 to 9 grams, with a wingspan of 192–254 mm and a body length of 35–45 mm. It has strong feet that it uses to grasp rocks and branches, and can see well in spite of its small eyes. Like most bats, lesser horseshoe bats live in colonies and hunt their prey by echolocation, emitting ultrasound from specialized round pads in their mouth.  The base of its fur, which is soft and fluffy, is light grey in colour, with dorsal side fur smoky brown and the ventral side grey, with the exception of juvenile bats which are entirely dark grey. Ears and wing membranes are a light greyish brown.  When hunting they are quick and agile, often flying within five metres of the ground while avoiding contact with bushes and shrubs. The lesser horseshoe bat eats small insects, most of which are gleaned from stones and branches. Their favorite types of prey include flies, mosquitoes, butterflies, moths, and spiders. The average lifespan of \"Rhinolophus hipposideros\" is 3 years, although some individuals have been known to live far longer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mating.", "content": "Lesser horseshoe bats mate in the autumn. Females give birth to one pup, normally between mid-June and the beginning of July. Pups weigh around 1.8 grams at birth, opening their eyes after around 10 days and becoming independent at six to seven weeks of age. The bats hibernate during the winter months in dark caves, mines, old buildings, and sometimes in cellars.  Females become sexually mature within their first year, with a study in Czechoslovakia showing that about 15% of females give birth at one year of age. Animals have been seen to chase each other as a preliminary to mating, which is done with the male hanging himself behind and over the female.  Nurseries are often shared with other species, such as the greater mouse-eared bat, but there is no direct mixing with other species. The move to nurseries occurs from April onwards, with between 10 and 100 females present and between 2 and 20 males. Approximately two-thirds of females in a nursery roost give birth between mid-June and mid-July.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The lesser horseshoe bat lives in warmer regions in foothills and highland, in particular wooded areas or areas of limestone, where it roosts in caves. In summer its range has been recorded up to 1160 m above sea level, and up to 2000 m in the winter, with the highest known nursery roost at 950 m. The species is sedentary, with the average movement between summer and winter roosts between 5 and 10 kilometers, although the longest recorded distance is 153 kilometers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The species can be found in western Ireland and south-west Britain, with some larger populations in parts of Germany and the Bavarian foothills of the Alps. \"Rhinolophus hipposideros\" is widely distributed in the Mediterranean area, occurring in North Africa and on most larger islands to Asia Minor and around the Black Sea. In Asia, it can be found in Kashmir, the Near East, Iran, Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula, as well as part of East Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "The UK distribution of the lesser horseshoe bat can be found on the National Biodiversity Network website here, but they are mostly found in Wales and the Southwest of England. The species is threatened by a number of factors, including the disturbance or destruction of roosts, changes in agricultural practices (such as the increased use of insecticides, which reduce prey availability) and the loss of suitable foraging habitats.  However, the Bat Conservation Trust's Hibernation Survey shows numbers in the UK are increasing significantly - by an average of 4.5% yearly between 1999 and 2012, a 77.2% total increase during that period.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ireland.", "content": "The lesser horseshoe bat has been recorded in the counties Galway, South Mayo, Clare, Limerick, Cork and Kerry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Israel.", "content": "The lesser horseshoe bat is rare in Israel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Balearic Islands.", "content": "In the Balearic Islands, \"Rhinolophus hipposideros\" lives on all three of the main islands: Mallorca, Menorca and Ibiza, as well as the smaller islands Cabrera and Formentera. Roosts containing up to 50 individuals have been found in caves such as the Cova de Ca Na Rea (Ibiza), though most groups tend to be smaller. In the Balearics, the lesser horseshoe bat travels only short distances, usually around 2 km, and is also the most common bat species on Ibiza.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Echolocation.", "content": "The frequencies used by this bat species for echolocation lie between 93–111 kHz, have most energy at 110 kHz and have an average duration of 31.7 ms. Due to the frequency of their echolocation calls there are overlaps with those of the Mediterranean horseshoe bat and Mehely's horseshoe bat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "This species is protected in the European Union under the Habitats Directive. This species is also listed in the Berne Convention and is specifically targeted by the UNEP-EUROBATS convention. Several national legislation are also protecting this species and its habitats in many countries and regions.  In order to highlight the importance of protecting this species at the European scale, this species was selected as bat species of the Year 2018-2019 by the pan-European NGO BatLife Europe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The lesser horseshoe bat (\"Rhinolophus hipposideros\") is a type of small European insectivorous bat, related to its larger cousin, the greater horseshoe bat. As with all horseshoe bats, the species gets its name from its distinctive horseshoe-shaped noseleaf.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974251}
{"src_title": "Joseph Bertrand", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Bertrand was a professor at the École Polytechnique and Collège de France. He was a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences and was its permanent secretary for twenty-six years. He was the son of physician Alexandre Jacques François Bertrand and the brother of archaeologist Alexandre Bertrand. His father died when Joseph was only nine years old, but that did not stand in his way of learning and understanding algebraic and elementary geometric concepts, and he also could speak Latin fluently, all when he was of the same age of nine. At eleven years old he attended the course of the École Polytechnique as an auditor (open courses). From age eleven to seventeen, he obtained two bachelor's degrees, a license and a PhD with a thesis on the mathematical theory of electricity and is admitted first to the 1839 entrance examination of the École Polytechnique.  He conjectured, in 1845, that there is at least one prime between \"n\" and 2\"n\" − 2 for every \"n\" > 3. Chebyshev proved this conjecture, now called Bertrand's postulate, in 1850. He was also famous for a paradox in the field of probability, now known as Bertrand's Paradox. There is another paradox in game theory that is named after him, called the Bertrand Paradox. In 1849, he was the first to define real numbers using what is now called a Dedekind cut.  Bertrand translated into French Carl Friedrich Gauss's work on the theory of errors and the method of least squares.  In the field of economics he reviewed the work on oligopoly theory, specifically the Cournot Competition Model (1838) of French mathematician Antoine Augustin Cournot. His Bertrand Competition Model (1883) argued that Cournot had reached a very misleading conclusion, and he reworked it using prices rather than quantities as the strategic variables, thus showing that the equilibrium price was simply the competitive price.  His book Thermodynamique points out in Chapter XII, that thermodynamic entropy and temperature are only defined for reversible processes. He was one of the first people to point this out.  In 1858 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Louis François Bertrand (11 March 1822 – 5 April 1900) was a French mathematician who worked in the fields of number theory, differential geometry, probability theory, economics and thermodynamics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974252}
{"src_title": "Giuliano Amato", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Turin into a Sicilian family, Amato grew up in Tuscany. He received a first degree in law from the University of Pisa in 1960, while attending the prestigious Collegio Medico-Giuridico of the Scuola Normale Superiore, which today is Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, and a master's degree in comparative law from Columbia Law School in 1963. After teaching at the Universities of Modena, Perugia and Florence, he worked as professor of Italian and Comparative Constitutional Law at the University of Rome La Sapienza from 1975 to 1997.  Amato began his political career in 1958, when he joined the Italian Socialist Party. He was a Member of Parliament from 1983 to 1993. He was Undersecretary of State to the Prime Minister's office from 1983 to 1987, Deputy Prime Minister from 1987 to 1988, and Minister for the Treasury from 1987 to 1989.  From June 1992 to April 1993, Amato served as Prime Minister. During those ten months, a series of corruption scandals rocked Italy and swept away almost an entire class of political leaders. Amato himself was never implicated, notwithstanding how close he was to Bettino Craxi, a central figure in the corruption system.  As Prime Minister, Amato responded effectively to two devaluations of the lira in the wake of currency speculation that led Italy to be expelled from the European Monetary System by cutting the budget deficit drastically, thus taking the first steps in the road that would bring Italy to adopt the Euro.  At a point, his government was harshly contested because of a decree that suddenly moved the competence for corruption investigations into the hands of the police, which, being controlled directly by the government, would have not been independent. Fearing that the new system would have effectively blocked investigations on political corruption, Italians took to the streets in massive, spontaneous rallies. President Oscar Luigi Scalfaro refused to sign the decree, deeming it blatantly unconstitutional. While his justice minister Giovanni Conso took the blame, it has been disputed whether Amato was a victim of circumstances or whether he really wanted to save the corruption-ridden system.  At the end of his period as Prime Minister, Amato gave a speech to the Parliament in which he solemnly promised that at end of his term he would retire from politics, stressing that his was a true commitment and that he would not break this promise as some politicians (whom he characterized as \"mandarins\") used to do. However, this promise was short-lived; Amato has regularly come under criticism for having made such a solemn commitment and failìng to keep it.  Amato was President of the Italian antitrust authority from November 1994 to December 1997, Minister for Institutional Reforms in Massimo D'Alema's first government from October 1998 to May 1999, and, once again, Treasury Minister in D'Alema's second government from December 1999 to April 2000. Amato was nearly nominated for the Presidency of the Republic and was a close contender to replace Michel Camdessus as head of the International Monetary Fund. Amato served as Prime Minister again from April 2000 to May 2001. He promoted economic competitiveness as well as social protection. In addition to economic reforms, he pushed ahead with political and institutional reforms, trying to deal with a weak executive and fragmented legislature.  In December 2001, European Union leaders at the European Council in Laeken appointed Amato and former Belgian Prime Minister Jean-Luc Dehaene to be Vice Presidents of the Convention on the Future of Europe to assist former French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing in the drafting of the new European Constitution. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2002.  Amato was a Member of the Senate representing the constituency of Grosseto in Tuscany from 2001 to 2006. In 2006, he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the Olive Tree list, and he was named Minister of the Interior in Romano Prodi's centre-left government.  Since 2010, he also leads advanced seminar classes at the Master in International Public Affairs of the LUISS School of Government.  Amato is married to Ms Diana Amato, a professor of Family Law at the University of Rome. They have two children, Elisa and Lorenzo, and five grandchildren, Giulia, Marco, Simone, Elena and Irene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Justice Project.", "content": "Giuliano Amato serves as an Honorary Co-Chair for the World Justice Project. The World Justice Project works to lead a global, multidisciplinary effort to strengthen the Rule of Law for the development of communities of opportunity and equity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President of Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies.", "content": "In 2012 Giuliano Amato was appointed as President of the Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies. As alumnus of Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies (attending the prestigious Collegio Medico-Giuridico of the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, which today is Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies), he guarded close contact with the university, previously heading \"Sant'Anna Alumni Association\".  He was appointed as President of the Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies on 21 February 2012 by the Academic Senate of Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies and by a Decree of the Minister Francesco Profumo of the Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (Italy). He resigned from his post at the Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies after being appointed to the Constitutional Court in September 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giuliano Amato (; born 13 May 1938) is an Italian politician who twice served as Prime Minister of Italy, first from 1992 to 1993 and again from 2000 to 2001. Later, he was Vice President of the Convention on the Future of Europe that drafted the European Constitution and headed the Amato Group. He is commonly nicknamed \"dottor Sottile\", (which means \"Doctor Subtilis\", the sobriquet of the Scottish Medieval philosopher John Duns Scotus, a reference to his political subtlety). From 2006 to 2008, he was the Minister of the Interior in Romano Prodi's government. On 12 September 2013, President Giorgio Napolitano appointed him to the Constitutional Court of Italy, where he has served since then.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974253}
{"src_title": "Agacher Strip War", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Both Mali and Burkina Faso thought that the Agacher Strip contained substantial natural resources and hoped that these resources would help improve their dire economic situations.  Some observers believe that the dispute may have been deliberately provoked to divert attention from domestic problems brought on by the return of military rule in Burkina Faso (then Upper Volta) and the growing unpopularity of Moussa Traoré's military regime in Mali.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early skirmishes.", "content": "The dispute between the two countries first erupted into an armed conflict on November 25, 1974. The conflict involved only a few border skirmishes with exchanges of small arms-fire in late November and mid-December 1974. Notably, there was a lack of military operations and significant fighting; casualties on both sides were minimal.  As tensions escalated, mediation efforts by President Gnassingbé Eyadéma of Togo and President Seyni Kountché of Niger to resolve the conflict proved unsuccessful. Sporadic clashes continued into early 1975 with numerous reprisals against Malians in Upper Volta, prompting the Organization of African Unity to create a commission to mediate the crisis. The organization recommended that a neutral technical commission be created to demarcate the boundary. Both countries accepted this proposal at a meeting held on June 18, 1975, in Lomé, Togo.  Beginning in 1977, Upper Volta and Mali engaged in political mediation through the \"Non-Aggression and Defense Aid Agreement\" (ANAD), a regional West African group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Christmas War (1985).", "content": "In 1983, military captain Thomas Sankara seized power in Burkina Faso in a coup and was tasked with resolving the country's many problems, including the Agacher Strip dispute. Negotiations between Sankara, Malian President Traoré, and the countries' top diplomats were strained. Additionally, under Sankara's rule, Burkina Faso expelled Drissa Keita, a Malian diplomat, further deteriorating bilateral relations. Some Burkina Faso newspapers accused Mali of preparing an invasion; Mali rejected the accusations and accused Burkina Faso of escalating tensions.  By 1985, both countries experienced several years of drought. Rainfall finally arrived in late 1985 but washed out the roads, hindering the distribution of food and medical supplies to the Agacher region. During this period, the Burkina Faso government organized a nationwide census. The census agents visited Fula camps in Mali, which sparked outrage from the Malian government, who saw it as a violation of their sovereignty. Reports about Burkina Faso ground troops present in the Agacher Strip also upset Mali because, although Burkina Faso believed they had sovereignty over the area, no formal deal had been made up to that point. Traoré publicly denounced the act and campaigned for African leaders to pressure Sankara. However, the Burkina Faso soldiers did not leave the area, escalating tensions further.  On December 25, 1985, the Malian military launched several ground attacks against Burkina Faso border posts and police stations. The Burkina Faso army responded by mobilizing soldiers in the region and launching counterattacks. However, the Malian army, which was better prepared and organized, conducted many successful assaults that captured several of the villages and outposts. The Libyan government attempted to negotiate a ceasefire on December 26, but negotiations failed. The war culminated in an airstrike by the Malian Air Force on a marketplace in Ouahigouya, in which a number of civilians were killed. A second ceasefire instigated by the governments of Nigeria and Libya on December 29 also failed. The countries agreed to a third ANAD-sponsored truce on December 30, finally ending what became known as the \"Christmas War.\" Estimates of the total number of casualties from the war range from 59 to 300 people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "In mid-January 1986, at a \"Non-Aggression and Defense Aid Agreement\" summit in Yamoussoukro, Ivory Coast, presidents Moussa Traoré of Mali and Thomas Sankara of Burkina Faso agreed to withdraw their troops to pre-war positions. Prisoners of War were exchanged in February and full diplomatic relations were restored in June. Despite this, the dispute remained unresolved. The case was taken to the International Court of Justice.  In the ICJ's judgement delivered on December 22, 1986, the court split the of disputed territory almost equally. Mali received the western portion and Burkina Faso the eastern. President Traoré called the settlement \"very satisfying\" and a victory for the \"brother peoples\" of Mali and Burkina Faso.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Agacher Strip War was a war fought by Burkina Faso and Mali over a long strip of land located in the northern Burkina Faso province of Oudalan. The area, thought to contain considerable amounts of natural gas and mineral resources, was the center of a long-term border dispute between the two countries that erupted into an armed conflict on two occasions (in 1974 and 1985).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974254}
{"src_title": "Paul Reuter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Reuter was born as Israel Beer Josaphat in Kassel, Germany.. His father, Samuel Levi Josaphat, was a rabbi. His mother was Betty Sanders. In Göttingen, Reuter met Carl Friedrich Gauss, who was experimenting with the transmission of electrical signals via wire.  On 29 October 1845, he moved to London, calling himself Julius Josaphat. On 16 November 1845, he converted to Christianity in a ceremony at St. George's German Lutheran Chapel in London, and changed his name to Paul Julius Reuter. One week later, in the same chapel, he married Ida Maria Elizabeth Clementine Magnus of Berlin, daughter of a German banker.  A former bank clerk, in 1847 he became a partner in Reuter and Stargardt, a Berlin book-publishing firm. The distribution of radical pamphlets by the firm at the beginning of the 1848 Revolution may have focused official scrutiny on Reuter. Later that year, he left for Paris and worked in Charles-Louis Havas' news agency, Agence Havas, the future Agence France Presse.  As telegraphy evolved, Reuter founded his own news agency in Aachen, transferring messages between Brussels and Aachen using carrier pigeons and thus linking Berlin and Paris. Speedier than the post train, pigeons gave Reuter faster access to financial news from the Paris stock exchange. Eventually, pigeons were replaced by a direct telegraph link.  A telegraph line was under construction between Britain and Europe, and so Reuter moved to London, renting an office near the Stock Exchange. In 1863, he privately erected a telegraph link to Crookhaven, the farthest south-west point of Ireland. On nearing Crookhaven, ships from America threw canisters containing news into the sea. These were retrieved by Reuters and telegraphed directly to London, arriving long before the ships reached Cork.  In 1872, Nasir al-Din Shah, the Shah of Iran, signed an agreement with Reuter, a concession selling him all railroads, canals, most of the mines, all the government's forests, and all future industries of Iran. George Curzon called it \"The most complete and extraordinary surrender of the entire industrial resources of a kingdom into foreign hands that has ever been dreamed of\". The Reuter concession was immediately denounced by all ranks of businessmen, clergy, and nationalists of Persia, and it was quickly forced into cancellation.  On 17 March 1857, Reuter was naturalised as a British subject. On 7 September 1871, the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha granted him the noble title of \"Freiherr\" (Baron). In November 1891, Queen Victoria granted him (and his subsequent male-line successors) the right to use that German title (listed as \"Baron von Reuter\") in Britain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "In 1845, Reuter married Ida Maria Magnus, daughter of Friedrich Martin Magnus, a German banker in Berlin. They had three sons: Herbert, who became the 2nd Baron (succeeded by his son Hubert as 3rd Baron), George and Alfred. Clementine Maria, one of his daughters, married Count Otto Stenbock, and after Stenbock's death, Sir Herbert Chermside, a governor of Queensland.  The 2nd Baron's brother George had two sons, Oliver (who became the 4th Baron) and Ronald. The last member of the family, Marguerite, Baroness de Reuter, widow of the 4th Baron and Paul Julius Reuter's granddaughter-in-law, died on 25 January 2009, at the age of 96.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and commemoration.", "content": "Reuter died in 1899 at Villa Reuter in Nice, France. He was buried in West Norwood Cemetery in south London.  Reuter was portrayed by Edward G. Robinson in the Warner Bros. biographical film \"A Dispatch from Reuter's\" (1941).  The Reuters News Agency commemorated the 100th anniversary of the death of its founder by launching a university award (the Paul Julius Reuter Innovation Award) in Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul Julius Freiherr von Reuter (Baron von Reuter; 21 July 1816 – 25 February 1899) was a German-born, British entrepreneur who was a pioneer of telegraphy and news reporting. He was a reporter and media owner, and the founder of Reuters News Agency, which became part of the Thomson Reuters conglomerate in 2008.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974255}
{"src_title": "Agnès Sorel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life in the royal court.", "content": "Born in 1422, the daughter of Jean Soreau and Catherine de Maignelais, Sorel was 20 or 21 years old when she was first introduced to King Charles. At that time, she was holding a position in the household of Rene I of Naples, as a maid of honour to his consort Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine. Sorel then went on to serve as the lady-in-waiting for Marie d'Anjou, Charles VII of France's wife and Isabella's sister in law. She would soon become his mistress. The King gave her the Château de Loches (where he had been persuaded by Joan of Arc to be crowned King of France) as her private residence.  Soon, her presence was felt at the royal court in Chinon where her company was alleged to have brought the king out of a protracted depression. She had a very strong influence on the king, and that, in addition to her extravagant tastes, earned her powerful enemies at court. Sorel would become the first officially recognized royal mistress of a French king.  Sorel generated scandal at court, particularly for popularizing the fashion of low-cut gowns. This behavior was both imitated and scorned. Jean Juvénal des Ursins, the archbishop of Reims, counseled the king to correct such fashions as \"front openings through which one sees the teats, nipples, and breasts of women\" (\"ouvertures de par devant, par lesquelles on voit les tetins, tettes et seing des femmes\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children and death.", "content": "Agnès gave birth to four daughters fathered by the king:  While pregnant with their fourth child, she journeyed from Chinon in midwinter to join Charles on the campaign of 1450 in Jumièges, wanting to be with him as moral support. There, she suddenly became ill, and after giving birth, she and her daughter died on 9 February 1450. She was 28 years old. While the cause of death was originally thought to be dysentery, French forensic scientist Philippe Charlier suggested in 2005 that Agnès died of mercury poisoning. He offered no opinion about whether she was murdered. Mercury was sometimes used in cosmetic preparations or to treat worms, and such use might have brought about her death. She was interred in the Church of St. Ours, in Loches. Her heart was buried in the Benedictine Abbey of Jumièges.  Charles' son, the future King Louis XI, had been in open revolt against his father for the previous four years. It has been speculated that he had Agnès poisoned in order to remove what he may have considered her undue influence over the king. It was also speculated that French financier, noble and minister Jacques Cœur poisoned her, though that theory is widely discredited as having been an attempt to remove Coeur from the French court.  Her cousin Antoinette de Maignelais took her place as mistress to the king after her death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Sorel plays a main part in Voltaire's \"La Pucelle\". Two Russian operas from the late 19th century also portray her, along with Charles VII: Pyotr Tchaikovsky's \"The Maid of Orleans\" and César Cui's \"The Saracen\". She is also a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece \"The Dinner Party\", being represented as one of the 999 names on the \"Heritage Floor.\" Two garments use Sorel's name in their descriptors, Agnes Sorel bodice, Agnes Sorel corsage and a fashion style named after her as well, Agnes Sorel style, which is described as a \"princess\" style of dressing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agnès Sorel (1422 – 9 February 1450), known by the sobriquet \"Dame de beauté\" (Lady of Beauty), was a favourite, and chief mistress, of King Charles VII of France, by whom she bore four daughters. She is considered the first officially recognized royal mistress of a French king. She was the subject of several contemporary paintings and works of art, including Jean Fouquet's \"Virgin and Child Surrounded by Angels\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974256}
{"src_title": "Gironde estuary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Islands of the Gironde.", "content": "Within the estuary between the Pointe de Grave at the seaward end and the Bec d'Ambès are a series of small islands.  The Île de Patiras is 200 ha in size with a lighthouse to aid navigation in the estuary. Vines and maize are grown there.  The Île Sans-Pain and Île Bouchaud are now virtually joined due to progressive silting and are referred to as the Ile Nouvelle. They total about 265 ha and are owned by the Conservatoire du Littoral and managed by the Department of the Gironde.  The Île Paté is about 13 ha and in 2006 was privately owned. The island has a historic fort built between 1685 and 1693 as part of the national fortification program masterminded by Vauban. The building is oval in shape, about 12 metres high and was originally equipped with about 30 cannon. Fort Paté, together with Fort Médoc and the ancient \"citadelle\" of Blaye, defended the estuary and Bordeaux. During the French Revolution the fort was used as a prison for priests.  In 2006, the Conseil General decided to make the island a ZPENS (zone de pre-emption espace naturel sensible). ZPENS status protects the island from development. If the owner wishes to sell the island then the Department has a pre-emptive right. After two months the Conservatoire National du Littoral has the next pre-emptive right and then after another 2 months the town of Blaye has a final pre-emptive right to acquire the island.  The Île Verte, Île du Nord and Île Cazeau comprise about 800 ha and because of their natural state provide a fine stopping off place for migrating birds.  The Île Margaux is 25 ha and in 2005 had 14 ha devoted to vines and is part of the world famous Médoc wine region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second World War.", "content": "In December 1942, during the Second World War, Operation Frankton took place with the goal of destroying ships moored at the docks in Bordeaux.  The plan was for six kayaks (called \"canoes\" by the British) to be taken to the area of the Gironde estuary by submarine. Twelve men would then paddle by night to Bordeaux. On arrival they would attack the docked cargo ships with limpet mines and then escape overland to Spain.  The raid was carried out by a small unit of Royal Marines known as the Royal Marines Boom Patrol Detachment (RMBPD), part of Combined Operations, led by Herbert 'Blondie' Hasler. They succeeded in slipping into the harbour unnoticed and sank one ship and severely damaged four others. Only two of the men returned to the UK alive, but they did enough damage to greatly disrupt the use of the harbour for the following months.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gironde (,, ; ) is a navigable estuary (though often referred to as a river) in southwest France and is formed from the meeting of the rivers Dordogne and Garonne just downstream of the centre of Bordeaux. Covering around, it is the largest estuary in western Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974257}
{"src_title": "Jacques Charles", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Charles was born in Beaugency-sur-Loire in 1746. He married Julie Françoise Bouchaud des Hérettes (1784–1817), a creole woman 37 years younger than himself. Reportedly the poet Alphonse de Lamartine also fell in love with her, and she was the inspiration for \"Elvire\" in his 1820 autobiographical \"Poetic Meditation\" \"Le Lac\" (\"The Lake\"), which describes in retrospect the fervent love shared by a couple from the point of view of the bereaved man. Charles outlived her and died in Paris on April 7, 1823.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hydrogen balloon flights.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First hydrogen balloon.", "content": "Charles conceived the idea that hydrogen would be a suitable lifting agent for balloons having studied the work of Robert Boyle's \"Boyle's Law\" which was published 100 years earlier in 1662, and of his contemporaries Henry Cavendish, Joseph Black and Tiberius Cavallo. He designed the craft and then worked in conjunction with the Robert brothers, Anne-Jean and Nicolas-Louis, to build it in their workshop at the \"Place des Victoires\" in Paris. The brothers invented the methodology for the lightweight, airtight gas bag by dissolving rubber in a solution of turpentine and varnished the sheets of silk that were stitched together to make the main envelope. They used alternate strips of red and white silk, but the discolouration of the varnishing/rubberising process left a red and yellow result.  Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers launched the world's first hydrogen filled balloon on August 27, 1783, from the Champ de Mars, (now the site of the Eiffel Tower) where Ben Franklin was among the crowd of onlookers. The balloon was comparatively small, a 35 cubic metre sphere of rubberised silk, and only capable of lifting about 9 kg (20 lb). It was filled with hydrogen that had been made by pouring nearly a quarter of a tonne of sulphuric acid onto a half a tonne of scrap iron. The hydrogen gas was fed into the balloon via lead pipes; but as it was not passed through cold water, great difficulty was experienced in filling the balloon completely (the gas was hot when produced, but as it cooled in the balloon, it contracted). Daily progress bulletins were issued on the inflation; and the crowd was so great that on the 26th the balloon was moved secretly by night to the Champ de Mars, a distance of 4 kilometres.  The balloon flew northwards for 45 minutes, pursued by chasers on horseback, and landed 21 kilometers away in the village of Gonesse where the reportedly terrified local peasants destroyed it with pitchforks or knives. The project was funded by a subscription organised by Barthelemy Faujas de Saint-Fond.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First manned hydrogen balloon flight.", "content": "At 13:45 (or 1:45 PM) on December 1, 1783 Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers launched a new manned balloon from the Jardin des Tuileries in Paris. Jacques Charles was accompanied by Nicolas-Louis Robert as co-pilot of the 380-cubic-metre, hydrogen-filled balloon. The envelope was fitted with a hydrogen release valve and was covered with a net from which the basket was suspended. Sand ballast was used to control altitude. They ascended to a height of about 1,800 feet (550 m) and landed at sunset in Nesles-la-Vallée after a 2-hour 5 minute flight covering 36 km. The chasers on horseback, who were led by the Duc de Chartres, held down the craft while both Charles and Nicolas-Louis alighted.  Jacques Charles then decided to ascend again, but alone this time because the balloon had lost some of its hydrogen. This time it ascended rapidly to an altitude of about 3,000 metres, where he saw the sun again. He began suffering from aching pain in his ears so he \"valved\" to release gas, and descended to land gently about 3 km away at. Unlike the Robert brothers, Charles never flew again, although a hydrogen balloon came to be called a \"Charlière\" in his honour.  It is reported that 400,000 spectators witnessed the launch, and that hundreds had paid one crown each to help finance the construction and receive access to a \"special enclosure\" for a \"close-up view\" of the take-off. Among the \"special enclosure\" crowd was Benjamin Franklin, the diplomatic representative of the United States of America. Also present was Joseph Montgolfier, whom Charles honoured by asking him to release the small, bright green, pilot balloon to assess the wind and weather conditions.  This event took place ten days after the world's first manned balloon flight by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier using a Montgolfier brothers hot air balloon. Simon Schama wrote in \"\":", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further ballooning activities.", "content": "The next project of Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers was to build an elongated, steerable craft that followed Jean Baptiste Meusnier's proposals (1783–85) for a dirigible balloon. The design incorporated Meusnier's internal \"ballonnet\" (air cells), a rudder and a method of propulsion.  Jacques Charles chose never to fly in this craft, but on July 15, 1784 the brothers flew for 45 minutes from Saint-Cloud to Meudon with M. Collin-Hullin and Louis Philippe II, the Duke of Chartres in \"La Caroline\". It was fitted with oars for propulsion and direction, but they proved useless. The absence of a 'gas release valve' meant that the duke had to slash the 'ballonnet' to prevent rupture when they reached an altitude of circa.  On September 19, 1784 the Robert brothers and M. Collin-Hullin flew for 6 hours 40 minutes, covering 186 km from Paris to Beuvry near Béthune. This was the first flight over 100 km.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inventions.", "content": "Charles developed several useful inventions, including a valve to let hydrogen out of the balloon and other devices, such as the hydrometer and reflecting goniometer, and improved the Gravesand heliostat and Fahrenheit's aerometer. In addition he confirmed Benjamin Franklin's electrical experiments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charles's law.", "content": "Charles's law (also known as the law of volumes), describing how gases tend to expand when heated, was first published by natural philosopher Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802, but he credited it to unpublished work by Jacques Charles, and named the law in his honour.  Around 1787 Charles did an experiment where he filled 5 balloons to the same volume with different gases. He then raised the temperature of the balloons to 80 °C and noticed that they all increased in volume by the same amount. This experiment was referenced by Gay-Lussac in 1802 when he published a paper on the precise relationship between the volume and temperature of a gas. Charles' law states that under constant pressure, an ideal gas' volume is proportional to its absolute temperature. The volume of a gas at constant pressure increases linearly with the absolute temperature of the gas. The formula he created was \"V\"/\"T\" = \"V\"/\"T\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Jacques Charles was elected to the Académie des Sciences, in 1795, and subsequently became professor of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemoration.", "content": "A stele at Nesles-la-Vallée marks the Charles-Robert flight of 1 December 1783. Image of commemorative stele  The \"Coupe Charles et Robert\" was an international ballooning event that was run in 1983 in parallel with the Gordon Bennett Cup.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacques Alexandre César Charles (November 12, 1746 – April 7, 1823) was a French inventor, scientist, mathematician, and balloonist. Charles wrote almost nothing about mathematics, and most of what has been credited to him was due to mistaking him with another Jacques Charles, also a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, entering on May 12, 1785. He was sometimes called Charles the Geometer. (See J. B. Gough, Charles the Obscure, Isis 70, #254, pgs 576-579) Charles and the Robert brothers launched the world's first unmanned hydrogen-filled gas balloon in August 1783; then in December 1783, Charles and his co-pilot Nicolas-Louis Robert ascended to a height of about 1,800 feet (550 m) in a manned gas balloon. Their pioneering use of hydrogen for lift led to this type of balloon being named a \"Charlière\" (as opposed to a Montgolfière which used hot air).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974258}
{"src_title": "Louise of Savoy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "Louise of Savoy was born at Pont-d'Ain, the eldest daughter of Philip II, Duke of Savoy and his first wife, Margaret of Bourbon. Her brother, Philibert II, Duke of Savoy, succeeded her father as ruler of the duchy and head of the House of Savoy. He was, in turn, succeeded by their half-brother Charles III, Duke of Savoy.  Because her mother died when she was only seven, she was brought up by Anne de Beaujeu,who was regent of France for her brother Charles VIII. At Amboise she met Margaret of Austria, who was betrothed to the young king and with whom Louise would negotiate peace several decades later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "At age eleven, Louise married Charles of Orléans, Count of Angoulême, on 16 February 1488 in Paris. She only began living with him when she was fifteen, though. Despite her husband having two mistresses, the marriage was not unhappy and they shared a love for books.  The household of Charles was presided over by his châtelaine Antoinette de Polignac, Dame de Combronde, by whom he had two illegitimate daughters, Jeanne of Angoulême and Madeleine. Antoinette became Louise's lady-in-waiting and confidante. Her children were raised alongside Louise's own. Charles had another illegitimate daughter, Souveraine, by Jeanne le Conte, who also lived in the Angoulême chateau. She would later arrange marriages for her husband's illegitimate children.  Their first child, Marguerite, was born on 11 April 1492; their second child, Francis, was born on 12 September 1494.  When her husband fell ill after going out riding in the winter of 1495, she nursed him and suffered much grief when he died on 1 January 1496.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Widowed and motherhood.", "content": "When she was widowed at the young age of 19, Louise deftly maneuvered her children into a position that would secure for each of them a promising future. Though they remained in Cognac for two years, she moved her family to court at the ascension of King Louis XII, her husband's cousin.  Louise had a keen awareness for the intricacies of politics and diplomacy, and was deeply interested in the advances of arts and sciences in Renaissance Italy. She made certain that her children were educated in the spirit of the Italian Renaissance, also helped by her Italian confessor, Cristoforo Numai from Forlì. She commissioned books specifically for them and she taught Francis Italian and Spanish.  When Louis XII became ill in 1505, he determined that Francis should succeed him and both Louise and his wife Anne of Brittany should be part of the regency council. He recovered and Francis became a favourite of the king, who eventually gave him his daughter Claude of France in marriage on 8 May 1514. Following the marriage, Louis XII designated Francis as his heir.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mother of the King.", "content": "With the death of Louis XII on 1 January 1515, Francis became king of France. On 4 February 1515, Louise was named Duchess of Angoulême, and on 15 April 1524, Duchess of Anjou.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Bourbon inheritance.", "content": "Her mother having been one of the sisters of the last dukes of the main branch of Bourbon, after the death of Suzanne, Duchess of Bourbon, in 1521, Louise, on basis of proximity of blood, advanced claims to the Duchy of Auvergne and other possessions of the Bourbons. This led her (supported by her son) in rivalry against Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, Suzanne's widower, whom she proposed to marry in order to settle the Bourbon inheritance issue. When her suit was insultingly rejected by Charles, Louise instigated efforts to undermine him. This led to Charles' exile and his attempt to regain his lost status by waging war against the King. He died in 1527 having failed to regain his lost lands and titles. Louise recovered Auvergne from confiscations and became duchess in the name of her son.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regent.", "content": "Louise of Savoy remained politically active on behalf of her son in the early years of his reign especially. During his absences, she acted as regent on his behalf. Louise served as the Regent of France in 1515, during the king's war in Italy, and again from 1525 to 1526, when the king was at war and during his time as prisoner in Spain.  In 1524, she sent one of her servants, Jean-Joachim de Passano, to London to open unofficial negotiations with Cardinal Wolsey for a peace treaty; the negotiations were not a success, although they may have prepared the ground for the Treaty of the More the following year. She initiated friendly relations with the Ottoman Empire by sending a mission to Suleiman the Magnificent requesting assistance, but the mission was lost on its way in Bosnia. In December 1525, a second mission was sent, led by John Frangipani, which managed to reach Constantinople, the Ottoman capital, with secret letters asking for the deliverance of King Francis I and an attack on the Habsburg. Frangipani returned with a positive answer from Suleiman, on 6 February 1526, initiating the first steps of a Franco-Ottoman alliance.  She was the principal negotiator for the Treaty of Cambrai between France and the Holy Roman Empire, concluded on 3 August 1529. That treaty, called \"the Ladies' Peace\", put an end to the second Italian war between the head of the Valois dynasty, Francis I of France, and the head of the Habsburg dynasty, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The Treaty temporarily confirmed Habsburg hegemony in Italy. The treaty was signed by Louise of Savoy for France and her sister-in-law, Margaret of Austria, for the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Louise of Savoy died on 22 September 1531, in Grez-sur-Loing. Her remains were entombed at Saint-Denis in Paris. After her death her lands, including Auvergne, merged in the crown. Through her daughter Marguerite (Queen of Navarre) and her granddaughter Jeanne d'Albret, she is the ancestress of the Bourbon kings of France, as her great-grandson, Henry of Navarre, succeeded as Henry IV of France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louise of Savoy (11 September 1476 – 22 September 1531) was a French noble and regent, Duchess \"suo jure\" of Auvergne and Bourbon, Duchess of Nemours, and the mother of King Francis I. She was politically active and served as the regent of France in 1515, in 1525–1526 and in 1529.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974259}
{"src_title": "Massimo D'Alema", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Massimo D'Alema was born in Rome on 20 April 1949, the son of Giuseppe D'Alema, a communist politician. He is married to Linda Giuva, a professor at the University of Siena, and has two children, Giulia and Francesco. He later became a notable member of the Italian Communist Party (PCI), part of which in 1991 gave origin to the Democratic Party of the Left (PDS), and in 1998 to the Democrats of the Left (DS). In 1998, succeeding Romano Prodi, he became Prime Minister, as the leader of The Olive Tree centre-left coalition. He was the first former Communist to become prime minister of a NATO country and the first Prime Minister of Italy born after Italy became a Republic in 1946.  While D'Alema was Prime Minister, Italy took part in the NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1999. The attack was supported by Silvio Berlusconi and the centre-right opposition, but the far left strongly contested it.  In the internal life of his party, mostly during its transition from PCI to PDS, D'Alema stressed that its roots in Marxism should be renovated, with the aim to create a modern Western European social-democratic party. He has been the director of \"L'Unità\", formerly the official newspaper of the Italian Communist Party, which subsequently became the newspaper of the Democrats of the Left.  D'Alema was Member of the European Parliament for Southern Italy with the Democrats of the Left, part of the Party of European Socialists group, and sat on the European Parliament's Committee on Fisheries and its Committee on Foreign Affairs, until he stood down following his election to the Italian Chamber of Deputies.  Following Romano Prodi's win in the April 2006 election, D'Alema was initially tipped to become President of the Italian Republic once the Chamber of Deputies reconvened, but D'Alema himself stepped back, endorsing the official candidate of the centre-left coalition, Giorgio Napolitano, who was elected. Immediately following the April 2006 election, he was proposed as the future President of the Chamber of Deputies. The Communist Refoundation Party, however, strongly pushed for Fausto Bertinotti to become the next President. After a couple of days of heated debate, D'Alema stepped back to prevent a fracture between political parties, an act applauded by his allies. The same month, he was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs in the new Prodi government. He served in those posts until 2008, when Prodi's government fell and Berlusconi's right-wing coalition prevailed in the election that followed in April 2008. D'Alema was re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies in this election as part of the recently formed Democratic Party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict.", "content": "While Italian Foreign Minister in the 2006–2008 Romano Prodi center-left government, Massimo D'Alema took a very pro-active diplomatic stance during the 2006 Lebanon War. Italy led negotiations with the Israeli foreign minister Tzipi Livni and was proposed by Israel to head the multinational peacekeeping mission Unifil, although the dangers of the mission for Italian troops sparked warnings from the center-right opposition that it could prove a \"kamikaze\" mission, with the peacekeepers sandwiched between Israel and the well-armed Hezbollah. D’Alema pledged Italy’s willingness to enforce the United Nations resolution on Lebanon and urged other European Union member states to do the same because the stability of the Middle East should be a chief concern for Europeans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "On the European scene.", "content": "D'Alema was briefly a Member of the European Parliament from 2004 to 2006. Since 2003 he has been member of the scientific committee of Michel Rocard and Dominique Strauss-Kahn's association \"A gauche en Europe\". He still figures on the European scene; he signed the Soros letter ('As concerned Europeans') and has called for a stronger European integration.  Three year after the peace-keeping role in the 2006 Israeli-Lebanon war, D'Alema became one of the favourite candidates for the charges of president of the European Council, high representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, or secretary-general for the Council Secretariat, without being appointed.  Since 30 June 2010 he has been the president of the Foundation for European Progressive Studies (FEPS), the political foundation of the Party of European Socialists.  D'Alema has been a friend of the Italian banker and Freemason Vincenzo De Bustis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "\"See also:\" 2004 European Parliament election in Italy", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "Massimo D'Alema published eight books, half of which with Mondadori, which is controlled by Fininvest, the family holding company of Silvio Berlusconi.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Massimo D'Alema (; born 20 April 1949) is an Italian politician who was the 53rd Prime Minister from 1998 to 2000. Later he was Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs from 2006 to 2008. He is also a journalist and served for a time as national secretary of the Democratic Party of the Left (PDS). Sometimes media refers to him as \"Leader Maximo\", due to his first name Massimo, but also for his dominant position in the left-wing coalitions during the Second Republic. Earlier in his career he was a member of the Italian Communist Party, and he was the first former communist to become prime minister of a NATO country and yet the only former communist prime minister of Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974260}
{"src_title": "Princess Charlotte, Duchess of Valentinois", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Birth and adoption.", "content": "Born Charlotte Louise Juliette de Monaco in Constantine, French Algeria, she was the illegitimate daughter of Marie Juliette Louvet, a cabaret singer, and Louis, Hereditary Prince of Monaco and Duke of Valentinois, son and heir of Monaco's reigning monarch, Prince Albert I. Louis had no legitimate children or siblings, so even before he succeeded his father as Prince Louis II, the principality sought to forestall a succession crisis, anticipating that its neighbour, the French Republic, might take it amiss if the throne fell someday to Louis's legal next of kin. That heir was his cousin, Wilhelm, 2nd Duke of Urach, who, although born and raised in Monte Carlo as the son of Princess Florestine of Monaco, was a German subject, property owner and patrilineal relative of the kings of Württemberg. On 15 May 1911 a law was passed recognising Charlotte as Louis's daughter, and declaring her to be a dynastic member of the sovereign family. Though this act was later held to be invalid under the 1882 statutes, an Ordinance of 30 October 1918 was passed to allow her to be adopted into the dynasty instead. Louis adopted Charlotte in Paris on 16 May 1919, thereby entitling her to the surname Grimaldi, while her grandfather bestowed upon her the traditional title of the Principality's heir, Duchess of Valentinois, for life. Charlotte became heir presumptive to the throne as Hereditary Princess when her grandfather died and her father inherited the princely crown in 1922.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legality of adoption.", "content": "A shadow of doubt existed over the legality of this adoption. The Monegasque Civil Code (Articles 240 and 243) required that the adopting party be at least of age fifty and the adoptee twenty-one. The 1918 Ordinance changed the age limit to eighteen (Charlotte was twenty at the time) but not the other age limit; Louis was then only 48.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "In Monaco civilly on 18 March and religiously on 19 March 1920, Louis arranged Charlotte's marriage to the then Count Pierre de Polignac of Hennebont, Morbihan, Brittany, France, who, by the Prince's ordinance, took the surname Grimaldi and became a Prince of the Monegasque Royal Family. The couple had two children:  Their marriage was not, however, a happy one; they separated on 20 March 1930 due to his homosexuality, and Charlotte left him to live with her doctor and Italian lover, Dalmazzo. The couple were divorced on 18 February 1933 by ordinance of Prince Louis II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Late life.", "content": "On 30 May 1944, the day before her son's 21st birthday and in full agreement with her father, Charlotte renounced and ceded her rights to the throne to her son Rainier, subject to the stipulation that he did not predecease her. From this date she was no longer Hereditary Princess of Monaco, though she retained the title Princess Charlotte of Monaco.  Late in life she went to college, obtaining a degree in social work. After her son assumed the throne (in 1949), Princess Charlotte moved to live at Château de Marchais, the Grimaldi estate outside Paris. Despite the objections of her children who feared for her safety, she turned the estate into a rehabilitation centre for ex-convicts. She lived at the estate with her lover, a noted French former jewel thief named René Girier and nicknamed \"René la Canne\" (René the Cane).  She died in 1977 in Paris.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Charlotte of Monaco, Duchess of Valentinois (Charlotte Louise Juliette Grimaldi; 30 September 1898 – 16 November 1977), was the daughter of Louis II, Prince of Monaco, and the mother of Rainier III, Prince of Monaco. From 1922 until 1944, she was the Hereditary Princess of Monaco, heir presumptive to the throne.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974261}
{"src_title": "Alexander Siloti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Alexander Siloti was born on his father's estate near Kharkiv, Ukraine (then part of Imperial Russia). He studied piano at the Moscow Conservatory with Nikolai Zverev from 1871, then from 1875 under Nikolai Rubinstein, brother of the more famous Anton Rubinstein; from that year he also studied counterpoint under Sergei Taneyev, harmony under Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, and theory under Nikolai Hubert. He graduated with the Gold Medal in Piano in 1881. Siloti went to Weimar, Germany to further his studies with Franz Liszt, co-founding the Liszt-Verein in Leipzig, and making his professional debut on 19 November 1883. Returning to Russia in 1887, Siloti taught at the Moscow Conservatory, where his students included Alexander Goldenweiser, Leonid Maximov, and his first cousin Sergei Rachmaninoff. During this period he also began work as editor for Tchaikovsky, particularly on the First and Second piano concertos.  Siloti married Vera Tretyakova, herself a pianist and the daughter of wealthy industrialist and art collector Pavel Tretyakov. He left his post at the Conservatory in May 1891, and from 1892-1900 lived and toured in Europe with his wife and young children. He also toured New York City, Boston, Cincinnati and Chicago in 1898. As a conductor Siloti gave the world premiere of Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2 with the composer as soloist in 1901. From 1901–1903, he led the Moscow Philharmonic; from 1903–1917, he organized, financed, and conducted the influential Siloti Concerts in St Petersburg, collaborating with the critic and musicologist Alexander Ossovsky. He presented Leopold Auer, Pablo Casals, Feodor Chaliapin, George Enescu, Josef Hofmann, Wanda Landowska, Willem Mengelberg, Felix Mottl, Arthur Nikisch, Arnold Schoenberg and Felix Weingartner, and local and world premieres by Debussy, Elgar, Glazunov, Prokofiev, Rachmaninoff, Rimsky-Korsakov, Scriabin, Sibelius, Stravinsky and others. Ballet impresario Sergei Diaghilev first heard Stravinsky's music at one of the Siloti Concerts.  In the generation prior to 1917, Siloti was one of Russia's most important artists, with music by Arensky, Liszt, Rachmaninoff, Stravinsky and Tchaikovsky dedicated to him. In 1918, Siloti was appointed Intendant of the Mariinsky Theatre, but late the following year fled what had become Soviet Russia for England, finally settling in New York City in December 1921. From 1925-1942 he taught at the Juilliard School, performing occasionally in recital, and in November 1930 gave a legendary all-Liszt concert with Arturo Toscanini. His many students included Bertha Melnik, Marc Blitzstein, Gladys Ewart, and Eugene Istomin.  Siloti, who was one of the great practitioners of the art of transcription, wrote over 200 of these arrangements, as well as orchestral editions of the music of Bach, Beethoven, Liszt, Tchaikovsky and Vivaldi. Possibly his most famous transcription is the Prelude in B minor, based on a keyboard prelude by J. S. Bach. As a pianist Siloti made 8 piano rolls and 26 minutes of home-recorded discs. Carl Fischer has published a large anthology of his piano transcriptions, and Rowman and Littlefield has published the first full-scale Alexander Siloti biography. In 2014, the Alexander Siloti Archive at Stanford University was donated by author and alumnus Charles Barber. In six linear feet, it contains all of the correspondence, documentation, music and manuscripts acquired for the writing of the Siloti biography called \"Lost in the Stars\", and for publication of the 'Alexander Siloti Collection' of piano music.  Alexander Siloti is buried at the Russian Orthodox Convent Novo-Diveevo Cemetery, Nanuet, New York.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexander Ilyich Siloti (also Ziloti,, \"Aleksandr Iljič Ziloti\", ; 9 October 1863 – 8 December 1945) was a Russian pianist, conductor and composer. His daughter, Kyriena Siloti, was also a noted pianist and teacher in New York and Boston until her death in 1989, aged 94.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974262}
{"src_title": "Mielec", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first mention of a place called Mielec occurs in the thirteenth century in the 1229 bull of Pope Gregory IX. In the second half of the fourteenth century, \"Mielecka\" was mentioned in a list of parishes. The city of Mielec, part of Sandomierz Voivodeship, was founded on 17 March 1457, when King Casimir IV granted a charter to John Mielecki for the establishment of a city under the name of Nowy Targ. For unknown reasons John Mielecki did not go on to found the city; it was eventually established by his two sons, John and Bernard, by an Act of 18 December 1470. The Mielecki family owned the town of Mielec until the last of the Mieleckis died in 1771. Under their rule, there was intensive development of craft industries. In 1522, the first guild was founded. This was the blacksmiths' guild. It was followed by guilds of tailors, cobblers, potters, spinners, and weavers. The next owners of Mielec were the Ossolinski and Morsztyn families. In 1775, Anna Ossilinska married John Pieniazek, bringing as a dowry her share of part of the city. The next owner was Ignatius Suchorzewski, who married Pieniazek's daughter Paulina. Suchorzewski sold Mielec's property to Louis Starzenski in 1847, who then disposed of it ten years later to a Jewish family named Gross. The last owner of Mielec was the Oborski family in 1891.  In 1853, the county town of Mielec governed an area in which there were 106 settlements and 91 castral municipalities. In 1892, on Kosciuszko Street a new City Council building and police barracks were built. The development of the county town was interrupted by a huge fire, which destroyed three quarters of the city. This catastrophe caused the city to apply for a state loan of 12 crowns, the receipt of which led to the rapid development of the city. By the beginning of the twentieth century, the market place in Mielec was surrounded by brick houses, and in 1902, a courthouse was built. In 1912, a gymnasium (or academic high school) and the office of County Council were established and buildings constructed to house them.  World War I caused much damage to the infrastructure and economy of city of Mielec and the county. In the interwar years many streets were paved with cobbles. In addition, a private power plant, various craft workshops, and retail businesses were established. In 1934, the Mielec region suffered a huge flood that destroyed more than 11,000 households.  Mielec's economy has been based for the last 70 years around a single industrial enterprise, which transformed the city and increased its population sixfold. This process began in the 1930s, when Poland launched a significant expansion of its armaments industry, focused on building factories in the newly created Central Industrial Region (Polish: Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy, abbreviated COP). In 1936, a state-owned factory making airplane chassis was established (State Aviation Works - Airframe Fakcory No. 2) on the outskirts of the town, an area then known as Cyranka. The factory started to build a new bomber, the PZL P-37 or \"Łoś\" (English: \"Moose\"). In addition in the years 1937-1939 a large aviation factory belonging to the PZL company was set up. This new manufacturing industry necessitated the development of residential housing for factory workers and management personnel. After the outbreak of World War II, the city and the airplane company fell into the hands of the German invaders. The period of German occupation lasted from 9 September 1939 to 6 August 1944 in Mielec. In the years of 1939–1944, the factory produced German bombers, and from 1943 also manufactured the fighter plane He–297. The Nazis staffed much of the factory with slave labour. Initially, Jews from Mielec were enslaved in this forced labor camp. In 1942, the Jewish population of Mielec was deported to death camps, except for a few who remained as slave labour at the factory. Before the war, the Jewish population of Mielec was 2,800 out of a total population of 5,500. During the deportation, the factory hangars were the site of a mass murder of several hundred of Mielec's Jews, who were buried there. Subsequently, the factory used slave labour composed of Jews from other regions, prisoners of war, political prisoners, etc. Mielec Gestapo used Jewish informants, the so called \"V-leute\" in region to penetrate underground resistance and denounce hiding Jews;special barracks were set up in labour camp near Mielec for Jewish informers and their families, who were granted special privileges. These informants operated between 1942 and 1943 when they were finally executed by Gestapo themselves.After the war, a monument was placed at the factory with a vague inscription typical of holocaust memorials during the Communist era: \"To those employees of the Factory and the inhabitants from the area of both Polish and Jewish nationality murdered during World War II: A tribute from Mielec's Youth.\" Another mass grave of Jews with a monument may be found in one corner of the Mielec Catholic cemetery, where the victims of a 1941 Nazi atrocity were buried. During the German occupation, all of Mielec's Jewish institutions and the Jewish cemetery were destroyed, and also many of the Jewish homes.  After 1945, the factory became the largest aviation factory in Poland under the name WSK-Mielec \"Wytwórnia Sprzętu Komunikacyjnego\" (English: \"Transport Equipment Manufacturing Centre\"). This plant was the main source of employment for people in Mielec and surrounding communities. At first, the factory produced Soviet-designed planes under license. Thus, it was the primary production site of the widely used An-2 transport plane. It also manufactured Polish versions of the MiG-15 and MiG-17fighters. The factory also built planes designed in Poland such as the trainer plane TS-11 Iskra used by Poland and India. It produced over 16,000 aircraft, which were mainly licensed for export to the USSR.  After 1989 and the economic changes due to the fall of communism, factory orders declined and the plant encountered serious financial difficulties. It continued to produce successful aircraft types, but at much lower volumes than during the Cold War. Self-government of Mielec Township was established in 1990.  The situation changed in 1995, due to the establishment of Poland's first Special Economic Zone EURO-PARK Mielec. In 1998 the aviation plant changed its name to PZL-Mielec \"Polskie Zakłady Lotnicze\" (English: \"Polish Aviation Works\"). In 2007 the factory was acquired by Sikorsky (in 2015 Sikorsky was acquired by Lockheed Martin), and was planned to be the main production site of the export version UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter. Also Mielec has been the production site of sports-luxury car Leopard 6 Litre Roadster. Other products manufactured in the city:  In 2020 Mielec is close to enlarging the zone of SEZ EURO-PARK MIELEC", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "From the beginning of Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy, Mielec is commonly associated with PZL Mielec aviation factory.  The first Special Economic Zone in Poland, SEZ EURO-PARK MIELEC, has been founded in Mielec in 1995 and has a positive impact on economy of Mielec.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Elementary schools Junior High Schools  High Schools and Vo-Tech Schools  Colleges and universities", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin Towns - Sister Cities.", "content": "Mielec is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mielec () is the largest city and seat of Mielec County. Mielec is located in south-eastern Poland (Lesser Poland), in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship (Województwo Podkarpackie).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974263}
{"src_title": "Michaelstein Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In a deed of Emperor Otto I dated 956 giving property to Quedlinburg Abbey is mentioned the cave church dedicated to Saint Michael, also known as the \"Volkmarskeller\" (as it is still called) near the Eggeröder spring. The same deed also mentions the cell of the revered anchorite Liutbirg, which traditionally was held to have been sited in or near the cave church. The holiness of the site proved attractive, and a religious community formed round it.  In 1139 Beatrix II, abbess of Quedlinburg, founded a Cistercian monastery here, which was settled in 1146 by monks from Kamp Abbey. A few years later the new monastery was transferred away from the cave church to form Michaelstein Abbey on the present site. The abbey's growing property brought it great wealth, but it never settled any daughter houses of its own.  The monastery was sacked in 1525 by rebellious mobs during the German Peasants' War. The church was ruined beyond repair, and was never rebuilt; religious services were held from then on in the former chapter house. In 1533 the remaining buildings were ransacked and devastated by Wilhelm von Haugwitz. In 1543 the last Roman Catholic abbot resigned, and the abbey and its assets passed into the hands of the Counts of Blankenburg, who acted as abbots. Under their rule the now Protestant community began a school in 1544.  After the death of the last count in 1599, Blankenburg and its possessions, including Michaelstein Abbey, came to the Duke of Brunswick, who appointed his brother Christian abbot of Michaelstein. He relinquished the position in 1624, after which the Dukes instead appointed Protestant theologians.  From 1629 to 1631 and from 1636 to 1640, during the Thirty Years' War, short-lived communities of Cistercian monks again occupied the monastery.  In 1690 Michaelstein passed into the possession of the Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Under abbot Eberhard Finen a seminary for Protestant preachers was established in 1717, which operated alongside the school until 1721, when the school was closed, leaving the abbey as a seminary and a Protestant men's collegiate foundation. At this period substantial building works were carried out, including the conversion of part of the west wing as a Baroque church.  In 1808, under French occupation, the abbey was closed down. Thereafter the buildings were used only for farming purposes, largely the accommodation of farm workers, and so began many years of deterioration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stiftung Kloster Michaelstein.", "content": "In 1945, as part of the land reforms of the Communist government of East Germany, the abbey estates were split up and redistributed. Some Work on the abbeys buildings took place from 1956, but it was in 1968 that the main restoration scheme began, on the initiative of the Telemann Chamber Orchestra and its director Dr. Eitelfriedrich Thom. In 1977 was founded the culture and research facility that formed the basis of the later \"Institut für Aufführungspraxis der Musik des 18ten Jahrhunderts\" (\"Institute for the Performance of the Music of the 18th Century\").  In 1988 a museum was created, with a collection of predominantly historical musical instruments. In the same year a group was formed from among the musicians of the Telemann Chamber Orchestra who played on historical musical instruments as the \"Barockensemble des Telemann-Kammerorchesters\".  In 1995, for lack of funds, the full Telemann Chamber Orchestra was wound up, but the Baroque Ensemble continued, playing on historical instruments, and took over the name of the Telemann Chamber Orchestra. In 1997 the Institute was changed into the \"Stiftung Kloster Michaelstein - Musikinstitut für Aufführungspraxis\". From 2001 the \"Landesmusikakademie\" of Sachsen-Anhalt has also been based here.  From 2000 the orchestra was gradually separated from the Institute and urged towards independence. Some time afterwards there was a split between the musicians: one part continues to play on historical instruments as the \"Telemannisches Collegium Musicum\", while the other part, under the leadership of the widow of Dr. Eitelfriedrich Thom, continues under the old name as the \"Telemann-Kammerorchester\", but without any connection to Michaelstein Abbey.  The former monastic buildings, now accommodating both the Foundation (\"Stiftung\") and the Sachsen-Anhalt Music Academy (\"Landesmusikakademie Sachsen-Anhalt\"), host various musical events, particularly the series of concerts known as the \"Michaelsteiner Klosterkonzerte\", often featuring the Michaelstein Chamber Choir (\"Kammerchor Michaelstein\") and the Telemanisches Collegium Michaelstein Orchestra. Guided tours of the abbey complex, including the herb- and vegetable gardens, laid out according to historical sources, and of the musical instrument display, are conducted throughout the year. A music library is located in the west wing, and is often accessible to the public. A highlight of the year is the annual Michaelstein Abbey Festival (\"Michaelsteiner Klosterfest\").  In addition the Foundation organises conferences and seminars at a European level and supports ongoing research.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other structures.", "content": "In the external wall of the Baroque church created in the west wing of the surviving monastery precinct, are immured the remains of Beatrice of Gandersheim (d. 1061), daughter of Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor, and abbess of Gandersheim and Quedlinburg. Formerly buried at Quedlinburg Abbey, Beatrice's remains were displaced after the church there burnt down in 1070, and were apparently finally laid to rest in Michaelstein in the 1160s.  The nearby \"Mönchemühle\" (\"monks' mill\") on the Goldbach brook was once the monastery's oil mill.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michaelstein Abbey (Kloster Michaelstein) is a former Cistercian monastery, now the home of the \"Stiftung Kloster Michaelstein - Musikinstitut für Aufführungspraxis\" (\"Michaelstein Abbey Foundation - Music Institute for Performance\"), near the town of Blankenburg in the Harz in Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974264}
{"src_title": "SELENE", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nickname.", "content": "The orbiter's nickname, Kaguya, was selected by the general public. It comes from the name of a lunar princess in the ancient Japanese folktale \"The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter\". After their successful release, its sub-satellites, Rstar and Vstar, were named Okina and Ouna, also derived from characters in the tale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission objectives.", "content": "The main scientific objectives of the mission were to:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Launch.", "content": "SELENE launched on September 14, 2007 at 01:31:01 UTC on an H-IIA (Model H2A2022) carrier rocket from Tanegashima Space Center into a (perigee) / (apogee) geocentric parking orbit. The total launch mass was.  The SELENE mission was originally scheduled to launch in 2003, but rocket failures on another mission and technical difficulties delayed the launch until 2007. Launch was planned for August 16, 2007, but was postponed when some electronic components were found to be installed incorrectly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lunar operations.", "content": "On October 3, it entered an initial polar lunar orbit. On October 9, the relay satellite was released into a orbit, while on October 12 the VLBI satellite was released into a one. Finally, by October 19, the orbiter was in a circular orbit. The nominal mission duration was one year plus possible extensions.  On October 31, 2007, Kaguya deployed its Lunar Magnetometer, Lunar Radar Sounder, Earth-looking Upper Atmosphere and Plasma Imager. On December 21, 2007, Kaguya began regular operations after all fifteen observation experiments had been satisfactorily verified.  Kaguya completed the planned operation by the end of October 2008 and began extended operations planned to continue through March 2009. It would then be sent into a circular orbit, and finally to an elliptical one, with a controlled impact occurring by August 2009. Because of a degraded reaction wheel, the plan was changed so that on February 1, 2009, the orbit was lowered to ±, and impact occurred at 18:25 UTC on June 10, 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The mission featured three separate spacecraft:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Okina (small relay satellite).", "content": "Okina (formerly Rstar) and Ouna (formerly Vstar) were octagonal prisms to support radio science. Okina relayed radio communications between the orbiter and the Earth when the orbiter was behind the Moon. This allowed, for the first time, the direct Doppler shift measurements needed to precisely map the gravitational field of the lunar farside; previously, the farside gravity field could only be inferred by nearside measurements. The relay satellite impacted the lunar farside near the Mineur D crater at 19:46 JST (10:46 UTC) on February 12, 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ouna (VLBI satellite).", "content": "Ouna used Very Long Baseline Interferometry as a second way to map the Moon's gravity field. It was especially useful at the lunar limb, where the gravitational acceleration is perpendicular to the line of sight to earth, making Doppler measurements unsuitable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Payload.", "content": "SELENE carried 13 scientific instruments \"to obtain scientific data of the lunar origin and evolution and to develop the technology for the future lunar exploration\":  Two 2.2 megapixel CCD HDTV cameras, one wide-angle and one telephoto, were also on board, primarily for public relations purposes.  JAXA collected names and messages that were carried on SELENE through their \"Wish Upon the Moon\" campaign. 412,627 names and messages were printed on a sheet measuring 280 mm x 160 mm (11 x 6.3 in) at 70 μm (0.0003 in) per character. The sheet was installed under the photovoltaic modules and cooling panels beneath the multi-layered insulation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "Major results include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other lunar probes.", "content": "SELENE was part of a renewed global interest in lunar exploration; it was \"the largest lunar mission since the Apollo program\". It followed Japan's first lunar probe, Hagoromo, launched in 1990. China launched its Chang'e 1 lunar explorer on October 24, 2007, followed by India's October 22, 2008 launch of Chandrayaan-1 and the United States Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in June 2009. The United States, European countries (ESA), Russia, Japan, India and China are planning future manned lunar exploration missions or lunar outpost construction on the Moon between 2018 and 2025.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SELENE (; Selenological and Engineering Explorer), better known in Japan by its nickname, was the second Japanese lunar orbiter spacecraft following the Hiten probe. Produced by the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) and the National Space Development Agency (NASDA), the spacecraft was launched on September 14, 2007. After successfully orbiting the Moon for a year and eight months, the main orbiter was instructed to impact on the lunar surface near the crater Gill on June 10, 2009.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974265}
{"src_title": "Johann Patkul", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Youth.", "content": "Patkul was born in prison at Stockholm, where his father had been imprisoned under suspicion of treason. He entered the Swedish Army at an early age and was subsequently promoted captain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dispute over reduction.", "content": "In 1689, at the head of a deputation of Livonian gentry, he went to Stockholm to protest against the rigour with which the land-recovery project of Charles XI of Sweden was being carried out in his native province. His eloquence impressed Charles XI, but his representations were disregarded. When he submitted another petition in more offensive language to the king three years later, his renewed complaints involved him in a government prosecution. To save himself from the penalties of high treason, Patkul fled from Stockholm to Switzerland, and was condemned \"in absentia\" to lose his right hand and his head. His estates were at the same time confiscated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in planning the Great Northern War.", "content": "For the next four years, Patkul led a vagabond life, but in 1698, after vainly petitioning the new king, Charles XII of Sweden, for pardon, he entered the service of Augustus II the Strong of Saxony and Poland, with the deliberate intention of wresting Livonia from Sweden, to which he had now no hope of returning so long as that province belonged to the Swedish Crown. The aristocratic republic of Poland was obviously the most convenient suzerain for a Livonian nobleman; so in 1698, Patkul proceeded to the court of the king-elector at Dresden and bombarded Augustus with proposals for the partition of Sweden. His first plan was a combination against her of Saxony, Denmark and Brandenburg; but, Brandenburg failing him, he was obliged very unwillingly to admit Russia into the partnership.  The tsar was to be content with Ingria and Estonia while Augustus was to take Livonia, nominally as a fief of Poland, but really as a hereditary possession of the Saxon house. Military operations against Sweden's Baltic provinces were to be begun simultaneously by the Saxons and Russians. After thus forging the first link of the partition treaty, Patkul proceeded to Moscow, and, at a secret conference held at Preobrazhenskoye, easily persuaded Peter the Great to accede to the league on 18 November 1699.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Saxon and Russian service.", "content": "Throughout the earlier, unluckier days of the Great Northern War, Patkul was the mainstay of the confederates. At Vienna, in 1702, he picked up the Scottish general George Benedict Ogilvie, and enlisted him in Peter's service.  The same year, recognizing the unprofitableness of serving such a master as Augustus, he exchanged the Saxon for the Russian service. Peter was glad enough to get a man so famous for his talents and energy, but Patkul speedily belied his reputation. His knowledge was too local and limited. On 19 August 1704, he succeeded, at last, in bringing about the alliance of Narva between Russia and the Polish republic to strengthen the hands of Augustus, but he failed to bring Prussia also into the anti-Swedish league because of Frederick I's fear of Charles and jealousy of Peter. From Berlin, Patkul went on to Dresden to conclude an agreement with the imperial commissioner Stratmann for renting a Russian auxiliary contingent in Saxon service to the Habsburgs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arrest and execution.", "content": "The Saxon ministers, after protesting against the new arrangement, arrested Patkul and shut him up in the fortress of Sonnenstein on 19 December 1705, altogether disregarding the remonstrances of Peter against such a gross violation of international law. After the Treaty of Altranstädt on 24 September 1707, he was delivered up to Charles, who ordered his execution through the breaking wheel. Charles rejected an appeal for mercy from his sister, the princess Ulrica, on the ground that Patkul, as a traitor, could not be pardoned for example's sake. In October 1707, Patkul was broken alive on the wheel at Kazimierz Biskupi (Casimir) in Poland.  The circumstances of Patkul's death were documented first by chaplain Loren(t)z Hagen, who accompanied Patkul in his last two days, in his 1707 book titled \"Das schmertzliche doch seelige Ende, Des Welt-Bekandten Joh. Reinhold Patkuls\" (English translation in 1761 under the title \"Anecdotes concerning the famous John Reinhold Patkul\"). Another account of Patkul's execution is a 1708 leaflet of unknown origin titled \"Kurtze Beschreibung der merck- und denckwürdigen Execution Des tapffern und Welt-bekanten General Patkuls, Wie selbiger den 10. October. 1707. zu Casimir in Pohlen erbärmlich hingerichtet worden\" [in English: \"Short description of the notable and memorable execution of the brave and world-famous general Patkul, how the same on 10 October 1707 in Casimir in Poland was executed miserably\"]. Differing slightly, the accounts agree that Patkul, after a prolonged process of breaking his bones with the wheel, begged for his decapitation (crying \"\"Kopf ab!\"\") and rolled to the block on his own; the following decapitation did however not succeed until after several strikes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Otto Arnold von Paykull", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Reinhold Patkul (27 July 1660 – 10 October 1707) was a Livonian nobleman, politician and agitator of Baltic German extraction. Born as a subject to the Swedish Crown, he protested against the manner of King Charles XI of Sweden's reduction in Livonia, enraging the king, who had him arrested and sentenced to mutilation and death (1694). Patkul fled from the Swedish Empire to continental Europe, and played a key role in the secret diplomacy (1698-1699) allying Peter I of Russia, Augustus II the Strong of Saxony and the Poland–Lithuania - as well as Christian V and his successor Frederick IV of Denmark–Norway - against Charles XII of Sweden, triggering the Great Northern War of 1700-1721. During the first war years, Patkul retained a key role in the communication between the allies and other European courts, holding positions at king Augustus's court first in Augustus's interests (1698-1700), then in tsar Peter's service (1702- ). In late 1705 Patkul fell from Augustus's favor and was arrested and charged with high treason. Throughout the following year he was detained first in Sonnenstein, then in Königstein (both in Saxony), before Charles XII forced Augustus to extradite him by the Treaty of Altranstädt in late 1706. Patkul spent another year in Swedish detention before Charles XII had him broken on the wheel and decapitated.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974266}
{"src_title": "Rodion Shchedrin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Shchedrin was born in Moscow into a musical family—his father was a composer and teacher of music theory. He studied at the Moscow Choral School and Moscow Conservatory (graduating in 1955) under Yuri Shaporin (composition) and Yakov Flier (piano). He was married to the well-known ballerina Maya Plisetskaya from 1958 until her death in 2015.  Shchedrin's early music is tonal and colourfully orchestrated and often includes snatches of folk music, while some later pieces use aleatoric and serial techniques. In the west the music of Shchedrin has won popularity mainly through the work of Mstislav Rostropovich who has made several successful recordings.  Among his works are the ballets \"The Little Hump-backed Horse\" (1955), \"Carmen Suite\" (1967), an arrangement by Tony Vernon, \"Anna Karenina\" (1971, on the novel by Leo Tolstoy), and \"Lady with a Lapdog\" (1985); the operas \"Not Only Love\" (1961), and \"Dead Souls\" (1976, after Nikolai Gogol's novel); piano concertos, symphonies, chamber and piano music and other works. He composed 24 Preludes and Fugues after he heard those of Shostakovich. Also remarkable is his \"Polyphonic Notebook\".  He has written five concertos for orchestra: the first, variously translated as \"Naughty Limericks\" or \"Mischievous Folk Ditties\" (neither of which completely get the gist of the Russian which refers to a chastushka (часту́шка), an irreverent, satirical kind of folk song) is by far the best known, and was the work which first established him on the international stage. The second of the Concertos for Orchestra was subtitled \"Zvony\" (The Chimes), and was premiered by the New York Philharmonic under Leonard Bernstein as one of the many commissions in honor of the orchestra's 125th anniversary. The third Concerto for Orchestra is based on old music of Russian provincial circuses. Concerto 4, \"Khorovody\" (round dances), was written in 1989, and Concerto 5, \"Four Russian Songs\", was written in 1998.  As well as a distinguished composer (he was made a member of the Berlin Academy of Arts in 1989 and received the Russian State Prize from President Boris Yeltsin in 1992), Shchedrin is a virtuoso pianist and organist, playing solo piano in the premieres of the first three of his six piano concertos. At a remarkable concert on 5 May 1974 Shchedrin performed the feat of appearing as soloist in all three of his then-completed piano concertos, one after the other. The concert, with the USSR Symphony Orchestra under Yevgeny Svetlanov was recorded and released on LP, then CD. Following the collapse of the Soviet regime, Shchedrin has taken advantage of the new opportunities for international travel and musical collaboration, and now largely divides his time between Munich and Moscow.  On 11–14 June 2008 Shchedrin Days took place in Armenia with the participation of Shchedrin and Maya Plisetskaya as honorary guest.  Invited by Walter Fink, he was the 19th composer to be featured in the annual Komponistenporträt of the Rheingau Musik Festival in 2009. He and his wife attended the concerts which included his Russian liturgy \"The Sealed Angel\" for choir and flute, performed in Eberbach Abbey. His chamber music included \"Ancient Melodies of Russian Folk Songs\" (2007) with the cellist Raphael Wallfisch and himself at the piano, and \"Meine Zeit, mein Raubtier\" with tenor Kenneth Tarver and pianist Roland Pontinen who performed it also at the Verbier Festival.  The premiere of a German version of his opera \"Lolita\" was performed as the opening night of the Internationale Maifestspiele Wiesbaden in a production of the Hessisches Staatstheater Wiesbaden in 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stage works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical theatre.", "content": "\"Nina and the Twelve Months\" (1988). Musical in two acts on a libretto by T. Futjita after Samuil Marshak's story. First performance on 8 August 1988 in Tokyo.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Rodion Konstantinovich Shchedrin (, ; born 16 December 1932) is a Soviet and Russian composer and pianist, winner of USSR State Prize (1972), the Lenin Prize (1984), and the State Prize of the Russian Federation (1992), and is a former member of the Inter-regional Deputies Group (1989–1991). He is also a citizen of Lithuania and Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974267}
{"src_title": "Popemobile", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The precursor to the popemobile was the \"sedia gestatoria\", which was a chair carried on the shoulders of papal attendants. This fell out of use after the incumbency of Pope Paul VI in 1978. Pope John Paul I succeeded Pope Paul VI and reigned for only 33 days before his death, and he was the last pope who used the \"sedia gestatoria\".  Since the beginning of the 20th century, many automotive manufacturers have produced specially designed vehicles for the Pope. The Ford Motor Company produced a series of cars based on its presidential limousines used in the United States. The custom-built 1964 Lehmann-Peterson was used by Pope Paul VI in his 1965 New York City visit and was reused in 1970 in Bogotá. Later, Paul VI used a Mercedes-Benz 600 Pullman-Landaulet. However, the term \"popemobile\" did not come into common usage until the pontificate of Pope John Paul II.  The first time that Pope John Paul II travelled to his home country, the white vehicle was based on the Polish mark FSC Star, a small truck from a firm in Starachowice. A Ford D Series truck was built in 1979 by OBAM Vehicle Builders, for Pope John Paul II's first visit to Ireland; it was bigger than the later one used in Vatican City. Another popemobile was a modified Mercedes-Benz with a small windowed enclosure in the back where the Pope sits. A converted 230 G Mercedes-Benz G-Class was built for John Paul II's visit to Germany in 1980. A later model was presented to John Paul II in June 2002 based on a Mercedes-Benz M-Class sports-utility vehicle built in the United States. A Fiat Campagnola was used during transit within Vatican City and during masses at St. Peter's Square. But the popemobile was fitted with bulletproof glass on four sides following the 1981 Pope John Paul II assassination attempt. However, it was sometimes driven with open windows.  Leyland supplied a truck-based popemobile in 1982 during the pope's visit to Great Britain which gave audiences a better view of the pontiff. The vehicle was sold at auction in 2006 for £37,000 ($70,500). The pope used a popemobile derived from the SEAT Panda model during his visit to Spain in 1982. That specific car was open-air with a grab handle in front so that the pope could stand still and greet the crowds while moving. The pope entered the Camp Nou football stadium in Barcelona in it, driving through the assembled crowds celebrating mass for a congregation of over 121,000 on 17 November 1982.  During the pope's visit to Canada in 1984, a modified GMC Sierra was used as a base, rebuilt by the Thibault Fire Engines Company in Pierreville, Quebec. It was subsequently used for the 1998 papal visit to Cuba and was displayed at the Canada Science and Technology Museum in Ottawa in 2005. The second truck built by the Thibault Fire Engines Company was sent back to the Vatican in 1984.  During the papal visit to the United States in September 1987, a pair of Mercedes-Benz 230 G popemobiles were flown to Washington, D.C. and modified by the United States Secret Service to provide access to the papal compartment from the driver's cabin, a design that continued to be used after the trip. One of these vehicles has been retired and is currently on display at the Mercedes-Benz Museum in Stuttgart, Germany.  Philippine automobile manufacturer Francisco Motors produced the popemobile for John Paul II's visit to Manila for World Youth Day 1995. It was funded by voluntary contributions and had bulletproof windows and bombproof parts. For Pope John Paul II's visit to Portugal, UMM created a special popemobile based on a 1992 chassis from the Alter II. It featured a armored glass box on the rear with a chair for the pope. It also had air conditioning and outside loudspeakers connected to a microphone in the rear.  In 2002, Pope John Paul II requested that the media stop referring to the car as the popemobile, saying that the term was \"undignified\". In 2007, the popemobile became the first papal automobile to be fitted with a digital radio. The popemobile most often used by Pope Benedict XVI when travelling abroad was a modified Mercedes-Benz M-Class sport utility vehicle with a special glass-enclosed room with its own oxygen supply built into the back of the vehicle. The pope enters through a rear door and ascends several steps. He sits in a chair made from white leather with gold trim which is then elevated into the glass room by a hydraulic lift, allowing the pope to be more easily seen. In addition to the driver, there is room for one passenger (usually a security agent) in the front of the vehicle. The glass-enclosed rear of the vehicle also has room for two papal aides who can sit in the area in front of the pope's elevated chair. The vehicle's security features include bulletproof glass windows and roof, able to withstand explosions, and reinforced, armored side panels and undercarriage designed to resist bomb blasts. At 2011 prices, the popemobile cost approximately £345,000.  On June 6, 2007, a German man tried to jump into Pope Benedict XVI's uncovered popemobile as the pontiff began his general audience. The pope was not hurt and did not even appear to notice that the man had jumped over the protective barrier in the square and had grabbed onto the white Fiat popemobile as it drove by. At least eight security officers were trailing the vehicle as it moved slowly through the square; they grabbed the man and wrestled him to the ground, and he was interrogated by Vatican police.  In 2019 Pope Francis received a Dacia Duster 4x4 to be used as popemobile during his visit to Romania.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current usage.", "content": "Pope Francis shows a preference for a simpler lifestyle and simpler cars. As a cardinal he often took public transport. On the night of his election he rode with the other cardinals in a minibus back to their hotel instead of using a papal limousine. For trips within the Vatican City he uses a small Ford Focus from the Vatican motor pool. He also drives himself around the city in a 30-year-old 1984 Renault 4 presented to him by Italian Fr. Renzo Zocca.  Italian automaker Fiat, traditional supplier of papal cars, supplied Pope Francis with the midsize Fiat 500L for his visit to the United States on 22–27 September 2015. Fiat also supplied the Jeep Wrangler he used in Ecuador in July 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A popemobile is a specially designed motor vehicle used by the pope of the Catholic Church during public appearances. It is usually considered as the successor to the antiquated \"sedia gestatoria\" and was designed to allow the pope to be more visible when greeting large crowds.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974268}
{"src_title": "IS-3 (tank)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and production.", "content": "Object 703 was developed in late 1944 by Factory No.100 Kirovskiy Works or ChTZ (in Chelyabinsk) and left the factory shop in May 1945. This tank had an improved armour layout, and a semi-hemispherical cast turret (resembling an upturned soup bowl), which became the hallmark of post-war Soviet tanks. While this low, hemispherical turret improved protection, it also significantly diminished crew headroom, especially for the loader. The low turret also limited the maximum depression of the main gun, since the gun breech had little room inside the turret to elevate, and this limited the extent to which the IS-3 could take advantage of hull-down positions. The IS-3's pointed prow earned it the nickname \"Shchuka\" (Pike) by its crews. It weighed slightly less and stood lower than previous versions. Wartime production resulted in many mechanical problems and a hull weldline that had a tendency to crack open. The IS-3 came too late to see action in World War II. The first public demonstration of the IS-3 came on 7 September 1945 during the Allied victory parade on Charlottenburger Straße in Berlin, with the heavily reinforced 71st Guards Heavy Tank Regiment of the 2nd Guards Tank Army. Starting in 1960, the IS-3 was slightly modernized as the IS-3M, in a manner similar to the IS-2M.  The production of the IS-3 later started in 1945 and were the heavy tanks that marched into Berlin and took control of Berlin. The IS-3 was a significant improvement to the IS-1 and IS-2 due to its pike nose frontal armor. Having frontal hull armor that was already pre-angled meant that less armor was needed to maintain the same effective armor thickness on the upper glacis. Due to this pike nose design, the only real weakspot of the IS-3 from the front was the lower glacis, which could be covered up if crews kept the IS-3 hulldown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Combat history.", "content": "Three pre-series vehicles were assigned to an independent Guards Battalion but they arrived after peace broke out. There are unconfirmed reports of them fighting Jagdpanthers after the surrender. However, they were used against the Japanese at the Kuril Islands in World War II. Some IS-3's can still be found abandoned at the Kuril Islands to this day. They also took part in the September 7th, 1945 victory parade in Berlin under the 71st Guards Heavy Tank Regiment of the 2nd Guards Tank Army.  In response to border disputes between the Soviet Union and China, some Soviet IS-3s were dug in as fixed pillboxes along the Soviet-Chinese border. The IS-3 was used in the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary and the Prague Spring in 1968.  During the early 1950s, all IS-3s were modernized as IS-3M models. The Egyptian Army acquired about 100 IS-3M tanks from the Soviet Union. During the Six-Day War, a single regiment of IS-3M tanks was stationed with the Egyptian 7th Infantry Division at Rafah and the 125th Tank Brigade of the 6th Mechanized Division at Kuntilla was also equipped with about 60 IS-3M tanks. Israeli infantry and paratrooper units had considerable difficulty with the IS-3M when it was encountered due to its thick armor, which shrugged off hits from normal infantry anti-tank weapons such as the bazooka. Even the 90 mm AP shell fired by the main gun of the Israeli Defense Force (IDF) M48 Patton tanks could not penetrate the frontal armor of the IS-3s at normal battle ranges. There were a number of engagements between the M48A2 Pattons of the IDF 7th Armored Brigade and IS-3s supporting Egyptian positions at Rafah in which several M48A2s were knocked out in the fighting.  However, in one engagement between a battalion of IS-3s and 90 mm gun-armed M48A3's, seven IS-3s were destroyed. The slow rate of fire, poor engine performance (the engine was not well suited to hot-climate operations), and rudimentary fire control of the IS-3s proved to be a significant handicap, and about 73 IS-3s were lost in the 1967 war. Most Egyptian IS-3 tanks were withdrawn from service, though at least one regiment was retained in service as late as the 1973 October war. The IDF itself experimented with a few captured IS-3M tanks, but found them ill-suited to fast-moving desert tank warfare; those that were not scrapped were turned into stationary defensive pillbox emplacements in the Jordan River area.  After the Korean War, China attempted to reverse-engineer the IS-2/IS-3 as the Type 122 medium tank. The project was cancelled in favor of the Type 59, a copy of the Soviet T-54A.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The IS-3 (also known as Object 703) is a Soviet heavy tank developed in late 1944. Its semi-hemispherical cast turret (resembling an upturned soup bowl), became the hallmark of post-war Soviet tanks. Its pike nose design would also be mirrored by other tanks of the IS tank family such as the IS-7 and T-10. Too late to see combat in World War II, the IS-3 participated in the Berlin Victory Parade of 1945, in the border conflict during the Sino-Soviet split, the Soviet invasion of Hungary, the Prague Spring and on both sides of the Six-Day War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974269}
{"src_title": "Oudenaarde", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The glory of Ename.", "content": "The history of the current municipality of Oudenaarde starts in 974, when Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Germany, built one of its three fortifications on the Scheldt at Ename to protect his kingdom against possible attacks from Francia (next to the other frontier post at Valenciennes, later on also the Antwerp). Ename grew very fast. By 1005, the town already had a couple of churches and had become the largest town in the Duchy of Lotharingia. In 1034, Ename was destroyed by an irregular army that surrender the city to count Baldwin IV. In 1047, the son of Baldwin V (peacefully) received the imperial fief from the German emperor. The fief was confiscated however in 1047 when he Baldwins rebelled against the German empire. In 1062, Baldwin V founded together with his wife the Benedictine abbey of Saint Salvator. By that time, the former merchants and guild artisans of Ename easily got across the Scheldt to the recently founded city of Oudenaarde.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Oudenaarde’s golden age.", "content": "In the 11th century, Oudenaarde’s economy flourished, thanks to the proximity of the Scheldt and to the burgeoning, but vibrant cloth and tapestry industry. Churches, cloisters and hospitals were built. Throughout the Middle Ages, the city was one of the staunchest supporters of the counts of Flanders, defending them against insurrections from the South, and even from Ghent. The city became known as the \"residence of the nobles\". It built itself a flagship town hall (built 1526–1537), which we can still admire today, and the St-Walburga church. Charles V stayed here for a couple of months in 1522 and fathered an illegitimate daughter, Margaret of Parma, who was to become Regent of the Netherlands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decline.", "content": "During the Reformation, the people of Oudenaarde chose Protestantism and allied themselves with Ghent against Charles V. In 1582, after a prolonged siege by Margaret's son, Alexander Farnese, the city finally gave in, causing most merchants, workers, and even nobles to flee. Oudenaarde fell under the Counter-Reformation, which for a short while revived the commerce of tapestry. The glory days, however, never came back. The French attacked and took the city three times in less than a century. In 1708, one of the key battles in the War of the Spanish Succession, known as the Battle of Oudenaarde, was fought in the vicinity of the city. Oudenaarde slumbered as a provincial town under the Habsburg regime. Like its neighbours, in the 1790s it suffered religious curtailment imposed by the French Revolution.  The city later suffered damage during World War I, which is commemorated by several monuments scattered around town.  During World War II the town was occupied by Nazi military forces during Phony War. The town was liberated by British forces on the 5th of September in 1944.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beer.", "content": "Oudenaarde is known for the brewing of Oud bruin beer, which is sometimes termed Oudenaarde Oud bruin, especially that of Liefmans Brewery in the town.  Oud Bruin (Old Brown), also known as Flanders Brown, is a style of beer originating from the Flemish region of Belgium. The Dutch name refers to the long aging process, up to a year. It undergoes a secondary fermentation, which takes several weeks to a month, and is followed by bottle ageing for several more months. The extended ageing allows residual yeast and bacteria to develop a sour flavour characteristic for this style. Usually, cultured yeast and bacterias are used, as stainless does not harbour wild organisms as wood does.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "The main football club in Oudenaarde is K.S.V. Oudenaarde.  The celebrated \"Tour of Flanders voor Vrouwen\", the women's Tour of Flanders cycle race, starts in Oudenaarde every spring. The men's Tour of Flanders has passed through Oudenaarde on several occasions, finishing in the town since 2012, and it regularly ascends the Koppenberg hill in the municipality. The Koppenbergcross cyclo-cross race, which takes place on the Koppenberg hillside, is part of the BPost Bank Trophy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Oudenaarde (, French \"Audenarde\", English sometimes \"Oudenarde\") is a Belgian municipality in the Flemish province of East Flanders. The municipality comprises the city of Oudenaarde proper and the towns of Bevere, Edelare, Eine, Ename, Heurne, Leupegem, Mater, Melden, Mullem, Nederename, Volkegem, Welden and a part of Ooike.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974270}
{"src_title": "Mammillaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The distinctive feature of the genus is the possession of an areole split into two clearly separated parts, one occurring at the apex of the tubercle, the other at its base. The apex part is spine bearing, and the base part is always spineless, but usually bears some bristles or wool. The base part of the areole bears the flowers and fruits, and is a branching point. The apex part of the areole does not carry flowers, but in certain conditions can function as a branching point as well.  The plants are usually small, globose to elongated, the stems from 1 cm to 20 cm in diameter and from 1 cm to 40 cm tall, clearly tuberculate, solitary to clumping forming mounds of up to 100 heads and with radial symmetry. Tubercles can be conical, cylindrical, pyramidal or round. The roots are fibrous, fleshy or tuberous. The flowers are funnel-shaped and range from 7 mm to 40 mm and more in length and in diameter, from white and greenish to yellow, pink and red in colour, often with a darker mid-stripe; the reddish hues are due to betalain pigments as usual for Caryophyllales. The fruit is berry-like, club-shaped or elongated, usually red but sometimes white, magenta, yellow or green. Some species have the fruit embedded into the plant body. The seeds are black or brown, from 1 to 3 mm in size.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Systematics.", "content": "The genus \"Mammillaria\" in the family Cactaceae was proposed by Adrian Hardy Haworth in 1812 and officially recognized by the International Botanical Congress of 1930. Initial spellings varied by authors but \"Mammillaria\" is now recognized as the accepted spelling.  \"Mammillaria\" is a large and diverse genus with many species often exhibiting variations due to the nature of terrain, weather, soil and other ecological factors. As a result, subdivisions within the species has been rather inconsistent over time. Initially, some investigators were more inclined to consider each variation as a unique species, although as time went on, creating confusion and long synonymy-lists for some of the species. Over time, new investigators began grouping closely related forms under the same name to attempt to more accurately define the species.  Several systems for classification began to emerged. The first of note, created by Schumann and modified by Berger, divided the species into ten named groups. However, the criteria for these divisions was somewhat indefinite and flexible. In the early 1923, cactologists Nathaniel Lord Britton and Joseph Nelson Rose developed the Britton & Rose system which arranged the classification characteristics in a system of keys with tangible separation factors, resulting in a much more workable system of identification.  Later classification was performed by the cactus specialists Hunt, Reppenhagen and Luthy, with much work focusing on researching the meanings and value of the original plant descriptions, synchronizing them with modern taxonomic requirements and studying the morphology of plants and seeds, as well as ecological aspects of the genus. These works helped to expand the understanding of \"Mammillaria\" taxa.  Currently the classification of \"Mammillaria\" is in a state where few newly discovered species are likely, though some new species may yet be found when the chaos of names created earlier by commercial plant collectors is sorted out. Many names that were introduced for plants barely differentiated by a shade of flower colour or variation in spination were eliminated in attempt to make the use of names consistent with the rest of the botanical world. The number of taxa, which at one time numbered above 500, is now below 200. Some genera (\"Dolichothele, Mammillopsis, Krainzia\" and others) have been merged back into \"Mammillaria\", and others like \"Coryphantha\", \"Escobaria\" and \"Mammilloydia\" were confirmed as separate.  Intense studies of DNA of the genus are being conducted, with preliminary results published for over a hundred taxa, and this promising approach might soon end the arguments. Based on DNA research results, the genus does not seem to be monophyletic and is likely to be split into two large genera, one of them possibly including certain species of other closely related genera like \"Coryphantha, Ortegocactus\" and \"Neolloydia\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected species.", "content": "As noted above, some might not belong in this genus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Mammillarias is predominantly found in Mexico but also have a wide range of distribution in neighboring regions north of the equator including the southwest United States, the Caribbean, Guatemala and Honduras. The southernmost limits of its range appears to be Colombia, and Venezuela, where only two known species are found. Within this wide distribution, some species will exhibit large variations depending on the locality, sometimes even within just a few hundred feet. Some of these variations are so extreme that they have resulted in classifications of new species, many of which are so limited to one locality that they are considered critically endangered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Mammillarias have extremely variable spination from species to species, and attractive flowers, making them attractive for cactus hobbyists. Most mammillarias are considered easy to cultivate, though some species are among the hardest cacti to grow. Several taxa are threatened with extinction at least in the wild, due to habitat destruction and especially overcollecting for the pot plant trade. Cactus fanciers can assist conservation of these rare plants by choosing nursery-bred specimens (wild-collected ones are illegal to possess for the rarest species). Several mammillarias are relatively easy (for cacti) to grow from seeds. One such species, popular and widely available from nursery stock but endangered in the wild, is \"Mammillaria zeilmanniana\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mammillaria is one of the largest genera in the cactus family (Cactaceae), with currently 200 known species and varieties recognized. Most of the mammillarias are native to Mexico, but some come from the southwest United States, the Caribbean, Colombia, Venezuela, Guatemala and Honduras. The common name \"pincushion cactus\" refers to this and the closely related genus \"Escobaria\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974271}
{"src_title": "Glottal stop", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "Features of the glottal stop:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing.", "content": "In the traditional Romanization of many languages, such as Arabic, the glottal stop is transcribed with an apostrophe,, which is the source of the IPA character. In many Polynesian languages that use the Latin alphabet, however, the glottal stop is written with a reversed apostrophe, (called \"‘okina\" in Hawaiian and Samoan), which is used to transcribe the Arabic ayin as well and is the source of the IPA character for the voiced pharyngeal fricative. In Malay the glottal stop is represented by the letter, in Võro and Maltese by.  Other scripts also have letters used for representing the glottal stop, such as the Hebrew letter aleph and the Cyrillic letter palochka, used in several Caucasian languages. Modern Latin alphabets for various Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus use the letter heng ('Ꜧ ꜧ'). In Tundra Nenets, it is represented by the letters apostrophe and double apostrophe. In Japanese, glottal stops occur at the end of interjections of surprise or anger and are represented by the character.  In the graphic representation of most Philippine languages, the glottal stop has no consistent symbolization. In most cases, however, a word that begins with a vowel-letter (e.g. Tagalog \"aso\", \"dog\") is always pronounced with an unrepresented glottal stop before that vowel (as in Modern German and Hausa). Some orthographies use a hyphen instead of the reverse apostrophe if the glottal stop occurs in the middle of the word (e.g. Tagalog \"pag-ibig\", \"love\"; or Visayan \"gabi-i\", \"night\"). If it occurs in the end of a word, the last vowel is written with a circumflex accent (known as the \"pakupyâ\") if both a stress and a glottal stop occur in the final vowel (e.g. \"basâ\", \"wet\") or a grave accent (known as the \"paiwà\") if the glottal stop occurs at the final vowel, but the stress occurs at the penultimate syllable (e.g. \"batà\", \"child\").  Some Canadian indigenous languages, especially some of the Salishan languages, have adopted the phonetic symbol ʔ itself as part of their orthographies. In some of them, it occurs as a pair of uppercase and lowercase characters, Ɂ and ɂ. The numeral 7 or question mark is sometimes substituted for ʔ and is preferred in some languages such as Squamish.  In 2015, two women in the Northwest Territories challenged the territorial government over its refusal to permit them to use the ʔ character in their daughters' names: Sahaiʔa, a Chipewyan name, and Sakaeʔah, a Slavey name (the two names are actually cognates). The territory argued that territorial and federal identity documents were unable to accommodate the character. The women registered the names with hyphens instead of the ʔ, while continuing to challenge the policy.  Use of the glottal stop is a distinct characteristic of the Southern Mainland Argyll dialects of Scottish Gaelic. In such a dialect, the standard Gaelic phrase \"Tha Gàidhlig agam\" (\"I speak Gaelic\"), would be rendered \"Tha Gàidhlig a'am\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occurrence.", "content": "In English, the glottal stop occurs as an open juncture (for example, between the vowel sounds in \"uh-oh!\",) and allophonically in t-glottalization. In British English, the glottal stop is most familiar in the Cockney pronunciation of \"butter\" as \"bu'er\". Additionally, there is the glottal stop as a null onset for English, in other words, it is the non-phonemic glottal stop occurring before isolated or initial vowels (for example, representing \"uh-oh!\", and are phonemically identical to ).  Often a glottal stop happens at the beginning of vowel phonation after a silence.  Although this segment is not a phoneme in English, it occurs phonetically in nearly all dialects of English, as an allophone of in the syllable coda. Speakers of Cockney, Scottish English and several other British dialects also pronounce an intervocalic between vowels as in \"city\". In Received Pronunciation, a glottal stop is inserted before a tautosyllabic voiceless stop: sto’p, tha’t, kno’ck, wa’tch, also lea’p, soa’k, hel’p, pin’ch.  In many languages that do not allow a sequence of vowels, such as Persian, the glottal stop may be used to break up such a hiatus. There are intricate interactions between falling tone and the glottal stop in the histories of such languages as Danish (see stød), Chinese and Thai.  In many languages, the unstressed intervocalic allophone of the glottal stop is a creaky-voiced glottal approximant. It is known to be contrastive in only one language, Gimi, in which it is the voiced equivalent of the stop.  The table below demonstrates how widely the sound of glottal stop is found among the world's spoken languages. It is not intended to be a complete list. Any of these languages may have varieties not represented in the table.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The glottal stop or glottal plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages, produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974272}
{"src_title": "Bulat Okudzhava", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bulat Okudzhava was born in Moscow on May 9, 1924 into a family of communists who had come from Tbilisi, the capital of Georgia, to study and to work for the Communist Party. The son of a Georgian father, Shalva Okudzhava, and an Armenian mother, Ashkhen Nalbandyan, Bulat Okudzhava spoke and wrote only in Russian.  Okudzava's mother was the niece of a well-known Armenian poet, Vahan Terian. His father served as a political commissar during the Civil War and as a high-ranking Communist Party member thereafter, under the protection of Sergo Ordzhonikidze (1886-1937). His uncle Vladimir Okudzhava was an anarchist and terrorist who left the Russian Empire after a failed attempt to assassinate the Kutaisi governor. Vladimir was listed among the passengers of the infamous sealed train that delivered Vladimir Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev and other revolutionary leaders from Switzerland to Russia in 1917.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terror and war.", "content": "was arrested in February 1937 during the Great Purge, accused of Trotskyism and wrecking. He was shot on 4 August, along with his two brothers. His wife was arrested in 1939 \"for anti-Soviet deeds\" and sent to the Gulag. Bulat returned to Tbilisi to live with his relatives. His mother was released in 1946, but arrested for the second time in 1949, spending another 5 years in labor camps. She was fully released in 1954 and rehabilitated in 1956, along with her husband.  In 1941, at the age of 17, one year before his scheduled school graduation, Bulat Okudzhava volunteered for the Red Army infantry, and from 1942 he participated in the war against Nazi Germany. After his discharge from the service in 1944, he returned to Tbilisi where he passed his high school graduation exams and enrolled at Tbilisi State University, graduating in 1950. After graduating, he worked as a teacher, first in a rural school in the village of Shamordino in the Kaluga Region, and later in the city of Kaluga itself.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Moscow.", "content": "In 1956, three years after the death of Joseph Stalin, Okudzhava returned to Moscow. Following his parents' rehabilitation and the 20th Party Congress at which Khrushchev denounced Stalin, Bulat Okudzhava was able to join the Communist Party, of which he remained a member until 1990. In the Soviet capital he worked first as an editor in the publishing house Molodaya Gvardiya (Young Guard), and later as the head of the poetry division at the most prominent national literary weekly in the former USSR, Literaturnaya Gazeta (\"Literary Newspaper\"). It was then, in the middle of the 1950s, that he began to compose songs and to perform them, accompanying himself on a Russian guitar.  Soon he was giving concerts. He only employed a few chords and had no formal training in music, but he possessed an exceptional melodic gift, and the intelligent lyrics of his songs blended perfectly with his music and his voice. His songs were praised by his friends, and amateur recordings were made. These unofficial recordings were widely copied as magnitizdat, and spread across the USSR and Poland, where other young people picked up guitars and started singing the songs for themselves. In 1969, his lyrics appeared in the classic Soviet film \"White Sun of the Desert\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Songwriter, poet and novelist.", "content": "Though Okudzhava's songs were not published by any official media organization until the late 1970s, they quickly achieved enormous popularity, especially among the intelligentsia – mainly in the USSR at first, but soon among Russian-speakers in other countries as well. Vladimir Nabokov, for example, cited his \"Sentimental March\" in the novel \"\".  Okudzhava, however, regarded himself primarily as a poet and claimed that his musical recordings were insignificant. During the 1980s, he also published a great deal of prose (his novel \"The Show is Over\" won him the Russian Booker Prize in 1994). By the 1980s, recordings of Okudzhava performing his songs finally began to be officially released in the Soviet Union, and many volumes of his poetry were also published. In 1991, he was awarded the USSR State Prize. He supported the reform movement in the USSR and in October 1993, signed the Letter of Forty-Two.  Okudzhava died in Paris on June 12, 1997, and is buried in the Vagankovo Cemetery in Moscow. A monument marks the building at 43 Arbat Street where he lived. His dacha in Peredelkino is now a museum that is open to the public.  A minor planet, 3149 Okudzhava, discovered by Czech astronomer Zdeňka Vávrová in 1981 is named after him. His songs remain very popular and frequently performed. They are also used for teaching Russian.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Okudzhava, like most bards, did not come from a musical background. He learned basic guitar skills with the help of some friends. He also knew how to play basic chords on a piano.  Okudzhava tuned his Russian guitar to the \"Russian tuning\" of D'-G'-C-D-g-b-d' (thickest to thinnest string), and often lowered it by one or two tones to better accommodate his voice. He played in a classical manner, usually finger picking the strings in an ascending/descending arpeggio or waltz pattern, with an alternating bass line picked by the thumb.  Initially Okudzhava was taught three basic chords, and towards the end of his life he claimed to know a total of seven.  Many of Okudzhava's songs are in the key of C minor (with downtuning B flat or A minor), centering on the C minor chord (X00X011, thickest to thinnest string), then progressing to a D 7 (00X0433), then either an E-flat minor (X55X566) or C major (55X5555). In addition to the aforementioned chords, the E-flat major chord (X55X567) was often featured in songs in a major key, usually C major (with downtuning B-flat or A major).  By the nineties, Okudzhava adopted the increasingly popular six string guitar but retained the Russian tuning, subtracting the fourth string, which was convenient to his style of playing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bulat Shalvovich Okudzhava (; ; ; May 9, 1924 – June 12, 1997) was a Soviet and Russian poet, writer, musician, novelist, and singer-songwriter of Georgian-Armenian ancestry. He was one of the founders of the Soviet genre called \"author song\" (\"авторская песня\", \"avtorskaya pesnya\"), or \"guitar song\", and the author of about 200 songs, set to his own poetry. His songs are a mixture of Russian poetic and folksong traditions and the French \"chansonnier\" style represented by such contemporaries of Okudzhava as Georges Brassens. Though his songs were never overtly political (in contrast to those of some of his fellow Soviet bards), the freshness and independence of Okudzhava's artistic voice presented a subtle challenge to Soviet cultural authorities, who were thus hesitant for many years to give him official recognition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974273}
{"src_title": "Piton de la Fournaise", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geology.", "content": "The uppermost section of the volcano is occupied by the Enclos Fouqué, a caldera wide. High cliffs, known as \"remparts\" in French, form the caldera's rim. The caldera is breached to the southeast towards the sea. The eastern flank of the volcano is unstable and is in the initial stages of failure. It will eventually collapse into the Indian Ocean, but whether or not it will generate a \"megatsunami\" is controversial. There is evidence of earlier failures on the submerged flanks and surrounding abyssal plain. The lower slopes are known as the \"Grand Brûlé\" (\"Great Burn\"). Most volcanic eruptions are confined to the caldera.  Inside the caldera is a high lava shield named Dolomieu. At the top of this lava shield are Bory Crater (\"Cratère Bory\") and Dolomieu Crater (\"Cratère Dolomieu\"), which is by far the wider of the two and named for French geologist Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu.  Many craters and spatter cones can be found inside the caldera and on the higher flanks of the volcano. Lavas with high concentrations of iridium are routinely ejected through these vents. By the trailhead of the summit path there lies a small noteworthy crater called Formica Leo, named for its resemblance to the sand pit trap of an antlion.  Located outside of the main caldera is Commerson Crater, an extinct caldera notable for receiving intense rainfall, particularly during tropical storms. During Cyclone Hyacinthe in January 1980, it received of rainfall in 15 days, the most precipitation produced by a tropical cyclone in a single location.  Some beaches in the proximity of the volcano are greenish in color, due to olivine sand derived from picrite basalt lavas. The \"Grand Brûlé\" is formed from solidified lava flows accumulated over hundreds of thousands of years; the most recent ones are often the darkest and most vegetation-free, while older ones can be covered by dense natural vegetation.  This volcano is over 530,000 years old, and for most of its history, its flows have intermingled with those from Piton des Neiges, a larger, older and heavily eroded extinct volcano which forms the northwest two-thirds of Réunion Island. There were three episodes of caldera collapses 250,000, 65,000 and 5,000 years ago. The volcano was formed by the Réunion hotspot, which is believed to have been active for the past 66 million years. There is evidence for explosive eruptions in the past. One explosive eruption about 4,700 years ago may have had a VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index) of 5, which is the same as the 18 May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eruptions.", "content": "Most eruptions of Piton de la Fournaise are of the Hawaiian style: fluid basaltic lava flowing out with fire fountaining at the vent. Occasionally, phreatic eruptions (groundwater steam-generated eruptions) occur. Lava flows crossing the \"Grand Brûlé\" occasionally reach the sea. Piton de la Fournaise is one of the most active volcanoes in the world, with more than 150 recorded eruptions since the 17th century.  Eruptions within the caldera do not cause much devastation, because the caldera is uninhabited, but little infrastructure exists apart from the highway. Lava flows are generally confined to the caldera. However, lava flows have been known to cross the N2 highway; areas where the road was destroyed by the eruption are signposted with the year of eruption after the road is rebuilt. In the early 2000s, the highway was destroyed one or more times a year; road engineering services then wait for the lava to cool off and build another stretch of road. For months after an eruption, the core of the lava flows can still be hot enough to steam in rainy weather.  Eruptions outside of the caldera can pose serious hazards to the population, but are rare. Only six eruptions outside of the caldera have been recorded, most recently in 1986. The village of Piton-Sainte-Rose was evacuated in 1977 before it was inundated by a lava flow which destroyed several buildings. The lava flow crossed the highway and surrounded the local church, entered the front door, then stopped without destroying the building. The front entrance was later cleared out, and the church was brought back into service under the name of \"Notre-Dame des Laves\" (\"Our Lady of the Lavas\").  In April 2007 the volcano erupted and produced an estimated 3,000,000 cubic metres per day. During this eruption of 2007 an incremental caldera collapse of Dolomieu occurred at the volcano over more than nine days. The collapse displacing 0.8 x 1.1 km floor downward by 330 m, with a volume of 120 million cubic metres. The caldera collapse accompanied one of the largest eruptions of lava at the volcano in the past 100 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monitoring.", "content": "Volcanic activity is constantly monitored by geophysical sensors (tiltmeters, extensometers, differential GPS receivers, etc.). The data from those various sensors is sent to the Piton de la Fournaise Volcano Observatory, located in Bourg-Murat, northwest of the volcano. The observatory, founded in 1978 following the Piton-Sainte-Rose flow, is operated by the \"Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris\" (Global Geophysics Institute of Paris), in association with CNRS and the University of Réunion. The OVPF often publishes reports on Piton de la Fournaise's current activity via their website in French. RIGIC (the Réunion Island Geological Information Center) takes this information and translates it into English for distribution to the English-speaking scientific community.  Procedures specify several levels of alert, which are decided by the prefect of Réunion on the basis of scientific reports:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visit.", "content": "A forestry road followed by a track connects the highway of the plains in Bourg-Murat to the Pas de Bellecombe (Bellecombe Pass), where a parking lot and a snack bar are located. The Pas de Bellecombe is situated over the caldera rim cliffs and offers a view over the northeast part of the caldera. A stairway path descends from the pass to the caldera floor. This path is closed for safety reasons during seismic events that may precede eruptions and during eruptions. White paint marks over rocks delimit a number of footpaths ascending the lava shield inside the caldera.  The lower parts of the \"Grand Brûlé\" can be visited from the N2 highway. Lava flows that have crossed the road are indicated by signs. Completely free access during eruptions was permitted until 1998; access has been limited since that date, being virtually banned at present.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Piton de la Fournaise (French for \"Peak of the Furnace\") is a shield volcano on the eastern side of Réunion island (a French department) in the Indian Ocean. It is currently one of the most active volcanoes in the world, along with Kīlauea in the Hawaiian Islands, Stromboli and Etna in Italy and Mount Erebus in Antarctica. A previous eruption began in August 2006 and ended in January 2007. The volcano erupted again in February 2007, on 21 September 2008, on 9 December 2010, which lasted for two days, and on 1 August 2015. The most recent eruption began on 25 October 2019. The volcano is located within Réunion National Park, a World Heritage site.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974274}
{"src_title": "Millennium Bridge, London", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The design of the bridge was the subject of a competition organised in 1996 by Southwark council and RIBA Competitions. The winning entry was an innovative \"blade of light\" effort from Arup Group, Foster and Partners, and Sir Anthony Caro. Due to height restrictions, and to improve the view, the bridge's suspension design had the supporting cables below the deck level, giving a very shallow profile. The bridge has two river piers and is made of three main sections of,, and (north to south) with a total structure length of ; the aluminium deck is wide. The eight suspension cables are tensioned to pull with a force of 2,000 tons against the piers set into each bank—enough to support a working load of 5,000 people on the bridge at one time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Ordinarily, bridges across the River Thames require an Act of Parliament. For this bridge, that was avoided by the Port of London Authority granting a licence for the structure, and the City of London and London Borough of Southwark granting planning permission. Construction began in late 1998 and the main works were started on 28 April 1999 by Monberg & Thorsen and Sir Robert McAlpine. The eventual cost was £18.2 million (£2.2m over budget), primarily paid for by the Millennium Commission and the London Bridge Trust.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opening.", "content": "The bridge opened on 10 June 2000, two months late.  Unexpected lateral vibration due to resonant structural response caused the bridge to be closed on 12 June for modifications. Attempts had been made to limit the number of people crossing the bridge, which led to long queues but were ineffective to dampen the vibrations. Closure of the bridge only two days after opening attracted public criticism as another high-profile British Millennium project that suffered an embarrassing setback, akin to how many saw the Millennium Dome.  Vibration was attributed to an under-researched phenomenon whereby pedestrians crossing a bridge that has a lateral sway have an unconscious tendency to match their footsteps to the sway, exacerbating it. The tendency of a suspension bridge to sway vertically when troops march over it in step was well known, which is why troops are required to break step when crossing such a bridge. An example is London's Albert Bridge, which has a sign dating from 1873 warning marching ranks of soldiers to break step while crossing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Resonance.", "content": "The bridge's movements were caused by a 'positive feedback' phenomenon, known as synchronous lateral excitation. The natural sway motion of people walking caused small sideways oscillations in the bridge, which in turn caused people on the bridge to sway in step, increasing the amplitude of the bridge oscillations and continually reinforcing the effect; the maximum sway was around 70mm. On the day of opening, the bridge was crossed by 90,000 people, with up to 2,000 on the bridge at any one time.  Resonant vibrational modes due to vertical loads (such as trains, traffic or pedestrians) and wind loads are well understood in bridge design. In the case of the Millennium Bridge, because the lateral motion caused pedestrians to directly participate with the bridge, the vibrational modes had not been anticipated by the designers. When the bridge lurches to one side, the pedestrians must adjust to keep from falling over, and they all do this at the same time. The effect is similar to soldiers marching in lockstep, but horizontal instead of vertical.  The risks of lateral vibration in lightweight bridges are well known. Any bridge with lateral frequency modes of less than 1.3 Hz, and sufficiently low mass, could witness the same phenomenon with sufficient pedestrian loading. The greater the number of people, the greater the amplitude of the vibrations. Other bridges which have seen similar problems are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mitigation.", "content": "Engineers at Arup, the company that designed the bridge, conducted research into the unexpected oscillation which they called'synchronous lateral excitation'. The first laboratory studies used pedestrians on moving platforms at the University of Southampton and Imperial College London. Later in 2000, one span of the bridge was instrumented and tested with crowds of up to 275 people.  They concluded that making the bridge stiffer, to move its resonant frequency out of the excitation range, was not feasible as it would greatly change its appearance. Instead, the resonance was controlled by retrofitting 37 viscous fluid dampers to dissipate energy. These include 17 chevron dampers – long V-shaped braces under the deck panels – to control lateral movement, 4 vertical to ground dampers to control lateral and vertical movements, and 16 pier dampers to control lateral and torsional movements. Additionally, 52 tuned mass dampers add inertia to control vertical movement. The work took from May 2001 to January 2002 and cost £5M. After a period of testing, the bridge was reopened on 22 February 2002 and has not been subject to significant vibration since. In spite of the successful cure, the affectionate \"wobbly bridge\" (sometimes \"wibbly-wobbly\") epithet remains in common usage among Londoners.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cable resonance.", "content": "An artistic expression of the higher-frequency resonances within the cables of the bridge were explored by Bill Fontana's 'Harmonic Bridge' exhibition at the Tate Modern museum in mid-2006. This used acoustic transducers placed at strategic locations on the cabling of the Millennium Bridge and the signals from those transducers were amplified and dynamically distributed throughout the Turbine Hall of the Tate by a programme which Fontana entered into the sound diffusion engine of the Richmond Sound Design AudioBox.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Millennium Bridge, officially known as the London Millennium Footbridge, is a steel suspension bridge for pedestrians crossing the River Thames in London, linking Bankside with the City of London. It is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates, a charitable trust overseen by the City of London Corporation. Construction began in 1998, and it initially opened in June 2000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974275}
{"src_title": "Alnus incana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a small- to medium-sized tree tall with smooth grey bark even in old age, its life span being a maximum of 60 to 100 years. The leaves are matte green, ovoid, long and broad. The flowers are catkins, appearing early in spring before the leaves emerge, the male catkins pendulous and long, the female catkins long and one cm broad when mature in late autumn. The seeds are small, long, and light brown with a narrow encircling wing. The grey alder has a shallow root system, and is marked not only by vigorous production of stump suckers, but also by root suckers, especially in the northern parts of its range. The wood resembles that of the black alder, but is somewhat paler and of little economic value.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are four to six subspecies, some treated as separate species by some authors:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Alnus incana\" is a light-demanding, fast-growing tree that grows well on poorer soils. In central Europe, it is a colonist of alluvial land alongside mountain brooks and streams, occurring at elevations up to. However, it does not require moist soil, and will also colonize screes and shallow stony slopes. In the northern part of its range, it is a common tree species at sea level in forests, abandoned fields and on lakeshores. Several species of Lepidoptera use grey alder as a food plant for their caterpillars. See List of Lepidoptera that feed on alders. In the boreal forest area of Canada, \"A. incana\" is often associated with black spruce in the forest type termed black spruce–speckled alder. The larvae of the alder woolly sawfly sometimes cause considerable defoliation to the grey alder.  \"A. rugosa\" provides cover for wildlife, is browsed by deer and moose, and the seeds are eaten by birds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "Pedunculagin is an ellagitannin found in the Manchurian alder (\"A. hirsuta var. microphylla\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The tree is cultivated in parks and gardens. The cultivar 'Aurea', with green-gold leaves, has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.  It is sometimes used for afforestation on non-fertile soils which it enriches by means of nitrogen fixing bacteria in its root nodules.  The Zuni people use the bark of the \"tenuifolia\" subspecies to dye deerskin reddish brown.  The Ho-Chunk people eat the bark of the \"rugosa\" subspecies when the stomach is sour and out of whack.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alnus incana, the grey alder or speckled alder, is a species of tree in the birch family, with a wide range across the cooler parts of the Northern Hemisphere.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974276}
{"src_title": "Minotaur (rocket family)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Vehicles.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minotaur-C (Taurus).", "content": "The Taurus launch vehicle, later renamed Minotaur-C (for \"Minotaur-Commercial\"), was the first of the Minotaur vehicle family, and the first ground-launched orbital booster developed by Orbital, derived by adding a solid booster stage to the air-launched Pegasus rocket. The first flight, sponsored by ARPA, was in 1994. After a series of failures in 2011, the rocket was rebranded as Minotaur-C in 2014. Due to laws against selling government equipment, the Minotaur-C is the only available Minotaur rocket for commercial launches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minotaur I.", "content": "The original Minotaur launch vehicle, consisting of an M55A1 first stage, SR19 second stage, Orion 50XL third stage, Orion 38 fourth stage, and optional HAPS fifth stage for velocity trim and multiple payload deployment. Payload 580 kg to a 185 km, 28.5 degree orbit from Cape Canaveral; or 310 kg to a 740 km sun-synchronous orbit from Vandenberg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minotaur II.", "content": "A suborbital target vehicle, essentially consisting of a Minuteman II with Orbital guidance and control systems. Consists of M55A1 first stage, SR19 second stage, and M57 third stage. Payload 460 kg on 6700 km suborbital trajectory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minotaur III.", "content": "A suborbital target vehicle, consisting of an SR118 first stage, SR119 second stage, SR120 third stage, and Super HAPS fourth stage. Payload 3060 kg on a 6700 km suborbital trajectory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minotaur IV.", "content": "The Minotaur IV combines U.S Government-furnished solid rocket motors from decommissioned Peacekeeper ICBMs with technologies from other Orbital-built launch vehicles, including the Minotaur I, Pegasus, and Taurus. The Minotaur IV launch vehicle consists of an SR118 first stage, SR119 second stage, SR120 third stage, and Orion 38 fourth stage. Payload 1735 kg to a 185 km, 28.5 degree orbit from Cape Canaveral. The first Minotaur IV was launched April 22, 2010 from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. This vehicle is also being developed to accommodate the Conventional Prompt Global Strike mission for the Air Force. (CPGS)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minotaur V.", "content": "The Minotaur V is a five-stage version based on the Minotaur IV+. It has an additional upper stage for small GTO, lunar, and interplanetary missions. NASA's Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) Mission was launched on the first Minotaur V, from the Wallops Island, Virginia launch site at 03:27 UTC on September 7, 2013. The Minotaur launched the LADEE spacecraft into a highly elliptic orbit where it can phase and time its trajectory burn to the moon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minotaur VI.", "content": "A Minotaur VI five-stage version has also been conceptualized. It is also based on the Minotaur IV+, adding a second SR-118 first stage.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Minotaur is a family of American solid fuel rockets derived from converted Minuteman and Peacekeeper intercontinental ballistic missiles. They are built by Northrop Grumman via contract with the Air Force Space and Missile Systems Center's Space Development and Test Directorate (SMC/SD) as part of the Air Force's Rocket Systems Launch Program which converts retired Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) into space and test launch systems for US government agencies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974277}
{"src_title": "Viviparous lizard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Identification.", "content": "The length of the body is less than (excluding the tail). The tail is up to twice as long as the body, although it is often partially or wholly lost. The limbs are short, and the head is rather round. Males have more slender bodies than females. The neck and the tail are thick. The collar and other scales seem jagged.  The colour and patterning of this species is variable. The main colour is typically medium brown, but it can be also grey, olive brown or black. Females may have dark stripes on their flanks and down the middle of their backs. Sometimes females also have light-coloured stripes, or dark and light spots along the sides of their backs. Most males and some females have dark spots in their undersides. Males have brightly coloured undersides – typically yellow or orange, but more rarely red. Females have paler, whitish underparts. The throat is white, sometimes blue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "The viviparous lizard is widely distributed throughout Europe and Asia. Its range extends to the north of the Arctic Circle. It ranges from Ireland to Hokkaido and Sakhalin. It is absent from most of the Mediterranean area, although it occurs in northern Spain, Northern Italy, Serbia, North Macedonia and Bulgaria. It is also absent from the area surrounding the Black Sea.  In the southern parts of its distribution range, the species lives at high elevations, occurring as high as above sea level in the Alps. In these areas, the viviparous lizard lives in damp locations, often near water, including meadows, swamps, rice fields, by brooks and in damp forests. In the northern part of the range, the species is also found in lowlands, where it occurs in drier environments, including open woodland, meadows, moorland, heathland, fens, dunes, rocks, roadsides, hedgerows and gardens. It lives mainly on the ground, although it may climb onto rocks, logs and low-growing vegetation.It is also the only reptile native to the island of Ireland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "The viviparous lizard feeds on invertebrates, mostly small insects and spiders. It shakes larger prey in its jaws before chewing it and swallowing it whole. In early spring, late autumn, and cool summer days, it basks in the sun to reach its optimum body temperature, which is about.  These lizards mate in April or May. Males take females in their jaws before mating – if the female is not interested, she will bite the male fiercely. The offspring develops inside the female for about three months.  The name of the species is derived from its ability to give birth to live young, an adaptation to a cool climate, but some southern populations are oviparous (egg-laying). The three to ten young (or eggs) are usually produced in July. The blackish young measure about, and when first born are surrounded by egg membrane, from which they break free after about a day. Males reach sexual maturity at the age of two years, females at the age of three years. Individuals from viviparous and oviparous populations may be hybridised, but with significant embryonic malformation. Viviparous \"Z. vivipara\" do develop placentae to facilitate pregnancy but there is no substantial transport of nutrients as seen in some other species of viviparous reptiles (e.g. Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii).  Due to the cool climate, in northern regions, viviparous lizards begin hibernation in September or October, underground or in log piles. Hibernation ends about mid-February. Further south, the species is active throughout the year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Colour polymorphism.", "content": "The colour polymorphism of female \"Zootoca vivipara\" has not been thoroughly studied in past years, regardless of the extensive research done on the species itself. Female lizards exhibit three types of body colouration within a population: yellow, orange, and mixture of the two. These discrete traits are inherited maternally and exist throughout the individual's lifetime. The organism's colour morphs are determined by their genotype as well as their environment.  The frequency of multiple morphs occurring in a population varies with the level of population density and frequency-dependent environments. These factors cause the lizards to vary in terms of their fitness (clutch size, sex ratio, hatching success). In lower density populations, colour polymorphism is more prevalent. This is because viviparous lizards thrive in environments where intraspecific competition is low. Increased competition among individuals results in lower survival rates of lizards. Additionally, female lizards disperse through habitats based on the frequency of colour types that are already present in the population. Their reproductive abilities vary according to this frequency-dependent environment. The number of offspring that they produce correlates with the colour morph: yellow females produce the fewest offspring, while orange females produce more than yellow, but fewer than mixed females, which produce the most offspring. The amount of offspring produced varies in regards to colour frequencies in the population; for example, if yellow females have higher density within the population, the clutch size for orange lizards is usually lower.  Orange females are more sensitive to intraspecific and colour-specific competition. They have smaller clutch sizes when the density of the population is high, or when the number of yellow females in the population is high. This could be due to their need to conserve energy for survival and reproductive events. Their colour morph remains in the population due to the trade-off between the size of offspring and the clutch size. Offspring born in smaller clutches are often larger and thus have a higher survival likelihood. Natural selection will favor individuals with larger size because of their advantage in physical competition with others. Yellow females have larger clutch sizes early in their life, but their hatch success decreases as the female ages. Their reproductive viability decreases, resulting in fewer offspring throughout their lifetime. Yellow morphs remain in the population due to their large clutch size, which causes an increased frequency of those females. Selection favors the yellow morph because of the ability to produce large clutch sizes, which increases the female's fitness. In mixed-coloured females, reproductive success is less sensitive to competition and frequency-dependent environments. Since these lizards show a mixture of yellow and orange colouration, they adopt benefits from both of the morphs. As a result, they can maintain high reproductive success and hatching success with large clutch sizes. Their colour morph remains in the population due to its high fitness, which selection will favor.  All three colours have evolutionary advantages in different ways. While yellow females have higher fitness due to their large clutch sizes, orange females enjoy high fitness due to their large body size and increased competitive advantages. Mixed females exhibit both of these advantages.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The viviparous lizard, Zootoca vivipara (formerly \"Lacerta vivipara\"), is a Eurasian lizard. It lives farther north than any other species of non-marine reptile, and most populations are viviparous (giving birth to live young), rather than laying eggs as most other lizards do. It is the only species in the monotypic genus Zootoca. Both \"\"Zootoca\"\" and \"\"vivipara\"\" mean \"live birth,\" in Greek and Latin respectively. It was called \"Lacerta vivipara\" until the genus \"Lacerta\" was split into nine genera in 2007 by, Arribas & Carranza.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974278}
{"src_title": "Ambrosia artemisiifolia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The species name, \"artemisiifolia\", is given because the leaves were thought to bear a resemblance to the leaves of Artemisia, the true wormwoods.  It has also been called the common names: American wormwood, bitterweed, blackweed, carrot weed, hay fever weed, Roman wormwood, short ragweed, stammerwort, stickweed, tassel weed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The plant is native to: North America across Canada, the eastern and central United States, the Great Plains, and in Alaska; the Caribbean on Cuba, Hispaniola, and Jamaica; and South America in the southern bioregion (Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay), the western bioregion (Bolivia, Peru), and Brazil. The distribution of common ragweed in Europe is expected to expand northwards in the future.  It is the most widespread species of the genus in North America, which most of the other species of \"Ambrosia\" are endemic to. Ambrosia is also widely distributed in Ukraine, specifically in the central and south regions. During the summer it often causes the allergy reaction from some people. The highest risk time is in August (7–13).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Ambrosia artemisiifolia\" is an annual plant that emerges in late spring. It propagates mainly by rhizomes, but also by seed.  It is much-branched, and grows up to in height. The pinnately divided soft and hairy leaves are long.  Its bloom period is July to October in North America. Its pollen is wind-dispersed, and can be a strong allergen to people with hay fever.  It produces 2–4 mm obconic green to brown fruit. It sets seed in later summer or autumn. Since the seeds persist into winter and are numerous and rich in oil, they are relished by songbirds and upland game birds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "Common ragweed, \"Ambrosia artemisiifolia\", is a widespread invasive species, and can become a noxious weed, that has naturalized in: Europe; temperate Asia and the Indian subcontinent; temperate northern and southern Africa and Macaronesia; Oceania in Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii; and Southwestern North America in California and the Southwestern United States.  Common ragweed is a very competitive weed and can produce yield losses in soybeans as high as 30 percent. Control with night tillage reduces emergence by around 45 percent. Small grains in rotation will also suppress common ragweed if they are overseeded with clover. Otherwise, the ragweed will grow and mature and produce seeds in the small grain stubble.  Its wind-blown pollen is highly allergenic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ragweed control.", "content": "several herbicides were effective against common ragweed, although resistant populations were known to exist. In 2007 several \"Ambrosia artemisiifolia\" populations were glyphosate resistant, exclusively in the USA.  SMARTER is a European interdisciplinary network of experts involved in the control of ragweed, health care professionals, aerobiologists, ecologists, economists, and atmospheric and agricultural modellers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Chemical composition, and uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sesquiterpene lactones and molluscicide.", "content": "Three sesquiterpene lactones isolated from the aerial parts of \"Ambrosia artemisiifolia\" were identified as psilostachyin A, psilostachyin B and psilostachyin C. All of them have some molluscicidal activity against the small tropical freshwater snail \"Oncomelania hupensis\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medicinal.", "content": "\"Ambrosia artemisiifolia\" was a traditional medicinal plant for Native American tribes, including the Cherokee, Lakota, Iroquois, Dakota, and Delaware.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phytoremediation.", "content": "\"Ambrosia artemisiifolia\" is used in phytoremediation projects remediating soil pollution, for removing heavy metals such as lead from contaminated soil.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ambrosia artemisiifolia, with the common names common ragweed, annual ragweed, and low ragweed, is a species of the genus \"Ambrosia\" native to regions of the Americas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974279}
{"src_title": "Bertrand Delanoë", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bertrand Delanoë was born 30 May 1950 in Tunis, at that time a protectorate of the French colonial empire, to a French mother and a French-Tunisian father. His father, a land surveyor, was atheist while his mother, a nurse, was Roman Catholic.  At 6 years old, Delanoë became a member of the \"Petits Chanteurs des Sables\", a Christian choral group associated with the Petits Chanteurs à la Croix de Bois.  At the age of 11, Delanoë witnessed the Crisis of Bizerte between France and newly independent Tunisia. Bertrand Delanoë moved back to France with his family at the beginning of the Tunisian independence.  After the military base was closed in 1963, Delanoë's family broke up. His mother came to live in Rodez (Aveyron) with her son. After leaving school, Delanoë is said to have started studies in law at the University of Toulouse. According to \"Who's Who in France\" he possesses a diploma in economics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early political career.", "content": "Delanoë has been involved in politics since the age of twenty-three as the secretary of the Socialist federation in Aveyron.  He was first elected to the Paris city council in 1977. In 1993, he became the head of the city's Socialist Party.  In 1995, he was elected to the French Senate, where he was secretary of the Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defense.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mayor of Paris.", "content": "Delanoë became mayor of Paris on 18 March 2001, when control of the city council was won by a left-wing alliance for the first time since 1977 (election of the city council with universal suffrage). His predecessors were Jean Tiberi (1995–2001), and Jacques Chirac (1977–95), who resigned after 18 years as mayor when he was elected president of the French Republic.  Delanoë won the mayorship of Paris, at the head of a coalition of Socialists, Greens and Communists, over the conservative candidates Jean Tiberi and Philippe Séguin, who were unable to resolve their differences and thereby split the conservative vote. This success in a city which has traditionally been a stronghold of the right was made all the more striking by setbacks to the Left in the 2001 elections that occurred more generally – has been partially attributed with the weariness of the Parisian public with respect to various scandals of corruption and graft in the preceding administrations (see corruption scandals in the Paris region).  Delanoë was virtually unknown before the election of 2001, but soon gained fame for organising new and unusual events in Paris, such as the \"Paris Beach\" (\"Paris-Plages\") on the banks of the Seine every summer in order to give Parisians who could not take a regular vacation a chance to relax, sunbathe and build sandcastles in the center of Paris. The program, especially popular with families with children, has been in place since 2002, and has since been copied by many other international cities.  As mayor, Delanoë's goals were to improve the quality of life, reduce pollution, and cut down on vehicle traffic within the city (including a plan for a non-polluting tramway to ease Parisian traffic) and pedestrian malls. He helped introduce a program called Vélib' (a portmanteau of \"vélo\" and \"libre\" meaning \"free bicycles\") which gave Parisians access to inexpensive rental bicycles available in stations all around Paris. The program has been enormously successful despite the fact that it still has a few logistical problems to be worked out. He has outlined a plan for an autolib, whereby small cars would be shared. He was reelected in 2008 (57.7%) for a new six-year-term (2008–2014).  In 2009, he criticized statements by Pope Benedict XVI, which were of the effect that condom use was unhelpful or even counter-productive in the fight against AIDS.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Assassination attempt.", "content": "Delanoë was stabbed on 5 October 2002 during the \"Nuit Blanche\", a night of festivities in Paris, while mingling with the public. His assailant was a Muslim immigrant, Azedine Berkane, who reportedly told police that \"he hated politicians, the Socialist Party, and homosexuals.\" Speaking to \"Le Monde\", one of his neighbors said, \"He was a bit like us. We're all homophobic here because it's not natural.\" Before being taken to hospital, Delanoë ordered that the festivities continue. Delanoë's wound was not life-threatening and he left the hospital after about two weeks.  Azedine Berkane was eventually permitted to leave the psychiatric hospital where he had been a patient after his doctors no longer considered him a threat. However, in early April, 2007, he failed to keep a scheduled appointment with his doctors, and has not been seen since.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Olympic bid.", "content": "The failure to secure the 2012 Summer Olympics for Paris on 6 July 2005 was Delanoë's first major setback as mayor. In the aftermath of the defeat in his Olympic bid, he accused British prime minister Tony Blair of unduly influencing the result in order to secure the games in London. However, Delanoë's popularity in fact rose during July 2005. The French public appeared to have laid more of the blame on President Jacques Chirac, who allegedly said that \"the only worse food than British food is Finnish\" which is widely believed to have offended two Finnish members of the International Olympic Committee.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Potential presidential bid.", "content": "Delanoë was said to be considering challenging then-current president Sarkozy in the Presidential election in 2012. However, this plan suffered a setback in November 2008 when he lost the race for the party leadership to Lille mayor Martine Aubry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fake \"New York Times\" letter.", "content": "On 22 December 2008, \"The New York Times\" published a letter attributed to Delanoë criticizing Caroline Kennedy's candidacy for the United States Senate seat vacated by Hillary Clinton. The newspaper later admitted that the letter, which had been sent by email, had not been properly verified, and was a fake.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Delanoë was one of the first major French politicians to announce that he was gay, during a 1998 television interview (before being elected mayor). Although a long-time politician, Delanoë is visible at cultural affairs. He attends film festivals, and he is sometimes quoted in the media or appears on television to speak about his friendship with the late French superstar entertainer, Dalida.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Electoral mandates  National Assembly of France  Member of the National Assembly of France for Paris (26th constituency): 1981–1986. Elected in 1981.  Senate of France  Senator of Paris: 1995–2001 (resignation).  Municipal Council  Mayor of Paris: Elected in 2001. Reelected in 2008.  Councillor of Paris: Elected in 1977. Reelected in 1983, 1989, 1995, 2001, 2008.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bertrand Delanoë (; born 30 May 1950) is a retired French politician who was Mayor of Paris from 25 March 2001 to 5 April 2014. He is a member of the Socialist Party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974280}
{"src_title": "Corylus avellana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Common hazel is typically a shrub reaching 3–8 m tall, but can reach 15 m. The leaves are deciduous, rounded, 6–12 cm long and across, softly hairy on both surfaces, and with a double-serrate margin. The flowers are produced very early in spring, before the leaves, and are monoecious with single-sex wind-pollinated catkins. Male catkins are pale yellow and 5–12 cm long, while female flowers are very small and largely concealed in the buds with only the bright red 1–3 mm long styles visible. The fruit is a nut, produced in clusters of one to five together, each nut held in a short leafy involucre (\"husk\") which encloses about three quarters of the nut. The nut is roughly spherical to oval, 15–20 mm long and 12–20 mm broad (larger, up to 25 mm long, in some cultivated selections), yellow-brown with a pale scar at the base. The nut falls out of the involucre when ripe, about 7–8 months after pollination.  It is readily distinguished from the closely related filbert (\"Corylus maxima\") by the short involucre; in the filbert the nut is fully enclosed by a beak-like involucre longer than the nut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The scientific name \"avellana\" derives from the town of Avella in Italy, and was selected by Linnaeus from Leonhart Fuchs's \"De historia stirpium commentarii insignes\" (1542), where the species was described as \"\"Avellana nux sylvestris\"\" (\"wild nut of Avella\"). That name was taken in turn from Pliny the Elder's first century A.D. encyclopedia Naturalis Historia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The leaves provide food for many animals, including Lepidoptera such as the case-bearer moth, \"Coleophora anatipennella\". Caterpillars of the concealer moth, \"Alabonia geoffrella,\" have been found feeding inside dead common hazel twigs. See also \"List of Lepidoptera that feed on hazels.\"  The fruit are possibly even more important animal food, both for invertebrates adapted to circumvent the shell (usually by ovipositing in the female flowers, which also gives protection to the offspring) and for vertebrates which manage to crack them open (such as squirrels and corvids). Both are considered pests by hazelnut growers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "According to the New Sunset Western Garden Book, the European hazelnut is among the most widely grown hazelnut plants for commercial nut production.  This shrub is common in many European woodlands. It is an important component of the hedgerows that were the traditional field boundaries in lowland England. The wood was traditionally grown as coppice, the poles cut being used for wattle-and-daub building and agricultural fencing. A selection with twisted branches has been propagated horticulturally as \"Corylus avellana\" 'Contorta'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hazelnuts.", "content": "The hazelnut, also known as the cobnut, is the nut of the hazel. It is roughly spherical to oval in shape, about 15–25 mm long and 10–15 mm in diameter, with an outer fibrous husk surrounding a smooth shell. The nut falls out of the husk when ripe, about seven to eight months after pollination.  Hazelnuts are rich in protein and unsaturated fat. They also contain significant amounts of manganese, copper, vitamin E, thiamine, and magnesium.  There are many cultivars of the hazel, including Barcelona, Butler, Casina, Clark Cosford, Daviana, Delle Langhe, England, Ennis, Fillbert, Halls Giant, Jemtegaard, Kent Cob, Lewis, Tokolyi, Tonda Gentile, Tonda di Giffoni, Tonda Romana, Wanliss Pride, and Willamette. Some of these are grown for specific qualities of the nut including large nut size, and early and late fruiting cultivars, whereas other are grown as pollinators. The majority of commercial hazelnuts are propagated from root sprouts. Some cultivars are of hybrid origin between common hazel and filbert.  Common hazel is cultivated for its nuts in commercial orchards in Europe, Turkey, Iran and Caucasus. The name \"hazelnut\" applies to the nuts of any of the species of the genus \"Corylus\". This hazelnut or cobnut, the kernel of the seed, is edible and used raw or roasted, or ground into a paste. The seed has a thin, dark brown skin which has a bitter flavour and is sometimes removed before cooking. The top producer of hazelnuts, by a large margin, is Turkey, specifically the Giresun Province. Turkish hazelnut production of 625,000 tonnes accounts for approximately 75% of worldwide production.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Corylus avellana, the common hazel, is a species of hazel native to Europe and western Asia, from the British Isles south to Iberia, Greece, Turkey and Cyprus, north to central Scandinavia, and east to the central Ural Mountains, the Caucasus, and northwestern Iran. It is an important component of the hedgerows that were the traditional field boundaries in lowland England. The wood was traditionally grown as coppice, the poles cut being used for wattle-and-daub building and agricultural fencing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974281}
{"src_title": "MacCready Gossamer Albatross", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The aircraft was designed and built by a team led by Paul B. MacCready, a noted American aeronautics engineer, designer, and world soaring champion. \"Gossamer Albatross\" was his second human-powered aircraft, the first being the \"Gossamer Condor\", which had won the first Kremer prize on August 23, 1977, by completing a -long figure-eight course. The second Kremer challenge was then announced as a flight across the English Channel recalling Louis Blériot's crossing of 1909.  The aircraft is of \"canard\" configuration, using a large horizontal stabilizer forward of the wing in a manner similar to the Wright brothers' successful \"Wright Flyer\" aircraft and powered using pedals to drive a large, two-bladed propeller. The \"Gossamer Albatross\" was constructed using a carbon fiber frame, with the ribs of the wings made with expanded polystyrene; the entire structure was then wrapped in a thin, transparent plastic (mylar PET film). The empty mass of the structure was only, although the gross mass for the Channel flight was almost. To maintain the craft in the air, it was designed with very long, tapering wings (high aspect ratio), like those of a glider, allowing the flight to be undertaken with a minimum of power. In still air, the required power was on the order of, though even mild turbulence made this figure rise rapidly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The crossing.", "content": "Just before 6 am on June 12, 1979, amateur cyclist and pilot Bryan Allen, powered the \"Albatross\" to the rehearsed speed of 75 revolutions per minute and took off from a point near Folkestone, England. The Channel conditions and lack of wind were ideal for the crossing.  However, issues soon started to affect the aircraft and pilot. Allen's radio failed for a while and he was only able to communicate with the accompanying boats by hand and head movements. Next, Allen's water supply had been estimated for a two-hour flight, but headwinds delayed the crossing and his supply ran out. Without adequate water, Allen suffered from dehydration and leg cramps.  With increasing headwinds, concern grew that the flight would have to be called off. With the coast of France still unseen, an accompanying boat maneuvered in front of the \"Albatross\" to hook it to safety. However, for the hooking procedure, Allen had gone a little higher and found less air turbulence, so he continued to pedal the aircraft and see if progress could be made. With a calming surface wind, Allen continued, and landed on a beach at Cape Gris-Nez in France. Allen completed the crossing in 2 hours and 49 minutes, achieving a top speed of and an average altitude of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions.", "content": "MacCready's team built two Albatrosses; the back-up plane was jointly tested as part of the NASA Langley/Dryden flight research program in 1980 and was also flown inside the Houston Astrodome, the first ever controlled indoor flight by a human-powered aircraft. The \"Gossamer Albatross II\" is currently on display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington.  Alistair Cooke devoted some of his \"Letter From America\" broadcast of 15/17 Jun 1979 to Allen's achievement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prizes.", "content": "For his work on the \"Gossamer Albatross\", MacCready was later awarded the Collier Trophy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gossamer Albatross is a human-powered aircraft built by American aeronautical engineer Dr. Paul B. MacCready's company AeroVironment. On June 12, 1979, it completed a successful crossing of the English Channel to win the second £100,000 (£ today) Kremer prize.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974282}
{"src_title": "Clipping (audio)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "When an amplifier is pushed to create a signal with more power than its power supply can produce, it will amplify the signal only up to its maximum capacity, at which point the signal can be amplified no further. As the signal simply \"cuts\" or \"clips\" at the maximum capacity of the amplifier, the signal is said to be \"clipping\". The extra signal which is beyond the capability of the amplifier is simply cut off, resulting in a sine wave becoming a distorted square-wave-type waveform.  Amplifiers have voltage, current and thermal limits. Clipping may occur due to limitations in the power supply or the output stage. Some amplifiers are able to deliver peak power without clipping for short durations before energy stored in the power supply is depleted or the amplifier begins to overheat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effects.", "content": "The additional high frequency energy in the harmonics generated by an amplifier operating in clipping can damage the tweeter in a connected loudspeaker via overheating.  Clipping can occur within a system as processing (e.g. an all-pass filter) can change the phase relationship between spectral components of a signal in such a way as to create excessive peak outputs. The excessive peaks may become clipped even though the system can play any simple sine wave signals of the same level without clipping.  Electric guitarists frequently and intentionally overdrive their guitar amplifiers to cause clipping and other distortion in order to get a desired sound.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Digital clipping.", "content": "In digital signal processing, clipping occurs when the signal is restricted by the range of a chosen representation. For example, in a system using 16-bit signed integers, 32767 is the largest positive value that can be represented. If, during processing, the amplitude of the signal is doubled, sample values of, for instance, 32000 should become 64000, but instead cause an integer overflow and saturate to the maximum, 32767. Clipping is preferable to the alternative in digital systems—wrapping—which occurs if the digital processor is allowed to overflow, ignoring the most significant bits of the magnitude, and sometimes even the sign of the sample value, resulting in gross distortion of the signal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Avoiding clipping.", "content": "The simplest way to avoid clipping is to reduce the signal level. Alternatively the system can be improved to support higher signal level without clipping. Some audiophiles will use amplifiers that are rated for power outputs over twice the speaker's ratings. A limiter can be used to dynamically bring the levels of the loud parts of a signal down (for example, bass and snare drums).  Many amplifier designers have incorporated circuits to prevent clipping. The simplest circuits act like a fast limiter, which engages about one decibel before the clipping point. A more complex circuit, called \"soft-clip\", has been used from the 1980s onward to limit the signal at the input stage. The soft-clip feature begins to engage prior to clipping, for instance starting at 10 dB below maximum output power. The output waveform retains a rounded characteristic even in the presence of an overload input signal as much as 10 dB higher than maximum specified.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Repairing a clipped signal.", "content": "It is preferable to avoid clipping, but if a recording has clipped, and cannot be re-recorded, repair is an option. The goal of repair is to make up a plausible replacement for the clipped part of the signal.  Complex hard-clipped signals cannot be restored to their original state because the information contained in the peaks that are clipped is completely lost. Soft-clipped signals can be restored to their original state to within a case-dependent tolerance because no part of the original signal is completely lost. In this case, the degree of information loss is proportional to the degree of compression caused by the clipping. Lightly clipped bandwidth-limited signals that are highly oversampled have the potential for perfect repair.  Several methods can partially restore a clipped signal. Once the clipped portion is known, one can attempt partial recovery. One such method is interpolation or extrapolation of known samples. Advanced implementations may use cubic splines to attempt to restore a continuously differentiable signal. While these reconstructions are only an approximation of the original, the subjective quality may be improved. Other methods include copying the signal directly from one stereo channel to another, as it may be the case that only one channel is clipped.  Several software solutions of varying results and methods exist to repair clipping: CuteStudio Declip, Sony Sound Forge, iZotope Rx3 and Rx7, Adobe Audition, Nero AG Wave Editor, Stereo Tool, declipping solutions from CEDAR Audio, and Audacity plugins such as Clip Fix.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "In analog audio equipment, there are several causes of clipping:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Detection.", "content": "Clipping in a circuit can be detected by comparing the original input signal with an output signal with adjustment for applied gain. For instance, if a circuit has 10 dB of applied gain, it can be tested for clipping by attenuating the output signal by 10 dB and comparing it to the input signal. The difference between the two signals can be used to illuminate clipping detection indicators and can be used to decrease the gain of a preceding circuit to manage clipping.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clipping is a form of waveform distortion that occurs when an amplifier is overdriven and attempts to deliver an output voltage or current beyond its maximum capability. Driving an amplifier into clipping may cause it to output power in excess of its power rating.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974283}
{"src_title": "Dragutin Dimitrijević", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Dragutin Dimitrijević was born in Belgrade, Principality of Serbia in the summer of 1876 to an Aromanian family. His father and two brothers were often away working as tinsmiths and he grew up with his two older sisters in Niš. At the age of nine, his father died.  When Dimitrijević's oldest sister married, the family moved back to Belgrade where, at the age of 16, Dimitrijević entered the Belgrade Military Academy as a cadet in 1892. His fellow cadets called him Apis, which means \"The Bull\", due to his strong physique and energy. Dimitrijević finished the Academy's lower school sixth in his class in 1896 and two years later enrolled in the higher school, where he was assigned to the General Staff of the Serbian Army upon graduation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "May Coup.", "content": "Captain Dimitrijević and a group of junior officers planned the assassination of the King of Serbia. On 11 June 1903, the group stormed the royal palace and killed both King Alexander and his wife Queen Draga. During the attack, Dimitrijević was shot three times and the bullets were never removed from his body.  The Serbian parliament described Dimitrijević as \"the saviour of the fatherland\" and he was appointed Professor of Tactics at the Military Academy. He visited Germany and Russia where he studied the latest military ideas. During the Balkan Wars that took place in 1912 and 1913, Dimitrijević's military planning helped the Serbian Army achieve several important victories.  Dimitrijević's main concern was what he viewed as the liberation of all South Slavs, especially Serbs, from Austria-Hungary. Although Serbia was already an independent country, many Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Vojvodina were still under Austro-Hungarian rule. Dimitrijević, who used the code name \"Apis\", became leader of the secret Black Hand group. Dimitrijević had his men disguised as Albanians while committing political murders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.", "content": "In 1911, Dimitrijević organised an attempt to assassinate the Austrian Emperor Franz Josef. When this failed, Dimitrijević turned his attention to the heir to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Dimitrijević was concerned about Ferdinand's plans to grant concessions to the South Slavs, fearing that, if this happened, a unified South Slavic state under Serbian leadership would be more difficult to achieve.  Unknown to Dimitrijević, Major Vojislav Tankosić was informing Nikola Pašić, the prime minister of Serbia about the plot. Although Pašić supported the main objectives of the Black Hand group, he did not want the assassination to take place, as he feared it would lead to a war with Austria-Hungary. He therefore gave instructions for the arrest of the three young would-be-assassins when they attempted to leave the country. However, his orders were not implemented, and the three men arrived in what was then known as the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina, where they joined forces with fellow conspirators, Veljko and Vaso Čubrilović, Muhamed Mehmedbašić, Danilo Ilić, Cvjetko Popović and Miško Jovanović.  After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife on 28 June 1914, several Black Hand members, under interrogation by the Austrian police and investigative magistrates, admitted that three men in Serbia (Dimitrijević, Milan Ciganović, and Major Voja Tankosić) had organised the assassination.  On 23 July 1914, the Austro-Hungarian government sent its July Ultimatum to the Serbian government with a lengthy list of ten different demands. In his response on 25 July 1914, Serbian prime minister Nikola Pašić, accepted all the points of the ultimatum except point #6, demanding Serbia to allow an Austrian delegation to participate in a criminal investigation against those participants in the conspiracy that were in Serbia. Three days later the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia.  In 1916, Dimitrijević was promoted to colonel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Execution.", "content": "Nikola Pašić decided to get rid of the most prominent members of the Black Hand movement, by then officially disbanded. Dimitrijević and several of his military colleagues were arrested in December 1916, and tried on charges blaming them with attempted assassination of regent Aleksandar I Karađorđević in September 1916. On 23 May 1917, following the \"Salonika Trial\", Dimitrijević was found guilty of treason and sentenced to death. A month later, on 24 June 1917, he was executed by firing squad.  In 1953, Dimitrijević and his co-defendants were all posthumously retried by the Supreme Court of Serbia and found not guilty, because there was no proof for their alleged participation in the assassination plot.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dragutin Dimitrijević (; 17 August 1876 – 24 June 1917), known as Apis (Апис), was a Serbian colonel. He was a leading member of the military group that organized the 1903 overthrow of the Serbian government, which included the assassination of Alexander I of Serbia", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974284}
{"src_title": "Barcelona Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first rapid transit railway service in Barcelona was founded in 1863 by the private company \"Ferrocarril de Sarrià a Barcelona\" (\"Railway from Sarrià to Barcelona\", after 1916 Sarrià joined the municipality of Barcelona). Later this line evolved in what now is basically the current L6 metro service. This railway system, now part of the Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya company, was later inspired by the London Underground naming style having long names for the lines (\"Sarrià line\", \"Balmes line\"...).  Much later, in the 1920s, a second and a third rapid transit railway systems were founded with the construction of the \"Gran Metro\" between Lesseps and the Plaça de Catalunya (part of the modern L3) and, two years later, the \"Metro Transversal\" (now part of L1). This third one was built between the Plaça de Catalunya and la Bordeta to link the city centre with the Plaça d'Espanya and Montjuïc, the site of the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition. These two later rapid transit companies contrasted with the first one in being inspired by the \"Métropolitain de Paris\" (from where the word \"metro\" comes).  Today the network consists of 12 lines managed by 2 different operators: Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB) and Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya (FGC, or Catalan Government Railways). Fares and nomenclature are controlled by the Autoritat del Transport Metropolità, a citywide system that also includes local and regional buses, tramways and some commuter and regional train services.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Network.", "content": "The total length of the network since 1/2/2020 is 166 km. and 189 stations, including TMB+FGC+Montjuic funicular.  The major network, operated by TMB, consists of eight lines, numbered L1 to L5 and L9 to L11 (which are distinguished on network maps by different colours), covering of route and 141 stations.  FGC lines are numbered L6, L7, L8 and L12. These lines, except all L12 and part of L7, share tracks with commuter rail lines.  The Barcelona Metro lines do not have a name of their own but are generally referred to by their colour or by the number and the names of their termini.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lines.", "content": "The lines run as follows:  In addition to those, Renfe and FGC trains and the increasingly important Trambaix and Trambesòs routes and stations are displayed on most recent maps, including the info maps in the metro stations, all in a single variety of dark green.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "L9 and L10.", "content": "Construction work is taking place currently on L9/L10, which will run from Badalona and Santa Coloma de Gramenet to the Zona Franca district and El Prat International Airport. The lines, which share a central section between Bon Pastor and Torrassa (L1), will be the longest automated metro line in Europe, at, and will have 52 stations. The project was approved in 2000 but has been challenged by some technical difficulties and some of their sections are pending further geological analysis. The first section of Line 9 that runs between La Sagrera and Can Zam opened in 2009, and by June 2010 eleven new stations on the new Lines L9 and L10 had opened., the 15-station, south section of Line L9 between Zona Universitària and the airport opened.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tickets and pricing.", "content": "In addition to the one-way ticket there are a number of other tickets and cards. All of the Autoritat del Transport Metropolità (ATM) transport cards are valid and can be used in the Barcelona Metro. These are:  All of the metro stations are within fare zone 1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stations.", "content": "At the end of 2018, there are currently 187 operational stations in the Barcelona Metro, served by the 12 lines in current use. Average distance between 2 stations is 807.50 metres.  An overwhelming majority of stations in the network lack related buildings or structures aboveground, mostly consisting of an access with stairs, escalators or elevators. The official TMB metro indicator, a red rhombus with a M inside, remains unused by FGC lines, which use their company logo and a different rhombus-shaped logo (actually rather similar to the one used inside the Madrid Metro) inside stations. Below ground their decoration is remarkably sober, with the exception of all the new stations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disused stations.", "content": "A number of stations in the network have been closed, were never inaugurated, or have been moved to a nearby location. See the main article for more details.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Accessibility.", "content": "Accessibility for wheelchairs and for passengers with pushchairs is being improved but the metro system is not yet fully accessible. A project of improvements is gradually adding more lifts from street level to ticket office level and then from ticket office level to the platforms, though some stations remain without access. 17 of 180 are not fully accessible as of 2016. See Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona for more information on which stations are currently accessible. As of 2018, only 9 stations are not accessible for wheelchair users. These are: Espanya, Plaça de Sants, Urquinaona, Clot, Vallcarca, Maragall, Verdaguer, Ciutadella|Vila Olímpica, Virrei Amat. Around June 2018, accessibility works at Jaume I started. On December 28, construction finished lowering the number of inaccessible stations to 9.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona.", "content": "The Barcelona Metro is part of a larger transportation network, regulated and fare-integrated by Autoritat del Transport Metropolità.  Among these services, there are two large systems which operate both inside and outside the city limits of Barcelona: the commuter train lines operated by Renfe, amalgamated in the Rodalies Barcelona, or Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya lines which start in the metro lines the company operates (L6, L7 and L8) and which become a fully-fledged railway system which serves most of the metropolitan area: list of FGC lines. FGC is developing Sabadell Metro and Terrassa Metro as extensions of its network in the large cities of Sabadell and Terrassa respectively.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Barcelona Metro (Catalan and Spanish: ) is an extensive network of rapid transit electrified railway lines that run mostly underground in central Barcelona and into the city's suburbs. It is part of the larger public transport system of Barcelona, the capital of Catalonia, Spain with unified fares under the (ATM) scheme. As of 2014, the network is operated by two separate companies: (TMB) and (FGC). It is made up of 12 lines, combining the lines owned by the two companies. Two lines, L9 and L10 are being built at present, with both lines having different sections of each opened between 2009 and 2016. They are due to be fully completed in 2026. Three lines on the network have opened as automatic train operation/driverless vehicle systems since 2009: Line 11, Line 9 and Line 10, in chronological order. The network length is 166 kilometres, with 189 stations, as of June 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974285}
{"src_title": "François-Joseph Gossec", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "The son of a small farmer, Gossec was born at the village of, then a French exclave in the Austrian Netherlands, now in Belgium. Showing an early taste for music, he became a choir-boy in Antwerp. He went to Paris in 1751 and was taken on by the composer Jean-Philippe Rameau. He followed Rameau as the conductor of a private orchestra kept by the \"fermier général\" Le Riche de La Poupelinière, a wealthy amateur and patron of music. Gradually he became determined to do something to revive the study of instrumental music in France.  Gossec's own first symphony was performed in 1754, and as conductor to the Prince de Condé's orchestra he produced several operas and other compositions of his own. He imposed his influence on French music with remarkable success. His \"Requiem\" premiered in 1760, a ninety-minute piece which made him famous overnight. Years later, in 1778, Mozart visited Gossec during a trip to Paris, and described him in a letter to his father as \"a very good friend and a very dry man\".  Gossec founded the \"Concert des Amateurs\" in 1769 and in 1773 he reorganised the \"Concert Spirituel\" together with Simon Leduc and Pierre Gaviniès. In this concert series he conducted his own symphonies as well as those by his contemporaries, particularly works by Joseph Haydn, whose music had become increasingly popular in Paris, finally even superseding Gossec's symphonic work.  In the 1780s Gossec's symphonic output decreased as he began concentrating on operas. He organized the \"École de Chant\" in 1784, together with Etienne Méhul, was conductor of the band of the \"Garde Nationale\" of the French Revolution, and was appointed (with Méhul and Luigi Cherubini) inspector of the \"Conservatoire de Musique\" at its creation in 1795. He was an original member of the \"Institut\" and a \"chevalier\" of the Legion of Honour. In 1815, after the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo, the Conservatoire was closed for some time by Louis XVIII, and the eighty-one-year-old Gossec had to retire. Until 1817 he worked on his last compositions, including a third \"Te Deum\", and was supported by a pension granted by the Conservatoire.  He died in the Parisian suburb of Passy. The funeral service was attended by former colleagues, including Cherubini, at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. His grave is near those of Méhul and Grétry.  Some of his techniques anticipated the innovations of the Romantic era: he scored his \"Te Deum\" for 1200 singers and 300 wind instruments, and several oratorios require the physical separation of multiple choirs, including invisible ones behind the stage. He wrote several works in honor of the French revolution, including \"Le Triomphe de la République\", and \"L'Offrande à la Liberté\".  Gossec's \"Gavotte\" remains familiar in popular culture because Carl Stalling and Charles M. Jones used arrangements of it in several Warner Brothers cartoons. Arguably the most notable of these is Porky Pig’s dance to an uncredited version of Gossec’s Gavotte in Jones’ ‘’Porky’s Cafe’’ (1942).  Gossec was little known outside France, and his own numerous compositions, sacred and secular, were overshadowed by those of more famous composers; but he was an inspiration to many, and powerfully stimulated the revival of instrumental music.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François-Joseph Gossec (17 January 1734 – 16 February 1829) was a French composer of operas, string quartets, symphonies, and choral works.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974286}
{"src_title": "Aimé Césaire", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Student, educator and poet.", "content": "Aimé Césaire was born in Basse-Pointe, Martinique, France, in 1913. His father was a tax inspector and his mother was a dressmaker. He was a lower class citizen but still learned to read and write. His family moved to the capital of Martinique, Fort-de-France, in order for Césaire to attend the only secondary school on the island, Lycée Schoelcher. He considered himself of Igbo descent from Nigeria, and considered his first name \"Aimé\" a retention of an Igbo name; though the name is of French origin, ultimately from the Old French word \"amée\", meaning beloved, its pronunciation is similar to the Igbo \"eme\", which forms the basis for many Igbo given names. Césaire traveled to Paris to attend the Lycée Louis-le-Grand on an educational scholarship. In Paris, he passed the entrance exam for the École Normale Supérieure in 1935 and created the literary review \"L'Étudiant noir\" (\"The Black Student\") with Léopold Sédar Senghor and Léon Damas. Upon returning home to Martinique in 1936, Césaire began work on his long poem \"Cahier d'un retour au pays natal (Notebook of a Return to the Native Land)\", a vivid and powerful depiction of the ambiguities of Caribbean life and culture in the New World.  Césaire married fellow Martinican student Suzanne Roussi in 1937. Together they moved back to Martinique in 1939 with their young son. Césaire became a teacher at the Lycée Schoelcher in Fort-de-France, where he taught Frantz Fanon, becoming a great influence for Fanon as both a mentor and contemporary. Césaire also served as an inspiration for, but did not teach, writer Édouard Glissant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "The years of World War II were ones of great intellectual activity for the Césaires. In 1941, Aimé Césaire and Suzanne Roussi founded the literary review \"Tropiques\", with the help of other Martinican intellectuals such as René Ménil and Aristide Maugée, in order to challenge the cultural status quo and alienation that characterized Martinican identity at the time. Césaire's many run-ins with censorship did not deter him, however, from being an outspoken defendant of Martinican identity. He also became close to French surrealist poet André Breton, who spent time in Martinique during the war. (The two had met in 1940, and Breton later would champion Cesaire's work.)  In 1947, his book-length poem \"Cahier d'un retour au pays natal\", which had first appeared in the Parisian periodical \"Volontés\" in 1939 after rejection by a French book publisher, was published. The book mixes poetry and prose to express Césaire's thoughts on the cultural identity of black Africans in a colonial setting. Breton contributed a laudatory introduction to this 1947 edition, saying that the \"poem is nothing less than the greatest lyrical monument of our times.\" When asked by Rene Depestres about his writing style, Aimé Césaire replied by saying that \"Surrealism provided me with what I had been confusedly searching for.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1945, with the support of the French Communist Party (PCF), Césaire was elected mayor of Fort-de-France and deputy to the French National Assembly for Martinique. He was one of the principal drafters of the 1946 law on departmentalizing former colonies, a role for which pro-independence politicians have often criticized him.  Like many left-wing intellectuals in 1930s and 1940s France, Césaire looked toward the Soviet Union as a source of progress, virtue, and human rights. He later grew disillusioned with the Soviet Union after the 1956 suppression of the Hungarian revolution. He announced his resignation from the PCF in a text entitled \"Lettre à Maurice Thorez\" (Letter to Maurice Thorez). In 1958 Césaire founded the Parti Progressiste Martiniquais.  His writings during this period reflect his passion for civic and social engagement. He wrote \"Discours sur le colonialisme\" (\"Discourse on Colonialism\"), a denunciation of European colonial racism, decadence, and hypocrisy that was republished in the French review \"Présence Africaine\" in 1955 (English translation 1957). In 1960, he published \"Toussaint Louverture\", based on the life of the Haitian revolutionary. In 1969, he published the first version of \"Une Tempête\", a radical adaptation of Shakespeare's play \"The Tempest\" for a black audience.  Césaire served as President of the Regional Council of Martinique from 1983 to 1988. He retired from politics in 2001.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 2006, he refused to meet the leader of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP), Nicolas Sarkozy, a probable contender at the time for the 2007 presidential election, because the UMP had voted for the 2005 French law on colonialism. This law required teachers and textbooks to \"acknowledge and recognize in particular the positive role of the French presence abroad, especially in North Africa\", a law considered by many as a eulogy to colonialism and French actions during the Algerian War. President Jacques Chirac finally had the controversial law repealed.  On 9 April 2008, Césaire had serious heart troubles and was admitted to Pierre Zobda Quitman hospital in Fort-de-France. He died on 17 April 2008.  Césaire was accorded the honor of a state funeral, held at the Stade de Dillon in Fort-de-France on 20 April. French President Nicolas Sarkozy was present but did not make a speech. Pierre Aliker, who served for many years as deputy mayor under Césaire, gave the funeral oration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Martinique's airport at Le Lamentin was renamed Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport on 15 January 2007. A national commemoration ceremony was held on 6 April 2011, as a plaque in Césaire's name was inaugurated in the Panthéon in Paris.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Each year links to its corresponding \"[year] in poetry\" article for poetry, or \"[year] in literature\" article for other works:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other writings.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discourse on Colonialism.", "content": "Césaire's \"Discourse on Colonialism\" challenges the narrative of the colonizer and the colonized. This text criticizes the hypocrisy of justifying colonization with the equation \"Christianity=civilized, paganism=savagery\" comparing white colonizers to \"savages\". Césaire writes that \"no one colonizes innocently, that no one colonizes with impunity either\" concluding that \"a nation which colonizes, that a civilization which justifies colonization - and therefore force - is already a sick civilization\". He condemns the colonizers, saying that though the men may not be inherently bad, the practice of colonization ruins them.  Césaire continues to deconstruct the colonizer, and ultimately concludes that by colonizing those white men often lose touch with who they were, and become brutalized into hidden instincts that result in the rape, torture, and race hatred that they put onto the people they colonize. He also examines the effects colonialism has on the colonized, stating that \"colonization = 'thing-ification'\", where because the colonizers are able to \"other\" the colonized, they can justify the means by which they colonize.  The text also continuously references Nazism, blaming the barbarism of colonialism and how whitewashed and accepted the tradition, for Hitler's rise to power. He says that Hitler lives within and is the demon of \"the very distinguished, very humanistic, very Christian bourgeois of the twentieth century.\"  Césaire originally wrote his text in French in 1950, but later worked with Joan Pinkham to translate it to English. The translated version was published in 1972.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Aimé Fernand David Césaire (; ; 26 June 1913 – 17 April 2008) was a Francophone and French poet, an Afro-Caribbean author and politician from the region of Martinique. He was \"one of the founders of the négritude movement in Francophone literature\". His works included \"Une Tempête\", a response to Shakespeare's play \"The Tempest\", and \"Discours sur le colonialisme\" (\"Discourse on Colonialism\"), an essay describing the strife between the colonizers and the colonized. His works have been translated into many languages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974287}
{"src_title": "H. G. Adler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Prague, Bohemia to Emil and Alice Adler, Hans Günther Adler was a Jew, though not devout. After his graduation in 1935 from Charles University, where he studied music and literature, arts and sciences, he worked as a secretary and teacher at the Urania, a pedagogical institute. This also involved him in some radio broadcasting.  In 1941 he was sent to a Jewish labour camp where he worked until shortly before his deportation to Theresienstadt with his family on February 8, 1942. Adler was to spend two and a half years in Theresienstadt with his family before being deported to Auschwitz. At Theresienstadt, Adler avoided doing work that might implicate him in the running of the ghetto and did only manual work, such as room duty and building. His wife, who was a medical doctor and chemist, led the medical central bureau. On Oct 14, 1944 he arrived with his wife and her mother at Auschwitz.  Both women were put in the gas chambers that day. Gertrud could have survived, but refused to leave her mother. Adler was to lose his mother and father and sixteen members of his family to the Holocaust.  On October 28, 1944, Adler was deported to Niederoschel, a subdivision of Buchenwald, and in 1945, to Langenstein, another subdivision of Buchenwald. On April 13, 1945 he was free. From July and December of that year he was near Prague, helping Przemysl Pitter to care for children who had survived the war, both Jewish and non-Jewish.  From October 1945 until February 1947, Adler worked in the Jewish Museum in Prague, where he devoted himself chiefly to the building up of the archives about the times of persecution and the Theresienstadt camp. At this time he was also involved in accumulating the documents from the camp, possibly with the intention of bringing them to Palestine. Although some material was brought to Jerusalem, for the most part this project was not completed.  In June 1946 he lost his Сzechoslovakian citizenship because of his German mother tongue. To escape the impending Communist takeover of Czechoslovakia, Adler fled to London in February 1947, where he married a close friend from Prague, the sculptor Bettina Gross, with whom he fathered his only child Jeremy Adler.  He then became a freelance writer and scholar and went on to author 26 books on history, sociology and philosophy as well as poetry, and including several autobiographical works, notably nonfiction and fictional works on the Holocaust. Writing in the \"Financial Times\", Simon Schama says that Adler's work deserves a place beside other twentieth century witnesses of the concentration camps such as Primo Levi and Solzhenitsyn.  Adler's first major work was the study of the ghetto Theresienstadt, \"Theresienstadt 1941-1945. Das Antlitz einer Zwangsgemeinschaft\" (Theresienstadt 1941-1945. The Face of an Enforced Community), first published in 1955 and in an enlarged edition in 1960. The book was an international success. As the first scholarly monograph devoted to a single camp it became one of the foundational works of Holocaust Studies. It is still the most detailed account of any single concentration camp. Adler's first fiction novel was \"Panorama\" (1968). Another novel was \"The Journey\", described as \"Holocaust modernism\" in a 2009 review in the New York Times. Three of Adler's novels, \"The Journey\", \"Panorama\" and \"The Wall\", have been translated into English by Peter Filkins. An english translation of his monograph about Theresienstadt was published in 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prizes.", "content": "He received the Leo Baeck Prize in 1958, the Prix Charles Veillon in 1969 for Panorama; the Buber-Rosenzweig-Medal in 1974 and an honorary Ph.D. from the Pedagogical University of Berlin in 1980. Adler died in London, England in 1988.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Günther Adler (July 2, 1910, in Prague – August 21, 1988, in London), was a German language poet, novelist, scholar, and Holocaust survivor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974288}
{"src_title": "Najib Mikati", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Mikati was born on 24 November 1955 and hails from a prominent Sunni Muslim family based in Tripoli. He graduated from the American University of Beirut in 1980 with a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree. He also attended a summer school program held at Harvard and the French business school INSEAD.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business career.", "content": "Mikati co-founded the telecommunications company Investcom with his brother Taha in 1982. He sold the company in June 2006 to South Africa's MTN Group for $5.5 billion. In April 2015, \"Forbes\" estimated his net worth at $3.3 billion, making him the richest man in Lebanon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "After being appointed Minister of Public Works and Transport on 4 December 1998, Mikati was elected to the Lebanese parliament from his hometown of Tripoli in 2000, outpolling Omar Karami, who was elected from the same multimember constituency. As a parliamentarian, Mikati retained his cabinet position and developed a reputation as a moderately pro-Syrian politician with a normal relationship with Syrian president Bashar Assad. Later Mikati was made transportation minister and became an ally of then Lebanese president Emile Lahoud, supporting the extension of his term in 2004.  He was a perennial candidate for Lebanon's prime ministry since 2000, finally taking the office upon the resignation of Omar Karami on 13 April 2005. Mikati acted as a caretaker premier. He is the leader of the solidarity bloc, which has had two seats in the Lebanese parliament since 2004. He also created the centrist movement and ideology in Lebanon and the Arab world, for which he has held many international conferences in Lebanon. In the general elections of 2009, Mikati won again a seat from Tripoli, being a member of the centrist groups in the Lebanese parliament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First premiership.", "content": "During negotiations to form a government, Mikati emerged as a consensus candidate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second premiership.", "content": "On 24 January 2011, the March 8 alliance, specifically Hezbollah, Michel Aoun and Walid Jumblatt, nominated Mikati to become prime minister. Mikati succeeded Saad Hariri, whose government was brought down by the resignation of ten of the alliance's ministers and one presidential appointee on 12 January 2011, resulting from the collapse of the Saudi-Syrian initiative to reach a compromise on the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. On 25 January, 68 members of the parliament of Lebanon voted in favor of nominating Mikati for Prime Minister. President of Lebanon Michel Suleiman then invited Mikati to head a new Lebanese government. The process of government formation lasted for five months due to serious disagreements between leaders. On 13 June 2011, Mikati became the Prime Minister of Lebanon for the second time.  On 13 June, Mikati announced the formation of the government and stated that it would begin by \"liberating land that remains under the occupation of the Israeli enemy\". On 22 March 2013, Mikati resigned from office, due to \"intensifying pressure between the pro-Assad and anti-Assad camps\" and the Lebanese president accepted his resignation on 23 March 2013. On 6 April 2013, Tammam Salam was tasked to form a new government.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Najib Azmi Mikati (; born 24 November 1955) is a Lebanese politician, and billionaire businessman, who served twice as the Prime Minister of Lebanon. From April 2005 to July 2005 he was Prime Minister of Lebanon in a caretaker government. On 25 January 2011, he was nominated to serve as Prime Minister by a majority of the votes in the parliamentary consultations following the 12 January fall of the Lebanese government of November 2009. The government was formed on 13 June 2011, after many delays. On 22 March 2013, Mikati submitted his resignation from office, which Lebanese president Michel Suleiman accepted on 23 March 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974289}
{"src_title": "Cujo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Cujo's name was based on the alias of Willie Wolfe, one of the men responsible for orchestrating Patty Hearst's kidnapping and indoctrination into the Symbionese Liberation Army. Stephen King discusses \"Cujo\" in \"\", referring to it as a novel he \"barely remembers writing at all.\" King wrote the book while he was on a cocaine binge. King goes on to say he likes the book and wishes he could remember enjoying the good parts as he put them on the page.  According to King, the novel was partly inspired by his trip to a mechanic during the spring of 1977. In a 2006 interview with \"The Paris Review\", King describes how issues with his motorcycle led him to visit an auto shop on the northern outskirts of Bridgton, Maine. He claims his motorcycle died when he arrived at the shop, and moments after, a Saint Bernard emerged from the garage, growling at him and eventually lunging for his hand. Although the mechanic stopped the dog from harming King by hitting the dog's hindquarters with a wrench, King was still startled by the encounter. This incident, as well as a story published in a Portland, Maine, newspaper about a young child who was killed by a Saint Bernard, provided inspiration for the novel. King also owned a dysfunctional Ford Pinto at the time, which is the same car model the novel's protagonist, Donna Trenton, drives to the auto garage where she encounters the rabid Cujo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot.", "content": "The story takes place in the setting for many King stories: the fictional town of Castle Rock, Maine. Revolving around two local families, the narrative is interspersed with vignettes from the seemingly mundane lives of various other residents. There are no chapter headings, but breaks between passages indicate when the narration switches to a different perspective.  The middle-class Trentons have recently moved to Castle Rock from New York City, bringing with them their four-year-old son, Tad. Vic Trenton discovers his wife, Donna, has recently had an affair with a tennis player named Steve Kemp. In the midst of this household tension, Vic's advertising agency, Ad Worx, is failing due to a scandal over a cereal called Red Razberry Zingers. Vic, and his business partner Roger Breakstone, are forced to travel out of town, leaving Tad and Donna at home alone.  The blue-collar Cambers, meanwhile, are longtime residents of Castle Rock. Joe is a mechanic who dominates and abuses his wife, Charity, and their ten-year-old son, Brett. Charity wins a $5,000 lottery prize and uses the proceeds to trick Joe into allowing her to take Brett on a trip to visit Charity's sister, Holly, in Connecticut. Joe acquiesces and secretly plans to use the time to take a pleasure trip to Boston with his friend and alcoholic retired vet neighbor, Gary Pervier.  While the Cambers are getting ready for their respective trips, their dog Cujo, a large good-natured Saint Bernard, chases a wild rabbit in the fields around their house and inserts his head in the entrance to a small limestone cave. A bat bites him on the nose and infects him with rabies. Charity and Brett leave town, and while they're gone, Cujo kills Gary Pervier, and eventually Joe Camber as well.  Donna, home alone with Tad, takes their failing Ford Pinto to the Cambers' for repairs. The car breaks down in Camber's dooryard, and as Donna attempts to find Joe, Cujo appears and attacks her. She climbs back in the car as Cujo starts to attack. Donna and Tad are trapped in their vehicle, the interior of which becomes increasingly hot in the summer sun. During one escape attempt, Donna is bitten in the stomach and leg, but manages to survive and escape back into the car. She plans to run for the house but abandons the idea because she fears the door will be locked and that she will be subsequently killed by Cujo, leaving her son alone.  Vic returns to Castle Rock after several failed attempts to contact Donna and learns from the police that Steve Kemp, the man with whom Donna was having an affair, is suspected of ransacking his home and possibly kidnapping Donna and Tad. To explore all leads, the state police send Castle Rock Sheriff George Bannerman out to the Cambers' house, but Cujo attacks and kills him. Donna, after witnessing the attack and realizing Tad is in danger of dying of dehydration, battles Cujo and kills him. Vic arrives on the scene with the authorities soon after, but Tad has already died from dehydration and heatstroke. Donna is rushed to the hospital, and Cujo's head is removed for a biopsy to check for rabies prior to the cremation of his remains.  The novel ends several months later with both the Trenton and Camber families trying to move on with their lives. Donna has completed her treatment for rabies and her marriage to Vic has survived. Charity gives Brett a new, vaccinated puppy named Willie. A postscript reminds the reader that Cujo was a good dog who always tried to keep his owners happy, but the ravage of rabies drove him to violence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "Upon its initial release in 1981, the novel earned and maintained a high position on bestseller lists in the United States. Some critics have criticized the novel for its dismal ending. The 1983 film adaptation of the novel featured a more optimistic conclusion.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cujo () is a 1981 psychological horror novel by American writer Stephen King about a rabid Saint Bernard. The novel won the British Fantasy Award in 1982 and was made into a film in 1983.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974290}
{"src_title": "Counting sort", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Input and output assumptions.", "content": "In the most general case, the input to counting sort consists of a collection of items, each of which has a non-negative integer key whose maximum value is at most. In some descriptions of counting sort, the input to be sorted is assumed to be more simply a sequence of integers itself, but this simplification does not accommodate many applications of counting sort. For instance, when used as a subroutine in radix sort, the keys for each call to counting sort are individual digits of larger item keys; it would not suffice to return only a sorted list of the key digits, separated from the items.  In applications such as in radix sort, a bound on the maximum key value will be known in advance, and can be assumed to be part of the input to the algorithm. However, if the value of is not already known then it may be computed, as a first step, by an additional loop over the data to determine the maximum key value that actually occurs within the data.  The output is an array of the items, in order by their keys. Because of the application to radix sorting, it is important for counting sort to be a stable sort: if two items have the same key as each other, they should have the same relative position in the output as they did in the input.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The algorithm.", "content": "In pseudocode, the algorithm may be expressed as:  Here codice_1 is the input array to be sorted, codice_2 returns the numeric key of each item in the input array, codice_3 is an auxiliary array used first to store the numbers of items with each key, and then (after the second loop) to store the positions where items with each key should be placed, codice_4 is the maximum value of the non-negative key values and codice_5 is the sorted output array.  In summary, the algorithm loops over the items in the first loop, computing a histogram of the number of times each key occurs within the input collection. After that, it then performs a prefix sum computation on codice_3 to determine, for each key, the position range where the items having that key should be placed in; i.e. items of key formula_1 should be placed starting in position codice_7. This is done through the second loop. Finally, it loops over the items again in the third loop, moving each item into its sorted position in the output array. The relative order of items with equal keys is preserved here; i.e., this is a.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complexity analysis.", "content": "Because the algorithm uses only simple for loops, without recursion or subroutine calls, it is straightforward to analyze. The initialization of the count array, and the second for loop which performs a prefix sum on the count array, each iterate at most times and therefore take time. The other two for loops, and the initialization of the output array, each take time. Therefore, the time for the whole algorithm is the sum of the times for these steps,.  Because it uses arrays of length and, the total space usage of the algorithm is also. For problem instances in which the maximum key value is significantly smaller than the number of items, counting sort can be highly space-efficient, as the only storage it uses other than its input and output arrays is the Count array which uses space.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variant algorithms.", "content": "If each item to be sorted is itself an integer, and used as key as well, then the second and third loops of counting sort can be combined; in the second loop, instead of computing the position where items with key codice_8 should be placed in the output, simply append codice_9 copies of the number codice_8 to the output.  This algorithm may also be used to eliminate duplicate keys, by replacing the codice_11 array with a bit vector that stores a codice_12 for a key that is present in the input and a codice_13 for a key that is not present. If additionally the items are the integer keys themselves, both second and third loops can be omitted entirely and the bit vector will itself serve as output, representing the values as offsets of the non-codice_13 entries, added to the range's lowest value. Thus the keys are sorted and the duplicates are eliminated in this variant just by being placed into the bit array.  For data in which the maximum key size is significantly smaller than the number of data items, counting sort may be parallelized by splitting the input into subarrays of approximately equal size, processing each subarray in parallel to generate a separate count array for each subarray, and then merging the count arrays. When used as part of a parallel radix sort algorithm, the key size (base of the radix representation) should be chosen to match the size of the split subarrays. The simplicity of the counting sort algorithm and its use of the easily parallelizable prefix sum primitive also make it usable in more fine-grained parallel algorithms.  As described, counting sort is not an in-place algorithm; even disregarding the count array, it needs separate input and output arrays. It is possible to modify the algorithm so that it places the items into sorted order within the same array that was given to it as the input, using only the count array as auxiliary storage; however, the modified in-place version of counting sort is not stable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Although radix sorting itself dates back far longer, counting sort, and its application to radix sorting, were both invented by Harold H. Seward in 1954.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer science, counting sort is an algorithm for sorting a collection of objects according to keys that are small integers; that is, it is an integer sorting algorithm. It operates by counting the number of objects that have each distinct key value, and using arithmetic on those counts to determine the positions of each key value in the output sequence. Its running time is linear in the number of items and the difference between the maximum and minimum key values, so it is only suitable for direct use in situations where the variation in keys is not significantly greater than the number of items. However, it is often used as a subroutine in another sorting algorithm, radix sort, that can handle larger keys more efficiently.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974291}
{"src_title": "Karl Gützlaff", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born at Pyritz (present-day Pyrzyce), Pomerania, he was apprenticed to a saddler in Stettin, but was able to secure admission to Pädagogium in Halle, and associated himself with the Janike Institute in Berlin.  The Netherlands Missionary Society sent him to Java in 1826, where he learned Chinese. Gutzlaff left the society in 1828, and went first to Singapore, then to Bangkok with Jacob Tomlin of the London Missionary Society, where he worked on a translation of the Bible into Thai. He made a brief trip to Singapore in December 1829, where he married a single English missionary, Maria Newell. The two returned to Bangkok in February 1830 where they worked on a dictionary of Cambodian and Lao. Before the work was completed, however, Maria died in childbirth, leaving a considerable inheritance. Gützlaff married again, this time to Mary Wanstall, in 1834. The second Mrs. Gützlaff ran a school and a home for the blind in Macau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "China.", "content": "In Macau, and later in Hong Kong, Gützlaff worked on a Chinese translation of the Bible, published a Chinese-language magazine, \"Eastern Western Monthly Magazine\", and wrote Chinese-language books on practical subjects. In 1834 he published \"Journal of Three Voyages along the Coast of China in 1831, 1832 and 1833\". Along the way he handed out tracts which had been prepared by another pioneer missionary to China, Robert Morrison. In late 1833, he acted as naturalist George Bennett's Cantonese interpreter on his visit to Canton.  In 1840, a group of four people (Walter Henry Medhurst, Charles Gutzlaff, Elijah Coleman Bridgman, and John Robert Morrison) cooperated to translate the Bible into Chinese. The translation of the Hebrew part was done mostly by Gutzlaff, with the exception that the Pentateuch and the book of Joshua were done by the group collectively. This translation, completed in 1847, is well-known due to its adoption by the revolutionary peasant leader Hong Xiuquan of the Taipingtianguo movement (Taiping Rebellion) as some of the reputed early doctrines of the organization. This Bible translation was a version (in High Wen-li, ) correct and faithful to the original.  In the 1830s, Gützlaff was persuaded by William Jardine of Jardine, Matheson & Co. to interpret for their ships' captains during coastal smuggling of opium, with the assurance that this would allow him to gather more converts. He was interpreter to the British Plenipotentiary in negotiations during the First Opium War of 1839–42, then magistrate at Ningpo and Chusan. He was appointed the first assistant Chinese Secretary of the new colony of Hong Kong in 1842 and was promoted to Chinese Secretary in August of the following year. In response to the Chinese government's unwillingness to allow foreigners into the interior, he founded a school for \"native missionaries\" in 1844 and trained nearly fifty Chinese during its first four years.  It was observed by a visitor to Hong Kong in 1848 that Gützlaff had turned his back on being a missionary and become a corpulent figure enjoying a large civil service salary.  Gützlaff's second wife, Mary, died in 1849 in Singapore, and was buried there.  Unfortunately, Gützlaff's ideas outran his administrative ability. He wound up being victimized by his own native missionaries. They reported back to him glowing accounts of conversions and New Testaments sold. While some of Gützlaff's native missionaries were genuine converts, others were opium addicts who never traveled to the places they claimed. Eager for easy money, they simply made up conversion reports and took the New Testaments which Gützlaff provided and sold them back to the printer who resold them to Gutzlaff. The scandal erupted while Gützlaff was in Europe on a fundraising tour. Gützlaff married a third time, to Dorothy Gabriel, while in England in 1850.  Shattered by the exposure of the fraud, Gützlaff died in Hong Kong in 1851, leaving a £30,000 fortune. He was buried in Hong Kong Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Chinese Evangelization Society which he formed lived on to send out Hudson Taylor who founded the successful China Inland Mission. Taylor called Gützlaff the grandfather of the China Inland Mission.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in China.", "content": "On 29November 1834, Gutzlaff became a member of the newly formed \"Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in China\". The committee members represented a wide section of the business and missionary community in Canton: James Matheson (Chairman), David Olyphant, William Wetmore, James Innes, Thomas Fox, Elijah Coleman Bridgman, and John Robert Morrison. John Francis Davis, at that time chief superintendent of British trade in China, was made an honorary member.  Gutzlaff Street in Hong Kong was named after him.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Gützlaff's writing influenced both Dr. Livingstone and Karl Marx. David Livingstone read Gützlaff's \"Appeal to the Churches of Britain and America on Behalf of China\" and decided to become a medical missionary. Unfortunately, it was 1840, and the outbreak of the First Opium War made China too dangerous for foreigners. So the London Missionary Society sent him to Africa, where (in 1871) Henry Morton Stanley would find him working hard in Ujiji, Tanzania.  While Gützlaff was fundraising in Europe in 1850, Karl Marx went to hear him speak in London. He also read Gützlaff's many writings, which became sources for Karl Marx' articles on China for the London Times and the New York Daily Tribune in the 1840s and 1850s, all of which are anti-imperialist and anti-religion.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Karl Friedrich August Gützlaff (8 July 1803 – 9 August 1851), anglicised as Charles Gutzlaff, was a German Lutheran missionary to the Far East, notable as one of the first Protestant missionaries in Bangkok, Thailand (1828) and in Korea (1832). He was also the first Lutheran missionary to China. He was a magistrate in Ningpo and Chusan and the second Chinese Secretary of the British administration in Hong Kong.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974292}
{"src_title": "Albrecht Unsöld", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Albrecht Unsöld was born in Bolheim, Württemberg, Germany. After school attendance in Heidenheim, Unsöld studied physics at the University of Tübingen and the University of Munich. At Munich, he studied under Arnold Sommerfeld, and was granted his doctorate in 1927. As a Fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation, he was an assistant in Potsdam and worked at the Mount Wilson Observatory in Pasadena, California. He then completed his Habilitation in Munich in 1929. In 1930, he was an assistant at the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Hamburg. In September 1932, Unsöld became Ordinarius Professor and Director of the Institute for Theoretical Physics (and Observatory) at the University of Kiel – a position he held until his emeritus status was granted in 1973, after which he remained scientifically active for 15 years.  While a student at Munich, Unsöld was one of many of a long line of students who helped Sommerfeld explore and advance atomic theory. Unsöld's theorem states that the square of the total electron wavefunction for a filled or half-filled sub-shell is spherically symmetric. Thus, like atoms containing a half-filled or filled s orbital (\"l\" = 0), atoms of the second period with 3 or 6 p (\"l\" = 1) electrons are spherically shaped. Likewise, so are atoms of the third period in which there are 5 or 10 d (\"l\" = 2) electrons. Hence, spherical atoms are those of the 1st, 2nd, 7th, 12th, 15th and 18th columns of the periodic table.  At Kiel, Unsöld made an intensive study of the effects of abundances, radiation damping, Doppler shifts, electric fields, and collisions on the formation and shape of spectral lines in stellar atmospheres. His analysis of the B0 star Tau Scorpii, obtained on his 1939 visit to Yerkes and McDonald Observatories, provided the first detailed analysis of a star other than the Sun, and he was able to determine the physics and composition of the star’s atmosphere.  From 1947 to 1948, Unsöld was President of the Astronomische Gesellschaft.  Unsöld edited the \"Zeitschrift für Astrophysik\" until it was merged with other European journals into \"Astronomy and Astrophysics\". He was also the author of many books, and his book \"Physik der Sternatmosphären mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Sonne\" was a bible for quantitative stellar spectroscopy and related fields, with special emphasis on the Sun.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albrecht Otto Johannes Unsöld (20 April 1905 – 23 September 1995) was a German astrophysicist known for his contributions to spectroscopic analysis of stellar atmospheres.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974293}
{"src_title": "Loris Francesco Capovilla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and priesthood.", "content": "Capovilla was born in Pontelongo in 1915 as the son of Rodolfo Capovilla and Letizia Callegaro. He had one sister: Lia. He was baptized in Pontelongo. His father later died in 1922 and this in turn led Capovilla to move to Mestre in 1929 following a period of precariousness and wandering.  Capovilla studied at the Patriarchal Seminary of Venice and was later ordained a priest of the Archdiocese of Venice on 23 May 1940 by Cardinal Piazza, the Patriarch of Venice. He was made the capitular master of ceremonies in the Basilica of Saint Mark and also served as a catechist in middle schools. During World War II, Capovilla served in military aviation and later went on to become a Sunday preacher at Radio Venezia from 1945 to 1953. He was also made the director of the diocesan weekly La Voce di San Marco in 1949.  He formed a close friendship with Cardinal Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (later Pope John XXIII) when the cardinal was the Patriarch of Venice. He commenced his service under Roncalli on 15 March 1953. He claimed, however, to have never called himself Roncalli's friend, but considered him his bishop, his father and his patriarch. He remained at Roncalli's side as papal secretary after Roncalli's election to the papacy in 1958 until his death in 1963.  Capovilla served as Roncalli's conclavist at the conclave of 1958 that saw the latter's election. He was confirmed as the new pope's secretary on the night of the election and was made a Domestic Prelate of His Holiness on 12 December 1958. After the death of John XXIII in 1963, Pope Paul VI appointed him as a prelate di anticamera and expert to the Second Vatican Council.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Episcopate and cardinalate.", "content": "Capovilla was appointed bishop of the Archdiocese of Chieti-Vasto on 26 June 1967 and consecrated on 16 July 1967 by Pope Paul VI. The co-consecrators were Augusto Gianfranceshi and Jacques-Paul Martin. He chose as his motto the one used by Pope John XXIII. On 23 September 1971 he was appointed prelate to the Loreto Prelature and the Titular archbishop of Mesembria. His resignation from his position in Loreto was accepted on 10 December 1988.  On 12 January 2014 Pope Francis announced that Capovilla would be elevated to the College of Cardinals on 22 February 2014. Capovilla said it was a \"sign of attention to all those thousands of priests around the world who have spent their lives in silence, in poverty, in obedience, happy to serve God and our humble people, who need, as Pope Francis continually says, tenderness, friendship, respect and love.\"  Capovilla received a dispensation and did not attend the consistory where he was named cardinal. He said: \"I'm not strong enough and I feel uncomfortable at the thought of meeting so many people.\" He was named Cardinal-Priest of \"Santa Maria in Trastevere\". Cardinal Angelo Sodano, the Dean of the College of Cardinals, bestowed the biretta and cardinal's ring upon Capovilla on 1 March.  He died in Bergamo on 26 May 2016. For his entire cardinalate, he was the oldest living Cardinal.  In 1964, he published a memoir, \"The Heart and Mind of John XXIII: His Secretary's Intimate Recollection\" (published by Hawthorn Books). As of 2013, he resided in Sotto il Monte Giovanni XXIII, about northeast of Milan.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Loris Francesco Capovilla (14 October 1915 – 26 May 2016) was an Italian Roman Catholic prelate and a cardinal. At his death, he was the oldest living Roman Catholic bishop from Italy and the fourth oldest in the world. At the time of his elevation to the rank of cardinal in 2014, he was the oldest member of the College of Cardinals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974294}
{"src_title": "Menhir", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Almost nothing is known of the social organization or religious beliefs of the people who erected the menhirs. There is not even any trace of these people's language; however we do know that they buried their dead and had the skills to grow cereal, farm and make pottery, stone tools and jewelry. Identifying their uses remains speculative. Until recently, menhirs were associated with the Beaker people, who inhabited Europe during the European late Neolithic and early Bronze Age—later third millennium BC, c. 2800–1800 BC. However, recent research into the age of megaliths in Brittany strongly suggests a far older origin, perhaps back to six to seven thousand years ago.  Many menhirs are engraved with megalithic art. This often turned them into anthropomorphic stelae, although images of objects such as stone axes, ploughs, shepherd crooks and yokes were common. With the exception of the stone axe, none of these motifs are definite, and the name used to describe them is largely for convenience. Some menhirs were broken up and incorporated into later passage graves, where they had new megalithic art carved with little regard for the previous pictures. It is not known if this re-use was deliberate or if the passage grave builders just saw menhirs as a convenient source of stone (Le Roux 1992).  During the Middle Ages, standing stones were believed to have been built by the giants who lived before the biblical flood. Many of the megaliths were destroyed or defaced by early Christians; it is estimated that some 50,000 megaliths once stood in Northern Europe, where almost 10,000 now remain.  Four menhirs and nearly 1,000 small and big dolmens were found in India at the Pothamala hills at the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border by a group of researchers in Kerala.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A menhir (from Brittonic languages: \"maen\" or \"men\", \"stone\" and \"hir\" or \"hîr\", \"long\"), standing stone, orthostat, or lith is a large man-made upright stone, typically dating from the European middle Bronze Age. They can be found solely as monoliths, or as part of a group of similar stones. Menhirs' size can vary considerably, but they are generally uneven and squared, often tapering towards the top.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974295}
{"src_title": "Danish–Swedish Farmdog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The Danish–Swedish Farmdog became a recognized breed in Denmark and Sweden in 1987. At that time, the two countries got together and agreed on the name of the breed, and also on the breed standard written by judge and breeder Lars Adeheimer, Sweden and judge Ole Staunskjaer, Denmark. The DSF was used as a farm dog for many hundreds of years, and before becoming a recognized breed it was known under the local name \"Skrabba\", \"Skåneterrier\", \"råttehund\", \"rat dog\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The FCI standard says that a DSF should be 30–39 cm of height with a compact body. The relation between withers height and body length should be 9 to 10. The head is rather small and triangular with a well-emphasized stop. The coat is hard, short and smooth in texture, with white as a dominating colour, with one or several patches of different colour combination. The tail could be long, half bobtail or bobtail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "The Danish–Swedish Farmdog is a very friendly, easygoing breed. Not only does it work on farms as a rat exterminator and watch dog, but it is also a companion to adults, and is known to befriend and play with the children of the household.  The Danish–Swedish Farmdog is unlike a terrier – even though it is often mistaken as one – it is very mild and gentle in temper. Unlike the high-strung nature of the terrier, the milder nature of the DSF allows it to do its job, as well as be calm and affectionate when unoccupied. This makes it an ideal house dog.  The DSF is a not a high energy dog, but loves having a job. The breed is new to the US, and can only now start to be seen in sports such as flyball and dog agility. The DSF is also known for its excellent mousing skills and can perform sports such as going to ground and earthdog. They are also very speedy and quick, and love all types of lure coursing.  In 2010, the breed club, Danish-Swedish Farmdogs USA, made application to AKC-FSS for recognition of the breed. In January 2011, the American Kennel Club (AKC) added the breed to its Foundation Stock Service. The Danish-Swedish Farmdog is now eligible to compete in various AKC companion events such as obedience, agility, rally and more. In November 2011, the AKC announced that as of July 2012, FSS breeds would be eligible for Open Conformation shows.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Danish–Swedish farmdog () is a breed of dog that has its origin in Denmark and southern Sweden, but has become popular all over Scandinavia. It is an old native breed which has historically lived on farms in the eastern part of Denmark and southernmost part of Sweden (i.e. on both sides of The Sound, the narrow strait that separates the Danish island of Zealand from the southern tip of the Scandinavian peninsula), serving as a guard dog, rat catcher and hunting dog. The breed's soft and gentle temperament also makes them excellent companion dogs. There are some indications that the breed originates from the pinscher breeds and the British white hunting terriers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974296}
{"src_title": "House of Fürstenberg (Swabia)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Fürstenberg was a county of the Holy Roman Empire in Swabia, present-day southern Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The county emerged when count Egino IV of Urach by marriage inherited large parts of the Duchy of Zähringen upon the death of Duke Berthold V in 1218, and was originally called the county of Freiburg. Egino's grandson Count Henry started naming himself after his residence at Fürstenberg Castle around 1250. The county was partitioned in 1284 between itself and the lower county of Dillingen, and then again in 1408 between Fürstenberg-Fürstenberg and Fürstenberg-Wolfach. Over the centuries, the various counts and Princes expanded their territories to include the Landgraviate of Baar, the Lordships of Gundelfingen, Hausen, Heiligenberg, Höwen, and Meßkirch, and the Landgraviate of Stühlingen in Germany; as well as estates around Křivoklát Castle (), Bohemia, Tavíkovice Castle (German: \"Taikowitz\") in Moravia, and from 1733 Lány Palace in Bohemia.  In 1607, Count Frederick IV of Fürstenberg-Heiligenberg acquired the fief of Weitra in Lower Austria by marriage. The House of Fürstenberg held Weitra until the Revolutions of 1848. The members of the Fürstenberg-Weitra cadet branch built a Renaissance castle on medieval foundations.  In 1664, Count Hermann Egon of Fürstenberg-Heiligenberg and his brothers, the bishops Franz Egon of Strasbourg and Cardinal William Egon of Furstenberg, became Princes of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1667, the county of Fürstenberg-Heiligenberg was formally raised to a principality and received a vote in the Imperial Diet. After the Fürstenberg-Heiligenberg branch of the family became extinct in 1716, the counts Froben Ferdinand of Fürstenberg-Messkirch and Joseph Wilhelm Ernst of Fürstenberg-Stühlingen became princes of the Holy Roman Empire.  In 1744, various Fürstenberg territories were reunified to the Principality of Fürstenberg-Fürstenberg, as all lines except one had become extinct. Between 1664 and 1716 the residence had been Heiligenberg. The residences of the two partial principalities between 1716 and 1723 were Stühlingen and Meßkirch. In 1723 Prince Joseph of Fürstenberg-Stühlingen built his new residence at Donaueschingen, being more centrally located, which remained the residence of the united principality after the Meßkirch branch of the family had become extinct.  The Rheinbundakte of 1806 dissolved Fürstenberg. Most of its territory was given to the Grand Duchy of Baden; smaller parts were given to the Kingdom of Württemberg, the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and the Kingdom of Bavaria.  The princely family is still today residing at Donaueschingen, Heiligenberg and Weitra.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Princes of the Stühlingen branch.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First prince.", "content": "The first \"Fürst zu Fürstenberg\" of the Fürstenberg-Stühlingen branch, which was mainly residing in Bohemia, Joseph Wilhelm Ernst, was born 12 January 1699. He was the second son of Prosper Ferdinand, Count of Fürstenberg-Stühlingen, killed at the Landau on 21 November 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession, and his wife Sophia, Countess of Königsegg-Rothenfels (1674–1727). On 2 February 1716, Joseph Wilhelm Ernst was raised to princely status, after the princely Heiligenberg branch had become extinct. He married in 1723 countess Maria Anna of Waldstein and Wartenberg (22 February 1707–12 November 1756). After her death in 1756, he married in 1761 to Maria Anna countess von der Wahl (born 22 September 173621 March 1808). He died in Vienna, 29 April 1762.  There was no issue from his second marriage. From his first marriage, he had eight children: Ferdinand, 3rd Prince of Thurn and Taxis (17041773)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second prince.", "content": "Joseph Wenzel Johann Nepomuk was the first son of the first prince. He was born in Prague, Prague 2 March 1728, and died at Donaueschingen 2 June 1783; he married 21 July 1748 to the Countess (Gräfin) Maria Josepha von Waldburg und Trauchburg (30 March 1731 7 May 1782).  They had seven children:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third prince.", "content": "The death in infancy of the eldest son of the second prince placed Joseph Maria Benedikt Karl in the line of direct inheritance as the second son of Joseph Wenzel Johann Nepomuk. He married in Hechingen 1778 to the Princess Maria Antonia von Hohenzollern-Hechingen (10 November 1760 25 July 1797). He died at Donaueschingen on 24 June 1796 without issue. The title passed to the next eldest sons of the second prince. Both of those boys, Karl Alexander and Karl Egon Marie had died in infancy and childhood, respectively (1761 and 1771).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fourth prince.", "content": "Karl Joachim Aloys Franz de Paula, became the fourth Fürst zu Fürstenberg, He married in 1796 the Landgravina Karoline Sophie zu Fürstenberg (20 August 1777, 25 February 1846). Their shared ancestor was Prosper Ferdinand, Count Fürstenberg, who had been killed at Landau in 1704. Karl Joachim Aloys died in 1803 without issue. There were no more surviving males of the first prince's eldest son. The title passed to the line of the second son.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Title moves to cadet (junior) branch.", "content": "Karl Borromäus Egon, the second son of the first prince, died in 1788. He had married in 1750 countess Maria Josepha von Sternberg (1735 1803). They had three sons:  Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg married his cousin Princess Elisabetha Alexandrina von Thurn und Taxis (30 November 1767 21 July 1822) in Prague. They had five children:  On 25 March 1799, Karl Aloys was killed at the Battle of Stockach. His nephew died in December 1799. Consequently, when his cousin, Karl Joachim Aloys Franz de Paula, died, his own son, Karl Egon, became the fifth Prince (\"Fürst\").", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Fürstenberg is the name of a Swabian noble house in Germany, based primarily in what is today southern Baden-Württemberg near the source of the Danube river.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974297}
{"src_title": "Frank De Winne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "De Winne graduated in 1979 from the Royal School of Cadets in Lier. In 1984, he graduated from the Royal Military Academy with the degree of Master of Sciences in Engineering (Polytechnics).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "De Winne followed the elementary flying school of the Belgian Air Component at Goetsenhoven. After graduating he flew Dassault Mirage 5 airplanes for the Air Force until he was attached to SAGEM in Paris to work on the safety of the Mirage. In 1991, De Winne completed the Staff Course at the Defence College in Brussels with the highest distinction. In 1992, De Winne received his degree as test pilot from the British Empire Test Pilots' School in Boscombe Down, receiving the \"McKenna Trophy\" as well.  From December 1992, Major of Royal Belgian Air Component De Winne operated as a test pilot for the Belgian Air Force. From January 1994 until April 1995, he was responsible for flight safety of the \"1st Fighter Wing\" operating from Beauvechain. From April 1995 to July 1996, he was attached as senior test pilot to the European Participating Air Forces at Edwards Air Force Base in California where he worked on the mid-life update of the F16 aircraft, focusing on radar testing. From 1996 to August 1998, he was senior test pilot in the Belgian Air Force, responsible for all test programmes and for all pilot-vehicle interfaces for future aircraft/software updates.  On 12 February 1997 De Winne encountered engine problems while flying in an F-16 Fighting Falcon over densely populated area near Leeuwarden. After the onboard computer failed, De Winne was faced with the choice of crashing in the IJsselmeer or of ejecting over densely populated area. However, De Winne was able to land his crippled plane at a Dutch Air Base, a feat which earned him the \"Joe Bill Dryden Semper Viper Award\", the first non-American ever to get this award.  In August 1998, De Winne became commander of the 349 Squadron operating from Kleine Brogel. During the NATO Operation Allied Force in the Balkans, De Winne commanded the Dutch-Belgian \"Deployable Air Task Force\". He completed 17 combat sorties. For his achievement during this operation, the Dutch government awarded him the degree of Officer of the Order of Orange-Nassau.  De Winne has collected over 2.300 flying hours in Mirage, F-16, Tornado and Jaguar. He also serves as the Chairman of the Belgian Armed Forces Flying Personnel Association.  He currently holds the rank of Brigadier-General.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Astronaut career.", "content": "In October 1998, Frank De Winne was selected as an astronaut candidate by the European Space Agency. In January 2000, he joined the European Astronaut Corps, whose homebase is the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne, Germany. He provided technical support for the X38 Crew Return Vehicle project division within the Directorate of Manned Spaceflight and Microgravity, located at the European Space Research and Technology Centre in Noordwijk, the Netherlands. In August 2001, De Winne took up training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonauts Training Center near Moscow, Russia. Training included elements of Basic Training for the International Space Station as well as training as a Soyuz flight engineer.  De Winne's first spaceflight (30 October - 10 November 2002) was a trip as a flight engineer to the International Space Station in 2002, traveling to the station aboard Soyuz TMA-1 and returning aboard Soyuz TM-34. During his time in space, De Winne carried out successfully a programme of 23 experiments in the fields of life and physical sciences and education.  He was the back-up crew member for Léopold Eyharts of ISS Expedition 16.  On 20 September 2007 ESA announced that De Winne would take part in a six-month mission aboard the International Space Station in 2009. On 21 November 2008, NASA announced changes to the Expedition schedule, with De Winne becoming Commander of Expedition 21. On 27 May 2009 De Winne launched aboard Soyuz TMA-15, becoming the first astronaut from the European Space Agency to command a space mission.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal.", "content": "De Winne is married to Lena Clarke De Winne. He has three children from a previous marriage. He enjoys football, small PC applications and gastronomy. De Winne appeared on screen during the concerts of rock band U2 on their 360° Tour (and on their \"U2360° at the Rose Bowl\" concert video) in pre-recorded segments from the International Space Station, reciting lines from the band's songs \"Your Blue Room\" and \"In a Little While\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frank, Viscount De Winne (born 25 April 1961, in Ledeberg, Belgium) is a Belgian Air Component officer and an ESA astronaut. He is Belgium's second person in space (after Dirk Frimout). He was the first ESA astronaut to command a space mission when he served as commander of ISS Expedition 21. ESA astronaut de Winne serves currently as Head of the European Astronaut Centre of the European Space Agency in Cologne/Germany (Köln).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974298}
{"src_title": "Danilo Di Luca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born in Spoltore, province of Pescara, Di Luca began his professional career in 1998 in the Riso Scotti team. He showed talent by winning the under-23 version of the Giro D'Italia. His first pro win was in 1999, when, moving to Cantina Tollo-Alexia Alluminio, he won the first stage of the Giro d'Abruzzo. He remained in the team taking wins in 2001 such as the fourth stage of the Giro d'Italia and the Giro di Lombardia. Then, he transferred to Saeco-Longoni Sport.  During his time at Saeco-Longoni he lost the Vuelta al País Vasco on the last stage, a mountain time trial in which Andreas Klöden took the lead and the win. Combined with injuries and lack of confidence of the team directors, his performance suffered. In 2004 Italian officials investigated Di Luca for doping. Cyclingnews.com said: \"Di Luca was recorded in several phone conversations with Eddy Mazzoleni in which he allegedly talked about doping products, the investigation led to Di Luca's non-participation in the 2004 Tour de France.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2005.", "content": "In 2005, Di Luca switched to, with Mario Cipollini, Dario Cioni, Stefano Garzelli and Magnus Bäckstedt. He led the team for the spring classics. His first victory came in the first stage of the UCI ProTour race Vuelta al País Vasco, which he won overall after defeating Aitor Osa in the final time trial. He won the Amstel Gold Race and La Flèche Wallonne, taking the ProTour leader's white jersey.  Di Luca was seen as suited to races lasting only a few days. His success in the 2005 Giro d'Italia came as a surprise. Here he won two stages and finished fourth. He finished fifth in the Tour de Pologne. With a fourth in the 2005 Züri-Metzgete, he became 2005 UCI ProTour champion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2006.", "content": "Di Luca was forced to retire from the 2006 Tour de France, due to a urinary infection. He recovered to compete in the 2006 Vuelta a España, winning the fifth stage and holding the lead (ceding it to Janez Brajkovič). Di Luca's performances in the classics, the Giro, and other races, were a letdown from the triumphs of 2005.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2007.", "content": "Di Luca won Milano–Torino in March and Liège–Bastogne–Liège in April. He took stages 4 and 12 en route to the victory in the 2007 Giro d'Italia. After the Giro, it was revealed that Di Luca had unspecified low hormone levels. Italian authorities are determining if they are a consequence of racing at a high level for three weeks or some kind of masking agent. On 28 September, Di Luca withdrew from the UCI road championship calling his treatment \"a scandal\" after doping allegations.  Di Luca was leading the 2007 UCI ProTour when he was suspended before the final race, the Giro di Lombardia, due to alleged involvement in the Oil for Drugs case, for which he was suspended for three months through the close season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2008–2009.", "content": "In 2008, Di Luca had a quiet year as his new team,, were not invited to many races. In 2009, they received a wildcard entry to the Giro d'Italia and Di Luca won the fourth stage. He then came second on the fifth stage, gaining the pink jersey as race leader, and extended his lead by winning the tenth stage. He lost time on the two time trial stages and finished second overall, winning the points classification.  On 22 July 2009, it was announced that Di Luca had tested positive for CERA on 20 and 28 May 2009, during the Giro d'Italia. He was provisionally suspended with immediate effect by the UCI. He had been targeted for testing using information from his biological passport's blood profile, previous test results and his race schedule. On 8 August, his positive tests were confirmed. On 1 February 2010, the Italian Olympic committee (CONI) suspended him for two years (effective as of 22 July 2009) for the Giro doping incident. Di Luca must also pay a fine, as well as the costs incurred in both the analysis and counter-analysis of his Giro samples: Di Luca indicated his intention to contest the decision.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010–2011.", "content": "On 15 October 2010, CONI announced that Di Luca's ban had been reduced to nine months and seven days, allowing Di Luca to return as of that very day (though the season was nearly over). This was due to his reported cooperation with investigators, detailing doping methods. CONI also announced the reduction of Di Luca's fine, from €280,000 to €106,400, but the UCI contends that he will still have to pay the full amount based on when his doping incident occurred. His results from the 2009 Giro were stricken from the record.  In the 2011 season, he competed for, and his performances were somewhat mitigated since he held no victories. His notable results were fourth of the Giro d'Italia's 6th stage and fourth in the Tour de Suisse's first stage.  After the season, Di Luca signed a contract for the 2012 season with.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013.", "content": "In April 2013, Di Luca signed for the team, who were subsequently awarded a wildcard place to race in the Giro d'Italia. On 24 May, while Di Luca was riding in the Giro, the UCI announced that he had had an adverse finding in an out-of-competition doping test at his home on 29 April. Di Luca was fired by his team who instructed him to leave the race by his own means. He was banned for life by CONI on 5 December. He also had his results stripped from 29 April and ordered to pay a total of €37,985 in fines and costs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career achievements.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grand Tour general classification results timeline.", "content": "DNF=Did not finish DSQ=Disqualified", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Danilo Di Luca (born 2 January 1976) is a former Italian professional road racing cyclist, best known for winning the 2007 Giro d'Italia, but also for several positive doping tests, the last of which resulting in a lifetime ban from the sport.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974299}
{"src_title": "Super Proton Synchrotron", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The SPS was designed by a team led by John Adams, director-general of what was then known as Laboratory II. Originally specified as a 300 GeV accelerator, the SPS was actually built to be capable of 400 GeV, an operating energy it achieved on the official commissioning date of 17 June 1976. However, by that time, this energy had been exceeded by Fermilab, which reached an energy of 500 GeV on 14 May of that year.  The SPS has been used to accelerate protons and antiprotons, electrons and positrons (for use as the injector for the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP)), and heavy ions.  From 1981 to 1991, the SPS operated as a hadron (more precisely, proton–antiproton) collider (as such it was called SpS), when its beams provided the data for the UA1 and UA2 experiments, which resulted in the discovery of the W and Z bosons. These discoveries and a new technique for cooling particles led to a Nobel Prize for Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer in 1984.  From 2006 to 2012, the SPS was used by the CNGS experiment to produce a neutrino stream to be detected at the Gran Sasso laboratory in Italy, 730 km from CERN.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current operations.", "content": "The SPS is now used as the final injector for high-intensity proton beams for the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which began preliminary operation on 10 September 2008, for which it accelerates protons from 26 GeV to 450 GeV. The LHC itself then accelerates them to several teraelectronvolts (TeV).  Operation as injector still allows continuation of the ongoing fixed-target research program, where the SPS is used to provide 400 GeV proton beams for a number of active fixed-target experiments, notably COMPASS, NA61/SHINE and NA62.  The SPS has served, and continues to be used as a test bench for new concepts in accelerator physics. In 1999 it served as an observatory for the electron cloud phenomenon. In 2003, SPS was the first machine where the Hamiltonian resonance driving terms were directly measured. And in 2004, experiments to cancel the detrimental effects of beam encounters (like those in the LHC) were carried out.  The SPS RF cavities operate at a center frequency of 200.2 MHz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major discoveries.", "content": "Major scientific discoveries made by experiments that operated at the SPS include the following.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Upgrade for High Luminosity LHC.", "content": "The Large Hadron Collider will require an upgrade to considerably increase its luminosity during the 2020s. This would require upgrades to the entire linac/pre-injector/injector chain, including the SPS. The SPS will need to be able to handle a much higher intensity beam. One improvement considered in the past was increasing the extraction energy to 1 TeV. However, the extraction energy will be kept at 450 GeV while other systems are upgraded. The acceleration system will be modified to handle the higher voltages needed to accelerate a higher intensity beam. The beam dumping system will also be upgraded so it can accept a higher intensity beam without sustaining significant damage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is a particle accelerator of the synchrotron type at CERN. It is housed in a circular tunnel, in circumference, straddling the border of France and Switzerland near Geneva, Switzerland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974300}
{"src_title": "Live for Speed", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "LFS features input support for steering wheels, mice, keyboards, joysticks, and gamepads. It supports output to 2D and 3D including virtual reality goggles like Oculus Rift.  Races can either be set to end at a certain number of laps, or be set to run for a certain length of time, as seen in endurance racing. There is support for refueling and tire changes in pit stops and mid-race adjustment of pit strategy. Pit lane speed limits of 80 km/h (50 mph) are enforced by penalties similar to those seen in real motorsport, including drive-through, stop and go, or time penalties. Starting grids can be determined at random, from the finishing positions in the previous race, or from the results in a qualifying period before the race.  A training mode is included to help drivers acquaint themselves with driving skills and the handling characteristics of each car. The lessons cover subjects such as cornering, throttle and brake control, and negotiating opponents. To pass each lesson, the lesson must be completed within a certain set of objectives. They are arranged as in sets, one for each car and ordered from slow to fast. Each lesson must be completed before advancing to the next, however, completing them is not necessary to unlock cars, as all are available in any other mode from the beginning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Simulation.", "content": "Among other things, the physics engine simulates tires, the suspension, aerodynamics, the drivetrain, several gearbox types, clutch overheating, car body damage, and engine damage. The tire model features dynamic wear, dynamic dirt, flat spots, hot spots and tire wall deformation.  The simulator supports 3D devices, including 3D TVs, headsets, projectors, the HTC Vive, and Oculus Rift (both DK1 and DK2, from version 0.6F and 0.6G).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cars.", "content": "The S2 release offers a total of 20 different vehicles. They range from beginner-friendly models to cars more suited for players with more experience. There is a broad power spectrum, ranging from under 100 hp to over 700 hp. The cars range from fictional sports cars, GT DTM-like race cars and former JGTC series cars to road legal hatchbacks.  While LFS' car selection mainly includes fictional cars, it also has five real officially licensed cars:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tracks.", "content": "LFS has seven different fictional track areas, including one loosely based on eastern central London, one based on Jamaican surroundings and one near Kyoto, Japan. Each one of them has several different configurations and each of those can be also driven in reversed configuration. The simulator also contains a laser-scanned version of Rockingham Motor Speedway as part of the S3 license. Additionally, users can create their own custom layouts using cones and other objects with the in-game autocross editor; the two car park environments in the game are useful for creating such layouts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Releases.", "content": "The game is intended to be released in three parts, S1 (Stage 1), S2, and S3. Each stage will feature improvements in many areas, such as physics model, graphics and sound. Technical improvements introduced in each new stage become available for previous stages as well, with the main difference between stages being additional cars and tracks, as well as the maximum number of players connected to a server.  A fully working, commercial, alpha version of Stage 2 was released on June 24, 2005. Stage 3 was launched on 19 December 2015, and the latest patch (0.6T) was released in July 2018. Some backward compatibility exists; an S3 license holder may also be able to access servers for S2, S1 or demo servers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competition.", "content": "LFS was used in Intel Racing Tour, a competition arranged in Germany in 2007 with a brand new BMW Z4 (E85) car as the main prize for the winner. Thanks to Intel Racing Tour, the BMW Sauber F1.06 was added to the game in an update.  LFS is also related to V1 Championship which was launched in 2008 and shown on TV in the United Kingdom. V1 Championship is a competition arranged by a company called V1 Championship Limited whose aim is to discover a new British racing driver talent. LFS was used as a part of the driver selection process in addition to physical and psychological tests before testing in real cars. If successful in V1 Championship, the contender would acquire a seat in a racing team and would have required to fully commit to have a career in motorsport.  Thanks to this co-operation with V1 Championship, LFS acquired a license to use the Formula BMW car and to help at modelling it to the game. An opportunity to add Rockingham Motor Speedway to LFS came through a contact from V1 Championship, and the track has been announced to be part of the S3 content. However, the track was not playable until game version 0.6K, released in December 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future development.", "content": "LFS was used by Turtle Entertainment and Volkswagen to showcase the new Scirocco in Leipzig Games Convention in 2008. A competition using LFS was held and the prize was a real Scirocco car. The Scirocco release for \"Live for Speed\" had been scheduled for December 19, 2008, however it has been delayed indefinitely due to unexpected fatal flaws in the latest patch and with the Scirocco itself, forcing the LFS team to remake the suspension system and tire physics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "LFSWorld.", "content": "LFS integrates with LFSWorld.net, a real-time comprehensive statistics website and database with an online skin support. Each racer's online race statistics are collected including per-lap personal bests, lap counts, distances traveled, and the amount of fuel burnt. Users can view other racers' stats and download their hotlaps as well. Also included is a database of community formed teams. Additionally, there is an official world record lap time chart, where racers can upload hotlaps, which exists per track and car. Users may also upload custom car skins to the website, from where the skins then are automatically downloaded as needed in-game to other players.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "The original \"Live for Speed\" was a nominee for \"PC Gamer US\"s 2003 \"Best Racing Game\" award, which ultimately went to \"NASCAR Racing 2003 Season\". A writer for the magazine called \"Live for Speed\" evidence that \"accurate driving physics and fun, accessible racing action can co-exist in the same game\".  PC Gameworld's 2003 review of Live for Speed S1 by Walter Hurdle scored 89% and said: \"A very strong simulation that offers fun and a high level of realism.\"  Justin Kranzl of \"APC\" magazine called the S1 release \"the best PC racing simulator ever\".  \"Pelit\" magazine's 2004 review of LFS' S1 release by Mika Äärilä scored 92/100 and said: \"Saloon cars and meticulous simulation. Absolute cream of the crop.\"  Bytesector.com's 2005 review of S2 release said: \"Nothing short of going to a track actually compares to the experience. Live for Speed is, by far, the most intense and demanding game I've ever played.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "In 2005, \"AutoSimSport\" magazine gave LFS their \"Best simulation\" award and Blackhole Motorsports website readers voted to give LFS the following awards:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Live for Speed (LFS) is a racing simulator developed by a three-person team comprising Scawen Roberts, Eric Bailey, and Victor van Vlaardingen. The main focus is to provide a realistic racing experience for the online multiplayer game and to allow single player races against AI cars. Users can set personal bests which can then be uploaded to LFSWorld in hotlap mode, and take driving lessons in 'training' mode.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974301}
{"src_title": "Bernard of Italy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bernard was born in 797, the illegitimate son of King Pepin of Italy, himself the son of the Emperor Charlemagne. In 810, Pepin died from an illness contracted at the siege of Venice. Despite being illegitimate, his grandfather allowed Bernard to inherit Italy. Bernard married a woman named Cunigunde, but the year of their marriage, and her origins, are obscure. Some sources refer to her as \"of Laon\". They had one son, Pepin, Count of Vermandois, who was born in 817.  In 817, Louis the Pious drew the \"Ordinatio Imperii\", detailing the future of the Frankish Empire. Under this, the bulk of the Frankish territory went to Louis' eldest son, Lothair; Bernard received no further territory, and although his Kingship of Italy was confirmed, he would be a vassal of Lothair, as he had been to Louis and to Charles. Certain of his counselors, including Count Eggideo, and his chamberlain Reginhard, persuaded Bernard that arrangement threatened his position. Other names were Reginhar, the last being the grandson of a Thuringian rebel against Charlemagne, and Hardrad. Anshelm, Bishop of Milan and Theodulf, Bishop of Orléans, were also accused of being involved: there is no evidence either to support or contradict this in the case of Theodulf, whilst the case for Anshelm is murkier.  Prior to this, Bernard's relationship with his uncle appears to have been cooperative. Bernard's main complaint was the notion of his being a vassal of Lothair. In practical terms, his actual position had not been altered at all by the terms of the decree, and he could safely have continued to rule under such a system. Nonetheless, \"partly true\" reports came to Louis the Pious that his nephew was planning to set up an 'unlawful' – i.e. independent – regime in Italy.  Louis the Pious reacted swiftly to the plot, marching south to Chalon. Bernard and his associates were taken by surprise; Bernard travelled to Chalon in an attempt to negotiate terms, but he and the ringleaders were forced to surrender to Louis, who had them taken to Aix-la-Chapelle where they were tried and condemned to death. Louis'mercifully' commuted their sentences to blinding, which would neutralize Bernard as a threat without actually killing him; however, the process of blinding (carried out by means of pressing a red-hot stiletto to the eyeballs) proved so traumatic that Bernard died in agony two days after the procedure was carried out. At the same time, Louis also had his half-brothers Drogo, Hugh and Theoderic tonsured and confined to monasteries, to prevent other Carolingian offshoots challenging the main line. He also treated those guilty or suspected of conspiring with Bernard harshly: Theodulf of Orleans was imprisoned, and died soon afterwards; the lay conspirators were blinded, the clerics deposed and imprisoned; all lost lands and honours.  A text called \"The Vision of the Poor woman of Laon\" criticizes Louis for Bernard's death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "His Kingdom of Italy was reabsorbed into the Frankish empire, and soon after bestowed upon Louis' eldest son Lothair. In 822, Louis made a display of public penance at Attigny, where he confessed before all the court to having sinfully slain his nephew; he also welcomed his half-brothers back into his favour. These actions possibly stemmed from guilt over his part in Bernard's death. It has been argued by some historians that his behaviour left him open to clerical domination, and reduced his prestige and respect amongst the Frankish nobility. Others, however, point out that Bernard's plot had been a serious threat to the stability of the kingdom, and the reaction no less a threat; Louis' display of penance, then, \"was a well-judged gesture to restore harmony and re-establish his authority.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bernard (797 – 17 April 818 ) was the King of the Lombards from 810 to 818. He plotted against his uncle, Emperor Louis the Pious, when the latter's \"Ordinatio Imperii\" made Bernard a vassal of his cousin Lothair. When his plot was discovered, Louis had him blinded, a procedure which killed him.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974302}
{"src_title": "Ice sheet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Antarctic ice sheet.", "content": "The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest single mass of ice on Earth. It covers an area of almost 14 million km and contains 30 million km of ice. Around 90% of the Earth's ice mass is in Antarctica, which, if melted, would cause sea levels to rise by 58 meters. The continent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is positive and significant at >0.05 °C/decade since 1957.  The Antarctic ice sheet is divided by the Transantarctic Mountains into two unequal sections called the East Antarctic ice sheet (EAIS) and the smaller West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS). The EAIS rests on a major land mass but the bed of the WAIS is, in places, more than 2,500 metres below sea level. It would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there. The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet, meaning that its bed lies below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves. The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf, the Ronne Ice Shelf, and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Greenland ice sheet.", "content": "The Greenland ice sheet occupies about 82% of the surface of Greenland, and if melted would cause sea levels to rise by 7.2 metres. Estimated changes in the mass of Greenland's ice sheet suggest it is melting at a rate of about per year. These measurements came from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite, launched in 2002, as reported by BBC News in August 2006.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ice sheet dynamics.", "content": "Ice movement is dominated by the motion of glaciers, whose activity is determined by a number of processes. Their motion is the result of cyclic surges interspersed with longer periods of inactivity, on both hourly and centennial time scales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Predicted effects of global warming.", "content": "The Greenland, and possibly the Antarctic, ice sheets have been losing mass recently, because losses by ablation including outlet glaciers exceed accumulation of snowfall. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), loss of Antarctic and Greenland ice sheet mass contributed, respectively, about 0.21 ± 0.35 and 0.21 ± 0.07 mm/year to sea level rise between 1993 and 2003.  The IPCC projects that ice mass loss from melting of the Greenland ice sheet will continue to outpace accumulation of snowfall. Accumulation of snowfall on the Antarctic ice sheet is projected to outpace losses from melting. However, in the words of the IPCC, \"\"Dynamical processes related to ice flow not included in current models but suggested by recent observations could increase the vulnerability of the ice sheets to warming, increasing future sea level rise. Understanding of these processes is limited and there is no consensus on their magnitude.\"\" More research work is therefore required to improve the reliability of predictions of ice-sheet response to global warming. In 2018, scientists discovered channels between the East and West Antarctic ice sheets that may allow melted ice to flow more quickly to the sea.  The effects on ice sheets due to increasing temperature may accelerate, but as documented by the IPCC the effects are not easily projected accurately and in the case of the Antarctic, may trigger an accumulation of additional ice mass. If an ice sheet were ablated down to bare ground, less light from the sun would be reflected back into space and more would be absorbed by the land. The Greenland Ice Sheet covers 84% of the island and the Antarctic Ice Sheet covers approximately 98% of the continent. Due to the significant thickness of these ice sheets, global warming analysis typically focuses on the loss of ice mass from the ice sheets increasing sea level rise, and not on a reduction in the surface area of the ice sheets.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An ice sheet, also known as a continental glacier, is a mass of glacial ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than. The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered much of North America, the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974303}
{"src_title": "Bertrada of Laon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nickname.", "content": "Bertrada's nickname \"Bertha Broadfoot\" dates back to the 13th century, when it was used in Adenes Le Roi's trouvère \"Li rouman de Berte aus grands piés\". The exact reason that Bertrada was given this nickname is unclear. It is possible that Bertrada was born with a clubfoot, although Adenes does not mention this in his poem. The nickname might have been a reference to an ancient legend about a Germanic goddess named Perchta, to real and mythological queens named Bertha, or to several similarly-named Christian queens. Many myths and legends exist in Europe and Asia, in which clubfooted people are described as the link between the world of the living and the spirit world. The tavern sign in Anatole France's novel \"At the Sign of the Reine Pédauque\" alludes to this queen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and ancestry.", "content": "Bertrada was born sometime between 710 and 727 in Laon, in today's Aisne, France, to Count Charibert of Laon. Charibert's father might have been related to Hugobertides. Charibert's mother was Bertrada of Prüm, who founded Prüm Abbey along with Charibert.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Bertrada married Pepin the Short, the son of Charles Martel, the Frankish \"Mayor of the Palace\", in 741. However, Pepin and Bertrada were too closely related for their marriage to be legal at that time; the union was not canonically sanctioned until 749, after the birth of Charlemagne.  According to French historian Léon Levillain, Bertrada was Pepin's first and only wife. Other sources suggest that Pepin had previously married a \"Leutberga\" or \"Leutbergie\", with whom Pepin would have had five children.  Bertrada and Pepin are known to have had seven children: three sons and four daughters. Of these, Charlemagne (c. 742 – 814), Carloman (751–771) and Gisela (757–811) survived to adulthood. Pepin, born in 756, died in his infancy in 762. Bertrada and Pepin also had Berthe, Adelaide, and Rothaide. Gisela became a nun at Chelles Abbey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen of the Franks.", "content": "In 751, Pepin and Bertrada became King and Queen of the Franks, following Pepin's successful coup against the Frankish Merovingian monarchs. Pepin was crowned in June 754, and Bertrada, Charlemagne, and Carloman were blessed by Pope Stephen II.  After Pepin's death in 768, Bertrada lost her title as Queen of the Franks. Charlemagne and Carloman inherited the two halves of Pepin's kingdom. Bertrada stayed at the court and often tried to stop arguments between the two brothers. Some historians credit Bertrada's support for her elder son Charlemagne over her younger son Carloman, and her diplomatic skills, for Charlemagne's early success. Although her influence over Charlemagne may have diminished in time, she lived at his court, and, according to Einhard, their relationship was excellent. Bertrada recommended that Charlemagne set aside his legal wife, Himiltrude, and marry Desiderata, a daughter of the Lombard king Desiderius, but Charlemagne soon divorced Desiderata. Einhard claims this was the only episode that ever strained relations between mother and son.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life and death.", "content": "Bertrada retired from the court after Carloman's death in 771 to live in Choisy-au-Bac, where Charlemagne had set aside a royal house for her. Choisy-au-Bac was favorable because of its history of being the home and burial place of several Merovingian kings.  Bertrada died on 12 July 783 in Choisy-au-Bac. Charlemagne buried her in the Basilica of St Denis near Pepin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "Bertrada inspired Adenes Le Roi to write the trouvère \"Li rouman de Berte aus grands piés\" in 1270. Adenes referred to her as \"Bertha Broadfoot\", the earliest known usage of that nickname.  Bertrada is also referred to as \"Bertha Broadfoot\" in François Villon's 15th-century poem \"Ballade des dames du temps jadis\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bertrada of Laon (born between 710 and 727 – 12 July 783), also known as Bertrada the Younger or Bertha Broadfoot (cf. Latin: \"Regina pede aucae\" i.e. the queen with the goose-foot), was a Frankish queen. She was the wife of Pepin the Short and the mother of Charlemagne, Carloman and Gisela.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974304}
{"src_title": "Henry Beaufort", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Beaufort was born in Anjou, an English domain in France, and educated for a career in the Church. After his parents were married in early 1396, Henry, his two brothers and one sister were declared legitimate by Pope Boniface IX and legitimated by Act of Parliament on 9 February 1397, but they were barred from the succession to the throne.  On 27 February 1398, he was nominated Bishop of Lincoln, and on 14 July 1398, he was consecrated. After Henry of Bolingbroke deposed Richard II and took the throne as Henry IV in 1399, he made Bishop Beaufort Lord Chancellor of England in 1403, but Beaufort resigned in 1404 when he was appointed Bishop of Winchester on 19 November.  Between 1411 and 1413, Bishop Beaufort was in political disgrace for siding with his nephew, the Prince of Wales, against the king, but when King Henry IV died and the prince became King Henry V, he was made Chancellor once again in 1413, but he resigned the position in 1417. Pope Martin V offered him the rank of Cardinal, but King Henry V would not permit him to accept the offer.  Henry V died in 1422, two years after he had married Catherine of Valois, daughter of King Charles VI, who had disowned his son Charles in favour of Henry in the Treaty of Troyes. Henry and Catherine's infant son Henry VI, the Bishop's great-nephew, succeeded Henry as King of England, and, in accordance with the Treaty, succeeded Charles as King of France. Bishop Beaufort and the child king's other uncles formed the Regency government, and in 1424, Beaufort became Chancellor once more, but was forced to resign in 1426 because of disputes with the king's other uncles, in particular Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester.  Pope Martin V finally appointed Beaufort as Cardinal in 1426. In 1427, he made him the Papal Legate for Germany, Hungary, and Bohemia, and directed him to lead the fourth \"crusade\" against the Hussites heretics in Bohemia. Beaufort's forces were routed by the Hussites at the Battle of Tachov on 4 August 1427.  After the capture of Joan of Arc in 1431, legend has it that Beaufort was present to observe some of the heresy trial sessions presided over by Bishop Pierre Cauchon of Beauvais. However, the full record of the trial, which lists all those who took part in her trial on a daily basis shows that he was not there. His sole appearance is on the day of her abjuration (26 May 1431). The formal record does not include Beaufort's presence at her execution but legend has it that he wept as he viewed the horrible scene as she was burned at the stake. This legend derives from what is now known as the Rehabilitation Trial of Joan of Arc which culminated in an examination of numerous witnesses in 1455 and 1456 in which one of the 27 Articles of Enquiry was that Joan had died in \"such a manner as to draw from all those present, and even from her English enemies, effusions of tears.\" A number of witnesses at this re-trial inferred or declared his presence including one of the original trial judges, one Andre Marguerie, Canon of Rouen, who asserted that Beaufort had reprimanded his chaplain for complaining that the Bishop of Beauvais's sermon was too favourable to Joan. However, it is not clear to which sermon Marguerie was referring.  In a spirit of contrition and reconciliation, in 1922 a statue of Joan of Arc (carved under the supervision of Sir Ninian Comper) was placed beside the entrance to the Lady Chapel in Winchester Cathedral diagonally facing Cardinal Beaufort's tomb and chantry chapel.  Beaufort continued to be active in English politics for years, fighting with the other powerful advisors to the king. He died on 11 April 1447.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Affair and daughter.", "content": "When Henry was Bishop of Lincoln, he supposedly had an affair with Alice FitzAlan (1378–1415), the daughter of Richard FitzAlan and Elizabeth de Bohun and the widow of John Charleton, 4th Baron Cherleton.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cardinal Henry Beaufort (c. 1375 – 11 April 1447), Bishop of Winchester, was an English prelate and statesman who held the offices of Bishop of Lincoln (1398) then Bishop of Winchester (1404) and was from 1426 a Cardinal of the Church of Rome. He served three times as Lord Chancellor and played an important role in English politics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974305}
{"src_title": "Chaturanga", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The origin of chaturanga has been a puzzle for centuries. It has its origins in Gupta Empire with earliest clear reference dating from the sixth century of the common era, and from north India. The first substantial argument that chaturanga is much older than this is the fact that the chariot is the most powerful piece on the board, although chariots appear to have been obsolete in warfare for at least five or six centuries. The counter-argument is that they remained prominent in literature. Several more recent scholars have proposed a gradual evolution in the centuries B.C. in the northern or northwestern border areas of Indian culture, where it was in contact with Greek culture brought by the Macedonian-Greek army, and where some rulers issued coins with fused Greek-Indian imagery. Myron Samsin argues that chaturanga originated in the kingdom of Bactria, ca. 255–55 B.C., in a fusion of the many short-moving men of the Greek game petteia, or poleis, with men derived from the various moves of an Indian race game, perhaps Seega or Chaupur, on the ashtapada, the board of another race game. Gerhard Josten proposes that the fusion took place in the Kushan Empire ca. 50 B.C.–200 A.D. and draws not only on Indian games but on the Chinese game of Liubo and Chinese and Babylonian divination techniques.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Sanskrit \"\" is a bahuvrihi compound, meaning \"having four limbs or parts\" and in epic poetry often meaning \"army\". The name comes from a battle formation mentioned in the Indian epic \"Mahabharata\", referring to four divisions of an army, namely elephantry, chariotry, cavalry and infantry. An ancient battle formation, \"akshauhini\", is like the setup of chaturanga. Chaturanga was played on an 8×8 uncheckered board, called \"ashtāpada\", which is also the name of a game. The board sometimes had special markings, the meaning of which are unknown today. These marks were not related to chaturanga, but were drawn on the board only by tradition. Chess historian H. J. R. Murray conjectured that the ashtāpada was also used for some old race-type dice game, perhaps similar to chowka bhara, in which the marks had meaning. An early reference to an ancient Indian board game is sometimes attributed to Subandhu in his \"Vasavadatta\", dated between the 5th and 7th centuries AD: The time of the rains played its game with frogs for pieces [\"nayadyutair\"] yellow and green in colour, as if mottled by lac, leapt up on the black field squares.  The colours are not those of the two camps, but mean that the frogs have two colours, yellow and green.  Banabhatta's \"Harsha Charitha\" (c. AD 625) contains the earliest reference to the name \"chaturanga\": Under this monarch, only the bees quarrelled to collect the dew; the only feet cut off were those of measurements, and only from Ashtâpada one could learn how to draw up a chaturanga, there was no cutting-off of the four limbs of condemned criminals...  While there is little doubt that ashtâpada is the gameboard of 8×8 squares, the double meaning of chaturanga, as the four-folded army, may be controversial. There is a probability that the ancestor of chess was mentioned there.  The game was first introduced to the West in Thomas Hyde's \"De ludis orientalibus libri duo\", published in 1694. Subsequently, translations of Sanskrit accounts of the game were published by Sir William Jones.  In Arabic, most of the terminology of chess is derived directly from chaturanga: Modern chess itself is called \"shatranj\" in Arabic, and the bishop is called the elephant. The Tamerlane chess was also introduced in Iran later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rules.", "content": "The initial position is as shown. White moves first. The objective in chaturanga, the same as modern chess, is to checkmate the opponent's Raja (king).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Additional rules.", "content": "Al-Adli mentions two further differences:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Chaturanga (; \"\"), or \"catur\" for short, is an ancient Indian strategy game that is commonly theorized to be the common ancestor of the board games chess, \"shogi\", \"sittuyin\", and \"makruk\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974306}
{"src_title": "Athlon 64 X2", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Multithreading.", "content": "The primary benefit of dual-core processors (like the Athlon 64 X2) over single-core processors is their ability to process more software threads at the same time. The ability of processors to execute multiple threads simultaneously is called thread-level parallelism (TLP). By placing two cores on the same die, the X2 effectively doubles the TLP over a single-core Athlon 64 of the same speed. The need for TLP processing capability is dependent on the situation to a great degree, and certain situations benefit from it far more than others. Certain programs are currently written for only one thread, and are therefore unable to utilize the processing power of the second core.  Programs often written with multiple threads and capable of utilizing dual-cores include many music and video encoding applications, and especially professional rendering programs. High TLP applications currently correspond to server/workstation situations more than the typical desktop. These applications can realize almost twice the performance of a single-core Athlon 64 of the same specifications. Multi-tasking also runs a sizable number of threads; intense multi-tasking scenarios have actually shown improvements of considerably more than two times. This is primarily due to the excessive overhead caused by constantly switching threads, and could potentially be improved by adjustments to operating system scheduling code.  In the consumer segment of the market as well, the X2 improves upon the performance of the original Athlon 64, especially for multi-threaded software applications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manufacturing costs.", "content": "Having two cores, the Athlon 64 X2 has an increased number of transistors. The 1 MB L2 cache 90 nm Athlon 64 X2 processor is 219 mm2 in size with 243 million transistors whereas its 1 MB L2 cache 90 nm Athlon 64 counterpart is 103.1 mm2 and has 164 million transistors. The 65 nm Athlon 64 X2 with only 512 KB L2 per Core reduced this to 118 mm2 with 221 million transistors compared to the 65 nm Athlon 64 with 77.2 mm2 and 122 million transistors. As a result, a larger area of silicon must be defect free. These size requirements necessitate a more complex fabrication process, which further adds to the production of fewer functional processors per single silicon wafer. This lower yield makes the X2 more expensive to produce than the single-core processor.  In the middle of June 2006 AMD stated that they would no longer make any non-FX Athlon 64 or Athlon 64 X2 models with 1 MB L2 caches. This led to only a small production number of the Socket-AM2 Athlon 64 X2 with 1 MB L2 cache per core, known as 4000+, 4400+, 4800+, and 5200+. The Athlon 64 X2 with 512 KB per core, known as 3800+, 4200+, 4600+, and 5000+, were produced in far greater numbers. The introduction of the F3 stepping then saw several models with 1 MB L2 cache per core as production refinements resulted in an increased yield.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CPU cores.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Athlon X2.", "content": "'64' was omitted from the name of the Brisbane 'BE' series; the 64-bit marketing campaign initiated by AMD became insignificant once essentially all consumer CPUs became 64-bit processors.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Athlon 64 X2 is the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD. It was designed from scratch as native dual-core by using an already multi-CPU enabled Athlon 64, joining it with another functional core on one die, and connecting both via a shared dual-channel memory controller/north bridge and additional control logic. The initial versions are based on the E-stepping model of the Athlon 64 and, depending on the model, have either 512 or 1024 KB of L2 Cache per core. The Athlon 64 X2 is capable of decoding SSE3 instructions (except those few specific to Intel's architecture).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974307}
{"src_title": "Prototype pattern", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The Prototype  design pattern is one of the twenty-three well-known \"GoF design patterns\" that describe how to solve recurring design problems to design flexible and reusable object-oriented software, that is, objects that are easier to implement, change, test, and reuse.  The Prototype design pattern solves problems like:  Creating objects directly within the class that requires (uses) the objects is inflexible because it commits the class to particular objects at compile-time and makes it impossible to specify which objects to create at run-time.  The Prototype design pattern describes how to solve such problems:  This enables configuration of a class with different codice_1 objects, which are copied to create new objects, and even more, codice_1 objects can be added and removed at run-time.<br> See also the UML class and sequence diagram below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "UML class and sequence diagram.", "content": "In the above UML class diagram, the codice_5 class that requires a codice_6 object doesn't instantiate the codice_7 class directly. Instead, the codice_5 refers to the codice_1 interface for cloning an object. The codice_7 class implements the codice_1 interface by creating a copy of itself. <br> The UML sequence diagram shows the run-time interactions: The codice_5 object calls codice_13 on a codice_14 object, which creates and returns a copy of itself (a codice_15 object).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rules of thumb.", "content": "Sometimes creational patterns overlap — there are cases when either prototype or abstract factory would be appropriate. At other times they complement each other: abstract factory might store a set of prototypes from which to clone and return product objects (GoF, p126). Abstract factory, builder, and prototype can use singleton in their implementations. (GoF, p81, 134). Abstract factory classes are often implemented with factory methods (creation through inheritance), but they can be implemented using prototype (creation through delegation). (GoF, p95)  Often, designs start out using Factory Method (less complicated, more customizable, subclasses proliferate) and evolve toward abstract factory, prototype, or builder (more flexible, more complex) as the designer discovers where more flexibility is needed. (GoF, p136)  Prototype does not require subclassing, but it does require an \"initialize\" operation. Factory method requires subclassing, but does not require initialization. (GoF, p116)  Designs that make heavy use of the composite and decorator patterns often can benefit from Prototype as well. (GoF, p126)  The rule of thumb could be that you would need to clone() an \"Object\" when you want to create another Object \"at runtime\" that is a \"true copy\" of the Object you are cloning. \"True copy\" means all the attributes of the newly created Object should be the same as the Object you are cloning. If you could have \"instantiated\" the class by using \"new\" instead, you would get an Object with all attributes as their initial values. For example, if you are designing a system for performing bank account transactions, then you would want to make a copy of the Object that holds your account information, perform transactions on it, and then replace the original Object with the modified one. In such cases, you would want to use clone() instead of new.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Code samples.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pseudocode.", "content": "Let's write an occurrence browser class for a text. This class lists the occurrences of a word in a text. Such an object is expensive to create as the locations of the occurrences need an expensive process to find. So, to duplicate such an object, we use the prototype pattern:  \"(the search algorithm is not optimized; it is a basic algorithm to illustrate the pattern implementation)\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "C# example.", "content": "This pattern creates the concrete type of object using its prototype. In other words, while creating the object of Prototype object, the class actually creates a clone of it and returns it as prototype. You can see here, we have used MemberwiseClone method to clone the prototype when required.  public abstract class Prototype  public class ConcretePrototype1 : Prototype  public class ConcretePrototype2 : Prototype", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "C++ example.", "content": "Discussion of the design pattern along with a complete illustrative example implementation using polymorphic class design are provided in the C++ Annotations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Java example.", "content": "This pattern creates the kind of object using its prototype. In other words, while creating the object of Prototype object, the class creates a clone of it and returns it as prototype. The clone method has been used to clone the prototype when required.  // Prototype pattern public abstract class Prototype implements Cloneable { public class ConcretePrototype1 extends Prototype {  public class ConcretePrototype2 extends Prototype {", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PHP example.", "content": "// The Prototype pattern in PHP is done with the use of built-in PHP function __clone()  abstract class Prototype  class ConcretePrototype1 extends Prototype  class ConcretePrototype2 extends Prototype  $cP1 = new ConcretePrototype1(); $cP2 = new ConcretePrototype2(); $cP2C = clone $cP2;  // RESULT: #quanton81  // CONS: A1 // CONS: B1 // CONS: A2 // CONS: B2 // CLON: A2-C // CLON: B2-C", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Python example.", "content": "Python version 3.8+ from abc import ABC, abstractmethod from typing import AnyStr class A(ABC):  class Concrete(A): c = Concrete() print(c.whois()) Output: Concrete: <__main__.Concrete object at 0x1023bafd0", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The prototype pattern is a creational design pattern in software development. It is used when the type of objects to create is determined by a prototypical instance, which is cloned to produce new objects. This pattern is used to:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974308}
{"src_title": "Ascoli Piceno", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town lies at the confluence of the Tronto River and the small river Castellano and is surrounded on three sides by mountains. Two natural parks border the town, one on the northwestern flank (Parco Nazionale dei Monti Sibillini) and the other on the southern (Parco Nazionale dei Monti della Laga). Ascoli has good rail connections to the Adriatic coast and the city of San Benedetto del Tronto, by highway to Porto d'Ascoli and by the Italian National Road 4 Salaria to Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Ascoli was founded by an Italic population (Piceni) several centuries before Rome's founding on the important Via Salaria, the salt road that connected Latium with the salt production areas on the Adriatic coast. In 268 BC it became a \"civitas foederata\", a \"federated\" city with nominal independence from Rome. In 91 BC, together with other cities in central Italy, it revolted against Rome, but in 89 BC was reconquered and destroyed by Pompeius Strabo in the Battle of Asculum. Its inhabitants acquired Roman citizenship, following the developments and the eventual fall of the Roman Republic.  During the Middle Ages Ascoli was ravaged by the Ostrogoths and then by the Lombards of King Faroald (578). After nearly two centuries as part of the Lombard Duchy of Spoleto (593–789), Ascoli was ruled by the Franks through their vicars, but ultimately it was the bishops that gained influence and power over the city.  In 1189 a free republican municipality was established but internal strife led dramatically to the demise of civic values and freedom and to unfortunate ventures against neighboring enemies. This unstable situation opened the way to foreign dictatorships, like those of Galeotto I Malatesta (14th century), initially recruited as a mercenary (condottiero) in the war against Fermo, and Francesco Sforza. Sforza was ousted in 1482, but Ascoli was again compelled to submit to the Papal suzerainty. In 1860 it was annexed, together with Marche and Umbria, into the newly unified Kingdom of Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "Many of the buildings in the central historical part of the city are built using marble called \"travertino\", a grey-hued stone extracted from the surrounding mountains. Its central Renaissance square, \"Piazza del Popolo\" (\"People's Square\") is surrounded by a number of buildings utilizing this stone, now often hosting open-air markets. A few blocks away, the Piazza Arringo, or piazza dell'Arengo, was the administrative and religious center of the town, surrounded by the Cathedral, the baptistery, the Bishop's residence, and the Palace of the Commune. According to traditional accounts, Ascoli Piceno once housed some two hundred towers in the Middle Ages: today some fifty can still be more evidently seen.  Main sights include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secular buildings.", "content": "In Castel Trosino, not far from the city, in 1893 a rare 6th-century Lombard necropolis was found.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Recent industrialization has brought to Ascoli several Italian and multinational companies (YKK, Manuli, Pfizer, Barilla) but the bulk of the economy is made up of small and medium-sized enterprises and by those providing professional services to the area. Agriculture is still important (wheat, olives, fruits).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Ascoli Piceno railway station, opened in 1886, is the southwestern terminus of the San Benedetto del Tronto–Ascoli Piceno railway, a branch of the Adriatic railway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The city is the administrative headquarters and teaching the School of Architecture and Design at the University of Camerino and the International School on Safety and Environmental Protection private university's Alma Mater Europaea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture and sport.", "content": "The main festivity is on the first Sunday in August. The historical parade with more than 1500 people dressed in Renaissance costume is held in celebration of Saint Emidio, protector of the city. The parade is followed by a tournament, called \"Quintana\", in which six knights, each competing for one of the six neighborhoods in the city, ride the course one after the other trying to hit an effigy of an Arab warrior. Strength and ability are necessary for the knight to win the \"palio\" or grand prize.  The Castellano river is a site for swimming and bathing in summer.  Founded in 1898, Ascoli Calcio is the main football team in the city. It is one of the oldest teams in Italy and it played for 16 years in Serie A.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gastronomy.", "content": "\"\" is a dish which originated from this locality. It is prepared from olives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Territorial subdivision.", "content": "Bivio Giustimana, Campolungo-villa sant'Antonio, Caprignano, Carpineto, Casa circondariale, Casalena, Casamurana, Case di Cioccio,, Castel di Lama stazione, Castel Trosino, Cervara, Colle, Colle san Marco, Colloto, Colonna, Colonnata, Faiano, Funti, Giustimana, Il Palazzo, Lago, Lisciano, Lisciano di Colloto, Montadamo, Morignano, Mozzano, Oleificio Panichi, Palombare, Pedana, Piagge, Pianaccerro, Poggio di Bretta, Polesio, Ponte Pedana, Porchiano, Rosara, San Pietro, Santa Maria a Corte, Talvacchia, Taverna di mezzo, Trivigliano-villa Pagani, Tronzano, Valle Fiorana, Valle Senzana, Valli, Vena piccola, Venagrande, Villa S. Antonio.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Ascoli Piceno is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "<br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ascoli Piceno ; ) is a town and \"comune\" in the Marche region of Italy, capital of the province of the same name. Its population is around 48,278 but the urban area of the city has more than 93,000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974309}
{"src_title": "First Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Opened on April 8, 1994, it was the first bridge across the lower Mekong, and the second on the full course of the Mekong.  The cost was about A$42 million, funded by the Australian government as development aid for Laos.  The bridge was designed and built by Australian companies as a demonstration of their ability to complete major infrastructure projects in Southeast Asia. The concept design of a balanced cantilever bridge was proposed by Bruce Ramsay of VSL with the final design carried out by Maunsell consulting engineers.  The official name of the bridge was changed by the addition of \"First\" after the Second Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge further south at Savannakhet opened in January 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Road traffic.", "content": "Traffic on the bridge drives on the left, as in Thailand, while traffic in Laos drives on the right. The changeover at the Lao end, just before the border post, is controlled by traffic lights.  A shuttle bus service operates across the bridge, between the Lao and Thai border posts.  Bicycles and tricycles can travel on either the road or the footpath; pedestrians can walk directly on the footpath.  The bridge is part of the AH12 Asian Highway Network.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Railway.", "content": "A meter gauge rail track from Nong Khai station runs along the midpoint of the bridge. Road traffic is stopped when a train is crossing.  On March 20, 2004, an agreement between the Thai and Lao governments was signed to extend the railway to Thanaleng Railway Station in Laos, about 3.5 km (2.2 mi) from the bridge. This will be the first railway link to Laos (but not the first railway, as a short portage line once existed). The Thai government agreed to finance the line through a combination of grant and loan. Construction formally began on January 19, 2007. Test trains began running on July 4, 2008. Formal inauguration occurred on March 5, 2009.  Watch the entire train journey from Nong Khai station, in Thailand, to Thanaleng station, in Laos, passing through both immigrations and across the friendship bridge over the Mekong River. The trains used for these journeys are RHN Hitachi Railcars, built in 1967, being the oldest and rarest railcars still in use on the Thai rail network.  On February 22, 2006, approval of funding for the rail line from Thanaleng Railway Station to Vientiane, about 9 km, was announced by the French Development Agency.  In November 2010 plans to extend the service from Thanaleng to Vientiane were abandoned.  A hypothetical high-speed rail link from China to Thailand through Laos would make the extension redundant, but would also necessitate the construction of a new bridge near to the current First Friendship Bridge. In 2011, Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra's revised plan prioritized domestic rail expansion over the ambitious regional connectivity plan spearheaded by China.  China is looking to build a high-speed line from Kunming all the way down to Singapore, passing through Laos, Thailand and Malaysia, a project that would increase China's GDP and those of the involved nations by US$375 billion, according to China Railway Corp.  Since February 2010 the Eastern and Oriental Express crosses the Mekong via the bridge into Laos.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The First Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge (, pronounced ;, ) is a bridge over the Mekong, connecting Nong Khai Province and the city of Nong Khai in Thailand with Vientiane Prefecture in Laos; the city of Vientiane is approximately from the bridge. With a length of 1,170 meters (0.73 mi), the bridge has two -wide road lanes, two -wide footpaths and a single gauge railway line in the middle, straddling the narrow central reservation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974310}
{"src_title": "Visual Basic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Language features.", "content": "Like the BASIC programming language, Visual Basic was designed to have an easy learning curve. Programmers can create both simple and complex GUI applications. Programming in VB is a combination of visually arranging components or controls on a form, specifying attributes and actions for those components, and writing additional lines of code for more functionality. Since VB defines default attributes and actions for the components, a programmer can develop a simple program without writing much code. Programs built with earlier versions suffered performance problems, but faster computers and native code compilation has made this less of an issue. Though VB programs can be compiled into native code executables from version 5 on, they still require the presence of around 1 MB of runtime libraries. Core runtime libraries are included by default in Windows 2000 and later, but extended runtime components still have to be installed. Earlier versions of Windows (95/98/NT), require that the runtime libraries be distributed with the executable.  Forms are created using drag-and-drop techniques. A tool is used to place controls (e.g., text boxes, buttons, etc.) on the form (window). Controls have attributes and event handlers associated with them. Default values are provided when the control is created, but may be changed by the programmer. Many attribute values can be modified during run time based on user actions or changes in the environment, providing a dynamic application. For example, code can be inserted into the form resize event handler to reposition a control so that it remains centered on the form, expands to fill up the form, etc. By inserting code into the event handler for a keypress in a text box, the program can automatically translate the case of the text being entered, or even prevent certain characters from being inserted.  Visual Basic can create executables (EXE files), ActiveX controls, or DLL files, but is primarily used to develop Windows applications and to interface database systems. Dialog boxes with less functionality can be used to provide pop-up capabilities. Controls provide the basic functionality of the application, while programmers can insert additional logic within the appropriate event handlers. For example, a drop-down combination box automatically displays a list. When the user selects an element, an event handler is called that executes code that the programmer created to perform the action for that list item. Alternatively, a Visual Basic component can have no user interface, and instead provide ActiveX objects to other programs via Component Object Model (COM). This allows for server-side processing or an add-in module.  The runtime recovers unused memory using reference counting, which depends on variables passing out of scope or being set to \"Nothing\", avoiding the problem of memory leaks that are possible in other languages. There is a large library of utility objects, and the language provides basic support for object-oriented programming. Unlike many other programming languages, Visual Basic is generally not case-sensitive—though it transforms keywords into a standard case configuration and forces the case of variable names to conform to the case of the entry in the symbol table. String comparisons are case sensitive by default. The Visual Basic compiler is shared with other Visual Studio languages (C, C++). Nevertheless, by default the restrictions in the IDE do not allow creation of some targets (Windows model DLLs) and threading models, but over the years, developers have bypassed these restrictions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Visual Basic builds upon the characteristics of BASIC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Visual Basic 1.0 was introduced in 1991. The drag and drop design for creating the user interface is derived from a prototype form generator developed by Alan Cooper and his company called \"Tripod\". Microsoft contracted with Cooper and his associates to develop Tripod into a programmable form system for Windows 3.0, under the code name \"Ruby\" (no relation to the later Ruby programming language). Tripod did not include a programming language at all. Microsoft decided to combine Ruby with the Basic language to create Visual Basic. The Ruby interface generator provided the \"visual\" part of Visual Basic, and this was combined with the \"EB\" Embedded BASIC engine designed for Microsoft's abandoned \"Omega\" database system. Ruby also provided the ability to load dynamic link libraries containing additional controls (then called \"gizmos\"), which later became the VBX interface.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derivative languages.", "content": "Microsoft has developed derivatives of Visual Basic for use in scripting. Visual Basic itself is derived heavily from BASIC, and subsequently has been replaced with a.NET platform version.  Some of the derived languages are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance and other issues.", "content": "Earlier versions of Visual Basic (prior to version 5) compiled the code to P-Code only. The P-Code is interpreted by the language runtime. The benefits of P-Code include portability and smaller binary file sizes, but it usually slows down the execution, since having a runtime adds an additional layer of interpretation. Visual Basic applications require Microsoft Visual Basic runtime MSVBVMxx.DLL, where xx is the relevant version number, either 50 or 60. MSVBVM60.dll comes as standard with Windows in all editions from Windows 98 to Windows 7 (some editions of Windows 7 do not include it). A Windows 95 machine would however require inclusion with the installer of whichever DLL was needed by the program. Visual Basic 5 and 6 can compile code to either native or P-Code but in either case the runtime is still required for built in functions and forms management.  Criticisms levelled at Visual Basic editions prior to VB.NET include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy development and support.", "content": "All versions of the Visual Basic development environment from 1.0 to 6.0 were retired by Microsoft by 2008, and are therefore no longer supported. The associated runtime environments are also unsupported, except for the Visual Basic 6 core runtime environment, which Microsoft officially supports for the lifetime of Windows 8 and Windows 10. Third party components that shipped with Visual Studio 6.0 are not included in this support statement. Some legacy Visual Basic components may still work on newer platforms, despite being unsupported by Microsoft and other vendors. Documentation for Visual Basic 6.0, its application programming interface and tools is best covered in the last MSDN release before Visual Studio.NET 2002. Later releases of MSDN focused on.NET development and had significant parts of the Visual Basic 6.0 programming documentation removed as the language evolved, and support for older code ended. Although vendor support for Visual Basic 6 has ended, and the product has never been supported on the latest versions of Windows, key parts of the environment still work on newer platforms. It is possible to get a subset of the development environment working on 32-bit and 64-bit versions of Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, and Windows 10.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example code.", "content": "The following code snippet displays a message box saying \"Hello, World!\" as the window loads:  Private Sub Form_Load() End Sub  This snippet makes a counter that moves up 1 every second (a label and a timer control need to be added to the form for this to work) until the form is closed or an integer overflow occurs:  Option Explicit Dim Count As Integer Private Sub Form_Load() End Sub Private Sub Timer1_Timer() End Sub", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Visual Basic is a third-generation event-driven programming language from Microsoft known for its Component Object Model (COM) programming model first released in 1991 and declared legacy during 2008. Microsoft intended Visual Basic to be relatively easy to learn and use. Visual Basic was derived from BASIC and enables the rapid application development (RAD) of graphical user interface (GUI) applications, access to databases using Data Access Objects, Remote Data Objects, or ActiveX Data Objects, and creation of ActiveX controls and objects.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974311}
{"src_title": "Norman Reedus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Reedus was born in Hollywood, Florida, the son of Marianne (née Yarber), a teacher, and Ira Norman Reedus. Reedus' paternal grandmother was of Italian descent, while his grandfather had English, Irish and Scottish ancestry. He attended Bethany College in Lindsborg, Kansas, for a semester. He worked at a Harley-Davidson shop in Venice, California, and contributed artwork to various shows as a painter, photographer, sculptor, and video artist. He first acted in the play \"Maps for Drowners\" at the Tiffany Theater on Sunset Boulevard. He was discovered at a party in Los Angeles, where someone asked him if he wanted to act in a play.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film and television.", "content": "Reedus played Jeremy in his major film debut \"Mimic\" and Mac in Giovanni Rodriguez's \"Red Canyon\". Reedus played Murphy MacManus in the 1999 film \"The Boondock Saints\". He reprised the role in the 2009 sequel \"\". He played Scud in \"Blade II\". He guest-starred in \"Charmed\" as Nate, the boyfriend of Paige (Rose McGowan). Reedus starred in \"Hello Herman\", which opened nationwide and on-demand on June 7, 2013. Reedus currently stars in the reality series \"Ride with Norman Reedus\", which premiered in June 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Walking Dead\".", "content": "In 2010, Reedus began playing Daryl Dixon in the AMC television series \"The Walking Dead\", a horror drama about a group of friends and family members who fight to survive in a violent apocalyptic world populated with flesh-eating zombies and the few surviving humans, some of whom are even more diabolical and dangerous than the walkers themselves. The character was not originally in the comic book series of the same name, but was created specifically for Reedus after his audition for the character of Merle Dixon. \"The Walking Dead\" comic creator Robert Kirkman feels \"absolutely blessed Reedus has honored the show with his presence, and the way he has come in and taken over that role and defined Daryl Dixon. A lot of Reedus's portrayal of the character in the first season inspired all the writers to do what we did with him in the second season. We love writing him and end up doing cool stuff with him.\" The drama has evolved into the highest-rated in cable history, smashing all previous records. Reedus was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Modeling, music videos, and art.", "content": "Reedus has modeled for Prada, Alessandro Dell'Acqua, Durban, Levi's, Lexus, and Morgenthal Fredrics. In 2015, Reedus posed for a Cruelty Free International advertisement in support of ending cosmetic tests on animals.  In the mid-1990s, while working as a model, he appeared in the music videos for \"Wicked As It Seems\" by Keith Richards, \"Violently Happy\" by Björk, \"Flat Top\" by Goo Goo Dolls, \"Cat's in the Cradle\" covered by Ugly Kid Joe, \"Strange Currencies\" by R.E.M., and \"Fake Plastic Trees\" by Radiohead. In 1999, he appeared in the video for \"Mean to Me\" by Tonic. Since achieving fame as an actor, he has also appeared in the videos for \"Judas\" by Lady Gaga, \"Sun Down\" by Tricky (ft. Tirzah), \"Gypsy Woman\" by Hilary Duff, and \"No Cities to Love\" by Sleater-Kinney.  He is also a painter, sculptor, and photographer, who currently shows his artwork in galleries in New York City, Berlin, and Frankfurt. He released a book of photography on October 31, 2013, called \"The Sun's Coming Up... Like A Big Bald Head\", and in September 2014 announced a fan-art compilation called \"Thanks For All The Niceness\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Video games.", "content": "Reedus reprised his role as Daryl Dixon in the 2013 video game \"\", which is based on the television series. He was set to star in Hideo Kojima and Guillermo del Toro's reboot horror game \"Silent Hills\", but Kojima left Konami and the game was cancelled in 2015. Reedus starred in Kojima's new game \"Death Stranding\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Reedus was in a five-year relationship with supermodel Helena Christensen from 1998 to 2003. Despite reports to the contrary, the two were never married. Together they have a son, Mingus Lucien Reedus (born October 13, 1999). They have remained friends and shared joint custody of their son.  In February 2005, Reedus sustained a head injury when a truck collided with his car in Germany. His nose was reconstructed with the aid of four screws and his left eye socket with titanium.  In 2015, during the filming of \"Sky\", Reedus met Diane Kruger; the two were first seen together as a couple in July 2016. In November 2018, Kruger gave birth to their daughter, her first and his second child.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Norman Mark Reedus (born January 6, 1969) is an American actor, voice actor, television host, and model. Reedus is known for starring in the popular AMC horror drama series \"The Walking Dead\" as Daryl Dixon and in the film \"The Boondock Saints\" (1999) and its sequel \"\" (2009) as Murphy MacManus. He has acted in numerous films and television series, and modeled for various fashion designers (most recognizably Prada in the 1990s). Reedus also provided motion capture and voice acting for the main character Sam in Hideo Kojima's video game, \"Death Stranding\" (2019).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974312}
{"src_title": "Emil František Burian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Burian was born in Plzeň, Czechoslovakia, where he came from a musical family. His father, Emil Burian, was an opera singer. E. F. Burian himself is the father of singer and writer Jan Burian. He studied under the tutelage of J. B. Foerster at Prague Conservatory, whence he graduated in 1927, but had begun participating in cultural life much sooner. Along with Karel Teige and Vítězslav Nezval, E. F. Burian was a key member of Devětsil, an association of Czech avant-garde artists in the 1920s. In 1926–1927 he worked with Osvobozené divadlo, but after disputes with, he and left the theatre. Later they founded their own theatre, Da-Da. He also worked with the theatre scene. In 1927 he founded the musical and elocutionary ensemble Voiceband.  In 1923 Burian joined the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. His work, strongly influenced by communist ideas, bordered on political agitation. In May 1933 he founded the D 34 theatre, with a strongly leftist-oriented program.  In 1941 Burian was arrested and spent the rest of World War II in Nazi concentration camps at the Small Fortress Theresienstadt, Dachau and finally in Neuengamme. He helped to organize illegal cultural programs for the inmates. In 1945, he survived the RAF attack against the prison ship Cap Arcona, and returned to Czechoslovakia, where he was already presumed dead. After the war, he founded D 46 and D 47 theatre, and led theatres in Brno and the operetta house in Karlín. After communist putsch in 1948, he worked as a member of the Czechoslovak communist parliament. In the post-war time, he became one of the leading promoters of the communist cultural nomenclature. He attempted to reorganize theatres, with a goal of placing communists into leadership posts of theatres.  Burian died in 1959 in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "His work, deeply influenced by dadaism, futurism and poetism, was leftist-oriented. After the war it proved to agitate Communist ideas. He had a strong influence on Czech modern theatre, and his innovative staging methods (work with metaphor, poetry, and symbols) and inventions (theatergraph, voiceband) are inspirational for the theatre even now.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emil František Burian (11 June 1904 – 9 August 1959) was a Czech poet, journalist, singer, actor, musician, composer, dramatic adviser, playwright and director. He was also active in Communist Party of Czechoslovakia politics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974313}
{"src_title": "Port-Gentil", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1473, the Portuguese navigator Lopo Gonçalves sailed near Cape Lopez. In 1722, pirates led by Bartholomew Roberts fought a battle in the Cape Lopez Bay against the Royal Navy. The encounter ended in Roberts' death. The settlement was established on Mandji Island in the delta of the Ogooué River by the French, who signed a treaty with the Orungu people in 1873. It was used as a base for the expeditions of de Brazza into the interior, then in 1894 a customs post was set up, becoming the nucleus of a trading center that included Hatton & Cookson, John Holt, Woermann, Société du Haut-Ogooué, and Compagnie d'Exploitations Forestières Africaines. The main products were initially rubber and ivory, gradually supplemented by woods, particularly okoumé for plywood.  The town was named after the French colonial administrator Émile Gentil in 1900. After World War I it became a port for timber, but it grew rapidly only after Elf began oil exploration in the area. It received its first bank branch when Bank of West Africa (BAO) opened a branch there in 1928.  A 1947 population of 4,500 grew to 21,000 by 1960. An oil refinery was established by SOGARA in the 1960s, with natural gas added in 1968.  The town is now known for its hotels and its nightlife, while attractions include the St Louis Church (built in 1927), a zoo, a casino, beaches and a golf course, as well as the wildlife in local swamps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "City districts.", "content": "The city centre lies next to the harbour on the Port-Gentil Bay seaside. Hotels, banks, shops, and supermarkets (such as the Casino and Cecado brands) are found within the downtown area between the Avenue Savorgnan de Brazzaville and the seaside. The area also concentrates a residential compound for foreign workforce. In the southern part, the BEAC building lies next to the port. The western Atlantic seaside is scarcely populated, mainly due to the presence of strong winds and sea currents. As is the case with other cities in Gabon, the authorities have not yet implemented house numbering in Port-Gentil, and the use of postal boxes is common.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies Port-Gentil's climate as tropical wet and dry (Aw). Despite the fact that the city lies in close proximity to the equator, Port-Gentil experiences noticeably warmer and cooler periods of the year with average temperatures in July (the city's coolest month) hovering at around and average temperatures in February and March (the city's warmest months) at around. Port-Gentil features a lengthy wet season that runs from October through May and a relatively short dry season that covers the remaining four months. The city receives roughly of precipitation annually.  The highest recorded temperature was on 26 February 2016; the lowest recorded temperature was on 1 August 1953.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Port Gentil is technically on an island, and no bridge connects it to the mainland. The limited number of paved roads within the city are also poorly maintained. The roads are paved in the inner city up to the outskirts of the new residential districts in N'Tchengue, where sandy paths with frequent potholes prevail. Traffic jams are common in road junctions such as the Carrefour Tobia or Léon Mba, close to the downtown area. There are plenty of shared taxi services for which the price of a drive is negotiable, starting usually at 400 CFA Francs. The taxi fare usually doubles for night drives. A premium price (doubled fare) is requested for passengers travelling beyond paved roads, given the hardships of the road, lack or non existence of illuminated roads at night, or pedestrians randomly walking on the road. Most of the cars are obsolete given the prohibitively high cost of new imported cars. Furthermore, the lack of local car spareparts manufacturers underscores the need to import such parts from as far as Europe, the increased price as well as the lengthy delivery duration penalize altogether the traffic.  The city has an airport, Port-Gentil International Airport, serving as the main channel of transportation with the world. Regular flights connect it with Libreville, capital of Gabon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Healthcare.", "content": "Hospitals within Port-Gentil include:<br>* Clinique Mandji, located in the Littoral district on the Route de la Sobraga,<br>* Clinique du Littoral, located on the Boulevard du Gouverneur Pélieu,<br>* Centre du Traitement Ambulatoire on the road to N'Tchengue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Schools include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Places of worship.", "content": "Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Christian churches and temples : Roman Catholic Diocese of Port-Gentil (Catholic Church), Assemblies of God, Evangelical Church of Gabon. There are also Muslim mosques.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Port-Gentil or Mandji is the second-largest city of Gabon, and its leading seaport. It is the center of Gabon's petroleum and timber industries. The city is located on a delta island in the Ogooue delta with no bridges to the mainland. Nearby Cape Lopez is Gabon's westernmost point. It had a 2013 census population of 136,462.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974314}
{"src_title": "Single-nucleotide polymorphism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "Single-nucleotide polymorphisms may fall within coding sequences of genes, non-coding regions of genes, or in the intergenic regions (regions between genes). SNPs within a coding sequence do not necessarily change the amino acid sequence of the protein that is produced, due to degeneracy of the genetic code.  SNPs in the coding region are of two types: synonymous and nonsynonymous SNPs. Synonymous SNPs do not affect the protein sequence, while nonsynonymous SNPs change the amino acid sequence of protein. The nonsynonymous SNPs are of two types: missense and nonsense.  SNPs that are not in protein-coding regions may still affect gene splicing, transcription factor binding, messenger RNA degradation, or the sequence of noncoding RNA. Gene expression affected by this type of SNP is referred to as an eSNP (expression SNP) and may be upstream or downstream from the gene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Frequency.", "content": "More than 335 million SNPs have been found across humans from multiple populations. A typical genome differs from the reference human genome at 4 to 5 million sites, most of which (more than 99.9%) consist of SNPs and short indels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Within a genome.", "content": "The genomic distribution of SNPs is not homogenous; SNPs occur in non-coding regions more frequently than in coding regions or, in general, where natural selection is acting and \"fixing\" the allele (eliminating other variants) of the SNP that constitutes the most favorable genetic adaptation. Other factors, like genetic recombination and mutation rate, can also determine SNP density.  SNP density can be predicted by the presence of microsatellites: AT microsatellites in particular are potent predictors of SNP density, with long (AT)(n) repeat tracts tending to be found in regions of significantly reduced SNP density and low GC content.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Within a population.", "content": "There are variations between human populations, so a SNP allele that is common in one geographical or ethnic group may be much rarer in another. Within a population, SNPs can be assigned a minor allele frequency—the lowest allele frequency at a locus that is observed in a particular population. This is simply the lesser of the two allele frequencies for single-nucleotide polymorphisms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Importance.", "content": "Variations in the DNA sequences of humans can affect how humans develop diseases and respond to pathogens, chemicals, drugs, vaccines, and other agents. SNPs are also critical for personalized medicine. Examples include biomedical research, forensics, pharmacogenetics, and disease causation, as outlined below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical research.", "content": "SNPs' greatest importance in clinical research is for comparing regions of the genome between cohorts (such as with matched cohorts with and without a disease) in genome-wide association studies. SNPs have been used in genome-wide association studies as high-resolution markers in gene mapping related to diseases or normal traits. SNPs without an observable impact on the phenotype (so called silent mutations) are still useful as genetic markers in genome-wide association studies, because of their quantity and the stable inheritance over generations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Forensics.", "content": "SNPs were used initially for matching a forensic DNA sample to a suspect but it has been phased out with development of STR-based DNA fingerprinting techniques. Current next-generation-sequencing (NGS) techniques may allow for better use of SNP genotyping in a forensic application so long as problematic loci are avoided. In the future SNPs may be used in forensics for some phenotypic clues like eye color, hair color, ethnicity, etc. Kidd et al. have demonstrated that a panel of 19 SNPs can identify the ethnic group with good probability of match (Pm = 10) in 40 population groups studied. One example of how this might potentially be useful is in the area of artistic reconstruction of possible premortem appearances of skeletal remains of unknown individuals. Although a facial reconstruction can be fairly accurate based strictly upon anthropological features, other data that might allow a more accurate representation include eye color, skin color, hair color, etc.  In a situation with a low amount of forensic sample or a degraded sample, SNP methods can be a good alternative to STR methods due to the abundance of potential markers, amenability to automation, and potential reduction of required fragment length to only 60–80 bp. In the absence of a STR match in DNA profile database; different SNPs can be used to get clues regarding ethnicity, phenotype, lineage, and even identity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pharmacogenetics.", "content": "Some SNPs are associated with the metabolism of different drugs. SNP's can be mutations, such as deletions, which can inhibit or promote enzymatic activity; such change in enzymatic activity can lead to decreased rates of drug metabolism. The association of a wide range of human diseases like cancer, infectious diseases (AIDS, leprosy, hepatitis, etc.) autoimmune, neuropsychiatric and many other diseases with different SNPs can be made as relevant pharmacogenomic targets for drug therapy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disease.", "content": "A single SNP may cause a Mendelian disease, though for complex diseases, SNPs do not usually function individually, rather, they work in coordination with other SNPs to manifest a disease condition as has been seen in Osteoporosis. One of the earliest successes in this field was finding a single base mutation in the non-coding region of the APOC3 (apolipoprotein C3 gene) that associated with higher risks of hypertriglyceridemia and atherosclerosis.  All types of SNPs can have an observable phenotype or can result in disease:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Databases.", "content": "As there are for genes, bioinformatics databases exist for SNPs.  The International SNP Map working group mapped the sequence flanking each SNP by alignment to the genomic sequence of large-insert clones in Genebank. These alignments were converted to chromosomal coordinates that is shown in Table 1. This list has greatly increased since, with, for instance, the Kaviar database now listing 162 million single nucleotide variants (SNVs).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nomenclature.", "content": "The nomenclature for SNPs can be confusing: several variations can exist for an individual SNP, and consensus has not yet been achieved.  The rs### standard is that which has been adopted by dbSNP and uses the prefix \"rs\", for \"reference SNP\", followed by a unique and arbitrary number. SNPs are frequently referred to by their dbSNP rs number, as in the examples above.  The Human Genome Variation Society (HGVS) uses a standard which conveys more information about the SNP. Examples are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "SNP analysis.", "content": "SNPs are usually biallelic and thus easily assayed. Analytical methods to discover novel SNPs and detect known SNPs include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Programs for prediction of SNP effects.", "content": "An important group of SNPs are those that corresponds to missense mutations causing amino acid change on protein level. Point mutation of particular residue can have different effect on protein function (from no effect to complete disruption its function). Usually, change in amino acids with similar size and physico-chemical properties (e.g. substitution from leucine to valine) has mild effect, and opposite. Similarly, if SNP disrupts secondary structure elements (e.g. substitution to proline in alpha helix region) such mutation usually may affect whole protein structure and function. Using those simple and many other machine learning derived rules a group of programs for the prediction of SNP effect was developed:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP; ; plural ) is a substitution of a single nucleotide at a specific position in the genome, that is present in a sufficiently large fraction of the population (e.g. 1% or more).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974315}
{"src_title": "Gregory III Laham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years and education.", "content": "Gregory III Laham was born Lutfy Laham in Darayya, Syria, on December 15, 1933.  He entered the Seminary of the Holy Savior of the Basilian Salvatorian Order near Saida, Lebanon, in 1943. He took his simple religious vows in 1949 and his solemn religious vows in 1954. He received his religious and philosophical education at the Holy Savior Seminary, Joun, Lebanon. He continued his theological studies in Rome, Italy, where he was ordained priest on February 15, 1959 in the Church of the Abbey of Grottaferrata.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Church.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Priesthood.", "content": "The future patriarch received a doctoral degree in Oriental Theology from the Pontifical Oriental Institute in Rome following his ordination. He then served as superior of the Holy Savior Major Seminary from 1961 until 1964. In 1962 he founded the magazine \"Al-Wahdah - Unity in Faith\", the first ecumenical magazine to be published in the Arabic language. He also founded several orphanages and trade schools in Lebanon.  He was appointed administrator of the Patriarchal Vicariate of Jerusalem in 1975, in the wake of the Israeli arrest of the Patriarchal Vicar of Jerusalem, Archbishop Hilarion Capucci of the Aleppin Salvatorian order. Laham founded the Student Fund in Jerusalem to help needy students and in 1978 the Family Assistance Fund to help needy families in the troubled areas of his diocese. In 1967 he founded at the Patriarchate the Oriental Library to promulgate the knowledge of Eastern traditions. He initiated a variety of social projects such as repairing churches, opening clinics and building public housing, including a guest house for pilgrims at the Patriarchal Center in Jerusalem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Episcopate.", "content": "On September 9, 1981 he was named Archeparch by Patriarch Maximos V Hakim and continued his work as Patriarchal Vicar of Jerusalem as successor to Archeparch Hilarion Capucci. On November 27, 1981 he was enthroned as the titular archbishop of Tarsus and consecrated Archeparch by patriarch Maximos V Hakim. His co-consecrators were Saba Youakim, Archeparch of Petra and Philadelphia and François Abou Mokh, titular bishop of Palmyra dei Greco-Melchiti.  In 1992 Laham was named Patriarchal Exarch of Jerusalem and in 1998 became Protosyncellus of the same city.  Appointed by Patriarch Maximos V as president of the Patriarchal Liturgical Commission, he edited the \"Anthologion\", the prayer book or breviary of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and \"The Book of the Liturgies\", an updated compendium of the Divine Liturgy. As secretary of the Ecumenical Commission of the Melkite Patriarchate, he led the dialogue between the Melkite Greek Catholic and the Antiochian Orthodox Churches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Patriarchate.", "content": "Patriarch Maximos resigned in 2000 at age 92 due to failing health. The episcopal synod of the Melkite Church, met at the patriarchal residence in Raboueh on November 22, 2000 to select a new leader. On November 29 the synod elected Laham patriarch. He chose the name Gregory after the Patriarch Gregory II Youssef, the last member of the Basilian Salvatorian Order to serve as head of the Melkite Church. On December 5, 2000, Pope John Paul II accepted Patriarch Laham's request for ecclesiastical communion.  On May 8, 2008, along with other Melkite bishops and archimandrites, Patriarch Laham was received at the Vatican by Pope Benedict XVI. He repeated this visit on March 15, 2012.  The patriarch is an advocate of the Christian communities of the Near and Middle East. speaking at a 2010 synod, he asserted that \"among the most dangerous effects of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict\" is the phenomenon of Christian emigration, \"which will make Arab society a society with only one color, a society purely Muslim.\" Viewing the Near East as Muslim and the West as Christian could mean that \"any occasion would be propitious for a new clash of cultures, of civilizations and even of religions -- a destructive clash between the Muslim Arab East and the Christian West,\" he said. The patriarch called for Christian-Islam dialogue which describes to Muslims \"what our fears are,\" including concern about a lack of separation between religion and government, lack of equality and about a legal system that is based on Islamic law.  In December 2010, Laham was quoted by \"The Lebanon Daily Star\" as claiming that attacks against Levantine Christians, were part of a \"Zionist conspiracy against Islam.\" Lahham reportedly stated that \"All this behavior has nothing to do with Islam... But it is actually a conspiracy planned by Zionism and some Christians with Zionist orientations and it aims at undermining and giving a bad image of Islam.\" He further added that media portrayal of the attack the Our Lady of Salvation Church in Baghdad was \"a conspiracy against Arabs and the pre-dominantly Muslim Arab world that aims at depicting Arabs and Muslims in Arab countries as terrorist and fundamentalist murderers in order to deny them their rights and especially those of the Palestinians.” In March 2011 Patriarch Gregory said “we Christians risk demographic extinction and face huge challenges,” calling on league members to “formulate ideas” on how to address the phenomenon. The Palestine-Israel conflict, Lahham said, was the “sole” reason for emigration.  In August 2013 Patriarch Gregory gave an appeal to Asia News \"We must listen to the Pope's appeal for peace in Syria. If western countries want to create true democracy then they must build it on reconciliation, through dialogue between Christians and Muslims, not with weapons. This attack being planned by the United States is a criminal act, which will only reap more victims, in addition to the tens of thousands of these two years of war. This will destroy the Arab world's trust in the West\"  In September 2015, he urged Syrian Christians not to leave the country, despite the ongoing Syrian Civil War, and implored European countries not to encourage their emigration from their homeland.  Patriarch Gregory III retired on 6 May 2017.  Gregory III Laham speaks Arabic, English, Spanish, French, German, Greek, Italian and Latin. He travels a lot in the world, to draw attention to the difficult situation in Syria to the Christians. He also calls for a dialogue between all parties in Syria to end the civil war.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Books and other works.", "content": "Patriarch Gregory III is author of several books, including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gregory III Laham, B.S. (; ; born Lutfy Laham, December 15, 1933, in Darayya, Syria), Emeritus Patriarch of Antioch and All the East, of Alexandria and Jerusalem, is the former spiritual leader of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church. He was elected on November 29, 2000, succeeding Patriarch Maximos V Hakim. He retired on May 6, 2017.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974316}
{"src_title": "Carlo Buonaparte", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Carlo Buonaparte was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, Republic of Genoa, as the youngest of three children. His father, \"Nobile\" Giuseppe Buonaparte, had represented Ajaccio at the Council of Corte in 1749. The Corsican Buonapartes were descended from minor Italian nobility of Tuscan origin, who had come to Corsica from Liguria in the 16th century. Carlo initially followed in his father's footsteps and studied to be a lawyer at Pisa University, but following a substantial inheritance from the death of his father, he left before earning his degree to tend to his inheritance and take charge of family responsibilities. Shortly afterwards, he married \"Donna\" Maria Letizia Ramolino. Both were of Corsican nobility, and very young at the time of their marriage (Carlo was seventeen and Letizia was thirteen), but this was typical of their society at that time. Their marriage was arranged by their families, also typical of their milieu; economic convenience was only one of several factors considered while arranging the match, the main considerations being of cultural compatibility in matters such as speech dialect, church habits, food habits, attire and other family traditions. Buonaparte's new wife brought with her a dowry of thirty-one acres of land, including a mill and bakery which yielded an annual income of roughly £10,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French takeover.", "content": "For a period after his marriage at Ajaccio on 2/7 June 1764, he worked as a secretary and personal assistant to Pasquale Paoli. He had a son, Napoleone, who died in infancy in 1765 as did a daughter. Paoli sent him to Rome to negotiate with Pope Clement XIII in 1766. He had apparently enjoyed his time in Rome up until being forced for reasons unknown back to Corsica in 1768 - though he had possibly enjoyed an affair with a married woman during his stay which led to his departure. At the time of his return, the Republic of Genoa had offered Corsica to Louis XV as payment for a debt. The French were eager to obtain the strategically placed island for the protection of their own coasts, and Genoa equally keen to relinquish control given their inability to resist growing independence movements. Buonaparte was noted for a fervent speech against the French \"invasion\". Political upheaval followed as France gained ownership of Corsica, and many of Paoli's supporters had to flee to the mountains. Buonaparte and his family, now boasting newborn Giuseppe, who was the first child to survive infancy, were included. The family eventually returned to the town, where Buonaparte's wife gave birth to third son, another Napoleone, within Ajaccio Cathedral.  Soon after French acquisition of the island, Carlo Buonaparte embraced the new government. He was appointed Assessor of the Royal Jurisdiction of Ajaccio and the neighbouring districts on 20 September 1769. Shortly after that he became a Doctor in Laws at the University of Pisa on 27 November 1769.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rise to prominence.", "content": "In April 1770, the French administration created a Corsican Order of Nobility. He became an advocate of the Superior Council of Corsica on 11 December 1769 and a Substitute Procurator of the King of France in Ajaccio in October 1770. Carlo already possessed the title of a \"Noble Patrician of Tuscany\" (\"Nobile Patrizio di Toscana\") since 1769 by permission of the Archbishop of Pisa due to his ancestry, and had his nobility confirmed on 13 September 1771. He then became the assessor of the Royal Jurisdiction of Ajaccio in February 1771, Deputy of the Nobility in the General States of Corsica on 13 September 1771, Member of the Council of the Twelve Nobles of Dila (Western Corsica) in May 1772, Deputy of the Nobility of Corsica at the Royal French Court in July 1777 and finally he was named Corsica's Representative to the Court of Louis XVI of France at Versailles in 1778.  Despite being honored with many titles, Buonaparte's dissatisfied nature led him to embark in risky business enterprises. He made many claims on land and money through legal means, but his success was limited and he burned through his finances rapidly. His apparent fondness of gambling worsened his monetary difficulties. Buonaparte made note of his situation in his account book: In Paris, I received 4,000 francs from the King and a fee of 1,000 crowns from the government, but I came back without a penny. By 1782, Buonaparte was beginning to grow weak, and was suffering from constant pain. He traveled to Montpellier to seek proper medical care. Nothing could be done to quell the effects of what was believed to be stomach cancer, the same disease that may have killed his famous son, Napoleon. Carlo Buonaparte died on 24 February 1785, and, due to his frivolous spending, left his surviving wife and eight children penniless. Carlo Buonaparte's youngest son was born only three months before he died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Carlo Buonaparte's marriage to Maria Letizia Ramolino (24 August 1750 – 2 February 1836) in June 1764 produced thirteen children, including one stillbirth. Eight of their children survived to adulthood.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Nob.\" Carlo Maria Buonaparte or Carlo Maria di Buonaparte (27 March 1746 – 24 February 1785) was an Italian lawyer and diplomat who is best known as the father of Napoleon Bonaparte.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974317}
{"src_title": "Competitive exclusion principle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The competitive exclusion principle is classically attributed to Georgii Gause, although he actually never formulated it. The principle is already present in Darwin's theory of natural selection.  Throughout its history, the status of the principle has oscillated between \"a priori\" ('two species coexisting \"must\" have different niches') and experimental truth ('we find that species coexisting do have different niches').", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Experimental basis.", "content": "Based on field observations, Joseph Grinnell formulated the principle of competitive exclusion in 1904: \"Two species of approximately the same food habits are not likely to remain long evenly balanced in numbers in the same region. One will crowd out the other\". Georgy Gause formulated the law of competitive exclusion based on laboratory competition experiments using two species of \"Paramecium\", \"P. aurelia\" and \"P. caudatum\". The conditions were to add fresh water every day and input a constant flow of food. Although \"P. caudatum\" initially dominated, \"P. aurelia\" recovered and subsequently drove \"P. caudatum\" extinct via exploitative resource competition. However, Gause was able to let the \"P. caudatum\" survive by differing the environmental parameters (food, water). Thus, Gause's law is valid only if the ecological factors are constant.  Gause also studied competition between two species of yeast, finding that \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" consistently outcompeted \"Schizosaccharomyces kefir\" by producing a higher concentration of ethyl alcohol.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prediction.", "content": "Competitive exclusion is predicted by mathematical and theoretical models such as the Lotka-Volterra models of competition. However, for poorly understood reasons, competitive exclusion is rarely observed in natural ecosystems, and many biological communities appear to violate Gause's law. The best-known example is the so-called \"paradox of the plankton\". All plankton species live on a very limited number of resources, primarily solar energy and minerals dissolved in the water. According to the competitive exclusion principle, only a small number of plankton species should be able to coexist on these resources. Nevertheless, large numbers of plankton species coexist within small regions of open sea.  Some communities that appear to uphold the competitive exclusion principle are MacArthur's warblers and Darwin's finches, though the latter still overlap ecologically very strongly, being only affected negatively by competition under extreme conditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paradoxical traits.", "content": "A partial solution to the paradox lies in raising the dimensionality of the system. Spatial heterogeneity, trophic interactions, multiple resource competition, competition-colonization trade-offs, and lag may prevent exclusion (ignoring stochastic extinction over longer time-frames). However, such systems tend to be analytically intractable. In addition, many can, in theory, support an unlimited number of species. A new paradox is created: Most well-known models that allow for stable coexistence allow for unlimited number of species to coexist, yet, in nature, any community contains just a handful of species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Redefinition.", "content": "Recent studies addressing some of the assumptions made for the models predicting competitive exclusion have shown these assumptions need to be reconsidered. For example, a slight modification of the assumption of how growth and body size are related leads to a different conclusion, namely that, for a given ecosystem, a certain range of species may coexist while others become outcompeted.  One of the primary ways niche-sharing species can coexist is the competition-colonization trade-off. In other words, species that are better competitors will be specialists, whereas species that are better colonizers are more likely to be generalists. Host-parasite models are effective ways of examining this relationship, using host transfer events. There seem to be two places where the ability to colonize differs in ecologically closely related species. In feather lice, Bush and Clayton provided some verification of this by showing two closely related genera of lice are nearly equal in their ability to colonize new host pigeons once transferred. Harbison continued this line of thought by investigating whether the two genera differed in their ability to transfer. This research focused primarily on determining how colonization occurs and why wing lice are better colonizers than body lice. Vertical transfer is the most common occurrence, between parent and offspring, and is much-studied and well understood. Horizontal transfer is difficult to measure, but in lice seems to occur via phoresis or the \"hitchhiking\" of one species on another. Harbison found that body lice are less adept at phoresis and excel competitively, whereas wing lice excel in colonization.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogenetic context.", "content": "An ecological community is the assembly of species which is maintained by ecological (Hutchinson, 1959; Leibold, 1988) and evolutionary process (Weiher and Keddy, 1995; Chase \"et al\"., 2003). These two processes play an important role in shaping the existing community and will continue in the future (Tofts \"et al\"., 2000; Ackerly, 2003; Reich \"et al\"., 2003). In a local community, the potential members are filtered first by environmental factors such as temperature or availability of required resources and then secondly by its ability to co-exist with other resident species.  In an approach of understanding how two species fit together in a community or how the whole community fits together, \"The Origin of Species\" (Darwin, 1859) proposed that under homogeneous environmental condition struggle for existence is greater between closely related species than distantly related species. He also hypothesized that the functional traits may be conserved across phylogenies. Such strong phylogenetic similarities among closely related species are known as phylogenetic effects (Derrickson \"et al\"., 1988.)  With field study and mathematical models, ecologist have pieced together a connection between functional traits similarity between species and its effect on species co-existence. According to competitive-relatedness hypothesis (Cahil \"et al\"., 2008) or phylogenetic limiting similarity hypothesis (Violle \"et al\"., 2011) interspecific competition is high among the species which have similar functional traits, and which compete for similar resources and habitats. Hence, it causes reduction in the number of closely related species and even distribution of it, known as phylogenetic overdispersion (Webb \"et al\"., 2002). The reverse of phylogenetic overdispersion is phylogenetic clustering in which case species with conserved functional traits are expected to co-occur due to environmental filtering (Weiher \"et al\".,1 995; Webb, 2000). In the study performed by Webb \"et al\"., 2000, they showed that a small-plots of Borneo forest contained closely related trees together. This suggests that closely related species share features that are favored by the specific environmental factors that differ among plots causing phylogenetic clustering.  For both phylogenetic patterns (phylogenetic overdispersion and phylogenetic clustering), the baseline assumption is that phylogenetically related species are also ecologically similar (H. Burns et al, 2011). There are no significant number of experiments answering to what degree the closely related species are also similar in niche. Due to that, both phylogenetic patterns are not easy to interpret. It’s been shown that phylogenetic overdispersion may also result from convergence of distantly related species (Cavender-Bares \"et al.\" 2004; Kraft \"et al.\" 2007). In their study, they have shown that traits are convergent rather than conserved. While, in another study, it’s been shown that phylogenetic clustering may also be due to historical or bio-geographical factors which prevents species from leaving their ancestral ranges. So, more phylogenetic experiments are required for understanding the strength of species interaction in community assembly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application to humans.", "content": "Evidence showing that the competitive exclusion principle operates in human groups has been reviewed and integrated into regality theory to explain warlike and peaceful societies. For example, hunter-gatherer groups surrounded by other hunter-gatherer groups in the same ecological niche will fight, at least occasionally, while hunter-gatherer groups surrounded by groups with a different means of subsistence can coexist peacefully.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In ecology, the competitive exclusion principle, sometimes referred to as Gause's law, is a proposition named for Georgy Gause that two species competing for the same limited resource cannot coexist at constant population values. When one species has even the slightest advantage over another, the one with the advantage will dominate in the long term. This leads either to the extinction of the weaker competitor or to an evolutionary or behavioral shift toward a different ecological niche. The principle has been paraphrased in the maxim \"complete competitors can not coexist\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974318}
{"src_title": "Wizz Air", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The airline was established in September 2003. The lead investor is Indigo Partners, an American private equity firm specialising in transportation investments. The first flight was made from Katowice International Airport on 19 May 2004. The airline's CEO is József Váradi, former CEO of Malév Hungarian Airlines. The company is registered in Pest County (Hungary).  On 25 February 2015 Wizz Air started trading on London Stock Exchange.  In November 2017 Wizz Air announced that they were planning to launch a British division called Wizz Air UK. The airline is based at London Luton, mainly to take advantage of a number of take-off and landing slots acquired from Monarch Airlines when the latter entered administration in 2017. The airline applied successfully to the CAA for an AOC and a Type A Operating Licence. The airline launched operations in March 2018 using British registered aircraft. Wizz Air UK will start to take over the flights to the UK that are currently operated by Wizz Air. Wizz Air said that the airline will employ up to 100 staff by the end of 2018.  In November 2018, it was reported that Wizz Air had announced plans to reactivate its Wizz Air Ukraine subsidiary, approximately three years after it was shut down. Under the plan, Wizz Air Ukraine will seek to complete certification in 2019 following the acquisition of twenty A320/321 neo jets. Bases will be developed in Kyiv as well as other cities across the country. By 2025, it aims to have a passenger throughput of 6 million passengers per annum.  On 4 March 2020, the company announced that it would be reducing flights to Italy and adjusting its flight schedule as a response to the 2020 coronavirus pandemic in Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Corporate affairs.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Head office.", "content": "The current head office can be found in Laurus offices (Laurus Irodaház) Building B, Budapest, since March 2015.  Previously, its head office was at Budapest Liszt Ferenc International Airport. Wizz Air signed the lease agreement in October 2010 and moved there with 150 employees in June 2011. The airline occupied over of space in an office building refurbished after the airline's arrival. The facility, with open-plan offices, housed about 150 employees.  Prior to the time its head office was at the airport, its head office was in the Airport Business Park C2 in Vecsés, close to the airport.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "As is common with all European low-cost carriers, Wizz Air prefers to use smaller or secondary airports in order to reduce costs and fees incurred by service usage. It also has a buy-on-board food service called Wizz Café as well as a second service called Wizz Boutique, which is for other items.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Destinations.", "content": "Wizz Air started new services between Katowice and London Gatwick in 2008. In January 2008, flights started from Gdansk to Gothenburg, Bournemouth and Coventry. In summer 2008, Wizz Air restarted summer seasonal services from Katowice and Budapest to Girona, as well as a new weekly service to Girona from Gdańsk. Other summer services from Budapest are Heraklion, Corfu, Burgas and Varna; from Katowice to Crete-Heraklion and Burgas; and Warsaw to Corfu and Burgas. It also restarted its three-times-weekly service from London Luton Airport to Burgas. On 2 October 2008, Wizz Air announced that a number of its Romanian services would have increased frequency following an order for three Airbus A320 aircraft.  In February 2012, Wizz Air announced that it would start flights from Debrecen International Airport to London, beginning 18 June 2012. On 11 September 2012, Wizz Air announced new routes to and from Tel Aviv, Israel.  On 12 April 2013 Wizz Air announced that it would start flights from Budapest Airport to Baku's Heydar Aliyev International Airport starting from 17 June 2013. On 26 June 2013, Wizz Air announced entry into the Slovakian market, adding one new route from Košice International Airport starting from September 2013.  On 26 June 2015 the airline opened its 19th base, at Tuzla International Airport in Bosnia and Herzegovina and deployed one new Airbus A320 aircraft at the airport. With one aircraft stationed at the airport, Wizz Air opened new routes to Memmingen Airport (near Munich) and Sandefjord Airport, Torp (near Oslo), commencing on 26 June 2015, as well as to Frankfurt-Hahn Airport and Stockholm Skavsta Airport, commencing on 28 June 2015.  In February 2016 Wizz Air announced a new base at David the Builder Kutaisi International Airport (serving Kutaisi in Georgia). In October 2016 Wizz Air announced a new base at Chișinău International Airport (serving Chișinău) in Moldova. In December 2016 Wizz Air announced a new base in Varna, Bulgaria.  In February 2017 Wizz Air announced a new base at London Luton Airport in the United Kingdom. Also in 2017, the company added three new routes, to Tel Aviv, Israel, Pristina in Kosovo, and Kutaisi in Georgia, for a total of over 500 routes.  In January 2018 Wizz Air announced a new base at Vienna International Airport in Austria. Three Airbus 320/321 are planned to be based in Vienna and the company will operate a total of 17 new routes from the Austrian capital.  In November 2018, the airline announced it would open a base at Kraków John Paul II International Airport in Poland, starting with 12 routes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fleet.", "content": "Wizz Air began operations with a fleet of Airbus A320 jets. , the Wizz Air fleet consists of the following aircraft:  With over 260 aircraft on order, Wizz Air has the largest orderbook among European airlines, well above Norwegian Air Shuttle with 220.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environmental protection.", "content": "In November 2019, Wizz Air dismissed concerns about the damage the airline may be causing to the environment, raised by the \"flightshame\" movement. This dismissal was based on the airline's per-passenger emission level. The company said that it would reduce emissions per capita by an additional 30 percent by 2030. At the same time, Wizz Air condemned inefficient airlines - such as Lufthansa - offering business class and using outdated technologies, which cause far more specific environmental damage than Wizz Air.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Force majeure.", "content": "By early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic, had created a case of force majeure in European aviation, gradually forcing airline fleets to land, including the majority of Wizz Air aircraft. Although it was announced in March that no redundancies were planned, one-fifth of the stock was redeemed when it became clear that air travel across the continent was shutting down.  In April 2020, based on passenger numbers, Wizz Air became Europe's largest low-cost airline with 78,000 passengers. By mid-June, they had reached 40 percent of their previous year’s normal weekly revenue, while the proportion of no-shows fell from 80 percent in April to 30 percent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wizz Air, legally incorporated as Wizz Air Hungary Ltd. () and stylised as W!ZZ Air, is a Hungarian low-cost airline with its head office in Budapest. The airline serves many cities across Europe, as well as some destinations in North Africa and the Middle East. It has the largest fleet of any Hungarian airline, although it is not a flag carrier, and currently serves 44 countries. Its Jersey-based parent company, Wizz Air Holdings plc, is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index. As of 2018, the airline has its largest base at Budapest Airport with over 60 destinations. In 2019 the airline transported 39.8 million passengers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974319}
{"src_title": "Gisela of Swabia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Gisela was the daughter of Duke Herman II of Swabia and Gerberga of Burgundy, daughter of King Conrad the Peaceful. Both her parents were descendants of Charlemagne. According to a plate found when her tomb was unearthed, she was born on 11 November 999, but that date cannot be reconciled with the records of her marriages.  Gisela first married the Saxon count Brun I of Brunswick, about 1002. Upon Brun's death, her second marriage was ca. 1012 with the Babenberg scion Ernest, who had been enfeoffed with the Duchy of Swabia by King Henry II of Germany at the death of Gisela's brother, Duke Herman III and aimed at legitimising himself as his heir. After Ernest's early death in 1015, Gisela became regent for their minor son Duke Ernest II of Swabia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen and empress.", "content": "Gisela's third marriage, which took place before January 1017, was to Conrad II, who was elected king of Germany in 1024 and became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 1027. According to Thietmar of Merseburg, Archbishop Aribo of Mainz refused to crown her as queen because Gisela and Conrad were too closely related, the couple both descending from King Henry the Fowler. She was instead crowned thirteen days after Conrad's coronation by Archbishop Pilgrim of Cologne. For the same reason, Henry II replaced her as her son's regent with Poppo of Trier, which became the source of conflict between Conrad and Henry.  Gisela played an active part in politics, attending Imperial councils and having her uncle King Rudolph III of Burgundy transfer the succession of his Arelat realm to her husband Conrad. Also, she participated in several synods of the church. She took care of her sister Matilda's daughters Sophie and Beatrice, who later ruled Bar and Tuscany respectively. After Conrad's death in 1039, she and her son Henry III led the mourning progression. The empress died of dysentery at the Imperial Palace of Goslar in 1043. She is interred in the grotto of Speyer Cathedral, Germany along with several emperors and other members of the imperial family. Her tomb was opened in 1900 and Gisela's mummified body was found to be 172 cm (5' 8\") tall, with long blond hair.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Gisela and Brun I, Count of Brunswick had:  Gisela and Ernest I, Duke of Swabia had:  Gisela and Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor had:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gisela of Swabia ( 990 – 15 February 1043), a member of the Conradiner dynasty, was queen of Germany from 1024 to 1039 and empress of the Holy Roman Empire from 1027 to 1039 by her third marriage with Emperor Conrad II. She was the mother of Emperor Henry III. She was regent of Swabia for her minor son Duke Ernest II of Swabia in 1015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974320}
{"src_title": "Georg Joseph Kamel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plants named after Kamel.", "content": "Several plants were named in Kamel's honour, though in his adopted homeland - the Philippines - he was mostly forgotten.  Carl Linnaeus named the well known genus of flowering plants \"Camellia\" in Kamel's honour. American botanist Elmer Drew Merrill named \"Eugenia kamelii\" after Kamel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kingdom of Bohemia.", "content": "Kamel was born in the city of Brno in the Margraviate of Moravia, governed by the Kingdom of Bohemia, then a part of Habsburg Austria, now the Czech Republic.  He was trained as a lay brother pharmacist at the Jesuit College in Brno. On November 12, 1682 he entered the Society of Jesus, spending his novitiate in Brno and his exams in Krems. In 1685 he was sent as an assistant apothecary to the Holy Trinity College in Jindřichův Hradec, but was soon promoted and moved to the pharmacy of St. Vittus in Český Krumlov in 1686.  His pharmacy has been minutely restored and still exists in the local Museum of Český Krumlov During this time, Kamel applied to be sent to the Jesuit overseas missions and his request was granted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philippines.", "content": "Through Cádiz and New Spain, Kamel arrived in Manila in 1688, where he was assigned to the local Colegio Máximo de San Ignacio. Upon his arrival, he is said to have established the first Jesuit pharmacy in the Philippines, to which he soon added a botanical garden. Given the lack of medical personnel, in addition to work in the pharmacy where he would prepare remedies, Kamel fulfilled the role of a physician, prescribing doses and regimens.  Through Kamel's labours, the Jesuit College in Manila soon became the most reputed one in the Philippines, as his treatment was sought by persons of high authority. At the same time, observing the Christian ideals of charity, he supplied remedies to the poor and the indigenous people for free. Kamel's reputation fast extended even beyond the Philippine Islands, as he entered into scholarly correspondence with learned men both in Europe and Asia. Namely, he exchanged letters, information and specimens with Willem ten Rhijne, a Dutch botanist in Batavia; Samuel Browne and Edward Bulkley, two English surgeons in Madras; and two members of the Royal Society, the apothecary James Petiver and the naturalist John Ray.  Kamel died at the age of 45 from a disease whose symptoms included diarrhoea.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Kamel drew, described and commented on diverse parts of Philippine nature: from plants to animals, from minerals to insects, shells and molluscs, snakes and even monsters (see below), with his first known text published in 1699.  Although the first consignment of his treatises fell into the hands of pirates and was lost, he successfully shipped his accounts to London where they were published by his correspondents Ray and Petiver. Kamel's descriptions of Philippine herbs, shrubs and trees were published as a 96-page appendix to Ray's third volume of Historia Plantarum (1704), while the remainder of his works appeared the Philosophical Transactions. Kamel was the first to acquaint Europe with species such as the tarsier, the colugo and the St Ignatius bean, a medicinal plant and source of strychnine. Linnaeus did not have a high opinion of Kamel's work and he was critical of the descriptions used in John Ray and declared them as “Descriptiones imperfectae. Florum nulla notitia.” Linnaeus preferred the works of Rumphius for plants of the region.  The majority of Kamel's surviving notes are now kept in the British Library in London, while one volume each are held in the Natural History Museum, London and the Maurits Sabbe Library in Leuven, Belgium. Copies of parts of Kamel's work can be found in his birthplace in Brno, the Czech Republic, alongside his birth register records and several other documents.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georg Joseph Kamel (; ; ; ; 21 April 1661 – 2 May 1706) was a Jesuit missionary, pharmacist and naturalist known for producing the first comprehensive accounts of Philippine flora and fauna and for introducing Philippine nature to the European learned world. A number of Kamel's treatises were published in the \"Philosophical Transactions\", while his descriptions of Philippine flora appeared as an appendix to the third volume of John Ray's \"Historia Plantarum\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974321}
{"src_title": "Triggerfish", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Anatomy and appearance.", "content": "The largest member of the family, the stone triggerfish (\"Pseudobalistes naufragium\") reaches, but most species have a maximum length between.  Triggerfish have an oval-shaped, highly compressed body. The head is large, terminating in a small but strong- jawed mouth with teeth adapted for crushing shells. The eyes are small, set far back from the mouth, at the top of the head. The anterior dorsal fin is reduced to a set of three spines. The first spine is stout and by far the longest. All three are normally retracted into a groove. Characteristic of the order Tetraodontiformes, the anal and posterior dorsal fins are capable of undulating from side to side to provide slow movement and comprise their primary mode of propulsion. The sickle-shaped caudal fin is used only to escape predators.  The two pelvic fins are overlaid by skin for most of their length and fused to form a single spine, terminated by very short rays, their only external evidence. Gill plates (opercula), although present, are also not visible, overlaid by the tough skin, covered with rough, rhomboid scales that form a stout armor on their bodies. The only gill opening is a vertical slit, directly above the pectoral fins. This peculiar covering of the gill plates is shared with other members of the Tetradontae. Each jaw contains a row of four teeth on either side, while the upper jaw contains an additional set of six plate-like pharyngeal teeth.  As a protection against predators, triggerfish can erect the first two dorsal spines: The first (anterior) spine is locked in place by erection of the short second spine, and can be unlocked only by depressing the second, “trigger” spine, hence the family name “triggerfish”.  With the exception of a few species from the genus \"Xanthichthys\", the sexes of all species in this family are similar in appearance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "The rather bizarre anatomy of the triggerfishes reflects their typical diet of slow-moving, bottom dwelling crustaceans, mollusks, sea urchins and other echinoderms, generally creatures with protective shells and spines. Many will also take small fishes and some, notably the members of the genus \"Melichthys\", feed on algae. A few, for example the redtoothed triggerfish (\"Odonus niger\"), mainly feed on plankton. They are known to exhibit a high level of intelligence for a fish, and have the ability to learn from previous experiences.  Some triggerfish species can be quite aggressive when guarding their eggs. Both the picasso (\"Rhinecanthus aculeatus\") and titan triggerfish (\"Balistoides viridescens\") viciously defend their nests against intruders, including scuba divers and snorkelers. Their territory extends in a cone from the nest toward the surface, so swimming upwards can put a diver further into the fishes' territory; a horizontal swim away from the nest site is best when confronted by an angry triggerfish. Unlike the relatively small picasso triggerfish, the titan triggerfish poses a serious threat to inattentive divers due to its large size and powerful teeth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Male territoriality.", "content": "Triggerfish males migrate to their traditional spawning sites prior to mating and establish territories. Some male species (i.e.\" Balistes carolinensis\" and \"Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus\") build hollow nests within their territories. Triggerfish males are fierce in guarding their territories as having a territory is essential for reproduction. A male's territory is used for spawning and parental care. Most male territories are located over a sandy sea bottom or on a rocky reef. A single territory usually includes more than one female, and the male mates with all of the females residing in or visiting his territory (polygyny). In Hachijojima, Izu Islands, Japan, one male crosshatch triggerfish (\"Xanthichthys mento\") has up to three females in his territory at the same time, and mates with them in pairs. Each male red-toothed triggerfish (\"Odonus niger\") mates with more than 10 females in his territory on the same day. Yellow margin triggerfish (\"Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus\") also exhibit polygyny.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spawning and biparental care.", "content": "Triggerfish spawning is timed in relation to lunar cycles, tides, and time of changeover of tides. In relation to lunar cycles, eggs are observed 2–6 days before the full moon and 3–5 days before the new moon. In relation to tides, spawning happens 1–5 days before the spring tide. In relation to timing of tides, eggs are observed on days when high tides take place around sunset.  Male and female triggerfish perform certain prespawning behaviors: blowing and touching. A male and female blow water on the sandy bottom (usually in the same spot at the same time) and set up their egg site. They touch their abdomens on the bottom as if they are spawning. During actual spawning, eggs are laid on the sandy sea bottom (triggerfish are demersal spawners despite their large size). Eggs are scattered and attached to sand particles. Triggerfish eggs are usually very small (diameter of 0.5–0.6 mm) and are easily spread by waves. After spawning, both the male and female participate in caring for the fertilized eggs (biparental egg care). A female triggerfish stays near the spawning ground, around 5 m off the bottom, and guards the eggs within her territory against intruders. Some common intruders include \"Parupeneus multifasciatus, Zanclus cornutus, Prionurus scalprum\", and conspecifics. Besides guarding, females roll, fan, and blow water on eggs to provide oxygen to the embryos, thereby inducing hatching. This behavior of female triggerfish is called \"tending\", and males rarely perform this behavior. A male triggerfish stays farther above the eggs and guards all the females and eggs in his territory. Males exhibit aggressive behaviors against conspecific males near the boundaries of their territories.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mating systems.", "content": "In crosshatch triggerfish (\"Xanthichthys mento\") and yellow margin triggerfish (\"Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus\"), eggs are spawned in the morning and they hatch after the sunset on the same day. After hatching of embryos, the female crosshatch triggerfish leaves the male's territory. This mating system is an example of male-territory-visiting polygamy. Triggerfishes exhibit other types of mating systems, as well, such as a nonterritorial-female (NTF) polygyny and territorial-female (TF) polygyny. In NTF polygyny, nonterritorial females stay in the male's territory and reproduce. In TF polygyny, a female owns territory within a male's territory and will spawn in her territory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life history.", "content": "Triggerfish lay their demersal eggs in a small hole dug in the sea bottom. Off Florida, juveniles of some species of triggerfishes are found in floating \"Sargassum\", where they feed on the small shrimp, crabs, and mollusks found there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "Some species of triggerfish, such as the titan triggerfish, may be ciguatoxic and should be avoided. Others, however, such as the grey triggerfish (\"Balistes capriscus\"), are edible.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Triggerfishes are about 40 species of often brightly colored fish of the family Balistidae. Often marked by lines and spots, they inhabit tropical and subtropical oceans throughout the world, with the greatest species richness in the Indo-Pacific. Most are found in relatively shallow, coastal habitats, especially at coral reefs, but a few, such as the oceanic triggerfish (\"Canthidermis maculata\"), are pelagic. While several species from this family are popular in the marine aquarium trade, they are often notoriously ill-tempered.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974322}
{"src_title": "Yellow-necked mouse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Apodemus ponticus\" is probably a synonym of \"Apodemus flavicollis\". The former is found in the Soviet Union with the boundary between the two being the political boundary between Russia and Western Europe. For many years direct comparison of the two species was not possible because of political tensions but it is now accepted that they are in reality the same species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The yellow-necked mouse is very similar to the wood mouse but differs in having a slightly longer tail and larger ears, and a complete band of yellow fur across the neck area. The adult head and body length is with a tail about as long again, and the weight varies between. The upperparts are brownish-grey, - a rather more brown shade than the wood mouse. The underparts are white and there is a sharp demarcation line between the two colours. This mouse gets its common name from the ochre-coloured patch of fur between its forelegs but this is often inconspicuous. The upperside of juveniles is a rather paler shade of greyish-brown than the adults.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The yellow-necked mouse is native to Europe and western Asia. Its range includes the more mountainous parts of Western Europe with the exception of northern Scandinavia, southern Spain and western France. This mouse occurs in Great Britain but not in Ireland, and it is also absent from a number of Mediterranean islands. In Asia, its range extends eastward to the Ural Mountains and it is also found in Turkey, Armenia, Iran, Syria, Lebanon and Israel. It is mostly a woodland species, often living near the forest verge, but in mountainous regions, it occupies any part of the forest. It is usually found in mature deciduous woodland is also found in scrubby areas, hedgerows, orchards and plantations. It favours areas where there are large, nut-bearing trees such as the oak and the hazel. It is also found in parks and gardens and beside alder-fringed streams.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "The yellow-necked mouse is active all year round and does not hibernate. Sometimes several mice will huddle together during the winter to preserve heat. It is an excellent climber and scrambles around in trees and bushes. It lives in crevices, burrows at the base of trees, holes in tree trunks, hollow logs and bird nesting boxes and sometimes enters buildings. The burrows are often extensive with many entrances and complex layouts. It makes extensive stores of food such as acorns and beechmast in storage chambers and uses other chambers for nesting, bringing in dry plant material for this purpose. There are often mounds of earth outside the entrances to the burrow. It also makes larders of food in holes in trees away from the burrow. The shade is very dense under a beech tree in summer and it has been found that beech nuts hidden in caches by the yellow-necked mouse, and not subsequently eaten, can later germinate and help with dispersal of the parent tree.  The yellow-necked mouse is nocturnal. It is active on the ground and in the tree canopy and has a home range rather smaller than half a hectare. Besides nuts, it feeds on buds, shoots, fruit, seedling plants and sometimes small invertebrates. Breeding takes place at any time between February and October with successive pregnancies occurring at short intervals. The gestation period is about twenty six days and females can remate while still feeding the previous litter. A litter of young is born in a nesting chamber lined with dry plant material and consists of two to eleven (usually five) altricial young born naked, blind and helpless. The eyes of the young open after about a fortnight and their yellow collars are visible by then as grey patches. They are weaned at about eighteen days old. If they are born early in the year, they may start breeding in the same year, but late-born young become sexually mature in the following spring.  The yellow-necked mouse is preyed on by owls, foxes, weasels and other predators. It can leap to evade attackers and the skin of its tail is readily detachable and slides off if grasped by a predator.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "It has been found that the yellow-necked mouse can transmit the virus causing tick-borne encephalitis while being immune to the virus itself. It has also been found that the yellow-necked mouse together with the striped field mouse (\"Apodemus agrarius\") are the natural reservoir for a Orthohantavirus, the Dobrava virus, which causes a severe form of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in humans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status.", "content": "The yellow-necked mouse has a very wide range and is common in suitable habitat within that range. In Eastern Europe, densities of up to a hundred individuals per hectare have been recorded. The population is stable and this species faces no specific threats so the IUCN has listed it as being of \"Least Concern\" in its Red List of Threatened Species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The yellow-necked mouse (\"Apodemus flavicollis\"), also called yellow-necked field mouse, yellow-necked wood mouse, and South China field mouse, is closely related to the wood mouse, with which it was long confused. It was only recognised as a separate species in 1894. It differs in its band of yellow fur around the neck and in having slightly larger ears and usually being slightly larger overall. Around 100 mm in length, it can climb trees and sometimes overwinters in houses. It is found mostly in mountainous areas of southern Europe, but extends north into parts of Scandinavia and Britain. It facilitates the spread of tick-borne encephalitis to humans and is a reservoir species for the Dobrava virus, a hantavirus that is responsible for causing haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974323}
{"src_title": "Allicin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure and occurrence.", "content": "Allicin features the thiosulfinate functional group, R-S(O)-S-R. The compound is not present in garlic unless tissue damage occurs, and is formed by the action of the enzyme alliinase on alliin. Allicin is chiral but occurs naturally only as a racemate. The racemic form can also be generated by oxidation of diallyl disulfide:  Alliinase is irreversibly deactivated below pH 3; as such, allicin is generally not produced in the body from the consumption of fresh or powdered garlic. Furthermore, allicin can be unstable, breaking down within 16 hours at 23 °C.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biosynthesis.", "content": "The biosynthesis of allicin commences with the conversion of cysteine into S-allyl-L-cysteine. Oxidation of this thioether gives the sulfoxide (alliin). The enzyme alliinase, which contains pyridoxal phosphate (PLP), cleaves alliin, generating allylsulfenic acid (CH=CHCHSOH), pyruvate, and ammonium ions. At room temperature, two molecules of allylsulfenic acid condense to form allicin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Allicin has been studied for its potential to treat various kinds of multiple drug resistance bacterial infections, as well as viral and fungal infections in vitro, but as of 2016, the safety and efficacy of allicin to treat infections in people was unclear.  In a small clinical trial, a daily high dose of extracted allicin (20 times the amount in a garlic clove) showed effectiveness to prevent the common cold. A Cochrane review found this to be insufficient to draw conclusions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Allicin was discovered as part of efforts to create thiamine derivatives in the 1940s, mainly in Japan. Allicin became a model for medicinal chemistry efforts to create other thiamine disulfides. The results included sulbutiamine, fursultiamine (thiamine tetrahydrofurfuryl disulfide) and benfothiamine. These compounds are hydrophobic, easily pass from the intestines to the bloodstream, and are reduced to thiamine by cysteine or glutathione.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Allicin is an organosulfur compound obtained from garlic, a species in the family Alliaceae. It was first isolated and studied in the laboratory by Chester J. Cavallito and John Hays Bailey in 1944. When fresh garlic is chopped or crushed, the enzyme alliinase converts alliin into allicin, which is responsible for the aroma of fresh garlic. The allicin generated is unstable and quickly changes into a series of other sulfur-containing compounds such as diallyl disulfide. Allicin is part of a defense mechanism against attacks by pests on the garlic plant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974324}
{"src_title": "Eurasian harvest mouse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The genus \"Micromys\" most likely evolved in Asia and is closely related to the long-tailed climbing mouse (\"Vandeleuria\") and the pencil-tailed tree mouse (\"Chiropodomys\"). \"Micromys\" first emerged in the fossil record in the late Pliocene, with \"Micromys minutus\" being recorded from the Early Pleistocene in Germany. They underwent a reduction in range during glacial periods, and were confined to areas in Europe that were free of ice. During the mid-Pleistocene, \"Micromys minutus\" specimens also lived in parts of Asia.. This suggests that they spread towards Asia when the ice sheets started to melt. Other evidence suggests that \"Micromys minutus\" could have been introduced accidentally through agricultural activities during Neolithic times.  Before the harvest mouse had been formally described, Gilbert White believed they were an undescribed species, and reported their nests in Selborne, Hampshire:  They never enter into houses; are carried into ricks and barns with the sheaves; abound in harvest; and build their nests amidst the straws of the corn above the ground, and sometimes in thistles. They breed as many as eight at a litter, in a little round nest composed of the blades or grass or wheat. One of these nests I procured this autumn, most artificially platted, and composed of the blades of wheat; perfectly round, and about the size of a cricket-ball. It was so compact and well-filled, that it would roll across the table without being discomposed, though it contained eight little mice that were naked and blind.  Although the harvest mouse was first formally reported by Gilbert White, it was first reported in 1768 by Thomas Pennant.  Conservation efforts have taken place in Britain since 2001. Tennis balls used in play at Wimbledon have been recycled to create artificial nests for harvest mice in an attempt to help the species avoid predation and recover from near-threatened status.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The harvest mouse ranges from long, and its tail from long; it weighs from, or about half the weight of the house mouse (\"Mus musculus\"). Its eyes and ears are relatively large. It has a small nose, with short, stubble-like whiskers, and thick, soft fur, somewhat thicker in winter than in summer.  The upper part of the body is brown, sometimes with a yellow or red tinge; the under-parts range from white to cream coloured. It has a prehensile tail which is usually bicoloured and furless at the tip. The mouse's rather broad feet are adapted specifically for climbing, with a somewhat opposable, large outermost toe, allowing it to grip stems with each hindfoot and its tail, thus freeing the mouse's forepaws for food collection. Its tail is also used for balance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and distribution.", "content": "The harvest mouse is common in all east coast counties of England, reaching the North York Moors. It also inhabits less favourable habitats, such as woodlands and forests in the west.  Harvest mice reside in a large variety of habitats, from hedgerows to railway banks. Harvest mice seem to have an affinity for all types of cereal heads, except for maize (\"Zea mays\"). Harvest mice typically like using monocotyledons for their nest-building, especially the common reed (\"Phragmites australis\") and Siberian iris \"Iris sibirica\". Most harvest mice prefer wetlands for their nesting habitats..  Harvest mice in Japan like making wintering nests near the ground from grasses that are dried, which indicates that they require vegetative cover in the winter, as well as in the warmer seasons. Grasslands with a mix of perennials and annual grasses are required to balance the increases in nesting periods and the mice's need to secure nutrients. Habitat selection might be the result of differences in the structure of the landscape of grasslands and wetlands in the area.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "Harvest mice are very skilled at climbing among grasses due to their short lactation period of 15-16 days.. They spend most of their life in long grass and other vegetation such as reedbeds, rushes, ditches, cereals and legumes. They grasp leaves and stems with their feet and tail, which leaves their hands free for other tasks. These tasks can include grooming and feeding. Harvest mice have a prehensile tail that functions as an extra limb during climbing. During the lactation period, the pups are able to climb a vertical bar by the time they first emerge from their nest. At 3-7 days they learn hand grasping, and at 6-9 days they learn food grasping. Between 6-11 days, they adopt a quadrupedal stance, and at 10-11 there is tail prehension, and righting at 10-12 days. The righting response in harvest mice develops earlier, but takes longer to master than the other skills the pups learn. They cannot climb horizontally by the time they are weaned, suggesting that horizontal climbing is not as essential as vertical climbing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Predators.", "content": "Their predators include domesticated cats, barn owls, tawny owls, long-eared owls, little owls, and kestrels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "In most rodent species, females prefer familiar males to unfamiliar ones. The adaptive preference of mating with familiar males is not uncommon as familiarity is a proxy for quality that is seen in many solitary animals.. Harvest mice are thought to be solitary, and the preference for familiar males over unfamiliar is a mechanism for inbreeding avoidance. There is no size dimorphism between the sexes so the females are considered dominant over the males. Females do not show interest in the male's odor. When females are in oestrus they spend more time with familiar males, and prefer the one that is heavier. While in dioestrus, the female spends more time with unfamiliar males.  In most years in Britain, harvest mice build their first breeding nests in June or July; occasional nests are built earlier in April or early May. They prefer building their breeding nests above ground. In Russia, harvest mouse breeding occurs in November and December in cereal ricks, buckwheat, and other cereal heads.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "Due to their habitat, harvest mice are threatened by a number of anthropogenic effects such as farming, pesticide use, crop rotation, habitat destruction, fragmentation, and wetland draining. Grasslands in Japan are rapidly decreasing in area, and are also becoming increasingly fragmented. Urbanisation rate is another parameter for habitat destruction; in areas that are being urbanised more quickly, other species in the area will be forced into smaller areas. Spatial relationships between habitat patches are becoming increasingly important in these areas.  Small salamanders require stagnant water in unsuitable habitats in more urban areas and since harvest mice have a similar ability to disperse, there is a risk that they may be forced to adapt to such environments when their preferred habitat is absent in the future.  The first survey of the harvest mouse in Britain was conducted by the Mammal Society in the 1970s. and later followed up by the National Harvest Mouse survey in the late 1990s. These surveys indicated that harvest mouse nests were on a decline with 85% of the suitable habitat no longer available for the mice.  Due to their declining population, the harvest mouse is currently protected under the UK Post-2010 Biodiversity Framework: Implementation Plan and the Wildlife and Countryside Act of 1981.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The harvest mouse (\"Micromys minutus\") is a small rodent native to Europe and Asia. It is typically found in fields of cereal crops, such as wheat and oats, in reed beds and in other tall ground vegetation, such as long grass and hedgerows. It has reddish-brown fur with white underparts and a naked, highly prehensile tail, which it uses for climbing. It is the smallest European rodent; an adult may weigh as little as. It eats chiefly seeds and insects, but also nectar and fruit. Breeding nests are spherical constructions carefully woven from grass and attached to stems well above the ground.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974325}
{"src_title": "STS-7", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission summary.", "content": "STS-7 began on June 18, 1983, with an on-time liftoff at 7:33 am EDT. It was the first spaceflight of an American woman (Sally K. Ride), the largest crew to fly in a single spacecraft up to that time (five people), and the first flight that included members of NASA's Group 8 astronaut class, which had been selected in 1978 to fly the Space Shuttle. President Ronald Reagan also sent his personal favourite Jelly Belly jelly beans with the astronauts, making them the first jelly beans in space.  The crew of STS-7 included Robert L. Crippen, commander, making his second Shuttle flight; Frederick H. Hauck, pilot; and Ride, John M. Fabian and Norman Thagard, all mission specialists. Thagard conducted medical tests concerning Space Adaptation Syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.  Two communications satellites – Anik C2 for Telesat of Canada, and Palapa B1 for Indonesia – were successfully deployed during the first two days of the mission. The mission also carried the first Shuttle Pallet Satellite, SPAS-1, which was built by the West German aerospace firm Messerschmitt-Bolkow-Blohm. SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the RMS and flew alongside and over \"Challenger\" for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The RMS later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.  STS-7 also carried seven GAS canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West German scientific pallet payload. Finally, the orbiter's K-band antenna was able to relay data through the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite to a ground terminal for the first time.  STS-7 was scheduled to make the first Shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center's then-new Shuttle Landing Facility. However, unacceptable weather forced a change to Runway 15 at Edwards AFB. The landing took place on June 24, 1983, at 6:57 am PDT. The mission lasted 6 days, 2 hours, 23 minutes, and 59 seconds, and covered about 2.2 million miles during 97 orbits of the Earth. \"Challenger\" was returned to KSC on June 29.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Incidents.", "content": "STS-7 experienced the first known External Tank bipod ramp foam shedding event during launch. This was the root cause of the eventual loss of \"Columbia\" during STS-107 almost two decades later.  While \"Challenger\" was on-orbit, one of its windows was damaged non-critically by space debris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission insignia.", "content": "The seven white stars in the black field of the mission patch, as well as the arm extending from the shuttle in the shape of a 7, indicate the flight's numerical designation in the Space Transportation System's mission sequence. The five-armed symbol on the right side illustrates the four male/one female crew.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wake-up calls.", "content": "NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Gemini program, and first used music to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15. Each track is specially chosen, often by the astronauts' families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle \"Challenger\". During the mission, \"Challenger\" deployed several satellites into orbit. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24. STS-7 was notable for carrying Sally Ride, America's first female astronaut.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974326}
{"src_title": "Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born to a family of small nobility in Grenade-sur-Garonne, Languedoc. After a \"roturier\" appointment in the grenadier corps of the Aquitaine Regiment, he retired to his estate. Pérignon welcomed the French Revolution, and gained a seat in the Legislative Assembly (1791), where he sat on the Right, but soon resigned and made his military career during the French Revolutionary Wars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revolutionary Wars.", "content": "In 1793-1795 he held commands in the \"Army of the Eastern Pyrenees\", defeating the Spanish troops at the battle of Escola with \"a sombre kind of energy\". He succeeded Jacques François Dugommier as army commander after that general's death at the Battle of the Black Mountain. He successfully concluded the Siege of Roses in early 1795. In 1796, he was elected by Haute-Garonne to the Council of Five Hundred. He became the French Directory's ambassador to Spain, concluding the Treaty of San Ildefonso against the Kingdom of Great Britain.  He was then involved in a smuggling affair and compromised with a young woman who was a Royalist spy. In 1798 Perignon was recalled and remanded to the Army in Liguria where he was assigned to command the left wing. Wounded and captured by Second Coalition armies at the Battle of Novi, he returned to France in 1800.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Empire and Restoration.", "content": "Pérignon was a supporter of Napoleon Bonaparte, was made senator (1801), Marshal (1804) and count of the French Empire; in 1805, he received the Legion of Honor. From September 18, 1806 to July 23, 1808, he was the Governor-general of the Duchy of Parma. Later moved to the Kingdom of Naples, Pérignon, recently ennobled, became a close acquaintance of the royal couple (King Joachim Murat and Caroline Bonaparte).  He returned to France in 1814 and rallied to the Bourbon Restoration and Louis XVIII - he was stricken off the list of Marshals during the Hundred Days, and voted in favor of the death penalty for Michel Ney. He was raised to \"marquis de Grenade\", a Peer of France and awarded the Order of Saint Louis. As Dr. George Ostermann commented, \"M. de Perigon died as if the Empire he served well, though reluctantly, had never existed.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon, 1st Marquis of Grenade (31 May 1754 – 25 December 1818) was a Marshal of the Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974327}
{"src_title": "SMS Panther", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "\"Panther\" was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of forward. She displaced at full load. Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of vertical triple-expansion steam engines each driving a single screw propeller, with steam supplied by four coal-fired Thornycroft boilers. \"Panther\" could steam at a top speed of at. The ship had a cruising radius of about at a speed of. She had a crew of 9 officers and 121 enlisted men. \"Panther\" was armed with a main battery of two SK L/40 guns, with 482 rounds of ammunition. She also carried six machine guns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service history.", "content": "\"Panther\" was laid down at the \"Kaiserliche Werft\" (Imperial Shipyard) in Danzig in 1900. She was launched on 1 April 1901 and was commissioned into the German fleet on 15 March 1902.  In September 1902, after the Haitian rebel ship \"Crête-à-Pierrot\" hijacked the German steamer \"Markomannia\" and seized weapons destined for the Haitian government, Germany sent \"Panther\" to Haiti. \"Panther\" found the rebel ship. The rebel Admiral Killick evacuated his crew and blew up \"Crête-à-Pierrot\", which was by then under fire from \"Panther\". There were concerns about how the United States would view the action in the context of the Monroe Doctrine. But despite legal advice describing the sinking as \"illegal and excessive\", the US State Department endorsed the action. The \"New York Times\" declared that \"Germany was quite within its rights in doing a little housecleaning on her own account\".  Some months later, in December 1902, the \"Panther\" was in the German naval contingent during the Naval Blockade of Venezuela, during which she bombarded the settlement of Fort San Carlos, near Maracaibo. The shallow waters that connected lake Maracaibo with the sea were passable for major ships only in the strait that separated San Carlos from the island of Zapara, yet even there it needed the help of a local pilot to avoid the sand banks and shallow waters of the passage. The battle started when the fort's gunners opened fire as \"Panther\" was crossing the bar. \"Panther\" returned fire, but the shallow waters limited its effectiveness. Inside the fort, two gunners (Manuel Quevedo and Carlos José Cárdenas) managed to score several hits on \"Panther\" with their 80-millimeter Krupp gun, causing considerable damage. After half an hour of exchanging fire, the Germans retreated.  In 1905, \"Panther\" was sent to the Brazilian Port of Itajahy, where its crew conducted an unauthorized search in their pursuit of a German deserter by the name of Hassman. They ended up kidnapping, inexplicably, the German Fritz Steinhoff. This incident became known as the \"Panther Affair\" (\"\"Caso Panther\"\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Agadir Crisis.", "content": "\"Panther\" became notorious in 1911 when it was deployed to the Moroccan port of Agadir during the \"Agadir Crisis\" (also called the \"Second Moroccan Crisis\"). \"Panther\" was supposedly sent to protect German citizens in the port. (A German sales representative, Hermann Wilberg, had been sent to Agadir on behalf of the Foreign office, but only arrived three days after \"Panther\".) The ship's actual mission was to apply pressure on the French, as the latter attempted to colonize Morocco, to extract territorial compensation in French Equatorial Africa. This was an example of \"gunboat diplomacy\". The incident contributed to the international tensions that would lead to the First World War.  The ship was scrapped in 1931.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "SMS \"Panther\" was one of six \"Iltis\"-class gunboats of the Kaiserliche Marine and, like its sister ships, served in Germany's overseas colonies. The ship was launched on 1 April 1901 in the Kaiserliche Werft, Danzig. It had a crew of 9 officers and 121 men.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974328}
{"src_title": "Dormouse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Concerning the dormouse's name, etymonline says \"long-tailed Old World rodent noted for its state of semi-hibernation in winter, early 15c., possibly from Anglo-French \"dormouse\" 'tending to be dormant' (from stem of \"dormir\" 'to sleep,' see \"dormant\"), with the second element mistaken for \"mouse\"; or perhaps it is from a Middle English dialectal compound of \"mouse\" (n.) and Middle French \"dormir\". French \"dormeuse\", fem. of \"dormeur\"'sleeper' is attested only from 17c.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Dormice are small rodents, with body lengths between, and weights between. They are generally mouse-like in appearance, but with furred, rather than scaly, tails. They are largely arboreal, agile, and well adapted to climbing. Most species are nocturnal. Dormice have an excellent sense of hearing and signal each other with a variety of vocalisations.  Dormice are omnivorous, and typically feed on berries, flowers, fruits, insects, and nuts. They are unique among rodents in that they lack a cecum, a part of the gut used in other species to ferment vegetable matter. Their dental formula is similar to that of squirrels, although they often lack premolars:  Dormice breed once or occasionally twice each year, producing litters with an average of four young after a gestation period of 22–24 days. They can live for as long as five years. The young are born hairless and helpless, and their eyes do not open until about 18 days after birth. They typically become sexually mature after the end of their first hibernation. Dormice live in small family groups, with home ranges that vary widely between species and depend on the availability of food.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hibernation.", "content": "One of the most notable characteristics of those dormice that live in temperate zones is hibernation. They can hibernate six months out of the year, or even longer if the weather does not become warm enough, sometimes waking for brief periods to eat food they had previously stored nearby. During the summer, they accumulate fat in their bodies to nourish them through the hibernation period.  The sleepy behaviour of The Dormouse character in Lewis Carroll's \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\" reflects this familiar trait of dormice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relationship with humans.", "content": "The edible dormouse (\"Glis glis\") was considered a delicacy in ancient Rome, either as a savoury appetizer or as a dessert (dipped in honey and poppy seeds). The Romans used a special kind of enclosure, a glirarium, to raise and fatten dormice for the table. It is still considered a delicacy in Slovenia and in several places in Croatia, namely Lika, and the islands of Hvar and Brač. Dormouse fat was believed by the Elizabethans to induce sleep since the animal put on fat before hibernating.  In more recent years dormice have begun to enter the pet trade, though they are uncommon as pets and are considered an exotic pet. The woodland dormouse (\"Graphiurus murinus)\" is the most commonly seen species in the pet trade. Asian garden dormice (\"Eliomys melanurus\") are also occasionally kept as pets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "The Gliridae are one of the oldest extant rodent families, with a fossil record dating back to the early Eocene. As currently understood, they descended in Europe from early Paleogene ischyromyids such as \"Microparamys\" (\"Sparnacomys\") \"chandoni\". The early and middle Eocene genus \"Eogliravus\" represents the earliest and most primitive glirid taxon; the oldest species, \"Eogliravus wildi\", is known from isolated teeth from the early Eocene of France and a complete specimen of the early middle Eocene of the Messel pit in Germany. They appear in Africa in the upper Miocene and only relatively recently in Asia. Many types of extinct dormouse species have been identified. During the Pleistocene, giant dormice the size of large rats, such as \"Leithia melitensis\", lived on the islands of Malta and Sicily.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The family consists of 29 living species, in three subfamilies and (arguably) nine genera:  Family Gliridae – Dormice", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A dormouse is a rodent of the family Gliridae (this family is also variously called Myoxidae or Muscardinidae by different taxonomists). Dormice are nocturnal animals found in Africa, Asia, and Europe, and are particularly known for their long periods of hibernation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974329}
{"src_title": "Richard Wurmbrand", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Richard Wurmbrand, the youngest of four boys, was born in 1909 in Bucharest in a Jewish family. He lived with his family in Istanbul for a short while; his father died when he was 9, and the Wurmbrands returned to Romania when he was 15.  As an adolescent, he was sent to study Marxism in Moscow, but returned clandestinely the following year. Pursued by Siguranţa Statului (the secret police), he was arrested and held in Doftana prison. When returning to his mother country, Wurmbrand was already an important Comintern agent, leader and coordinator directly paid from Moscow. Like other Romanian communists he was arrested several times, then sentenced and released again.  He married Sabina Oster on October 26, 1936. Wurmbrand and his wife (known as Bintzea to her friends) converted to Christianity in 1938 due to the witness of Christian Wolfkes, a Romanian Christian carpenter; they joined the Anglican Church's Ministry among Jewish people (CMJ UK). Wurmbrand was ordained twice – first as an Anglican, then, after World War II, as a Lutheran minister. In 1944, when the Soviet Union occupied Romania as the first step to establishing a communist regime, Wurmbrand began a ministry to his Romanian countrymen and to Red Army soldiers. When the government attempted to control churches, he immediately began an \"underground\" ministry to his people. Richard is remembered for his courage in standing up in a gathering of church leaders and denouncing government control of the churches. He was arrested on February 29, 1948, while on his way to church services.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imprisonments.", "content": "Wurmbrand, who passed through the penal facilities of Craiova, Gherla, the Danube–Black Sea Canal, Văcăreşti prison, Malmaison, Cluj, and ultimately Jilava, spent three years in solitary confinement. This confinement was in a cell twelve feet underground, with no lights or windows. There was no sound because even the guards wore felt on the soles of their shoes. He later recounted that he maintained his sanity by sleeping during the day, staying awake at night, and exercising his mind and soul by composing and then delivering a sermon each night. Due to his extraordinary memory, he was able to recall more than 350 of those, a selection of which he included in his book \"With God in Solitary Confinement\", which was first published in 1969. During part of this time, he communicated with other inmates by tapping out Morse code on the wall. In this way he continued to \"be sunlight\" to fellow inmates rather than dwell on the lack of physical light.  Wurmbrand was released from his first imprisonment in 1956, after eight and a half years. Although he was warned not to preach, he resumed his work in the underground church. He was arrested again in 1959 and sentenced to 25 years. During his imprisonment, he was beaten and tortured. Physical torture included mutilation, burning and being locked in a large frozen icebox.. His body bore the scars of physical torture for the rest of his life. For example, he later recounted having the soles of his feet beaten until the flesh was torn off, then the next day beaten again to the bone. This prolific writer said there were not words to describe that pain.  During his first imprisonment, Wurmbrand's supporters were unable to gain information about him; later they found out that a false name had been used in the prison records so that no one could trace his whereabouts. Members of the Secret police visited Sabina posing as released fellow prisoners. They claimed to have attended her husband's funeral in prison. During his second imprisonment, his wife Sabina was given official news of his death, which she did not believe. Sabina herself had been arrested in 1950 and spent three years in penal labour on the canal. Sabina's autobiographical account of this time is titled \"The Pastor's Wife\". Their only son, Mihai, by then a young adult, was expelled from college-level studies at three institutions because his father was a political prisoner; an attempt to obtain permission to emigrate to Norway to avoid compulsory service in the Communist army was unsuccessful.  Eventually, Wurmbrand was a recipient of an amnesty in 1964. Concerned with the possibility that Wurmbrand would be forced to undergo further imprisonment, the Norwegian Mission to the Jews and the Hebrew Christian Alliance negotiated with Communist authorities for his release from Romania for $10,000 (though the going rate for political prisoners was $1,900). He was convinced by underground church leaders to leave and become a voice for the persecuted church. He devoted the rest of his life to this effort, despite warnings and death threats.  He was a friend of Costache Ioanid, the Romanian Christian poet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Achievements, influence and death.", "content": "Wurmbrand travelled to Norway, England, and then the United States. In May, 1966, he testified in Washington, D.C., before the U.S. Senate's Internal Security Subcommittee. That testimony, in which he took off his shirt in front of TV cameras to show the scars of his torture, brought him to public attention. He became known as \"The Voice of the Underground Church,\" doing much to publicise the persecution of Christians in Communist countries. He compiled circumstantial evidence that Marx was a satanist.  In April 1967, the Wurmbrands formed Jesus to the Communist World (later renamed The Voice of the Martyrs), an interdenominational organisation working initially with and for persecuted Christians in Communist countries, but later expanding its activities to help persecuted believers in other places, especially in the Muslim world.  In 1990, Richard and Sabina Wurmbrand returned to Romania for the first time in 25 years. The Voice of the Martyrs opened a printing facility and bookstore in Bucharest. The new mayor of Bucharest had offered a storage space for the books under former dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu's palace – where Richard had spent years in confinement, praying for a ministry to his homeland. Wurmbrand engaged in preaching with local ministers of nearly all denominations.  Wurmbrand wrote 18 books in English and others in Romanian. His best-known book, titled \"Tortured for Christ\", was published in 1967. In several of them he wrote very boldly and emphatically against Communism; yet he maintained a hope and compassion even for those who tortured him by \"looking at men... not as they are, but as they will be... I could also see in our persecutors. a future Apostle Paul... (and) the jailer in Philippi who became a convert.\" Wurmbrand last lived in Palos Verdes, California.  He died at the age of 91 on February 17, 2001 in a hospital in Torrance, California. His wife, Sabina, had died six months earlier on August 11, 2000. In 2006, he was voted fifth among the greatest Romanians according to the \"Mari Români\" poll.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Wurmbrand, also known as Nicolai Ionescu (March 24, 1909 – February 17, 2001) was a Romanian evangelical Christian minister of Jewish descent. In 1948, having become a Christian 10 years before, he publicly said Communism and Christianity were incompatible. As a result, he experienced imprisonment and torture by the then Communist regime of Romania, for his beliefs. After serving a total of fourteen years, he was ransomed for $10,000. His colleagues in Romania urged him to leave the country and work for religious freedom from a location less personally dangerous. After spending time in Norway and England, he and his wife Sabina, who had also been imprisoned, emigrated to America and dedicated the rest of their lives to publicizing and helping Christians who are persecuted for their beliefs. He wrote more than 18 books, the most widely known being \"Tortured for Christ\". Variations of his works have been translated into more than 65 languages. He founded the international organization Voice of the Martyrs, which continues to aid Christians around the world who are persecuted for their faith.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974330}
{"src_title": "Rogation days", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Christian beginnings.", "content": "The Christian major rogation replaced a pagan Roman procession known as Robigalia, at which a dog was sacrificed to propitiate Robigus, the deity of agricultural disease. The practitioners observing Robigalia asked Robigus for protection of their crops from wheat rust.  The minor Rogation days were introduced around AD 470 by Mamertus, bishop of Vienne, and eventually adopted elsewhere. Their observance was ordered by the Council of Orleans in 511, and though the practice was spreading in Gaul during the 7th century, it was not officially adopted into the Roman rite until the reign of Pope Leo III.  The faithful typically observed the Rogation days by fasting and abstinence in preparation to celebrate the Ascension, and farmers often had their crops blessed by a priest at this time. Violet vestments are worn at the rogation litany and its associated Mass, regardless of what colour is worn at the ordinary liturgies of the day.  A common feature of Rogation days in former times was the ceremony of beating the bounds, in which a procession of parishioners, led by the minister, churchwarden, and choirboys, would proceed around the boundary of their parish and pray for its protection in the forthcoming year. This was also known as 'Gang-day', after the old English name for going or walking. This was also a feature of the original Roman festival, when revellers would walk to a grove five miles from the city to perform their rites.  In traditional Methodist usage, \"The Book of Worship for Church and Home\" (1965) provides the following as one of the prayers for Rogation days: The reform of the Liturgical Calendar for Latin Roman Catholics in 1969 delegated the establishment of Rogation Days, along with Ember Days, to the episcopal conferences. Their observance in the Latin Church subsequently declined, but the observance has revived somewhat since 1988 (when Pope John Paul II issued his decree \"Ecclesia Dei Adflicta\") and especially since 2007 (when Pope Benedict XVI issued his \"motu proprio\" called \"Summorum Pontificum\") when the use of older rites was encouraged.  In Montier-en-Der, Rogation Day processions were said to be events when miracles occurred. Miracle books reported a blind woman being healed and the lame being able to walk. In Germany it was traditional for the local schoolmaster, rather than priest, to lead the procession.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the British Isles.", "content": "The Rogation Day ceremonies are thought to have arrived in the British Isles in the 7th century.  The oldest known Sarum text regarding Rogation Days is dated from around 1173 to 1220. In it, celebrations in the south of England are described, in which processions were led by members of the congregation carrying banners which represented various biblical characters. At the head of the procession was the dragon, representing Pontius Pilate, which would be followed by a lion, representing Christ. After this there would be images of saints carried by the rest of the congregation. Many torches were present at each procession, weighing between 42 lb (19 kg) and 27 lbs (12 kg), which were bought by the church and parishioners jointly.  Sarum texts from the 13th and 15th centuries show that the dragon was eventually moved to the rear of the procession on the vigil of the Ascension, with the lion taking the place at the front. Illustrations of the procession from the early 16th century show that the arrangements had been changed yet again, this time also showing bearers of reliquaries and incense.  During the reign of King Henry VIII, Rogation processions were used as a way to assist crop yields, with a notable number of the celebrations taking place in 1543 when there were prolonged rains. Even before religious sensibilities turned towards the puritanical, there were concerns about the lack of piety at such events. Robert Herrick penned a piece to capture the mood of the celebrations before their repression:  During the reign of King Edward VI, the Crown having taken much of the Church's holdings within the country, liturgical ceremonies were not officially condoned or recognised as an official part of worship. However, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I the celebrations were explicitly mentioned in the royal reformation, allowing them to resume as public processions.  Rogation processions continued in the post-Reformation Church of England much as they had before, and Anglican priests were encouraged to bring their congregations together for inter-parish processions. At specific intervals, clerics were to remind their congregations to be thankful for their harvests. Psalms 103 and 104 were sung, and people were reminded of the curses the Bible ascribed to those who violated agricultural boundaries. The processions were not mandatory, but were at the discretion of the local minister, and were also ascribed more importance when a public right of way needed to be protected from agricultural or other expansion.  The marches would follow prescribed routes, with York and Coventry being unique in their following royal entries. On other routes, altars were erected at certain locations where antiphons were sung.  Any Roman Catholic imagery or icons were banned from the processions. The then Archdeacon of Essex, Grindal of London, besought the church explicitly to label the tradition as a perambulation of the parish boundaries (beating the bounds), further to distance it from Italian liturgy. In the book \"Second Tome of Homelys\", a volume containing officially sanctioned homilies of the Elizabethan church, it was made clear that the English Rogation was to remember town and other communal boundaries in a social and historical context, with extra emphasis on the stability gained from lawful boundary lines.  For years after Rogation Days were recognised, the manner in which they were observed in reality was very different from the official decree. While it was officially ordered that the entire congregation attend, bishops began urging their priests to invite only older and more pious men. This, they believed, would stop the drunken revelry in those dioceses where Protestantism had yet to take a firm hold. Royal Injunctions concerning the practice were reinterpreted to restrict and regulate participants of the festivities.  In London, Rogation Days, just like Easter or Hocktide, were times when begging was \"legitimate\" for the period of celebration.  The new, Protestant, version of Rogation days became such a fixture in church life that the tradition was even carried over to the Americas by British colonists in Jamaica, Barbados, and South Carolina. Though not widely celebrated in the modern Church of England, the holiday is still observed in some areas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rogation days are days of prayer and fasting in Western Christianity. They are observed with processions and the Litany of the Saints. The so-called \"major\" rogation is held on 25 April; the \"minor\" rogations are held on Monday to Wednesday preceding Ascension Thursday. The word \"rogation\" comes from the Latin verb \"rogare\", meaning \"to ask\", which reflects the beseeching of God for the appeasement of his anger and for protection from calamities.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974331}
{"src_title": "Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Convention was approved at a special United Nations conference on 28 July 1951, and entered into force on 22 April 1954. It was initially limited to protecting European refugees from before 1 January 1951 (after World War II), though states could make a declaration that the provisions would apply to refugees from other places.  The 1967 Protocol removed the time limits and applied to refugees \"without any geographic limitation\", but declarations previously made by parties to the Convention on geographic scope were grandfathered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parties.", "content": "As of 20 January 2020, there were 146 parties to the Convention, and 147 to the Protocol. Madagascar and Saint Kitts and Nevis are parties only to the Convention, while Cape Verde, the United States of America and Venezuela are parties only to the Protocol. Since the US ratified the Protocol in 1968, it undertook a majority of the obligations spelled out in the original 1951 document (Articles 2-34), and Article 1 as amended in the Protocol, as \"supreme Law of the Land\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition of refugee.", "content": "Article 1 of the Convention defines a refugee as: With the passage of time and the emergence of new refugee situations, the need was increasingly felt to make the provisions of the 1951 Convention applicable to such new refugees. As a result, a Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees was prepared, and entered into force on 4 October 1967. The UNHCR is called upon to provide international protection to refugees falling within its competence. The Protocol defined \"refugee\" to mean any person within the 1951 Convention definition as if the words \"As a result of events occurring before 1 January 1951 and...\" were omitted.  Several groups have built upon the 1951 Convention to create a more objective definition. While their terms differ from those of the 1951 Convention, the Convention has significantly shaped the new, more objective definitions. They include the 1969 Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa by the Organisation of African Unity (since 2002 African Union) and the 1984 Cartagena Declaration, while nonbinding, also sets out regional standards for refugees in Central America, Mexico and Panama.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rights and responsibilities of parties to the Refugee Convention.", "content": "In the general principle of international law, treaties in force are binding upon the parties to it and must be performed in good faith. Countries that have ratified the Refugee Convention are obliged to protect refugees that are on their territory, in accordance with its terms. There are a number of provisions that States parties to the Refugee Convention must adhere to.  Refugees shall  The contracting states shall  The contracting states shall not  Refugees shall be treated at least like \"nationals\" in relation to  Refugees shall be treated at least like \"other non-nationals\" in relation to", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Noncompliance.", "content": "Although the Convention is \"legally binding\" there is no body that monitors compliance. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has supervisory responsibilities, but cannot enforce the Convention, and there is no formal mechanism for individuals to file complaints. The Convention specifies that complaints should be referred to the International Court of Justice. It appears that no nation has ever done this.  An individual may lodge a complaint with the UN Human Rights Committee under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, or with the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, but no one has ever done so in regard to violations of the Convention. Nations may levy international sanctions against violators, but no nation has ever done this.  At present, the only real consequences of violation are 1) public shaming in the press, and 2) verbal condemnation of the violator by the UN and by other nations. To date these have not proven to be significant deterrents.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, also known as the 1951 Refugee Convention or the Geneva Convention of 28 July 1951, is a United Nations multilateral treaty that defines who a refugee is, and sets out the rights of individuals who are granted asylum and the responsibilities of nations that grant asylum. The Convention also sets out which people do not qualify as refugees, such as war criminals. The Convention also provides for some visa-free travel for holders of refugee travel documents issued under the convention.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974332}
{"src_title": "Salt (cryptography)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Example usage.", "content": "Here is an incomplete example of a salt value for storing passwords. This first table has two username and password combinations. The password is not stored.  The salt value is generated at random and can be any length, in this case the salt value is 8 bytes long. The salt value is appended to the plaintext password and then the result is hashed, this is referred to as the hashed value. Both the salt value and hashed value are stored.  As the table above illustrates, different salt values will create completely different hashed values, even when the plaintext passwords are exactly the same. Additionally, dictionary attacks are mitigated to a degree as an attacker cannot practically precompute the hashes. However, a salt cannot protect common or easily guessed passwords.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Common mistakes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Salt reuse.", "content": "A fixed salt is when a programmer uses the same salt for every hashed password.  While this will make current rainbow tables useless (if the salt is properly chosen), if the salt is hard-coded into a popular product that salt can be extracted and a new rainbow table can be generated using that salt.  Using a single fixed salt also means that every user who inputs the same password will have the same hash (unless the password hash is also dependent on the username). This makes it easier to attack multiple users by cracking only one hash.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Short salt.", "content": "If a salt is too short, it will be easy for an attacker to create a rainbow table consisting of every possible salt appended to every likely password. Using a long salt ensures that a rainbow table for a database would be prohibitively large.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Benefits.", "content": "To understand the difference between cracking a single password and a set of them, consider a single password file that contains hundreds of usernames and hashed passwords. Without a salt, an attacker could compute hash(attempt[0]), and then check whether that hash appears anywhere in the file. The likelihood of a match, i.e. cracking one of the passwords with that attempt, increases with the number of passwords in the file. If salts are present, then the attacker would have to compute hash(salt[a], attempt[0]), compare against entry A, then hash(salt[b], attempt[0]), compare against entry B, and so on. This defeats \"reusing\" hashes in attempts to crack multiple passwords.  Salts also combat the use of hash tables and rainbow tables for cracking passwords. A hash table is a large list of pre-computed hashes for commonly used passwords. For a password file without salts, an attacker can go through each entry and look up the hashed password in the hash table or rainbow table. If the look-up is considerably faster than the hash function (which it often is), this will considerably speed up cracking the file. However, if the password file is salted, then the hash table or rainbow table would have to contain \"salt. password\" pre-hashed. If the salt is long enough and sufficiently random, this is very unlikely. Unsalted passwords chosen by humans tend to be vulnerable to dictionary attacks since they have to be both short and meaningful enough to be memorized. Even a small dictionary (or its hashed equivalent, a hash table) is significant help cracking the most commonly used passwords. Since salts do not have to be memorized by humans they can make the size of the rainbow table required for a successful attack prohibitively large without placing a burden on the users.  More technically, salts protect against hash tables and rainbow tables as they, in effect, extend the length and potentially the complexity of the password. If the rainbow tables do not have passwords matching the length (e.g. an 8-byte password, and 2-byte salt, is effectively a 10-byte password) and complexity (non-alphanumeric salt increases the complexity of strictly alphanumeric passwords) of the salted password, then the password will not be found. If found, one will have to remove the salt from the password before it can be used.  The modern shadow password system, in which password hashes and other security data are stored in a non-public file, somewhat mitigates these concerns. However, they remain relevant in multi-server installations which use centralized password management systems to push passwords or password hashes to multiple systems. In such installations, the root account on each individual system may be treated as less trusted than the administrators of the centralized password system, so it remains worthwhile to ensure that the security of the password hashing algorithm, including the generation of unique salt values, is adequate.  Salts also make dictionary attacks and brute-force attacks for cracking large numbers of passwords much slower (but not in the case of cracking just one password). Without salts, an attacker who is cracking many passwords at the same time only needs to hash each password guess once, and compare it to all the hashes. However, with salts, each password will likely have a different salt; so each guess would have to be hashed separately and compared for each salt, which is considerably slower than comparing the same single hash to every password.  Another (lesser) benefit of a salt is as follows: two users might choose the same string as their password, or the same user might choose to use the same password on two machines. Without a salt, this password would be stored as the same hash string in the password file. This would disclose the fact that the two accounts have the same password, allowing anyone who knows one of the account's passwords to access the other account. By salting the passwords with two random characters, even if two accounts use the same password, no one can discover this just by reading hashes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unix implementations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1970s–1980s.", "content": "Earlier versions of Unix used a password file codice_1 to store the hashes of salted passwords (passwords prefixed with two-character random salts). In these older versions of Unix, the salt was also stored in the passwd file (as cleartext) together with the hash of the salted password. The password file was publicly readable for all users of the system. This was necessary so that user-privileged software tools could find user names and other information. The security of passwords is therefore protected only by the one-way functions (enciphering or hashing) used for the purpose. Early Unix implementations limited passwords to eight characters and used a 12-bit salt, which allowed for 4,096 possible salt values. This was an appropriate balance for 1970s computational and storage costs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1980s–.", "content": "The shadow password system is used to limit access to hashes and salt. The salt is eight characters, the hash is 86 characters, and the password length is unlimited.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Web-application implementations.", "content": "It is common for a web application to store in a database the hash value of a user's password. Without a salt, a successful SQL injection attack may yield easily crackable passwords. Because many users re-use passwords for multiple sites, the use of a salt is an important component of overall web application security. Some additional references for using a salt to secure password hashes in specific languages (PHP,.NET, etc.) can be found in the external links section below.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In cryptography, a salt is random data that is used as an additional input to a one-way function that hashes data, a password or passphrase. Salts are used to safeguard passwords in storage. Historically a password was stored in plaintext on a system, but over time additional safeguards were developed to protect a user's password against being read from the system. A salt is one of those methods.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974333}
{"src_title": "Kite aerial photography", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Camera rig and stabilisation.", "content": "The camera can be attached directly to the kite but is usually secured to an adjustable rig suspended from the kite line at a distance from the kite. This distance reduces excessive movement being transmitted from the kite to the camera and allows the kite to be flown into higher, stable air before the camera is attached. If possible, the camera is set to a high shutter speed to reduce motion blur. Cameras using internal image stabilization features can increase the number of sharp photos. In order to take photographs that are oriented correctly with the horizon, a suspension method is used to allow the rig to automatically level itself under the kite line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pendulum suspension.", "content": "This simple levelling method involves suspending the camera from a rigid length of material below the kite line. Gravity naturally keeps the rig level, irrespective of the angle of the kite line. The pendulum will oscillate due to movement from the kite line and wind pressure, but the camera will remain steadier and more level than without a pendulum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Picavet suspension.", "content": "A Picavet suspension, named after its French inventor Pierre Picavet, consists of a rigid cross suspended below the kite line from two points. A single line is threaded several times between the points of the cross and the points of attachment to the kite line and the rig is attached to the cross. The Picavet line runs through eye hooks or small pulleys so that the weight of the rig causes it to settle naturally into a level position. The dimensions and shape of the Picavet have been adapted many times in attempts to increase stability or to improve portability.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shutter release and camera positioning.", "content": "The shutter of the camera can be released in several ways, depending on the type of camera and complexity of the rig electronics, if used. Shutter release mechanisms include using a radio controlled servo to press the shutter release button, using an infrared signal or wired connection to instruct the camera to release the shutter, or by using the camera's inbuilt intervalometer. Ideally the camera is allowed to reach its final altitude before the shutter is released to avoid taking photos during launch.  Fixing the camera directly to the kite or line makes changes to positioning awkward. If the camera is fitted within a frame, this 'rig' can be designed to rotate horizontally and vertically and to change the picture format from portrait to landscape by rotating the camera. Adjustments to these angles can be made by manually setting the rig on the ground or by adjusting the rig while it is airborne using a remote control or an automatic controller in the rig. Commonly a radio control system, as used for model aircraft is used. The servos in these systems are readily adaptable to adjust rig positioning. Several automatic controllers have been developed that can take a photo, move the camera by a set angle, take the next photo and so on.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kites.", "content": "The most important aspect of any kite used to lift a camera is stability. Generally, single lined kites are used as they allow very long line lengths and need less intervention from the flyer than steerable designs. Almost any stable kite design can be used to lift lightweight camera rigs (up to approx 500g/1 lb). As weight increases, specific designs are chosen for their additional flying characteristics, such as line pull, wind speed, flying angle and ease of launch. Widely used designs are parafoil, rokkaku, delta (including variations such as delta conyne) and the new lighter-than-air helikite design. Of these, the parafoil is most popular as it generates a strong pull for its size, and can be easily stored in a small space due to its sparless construction. Sparred kites such as the rokkaku or delta tend to fly at a higher angle than parafoils, which is of benefit when the space between the launch site and photographic subject is limited. A higher flying angle permits the kite to lift more weight, as more of the generated force is acting vertically. Helikites allow reliable KAP in difficult conditions, thus opening up the use of KAP for professional photography.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first kite aerial photographs were taken by British meteorologist Douglas Archibald in 1887 and Arthur Batut in Labruguière (France) in 1888.  Manned kite flying and aerial photography was advanced also by French Marcel Maillot, British Robert Baden-Powell, Americans Charles Lamson and William Abner Eddy, Australian Lawrence Hargrave (inventor of box kite in 1893 and kite train in 1884) and French Captain Saconney.  The famous kite image of San Francisco after the 1906 earthquake (right) was taken by an early pioneer in KAP, George Lawrence using a large panoramic camera and stabilizing rig he designed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "KAP today.", "content": "With the advent of the Internet, light and affordable digital cameras, radio control and microelectronics, kite aerial photography has become increasingly popular. In latter years, kits have become available that enable a beginner to quickly assemble a functional KAP rig and start taking aerial pictures in the visible part of the spectrum and, with more experience, in the ultra-violet, near and thermal infra-red parts of the spectrum too. Practical and commercial use of KAP is limited by the unpredictability of the weather (notably wind, sun and rain) and the fact that not every site is suitable to flying a kite. Launching a kite near buildings or downwind of trees can be problematic, due to heavy turbulence. The main applications today are amateur photography, art and, especially, archaeology as described on the webpages of the West Lothian Archaeological Trust. Another growing application is its use for community mapping and environmental monitoring by the widespread Public Laboratory for Open Technology and Science. Research scientists are using kite aerial photography for monitoring bird species and also for studies in the geographical and geological sciences, including photogrammetry. Increasingly, kites are being employed where the use of a small unmanned aerial vehicle (SUAV) is either impractical, or meets with legal or other constraints. Attempts to commercialize KAP have so far been largely unsuccessful.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kite aerial photography (KAP) is a hobby and a type of photography. A camera is lifted using a kite and is triggered either remotely or automatically to take aerial photographs. The camera rigs can range from the extremely simple, consisting of a trigger mechanism with a disposable camera, to complex apparatus using radio control and digital cameras. On some occasions it can be a good alternative to other forms of aerial photography.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974334}
{"src_title": "Operation Highjump", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Timeline.", "content": "The Western Group of ships reached the Marquesas Islands on December 12, 1946, whereupon the \"Henderson\" and \"Cacapon\" set up weather monitoring stations. By December 24, the \"Currituck\" had begun launching aircraft on reconnaissance missions.  The Eastern Group of ships reached Peter I Island in late December 1946.  On December 30, 1946 the Martin PBM-5 \"George 1\" crashed on Thurston Island killing Ensign Maxwell A. Lopez, ARM1 Wendell K. Henderson, and ARM1 Frederick W. Williams. The other 6 crew members were rescued 13 days later. These and Vance N. Woodall, who died on January 21, 1947, were the only fatalities during Operation Highjump.  On January 1, 1947, Lieutenant Commander Thompson and Chief Petty Officer Dixon utilized \"Jack Browne\" masks and DESCO Oxygen rebreathers to log the first dive by Americans under the Antarctic. Paul Allman Siple, Ph.D. was the senior U.S. War Department representative on the expedition. Dr. Siple was the same Eagle Scout who accompanied Admiral Byrd on the previous Byrd Antarctic expeditions.  The Central Group of ships reached the Bay of Whales on January 15, 1947, where they began construction of Little America IV.  Naval ships and personnel were withdrawn back to the United States in late February 1947, and the expedition was terminated due to the early approach of winter and worsening weather conditions.  Admiral Byrd discussed the lessons learned from the operation in an interview with Lee van Atta of International News Service held aboard the expedition's command ship the USS \"Mount Olympus\". The interview appeared in the Wednesday, March 5, 1947, edition of the Chilean newspaper \"El Mercurio\" and read in part as follows:  Admiral Richard E. Byrd warned today that the United States should adopt measures of protection against the possibility of an invasion of the country by hostile planes coming from the polar regions. The admiral explained that he was not trying to scare anyone, but the cruel reality is that in case of a new war, the United States could be attacked by planes flying over one or both poles. This statement was made as part of a recapitulation of his own polar experience, in an exclusive interview with International News Service. Talking about the recently completed expedition, Byrd said that the most important result of his observations and discoveries is the potential effect that they have in relation to the security of the United States. The fantastic speed with which the world is shrinking – recalled the admiral – is one of the most important lessons learned during his recent Antarctic exploration. I have to warn my compatriots that the time has ended when we were able to take refuge in our isolation and rely on the certainty that the distances, the oceans, and the poles were a guarantee of safety.  After the operation ended, a follow-up Operation WINDMILL returned to the area in order to provide ground-truthing to the aerial photography of HIGHJUMP from 1947 to 1948. Finn Ronne also financed a private operation to the same territory until 1948.  As with other U.S. Antarctic expeditions, interested persons were allowed to send letters with enclosed envelopes to the base, where commemorative cachets were added to their enclosures, which were then returned to the senders. These souvenir philatelic covers are readily available at low cost. It is estimated that at least 150,000 such envelopes were produced, though their final number may be considerably higher.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human losses.", "content": "On December 30, 1946, aviation radiomen Wendell K. Henderson, Fredrick W. Williams, and Ensign Maxwell A. Lopez were killed when their Martin PBM Mariner \"George 1\" crashed during a blizzard. The surviving six crew members were rescued 13 days later, including aviation radioman James H. Robbins and co-pilot William Kearns. A plaque honoring the three killed crewmen was later erected at the McMurdo Station research base, and Mount Lopez on Thurston Island was named in honor of killed airman Maxwell A. Lopez.  In December 2004, an attempt was made to locate the remains of the plane. In 2007 a group called the George One Recovery Team was unsuccessful in trying to get direct military involvement and raise extensive funds from the United States Congress to try and find the bodies of the three men killed in the crash.  On January 21, 1947, Vance N. Woodall died during a \"ship unloading accident\". In a crew profile, deckman Edward Beardsley described his worst memory as \"when Seaman Vance Woodall died on the Ross Ice Shelf under a piece of roller equipment designed to 'pave' the ice to build an airstrip.\"  Rear Admiral Richard H. Cruzen, USN, Commanding  Capt. George J. Dufek, USN, Commanding  Capt. Charles A. Bond, USN, Commanding  Rear Admiral Richard H. Cruzen, USN, Commanding Officer  Rear Adm. Richard E. Byrd, Jr. USN, (Ret), Officer in Charge  Capt. Clifford M. Campbell, USN, Commanding", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In media.", "content": "The documentary about the expedition \"The Secret Land\" was filmed entirely by military photographers (both USN and US Army) and narrated by actors Robert Taylor, Robert Montgomery, and Van Heflin. It features Chief of Naval Operations Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz in a scene where he is discussing Operation HIGHJUMP with admirals Byrd and Cruzen. The film re-enacted scenes of critical events, such as shipboard damage control and Admiral Byrd throwing items out of an airplane to lighten it to avoid crashing into a mountain. It won the 1948 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Operation HIGHJUMP, officially titled The United States Navy Antarctic Developments Program, 1946–1947, was a United States Navy operation organized by Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd, Jr., USN (Ret), Officer in Charge, Task Force 68, and led by Rear Admiral Richard H. Cruzen, USN, Commanding Officer, Task Force 68. Operation HIGHJUMP commenced 26 August 1946 and ended in late February 1947. Task Force 68 included 4,700 men, 13 ships, and 33 aircraft. Operation HIGHJUMP’s primary mission was to establish the Antarctic research base Little America IV.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974335}
{"src_title": "Renault 5 Turbo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "In response to Lancia's rallying success with the mid-engined Stratos, Renault's Jean Terramorsi, vice-president of production, asked Bertone's Marc Deschamps to design a new sports version of the Renault 5 Alpine supermini. The distinctive new rear bodywork was styled by Marcello Gandini at Bertone.  Although the standard Renault 5 has a front-mounted engine, the 5 Turbo featured a mid-mounted Cléon-Fonte with fuel fed by Bosch K-Jetronic fuel injection and a Garrett AiResearch T3 turbocharger OHV 2 valves per cylinder Inline-four engine placed behind the driver in mid-body in a modified Renault 5 chassis. In standard form, the engine developed at 6000 rpm and maximum torque of at 3250 rpm.  Though it used a modified body from a standard Renault 5, and was badged a Renault 5, the mechanicals were radically different, the most obvious difference being rear-wheel drive and rear-mid-engined instead of the normal version's front-wheel drive and front-mounted engine. At the time of its launch it was the most powerful production French car. The first 400 production 5 Turbos were made to comply with Group 4 homologation to allow the car to compete in international rallies, and were manufactured at the Alpine factory in Dieppe. Many parts later transferred to the Alpine A310, such as the suspension or alloy wheel set.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Renault 5 Turbo 2.", "content": "Once the homologation models were produced, a second version named Turbo 2 was introduced using more stock Renault 5 parts replacing many of the light alloy components in the original 5 Turbo version, and dropping the stunning and specific Bertone seats and dashboard for the interior of the R5 Alpine. Many parts also became dark grey rather than the iconic red or blue. The Turbo 2 was less expensive, but had nearly the same levels of performance, with a top speed of and 0–100 km/h (62 mph) in 6.9 seconds. To differentiate it from the Turbo 2, the original 5 Turbo is often referred as \"Turbo 1\".  The concept of a mid-engined small Renault returned with the 1998 announcement of the Renault Clio V6.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "In 2004, \"Sports Car International\" named the R5 Turbo number nine on the list of Top Sports Cars of the 1980s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motorsport.", "content": "The R5 Turbo was conceived with dual intent, promoting the sales of the common R5 and being homologated in the FIA group 3 and 4 categories of the rally championship (today WRC). All the motorsport derivatives were based on the Turbo 1.  The factory pushed the engine output up to for the Critérium des Cévennes, for the Tour de Corse, and by 1984 as much as in the R5 Maxi Turbo.  Driven by Jean Ragnotti in 1981, the 5 Turbo won the Monte Carlo Rally on its first outing in the World Rally Championship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "WRC victories.", "content": "There are several victories throughout the early 80's in the national championships in France, Portugal, Switzerland, Hungary, and Spain, many victories in international rallies throughout Europe, with wins in iconic rallies such as Monte Carlo. After the factory ceased support, it lived a second life being developed by many teams and enthusiasts to compete in regional championships and local races in which it was ubiquitous and reached many success for almost 20 years. At the time of retirement, the newly created historical categories allowed these cars to return to international events and competitions, living a third life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Renault 5 Turbo or R5 Turbo is a high-performance hatchback automobile launched by the French manufacturer Renault at the Brussels Motor Show in January 1980. The car was primarily designed for rallying, but was also sold in a street version. A total of 4987 (turbo 1: 1820 and turbo 2: 3167) R5 Turbos were manufactured during a six-year production run.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974336}
{"src_title": "Common wheat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nomenclature and taxonomy of wheat and its cultivars.", "content": "Numerous forms of wheat have evolved under human selection. This diversity has led to confusion in the naming of wheats, with names based on both genetic and morphological characteristics. For more information, see the taxonomy of wheat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Bread wheat is an allohexaploid (an allopolyploid with six sets of chromosomes: two sets from each of three different species). Of the six sets of chromosomes, two come from \"Triticum urartu\" (einkorn wheat) and two from \"Aegilops speltoides\". This hybridisation created the species \"Triticum turgidum\" (durum wheat) 580,000–820,000 years ago. The last two sets of chromosomes came from wild goat-grass \"Aegilops tauschii\" 230,000–430,000 years ago.<ref name=\"10.1126/science.1251788\"></ref>  Free-threshing wheat is closely related to spelt. As with spelt, genes contributed from \"Aegilops tauschii\" give bread wheat greater cold hardiness than most wheats, and it is cultivated throughout the world's temperate regions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Common wheat was first domesticated in Western Asia during the early Holocene, and spread from there to North Africa, Europe and East Asia in the prehistoric period. Naked wheats (including \"Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum\") were found in Roman burial sites ranging from 100BCE to 300CE.  Wheat first reached North America with Spanish missions in the 16th century, but North America's role as a major exporter of grain dates from the colonization of the prairies in the 1870s. As grain exports from Russia ceased in the First World War, grain production in Kansas doubled.  Worldwide, bread wheat has proved well adapted to modern industrial baking, and has displaced many of the other wheat, barley, and rye species that were once commonly used for bread making, particularly in Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plant breeding.", "content": "Modern wheat varieties have short stems, the result of RHt dwarfing genes that reduce the plant's sensitivity to gibberellic acid, a plant hormone that lengthens cells. RHt genes were introduced to modern wheat varieties in the 1960s by Norman Borlaug from Norin 10 cultivars of wheat grown in Japan. Short stems are important because the application of high levels of chemical fertilizers would otherwise cause the stems to grow too high, resulting in lodging (collapse of the stems). Stem heights are also even, which is important for modern harvesting techniques.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other forms of common wheat.", "content": "Compact wheats (e.g., club wheat \"Triticum compactum\", but in India \"T. sphaerococcum\") are closely related to common wheat, but have a much more compact ear. Their shorter rachis segments lead to spikelets packed closer together. Compact wheats are often regarded as subspecies rather than species in their own right (thus \"T. aestivum\" subsp. \"compactum\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Common wheat (\"Triticum aestivum\"), also known as bread wheat, is a cultivated wheat species. About 95% of wheat produced worldwide is common wheat; it is the most widely grown of all crops and the cereal with the highest monetary yield.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974337}
{"src_title": "Alexandre Colonna-Walewski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Walewski was born at Walewice, near Warsaw in Poland. Aged fourteen, he rebelled by refusing to join the Imperial Russian army and fled to London, thence to Paris where the French government refused Tsar Alexander I's demands for his extradition to Russia.  Upon the accession of Louis-Philippe d'Orléans to the French throne in 1830, Walewski was dispatched to Poland, later the same year being entrusted by the leaders of the Polish November Uprising of 1830 as a diplomatic envoy to the Court of St James's. After the Fall of Warsaw, he took out letters of French naturalization and joined the French army, seeing action in Algeria as a captain in the \"Chasseurs d'Afrique\" of the French Foreign Legion. In 1837 he resigned his commission to begin writing plays and for the press. He is said to have collaborated with the elder Dumas on \"Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle\" and a comedy of his, \"L'Ecole du monde\", was produced at the \"Theâtre Français\" in 1840.  Later that year Thiers, also a man of letters, became patron to one of Walewski's papers, \"Le Messager des Chambres\", before sending him on a mission to Egypt. Under Guizot's government Walewski was posted to Buenos Aires to liaise with the British ambassador, John Cradock, 1st Baron Howden. Prince Louis Napoleon's accession to power in France as Napoleon III furthered his career with postings as envoy extraordinary to Florence and the Kingdom of Naples before London (1851–55), where he was charged with announcing the \"coup d'état\" to the prime minister, Lord Palmerston.  In 1855, Walewski succeeded Drouyn de Lhuys as Minister of Foreign Affairs and he acted as French plenipotentiary at the Congress of Paris the following year. As foreign minister, Walewski advocated \"entente\" with Russia, opposing his emperor's adventurous strategy in Italy which led to war with Austria in 1859. After leaving the Foreign Ministry in 1860 he became France's Minister of State, an office which he held until 1863. He served as senator from 1855 to 1865, before being appointed to the \"Corps Législatif\" in 1865 and as president of the Chamber of Deputies by the Emperor, who returned him to the Senate after a revolt against his authority two years later.  Walewski was created a duke in 1866, was elected a member of the \"Académie des beaux-arts\", appointed Grand Cross of the \"Légion d'honneur\" and made a Knight of Malta, also receiving the Gold Cross of \"Virtuti Militari\".  Alexandre Walewski died of a stroke at Strasbourg on 27 September 1868 and is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descendants.", "content": "He married on 1 December 1831 Lady Catherine Montagu (1808–1833), daughter of George, 6th Earl of Sandwich by his wife Lady Louisa Lowry-Corry. Following her death, he married secondly, on 4 June 1846 in Florence, Maria Anna, daughter of the Papal Count Zanobi di Ricci by his wife Princess Isabella Poniatowski. He also fathered a son by the actress Rachel Felix in 1844.  He had seven children, two from his first marriage, four from his second marriage, and one illegitimate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexandre Florian Joseph, Count Colonna-Walewski (; 4 May 181027 September 1868), was a Polish and French politician and diplomat. Walewski was widely rumoured to be the (unacknowledged) illegitimate son of Napoleon I by his mistress, Countess Marie Walewska, although her husband (Athanasius, Count Walewski) legally acknowledged him as his own son. In 2013, published scholarship comparing DNA haplotype evidence taken from Emperor Napoleon, from his brother King Jérôme Bonaparte's descendant Charles, Prince Napoléon and from Colonna-Walewski's descendant indicated Alexandre's membership in the genetic male-line of the imperial House of Bonaparte.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974338}
{"src_title": "Duchess Helene in Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Helene was the oldest daughter of Maximilian Joseph, Duke in Bavaria and Ludovika, Royal Princess of Bavaria. The family home was at Possenhofen Castle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "In 1853 she traveled with her mother, Ludovika, and her younger sister Elisabeth to the resort of Bad Ischl, Upper Austria with the hopes that she would become the bride of their cousin Franz Josef, then the emperor of Austria. He decided that he preferred Elisabeth instead. Helene was unusually pious, and would have fit into the Habsburg court well. She had one quality, though, that would not have been accepted: she was habitually unpunctual, and often missed trains and appointments.  After the failed engagement, she became depressed and Ludovika became concerned that Helene would take the veil and join a convent. Helene had almost come to terms with remaining single. At 22 years old she was considered to be an \"old maid,\" but her mother arranged for her to meet the wealthy Maximilian Anton Lamoral, Hereditary Prince of Thurn and Taxis. Duke Max in Bavaria, Helene's father, invited the Thurn and Taxis family to Possenhofen for a hunting party, at which Prince Maximilian was introduced to Helene.  While the prince was vacationing at Possenhofen, he brought his marriage plans to his parents, who immediately agreed. The only difficulty involved was that although the Thurn and Taxis family were counted among the richest in the land, they were not considered social equals for a princess of royal blood and a member of the House of Wittelsbach. Because of this, King Maximilian II of Bavaria did not at first agree to a marriage between the two, but through Elisabeth's influence on the king, the marriage took place nevertheless. The wedding ceremony was held on 24 August 1858 at Possenhofen. To mark the occasion, the in-laws gave the bride a necklace worth 160,000 Gulden. In spite of the earlier objections to the match, Helene is considered to have had the only happy marriage among the five Wittelsbach sisters.  Her daughter Louisa was born in 1859, followed by a second daughter, Elisabeth, in 1860. Shortly after the birth of her second child she traveled to Corfu to visit her sister Elisabeth, who was very ill. She returned by way of Vienna, where she reported to Franz Josef on the poor state of his wife.  She gave birth to the much-desired son in 1862, named Maximilian Maria, and in 1867 had another son named Albert.  Even though the couple had a happy marriage, it was overshadowed by the severe illness of her husband Maximilian, who had chronic kidney disease. Neither a course of treatment in Karlsbad nor the best doctors could save him. He died in 1867 at only 35 years of age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Helene took her mind off her sorrows with charitable activities. She received the guardianship of her children from the Austrian emperor. Her father-in-law began to include her in the business affairs of the House of Thurn and Taxis, seeing in her a support and successor. In this way she became the head of the family until her oldest son reached his majority.  In 1877 her youngest daughter, Elisabeth, married Prince Miguel of Braganza, the Miguelist claimant to the throne of Portugal. Elisabeth's health deteriorated after the birth of her first child, and she eventually died in 1881.  In 1879 Helene's oldest daughter, Louise, married the young Prince Frederick of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. The couple had no children.  In 1883, her son Maximilian took over the leadership of the family business, but the well-trained young man fell ill. His heart had been weakened by scarlet fever in childhood, and he suffered from severe heart spasms. In 1885, he died of a pulmonary embolism. This left Helene the family head again, until 1888 when her son Albert reached his majority and took over the family businesses. Helene then retired and dedicated herself to her religious devotions.  She became very ill with stomach cancer in 1890, and her sister Elisabeth hurried to her side. Elisabeth was the last person to speak with Helene. Elisabeth's daughter Marie Valerie related in her diary, \"Aunt Néné... was glad to see Mama and said to her, 'Old Sisi' -- she and Mama almost always spoke English together. 'We two have had hard puffs in our lives,' said Mama. 'Yes, but we had hearts,' replied Aunt Néné.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Helene Caroline Therese, Duchess in Bavaria (4 April 1834 – 16 May 1890) of the House of Wittelsbach, nicknamed Néné, was a Bavarian princess and, through marriage, temporarily the head of the Thurn and Taxis family.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974339}
{"src_title": "Acer palmatum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Acer palmatum\" is a deciduous shrub or small tree reaching heights of, rarely, often growing as an understory plant in shady woodlands. It may have multiple trunks joining close to the ground. In habit, its canopy often takes on a dome-like form, especially when mature. The leaves are long and wide, palmately lobed with five, seven, or nine acutely pointed lobes. The flowers are produced in small cymes, the individual flowers with five red or purple sepals and five whitish petals. The fruit is a pair of winged samaras, each samara long with a seed. The seeds of \"Acer palmatum\" and similar species require stratification in order to germinate.  Even in nature, \"Acer palmatum\" displays considerable genetic variation, with seedlings from the same parent tree typically showing differences in such traits as leaf size, shape, and color. Overall form of the tree can vary from upright to weeping.  Three subspecies are recognised:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "\"Acer palmatum\" has been cultivated in Japan for centuries and in temperate areas around the world since the 1800s. The first specimen of the tree reached Britain in 1820.  When Swedish doctor-botanist Carl Peter Thunberg traveled in Japan late in the eighteenth century, he secreted out drawings of a small tree that would eventually become synonymous with the high art of oriental gardens. He gave it the species name \"palmatum\" after the hand-like shape of its leaves, similar to the centuries-old Japanese names \"kaede\" and \"momiji\", references to the 'hands' of frogs and babies, respectively.  Japanese horticulturalists have long developed cultivars from maples found in Japan and nearby Korea and China. They are a popular choice for bonsai enthusiasts and have long been a subject in art.  Numerous cultivars are popular in Europe and North America, with red-leafed favored, followed by cascading green shrubs with deeply dissected leaves.  Preparations from the branches and leaves are used as a treatment in traditional Chinese medicine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Growing conditions.", "content": "\"Acer palmatum\" includes hundreds of named cultivars with a variety forms, colors, leaf types, sizes, and preferred growing conditions. Heights of mature specimens range from, depending on type. Some tolerate sun, but most prefer part shade, especially in hotter climates. Almost all are adaptable and blend well with companion plants. The trees are particularly suitable for borders and ornamental paths because the root systems are compact and not invasive. Many varieties of \"Acer palmatum\" are successfully grown in containers. Trees are prone to die during periods of drought and prefer consistent water conditions; more established trees are less prone to drought. Trees should be mulched with a thick layer of bark. Well-drained soil is essential as they will not survive in soggy waterlogged soil. Trees do not require or appreciate heavy fertilization and should only be lightly fertilized, preferably using slow-release fertilizer with a 3 to 1 ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus respectively. Nitrogen lawn fertilizer should be avoided in the immediate vicinity of these trees as excessive nitrogen can cause overly vigorous growth that is prone to pathogens.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pruning.", "content": "If space is not a constraint, no pruning is necessary except to remove any dead branches. Trees naturally self-prune foliage that doesn't receive enough light, such as internal branches which are overly shaded by its own canopy. Some growers prefer to shape their trees artistically or to thin out interior branches to better expose the graceful main branches. The form of the tree, especially without leaves in winter, can be of great interest and can be pruned to highlight this feature. Trees heal readily after pruning without needing aftercare. This species should not be pruned like a hedge, but instead methodically shaped by carefully choosing individual branches to remove. They can also be pruned just to maintain a smaller size to suit a particular location. \"Acer palmatum\" can also be used as espalier.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "Over 1,000 cultivars have been chosen for particular characteristics, which are propagated by asexual reproduction most often by grafting, but some cultivars can also be propagated by budding, cuttings, tissue culture, or layering. Some cultivars are not in cultivation in the Western world or have been lost over the generations, but many new cultivars are developed each decade. Cultivars are chosen for phenotypical aspects such as leaf shape and size (shallowly to deeply lobed, some also palmately compound), leaf color (ranging from chartreuse through dark green or from red to dark purple, others variegated with various patterns of white and pink), bark texture and color, and growth pattern. Most cultivars are less vigorous and smaller than is typical for the species, but are more interesting than the relatively mundane species. Cultivars come in a large variety of forms including upright, broom, weeping, cascading, dwarf, and shrub. Most cultivars are artificially selected from seedlings of open-pollinated plants, purposeful breeding is not common, and less often from grafts of witch's brooms. In Japan, \"iromomiji\" is used as an accent tree in Japanese gardens, providing gentle shade next to the house in the summer and beautiful colors in autumn. Many cultivars have characteristics that come into prominence during different seasons, including the color of new or mature leaves, extraordinary autumn color, color and shape of samaras, or even bark that becomes more brightly colored during the winter. Some cultivars can scarcely be distinguished from others unless labeled. In some cases, identical cultivars go by different names, while in other cases, different cultivars may be given the same name.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Popular cultivars.", "content": "A selection of notable or popular cultivars, with brief notes about characteristics that apply during at least one season, includes the following.  In addition to the cultivars described above, a number of cultivar groups have been naturally selected over time to such an extent that seedlings often resemble the parent. Many of these are sold under the same name as the cultivars, or even propagated by grafting, so there is often much ambiguity in distinguishing them. In particular, a number of dark-red \"Acer palmatum\" are sold with the names ‘Atropurpureum’ and ‘Bloodgood’. Many different cultivars with delicate lace-like foliage are sold under names such as ‘Dissectum’, ‘Filigree’ and ‘Laceleaf’.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "The term \"Japanese maple\" is also sometimes used to describe other species, usually within the series \"Palmata\", that are similar to \"A. palmatum\" and native to China, Korea or Japan, including:  Given that these maples are phenotypically variable within each species, and may hybridise with one another, distinguishing between them may be a matter of gradient speciation. In commercial propagation, \"A. palmatum\" is often used as rootstock for many of these other species.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Acer palmatum, commonly known as red emperor maple, palmate maple, Japanese maple or smooth Japanese-maple (Japanese: \"irohamomiji\",, or \"momiji\", ), is a species of woody plant native to Japan, Korea, China, eastern Mongolia, and southeast Russia. Many different cultivars of this maple have been selected and they are grown worldwide for their large variety of attractive forms, leaf shapes, and spectacular colors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974340}
{"src_title": "Eleocharis dulcis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ecology.", "content": "In the dry season of the Northern Territory in Australia, Magpie geese eat the bulbs of water chestnuts, allowing them to put on fat for the wet season and ensuring they are ready for breeding. In the wet season, water chestnut leaves are used to build their floating nests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "Raw water chestnuts are 74% water, 24% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contain very little fat. In a 100-gram reference amount, raw water chestnuts supply of food energy, are rich (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) in vitamin B6 (25% DV), and contain moderate amounts of other B vitamins, manganese, and potassium (10% to 17% DV, table).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taste.", "content": "Raw water chestnuts are slightly sweet and crunchy. Boiled water chestnuts have a firm and slightly crunchy texture, with a mild and slightly nutty flavor that may easily be overpowered by seasonings or sauces with which the water chestnut is served or cooked. They may be combined with bamboo shoots, coriander, ginger, sesame oil, and snow peas. Steamed or sauteed vegetable dishes may contain water chestnuts, such as noodle or rice recipes. They may also be added to minced-meat fillings and dishes, such as Cantonese dim sum-style steamed meatballs, to add a crunchy texture. The Thai dessert \"thapthim krop\", with water chestnuts as its main ingredient, was named one of the world's best 50 desserts in 2019 by \"CNN Travel\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Agronomic properties.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "The crop can be cultivated in paddies (2-7.5 m wide by up to 100 m long to allow for mechanization) or in a hydroponic culture. As it is an aquatic plant, it should always be submerged in approximately 10 cm of water. The crop needs continuously high soil temperatures, ideally 14-15.5 °C. At 13.6 °C, the corms begin to sprout. Soil is ideally a sandy loam with pH 6.5 to 7.2. The plant produces two types of subterranean rhizomes. Under long-daylength conditions, rhizomes grow horizontally and then turn upwards forming daughter plants. Under short-daylength conditions, the rhizomes grow downward and produce a corm at the tip. The photoperiod also significantly influences how fast the corms grow. Corms begin to develop much more slowly if the photoperiod exceeds 12 hours. The corms are also the propagating material. Alternatively, transplants can be used. Machinery such as tractor-mounted vegetable planters can be used for plantation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plant nutrition.", "content": "Nitrogen addition is beneficial for corm production, applying a dose before planting and another dose when corms begin to enlarge. To further improve nutrient levels, potassium and phosphorus mineral fertilizers can be used before planting, where the N:P:K uptake ratio is 1.00:0.50:1.75. Also organic mulch, especially mushroom compost, shows good results.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Harvest.", "content": "Once the corms turn dark brown, they should be harvested. If left in the soil after this point in time, corms will get sweeter, however shelf life will decline. The corms can be harvested using a modified gladioli corm harvester once the paddy is drained. Alternatively, a \"water-suction harvester\" can be used without the need to drain the paddy. The corms have to be washed after harvest and brushed once they are dry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Yield.", "content": "The per plant yield was described at 2.3 kg/season (fresh matter). In China, yields are reported between 20-40t/ha, while in the United States a range between 47-85 t/ha has been mentioned.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Storage.", "content": "The harvested corms are best stored at 4 °C. At this temperature, transpiration and thus weight loss are minimized. This will also delay sprouting and minimize deterioration resulting from small injuries. Corms should not be stored at temperatures above 13.6 °C as otherwise the corms will begin to sprout. If the corms need to be stored longer term, they can also be kept in a solution of 1000 ppm sodium hypochlorite.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pests.", "content": "Chinese water chestnut is usually not very prone to pests; nevertheless, some animals and fungi may attack the plant: Water fowl may damage the stems and corms, especially when plants are young. Similarly, rodents and grazing animals pose a threat to the Chinese water chestnut, which may be discouraged by keeping the paddy inundated. Fly larvae (Trichoptera sp.) and other leaf-eating caterpillars also feed on the stems. However, unless complete defoliation below the waterline occurs, the plants can normally tolerate this damage. Plant hoppers (Fulgoridae) and scale insects feed on plant sap and may cause subsequent death. Other pests represent nematodes Ditylenchus spp. and Dolichodorus heterocephalus. Fungal species can also attack the Chinese water chestnut. In warmer climates, a rust is caused by Uromyces and Cylindrosporium eleocharidis is causing stem blight.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Eleocharis dulcis, the Chinese water chestnut or water chestnut, is a grass-like sedge native to Asia (China, Japan, India, Philippines, etc.), Australia, tropical Africa, and various islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is grown in many countries for its edible corms.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974341}
{"src_title": "Heinkel He 176", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "During the 1920s, German daredevils had experimented with using solid-fuel rockets to propel cars, motorcycles, railway carriages, snow sleds, and, by 1929, aircraft such as Alexander Lippisch's \"Ente\" and Fritz von Opel's RAK.1. Solid-fuel rockets, however, have major disadvantages when used for aircraft propulsion, as their thrust cannot be throttled, and the engines cannot be shut down until fuel is exhausted.  In the late 1930s, Wernher von Braun's rocketry team working at Peenemünde investigated installing liquid-fuelled rockets in aircraft. Heinkel enthusiastically supported their efforts, supplying a He 72 and later two He 112s for the experiments. In early 1937, one of these latter aircraft was flown with its piston engine shut down during flight, at which time it was propelled by rocket power alone. At the same time, Hellmuth Walter's experiments into Hydrogen peroxide monopropellant-based rockets were leading towards light and simple rockets that appeared well-suited for aircraft installation, although at the price of considerable danger and limited duration.  The He 176 was built to utilise one of the new Walter engines. It was a tiny, simple aircraft, built almost entirely out of wood, but did possess an advanced, totally enclosed cockpit, with a frameless single-piece clear nose, through which the pilot's rudder pedal mounts were visible, and a The landing gear was a combination of conventional and tricycle gear designs, with the main gear's struts intended to retract rearwards into the fuselage, with a fixed, aerodynamically faired nose wheel and strut, a clumsy plexiglas bubble installed after the pilot entered the plane as described by Warsitz and shown, barely, in the one take off photograph, which cockpit was built around Warsitz's frame, and a retractable tail wheel. The drawing here shows a flush glazing. There is no evidence this was actually used. A unique feature of the He 176 was its jettisonable nose escape system. Compressed air was used to separate the nose from the aircraft. A drogue chute was used to reduce the opening force required. After the drogue was deployed, the flush-fitting cockpit canopy was released and a conventional pilot/parachute bailout occurred.  Heinkel demonstrated the aircraft to the RLM, but official lack of interest led to the abandonment of the company's rocket propulsion programme. Testing of the He 176 ended with only one aircraft being built. It was put on display at the Berlin Air Museum and was destroyed by an Allied bombing raid in 1943.  Prior to the cancellation of the programme, plans had been drawn up for a more sophisticated rocket-plane, the hypothetical He 176 V2. This was never constructed, but because it bore the same designation as the aircraft that was actually flown, many books and websites mistakenly publish pictures of it to illustrate its earlier namesake. This is primarily the post war Gerd Heumann airbrush job and the basis for this is unknown.  Germany did eventually fly an operational rocket-propelled fighter, the Alexander Lippisch-designed Me 163 \"Komet\", but this was made by the competing Messerschmitt firm, using an engine that was a further development of the one that powered the He 176.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Heinkel He 176 was a German rocket-powered aircraft. It was the world's first aircraft to be propelled solely by a liquid-fueled rocket, making its first powered flight on 20 June 1939 with Erich Warsitz at the controls. It was a private venture by the Heinkel company in accordance with director Ernst Heinkel's emphasis on developing technology for high-speed flight. The performance of the He 176 was not spectacular, but it did provide \"proof of concept\" for rocket propulsion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974342}
{"src_title": "Muscari", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The genus \"Muscari\" originated in the Old World, including the Mediterranean basin, central and southern Europe, northern Africa, western, central and south-western Asia. It has become naturalized elsewhere, including northern Europe and the United States.  Brian Mathew says that many species of grape hyacinths, including not only \"Muscari\" but also the related \"Leopoldia\" and \"Pseudomuscari\", are difficult to distinguish. They usually have one or more narrow leaves which arise from a bulb. The flowers appear in the spring and form a spike or raceme, being held in a close or loose spiral around a central stalk. The flowers often become less tightly spaced as the flower matures. The flower colour varies from pale blue to a very dark blue, almost black in some cases (albino forms are also known). In some species the upper flowers may be of a different colour and shape to the lower flowers. Individual flowers are composed of six fused tepals forming a spherical to obovoid shape, constricted at the end to form a mouth around which the ends of the tepals show as small lobes or \"teeth\", which may be of a different colour to the rest of the tepal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The use of \"muscari\" as part of the name of at least some of the species included in the modern genus can be traced back to Carolus Clusius in 1601, long before the modern rules of botanical nomenclature were established. In 1753, Carl Linnaeus used the name \"Hyacinthus muscari\" for the plant now called \"Muscari racemosum\". In 1754, Philip Miller formally established the genus \"Muscari\" according to modern rules of nomenclature. The name \"muscari\" comes from the Greek \"muschos\", musk, referring to the scent.  Classified in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae, the genus was formerly placed in the Liliaceae as a member of the tribe Hyacintheae. There are about forty species. The genus was at one time divided into four groups or subgenera: Botryanthus, Pseudomuscari, Leopoldia and Muscarimia. \"Pseudomuscari\" and \"Leopoldia\" are now treated as separate genera. The genus \"Muscari\" is now more or less equivalent to the Botryanthus group.  A complication in splitting up the broad genus is that Miller's original \"Muscari\" included representatives of at least three of the new genera. Which one should retain the name \"Muscari\" would normally be decided by where the type species was placed; however Miller did not designate a type species, although the etymology of the genus name points to the species Linnaeus called \"Hyacinthus muscari\" (now \"Muscari racemosum\").  The Muscarimia group are retained in \"Muscari\" by the Kew \"World Checklist of Selected Plant Families\". Two species have been placed in this group: \"M. macrocarpum\" and \"M. racemosum\" (under the name \"M. muscarimi\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": ", the \"World Checklist of Selected Plant Families\" accepts 42 species: The names of some of the species are somewhat confused, especially in the horticultural literature. Thus the name \"M. racemosum\" is commonly found as an incorrect synonym for \"M. neglectum\", with \"M. muscarimi\" or \"M. moschatum\" being used for the true \"M. racemosum\". \"Muscari fatmacereniae\" was recently described from Turkey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Some species are among the earliest garden flowers to bloom in the spring. They are planted as bulbs and tend to multiply quickly (naturalise) when planted in good soils. They prefer well drained sandy soil, that is acid to neutral and not too rich. Naturally found in woodlands or meadows, they are commonly cultivated in lawns, borders, rock gardens and containers. They require little feeding or watering in the summer, and sun or light shade. In ancient civilizations along the Levant, where they are called \"būlbūsīn\", the bulbs of grape hyacinth (\"Muscari commutatum\") were harvested and eaten either pickled or fresh.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Muscari is a genus of perennial bulbous plants native to Eurasia that produce spikes of dense, most commonly blue, urn-shaped flowers resembling bunches of grapes in the spring. The common name for the genus is grape hyacinth (a name which is also used for the related genera \"Leopoldia\" and \"Pseudomuscari\", which were formerly included in \"Muscari\"), but they should not be confused with hyacinths. In the United States, they are also commonly referred to as bluebells, though certain regions reserve this name for bluebonnets instead. In Russia this plant is known also as «гадючий лук» (literally: adder onion) or «мышиный гиацинт» (literally: mouse hyacinth). A number of species of \"Muscari\" are used as ornamental garden plants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974343}
{"src_title": "Richard Kruspe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kruspe was born in Wittenberge (then part of East Germany). He was named Sven at birth, but later changed his name to Richard, as he believes that everyone should be able to change their name if they so choose. He has two older sisters and an older brother. His parents divorced when he was young, and his mother remarried; Kruspe did not get along with his stepfather. The family moved to the village of Weisen when Kruspe was young. Because of his poor relationship with his stepfather, Kruspe often ran away from home in his early teens, sleeping on park benches. He later got into wrestling as a way to channel his anger.  At the age of sixteen, Kruspe and some friends visited Czechoslovakia, where he bought a guitar. He had originally planned to sell it, as it was very expensive and he thought he could make a nice profit from it. However, once he returned to East Germany, a girl he met at a campground asked him to play it for her. He told her that he couldn't play; however, she kept insisting, so Kruspe got mad and started strumming. He recalled, \"the harder I played, the more excited she got. Something clicked in my head, and I realized girls like guys who play guitars.\" This got him interested in playing the guitar; as a result, he began playing every day and night for the next two years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1985, bored with the apathetic music scene in his hometown, Kruspe moved to East Berlin and lived on Lychener Straße, where he \"made music all day\". For two years, he lived in an apartment with a drum kit and a guitar, and made music by himself because he did not know anybody there. \"It was a lonely time\", according to Kruspe, but he used it to explore music.  On 10 October 1989, before the fall of the Berlin Wall, Kruspe was riding on the subway. After coming back above ground, he found himself in the middle of a political demonstration. He was hit on the head and arrested just for being there, and thrown in jail for six days. Once out of jail, he decided to leave East Germany. Because of the Eastern Bloc, he entered West Germany through Hungary. When the Berlin Wall came down, he moved back east of Berlin.  Kruspe's first band, Das Elegante Chaos, was formed in the late 1980s. The band played live with other bands such as First Arsch (in which Till Lindemann was a drummer). In 1989, when Kruspe was 22, some songs were recorded by the band; these songs were later released in 2011 on the album \"Lyrik\" by Dachboden-Records. Seeking a more independent experience, Kruspe formed Orgasm Death Gimmick, which operated between 1991 and 1993; Orgasm Death Gimmick released three demo tapes, and a promotional tape through their label, Wydoks, before disbanding.  During his early career, Kruspe also featured in releases by other bands such as First Arsch. Finally, Rammstein was formed in 1994, when Kruspe, who lived with Oliver Riedel and Christoph Schneider at the time, was looking for a new band in which to create a new style of music.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Kruspe married South African actress Caron Bernstein on 29 October 1999. The ceremony was Jewish, and Kruspe composed the music for it. He took the name Richard Kruspe-Bernstein during their marriage. Sometime in 2001, he moved from Berlin to New York to live closer to Bernstein. They separated in 2004. His last name is now back to its original form, as the divorce was finalized. In 2011, he left New York, because \"it is not the right environment for the next part of my life\", and moved back to Berlin. Kruspe was in a relationship with Margaux Bossieux, bassist of the all-girl New York punk band Dirty Mary. Bossieux was also involved in the recording of Emigrate's debut album.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Kruspe (born Sven Kruspe; 24 June 1967) is a German musician and guitarist of the German Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein, as well as the lead vocalist of the New York-based band Emigrate.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974344}
{"src_title": "Chioggia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is situated on a small island at the southern entrance to the Lagoon of Venice about south of Venice ( by road); causeways connect it to the mainland and to its \"frazione\", nowadays a quarter, of Sottomarina. The population of the \"comune\" is around 50,000, with the town proper accounting for about half of that and Sottomarina for most of the rest.  The municipality, located in south of the province, close to the provinces of Padua and Rovigo, borders with Campagna Lupia, Cavarzere, Codevigo, Cona, Correzzola, Loreo, Rosolina and Venice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Chioggia and Sottomarina were not prominent in antiquity, although they are first mentioned in Pliny as the \"fossa Clodia\". Local legend attributes this name to its founding by a \"Clodius\", but the origin of this belief is not known.  The name of the town has changed often, being Clodia, Cluza, Clugia, Chiozza and Chioggia. The most ancient documents naming Chioggia date from the 6th century AD, when it was part of the Byzantine Empire. Chioggia was destroyed by King Pippin of Italy in the 9th century, but rebuilt around a new industry based on salt pans. In the Middle Ages, Chioggia proper was known as \"Clugia major\", whereas \"Clugia minor\" was a sand bar about 600 m further into the Adriatic. A free commune and an episcopal see from 1110, it had later an important role in the so-called War of Chioggia between Genoa and Venice, being conquered by Genoa in 1378 and finally by Venice in June 1380. Although the town remained largely autonomous, it was always thereafter subordinate to Venice. On 14 March 1381, Chioggia concluded an alliance with Zadar and Trogir against Venice, and finally Chioggia became better protected by Venice in 1412, because Šibenik became in 1412 the seat of the main customs office and the seat of the salt consumers office with a monopoly on the salt trade in Chioggia and on the whole Adriatic Sea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Until the 19th century, women in Chioggia wore an outfit based on an apron which could be raised to serve as a veil. Chioggia is also known for lace-making; like Pellestrina, but unlike Burano, this lace is made using bobbins.  Chioggia served Carlo Goldoni as the setting of his play \"Le baruffe chiozzotte\", one of the classics of Italian literature: a \"baruffa\" was a loud brawl, and \"chiozzotto\" (today more frequently \"chioggiotto\" in Italian, or \"cioxoto\" in Venetian) is the demonym for Chioggia. Goldoni took his setting seriously: the play is replete with lacemaking, fishermen, and other local color.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "Chioggia is a miniature version of Venice, and is often called \"\"Little Venice\"\", with a few canals, chief among them the Canale Vena, and the characteristic narrow streets known as \"calli\". Chioggia has several medieval churches, much reworked in the period of its greatest prosperity in the 16th and 17th centuries.  The church dedicated to St. Mary of the Assumption, founded in the eleventh century, became a cathedral in 1110, then was rebuilt as Chioggia Cathedral from 1623 by Baldassarre Longhena.  The church of St. Andrew (18th century) has a bell tower from the 11th-12th centuries, the most ancient tower watch in the world. The interior has a \"Crucifixion\" by Palma the Elder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Fishing is historically the livelihood of the port, and remains a significant economic sector. Other important modern industries include textiles, brick-making and steel; and Sottomarina, with 60 hotels and 17 campgrounds, is almost entirely given over to seafront tourism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — Sister cities.", "content": "Chioggia is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trivia.", "content": "Chioggia gives its name to a variety of Beetroot, Radicchio (Italian chicory), and Pumpkin (Marina di Chioggia).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chioggia (;, ; ) is a coastal town and \"comune\" of the Metropolitan City of Venice in the Veneto region of northern Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974345}
{"src_title": "Holographic principle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The AdS/CFT correspondence.", "content": "The anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence, sometimes called Maldacena duality or gauge/gravity duality, is a conjectured relationship between two kinds of physical theories. On one side are anti-de Sitter spaces (AdS) which are used in theories of quantum gravity, formulated in terms of string theory or M-theory. On the other side of the correspondence are conformal field theories (CFT) which are quantum field theories, including theories similar to the Yang–Mills theories that describe elementary particles.  The duality represents a major advance in our understanding of string theory and quantum gravity. This is because it provides a non-perturbative formulation of string theory with certain boundary conditions and because it is the most successful realization of the holographic principle.  It also provides a powerful toolkit for studying strongly coupled quantum field theories. Much of the usefulness of the duality results from the fact that it is a strong-weak duality: when the fields of the quantum field theory are strongly interacting, the ones in the gravitational theory are weakly interacting and thus more mathematically tractable. This fact has been used to study many aspects of nuclear and condensed matter physics by translating problems in those subjects into more mathematically tractable problems in string theory.  The AdS/CFT correspondence was first proposed by Juan Maldacena in late 1997. Important aspects of the correspondence were elaborated in articles by Steven Gubser, Igor Klebanov, and Alexander Markovich Polyakov, and by Edward Witten. By 2015, Maldacena's article had over 10,000 citations, becoming the most highly cited article in the field of high energy physics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Black hole entropy.", "content": "An object with relatively high entropy is microscopically random, like a hot gas. A known configuration of classical fields has zero entropy: there is nothing random about electric and magnetic fields, or gravitational waves. Since black holes are exact solutions of Einstein's equations, they were thought not to have any entropy either.  But Jacob Bekenstein noted that this leads to a violation of the second law of thermodynamics. If one throws a hot gas with entropy into a black hole, once it crosses the event horizon, the entropy would disappear. The random properties of the gas would no longer be seen once the black hole had absorbed the gas and settled down. One way of salvaging the second law is if black holes are in fact random objects with an entropy that increases by an amount greater than the entropy of the consumed gas.  Bekenstein assumed that black holes are maximum entropy objects—that they have more entropy than anything else in the same volume. In a sphere of radius \"R\", the entropy in a relativistic gas increases as the energy increases. The only known limit is gravitational; when there is too much energy the gas collapses into a black hole. Bekenstein used this to put an upper bound on the entropy in a region of space, and the bound was proportional to the area of the region. He concluded that the black hole entropy is directly proportional to the area of the event horizon. Gravitational time dilation causes time, from the perspective of a remote observer, to stop at the event horizon. Due to the natural limit on maximum speed of motion, this prevents falling objects from crossing the event horizon no matter how close they get to it. Since any change in quantum state requires time to flow, so all objects and their quantum information state stays imprinted on the event horizon. Bekenstein concluded that from the perspective of any remote observer, the black hole entropy is directly proportional to the area of the event horizon.  Stephen Hawking had shown earlier that the total horizon area of a collection of black holes always increases with time. The horizon is a boundary defined by light-like geodesics; it is those light rays that are just barely unable to escape. If neighboring geodesics start moving toward each other they eventually collide, at which point their extension is inside the black hole. So the geodesics are always moving apart, and the number of geodesics which generate the boundary, the area of the horizon, always increases. Hawking's result was called the second law of black hole thermodynamics, by analogy with the law of entropy increase, but at first, he did not take the analogy too seriously.  Hawking knew that if the horizon area were an actual entropy, black holes would have to radiate. When heat is added to a thermal system, the change in entropy is the increase in mass-energy divided by temperature:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The holographic principle is a tenet of string theories and a supposed property of quantum gravity that states that the description of a volume of space can be thought of as encoded on a lower-dimensional boundary to the region—such as a light-like boundary like a gravitational horizon. First proposed by Gerard 't Hooft, it was given a precise string-theory interpretation by Leonard Susskind who combined his ideas with previous ones of 't Hooft and Charles Thorn. As pointed out by Raphael Bousso, Thorn observed in 1978 that string theory admits a lower-dimensional description in which gravity emerges from it in what would now be called a holographic way. The prime example of holography is the AdS/CFT correspondence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974346}
{"src_title": "Casiquiare canal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery.", "content": "In 1744 a Jesuit priest named Father Roman, while ascending the Orinoco River, met some Portuguese slave-traders from the settlements on the Rio Negro. He accompanied them on their return, by way of the Casiquiare canal, and afterwards retraced his route to the Orinoco. Charles Marie de La Condamine, seven months later, was able to give to the \"Académie française\" an account of Father Roman's voyage, and thus confirm the existence of this waterway, first reported by Father Acuña in 1639.  Little credence was given to Father Roman's statement until it was verified, in 1756, by the Spanish Boundary-line Commission of José Yturriaga and Solano. In 1800 German scientist Alexander von Humboldt and French botanist Aimé Bonpland explored the river. During a 1924–25 expedition, Alexander H. Rice, Jr. of Harvard University traveled up the Orinoco, traversed the Casiquiare canal, and descended the Rio Negro to the Amazon at Manaus. It was the first expedition to use aerial photography and shortwave radio for mapping of the region. In 1968 the Casiquiare was navigated by an SRN6 hovercraft during a National Geographic expedition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The origin of the Casiquiare, at the River Orinoco, is below the mission of La Esmeralda at, and about above sea level. Its mouth at the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon River, is near the town of San Carlos and is above sea level.  The general course is south-west, and its length, including windings, is about. Its width, at its bifurcation with the Orinoco, is approximately, with a current towards the Rio Negro of. However, as it gains in volume from the very numerous tributary streams, large and small, that it receives en route, its velocity increases, and in the wet season reaches, even in certain stretches. It broadens considerably as it approaches its mouth, where it is about wide. The volume of water the Casiquiare captures from the Orinoco is small in comparison to what it accumulates in its course. Nevertheless, the geological processes are ongoing, and evidence points to a slow and gradual increase in the size of Casiquiare. It is likely that stream capture is in progress, i.e. what currently is the uppermost Orinoco basin, including Cunucunuma River, eventually will be entirely diverted by the Casiquiare into the Amazon basin.  In flood time, it is said to have a second connection with the Rio Negro by a branch, which it throws off to the westward, called the Itinivini, which leaves it at a point about above its mouth. In the dry season, it has shallows, and is obstructed by sandbanks, a few rapids and granite rocks. Its shores are densely wooded, and the soil more fertile than that along the Rio Negro. The general slope of the plains through which the canal runs is south-west, but those of the Rio Negro slope south-east.  The Casiquiare is not a sluggish canal on a flat tableland, but a great, rapid river which, if its upper waters had not found contact with the Orinoco, perhaps by cutting back, would belong entirely to the Negro branch of the Amazon.  To the west of the Casiquiare, there is a much shorter and easier portage between the Orinoco and Amazon basins, called the isthmus of Pimichin, which is reached by ascending the Temi branch of the Atabapo River, an affluent of the Orinoco. Although the Temi is somewhat obstructed, it is believed that it could easily be made navigable for small craft. The isthmus is across, with undulating ground, nowhere over high, with swamps and marshes. It is much used for the transit of large canoes, which are hauled across it from the Temi river, and which reach the Rio Negro by the little stream called the Pimichin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hydrographic divide.", "content": "The Casiquiare canal – Orinoco River hydrographic divide is a representation of the hydrographic water divide that delineates the separation between the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. (The Orinoco Basin flows west–north–northeast into the Caribbean; the Amazon Basin flows east into the western Atlantic in the extreme northeast of Brazil.)  Essentially the river divide is a west-flowing, upriver section of Venezuela's Orinoco River with an outflow to the south into the Amazon Basin. This named outflow is the Casiquiare canal, which, as it heads downstream (southerly), picks up speed and also accumulates water volume.  The greatest manifestation of the divide is during floods. During flood stage, the Casiquiare's main outflow point into the Rio Negro is supplemented by an overflow that is a second, and more minor, entry river bifurcation into the Rio Negro and upstream from its major, common low-water entry confluence with the Rio Negro. At flood, the river becomes an area flow source, far more than a narrow confined river.  The Casiquiare canal connects the upper Orinoco, below the mission of Esmeraldas, with the Rio Negro affluent of the Amazon River near the town of San Carlos.  The simplest description (besides the entire area-floodplain) of the water divide is a \"south-bank Orinoco River strip\" at the exit point of the Orinoco, also the origin of the Casiquiare canal. However, during the Orinoco's flood stage, that single, simply defined \"origin of the canal\" is turned into a region, and an entire strip along the southern bank of the Orinoco River.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Casiquiare river () is a distributary of the upper Orinoco flowing southward into the Rio Negro, in Venezuela, South America. As such, it forms a unique natural canal between the Orinoco and Amazon river systems. It is the world's largest river of the kind that links two major river systems, a so-called bifurcation. The area forms a water divide, more dramatically at regional flood stage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974347}
{"src_title": "Methyl methacrylate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production and properties.", "content": "Given the scale of production, many methods have been developed starting from diverse two- to four-carbon precursors. Two principal routes appear to be commonly practiced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cyanohydrin route.", "content": "The compound is manufactured by several methods, the principal one being the acetone cyanohydrin (ACH) route. ACH is produced by condensation of acetone and hydrogen cyanide. The cyanohydrin is hydrolyzed in the presence of sulfuric acid to a sulfate ester of the methacrylamide, Methanolysis of this ester gives ammonium bisulfate and MMA. Although widely used, the ACH route coproduces substantial amounts of ammonium sulfate. In fact the sulfate ester of the amide is initially produced as an adduct with sulfuric acid ((CH)C(OSOH)C(O)NH HSO), which is removed in a cracking step. The sulfate ester is then methanolyzed (reacted with methanol):  As indicated in the last reaction, each kilogram of methyl methacrylate produced yields roughly 1.1 kg of ammonium hydrogen sulfate. Disposal of this salt is energy intensive. This technology affords more than 3 billion kilograms per year.  The economics of the ACH route have been heavily optimized.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Methyl propionate routes.", "content": "The first stage involves carboalkoxylation of ethylene to produce methyl propionate (MeP): The MeP synthesis is conducted in a continuous-stirred tank reactor at moderate temperature and pressure using proprietary agitation and gas-liquid mixing arrangement.  In a second set of reactions, MeP is condensed with formaldehyde in a single heterogeneous reaction step to form MMA:  The reaction of MeP and formaldehyde takes place over a fixed bed of catalyst. This catalyst, caesium oxide on silica, achieves good selectivity to MMA from MeP. The formation of a small amount of heavy, relatively involatile compounds poisons the catalyst. The coke is easily removed and catalyst activity and selectivity restored by controlled, in-situ regeneration. The reactor product stream is separated in a primary distillation so that a crude MMA product stream, free from water, MeP and formaldehyde, is produced. Unreacted MeP and water are recycled via the formaldehyde dehydration process. MMA (>99.9%) is purified by vacuum distillations. The separated streams are returned to the process; there being only a small heavy ester purge stream, which is disposed of in a thermal oxidizer with heat recovered for use in the process.  In 2008, Lucite International commissioned an Alpha MMA plant on Jurong Island in Singapore. This process plant was cheaper to build and run than conventional systems, produces virtually no waste and the feedstocks can even be made from biomass.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other routes to MMA.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Via propionaldehyde.", "content": "Ethylene is first hydroformylated to give propanal, which is then condensed with formaldehyde to produce methacrolein, The condensation is catalyzed by a secondary amine. Air oxidation of methacrolein to methacrylic acid completes the synthesis of the acid:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "From isobutyric acid.", "content": "As developed by Atochem and Röhm, isobutyric acid is produced by hydrocarboxylation of propene, using HF as a catalyst: Oxidative dehydrogenation of the isobutyric acid yields methacrylic acid. Metal oxides catalyse this process:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Methyl acetylene (propyne) process.", "content": "Using Reppe chemistry, methyl acetylene is converted to MMA. As developed by Shell, this process produces MMA in one step reaction with 99% yield with a catalyst derived from palladium acetate, phosphine ligands, and Bronsted acids as catalyst:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Isobutylene routes.", "content": "The reactions by the direct oxidation method consist of two-step oxidation of isobutylene or TBA with air to produce methacrylic acid and esterification by methanol to produce MMA.  A process using isobutylene as a raw material has been commercialized by Escambia Co. Isobutylene is oxidized to provide α-hydroxy isobutyric acid. The conversion uses NO and nitric acid at 5–10 °C in the liquid phase. After esterification and dehydration MMA is obtained. Challenges with this route, aside from yield, involve the handling of large amounts of nitric acid and NO. This method was discontinued in 1965 after an explosion at an operation plant.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Methacrylonitrile (MAN) process.", "content": "MAN can be produced by ammoxidation from isobutylene: This step is analogous to the industrial route to acrylonitrile, a related commodity chemical. MAN can be hydrated by sulfuric acid to methacrylamide:  Mitsubishi Gas Chemicals proposed that MAN can be hydrated to methacrylamide without using sulfuric acid and is then esterified to obtain MMA by methylformate.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Esterification of methacrolein.", "content": "Asahi Chemical developed a process based on direct oxidative esterification of methacrolein, which does not produce by-products such as ammonium bisulfate. The raw material is \"tert\"-butanol, as in the direct oxidation method. In the first step, methacrolein is produced in the same way as in the direct oxidation process by gas phase catalytic oxidation, is simultaneously oxidized and is esterified in liquid methanol to get MMA directly.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The principal application, consuming approximately 75% of the MMA, is the manufacture of polymethyl methacrylate acrylic plastics (PMMA). Methyl methacrylate is also used for the production of the co-polymer methyl methacrylate-butadiene-styrene (MBS), used as a modifier for PVC. Another application is as cement used in total hip replacements as well as total knee replacements. Used as the \"grout\" by orthopedic surgeons to make the bone inserts fix into bone, it greatly reduces post-operative pain from the insertions but has a finite lifespan. Typically the lifespan of methylmethacrylate as bone cement is 20 years before revision surgery is required. Cemented implants are usually only done in elderly populations that require more immediate short term replacements. In younger populations, cementless implants are used because their lifespan is considerably longer. Also used in fracture repair in small exotic animal species using internal fixation.  MMA is a raw material for the manufacture of other methacrylates. These derivatives include ethyl methacrylate (EMA), butyl methacrylate (BMA) and 2-ethyl hexyl methacrylate (2-EHMA). Methacrylic acid (MAA) is used as a chemical intermediate as well as in the manufacture of coating polymers, construction chemicals and textile applications.  Wood can be impregnated with MMA and polymerized in situ to produce a stabilized product.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Environmental issues and health hazards.", "content": "In terms of the acute toxicity of methyl methacrylate, the LD50 is 7-10 g/kg (oral, rat). It is an irritant to the eyes and can cause redness and pain. Irritation of the skin, eye, and nasal cavity has been observed in rodents and rabbits exposed to relatively high concentrations of methyl methacrylate. Methyl methacrylate is a mild skin irritant in humans and has the potential to induce skin sensitization in susceptible individuals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Methyl methacrylate (MMA) is an organic compound with the formula CH=C(CH)COOCH. This colorless liquid, the methyl ester of methacrylic acid (MAA), is a monomer produced on a large scale for the production of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974348}
{"src_title": "Ajax (programming)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the early-to-mid 1990s, most Web sites were based on complete HTML pages. Each user action required that a complete new page be loaded from the server. This process was inefficient, as reflected by the user experience: all page content disappeared, then the new page appeared. Each time the browser reloaded a page because of a partial change, all of the content had to be re-sent, even though only some of the information had changed. This placed additional load on the server and made bandwidth a limiting factor on performance.  In 1996, the iframe tag was introduced by Internet Explorer; like the object element, it can load or fetch content asynchronously. In 1998, the Microsoft Outlook Web Access team developed the concept behind the XMLHttpRequest scripting object. It appeared as XMLHTTP in the second version of the MSXML library, which shipped with Internet Explorer 5.0 in March 1999.  The functionality of the Windows XMLHTTP ActiveX control in IE 5 was later implemented by Mozilla, Safari, Opera and other browsers as the XMLHttpRequest JavaScript object. Microsoft adopted the native XMLHttpRequest model as of Internet Explorer 7. The ActiveX version is still supported in Internet Explorer, but not in Microsoft Edge. The utility of these background HTTP requests and asynchronous Web technologies remained fairly obscure until it started appearing in large scale online applications such as Outlook Web Access (2000) and Oddpost (2002).  Google made a wide deployment of standards-compliant, cross browser Ajax with Gmail (2004) and Google Maps (2005). In October 2004 Kayak.com's public beta release was among the first large-scale e-commerce uses of what their developers at that time called \"the xml http thing\". This increased interest in AJAX among web program developers.  The term \"AJAX\" was publicly used on 18 February 2005 by Jesse James Garrett in an article titled \"Ajax: A New Approach to Web Applications\", based on techniques used on Google pages.  On 5 April 2006, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) released the first draft specification for the XMLHttpRequest object in an attempt to create an official Web standard. The latest draft of the XMLHttpRequest object was published on 6 October 2016, and the XMLHttpRequest specification is now a living standard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technologies.", "content": "The term \"Ajax\" has come to represent a broad group of Web technologies that can be used to implement a Web application that communicates with a server in the background, without interfering with the current state of the page. In the article that coined the term Ajax, Jesse James Garrett explained that the following technologies are incorporated:  Since then, however, there have been a number of developments in the technologies used in an Ajax application, and in the definition of the term Ajax itself. XML is no longer required for data interchange and, therefore, XSLT is no longer required for the manipulation of data. JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) is often used as an alternative format for data interchange, although other formats such as preformatted HTML or plain text can also be used. A variety of popular JavaScript libraries, including JQuery, include abstractions to assist in executing Ajax requests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "JavaScript example.", "content": "An example of a simple Ajax request using the GET method, written in JavaScript.  get-ajax-data.js: // This is the client-side script.  // Initialize the HTTP request. var xhr = new XMLHttpRequest(); xhr.open('GET','send-ajax-data.php');  // Track the state changes of the request. xhr.onreadystatechange = function () {  // Send the request to send-ajax-data.php xhr.send(null); send-ajax-data.php: <?php // This is the server-side script.  // Set the content type. header('Content-Type: text/plain');  // Send the data back. echo \"This is the output.\"; Many developers dislike the syntax used in the XMLHttpRequest object, so some of the following workarounds have been created.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "jQuery example.", "content": "The popular JavaScript library jQuery has implemented abstractions which enable developers to use Ajax more conveniently. Although it still uses XMLHttpRequest behind the scenes, the following is a client-side implementation of the same example as above using the 'ajax' method. $.ajax({ }); jQuery also implements a 'get' method which allows the same code to be written more concisely. $.get('send-ajax-data.php').done(function(data) { }).fail(function(data) {", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fetch example.", "content": "Fetch is a new native JavaScript API. According to Google Developers Documentation, \"Fetch makes it easier to make web requests and handle responses than with the older XMLHttpRequest.\" fetch('send-ajax-data.php')  ES7 async/await example:  async function doAjax() {  doAjax();  As seen above, fetch relies on JavaScript promises.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ajax (also AJAX ; short for \"Asynchronous JavaScript and XML\") is a set of web development techniques using many web technologies on the client side to create asynchronous web applications. With Ajax, web applications can send and retrieve data from a server asynchronously (in the background) without interfering with the display and behavior of the existing page. By decoupling the data interchange layer from the presentation layer, Ajax allows web pages and, by extension, web applications, to change content dynamically without the need to reload the entire page. In practice, modern implementations commonly utilize JSON instead of XML.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974349}
{"src_title": "Charley Patton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Patton was born in Hinds County, Mississippi, near the town of Edwards, and lived most of his life in Sunflower County, in the Mississippi Delta. Most sources say he was born in April 1891, but the years 1881, 1885 and 1887 have also been suggested. Patton's parentage and race also are uncertain. His parents were Bill and Annie Patton, but locally he was regarded as having been fathered by former slave Henderson Chatmon, several of whose children became popular Delta musicians, as solo performers and as members of groups such as the Mississippi Sheiks. Biographer John Fahey described Patton as having \"light skin and Caucasian features.\"  Patton was considered African-American, but because of his light complexion there has been much speculation about his ancestry over the years. One theory endorsed by blues musician Howlin' Wolf was that Patton was Mexican or Cherokee. It is now generally agreed that Patton was of mixed heritage, with white, black, and Native ancestors. Some believe he had a Cherokee grandmother; however, it is also widely asserted by historians that he was between one-quarter and one-half Choctaw. In \"Down the Dirt Road Blues\", Patton sang of having gone to \"the Nation\" and \"the Territo'\", referring to the Cherokee Nation's portion of the Indian Territory (which became part of the state of Oklahoma in 1907), where a number of Black Indians tried unsuccessfully to claim a place on the tribal rolls and thereby obtain land.  In 1897, his family moved north to the Dockery Plantation, a cotton farm and sawmill near Ruleville, Mississippi. There, Patton developed his musical style, influenced by Henry Sloan, who had a new, unusual style of playing music, which is now considered an early form of the blues. Patton performed at Dockery and nearby plantations and began an association with Willie Brown. Tommy Johnson, Fiddlin' Joe Martin, Robert Johnson, and Chester Burnett (who went on to gain fame in Chicago as Howlin' Wolf) also lived and performed in the area, and Patton served as a mentor to these younger performers. Robert Palmer described Patton as a \"jack-of all-trades bluesman\", who played \"deep blues, white hillbilly songs, nineteenth-century ballads, and other varieties of black and white country dance music with equal facility\". He was popular across the southern United States and performed annually in Chicago; in 1934, he performed in New York City. Unlike most blues musicians of his time, who were often itinerant performers, Patton played scheduled engagements at plantations and taverns. He gained popularity for his showmanship, sometimes playing with the guitar down on his knees, behind his head, or behind his back. Patton was a small man, about 5 feet 5 inches tall, but his gravelly voice was reputed to have been loud enough to carry 500 yards without amplification; a singing style which particularly influenced Howlin' Wolf (even though Jimmie Rodgers, the \"singing brakeman\", has to be cited there primarily).  Patton settled in Holly Ridge, Mississippi, with his common-law wife and recording partner, Bertha Lee, in 1933. His relationship with Bertha Lee was a turbulent one. In early 1934, both of them were incarcerated in a Belzoni, Mississippi jailhouse after a particularly harsh fight. W. R. Calaway from Vocalion Records bailed the pair out of jail, and escorted them to New York City, for what would be Patton's final recording sessions (on January 30 and February 1). They later returned to Holly Ridge and Lee saw Patton out in his final days.  He died on the Heathman-Dedham plantation, near Indianola, on April 28, 1934, and is buried in Holly Ridge (both towns are located in Sunflower County). His death certificate states that he died of a mitral valve disorder. The death certificate does not mention Bertha Lee; the only informant listed is one Willie Calvin. Patton's death was not reported in the newspapers.  A memorial headstone was erected on Patton's grave (the location of which was identified by the cemetery caretaker, C. Howard, who claimed to have been present at the burial), paid for by musician John Fogerty through the Mt. Zion Memorial Fund in July 1990. The spelling of Patton's name was dictated by Jim O'Neal, who also composed the epitaph.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognitions.", "content": "\"\", a boxed set collecting Patton's recorded works, was released in 2001. It also features recordings by many of his friends and associates. The set won three Grammy Awards in 2003, for Best Historical Album, Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package, and Best Album Notes. Another collection of Patton recordings, \"The Definitive Charley Patton\", was released by Catfish Records in 2001.  Patton's song \"Pony Blues\" (1929) was included by the National Recording Preservation Board in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress in 2006. The board annually selects recordings that are \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.\"  In 2017, Patton’s story was told in the award-winning documentary series \"American Epic.\" The film featured unseen film footage of Patton’s contemporaries and radically improved restorations of his 1920s and 1930s recordings. Director Bernard MacMahon observed that \"we had a strong feeling that the music of Patton and his peers reflected the local geography, and I was struck by the extent to which that belief was already shared by people who were living in the Delta back then, when it was a center of musical innovation. Listening to interviews with H. C. Speir, who owned a furniture store in Jackson in the 1920s and was responsible for virtually all the recordings of early Delta blues, he clearly linked the music to its surroundings.\" Patton's story was profiled in the accompanying book, \"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical marker.", "content": "The Mississippi Blues Trail placed its first historical marker on Patton's grave in Holly Ridge, Mississippi, in recognition of his legendary status as a bluesman and his importance in the development of the blues in Mississippi. It placed another historic marker at the site where the Peavine Railroad intersects Highway 446 in Boyle, Mississippi, designating it as a second site related to Patton on the Mississippi Blues Trail. The marker commemorates the lyrics of Patton's \"Peavine Blues\", which refer to the branch of the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Railroad which ran south from Dockery Plantation to Boyle. The marker notes that riding on the railroad was a common theme of blues songs and was seen as a metaphor for travel and escape.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paramount recordings.", "content": "≠ Vocals and guitar by Patton, with Henry \"Son\" Sims on fiddle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vocalion recordings.", "content": "‡ Vocal duet with Bertha Lee", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Charley Patton (died April 28, 1934), also known as Charlie Patton, was an American Delta blues musician. Considered by many to be the \"Father of the Delta Blues\", he created an enduring body of American music and inspired most Delta blues musicians. The musicologist Robert Palmer considered him one of the most important American musicians of the twentieth century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974350}
{"src_title": "Mark Recchi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Recchi played his junior hockey for the Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League (WHL). His number 8 was retired by the team shortly after he left for the NHL. He was drafted by the Pittsburgh Penguins, first playing in the NHL in 1988, and was a key player on their Stanley Cup-winning team in 1991.  The following season, Recchi was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers as part of a deal that brought Rick Tocchet and Kjell Samuelsson to Pittsburgh. He played for Philadelphia from 1992 to 1995 as part of the \"Crazy Eights\" line with Eric Lindros and Brent Fedyk, including a 53-goal, 70-assist and 123-point season in 1992–93, still the Flyers' single-season point-scoring record. In 1995, he was traded to the Montreal Canadiens in a deal for Éric Desjardins, Gilbert Dionne and John LeClair, but was reacquired by the Flyers for the 1998–99 season and was consistently among their top scorers.  During the 1999–2000 season, Recchi was a finalist for the Lester B. Pearson Award as the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA) MVP, and he finished third in scoring, only five points behind winner Jaromír Jágr and runner-up Pavel Bure. Recchi also finished third in voting for the NHL All-Star Team Right Wing position behind Jágr and Bure. In 2000 and 2004, the Flyers would make the Eastern Conference Finals, but they would bow out of each series in seven games.  In 2000, Recchi was named \"Kamloops Male Athlete of the 20th Century\", and had a street named \"Mark Recchi Way\" in his honour.  In August 2004, Recchi rejoined the Pittsburgh Penguins as a free agent, signing a two-year contract with a two-way option for a third year. The first year was eventually nullified by the NHL lock-out; in the second year, with the Penguins languishing at the bottom of the NHL standings, Recchi waived his no-trade clause to be sent to the Stanley Cup-contending Carolina Hurricanes at the deadline for minor-league forward Krys Kolanos, left wing Niklas Nordgren and a 2007 second-round pick. Recchi won his second Stanley Cup with the Hurricanes that season, then re-signed with the Penguins during the summer of 2006 off-season. On January 20, 2007, he scored his seventh career hat-trick (against the Toronto Maple Leafs), and just under a week later, Recchi scored his 500th career goal on January 26, 2007, on the power play against the Dallas Stars.  During the summer of 2007, Recchi re-signed with the Pittsburgh Penguins on a one-year, $2 million contract, but on December 4, he was placed on waivers and assigned to their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins, on December 6. The Penguins then placed Recchi on re-entry waivers the next day, where Recchi was claimed by the Atlanta Thrashers. In his first game against his former team, he scored the game-winning goal in a shootout.  On July 7, 2008, Recchi signed a one-year deal as a free agent with the Tampa Bay Lightning. After scoring 45 points in 62 games with the Lightning in the 2008–09 season, and with the Lightning out of playoff contention, on March 4, 2009, Recchi was traded at the trade deadline (along with a second-round pick in 2010) to the Boston Bruins in exchange for Mārtiņš Karsums and Matt Lashoff. Recchi scored his first two goals for the Bruins three days later on March 7, as the first and third Bruins goals in a 5–3 home ice defeat of the visiting Chicago Blackhawks. On July 2, 2009, Recchi re-signed with the Bruins on a one-year contract. At the time, Recchi had stated that the 2009–10 season would be his final year. With the retirement of Joe Sakic in the summer of 2009, Recchi became the leader in points and assists among active players. Recchi would serve as an alternate captain during the season while Marc Savard was injured and out of the line-up, playing 81 of 82 games in the 2009–10 season.  During the 2010 playoffs, Recchi became the third-oldest player to score a playoff goal, behind Chris Chelios and Gordie Howe, and also became the oldest player to have a multi-goal game in the playoffs when he scored two goals in a 5–4 overtime loss to the Philadelphia Flyers in Game 4 of the second round. After suffering defeat in the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Flyers, instead of retiring, Recchi re-signed with the Bruins for a one more year.  In the 2010–11 season on November 24, 2010, Recchi scored twice against the Florida Panthers to earn his 1,500th career point.  In Game 2 of the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals, Recchi became the oldest ever player to score a goal in a Stanley Cup Final, doing so at age 43.  Having previously announced he would \"sail off into the sunset\" if Boston were victorious in the 2011 Stanley Cup Final, he announced his retirement in an interview with Ron MacLean of \"Hockey Night in Canada\" during the post-game Stanley Cup celebration. Recchi was the last player active in professional hockey who had played in the NHL in the 1980s, finishing his career fourth all-time in games played and 12th all-time in points.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-retirement.", "content": "Recchi is a co-owner of the Kamloops Blazers, along with Dallas Stars owner Tom Gaglardi and Jarome Iginla, Shane Doan and Darryl Sydor.  In 2013, Recchi joined the Dallas Stars as a consultant along with former Stars Mike Modano and Marty Turco.  On July 18, 2014, Recchi was hired as the Pittsburgh Penguins' player development coach. He was a part of the 2016 and 2017 Stanley Cup champion teams. He was subsequently promoted to director of player development on June 15, 2017. He was named the assistant coach on July 11, 2017, following the departure of Rick Tocchet, who was named the head coach of the Arizona Coyotes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Mark Recchi was born on February 1, 1968, to Mel and Ruth Recchi in Kamloops, British Columbia. Mark has three brothers: Marty, Mike and Matt.  Recchi married Kim Lazur on August 20, 2016, and they have two children together. Recchi has six children in total, four from a previous marriage. The children's names are: Christina, Bella, Samantha, Brendan, Cameron and Austin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mark Louis Recchi (born February 1, 1968) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player and a current assistant coach for the Pittsburgh Penguins of the National Hockey League (NHL). Recchi played 22 years in the NHL, winning three Stanley Cups: in 1991 with the Pittsburgh Penguins, in 2006 with the Carolina Hurricanes and in 2011 with the Boston Bruins. In Game 2 of the 2011 Finals, at the age of 43, Recchi became the oldest player ever to score in a Stanley Cup Finals series.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974351}
{"src_title": "Letizia Ramolino", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "She was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, Republic of Genoa, the daughter of \"Nobile\" Giovanni Geronimo Ramolino (13 April 1723 – 1755), Captain of Corsican Regiments of Chivalry and Infantry in the Army of the Republic of Genoa, and his wife \"Nobile\" Angela Maria Pietrasanta (circa 1725–1790). The distant cousins of the Ramolinos were a low rank of nobility in the Republic of Genoa.  Like most such girls in the 18th century, Letizia was educated at home. After the death of her father, her mother remarried the Swiss-born naval officer Franz Fesch, a captain in the service of the Republic of Genoa stationed on Corsica, and gave birth to two children, among them her half-brother Joseph Fesch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 2/7 June 1764, when she was thirteen, Letizia married the trainee attorney Carlo Buonaparte, himself only seventeen, at Ajaccio. First pregnant a few months later, she went on to give birth to thirteen children, eight of whom survived infancy, and most of whom were created monarchs by Napoleon.  Letizia and her husband Carlo befriended the island's governor, Charles Louis de Marbeuf, and the intendant, Bertrand de Boucheporn, whose wife was the godmother of their son Louis (1778), the future king of Holland. These friendships might have helped to have Napoleon admitted to the Brienne cadet school (1779).  She was described as a harsh mother, and had a very down-to-earth view of most things. When most European mothers bathed children perhaps once a month, she had her children bathed every other day. Letizia spoke Italian and Corsican, and never learned French.  In 1785, when she was 35, her husband died of cancer. In 1793, she left Corsica and resettled with her children in Marseilles in France, where her son Napoleon had a successful military career and eventually took power.  Described as frugal and with simple tastes, she did not approve of her son's marriage to the extravagant Joséphine de Beauharnais in 1796.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign of Napoleon.", "content": "In 1804, her son Napoleon declared himself Emperor. Despite being depicted in the famous painting of the coronation of Napoleon by David, she did not attend her son's coronation. By decree, she was decreed \"Madam, the Mother of His Imperial Majesty The Emperor\" (\"Madame Mère de l'Empereur\"), Imperial Highness, on 18 May 1804 or 23 March 1805. When she was congratulated on her son's ascension to the throne, she replied, \"Let's hope that it lasts.\" Napoleon paid her 25,000 francs a month.  She did not attend the Imperial court and normally lived at the Chateau de Pont-sur-Seine, residing at the Hotel de Brienne on the rare occasions when she did visit Paris.  In 1814, she shared Napoleon's exile in Elba, where he treated her fondly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After 1815 she moved to Rome, in Palazzo D'Aste-Bonaparte in piazza Venezia, where she lived out her days with her younger brother Joseph Fesch. During her years in Rome, she rarely saw any other family members than her brother, who rarely left her. For a time the painter Anna Barbara Bansi served as her companion.  She died of old age in 1836, aged 85, three weeks before the 51st anniversary of her husband's death. By then she was nearly blind and had outlived her most famous son Napoleon by 15 years.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nob. Maria Letizia Buonaparte, \"née\" Ramolino (Marie-Lætitia Ramolino, Madame Mère de l'Empereur; 24 August 1750 – 2 February 1836), was an Italian noblewoman, mother of Napoleon I of France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974352}
{"src_title": "Palace of Culture and Science", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The building was originally known as the Joseph Stalin's Palace of Culture and Science (\"Pałac Kultury i Nauki imienia Józefa Stalina\"), but in the wake of destalinization the dedication to Stalin was revoked. Stalin's name was removed from the colonnade, interior lobby and one of the building's sculptures.  Some Varsovians still commonly use nicknames to refer to the palace, notably \"Peking\", because of its abbreviated name \"PKiN\"), and \"Pajac\" (\"clown\", a word that sounds close to \"Pałac\"). Other less common names include \"Stalin's syringe\", the \"Elephant in Lacy Underwear\", \"Russian Wedding Cake\", or even \"Chuj Stalina\" (\"Stalin's Dick\"). A popular saying among some of the locals has surfaced in the past few decades which insinuates that the Palace's observation deck has the city's \"best view because it’s the only place in Warsaw with no view of the building\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Construction started in 1952 and lasted until 1955. A gift from the Soviet Union to the people of Poland, the tower was constructed, using Soviet plans, by 3,500 to 5,000 Soviet workers and 4,000 Polish workers. Sixteen workers died in accidents during the construction. The builders were housed at a new suburban complex built at Poland's expense, with its own cinema, food court, community centre and swimming pool, called Osiedle \"Przyjaźni\" (Neighborhood of Friendship). The architecture of the building is closely related to several similar skyscrapers built in the Soviet Union of the same era, most notably the Main building of Moscow State University. However, the main architect Lev Rudnev incorporated some Polish architectural details into the project after traveling around Poland and seeing the architecture. The monumental walls are headed with pieces of masonry copied from Renaissance houses and palaces of Kraków and Zamość.  Shortly after opening, the building hosted the 5th World Festival of Youth and Students. Many visiting dignitaries toured the Palace, and it also hosted performances by notable international artists, such as a 1967 concert by The Rolling Stones, the first by a major western rock group behind the Iron Curtain. In 1985, it hosted the historic Leonard Cohen concert, surrounded by many political expectations, which were avoided by Cohen in his prolonged introductions during the three-hour show.  Four clock faces were added to the top of the building ahead of the millennium celebrations in 2000.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Present day.", "content": "The building currently serves as an exhibition centre and office complex. The Palace contains a multiplex cinema with eight screens, four theatres (Studio, Dramatyczny, Lalka and 6. piętro), two museums (Museum of Evolution and Museum of Technology), offices, bookshops, a large swimming pool, an auditorium hall for 3,000 people called Congress Hall, and an accredited university, Collegium Civitas, on the 11th and 12th floors of the building. The terrace on the 30th floor, at, is a well-known tourist attraction with a panoramic view of the city.  The Congress Hall held the finals of Miss World 2006.  In 2010, the illumination of the building was modernized and high-power LED lights were installed, allowing the Palace to take various colours at night. The first use of the new lighting was during Christmas in 2010, when the Palace was illuminated in green and white to resemble a Christmas tree. In December 2013, during the Euromaidan protests, it was illuminated in yellow and blue, the colours of the Ukrainian national flag as a sign of solidarity with the protesters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "The Palace of Culture and Science is a highly controversial building for some, and is often viewed as a reminder of Soviet influence over the Polish People's Republic, especially due to its construction during mass violations of human rights under Joseph Stalin. A coalition of veteran and nationalist groups in Poland as well as numerous right-wing political parties have called for its demolition. In 2009, then Foreign Minister Radoslaw Sikorski supported the demolition of the Palace noting the expense involved in its maintenance. Other prominent government leaders have continued to endorse demolition plans, including current Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki. However, others reject the idea noting that the Palace itself had become one of the symbolic icons of Warsaw and a building representing the city's rebirth from post-war rubble.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Palace of Culture and Science (; abbreviated PKiN), is a notable high-rise building in central Warsaw, Poland. With a total height of it is the tallest building in Poland, the 5th-tallest building in the European Union (including spire) and one of the tallest on the European continent. Constructed in 1955, it houses various public and cultural institutions such as cinemas, theatres, libraries, sports clubs, university faculties and authorities of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Since 2007 it has been enlisted in the Registry of Objects of Cultural Heritage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974353}
{"src_title": "Lithops", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Individual \"Lithops\" plants consist of one or more pairs of bulbous, almost fused leaves opposite to each other and hardly any stem. The slit between the leaves contains the meristem and produces flowers and new leaves. The leaves of \"Lithops\" are mostly buried below the surface of the soil, with a partially or completely translucent top surface known as a leaf window which allows light to enter the interior of the leaves for photosynthesis.  During winter a new leaf pair, or occasionally more than one, grows inside the existing fused leaf pair. In spring the old leaf pair parts to reveal the new leaves and the old leaves will then dry up. \"Lithops\" leaves may shrink and disappear below ground level during drought. Lithops in habitat almost never have more than one leaf pair per head, presumably as an adaptation to the arid environment. Yellow or white flowers emerge from the fissure between the leaves after the new leaf pair has fully matured, one per leaf pair. This is usually in autumn, but can be before the summer solstice in \"L. pseudotruncatella\" and after the winter solstice in \"L. optica\". The flowers are often sweetly scented.  The most startling adaptation of \"Lithops\" is the colouring of the leaves. The leaves are fenestrated, and the epidermal windows are patterned in various shades of cream, grey, and brown, with darker windowed areas, dots, and red lines, according to species and local conditions. The markings function as remarkable camouflage for the plant in its typical stone-like environment. As is typical of a window plant, the green tissue lines the inside of the leaves and is covered with translucent tissue beneath the epidermal windows.  \"Lithops\" are obligate outcrossers and require pollination from a separate plant. Like most mesembs, Lithops fruit is a dry capsule that opens when it becomes wet; some seeds may be ejected by falling raindrops, and the capsule re-closes when it dries out. Capsules may also sometimes detach and be distributed intact, or may disintegrate after several years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Lithops\" occur naturally across wide areas of Namibia and South Africa, as well as small bordering areas in Botswana and possibly Angola, from sea level to high mountains. Nearly a thousand individual populations are documented, each covering just a small area of dry grassland, veld, or bare rocky ground. Different \"Lithops\" species are preferentially found in particular environments, usually restricted to a particular type of rock. \"Lithops\" have not naturalised outside this region.  Rainfall in \"Lithops\" habitats ranges from approximately 700 mm/year to near zero. Rainfall patterns range from exclusively summer rain to exclusively winter rain, with a few species relying almost entirely on dew formation for moisture. Temperatures are usually hot in summer and cool to cold in winter, but one species is found right at the coast with very moderate temperatures year round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Lithops\" are popular house plants and many specialist succulent growers maintain collections. Seeds and plants are widely available in shops and over the Internet. They are relatively easy to grow if given sufficient sun and a suitable well-drained soil.  Normal treatment in mild temperate climates is to keep them completely dry during winter, watering only when the old leaves have dried up and been replaced by a new leaf pair. Watering continues through autumn when the plants flower and then stopped for winter. The best results are obtained with additional heat such as a greenhouse. In hotter climates \"Lithops\" will have a summer dormancy when they should be kept mostly dry, and they may require some water in winter. In tropical climates, \"Lithops\" can be grown primarily in winter with a long summer dormancy. In all conditions, \"Lithops\" will be most active and need most water during autumn and each species will flower at approximately the same time.  \"Lithops\" thrive best in a coarse, well-drained substrate. Any soil that retains too much water will cause the plants to burst their skins as they over-expand. Plants grown in strong light will develop hard strongly coloured skins which are resistant to damage and rot, although persistent overwatering will still be fatal. Excessive heat will kill potted plants as they cannot cool themselves by transpiration and rely on staying buried in cool soil below the surface. Commercial growers mix a mild fungicide or weak strength horticultural sulfur into the plant's water to prevent rotting. Lithops are sensitive to watering during hot weather, which can cause the plants to rot; in habitat the plants are often dormant when the temperatures are high, doing most of their growing during the cool months of the year. Low light levels will make the plants highly susceptible to rotting and fungal infection.  In the United Kingdom the following species have gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit:-", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Propagation.", "content": "Propagation of \"Lithops\" is by seed or cuttings. Cuttings can only be used to produce new plants after a plant has naturally divided to form multiple heads, so most propagation is by seed. \"Lithops\" can readily be pollinated by hand if two separate clones of a species flower at the same time, and seed will be ripe about 9 months later. Seed is easy to germinate, but the seedlings are small and vulnerable for the first year or two, and will not flower until at least two or three years old.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first scientific description of a \"Lithops\" was made by botanist and artist William John Burchell, explorer of South Africa, although he called it \"Mesembryanthemum turbiniforme\". In 1811 he accidentally found a specimen when picking up from the ground a \"curiously shaped pebble\". Unfortunately his description is not detailed enough to be sure which \"Lithops\" he had discovered and the name \"Lithops turbiniformis\" is no longer used, although for many years it was applied to what is now known as \"Lithops hookeri\".  Several more \"Lithops\" were published as \"Mesembryanthemum\" species until in 1922 N E Brown started to split up the overly large genus on the basis of the capsules. The genus \"Lithops\" was created and dozens more species were published in the following decades. Brown, Gustav Schwantes, Kurt Dinter, Gert Nel, and Louisa Bolus continued to document \"Lithops\" from across southern Africa, but there was little consensus on the relationships between them, or even which populations should be grouped as species. As recently as the 1950s, the genus was little known in cultivation and not well understood taxonomically.  In the 1950s, Desmond and Naureen Cole began to study \"Lithops\". They eventually visited nearly all habitat populations and collected samples from approximately 400, identifying them with the Cole numbers which have been used ever since and distributing Cole numbered seed around the world. They studied and revised the genus, in 1988 publishing a definitive book (Lithops: Flowering Stones) describing the species, subspecies, and varieties which have been accepted ever since.  Because their camouflage is so effective, new species continue to be discovered, sometimes in remote regions of Namibia and South Africa, and sometimes in well-populated areas where they simply had been overlooked for generations. Recent discoveries include \"L. coleorum\" in 1994, \"L. hermetica\" in 2000, and \"L. amicorum\" in 2006.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Many of the species listed have named subspecies or varieties and some have many regional forms identified by old names or habitat locations. Identification of species is primarily by flower colour and leaf patterns.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lithops is a genus of succulent plants in the ice plant family, Aizoaceae. Members of the genus are native to southern Africa. The name is derived from the Ancient Greek words λίθος (\"lithos\"), meaning \"stone,\" and ὄψ (\"ops\"), meaning \"face,\" referring to the stone-like appearance of the plants. They avoid being eaten by blending in with surrounding rocks and are often known as pebble plants or living stones. The formation of the name from the Greek \"-ops\" means that even a single plant is called a Lithops.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974354}
{"src_title": "Ascender (climbing)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Use.", "content": "Ascenders are usually used in pairs, and offer similar functionality to friction knots, but are faster, safer and easier to use, albeit still with consequences in weight and in security (as ascenders can, even with a locking carabiner, come off the rope, and fail by shredding the rope at high loads, rather than slipping and fusing as with friction knots). A mechanical ascender employs a cam which allows the device to slide freely in the intended direction of movement, but provide a firm grip on the rope when pulled in the opposite direction. To prevent an ascender from accidentally coming off the rope, a locking mechanism or trigger is deployed. The ascender is first attached to the climber's harness by a piece of webbing or sling, and then is clipped onto the rope and locked on.  Ascenders are usually used in pairs, so that one is free to be slid up the rope whilst the other bears the weight of the climber. The ascender which has just been slid upwards is then made to take the climbers load, so locking him to the rope, and freeing the other one so it, too, can then be slid upwards too. The process is then repeated to ascend the rope.  For climbing on with a fixed rope attached for security (for example, to snow anchors on a steep slope) only one ascender is used, keeping the other hand free for holding an ice axe.  Ascenders are not typically used on free climbing routes, where a climber uses his or her hands and feet on the rock, climbing the features, edges, cracks, and pockets that the route provides without artificial aids. Instead, they are more likely to be used in aid climbing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jumar.", "content": "One such ascender device is a jumar, named for its manufacturer Jümar Pangit, a company in turn named after jumar inventors Adolph Jüsi and Walter Marti. The first iteration of the tool was sold in 1958. The device's name also engendered the verb \"to jumar\" for the process of using such a device. In jumaring, the second climber (the one who belays the lead climber on the route) uses ascenders to climb the rope instead of climbing directly on the rock. Other terms for this process include ascending and jugging. This process is similar to prusiking, except using an ascender device instead of friction knots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Non-mechanical devices.", "content": "In place of mechanical ascenders, one or more thin rope slings (or prusik loops) may be used which can be slid along the thicker climbing rope when not under tension. These friction knots will lock under load to enable the climber to use the strength of their leg to step up and ascend the rope. Prusik knots are much lighter, but are not capable of taking a dynamic load, such as arresting a falling climber, because they are prone to melting or fusing under such extreme forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Single-rope technique.", "content": "In caving, ascending a rope by means of mechanical devices is often necessary and is the main alternative to ladder use. This is termed Single-rope technique. The rock which forms the cave is often wet, slippery, relatively featureless and often unreachable from the necessary rope locations. So climbing the rope may well be preferable to climbing the rock or a ladder, provided that a belay location that provides an ascent has already been found. Although climbers may regard a climb as a challenge to be tackled with minimal aids, cavers are likely to consider it as an obstacle to their progress to be overcome as conveniently as possible, and are more inclined to make use of mechanical ascenders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first mechanical rope ascending devices were created by Henri Brenot, and were used in France both for mountaineering and caving as early as 1934.  Jümar Pangit, a Swiss manufacturer located then in Reichenbach (Switzerland), was founded by Adolph Jüsi and Walter Marti. Jüsi was studying eagles for the Swiss government and needed to ascend on ropes in order to perform his work, so Marti developed the ascender for him. In 1958, the first jumar was introduced to the climbing market. This page (archived) gives an overview on the older jumar models. A current model is still in production.  French caver Fernand Petzl developed a mechanical rope ascender in 1968, and his company Petzl continues to produce both handled and handleless models that are popular with mountaineers and cavers today.  Other countries, notably the United States, have also produced rope ascenders. Other names for different styles of ascenders include 'ropeman' and 'tibloc'.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An ascender is a device (usually mechanical) used for directly ascending a rope, or for facilitating protection with a fixed rope when climbing on very steep mountain terrain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974355}
{"src_title": "Muslim Magomayev (musician)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Muslim Magomayev represented one of the most respected artistic dynasties in Azerbaijan. His grandfather Muslim Magomayev (1885–1937), a friend and contemporary of the prominent Azerbaijani composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov, was one of the founders of modern Azerbaijani classical music. Magomayev's father, Mahammad Magomayev, who died two days prior to the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II while serving as a soldier in the Soviet Army, was a gifted scenic designer; and his mother, Aishet Kinzhalova, was an actress, who deserted him with his grandmother when he was less than a year old. Magomayev's father was of mixed origin whose parents moved to Azerbaijan from Chechnya and Georgia respectively, whereas his Adyghean-born mother was of mixed Turkish, Adyghe and Russian descent. However, when asked about his ethnicity, Magomayev considered himself Azerbaijani.  Abandoned by his mother after his father's death, Magomayev was raised by his paternal grandmother. He learned to play the piano as a child, and began to take voice lessons at the age of 14. As a teenager, he became interested in Italian songs, American jazz, and other styles of popular music. He majored in piano and composition at the Baku Conservatoire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical career.", "content": "He was 19 when he first performed at an international youth music festival in Helsinki. His performance was noted by Yekaterina Furtseva, then Minister of Culture of the Soviet Union, who offered him to be a soloist at the Bolshoi Theatre. Magomayev declined the offer. In 1962, at the age of 20, Magomayev first appeared in Moscow where he performed during the Days of Azerbaijani Culture. He sang an aria from Gounod’s Faust, and the song \"Do the Russians Want War?\" in a gala concert at the Kremlin Palace of Congresses, and became a celebrity on the spot. A year later, he gave his first solo concert in the Moscow Tchaikovsky Concert Hall to a full house and became a soloist of the Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre. Muslim earned fame in the USSR as an opera singer with his performance in Rossini's \"Barber of Seville\". He also became known for his arias from Puccini's \"Tosca\", Hajibeyov's \"Koroghlu\" and \"Shah Ismayil\", which was composed by his grandfather.  In 1964 and 1965, Muslim was a visiting artist at La Scala in Milan, but turned down the invitation to sing in the Moscow Bolshoi Theater upon his return. Instead, the singer turned to popular music, becoming a pop idol for several generations of music lovers in the Soviet Union. Muslim Magomayev's popularity in the USSR was overwhelming. He quickly became a cult figure and gave three concerts a day filling huge arenas all across the Soviet Union, while his albums sold millions.  In 1966 and 1969, Magomayev performed in Paris Olympia with great success. The director of Olympia Bruno Coquatrix offered him a contract, and Magomayev was seriously considering an opportunity to pursue an international career, but Yekaterina Furtseva refused to grant the Ministry of Culture's permission, claiming that it needed Magomayev to perform at government concerts. In 1969 he received the MIDEM Gold Disc Award in Cannes for album sales of over 4.5 million units. In 1973, at the age of 31, Muslim was awarded the Soviet Union's highest artistic title: People's Artist of the USSR.  Magomayev moved to Moscow in the early 1970s. He became the art director of the Azerbaijan State Bandstand-Symphonic Orchestra in 1975 and toured in Italy, France, Bulgaria, Finland, Canada, United States, Cuba and other countries.  Magomayev was also known as a composer, writing several film soundtracks and songs. In addition, Magomayev acted in films and hosted television and radio broadcasts devoted to prominent musicians of the 20th century.  Magomayev was an influence on many important Soviet musical figures including Alla Pugacheva, who often spoke fondly of him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Magomayev married when he was 19, to Ofelia Veliyeva, but the union did not last a year. His daughter from that first marriage, Marina, lives in the United States. He eventually remarried, this time to the opera singer Tamara Sinyavskaya.  In later life, Magomayev struggled with a serious heart condition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In the early 2000s, Magomayev officially stopped his musical career and gave only a few performances, together with his wife. He died on 25 October 2008 in his flat in Moscow from a heart attack. He was buried in the Alley of Honor in his native city of Baku, next to his grandfather, on 29 October. The funeral ceremony was attended by Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev, Magomayev's widow Tamara Sinyavskaya, his daughter Marina, as well as state officials and international delegations. Thousands of people came to pay a final tribute to the singer.  In 1997, a minor planet of the solar system, 4980 Magomaev, was named in his honor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Muslim Magometovich Magomayev (Azerbaijani: \"Müslüm Məhəmməd oğlu Maqomayev\", 17 August 1942 – 25 October 2008), dubbed the \"King of Songs\" and the \"Soviet Sinatra\" was a Soviet Azerbajiani baritone operatic pop singer. He achieved iconic status in Russia and the post-Soviet countries for his vocal talent and charisma.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974356}
{"src_title": "Expanding Earth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Different forms of the hypothesis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansion with constant mass.", "content": "In 1834, during the second voyage of HMS \"Beagle\", Charles Darwin investigated stepped plains featuring raised beaches in Patagonia which indicated to him that a huge area of South America had been \"uplifted to its present height by a succession of elevations which acted over the whole of this space with nearly an equal force.\" While his mentor Charles Lyell had suggested forces acting near the crust on smaller areas, Darwin hypothesized that uplift at this continental scale required \"the gradual expansion of some central mass\" [of the earth] \"acting by intervals on the outer crust\" with the \"elevations being concentric with form of globe (or certainly nearly so)\". In 1835 he extended this concept to include the Andes as part of a curved enlargement of the earth's crust due to \"the action of one connected force\". Not long afterwards, he moved on from this idea and proposed that as mountains rose, the ocean floor subsided, explaining the formation of coral reefs.  In 1889 and 1909 Roberto Mantovani published a hypothesis of Earth expansion and continental drift. He assumed that a closed continent covered the entire surface of a smaller Earth. Thermal expansion led to volcanic activity, which broke the land mass into smaller continents. These continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion at the rip-zones, where oceans currently lie. Although Alfred Wegener noticed some similarities to his own hypothesis of continental drift, he did not mention Earth expansion as the cause of drift in Mantovani's hypothesis.  A compromise between Earth-expansion and Earth-contraction is the \"theory of thermal cycles\" by Irish physicist John Joly. He assumed that heat flow from radioactive decay inside Earth surpasses the cooling of Earth's exterior. Together with British geologist Arthur Holmes, Joly proposed a hypothesis in which Earth loses its heat by cyclic periods of expansion. In their hypothesis, expansion led to cracks and joints in Earth's interior, that could fill with magma. This was followed by a cooling phase, where the magma would freeze and become solid rock again, causing Earth to shrink.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mass addition.", "content": "In 1888 Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky suggested that some sort of aether is absorbed within Earth and transformed into new chemical elements, forcing the celestial bodies to expand. This was connected with his mechanical explanation of gravitation. Also the theses of Ott Christoph Hilgenberg (1933, 1974) and Nikola Tesla (1935) were based on absorption and transformation of aether-energy into normal matter.  After initially supporting continental drift, the late Australian geologist S. Warren Carey advocated expansion from the 1950s (before the development of plate tectonics provided the generally accepted explanation of the movement of continents) to his death, demonstrating that subduction and other events could not balance the sea-floor spreading at oceanic ridges, and piling yet unresolved paradoxes that continue to plague plate tectonics. Starting in 1956, he proposed some sort of mass increase in the planets and said that a final solution to the problem is only possible in a cosmological perspective in connection with the expansion of the universe.  Bruce Heezen initially interpreted his work on the mid-Atlantic ridge as supporting S. Warren Carey's Expanding Earth Theory, but later withdrew his support, finally convinced by the data and analysis of his assistant, Marie Tharp. The remaining proponents after the 1970s, like the Australian geologist James Maxlow, are mainly inspired by Carey's ideas.  In the last few decades, no credible mechanism of action has been proposed for this addition of new mass, and there is no credible evidence for new mass having been added in the past. The increased gravity of Earth would have altered the orbits of the celestial objects in the Solar System, including Moon's orbit and Earth's own orbit; proponents have no adequate explanation to address this problem. This is a big obstacle for acceptance of the theory by other geologists.  It is a well known fact that the earth is constantly acquiring mass through accumulation of rocks and dust from space, as are all other planetary bodies in our system. According to NASA, \"Every day about 100 tons of meteoroids -- fragments of dust and gravel and sometimes even big rocks – enter the Earth's atmosphere.\" The majority of this debris burns up in the atmosphere and lands as dust. Such accretion, however, is only a minuscule fraction of the mass increase required by the expanding Earth hypothesis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decrease of the gravitational constant.", "content": "Paul Dirac suggested in 1938 that the universal gravitational constant had \"decreased\" in the billions of years of its existence. This led German physicist Pascual Jordan to a modification of general relativity and to propose in 1964 that all planets slowly expand. Contrary to most of the other explanations this one was at least within the framework of physics considered as a viable hypothesis.  Measurements of a possible variation of the gravitational constant showed an upper limit for a relative change of per year, excluding Jordan's idea.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Formation from a gas giant.", "content": "According to the hypothesis of J. Marvin Herndon (2005, 2013) the Earth originated in its protoplanetary stage from a Jupiter-like gas giant. During development phases of the young Sun, which resembled to those of a T Tauri star, the dense atmosphere of the gas giant was stripped off by infrared eruptions from the sun. The remnant was a rocky planet. Due to the loss of pressure from its atmosphere would have begun a progressive decompression. Herndon regards the energy released due to the lack of compression as a primary energy source for geotectonic activity, to which some energy from radioactive decomposition processes was added. He calls the resulting changes in the course of Earth's history by the name of his theory \"Whole-Earth Decompression Dynamics\". He considered the seafloor spreading at divergent plate boundaries as an effect of it. In his opinion mantle convection used as concept in the theory of plate tectonics is physically impossible. His theory includes the effect of solar wind (geomagnetic storms) as cause for the reversals of the Earth magnetic field. The question of mass increase is not addressed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Main arguments against Earth expansion.", "content": "The hypothesis had never developed a plausible and verifiable mechanism of action. During the 1960s, the theory of plate tectonics—initially based on the assumption that Earth's size remains constant, and relating the subduction zones to burying of lithosphere at a scale comparable to seafloor spreading—became the accepted explanation in the Earth Sciences.  The scientific community finds that significant evidence contradicts the Expanding Earth theory, and that evidence used in support of it is better explained by plate tectonics:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The expanding Earth or growing Earth hypothesis asserts that the position and relative movement of continents is at least partially due to the volume of Earth increasing. Conversely, geophysical global cooling was the hypothesis that various features could be explained by Earth contracting.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974357}
{"src_title": "Renault 19", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The R19 was presented in June 1988, with sales in the domestic French market beginning in September 1988. It was the replacement for the 9 and 11, both of which were ageing and outdated by the end of the 1980s. The R19 went on sale in right hand drive form for the British market in February 1989.  The R19 was styled by Giorgetto Giugiaro, featuring Renault's new E-type (or \"Energy\") 1.4 L engine and F type 1.7 L versions. Base models originally used the OHV C-type Cléon 1.2 and 1.4 L engines, depending on the market. While originally only available with an atmospheric diesel engine, a turbocharged version appeared in the beginning of 1992.  Intended to be Renault's last numeric named car, the 19 ushered in a new naming policy, with the saloon versions of the 19 being known as the 19 Chamade, to distinguish them from the hatchbacks. The saloon version was launched in 1989.  In many markets, the Chamade badge was dropped following the facelift of 1992, with some replacing it with the \"Europa\" tag.  In 1991, a convertible bodystyle built by Karmann was first shown; few of these were built with the Phase I design, as it was facelifted shortly afterwards. Although the R19's exterior design (which was relatively conservative, like that of the Renault 9/11) received a muted response, it was praised for its interior comfort and handling.  For the fuel injected top versions, a four speed automatic transmission became available in the fall of 1990. Lesser versions still made do with four or five speed manuals, or a three speed automatic. A convertible version appeared in the beginning of 1992, only available with the two most powerful engine options.  In the summer of 1992, a revamped model was introduced with a substantially restyled front and rear, while LHD market versions received a new dashboard and interior — RHD models retained the original design.  With the facelift, smaller \"Energy\" series units gradually replaced the old pushrod items, and 1.8 litre engines appeared at the top of the lineup, where they replaced the more powerful 1.7 units (the F3N). The R19 was sold in most of Europe until 1996, and was produced for some South American markets in Argentina until 2000 and for the Andean markets in Colombia until 2001. Turkish production lasted a little longer than in the rest of Europe, also until the year 2000. The R19's platform and running gear would continue to be used in its replacement, the first generation Renault Mégane, which lasted for seven years.  The Renault 19 was awarded the 1989 Car of the Year in Spain and Germany, 1990 Car of the Year in Ireland, and 1993 Car of the Year in Argentina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "16S.", "content": "The Renault 19 16S (16V in some countries) was first shown towards the very end of 1988. It was only actually added to the lineup in the autumn of 1990, and was the only Renault 19 with a 16 valve engine. It had a distinctive air inlet on the bonnet, a rear spoiler, 15 inch Speedline SL401 alloy wheels, side skirts, twin headlamps, Recaro bucket seats with optional leather trim, four in one exhaust manifold and ABS braking system with optional trip computer, aircon and electric sunroof. The \"S\" is for \"Soupapes\", French for valves.  It was praised for its excellent handling and rev happy F7P engine, which, along with the advanced Renix ECU, made it faster and more fuel efficient compared to most competitors. The braking system was upgraded to include vented discs on the front and discs on the rear as well as an uprated lower suspension setup and front strut bar.  Phase 1 editions benefited from unique front and rear bumpers with front indicators relocated into the bumpers to allow for the twin headlamps, while the Phase 2 retained the original bumpers found throughout the range but added colour coded tops, rubber inserts, and a discreet lower splitter.  The very last models (1995 to 1996) were called Executive and came with leather interior as standard.  A 16S version was also produced in Europe which was equipped as above – however, the earliest models did not sport the bonnet vent. The Phase 2 models gear ratios were also revised, to allow for the extra weight found in the safety equipment the later models carried.  Renault claimed an acceleration from 0 to of 8.2 seconds. Each model boasted in a catalysed form and a top speed of. Phase I included a non catalysed version with.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Engines.", "content": "Only for model in South America", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Renault 19 is a small family car that was produced by the French car manufacturer Renault between 1988 and 1996. In Turkey and in Argentina, production continued until 2000. The internal development code for the 19 was X53, with the five door receiving the \"B53\" chassis code, the three door being the \"C53\", the Chamade the \"L53\", and the Cabriolet the \"D53\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974358}
{"src_title": "Wellington Koo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Born in Shanghai in 1888, Koo attended Saint John's University, Shanghai, and Columbia University, where he was a member of the Philolexian Society, a literary and debating club, and graduated with a B.A. in Liberal Arts (1908) and an M.A. in Political Science (1909). In 1912 he received his Ph.D. in international law and diplomacy from Columbia.  Koo returned to China in 1912 to serve the new Republic of China as English Secretary to President Yuan Shikai. In 1915, Koo was made China's Minister to the United States and Cuba. In 1919, he was a member of the Chinese delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, led by Foreign Minister Lu Zhengxiang (Lou Tseng-Tsiang). Before the Western powers and Japan, he demanded that Japan return Shandong to China. He also called for an end to imperialist institutions such as extraterritoriality, tariff controls, legation guards, and lease holds. The Western powers refused his claims and, consequently, the Chinese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference was the only nation that did not sign the Treaty of Versailles at the signing ceremony.  Koo also was involved in the formation of the League of Nations as China's first representative to the newly formed League. From 1922, Koo served successively as Foreign Minister and Finance Minister. He was twice Acting Premier, in 1924 and again in 1926 during a period of chaos in Beijing under Zhang Zuolin in 1926-7. Koo was Acting Premier from 1 October 1926 and acted concurrently as Interim President. (On 12 March 1925, Sun Yat-sen died in Wellington Koo's home in Beijing, where he had been taken when it was discovered he had incurable liver cancer.) He served as Premier from January until June 1927, when Zhang organised a military government and Koo resigned. After the Northern Expedition toppled the government in Beijing in 1928, he was briefly wanted for arrest by the new Nationalist government in Nanjing, but through Zhang Xueliang's mediation he was reconciled with the new government and returned to the diplomatic service. He represented China at the League of Nations to protest the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. He served as the Chinese Ambassador to France from 1936–1940 until France was occupied by Germany. Afterwards, he was the Chinese Ambassador to the Court of St James's until 1946. In 1945, Koo was one of the founding delegates of the United Nations. He later became the Chinese Ambassador to the United States and focused on maintaining the alliance between the Republic of China and the United States as the Kuomintang began losing to the Communists and had to retreat to Taiwan.  Koo retired from the Chinese diplomatic service in 1956. and in the same year he became a judge of the International Court of Justice in The Hague, and served as Vice-President of the Court during the final three years of his term. In 1967, he retired and moved to New York City, where he lived until his death in 1985.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1908, Koo married his first wife, Chang Jun-e (). They divorced prior to 1912.  Koo's second wife, Tang Pao-yueh \"May\" (; c. 1895–1918), was the youngest daughter of the former Chinese prime minister Tang Shaoyi and a first cousin of the painter and actress Mai-Mai Sze. Their marriage took place soon after Koo's return to China in 1912. She died in the US during the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic. They had two children: a son, Teh-chang Koo (1916–1998), and a daughter, Patricia Koo (1918-2015). Koo's third wife was the socialite and style icon Oei Hui-lan (1889–1992). She married Koo in Brussels, Belgium, in 1921. She was previously married, in 1909, to British consular agent Beauchamp Stoker, by whom she had one son, Lionel, before divorcing in 1920. Much admired for her adaptations of traditional Manchu fashion, which she wore with lace trousers and jade necklaces, Oei Hui-lan was the favorite daughter of \"Peranakan\" tycoon \"Majoor\" Oei Tiong Ham, and the heiress of a prominent family of the \"Cabang Atas\" or the Chinese gentry of colonial Indonesia. She wrote two memoirs: \"Hui-Lan Koo (Mrs. Wellington Koo): An Autobiography\" (written with Mary Van Rensselaer Thayer, Dial Press, 1945) and \"No Feast Lasts Forever\" (written with Isabella Taves, Quadrangle/The New York Times, 1975). Koo had two sons with her: Yu-chang Wellington Koo, Jr. (1922–1975) and Fu-chang Freeman Koo (1923–1977).  On 3 September 1959, Koo married his fourth wife Yen Yu-yun (1905–2017), the widow of Clarence Kuangson Young. He had three stepdaughters from this marriage: Genevieve (wife of American photographer and film director Gordon Parks), Shirley and Frances Loretta Young.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Koo lived long enough to see two of his sons die before him. He died surrounded by his family on the night of 14 November 1985, at the age of 97. Wellington Koo was survived by his fourth wife, two children, nineteen grandchildren and two great-grandchildren.  Dying older than both the 87-year old Qianlong Emperor, the 92-year old People's Republic paramount leader Deng Xiaoping and living Jiang Zemin, Koo holds the distinction of being the longest-lived person to ever lead China. Despite this, his last wife lived even longer than he did. His last wife Juliana Koo died aged 111.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vi Kyuin Wellington Koo (; 29 January 1888 – 14 November 1985) was a Chinese statesman of the Republic of China. He was one of China's representatives at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919; served as an ambassador to France, Great Britain and the United States; was a participant in the founding of the League of Nations and the United Nations; and sat as a judge on the International Court of Justice in The Hague from 1957 to 1967. Between October 1926 and June 1927, while serving as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Koo briefly held the concurrent positions of acting Premier and interim President of the Republic of China. Koo was the first and only Chinese head of state known to use a Western name publicly.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974359}
{"src_title": "Cornelis de Houtman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The voyage.", "content": "In 1592, De Houtman was sent by Amsterdam merchants to Lisbon to discover as much information on the Spice Islands as he could. Portugal and Spain, then united, had closed their ports to Dutch ships in 1585, in the context of the Eighty Years' War. Houtman spent about two years in Portugal; the Portuguese needed help and did not realize that the Dutch represented a risk. When Houtman returned to the Netherlands he brought with him precious information about the seas and lands of the East: the coasts, the reefs and skerries, the sea currents, the winds, landmarks, local birds, friendly and enemy foes and about the strengths and weaknesses of the Portuguese.  At the same time he returned to Amsterdam, Jan Huygen van Linschoten returned from India. The merchants determined that Bantam provided the best opportunity to buy spices. In 1594, the two merchants founded the Compagnie van Verre, and on 2 April 1595, four ships left Amsterdam: the,,, and the. The voyage was beset with trouble from the beginning. Scurvy broke out after only a few weeks, due to insufficient provisions. At Madagascar, where a brief stop was planned, seventy people had to be buried. The Madagascan bay where they were anchored is now known as the Dutch cemetery. After the death of one of the skippers, quarrels broke out among the captains and traders, one was imprisoned on board and locked up in his cabin. In June 1596, the ships finally arrived at Banten, a northwestern port at Java. Jan Huyghen van Linschoten had told them not to pass through the Malacca Strait, which was controlled by the Portuguese, but through Sunda Strait.  De Houtman was introduced to the Sultan of Banten, who promptly entered into an optimistic treaty with the Dutch, writing \"We are well content to have a permanent league of alliance and friendship with His Highness the Prince Maurice of Nassau, of the Netherlands and with you, gentlemen.\" The local Portuguese traders became very suspicious when De Houtman did not buy any black pepper, and wanted to wait on the next harvest. Unfortunately, De Houtman was undiplomatic and insulting to the sultan, and was turned away for \"rude behaviour\", without being able to buy spices at all.  The ships then sailed east to Madura, but were attacked by pirates on the way. In Madura, they were received peacefully, but De Houtman ordered his men to brutally attack and rape the civilian population in revenge for the unrelated earlier piracy.  The ships then sailed for Bali, and met with the island's king. They managed to obtain a few pots of peppercorns on 26 February 1597. Two of the crewmembers stayed on the island. At Bawean one of the ships, the \"Amsterdam\" was purposely set on fire, and the crew divided over the other three ships. When the sailors had enough of the exhausting voyage, it was decided not to go to the Moluccas and return to Holland. That evening another one of the skippers died. De Houtman was accused of poisoning him.  Portuguese ships prevented them from taking on water and supplies at Saint Helena. Out of the 249 men crew, only 87 returned, too weak to moor their ships themselves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Repercussions.", "content": "Though the trip was a humanitarian disaster and financially probably just broke even, it was a symbolic victory. It may be regarded as the start of the Dutch colonisation of Indonesia. Within five years, 65 more Dutch ships had sailed east to trade. Soon, the Dutch would fully take over the spice trade in and around the Indian Ocean.  On his second trip to the East, for a different company, De Houtman and his troops got into a confrontation in Aceh, because of his rude temperament, and soon there were fierce battles with the Acehnese Navy, led by Aceh's female admiral, Keumalahayati (Malahayati) who eventually managed to kill De Houtman. Because of that incident, Queen Elizabeth I of England decided to send an emissary to the Sultan of Aceh, asking permission to enter Malacca Strait.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cornelis de Houtman (2 April 1565 – 1 September 1599), brother of Frederick de Houtman, was a Dutch explorer who discovered a new sea route from Europe to the East Indies, and who thus begun the Dutch spice trade. At the time, the Portuguese Empire held a monopoly on the spice trade, and the voyage was a symbolic victory for the Dutch, even though the voyage itself was a disaster. Houtman was also a spy, having worked against the Portuguese by bringing back to the Netherlands privileged nautical information obtained during his stay in Portugal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974360}
{"src_title": "Karl Mack von Leiberich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Karl Leiberich was born at Nennslingen, in the Principality of Ansbach. In 1770 he joined an Austrian cavalry regiment, in which his uncle, Leiberich, was a squadron commander, becoming an officer seven years later. During the brief War of the Bavarian Succession he was selected for service on the staff of Count Kinsky, under whom, and subsequently under the commander-in-chief Field Marshal Count Lacy, he did excellent work. He was promoted first lieutenant in 1778, and captain on the quartermaster-general's staff in 1783. Count Lacy, then the foremost soldier of the Austrian army, had the highest opinion of his young assistant. In 1785 Mack married Katherine Gabrieul, and was ennobled under the name of Mack von Leiberich.  In the Turkish War he was employed on the headquarters staff, becoming in 1788 major and personal aide-de-camp to the emperor, Joseph II and in 1789 was promoted to lieutenant colonel. He distinguished himself in the storming of Belgrade in 1789. Shortly after this, disagreements between Mack and Ernst Gideon von Laudon, now commander-in-chief, led to the former demanding a court-martial; Mack left the front but received a colonelcy (1789) and the Order of Maria Theresa. In 1790 Laudon and Mack, reconciled, were again on the field together. During these campaigns Mack received a severe head injury from which he never fully recovered. In 1793 he was made quartermaster-general (chief of staff) to Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg, commanding in the Netherlands and he enhanced his reputation by the ensuing campaign. The young Archduke Charles of Austria, who won his own first laurels in the action of March 1, 1793, wrote after the battle, \"Above all we have to thank Colonel Mack for these successes\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French Revolutionary Wars.", "content": "Mack distinguished himself again on the field of Neerwinden and had a leading part in the negotiations between Coburg and Dumouriez. He continued to serve as quartermaster-general, and was now made titular chief (\"Inhaber\") of a cuirassier regiment. He received a wound at Famars, but in 1794 was once more engaged in active service, having at last been made a major-general. But the failure of the coalition allies, due though it was to political and military factors and ideas, over which Mack had no control, was ascribed to him, as their successes of March–April 1793 had been, and he subsequently fell into disfavour in military circles. The Emperor, now Francis II, remained his supporter and in 1797 Mack was promoted Feldmarschall-leutnant, and in the following year he accepted, at the personal request of the emperor, the command of the Neapolitan army. He could do nothing with the unpromising material of his new command against the French revolutionary troops, and before long, being in actual danger of being murdered by his men, he took refuge in the French camp. Initially, he was promised a free pass to his own country, but Napoleon ordered that he should be sent to France as a prisoner of war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War of the Third Coalition.", "content": "Two years later he escaped from Paris in disguise. There were allegations that he broke his parole, a severe allegation that reflected on his honor as a gentleman and an officer (in the opinion of the anonymous author of his biography in the 1911 Eleventh edition of Encyclopædia Britannica this allegation was false).  He was not employed for some years, but in 1804, when the war party in the Austrian court needed a general to oppose the peace policy of the Archduke Charles, Mack was made quartermaster-general of the army, with instructions to prepare for a war with France. He did all that was possible within the available time to reform the army, and on the opening of the war of 1805 he became quartermaster-general to the titular commander-in-chief in Germany, the Archduke Ferdinand Karl Joseph of Austria-Este, who was himself inexperienced in military command. Consequently, Mack held the real responsible commander of the army that opposed Napoleon in Bavaria, but his position was ill-defined and his authority treated with minimal respect by the other general officers. Furthermore, the restructuring of the Habsburg military had been incomplete; Mack chose to initiate some of Charles' innovations, while ignoring others. His own insecurities and vagaries did not encourage the confidence of the staff; in the campaigning that led up to the Battle of Ulm, Mack's frequent reversals of Viennese policy, and even his own decisions, further undermined an already fragile command structure.  At Ulm in October 1805, he surrendered the entire army to Napoleon. A few of his officers, including Prince von Schwarzenberg, broke through the French defenses in a massed cavalry charge and escaped, but most of the Austrian high command was captured with 25,000 men, 18 generals, 65 guns, and 40 standards. The general officers received a parole that required them to abstain from combat with France, removing the bulk of Habsburg commanders from the possibility of service in the upcoming campaign of the Upper Danube.  After Austerlitz, Mack was convicted of cowardice by a court-martial. He was deprived of his rank, his regiment, and his honors, chiefly the Order of Maria Theresa, and imprisoned for two years. Upon his release in 1808, he lived in relative obscurity until 1819, when the ultimate victory of the allies had obliterated the memory of earlier disasters, he was, at the request of Prince Schwarzenberg, reinstated in the army as Feldmarschall-leutnant, and a member of the Order of Maria Theresa. He died on 22 October 1828 at S. Pölten.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External sources.", "content": "Ph.D thesis: Gramm, E.R.: \"Der unglückliche Mack - Aufstieg und Fall des Karl Mack von Leiberich\" http://othes.univie.ac.at/480/1/02-05-2008_7500647.pdf", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Freiherr Mack von Leiberich (25 August 1752 – 22 December 1828) was an Austrian soldier. He is best remembered as the commander of the Austrian forces that capitulated to Napoleon's \"Grande Armée\" in the Battle of Ulm in 1805. Mack makes a brief appearance as a character in book two of Volume I of Tolstoy's \"War and Peace\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974361}
{"src_title": "Alexander Danilovich Menshikov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Menshikov was born on in Moscow. Historian Paul Bushkovitch argues that Menshikov was not an aristocrat and was most likely descended from servants of the palace stables, who among others made up the first soldiers of Peter's 'toy armies.' As the legend (dating from around 1710) goes, he was making a living on the streets of Moscow as a vendor of stuffed buns known as pirozhki at the age of twenty. His fine appearance and witty character caught the attention of Franz Lefort, Peter's first favourite, who took him into his service and finally transferred him to the tsar. On the death of Lefort in 1699, Menshikov succeeded him as Peter's prime favourite and confidant.  He took an active part in the Azov campaigns (1695–1696) against the Ottoman Empire. During the tsar's first foreign tour in the next year, Menshikov worked by his side in the dockyard of Amsterdam, and acquired a thorough knowledge of shipbuilding and colloquial Dutch and German. He acted as subordinate to Boris Sheremetev, who was commander-in-chief during the retreat before Charles XII in 1708, subsequently participating in the battle of Holowczyn, the reduction of Mazepa, and the crowning victory of Poltava (), where he won his field-marshal's baton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Corruption.", "content": "Around 1706 he had a conflict with Andrew Vinius; Vinius lost all of his land and goods. From 1709 to 1714 he served during the Courland, Holstein and Pomeranian campaigns, but then, as governor-general of Ingria, with almost unlimited powers, was entrusted with a leading part in the civil administration. Menshikov understood perfectly the principles on which Peter's reforms were conducted and was the right hand of the tsar in all his gigantic undertakings. But he abused his powerful position, and his corrupt practices frequently brought him to the verge of ruin. Every time the tsar returned to Russia he received fresh accusations of plunder against \"his Serene Highness.\"  Peter's first serious outburst of indignation (March 1711) was due to the prince's looting in Poland. On his return to Russia in 1712, Peter discovered that Menshikov had turned a blind eye to wholesale corruption in his own governor-generalship. Peter warned him \"for the last time\" to change his ways. Yet, in 1713, he was implicated in the \"Solovey process\", in the course of which it was demonstrated that he had defrauded the government of 100,000 roubles. He only owed his life on this occasion to a sudden illness. On his recovery Peter's fondness for his friend overcame his sense of justice. In 1714 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.  In the last year of Peter's reign new allegations of fraud by Menshikov came to light, and he was obliged to appeal for protection to the empress Catherine. It was chiefly through the efforts of Menshikov and his colleague Tolstoi that, on the death of Peter, in 1725, Catherine was raised to the throne. Menshikov was committed to the Petrine system, and he recognised that, if that system were to continue, Catherine was, at that particular time, the only possible candidate. Her name was a watchword for the progressive faction. The placing of her on the throne meant a final victory over ancient prejudices, a vindication of the new ideas of progress, and not least security for Menshikov and his ill-gotten fortune.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Supremacy and disgrace.", "content": "During Catherine's short reign (February 1725May 1727), Menshikov was practically the absolute ruler of Russia. He promoted himself to the unprecedented rank of Generalissimus, and was the only Russian to bear a ducal title. Upon finishing the construction of the Menshikov Palace on the Neva Embankment in St Petersburg (now assigned to the Hermitage Museum), Menshikov intended to make Oranienbaum a capital of his ephemeral duchy. Pushkin in one of his poems alluded to Menshikov as \"half-tsar\".  On the whole he ruled well, his difficult position serving as some restraint upon his natural inclinations. He contrived to prolong his power after Catherine's death by means of a forged will and a coup d'état. While his colleague Peter Tolstoi would have raised Elizabeth Petrovna to the throne, Menshikov set up the youthful Peter II, son of the tsarevich Alexei, with himself as dictator during the prince's minority.  He now aimed at establishing himself definitely by marrying his daughter Mary to Peter II. But the old nobility, represented by the Dolgorukovs and the Galitzines, united to overthrow him, and he was deprived of all his dignities and offices and expelled from the capital (). Subsequently, he was deprived of his enormous wealth, stripped of the titles, and he and his whole family were banished to Beryozovo in Siberia, where he died on. His wife Darya Mikhailovna (born Arseneva) died on their way into exile in 1728 near Kazan.  According to Simon Sebag Montefiore in his book \"The Romanovs 1613–1918\" Menshikov was once punched twice by Tsar Peter the Great, once in the nose and once on the side of the head, after Tsar Peter saw Menshikov dancing with his sword still on, considered highly rude and offensive.  In Beryozovo Menshikov built a wooden church. He buried his daughter who died in exile there. Menshikov's younger children survived the exile and were eventually returned to the court.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prince Aleksander Danilovich Menshikov (, tr. ; – ) was a Russian statesman, whose official titles included Generalissimus, Prince of the Russian Empire and Duke of Izhora (Duke of Ingria), Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, Duke of Cosel. A highly appreciated associate and friend of Tsar Peter the Great, he was the \"de facto\" ruler of Russia for two years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974362}
{"src_title": "K-19: The Widowmaker", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 1961, the Soviet Union launches its first ballistic missile nuclear submarine, the \"K-19\", commanded by Captain Alexei Vostrikov (Harrison Ford), with executive officer Mikhail Polenin (Liam Neeson), the crew's original captain. Vostrikov is alleged to have been appointed through his wife's political connections, as well as Polenin's tendency to put crew morale and safety before Soviet pride. Discovering the reactor officer drunk and asleep on duty, Vostrikov fires him, receiving a replacement, Vadim Radtchenko (Peter Sarsgaard), fresh from the academy. Bad luck surrounds the launch; the medical officer is killed by a truck and replaced by command's foremost medical officer, who has never been out to sea, and the inaugural bottle of champagne fails to break on the bow.  The \"K-19\"'s first mission is to surface in the Arctic, test-fire an unarmed intercontinental ballistic missile, and patrol the Atlantic within striking range of New York City and Washington, D.C.. Vostrikov orders \"K-19\" to submerge past its maximum operational depth, then surface at full-speed to break through the Arctic pack-ice. Protesting the dangerous maneuver, Polenin storms off the bridge. The test missile launches successfully.  En route to the patrol zone, a reactor coolant pipe bursts. Control rods are inserted to stop the reactor, but reactor temperature rises and the crew learns back-up coolant systems were not installed. \"K-19\" surfaces to contact fleet command but the long-range transmitter antenna cable is damaged, possibly by the Arctic maneuver. Engineers rig a makeshift coolant system, working in shifts to limit radiation exposure. The first team emerges vomiting and blistered; the second and third teams cool the reactor, but all suffer radiation poisoning. With radiation levels rising, the submarine surfaces and most of the crew are ordered topside. Radtchenko balks after seeing the first team's injuries, and the crew chief takes his place on the third team.  A Sikorsky H-34 Choctaw helicopter from a nearby United States Navy destroyer offers assistance, which Vostrikov rejects. The Soviet government grows concerned when the \"K-19\" ceases contact but is spotted near the destroyer. Hoping diesel submarines will be sent to tow the \"K-19\", Vostrikov orders a return to port, but the pace could kill the entire crew. The repaired pipework leaks and reactor temperature rises again, and torpedo fuel ignites a fire. Initially ordering the fire suppression system activated – which would suffocate anyone in the area – Vostrikov is talked down by Polenin, who personally assists the fire crew. Two officers mutiny against Vostrikov, and Radtchenko enters the reactor alone to attempt repairs.  Polenin deceives the mutineers into handing over their weapons, arrests them, and frees Vostrikov. Unaware of Radtchenko, Vostrikov, at Polenin's behest, announces his plan to dive and attempt another repair, fearing an overheating reactor could set off their warheads and incite nuclear war. The crew responds positively, and \"K-19\" dives. Radtchenko's repairs are successful, but blind and weakened by heavy radiation, he is dragged out by Vostrikov. A meltdown is prevented, but irradiated steam leaks throughout the submarine.  A Soviet diesel submarine reaches \"K-19\", with orders to confine the crew on-board until a freighter can pick them up, but as it is too dangerous to stay, Vostrikov orders an evacuation, knowing he may lose his command and be sent to a gulag. Returning to the Soviet Union, Vostrikov is tried for endangering the mission and disobeying a direct order, but Polenin comes to his defense.  An epilogue reveals Vostrikov was acquitted, but the \"K-19\" crew was sworn to secrecy and Vostrikov never given submarine command again. All seven men who went into the reactor chamber died of radiation poisoning, and twenty others later died from radiation sickness. Only after the dissolution of the Soviet Union decades later could the crew discuss what happened.  In 1989, an aged Vostrikov meets Polenin and other survivors at a cemetery on the anniversary of their rescue. Vostrikov informs the men that he nominated the 28 deceased crewmen for the Hero of the Soviet Union award, but was told the honor was reserved for combat veterans. Remarking \"what good are honors from such people,\" Vostrikov toasts the survivors and those who sacrificed their lives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "\"The Widowmaker\" nickname was used only in the film. In real life, the submarine had no nickname until the nuclear accident on July 3, 1961, when it received the nickname \"Hiroshima\".  \"K-19: The Widowmaker\" cost $100 million to produce, but gross returns were only $35 million in the United States and $30.5 million internationally. The film was not financed by a major studio (\"National Geographic\" was owned by National Geographic Partners, a joint venture with 21st Century Fox and The National Geographic Society), making it one of the most expensive independent films to-date. \"K-19: The Widowmaker\" was filmed in Canada, specifically Toronto, Ontario; Gimli, Manitoba; and Halifax, Nova Scotia.  The producers made some efforts to work with the original crew of \"K-19\", who took exception to the first version of the script available to them. The submarine's captain presented an open letter to the actors and production team, and a group of officers and crew members presented another. In a later script, several scenes were cut, and the names of the crew changed at the request of the crew members and their families.  The most significant difference between the plot and the historical events is the scene that replaces an incident where the captain threw almost all the submarine's small arms overboard out of concern about the possibility of a mutiny; the film instead portrays an actual attempt at mutiny.  The \"\"K-19\"\" was portrayed in the film by the \"Juliett\"-class \"K-77\", which was significantly modified for the role. HMCS \"Ojibwa\" portrayed the Soviet \"S-270\". portrayed. The Canadian Halifax Shipyard stood in for the Sevmash shipyard of northern Russia.  Klaus Badelt wrote the film's late-Romantic-styled score.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"K-19: The Widowmaker\" received mixed reviews. It has a 61% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 170 reviews, with an average score of 6.09/10. It is summarized as being \"A gripping drama even though the filmmakers have taken liberties with the facts.\"  When \"K-19: The Widowmaker\" was premiered in Russia in October 2002, fifty-two veterans of the \"K-19\" submarine accepted flights to the Saint Petersburg premiere; despite what they saw as technical as well as historical compromises, they praised the film and, in particular, the performance of Harrison Ford.  In his review, film critic Roger Ebert compared \"K-19: The Widowmaker\" to other classic films of the genre, \"Movies involving submarines have the logic of chess: The longer the game goes, the fewer the possible remaining moves. \"K-19: The Widowmaker\" joins a tradition that includes \"Das Boot\" and \"The Hunt for Red October\" and goes all the way back to \"Run Silent, Run Deep\". The variables are always oxygen, water pressure and the enemy. Can the men breathe, will the sub implode, will depth charges destroy it?\"  Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic wrote: \"Why did movie moguls think that this was the right moment for a tale of unflinching loyalty to the Soviet Union?.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "K-19: The Widowmaker is a 2002 historical submarine film directed and produced by Kathryn Bigelow, and produced by Edward S. Feldman, Sigurjon Sighvatsson, Christine Whitaker and Matthias Deyle with screenplay by Christopher Kyle. An international production of the US, UK, Germany and Canada, the film takes place in 1961 and focuses its story on the Soviet K-19 submarine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974363}
{"src_title": "Agnes of Rome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Substantially the circumstances of her martyrdom are believed to be authentic, though the legend cannot be proven true, and many details of the fifth century \"Acts of Saint Agnes\" are open to criticism. A church was built over her tomb, and her relics venerated.  According to tradition, Agnes was a member of the Roman nobility, born in AD 291 and raised in an early Christian family. She suffered martyrdom at the age of twelve or thirteen during the reign of the Roman Emperor Diocletian, on 21 January 304.  A beautiful young girl from a wealthy family, Agnes had many suitors of high rank, and the young men, slighted by her resolute devotion to religious purity, submitted her name to the authorities as a follower of Christianity.  The Prefect Sempronius condemned Agnes to be dragged naked through the streets to a brothel. In one account, as she prayed, her hair grew and covered her body. It was also said that all of the men that attempted to rape her were immediately struck blind. The son of the prefect was struck dead but revived after she prayed for him, causing her release. There commenced a trial from which Sempronius recused himself, allowing another figure to preside and sentence St. Agnes to death. She was led out and bound to a stake, but the bundle of wood would not burn, or the flames parted away from her, whereupon the officer in charge of the troops drew his sword and beheaded her, or, in some other texts, stabbed her in the throat. It is also said that her blood poured to the stadium floor where other Christians soaked it up with cloths. Agnes was buried beside the Via Nomentana in Rome. A few days after her death, her foster-sister, Emerentiana, was found praying by her tomb; she claimed to be the daughter of Agnes' wet nurse, and was stoned to death after refusing to leave the place and reprimanding the pagans for killing her foster-sister. Emerentiana was also later canonised. The daughter of Constantine I, Constantina, was said to have been cured of leprosy after praying at Agnes' tomb. She and Emerentiana appear in the scenes from the life of Agnes on the 14th-century Royal Gold Cup in the British Museum.  An early account of Agnes' death, stressing her young age, steadfastness and virginity, but not the legendary features of the tradition, is given by Ambrose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Agnes was venerated as a saint at least as early as the time of St Ambrose, based on an existing homily. She is commemorated in the \"Depositio Martyrum\" of Filocalus (354) and in the early Roman Sacramentaries.  Agnes' bones are conserved beneath the high altar in the church of Sant'Agnese fuori le mura in Rome, built over the catacomb that housed her tomb. Her skull is preserved in a separate chapel in the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone in Rome's Piazza Navona.  Her feast day is 21 January.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patronage.", "content": "Because of the legend around her martyrdom, she is patron saint of those seeking chastity and purity.  Agnes is also the patron saint of young girls. Folk custom called for them to practise rituals on Saint Agnes' Eve (20–21 January) with a view to discovering their future husbands. This superstition has been immortalised in John Keats's poem, \"The Eve of Saint Agnes\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Iconography.", "content": "Since the Middle Ages, Agnes has traditionally been depicted as a young girl in robes, with a lamb, the symbol of her virginal innocence, and often, like many other martyrs, with a palm branch.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Congregation of Sisters of St. Agnes is a Roman Catholic religious community for women based in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, USA. It was founded in 1858, by Father Caspar Rehrl, an Austrian missionary, who established the sisterhood of pioneer women under the patronage of Agnes, to whom he had a particular devotion.  It is customary on her feast day for two lambs to be brought from the Trappist abbey of Tre Fontane in Rome to the Sant'Agnese in Agone church to be blessed by the Pope. On Holy Thursday they are shorn, and from the wool is woven the pallium which the pope gives to a newly consecrated metropolitan archbishop as a sign of his jurisdiction and his union with the pope.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Hrotsvitha, the tenth-century nun and poet, wrote a heroic poem about Agnes.  In the historical novel \"Fabiola or, the Church of the Catacombs\", written by Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman in 1854, Agnes is the soft-spoken teenage cousin and confidant of the protagonist, the beautiful noblewoman Fabiola.  The instrumental song \"Saint Agnes and the Burning Train\" appears on the 1991 album 'The Soul Cages' by Sting.  The song “Bear’s Vision of St. Agnes” appears on the 2012 album ‘Ten Stories’ by rock band mewithoutYou.  The St. Agnes Library is a branch of the New York Public Library located on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, on Amsterdam Avenue between West 81st and West 82nd Streets.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agnes of Rome () is a virgin martyr, venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, the Anglican Communion, and Lutheranism. She is one of seven women who, along with the Blessed Virgin, are commemorated by name in the Canon of the Mass.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974364}
{"src_title": "Scatman John", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Larkin was born in El Monte, California. He suffered from a severe stutter by the time he learned to speak, which led to an emotionally traumatic childhood. At age twelve, he began to learn the piano and was introduced to the art of scat singing two years later through records by Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong, among others. The piano provided him with a means of artistic expression to compensate for his speech difficulties, and he \"hid behind [the] piano because [he] was scared to speak.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical career.", "content": "Larkin became a professional jazz pianist in the 1970s and 1980s, playing many engagements in jazz clubs around Los Angeles. His first known performance on a studio album was in 1981 on the album \"Animal Sounds\" by Sam Phipps. In 1986, he released the self-titled album \"John Larkin\" on the Transition label. This album was produced by John himself, along with Marcia Larkin. It featured Joe Farrell on saxophone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Scatman John\".", "content": "To advance his career in 1990, Larkin moved to Berlin, Germany. Once there, he discovered an appreciative jazz culture and started playing jazz gigs. This was when he first decided to take a monumental step away from his insecurities and add singing to his act for the first time, heavily inspired by the standing ovation he received for his rendition of the song \"On the Sunny Side of the Street\". Soon after, his agent Manfred Zähringer from Iceberg Records (Denmark) thought of combining scat singing with modern dance music and hip hop effects. Larkin was hesitant at first, terrified of being laughed at and criticized once again, but BMG Hamburg was open.  Larkin was worried that listeners would realize he stuttered, and his wife, Judy, suggested that he talk about it directly in his music. Working with dance producers Ingo Kays and Tony Catania, he recorded the first single, \"Scatman (Ski-Ba-Bop-Ba-Dop-Bop)\". After his first big hit, he adopted the new name and persona of \"Scatman\" John.  In 1995, at age 53, Larkin became a worldwide star. Sales of his debut single were slow at first, but they gradually reached number-one in many countries and sold over six million records worldwide. \"Scatman (Ski-Ba-Bop-Ba-Dop-Bop)\" charted highly across Europe and Japan and remains his biggest-selling and most well-known song. He later followed up with the song \"Scatman's World\" entering the UK Singles chart at number 10, which met lesser but still notable success, selling a million copies and charting highly throughout Europe.  Following the success of these two singles, he released his debut album as Scatman John, also titled \"Scatman's World\", which entered the top 10 album charts in many countries including his then home Germany as well as in Switzerland, Finland and Norway; the album eventually sold millions of copies worldwide. He began a promotional and concert tour of Europe and Asia. Referring to a performance in Spain, Larkin said, \"the kids screamed for five minutes straight, I couldn't start the song\".  The second Scatman John album, \"Everybody Jam!\", was released in 1996. While nowhere near as successful on an international level as his debut, the album and accompanying single took off in Japan, the country in which he would see success on a larger scale than anywhere else in the world. He was so popular there that he even appeared on Coca-Cola cans. In Europe, subsequent singles failed to replicate the chart success of his first two singles, giving him the title two-hit wonder.  The Japanese version of \"Everybody Jam!\" included a total of five bonus tracks, including the hit singles there Su Su Su Super Ki Re i and \"Pripri Scat\", which were commissioned by Japanese companies for commercials for cosmetics and pudding respectively. The Ultraman franchise even jumped on the Scatman bandwagon, releasing a single titled \"Scatultraman\", the cover art of which featured the Ultraman characters wearing Scatman's trademark hat and mustache. The album reached No. 45 in Switzerland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Illness and death.", "content": "In late 1998 Larkin was diagnosed with lung cancer, but he continued his musical work despite being told to take it easy from his substantial workload. In June 1999, Larkin released his fourth and ultimately final album as Scatman John, \"Take Your Time\". Shortly afterwards, he embarked on a 24-city US tour. At the concert of November 26, 1999 in Cleveland, Ohio, Larkin collapsed on stage during the show's finale. While engaged in his trademark show-closing scat duel against his drummer, Larkin appeared to faint on stage. The crowd initially believed the collapse to be part of the show, until an announcement was made that the show would be ending due to a medical situation. Larkin was transported to the Cleveland Clinic where he was stabilized. The following week he returned to his home in Los Angeles.  Larkin died at his home in Los Angeles on December 3, 1999, at the age of 57. He was surrounded by his wife Judy, his mother Harriet, and his brother Bill. He was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea near Malibu, California.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Paul Larkin (March 13, 1942 – December 3, 1999), known professionally as Scatman John, is an American musician and singer who created a fusion of scat singing and dance music, best known for his 1995 hits \"Scatman (Ski-Ba-Bop-Ba-Dop-Bop)\" and \"Scatman's World\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974365}
{"src_title": "Cockchafer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "There are three species of European cockchafers:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Adults of the common cockchafer reach sizes of 25–30 mm; the forest cockchafer is a little smaller (20–25 mm). The two species can best be distinguished by the form of their tail end: it is long and slender in the common cockchafer, but shorter and knob-shaped at the end in the forest cockchafer. Both have a brown colour. Male cockchafers have seven \"leaves\" on their antennae, whereas the females have only six.  The species \"M. pectoralis\" looks similar, but its pygidium is rounded. The cockchafer should not be confused with the similar European chafer (\"Rhizotrogus majalis\"), which has a completely different life cycle, nor with the June beetles (\"Phyllophaga\" spp.), which are native to North America, nor with the summer chafer (or \"European June bug\", \"Amphimallon solstitiale\"), which emerges in June and has a two-year life cycle. (All of these are Scarabaeidae, have white grubs, and are turf pests.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "Adults appear at the end of April or in May and live for about five to seven weeks. After about two weeks, the female begins laying eggs, which she buries about 10 to 20 cm deep in the earth. She may do this several times until she has laid between 60 and 80 eggs. The common cockchafer lays its eggs in fields, whereas the Forest Cockchafer stays in the vicinity of the trees. The preferred food for adults is oak leaves, but they will also feed on conifer needles.  The larvae, known as \"white grubs\" or \"chafer grubs\", hatch after four to six weeks. They feed on plant roots, for instance potato roots. The grubs develop in the earth for three to four years, in colder climates even five years, and grow continually to a size of about 4–5 cm, before they pupate in early autumn and develop into an adult cockchafer in six weeks.  The cockchafer overwinters in the earth at depths between 20 and 100 cm. They work their way to the surface only in spring.  Because of their long development time as larvae, cockchafers appear in a cycle of every three or four years; the years vary from region to region. There is a larger cycle of around 30 years superimposed, in which they occur (or rather, used to occur) in unusually high numbers (10,000s).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pest control and history.", "content": "Both the grubs and imagos have a voracious appetite and thus have been and sometimes continue to be a major problem in agriculture and forestry. In the pre-industrialized era, the main mechanism to control their numbers was to collect and kill the adult beetles, thereby interrupting the cycle. They were once very abundant: in 1911, more than 20 million individuals were collected in 18 km of forest.  Collecting adults was an only moderately successful method. In the Middle Ages, pest control was rare, and people had no effective means to protect their harvest. This gave rise to events that seem bizarre from a modern perspective. In 1320, for instance, cockchafers were brought to court in Avignon and sentenced to withdraw within three days onto a specially designated area, otherwise they would be outlawed. Subsequently, since they failed to comply, they were collected and killed. (Similar animal trials also occurred for many other animals in the Middle Ages.)  In some areas and times, cockchafers were served as food. A 19th-century recipe from France for cockchafer soup reads: \"roast one pound of cockchafers without wings and legs in sizzling butter, then cook them in a chicken soup, add some veal liver and serve with chives on a toast\". A German newspaper from Fulda from the 1920s tells of students eating sugar-coated cockchafers. Cockchafer larvae can also be fried or cooked over open flames, although they require some preparation by soaking in vinegar in order to purge them of soil in their digestive tracts. A cockchafer stew is referred to in W. G. Sebald's novel \"The Emigrants\".  Only with the modernization of agriculture in the 20th century and the invention of chemical pesticides did it become possible to effectively combat the cockchafer. Combined with the transformation of many pastures into agricultural land, this has resulted in a decrease of the cockchafer to near-extinction in some areas in Europe in the 1970s. Since then, agriculture has generally reduced its use of pesticides. Because of environmental and public health concerns (pesticides may enter the food chain and thus also the human body) many chemical pesticides have been phased out in the European Union and worldwide. In recent years, the cockchafer's numbers have been increasing again, causing damage to over 1,000 km of land all over Europe. At present, no chemical pesticides are approved for use against cockchafers, and only biological measures are utilised for control: for instance, pathogenic fungi or nematodes that kill the grubs are applied to the soil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "Children since antiquity have played with cockchafers. In ancient Greece, boys caught the insect, tied a linen thread to its feet and set it free, amusing themselves to watch it fly in spirals. English boys in Victorian times played a very similar game by sticking a pin through one of its wings. Nikola Tesla recalls that as a child he made one of his first \"inventions\"—an \"engine\" made by harnessing four cockchafers in this fashion.  The name 'cockchafer' derives from late 17th century usage of 'cock' (in the sense of expressing size or vigour) + 'chafer' which simply means, as now, an insect of this type and has its root in Old English \"ceafor\" or \"cefer\", of Germanic origin and is related to the Dutch \"kever\".  Cockchafers appear in the fairy tales Thumbelina by Hans Christian Andersen and Princess Rosette by Madame d'Aulnoy.  The cockchafer is featured in a German children's rhyme similar to the English \"Ladybird, Ladybird\": The verse dates back to the Thirty Years' War in the first half of the 17th Century, in which Pomerania was pillaged and suffered heavily. Since World War II, it is associated in Germany also with the closing months of that war, when Soviet troops advanced into eastern Germany.  The cockchafer was the basis for the \"fifth trick\" in the well-known illustrated German book \"Max and Moritz\", dating from 1865.  Jim Dixon, in Kingsley Amis's comic novel \"Lucky Jim\" (1954), repeatedly calls his department head, Professor Welch, an \"old cockchafer.\"  The Italian – specifically Neapolitan – collection of stories \"Il Pentamerone\" of Giambattista Basile (in its English translation by Norman M. Penzer from Benedetto Croce's Italian) contains a tale on Day 3, Night 5: \"The Cockchafer, Mouse and Grasshopper\".  There have been four Royal Navy ships named.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The cockchafer, colloquially called Maybug or doodlebug, is the name given to any of the European beetles of the genus \"Melolontha\", in the family Scarabaeidae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974366}
{"src_title": "Amelungsborn Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Foundation.", "content": "The site of the \"villa Amelungsborn\" to the west of the present Stadtoldendorf was originally part of the ancestral lands of the Counts of Northeim.  Siegfried IV, the last Count of Northeim-Boyneburg and Homburg gave the land at Amelungsborn for the foundation of a Cistercian monastery, which was officially settled by a community of monks from Altenkamp Abbey on 20 November 1135.  With the establishment of this monastery and of the nearby Burg Homburg, built at around the same time, it seems that Count Siegfried was aiming to secure a part of his possessions that lay distant from his ancestral seat in North Hessen.  No foundation charter has survived, although there is a confirmation dated 5 December 1129 by Pope Honorius II. Nevertheless, an interval of six years between foundation and settlement fits the general timescale of Cistercian foundations.  The abbey was dedicated in 1135 by Bernhard I, Bishop of Hildesheim. The first abbot of Amelungsborn, appointed in 1141, was Heinrich I, a half-brother of the founder, Count Siegfried IV.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development and daughter houses.", "content": "The new monastery prospered and was soon able to extend the settlements of the order. As early as 1138 a monk of Amelungsborn was appointed abbot of Mariental Abbey near Helmstedt. In 1145 Amelungsborn provided the entire community (12 monks and an abbot) for the foundation of Riddagshausen Abbey near Braunschweig, of which it was thus the mother house.  Amelungsborn was also the mother house of the rich and powerful Doberan Abbey (in the present Bad Doberan near Rostock), in 1171 and again in 1176, at the instigation of the missionary bishop Berno, once a monk of Amelungsborn, who in 1155 became Bishop of Mecklenburg and when in 1160 the seat of the bishopric was moved, the first Bishop of Schwerin.  Further foundations at one remove were at Isenhagen-Marienrode near Wittingen and Wahlshausen near Fuldatal, daughter houses of Riddagshausen, and Dargun Abbey and Pelplin Abbey, daughter houses of Doberan. Amelungsborn became the richest monastery of the Welf sphere of influence, and the one most closely connected with the German colonisation to the east. By about 1280 the community numbered 50 monks and 90 lay-brothers.  Even after the alienation of their Mecklenburg estates, principally round Satow and Dranse, in the 14th century, Amelungsborn Abbey remained an extensive landowner, thanks largely to the generosity of the Edelherren of Homburg, successors of the founder, and the Counts of Everstein, who gave many estates between the Weser and Leine, among them lands at Allersheim near Holzminden, Schnedinghausen near Moringen, Erzhausen, Bruchhof and Holtershausen near Greene, besides possessions in the towns of Einbeck, Höxter and Hameln, and forests near the abbey itself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After the Reformation.", "content": "During the first half of the 16th century Amelungsborn fell increasingly into the power of the Welf territorial princes. In 1549 the abbey was forced to cede the lucrative farm at Allersheim to Duke Henry the Younger of Brunswick.  In 1568 Duke Julius of Brunswick implemented the Reformation in his realm, and the abbot and community converted to Lutheranism. The first Lutheran abbot was Andreas Steinhauer (d. 1588), who founded the school for which the abbey was from this point on principally known.  In 1760 the abbey school was transferred to Holzminden by Duke Charles I of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and merged with the town school, the predecessor of the present Campe Gymnasium.  Under the rule of Napoleon in 1806 Amelungsborn Abbey was dissolved, but by an anomaly the position of abbot remained. When in 1875 the school was taken over by the state and the educational duties of the abbey ended, the office of abbot remained as an honorary title for members of the senior Brunswick clergy  From 1912 the position was left vacant for political reasons. In 1941 the church was transferred to the Hanover State Church (\"Landeskirche Hannover\"). The church senate assumed the rights of the previous territorial lords and took over responsibility for the abbey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "In World War II the buildings were severely damaged, including the outer ring wall, on 8 April 1945, when the premises were heavily bombed by American troops in pursuit of fleeing SS units. The church sustained particularly heavy damage, and the south side of the nave and the east window of 1350 were totally destroyed. Restoration work took place from 1954 to 1959.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revival.", "content": "In 1960 Christhard Mahrenholz was appointed 54th abbot, assembled a community and founded a society of laymen, \"Familiaritas\". The community, as at 2008, consists of the abbot and eight religious, while the lay brotherhood \"\"Familiaritas\"\" has about 30 members.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Amelungsborn Abbey, also Amelunxborn Abbey (\"Kloster Amelungsborn\"), is a Lutheran monastery in Germany. It is located near Negenborn and Stadtoldendorf, in the \"Landkreis\" of Holzminden in the Weserbergland. It was the second oldest Cistercian foundation in Lower Saxony, Germany, after Walkenried Abbey. It survived the Reformation by becoming Lutheran, and with Loccum Abbey, also previously Cistercian, is one of the only two Lutheran monasteries in Germany with an uninterrupted tradition. The abbey church, St. Mary's, is also the parish church of the abbey's former estate villages Negenborn and Holenberg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974367}
{"src_title": "Fritz Gerlich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Gerlich was born in Stettin, Pomerania, and grew up as the eldest of the three sons of wholesale and retail fishmonger Paul Gerlich and his wife Therese. In Autumn 1889, Gerlich was enrolled in the Marienstiftungymnasium (Our Lady's Grammar School) and graduated from his senior class there in 1901.  In 1902 he began his studies at the University of Munich, and first majored in mathematics and natural sciences before switching to history. At the university, he was an active member of the Free Student Union (or sometimes translated as Free Student Association from the German word \"Freistudentenschaft\"). He wrote his doctoral dissertation \"The Testament of Henry VI\" and completed it in 1907.  On 9 October 1920, he married Sophie Botzenhart, born Stempfle, in Munich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After completing his studies with a doctorate, Gerlich became an archivist.  He also began to contribute political articles that were anti-socialist and national-conservative in the publications \"Süddeutsche Monatshefte\", which was edited by Paul Nikolaus Cossmann, and \"Die Wirklichkeit\" (in 1917). In 1917, he also became active in the German Fatherland Party (Deutsche Vaterlandspartei) and after it was dissolved in the Anti-Bolshevist League (Antibolschewistische Liga) (1918/19).  In 1919, he published the book \"Communism as the Theory of the Thousand Year Reich\" (\"Der Kommunismus als Lehre vom Tausendjährigen Reich\"), where Gerlich compared communism with the phenomenon of redemption religion. A whole chapter in the work is devoted to denouncing antisemitism, which had gained ground because of the leading positions of many Jews in the Revolution and founding of the Soviet Union and Bavarian Soviet Republic.  During those years, Gerlich's political views became more liberal. In 1920, he was nominated as candidate to the Bavarian Landtag and German Reichstag for the left-liberal German Democratic Party (Deutsche Demokratische Partei).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editor-in-chief of the \"Münchner Neueste Nachrichten\".", "content": "From 1920 to 1928 he was editor in chief of the \"Münchner Neueste Nachrichten\" (MNN), a predecessor to today's \"Süddeutsche Zeitung\" in that its circulation was one of the largest in southern Germany. As editor, Gerlich opposed Nazism and Hitler's Nazi Party as \"murderous\". In the early 1920s, he had seen proof of Nazi tyranny already in Munich. Once a conservative nationalist, after the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch Gerlich decisively turned against Hitler and became one of his fiercest critics. Other critics of the Nazis at MNN were later arrested within days of Gerlich, such as: Fritz Buechner, who followed Gerlich as the editor of the MNN, Erwein Freiherr von Aretin, who was domestic editor at the MNN, and Cossmann, who wrote for the MNN, all of whom had steered the MNN to support a return of the monarchy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Friendship with Therese Neumann.", "content": "By 1927, he had befriended Therese Neumann, a Catholic mystic from Konnersreuth, Bavaria, who supported Gerlich's resistance activities. Initially, he wanted to expose her stigmatism as a fraud, but Gerlich came back a changed man and later converted from Calvinism to Catholicism in 1931. From that year until his death, his resistance became inspired by the social teachings of the Catholic Church.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Straight Path\" newspaper.", "content": "Gerlich returned in November 1929 to his job at the Bavarian National Archives. A circle of friends that had developed around Neumann gave rise to the idea of founding a weekly political newspaper to dispute the left and right political extremism in Germany. Supported by a wealthy patron, Prince Waldburg-Zeil, Gerlich was able to take over the weekly newspaper \"Sunday Illustrated\" (\"Der Illustrierte Sonntag\"), which was renamed \"The Straight Path\" (\"Der Gerade Weg\") in 1932.  In this newspaper, Gerlich opposed Communism, National Socialism and antisemitism. The dispute with the growing Nazi movement became the central focus of Gerlich and his later writing. At the end of 1932 the circulation of the weekly was over 40,000 readers.  Gerlich once wrote \"National Socialism means: Enmity with neighbouring nations, tyranny internally, civil war, world war, lies, hatred, fratricide and boundless want.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arrest and death at Dachau.", "content": "After the Nazis seized power on 30 January 1933, Gerlich was arrested March 9, 1933 and held at the Dachau concentration camp, where he died on 30 June 1934 during the Night of the Long Knives. His death was officially announced days after his arrest, and the announcement was published in the international press at the time. He was cremated, ashes given to his wife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fictional portrayals.", "content": "Gerlich was portrayed in the TV movie \"\" by actor Matthew Modine. In the film, as he dictates a front-page article that warns of the danger that Hitler poses, Gerlich finishes with the words: \"The worst thing we can do, the absolute worst, is to do nothing\". This line is inspired by a quote often incorrectly attributed to Edmund Burke: \"The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carl Albert Fritz Michael Gerlich (15 February 1883 – 30 June 1934) was a German journalist and historian, and one of the main journalistic resistors of Adolf Hitler. He was arrested, later killed and cremated at the Dachau concentration camp.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974368}
{"src_title": "Erodium cicutarium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution and ecology.", "content": "The plant is widespread across North America. The plant grows as an annual in the northern half of North America. In the southern areas of North America, the plant tends to grow as a biennial with a more erect habit and with much larger leaves, flowers, and fruits. It flowers from May until August. Common stork's-bill can be found in bare, sandy, grassy places both inland and around the coasts. It is a food plant for the larvae of the brown argus butterfly.  The seeds of this annual are a species collected by various species of harvester ants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a hairy, sticky annual. The stems bear bright pink flowers, which often have dark spots on the bases. The flowers are arranged in a loose cluster and have ten filaments – five of which are fertile – and five styles. The leaves are pinnate to pinnate-pinnatifid, and the long seed-pod, shaped like the bill of a stork, bursts open in a spiral when ripe, sending the seeds (which have long tail called awns) into the air.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seed dispersal behavior.", "content": "Erodium cicutarium seed uses self-dispersal mechanisms to spread away from the maternal plant and also to reach good germination site to increase fitness. Two techniques that Erodium uses are explosive dispersal which launch seeds by storing elastic energy, and self-burial dispersal where Erodium seeds move themselves across the soil using hygroscopically powered shape change.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Explosive dispersal.", "content": "After flowering, the five pericarps on the fruits of Erodium, and the awns, which are hair like appendages of pericarps, joined together and grow into a spine shape. As the fruits dry, dehydration create tension, and elastic energy develops within the awns. The shape of the awns change from straight to helical, causing them to explosively separate the seeds away from the maternal plants. During dispersal, mechanical energy stored in specialized tissues is transferred to the seeds to increase their kinetic and potential energy. The energy storage capacity of the seeds is determined by the level of hydration, suggesting a role of turgor pressure in the explosive dispersal mechanism.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Self-burial dispersal.", "content": "The awn of each seed, once on the ground, responds to humidity of the environment and changes its shape accordingly. The awn coils under dehydration and uncoils when wet. This results in motor action of the seed, which, combined with hairs on the seed and along the length of the awns, moves the seed across the surface, eventually positioning them into a crevice and creating a drilling action that forces the seed into the ground. The coil and uncoil of the awns are achieved by the hygroscopic tissue in the active layer on the awns. Hygroscopic movement happens with respond to a change in the water content of dead plant tissue, specially in the cell wall. Water absorbed by the cell wall binds to the matrix of the awns, causing it to expand and to drive the cellulose microfibrils apart, which causes the matrix to uncoil, thus straightening the awns. Inversely, the matrix will contract under dehydration, leading to the coil of the awns.  Research found no correlation between weight of the awned fruits and the dispersal distance. E.cicutarium with larger seeds have a longer coil and uncoil time compare to smaller seeds. In the field, the rate of seed burial declined throughout the season. The larger seeds buried themselves more often than the smaller seeds. However, larger seeds have a harder time finding a large enough space for the seeds to be buried. Conversely, smaller seeds have an easier time finding a hole and drilling themselves in, and thus are more likely to be buried.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Advantages.", "content": "The advantages of explosive dispersal and self-burial dispersal are to get mature seeds of E.cicutarium quickly to the ground during the most favorable period for burial by hygroscopic mechanisms, thus increase fitness.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The entire plant is edible with a flavor similar to sharp parsley if picked young. According to John Lovell's \"Honey Plants of North America\" (1926), \"the pink flowers are a valuable source of honey (nectar), and also furnish much pollen\". Among the Zuni people, a poultice of chewed root is applied to sores and rashes and an infusion of the root is taken for stomachache.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Erodium cicutarium, also known as redstem filaree, redstem stork's bill, common stork's-bill or pinweed, is a herbaceous annual – or in warm climates, biennial – member of the family Geraniaceae of flowering plants. It is native to Macaronesia, temperate Eurasia and north and northeast Africa, and was introduced to North America in the eighteenth century, where it has since become naturalized, particularly of the deserts and arid grasslands of the southwestern United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974369}
{"src_title": "Marcellin Marbot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jean-Baptiste Antoine Marcelin Marbot was born into a family of military nobility in Altillac, in the ancient province of Quercy in southwestern France. He was the younger son of General Jean-Antoine Marbot, former \"aide-de-camp\" to \"Lieutenant-Général\" de Schomberg, inspector general of the cavalry within the Military household of the king of France.  After studying at the Sorèze Military College (1793–1798), he joined the 1st Hussards Regiment as a volunteer on 3 September 1799. He served under General Jean-Mathieu Seras, who promoted him to the rank of sergeant on 1 December 1799. In the same month, on 31 December 1799, he was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant in recognition of his courage. He fought with the Army of Italy and took part in the Battle of Marengo and the Siege of Genoa, during which his father, General Jean-Antoine Marbot died.  Having returned to France, he joined the 25th Chasseur Regiment on 11 June 1801 and was detached to the School of Cavalry at Versailles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Napoleonic wars.", "content": "He became \"aide-de-camp\" to Marshal Pierre Augereau on 31 August 1803 and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant on 11 July 1804. During the war against the Kingdom of Prussia and the Russian Empire between 1806 and 1807, he fought in the VII corps of the \"Grande Armée\". Having distinguished himself at the Battle of Austerlitz, he was promoted to the rank of captain on 3 January 1807. The following month, he took part in the Battle of Eylau, during the course of which he nearly lost his life. After this he served in the Peninsular War under Marshals Jean Lannes and André Masséna, and showed himself to be a dashing leader of light cavalry in the Russian campaign of 1812.  On 15 November 1812 he was promoted to the rank of colonel and took part in the German campaign of 1813 as the commander of a cavalry regiment. During the morning of the first day of the Battle of Leipzig, Marbot nearly changed the course of the entire war when his regiment came close to capturing the Tsar of Russia, Alexander I and the King of Prussia, Frederick William III, as they had strayed from their escort. After a slow recovery from the wounds he had received at the battles of Leipzig and Hanau, he took part in the Battle of Waterloo alongside Emperor Napoleon I during the Hundred Days.  After the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815, he was exiled during the first years of the Bourbon Restoration and only returned to France in 1819.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "July Monarchy.", "content": "During the July Monarchy, his intimacy with King Louis Philippe I and his son, Prince Ferdinand Philippe of Orléans secured him important military positions. He was promoted to the rank of \"maréchal de camp\" (brigadier general), and in this rank he was present at the Siege of Antwerp in 1832.  From 1835 to 1840 he served in various Algerian expeditions, and was promoted to the rank of \"lieutenant-général\" (divisional general) in 1836. In 1845 he was made a member of the Chamber of Peers. Three years later, at the fall of King Louis Philippe I, he retired into private life.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "His father, General Jean-Antoine Marbot, had four sons, only two whom reached adulthood: Antoine Adolphe Marcelin, the elder, \"maréchal de camp\" (brigadier general) during the July Monarchy, and Jean-Baptiste Antoine Marcelin, the younger. Through his mother, he was the cousin of François Certain de Canrobert, marshal of France during the Second French Empire.  On 5 November 1811, he married Angélique Marie Caroline Personne-Desbrières (1790–1873), and by this alliance became the owner of the Château du Rancy in Bonneuil-sur-Marne. They had two sons:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decorations.", "content": "Marbot received the following decorations:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wounds and injuries.", "content": "Marbot endured 13 wounds and injuries during his service:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "In exile after Battle of Waterloo, Marbot returned to France in 1819 and wrote two books:  The first publication was a reply to General Joseph Rogniat’s treatise on war, in which Marbot effectively contrasted the human factor in war with Rogniat’s pure theory. The second presented his recommendations for the future development of the French Armed Forces.  Napoleon read the first publication while in exile on the island of Saint Helena. His \"aide-de-camp\", General Henri-Gatien Bertrand recorded in his diary on 14 March 1821: In the evening, the Emperor handed me Marbot's book, [...] and said: \"That is the best book I have read for four years. It is the one that has given me the greatest amount of pleasure. [...] He has expressed some things better than I did, he was more familiar with them because, on the whole, he was more of a Corps commander than I. [...] Throughout the book he never refers to 'the Emperor'. He wanted the King of France (Louis XVIII) to give him an appointment with the rank of Colonel; that is quite obvious. He uses 'Emperor' once, so as not to look as though he were afraid to do so, or to appear cowardly, and another time he uses 'Napoleon'. He mentions Masséna and Augereau frequently, and he has described the Battle of Essling better than I could have done it myself [...]. I should have liked to show Marbot my appreciation by sending him a ring. If I ever return to active life, I will have him attached to me as an \"aide-de-camp\" [...].  This publication earned Marbot the distinction of being remembered in Napoleon's will: To Colonel Marbot, one hundred thousand francs. I recommend him to continue to write in defense of the glory of the French armies, and to confound their calumniators and apostates.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Memoirs.", "content": "His fame rests chiefly on the Memoirs of his life and campaigns, the \"Memoirs of General Baron de Marbot\", which were written for his children and published posthumously in Paris, in 1891. An English translation by Arthur John Butler was published in London, in 1892. Marbot’s Memoirs were widely acclaimed, and Arthur Conan Doyle wrote of them:  The first of all soldier books in the world. [...] There are few books which I could not spare from my shelves better than the Memoirs of the gallant Marbot.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literary references.", "content": "Several authors and personalities have cited Marbot and his Memoirs in their works:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eponyms.", "content": "Several places and buildings have been named after Marbot:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Sources  Citations", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Baptiste Antoine Marcelin Marbot, known as Marcellin Marbot (, ; August 18, 1782 – November 16, 1854), was a French general, famous for his memoirs depicting the Napoleonic age of warfare. He belongs to a family that has distinguished itself particularly in the career of arms, giving three generals to France in less than 50 years. His elder brother, Antoine Adolphe Marcelin Marbot, was also a military man of some note.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974370}
{"src_title": "Calico Jack", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Little is known of Rackham's upbringing or early life, except for the fact that he was English and born around the year 1682. The first record of him is as quartermaster on Charles Vane's brigantine \"Ranger\" in 1718, operating out of New Providence island in the Bahamas, which was a notorious base for pirates known as the \"Pirates' republic\". Vane and his crew robbed several ships outside New York City, then encountered a large French man-of-war. The ship was at least twice as large as Vane's brigantine, and it immediately pursued them. Vane commanded a retreat from battle, claiming caution as his reason. Jack Rackham quickly spoke up and contested the decision, suggesting that they fight the man-of-war because it would have plenty of riches. In addition, he argued, if they captured the ship, it would place a much larger ship at their disposal. Of the approximately ninety-one men on the ship, only fifteen supported Vane in his decision. Vane declared that the captain's decision is considered final, however, despite the overwhelming support for Rackham's cry to fight, they fled the man-of-war. On 24 November 1718, Rackham called a vote in which the men branded Vane a coward and removed him from the captaincy, making Calico Jack the next captain. Rackham gave Vane and his fifteen supporters, the other ship in the fleet along with a decent supply of ammunition and goods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Captain Rackham.", "content": "Rackham made a career of plundering small vessels close to shore once he became captain. He and his crew captured the \"Kingston\", a small Jamaican vessel, and made it their flagship. They made several conquests in the West Indies, taking a couple of large ships off Bermuda.  In 1719, Rackham sailed into Nassau in the Bahamas, taking advantage of a general amnesty for pirates to obtain a royal pardon and commission from Governor Woodes Rogers. Rogers had been sent to the Bahamas to address the problem of pirates in the Caribbean who had started to attack and steal from British ships.  In December, he captured the merchant ship \"Kingston\". The \"Kingston\" had a rich cargo, and promised to be a big score for Rackham and his crew. Unfortunately for him, the \"Kingston\" had been taken within sight of Port Royal, where outraged merchants outfitted bounty hunters to go after him. They caught up with him in February 1719, while his ship and the \"Kingston\" were anchored at Isla de los Pinos off Cuba. Rackham and most of his men were on shore at the time, and they escaped capture by hiding in the woods—but their ship and rich trophy were taken away.  Captain Charles Johnson describes how Rackham stole a sloop in his seminal 1724 book \"A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the most notorious Pyrates\". Rackham and his men were at a town in Cuba refitting their small sloop when a Spanish warship charged with patrolling the Cuban coast entered the harbour, along with a small English sloop which they had captured. The Spanish warship saw the pirates but could not get at them at low tide, so they anchored in the harbour entrance to wait for morning. That night, Rackham and his men rowed over to the captured English sloop and overpowered the Spanish guards there. As dawn broke, the warship began blasting Rackham's old ship, now empty, as Rackham and his men silently sailed past in their new prize.  Rackham and his men made their way back to Nassau, where they appeared before Governor Rogers and asked for the royal pardon, claiming that Vane had forced them to become pirates. Rogers hated Vane and chose to believe them, granting them the pardon and allowing them to stay. Their time as honest men, however, did not last long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anne Bonny.", "content": "While in port, Rackham began an affair with Anne Bonny, wife of sailor James Bonny, who was employed by Governor Rogers. James Bonny learned about the relationship and brought Anne to Governor Rogers, who ordered her whipped on charges of adultery. Rackham offered to buy Anne in a \"divorce by purchase,\" because he loved her, but her husband sternly refused. This caused Anne to flee Nassau and run away with Rackham. The pair (with a new crew) escaped to sea together, voiding Rackham's pardon, by stealing a sloop belonging to John Ham. They sailed the Caribbean for two months, taking over other pirate ships. Rackham would often invite the crew of ships that he attacked to join his own. Anne became pregnant and went to Cuba to have the child.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capture, trial and death.", "content": "In September 1720, the Bahamas' Governor Woodes Rogers issued a proclamation declaring Rackham and his crew pirates—although it was not published until October 1720. After publication of the warrant, pirate hunter Jonathan Barnet and former pirate Jean Bonadvis started in pursuit of Rackham, who was cruising near Jamaica capturing numerous small fishing vessels and terrorizing fishermen along the northern Jamaican coastline.  Rackham had come across a small vessel crewed by nine English pirates, and they joined Rackham on his ship for a bout of drinking while at anchor, during which they became intoxicated at Dry Harbour Bay in Jamaica, October 1720. Barnet's sloop attacked Rackham's ship and captured it after a fight presumably led by Mary Read and Anne Bonny. Rackham and his crew were brought to Spanish Town, Jamaica, in November 1720, where they were tried and convicted of piracy and sentenced to be hanged.  Rackham was executed in Port Royal on 18 November 1720, his body then gibbeted on display on a very small islet at a main entrance to Port Royal now known as Rackham's Cay.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fate of his crew.", "content": "Anne Bonny and Mary Read both claimed to be pregnant at their trials, ten days after Rackham's execution, and so were given a temporary stay, and imprisoned at Fort Charles until the claim was proven. Read died in her cell April 1721, most likely of fever related to childbirth. There is no historical record of Bonny's release or of her execution.  George Fetherston (Master), Richard Corner (Quarter-Master), John Davis, and John Howell were executed along with Jack Rackham in Port Royal. Patrick Carty, Thomas Earl, James Dobbin and Noah Harwood were executed the next day in Kingston.  The day after Rackham's trial, former crew members John \"Old Dad the Cooper\" or \"Fenis\" Fenwick and Thomas Bourn (alias Brown) were separately tried and convicted for mutinies committed in mid-June 1720 off Hispaniola.  Nine men who had been caught drinking with Rackham's crew (John Eaton, Edward Warner, Thomas Baker, Thomas Quick, John Cole, Benjamin Palmer, Walter Rouse, John Hanson, and John Howard) were tried and convicted on 24 January 1721. On 17 February John Eaton, Thomas Quick and Thomas Baker were executed at Gallows Point, at Port Royal, and the next day John Cole, John Howard and Benjamin Palmer, were executed at Kingston. The fate of the remaining three is unknown.  The pirate flag of a skull over crossed swords flown on the Black Pearl, in Disney's \"Pirates of the Caribbean\" movies is actually a flag attributed to Calico Jack Rackham.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Anecdotally the crossed swords represented Anne Bonny and Mary Read, Jack's female accomplices.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Rackham (26 December 1682 – 18 November 1720), commonly known as Calico Jack, was an English pirate captain operating in the Bahamas and in Cuba during the early 18th century. His nickname was derived from the calico clothing that he wore, while Jack is a nickname for \"John\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974371}
{"src_title": "Mikhail Alekseyev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Alekseyev was born in Vyazma, in the Smolensk Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Smolensk Oblast, Russia). His father, Vasili Alekseyev, was an army captain in the 64th Kazan Regiment from a modest background. In 1873 Alekseyev entered as a volunteer in the 2nd Grenadiers Regiment in Rostov. He graduated from the Moscow Infantry School in 1876 and was commissioned an ensign in the same 64th Kazan Regiment. He served as an orderly to General Mikhail Skobelev during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), and was wounded in combat near Pleven, Bulgaria. He was promoted to lieutenant in January 1881, and captain in May 1883.  Completing his studies at the Nicholas General Staff Academy in 1890 with the rank of lieutenant colonel, he was posted as a senior adjutant in the headquarters of the 1st Army Corps in the St. Petersburg Military District. He served in this capacity and as a professor at the Academy's Department of Military History from 1898 to 1904. In March 1904, he was promoted to the rank of major general.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russo-Japanese War.", "content": "With the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, in October 1904 Alekseyev was appointed Quartermaster General of the Russian 3rd Manchurian Army. During the war he was awarded a gold sword, the Order of St. Stanislav, and the Order of St. Anne.  After the war, he became first senior quartermaster of the General Staff’s main directorate, while maintaining his position as a professor at the General Staff Academy. In 1908 he was made Chief of Staff of the Kiev military district and promoted to lieutenant general. In 1912 Alekseyev was given command of the 13th Army Corps.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "The beginning of World War I in August 1914 saw Alekseyev appointed Chief of Staff of the Southwestern Front (which held the Third, Fourth, Fifth, and Eighth Armies), where he planned the Russian offensive into Galicia with the rank of General-of-Infantry. He was subsequently awarded the Order of St. George (4th class). In March 1915 Alekseyev became the overall commander of the Russian Northwestern Front.  When Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolayevich of Russia stepped down as Russian supreme Commander-in-chief in August 1915 to be replaced by Tsar Nicholas II, Alekseyev was appointed as Chief of Staff of the General Headquarters (Stavka) and placed in charge of all military operations. He served in this capacity from August 1915 to March 1917.  In his capacity as Chief of Staff, Alekseyev proved to be a more adaptable and flexible commander, than his predecessor. He was, however, incapable of changing a political system that allowed the promotion of incompetent commanders, through nepotism, patronage and the use of court intrigue. Alekseyev remained committed to the Allied cause of the Entente, which is proved by the undertaking of the summer offensive in 1916. However, Russian Army did not manage to exploit strategic benefits of the successful offensive and the situation at the front did not improve significantly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Russian Civil War.", "content": "During the February Revolution of 1917, Alexeyev sent a telegram to the Tsar advising him to abdicate the throne. This telegram, combined with one from his uncle Grand Duke Nicholas, pressure from the Stavka, as well as two representatives of the Duma, led to the Tsar's decision to abdicate on the 2 March 1917 in favour of his brother Grand Duke Michael, who ultimately refused the throne.  From March to May 1917, Alekseyev's position remained ambiguous. While he was the Commander-in-chief and later adviser to the Provisional Government, he spoke out against the Soviets and the democratization of the army. On 30 August 1917 Alekseyev became Chief of Staff of the Stavka under Commander-in-Chief Alexander Kerensky. His goal was to prevent the Kornilov movement (see Kornilov Affair) from developing into civil war. That same day, Alekseyev arrived at the General Headquarters, arrested General Lavr Kornilov and his men and sent them to prison in Bykhov (a town in Mogilev oblast in Belarus), from which they would \"break away\" with the help of General Nikolai Dukhonin. He then resigned his post in protest of Kerensky's policies. After his resignation, he was suspected of sinking several ships off the coast of Odessa in retaliation.  After the October Revolution, Alekseyev fled to Novocherkassk, where he received the support of the leader of the Don Cossacks, General Alexey Kaledin. On 15 November 1917, he first formed \"Alekseyev's Officer Organization\", which would become the core of the anti-Bolshevik Volunteer Army. He was joined by General Kornilov, who never forgave him for his arrest in 1917, and the bad relations between the generals threatened to destroy the movement. In December 1917, Kornilov took command of the combat forces within the army and Alekseyev took charge of political and financial matters. After the death of Kornilov in April 1918, Alexeyev led the Volunteer Army back to the Don River region. He was appointed the head of the Special Council, which would function as a government under Anton Denikin. However, Alekseyev, sick for some time, died of heart failure in Ekaterinodar in September 1918. He was first buried in the crypt of the Cossack host cathedral, but his family moved his remains to Belgrade, Serbia, where they remain to this day.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mikhail Vasilyevich Alekseyev () ( – ) was an Imperial Russian Army general during World War I and the Russian Civil War. Between 1915 and 1917 he served as Tsar Nicholas II's Chief of Staff of the Stavka, and after the February Revolution, was its commander-in-chief under the Russian Provisional Government from March to May 1917. He later played a principal role in founding the Volunteer Army in the Russian Civil War and died in 1918 of heart failure while fighting the Bolsheviks in the Volga region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974372}
{"src_title": "Peugeot 607", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The 607 was launched in October 1999, to replace the already discontinued 605. It used its predecessor's chassis but had an all new, more modern exterior design. The engine range (2.2 and 3.0 petrol, and 2.2 diesel) was completely new.  Equipment levels were also high, with all models getting air conditioning, CD player, electric windows, 8 airbags, anti-lock braking system, tire-pressure monitor and central locking as standard. Available AMVAR nine stage electronic damping control.  Motoring journalists, such as Jeremy Clarkson, disliked the 607. They claimed it had handling that wasn't up to Peugeot's usual \"good\" standards. In December 2000, in \"The Sunday Times\", Clarkson profoundly claimed it was the worst car ever made. This was even worse than the Peugeot 807, which he rated almost as badly.  In France, its home market, it was often chosen for official usage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxi versions.", "content": "The 607 is frequently used as a taxi in France; Portugal uses them as airport taxis in Faro Airport; these versions are usually 3.0 V6 or 2.2 HDi versions; the Benelux countries also use them as well, but less frequently at airports.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Facelift.", "content": "The 607 was restyled in November 2004, with the most notable modifications being the new front end and the 2.7 HDi V6 engine, capable of, mated to a new six speed automatic gearbox, which is now also available on the V6 petrol model. 2.0 and 2.2 diesel engines got more power and a 6-speed transmission, like the newly introduced Peugeot 407.  During 2008, the 607 was withdrawn from the United Kingdom, owing to poor sales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Peugeot 607 Paladine.", "content": "The Peugeot 607 Paladine is a special Landaulet version of the 607 which was developed and built in 2000 in cooperation with Heuliez, as a concept car. The engine is the 3.0 V6. It is lengthened by (making it long), and the rear part is equipped with a retractable metallic roof similar to the Peugeot 206's or 307's CC. It is a one off design.  The special leather interior was developed in cooperation with Hermès.  The car was first presented at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2000. It was first used seven years later by then French President Nicolas Sarkozy for his inauguration on May 16, 2007. Meanwhile, the car had been retrofitted in accordance with the 2004 restyling of the 607 (updated front part).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Successor.", "content": "In November 2009, Philippe Varin from PSA announced that the successor of the Peugeot 607 would not be called the Peugeot 608, but instead the Peugeot 508. The 508 also replaced the smaller Peugeot 407, which lost sales fast during the period of 2008 to 2009.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Peugeot 607 is an executive car produced by the French automaker Peugeot from September 1999 to June 2010. It is known by several nicknames including a french cruiser, lion king and spaceship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974373}
{"src_title": "John Frederick, Duke of Württemberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "John Frederick of Württemberg was the eldest son of Frederick I and Sibylla of Anhalt. He was born in Montbéliard castle which he left at the age of four when his family moved its residence to Stuttgart.  John Frederick married Barbara Sophie of Brandenburg (16 November 1584 – 13 February 1636), daughter of Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg. To commemorate his marriage on 5 November 1609, he had Castle Urach converted, turning its \"golden room\" into one of the finest surviving examples of renaissance banqueting halls in Germany.  John Frederick and his wife had the following children:  John Frederick was a well-meaning, peace-loving ruler but he displayed a number of personal weaknesses and was often ill-equipped to deal with the challenges of the era. Despite this he restored the constitution (which had been suspended by his father, Frederick I, subject to changes that were never implemented). He also restored the power of the councils of Duke Louis (which had been abolished by Frederick I). Most importantly, he had Frederick’s powerful chancellor Matthäus Enzlin condemned to a fortress for life for embezzlement and extortion, subjecting him later to trial on a count of high treason for which he was executed on the market place in Urach in 1613. He achieved little improvement in the state of affairs within the ducal household, however. In fact the duchy ran into further debt leading to unruly debate within the family and even the ranks of servants and eventually problems with the mint.  John Frederick continued the long-standing negotiations held by his father with other evangelical princes, resulting in talks in Auhausen near Nördlingen in May 1608 and the subsequent signing of the Union of Auhausen. In 1621 he moved with a Unionist army into the Palatinate region, although the alliance crumbled in the same year with little to show for its efforts.  Duke John Frederick continued to swear allegiance to the union. At the battle of Wimpfen (26 April 1622), Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Baden-Durlach, was defeated by Marshall Tilly and the duke’s youngest brother fell in battle. Despite a neutrality accord, the victors of this battle went on to sack the north western areas of the Duke's region and in the years that followed it suffered repeatedly under harmful raids and settlement.  On 28 May 1617, John Frederick entered into an agreement with a number of his many brothers; the eldest of his youngest brothers, Louis Frederick was given the county of Montbéliard – still not totally independent of the Duchy of Württemberg. The next brother, Julius Frederick inherited recently acquired sovereignty over Brenz and Weiltingen, leading to two new branch lines in the Duchy; the younger line of Württemberg-Mömpelgard (which died out in 1723) and Württemberg-Weiltingen (which died out in 1792). His other brothers, Frederick Achilles and Magnus inherited the castles of Neuenstadt and Neuenbürg respectively. As both of the latter brothers were unmarried when they died their possessions were subsequently brought back into the main line of the Duchy.  See also: German family tree of the", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "German books", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Duke John Frederick of Württemberg (5 May 1582, Montbéliard – 18 July 1628) was the 7th Duke of Württemberg from 4 February 1608 until his death on 18 July 1628 whilst en route to Heidenheim.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974374}
{"src_title": "Metafiction", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the term.", "content": "The term'metafiction' was coined in 1970 by William H. Gass in his book \"Fiction and the Figures of Life\". Gass describes the increasing use of metafiction at the time as a result of authors developing a better understanding of the medium. This new understanding of the medium led to a major change in the approach toward fiction. Theoretical issues became more prominent aspects, resulting in an increased self-reflexivity and formal uncertainty. Robert Scholes expands upon Gass' theory and identifies four forms of criticism on fiction, which he refers to as formal, behavioural, structural, and philosophical criticism. Metafiction assimilates these perspectives into the fictional process, putting emphasis on one or more of these aspects.  These developments were part of a larger movement (arguably a'metareferential turn') which, approximately from the 1960s onwards, was the consequence of an increasing social and cultural self-consciousness, stemming from, as Patricia Waugh puts it, \"a more general cultural interest in the problem of how human beings reflect, construct and mediate their experience in the world.\"  Due to this development, an increasing number of novelists rejected the notion of rendering the world through fiction. The new principle became to create through the medium of language a world that does not reflect the real world. Language was considered an \"independent, self-contained system which generates its own'meanings.'\" and a means of mediating knowledge of the world. Thus, literary fiction, which constructs worlds through language, became a model for the construction of'reality' rather than a reflection of it. Reality itself became regarded as a construct instead of an objective truth. Through its formal self-exploration, metafiction thus became the device that explores the question of how human beings construct their experience of the world.  Robert Scholes identifies the time around 1970 as the peak of experimental fiction (which metafiction is an instrumental part of) and names a lack of commercial and critical success as reasons for its subsequent decline. The development toward metafictional writing in postmodernism generated mixed responses. Some critics argued that it signified the decadence of the novel and an exhaustion of the artistic capabilities of the medium, with some going as far as to call it the 'death of the novel'. Others see the self-consciousness of fictional writing as a way to gain deeper understanding of the medium and a path that leads to innovation that resulted in the emergence of new forms of literature, such as the historiographic novel by Linda Hutcheon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Forms.", "content": "According to Werner Wolf, metafiction can be differentiated into four pairs of forms that can be combined with each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Explicit/implicit metafiction.", "content": "Explicit metafiction is identifiable through its use of clear metafictional elements on the surface of a text. It comments on its own artificiality and is quotable. Explicit metafiction is described as a mode of telling. An example would be a narrator explaining the process of creating the story they are telling.  Rather than commenting on the text, implicit metafiction foregrounds the medium or its status as an artefact through various, for example disruptive, techniques such as metalepsis. It relies more than other forms of metafiction on the reader's ability to recognize these devices in order to evoke a metafictional reading. Implicit metafiction is described as a mode of showing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Direct/indirect metafiction.", "content": "Direct metafiction establishes a reference within the text one is just reading. In contrast to this, indirect metafiction consists in metareferences external to this text, such as reflections on specific other literary works or genres (as in parodies) and general discussions of aesthetic issues; since there is always a relationship between the text in which indirect metafiction occurs and the referenced external texts or issues, indirect metafiction always also impacts the text one is reading, albeit in an indirect way.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical/non-critical metafiction.", "content": "Critical metafiction aims to find the artificiality or fictionality of a text in some critical way, which is frequently done in postmodernist fiction. Non-critical metafiction does not criticize or undermine the artificiality or fictionality of a text and can, for example, be used to \"suggest that the story one is reading is authentic\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Generally media-centred/truth- or fiction-centred metafiction.", "content": "While all metafiction somehow deals with the medial quality of fiction or narrative and is thus generally media-centred, in some cases there is an additional focus on the truthfulness or inventedness (fictionality) of a text, which merits mention as a specific form. The suggestion of a story being authentic (a device frequently used in realistic fiction) would be an example of (non-critical) truth-centred metafiction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Laurence Sterne, \"The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman\".", "content": "In this scene Tristram Shandy, the eponymous character and narrator of the novel, foregrounds the process of creating literature as he interrupts his previous thought and begins to talk about the beginnings of books. The scene evokes an explicitly metafictional response to the problem (and by addressing a problem of the novel one is just reading but also a general problem the excerpt is thus an example of both direct and indirect metafiction, which may additionally be classified as generally media-centred, non-critical metafiction). Through the lack of context to this sudden change of topic (writing a book is not a plot point, nor does this scene take place at the beginning of the novel, where such a scene might be more willingly accepted by the reader) the metafictional reflection is foregrounded. Additionally, the narrator addresses the reader directly, thereby confronting the reader with the fact that they are reading a constructed text.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "David Lodge, \"The British Museum is Falling Down\".", "content": "This scene from \"The British Museum is Falling Down\" (1965) features several instances of metafiction. First, the speaker, Adam Appleby (the protagonist of the novel) discusses the change the rise of the novel brought upon the literary landscape, specifically with regards to thematic changes that occurred. Second, he talks about the mimetic aspect of realist novels. Third, he alludes to the notion that the capabilities of literature have been exhausted, and thus to the idea of the death of the novel (all of this is explicit, critical indirect metafiction). Fourth, he covertly foregrounds that fact that the characters in the novel are fictional characters, rather than masking this aspect, as would be the case in non-metafictional writing. Therefore, this scene features metafictional elements with reference to the medium (the novel), the form of art (literature), a genre (realism), and arguably also lays bare the fictionality of the characters and thus of the novel itself (which could be classified as critical, direct, fiction-centred metafiction).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jasper Fforde, \"The Eyre Affair\".", "content": "\"The Eyre Affair\" (2001) is set in an alternate history in which it is possible to enter the world of a work of literature through the use of a machine. In the novel, literary detective Thursday Next chases a criminal through the world of Charlotte Brontë's \"Jane Eyre\". This paradoxical transgression of narrative boundaries is called metalepsis, an implicitly metafictional device when used in literature. Metalepsis has a high inherent potential to disrupt aesthetic illusion and confronts the reader with the fictionality of the text. However, as metalepsis is used as a plot device that has been introduced as part of the world of \"The Eyre Affair\" it can, in this instance, have the opposite effect and is compatible with immersion. It can thus be seen as an example of metafiction that does not (necessarily) break aesthetic illusion.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Metafiction is a form of fiction that emphasizes its own constructedness in a way that continually reminds the reader to be aware that they are reading or viewing a fictional work. Metafiction is self-conscious about language, literary form, and storytelling, and works of metafiction directly or indirectly draw attention to their status as artifacts. Metafiction is frequently used as a form of parody or a tool to undermine literary conventions and explore the relationship between literature and reality, life, and art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974375}
{"src_title": "Burg Kreuzenstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The castle is located just north of Vienna and the Danube on a rising above Rohrwald, directly above Leobendorf and between the towns of Korneuburg and Stockerau. The elevation is, the height above the Danube about.  Close to Burg Kreuzenstein is a water gap in the Danube called Wiener Pforte (\"Viennese Portal\"), so that it allows a wide view of the current course of the river and the Korneuburger Becken (\"Korneuburger sedimentary basin\") upstream. Approximately opposite to Burg Kreuzenstein, on the south bank of the Danube, lies Burg Greifenstein castle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medieval castle of the Habsburgs.", "content": "The origins of Burg Kreuzenstein, like most castles in Lower Austria, date back to the 12th century. Originally built by the Counts of Formbach (now Vornbach, Bavaria), the castle passed into the possession of the Counts of Wasserburg through marriage. Through Ottokar II of Bohemia, the castle came into the possession of the Habsburgs, in 1278.  In July 1527, the Anabaptist preacher Balthasar Hubmaier was arrested under the pretext of causing riots in Mikulov, Moravia and transferred to Burg Kreuzenstein. He was interrogated there but refused to renounce his beliefs and was burned at the stake in Vienna.  Until the Thirty Years War, the castle had never been conquered but then it fell into the hands of the Swedish Field Marshall Lennart Torstensson, who, on his departure in 1645, blew up three parts of the building (some sources say four).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reconstruction under the Counts of Wilczek.", "content": "In the 18th century, the castle came into the possession of the Counts of Wilczek who had amassed a large fortune through their coal mines in Silesia. In 1874, Count Johann Nepomuk Wilczek, best known as a polar explorer, began reconstruction of the castle but in a style entirely different from the original Romanesque-Gothic architecture. The existing ruins were incorporated into the new castle, in particular, parts of the outer wall, the east tower and parts of the chapel. The practised eye can easily distinguish between the surviving medieval masonry and the 19th century additions.  The reconstruction was overseen by architect Carl Gangolf Kayser until his death in 1895, at which time it was taken over by Ritter Humbert Walcher of Molthein and the artist Egon Rheinberger.  A family vault was built under the castle and Johann Wilczek is interred there. As well as building the castle from the original masonry and on the original site, Wilczek gathered building components from all over Europe. Additionally, the castle was equipped with a large collection of medieval furnishings and historical artefacts, including one of the oldest surviving medieval catapults, purchased from Hohensalzburg Castle.  The reconstruction work lasted for 30 years and Kaiser Wilhelm II was present at the reopening on 6 June 1906. A fire caused by a lightning strike in 1915, burned part of the archives and library wing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Burg Kreuzenstein today.", "content": "Though now in the collection of the Austrian National Library, the conflict between the German \"Wehrmacht\" and the Red Army in 1945 resulted in the theft of several manuscripts, and some rooms of the castle were extensively damaged during the war (World War II).  Today the castle is a much-loved tourist destination and museum in the surrounding countryside of Vienna. At one time, a classical concert known as the Burgserenade was held in the great hall of the castle, at the end of June each year. This has been discontinued. Through the year from April to October, a falconry show, known as \"Adlerwarte Kreuzenstein\" is held on the estate. The recently renovated Burgtaverne Kreuzenstein is a restaurant, furnished to provide the atmosphere of a medieval tavern.  In 2013, Kreuzenstein Castle became the titular home of the Lazarus Union Knighthood of Honour.  Currently, the owner of the castle (and holder of the title) is Johan-Christian Count Wilczek.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Burg Kreuzenstein is a castle near Leobendorf in Lower Austria, Austria. Burg Kreuzenstein is above sea level. It was constructed on the remains of an early medieval castle that had fallen into disrepair and was then demolished during the Thirty Years' War. Intended to be a family vault for the Wilczek family, it was rebuilt in the 19th century by Count Nepomuk Wilczek with money from the family's large Silesian coal mines. Kreuzenstein is interesting in that it was constructed out of sections of medieval structures purchased by the family from all over Europe to form an authentic-looking castle. Thus, the castle can be considered both a 'neo-' and 'original' medieval structure. The castle is sometimes used as a location for films.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974376}
{"src_title": "Forward rate agreement", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "General Description.", "content": "A forward rate agreement's (FRA's) effective description is a cash for difference derivative contract, between two parties, benchmarked against an interest rate index. That index is commonly an interbank offered rate (-IBOR) of specific tenor in different currencies, for example LIBOR in USD, GBP, EURIBOR in EUR or STIBOR in SEK. An FRA between two counterparties requires a fixed rate, notional amount, chosen interest rate index tenor and date to be completely specified.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extended Description.", "content": "Forward rate agreements (FRAs) are interconnected with short term interest rate futures (STIR futures). Because STIR futures settle against the same index as a subset of FRAs, IMM FRAs, their pricing is related. The nature of each product has a distinctive gamma (convexity) profile resulting in rational, no arbitrage, pricing adjustments. This adjustment is called futures convexity adjustment (FCA) and is usually expressed in basis points.  Interest rate swaps (IRSs) are often considered a series of FRAs but this view is technically incorrect due to differences in calculation methodologies in cash payments and this results in very small pricing differences.  FRAs are not loans, and do not constitute agreements to loan any amount of money on an unsecured basis to another party at any pre-agreed rate. Their nature as an IRD product creates only the effect of leverage and the ability to speculate, or hedge, interest rate risk exposure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Valuation and Pricing.", "content": "The cash for difference value on an FRA, exchanged between the two parties, calculated from the perspective of having sold an FRA (which imitates receiving the fixed rate) is calculated as:  where formula_2 is the notional of the contract, formula_3 is the fixed rate, formula_4 is the published -IBOR fixing rate and formula_5 is the decimalised day count fraction over which the value start and end dates of the -IBOR rate extend. For USD and EUR this follows an ACT/360 convention and GBP follows an ACT/365 convention. The cash amount is paid on the value start date applicable to the interest rate index (depending in which currency the FRA is traded, this is either immediately after or within two business days of the published -IBOR fixing rate).  For mark-to-market (MTM) purposes the net present value (PV) of an FRA can be determined by discounting the expected cash difference, for a forecast value formula_4:  where formula_8 is the discount factor of the payment date upon which the cash for difference is physically settled, which, in modern pricing theory, will be dependent upon which discount curve to apply based on the credit support annex (CSA) of the derivative contract.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses and Risks.", "content": "Many banks and large corporations will use FRAs to hedge future interest or exchange rate exposure. The buyer hedges against the risk of rising interest rates, while the seller hedges against the risk of falling interest rates. Other parties that use Forward Rate Agreements are speculators purely looking to make bets on future directional changes in interest rates. The development swaps in the 1980s provided organisations with an alternative to FRAs for hedging and speculating.  In other words, a forward rate agreement (FRA) is a tailor-made, over-the-counter financial futures contract on short-term deposits. A FRA transaction is a contract between two parties to exchange payments on a deposit, called the \"Notional amount\", to be determined on the basis of a short-term interest rate, referred to as the \"Reference rate\", over a predetermined time period at a future date. FRA transactions are entered as a hedge against interest rate changes. The buyer of the contract locks in the interest rate in an effort to protect against an interest rate increase, while the seller protects against a possible interest rate decline. At maturity, no funds exchange hands; rather, the difference between the contracted interest rate and the market rate is exchanged. The buyer of the contract is paid if the published reference rate is above the fixed, contracted rate, and the buyer pays to the seller if the published reference rate is below the fixed, contracted rate. A company that seeks to hedge against a possible increase in interest rates would purchase FRAs, whereas a company that seeks an interest hedge against a possible decline of the rates would sell FRAs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quotation and Market-Making.", "content": "FRA Descriptive Notation and Interpretation How to interpret a quote for FRA?  [US$ 3x9 - 3.25/3.50%p.a ] - means deposit interest starting 3 months from now for 6 month is 3.25% and borrowing interest rate starting 3 months from now for 6 month is 3.50% (see also bid–ask spread). Entering a \"payer FRA\" means paying the fixed rate (3.50% p.a.) and receiving a floating 6-month rate, while entering a \"receiver FRA\" means paying the same floating rate and receiving a fixed rate (3.25% p.a.).  This information on the notation on FRAs is consistent with the material presented in this citation. This text goes on to specify the additional property of a FRA's 'roll-day' which describes which day of the month (from 1 to 31) that the FRA's value start date is effective from.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In finance, a forward rate agreement (FRA) is an interest rate derivative (IRD). In particular it is a linear IRD with strong associations with interest rate swaps (IRSs).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974377}
{"src_title": "Jan Potocki", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Jan Potocki was born into the Potocki aristocratic family, that owned vast estates across Poland. He was educated in Geneva and Lausanne, served twice in the Polish Army as a captain of engineers, and spent some time on a galley as novice to the Knights of Malta. His colorful life took him across Europe, Asia and North Africa, where he embroiled himself in political intrigues, flirted with secret societies and contributed to the birth of ethnology – he was one of the first to study the precursors of the Slavic peoples from a linguistic and historical standpoint.  In 1790 he became the first person in Poland to fly in a hot air balloon when he made an ascent over Warsaw with the aeronaut Jean-Pierre Blanchard, an exploit that earned him great public acclaim. He spent some time in France, and upon his return to Poland, he became a known publicist, publishing newspapers and pamphlets, in which he argued for various reforms. He also established in 1788 in Warsaw a publishing house named \"Drukarnia Wolna\" (Free Press) as well as the city's first free reading room. His relation with the King Stanisław II August was thorny, as Potocki, while often supportive of the King, on occasion did not shy from his critique. He was highly critical of the Russian ambassador, Otto Magnus von Stackelberg.  Potocki's wealth enabled him to travel extensively about Europe, the Mediterranean and Asia, visiting Italy, Sicily, Malta, the Netherlands, Germany, France, England, Russia, Turkey, Dalmatia, the Balkans, the Caucasus, Spain, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and even Mongolia. He was also one of the first travel writers of the modern era, penning lively accounts of many of his journeys, during which he also undertook extensive historical, linguistic, and ethnographic studies.  Potocki married twice and had five children. His first marriage ended in divorce, and both marriages were the subject of scandalous rumors. In 1812, disillusioned and in poor health, he retired to his estate at Uładówka in Podolia, suffering from \"melancholia\" (which today would probably be diagnosed as depression), and during the last few years of his life he completed his novel.  Believing he was becoming a werewolf, Potocki committed suicide by fatally shooting himself with a silver bullet that he had had blessed by his village priest in December 1815, at the age of 54.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Manuscript Found in Saragossa\".", "content": "Potocki's most famous work, originally written in French, is \"The Manuscript Found in Saragossa\" (\"Manuscrit trouvé à Saragosse\"). It is a frame tale. On account of its rich, interlocking structure, and telescoping story sequences, the novel has drawn comparisons to such celebrated works as the \"Decameron\" and the \"Arabian Nights\".  The book's title is explained in the foreword, which is narrated by an unnamed French officer who describes his fortuitous discovery of an intriguing Spanish manuscript during the sack of Zaragoza in 1809, in the course of the Napoleonic Wars. Soon after, the French officer is captured by the Spanish and stripped of his possessions; but a Spanish officer recognizes the manuscript's importance, and during the French officer's captivity the Spaniard translates it for him into French.  The manuscript has been written by a young officer of the Walloon Guard, Alphonse van Worden. In 1739, while \"en route\" to Madrid to serve with the Spanish Army, he is diverted into Spain's rugged Sierra Morena region. There, over a period of sixty-six days, he encounters a varied group of characters, including Muslim princesses, Gypsies, outlaws, and cabbalists, who tell him an intertwining series of bizarre, amusing, and fantastic tales which he records in his diary.  The sixty-six stories cover a wide range of themes, subjects, and styles, including gothic horror, picaresque adventures, and comic, erotic, and moral tales. The stories reflect Potocki's interest in secret societies, the supernatural, and oriental cultures, and they are illustrated with his detailed observations of 18th-century European manners and customs, particularly those of upper-class Spanish society.  Many of the locations described in the tales are real places and regions which Potocki would have visited during his travels, while others are fictionalized accounts of actual places.  While there is still some dispute about the novel's authorship, it is now generally accepted to have indeed been written by Potocki. He began writing it in the 1790s and completed it in 1814, a year before his death, though the novel's structure is thought to have been fully mapped out by 1805.  The novel was never published in its entirety during Potocki's lifetime. A proof edition of the first ten \"days\" was circulated in Saint Petersburg in 1805, and a second extract was published in Paris in 1813, almost certainly with Potocki's permission. A third publication, combining both earlier extracts, was issued in 1814, but it appears that at the time of his death Potocki had not yet decided on the novel's final form.  Potocki composed the book entirely in the French language. Sections of the original manuscripts were later lost, but have survived in a Polish translation that was made in 1847 by Edmund Chojecki from a complete French copy, now lost.  The most recent and complete French-language version, edited by François Rosset and Dominique Triaire, was published in 2006 in Leuven, Belgium, as part of a critical scholarly edition of the complete works of Potocki. Unlike Radrizzani's 1989 edition of the \"Manuscript Found in Saragossa\", Rosset and Triaire's edition has been based solely on Potocki's French-language manuscripts found in several libraries in France, Poland (in particular, previously unknown autograph pieces that they discovered in Poznań), Spain, and Russia, as well as in the private collection of Potocki's heirs. They identified two versions of the novel: one unfinished, of 1804, published in 1805, and the full version of 1810, which appears to have been completely reconceived in comparison to the 1804 version. Whereas the first version has a lighter, more sceptical tone, the second one tends towards a darker, more religious mood. In view of the differences between the two versions, the 1804 and 1810 versions have been published as two separate books; paperback editions were issued in early 2008 by Flammarion.  The first English-language edition, published in 1995, was a translation of Radrizzani's edition by Oxford scholar Ian Maclean. Potocki's novel became more widely known in the West via the stylish black-and-white film adaptation made in Poland in 1965 as \"The Saragossa Manuscript\" (\"Rękopis znaleziony w Saragossie\"), directed by renowned filmmaker Wojciech Has and starring Zbigniew Cybulski as Alphonse van Worden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Travel memoirs.", "content": "Modern editions have appeared as follows:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Count Jan Potocki (; 8 March 1761 – 23 December 1815) was a Polish nobleman, Polish Army Captain of Engineers, ethnologist, Egyptologist, linguist, traveler, adventurer, and popular author of the Enlightenment period, whose life and exploits made him a legendary figure in his homeland. Outside Poland he is known chiefly for his novel, \"The Manuscript Found in Saragossa\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974378}
{"src_title": "Lampyris noctiluca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The range of this beetle stretches from Portugal and Ireland in the west, right across Europe and Asia to China in the east. It also survives further north than any other firefly, almost reaching the Arctic Circle. It is not found in North America, South America, South Asia, Africa, Australia and Antarctica.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Light production.", "content": "Light production is vital for \"Lampyris noctiluca\". With it they have greater chances of mating, so there is a complex process involved.  They emit yellowish-green light from the translucent underside of their last three abdominal segments to attract the smaller males, which are winged. They will glow for two hours and then retreat back into their hiding place until the next night, or stop glowing as soon as they find a mate. The females can survive for at least 10 consecutive nights doing this.  The light can be seen by males up to 50 yards away. The light is emitted continuously, although they will wave their abdomens from side to side, which gives the impression of it brightening and dimming. Larvae are sometimes seen to glow, although they seem able to turn off their light more easily than the female, especially when disturbed.  The insect can regulate its light production by controlling the oxygen supply to the light emitting membranes containing luciferin. The chemical reaction producing the light from luciferin is catalysed by luciferase, the exact chemical structure of which is determined by the glow worms' individual genetic structure, which in turn determines subtle differences in the light produced from individual to individual. Virtually all of the energy produced is light; only 2% is heat.  The brightness of the glow is used by the males as an indicator of female fecundity. Males are more likely to fly to a brighter female, because it is larger and has more eggs. Due to this, females compete against each other for matings.  The males are sometimes attracted to man-made light fixtures.  The peak glowing period is evenings in June and July.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "They are found in old-growth grassland, especially on chalk and limestone soils. They are also found in verges, hedgebanks, and on heaths. The larvae live in sheltered places – under rocks and wood, but do crawl over different terrains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifecycle.", "content": "Once the females have attracted the males with their glow, they mate, lay eggs, and die.  Typically, 50–100 are laid over three days, with the adult not surviving to see them hatch. They are laid in fairly moist places, e.g. stem of grass or under moss.  The eggs are pale yellow, 1 mm across. They may glow faintly yellow and take between 27 and 45 days to hatch depending on the weather (colder=longer).  The eggs hatch after two or three weeks. Larvae and adult females look similar, but larvae have bright spots on each of 12 segments, whereas adult females have a completely black back. The predatory larvae feed for two or three years on slugs and snails which they inject with a brown, toxic, digestive fluid, delivered by a series of nips and bites. The poison takes a while to work, and the larva has to be careful not to become stuck to any protective mucus that its prey may secrete. The prey is gradually paralysed and the digestive fluid turns part of it into a brown broth that the larva can lap up. The prey remains alive, and some partially eaten victims have been known to crawl away after the meal.  The slugs and snails are often 200 times the weight of the beetle larva. The larvae are nocturnal, and are most active during moist conditions, when their prey are most active.  The larvae may moult four to five times in their lifetimes. They spend their winters under logs, stones, wood holes, or leaf litter, their bodies drawn in like concertinas, hibernating as their food source becomes increasingly hard to find. They wake up in spring, and the cycle is repeated for one more year, or possibly two.  They become adults from May to July or sometimes later, surviving on food reserves built up during time as a larva, and dying after reproducing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats to species numbers.", "content": "Threats include habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation, pollution, distraction from artificial lights, insufficient grazing and climate change.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lampyris noctiluca, the common glow-worm of Europe (see also \"glowworm\"), is a firefly species of the genus \"Lampyris\". These are beetles, as evidenced by the hard cases which close over the wings when they are not in use.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974379}
{"src_title": "Karl-Otto Apel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Apel grew up during the political crises of the Weimar Republic. In 1940, he was a war volunteer with his entire graduating class. After the Second World War, Apel studied from 1945 to 1950 at the University of Bonn, first history and intellectual history, before he committed himself as a student of Erich Rothacker on philosophy. In 1950, he received his doctorate from Bonn with a thesis on Martin Heidegger.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic positions.", "content": "Apel was appointed lecturer at the University of Mainz in 1961. He was a full professor of philosophy at the University of Kiel from 1962 to 1969, at the University of Saarbrücken from 1969 to 1972, and at the University of Frankfurt am Main from 1972 to 1990. In 1990, he transferred to emeritus status. He has held a number of visiting and guest professorships at universities around the world.  He was made a Member of the Academia Europaea in 1989 and a Full Member of the Academia Scientiarum et Artium Europaea in 1993. In 2001, he was awarded the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Apel worked in ethics, the philosophy of language and human sciences. He wrote extensively in these fields, publishing mostly in German. Apel's work brings together the Analytical and Continental philosophical traditions, especially pragmatism and the critical theory of the Frankfurt School.  In \"Understanding and Explanation: A Transcendental-Pragmatic Perspective\", Apel reformulated the difference between understanding (\"Verstehen\") and explanation (\"Erklärung\"), which originated in the hermeneutics of Wilhelm Dilthey and interpretive sociology of Max Weber, on the basis of a Peircean-inspired transcendental-pragmatic account of language. This account of the \"lifeworld\" would become an element of the theory of communicative action and discourse ethics, which Apel co-developed with Jürgen Habermas. Strategic rationality both claim to stand in need of communicative rationality that is seen as, in several regards, more fundamental. While sympathetic to Habermas's \"Theory of Communicative Action\", Apel has been critical of aspects of Habermas's approach. Apel has proposed that a theory of communication should be grounded in the transcendental-pragmatic conditions of communication. After taking his point of departure from Apel, Habermas has moved towards a \"weak transcendentalism\" that is more closely tied to empirical social inquiry.  Apel also wrote works on Charles Sanders Peirce and is a past president of the C. S. Peirce Society.  An early German-speaking adversary of so-called critical rationalism, Apel published a critique of the philosophy of Karl Popper: In \"Transformation der Philosophie\" (1973), Apel charged Popper with being guilty of, amongst other things, a pragmatic contradiction.  From the 1970s to the 1990s, Apel influenced other philosophers writing in Europe, the Americas, and Asia. Apel died on 15 May 2017 at the age of 95.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl-Otto Apel (; 15 March 1922 – 15 May 2017) was a German philosopher and Professor Emeritus at the University of Frankfurt am Main. He specialized on the philosophy of language and is thus considered a communication theorist. He developed a distinctive philosophical approach which he called transcendental pragmatics (\"Transzendentalpragmatik\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974380}
{"src_title": "Short-eared owl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The short-eared owl is a medium-sized owl measuring in length and weighing. It has large eyes, a big head, a short neck, and broad wings. Its bill is short, strong, hooked and black. Its plumage is mottled tawny to brown with a barred tail and wings. The upper breast is significantly streaked. Its flight is characteristically floppy due to its irregular wingbeats. The short-eared owl may also be described as \"moth or bat-like\" in flight. Wingspans range from. Females are slightly larger than males. The yellow-orange eyes of \"A. flammeus\" are exaggerated by black rings encircling each eye, giving the appearance of them wearing mascara, and large, whitish disks of plumage surrounding the eyes like a mask.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Separation from the long-eared owl.", "content": "Through much of its range, short-eared owls occurs with the similar-looking long-eared owl. At rest, the ear-tufts of the long-eared owl serve to easily distinguish the two (although long-eared owls can sometimes hold their ear-tufts flat). The iris-colour differs: yellow in the short-eared, and orange in the long-eared, and the black surrounding the eyes is vertical on the long-eared, and horizontal on the short-eared. Overall the short-eared tends to be a paler, sandier bird than the long-eared. There are a number of other ways in which the two species the differ which are best seen when they are flying: a) the short-eared often has a broad white band along the rear edge of the wing, which is not shown by the long-eared; b) on the upperwing, short-eared owls' primary-patches are usually paler and more obvious; c) the band on the upper side of the short-eared owl's tail are usually bolder than those of the long-eared; d) the short-eared's innermost secondaries are often dark-marked, contrasting with the rest of the underwing; e) the long-eared owl has streaking throughout its underparts, whereas on the short-eared the streaking ends at the breast; f) the dark markings on the underside of the tips of the longest primaries are bolder on the short-eared owl; g) the upper parts are coarsely blotched, whereas on the long-eared they are more finely marked. The short-eared owl also differs structurally from the long-eared, having longer, slimmer wings: the long-eared owl has wings shaped more like those of a tawny owl. The long-eared owl generally has different habitat preferences from the short-eared, most often being found concealed in areas with dense wooded thickets. The short-eared owl is often most regularly seen flying about in early morning or late day as it hunts over open habitats.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": ", there are 10 recognized subspecies of the short-eared owl:  Some authorities recognize an 11th subspecies:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "The short-eared owl occurs on all continents except Antarctica and Australia; thus it has one of the most widespread distributions of any bird. \"A. flammeus\" breeds in Europe, Asia, North and South America, the Caribbean, Hawaii and the Galápagos Islands. It is partially migratory, moving south in winter from the northern parts of its range. The short-eared owl is known to relocate to areas of higher rodent populations. It will also wander nomadically in search of better food supplies during years when vole populations are low. (See a map of the short-eared owl's distribution across the New World.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nesting and reproduction.", "content": "Sexual maturity is attained at one year. Breeding season in the northern hemisphere lasts from March to June, peaking in April. During this time these owls may gather in flocks. During breeding season, the males make great spectacles of themselves in flight to attract females. The male swoops down over the nest flapping its wings in a courtship display. These owls are generally monogamous.  The short-eared owl nests on the ground in prairie, tundra, savanna, or meadow habitats. Nests are concealed by low vegetation, and may be lightly lined by weeds, grass, or feathers. Approximately 4 to 7 white eggs are found in a typical clutch, but clutch size can reach up to a dozen eggs in years when voles are abundant. There is one brood per year. The eggs are incubated mostly by the female for 21–37 days. Offspring fledge at a little over four weeks. This owl is known to lure predators away from its nest by appearing to have a crippled wing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diet and foraging habits.", "content": "Hunting occurs mostly at night, but this owl is known to be diurnal and crepuscular as well. Its daylight hunting seems to coincide with the high-activity periods of voles, its preferred prey. It tends to fly only feet above the ground in open fields and grasslands until swooping down upon its prey feet-first. Several owls may hunt over the same open area. Its food consists mainly of rodents, especially voles, but it will eat other small mammals such as mice, ground squirrels, shrews, rats, bats, muskrats and moles. It will also occasionally predate smaller birds, especially when near sea-coasts and adjacent wetlands at which time they attack shorebirds, terns and small gulls and seabirds with semi-regularity. Avian prey is more infrequently preyed on inland and centers on passerines such as larks, icterids, starlings, tyrant flycatchers and pipits. Insects supplement the diet and short-eared owls may prey on roaches, grasshoppers, beetles, katydids and caterpillars. Competition can be fierce in North America with the northern harrier, with which the owl shares similar habitat and prey preferences. Both species will readily harass the other when prey is caught.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pellets.", "content": "Because of the high pH in the stomach of owls they have a reduced ability to digest bone and other hard parts, they eject pellets containing the remains of their prey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calls.", "content": "Short-eared owls have a scratchy bark-like call. Raspy \"waowk, waowk, waowk\" or \"toot-toot-toot-toot-toot\" sounds are common. A loud \"eeee-yerp\" is also heard on breeding grounds. However, short-eared owls are silent on the wintering grounds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "It is listed as declining in the southern portion of its US range. It is common in the northern portion of its breeding range.  It is listed as endangered in New Mexico. Its appearance at the Calverton Executive Airpark on Long Island has prompted the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation to take the lead on ruling whether a massive redevelopment of the airport will receive the necessary environmental permits.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The short-eared owl (\"Asio flammeus\") is a species of typical owl (family Strigidae). Owls belonging to genus \"Asio\" are known as the eared owls, as they have tufts of feathers resembling mammalian ears. These \"ear\" tufts may or may not be visible. \"Asio flammeus\" will display its tufts when in a defensive pose, although its very short tufts are usually not visible. The short-eared owl is found in open country and grasslands. The genus name \"Asio\" is a type of eared owl, and \"flammeus\" means \"flame-coloured\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974381}
{"src_title": "Laotian rock rat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "Upon their initial discovery, Jenkins and coauthors (2005) considered the Laotian rock rat to represent a completely new family. The discovery of a new species of an extant mammal genus, or a new genus, happens periodically, such as with the leaf muntjac or the saola. The discovery of a completely new family is, by comparison, much more unusual. The most recent incident before the discovery of the family Laonastidae by Western science was the discovery of the bumblebee bat (\"Craseonycteris thonglongyai\"; family Craseonycteridae) in 1974. The only other examples from the 20th century are species that are only considered distinct families by a few authorities. These discoveries are: the Chinese river dolphin (\"Lipotes vexillifer\"; family Lipotidae) in 1918, the Zagros mouse-like hamster (\"Calomyscus bailwardi\"; family Calomyscidae) in 1905, and Goeldi's marmoset (\"Callimico goeldii\"; family Callimiconidae) in 1904. Representatives from all the remaining rodent families with living representatives (approximately 30) were discovered before 1900.  Jenkins \"et al.\" did not compare the specimens to known rodent fossils. After such a comparison, Dawson \"et al.\" believed the Laotian rock rat belongs to a previously described family, which had only been known from fossils, the Diatomyidae. The Diatomyidae are known from a series of fossils from the early Oligocene (~32.5 mya) until the Miocene (~11 mya). The discovery of the Laotian rock rat means an 11 million-year gap exists in the fossil record where no diatomyids have been found. Dawson \"et al.\" described the Diatomyidae as a Lazarus taxon due to this gap. The only other mammal Lazarus taxon with a comparable time gap between it and its most recently known fossil relative is the monito del monte, which is part of a marsupial family (Microbiotheriidae) also most recently known from Miocene deposits. Mary Dawson described \"Laonastes\" as the \"coelacanth of rodents\".  The analysis of mtDNA 12S rRNA and cytochrome \"b\" sequence by Jenkins \"et al.\" allied \"Laonastes\" with African hystricognath rodents, namely the blesmols and the dassie rat. Support for such a placement was fair, but the exact position could not be resolved. Huchon \"et al.\" conducted a large-scale molecular phylogeny of rodents, including representatives of all major rodent taxonomic groups, based on 5.5 kb of sequence data from four nuclear and two mitochondrial genes, and a short, interspersed element, insertion analysis including 11 informative loci. Their molecular data place \"Laonastes\" robustly as a sister clade of Ctenodactylidae, and support an ancient divergence during the Lutetian (Early/Middle Eocene, ~44 mya). The earlier molecular study was in error due to long branch attraction and inadequate sampling.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The genus name for this animal, \"Laonastes\", means \"inhabitant of stone\" (from Greek λαας = \"laas\" = stone, gen: λαος = \"laos\" = of stone and Greek ναστης = \"nastes\" = inhabitant). This is in reference to its presence around limestone rocks and also to the country where it was recently discovered. The specific epithet \"aenigmamus\" means \"enigma mouse\" (from Greek αινιγμα = \"ænigma\" and μυς = \"mus\", \"mouse\") referring to its unknown position among the rodents (Jenkins \"et al.\", 2004).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery.", "content": "The first specimens were found for sale as meat at a market in Thakhek, Khammouan, in 1996. Remains of three additional animals were obtained in 1998 from villagers and in an owl pellet. Return trips to Laos by the Wildlife Conservation Society researchers uncovered several other specimens. These new discoveries have prompted the suggestion that the animals may not be as rare as once thought. On June 13, 2006, David Redfield, a professor emeritus of Florida State University, and Thai wildlife biologist Uthai Treesucon announced they had captured, photographed and videotaped a live specimen of the species in the village of Doy in Laos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The animals look generally like rats, with thick, furred tails similar to a squirrel's, but limp. The head is large, with round ears and a somewhat bulbous bridge of the nose, and very long whiskers. Their fur is dark slate grey, with a blackish tail. The belly is lighter, with a small, whitish area in the center. Their eyes are beady and black. They are about long with a tail and weigh about. Jenkins \"et al.\" (2004) described the jaw as hystricognathous, but Dawson \"et al.\" argued it is sciurognathous. The infraorbital foramen is enlarged, consistent with a hystricomorphous zygomasseteric system. The pterygoid fossae do not connect to the orbit, setting them apart from the hystricognathous rodents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The Laotian Rock rat is found in limestone karsts of Khammouan Province and southern Bolikhamxai Province, Laos, and also in a small area of Minh Hóa District, western Quảng Bình Province, Vietnam. In Vietnam, it is found in the 5 communes (\"xã\") of Thượng Hoá, Hóa Sơn, Trung Hoá, Hóa Hợp, and Dân Hoá, and in, near the villages of the Vietic-speaking Ruc, Sach, and Chut ethnic groups. It is also found directly across the border in Hin Namno National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Laos. In Laos, it is most common in the Phou Hin Poun National Biodiversity Conservation Area. Nguyen et al. suggested that the Quảng Bình and Phou Hin Poun populations may be distinct and genetically isolated from each other.  Nicolas et al. found 8 major geographical clades and 8 to 16 evolutionary significant units among Laotian rock rat populations in Laos, and suggested that \"Laonastes\" may in fact consist of various undescribed cryptic species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natural history.", "content": "Laotian rock rats are found in regions of karst limestone. They appear to be found only among limestone boulders on hillsides. Villagers in the area are familiar with the animal, calling it \"kha-nyou\", and trapping it for food. The animals are presumed to be nocturnal.  These rock rats appear to be predominantly herbivores, eating leaves, grass and seeds. They may eat insects, as well, but probably not in high abundance. Females may give birth to a single young.  Laotian rock rats appear to be quite docile and slow-moving over open ground. They walk with feet splayed outward in a gait described as duck-like. Although not ideal for mobility on open surfaces, this appears to be efficient when scrambling up and across large rocks. The sideways angle allows for greater surface area for their feet to find purchase on tilted or parallel surfaces.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Laotian rock rat or kha-nyou (\"Laonastes aenigmamus\", Lao: ຂະຍຸ), sometimes called the \"rat-squirrel\", is a species of rodent found in the Khammouan region of Laos. The species was first described in a 2005 article by Paulina Jenkins and coauthors, who considered the animal to be so distinct from all living rodents, they placed it in a new family, Laonastidae. It is in the monotypic genus \"Laonastes\". In 2006, the classification of the Laotian rock rat was disputed by Mary Dawson and coauthors. They suggested the rat belongs to the ancient fossil family Diatomyidae, which was thought to have been extinct for 11 million years, since the late Miocene. It would thereby represent a Lazarus species. The animals resemble large, dark rats with hairy, thick tails like those of a squirrel. Their skulls are very distinctive and have features that separate them from all other living mammals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974382}
{"src_title": "Alain-Fournier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Alain-Fournier was born in La Chapelle-d'Angillon, in the Cher \"département\", in central France, the son of a school teacher. He studied at the Lycée Lakanal in Sceaux, Hauts-de-Seine, near Paris, where he prepared for the entrance examination to the École Normale Supérieure, but without success. He then studied at the merchant marine school in Brest. At the Lycée Lakanal, he met Jacques Rivière, and the two became close friends. In 1909, Rivière married Alain-Fournier's younger sister Isabelle.  He interrupted his studies in 1907 and from 1908 to 1909 he performed his military service. At this time he published some essays, poems and stories which were later collected and re-published under the name \"Miracles\".  Throughout this period he was mulling over what would become his celebrated novel, \"Le Grand Meaulnes\". On the first of June 1905, Ascension day, while he was taking a stroll along banks of the Seine he had met Yvonne Marie Elise Toussaint de Quiévrecourt, with whom he became deeply enamoured. The two spoke, but he did not manage to win her favour. The following year on the same day he waited for her at the same place, but she did not appear. That night he told Rivière, \"She did not come. And even if she had, she would not have been the same\". They did not meet again until eight years later, when she was married with two children. Yvonne de Quiévrecourt would become Yvonne de Galais in his novel.  He returned to Paris in 1910 and became a literary critic, writing for the \"Paris-Journal\". There he met André Gide and Paul Claudel. In 1912, he quit his job to become the personal assistant of the politician Casimir Perrier. \"Le Grand Meaulnes\" was finished in early 1913, and was first published in the Nouvelle Revue Française (from July to October 1913), and then as a book. \"Le Grand Meaulnes\" was nominated for, but did not win, the Prix Goncourt. It is available in English in a widely admired 1959 translation by Frank Davison for Oxford University Press under the title \"The Lost Domain\".  In 1914, Alain-Fournier started work on a second novel, \"Colombe Blanchet\", but this remained unfinished when he joined the Army as a lieutenant in August. He died fighting near Vaux-lès-Palameix (Meuse) one month later, on 22 September 1914. His body remained unidentified until 1991, at which time he was buried in the cemetery of Saint-Remy-la-Calonne.  Most of the writing of Alain-Fournier was published posthumously: \"Miracles\" (a volume of poems and essays) in 1924, his correspondence with Jacques Rivière in 1926 and his letters to his family in 1930. His notes and sketches for \"Colombe Blanchet\" have also been published.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Albin Schram manuscripts.", "content": "A correspondence between Alain-Fournier and an unidentified woman was found in the Albin Schram Collection. It is a grateful letter for her introduction to Monsieur Hébrard and refers to his next work:  \"Il m'a proposé pour\" Le Temps \"ce qu'il était le plus logique de me proposer: lui apporter mon prochain roman – ce que j'ai promis bien volontiers. Ce second roman est, pour l'instant un peu retardé par une nouvelle oeuvre qui s'est mise au travers de ma route et qui ne me laisse pas beaucoup de répit. Mais j'espère bien avant la fin de l'année avoir terminé\" Colombe Blanchet.  He has proposed to me for \"Le Temps\" that which was the most logical thing to propose to me: to bring him my next novel – which I have promised quite willingly. This second novel is, for the moment, somewhat delayed by a new work which has placed itself across my path and which doesn't leave me much respite. But I hope well before the end of the year to have finished \"Colombe Blanchet\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "AJRAF.", "content": "In 1975, AJRAF – \"Association des amis de Jacques Rivière et d'Alain-Fournier\" (Association of the Friends of Jacques Rivière and of Alain-Fournier) was founded by Alain Rivière, the son of Jacques Rivière and nephew of Alain-Fournier to \"promote knowledge of these two authors and to gather their friends together\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inspiration for artists.", "content": "Alain-Fournier has inspired the artist Jean-Louis Berthod, from Albens, who carved in 2014 a lime wood board (130 cm × 140 cm) according to \"Le Grand Meaulnes\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alain-Fournier () was the pseudonym of Henri-Alban Fournier (3 October 1886 – 22 September 1914), a French author and soldier. He was the author of a single novel, \"Le Grand Meaulnes\" (1913), which has been twice filmed and is considered a classic of French literature. The book is partly based on his childhood unfolding in an atmosphere of mystical unreality beyond which the world of adulthood is perceived.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974383}
{"src_title": "The Mummy Returns", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 3067 BC, the Scorpion King leads his army to conquer the world. However, his army is defeated and exiled to the desert of Ahm Shere, where his men die of heat exhaustion. After vowing to give Anubis his soul for the power to defeat his enemies, an oasis and pyramid magically form, and the Scorpion King is given a legion of jackal-like warriors. The Army of Anubis sweeps across Egypt, but once their task is finished, Anubis claims the Scorpion King's soul and the army returns to the Underworld.  In 1933, Rick O'Connell and his wife Evelyn explore ancient ruins with their son, Alex, where they find the Bracelet of Anubis. In London, the bracelet locks onto Alex, showing him a vision directing him to Ahm Shere.  Evelyn is captured by an Egyptian cult who resurrect Imhotep with the \"Book of the Dead\"; they wish to use his power to defeat the Scorpion King, giving him command of Anubis' army to conquer the world. The cult, led by Baltus Hafez, includes enforcer Lock-Nah and Meela Nais, the reincarnation of Imhotep's love Anck-su-namun. The O'Connells set out to rescue Evelyn, accompanied by her brother Jonathan and the Medjai Ardeth Bay. Jonathan gets his hands on a mysterious golden Scepter of Osiris.  Rick frees Evelyn and flees, but Alex is subsequently kidnapped by Lock-Nah, and forced to travel to Egypt along with the cult. The O'Connells pursue them, along with help from Rick's associate Izzy, a pilot who provides the group with transportation.  The bracelet gives Alex directions to Ahm Shere that Imhotep and the cult follow. At each location, Alex leaves clues for his parents, who follow in Izzy's dirigible. Imhotep uses the \"Book of the Dead\" to give Meela the soul of Anck-su-namun, but by doing so he allows Evelyn to unlock the memories of her previous life as Princess Nefertiri, the bracelet's keeper and Pharaoh Seti I's daughter.  At the edge of the Oasis, Imhotep uses his magic to crash the dirigible; Izzy stays behind in hopes of repairing it. By nightfall, the O'Connells infiltrate the cult, but both groups are attacked by pygmy mummies. Rick retrieves Alex while Ardeth Bay kills Lock-Nah. They escape the pygmies, who kill all the cult members except for Baltus, Imhotep and Anck-su-namun.  Rick and Alex eventually make it to the pyramid at dawn, and the bracelet detaches from Alex. Anck-su-namun arrives and kills Evelyn, escaping into the pyramid with Imhotep and Baltus. Rick pursues them. Inside the pyramid, Baltus puts on the bracelet and revives the army. Anubis takes Imhotep's powers, wanting Imhotep to fight as a mortal.  Rick finds Imhotep summoning the Scorpion King and fights him. The Scorpion King, now an enormous monster, interrupts the fight and attacks Rick. At the same time, Ardeth and the Medjai battle Anubis's resurrected army outside. While Rick and the Scorpion King fight, Baltus is killed. Jonathan and Alex steal the \"Book of the Dead\" from Anck-su-namun and use it to resurrect Evelyn, who confronts Anck-su-namun while Alex and Jonathan go to help Rick.  Rick discovers Jonathan’s scepter is actually a weapon, a spear that can kill the Scorpion King. The Medjai seem to defeat Anubis' army, but realize it was only the vanguard; the full army appears and charges toward them. Rick gets the scepter/spear from Jonathan and kills the Scorpion King, sending him and his army back into the Underworld, which causes the Oasis to begin to destroy itself.  Rick and Imhotep are thrown back and hang above a pit that leads to the underworld. Evelyn risks her life to save Rick, but Anck-su-namun abandons Imhotep, who chooses to let go and fall into the pit, heartbroken. While trying to escape, Anck-su-namun falls into a pit of scorpions and dies. The O'Connells reach the top of the pyramid. Izzy arrives with a modified dirigible and rescues the O'Connells just before the oasis and the pyramid are totally destroyed. They depart into the sunset, with Ardeth Bay saluting them before riding off.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "\"The Mummy Returns\" has earned the gross profit (the worldwide box office minus the budget) of $335,013,000, which, taking inflation into account, is a few percent lower than \"The Mummy\" gross profit ($335,933,000). On its opening day, the film earned $24,134,667. The film grossed $202,019,785 in the United States and Canada box offices and $230,993,489 elsewhere, totaling in $433,013,274 worldwide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical.", "content": "\"The Mummy Returns\" received mixed reviews from critics. It currently holds a 47% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 140 reviews. Metacritic reported, based on 31 reviews, an average rating of 48 out of 100. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of “A-“ on an A+ to F scale.  Roger Ebert, who awarded the first film three stars, gave the second film only two, saying that \"The mistake of \"The Mummy Returns\" is to abandon the characters, and to use the plot only as a clothesline for special effects and action sequences.\" James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film two and a half stars (out of four), calling it \"hollow, lightweight entertainment—not unpleasant, but far from the summer's definitive action/adventure flick.  Kenneth Turan of the \"Los Angeles Times\" gave the film a positive review, praising its \"constant plot turns, cheeky sensibility and omnipresent action sequences.\" Todd McCarthy of Variety praised \"the nonstop action of the final hour\", saying that it \"bursts with visual goodies.\"  Joe Morgenstern of \"The Wall Street Journal\" gave the film a negative review, saying that it \"has all of the clank but none of the swank of the previous version.\" Charles Taylor of Salon.com was also not impressed, calling \"The Mummy Returns\" \"everything the first \"Mummy\" was fun for not being.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "The film debuted on VHS and DVD on October 2, 2001. It was subsequently released on the high-definition Blu-ray format in July 2008, and on 4K in 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The Mummy Returns: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on May 1, 2001 by Decca Records.  It contains the score composed and conducted by Alan Silvestri as well as a version of the song \"Forever May Not Be Long Enough\" by the rock band Live, which slightly differs from the song's album version.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mummy Returns is a 2001 American action-adventure fantasy horror film, written and directed by Stephen Sommers, starring Brendan Fraser, Rachel Weisz, John Hannah, Arnold Vosloo, Oded Fehr, Patricia Velásquez, and Dwayne Johnson. The film is a sequel to the 1999 film \"The Mummy\". It was distributed by Universal Pictures.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974384}
{"src_title": "Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "French Revolution.", "content": "Louis Baraguay d'Hilliers was born in Paris. He was a minor noble and entered the French Army as a lieutenant in 1784. At the start of the French Revolutionary Wars, he decided to remain in France. By 1793, he had been promoted during the siege of Mainz to général de brigade and served as chief of staff to Adam Custine. When Custine was arrested, Baraguey d'Hilliers was arrested as well. Luckier than his chief who died under the guillotine, he was released after the overthrow and execution of Maximilien Robespierre.  In 1796, Baraguey d'Hilliers commanded part of Paris against insurgents. After another spell in prison on suspicion of royalist tendencies, he was posted to Louis Hoche's army. Transferred to Italy, he served under Napoléon Bonaparte as governor of Lombardy. He was involved in the capture of Bergamo. He led a brigade in Gabriel Rey's division at the Battle of Rivoli. Promoted to général de division in 1797 he was appointed governor of Venice.  In 1798, he accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt but after the French captured Malta he was sent back to France with the trophies. However, on his way back his ship was intercepted by the Royal Navy and he became a prisoner. After his release he faced a court martial but was acquitted. Then he joined Jacques MacDonald as his chief of staff. In 1800, he fought under Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr at the Battle of Stockach on 3 May and six days later at Biberach. Later he was assigned to guard the Valtellina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "In 1801, Baraguey d'Hilliers was appointed Inspector General of infantry and in 1804 he became colonel general of the dragoons. He commanded a dragoon division of the cavalry reserve during the campaign of 1805. He fought under Marshal Michel Ney at the Battle of Elchingen. In 1808 he again became governor of Venice.  During the campaign of 1809 Baraguey d'Hilliers served under Viceroy Eugène de Beauharnais. At the Battle of Piave River he commanded a two-division corps. He also distinguished himself at the Battle of Raab where he led one division of his corps. He then served for some time as governor of the County of Tyrol with orders to pacify the region. In 1810 he was sent to Spain where he served in Catalonia. Recalled from Spain, he served in the Russian campaign of 1812 where his troops were assigned to guard Smolensk after that city was captured by the French. During the retreat from Moscow, Emperor Napoleon ordered Baraguey d'Hilliers to march east to meet him. However, instead of joining Napoleon, his division marched into the jaws of the advancing Russian army. The Russians surrounded one of his brigades and forced it to surrender on November 9. For this incident, Baraguey d'Hilliers fell into disgrace with the emperor. He died in January 1813 in Berlin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers (13 August 1764 – 6 January 1813) was a French Army general who fought in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He was the father of Achille Baraguey d'Hilliers, a Marshal of France, and the father-in-law of General Damrémont, governor-general of Algeria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974385}
{"src_title": "Levin August von Bennigsen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Bennigsen was born on 10 February 1745 into a Hanoverian noble family in Braunschweig (English toponym: Brunswick). His family owned several estates at Banteln in Hanover. Bennigsen served successively as a page at the Hanoverian court and as an officer of foot-guards, and four years later, in 1763, as captain, he participated in the final campaign of the Seven Years' War. In 1764, after the death of his father and his marriage to Baroness Steimberg, he retired from the Hanoverian army, and settled at the estates he owned in Banteln. In 1773, shortly after reentering Hanoverian service for a brief period, he entered the Russian service as a field officer, and was subsequently accepted into the Vyatka musketeer regiment in the same year. He fought against the Turks in 1774 and in 1778, becoming lieutenant-colonel in the latter year. In 1787 his conduct at the storming of Ochakov won him promotion to the rank of brigadier, and he distinguished himself repeatedly in smashing the Kościuszko Uprising and in the Persian War of 1796 where he fought at Derbent. On 9 July 1794, he was promoted to Major General for his accomplishments in the former campaign, and on 26 September 1794 he was awarded the Order of St. George of the Third Degree and an estate in Minsk guberniya.  In 1798 Bennigsen was fired from military service by the Tsar Paul I allegedly because of his connections with Platon Zubov. It is known that he took an active part in the planning phase of the conspiracy to assassinate Paul I, but his role in the actual killing remains a matter of conjecture. Tsar Alexander I made him governor-general of Lithuania in 1801, and in 1802 a general of cavalry.  In 1806 Bennigsen was in command of one of the Russian armies operating against Napoleon, when he fought the Battle of Pultusk and met the emperor in person in the bloody battle of Eylau (8 February 1807). In the Battle of Pultusk he resisted French troops under Jean Lannes before retreating. This brought him the Order of St. George of the Second Degree while after the battle of Eylau he was awarded Order of St. Andrew - the highest order in the Russian empire. Here he could claim to have inflicted the first reverse suffered by Napoleon, but six months later Bennigsen met with the crushing defeat of Friedland (14 June 1807) the direct consequence of which was the treaty of Tilsit.  Bennigsen was heavily criticised for the Battle of Friedland and for the decline of discipline in the army and now retired for some years, but in the campaign of 1812 he reappeared in the army in various responsible positions. He was present at Borodino, and defeated Murat in the engagement of Tarutino where he himself was wounded in the leg, but on account of a quarrel with Marshal Kutuzov, the Russian commander-in-chief, he was compelled to retire from active military employment. After the death of Kutuzov, Bennigsen was recalled and placed at the head of an army. Bennigsen participated in the battles of Bautzen and Lützen, leading one of the columns that made the decisive attack on the last day of the Battle of Leipzig (16–19 October 1813). On the same evening he was made a count by the emperor Alexander I, and he afterwards commanded the forces which operated against Marshal Davout in North Germany, most notably in the year-long Siege of Hamburg (1813–14). After the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was awarded the St. George order of the First Degree - the highest Russian military order - for his actions in the Napoleonic wars in general.  After the general peace Bennigsen held a command from 1815 to 1818, when he retired from active service and settled on his Hanoverian estate of Banteln near Hildesheim. By the end of his life he completely lost his sight. He died on 31 December 1826, in Banteln, eight years after he had retired. His son, Count \"Alexander Levin von Bennigsen\" (1809-1893) was a distinguished Hanoverian statesman.  Bennigsen wrote the three-volume \"\"Mémoires du général Bennigsen\"\", which was published in Paris in 1907-1908. Though they contain \"fascinating\" details regarding the Russian wars and battles between 1806-1813, the work often beautifies historical facts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Levin August Gottlieb Theophil Graf von Bennigsen (, also Лео́нтий Лео́нтьевич Бе́ннигсен (\"Leóntii Leónt'yevich\"); 10 February 1745 – 3 December 1826) was a German general in the service of the Russian Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974386}
{"src_title": "Count Gustav Kálnoky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Kálnoky was born in Letovice (Lettowitz), Moravia to an old Transylvanian family which had held comital rank in Hungary from the 17th century. After spending some years in a hussar regiment, in 1854 he entered the diplomatic service without giving up his connection with the army, in which he reached the rank of general in 1879. He was for the ten years (1860–1870) secretary of embassy at London, and then, after serving at Rome and Copenhagen, was in 1880 appointed ambassador at St. Petersburg. His success in Russia procured for him, on the death of Baron Heinrich Karl von Haymerle in 1881, the appointment of minister of foreign affairs for Austria-Hungary, a post which he held for fourteen years.  Essentially a diplomatist, he took little or no part in the vexed internal affairs of the Dual Monarchy, and he came little before the public except at the annual statement on foreign affairs before the Delegations. His management of the affairs of his department was, however, very successful; he confirmed and maintained the alliance with Germany, which had been formed by his predecessors, and co-operated with Bismarck in the arrangements by which Italy joined the alliance. Kálnoky's special influence was seen in the improvement of Austrian relations with Russia, following on the meeting of the three emperors in September 1884 at Skierniewice, at which he was present. His Russophile policy caused some adverse criticism in Hungary. His friendliness for Russia did not, however, prevent him from strengthening the position of Austria as against Russia in the Balkan Peninsula by the establishment later of a closer political and commercial understanding with Serbia and Romania. In 1885 he interfered after the battle of Slivnitsa to arrest the advance of the Bulgarians on Belgrade, but he lost influence in Serbia after the abdication of King Milan.  Though he kept aloof from the Clerical party, Kálnoky was a strong Catholic; and his sympathy for the difficulties of the Church caused adverse comment in Italy, when, in 1891, he stated in a speech before the Delegations that the question of the position of the Pope was still unsettled. He subsequently explained that by this he did not refer to the Roman question, which was permanently settled, but to the possibility of the Pope leaving Rome. The jealousy felt in Hungary against the Ultramontanes led to his fall. In 1895 a case of clerical interference in the internal affairs of Hungary by the nuncio Antonio Agliardi aroused a strong protest in the Hungarian parliament, and consequent differences between Dezső Bánffy, the Hungarian minister, and the minister for foreign affairs led to Kálnoky's resignation. He died in Brodek u Prostějova (Prödlitz).  He was awarded the Serbian order of Order of the Cross of Takovo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Count Gustav Siegmund Kálnoky (Hungarian: \"gróf Kálnoky Gusztáv Zsigmond\") (December 29, 1832February 13, 1898), was an Austro-Hungarian diplomat and statesman.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974387}
{"src_title": "Richard von Mises", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Richard von Mises was born in Lemberg, Austria-Hungary (now Lviv, Ukraine) into a Jewish family, eighteen months after his brother Ludwig von Mises, who later became a prominent economist of the Austrian School. His parents were Arthur Edler von Mises, a doctor of technical sciences who worked as an expert for the Austrian State Railways, and Adele Landau. Richard and Ludwig also had a younger brother, who died as an infant. Richard attended the Akademisches Gymnasium in Vienna, from which he graduated with honors in Latin and mathematics in autumn 1901. After graduating in mathematics, physics and engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, he was appointed as Georg Hamel's assistant in Brünn (now Brno). In 1905, still a student, he published an article on the geometry of curves called \"Zur konstruktiven Infinitesimalgeometrie der ebenen Kurven,\" in the prestigious \"Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik\". In 1908 Mises was awarded a doctorate from Vienna (his dissertation was on \"the determination of flywheel masses in crank drives\") and he received his habilitation from Brünn (now Brno) (on \"Theory of the Waterwheels\") to lecture on engineering. In 1909, at 26, he was appointed professor of applied mathematics in Straßburg, then part of the German Empire (now Strasbourg, Alsace, France) and received Prussian citizenship. His application for a teaching position at the Brno University of Technology was interrupted by the First World War.  Before the war he had already become a pilot and lectured on the design of aircraft, and in 1913 at Strasbourg he gave the first university course on powered flight. On the outbreak of war it was natural for him to join the Austro-Hungarian army as a test pilot and a flying instructor. In 1915, he supervised the construction of a 600-horsepower (450 kW) aircraft – the \"Mises-Flugzeug\" (Mises aircraft) for the Austrian army. It was completed in 1916 but never saw active war service.  After the war, Mises held the new chair of hydrodynamics and aerodynamics at the Dresden \"Technische Hochschule\". In 1919 he was appointed director (and full professor) at the new Institute of Applied Mathematics created at the behest of Erhard Schmidt at the University of Berlin. In 1921 he founded the journal \"Zeitschrift für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik\" and became its editor.  With the rise of the National Socialist Party to power in 1933, Mises felt his position threatened, despite his First World War military service. He moved to Turkey, where he held the newly created chair of Pure and Applied Mathematics at the University of Istanbul. In 1939 he accepted a position in the United States, where in 1944 he was appointed as Gordon McKay Professor of Aerodynamics and Applied Mathematics at Harvard University. He married Hilda Geiringer in 1943; she had been his assistant at the Institute and followed him to Turkey and then to the U.S. after losing her position in December 1933.  In 1950 Mises declined an offer of honorary membership from the Communist-dominated East German Academy of Science.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contributions.", "content": "In aerodynamics, von Mises made notable advances in boundary-layer-flow theory and airfoil design. He developed the \"distortion energy theory\" of stress, which is one of the most important concepts used by engineers in material strength calculations.  His ideas were not unanimously well received, although Alexander Ostrowski had said of him: \"Only with the appointment of Richard von Mises to the University of Berlin did the first serious German school of applied mathematics with a broad sphere of influence come into existence. Von Mises was an incredibly dynamic person and at the same time amazingly versatile like Runge. He was especially well versed in the realm of technology.\" and also wrote \"Because of his dynamic personality his occasional major blunders were somehow tolerated. One has even forgiven him his theory of probability.\" Yet Andrey Kolmogorov, whose rival axiomatisation was better received, was less severe: \"The basis for the applicability of the results of the mathematical theory of probability to real 'random phenomena' must depend on some form of the frequency concept of probability, the unavoidable nature of which has been established by von Mises in a spirited manner.\"  In solid mechanics, von Mises made an important contribution to the theory of plasticity by formulating what has become known as the von Mises yield criterion, independently of Tytus Maksymilian Huber.  He is also often credited for the Principle of Maximum Plastic Dissipation.  The Gesellschaft für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik (International Association of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics) has awarded a Richard von Mises-Preis (Prize) since 1989.  In probability theory, he was the person who originally proposed the now famous \"birthday problem\". He also defined the impossibility of a gambling system.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Edler von Mises (; 19 April 1883 – 14 July 1953) was an Austrian scientist and mathematician who worked on solid mechanics, fluid mechanics, aerodynamics, aeronautics, statistics and probability theory. He held the position of Gordon McKay Professor of Aerodynamics and Applied Mathematics at Harvard University. He described his work in his own words shortly before his death as being on", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974388}
{"src_title": "Jakob Reumann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "On the Hainfeld Party Convention of 1888/1889, Jakob Reumann was designated first secretary of the newly founded Social Democratic Party, which then united social democrats of the whole multinational Austrian part of Austria-Hungary. From 1900, he has been elected member of Vienna's \"Gemeinderat\" (city parliament), from 1907 member of the Austrian \"Reichsrat\" (parliament). In 1917 city councillor, in 1918 vice-mayor, he was elected mayor on 21 May 1919, the first social democratic mayor in the history of Vienna. 1918/1919 he was also a member of the Provisional National Council of German Austria (\"Provisorische Nationalversammlung für Deutschösterreich\").  In 1922, as mayor he became \"Landeshauptmann\" (governor) of the new State of Vienna. The same year saw the opening of Feuerhalle Simmering, the first crematorium in Austria. Reumann had to defend this decision at the Constitutional Court as he had granted building permission for the crematorium against the order of a federal minister from the Christian Social Party.  In 1923, the \"Gemeinderat\" concluded on the first large housing programme to build 25,000 flats within five years. On 13 November 1923 Jakob Reumann stepped down as mayor and was made honorary citizen of Vienna. His ashes are buried at Feuerhalle Simmering in Vienna. A few weeks after his death in 1925, in the tenth district, Favoriten, a workers' district where Reumann had his personal roots, a square was named \"Reumannplatz\". This is today the southern terminal of underground line no. 1 and the site of attractive \"Amalienbad\" (Amalia Spa).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jakob Reumann (31 December 1853 in Vienna – 29 July 1925 in Klagenfurt) was an Austrian Social Democratic politician and the first social democratic mayor of Vienna from 1919 to 1923.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974389}
{"src_title": "Agnes of Bohemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Agnes was the daughter of King Ottokar I of Bohemia, making her a descendant of Saint Ludmila and Saint Wenceslaus, patron saints of Bohemia. Agnes' mother was Constance of Hungary, who was the sister of King Andrew II of Hungary, so Agnes was a first cousin to St. Elizabeth of Hungary.  When she was three years old, Agnes was entrusted to the care of St. Hedwig of Andechs, the wife of Duke Henry I the Bearded of Silesia. Hedwig placed her to be educated by a community of Cistercian nuns in a monastery which she herself had founded in Trzebnica. Upon her return to Prague, Agnes was entrusted to a priory of Premonstratensian Canonesses to continue her education.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arranged marriages.", "content": "At the age of eight, Agnes was betrothed to Henry, son of the Emperor Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. Henry was ten years old and had just been crowned King of Germany. According to custom, Agnes should have spent her childhood at her future husband's court. Emperor Frederick, King of Sicily, had his court in Palermo, but his son Henry, King of Germany, lived in Germany at the palace of Archbishop Engelbert in Cologne.  Agnes was sent to the court of Duke Leopold VI of Babenberg. Leopold, however, wanted the young Henry to marry his own daughter, Margaret. After being betrothed for six years, Henry and Agnes's betrothal contract was cancelled. Like other noble women of her time, Agnes was a valuable political pawn. In 1226, Agnes's father Ottokar went to war against the Babenbergs as a result of the cancelled betrothal. Ottokar then planned for Agnes to marry Henry III of England, but this was vetoed by the Emperor, who wanted to marry Agnes himself.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Foundress.", "content": "Agnes refused to play any more part in a politically arranged marriage. She decided to devote her life to prayer and spiritual works, for which she sought the help of Pope Gregory IX. Emperor Frederick is said to have remarked: \"If she had left me for a mortal man, I would have taken vengeance with the sword, but I cannot take offence because in preference to me she has chosen the King of Heaven.\"  On land donated by her brother, Wenceslaus I, King of Bohemia, she founded the Hospital of St. Francis (\"circa\" 1232-33) and two friaries for the Franciscan friars, who had just come to Bohemia at her brother's invitation. Through them, Agnes learned of Clare of Assisi and her Order of Poor Ladies, the monastic counterpart of the friars. She began a correspondence with Clare (which lasted for over two decades), which led to Clare's sending five nuns from the monastery in Assisi to Prague to begin a new house of the order. This was the first Poor Clare community north of the Alps.  Agnes built a monastery and friary complex attached to the hospital. It housed the Franciscan friars and the Poor Clare nuns who worked at the hospital. This religious complex was one of the first Gothic buildings in Prague. In 1235, Agnes gave the property of the Teutonic Knights in Bohemia to the hospital. She herself became a member of the Franciscan Poor Clares in 1236. As a nun, she cooked for and mended the clothes of lepers and paupers, even after becoming abbess of the Prague Clares the following year. As can be seen in their correspondence, Clare wrote with deep maternal feelings toward Agnes, though they never met.  A lay group working at the hospital was organized by Agnes in 1238 as a new military order, dedicated primarily to nursing, known as the Knights of the Cross with the Red Star, following the Rule of St. Augustine. That next year, Agnes handed over all authority over the hospital she had founded to these monastic knights. They were recognized as an order by Pope Gregory IX in 1236-37.  Agnes lived out her life in the cloister, leading the monastery as abbess, until her death on 2 March 1282.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Monastery of the Holy Savior, renamed the Convent of Saint Agnes, () began to fall into decline after the Hussite Wars of the 15th century. The community was abolished in 1782. Restored in the 1960s, the building is now a branch of the National Gallery in Prague, featuring the medieval Central European and Bohemian collection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "In 1874, Pope Pius IX beatified Agnes. Pope John Paul II canonized Blessed Agnes on 12 November 1989. While she was known by her contemporaries because of her supposed visions and healing, such as her prophecy that King Wenceslaus would be victorious in his battle against the Austrians, her canonization was based on her practice of the Christian virtues of faith, hope and charity to an extraordinary degree, and the Church's view is confirmed either through a miracle granted by God in answer to the saint's prayers, or as in this case, by the continuing devotion of the Christian faithful to a saint's example across centuries.  Though Agnes died in 1282, she is still venerated by Christians around the world more than 700 years later. She was honored in 2011, the 800th anniversary of her birth, as the Saint of the Overthrow of Communism, with a year dedicated to her by Catholics in the Czech Republic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural reference.", "content": "On the occasion of the eight-hundredth anniversary of St. Agnes’ birth, the Prague Archbishopric in cooperation with the National Gallery in Prague organized an exhibition called \"Saint Agnes of Bohemia – Princess and Nun\" at the national cultural heritage site, the Convent of Saint Agnes in Prague (Old Town). The exhibition was held from November 25, 2011 to March 25, 2012. A similar exhibition, also honoring St. Agnes of Bohemia, took place some 80 years ago. The exposition held about 300 exhibits. Contributing partners included are the Knights of the Cross with the Red Star, the National Archives and Charles University.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agnes of Bohemia, O.S.C. (, 20 June 1211 – 2 March 1282), also known as Agnes of Prague, was a medieval Bohemian princess who opted for a life of charity, mortification of the flesh and piety over a life of luxury and comfort. Although she was venerated soon after her death, Agnes was not beatified or canonized for over 700 years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974390}
{"src_title": "Paul I, Prince Esterházy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "Born in Kismarton (Eisenstadt), Kingdom of Hungary, Paul was the third son of Nicholas, Count Esterházy of Galántha and his second wife Baroness Krisztina Nyáry of Bedegh. His father, Nicholas, bore the office of the Palatine of the Kingdom of Hungary.  Paul was raised in a deeply religious atmosphere and studied at Jesuit institutions in Graz and Nagyszombat. He displayed literary talents at an early age.  On 16 August 1652, Paul's elder brother Ladislaus was killed in the Battle of Vezekény (Vezekey) against the Turks. Paul succeeded Ladislaus as Count Esterházy of Galántha and inherited the family's vast wealth and landholdings at the age of 17.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Paul began his military career as early as 1663, and opposed the Turks in the battles of Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) (e.g. siege of Novi Zrin in June 1664 and Battle of Saint Gotthard on 1 August 1664) under the leadership of Raimondo Montecuccoli. Paul served with distinction under Montecuccoli alongside Miklós Zrínyi. Paul served in the army with such distinction that he was appointed to the position of Field Marshal and Commander-in-chief of the Military Frontier of southern Kingdom of Hungary beginning in 1667 at the age of 30. While serving as a commander-in-chief, Paul defeated malcontents at Leutschau and Győr. Paul's troops were among the coalition that was raised for the Battle of Vienna in 1683. After the deliverance of Vienna from the Turks, Paul entered Buda in 1686 at the head of 20,000 men. Throughout his military career, Paul led the Hungarian side of the Habsburg army into battle against the Ottoman Turks a total of 16 times.  Paul throughout his life remained loyal to the Habsburgs, and therefore was not involved in the conspiracy of the Hungarian nobility in the 1670s. This loyalty was rewarded by the Habsburgs in 1681, when Paul was appointed to the position of Palatine of the Kingdom of Hungary. The wars with the Turks did not go unnoticed by the Esterházy family, because the advance of the Turks to Vienna devastated many of the family's lands and brought slaughter to many of the lands' residents.  In 1681, Paul was made a Knight of the Austrian Order of the Golden Fleece. On 8 December 1687, Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor issued a princely diploma elevating Paul to a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire for his military successes against the Turks during the reconquest of Hungary and his loyalty to the House of Habsburg. The title of Prince was extended to his male descendants in 1712. On 9 December 1687, in his role as Palatine, Paul placed the Crown of Saint Stephen on the head of Archduke Joseph of Austria (later Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor) as the first Habsburg hereditary king of Hungary. As an ally of the Habsburgs, Paul had as one of his principal concerns the recatholicization of those areas of Central Europe \"infected\" by Protestantism. Paul's loyalty was also demonstrated in his cooperation with the Habsburg court in the subversion of civil and religious liberties.  In 1703, Paul again fought with the Habsburgs in the wars with the Kuruc, armed anti-Habsburg Hungarian rebels in Royal Hungary.  From 1711 until his death, Paul served as Lord Lieutenant of Moson County.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Building efforts.", "content": "Paul converted Schloss Esterházy in Eisenstadt from a medieval castle into a Baroque palace. Paul began his renovations of Schloss Esterházy in 1663. The additions made by Paul took nearly ten years to complete and gave the palace the façade it has retained to the present.  Paul further extended, ornamented, and fortified Forchtenstein Castle with architect Domenico Carlone. At Forchtenstein Castle, Paul founded the Esterházy family's treasure house and created an extensive portrait gallery of Esterházy family ancestors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical career.", "content": "Paul was an accomplished musical amateur, composer, and patron of the arts. He composed numerous cantatas, the most notable of which are \"Harmonia Caelestis\". \"Harmonia Caelestis\" is a cycle of 55 sacred cantatas composed in the Baroque style published in Vienna in 1711. Paul was one of the chief compilers of the \"Trophaeum Domus Inclytae Estorationae\".  Paul used his great wealth in the liberal patronage of art and literature. He founded the Esterházy private chapel, famous for its solo singers, chorus, and orchestra.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Paul was married twice. He married first to his niece Countess Orsolya Esterházy of Galántha, daughter of his brother Count István Esterházy of Galántha and his wife Countess Erzsébet Thurzó of Bethlenfalva, on 7 February 1652 in Eisenstadt. Paul's marriage to his eldest brother's daughter was done in part to prevent the division of the Esterházy family's property Paul and Orsolya had nineteen children:  After the death of his first wife, Paul married Countess Éva Thököly of Késmárk, daughter of István, Count Thököly of Késmárk and his wife Mária Gyulaffy of Rátót. Paul and Éva had the following children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charitable acts.", "content": "In 1671, he rescued some 3,000 Jews who had been expelled by Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor from Vienna. This led to their resettlement as tenant farmers and the founding of the Seven Municipalities () on Esterházy lands throughout Burgenland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Paul died in Eisenstadt on 26 March 1713. To secure his fortune, Paul founded the Austrian model of the fee tail and settled his successor in his will through the establishment of two primogeniture lines for his sons Michael and Joseph. In his will, Paul left his sons Michael and Joseph two estates which were meant to remain separate, but were rejoined under Joseph's ownership in 1721.  Paul was interred in the Esterházy family crypt at the Franziskanerkirche in the Franciscan Monastery in Eisenstadt.  Most of the Princely House of Esterházy's landholdings were acquired during Paul's reign as head of the family, but his lands incurred debts totaling 1,311,733 florins by 1711.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Audio.", "content": "! colspan=\"3\" style=\"background: #ACE777; color: #000000\" | Hungarian nobility", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Paul I, Prince Esterházy of Galántha (full German name: \"Paul Fürst Esterházy von Galantha\"; full Hungarian name: \"galánthai herceg Esterházy Pál\") (8 September 1635 – 26 March 1713) was the first Prince Esterházy of Galántha from 1687 to 1713, Palatine of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1681 to 1713, and an Imperial Field Marshal. Paul was also an accomplished poet, harpsichordist, and composer. He actively participated in various battles against the Ottoman Turks during the Fourth Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) and the Great Turkish War (1662–1669). Paul is credited with establishing the wealth, power, and influence of the Princely House of Esterházy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974391}
{"src_title": "Daniel Vasella", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Vasella was born in Fribourg, Switzerland, in 1953. His father was a history professor at the local university, and his mother was a housewife. His desire to become a doctor began during his childhood, which was marked by several tragedies. At eight years old, he contracted TB and meningitis and spent nearly a year in hospitals. When Vasella was 13 years old, his father died from complications of surgery.  Vasella obtained his M.D. in 1980 from the University of Bern in Switzerland. He completed his residency at the University Hospital in Bern and the city hospital in Zurich, before returning to Bern as chief resident. In 1988, he changed career paths, working in the United States as a pharmaceutical sales representative and in market research. In 1989, he completed the Program for Management Development at Harvard Business School. Vasella was awarded an honorary doctorate for medicine by the University of Basel in 2002.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Vasella held a number of medical positions in Switzerland before being hired in 1988 by Sandoz Pharmaceutical Corporation, the former U.S. subsidiary of Swiss pharmaceutical company, Sandoz. He remained there until 1992, when he was promoted to CEO of parent company, Sandoz Pharma Ltd., and named a member of the Group Executive Committee.  Vasella helped to orchestrate the 1996 merger between Sandoz and Ciba-Geigy, another Swiss pharmaceutical company. The two companies combined to form Novartis AG. Vasella was appointed CEO of the combined entity and a member of the Board of Directors. In 1999, he was named Chairman of the Board of Directors.  In January 2010, Vasella decided to step down as CEO. He was replaced by his hand-picked successor, Joseph Jimenez, the Division Head of Novartis Pharmaceuticals at the time.  In January 2013, Novartis announced that Vasella would be retiring as Chairman of the Board of Directors in February 2013. Vasella was named an honorary chairman, to be succeeded by Jörg Reinhard in August 2013. According to the Ethos foundation Vasella earned from 2002 until 2012 312 Mio CHF from Novartis, and for the years before they estimated it to 60 Mio CHF, a total of 421 Mio CHF in 2013. That he should get 72 Mio CHF for a noncompetition clause at the end made him a public figure during the campaign for the Swiss referendum \"against rip-off salaries\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing.", "content": "Vasella authored \"Magic Cancer Bullet: How a Tiny Orange Pill May Rewrite Medical History \" (2003), a book about the discovery and development of the breakthrough cancer drug Gleevec. The book was co-written with Robert Slater.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Vasella met Anne-Laurence Moret, the niece of former Sandoz CFO, CEO, and chairman Marc Moret, in 1973, and they were married in 1978. Vasella and his wife have two sons and a daughter. His older brother, Andrea Vasella, was a professor at the ETH Zurich. Vasella is a patron of the arts and enjoys skiing and spending time outdoors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "Vasella has received numerous awards including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Daniel Lucius Vasella (born 15 August 1953) is a Swiss medical doctor, author, and executive who served as CEO and chairman of the Swiss pharmaceutical company Novartis AG, the world's fifth largest drug company. During his tenure Novartis shares fell 10%, compared to the industry average. In February 2013 Vasella was awarded close to $78 million in a \"golden handshake\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974392}
{"src_title": "Alexa Internet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Operations and history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1996–1999.", "content": "Alexa Internet was founded in April 1996 by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat. The company's name was chosen in homage to the Library of Alexandria of Ptolemaic Egypt, drawing a parallel between the largest repository of knowledge in the ancient world and the potential of the Internet to become a similar store of knowledge. Alexa initially offered a toolbar that gave Internet users suggestions on where to go next, based on the traffic patterns of its user community. The company also offered context for each site visited: to whom it was registered, how many pages it had, how many other sites pointed to it, and how frequently it was updated.  Alexa's operations grew to include archiving of web pages as they are \"crawled\" and examined by an automated computer program (nicknamed a \"bot\" or \"web crawler\"). This database served as the basis for the creation of the Internet Archive accessible through the Wayback Machine. In 1998, the company donated a copy of the archive, two terabytes in size, to the Library of Congress. Alexa continues to supply the Internet Archive with Web crawls. In 1999, as the company moved away from its original vision of providing an \"intelligent\" search engine, Alexa was acquired by Amazon.com for approximately US$250 million in Amazon stock.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2000–2009.", "content": "Alexa began a partnership with Google in early 2002, and with the web directory DMOZ in January 2003. In December 2005, Alexa opened its extensive search index and Web-crawling facilities to third-party programs through a comprehensive set of Web services and APIs. These could be used, for instance, to construct vertical search engines that could run on Alexa's servers or elsewhere. In May 2006, Google was replaced with Windows Live Search as a provider of search results. In December 2006, Amazon released Alexa Image Search. Built in-house, it was the first major application built on the company's Web platform. In May 2007, Alexa changed their API to limit comparisons to three websites, reduce the size of embedded graphs in Flash, and add mandatory embedded BritePic advertisements.  In April 2007, the company filed a lawsuit, \"Alexa v. Hornbaker,\" to stop trademark infringement by the Statsaholic service. In the lawsuit, Alexa alleged that Ron Hornbaker was stealing traffic graphs for profit, and that the primary purpose of his site was to display graphs that were generated by Alexa's servers. Hornbaker removed the term \"Alexa\" from his service name on March 19, 2007. On November 27, 2008, Amazon announced that Alexa Web Search was no longer accepting new customers, and that the service would be deprecated or discontinued for existing customers on January 26, 2009. Thereafter, Alexa became a purely analytics-focused company.  On March 31, 2009, Alexa revealed a major website redesign. The redesigned site provided new web traffic metrics—including average page views per individual user, bounce rate (the rate of users who come to, and then leave a webpage), and user time on website. In the following weeks, Alexa added more features, including visitor demographics, clickstream and web search traffic statistics. Alexa introduced these new features to compete with other web analytics services.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alexa Traffic Rank.", "content": "A key metric published from Alexa Internet analytics is the \"Alexa Traffic Rank\" also simply known as \"Alexa Rank\". It is also referred to as \"Global Rank\" by Alexa Internet and is designed to be an estimate of a website's popularity., Alexa Internet's tooltip for Global Rank says the rank is calculated from a combination of daily visitors and page views on a website over a 3-month period.  The Alexa Traffic Rank can be used to monitor the popularity trend of a website and to compare the popularity of different websites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tracking.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toolbar.", "content": "Alexa used to rank sites based primarily on tracking a sample set of Internet traffic—users of its toolbar for the Internet Explorer, Firefox and Google Chrome web browsers. The Alexa Toolbar includes a popup blocker (which stops unwanted ads), a search box, links to Amazon.com and the Alexa homepage, and the Alexa ranking of the website that the user is visiting. It also allows the user to rate the website and view links to external, relevant websites. In early 2005, Alexa stated that there had been 10 million downloads of the toolbar, though the company did not provide statistics about active usage. Originally, web pages were only ranked amongst users who had the Alexa Toolbar installed, and could be biased if a specific audience subgroup was reluctant to take part in the rankings. This caused some controversies over how representative Alexa's user base was of typical Internet behavior, especially for less-visited sites. In 2007, Michael Arrington provided examples of Alexa rankings known to contradict data from the comScore web analytics service, including ranking YouTube ahead of Google.  Until 2007, a third-party-supplied plugin for the Firefox browser served as the only option for Firefox users after Amazon abandoned its A9 toolbar. On July 16, 2007, Alexa released an official toolbar for Firefox called Sparky. On 16 April 2008, many users reported drastic shifts in their Alexa rankings. Alexa confirmed this later in the day with an announcement that they had released an updated ranking system, claiming that they would now take into account more sources of data \"beyond Alexa Toolbar users\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Certified statistics.", "content": "Using the Alexa Pro service, website owners can sign up for \"certified statistics\", which allows Alexa more access to a website's traffic data. Site owners input JavaScript code on each page of their website that, if permitted by the user's security and privacy settings, runs and sends traffic data to Alexa, allowing Alexa to display—or not display, depending on the owner's preference—more accurate statistics such as total page views and unique page views.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Privacy and malware assessments.", "content": "A number of antivirus companies have assessed Alexa's toolbar. The toolbar for Internet Explorer 7 was at one point flagged as malware by Microsoft Defender. Symantec classified the toolbar as \"trackware\" in 2007. McAfee classified it as adware, deeming it a \"potentially unwanted program\" in 2005 but McAfee Site Advisor rated the Alexa site \"green\" in 2007, finding \"no significant problems\", but warned of a \"small fraction of downloads... that some people consider adware or other potentially unwanted programs.\" As of 2014, though it is possible to delete a paid subscription within an Alexa account, it is not possible to delete an account that is created at Alexa through any web interface.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexa Internet, Inc. is an American web traffic analysis company based in San Francisco. It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Amazon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974393}
{"src_title": "IRC flood", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The history of Internet Relay Chat flooding started as a method of taking over an IRC channel from the original founders of the channel. The first attacks generally used a modified IRC client or an application to flood a channel or a user. Later they started to be based on bots and scripts. This later moved on to starting IRC-based botnets which were capable of DDoS and IRC floods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of floods.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Connect flood.", "content": "Connecting and disconnecting from a channel as fast as possible, therefore spamming the channel with dis/connect messages also called q/j flooding.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CTCP flood.", "content": "Since CTCP is implemented in almost every client, most users respond to CTCP requests. By sending too many requests, after a couple of answers they get disconnected from the IRC server. The most widely used type is CTCP PING, although some clients also implement other CTCP replies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "DCC flood.", "content": "This type consists of initiating many DCC requests simultaneously. Theoretically it can also be used to disconnect users, because the target client sends information back about what port is intended to be used during the DCC session.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "ICMP flood.", "content": "Typically referred to as a ping flood. This attack overloads the victim's internet connection with an amount of ICMP data exceeding the connection's capacity, potentially causing a disconnection from the IRC network. For the duration of the attack, the user's internet connection remains hindered. Technically speaking, this is not an IRC flood, as the attack itself doesn't traverse the IRC network at all, but operates entirely independent of anything but the raw internet connection and its IP protocol (of which ICMP is a subset). Even so, the actual IP address to flood (the address of the victim's connection) is frequently obtained by looking at the victim's user information (e.g. through the /whois or /dns command) on the IRC network.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invite flood.", "content": "Sending disruptive numbers of invites to a certain channel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post flood.", "content": "This is the simplest type of IRC flooding. It involves posting large numbers of posts or one very long post with repetitive text. This type of flood can be achieved, for example, by copying and pasting one short word repeatedly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Message flood.", "content": "Sending massive numbers of private messages to the victim, mainly from different connections called clones (see below). Since some clients separate the private conversations into another window, each new message could open a new window for every new user a message is received from. This is exploitable by sending messages from multiple names, causing the target client to open many new windows and potentially swamping the user with boxes. Sometimes the easiest way to close all the windows is to restart the IRC client, although scripts (client extensions) exist to 'validate' unknown nicknames before receiving messages from them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notice flood.", "content": "Similar to the message, but uses the \"notice\" command.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nick flood.", "content": "Changing the nick as fast as possible, thus disrupting conversation in the channel.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Flooding or scrolling on an IRC network is a method of disconnecting users from an IRC server (a form of Denial of Service), exhausting bandwidth which causes network latency ('lag'), or just disrupting users. Floods can either be done by scripts (written for a given client) or by external programs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974394}
{"src_title": "Stanisław Przybyszewski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Stanisław Feliks Przybyszewski was born in Lohdorf (Łojewo) near Kruschwitz (Kruszwica) in Prussia. The son of a local teacher, Józef Przybyszewski, Stanisław attended a German gymnasium in Thorn (Toruń), graduating in 1889. He left for Berlin, where he first studied architecture and then medicine. It was there that he became fascinated by the philosophy of Nietzsche, began referring to himself as a Satanist and immersed himself into the bohemian life of the city.  In Berlin he lived with, but did not marry, Martha Foerder. They had had three children together; two before he left her to marry Dagny Juel on 18 August 1893 and one during his marriage to Dagny. From 1893 to 1898 he lived with Dagny, sometimes in Berlin and at others in Dagny's hometown of Kongsvinger, in Norway. In Berlin they met other artists at Zum schwarzen Ferkel.  In 1896 he was arrested in Berlin on suspicion of the murder of his common-law wife Martha, but released after it was determined that she had died of carbon monoxide poisoning. After Martha's death the children were sent to different foster homes. In the autumn of 1898, he and Dagny moved to Krakau (Kraków), in Austro-Hungarian Galicia, where he set himself up as the leader of a group of revolutionary young artists and as editor of their mouthpiece \"Życie\" (Life). He remained a fervent apostle of industrialism and self-expression.  He travelled to Lemberg (Lviv) and visited the poet and playwright Jan Kasprowicz. Przybyszewski started an affair with Kasprowicz's wife Jadwiga Gąsowska. Kasprowicz had married Jadwiga, his second wife, in 1893; his first marriage to Teodozja Szymańska in 1886 had ended in divorce after a few months.  In 1899 Przybyszewski abandoned Dagny and set up house with Jadwiga in Varshava (Warsaw). Around this time he was also involved with Aniela Pająkówna, one of whose two daughters was Przybyszewski's. Dagny returned to Paris and was murdered by a young friend of hers, Władysław Emeryk, in Tbilisi in 1901.  In 1905 Przybyszewski and Jadwiga moved to Thorn (Toruń) where he attempted rehabilitation from his problems with alcohol. While there, Jadwiga's divorce was finalized and they married on 11 April 1905. Przybyszewski continued to struggle with alcoholism for the rest of his life.  In 1906 the couple moved to Munich, financed by the sale of the manuscript of the play \"Śluby\" (\"The Vows\"). During the war they lived for a short time in Bohemia (Czech Lands) and moved to newly re-established Poland in 1919.  In Poznań he applied for the position of director of a literary theatre, but his work with German political brochures during the war prevented the appointment. He got a job working as a German translator for the post office. In 1920 he found similar work in Free City of Danzig (now Gdańsk) with the railways. He lived in Danzig until 1924 and managed a Polish bookshop there. After Danzig, he tried to settle in Toruń, Zakopane, and Bydgoszcz — all without success. Finally he found work in Warsaw, in the offices of the President. He lived in rooms in the old Royal Castle.  In 1927 he returned to the Kujawy region and died in Jaronty in November of that year, aged 59.  He wrote a number of successful novels, of which \"Homo Sapiens\", the most popular, has been translated into English.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stanisław Przybyszewski (; 7 May 1868 – 23 November 1927) was a Polish novelist, dramatist, and poet of the decadent naturalistic school. His drama is associated with the Symbolist movement. He wrote both in German and in Polish.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974395}
{"src_title": "Tatyana Lebedeva", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Her first successes came in the triple jump in 2000, when she won European Indoor gold medal and a silver at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. She became the World Champion the following year in addition to a silver medal at the world indoors. After retaining her triple jump title at the 2003 World Championships, she decided to take up the long jump as well. The move paid dividends: she broke the indoor world record in the triple jump at the 2004 World Indoor Championships and won a second gold in the long jump with a mark of 15.36. She won her first Olympic gold medal in the long jump event at the 2004 Athens Olympics and also won the bronze in the triple jump competition.  In 2005, she missed the World Championships due to injury, but became the sole winner of the IAAF Golden League jackpot, a bonus of US$1 million awarded to athletes who win their event at each of six designated European summer meets. That year, she concentrated on the triple jump.  Lebedeva excelled at the 2005 IAAF Golden League, receiving the entire jackpot prize of US$1 million. She became European champion for the first time with a win at the 2006 European Athletics Championships in the triple jump. Lebedeva reached the podium twice at the 2007 World Championships taking long jump gold and triple jump silver.  On 25 January 2017, the International Olympic Committee sanctioned Lebedeva for doping at the 2008 Olympic Games, as a result she lost her silver medals for both the long jump and triple jump events in that Games. Lebedeva appealed the IOC's decision to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, however on 26 July 2018, the IOC's decision was upheld.  She won the long jump silver medal at the 2009 World Championships (her eighth medal on the world podium), although she could not match this form in the triple jump.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In September 2002, Lebedeva and her husband Nikolay Matveev had their first daughter, Anastasiya. She announced that she was pregnant for a second time in 2010 (choosing to skip the 2011 season), and gave birth to a second daughter (Aleksandra) in November.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tatyana Romanovna Lebedeva (, born 21 July 1976) is a Russian athlete who competes in both the long jump and triple jump events. She is one of the most successful athletes in the disciplines, having won gold medals at Olympic, world and European levels. She has a long jump best of 7.33 m and had hold the indoor world record mark of 15.36 m in the triple jump.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974396}
{"src_title": "Leaf curl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Affected species.", "content": "Peach leaf curl can mainly affect peach, nectarine, and to a lesser extent almond trees. In an isolated case in Hungary in 2011, peach leaf curl was also identified in apricot trees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symptoms.", "content": "Peach leaf curl is a distinctive and easily noticeable fungal disease, and the severity of the symptoms depends on how early infection has occurred. Diseased leaves can usually be identified soon after they emerge from the bud, due to their red color and twisted shape. As the leaves develop, they become increasingly distorted, and ultimately thick and rubbery compared to normal leaves. The color of the leaves changes from the normal green to red and purple, until a whitish bloom covers each leaf. Finally, the dead leaf may dry and turn black before it is cast off. Changes in the bark are less noticeable, if at all. Fruit may fail to develop from diseased blossoms. Any fruit that does develop from a diseased tree is usually normal, but sometimes may also be affected, showing a reddish color. Infected leaves fall early. The tree usually produces a second flush of leaves that is rarely diseased, except in an unseasonably cool and wet spring, because the fungus is not infectious at the normally higher temperatures in late spring and early summer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause of peach leaf curl.", "content": "The fungus \"T. deformans\" causes deformed young leaves, red blisters, and ultimately the whitish bloom that covers the leaf as the infection progresses. This white color is made of asci that break through the cuticle of the leaf. One ascus consists of eight ascospores that create conidia, which are ejected in early summer and spread by rain and wind. The fungus survives the winter on the surface of the host plant, such as on bark or buds. In late winter or early spring, rainwater washes spores into the buds as they burst. Once this happens, no treatment is effective. In the spring, about two weeks after blossom, new leaves emerging from the infected buds are infected by the conidia. The disease may not occur every year due to variation in temperature and rainfall. Specifically, for successful infection, the fungus requires wet winters, where rain (not fog or dew) wets the tree for more than 12.5 hours at temperatures below. The fungus cannot grow at temperatures below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Control of the disease.", "content": "Various methods are applied.  If a tree has peach leaf curl in a particular year, the disease will inexorably take its course, but measures can be taken to sustain the tree or maximize crop yield: protecting the tree from further rain at temperatures below, providing nitrogen and excess water to minimize stress on the tree; applying greasebands around the trunk to protect from insect infestation; and thinning the fruit. It is unclear whether removal of infected leaves from the tree is beneficial. Removing the infected leaves and fruit after they fall to the ground is sometimes also suggested but superfluous if, in the following winter, fungicides or rain protection are applied.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Peach leaf curl was first introduced in America in 1852 and has now spread all over the country. By 1947, the disease was costing the United States $2.5 to 3.0 million annually.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peach leaf curl is a plant disease characterized by distortion and coloration of leaves and is caused by the fungus \"Taphrina deformans\", which infects peach, nectarine, and almond trees. \"T. deformans\" is found in the United States, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Peach leaf curl reduces the amount of leaves and fruit produced by peach and nectarine trees.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974397}
{"src_title": "Lída Baarová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Born in Prague, Baarová studied acting at the city's Conservatory and received her first film role in the Czechoslovak film \"Pavel Čamrda's Career\" (\"Kariéra Pavla Čamrdy\") at the age of 17. Her mother sang in a choir and appeared in several theatre plays; her younger sister, Zorka Janů (1921–1946), also became a film actress. In 1934, Baarová left Prague for Berlin after winning a contest at the UFA film studios for a role in the film \"Barcarole\".  In Berlin, she made a successful appearance in the film \"Barcarole\" (1935), along with the German actor Gustav Fröhlich (1902–1987). She and Fröhlich, meanwhile divorced from the Hungarian opera singer Gitta Alpár, became lovers and starred together in several films. Baarová also performed on stage at the Deutsches Theater and the Volksbühne. She received several job offers from Hollywood studios. She turned them down under pressure from the Nazi authorities, but later regretted it and claimed to her biographer, Josef Škvorecký: \"I could have been as famous as Marlene Dietrich.\"  After her engagement to Fröhlich, the couple moved to Schwanenwerder island on the outskirts of Berlin, where their house was close to the residence of Joseph Goebbels, a leading member in the Nazi government of Adolf Hitler with a decisive voice in German film production and Nazi cinema. Baarová, still working for the Ufa studios, met him when Goebbels visited Fröhlich's home in 1936. Gradually, they became closer and, under the urging of Goebbels, started a relationship that lasted over two years. Their love affair caused serious complications between Goebbels and his wife Magda. When the minister began to show up in public with his mistress, Magda Goebbels in turn began an affair with Goebbels' state secretary Karl Hanke and eventually asked Hitler for permission to divorce her husband. According to Baarová's own statements, she herself, fearing Goebbels' wounded pride, approached the dictator for help.  Hitler intervened on 16 August 1938 and rebuked his minister, stating that in view of his \"perfect marriage\" as well as the coming annexation of the Sudetenland, his affair with a Czech actress was an impossibility. Baarová was told by the Berlin chief of police Wolf-Heinrich von Helldorff that she had to quit her relationship with Goebbels immediately and was prohibited from performing on Hitler's direct order. Her recently completed film \"A Prussian Love Story\", which depicted the love affair between Wilhelm I and the Polish princess Elisa Radziwill, and was a thinly-veiled reference to Goebbels and Baarová, was banned, and not shown in theatres until 1950 as \"Liebeslegende\" (\"Story of Love\"). Paid shills yelled out \"Get out, minister's whore\" when Baarovà's character appeared on the screen at the premiere of \"Der Spieler\" (\"The Gambler\"), and did not stop until the showing was halted. The film's run was ended and the actress had a nervous breakdown. She tried to contact friends in Hollywood, with an eye to going there, but Hitler told her that she could not leave the country. Followed by the Gestapo wherever she went, ordered by Helldorf to stop making public appearances, and pressed by her friends, in the winter of 1938–39 Baarová fled back to Prague. There, she was temporarily allowed to perform under German occupation and, in 1942, moved to Italy, where she starred in such films as \"Grazia\" (1943), \"La Fornarina\" (1944), \"Vivere ancora\" (1945) and others.  After Allied troops occupied Italy, she had to return to Prague. In April 1945, however, Lída Baarová left Prague for Germany again. On the way, she was taken into custody by the American military police, imprisoned in Munich, and later extradited to Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war years.", "content": "In Czechoslovakia in 1945, Baarová and her family were taken into custody on suspicion of collaboration with the Germans during the war. Her mother died under interrogation; her sister Zorka committed suicide in 1946. She herself was released after 18 months of custody due to lack of evidence. She had never been convicted or sentenced. While in custody, she was often visited by the puppeteer Jan Kopecký and they eventually married on 27 July 1947. Kopecký was a close relative of a prominent politician in the post-war government of Czechoslovakia. Kopecký's prominent relative did not approve of the marriage and Kopecký lost his job as a result. Kopecký emigrated to Argentina, leaving Lída behind to recuperate in the sanatorium of Dr. Lundwall.  In Austria, the actress attempted a comeback, but when the Austrian-British actor Anton Walbrook withdrew from a film where he was cast with her, she left for Argentina to escape the resulting negative media. Living in extreme poverty, she decided to return to Italy. Her husband stayed in Argentina and they were divorced in 1956. Back in Italy, she appeared in several films, including Fellini's \"I Vitelloni\" (1953), where she played the wife of a rich merchant. In 1958, she moved to Salzburg, where she again performed on stage. She married Austrian physician Kurt Lundwall in 1969; he died in 1972.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After the fall of Communism in Europe.", "content": "In the 1990s, Baarová re-appeared on the cultural scene of the Czech Republic. She published her autobiography. A film, \"Lída Baarová's Bittersweet Memories\", was released in 1995 and won an award at the 1996 Art Film Festival in Trenčianske Teplice, Slovakia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life and death.", "content": "Baarová suffered from Parkinson's disease and died in 2000 in Salzburg, while living alone on the estate she inherited after the death of her second husband, Dr. Lundwall. Her ashes were interred in Prague's Strašnice Cemetery, where she rests with her parents and her sister Zorka.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In 2016, a dramatization of Baarová's life was set on film in \"\" (\"Lída Baarová\") by Filip Renč, with Tatiana Pauhofová starring as Baarová and Karl Marcovics as Goebbels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lída Baarová (born Ludmila Babková; 7 September 1914 – 27 October 2000) was a Czech-Austrian actress who for two years was the mistress of the Nazi propaganda minister of Germany, Joseph Goebbels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974398}
{"src_title": "Tomáš Vokoun", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career (1994–1998).", "content": "Vokoun was drafted by the Montreal Canadiens in the ninth round of the 1994 NHL Entry Draft, 226th overall. He remained in the Czech Republic for another year, playing with Poldi Kladno.  Vokoun moved to North America for the 1995–96 season and played for the Wheeling Thunderbirds of the ECHL. He was called up to the Fredericton Canadiens of the American Hockey League (AHL) and played one playoff game. Having proven himself in the ECHL, Vokoun spent the 1996–97 season in Fredericton and played in his only game for Montreal; it was not a stellar debut, however, as he allowed four goals in only 20 minutes of play against the Philadelphia Flyers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nashville Predators (1998–2007).", "content": "After another season with the Fredericton Canadiens, Vokoun was chosen by the Nashville Predators in the 1998 NHL Expansion Draft on 26 June 1998.  Vokoun played 37 games for Nashville in their debut season and played nine games for the Milwaukee Admirals in the International Hockey League (IHL). Although he again split time between the two clubs the following season, by 2000, Vokoun established himself in the NHL, though he initially only saw limited action as the back-up to starter Mike Dunham. In 2002, Dunham was traded to the New York Rangers for Marek Židlický, Tomáš Klouček and Rem Murray, effectively awarding Vokoun the starting job.  Vokoun's play was solid enough in 2003–04 to send him to the All-Star Game for the first time, and his goaltending was a major factor in the Predators' first-ever playoff berth that season. The team lost in six games to the Detroit Red Wings in the first round. In game 4 of that series, played in Nashville, Vokoun earned the first-ever playoff shutout in franchise history, stopping 41 Red Wing shots.  During the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Vokoun played 19 regular season games for HIFK in the Finnish SM-liiga, posting a.940 save percentage. In the playoffs, Vokoun did not perform as well, posting an.846 save percentage in four games, the worst in the league in that year's playoffs.  On 10 April 2006, the Predators announced Vokoun was afflicted by thrombophlebitis of the pelvis, a blood-clotting condition. He missed the team's remaining regular season games and the entire playoffs while he recovered by taking blood-thinning drugs and avoiding physical activity. Back-up goaltender Chris Mason took his place as the starter, but the Predators failed to advance in the playoffs, again losing in the quarter-finals. On 24 July 2006, Vokoun was cleared to resume his career and returned for the 2006–07 NHL season. However, at the beginning of the season, Vokoun injured his thumb during a game and was required to have surgery. Pins were put in this thumb, and he played with the pins and a brace on his thumb.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Florida Panthers (2007–2011).", "content": "On the day of the 2007 NHL Entry Draft, Vokoun was traded to the Florida Panthers in exchange for a first-round selection in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft, a second-round selection in the 2007 draft (58th overall) and a conditional second-round selection in either 2007 or 2008. Vokoun's nine-year tenure in Nashville had him setting many of the Predators' goaltending records, all of which were overtaken by Pekka Rinne in the following decade.  Vokoun was selected to play for the Eastern Conference team in the 2008 NHL All Star Game in Atlanta.  During the 2008–09 NHL season, Vokoun recorded 26 wins for the Panthers as they battled for their first playoff berth since 2000. Although they ultimately fell short, the Panthers' being in position to qualify was due in large part to the goaltending of Vokoun and fellow goaltender Craig Anderson.  Vokoun was injured by teammate Keith Ballard in a game on 30 November 2009, when Ballard hit Vokoun with an errant stick in the head. Vokoun was carried off the ice on a stretcher and was treated at a nearby hospital for an ear laceration. Vokoun had just given up a goal to Ilya Kovalchuk of the Atlanta Thrashers and Ballard went to break his stick on the goal post in frustration, but caught Vokoun instead.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Washington and Pittsburgh (2011–2014).", "content": "Vokoun signed a one-year contract with the Washington Capitals on 2 July 2011 worth $1.5 million. Vokoun had a rough 2011–12 NHL season with the Capitals, as it was plagued by injury and inconsistent performance.  With Washington resorting to youngster Braden Holtby as their starting goaltender, Vokoun was traded to the Pittsburgh Penguins on 4 June 2012 in exchange for a seventh-round pick in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft. The following day, Vokoun signed to a two-year, $4 million contract. Since his customary sweater number 29 was being worn by Marc-André Fleury, Vokoun opted to wear number 92 with the Penguins; he became the first goaltender since Daren Puppa to wear a sweater number from 90 to 98.  On 30 March 2013, Vokoun set a personal best and Pittsburgh Penguins individual franchise record shutout streak of 187:30. He had two consecutive shutouts (on 28 March against the Winnipeg Jets and on 30 March against the New York Islanders) and a combined shutout with Marc-André Fleury on 26 March against the Montreal Canadiens. Vokoun played the third period to complete the shutout after Fleury was injured at the end of the second period. On 9 May 2013, Vokoun made his first playoff start in six seasons, a 31-save shutout against the New York Islanders in Game 5 of the Eastern Conference Quarter-finals.  Vokoun was sidelined indefinitely after undergoing surgery to dissolve another blood clot in his pelvis during the 2013 pre-season. On 21 January 2014, it was reported Vokoun would begin skating in practice again, with no timetable as to his possible return. On 15 December 2014, Vokoun announced his retirement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "– Competitor for the Czech Republic  Vokoun has represented the Czech Republic many times over the course of his playing career. His first international experience came with the under-20 team at the 1996 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships, where the Czechs finished in fourth place. His first senior experience came at the 2003 IIHF World Championship, where the Czechs again finished in fourth place. Overall, he has played for the Czechs at four IIHF World Championships, two Winter Olympic Games and also in the 2004 World Cup of Hockey. He backstopped the Czechs to a third-place finish at the World Cup, gold medals at the 2005 and 2010 World Championships and won bronze with the team at the 2006 Olympics in Turin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Vokoun lives with his wife, Dagmar, and two daughters, Adelle and Natalie, in Parkland, Florida.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tomáš Vokoun (; born 2 July 1976) is a Czech former professional ice hockey goaltender. He played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Pittsburgh Penguins, Washington Capitals, Florida Panthers, Nashville Predators and the Montreal Canadiens, with whom he was originally drafted in the ninth round, 226th overall, in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974399}
{"src_title": "Law of three stages", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The progression of the three stages of sociology.", "content": "(1) The Theological stage refers to explosion by personified deities. During the earlier stages, people believed that all the phenomena of nature are the creation of the divine or supernatural. Adults and children failed to discover the natural causes of various phenomena and hence attributed them to a supernatural or divine power. Comte broke this stage into 3 sub-stages:  (2) The Metaphysical stage is the extension of the theological stage. Metaphysical stage refers to explanation by impersonal abstract concepts. People often tried to believe that God is an abstract being. They believe that an abstract power or force guides and determines events in the world. Metaphysical thinking discards belief in a concrete God. The nature of inquiry was legal and rational in nature. For example: In Classical Hindu Indian society the principle of the transmigration of the soul, the conception of rebirth, notions of pursuant were largely governed by metaphysical uphill.  (3) The Positivity stage, also known as the scientific stage, refers to scientific explanation based on observation, experiment, and comparison. Positive explanations rely upon a distinct method, the scientific method, for their justification. Today people attempt to establish cause and effect relationships. Positivism is a purely intellectual way of looking at the world; as well, it emphasizes observation and classification of data and facts. This is the highest, most evolved behavior according to Comte.  Comte, however, was conscious of the fact that the three stages of thinking may or do coexist in the same society or in the same mind and may not always be successive.  Comte proposed a hierarchy of the sciences based on historical sequence, with areas of knowledge passing through these stages in order of complexity. The simplest and most remote areas of knowledge—mechanical or physical—are the first to become scientific. These are followed by the more complex sciences, those considered closest to us.  The sciences, then, according to Comte's \"law\", developed in this order: Mathematics; Astronomy; Physics; Chemistry; Biology; Sociology. A science \"of society\" is thus the \"Queen science\" in Comte's hierarchy as it would be the most fundamentally complex. Since Comte saw social science as an observation of human behavior and knowledge, his definition of sociology included observing humanity’s development of science itself. Because of this, Comte presented this introspective field of study as the science above all others. Sociology would both complete the body of positive sciences by discussing humanity as the last unstudied scientific field, and would link the fields of science together in human history, showing the \"intimate interrelation of scientific and social development\".  To Comte, the law of three stages made development of sociology inevitable and necessary. Comte saw the formation of his law as an active use of sociology, but this formation was dependent on other sciences reaching the positive stage; Comte’s three-stage law would not have evidence for a positive stage without the observed progression of other sciences through these three stages. Thus, sociology and its first law of three stages would be developed after other sciences were developed out of the metaphysical stage, with the observation of these developed sciences becoming the scientific evidence used in a positive stage of sociology. This special dependence on other sciences contributed to Comte’s view of sociology being the most complex. It also provided an explanation for sociology being the last science to be developed.  Comte saw the results of his three-stage law and sociology as not only inevitable, but good. In Comte’s eyes, the positive stage was not only the most evolved stage, but also the stage best for mankind. Through a continuous development of positive sciences, Comte hoped that humans would perfect their knowledge of the world and make real progress to improve the welfare of humanity. He acclaimed the positive stage as the \"highest accomplishment of the human mind\" and as having \"natural superiority\" over the other, more primitive stages.  Overall, Comte saw his law of three stages as the start of the scientific field of sociology as a positive science. He believed this development was the key to completing positive philosophy and would finally allow humans to study every observable aspect of the universe. For Comte, sociology’s human-centered studies would relate the fields of science to each other as progressions in human history and make positive philosophy one coherent body of knowledge. Comte presented the positive stage as the final state of all sciences, which would allow human knowledge to be perfected, leading to human progress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critiques of the law.", "content": "Historian William Whewell wrote \"Mr. Comte's arrangement of the progress of science as successively metaphysical and positive, is contrary to history in fact, and contrary to sound philosophy in principle.\" The historian of science H. Floris Cohen has made a significant effort to draw the modern eye towards this first debate on the foundations of positivism.  In contrast, within an entry dated early October 1838 Charles Darwin wrote in one of his then private notebooks that \"M. Comte's idea of a theological state of science [is a] grand idea.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The law of three stages is an idea developed by Auguste Comte in his work \"The Course in Positive Philosophy\". It states that society as a whole, and each particular science, develops through three mentally conceived stages: (1) the theological stage, (2) the metaphysical stage, and (3) the positive stage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974400}
{"src_title": "Elena Cornaro Piscopia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Elena Cornaro Piscopia was born in the Palazzo Loredan, at Venice, Republic of Venice on 5 June 1646. She was the third child of Gianbattista Cornaro-Piscopia and his mistress Zanetta Boni. Her mother was a peasant and her parents were not married at the time of her birth. Lady Elena was therefore not technically a member of the Cornaro family by birth, as Venetian law barred illegitimate children of nobles from noble privilege, even if recognized by the noble parent. Worse for Zanetta's case, she was from an extremely poor peasant family. Zanetta had likely fled to Venice in order to escape starvation, and soon found herself the mistress of a member of one of the most powerful noble dynasties in the Republic. Gianbattista and Zanetta married officially in 1654, but their children were barred from noble privilege, which galled him.  In 1664, her father was chosen to become the \"Procuratore di San Marco de supra\", the treasurer of St. Mark's Cathedral, a coveted position among Venetian nobility. At that point, Gianbattista was second only to the Doge of Venice in terms of precedence. Because of this connection, Lady Elena was prominent in the Marriage of the Sea celebration, even though she was born illegitimate. Her father tried to arrange betrothals for her several times, but she rebuffed each man's advances. Early biographers' suggestion that she took a vow of chastity at age 11 are disputed by Francesco Ludovico Maschietto.  In 1665 she took the habit of a Benedictine oblate without, however, becoming a nun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "As a young girl, Lady Elena was seen as a prodigy. By the advice from Giovanni Fabris, a priest who was a friend of the family, she began a classical education. She studied Latin and Greek under distinguished instructors, and became proficient in these languages, as well as French and Spanish, by the age of seven. She also mastered Hebrew and Arabic, earning the title of (\"Seven-language Oracle\"). Her later studies included mathematics, philosophy and theology.  Elena came to be an expert musician, mastering the harpsichord, the clavichord, the harp and the violin. Her skills were shown by the music that she composed in her lifetime. In her late teens and early twenties she became interested in physics, astronomy and linguistics., her tutor in philosophy, and at that point the Chairman of Philosophy at the University of Padua, published a book in 1668 written in Latin and centering on geometry. The book was dedicated to a twenty-two year old Elena. After the death of her main tutor, Fabris, she became even closer to Rinaldini, who took over her studies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1669, she translated the \"Colloquy of Christ\" by Carthusian monk Lanspergius from Spanish into Italian. The translation was dedicated to Gian Paolo Oliva, her close friend and confessor. The volume was issued in five editions in the Republic from 1669 to 1672. She was invited to be a part of many scholarly societies when her fame spread and in 1670 she became president of the Venetian society Accademia dei Pacifici. Upon the recommendation of Carlo Rinaldini, her tutor in philosophy, Felice Rotondi petitioned the University of Padua to grant Cornaro the \"laurea\" in theology. When Cardinal Gregorio Barbarigo, the bishop of Padua, learned that she was pursuing a degree in theology, he refused on the grounds that she was a woman. However, he did allow for her to get a degree in philosophy and after a brilliant course of study she received the \"laurea\" in Philosophy. The degree was conferred on 25 June 1678, in Padua Cathedral in the presence of the University authorities, the professors of all the faculties, the students, and most of the Venetian Senators, together with many invited guests from the Universities of Bologna, Perugia, Rome and Naples. Lady Elena spoke for an hour in Classical Latin, explaining difficult passages selected at random from the works of Aristotle: one from the \"Posterior Analytics\" and the other from the \"Physics\". She was listened to with great attention and when she had finished, she received plaudits as Professor Rinaldini proceeded to award her the insignia of the laurea: a book of philosophy, a laurel wreath on her head, a ring on her finger, and over her shoulders an ermine mozzetta. She was proclaimed [\"teacher and doctor in philosophy\"], thus becoming one of the first women to receive an academic degree from a university, and the first to receive a Doctor of Philosophy degree.  The last seven years of her life were devoted to study and charity. She died in Padua in 1684 of tuberculosis and was buried in the church of Santa Giustina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "A few months after Elena's conferral, Charles [Carlo] Patin, lecturer in medicine at Padua, applied for his daughter Gabrielle-Charlotte [Carla Gabriella] Patin to begin a degree. The university, supported by Gianbattista Cornaro-Piscopia, changed its statutes to prohibit women from graduation. The next female doctorate was granted by the University of Bologna in 1732 to Laura Bassi.  Cornaro's death was marked by memorial services in Venice, Padua, Siena and Rome. The published two memorial volumes of tributes by members: one to mark her degree, and the other her death. Padua's Accademia dei Ricovrati also produced a volume at her death. Her statue was placed in the University of Padua, which caused a medal to be struck in her honour in 1685.  In 1895 Abbess Mathilda Pynsent of the English Benedictine Nuns in Rome had Cornaro's tomb opened, the remains placed in a new casket, and a suitable tablet inscribed to her memory. Her graduation ceremony is depicted in the Cornaro Window, installed in 1906 in the West Wing of the Thompson Memorial Library at Vassar College. At the suggestion of Ruth Crawford Mitchell, Cornaro is depicted in Giovanni Romagnoli's 1949 mural in the Italian Nationality Room at the University of Pittsburgh. On 5 June 2019, Google celebrated her 373rd birthday with a Google Doodle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Her writings include academic discourses, translations and devotional treatises.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia (, ) or Elena Lucrezia Corner (; 5 June 1646 – 26 July 1684), also known in English as Helen Cornaro, was a Venetian philosopher of noble descent who in 1678 became one of the first women to receive an academic degree from a university, and the first to receive a Doctor of Philosophy degree.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974401}
{"src_title": "Milada Horáková", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Dr Horáková was born Milada Králová in Prague. At the age of 17, in the last year of the First World War, she was expelled from school for participating in an anti-war demonstration. She nevertheless completed her secondary education in the newly-formed Czechoslovakia and went on to study law at Charles University, graduating in 1926. From 1927 to 1940 she was employed in the social welfare department of the Prague city authority. In addition to focusing on issues of social justice, Horáková also became a prominent campaigner for the equal status of women. She was also active in the Czechoslovak Red Cross. In 1929 she joined the Czechoslovak National Socialist Party which, despite the similarity in names, was a strong opponent of German National Socialism.  Horáková married her husband Bohuslav Horák in 1927. Their daughter, Jana, was born in 1933.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wartime resistance.", "content": "After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, Horáková became active in the underground resistance movement. Together with her husband, she was arrested and interrogated by the Gestapo in 1940, in her case because of her pre-war political activity. She was sent to the concentration camp at Terezín and then to various prisons in Germany. In the summer of 1944, Horáková appeared before a court in Dresden. Although the prosecution demanded the death penalty, she was sentenced to 8 years imprisonment. She was released from detention in Bavaria in April 1945 by advancing United States forces in the closing stages of the Second World War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activity.", "content": "Following the liberation of Czechoslovakia in 1945, Horáková returned to Prague and joined the leadership of the re-constituted Czechoslovak National Socialist Party, becoming a member of the Provisional National Assembly. In 1946, she won a seat in the elected National Assembly representing the region of České Budějovice in southern Bohemia. Her political activities again focussed on the role of women in society and also on the preservation of Czechoslovakia's democratic institutions. Shortly after the Communist coup in February 1948, she resigned in protest from the parliament. Unlike many of her political associates, Horáková chose not to leave Czechoslovakia for the West, and continued to be politically active in Prague. On 27 September 1949, she was arrested and accused of being the leader of an alleged plot to overthrow the Communist regime.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial and execution.", "content": "Before facing trial, Horáková and her co-defendants were subjected to intensive interrogation by the StB, the Czechoslovak state security organ, using both physical and psychological torture. She was accused of leading a conspiracy to commit treason and espionage at the behest of the United States, Great Britain, France and Yugoslavia. Evidence of the alleged conspiracy included Horáková's presence at a meeting of political figures from the National Socialist, Social Democrat and People's parties, in September 1948, held to discuss their response to the new political situation in Czechoslovakia. She was also accused of maintaining contacts with Czechoslovak political figures in exile in the West.  The trial of Horáková and twelve of her colleagues began on 31 May 1950. It was intended to be a show trial, like those in the Soviet Great Purges of the 1930s. It was supervised by Soviet advisors and accompanied by a public campaign, organised by the Communist authorities, demanding the death penalty for the accused. The State's prosecutors were led by Dr. Josef Urválek and included Ludmila Brožová-Polednová. The trial proceedings were carefully orchestrated with confessions of guilt secured from the accused, though a recording of the event, discovered in 2005, revealed Horáková's courageous defence of her political ideals. Invoking the values of Czechoslovakia's democratic presidents, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and Edvard Beneš, she declared that \"no-one in this country has to be made to die or be imprisoned for their beliefs.\"  Milada Horáková was sentenced to death, along with three co-defendants (Jan Buchal, Oldřich Pecl, and Záviš Kalandra), on 8 June 1950. Many prominent figures in the West, notably Albert Einstein, Winston Churchill and Eleanor Roosevelt, petitioned for her life, but the sentences were confirmed. She was executed by hanging in Prague's Pankrác Prison on 27 June 1950; at the age of 48. Her reported last words were (in translation): \"I have lost this fight but I leave with honour. I love this country, I love this nation, strive for their wellbeing. I depart without rancour towards you. I wish you, I wish you...\"  Following the execution, Horáková's body was cremated at Strašnice Crematorium, but her ashes were not returned to her family. Their whereabouts are unknown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rehabilitation.", "content": "The trial verdict was annulled in June 1968 during the Prague Spring, but because of the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia that followed, Horáková's reputation was not fully rehabilitated until after the Velvet Revolution of 1989. A major thoroughfare in Prague 7, Letná, was renamed in her honour in 1990. In 1991 she was awarded the Order of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (1st Class). 27 June, the day of her execution, was declared \"Commemoration Day for the Victims of the Communist Regime\" in the Czech Republic.  On 11 September 2008, aged 86, Ludmila Brožová-Polednová, the then sole surviving member of the prosecution in the Horáková trial, was sentenced to six years in prison for assisting in the judicial murder of Milada Horáková. Brožová-Polednová was released from detention in December 2010 due to her age and health and died on 15 January 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Milada Horáková's husband, Bohuslav Horák, who managed to avoid arrest in 1949, escaped to West Germany and later settled in the United States. Their daughter, Jana, aged 16 at the time of her mother's execution, and subsequently raised by her aunt, joined her father in 1968.  Horáková's last letters, including those to her husband and her daughter, have been published in English translation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Milada\".", "content": "A feature film - \"Milada\" - about the life of Milada Horáková was released in November 2017. The role of Horáková is played by the Israeli-American actress Ayelet Zurer. The English-language production is directed by the Czech-born film-maker, David Mrnka.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Milada Horáková (née Králová, 25 December 1901 – 27 June 1950) was a Czech politician. She was a victim of judicial murder committed by the communist party on fabricated charges of conspiracy and treason. The verdict of her trial was annulled in 1968, and she was fully rehabilitated in the 1990s and posthumously received the Order of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (1st Class) and Order of the White Double Cross (1st Class).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974402}
{"src_title": "Araneus diadematus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Range.", "content": "\"A. diadematus\" has a holarctic distribution, found throughout Europe and across North America, from southern Canada to Mexico, and from British Columbia to Newfoundland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Size and markings.", "content": "Individual spiders' colourings can range from extremely light yellow to very dark grey, but all \"A. diadematus\" have mottled white markings across the dorsal abdomen, with four or more segments forming a cross. The markings are formed in cells filled with guanine, which is a byproduct of protein metabolism.  Adult females range in length from, while males range from. Occasionally, the female will eat the male directly after mating. (See video below.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Specialization.", "content": "The legs of orb-weaver spiders are specialized for spinning orb webs. The webs are built by the larger females who hang head down in the center of the web or remain hidden in nearby foliage, with one claw hooked to a signal line connected to the main orb waiting for a disturbance to signal the arrival of prey. Prey is then quickly bitten and wrapped in silk before being stored for later consumption. The initial bite serves to paralyze the prey and minimize the danger of the spider herself being stung or bitten, and the enzymes thus injected serve to begin liquefaction of the prey's internal structures.  Alongside the use of the web to capture other prey, the spiders are also cannibals and prey on each other. However, this only happens before, during or after sexual activity. They attack based on their size, sexual experience and hunger levels.  \"A. diadematus\" is a reclusive creature and only bites humans if cornered or otherwise provoked. It responds to a disturbance by vibrating rapidly in its web until it becomes a blur, a reaction that is assumed to confuse potential predators.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The spider species Araneus diadematus is commonly called the European garden spider, diadem spider, orangie, cross spider and crowned orb weaver. It is sometimes called the pumpkin spider, although this name is also used for a different species, \"Araneus marmoreus\". It is an orb-weaver spider found in Europe and North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974403}
{"src_title": "Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "The son of a custom-house official, Le Play was educated at the École Polytechnique and the École des Mines. In 1834, he was appointed chairman of the permanent committee of mining statistics. In 1840, he became engineer-in-chief and professor of metallurgy at the École des Mines, where he became inspector in 1848.  For nearly a quarter of a century Le Play travelled around Europe, collecting a vast amount of material bearing on the social and economic condition of the working classes. In 1855, he published \"Les Ouvriers Européens\", a series of 36 monographs on the budgets of typical families selected from a wide range of industries. This work was crowned with the Montyon prize conferred by the Académie des Sciences. In 1856, Le Play founded the \"Société internationale des études pratiques d'économie sociale\", which has devoted its energies principally to forwarding social studies on the lines laid down by its founder. The journal of the society, \"La Réforme Sociale\", founded in 1881, is published fortnightly.  Napoleon III, who held him in high esteem, entrusted him with the organization of the Exhibition of 1855, and appointed him counsellor of state, commissioner general of the Exhibition of 1867, senator of the empire and Grand Officer of the Légion d'honneur.  Initially an atheist, Le Play gradually became convinced of the need for religion. In 1864, he published an essay defending Christianity against Darwinism and Scepticism. He converted to Roman Catholicism in 1879, three years before his death. Blum (2004) included Le Play in his anthology of French counter-revolutionary thinkers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Le Play's work was further developed by his many disciples: Adolphe Focillon (1823-1890), Émile Cheysson (1836-1910), Alexis Delaire (1836-1915), Henri de Tourville (1842-1903), Claudio Jannet (1844-1894), Edmond Demolins (1852-1907), Paul de Rousiers (1857-1934), Gabriel Olphe-Galliard (1870-1947), the Belgian Victor Brants (1854-1917) and the Canadian Léon Gérin.  After an eclipse between the 1940s and the 1960s Le Play's methods resurfaced when the \"history of the family\" became a new field of interest in social science. In Britain, Peter Laslett who worked within the \"Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure\" used le Play's methods at the end of the 1960s to study family structures from census and property transmission data, describing particularly the nuclear family structure which Le Play had not worked on.  At about the same time in France, legal history academics working on customary law were the first to re-apply Le Play's methods in scientific research. In the early 1970s, a growing number of ethnologists and historians joined this trend, especially those within the historical anthropology school: André Burguière, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie. In a 1989 book which became a reference in its field, ethnologist Georges Augustins reshaped Le Play's family types classification.  Some sociologists rediscovered Le Play's work as well from the late 1960s on, overcoming the general opinion that Le Play's views were just overly conservative, particularly Paul Lazarsfeld, Antoine Savoye and Bernard Kalaora.  At the end of the 1970s historian and demographer Emmanuel Todd, a disciple of both Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie and Peter Laslett, was struck by the geographical similarity between the area of prevalence of the communitarian family system (patriarcal family in Le Play's words) and the regions where communism had become dominant in the 20th century. He reprocessed Le Play's study of family structures and published a number of widely publicised books establishing a link between traditional family structures and the great ideological and society movements in European history (religious and political choices, economic development,...).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "In English translation", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Guillaume Frédéric Le Play (; April 11, 1806 – April 5, 1882) was a French engineer, sociologist and economist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974404}
{"src_title": "Karel Ančerl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born into a prosperous Jewish family in the village of Tučapy in southern Bohemia, where his father Leopold was a large-scale producer of liquors and spirits. After graduating from the gymnasium in Prague (1918–24) he studied composition and conducting at the Prague Conservatory between 1925 and 1929, along with chamber music, violin and percussion. In 1931 he participated as assistant conductor at the Munich premiere of Alois Hába's quarter-tone opera \"Mother\". Ančerl also studied conducting under Hermann Scherchen in Strasbourg and with Václav Talich in Prague. Between 1931 and 1933, he conducted the orchestra of the avant-garde theatre \"Osvobozené divadlo\" in Prague, where he brought about a marked improvement in playing standards. From 1933 to 1939, he conducted for the Czechoslovak radio, but his career as a conductor was interrupted by World War II.  He was sent with his family to the Theresienstadt concentration camp (Terezín) on 12 November 1942. There, he became the leader of the \"Terezín String Orchestra\" and started to organize cultural and music life in the ghetto. His final performance was for the propaganda film \"Der Führer schenkt den Juden eine Stadt\" (\"The Führer Gives the Jews a City\"), directed, under coercion of the camp commandant Karl Rahm, by Kurt Gerron to fool the Red Cross. The film showed Ančerl conducting a work by Pavel Haas on a wooden pavilion, with flowerpots hiding the fact that many of the orchestra were barefoot. The film also featured Martin Roman's big band, the Ghetto Swingers. As soon as the film was over, Gerron, Ančerl, Haas, Roman and all those who had participated in the film were herded into cattle trucks for the final transport to Auschwitz on 15 October 1944. Ančerl managed to survive Auschwitz, but his wife Valy and son Jan (born in Terezín) perished in the gas chambers.  After the war, he conducted for Radio Prague until 1950, and rose to fame when appointed (on 20 October 1950) artistic director of the Czech Philharmonic. His eighteen-year tenure with this orchestra is often regarded as its greatest period, which brought it much international recognition. In August 1968, after the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, he decided to emigrate to Toronto, Ontario, Canada. He conducted his last two concerts with the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra at the Prague Spring Festival in 1969. He conducted the Toronto Symphony Orchestra from 1968 until his death in Toronto in 1973. His tomb is located in Vyšehrad cemetery in Prague.  Some of his notable pupils include Brian Jackson, Štěpán Koníček, Libor Pešek, Jan Tausinger, and Martin Turnovský.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "As a conductor, Ančerl followed a recognizably Czech tradition. Along with Václav Talich, Karel Šejna, Václav Neumann and others, he helped foster a distinctly Czech orchestral sound. Rhythmic sharpness, vibrant dynamics, and a keenly etched sound were hallmarks of his conducting style. While these characteristics were especially evident when he conducted his home orchestra, the Czech Philharmonic, he also persuaded orchestras as diverse as the Toronto Symphony, the Vienna Symphony and the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra to play with a distinctive Czech sound. In addition to both the indigenous characteristics of Ancerl's work on the podium, especially in repertoire to which that would apply, and an always flexibly molded incredibly minute attention to, ear for detail, there was a grace, a spiritually infused lyricism absorbed by a love of life, of nature to Ancerl's music-making - sample his discs of Martinu Fifth and Sixth Symphonies, Mahler Ninth on Supraphon - that was a clear stand-out. He himself, certainly a few others have, may have attributed some of this to the horrors he witnessed, experienced during the war. An innate classical sense to his work in Mozart, Beethoven, Brahms was fully remarkable as well.  Ančerl remains highly regarded as a recording artist. His broad range of recordings for the Czech Supraphon label have been carefully remastered for the Karel Ančerl Gold Edition, which was awarded the \"Grand Prix du Disque\" by \"l'Académie Charles Cros\". In addition to performances of Czech composers, including Antonín Dvořák, Bedřich Smetana, Leoš Janáček, Bohuslav Martinů and Miloslav Kabeláč, Ančerl is also admired for his interpretations of 20th-century composers, such as Gustav Mahler, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich, as well as the Toronto-based organist/composer Healey Willan. He also championed less widely known Czech composers, such as Jan Hanuš, Iša Krejčí, Otmar Mácha and Ladislav Vycpálek. Performances with several orchestras have appeared on labels such as Tahra, CBC Records and EMI. Line Classics has issued some radio recordings made during the late 1940s, when Ančerl returned to Prague.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karel Ančerl (11 April 1908 – 3 July 1973) was a Czechoslovak conductor, renowned especially for his performances of contemporary music and for his interpretations of music by Czech composers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974405}
{"src_title": "Château de Blois", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Counts of Blois.", "content": "In 854 the Castle of Blois, known as Blisum castrum, was attacked by Vikings. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the Counts of Blois and landowners from Chartres and Champagne joined together to rebuild the fortress. Thibaud le Tricheur raised the “big tower” and by the end of the 12th century, the Counts contributions were finished by building the Saint-Sauveur.  The \"Salle des États Généraux\", built in the beginning of the 13th century, is one of the oldest seignoral rooms preserved in France, and is also the largest remaining civilian Gothic room. The room was used as a court of justice by the Counts of Blois and was used in 1576 and 1588 for the \"États Généraux\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Louis XII.", "content": "The medieval castle was purchased in 1391 by Louis I, Duke of Orléans, brother of Charles VI; after Louis' assassination, his widow, Valentina Visconti, retired to this castle at Blois. It was later inherited by their son, Charles d'Orléans the poet, who was captured at Agincourt and imprisoned in England. After twenty-five years as a hostage in England, Charles d'Orleans returned to his beloved Blois and partly helped rebuild the chateau as a more commodious dwelling. It became the favourite royal residence and the political capital of the kingdom under Charles' son, King Louis XII.  At the beginning of the 16th century, King Louis XII initiated a reconstruction of the entry of the main block and the creation of an Italian garden in terraced parterres where Place Victor Hugo stands today.  This wing, of red brick and grey stone, forms the main entrance to the château, and features a statue of the mounted king above the entrance. Although the style is principally Gothic, as the profiles of mouldings, the lobed arches and the pinnacles attest, there are elements of Renaissance architecture present, such as a small chandelier.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "François I.", "content": "When Francis I took power in 1515, his wife Queen Claude had him refurbish Blois with the intention of moving from the Château d'Amboise to Blois. Francis initiated the construction of a new wing and created one of the period's most important libraries in the castle. After the death of his wife in 1524, he spent very little time at Blois and the massive library was moved to the royal Château de Fontainebleau. It is this library that formed the royal library and the backbone of the Bibliothèque nationale de France.  In this wing, the architecture and ornamentation are marked by Italian influence. At the centre is the monumental spiral staircase, covered with fine bas-relief sculptures and looking out onto the château's central court. Behind this wing is the façade of the Loges, characterised by a series of disconnected niches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Henry III.", "content": "Driven from Paris during the French Wars of Religion, King Henry III lived at Blois and held the Estates-General convention there in 1576 and 1588. During the December 1588 convention the king had his arch-enemy, Henry I, Duke of Guise assassinated. The following day, the Duke's brother, Louis II, Cardinal of Guise was also assassinated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Henry IV.", "content": "After this, the castle was occupied by Henry IV, the first Bourbon monarch. On Henry's death in 1610, it became the place of exile for his widow, Marie de' Medici, when she was expelled from the court of her son, Louis XIII.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gaston d'Orléans.", "content": "In 1626, King Louis XIII gave the Château of Blois to his brother and heir, Gaston of France, Duke of Orléans as a wedding gift. In 1634, Gaston embarked on building a completely new castle in Blois. The task of developing this new castle was given to François Mansart. The rear of the courtyard is where Mansart began this ambitious building project with a main dwelling house. This house should have been the first building in a large-scale reconstruction project. The project was stopped in 1638 when Gaston's nephew was born, the future Louis XIV. With Louis XIV's birth, Gaston was no longer the heir and no longer eligible for financing.  This wing makes up the rear wall of the court, directly opposite the Louis XII wing. The central section is composed of three horizontal layers where the superposition of Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders can be seen.  By the time of the French Revolution the immense castle had been neglected for more than a hundred and thirty years. The contents, many of its statues, royal emblems and coats of arms of the palace were removed. In a state of near total disrepair, the Château of Blois was scheduled to be demolished but was given a reprieve as a military barracks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Preservation as a monument.", "content": "In 1840, the initiative of Prosper Mérimée placed the Chateau of Blois on the list of historical monuments. This allowed state funds to be used in the preservation. It was restored under the direction of the architect Félix Duban. The chateau is now used as a public museum. On view for visitors are the supposed poison cabinets of Catherine de' Medici. Most likely this room, the \"chamber of secrets\", had a much more banal purpose: exhibiting precious objects for guests.  Today, the château is owned by the town of Blois and is a tourist attraction.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Royal Château de Blois (, ) is located in the city center of Blois at the Loir-et-Cher \"département\" in the Loire Valley, in France. The residence of several French kings, it is also the place where Joan of Arc went in 1429 to be blessed by the Archbishop of Reims before departing with her army to drive the English from Orléans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974406}
{"src_title": "Shark Bay", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The record of Australian Aboriginal occupation of Shark Bay extends to years BP. At that time most of the area was dry land, rising sea levels flooding Shark Bay between BP and BP. A considerable number of aboriginal midden sites have been found, especially on Peron Peninsula and Dirk Hartog Island which provide evidence of some of the foods gathered from the waters and nearby land areas.  An expedition led by Dirk Hartog happened upon the area in 1616, becoming the second group of Europeans known to have visited Australia. (The crew of the \"Duyfken\", under Willem Janszoon, had visited Cape York in 1606). The area was given the name Shark Bay by the English explorer William Dampier, on 7 August 1699.  The heritagelisted area had a population of fewer than people as at the 2011 census and a coastline of over. The half-dozen small communities making up this population occupy less than 1% of the total area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shark Bay World Heritage site.", "content": "The World Heritage status of the region was created and negotiated in 1991. The site was gazetted on the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007 under the.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Protected areas.", "content": "Declared as a World Heritage Site in 1991, the site covers an area of, of which about 70 per cent are marine waters. It includes many protected areas and conservation reserves, including Shark Bay Marine Park, Francois Peron National Park, Hamelin Pool Marine Nature Reserve, Zuytdorp Nature Reserve and numerous protected islands. Denham and Useless Loop both fall within the boundary of the site, yet are specifically excluded from it. Shark Bay was the first Australian site to be classified on the World Heritage list.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Landforms.", "content": "The bay itself covers an area of, with an average depth of. It is divided by shallow banks and has many peninsulas and islands. The coastline is over long. There are about of limestone cliffs overlooking the bay. One spectacular segment of cliffs is known as the Zuytdorp Cliffs. The bay is located in the transition zone between three major climatic regions and between two major botanical provinces.  Dirk Hartog Island is of historical significance due to landings upon it by early explorers. In 1616, Dirk Hartog landed at Inscription Point on the north end of the island and marked his discovery with a pewter plate, inscribed with the date and nailed to a post. This plate was then replaced by Willem de Vlamingh and returned to the Netherlands. It is now kept in the Rijksmuseum. There is a replica in the Shark Bay Discovery Centre in Denham.  Bernier and Dorre islands in the north-west corner of the heritage area are among the last-remaining habitats of Australian mammals threatened with extinction. They are used, with numerous other smaller islands throughout the marine park, to release threatened species that are being bred at Project Eden in François Peron National Park. These islands are free of feral non-native animals which might predate the threatened species, and so provide a safe haven of pristine environment on which to restore species that are threatened on the mainland.  The Australian Wildlife Conservancy is the guardian of Faure Island, off Monkey Mia. Seasonally, sea turtles come here to nest and are the subject of studies conducted in conjunction with the Western Australian Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC) on this sheltered island.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fauna.", "content": "Shark Bay is an area of major zoological importance. It is home to about 10,000 dugongs (‘sea cows’), around 12.5% of the world's population, and there are many Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins, particularly at Monkey Mia. The dolphins here have been particularly friendly since the 1960s. The area supports 26 threatened Australian mammal species, over 230 species of bird, and nearly 150 species of reptile. It is an important breeding and nursery ground for fish, crustaceans, and coelenterates. There are over 323 fish species, many of them sharks and rays.  Some bottlenose dolphins in Shark Bay exhibit one of the few known cases of tool use in marine mammals (along with sea otters): they protect their nose with a sponge while foraging for food in the sandy sea bottom. Humpback and southern right whales use the waters of the bay as migratory staging post while other species such as Bryde's whale come into the bay less frequently but to feed or rest. The threatened green and loggerhead sea turtles nest on the bay's sandy beaches. The largest fish in the world, the whale shark, gathers in the bay during the April and May full moons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flora.", "content": "Shark Bay has the largest known area of seagrass, with seagrass meadows covering over of the bay. It includes the Wooramel Seagrass Bank, the largest seagrass bank in the world. Shark Bay also contains the largest number of seagrass species ever recorded in one place; twelve species have been found, with up to nine occurring together in some places. The seagrasses are a vital part of the complex environment of the bay. Over thousands of years, sediment and shell fragments have accumulated in the seagrasses to form vast expanses of seagrass beds. This has raised the sea floor, making the bay shallower. Seagrasses are the basis of the food chain in Shark Bay, providing home and shelter to various marine species and attracting the dugong population.  In Shark Bay's hot, dry climate, evaporation greatly exceeds the annual precipitation rate. Thus, the seawater in the shallow bays becomes very salt-concentrated, or 'hypersaline'. Seagrasses also restrict the tidal flow of waters through the bay area, preventing the ocean tides from diluting the sea water. The water of the bay is 1.5 to 2 times more salty than the surrounding ocean waters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stromatolites.", "content": "Based on growth rate it is believed that about 1,000 years ago cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) began building up stromatolites in Hamelin Pool at the Hamelin Station Reserve in the southern part of the bay. These structures are modern equivalents of the earliest signs of life on Earth, with fossilized stromatolites being found dating from 3.5 billion years ago at North Pole near Marble Bar, in Western Australia, and are considered the longest continuing biological lineage. They were first identified in 1956 at Hamelin Pool as a living species, before that only being known in the fossil record. Hamelin Pool contains the most diverse and abundant examples of living stromatolite forms in the world. Other occurrences are found at Lake Clifton near Mandurah and Lake Thetis near Cervantes. It is hypothesized that some stromatolites contain a new form of chlorophyll, chlorophyll f.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shark Bay World Heritage Discovery Centre.", "content": "Facilities around the World Heritage area, provided by the Shire of Shark Bay and the WA Department of Environment and Conservation, include the Shark Bay World Heritage Discovery Centre in Denham which provides interactive displays and comprehensive information about the features of the region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Access.", "content": "Access to Shark Bay is by air via Shark Bay Airport, and by the World Heritage Drive, a 150 km link road between Denham and the Overlander Roadhouse on the North West Coastal Highway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Specific reserved areas.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "IBRA sub regions of the Shark Bay Area.", "content": "The Shark Bay area has three bioregions within the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) system: Carnarvon, Geraldton Sandplains, and Yalgoo. The bioregions are further divided into subbioregions:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Shark Bay (Malgana: \"Gutharraguda\", \"two waters\") is a World Heritage Site in the Gascoyne region of Western Australia. The area is located approximately north of Perth, on the westernmost point of the Australian continent. UNESCO's official listing of Shark Bay as a World Heritage Site reads:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974407}
{"src_title": "Anne Jean Marie René Savary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Savary was born at Marcq in the Ardennes. He was educated at the college of St Louis at Metz and entered the royal army in 1790. His first campaign was that waged by General Custine against the retreating forces of the duke of Brunswick in 1792. He next served in succession under Pichegru and Moreau, and distinguished himself during the skilful retreat of the latter from an untenable position in the heart of Swabia. He became \"chef d'escadron\" in 1797, and in 1798 served under General Louis Desaix, in the Egyptian campaign, of which he left an interesting and valuable account.  He also distinguished himself under Desaix at Marengo (14 June 1800). His fidelity and address while serving under Desaix, who was killed at Marengo, secured him the confidence of Napoleon Bonaparte, who appointed him to command the special body of gendarmes charged with the duty of guarding the First Consul. In the discovery of the various ramifications of the Georges Cadoudal-Pichegru conspiracy Savary showed great skill and activity. He proceeded to the cliff of Biville in Normandy, where the plotters were in the habit of landing, and sought, by imitating the signals of the royalist plotters, to tempt the comte d'Artois (afterwards Charles X) to land. In this he was unsuccessful.  He was in command of the troops at Vincennes when the duc d'Enghien was summarily executed. Hulin, who presided at the court-martial, afterwards accused Savary, though not by name, of having intervened to prevent the dispatch to Bonaparte of an appeal for mercy which he (Hulin) was in the act of drawing up. Savary afterwards denied this, but his denial has not generally been accepted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Austerlitz.", "content": "In February 1805 he was raised to the rank of general of division. Shortly before the battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805) he was sent by Napoleon with a message to the emperor Alexander I with a request for an armistice, a device which caused that monarch all the more eagerly to strike the blow which brought disaster to the Russians. After the battle Savary again took a message to Alexander, which induced him to treat for an armistice. In the campaign of 1806 Savary showed signal daring in the pursuit of the Prussians after the battle of Jena. He was negotiating during the \"Siege of Hameln\". Early in the next year he received command of a corps, and with it gained an important success at Ostrolenka (16 February 1807).  After the treaty of Tilsit (7 July 1807) Savary proceeded to St Petersburg as the French ambassador, but was soon replaced by General Caulaincourt, another accessory to the execution of the duc d'Enghien. The repugnance of the empress dowager to Savary is said to have been one of the reasons of his recall, but it is more probable that Napoleon felt the need of his gifts for intrigue in the Spanish affairs which he undertook at the close of 1807. With the title of duke of Rovigo (a small town in Venetia), Savary set out for Madrid when Napoleon's plans for gaining the mastery of Spain were nearing completion. With Murat Savary made skilful use of the schisms in the Spanish royal family (March–April 1808), and persuaded Charles IV of Spain, who had recently abdicated under duress, and his son Ferdinand VII, the \"de facto\" king of Spain, to refer their claims to Napoleon. Savary induced Ferdinand to cross the Pyrenees and proceed to Bayonne—a step which cost him his crown and his liberty until 1814.  In September 1808 Savary accompanied the emperor to the famous meeting at the Congress of Erfurt with Alexander I. In 1809 he took part, albeit without distinction, in the campaign against Austria.  On the disgrace of Fouché in the spring of 1810, Savary received his ministry of police. There he showed his wonted skill and devotion to Napoleon; and this office, which the Jacobin Fouche had shorn of its terrors, now became a veritable inquisition. Among the incidents of his time may be cited the cynical brutality with which Savary carried out the order of Napoleon for the exile of Mme de Staël and the destruction of her work \"De l'Allemagne\". Savary's wariness was, however, at fault at the time of the strange conspiracy of General Malet, two of whose confederates seized him in his bed and imprisoned him for a few hours (23 October 1812). Savary's reputation never quite recovered from the ridicule caused by this event. Napoleon awarded him the duché grand-fief (a rare, nominal but hereditary honor; extinguished in 1872) of Rovigo, in his own Kingdom of Italy.  He was among the last to desert the emperor at the time of his abdication (11 April 1814) and among the first to welcome his abortive return (\"Cent Jours\") from Elba in 1815, when he became inspector-general of gendarmerie and a Peer of France. After the battle of Waterloo he accompanied the emperor to Rochefort and sailed with him to Plymouth on HMS \"Bellerophon\". He was not allowed to accompany him to Saint Helena, but underwent several months' \"internment\" at Malta. Escaping thence, he proceeded to Smyrna, where he settled for a time. Afterwards he travelled about in more or less distress, but finally was allowed to return to France and regained civic rights; later he settled at Rome.  The July Revolution (1830) brought him back into favour and in 1831 he received the command of the French army in Algeria. While in command at Algiers, he alienated French civil authorities with his high-handed treatment of Arab leaders. He was responsible for the extermination of the local Al'Ouffia tribe and the death of several Arab leaders whom he lured into negotiations. Ill-health compelled him to return to France, and he died in Paris in June 1833.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anne Jean Marie René Savary, 1st Duke of Rovigo (26 April 17742 June 1833) was a French general and diplomat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974408}
{"src_title": "Pauline von Metternich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Pauline was born in Vienna into the Hungarian noble family of. Her father, Count Móric Sándor (1805–1878), described as \"a furious rider\", was known throughout the Habsburg empire as a passionate horseman. Her mother, Princess Leontine von Metternich-Winneburg (1811–1861), was a daughter of the Austrian state chancellor Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (known as the architect of the Concert of Europe). It was at his home in Vienna that Pauline spent almost her whole childhood.  In 1856, she married her uncle, Prince Richard von Metternich (1829–1895), whereby her grandfather Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich also became her father-in-law. The couple lived a happy conjugal life, despite Richard's frequent love-affairs with actresses and opera prima donnas. Their first child was Sophie (born 1857); her second daughter, Pascaline (b. 1862), married Count Georg von Waldstein-Wartenberg, an insane and alcoholic Czech aristocrat who was said to have murdered her in delirium in Duchcov (today in the Czech Republic) in 1890. Her youngest daughter, Clementine (b. 1870), was badly injured by her dog as a child and decided never to marry due to her scarred face.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Socialite.", "content": "Pauline accompanied her husband, an Austrian diplomat, on his missions to the royal Saxon court in Dresden and in 1859 to the imperial French court in Paris, where they lived for more than eleven years until the Franco-Prussian war of 1870/71. She played an important role in the social and cultural life of both Dresden and Paris, and, after 1871, Vienna. Pauline's regular travels between, and extended stays in, Paris and Vienna, permitted her to act as a cross-cultural transmitter of the many trends that interested her in music, political ideas, and sport. She was a close friend and confidante of French Empress Eugénie, and, with her husband, was a prominent personality at the court of Emperor Napoleon III. In 1860 she introduced fashion designer Charles Frederick Worth to the Empress and thus started his rise to fame.  Princess Pauline was an ardent patron of music and contemporary arts, and also became a leader of fashionable society. Whether in Paris or Vienna, she set the latest social trends. She taught French and Czech aristocrats to skate, and ladies to smoke cigars without fear of their reputations. She was acquainted with many composers and writers, including Charles Gounod, Camille Saint-Saëns, Prosper Mérimée and Alexandre Dumas), and corresponded with them. She befriended music composers Richard Wagner (who dedicated a piano composition to her) and Franz Liszt, and backed their career. At her request, Emperor Napoleon III invited Wagner to substantially amend his \"Tannhäuser\" for a special 1861 performance by the Paris Opéra, a revision that forms the basis of what is today known as the \"Paris version\". The project failed (it closed after three performances) and became a celebrated fiasco and one of the greatest music-related scandals of the nineteenth century. Nevertheless, Pauline continued to spread the music of Wagner and other now-famous composers. Wagner later called her his most substantial support beside the Berlin socialite Marie von Schleinitz. One of her protégés was the leading Czech musician of that time, Bedřich Smetana, whom she introduced to the music circles of Vienna and Paris. Thanks to Pauline, Smetana's comic opera \"The Bartered Bride\" was produced in Vienna in 1892, to popular acclaim. She also organised salon performances of abridged versions of many famous operas, including Richard Wagner's \"Der Ring des Nibelungen\", in which she took part both as a stage director and singer. The composer Karl Michael Ziehrer dedicated her one of his dances.  In her private life, however, Pauline suffered several crises and disasters. As a child, she was an eyewitness to the bloody Revolution of 1848 in Vienna. In 1870 she remained at the side of Empress Eugénie in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War. Later she aided the Empress' escape from Paris to Great Britain by secretly sending Eugénie's jewels to London in a diplomatic bag. In Vienna, she was admired for her social engagement, but also feared for her gossiping. Her enmity with Empress Elisabeth of Austria was almost legendary and was enjoyed by the Habsburg court. After Elisabeth's death in 1898, Pauline together with Princess Eleonora Fugger von Babenhausen took the leading role of \"grand dames\" of the Vienna society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duel.", "content": "It is claimed that in August 1892, Pauline took part in a duel with Countess Anastasia von Kielmannsegg. However there are no primary sources for the story, only accounts from foreign newspapers; furthermore, a denial by the Princess was printed in a French newspaper not long after the first accounts were published in which she calls the story a \"ridiculous invention by Italian journalists.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Princess Pauline died in Vienna in 1921. She lived through the glory and fall of the Austrian and French empires and was believed to be a living symbol of these two lost worlds. A portrait of her by French impressionist Edgar Degas, painted from a photograph, now hangs in the National Gallery, London.  She wrote two books of memoirs. The first, \"Gesehenes, geschehenes, erlebtes\", in German, honored her grandfather, Chancellor Metternich, and father, Count Moritz Sándor, and the second, \"Éclairs du passé\", in French, recalled her life and times in the court of Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie. Both were published posthumously in the 1920s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Richard and Pauline von Metternich had three children :  Since the marriage produced no sons, Richard's title of \"Prince von Metternich\" passed to his half-brother, Paul von Metternich.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pauline Clémentine Marie Walburga, Princess of Metternich-Winneburg zu Beilstein (\"née\" Countess Pauline Sándor de Szlavnicza; 25 February 1836 – 28 September 1921) was a famous Austrian socialite, mainly active in Vienna and Paris. Known for her great charm and elegance as well as for her social commitment, she was an important promoter of the work of the German composer Richard Wagner and the Czech composer Bedřich Smetana. She was also instrumental to the creation of the haute couture industry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974409}
{"src_title": "Lotus corniculatus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The height of the plant is variable, from 5–20 cm, occasionally more where supported by other plants; the stems can reach up to 50 cm long. It is typically sprawling at the height of the surrounding grassland. It can survive fairly close grazing, trampling, and mowing. It is most often found in sandy soils. It flowers from June to September. The flowers develop into small pea-like pods or legumes.  The plant had many common English names in Britain, which are now mostly out of use. These names were often connected with the yellow and orange colour of the flowers, e.g. 'butter and eggs'. One name that is still used is eggs and bacon (or bacon and eggs).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Lotus corniculatus\" has a broad distribution worldwide. It is common everywhere in Britain. It is abundant in Ireland, and also in Northern Ireland, including County Londonderry, County Down, and County Antrim. Habitats include old fields, grassy places, and roadsides.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "It is used in agriculture as a forage plant, grown for pasture, hay, and silage. It is a high quality forage that does not cause bloat in ruminants. Taller-growing cultivars have been developed for this. It may be used as an alternative to alfalfa in poor soils.  A double-flowered variety is grown as an ornamental plant. It is regularly included as a component of wildflower mixes in Europe. It can also prevent soil erosion and provide a good habitat for wildlife.  Fresh bird's-foot trefoil contains cyanogenic glycosides, which release small amounts of hydrogen cyanide when macerated. This is not normally poisonous to humans, though, as the dose is very low, and the metabolization of cyanide is relatively quick. Condensed tannins are also present in \"L. corniculatus\", which has been known to increase the protein absorption of the small intestine. Used in an infusion to avoid the creation of hydrogen cyanide, this plant can be used as a sedative", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medicine uses.", "content": "The flowers are used mainly as a sedative and for other aspects of the nervous and cardiac systems. They have an antispasmodic effect on the digestive tract. In the Sannio region, Italy, the diluted infusions were used to calm anxiety, insomnia and exhaustion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The flowers are mostly visited by bumblebees. In the Chicago Region, mostly non-native bees have been observed visiting the flowers, including \"Andrena wilkella\", \"Anthidium oblongatum\", \"Apis mellifera\" and \"Megachile rotundata\". The native bees \"Bombus impatiens\" and \"Megachile relativa\" have also been observed visiting birdsfoot trefoil flowers, though the latter only rarely.  The plant is an important nectar source for many insects and is also used as a larval food plant by many species of Lepidoptera such as six-spot burnet and the silver-studded blue. It is a host plant for the wood white butterfly, \"Leptidea sinapis\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "Birdsfoot trefoil is an invasive species in many parts of North America and Australia. It has been commonly planted along roadsides for erosion control or pastures for forage and then spreads into natural areas. Once it has established in an area, it can outcompete native species. The use of prescribed fire is not an effective management tool against \"Lotus corniculatus\" and herbicide is recommended to control it.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lotus corniculatus is a flowering plant in the pea family Fabaceae, native to grasslands in temperate Eurasia and North Africa. Common names include common bird's-foot trefoil, eggs and bacon, birdsfoot deervetch, and just bird's-foot trefoil, though the latter name is often also applied to other members of the genus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974410}
{"src_title": "Karl Hermann Frank", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Karlsbad, Bohemia, in Austria-Hungary (present-day Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic), Frank was taught by his father (a proponent of Georg Ritter von Schönerer's policies) about nationalist agitation. Frank attempted to enlist in the Austro-Hungarian Army in World War I, but he was rejected due to blindness in his right eye. He spent a year at the law school of the German language Charles University in Prague and worked as a tutor to make money. An extreme advocate of the incorporation of the Sudetenland into Germany, Frank joined the German National Socialist Workers' Party (\"Deutsche Nationalsozialistische Arbeiterpartei\"; DNSAP) by 1923 and was involved in setting up several DNSAP chapters in northern Bohemia and Silesia. In 1925, Frank opened a book store which specialized in National-Socialist literature. Frank joined and helped organize the Sudeten-German Homeland Front (SdH) in 1933, which officially became the Sudeten German Party (SdP) in 1935. He then worked in the SdP public relations and propaganda department.  In 1935, Frank became deputy leader of the SdP and was elected a member of the Czechoslovak Parliament. Coming to represent the most radical National Socialists in the SdP, Frank was made Deputy \"Gauleiter\" of the Sudetenland when it became part of Germany in October 1938. Frank officially joined the Nazi Party and SS on 1 November 1938.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "In 1939, Frank was promoted to SS-\"Gruppenführer\" and appointed Secretary of State of the Reich Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia under Reich Protector Konstantin von Neurath. Himmler also named him the protectorate's Higher SS and Police Leader, making him its ranking SS officer. Although nominally under Neurath, Frank wielded great power in the protectorate. He controlled the Nazi police apparatus in the Protectorate, including the Gestapo, the SD, and the Kripo.  As Secretary of State and chief of police, Frank pursued a policy of harsh suppression of dissident Czechs and pushed for the arrest of Bohemia and Moravia's Prime Minister, Alois Eliáš. These actions by Frank were countered by Neurath's \"soft approach\" to the Czechs thereby encouraging anti-German resistance by strikes and sabotage. This frustrated Frank and led to him secretly working to discredit Neurath.  Hitler's decision to adopt a more radical approach in Bohemia and Moravia should have worked in Frank's favor. Hitler relieved Neurath of his active duties on 23 September 1941, though he still remained Reich Protector on paper. Frank hoped to be appointed as Deputy Protector and day-to-day head of the protectorate. Instead, Hitler chose Reinhard Heydrich, and gave him a mandate to enforce policy, fight resistance to the Nazi regime, and keep up production quotas of Czech motors and arms that were \"extremely important to the German war effort\". The working relationship between Frank and Heydrich was a good one as they both were ambitious and brutal. They launched a reign of terror in the protectorate, arresting and killing opponents and ramping up the deportation of Jews to concentration camps. According to Heydrich, between 4,000 and 5,000 people were arrested and between 400 and 500 were executed by February 1942.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Massacre of Lidice.", "content": "When Heydrich was assassinated in 1942, Frank was once again passed over for promotion to Deputy Protector; Kurt Daluege was chosen instead. Daluege and Frank were instrumental in initiating the destruction of the Czech villages of Lidice and Ležáky in order to take revenge on the Czech populace for Heydrich's death. When it came to the population of Lidice, Frank ordered Horst Böhme, the SiPo and SD chief in Prague, to shoot all the men, send all the women to concentration camps, and place those few children considered worthy of \"Germanization\" in the care of SS families in Germany, with the rest being murdered.  Under Daluege, Frank continued to consolidate his power, and by the time Wilhelm Frick was appointed Reich Protector in 1943, Frank was the most powerful official in Bohemia and Moravia. In August 1942, he was made a Minister of State as Reich Minister for Bohemia and Moravia. In June 1943, he was promoted to SS-\"Obergruppenführer\" and General of Police in Prague. Frank was also made a General of the Waffen-SS.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anti-partisan operations.", "content": "In 1944, he personally conducted anti-partisan warfare in Moravia aimed at destroying the Jan Žižka partisan brigade. Despite the deployment of 13,000 soldiers and summary executions of civilians suspected of supporting the partisans, the Germans were unable to destroy the partisan brigade and falsely concluded that the threat had been eliminated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trial and execution.", "content": "Frank was arrested by U.S. Army troops in the area of Rokycany on 9 May 1945. He was extradited to the People's Court in Prague and tried in 1946. After being convicted of war crimes and the destruction of Lidice and Ležáky, Frank was sentenced to death. He was hanged on 22 May 1946 in the courtyard of the Pankrác Prison in Prague, before 5,000 onlookers. He was buried in an anonymous pit at Prague's Ďáblice cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Frank was married twice. On 21 January 1925 he married Anna Müller (born 5 January 1899 in Karlsbad). The couple had two sons Harald, born 20 January 1926, and Gerhard, born 22 April 1931. They divorced on 17 February 1940 and later that year, Müller married Karl-Hermann's successor as deputy Gauleiter of Sudetenland, SA-\"Brigadeführer\" Dr. Fritz Köllner. On 14 April 1940 Frank remarried a physician, Karola Blaschek (born 13 August 1913 in Brüx). The couple had three children together, two daughters Edda, (born 16 August 1941) and Holle-Sigrid (born 8 March 1944), and a son Wolf-Dietrich (born 20 August 1942).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Hermann Frank (24 January 1898 – 22 May 1946) was a prominent Sudeten German Nazi official in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia prior to and during World War II. Attaining the rank of \"Obergruppenführer\", he was in command of the Nazi police apparatus in the Protectorate, including the Gestapo, the SD, and the Kripo. After the war, Frank was tried, convicted and executed by hanging for his role in organizing the massacres of the people of the Czech villages of Lidice and Ležáky.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974411}
{"src_title": "Lucas van Leyden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Paintings.", "content": "He learned basic techniques from his father and from Cornelis Engelbrechtsz, but his precocious originality was paramount. Where he learnt engraving is unknown, but he took advantage of the works of Marcantonio Raimondi, whose motifs are reworked in Lucas' engravings and paintings, and became highly skilled in that art at a very early age: the earliest known print by him (\"\") dates from 1508, when he was perhaps only 14, yet reveals no trace of immaturity in inspiration or technique.  Seventeen paintings surely by Lucas survive, and a further twenty-seven are known from descriptions by Carel van Mander, from contemporary copies or from drawings of them made by Jan de Bisschop in the later 17th century. Max Friedländer descried no clear pattern of stylistic development, in large part because Lucas' oeuvre was swelled and obscured by attributions since found unsustainable.  Four broad stages in his artistic development are characterized by Elise Lawton Smith as his early half-length figures (\"c\" 1506-1512), the development of his landscapes (\"c\" 1512-1520), the influence of Antwerp paintings (\"c\" 1521-25) and the late works (\"ca\" 1525-1531), where multiple figures are deployed against wooded landscapes, as in the \"Healing of blind man of Jericho\" (\"illustration\").  Raimondi's studies of nudes inspired van Leyden in his later work, particularly his altarpieces, in which he is an early Dutch adopter of the Italian-style nude figure. Two further artistic influences were Albrecht Dürer and Jan Gossaert. Indeed, he was friends with both, and Dürer drew van Leyden's portrait when they met in 1521. Dürer's mastery of engraving and Gossaert's Romanist style both heavily influenced van Leyden's work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prints.", "content": "Lucas's print included secular subjects, and many depictions of famous Biblical scenes, including \"Adoration of the Magi\", \"The Virgin and Child on the Crescent\", and \"The Holy Family\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Power of Women Series.", "content": "From 1513 to 1517, Lucas created a series of woodcuts called “The Power of Women,” which consisted of two large and small sets of prints. The series is one of a number of representations of the Power of Women theme, which was extremely popular in Renaissance art and literature. Artworks in the genre depict the traditional roles of men and women in inverse, with women dominating over men in various situations. The subjects illustrated often consist of legendary historical women who were considered to be virtuous heroines as well as women who were considered cunning, seductive, and manipulative of men. The purpose of the \"Power of Women\" theme was to demonstrate that even the strongest and wisest of men were not resistant to the sexuality of women.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Large Power of Women (1513—).", "content": "\"The Mouth of Truth\": A woman kneels in front of the Emperor of Rome and places her hand in the mouth of a statue of a lion while a crowd observes in the background.  \"The Fall of Man\": In the foreground, Eve stands to the left of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, around which a serpent is wrapped, and hands an apple to Adam, who sits to the right of the tree. In the background to the right, an angel drives Adam and Eve out of Eden.  \"Samson and Delilah:\" Delilah sits a bed of rocks while Samson lies sleeping in her lap. She holds his hair in one hand and cuts it with a knife.  \"Solomon’s Idolatry:\" King Solomon kneels in front of an idol of Moloch in the center foreground while one of his mistresses and a crowd of men observe him from behind.  \"Herod and Herodias\": Herod and Herodias sit at a table while their daughter Salome approaches them, holding a plate bearing the head of St. John the Baptist.  \"The Poet Virgil Suspended in a Basket:\" Virgil is shown stranded in a basket hung on the side of a tower in the town square, with a jeering crowd below him.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Small Power of Women (1517—).", "content": "\"The Fall of Man\": In the foreground, Adam and Eve are around the tree of knowledge of good and evil, with the serpent wrapped around the trunk and holding an apple. In the background, an angel drives Adam and Eve out of paradise.  \"Jael Killing Sisera\": In the foreground, Jael hammers a tent peg into Sisera's ear as he lies on the ground. In the middle ground on the right, Jael points out the foreground scene to a group of armed Israelites. In the background on the left, Sisera drinks from a goblet given to him by Jael.  \"Samson and Delilah\": Same as woodcut of larger size. Delilah sits a bed of rocks while Samson lies sleeping in her lap. She holds his hair in one hand and cuts it with a knife.  \"Solomon's Idolatry\": Same as woodcut of larger size. King Solomon kneels in front of an idol of Moloch in the center foreground while one of his mistresses and a crowd of men observe him from behind.  \"Jezebel Promising Naboth's Vineyards to King Ahab\": Jezebel stands beside her husband King Ahab of Israel, who is lying on his bed in his room.  \"Herod and Herodias\": In the foreground, Salome holds a plate bearing the head of St. John the Baptist in front of Herod and Herodias, who are sitting at a table. Through a window on the back wall, St. John the Baptist is seen being beheaded.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1515 Lucas married Elisabeth van Boschhuysen, from a patrician Leiden family. The marriage remained childless. Lucas did have a daughter Marijtje, born in Leiden out of wedlock around 1512. This daughter Marijtje would later marry the painter Dammas Claesz de Hoij. In their offspring, the De Hoij family, one can find prominent artists throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lucas van Leyden (1494 – 8 August 1533), also named either Lucas Hugensz or Lucas Jacobsz, was a Dutch painter and printmaker in engraving and woodcut. Lucas van Leyden was among the first Dutch exponents of genre painting and was a very accomplished engraver. Lucas was the son of the painter Huygh Jacobsz. He was born, died, and was mainly active in Leiden.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974412}
{"src_title": "Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Louis Joseph de Bourbon was born in Paris, the son of Louis, Duke of Vendôme and Laura Mancini. Orphaned at the age of fifteen, he inherited a vast fortune from his father that had been handed down from his great-grandmother, the \"duchesse de Mercœur et Penthièvre\". Prior to succeeding his father in 1669, he was known as the \"duc de Penthièvre\". He was raised by his aunt, Marie Anne Mancini, \"duchesse de Bouillon\".  Entering the army at the age of eighteen, Vendôme soon distinguished himself by his vigour and personal courage in the Dutch wars, and by 1688, he had risen to the rank of lieutenant-general. In the Nine Years' War, he rendered conspicuous service under the \"duc de Luxembourg\" at the Battle of Steenkerke, and under Nicolas Catinat at Marsaglia. In 1695, he was placed in command of the army operating in Catalonia, where he took Barcelona in 1697.  Soon afterwards, Vendome was made a Marshal of France. In 1702, after the first unsuccessful campaign of Catinat and Villeroi, he was placed in command of the Franco-Spanish army in Italy. During three campaigns in that country, he proved himself a worthy antagonist to Prince Eugène of Savoy, whom he at last defeated in 1705 at Cassano in a magnificent show of courage and command over his troops, converting the impending defeat that his indolent brother Philippe had incurred, into a glorious success.  The next year, after holding his own as before, and gaining another victory at Calcinato, he was sent to Flanders to repair the disaster of Ramillies. Following the departure of Vendôme to shore up the shattered army in the Flanders, Prince Eugène and the Duke of Savoy inflicted a heavy loss on the French under the \"duc d'Orléans\" and Ferdinand de Marsin at the Battle of Turin, driving the French out of Italy by the end of the year. In Flanders, meanwhile, Vendôme quarrelled with the king's unenterprising grandson, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, and was unable to prevent the French defeat at the Battle of Oudenarde.  In disgust, Vendôme retired to his estates. It wasn't long, however, before he was summoned back to take command of the army of his cousin, Philip V of Spain. There, he won his last victories, crowning his work triumphantly in the battles of Brihuega and Villaviciosa. Before the end of the war, he died suddenly at Vinaròs on 11 June 1712 and was buried at El Escorial in Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assessment.", "content": "Vendôme was one of the most remarkable soldiers in the history of the French army. He had, besides the skill and the fertile imagination of the true army leader, the brilliant courage of a soldier. The real secret of his continuous success, however, was his extraordinary influence over his men. He seldom made mistakes, and his opponent Eugene of Savoy praised the brilliance of some of his actions in his memoirs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Vendôme married Marie Anne de Bourbon, a daughter of Henri Jules, Prince of Condé and granddaughter of Le Grand Condé.  Reputedly very ugly, her father died leaving her unmarried. Her brother, who became the Prince of Condé in 1709, died the next year not having helped his sister marry. She could have married the \"duc du Maine\" in 1692, but Maine preferred Marie Anne's sister, Anne Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon, and married her instead.  The marriage ceremony occurred at the chapel at the Château de Sceaux on 21 May 1710. Sceaux was the residence of Anne Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon. Louis Joseph was fifty-five years old at the time. He was a Marshal of France and had been designated as the heir of his cousin, King Philip V of Spain. In the event that Philip should die childless, the House of Bourbon had decided that Louis Joseph would become the next king of Spain. The marriage remained childless though - perhaps due to the homosexual tendencies of Louis Joseph. Marie Anne died in 1718 without any children.  Although Louis XIV had given permission for the marriage, the manipulative \"duc\" and \"duchesse du Maine\" hurriedly arranged the details of the wedding, probably for mercenary reasons. Even though the Dowager Princess of Condé was not informed of the marriage, she was present at the bedding ceremony at Sceaux along with Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon, his wife Marie Anne de Bourbon, the Dowager Princess of Conti, and her children the Prince of Conti and \"Mademoiselle de La Roche-sur-Yon\".  On his death, Louis Joseph left his wife the duchy of Étampes and its lands. She held this title in her own right. When she died, it went to her niece, the Princess of Conti.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme (1 July 165411 June 1712) was a Marshal of France and one of the most successful French military commanders during the War of the Grand Alliance and War of the Spanish Succession.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974413}
{"src_title": "Jean Reynier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Revolution.", "content": "Reynier joined the French army as a gunner in 1792 and fought at the Battle of Jemappes that year. He received promotion to general of brigade in January 1795. He was General Jean Moreau's chief-of-staff in 1796 and soon became a general of division. He went on Napoleon's Egyptian expedition in 1798 and commanded a division at the Battle of the Pyramids, the Siege of El Arish and the siege of Acre. Later, under the command of General Jacques-Francois Menou he defended against the British counter-invasion of Egypt in 1801. His division was present but not engaged in the Battle of Alexandria. After returning to France, Reynier killed a fellow general in a duel and was under a cloud for a time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Empire.", "content": "Reynier fought with the army of Marshal André Masséna in the 1805 Italian theater. On 24 November, his 2nd Division helped capture Prince Louis Victor Rohan-Guéméné's 4,400 Austrians at the Battle of Castelfranco Veneto. Reynier's 6,000 Frenchmen routed the 10,000-man army of the Bourbon Kingdom of Naples and Sicily at the Battle of Campo Tenese on 9 March 1806. This victory helped Napoleon to install his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of the newly created Napoleonic Kingdom of Naples. On 4 July of that year, a British raiding force inflicted a severe drubbing on an overconfident Reynier at the Battle of Maida in southern Italy. Reynier was later able to reassert French control of the area via the French victory at Mileto and served under King Joseph as his Minister of War and Marine.  During the Battle of Wagram in 1809, Reynier commanded 129 artillery pieces and 8,475 soldiers on the Island of Lobau. This impressive array of cannon helped stop a dangerous flanking attack by Johann von Klenau's Austrian VI Armeekorps. Sent to the Iberian Peninsula in 1810, he commanded the II Corps under Masséna at the Battle of Bussaco, the Lines of Torres Vedras, and the Battle of Sabugal in Portugal. Before Bussaco, Reynier and other generals urged Masséna to order the assault which turned out to be unsuccessful. His corps was not seriously engaged at the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro in Spain. In 1811, Napoleon named him a Count of the Empire.  During the Russian campaign of 1812, Reynier led the VII Corps which was composed of Saxons. Together with an allied Austrian force under Karl Schwarzenberg, he operated well to the south of the major fighting. After fighting inconclusive battles with the Russians at Gorodeczna and Wolkowysk, he retreated when he learned of the main army's disaster.  Leading the Saxon corps plus an attached French division, Reynier fought at the battles of Kalish, Bautzen, Grossbeeren and Dennewitz in 1813. During the climactic Battle of Leipzig, his Saxon troops suddenly changed sides. When a key bridge was blown up too quickly, Reynier was trapped and captured with his remaining French soldiers. He returned to France after a prisoner exchange in February 1814 but died two weeks later.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean Louis Ebénézer Reynier (14 January 1771 – 27 February 1814) rose in rank to become a French army general officer during the French Revolutionary Wars. He led a division under Napoleon Bonaparte in the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria. During the Napoleonic Wars he continued to hold important combat commands, eventually leading an army corps during the Peninsular War in 1810-1811 and during the War of the Sixth Coalition in 1812–1813.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974414}
{"src_title": "Osmunda regalis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The name \"Osmunda\" possibly derives from \"Osmunder\", a Saxon name for the god Thor. The name \"royal fern\" derives from its being one of the largest and most imposing European ferns. The name has been qualified as \"old world royal fern\" in some American literature to distinguish it from the closely related American royal fern, \"O. spectabilis\". However this terminology is not found in British literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Osmunda regalis\" produces separate fertile and sterile fronds. The sterile fronds are spreading, tall and broad, bipinnate, with 7-9 pairs of pinnae up to long, each pinna with 7-13 pairs of pinnules 2.5-6.5 cm long and 1–2 cm broad. The fertile fronds are erect and shorter, 20–50 cm tall, usually with 2-3 pairs of sterile pinnae at the base, and 7-14 pairs of fertile pinnae above bearing the densely clustered sporangia.  In many areas, \"O. regalis\" has become rare as a result of wetland drainage for agriculture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "\"Osmunda\" evolved in the ancient southern continent of Gondwana. A permineralized fossil rhizome of fern was discovered in Early Jurassic (Pliensbachian) lahar deposits at Korsaröd in southern Sweden. Authigenic mineral precipitation from hydrothermal brines occurred so rapidly that it preserved cytoplasm, cytosol granules, nuclei, and even chromosomes in various stages of cell division. Morphological studies showed that the plant closely resembles the cinnamon fern, \"Osmundastrum cinnamomea\". The Korsaröd fern fossil and extant Osmundaceae share the same relative genome sizes and ploidy levels. This suggests that neither ploidization events nor notable amounts of gene loss have occurred in the genome of the royal ferns since the Early Jurassic ~180 million years ago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "There are three to four varieties as traditionally construed:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "There are three very similar species, \"Osmunda spectabilis\", \"Osmunda lancea\" and \"Osmunda japonica\". Recent genetic analysis (Metzgar et al., 2008) has shown that the New World varieties are in a clade that is sister to the Old World varieties of \"Osmunda regalis\". If this is true, then \"O. lancea\" and \"O. japonica\" should either be regarded as varieties of \"O. regalis\", or, conversely, \"O. regalis var. spectabilis\" should be regarded as a separate species, \"Osmunda spectabilis\" Willdenow. The var. \"brasiliensis\" would then be \"Osmunda spectabilis\" Willdenow var. \"brasiliensis\" Hooker & Greville.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Osmunda regalis\" is widely cultivated in temperate regions. The species and the cultivar 'Cristata' have both gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Osmunda plants should be planted in highly acidic, moist soil, associating well with other large moisture-loving plants such as \"Rodgersia\" and \"Gunnera\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "The roots, along with those of other species of \"Osmunda\", are used for the production of osmunda fibre, used as a growing medium for cultivated orchids and other epiphytic plants.  According to Slavic mythology, the sporangia, called \"Perun's flowers\", have assorted magical powers, such as giving their holders the ability to defeat demons, fulfill wishes, unlock secrets, and understand the language of trees. However, collecting the sporangia is a difficult and frightening process. In earlier traditions, they must be collected on Kupala night; later, after the arrival of Christianity, the date is changed to Easter eve. Either way, the person wanting to collect Perun's flowers must stand within a circle drawn around the plant and withstand the taunting or threats of demons.  Seasoned royal fern is also used in the dish Namul in Korean royal court cuisine.  The young shoots of the fern are, along with the similar shoots of many other fern species, known in some places as fiddleheads, and eaten as food, thought to have an asparagus-like taste.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Osmunda regalis, or royal fern, is a species of deciduous fern, native to Europe, Africa and Asia, growing in woodland bogs and on the banks of streams. The species is sometimes known as flowering fern due to the appearance of its fertile fronds.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974415}
{"src_title": "Henry I, Duke of Guise", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Catholic League.", "content": "He succeeded his father in 1563 as Duke of Guise and Grand Maître de France. He fought the Turks in Hungary in 1565, and on his return, he became one of the leaders of the Catholic faction in the French Wars of Religion. He fought at the Battle of Saint-Denis in 1567, Battle of Jarnac, successfully defended Poitiers during a siege and was wounded at the Battle of Moncontour. His love affair with Margaret of Valois in 1570 offended her brother, Charles IX of France and the Queen Mother, Catherine de' Medici, but his marriage to Catherine of Cleves restored his fortunes. Considering the Huguenot leader Admiral Coligny the architect of his father's assassination during the siege of Orléans in 1563, he is a suspect in the murder of the Admiral in August 1572. This was quickly followed by the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre which took place on the occasion of Margaret's marriage to the Huguenot, Henry of Navarre. Henry was wounded at the Battle of Dormans on 10 October 1575, and was thereafter known, like his father, as \"Le Balafré\". With a charismatic and brilliant public reputation, he rose to heroic stature among the Catholic population of France as an opponent of the Huguenots.  In 1576 he formed the Catholic League. The talent and dash of Guise contrasted favorably with the vacillation and weakness of Henry III. He was said to have claimed a Carolingian descent and cast eyes on the throne. This led to the stage of the Wars of Religion known as the \"War of the Three Henries\" (1584–1588). However, at the death in 1584 of Francis, Duke of Anjou, the king's brother (which left Henry of Navarre, the Protestant champion, as heir-male), Guise concluded the Treaty of Joinville with Philip II of Spain. This compact declared that the Cardinal de Bourbon should succeed Henry III, in preference to Henry of Navarre. Henry III now sided with the Catholic League (1585), which made war with great success on the Protestants. Guise sent his cousin Charles, Duke of Aumale, to lead a rising in Picardy (which could also support the retreat of the Spanish Armada). Alarmed, Henry III ordered Guise to remain in Champagne; he defied the king and on 9 May 1588 Guise entered Paris, bringing to a head his ambiguous challenge to royal authority in the Day of the Barricades and forcing King Henry to flee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assassination.", "content": "The League now controlled France; the king was forced to accede to its demands and created Guise Lieutenant-General of France. But Henry III refused to be treated as a mere cipher by the League, and decided upon a bold stroke. On 22 December 1588, Guise spent the night with his current mistress Charlotte de Sauve, the most accomplished and notorious member of Catherine de' Medici's group of female spies known as the \"Flying Squadron\". The following morning at the Château de Blois, Guise was summoned to attend the king, and was at once assassinated by \"the Forty-five\", the king's bodyguard, as Henry III looked on. Guise's brother, Louis II, Cardinal of Guise, was likewise assassinated the next day. The deed aroused such outrage among the remaining relatives and allies of Guise that Henry III was forced to take refuge with Henry of Navarre. Henry III was assassinated the following year by Jacques Clément, an agent of the Catholic League.  According to Baltasar Gracian in \"A Pocket Mirror for Heroes\", it was once said of him to Henry III, \"Sire, he does good wholeheartedly: those who do not receive his good influence directly receive it by reflection. When deeds fail him, he resorts to words. There is no wedding he does not enliven, no baptism at which he is not godfather, no funeral he does not attend. He is courteous, humane, generous, the honorer of all and the detractor of none. In a word, he is a king by affection, just as Your Majesty is by law.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "He married on 4 October 1570 in Paris to Catherine of Cleves (1548–1633), Countess of Eu, by whom he had fourteen children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature and the arts.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "The Duke of Guise appears as an archetypal Machiavellian schemer in Christopher Marlowe's \"The Massacre at Paris\", which was written about 20 years after the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. The death of the duke is also mentioned, by the ghost of Machiavelli himself, in the opening lines of \"The Jew of Malta\". He appears (as The Guise) in George Chapman's \"Bussy D'Ambois\" and its sequel, \"The Revenge of Bussy D'Ambois\".  John Dryden and Nathaniel Lee wrote \"The Duke of Guise\" (1683), based on events during the reign of Henry III of France.  He appears in the short novel \"The Princess of Montpensier\", by Madame de La Fayette. He appears in Voltaire's epic poem \"La Henriade\" (1723). He is one of the characters in Alexandre Dumas's novel \"La Reine Margot\" and its sequels, \"La Dame de Monsoreau\" and \"The Forty-Five Guardsmen\". He also appears prominently in Heinrich Manns novel \"Young Henry of Navarre\" (1935).  Stanley Weyman's novel \"A Gentleman of France\" includes the Duke of Guise in its tale about the War of the Three Henries.  Ken Follett's novel \"A Column of Fire\" features Henry, Duke of Guise as a prominent character, and explores his involvement with the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Henry I, Prince of Joinville, Duke of Guise, Count of Eu (31 December 1550 – 23 December 1588), sometimes called \"Le Balafré\" (\"Scarface\"), was the eldest son of Francis, Duke of Guise, and Anna d'Este. His maternal grandparents were Ercole II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, and Renée of France. Through his maternal grandfather, he was a descendant of Lucrezia Borgia and Pope Alexander VI.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974416}
{"src_title": "Abbey of Fontenay", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foundation of the order.", "content": "In the late 11th century during the heyday of the great church of Cluny III (a magnificent Benedictine monastery in Cluny, France), although Cluny had numerous followers, Saint Robert of Molesme, the subsequent founder of Cîteaux Abbey, led a strong reaction against it. Saint Robert thought that Cluny was against the actual Rule of Saint Benedict: “to work is to pray”. As a result, Saint Robert, along with a group of monks who shared this belief, detached from Cluny.  Saint Robert established the Order of Cistercians in Citeaux, France. The new order strictly observed the Rule of Saint Benedict. As part of this rule, monks had to be poor and live a simple life. In order not to be distracted from the religious life, Cistercians built self-sufficient monasteries in isolated areas and refused to use servants. Cistercian monasteries were independent. They differed from Cluny in that all houses were under the direct control of the abbot, and each Cistercian monastery needed to take care of its own. Each of them was most likely an independent individual society.  Bernard of Clairvaux, an abbot and the primary builder of the reformed Cistercian order, shared the same faith with Saint Robert of Molesme. However, Bernard felt that Cîteaux Abbey was not austere enough and did not completely reflect the Rule of Saint Benedict. Thus, in 1118 he founded the Abbey of Fontenay in a Burgundy valley with strictly implemented austerity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History of the abbey.", "content": "The Cistercian monks moved to Fontenay Abbey in 1130. Nine years later, the Bishop of Norwich fled to Fontenay to escape persecution, and helped finance the construction of the church with his wealth. The church was consecrated in 1147 by Pope Eugene III.  By 1200 the monastic complex was complete and able to serve as many as 300 monks. In 1259, the devout King Louis exempted the Abbey of Fontenay from all taxes, and being in the King’s good graces, ten years later the abbey became a royal abbey.  In 1359, the Abbey of Fontenay was pillaged by the armies of King Edward III of England during the Hundred Years' War. It suffered further damage during the Wars of Religion in late 16th century. In 1745, the refectory was destroyed. With the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789 all of the monks successively left the abbey due to dechristianisation during the revolution and in 1791, the site was turned into a paper mill, run by the Montgolfier brothers.  In 1906 Edouard Aynard, an art-loving banker from Lyon, bought the abbey and commenced its restoration which was complete by 1911. Edouard's descendants continued to work on the abbey and it remains in the Aynard family to this day. In 1981 the abbey became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "All Cistercians churches have the same model and are extremely similar to one another; for example, Graiguenamanagh Abbey built in Ireland in 1204 has a very similar floor plan as the Abbey of Fontenay. The spirit of Cistercian architecture is simple, conservative, utilitarian and self-sufficient. The Abbey of Fontenay is a typical Cistercian monastery built on these fundamental characteristics.  Cistercian monasteries including the Abbey of Fontenay are identified as an offshoot of Romanesque art and a germination of Gothic art. The churches of the monasteries consist of prominent Romanesque architecture features, including symmetrical plan, massive quality, thick walls, sturdy piers, groin vaults, round arches and tall central nave. On the other hand, Gothic architectures evolving from Romanesque architectures was promoted by Cistercians and influenced by Cistercian monasteries.  In medieval Europe Cistercians’ motivation of manual labor work became “the main force of technological diffusion” in many fields including metallurgy. The massive use of metal along with metal skills in Gothic architectures is a main element of Gothic art. Furthermore, Gothic churches include features of Cistercian monasteries such as pointed arches. Therefore, Cistercian architectures are considered to be a bridge between Romanesque and Gothic architectures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Buildings.", "content": "The Abbey was primarily constructed using stones from local areas. The church of the abbey is of typical Cistercian architecture, built in the Romanesque style. It is in a Latin cross shape, with a nave 66 metres long and 8 metres wide, two side-aisles, and a transept measuring 19 metres. In contrast to earlier churches, the church of the abbey has a flattened apse and two rectangular (instead of semicircular) chapels of each side of the transept. The cloister measures 36 by 38 metres. The chapter house is vaulted, with heavy ribs. There is a large dormitory which was re-roofed in the fifteenth century with an arched braced roof of chestnut timber.  Except for the demolished refectory, the abbey retains almost all of its original buildings: church, dormitory, cloister, chapter house, caldarium or \"warming room\", dovecote and forge, all built in Romanesque style. The abbot's lodgings and infirmary were built at a later date. Today the abbey buildings are set in modern manicured parterres of lawn and gravel.  In all of the original buildings, neither the exteriors nor interiors are decorated. Although Bernard of Clairvaux did not attempt to reject art or beauty, he was cautious of “those manifestations of beauty which lead the eyes of the mind away from the imago Dei to the imagines mundi (images of the world)”. Although there are no flowers in the capitals, no decorative motifs and no images anywhere, the abbey is still an outstanding artwork.  The church and the cloister, the centre of life for monks, were built in logically distributed spaces. In anticipation of the monastery’s future expansion, instead of creating an enclosed structure, the church and the cloister were created parallel or perpendicular to each other with open ends. In this way, during expansion the existing cloister and church would not be influenced.  There is no bell tower in the abbey, because Bernard of Clairvaux felt this would take away from the austerity. As an alternative, small bells were attached into the wall beside the church door to call lay brothers to gather together.  In the interior of the church, massive cruciform piers sustain high, large barrel vaults consisting of pointed arches and transverse pointed arches. Diaphragm pointed arches are also evident. The abundant use of pointed arches was chosen because “the pointed arch channels the weight onto the bearing piers or columns at a steep angle,” and will support a tall building for thousands of years.  Bernard of Clairvaux, who restricted decorations, believed that only light should enter the church. For a long time it was also believed that perfect proportions can be achieved through music. Thus, when designing the glass windows, numerical ratios corresponding to music were applied. For instance, the seven windows in the west of the interior were distributed according to a musical ratio of 3/4.(Paragraph Needs Citation)  The thirty-six meter cloister located at the back of the church is divided by pillars into small galleries. In each gallery, double column pillars with lanceolate capitals support a double arches vault. This cloister was an important place for monks to spend their spare time reading, working and praying.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "This World Heritage Site has retained the greater part of its Romanesque and Early Gothic monastic buildings, giving uniquely intact picture of a Cistercian monastery of the 12th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Abbey of Fontenay is a former Cistercian abbey located in the commune of Marmagne, near Montbard, in the département of Côte-d'Or in France. It was founded by Saint Bernard of Clairvaux in 1118, and built in the Romanesque style. It is one of the oldest and most complete Cistercian abbeys in Europe, and became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981. Of the original complex comprising church, dormitory, cloister, chapter house, caldarium, refectory, dovecote and forge, all remain intact except the refectory and are well maintained. The Abbey of Fontenay, along with other Cistercian abbeys, forms a connecting link between Romanesque and Gothic architectures.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974417}
{"src_title": "The Dinner Game", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Pierre Brochant, a Parisian publisher, attends a weekly \"idiots' dinner\", where guests, who are modish, prominent Parisian businessmen, must bring along an \"idiot\" whom the other guests can ridicule. At the end of the dinner, the evening's \"champion idiot\" is selected.  With the help of an \"idiot scout\", Brochant manages to find a \"gem\", François Pignon, a sprightly employee of the Finance Ministry (which Brochant, a tax cheat, loathes). Pignon has a passion for building matchstick replicas of famous landmarks. Shortly after inviting Pignon to his home, Brochant is suddenly stricken with back pain while playing golf at his exclusive country club. His wife, Christine, leaves him shortly before Pignon arrives at his apartment, as she realizes that he still wants to go to the \"idiots' dinner.\" Brochant initially wants Pignon to leave, but instead becomes reliant on him, because of his back problem and his need to resolve his relationship problems.  He solicits Pignon's assistance in making a series of telephone calls to locate his wife, but Pignon blunders each time, including revealing the existence of Brochant's mistress, Marlene Sasseur (thinking that she is Brochant's sister, since her name sounds like \"sa soeur\"), to his wife Christine and inviting tax inspector Lucien Cheval to Brochant's house where Brochant is forced quickly to hide most of his valuables in an attempt to disguise his tax evasion. In the meantime, Brochant is able to make amends with an old friend, Just Leblanc, from whom he stole Christine, and through the evening's events is forced to reassess his mistakes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accolades.", "content": "At the 1999 César Awards, the film was honored with six nominations of which it won three. The categories it won were Best Actor for Jacques Villeret, Best Supporting Actor for Daniel Prévost and Best Screenplay for Francis Veber. It was nominated but did not win for Best Film, Veber as Best Director and Catherine Frot as Best Supporting Actress.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dinner Game (original title: Le Dîner de Cons - English: \"Dinner of Fools\") is a 1998 French comedy film written and directed by Francis Veber. It is a film adaptation by Veber of his play \"Le Dîner de Cons\". It was the top grossing French film at the French box office for 1998 and second place overall behind \"Titanic\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974418}
{"src_title": "Miloslav Mečíř", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Mečíř was born in Bojnice, Czechoslovakia (now part of Slovakia).  He reached two ATP finals in 1984 and began 1985 by beating Jimmy Connors in the semifinal at Philadelphia, before losing to world No. 1 John McEnroe in the final. He won his first ATP singles title in Rotterdam later that year, and ended 1985 ranked just outside the world's top 10.  He consolidated his position as a world class player in 1986, beating rising Stefan Edberg in straight sets at Wimbledon, before losing to defending champion Boris Becker in the quarterfinals. He reached his first Grand Slam final at the US Open later that year, beating Mats Wilander and Boris Becker along the way to the final, where he faced fellow Czechoslovak, defending champion and world No. 1, Ivan Lendl. The 1986 US Open was notable for the fact that four players from Czechoslovakia competed in the two singles finals for men and women – Mečíř and Lendl, Helena Suková and Martina Navratilova. Lendl won the match in straight sets 6–4, 6–2, 6–0. Mečíř's 1986 US Open final appearance was the last major final to see a player still using a wooden racket.  Mečíř improved further in 1987, winning six singles and six doubles titles, notably winning the WCT Finals in Dallas, where he defeated John McEnroe in four sets. He met Lendl again in three high-profile matches that year, winning the final of the Lipton International Players Championships in Key Biscayne, Florida, while Lendl won the final of the German Open in Hamburg and the semifinals of the French Open.  By this time, Mečíř's sedate playing style was known to frustrate a lot of the more-powerful top ranked players. The Swedish players, in particular, were said to dislike playing against him.  Mečíř was on top form at Wimbledon in 1988, where he defeated Mats Wilander in the quarterfinal. It was Wilander's only Grand Slam singles defeat of the year (he won the 1988 Australian Open, French Open and US Open) yet Mečíř beat him 6–3, 6–1, 6–3. He took a two-set lead in the semifinal against Edberg with a similar display, and later led by a break of serve in the final set, but Edberg eventually wore him down on the way to his first Wimbledon crown.  The highlight of Mečíř's career came later in 1988 when he was selected to represent Czechoslovakia in the Seoul Olympics. He defeated Eric Jelen, Jeremy Bates, Guy Forget and Michiel Schapers and then in the men's singles semifinals he exacted revenge over Wimbledon champion Edberg, in a five-set match 3–6, 6–0, 1–6, 6–4, 6–2. He then met Tim Mayotte of the U.S. in the men's singles final and won in four sets 3–6, 6–2, 6–4, 6–2 to claim the gold medal. He also won a bronze medal in the men's doubles, partnering Milan Šrejber.  In 1989, Mečíř reached his second Grand Slam final at the Australian Open in Melbourne. Again he came up against Lendl and lost in straight sets 6–2, 6–2, 6–2. It was a tactical victory for Lendl, whose win saw him to reclaim the world No. 1 ranking from Wilander. After the match, Lendl apologized to the crowd, explaining that he and coach Tony Roche had decided the best tactic against Mečíř was to hit shots deep and down the centre of the court, denying his opponent the angles he thrived on.  Mečíř was a member of the Czechoslovak teams that won the World Team Cup in 1987 and the inaugural Hopman Cup in 1989. He is currently the Slovak Davis Cup captain.  During his career, Mečíř won 11 singles titles and nine doubles titles. His career-high world ranking in both singles and doubles was world No. 4. His final career singles title came in 1989 at Indian Wells. His last doubles title was also won in 1989 in Rotterdam.  Throughout most of 1989 and into 1990, Mečíř suffered from a worsening back injury and he retired in July 1990, aged just 26.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing style.", "content": "Mečíř was a finesse player whose career straddled the transition from wooden and metal racquets towards modern graphite composites. He was noted for his touch shots as well as the ability to disguise his shots, particularly his two-handed backhand. His court coverage and graceful footwork earned him the nickname \"The Big Cat\". The French called him \"Le Prestidigitateur\" (The Conjuror).  Many top players used to cite Mečíř as the one player they most enjoyed watching because of his beautifully simple style and touch. He was known as the \"Swede Killer\" for the success that he had against Swedish players, especially Mats Wilander.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grand Slam singles performance timeline.", "content": "NH = tournament not held  A = did not participate in the tournament  SR = the ratio of the number of Grand Slam singles tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played  NH = tournament not held", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grand Prix singles tournament timeline.", "content": "A = did not participate in the tournament  SR = the ratio of the number of Masters Series singles tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Miloslav Mečíř (; born 19 May 1964) is a former professional tennis player from Slovakia. He won the men's singles gold medal at the 1988 Olympic Games, where he represented Czechoslovakia, and played in two Grand Slam singles finals. In 1987 he won the WCT Finals, the season-ending championship for the World Championship Tennis tour.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974419}
{"src_title": "University of Zagreb", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academy.", "content": "The beginnings of the later university date back to 23 September 1669 when Emperor and King Leopold I Habsburg issued a decree granting the establishment of the Jesuit Academy of the Royal Free City of Zagreb. According to that document the study of philosophy in Zagreb acquired a formal and legal status as \"Neoacademia Zagrabiensis\" and officially became a public institution of higher education. The academy was run by the Jesuits for more than a century until the order was dissolved by Pope Clement XIV in 1773. Under a new leadership in 1772 the academy enrolled a total of 200 students.  In 1776 Empress and Queen Maria Theresa issued a decree founding the Royal Academy of Science (). It consisted of three studies or faculties of philosophy, theology, and law. The former political-cameral studies became part of the newly established faculty of law, and thus were integrated into the academy. Each of the faculties of the Royal Academy of Sciences had several chairs teaching one or several courses.  The academy in Zagreb remained until 1874, despite numerous organizational changes, the focal institution of higher education in Croatia, educating most of the members of the Croatian intelligentsia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "University.", "content": "Bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer in 1861 proposed to the Croatian Parliament the founding of a university at Zagreb. During his visit in 1869, the Emperor Franz Joseph signed the decree on the establishment of the University of Zagreb. Five years later, the Parliament passed the Act of Founding, which was ratified by the Emperor on 5 January 1874. On 19 October 1874, a ceremony was held in the name of the founding of the \"Royal University of Franz Joseph I in Zagreb\", making it the third university in the Hungarian realm of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.  In 1874 the University had four faculties:  The Faculty of Medicine was not put into function in 1874; it had to wait until 1917. The Faculty of Philosophy served as the general scientific faculty. Since 1876 it had geology, botany, physics, mathematics, and chemistry; since 1877 zoology; since 1882 pharmacy; since 1883 geography.  In 1860, the Royal Agriculture and Forestry College was founded in Križevci. In 1898, the Academy of Forestry (\"Šumarska akademija\") was founded as part of the Faculty of Philosophy, which encompassed all technical studies. In 1919, this school became the Faculty of Husbandry and Forestry.  In 1919, the School of Technology (\"Tehnička visoka škola\") was founded, which was transformed into a university faculty in 1926. Also in 1919 the School of Veterinary Medicine (\"Veterinarska visoka škola\") was founded; it transformed into a university faculty in 1925.  In the Faculty of Philosophy, major reorganization ensued in the 1920s, as mathematics, pharmacy and other sciences started to split off, first with the creation of separate mathematics and pharmaceutical departments in 1928, when the faculty was renamed into its current name \"Filozofski fakultet\".  In 1926, the university was composed of seven faculties:  During the Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945), the university was known as the \"Croatian University\" (Hrvatsko sveučilište).  The individual departments of the Faculty of Philosophy became separate faculties in 1942, 1946 when the Faculty of Sciences was formed, and finally in 1963.  In 1956, the Faculty of Technology was divided into four faculties:  These eventually split up into the current layout.  In 1999., the University decided to implement European Credit Transfer System - ECTS. When Croatia signed to be a part of The Bologna declaration, all of the universities in Croatia adopted this system of easily readable and comparable degrees.  University offers 160 undergraduate programmes (ba/bsc), 22 integrated undergraduate-graduate programmes, 9 vocational undergraduate programmes, 174 graduate programmes (ma/msc), 1 vocational graduate programme, 72 doctoral programmes (PhD) and 165 specialist postgraduate programmes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Faculties.", "content": "Natural sciences  Engineering  Biomedical sciences  Biotechnology  Social sciences  Humanities  The arts", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy and Religious Sciences.", "content": "Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Sciences (FFRZ) is a part of the University of Zagreb, Croatia It remains a work of the Society of Jesus and traces its origins to 1662.  FFRZ in Zagreb began as a Jesuit school of philosophy on 6 November 1662 with the establishment of the Philosophy Department at Zagreb College, which would become the University of Zagreb.  The Faculty of Philosophy of the Society of Jesus (FFDI) closed in 1773 due to the suppression of the Society of Jesus, and the Jesuit philosophy school in Zagreb did not reopen until 1937, when it offered a three-year course leading to the licentiate in philosophy, as it does today.  On 31 July 1989 the Congregation for Catholic Education of the Holy See decreed that the Faculty of Philosophy could confer the baccalaureate, licentiate, and doctorate in philosophy.  With a decision of 7 October 1992, the Ministry of Science and Technology entered FFDI into the register as a Scientific Research Organization in philosophy and it became a part of the Croatian Studies Department of the University of Zagreb.  On 8 December 2016, the Senate of the University of Zagreb determined that FFDI would become a faculty and equal component of the University under the title Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Sciences (FFRZ).  Undergraduates may major in Philosophy and Religious Sciences, Philosophy, or Philosophy and Latin Language. Graduate students may major in Philosophy or Religious Science. FFRZ also offers post-graduate studies.  FFRZ has a formal relationship with Laudato TV to \"work together to promote and implement educational, cultural and scientific activities in the Christian and humanistic atmosphere\". In 2017 there were two current research studies at the Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Sciences: On 5 May 2017 a symposium was held on \"Religions and Migration: Displaced Persons and Refugees\".  The faculty is led by a chancellor and his deputy along with a dean and vice-dean. The chancellor is Arturo Sosa, General Superior of the Society of Jesus based in Rome. His deputy is Dalibor Renić, Provincial Superior of the Croatian Province of the Society of Jesus based in Zagreb. The dean is Prof. Ivan Koprek, The Faculty Council is composed of all regular and extraordinary professors and the Faculty Conference includes all current lecturers, student representatives, and faculty officials.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rankings.", "content": "As of 2019, the university ranked 751-800 by QS, ranking 560 by USN, and 512 by CWUR, and 1000+ by THE.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Since 1874, more than 200,000 students have received a bachelor's degree, more than 18,000 a master's, and more than 8,000 a doctorate from the University of Zagreb.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The University of Zagreb (, ; ) is the largest Croatian university and the oldest continuously operating university in the area covering Central Europe south of Vienna and all of Southeastern Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974420}
{"src_title": "Jan Długosz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Jan Długosz is best known for his \"Annales seu cronici incliti regni Poloniae\" (\"Annals or Chronicles of the Famous Kingdom of Poland\") in 12 volumes and in Latin language, covering events in southeastern Europe, but also in Western Europe, from 965 to 1480, the year he died. Długosz combined features of Medieval chronicles with elements of humanistic historiography. For writing the history of the Kingdom of Poland, Długosz also used Ruthenian (Russian) chronicles including those that did not survive to our times (among which there could have been used the Kyiv collection of chronicles of the 11th century in the Przemysl's edition around 1100 and the Przemysl episcopal collections of 1225-40).  His work was first printed in 1701–1703. It was originally printed at the Jan Szeliga printing house in Dobromyl financed by Jan Szczęsny Herburt. Whenever Jan Długosz bothers to mention himself in the book, he writes of himself in the third person. He belonged to the Wieniawa coat-of-arms.  Długosz was a canon at Kraków, educated at the University of Krakow. He was sent by King Casimir IV Jagiellon of Poland on diplomatic missions to the Papal and Imperial courts, and was involved in the King's negotiations with the Teutonic Knights during the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66) and at the peace negotiations.  In 1434, Długosz's uncle, the first pastor at Kłobuck, appointed him to take over his position as canon of St. Martin church there. The town was in the Opole territory of Silesia, but had recently been conquered by Władysław II Jagiełło. Długosz stayed until 1452 and while there, founded the canonical monastery.  In 1450, Długosz was sent by Queen Sophia of Halshany and King Casimir to conduct peace negotiations between John Hunyadi and the Bohemian noble Jan Jiskra of Brandýs, and after six days' of talks convinced them to sign a truce.  In 1455 in Kraków, a fire spread which destroyed much of the city and the castle, but which spared Długosz's house.  In 1461 a Polish delegation which included Długosz met with emissaries of George of Podebrady in Bytom, Silesia. After six days of talks, they concluded an alliance between the two factions. In 1466 Długosz was sent to the legate of Wrocław, in order to attempt to obtain assurance that the legate was not biased in favor of the Teutonic Knights. He was successful, and was in 1467 entrusted with tutoring the king's son.  Długosz declined the offer of the Archbishopric of Prague, but shortly before his death was nominated Archbishop of Lwów. This nomination was only confirmed by Pope Sixtus IV on 2 June 1480, two weeks after his death.  His work \"Banderia Prutenorum\" of 1448 is his description of the 1410 Battle of Grunwald, which took place between villages of Grunwald and Stębark.  At some point in his life Długosz loosely translated Wigand of Marburg's \"Chronica nova Prutenica\" from Middle High German into Latin, however with many mistakes and mixup of names and places.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jan Długosz (; 1 December 1415 – 19 May 1480), also known in Latin as Johannes Longinus, was a Polish priest, chronicler, diplomat, soldier, and secretary to Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki of Kraków. He is considered Poland's first historian.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974421}
{"src_title": "Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born at Schloß Ehrenburg in Coburg, he was the youngest son of Duke Francis Josias, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Princess Anna Sophie of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. He was the great-uncle of King Leopold I of Belgium (1790–1865); and the great-great-uncle of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom (1819–1901).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Josias joined the Habsburg military as Colonel in 1759, participated in the Seven Years' War, and rose to the rank of Lieutenant Field Marshal by 1773. In the Russo-Turkish-Austrian war of 1788, he commanded an army corps under Freiherr von Laudon, occupying Moldavia, capturing Khotyn in Bessarabia and sharing in Aleksandr Suvorov's victory in the Battle of Focșani (1 August 1789). Having completely beaten the main Ottoman army under Grand Vizier Koca Yusuf Pasha in the Battle of Rymnik, he captured the greater part of Wallachia, including Bucharest, being welcomed by the population after the flight of Prince Nicholas Mavrogenes (\"see History of Bucharest\"), and soon after becoming a field marshal.  During the occupation of Moldavia, Josias met Therese Stroffeck, a commoner. On 24 September 1789, in the town of Roman, she bore him a son, named Frederick. Josias married Therese after their return to Coburg, on 24 December and recognized his son. Frederick was ennobled by the Austrian Emperor on 25 August 1808 and on 17 February 1853 the Duke Ernst II of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha created him \"Freiherr von Rohmann\", named after the place of his birth. Frederick however, as the child of a morganatic marriage, and his descendants were barred of the succession of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.  In 1793 and 1794 he commanded the army in the Austrian Netherlands during the Flanders Campaign. Due to his victory in the French Revolutionary Wars at Neerwinden in March 1793, he returned the region to Austrian control. Entering France, he took Condé, Valenciennes, Quesnoy and Landrecies. However, due to unfortunate positioning, partly due to disunity amongst the Allied powers and their forces, he suffered a string of minor setbacks in front of the Revolutionary Army on the Sambre, followed by a decisive defeat at Fleurus (26 June 1794).  He thereupon abandoned the Netherlands, which Habsburg diplomats had already decided to give up. Angered by this, and openly criticizing the policies of the Baron Thugut, Josias resigned as Field Marshal (the Count of Clerfayt assumed command in his place) and retired to Coburg, where he later died.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Prince Frederick Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (German \"Friedrich Josias von Sachsen-Coburg-Saalfeld\") (26 December 1737 – 26 February 1815) was a general in the Austrian service.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974422}
{"src_title": "Jean-Andoche Junot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Junot was born in Bussy-le-Grand, Côte-d'Or, son of Michel Junot, a farmer (1739–1814), and wife Marie Antoinette Bienaymé (1735–1806). His father was the son of François Junot (?–1759) and wife Edmée Laurain (1703–1784), while his mother was the daughter of Guy Bienaymé and wife Ursule Rigoley. Jean-Andoche went to school in Châtillon. He was studying law in Dijon when the French Revolution started. After joining a battalion as volunteer, he was twice wounded and also made sergeant. He first met Napoleon Bonaparte during the siege of Toulon in 1793, when he became his secretary (aide de camp).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italian campaign.", "content": "He distinguished himself in Italy but received a serious head wound at Lonato, which some claim led to a permanent change in his character, reduced the quality of his judgement and made him rash and temperamental. He was made a general of brigade at the beginning of the Egyptian campaign but was injured in a duel and captured when he was returning as an invalid to France. He later participated in the coup of 18 Brumaire. He married Laure (Laurette) Martin de Permond, a long-time friend of the Bonapartes, in 1800. He was briefly ambassador to Portugal before hurrying back to serve under Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Peninsular War.", "content": "Junot's major command was during the Peninsular War, when he commanded the 1807 Invasion of Portugal. Setting out in November from Salamanca, his vanguard accomplished a bloodless occupation of Lisbon on 30 November. For this feat, he was granted the ducal victory title of \"Duc d'Abrantès\" and was made Governor of Portugal.  However, when a British expeditionary force landed, Junot was beaten at the Battle of Vimeiro on 21 August 1808, and he was cut off from France. Only the signing of the advantageous Convention of Sintra allowed him to avoid capture, taking however with him \"the weapons and baggages\" and pillage the army had managed to gather—an expression that later became famous in Portuguese usage. He went back to France in October, narrowly escaping a court martial. He returned to the Iberian peninsula in 1810 in command of the VIII Corps, under Marshal André Masséna, and was badly wounded.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In the Russian campaign Junot's record was erratic; he was blamed for allowing the Russian army to retreat following the Battle of Smolensk (17 August), but at the Battle of Borodino (7 September 1812) he commanded the 8th Corps competently.  In 1813 he was made Governor of the Illyrian Provinces but his growing mental instability led to him being returned to France. Many think he committed suicide in Montbard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family and relations.", "content": "He had two daughters and two sons:  During the peninsular war, he had a relationship with Juliana de Almeida e Oyenhausen, daughter of Leonor de Almeida Portugal, 4th Marquise of Alorna.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Andoche Junot, 1st Duke of Abrantès (24 September 1771 – 29 July 1813) was a French general during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974423}
{"src_title": "Goy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Hebrew Bible.", "content": "The word means \"nation\" in Biblical Hebrew. In the Torah, and its variants appear over 550 times in reference to Israelites and to gentile nations. The first recorded usage of \"goyim\" occurs in and applies innocuously to non-Israelite nations. The first mention of \"goy\" in relation to the Israelites comes in, when God promises Abraham that his descendants will form a (\"great nation\"). In, the Israelites are referred to as a, a \"holy nation\". While the books of the Hebrew Bible often use to describe the Israelites, the later Jewish writings tend to apply the term to other nations.  Some Bible translations leave the word untranslated and treat it as the proper name of a country in, where it states that the \"King of Goyim\" was Tidal. Bible commentaries suggest that the term may refer to Gutium. In all other cases in the Bible, is the plural of and means \"nations\".  One of the more poetic descriptions of the chosen people in the Hebrew Bible, and popular among Jewish scholarship, as the highest description of themselves: when God proclaims in the holy writ,, or \"a unique nation upon the earth!\" ( and ).  Because of the idolatry and immoralities of the surrounding nations, the biblical writings show a passionate intolerance of these nations. Thus the seven \"goyim\", i.e., nations (Deuteronomy 7:1, 12:2), were to be treated with but little mercy; and, more especially, marriages with them were not to be tolerated (Deut. 7:3; comp. Exodus 34:16).  Nonetheless, the focus of the 70 sacrifices brought on the Succot holiday was for good and welfare of the seventy nations of the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rabbinic Judaism.", "content": "The rabbinic literature conceives of the nations () of the world as numbering seventy, each with a distinct language and purpose.  Chaim ibn Attar maintains that this is the symbolism behind the Menorah:  Maimonides defines plain \"goy\" in his Mishneh Torah as a worshipper of idolatry, as he explains, \"Whenever we say plainly 'goy', we mean a worshipper of idolatry\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern usage.", "content": "In modern Hebrew and Yiddish the word \"goy\" is the standard term for a gentile.  The term \"shabbos goy\" (literally \"Sabbath gentile\") refers to a non-Jew who performs duties that Jewish law forbids a Jew from performing on the Sabbath.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gender-specific.", "content": "While the term \"goy\" can, depending on tone of voice and other context clues, be neutral in intent, the terms \"sheigetz\" and even more so \"shiksa\" are not.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sheigetz.", "content": "\"Sheigetz\" (שייגעץ or in Hebrew שֵׁיְגֶּץ) (plural שקצים \"shkotzim\", \"shgatzim\") is a \"Yiddish\" word that has entered the English language and refers to a non-Jewish boy or young man. It is used disparagingly.  The word \"sheigetz\", like its feminine counterpart \"shiksa\", according to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", is derived from \"sheqeṣ\" (\"a detested thing\").  In former times, it was common practice for Ashkenazi Jews who were harassed by youths to label their tormentors \"shkotzim\". Nacham Grossbard of Haifa, writing in the \"Memorial Book for the Community of Ciechanów\" (1962), recounted these memories of his early years in Poland: \"At the finish of the match, as soon as the whistle blows, we Jewish boys run as fast as we can, out of breath, all the way home in order not to have stones thrown at us or be hit by the shkotzim (non-Jewish boys).\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shiksa.", "content": "The term \"shiksa\" is the feminine form of \"sheigetz\" and, like the latter, is based on the biblical word \"sheketz\". \"Shiksa\" () is an often disparaging term for a non-Jewish woman or girl. The word, which is of Yiddish origin, has moved into English usage (as well as Polish and German), mostly in North American Jewish culture. According to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", it came into English usage in the late 19th century from the Yiddish \"shikse\", which is an adaptation of the Hebrew word \"šiqṣâ\", which is derived from \"sheqeṣ\" (\"a detested thing\") and the feminine suffix \"-â\".  Among Orthodox Jews, the term may be used to describe a Jewish girl or woman who fails to follow Orthodox religious precepts. The equivalent term for a non-Jewish male, used less frequently, is \"sheigetz\".  The etymology of the word \"shiksa\" is partly derived from the Hebrew term שקץ \"shekets\", meaning \"abomination\", \"impure,\" or \"object of loathing\", depending on the translator. Several dictionaries define \"shiksa\" as a disparaging and offensive term applied to a non-Jewish girl or woman. In 2014, Rabbi Jack Abramowitz described it as \"simply indefensible\", \"inherently condescending, racist and misogynistic\".  In Polish, \"siksa\" or () is a pejorative but humorous word for an immature young girl or teenage girl. According to Polish language dictionary from 1915, it has been defined as \"pisspants\"; a conflation between the Yiddish term and its similarity to the Polish verb \"sikać\" (\"to piss\"). In today's language however, it is roughly equivalent to the English terms \"snot-nosed brat\", \"little squirt\", and \"naughty school-girl\" in a humorous context.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Shiksa\" as self-reference.", "content": "Writer Menachem Kaiser argues in his essay \"Anti-non-Semitism: An Investigation of the Shiksa\" that \"the pejorative connotation of'shiksa' is fuzzy at best\" because shiksa' today is used as often as not in winking self-reference\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Goyita.", "content": "There is a term \"goyita\" but it generally is applied to a somewhat older woman, stereotypically a caretaker/cleaning assistant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In modern Hebrew and Yiddish the word (,, regular plural, or ) is the standard term for a gentile.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974424}
{"src_title": "Gisela of Hungary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Gisela was a daughter of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria and Gisela of Burgundy. Gisela was raised very devout, most likely with bishop Wolfgang of Regensburg as her mentor and governor. She married King Stephen I of Hungary in 996 as a part of Hungary's policy of opening up to the West. The couple had a son, Saint Emeric, who died on 2 September 1031, while hunting boar. The wedding of Stephen and Gisela marked a turning point in Hungary's history.  Queen Gisela played a fundamental role in spreading the Christian faith and Western culture in Hungary.  When Edmund Ironside of England died, he was succeeded by Cnut. Edmund’s infant sons were sent abroad and ended up under the protection of King Stephen of Hungary. One of the twins died young, but the other, Edward Atheling, was brought up as a protégé of Queen Gisela, and regarded in that foreign court as the heir to the Anglo-Saxon throne.  King Stephen died in 1038. In 1046 Gisela, her attendants, and a number of many Bavarian settlers left Hungary to return to Bavaria, where she joined Niederburg convent in Passau and became the abbess.  She lived in the nunnery of Niedernburg in Passau, where she died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Gisela's canonisation was attempted in the 18th century but failed. She was beatified in 1975. Her memorial days are May 7 and February 1.  Gisela and her husband were not buried together. On May 4, 1996, the remains of King Stephen’s right hand was preserved, and it was brought back together with a bone taken from the arm of Gisela. Both are now safely protected in glass and gold cases, and are displayed in the basilica in the western Hungarian town of Veszprém, where Gisela once lived.  Her grave is a well-known, and regarded as a holy place. The cross was commissioned by Queen Gisela for the tomb of her mother, who died in 1006 and was buried in the Niedermünster in Regensburg.  Blessed Gisela is depicted on a white limestone panel by Hungarian artist Sandor Kiss on the wall of the Chapel of Our Lady – Queen of Hungary in St. Peter's Basilica, Rome.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gisela of Hungary (or Gisele, Gizella and of Bavaria; 985 – 7 May 1065) was the first queen consort of Hungary by marriage to Stephen I of Hungary, and the sister of Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor. She has been beatified by the Roman Catholic church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974425}
{"src_title": "Abkhazians", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ethnology.", "content": "The Abkhaz language belongs to the isolate Northwest Caucasian language family, also known as Abkhaz–Adyghe or North Pontic family, which groups the dialectic continuum spoken by the Abaza–Abkhaz (Abazgi) and Adyghe (\"Circassians\" in English). Abkhazians are closely ethnically related to Circassians. Classical sources speak of several tribes dwelling in the region, but their exact identity and location remain controversial due to Abkhaz–Georgian historiographical conflict (see the history section).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subgroups.", "content": "There are also three subgroups of the Abkhaz people. The Bzyb (Бзыҧ, Bzyph) reside in the Bzyb River region, and speak their own dialect. The Abzhui (Абжьыуа, Abzhwa) live in the Kodori River region, and also speak their own dialect, which the Abkhaz literary language is based upon. Finally, there is the Zamurzakan who reside in the southeast of Abkhazia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Some scholars deem the ancient Heniochi tribe the progenitors of the Abkhaz. This warlike people came into contact with Ancient Greeks through the colonies of Dioskourias and Pitiuntas. In the Roman period, the Abasgoi are mentioned as inhabiting the region. These Abasgoi (Abkhaz) were described by Procopius as warlike, worshippers of three deities, under the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Lazica. The Abkhazian view is that the Apsilae and Abasgoi are ancestors of the Abkhaz–Adyghe group of peoples, while the Georgian view is that those were Colchians (Kartvelians or Georgians).  Lazica was a vassal kingdom of the Byzantine Empire throughout most of its existence. Later the independent Kingdom of Abkhazia was established and the region became a part of the Georgian cultural world. The local nobility, clergy and educated class used Georgian as a language of literacy and culture. Georgian would remain the second language for many Abkhaz until Russian replaced it in the early 20th century. From the early 11th to the 15th century, Abkhazia was a part of the all-Georgian monarchy, but then became a separate Principality of Abkhazia only to be conquered by the Ottomans.  Towards the end of the 17th century, the region became a theatre of widespread slave trade and piracy. According to a controversial theory developed by Pavle Ingorokva in the 1950s and some other Georgian scholars, at that time a number of the Northwest Caucasian pagan Abaza tribes migrated from the north and blended with the local ethnic elements, significantly changing the region's demographic situation. These views were described as ethnocentric and having little historical support. They served as intellectual support to the Stalin-era assimilation policy and had a profound influence on the Georgian nationalism in the 1980s.  The Russian conquest of Abkhazia from the 1810s to the 1860s was accompanied by a massive expulsion of Muslim Abkhaz to the Ottoman Empire and the introduction of a strong Russification policy. As a result, the Abkhaz diaspora is currently estimated to measure at least twice the number of Abkhaz that reside in Abkhazia. The largest part of the diaspora now lives in Turkey, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to 500,000, with smaller groups in Syria (5,000 – 10,000) and Jordan. In recent years, some of these have emigrated to the West, principally to Germany (5,000), the Netherlands, Switzerland, Belgium, France, the United Kingdom, Austria and the United States (mainly to New Jersey).  After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Abkhazia was a part of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, but was conquered by the Red Army in 1921 and eventually entered the Soviet Union as a Soviet Socialist Republic associated with the Georgian SSR. The status of Abkhazia was downgraded in 1931 when it became an Autonomous SSR within the Georgian SSR. Under Joseph Stalin, a forcible collectivization was introduced and the native communist elite purged. The influx of Armenians, Russians and Georgians into the growing agricultural and tourism sectors was also encouraged, and Abkhaz schools were briefly closed. By 1989, the number of Abkhaz was about 93,000 (18% of the population of the autonomous republic), while the Georgian population numbered 240,000 (45%). The number of Armenians (15% of the entire population) and Russians (14%) grew substantially as well.  The 1992–1993 War in Abkhazia followed by the ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazialeft the Abkhaz an ethnic plurality of ca. 45%, with Russians, Armenians, Georgians, Greeks, and Jews comprising most of the remainder of the population of Abkhazia. The 2003 census established the total number of Abkhaz in Abkhazia at 94,606. However, the exact demographic figures for the region are disputed and alternative figures are available. The de facto Abkhaz president Sergey Bagapsh suggested, in 2005, that less than 70,000 ethnic Abkhaz lived in Abkhazia.  At the time of the 2011 Census, 122,175 Abkhaz were living in Abkhazia. They were 50.8% of the total population of the republic. In the course of the Syrian uprising, a number of Abkhaz living in Syria immigrated to Abkhazia. By mid-April 2013, approximately 200 Syrians of Abkhaz descent had arrived in Abkhazia. A further 150 were due to arrive by the end of April. The Abkhazian leadership has stated that it would continue the repatriation of Abkhaz living abroad. As of August 2013, 531 Abkhaz had arrived from Syria according to the Abkhazian government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The typical economy is strong on the breeding of cattle, beekeeping, viticulture, and agriculture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "The Abkhaz people are principally divided into Abkhazian Orthodox Christian and Sunni Muslim (Hanafi) communities (prevalent in Abkhazia and Turkey respectively) but the indigenous non-Abrahamic beliefs have always been strong. Although Christianity made its first appearance in the realm of their Circassian neighbours in the first century AD via the travels and preaching of the Apostle Andrew, and became the dominant religion of Circassians in the 3rd to 4th centuries, Christianity became the dominant religion of Abkhazians in the 6th century during the reign of Byzantine emperor Justinian I, and continued to be followed under the kings of Georgia in the High Middle Ages. The Ottomans introduced Islam in the 16th century and the region became largely Muslim gradually until the 1860s. When much of the Muslim population was ethnically cleansed in the late 19th century, Christians once again became the majority in the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diaspora.", "content": "Many Muslim Cherkess, Abkhaz and Chechens migrated to the Ottoman Empire following revolts against Russian rule. It is believed that the Abkhaz community in Turkey is larger than that of Abkhazia itself. Some 250 Abkhaz-Abaza villages are estimated throughout Turkey. According to Andrew Dalby, Abkhazian-speakers might number more than 100,000 in Turkey, however, the 1963 census only recorded 4,700 native speakers and 8,000 secondary speakers. Of the 15,000 ethnic Abkhaz in Turkey, only 4,000 speak the language, the rest having assimilated into Turkish.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abkhazians, or Abkhaz (Abkhaz: Аԥсуаа, \"Aṕswaа\"), are a Northwest Caucasian ethnic group, mainly living in Abkhazia, a disputed region on the Black Sea coast. A large Abkhaz diaspora population resides in Turkey, the origins of which lie in the population movements from the Caucasus in the late 19th century. Many Abkhaz also live in other parts of the former Soviet Union, particularly in Russia and Ukraine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974426}
{"src_title": "Clam AntiVirus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "ClamAV includes a number of utilities: a command-line scanner, automatic database updater and a scalable multi-threaded daemon, running on an anti-virus engine from a shared library.  The application also features a Milter interface for sendmail and on-demand scanning. It has support for Zip, RAR, Tar, Gzip, Bzip2, OLE2, Cabinet, CHM, BinHex, SIS formats, most mail file formats, ELF executables and Portable Executable (PE) files compressed with UPX, FSG, Petite, NsPack, wwpack32, MEW, Upack and obfuscated with SUE, Y0da Cryptor. It also supports many document formats, including Microsoft Office, HTML, Rich Text Format (RTF) and Portable Document Format (PDF).  The ClamAV virus database is updated at least every four hours and as of 10 February 2017 contained over 5,760,000 virus signatures with the daily update Virus DB number at 23040.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effectiveness.", "content": "ClamAV is currently tested daily in comparative tests against other antivirus products on \"Shadowserver\". In 2011, Shadowserver tested over 25 million samples against ClamAV and numerous other antivirus products. Out of the 25 million samples tested, ClamAV scored 76.60% ranking 12 out of 19, a higher rating than some much more established competitors.  In the 2008 AV-Test, which compared ClamAV to other antivirus software, it rated: on-demand: very poor; false positives: poor; response time: very good; rootkits: very poor.  In a Shadowserver six-month test between June and December 2011, ClamAV detected over 75.45% of all viruses tested, putting it in fifth place behind AhnLab, Avira, BitDefender and Avast. AhnLab, the top antivirus, detected 80.28%.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unofficial databases.", "content": "The ClamAV engine can be reliably used to detect several kinds of files. In particular, some phishing emails can be detected using antivirus techniques. However, false positive rates are inherently higher than those of traditional malware detection.  There are several unofficial databases for ClamAV:  ClamAV Unofficial Signatures are mainly used by system administrators to filter email messages. Detections of these groups should be scored, rather than causing an outright block of the \"infected\" message.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Platforms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Linux, BSD.", "content": "ClamAV is available for Linux and BSD-based operating systems. In most cases it is available through the distribution's repositories for installation.  On Linux servers ClamAV can be run in daemon mode, servicing requests to scan files sent from other processes. These can include mail exchange programs, files on Samba shares, or packets of data passing through a proxy server.  On Linux and BSD desktops ClamAV provides on-demand scanning of individual files, directories or the whole PC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "macOS.", "content": "Apple macOS Server has included ClamAV since version 10.4. It is used within the operating system's email service. A paid-for graphical user interface is available from Canimaan Software Ltd in the form of \"ClamXav\". Additionally, Fink, Homebrew and MacPorts have ported ClamAV.  Another program which uses the ClamAV engine, on macOS, is Counteragent. Working alongside the Eudora Internet Mail Server program, Counteragent scans emails for viruses using ClamAV and also optionally provides spam filtering through SpamAssassin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "OpenVMS.", "content": "ClamAV for OpenVMS is available for DEC Alpha and Itanium platforms. The build process is simple and provides basic functionality, including: library, clamscan utility, clamd daemon and freshclam for update.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Windows.", "content": "ClamAV for Windows is now a part of the Immunet client produced by Cisco. Immunet is a real-time cloud based detection software, maintained by Cisco, which owns both ClamAV and Immunet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "eComStation.", "content": "ClamAV for eComStation (OS/2) is available from OS/2 Power Wiki. \"The main purpose of this software is the integration with mail servers (attachment scanning). The package provides a flexible and scalable multi-threaded daemon, a command line scanner, and a tool for automatic updating via Internet. The programs are based on a shared library distributed with the Clam AntiVirus package, which you can use with your own software. Most importantly, the virus database is kept up to date.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Graphical interfaces.", "content": "Since ClamAV does not include a graphical user interface (GUI) but instead is run from the command line, a number of third-party developers have written GUIs for the application for various platforms and uses.  These include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ClamWin.", "content": "ClamWin is a graphical user interface front end for ClamAV for Microsoft Windows built by ClamWin Pty Ltd. Features include \"on-demand\" (user started) scanning, automatic updates, scan scheduling, context menu integration to Explorer, and an add-in for Microsoft Outlook. ClamWin does not provide on-access scanning, additional software must be used.  Plugins for Mozilla Firefox which use ClamWin to scan downloaded files are also available. Several other extensions allow users to process downloaded files with any software and scan the files with ClamWin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clam Sentinel.", "content": "Clam Sentinel is a free software system tray application that detects file system changes and scans the files modified using ClamWin in real-time. It works with Windows 98/98SE/ME/XP/Vista/7/8. It features a real-time scanner for ClamWin, optional system change messages and proactive heuristic protection.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Real-time file scanning.", "content": "Since Version 0.99, ClamAV supports on-access (real-time) scanning via the Linux kernel (version >= 3.8) module fanotify. Alternatively, ClamAV can be used with other applications such as ClamFS (for any Unix-like operating system supporting FUSE) and Clam Sentinel (for Windows) to provide real-time checks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patent lawsuit.", "content": "In 2008, Barracuda Networks was sued by Trend Micro for its distribution of ClamAV as part of a security package. Trend Micro claimed that Barracuda's utilization of ClamAV infringes on a software patent for filtering viruses on an Internet gateway. The free software community responded in part by calling for a boycott against Trend Micro. The boycott was also endorsed by the Free Software Foundation. Barracuda Networks counter-sued with IBM-obtained patents in July 2008. On May 19, 2011, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office issued a Final Rejection in the reexamination of Trend Micro's U.S. patent 5,623,600.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clam AntiVirus (ClamAV) is a free software, cross-platform and open-source antivirus software toolkit able to detect many types of malicious software, including viruses. One of its main uses is on mail servers as a server-side email virus scanner. The application was developed for Unix and has third party versions available for AIX, BSD, HP-UX, Linux, macOS, OpenVMS, OSF (Tru64) and Solaris. As of version 0.97.5, ClamAV builds and runs on Microsoft Windows. Both ClamAV and its updates are made available free of charge.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974427}
{"src_title": "Melusine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Literary versions.", "content": "The most famous literary version of Melusine tales, that of Jean d'Arras, compiled about 1382–1394, was worked into a collection of \"spinning yarns\" as told by ladies at their spinning coudrette (). He wrote \"The Romans of Partenay or of Lusignen: Otherwise known as the Tale of Melusine,\" giving source and historical notes, dates and background of the story. He goes into detail and depth about the relationship of Melusine and Raymondin, their initial meeting and the complete story.  The tale was translated into German in 1456 by Thüring von Ringoltingen, which version became popular as a chapbook. It was later translated into English, twice, around 1500, and often printed in both the 15th century and the 16th century. There is also a Castilian and a Dutch translation, both of which were printed at the end of the 15th century. A prose version is entitled the \"Chronique de la princesse\" (\"Chronicle of the Princess\").  It tells how in the time of the Crusades, Elynas, the King of Albany (an old name for Scotland or Alba), went hunting one day and came across a beautiful lady in the forest. She was Pressyne, mother of Melusine. He persuaded her to marry him but she agreed, only on the promise—for there is often a hard and fatal condition attached to any pairing of fay and mortal—that he must not enter her chamber when she birthed or bathed her children. She gave birth to triplets. When he violated this taboo, Pressyne left the kingdom, together with her three daughters, and traveled to the lost Isle of Avalon.  The three girls—Melusine, Melior, and Palatyne—grew up in Avalon. On their fifteenth birthday, Melusine, the eldest, asked why they had been taken to Avalon. Upon hearing of their father's broken promise, Melusine sought revenge. She and her sisters captured Elynas and locked him, with his riches, in a mountain. Pressyne became enraged when she learned what the girls had done, and punished them for their disrespect to their father. Melusine was condemned to take the form of a serpent from the waist down every Saturday. In other stories, she takes on the form of a mermaid.  Raymond of Poitou came across Melusine in a forest of Coulombiers in Poitou in France, and proposed marriage. Just as her mother had done, she laid a condition: that he must never enter her chamber on a Saturday. He broke the promise and saw her in the form of a part-woman, part-serpent, but she forgave him. When, during a disagreement, he called her a \"serpent\" in front of his court, she assumed the form of a dragon, provided him with two magic rings, and flew off, never to return.  In \"The Wandering Unicorn\" by Manuel Mujica Láinez, Melusine tells her tale of several centuries of existence, from her original curse to the time of the Crusades.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legends.", "content": "Melusine legends are especially connected with the northern areas of France, Poitou and the Low Countries, as well as Cyprus, where the French Lusignan royal house that ruled the island from 1192 to 1489 claimed to be descended from Melusine. Oblique reference to this was made by Sir Walter Scott who told a Melusine tale in \"Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border\" (1802–1803) stating that  The Luxembourg family also claimed descent from Melusine through their ancestor Siegfried. When in 963 A.D. Count Siegfried of the Ardennes (\"Sigefroi\" in French; \"Sigfrid\" in Luxembourgish) bought the feudal rights to the territory on which he founded his capital city of Luxembourg, his name became connected with the local version of Melusine. This Melusina had essentially the same magic gifts as the ancestress of the Lusignans, magically making the Castle of Luxembourg on the Bock rock (the historical center point of Luxembourg City) appear the morning after their wedding. On her terms of marriage, she too required one day of absolute privacy each week. Alas, Sigfrid, as the Luxem-bourgish call him, \"could not resist temptation, and on one of the forbidden days he spied on her in her bath and discovered her to be a mermaid. When he let out a surprised cry, Melusina caught sight of him, and her bath immediately sank into the solid rock, carrying her with it. Melusina surfaces briefly every seven years as a beautiful woman or as a serpent, holding a small golden key in her mouth. Whoever takes the key from her will set her free and may claim her as his bride.\" In 1997 Luxembourg issued a postage stamp commemorating her.  Martin Luther knew and believed in the story of another version of Melusine, \"die Melusina zu Lucelberg\" (Lucelberg in Silesia), whom he referred to several times as a succubus (\"Works,\" Erlangen edition, volume 60, pp 37–42). Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote the tale of \"Die Neue Melusine\" in 1807 and published it as part of \"Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre.\" The playwright Franz Grillparzer brought Goethe's tale to the stage and Felix Mendelssohn provided a concert overture \"The Fair Melusina,\" his Opus 32.  Melusine is one of the pre-Christian water-faeries who were sometimes responsible for changelings. The \"Lady of the Lake\", who spirited away the infant Lancelot and raised the child, was such a water nymph. Other European water sprites include Lorelei and the nixie.  \"Melusina\" would seem to be an uneasy name for a girl-child in these areas of Europe, but Ehrengard Melusine von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal and Munster, mistress of George I of Great Britain, was christened Melusine in 1667.  The chronicler Gerald of Wales reported that Richard I of England was fond of telling a tale according to which he was a descendant of a countess of Anjou who was in fact the fairy Melusine. The Angevin legend told of an early Count of Anjou who met a beautiful woman when in a far land, where he married her. He had not troubled to find out about her origins. However, after bearing him four sons, the behaviour of his wife began to trouble the count. She attended church infrequently, and always left before the Mass proper. One day he had four of his men forcibly restrain his wife as she rose to leave the church. Melusine evaded the men and clasped the two youngest of her sons and in full view of the congregation carried them up into the air and out of the church through its highest window. Melusine and her two sons were never seen again. One of the remaining sons was the ancestor, it was claimed, of the later Counts of Anjou and the Kings of England.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related legends.", "content": "\"The Travels of Sir John Mandeville\" recounts a legend about Hippocrates' daughter. She was transformed into a hundred-foot long dragon by the goddess Diane, and is the \"lady of the manor\" of an old castle. She emerges three times a year, and will be turned back into a woman if a knight kisses her, making the knight into her consort and ruler of the islands. Various knights try, but flee when they see the hideous dragon; they die soon thereafter. This appears to be an early version of the legend of Melusine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structural interpretation.", "content": "Jacques Le Goff considered that Melusina represented a fertility figure: \"she brings prosperity in a rural area...Melusina is the fairy of medieval economic growth\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Melusine () or Melusina is a figure of European folklore and mythology, a female spirit of fresh water in a sacred spring or river. She is usually depicted as a woman who is a serpent or fish from the waist down (much like a mermaid). She is also sometimes illustrated with wings, two tails, or both. Her legends are especially connected with the northern and western areas of France, Luxembourg, and the Low Countries. The House of Luxembourg (which ruled the Holy Roman Empire from AD 1308 to AD 1437 as well as Bohemia and Hungary), the Counts of Anjou and their descendants the House of Plantagenet (kings of England) and the French House of Lusignan (kings of Cyprus from AD 1205–1472, and for shorter periods over Armenia and Jerusalem) are said in folk tales and medieval literature to be descended from Melusine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974428}
{"src_title": "H. R. Giger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Giger was born in 1940 in Chur, the capital city of Graubünden, the largest and easternmost Swiss canton. His father, a pharmacist, viewed art as a \"breadless profession\" and strongly encouraged him to enter pharmacy. He moved to Zürich in 1962, where he studied architecture and industrial design at the School of Applied Arts until 1970.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Giger's first success was when H. H. Kunz, co-owner of Switzerland's first poster publishing company, printed and distributed Giger's first posters, beginning in 1969.  Giger's style and thematic execution were influential. He was part of the special effects team that won an Academy Award for Best Achievement in Visual Effects for their design work on the film \"Alien\". His design for the Alien was inspired by his painting \"Necronom IV\" and earned him an Oscar in 1980. His books of paintings, particularly \"Necronomicon\" and \"Necronomicon II\" (1985) and the frequent appearance of his art in \"Omni\" magazine continued his rise to international prominence. Giger was admitted to the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2013. He is also well known for artwork on several music recording albums including \"\" by Danzig, \"Brain Salad Surgery\" by Emerson, Lake & Palmer, \"Attahk\" by Magma, \"Heartwork\" by Carcass, \"To Mega Therion\" by Celtic Frost, \"Eparistera Daimones\" and \"Melana Chasmata\" by Triptykon, Deborah Harry's \"KooKoo,\" and \"Frankenchrist\", by the Dead Kennedys.  In 1998, Giger acquired the Saint-Germain Castle in Gruyères, Switzerland, and it now houses the H.R. Giger Museum, a permanent repository of his work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Giger had a relationship with Swiss actress Li Tobler until she committed suicide in 1975. Li's image appears in many of his paintings. He married Mia Bonzanigo in 1979; they divorced a year and a half later.  The artist lived and worked in Zürich with his second wife, Carmen Maria Scheifele Giger, who is the Director of the H.R. Giger Museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 12 May 2014, Giger died in a hospital in Zürich after having suffered injuries in a fall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition.", "content": "In addition to his awards, Giger was recognized by a variety of festivals and institutions. On the one year anniversary of his death, the Museum of Arts and Design in New York City staged the series \"The Unseen Cinema of HR Giger\" in May 2015.  \"\", a biographical documentary by Belinda Sallin, debuted 27 September 2014 in Zurich, Switzerland.  On 11 July 2018, the asteroid 109712 Giger was named in his memory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "Giger started with small ink drawings before progressing to oil paintings. For most of his career, Giger had worked predominantly in airbrush, creating monochromatic canvasses depicting surreal, nightmarish dreamscapes. He also worked with pastels, markers and ink.  Giger's most distinctive stylistic innovation was that of a representation of human bodies and machines in a cold, interconnected relationship, he described as \"biomechanical\". His main influences were painters Dado, Ernst Fuchs and Salvador Dalí. He met Salvador Dalí, to whom he was introduced by painter Robert Venosa. Giger was also influenced by the work of the Polish sculptor Stanislaw Szukalski, and by the painters Austin Osman Spare and Mati Klarwein. He was also a personal friend of Timothy Leary. Giger studied interior and industrial design at the School of Commercial Art in Zurich (from 1962 to 1965) and made his first paintings as a means of art therapy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other works.", "content": "Giger directed a number of films, including \"Swiss Made\" (1968), \"Tagtraum\" (1973), \"Giger's Necronomicon\" (1975) and \"Giger's Alien\" (1979).  Giger created furniture designs, particularly the Harkonnen Capo Chair for a film of the novel \"Dune\" that was to be directed by Alejandro Jodorowsky. Many years later, David Lynch directed the film, using only rough concepts by Giger. Giger had wished to work with Lynch, as he stated in one of his books that Lynch's film \"Eraserhead\" was closer than even Giger's own films to realizing his vision.  Giger applied his biomechanical style to interior design. One \"Giger Bar\" appeared in Tokyo, but the realization of his designs was a great disappointment to him, since the Japanese organization behind the venture did not wait for his final designs, and instead used Giger's rough preliminary sketches. For that reason Giger disowned the Tokyo bar. The two Giger Bars in his native Switzerland, in Gruyères and Chur, were built under Giger's close supervision and they accurately reflect his original concepts. At The Limelight in Manhattan, Giger's artwork was licensed to decorate the VIP room, the uppermost chapel of the landmarked church, but it was never intended to be a permanent installation and bore no similarity to the bars in Switzerland. The arrangement was terminated after two years when the Limelight closed.  Giger's art has greatly influenced tattooists and fetishists worldwide. Under a licensing deal Ibanez guitars released an H. R. Giger signature series: the Ibanez ICHRG2, an Ibanez Iceman, features \"NY City VI\", the Ibanez RGTHRG1 has \"NY City XI\" printed on it, the S Series SHRG1Z has a metal-coated engraving of \"Biomechanical Matrix\" on it, and a 4-string SRX bass, SRXHRG1, has \"N.Y. City X\" on it.  Giger is often referred to in popular culture, especially in science fiction and cyberpunk. William Gibson (who wrote an early script for \"Alien 3\") seems particularly fascinated: A minor character in \"Virtual Light\", Lowell, is described as having \"New York XXIV\" tattooed across his back, and in \"Idoru\" a secondary character, Yamazaki, describes the buildings of nanotech Japan as Giger-esque.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Ruedi Giger ( ; ; 5 February 1940 – 12 May 2014) was a Swiss painter, best known for airbrush images of humans and machines linked together in a cold biomechanical relationship. Later he abandoned airbrush work for pastels, markers, and ink. He was part of the special effects team that won an Academy Award for design work on the film \"Alien\". In Switzerland there are two themed bars that reflect his interior designs, and his work is on permanent display at the H.R. Giger Museum at Gruyères. His style has been adapted to many forms of media, including record album covers, furniture, and tattoos.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974429}
{"src_title": "Fyodor Apraksin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early shipbuilding activities.", "content": "The Apraksin brothers were launched to prominence after the marriage of their sister Marfa to \"Tsar\" Feodor III of Russia in 1681. Fyodor entered the service of his brother-in-law at the age of 10 as a \"stolnik\". After Feodor's death he served the little \"tsar\" Peter in the same capacity. He took part in military amusements of the young \"tsar\" and helped to build a toy flotilla for him. The playfellowship of the two lads resulted in a lifelong friendship.  In 1692 Apraksin was appointed governor of Arkhangelsk, the foremost trade port of Russia at that time, and built ships capable of weathering storms, to the great delight of the \"tsar\". While living there, he commissioned one of the first Russian trade vessels to be built and sail abroad. In 1697 he was entrusted with major shipbuilding activities in Voronezh, where he would supervise the construction of the first Russian fleet. He won his colonelcy at the siege of Azov (1696). He was nominated the first Russian governor of Azov in 1700. While Peter was combating Charles XII, Apraksin was constructing fleets, building fortresses and havens in South Russia, notably Tavrov and Taganrog. In 1700 he was also appointed chief of the admiralty, in which post (from 1700 to 1706) his unusual technical ability was of great service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Great Northern War.", "content": "Having pacified the rebellious Astrakhan, Apraksin was summoned to Moscow, where he was put in charge of the mint and the armoury. In 1707, he was appointed president of the Russian Admiralty. The following year, he was appointed commander-in-chief in Ingria, to defend the new capital Saint Petersburg against the Swedes, whom he utterly routed. On February 25, 1710, aged 48, he became the third Russian ever to be elevated to the comital dignity. In March 1710 he was in command at the Siege of Vyborg. Taking this Swedish fortress in June, he was invested with the Order of St. Andrew and appointed governor of the conquered provinces (Estonia, Ingria, and Karelia).  Apraksin held the chief command in the Black Sea during the campaign of the Pruth (1711). He commanded the Imperial Russian Navy in the taking of Helsinki (1713) - materially assisting the conquest of Finland by his operations from the side of the sea - and the great Battle of Gangut (1714). That same year he assisted the \"tsar\" in launching a new harbour in Revel. Earlier, in 1712, he held parley with Turkey, which ended in the destruction of Taganrog and the surrender of Azov to the Ottomans.  From 1710 to 1720 he personally conducted the descents upon Sweden, ravaging that country mercilessly, and thus extorting the peace of Nystad, whereby she surrendered the best part of her Baltic provinces to Russia. For these great services he was made a senator and General Admiral of the Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In 1715, Apraksin fell into temporary disgrace with the \"tsar\", who had been informed about disorders and bribery in the Admiralty. After brief investigation, he was fined and dispatched to govern Estonia. In 1719, he led the Russian naval expedition into the Gulf of Bothnia. During the Russo-Persian War (1722-1723) Apraksin barely escaped an assassination attempt by a Chechen.  Whereas his elder brother Peter Apraksin (the governor of Astrakhan) was accused of sympathizing with the Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, Fyodor was eager to demonstrate his zeal in persecuting the \"tsarevich\", as did Count Peter Tolstoy, (1645–1729).  Upon Peter's I death in 1725, his wife Catherine invested the ailing admiral with the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky and nominated him to the Supreme Privy Council, an exigence of the Great Boyars of Russia headed by influential and coming from a powerful family, Prince Dmitry Mikhaylovich Galitzine, (1665–1737), Ambassador to Turkey and Poland though necessary to govern in a less autocratic structure the Empire.  These \"Six Supreme dignitaries\" constituting the initial Supreme Privy Council, namely Alexander Menshikov, Fyodor Apraksin, Gavrila Golovkin, Andrey Osterman, Peter Tolstoy, and Dmitry Galitzine brought about the recognition of Russian Empress Anna Ivanovna for the succession of unfortunate young Tsar-Boy Peter II deceased in 1730 aged 15 and 3 years only as a Tsar, apparently dead from smallpox provided Anna agreed about the Counselling Powers of this so-called Supreme Privy Council.  Once Empress Anna Ivanovna was crowned she began to rule absolutely, and she had Dmitry Galitzine sentenced to death but later commuted his sentence to exile.  D. M. ́s brother however, Mikhail Galitzine, (1675–1730), commanded Russian operations in Finland (1714–21) during the Northern War with Sweden and was responsible for the Treaty of Nystad, concluded at the end of the war.  It is said that as governor of Finland, M. M. G. was popular with the Finns.  Apraksin's last expedition was to Revel in 1726, to cover the town from an anticipated attack by the English government, with whom the relations of Russia at the beginning of the reign of Catherine I were strained.  Though frequently threatened with terrible penalties by Peter the Great for his incurable vice of peculation, Apraksin, nevertheless, contrived to save his head, though not his pocket, chiefly through the mediation of the good-natured empress, Swedish born common law wife and later formal wife of Peter I, Catherine I, sole Ruling Empress of Russia from 1725 to 1727.  She remained his friend to the last, grateful probably, because of his helping to place the flexible and astute Catherine I on the throne on the death of Peter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "According to R. N. Bain, Apraksin was the most genial and kind-hearted of all Peter's pupils. He is said to have never made an enemy. He died on November 10, 1728, aged 67, and was interred in the family sepulchre at the Chrysostom Monastery of Moscow, where his grave was destroyed by the Communists in the 1930s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Count Fyodor Matveyevich Apraksin (also \"Apraxin\"; ; 27 October 1661 10 November 1728, Moscow) was one of the first Russian admirals, governed Estonia and Karelia from 1712 to 1723, was made general admiral (1708), presided over the Russian Admiralty from 1718 and commanded the Baltic Fleet from 1723.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974430}
{"src_title": "Gaetano Mosca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Mosca earned a degree in law from the University of Palermo in 1881. In 1887 he moved to Rome and took a position as editor of proceedings of the Chamber of Deputies of Italy. Having taught occasionally at Palermo and Rome, Mosca became chair of constitutional law at the University of Turin in 1896. He would hold this position until 1924, when he settled permanently in Rome to occupy the chair of public law at the University of Rome. Mosca held several other academic positions throughout his life.  He was skeptical towards democracy, and placed his lifelong liberalism in direct opposition to mass democracy. In a 1904 interview, he stated:  I can certainly call myself an anti-democrat, but I am not an anti-liberal; indeed I am opposed to pure democracy precisely because I am a liberal. I believe that the ruling class ought not to be monolithic and homogeneous but ought to consist of elements which are diverse in regard to origin and interests; when, instead, political power originates from a single source, even if this be elections with universal suffrage, I regard it as dangerous and liable to become oppressive. Democratic Jacobinism is an illiberal doctrine precisely because it subordinates everything to a single force, that of the so-called majority, on which it does not set any limits.  In 1909 Mosca was elected to the Chamber of Deputies of Italy, in which he served until 1919. During this time, he served as Under-secretary for the Colonies from 1914 until 1916. During this time, Mosca also worked as a political journalist for the \"Corriere della Sera\" of Milan (after 1901) and the \"Tribuna\" of Rome (from 1911 to 1921).  In 1919, Mosca was nominated life senator of the Kingdom of Italy. He served actively in this capacity until 1926. In 1925 he signed the Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals. On numerous occasions, the elderly Mosca took to the floor to speak against bills endorsed by Benito Mussolini which intended to curtail political rights and parliamentary institutions. Mosca explained his opposition to these bills not only by referring to his own faith in political liberties as values worth preserving, but also by appealing to the \"development and progress\" that accompanied those nations where political liberties had been safeguarded through representative institutions. Parliamentary regimes were able to protect civil and political liberties because they provided an independent source of authority through which to limit the power of the rulers. Mosca's speeches in support of civil liberties and parliamentary government, as well as his steadfast refusal to compromise with the fascist regime, exerted an important influence on members of the intellectual opposition to Mussolini's dictatorship such as Gaetano Salvemini and Piero Gobetti.  Mosca is most famous for his works of political theory. These were'(Theory of Governments and Parliamentary Government), published in 1884;'(The Ruling Class), published in 1896; and \"\" (History of Political Doctrines), published in 1936.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political thought.", "content": "Mosca's enduring contribution to political science is the observation that all but the most primitive societies are ruled in fact, if not in theory, by a numerical minority. He named this minority the political class. That means that every society could be split between two social classes: the one who rules and the one which is ruled. This is always true, for Mosca, because without a political class there is no rule.  Although his theory is correctly characterized as \"elitist\", it should be observed that its basis is far different from \"The Power Elite\" described by, for example, C. Wright Mills. Unlike Mills and later sociologists, Mosca aimed to develop a universal theory of political society and his more general theory of the \"Political Class\" reflects this aim. Mosca defined modern elites in term of their superior organizational skills. These organizational skills were especially useful in gaining political power in modern bureaucratic society. Nevertheless, Mosca's theory was more liberal than the elitist theory of, for example, Pareto, since in Mosca's conception, elites are not hereditary in nature and peoples from all classes of society can theoretically become elite: when this happens, the reproduction of power is defined as democratic; whereas, when the member's recycle remains inside the elite, the reproduction of power is defined as aristocratic. He also adhered to the concept of the circulation of elites, which is a dialectical theory of constant competition between elites, with one elite group replacing another repeatedly over time. That concept came from his materialist idea of history as a conflict between classes (Marx), from the conflicted nature of politic considered as a fight for acquisition and department of power (Machiavelli) and finally from the non-egalitarian and hierarchical structure of society. Unlike Marx, Mosca has not a linear concept of time, but a circular one, as in classical political theory, which consists in a perpetual condition of conflict and recycle of the elite. For Mosca, the dichotomous structure of society wouldn't be solved by the revolution.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gaetano Mosca (; 1 April 1858 – 8 November 1941) was an Italian political scientist, journalist and public servant. He is credited with developing the elite theory and the doctrine of the political class and is one of the three members constituting the Italian school of elitism together with Vilfredo Pareto and Robert Michels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974431}
{"src_title": "Grass carp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Appearance and anatomy.", "content": "Grass carp have elongated, chubby, torpedo-shaped body forms. The terminal mouth is slightly oblique with non-fleshy, firm lips, and no barbels. The complete lateral line contains 40 to 42 scales. Broad, ridged, pharyngeal teeth are arranged in a 2, 4-4, 2 formula. The dorsal fin has eight to 10 soft rays, and the anal fin is set closer to the tail than most cyprinids. Body color is dark olive, shading to brownish-yellow on the sides, with a white belly and large, slightly outlined scales. The grass carp grows very rapidly. Young fish stocked in the spring at will reach over by fall. The average length is about. The maximum length is and they grow to. According to one study, they live an average of five to 9 years, with the oldest surviving 11 years. In Silver Lake Washington there is a thriving population of grass carp passing the 15-year mark. They eat up to three times their own body weight daily. They thrive in small lakes and backwaters that provide an abundant supply of freshwater vegetation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "This species occurs in lakes, ponds, pools, and backwaters of large rivers, preferring large, slow-flowing or standing water bodies with vegetation. In the wild, grass carp spawn in fast-moving rivers, and their eggs, which are slightly heavier than water, develop while drifting downstream, kept in suspension by turbulence. The eggs are thought to die if they sink to the bottom.  Adults of the species feed primarily on aquatic plants. They feed on higher aquatic plants and submerged terrestrial vegetation, but may also take detritus, insects, and other invertebrates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Introduced species.", "content": "Grass carp have been introduced to many countries around the world. In the Northern Hemisphere, countries and territories of introduction include Taiwan, Israel, Japan, the Philippines, the United States, Mexico, India, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Denmark, Sweden, Romania, Poland, Italy, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. In the Southern Hemisphere, they have been introduced to Argentina, Venezuela, Fiji, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa. Grass carp are known to have spawned and established self-reproducing populations in only six of the many larger Northern Hemisphere rivers into which they have been stocked. Their failure to establish populations in other rivers suggests they have quite specific reproductive requirements.  In the United States, the species was first imported in 1963 from Taiwan and Malaysia to aquaculture facilities in Alabama and Arkansas. The first release is believed to have been an accidental escape in 1966 from the US Fish and Wildlife Service's Fish Farming Experimental Station in Stuttgart, Arkansas, followed by planned introductions beginning in 1969. Subsequently, there have been widespread authorized, illegal, and accidental introductions; by the 1970s the species had been introduced to 40 states, and it has since been reported in 45 of the country's 50 states. In 2013 it was determined to be reproducing in the Great Lakes Basin. It is still stocked in many states as an effective biocontrol for undesirable aquatic vegetation, many species of which are themselves introduced.  Grass carp require long rivers for the survival of the eggs and very young fish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use as weed control.", "content": "Grass carp were introduced into New Zealand in 1966 to control the growth of aquatic plants. Unlike the other introduced fish brought to New Zealand, the potential value and impact of grass carp was investigated in secure facilities prior to their use in field trials. They are now approved by the New Zealand government for aquatic weed control, although each instance requires specific authorization. In the Netherlands the species was also introduced, in 1973, to control over-abundant aquatic weeds. The release was controlled and regulated by the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality.  In both of these countries, control is made easier by the fact that grass carp are very unlikely to naturally reproduce because of their very specific breeding requirements, but elsewhere control is obtained by the use of sterile, triploid fish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fishing for grass carp.", "content": "Grass carp grow large and are strong fighters on a rod and reel, but because of their vegetarian habits and their wariness, they can be difficult to catch. The IGFA World record for a grass carp caught on line and hook is 39.75 kg, (87.6 lb) caught in Bulgaria in 2009.  Where grass carp populations are maintained through stocking as a biocontrol for noxious weeds, fishers are typically asked to return any caught to the water alive and unharmed.  The fish are popular among bowfishers where bowfishing for them is legal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The grass carp (\"Ctenopharyngodon idella\") is a large herbivorous freshwater fish species of the family Cyprinidae native to eastern Asia, with an original range from northern Vietnam to the Amur River on the Siberia-China border. This Asian carp is the only species of the genus \"Ctenopharyngodon\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974432}
{"src_title": "Soviet submarine K-3 Leninsky Komsomol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Arctic voyage.", "content": "On 17 June 1962, by this time under the command of Zhiltsov, К-3 reached the North Pole underwater, the first among Soviet submarines (a feat performed nearly four years earlier by ). The submarine also surfaced on the Pole (a feat performed three years before by ). For this voyage, she was awarded the name \"Leninsky Komsomol\" (\"Ленинский Комсомол\") on 9 October 1962, and her crew, rather than training in military operations, began taking part in many congresses and conferences. This idle life continued until Summer 1967 when a boat that had been scheduled for patrol in the Mediterranean Sea was unavailable. \"Leninsky Komsomol\" was tasked with that patrol. She was assigned a new commander, Captain Second Rank Stepanov, and her executive officer arrived aboard only two hours before she put to sea. Whatever the initial material condition of the boat, the crew was not ready for sea. By the time they reached the Mediterranean, the air regeneration system had failed and the temperature on board was.  Once in the Mediterranean, \"Leninsky Komsomol\" was given the mission of following an American ballistic missile submarine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1967 accident.", "content": "On 8 September 1967, while transiting the Norwegian Sea, a fire broke out in the submarine's hydraulic system, and crew members in the compartment when the fire broke out had to evacuate the compartment. The flames spread to other parts of the submarine. The automatic extinguishers were based on carbon dioxide gas, which killed the crew members who were in the first and second compartments in the submarine. When the dividing door in the bulkhead from the third compartment was opened to see what had happened to the people in the second compartment, the gas spread, and more people lost consciousness. The forward compartments were then completely sealed off, and the submarine surfaced. Four days later, \"Leninsky Komsomol\" returned to base. 39 crew members died in the fire.  The subsequent investigation determined that the most probable cause of the fire was ignition of an explosive concentration of hydraulic oil, and that the reactions of the crew were prompt and correct. Numerous rewards were recommended for the crew, including seven nominations for Hero of Soviet Union—four of them posthumous. A later commission from Moscow, however, found a cigarette lighter in the torpedo compartment and found the position of a sailor's body suspicious. They ruled that the sailor's smoking had caused the fire and prohibited any award.  In 1991 a memorial was erected in Zapadnaya Litsa to the men lost aboard К-3. In 2007 the Russian Awards Committee (Российский наградной комитет) issued the medal \"For 50 Years Of The Submarine \"Leninskiy Komsomol\"\".  As of April 2017, \"K-3\" is being prepared to be put on display as a museum ship. Its nuclear reactor was removed while dry docked at the Nerpa shipyard in Snezhnogorsk, Murmansk Oblast, with plans to float the submarine out by the end of the month.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "К-3 was a project 627 \"Кит\" (\"kit\", meaning \"whale\"; NATO reporting name \"\") submarine of the Soviet Navy's Northern Fleet, the first nuclear submarine of the Soviet Union. The vessel was prototyped in wood, with each of five segments scattered between five different locations about Leningrad, including the Astoria Hotel. She was built in Molotovsk, launched on 9 August 1957, commissioned in July 1958, and homeported at Zapadnaya Litsa on the Kola Peninsula. K-3 was designed by Vladimir Peregoudov. Her initial captain was Leonid Osipenko, and the executive officer was Lev Zhiltsov, who had the important task of assembling the first crew.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974433}
{"src_title": "Hendrick Goltzius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Goltzius was born near Venlo in Bracht or Millebrecht, a village then in the Duchy of Julich, now in the municipality Brüggen in North Rhine-Westphalia. His family moved to Duisburg when he was 3 years old. After studying painting on glass for some years under his father, he learned engraving from the Dutch polymath Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert, who then lived in Cleves. In 1577 he moved with Coornhert to Haarlem in the Dutch Republic, where he remained based for the rest of his life. In the same town, he was also employed by Philip Galle to engrave a set of prints of the history of Lucretia.  Goltzius had a malformed right hand from a fire when he was a baby (his drawing of it is below), which turned out to be especially well-suited to holding the burin; \"by being forced to draw with the large muscles of his arm and shoulder, he mastered a commanding swing of line\".  In the 1580s, Goltzius with his friends van Mander and the painter Cornelis van Haarlem, founded an art academy in Haarlem in emulation of those in France and Bologna, where the human figure could be studied from life and to provide a meeting-place for artists to discuss both practice and aesthetics.  At the age of 21 he married a widow eight or nine years his senior, whose money enabled him to establish an independent business at Haarlem; but his unpleasant relations with her so affected his health that he found it advisable in 1590 to make a tour through Germany to Italy, where he acquired an intense admiration for the works of Michelangelo. He returned to Haarlem in August 1591, considerably improved in health, and worked there until his death.  His portraits, though mostly miniatures, are masterpieces of their kind, both on account of their exquisite finish, and as fine studies of individual character. Of his larger heads, his life-size self-portrait is probably the most striking example.  Goltzius brought to an unprecedented level the use of the \"swelling line\", where the burin is manipulated to make lines thicker or thinner to create a tonal effect from a distance. He also was a pioneer of \"dot and lozenge\" technique, where dots are placed in the middle of lozenge shaped spaces created by cross-hatching to further refine tonal shading.  Hollstein credits 388 prints to him, with a further 574 by other printmakers after his designs.  In his command of the burin, Goltzius is said to rival Dürer. He made engravings of Bartholomeus Spranger's paintings, thus increasing the fame of the latter – and his own. Goltzius began painting at the age of forty-two; some of his paintings can be found in Vienna. He also executed a few chiaroscuro woodcuts. He was the stepfather of engraver Jacob Matham. He died, aged 58, in Haarlem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public collections.", "content": "Most major print rooms will have a group of Goltzius's many engravings.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hendrick Goltzius, or Hendrik, (; ; January or February 1558 – 1 January 1617) was a German-born Dutch printmaker, draftsman, and painter. He was the leading Dutch engraver of the early Baroque period, or Northern Mannerism, lauded for his sophisticated technique, technical mastership and \"exuberance\" of his compositions. According to A. Hyatt Mayor, Goltzius \"was the last professional engraver who drew with the authority of a good painter and the last who invented many pictures for others to copy\". In the middle of his life he also began to produce paintings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974434}
{"src_title": "Hair spray", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ingredients and operation.", "content": "Hair sprays consist of the following components: concentrate, plasticizers, luster agents, and fragrances, as well as propellants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concentrate.", "content": "Hair spray are a blend of polymers that provide structural support to hair. These frequently include copolymers of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyvinyl acetate (PVAc). Vinyl acetate-crotonic acid copolymers give harder films. In this way hairsprays can be formulated as flexible, medium, and maximum hold. The copolymer mixture is usually adjusted to achieve the desired physical properties (adhesive strength, foaming, etc.), using plasticizers such as aminomethyl propanol, surfactants such as benzalkonium chloride, and other agents like dimethicone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Propellants.", "content": "Since the phase-out of CFCs in the 1980s, hydrocarbons are popular propellants. These include propane, butane, isobutane, and related volatile hydrocarbons, as well as other mixtures. Such hydrocarbons are poor solvents for the active ingredients such as the polymers. For this reason dimethyl ether is often added as well. It functions both as a propellant and a solvent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other components.", "content": "Plasticizers used in hair spray include esters of citric acid and adipic acid. Silicones and polyglycols are also used.  The concentrate comprises only a small volume of a can of hairspray. Most of a canister is filled solvents such as isopropanol (rubbing alcohol) and ethanol.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Early hair sprays were developed in Europe in the 1920s. In the US, hair sprays were developed around the time of the aerosol can in the 1940s, and the first patents describing copolymers for hair styling were published in the 1940s.  In the US, the first to package it was Chase products (an aerosol manufacturer) in 1948, as the beauty industry saw that the aerosol cans used in World War II for insecticides could be used as a dispenser for hairspray. It thrived and became increasingly popular and mass-produced, as updos and other such hairstyles were created. By 1964, it became the highest selling beauty product on the market.  In 1968 at the feminist Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a \"Freedom Trash Can.\" These included hairspray, which was among items the protestors called \"instruments of female torture\" and accouterments of what they perceived to be enforced femininity.  Sales of hairspray declined in the 1970s as hairstyles became predominately worn straight and loose. By the 1980s, hairspray’s popularity came back as big hairstyles resurged with the glam metal scene.  Prior to 1979, the most popular propellants in hairsprays were CFCs. Owing to environmental concerns, they were replaced.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hair spray (also hair lacquer or spritz) is a common cosmetic hairstyling product that is sprayed onto hair to protect against humidity and wind. Hair sprays typically consist of several components for the hair as well as a propellant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974435}
{"src_title": "Marie-José of Belgium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Marie-José was born in Ostend, the youngest child of King Albert I of the Belgians and his consort, Duchess Elisabeth in Bavaria. During the First World War, she was evacuated to England where she was a boarding pupil at the Brentwood Ursuline Convent High School in Brentwood, Essex.  In 1924, Marie-José attended her first court ball. For the occasion she was given an antique pearl and diamond tiara that had originally been owned by Stéphanie de Beauharnais.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "On 8 January 1930, she married in Rome Crown Prince Umberto of Italy, from the House of Savoy, and so became Princess of Piedmont (Italian: \"Principessa di Piemonte\").  Among the wedding gifts was a turquoise and diamond parure, worn by the bride at her pre-wedding reception, and a diamond bow worn as a sash decoration at state occasions.  The couple had four children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Princess of Piedmont.", "content": "In October 1939, Princess Marie-José was made President of the Red Cross in Italy. The Princess and Duchess of Aosta attended the ceremony where Marie-José was installed as President of the Italian Red Cross.  During the Second World War she was one of the very few diplomatic channels between the German/Italian camp and the other European countries involved in the war, as she was the sister of Leopold III of Belgium (kept hostage by the German forces) and at the same time close to some of the ministers of Benito Mussolini's cabinet. A British diplomat in Rome recorded that the Princess of Piedmont was the only member of the Italian Royal Family with good political judgment.  Mussolini's mistress, Claretta Petacci, claimed in her diary that in 1937 the then princess and wife of the heir to the throne tried and failed to seduce the dictator at a beach resort near Rome. However, Mussolini's son, Romano, claims that the princess and dictator entered into a sexual relationship.  In 1943, the Crown Princess involved herself in vain attempts to arrange a separate peace treaty between Italy and the United States; her interlocutor from the Vatican was Monsignor Giovanni Battista Montini, a senior diplomat who later became Pope Paul VI.  Her attempts were not sponsored by the king and Umberto was not (directly, at least) involved in them. After her failure (she never met the American agents), she was sent with her children to Sarre, in Aosta Valley, and isolated from the political life of the Royal House.  She sympathised with the partisans, and while she was a refugee in Switzerland, smuggled weapons, money and food for them. She was nominated for appointment as chief of a partisan brigade, but declined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen for a month.", "content": "Following Italy's defection to the Allied side in the war, her discredited father-in-law, King Victor Emmanuel III, withdrew from government. Her husband became acting monarch under the title of Lieutenant General of the Realm. He and Marie-José toured war torn Italy, where they made a positive impression. However, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to abdicate until only weeks before the referendum.  Upon the eventual abdication on 9 May 1946 of her father-in-law, Marie-José became Queen consort of Italy, and remained such until the monarchy was abolished by plebiscite, on 2 June 1946.  Umberto and Marie-José had been widely praised for their performance over the last two years, and it has been argued that had Victor Emmanuel abdicated sooner their relative popularity might have saved the monarchy. Following the monarchy's defeat (54–46%), she and her husband left the country for exile on 13 June 1946.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile.", "content": "In exile, the family gathered for a brief time on the Portuguese Riviera, but she and Umberto separated. She and their four children soon left for Switzerland where she lived most of the time for the rest of her life, while Umberto remained in Portugal. However, the couple, both devout Catholics, never divorced. The republican constitution not only forbade the restoration of the monarchy, but also barred all male members of the House of Savoy, as well as former queens consort, from returning to Italian soil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "For some time, she lived in Mexico with her daughter, Princess Marie-Beatrice, and her grandchildren.  Marie-José returned to Italy after her husband's death in 1983. She herself died in a Geneva clinic of lung cancer at the age of 94, surviving her two brothers and some of her nieces and nephews.  The funeral was held at Hautecombe Abbey, in Savoy in the south of France, and attended by 2000 mourners. Among them were Albert II of Belgium, Juan Carlos I of Spain and Farah Pahlavi, the last Empress of Iran. She was buried in Hautecombe Abbey alongside her husband.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical foundation.", "content": "Like her mother, Queen Elisabeth, Marie-José inspired a musical contest. In 1959 she established the Fondation du prix de composition Reine Marie-José. It awarded its biennial prizes for the first time the following year. The first prize at the 1960 Concours was awarded to Giorgio Ferrari for his Quatuor à cordes avec une voix chantée. Subsequent prize winners have included William Albright (1968), Georg Katzer (1978), and Javier Torres Maldonado (2000). The 2017 prize was awarded to Jaehyuck Choi.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marie-José of Belgium (Marie-José Charlotte Sophie Amélie Henriette Gabrielle; 4 August 1906 – 27 January 2001) was the last Queen of Italy. Her 35-day tenure as queen consort earned her the nickname \"the May Queen\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974436}
{"src_title": "Augustinian Church, Vienna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1327, Duke Frederick \"the Handsome\" (\"Friedrich der Schöne\") founded this church with a cloister for the Augustinian friars.  In 1634, the Augustinerkirche became the parish church of the imperial church. As imperial church, many Habsburg weddings took place there, including the wedding of Archduchess (and future Empress) Maria Theresa in 1736 to Duke Francis of Lorraine, the wedding of Archduchess Marie Louise in 1810 to Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte of France, Maria Leopoldia married a Dom Pedro of Portugal/Brazil Empire 1817 and the wedding of Emperor Franz Joseph in 1854 to Duchess Elisabeth in Bavaria.  A functioning monastery of six black-robed Augustinian monks remains, serving the needs of the parish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The Gothic church is 85 m (278.9 ft) long and 20 m (65.6 ft) wide. The nave is 11 m (36.1 ft) wide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The nave was built under architect Dietrich Landtner from 1330 to 1339, but not consecrated until 1 November 1349. As the nearby Hofburg expanded, the Augustinerkirche gradually became engulfed by it and today is a part of the complex. Although inconspicuous from the outside, the inside is more ornate. During the reign of Emperor Joseph II, 18 side altars were removed in 1784 when the church was restored in the gothic style. A new side altar was added in 2004, dedicated to Emperor Karl I of Austria (1887–1922) who is on the path to being recognized as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church.  The pulpit was designed by Hofarchitekt Johann Ferdinand Hetzendorf von Hohenberg in 1784/85 when the church was returned to its original Gothic style. It is an early example of Gothic Revivalism in Central Europe. The white and gold wooden structure is placed on a column with a foliated Gothic capital. The balustrade and the rear wall is decorated with simple blind tracery. The abat-voix forms a canopy with the usual symbol of the dove and a statue of Saint Paul (?) on the top. A painting of the interior by Martin van Meytens from 1760 shows another simple, rectangular pulpit with the statue of the Madonna on the top.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chapels.", "content": "The Loreto Chapel, to the right of the main altar, holds the silver urns containing the hearts of Habsburg rulers, while their bodies are kept in the Imperial Crypt. Herzgruft contains the hearts of 54 members of the imperial family.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cenotaph of Maria Christina.", "content": "Notable among the church's monuments is the memorial to Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria sculpted by Antonio Canova, in 1805.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sacred music.", "content": "Composer Franz Schubert conducted his Mass in F major there, and Anton Bruckner's Mass in F minor was written for the church and was first performed there. In the 21st century, the church is known to host high quality sacred music concerts, particularly for its weekly Sunday High mass with full orchestra and choir. The church has two organs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Augustinian Church () in Vienna is a parish church located on Josefsplatz, next to the Hofburg, the winter palace of the Habsburg dynasty in Vienna. Originally built in the 14th century as the parish church of the imperial court of the Habsburgs, the harmonious Gothic interior was added in the 18th century. The official name of church and parish is St. Augustin, but it is locally called \"Augustinerkirche\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974437}
{"src_title": "Fidus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born the son of a confectioner in Lübeck, Höppener demonstrated artistic talent at an early age. Around 1886 he met the \"apostle of nature\" and artist Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach (1851–1913), and joined Diefenbach's commune near Munich. On Diefenbach's behalf, he served a brief prison sentence for public nudity, earning him the name Fidus (\"faithful\").  In 1892 he moved to Berlin, set up another commune, and worked as an illustrator on the magazine \"Sphinx\". His work appeared frequently in \"Jugend\" and other illustrated magazines. He created many ornamental drawings, especially for book decoration, as well as ex-libris, posters and designs. He was one of the first artists to use advertising postcards to promote his work. He also contributed to the early homosexual magazine \"Der Eigene\", published by Adolf Brand.  He held mystical Theosophical beliefs, and became interested in German mythology. His early illustrations contained dream-like abstractions, while his later work was characterised by motifs such as peasants, warriors, and other naked human figures in natural settings. He often combined mysticism, eroticism, and symbolism, in Art Nouveau and Sezessionist styles. By 1900 he was one of the best known painters in Germany, and had come under the influence of writers such as Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, Heinrich and Julius Hart, and the anti-materialist garden city and \"Wandervogel\" movements. In 1912 he designed a famous poster for a congress on \"biological hygiene\" in Hamburg, showing a man in the process of breaking his bonds and rising up to the stars.  After 1918, interest in Fidus’ work as an illustrator ebbed. Despite his enthusiasm for the ideology of the Nazi Party, of which he became a member in 1932, he did not receive the support of the Nazi regime. In 1937 his work was seized and the sale of his images was forbidden. By the time he died in 1948 in Woltersdorf his art had been almost forgotten. It was rediscovered in the 1960s, and directly influenced the psychedelic concert posters which began to be produced at that time, initially in and around San Francisco.  There is an archive of Fidus work at the Berlinische Galerie. Another large archive of Fidus materials (including artworks, diaries, correspondence, and photographs) is held by the Jack Daulton Collection in Los Altos Hills, California.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fidus was the pseudonym used by German illustrator, painter and publisher Hugo Reinhold Karl Johann Höppener (October 8, 1868 – February 23, 1948). He was a symbolist artist, whose work directly influenced the psychedelic style of graphic design of the late 1960s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974438}
{"src_title": "Maurice Thorez", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Pre-War.", "content": "Thorez, born in Noyelles-Godault, Pas-de-Calais, became a coal miner at the age of 12. He joined the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) in 1919 and was imprisoned several times for his political activism. After the 1920 split in the SFIO led to the formation of the French Communist Party (PCF), Thorez became party secretary in 1923 and, in 1930, secretary-general of the Party, a position he held until his death. In wake of his own struggle with Leon Trotsky, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin supported Thorez for PCF leadership following splits in many non-Soviet Communist parties. As the official leader, Thorez was secretly controlled by the Comintern and by the secretive Eugene Fried.  In 1932 Thorez became the companion of Jeannette Vermeersch; they had three sons before marrying in 1947, and remained married until his death.  Thorez was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1932 and reelected in 1936. In 1934, following a Comintern directive, he helped form the Popular Front, an alliance between Communists, Socialists, and radical Socialists. The Front, because of strong popular support as France was reeling from the impact of the Great Depression, won the elections of 1936. With the support of the Communists under Thorez, the socialist Léon Blum became prime minister of a Popular Front government and managed to enact much of the Front's social-legislation programme. Meanwhile, Thorez presided over massive growth in the Communist Party, beginning with the elections of 1936.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 and the subsequent Soviet participation in the invasion of Poland, the Communist Party was against the French war effort and so was outlawed: the Communist Party did not support what the Nazis stood for, but did support the Soviet Union's tactical treaty with Germany in order to direct German aggression away from the U.S.S.R. and toward Britain. Its publications were banned and many Party members were interned. Thorez himself had his nationality revoked. Shortly thereafter, Thorez was drafted, but rather than fight the Germans, he deserted from the army to flee to the Soviet Union. Thorez was tried \"in absentia\" for desertion and sentenced to death.  Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the French Communist Party openly declared it would violently resist the German occupation (though even before this the Communist Party organized a demonstration of thousands of students and workers against the occupation on 11 November 1940, and in May 1941 organized a strike of 100,000 miners in the Nord and Pas-de-Calais departments). During this time, articles written by and ghostwritten for Thorez appeared frequently in the party's underground newspaper, \"Humanité Clandestine\". Each of these letters was signed 'Maurice Thorez, Somewhere in France.' It was not until several years after the war that the party admitted that this was false, and that Thorez had been in Moscow for the entire war. In his absence, the affairs of the Party and of the Party resistance movement (FTP) in France were organised by his second in command, Jacques Duclos.  When General Charles de Gaulle's Free French Forces liberated France in 1944, Thorez received a pardon. After the Liberation, Thorez was ordered by Stalin to lead the PCF immediately after the Second World War to a non-revolutionary road to power. The instructions were to have the reluctant wartime Communist partisans to surrender their weapons, while the party became a powerful force in the postwar governments since it was thought that they would soon win legally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "In November 1944, he returned to France from the Soviet Union, and in 1945 his citizenship was restored. The PCF emerged from the Second World War as the largest political party in France based on its role in the anti-Nazi resistance movement during the occupation of France, at least after 1941. He tried to make a revolution, after strikes that he organised, in 1948 that failed only because the post-war army was strongly for the democratic Fourth Republic. Thorez was again elected to the Chamber of Deputies and reelected throughout the Fourth Republic (1946–1958).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In power.", "content": "Forming a popular front with the Socialist Party in the 1945 elections, he became vice premier of France from 1946 to 1947. During this time, the Communist members of the coalition government supported the French drive to renew colonial rule in Indochina. They were supported in this regard by Joseph Stalin. (ibid.)  By 1947 a combination of the emerging Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union and growing social conflicts in France, linked to the increasing gap between wages and prices, put the three party union (SFIO, PCF and MRP) under heavy pressure. But the crisis came with the beginnings of the colonial war in Vietnam, with the communist deputies in the \"Assemblée nationale\" voting against the communist-participating government. That incident led Premier Paul Ramadier to dismiss his Communist ministers from the government on 7 May 1947. Contrary to a very common legend, the firing of the communist ministers was not linked to U.S. pressure, as a condition for France to benefit from the coming Marshall Plan. But the parallel movements in Italy and Belgium show that Cold War resistance to Communism was rising all over Western Europe at that time. The Communists' refusal to continue support for the French colonial effort Vietnam on one hand and a wage-freeze during a period of hyperinflation on the other were the immediate triggers to the dismissal of Thorez and his colleagues from the ruling coalition in May 1947.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In opposition.", "content": "Although the Communists under Thorez's leadership continued to enjoy a dedicated following among a minority of the electorate, the French democratic parties operated to isolate and marginalize them for the remainder of the regime. Following the Cominform meeting in September 1947, Thorez abandoned its cooperative attitude towards the other political forces, intending to follow the \"Zhdanov Doctrine\". He then proved to be the most Stalinist of all communist leaders in Western Europe, blocking the change of his party. That, and the growing popular distaste for the Party, clearly appeared after de Gaulle came to power again in 1958 upon the founding of the French Fifth Republic: the Communist Party's strength in the Chamber shrank to 10 seats. However, Thorez retained his seat.  In 1950, at the height of his popularity among party members, Thorez suffered a stroke and remained in the Soviet Union for medical care until 1953. That March, Stalin died and Thorez was among the French delegation at Stalin's funeral. During his absence, the party was de facto controlled by his ally Jacques Duclos, who expelled Thorez's rival André Marty. Thorez resumed his duties upon returning to France. Although his health deteriorated, Thorez remained party leader, until shortly before his death in 1964 on a Black Sea cruise.  He published \"Fils du peuple\" (1937; Son of the People, 1938) and \"Une politique de grandeur française\" (1945; \"Politics of French Greatness\").  The city of Torez in Ukraine was named after him in 1964. On 12 May 2016 the Ukrainian parliament renamed the town back to Chystyakove.  The Maurice Thorez Moscow Institute of Foreign Languages (Московский институт иностранных языков имени Мориса Тореза), was once named in his honor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Bulaitis, John, \"Maurice Thorez: A Biography\", IB Tauris, 2018. https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/maurice-thorez-9781845117252/", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maurice Thorez (; 28 April 1900 – 11 July 1964) was a French politician and longtime leader of the French Communist Party (PCF) from 1930 until his death. He also served as Deputy Prime Minister of France from 1946 to 1947.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974439}
{"src_title": "Adolphe Quetelet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Adolphe was born in Ghent (which, at the time was a part of the new French Republic). He was the son of François-Augustin-Jacques-Henri Quetelet, a Frenchman and Anne Françoise Vandervelde, a Flemish woman. His father was born at Ham, Picardy, and being of a somewhat adventurous spirit, he crossed the English Channel and became both a British citizen and the secretary of a Scottish nobleman. In that capacity, he traveled with his employer on the Continent, particularly spending time in Italy. At about 31, he settled in Ghent and was employed by the city, where Adolphe was born, the fifth of nine children, several of whom died in childhood.  Francois died when Adolphe was only seven years old. Adolphe studied at the Ghent Lycée, where he afterwards started teaching mathematics in 1815 at the age of 19. In 1819, he moved to the Athenaeum in Brussels and in the same year he completed his dissertation (\"De quibusdam locis geometricis, necnon de curva focal – Of some new properties of the focal distance and some other curves\").  Quetelet received a doctorate in mathematics in 1819 from the University of Ghent. Shortly thereafter, the young man set out to convince government officials and private donors to build an astronomical observatory in Brussels; he succeeded in 1828. He became a member of the Royal Academy in 1820. He lectured at the museum for sciences and letters and at the Belgian Military School. In 1825, he became a correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, in 1827 he became a member. From 1841 to 1851, he was a supernumerary associate in the Institute, and when it became Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences he became foreign member. In 1850, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.  Quetelet also founded several statistical journals and societies, and was especially interested in creating international cooperation among statisticians. He encouraged the creation of a statistical section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BA), which later became the Royal Statistical Society, of which he became the first overseas member. In 1853 he chaired both the International Maritime Conference and the First International Statistical Congress. He was a founding member of the first \"Société des douze\".  In 1855, Quetelet suffered from apoplexy, which diminished but did not end his scientific activity.  He died in Brussels on 17 February 1874, and is buried in the Brussels Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1825, he married Cécile-Virginie Curtet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "His scientific research encompassed a wide range of different scientific disciplines: meteorology, astronomy, mathematics, statistics, demography, sociology, criminology and history of science. He made significant contributions to scientific development, but he also wrote several monographs directed to the general public. He founded the Royal Observatory of Belgium, founded or co-founded several national and international statistical societies and scientific journals, and presided over the first series of the International Statistical Congresses. Quetelet was a liberal and an anticlerical, but not an atheist or materialist nor a socialist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social physics.", "content": "The new science of probability and statistics was mainly used in astronomy at the time, where it was essential to account for measurement errors around means. This was done using the method of least squares. Quetelet was among the first to apply statistics to social science, planning what he called \"social physics\". He was keenly aware of the overwhelming complexity of social phenomena, and the many variables that needed measurement. His goal was to understand the statistical laws underlying such phenomena as crime rates, marriage rates or suicide rates. He wanted to explain the values of these variables by other social factors. These ideas were rather controversial among other scientists at the time who held that it contradicted the concept of freedom of choice.  His most influential book was \"Sur l'homme et le développement de ses facultés, ou Essai de physique sociale\", published in 1835 (In English translation, it is titled \"Treatise on Man\", but a literal translation would be \"On Man and the Development of his Faculties, or Essays on Social Physics\"). In it, he outlines the project of a social physics and describes his concept of the \"average man\" (\"l'homme moyen\") who is characterized by the mean values of measured variables that follow a normal distribution. He collected data about many such variables.  Quetelet's student Pierre François Verhulst developed the logistic function in the 1830s as a model of population growth; see for details.  When Auguste Comte discovered that Quetelet had appropriated the term'social physics', which Comte had originally introduced, Comte found it necessary to invent the term'sociologie' (sociology) because he disagreed with Quetelet's notion that a theory of society could be derived from a collection of statistics.  Adolphe Quetelet also had a significant influence on Florence Nightingale who shared with him a religious view of statistics which saw understanding statistics as revealing the work of God in addition to statistics being a force of good administration. Nightingale met Quetelet in person at the 1860 International Statistical Congress in London, and they corresponded for years afterwards.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criminology.", "content": "Quetelet was an influential figure in criminology. Along with Andre-Michel Guerry, he helped to establish the cartographic school and positivist schools of criminology which made extensive use of statistical techniques. Through statistical analysis, Quetelet gained insight into the relationships between crime and other social factors. Among his findings were strong relationships between age and crime, as well as gender and crime. Other influential factors he found included climate, poverty, education, and alcohol consumption, with his research findings published in \"Of the Development of the Propensity to Crime\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anthropometry.", "content": "In his 1835 text on social physics, in which he presented his theory of human variance around the average, with human traits being distributed according to a normal curve, he proposed that normal variation provided a basis for the idea that populations produce sufficient variation for artificial or natural selection to operate.  In terms of influence over later public health agendas, one of Quetelet's lasting legacies was the establishment of a simple measure for classifying people's weight relative to an ideal for their height. His proposal, the body mass index (or Quetelet index), has endured with minor variations to the present day. Anthropometric data is used in modern applications and referenced in the development of every consumer-based product.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards and honours.", "content": "Quetelet was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1839.  The asteroid 1239 Queteleta is named after him. The title of Quetelet professor at Columbia University is awarded in his name.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet FRSFor FRSE (; 22 February 1796 – 17 February 1874) was a Belgian astronomer, mathematician, statistician and sociologist who founded and directed the Brussels Observatory and was influential in introducing statistical methods to the social sciences. His name is sometimes spelled with an accent as \"Quételet\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974440}
{"src_title": "Domenico Zipoli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early training and career.", "content": "Zipoli was born in Prato, Italy, where he received elementary musical training. However, there are no records of him having entered the cathedral choir. In 1707, and with the patronage of Cosimo III, Grand Duke of Tuscany, he was a pupil of the organist Giovani Maria Casini in Florence. In 1708 he briefly studied under Alessandro Scarlatti in Naples, then Bologna and finally in Rome under Bernardo Pasquini. Two of his oratorios date to this early period: \"San Antonio di Padova\" (1712) and \"Santa Caterina, Virgine e martire\" (1714). Around 1715 he was made the organist of the Church of the Gesù (a Jesuit parish, the mother church for The Society of Jesus), in Rome, a prestigious post. At the very beginning of the following year, he finished his best known work, a collection of keyboard pieces titled \"Sonate d'intavolatura per organo e cimbalo\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jesuit musician-missionary.", "content": "For reasons that are not clear, Zipoli traveled to Sevilla, Spain, in 1716, where, on 1 July, he joined the Society of Jesus with the desire to be sent to the Reductions of Paraguay in Spanish Colonial America. Still a novice, he left Spain with a group of 53 missionaries who reached Buenos Aires on 13 July 1717.  He completed his formation and sacerdotal studies in Córdoba (in contemporary Argentina) (1717–1724) though, for the lack of an available bishop, he could not be ordained priest. All through these few years he served as music director for the local Jesuit church. Soon his works came to be known in Lima, Peru. Struck by an unknown infectious disease, Zipoli died in the Jesuit house of Córdoba, on 2 January 1726. A previous theory placing his death in the ancient Jesuit church of Santa Catalina, in the hills of the Province of Córdoba, has now been discredited. His burial place has never been found.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Zipoli continues to be well known today for his keyboard music; many of them are well within the abilities of beginning to intermediate players, and appear in most standard anthologies. His Italian compositions have always been known but recently some of his South American church music was discovered in Chiquitos, Bolivia: two Masses, two psalm settings, three Office hymns, a \"Te Deum laudamus\" and other pieces. A Mass copied in Potosí, Bolivia in 1784, and preserved in Sucre, Bolivia, seems a local compilation based on the other two Masses. His dramatic music, including two complete oratorios and portions of a third one, is mostly gone. Three sections of the 'Mission opera' \"San Ignacio de Loyola\" – compiled by Martin Schmid in Chiquitos many years after Zipoli's death, and preserved almost complete in local sources – have been attributed to Zipoli.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Domenico Zipoli (17 October 16882 January 1726) was an Italian Baroque composer who worked and died in Córdoba, in the Viceroyalty of Peru, Spanish Empire, (presently in Argentina). He became a Jesuit in order to work in the Reductions of Paraguay where he taught music among the Guaraní people. He is remembered as the most accomplished musician among Jesuit missionaries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974441}
{"src_title": "FitzRoy Somerset, 1st Baron Raglan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born at Badminton House in Gloucestershire as the ninth and youngest son of Henry Somerset, 5th Duke of Beaufort and his wife Elizabeth (daughter of Admiral the Hon. Edward Boscawen), Somerset was educated at Westminster School and was commissioned as a cornet in the 4th Light Dragoons on 16 June 1804.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Promoted to lieutenant on 1 June 1805, Somerset accompanied Sir Arthur Paget on his visit to Sultan Selim III of the Ottoman Empire, who had been aligning himself too closely with France, in 1807. He became a captain in the 43rd Regiment of Foot on 5 May 1808 shortly before his appointment as aide-de-camp to Sir Arthur Wellesley in July 1808. Somerset accompanied Wellesley's Army when it was sent to Portugal later that month. Somerset fought at the Second Battle of Porto in May 1809, the Battle of Talavera in July 1809 and the Battle of Bussaco (where he was wounded) in September 1810. He was appointed acting military secretary to Wellington in November 1810 and fought with him at the Battle of Pombal in March 1811, the Battle of Sabugal in April 1811 and the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro in May 1811. Promoted to brevet major on 9 June 1811, he also took part in the Battle of El Bodón in September 1811. He specially distinguished himself at the storming of Badajoz in March 1812 by being the first to mount the breach and by helping to secure the surrender of the French Governor and was duly promoted to lieutenant colonel on 27 April 1812.  Somerset went on to fight with Wellington at the Battle of Salamanca in July 1812, the Siege of Burgos in September 1812 and the Battle of Vitoria in June 1813 as well as the Siege of San Sebastián in July 1813, the Battle of the Pyrenees in July 1813 and the Battle of Nivelle in November 1813. They also fought together at the Battle of the Nive in December 1813, the Battle of Orthez in February 1814 and the Battle of Toulouse in April 1814. Following Wellington's appointment as British Ambassador during the short period of Bourbon restoration, Somerset assumed a role as his secretary at the Embassy on 5 July 1814. Somerset transferred to the 1st Guards on 25 July 1814 and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 2 January 1815.  Somerset also saw action during the Hundred Days: he served on Wellington's staff at the Battle of Quatre Bras on 16 June 1815 and at the Battle of Waterloo two days later (where he had to have his right arm amputated and then demanded his arm back so he could retrieve the ring that his wife had given him). Promoted to colonel and appointed an aide-de-camp to the Prince Regent on 28 August 1815, he was appointed a Knight of the Bavarian Military Order of Max Joseph on 3 October 1815. He remained with the Army of Occupation in France until May 1816 when he returned to the post of secretary at the British Embassy in Paris.  Somerset was elected Tory Member of Parliament for Truro in 1818 and became Wellington's secretary in the latter's new capacity as Master-General of the Ordnance in 1819. Somerset lost his seat at the general election in 1820 but, having been promoted to major-general on 27 May 1825, regained his seat in Parliament in 1826. Following Wellington's appointment as Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in January 1827 Somerset became Military Secretary in August 1827. He stood down from Parliament in 1829 and was promoted to lieutenant-general on 28 June 1838. Advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 24 September 1852, he became Master-General of the Ordnance on 30 September 1852 and was raised to the peerage as Baron Raglan of Raglan in the County of Monmouthshire on 11 October 1852.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crimean War.", "content": "Raglan became commander of the British troops sent to the Crimea with the temporary rank of full general on 21 February 1854 and was promoted to the substantive rank of full general on 20 June 1854. While Raglan's primary objective was to defend Constantinople he was ordered by the Duke of Newcastle, who was at the time Secretary of State for War, to besiege the Russian Port of Sevastopol \"unless it could not be undertaken with a reasonable prospect of success\". An Anglo-French force under the joint command of Somerset and General Jacques St. Arnaud defeated General Alexander Menshikov's Russian army at the Battle of Alma in September 1854.  At the Battle of Balaclava in October 1854, Raglan issued an order to the Earl of Lucan, his cavalry commander, who in turn ordered the Earl of Cardigan, a subordinate commander who happened to be Lucan's brother-in-law and who detested him, to lead the fateful Charge of the Light Brigade leading to some 278 British casualties. Despite an indecisive result at Balaclava the British and French allied army gained a victory at the Battle of Inkerman in November 1854 and Raglan was promoted to the rank of field marshal on 5 November 1854. He was also awarded the Ottoman Empire Order of the Medjidie, 1st Class on 15 May 1855.  Raglan was blamed by the press and the government for the sufferings of the British soldiers in the terrible Crimean winter during the Siege of Sevastopol owing to shortages of food and clothing although this, in part, was the fault of the home authorities who failed to provide adequate logistical support. A piecemeal allied assault on Sevastopol on 18 June 1855 was a complete failure. The anxieties of the siege began to seriously undermine Raglan's health and he died unexpectedly on 28 June 1855, while suffering with dysentery and depression. His body was brought home and interred at St Michael and All Angels Church, Badminton.  Raglan had also served as honorary colonel of the 53rd Regiment of Foot and then as honorary colonel of the Royal Regiment of Horse Guards (The Blues). Cefntilla Court, Llandenny was built as a lasting memorial to Somerset in 1858: an inscription over the porch there reads:  A blue plaque was erected outside Raglan's house at Stanhope Gate in London in 1911.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "On 6 August 1814 Somerset married Lady Emily Harriet Wellesley-Pole (daughter of William Wellesley-Pole, 3rd Earl of Mornington, and niece of the Duke of Wellington). They had two sons:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural depictions.", "content": "Raglan was portrayed by Sir John Gielgud in the film \"The Charge of the Light Brigade\" (1968). Lord Raglin is a character in George MacDonald Fraser's novel \"Flashman at the Charge\", in which he is described as a kindly, but ineffectual man, and completely unsuited for his command.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Field Marshal FitzRoy James Henry Somerset, 1st Baron Raglan, (30 September 1788 – 28 June 1855), known before 1852 as Lord FitzRoy Somerset, was a British Army officer. When a junior officer, he served in the Peninsular War and the Hundred Days, latterly as military secretary to the Duke of Wellington. He also took part in politics as Tory Member of Parliament for Truro, before becoming Master-General of the Ordnance. He became commander of the British troops sent to the Crimea in 1854: his primary objective was to defend Constantinople, and he was also ordered to besiege the Russian Port of Sevastopol. After an early success at the Battle of Alma, a failure to deliver orders with sufficient clarity caused the fateful Charge of the Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaclava. Despite further success at the Battle of Inkerman, a poorly coordinated allied assault on Sevastopol in June 1855 was a complete failure. Raglan died later that month, after suffering from dysentery and depression.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974442}
{"src_title": "Alexander Morozevich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "His first win in an international tournament was in 1994, when at the age of 17 he won the Lloyds Bank tournament in London with a score of 91⁄2 points out of 10. In 1994 he also won the Pamplona tournament, a victory he repeated in 1998.  In 1997 Morozevich was the top seed at the World Junior Chess Championship, but lost to the eventual champion, American Tal Shaked in a bishop and knight checkmate. That same year, Morozevich participated in the FIDE World Championship, where he eliminated former world champion Vassily Smyslov in the first round. He was knocked out in the second round by Lembit Oll. The next year Morozevich won the Russian Championship.  In 1999 he played in his first super-tournament in Sarajevo and finished in fourth scoring 51⁄2 points of 9. In beginning of 2000 Morozevich participated at the Corus chess tournament in Wijk aan Zee and finished fifth out of 14 players. The event was won by Garry Kasparov ahead of Vladimir Kramnik, Viswanathan Anand and Peter Leko.  In the same year he participated in the FIDE World Championship played in New Delhi. Due to his rating he was seeded directly into the second round, in which he eliminated Gilberto Milos with the score of 2–0, then he proceeded to beat Evgeny Vladimirov 11⁄2–1⁄2 in the third round before finally being eliminated in the fourth by Vladislav Tkachiev.  In Wijk aan Zee 2001 Morozevich became the first player to defeat World Champion Vladimir Kramnik after beating him with black. He shared fifth together with Alexei Shirov, behind Kasparov, Anand, Vassily Ivanchuk and Kramnik. In the 2001 FIDE World Championship, Morozevich beat Nugzar Zeliavok, Krishnan Sasikiran and Mikhail Gurevich before losing in tie-breaks in the fourth round against the eventual winner of the event Ruslan Ponomariov. In September 2005, Morozevich played in the FIDE World Chess Championship 2005 in San Luis, Argentina, taking fourth place behind Veselin Topalov, Anand and Peter Svidler.  In December 2006, he won the strong Pamplona tournament with a score of 6 points out of 7 and an Elo performance of 2951. He shared second place with Magnus Carlsen, behind Anand, at the 2007 Linares tournament.  His San Luis result earned him direct entry to the World Chess Championship 2007. In that tournament he scored 6 out of 14, placing sixth out of eight players. He was the only player who managed to defeat the reigning world champion Vladimir Kramnik (which was also Kramnik's only defeat in 2007).  In December 2007 Morozevich won the Russian Championship for the second time, winning the last six rounds. In June 2008 Morozevich won the Bosna tournament in Sarajevo with a margin of 11⁄2 points ahead of second place. Two months later he shared second place in the Tal Memorial after leading the tournament in early rounds. While officially being fourth in the world, Morozevich unofficially climbed to the top spot of the world rating list, but fell back to fourth by the end of the tournament.  In June 2011 he won the Russian Championship Higher League in Taganrog with 8/11, earning a spot in the Superfinal, in which he came second behind the eventual winner Peter Svidler. In October Morozevich won the Saratov Governor's Cup in Russia with a score 81⁄2/11, one and a half points ahead of the field, and a performance of 2917.  In February 2012 Morozevich came first in the Vladimir Petrov Memorial, a rapidplay tournament with the time control of 15 minutes plus 6 seconds per move. In 2014 he won the 15th Karpov International tournament in Poikovsky. Morozevich won the \"Magistral Ciutat de Barcelona\" tournament in 2015 on tiebreak over Axel Bachmann, having played more games with the black pieces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Team competitions.", "content": "Morozevich had great successes in team competitions: in the Chess Olympiad he won the gold medal with the Russian team three times (1998, 2000, 2002), one silver medal (2004) and a bronze medal (1994).  He also won the gold medal in the World Team Championships in 2005 in which he beat the member of the Chinese team in the last round in a must win situation. He also won two gold medals in the European Team Championships (2003 and 2007).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Playing style.", "content": "Morozevich is known to be an aggressive player with an unorthodox opening repertoire. He has on occasion played the Chigorin Defense (1.d4 d5 2.c4 Nc6) and the Albin Countergambit (1.d4 d5 2.c4 e5). He is also well known for preferring complicated positions. Due to his risky and spectacular style which produces relatively few draws, Morozevich is popular among chess fans.  In 2007, Morozevich published, along with co-author Vladimir Barsky, a book about the Chigorin Defense, called \"The Chigorin Defence According to Morozevich\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blindfold chess.", "content": "Morozevich is considered to be one of the best blindfold chess players in the world. He has confirmed that status in blindfold sections of Amber Melody tournaments:  2002 first 9/11, 2003 shared second 7/11, 2004 first 81⁄2/11, 2005 shared second 6/11, 2006 first 91⁄2/11, 2007 shared second 7/11, 2008 shared first 6/11 and in 2009 shared fourth with Anand 61⁄2/11.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Go.", "content": "Morozevich has a Go ranking of 1 dan as of 2018. In July 2016, he beat Tiger Hillarp Persson in a 4-game mixed chess and go match.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexander Sergeyevich Morozevich (; born July 18, 1977) is a Russian chess player. He was awarded the title of Grandmaster by FIDE in 1994. Morozevich is a two-time World Championship candidate (2005, 2007), two-time Russian champion and has represented Russia in seven Chess Olympiads, winning numerous team and board medals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974443}
{"src_title": "Viacheslav Fetisov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CSKA Moscow (1976–89).", "content": "Fetisov debuted for CSKA Moscow's junior team at sixteen years old. He joined the senior team in the Soviet Championship League in 1978–79 and recorded 29 points in 29 games as a rookie. In his fourth season, Fetisov reeled off 41 points in 46 games to be named the 1982 USSR Player of the Year. Four seasons later, he won his second Player of the Year recognition after a 34-point season in 1985–86.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "NHL career (1989–98).", "content": "Fetisov soon expressed a desire to play in the NHL and submitted a request to Soviet officials. However, Soviet players defecting to North America was strictly discouraged at the time and his request was met with great resistance. Fetisov has recalled the Soviet Minister of Defence, Marshal Dmitry Yazov, giving him an ultimatum at the time to either apologize or be sent to Siberia. Nevertheless, at the age of 31, helped by the Soviets' newfound glasnost policy, Fetisov led a group of eight Soviet players, including Helmut Balderis, Vladimir Krutov, Igor Larionov, Sergei Makarov, Sergei Mylnikov, Sergei Priakin and Sergei Starikov, into the NHL. Soviet hockey officials agreed to allow Soviet players to play in the NHL as long as they continued to compete internationally for the Soviet Union.  Fetisov had been drafted by the Montreal Canadiens in the 1978 NHL Entry Draft eleven years prior. However, unable to play in North America at the time, he was re-entered into the 1983 NHL Entry Draft, where he was selected by the New Jersey Devils. Fetisov debuted with the Devils in 1989–90 and recorded eight goals and 42 points, both NHL career-highs for Fetisov.  He played in New Jersey until 1994–95, when he was traded to the Detroit Red Wings in April 1995. Fetisov began producing immediately with the Red Wings, scoring 14 points in 14 games to finish the season after the trade. He helped the Red Wings to the 1995 Stanley Cup Finals, where they were defeated by his former team, the Devils. The following season, Fetisov matched his career high in points with 42-points in 1995–96. He was named to his first NHL All-Star Game in 1997, then won back-to-back Stanley Cups with Detroit in 1997 and 1998, before announcing his retirement. He took the Stanley Cup to Moscow after the 1997 championship, where the trophy appeared for the first time in Russia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "One-game return (2009).", "content": "Nearly eleven years later after his retirement, Fetisov came out of retirement at the age of 51 to play for CSKA Moscow in a one-game return on 11 December 2009. Head coach Sergei Nemchinov turned to Fetisov, president of the club, in need of a replacement for injured defenceman Denis Kulyash. CSKA Moscow lost the game 3-2 to SKA St. Petersburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "On the international stage, Fetisov is one of the most decorated players ever. As a junior, Fetisov competed for the Soviet Union at the European Junior Championships, where he won Top Defenceman honors during the 1975–76 season, en route to two consecutive gold medals at the tournament. He then helped the Soviets to three consecutive gold medals at the World Junior Championships from 1976 to 1978, taking back-to-back Top Defenceman honors in 1977 and 1978.  With the Soviet national team, Fetisov won two gold medals (1984, 1988) and one silver medal (1980) at the Olympics. At the World Championships, Fetisov won seven golds (1978, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1986, 1989, 1990), one silver (1987), and three bronzes (1977, 1985, 1991). Fetisov also won one Canada Cup in 1981. At the 2002 Olympics, he was head coach of the Russian national team, winning the bronze. Fetisov and teammate Igor Larionov, along with Scott Niedermayer, Corey Perry, Joe Sakic, Patrice Bergeron, Sidney Crosby, and Jonathan Toews are the only players to win the \"Grand Slam of Ice Hockey\", winning the Stanley Cup, World Ice Hockey Champions, Ice Hockey at the Winter Olympics, World Ice Hockey Junior Championship, and Canada/World Cup Championship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "Fetisov became an assistant coach with the New Jersey Devils following his playing career and won the Stanley Cup with the club in 2000 during his three-year tenure (1998–2001).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Executive career.", "content": "Following his tenure as assistant coach with the New Jersey Devils, Fetisov was named general manager of the Russian national team for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, where Russia won bronze. He was succeeded as general manager by Pavel Bure for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin.  On 29 March 2005 Fetisov joined the World Anti-Doping Agency's Athlete Committee as its inaugural chairman.  In 2009, he became president of HC CSKA Moscow. Following the injuries of CSKA's several key defenders, Fetisov, aged 51 at the time, signed a player's contract until the end of 2009/2010 season, resuming his playing career after eleven years.  Fetisov attended the World Hockey Summit in 2010, and discussed wanting to improve its relationship with the National Hockey League (NHL) with respect to transfer agreements and player contracts. His league sought greater financial compensation when its players departed for the NHL, instead of negotiating a flat rate for an unlimited number of transfers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "In his home country, Fetisov has been awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour in 1984, the Order of Lenin in 1988, the Order Of Service To The Fatherland 4th class in 2000 and 3rd class 2005, the Order Of Honour in 1998, the Order of Friendship in 2007, and two Orders of the Badge of Honor. On October 22, 1981, Russian astronomer Nikolai Chernykh discovered a main-belt asteroid from the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in Ukraine. The asteroid was named the 8806 Fetisov after Fetisov.  In North America, Fetisov was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame on 12 November 2001 along with Mike Gartner, Dale Hawerchuk and Jari Kurri. Internationally, he has been recognized by the IIHF in the International Centennial All-Star Team. He received the most votes out of all players in a poll conducted by a group of 56 experts from 16 countries (54 of which voted for Fetisov) to assemble the historic squad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He has a daughter, Anastasia, who appeared with him in the ESPN 30 for 30 film \"Of Miracles and Men.\"  In June 1985, Fetisov was involved in a car accident that killed his younger brother Anatoly, who was 18 years old at the time and a prospect within the HC CSKA Moscow system.  Twelve years later, following a private party on 13 June 1997 Fetisov, along with teammate Vladimir Konstantinov and team masseur Sergei Mnatsakanov, hired a limousine to drive them home after celebrating the Detroit Red Wings' Stanley Cup triumph. The driver, Richard Gnida, whose license was suspended at the time for drunk driving, lost control of the limousine and hit a tree on the median of Woodward Avenue, in Birmingham, Michigan, a suburb north of Detroit. Konstantinov spent several weeks in a coma before finally pulling through. He also suffered from serious head injuries and paralysis, while Fetisov escaped with relatively minor injuries and was able to play the following season. Mnatsakanov sustained heavy head injuries and also spent some time in a coma. The driver was charged with and convicted of driving with a suspended license.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Movies.", "content": "Fetisov was the main focus of the 2014 documentary movie \"Red Army\", among other influential Soviet players.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Viacheslav Alexandrovich \"Slava\" Fetisov (, Russian: Вячеслав Александрович Фетисов, \"Vjačeslav Aleksandrovič Fetisov\"; born 20 April 1958) is a retired Russian professional ice hockey defenceman. He played for HC CSKA Moscow for 13 seasons before joining the National Hockey League (NHL), where he played with the New Jersey Devils and won back-to-back Stanley Cups with the Detroit Red Wings. After retiring from his playing career, he became the assistant coach for the New Jersey Devils. Having a very successful four years, he helped get the team to two Stanley Cup finals and one Stanley Cup victory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974444}
{"src_title": "Basilica Aemilia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pre-existing building.", "content": "The new basilica was built on a site of the 5th-century BC \"tabernae lanienae\" (\"butcher shops\") and later (4th century BC) the \"tabernae argentariae\". The latter housed the city's bankers, and after a fire was renamed \"tabernae novae\" (\"new shops\"). The square had two facing rows of shops. A first basilica had been built behind the \"tabernae argentariae\" between 210 BC and 195-191 BC, the date in which it is mentioned by Plautus. Archaeological studies have shown that this building comprised three naves paved with tuff from Monteverde, the back façade having a portico which opened to the \"Forum Piscatorium\" and the \"Macellum\" (the area later occupied by the Forum of Nerva).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Basilica Fulvia-Aemilia.", "content": "It was erected in 179 BC by censor Marcus Fulvius Nobilior with the name of Basilica Fulvia. After the latter's death, his colleague Marcus Aemilius Lepidus completed it, and it was frequently restored and redecorated by the members of the Aemilian gens, giving the basilica its current name.  The 78 BC consul, also called Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, embellished it with the \"clipei\" (\"shields\"). This intervention is recalled in a coin from 61 BC by his son, the triumvir Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.  According to other scholars, however, the \"Basilica Aemilia\" formed a different edifice from the \"Basilica Fulvia\".  In the year 50BCE, Julius Caesar \"...gave the consul Paulus fifteen hundred talents with which he added to the beauty of the forum by building the famous Basilica which was erected in the place of the one called \"the Fulvia\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The \"Basilica Paulli\".", "content": "A new edifice in substitution of the \"Basilica Fulvia\" was begun in 55 BC by Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullus, and inaugurated by his son in 34 BC. This edifice had similar lines to the preceding one; however with a reduced length and a second nave in lieu of the back portico.  The columns in the central nave, in African marble, had Corinthian capitals and friezes with deeds from the history of Republican Rome. The columns in the second row were in cipolline marble and, finally, the external ones had Ionic capitals.  After a fire, Augustus in 14 BC heavily restored the edifice. In this occasion the \"tabernae\" which preceded it towards the Forum square and the portico were totally rebuilt. The latter was dedicated to the emperor's two grandsons (\"Porticus Gai et Luci\"): it had two orders of arcades with pilasters and Doric semi-columns. The two upper floors of the basilica were totally rebuilt. Over the upper order an attic was built, decorated with vegetable elements and statues of barbarians.  The basilica was restored again in 22 AD. On its two-hundredth anniversary, the Basilica Aemilia was considered by Pliny to be one of the most beautiful buildings in Rome. It was a place for business and, in the porticus of Gaius and Lucius (the grandsons of Augustus) fronting the Roman Forum, there were the Tabernae Novae (\"New Shops\"). The main hall or court (100 m long and 29.9 m deep) was located behind the shops.  The wooden roof, the Tabernae as well as the facade of the basilica were completely destroyed by fire when Rome was sacked by Alaric the Visigoth in 410 AD. On the colored marble floor one still can see the green stains of bronze coins from the early fifth century that melted in the fire. The basilica was rebuilt after the fire by adding a new floor while the central part of the front porch was replaced by a portico in c.420 with columns of pink granite on bases, much more dense than the pillars of the porch above (three of these columns were rebuilt after the excavations and are still on the east side toward the temple of Antoninus and Faustina). An earthquake in 847 caused the final collapse of the remaining structure. The remains were used as building material. Conspicuous remains of the basilica could still be seen in the Renaissance, they were however used for the Palazzo Giraud Torlonia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Basilica Aemilia () was a civil basilica in the Roman Forum, in Rome, Italy. Today only the plan and some rebuilt elements can be seen. The Basilica was 100 meters (328 ft) long and about 30 meters (98 ft) wide. Along the sides were two orders of 16 arches, and it was accessed through one of three entrances.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974445}
{"src_title": "Hart's War", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "During the Battle of the Bulge in World War II, U.S. Army intelligence officer First Lieutenant Thomas Hart (Farrell) is captured by German forces. While interrogating Hart, the Germans coerce him to divulge intelligence by taking away his boots, causing his feet to become frostbitten and badly injured, and leaving him, naked, in a very cold cell. He is then transferred by train to Stalag VI-A prisoner of war camp at Hemer, Germany. While en route, a P-51 Mustang attacks (the letters POW were painted on the top of the train, but got covered by thick snow). To save themselves, the POWs leave the train and spell P-O-W with their bodies and prevent further strafing.  After arriving at the new POW camp, Lt. Hart is interviewed by the ranking American officer, Colonel William McNamara (Willis). When McNamara asks if he cooperated with the Germans after he was captured, Hart denies it. McNamara knows this to be a lie when Hart says he only endured three days of interrogation. McNamara does not reveal this to Hart, but sends him to bunk in a barracks for enlisted men, rather than allow him to bunk with the other officers.  Two Black pilots are brought to the camp and assigned to Hart's barracks. They are the only African Americans in the camp, and their situation is compounded by their status as officers. Staff Sgt. Vic W. Bedford (Hauser), a racist, is their primary antagonist. One of the pilots, Lt. Lamar Archer, is executed when accused of keeping a weapon that Bedford had planted in his bunk. When Bedford himself subsequently turns up dead, the surviving pilot, Lt. Lincoln A. Scott (Howard) is accused of killing Bedford in retaliation. A law student before the war, Hart is appointed by McNamara to defend the accused pilot at his court-martial, a trial to which the camp commandant, Oberst Werner Visser (Iureş) agrees.  Much later, McNamara reveals to Hart that the \"defense,\" like the trial itself, is a sham, an elaborate distraction to hide a planned attack on a nearby ammunition plant (which the U.S. Army mistakenly believes to be a shoe factory) by McNamara and his men, in aid of the war effort. It is revealed that Bedford planted the weapon in Archer's bunk, knowing the guards would kill Archer for it. In return, Bedford informed the guards of the location of a secret radio. It is also revealed Bedford planned to escape with money and clothes, likely in return for telling the Nazis about McNamara's plan. Upon realizing Bedford's plot, McNamara killed Bedford to prevent it. Hart is shocked that McNamara as a senior officer would sacrifice a fellow American (Scott) to protect the planned attack on the ammunition plant. McNamara reminds Hart that in war, sometimes one man must be sacrificed to save the lives of many. Hart acknowledges this, but retorts that it is McNamara's duty to ensure that \"he\" (McNamara), not Lincoln Scott, is the sacrifice. Disgusted, McNamara says that Hart does not know anything about duty, in reference to how Hart gave in to a \"Level 1\" interrogator after three days, whereas McNamara was tortured for a month.  McNamara's ploy nearly succeeds. The escaped soldiers destroy the nearby munitions plant. However, at the end of the court-martial, Hart falsely confesses to Bedford's murder in order to save Lt. Scott. McNamara overhears Hart's confession; McNamara has a change of heart and voluntarily returns to the camp to accept responsibility. Oberst Visser holds McNamara accountable and personally executes him on the spot, but spares the remaining prisoners. Three months later, the German army surrenders to the Allies. The prison camp is liberated and all of the surviving prisoners, including Hart, are sent home. Hart's final comments are that he learned about honor, duty, and sacrifice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Hart's War\" received mixed reviews. The film holds a 59% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 123 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9/10. The website's critical consensus reads: \"Well-made and solidly acted, \"Hart's War\" is modestly compelling. However, the movie suffers from having too many subplots\". Metacritic rated it 49/100 based on 32 reviews, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B\" on an A+ to F scale.  \"Hart's War\" was a box office bomb. Produced on a budget of $70 million, the film grossed $33.1 million worldwide.  Jonathan Brandis, who hanged himself in November 2003, had previously said that he was depressed about his waning career, which had continued to decline in the final years of his life. He was also reportedly disappointed when his appearance in \"Hart's War\", a role he had hoped would revive his career, was significantly reduced in the film's final cut.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hart's War is a 2002 American thriller drama film about a World War II prisoner of war (POW) camp based on the novel by John Katzenbach. It stars Bruce Willis as Col. William McNamara and Colin Farrell as Lt. Thomas Hart. The film co-stars Terrence Howard, Cole Hauser and Marcel Iureş. The film, directed by Gregory Hoblit, was shot at Barrandov Studios in Prague, and released on February 15, 2002. The film earned mixed reviews and did poorly at the box office.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974446}
{"src_title": "Carlo Emilio Gadda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Gadda was a practising engineer from Milan, and he both loved and hated his job. Critics have compared him to other writers with a scientific background, such as Primo Levi, Robert Musil and Thomas Pynchon—a similar spirit of exactitude pervades some of Gadda's books. Among Gadda's styles and genres are baroque, expressionism and grotesque.  Carlo Emilio Gadda was born in Milan in 1893, and he was always intensely Milanese, although late in his life Florence and Rome also became an influence. Gadda's nickname is \"Il gran Lombardo\", The Great Lombard: a reference to the famous lines 70-3 of Paradiso XVII, which predict the protection Dante would receive from Bartolomeo II della Scala of Verona during his exile from Florence: \"Lo primo tuo refugio e 'l primo ostello / sarà la cortesia del gran Lombardo/ che 'n su la scala porta il santo uccello\" (\"Your first refuge and inn shall be the courtesy of the great Lombard, who bears on the ladder the sacred bird\").  Gadda's father died in 1909, leaving the family in reduced economic conditions; Gadda's mother, however, never tried to adopt a more modest style of life. The paternal business ineptitude and the maternal obsession for keeping \"face\" and appearances turn up strongly in \"La cognizione del dolore\".  He studied in Milan, and while studying at the Politecnico di Milano (a university specialized in engineering and architecture), he volunteered for World War I. During the war he was a lieutenant of the Alpini corps, and led a machine-gun team. He was taken prisoner with his squad during the battle of Caporetto in October 1917; his brother was killed in a plane—and this death features prominently in \"La cognizione del dolore\". Gadda, who was a fervent nationalist at the time, was deeply humiliated by the months he had to spend in a German POW camp.  After the war, in 1920, Gadda finally graduated. He practiced as an engineer until 1935, spending three of those years in Argentina. Among Gadda's less well-known achievements is the construction, as engineer, of the Vatican Power Station for Pius XI. The country at that time was experiencing a booming economy, and Gadda used the experience for the fictional South American-cum-Brianza setting of \"La Cognizione del Dolore\". After that, in the 1940s, he dedicated himself to literature. These were the years of fascism, which found him a grumbling and embittered pessimist. With age, his bitterness and misanthropy somewhat intensified.  In \"Eros e Priapo\" (1945) Gadda analyzes the collective phenomena that favoured the rise of Italian Fascism, the Italian fascination with Benito Mussolini. It explains Fascism as an essentially bourgeois movement. \"Eros e Priapo\" was refused in 1945 by a magazine for its allegedly obscene content, and would only be published for the first time in 1967, by Garzanti. The 1967 edition, however, was expurgated of some of what Gadda considered the most heavy satiric strokes. The unexpurgated original 1945 edition will be published in 2013.  In 1946, the magazine \"Letteratura\" published, in five episodes, the crime novel \"Quer pasticciaccio brutto de via Merulana\", which was translated into English as \"That Awful Mess on Via Merulana\". It experiments heavily with language, borrowing a great deal from several Italian dialects. It is also notable for not telling whodunnit at the end.  There is some debate amongst scholars as regards Gadda's sexual orientation. In his book on the homosexual painter Filippo De Pisis, writer Giovanni Comisso (also gay) described an evening in which he and De Pisis went for a beer with Gadda and philologist Gianfranco Contini, during the course of which Gadda asked De Pisis to summarize the various types of \"irregular\" love. According to Italo Calvino (Introduction to \"That Awful Mess on the Via Merulana\", 1984) Gadda was \"a bachelor oppressed by a paralyzing shyness in any female presence.\" Certainly, his work demonstrates a strongly subversive attitude towards bourgeois values, expressed above all by a discordant use of language interspersed with dialect, academic and technical jargon and dirty talk. This is particularly interesting as the criticism of the bourgeois life comes, as it were, from the inside, with the former engineer cutting a respectable figure in genteel poverty.  Gadda kept writing until his death, in 1973. The most important critic of Gadda was Gianfranco Contini.  In 2017, the Sweden Royal Academy published after 50 years the secret list of nominations for the 1966 Nobel Prize for Literature. Gadda was candidated for the first time by the Italo-American linguist and polyglot Mario Andrew Pei.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carlo Emilio Gadda (; November 14, 1893 – May 21, 1973) was an Italian writer and poet. He belongs to the tradition of the language innovators, writers that played with the somewhat stiff standard pre-war Italian language, and added elements of dialects, technical jargon and wordplay.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974447}
{"src_title": "Eliel Saarinen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work in Finland.", "content": "Saarinen was educated in Helsinki at the Helsinki University of Technology. From 1896 to 1905 he worked as a partner with Herman Gesellius and Armas Lindgren at the firm Gesellius, Lindgren, and Saarinen. His first major work with the firm, the Finnish pavilion at the Paris 1900 World Fair, exhibited an extraordinary convergence of stylistic influences: Finnish wooden architecture, the British Gothic Revival, and the Jugendstil. Saarinen's early manner was later christened the Finnish National Romanticism and culminated in the Helsinki Central railway station (designed 1904, constructed 1910–14).  From 1910 to 1915 he worked on the extensive city-planning project of Munksnäs-Haga and later published a book on the subject. In January 1911 he became a consultant in city planning for Tallinn, Governorate of Estonia and was invited to Budapest to advise in city development. In 1912, a brochure written by Saarinen about the planning problems of Budapest was published. He was runner up behind Walter Burley Griffin in an international competition to design the new Australian capital city of Canberra in 1912, but the following year he received the first place award in an international competition for his plan of Reval. From 1917 to 1918 Saarinen worked on the city-plan for greater Helsinki. He also designed a series of postage stamps issued 1917 and the Finnish markka banknotes introduced in 1922.  After the divorce from his first wife, Mathilde (who then married Herman Gesellius), on March 6, 1904 Saarinen married his second wife, Louise (Loja) Gesellius, a sculptor in Helsinki, and the younger sister of Herman Gesellius. They had a daughter Eva-Lisa (Pipsan) on March 31, 1905 and a son Eero on August 20, 1910.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Move to the United States.", "content": "Eliel Saarinen moved to the United States in 1923 after his competition entry for the Tribune Tower in Chicago, Illinois won second place and so was not built; the most faithful realization of it is the 1929 Gulf Building in Houston. Saarinen first settled in Evanston, Illinois, where he worked on his scheme for the development of the Chicago lake front. In 1924 he became a visiting professor at the University of Michigan.  In 1925 George Gough Booth asked him to design the campus of Cranbrook Educational Community, intended to be an American equivalent to the Bauhaus. Saarinen taught there and became president of the Cranbrook Academy of Art in 1932. Among his student-collaborators were Ray Eames (then Ray Kaiser) and Charles Eames; Saarinen influenced their subsequent furniture design.  In c. 1929–34, Eliel Saarinen was produced in product design for the Wilcox Silver Plate Co. / International Silver Company in Meriden, CT. His iconic tea urn (c. 1934) was first exhibited in 1934–35 at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Over the years, the tea urn has been widely exhibited, including in \"St. Louis Modern\" (2015–16) at the St Louis Art Museum, \"Cranbrook Goes to the Movies: Films and Their Objects, 1925–1975\" at the Cranbrook Art Museum (2014–15)., and in 2005–07, in the touring exhibition \"Modernism in American Silver: 20th-Century Design\", organized by the Dallas Museum of Art, which also travelled to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. In 1951–52, the tea urn was featured in the \"Eliel Saarinen Memorial Exhibition\" which travelled to multiple venues across the United States. In addition to Cranbrook, the Dallas Museum and the St Louis Museum, The British Museum in London and the Metropolitan Museum of Art also hold tea urn-related Eliel Saarinen designs. Eliel Saarinen became a professor in the University of Michigan's Architecture Department.  His son, Eero (1910–1961), became one of the most important American architects of the mid-20th century, as one of the leaders of the International style. Saarinen's student Edmund N. Bacon achieved national prominence as Executive Director of the Philadelphia City Planning Commission from 1949 to 1970.  Eliel received the AIA Gold Medal in 1947.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gottlieb Eliel Saarinen (, ; August 20, 1873 – July 1, 1950) was a Finnish-American architect known for his work with art nouveau buildings in the early years of the 20th century. He was also the father of famed architect Eero Saarinen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974448}
{"src_title": "Karl Abraham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Abraham was born in Bremen, Germany. His parents were Nathan Abraham, a Jewish religion teacher (1842 – 1915) and his wife (and cousin) Ida (1847 – 1929). His studies in medicine enabled him to take a position at the Burghölzli Swiss Mental Hospital, where Eugen Bleuler practiced. The setting of this hospital initially introduced him to the psychoanalysis of Carl Gustav Jung.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collaborations.", "content": "In 1907, he had his first contact with Sigmund Freud, with whom he developed a lifetime relationship. Returning to Germany, he founded the Berliner Society of Psychoanalysis in 1910. He was the president of the International Psychoanalytical Association from 1914 to 1918 and again in 1925.  Karl Abraham collaborated with Freud on the understanding of manic-depressive illness, leading to Freud's paper on 'Mourning and Melancholia' in 1917. He was the analyst of Melanie Klein during 1924–1925, and of a number of other British psychoanalysts, including Edward Glover, James Glover, and Alix Strachey. He was a mentor for an influential group of German analysts, including Karen Horney, Helene Deutsch, and Franz Alexander.  Karl Abraham studied the role of infant sexuality in character development and mental illness and, like Freud, suggested that if psychosexual development is fixated at some point, mental disorders will likely emerge. He described the personality traits and psychopathology that result from the oral and anal stages of development (1921). Abraham observed his only daughter Hilda Abraham reporting on her reaction to enemas and infantile masturbation by her brother. He asked that secrets be shared with him but he was careful to respect her privacy and some reports were not published until after Hilda.s death. Hilda was later to become a psychoanalyst.  In the oral stage of development, the first relationships children have with objects (caretakers) determine their subsequent relationship to reality. Oral satisfaction can result in self-assurance and optimism, whereas oral fixation can lead to pessimism and depression. Moreover, a person with an oral fixation will present a disinclination to take care of him/herself and will require others to look after him/her. This may be expressed through extreme passivity (corresponding to the oral benign suckling substage) or through a highly active oral-sadistic behaviour (corresponding to the later sadistic biting substage).  In the anal stage, when the training in cleanliness starts too early, conflicts may result between a conscious attitude of obedience and an unconscious desire for resistance. This can lead to traits such as frugality, orderliness and obstinacy, as well as to obsessional neurosis as a result of anal fixation (Abraham, 1921). In addition, Abraham based his understanding of manic-depressive illness on the study of the painter Segantini: an actual event of loss is not itself sufficient to bring the psychological disturbance involved in melancholic depression. This disturbance is linked with disappointing incidents of early childhood; in the case of men always with the mother (Abraham, 1911). This concept of the prooedipal “bad” mother was a new development in contrast to Freud’s oedipal mother and paved the way for the theories of Melanie Klein (May-Tolzmann, 1997).  Another important contribution is his work “A short study of the Development of the Libido”, where he elaborated on Freud’s “Mourning and Melancholia” (1917) and demonstrated the vicissitudes of normal and pathological object relations and reactions to object loss.  Moreover, Abraham investigated child sexual trauma and, like Freud, proposed that sexual abuse was common among psychotic and neurotic patients. Furthermore, he argued (1907) that dementia praecox is associated with child sexual trauma, based on the relationship between hysteria and child sexual trauma demonstrated by Freud.  Abraham (1920) also showed interest in cultural issues. He analyzed various myths suggesting their relation to dreams (1909) and wrote an interpretation of the spiritual activities of the Egyptian monotheistic Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (1912).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Abraham died prematurely on December 25, 1925, from complications of a lung infection and may have suffered from lung cancer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Abraham (; 3 May 1877 – 25 December 1925) was an influential German psychoanalyst, and a collaborator of Sigmund Freud, who called him his 'best pupil'.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974449}
{"src_title": "St. Mary's Basilica, Kraków", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "According to chronicler Jan Długosz, Saint Mary's Basilica in the Main Square in Kraków was founded in by the Bishop of Kraków, Iwo Odrowąż. The building was destroyed during the Mongol invasion of Poland. Between 1290–1300 the new early Gothic church was built on the remaining foundations. It was consecrated twenty years later, in 1320.  The church was completely rebuilt during the reign of Casimir III the Great between 1355 and 1365 with substantial contributions from wealthy restaurateur Mikołaj Wierzynek. The presbytery was elongated and tall windows added. The main body of the church was completed in 1395–97 with the new vault constructed by master Nicholas Wernher from Prague. However, the vault over the presbytery collapsed in 1442 due to a possible earthquake, which has never happened before nor since in Kraków.  In the first half of the 15th century, the side chapels were added. Most of them were the work of master Franciszek Wiechoń. At the same time the northern tower was raised and designed to serve as the watch tower for the entire city. In 1478 carpenter Maciej Heringh (or Heringk) funded a helmet for the tower. A gilded crown was placed on it in 1666, which is still present today. At the end of the 15th century, Saint Mary's church was enriched with a sculptural masterpiece, an Altarpiece of Veit Stoss (Ołtarz Mariacki Wita Stwosza) of late Gothic design.  In 1536/37, King Sigismund I. declared that the sermons in the church should be changed from German to Polish. The large German community of Kraków were relocating their place of worship to the smaller Saint Barbara's church.  In the 18th century, by the decision of vicar Jacek Augustyn Łopacki, the interior was rebuilt in the late Baroque style. The author of this work was Francesco Placidi. All 26 altars, equipment, furniture, benches and paintings were replaced and the walls were decorated with polychrome, the work of Andrzej Radwański.  At the beginning of the 19th century, the city decided that a cemetery near the Basilica was to be shut down and replaced by a public square. Today, it is known as \"Plac Mariacki\" (Marian Square). In the years 1887–1891, under the direction of Tadeusz Stryjeński, the neo-Gothic design was introduced into the Basilica. The temple gained a new design and murals painted and funded by Jan Matejko, who worked with Stanislaw Wyspianski and Józef Mehoffer - the authors of stained glass in the presbytery.  Since the beginning of 1990s, the Basillica underwent an extensive renovation. In 2003, in the final stage of the works, the roof of the church was replaced.  On 18 April 2010, in Saint Mary's Basilica, a funeral ceremony for Polish President Lech Kaczyński and his wife Maria was held. The coffins were later transported and buried in one of the crypts of Wawel Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Mary’s Basilica () is a Brick Gothic church adjacent to the Main Market Square in Kraków, Poland. Built in the 14th century, its foundations date back to the early 13th century and serve as one of the best examples of Polish Gothic architecture. Standing 80 m (262 ft) tall, it is particularly famous for its wooden altarpiece carved by Veit Stoss \"(Wit Stwosz)\". In 1978 it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site alongside the Historic Centre of Kraków.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974450}
{"src_title": "Princess Dorothea of Courland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Dorothea was born in Friedrichsfelde Palace near Berlin, the fourth and last daughter of Duchess Dorothea of Courland, who was by then separated from her husband, Duke Peter of Courland. Dorothea's paternity is disputed but generally assigned to Count Aleksander Batowski, a Polish envoy to the Duchy of Courland. Her biological father was a close associate of her uncle Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord during the Napoleonic period. Her three elder half sisters, all legitimate daughters of the Duke of Courland, were: Princess Wilhelmine, Duchess of Sagan; Princess Pauline, Duchess of Sagan; and Princess Johanna Katharina, Duchess of Acerenza. The Duke of Courland acknowledged her officially, which entitled her to be styled Princess of Courland. She was educated in Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Looking for a wealthy heiress for his nephew Edmond, Talleyrand asked Tsar Alexander I of Russia to intervene with Dorothea's mother in favor of Edmond's marrying her. The marriage occurred on 21 and 22 April 1809 at Frankfurt amidst the Napoleonic Wars, presided over by Talleyrand's friend, Prince-Bishop Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg, and Dorothea thus became comtesse Edmond de Périgord and great-niece of then Count de Talleyrand-Périgord, prince of Bénévent. Educated in Germany, she was plunged into French society, where she represented the enemy. Her three sisters, also very anti-French, did not help her marriage and despite the birth of three children, the marriage became unhappy, with Edmond more concerned with gaming, war and other women than with his wife.  The fall of the First French Empire and the Congress of Vienna, at which Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand was designated to represent France, favoured a close friendship between him and Dorothea. During his time in Vienna she kept her household in the Palais Kaunitz and it was at this time that Dorothea began to play a major part in Charles-Maurice's life. She accompanied him to the Congress of Vienna, and it is even alleged that she became his mistress sometime after 1815. On 31 August 1817, Talleyrand was made a duke and peer of France by Louis XVIII of France, and on 2 December he was also granted the duchy of Dino (a 1.5 km by 1.2 km Calabrian island) by the king of Sicily in recognition of his services at Vienna. The duchy of Dino was immediately handed down to his nephew and his wife and so Dorothea also became duchess of Dino. On 24 March 1818 she and her husband separated, though this was only pronounced formally on 6 November 1824.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Her life with Talleyrand.", "content": "On 3 July 1820 Talleyrand left Paris for Valençay accompanied by Dorothea, then pregnant with her third child, Pauline, whose paternity is sometimes attributed to Talleyrand. Despite having been his companion (he was 39 years her senior) she took several lovers, gaining a reputation as a formidable seductress and bearing three illegitimate daughters (one of whom, born in 1816, was perhaps Božena Němcová, the great Czech writer, fathered by Count Karel Jan Clam Martinic, her lover at the Congress of Vienna; the two others, Julie Zulmé and Antonine Piscatory, were born in 1826 and 1827).  She became duchess of Talleyrand on 28 April 1838. On 6 (or 8) January 1845, the king of Prussia invested Dorothea as duchess of Sagan (with the special privilege of the dukedom being able to descend via the female as well as the male line), with her son Louis-Napoléon, godson of Napoleon and Louis-Napoléon's grandson Boson de Talleyrand-Périgord immediately taking the title of prince of Sagan.  When Talleyrand became French ambassador in London in 1830, she accompanied him and felt more comfortable there than in Paris, which she detested and where the whole Faubourg Saint-Germain made her feel she was a foreigner. This was a theme throughout her life: in Prussia she was seen as too French, in Paris as too German.  After Talleyrand's death in 1838, she granted her Château de Rochecotte to her daughter Pauline de Castellane in 1847, having chosen in 1843 to live in state at her castle at Sagan in Silesia (made up of 130 buildings on an estate of 1,200 hectares, bought by her father and then by her sister Pauline de Hohenzollern). She reigned over this immense and rich duchy alone, until she had a carriage accident in June 1861 and died on 19 September 1862 at Sagan.  Despite the wish she had expressed to her uncle Talleyrand in a letter of April 1838 and in her will, that her heart should be placed in his grave at Valençay, she was buried in the Kreuzkirche at Sagan, with her sister Wilhelmine and son Napoléon Louis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The young writer Françoise Quoirez (1935–2004), in reading a passage of Marcel Proust evoking a duke of Sagan around 1950, was seduced by its sonority and chose \"Sagan\" as her \"nom de plume\".  “(..) With large dark blue eyes, very beautiful, so burning that they appeared black to some people. There was in her something bold, wild, dauntless and burning one which held the gaze\". (Casimir Ensconce, \"Talleyrand amoureux\", edition France-Empire, 1975).  The opinions she inspired are various; those of men, admiring her beauty and intelligence, praise her, but those of women, jealous of her position and wealth, are more venomous. It is strange that she had no close female friends but instead was a solitary figure, despite keeping up a wide correspondence with many personalities of her era. She was a true European, in an era where that word was unknown. Born between two cultures, speaking three languages, in contact with all the political personalities of Europe, she could have been, in another era, thanks to her intelligence, a scholar or politician. But in that era, only men had a career, and so she was unable to realize her numerous talents. As Guizot said of her: \"une personne rare et grande\". Greville noted in his diary on 20 September 1831 that Talleyrand described her as “the cleverest man or woman he ever knew”.  The duchess of Dino also has a descendant in Touraine, a \"calm and human region, of a pure, very poetic beauty\", in the person of Béatrice of Andia, one of her great-great-great granddaughters, president of the association of the \"Friends of Château d'Azay-le-Rideau\", owner of Château de La Chatonnière.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Her memoirs.", "content": "Chronologically:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dorothea von Biron, Princess of Courland, Duchess of Dino, Talleyrand, and Sagan, known as Dorothée de Courlande or Dorothée de Dino (21 August 1793 – 19 September 1862), was a Baltic German noblewoman. Her mother was Dorothea von Medem, Duchess of Courland, and although her mother's husband, Duke Peter von Biron, acknowledged her as his own, her true father may have been the Polish statesman Aleksander Batowski. For a long time, she accompanied the French statesman Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord; she was the separated wife of his nephew, Edmond de Talleyrand-Périgord.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974451}
{"src_title": "Orly Airport", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "Orly Airport covers of land. The airport area, including terminals and runways, spans over two \"départements\" and seven \"communes\":  Management of the airport, however, is solely under the authority of \"Aéroports de Paris\", which also manages Charles de Gaulle Airport, Le Bourget Airport, and several smaller airports in the suburbs of Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First years.", "content": "Originally known as \"Villeneuve-Orly Airport\", the facility was opened in the southern suburbs of Paris in 1932 as a secondary airport to Le Bourget. Before this two huge airship hangars had been built there by the engineer Eugène Freyssinet from 1923 on.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "As a result of the Battle of France in 1940, Orly Airport was used by the occupying German Luftwaffe as a combat airfield, stationing various fighter and bomber units at the airport throughout the occupation. Consequently, Orly was repeatedly attacked by the Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), destroying much of its infrastructure, and leaving its runways with numerous bomb craters to limit its usefulness to the Germans.  After the Battle of Normandy and the retreat of German forces from the Paris area in August 1944, Orly was partially repaired by USAAF combat engineers and was used by Ninth Air Force as tactical airfield A-47. The 50th Fighter Group flew P-47 Thunderbolt fighter-bomber aircraft from the airport until September, then liaison squadrons used the airfield until October 1945.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "The USAAF diagram from March 1947 shows the 27/207 (degrees magnetic) runway (later 03R) with 81/261 runway (later 08L) crossing it at its north end. The November 1953 Aeradio diagram shows four concrete runways, all wide: 03L, 03R, 08L and 08R.  The American United States Army Air Forces 1408th Army Air Force Base Unit was the primary operator at Orly Field until March 1947 when control was returned to the French Government. (The United States Air Force leased a small portion of the Airport to support Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) at Rocquencourt). The Americans left in 1967 as a result of France's withdrawal from NATO's integrated military command, and all non-French NATO forces were asked to leave France.  In May 1958, Pan Am Douglas DC-7Cs flew to Los Angeles in 21 hr 56 min; TWA, Air France and Pan Am flew nonstop to New York in 14 hrs 10–15 min. Air France flew to Tokyo in 31 hr 5 min via Anchorage or 44 hr 45 min on a seven-stop Lockheed Constellation (1049G model) via India. Air France's ten flights a day to London were almost all Vickers Viscounts; the only other London flight was Alitalia's daily Douglas DC-6B (BEA was at Le Bourget).  A development project voted in 2012 planned to merge the airport's south and west terminals with the construction of an building to create one great terminal. On 14 April 2016, the Groupe ADP rolled out the \"Connect 2020\" corporate strategy and the commercial brand Paris Aéroport was applied to all Parisian airports, including the Orly airport.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Terminals.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terminals 1 and 2.", "content": "Known as the West Terminal until March 2019, these two Terminals consist of two floors and a gate area of four \"fingers\" rather than a brick-style layout. The ground level 0 features the arrivals facilities including 8 baggage reclaim belts as well as several service facilities and shops. The departures area is located on level 1 with more stores and restaurants located here. This central departures area is connected to three gate areas split between Orly 1 (A and B gates) and Orly 2 (C gates). 23 stands at this terminal are equipped with jet-bridges, with several of them also able to handle wide-body aircraft.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Terminal 3.", "content": "Inaugurated in April 2019, Terminal 3 is a junction building between Terminals 1, 2 and 4. The terminal allows customers to travel between all areas of the airport under one roof. It includes around 5,000 sqm of Duty Free shopping along with several restaurants and lounges. It houses gates D and E, with direct access to Orly 4 departure gates.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Terminal 4.", "content": "Formerly known as the South Terminal this innovative 1961 steel-and-glass terminal building consists of six floors. While the smaller basement level −1 as well as the upper levels 2, 3 and 4 contain only some service facilities, restaurants and office space, level 0 features the arrivals facilities as well as several shops and service counters. The airside area and departure gates are located on the upper level 1. The waiting area, which features several shops as well, houses gates E and F. 15 of the terminal's departure gates are equipped with jet-bridges, some of them are able to handle wide-body aircraft.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other facilities.", "content": "AOM French Airlines had its head office in Orly Airport Building 363 in Paray-Vieille-Poste. After AOM and Air Liberté merged in 2001, the new airline, Air Lib, occupied building 363.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ground transportation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Car.", "content": "Orly Airport is connected to the A106 autoroute (spur route of the A6 autoroute).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Paris Orly Airport (), commonly referred to as Orly, is an international airport located partially in Orly and partially in Villeneuve-le-Roi, south of Paris, France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974452}
{"src_title": "Mitzpe Ramon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Mitzpe Ramon was founded in 1951 as a camp for the workers building Highway 40. The town's first permanent residents, several young families from Kibbutz Re'im and other parts of Israel began setting there in 1956. After five years, the town was home to 370 residents including 160 children, most of them veteran Israelis. There were also 180 housing units to absorb new immigrants They were joined by immigrants from North Africa, Romania, and India in the 1960s, and it became the southernmost of the Negev's development towns.  Conditions in the early years were harsh, with limited food supplies and practically no modern-day amenities. Ice blocks and provisions were delivered once a week by a supply truck. There was a single school with one classroom for all ages. The homes of the first settlers were prefabricated asbestos barracks. Later, rows of small attached stone houses were built and after that, apartment buildings, beginning in the early 1960s.  In 1972, Mitzpe Ramon had a population of about 1,400 people living in 300 households. The town further grew after Ramon Airbase was completed in 1982. In 1988, the town had a population of about 3,000, and it experienced more significant population growth when it absorbed Soviet immigrants during the 1990s Post-Soviet aliyah.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology and climate.", "content": "Ramon Crater, known as a \"makhtesh\" Ramon, is 38 km long, 6 km wide and 450 meters deep.  Mitzpe Ramon's climate borders between hot desert climate and cold desert climate (Köppen climate classification: BWh/BWk), characterized by hot, dry summers and cold winters. There are moderate to strong winds all year long, caused by its location above the crater, which make Mitzpe Ramon feel much colder than it really is. Precipitation is scarce, concentrated around the winter months, with an annual precipitation amount of roughly 70 millimeters (2.75 inches). Snowfall occurs on average once in a couple of years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The development of Mitzpe Ramon was adversely affected by the opening of Route 90 in the late 1960s. After the inauguration of this highway, traffic to and from Eilat bypassed Mitzpe Ramon almost entirely. However, growing interest in ecotourism, Jeep trekking (access to Nabatean ruins), mountain biking and hiking, and the upgrading of Route 40, which is considered a more scenic route to Eilat, have improved the economy.  Jerusalem Marble, one of a few major suppliers and overseas exporters of Jerusalem stone (established in 1923), inaugurated a state-of-the-art factory in Mitzpe Ramon in January 2000. Jerusalem Stone is exported globally.  Mitzpe Ramon has six hotels and dozens of bed and breakfast establishments. In 2011, the Isrotel hotel chain opened a luxury hotel, the Beresheet Hotel, in Mitzpe Ramon.  The Tourism Ministry allocated NIS 9.5 million for infrastructure development in Mitzpe Ramon, and the Ministry for the Development of the Negev and Galilee financed the construction of a landing strip for light aircraft. In December 2013, plans were proposed for a Las Vegas-style Casino in the town.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and culture.", "content": "The Mitzpe Ramon Jazz Club hosts musical ensembles on the weekend. On weekdays, it operates as a music school. 'Me'ever', a unique hostel and event space, located in the artist quarter of Mitzpe Ramon, is designed to connect creative people and interesting ideas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local government.", "content": "The previous mayor, Flora Shoshan, sister of former Israeli defense minister Amir Peretz and wife of the former mayor, Sami Shoshan, was voted out on October 23, 2013 and replaced by Roni Marom in a landslide win", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mitzpe Ramon (, \"lit.\" Ramon Lookout; ) is a local council in the Negev desert of southern Israel. It is situated on the northern ridge at an elevation of 860 meters (2,800 feet) overlooking the world's largest erosion cirque, known as the Makhtesh Ramon. In it had a population of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974453}
{"src_title": "Stig Anderson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and management before ABBA.", "content": "Stig Anderson was born on 25 January 1931 in Hova, Sweden, the son of a single mother named Ester. Anderson began his career as a chemistry and mathematics teacher at a primary school, by taking night classes after leaving school at the age of 15. Having written his first song at age 16, Anderson soon entered the Swedish popular music scene, becoming a music producer, manager and occasional performer. Anderson had begun writing songs as early as 1951, and in 1959 he got his breakthrough with the song \"\"Är du kär i mig ännu, Klas-Göran?\"\" (\"Are You Still in Love With Me, Klas-Göran?\"), written for Swedish singer Lill-Babs. During the 1960s he was one of Sweden's most prolific songwriters, producing more than 3,000 published titles. Anderson also founded Sweden Music in 1960, as well as several other companies. Three years later, Anderson co-founded Polar Music with Bengt Bernhag.  By the late 1960s, he was the manager and producer of Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson, who would become the two main songwriters of ABBA. He joined the careers of these two, after previously managing the Hootenanny Singers, of which Ulvaeus was a member. Later, in 1972, he began managing Anni-Frid Lyngstad, and finally in 1976 Agnetha Fältskog (until December 1975, Fältskog was still bound to Cupol/CBS Records under a contract).  Before his time with ABBA, Anderson managed some of the biggest Swedish artists at that time, and had a huge number of hits on the Swedish charts. His success earned him the nickname \"The Business\" since he often had several artists in the Top 10 at any time with whom he had written, published, and recorded the songs. When requiring fresh ideas, Anderson would travel to New York City, buy songs that had been American hits, and then translate or transcribe the lyrics on the return journey ready for a recording session shortly after and then have the record on the shelves within a few days. Some songs were sent to IFPI/ASCAP for copyright infringement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ABBA.", "content": "In the early years of ABBA's existence, Anderson co-wrote many of the songs' lyrics, among them some of the band's biggest hits, such as \"Ring Ring\" (1973), \"Waterloo\" (1974), \"Honey, Honey\" (1974), \"I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do\" (1975), \"Mamma Mia\" (1975), \"S.O.S\" (1975), \"Fernando\" (1976), \"Dancing Queen\" (1976), \"Knowing Me, Knowing You\" (1977), and \"The Name of the Game\" (1977).  Sometimes referred to as the \"fifth member\" of ABBA, Anderson also owned the band's record label and publishing company. He shared the ownership with Benny Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus and Michael B. Tretow, the main sound engineer for the company.  Anderson was one of the dominant figures behind ABBA, representing their commercial interests and global success through successful record deals. At the same time, he also managed the investment of funds and the enormous financial incomes of Polar Music, holding the majority of stocks. This was an agreement dating back to 1974, and a great deal of the money came from individual record deals he struck for the group, including a ground-breaking agreement for record sales in the Soviet Union in which ABBA recordings were released in exchange for barrels of oil. In the mid-1980s, a considerable part of ABBA's fortune was lost by mismanagement, bad investments, high demands for tax, and the rise of credit rates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal disputes.", "content": "The contract with the performers, as well as the international distribution, ran from a standard publishing and recording deal involving identical contracts, rather than from one written specifically with the performers of the band. This led to problems later, when three of the four ABBA members terminated their relationship with Anderson when it was revealed that Anderson had used this contract to take a percentage of profits at a value of 4.5 million euros over the course of many years. A complaint against Anderson was submitted to the Stockholm District Court in June 1990 by Agnetha Fältskog's company \"Agnetha Fältskog Produktion AB\", Benny Andersson's company \"Mono Music AB\", as well as a Dutch company holding Björn Ulvaeus's rights. The dispute was eventually settled out of court in July 1991; the terms of the settlement remain undisclosed.  In 1982, Anni-Frid Lyngstad had sold all the shares in the Polar Music company given to her by Anderson, as she moved abroad. She remains the only member of the band never to seek legal recourse for past royalty fees and was not involved in any way with the legal proceedings against Anderson.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Polar Music Prize.", "content": "In 1989, Anderson made a substantial financial endowment to found the Polar Music Prize from money he made when he sold the multimillion-dollar record company Polar Records. In this deal nearly all utilisation and license rights, and the registered ABBA trademark, were sold for an unknown sum of money to PolyGram shortly before the ABBA members took him to court over royalty back payments. Previously, Anderson had licensed ABBA and the members' solo releases to various labels worldwide as a way to earn more royalties. In 1998, PolyGram was in turn sold to Seagram and merged into what is now one of the Big Three record labels, the Universal Music Group, the company that today holds the rights to the entire ABBA back catalogue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and death.", "content": "Stig Anderson was married to Gudrun Anderson (née Rystedt, 1931–2010), and had two sons, Anders and Lasse, and a daughter Marie. His daughter, Marie Ledin (born in 1957, wife of Swedish star and ABBA concert backing vocalist Tomas Ledin) was also involved in the music industry. In the mid-1980s she started a new, highly successful record label called \"Record Station\" (sold to German BMG in the early 1990s), followed by \"Anderson Records\". \"Anderson Records\" released Anni-Frid Lyngstad's Swedish comeback album \"Djupa andetag\" in 1996, as well as Michael B. Tretow's \"Greatest Hits\" in 1999.  On 12 September 1997, at the age of 66, Stig Anderson died of a heart attack. He also had severe alcohol problems in the later years of his life. His funeral was broadcast live by Sveriges Television, an honour generally only reserved for distinguished statesmen or royalty.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stig Erik Leopold Anderson (25 January 1931 – 12 September 1997), better known as, was a Swedish music manager, lyricist and music publisher. He was the co-founder of Polar Music, and is best known for managing the Swedish pop band ABBA.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974454}
{"src_title": "František Ladislav Rieger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Rieger was born into the household of a miller in the small town of Semily in northern Bohemia. His departure from this rural environment came with his enrollment in Prague University where he was to become acquainted with the nationalist fervor among students there. Rieger studied at the university to become a lawyer, and also received a strong education in economic science, a subject which would later be the topic of much of his published political literature. He and his fellow “national awakeners” found inspiration for their patriotism in the Polish uprising of 1830. Many political Polish refugees fled to Prague where they shared their ideas with the young Czech nationalists there. Rieger’s sympathy for the Poles was so that he was even arrested for hiding a refugee in his room at the University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Revolution of 1848.", "content": "Rieger’s first venture into the political scene of Czech politics came with the Revolution of 1848. Rieger was among the attendees to the constituent assembly meeting in July 1848 in Vienna. His appearance at the assembly was spectacular. He exemplified his skill in oration, and reputedly gained a reputation for his righteous defense of popular sovereignty. For the first time, he was rubbing shoulders with prominent Czech intellectuals and leaders, including the historian František Palacký, with whom he was soon to become close friends. The constitution which he and his fellow assembly members together drafted was woven from the notions of Austroslavism, which advocated allowing Bohemia to become an autonomous federal state within the empire. The new emperor, Franz Joseph, found the constitution too radical to accept and flatly rejected it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retreat from politics.", "content": "Following the defeat of the proposal for the Bohemian constitution, Rieger spent the next two years in voluntary exile between France and Great Britain. On his returning to Prague in 1851, he applied to become a professor of economics at Prague University where he studied. However, his application, which included his doctorate on economics, was refused by the administration for political reasons. Rieger continued to pursue economic science and became a prolific writer of economic literature. For his contribution, he has been accredited with begin the founder of Czech economic literature. For the next several years, he set to work on a number of projects intended to advance the Czech cultural heritage. In 1858 he started the \"Slovník naučný\" (\"Reference Book\"), the Czech encyclopedia of general knowledge, the first volume of which was published in 1859, the 11th and last in 1874. He was also instrumental in founding the first Czech political daily newspaper published in Prague, which appeared on 1 January 1861 and of which he was for a while the editor. In 1853 Rieger married Marie Palacká, the daughter of his close friend and political associate from the assembly, František Palacký.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The National Party.", "content": "Rieger’s refuge from politics was ended suddenly by the downfall of the Bach administration in Vienna in 1859. Francis Joseph’s October Diploma, which officially divided the empire into the dualist Astro-Hungarian monarchy, left Rieger and many Czechs nationalists dissatisfied with the lack of response by the government towards their wish for autonomy. Not wishing to be outshined by their Magyar competition, the Czechs of the National Party, led by Palacký took action. In 1861, Palacký, though continuing to serve as an influential member of the party, passed official leadership to Rieger. Now in control, Rieger set to work on another petitioned constitution to present to Francis Joseph. Despite Rieger’s employment of his skill for writing political literature, the proposal was ignored by the emperor altogether. Increasingly dejected and frustrated, Rieger led his party to boycott the Bohemian Diet and newly created Austrian Reichsrat. This policy of passive resistance would characterize the Czech relation to Austria for the next twenty years. Czech pride, however, hardly swayed the Emperor or Reichstrat who were more than happy to not be bothered by the Czechs. Rieger attempted a constitution a second time in 1871, when he conducted negotiations with the Hohenenwarth ministry for a federal constitution of the empire, which broke down owing to his extreme attitude in the matter of Bohemian independence.  Within the National Party itself a number of significant developments were taking place under the leadership of Rieger. He appealed to Napoleon III to support the Czech movement, in spite the unease felt by some members towards the authoritarian regime of France. In terms of its political ideology, the party became increasingly conservative in its attempts to win over the Bohemian nobility. Rieger understood that the nobles had no real interest in nationalism and that the party was becoming increasingly isolated from its liberal roots. However, support of the nobles meant access to the court, a political advantage which he could not afford to lose. In addition to allying the party to the nobles, Rieger took significant steps to tie the party to the Catholic Church. Although a non-practicing Catholic himself, Rieger attended a number of Church pilgrimages and meetings. In his view, the Church and its role in Czech history offered to the nationalist struggle a sense of historical unity and significance. Rieger’s image was also threatened by his failure to recognize the significance of Panslavism. In 1867, his journey with Palacký to Moscow to attend a convention in protest of dualism was falsely interpreted by the Czech press to be a symbolic gesture towards Pan-Slavism. Rieger often failed to recognize the impression his contacts with other slavs created for his public image, especially to Germans fearful of a panslavic conspiracy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The party divides.", "content": "In spite of this evidence of his popularity, his conservatism, his close connection with the Bohemian nobility and his clerical tendencies brought Rieger into conflict with the growing influence of the radical Young Czech party. The National Party was now divided between the Young Czechs and the Old Czechs, headed by Rieger. Indeed, to the younger generation of nationalists, Rieger seemed old and out of touch, as indicated by his comment in 1883 that an educated Czech need a perfect command of German. After the division of the party, he became increasingly conservative in his policies. He ended his boycott of the Diet and Reichstrat in 1879, and was one of the leaders of the federalist majority supporting Count Taaffe's conservative coalition of Iron Ring. Although the Old Czech continued to dominate for another decade, in 1891, they were defeated in the polls by the Young Czechs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final years.", "content": "By the end of his political career, Rieger had become an esteemed politician. On his seventieth birthday (10 December 1888) he received a national gift of 100,000 gulden. In March 1897 he was created a baron (Freiherr) and given a seat in the Upper House. He continued occasionally to interfere in politics; but his influence was now at an end, though when he died, on 3 March 1903, his funeral in Prague was made the occasion of a magnificent demonstration of respect.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "František Ladislav Rieger (10 December 1818 – 3 March 1903) was a Czech politician and publicist made famous for his leadership of the early Czech nationalist movement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974455}
{"src_title": "Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ascanian struggle for Saxony.", "content": "The Eastphalian count Otto of Ballenstedt (d. 1123), ancestor of the House of Ascania, had married Eilika, a daughter of Duke Magnus of Saxony from the House of Billung. As the Billung male line became extinct upon Magnus's death in 1106, Otto hoped to succeed him, however King Henry V of Germany enfeoffed Count Lothair of Supplinburg. During the following long-term dispute between Henry and Lothair, Otto was able to gain the title of a Saxon (anti-)duke, though only for a short time in 1122.  Lothair was elected King of the Romans in 1125 and in 1134 he vested Otto's son Albert the Bear with the Saxon Northern March. Upon his death in 1137, Albert once again strived for the Saxon duchy, which however fell to Lothair's son-in-law Henry the Proud from the Bavarian House of Welf. Albert concluded a deal with the rising House of Hohenstaufen: He backed the succession of Conrad of Hohenstaufen as German king, who in turn deprived his Welf rival Henry the Proud of the Saxonian Duchy in 1138 and gave it to Albert. However, his rule was strongly contested by the local nobility and in 1142 Albert finally had to resign as duke in favour of Henry the Proud's son Henry the Lion. Albert later took part in the Wendish Crusade of 1147 and in 1157 established the Margraviate of Brandenburg. He died in 1170.  The third chance for the Ascanians came, when in 1180 ambitious Henry the Lion was deposed as Saxon Duke by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Frederick partitioned Saxony among his allies into more than a dozen immediate territories. Among the supporters, Archbishop Philip of Cologne received the largest share as the newly created Duchy of Westphalia. The Saxon ducal title at least passed to late Albert's youngest son, Count Bernhard of Ballenstedt, who nevertheless only ruled over small, mostly Eastphalian fringes of the old duchy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anhalt, Wittenberg and Lauenburg.", "content": "Duke Bernard died in 1212 and his two surviving sons divided the Saxon heritage: the elder Henry took the old Ascanian allodial possessions around Ballenstedt where he established the Ascanian County of Anhalt, while his younger brother Albert I inherited the title of a Duke of Saxony and retained three territorially unconnected Eastphalian estates on the Elbe river around the towns of Wittenberg and Belzig as well as the northern lordship of Lauenburg with Amt Neuhaus and Land Hadeln at the Elbe estuary.  After Albert I's death in 1260 his two heirs, John I and his younger brother Albert II ruled jointly. In 1269, 1272 and 1282 they gradually divided their governing competences within the then three territorially unconnected Saxon areas (Hadeln, Lauenburg and Wittenberg), thus preparing a partition, whereby Albert II, Burgrave of Magdeburg since 1269, concentrated on the Wittenberg territory. He consolidated his position by marrying Agnes, daughter of Rudolph of Habsburg, whom he elected King of the Romans in 1273. After Duke John I had resigned in 1282 in favour of his three minor sons Eric I, John II and Albert III, followed by his death three years later, the three brothers and their uncle Albert II continued the joint rule as Saxon dukes.  Upon the death of Margrave Henry III of Meissen in 1288, Duke Albert II applied at his father-in-law King Rudolph I for the enfeoffment of his son and heir Rudolph with the Saxon County palatine on the Unstrut river, which ensued a long lasting dispute with the eager clan of the House of Wettin. Albert's attempts to secure the succession in the lands of the extinct Counts of Brehna were more successful: when their fiefs were reverted to the Empire in 1290, the king enfeoffed his son Rudolph. After King Rudolph had died, Albert II with his nephews still minor on 27 April 1292 wielded the Saxon electoral vote, electing Adolph of Nassau, the brother-in-law of Archbishop Siegfried II of Cologne. The bishop together with King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia had succeeded in bringing Albert II in favour of electing Adolph: he had signed an elector pact on 29 November 1291 that he would vote the same as Wenceslaus. In 1295 Albert II could again enlarge his Saxon territory, when he acquired the County of Gommern.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Duchy of Wittenberg.", "content": "The last document, mentioning the joint government of Albert II with his nephews as Saxon fellow dukes dates back to 1295. The definite partitioning of the Duchy of Saxony into Saxe-Lauenburg (), jointly ruled by the brothers Albert III, Eric I and John II and Saxe-Wittenberg (), ruled by Albert II took place before 20 September 1296. The Vierlande, Sadelbande (Land of Lauenburg), the Land of Ratzeburg, the Land of Darzing (today's Amt Neuhaus), and the Land of Hadeln are mentioned as the separate territory of the brothers. Duke Albert II received the Wittenberg lands around the eponymous city, Brehna and Gommern. He thus became the founder of the Ascanian line of Saxe-Wittenberg.  When Rudolph succeeded his father Albert II as Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg in 1298, he and the Dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg rivallingly claimed the Saxon electoral privilege. Upon the assassination of his brother-in-law King Albert I in 1308, he voted for Count Henry of Luxembourg. In 1314 both duchies participated in the double election of the German kings, Frederick III, \"the Fair\" from the House of Habsburg and his Wittelsbach cousin Louis IV, \"the Bavarian\". Louis received five of the seven votes, to wit Archbishop-Elector Baldwin of Trier, the legitimate King John of Bohemia, Duke John II of Saxe-Lauenburg, claiming the Saxon prince-electoral power, Archbishop Peter of Mainz, and Albert's Ascanian cousin Margrave Waldemar of Brandenburg. Frederick the Fair received in the same election four of the seven votes, with the deposed King Henry of Bohemia, illegitimately assuming electoral power, Archbishop Henry II of Cologne, Louis' brother Count Rudolph I of the Palatinate, and Duke Rudolph I of Saxe-Wittenberg, equally exercising the Saxon electoral dignity.  However, only Louis the Bavarian, co-elected with Saxe-Lauenburg's vote, finally asserted himself as emperor after the 1322 Battle of Mühldorf by the Treaty of Trausnitz on March 13, 1325. As an obvious opponent, Duke Rudolph I failed with his claims to Brandenburg after the line of his Ascanian cousins became extinct in 1319: King Louis IV seized the margraviate and enfeoffed his son Louis V instead. Rudolph I in turn allied with the rivaling House of Luxembourg. He supported Count Charles IV of Luxembourg as anti-king to Louis IV and on that account exclusively received the Saxon electoral dignity with the Golden Bull of 1356, thus slighting Saxe-Lauenburg. Saxe-Wittenberg thereupon came to be known as the Electorate of Saxony (\"Kursachsen\").  When the Ascanian line in the Electorate of Saxony died out in 1422, the Ascanian Duke Eric V of Saxe-Lauenburg failed to assert his succession in Wittenberg. King Sigismund granted the Electorate to Margrave Frederick IV of Meissen from the House of Wettin, who united the Meissen and the Saxon lands of Wittenberg under his rule. He assumed the electoral title and thereby transferred the state of Saxony up the Elbe river to his Meissen residence. His lands were also called \"Upper Saxony\" (see: Upper Saxon Circle) to distinguish them from the territory of the medieval stem duchy, the later Lower Saxony. The territory of former Saxe-Wittenberg became known as the \"Kurkreis\" (\"Electoral District\"). By the division of the Saxon Electorate according to the 1485 Treaty of Leipzig, the Wittenberg lands including the electoral dignity fell to Ernest of Wettin.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg () was a medieval duchy of the Holy Roman Empire centered at Wittenberg, which emerged after the dissolution of the stem duchy of Saxony. The Ascanian dukes prevailed in obtaining the Saxon electoral dignity until their duchy was finally elevated to the Electorate of Saxony by the Golden Bull of 1356.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974456}
{"src_title": "Piano Sonata in B minor (Liszt)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Liszt noted on the sonata's manuscript that it was completed on February 2, 1853, but he had composed an earlier version by 1849. At this point in his life, Liszt's career as a traveling virtuoso had almost entirely subsided, as he had been influenced towards leading the life of a composer rather than a performer by Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein almost five years earlier. Liszt's life was established in Weimar and he was living a comfortable lifestyle, composing, and occasionally performing, entirely by choice rather than necessity.  The Sonata was dedicated to Robert Schumann, in return for Schumann's dedication of his Fantasie in C major, Op. 17 (published 1839) to Liszt. A copy of the work arrived at Schumann's house in May 1854, after he had entered Endenich sanatorium. Schumann's wife Clara, an accomplished concert pianist and composer in her own right, did not perform the Sonata; according to scholar Alan Walker she found it \"merely a blind noise\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The Sonata was published by Breitkopf & Härtel in 1854 and first performed on January 27, 1857 in Berlin by Hans von Bülow. It was attacked by Eduard Hanslick who said \"anyone who has heard it and finds it beautiful is beyond help\". Johannes Brahms reputedly fell asleep when Liszt performed the work in 1853, and it was also criticized by the pianist and composer Anton Rubinstein. However, the Sonata drew enthusiasm from Richard Wagner following a private performance of the piece by Karl Klindworth on April 5, 1855. Otto Gumprecht of the German newspaper \"Nationalzeitung\" referred to it as \"an invitation to hissing and stomping\". It took a long time for the Sonata to become commonplace in concert repertoire, because of its technical difficulty and negative initial reception due to its status as \"new\" music. However by the early stages of the twentieth century, the piece had become established as a pinnacle of Liszt's repertoire and has been a popularly performed and extensively analyzed piece ever since.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "No other work of Liszt's has attracted anywhere near the amount of scholarly attention paid to the Sonata in B minor. It has provoked a wide range of divergent theories from those of its admirers who feel compelled to search for hidden meanings.  Walker claims the quiet ending of the Sonata was an afterthought; the original manuscript contains a crossed-out ending section which would have ended the work in a loud flourish instead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "The Sonata unfolds in approximately 30 minutes of unbroken music. While its distinct movements are rolled into one, the entire work is encompassed within an overarching sonata form — exposition, development, and recapitulation. Liszt effectively composed a sonata within a sonata, which is part of the work's uniqueness, and he was quite economical with his thematic material. The first page contains three motive ideas that provide the basis for nearly all that follows, with the ideas being transformed throughout.  Some analyses suggest that the Sonata has four movements (Newman, 1972) although there is no gap between them. Superimposed upon the four movements is a large sonata form structure, although the precise beginnings and endings of the traditional development and recapitulation sections have long been a topic of debate. Others claim a three-movement form (Longyear, 1973), a one-movement structure (Winklhofer, 1980), and a rotational three-movement work with a double exposition and recapitulation (Whitelaw, 2017).  The first theme is a descending scale marked \"sotto voce\"; full of ominous undertow. It reappears at crucial points in the work's structure. This leads immediately to a jagged, forceful motif in octaves. This is quickly followed by a hammering \"marcato\" motif in the left hand. A dialogue ensues, with mounting energy, until reaching the noble Grandioso material in D major. Liszt transforms the \"marcato\" motif into a lyrical melody later. The slow movement, an \"Andante sostenuto\", is the centerpiece of the Sonata. This fully-fledged movement, in compound ternary form, features, in quick succession, a number of themes heard earlier in the Sonata in a \"tour de force\" of thematic economy. The final recapitulatory section is launched by a driving \"fugato\" of contrapuntal skill which leads to the compressed return of the opening material. Calling upon every intellectual resource and fully exploiting the pianist's technical arsenal, it is at this point where a performer's concentration might wane. But this final section has just begun, and a pianist needs to have reserved fuel in their tank if he is to turn in a successful performance of the Sonata. Each of the sections are examples of Classical forms, which means that this piece is one of the first instances of Double-function form, a musical piece which has two classical forms happening at the same time; one containing others. Already in 1851 Liszt experimented with a non-programmatic \"four-movements-in-one\" form in an extended work for piano solo called \"Grosses Concert-Solo\". This piece, which in 1865 was published as a two-piano version under the title \"Concerto pathétique\", shows a thematic relationship to both the Sonata and the later \"Faust Symphony\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arrangements.", "content": "Camille Saint-Saëns, a close friend of Liszt, made a two-piano arrangement of the Sonata in 1914, but it was never published in his lifetime because of rights issues. It was first published in 2004 by Édition Durand in Paris, edited by Sabrina Teller Ratner. According to a letter from Saint-Saëns to Jacques Durand, dated 23 August 1914, the two-piano arrangement was something that Liszt had announced but never realized.  There is an extremely difficult version of this Sonata in B minor for violin, transcribed by Noam Sivan and premiered by violinist Giora Schmidt in September 2011. It has been published by Carl Fischer.  Leó Weiner made an orchestral arrangement of the Sonata in 1955. The arrangement has not been published and exists only in manuscript form. It was recorded in 2006 by the orchestra of Hochschule für Musik Franz Liszt, Weimar with Nicolás Pasquet conducting, and in 2009 by the North Hungarian Symphony Orchestra under for the label Hungaroton (HCD 32634).  Heinz Roemheld orchestrated the Sonata which is heard on some 1930s movies, including \"The Black Cat\" (1934), starring Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi, \"The Raven\" (1935), as well as the \"Flash Gordon\" serials (1936) (Chapters 6–13), \"Werewolf of London\" (1936), and \"Mars Attacks the World\" (1938).  An orchestrated version of the lyrical parts of the Sonata appears in the 1960 Hollywood film of Liszt's life called \"Song Without End\" (starting 1:07).  There is an orchestrated excerpt version of the Sonata in the 1952 film \"Hans Christian Andersen\" starring Danny Kaye where the ballet scene for \"The Little Mermaid\" is danced near the end of the film (starting around 1:23 min).  Frederick Ashton used the Sonata for his 1963 ballet \"Marguerite and Armand\", created for Margot Fonteyn and Rudolf Nureyev, based on \"The Lady of the Camellias\" by Alexandre Dumas, fils. The original performances used an orchestral transcription of the Sonata by Humphrey Searle.  An organ transcription of the Sonata was made in 1984 by Bernhard Haas.  There is also a transcription of the Sonata for solo cello made by cellist Johann Sebastian Paetsch in 2013. This has been published by the Hofmeister Musikverlag in Leipzig.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Piano Sonata in B minor (), S.178, is a sonata for solo piano by Franz Liszt. It was completed in 1853 and published in 1854 with a dedication to Robert Schumann.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974457}
{"src_title": "Wireshark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Functionality.", "content": "Wireshark is very similar to tcpdump, but has a graphical front-end, plus some integrated sorting and filtering options.  Wireshark lets the user put network interface controllers into promiscuous mode (if supported by the network interface controller), so they can see all the traffic visible on that interface including unicast traffic not sent to that network interface controller's MAC address. However, when capturing with a packet analyzer in promiscuous mode on a port on a network switch, not all traffic through the switch is necessarily sent to the port where the capture is done, so capturing in promiscuous mode is not necessarily sufficient to see all network traffic. Port mirroring or various network taps extend capture to any point on the network. Simple passive taps are extremely resistant to tampering.  On GNU/Linux, BSD, and macOS, with libpcap 1.0.0 or later, Wireshark 1.4 and later can also put wireless network interface controllers into monitor mode.  If a remote machine captures packets and sends the captured packets to a machine running Wireshark using the TZSP protocol or the protocol used by OmniPeek, Wireshark dissects those packets, so it can analyze packets captured on a remote machine at the time that they are captured.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In the late 1990s, Gerald Combs, a computer science graduate of the University of Missouri–Kansas City, was working for a small Internet service provider. The commercial protocol analysis products at the time were priced around $1500 and did not run on the company's primary platforms (Solaris and Linux), so Gerald began writing Ethereal and released the first version around 1998. The Ethereal trademark is owned by Network Integration Services.  In May 2006, Combs accepted a job with CACE Technologies. Combs still held copyright on most of Ethereal's source code (and the rest was re-distributable under the GNU GPL), so he used the contents of the Ethereal Subversion repository as the basis for the Wireshark repository. However, he did not own the Ethereal trademark, so he changed the name to Wireshark. In 2010 Riverbed Technology purchased CACE and took over as the primary sponsor of Wireshark. Ethereal development has ceased, and an Ethereal security advisory recommended switching to Wireshark.  Wireshark has won several industry awards over the years, including \"eWeek\", \"InfoWorld\", and \"PC Magazine\". It is also the top-rated packet sniffer in the Insecure.Org network security tools survey and was the SourceForge Project of the Month in August 2010.  Combs continues to maintain the overall code of Wireshark and issue releases of new versions of the software. The product website lists over 600 additional contributing authors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "Wireshark is a data capturing program that \"understands\" the structure (encapsulation) of different networking protocols. It can parse and display the fields, along with their meanings as specified by different networking protocols. Wireshark uses pcap to capture packets, so it can only capture packets on the types of networks that pcap supports.  Wireshark's native network trace file format is the libpcap format supported by libpcap and WinPcap, so it can exchange captured network traces with other applications that use the same format, including tcpdump and CA NetMaster. It can also read captures from other network analyzers, such as snoop, Network General's Sniffer, and Microsoft Network Monitor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Security.", "content": "Capturing raw network traffic from an interface requires elevated privileges on some platforms. For this reason, older versions of Ethereal/Wireshark and tethereal/TShark often ran with superuser privileges. Considering the huge number of protocol dissectors that are called when traffic is captured and recognizing the possibility of a bug in a dissector, a serious security risk can be posed. Due to the rather large number of vulnerabilities in the past (of which many have allowed remote code execution) and developers' doubts for better future development, OpenBSD removed Ethereal from its ports tree prior to OpenBSD 3.6.  Elevated privileges are not needed for all operations. For example, an alternative is to run tcpdump or the \"dumpcap\" utility that comes with Wireshark with superuser privileges to capture packets into a file, and later analyze the packets by running Wireshark with restricted privileges. To emulate near realtime analysis, each captured file may be merged by \"mergecap\" into growing file processed by Wireshark. On wireless networks, it is possible to use the Aircrack wireless security tools to capture IEEE 802.11 frames and read the resulting dump files with Wireshark.  As of Wireshark 0.99.7, Wireshark and TShark run dumpcap to perform traffic capture. Platforms that require special privileges to capture traffic need only dumpcap run with those privileges. Neither Wireshark nor TShark need to or should be run with special privileges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Color coding.", "content": "Wireshark can color packets based on rules that match particular fields in packets, to help the user identify the types of traffic at a glance. A default set of rules is provided; users can change existing rules for coloring packets, add new rules, or remove rules.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Simulation packet capture.", "content": "Wireshark can also be used to capture packets from most network simulation tools such as ns, OPNET Modeler and NetSim.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wireshark is a free and open-source packet analyzer. It is used for network troubleshooting, analysis, software and communications protocol development, and education. Originally named Ethereal, the project was renamed Wireshark in May 2006 due to trademark issues.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974458}
{"src_title": "Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Charles Frederick was born in Sweden, the son of Frederick IV of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp and his consort, Hedvig Sophia, daughter of King Charles XI of Sweden. He became reigning duke in infancy, upon his father's death in 1702, co-ruling, however under guardianship till 1717, with his father's cousin King Frederick IV of Denmark in the Duchy of Holstein, a Holy Roman imperial fief, and the Duchy of Schleswig, a Danish fief, there as a vassal to the Danish king. All his life was a legitimate claimant to the throne of Sweden, as \"pro forma\" heir to Charles XII, who was his maternal uncle.  Charles Frederick's parents had been offered refuge by maternal uncle, Charles XII of Sweden, during the outbreak of the Great Northern War, and they resided in Stockholm. Charles Frederick succeeded to the dukedom at the age of two, upon the death of his father in the Battle of Kliszów. His mother became his regent, and they continued to reside in Stockholm. Actual daily co-rule in the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein was left to administrators. His mother is said to have raised him tenderly but firmly, but she died in 1708, when Charles Frederick was only eight years old. He was then placed in the care of his great-grandmother (his mother's paternal grandmother), Queen Dowager Hedwig Eleonora of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, who reportedly spoiled him terribly, resulting in making him passive and indolent. His mother, and later Hedwig Eleonora, both supported and worked for his right to be considered heir of Sweden after his childless uncle.  Since his guardians sided with Sweden against Denmark in the Great Northern War, Danish troops ravaged the Gottorp ducal share in the duchies during that war and conquered its northern portions in 1713, including the ancestral ducal seat Gottorp castle near Schleswig city in the homonymous duchy. In 1721 Frederick IV of Denmark, being the liege lord in Danish Schleswig who had enfeoffed Charles Frederick with the ducal title in Schleswig in 1702, officially withdrew this fief.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Swedish career.", "content": "Charles Frederick met his uncle Charles XII for the first time in 1716. He was declared of legal majority in 1717, and was then given some military responsibility. Charles Frederick was in a tense relationship to his aunt Ulrika Eleonora, whose followers pointed him out to be too rude and arrogant and in lack of any sense of responsibility to be a suitable heir to the throne.  Upon the death in 1718 of his maternal uncle and second cousin, Charles XII of Sweden, Duke Charles Frederick was presented as claimant to the throne. However, his aunt Ulrika Eleonora the Younger (1688–1741) managed to wrest the throne for herself, claiming that her elder sister had not \"acquired the consent of the Parliamentary Estates\" for her marriage to his father, according to laws of succession laid down in \"Norrköpings arvförening\". The duke's party asserted that the absolute monarchy in Sweden, which his grandfather King Charles XI had created, made that marriage clause irrelevant. Upon the news of the death of his uncle, he was reportedly too grief-stricken to take any action. Ulrika Eleonora's husband Frederick I, however, who was also present with him in Tistedalen, rushed to assist her in claiming the throne. When Charles Frederick was confronted with Ulrika Eleonora, he was forced by Arvid Horn to greet her as queen. He asked to be granted the title Royal Highness and to be recognised as her heir, but when her husband instead was given the title, he left Sweden in 1719. In 1723, he was granted the title Royal Highness in his absence, but his pro-Russian policy made him impossible as heir to the Swedish throne.  Charles Frederick withdrew from Sweden, eventually settling in Russia, where in May 1725 he married Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna, elder daughter of Tsar Peter the Great. Meanwhile, the so-called Holstein Party in Sweden continued to advance Charles Frederick's claims. The party made preparations and awaited the childless Ulrika Eleonora's death, but Charles Frederick died before his aunt and left his claims to his infant son. By this time however, Sweden had enacted new laws of succession which specifically excluded Charles Frederick and his heirs because of their Russian politics, because at that time, Russia and Sweden had a strained relationship. The exclusion of Charles Frederick and his progeny from the Swedish succession avoided the personal union of Sweden and Russia, because Charles Frederick's only child would become Tsar Peter III of Russia.  The question then became who was to become the next king of Sweden after the death of the childless incumbent. The so-called \"Hat faction\" in Sweden managed to elect Charles Frederick's first cousin Adolph Frederick, who was his father's younger brother's son and thus belonged to the same Oldenburg dynasty, as Crown Prince of Sweden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Charles Frederick left for Hamburg, as the Gottorp ducal share in the duchies of German Holstein and Danish Schleswig had been occupied by Denmark since 1713. Having lost the title as duke of Schleswig, succeeded to have the occupation of the ducal share in German Holstein removed by application to his Holstein liege lord, the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1720, Sweden and Denmark-Norway concluded the Treaty of Frederiksborg, in which Sweden pledged to cease its support of the House of [Schleswig-]Holstein-Gottorp. Duke Charles Frederick opposed the treaty, made by a Swedish government which he regarded as rebellious against his own right to the Swedish succession; the treaty also made virtually impossible the regaining of his lost ducal share in the northern duchy of Schleswig. (This was to be a motivation for his son Peter in 1762, upon his Russian accession, to start preparations for the use of Russian troops to reconquer the lost lands from Denmark.)  Duke Charles Frederick was married to Anna Petrovna, Tsesarevna of Russia and elder daughter of Tsar Peter I and Marta Skavronskaya (who would later become Empress Catherine I of Russia). As Charles was the Swedish heir, Peter saw the marriage as politically useful. Charles Frederick was officially engaged to Anna by Tsar Peter. After the death of Peter in 1725, he was given a place in the council, his own court, palace and income by Catherine I of Russia and married to Anna. Anna was not enthusiastic about the marriage, because of his reputation of consorting with prostitutes.  Charles Frederick, then commander of the palace guard in St. Petersburg, attempted to secure his wife's succession to the Russian throne upon the death in 1727 of her mother, the Empress Catherine I of Russia. His attempt failed, but his son by Duchess Anna Petrovna, Charles Peter Ulrich (who - as Duke of Holstein-Gottorp - succeeded in the ducal share of Holstein in 1739), eventually became Russian tsar in 1762, as Peter III.  Charles Frederick and Anna left for Gottorp ducal share of Holstein in 1727, taking residence in Kiel Castle, where Anna died following the birth of their son in 1728. Charles Frederick spent the rest of his life in Holstein-Gottorp at Kiel. His prime concern was to secure his son's succession to the Russian throne. He did support his followers in Sweden also, but did not pay much attention to Holstein-Gottorp. Before a member of the family of Holstein-Gottorp was to sit on either the Swedish or the Russian throne, Duke Charles Frederick died in 1739 in the Saxon village of Rolfshagen. His grave is in the Cloister Church at Bordesholm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Duke Charles Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp () (30 April 1700 – 18 June 1739) was a Prince of Sweden and Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp and an important member of European royalty. His dynasty, the Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, were a cadet branch of the ancient House of Oldenburg, which at that time was ruling Denmark. His mother was a sister of Charles XII of Sweden. Charles Frederick married a daughter of Peter the Great and became the father of the future Peter III of Russia. As such, he is the progenitor of the Russian imperial house of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov and the patrilineal ancestor of all Russian emperors starting with Peter III, except for Catherine II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974459}
{"src_title": "Remote administration", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Requirements.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Internet connection.", "content": "Any computer with an Internet connection, TCP/IP or on a Local Area Network can be remotely administered.  For non-malicious administration, the user must install or enable server software on the host system in order to be viewed. Then the user/client can access the host system from another computer using the installed software.  Usually, both systems should be connected to the internet, and the IP address of the host/server system must be known. Remote administration is therefore less practical if the host uses a dial-up modem, which is not constantly online and often has a Dynamic IP.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Connecting.", "content": "When the client connects to the host computer, a window showing the Desktop of the host usually appears. The client may then control the host as if he/she were sitting right in front of it.  Certain versions of Windows XP have a built-in remote administration package called Remote Desktop Connection. A free cross-platform alternative is VNC, which offers similar functionality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Common tasks for which remote administration is used.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hacking.", "content": "Computers infected with malware such as Trojans sometimes open back doors into computer systems which allows malicious users to hack into and control the computer. Such users may then add, delete, modify or execute files on the computer to their own ends.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable software.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Windows.", "content": "Windows Server 2003, 2008, Tablet PC Editions, and Windows Vista Ultimate, Enterprise and Business editions come with Microsoft's Microsoft Management Console, Windows Registry Editor and various command-line utilities that may be used to administrate a remote machine. One form of remote administration is remote desktop software, and Windows includes a Remote Desktop Connection client for this purpose.  Windows XP comes with a built-in remote administration tools called Remote Assistance and Remote Desktop, these are restricted versions of the Windows Server 2003 Terminal Services meant only for helping users and remote administration. With a simple hack/patch (derived from the beta version of Windows XP) it's possible to \"unlock\" XP to a fully featured Terminal Server.  Windows Server 2003 comes with built-in remote administration tools, including a web application and a simplified version of Terminal Services designed for Remote administration.  Active Directory and other features found in Microsoft's Windows NT Domains allow for remote administration of computers that are members of the domain, including editing the Registry and modifying system services and access to the system's \"Computer Management\" Microsoft Management Console snap-in.  Some third-party remote desktop software programs perform the same job.  Back Orifice, whilst commonly used as a script kiddie tool, claims to be a remote-administration and system management tool. Critics have previously stated that the capabilities of the software require a very loose definition of what \"administration\" entails.  Remote Server Administration Tools for Windows 7 enables IT administrators to manage roles and features that are installed on remote computers that are running Windows Server 2008 R2", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Non-Windows.", "content": "VNC can be used for remote administration of computers, however it is increasingly being used as an equivalent of Terminal Services and Remote Desktop Protocol for multi-user environments.  Linux, UNIX and BSD support remote administration via remote login, typically via SSH (The use of the Telnet protocol has been phased out due to security concerns). X-server connection forwarding, often tunnelled over SSH for security, allows GUI programs to be used remotely. VNC is also available for these operating systems.  Apple Remote Desktop provides Macintosh users with remote administration capabilities.  NX and its Google fork Neatx are free graphical Desktop sharing solutions for the X Window System with Clients for different platforms like Linux, Windows and Mac OS X. There is also an enhanced commercial version of NX Server available.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wireless remote administration.", "content": "Remote administration software has recently started to appear on wireless devices such as the BlackBerry, Pocket PC, and Palm devices, as well as some mobile phones.  Generally these solutions do not provide the full remote access seen on software such as VNC or Terminal Services, but do allow administrators to perform a variety of tasks, such as rebooting computers, resetting passwords, and viewing system event logs, thus reducing or even eliminating the need for system administrators to carry a laptop or be within reach of the office.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Remote administration refers to any method of controlling a computer from a remote location. Software that allows remote administration is becoming increasingly common and is often used when it is difficult or impractical to be physically near a system in order to use it. A remote location may refer to a computer in the next room or one on the other side of the world. It may also refer to both legal and illegal (i.e. hacking) remote administration (see Owned and Trojan).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974460}
{"src_title": "Nikolai Yudenich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Yudenich was born in Moscow, where his father was a minor court official. Yudenich graduated from the Alexandrovsky Military College in 1881 and the General Staff Academy in 1887. He first served with the Life Guards Regiment in Lithuania from November 1889 to December 1890. In January 1892, he was transferred to the Turkestan Military District, and was promoted to lieutenant colonel in April 1892. He was a member of the Pamir Expedition in 1894, and was promoted to colonel in 1896. From September 20, 1900 Yudenich served on the staff of the 1st Turkestan Rifle Brigade.  In 1902, Yudenich was appointed commander of the 18th Infantry Regiment, which he continued to command during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. He was wounded in the arm during the Battle of Sandepu, and wounded in the neck during the Battle of Mukden. At the end of the war, he was promoted to major general.  Subsequently, from February 1907, Yudenich served as Quartermaster of the General Staff of the Caucasus Military District. He was promoted to lieutenant general in 1912, and served as Chief of staff at Kazan, followed by the Caucasus Military District in 1913.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "At the beginning of World War I Yudenich was appointed Chief of Staff of the Russian Caucasus Army. Major operations included the Battle of Sarikamish, a victory against Enver Pasha of the Ottoman Empire. In January 1915, Yudenich was promoted to General of Infantry, and replaced Count Illarion Ivanovich Vorontsov-Dashkov as commander of the Caucasus Campaign. Yudenich tried to exploit the Turkish defeat by attacking into Turkish territory, specifically around Lake Van during the Siege of Van. While the Russians did capture Van in May 1915, they were forced to withdraw from the city two months later. The Ottoman 3rd Army re-occupied Van in August.  At this time, Grand Duke Nicholas, having been removed from command of all of Russia's armies, was put in charge of the Caucasus region. Yudenich was given a free hand by the Grand Duke and, in September, the Russians retook Van and re-established the Administration for Western Armenia in June 1916. Fighting back and forth around this region continued for the next 14 months without a clear victory for either side.  In 1916 Yudenich successfully carried out an offensive, winning the Battle of Erzurum (1916) and the Trebizond Campaign. In the summer of that year, his forces fought off a Turkish counter-attack culminating in the Battle of Erzincan (which included the presence of Turkish General Mustafa Kemal). During this battle, Yudenich was awarded the Order of St. George (2nd degree), the final time this decoration was awarded in the Russian Empire.  Following the February Revolution, in 1917 Yudenich was appointed commander of the Caucasus Front, but in May the Russian Provisional Government removed him from command for insubordination, and on the direct orders from Alexander Kerensky, he retired from the army. Yudenich then relocated from Tbilisi to Petrograd, where he supported the Kornilov Revolt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "White Army.", "content": "Following the October Revolution of 1917, Yudenich went into hiding from the Bolsheviks, sheltered by a former sergeant of the Life Guards of Lithuania, who had served with Yudenich from his time in the Pamirs. He managed to escape to exile in Finland in January 1919. In Helsinki, Yudenich joined the \"Russian Committee\", which had formed in November 1918 to oppose the Bolsheviks, and was proclaimed leader of the White movement in northwest Russia with absolute powers. In the spring of 1919 Yudenich visited Stockholm, where he met with diplomatic representatives of Great Britain, France and the United States, trying with limited success to obtain assistance in developing a Russian volunteer corps to fight the Bolsheviks.  In June 1919 Yudenich made contact with Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak's All-Russian Government based in Omsk, which subsequently acknowledged him as commander-in-chief of all Russian armed forces operating against the Bolsheviks in the Baltic Sea and in northwest Russia. Kolchak also provided much-needed funds to pay and equip his forces. In June 1919 Yudenich went to Tallinn to meet with General Aleksandr Rodzyanko, the commander of the White Russian Northern Army, attacking Petrograd formally under the Estonian High Command. Yudenich appointed Rodzyanko as his aide.  In August 1919, under pressure from the British government, \"ad hoc\" in order to issue a legally binding guarantee of the independence of his key ally Estonia, Yudenich was forced to create the counterrevolutionary \"Regional Government of Northwest Russia\", which included Monarchists, Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. Yudenich served as Minister of War and spent the next two months organizing and training his army. By September 1919 Yudenich had a fairly well-organized army of approximately 17,000 troops, with 53 guns and six tanks. The six tanks were supplied by Great Britain, together with their volunteer crews, who were the only British ground troops to fight alongside the Northwestern Army.  In early October 1919, Yudenich launched his army against Petrograd, which was only lightly defended as the Red Army was actively engaged on several other fronts: fighting Kolchak's forces in Siberia and several Cossack armies in the Ukraine. Yudenich's friend from the Imperial Russian Army, General Mannerheim, asked the president of Finland, Ståhlberg, to join Yudenich's force and attack Petrograd with help from the Finnish White Guards. Yudenich would have recognized Finland's independence and the country's pro-Triple Entente relationships would be recognized. As Kolchak (nominally the leader of the White Armies) would not recognize Finland's independence, Stålhberg denied Mannerheim's request. Overall, the Northwestern Army was nationalistic and patriotic and thus rejected ethnic particularism and separatism. The Northwestern Army generally believed in a united multinational Russia, and opposed separatists wanting to create nation-states.  On 12 October 1919, the Whites retook Yamburg. Two days later Yudenich was approaching Gatchina. On 19 October 1919 his troops reached the outskirts of Petrograd; however his forces failed to secure the vital Moscow – Saint Petersburg Railway, which allowed the Revolutionary Military Council to send in massive reinforcements to prevent the fall of the city. Yudenich's stalled offensive collapsed in late October, and the 7th and 15th Red Armies repulsed the White Russian troops back into Estonia in November. Distrustful of the White Russians, the Estonian High Command disarmed and interned the remains of Northwestern Army which retreated behind Estonian lines. Politically, the Bolsheviks secured a separate armistice with Estonia on 3 January, by promising to recognize Estonian independence (an offer contrary to the White Army and Kolchak government position). On 28 January 1920 General Bułak-Bałachowicz, together with several Russian officers and the Estonian Police, arrested Yudenich as he tried to escape to western Europe with Northwestern Army funds. A large amount of money was found with him (roughly 227,000 British pounds, 250,000 Estonian marks and 110,000,000 Finnish marks) these funds were confiscated and distributed to the soldiers of the disbanded White army as a final salary. Diplomatic pressure from Great Britain and France soon led to Yudenich's release from prison.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After his release, Yudenich departed for exile in France. During his remaining 13 years, he played no significant role among White movement émigré community there. Yudenich died at Saint-Laurent-du-Var, near Nice on the French Riviera, on 5 October 1933.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nikolai Nikolayevich Yudenich ( - October 1933) was a commander of the Russian Imperial Army during World War I. He was a leader of the anti-communist White movement in Northwestern Russia during the Civil War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974461}
{"src_title": "Michel Chossudovsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Chossudovsky is the son of a Russian Jewish émigré, the career United Nations diplomat and academic Evgeny Chossudovsky, and an Irish Protestant, Rachel Sullivan. Raised in Switzerland, Chossudovsky moved to Canada and joined the University of Ottawa in 1968. According to the \"Ottawa Citizen,\" Chossudovsky's academic research kept him \"on the margins of mainstream academia,\" but won praise from anti-establishment intellectuals such as Noam Chomsky. In 2005, shortly after Chossudovsky began writing about terrorism, the \"Citizen\" reported that Chossudovsky's was \"a popular figure among anti-globalization activists,\" and that some of his students referred to him as \"Canada's Chomsky.\" At that time, some colleagues were becoming uncomfortable with Chossudovsky's ideas, with one professor describing them as having \"a conspiratorial element.\"  In 2005, Chossudovsky published the book \"America's \"War on Terrorism\"\". According to \"The New York Times\", the \"conspiracy-minded book... argued that the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks were simply a pretext for American incursions into the Middle East, and that Bin Laden was nothing but a boogeyman created by the United States\". The book was found on a bookshelf in Osama bin Laden's Abbottabad, Pakistan compound. According to the \"Vox\" website, the book's theory is that \"9/11 was a United States government conspiracy to start the Iraq War and enable a 'new world order' to help corporate interests. Bin Laden was, at best, a pawn in CIA interests.\"  Chossudovsky has contributed to the French magazine \"Le Monde diplomatique.\" He is frequently quoted by or appears on the Kremlin-backed RT (formerly known as Russia Today) or in material issued by the Sputnik news agency. The Centre for Research on Globalization regularly reposts content from both outlets. Chossudovsky was interviewed in the documentary film \"The Weight of Chains\", which was partly sponsored by the Centre for Research on Globalization.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Centre for Research on Globalization.", "content": "In 2001, Chossudovsky founded the Centre for Research on Globalization (CRG), becoming its editor and director. Located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, it describes itself as an \"independent research and media organization\" that provides \"analysis on issues which are barely covered by the mainstream media\".  The Centre for Research on Globalization promotes conspiracy theories and falsehoods. It has reported that the September 11 attacks were a false flag attack planned by the CIA, that the United States and its allies fund al-Qaeda and the Islamic State, and that sarin gas was not used in the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack, which globalresearch.ca articles characterized as a false flag operation orchestrated by terrorists opposed to Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. Other articles published on the site have asserted that the 7 July 2005 London bombings were perpetrated by the United States, Israel, and United Kingdom. Chossudovsky has himself posted articles on the site which suggested that Osama bin Laden was a CIA asset, and accusing the United States, Israel and Britain of plotting to conquer the world. The Centre has also promoted the Irish slavery myth, prompting a letter by more than 80 scholars debunking the myth.  According to PolitiFact, the Centre \"has advanced specious conspiracy theories on topics like 9/11, vaccines and global warming.\" \"Foreign Policy\" magazine has commented that the Centre \"sells books and videos that 'expose' how the September 11 terrorist attacks were'most likely a special covert action' to 'further the goals of corporate globalization.'\" A 2010 study categorized the website as a source of anti-vaccine misinformation. The Atlantic Council's Digital Forensic Research Lab described it as \"pro-Putin and anti-NATO\". \"The Jewish Tribune\" described the Centre as being \"rife with anti-Jewish conspiracy theory and Holocaust denial.\" Writing for \"The New Republic\", Muhammad Idrees Ahmad, lecturer in digital journalism at the University of Stirling, describes the Centre's website as a \"conspiracy site\".  In November 2017, \"The Globe and Mail\" reported that the Centre's website was \"in the sights\" of NATO information warfare specialists investigating \"the online spread of pro-Russia propaganda and of disinformation.\" According to the \"Globe\", NATO's Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence (StratCom) believed that the site was playing a \"key accelerant role in helping popularize articles with little basis in fact that also happen to fit the narratives being pushed by the Kremlin\" and the Syrian regime of Bashar al-Assad. The report described the site as an \"online refuge for conspiracy theorists\" and suggested that NATO specialists viewed it as \"a link in a concerted effort to undermine the credibility of mainstream Western media—as well as the North American and European public's trust in government and public institutions.\" Asked to comment on the report, Chossudovsky responded through his lawyer, saying that the Centre did not have ties to pro-Russia or pro-Assad networks, was not \"affiliated with governmental organizations\" and did not benefit from their support.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Michel Chossudovsky (born 1946) is a Canadian economist, author and conspiracy theorist. He is professor emeritus of economics at the University of Ottawa and the president and director of the Centre for Research on Globalization (CRG), which publishes conspiracy theories. Chossudovsky has promoted 9/11 conspiracy theories.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974462}
{"src_title": "Sergei Dovlatov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Dovlatov was born on September 3, 1941 in Ufa, Republic of Bashkiria within RSFSR, USSR, where his family had been evacuated in the beginning of World War II from Leningrad and lived with a collaborator of The People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs (NKVD) for three years. His mother, Nora Dovlatova, was Armenian and worked as a proofreader, and his father,, was Jewish and a theater director.  After 1944 he lived with his mother in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg). Dovlatov studied at the Finnish Department of Leningrad State University, but flunked after two and a half years. There he socialized with the Leningrad poets Yevgeny Rain, Anatoly Naiman, Joseph Brodsky, the writer Sergey Wolf, and the artist Alexander Ney.  He was drafted into the Soviet Internal Troops and served as a prison guard in high-security camps. Later, he earned his living as a journalist in various newspapers and magazines in Leningrad and then as a correspondent of the Tallinn newspaper \"Sovetskaya Estonia\" (Советская Эстония/Soviet Estonia). He supplemented his income by being a summer tour guide in the Pushkin preserve, a museum near Pskov. Dovlatov wrote prose fiction, but his numerous attempts to get published in the Soviet Union were in vain.  Unable to publish in the Soviet Union, Dovlatov circulated his writings through samizdat and by having them smuggled into Western Europe for publication in foreign journals; an activity that caused his expulsion from the Union of Soviet Journalists of the USSR in 1976. The Western Russian-Language magazines which published his work include \"Continent\" and \"Time and Us. \"The typeset 'formes' of his first book were destroyed under the order of the KGB.  In 1979 Dovlatov emigrated from the Soviet Union with his mother, Nora, and came to live with his wife and daughter in New York City, where he later co-edited \"The New American\", a liberal, Russian-language émigré newspaper. In the mid 1980s, Dovlatov finally achieved recognition as a writer, being printed in the prestigious magazine \"The New Yorker\". Dovlatov died of heart failure on August 24, 1990 in New York City and was buried at the Mount Hebron Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Sergei Dovlatov published twelve books in the United States and Europe during his twelve years as an immigrant. In the USSR, the writer was known from underground publication Samizdat and broadcasting organization Radio Liberty Channel since his works were not published in the Soviet Union. After his death and the beginning of Perestroika as a turning point in the Russian history, numerous collections of his short stories were also published in Russia.  Published during his lifetime:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical perception.", "content": "Joseph Brodsky said of Dovlatov, \"He is the only Russian writer whose works will be read all the way through\" and that: \"The decisive thing is his tone, which every member of a democratic society can recognize: the individual who won't let himself be cast in the role of a victim, who is not obsessed with what makes him different.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quotes.", "content": "\"One can revere Tolstoy's mind. Delight in Pushkin's finesse. Appreciate the spiritual quest of Dostoyevsky. Gogol's humor. And so on. Yet Chekhov is the only one I would want to resemble.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary style.", "content": "Dovlatov's rule that, as he said, \"limited the prosaic just like rhyme limits the poet\", was to build the sentences so that there were no two words that started with the same letter.  His sentences are mostly short and simple, rarely containing clauses.  As he expressed in \"Craft: A Story in Two Parts\" (1985), his idol was Ernest Hemingway, at least in earlier literary life, and his works were largely autobiographic, reminiscent of Hemingway's style. Later he became much fascinated and influenced by Joseph Brodsky, whom he knew well personally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "On June 26, 2014, the New York City Council named the intersection of 63rd Drive and 108th Street \"Sergei Dovlatov Way\". The petition to request this honor was signed by 18,000 people; in the same year a new edition, translated by his daughter Katherine Dovlatov, of the author's 'Pushkin Hills' was published. The work was nominated for Best Translated Book Award. The opening ceremony was held at the corner of 108th Street and 63rd Drive on September 7, 2014; three Russian television news stations recorded the event and the celebration continued at the late author's home nearby.  A biographical film about Sergei Dovlatov was released in 2018. This film is in competition in the Berlinale 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sergei Donatovich Dovlatov-Mechik (; September 3, 1941 – August 24, 1990) was a Soviet journalist and writer. Internationally, he is one of the most popular Russian writers of the late 20th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974463}
{"src_title": "Concordat of 1801", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "During the French Revolution, the National Assembly had taken Church properties and issued the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which made the Church a department of the State, effectively removing it from papal authority. At the time, the nationalized Gallican Church was the official church of France, but it was essentially Catholicism. The Civil Constitution caused hostility among the Vendeans towards the change in the relationship between the Catholic Church and the French government. Subsequent laws abolished the traditional Gregorian calendar and Christian holidays.  The Concordat was drawn up by a commission with three representatives from each party. Napoleon Bonaparte, who was First Consul of the French Republic at the time, appointed Joseph Bonaparte, his brother, Emmanuel Crétet, a counselor of state, and Étienne-Alexandre Bernier, a doctor in theology. Pope Pius VII appointed Cardinal Ercole Consalvi, Cardinal Giuseppe Spina, archbishop of Corinth, and his theological adviser, Father Carlo Francesco Maria Caselli. The French bishops, whether still abroad or returned to their own country, had no part in the negotiations. The concordat as finally arranged practically ignored them.  While the Concordat restored some ties to the papacy, it was largely in favor of the state; it wielded greater power vis-à-vis the Pope than previous French regimes had, and church lands lost during the Revolution would not be returned. Napoleon understood the utility of religion as an important factor of social cohesion. His was a utilitarian approach. He could now win favor with French Catholics while also controlling Rome in a political sense. Napoleon once told his brother Lucien in April 1801, \"Skillful conquerors have not got entangled with priests. They can both contain them and use them.\" As a part of the Concordat, he presented another set of laws called the Organic Articles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contents.", "content": "Napoleon looked for the recognition by the Church of the disposition of its property and geographical reorganization of bishoprics, while Rome sought the protection of Catholics and the recognition of a special status of the Catholic Church in the French State. The main terms of the Concordat of 1801 between France and Pope Pius VII included:  According to Georges Goyau, the law known as \"The Organic Articles\", promulgated in April 1802, infringed in various ways on the spirit of the concordat. The document claimed Catholicism was \"the religion of the majority of Frenchmen,\" and still gave state recognition to Protestants and Jews as well.  The Concordat was abrogated by the law of 1905 on the separation of Church and state. However, some provisions of the Concordat are still in effect in the Alsace-Lorraine region under the local law of Alsace-Moselle, as the region was controlled by the German Empire at the time of the 1905 law's passage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Concordat of 1801 was an agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, signed on 15 July 1801 in Paris. It remained in effect until 1905. It sought national reconciliation between revolutionaries and Catholics and solidified the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of France, with most of its civil status restored. The hostility of devout French Catholics against the revolutionary state had then largely been resolved. It did not restore the vast church lands and endowments that had been seized upon during the revolution and sold off. Catholic clergy returned from exile, or from hiding, and resumed their traditional positions in their traditional churches. Very few parishes continued to employ the priests who had accepted the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of the Revolutionary regime. While the Concordat restored much power to the papacy, the balance of church-state relations tilted firmly in Napoleon's favour. He selected the bishops and supervised church finances.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974464}
{"src_title": "Jean-Loup Chrétien", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal.", "content": "Chrétien was born in the town of La Rochelle, France. He was married to and then divorced from Amy Kristine Jensen of New Canaan, Connecticut, and had five children (one deceased). His father, Jacques, was a Navy sailor, and his mother, the former Marie-Blanche Coudurier, was a housewife. Chrétien is fluent in French, English and Russian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Chrétien was educated at L'École communale à Ploujean, the Collège Saint-Charles à Saint-Brieuc, and the Lycée de Morlaix. He entered the École de l'Air (the French Air Force Academy) at Salon-de-Provence and graduated in 1961, receiving a master's degree in aeronautical engineering.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organisations.", "content": "Member of the board of the \"\"Académie de l'Air et de l'Espace\"\", and the French Air and Space Museum. Former Counselor for Space Activities (Manned) to the President of Dassault Aviation. Member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, the International Academy of Astronautics, and the Association of Space Explorers. Member of the Board of BRIT AIR, an airline in his hometown, Morlaix.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Chrétien received his fighter pilot/pilot-engineer wings in 1962, after one year of training on Mystère IVs. He was promoted to Lieutenant, and joined the 5th Fighter Squadron in Orange, in the Southeast of France, where he served for seven years as a fighter pilot in an operational squadron flying Super-Mystere B2's and then Mirage III interceptors. In 1970, he was assigned to the French test pilots school, EPNER (Ecole du Personnel Navigant d'Essais et de Réception), then served as a test pilot at the Istres Flight Test Center for seven years. During that time he was responsible for supervising the flight test program for the Mirage F-1 fighter. In 1977–78, he was appointed Deputy Commander of the South Air Defence Division in Aix en Provence, and he served in this position until his selection as a cosmonaut in June 1980. Chrétien remained a French Air Force officer but was placed on detachment to CNES for his space flight activities ensuring his availability for future flights with the Shuttle (NASA), Mir (Soviet Union) or Spacelab (ESA). He has accumulated over 8000 hours of flying time in various aircraft, including Tupolev 154, MiG-25, and Sukhoi Su-26 and Sukhoi Su-27. A veteran of three space flights, Chrétien was the tenth Intercosmos cosmonaut, and has spent a total of 43 days, 11 hours, 18 minutes, 42 seconds in space, including an EVA of 5 hours, 57 minutes.  In April 1979, the Soviet Union offered France the opportunity to fly a cosmonaut on board a joint Soviet-French space flight, along the same lines as the agreement to fly non-Soviet cosmonauts from member countries of the Intercosmos program. The offer was accepted, and France began a spationaut selection process in September 1979. Chrétien was one of two finalists named on 12 June 1980. He started training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in September 1980. The following year he was named as the Research Cosmonaut for the prime crew of the Soyuz T-6 mission.  Soyuz T-6 was launched on 24 June 1982, and Chrétien, Dzhanibekov and Ivanchenkov linked up with Salyut 7 and joined the crew of Berezovoi and Lebedev already on board. They spent nearly seven days carrying out a program of joint Soviet-French experiments, including a series of French echography cardiovascular monitoring system experiments, before returning to Earth after a flight lasting 7 days, 21 hours, 50 minutes, 42 seconds. This flight made him the first Western non-American to go to space, as well as the first Western European.  Following the mission he was appointed Chief, CNES Astronaut Office.  Chrétien was selected as the back-up crew member for STS-51-G (Patrick Baudry, another CNES astronaut, flew on that mission). During 1984–85, he participated in mission training at the Johnson Space Center.  Chrétien made his second space flight as a Research Cosmonaut on board Soyuz TM-7, which launched on 26 November 1988. Together with Volkov and Krikalev, he linked up with Mir and joined the crew of Titov, Manarov and Polyakov already on board. They spent 22 days carrying out a program of joint Soviet-French experiments, including a 5-hour and 57 minute EVA by Volkov and Chrétien during which the two men installed the French ERA experimental deployable structure and a panel of material samples. In making the EVA, he became the first non-American and non-Soviet to walk in space. In addition, he was the first non-Soviet cosmonaut to make a second space flight aboard a Soviet spacecraft. The mission lasted 24 days, 18 hours, 7 minutes.  During 1990–93, Chrétien participated in Buran spacecraft pilot training at the Moscow Joukovski Institute. He has also flown the Tupolev 154 and MiG-25 aircraft, flying simulators equivalent to the Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).  In 1994, he was selected as part of NASA Astronaut Group 15 to officially become an International Mission Specialist with NASA.  Chrétien attended ASCAN Training at the Johnson Space Center during 1995. He was initially assigned to work technical issues for the Operations Planning Branch of the Astronaut Office. He served on the crew of STS-86 Atlantis (25 September to 6 October 1997) the seventh mission to rendezvous and dock with the Russian Space Station Mir. Highlights included the delivery of a Mir attitude control computer, the exchange of U.S. crew members Mike Foale and David Wolf, a spacewalk by Scott Parazynski and Vladimir Titov to retrieve four experiments first deployed on Mir during the STS-76 docking mission, the transfer to Mir of 10,400 pounds of science and logistics, and the return of experiment hardware and results to Earth. Mission duration was 10 days, 19 hours, 21 minutes.  In September 2000, while visiting a Home Depot store in Webster, Texas, he was hit by a drill press that fell from a shelf more than above him. The injuries to his neck, head and shoulders were severe enough that a NASA flight surgeon determined that Chrétien could no longer fly. He was forced to retire from the space program in 2001. He filed a $15 million lawsuit against Home Depot several months after the accident. The company settled the suit in 2002. The terms of the settlement are protected by a confidentiality agreement. Chrétien is currently working for Tietronix Software as the vice president of Research and Development in Houston, Texas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Loup Jacques Marie Chrétien (born 20 August 1938) is a French retired \"Général de Brigade\" (brigadier general) in the \"Armée de l'Air\" (French air force), and a former CNES spationaut. He flew on two Franco-Soviet space missions and a NASA Space Shuttle mission. Chrétien was the first Frenchman and the first western European in space.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974465}
{"src_title": "Radio Prague", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "International cooperation.", "content": "Radio Prague International produces a number of programmes in co-operation with other radio stations, and also for them. Radio Prague's Czech section produces programmes for Czech expatriates through SBS Radio in Australia, Radio Daruvar in Croatia, Radio Timișoara in Romania and several radio stations in the United States. These programmes are sent by cassette, via the Internet or down telephone lines. The Russian section uses the Internet to send its features to two radio stations in Russia. From 2001 to 2008, the English section worked with Radio Slovakia International, Radio Budapest and Radio Polonia to produce a programme called Insight Central Europe, which examined contemporary issues facing Central Europe. The programme was discontinued in August 2008. The English Section also participates in a weekly programme called Network Europe co-produced by Deutsche Welle, Radio France International, Radio Netherlands, Radio Polonia, Radio Prague, Radio Romania International, Radio Slovakia International, Radio Sweden and Radio Ukraine International. The English Section also contributes features to Radio Polonia's Europe East programme. Both the English and German sections co-operate with a number of European radio stations on the Radio E project. The German section works together with Radio Slovakia International to produce a Czech-Slovak magazine programme. The French section contributes towards the Accents d ́Europe programme produced by Radio France Internationale. The Spanish section sends programmes to several stations in Latin America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End of Shortwave Broadcasts.", "content": "On December 8, 2010, Radio Prague announced via its Facebook page plans to end shortwave broadcasts on January 31, 2011. Part of the post read: \" The station’s financing for next year has been drastically reduced by the Foreign Ministry in line with government austerity measures aimed at cutting the state deficit.\"  As of May 2015 however, Radio Prague buys an hour of time a day on Radio Miami International to relay its programs via shortwave on 9955 kHz in both English and Spanish, targeting the Caribbean.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Radio Prague International () is the official international broadcasting station of the Czech Republic. Radio Prague broadcasts in six languages: English, German, French, Spanish, Czech and Russian. It broadcasts programmes about the Czech Republic on satellite and on the Internet. Broadcasting first began on August 31, 1936 near the spa town of Poděbrady.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974466}
{"src_title": "Francis V, Duke of Modena", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and legacy.", "content": "Francis was baptised 5 days after birth by the local archbishop in the local cathedral; Emperor Franz I of Austria, the former Holy Roman Emperor, acted as his godfather, but his uncle Archduke Ferdinand acted as proxy for the emperor.  In 1826 Francis IV of Modena appointed Count Clemente Coronini as tutor to Francis, with Don Pietro Raffaelli, who would later become Bishop of Carpi and Reggio, as his assistant. In 1829, Baron Ernest Geramb became Francis' new tutor.  On 15 September 1836, Francis became a Knight of the Austrian Order of the Golden Fleece, and 3 years later he received the Grand Cordon of the Dutch Order of the Lion.  After the death of his mother in 1840, Francis was considered the legitimate heir to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland by Jacobites as Francis I. At his death his younger brother’s daughter Maria Theresia of Austria-Este became Jacobite claimant.  On 30 March 1842, Francis married Princess Adelgunde of Bavaria, daughter of King Ludwig I of Bavaria, in the Allerheiligen-Hofkirche at the Munich Residenz. The Archbishop of Munich-Freising was the chief witness to the wedding. The couple had only one child, Princess Anna Beatrice (19 October 1848 in Gries, Bolzano – 8 July 1849 in Modena).  In 1842, Francis received another order: the Savoy Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation.  At the death of his father Francis IV of Modena on 21 January 1846, Francis succeeded as reigning Duke of Modena. As member of a cadet branch of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine he also bore the titles of an Archduke of Austria and a Prince Royal of Hungary and Bohemia from birth; from his father he inherited also the title of Duke of Reggio and Mirandola, Duke of Massa, Prince of Carrara and Lunigiana. At the death of his cousin the Empress Marie-Louise on 18 December 1847, he succeeded as Duke of Guastalla.  During the revolutions of 1848, Francis was forced to flee his Duchy by a popular uprising and was restored by Austrian troops in the following year.  In 1855, Francis established his own new order: the Order of the Eagle of Este, of which he acted as Grand Master.  In 1859 the Duchy of Modena was invaded by armies of France and Piedmont. On 14 June, Francis fled. On 18 March 1860, King Victor Emanuel II of Sardinia ordered Modena to be incorporated into the new kingdom of Italy. Francis protested against this four days later.  After the loss of his duchy, Francis withdrew to Vienna, where he lived in the Palais Modena. He also had a summer residence at Schloss Wildenwart in Bavaria. Although he spent most of his time in Austria he occasionally traveled and in 1864 he visited the Middle East.  On 7 March 1861, William Ewart Gladstone, the British Chancellor of the Exchequer, made a verbal attack against Francis. Later Lord Derby and Constantine Phipps, Marquis of Normanby discovered that Gladstone's accusation had been entirely false.  Francis died at Vienna on 20 November 1875. He left most of his huge estate to his 1st cousin twice removed Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, who subsequently used the title Archduke of Austria-Este. His remains were kept at the Capuchin Church in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancestors.", "content": "On a note of rarity, Francis shared the same birthday with his paternal grandfather/maternal great-grandfather, Ferdinand of Austria-Este.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francis V, Duke of Modena, Reggio and Guastalla, Archduke of Austria-Este, Royal Prince of Hungary and Bohemia, Duke of Mirandola and of Massa, Prince of Carrara (; 1 June 1819 – 20 November 1875) was a reigning prince. He was Duke of Modena, Reggio, and Mirandola, Duke of Guastalla from 1847 and Duke of Massa and Prince of Carrara from 1846 to 1859. His parents were Francis IV of Modena and Princess Maria Beatrice of Savoy. He was the last reigning Duke of Modena before the duchy was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974467}
{"src_title": "Callicles", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Callicles in Plato’s \"Gorgias\".", "content": "Callicles poses an immoralist argument that consists of four parts: “(1) a critique of conventional justice, (2) a positive account of ‘justice according to nature’, (3) a theory of the virtues, and (4) a hedonistic conception of the good.” For the first aspect of the argument, Callicles supports the ruling of strong individuals and criticizes the weak for trying to undermine them. He views democracy as “the tyranny of the many over the exceptional individual,” and stresses that citizens should allow themselves to be ruled by these strong individuals. This ties into the second part of his argument; Callicles cites nature, saying “[nature] shows that this is what justice has been decided to be: that the superior rule the inferior and have a greater share than they.” Socrates argues that humans should work together, while Callicles stresses that the superior individuals should be the one to rule, reaffirming the antagonism of Socrates and Callicles.  This relationship leads Socrates to push Callicles to define what makes certain individuals “superior” to others, the third part of Callicles' argument. Callicles states that these superior figures must possess “intelligence, particularly about the affairs of the city, and courage.” He states that they do not need to have the virtues of justice or moderation, as they are not important like the aforementioned values. Finally, for the last part of Callicles’ argument, Socrates presses him to state of what it is that these “superior” people deserve more. Callicles rejects Socrates' ideas of more eating and drinking, but it appears that he does not really know what it is that the superior people deserve more of over the inferior. Nevertheless, he definitely believes that they should be held in higher regard.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Callicles (; ; c. 484 – late 5th century BC) was an ancient Athenian political philosopher best remembered for his role in Plato’s dialogue \"Gorgias\", where he \"presents himself as a no-holds-barred, bare-knuckled, clear-headed advocate of \"Realpolitik\"\". While he provides a counter-argument to Plato’s philosophical ideas, the lack of other contemporaneous sources about him suggests that he may be no more than a character created by Plato for the dialogue. Another idea proposed is that Callicles is a fragment of what Plato may be, had he not Socrates to guide him. He is the antithesis to Socrates.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974468}
{"src_title": "Rob Blake", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Los Angeles Kings (1990–2001).", "content": "Blake was selected 70th overall in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft by the Los Angeles Kings. He had completed his freshman year with Bowling Green State University of the Central Collegiate Hockey Association (CCHA) when he was drafted and went on to play three years total in the college ranks, earning CCHA and NCAA West First All-Star Team honours in 1990. Blake was also the first player to ever receive the CCHA Best Offensive Defenseman award. Foregoing his final season of college eligibility, Blake joined the Kings for the final four games of the 1989–90 season before scoring 46 points in his NHL rookie campaign in 1990–91 to be named to the NHL All-Rookie Team.  After a 59-point campaign in his third season, Blake helped lead the Kings to the 1993 Stanley Cup Finals, where they were defeated in five games by the Montreal Canadiens. The following season, in 1993–94, Blake improved to a career-high 48 assists and 68 points, but the Kings failed to qualify for the playoffs.  In a season where Blake was kept to just six games due to injury, the Kings traded captain Wayne Gretzky to the St. Louis Blues at the 1995–96 trade deadline, leaving the team's captaincy vacant. Blake was named the 11th captain in team history. He served as captain from 1996 to 2001. In 1997–98, Blake received the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the NHL's best defenceman after recording a career-high 23 goals to go with 50 points.  On February 21, 2001, with Blake about to become an unrestricted free agent in the 2001 off-season, the Kings traded him (along with Steven Reinprecht) to the Colorado Avalanche in exchange for Adam Deadmarsh, Aaron Miller, Jared Aulin and a first-round pick (used to select Dave Steckel).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Colorado Avalanche (2001–2006).", "content": "After 11 seasons in Los Angeles, Blake joined Colorado late in the 2000–01 season and made an immediate impact, scoring 10 points in the final 13 games of the regular season after being traded. In the 2001 playoffs, he played a second-round series against his former club, the Kings, before he won his first and only Stanley Cup with the Avalanche, adding 19 points in 23 playoff games. In totalling 59 points in 67 games in the regular season, Blake was selected to the NHL Second All-Star Team.  On July 1, 2001, Blake re-signed with the Avalanche in the off-season to a five-year contract with an optional sixth year. As the Avalanche's top defenceman, Blake recorded his highest total with the Avalanche in recording 56 points in 75 games, third amongst NHL defenceman, in the 2001–02 season, before falling in their defence of the Stanley Cup in the Western Conference finals to the Detroit Red Wings. For his third successive season, Blake was selected to the NHL Second All-Star Team.  In the following 2002–03 season, Blake recorded his 500th career point against the Minnesota Wild on October 29, 2002. In finishing fifth in Norris Trophy voting, Blake placed second amongst Avalanche defenceman with 45 points in 79 games. In each of his first three seasons with the Avalanche, he was selected to the NHL All-Star Game, and in the 2003–04 campaign, he was selected as a starter for the 2004 All-Star Game in Saint Paul, Minnesota. He finished the season with the Avalanche, placing ninth in the NHL amongst defenceman with 46 points.  After losing a season to the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Blake returned for his final season under contract with the Avalanche in 2005–06. He continued his scoring presence amongst the Avalanche in recording 51 points in 81 games, the seventh time in his career he surpassed the 50-point plateau. On April 3, 2006, against the Chicago Blackhawks, he scored his 200th career NHL goal to become just the 17th defenceman all-time to reach the mark.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Los Angeles (2006–2008).", "content": "After five years with Colorado, the Avalanche chose not to pick up his contract option for the 2006–07 season, making him a free agent. On July 1, 2006, he re-signed with his former team, the Los Angeles Kings, for two years at $6 million per year.  Having come off a 51-point campaign with Colorado the previous year, Blake's production dipped upon his return to Los Angeles. He recorded 34 points in 2006–07 for his lowest total since 1996–97. Nevertheless, prior to the start of the 2007–08 season, Blake was renamed team captain on September 28, 2007, after previous captain Mattias Norström's departure to the Dallas Stars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "San Jose Sharks (2008–2010).", "content": "Becoming an unrestricted free agent once more in the 2008 off-season, on July 3, 2008, Blake signed a one-year, US$5 million contract with the Kings' Pacific Division rival San Jose Sharks. Blake reached the 40-point plateau once more with the Sharks, tallying 10 goals and 35 assists in his first season in San Jose.  Blake extended his contract with the Sharks, re-signing for another year at $3.5 million to avoid free agency. Blake would be named captain of the Sharks approximately six weeks after previous captain Patrick Marleau was stripped of the role by Sharks management.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "On August 11, 2014, the Los Angeles Kings announced they would be retiring Blake's number 4 jersey on January 17, 2015. He was later selected to the Colorado Avalanche's 20th anniversary team honoured on December 8, 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Executive career.", "content": "Before the 2013–14 season, the Los Angeles Kings hired Blake as assistant general manager. The Kings won the Stanley Cup in his first year. As the assistant general manager to the Kings, he also acted as the general manager for their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliates, the Manchester Monarchs (2013–2015) and the Ontario Reign (2015–).  Blake was also selected by Hockey Canada to be their general manager for the 2014 IIHF World Championship.  On April 10, 2017, the Kings named Blake the vice-president and general manager of the team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Blake and his wife Brandy have three children, sons Jack and Max, and daughter Brooke. His best friend is former NHL goaltender Dwayne Roloson, with whom he grew up playing hockey in Simcoe, Ontario. He is also distantly related to Hall of Famer Red Kelly. In 2008, Blake appeared in the Mike Myers film \"The Love Guru\" as himself. A short street in his hometown of Simcoe, Rob Blake Way, is named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Bowlby Blake (born December 10, 1969) is a Canadian professional ice hockey executive and former player. He is the current general manager of the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was originally drafted by the Kings in 1988, appearing in the 1993 Stanley Cup Finals, winning the James Norris Memorial Trophy and serving as team captain for five seasons in his initial 11-season stint with the club. In 2001, Blake was traded to the Colorado Avalanche and was a member of their 2001 Stanley Cup championship team. It was his only Stanley Cup as a player, though he won the Cup again as a member of the Kings' front office in 2014. After a two-season return to Los Angeles, Blake signed with the San Jose Sharks in 2008, retiring as its captain after the 2009–10 season. Four years later, in 2014, Blake was elected into the Hockey Hall of Fame.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974469}
{"src_title": "Silicate mineral paint", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Alchemists in their pursuit of the philosopher's stone (to manufacture gold) found glassy shimmering pearls in fireplaces. Sand mixed with potash and heat coalesced into pearls of water glass. Small round panes of water glass were first industrially manufactured for used as windows in the 19th century by Van Baerle in Gernsheim and Johann Gottfried Dingler in Augsburg. Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs made the first attempts to create paints with water glass.  Around 1850, the painters Kaulbach and Schlotthauer applied facade paints of the Pinakothek in Munich. Due to use of earth pigments, which cannot be silicated, the paintings washed out of the water glass.  In 1878, the craftsman and researcher Adolf Wilhelm Keim patented \"mineral paints\". Since then, they have been manufactured by the successor company Keimfarben in Diedorf near Augsburg.  Keim depended on V. van Baerle as the source of water glass. Keim also attempted to manufacture silicate paints himself. His experiments took years to mature, but he finally achieved good results. The Silinwerk van Baerle in Gernsheim near the Rhine river and Keimfarben in Diedorf near Augsburg are well-known manufacturers.  The impetus for Keim's intense research originated from King Ludwig I. of Bavaria. The art-minded monarch was so impressed by the colorful lime frescoes in northern Italy that he desired to experience such artwork in his own kingdom Bavaria. But the weather north of the alps - known to be significantly more harsh - destroyed the artful paintings within short time. Therefore, he issued an order to Bavarian science to develop paint with the appearance of lime but greater durability.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "Mineral paint contains inorganic colorants, and potassium-based, alkali silicate (\"water glass\"), also known as \"potassium silicate\", \"liquid potassium silicate\", or \"LIQVOR SILICIVM\". A coat with mineral colors does not form a layer but instead permanently bonds to the substrate material (silicification).  The result is a highly durable connection between paint coat and substrate. The water glass binding agent is highly resistant to UV light. While dispersions based on acrylate or silicone resin over the years tend to grow brittle, chalky, and crack under UV, the inorganic binder water glass remains stable. The chemical fusion with the substrate and the UV stability of the binder are the fundamental reasons for the extraordinarily high lifetime of silicate paints.  Silicate paints require siliceous substrate for setting. For this reason they are highly suitable for mineral substrates such as mineral plasters and concrete. They are only of limited use for application on wood and metal. The permeability to water vapor of silicate paints is equivalent to that of the substrate, so silicate paints do not inhibit the diffusion of water vapor. Moisture contained in parts of a structure or in the plaster may diffuse outward without resistance: this keeps walls dry and prevents structural damage. This addition helps avoid condensation of water on the surface of building materials, reducing the risk of infestation by algae and fungi. The high alkalinity of the water glass binding agent adds to the inhibitory effect against infestation by microorganisms and completely eliminates the need for additional preservatives.  As mineral paint coats are not prone to static charging and thermo-plasticity (stickiness developing under heat), which is common for surfaces coated with dispersion or silicone resin, soiling happens less, so fewer dirt particles cling to the surface and are easier to wash off. Silicate paints are incombustible and free of organic additives or solvents (DIN 18363 Painting and coating work Section 2.4.1).  Silicate paints are highly color-tone stable. As they are solely colored with mineral pigments that do not fade with exposure to UV radiation, the silicate paint coats remain constant in color for decades.  Silicate paints are based upon mineral raw materials. They are environmentally compatible in manufacture and effect. Their high durability helps to preserve resources and their contaminant-free composition preserves health and environment. For this reason, silicate paints have gained popularity, especially in sustainable construction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Commonly three types of silicate paints are distinguished: Pure silicate paint consisting of two components, a color powder in dry or water-paste form and the liquid binder water glass. (DIN 18363 \"Painting and coating work\" Section 2.4.1). The processing of pure silicate paints require great experience and know-how. These are especially common for the historic area.  Around the middle of the 20th century the first single-component silicate paint was developed. The addition of up to 5 mass percent of organic additives (e.g. acrylate dispersion, hydrophobisers, thickeners or similar) makes ready-to-use paint in containers possible. These are also called \"dispersion silicate paints\" (DIN 18363 \"Painting and coating work\" Section 2.4.1). The range of application for such silicate paints is significantly higher than for pure silicate paints as the dispersion allows coats for less solid substrates and/or organic composition. Above that handling and processing is simpler than pure silicate paint.  Since 2002 a third category of silicate paints is known: sol-silicate paint. The binder is a combination of silica sol and water glass. The organic fraction is limited to 5 mass percent similar to dispersion silicate paint allowing for chemical setting and retaining of the silicate specific advantages. The sol silicate paint allows use on non-mineral plaster. For these the bonding occurs chemically and physically. The sol-silicate paint has revolutionized the field of application of silicate paints. These paints can be applied easily and safely to nearly all common substrates.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Silicate mineral paints or mineral colors are paint coats with mineral binding agents. Two relevant mineral binders play a role in the field of colors: Lime and silicate.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974470}
{"src_title": "Lindos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Lindos was founded by the Dorians led by the king Tlepolemus of Rhodes, who arrived in about the 10th century BC. It was one of six Dorian cities in the area known as the Dorian Hexapolis. The eastern location of Rhodes made it a natural meeting place between the Greeks and the Phoenicians, and by the 8th century Lindos was a major trading centre. In the 6th century it was ruled by Cleobulus, one of the Seven Sages of Greece. The importance of Lindos declined after the foundation of the city of Rhodes in the late 5th century BC.  In classical times the acropolis of Lindos was dominated by the massive temple of Athena Lindia, which attained its final form in around 300 BC. In Hellenistic and Roman times the temple precinct grew as more buildings were added. In early medieval times these buildings fell into disuse, and in the 14th century they were partly overlaid by a massive fortress built on the acropolis by the Knights of St John to defend the island against the Ottomans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acropolis.", "content": "Above the modern town rises the acropolis of Lindos, a natural citadel which was fortified successively by the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Knights of St John and the Ottomans. This makes the site difficult to excavate and interpret archaeologically. The acropolis has views of the surrounding harbours and coastline.  On the acropolis of Lindos today parts of the following buildings may still be seen:  Some scenes of the well-known film, \"The Guns of Navarone\", were filmed here.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Excavations.", "content": "Excavations were carried out at Lindos in the years 1900 to 1914 by the Carlsberg Institute of Denmark, directed by K.F. Kinch and Christian Blinkenberg. The acropolis site was excavated down to bedrock and the foundations of all the buildings were uncovered.  During the Italian occupation of the island (1912–1945) major restoration work was carried out on the Lindos acropolis, but it was poorly done and was harmful to the historic record. The north-east side of the Temple of Athena was restored. The monumental staircase to the propylaea was rebuilt and many of the columns of the Hellenistic stoa were re-erected. Large surfaces were covered with concrete. Bases and inscribed blocks were taken from their locations and placed along the restored walls.  Judged by modern standards, this work took insufficient note of the evidence available from the excavations and in its methods did damage to the remains themselves. In recent years Greek and international archaeologists under the supervision of the Greek Ministry of Culture have been working to restore and protect the ancient buildings on the site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Lindos has a very mild climate and according to the National Observatory of Athens station it registers a mean annual temperature of 21.8 °C.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lindos (; ) is an archaeological site, a fishing village and a former municipality on the island of Rhodes, in the Dodecanese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Rhodes, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 178.9 km. It lies on the east coast of the island. It is about 40 km south of the town of Rhodes and its fine beaches make it a popular tourist and holiday destination. Lindos is situated in a large bay and faces the fishing village and small resort of Charaki.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974471}
{"src_title": "Achilleion (Corfu)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Creation by Empress Elizabeth.", "content": "The Achilleion property was originally owned by Corfiote philosopher and diplomat, and was known as \"Villa Vraila\". In 1888, the Empress of Austria after visiting the place decided that it was the ideal location for her own palace on Corfu. The palace was designed by Italian architect Raffaele Caritto and built on an area of 200,000 m. Elisabeth's husband, Emperor Franz Josef of Austria, had owned some nearby land as well. The German sculptor Ernst Herter was commissioned to create works inspired from Greek mythology. His sculpture \"Dying Achilles\" (Ancient Greek: Αχιλλεύς θνήσκων), created in Berlin in 1884 as inscribed in the statue, forms the centrepiece of the Achilleion Gardens.  The architectural design was intended to represent an ancient Phaeacian palace. The building, with the classical Greek statues that surround it, is a monument to platonic romanticism as well as escapism and was named after Achilles: \"Achilleion.\" Paintings and statues of Achilles are abundant, both in the main hall and in the gardens, depicting contrasting heroic and tragic scenes of the Trojan war. The architectural style is Pompeian and has many parallels to that of the Livadia Palace, the Russian imperial residence in Crimea. Elisabeth wrote that \"I want a palace with pillared colonnades and hanging gardens, protected from prying glances — a palace worthy of Achilles, who despised all mortals and did not fear even the gods.\" Sisi only used the Achilleion as a private palace, as a refuge from the world and her past. She only received her daughters Archduchess Marie Valerie and Archduchess Gisela with their husbands there. Elisabeth's husband, Emperor Franz Joseph, did not like sea voyages and never saw the palace.  The gardens on top of the hill provide a scenic view of the surrounding green hills and valleys, with the Ionian sea in the background.  Elisabeth frequently visited Achilleion until spring 1896. She lost interest in her palace though and even considered selling it. Much of the interior was moved back to Vienna. In September 1898 Elisabeth was assassinated by Italian anarchist Luigi Lucheni in Geneva.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Kaiser.", "content": "Achilleion was inherited by Elisabeth's daughter, Archduchess Gisela, but was not used often. German Kaiser Wilhelm II purchased Achilleion in 1907 and used it as a summer residence. During Kaiser Wilhelm's visits substantial diplomatic activity occurred in Achilleion and it became a hub of European diplomacy. The Greek royal family, and particularly Wilhelm's sister Sophia of Prussia, the crown princess and later queen consort of Greece, often came to visit Corfu. The Kaiser also invited intellectuals like the German archaeologist Wilhelm Dörpfeld to his retreat. The Emperor had a great interest in the plants of the park and hired Carl Ludwig Sprenger, a renowned botanist, who would live in the palace for about three months every year. Wilhelm mainly came to Achilleion during the Easter season as he enjoyed the local festivities and cultural events. The German imperial family were staying on Corfu for about one month every year until the outbreak of World War I, except in 1910 and 1913 when they did not go there due to political conflicts on the Balkans. Wilhelm, expanding on the main theme of the grounds, commissioned his own Achilles statue from the sculptor Johannes Götz who created an imposing bronze sculpture that stands as guardian of the gardens, facing north toward the city.  Archaeologist Reinhard Kekulé von Stradonitz, who was also the Kaiser's advisor, was invited by the Kaiser to come to Corfu for advice as to where to position the huge statue. This tribute to Achilles from the Kaiser was inscribed at the statue's base, also by Kekulé: The inscription was subsequently removed after WWII.  The Kaiser's statue represents Achilles in full hoplite uniform with intricate detailing such as a relief of a gorgon's head at the shield, apparently to petrify any enemies. This tall statue is surrounded by palm trees that complement its graceful outline. Kaiser Wilhelm visited the place until 1914 when World War I was declared. The Kaiser also attended performances at the Municipal Theatre of Corfu while vacationing at the Achilleion.  The Kaiser, while vacationing at Achilleion and while Europe was preparing for war, had been involved in excavations at the site of the ancient temple of Artemis in Corfu. He also removed the statue of German poet Heinrich Heine which Empress Elisabeth had installed at Achilleion. Kaiser's actions became the subject of the film-poem \"The Gaze of the Gorgon\", written by British poet Tony Harrison.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The World Wars.", "content": "During World War I, the Achilleion was used as a military hospital by French and Serbian troops. After World War I, it became the property of the Greek state according to the treaty of Versailles and the war reparations that followed in 1919.  From about 1921 to 1924, the palace housed an orphanage, which accommodated Armenian orphans from Constantinople. In the remaining years between the two world wars, the Achilleion property was used for various government functions and a number of artifacts were auctioned off.  During World War II, the Axis powers used the Achilleion as military headquarters. After the war, the Achilleion came under the management umbrella of the Hellenic Tourist Organisation (HTO).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later.", "content": "In 1962, the Achilleion was leased to a private company that converted the upper level to a casino and the lower grounds to a museum. In 1983 the lease was terminated and the palace management was returned to the HTO.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conference.", "content": "In September 1979, twelve historians from the United States, the UK, and Germany, assembled to discuss Kaiser Wilhelm's character and the historical role he played in German politics and society. The conference was held at what once was the Kaiser's bed-chamber and the proceedings were published in the book \"Kaiser Wilhelm II New Interpretations: The Corfu Papers\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "European role.", "content": "Briefly reclaiming the status of centre for European diplomacy that it possessed during the Kaiser years, the Achilleion has been used in recent times for the European summit meeting in 1994, and in 2003 it hosted the meeting of the European ministers for Agriculture. Lately it has been used as a museum while the casino function has been relocated to the Corfu Hilton.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Achilleion in film.", "content": "The casino scene of the James Bond film \"For Your Eyes Only\" (1981) was filmed at the Achilleion.  Achilleion is also featured Tony Harrison film-poem \"The Gaze of the Gorgon\" when a chorus of tourists says in rhyming verse:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Achilleion () is a palace built in Gastouri (Γαστούρι) on the Island of Corfu for the Empress () Elisabeth of Austria, also known as Sisi, after a suggestion by the Austrian consul Alexander von Warsberg. Elisabeth was deeply saddened by the tragic loss of her only son, Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria following the Mayerling incident in 1889, and a year later she had this summer palace built as a refuge.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974472}
{"src_title": "Adela of Champagne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Adela was the third child and first daughter of Theobald II, Count of Champagne and Matilda of Carinthia, and had nine brothers and sisters. She was named after her paternal grandmother Adela of Normandy. When Louis VII’s second wife, Constance of Castile, died in childbirth in 1160, he was devastated and became convinced that he would die young as well, fearing that the country would fall into chaos as he had no male heir. As he was desperate for a son, King Louis married 20-year-old Adela of Champagne five weeks later, on 13 November 1160. Adela's coronation was held the same day. She went on to give birth to Louis VII’s only son, Philip II, and to the future Byzantine empress Agnes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queenship.", "content": "The marriage between Adela and Louis VII served as a peace treaty between one of King Louis’ most rebellious vassals, Theobald II of Champagne who was an incredibly powerful feudal lord of France. The marriage was a way to ensure peace between the crown and Theobald. At the time of the marriage, the king was still mourning the death of his Spanish wife. This grief was very public on the part of the king, but Adela was praised greatly for conquering his heart \"bit by bit\". It took five years for Adela to give birth to Louis VII's only son, the future Philip Augustus, also called Philip \"Dieu-Donne\" or \"God-given\" because his birth was long awaited by a kingdom that had enjoyed a long unbroken lineage of undisputed male heirs to the throne. Philip’s birth meant the continuing rule of Capetian monarchs in France.  Adela was active in the political life of the kingdom, along with her brothers Henry I, Theobald V, and William of the White Hands. Henry and Theobald were married to daughters of Louis VII and his first wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine. Adela and her brothers kept their political power base after the succession of her son to the throne in September 1180.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Widowhood.", "content": "Adela and her brothers, Henry I of Champagne, Theobald V of Blois, Stephen I of Sancerre, and William White Hands, felt their position threatened when the heiress of Artois, Isabella of Hainault, married Adela's son Philip in April 1180. Adela formed an alliance with Hugh III of Burgundy and Philip I of Flanders, and even tried to interest Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. War broke out in 1181, and relations became so bad that Philip attempted to divorce Isabella in 1184. He called a council at Sens for the purpose of repudiating her. According to Gislebert of Mons, Isabella then appeared barefooted and dressed as a penitent in the town's churches to gain public support, which convinced Philip to change his mind. He gradually developed genuine respect and love for Isabella and was devastated by her early death in March 1190.  Philip appointed Adela as regent of France several months later before he left the country on the Third Crusade. She returned to the shadows when he returned in 1191 but participated in the founding of many abbeys.  Queen Adela died on 4 June 1206 in Paris and was buried in the church of Pontigny Abbey near Auxerre. Upon learning of her death, Philip reportedly refused to speak to anyone for two days afterwards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adela of Champagne (; c. 1140 – 4 June 1206), also known as Adelaide, Alix and Adela of Blois, was Queen of France as the third wife of Louis VII. She was regent of France from 1190-1191 while her son Philip II participated in the Third Crusade.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974473}
{"src_title": "Martin XB-48", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1944, the U.S. War Department was aware of aviation advances in Germany and issued a requirement for a range of designs for medium bombers weighing from to more than. Other designs resulting from this competition, sometimes nicknamed \"The Class of 45\", included the North American XB-45 and the Convair XB-46. Production orders finally went to the North American B-45 Tornado, and even this airplane served only for a couple of years before again being replaced by the much more modern Boeing B-47 Stratojet, although the B-45 had the inherent performance – especially if it was not burdened with a payload – for it to then serve as a reconnaissance aircraft.  All of the bombers comprising the Class of '45 were transitional aircraft, which combined the power of turbojets with the aeronautical knowledge of World War II. The XB-48 was no exception, as its round fuselage and unswept wings showed a distinct influence of Martin's B-26 Marauder medium bomber. Still, where the B-26 had enough thrust with two massive 18-cylinder radial engines, the XB-48 needed no less than six of the new jet engines.  At the time of the XB-48's design, jet propulsion was still in its infancy. And, although it appeared superficially to have six separate engine nacelles – that is, three under each wing – the XB-48 actually had only two, unusually wide, three-engined nacelles. Each of these large nacelles also contained an intricate set of air ducts that constituted the engines' cooling system.  The XB-48 was the first aircraft designed with bicycle-type tandem landing gear, which had previously been tested on a modified B-26. The wing airfoil was too thin to house conventional landing gear mechanisms. The main landing gear was in the fuselage and small outriggers located on each wing were used to balance the aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The XB-48 made its first flight on 22 June 1947, a 37-minute, 73 mi (117 km) hop from Martin's Baltimore, Maryland plant to NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, but blew all four tires on its fore-and-aft mounted undercarriage on landing when pilot Pat Tibbs applied heavy pressure to the specially-designed, but very slow to respond, insensitive air-braking lever. Tibbs and co-pilot Dutch Gelvin were uninjured.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Martin XB-48 was an American medium jet bomber developed in the mid-1940s. It competed with the Boeing B-47 Stratojet, which proved to be a superior design, and was largely considered as a backup plan in case the B-47 ran into development problems. It never saw production or active duty, and only two prototypes, serial numbers 45-59585 and 45-59586, were built.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974474}
{"src_title": "Miller effect", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Miller effect was named after John Milton Miller. When Miller published his work in 1920, he was working on vacuum tube triodes; however, the same theory applies to more modern devices such as bipolar and MOS transistors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derivation.", "content": "Consider an ideal inverting voltage amplifier of gain formula_3 with an impedance formula_6 connected between its input and output nodes. The output voltage is therefore formula_7. Assuming that the amplifier input draws no current, all of the input current flows through formula_6, and is therefore given by  The input impedance of the circuit is  If formula_6 represents a capacitor with impedance formula_12, the resulting input impedance is  Thus the effective or Miller capacitance \"C\" is the physical \"C\" multiplied by the factor formula_14.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effects.", "content": "As most amplifiers are inverting (formula_3 as defined above is positive), the effective capacitance at their inputs is increased due to the Miller effect. This can reduce the bandwidth of the amplifier, restricting its range of operation to lower frequencies. The tiny junction and stray capacitances between the base and collector terminals of a Darlington transistor, for example, may be drastically increased by the Miller effects due to its high gain, lowering the high frequency response of the device.  It is also important to note that the Miller capacitance is the capacitance seen looking into the input. If looking for all of the RC time constants (poles) it is important to include as well the capacitance seen by the output. The capacitance on the output is often neglected since it sees formula_16 and amplifier outputs are typically low impedance. However if the amplifier has a high impedance output, such as if a gain stage is also the output stage, then this RC can have a significant impact on the performance of the amplifier. This is when pole splitting techniques are used.  The Miller effect may also be exploited to synthesize larger capacitors from smaller ones. One such example is in the stabilization of feedback amplifiers, where the required capacitance may be too large to practically include in the circuit. This may be particularly important in the design of integrated circuits, where capacitors can consume significant area, increasing costs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mitigation.", "content": "The Miller effect may be undesired in many cases, and approaches may be sought to lower its impact. Several such techniques are used in the design of amplifiers.  A current buffer stage may be added at the output to lower the gain formula_3 between the input and output terminals of the amplifier (though not necessarily the overall gain). For example, a common base may be used as a current buffer at the output of a common emitter stage, forming a cascode. This will typically reduce the Miller effect and increase the bandwidth of the amplifier.  Alternatively, a voltage buffer may be used before the amplifier input, reducing the effective source impedance seen by the input terminals. This lowers the formula_18 time constant of the circuit and typically increases the bandwidth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Impact on frequency response.", "content": "Figure 2A shows an example of Figure 1 where the impedance coupling the input to the output is the coupling capacitor \"C\". A Thévenin voltage source \"V\" drives the circuit with Thévenin resistance \"R\". The output impedance of the amplifier is considered low enough that the relationship \"V\"= \"-A\"\"V\" is presumed to hold. At the output \"Z\" serves as the load. (The load is irrelevant to this discussion: it just provides a path for the current to leave the circuit.) In Figure 2A, the coupling capacitor delivers a current jω\"C\"(\"V\" − \"V\") to the output node.  Figure 2B shows a circuit electrically identical to Figure 2A using Miller's theorem. The coupling capacitor is replaced on the input side of the circuit by the Miller capacitance \"C\", which draws the same current from the driver as the coupling capacitor in Figure 2A. Therefore, the driver sees exactly the same loading in both circuits. On the output side, a capacitor \"C\" = (1 + 1/\"A\")\"C\" draws the same current from the output as does the coupling capacitor in Figure 2A.  In order for the Miller capacitance to draw the same current in Figure 2B as the coupling capacitor in Figure 2A, the Miller transformation is used to relate \"C\" to \"C\". In this example, this transformation is equivalent to setting the currents equal, that is or, rearranging this equation This result is the same as \"C\" of the \"Derivation Section\".  The present example with \"A\" frequency independent shows the implications of the Miller effect, and therefore of \"C\", upon the frequency response of this circuit, and is typical of the impact of the Miller effect (see, for example, common source). If \"C\" = 0 F, the output voltage of the circuit is simply \"A v\", independent of frequency. However, when \"C\" is not zero, Figure 2B shows the large Miller capacitance appears at the input of the circuit. The voltage output of the circuit now becomes  and rolls off with frequency once frequency is high enough that ω\"CR\" ≥ 1. It is a low-pass filter. In analog amplifiers this curtailment of frequency response is a major implication of the Miller effect. In this example, the frequency ω\"\" such that ω\"\" \"CR\" = 1 marks the end of the low-frequency response region and sets the bandwidth or cutoff frequency of the amplifier.  The effect of \"C\" upon the amplifier bandwidth is greatly reduced for low impedance drivers (\"C\" \"R\" is small if \"R\" is small). Consequently, one way to minimize the Miller effect upon bandwidth is to use a low-impedance driver, for example, by interposing a voltage follower stage between the driver and the amplifier, which reduces the apparent driver impedance seen by the amplifier.  The output voltage of this simple circuit is always \"A v\". However, real amplifiers have output resistance. If the amplifier output resistance is included in the analysis, the output voltage exhibits a more complex frequency response and the impact of the frequency-dependent current source on the output side must be taken into account. Ordinarily these effects show up only at frequencies much higher than the roll-off due to the Miller capacitance, so the analysis presented here is adequate to determine the useful frequency range of an amplifier dominated by the Miller effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Miller approximation.", "content": "This example also assumes \"A\" is frequency independent, but more generally there is frequency dependence of the amplifier contained implicitly in \"A\". Such frequency dependence of \"A\" also makes the Miller capacitance frequency dependent, so interpretation of \"C\" as a capacitance becomes more difficult. However, ordinarily any frequency dependence of \"A\" arises only at frequencies much higher than the roll-off with frequency caused by the Miller effect, so for frequencies up to the Miller-effect roll-off of the gain, \"A\" is accurately approximated by its low-frequency value. Determination of \"C\" using \"A\" at low frequencies is the so-called Miller approximation. With the Miller approximation, \"C\" becomes frequency independent, and its interpretation as a capacitance at low frequencies is secure.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In electronics, the Miller effect accounts for the increase in the equivalent input capacitance of an inverting voltage amplifier due to amplification of the effect of capacitance between the input and output terminals. The virtually increased input capacitance due to the Miller effect is given by where formula_2 is the voltage gain of the inverting amplifier (formula_3 positive) and formula_4 is the feedback capacitance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974475}
{"src_title": "Nidaros Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Nidaros Cathedral was built beginning in 1070 to memorialize the burial place of Olav II of Norway, the king who was killed in 1030 in the Battle of Stiklestad. He was canonized as Saint Olav a year later by Grimketel, the Bishop of Nidaros (the canonization was later confirmed by the pope). It was designated the cathedral of the Catholic Archdiocese of Nidaros from its establishment in 1152 until its abolition in 1537 under the Reformation.  Since the Reformation, it has served as the cathedral of the Lutheran bishops of Trondheim (or Nidaros) in the Diocese of Nidaros. The architectural style of the cathedral is Romanesque and Gothic. Historically it has been an important destination for pilgrims coming from all of Northern Europe.  Along with Vår Frue Church, the cathedral is part of the \"Nidaros og Vår Frue\" parish in the Nidaros deanery in the Diocese of Nidaros.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Building and restoration.", "content": "Work on the cathedral as a memorial to St. Olav started in 1070. It was finished some time around 1300, nearly 150 years after being established as the cathedral of the diocese. The cathedral was badly damaged by fires in 1327 and again in 1531. The nave was destroyed and was not rebuilt until the restoration in early 1900s.  In 1708, the church burned down completely except for the stone walls. It was struck by lightning in 1719, and was again ravaged by fire. Major rebuilding and restoration of the cathedral started in 1869, initially led by architect Heinrich Ernst Schirmer, and nearly completed by Christian Christie. It was officially completed in 2001. Maintenance of the cathedral is an ongoing process.  The oldest parts of the cathedral consist of the octagon with its surrounding ambulatory. This was the site of the original high altar, with the reliquary casket of Saint Olav, and choir. Design of the octagon may have been inspired by the Corona of Canterbury Cathedral, although octagonal shrines have a long history in Christian architecture. Similarly, the choir shows English influence, and appears to have been modeled after the Angel Choir of Lincoln Cathedral.  It is joined to the octagon by a stone screen that fills the entire east side of the choir. The principal arch of this screen is subdivided into three subsidiary arches: the central arch frames a statue of Christ the Teacher, standing on the top of a central arch of three subsidiary arches below him. The space above the principal arch, corresponding to the vault of the choir, contains a crucifix by the Norwegian sculptor Gustav Vigeland, placed between statues of the Virgin Mary and the Apostle John. Built into the south side of the ambulatory is a small well. A bucket could be lowered to draw up water drawn from the spring that originated from St. Olav's original burial place. (This was covered over by the construction of later cathedrals).  The present cathedral has two principal altars. At the east end of the chancel in the octagon is an altar at the site of the medieval high altar, behind which stood the silver reliquary casket containing the remains of St. Olav. This silver-gilt reliquary casket was melted down for coinage by Christian II and St. Olav's remains buried in an unknown location under the cathedral. The only relic known to have survived is a femur in a silver-gilt reliquary. Shaped as a forearm, it was given by Queen Josephine to St. Olav Catholic Cathedral in Oslo. The original reliquary casket was in the form of a church, with dragon heads on its gables. The dragons are similar to those carved on the gables of Norwegian stave churches. Surviving medieval reliquary caskets in Norway frequently also bear such dragon heads, for instance, that at Heddal Stave Church. He was the church's and the kingdom's patron saint. The current altar was designed to recall in marble sculpture the essential form of this reliquary casket. It replaces the previous baroque altar, which was transferred to Vår Frue Church.  The second altar is in the crossing, where the transept intersects the nave and the chancel. It bears a large modern silver crucifix. It was commissioned and paid for by Norwegian American emigrants in the early twentieth century, and the design was inspired by the memory of a similar silver crucifix in the medieval church. The medieval chapter house may also be used as a chapel for smaller groups of worshipers.  All the stained glass in the cathedral dates from its rebuilding in the 19th and 20th centuries. The windows on the north side of the church depict scenes from the Old Testament against a blue background, while those on the south side of the church depict scenes from the New Testament against a red background.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organs.", "content": "Two organs are installed in the Cathedral. The main organ was built by the Steinmeyer firm in 1930, and was erected in the north transept. It then had 125 stops. Installation of the Steinmeyer organ was commissioned in 1930 for the 900th anniversary of the Battle of Stiklestad. The organ was funded mostly by donations, particularly by Elias Anton Cappelen Smith. In 1962, the organ was heavily rebuilt and moved to the west nave. Many stops were removed; some of them were used to build a new choir organ. This organ was fully restored in 2014.  The old Baroque organ built by noted German organ builder Johann Joachim Wagner (1690–1749) during the period 1738–40 was carefully restored by Jürgen Ahrend between 1993–94. It has 30 stops and is located at a gallery in the north transept.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourist attraction.", "content": "Today, the cathedral is a popular tourist attraction. Nidaros Cathedral is the site of the observation of Olav's Wake (). This religious and cultural festival is centered upon the anniversary of the death of Saint Olav at the Battle of Stiklestad. Tourists often follow the historic Pilgrim's Route () to visit the cathedral for this and other events.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alleged Bombing plot.", "content": "The cathedral is also familiar to enthusiasts of Norwegian black metal, as it is featured on the cover artwork of \"De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas\", the 1994 studio album by Mayhem. It was rumored that members of the band who had already been associated with the burnings of other Christian churches in Norway had planned to destroy the cathedral in relation to the release of the album. When police arrested former Mayhem bassist Varg Vikernes on 19 August 1993 they had found 150 kg of explosives in his home.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nidaros Cathedral () is a cathedral of the Church of Norway located in the city of Trondheim in Trøndelag county. It is built over the burial site of King Olav II (c. 995-1030, reigned 1015-1028), who became the patron saint of the nation, and is the traditional location for the consecration of new kings of Norway. It was built over a 230 year period, from 1070 to 1300 when it was substantially completed. However additional work, additions and renovations have continued intermittently since then; the most recent changes were completed in 2001. Nidaros was designated as the cathedral for the Diocese of Nidaros in 1152. After experiencing the turmoil and controversies of the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, it was taken from the Catholic Church by the newly established state Church of Norway in 1537, which adopted the teachings and reforms of Martin Luther, Phillip Melancthon and others, becoming an Evangelical Lutheran church. Nidaros is the northernmost medieval cathedral in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974476}
{"src_title": "Anthocharis cardamines", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The common name derives from the bright orange tips of the male's forewings. The males are a common sight in spring, flying along hedgerows and damp meadows in search of the more reclusive female which lacks the orange and is often mistaken for other species of butterfly. The undersides are mottled green and white and create a superb camouflage when settled on flowerheads such as cow parsley and garlic mustard (\"Alliaria petiolata\").  Males display a variation in body size, which is attributed to their host plant. Males reared on \"C. pratensis\" become the smaller of the two variants, and those reared on \"A. petiolata\" become the larger.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"A. cardamines\" can be found throughout Europe and from temperate Asia to China.  The habitats of males and females differ significantly. Males are restricted to edges and clearings of forests for their entire lives. On rare occurrences, males will leave forest edges and enter meadows, but this is only to cross and reach another forest edge. They prefer to fly in bright sunlight and avoid areas of shade in the forest. Females are mainly found in open meadows and dry hillocks for a majority of their lives. Females only spend short period of time in forests before reentering nearby meadows. In Armenia the species inhabits not only forests and woodlands, but also meadows, where males occur together with females.  Female \"A. cardamines\" feed on the flowers listed above, in addition to all species of flowers located in the habitats where their host plants are found. They do not interrupt host plant search to find foraging habitats; instead, they visit available flowers in host plant habitats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parental care.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oviposition.", "content": "Females will tend to only deposit eggs on crucifers if they are in bloom. Furthermore, they prefer to oviposit on young inflorescences, and there have been instances of \"A. cardamines\" that refuse to deposit eggs on inflorescences that had aged. If the stem of the inflorescence is not strong enough to support the weight of the female \"A. cardamines\", they will cease egg laying.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Egg guarding.", "content": "Initially, it was believed that the bright orange color of \"A. cardamines\" egg deterred further egg laying. However, new studies have discovered another deterrent. To prevent other females from laying eggs on the same flowerhead, female \"A. cardamines\" will deposit a pheromone during egg laying. This pheromone will deter other females from also laying an egg on that flower head. Flower heads with more than one egg can still be found because the pheromone is water-soluble and relatively short-lived.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Host plant learning and selection.", "content": "When choosing host plants, female \"A. cardamines\" only lay eggs on host plants growing in the sun. Those in the shade are completely avoided, and plants partially covered in shade are only selected if the female does not have to travel through shaded areas to reach the plant. Females are extremely selective for host plant size, and larger flower heads are preferred to smaller ones. Even when smaller flower heads are overly abundant, female \"A. cardamines\" will completely ignore them in search of larger flower heads. Females will also ignore flower heads already containing a conspecific egg. This is because larva from the already laid eggs will hatch first and cannibalize any other present eggs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Egg.", "content": "Eggs of \"A. cardamines\" are always deposited on inflorescences of crucifers. When first laid, eggs are a white pigment and eventually change to orange and then brown after a few days. Eggs are also covered with a pheromone that detracts other females from ovipositing on the same crucifer.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Larva.", "content": "When hatched, the larva consumes its egg shell before eating host plant and its seed pods. The fully grown larva leaves the food plant after its five larval instars and pupates on lower vegetation. If more than one egg had been laid on the same host plant, then the larva to first hatch will cannibalize its sibling. This is the major reason why Orange tip females avoid eggs laying on the same crucifer.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Pupa.", "content": "While the earlier stages of \"A. cardamines\" are easy to find since most individuals develop on a single plant, the pupa is very difficult to locate.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Migration.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regional dispersal.", "content": "In Britain, there have been patterns found relating weather and \"A. cardamines\" appearances. From data collected from 1976 to 1998, spring and summer temperatures were found to have increased by approximately 1 degree Celsius. This has affected first appearance of \"A. cardamines\", which has advanced by 17.3 days with the increasing temperature. The increased temperature has also been to connected to increases in duration of flight period of \"A.cardamines\" in Britain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Enemies.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Predation.", "content": "Corpses of \"A. cardamines\" caterpillars are often found with darkening around a wound near the tail. These injuries are consistent with damage inflicted by spiders, which are their main predators.  The host plants of \"A. cardamines\" are often grazed by Muntjac deer. The deer favor plants with young flowers, which corresponds to the preferred plants of \"A. cardamines\" for egg laying. As a result, Muntjac deer are responsible for consuming up to nineteen percent of \"A. cardamines\" young through indirect predation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mating.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Courting.", "content": "The result of male courting depends heavily on the location of the female when courted. Females found in flight are immediately pursued by males, and the encounter almost always results in acceptance of the male mating attempt. When males encounter females already perched on vegetation, their mating attempts are usually met by a raised abdomen.  Both mated and virgin females respond to males with a raised abdomen, but the signals take different meanings. When a male encounters a mated female with a raised abdomen, it is taken as a signal of rejection, and he quickly leaves. When virgin females raise their abdomen, the signal takes on a male detention function instead of rejection. Males will continue to court a perched, virgin female with a raised abdomen until she acquiesces or flees.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pheromone.", "content": "While a specific pheromone has not been identified in \"A. cardamines\", since both the rejection signal and detention signal in females are visually identical scientists hypothesize that a chemical signal distinguish the two. Mated females tend to track the males with their abdomens during the courting attempt, and this is behavioral evidence that mated females have an anti-aphrodisiac, and that the raised abdomen presents the pheromone as close as possible to the male.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anthocharis cardamines, the orange tip, is a butterfly in the family Pieridae, which contains 1100 species of butterfly. \"A. cardamines\" is mainly found throughout Europe and temperate Asia (Palearctic) The males feature wings with a signature orange pigmentation, which is the origin of \"A. cardamines\"' common name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974477}
{"src_title": "Roman citizenship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Possible rights.", "content": "Roman citizenship was required in order to enlist in the Roman legions, but this was sometimes ignored. Citizen soldiers could be beaten by the centurions and senior officers for reasons related to discipline. Non-citizens joined the Auxilia and gained citizenship through service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classes of citizenship.", "content": "The legal classes varied over time, however the following classes of legal status existed at various times within the Roman state:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cives Romani.", "content": "The \"cives Romani\" were full Roman citizens, who enjoyed full legal protection under Roman law. \"Cives Romani\" were sub-divided into two classes:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Latini.", "content": "The \"Latini\" were a class of citizens who held the Latin Right (\"ius Latii\"), or the rights of \"ius commercii\" and \"ius migrationis\", but not the \"ius conubii\". The term \"Latini\" originally referred to the Latins, citizens of the Latin League who came under Roman control at the close of the Latin War, but eventually became a legal description rather than a national or ethnic one. Freedmen slaves, those of the \"cives Romani\" convicted of crimes, or citizens settling Latin colonies could be given this status under the law.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Socii.", "content": "\"Socii\" or \"foederati\" were citizens of states which had treaty obligations with Rome, under which typically certain legal rights of the state's citizens under Roman law were exchanged for agreed levels of military service, i.e. the Roman magistrates had the right to levy soldiers for the Roman legions from those states. However, \"foederati\" states that had at one time been conquered by Rome were exempt from payment of tribute to Rome due to their treaty status.  Growing dissatisfaction with the rights afforded to the \"socii\", and with the growing manpower demands of the legions (due to the protracted Jugurthine War and the Cimbrian War) led eventually to the Social War of 91–88 BC in which the Italian allies revolted against Rome.  The Lex Julia (in full the \"Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis Danda\"), passed in 90 BC, granted the rights of the \"cives Romani\" to all \"Latini\" and \"socii\" states that had not participated in the Social War, or who were willing to cease hostilities immediately. This was extended to all the Italian \"socii\" states when the war ended (except for Gallia Cisalpina), effectively eliminating \"socii\" and \"Latini\" as legal and citizenship definitions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Provinciales.", "content": "\"Provinciales\" were those people who fell under Roman influence, or control, but who lacked even the rights of the \"Foederati\", essentially having only the rights of the \"ius gentium\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Peregrini.", "content": "A peregrinus (plural \"peregrini\") was originally any person who was not a full Roman citizen, that is someone who was not a member of the \"cives Romani\". With the expansion of Roman law to include more gradations of legal status, this term became less used, but the term \"peregrini\" included those of the \"Latini\", \"socii\", and \"provinciales\", as well as those subjects of foreign states.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Citizenship as a tool of Romanization.", "content": "Roman citizenship was also used as a tool of foreign policy and control. Colonies and political allies would be granted a \"minor\" form of Roman citizenship, there being several graduated levels of citizenship and legal rights (the Latin Right was one of them). The promise of improved status within the Roman \"sphere of influence\", and the rivalry with one's neighbours for status, kept the focus of many of Rome's neighbours and allies centered on the \"status quo\" of Roman culture, rather than trying to subvert or overthrow Rome's influence.  The granting of citizenship to allies and the conquered was a vital step in the process of Romanization. This step was one of the most effective political tools and (at that point in history) original political ideas (perhaps one of the most important reasons for the success of Rome).  Previously Alexander the Great had tried to \"mingle\" his Greeks with the Persians, Egyptians, Syrians, etc. in order to assimilate the people of the conquered Persian Empire, but after his death this policy was largely ignored by his successors.  The idea was not to assimilate, but to turn a defeated and potentially rebellious enemy (or their sons) into Roman citizens. Instead of having to wait for the unavoidable revolt of a conquered people (a tribe or a city-state) like Sparta and the conquered Helots, Rome tried to make those under its rule feel that they had a stake in the system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Edict of Caracalla.", "content": "The Edict of Caracalla (officially the Constitutio Antoniniana in Latin: \"Constitution [or Edict] of Antoninus\") was an edict issued in AD 212 by the Roman Emperor Caracalla, which declared that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and all free women in the Empire were given the same rights as Roman women. Before 212, for the most part only inhabitants of Italia held full Roman citizenship. Colonies of Romans established in other provinces, Romans (or their descendants) living in provinces, the inhabitants of various cities throughout the Empire, and a few local nobles (such as kings of client countries) also held full citizenship. Provincials, on the other hand, were usually non-citizens, although some held the Latin Right.  The Book of Acts indicates that Paul the Apostle was a Roman citizen by birth - though not clearly specifying which class of citizenship - a fact which had considerable bearing on Paul's career and on the way he shaped the new religion of Christianity.  However, by the century previous to Caracalla, Roman citizenship had already lost much of its exclusiveness and become more available.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Citizenship in ancient Rome () was a privileged political and legal status afforded to free individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974478}
{"src_title": "Camerino", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Camerino occupies the site of the ancient Camerinum, the inhabitants of which (Camertes Umbri or Umbrii-Camertii) became allies of the Romans in 310 BC or 309 BC (at the time of the attack on the Etruscans in the Ciminian Forest). On the other hand, the Katspriot referred to in the history of the year 295 BC are probably the inhabitants of Clusium. Later it appears as a dependent autonomous community with the foedus aequum, an 'equal' treaty with Rome (Mommsen, \"Römisches Staatsrecht\", iii. 664).  Two cohorts of \"Camertes\" fought with distinction under Gaius Marius against the Cimbri. It was much affected by the conspiracy of Catiline, and is frequently mentioned in the Civil Wars; under the empire it was a municipium. It belonged to ancient Umbria, but was on the borders of Picenum.  Camerino was part of the Exarchate of Ravenna until 592, when it was captured by the Lombards. The city under the latter was the seat of a marquisate and then of a duchy which was sometimes under the suzerainty of Spoleto, and which was later conquered by the Franks. In the 10th to 11th centuries the city was under the Mainardi family. Boniface III of Tuscany occupied the duchy around 1050, and then ceded it to his daughter Matilda, who in turn donated it to the Papal States.  After the year 1000, however, Camerino turned itself into an independent commune. Initially Ghibelline, it later became a Guelph stronghold and suffered much under Emperor Frederick II on account of its loyalty to the pope; Manfred of Sicily's troops, led by Percivalle Doria, besieged and destroyed it (1256): much of the population was killed, but Camerino recovered under Gentile Da Varano, who was amongst the refugees that returned in 1262. Gentile formed a lasting fiefdom for his family which lasted three centuries.  In 1382, his descendant Giovanni Da Varano built a long wall to defend the city, while a sumptuous Ducal Palace was built by Giulio Cesare in 1460. Giulio Cesare's daughter, Camilla Battista da Varano, was canonized a saint by Pope Benedict XVI in 2010. In 1336 the University was founded. The Da Varano were nearly extinguished by Cesare Borgia in 1502, and in 1545 the city fell under direct Papal administration.  In 1861, after Camerino become part of the unified Kingdom of Italy, the university was recognised by the new state. In 1958, the school became known as the University of Camerino, a public institution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "No ancient building is visible today, the Roman remains lying as much as one metre below ground level.  Principal sights include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Camerino is a town in the province of Macerata, Marche, central-eastern Italy. It is located in the Apennines bordering Umbria, between the valleys of the rivers Potenza and Chienti, about from Ancona.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974479}
{"src_title": "George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Ripon was born at 10 Downing Street, London, the second son of Prime Minister F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich (who was created Earl of Ripon in 1833), by his wife Lady Sarah Hobart, daughter of Robert Hobart, 4th Earl of Buckinghamshire. He was educated privately, attending neither school nor college.  He was awarded the honorary degree of DCL by Oxford University in 1870.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomatic and political career, 1852–1880.", "content": "Ripon served on Sir Henry Ellis' British special mission to the Brussels Conference on the affairs of Italy during 1848–1849. Although his father had been a Tory, Ripon was first a Whig and later a Liberal. He entered the House of Commons as member for Hull in 1852. Both he and his party colleague, James Clay, (Hull was a two-seat constituency) were unseated in 1853 by petition over claims of widespread corruption in their election, of which they were exonerated of any knowledge. He was returned for Huddersfield later in 1853 and the West Riding of Yorkshire in 1857. In 1859 he succeeded his father as second Earl of Ripon, taking his seat in the House of Lords, and later that year succeeded his uncle in the more senior title of Earl de Grey, becoming known as the Earl de Grey and Ripon. He was Under-Secretary of State for War under Lord Palmerston between 1859 and 1861 and 1861 and 1863 and briefly Under-Secretary of State for India in 1861. In 1863 he was made a Privy Counsellor and Secretary of State for War under Palmerston, with a seat in the cabinet. He retained this office when Lord Russell became prime minister on Palmerston's death in 1865, and then served under Russell as Secretary of State for India between February and June 1866. In Gladstone's first administration he was Lord President of the Council (1868–1873). During this period he acted as chairman of the joint commission for drawing up the Treaty of Washington with the United States over the Alabama Claims. For this, in 1871 he was created Marquess of Ripon, in the County of York. He had already been made a Knight of the Garter in 1869. In 1878 he served as President of the first day of the Co-operative Congress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Viceroy of India, 1880–1884.", "content": "When Gladstone returned to power in 1880 he appointed Ripon Viceroy of India, an office he held until 1884. During his time in India, Ripon introduced legislation (the \"Ilbert Bill,\" named for his secretary, Courtenay Ilbert), that would have granted native Indians more legal rights, including the right of Indian judges to judge Europeans in court. Though progressive in its intent, the legislation was scuppered by Europeans living in India who did not want to be tried by a native judge. In this Ripon was supported by Florence Nightingale, who also backed his efforts to obtain a Bengal land tenancy bill (eventually the Bengal Tenancy Act 1885) that would improve the situation of the peasants. He repealed the controversial Vernacular Press Act of 1878 passed by Lytton, in 1882. He was also instrumental in supporting Dietrich Brandis to reorganize the Madras Forest Department and expand systematic forest conservancy in India. In 1883, Lord Ripon joined a shooting party organised by the Maharaja of Darbhanga which had a total bag of 1683, including 4 tigers, 47 buffaloes, 280 pigs and 467 deer. The remainder being ′′small game′′. There was some criticism at ′′... such wholesale destruction, particularly as it happens to be the breeding season.′′  He is still revered in Chennai (formerly Madras), India as \"Lord Ripon engal appan\" meaning: Lord Ripon, our father. The Corporation of Chennai's Ripon Building was named for him, as well as the town of Riponpet in the Shivamogga district in the state of Karnataka. In Calcutta, the Ripon Street was named for him. The Ghanta Ghar Multan or Clock Tower of Multan in Pakistan was named Ripon Building and hall of same building was named Ripon Hall.. The Ripon Club in Mumbai (formerly Bombay) founded in 1884 by the Parsis for their community members, was named after him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career, 1884–1908.", "content": "Lord Ripon also became a supporter of Home Rule for Ireland. In Gladstone's 1886 government he was First Lord of the Admiralty, and in the government of 1892 to 1895 he was Secretary of State for the Colonies. When the Liberals again returned to power in 1905 under Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, he took office, aged 78, as Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords. In 1908, he declined to remain as Lords leader when H. H. Asquith became Prime Minister in April, and he resigned as Lord Privy Seal in October.  As noted by Neil Smith, Ripon's liberalism had roots in the mid-nineteenth century, but his political views “shifted with the times.” According to Smith  “he was greatly interested in labour questions, deeply sympathetic to labour aspirations and believed the state might interfere with wages and that the state had a duty to deal with unemployment.”", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other appointments.", "content": "Lord Ripon was President of the Royal Geographical Society during 1859–1860, and Trustee of the National Gallery. Lord Ripon also held many positions in the public life in Yorkshire. In 1860 he was appointed honorary Colonel of the 1st Volunteer Battalion of the Prince of Wales' Own (West Yorkshire) Regiment and later awarded the Volunteer Decoration (VD); in 1863 High Steward of the borough of Hull, and from 1873 to 1906 was Lord Lieutenant of the North Riding of Yorkshire. He was a deputy-lieutenant and JP for the counties of Lincolnshire and the West Riding of Yorkshire, JP for the Liberty of Ripon, and served as Mayor of Ripon in 1895–1896.  Lord Ripon was a Freemason, who served as Provincial Grand Master of the West Riding and Deputy Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge of England from 1861 to 1869, and ultimately as Grand Master from 1870 until his conversion to Catholicism in 1874, following which he was generous in supporting Catholic educational and charitable works. He was president of the Society of St Vincent de Paul from 1899 until his death and a great supporter of St. Joseph's Catholic Missionary Society. He was also Chancellor of the University of Leeds from 1904 until his death in 1909. The Ripon Falls at the outlet of Lake Victoria were named after him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Ripon married his cousin Henrietta Anne Theodosia Vyner, daughter of Henry Vyner and his wife Lady Mary Gertrude Robinson, daughter of Thomas Robinson, 2nd Earl de Grey, on 8 April 1851. They had one son and one daughter. Lady Ripon died in February 1907, aged 73. Lord Ripon survived her by two years and died of heart failure at Studley Royal Park in July 1909, aged 81. He was buried at St Mary's, Studley Royal and was succeeded by his only son, Frederick. His estate was assessed for probate with a value of £127,292. 15s. 8d. (equivalent to £ million in ).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon, (24 October 1827 – 9 July 1909), styled Viscount Goderich from 1833 to 1859 and known as The Earl of Ripon in 1859 and as The Earl de Grey and Ripon from 1859 to 1871, was a British politician who served in every Liberal cabinet from 1861 until the year before his death, which took place forty-eight years later in 1909.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974480}
{"src_title": "Souad Massi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood and early bands.", "content": "Massi was born in Algiers, Algeria to a poor family of six children. She grew up in the working-class Bab El Oued neighborhood of Algiers and took up singing and playing the guitar at an early age.  In the early 1990s, Massi joined the Algerian political rock band Atakor, who were influenced by Western rock bands such as Led Zeppelin and U2. She recorded and performed with the group for seven years, releasing a successful album and two popular music videos. The band, however, with its political lyrics and growing popularity, became a target. Massi disguised herself by cutting her hair and dressing in male clothing, but she nevertheless became the target of a series of anonymous death threats. In 1999, she left the band and moved to Paris, France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Souad Massi currently lives in Paris, France with her French-Moroccan husband Mohammed and their two daughters Inji and Amira. She is a fan of Leonard Cohen and has listed the music from AC/DC and INXS as having been among her formative influences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Solo career.", "content": "In 1999, Massi was invited to perform at the \"Femmes d'Algerie\" (\"Women of Algeria\") festival in Paris, which led to a recording contract with Island Records. In June 2001, she released her solo debut album, \"Raoui\" (\"Storyteller\"), which \"Allmusic\" compared to 1960s American folk music. Sung mostly in French and Arabic, the album became a critical and commercial success in France. The following year, she was nominated for \"Best Newcomer\" at the Radio 3 World Music Awards.  In 2003, she released her second album, \"Deb\" (\"Heartbroken\"). The album's lyrics were more personal, rather than political, and it became one of the most successful North African albums worldwide. Three years later, Massi released her third album, \"Mesk Elil\" (\"Honeysuckle\"). The album expanded on the themes of love and loss that had been explored on \"Deb\", and featured duets with Daby Toure and Rabah Khalfa. She was the Italian variety show's guest star \"Non facciamoci prendere dal panico\" in 2006 by Italian singer and showman Gianni Morandi.  In 2010, she released her fourth studio album \"Ô Houria\". This album was produced by Francis Cabrel and Francoise Michel. It features Paul Weller on piano and vocals on its closing song.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Souad Massi (سعاد ماسي), born August 23, 1972, is an Algerian Berber singer, songwriter and guitarist. She began her career performing in the Kabyle political rock band Atakor, before leaving the country following a series of death threats. In 1999, Massi performed at the \"Femmes d'Algerie\" concert in Paris, which led to a recording contract with Island Records.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974481}
{"src_title": "Kawésqar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The English and other Europeans initially adopted the name that the Yahgan, a competing indigenous tribe whom they met first in central and southern Tierra del Fuego, used for these people: Alacaluf or Halakwulup (meaning \"mussel eater\" in the Yahgan language). Their own name for themselves (autonym) is Kawésqar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Like the Yahgan in southern Chile and Argentina, the Kawésqar were a nomadic seafaring people, called canoe-people by some anthropologists. They made canoes that were eight to nine meters long and one meter wide, which would hold a family and its dog. They continued this fishing, nomadic practice until the twentieth century, when they were moved into settlements on land. Because of their maritime culture, the Kawésqar have never farmed the land.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "The total population of the Kawésqar was estimated not to exceed 5,000. They ranged from the area between the Gulf of Penas (Golfo de Penas) to the north and the Brecknock Peninsula (Península de Brecknock) to the south. Like other indigenous peoples, they suffered high fatalities from endemic European infectious diseases, to which they had no immunity. Their environment was disrupted as Europeans began to settle in the area in the late 1880s.  In the 1930s many remaining Alacaluf were relocated to Wellington Island, in the town of Puerto Edén, to shield them from pressures from the majority culture. Later they moved further south, to Puerto Natales and Punta Arenas.  In the 21st century, few Kawésqar remain. The 2002 census found 2,622 people identifying as Kawésqar (defined as those who still practiced their native culture or spoke their native language). In 2006, only 15 full-blooded members remained, but numerous mestizo have Kawésqar ancestry. Lessons in the Kawésqar language are part of the local curriculum, but few native speakers remain to encourage daily use of their traditional language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tribes and languages.", "content": "Adwipliin, Aksánas, Alacaluf, Cálen (Cálenches, Calenes,), Caucahue, Enoo, Lecheyel, Taíjataf (Tayataf), Yequinahuere (Yequinahue, Yekinauer).  By 1884 Thomas Bridges, an Anglican missionary based in Ushuaia who had been serving and studying the indigenous peoples of Tierra del Fuego since the late 1860s, and his son Despard compiled a 1200-word vocabulary for the Kawésqar language. It was in the form of a manuscript. Through the late 19th and early 20th centuries, numerous missionaries and anthropologists moved among the indigenous peoples to aid, record and study them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kawéskar in human zoos.", "content": "In 1881, European anthropologists took eleven Kawéskar people from Patagonia to be exhibited in the Bois de Boulogne in Paris, and in the Berlin Zoological Garden. Only four survived to return to Chile. Early in 2010, the remains of five of the seven who died in Europe were repatriated from the University of Zurich, Switzerland, where they had been held for studies. Upon the return of the remains, the president of Chile formally apologized for the state having allowed these indigenous people to be taken out of the country to be exhibited and treated like animals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kawésqar, also known as the Alacalufe, Kaweskar, Alacaluf or Halakwulup, are an indigenous people who live in Chilean Patagonia, specifically in the Brunswick Peninsula, and Wellington, Santa Inés, and Desolación islands of the western area of Tierra del Fuego. Their traditional language is known as Kawésqar; it is endangered as few native speakers survive.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974482}
{"src_title": "Ill Niño", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "On September 18, 2001, Ill Niño released their debut album, \"Revolution, Revolución\". The album's single, \"What Comes Around\", received significant airplay on MTV and topped the Mediabase Active Rock radio charts for five weeks. \"Revolution, Revolución\" went on to sell over 450,000 albums worldwide.  In early 2003, just before Ill Niño was set to record the follow-up, the band parted ways with guitarist Marc Rizzo and percussionist Roger Vasquez. \"Confession\" was recorded in mid-2003 and released on September 30, 2003. It debuted at No. 37 on the \"Billboard\" 200. The lead single, \"How Can I Live\", was their first single to break into the \"Billboard\" charts, peaking at No. 26 on the Mainstream Rock chart. The album has sold more than 550,000 copies.  The band's third effort\", One Nation Underground\", was released on September 27, 2005. It debuted at No. 101 on the \"Billboard\" 200 charts, and its first single, \"What You Deserve\", became the most added track at Active Rock radio, and reached the Top 20 on the Active Rock charts.  On July 15, 2006, Ill Niño parted with Roadrunner Records and signed a new deal with the recently formed Cement Shoes Records. Roadrunner released \"The Best of Ill Niño\" on September 29, 2006, as a contractual obligation to the label, and without the band's consent or involvement.  Through Cement Shoes Records they released \"The Under Cover Sessions\", an EP featuring various covers and outtakes, and \"Enigma\", their fourth studio album, released in 2008 after multiple delays.  In March 2010, they signed with Victory Records. \"Dead New World\", was released on October 25, 2010 and production was shared by Sahaj Ticotin and Clint Lowery of Sevendust. \"Epidemia\", was released on October 22, 2012. Their seventh full-length studio album, \"Till Death La Familia\", was released on July 22, 2014.  On January 15, 2019, Dave Chavarri announced that Cristian Machado, Ahrue Luster, Diego Verduzco, and Oscar Santiago \"departed the band\". Dave Chavarri announced the band had a new lineup despite ongoing legal correspondence. Chavarri claimed that Machado, Luster, Santiago and Verduzco had \"departed the band\" and asked for \"privacy\" during the member changes. One day later, amidst Dave Chavarri's claims to fans that 4 of the 6 members had \"departed the band\", Machado, Luster, Verduzco, and Santiago dismissed Chavarri's public statement claiming they had left the band. The four members instead assured the band's fans that they have \"not departed\" the band. Cristian Machado, Ahrue Luster, Diego Verduzco, and Oscar Santiago then vowed to the fans to continue with on as \"Ill Niño\".  On March 21, 2019, MetalSucks acquired a copy of the lawsuit paperwork filed by Machado, Luster and Verduzco accusing Chavarri of \"shady business deals\" such as using his status as Ill Niño's manager to scam the band into taking a financial loss while repaying a personal loan for himself, falsifying financial documents in order to keep tens of thousands of dollars for himself, pocketing show guarantees and tour advances for himself, sometimes even cancelling tours and then refusing to return the promoter's advance and refusing the band members their legally owed access to financial records among many other accusations.  In March 2020, Machado, Luster, Verduzco, Chavarri and Pina reached a mutual agreement, allowing Chavarri and Pina to continue with the Ill Niño bandname.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical style.", "content": "Ill Niño are described as Latin metal, nu metal, alternative metal and metalcore.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Band members.", "content": "Current  Former Timeline", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ill Niño is an American heavy metal band formed in New Jersey in 1998 by founder/drummer Dave Chavarri. Ill Niño developed their own unique style known to fans of the band as \"Latin metal\". They have released seven studio albums, two EPs, and one greatest hits album, selling over 2million albums worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974483}
{"src_title": "Crampons", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Materials.", "content": "Crampons are made of steel alloy, light weight aluminium, or a combination of the two. Lighter weight crampons are popular for alpine ski touring where demands are generally lower and light weight a premium.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Points.", "content": "Early 10-point crampons lacked forward angled spikes and thus required step cutting on steep terrain. In the 1930s two additional forward-slanting points were added, making them exceptional for mountaineering and glacier travel and beginning a revolution in front pointing. There is currently a range of models, including specialized crampons with as many as 14 points and models with single points for ice climbing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Attachment.", "content": "Crampons are fastened to footwear by means of a binding system. Improved attachment systems - such as a cam action \"step-in\" system similar to a ski binding and particularly well adapted to plastic technical mountaineering boots - have widely increased crampon use. Crampons also use a full \"strap-in\" system and a \"hybrid\" binding that features a toe strap at the front and a heel lever at the back.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anti-balling.", "content": "To prevent snow from balling up under crampons, especially in temperatures around freezing, most models can be fitted with plastic or rubber \"anti-balling\" systems to reduce build-up. Rubber models use flexion to repel snow while plastic anti-balling plates employ a hydrophobic surface to prevent adhesion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Grades.", "content": "Crampons are graded C1, C2 and C3 relative to their flexibility and general compatibility with different styles of boots. No crampons are suitable for B0 boots (flexible walking boots).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ski crampons.", "content": "Specialized \"ski crampons\" are employed in ski mountaineering on hard snow and ice. Far more common in the Alps than in the United States, these ski crampons are known by their European names: \"\" (German), \"couteaux\" (French) and \"coltelli\" (Italian), literally French and Italian for \"knives\" in those languages.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A crampon is a traction device that is attached to footwear to improve mobility on snow and ice during ice climbing. Besides ice climbing, crampons are also used for secure travel on snow and ice, such as crossing glaciers, snowfields and icefields, ascending snow slopes, and scaling ice-covered rock. There are three main attachment systems for footwear: step-in, hybrid, and strap bindings. The first two require boots with welts, as a tension lever attaches the crampon to the heel. The last type (strap bindings) are more versatile and can adapt to virtually any boot or shoe, but often do not fit as precisely as the other two types.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974484}
{"src_title": "Valtice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is located south-east of Prague, on the railway line from Břeclav to Znojmo. In the south it borders on the Austrian municipality of Schrattenberg. Until 1919 Valtice likewise belonged to Lower Austria. The town is part of the European Centrope multinational region project established in 2003; all border controls were abolished when the Czech Republic implemented the Schengen Agreement in 2007.  The vineyards around Valtice are a centre of Mikulovská wine production, with notable wine tasting and trade at the \"Wine Salon of the Czech Republic\" in Valtice Chateau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Feldsberg Castle in the Duchy of Austria was first mentioned in an 1192 deed; held by the Lords of Seefeld, it was located close to the border with Moravia. In 1286 Duke Albert I of Austria vested the surrounding settlement with market rights. Feldsberg was elevated to the status of a town by Duke Albert III about 1383. The estates were acquired by the noble House of Liechtenstein, then Lords of neighbouring Mikulov (\"Nikolsburg\"), in 1394 and served as the dynasty's residence until 1939.  The border town was devastated in the Hussite Wars in 1426, then again by the troops of the Bohemian king George of Poděbrady in 1458 as well as in the Austrian–Hungarian War by the forces of King Matthias Corvinus in 1480. The situation improved, when the Moravian lands in the north also became part of the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in 1526. In the mid 16th century, the citizens converted to Protestantism; however they were subjected to the measures of the Counter-Reformation under the rule of Karl I of Liechtenstein, who himself had converted to Catholicism in 1599 and in 1605 established a convent of the Brothers Hospitallers of St. John of God in Feldsberg. During the Thirty Years' War the town was again plundered by the troops of Emperor Ferdinand II in 1619 and conquered by Swedish forces under General Lennart Torstensson in 1645.  After the war Prince Karl Eusebius of Liechtenstein had his domains rebuilt, including the 13th century castle according to plans designed by the Italian architect Giovanni Giacomo Tencalla with further Baroque extensions by Fischer von Erlach. Construction was supervised by Domenico Martinelli, who was employed as an on-site architect. The palace is surrounded by an English park with a colonnade and the Temple of Diana (1812) designed by Joseph Hardtmuth as well as other Neoclassical structures.  Until the end of World War I the town of Feldsberg belonged to Lower Austria. According to the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye the town and its surroundings were annexed by newly established Czechoslovakia. The main reason was the requirement that the entire Znojmo-Břeclav railway line, a branch of the former Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway, remain inside Czechoslovak territory. The Liechtenstein princely family lost its privileges with the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and by the then newly established state of Czechoslovakia in 1918, the predecessor of the Czech Republic. The town was occupied by Nazi Germany upon the 1938 Munich Agreement and incorporated into the \"Reichsgau Niederdonau\". After World War II the remaining German population was expelled and the castle was confiscated by the Czechoslovak government; all claims for restitution have been rejected.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The town is known as a centre of wine making in Moravia. Both the National Wine Center and the Wine Salon of the Czech Republic reside in the Valtice Chateau. The annual Valtice Wine Market wine exhibition is held in the chateau riding hall at the beginning of May.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Valtice (; ) is a small town in Břeclav District, South Moravian Region in the Czech Republic, close to the Austrian border.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974485}
{"src_title": "Glyoxal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production.", "content": "Glyoxal was first prepared and named by the German-British chemist Heinrich Debus (1824–1915) by reacting ethanol with nitric acid.  Commercial glyoxal is prepared either by the gas-phase oxidation of ethylene glycol in the presence of a silver or copper catalyst (the Laporte process) or by the liquid-phase oxidation of acetaldehyde with nitric acid.  The first commercial glyoxal source was in Lamotte, France, started in 1960. The single largest commercial source is BASF in Ludwigshafen, Germany, at around 60,000 tons per year. Other production sites exist also in the US and China. Commercial bulk glyoxal is made and reported as a 40%-strength solution in water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Laboratory methods.", "content": "Glyoxal may be synthesized in the laboratory by oxidation of acetaldehyde with selenious acid.  Anhydrous glyoxal is prepared by heating solid glyoxal hydrate(s) with phosphorus pentoxide and condensing the vapors in a cold trap.  The experimentally determined Henry's law constant of glyoxal is:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biochemistry.", "content": "Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are proteins or lipids that become glycated as the result of a high-sugar diet. They are a bio-marker implicated in aging and the development, or worsening, of many degenerative diseases, such as diabetes, atherosclerosis, chronic kidney disease, and Alzheimer's disease.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Coated paper and textile finishes use large amounts of glyoxal as a crosslinker for starch-based formulations. It condenses with urea to afford 4,5-dihydroxy-2-imidazolidinone, which further reacts with formaldehyde to give the bis(hydroxymethyl) derivative dimethylol ethylene urea, which is used for wrinkle-resistant chemical treatments of clothing, i.e. permanent press.  Glyoxal is used as a solubilizer and cross-linking agent in polymer chemistry.  Glyoxal is a valuable building block in organic synthesis, especially in the synthesis of heterocycles such as imidazoles. A convenient form of the reagent for use in the laboratory is its bis(hemiacetal) with ethylene glycol, 1,4-dioxane-2,3-diol. This compound is commercially available.  Glyoxal solutions can also be used as a fixative for histology, that is, a method of preserving cells for examining them under a microscope.  Glyoxal and its derivatives are also used in the chemical probing of RNA structure, as they react with free guanines in RNAs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Speciation in solution.", "content": "Glyoxal is supplied typically as a 40% aqueous solution. Like other small aldehydes, glyoxal forms hydrates. Furthermore, the hydrates condense to give a series of oligomers, some of which remain of uncertain structure. For most applications, the exact nature of the species in solution is inconsequential. At least one hydrate of glyoxal is sold commercially, glyoxal trimer dihydrate: [(CHO)](HO) (CAS 4405-13-4). Other glyoxal equivalents are available, such as the ethylene glycol hemiacetal 1,4-dioxane-\"trans\"-2,3-diol (CAS 4845-50-5, m.p. 91–95 °C),  It is estimated that, at concentrations less than 1 M, glyoxal exists predominantly as the monomer or hydrates thereof, i.e., OCHCHO, OCHCH(OH), or (HO)CHCH(OH). At concentrations above 1 M, dimers predominate. These dimers are probably dioxolanes, with the formula [(HO)CH]OCHCHO. Dimer and trimers precipitate as solids from cold solutions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other occurrences.", "content": "Glyoxal has been observed as a trace gas in the atmosphere, e.g. as an oxidation product of hydrocarbons. Tropospheric concentrations of 0–200 ppt by volume have been reported, in polluted regions up to 1 ppb by volume.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "The LD50 (oral, rats) is 3300 mg/kg, which is very high.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Glyoxal is an organic compound with the chemical formula OCHCHO. It is the smallest dialdehyde (a compound with two aldehyde groups). It is a crystalline solid, white at low temperatures and yellow near the melting point (15 °C). The liquid is yellow, and the vapor is green.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974486}
{"src_title": "Howard P. Robertson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Howard Percy Robertson, was born in Hoquiam, Washington, on January 27, 1903, the oldest of five children of George Duncan Robertson, an engineer who built bridges in Washington state, and Anna McLeod, a nurse. His father died when he was 15 years old, but although money was short, all five siblings attended university. He entered the University of Washington in Seattle in 1918, initially with the intention of studying engineering, but he later switched to mathematics. He earned a bachelor of science degree in mathematics in 1922 and a master of science in mathematics and physics in 1923.  In 1923 Robertson married Angela Turinsky, a philosophy and psychology student at the University of Washington. They had two children: George Duncan, who became a surgeon, and Marietta, who later married California Institute of Technology (Caltech) historian Peter W. Fay. At the University of Washington he also met Eric Temple Bell, who encouraged him to pursue mathematics at Caltech. Robertson completed his PhD dissertation in mathematics and physics there in 1925 under the supervision of Harry Bateman, writing \"On Dynamical Space-Times Which Contain a Conformal Euclidean 3-Space\".  Upon receipt of his doctorate, Robertson received a National Research Council Fellowship to study at the University of Göttingen in Germany, where he met David Hilbert, Richard Courant, Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Karl and Martin Schwarzschild, John von Neumann and Eugene Wigner. He found Max Born unsympathetic to his concept of an expanding universe, which Born considered \"rubbish\". He also spent six months at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he was a post-doctoral student of Arnold Sommerfeld.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematics.", "content": "Robertson returned to the United States in 1927, and became an assistant professor of mathematics at Caltech. In 1928, he accepted a position as an assistant professor of mathematical physics at Princeton University, where he became an associate professor in 1931, and a professor in 1938. He spent 1936 on sabbatical at Caltech. His interest in general relativity and differential geometry led to a series of papers in the 1920s that developed the subject.  Robertson wrote three important papers on the mathematics of quantum mechanics. In the first, written in German, he looked at the coordinate system required for the Schrödinger equation to be solvable. The second examined the relationship between the commutative property and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. The third extended the second to the case of \"m\" observables. In 1931 he published a translation of Weyl's \"The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics\".  It was Robertson's anonymous 1936 critical peer review of a paper submitted by Albert Einstein to \"Physical Review\" which caused Einstein to withdraw the paper from consideration.  Yet perhaps Robertson's most notable achievements were in applying relativity to cosmology. He independently developed the concept of an expanding universe, which would imply distant galaxies as seen from Earth would be redshifted – a phenomenon previously confirmed by Vesto Slipher. Robertson went on to apply the theory of continuous groups in Riemann spaces to find all the solutions that describe the cosmological spaces. This was extended by Arthur Geoffrey Walker in 1936, and is today widely known in the United States as the Robertson–Walker metric.  One of Robertson's landmark papers, a brief note in \"The Annals of Mathematics\", entitled a \"Note on the preceding paper: The two body problem in general relativity\", solved that problem within a degree of approximation not improved on for several decades. Earlier work, such as the Schwarzschild metric, were for a central body that did not move, while Robertson's solution considered two bodies orbiting each other. Nevertheless, his solution failed to include gravitational radiation, so the bodies orbit forever, rather than approaching each other.  Yet Robertson's name is most often associated with the Poynting–Robertson effect, the process by which solar radiation causes a dust mote orbiting a star to lose angular momentum. This is related to radiation pressure tangential to the grain's motion. John Henry Poynting described it in 1903 based on the \"luminiferous aether\" theory, which was superseded by Einstein's theories of relativity. In 1937, Robertson described the effect in terms of general relativity.  Robertson developed the theory of invariants of tensors to derive the Kármán–Howarth equation in 1940, which was later used by George Batchelor and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar in the theory of axisymmetric turbulence to derive Batchelor–Chandrasekhar equation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Aside from his work in physics, Robertson played a central role in American scientific intelligence during and after World War II. He was approached by Richard Tolman shortly after World War II began in 1939, and began working for the Committee for Passive Protection Against Bombing. This was absorbed with other groups into Division 2 of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), with Robertson engaged in the study of terminal ballistics.  In 1943, Robertson became the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) chief scientific liaison officer in London. He became close friends with Reginald Victor Jones, and Solly Zuckerman praised the work Robertson and Jones did on scrambling radar beams and beacons. In 1944 Robertson also became a Technical Consultant to the Secretary of War, and the Chief of the Scientific Intelligence Advisory Section at Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force. His fluency in German helped him to interrogate German scientists, including rocket scientists involved in the V-2 rocket program. He was awarded the Medal for Merit for his contributions to the war effort.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After the war, Robertson accepted a professorship at Caltech in 1947. He would remain there for the rest of his career, except for long periods of government service. He was a Central Intelligence Agency classified employee and director of the Weapons System Evaluation Group in the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Weapons System Evaluation Group in the Office of the Secretary of Defense from 1950 to 1952, and Scientific Advisor in 1954 and 1955 to the NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), General Alfred M. Gruenther. In 1953 he chaired the Robertson Panel, which investigated a wave of UFO reports in 1952. He was Chairman of the Defense Science Board from 1956 to 1961, and a member of the President's Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) from 1957 to 1961.  He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, serving as its foreign secretary from 1958 until his death in 1961, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Mathematical Society, the American Physical Society, the American Astronomical Society, the American Philosophical Society, the Operational Research Society, and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.  In August 1961, Robertson was hospitalized after being injured in a car accident. He suffered a pulmonary embolism and died on August 26, 1961. He was survived by his wife and children. His papers were donated to the Caltech Archives by his daughter and son-in-law in 1971.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Howard Percy \"Bob\" Robertson (January 27, 1903 – August 26, 1961) was an American mathematician and physicist known for contributions related to physical cosmology and the uncertainty principle. He was Professor of Mathematical Physics at the California Institute of Technology and Princeton University.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974487}
{"src_title": "R. Norris Williams", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Williams was born in Geneva, Switzerland, the son of Philadelphia parents Charles Duane Williams, a direct descendant from Benjamin Franklin, and Lydia Biddle White. He was tutored privately at a Swiss boarding school and spoke fluent French and German. He started playing tennis at age 12, mainly under the guidance of his father.  On January 11, 1919 in Paris, France, Williams married Jean Haddock (1890–1929), daughter of Arthur Henry and Matilda (Stewart) Haddock. They would have four children. Jean died aged 38 on April 20, 1929 in Philadelphia. Williams remarried to Frances West Gillmore (1908–2001), daughter of Major General Quincy Adams Gillmore II and Frances West (Hemsley) Gillmore, on October 2, 1930. She was a great-granddaughter of Quincy Adams Gillmore.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tennis career.", "content": "In 1911 Williams won the Swiss Championship. A year later he entered Harvard and became the intercollegiate tennis champion in singles (1913, 1915) and doubles (1914, 1915).  Williams is best known for his two men's singles titles at the U.S. Championships in 1914 (beating Maurice McLoughlin in the final) and 1916 (beating Bill Johnston in the final). He was also on the victorious American Davis Cup team twice: in 1925 and 1926 and was considered a fine doubles player. He also had a reputation in singles of always hitting as hard as possible and always trying to hit winners near the lines. This made him an extremely erratic player, but when his game was sporadically \"on\", he was considered unbeatable.  During the 1924 Olympics, at the age of 33 (and with a sprained ankle), Richard Norris Williams became a Gold Medalist in the mixed doubles, partnering Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman. He went on to captain several winning Davis Cup teams from 1921 through 1926 as well as the 1934 team. At age 44 he retired from Championship Tennis.  He was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame (Newport, Rhode Island) in 1957.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "RMS \"Titanic\".", "content": "Williams also gained fame as being a survivor of the RMS \"Titanic\" disaster in April 1912. He and his father, Charles Duane Williams, were traveling first class on the liner when it struck an iceberg and sank. Shortly after the collision, Williams freed a trapped passenger from a cabin by breaking down a door. He was reprimanded by a steward, who threatened to fine him for damaging White Star Line property, an event that inspired a scene in James Cameron's film \"Titanic\" (1997). Williams remained on the doomed liner almost until the very end. At one point Williams' father tried to get a steward to fill his flask. The flask was given to Williams and remains in the Williams family.  As \"Titanic\" began her final plunge, father and son jumped into the water. While Dick was able to save himself, his father was killed by the first funnel falling from the ship. The 21-year-old Williams recalled, \"I saw one of the four great funnels come crashing down on top of him. Just for one instant I stood there transfixed – not because it had only missed me by a few feet... curiously enough not because it had killed my father for whom I had a far more than normal feeling of love and attachment; but there I was transfixed wondering at the enormous size of this funnel, still belching smoke. It seemed to me that two cars could have been driven through it side by side.\" He made his way to the partially-submerged Collapsible A, holding onto its side for quite a while before getting in. When Williams entered the water, he was wearing a fur coat which he quickly discarded along with his shoes. Those in Collapsible A who survived were transferred to Lifeboat 14 by Fifth Officer Harold Lowe. Although abandoned by RMS \"Carpathia\", Collapsible A was recovered a month later. Onboard the lifeboat was the discarded fur coat which was returned to Williams by White Star.  After entering the lifeboat, he spent several hours knee-deep in the freezing water. \"Carpathia\" arrived on the scene to rescue survivors. The ordeal left his legs so severely frostbitten that the \"Carpathia\"s doctor wanted to amputate them. Williams, who did not want his tennis career to be cut short, opted instead to work through the injury by simply getting up and walking around every two hours, around the clock. The choice worked out well for him: later that year, he won his first U.S. Tennis Championship, in mixed doubles, and went on to win many more championships including the Davis Cup with fellow survivor Karl Behr.  It was not until after the publication of \"A Night to Remember\" (1955), a book about the \"Titanic\" disaster, that Williams became acquainted with its author Walter Lord. In 1962, Williams met with Lord and gave a detailed account of the sinking.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military service, business career, historical society.", "content": "Williams served in the United States Army during World War I and was awarded the Croix de Guerre and the Legion of Honor. After the war he continued playing championship tennis.  Williams, also a noted Philadelphia investment banker, was President of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Richard Norris Williams died of emphysema on June 2, 1968, aged 77 in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Richard \"Dick\" Norris Williams II (January 29, 1891 – June 2, 1968), generally known as R. Norris Williams, was an American tennis player and RMS \"Titanic\" survivor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974488}
{"src_title": "Vehicle Assembly Building", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The VAB, which was completed in 1966, was originally built to allow for the vertical assembly of the Saturn V rocket for the Apollo program and referred to as the \"Vertical Assembly Building\". In anticipation of post-Saturn projects such as the Space Shuttle program, it was renamed the Vehicle Assembly Building in 1965, and was used for the shuttle's external fuel tanks and flight hardware, and to mate the Space Shuttle orbiters to their solid rocket boosters and external fuel tanks. Once assembled, the complete Space Shuttle was moved on the mobile launcher platform and crawler-transporter to LC-39A or LC-39B.  Sometime prior to the destruction of in 2003, NASA installed a sub-roof inside the VAB to deal with falling concrete debris as a result of the building's age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "In 1963, NASA contracted the Morrison-Knudsen company to design and build the VAB. Construction began with driving the first steel foundation piles on Aug. 2, 1963. It was part of NASA's massive effort to send astronauts to the Moon for the Apollo program. Altogether, 4,225 pilings were driven down 164 feet to bedrock with a foundation consisting of of concrete. Construction of the VAB required of steel. The building was completed in 1966. The VAB is tall, long and wide. It covers, and encloses of space.  Located on Florida's Atlantic coast, the building was constructed to withstand hurricanes and tropical storms. Despite this, it has received damage from several hurricanes (see below).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capabilities.", "content": "There are four entries to the bays located inside the building, which are the four largest doors in the world. Each door is high, has 7 vertical panels and 4 horizontal panels, and takes 45 minutes to completely open or close. The north entry that leads to the transfer aisle was widened by to allow entry of the shuttle orbiter. A central slot at the north entry allowed for passage of the orbiter's vertical stabilizer.  To lift the components of the Space Transportation System, the VAB housed five overhead bridge cranes, including two capable of lifting 325 tons, and 136 other lifting devices.  The building has at least 40 MW of air conditioning equipment, including 125 ventilators on the roof supported by four large air handlers (four cylindrical structures west of the building) to keep moisture under control. Air in the building can be completely replaced every hour. The interior volume of the building is so vast that it has its own weather, including \"rain clouds form[ing] below the ceiling on very humid days\", which the moisture reduction systems are designed to minimize.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The American flag painted on the building was the largest in the world when added in 1976 as part of United States Bicentennial celebrations, along with the star logo of the anniversary, later replaced by the NASA insignia in 1998. It is high, and wide. Each of the stars on the flag is across, the blue field is the size of a regulation basketball court, and each of the stripes is wide.  Work began in early 2007 to restore the exterior paint on the immense facility. Special attention was paid to the enormous American flag and NASA \"meatball\" insignia. The work repaired visible damage from years of storms and weathering. The flag and logo had been previously repainted in 1998 for NASA's 40th anniversary. The most extensive exterior damage occurred during the storm season of 2004, when Hurricane Frances blew off 850 aluminum panels from the building, resulting in about of new openings in the sides. Twenty-five additional panels were blown off the east side by the winds from Hurricane Jeanne just three weeks later. Earlier in the season, Hurricane Charley caused significant but less serious damage, estimated to cost $700,000. Damage caused by these hurricanes was still visible in 2007. Some of these panels are \"punch-outs\", designed to detach from the VAB when a large pressure differential is created on the outside vs. the inside. This allows for equalization, and helps protect the structural integrity of the building during rapid changes in pressure such as in tropical cyclones.  The building has been used as a backdrop in several Hollywood movies including \"Marooned\", \"SpaceCamp\", \"Apollo 13\", \"Contact\", and others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future.", "content": "The Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 after which NASA temporarily (as early as 2012) offered public tours of the VAB. These tours were temporarily discontinued in February 2014 to allow for renovations to take place.  The NASA FY2013 budget included US$143.7 million for Construction of Facilities (CoF) requirements in support of Artemis program vehicles including Space Launch System (SLS) and Orion spacecraft. NASA began modifying Launch Complex 39 at KSC to support the new SLS in 2014, beginning with major repairs, code upgrades and safety improvements to the Launch Control Center, Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) and the VAB Utility Annex. This initial work will be required to support any launch vehicle operated from Launch Complex 39 and will allow NASA to begin modernizing the facilities, while vehicle-specific requirements are being developed.  The VAB could be used to some extent for assembly and processing of any future vehicles utilizing Launch Complex 39, in addition to renovations for SLS capabilities. On June 16, 2015, NASA released an announcement for proposals (AFP) seeking interest in using the VAB High Bay 2 and other complex facilities for commercial use in \"assembling, integration, and testing of launch vehicles\". This move is in line with the intent to migrate KSC towards acting as a spaceport accessible to both government and commercial ventures. On April 21, 2016, NASA announced the selection of Orbital ATK (bought by Northrop Grumman as of 2019) to begin negotiations for High Bay 2. The \"potential agreement\" includes an existing mobile launcher platform.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vehicle (originally Vertical) Assembly Building, or VAB, is the large building at NASA's Kennedy Space Center (KSC), designed to assemble the large pre-manufactured space vehicle components, such as the massive Saturn V and the Space Shuttle; and stack them vertically onto the mobile launcher platform (MLP) and crawler-transporter. The future Space Launch System (SLS) will also be assembled there.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974489}
{"src_title": "Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Salpêtrière was originally a gunpowder factory (saltpetre being a constituent of gunpowder), but in 1656 at the direction of Louis XIV, it was converted into a \"hospice\" for the poor women of Paris as part of the General Hospital of Paris. It served as a prison for prostitutes, and a holding place for women who were learning disabled, mentally ill or epileptic, as well as poor; it was also notable for its population of rats and a bloated and unresponsive bureaucracy. Although the Pitié-Salpêtrière was much admired for the architectural ambitions of Libéral Bruant, it provided wretched living conditions for its inmates. The building was enlarged in 1684.  On the eve of the Revolution, it had become the world's largest hospital, with a capacity of 10,000 patients plus 300 prisoners. From La Salpêtrière they were paired with convicts and forcibly expatriated to New France.  During the September massacres of 1792, the Salpêtrière was stormed on the night of 3/4 September by a mob from the impoverished working-class district of the Faubourg Saint-Marcel, with the avowed intention of releasing the detained prisoners: 134 of the prostitutes were released; twenty-five madwomen were less fortunate and were dragged, some still in their chains, into the streets and murdered.  At the very end of the 18th century, the early humanitarian reforms in the treatment of the mentally ill were initiated here by Philippe Pinel (1745–1826), friend of the \"Encyclopédistes\". The iconic image of Pinel as the liberator of the insane was created in 1876 by Tony Robert-Fleury and Pinel's sculptural monument stands before the main entrance in Place Marie-Curie, Boulevard de L'Hôpital. Pinel was the chief physician of the Salpêtrière by 1794, in charge of a 200-bed infirmary which housed a tiny proportion of the huge indigent female population. He was succeeded by his assistant Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol (1772–1840) who, from 1817, delivered the first systematic lectures on psychiatry in France and was the chief architect of the lunacy legislation of 30 June 1838. Esquirol was followed by Étienne Pariset; and from 1831 till 1867 the \"chef d'hospice\" was Jean-Pierre Falret (1794–1870) who contributed much to our understanding of bipolar disorder and folie à deux.  A regular visitor to the Salpêtrière from 1842 till his death more than thirty years later was Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne de Boulogne (1806–1875). From humble provincial origins, a long line of seafarers from Boulogne, Duchenne became one of the outstanding medical scientists of the nineteenth century. Though he never held a senior appointment in the hospital, Duchenne nevertheless made meticulous observations on neurological patients, employing a wide range of innovative diagnostic techniques. Duchenne's clinical science stood at the junction of electricity, photography and psychology, as recorded in his much admired \"De l'électrisation localisée\" with its associated atlas \"Album de photographies pathologiques\" (1855, 1862). His name is commemorated in the myopathies which he described, as well as in his 1862 masterpiece, the \"Mécanisme de la physionomie humaine\", much consulted by Charles Darwin in the preparation of his \"Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals\" (1872). Duchenne's last major work (published in 1867) was a study of the physiology of movement. He was never elected to the Academy of Sciences.  Later, when Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893) took over the department, the Salpêtrière became celebrated as a neuropsychiatric teaching centre, represented on canvas in 1887 by \"A Clinical Lesson at the Salpêtrière\" by André Brouillet. In his lectures and demonstrations, the \"leçons du mardi\", Charcot systematised the neurological examination, did much to map out the territory of modern clinical neurology and, in a personal enthusiasm, explored its interface with psychological distress as represented in hysteria. Although Charcot insisted that hysteria could be a male disorder (\"traumatic hysteria\"), he is popularly remembered for his demonstrations with Louise Augustine Gleizes and Marie \"Blanche\" Wittmann, known as the Queen of Hysterics. Charcot had also absorbed much from Duchenne (to whom he often referred as \"\"mon maître, Duchenne\"\") and his teaching activities on the Salpêtrière's wards helped to elucidate the natural history of many diseases including neurosyphilis, epilepsy, and stroke. In his discussion of \"paralysis agitans\", Charcot drew attention to the 1817 description by James Parkinson, and suggested it be renamed Parkinson's disease. In 1882, with Charcot's encouragement, Albert Londe created a photographic department in the Salpêtriėre, producing, in collaboration with Georges Gilles de la Tourette, the \"Nouvelle Iconographie de la Salpêtrière\" of 1888.  Students came from across the world to witness Charcot's clinical demonstrations: among them – in 1885 – was the 29-year old Sigmund Freud who translated Charcot's lectures into German and whose deconstruction of the lectures on hysteria formed the foundations of psychoanalysis. The first English translations of Charcot's \"Clinical Lectures\" (1877, 1881) were published by the Irish physician and statesman George Sigerson. Public health physician and advocate of breastfeeding Truby King travelled from New Zealand to witness Charcot, and reported his clinical demonstrations to be a life-changing experience. A rather negative portrait of Charcot's clinical style emerges in the 1929 autobiographical memoir – \"The Story of San Michele\" – by the Swedish physician Axel Munthe, whose early idolatry of Charcot gave way to a kind of obsessive antagonism.  The Hôpital de la Pitié, founded about 1612, was moved next to the Salpêtrière in 1911 and fused with it in 1964 to form the Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière. The Pitié-Salpêtrière is now a general teaching hospital with departments focusing on most major medical specialities.  Numerous celebrities have been treated at the Salpêtrière, including Michael Schumacher, Ronaldo, Prince Rainier of Monaco, Alain Delon, Gérard Depardieu, and Valérie Trierweiler. Former president Jacques Chirac had a pacemaker fitted at the Salpêtrière in 2008. Celebrities have also died at the Pitié-Salpêtrière, including the singer Josephine Baker in 1975, following a cerebral haemorrhage; philosopher Michel Foucault (from complications of AIDS) on 25 June 1984; Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997; and French bicycle racer Laurent Fignon in 2010 (from the metastatic spread of lung cancer).  The Brain and Spine Institute has been located in the hospital since it was established in September 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buildings.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hospital Chapel.", "content": "\"Chapelle de la Salpêtrière\" (Hospital Chapel), at n° 47 Boulevard de l'Hôpital is one of the masterpieces of Libéral Bruant, architect of Les Invalides. It was built around 1675, on the model of a Greek cross and has four central chapels each capable of holding a congregation of some 1,000 people. Its central octagonal cupola is illuminated by picture windows in circular arcs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philippe Pinel monument.", "content": "In the \"place\" in front of the main entrance to the Hospital, there is a large bronze monument to Philippe Pinel, who was chief physician of the Hospice from 1795 to his death in 1826. The Salpêtrière was, at the time, like a large village, with seven thousand elderly indigent and ailing women, an entrenched bureaucracy, a teeming market and huge infirmaries. Pinel created an inoculation clinic in his service at the Salpêtrière in 1799 and the first vaccination in Paris was given there in April 1800.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable doctors.", "content": "Through its history, the Pitié-Salpétrière hosted notable doctors, among others:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital (, ) is a teaching hospital in the 13th arrondissement of Paris. Part of the and a teaching hospital of Sorbonne University, it is one of Europe's largest hospitals. It is also France's largest hospital.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974490}
{"src_title": "Fiat Bravo and Brava", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Bravo and the Brava were replacements for Fiat's successful, but ageing Tipo model. The two cars were very different in styling detail and driving experience, the Bravo chassis being tuned for more precise handling, whilst the Brava was tuned for better comfort.  Even the interior trim and many of the body colours were unique to either one version or the other. Both cars had a two star safety rating on EuroNCAP. The cars came with all new engines, the base model using a 1.4 L twelve valve engine producing.  Three other petrol engines were available: the 1.6 L 16 valve; the 1.8 L 16 valve engine and the top of the range 2.0 L twenty valve inline five unit used in the HGT model, which produced and which could take the car to a maximum speed of, later in 1999, the 155 HGT model replaced the older model, power rising to.  Two turbodiesel engines were also available: both were 1.9 L four cylinder units, one producing and the other making. The Bravo/Brava was voted European Car of the Year on its launch.  In August 1996, the Bravo/Brava chassis spawned saloon and estate versions, badged Fiat Marea, a car which was aimed at Ford Mondeo and Opel/Vauxhall Vectra buyers, which won praise for its large boot.  Another car based on the Bravo/Brava underpinnings was launched in January 1999: the curious looking Fiat Multipla, a six seater compact MPV. In 1999, the Bravo/Brava received a mild makeover, and it was discontinued in October 2001, being replaced by the all new Fiat Stilo.  The cars were advertised as being silent, futuristic, economical and offering \"The Choice\". Fiat's Italian adverts said \"Fiat Bravo. Fiat Brava. La Scelta.\" which roughly translates to \"Fiat Bravo. Fiat Brava. The Choice\", hinting to the fact that they're very similar cars but you can select between a sporty three door hatchback or a practical five door fastback.  The Bravo and Brava were criticised as being a bit \"futuristic\" for their time, some reviewers really liked the way they looked, while others thought they were a bit odd.  Peter Davis, Fiat's Styling Center director at the time, said that they started working on the Bravo and Brava right after they had finished working on the Coupe and the Barchetta, so they had the steam built up. He mentioned that they wanted to push the design to the limit, break the rules and discover every angle of the car, distinguishing it from the competitors.  Jeremy Clarkson reviewed the Fiat Bravo and Brava in 1995, on the old format of \"Top Gear\", stating that \"This is how an ordinary car can look like, if you put a bit of effort into it\". He also stated : \"I'm in a three door hatchback which you can buy for less than £10,000, and I'm having fun, and it's only got a 1.4 litre engine! A good looking car, that's nice to drive and cheap to run too.\"  He also mentioned that the car feels rigid, there are no squeaks or rattles, and all the switches inside have a quality feel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Makeover.", "content": "The Bravo/Brava received a mild makeover in 1999.  The 1.4L 12v engine was dropped in favour of the 1.2 16v unit from the Fiat Punto, the 2.0L 20V engine of the HGT model gained VVT and VIS systems upping the power from to, the dashboard was redesigned and improved across all trim levels, the grilles of the cars were redesigned, the A/C unit was swapped with the automatic one from the Fiat Coupé, and other small details about the cars were changed throughout the range of trims.  The 1.9 turbodiesel was phased out in favour of 1.9 JTD diesel units (now with and ), to give even better economy and refinement. In the Greek market, all later model Bravas received the rear deck spoiler as standard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "HGT Abarth.", "content": "In the end of 1999, Fiat introduced the Abarth accessories for the Bravo, available were more aggressive wheels and bodykit, performance was the same as the 2.0 HGT model. It was produced from 2000 to 2002.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brazil.", "content": "The Brava was produced until 2003 in Brazil for the home market and export, but in the former, the engines available were:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fiat Bravo and Fiat Brava (Type 182) are small family cars produced by the Italian automaker Fiat from 1995 to 2001. They were effectively two versions of the same car, the Bravo a three door hatchback, and the Brava a five door fastback. The Bravo name was revived in January 2007, with the all new Fiat Bravo, a replacement of the Stilo. The new version was available only with five doors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974491}
{"src_title": "Dominique Jean Larrey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Larrey was born in the little village of Beaudéan, in the Pyrenees as the son of a shoemaker, who later moved to Bordeaux. Larrey was orphaned at the age of 13. He was then raised by his uncle Alexis, who was chief surgeon in Toulouse. After serving a 6-year apprenticeship, he went to Paris to study under Pierre-Joseph Desault, who was chief surgeon at the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris. His studies were cut short by war. Larrey went to Brest where he was appointed in the navy and gave lectures. In 1788 he was sent to Newfoundland and Labrador. In 1789 he was back in Paris and finished his thesis on Eskimos. He cooperated with Jean-Nicolas Corvisart, Xavier Bichat and Raphaël Bienvenu Sabatier in Les Invalides. In 1792, during the War of the First Coalition he joined the Army of the Rhine. In Mainz he met with Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring.  During this time, Larrey initiated the modern method of army surgery, field hospitals and the system of army ambulance corps. After seeing the speed with which the carriages of the French \"flying artillery\" maneuvered across the battlefields, Larrey adapted them as \"ambulance volantes\" (\"Flying ambulances\") for rapid transport of the wounded and manned them with trained crews of drivers, corpsmen and litterbearers. At the Battle of Metz (1793) Larrey successfully demonstrated the value of field ambulances. The quartermaster-general Jacques-Pierre Orillard de Villemanzy ordered prototypes to be built, after which ambulances would be supplied to all the Republic's armies. The politicians heard of this, and ordered a national contest to find the best design, thus delaying their delivery by over two years. Larrey also increased the mobility and improved the organization of field hospitals, effectively creating a forerunner of the modern MASH units. He established a rule for the triage of war casualties, treating the wounded according to the seriousness of their injuries and urgency of need for medical care, regardless of their rank or nationality. Soldiers of enemy armies, as well as those of the French and their allies, were treated.  In 1794 he was sent to Toulon, where he met for the first time with Napoleon. He married the paintress Marie-Élisabeth Laville-Leroux. In Spain he fell ill and was sent back to Paris. He became professor at Val-de-Grâce but was appointed as surgeon-in-chief of the Napoleonic armies in Italy in 1797, and went to Egypt the year after. In the Battle of Acre he was wounded. In 1801 he was back in France.  Larrey was made a Commandeur of the Légion d'honneur on 12 May 1807. He joined in the Battle of Aspern-Essling, where he operated on Marshall Jean Lannes and amputated one of his legs in two minutes. He became the favorite of the Emperor, who commented, \"If the army ever erects a monument to express its gratitude, it should do so in honor of Larrey\", he was ennobled as a Baron on the field of Wagram in 1809. In 1811, Baron Larrey co-led the surgical team that performed a pre-anesthetic mastectomy on Frances Burney in Paris. Her detailed account of this operation gives insight into early 19th century doctor-patient relationships, and early surgical methods in the home of the patient. Larrey was involved in the French invasion of Russia.  When Napoleon was sent to Elba, Larrey proposed to join him, but the former Emperor refused. At Waterloo in 1815 his courage under fire was noticed by the Duke of Wellington who ordered his soldiers not to fire in his direction so as to \"give the brave man time to gather up the wounded\" and saluted \"the courage and devotion of an age that is no longer ours\". Trying to escape to the French border, Larrey was taken prisoner by the Prussians who wanted to execute him on the spot. Larrey was recognized by one of the German surgeons, who pleaded for his life. Perhaps partly because he had saved the life of Blücher's son when he was wounded near Dresden and taken prisoner by the French, he was pardoned, invited to Blücher's dinner table as a guest and sent back to France with money and proper clothes. He devoted the remainder of his life to writing, but after the death of Napoleon he started a new medical career in the army as chief-surgeon. In 1826 he visited England, received well by British surgeons. In 1829 he was appointed in the Institut de France. In 1842 he went to Algiers, together with his son, and fell ill. Larrey died on his way back in Lyon. His corpse was taken to Paris and buried at Père-Lachaise, but his remains were transferred to Les Invalides and re-interred near Napoleon's tomb in December 1992.  Larrey's writings are still regarded as valuable sources of surgical and medical knowledge and have been translated into all modern languages. Between 1800 and 1840 at least 28 books or articles were published. His son Hippolyte (born 1808) was surgeon-in-ordinary to the emperor Napoleon III.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NATO Award.", "content": "The Dominique-Jean Larrey Award is the North Atlantic Alliance's highest medical honour. It is bestowed annually by NATO's senior medical body, the Committee of Chiefs of Military Medical Services in NATO (COMEDS), which is composed of the Surgeons General of NATO and partner nations. It is awarded in recognition of a significant and lasting contribution to NATO multi-nationality and/or interoperability, or to improvements in the provision of health care in NATO missions in the areas of medical support or healthcare development.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baron Dominique Jean Larrey (; 8 July 1766 – 25 July 1842) was a French surgeon in Napoleon's Grande Armée and an important innovator in battlefield medicine and triage. He is often considered the first modern military surgeon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974492}
{"src_title": "Viktor Tikhonov (ice hockey, born 1930)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Tikhonov played as a defenceman with the VVS (Team of the Soviet Air Force) and Dynamo Moscow. He scored 35 goals in 296 games in the Soviet elite hockey league from 1949 to 1963. In 1950, he became a Soviet Sports Master. As a player, he won four gold medals of the Soviet national championship (three times with \"VVS\" (1951–1953) and once with Dynamo, 1954). He won the USSR Cup in 1952 as a member of \"VVS\". His coaching career started in 1964 when he became an assistant coach for Dynamo Moscow, then he took the position of the head coach for Dynamo Riga in 1968. In 1973, he was named a \"Latvian merited sports coach\" (ZTR SSSR). In 1977, he became the head coach for both CSKA Moscow (\"Central Sport Club of the Army\" or the \"Red Army Club\" as it was known in the US and Canada), and the Soviet National Team. In 1978, he became a \"Soviet Merited sports coach\" (ZTR SSSR). He was the Soviet and later the Unified Team and Russian National Team coach until 1994, and the coach for CSKA until 1996. As coach he won:  Tikhonov was known for his dictatorial coaching style. He exercised nearly absolute control over his players' lives. His teams practiced for 10 to 11 months a year, and were confined to barracks throughout that time. CSKA was sponsored by the Soviet Army during the Soviet era, and Tikhonov was a colonel. Tikhonov's fear of defections since the late 1980s was supposedly so great that he cut players when he thought they might defect. In 1991, for instance, he cut Pavel Bure, Valeri Zelepukin, Evgeny Davydov, and Vladimir Konstantinov just before the 1991 Canada Cup. All of them had been drafted by NHL teams, and Tikhonov might have thought that they might defect if they were allowed to go to the West, just like Alexander Mogilny and Sergei Fedorov. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Tikhonov mellowed his style considerably.  After his retirement, Tikhonov lobbied the Russian government for more attention and better financing for the national team.  Tikhonov was hospitalized in late October 2014 and died after a long illness in Moscow on 24 November 2014, at the age of 84.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Viktor's son Vasili was also a professional ice hockey coach, who worked in Finland, the United States and Switzerland but moved back to Russia to live with his family. Vasili died in a fall from the window of his Moscow apartment in August 2013.  Viktor's grandson, also named Viktor Tikhonov, was chosen to join Team Russia at the 2007 Super Series against Team Canada after Game Four of the eight-game-series was completed. On 20 June 2008 Tikhonov was selected by the Phoenix Coyotes in the first round, 28th overall, of the 2008 NHL Entry Draft. After four seasons playing for SKA Saint Petersburg of the Kontinental Hockey League, Tikhonov signed a one-year contract with the Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Viktor Vasilyevich Tikhonov (Russian: Виктор Васильевич Тихонов; 4 June 1930 – 24 November 2014) was a Soviet ice hockey player and coach. Tikhonov was a defenceman with VVS Moscow and Dynamo Moscow from 1949 to 1963, winning four national championships. He was the coach of the Soviet team when it was the dominant team in the world, winning eight World Championship gold medals, as well as Olympic gold in 1984, 1988, and 1992. Tikhonov also led CSKA Moscow to twelve consecutive league championships. He was named to the IIHF Hall of Fame as a builder in 1998.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974493}
{"src_title": "Walter Piston", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Piston was born in Rockland, Maine at 15 Ocean Street to Walter Hamor Piston, a bookkeeper, and Leon Stover. He was the second of four children. Although his family was mainly of English origin, his paternal grandfather was a sailor named Antonio Pistone, who changed his name to Anthony Piston when he came to Maine from Genoa, Italy. In 1905 the composer's father, Walter Piston Sr, moved with his family to Boston, Massachusetts.  Walter Jr first trained as an engineer at the Mechanical Arts High School in Boston, but was artistically inclined. After graduating in 1912, he enrolled in the Massachusetts Normal Art School, where he completed a four-year program in fine art in 1916.  During the 1910s, Piston made a living playing piano and violin in dance bands and later playing violin in orchestras led by Georges Longy. During World War I, he joined the U.S. Navy as a band musician after rapidly teaching himself to play saxophone; he later stated that, when \"it became obvious that everybody had to go into the service, I wanted to go in as a musician\". While playing in a service band, he taught himself to play most wind instruments. \"They were just lying around,\" he later observed, \"and no one minded if you picked them up and found out what they could do\".  Piston was admitted to Harvard College in 1920, where he studied counterpoint with Archibald Davison, canon and fugue with Clifford Heilman, advanced harmony with Edward Ballantine, and composition and music history with Edward Burlingame Hill. He often worked as an assistant for various music professors there, and conducted the student orchestra.  In 1920, Piston married artist Kathryn Nason (1892–1976), who had been a fellow student at the Normal Art School. The marriage lasted until her death in February 1976, a few months before his own.  On graduating summa cum laude from Harvard, Piston was awarded a John Knowles Paine Traveling Fellowship. He chose to go to Paris, living there from 1924 to 1926. At the Ecole Nationale de Musique in Paris, he studied composition and counterpoint with Nadia Boulanger, composition with Paul Dukas and violin with George Enescu. His \"Three Pieces for Flute, Clarinet and Bassoon\" of 1925 was his first published score.  He taught at Harvard from 1926 until his retirement in 1960. His students include Samuel Adler, Leroy Anderson, Arthur Berger, Leonard Bernstein, Gordon Binkerd, Elliott Carter, John Davison, Irving Fine, John Harbison, Karl Kohn, Ellis B. Kohs, Gail Kubik, Billy Jim Layton, Noël Lee, Robert Middleton, Robert Moevs, Daniel Pinkham, Frederic Rzewski, Allen Sapp, Harold Shapero, and Claudio Spies, as well as Frank D'Accone, Ann Ronell, Robert Strassburg, Yehudi Wyner, and William P. Perry.  In 1936, the Columbia Broadcasting System commissioned six American composers (Aaron Copland, Louis Gruenberg, Howard Hanson, Roy Harris, William Grant Still and Piston) to write works for broadcast on CBS radio. Piston wrote his Symphony No. 1 and conducted its premiere with the Boston Symphony Orchestra on April 8, 1938.  Piston's only dance work, \"The Incredible Flutist\", was written for the Boston Pops Orchestra, which premiered it with Arthur Fiedler conducting on May 30, 1938. The dancers were Hans Weiner and his company. Soon after, Piston arranged a concert suite including \"a selection of the best parts of the ballet.\" This version was premiered by Fritz Reiner and the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra on November 22, 1940. Leonard Slatkin and the Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra included the suite in a 1991 RCA Victor CD recording that also featured Piston's \"Three New England Sketches\" and Symphony No. 6.  Piston studied the twelve-tone technique of Arnold Schoenberg and wrote works using aspects of it as early as the Sonata for Flute and Piano (1930) and the First Symphony (1937). His first fully twelve-tone work was the \"Chromatic Study on the Name of Bach\" for organ (1940), which nonetheless retains a vague feeling of key. Although he employed twelve-tone elements sporadically throughout his career, these become much more pervasive in the Eighth Symphony (1965) and many of the works following it: the Variations for Cello and Orchestra (1966), Clarinet Concerto (1967), \"Ricercare for Orchestra\", Fantasy for Violin and Orchestra (1970), and Flute Concerto (1971).  In 1943, the Alice M. Ditson fund of Columbia University commissioned Piston's Symphony No. 2, which was premiered by the National Symphony Orchestra on March 5, 1944 and was awarded a prize by the New York Music Critics' Circle. His next symphony, the Third, earned a Pulitzer Prize, as did his Symphony No. 7. His Viola Concerto and String Quartet No. 5 also later received Critics' Circle awards.  Piston was awarded the Edward MacDowell Medal for his outstanding contribution to the arts by the MacDowell Colony in 1974.  Piston wrote four books on the technical aspects of music theory which are considered to be classics in their respective fields: \"Principles of Harmonic Analysis\", \"Counterpoint\", \"Orchestration,\" and \"Harmony\". The last of these introduced for the first time in theoretical literature several important new concepts that Piston had developed in his approach to music theory, notably the concept of harmonic rhythm, and the secondary dominant. This work went through four editions in the author's lifetime, was translated into several languages, and (with changes and additions by Mark DeVoto) was still regarded as recently as 2009 as a standard harmony text.  He died at his home in Belmont, Massachusetts on November 12, 1976.  His library and desk are permanently exhibited in the Piston Room, at the Boston Public Library.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Walter Hamor Piston Jr, (January 20, 1894 – November 12, 1976), was an American composer of classical music, music theorist, and professor of music at Harvard University.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974494}
{"src_title": "Honoré d'Urfé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born at Marseille, the grandson of Claude d'Urfé, and was educated at the Collège de Tournon. A partisan of the League, he was taken prisoner in 1595, and, though soon set free, he was again captured and imprisoned. During his imprisonment he read Ronsard, Petrarch and above all the \"Diana\" of Jorge de Montemayor and Tasso's \"Aminta\". After the defeat of the League in 1594, d'Urfé emigrated to Savoy whose duke was a relative of his mother. Here, he wrote the \"Epîtres morales\" (1598).  Honoré's brother Anne, comte d'Urfé, had married in 1571 the beautiful Diane de Châteaumorand, but the marriage was annulled in 1598 by Clement VIII. Anne d'Urfé was ordained to the priesthood in 1603, and died in 1621 dean of Montbrison.  Diane had a great fortune, and to avoid the alienation of the money from the D'Urfé family, Honoré married her in 1600. This marriage also proved unhappy; D'Urfé spent most of his time separated from his wife at the court of Savoy, where he held the charge of chamberlain. The separation of goods arranged later on may have been simply due to money embarrassments.  He died from injuries received by a fall from his horse at Villafranca, during a campaign against the Genoese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "It was in Savoy that he conceived the plan of his novel \"L'Astrée\", the scene of which is laid on the banks of the Lignon in his native province of Forez. It is a leisurely romance in which the loves of Celadon and Astrée are told at immense length with many digressions. The recently discovered circumstances of the marriages of the brothers have disposed of the idea that the romance is autobiographical in its main idea, but some of the episodes are said to be but slightly veiled accounts of the adventures of Henry IV. The shepherds and shepherdesses of the story are of the usual type in pastorals, and they discourse of love with a casuistry and elaborate delicacy that are by no means rustic.  The first part of \"L'Astrée\" appeared in 1607, the second in 1610, the third in 1619, and in 1627 the fourth part was edited. In 1628 a fifth was added by D'Urfé's secretary Balthazar Baro. \"L'Astrée\" set the fashion temporarily in romance narratives, and no tragedy was complete without wire-drawn discussions on love in the manner of Celadon and Astrée. The best edition of \"L'Astrée\" is that of 1647.  D'Urfé also wrote the pastoral poem \"La Sireine\" (1584) and the pastoral play \"Sylvanire\" (1627).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memory and legacy.", "content": "In 1757 \"L'Astrée\" was sufficiently in the public consciousness, or at any rate \"Celadon\" had become a byword for amorousness, to be referred to in passing by an Italian guest of Casanova.  In 1908 a bust of D'Urfé was erected at Virieu-le-Grand (Ain), where the greater part of \"L'Astrée\" was written.  An adaptation of \"L'Astrée,\" by French director Eric Rohmer, was released in 2007 under the title \"Les Amours d'Astrée et de Céladon\" (in English-speaking territories its title was \"The Romance of Astrea and Celadon).\" It was nominated for a Golden Lion at the 2007 Venice Film Festival, and star Andy Gillet won an Étoile d'Or in 2008 for Best Male Newcomer for his performance as Céladon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Honoré d'Urfé, marquis de Valromey, comte de Châteauneuf (11 February 15681 June 1625) was a French novelist and miscellaneous writer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974495}
{"src_title": "Urea cycle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Function.", "content": "Amino acid catabolism results in waste ammonia. All animals need a way to excrete this product. Most aquatic organisms, or ammonotelic organisms, excrete ammonia without converting it. Organisms that cannot easily and safely remove nitrogen as ammonia convert it to a less toxic substance such as urea or uric acid via the urea cycle, which occurs mainly in the liver. Urea produced by the liver is then released into the bloodstream where it travels to the kidneys and is ultimately excreted in urine. The urea cycle is essential to these organisms, because if the nitrogen or ammonia are not eliminated from the organism it can be very detrimental. In species including birds and most insects, the ammonia is converted into uric acid or its urate salt, which is excreted in solid form.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "The entire process converts two amino groups, one from and one from Aspartate, and a carbon atom from, to the relatively nontoxic excretion product urea at the cost of four \"high-energy\" phosphate bonds (3 ATP hydrolyzed to 2 ADP and one AMP). The conversion from ammonia to urea happens in five main steps. The first is needed for ammonia to enter the cycle and the following four are all a part of the cycle itself. To enter the cycle, ammonia is converted to carbamoyl phosphate. The urea cycle consists of four enzymatic reactions: one mitochondrial and three cytosolic.  1 -ornithine2 carbamoyl phosphate3 -citrulline4 argininosuccinate5 fumarate6 -arginine7 urea -Asp -aspartateCPS-1 carbamoyl phosphate synthetase IOTC Ornithine transcarbamoylaseASS argininosuccinate synthetaseASL argininosuccinate lyaseARG1 arginase 1", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First reaction: entering the urea cycle.", "content": "Before the urea cycle begins ammonia is converted to carbamoyl phosphate. The reaction is catalyzed by carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I and requires the use of two ATP molecules. The carbamoyl phosphate then enters the urea cycle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Overall reaction equation.", "content": "In the first reaction, + is equivalent to NH + CO + HO.  Thus, the overall equation of the urea cycle is: Since fumarate is obtained by removing NH from aspartate (by means of reactions 3 and 4), and PP + HO → 2 P, the equation can be simplified as follows: Note that reactions related to the urea cycle also cause the production of 2 NADH, so the overall reaction releases slightly more energy than it consumes. The NADH is produced in two ways: We can summarize this by combining the reactions: The two NADH produced can provide energy for the formation of 5 ATP (cytosolic NADH provides 2.5 ATP with the malate-aspartate shuttle in human liver cell), a net production of two high-energy phosphate bond for the urea cycle. However, if gluconeogenesis is underway in the cytosol, the latter reducing equivalent is used to drive the reversal of the GAPDH step instead of generating ATP.  The fate of oxaloacetate is either to produce aspartate via transamination or to be converted to phosphoenolpyruvate, which is a substrate for gluconeogenesis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Products of the urea cycle.", "content": "As stated above many vertebrates use the urea cycle to create urea out of ammonium so that the ammonium does not damage the body. Though this is helpful, there are other effects of the urea cycle. For example: consumption of two ATP, production of urea, generation of H+, the combining of HCO3- and NH4+ to forms where it can be regenerated, and finally the consumption of NH4+.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regulation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"N\"-Acetylglutamic acid.", "content": "The synthesis of carbamoyl phosphate and the urea cycle are dependent on the presence of \"N\"-acetylglutamic acid (NAcGlu), which allosterically activates CPS1. NAcGlu is an obligate activator of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase. Synthesis of NAcGlu by \"N\"-acetylglutamate synthase (NAGS) is stimulated by both Arg, allosteric stimulator of NAGS, and Glu, a product in the transamination reactions and one of NAGS's substrates, both of which are elevated when free amino acids are elevated. So Glu not only is a substrate for NAGS but also serves as an activator for the urea cycle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Substrate concentrations.", "content": "The remaining enzymes of the cycle are controlled by the concentrations of their substrates. Thus, inherited deficiencies in cycle enzymes other than do not result in significant decreases in urea production (if any cycle enzyme is entirely missing, death occurs shortly after birth). Rather, the deficient enzyme's substrate builds up, increasing the rate of the deficient reaction to normal.  The anomalous substrate buildup is not without cost, however. The substrate concentrations become elevated all the way back up the cycle to, resulting in hyperammonemia (elevated []).  Although the root cause of toxicity is not completely understood, a high [] puts an enormous strain on the -clearing system, especially in the brain (symptoms of urea cycle enzyme deficiencies include intellectual disability and lethargy). This clearing system involves and, which decrease the 2-oxoglutarate (2OG) and Glu pools. The brain is most sensitive to the depletion of these pools. Depletion of 2OG decreases the rate of TCAC, whereas Glu is both a neurotransmitter and a precursor to GABA, another neurotransmitter. \"(p.734)\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Link with the citric acid cycle.", "content": "The urea cycle and the citric acid cycle are independent cycles but are linked. One of the nitrogens in the urea cycle is obtained from the transamination of oxaloacetate to aspartate. The fumarate that is produced in step three is also an intermediate in the citric acid cycle and is returned to that cycle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Urea cycle disorders.", "content": "A rare genetic disorder that affects about one in 35,000 people in the United States. Genetic defects in the enzymes involved in the cycle can occur, which usually manifest within a few days after birth. The recently born child will typically experience varying bouts of emesis and periods of lethargy. Ultimately the infant may go into a coma and develop brain damage. Newborns with UCD are at a much higher risk of complications or death due to untimely screening tests and misdiagnosed cases. The most common misdiagnosis is neonatal sepsis. Signs of UCD can be present within the first 2-3 days of life, however, the present method to get confirmation by test results can take too long and can potentially cause complications such as coma or death.  Urea cycle disorders may also be diagnosed in adults, and symptoms may include delirium episodes, lethargy, and symptoms similar to that of a stroke. On top of these symptoms if the urea cycle begins to malfunction in the liver the patient may obtain cirrhosis which can also lead to sarcopenia (the loss of muscle mass). Mutations lead to deficiencies of the various enzymes and transporters involved in the urea cycle and cause urea cycle disorders. If individuals with a defect in any of the six enzymes used in the cycle ingest amino acids beyond what is necessary for the minimum daily requirements, then the ammonia that is produced will not be able to be converted to urea. These individuals can experience hyperammonemia or the buildup of a cycle intermediate.  All urea cycle defects, except OTC deficiency, are inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. OTC deficiency is inherited as an X-linked recessive disorder, although some females can show symptoms. Most urea cycle disorders are associated with hyperammonemia, however argininemia and some forms of argininosuccinic aciduria do not present with elevated ammonia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The urea cycle (also known as the ornithine cycle) is a cycle of biochemical reactions that produces urea (NH)CO from ammonia (NH). This cycle occurs in ureotelic organisms. The urea cycle converts highly toxic ammonia to urea for excretion. This cycle was the first metabolic cycle to be discovered (Hans Krebs and Kurt Henseleit, 1932), five years before the discovery of the TCA cycle. This cycle was described in more detail later on by Ratner and Cohen. The urea cycle takes place primarily in the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the kidneys.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974496}
{"src_title": "Jean Béliveau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jean Béliveau was born in 1931 to Arthur and Laurette Béliveau, the oldest of eight children. His family traces their ancestry to Antoine Béliveau, who settled in 1642 in Port Royal, Nova Scotia. Expelled along with the other Acadians in 1755, the Béliveaus settled in the Boston area before moving to the Trois Rivières area of Québec in the mid-19th century. Jean's father was also part of a large family, one of six brothers, many of whom moved to western Canada in the 1910s while others remained in the Trois-Rivières area and St. Célestin. Jean's family moved to Victoriaville when Jean was six and Jean grew up in Victoriaville, attending L'École Saint-David, L'Académie Saint-Louis de Gonzague and Collège de Victoriaville schools.  Like many future hockey players of the era, the Béliveau family had a backyard ice rink on which their children, friends and neighbours played shinny. Until he was twelve years old, the family rink was where Jean learned to play hockey. His first organized team was in a house league at L'Académie, which played on the school's rink. As part of a squad of L'Académie 'all-stars', Jean played against other local teams. At age fifteen, he entered College and played for its team and an intermediate team, the Victoriaville Panthers.  In the summertime as a child, Béliveau also played baseball. A stand-out in local leagues in Victoriaville, he pitched and occasionally played infield, well enough his family turned down an offer of a minor-league pro contract for Jean at age fifteen. At sixteen, Jean played for the senior league team in Val-d'Or, Quebec.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Béliveau was already a star at 15 when spotted by Canadiens general manager Frank Selke, who sought to sign him to an NHL \"C-form\". The standard league contract for young players at that time, it would have required Béliveau to join the Canadiens at a set date and agreed-upon salary. When his father balked, Béliveau signed a \"B-form\" instead, agreeing to play for Montreal should he ever decide to turn pro.  Béliveau was called up twice for brief appearances by the Canadiens in 1950–51 and 1952–53, each time playing the minimum number of games that an amateur could play at the professional level. He led the Quebec Senior Hockey League in scoring in 1953. However, he did not appear to show much interest in playing professionally. Finally, Selke got an idea—if the QSHL were somehow turned into a professional league, Béliveau would be a professional as well, and under the terms of the B-form he would have to sign with the Habs. At Selke's suggestion, the Canadiens' owners, the Canadian Arena Company, bought the QSHL and converted it from an amateur league to a minor pro league. This forced Béliveau to join the Canadiens for the 1953–54 NHL season (though the Habs owned the NHL rights to all of the league's players in any case).  Béliveau retired at the end of the 1970–71 NHL season as his team's all-time leader in points, second all-time in goals and the NHL's all-time leading playoff scorer. He scored 507 goals and had 712 assists for 1,219 points in 1,125 NHL regular-season games plus 79 goals and 97 assists for 176 points in 162 playoff games. His jersey number (#4) was retired on October 9, 1971. In 1972, he was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame. He is now the second all-time leading scorer in Canadiens history, behind Guy Lafleur. Only Henri Richard (1256 games) and Larry Robinson (1202 games) played more games for the Habs. Béliveau's name appears on the Stanley Cup a record seventeen times, including seven times as an executive for the Canadiens: 1973, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1986, 1993. In addition, to winning the Hart Trophy as league MVP twice, he finished second in the voting a further four times, and third once. As well, in addition to winning the Art Ross Trophy as the leading scorer once, he finished second twice and third four times, illustrating his remarkable long-term consistency. In 1998, \"The Hockey News\" named Béliveau the seventh greatest NHL player of all time. Upon his retirement, the Canadiens named Béliveau a vice president and director of public relations.  Béliveau was never known as an activist during his playing days. However, he was one of several players who threatened to pull out of the Hall of Fame if disgraced ex-NHLPA executive director Alan Eagleson had been allowed to stay in after being convicted of fraud and embezzlement. He also supported the NHL's position during the 2004–05 NHL lockout, arguing that the players' demands would damage the sport and the league.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and death.", "content": "Béliveau met his future wife, Elise Couture, in 1950 in Quebec City. The couple married on June 27, 1953, at St. Patrick's Church there, and had one child together, daughter Hélène. In 1957, Beliveau appeared in full uniform on the American game show \"To Tell the Truth\".  Upon retiring as a player in 1971 Béliveau set up the charitable Jean Béliveau Foundation, transferred two decades later to the Society for Disabled Children in 1993.  In the early 1990s, he twice declined Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney’s offer of a Senate appointment, as he believed legislators should only be elected. In 1994 Prime Minister Jean Chrétien offered him the post of Governor General of Canada. Béliveau declined in order to be with his daughter and two grandchildren, Mylene and Magalie, whose father, a Quebec policeman, had committed suicide when the girls were five and three.  Beginning in the 1990s, Béliveau suffered from multiple health issues. He was first hospitalized for cardiac problems in 1996. In 2000, he was treated for a neck tumour. NHL.com reported on January 21, 2010, that Béliveau was admitted to Montréal General Hospital the previous evening with an apparent stroke that was not thought to be life-threatening. Béliveau was hospitalized with a stroke again on February 28, 2012.  Béliveau died on December 2, 2014, at the age of 83, in Longueuil, a suburb of Montreal. His public funeral was held at Mary Queen of the World Cathedral in Montreal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Béliveau was given many awards, including several honorary doctorates from Canadian universities, plus the Loyola Medal from Concordia University in 1995. He was made a Knight of the National Order of Quebec in 1988, promoted to Officer in 2006 and Grand Officer in 2010.  On May 6, 1998, Béliveau was made by Governor General Roméo LeBlanc a Companion of the Order of Canada, then the country's highest civilian award. In 2001, his name was added to Canada's Walk of Fame, the same year he was honoured with his portrait on a Canadian postage stamp. In August 2008, the Canadian Pacific Railway named a station in his honour. On June 29, 2009, he was named an honorary captain of the men's national team for the 2010 Winter Olympics.  On Friday December 4, 2014 the Montreal Canadiens started sewing on a patch that had the number \"4\" in a black circle on the left side of the jersey.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Jean Arthur Béliveau (August 31, 1931 – December 2, 2014) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player who played parts of 20 seasons with the National Hockey League's (NHL) Montreal Canadiens from 1950 to 1971. Inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1972, \"Le Gros Bill\" Béliveau is widely regarded as one of the Ten Greatest NHL players of all time. Born in Trois-Rivières, Quebec, Béliveau first played professionally in the Quebec Major Hockey League (QMHL). He made his NHL debut with the Canadiens in 1950, but chose to remain in the QMHL full-time until 1953.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974497}
{"src_title": "Asplenium scolopendrium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The plants are unusual in being ferns with simple, undivided fronds. The tongue-shaped leaves have given rise to the common name \"Hart's tongue fern\"; a hart being an adult male red deer. The sori pattern is reminiscent of a centipede's legs, and \"scolopendrium\" is Latin for \"centipede\". The leaves are 10–60 cm long and 3–6 cm broad, with sori arranged in rows perpendicular to the rachis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"A. scolopendrium\", with its close relative \"A. sagittatum\", has also been placed in a segregate genus \"Phyllitis\". \"A. scolopendrium\" forms hybrids with other \"Asplenium\" species, including those species sometimes classified in the separate genus \"Camptosorus\", which is one reason that both \"Phyllitis\" and \"Camptosorus\" species are now generally included in \"Asplenium\". On the other hand, a recent phylogenetic study of the family Aspleniaceae suggests that \"A. scolopendrium\" is only distantly related to other \"Asplenium\" species, and that the genus \"Phyllitis\" should again be recognized.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The Latin specific epithet \"scolopendrium\" is derived from the Greek \"skolopendra\", meaning a centipede or millipede. The underside of the fronds supposedly resembles those insects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Asplenium scolopendrium\" is a common diploid species in Europe. In North America it occurs in rare, widely scattered populations that have been given varietal status, \"A. scolopendrium\" var. \"americanum\". Morphological differences are minor, but the North American populations are tetraploid.  The plants grow on neutral and lime-rich substrates, including moist soil and damp crevices in old walls, most commonly in shaded situations but occasionally in full sun; plants in full sun are usually stunted and yellowish in colour, while those in full shade are dark green and luxuriant. The rare occurrences of the North American form in the southeastern US are found exclusively in sinkhole pits. These populations may be relics of cooler Pleistocene climates.  In the United States, \"A. scolopendrium\" var. \"americanum\" was declared endangered in 1989. The reason that the European variety is relatively widespread, and the American variety a rarity, has apparently not been established. A third variety, \"A. scolopendrium\" var. \"lindenii\", occurs in southern Mexico and Hispaniola.  \"A. scolopendrium\" var. \"americanum\" grows in a small number of caves in the United States, two of them being in Alabama. One is Fern Cave, a public cave in Jackson County, Alabama, where it has declined heavily due to illegal plant collecting. The other is located at an undisclosed pit in Morgan County that is off limits due to the land around it being both protected by private landowners and the National Speleological Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Asplenium scolopendrium\" is often grown as an ornamental plant, with several cultivars selected with varying frond form, including with frilled frond margins, forked fronds and cristate forms. The species has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit, as has the cultivar 'Angustatum'.  The American variety is reputed to be difficult to cultivate, and even in North America most, if not all, cultivated plants are derived from the European forms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Herbal medicine.", "content": "This fern was used in the 1800s as a medicinal plant in folk medicine as a spleen tonic and for other uses.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Asplenium scolopendrium, known as hart's-tongue or hart's-tongue fern (syn. \"Phyllitis scolopendrium\") is an evergreen fern in the genus \"Asplenium\", of the Northern Hemisphere.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974498}
{"src_title": "Georges Dumézil", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Dumézil's father was a classicist and Georges became interested in ancient languages at a young age (it has been said that he could read the \"Aeneid\" in Latin at the age of nine) and, by the end of his life, he is said to have spoken many languages fluently. During his time in secondary school, he was also influenced by Michel Bréal, a leading French philologist who was the grandfather of one of his classmates. By the time that he entered the École Normale Supérieure in 1916, he was already on the road to studying linguistics and the classics.  Dumézil's studies were delayed by World War I, when he was drafted and served as an artillery officer. After the war, he resumed them and was particularly influenced by Antoine Meillet. He aggregated in 1919 in Classics and received his doctorate in 1924 after writing a thesis comparing the common origins of the Greek ambrosia and a similarly named Indian drink \"Amrita\", which was said to make its imbiber immortal. The dissertation was controversial because some of the examiners, such as Henri Hubert, thought that Dumézil took liberty with the facts to generate a more beautiful interpretation (that was a common criticism of Dumézil's work).  Feeling that he had little place in the French academy, Dumézil moved to Turkey in 1925 to teach at the University of Istanbul, created as part of Kemal Atatürk's attempt to create a modern, secular nation. He learned Turkish and developed an interest in the Ubykh language and travelled widely in Russia, Turkey and the Caucasus. As a result, he became one of the premier experts of Caucasian languages to work in French. He compared the Etruscan language with the Caucasian languages. In 1931, he took another position, in Uppsala, Sweden, which allowed him to improve his skills in the Germanic stock of Indo-European.  In 1929, he published \"Flamen-Brahman\", the first full statement of his trifunctional hypothesis; the idea was repeated in \"Mitra-Varuna\", perhaps his most accessible work.  Dumézil's influence rose in the mid-1930s. In 1935 he left Uppsala to take up a chair of Comparative Religion of Indo-European Peoples at the prestigious École Pratique des Hautes Études. He was named a professor at the Collège de France in 1949, and was finally elected to the Académie française in 1978 thanks to the patronage of his colleague and fellow student of myth, Claude Lévi-Strauss. In 1984 he was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca.  Dumézil is also well known for mentoring many younger French scholars. Michel Foucault, for instance, benefitted from his patronage when Dumézil arranged for him to teach temporarily in Uppsala early on in his career. Georges Charachidzé, a historian and linguist of Georgian origin under Dumézil's tutelage, became a noted specialist of the Caucasian cultures and aided Dumézil in the reconstruction of the Ubykh language.  Many themes of Dumézil's work have continued influence in ancient religious studies: his impulse to comparative study, and his basic insight that polytheistic gods must be studied not simply by themselves but in the pairs and the ensembles in which their worshippers grouped them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Dumézil's politics are much more often criticised than his monolithic scholarly work. Bruce Lincoln has leveled accusations of fascism against Dumézil. The scholars Arnaldo Momigliano, Carlo Ginzburg, and Lincoln argue that Dumézil was in favor of a traditional hierarchical order in Europe (e.g. three estates), that his Indo-European dualism and tripartite ideology may be also related to Italian and French fascist ideas and that he was in favor of French fascism (e.g. integralism); none of them thought that he was a supporter of German Nazism. Lincoln states: \"[T]hose on the New Right, like Alain de Benoist, Jean Haudry, or Roger Pearson, cite Dumézil's writings in support of their positions—their fondness for hierarchy and authority, for example, their antipathy toward egalitarianism and the ideals of the Enlightenment, or their triumphal view of ‘Indo-Europeans’ as superior to all other peoples—we may suspect them of appropriating nothing other than positions of the Old Right that have been brilliantly recoded and misrepresented first as ancient wisdom, and second as scholarly discourse.\"  In the 1930s, Dumézil supported the far-right, royalist, anti-democratic and anti-German Action Française and held for a while Benito Mussolini in high regard, while steadfastly opposing Nazism and voicing as a journalist his opposition to the growing danger posed by German nationalism. However, Dumézil never joined Action Française, contending that \"too many things separated [him] from them. The credo of the Action Française was a block: it forbade both appreciating Edmond Rostand and believing in the innocence of Captain Dreyfus.\" Dumézil joined the Free Masonry in the early 1930s, as a member of the Portique lodge of the Grande Loge de France of the Scottish Rite and thus was summarily dismissed from his teaching positions and from the civil service by the Vichy State.  Lincoln notes that Dumézil \"maintained a cautiously ambiguous relation\" with Nouvelle Droite figures like de Benoist and Haudry, \"both of whom courted him avidly\". Among his \"closest colleagues\" were Otto Höfler (who was in the SS-\"Ahnenerbe\"), Jan de Vries (a Nazi collaborator) and Stig Wikander (who had an ambiguous relation to Nazism). In response to a text written by Momigliano indicating that he might have been keen on Nazi ideology, Dumézil wrote \"fascist and Nazi conceptions of a hierarchical society have never been part of my intuition nor of my conduct\".  Such criticism of Dumézil has been emphatically disputed by philosopher Didier Eribon in his 1992 book \"Faut-il brûler Dumézil? Mythologie, science et politique\" [Should Dumézil Be Burned? Mythology, Science and Politics]. In a survey article on Dumézil's work, Dean A. Miller devoted two pages on the case and concluded that \"at its worst, the effort tries to remove the importance of whole theoretical constructions on the basis of some adduced or invented political flaw found in the past, often the remote past, of their creator. This derogation is not simple-minded 'political correctness'. It is, [again] in my opinion, the blindest intellectual self-mutilation\".  In order to clarify the debate regarding his political opinion, Georges Dumézil has declared to Eribon in 1987: \"the principle, not simply monarchical, but dynastic, which protects the highest office of the State from caprices and ambitions, seemed to me, and still seems to me, preferable to the generalized election in which we have been living since Danton and Bonaparte. The example of the [constitutional] monarchies of the North (of Europe) confirmed to me this feeling. Of course, the formula is not applicable in France.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georges Dumézil (; 4 March 1898 – 11 October 1986, Paris) was a French comparative philologist best known for his analysis of sovereignty and power in Proto-Indo-European religion and society. He is considered one of the major contributors to mythography, in particular for his formulation of the trifunctional hypothesis of social class in ancient societies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974499}
{"src_title": "Edmondo De Amicis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Oneglia (today part of the city of Imperia), he went to the Military Academy of Modena, and became an Army officer in the new Kingdom of Italy. De Amicis fought in the battle of Custoza during the Third Independence War, a defeat of Savoy forces against the Austrian Empire; the spectacle left him disappointed, and contributed to his later decision to leave military life.  In Florence, he wrote his first sketches dealing with his frontline experience, collected as \"La vita militare\" (\"Military Life\", 1868), and first published by the journal of the Ministry of Defense, \"L'Italia Militare\". In 1870, he joined the staff of the journal \"La Nazione\" in Rome, and his correspondence at the time later served as base for his travel writings: \"Spagna\" (1873), \"Olanda\" (1874), \"Ricordi di Londra\" (1874), \"Marocco\" (1876), \"Constantinople\" (1878), \"Ricordi di Parigi\" (1879). A new edition of \"Costantinople\", considered by many his masterpiece and the best description of the city in the 19th century, was published in 2005, with a foreword by Umberto Eco.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Heart\" success.", "content": "\"Heart\" was issued by Treves on 17 October 1886, the first day of school in Italy. Its success was immense: in a few months it was printed in 40 Italian editions and translated into dozens of languages. Its praise for the creation of the united Italian state in the previous decade contributed to its reception, but also led to criticism from some Roman Catholic politicians for failing to depict the nature of the Holy See's opposition to the annexation of Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "The nationalist message visible in De Amicis' works was soon fused with a commitment to socialism (a trend visible within \"Heart\"). In 1896, he adhered to the Italian Socialist Party. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1901.  His later works include: \"Sull'oceano\" (1889), dealing with the plight of Italian emigrants overseas, \"Il romanzo di un maestro\" (1890), \"Amore e ginnastica\" (1892), \"Maestrina degli operai\" (1895), \"La carrozza di tutti\" (1899), \"L'idioma gentile\" (1905), and \"Nuovi ritratti letterari e artistici\" (1908). At the same time, he contributed to the Turin-based \"Il Grido del Popolo\" - his articles were collected as \"Questione sociale\" (\"Social Issues\", 1894).  De Amicis died in Bordighera at the \"Hotel de la Reine\", which he chose because it was George MacDonald's Casa Coraggio, Bordighera. His last years were marked by tragedy and spent in reclusion; he was marked by his mother's death, and the frequent conflicts with his wife - ultimately, these were the source of an even greater emotional shock for De Amicis, as they led to his son Furio's suicide (as schoolchildren, Furio and his brother Ugo had served as inspiration for \"Heart\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Alberto Brambilla of Sorbonne University wrote that \"historians of Italian literature consider him a “minor” author\" but that the publication of \"Constantinople\" was evidence that he was \"one best-known Italian authors abroad\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edmondo De Amicis (; 21 October 1846 – 11 March 1908) was an Italian novelist, journalist, poet and short-story writer. His best-known book is \"Cuore\", a children's novel translated into English as \"Heart\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974500}
{"src_title": "One-Dimensional Man", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Summary.", "content": "Marcuse strongly criticizes consumerism and modern \"industrial society\", which he claims is a form of social control. Marcuse argues that while the system we live in may claim to be democratic, it is actually totalitarian. A form of technological rationality has imposed itself on every aspect of culture and public life, and has become hegemonic. Our identification with this hegemonic ideology of modern industrial society, this ideology does not represent a form of \"false-conscious\", but rather has succeeded in becoming reality.  Modern industrial societies have furthermore created an \"affluent society\", which in increasing comfort have disguised the exploitative nature of the system, and have therefore strengthened means of domination and control. Modern \"affluent society\" therefore limits opportunities for political revolution against capitalism.  In modern consumer societies, Marcuse argues that a small number of individuals are empowered to dictate our perceptions of freedom by providing us with opportunities to buy our happiness. In this state of \"unfreedom\", consumers act irrationally by working more than they are required to in order to fulfill actual basic needs, by ignoring the psychologically destructive effects, by ignoring the waste and environmental damage it causes, and by searching for social connection through material items.  It is even more irrational in the sense that the creation of new products, calling for the disposal of old products, fuels the economy and encourages the need to work more to buy more. An individual loses his humanity and becomes a tool in the industrial machine and a cog in the consumer machine. Additionally, advertising sustains consumerism, which disintegrates societal demeanor, delivered in bulk and informing the masses that happiness can be bought, an idea that is psychologically damaging.  There are alternatives to counter the consumer lifestyle. Anti-consumerism is a lifestyle that demotes any unnecessary consumption, as well as unnecessary work, waste, etc. But even this alternative is complicated by the extreme interpenetration of advertising and commodification because everything is a commodity, even those things that are actual needs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The critical theorist Douglas Kellner wrote that \"One-Dimensional Man\" was one of the most important books of the 1960s and one of the most subversive books of the twentieth century. Despite its pessimism, represented by the citation of the words of Walter Benjamin at the end of this book that \"\"Nur um der Hoffnungslosen willen ist uns die Hoffnung gegeben\"\" (\"It is only for the sake of those without hope that hope is given to us\"), it influenced many in the New Left as it articulated their growing dissatisfaction with both capitalist societies and Soviet communist societies.  The philosopher Stephen Hicks argues that the book's popularity marked \"a strong turn towards irrationality and violence among younger Leftists.\"  The philosopher Ronald Aronson wrote that \"One-Dimensional Man\" is more prescient than Marcuse could have ever realized and that it is more relevant today than ever.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society is a 1964 book by the philosopher Herbert Marcuse, in which the author offers a wide-ranging critique of both contemporary capitalism and the Communist society of the Soviet Union, documenting the parallel rise of new forms of social repression in both these societies, as well as the decline of revolutionary potential in the West. He argues that \"advanced industrial society\" created false needs, which integrated individuals into the existing system of production and consumption via mass media, advertising, industrial management, and contemporary modes of thought.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974501}
{"src_title": "Business Process Model and Notation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) is a standard for business process modeling that provides a graphical notation for specifying business processes in a \"Business Process Diagram\" (BPD), based on a flowcharting technique very similar to activity diagrams from Unified Modeling Language (UML). The objective of BPMN is to support business process management, for both technical users and business users, by providing a notation that is intuitive to business users, yet able to represent complex process semantics. The BPMN specification also provides a mapping between the graphics of the notation and the underlying constructs of execution languages, particularly Business Process Execution Language (BPEL).  BPMN has been designed to provide a standard notation readily understandable by all business stakeholders, typically including business analysts, technical developers and business managers. BPMN can therefore be used to support the generally desirable aim of all stakeholders on a project adopting a common language to describe processes, helping to avoid communication gaps that can arise between business process design and implementation.  BPMN is one of a number of business process modeling language standards used by modeling tools and processes. While the current variety of languages may suit different modeling environments, there are those who advocate for the development or emergence of a single, comprehensive standard, combining the strengths of different existing languages. It is suggested that in time, this could help to unify the expression of basic business process concepts (e.g., public and private processes, choreographies), as well as advanced process concepts (e.g., exception handling, transaction compensation).  Two new standards, using a similar approach to BPMN have been developed, addressing case management modeling (Case Management Model and Notation) and decision modeling, the (Decision Model and Notation).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Topics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scope.", "content": "BPMN is constrained to support only the concepts of modeling applicable to business processes. Other types of modeling done by organizations for non-process purposes are out of scope for BPMN. Examples of modeling excluded from BPMN are:  In addition, while BPMN shows the flow of data (messages), and the association of data artifacts to activities, it is not a data flow diagram.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Elements.", "content": "BPMN models are expressed by simple diagrams constructed from a limited set of graphical elements. For both business users and developers, they simplify understanding of business activities' flow and process. BPMN's four basic element categories are:  These four categories enable creation of simple business process diagrams (BPDs). BPDs also permit making new types of flow object or artifact, to make the diagram more understandable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flow objects and connecting objects.", "content": "\"Flow objects\" are the main describing elements within BPMN, and consist of three core elements: events, activities, and gateways.  \"Flow objects\" are connected to each other using Connecting objects, which are of three types: sequences, messages, and associations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Swim lanes and artifacts.", "content": "Swim lanes are a visual mechanism of organising and categorising activities, based on cross functional flowcharting, and in BPMN consist of two types:  Artifacts allow developers to bring some more information into the model/diagram. In this way the model/diagram becomes more readable. There are three pre-defined Artefacts and they are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "BPMN 2.0.2.", "content": "The vision of BPMN 2.0.2 is to have one single specification for a new Business Process Model and Notation that defines the notation, metamodel and interchange format but with a modified name that still preserves the \"BPMN\" brand. The features include:  The current version of the specification was released in January 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Types of BPMN sub-model.", "content": "Business process modeling is used to communicate a wide variety of information to a wide variety of audiences. BPMN is designed to cover this wide range of usage and allows modeling of end-to-end business processes to allow the viewer of the Diagram to be able to easily differentiate between sections of a BPMN Diagram. There are three basic types of sub-models within an end-to-end BPMN model: Private (internal) business processes, Abstract (public) processes, and Collaboration (global) processes:  Within and between these three BPMN sub-models, many types of Diagrams can be created. The following are the types of business processes that can be modeled with BPMN (those with asterisks may not map to an executable language):  BPMN is designed to allow all the above types of Diagrams. However, it should be cautioned that if too many types of sub-models are combined, such as three or more private processes with message flow between each of them, then the Diagram may become difficult to understand. Thus, the OMG recommends that the modeler pick a focused purpose for the BPD, such as a private or collaboration process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison with other process modeling notations.", "content": "Event-driven process chains (EPC) and BPMN are two notations with similar expressivity when process modeling is concerned. A BPMN model can be transformed into an EPC model. Conversely, an EPC model can be transformed into a BPMN model with only a slight loss of information. A study showed that for the same process, the BPMN model may need around 40% less elements than the corresponding EPC model, but with a slightly larger set of symbols. The BPMN model would therefore be easier to read. The conversion between the two notations can be automated.  UML activity diagrams and BPMN are two notations that can be used to model the same processes: a subset of the activity diagram elements have a similar semantic than BPMN elements, despite the smaller and less expressive set of symbols. A study showed that both types of process models appear to have the same level of readability for inexperienced users, despite the higher formal constraints of an activity diagram.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weaknesses.", "content": "The weaknesses of BPMN could relate to:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "BPEL and BPMN.", "content": "The BPMN specification includes an informal and partial mapping from BPMN to BPEL 1.1. A more detailed mapping of BPMN to BPEL has been implemented in a number of tools, including an open-source tool known as BPMN2BPEL. However, the development of these tools has exposed fundamental differences between BPMN and BPEL, which make it very difficult, and in some cases impossible, to generate human-readable BPEL code from BPMN models. Even more difficult is the problem of BPMN-to-BPEL \"round-trip\" engineering: generating BPEL code from BPMN diagrams and maintaining the original BPMN model and the generated BPEL code synchronized, in the sense that any modification to one is propagated to the other.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) is a graphical representation for specifying business processes in a business process model. Originally developed by the Business Process Management Initiative (BPMI), BPMN has been maintained by the Object Management Group (OMG) since the two organizations merged in 2005. Version 2.0 of BPMN was released in January 2011, at which point the name was amended to Business Process Model \"and\" Notation to reflect the introduction of execution semantics, which were introduced alongside the existing notational and diagramming elements. Though it is an OMG specification, BPMN is also ratified as ISO 19510. The latest version is BPMN 2.0.2, published in January 2014.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974502}
{"src_title": "Pitch Black (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In the distant future, the spaceship \"Hunter-Gratzner\" is transporting passengers in cryostasis. Among those are a Muslim preacher who goes by the title of Imam, accompanied by three young sons, traveling to New Mecca, a teenager named Jack, a pair of prospectors named Shazza and Zeke, a merchant named Paris and a law enforcement officer, William J. Johns, who is escorting the notorious criminal Richard B. Riddick. Riddick has surgically modified eyes that allow him to see in the dark but are highly sensitive to light.  The Micrometeoroids from a comet rupture the ship's hull, killing the captain and sending the ship off course. The surviving crew members attempt to land the ship on a nearby planet. As the ship falls apart, docking pilot Carolyn Fry attempts to dump the passenger section to reduce their weight but co-pilot Owens prevents her. During the crash, several passenger compartments are destroyed and Owens is fatally injured.  The group explores their surroundings, noticing that the three suns surrounding the planet keep it in perpetual daylight. They find an abandoned geological research settlement, with a water well and a dropship with drained batteries. Zeke is killed but his body is missing and Riddick is immediately suspected. While searching for Zeke's body, Fry barely escapes from photosensitive aggressive underground creatures. Johns offers Riddick a deal: if he helps them escape the planet, he'll go free.  After the group takes a power cell to the dropship, one of the young sons is ambushed and eaten inside one of the buildings, and they realize the geologists were all killed by the creatures. An orrery shows that an eclipse of the entire planet is imminent so the creatures will be free to hunt above ground. Johns informs Fry that Riddick can pilot the dropship and Riddick reveals to Fry that Johns is actually a bounty hunter and a morphine addict.  The group returns to the crash site on a solar-powered sand truck to retrieve more power cells for the dropship before the eclipse, but it begins just as they get there. Creatures pour out of the ground and rip Shazza in half. After regrouping, Riddick agrees to Fry and the others to lead them back to the dropship on foot through the darkness, thanks to his special sight, and the group salvages for any sources of light they can find to scare away the creatures. The trip back to the dropship starts with the power of their light sources getting accidentally cut after Paris is killed and has them cross their tracks. After Riddick reveals to the group Jack is actually female and the scent of her blood is drawing the most attention from the creatures, Johns suggests to Riddick to use Jack as bait to keep the creatures away from the rest of the group, but Riddick engages Johns in a hand-to-hand fight, wounds him and leaves him as a distraction instead. The rest of the survivors push on, while Riddick drags the power cells behind him.  After the Imam's last child is killed and rainfall starts putting out their Molotov torches, the group, down to Riddick, Fry, Jack and Imam, finds shelter in a small cave not far from the settlement. Riddick leaves them there and takes the power cells to the dropship. Inside the cave, they discover bio-luminescent worms, which they stuff in the empty bottles to use as light. Fry leaves the cave and finds Riddick powering up the ship, ready to leave without them. She pleads with him to help her rescue the others, but surprisingly, he just offers to take her with him. Fry, however, refuses and demands that she and Riddick will go back and save the Imam and Jack. Riddick agrees out of sheer fascination with this decision. They find the Imam and Jack, and while returning to the ship Riddick is separated from the group and wounded by the creatures; Fry goes back to help Riddick but is speared and carried off by a creature after attempting to save him. Riddick makes it to the ship and waits until the last possible moment before engaging the engines to incinerate as many creatures as possible. While leaving the planet, Jack asks Riddick what they should tell the authorities about him; he tells her to say that Riddick died on the planet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Pitch Black\" opened in 1,832 theaters on 18 February 2000, grossing $11,577,688 over its opening weekend and ranking 4th at the box office. The film has a domestic gross of $39,240,659 and an international gross of $13,947,000, giving it a worldwide total of $53,187,659.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "The film received mixed reviews. At review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 59% approval rating based on 109 reviews, with an average rating of 5.63/10. The site's consensus reads: \"Despite an interesting premise (and a starmaking turn from Vin Diesel), \"Pitch Black\" is too derivative and formulaic to fully recommend to sci-fi or action fans\".  Roger Ebert gave the film 2 out of 4 stars. He gives the film credit for some promising story elements and a nice look, but expresses disappointment that more wasn't done with the alien world and that he was underwhelmed by the recycled human conflicts. He concluded it was \"A step backward from \"The Arrival\".\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "\"Pitch Black\" was released on VHS and DVD on October 10, 2000. It was re-released on DVD in 2004 as \"The Chronicles of Riddick: Pitch Black\". It was released on HD DVD on July 11, 2006, and on Blu-ray on March 31, 2009. The disc contains the theatrical edition and an unrated director's cut edition, containing 2 more minutes of extra material. A LaserDisc release was also planned, but cancelled by mid-2001 due to waning support for that format.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related works.", "content": "The movie's sequel, \"The Chronicles of Riddick\" (2004), was also directed by David Twohy. A short animated movie released the same year, \"\" (2004), was directed by Peter Chung. \"Dark Fury\" bridges the gap between \"Pitch Black\" and \"Chronicles of Riddick\".  To tie in with the sequel, the film was novelized under the name \"The Chronicles of Riddick: Pitch Black\". The novel was written by Frank Lauria.  In 2000, a prequel to \"Pitch Black\" was released named \"Into Pitch Black\", which was supposed to be a documentary film. \"\", a game for the Xbox and the PC, was also released in 2004 to critical acclaim. A remake of \"Butcher Bay\", including a new campaign, was released for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and PC on 7 April 2009, under the title \"\".  \"Riddick\", a live-action sequel to \"The Chronicles of Riddick\", opened on September 6, 2013, with both David Twohy and Vin Diesel attached. The sequel ties in more closely to the original \"Pitch Black\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pitch Black (titled The Chronicles of Riddick: Pitch Black on its DVD re-release) is a 2000 American science fiction action horror film co-written and directed by David Twohy. The film stars Vin Diesel, Radha Mitchell, Cole Hauser, and Keith David. Dangerous criminal Richard B. Riddick (Diesel) is being transported to prison in a spacecraft. When the spaceship is damaged by comet debris and makes an emergency crash landing on an empty desert planet, Riddick escapes. However, when predatory alien creatures begin attacking the survivors, Riddick joins forces with the surviving crew and other passengers to develop a plan to escape the planet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974503}
{"src_title": "Temple of Concord", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "One tradition ascribes the first Temple of Concord to a vow made by Camillus in 367 BC, on the occasion of the \"Lex Licinia Sextia\", the law passed by the tribunes Gaius Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus, opening the consulship to the plebeians. The two had prevented the election of any magistrates for a period of several years, as part of the conflict of the orders. Nominated dictator to face an invasion of the Gauls, Camillus, encouraged by his fellow patrician Marcus Fabius Ambustus, Stolo's father-in-law, determined to resolve the crisis by declaring his support for the law, and vowing a temple to Concordia, symbolizing reconciliation between the patricians and plebeians.  Camillus' vow is not mentioned by Livy, who instead describes the dedication of the Temple of Concord in the Vulcanal, a precinct sacred to Vulcan on the western end of the forum, by the aedile Gnaeus Flavius in 304 BC. Flavius' actions were an affront to the senate, partly because he had undertaken the matter without first consulting them, and partly because of his low social standing: not only was Flavius a plebeian, but he was the son of a freedman, and had previously served as a scribe to Appius Claudius Caecus. The Pontifex Maximus, Rome's chief priest, was compelled to instruct Flavius on the proper formulae for dedicating a temple. Cicero and Pliny report that Flavius was a scribe, rather than aedile, at the time of the dedication, and a law was passed immediately afterward forbidding anyone from dedicating a temple without the authorization of the senate or a majority of the plebeian tribunes.  Yet a third Temple of Concord was begun in 217 BC, early in the Second Punic War, by the \"duumviri\" Marcus Pupius and Caeso Quinctius Flamininus, in fulfillment of a vow made by the praetor Lucius Manlius Vulso on the occasion of his deliverance from the Gauls in 218. The reason why Manlius vowed a temple to \"Concordia\" is not immediately apparent, but Livy alludes to a mutiny that had apparently occurred among the praetor's men. The temple was completed and dedicated the following year by the \"duumviri\" Marcus and Gaius Atilius.  The murder of Gaius Gracchus in 121 BC marked a low point in the relationship between the emerging Roman aristocracy and the popular party, and was immediately followed by the reconstruction of the Temple of Concord by Lucius Opimius at the senate's behest, which was regarded as an utterly insincere attempt to clothe its actions in a symbolic act of reconciliation.  From this period, the temple was frequently used as a meeting place for both the Senate and the Arval Brethren. Two important Senate meetings, including one in which Cicero delivered his Fourth Catilinarian speech and another in which Sejanus was condemned to death, took place in the Temple of Concord.  A statue of Victoria placed on the roof of the temple was struck by lightning in 211 BC, and prodigies were reported in the Concordiae, the neighborhood of the temple, in 183 and 181. Little else is heard of the temple until 7 BC, when the future emperor Tiberius undertook another restoration, which lasted until AD 10, when the structure was rededicated on the 16th of January as the \"Aedes Concordiae Augustae\", the Temple of Concordia of Augustus.  This new temple served as a museum for a number of works of art, many of which are described by Pliny. The fine collection consisted primarily of Greek art including a statue of Hestia, several group bronzes, and panel paintings by famous Greek painters including Zeuxis, Nikias and Theoros.  The temple is occasionally mentioned in imperial times, and may have been restored again following a fire in AD 284. If still in use, the temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans under the Christian emperors of the late fourth century. The building, however, remained standing. By the eighth century, the temple was reportedly in poor condition, and in danger of collapsing.  The temple was razed \"circa\" 1450, and the stone turned into a lime kiln to recover the marble for building.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The Temple of Concord, constructed by Lucius Opimus during the Republican period, had a typical rectangular podium (40.8m x 30m). Based on the construction methods used in the base and support walls, the porch had eight Corinthian columns made out of travertine drums covered in stucco.  The later construction of the Temple of Concordia Augusta expanded and altered the previous temple. Backed up against the Tabularium at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, the design of the temple had to accommodate the limitations of the site. The cella of the temple, for instance, is almost twice as wide (45m) as it is deep (24m), as is the pronaos. A steep flight of stairs led up to the entrance of the temple on the long side, which would have been flanked by statues of Hercules and Mercury, symbolizing security and prosperity. A fragment of the marble threshold of the cella is preserved and features an engraved caduceus or wand of Mercury, which represented peace and reconciliation. Three statues were positioned on the apex of the pediment, which represented Concord along with two other goddess, Pax and Salus (or Securitas and Fortuna). Two soldiers, representing Tiberius and his brother Drusus, stood on either side of them. In the cella, a row of Corinthian columns rose from a continuous plinth projecting from the wall, which divided the cella into bays, each containing a niche. The capitals of these columns had pairs of leaping rams in place of the corner volutes. Only the platform now remains, partially covered by a road up to the Capitol.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other temples.", "content": "The main temple in the Forum in Rome seems to have been a model for temples to the goddess elsewhere in the empire—a reproduction of this temple was found at Mérida in Spain, during the excavations of the town's forum in 2002.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Temple of Concord () in the ancient city of Rome refers to a series of shrines or temples dedicated to the Roman goddess Concordia, and erected at the western end of the Roman Forum. The earliest temple is believed to have been vowed by Marcus Furius Camillus in 367 BC, but it may not have been built until 218 BC by L. Manlius. The temple was rebuilt in 121 BC, and again by the future emperor Tiberius between 7 BC and AD 10.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974504}
{"src_title": "Glenn L. Martin Company", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "Glenn L. Martin Company was founded by aviation pioneer Glenn Luther Martin on August 16, 1912. Martin started building military trainers in Santa Ana, California, and in 1916, Martin accepted a merger offer from the Wright Company, creating the Wright-Martin Aircraft Company in September. This new company did not go well, and Glenn Martin left to form a second Glenn L. Martin Company on September 10, 1917; it was based in Cleveland, Ohio. (Later, its headquarters would be moved to Baltimore, Maryland.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mexican Revolution.", "content": "In 1913 Mexican insurgents from the northwestern state of Sonora bought a single seater Martin Pusher biplane in Los Angeles with the intention of attacking federal naval forces attacking the port of Guaymas. The aircraft was shipped on May 5, 1913, in five crates to Tucson, Arizona via Wells Fargo Express, and then moved through the border into Mexico to the town of Naco, Sonora. The aircraft, named \"Sonora\" by the insurgents, was reassembled there and fitted with a second seat for a bomber position.  The \"Sonora\", armed with rudimentary 3-inch pipe bombs, performed the first known air to naval bombing runs in history.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "For the Dutch East Indies a number of planes were delivered, with the first flight on November 6, 1915. It involved 2 types TE, 6 types TT and 8 types R. Martin's first big success came during World War I with the MB-1 bomber, a large biplane design ordered by the United States Army on January 17, 1918. The MB-1 entered service after the end of hostilities. A follow-up design, the MB-2, proved successful; 20 were ordered by the Army Air Service, the first five of them under the company designation and the last 15 as the NBS-1 (Night Bomber, Short range). Although the War Department ordered 110 more, it retained the ownership rights of the design, and put the order out for bid. The production orders were given to other companies that had bid lower, Curtiss (50), L.W.F. Engineering (35), and Aeromarine (25). The design was the only standard bomber used by the Air Service until 1930, and was used by seven squadrons of the Air Service/Air Corps: four in Virginia, two in Hawaii, and one in the Philippines.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inter-war years.", "content": "In 1924 the Martin Company underbid Curtiss for the production of a Curtiss-designed scout bomber, the SC-1, and ultimately Martin produced 404 of these. In 1929 Martin sold the Cleveland plant and built a new one in Middle River, Maryland, northeast of Baltimore.  During the 1930s, Martin built flying boats for the U.S. Navy, and the innovative Martin B-10 bomber for the Army. The Martin Company also produced the noted China Clipper flying boats used by Pan American Airways for its transpacific San Francisco to the Philippines route.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "During World War II, a few of Martin's most successful designs were the B-26 Marauder and A-22 Maryland bombers, the PBM Mariner and JRM Mars flying boats, widely used for air-sea rescue, anti-submarine warfare and transport. The 1941 Office for Emergency Management film \"Bomber\" was filmed in the Martin facility in Baltimore, and showed aspects of the production of the B-26.  Martin ranked 14th among US corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. The Martin Company built a total of 531 Boeing B-29 Superfortresses and 1,585 B-26 Marauders at its Omaha, Nebraska, plant at Offutt Field. Among the B-29s manufactured there were all the Silverplate aircraft, including \"Enola Gay\" and \"Bockscar\" which dropped the two, war-ending atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Postwar.", "content": "On April 22, 1957, the company name was changed to The Martin Company.  Postwar efforts in aeronautics by the Martin Company included two unsuccessful prototype bombers, the XB-48 and the XB-51, the marginally successful AM Mauler, the successful B-57 Canberra tactical bombers, both the P5M Marlin and P6M SeaMaster seaplanes, and the Martin 4-0-4 twin-engine passenger airliner. The Martin Company moved into the aerospace manufacturing business. It produced the Vanguard rocket, used by the American space program as one of its first satellite booster rockets as part of Project Vanguard. The Vanguard was the first American space exploration rocket designed from scratch to be an orbital launch vehicle — rather than being a modified sounding rocket (like the Juno I) or a ballistic missile (like the U.S. Army's Redstone missile). Martin also designed and manufactured the huge and heavily armed Titan I and LGM-25C Titan II Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). Martin Company of Orlando, Florida, was the prime contractor for the US Army's Pershing missile.  The Martin Company was one of two finalists for the command and service modules of the Apollo Program. NASA awarded the design and production contracts for these to the North American Aviation Corporation.  The Martin Company went further in the production of larger booster rockets for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the U.S. Air Force with its Titan III series of over 100 rockets produced, including the Titan IIIA, the more-important Titan IIIC, and the Titan IIIE. Besides hundreds of Earth satellites, these rockets were essential for the sending to outer space of the two space probes of the Voyager Project to the outer planets the two space probes of the Viking Project to Mars, and the two Helios probes into low orbits around the Sun. (closer, even, than Mercury.)  Finally the US Air Force required a booster rocket that could launch heavier satellites than either the Titan IIIE or the Space Shuttle. The Martin Company responded with its extremely large Titan IV series of rockets. When the Titan IV came into service, it could carry a heavier payload to orbit than any other rocket in production. Besides its use by the Air Force to launch its sequence of very heavy reconnaissance satellites, one Titan IV, with a powerful Centaur rocket upper stage, was used to launch the heavy Cassini space probe to the planet Saturn in 1997. The Cassini probe orbited Saturn from 2004 to 2017, successfully returning mountains of scientific data.  The halting of production of the Titan IV in 2004 brought to an end production of the last rocket able to carry a heavier payload than the Space Shuttle, which itself ended in 2011.  The Martin Company merged with the American-Marietta Corporation, a chemical products and construction materials manufacturer, in 1961 to form the Martin Marietta Corporation. In 1995, Martin Marietta, then the nation's 3rd-largest defense contractor, merged with the Lockheed Corporation, then the nation's second largest defense contractor, to form the Lockheed Martin Corporation, becoming the largest such company in the world.  The Martin Company employed many of the founders and chief engineers of the American aerospace industry, including:  Martin also taught William Boeing how to fly and also sold him his first airplane.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Glenn L. Martin Company was an American aircraft and aerospace manufacturing company founded by aviation pioneer Glenn L. Martin. The Martin Company produced many important aircraft for the defense of the US and allies, especially during World War II and the Cold War. During the 1950s and 60s, the Martin Company moved from the aircraft industry into the guided missile, space exploration, and space utilization industries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974505}
{"src_title": "Châtelet–Les Halles", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "Formally, the name \"Châtelet–Les Halles\" designates the RER station alone. Informally, it refers to the hub comprising the eponymous RER station (hosting lines A, B and D) plus the contiguous Paris Métro stations Châtelet (lines 1, 4, 7, 11 and 14) and Les Halles (line 4).  For purposes of wayfinding, the massive station complex is broken up into three sectors: Forum, Rivoli, and Seine.  The Forum sector is below and named after the Forum des Halles and includes the RER platforms and the Les Halles station on Paris Métro Line 4. Exits numbered 1 through 9 are located in the sector.  The Rivoli sector is below and named after the Rue de Rivoli, a major road known for its shopping and includes the Châtelet station of lines 1, 4, and 14 of the Paris Métro. Exits numbered 10 through 14 are located in the sector.  The Seine sector is named after the nearby Seine river and includes the Châtelet station of lines 7 and 11 of the Paris Métro. Exits numbered 15 through 19 are located in the sector.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "RER station layout.", "content": "The tracks of the three RER lines are all oriented parallel in an east-west direction. The seven tracks are grouped on four platforms, with the outer platforms reserved for Lines A and B and the central ones for Line D. This enables easy cross-platform connections between RER A and RER B trains traveling in the same direction, and a solution for those RER D trains which use the station as a terminus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Renovation.", "content": "A major redevelopment of the hub and adjoining \"Forum des Halles\" shopping mall was completed in 2018, with the main aim of improving safety in the event of an emergency evacuation at peak traffic time. The renovation included the construction of a major new entrance at Place Marguerite de Navarre, with direct access to the RER station hall; the complete renovation and enlargement of the RER station hall; and extension of key escalators to lower levels of the station.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Châtelet–Les Halles () is a major train hub in Paris and one of the largest underground stations in the world. Opened in 1977, it is the central transit hub for the Île-de-France metropolitan area, connecting three of five RER commuter-rail lines and five of sixteen Métro lines. The hub hosts travellers per weekday ( for the RER alone) and platforms separated by up to 800 metres (0.49 mile). It is named after the nearby Place du Châtelet public square and the Forum des Halles, a shopping mall.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974506}
{"src_title": "Gare Montparnasse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The station opened in 1840 as \"Gare de l'Ouest\", later being renamed. A second station was built between 1848 and 1852.  On 25 August 1944, the German military governor of Paris, General von Choltitz, surrendered his garrison to the French General Philippe Leclerc at the old station, after disobeying Adolf Hitler's direct order to destroy the city (see Liberation of Paris).  During the 1960s, a newer station integrated into a complex of office buildings was built. In 1969, the old station was torn down and the Tour Montparnasse built on its site. An extension was built in 1990 to host the TGV Atlantique.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1895 derailment.", "content": "The Gare Montparnasse became famous for the derailment on 22 October 1895, of the Granville–Paris Express, which overran the buffer stop. The engine careered across almost of the station concourse, crashed through a thick wall, shot across a terrace and smashed out of the station, plummeting onto the Place de Rennes below, where it stood on its nose. Two of the 131 passengers sustained injuries, along with the fireman and two conductors. The only fatality was a woman on the street below, Marie-Augustine Aguilard, who was temporarily taking over her husband's work duty while he went out to get the newspapers. She was killed by falling masonry. The railway company later paid for her funeral and provided a pension to look after her two children. The accident was caused by a faulty Westinghouse brake and the engine driver, who was trying to make up lost time. A conductor was given a 25-franc fine and the engine driver a 50-franc fine.  Replicas of the train crash are recreated outside the Mundo a Vapor (\"Steam World\") museum chain buildings in Brazil, in the southernmost state, Rio Grande do Sul, in the city of Canela.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Train services.", "content": "From Paris Montparnasse train services depart to major French cities such as: Le Mans, Rennes, Saint-Brieuc, Brest, Saint-Malo, Vannes, Lorient, Quimper, Angers, Nantes, Saint-Nazaire, Tours, Poitiers, La Rochelle, Angoulême, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Bayonne and Granville. The station is also served by suburban trains heading to the west and south-west of Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lines serving this station.", "content": "Adjacent metro station:  Nearby station:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gare Montparnasse () (\"Montparnasse Station\"), officially Paris-Montparnasse, is one of the six large Paris railway termini, and is located in the 14th and 15th arrondissements of Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974507}
{"src_title": "Bosman ruling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Facts.", "content": "Jean-Marc Bosman was a player for RFC Liège in the Belgian First Division in Belgium whose contract had expired in 1990. He wanted to change teams and move to Dunkerque, a French club. However, Dunkerque refused to meet his Belgian club's transfer fee demand, so Liège refused to release Bosman.  In the meantime, Bosman's wages were reduced as he was no longer a first-team player. He took his case to the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg and sued for restraint of trade, citing FIFA's rules regarding football, specifically Article 17.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Judgment.", "content": "On 15 December 1995, the court ruled the system, as it was constituted, placed a restriction on the free movement of workers and was prohibited by Article 39(1) of the EC Treaty (now Article 45 (1) of the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union). Bosman and all other EU footballers were given the right to a free transfer at the expiration of their contracts, provided that they transfer from a club within one EU association to a club within another EU association.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Significance.", "content": "Prior to the Bosman ruling, professional clubs in some parts of Europe (but not, for example, in Spain and France) were able to prevent players from joining a club in another country even if their contracts had expired. In the United Kingdom, Transfer Tribunals had been in place since 1981 to resolve disputes over fees between clubs when transferring players at the end of their contracts. The Bosman ruling meant that players could move to a new club at the end of their contract without their old club receiving a fee. Players can now agree a pre-contract with another club for a free transfer if the players' contract with their existing club has six months or less remaining.  The Bosman ruling also prohibited domestic football leagues in EU member states, and also UEFA, from imposing quotas on foreign players to the extent that they discriminated against nationals of EU states. At that time, many leagues placed quotas restricting the number of non-nationals allowed on member teams. Also, UEFA had a rule that prohibited teams in its competitions, namely the Champions League, Cup Winners' Cup and UEFA Cup, from naming more than three \"foreign\" players in their squads for any game. After the ruling, quotas could still be imposed, but could only be used to restrict the number of non-EU players on each team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Players.", "content": "Since the ruling came into effect throughout the EU in 1995, several notable players in European football have benefited from the ruling. In 1996, Edgar Davids became Europe's first high-profile player to benefit from the ruling when he moved from Ajax to Milan. Ex-Hibernian FC player, Paul Kane became the first UK Bosman transfer, moving from Aberdeen FC to Norwegian side Viking Stavanger in 1996. In 1999, Steve McManaman became the most lucrative transfer at the time in British football, as \"Britain's first high-profile Bosman departure\", when he moved from Liverpool to Real Madrid and the deal resulted in McManaman becoming the highest paid British player in history, from 1999 to 2001. Since Davids and McManaman, scores of other notable players became able to negotiate deals according to their market value when their contracts expired, a trend that continued into the 2000s and beyond.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clubs.", "content": "The ruling meant that clubs could no longer block a move or demand a fee, from the player or from the destination club, if the player left at the end of their contracts.  The Bosman ruling coincided directly with a new era of financial gains in football. In 2005, UEFA declared it was seeking to repair aspects of the ruling because it was believed to be the cause of the increasing rich-poor gap between elite and smaller clubs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Significance in EU law.", "content": "Bosman confirmed the \"rule of reason\" approach of the courts used in the important Cassis de Dijon case as not only suitable for issues relating to movement of goods within the EU, but also for cases concerning the free movement of workers. If free movement is indistinctly applied (i.e. not just against foreign nationals) it could be justified if...  The case also alludes to the fact that \"Alpine Investments v Minister van Financiën\" provides a similar test for services, and \"Gebhard v Consiglio dell'Ordine degli Avvocati e Procuratori di Milano\" for establishment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other cases.", "content": "The Bosman ruling was considered and distinguished in \"Lehtonen\" (2000), a similar case which involved a deadline imposed by FIBA after which basketball teams could not include players who had played for another team in the same season, where it was found that such a restriction was lawful.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Union Royale Belge des Sociétés de Football Association ASBL v Jean-Marc Bosman (1995) C-415/93 (known as the Bosman ruling) is a 1995 European Court of Justice decision concerning freedom of movement for workers, freedom of association, and direct effect of article 39 (now article 45 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union) of the TEC. The case was an important decision on the free movement of labour and had a profound effect on the transfers of footballers within the European Union (EU).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974508}
{"src_title": "Garoua", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Garoua was established by the Fulani emir Modibbo Adama in the first half of the 19th century. During the steamship era, it developed into a major river port.  The population of the city was 30,000 in 1967.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Garoua is situated in northern Cameroon, and lies on the Benue River. It serves as the gateway to Benoue National Park. Neighborhoods include Commercial Centre, Lopere, Quartier de Marouaire, and the northwestern suburb of Yelwa, near Garoua International Airport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Garoua has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification \"Aw\"). The average temperature in Garoua ranges from in the January to in April.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "In 2005, Garoua had a population of 235,996 people. The city is inhabited by the Fulbe ethnic group. Due to a significant number of Chadian expatriates in the city, there is a Chadian Consulate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "As the fourth largest port in Cameroon, Garoua is a major center of trade in the country. It developed as a centre for trade in petroleum, cement, hides, peanuts, and cotton, transported on ships along the Benue River, between Burutu in Nigeria. It has long been a thriving centre of the cotton industry and houses several textile processing facilities and factories. The cotton company Sodecoton has one of its major centres in the city. Leatherwork and fishing are also notable industries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Places of worship.", "content": "Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Christian churches and temples : Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Garoua (Catholic Church), Evangelical Church of Cameroon (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Presbyterian Church in Cameroon (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Cameroon Baptist Convention (Baptist World Alliance), Full Gospel Mission Cameroon (Assemblies of God). There are also Muslim mosques.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Garoua is served by Garoua International Airport.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Garoua or Garua (German: Garua) is a port city and the capital of the North Region of Cameroon, lying on the Benue River. A thriving centre of the textiles and cotton industries, the city has approximately 436,899 inhabitants in 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974509}
{"src_title": "Joseph Fesch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Fesch was born at Ajaccio in Corsica. His father was Franz Faesch, a Swiss officer in the service of the Genoese Republic whose family, the Faesch family, belonged to the Basel patriciate and were nobles of the Holy Roman Empire, and his mother was \"Nobile\" Angela Maria Pietrasanta. His mother had previously been married to Captain Giovanni Geronimo Ramolino, and he had an elder half-sister, Laetitia Bonaparte. Through his half-sister, he was the uncle of Napoleon Bonaparte. With support of Luciano Buonaparte (1718–1791), archdeacon of Ajaccio, he entered the seminary at Aix-en-Provence in 1781. He was ordained as a priest in 1785, and 24 years old, he became himself the archdeacon of Ajaccio. After the 1791 death of Luciano Buonaparte, he became for a time the protector and patron of his sister's family. In 1789, when the French Revolution broke out, he felt, like the majority of the Corsicans, repugnance for many of the acts of the French government during that period; in particular he protested against the application to Corsica of the act known as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 1790). As provost of the \"chapter\" in that city he directly felt the pressure of events; for on the suppression of religious orders and corporations, he was constrained to retire into private life.  Thereafter he shared the fortunes of the Napoleon Bonaparte family in the intrigues and strifes which ensued. Drawn gradually into espousing the French cause against Pasquale Paoli and the Anglophiles, he was forced to leave Corsica and to proceed with Laetitia and her son to Toulon, in early autumn, 1793. Failing to find clerical duties at that time (the Reign of Terror), he took several posts in civil life, until on the appointment of Napoleon Bonaparte to the command of the French \"Army of Italy\" he became a commissary attached to that army. This part of his career is obscure, but his fortunes rose rapidly when Napoleon became First Consul, after the \"coup d'état\" of 18 Brumaire (November 1799). When the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion was in the mind of the First Consul, Fesch resumed his clerical vocation and took an active part in the complex negotiations which led to the signing of the Concordat with the Holy See on 15 July 1801. His reward came in being made Archbishop of Lyon in August 1802. Six months later he received a further reward for his past services, being raised to the dignity of cardinal.  Appointed by Napoleon on 4 April 1803 to succeed Cacault on the latter's retirement from the position of French ambassador at Rome, Fesch was assisted by Chateaubriand, but soon sharply differed with him on many questions. Towards the close of 1804, Napoleon entrusted to Fesch the difficult task of securing the presence of Pope Pius VII at the forthcoming coronation of the emperor at Notre Dame, Paris (2 December 1804). His tact in overcoming the reluctance of the pope (it was only eight months after the execution of the duc d'Enghien) received further recognition. He received the \"grand cordon\" of the Legion d'Honneur, became grand-almoner of the empire and had a seat in the French senate. He was to receive further honours. In 1806 one of the most influential of the German clerics, Karl von Dalberg, then prince-bishop of Regensburg, chose him to be his coadjutor and designated him as his successor.  Subsequent events damaged his prospects. In the course of the years 1806-1807 Napoleon came into sharp collision with the pope on various matters both political and religious. Fesch sought in vain to reconcile them. Napoleon was inexorable in his demands, and Pius VII refused to give way where the discipline and vital interests of the church seemed to be threatened. The emperor several times rebuked Fesch for what he thought to be weakness and ingratitude. It is clear, however, that the cardinal went as far as possible in counselling the submission of the spiritual to the civil power. For a time he was not on speaking terms with the pope; and Napoleon recalled him from Rome.  Affairs came to a crisis in the year 1809, when Napoleon issued at Vienna the decree of 17 May, ordering the annexation of the Papal States to the French empire. In that year Napoleon conferred on Fesch the archbishopric of Paris, but he refused the honour. Fesch did however consent to take part in an ecclesiastical commission formed by the emperor from among the dignitaries of the Gallican Church, but in 1810 the commission was dissolved. The hopes of Fesch with respect to Regensburg were also damped by an arrangement of the year 1810 whereby Regensburg was absorbed in Bavaria.  In the year 1811 the emperor convoked a national council of Gallican clerics for the discussion of church affairs, and Fesch was appointed to preside over their deliberations. Here again, however, he failed to satisfy the inflexible emperor and was dismissed to his diocese. The friction between uncle and nephew became more acute in the following year. In June 1812 Pius VII was brought from his first place of detention, Savona, to Fontainebleau, where he was kept under surveillance in the hope that he would give way in certain matters relating to the Concordat and in other clerical affairs. Fesch ventured to write to the aged pontiff a letter which came into the hands of the emperor. His anger against Fesch was such that he stopped the sum of 150,000 forms which had been accorded to him.  The disasters of the years 1812-1813 brought Napoleon to treat Pius VII with more lenity and the position of Fesch thus became for a time less difficult. On the first abdication of Napoleon (11 April 1814) and the restoration of the Bourbons, he, however, retired to Rome where he received a welcome. The events of the Hundred Days (March–June 1815) brought him back to France; he resumed his archiepiscopal duties at Lyon and was further named a member of the senate and a peer of France. On the second abdication of the emperor (22 June 1815) Fesch retired to Rome along with his older sister Letizia Bonaparte, where he spent the rest of his days in dignified ease, surrounded by numerous masterpieces of art, many of which he bequeathed to the cities of Lyon and Ajaccio. He died in Rome in 1839.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat of arms.", "content": "As a member of the imperial family of France, he was given a new coat of arms based on the imperial coat of arms of France (cf. House of Bonaparte). The Faesch family traditionally used a different coat of arms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paintings owned by Fesch.", "content": "The Fesch collection included almost 16,000 paintings (not all at the same time). The core was Italian works of the Renaissance to the 18th century, but Fesch also had a number of Dutch Golden Age paintings and contemporary French works, as well as a number of classical sculptures. Fesch was a fairly early collector of Quattrocento paintings, or \"Italian Primitives\". The Musée Fesch, Ajaccio contains much of Fesch's collection, including works by Botticelli, Giovanni Bellini, Titian and others. Another part, including the works considered most important, was sold by auction in 1845. Paintings not in Lyons or Ajaccio include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Fesch, Prince of France (3 January 1763 – 13 May 1839) was a French cardinal and diplomat, Prince of France and a member of the Imperial House of the First French Empire, Peer of France, Roman Prince, and the half-uncle of Napoleon Bonaparte. He was also one of the most famous art collectors of his period, remembered for having established the Musée Fesch in Ajaccio, which remains one of the most important Napoleonic collections of art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974510}
{"src_title": "Temple of Zeus, Olympia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Setting.", "content": "The Temple of Zeus was built on an already ancient religious site at Olympia. The \"Altis\", an enclosure with a sacred grove, open-air altars and the tumulus of Pelops, was first formed during the tenth and ninth centuries BC, Greece's \"Dark Age\", when the followers of Zeus had joined with the followers of Hera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architectural features.", "content": "The temple was of peripteral form, with a frontal \"pronaos\" (porch), mirrored by a similar arrangement at the back of the building, the \"opisthodomos\". The building sat on a crepidoma (platform) of three unequal steps, the exterior columns were positioned in a sixbythirteen arrangement, two rows of seven columns divided the cella (interior) into three aisles. An echo of the temple's original appearance can be seen in the Second Temple of Hera at Paestum, which closely followed its form.  Pausanias visited the site in the second century AD and states that the temple's height up to the pediment was, its breadth was, and its length. It was approached by a ramp on the east side.  Because the main structure was of a local limestone that was unattractive and of poor quality, it was coated with a thin layer of stucco to give the appearance of marble so as to match the sculptural decoration. It was roofed with tiles of Pentelic marble, cut thin enough to be translucent, so that on a summer's day, \"light comparable to a conventional 20-watt bulb would have shone through each of the 1,000 tiles.\"  From the edge of the roof projected 102 waterspouts or gargoyles in the shape of lion heads, of which 39 are extant. Incongruities in the styles of the spouts provide evidence that the roof was repaired during the Roman period.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sculpture and decorations.", "content": "The sculptural decoration, in imported Parian marble featured carved metopes and triglyph friezes, topped by pediments filled with sculptures in the Severe Style, now attributed to the \"Olympia Master\" and his studio.  The Eastern pediment depicts the chariot race between Pelops and Oenomaus while the Western pediment features a centauromachy with Theseus and the Lapiths. The god Apollo is featured on the western pediment pointing towards the human side in the centauromachy, indicating his favor, and towards the northern side of the temple. Pausanias reports in his \"Description of Greece\" (5.10.8) that the Eastern pedimental sculpture was created by Paeonius and the Western sculpture was carved by Alcamenes. The metopes from the temple depict the twelve labours of Heracles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statue of Zeus.", "content": "The temple housed the renowned statue of Zeus, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Chryselephantine (gold and ivory) statue was approximately high, and was made by the sculptor Phidias in his workshop on the site at Olympia. The statue's completion took approximately 13 years (470–457 BC) and was one of Classical Greece's most revered artistic works.  The installation of the colossal statue coincided with substantial modification of the cella. The internal columns and their stylobates were dismantled and repositioned, which likely necessitated retiling the roof. The original floor, paved with large blocks of shell stone, was covered with water-resistant lime, which may have helped protect the statue's ivory against humidity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subsequent history.", "content": "The Roman general Mummius dedicated twenty-one gilded shields after he sacked Corinth in 146 BC; they were fixed at the metopes of the eastern front side and the eastern half of the south side.  In AD 426, Theodosius II ordered the destruction of the sanctuary during the Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire.Archaeologists have long postulated that the already ruined Temple was destroyed by the earthquakes of AD 522 and 551, known to have caused widespread damage in the Peloponnese, although a 2014 paper hypothesizes that the columns may have been \"intentionally pulled down by ropes during the early Byzantine period\". Flooding of the Kladeos river (Foundoulis et al., 2008), or by tsunami (Vott et al., 2011), led to abandonment of the area in the 6th century. Eventually the site was covered by alluvial deposits of up to 8 meters deep. The site of the ancient sanctuary of Olympia, long forgotten under landslips and flood siltation, was identified in 1766 by the English antiquarian Richard Chandler. In May 1829, the French team of archaeologists of the \"Scientific Expedition of Morea\" (under the direction of Léon-Jean-Joseph Dubois and Abel Blouet) identified with certainty and partially excavated the Temple of Zeus for the first time, taking several fragments of the metopes to the Musée du Louvre (with the authorization of the Governor of Greece, Ioannis Kapodistrias). Systematic excavation began in 1875, under the direction of the German Archaeological Institute, and has continued, with some interruptions, to the present time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "· Pausanius \"Description of Greece\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Temple of Zeus at Olympia was an ancient Greek temple in Olympia, Greece, dedicated to the god Zeus. The temple, built in the second quarter of the fifth century BC, was the very model of the fully developed classical Greek temple of the Doric order.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974511}
{"src_title": "French First Republic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "End of the monarchy in France.", "content": "Under the Legislative Assembly, which was in power before the proclamation of the First Republic, France was engaged in war with Prussia and Austria. In July 1792, the Duke of Brunswick, commanding general of the Austro–Prussian Army, issued his Brunswick Manifesto, in which he threatened the destruction of Paris should any harm come to the King Louis XVI of France. The foreign threat exacerbated France's political turmoil amid the French Revolution and deepened the passion and sense of urgency among the various factions. In the violence of 10 August 1792, citizens stormed the Tuileries Palace, killing six hundred of the King's Swiss guards and insisting on the removal of the king. A renewed fear of anti-revolutionary action prompted further violence, and in the first week of September 1792, mobs of Parisians broke into the city's prisons, killing over half of the prisoners. This included nobles, clergymen, and political prisoners, but also numerous common criminals, such as prostitutes and petty thieves, many murdered in their cells—raped, stabbed, and slashed to death. This became known as the September Massacres.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National Convention.", "content": "As a result of the spike in public violence and the political instability of the constitutional monarchy, a party of six members of France's Legislative Assembly was assigned the task of overseeing elections. The resulting Convention was founded with the dual purpose of abolishing the monarchy and drafting a new constitution. The Convention's first act was to establish the French First Republic and officially strip the king of all political powers. Louis XVI, by then a private citizen bearing his family name of Capet, was subsequently put on trial for crimes of high treason starting in December 1792. On 16 January 1793 he was convicted, and on 21 January, he was executed by guillotine.  Throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793, Paris was plagued by food riots and mass hunger. The new Convention did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, occupied instead with matters of war. Finally, on 6 April 1793, the Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, and was given a monumental task: \"To deal with the radical movements of the Enragés, food shortages and riots, the revolt in the Vendée and in Brittany, recent defeats of its armies, and the desertion of its commanding general.\" Most notably, the Committee of Public Safety instated a policy of terror, and the guillotine began to fall on perceived enemies of the republic at an ever-increasing rate, beginning the period known today as the Reign of Terror.  Despite growing discontent with the National Convention as a ruling body, in June the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote in early August. However, the Committee of Public Safety was seen as an \"emergency\" government, and the rights guaranteed by the 1789 \"Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen\" and the new constitution were suspended under its control.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Directory.", "content": "After the arrest and execution of Robespierre on July 28, 1794, the Jacobin club was closed, and the surviving Girondins were reinstated. A year later, the National Convention adopted the Constitution of the Year III. They reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and most importantly, initiated elections for a new legislative body. On 3 November 1795, the Directory was established. Under this system, France was led by a bicameral Parliament, consisting of an upper chamber called the Council of Elders (with 250 members) and a lower chamber called the Council of Five Hundred (with, accordingly, 500 members), and a collective Executive of five members called the Directory (from which the historical period gets its name). Due to internal instability, caused by hyperinflation of the paper monies called Assignats, and French military disasters in 1798 and 1799, the Directory lasted only four years, until overthrown in 1799.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consulate.", "content": "The period known as the French Consulate began with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799. Members of the Directory itself planned the coup, indicating clearly the failing power of the Directory. Napoleon Bonaparte was a co-conspirator in the coup, and became head of the government as the First Consul. He would later proclaim himself Emperor of the French, ending the First French Republic and ushering in the French First Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leading heads of the Republic.", "content": "The constitution of the republic did not provide for a formal head of state or a head of government. It could be discussed whether the head of state would have been the president of the National Assembly under international law. However, this changed every two weeks and was therefore not formative. The following list is based on the actual positions of power within the executive:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the history of France, the First Republic (French: \"Première République\"), officially the French Republic (\"République française\"), was founded on 22 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First Empire in 1804 under Napoleon, although the form of the government changed several times. This period was characterized by the fall of the monarchy, the establishment of the National Convention and the Reign of Terror, the Thermidorian Reaction and the founding of the Directory, and, finally, the creation of the Consulate and Napoleon's rise to power.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974512}
{"src_title": "KDU-ČSL", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Towards the end of the 19th century Roman Catholics in Bohemia and Moravia joined political movements inside Cisleithanian Austria-Hungary. The Christian-Social Party was set up in September 1894 in Litomyšl, and the Catholic National Party in Moravia was set up in September 1896 in Přerov.  \"Československá strana lidová\" (\"ČSL\") was created in January 1919 in Prague, reuniting other Catholic parties, and Jan Šrámek was selected as its chairman. In 1921, ČSL entered the government of Czechoslovakia, and was subsequently part of governing coalitions regardless of political changes.  After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, Šrámek served as head of Czechoslovak government in exile (in the United Kingdom). After 1945, ČSL was part of the national unity government, forming its most right-wing section. When the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia took over all power in February 1948, many \"ČSL\" officials were imprisoned. The party lost any real influence and was kept as a de facto puppet of Moscow-aligned communists (see National Front). In turn, it was allowed to keep a token presence of \"ČSL\" in government until 1989.  After the Velvet Revolution in 1989 \"ČSL\" attempted to shed its compromised figures and policies of the past: this included a change of name in 1992 after the merger with the Christian and Democratic Union (which was a post-revolution attempt at more modern political Catholicism trying to emulate the German CDU, but lacking the strength of its traditional counterpart). KDU-ČSL was part of the governments of Václav Klaus's Civic Democratic Party (ODS) until its ministers left in autumn 1997 which triggered the government's fall; KDU-ČSL was also represented in the caretaker government of Josef Tošovský before the premature elections in 1998.  In June 2002 KDU–ČSL went into the elections on a joint ballot with the Freedom Union–Democratic Union (US–DEU) as the \"Two-Coalition\", which was the last remnant of an unsuccessful attempt to unite them with three smaller parties into the \"Four-Coalition\" which would provide an alternative to the practices of the \"opposition agreement\" of ODS and Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD). However it turned out that the KDU–ČSL's traditional voters identified much more strongly with their original party than the whole, unlike US–DEU's liberal city ones, and using preferential votes on evenly split ballots caused that KDU–ČSL gained 22 MPs to US–DEU's 9 even though both parties were of roughly equal strength. They entered the government again by forming a coalition with the winning Czech Social Democratic Party.  In 2003 Miroslav Kalousek was elected chairman; unlike his predecessor Cyril Svoboda he represents the right wing of KDU–ČSL favouring cooperation with ODS, which was a source of tension within the coalition. He refused to enter the government both after his election and the government's reconstruction after PM Vladimír Špidla's resignation, and finally on 19 February 2005 asked for the resignation of PM Stanislav Gross after his finance scandal broke out. Gross retaliated by threatening to remove KDU–ČSL from his cabinet; a government crisis ensued.  After the 2006 legislative elections and lengthy negotiations caused by stalemated result, the KDU–ČSL formed a government together with the ODS and the Green Party (SZ).  Cyril Svoboda became the party chairman on 30 May 2009. In reaction to his election, his predecessor Miroslav Kalousek led a split from the party to form TOP 09, as he considered Svoboda to be too far on the left wing of the party. In the 2010 Chamber of Deputies election, the party's vote dropped to 4.39%, and they lost every one of their seats to other parties. Svoboda resigned as a consequence of the results. In November Pavel Bělobrádek was elected on his stead. The Party returned to the Parliament after 2013 election, becoming the so far only party in the history of Czech republic to achieve a return after defeat in elections. On 12 April 2017, KDU-ČSL signed an agreement with STAN to participate in 2017 legislative election as a coalition. Coalition needed to get more 10% of votes get over threshold. The coalition disintegrated before the election, thus the party went into the elections standalone, receiving 5.8% of votes.  In March 2019 the party was officially renamed to KDU-ČSL, its common abbreviation and Marek Výborný became a new party leader. After the death of his wife announced Marek Výborný in November 2019 his resignation for personal reasons.  Tomáš Zdechovský, Jan Bartošek and Marian Jurečka decided then to run for party leader.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current situation.", "content": "KDU–ČSL has relatively low but stable support of voters (6–10%); it is strongest in the traditionally Catholic rural areas in Moravia. Historically, it is a mass party with about 50,000 members (second after the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia); most of them are of old age, however, and recruitment of new members can't keep the membership numbers from declining. The influence of the party is rather bigger than that, as it tries – so far rather successfully – to take advantage of the fragmented Czech political situation and make itself a necessary part of any coalition, whether the winning big party be left- or right-wing.  KDU–ČSL is a member of the European People's Party (EPP).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Internal Structure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Membership.", "content": "KDU-ČSL had 27,662 Members in 2015 which is the second largest member base of any party in the Czech Republic. The number is decreasing 1990s when the party had 100,000 Members, It is caused by high average age of members.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Party Strongholds.", "content": "KDU-ČSL is known to have very strong electoral core which is concentrated primarily in South Moravia. The party has very stable electoral support thanks to it and managed to gain seats in Chamber of Deputies everytime since 1990 with exception of 2010", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Partners.", "content": "Notable partners and suborganisations of the KDU-ČSL are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Symbols.", "content": "Party patron is Saint Wenceslaus, on every congress is played Saint Wenceslas Chorale. Members addressing themselves as brothers and sisters.  Party had many symbols through history, current logo depicts symbol of Christian cross on linden leaf.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Election results.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Czech Republic wide elections.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Senate.", "content": "Places are by number of votes gained. Participated as Part of Four-Coalition", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "KDU-ČSL (Czech shortcut from the initials of the Christian and Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party; ), often shortened to ('the populars') is a Christian-democratic political party in the Czech Republic. The party has taken part in almost every Czech Government since 1990 and have participated in both left-wing and right-wing coalition governments. In the June 2006 election, the party won 7.2% of the vote and 13 out of 200 seats; but in the 2010 election, this dropped to 4.4% and they lost all their seats. The party regained its parliamentary standing in the 2013 legislative election, winning 14 seats in the new parliament, thereby becoming the first party ever to return to the Chamber of Deputies after dropping out.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974513}
{"src_title": "Don Omar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Don Omar was born in Santurce, a barrio of San Juan, Puerto Rico, where he was raised, the oldest son of William Landrón and Luz Antonia Rivera. From an early age, he showed interest in the music of Vico C and Brewley MC. During his youth, he became an active member of a Protestant church, Iglesia Evangélica Restauración en Cristo in Bayamón where he occasionally offered sermons. However, after four years, he left the church to dedicate himself to singing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "His first public performance in a night club was accompanied by disc jockey Eliel Lind Osorio. Afterwards he appeared regularly on compilation albums from popular DJs and producers including Luny Tunes, Noriega, and DJ Eric. He also worked as a backup singer for the duo Héctor & Tito. One of the members, Héctor Delgado, helped him produce his first solo album.  Omar's career rose to stardom with the release of his first studio album, \"The Last Don\" with Frankie Needles. Both the studio version and its live edition have been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. Worldwide, \"The Last Don: Live [CD & DVD]\" has sold over one million copies, according to his official website. He earned awards for Latin Pop Album of the Year and New Artist & Latin Rap/Hip-Hop Album of the Year by the Billboard Latin Music Awards in 2003. \"The Last Don: Live [CD & DVD]\" was also nominated for Urban Music Album at the 2005 Latin Grammy Awards.  Omar's May 2006 album \"King of Kings\", became history's highest ranking reggaeton LP in the top 10 US charts, with its debut at #1 on the Latin sales charts and the #1 spot on the Billboard Latin Rhythm Radio Chart with his single “Angelito”. Omar was also able to beat the in-store appearance sales record at Disney World's Virgin music store previously set by pop star Britney Spears. With the highest charting debut by a reggaeton artist, Omar's \"King of Kings\" entered at No. 6 with 74,000, beating Daddy Yankee's No. 24 entry with 2005's \"Barrio Fino En Directo\". In April 2007, Don Omar received the Billboard Latin Music Award for Reggaeton Album of the Year for \"King of Kings\". \"Billboard\" recognized that \"King of Kings\" was the most successful album of the decade in Latin America, besides being the most successful in the history of the genre of reggaeton. \"Billboard\" estimated that the album sold over 10 million copies by the end of 2009, Don Omar, sold over 120 million.  Omar participated in Gilberto Santa Rosa's presentation in an event titled \"Concierto del Amor\", presented in the Madison Square Garden on 9 February 2008. He closed the event and performed reggaeton themes with Frankie Needles.  Omar's third studio album, \"iDon\", was released on 28 April 2009. This album is of Sold over 2.5 million. \"Virtual Diva\" became the most requested song on Latin radio stations. The second official single, titled \"Sexy Robotica\", was released on 6 July 2009.  The album \"Don Omar Presents: Meet The Orphans\" was released on 16 November 2010. The album features the artists under Don Omar's Orfanato Music Group label and other reggaeton artists. The album includes the promotional single \"Hasta Abajo\" and the album's lead single \"Danza Kuduro\" featuring Portuguese-French singer Lucenzo, as well as collaborations from Orfanato Music Group artists including Kendo Kaponi, Syko, Plan B, Zion & Lennox, Yaga & Mackie and Danny Fornaris. \"Danza Kuduro\" appears on the Fast Five soundtrack and is the song played at the conclusion of the movie. He is signed to VI Music and Machete Music through Universal Music Latino.  The album \"Don Omar Presents MTO2: The New Generation\" was released on 1 May 2012. The album features newly signed to Orfanato Music Group Natti Natasha as well as many other signed artists and other reggaeton artists like Zion Y Lennox. The album includes the singles \"Hasta Que Salga El Sol\", which won the award for Best Urban Song at the 2012 Latin Grammy Awards, and \"Dutty Love\" featuring Natti Natasha, which was also nominated. The album also features collaborations with Juan Magan, Mims, Syko, Vinny el Vendito, and Yunel Cruz. The album has been well received as it won the award for Best Urban Music Album at the 2012 Latin Grammy Awards.  After a decade's long rivalry feud with fellow artist Daddy Yankee for the \"King of Reggaeton\" title, in early 2016 Daddy Yankee and Don Omar announced in a Billboard press conference that they would perform together on stage in a concert series called \"The Kingdom World Tour\". The tour announcement left many fans in disbelief, while selling out in minutes in cities like Las Vegas, Orlando, Los Angeles, New York. Discussing the tour and his rivalry with Daddy Yankee, Don Omar said “Let me clarify: I am not his best friend, and he is not my best friend, but we respect each other. That desire to be the best is what has pushed us to be better.”", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2003, Omar had his first son, Nicolas Valle Gomez. Omar married forecaster/journalist Jackie Guerrido on 19 April 2008. In March 2011, it was revealed they had divorced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal issues.", "content": "On 18 September 2007, Omar was briefly detained in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia due to a legal dispute. A Bolivian concert promoter sued him and some of his management after he canceled a concert scheduled for earlier that year in La Paz as part of the international tour Up Close. The organization claimed that he had defrauded US$70,000 due to the cancellation. Omar responded that he canceled the concert because the company did not provide air tickets in time. After the case was presented before a local judge, both parties reached an agreement. Omar was allowed to leave the country in order to comply with a previously scheduled appearance in Buenos Aires on Argentine television and returned the next day to hold his concert in Santa Cruz's Tahuichi Aguilera soccer stadium.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William Omar Landrón Rivera, (born 10 February 1978) better known by his stage name Don Omar, is a Puerto Rican reggaeton singer and actor. He is sometimes referred to by his nicknames El Rey, and King of Kings of Reggaeton Music. On 1 September 2017, he announced that he would retire after a series of concerts at the José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum in Puerto Rico, scheduled to be held on 15, 16 and 17 December. He returned to music on 20 April 2019 with his song Ramayama featuring Farruko.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974514}
{"src_title": "Slava-class cruiser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The design started in the late 1960s, based around use of the P-500 Bazalt missile, and was intended as a less expensive conventionally powered alternative to the nuclear-powered s. \"Moskva\" is armed with P-1000 Vulkan AShM missiles, developed in the late 1970s to late 1980s. It is not known which \"Slava\"-class cruisers carry P-1000s other than \"Moskva\". There was a long delay in this programme, while the problems with the Bazalt were resolved. These ships acted as flagships for numerous task forces. All ships were built at the 61 Kommunar yard, in Mykolaiv (Nikolaev), Ukrainian SSR. The class was a follow up to the which the Soviet Navy typed as a Large Anti-submarine Ship (Russ. BPK), constructed at the same shipyard and appears to be built on a stretched version of the Kara-class hull.  The \"Slava\" class was initially designated BLACKCOM 1 (Black Sea Combatant 1) and then designated the\" Krasina\" class for a short period until \"Slava\" was observed at sea. The SS-N-12 launchers are fixed facing forward at around 8° elevation with no reloads available. As there was nothing revolutionary about the design of the class western observers felt they were created as a hedge against the failure of the more radical \"Kirov\" class. The helicopter hangar deck is located 1/2 deck below the landing pad with a ramp connecting the two.  Originally 10 ships were planned, but with the collapse of the Soviet Union only three were completed. A fourth vessel was launched, but final construction remains incomplete and the ship has not been commissioned into service. Following the collapse and the re-emergence of the nation of Russia, the three finished ships serve in the Russian Navy and the uncompleted fourth vessel, renamed, is owned by Ukraine. Efforts have been made to complete and update the unfinished ship; in 2010, Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych stated that Russia and Ukraine would work together on the project. Russia has also expressed interest in purchasing the vessel, which Ukraine had previously offered for sale. However, as of early 2011 no final agreement has been concluded between the two countries, on this matter. The Russian navy has plans for extensive upgrades of all their \"Slava\"-class vessels during the 2010s; completing work on \"Ukrayina\" may serve as a test-bed for this. As of mid-2016 the fourth hull remains afloat in the shipyard uncompleted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In the video game \"\", a special ops mission is set on the fictional \"Slava\" class cruiser \"Kuvalda\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Slava\" class, Soviet designation Project 1164 \"Atlant (Russian for Atlas), is a class of guided missile cruisers designed and constructed in the Soviet Union for the Soviet Navy, and currently operated by the Russian Navy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974515}
{"src_title": "Tsavo East National Park", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Inside Tsavo East National Park, the Athi and Tsavo rivers converge to form the Galana River. Most of the park consists of semi-arid grasslands and savanna. It is considered one of the world's biodiversity strongholds, and its popularity is mostly due to the vast amounts of diverse wildlife that can be seen, including the famous 'big five' consisting of lion, black rhino, cape buffalo, elephant and leopard. The park is also home to a great variety of bird life such as the black kite, crowned crane, lovebird and the sacred ibis. Tsavo East National Park is generally flat, with dry plains across which the Galana River flows. Other features include the Yatta Plateau and Lugard Falls.  Tsavo West National Park is more mountainous and wetter, with swamps, Lake Jipe and the Mzima Springs. It is known for birdlife and for its large mammals. It is also home to a black rhino sanctuary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeology and history.", "content": "Although a few Early Stone Age and Middle Stone Age archaeological sites are recorded from ground surface finds in Tsavo, there is much evidence for thriving Late Stone Age economy from 6,000 to 1,300 years ago. Research has shown that Late Stone Age archaeological sites are found close to the Galana River in high numbers. The inhabitants of these sites hunted wild animals, fished and kept domesticated animals. Because of the sparse availability of water away from the Galana River, human settlement in Tsavo focused on the riparian areas and in rock shelters as one moves west.  Swahili merchants traded with the inhabitants of Tsavo for ivory, catskins, and probably slaves as early as 700 AD (and probably earlier). There is no evidence for direct Swahili \"colonization\" of Tsavo. Instead, trade was probably accomplished by moving goods to and from the Swahili Coast via extended kin-networks. Trade goods such as cowry shells and beads have been recovered from archaeological sites dating to the early Swahili period.  19th century British and German explorers document people we now refer to as Orma and Watha during their travels through the \"nyika\" (\"bush\" or \"hinterland\") and generally viewed them as hostile toward their interests. Beginning in the late 19th/early 20th century, the British began a concerted effort to colonise the interior of Kenya and built a railway through Tsavo in 1898. Two \"man-eating lions\" terrorised the construction crews led by Lt. Col Patterson who eventually shot the pair not before they had killed one hundred and thirty five Indians and local workers. The railway was eventually completed through to Kisumu on Lake Victoria.  Tsavo remained the homeland for Orma pastoralists and Watha hunter-gatherers until 1948, when it was gazetted a national park. At that time, the Orma with their livestock were driven off and the aboriginal population of the Watha people was forcefully relocated to Voi and Mtito Andei as well as other locations within the nearby Taita Hills. Following Kenyan independence in 1963, hunting was banned in the park and management of Tsavo was turned over to the authority that eventually became the Kenya Wildlife Service. Tsavo currently attracts photo-tourists from all over the world interested in experiencing the vastness of the wilderness and incredible terrain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major attractions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mudanda Rock.", "content": "The Mudanda Rock is a 1.6 km inselberg of stratified rock that acts as a water catchment that supplies a natural dam below. It offers an excellent vantage point for the hundreds of elephants and other wildlife that come to drink during the dry season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Yatta Plateau.", "content": "The Yatta Plateau, the world's longest lava flow, runs along the western boundary of the park above the Athi River. Its 290 km length was formed by lava from Ol Doinyo Sabuk Mountain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lugard Falls.", "content": "Lugard Falls, named after Frederick Lugard, is a series of white water rapids on the Galana River.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aruba Dam.", "content": "Aruba Dam was built in 1952 across the Voi River. The reservoir created by the dam attracts many animals and water birds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mammals.", "content": "Tsavo East National Park is one of the world's largest game reserves, providing undeveloped wilderness homes to vast numbers of animals. Famous are the Tsavo lions, a population whose adult males often lack manes entirely. In total there are about 675 lions in the Amboseli-Tsavo ecosystem.  A comprehensive list of the animal types found in Tsavo East Park includes the aardwolf, yellow baboon, bat, Cape buffalo, bushbaby, bushbuck, caracal, African wildcat, cheetah, civet, dik-dik, African hunting dog, African dormouse, blue duiker, bush duiker, red duiker, eland, African bush elephant, bat-eared fox, greater galago, gazelle, large-spotted genet, small-spotted genet, gerenuk, giraffe, African hare, springhare, Coke's hartebeest, East African hedgehog, spotted hyena, striped hyena, rock hyrax, tree hyrax, impala, black-backed jackal, side-striped jackal, klipspringer, lesser kudu, leopard, lion, banded mongoose, dwarf mongoose, Egyptian mongoose, marsh mongoose, slender mongoose, white-tailed mongoose, vervet monkey, Sykes' monkey, fringe-eared oryx, clawless otter, ground pangolin, crested porcupine, cane rat, giant rat, naked mole rat, ratel, bohor reedbuck, black rhinoceros, serval, spectacled elephant shrew, bush squirrel, East African red squirrel, striped ground squirrel, unstriped ground squirrel, suni, warthog, waterbuck, plains zebra and Grevy's zebra.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Birds.", "content": "Over 500 bird species have been recorded in the area, including ostriches, kestrels, buzzards, starlings, weaver birds, kingfishers, hornbills, secretary birds and herons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Poaching.", "content": "Between 2001 and 2006 more than 100 lions have been killed in the Amboseli-Tsavo ecosystem. Most of them have been speared by young men. The poachers usually do not face serious consequences. In contrast, the game scouts who arrested offenders have been punished by the community.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tsavo East National Park is one of the oldest and largest parks in Kenya at 13,747 square kilometres. Situated in a semi-arid area previously known as the Taru Desert it opened in April 1948, and is located near the town of Voi in the Taita-Taveta County of the former Coast Province. The park is divided into east and west sections by the A109 road and a railway. Named for the Tsavo River, which flows west to east through the national park, it borders the Chyulu Hills National Park, and the Mkomazi Game Reserve in Tanzania.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974516}
{"src_title": "Marabou stork", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and systematics.", "content": "The name marabou is thought to be derived from the Arabic word \"murābit\" meaning quiet or hermit-like. The species was originally described in the stork genus \"Ciconia\" as \"Ciconia crumenifera\" by Lesson. The species was moved into the genus \"Leptoptilos\" and the ending was modified to \"crumeniferus\" and used by many authors until it was noted that the correct masculine ending to match the genus is \"crumenifer\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The marabou stork is a massive bird: large specimens are thought to reach a height of and a weight of. A wingspan of was accepted by Fisher and Peterson, who ranked the species as having the largest wing-spread of any living bird. Even higher measurements of up to have been reported, although no measurement over has been verified. It is often credited with the largest spread of any landbird, to rival the Andean condor; more typically, however, these storks measure across the wings, which is about a foot less than the average Andean condor wingspan and nearly two feet less than the average of the largest albatrosses and pelicans. Typical weight is, unusually as low as, and length (from bill to tail) is. Females are smaller than males. Bill length can range from. Unlike most storks, the three \"Leptoptilos\" species fly with the neck retracted like a heron.  The marabou is unmistakable due to its size, bare head and neck, black back, and white underparts. It has a huge bill, a pink gular sac at its throat (\"crumenifer(us)\" means \"carrier of a pouch for money\"), a neck ruff, and black legs and wings. The sexes are alike, but the young bird is browner and has a smaller bill. Full maturity is not reached for up to four years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior and ecology.", "content": "Like most storks, the marabou is gregarious and a colonial breeder. In the African dry season (when food is more readily available as the pools shrink), it builds a tree nest in which two or three eggs are laid. It is known to be quite ill-tempered.  It also resembles other storks in that it is not very vocal, but indulges in bill-rattling courtship displays. The throat sac is also used to make various noises at that time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "The marabou stork breeds in colonies, starting during the dry season. The female lays two to three eggs in a small nest made of sticks; eggs hatch after an incubation period of 30 days. Their young reach sexual maturity at 4 years of age. Lifespan is 41 years in captivity and 25 years in wild.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "The marabou stork is a frequent scavenger, and the naked head and long neck are adaptations to this livelihood, as it is with the vultures with which the stork often feeds. In both cases, a feathered head would become rapidly clotted with blood and other substances when the bird's head was inside a large corpse, and the bare head is easier to keep clean.  This large and powerful bird eats mainly carrion, scraps, and faeces but will opportunistically eat almost any animal matter it can swallow. It occasionally eats other birds including \"Quelea\" nestlings, pigeons, doves, pelican and cormorant chicks, and even flamingos. During the breeding season, adults scale back on carrion and take mostly small, live prey since nestlings need this kind of food to survive. Common prey at this time may consist of fish, frogs, insects, eggs, small mammals and reptiles such as crocodile hatchlings and eggs, and lizards and snakes. Though known to eat putrid and seemingly inedible foods, these storks may sometimes wash food in water to remove soil.  When feeding on carrion, marabou frequently follow vultures, which are better equipped with hooked bills for tearing through carrion meat and may wait for the vultures to cast aside a piece, steal a piece of meat directly from the vulture or wait until the vultures are done. As with vultures, marabou storks perform an important natural function by cleaning areas via their ingestion of carrion and waste.  Increasingly, marabous have become dependent on human garbage and hundreds of the huge birds can be found around African dumps or waiting for a hand out in urban areas. Marabous eating human garbage have been seen to devour virtually anything that they can swallow, including shoes and pieces of metal. Marabous conditioned to eating from human sources have been known to lash out when refused food.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "A number of endoparasites have been identified in wild marabous including \"Cheilospirura\", \"Echinura\" and \"Acuaria\" nematodes, \"Amoebotaenia sphenoides\" (Cestoda) and \"Dicrocoelium hospes\" (Trematoda).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Human uses.", "content": "Marabou down is frequently used in the trimming of various items of clothing and hats, as well as fishing lures. Turkey down and similar feathers have been used as a substitute for making'marabou' trimming.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The marabou stork (\"Leptoptilos crumenifer\") is a large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. It breeds in Africa south of the Sahara, in both wet and arid habitats, often near human habitation, especially landfill sites. It is sometimes called the \"undertaker bird\" due to its shape from behind: cloak-like wings and back, skinny white legs, and sometimes a large white mass of \"hair\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974517}
{"src_title": "Technoscience", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Conceptual levels of philosophical technoscience.", "content": "We look at the concept of technoscience by considering three levels: a descriptive-analytic level, a deconstructivist level, and a visionary level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descriptive-analytic.", "content": "On a descriptive-analytic level, technoscientific studies examine the decisive role of science and technology in how knowledge is being developed. What is the role played by large research labs in which experiments on organisms are undertaken, when it comes to a certain way of looking at the things surrounding us? To what extent do such investigations, experiments and insights shape views of 'nature' and of human bodies? How do these insights link to the concept of living organisms as biofacts? To what extent do such insights inform technological innovation? Can the laboratory be understood as a metaphor for social structures in their entirety?", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deconstructive.", "content": "On a deconstructive level, theoretical work is being undertaken on technoscience to address scientific practices critically, e.g. by Bruno Latour (sociology), by Donna Haraway (history of science), and by Karen Barad (theoretical physics). It is pointed out that scientific descriptions may be only allegedly objective; that descriptions are of a performative character, and that there are ways to de-mystify them. Likewise, new forms of representing those involved in research are being sought.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Visionary.", "content": "On a visionary level, the concept of technoscience comprises a number of social, literary, artistic and material technologies from western cultures in the third millennium. This is undertaken in order to focus on the interplay of hitherto separated areas and to question traditional boundary-drawing: this concerns the boundaries drawn between scientific disciplines as well as those commonly upheld for instance between research, technology, the arts and politics. One aim is to broaden the term 'technology' (which by the Greek etymology of 'techné' connotes all of the following: arts, handicraft, and skill) so as to negotiate possibilities of participation in the production of knowledge and to reflect on strategic alliances. Technoscience can be juxtaposed with a number of other innovative interdisciplinary areas of scholarship which have surfaced in these recent years such as technoetic, technoethics and technocriticism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Facets.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social.", "content": "As with any subject, technoscience exists within a broader social context that must be considered. Science & Technology Studies researcher Sergio Sismondo argues, \"Neither the technical vision nor the social vision will come into being without the other, though with enough Concerted Effort both may be brought into being together\". Despite the frequent separation between innovators and the consumers, Sismondo argues that development of technologies, though stimulated by a technoscientific themes, is an inherently social process.  Technoscience is so deeply embedded in people's everyday lives that its developments exist outside a space for critical thought and evaluation, argues Daniel Lee Kleinman (2005). Those who do attempt to question the perception of progress as being only a matter of more technology are often seen as champions of technological stagnation. The exception to this mentality is when a development is seen as threatening to human or environmental well-being. This holds true with the popular opposition of GMO crops, where the questioning of the validity of monopolized farming and patented genetics was simply not enough to rouse awareness.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political.", "content": "Science and technology are tools that continually change social structures and behaviors. Technoscience can be viewed as a form of government or having the power of government because of its impact on society. The impact extends to public health, safety, the environment, and beyond. Innovations create fundamental changes and drastically change the way people live. For example, C-SPAN and social media give American voters a near real-time view of Congress. This has allowed journalists and the people to hold their elected officials accountable in new ways.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Environmental.", "content": "Chlorine chemists and their scientific knowledge helped set the agenda for many environmental problems: PCBs in the Hudson River are polychlorinated biphenols; DDT, dieldrin, and aldrin are chlorinated pesticides; CFCs that deplete the ozone layer are chlorofluorocarbons. Industry actually manufactured the chemicals and consumers purchased them. Therefore, one can determine that chemists are not the sole cause for these issues, but they are not blameless.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In common usage, technoscience refers to the entire long-standing global human activity of technology combined with the relatively recent scientific method that occurred primarily in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. Technoscience is the study of how humans interact with technology using the scientific method. Technoscience thus comprises the history of human application of technology and modern scientific methods, ranging from the early development of basic technologies for hunting, agriculture, or husbandry (e.g. the well, the bow, the plow, the harness) and all the way through atomic applications, biotechnology, robotics, and computer sciences. This more common and comprehensive usage of the term \"technoscience\" can be found in general textbooks and lectures concerning the history of science.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974518}
{"src_title": "Aporia crataegi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "Subspecies include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "It occurs in open forest, grazing land, orchards. lanes, gardens, meadows and thickets throughout most of Europe, temperate Asia, Korea, and Japan. This species is extinct in the British Isles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The black-veined white has a wingspan of. Females are commonly larger than males. The upperside of both forewings and hindwings is a translucent white boldly veined with black. The underside is similar in the male but the female has brown veining. Moreover, the female loses most of her scales by rubbing her wings together, resulting almost-transparent.  This butterfly can be distinguished from other members of white butterflies of the genus \"Pieris\" by its distinctive veined wings.  The eggs are yellow at first, darkening with age. The caterpillars are greenish grey with transverse banding. The pupa is creamy white, marked with black, attached by a silken girdle to a twig.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "The flight period of the black-veined white is between April and July. The adults are quite social and their abundance varies greatly from year to year. The eggs are laid on the food plant, usually a member of the rose family Rosaceae and often on trees and bushes (\"Malus domestica\", \"Malus micromalus\", \"Pyrus communis\", \"Pyrus serotina\", \"Sorbus intermedia\", \"Sorbus hybrida\", \"Sorbus aucuparia\", \"Crataegus monogyna\", \"Crataegus oxyacantha\", \"Crataegus jozana\", \"Prunus spinosa\", \"Prunus padus\", \"Prunus ssiori\", \"Betula\" spp., \"Salix phylicifolia\", \"Chaenomeles lagenaria\").  The eggs are laid in groups of 30 to 100. They take about three weeks to hatch. The caterpillars tend to remain in a group with a communal larval web. This species has one generation each year. The caterpillars overwinter communally in a webbing tent with entwined leaves. Caterpillars feed close together on the leaves of the food plant at first, before dispersing in the later developmental stages to other parts of the tree.  The pupal stage lasts about three weeks.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aporia crataegi, the black-veined white, is a large butterfly of the family Pieridae. A. crataegi is widespread and common. Its range extends from northwest Africa in the west to Transcaucasia and across the Palearctic to Siberia and Japan in the east. In the south, it is found in Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, Lebanon and Syria. It is not present in the British Isles and northern Scandinavia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974519}
{"src_title": "Nautilus (fictional submarine)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Nautilus\" is described by Verne as \"a masterpiece containing masterpieces\". It is designed and commanded by Captain Nemo. Electricity provided by sodium/mercury batteries (with the sodium provided by extraction from seawater) is the craft's primary power source for propulsion and other services.  \"Nautilus\" is double-hulled, and is further separated into water-tight compartments. Its top speed is. Its displacement is submerged. In Captain Nemo's own words:  \"Nautilus\" uses floodable tanks in order to adjust buoyancy and so control its depth. The pumps that evacuate these tanks of water are so powerful that they produce large jets of water when the vessel emerges rapidly from the surface of the water. This leads many early observers of \"Nautilus\" to believe that the vessel is some species of whale, or perhaps a sea monster not yet known to science. To submerge deeply in a short time, \"Nautilus\" uses a technique called \"hydroplaning\", in which the vessel dives down at a steep angle.  \"Nautilus\" supports a crew that gathers and farms food from the sea. \"Nautilus\" includes a galley for preparing these foods, which includes a machine that makes drinking water from seawater through distillation. \"Nautilus\" is not able to refresh its air supply, so Captain Nemo designed it to do this by surfacing and exchanging stale air for fresh, much like a whale. \"Nautilus\" is capable of extended voyages without refuelling or otherwise restocking supplies. Its maximum dive time is around five days.  Much of the ship is decorated to standards of luxury that are unequalled in a seagoing vessel of the time. These include a library with boxed collections of valuable oceanic specimens that are unknown to science at the time, expensive paintings, and several collections of jewels. \"Nautilus\" also features a lavish dining room and even an organ that Captain Nemo uses to entertain himself in the evening. By comparison, Nemo's personal quarters are very sparsely furnished, but do feature duplicates of the bridge instruments, so that the captain can keep track of the vessel without being present on the bridge. These amenities however, are only available to Nemo, Professor Aronnax, and his companions.  From her attacks on ships, using a ramming prow to puncture target vessels below the waterline, the world thinks it a sea monster, but later identifies it as an underwater vessel capable of great destructive power, after \"Abraham Lincoln\" is attacked and Ned Land strikes the metallic surface of \"Nautilus\" with his harpoon.  Its parts are built to order in France, the United Kingdom, Krupp of Prussia, Sweden, the United States, and elsewhere. Then they are assembled by Nemo's men on a desert island. \"Nautilus\" most likely returned to this island and later helped castaways in the novel \"The Mysterious Island\". After Nemo dies on board, the volcanic island erupts, entombing the Captain and \"Nautilus\" for eternity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearances.", "content": "Beside her original appearance in \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea\" and \"The Mysterious Island\", \"Nautilus\" and Captain Nemo have appeared in numerous other works.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other Verne submarines.", "content": "Submarines feature in some other of Verne's works. In the 1896 novel \"Facing the Flag\", the pirate Ker Karraje uses an unnamed submarine that acts both as a tug to his schooner \"Ebba\" and for ramming and destroying ships which are the targets of his piracy. The same book also features HMS \"Sword\", a small Royal Navy experimental submarine which is sunk after a valiant but unequal struggle with the pirate submarine. In the book \"The Master of the World\", Robur's secondary vehicle, \"Terror\", is a strange flying machine with submarine, automobile and speedboat capabilities. It briefly eludes naval forces on the Great Lakes by diving.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Jules Verne's text in \"20,000 Leagues under the Sea\" provides a great deal of information about \"Nautilus\" as discussed on this page: Jules Verne's \"Nautilus\". Many artists and ordinary folk have envisioned over the decades their own interpretations of \"Nautilus\": A Catalog of \"Nautilus\" Designs", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nautilus is the fictional submarine captained by Nemo featured in Jules Verne's novels \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea\" (1870) and \"The Mysterious Island\" (1874). Verne named the \"Nautilus\" after Robert Fulton's real-life submarine \"Nautilus\" (1800). For the design of the \"Nautilus\" Verne was inspired by the French Navy submarine \"Plongeur\", a model of which he had seen at the 1867 Exposition Universelle, three years before writing his novel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974520}
{"src_title": "Soyuz 1", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Soyuz 1 was the first crewed flight of the first-generation Soyuz 7K-OK spacecraft and Soyuz rocket, designed as part of the Soviet lunar program. It was the first Soviet crewed spaceflight in over two years, and the first Soviet crewed flight following the death of the Chief Designer of the space program Sergei Korolev. Komarov was launched on Soyuz 1 despite failures of the previous uncrewed tests of the 7K-OK, Kosmos 133 and Kosmos 140. A third attempted test flight was a launch failure; a launch abort triggered a malfunction of the launch escape system, causing the rocket to explode on the pad. The escape system successfully pulled the spacecraft to safety.  Prior to launch, Soyuz 1 engineers are said to have reported 203 design faults to party leaders, but their concerns \"were overruled by political pressures for a series of space feats to mark the anniversary of Lenin's birthday.\" It is not clear how much of this pressure resulted from wanting to continue beating the United States in the Space Race and to have Soviets first on the Moon, or to take advantage of the recent setbacks in the U.S. space program with the Apollo 1 disaster.  Yuri Gagarin was the backup pilot for Soyuz 1, and was aware of the design problems and the pressures from the Politburo to proceed with the flight. He attempted to \"bump\" Komarov from the mission, knowing that the Soviet leadership would not risk a national hero on the flight. At the same time, Komarov refused to pass on the mission, even though he believed it to be doomed. He explained that he could not risk Gagarin's life.  Mission planners intended to launch a second Soyuz flight the next day carrying cosmonauts Valery Bykovsky, Yevgeny Khrunov, and Aleksei Yeliseyev, with Khrunov and Yeliseyev scheduled to do an EVA over to Soyuz 1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission details.", "content": "Soyuz 1 was launched on 23 April 1967 at 00:32 UTC from Baikonur Cosmodrome carrying Komarov, the first Soviet cosmonaut to fly in space twice.  Problems began shortly after launch when one solar panel failed to unfold, leading to a shortage of power for the spacecraft's systems. Further problems with the orientation detectors complicated maneuvering the craft. By orbit 13, the automatic stabilization system was completely dead, and the manual system was only partially effective.  The crew of Soyuz 2 modified their mission goals, preparing themselves for a launch that would include fixing the solar panel of Soyuz 1. However, that night, thunderstorms at Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan affected the booster's electrical system, causing the mission to be called off.  As a result of Komarov's report during the 13th orbit, the flight director decided to abort the mission. After 18 orbits, Soyuz 1 fired its retrorockets and reentered the Earth's atmosphere. Despite the technical difficulties up to that point, Komarov might still have landed safely. To slow the descent, first the drogue parachute was deployed, followed by the main parachute. However, due to a defect, the main parachute did not unfold; the exact reason for the main parachute malfunction is disputed.  Komarov then activated the manually deployed reserve chute, but it became tangled with the drogue chute, which did not release as intended. As a result, the Soyuz descent module fell to Earth in Orenburg Oblast almost entirely unimpeded, at about. A rescue helicopter spotted the descent module lying on its side with the parachute spread across the ground. The retrorockets then started firing which concerned the rescuers since they were supposed to activate a few moments prior to touchdown. By the time they landed and approached, the descent module was in flames with black smoke filling the air and streams of molten metal dripping from the exterior. The entire base of the capsule burned through. By this point, it was obvious that Komarov had not survived, but there was no code signal for a cosmonaut's death, so the rescuers fired a signal flare calling for medical assistance. Another group of rescuers in an aircraft then arrived and attempted to extinguish the blazing spacecraft with portable fire extinguishers. This proved insufficient and they instead began using shovels to throw dirt onto it. The descent module then completely disintegrated, leaving only a pile of debris topped by the entry hatch. When the fire at last ended, the rescuers were able to dig through the rubble to find Komarov's remains strapped into the center couch. Doctors pronounced the cause of death to be from multiple blunt-force injuries.  The body was transported to Moscow for an official autopsy in a military hospital where the cause of death was verified to match the field doctors' conclusions.  The Soyuz 1 crash site coordinates are, which is west of Karabutak, Province of Orenburg in the Russian Federation. This is about east-southeast of Orenburg. There is a memorial monument at the site in the form of a black column with a bust of Komarov at the top, in a small park on the roadside.  Eight years after Komarov's death, a story began circulating that Komarov cursed the engineers and flight staff, and spoke to his wife as he descended, and these transmissions were received by an NSA listening station near Istanbul. Historians such as Asif Siddiqi regard this to be untrue.  Komarov was posthumously named a Hero of the Soviet Union for the second time. He was given a state funeral, and his ashes were interred in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis at Red Square, Moscow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Soyuz 1 tragedy delayed the launch of Soyuz 2 and Soyuz 3 until 25 October 1968. This 18-month gap, with the addition of the explosion of an uncrewed N-1 rocket on July 3, 1969, scuttled Soviet plans of landing a cosmonaut on the Moon. The original mission of Soyuz 1 and Soyuz 2 was ultimately achieved by Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5.  A much improved Soyuz program emerged from this eighteen-month delay, mirroring the improvements made in Project Apollo after the Apollo 1 tragedy. Although it failed to reach the Moon, the Soyuz went on to be repurposed from the centerpiece of the Zond lunar program to the people-carrier of the Salyut space station program, the Mir space station, and the International Space Station. Although it suffered another tragedy with the Soyuz 11 accident in 1971, and went through several incidents with non-fatal launch aborts and landing mishaps, it has become one of the longest-lived and most dependable crewed spacecraft yet designed.  Komarov is commemorated in two memorials left on the lunar surface: one left at Tranquility Base by Apollo 11, and the \"Fallen Astronaut\" statue and plaque left by Apollo 15.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Soyuz 1 (, \"Union 1\") was a crewed spaceflight of the Soviet space program. Launched into orbit on 23 April 1967 carrying cosmonaut Colonel Vladimir Komarov, Soyuz 1 was the first crewed flight of the Soyuz spacecraft. The flight was plagued with technical issues, and Komarov was killed when the descent module crashed into the ground due to a parachute failure. This was the first in-flight fatality in the history of spaceflight.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974521}
{"src_title": "Eric I of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Eric was born in the town of Slangerup in North Zealand (Denmark) - the largest Danish Island. During the rule of his half-brother Canute IV he was an eager supporter of the king, but he was spared during the rebellion against Canute IV. Eric remained at the royal farm instead of accompanying Canute IV to St Albans priory in Odense where Canute IV was killed. Eric talked his way off the farm and fled to Zealand then fled to Scania which was part of Denmark at the time. Olaf I Hunger was elected King of Denmark, but his reign was short. At last Eric was elected as a king at the several \"landsting\" assemblies in 1095. Eric was well liked by the people and the famines that had plagued Denmark during Olaf Hunger's reign ceased. For many it seemed a sign from God that Eric was the right king for Denmark.  Medieval chroniclers, such as Saxo Grammaticus, and myths portrayed Eric a “strapping fellow” appealing to the common people. He could keep his place when four men tried their best to move him. Eric was a good speaker, people went out of their way to hear him. After a \"ting\" assembly concluded, he went about the neighborhood greeting men, women and children at their homesteads. He had a reputation as a loud man who liked parties and who led a rather dissipated private life. Though a presumed supporter of a strong centralized royal power, he seems to have behaved like a diplomat avoiding any clash with the magnates. He had a reputation for being ruthless to robbers and pirates.  On a visit to the Pope in Rome he obtained canonization for his late brother, Canute IV, and an archbishopric for Denmark (now Lund in Scania), instead of being under the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen. Bishop Asser then became the first Archbishop of Lund.  King Eric announced at the Viborg assembly that he had decided to go on pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The cause, according to \"Danmarks Riges Krønike\", was while drunk at a feast in his own hall. Despite the pleadings of his subjects, he would not be deterred. Eric appointed his son, Harald Kesja, and Bishop Asser as regents.  Eric and Boedil and a large company traveled through Russia to Constantinople where he was a guest of the emperor. While there, he became ill, but took ship for Cyprus anyway. He died at Paphos, Cyprus in July 1103. The queen had him buried there. He was the first king to go on pilgrimage after Jerusalem was conquered during the First Crusade. Queen Boedil also became ill, but made it to Jerusalem where she died. She was buried at the foot of the Mount of Olives in the Valley of Josaphat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Eric and Boedil had one legitimate son, Canute Lavard. Harald Kesja was Canute's half-brother. Eric had two sons outside marriage Eric II the Memorable and Benedict, and the daughter Ragnhilde (mother of the future king Eric III Lamb).  Canute Lavard was king Eric's eldest son, and he was a chivalrous and popular Danish prince. Canute was murdered 7 January 1131 by Eric's nephew Magnus the Strong, the son of King Niels, who viewed Canute as a likely competitor for the throne. Canute's death occurred days before the birth of his child, Valdemar I the Great, who would become King of Denmark from 1157 to 1182. Eric Ejegod is the ancestor of later Danish monarchs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eric I ( – 10 July 1103), also known as Eric the Good (), was King of Denmark following his brother Olaf I Hunger in 1095. He was a son of Sweyn II. His mother's identity is unknown. He married Boedil Thurgotsdatter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974522}
{"src_title": "Belle de Jour (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Séverine Serizy (Catherine Deneuve), a young and beautiful housewife, is unable to share physical intimacy with her husband, Dr. Pierre Serizy (Jean Sorel), despite their love for each other. Her sexual life is restricted to elaborate fantasies involving domination, sadomasochism, and bondage. Although frustrated by his wife's frigidity toward him, he respects her wishes.  While visiting a ski resort, they meet two friends, Henri Husson (Michel Piccoli) and Renée (Macha Méril). Séverine does not like Husson's manner and the way he looks at her. Back in Paris, Séverine meets up with Renée and learns that a mutual friend, Henriette, now works at a brothel. At her home, Séverine receives roses from Husson and is unsettled by the gesture. At the tennis courts, she meets Husson and they discuss Henriette and houses of pleasure. Husson mentions a high-class brothel to Séverine at 11 Cité Jean de Saumur. He also confesses his desire for her, but Séverine rejects his advances.  Haunted by childhood memories, including one involving a man who appears to touch her inappropriately, Séverine goes to the high-class brothel, which is run by Madame Anaïs (Geneviève Page). That afternoon Séverine services her first client. Reluctant at first, she responds to the \"firm hand\" of Madame Anaïs, who names her \"Belle de Jour,\" and has sex with the stranger. After staying away for a week, Séverine returns to the brothel and begins working from two to five o'clock each day, returning to her unsuspecting husband in the evenings. One day, Husson comes to visit her at home, but Séverine refuses to see him. Still, she fantasizes about having sex with him in her husband's presence. At the same time, Séverine's physical relationship with her husband is improving and she begins having sex with him.  Séverine becomes involved with a young gangster, Marcel (Pierre Clémenti), who offers her the kind of thrills and excitement of her fantasies. When Marcel becomes increasingly jealous and demanding, Séverine decides to leave the brothel, with Madame Anaïs' agreement. Séverine is also concerned about Husson, who has discovered her secret life at the brothel. After one of Marcel's gangster associates follows Séverine to her home, Marcel visits her and threatens to reveal her secret to her husband. Séverine pleads with him to leave, which he does, referring to her husband as \"the obstacle\".  Marcel waits downstairs for Pierre to return home, and shoots him three times. Marcel then flees, but is shot dead by police. Séverine's husband survives, but is left in a coma. The police are unable to find a motive for the attempted murder. Sometime later Séverine is at home taking care of Pierre, who is now completely paralyzed, blind, and in a wheelchair. Husson visits Pierre to tell him the truth about his wife's secret life; she does not try to stop him. Afterwards, Séverine looking at Pierre crying, begins to dream that Pierre is suddenly in perfect health. He asks what she is thinking about. She replies, \"About you, Pierre.\"  Much of Deneuve's wardrobe was designed by Yves St. Laurent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "American director Martin Scorsese promoted a 1995 limited re-release in America and a 2002 release on DVD.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 2006, the Portuguese director Manoel de Oliveira released \"Belle Toujours\", imagining a future encounter between the characters of Séverine and Henri Husson from the original film.  In 2010, \"Belle de Jour\" was ranked #56 in \"Empire\" magazine's list, The 100 Best Films of World Cinema.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Belle de Jour () is a 1967 drama film directed by Luis Buñuel, and starring Catherine Deneuve, Jean Sorel, and Michel Piccoli. Based on the 1928 novel \"Belle de jour\" by Joseph Kessel, the film is about a young woman who spends her midweek afternoons as a high-class prostitute, while her husband is at work.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974523}
{"src_title": "Franz, Duke of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Birth.", "content": "Franz was born on 14 July 1933 in Munich, the son of Albrecht, Duke of Bavaria, and his morganatic wife, Countess Maria Draskovich of Trakostjan of the House of Drašković, a Croatian noble family. On 18 May 1949, when Franz was 15, his grandfather Crown Prince Rupprecht recognised the marriage of Franz's parents as dynastic, and Franz became a prince of Bavaria.  The Wittelsbach dynasty were opposed to the Nazi regime in Germany, and in 1939, Franz's father took his family to Hungary. They lived in Budapest for four years before moving to their Castle at Sárvár in late 1943. In March 1944, Nazi Germany occupied Hungary, and on 6 October 1944 the entire family, including the 11-year-old Franz, were arrested. They were sent to a series of Nazi concentration camps, including Oranienburg and Dachau. At the end of April 1945, they were liberated by the United States Third Army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "After the war, Franz received his secondary education at the Benedictine Abbey of Ettal. He then studied business management at the University of Munich and in Zurich. Franz developed a passion for collecting modern art. Items from his private collection are on permanent loan to the Pinakothek der Moderne in Munich. He is also an honorary trustee of the Museum of Modern Art in New York.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current activities.", "content": "His 80th birthday party, in 2013, was held at the Schleissheim Palace near Munich. The party was attended by 2,500 guests, including the then-incumbent Minister-President of Bavaria, Horst Seehofer.  In 2016, he became the donor of the project of restoration of the Statue of St. John of Nepomuk in Divina, Slovakia, realised under auspices of the Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany in Slovakia. The project was honoured by patronage of Norodom Sihamoni, the king of Cambodia and Simeon II, the last tsar of Bulgaria. The project was completed in the year 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Succession rights.", "content": "Franz has never married. The heir presumptive to the headship of the House of Wittelsbach is his brother Prince Max, Duke in Bavaria. Because Max has five daughters but no sons, he is followed in the line of succession by his and Franz's first cousin Prince Luitpold and, in the next generation, by the latter's son Prince Ludwig Heinrich of Bavaria (b. 1982).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Link to the Stuarts.", "content": "Franz is a direct descendant of the House of Stuart. Were it not for the Act of Settlement 1701, Franz would be the successor to the British crowns of the Stuart kings. His spokesman has, however, made it clear that this is a purely 'hypothetical' issue and not a claim which Franz pursues.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Titles, styles and honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles and styles.", "content": "Franz is traditionally styled as His Royal Highness the Duke of Bavaria, of Franconia and in Swabia, Count Palatine of the Rhine.  Franz was styled \"Prinz von Bayern\" at birth. In 1996, after the death of his father, he changed his style to \"Herzog von Bayern\" ('Duke of Bavaria').", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Franz, Duke of Bavaria (German: Franz Bonaventura Adalbert Maria Herzog von Bayern; born 14 July 1933) is head of the House of Wittelsbach, the former ruling family of the Kingdom of Bavaria. His great-grandfather King Ludwig III was the last ruling monarch of Bavaria until deposed in 1918.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974524}
{"src_title": "Peredvizhniki", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1863 a group of fourteen students decided to leave the Imperial Academy of Arts. The students found the rules of the Academy constraining; the teachers were conservative and there was a strict separation between high and low art. In an effort to bring art to the people, the students formed an independent artistic society; The Petersburg Cooperative of Artists (Artel). In 1870, this organization was largely succeeded by the Association of Travelling Art Exhibits (Peredvizhniki) to give people from the provinces a chance to follow the achievements of Russian Art, and to teach people to appreciate art. The society maintained independence from state support and brought the art, which illustrated the contemporary life of the people from Moscow and Saint Petersburg, to the provinces.  From 1871 to 1923, the society arranged 48 mobile exhibitions in St. Petersburg and Moscow, after which they were shown in Kyiv, Kharkov, Kazan, Oryol, Riga, Odessa and other cities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence of literary critics.", "content": "Peredvizhniki were influenced by the public views of the literary critics Vissarion Belinsky and Nikolai Chernyshevsky, both of whom espoused liberal ideas. Belinsky thought that literature and art should attribute a social and moral responsibility. Like most Slavophiles, Chernyshevsky ardently supported the emancipation of serfs, which was finally realized in the reform of 1861. He viewed press censorship, serfdom, and capital punishment as Western influences. Because of his political activism, officials prohibited publication of any of his writing, including his dissertation; but it eventually found its way to the artworld of nineteenth-century Russia. In 1863, almost immediately after the emancipation of serfs, Chernyshevsky’s goals were realized with the help of Peredvizhniki, who took the pervasive Slavophile-populist idea that Russia had a distinguishable, modest, inner beauty of its own and worked out how to display it on canvas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subjects of the paintings.", "content": "Peredvizhniki portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life, often critical of inequities and injustices. But their art showed not only poverty but also the beauty of the folk way of life; not only suffering but also fortitude and strength of characters. Peredvizhniki condemned the Russian aristocratic orders and autocratic government in their humanistic art. They portrayed the emancipation movement of Russian people with empathy (\"The Arrest of Propagandist\"; \"Refuse from Confession\"; \"Not Expected\" by Ilya Yefimovich Repin). They portrayed social-urban life, and later used historic art to depict the common people (\"The Morning of the Execution of Streltsy\" by Vasily Surikov).  During their blossoming (1870–1890), the Peredvizhniki society developed an increasingly wider scope, with more natural and free images. In contrast to the traditional dark palette of the time, they chose a lighter palette, with a freer manner in their technique. They worked for naturalness in their images, and the depiction of people's relationship with their surroundings. The society united most of the highly talented artists of the country. Among Peredvizhniki there were artists of Ukraine, Latvia, and Armenia. The society also showed the work of Mark Antokolski, Vasili Vereshchagin, and Andrei Ryabushkin. The work of the critic and democrat Vladimir Stasov was important for the development of Peredvizhniki's art. Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov showed the work of these artists in his gallery and gave them important material and moral support.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landscape as the most popular genre of Peredvizhniki.", "content": "Landscape painting flourished in the 1870s and 1880s. Peredvizhniki painted mainly landscapes; some, like Polenov, used plein air technique. Two painters, Ivan Shishkin and Isaak Levitan, painted only landscapes of Russia. Shishkin is still considered to be the Russian \"Singer of forest\", while Levitan's landscapes are famous for their intense moods. The Russian landscape gained importance as a national icon after Peredvizhniki.  Peredvizhniki painted landscapes to explore the beauty of their own country and encourage ordinary people to love and preserve it. Levitan once said, \"I imagine such a gracefulness in our Russian land – overflowing rivers bringing everything back to life. There is no country more beautiful than Russia! There can be a true landscapist only in Russia\". Peredvizhniki gave a national character to landscapes, so people of other nations could recognize Russian landscape. The landscapes of Peredvizhniki are the symbolic embodiments of Russian nationality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction of works.", "content": "Even though the number of travelling exhibition visitors from the provinces was increasing during the years, the main audience was the urban elite. Local photographers created the first reproductions of Peredvizhniki's paintings, which helped popularize the works and could be bought at exhibitions. \"Niva\" magazine also published illustrated articles about the exhibitions. Since 1898 the landscapes of the society have been used in the postcard industry. Various books of poems were published with the illustrations of landscapes. Ordinary Russian people at that time could not afford to go to Moscow or Saint Petersburg, so popularization of Russian art made them familiar with a number of Russian art masterpieces. Even now publishers use the reproductions in textbooks as a visual icon of national identity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decline of creativity.", "content": "As the authority and public influence of the society steadily grew, government officials had to stop their efforts to repress the members. Attempts were made to subordinate their activity, and raise the falling value of Academy of Arts-sanctioned works. By the 1890s, the Academy of Arts structure was including Peredvizhniki art in its classes and history, and the influence of the artists showed in national art schools.  In 1898, their influence began to be superseded by Mir iskusstva, which advanced modern trends in Russian art. Some of the members of Peredvizhniki became more conservative, but some remained as radical as their predecessors. Some of the artists began showing socialist ideas, which reflected the development of a working-class movement. Many of the Peredvizhniki entered the Soviet art culture bringing the realistic traditions of the 19th century to socialist realism.  The 48th exhibition of Peredvizhniki in 1923 was the last one. Most members joined the Association of Artists in Revolutionary Russia (AKhRR). Its members built on the traditions of Peredvizhniki and aspired to create works of art accessible to the common people and faithfully reflecting the righteousness of Soviet society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Members.", "content": "\"Peredvizhniki\" artists included:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peredvizhniki (), often called The Wanderers or The Itinerants in English, were a group of Russian realist artists who formed an artists' cooperative in protest of academic restrictions; it evolved into the \"Society for Travelling Art Exhibitions\" in 1870.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974525}
{"src_title": "Louveciennes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Culture.", "content": "Louveciennes was frequented by impressionist painters in the 19th century; according to the official site, there are over 120 paintings by Renoir, Pissarro, Sisley, and Monet depicting Louveciennes.  The composer Camille Saint-Saëns lived in Louveciennes from 1865 to 1870.  Marie Louise Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun, the most famous female painter of the 18th century, died in Louveciennes on 30 March 1842.  Anaïs Nin was a popular Cuban novelist born in Neuilly, an area in Paris and lived in Louveciennes from 1930 to 1936 at 2 bis, rue Montbuisson. The start of her career as an author started in this town.  Louis, 7th duc de Broglie, physicist and Nobel Prize laureate, died in Louveciennes 19 March 1987.  Orchestra conductor Charles Munch resided in Louveciennes at Place Emile Dreux, in the village of Voisins during the last decade of his life (1958–68). A plaque to that effect has been placed on the residence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Until 1964, Louveciennes belonged to the former Seine-et-Oise \"département\".  NATO had barracks for SHAPE here from 1959–1967, and the American School of Paris was located nearby from 1959 to 1967.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Louveciennes is accessible by two Paris metro lines: LINE 17 Saint Nom la Bretèche - Le Chesnay - Versailles Rive Droite and LINE 17S: Maule - Le Chesnay - Versailles Rive Droite. Two bus routes to and from Paris which operate a night service are easily accessible. Lines 55-1 and LINE 55 -2 are used to go to Le Celle Saint Cloud, Bougival, and other western suburbs of Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "After SHAPE left France, the French government allocated the property to CII, which soon thereafter became part of CII Honeywell Bull. Groupe Bull still has offices in Louveciennes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns.", "content": "Louveciennes is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louveciennes is a commune in the Yvelines department in the Île-de-France region in north-central France. It is located in the western suburbs of Paris, between Versailles and Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and adjacent to Marly-le-Roi.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974526}
{"src_title": "Maximilian, Duke of Hohenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Maximilian was born on 29 September 1902, and baptized in Vienna two days later with Archduke Charles Stephen of Austria as sponsor. From birth he had the lesser princely title and the nobiliary particle \"von Hohenberg\" accorded his mother as a predicate at the time of her marriage, and in 1905 shared with his siblings her receipt of the style \"Serene Highness\". Although Sophie had been raised from Princess (\"Fürstin\") to Duchess (\"Herzogin\") in 1909 by Emperor Franz Joseph, because that title was accorded \"ad personam\", Maximilian did not inherit it upon her death in 1914. On 31 August 1917, however, Emperor Charles I granted him the dukedom on a hereditary basis, simultaneously raising his treatment from \"Serene Highness\" (\"Durchlaucht\") to \"Highness\" (\"Hoheit\").  In 1911, it was rumored among French circles that Germany planned to install Maximilian as Imperial Governor of Alsace-Lorraine.  Following the assassination of his parents in Sarajevo in 1914, which resulted in the outbreak of World War I, Maximilian, his sister, Princess Sophie and their brother, Prince Ernst, were initially taken in by their maternal aunt and uncle Marie and Jaroslav, Prince and Princess von Thun und Hohenstein, subsequently being raised in the care of their step-grandmother, Archduchess Maria-Theresa of Austria.  In 1919, following the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and collapse of the Habsburg monarchy, the new republic of Czechoslovakia expropriated Konopiště Castle, Maximilian's chief residence, and other family properties in the former Kingdom of Bohemia, and expelled the brothers to Austria. Subsequently, they lived in Vienna and at Artstetten Castle in Lower Austria. Maximilian obtained a law degree from the University of Graz in 1926. He managed the family properties and worked as a lawyer.  Because he had never been a dynast of the Austrian Imperial Family, he was neither banished nor his properties expropriated under Austria's law of exile of 3 April 1919. Remaining in Vienna, by the 1930s the Duke became the leader within Austria of a significant movement for restoration of the monarchy and of his kinsman Otto von Habsburg to the former Imperial throne.  In March 1938, Austria became part of the German Reich as a result of the \"Anschluss\". Having spoken out for the independence of Austria and against the \"Anschluss\", Maximilian and his brother were arrested by the \"Reich\" authorities and interned in Dachau concentration camp, where they were chiefly employed in cleaning the latrines. According to Leopold Figl (who served as Chancellor of Austria after World War II), they did so cheerfully and maintained comradely relations with fellow prisoners. Maximilian was released after six months (Ernst was transferred to other concentration camps and released only in 1943) and was then compelled to stay at Artstetten Castle; the \"Reich\" authorities also expropriated the family's other properties in Austria.  After the liberation of Austria in 1945, the residents of Artstetten elected Maximilian as mayor, with the concurrence of the Soviet occupation authorities. He served two five-year terms as mayor.  Maximilian died on 8 January 1962 at the age of 59. He is buried in the crypt of the Hohenberg family's Artstetten Castle. His wife's remains are in a sarcophagus to his left. His eldest son, Franz, took the ducal title.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Maximilian married on 16 November 1926 in Wolfegg, Countess Maria Elisabeth Bona von Waldburg zu Wolfegg und Waldsee (10 August 1904 in Bad Waldsee – 13 March 1993 in Salzburg). They had six sons:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maximilian, Duke von Hohenberg (\"Maximilian Karl Franz Michael Hubert Anton Ignatius Joseph Maria\"; 29 September 1902 – 8 January 1962), was the elder son of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife Countess Sophie Chotek von Chotkowa und Wognin, Duchess von Hohenberg. Because his parents' marriage was morganatic, he was excluded from succession to the Austro-Hungarian throne, to which his father was heir presumptive, and to inheritance of any of his father's dynastic titles, income and properties, although not from the archduke's personal estate nor from his mother's property.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974527}
{"src_title": "Messerschmitt Me 209", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The designation Me 209 was used for two separate projects during World War II. The first was a record-setting, single-engined race aircraft, for which little or no consideration was given to adaptation for combat. The second Me 209 was a proposal for a follow-up to the highly successful Messerschmitt Bf 109 which served as the Luftwaffe's primary fighter throughout World War II.  Designed in 1937, the Me 209 was a completely separate aircraft from the Bf 109, solely designed to break speed records. It shared only its Daimler-Benz DB 601 engine with the Bf 109, which in the Me 209 was equipped with steam cooling. Willy Messerschmitt designed the small aircraft with a cockpit placed far back along the fuselage just in front of its unique cross-shaped tail section. Unlike the Bf 109, the Me 209 featured a wide track, inwardly-retracting undercarriage mounted in the wing section.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Testing.", "content": "The aircraft achieved its purpose when test pilot Fritz Wendel flew it to a new world speed record of almost 756 km/h (469 mph) on 26 April 1939, bearing the German civil registration D-INJR. This record was not officially broken by another piston-engined aircraft until 16 August 1969 by Darryl Greenamyer's highly modified Conquest I F8F Bearcat, now at the Smithsonian's NASM. The Me 209 V1's speed record was itself shattered in terms of absolute speed, eighteen months later by Heini Dittmar, flying another Messerschmitt aircraft design, the Me 163A V4 rocket fighter prototype to a 1,004 km/h (624 mph) record in October 1941.  The idea of adapting the Me 209 racer to the fighter role gained momentum when, during the Battle of Britain, the Bf 109 failed to gain superiority over the RAF Supermarine Spitfire. The little record-setter, however, was not up to the task of air combat. Its wings were almost completely occupied by the engine's liquid cooling system and therefore prohibited conventional installation of armament. The aircraft also proved difficult to fly and extremely hard to control on the ground. Nevertheless, the Messerschmitt team made several attempts to improve the aircraft's performance by giving it longer wings, a taller vertical stabilizer, and installing two synchronized 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 machine guns in the engine cowling. Its various modifications, however, added so much weight that the Me 209 ended up slower than the contemporary Bf 109E. This first Me 209 project was soon cancelled.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Propaganda use.", "content": "The Me 209's designation was used by Messerschmitt as a propaganda tool. Although the aircraft was a \"single purpose\" high-speed experimental prototype, it was hoped that its name would associate it and its world-beating performance with the Bf 109 already in combat service.  In 1939, the speed record achievement of the Me-209 was used for a propaganda disinformation campaign, wherein the aircraft (possibly from its post-July 1938 first flight date) was given the designation Me 109R, with the later prefix, never used for wartime Bf 109 fighters. This disinformation was naturally designed to give an aura of invincibility to the Bf 109, an aura not dispelled until the conclusion of the Battle of Britain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "The fuselage of the Me 209 V1 is currently on display, at the Polish Aviation Museum in Kraków, Poland and was once a part of Hermann Göring's personal collection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The first Messerschmitt Me 209 was a single-engine racing aircraft which was designed for and succeeded at breaking speed records. This Me 209 was a completely new aircraft whose designation was used by Messerschmitt as a propaganda tool. Although the aircraft was designed only to break speed records, it was hoped that its name would associate it with the Bf 109 already in combat service.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974528}
{"src_title": "Viktor Shklovsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Shklovsky was born in St. Petersburg, Russia. His father was Lithuanian Jewish (with ancestors from Shklov) and his mother was of German/Russian origin. He attended St. Petersburg University.  During the First World War, he volunteered for the Russian Army and eventually became a driving trainer in an armoured car unit in St. Petersburg. There, in 1916, he founded OPOYAZ (Obshchestvo izucheniya POeticheskogo YAZyka—Society for the Study of Poetic Language), one of the two groups (with the Moscow Linguistic Circle) that developed the critical theories and techniques of Russian Formalism.  Shklovsky participated in the February Revolution of 1917. Subsequently, the Russian Provisional Government sent him as an assistant Commissar to the Southwestern Front where he was wounded and got an award for bravery. After that he was an assistant Commissar of the Russian Expeditionary Corps in Persia (see Persian Campaign).  Shklovsky returned to St. Petersburg in early 1918, after the October Revolution. He opposed bolshevism and took part in an anti-bolshevik plot organised by members of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. After the conspiracy was discovered by the Cheka, Shklovsky went into hiding, traveling in Russia and the Ukraine, but was eventually pardoned in 1919 due to his connections with Maxim Gorky, and decided to abstain from political activity. His two brothers were executed by the Soviet regime (one in 1918, the other in 1937) and his sister died from hunger in St. Petersburg in 1919.  Shklovsky integrated into Soviet society and even took part in the Russian Civil War, serving in the Red Army. However, in 1922, he had to go into hiding once again, as he was threatened with arrest and possible execution for his former political activities, and he fled via Finland to Germany. In Berlin, in 1923, he published his memoirs about the period 1917–22 under the title \"Сентиментальное путешествие, воспоминания\" (\"Sentimental'noe puteshestvie, vospominaniia\", \"A Sentimental Journey\"), alluding to \"A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy\" by Laurence Sterne, an author he much admired and whose digressive style had a powerful influence on Shklovsky's writing. In the same year he was allowed to return to the Soviet Union, not least because of an appeal to Soviet authorities that he included in the last pages of his epistolary novel \"Zoo, or Letters Not About Love\".  The Yugoslav scholar Mihajlo Mihajlov visited Shklovsky in 1963 and wrote: \"I was much impressed by Shklovsky's liveliness of spirit, his varied interests and his enormous culture. When we said goodbye to Viktor Borisovich and started for Moscow, I felt that I had met one of the most cultured, most intelligent and best-educated men of our century.\"  He died in Moscow in 1984.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writer and theorist.", "content": "In addition to literary criticism and biographies about such authors as Laurence Sterne, Maxim Gorky, Leo Tolstoy, and Vladimir Mayakovsky, he wrote a number of semi-autobiographical works disguised as fiction, which also served as experiments in his developing theories of literature.  Shklovsky is perhaps best known for developing the concept of \"ostranenie\" or defamiliarization (also translated as \"estrangement\") in literature. He explained the concept in 1917 in the important essay \"Art as Technique\" (also translated as \"Art as Device\") which comprised the first chapter of his seminal \"Theory of Prose\", first published in 1925. He argued for the need to turn something that has become over-familiar, like a cliché in the literary canon, into something revitalized:  Among other things, Shklovsky also contributed the plot/story distinction (syuzhet/fabula), which separates out the sequence of events the work relates (the story) from the sequence in which those events are presented in the work (the plot).  Shklovsky's work pushes Russian Formalism towards understanding literary activity as integral parts of social practice, an idea that becomes important in the work of Mikhail Bakhtin and Russian and Prague School scholars of semiotics. Shklovsky's thought also influenced western thinkers, partly due to Tzvetan Todorov's translations of the works of Russian formalists in the 1960s and 1970s, including Tzvetan Todorov himself, Gerard Genette and Hans Robert Jauss.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "Shklovsky was one of the very early serious writers on film. A collection of his essays and articles on film was published in 1923 (\"Literature and Cinematography\", first English edition 2008). He was a close friend of director Sergei Eisenstein and published an extensive critical assessment of his life and works (Moscow 1976, no English translation).  Beginning in the 1920s and well into the 1970s Shklovsky worked as a screenwriter on numerous Soviet films (see \"Select Filmography\" below), a part of his life and work that, thus far, has seen very limited attention. In his book \"Third Factory\" Shklovsky reflects on his work in film, writing: \"First of all, I have a job at the third factory of Goskino. Second of all, the name isn't hard to explain. The first factory was my family and school. The second was Opoyaz. And the third – is processing me at this very moment.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "\"Victor Shklovsky and Roman Jacobson. Life as a Novel\" documentary film by Vladimir Nepevny", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Viktor Borisovich Shklovsky (; – 6 December 1984) was a Russian and Soviet literary theorist, critic, writer, and pamphleteer. He is one of the major figures associated with Russian formalism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974529}
{"src_title": "Delphinium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The leaves are deeply lobed with three to seven toothed, pointed lobes in a palmate shape. The main flowering stem is erect, and varies greatly in size between the species, from 10 centimetres in some alpine species, up to 2 m tall in the larger meadowland species.  In June and July (Northern Hemisphere), the plant is topped with a raceme of many flowers, varying in colour from purple and blue, to red, yellow, or white. In most species each flower consists of five petal-like sepals which grow together to form a hollow pocket with a spur at the end, which gives the plant its name, usually more or less dark blue. Within the sepals are four true petals, small, inconspicuous, and commonly coloured similarly to the sepals. The eponymous long spur of the upper sepal encloses the nectar-containing spurs of the two upper petals.  The seeds are small and often shiny black. The plants flower from late spring to late summer, and are pollinated by butterflies and bumble bees. Despite the toxicity, \"Delphinium\" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the dot moth and small angle shades.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Delineation of \"Delphinium\".", "content": "Genetic analysis suggests that \"Delphinium\" \"sensu lato\", as it was delineated before the 21st century, is polyphyletic. Nested within \"Delphinium\" \"s.l.\" are \"Aconitella\", \"Consolida\", and \"Aconitum\". To make \"Delphinium\" monophyletic, several interventions were made. The new genus \"Staphisagria\" was erected containing \"Staphisagria macrosperma\" (\"D. staphisagria\"), \"S. requienii\" (\"D. requini\") and \"S. picta\" (\"D. pictum\"), representing the sister group to all other Delphinieae. Further genetic analysis has shown that the two large subgenera \"Aconitum (Aconitum)\" and \"Aconitum (Lycoctonum)\" are the sister group to \"Aconitum gymnandrum\", \"Delphinium (Delphinium)\", \"Delphinium (Delphinastrum)\", \"Consolida\" and \"Aconitella\". To make \"Aconitum\" monophyletic, \"A. gymnandrum\" has now been reassigned to a new monotypic genus, \"Gymnaconitum\". Finally, \"Consolida\" and \"Aconitella\" are synonymized with \"Delphinium\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subgenera.", "content": "\"D. arthriscifolium\" is sister to all other species of \"Delphinium\" \"sensu stricto\" (so excluding \"Staphisagria\"). It should be placed in its own subgenus, but no proposal naming this subgenus has been made yet. The subgenera \"Delphinium (Delphinium)\" and \"Delphinium (Delphinastrum)\" are sister to the group consisting of the species of \"Consolida\" and \"Aconitella\", which together make up the subgenus \"Delphinium (Consolida)\". \"Aconitella\" cannot be retained as a subgenus because \"A. barbata\" does not cluster with the remaining species previously assigned to that genus, without creating five further subgenera.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Selected species.", "content": "Species include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reassigned species.", "content": "Several species of \"Delphinium\" have been reassigned:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Delphiniums can attract butterflies and other pollinators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Various delphiniums are cultivated as ornamental plants, for traditional and native plant gardens. The numerous hybrids and cultivars are primarily used as garden plants, providing height at the back of the summer border, in association with roses, lilies, and geraniums.  Most delphinium hybrids and cultivars are derived from \"D. elatum\". Hybridisation was developed in the 19th century, led by Victor Lemoine in France. Other hybrid crosses have included \"D. bruninianum\", \"D. cardinale\", \"D. cheilanthum\", and \"D. formosum\".  Numerous cultivars have been selected as garden plants, and for cut flowers and floristry. They are available in shades of white, pink, purple, and blue. The blooming plant is also used in displays and specialist competitions at flower and garden shows, such as the Chelsea Flower Show.  The 'Pacific Giant' hybrids are a group with individual single-colour cultivar names, developed by Reinelt in the United States. They typically grow to tall on long stems, by wide. They reportedly can tolerate deer. Millennium delphinium hybrids, bred by Dowdeswell's in New Zealand, are reportedly better in warmer climates than the Pacific hybrids. Flower colours in shades of red, orange, and pink have been hybridized from \"D. cardinale\" by Americans Reinelt and Samuelson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Award of garden merit.", "content": "The following delphinium cultivars have received the Award of Garden Merit from the British Royal Horticultural Society:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "All parts of these plants are considered toxic to humans, especially the younger parts, causing severe digestive discomfort if ingested, and skin irritation. Larkspur, especially tall larkspur, is a significant cause of cattle poisoning on rangelands in the western United States. Larkspur is more common in high-elevation areas, and many ranchers delay moving cattle onto such ranges until late summer when the toxicity of the plants is reduced. Death is through cardiotoxic and neuromuscular blocking effects, and can occur within a few hours of ingestion. All parts of the plant contain various diterpenoid alkaloids, typified by methyllycaconitine, and are very poisonous.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The juice of the flowers, particularly \"D. consolida\", mixed with alum, gives a blue ink.  All plant parts are poisonous in large doses, especially the seeds, that contain up to 1.4% of alkaloids.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Delphinium is a genus of about 300 species of perennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, native throughout the Northern Hemisphere and also on the high mountains of tropical Africa. The genus was erected by Carl Linnaeus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974530}
{"src_title": "Alexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Of English, Chinese, Czech, and Austrian ancestry, Alexandra Manley was born in Hong Kong, as the eldest of three daughters of Richard Nigel Manley (born in Shanghai, China on 11 August 1924 to a father of English and Chinese ancestry, died 12 January 2010, buried 10 February 2010 in Liesing Cemetery, Vienna) and Christa Maria Manley of Czech and Austrian descent (born Christa Maria Nowotny in Austria in 1933). Her father was an insurance company executive and her mother was the manager of a communications company. She was christened at the Cathedral of Saint John, Hong Kong. She attended Quarry Bay Junior School (1969–1971), Glenealy School (1971–1974) and Island School (1974–1982), all in Hong Kong.  Manley studied international business at Vienna University of Economics and Business in Austria. She also went to Japan and England for studies. It is not known whether she obtained a university degree. From 1990 to 1995, she was employed by GT Management (Asia) Ltd., Hong Kong, where from 1990–1993 she worked in Sales and Marketing and from 1993 as a deputy chief executive of that department.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First marriage and children.", "content": "Alexandra met Prince Joachim at a party in Hong Kong, where he was working for a Danish shipping company. After a whirlwind courtship, thought to have begun in late 1994, Prince Joachim, on bended knee, presented Alexandra with a diamond and ruby engagement ring while the couple vacationed together in the Philippines. Their engagement, which took both Alexandra's family and Danish royal Watchers by surprise, was officially revealed in May 1995.  They were married on 18 November 1995, by Queen Margrethe's Chaplain-in-Ordinary, in the Chapel of Frederiksborg Castle at Hillerød. The wedding festivities were held at Fredensborg Palace. The bride's gown was designed by Jørgen Bender; she wore the Alexandrine Drop Tiara, originally the property of Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, which was a wedding gift from Queen Margrethe.  When she married Prince Joachim, she gave up her career in marketing. It is believed that she had renounced her British citizenship prior to become a Danish subject upon her marriage.  Prince Joachim and Princess Alexandra have two children from their former marriage:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life as a princess.", "content": "Alexandra became popular with the Danish people. Known for her fashion sense and charity work, she was dubbed the Diana of the North. She is a native English and German speaker (through her father and mother, respectively), and her fluency in German helped her pick up the Danish language quickly. Within a few months she spoke it nearly without accent, which further endeared her to the Danes. As she said in an interview, \"I don't find the grammar especially difficult, but the pronunciation can be hard, since we swallow some of our words. It reminds me a little of Chinese, with the glottal stop... Saying something with an upswing or a downswing can give a word an entirely different meaning,\" she explained. \"It was my decision to learn the language immediately. It would have been terrible to have to stand up and speak English at an engagement, or thank someone for something. It would have been utterly wrong. This is my home, and so there was no other option\".  Both during and after her marriage, she was involved in numerous philanthropic pursuits, including the Children's Red Cross, the Danish Society for the Blind, UNICEF, and single mothers' advocacy group Mother Help. She also served as a UNICEF ambassador when she travelled to Thailand to visit HIV/AIDS patients.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End of marriage.", "content": "By mid-2004, rumours were circulating throughout Denmark and neighbouring Sweden and Norway that her marriage to Prince Joachim had gone sour. On 16 September 2004, Alexandra and Joachim announced their separation and eventual intention to divorce. It would be the first in the Royal Family since 1846. Newspaper reports speculating on the reasons for the marital rupture soon followed. The Folketing decided to put Alexandra on the civil list for life, independent of her possible future remarriage. Alexandra's payments of her new yearly allowance of 2.1m kroner (US$330,000) started retroactively from 1 October 2004. The couple divorced on 8 April 2005.  On 23 June 2017, she announced that she would renounce her entitlement to the Danish civil list in July 2020, coinciding with the 18th birthday of Prince Felix.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second marriage and current life.", "content": "In mid-2005 there were reports and pictures of Alexandra together with Martin Jørgensen (b. 2 March 1978 in Valby), the son of Jacob Jørgensen. Jacob Jørgensen is well known in Denmark for his film production company JJ Film, which produced numerous documentaries in which members of the royal family co-operated and participated.  She married Martin Jørgensen on 3 March 2007 in a private ceremony at Øster Egede Church near Fakse. In September 2015, it was announced that Jørgensen and the Countess were divorcing after eight and a half years of marriage. The Countess had cited differences in values as the reason for the divorce. According to \"Royal Central\", the divorce was finalized in 2015.  In 2007 the Countess of Frederiksborg joined the Danish board of directors of Ferring Pharmaceuticals.  In 2017, it was announced that she would take up the position of Poling Chair of Business and Government at the Indiana University Kelley School of Business. In August 2017 she attended the 18th birthday party of her son Prince Nikolai along with many members of the royal family, including Queen Margrethe II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg, (\"née\" Alexandra Christina Manley; born 30 June 1964) is the former first wife of Prince Joachim of Denmark, the younger son of Margrethe II of Denmark.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974531}
{"src_title": "Citroën Xsara", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Chassis design.", "content": "The familiar range of PSA powertrains drove the front wheels of a seemingly conventionally designed chassis. At the front was a standard MacPherson strut layout with anti-roll bar, while the rear used the PSA Peugeot-Citroën fully independent trailing arm/torsion bar set up, which was first introduced on the estate of the Peugeot 305.  However, PSA's chassis engineers employed some unusual features, including passive rear wheel steering, though less than on the ZX, (by means of specially designed compliance bushes in the rear suspension), and inhouse developed and constructed shock absorbers.  At high mileages, this is prone to wear of the axle mounting bushes which is easily fixed. It is also prone to wear in the rear axle trailing arm bearings, which then wear the trailing arm axle tubes, requiring an expensive rebuild or a replacement axle assembly.  The diesel and larger capacity petrol engines are canted as far back as possible in the engine bay, in an effort to put as much weight as possible behind the front axle line, also reducing the centre of gravity, while improving weight distribution and minimising understeer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pre-facelift.", "content": "The original Xsara was launched in September 1997, and was available with different engine choices:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Facelift.", "content": "In September 2000, the Xsara was facelifted. The car was now stiffer (safety and handling improved), had a new front design and some interior modifications (i.e.: new steering wheel). The facelift also saw the introduction of multiplex wiring.  However, the wiring used was too thin, resulting in multiple wires breaking with frequent use, especially in the driver's door, thereby rendering the driver's door window, central locking and interior lights unusable. Citroën do not acknowledge this as a problem, and do not issue door wiring harnesses as a spare.  New 1.6i and 2.0i 16 valve engines were being introduced and 1.8L were removed. Now Xsara is offered with following engine choices:  The model of 2002 had slight interior modifications (e.g. a different way of controlling the sound system from the steering wheel). In February 2003, there were also some exterior modifications (e.g. new front bumper).  The Xsara hatchback was discontinued, and replaced by the C4 in November 2004. The Xsara continues to be produced for the Chinese market by Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën Automobile, a joint venture with the PSA Group. The Xsara Picasso small MPV was continued, concurrently with its successor that was based on the C4. 'Picasso' becoming the name for MPV derivatives of any Citroën model.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Citroën Xsara was a small family car (C-segment in Europe) produced by the French automaker Citroën from 1997 to 2006. The Xsara was a development of the Citroën ZX and Peugeot 306, which shared a platform and running gear.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974532}
{"src_title": "Ordinary People", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The Jarretts are an upper-middle-class family in suburban Chicago trying to return to normal life after the accidental death of their older teenage son, Buck, and the attempted suicide of their younger and surviving son, Conrad. Conrad, who has recently returned home from a four-month stay in a psychiatric hospital, feels alienated from his friends and family and begins seeing a psychiatrist, Dr. Berger. Berger learns that Conrad was involved in the sailing accident that took the life of Buck, whom everyone idolized. Conrad now deals with post-traumatic stress disorder and survivor's guilt.  Conrad's father, Calvin, tries to connect with his surviving son and understand his wife. Conrad's mother, Beth, denies her loss, hoping to maintain her composure and restore her family to what it once was. She appears to have loved her older son more, and because of the suicide attempt, has grown cold toward Conrad. She is determined to maintain the appearance of perfection and normalcy. Conrad works with Dr. Berger and learns to try to deal with, rather than control, his emotions. He starts dating a fellow student, Jeannine, who helps him to begin to regain a sense of optimism. Conrad, however, still struggles to communicate and re-establish a normal relationship with his parents and schoolmates, including Stillman, with whom he gets into a fist fight. He cannot seem to allow anyone, especially Beth, to get close. Beth makes several guarded attempts to appeal to Conrad for some semblance of normality, but she ends up being cold towards him.  Mother and son often argue while Calvin tries to referee, generally taking Conrad's side for fear of pushing him over the edge again. Things come to a climax near Christmas, when Conrad becomes furious at Beth for not wanting to take a photo with him, swearing at her in front of his grandparents. Afterward, Beth discovers Conrad has been lying about his after-school whereabouts. This leads to a heated argument between Conrad and Beth in which Conrad points out that Beth never visited him in the hospital, saying that she \"would have come if Buck was in the hospital.\" Beth replies, \"Buck never would have \"been\" in the hospital!\" Beth and Calvin take a trip to see Beth's brother in Houston, where Calvin confronts Beth, calling her out on her attitude.  Conrad suffers a setback when he learns that Karen, a friend of his from the psychiatric hospital, has committed suicide. A cathartic breakthrough session with Dr. Berger allows Conrad to stop blaming himself for Buck's death and accept his mother's frailties. Calvin, however, emotionally confronts Beth one last time. He questions their love and asks whether she is capable of truly loving anyone. Stunned, Beth decides to leave her family rather than deal with her own, or their, emotions. Calvin and Conrad are left to come to terms with their new family situation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Ordinary People\" garnered four Oscars for 1980, including the Academy Award for Best Picture. The picture, Robert Redford's debut at directing, won him the Academy Award for Best Director. Alvin Sargent won the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. Timothy Hutton won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in his first film role (he had previously appeared on television).  The film marked Mary Tyler Moore's career breakout from the personality of her other two famous roles as Laura Petrie on \"The Dick Van Dyke Show\" and Mary Richards on \"The Mary Tyler Moore Show\". Moore's complex performance as the mother to Hutton's character was well-received and obtained a nomination for Best Actress. Donald Sutherland's performance as the father was also well received, and he was nominated for a Golden Globe Award. He was not nominated for an Academy Award along with his co-stars, however, which \"Entertainment Weekly\" has described as one of the worst acting snubs in the history of the Academy Awards.  Judd Hirsch's portrayal of Dr. Berger was a departure from his work on the sitcom \"Taxi\", and drew praise from many in the psychiatric community as one of the rare times their profession is shown in a positive light in film. Hirsch was also nominated for Best Supporting Actor, losing out to co-star Hutton. Additionally, \"Ordinary People\" launched the career of Elizabeth McGovern who played Hutton's character's love interest, and who received special permission to film while attending Juilliard.  \"Ordinary People\" received critical acclaim. Roger Ebert gave it a full four stars and praised how the film's setting \"is seen with an understated matter-of-factness. There are no cheap shots against suburban lifestyles or affluence or mannerisms: The problems of the people in this movie aren't caused by their milieu, but grow out of themselves. [...] That's what sets the film apart from the sophisticated suburban soap opera it could easily have become.\" He later named it the fifth best film of the year 1980; while colleague Gene Siskel ranked it the second best film of 1980. Vincent Canby writing for \"The New York Times\" called it \"a moving, intelligent and funny film about disasters that are commonplace to everyone except the people who experience them.\" On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88%, based on 50 reviews, with an average rating of 7.93/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Though shot through with bitterness and sorrow, Robert Redford's directorial debut is absorbing and well-acted.\"  The film was a box office success, grossing $54 million in the United States and Canada and approximately $36 million overseas for a worldwide gross of $90 million.  The film's prominent usage of Pachelbel's Canon, which had been relatively obscure for centuries, helped to usher the song into mainstream popular culture.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ordinary People is a 1980 American drama film that marked the directorial debut of actor Robert Redford. The film stars Donald Sutherland, Mary Tyler Moore, Judd Hirsch, and Timothy Hutton.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974533}
{"src_title": "Bumin Qaghan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "According to \"History of Northern Dynasties\" and \"Zizhi Tongjian\", in 545 Tumen's tribe started to rise and frequently invaded the western frontier of Wei. The chancellor of Western Wei, Yuwen Tai, sent An Nuopanto (Nanai-Banda, a Sogdian from Bukhara,) as an emissary to the Göktürk chieftain Tumen, in an attempt to establish a commercial relationship. In 546, Tumen paid tribute to the Western Wei state. In that same year, Tumen put down a revolt of the Tiele tribes against the Rouran Khaganate, their overlords. Following this, Tumen felt entitled to request of the Rouran a princess as his wife. The Rouran khagan, Anagui, sent a message refusing this request and adding: \"You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words?\" Bumin got angry, killed Anagui's emissary, and severed relations with the Rouran Khaganate. Anagui's \"blacksmith\" (鍛奴 / 锻奴, Pinyin: duàn nú, Wade–Giles: tuan-nu) insult was recorded in Chinese chronicles. Some sources state that members of the Tujue did serve blacksmiths for the Rouran elite, and that \"blacksmith slavery\" may refer to a kind of vassalage that prevailed in Rouran society. Nevertheless, after this incident Bumin emerged as the leader of the revolt against Rouran.  In 551, Bumin requested a Western Wei princess in marriage. Yuwen Tai permitted it and sent Princess Changle of Western Wei to Bumin.In the same year when Emperor Wen of Western Wei died, Bumin sent mission and gave two hundred horses.  The beginning of formal diplomatic relations with China propped up Bumin's authority among the Turks. He eventually united the local Turkic tribes and threw off the yoke of the Rouran domination. In 552 Bumin's army defeated Anagui's forces at the north of Huaihuang and then Anagui committed suicide. With their defeat Bumin proclaimed himself \"Illig Qaghan\" and made his wife qaghatun. \"Illig\" means \"owning a state\" in Old Turkic. According to the Bilge Qaghan's memorial complex and the Kul Tigin's memorial complex, Bumin and Istemi ruled people by Turkic laws and they developed them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and family.", "content": "Bumin died within several months after proclaiming himself Illig Qaghan. He was married to Princess Changle of Western Wei.  Issue:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "He was succeeded by his younger brother Istemi in the western part and by his son Issik Qaghan in the eastern part. In less than one century, his khaganate expanded to comprise most of Central Asia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bumin Qaghan (), Bumın Kagan or Illig Qaghan (Chinese: 伊利可汗, Pinyin: Yīlì Kèhán, Wade–Giles: i-li k'o-han, died 552 AD) was the founder of the Turkic Khaganate. He was the eldest son of Ashina Tuwu (吐務 / 吐务). He was the chieftain of the Turks under the sovereignty of Rouran Khaganate. He is also mentioned as \"Tumen\" (,, commander of ten thousand) of the Rouran Khaganate.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974534}
{"src_title": "Yekaterinburg Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Yekaterinburg, formerly called Sverdlovsk, was always known as the informal capital of the Urals, a natural divide between Europe and Asia, between European Russia and Siberia. The city grew very rapidly because it was an important industrial centre and a transport hub. Plans for a rapid-transit system began in the late 1970s, and in 1980 construction began.  The city's uneven landscape, as well as its layout with a very dense city centre, prompted to combine deep and shallow stations. On 26 April 1991, the sixth Metro of Russia and the thirteenth and last Metro of the Soviet Union, which ceased to exist only a few months later, was finally opened to the public. The economic crisis of the early 1990s rocked the Metro very hard and the first stage comprised only three stations. However, then-president Boris Yeltsin diverted state funds to complete its construction and by 1995 the Metro was doubled in length. Since then, only two extensions have been built.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "The Metro is a typical Soviet design, which when completed will form a triangle from three lines intersecting in the city centre. The eight stations comprise of length and are split between deep and shallow. Of the latter, four are pillar-trispans and one is a single vault (built to Kharkov technology). The deep-level stations include one pylon, one column and two Leningrad-technology single vaults, although one was built to a design making it appear as a single deck. Like all ex-Soviet Metros, the stations are elaborately decorated, although economic hardships prevented the full original designs from being implemented.  The Metro is served by one depot, Kalinovskoye, and 62 cars are assigned to it.  Ridership has improved in recent years. In 2011, the average daily ridership on the Metro was 105,000. By 2012, the average daily ridership had increased to 130,000. This corresponds to an annual ridership in 2012 of approximately 47.45 million people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plans.", "content": "The construction of the Bazhovskaya station which should be between the \"Geologicheskaya\" and \"Chkalovskaya\" has been postponed indefinitely.  The first section of the second line with length of 4.5 km should have four stations: \"Metallurgicheskaya\", \"Tatishchyevskaya\", \"Ploshchad Kommunarov\" and \"Ploshchad 1905 Goda\". Station \"Tatishchyevskaya\" and \"Ploshchad Kommunarov\" will be near Central Stadium, which hosted the FIFA World Cup 2018 matches. The opening was originally planned for 2018. However, only pre-development was finished in 2013 and the design competition had not been declared, the construction was delayed, and the 2018 opening was not feasible.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Yekaterinburg Metro () is a rapid transit system that serves the city of Yekaterinburg, Russia. The Metro opened on 26 April 1991, and is long and serves 9 stations. The Yekaterinburg Metro is the 13th and last metro to open in the USSR.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974535}
{"src_title": "Izabela Czartoryska", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "She was the daughter of Count Georg Detlev von Flemming () and Princess Antonina Czartoryska.  On 18 November 1761, in Wołczyn, she married Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski, thus becoming a princess.  She was rumored to have had an affair with the Russian ambassador to Poland, Nikolai Vasilyevich Repnin, who was alleged to have fathered her son Adam George Czartoryski.  She had also an affair with the Duke de Lauzun, who says himself in his \"Mémoires\" he fathered her second son Konstanty Adam.  In Paris in 1772 she met Benjamin Franklin, subsequently a leader of the American Revolution, and the French philosophers Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire, who were bringing new ideas to the old order.  In 1775, together with her husband, Czartoryska completely transformed the Czartoryski Palace at Puławy into an intellectual and political meeting place. Her court was one of the most liberal and progressive in the Commonwealth, although some aspects of her behavior also caused scandals.  Izabela discovered the talent of the young painter Aleksander Orłowski and financed him.  While in Prussia with her daughter Maria Wirtemberska for the latter's marriage, she told Frederick II of her fears that her husband would be poisoned, which was what had caused a split between him and Stanisław August Poniatowski politically. Frederick laughed and told her that only monarchs were poisoned, and spread the conversation around his court to Izabela's detriment, according to Wirydianna Fiszerowa.  In 1784 she joined the Patriotic Party.  After the suppression of the Kościuszko Uprising, her sons Adam George and Konstanty Adam were taken as political hostages by Russia's Empress Catherine II.  In 1796 Izabela ordered the rebuilding of the ruined palace at Puławy and began a museum. Among the first objects to be included were Turkish trophies that had been seized by Polish King Jan III Sobieski's forces at the 1683 Battle of Vienna. Also included were Polish royal treasures and historic Polish family heirlooms. In 1801 Izabela opened the Temple of the Sibyl, also called \"The Temple of Memory\". It contained objects of sentimental importance pertaining to the glories and miseries of human life. During the November Uprising in 1830, the museum was closed. Izabela's son Adam George Czartoryski, going into exile in Paris, evacuated the museum's surviving objects to the Hôtel Lambert. His son Władysław Czartoryski would reopen the museum in 1878 in Kraków, where it exists today.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elżbieta \"Izabela\" Dorota Czartoryska (\"née\" Flemming; 3 March 1746 – 15 July 1835) was a Polish princess, writer, art collector, and prominent figure in the Polish Enlightenment.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974536}
{"src_title": "Trinitarian Order", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Between the eighth and the fifteenth centuries medieval Europe was in a state of intermittent warfare between the Christian kingdoms of southern Europe and the Muslim polities of North Africa, Southern France, Sicily and portions of Spain. According to James W. Brodman, the threat of capture, whether by pirates or coastal raiders, or during one of the region's intermittent wars, was a continuous threat to residents of Catalonia, Languedoc, and the other coastal provinces of medieval Christian Europe. Raids by militias, bands, and armies from both sides was an almost annual occurrence.  The redemption of captives is listed among the corporal works of mercy. The period of the Crusades, when so many Christians were in danger of falling into the hands of Muslims, witnessed the rise of religious orders vowed exclusively to this pious work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Order of the Trinitarians (Order of the Holy Trinity and Captives) was founded by St. John de Matha after his vision of Christ with two captives around 1193. Pope Innocent III granted the order and its rule approval with his letter \"Operante divine dispositionis clementia,\" issued on 17 December 1198. Soon after papal approbation, the Trinitarian ministry to Christian captives was incorporated into the Order's title: \"Order of the Holy Trinity and of Captives\". In addition to the Order's purpose of ransoming Christian captives, each local community of Trinitarians served the people of its area. And so, their ministry included hospitality, care of the sick and poor, churches, education, etc. Eventually, the Trinitarians also assumed the work of evangelization.  Brother John's founding intention expanded quickly beyond the three initial foundations (Cerfroid, Planels, Bourg-la-Reine) into a considerable network of houses committed to the ransom of Christian captives and the works of mercy conducted in their locales. Trinitarian tradition considers St. Felix of Valois co-founder of the Order and companion of John of Matha at Cerfroid, near Paris. In Cerfroid the first Trinitarian community was established and it is considered the mother house of the whole Order.  The first generation of Trinitarians could count some fifty foundations. In northern France, the Trinitarians were known as “Mathurins” because they were based in the church of Saint-Mathurin in Paris from 1228 onwards. Ransoming captives required economic resources. Fundraising and economic expertise constituted important aspects of the Order's life. The Rule's requirement of \"the tertia pars\", or setting aside one-third of all income for the ransom of Christian captives, became a noted characteristic of the Order.  Louis IX installed a house of their order in his château of Fontainebleau. He chose Trinitarians as his chaplains, and was accompanied by them on his crusades. The Master of the Trinity was taken captive together with Saint Louis after the Battle of Al Mansurah.  Throughout the centuries, the Trinitarian Rule underwent several revisions, notably in 1267 and in 1631. It has been complemented by statutes and constitutions. The thirteenth century was a time of vitality, whereas the following centuries brought periods of difficulty and even decline in some areas. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) was a major turning-point in the life of the Church. Its twenty-fifth session dealt with regulars and nuns and the reform of religious orders. Reforming interests and energies manifested themselves among Trinitarians in France with the foundation at Pontoise, north of Paris, during the last quarter of the sixteenth century. Reform-minded Trinitarians in Spain first established the movement known as the Recollection and then, under the leadership of St. John Baptist of the Conception, a movement at Valdepeñas (Ciudad Real) known as the Spanish Discalced Trinitarians at the very end of the sixteenth century. Far-reaching periods of growth and development followed this rebirth. In succeeding centuries, European events such as revolution, government suppression and civil war had very serious consequences for the Trinitarian Order and it declined significantly. During the last decades of the nineteenth century, the Trinitarians began to grow slowly in Italy and Spain. Its members dedicated themselves to fostering and promoting devotion to the Holy Trinity, evangelising non-Christians, assisting immigrants, educating the young, and to parish work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Trinitarian Family.", "content": "Today the Trinitarian family is composed of priests, brothers, women (cloistered nuns and active sisters) as well as committed laity. Members of the Trinitarian family include the Trinitarian religious; the Trinitarian contemplative nuns; the Trinitarian Sisters of Valence; the Trinitarian Sisters of Rome, Valencia, Madrid, Mallorca, and Seville; the Oblates of the Most Holy Trinity; the Third Order Secular (tertiaries) and other Trinitarian laity. All are distinguished by the cross of red and blue which dates from the origins of the Order. Trinitarians are found throughout Europe and in the Americas as well as in Africa, India, Korea and the Philippines.  In 2000 the Vatican Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life approved “The Trinitarian Way” rule of life which would guide all the lay groups associated with the Trinitarians: the Third Order Secular, the Trinitarian Movement, Confraternities, etc.  Like the Jesuits, Trinitarians also pledge not to seek promotion within the Church hierarchy. If promotion is offered, however, it is accepted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charism.", "content": "The Glory of the Most Holy Trinity and the ransom of Christian Captives. Along with the Order’s mission of ransoming Christian captives, each Trinitarian Community served the people of its area by performing works of mercy; redemption and mercy are at the center of the Trinitarian charism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Our Lady of Good Remedy.", "content": "Our Lady of Good Remedy is the patroness of the Order of the Most Holy Trinity. Devotion to Mary under this ancient title is widely known in Europe and Latin America. Her feast day is celebrated on 8 October.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scapular of the Most Blessed Trinity.", "content": "The Scapular of the Holy Trinity is a devotional scapular associated with the Confraternity of The Holy Trinity and the Third Order Secular of the Most Holy Trinity. It is a white scapular with a cross of which the transverse shaft is blue and the longitudinal shaft red. It is worn by Tertiaries as well as members of the Confraternity of the Blessed Trinity (or other Trinitarian associations that make use of the scapular) after investment with this scapular. It is a sign of consecration to the Holy Trinity and of fraternity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Order of the Most Holy Trinity and of the Captives (), also known as the Trinitarian Order or the Trinitarians, is a Catholic religious order founded in Cerfroid, outside Paris, in late 12th century. From the very outset, a special dedication to the mystery of the Holy Trinity has been a constitutive element of the order's life.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974537}
{"src_title": "Samara Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The city of Samara (known during Soviet times as Kuybyshev) is situated at the confluence of the Samara and Volga Rivers. Being an important junction of several waterways and railways, the city grew rapidly during the 20th century simultaneously becoming an important industrial centre. In the late 1970s its population exceeded a million passing the legal Soviet requirement to begin developing a rapid-transit system.  The design plan for Kuybyshev was based on the standard Soviet triangle arrangement, but with provisions to suit the dynamics of Kuybyshev, whose business, commercial and historical centre is situated on the edge, on the bank of the Volga River. Whilst the edges of the city were located with industrial zones and Soviet bedroom regions. Most of the central regions (the geographical centre) between the areas were flats built primarily for the workers. It was also the central area which experienced the most concentrated congestion.  In the finalised plan, the first stage was to pass under this central artery and then expand westwards towards following the bank of the Volga around the commercial zone and eventually terminating at the city's central railway terminal. Construction began in 1980, on the first four station stretch totaling 4.5 km. On 25 December 1987 the system was triumphantly opened to the public becoming the fifth such in Russia and the twelfth of the former Soviet Union.  Immediately after the opening of the first stage, which despite its modest size (compared to other Soviet systems) the Metro was overladen with passengers. Construction of the second stage began shortly; however, this was slowed with the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the chaotic economic hardships that followed. Originally scheduled to open in 1991, the next three station 4.5 km segment opened slowly, one station at a time from December 1992 to December 1993.  Despite the economic stagnation, the system managed to grow to length that allowed it to carry out its major transport role, unlike the ill-fated Nizhny Novgorod and Yerevan Metros throughout the 1990s.  Construction on the third planned stage, originally destined for the second half of the 1990s began in 1991, was extremely slow because of constant offsets. The first station opened in December 2002, the second following five years later in 2007.  The next station, Alabinskaya, was due to follow in 2010, however it has been delayed to 2015. Because Samara Metro builders helped to finish off Kazan Metro in 2005, the latter system donated its newer tunnel boring machine to bore the tunnels up to Alabinskaya from Rossiyskaya.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timeline.", "content": "The Samara Metro has opened in stages, with the dates and lengths of each stage listed below:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "The system is operated by a municipal company \"Samarsky Metropoliten\" that was privatised from the Russian Ministry of Rail services back in the early 1990s. The company is responsible for all management of the system, including management and repairs of tunnel and track, rolling stock, stations and even planning coordination of construction works.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stations.", "content": "The Samara Metro serves ten stations along its single line,.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "The rolling stock is provided by a sole Depot \"Kirovskoye\" which is responsible for management of all cars. Presentely there are 11 four-carriage trains assigned to the system. All of them are model 81-717/714 although some are.5 standard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Future.", "content": "The completion of the first line was originally planned for 2015. However, most of the development was stalled, due to political, financial, or bureaucratic reasons.  The work on 2 of the stations that were initially meant to lengthen the first line has been stopped because it posed danger to buildings of historical and cultural value.  The second line is expected to be 9 kilometres (5.6 miles) in length and have 6 stations. Its construction will take place as part of the program for development of the transportation system of Samara, planned for the time period between 2014 and 2025.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Samara Metro (), formerly known as the Kuybyshev Metro (), is a rapid transit system which serves the city of Samara, Russia. Opened in 1987, it consists of one line with ten stations and approximately of bi-directional track.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974538}
{"src_title": "Cividale del Friuli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Archaeological findings reveal that the area was already inhabited in Paleolithic and Neolithic times. During the Iron Age the region was settled by Veneti and Celts. Due to the location's strategic position on the northeastern frontier of Roman Italy, in 50 BC, the Romans founded there a \"castrum\", which afterwards was transformed by Julius Caesar into a \"forum\" and its name changed into Forum Iulii (\"Julius' marketplace\"; Fréjus had the same Roman name). Not long afterward, the \"forum\" became a \"municipium\" and its citizens were inscribed in the Roman tribe \"Scaptia\".  After the destruction of Aquileia and Iulium Carnicum (Zuglio) in 452 AD, Forum Iulii became the chief town of the district of Friuli and gave its name to it.  In 568 the city was the first major centre occupied by Alboin's Lombard invasion of Italy, then part of the Byzantine Empire. The city was chosen as first capital of the newly formed Lombard Kingdom, then granted by Alboin to his nephew Gisulf as the capital of a Lombard Duchy of Friuli. After the Lombards were defeated by the Franks, (774), following the last Lombard resistance under Hrodgaud of Friuli (776) Forum Julii changed its name to \"Civitas Austriae\", Charlemagne's Italian \"City of the East\".  Under the Carolingian settlement with the Papacy, the patriarchs of Aquileia resided here from 773 to 1031, when they returned to Aquileia, and finally in 1238 removed to Udine. This last change of residence was the origin of the antagonism between Cividale and Udine, which was only terminated by their surrender to Venice in 1419 and 1420 respectively. When the Patriarchal State of Friuli was founded in 1077, Cividale was chosen as the capital.  According to James Burke, a 1331 siege of Cividale was one of the first deployments of what we would now call cannons, in the early form known as a bombard.  Between July and September 1409, a church council was held at Cividale by Pope Gregory XII (Roman Obedience). It was poorly attended and achieved nothing.  In 1420 Cividale was annexed to the Republic of Venice.  After the Napoleonic Wars Cividale became part of the Lombard-Venetian Kingdom. It was ceded to Kingdom of Italy in 1866.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "The historical center of the town is dominated by Piazza del Duomo, which is where the National Archaeological Museum of Cividale del Friuli is located. Close by is the \"Palazzo dei Provveditori Veneti\", constructed in 1565 and designed by Andrea Palladio. The town is split in two by the Natisone River, which is spanned by the Devil's Bridge (15th century, rebuilt in 1918). The Celtic Hypogeum is a subterranean series of halls carved in the rock in ancient times, whose destination remains unclear: uses as either Celtic funerary monument or a Roman (Lombard) jail has been proposed.  The Cathedral (\"Duomo\") was built in the 15th century over a pre-existing construction built in the 8th century. It is a Venetian Gothic building, finished in the 16th century by architect Pietro Lombardo, featuring interventions from the 18th century also. The interior houses an altar dedicated to the Madonna, in the right aisle, and the altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrino II (1195−1204), a silver retable which had been inscribed in Latin by the means of individual letter punches, 250 years before the invention of modern movable type printing by Johannes Gutenberg.  The Christian Museum annexed to the Duomo houses outstanding examples of Lombard sculpture. It contains some interesting relics of the art of the 8th century. The cathedral contains an octagonal marble canopy with sculptures in relief, with a font below it belonging to the 8th century, but altered later. The high altar has a fine silver altar front of 1185. The museum contains various Roman and Lombard antiquities, and works of art in gold, silver and ivory formerly belonging to the cathedral chapter. The fine 15th-century Ponte del Diavolo leads to the church of S. Martino, which contains an altar of the 8th century with reliefs executed by order of the Lombard king Ratchis.  The small church of \"Oratorio di Santa Maria in Valle\" (also known as Lombard Temple), next to the Natisone river, is a notable example of High Middle Ages art sometimes attributed to the 8th century, but probably later. Included in the old Lombard quarter, it was probably used as Palatine Chapel by the Lombard dukes and king's functionaries. The fine decorations, statues and stuccoes (11th or 12th century) housed in the interior, show a strong Byzantine influence.  In the collegiata, the altarpiece of Pellegrinus II (1195−1204) is a silver retable which had been inscribed in Latin by the means of individual letter punches, 250 years before the invention of modern movable type printing by Johannes Gutenberg.  On 25 June 2011 a part of the historical centre of Cividale (the one belonging to the Lombards era) entered the UNESCO heritage list.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other attractions.", "content": "The town has a number of small osterias which serve distinctive local wines. Of particular note are \"Tocai friulano\", \"Verduzzo\" and \"Refosco dal peduncolo rosso\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The town is easily accessible by rail and bus from Udine and by bus from Gorizia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Famous residents.", "content": "At Cividale were born", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cividale del Friuli ( (locally ); ; ) is a town and \"comune\" in the Province of Udine, part of the North-Italian Friuli-Venezia Giulia \"regione\". The town lies above sea-level in the foothills of the eastern Alps, by rail from the city of Udine and close to the Slovenian border. It is situated on the river Natisone, which forms a picturesque ravine here. Formerly an important regional power, it is today a quiet, small town that attracts tourists thanks to its medieval center.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974539}
{"src_title": "Franz Ziereis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and SS career.", "content": "Ziereis was born on 13 August 1904 in Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria, German Empire (now in Bavaria, Germany), where he spent 8 years in elementary school and then began as an apprentice and messenger boy in a department store. In the evenings he studied commerce. In 1922 he went to work as a labourer in a carpentry shop.  Ziereis joined Germany's Reichswehr (army) on 1 April 1924, for a period of 12 years. He was discharged with the rank of sergeant in 1936 and joined the SS on September 30 of the same year. He attained the rank of SS-Obersturmführer and was assigned as a training instructor to the SS-Totenkopfverbände. In 1937 he was given command of a Totenkopfverbände unit and later became a training instructor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concentration camp commandant.", "content": "Zeireis replaced Albert Sauer as commandant of Mauthausen on 9 February 1939 by order of Theodor Eicke, Inspector of Concentration Camps. On 25 August 1939, Ziereis received a promotion to the rank of SS-Sturmbannführer and, on 20 April 1944 he received his final promotion to SS-Standartenführer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war flight and death.", "content": "Ziereis fled with his wife on 3 May 1945. He attempted to hide out in his hunting lodge on the Pyhrn mountain in Upper Austria. He was discovered and arrested on 23 May 1945, by an American army unit. He was shot three times in the stomach while trying to escape and brought to a U.S. military hospital set up at the former Gusen concentration camp I where he died shortly after interrogation by a former inmate of Mauthausen, Hans Marsalek. His corpse was later hung on the fence of Gusen I by former prisoners of Gusen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Xaver Ziereis (13 August 1905 – 24 May 1945) was the commandant of the Mauthausen concentration camp from 1939 until the camp was liberated by the American forces in 1945.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974540}
{"src_title": "Cleomenes I", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was the son of Anaxandrides II (of the Agiad royal house) and his second wife (apparently a daughter of Prinetades), and was the half-brother of Dorieus, Leonidas I, and Cleombrotus. Although the three younger half-brothers were the sons of Anaxandrides' first wife and therefore had a better claim to the throne according to tradition, Cleomenes was the oldest son and succeeded his father around 519 BC. He allowed his half-brother Dorieus to mount expeditions outside the Peloponnese, perhaps as a way of expanding Spartan influence and territories, and perhaps to rid himself of a potential rival. His interest in the world outside the Peloponnese may have accounted for some of his reputation for insanity among fellow Spartans who tended to be highly insular, conservative, and suspicious of all things foreign, especially that, according to Herodotus, Cleomenes acquired a taste for wine drunk \"Scythian fashion\" (unwatered).  An early anecdote demonstrating Cleomenes' integrity is that when Maeandrius, the exiled but still wealthy tyrant of Samos, visited Sparta, he several times invited Cleomenes to his house and showed him some valuable goblets; when Cleomenes politely admired them, Maeandrius offered them to him as a gift. Cleomenes rejected this thinly disguised bribe and arranged for Maeandrius to be expelled from Sparta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War against Athens.", "content": "Around 510 BC the Alcmaeonidae family, who had been exiled from Athens, requested that Sparta help them overthrow Hippias, the son of Pisistratus and tyrant of Athens. The Alcmaeonidae, led by Cleisthenes, bribed the oracle at Delphi to tell the Spartans to assist them, and Cleomenes came to their aid. The first attack on Athens was a failure, but Cleomenes personally led the second attack and besieged Hippias and his supporters on the Acropolis. He was unable to force Hippias to surrender, but the Spartans captured some of Hippias' relatives and took them hostage until he agreed to give up the city.  Cleisthenes and the Athenian aristocrat Isagoras then fought each other for control of Athens. Cleomenes came with an armed force to support Isagoras, and they forced Cleisthenes and the Alcmaeonidae family to go into exile for a second time. Cleomenes also abolished the Boule, a council set up by Cleisthenes, and occupied the Acropolis. The citizens of Athens objected to this and forced him out of the city. Cleomenes was ashamed about what happened in the Acropolis, so he gathered an army the following year with the aim of setting up Isagoras as tyrant of Athens. This army invaded Attica. The Corinthians in his force refused to proceed once the army got to Eleusis, so he was forced to withdraw. According to Pausanias, Cleomenes managed to get as far as Aegina. Pausanias claimed that Cleomenes arrested people who he thought had shown Persian sympathies while he was in Aegina.  Sparta then proposed to her allies to mount an expedition to restore Hippias as tyrant of Athens. Given that Sparta had been instrumental in the overthrow of Hippias this change in policy was justified because Sparta had discovered that they had been tricked by the Alcmaeonidae into overthrowing Hippias because the Delphic oracle had been bribed into asking them to do so. According to W G Forrest, it was Cleomenes who argued for this change of position with Sparta's allies. However, the allies, led by Corinth, rejected the proposal in the first act of the Peloponnesian League.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Ionian Revolt and its aftermath.", "content": "In 499 BC, Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, came to Sparta to request help from King Cleomenes with the Ionian Revolt against Persia. Aristagoras nearly persuaded Cleomenes to help, promising an easy conquest of Persia and its riches, but Cleomenes sent him away when he learned about the long distance to the heart of Persia. Aristagoras attempted to bribe him by offering silver. Cleomenes declined, so Aristagoras began offering him more and more. According to Herodotus, once Aristagoras offered Cleomenes 50 talents of silver, Cleomenes's young daughter Gorgo warned him not to trust a man who threatened to corrupt him.  Around 494 BC, Cleomenes invaded and defeated Argos at the Battle of Sepeia. During the battle, when the Spartan herald announced anything to the Lacedemonians, the Argives did that thing. Cleomenes assumed that the Argives were doing whatever the herald of the Lacedemonians proclaimed, so he took advantage of this by telling the Lacedemonians to attack the Argives once the herald proclaimed that they would get breakfast. Cleomenes was correct that the Argives would get breakfast based on the herald's announcement, so his army massacred the unarmed enemy forces while they were eating. He killed the retreating force, Herodotus says 6000 (probably an exaggeration), by burning them to death in a sacred grove of Argus.  Cleomenes sent the majority of his army back to Sparta and took a thousand men to the temple of Hera to make a sacrifice. The priest forbade him, saying that strangers were not allowed to make sacrifices. Cleomenes ordered the Helots to scourge the priest and made the sacrifice anyway.  Argos would remain a bitter enemy of Sparta for decades after this attack. It is not clear why the attack on Argos took place. It may have been the result of Sparta's concerns over Argos and the city's pro-Persian tendencies, or due to proximity of Argos to the Spartans and thus being a growing threat to the security of the Spartan state.  When the Persians invaded Greece after putting down the Ionian revolt in 493 BC, many city-states quickly submitted to them fearing a loss of trade. Among these states was Aegina, so in 491 BC, Cleomenes attempted to arrest the major collaborators there. The citizens of Aegina would not cooperate with him and the Eurypontid Spartan king, Demaratus attempted to undermine his efforts. Cleomenes overthrew Demaratus, after first bribing the oracle at Delphi to announce that this was the divine will, and replaced him with Leotychides. The two kings successfully captured the Persian collaborators in Aegina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile and death.", "content": "Around 490 BC Cleomenes was forced to flee Sparta when his plot against his co-king Demaratus was discovered, but the Spartans allowed him to return when he began gathering an army in the surrounding territories. However, according to Herodotus he was by this time considered to be insane. The Spartans put him in prison. By the command of his half-brothers, Leonidas I and Cleombrotus, Cleomenes was placed in chains.  While in prison, Cleomenes was found dead with his death being ruled as suicide by self-mutilation. He was succeeded by the elder of his surviving half-brothers Leonidas I, who then married Cleomenes' daughter Gorgo.  The veracity of accounts of Cleomenes' insanity and suicide, which the geographer Pausanias alleged was the result of his desecration of the Hiera Orgas, have been the subject of some speculation among modern historians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical significance.", "content": "\"Cleomenes,\" remarks historian J. B. Bury, \"if he had not been a Spartan, might have been one of the greater figures in Grecian history.\" As it was, he stands as a shrewd policy maker whose policies were consistently rendered ineffective by the opposition of his co-King and the Spartan Ephorate. Nevertheless, he was the dominant figure in Spartan history throughout his adult lifetime.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cleomenes (, though some older reference works give the pronunciation with the accent on the next to last syllable, which is closer to the Greek; Greek Κλεομένης \"Kleomenes\"; died c. 489 BC) was an Agiad King of Sparta in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC. During his reign, which started around 519 BC, he pursued an adventurous and at times unscrupulous foreign policy aimed at crushing Argos and extending Sparta's influence both inside and outside the Peloponnese. He was a brilliant tactician. It was during his reign that the Peloponnesian League came formally into existence. During his reign, he intervened twice successfully in Athenian affairs but kept Sparta out of the Ionian Revolt. He died in prison in mysterious circumstances, with the Spartan authorities claiming his death was suicide due to insanity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974541}
{"src_title": "Václav Svěrkoš", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Czech First League.", "content": "Born in Třinec, Svěrkoš started his career at VP Frýdek-Místek. At the age of fourteen he switched to Baník Ostrava, playing on U15 international for the Czech Republic already. Still eligible to feature for Baník's U19, Svěrkoš enjoyed his breakthrough in the Gambrinus liga, the best Czech division, for the Silesian city outfit after the departure of Milan Baroš. His record of 14 goals in just 26 first-team appearances for Ostrava and similar performances in the Czech Republic national under-21 football team got German club Borussia Mönchengladbach interested. Mönchengladbach had been unable to extend the half-a-season loan of Chelsea's Mikael Forssell, the team's top scorer in 2002–2003, in those times and regarded Svěrkoš a potential long-term replacement for the Finland international.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bundesliga.", "content": "A stuttering start to life in Bundesliga under Ewald Lienen, Svěrkoš took advantage of a change of manager at the club and he was able to end up the team's top scorer in 2003–2004 with nine goals in 31 Bundesliga matches. His most notable contribution came halfway through that campaign when he netted a hat-trick in Mönchengladbach's win over Champions League participant VfB Stuttgart (4–2) in the last 16 of the German Cup competition.  A year later, Mönchengladbach only just avoided relegation in a season in which Svěrkoš netted seven goals for them, his ongoing presence in the youth ranks for the Czech Republic awarded him the captaincy of the Czech U21 team. However, his third season under contract in German football turned out to be extremely problematic. Problems in his private life, followed by poor form, took the ground from under his feet and made him long for a change. Initially planning to go on loan to MSV Duisburg, UEFA Cup participants Hertha BSC became his interim club for the remainder of the season in December 2005.  Even this change of environment did not work for Svěrkoš and though he was facing uncertain times with Hertha BSC unwilling to buy him and Mönchengladbach, to whom he had to return to at the end of the season, seemingly willing to finally sell him to another club. Mönchengladbach's decision to part with manager Horst Köppel at the same time proved to be fortunate as one of the first decisions of Köppel's successor Jupp Heynckes was allowing him to stay on and make a fresh start at the club.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Returns to Ostrava.", "content": "In the summer of 2007 Svěrkoš returned to Baník Ostrava. He found his form again after the winter break, scoring eleven goals in thirteen matches during the spring part of the league. He became the top scorer of the 2007–08 Czech First League, with 15 goals. This caused several clubs to be interested in signing him after UEFA Euro 2008, but Svěrkoš spent the rest of the year in Ostrava, in December 2008 he agreed to transfer to French Ligue 1 side FC Sochaux.  In August 2011 Svěrkoš returned to Baník Ostrava for the second time. On 16 March 2012 in a match against Sparta Prague he picked up a knee injury that sidelined him for several months. He returned to the team on 19 November 2012 in a match against 1. FC Slovácko, only to suffer the same injury again in the first half, which effectively ended his season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Svěrkoš was called up to the Czech Republic national football team and made his debut in the friendly match against Lithuania on 27 May 2008. On 14 May 2008, it was announced that he would be part of the Czech squad for Euro 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Euro 2008.", "content": "At Euro 2008 in Basel, Svěrkoš scored his first goal for his national side against Switzerland in the 71st minute of the opening match of the tournament on 7 June 2008. It also turned out to be the first goal of the tournament as the Czech Republic won the match 1–0. Despite this contribution, he did not play any part in the Czechs' two remaining matches in the tournament.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International goals.", "content": "\"Scores and results list the Czech Republic's goal tally first\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Austria Wien", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Václav Svěrkoš (; born 1 November 1983) is a Czech former professional football striker. He was the opening scorer in the Euro 2008 tournament.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974542}
{"src_title": "Ágota Kristóf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ágota Kristóf was born in Csikvánd, Hungary on October 30, 1935. At the age of 21 she had to leave her country when the Hungarian anti-communist revolution was suppressed by the Soviet military. She, her husband (who used to be her history teacher at school) and their 4-month-old daughter escaped to Neuchâtel in Switzerland. After 5 years of loneliness and exile, she quit her work in a factory and left her husband. She started studying French and began to write novels in that language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Kristóf's first steps as a writer were in the realm of poetry and theater (\"John et Joe, Un rat qui passe\"), aspects of her writing that did not have as great an impact as her trilogy. In 1986 Kristóf's first novel, \"The Notebook\" appeared. It was the beginning of a trilogy. The sequel titled \"The Proof\" came 2 years later. The third part was published in 1991 under the title \"The Third Lie\". The most important themes of this trilogy are war and destruction, love and loneliness, promiscuous, desperate, and attention-seeking sexual encounters, desire and loss, truth and fiction.  She received the European prize for French literature for \"The Notebook\". This novel was translated in more than 40 languages. In 1995 she published a new novel, \"Yesterday\". Kristóf also wrote a book called \"L'analphabète\" (in English \"The Illiterate\") and published in 2004. This is an autobiographical text. It explores her love of reading as a young child, and we travel with her to boarding school, over the border to Austria and then to Switzerland. Forced to leave her country due to the failure of the anti-communist rebellion, she hopes for a better life in Zürich.  The majority of her works were published by Editions du Seuil in Paris. Recently two new short stories published at Mini Zoe collection entitled \"Où es-tu Mathias?\" (2006) and \"Line, le temps\". The names Mathias and Line are from her previous novels.  She died on 27 July 2011 in her Neuchâtel home. Her estate is archived in the Swiss Literary Archives in Bern.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "The video game \"Mother 3\" was influenced by \"The Notebook\"'s major themes. Main characters Lucas and Claus are named after the book's narrators. The game's designer, Shigesato Itoi, a published author in his own right, compared the novel favorably to an RPG. North American novelist Stephen Beachy has named her as an influence on his novel \"boneyard\".  \"Brucio nel vento\" (\"I burn in the Wind\", 2002) is a film based on the novel \"Hier\" (\"Yesterday\"), directed by Silvio Soldini. \"Le Continent K.\" (1998) and \"Agota Kristof, 9 ans plus tard... \" (2006) are two short documentaries about Ágota Kristóf directed by Eric Bergkraut.  \"The Notebook\" was adapted into a film in 2013.  In 2014, the novel was adapted for the stage by British contemporary theatre company, Forced Entertainment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "English translations", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ágota Kristóf (; October 30, 1935 – July 27, 2011) was a Hungarian writer who lived in Switzerland and wrote in French. Kristof received the European prize for French literature for \"The Notebook\" (1986). She won the 2001 Gottfried Keller Award in Switzerland and the Austrian State Prize for European Literature in 2008.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974543}
{"src_title": "Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Sophie Charlotte was born at the Possenhofen Castle, the residence of her paternal family, Dukes in Bavaria. She was a daughter of Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria (1808–1888) and Princess Ludovika of Bavaria. The ninth of ten children born to her parents, she was known as \"Sopherl\" within the family.  She was also a sister of Empress Elisabeth of Austria and Queen Maria Sophie of the Two Sicilies. After the 1861 marriage of her older sister, Duchess Mathilde Ludovika in Bavaria, to the Neapolitan Prince Luis of the Two Sicilies, her parents then looked for a suitable husband for Sophie Charlotte.  She was engaged to her cousin King Ludwig II of Bavaria. Their engagement was publicised on 22 January 1867, but after having repeatedly postponed the wedding date, Ludwig finally cancelled it in October, as it seemed Sophie had fallen in love with the court photographer, Edgar Hanfstaengl.  Other proposed husbands included the renowned homosexual Archduke Ludwig Viktor of Austria, brother of both Franz Joseph I of Austria and Maximilian I of Mexico, as well as the future Luís I of Portugal. Another candidate was Duke Philipp of Württemberg, the first cousin of her eventual husband.  She refused all the candidates. She was sent to stay with her aunt, Amalie Auguste, then the Queen of Saxony as wife of King John of Saxony. It was in Saxony Sophie Charlotte met Prince Ferdinand of Orléans (12 July 1844 – 29 June 1910), \"Duke of Alençon\", the son of Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours and grandson of the late King Louis Philippe (died 1850). Soon after, on 28 September 1868, she married him at Possenhofen Castle, near Starnberg.  She had a good relationship with her husband as well as with her sister-in-law Princess Marguerite Adélaïde of Orléans, wife of Prince Władysław Czartoryski. Her mother in law, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, cousin of Queen Victoria, had died in 1857. Sophie Charlotte did not have an overly good relationship with her father-in-law, the widowed Duke of Nemours.  The year after their marriage, the ducal couple moved into Bushy House in the Teddington area of Southwest London, where Sophie Charlotte gave birth to her first child, Princess Louise of Orléans.  Prophetically, Sophie Charlotte wrote our her last will and testament on 4 October 1896, seven months before her death. She died in a fire at the Bazar de la Charité in Paris on 4 May 1897, where she had been helping to raise funds for charity. She refused to be rescued, insisting that the girls, visitors and nuns working alongside her at the bazaar be saved first. A Dominican nun who had managed to escape from the inferno explained that she saw the Duchess get down on her knees and start praying.  Identifying Sophie Charlotte's remains was not easy; her personal maid was unable to recognise the body, as it had been severely disfigured by the fire, so the Duchess's dentist, M. Lavanport, was called in. After two hours examining various bodies, he identified Sophie Charlotte on the basis of her gold fillings. Thus she became one of the first people whose remains were identified by forensic dentistry. Her sister, Empress Elisabeth of Austria, was assassinated the following year.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Duchess Sophie Charlotte Augustine in Bavaria (23 February 1847 – 4 May 1897) was a granddaughter-in-law of King Louis Philippe of France, the favourite sister of Empress Elisabeth of Austria and fiancée of King Ludwig II of Bavaria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974544}
{"src_title": "Carrara marble", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Carrara marble has been used since the time of Ancient Rome and it was called the \"Luni marble\". In the 17th and 18th centuries, the marble quarries were monitored by the Cybo and Malaspina families who ruled over Massa and Carrara. The family created the \"Office of Marble\" in 1564 to regulate the marble mining industry. The city of Massa, in particular, saw much of its plan redesigned (new roads, plazas, intersections, pavings) in order to make it worthy of an Italian country's capital. Following the extinction of the Cybo-Malaspina family, the state was ruled by the House of Austria and management of the mines rested with them. The Basilica of Massa is built entirely of Carrara marble and the old Ducal Palace of Massa was used to showcase the precious stone.  By the end of the 19th century, Carrara had become a cradle of anarchism in Italy, in particular among the quarry workers. According to a \"New York Times\" article of 1894, workers in the marble quarries were among the most neglected labourers in Italy. Many of them were ex-convicts or fugitives from justice. The work at the quarries was so tough and arduous that almost any aspirant worker with sufficient muscle and endurance was employed, regardless of their background.  The quarry workers and stone carvers had radical beliefs that set them apart from others. Anarchism and general radicalism became part of the heritage of the stone carvers. Many violent revolutionists who had been expelled from Belgium and Switzerland went to Carrara in 1885 and founded the first anarchist group in Italy. In Carrara, the anarchist Galileo Palla remarked, “even the stones are anarchists.” The quarry workers were the main actors of the Lunigiana revolt in January 1894.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable monuments and buildings.", "content": "The marble from Carrara was used for some of the most remarkable buildings in Ancient Rome: It was also used in many sculptures of the Renaissance including Michelangelo's \"David\" (1501–04) whilst the statue to Robert Burns, which commands a central position in Dumfries, was carved in Carrara by Italian craftsmen working to Amelia Paton Hill's model. It was unveiled by future UK Prime Minister Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery on 6 April 1882. Other notable occurrences include:  Carrara marble has been designated by the International Union of Geological Sciences as a Global Heritage Stone Resource.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quarries.", "content": "The Apuan Alps above Carrara show evidence of at least 650 quarry sites, with about half of them currently abandoned or worked out. The Carrara quarries have produced more marble than any other place on earth.  Working the quarries has been dangerous and continues so to this day. In September 1911, a collapsing cliff face at the Bettogli Quarry crushed 10 workers who were on lunch break under a precipice. A 2014 video made at a Carrara quarry shows workers with missing fingers, and workers performing hazardous, painfully noisy work who are not wearing protective gear of any kind.  The prize yield from Carrara quarries through millennia has been S\"tatuario\", a pure white marble (coloring in other marbles arises from intermixture with other minerals present in the limestone as it is converted to marble by heat or pressure). However, by the end of the 20th century, the known deposits of Statuario near Carrara are played out. The quarries continue to remove and ship up to a million tons/year of less-esteemed marble, mostly for export.  Bianco Carrara classified in C and CD variations as well as Bianco Venatino and Statuarietto are by far the most common types with more expensive exotic variations such as Calacatta Gold, Calacatta Borghini, Arabescato Cervaiole and Arabescato Vagli quarried throughout the Carrara area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in isotopic standard.", "content": "Calcite, obtained from an 80 kg sample of Carrara marble, is used as the IAEA-603 isotopic standard in mass spectrometry for the calibration of δO and δC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Degradation.", "content": "The black yeast \"Micrococcus halobius\" can colonize Carrara marble by forming a biofilm and producing gluconic, lactic, pyruvic and succinic acids from glucose, as seen in the Dionysos Theater of the Acropolis in Athens.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carrara marble is a type of white or blue-grey marble popular for use in sculpture and building decor. It is quarried in the city of Carrara in the province of Massa and Carrara in the Lunigiana, the northernmost tip of modern-day Tuscany, Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974545}
{"src_title": "The Swiss Family Robinson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Written by Swiss pastor Johann David Wyss, edited by his son Johann Rudolf Wyss and illustrated by another son, Johann Emmanuel Wyss, the novel was intended to teach his four sons about family values, good husbandry, the uses of the natural world and self-reliance. Wyss' attitude towards its education is in line with the teachings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and many chapters involve Christian-oriented moral lessons such as frugality, husbandry, acceptance, and cooperation.  Wyss presents adventures as lessons in natural history and physical science. This resembles other educational books for young ones published about the same time. These include Charlotte Turner Smith's \"Rural Walks: in Dialogues intended for the use of Young Persons\" (1795), \"Rambles Farther: A continuation of Rural Walks\" (1796), \"A Natural History of Birds, intended chiefly for young persons\" (1807). But Wyss' novel is also modeled after Daniel Defoe's \"Robinson Crusoe\", an adventure story about a shipwrecked sailor first published in 1719 and the source of the \"Robinson\" in the title \"Swiss Family Robinson\".  The book presents a geographically impossible array of large mammals and plants that probably could never have existed together on a single island, for the children's education, nourishment, clothing and convenience.  Over the years there have been many versions of the story with episodes added, changed, or deleted. Perhaps the best-known English version is by William H. G. Kingston, first published in 1879. It is based on Isabelle de Montolieu's 1813 French adaptation and 1824 continuation (from chapter 37) \"Le Robinson suisse, ou, Journal d'un père de famille, naufragé avec ses enfants\" in which were added further adventures of Fritz, Franz, Ernest, and Jack. Other English editions that claim to include the whole of the Wyss-Montolieu narrative are by W. H. Davenport Adams (1869–1910) and Mrs H. B. Paull (1879). As Carpenter and Prichard write in \"The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature\" (Oxford, 1995), \"with all the expansions and contractions over the past two centuries (this includes a long history of abridgments, condensations, Christianizing, and Disney products), Wyss's original narrative has long since been obscured.\" The closest English translation to the original is William Godwin's 1816 translation, reprinted by Penguin Classics.  Although movie and television adaptations typically name the family \"Robinson\", it is not a Swiss name. The German title translates as \"The Swiss Robinson\" which identifies the novel as part of the Robinsonade genre, rather than a story about a family named Robinson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot.", "content": "The novel opens with the family in the hold of a sailing ship, weathering a great storm. The ship's crew evacuate without them, and William and Elizabeth and their four children (Fritz, Ernest, Jack and Franz) are left to survive alone. As the ship tosses about, the father – William – prays that God will spare them.  The ship survives the night and the family finds themselves within sight of a tropical desert island. The next morning, they decide to get to the island they can see beyond the reef. With much effort, they construct a vessel out of tubs. After they fill the tubs with food and ammunition and all other articles of value they can safely carry, they row toward the island. Two dogs from the ship named Turk and Juno swim beside them. The ship's cargo of livestock (including a cow, a donkey, two goats, six sheep, a ram, a pig, chickens, ducks, geese, and pigeons), guns and powder, carpentry tools, books, a disassembled pinnace, and provisions have survived.  Upon reaching the island, the family set up a makeshift camp. William knows that they must prepare for a long time on the island and his thoughts are as much on provisions for the future as for their immediate wants. William and his oldest son Fritz spend the next day exploring the island.  The family spends the next few days securing themselves against hunger. William and Fritz make several trips to the ship in their efforts to bring ashore everything useful from the vessel. The domesticated animals on the ship are towed back to the island. There is also a great store of firearms and ammunition, hammocks for sleeping, carpenter's tools, lumber, cooking utensils, silverware, and dishes. Initially they construct a treehouse, but as time passes (and after Elizabeth is injured climbing the stairs down from it), they settle in a more permanent dwelling in part of a cave. Fritz rescues a young Englishwoman (Jenny Montrose) shipwrecked elsewhere on their island.  The book covers more than ten years. William and older boys explore various environments and develop homes and gardens in various sites about the island. In the end, the father wonders if they will ever again see the rest of humanity. Eventually a British ship that is in search of Jenny Montrose anchors near the island and is discovered by the family. The captain is given the journal containing the story of their life on the island which is eventually published. Several members of the family choose to continue to live tranquilly on their island while several of them return to Europe with the British.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characters.", "content": "The principal characters of the book (including Isabelle de Montolieu's adaptations and continuation) are:  In the novel the family is not called \"Robinson\" as their surname is not mentioned. However, in 1900, Jules Verne published \"The Castaways of the Flag\" (alternatively known as \"Second Fatherland\"), where he revisits the original shipwreck. In this sequel, of the family’s final years on the original island, the family is called Zermatt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other adaptations.", "content": "The novels in one form or another have also been adapted numerous times, sometimes changing location and/or time period:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Audio adaptations.", "content": "In 1963, the novel was dramatized by the \"Tale Spinners for Children\" series (United Artists Records UAC 11059) performed by the Famous Theatre Company.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Swiss Family Robinson (German: \"Der Schweizerische Robinson\") is a novel by Johann David Wyss, first published in 1812, about a Swiss family of immigrants whose ship en route to Port Jackson, Australia, goes off course and is shipwrecked in the East Indies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974546}
{"src_title": "Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria (1738–1789)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Archduchess Maria Anna (known as \"Marianna\") was born on 6 October 1738 at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna, the center of the vastly powerful Habsburg Monarchy. As the second but eldest surviving daughter of Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, she was heiress presumptive of the hereditary lands of the Austrian Habsburgs between 1740 and 1741, until her younger brother Joseph (later to be the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II) was born.  Her mother gave her the customary education of the princely courts at that time. Maria Anna's musical talents were highly encouraged, but not her humanities talents. Maria Anna was the child least respected and loved by Maria Theresa—her younger brother Joseph and sisters Maria Elisabeth and Marie Christine always received the attention and care of the Empress: Joseph because he was the male heir, Liesl because she was considered the most beautiful of the daughters, and Mimi because she was the undisputed favorite child of her mother.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign of Maria Theresa.", "content": "Maria Anna was highly intelligent but physically disabled. She suffered from bad health, worsened by the drafty and cold rooms of the Hofburg Palace. In 1757 she contracted pneumonia and almost died, the last rites being called for her. Although she survived, her breathing capacity was permanently damaged, and she also developed a fusion of her spine which caused her to have a lump on her back. After that time, she began to have a close relationship with her father, and reportedly became Francis I's favourite child. She shared his interest in science and conducted experiments in chemistry and physics. Despite being disabled, Maria Anna often played important roles in major events of state, including acting as sponsor at the christening of her youngest sister Marie Antoinette.  In July 1765 the whole Imperial family traveled to Innsbruck for the wedding of the second-oldest son, Leopold. They halted in Klagenfurt, where Maria Anna visited the small monastery that belonged to the Order of Saint Elisabeth, established there in 1710. The encounter with the sisters was to be a turning point in Maria Anna's life. Thea Leitner explains that the Archduchess became enthusiastic for the monastic life because the nuns didn't care about appearances and Maria Anna always lived with the fear of being ridiculed because of her hump.  The death of Emperor Francis I on 18 August 1765 was a devastating blow for Maria Anna. Because her mother was unable to find a royal husband for her, in 1766 Maria Anna was made Abbess of the Imperial and Royal Convent for Noble Ladies (\"Frauenstift\") in Prague with the promise of 80,000 florins per year. Despite the opposition of her mother, she decided to give up the Prague position and became an abbess in Klagenfurt with a smaller provision. A palace for her was built by Nicolò Pacassi near the monastery as her residence, the construction of which was completed in 1771.  To the abbess of the convent, she wrote:  During the time prior to her final move to Klagenfurt, Maria Anna completed her father's coin collection (which later became part of the Vienna Museum of Natural History) with the help of her mentor Ignaz von Born, and established her own mineral and insect collection. She financed social projects, archaeological exhumations, artists and scientists.  Maria Anna also wrote a book about her mother's politics. Her watercolors and drawings were praised in the professional world. Maria Anna was made an honorary member of the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna in 1767 and elected member of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze in 1769.  Despite her talents and intelligence, Maria Anna was disliked by high society because her scientific interests were considered unsuitable for her gender, but she was appreciated by the scientific and art world.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign of Joseph.", "content": "Empress Maria Theresa died on 29 November 1780, and four months later, Maria Anna moved permanently to Klagenfurt. She quickly developed a deep friendship with Xaveria Gasser, Abbess of the convent. Thanks to the generous financial support of the Archduchess the monastery hospital could soon be extended, and her own personal physician supervised the patients of the hospital. She also provided welfare assistance in the municipality of Klagenfurt.  Her friends were nuns, artists, scientists, and nobles, including the Carinthian iron industrialist Maximilian Thaddäus von Egger. Some of them belonged to the Freemasons. In 1783, the Klagenfurt Masonic Lodge was founded with a dedication \"to charitable Marianna\" (\"Zur wohltätigen Marianna\") as she was called. Maria Anna devoted herself in Klagenfurt to her scientific interests. She discovered her love for archeology: she donated 30,000 florins for excavations at Zollfeld and also took part in the excavations herself.  Close to her younger sister Maria Elisabeth, the two lived together in the same convents till their deaths. While her youngest sister, Marie Antoinette, was traveling on her way to Versailles in 1770, she stayed at Klagenfurt for one night.  From the winter of 1788 Maria Anna's health deteriorated further. Her shortness of breath became worse and she could hardly move without a wheelchair. She died on 19 November 1789 in the presence of her closest friends. Reportedly, her last words were:  Maria Anna left her entire inheritance (amounting to more than 150,000 guilders) to the monastery of Klagenfurt. Her brother, Emperor Joseph II, deducted the inheritance tax from the income. Her palace is now home to the Prince Bishop's residence, in the \"Mariannengasse\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria (Maria Anna Josepha Antonia; 6 October 1738 – 19 November 1789) was the second child of Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia. As a child, and for a time the eldest surviving child, she was heiress presumptive, but she suffered from ill health and physical disability, and did not marry. In 1766 she became abbess of the \"Frauenstift\" in Prague. Soon thereafter she moved to Klagenfurt and remained there for the rest of her life. Her palace in Klagenfurt, the \"Mariannengasse\", now houses the Episcopal Palace.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974547}
{"src_title": "Blue shark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Anatomy and appearance.", "content": "Blue sharks are light-bodied with long pectoral fins. Like many other sharks, blue sharks are countershaded: the top of the body is deep blue, lighter on the sides, and the underside is white. The male blue shark commonly grows to at maturity, whereas the larger females commonly grow to at maturity. Large specimens can grow to long. Occasionally, an outsized blue shark is reported, with one widely printed claim of a length of, but no shark even approaching this size has been scientifically documented. The blue shark is fairly elongated and slender in build and typically weighs from in males and from in large females. Occasionally, a female in excess of will weigh over. The heaviest reported weight for the species was. The blue shark is also ectothermic and it has a unique sense of smell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "They are viviparous, with a yolk-sac placenta, delivering four to 135 pups per litter. The gestation period is between nine and 12 months. Females mature at five to six years of age and males at four to five. Courtship is believed to involve biting by the male, as mature specimens can be accurately sexed according to the presence or absence of bite scarring. Female blue sharks have adapted to the rigorous mating ritual by developing skin three times as thick as male skin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range and habitat.", "content": "The blue shark is an oceanic and epipelagic shark found worldwide in deep temperate and tropical waters from the surface to about. In temperate seas it may approach shore, where it can be observed by divers; while in tropical waters, it inhabits greater depths. It lives as far north as Norway and as far south as Chile. Blue sharks are found off the coasts of every continent, except Antarctica. Its greatest Pacific concentrations occur between 20° and 50° North, but with strong seasonal fluctuations. In the tropics, it spreads evenly between 20° N and 20° S. It prefers water temperatures between, but can be seen in water ranging from. Records from the Atlantic show a regular clockwise migration within the prevailing currents.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "Squid are important prey for blue sharks, but their diet includes other invertebrates, such as cuttlefish and pelagic octopuses, as well as lobster, shrimp, crab, a large number of bony fishes, small sharks, mammalian carrion and occasional sea birds. Whale and porpoise blubber and meat have been retrieved from the stomachs of captured specimens and they are known to take cod from trawl nets. Sharks have been observed and documented working together as a \"pack\" to herd prey into a concentrated group from which they can easily feed. Blue sharks may eat tuna, which have been observed taking advantage of the herding behaviour to opportunistically feed on escaping prey. The observed herding behaviour was undisturbed by different species of shark in the vicinity that normally would pursue the common prey. The blue shark can swim at fast speeds, allowing it to catch up with prey easily. Its triangular teeth allow it to easily catch hold of slippery prey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Predators.", "content": "Young and smaller individuals may be eaten by larger sharks, such as the great white shark and the tiger shark. Killer whales have been reported to hunt blue sharks. This shark may host several species of parasites. For example, the blue shark is the definitive host of the tetraphyllidean tapeworm, \"Pelichnibothrium speciosum\" (\"Prionacestus bipartitus\"). It becomes infected by eating intermediate hosts, probably opah (\"Lampris guttatus\") and/or longnose lancetfish (\"Alepisaurus ferox\").  Northern elephant seals (\"Mirounga angustirostris\") have been observed to feed on blue sharks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relationship to humans.", "content": "It is estimated that 10 to 20 million of these sharks are killed each year as a result of fishing. The meat is edible, but not widely sought after; it is consumed fresh, dried, smoked and salted and diverted for fishmeal. There is a report of high concentration of heavy metals (mercury and lead) in the edible flesh. The skin is used for leather, the fins for shark-fin soup and the liver for oil. Blue sharks are occasionally sought as game fish for their beauty and speed.  Blue sharks rarely bite humans. From 1580 up until 2013, the blue shark was implicated in only 13 biting incidents, four of which ended fatally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In captivity.", "content": "Blue sharks, like most pelagic sharks, tend to fare poorly in captivity. The first attempt of keeping blue sharks in captivity was at Sea World San Diego in 1968, and since then a small number of other public aquariums in North America, Europe and Asia have attempted it. Most of these were in captivity for about three months or less, and some of them were released back to the wild afterwards. The record time for blue sharks in captivity is 246 and 224 days for two individuals at Tokyo Sea Life Park, 210 days for an individual at New Jersey Aquarium, and 194 days for one at Lisbon Oceanarium.  Blue sharks are relatively easy to feed in captivity, and the three primary issues appear to be transport, predation by larger sharks and trouble avoiding smooth surfaces in tanks. Small blue sharks, up to long, are relatively easy to transport to aquariums, but it is much more complicated to transport larger individuals. However, this typical small size when introduced to aquariums means that they are highly vulnerable to predation by other sharks that are often kept, such as bull, grey reef, sandbar and sand tiger sharks. For example, several blue sharks kept at Sea World San Diego initially did fairly well, but were eaten when bull sharks were added to their exhibit. Attempts of keeping blue sharks in tanks of various sizes, shapes and depths have shown that they have trouble avoiding walls, aquarium windows and other smooth surfaces, eventually leading to abrasions to the fins or snout, which may result in serious infections. To keep blue sharks, it is therefore necessary with tanks that allow for relatively long, optimum swimming paths where potential contact with smooth surfaces is kept at a minimum. It has been suggested that prominent rockwork may be easier to avoid for blue sharks than smooth surfaces, as has been shown in captive tiger sharks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the blue shark as \"Not Threatened\" with the qualifier \"Secure Overseas\" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System. The species is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The blue shark (\"Prionace glauca\") is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, that inhabits deep waters in the world's temperate and tropical oceans. Averaging around and preferring cooler waters, the blue shark migrates long distances, such as from New England to South America. It is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974548}
{"src_title": "Tatra T3", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "T3.", "content": "The design of the T3 had to meet difficult specifications. The cars needed to have the same capacity as its predecessor (the Tatra T2), but be easier to build. Some of the things that were done in order to meet this goal were making the walls thinner, and fitting the cars with laminate seats instead of cushioned leatherette seats such as the T2 used. The T3 was delivered to all tramway companies in the former Czechoslovakia. It was most numerous in Prague, where over 1,000 vehicles were delivered. The T3 still forms (mostly in various modernised versions) the backbone of the Czech tram fleet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "T3SU.", "content": "As with the T2SU, the first T3SU was delivered with the modification of removing the middle door and replacing it with seats. Later cars, however, were delivered with the third door in place. Again, the vehicles had a closed operator's compartment and were adapted for the harsh climate. Altogether 11,368 T3SU were delivered, making it the largest production of a single type of streetcar worldwide. But because so many of one type were made, their replacement by more modern cars was slow.  The T3SU was delivered from 1963, first to Moscow and later to 33 further Soviet cities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "T3SUCS.", "content": "Originally, the production of the T3 was stopped in 1976 and focus shifted to newer vehicles. The Slovak city Košice, however, ordered two motor coaches as an exception. The production of the replacement type KT8D5 was slated to begin in 1985, but this model was by then obsolete. Further production of the T3 would have been too expensive, so instead vehicles of the type T3SU were re-imported and adapted. The closed operator's cab was maintained, the vehicles had all three doors in place, and differed from the original T3 only in a few details.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "T3SU Evolution.", "content": "Over time, the T3SU has had minor changes in both exterior appearance and interior design.  Exterior details:  Interior:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "T3D.", "content": "In East Germany the first three T3D cars started operation in 1964 and the city of Dresden got its first delivery in 1965. The cars were used in part due to their width of. They operated as single cars or as multiple units (motor+motor, motor+motor+trailer) and/or as mini trams (motor+trailer). The use of trailer cars was due to the use of original Czech T3 electrical equipment, which had enough power to support trailer cars. However, due to reduced available power, the maximum speed of the streetcar reached only 55 km/h instead of the usual.  Only German and Yugoslav networks had trailer cars. The car was designated as B3D and had the same body as the T3D. Today, only Chemnitz uses T3s in full service as the T3D-M (modified).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "T3YU.", "content": "From 1967 onwards, vehicles supplied to Yugoslavia differed from the standard type T3 by having different pantographs and trucks. In addition, trailer cars were used, as in East Germany. Uncommonly, the network used narrow-profile vehicles, two of which could be found in Czechoslovakia and one in the Soviet Union.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "T3R.", "content": "At the end of the 1960s, Romania ordered RA cars as part of an agreement in the Comecon. The first vehicles came in 1970 to the city of Galați and had different electrical equipment from the Czechoslovak vehicles, to use the network's 750 V DC voltage. Since the carbodies were built too wide for use elsewhere, they remained in Galați. Only 50 units were delivered. Romania then opted for the narrower Tatra T4, which had more success, being still used in Bucharest as of 2019.  A few more of the same type were manufactured in 1997.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "T3RF.", "content": "Four Tatra T3RF were the very last T3 trams built. They were made for Samara and Izhevsk, but only Samara bought them. In 2002 the two others were sold to Brno and modernized.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modernized Tatra-T3 trams.", "content": "In most Czech cities and in some others such as Bratislava, Moscow, Riga, and Odessa, Tatra-T3 trams became very common. As a result, service and maintenance workers became very experienced at servicing them. This was one reason for modifying existing trams rather than replacing them with newer stock (the other being cost).  Modernization normally includes:  More radical modernization includes insertion of a low-floor section (e.g. Tatra K3R-NT).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "14,113 trams were produced and delivered to:  Note: This is the list of first owners. Stock may have later been resold to other cities not on this list.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The T3 is a type of Czech tramcar produced by ČKD Tatra. A late-2000s study conducted on the Prague tram system has shown 98.9% reliability, the best of the Prague tram system fleet. During its period of production, between 1960 and 1999, 13,991 powered units and 122 unpowered trailers were sold worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974549}
{"src_title": "Scarce large blue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biology.", "content": "The larva of this species first feeds on \"Sanguisorba officinalis\" (great burnet), then moves onto ant nests and is a predator of the ant brood. \"Myrmica rubra\" and \"Myrmica scabrinodis\" have been reported as frequent host ant species. A recent microhabitat preference study indicates that grazing is necessary for maintaining the present distribution and abundance of these butterflies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description from Seitz.", "content": "\"L. euphemus\" Hbn. (= diomedes Rott.) (83 a), Male above almost entirely blue, but not shining; the margins, the discocellular spot of the forewing and commonly some small spots on the disc black; female much blacker, often a little paler on the disc, this lighter area bearing rows of black spots. Underside with very numerous ocelli, which are rarely as large and conspicuous as in our figure of the underside. The species is at once distinguished from the very similar \"arion\" by the underside not bearing an ocellus in the cell proximally to the discocellular spot. Throughout Europe (with the exception of England) and the adjacent districts of Asia, from North Germany and Russia to Italy, and from Paris to Dauria. — Near the North- Western boundary there occur especially small individuals (of the size of \"icarus\"), which have but few ocelli; these are ab. \"paula\" Schultz. In ab. \"obsoleta\" Gillm. the ocelli of the hindwing are entirely absent or almost, while in ab. \"striata\" Gillm. they are modified into streaks. — \"obscurata\" Stgr. (83 b) is a strongly darkened form from Central Asia (also already in the Ural) — \"euphemia\" Stgr. (83 b) is much larger than European specimens, with a broad block border which sharply contrasts with the light blue; from Amurland. North China and Corea. — \"kazamoto\" Druce (83 b), from Japan, is above uniformly black-brown above in both sexes, without any trace of blue, and the underside is more strongly ocellate. — Egg semiglobular with the top sunk in, greenish white, laid on \"Sanguisorba\" (usually on the inflorescence). The young larva purplish brown with black head and pale segmental incissions; it bores into the heads of the plant and lives later on in the seed-pods ; it hibernates. Pupa on the ground, under stones, clods of earth, and the dead leaves of the food-plant. The butterflies are sporadic, their localities being widely dispersed. They fly in damp meadows where \"Sanguisorba\" grows, being here usually very abundant. They settle almost exclusively on Sanguisorba: when disturbed they fly mostly only as far as the nearest cluster of that plant, where they settle on a flower with the wings always closed, their flight being rather slow and flapping. In July and August.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are six subspecies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The scarce large blue (\"Phengaris teleius\") is a species of butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, the Czech Republic, France, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, northern Serbia, Spain, Switzerland, and Ukraine and East across the Palearctic to Japan. The species was first described by Johann Andreas Benignus Bergsträsser in 1779.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974550}
{"src_title": "Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Original \"for Muggles\" version.", "content": "\"Fantastic Beasts\" purports to be a reproduction of a textbook owned by Harry Potter and written by magizoologist Newt Scamander, a character in the fictional \"Harry Potter\" series. In the series, magizoology is the study of magical creatures.  Albus Dumbledore, headmaster of Hogwarts, provides the foreword and explains the purpose of the special edition of this book (the Comic Relief charity). At the end, he assures muggle readers, \"The amusing creatures described hereafter are fictional and cannot hurt you.\" He repeats the Hogwarts motto: \"Draco dormiens nunquam titillandus\", Latin for \"Never tickle a sleeping dragon\".  \"Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them\" contains the history of magizoology and describes 85 magical species found around the world. Scamander says that he collected most of the information found in the book through observations made over years of travel across five continents. He notes that the first edition was commissioned in 1918 by Augustus Worme of Obscurus Books. However, it was not published until 1927. It is now in its fifty-second edition.  In the Harry Potter universe, the book is a required textbook for first-year Hogwarts students, having been an approved textbook since its first publication. In his foreword to the book, Albus Dumbledore notes that it serves as an excellent reference for wizarding households in addition to its use at Hogwarts.  The book features doodles and comments added by Ron Weasley. The comments would appear to have been written around the time of the fourth book, \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\". These doodles add some extra information for fans of the series (for example the \"Acromantula\" entry has a comment confirming that Hogwarts is located in Scotland) along with comic relief (such as Ron stating \"you're not kidding\" when talking about the Hungarian Horntail being the most fearsome dragon of all, a reference to Harry's encounter with one in the fourth book).  The cover design of the first edition of the book features apparent claw marks from an unidentified animal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017 \"for Wizards\" version.", "content": "This edition features six new creatures: the hidebehind, the hodag, the horned serpent, the snallygaster, the thunderbird, and the wampus cat, in addition to the original 75, and the illustrations are replaced. Newt Scamander, in the foreword, explains the reason the six new creatures were not previously included is because MACUSA president Seraphina Picquery requested the more important American creatures not be mentioned to deter wizarding sightseers at a time when the US wizarding community were subject to greater persecution than their European counterparts, and after Scamander had contributed to a serious breach of the International Statute of Secrecy in New York.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Role in the \"Harry Potter\" series.", "content": "The book's fictional author, Newt Scamander, does not appear in the main \"Harry Potter\" book series though his name is seen on the Marauder's Map in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. He is the central character of the \"Fantastic Beasts\" film series, in which he is played by Eddie Redmayne.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Featured beasts.", "content": "The following mythological beasts are listed in the book:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Jeff Jensen of \"Entertainment Weekly\" graded the book with an \"A\" and wrote \"With its richly detailed history lessons and witty debate parsing the differences between \"being\" and \"beast\", plus a compendium of 85 magical creatures that's chockablock with Rowling's trademark wordplay (\"Glumbumble\" is a standout), \"Beasts\" adds a vital new dimension to the Potter mythology.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Audiobook.", "content": "The 2017 version of the book was recorded as an unabridged audiobook in 2017. The audiobook is read by Eddie Redmayne in the character of Newt Scamander.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Film adaptations.", "content": "\"Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them\" is a British-American fantasy film inspired by the book of the same name by J. K. Rowling. An extension of the wizarding world from the \"Harry Potter\" film series and directed by David Yates, the film stars Eddie Redmayne, Katherine Waterston, Alison Sudol, Dan Fogler, Samantha Morton, Ezra Miller, Colin Farrell, Carmen Ejogo, Faith Wood-Blagrove, Jenn Murray, Jon Voight and Ron Perlman. The first movie is set to be followed by four more. Principal photography commenced on 17 August 2015, at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden. \"Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them\" was released in the United Kingdom and the United States on 18 November 2016.  A was released on 16 November 2018. The third movie is scheduled to be released in November 2021.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (often referred to as simply Fantastic Beasts) is a 2001 guide book written by British author J. K. Rowling (under the pen name of the fictitious author Newt Scamander) about the magical creatures in the \"Harry Potter\" universe. The original version, illustrated by the author herself, purports to be Harry Potter's copy of the textbook of the same name mentioned in \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\" (or \"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone\" in the US), the first novel of the \"Harry Potter\" series. It includes several notes inside it supposedly handwritten by Harry, Ron Weasley, and Hermione Granger, detailing their own experiences with some of the beasts described, and including in-jokes relating to the original series.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974551}
{"src_title": "Vitellaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The tree starts bearing its first fruit when it is 10 to 15 years old; full production is attained when the tree is about 20 to 30 years old. It then produces nuts for up to 200 years.  The fruits resemble large plums and take 4 to 6 months to ripen. The average yield is 15 to 20 kilograms of fresh fruit per tree, with optimum yields up to 45 kilograms. Each kilogram of fruit gives approximately 400 grams of dry seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shea butter fatty acid profiles.", "content": "Shea butter is composed of five principal fatty acids: palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and arachidic (see Table below). About 85 to 90% of the fatty acid composition is stearic and oleic acids. The relative proportion of these two fatty acids affects shea butter consistency. The stearic acid gives it a solid consistency, while the oleic acid influences how soft or hard the shea butter is, depending on ambient temperature.  The proportions of stearic and oleic acids in the shea kernels and butter differ across the distribution range of the species. Ugandan shea butter has consistently high oleic acid content, and is liquid at warm ambient temperatures. It fractionizes into liquid and solid phases, and is the source of liquid shea oil. The fatty acid proportion of West African shea butter is much more variable than Ugandan shea butter, with an oleic content of 37 to 55%. Variability can be high even locally, and a tree that produces hard butter can grow with one that produces soft butter.  Nuts are gathered from a wide area for local production, so shea butter consistency is determined by the average fatty acid profile of the population. Within West Africa, shea butter from the Mossi Plateau region of Burkina Faso has a higher average stearic acid content, and so is usually harder than shea butter from other West African regions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shea butter phenolics.", "content": "Phenolic compounds are known to have antioxidant properties. A recent study characterized and quantified the most important phenolic compounds in shea butter. This study identified 10 phenolic compounds, eight of which are catechins, a family of compounds being studied for their antioxidant properties. The phenolic profile is similar to that of green tea, and the total phenolic content of shea butter is comparable to virgin olive oil. Also, this study was performed on shea butter that had been extracted with hexane, and the authors note that traditional extraction methods may result in higher phenolic levels.  Furthermore, they note that the catechin content alone of shea kernels is higher than the total phenolic content of ripe olives. This study also found that the overall concentration and relative percentages of different phenolic content in shea kernels varied from region to region. The authors hypothesized that the overall concentration of phenols in shea kernels is linked to the level of environmental stress that the trees endure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The shea tree grows naturally in the wild in the dry savannah belt of West and South from Senegal in the west to Sudan and South Sudan in the east, and onto the foothills of the Ethiopian highlands. It occurs in 19 countries across the African continent, namely Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Sudan, Togo, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Guinea.  A testa found at the site of the medieval village of Saouga is evidence of shea butter production by the 14th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Shea butter has many uses and may or may not be refined. In the West it is most commonly used as an emollient in cosmetics and is less commonly used in food. Throughout Africa it is used extensively for food, is a major source of dietary fat, and for medicinal purposes. In Ghana and Nigeria, shea butter is a major ingredient for making the African black soap. The edible protein-rich caterpillars of the moth \"Cirina butyrospermi\" which feed solely on its leaves are widely collected and eaten raw, dried or fried.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The common name is \"shíyiri\" or \"shísu\" (lit. \"shea tree\") in the Bambara language of Mali. This is the origin of the English word, whose primary pronunciation is (rhyming with \"tea\"), although the pronunciation (rhyming with \"day\") is common and is listed second in major dictionaries. The tree is called \"ghariti\" in the Wolof language of Senegal, which is the origin of the French name of the tree and the butter, \"karité\".  In Hausa language the tree is called Kade or Kadanya. Indeed, the shea tree is so indispensable in Mole-Dagbang culinary and ethno-botanical practices that the Northern Ghanaian city of Tamale etymologically derives its name from the more traditional Dagomba name 'Tama-yile' (meaning 'Home of Shea nuts').  The tree was formerly classified in the genus \"Butyrospermum\", meaning \"butter seed\". The species name \"parkii\" honors Scottish explorer Mungo Park, who learned of the tree while exploring Senegal. Park's Scottish origin is reflected in the English word shea, with a final -ea.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vitellaria paradoxa (formerly \"Butyrospermum parkii\"), commonly known as shea tree, shi tree (), or vitellaria, is a tree of the family Sapotaceae. It is the only species in the genus Vitellaria, and is indigenous to Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974552}
{"src_title": "Maria Christina of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Known to her family as Christa, she was born at Židlochovice Castle (Groß Seelowitz), near Brünn (now Brno), in Moravia, a daughter of Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria and his wife, Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria.  Her paternal grandparents were Archduke Charles of Austria and Princess Henriette Alexandrine of Nassau-Weilburg.  Various sources attributed good traits to Maria Christina before her marriage. One states she was \"tall, fair, sensible, and well educated\". She was Princess-Abbess of the Theresian Royal and Imperial Ladies Chapter of the Castle of Prague (1875-1879).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Maria Christina married King Alfonso XII of Spain on 29 November 1879 at the Basilica of Atocha in Madrid, and became the mother of his only three legitimate children:  His previous wife was his first cousin, Mercedes of Orléans, who had died half a year after their marriage, leaving no issue. She lived a discreet life as queen. She was the first Germanic queen consort in half-a-century since Maria Josepha Amalia of Saxony, the third wife of Ferdinand VII.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regency.", "content": "When the King died on 25 November 1885, Maria Christina was pregnant, so the throne was vacant, depending on whether Maria Christina's unborn child was a male or a female; a male would make that child king, while a female would place her elder daughter, Infanta María Mercedes, on the throne. During this period, Maria Christina ruled as regent until her child, a son, was born on 17 May 1886; he was King Alfonso XIII of Spain from birth. Maria Christina continued as regent until Alfonso XIII attained his majority in 1902; she is the \"Her Majesty The Queen of Spain, The Queen Regent\" named as concluding the Treaty of Paris (1898) with the United States of America, ending the Spanish–American War.  Her chief adviser and head of government was Práxedes Mateo Sagasta. Her rule is described as well-balanced and in accordance with respect for constitutional rights, and many political reforms were instated during her regency to prevent political conflicts and chaos. Her role was mostly ceremonial, and her purpose was to preserve the crown for her son until he became an adult.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After her son's marriage in 1906, she lost her position as first lady at court. Nevertheless, Alfonso XIII continued to look to her on many occasions for advice.  In February 1929, after some weeks of heart disease, she died at the Royal Palace in Madrid and is buried at El Escorial. Sir Charles Petrie, Alfonso XIII's biographer, maintained that the Queen dowager's death had a disastrous effect on her son, and that the latter never recovered politically from the blow. Within little more than two years the monarchy had collapsed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "She received the following awards:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduchess Maria Christina Henriette Desideria Felicitas Raineria of Austria, also known as Maria Christina Henrietta Désirée Félicité Rénière (21 July 1858 – 6 February 1929) was Queen of Spain as the second wife of King Alfonso XII. She was regent during the vacancy of the throne between her husband's death and her son's birth, and during the minority of their son, Alfonso XIII, between 1885 and 1902.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974553}
{"src_title": "Gare de l'Est", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Gare de l'Est was opened in 1849 by the Compagnie du Chemin de Fer de Paris à Strasbourg (Paris–Strasbourg Railway Company) under the name \"Strasbourg platform\" (\"Embarcadère de Strasbourg\"); an official inauguration with President Louis Napoléon Bonaparte took place the next year. The platform corresponds today with the hall for main-line trains. Designed by architect François Duquesnay, it was renamed the \"Gare de l'Est\" in 1854, after the expansion of service to Mulhouse.  Renovations followed in 1885 and 1900, part of Haussmann's renovation of Paris. In 1931 it was doubled in size, with the new part of the station built symmetrically with the old part. This transformation changed the surrounding neighbourhood significantly. At the top of the west facade of the Gare de l'Est is a statue by the sculptor Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire, representing the city of Strasbourg, while the east end of the station is crowned by a statue personifying Verdun, by Varenne. These two cities are important destinations serviced by Gare de l'Est. On 4 October 1883, the Gare de l'Est saw the first departure of the \"Orient Express\" for Istanbul.  The Gare de l'Est is the terminus of a strategic railway network extending towards the eastern part of France, and it saw large mobilizations of French troops, most notably in 1914, at the beginning of World War I. In the main-line train hall, a monumental painting by Albert Herter, \"Le Départ des poilus, août 1914\" dating from 1926, illustrates the departure of these soldiers for the Western front. The SNCF started LGV Est Européenne services from the Gare de l'Est on 10 June 2007, with TGV and Intercity-Express (ICE) services to Northeastern France, Luxembourg, Southern Germany and Switzerland. Trains are initially planned to run at 320 km/h (198 mph), with the potential to run at 350 km/h (217 mph), cutting travel times by up to 2 hours.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Train services.", "content": "The following services currently call at Paris-Est:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gare de l'Est (pronounced, \"Station of the East\"), officially Paris-Est, is one of the six large SNCF termini in Paris. It is in the 10th arrondissement, not far from the Gare du Nord, facing the Boulevard de Strasbourg, part of the north-south axis of Paris created by Georges-Eugène Haussmann. It is one of the largest and the oldest railway stations in Paris, the western terminus of the Paris–Strasbourg railway and the Paris–Mulhouse railway which then proceeds to Basel, Switzerland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974554}
{"src_title": "Gare d'Austerlitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1840 station.", "content": "The Gare D’Austerlitz was the main station in Paris for the Paris-Orléans (PO) company and was originally called the Gare d'Orléans station. The station is near the Quai d'Austerlitz, and the bridge that gives it its name. These were named after the Czech town once known as Austerlitz (today Slavkov u Brna). Napoleon I defeated the superior numbers of the Third Coalition there on 2 December 1805 at the Battle of Austerlitz.  Built from 1838, the first platform was built slightly back from the current location of the station by the architect Félix-Emmanuel Callet and began service on 20 September 1840, on the occasion of the opening of the Paris-Corbeil line, which was extended to Orléans in May 1843. Part of the rue Poliveau was cut by this construction, and another part, located near the Seine, took the name of rue Jouffroy.  The first expansion took place in 1846.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1867 station.", "content": "Demolished, the station was rebuilt, from 1862 to 1869, by Pierre-Louis Renaud (1819-1897), chief architect of the Paris-Orléans company. It included a large hall made from iron, wide and long (the second largest in France after Bordeaux), designed by Ferdinand Mathieu and carried out by the construction workshops of Schneider & Co at Le Creusot and Chalon-sur-Saone. This vast space was also used as a workshop for making gas balloons, during the Siege of Paris in 1870. Also built was the departure pavilion to the north, the perpendicular building of the restaurant buffet, the arrival pavilion to the south, as well as the Paris-Orléans railway administration building at the west end of the hall, on Place Valhubert, with a \"Belle Époque\" style façade. The administrative building was an extension of the iron hall, whose pediment was invisible from Place Valhubert. This arrangement, as well as the choice of side entrances, was unusual for a terminal station.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evolution since 1900.", "content": "In 1900, the Paris-Orléans company extended its railway line towards the centre of the capital, with the Gare d'Orsay becoming the new head of line, when it entered service on 28 May on the occasion of the Exposition Universelle. The design was by architect Victor Laloux, and the construction by the contractor Léon Chagnaud. In 1906, the great hall of Gare d'Austerlitz was literally pierced through its width by the Metro 5 line by an extension of a viaduct crossing the Seine. An elevated station was located in the hall.  In 1910, during the great flood of the Seine, the station was flooded and rail traffic completely interrupted from 31 January to 9 February. During this period, the departure and arrival of the trains were terminated at Gare de Juvisy.  Since 1926, the Paris-Vierzon line was electrified to 1500 V, so no more steam engines entered Austerlitz. It was the first station in Paris to no longer receive a steam train.  In 1939, the Gare d'Orsay saw its function limited to suburban traffic, and the Gare d'Austerlitz once again became a terminus station for the main lines.  On 28 February 1997, part of the station were classified as historical monuments, especially its facades and glass roof.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Future.", "content": "A large refurbishment project of the Paris Austerlitz is currently under way. Four new platforms are being constructed and all the existing tracks are being refurbished. The interior will be rebuilt in order to handle TGV Sud-Est and TGV Atlantique services, partially transferred from the Gare de Lyon and Gare Montparnasse, both of which are at maximum capacity. All the work is planned to be completed by 2020, and will double the activity at the station.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Train services.", "content": "The following services currently call at Paris-Austerlitz:  Gare d'Austerlitz also hosts stations on the Paris Métro (lines 5 and 10, see Gare d'Austerlitz (Paris Métro)) and RER.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gare d'Austerlitz (\"Austerlitz Station\"), officially Paris-Austerlitz, is one of the six large terminus railway stations in Paris. It is on the left bank of the Seine in the southeastern part of the city, in the 13th arrondissement. It is the start of the Paris–Bordeaux railway; the line to Toulouse is connected to this line. Since the introduction of the TGV Atlantiqueusing Gare MontparnasseAusterlitz has lost most of its long-distance southwestern services. It is used by some 30 million passengers annually, about half the number passing through Montparnasse.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974555}
{"src_title": "Agranulocytosis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Agranulocytosis may be asymptomatic, or may clinically present with sudden fever, rigors and sore throat. Infection of any organ may be rapidly progressive (e.g., pneumonia, urinary tract infection). Sepsis may also progress rapidly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Causes.", "content": "A large number of drugs have been associated with agranulocytosis, including antiepileptics (such as carbamazepine and valproate), antithyroid drugs (carbimazole, thiamazole, and propylthiouracil), antibiotics (penicillin, chloramphenicol and co-trimoxazole), H2 blockers (cimetidine, famotidine, nizatidine, ranitidine), ACE inhibitors (benazepril), cytotoxic drugs, gold, analgesics (aminophenazone, indomethacin, naproxen, phenylbutazone, metamizole), mebendazole, allopurinol, the antidepressants mianserin and mirtazapine, and some antipsychotics (the atypical antipsychotic clozapine in particular). Clozapine users in the United States, Australia, Canada, and the UK must be nationally registered for monitoring of low WBC and absolute neutrophil counts (ANC).  Although the reaction is generally idiosyncratic rather than proportional, experts recommend that patients using these drugs be told about the symptoms of agranulocytosis-related infection, such as a sore throat and a fever.  The Centers for Disease Control traced outbreaks of agranulocytosis among cocaine users, in the US and Canada between March 2008 and November 2009, to the presence of levamisole in the drug supply. The Drug Enforcement Administration reported that, as of February 2010, 71% of seized cocaine lots coming into the US contained levamisole as a cutting agent. Levamisole is an antihelminthic (i.e. deworming) drug used in animals. The reason for adding levamisole to cocaine is unknown, although it can be due to their similar melting points and solubilities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "The diagnosis is made after a complete blood count, a routine blood test. The absolute neutrophil count in this test will be below 500, and can reach 0 cells/mm3. Other kinds of blood cells are typically present in normal numbers.  To formally diagnose agranulocytosis, other pathologies with a similar presentation must be excluded, such as aplastic anemia, paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, myelodysplasia and leukemias. This requires a bone marrow examination that shows normocellular (normal amounts and types of cells) blood marrow with underdeveloped promyelocytes. These underdeveloped promyelocytes, if fully matured, would have been the missing granulocytes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The term \"agranulocytosis\" derives from the Greek: \"a\", meaning without; granulocyte, a particular kind of white blood cell (containing granules in its cytoplasm); and \"osis\", meaning condition [esp. disorder]. Consequently, agranulocytosis is sometimes described as \"no granulocytes\", but a total absence is not required for diagnosis. However, \"-osis\" is commonly used in blood disorders to imply cell proliferation (such as in \"leukocytosis\"), while \"-penia\" to imply reduced cell numbers (as in \"leukopenia\"); for these reasons, granulopenia is a more etymologically consistent term, and as such, is sometimes preferred to \"agranulocytosis\" (which can be misinterpreted as \"agranulocyt-osis\", meaning proliferation of agranulocytes (i.e. lymphocytes and monocytes). Despite this, \"agranulocytosis\" remains the most widely used term for the condition.  The terms agranulocytosis, granulocytopenia and neutropenia are sometimes used interchangeably. Agranulocytosis implies a more severe deficiency than granulocytopenia. Neutropenia indicates a deficiency of neutrophils (the most common granulocyte cell) only.  To be precise, neutropenia is the term normally used to describe absolute neutrophil counts (ANCs) of less than 500 cells per microlitre, whereas agranulocytosis is reserved for cases with ANCs of less than 100 cells per microlitre.  The following terms can be used to specify the type of granulocyte referenced:  In a general sense the pathogenesis of neutropenia can be divided into two categories;", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "In patients that have no symptoms of infection, management consists of close monitoring with serial blood counts, withdrawal of the offending agent (e.g., medication), and general advice on the significance of fever.  Transfusion of granulocytes would have been a solution to the problem. However, granulocytes live only ~10 hours in the circulation (for days in spleen or other tissue), which gives a very short-lasting effect. In addition, there are many complications of such a procedure.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agranulocytosis, also known as agranulosis or granulopenia, is an acute condition involving a severe and dangerous leukopenia (lowered white blood cell count), most commonly of neutrophils, and thus causing a neutropenia in the circulating blood. It is a severe lack of one major class of infection-fighting white blood cells. People with this condition are at very high risk of serious infections due to their suppressed immune system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974556}
{"src_title": "Irnerius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born in Bologna about 1050.  At the urging of Countess Matilda of Tuscany he began to devote himself to the study of jurisprudence, taking the Justinian code as a guide. After teaching jurisprudence for a short while in Rome he returned to Bologna, where he founded a new school of jurisprudence in 1084 or 1088, which would rival the law school of Ravenna.  Some jurisprudence had been taught at Bologna, before Irnerius founded his school, by Pepo and a few others, and a tradition of jurisprudence had developed at Pavia since the mid-ninth century. He introduced the custom of explaining the Roman law by means of glosses, which originally were meagre interlinear elucidations of the text. But since the glosses were often too extensive to be inserted between the lines of the text, he began to write them on the margin of the page, thus being the first to introduce the marginal glosses which afterwards came into general use. After the death of Pope Paschal II, he defended the rights of Emperor Henry V in the papal election and upheld the legality of the election of the imperial antipope Gregory VIII. After 1116 he appears to have held some office under the emperor. He died, perhaps during the reign of the emperor Lothair II, but certainly before 1140.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teaching.", "content": "Irnerius taught along lines firmly established in the teaching of Scripture, by reading aloud a section of the civil law, which the students would copy, and add to the text his commentary and explanatory glosses. Thus he was the first of the glossators, whose explications of the law became an essential part of the legal curriculum.  The text of Justinian's \"Pandects\" used in Bologna, referred to as the \"Littera Bononiensis\", closely parallel to the \"Littera Florentina\", would be disseminated throughout Europe as students returned home from Bologna: there are versions of the Bolognese \"Littera\" with provenances in Paris, Padua, Leipzig and at the Vatican (Purpura 2001).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "According to ancient opinion (which, however, has been much controverted), Irnerius was the author of the epitome of the \"Novellae\" of Justinian, called the \"Authentica\", arranged according to the titles of the Code. His \"Formularium tabellionum\" (a directory for notaries) and \"Quaestiones\" (a book of judicial decisions) are no longer extant.  The \"Summa Codicis\", attributed to Irnerius by Herman Fitting in his 1894 edition is now widely considered a later work of between 1130 and 1159, but remains the earliest known summa on Justinian's \"Code\"  Another important work, \"Quaestiones de juris subtilitatibus\", was generally ascribed to Irnerius until Hermann Kantorowicz published a manuscript from the British Museum.  Other juridical works and glosses that are ascribed to Irnerius are extant only in fragments, or their authorship is uncertain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reputation.", "content": "Irnerius was largely forgotten until his name was revived by German historians of the later 19th century and came to prominence with the celebrations marking the octocentennial of the University of Bologna. His name is also seen in manuscripts as Hirnerius, Hyrnerius, Iernerius, Gernerius, Garnerius, Guarnerius, Warnerius, Wernerius, Yrnerius. He called himself Wernerius when he signed documents.  Anders Winroth has questioned much of the received account of Irnerius' life as well as his importance to the history of Roman law in the Middle Ages.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Irnerius (c. 1050 – after 1125), sometimes referred to as \"lucerna juris\" (\"lantern of the law\"), was an Italian jurist, and founder of the School of Glossators and thus of the tradition of Medieval Roman Law.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974557}
{"src_title": "Retinoblastoma", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "The most common and obvious sign of retinoblastoma is an abnormal appearance of the retina as viewed through the pupil, the medical term for which is leukocoria, also known as amaurotic cat's eye reflex. Other signs and symptoms include deterioration of vision, a red and irritated eye with glaucoma, and faltering growth or delayed development. Some children with retinoblastoma can develop a squint, commonly referred to as \"cross-eyed\" or \"wall-eyed\" (strabismus). Retinoblastoma presents with advanced disease in developing countries and eye enlargement is a common finding.  Depending on the position of the tumors, they may be visible during a simple eye exam using an ophthalmoscope to look through the pupil. A positive diagnosis is usually made only with an examination under anesthetic (). A white eye reflection is not always a positive indication of retinoblastoma and can be caused by light being reflected badly or by other conditions such as Coats' disease.  The presence of the photographic fault red eye in only one eye and not in the other may be a sign of retinoblastoma. A clearer sign is \"white eye\" or \"cat's eye\" (leukocoria).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "Mutation of genes, found in chromosomes, can affect the way in which cells grow and develop within the body. Alterations in RB1 or MYCN can give rise to retinoblastoma.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "RB1.", "content": "In children with the heritable genetic form of retinoblastoma, a mutation occurs in the \"RB1\" gene on chromosome 13.\" RB1\" was the first tumor suppressor gene cloned. Although\" RB1\" interacts with over 100 cell proteins, its negative regulator effect on the cell cycle principally arises from binding and inactivation of the transcription factor \"E2F\", thus repressing the transcription of genes which are required for the S phase.  The defective \"RB1 \"gene can be inherited from either parent; in some children, however, the mutation occurs in the early stages of fetal development. The expression of the\" RB1 \"allele is autosomal dominant with 90% penetrance.  Inherited forms of retinoblastomas are more likely to be bilateral. In addition, inherited uni- or bilateral retinoblastomas may be associated with pineoblastoma and other malignant midline supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs) with a dismal outcome; retinoblastoma concurrent with a PNET is known as trilateral retinoblastoma. A recent meta-analysis has shown that survival of trilateral retinoblastoma has increased substantially over the last decades.  The development of retinoblastoma can be explained by the two-hit model. According to the two-hit model, both alleles need to be affected, so two events are necessary for the retinal cell or cells to develop into tumors. The first mutational event can be inherited (germline or constitutional), which will then be present in all cells in the body. The second “hit” results in the loss of the remaining normal allele (gene) and occurs within a particular retinal cell. In the sporadic, nonheritable form of retinoblastoma, both mutational events occur within a single retinal cell after fertilization (somatic events); sporadic retinoblastoma tends to be unilateral.  Several methods have been developed to detect the \"RB1\" gene mutations. Attempts to correlate gene mutations to the stage at presentation have not shown convincing evidence of a correlation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "MYCN.", "content": "Somatic amplification of the \"MYCN\" oncogene is responsible for some cases of nonhereditary, early-onset, aggressive, unilateral retinoblastoma. Although \"MYCN\" amplification accounted for only 1.4% of retinoblastoma cases, researchers identified it in 18% of infants diagnosed at less than 6 months of age. Median age at diagnosis for \"MYCN\" retinoblastoma was 4.5 months, compared with 24 months for those who had nonfamilial unilateral disease with two \"RB1 \"gene mutations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Screening for retinoblastoma should be part of a \"well baby\" screening for newborns during the first 3 months of life, to include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The two forms of the disease are a heritable form and nonheritable form (all cancers are considered genetic in that mutations of the genome are required for their development, but this does not imply that they are heritable, or transmitted to offspring). Around 55% of children with retinoblastoma have the nonheritable form. If no history of the disease exists within the family, the disease is labeled \"sporadic\", but this does not necessarily indicate that it is the nonheritable form. Bilateral retinoblastomas are commonly heritable, while unilateral retinoblastomas are commonly nonheritable.  In about two-thirds of cases, only one eye is affected (unilateral retinoblastoma); in the other third, tumors develop in both eyes (bilateral retinoblastoma). The number and size of tumors on each eye may vary. In certain cases, the pineal gland or the suprasellar or parasellar region (or in very rare cases other midline intracranial locations) is also affected (trilateral retinoblastoma). The position, size, and quantity of tumors are considered when choosing the type of treatment for the disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Differential diagnosis.", "content": "If the eye examination is abnormal, further testing may include imaging studies, such as computerized tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound. CT and MRI can help define the structure abnormalities and reveal any calcium depositions. Ultrasound can help define the height and thickness of the tumor. Bone marrow examination or lumbar puncture may also be done to determine any metastases to bones or the brain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "Gross and microscopic appearances of retinoblastoma are identical in both hereditary and sporadic types. Macroscopically, viable tumor cells are found near blood vessels, while zones of necrosis are found in relatively avascular areas. Microscopically, both undifferentiated and differentiated elements may be present. Undifferentiated elements appear as collections of small, round cells with hyperchromatic nuclei; differentiated elements include Flexner-Wintersteiner rosettes, Homer Wright rosettes, and fleurettes from photoreceptor differentiation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genetic testing.", "content": "Identifying the \"RB1\" gene mutation that led to a child's retinoblastoma can be important in the clinical care of the affected individual and in the care of (future) siblings and offspring. It may run in the family.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "The priority of retinoblastoma treatment is to preserve the life of the child, then to preserve vision, and then to minimize complications or side effects of treatment. The exact course of treatment depends on the individual case and is decided by the ophthalmologist in discussion with the paediatric oncologist. Children with involvement of both eyes at diagnosis usually require multimodality therapy (chemotherapy, local therapies).  The various treatment modalities for retinoblastoma includes:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prognosis.", "content": "In the developed world, retinoblastoma has one of the best cure rates of all childhood cancers (95-98%), with more than 90% of sufferers surviving into adulthood. In the UK, around 40 to 50 new cases are diagnosed each year.  Good prognosis depends upon early presentation of the child in health facility. Late presentation is associated with a poor prognosis.  Survivors of hereditary retinoblastoma have a higher risk of developing other cancers later in life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "Retinoblastoma presents with cumulative lifetime incidence rate of one case of retinoblastoma per 18000 to 30000 live births worldwide. A higher incidence is noted in developing countries, which has been attributed to lower socioeconomic status and the presence of human papilloma virus sequences in the retinoblastoma tissue.  Almost 80% of children with retinoblastoma are diagnosed before 3 years of age and diagnosis in children above 6 years of age is extremely rare. In the UK, bilateral cases usually present within 14 to 16 months, while diagnosis of unilateral cases peaks between 24 and 30 months.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Retinoblastoma (Rb) is a rare form of cancer that rapidly develops from the immature cells of a retina, the light-detecting tissue of the eye. It is the most common primary malignant intraocular cancer in children, and it is almost exclusively found in young children.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974558}
{"src_title": "Onobrychis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description, ecology and uses.", "content": "Sainfoins are mostly subtropical plants, but their range extends throughout Europe as far north as southern Sweden. These plants grow on grassland, agricultural land and wasteland. The leaves are pinnate, alternate, with 6 to 14 pairs of oblong to linear leaflets. Sainfoins have pale pink flowers, typically blooming between June and September and pollinated by honey bees and solitary bees. The rounded single-seeded pods bear prominent spikes or similar protrusions in many species, enabling them to cling to the fur of large mammals and be thus distributed.  These highly nutritious plants were an important forage for heavy working horses in agriculture, and are still an excellent source of nectar for honey production as well as pollen for bee food. Because sainfoins are rich in tannins which protect proteins from hydrolysis in the rumen, the proteins are instead absorbed in the abomasum. \"Onobrychis\" typically have a deep taproot and so are very drought resistant, but do not recover well from overgrazing. Adapted to slow but steady growth in the arid steppe belt of Eurasia, sainfoins are difficult to establish as pasture, are not persistent in grassland, and only yield one crop of hay or seeds per year. Thus they are seldom grown in any significant extent, though \"O. viciifolia\" is met with somewhat more regularly.  \"Onobrychis\" species are used as food plants by the caterpillars of some Lepidoptera species, such as the case-bearer moth \"Coleophora colutella\" (recorded on \"O. saxatilis\") and the Damon Blue (\"Polyommatus damon\") butterfly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutritional benefits and the latest research.", "content": "Sainfoin provides a superb forage for grazing animals and voluntary intake of sainfoin by cattle and sheep is 20% higher than for grass. Unlike many other legumes, it is non-bloating and is known to have anthelmintic properties, so reducing the problems associated with livestock worms. Sainfoin contains condensed tannins, and it is these that protect animals against bloat. Sainfoin has also been shown to increase protein absorption. This, combined with its other health benefits, mean that animals grazing sainfoin have very rapid liveweight gains, so young stock can be finished sooner and with very good carcass grades. Sainfoin is therefore extremely useful to low input and organic farmers. Yields can be very high at around 16t DM per hectare.  Methods and research techniques have been studied and developed to look specifically at Sainfoin polyphenols which include tannins and flavonoids. There are significant differences between Sainfoin types and this will lead to further development of Sainfoin plant breeding.  One method for improving nitrogen utilisation by ruminants and reduce greenhouse gases (CH4, N2O), without altering their nitrogen and energy value, is to use forages that contain condensed tannins, such as sainfoin. The nutritive value of sainfoin, despite its lower nitrogen content than lucerne, is high. Future research, on the nutritional impact of condensed tannins is likely not only be based on condensed tannin content, but also include structure-activity considerations. The results obtained, with sheep at maintenance fed a diet containing only sainfoin will be tested with producing animals, for example growing sheep and cattle, lactating ewes, goats or cows. In producing animals the diet will comprise different forage sources and supplement feeds. Sainfoin is seldom used as a pure crop and is generally introduced in pasture in a grass-legume mix with cocksfoot (\"Dactylis\"), ryegrass (\"Lolium\") or with other legumes such as red clover, white clover or lucerne. Results have shown the choice of the variety is important. A variety like Esparcette, characterised by the highest condensed tannin content, may provide beneficial effects with a lower proportion in a mixture with other legumes. Preserving legumes, as silage, is a good way to provide an on-farm source of home-grown energy and protein, offers advantages over traditional haymaking, being less weather-dependent, and allows a high quality of forage during the harvesting period. In particular, wrapped silage bales of sainfoin have great potential in animal nutrition and can be used by farmers, as found that condensed tannin effects were not reduced by this mode of preservation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Onobrychis\" means \"devoured by donkeys\", from Ancient Greek \"ónos\" (ὄνος, \"donkey\") and \"brýkein\" (βρύκειν, \"to eat greedily\"). This refers to sainfoin's good properties as a forage plant for large mammalian herbivores.  \"Sainfoin\" is derived from Old French \"sain foin\" (\"healthy hay\"). In the words of the 16th-century soil scientist Olivier de Serres: \"The herb is called \"sain-foin\" in France, in Italy \"herba medica\", in Provence and the Languedoc \"luzerne\". From the inordinate praise the plant has been given, for its medical virtues and for fattening the livestock that graze on it, comes the term \"sain\".\"  In northern European languages that have been less influenced by French, the plants' name usually derives from \"esparceto\", the Provençal term for the similar-looking and closely related sweetvetches (\"Hedysarum\"). Examples are Danish \"esparsette\", Dutch \"esparcette\", German \"Esparsette\", Lithuanian \"esparceta\", Polish \"sparceta\", Russian \"espartset\" (Эспарцет) and Swedish \"esparsett\". Meanwhile, the Occitan name of sainfoin, \"luzerne\", has in many languages come to mean species of the related genus \"Medicago\", in particular Alfalfa (\"M. sativa\").  The native name of the Cock's Head (\"O. caput-galli\") is one of the few words of the extinct Dacian language that have been recorded. The Dacians called this plant \"aniarsexe\" or \"aniassexie\".  In George Orwell's \"Coming Up for Air\", travelling salesman George Bowling regularly reminisces about the smell of sainfoin in his father's seed shop in Lower Binfield.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of species.", "content": "The following species are considered at least provisionally valid by the International Legume Database & Information Service; some notable subspecies are also listed:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Onobrychis, the sainfoins, are Eurasian perennial herbs of the legume family (Fabaceae). Including doubtfully distinct species and provisionally accepted taxa, about 150 species are presently known. The Flora Europaea lists 23 species of \"Onobrychis\"; the main centre of diversity extends from Central Asia to Iran, with 56 species – 27 of which are endemic – in the latter country alone. \"O. viciifolia\" is naturalized throughout many countries in Europe and North America grasslands on calcareous soils.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974559}
{"src_title": "Binary code", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of binary codes.", "content": "The modern binary number system, the basis for binary code, was invented by Gottfried Leibniz in 1689 and appears in his article \"Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire\". The full title is translated into English as the \"Explanation of the binary arithmetic\", which uses only the characters 1 and 0, with some remarks on its usefulness, and on the light it throws on the ancient Chinese figures of Fu Xi.\" (1703). Leibniz's system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system. Leibniz encountered the \"I Ching\" through French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet and noted with fascination how its hexagrams correspond to the binary numbers from 0 to 111111, and concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical visual binary mathematics he admired. Leibniz saw the hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own religious belief.  Binary numerals were central to Leibniz's theology. He believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of \"creatio ex nihilo\" or creation out of nothing. Leibniz was trying to find a system that converts logic’s verbal statements into a pure mathematical one. After his ideas were ignored, he came across a classic Chinese text called \"I Ching\" or ‘Book of Changes’, which used 64 hexagrams of six-bit visual binary code. The book had confirmed his theory that life could be simplified or reduced down to a series of straightforward propositions. He created a system consisting of rows of zeros and ones. During this time period, Leibniz had not yet found a use for this system.  Binary systems predating Leibniz also existed in the ancient world. The aforementioned \"I Ching\" that Leibniz encountered dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary system of the \"I Ching\", a text for divination, is based on the duality of yin and yang. Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa and Asia. The Indian scholar Pingala (around 5th–2nd centuries BC) developed a binary system for describing prosody in his Chandashutram. The residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450. In the 11th century, scholar and philosopher Shao Yong developed a method for arranging the hexagrams which corresponds, albeit unintentionally, to the sequence 0 to 63, as represented in binary, with yin as 0, yang as 1 and the least significant bit on top. The ordering is also the lexicographical order on sextuples of elements chosen from a two-element set.  In 1605 Francis Bacon discussed a system whereby letters of the alphabet could be reduced to sequences of binary digits, which could then be encoded as scarcely visible variations in the font in any random text. Importantly for the general theory of binary encoding, he added that this method could be used with any objects at all: \"provided those objects be capable of a twofold difference only; as by Bells, by Trumpets, by Lights and Torches, by the report of Muskets, and any instruments of like nature\".  George Boole published a paper in 1847 called 'The Mathematical Analysis of Logic' that describes an algebraic system of logic, now known as Boolean algebra. Boole's system was based on binary, a yes-no, on-off approach that consisted of the three most basic operations: AND, OR, and NOT. This system was not put into use until a graduate student from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Claude Shannon, noticed that the Boolean algebra he learned was similar to an electric circuit. Shannon wrote his thesis in 1937, which implemented his findings. Shannon's thesis became a starting point for the use of the binary code in practical applications such as computers, electric circuits, and more.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other forms of binary code.", "content": "The bit string is not the only type of binary code: in fact, a binary system in general, is any system that allows only two choices such as a switch in an electronic system or a simple true or false test.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Braille.", "content": "Braille is a type of binary code that is widely used by the blind to read and write by touch, named for its creator, Louis Braille. This system consists of grids of six dots each, three per column, in which each dot has two states: raised or not raised. The different combinations of raised and flattened dots are capable of representing all letters, numbers, and punctuation signs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bagua.", "content": "The \"bagua\" are diagrams used in \"feng shui,\" Taoist cosmology and \"I Ching\" studies. The \"ba gua\" consists of 8 trigrams; \"bā\" meaning 8 and \"guà\" meaning divination figure. The same word is used for the 64 guà (hexagrams). Each figure combines three lines (\"yáo\") that are either broken (\"yin\") or unbroken (\"yang\"). The relationships between the trigrams are represented in two arrangements, the primordial, \"Earlier Heaven\" or \"Fuxi\" \"bagua\", and the manifested, \"Later Heaven,\"or \"King Wen\" \"bagua.\" (See also, the King Wen sequence of the 64 hexagrams).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coding systems.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ASCII code.", "content": "The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), uses a 7-bit binary code to represent text and other characters within computers, communications equipment, and other devices. Each letter or symbol is assigned a number from 0 to 127. For example, lowercase \"a\" is represented by codice_2 as a bit string (which is \"97\" in decimal).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Binary-coded decimal.", "content": "Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a binary encoded representation of integer values that uses a 4-bit nibble to encode decimal digits. Four binary bits can encode up to 16 distinct values; but, in BCD-encoded numbers, only the first ten values in each nibble are legal, and encode the decimal digits zero, through nine. The remaining six values are illegal and may cause either a machine exception or unspecified behavior, depending on the computer implementation of BCD arithmetic.  BCD arithmetic is sometimes preferred to floating-point numeric formats in commercial and financial applications where the complex rounding behaviors of floating-point numbers is inappropriate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Current uses of binary.", "content": "Most modern computers use binary encoding for instructions and data. CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs represent sound and video digitally in binary form. Telephone calls are carried digitally on long-distance and mobile phone networks using pulse-code modulation, and on voice over IP networks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weight of binary codes.", "content": "The weight of a binary code, as defined in the table of constant-weight codes, is the Hamming weight of the binary words coding for the represented words or sequences.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A binary code represents text, computer processor instructions, or any other data using a two-symbol system. The two-symbol system used is often \"0\" and \"1\" from the binary number system. The binary code assigns a pattern of binary digits, also known as bits, to each character, instruction, etc. For example, a binary string of eight bits can represent any of 256 possible values and can, therefore, represent a wide variety of different items.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974560}
{"src_title": "White Ship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Shipwreck.", "content": "The \"White Ship\" was a newly refitted vessel captained by Thomas FitzStephen (\"Thomas filz Estienne\"), whose father Stephen FitzAirard (\"Estienne filz Airard\") had been captain of the ship \"Mora\" for William the Conqueror when he invaded England in 1066. Thomas offered his ship to Henry I of England to return to England from Barfleur in Normandy. Henry had already made other arrangements, but allowed many in his retinue to take the \"White Ship,\" including his heir, William Adelin; his illegitimate son Richard of Lincoln; his illegitimate daughter Matilda FitzRoy, Countess of Perche; and many other nobles. According to chronicler Orderic Vitalis, the crew asked William Adelin for wine and he supplied it to them in great abundance. By the time the ship was ready to leave there were about 300 people on board, although some, including the future king Stephen of Blois, had disembarked due to the excessive binge drinking before the ship sailed.  The ship's captain, Thomas FitzStephen, was ordered by the revellers to overtake the king's ship, which had already sailed. The \"White Ship\" was fast, of the best construction and had recently been fitted with new materials, which made the captain and crew confident they could reach England first. But when it set off in the dark, its port side struck a submerged rock called \"Quillebœuf\", and the ship quickly capsized. William Adelin got into a small boat and could have escaped but turned back to try to rescue his half-sister, Matilda, when he heard her cries for help. His boat was swamped by others trying to save themselves, and William drowned along with them. According to Orderic Vitalis, Berold (Beroldus or Berout), a butcher from Rouen, was the sole survivor of the shipwreck by clinging to the rock. The chronicler further wrote that when Thomas FitzStephen came to the surface after the sinking and learned that William Adelin had not survived, he let himself drown rather than face the King.  One legend holds that the ship was doomed because priests were not allowed to board it and bless it with holy water in the customary manner. For a complete list of those who did or did not travel on the \"White Ship\", see Victims of the \"White Ship\" disaster.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Repercussions.", "content": "A direct result of William Adelin's death was the period known as the Anarchy. The \"White Ship\" disaster had left Henry I with only one legitimate child, a second daughter named Matilda. Although Henry I had forced his barons to swear an oath to support Matilda as his heir on several occasions, a woman had never ruled in England in her own right. Matilda was also unpopular because she was married to Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, a traditional enemy of England's Norman nobles. Upon Henry's death in 1135, the English barons were reluctant to accept Matilda as queen regnant.  One of Henry I's male relatives, Stephen of Blois, the king's nephew by his sister Adela, usurped Matilda as well as his older brothers William and Theobald to become king. Stephen had allegedly planned to travel on the \"White Ship\" but had disembarked just before it sailed; Orderic Vitalis attributes this to a sudden bout of diarrhoea.  After Henry I's death, Matilda and her husband Geoffrey of Anjou, the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty, launched a long and devastating war against Stephen and his allies for control of the English throne. The Anarchy dragged from 1135 to 1153 with devastating effect, especially in southern England.  Contemporary historian William of Malmesbury wrote:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The White Ship (; Medieval Latin: \"Candida navis\") was a vessel that sank in the English Channel near the Normandy coast off Barfleur, on 25 November 1120. Only one of the around 300 people aboard survived. Those who drowned included William Adelin, the only legitimate son and heir of King Henry I of England, his half-sister Matilda, his half-brother Richard, Richard d'Avranches, 2nd Earl of Chester, and Geoffrey Ridel (royal justice). William Adelin's death led to a succession crisis and a period of civil war in England known as the Anarchy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974561}
{"src_title": "Cerdic of Wessex", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name Cerdic is thought by most scholars to be Brittonic – a form of the name Ceretic – rather than Germanic in origin. According to the Brittonic origin hypothesis, Cerdic is derived from the British name \"*Caratīcos\" or \"*Corotīcos\". This may indicate that Cerdic was a native Briton, and that his dynasty became Anglicised over time. This view is supported by the potentially non-Germanic names of some of his descendants including Ceawlin, Cedda and Caedwalla.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "The \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\" provides a pedigree tracing Cerdic's ancestry back to Wōden and the antediluvian patriarchs. Kenneth Sisam has shown that this pedigree resulted from a process of elaboration upon a root pedigree borrowed from the kings of Bernicia, and hence prior to Cerdic himself it has no historical basis.  J.N.L. Myres noted that when Cerdic and Cynric first appear in the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\" in s.a. 495 they are described as \"ealdormen\", which at that point in time was a fairly junior rank. Myres remarks that,  It is thus odd to find it used here to describe the leaders of what purports to be an independent band of invaders, whose origins and authority are not otherwise specified. It looks very much as if a hint is being conveyed that Cerdic and his people owed their standing to having been already concerned with administrative affairs under Roman authority on this part of the Saxon Shore. Furthermore, it is not until s.a. 519 that Cerdic and Cynric are recorded as \"beginning to reign\", suggesting that they ceased being dependent vassals or ealdormen and became independent kings in their own right.  Summing up, Myres believed that,  It is thus possible... to think of Cerdic as the head of a partly British noble family with extensive territorial interests at the western end of the Litus Saxonicum. As such he may well have been entrusted in the last days of Roman, or sub-Roman authority with its defence. He would then be what in later Anglo-Saxon terminology could be described as an ealdorman.... If such a dominant native family as that of Cerdic had already developed blood-relationships with existing Saxon and Jutish settlers at this end of the Saxon Shore, it could very well be tempted, once effective Roman authority had faded, to go further. It might have taken matters into its own hands and after eliminating any surviving pockets of resistance by competing British chieftains, such as the mysterious Natanleod of annal 508, it could 'begin to reign' without recognizing in future any superior authority.  Cerdic's father, \"Elesa\", has been identified by some scholars with the Romano-British Elasius, the \"chief of the region\", met by Germanus of Auxerre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Wessex.", "content": "According to the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\", Cerdic landed in what is today Hampshire in 495 with his son Cynric in five ships. He is said to have fought a Brittonic king named Natanleod at \"Natanleaga\" and killed him thirteen years later (in 508) and to have fought at \"Cerdicesleag\" in 519. \"Natanleaga\" is commonly identified as Netley Marsh in Hampshire and \"Cerdicesleag\" as Charford (Cerdic's Ford). The conquest of the Isle of Wight is also mentioned among his campaigns, and it was later given to his kinsmen, Stuf and Wihtgar (who had supposedly arrived with the West Saxons in 514). Cerdic is said to have died in 534 and was succeeded by his son Cynric or possibly Creoda of Wessex.  The early history of Wessex in the \"Chronicle\" has been considered unreliable, with duplicate reports of events and seemingly contradictory information. David Dumville has suggested that Cerdic's true regnal dates are 538–554. Some scholars suggest that Cerdic was the Saxon leader defeated by the Britons at the Battle of Mount Badon, which was probably fought in 490 (and possibly later, but not later than 518). This cannot be the case if Dumville is correct, and others assign this battle to Ælle or another Saxon leader, so it appears likely that the origins of the kingdom of Wessex are more complex than the version provided by the surviving traditions.  Some scholars have gone so far as to suggest that Cerdic is purely a legendary figure, but this is a minority view. The earliest source for Cerdic, the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\", was put together in the late ninth century; though it probably does record the extant tradition of the founding of Wessex, the intervening four hundred years mean that the account cannot be assumed to be accurate. The annals of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, along with the genealogical descents embedded in that source's accounts of later kings, describe Cerdic's succession by his son Cynric. However, the Genealogical Regnal List that served as preface to the Chronicle manuscripts instead interposes a generation between them, indicating that Cerdic was father of Creoda and grandfather of Cynric.  Descent from Cerdic became a necessary criterion for later kings of Wessex, and he was claimed ancestor of Ecgberht, King of Wessex, progenitor of the English royal house and subsequent rulers of England and Britain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "House of Wessex family tree", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cerdic (; ) is cited in the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\" as a leader of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, being the founder and first king of Saxon Wessex, reigning from 519 to 534 AD. Subsequent kings of Wessex were each claimed by the \"Chronicle\" to descend in some manner from Cerdic. His origin, ethnicity, and even his very existence have been extensively disputed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974562}
{"src_title": "Nicholas Negroponte", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Negroponte was born to Dimitrios Negrepontis (), a Greek shipping magnate and alpine skier, and grew up in New York City's Upper East Side. He has three brothers. His elder one, John Negroponte, is the former United States Deputy Secretary of State. Michael Negroponte is an Emmy Award-winning filmmaker. George Negroponte is an artist and was President of the Drawing Center from 2002 to 2007.  He attended Buckley School in New York, Fay School in Massachusetts, Le Rosey in Switzerland, and The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall) in Wallingford, Connecticut, from which he graduated in 1961. Subsequently, he studied at MIT as both an undergraduate and graduate student in Architecture where his research focused on issues of computer-aided design. He earned a master's degree in architecture from MIT in 1966. Despite his accomplished academic career, Negroponte has spoken publicly about his dyslexia and his difficulty in reading.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "MIT.", "content": "Negroponte joined the faculty of MIT in 1966. For several years thereafter he divided his teaching time between MIT and several visiting professorships at Yale, Michigan and the University of California, Berkeley.  In 1967, Negroponte founded MIT's Architecture Machine Group, a combination lab and think tank which studied new approaches to human-computer interaction. In 1985, Negroponte created the MIT Media Lab with Jerome B. Wiesner. As director, he developed the lab into a pre-eminent laboratory for new media and a high-tech playground for investigating the human-computer interface. Negroponte also became a proponent of intelligent agents and personalized electronic newspapers, for which he popularized the term the Daily Me.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Wired\".", "content": "In 1992, Negroponte became involved in the creation of \"Wired Magazine\" as the first investor. From 1993 to 1998, he contributed a monthly column to the magazine in which he reiterated a basic theme: \"Move bits, not atoms.\"  Negroponte expanded many of the ideas from his \"Wired\" columns into a bestselling book \"Being Digital\" (1995), which made famous his forecasts on how the interactive world, the entertainment world and the information world would eventually merge. \"Being Digital\" was a bestseller and was translated into some forty languages. Negroponte is a digital optimist who believed that computers would make life better for everyone. However, critics such as Cass Sunstein have criticised his techno-utopian ideas for failing to consider the historical, political and cultural realities with which new technologies should be viewed.  In the 1980s Negroponte predicted that wired technologies such as telephones would become unwired by using airwaves instead of wires or fiber optics, and that unwired technologies such as televisions would become wired—a prediction commonly referred to as the Negroponte switch.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "In 2000, Negroponte stepped down as director of the Media Lab as Walter Bender took over as Executive Director. However, Negroponte retained the role of laboratory chairman. When Frank Moss was appointed director of the lab in 2006, Negroponte stepped down as lab chairman to focus more fully on his work with One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) although he retains his appointment as professor at MIT (Professor Post-Tenure of Media Arts and Sciences). In November 2005, at the World Summit on the Information Society held in Tunis, Negroponte unveiled the concept of a $100 laptop computer, The Children's Machine, designed for students in the developing world. The price has increased to US$180, however. The project is part of a broader program by One Laptop Per Child, a nonprofit organization started by Negroponte and other Media Lab faculty to extend Internet access in developing countries.  Negroponte is an active angel investor and has invested in over 30 startup companies over the last 30 years, including Zagats, Wired, Ambient Devices, Skype and Velti. He has sat on several boards, including Motorola (listed on the New York Stock Exchange) and Velti (listed on the NASDAQ and formerly on the London Stock Exchange ). He is also on the advisory board of TTI/Vanguard. In August 2007, he was appointed to a five-member special committee with the objective of assuring the continued journalistic and editorial integrity and independence of the Wall Street Journal and other Dow Jones & Company publications and services. The committee was formed as part of the merger of Dow Jones with News Corporation. Negroponte's fellow founding committee members are Louis Boccardi, Thomas Bray, Jack Fuller, and the late former Congresswoman Jennifer Dunn.  Negroponte has influenced modern day futurists such as David Houle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epstein controversy.", "content": "According to reporting from the MIT Technology Review, in response to the controversy of the MIT Media Lab accepting funding from Jeffrey Epstein five years after Epstein's conviction for sex trafficking minors, Negroponte told MIT staff, \"If you wind back the clock, I would still say, 'Take it.'\"  Negroponte was reported to have said that in the fund-raising world these types of occurrences were not out of the ordinary, and they shouldn’t be reason enough to cut off business relationships. His comments supporting the donation from a convicted child sex offender reportedly left some of his listeners \"stunned\" and reduced one woman present to tears.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicholas Negroponte (born December 1, 1943) is a Greek American architect. He is the founder and chairman Emeritus of Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Media Lab, and also founded the One Laptop per Child Association (OLPC). Negroponte is the author of the 1995 bestseller ‘Being Digital’ translated into more than forty languages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974563}
{"src_title": "Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Ferdinand Schwarzmann von Hebra graduated in medicine in 1841 at the University of Vienna. He was influenced by Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, one of the founders of modern pathological anatomy.  While still a young man, Hebra wrote one of the most influential books on dermatology of all times, the \"Atlas der Hautkrankeiten\" (\"Atlas of skin diseases\"), with phenomenal illustrations by two of the leading medical illustrators of Austria, Anton Elfinger (1821–1864) and Carl Heitzmann (1836–1896).  In 1844 Ferdinand von Hebra discovered the cause of scabies.  In the second half of the 19th century, Hebra introduced resurfacing and restoring skin with chemical peel. He used exfoliative agents, like phenol, croton oil, nitric acid in various cautious combination for treating freckles and skin irregularities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Semmelweis and Hebra.", "content": "An early supporter of Ignaz Semmelweis and the editor of a leading Austrian medical journal, Hebra announced Semmelweis's discovery that handwashing with chloride of lime reduces the incidence of puerperal fever in the December 1847 and April 1848 issues of the Viennese medical journal. Hebra claimed that Semmelweis's work had a practical significance comparable to that of Edward Jenner's introduction of cowpox inoculations to prevent smallpox.  Due to Semmelweis's suffering from severe depression and other mental problems, János Balassa signed a document which committed him to a mental institution, and on 30 July 1865 Hebra, under the pretense of taking him to visit one of Hebra's \"new Institutes\", lured Semmelweis into a Viennese asylum for the insane located in the Lazarettgasse (\"Landes-Irren-Anstalt in der Lazarettgasse\"). On arrival there, Semmelweis guessed what was happening and tried to leave, but he was forcibly subdued by the asylum's guards and died two weeks later from a gangrenous wound which may have been caused by the struggle.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferdinand Karl Franz Schwarzmann, Ritter von Hebra (7 September 1816, in Brno, Moravia – 5 August 1880 in Vienna, Austria-Hungary) was an Austrian physician and dermatologist known as the founder of the New Vienna School of Dermatology, an important group of physicians who established the foundations of modern dermatology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974564}
{"src_title": "Factor VIII", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Genetics.", "content": "Factor VIII was first characterized in 1984 by scientists at Genentech. The gene for factor VIII is located on the X chromosome (Xq28). The gene for factor VIII presents an interesting primary structure, as another gene is embedded in one of its introns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Factor VIII protein consists of six domains: A1-A2-B-A3-C1-C2, and is homologous to factor V.  The A domains are homologous to the A domains of the copper-binding protein ceruloplasmin. The C domains belong to the phospholipid-binding discoidin domain family, and the C2 domain mediate membrane binding.  Activation of factor VIII to factor VIIIa is done by cleavage and release of the B domain. The protein is now divided to a heavy chain, consisting of the A1-A2 domains, and a light chain, consisting of the A3-C1-C2 domains. Both form non-covalently a complex in a calcium-dependent manner. This complex is the pro-coagulant factor VIIIa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physiology.", "content": "FVIII is a glycoprotein procofactor. Although the primary site of release in humans is ambiguous, it is synthesized and released into the bloodstream by the vascular, glomerular, and tubular endothelium, and the sinusoidal cells of the liver. Hemophilia A has been corrected by liver transplantation. Transplanting hepatocytes was ineffective, but liver endothelial cells were effective.  In the blood, it mainly circulates in a stable noncovalent complex with von Willebrand factor. Upon activation by thrombin (factor IIa), it dissociates from the complex to interact with factor IXa in the coagulation cascade. It is a cofactor to factor IXa in the activation of factor X, which, in turn, with its cofactor factor Va, activates more thrombin. Thrombin cleaves fibrinogen into fibrin which polymerizes and crosslinks (using factor XIII) into a blood clot.  No longer protected by vWF, activated FVIII is proteolytically inactivated in the process (most prominently by activated protein C and factor IXa) and quickly cleared from the blood stream.  Factor VIII is not affected by liver disease. In fact, levels usually are elevated in such instances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical use.", "content": "FVIII concentrated from donated blood plasma, or alternatively recombinant FVIIa can be given to hemophiliacs to restore hemostasis.  Antibody formation to factor VIII can also be a major concern for patients receiving therapy against bleeding; the incidence of these inhibitors is dependent of various factors, including the factor VIII product itself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contamination scandal.", "content": "In the 1980s, some pharmaceutical companies such as Baxter International and Bayer sparked controversy by continuing to sell contaminated factor VIII after new heat-treated versions were available. Under FDA pressure, unheated product was pulled from US markets, but was sold to Asian, Latin American, and some European countries. The product was tainted with HIV, a concern that had been discussed by Bayer and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).  In the early 1990s, pharmaceutical companies began to produce recombinant synthesized factor products, which now prevent nearly all forms of disease transmission during replacement therapy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Factor VIII was first discovered in 1937, but it was not until 1979 that its purification by Edward Tuddenham and coworkers led to the molecular identification of the protein.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Factor VIII (FVIII) is an essential blood-clotting protein, also known as anti-hemophilic factor (AHF). In humans, factor VIII is encoded by the \"F8\" gene. Defects in this gene result in hemophilia A, a recessive X-linked coagulation disorder. Factor VIII is produced in liver sinusoidal cells and endothelial cells outside the liver throughout the body. This protein circulates in the bloodstream in an inactive form, bound to another molecule called von Willebrand factor, until an injury that damages blood vessels occurs. In response to injury, coagulation factor VIII is activated and separates from von Willebrand factor. The active protein (sometimes written as coagulation factor VIIIa) interacts with another coagulation factor called factor IX. This interaction sets off a chain of additional chemical reactions that form a blood clot.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974565}
{"src_title": "Luca Giordano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and training.", "content": "Born in Naples, Giordano was the son of the painter Antonio Giordano. In around 1650 he was apprenticed to Ribera on the recommendation of the viceroy of Naples and his early work was heavily influenced by his teacher. Like Ribera, he painted many half-length figures of philosophers, either imaginary portraits of specific figures, or generic types.  He acquired the nickname \"Luca fa presto\", which translates into \"Luca paints quickly.\" His speed, in design as well as handiwork, and his versatility, which enabled him to imitate other painters deceptively, earned for him two other epithets, \"The Thunderbolt\" (\"Fulmine\") and \"The Proteus\" of painting.  Following a period studying in Rome, Parma and Venice, Giordano developed an elaborate Baroque style fusing Venetian and Roman Influences. His mature work combines the ornamental pomp of Paul Veronese with the lively complex schemes, the \"grand manner\", of Pietro da Cortona. He is also noted for his lively and showy use of colour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Florence.", "content": "In 1682–1683 Giordano painted various fresco series in Florence, including one in the dome of Corsini Chapel of the Chiesa del Carmine. In the large block occupied by the former Medici palace, he painted the ceiling of the Biblioteca Riccardiana (\"Allegory of Divine Wisdom\") and the long gallery of the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi. The vast frescoes of the latter are contained in the 1670s gallery addition, overlooking the gardens. The planning was overseen by Alessandro Segni and commissioned by Francesco Riccardi. They include the prototypic hagiographic celebration of the Medici family in the center, surrounded by a series of interlocking narratives: allegorical figures (the \"Cardinal Virtues\", the \"Elements of Nature\") and mythological episodes (\"Neptune and Amphitrita\", \"The Rape of Proserpine\", \"The Triumphal procession of Bacchus\", \"The Death of Adonis\",\" Ceres\" and \"Triptolemus\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Court painter in Spain (1692–1702).", "content": "In 1692 Giordano went to Spain at the invitation of Charles II. He stayed there for ten years, returning to Naples in 1702, following Charles' death. While in Spain, he painted major decorative schemes at the Buen Retiro Palace, El Escorial, the sacristry of Toledo Cathedral, The Royal Palace of Aranjuez. \"The Allegory of the Golden Fleece\", a ca.1697 fresco on the ceiling of the Casón del Buen Retiro ipns one of the possible reasons given for the building having survived when most of the other Bueno Retiro palace complex buildings were demolished in the 1900 Century, now its an annex of the Prado Museum Complex that holds a library for researchers, and can be visited on Sundays. He also painted part of the frescoes at San Antonio de los Alemanes church and many pictures for the court, private patrons and churches. His pupils, Aniello Rossi and Matteo Pacelli, assisted him in Spain.  Giordano was popular at the Spanish court, and the king granted him the title of a \"caballero\". Luca Giordano Works can be seen all around Madrid, The Prado surely houses the largest compilation of his works. Not far from there The Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando owns several works of his brush and in the neighboring Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum there is a \"Judging of Salomon\" long term loan, belonging to Baroness Carmen Thyssen Private Collection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Late work in Naples.", "content": "After his return to Naples early in 1702, Giordano continued to paint prolifically. Executed in a lighter, less rhetorical style, these late works, prefiguring Rococo, proved influential throughout the eighteenth century, and were admired by Fragonard.  He spent large sums in acts of munificence, and was particularly liberal to poorer artists. One of his maxims was that the good painter is the one whom the public like, and that the public are attracted more by colour than by design.  Giordano had an astonishing facility, which often lead to an impression of superficiality of his works. He left many works in Rome, and far more in Naples. Of the latter, his \"Christ expelling the Traders from the Temple\" in the church of the Padri Girolamini, a colossal work, full of expressive \"lazzaroni\" or beggars from Naples; also the frescoes of the \"Triumph of Judith\" at San Martino, and those in the Tesoro della Certosa, including the subject of \"Moses and the Brazen Serpent\"; and the cupola paintings in the Church of Santa Brigida. This church contains the artist's own tomb. Other notable examples are the \"Judgment of Paris\" in the Berlin Museum, and \"Christ with the Doctors in the Temple\", in the Corsini Gallery of Rome. In later years, he painted influential frescoes for the Cappella Corsini, the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi and other works. Giordano died in Naples in 1705.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "His best pupil in painting was Paolo de Matteis. However, his influence, like his travels and career, were broad and prolific. For example, he is said to have influenced in Venice, Giovan Battista Langetti, Giovanni Coli, and Filippo Gherardi. Other pupils included Juan Antonio Boujas, Nunzio Ferraiuoli (Nunzio degli Afflitti), Ansel Fiammingo (il Franceschitto or Francesquitto), Giovanni Battista Lama, Andrea Miglionico, Giuseppe Simonelli, Andrea Vicenti, Andrea Viso, Ferrante Amendola, Pedro de Calabria, Matteo Pacelli, Francisco Tramulles, Nicolo Maria Rossi, Aniello Rossi, and Raimondo de Dominici.  As a young man, Giordano engraved works with considerable skill, including some of his own paintings, such as the \"Slaughter of the Priests of Baal\". He also painted much on the crystal borderings of looking-glasses, cabinets and others seen in many Italian palaces, and was, in this form of art, the master of Pietro Garofalo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reputation.", "content": "Giordano has been criticized as being a prolific trader of all styles, and master of none. Michael Levey remarks of him \"Giordano was the ideal rococo painter, speedy, prolific, dazzling in colour, assured in draughtsmanship, ever-talented and never touching the fringe of genius.\" He has been viewed as a proto-Tiepolo, reanimating that grand manner of Cortona in a style that would brighten with Tiepolo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Luca Giordano (18 October 1634 – 3 January 1705) was an Italian late Baroque painter and printmaker in etching. Fluent and decorative, he worked successfully in Naples and Rome, Florence and Venice, before spending a decade in Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974566}
{"src_title": "Pegasus Bridge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "Pegasus Bridge and the structure that replaced it in 1994 are examples of a distinct sub type of bascule bridge, the \"Scherzer rolling lift bascule bridge\" or \"rolling bridge\". Bridges of this type do not pivot about a hinge point, but roll back on curved tread plates attached to the girders of the main span. This design allows a greater clearance of the waterway for a given opening angle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle for the bridge.", "content": "On the night of 5 June 1944, a force of 181 men, led by Major John Howard, took off from RAF Tarrant Rushton in Dorset, southern England in six Horsa gliders to capture Pegasus Bridge, and also \"Horsa Bridge\", a few hundred yards to the east, over the Orne River. The force was composed of D Company (reinforced with two platoons of B Company), 2nd Battalion, Oxford and Bucks Light Infantry; 20 sappers of the Royal Engineers of 249 Field Company (Airborne); and men of the Glider Pilot Regiment. The object of this action was to prevent German armour from crossing the bridges and attacking the eastern flank of the landings at Sword Beach.  Five of the Ox and Bucks's gliders landed as close as 47 yards from their objectives from 16 minutes past midnight. The attackers poured out of their battered gliders, completely surprising the German defenders, and took the bridges within 10 minutes. They lost two men in the process, Lieutenant Den Brotheridge and Lance corporal Fred Greenhalgh.  Greenhalgh drowned in a nearby pond when his glider landed. Lieutenant Brotheridge was mortally wounded crossing the bridge in the first minutes of the assault and became the first member of the invading Allied armies to die as a result of enemy fire on D-Day.  One glider, assigned to the capture of the river bridge, landed at the bridge over the River Dives, some 7 miles off. Most of the soldiers in this glider moved through German lines towards the village of Ranville where they eventually re-joined the British forces. The Ox and Bucks were reinforced at 03.00hrs by Lieutenant Colonel Pine-Coffin's 7th Parachute Battalion, and linked up with the beach landing forces with the arrival of Lord Lovat's Commandos.  One of the members of the 7th Battalion reinforcements was Captain Richard Todd, a young actor, who would, nearly two decades later, play Major Howard in the film \"The Longest Day\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemorations.", "content": "In 1984, as part of the 40th anniversary commemorations, the Royal Yacht Britannia sailed past the bridge on route to Caen. The ship passed in the early hours, escorted by two tugs and HMS Torquay.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "The original Pegasus Bridge now resides in the grounds of the Pegasus Museum. The museum was inaugurated by the Prince of Wales on 4 June 2000, Brigadier James Hill, Françoise Gondrée foundress with General Sir Richard Nelson Gale as Président and lies at the Eastern end of the current bridge. The original bridge was replaced in 1994 by the wider, stronger structure, built by Spie Batignolles. It had been extended by 5 metres in the early 1960s to accommodate the widening of the canal and remained in use until 1993. After its replacement, Pegasus Bridge was left on waste ground. The bridge was sold to the museum for the symbolic price of one Franc.  Many of the soldiers killed in the actions of June 1944 are buried in the war cemetery at Ranville. Lt. Brotheridge's grave, which is located in the churchyard next to the cemetery, has a commemorative plaque that was installed by the Gondrée family. The museum contains a café and a small museum shop that sells Pegasus Bridge related material. Arlette Gondrée, who now runs Café Gondrée, was a small child living in the home when it was liberated. It is not certain that the famous Gondrée café was the first French house to be liberated during D-Day. In the book \"Commando du Pont Pegase\", French historian Norbert Hugedé writes that it was the house owned by Mr Picot that was liberated first, a few hours before the Gondrées' house.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pegasus Bridge, originally called the Bénouville Bridge after the neighbouring village, is a road crossing over the Caen Canal, between Caen and Ouistreham in Normandy. The original bridge, built in 1934, is now a war memorial and is the centrepiece of the Memorial Pegasus museum at nearby Ranville. It was replaced in 1994 by a modern design which, like the old one, is a bascule bridge.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974567}
{"src_title": "Cicinho", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Pradópolis, São Paulo, Cicinho began his career at Botafogo-SP before joining Atlético Mineiro, who loaned him to the Rio de Janeiro-based Botafogo. He won the Club World Cup in 2005 while playing for São Paulo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Real Madrid.", "content": "After an interview with Sir Alex Ferguson at Manchester United, Cicinho signed for Real Madrid on 23 August 2005, effective from the new year. He joined for an undisclosed fee and accompanied compatriots Ronaldo, Robinho, Júlio Baptista and Roberto Carlos, under Brazilian manager Vanderlei Luxemburgo.  He made his debut in La Liga on 8 January 2006, replacing the injured Ronaldo after 33 minutes in a goalless draw at Villarreal, and three weeks later, he scored his first goal to open a 2–1 win at Celta de Vigo. On 14 February, he scored after 57 seconds in a 4–0 win over Real Zaragoza in the semi-finals of the Copa del Rey, to no avail due to a 6–1 loss in the first round.  In September 2006, Cicinho suffered an extensive injury to his ACL and missed over six months. His comeback, to not only the pitch, but also the starting lineup, was on 29 April 2007, against Athletic Bilbao. He assisted Ruud van Nistelrooy's first goal with a cross, and played a part in the Dutchman's second goal in a 4–1 win.  In preparation for the 2007–08 season, Cicinho received less playing time under new coach Bernd Schuster. Michel Salgado and Sergio Ramos were used on the right during most of pre-season, and he therefore requested a transfer to A.S. Roma who had been following him for some time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roma.", "content": "On 22 August 2007, Cicinho signed for Roma for a fee up to €11 million. Cicinho signed a five-year contract with the capital club worth from €3.6M in the first year up to €4 million in the last year (in gross salary, i.e. include tax), with additional bonuses.  He made his official debut in a Roma jersey on the first matchday of Serie A against Palermo, as a substitute for Ludovic Giuly in the second half. Roma went on to win the game 2–0.  On 9 February 2010, Cicinho joined São Paulo on loan until on 30 June 2010. This loan came after a 2009–10 season in which Cicinho received less playing time under new manager Claudio Ranieri in favor of Marco Cassetti and Marco Motta.  On 13 January 2011, he returned to Spain; this time joining Villarreal on loan until the end of the season.  In 2011–12 season Cicinho returned to Roma. He was the third choice for right back behind Marco Cassetti and Aleandro Rosi. He played only 2 matches in a 2011–12 season, first against Siena and second against Fiorentina in which he was a starter. His contract expired on 30 June, and he returned to Brazil.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "Cicinho returned to Brazil after six years away on 21 June 2012, signing a one-year contract for Sport as part of president Gustavo Dubeux's promise to bring in a player who would be \"greeted by the fans at the airport\".  In July 2013, Cicinho signed with Turkish club Sivasspor, managed by his former club and international defensive partner Roberto Carlos. After one year, Cicinho had become a key player, and, in April 2014, he renewed his contract for two more years.  In September 2017, after over a year of unemployment, Cicinho signed with Brasiliense of Série D for the 2018 season. He rescinded his contract on 1 March, after two competitive games for the team from Brasília, due to a recurring knee injury.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Cicinho made his debut for Brazil national team on 27 April 2005 in a 3–0 win over Guatemala at the Estádio do Pacaembu for Romário's testimonial match, assisting the opening goal by Ânderson.  He was called up for the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup in Germany, with he and Léo replacing veteran full-backs Cafú and Roberto Carlos respectively. He played every match as Brazil won.  On 12 November 2005, Cicinho came on as a substitute for Cafú in a friendly against the United Arab Emirates in Abu Dhabi and scored his only international goal to cap an 8–0 victory.  He was one of the 23 players called up by Carlos Alberto Parreira to defend Brazil's crown in the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany. He made his tournament debut in the 4–1 group stage win over Japan, assisting one of Ronaldo's goals that made him the tournament's all-time top goalscorer. His one other appearance was in the 1–0 loss to France in the quarter-finals, as a late substitute for Cafú.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In addition to being Brazilian, he is also an Italian citizen, having a grandfather from Tione degli Abruzzi in Abruzzo whose last name was \"De Cesare\", then poorly transcribed as De Cézare by the registry office.  In 2012, Cicinho revealed that he was an alcoholic and smoker, and would have taken drugs were it not for doping tests in football. He told ESPN Brasil in 2016 that he smoked two packs of cigarettes a day. The following year, he confessed in a Fox interview that his addictions became a problem following his move to Real Madrid, and that he got more than 30 tattoos in a struggle to fight his depression.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cícero João de Cézare (born 24 June 1980), nicknamed Cicinho (), is a Brazilian retired professional footballer who played as a right back.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974568}
{"src_title": "Jerome K. Jerome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jerome was born in Caldmore, Walsall, England. He was the fourth child of Marguerite Jones and Jerome Clapp (who later renamed himself Jerome Clapp Jerome), an ironmonger and lay preacher who dabbled in architecture. He had two sisters, Paulina and Blandina, and one brother, Milton, who died at an early age. Jerome was registered as Jerome Clapp Jerome, like his father's amended name, and the Klapka appears to be a later variation (after the exiled Hungarian general György Klapka). The family fell into poverty owing to bad investments in the local mining industry, and debt collectors visited often, an experience that Jerome described vividly in his autobiography \"My Life and Times\" (1926).  The young Jerome attended St Marylebone Grammar School. He wished to go into politics or be a man of letters, but the death of his father when Jerome was 13 and of his mother when he was 15 forced him to quit his studies and find work to support himself. He was employed at the London and North Western Railway, initially collecting coal that fell along the railway, and he remained there for four years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting career and early literary works.", "content": "Jerome was inspired by his older sister Blandina's love for the theatre, and he decided to try his hand at acting in 1877, under the stage name Harold Crichton. He joined a repertory troupe that produced plays on a shoestring budget, often drawing on the actors' own meagre resources – Jerome was penniless at the time – to purchase costumes and props. After three years on the road with no evident success, the 21-year-old Jerome decided that he had enough of stage life and sought other occupations. He tried to become a journalist, writing essays, satires, and short stories, but most of these were rejected. Over the next few years, he was a school teacher, a packer, and a solicitor's clerk. Finally, in 1885, he had some success with \"On the Stage – and Off\" (1885), a comic memoir of his experiences with the acting troupe, followed by \"Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow\" (1886), a collection of humorous essays which had previously appeared in the newly founded magazine, \"Home Chimes\", the same magazine that would later serialise \"Three Men in a Boat\".  On 21 June 1888, Jerome married Georgina Elizabeth Henrietta Stanley Marris (\"Ettie\"), nine days after she divorced her first husband. She had a daughter from her previous, five-year marriage nicknamed Elsie (her actual name was also Georgina). The honeymoon took place on the Thames \"in a little boat,\" a fact that was to have a significant influence on his next and most important work, \"Three Men in a Boat\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Three Men in a Boat\" and later career.", "content": "Jerome sat down to write \"Three Men in a Boat\" as soon as the couple returned from their honeymoon. In the novel, his wife was replaced by his longtime friends George Wingrave (George) and Carl Hentschel (Harris). This allowed him to create comic (and non-sentimental) situations which were nonetheless intertwined with the history of the Thames region. The book, published in 1889, became an instant success and has never been out of print. Its popularity was such that the number of registered Thames boats went up fifty percent in the year following its publication, and it contributed significantly to the Thames becoming a tourist attraction. In its first twenty years alone, the book sold over a million copies worldwide. It has been adapted to films, TV and radio shows, stage plays, and a musical. Its writing style influenced many humourists and satirists in England and elsewhere.  With the financial security that the sales of the book provided, Jerome was able to dedicate all of his time to writing. He wrote a number of plays, essays, and novels, but was never able to recapture the success of \"Three Men in a Boat\". In 1892, he was chosen by Robert Barr to edit \"The Idler\" (over Rudyard Kipling). The magazine was an illustrated satirical monthly catering to gentlemen (who, following the theme of the publication, appreciated idleness). In 1893, he founded \"To-Day\", but had to withdraw from both publications because of financial difficulties and a libel suit.  Jerome's play \"Biarritz\" had a run of two months at the Prince of Wales Theatre between April and June 1896.  In 1898, a short stay in Germany inspired \"Three Men on the Bummel\", the sequel to \"Three Men in a Boat\", reintroducing the same characters in the setting of a foreign bicycle tour. The book was nonetheless unable to capture the life-force and historic roots of its predecessor, and it enjoyed only a mild success. In 1902, he published the novel \"Paul Kelver\", which is widely regarded as autobiographical. His 1908 play \"The Passing of the Third Floor Back\" introduced a more sombre and religious Jerome. The main character was played by one of the leading actors of the time, Johnston Forbes-Robertson, and the play was a tremendous commercial success. It was twice made into film, in 1918 and in 1935. However, the play was condemned by critics – Max Beerbohm described it as \"vilely stupid\" and as written by a \"tenth-rate writer\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I and last years.", "content": "Jerome volunteered to serve his country at the outbreak of the war, but, being 56 years old, was rejected by the British Army. Eager to serve in some capacity, he volunteered as an ambulance driver for the French Army.  In 1926, Jerome published his autobiography, \"My Life and Times\". Shortly afterwards, the Borough of Walsall conferred on him the title Freeman of the Borough. During these last years, Jerome spent more time at his farmhouse Gould's Grove southeast of Ewelme near Wallingford.  Jerome suffered a paralytic stroke and a cerebral haemorrhage in June 1927, on a motoring tour from Devon to London via Cheltenham and Northampton. He lay in Northampton General Hospital for two weeks before dying on 14 June. He was cremated at Golders Green and his ashes buried at St Mary's Church, Ewelme, Oxfordshire. Elsie, Ettie, and his sister Blandina are buried beside him. His gravestone reads \"For we are labourers together with God\". A small museum dedicated to his life and works was opened in 1984 at his birth home in Walsall, but it closed in 2008, and the contents were returned to Walsall Museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jerome Klapka Jerome (2 May 1859 – 14 June 1927) was an English writer and humourist, best known for the comic travelogue \"Three Men in a Boat\" (1889).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974569}
{"src_title": "SK Slavia Prague", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Slavia was founded on 2 November 1892 by medicine students in Vinohrady, Prague, as a sport club aimed at increasing sport activity among students. Initially the club focused on cycling, and expanded to football in 1896. On 25 March of that year, Slavia won their first match against AC Prague 5–0. Four days later, Slavia played against Sparta Prague, with the match finishing 0–0, this match being the start of the rivalry between these two clubs. In 1905, Scottish manager and former Celtic player John Madden brought new tactics and views on football from his home country to the club. He managed to set up an early golden age for the club that lasted 25 years. Under Madden Slavia won 134 domestic matches out of a total of 169, and 304 internationals out of 429 between the years 1905 and 1930. In 1930, Madden retired from Slavia and professional football at the age of 66, though he remained in Prague for the rest of his life.  In the 1934 FIFA World Cup, the Czechoslovak national team included eight Slavia players. The second golden period came when Slavia bought Josef Bican from Admira Vienna. Slavia with Bican won titles in 1940, 1941, 1942 and 1943, while many football players were at war. In 1951 Slavia finished in 11th position in the league. Poor results continued during the 1950s and 1960s when Slavia were relegated twice, in 1961 and 1963. They next played in the top level of football in 1965.  In 1996, Slavia won their 14th title after 49 years. During this season, Slavia played in the semi-final of the UEFA Cup and four players of this team had big importance for the silver-medal winning Czech team from UEFA Euro 1996.  Slavia participated in the qualifying rounds for the UEFA Champions League five times (1996, 2000, 2001, 2004 and 2005), being eliminated each time until finally qualifying for the group stage in the 2007–08 season following a 3–1 aggregate victory over Ajax in the third qualifying round. For the group stage, Slavia were drawn in Group H along with Arsenal, Steaua București and Sevilla. They started with a 2–1 win at home against Steaua and a 4–2 loss to Sevilla. Next came two matches against Arsenal; Slavia lost 7–0 at the Emirates Stadium, but in the second leg they managed to draw 0–0. In Bucharest came a 1–1 draw, which qualified the Czech team for the UEFA Cup round of 32, from third place in Group H, in spite of a home 0–3 defeat against Sevilla.  In October 2006, the construction of the new and long-awaited stadium at Eden for 21,000 spectators began. The stadium was opened on 7 May 2008 with an exhibition match against Oxford University.  In the 2007–08 and 2008–09, Slavia were back-to-back Czech champions, although they did not play in the Champions League group stage due to elimination in the qualifying rounds by Fiorentina (0–2 on aggregate in 2008–09) and Sheriff Tiraspol (1–1 on away goals rule in 2009–10). In the 2009–10 season the club managed only 7th place in the league.  In the autumn of 2010, the club found itself in crisis due to its economic problems. It was discovered that Slavia owed 112 million Czech koruna to the club's former owner, ENIC Sports Ltd (English National Investment Company). As a result of this, major cost-cutting was needed to service this debt and it was confirmed that the squad would need to be purged. In addition to the players sold, midfielder Petr Trapp left the club mid-season, claiming that Slavia had not paid his wages for three months.  On 5 May 2011, a cup semi-final against Olomouc was abandoned due to fans storming the pitch in protest against the deteriorating financial situation of the club.  In September 2015, CEFC China Energy Company bought the team. Since November 2018 club owners are Sinobo Group and CITIC Group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club symbols.", "content": "The club's colours, red and white, were chosen as standing for the heart and blood, and fair play and sportsmanship respectively. The inverted five-pointed star was intended to symbolise \"new hope, forever strengthening the mind and uplifting the spirit.\" The name \"Slavia\" is a Latin term used in older literature to denote the lands inhabited by Slavs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rivalries.", "content": "Slavia's greatest rivals are Sparta Prague, with whom they contest the Prague derby. A local Vršovice derby is also contested between Slavia and Bohemians 1905, whose stadium is situated a kilometre from Eden.  Slavia is widely misconceived as being a Jewish club among other fans, particularly Sparta fans, and its fans and players are often subjected to anti-semitic abuse. However, the club was not founded by Jews nor did it have any Jewish history. Football historian Vladimír Zapotocký commented in an interview that were this the case, the Nazis would have shut the club down during the wartime occupation, as they did with DFC Prag. The association stems from a friendly match played against West Ham United in 1922, when Slavia insured the match against adverse weather conditions, and the match was later cancelled due to rain. They then agreed with West Ham to play the fixture the next day, while also collecting money from the insurance company for cancelling the fixture. A week later in a Prague derby fixture, Slavia were greeted onto the pitch by chants of \"vy židi!\" (\"you Jews!\") from the Sparta fans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cooperations.", "content": "In May 2018 a strategic cooperation with Chinese club Beijing Sinobo Guoan for both professional and youth level football started.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Players.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reserve squad.", "content": "\"To see the reserve squad for SK Slavia Prague, go to SK Slavia Prague B\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable former players.", "content": "The best known Slavia player of all time is perhaps forward Josef \"Pepi\" Bican, one of the most prolific goalscorers in the history of football. Other famous players include forward Antonín Puč, goalkeeper František Plánička (both of them members of the Czechoslovak national team in two World Cups) and midfielder František Veselý. Other big names in club history are: Karel Jarolím, Ivo Knoflíček, Vladimír Šmicer, Karel Poborský, Patrik Berger and Tomáš Souček.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coaches.", "content": "\"Only competitive matches are counted.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History in European competitions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "UEFA club coefficient ranking.", "content": "\"As of 9 March 2020, source: \"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sportovní klub Slavia Praha – fotbal (Sports Club Slavia Prague – Football, ), commonly known as Slavia Praha / Slavia Prague, is a Czech professional football club in Prague. Founded in 1892, they are the second most successful club in the Czech Republic since its independence in 1993.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974570}
{"src_title": "General Court (European Union)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Competence.", "content": "The General Court hears disputes (such as those by persons who have been refused a trade mark by EUIPO, the EU Trade Mark and designs registry).  The creation of the General Court instituted a judicial system based on two levels of jurisdiction: all cases heard at first instance by the General Court may be subject to a right of appeal to the Court of Justice on points of law only.  In view of the increasing number of cases brought before the General Court in the last five years, to relieve it of some of the caseload, the Treaty of Nice, which entered into force on 1 February 2003, provides for the creation of 'judicial panels' in certain specific areas.  On 2 November 2004 the Council adopted a decision establishing the European Union Civil Service Tribunal. This new specialised tribunal, composed of seven judges, heard and determined at first instance disputes involving the European Civil Service. Its decisions were subject to a right of appeal before the General Court on points of law only. Decisions given by the General Court in this area might exceptionally be subject to review by the Court of Justice. The European Union Civil Service Tribunal was duly constituted into law on 2 December 2005. Despite the success in its mandate, it was dissolved on 1 September 2016, leading to the doubling of the number of judges at the General Court.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "Since February 2020 the General Court is composed of 54 Judges; this follows a 2016 reform which increased the number of judges to two per member state by 2019, and the departure of the UK from the EU at the end of January 2020. The Judges are appointed for a renewable term of six years by common accord of the governments of the Member States., there are 49 Judges in post: 23 member states have nominated both their judges, whilst Latvia, Poland, and Slovakia have nominated just one, and Slovenia has nominated neither.  The members of the General Court elect their president and the presidents of the Chambers of five Judges from among their number for a renewable period of three years.  There are no permanent Advocates General attached to the General Court (unlike the European Court of Justice, which has eleven Advocates General). However, the task of an Advocate General may be performed in a limited number of cases by a Judge nominated to do so. In practice this has been done occasionally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of Judges.", "content": "<nowiki>*</nowiki> Judge continues to hold the office until their successor takes up the duties according to the Article 5(3) of the Protocol No. 3 on the Statute of the Court of Justice of the EU", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jurisdiction.", "content": "The General Court, like the Court of Justice, has the task of ensuring that the law is observed in the interpretation and application of the Treaties of the European Union and the provisions adopted by the competent Union institutions.  To fulfil its main task, the General Court has jurisdiction to hear and determine at first instance all direct actions brought by individuals and the Member States, with the exception of those to be assigned to a 'judicial panel' and those reserved for the Court of Justice.  (against acts of the Union institutions)  (against inaction by the Union institutions)  (for the reparation of damage caused by unlawful conduct on the part of a Union institution)  (disputes concerning contracts in public or private law entered into by the Union, containing such a clause)  (disputes between the Union and its officials and other servants)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Categories of direct actions.", "content": "\"Subject-matter of direct actions: all matters, including:\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Procedure.", "content": "The General Court has its own Rules of Procedure. As a rule, the Court's procedure includes a written phase and an oral phase. The proceedings are conducted in a language at the petitioner's choosing. As in the European Court of Justice, the working language of the Court is nevertheless French, and this includes the language the judges deliberate in and the drafting language of preliminary reports and judgments.  The Court is separated into 9 divisions (called ‘chambers’) sat by 3-judge benches, except for the 7th division whose bench is sat by 4 judges. Each chamber has an extended composition of 5 judges. Cases are assigned by the President of the Court to a relevant divisional presiding judge. The presiding judge assigned to the case then chooses a judge-reporter (\"judge-rapporteur\") from the judges of the division, whose clerks write a preliminary report (\"rapport préalable\") based on the parties' pleadings and applicable law.  At the close of the written phase and, as the case may be, on adoption of measures of inquiry, the case is argued orally in open court. The proceedings are interpreted simultaneously, if necessary, into various official languages of the European Union. The judges then deliberate based on a draft judgment prepared by the judge-reporter. The Court's final judgment is handed down in open court.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The General Court, informally known as the European General Court (EGC), is a constituent court of the Court of Justice of the European Union. It hears actions taken against the institutions of the European Union by individuals and member states, although certain matters are reserved for the European Court of Justice. Decisions of the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice, but only on a point of law. Prior to the coming into force of the Lisbon Treaty on 1 December 2009, it was known as the Court of First Instance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974571}
{"src_title": "Saint Nino", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Many sources agree that Nino was born in the small town of Colastri, in the Roman province of Cappadocia, although a smaller number of sources disagree with this. On her family and origin, the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church have different traditions.  According to the Eastern Orthodox Church tradition, she was the only child of a famous family. Her father was Roman general Zabulon and her mother Sosana (Susan). On her father's side, Nino was related to St. George, and on her mother's, to the patriarch of Jerusalem, Houbnal I.  During her childhood, Nino was brought up by the nun Niofora-Sarah of Bethlehem. Nino’s uncle, who was the patriarch of Jerusalem, oversaw her traditional upbringing. Nino went to Rome with the help of her uncle where she decided to preach the Christian gospel in Iberia, known to her as the resting place of Christ’s tunic. According to the legend, Nino received a vision where the Virgin Mary gave her a grapevine cross and said:  Saint Nino entered the Iberian Kingdom in Caucasus from the Kingdom of Armenia, where she escaped persecution at the hands of the Armenian King Tiridates III. She had belonged to a community of virgins numbering 35, along with martyr Hripsime, under the leadership of St. Gayane, who preached Christianity in the Armenian Kingdom. They were all, with the exception of Nino, tortured and beheaded by Tiridates. All 35 of the virgins were soon canonised by the Armenian Apostolic Church, including Nino (as St. Nune).  Contrasting with this, the Roman Catholic tradition, as narrated by Rufinus of Aquileia, says Nino was brought to Iberia not by her own will, but as a slave, and that her family tree is obscure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "St Nino in Iberia.", "content": "Nino reached the borders of the ancient Georgian Kingdom of Iberia from the south about 320. There she placed a Christian cross in the small town of Akhalkalaki and started preaching the Christian faith in Urbnisi, finally reaching Mtskheta (the capital of Iberia). The Iberian Kingdom had been influenced by the neighbouring Persian Empire which played an important role as the regional power in the Caucasus. The Iberian King Mirian III and his nation worshiped the syncretic gods Armazi and Zaden. Soon after the arrival of Nino in Mtskheta, Nana, the Queen of Iberia requested an audience with the Cappadocian.  Queen Nana, who suffered from a severe illness, had some knowledge of Christianity but had not yet converted to it. Nino, restoring the Queen's health, won to herself disciples from the Queen's attendants, including a Jewish priest and his daughter, Abiathar and Sidonia. Nana also officially converted to Christianity and was baptized by Nino herself. Mirian, aware of his wife’s religious conversion, was intolerant of her new faith, persecuting it and threatening to divorce his wife if she did not leave the faith. He secluded himself, however, from Nino and the growing Christian community in his kingdom. His isolation to Christianity did not last long because, according to the legend, while on a hunting trip, he was suddenly struck blind as total darkness emerged in the woods. In a desperate state, King Mirian uttered a prayer to the God of St Nino:  As soon as he finished his prayer, light appeared and the king hastily returned to his palace in Mtskheta. As a result of this miracle, the King of Iberia renounced idolatry under the teaching of St Nino and was baptized as the first Christian King of Iberia. Soon, the whole of his household and the inhabitants of Mtskheta adopted Christianity. In 326 King Mirian made Christianity the state religion of his kingdom, making Iberia the second Christian state after Armenia.  After adopting Christianity, Mirian sent an ambassador to Byzantium, asking Emperor Constantine I to have a bishop and priests sent to Iberia. Constantine, having learned of Iberia’s conversion to Christianity, granted Mirian the new church land in Jerusalem and sent a delegation of bishops to the court of the Georgian King. Roman historian Tyrannius Rufinus in \"Historia Ecclesiastica\" writes about Mirian's request to Constantine:  In 334, Mirian commissioned the building of the first Christian church in Iberia which was finally completed in 379 on the spot where now stands the Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Mtskheta. Nino, having witnessed the conversion of Iberia to Christianity, withdrew to the mountain pass in Bodbe, Kakheti. St Nino died soon after; immediately after her death, King Mirian commenced with the building of monastery in Bodbe, where her tomb can still be seen in the churchyard.  Nino and its variants remains the most popular name for women and girls in the Republic of Georgia. There are currently 88,441 women over age 16 by that name residing in the country, according to the Georgia Ministry of Justice. It also continues to be a popular name for baby girls.  The Georgian name \"Nino\" is \"Nune\" or \"Nuneh\" in Armenian, thus St. Nino is known as St. Nune in Armenia. Her history as the only one of the 35 nuns of the company of Sts. Gayane and Hripsime to escape the slaughter at the hands of the pagan Armenian King Tiradates III in 301 is recounted in the book \"The History of the Armenians\" by Movses Khorenatzi (Moses of Khoren), which was written about the year 440.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Phoka Nunnery of St. Nino was established in rural Georgia by Abbess Elizabeth and two novices. They originally lived in a nearby house owned by Georgian Orthodox Church head Patriarch Ilia II, then in 1992 moved to the site of an 11th century church to restore it. The nunnery population in 2010 had grown to six nuns and one novice and the restoration had been completed. Along with their devotional life, the resident nuns are all artisans. Some working in enamel and mosaic crafts, others in making cheese, honey, chocolate, and jams. They integrate their skills with the local folk customs of cheesemaking and also produce textiles in the traditional Javakhetian style. The nuns also run a school for local children, mostly Armenians.  The Sacred Monastery of Saint Nina is the home of a monastic community of Georgian Apostolic Orthodox Christian nuns in the Patriarchate of Georgia's North American Diocese. It is located in Union Bridge, Maryland, USA, and was established in September 2012.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Nino (, \"ts'minda nino\";, \"Surb Nune\";, \"Agía Nína\"; sometimes \"St. Nune\" or \"St. Ninny\") \"Equal to the Apostles and the Enlightener of Georgia\" (c. 296 – c. 338 or 340) was a woman who preached Christianity in the territory of Caucasian Iberia, of what is now part of Georgia. It resulted in the Christianization of the royal house of Iberia, with the consequent Christianization of Iberia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974572}
{"src_title": "Focke-Wulf Fw 189", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1937, the German Ministry of Aviation issued a specification for a short-range, three-seat reconnaissance aircraft with a good all-round view to support the German army in the field, replacing the Henschel Hs 126, which had just entered service. A power of about 850–900 hp (630–670 kW) was specified. The specification was issued to Arado and Focke-Wulf. Arado's design, the Ar 198, which was initially the preferred option, was a relatively conventional single-engined high-wing monoplane with a glazed gondola under the fuselage. Focke-Wulf's chief designer Kurt Tank's design, the Fw 189, was a twin-boom design, powered by two Argus As 410 engines instead of with an expected single engine. As a \"twin-boom\" design like the earlier Dutch Fokker G.I from 1936, the Fw 189 used a central crew gondola for its crew accommodation, which for the Fw 189 would be designed with a heavily glazed and framed \"stepless\" cockpit forward section, which used no separate windscreen panels for the pilot (as with many German medium bombers from 1938 onwards). Blohm & Voss, however, proposed as a private venture something even more radical: chief designer Dr. Richard Vogt's unique asymmetric BV 141. Orders were placed for three prototypes, each of the Arado and Focke-Wulf designs, in April 1937. The Fw 189 had as part of its defensive armament design, an innovative rear-gun emplacement designed by the Ikaria-Werke: a rotating conical rear \"turret\" of sorts, manually rotated with a metal-framed, glazed conical fairing streamlining its shape, with the open section providing the firing aperture for either a single or twin-mount machine gun defense at the unit's circular-section forward mount.  The Fw 189 was produced in large numbers, at the Focke-Wulf factory in Bremen, at the Bordeaux-Merignac aircraft factory (Avions Marcel Bloch's factory, which became Dassault Aviation after the war) in occupied France, then in the Aero Vodochody aircraft factory in Prague, occupied Czechoslovakia. Total production was 864 aircraft of all variants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Called the \"Fliegende Auge\" (\"Flying Eye\") of the German Army, the Fw 189 was used extensively on the Eastern Front with great success. It was nicknamed \"\"Rama\"\" (\"frame\" in the Russian, Ukrainian and Polish languages) by Soviet forces, referring to its distinctive tailboom and stabilizer shapes, giving it the characteristic quadrangular appearance. Despite its low speed and fragile looks, the Fw 189's manoeuvrability made it a difficult target for attacking Soviet fighters. When attacked, the Fw 189 was often able to out-turn attacking fighters by simply flying in a tight circle into which enemy fighters could not follow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nocturnal recon and night fighter versions.", "content": "Night Reconnaissance Group 15, attached to the 4th Panzerarmee in southern Poland during late 1944, carried out nocturnal recon and light bombing sorties with a handful of 189A-1s. These planes typically lacked the main model's rear dorsal machine gun. Small numbers of A-1s were used in the night fighter role in the closing weeks of the war - the aircraft were modified for this new duty by having their reconnaissance equipment removed, and then fitted with FuG 212 AI radar in the nose and a single obliquely-firing 20mm MG FF autocannon in the common \"Schräge Musik\" upwards/forward-firing offensive fitment also used for heavier-airframed German night fighters, like the Bf 110G, but for the Fw 189; in the crew nacelle in the space where the rear dorsal gun was normally housed. The majority of the \"nachtjager\" 189s were operated by NJG 100, flying out of an airbase at Greifswald. Chronic fuel shortages and enemy air superiority over the 189s' defence area (chiefly Berlin) meant that only a very few kills were scored by these craft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "The main production model was the Fw 189A reconnaissance plane, built mostly in two variants, the A-1 and A-2. Unless otherwise stated all aircraft were powered by two Argus As 410 engines of 465 PS (459 hp, 342 kW).  The Fw 189B was a five-seat training aircraft; only 13 were built.  The Fw 189C was conceived as a heavily armoured ground-attack, close-support variant, in competition with the Henschel Hs 129. But its two prototypes (V1b and V6) were not satisfactory, and it was not produced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "One Fw 189 survives today. Its story starts on May 4, 1943 when Fw 189 \"V7+1H\" (\"Werk Nr. 2100\"), of 1./\"Nahaufklärungsgruppe 10\", with V7 originally the \"Geschwaderkennung\" code for Heeres-Aufklärungsgruppe 32 based at Pontsalenjoki (due east of Kuusamo, and within the south-central area of modern Russia's Republic of Karelia) took off on a mission to photograph the Loukhi-3 airbase from an altitude of, then to continue north along the Murmansk-Leningrad railway. Approximately 31 minutes after taking off, \"V7+1H\" was attacked by Lend-Lease-acquired Soviet Hawker Hurricane fighters. The aircraft dived to escape the fighters, but owing to damage already suffered, could not pull out in time, and it struck the treetops. The tail was torn off, and the crew nacelle left hanging upside down within the trees. The pilot, Lothar Mothes, survived but one crewman was killed in the crash and the third died from blood loss as a result of a severed leg. Incredibly, Mothes was able to survive two weeks in sub-zero temperatures, evading Soviet patrols while eating bark and grubs as he walked back to his base. Mothes spent the next nine months in a hospital recovering from severe frostbite before returning to the front line, eventually to fly another 100 missions.  In 1991, the wreckage of \"V7+1H\" was found in the Russian forest where it had remained for 48 years. The aircraft was purchased by a group of British aircraft enthusiasts and was shipped to the UK, arriving in the town of Worthing, West Sussex in March 1992. The Focke Wulf 189 Restoration Society was formed to restore the aircraft to flying condition. Her former pilot, Lothar Mothes, met up again with his aircraft at the 1996 Biggin Hill Airshow.  It was reported that this aircraft was acquired by Paul Allen’s Flying Heritage Collection. It is believed to be in storage in America.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Focke-Wulf Fw 189 \"Uhu\" (\"Eagle Owl\") is a German twin-engine, twin-boom, three-seat tactical reconnaissance and army cooperation aircraft. It first flew in 1938 (Fw 189 V1), entered service in 1940 and was produced until mid-1944.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974573}
{"src_title": "Coat of arms of Belgium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The newly independent Kingdom of Belgium decided to base its coat of arms and flag on the symbols used by the short-lived United Belgian States. These came into being after the Southern Netherlands threw off Austrian rule. It existed as an independent polity from January to December 1790. The Duchy of Brabant had taken the lead in the so-called Brabant Revolution, the insurrection against Emperor Joseph II, and afterwards dominated the United Netherlandish States. Therefore, the Lion of Brabant (sable, a lion rampant or, armed and langued gules) came to stand for the entire federation.  This was not without precedent. In the course of the Dutch Revolt the provinces rebelling against the rule of King Philip II adopted a common seal in 1578 showing the Leo Belgicus wearing a crown and holding a sword and a sheaf of arrows. The crown stood for sovereignty, the sword for the war against Spain and the arrows for the concord and unity among the rebellious provinces. At first the lion of the (Dutch) Republic of the United Provinces had the Brabant colours or on sable. It was only when most of Brabant was reconquered by Spain in the 1580s and Holland came to dominate the Republic, that the colours of the Dutch lion (or and gules) became the definitive tinctures of the arms of the United Provinces. The Dutch Revolt likewise provided the motto \"Unity Makes Strength\". The inscription of the seal of 1578 reads (through unity small things grow), a quote taken from Sallust's Jugurthine War. Soon Dutch sources used the translation. The United States of Belgium of 1790 used the Latin version. Their motto was in turn taken over and translated into French by the Kingdom of Belgium in 1831. It was only in 1958 that it was decided that the official Dutch translation should read.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Greater version.", "content": "The shield is emblazoned: \"Sable, a lion rampant or, armed and langued gules\". It is surmounted by a helmet with raised visor, with mantling or and sable and the royal crown in lieu of a crest. Behind the shield are placed a hand of justice and a sceptre with a lion. The grand collar of the Order of Leopold surrounds the shield. Two lions guardant proper support the shield as well as a lance with the national colours black, yellow and red. Underneath the compartment is placed the motto in French or Eendracht maakt macht in Dutch, or Unity Is Strength in English. The riband of the motto is red, with black stripes on either side. The lettering is golden. Since the Royal Decree of 1837 never received an official translation, the use of the Dutch version of the motto is customary rather than official. The whole is placed on a red mantle with ermine lining and golden fringes and tassels, ensigned with the royal crown. Above the mantle rise banners with the arms of the nine provinces that constituted Belgium in 1837. They are (from dexter to sinister) Antwerp, West Flanders, East Flanders, Liège, Brabant, Hainaut, Limburg, Luxembourg and Namur.  The greater arms are used only rarely. They adorn the great seal that is affixed to laws and international treaties.  Since the province of Brabant was split into Flemish Brabant, Walloon Brabant and Brussels in 1995, the greater arms no longer reflect the present territorial divisions of the state. The changes made to the arms of the Flemish provinces as a result of this decision are not reflected in the great seal either.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lesser version.", "content": "The lesser coat of arms (as used by the Belgian federal government, on passport covers and the official sites of the monarchy and of the government) consists of the shield, the royal crown, the crossed sceptres, the collar of the Order of Leopold and the motto.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Royal versions.", "content": "A Royal Decree published on 19 July 2019 and signed on the same day, by King Philippe, reinstated the Saxonian escutcheon in all the royal versions of the family's coat of arms. The reinstatement of the shield of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha into the royal arms occurred shortly after the visit of King Philippe and Queen Mathilde to the ancestral Friedenstein Castle. The king also added translations of the motto into the three official languages of Belgium, to reflect his wish \"to be the King of the whole Kingdom and of all Belgians\". The latest royal decree therefore reverses previous changes made to the Royal versions of the coat arms which removed the armorial bearings of Saxony during the First World War.  Sable, a lion rampant or, armed and langued Gules charged on the shoulder with an escutcheon of House Wettin. The shield is surmounted by a golden helm with the Royal Crown of Belgium and lambrequin Or and Sable. The shield surrounded by the necklace of the Order of Leopold. The supporter are two lions guardant proper each supporting a lance Or with two National Flags of Belgium. Motto: \"Eendracht maakt macht\" - \"L'union fait la force\" - \"Einigkeit macht stark\", in gold letters, on a ribbon Gules, edged Sable. The whole is placed on a mantle Purpure with ermine lining, fringes and tassels Or and ensigned with the Royal Crown of Belgium.  The Royal Arms difference with a label of three points Gules, the centre point bearing the royal crown Or. The shield is surmounted by the Royal Crown of Belgium.  The Royal Arms difference with a label of three points Or. The shield is surmounted by the Princely Crown of Belgium. The supporters each accompanied by a banner of gold, fringed likewise, bearing Sable, a golden lion, armed and langued Gules (Brabant).  The Royal Arms difference with a narrow bordure Or. The shield is surmounted by the Princely Crown of Belgium.  The Royal Arms difference with a narrow bordure Purpure. The shield is surmounted by the Princely Crown of Belgium.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The coat of arms of Belgium bears a lion or, known as Leo Belgicus (Latin for \"the Belgian lion\"), as its charge. This is in accordance with article 193 (originally 125) of the Belgian Constitution: \"The Belgian nation takes red, yellow and black as colours, and as state coat of arms the Belgian lion with the motto UNITY MAKES STRENGTH\". A royal decree of 17 March 1837 determines the achievement to be used in the greater and the lesser version, respectively.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974574}
{"src_title": "Pillnitz Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "As early as the 14th century, a modest residential fortress existed on the site of today' castle. It was enlarged in the 16th and 17th centuries to a four-winged building. The château was acquired by the Wettin dynasty in 1694 when Elector John George IV of Saxony bought it as a present for his mistress, Magdalena Sibylla of Neidschutz. Both died soon afterwards. In 1706, John George's brother Augustus II the Strong gave the facilities to one of his numerous mistresses, Anna Constantia of Brockdorff, only to rescind the gift after she fled to Berlin in 1715. Augustus II then ordered the château to be converted into an oriental summer palace for riverside festivities, necessitating extensive rebuilding.  Starting in 1720, the first church and buildings were replaced by elaborate Baroque palaces designed by Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann and Zacharias Longuelune. First, in 1720/21, the Riverside Palace (\"Wasserpalais\") was constructed on the river bank to plans by Pöppelmann. The upper staircase built on the Elbe side in 1722 was supplemented in 1725 by water stairs forming a gondola dock, designed by the French architect Zacharias Longuelune. In 1723/24, an almost identical complement to the Riverside Palace, the Upper Palace (\"Bergpalais\"), was completed. At the same time, a garden was laid out between the two palaces. Construction continued until 1725, with a focus on the Chinoiserie style. Augustus apparently then lost interest in his renovated palace, shifting his focus to other locations.  In 1765, Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony, a great grandson of Augustus the Strong, made Pillnitz his summer residence. At the time, an English garden with an English pavilion, a Chinese garden with a Chinese pavilion and an artificial ruin were added. When the Countess' palace at Pillnitz Castle burnt down in 1818, Frederick Augustus asked his architect, Christian Friedrich Schuricht, to design a new palace at the same location. The Neoclassical New Palace (\"Neues Palais\") was completed in 1826.  Pillnitz Castle was used as the summer residence of the House of Wettin until 1918.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buildings.", "content": "The main buildings are the Upper Palace (\"Bergpalais\"), built between 1722 and 1723, and the Riverside Palace (\"Wasserpalais\"), built between 1720 and 1721. The Riverside Palace has elegant steps down to the river. The two are connected on the east side by the New Palace (\"Neues Palais\"), built in Neoclassical style between 1819 and 1826 after the Countess' palace burnt down in 1818. The New Palace contains the royal kitchen and a Catholic chapel. The roofs and moldings in each of the buildings exemplify the Oriental-influenced style fashionable during that period.  Today, the New Palace contains the Palace Museum (\"Schlossmuseum\") with a permanent exhibition presenting its eventful history as a former royal Saxon summer residence. It houses the only neo-classical domed hall in Dresden, opened in 1823. The royal kitchen shows “cooking machines” and original copper pots and pans in its reconstructed historical setting. Here, approximately 27 employees prepared meals for the royal family and their entourage. The Catholic chapel in the eastern wing of the New Palace is also part of the Palace Museum. Its multiple frescos by the court painter, Carl Christian Vogel von Vogelstein, depict scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary.  The Upper Palace and Riverside Palace house the Arts and Crafts Museum (\"Kunstgewerbemuseum\") of the Dresden State Art Collections. It exhibits furniture, ceramics and other objects from the 13th to the 20th century, including the throne of Augustus II. Some of the exhibition rooms retain the original decoration.  The visitor center is located in the \"Alte Wache\" (Old Guardhouse), a small building east of the New Palace.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The park.", "content": "The buildings surround a Baroque flower garden, whose centrepiece is a pond with a large fountain. From this, a chestnut-lined allée approximately long runs parallel to the river bank, flanked by small rectangular hedged parterres.  The 28-hectare park surrounding the main buildings contains botanical attractions from all over the world. Among them is a camellia tree more than 230 years old – one of the oldest in Europe. Legend has it that Carl Peter Thunberg brought it from Kyoto to Kew Gardens in 1776. The Camellia japonica was planted in its current location in 1801. It extends and, from February to April, produces up to 35,000 blooms. During wintertime, the tree is protected by a glass house on rails.  The park also features a late 18th-century English garden with an English pavilion, a Chinese pavilion, a conifer garden and an orangery. The English pavilion, built in 1780, is a copy of Donato Bramante's Tempietto in Rome. It is located next to a pond in the English garden. A statue with the head of Juno Ludovisi, a replica from the Roman marble head of the 1st century A.D. that is now in the National Museum of Rome, was placed on the pond's island in the English Garden in the 19th century. In 1804, the Chinese Pavilion was erected on the northern edge of the park. While the Chinese elements of the castle are only decorations, this small pavilion was built in the authentic Chinese style. The paintings on the walls inside depict actual Chinese landscapes.  Also shown is a replica of the red royal gondola which Frederick Augustus I used for transport between his residence in Dresden, the royal palace, and his country seat in Pillnitz. Together with its green counterpart, the original red gondola was built under the supervision of the architect Christian Friedrich Schuricht around 1800. Deterioration of both gondolas required a restoration in 1954, when this replica was built by using parts from both boats.  The palm house was built between 1859 and 1861. Covering 660 square metres and in length, it was the largest greenhouse in Germany at the time. After extensive restoration completed in 2009, it now contains plants from Australia and South Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surroundings.", "content": "Pillnitz Castle is also harmoniously integrated with the natural setting of the Elbe valley and the surrounding hills and vineyards.  In 1723, Augustus II the Strong asked his architect, Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann, to build the country Church of the Holy Spirit east of the castle. Due to its location in the middle of vineyards, it is also known as the Vineyard church (\"Weinbergkirche\").  Around 1780, the valley to the northeast of the castle, called \"Friedrichsgrund\" (Frederick valley), was landscaped for Frederick Augustus I to take walks. It features many small stone bridges and other small decorative buildings that can still be seen today from the path to the former watermill, the \"Meixmühle\".  As was fashionable in German interpretations of Baroque and English gardens, in 1785, an artificial ruin was built on a hilltop, north of the castle. Its Gothic Revival architecture was meant to contrast with the Baroque style of the castle, its expression of the fleeting vanity of life with the pleasurable nature of the castle gardens.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pillnitz Castle () is a restored Baroque palace at the eastern end of the city of Dresden in the German state of Saxony. It is located on the bank of the River Elbe in the former village of Pillnitz. Pillnitz Castle was the summer residence of many electors and kings of Saxony; it is also known for the Declaration of Pillnitz in 1791.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974575}
{"src_title": "Russian Blue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The Russian Blue is a naturally occurring breed that may have originated in the port of Arkhangel'sk in Russia. They are also sometimes called Archangel Blues. It is believed that sailors took Russian Blues from the Archangel Isles to Great Britain and Northern Europe in the 1860s. The first recorded appearance outside of Russia was in 1875 at The Crystal Palace in England as the Archangel Cat. The Russian Blue competed in a class including all other blue cats until 1912, when it was given its own class. The breed was developed mainly in England and Scandinavia until after World War II.  Right after the war, a lack of numbers of Russian Blues led to cross breeding with the Siamese. Although Russian Blues were in the United States before the war, it was not until the post-war period that American breeders created the modern Russian Blue that is seen in the United States today. American breeders combined the bloodlines of both the Scandinavian and British Russian Blues. The Siamese traits have now largely been bred out. The short hair and slate-gray/blue color is often seen in mixed-breed cats, which can affect breeders and showers due to mislabeling a cat as a Russian Blue.  Russian Blues are plush short-haired, shimmering pale blue-gray cats with emerald green eyes. Guard hairs are distinctly silver-tipped giving the cat a silvery sheen or lustrous appearance. They have been used on a limited basis to create other breeds such as the Havana Brown or alter existing breeds such as the Nebelung. They are being used in Italy as a way to make Oriental Shorthairs healthier and more robust called RUS4OSH in FIFe.  Russian Whites and Russian Blacks were created from crosses with domestic white cats which were allegedly imported from Russia. The first line was developed by Frances McLeod (Arctic) in the United Kingdom during the 1960s and the second line produced by Dick and Mavis Jones (Myemgay) in Australia in the 1970s. By the late 1970s, the Russian White and Russian Black colors were accepted by cat fanciers in Australia as well as in South Africa and now also in the United Kingdom as Russian cats (in different classes). However, the Cat Fanciers' Association and FIFe does not recognize any variation of the Russian Blue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical characteristics.", "content": "The Russian Blue has bright green eyes, pinkish lavender or mauve paws, two layers of short thick fur, and a blue-grey coat. The color is a bluish-gray that is the dilute expression of the black gene. However, as dilute genes are recessive (\"d\") and each parent will have a set of two recessive genes (\"dd\") two non-CPC Russian Blues will always produce a blue cat. Due to the breeding with Siamese after World War II, there are colorpoint genes floating around. If two carriers are bred together, then they will produce a litter of mixed colors—solid blue or white with blue like a Siamese. People call these CPC cats \"colorpoint\", \"whites\" or \"pointed\" Russians. In most registries, one cannot register, breed or show a colorpoint Russian.  The coat is known as a \"double coat\", with the undercoat being soft, downy and equal in length to the guard hairs, which are an even blue with silver tips. However, the tail may have a few very dull, almost unnoticeable stripes. The coat is described as thick, plush and soft to the touch. The silver tips give the coat a shimmering appearance. Its eyes are almost always a dark and vivid green. Any white patches of fur or yellow eyes in adulthood are seen as flaws in show cats. Russian Blues should not be confused with British Blues (which are not a distinct breed, but rather a British Shorthair with a blue coat as the British Shorthair breed itself comes in a wide variety of colors and patterns), nor the Chartreux or Korat which are two other naturally occurring breeds of blue cats, although they have similar traits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavioral characteristics.", "content": "The Russian Blue is a curious and tranquil animal. They are known for their friendliness and intelligence and are somewhat reserved. They have been known to play fetch and open doors, and are sensitive to human emotions. They enjoy playing with a variety of toys and develop loyal bonds to their loved ones and other family pets. They are generally considered to be a quiet breed but there are always exceptions. They are normally reserved around strangers, unless they are brought up in an active household. Many Russian Blues have been trained to do tricks. They can also be fierce hunters, often catching rodents, birds, rabbits, small mammals, or reptiles.  Russian Blue kittens are energetic and require adequate playmates or toys as they can become mischievous if bored. They have exceptional athleticism and rival even Abyssinians for their ability to leap and climb. Slow to mature, Russian Blues retain many of their adolescent traits both good and otherwise until they are 3–4 years old and even much older Blues can be easily enticed into play by their owners. Russian Blues are also highly intelligent. They have an excellent memory and will learn the hiding place of favorite toys (e.g., laser pointers) and lead their owners to them when they want a game. They also have a keen ability to remember favorite visitors and will race to greet familiar faces even if quite some time has passed between visits—a radical departure from their normally very reserved behavior around unfamiliar people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Growth and maturity.", "content": "Russian Blues have a life expectancy of around 10–20 years, but some have lived up to a maximum of 25 years. They usually have few health issues as they tend to have little to no genetic problems and are not prone to illness. They are small to moderate-sized cats with an average weight of when fully grown. Males will typically be larger than females. Their gestation period is approximately 64 days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Allergies.", "content": "Anecdotal evidence suggests that the Russian Blue may be better tolerated by individuals with mild to moderate allergies. There is speculation that the Russian Blue produces less glycoprotein Fel d 1, one source of cat allergies. The thicker coat may also trap more of the allergens closer to the cat's skin. Glycoprotein is one source of cat allergies, but this does not mean they are suitable to be homed with people allergic to cats as they will still cause the allergy to be affected, only to a lesser degree for short periods of time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Russian Blue is a cat breed that comes in colors varying from a light shimmering silver to a darker, slate grey. Their short, dense coat has been the hallmark of the Russian breed for more than a century. The dense coat stands out from the body.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974576}
{"src_title": "Johann Ernst von Thun und Hohenstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Born in Prague, Bohemia, he was a member of the Tyrolean Thun und Hohenstein noble family, elevated to the rank of Imperial Counts (\"Reichsgrafen\") in 1629. His elder half-brother Guidobald was Archbishop of Salzburg from 1654 to 1668. Johann Ernst von Thun was ordained a priest in 1677. He was elected Bishop of Seckau in Styria on 29 December 1679 and consecrated by the Salzburg archbishop Max Gandolf von Kuenburg the next year. Thun succeeded Kuenburg by election on 30 June 1687, obtaining the prince-archiepiscopal dignities.  The archbishop is best remembered as patron of the architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, a leading proponent of Austrian Baroque church architecture. Thun had his Salzburg residence lavishly rebuilt, including the Collegiate Church, the Holy Trinity Church, and Schloss Klessheim. Throughout his reign, however, he displayed a marked antipathy to the Italian designers and tastemakers that were emulated by many German monarchs at the time. Upon his accession, he halted work on a church being built for the Italian Theatine order and denied payment to Italian craftsmen, resulting in longstanding court proceedings.  Thun, backed by Pope Innocent XII, prevailed in lengthy quarrels with the Salzburg cathedral chapter as well as with the neighbouring Bishops of Chiemsee and Passau. In 1697, he obliged all graduates of Salzburg's university to swear belief in the Immaculate Conception. He remained a harsh persecutor of Crypto-protestantism in his Salzburg lands; these measures were later once again intensified under his successor Leopold Anton von Firmian. On the other hand, Thun supported the leading members of the Braunau Parliament during the Bavarian uprising of 1705–06 against the occupying forces of the Habsburg emperor Joseph I.  Archbishop von Thun was buried in Salzburg Cathedral. By his will, he had his brain deposited in the university chapel, his entrails (symbolizing compassion) deposited in his hospital church, and his heart interred at his favorite Holy Trinity Church.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Ernst Graf von Thun und Hohenstein (3 July 1643 – 20 April 1709) was Bishop of Seckau from 1679 to 1687 and Prince-archbishop of Salzburg from 1687 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974577}
{"src_title": "Silybum marianum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Milk thistles can grow to be tall, and have an overall conical shape. The approximate maximum base diameter is. The stem is grooved and more or less cottony. The largest specimens have hollow stems.  The leaves are oblong to lanceolate. They are either lobate or pinnate, with spiny edges. They are hairless, shiny green, with milk-white veins.  The flower heads are 4 to 12 cm long and wide, of red-purple colour. They flower from June to August in the North or December to February in the Southern Hemisphere (summer through autumn).  The bracts are hairless, with triangular, spine-edged appendages, tipped with a stout yellow spine.  The achenes are black, with a simple long white pappus, surrounded by a yellow basal ring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Possibly native near the coast of southeast England, it has been widely introduced outside its natural range, for example into North America, Iran, Australia and New Zealand where it is considered an invasive weed. Cultivated fields for the production of raw material for the pharmaceutical industry exist on a larger scale in Austria (Waldviertel region), Germany, Hungary, Poland, China and Argentina. In Europe it is sown yearly in March–April. The harvest in two steps (cutting and threshing) takes place in August, about 2–3 weeks after the flowering.  Exkursionsflora Fuer Kreta by Jahn & Schoenfelder (1995, page 326) states that the distribution is mediterranean-near east. They quote it as a native plant of Crete, Greece.  Milk thistle (\"Silybum marianum\") is a thorny plant presenting decorative leaves with a white pattern of veins and purple flower heads. The plant originates from mountains of the Mediterranean region, where it forms scrub on a rocky base.  The plant is sometimes also used as a decorative element in gardens, and its dried flower heads may be used for the decoration of dry bouquets.  The \"giant thistle of the Pampas\" reported by Darwin in the Voyage of the Beagle is thought by some to be \"Silybum marianum\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "Traditional milk thistle extract is made from the seeds, which contain approximately 4–6% silymarin. The extract consists of about 65–80% silymarin (a flavonolignan complex) and 20–35% fatty acids, including linoleic acid. Silymarin is a complex mixture of polyphenolic molecules, including seven closely related flavonolignans (silybin A, silybin B, isosilybin A, isosilybin B, silychristin, isosilychristin, silydianin) and one flavonoid (taxifolin). Silibinin, a semipurified fraction of silymarin, is primarily a mixture of 2 diastereoisomers, silybin A and silybin B, in a roughly 1:1 ratio.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Milk thistle has been used for a number of purposes including treatment of liver disease, prevention and treatment of cancer, and supportive treatment of poisoning from death cap mushrooms; however, clinical study results were described as heterogeneous and contradictory. A 2007 Cochrane Review included eighteen randomized clinical trials which assessed milk thistle in 1088 patients with alcoholic and/or hepatitis B or C virus liver diseases. It questioned the beneficial effects and highlighted the lack of high-quality evidence. The review concluded that more good-quality, randomized clinical trials are needed. Cancer Research UK say that milk thistle is promoted on the internet for its claimed ability to slow certain kinds of cancer, but that there is no good evidence in support of these claims. Milk thistle may appear to stimulate prolactin due to possibly estrogenic activity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Milk thistle based supplements have been measured to have the highest mycotoxin concentrations of up to 37 mg/kg when compared to various plant-based dietary supplements.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use as food.", "content": "Milk thistle has also been known to be used as food. The roots can be eaten raw or boiled and buttered or par-boiled and roasted. The young shoots in spring can be cut down to the root and boiled and buttered. The spiny bracts on the flower head were eaten in the past like globe artichoke, and the stems (after peeling) can be soaked overnight to remove bitterness and then stewed. The leaves can be trimmed of prickles and boiled as a spinach substitute or they can also be added raw to salads.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Animal toxicity.", "content": "Because of potassium nitrate content, the plant has been found to be toxic to cattle and sheep. When potassium nitrate is eaten by ruminants, the bacteria in the animal's stomach breaks the chemical down, producing nitrite ions. Nitrite ions then combine with hemoglobin to produce methaemoglobin, blocking the transport of oxygen. The result is a form of oxygen deprivation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Silybum marianum has other common names including cardus marianus, milk thistle, blessed milkthistle, Marian thistle, Mary thistle, Saint Mary's thistle, Mediterranean milk thistle, variegated thistle and Scotch thistle (though not to be confused with \"Onopordum acanthium\"). This species is an annual or biennial plant of the family Asteraceae. This fairly typical thistle has red to purple flowers and shiny pale green leaves with white veins. Originally a native of Southern Europe through to Asia, it is now found throughout the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974578}
{"src_title": "Einstein ring", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Introduction.", "content": "Gravitational lensing is predicted by Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. Instead of light from a source traveling in a straight line (in three dimensions), it is bent by the presence of a massive body, which distorts spacetime. An Einstein Ring is a special case of gravitational lensing, caused by the exact alignment of the source, lens, and observer. This results in symmetry around the lens, causing a ring-like structure. The size of an Einstein ring is given by the Einstein radius. In radians, it is  where  Note that, over cosmological distances formula_8 in general.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The bending of light by a gravitational body was predicted by Albert Einstein in 1912, a few years before the publication of general relativity in 1916 (Renn et al. 1997). The ring effect was first mentioned in the academic literature by Orest Khvolson in a short article in 1924, in which he mentioned the “halo effect” of gravitation when the source, lens, and observer are in near-perfect alignment. Einstein remarked upon this effect in 1936 in a paper prompted by a letter by a Czech engineer, R W Mandl, but stated (In this statement, β is the Einstein Radius currently denoted by formula_9 as in the expression above.) However, Einstein was only considering the chance of observing Einstein rings produced by stars, which is low – the chance of observing those produced by larger lenses such as galaxies or black holes is higher since the angular size of an Einstein ring increases with the mass of the lens.  The first complete Einstein ring, designated B1938+666, was discovered by collaboration between astronomers at the University of Manchester and NASA's Hubble Space Telescope in 1998.  There have apparently not been any observations of a star-forming an Einstein ring with another star, but there is a 45% chance of this happening in early May, 2028 when Alpha Centauri A passes between us and a distant red star.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Known Einstein rings.", "content": "Hundreds of gravitational lenses are currently known. About half a dozen of them are partial Einstein rings with diameters up to an arcsecond, although as either the mass distribution of the lenses is not perfectly axially symmetrical, or the source, lens, and observer are not perfectly aligned, we have yet to see a perfect Einstein ring. Most rings have been discovered in the radio range. The degree of completeness needed for an image seen through a gravitational lens to qualify as an Einstein ring is yet to be defined.  The first Einstein ring was discovered by Hewitt et al. (1988), who observed the radio source MG1131+0456 using the Very Large Array. This observation saw a quasar lensed by a nearer galaxy into two separate but very similar images of the same object, the images stretched round the lens into an almost complete ring. These dual images are another possible effect of the source, lens, and observer not being perfectly aligned.  The first complete Einstein ring to be discovered was B1938+666, which was found by King et al. (1998) via optical follow-up with the Hubble Space Telescope of a gravitational lens imaged with MERLIN. The galaxy causing the lens at B1938+666 is an ancient elliptical galaxy, and the image we see through the lens is a dark dwarf satellite galaxy, which we would otherwise not be able to see with current technology.  In 2005, the combined power of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) with the Hubble Space Telescope was used in the Sloan Lens ACS (SLACS) Survey to find 19 new gravitational lenses, 8 of which showed Einstein rings, these are the 8 shown in the adjacent image. As of 2009 this survey has found 85 confirmed gravitational lenses, there is not yet a number for how many show Einstein rings. This survey is responsible for most of the recent discoveries of Einstein rings in the optical range, following are some examples which were found:  Another example is the radio/X-Ray Einstein ring around PKS 1830-211, which is unusually strong in radio. It was discovered in X-Ray by Varsha Gupta et al. at the Chandra X-Ray observatory It is also notable for being the first case of a quasar being lensed by an almost face-on spiral galaxy.  There is also a radio ring around galaxy MG1654+1346, the image in the ring is that of a quasar radio lobe, discovered in 1989 by G.Langston et al.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Extra rings.", "content": "Using the Hubble Space Telescope, a double ring has been found by Raphael Gavazzi of the STScI and Tommaso Treu of the University of California, Santa Barbara. This arises from the light from three galaxies at distances of 3, 6, and 11 billion light years. Such rings help in understanding the distribution of dark matter, dark energy, the nature of distant galaxies, and the curvature of the universe. The odds of finding such a double ring are 1 in 10,000. Sampling 50 suitable double rings would provide astronomers with a more accurate measurement of the dark matter content of the universe and the equation of state of the dark energy to within 10 percent precision.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "A simulation.", "content": "Below in the Gallery section is a simulation depicting a zoom on a Schwarzschild black hole in the plane of the Milky Way between us and the centre of the galaxy. The first Einstein ring is to the most distorted region of the picture and shows the galactic disc. The zoom then reveals a series of 4 extra rings, increasingly thinner and closer to the black hole shadow. They are multiple images of the galactic disk. The first and third correspond to points which are behind the black hole (from the observer's position) and correspond here to the bright yellow region of the galactic disc (close to the galactic center), whereas the second and fourth correspond to images of objects which are behind the observer, which appear bluer since the corresponding part of the galactic disc is thinner and hence dimmer here.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "An Einstein ring, also known as an Einstein–Chwolson ring or Chwolson ring, is created when light from a galaxy or star passes by a massive object en route to the Earth. Due to gravitational lensing, the light is diverted, making it seem to come from different places. If source, lens, and observer are all aligned, the light appears as a ring.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974579}
{"src_title": "Margaret Mahler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born Margaret Schönberger on May 10, 1897, into a Jewish family in Sopron, a small town in western Hungary, she and a younger sister had a difficult childhood as a result of their parents' troubled marriage. Margaret's father, however, encouraged her to excel in mathematics and other sciences. After completing the High School for Daughters, she attended Vaci Utcai Gimnazium in Budapest, even though it was unusual at the time for a woman to continue formal education. Budapest was of great influence on her life and career. She met the influential Hungarian psychoanalyst Sándor Ferenczi, became fascinated by the concept of the unconscious, and was encouraged to read Sigmund Freud.  In September 1916, she began Art History studies at the University of Budapest, but in January 1917 switched to the Medical School. Three semesters later she began medical training at the University of Munich, but was forced to leave because of tensions toward Jews. In spring 1920 she transferred to the University of Jena and it was there that she began to realize how important play and love were for infants in order for them to grow up mentally and physically healthy. After graduating \"cum laude\" in 1922, she left for Vienna in order to get her license to practice medicine. There she turned from pediatrics to psychiatry and, in 1926, started her training analysis with Helene Deutsch. Seven years later, she was accepted as an analyst. Working with children became her passion. She loved the way the children gave her their attention and showed their joy in cooperating with her.  In 1936 she married Paul Mahler. Following the Nazis' rise to power, the couple moved to Britain and then, in 1938, to the United States. After receiving a New York medical license, Margaret Mahler set up private practice in a basement and began to rebuild her clientele. In 1939 she met Benjamin Spock and, after giving a child analysis seminar in 1940, she became senior teacher of child analysis. She joined the Institute of Human Development, the Educational Institute and the New York Psychoanalytic Society. In 1948 she worked on clinical studies on Benign and Malignant Cases of Childhood Psychosis.  Barnard College, at its 1980 commencement ceremonies, awarded her its highest honor, the Barnard Medal of Distinction.  Schönberger Mahler died on October 2, 1985.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Margaret Mahler worked as a psychoanalyst with young disturbed children.  In 1950 she and Manuel Furer founded the Masters Children's Centre in Manhattan (it was connected with Mount Sinai hospital). There she developed the Tripartite Treatment Model, in which the mother participated in the treatment of the child. Mahler initiated a more constructive exploration of severe disturbances in childhood and emphasized the importance of the environment on the child. She was especially interested in mother-infant duality and carefully documented the impact of early separations of children from their mothers. This documentation of separation-individuation was her most important contribution to the development of psychoanalysis.  Separation-individuation can be viewed as the psychological birth of an infant, which occurs over a period of time when the child separates from the mother and begins to individuate.  Mahler shed light on the normal and abnormal features of the developmental ego psychology. She worked with psychotic children, while psychosis hadn't been covered in the psychoanalytic treatment yet.  Symbiotic child psychosis struck her. The symptomatology she saw as a derailment of the normal processes whereby self-representations (the representation of one's self) and object-representations (the representation of a familiar person) become distinct. Her most important work is \"The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant: Symbiosis and Individuation\", written in 1975 with Fred Pine and Anni Bergman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Separation–individuation theory of child development.", "content": "In Mahler's theory, child development takes place in phases, each with several sub phases: Disruptions in the fundamental process of separation–individuation can result in a disturbance in the ability to maintain a reliable sense of individual identity in adulthood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Object constancy.", "content": "Object constancy, similar to Jean Piaget's object permanence, describes the phase when the child understands that the mother has a separate identity and is truly a separate individual. This leads to the formation of \"internalization\", which is the internal representation that the child has formed of the mother. This Internalization is what provides the child with an image that helps supply them with an unconscious level of guiding support and comfort from their mothers. Deficiencies in positive Internalization could possibly lead to a sense of insecurity and low self-esteem issues in adulthood.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Margaret Schönberger Mahler (May 10, 1897 – October 2, 1985) was a Hungarian physician, who later became interested in psychiatry. She was a central figure on the world stage of psychoanalysis. Her main interest was in normal childhood development, but she spent much of her time with psychiatric children and how they arrive at the \"self\". Mahler developed the \"separation–individuation theory of child development\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974580}
{"src_title": "Rumex crispus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The plant produces an inflorescence or flower stalk that grows to about 1 m high. It has smooth leaves shooting off from a large basal rosette, with distinctive waved or curled edges. On the stalk flowers and seeds are produced in clusters on branched stems, with the largest cluster being found at the apex. The seeds are shiny, brown and encased in the calyx of the flower that produced them. This casing enables the seeds to float on water and get caught in wool and animal fur, and this helps the seeds to spread to new locations. The root-structure is a large, yellow, forking taproot.  \"Rumex crispus\" has a number of subspecies with distinctive habitat preferences. \"Rumex crispus\" ssp. \"crispus\" occurs on waste and cultivated ground. \"Rumex crispus\" ssp. \"littoreus\" has a coastal distribution, and \"Rumex crispus\" ssp. \"uliginosus\" occurs on tidal estuarine mud. The species hybridizes readily with other \"Rumex\" species including \"Rumex obtusifolius\", \"Rumex obovatus\", \"Rumex palustris\" and \"Rumex maritimus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Common in Ireland, the United States, and southern Canada.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Curly dock grows in a wide variety of habitats, including disturbed soil, waste areas, roadsides, fields/meadows, shorelines, and forest edges. It is widely naturalised throughout the temperate world and has become a serious invasive species in many areas, including throughout North America, southern South America, New Zealand and parts of Australia. It spreads through the seeds contaminating crop seeds, and sticking to clothing. It is classified as an \"injurious weed\" under the UK Weeds Act 1959. In the United States, it is classified as a noxious weed in the states of Arkansas and Iowa. It is often seen in disturbed soils at the edges of roadsides, railway beds, and car parks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Host plant.", "content": "The curled dock is an optimal host plant for certain Lepidoptera species including, \"Agrotis ipsilon\" (black cutworm). Adult moths oviposit on these dense, low-lying leaves during the spring/summer season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses and toxicity.", "content": "It can be used as a wild leaf vegetable; the young leaves should be boiled in several changes of water to remove as much of the oxalic acid in the leaves as possible or can be added directly to salads in moderate amounts. Once the plant matures it becomes too bitter to consume. Dock leaves are an excellent source of both vitamin A and vitamin C, as well as a source of iron and potassium. Curly Dock leaves are somewhat tart due to the presence of high levels of oxalic acid, and although quite palatable, this plant should only be consumed in moderation as it can irritate the urinary tract and increase the risk of developing kidney stones. It should be used with care during lactation, as it may cause a laxative effect in the infant.  The seeds of the yellow dock, once dried thoroughly, are edible as well. The dark-brown to black seed pods remain on the stalk until the spring when leaves start growing again. While many wild foraged grains must be winnowed, the pods of Rumex Crispus are small enough that it is more efficient to grind them with the grain. The resulting flour is much like buckwheat in flavor, and while some may find it too bitter, many prefer the seeds over the tartness of the leaves.  In Western herbalism, the root is often used for treating anemia, due to its high level of iron. It can be powdered and given in capsules, often in combination with stinging nettle – Urtica dioica. This is a classic combination with the plant. Both the leaves and root may be laxative in some individuals, though not in all, and generally it is mild. This is due to the presence of anthroquinone glycosides, and is not an action that should be relied upon, but seen as a possible effect of the plant when taken. The plant may also cause intestinal discomfort to some people. The plant will help with skin conditions if taken internally or applied externally to things like itching, scrofula, and sores. Some studies show that certain anthroquinones can help stop or slow cancer growth, but this may or may not apply to the ones in yellow dock.  Yellow dock is part of the homeopathic pharmacopoeia. It is used mainly for respiratory conditions, specifically those with a tickling cough that is worse when exposed to cold air. It mentions also passing pains, excessive itching, and that it helps enlarged lymphs.  The Zuni people apply a poultice of the powdered root to sores, rashes and skin infections, and use infusion of the root for athlete's foot.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rumex crispus, the curly dock, curled dock or yellow dock, is a perennial flowering plant in the family Polygonaceae, native to Europe and Western Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974581}
{"src_title": "Gertrude of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Gertrude was the only child of Henry of Austria, Duke of Mödling, by his wife Agnes, daughter of Hermann I, Landgrave of Thuringia. Henry, in turn, was the second son of Duke Leopold VI of Austria. In 1216, after the death of his older brother Leopold, Henry became his father's heir.  Henry died on 26 September 1228, only twenty years old and without male issue. Two years later, on 28 July 1230, Henry's father Duke Leopold VI also died and was succeeded by Frederick II, Leopold's third son. Because Babenberg Austria was inheritable by females according to the provisions of Privilegium Minus, Gertrude disputed Frederick's ascension, claiming Austria as her inheritance as the only child of Leopold VI's eldest son. Even so, Gertrude's claim was eventually bypassed in her uncle's favor.  Despite this negative turn of events, Gertrude inherited her father's Duchy of Mödling and was placed under the guardianship of her uncle, Frederick II, who, after two unhappy marriages, remained childless. This made Gertrude the primogenitural heiress of the entire Babenberg line of Dukes of Austria and Styria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Complicating Frederick II's hold over Austria was his long-standing quarrel with Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, during which he was placed under an imperial ban. In 1245, in a spectacular change of imperial politics, Frederick II of Austria became one of the emperor's most important allies when negotiations regarding the elevation of Vienna to a bishopric and of Austria (including Styria) to a Kingdom were initiated. One condition effecting a positive outcome was that the 19-year-old Duke's niece, Gertrude, would marry the 51-year-old Emperor who was a widower three times over. Though desirous of the union, Wenceslaus I of Bohemia nevertheless voiced his concerns given a preexisting agreement that Gertrude marry his eldest son and heir Vladislaus. Gertrude herself refused the marriage with the aged Emperor, citing his recent excommunication by the Pope. Other sources claim that she was in love with Vladislaus. After sending an army to Austria in order to pressure Duke Frederick II into agreeing to the union of Gertrude and Vladislaus, the two parties came to terms early in June 1245 in Verona. The rapid rise of Duke Frederick's political ambitions proved short-lived.  On 15 June 1246 Frederick II was killed in battle. King Wenceslaus quickly arranged the formal marriage ceremony of Gertrude and his heir, Vladislaus. \"Per hoc Wladislaus habebat Austriae ducatum\" cheered Bohemia and, supported by the rights of his wife and the prospect of inheriting the Bohemian throne, Vladislaus was quickly recognized as Duke by the Austrian aristocracy. However, shortly after their marriage, Vladislaus died on 3 January 1247.  In 1248, in order to bolster her claims, the 22-year-old Duchess married Herman VI, Margrave of Baden. The following year Gertrude gave birth to a son Frederick. In celebration of the happy event, Gertrude gave 30 people in Alland, the place of her son's birth, extended farm lands which became the foundation of the agrarian community of the \"Allander Urhausbesitzer\". In 1250 Gertrude had a second child, a daughter, whom she named Agnes after her maternal grandmother.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Frustrated ambitions.", "content": "Herman was able to maintain only minimal control in the duchies, failing ultimately to defeat the opposition of the Austrian aristocracy. As a result, Gertrude and her children fled to Meissen in Saxony and her relationship with Herman deteriorated significantly. Gertrude was suspected of poisoning Herman when he died on 4 October 1250.  Gertrude lost the favour of the curia and with it the chance to recover the Babenberg dominions of Austria and Styria when she refused to marry the brother of Count William II of Holland, Floris, who was also the favored candidate of Pope Innocent IV.  In the meantime, her aunt and competitor for the duchies of Austria and Styria, Margaret, married Ottokar of Bohemia, the second son and next heir of Wenceslaus I. The aristocracy accepted Margaret and Ottokar as the rulers of Austria. On 12 July 1252, having lost most of her support, Gertrude formed an alliance with Béla IV of Hungary and married his relative, Roman Danylovich, Prince of Halicz, a member of the Rurikid dynasty. In 1253, Gertrude gave birth to her only child from this union, Maria. However, after failing to establish himself as Duke of Austria, Roman left Gertrude and their daughter to return to Hungary. Shortly thereafter, the marriage was formally dissolved.  Eventually, in 1254, Gertrude received a portion of Styria, 400 silver marks annually, and the towns of Voitsberg and Judenburg as her residences. In 1267, as neither Gertrude nor her son Frederick forswore their claim to the duchies of Styria and Austria, King Ottokar II dispossessed them of their lands. Ottokar was largely motivated since he sought to remarry into the Hungarian royal house; he could not expect an heir with the significantly older and barren Margaret. That same year, the death of Margaret made Gertrude the only legitimate heir to the Babenberg dynasty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decline.", "content": "On 8 September 1268, Gertrude's son Frederick, who had accompanied Conradin on his Italian expedition, was captured in Astura to the south of Anzio. Handed over to Charles of Anjou, he remained in degrading imprisonment in the Castel dell'Ovo in Naples until his public beheading in the Piazza del Mercato in Naples on 29 October. The following year, Gertrude was exiled and lost her claim to Windisch-Feistritz. Again, she found refuge with her family in Meissen.  Gertrude's other claims were ultimately lost when Rudolf I of Germany granted her duchies to his own sons in 1282. Six years later, Gertrude died as an Abbess of the Poor Clare convent of Saint Afra near Seusslitz in Meissen.  Her daughter Agnes of Baden became mother and brother's heir, but in 1279, renounced her rights to Baden and the Duchies of Austria and Styria. From her second marriage with Count Ulrich III of Heunburg, Agnes had five children, two sons (Frederick and Herman) and three daughters (Margaret, Elisabeth and Katharina). The sons died without heirs. The eldest daughter, Katharina, married the Styrian nobleman Ulrich of Sanneck, and their son Frederick I of Cilli eventually inherited his grandfather's estates. He founded the House of Cilli, which included Holy Roman Empress Barbara of Cilli whose daughter, Elizabeth of Luxembourg, married into the House of Habsburg.  Gertrude's youngest daughter, Maria Romanovna of Halicz, born from her third marriage, married Joachim Gutkeled, son of Ban Stephen Gutkeled, the former Hungarian National Captain (German: \"Landeshauptmanns\") in Styria. The date of her death or if she left any descendants is unknown.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gertrude of Austria (also named \"Gertrude of Babenberg\") (1226 – 24 April 1288) was a member of the House of Babenberg, Duchess of Mödling and later titular Duchess of Austria and Styria. She was the niece of Duke Frederick II of Austria, the last male member of the Babenberg dynasty. She was, according to the Privilegium Minus the first in line to inherit the Duchies of Austria and Styria after the death of childless Frederick, but these claims were disputed by her aunt Margaret.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974582}
{"src_title": "Robert of Molesme", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Robert was born about 1029, a nobleman from Champagne, a younger son, who entered the Benedictine abbey of Montier-la-Celle near Troyes at age fifteen and rose to the office of prior.  He was made the abbot of Saint Michel-de-Tonnerre around the year 1070, but he soon discovered that the monks were quarrelsome and disobedient, so he returned to Montier-la-Celle.  Meanwhile, two hermits from a group of monks that had settled at Collan went to Rome and asked Pope Gregory VII to give them Robert as their superior. The pope granted their request, and as of 1074 Robert served as their leader. Soon after, Robert moved the small community to Molesme in the valley of Langres in Burgundy. Initially, the establishment consisted of only huts made of branches surrounding a chapel in the forest, dedicated to the Holy Trinity. Molesme Abbey quickly became known for its piety and sanctity, and Robert's reputation as a saintly man grew. It is because of this reputation that in 1082 Bruno of Cologne came to Robert seeking advice. He lived with Robert's community for a time before going on to found the Grande Chartreuse, the first Carthusian monastery.  In 1098 there were 35 dependent priories of Molesme, and other annexes and some priories of nuns. Donors from the surrounding area vied with one another in helping the monks; soon they had more than they needed, slackened their way of life and became tepid. Benefactors sent their children to the abbey for education and other non-monastic activities began to dominate daily life. The vast land holdings they had acquired required a large number of employees. As the community grew increasingly wealthy, it began to attract men seeking entry for the wrong reasons. They caused a division among the brothers, challenging Robert's severity. Robert twice tried to leave Molesme but was ordered back by the Pope.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cîteaux.", "content": "In 1098, Robert and twenty-one of his monks left Molesme with the intention of never returning. Renaud, the viscount of Beaune, gave this group a desolate valley in a deep forest; there they founded Cîteaux Abbey. Stephen Harding and Alberic – two of Robert's monks from Molesme – were pivotal in founding the new house. The archbishop of Lyons, being persuaded that they could not subsist there without the endorsement of an influential churchman, wrote in their favour to Eudo, duke of Burgundy. Eudo paid for the construction they had begun, helped the monks finance their operating expenses and gave them much land and cattle. The bishop of Challons elevated the new monastery to the canonical status of an abbey.  In 1099, the monks of Molesme asked Robert to return and agreed to submit entirely to his interpretation of the Rule of St. Benedict; the local bishop also pressured Robert to return. He agreed and Molesme became a major center for the Benedictines under his tutelage. Albéric was made successor abbot at Cîteaux, with Stephen Harding as prior.  Robert died on 17 April 1111. Pope Honorius III canonized him in 1222. His feast day in the Roman Catholic Church was at first observed on 17 April, later transferred to April 29, and finally combined with the feast of Alberic and Stephen Harding and is observed in our day on 26 January.  The \"Vie de saint Robert de Molesme\" was written by Guy, his immediate successor as abbot of Molesme.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert of Molesme (1028 – 17 April 1111) was an abbot, one of the founders of the Cistercian Order and is honored as a Christian saint.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974583}
{"src_title": "Kenpeitai", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Kenpeitai was established in 1881 by a decree called the, figuratively \"articles concerning gendarmes\". Its model was the National Gendarmerie of France. Details of the Kenpeitai's military, executive, and judicial police functions were defined by the \"Kenpei Rei\" of 1898, which was amended twenty-six times before Japan's defeat in August 1945.  The force initially consisted of 349 men. The enforcement of the new conscription legislation was an important part of their duty, due to resistance from peasant families. The Kenpeitai's general affairs branch was in charge of the force's policy, personnel management, internal discipline, as well as communication with the Ministries of the Admiralty, the Interior, and Justice. The operation branch was in charge of the distribution of military police units within the army, general public security and intelligence.  In 1907, the Kenpeitai was ordered to Korea where its main duty was legally defined as \"preserving the peace\", although it also functioned as a military police for the Japanese army stationed there. This status remained basically unchanged after Japan's annexation of Korea in 1910.  The Kenpeitai maintained public order within Japan under the direction of the Interior Minister, and in the occupied territories under the direction of the Minister of War. Japan also had a civilian secret police force, \"Tokkō\", which was the Japanese acronym of \"Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu\" (\"Special Higher Police\") part of the Interior Ministry. However, the Kenpeitai had a \"Tokkō\" branch of its own, and through it discharged the functions of a secret police.  When the Kenpeitai arrested a civilian under the direction of the Justice Minister, the arrested person was nominally subject to civilian judicial proceedings.  The Kenpeitai's brutality was particularly notorious in Korea and the other occupied territories. The Kenpeitai were also abhorred in Japan's mainland as well, especially during World War II when Prime Minister Hideki Tojo, formerly the Commander of the Kenpeitai of the Japanese Army in Manchuria from 1935 to 1937, used the Kenpeitai extensively to make sure that everyone was loyal to the war.  According to United States Army TM-E 30-480, there were over 36,000 regular members of the Kenpeitai at the end of the war; this did not include the many ethnic \"auxiliaries\". As many foreign territories fell under the Japanese military occupation during the 1930s and the early 1940s, the Kenpeitai recruited a large number of locals in those territories. Taiwanese and Koreans were used extensively as auxiliaries to police the newly occupied territories in Southeast Asia, although the Kenpeitai recruited French Indochinese (especially, from among the Cao Dai religious sect), Malays and others. The Kenpeitai may have trained Trình Minh Thế, a Vietnamese nationalist and military leader.  The Kenpeitai was disarmed and disbanded after the Japanese surrender in August 1945.  Today, the post-war Self-Defense Forces' internal police is called \"Keimutai\" (警務隊). Each individual member is called \"Keimukan\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Axis powers.", "content": "In the 1920s and the 1930s, the Kenpeitai forged various connections with certain prewar European intelligence services. Later, when Japan signed the Tripartite Pact, Japan formed formal links with the intelligence units, now under German and Italian fascists, known as the German Abwehr and the Italian Servizio Informazioni Militare. The army and the navy of Japan contacted their corresponding Wehrmacht intelligence units, Schutzstaffel (SS) or Kriegsmarine, about information on Europe and vice versa. Europe and Japan realized the benefits of the exchanges. For example, the Japanese sent data about Soviet forces in the Far East and in Operation Barbarossa from the Japanese embassy. Admiral Canaris offered aid in respect to the neutrality of Portugal in Timor.  One important contact point was at the Penang submarine base, in occupied British Malaya. The base served Axis submarine forces (Italian Regia Marina, German Kriegsmarine and the Dai Nippon Teikoku Kaigun, or Imperial Japanese Navy). At regular intervals, technological and information exchanges occurred there. While these were available to them, Axis forces used the bases in Italian East Africa, the Vichy France colony of Madagascar and some officially neutral places like Portuguese India.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human rights abuses.", "content": "The Kenpeitai ran extensive criminal and collaborationist networks, extorting vast amounts of money from businesses and civilians wherever they operated. They also ran the Allied prisoner of war system, which often treated captives with extreme brutality. Many of the abuses were documented in Japanese war crimes trials, such as those committed by the Kempeitai East District Branch in Singapore.  The Kenpeitai also carried out revenge attacks against prisoners and civilians. For example, after Colonel Doolittle's raid on Tokyo in 1942, the Kenpeitai carried out reprisals against thousands of Chinese civilians and captured airmen, or in 1943 the Double Tenth massacre which was in response to an Allied raid on Singapore Harbour. All these actions together—including Unit 731's vivisection campaign—have become infamous.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "The Kenpeitai maintained a headquarters in each relevant Area Army, commanded by a Shosho (Major General) with a Taisa (Colonel) as Executive Officer and comprising two or three field offices, commanded by a Chusa (Lieutenant Colonel) and with a Shosa (Major) as executive officer and each with approximately 375 personnel.  The field office in turn was divided into 65-man sections called 'buntai'. Each was commanded by a Tai-i (Captain) with a Chu-i (1st Lieutenant) as his Executive Officer and had 65 other troops. The buntai were further divided into detachments called \"bunkentai\", commanded by a Sho-i (2nd Lieutenant) with a Junshikan (Warrant Officer) as Executive Officer and 20 other troops. Each detachment contained three squads: a police squad or \"keimu han\", an administration squad or \"naikin han\", and a special duties squad or \"Tokumu han\".  Kenpeitai Auxiliary units consisting of regional ethnic forces were organized in occupied areas. These troops supplemented the Kenpeitai and were considered part of the organization but were limited to the rank of Shocho (Sergeant Major).  By 1937 the Kenpeitai had 315 officers and 6,000 enlisted. These were the members of the known, public forces. The Allies estimated that by the end of World War II, there were at least 7,500 members of the Kenpeitai.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Active units.", "content": "The Kenpeitai operated commands on the Japanese mainland and throughout all occupied and captured overseas territories during the Pacific War. The external units operating outside Japan were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wartime mission.", "content": "The Kenpeitai was responsible for the following:  By 1944, despite the obvious tide of war, the Kenpeitai were arresting people for antiwar sentiment and defeatism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uniform.", "content": "Personnel wore either the standard M1938 field uniform or the cavalry uniform with high black leather boots. Civilian clothes were also authorized but badges of rank or the Japanese Imperial chrysanthemum were worn under the jacket lapel. Uniformed personnel also wore a black chevron on their uniforms and a white armband on the left arm with the characters \"ken\" (憲, \"law\") and \"hei\" (兵, \"soldier\"), together read as \"kenpei\" or \"kempei,\" which translates to \"military policeman\".  A full dress uniform comprising a red kepi, gold and red waist sash, dark blue tunic and trousers with black facings was authorized for officers of the Kenpeitai to wear on ceremonial occasions until 1942. Rank insignia comprised gold Austrian knots and epaulettes.  Personnel were armed with either a cavalry sabre and pistol for officers and a pistol and bayonet for enlisted men. Junior NCOs carried a \"shinai\" (竹刀, \"bamboo kendo sword\") especially when dealing with prisoners.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The was the military police arm of the Imperial Japanese Army from 1881 to 1945. It was both a conventional military police and a secret police force. In Japanese-occupied territories, the kenpeitai also arrested those who were suspected of being anti-Japanese. While it was institutionally part of the army, the Kenpeitai also discharged the functions of the military police for the Imperial Japanese Navy under the direction of the Admiralty Minister (although the IJN had its own much smaller Tokkeitai), those of the executive police under the direction of the Home Minister and those of the judicial police under the direction of the Justice Minister. A member of the corps was called a \"kenpei\" ().", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974584}
{"src_title": "Margaret Burbidge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Research career.", "content": "Burbidge studied at University College London (UCL), where she received an undergraduate degree in 1939 and a PhD in 1943. During World War Two, she acted as a caretaker at University of London Observatory (ULO); the wartime blackout made it easier for her to use the observatory's telescopes. In August 1944, her observations at ULO were twice interrupted by V-1 flying bomb explosions nearby. She was turned down for a postdoctoral fellowship from Carnegie Observatories in 1945 because the job required observing at Mount Wilson Observatory, which was reserved for men only at that time. Shortly after the war, she taught astronomy at ULO to undergraduate students from across the University of London system, including Arthur C. Clarke who was then an undergraduate at King's College London.  In 1951 she took a position at the University of Chicago's Yerkes Observatory, Wisconsin, her first job in the United States. Her research during this period focused on the abundances of chemical elements in stars. She returned to the UK in 1953, when Margaret and her husband Geoffrey Burbidge were invited to work with William Alfred Fowler and Fred Hoyle at the University of Cambridge. The team combined data on elemental abundances produced by the Burbidges with Hoyle's hypothesis that all chemical elements might be produced in stars by a series of nuclear reactions, and Fowler's laboratory experiments on those reactions. The idea became known as stellar nucleosynthesis. They published their model in a series of papers, culminating in a magnum opus in 1957, now known as the BFH paper after the initials of Burbidge, Burbidge, Fowler & Hoyle. Margaret Burbidge was the first author of the paper, which was written while she was pregnant. The theory they developed remains the fundamental basis for stellar nucleosynthesis. Fowler was later awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar) for his work on nucleosynthesis, and expressed surprise that Burbidge was not included.  When Fowler moved back to the US, he advised the Burbidges to come with him to California, suggesting Margaret (the observer) should re-apply for the fellowship at Mount Wilson Observatory while Geoff (the theorist) should seek the Kellogg Fellowship at Caltech. Margaret's application was again refused on gender grounds, so the couple swapped applications. Geoff won the position at Mount Wilson, while Margaret took the Caltech job in 1955. Whenever Geoff was required to go observing on Mount Wilson, Margaret would accompany him, ostensibly as his assistant. In reality, Geoff worked in the photographic dark room while Margaret operated the telescope. When the observatory's management found out, they eventually agreed that she could observe there, but only if she and her husband stayed in a separate self-catered cottage on the grounds, rather than the catered dormitory which had been designed for men only.  She joined the University of California San Diego (UCSD) in 1962. In the 1960s and 1970s she measured the masses, compositions, and rotation curves of galaxies and performed early spectroscopic studies of quasars. Her discoveries in this area included QSO B1442+101 at a redshift of 3.5, making it the most distant known object at the time, a record which she held from 1974–82. She was a supporter of the steady state theory of cosmology, but her own work on quasars helped to support the alternative Big Bang theory.  In 1972 Burbidge became director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory (RGO), on secondment from UCSD. For 300 years the post had always been held by the Astronomer Royal, but when Burbidge was appointed to the RGO directorship the posts were split, with radio astronomer Martin Ryle appointed as Astronomer Royal. Burbidge sometimes attributed this to sexism, and at other times to politics intended to reduce the clout of the RGO director. Burbidge left the RGO in 1974, fifteen months after joining, due to controversy over moving the Isaac Newton Telescope from RGO headquarters at Herstmonceux Castle to Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in the Canary Islands.  Burbidge campaigned in opposition to discrimination against women in astronomy and was also opposed to positive discrimination. In 1972 she turned down the Annie J. Cannon Award of the American Astronomical Society (AAS) because it was awarded to women only: \"It is high time that discrimination in favor of, as well as against, women in professional life be removed\". Her letter declining the prize caused the AAS to set up its first committee on the status of women in astronomy. In 1976, she became the first female president of the AAS. During her term as president she convinced the members to ban AAS meetings in states which had not ratified the Equal Rights Amendment to the US Constitution. In 1984 the AAS awarded her its highest honor, regardless of gender, the Henry Norris Russell Lectureship.  From 1979 to 1988, she served as the first director of the UCSD's Center for Astrophysics and Space Science. In 1981 she was elected President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), serving her one-year term from February 1982 to February 1983.  At UCSD she helped develop the Faint Object Spectrograph for the Hubble Space Telescope, which launched in 1990. With this instrument, she and her team discovered that the galaxy Messier 82 contains a supermassive black hole at its center. As professor emerita at UCSD she continued to be active in research until the early 21st century. Burbidge authored over 370 research papers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Eleanor Margaret Peachey was born in Davenport, Stockport, UK, nine months after the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended the First World War. She was the daughter of Marjorie Stott Peachey and Stanley John Peachey. She first became interested in astronomy aged 3 or 4, after seeing the stars on a ferry trip across the English Channel. By age 12, she was reading astronomy textbooks by James Jeans, a distant relative of her mother.  On 2 April 1948, Margaret Peachey married Geoffrey Burbidge. The couple had met six months earlier at University College London. Geoffrey was a theoretical physicist, but Margaret's passion for astronomy convinced him to switch to theoretical astrophysics. The two collaborated on much of their subsequent research. The couple had a daughter, Sarah, who was born in late 1956. In 1977, Margaret became a United States citizen. Geoffrey Burbidge died in 2010. Margaret Burbidge died on 5 April 2020, in San Francisco at the age of 100 after suffering a fall.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eleanor Margaret Burbidge, FRS (\"née\" Peachey; 12 August 1919 – 5 April 2020) was a British-American observational astronomer and astrophysicist. In the 1950s, she was one of the founders of stellar nucleosynthesis and was first author of the influential BFH paper. During the 1960s and 70s she worked on galaxy rotation curves and quasars, discovering the most distant astronomical object then known. In the 1980s and 90s she helped develop and utilise the Faint Object Spectrograph on the Hubble Space Telescope. Burbidge was well known for her work opposing discrimination against women in astronomy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974585}
{"src_title": "Tomáš Špidlík", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Špidlík was born in 1919 in Boskovice, then Czechoslovakia, now Czech Republic. In 1938, he entered the Department of Philosophy at the University of Brno, in what is now the Czech Republic. In the following year, he entered the Jesuit novitiate and after many interruptions in his education due to World War II, he was ordained a priest of the Society of Jesus on 22 August 1949 in Maastricht.in 1949. A year later, in Florence, he finished his formation period as a Jesuit.  In 1951, Špidlík was called to Rome by Vatican Radio. The programs broadcast to the countries behind the Iron Curtain were a precious aid to a freedom in danger of being slowly but inexorably suffocated. From this work with Vatican Radio sprang a special mission that would always accompany him and that made him known in lands despite their communist domination. Among others, he met with Alexander Dubček, the former first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, and Václav Havel, who became president of Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic after the fall of the communist regime. Špidlík's Sunday homilies in the Czech language have been translated and published in various languages including Polish, Romanian and Italian.  He lived in Rome from 1951 until his death.  In 1995 he delivered the annual Lenten retreat meditations for the pope and officials of the Roman Curia. In June he defended his doctoral dissertation at the Pontifical Oriental Institute in Rome. That year marked the beginning of his university career as a professor of Patristic and Eastern Spiritual Theology at various universities in Rome. Špidlík became known as an expert in the spirituality of Eastern Christianity.  For 38 years he was the spiritual director of the Pontifical Nepomuceno Seminary, the old Bohemian Seminary.  On 21 October 2003, at the age of 83, he was created Cardinal Deacon of the titular church of Sant'Agata dei Goti. Although he was not a voting cardinal, he was created a cardinal in recognition of his theological writings.  The Cardinal was a prolific author and was equally acknowledged in the academic and international fields. He was chosen Man of the Year, 1990 and \"the most admired person of the decade\" by the American Bibliographical Institute of Raleigh in North Carolina, was received at the Kremlin, led the spiritual exercises of Pope John Paul II and his Curia, and was decorated with the medal of the Masaryk Order, one of the highest honors of the Czech State, by president Václav Havel.  In 2005 Špidlík delivered the meditation on the first day of the papal conclave just before the first ballot was taken. Because of age he was not eligible to participate in the voting.  He died in Rome on 16 April 2010.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tomáš Josef Špidlík, S.J. (17 December 1919 – 16 April 2010) was a Czech prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He was a Jesuit priest and theologian. Pope John Paul II made him a Cardinal in 2003.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974586}
{"src_title": "Palace of Zarzuela", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "During the 17th century, King Felipe IV of Spain ordered a country palace or hunting lodge to be built at La Zarzuela near Madrid. The name \"Zarzuela\" is thought to be derived from the word \"zarzas\" meaning brambles, due to its function as a hunting lodge, meaning that it is situated amongst the brambles of the King's Hunting Grounds. It was a rectangular, slate-roofed building with two lateral arcades. King Carlos IV had the building altered to adapt it to 18th century fashion, and adorned it with tapestries and porcelain, as well as furniture and his much-loved clocks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royal residence.", "content": "King Juan Carlos I and his wife, Queen Sofía, have lived in the palace since their marriage in May 1962. After the death of \"Generalísimo\" Francisco Franco in November 1975, the King decided not to occupy his Palace of El Pardo, leaving it for foreign state guests, designating the Palacio de la Moncloa as the residence of the President of the Spanish Government, while they remained at the Zarzuela. The \"Palacio Real\" (Royal Palace) in the centre of Madrid, the former principal residence of the Spanish monarchs, is the official residence of the King, although it is now used only for state occasions.  During the summer of 2002, King Felipe VI, then Prince of Asturias, moved into a new residence, a palace built within the grounds of the Palace of La Zarzuela.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opera.", "content": "The palace theatre was the place of origin of the Spanish genre of musical drama, \"zarzuela\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Zarzuela Palace ( ) is the residence and working offices of the reigning monarch of Spain (King Felipe VI), although the official residence of the Spanish Royal Family is the Royal Palace of Madrid. The Zarzuela Palace is on the outskirts of Madrid, near the Royal Palace of El Pardo, which accommodates visiting heads of state. The palace is owned by the Spanish government and administered by a state agency named Patrimonio Nacional (National Heritage).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974587}
{"src_title": "Nerf Herder", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Nerf Herder was formed in Santa Barbara in 1994 by Parry Gripp (vocals, guitar), Charlie Dennis (bass), and Steve Sherlock (drums). Dennis left the band after the release of their debut self-titled album, and was replaced first by Pete Newbury, with Dave Ehrlich also joining as a second guitarist. Newbury's tenure touring with the band was, however, short-lived. He was briefly replaced in 1999 by bassist Marko 72, and then by Justin Fisher, who played bass and keyboards on two albums (\"How To Meet Girls\" & \"American Cheese\").  In 1999, Nerf Herder asked Arista to release them from their contract, so they could move forward with a new record, \"How to Meet Girls\", with Honest Don's Records, a subsidiary of Fat Wreck Chords. A special EP for My Records (run by Joey Cape from Lagwagon) entitled \"My EP\" was released in 2001, and was followed in 2002 by their album \"American Cheese\".  The band wrote and performed the theme song for the TV series \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" (1997). In April 2003, Nerf Herder appeared as the musical guest in the final-season \"Buffy\" episode \"Empty Places\" – the very last band to play at The Bronze. Their special connection to the series was further acknowledged by a bit of dialogue, as \"Rock City News\" played in the background:  <poem>Kennedy: What kind of band plays during an apocalypse? Dawn: I think this band might actually be one of the signs.</poem>  By 2003, after the final \"American Cheese\" tour dates—during which time Ben Pringle (also of The Rentals during 2005–2008) had replaced Fisher (who had left amicably to front his own band, Psoma)—the band disintegrated. No official split was announced, but a post by Gripp on the band's website some time afterwards detailed how most of the former band members had gone on to get normal jobs. Gripp did some work as a jingle writer, which led to his 2005 solo album \"For Those About to Shop, We Salute You\", a 51-track concept album mimicking various musical styles and focusing on product commercialization.  In late 2005, Nerf Herder made a surprise comeback, announcing on their website that they were playing a handful of gigs with the original lineup of Gripp, Dennis, and Sherlock. For Gripp's May 7, 2007 review of the day, he announced that the original lineup had finally finished recording their 4th album, which did not have a title at that time. Gripp stated that he wanted the title to be \"Brownerton\", but that idea was shot down. He also stated that of the 13 songs recorded, they would probably pick 10 to be on the album. In June 2007, the band decided on the title \"Nerf Herder IV\", and the album was released through Oglio Records on April 29, 2008. Pringle returned, and Former Size 14 singer Linus of Hollywood joined the live band (playing guitar and keyboard) in early 2008 for a series of West Coast shows and a short tour of Japan.  In 2014, Nerf Herder began working on album number five, entitled \"Rockingham\", which was released on March 11, 2016.  As of 2019, Nerf Herder has continued to perform live and is currently writing and recording new material.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin of band name.", "content": "The band takes their name from the \"Star Wars\" franchise. A \"nerf\" is a domesticated, bison-like quadruped, bred mainly as fatstock; thus, a \"\" (equivalent to a sheep herder) is not a well-regarded occupation, especially not by Princess Leia (Carrie Fisher). In the film \"The Empire Strikes Back\" (1980), Leia insults Han Solo (Harrison Ford) for asserting that she has romantic feelings for him: \"Why you stuck-up, half-witted, scruffy-looking nerfherder!\"  Solo naturally takes exception: \"Who's scruffy-looking...?\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Band members.", "content": "Current members Former members  The following are songs that have been featured on compilations that have not been released on any of the band's albums or EPs", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nerf Herder is an American rock band from Santa Barbara, California, formed in 1994 by Parry Gripp (vocals, guitar), Charlie Dennis (bass) and Steve Sherlock (drums). They describe themselves as a \"geek rock\" band, and are known for simplistic modern punk-style songs with frequently humorous, juvenile, and pop-culture-referencing lyrics. They are the inventors of the \"nerdcore\" music subgenre, a reference to bands from Oxnard who called themselves \"Nard\"-core, which Gripp updated in the mid-90s to explain Nerf Herder and their nerdy influences.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974588}
{"src_title": "Villa Tugendhat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The free-standing three-story villa is on a slope and faces the south-west. The second story (the ground floor) consists of the main living and social areas with the conservatory and the terrace, and the kitchen and servants' rooms. The third story (the first floor) has the main entrance from the street with a passage to the terrace, the entrance hall, and rooms for the parents, children and the nanny with appropriate facilities. The chauffeur's flat with the garages and the terrace are accessed separately.  Mies' design principle of \"less is more\" and emphasis on functional amenities created a fine example of early functionalism architecture, a groundbreaking new vision in building design at the time. Mies used a revolutionary iron framework, which enabled him to dispense with supporting walls and arrange the interior in order to achieve a feeling of space and light. One wall is a sliding sheet of plate glass that descends to the basement the way an automobile window does. Mies specified all the furnishings, in collaboration with interior designer Lilly Reich (two armchairs designed for the building, the Tugendhat chair and the Brno chair, are still in production). There were no paintings or decorative items in the villa, but the interior was by no means austere d′ue to the use of naturally patterned materials such as the onyx wall and rare tropical woods. The onyx wall is partially translucent and changes appearance when the evening sun is low. The architect managed to make the magnificent view from the villa an integral part of the interior.  The cost was very high due to the unusual construction method, luxurious materials, and the use of modern technology for heating and ventilation. The lower-ground level was used as a service area. An ultra-modern air-conditioning system was here and a glass façade that opens completely assisted by a mechanism built into the wall. The floor area was unusually large and open compared to the average family home of the period, which, in addition to the various storage rooms, made the structure unique if not confusing to visitors not used to such minimalism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "The main living area features a dividing wall of brown-gold onyx, which Mies sourced from the Atlas mountains in Morocco and supervised the cutting and finishing himself.  Unusually for the time, the building features air conditioning.  In the basement there are a series of dedicated service rooms, including a mechanism to retract the windows and the \"Mottenkammer\", a dedicated moth-resistant storage room for keeping fur coats.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The villa was commissioned by the Jewish German Fritz and Greta Tugendhat. The construction company of Artur and Mořic Eisler began construction in the summer of 1929 and finished it in 14 months.  Fritz and Greta Tugendhat lived in the villa for just eight years before fleeing Czechoslovakia with their children in 1938 (including philosopher Ernst Tugendhat), shortly before the country was dismembered following the Munich Agreement.  The family moved to Switzerland and then to Venezuela; after the war they returned to Switzerland, but never lived in the villa again.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "During World War II.", "content": "The villa was confiscated by the Gestapo in 1939 and used as an apartment and office; its interior was modified and many pieces disappeared.  In 1942 the house was rented out as offices of the Messerschmidt aeroplane works. Willy Messerschmidt had his own apartment in the villa.  In April 1945, Brno was liberated by the Red Army and a Russian cavalry unit stabled its horses in the villa, doing considerable damage to the building's white linoleum floor. What furniture remained in the villa was used for firewood.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war restoration and opening to the public.", "content": "In the post-war years, the building was partially repaired and used for various purposes (for example as a children's physiotherapy centre) for several decades after World War II.  Greta Tugendhat returned to the villa in 1967 with Dirk Lohan a senior architect from Mies's Chicago studio (and his grandson) and explained the original design to him, and a group of Czech architects set out to repair it. It was inscribed on the National List of Cultural Heritage in 1969 and restored after 1980. On 26 August 1992, Václav Klaus and Vladimír Mečiar, the political leaders of Czechoslovakia, met there to sign the document that divided the country into the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic. Since 1994 the villa has been open to the public as a museum administered by the city of Brno.  In 1993 the Villa Tugendhat Fund and Friends of Tugendhat were formed to preserve the villa. In 1995 Brno received a $15,000 grant to pay for preliminary research from the Samuel H. Kress European Preservation Program, part of the World Monuments Fund. The International Music and Art Foundation, based in Lichtenstein, pledged $100,000, because a trustee, Nicholas Thaw, was also a trustee of the World Monuments Fund. The Robert Wilson Foundation matched the $100,000. The villa was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2001.  In 2007 the Tugendhats' heirs applied for the restitution of the villa, citing a law covering works of art confiscated during the Holocaust. The reason for this application appears to have been their frustration over the failure of the municipality of Brno to carry out vital restoration work due to the deterioration of the concrete used in construction. Entire sections of the interior were missing. Later, parts of the original wood panelling were found at Masaryk University, a building used by the Gestapo as their Brno headquarters.  Reconstruction and restoration started in February 2010 with estimated costs of 150 million CZK (approximately EUR 5,769,000; US$7,895,000). This reconstruction finished in February 2012 and the villa was reopened to the public in March. To celebrate the villa's restoration, the Royal Institute of British Architects launched 'Villa Tugendhat in Context', an exhibition in London giving a visual history and a record of the recent renovation through the testimony of three generations of photographers.  Near Villa Tugendhat is Greta's family home, the Art Nouveau Löw-Beer Villa (now a branch of the Museum of the Brno Region), which will present an exhibition \"The World of the Brno Bourgeoisie around the Löw-Beers and Tugendhat\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The villa was a principal location in the 2007 film \"Hannibal Rising\", serving as the villa of the villain, Vladis Gutas. Simon Mawer's 2009 Booker Prize-shortlisted novel, \"The Glass Room\", is a fictional account of a house inspired by the villa.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Villa Tugendhat is an architecturally significant building in Brno, Czech Republic. It is one of the pioneering prototypes of modern architecture in Europe, and was designed by the German architects Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Lilly Reich. Built of reinforced concrete between 1928 and 1930 for Fritz Tugendhat and his wife Greta, the villa soon became an icon of modernism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974589}
{"src_title": "MACD", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "Over the years, elements of the MACD have become known by multiple and often over-loaded terms. The common definitions of particularly overloaded terms are:  Divergence: 1. As the D in MACD, \"divergence\" refers to the two underlying moving averages drifting apart, while \"convergence\" refers to the two underlying moving averages coming towards each other. 2. Gerald Appel referred to a \"divergence\" as the situation where the MACD line does not conform to the price movement, e.g. a price low is not accompanied by a low of the MACD. and 3. Thomas Asprey dubbed the difference between the MACD and its signal line the \"divergence\" series. In practice, definition number 2 above is often preferred.  Histogram: 1. Gerald Appel referred to bar graph plots of the basic MACD time series as \"histogram\". In Appel's Histogram the height of the bar corresponds to the MACD value for a particular point in time. 2. The difference between the MACD and its Signal line is often plotted as a bar chart and called a \"histogram\". In practice, definition number 2 above is often preferred.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematical interpretation.", "content": "In signal processing terms, the MACD series is a filtered measure of the derivative of the input (price) series with respect to time. (The derivative is called \"velocity\" in technical stock analysis.) MACD estimates the derivative as if it were calculated and then filtered by the two low-pass filters in tandem, multiplied by a \"gain\" equal to the difference in their time constants. It also can be seen to approximate the derivative as if it were calculated and then filtered by a single low pass exponential filter (EMA) with time constant equal to the sum of time constants of the two filters, multiplied by the same gain. So, for the standard MACD filter time constants of 12 and 26 days, the MACD derivative estimate is filtered approximately by the equivalent of a low-pass EMA filter of 38 days. The time derivative estimate (per day) is the MACD value divided by 14.  The average series is also a derivative estimate, with an additional low-pass filter in tandem for further smoothing (and additional lag). The difference between the MACD series and the average series (the divergence series) represents a measure of the second derivative of price with respect to time (\"acceleration\" in technical stock analysis). This estimate has the additional lag of the signal filter and an additional gain factor equal to the signal filter constant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The MACD can be classified as an absolute price oscillator (APO), because it deals with the actual prices of moving averages rather than percentage changes. A percentage price oscillator (PPO), on the other hand, computes the difference between two moving averages of price divided by the longer moving average value.  While an APO will show greater levels for higher priced securities and smaller levels for lower priced securities, a PPO calculates changes relative to price. Subsequently, a PPO is preferred when: comparing oscillator values between different securities, especially those with substantially different prices; or comparing oscillator values for the same security at significantly different times, especially a security whose value has changed greatly.  Another member of the price oscillator family is the detrended price oscillator (DPO), which ignores long term trends while emphasizing short term patterns.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trading interpretation.", "content": "Exponential moving averages highlight recent changes in a stock's price. By comparing EMAs of different lengths, the MACD series gauges changes in the trend of a stock. The difference between the MACD series and its average is claimed to reveal subtle shifts in the strength and direction of a stock's trend. It may be necessary to correlate the signals with the MACD to indicators like RSI power.  Some traders attribute special significance to the MACD line crossing the signal line, or the MACD line crossing the zero axis. Significance is also attributed to disagreements between the MACD line or the difference line and the stock price (specifically, higher highs or lower lows on the price series that are not matched in the indicator series).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Signal-line crossover.", "content": "A \"signal-line crossover\" occurs when the MACD and average lines cross; that is, when the divergence (the bar graph) changes sign. The standard interpretation of such an event is a recommendation to buy if the MACD line crosses up through the average line (a \"bullish\" crossover), or to sell if it crosses down through the average line (a \"bearish\" crossover). These events are taken as indications that the trend in the stock is about to accelerate in the direction of the crossover.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zero crossover.", "content": "A \"zero crossover\" event occurs when the MACD series changes sign, that is, the MACD line crosses the horizontal zero axis. This happens when there is no difference between the fast and slow EMAs of the price series. A change from positive to negative MACD is interpreted as \"bearish\", and from negative to positive as \"bullish\". Zero crossovers provide evidence of a change in the direction of a trend but less confirmation of its momentum than a signal line crossover.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Divergence.", "content": "A \"positive divergence\" or \"bullish divergence\" occurs when the price makes a new low but the MACD does not confirm with a new low of its own. A \"negative divergence\" or \"bearish divergence\" occurs when the price makes a new high but the MACD does not confirm with a new high of its own. A divergence with respect to price may occur on the MACD line and/or the MACD Histogram.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Timing.", "content": "The MACD is only as useful as the context in which it is applied. An analyst might apply the MACD to a weekly scale before looking at a daily scale, in order to avoid making short term trades against the direction of the intermediate trend. Analysts will also vary the parameters of the MACD to track trends of varying duration. One popular short-term set-up, for example, is the (5,35,5).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "False signals.", "content": "Like any forecasting algorithm, the MACD can generate false signals. A false positive, for example, would be a bullish crossover followed by a sudden decline in a stock. A false negative would be a situation where there is bearish crossover, yet the stock accelerated suddenly upwards.  A prudent strategy may be to apply a filter to signal line crossovers to ensure that they have held up. An example of a price filter would be to buy if the MACD line breaks above the signal line and then remains above it for three days. As with any filtering strategy, this reduces the probability of false signals but increases the frequency of missed profit.  Analysts use a variety of approaches to filter out false signals and confirm true ones.  A MACD crossover of the signal line indicates that the direction of the acceleration is changing. The MACD line crossing zero suggests that the average velocity is changing direction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "MACD Calculation Formula", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "MACD, short for moving average convergence/divergence, is a trading indicator used in technical analysis of stock prices, created by Gerald Appel in the late 1970s. It is designed to reveal changes in the strength, direction, momentum, and duration of a trend in a stock's price. The MACD indicator (or \"oscillator\") is a collection of three time series calculated from historical price data, most often the closing price. These three series are: the MACD series proper, the \"signal\" or \"average\" series, and the \"divergence\" series which is the difference between the two. The MACD series is the difference between a \"fast\" (short period) exponential moving average (EMA), and a \"slow\" (longer period) EMA of the price series. The average series is an EMA of the MACD series itself.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974590}
{"src_title": "Gaylord Nelson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Nelson was born in 1916 in Clear Lake, Wisconsin, the son of Mary (Bradt), a nurse, and Anton Nelson, a country doctor. He had Norwegian and Irish ancestry. He grew up and was educated in the local public schools. In 1939, he received a bachelor's in political science at what is now San Jose State University in San Jose, California. In 1942, he received an LL.B. degree from the University of Wisconsin Law School in Madison and was admitted to the bar. He practiced as a lawyer before serving in the United States Army, during which time he saw action in the Okinawa campaign during World War II.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1948, Nelson was elected to the Wisconsin State Senate. He remained there until 1958, when he was elected governor of Wisconsin. He served for four years as governor, in two two-year terms, before being elected to the Senate in 1962. He served three consecutive terms as a senator from 1963 to 1981. In 1963 he convinced President John F. Kennedy to take a national speaking tour to discuss conservation issues. Senator Nelson founded Earth Day, which began as a teach-in about environmental issues on April 22, 1970.  During his 1968 re-election campaign, Nelson was praised by Vince Lombardi, the General Manager and former coach of the Green Bay Packers, as the \"nation's #1 conservationist\" at a banquet in Oshkosh. Nelson's campaign turned Lombardi's banquet speech into a radio and television campaign commercial, infuriating Lombardi, the Wisconsin Republican Party, and Vince's wife, Marie, who was a staunch Republican.  Although known primarily for his environmental work, Nelson also was a leading consumer advocate, strong supporter of civil rights and civil liberties, and one of the early outspoken opponents of the Vietnam war.  In 1970, Nelson called for Congressional hearings on the safety of combined oral contraceptive pills, which were famously called \"The Nelson Pill Hearings.\" As a result of the hearings, side-effect disclosure in patient inserts was required for the pillthe first such disclosure for a pharmaceutical drug. Nelson was also a noted advocate of small business. While chairman of the Senate Small Business Committee, he led successful efforts to authorize the first modern White House Conference on Small Business, create the system of Small Business Development Centers at U.S. universities, and improve the way that federal agencies regulate small businesses and other small entities, the Regulatory Flexibility Act.  In 1973, Nelson was one of the three senators who opposed the nomination of Gerald Ford to be Vice President. (The other two were Thomas Eagleton and William Hathaway.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life after politics.", "content": "After Nelson's 1980 defeat for re-election, he became counselor for The Wilderness Society in January 1981. He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in September 1995 in recognition of his environmental work.  Nelson viewed the stabilization of the nation's population as an important aspect of environmentalism. In his words:  The bigger the population gets, the more serious the problems become... We have to address the population issue. The United Nations, with the U.S. supporting it, took the position in Cairo in 1994 that every country was responsible for stabilizing its own population. It can be done. But in this country, it's phony to say \"I'm for the environment but not for limiting immigration.\"  He also rejected the suggestion that economic development should take precedence over environmental protection:  The economy is a wholly owned subsidiary of the environment, not the other way around.  In 2002, Nelson appeared on \"To Tell the Truth\" as a contestant, with his founding of Earth Day highlighted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fraternity membership.", "content": "Nelson was an initiated member of Pi Kappa Phi fraternity, having been initiated in 1972 during a trip to LaGrange, Georgia, to promote the second annual Earth Day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Nelson died of cardiovascular failure at age 89 on July 3, 2005.  The Gaylord Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies (or Nelson Institute) at the University of Wisconsin–Madison is named after him in recognition of his love for nature. In addition, the Gaylord Nelson Wilderness in the Apostle Islands National Lakeshore -– comprising more than 80% of the land area of the park –- was named after him in honor of his efforts to have the park created. Governor Nelson State Park near Waunakee, Wisconsin, is also named after him. The elementary school in Clear Lake, Wisconsin is named Gaylord A. Nelson Educational Center.  Retrieved on 2008-02-06", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gaylord Anton Nelson (June 4, 1916July 3, 2005) was an American politician and environmentalist from Wisconsin who served as a United States Senator and governor. A Democrat, he was the founder of Earth Day, which launched a new wave of environmental activism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974591}
{"src_title": "Myxozoa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life Cycle and Pathology.", "content": "Myxozoans are endoparasitic animals exhibiting complex life cycles that, in most of the known cases involves an intermediate host, usually a fish, but in rare cases amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals; and a definitive host, usually an annelid or an ectoproct. Only about 100 life cycles have been resolved and it is suspected that there may be some exclusively terrestrial. The mechanism of infection occurs through valve spores that have many forms, but their main morphology is the same: one or two sporoplasts, which are the real infectious agent, surrounded by a layer of attenuated cells called valve cells, which can secrete a layer protective coating and form float appendages. Integrated into the layer of valve cells are two to four specialized capsulogenic cells (in a few cases, one or even 15), each carrying a polar capsule containing coiled polar filaments, an extrudable organelle used for recognition, contact and infiltration. Myxospores are ingested by annelids, in which the polar filaments extrude to anchor the spore to the gut epithelium. Opening of the shell valves allows the sporoplasms to penetrate into the epithelium. Subsequently, the parasite undergoes reproduction and development in the gut tissue, and finally produces usually eight actinosporean spore stages (actinospores) within a pansporocyst. After mature actinospores are released from their hosts they float in the water column. Upon contact with skin or gills of fish, sporoplasms penetrate through the epithelium, followed by development of the myxosporean stage. Myxosporean trophozoites are characterized by cell-in-cell state, where the secondary (daughter) cells develop in the mother (primary) cells. The presporogonic stages multiply, migrate via nervous or circulatory systems, and develop into sporogonic stages. At the final site of infection, they produce mature spores within mono- or disporic pseudoplasmodia, or polysporic plasmodia.  Relationships between myxosporeans and their hosts are often highly evolved and do not usually result in severe diseases of the natural host. Infection in fish hosts can be extremely long-lasting, potentially persisting for the lifetime of the host. However, an increasing number of myxosporeans have become commercially important pathogens of fish, largely as a result of aquaculture bringing new species into contact with myxosporeans to which they had not been previously exposed and to which they are highly susceptible. The economic impact of such parasites can be severe, especially where prevalence rates are high; they may also have a severe impact on wild fish stocks.  The economically most significant diseases worldwide caused by myxosporeas in cultured fishes are PKD-Proliferative Kidney Disease, caused by a Malacosporea member, \"Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae\", and whirling disease, caused by a Myxosporea member \"Myxobolus cerebralis\"; both diseases affect salmonids. Enteromyxosis is caused by \"Enteromyxum leei\" in cultured marine sparids, while \"Hamburger disease” or Proliferative Gill Disease is caused by \"Henneguya ictaluri\" in catfish and \"Sphaerospora renicola\" infections occur in common carp.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anatomy.", "content": "Myxozoans are very small animals, typically 10-300μm in length. Like other cnidarians they possess cnidocysts, which were referred to as \"polar capsules\" before the discovery that myxozoans are cnidarians. These cnidocysts fire tubules as in other cnidarians; some inject substances into the host. However, the tubules lack hooks or barbs, and in some species are more elastic than in other cnidarians.  Myxozoans have secondarily lost epithelial structures, a nervous system, gut, and cilia. Most lack muscles, though some members of malacosporea retain muscles.  Myxozoans do not undergo embryogenesis during development and have lost true gametes. Instead, they reproduce via multicellular spores. These spores contain the polar capsules, which are not typically present in somatic cells.  Centrioles do not participate in the nuclear division of myxozoans. Cell division by binary fission is rare, and cells divide instead via endogeny.  In 2020, the myxozoan \"Henneguya salminicola\" was found to lack a mitochondrial genome and thus be incapable of oxygenic respiration, the first animal to be positively identified as such. Its actual method of metabolism is currently unknown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogenetics.", "content": "Myxozoans were originally considered protozoan, and were included among other non-motile forms in the group Sporozoa. As their distinct nature became clear through 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequencing, they were relocated in the metazoa. Detailed classification within the metazoa was however long hindered by conflicting rDNA evidence: although 18S rDNA suggested an affinity with Cnidaria, other rDNA sampled, and the HOX genes of two species, were more similar to those of the Bilateria.  The discovery that \"Buddenbrockia plumatellae\", a worm-like parasite of bryozoans up to 2 mm in length, is a myxozoan initially appeared to strengthen the case for a bilaterian origin, as the body plan is superficially similar. Nevertheless, closer examination reveals that \"Buddenbrockia\"'s longitudinal symmetry is not twofold, but fourfold, casting doubt on this hypothesis.  Further testing resolved the genetic conundrum by sourcing the first three previously identified discrepant HOX genes (\"Myx1-3\") to the bryozoan \"Cristatella mucedo\" and the fourth (\"Myx4\") to Northern pike, the respective hosts of the two corresponding Myxozoa samples. This explained the confusion: the original experiments had used samples contaminated by tissue from host organisms, leading to false positives for a position among the Bilateria. More careful cloning of 50 coding genes from \"Buddenbrockia\" firmly established the clade as severely modified members of the phylum Cnidaria, with medusozoans as their closest relatives. Similarities between myxozoan polar capsules and cnidarian nematocysts had been drawn for a long time, but were generally assumed to be the result of convergent evolution.  Taxonomists now recognize the outdated subgroup Actinosporea as a life-cycle phase of Myxosporea.  Molecular clocks suggest that myxozoans and their closest relatives, the polypodiozoa, shared their last common ancestor with medusazoans about 600 million years ago, during the Ediacaran period.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "It seems clear that myxozoans belong to the phylum Cnidaria although they have many differences. For this reason, the mixozoan taxonomy has undergone great and important changes in its levels of generic, family and suborder classification. Thus, a new classification in the phylum Cnidaria was proposed with the taxonomic revision based on spores up to the gender level.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Myxozoa (etymology: Greek: μύξα \"myxa\" \"slime\" or \"mucus\" + thematic vowel o + ζῷον \"zoon\" \"animal\") is an unranked subphylum of aquatic, obligately parasitic cnidarian animals and contains the smallest animals ever known to have lived. Over 2180 species have been described and some estimates have suggested at least 30,000 undiscovered species. Many have a two-host lifecycle, involving a fish and an annelid worm or a bryozoan. The average size of a myxosporean spore usually ranges from 10 μm to 20 μm, whereas that of a malacosporean (a subclade of the Myxozoa) spore can be up to 2 mm. Myxozoans can live in both freshwater and marine habitats.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974592}
{"src_title": "Toni Kurz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Toni Kurz was born on 13 January 1913 in Berchtesgaden, Bavaria, Germany, where he was raised. He completed a brief apprenticeship as a pipefitter before joining the German \"Wehrmacht\" in 1934 as a professional soldier. Together with his childhood friend Andreas Hinterstoisser, he made numerous first ascents of peaks in the Berchtesgaden Alps, including some of the most difficult climbs of that time. The two young men climbed the southwest wall of the Berchtesgadener Hochthron in 1934, and the south wall of the straight pillar in 1936. They also made first ascents in the Reiter Alpe on the German–Austrian border, and of the direct southern route up the Watzmannkinder in the Watzmann in 1935.  In July 1936, Kurz and Hinterstoisser left Berchtesgaden, where they were serving in the military, and travelled by bicycle to Kleine Scheidegg, Switzerland to attempt to climb the Eiger north face. While on the mountain, they met up with two Austrian climbers—Edi Rainer and Willy Angerer—and the four decided to continue their attempt together.  During the ascent, Angerer was injured by falling rocks loosened by the warmth of the rising sun as they crossed the first ice field. As a result of Angerer's worsening condition and their slow progress across the second ice field, they abandoned the attempt on the Eiger and decided to descend. A further challenge arose when Kurz and his comrades failed to retrace their route across the area now known as the Hinterstoisser Traverse and had to climb downwards. As the result of another avalanche, Hinterstoisser himself became disconnected, plummeted down the mountain, and perished. Later, Willy Angerer, now climbing below Kurz, was smashed against the wall, dying instantly. Edi Rainer, the climber who had been securing the other two, was pulled against the wall and died minutes later of asphyxiation. Kurz, alone now, remained uninjured.  Later that day, amid worsening weather, a rescue team attempted to reach Kurz from below, ascending by means of the railway tunnel that ran through the mountain, the Jungfraubahn. They could not reach Kurz due to the severity of the storm and were forced to leave him dangling unprotected and exposed to the elements for the entire night. The next day, the team again attempted to effect a rescue; Kurz himself made the effort, despite a frozen hand due to losing a glove, to abseil down the face of the mountain and reach the team. To accomplish this, he first had to cut loose the dead body of his comrade hanging below him, then climb up and cut loose his other dead comrade. To increase the length of his rope, he unravelled it and tied it together again. This entire process took five gruelling hours. He then lowered the rope to the waiting rescuers, who attached their own rope. The mountain guides only had one long rope – 60 metres – with them. Hans Schlunegger just put it between his back and his rucksack (not into his rucksack) to save some time. This was not an unusual practice for them. Unfortunately when he made a sudden movement the rope dropped and fell down to the foot of the wall. As a result the team combined two shorter ropes to reach the required length; however the combined ropes still fell short. Kurz pulled up their rope, fixed it, and began his abseiling descent. He was stopped a mere couple of metres above his rescuers by the knot. To abseil any further he would have had to raise himself enough to release the tension on the knot and let it pass through his gear. Desperately, Kurz tried to move himself past the knot, but in vain. Facing the futility of his situation, he said only \"Ich kann nicht mehr\" (\"I can't [go on] anymore\") and died. His body was later recovered by a German team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The tragic story became well known after publication of Heinrich Harrer's classic 1960 book \"The White Spider\" and was more recently covered by Joe Simpson's book (and Emmy-winning TV documentary), \"The Beckoning Silence\", as well as the 2008 German dramatic movie \"North Face\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Toni Kurz (13 January 1913 – 22 July 1936) was a German mountain climber active in the 1930s. He died during an attempt to climb the Eiger north face with his partner Andreas Hinterstoisser.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974593}
{"src_title": "Karl Theodor, Duke in Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Karl-Theodor was born at Possenhofen Castle, the third son of Duke Maximilian in Bavaria and of his wife, Princess Ludovika of Bavaria.  At the age of fourteen Karl-Theodor joined the Bavarian Army. In 1866 he fought in the Austro-Prussian War. When he left active duty, he became a student at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he studied philosophy, law, economics, and medicine. Among his teachers were the chemist Justus von Liebig, the pathologist Ludwig von Buhl, and the physicist Philipp von Jolly.  In 1870 Karl-Theodor's studies were interrupted by the Franco-Prussian War in which he served as a proprietary colonel of the 3rd Bavarian Light Horse. After the war he returned to his studies. In 1872 he was named an honorary Doctor of Medicine by the Ludwig Maximilian University; the following year he completed the requirements for the degree. Then he studied ophthalmology under Professor Deutschland and continued his education under Professor Arlt in Vienna and Professor Horner in Zürich.  In 1877 Karl-Theodor began practicing medicine in Mentone on the Côte d'Azur, often assisted by his wife Maria Josepha. In 1880 he opened an eye-clinic in his castle at Tegernsee. In 1895 he founded the \"Augenklinik Herzog Carl Theodor\" () in Munich; the clinic in the Nymphenburger Strasse remains one of the most respected eye clinics in Bavaria to the present day. Between 1895 and 1909 Carl Theodor personally carried out more than 5,000 cataract operations as well as treating countless other eye disorders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Karl-Theodor received a number of honours:  Karl-Theodor died at Kreuth in 1909. He is buried in the family crypt in Schloss Tegernsee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and family.", "content": "On 11 February 1865, at Dresden, Karl-Theodor married his first cousin Princess Sophie of Saxony (1845–1867), daughter of King John of Saxony and his maternal aunt Princess Amalie Auguste of Bavaria. They had one child:  On 29 April 1874, at Kleinheubach, Karl-Theodor married Infanta Maria Josepha of Portugal (1857–1943), daughter of exiled King Miguel I of Portugal and Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg, and had issue:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl-Theodor, Duke in Bavaria (9 August 1839 – 30 November 1909), was a member of the House of Wittelsbach and a professional oculist. He was the favorite brother of the Empress Elisabeth of Austria, and father of Queen Elisabeth of the Belgians.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974594}
{"src_title": "Elisabeth of Bavaria, Queen of Belgium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Born in Possenhofen Castle, her father was Karl-Theodor, Duke in Bavaria, head of a cadet branch of the Bavarian royal family, and an ophthalmologist. She was named after her father's sister, Empress Elisabeth of Austria, better known as Sisi. Her mother was Maria Josepha of Portugal, daughter of exiled Miguel I of Portugal. Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, Zita, the last Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary, and Felix of Bourbon-Parma, husband of Grand Duchess Charlotte and brother of Empress Zita, were among Elisabeth's first cousins.  An artist himself, Duke Karl-Theodor cultivated the artistic tastes of his family and Elisabeth was raised with a deep love for painting, music and sculpture. At her father's clinic, where her mother assisted her father as a nurse, Elisabeth obtained exposure to productive labour and to human suffering unusual at that time for a princess.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Married life and queenship.", "content": "In Munich on 2 October 1900, Duchess Elisabeth married Prince Albert, second-in-line to the throne of Belgium (after his father Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders). Upon her husband's accession to the Belgian throne in 1909, Elisabeth became queen. The city of Élisabethville, today Lubumbashi, in the Congo was named in her honour.  They had first met in 1897 at the funeral of Elisabeth's aunt Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria, who was also the mother-in-law of Albert's sister Henriette. At the time, Prince Albert was the heir to his uncle Leopold II of Belgium. Albert was the second son of Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders and Princess Marie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a sister of King Carol I of Romania.  At birth, Albert occupied the third place in the line of succession behind his father and elder brother, Prince Baudouin. The unexpected death of Baudouin in January 1891 immediately raised Albert to prominence within his country. A studious, quiet man, Albert was not the choice of heir that King Leopold II would have relished. As the only living male member of his generation, Albert was guaranteed the Crown of the Belgians upon the King's death. Albert had two sisters who survived into adulthood, Princess Henriette who married Prince Emmanuel of Orléans, and Princess Joséphine Caroline who married her cousin, Prince Karl-Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, brother of King Ferdinand I of Romania.  In December 1909, Albert and Elisabeth became King and Queen of the Belgians, following the death of Albert’s uncle, King Leopold II. The new Queen took on a much more public role than her predecessors, getting involved with many charities and organizations, particularly those in the arts and social welfare. She often surrounded herself with famous authors and artists, as well as leading scientists of the day. Her friendly nature, and true care and concern for others, quickly endeared her to the people of Belgium.  When war broke out in 1914, Queen Elisabeth worked with the nurses on the front and helped establish the Symphony Orchestra of the field army. She also travelled to the UK often, under the pretext of visiting her children who were studying there. She was often bringing important messages and information to the British government from her husband and his forces. Following the war, the family made a triumphant return to Brussels and set about to rebuild the nation.  During the First World War, she and the King resided in De Panne. The Queen made herself beloved by visiting the front lines and by sponsoring a nursing unit. Despite her German background, she was a popular queen, perceived as eagerly supporting her adoptive country.  From September 23 to 13 November 1919, the Queen, together with the King and Prince Léopold, undertook an official visit to the United States of America. During a journey in the historic pueblo of Isleta in New Mexico, the King awarded the Order of Léopold to Father Anton Docher. As a memento, the King was given a turquoise cross mounted in silver made by the Tiwa people. Ten thousand people traveled to Isleta for the occasion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "On February 17, 1934, Albert I died in a mountain climbing accident in the Ardennes of Belgium, near Namur. He was succeeded by their elder son, King Leopold III. Elisabeth withdrew from public life, so as not to hinder the efforts of her daughter-in-law, now Queen Astrid. However, in August 1935, Queen Astrid was killed in a car crash in Küssnacht am Rigi, Switzerland. Queen Elisabeth returned to the public life, doing her best to support her son and his family, and resuming her position as first lady of the land.  Elisabeth lived to see her son become king (but also go into exile and abdicate), her younger son become, effectively, regent of the realm, and her grandson mount the throne.  As queen dowager, she became a patron of the arts and was known for her friendship with such notable scientists as Albert Einstein. During the German occupation of Belgium from 1940 to 1944, she used her influence as queen and German connections to assist in the rescue of hundreds of Jewish children from deportation by the Nazis. When Brussels was liberated, she allowed her palace to be used for headquarters of the British XXX Corps, and presented its commander General Horrocks with its mascot, a young wild boar named 'Chewing Gum'. After the war she was awarded the title Righteous Among the Nations by the Israeli government.  During the 1950s, the Queen evoked controversy abroad by visiting the Soviet Union, China and Poland, trips that prompted some to label her as the \"Red Queen.\"  Queen Elisabeth died in Brussels at the age of 89 on 23 November 1965 from a heart attack. She is interred in the royal vault at the Church of Our Lady of Laeken, Brussels. She was the 1,016th Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The city of Lubumbashi in Congo (Kinshasa) was formerly known as \"Élisabethville\", and it was named in her honor when it was founded in 1910 in what was then the Belgian Congo. It adopted its current name in 1966 when, after six years of wrangling following independence, the regime of Joseph Desire Mobutu began purging The Congo of its colonial-era place names.  The Queen Elisabeth Competition, an international competition for career-starting musicians held in Brussels, is named after her.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Queen Elisabeth of Belgium (born Duchess Elisabeth of Bavaria; 25 July 187623 November 1965) was Queen consort of the Belgians as the spouse of King Albert I, and a Duchess in Bavaria by birth. She was the mother of King Leopold III of Belgium and of Queen Marie-José of Italy, and grandmother of kings Baudouin and Albert II of Belgium, and Grand Duchess Joséphine-Charlotte of Luxembourg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974595}
{"src_title": "Renée of France", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Renée was born on 25 October 1510 at the Château de Blois, Blois, Touraine and was the second daughter of Louis XII of France and Anne of Brittany. Anne, who had always fought fiercely to keep Brittany independent of the French crown, tried to will the duchy to Renée, but Louis disagreed, so the Duchy passed to her elder sister, Claude.  Her early education was undertaken by her governess, Michelle de Saubonne, Madame de Soubise. Saubonne was a partisan of Anne of Brittany and opposed to Anne's enemy, Louise of Savoy; so, after the death of Renée's parents, Louise and her son, Francis I of France, had Saubonne sacked. Renée never forgot this, and when she married, she took Saubonne with her.  In return for renouncing her claims to the duchy of Brittany, Renée was granted the duchy of Chartres by Francis. As a child, one of her companions was the young Anne Boleyn, whom Renée always remembered with kindness and affection. She was considered as a possible bride for King Henry VIII.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duchess of Ferrara.", "content": "She was married in April 1528 to Ercole II, Duke of Ferrara, eldest son of Alfonso I d'Este and Lucrezia Borgia. By this marriage, she became known as \"Renatia di Francia\". Renée received from Francis I an ample dowry and annuity. Thus the court that she assembled about her in Ferrara, in the 1530 and 1540s, corresponded to the tradition which the cultivation of science and art implicitly required, including scholars like Bernardo Tasso and Fulvio Pellegrini. Her first child, Anna, born in 1531, was followed by Alfonso, in 1533; Lucrezia, 1535; after these, Eleonora and Luigi; whose education she carefully directed.  On 31 October 1534, her father-in-law died and Ercole succeeded to the throne. Hardly had he rendered his oath of allegiance to Pope Paul III when he turned against the French at his own court, many of whom had been brought by Renee. Both their number and influence displeased him; and, besides, he found them too expensive; so he by direct or indirect means secured their dismissal, including the poet Clément Marot. And while the Curia was urging the duke to put away the French that were suspected of heresy, there came to Ferrara no less a heretic than John Calvin, whose journey to Italy must have fallen in March and April 1536. Calvin passed several weeks at the court of Renée in the summer of 1536. As a result of Renée's tutelage, Calvin's \"opus magnum\" circulated at the court; the \"Institutes of the Christian Religion\", in two Latin editions (1536, 1539). This at a time when the persecution of those who adhered or sympathised with the Protestant faith had already begun in the area. Amongst those, it included a chorister by the name of Jehannet, also one Cornillan, of the attendants of the duchess, together with a cleric of Tournay, Bouchefort, who were also taken prisoners and tried. In a \"man of small stature,\" whom the Inquisition likewise seized as under suspicion, although he made his escape, is to be recognized not Calvin, but Clément Marot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heresy trial.", "content": "Renée was not only in correspondence with a very large number of Protestants abroad, with intellectual sympathizers like Vergerio, Camillo Renato, Giulio di Milano, and Francis Dryander, but also that on two or three occasions, about 1550 or later, she partook of the Eucharist in the Protestant manner together with her daughters and fellow believers. Meanwhile, notwithstanding its external splendor, her life had grown sad. The last of her French guests, the daughter and son-in-law of Madame de Soubise of Pons, had been obliged, in 1543, by the constraint imposed by the duke, to leave the court. The Counter-Reformation, which had been operative in Rome since 1542, led to the introduction of a special court of the Inquisition at Ferrara, in 1545, through which, in 1550 and 1551, death sentences were decreed against Protestant sympathizers (Fannio of Faenza and Giorgio of Sicily), and executed by the secular arm.  Finally Duke Ercole lodged accusation against Renée before her nephew King Henry II of France, and through the Inquisitor Oriz, whom the king charged with this errand, Renée was arrested as a heretic, and declared forfeit of all possessions unless she recanted. She resisted steadfastly for some time, until her two daughters were taken away from her, supposedly forever. So, as a condition for being reunited with her children she had to recant and abjure her Protestant faith. She then yielded, made confession on 23 September 1554, although subsequently she refused to attend Catholic worship, and especially the mass, which for her was a form of blasphemy. \"How seldom is there an example of steadfastness among aristocrats,\" wrote Calvin to Farel under date of 2 February 1555.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to France.", "content": "Renée's longing to return home was not satisfied until a year following the death of her husband on 3 October 1559. In France she found her eldest daughter's husband, Francis, Duke of Guise, at the head of the Roman Catholic party. His power, indeed, was broken by the death of his nephew Francis II, in December, 1560, so that Renée became enabled not only to provide Protestant worship at her estate, Montargis, engaging a capable preacher by application to Calvin, but also generally to minister as benefactress of the surrounding Protestants. In fact, she made her castle a refuge for them, when her son-in-law once again lighted the torch of war.  Again, her conduct won Calvin's praise (10 May 1563), and she is one of the frequently recurring figures in his correspondence of that period; he repeatedly shows recognition of her intervention in behalf of the Evangelical cause; and one of his last writings in the French tongue, dispatched from his deathbed (4 April 1564), is addressed to her. While Renée continued unmolested in the second religious war (1567), in the third (1568–70) her castle was no longer respected as an asylum for her fellow believers. On the other hand, she succeeded in rescuing a number of them from the massacre of Saint Bartholomew's night, when she happened to be in Paris. They left her personally undisturbed at that time, though Catherine de' Medici still sought to move her to retract, a demand which she ignored.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "With Ercole II she had:  Renee was widowed in 1559. As a result of being on bad terms with her son, Alfonso, she returned to France in 1560 and settled in Montargis, where she then died on 12 June 1574.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Renée of France (25 October 1510 – 12 June 1574), was the Duchess of Ferrara from 31 October 1534 until 3 October 1559 due to her marriage to Ercole II d'Este, grandson of Pope Alexander VI. She was the younger surviving child of Louis XII of France and Anne of Brittany. In her later life she became an important supporter of the Protestant Reformation and ally of John Calvin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974596}
{"src_title": "Citroën C2", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Marketing and advertising issues.", "content": "Unlike its sister models, the Citroën C1 and C3, the C2 was seen as a victim of poor advertising. According to many in the motoring press, it was the most neglected model in the Citroën lineup in terms of promotion. In comparison, the C1 and the C3, on which the C2 is based, were both well presented in the media. Despite that, the Citroën C2 was awarded the \"Best European Hatchback of 2003\" in September 2003.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions.", "content": "The LX model was the \"no frills\" version of the C2 and came with basic equipment, including black plastic bumpers and no fog lamps. The L model, produced from 2003 to 2005, came with black lower bumper and door handles, CD player, rear seat modulation and no fog lamps. The Design included body coloured bumpers and electric windows. The SX was the luxury spec.  It featured 'bumper colour coded paint' and air conditioning, the latter of which increases the 1.1 SX's 0–100 km/h time by 4.5 seconds to 17.2 seconds.  The Furio, VTR and VTS are the sports models which made the C2's predecessor, the Saxo, famous as an affordable, sporty looking and very fast 'pocket rocket'. The Furio has the same sports body kit as the more expensive VTR and VTS models but lacks their alloy wheels. Earlier models of the Furio had 15\" Coyote alloys, but these were later replaced with wheel trims from the end of 2003 onwards.  The VTR also has a engine, whereas the VTS, the premium sports model, has a engine capable of accelerating from 0 to in 8.0 seconds, seen as sluggish by modern hot hatch standards where the fastest contemporary hot hatch achieved 5.3 seconds (Clio V6), although this is designed to be more insurance friendly.  Other additions which helped the VTS model achieve a low insurance rating (in the United Kingdom) were security based including deadlocks and a Thatcham Category 1 alarm system which includes perimeter and volumetric detection as well as an engine immobiliser.  The limited edition model \"GT\", introduced in September 2004, offered a sporty bodykit, with bright red, blue, silver and black paintwork and unique white alloy wheels. All GTs have a number certificate to show their authenticity. Only 2,250 were made, exclusive to the United Kingdom.  In 2006, there were a number of small revisions to the C2. Externally the car looks identical save minor changes to alloy wheels (on the VTR), half colour coded door mirrors, clear side indicator lenses, and white indicator rear lenses. Internal changes saw a new stereo with vehicle computer integration and some cosmetic changes to the driver displays and centre console.  The previous models ran two integrated electrical systems. The popular CAN BUS (Controller Area Network, by Bosch) and PSA's proprietary VAN BUS (Vehicle Area Network).  In 2006, PSA dumped the VAN BUS system for an all CAN BUS system, giving it better functionality and compatibility with more component manufacturers. This required some of the electrical components to be replaced, explaining why the displays, radio/CD and some other electronic equipment were changed.  The VTR Sensodrive and VTS manual were the two petrol options available for the Australian C2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Euro NCAP test results for a LHD, three door hatchback variant on a registration of 2003:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Facelift.", "content": "April 2007 saw Citroën Europe announcing a facelift for its C2 model, which had received a minor update in November 2006. The 2009 C2 featured a larger front bumper and restyled grille with a chrome surround. The trim specifications remain in line with the range of 2008. Levels remained unchanged.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Technology.", "content": "The Citroën C2 brings with it two key new technologies, the Stop & Start environmental system, and the SensoDrive five speed semi-automatic transmission.  The engine quickly restarts when pressure on the brake pedal is relieved. The technology has been developed by Valeo and results in lower urban fuel consumption. The system, however, requires pressure on the brake pedal when stationary for the system to work, holding the vehicle on the handbrake (parking brake) alone will not be sufficient for the system to operate. The Stop & Start system is mounted to the SensoDrive gearbox.  A Stop & Start system was previously seen in the 1980s, with the Volkswagen Polo \"Formel E\" and the Volkswagen Golf MKIII \"Ecomatic\", although this was different in operation; in the Volkswagen system the engine stopped automatically when placed in neutral. Selecting a gear by moving the stick to the left (for first or reverse) activated the starter motor.  One actuator changes gears while the other, which is equipped with a facing wear compensation system, opens and closes the clutch. The gearbox control unit also dialogues with the engine control unit. The SensoDrive gearbox has two shifting options of either the fully automated mode, or the paddle shifted/gear shifted manual mode.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chinese version.", "content": "From October 2006, the Peugeot 206 has been sold by PSA, for the Chinese market only as the Citroën C2. With a modified front and rear body, this is similar to the way the Citroën LN was derived from the Peugeot 104. The car has no common features with the model sold on other markets, due to the positioning of the model in the line up of Citroën China.  It is produced in China at the Wuhan Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën Automobile site. It has a length of, width of, height of, with a wheelbase of, and is powered by one of the two engine options: a 1.4 L () and a 1.6 L (). Weight ranges from to.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "C2 in Motorsport.", "content": "After the success of Citroën's Xsara in the World Rally Championship (WRC), Citroën expanded their interests to achieve success not only in the WRC but in the support championship, the Junior World Rally Championship (JWRC) in 2004. The earlier Citroën Saxo Super 1600 JWRC car was highly successful.  The car won the JWRC title with Sébastien Loeb in 2001, and brought him to the attention of Citroën Total World Rally Team, and again with Daniel Solà in 2002. With the new C2 replacing the aging Saxo, Citroën concentrated upon making their new car a winner.  Using a heavily modified C2 to create the \"Citroën C2 S1600\", the works team and Dani Sordo succeeded in winning the championship in 2005. The C2 S1600 has continued to compete in the championship with privateer teams, and remains successful despite newer machinery from Suzuki, Renault and Fiat works teams.  In the season of 2008, Sébastien Ogier brought the Citroën C2 its second junior title, and in 2009, the C2 was again the title winning car, with Martin Prokop taking the championship.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Citroën C2 is a supermini that was produced by the French manufacturer Citroën, with production starting August 2003. It replaced the Citroën Saxo, and was built at the Aulnay plant, on the outskirts of Paris. A different design of the C2, based on that of the Peugeot 206, is sold in China. The Citroën C2 was discontinued in October 2009, and replaced by the Citroën DS3 in January 2010.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974597}
{"src_title": "Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Liechtenstein chose a military career at age 22 and entered the army as a lieutenant in a cuirassier regiment. During the Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791) he earned, in rapid succession, promotion to Major, Oberstleutnant, and Oberst (colonel). He earned renown as a good cavalry officer and was honored with the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa in 1790.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French Revolutionary Wars.", "content": "During the French Revolutionary Wars, he participated in an \"outstandingly effective cavalry action\" at Avesnes-le-Sec on 12 September 1793, where 4,663 Republican troops suffered losses of 2,000 killed and wounded with the Allies losing only 69 men. In addition, 2,000 soldiers and 20 artillery pieces were captured. He also participated in many other battles. Soon after being promoted to General-Major in June 1794, he fought at the Battle of Fleurus. He commanded a mixed cavalry-infantry brigade in Anton Sztaray's division at the Battle of Würzburg on 3 September 1796. After this action he was awarded the Commander's Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa.  In the War of the Second Coalition, Liechtenstein commanded the Austrian Reserve at the Battle of Trebbia. In August 1799 he received promotion to Feldmarschal-Leutnant. He commanded 8,000 men in the successful siege of Cuneo in November and December. On 3 December 1800, he led a 5,109-man cavalry division in the Battle of Hohenlinden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "Liechtenstein was prominent in the Napoleonic Wars. At the Battle of Austerlitz, he led the 4,600 cavalry of the 5th Column. His troops fought well but he was unable to save the Austrian-Russian army from a disastrous defeat. Afterward, he carried on the negotiations with Emperor Napoleon I which concluded with the Peace of Pressburg. He earned the rank of General of Cavalry in 1808.  Throughout the War of the Fifth Coalition Liechtenstein commanded the I Reserve Korps in the army of Archduke Charles. He led his cavalry and grenadiers at the Battle of Eckmühl on 22 April 1809, the Battle of Aspern-Essling on 21–22 May, and the Battle of Wagram on 5–6 July. He took command of the main army after Archduke Charles resigned and held this responsibility until the end of the year. Emperor Francis II promoted him Feldmarschall in September. He negotiated and signed the Peace of Schönbrunn. Both of these treaties were very favourable to Napoleon and hard on Austria. Afterward, Liechtenstein was accused of having little diplomatic skill. To escape criticism he resigned from the military in 1810.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sovereign.", "content": "As Prince of Liechtenstein, Johann made forward-thinking reforms, but also had an absolutist governing style. In 1818 he granted a constitution, although it was limited in its nature. He expanded agriculture and forestry and radically reorganized his administration, in an attempt to take the requirements of what was then a modern estate into account.  He proved a trendsetter in the area of garden art by planting Biedermeier gardens and park landscapes in an English model.  In 1806 Napoleon incorporated Liechtenstein in the Confederation of the Rhine and made it a sovereign state. At the Vienna Congress the sovereignty of Liechtenstein was approved. Liechtenstein became a member of the German Confederation in 1815. This membership confirmed Liechtenstein’s sovereignty.  He was the 869th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria in 1806.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "On 12 April 1792 in Vienna, he married Landgravine Josepha of Fürstenberg-Weitra (Vienna, 21 June 1776 – Vienna, 23 February 1848), Dame of the Imperial Court and Dame of the Order of the Starry Cross. They had 14 children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann I Joseph (\"Johann Baptist Josef Adam Johann Nepomuk Aloys Franz de Paula\"; 26 June 1760 – 20 April 1836) was Prince of Liechtenstein between 1805 and 1806 and again from 1814 until 1836. He was the last Liechtenstein prince to rule under the Holy Roman Empire between 1805 and 1806 and as regent of Liechtenstein from 1806 until 1814. He was the fourth son of Franz Joseph I, Prince of Liechtenstein.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974598}
{"src_title": "Anton Geesink", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Judo career.", "content": "Geesink took up judo aged 14 and by 17 started competing internationally, winning a silver medal in 1951. The following year, he won his first European title. Through to 1967, twenty more European titles followed.  At the 1956 World Championships, Geesink was eliminated in the semi-finals against Yoshihiko Yoshimatsu. At the 1961 World Championships, Geesink, then 5th dan, became World Champion in the open class, defeating the Japanese champion Koji Sone. Japanese judokas had won all the World Championship titles contested up to that point.  Judo debuted as an official sport at the 1964 Summer Olympics, which were held in the sport's home country, Japan. Although Japan dominated three of the four weight divisions (light, middle and heavy), Anton Geesink won the final of the open weight division, defeating Akio Kaminaga in front of his home crowd.  After winning the 1965 World Championships and a last European title in 1967, Geesink quit competitive judo.  Anton Geesink was one of the few 10th Dan grade judoka (jūdan) recognized by the IJF but not by Kodokan at that rank. Promotions from 6th to 10th Dan are awarded for services to the sport of judo. In 2010 there are three living 10th dan grade judoka (jūdan) recognized by Kodokan: Toshiro Daigo, Ichiro Abe and Yoshimi Osawa. The Kodokan has not awarded the 10th Dan to anybody outside Japan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional wrestling career.", "content": "In October 1973, \"All Japan Pro Wrestling\" owner Giant Baba recruited Anton Geesink to join AJPW. Baba sent him to Amarillo, TX and Dory Funk Jr. and Terry Funk trained him for a month. He worked for \"All Japan\" from 1973 to 1978, as a popular part-timer.  Geesink's notable professional wrestling opponents included Bruno Sammartino, Gorilla Monsoon, Dick Murdoch, Dory Funk Jr., Bobby Duncum, Bob Remus (Sgt. Slaughter), Don Leo Jonathan, and Jumbo Tsuruta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Films and publications.", "content": "Geesink made his acting debut in 1962, playing a detective in the Dutch film \"Rififi in Amsterdam\". In 1965 he starred as Samson in the Italian historical film \"\", and in the 1970s-1980s took part in two Dutch TV series. In the 1960s he published several books on judo in Dutch and English.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International Olympic Committee work.", "content": "In 1987, Geesink became a member of the board of the Dutch National Olympic Committee, and a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).  Geesink was among the IOC members suspected of accepting bribes during the scandal surrounding the election of Salt Lake City as the host of the 2002 Winter Olympics. Geesink's name was cleared by the IOC which nevertheless issued him a warning for the appearance of a conflict of interest which could have damaged the reputation of the IOC. Geesink continued working for IOC until his death in 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and death.", "content": "Geesink was born and raised in Utrecht. His family was poor and he started work as a builder aged 12. He died in 2010 aged 76 in the town of his birth. He was survived by Jans Geesink, his wife of more than 50 years; his daughters Willy and Leni; and son Anton jr..", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Geesink was chosen as the Dutch Sportsman of the Year in 1957, 1961, 1964 and 1965. He was awarded the Order of the Sacred Treasure by the Japanese government in 1997.  His home town of Utrecht has a street named after him — which is the street he lived on for some time up until his death in August 2010. On 29 January 2000, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Kokushikan University, a Japanese university known for its sport education and of which four alumni are Olympic gold medalists in judo, with the following praise: ヘーシンク氏は、一九六四年東京オリンピックにおいて、柔道無差別級で外国人選手として初めて金メダルを獲得し、その後、武道精神をもって国際平和に貢献するとともにオランダ・日本両国民の文化交流・友好関係の促進に努め、また柔道を教育学や生体学的角度から研究し、その普及発展のために尽力された。 武道の精神を重視する本大学は、柔道の国際的普及における同氏の功績を讃え、国士舘大学名誉博士の学位を贈呈した。  At the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, Mr. Geesink won the gold medal in the open class as the first non-Japanese. Since then, with the spirit of budō, he has contributed to the international peace and promoted the cultural exchange and friendship between the people of the Netherlands and of Japan. Furthermore, he explored judo in light of education and somatology and has been devoted to its diffusion and development. To honor his contribution to the worldwide diffusion of judo, this university, as a body which prizes the spirit of budō, awarded him an honorary doctorate of Kokushikan University.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antonius Johannes Geesink (6 April 1934 – 27 August 2010) was a Dutch 10th dan judoka. He was the first non-Japanese judoka to win gold at the World Judo Championship, a feat he accomplished in 1961 and 1965. He was also an Olympic Champion, having won gold at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Japan, and won a record 21 European Judo Championships during his career.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974599}
{"src_title": "Maria Helena Vieira da Silva", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Vieira da Silva was born in Lisbon, Portugal. At an early age, she traveled around the world because her affluent father was a diplomat. During this time, she came in contact with various avant-garde groups, such as the Italian Futurists and the Ballets Russes. At the age of eleven she had begun seriously studying drawing and painting at the \"Academia de Belas-Artes\" in Lisborn. In her teen years she studied painting with Fernand Léger, sculpture with Antoine Bourdelle, and engraving with Stanley William Hayter. Vieira da Silva also worked with Fauve artist Othon Friesz.  In 1928 Vieira da Silva left Lisbon to study sculpture in Paris, but decided in 1929 to focus on painting. By 1930 she was exhibiting paintings in Paris; that same year she married the Hungarian painter Árpád Szenes. At the onset of World War II in 1939, Vieira da Silva moved to Portugal from France. The following year, she left for Rio de Janeiro, Brazil where she gained prominence as an artist for her dense and complex compositions. After the War, Vieira da Silva lived and worked in Paris the rest of her life. She adopted French citizenship in 1956. Vieira da Silva received the French government's Grand Prix National des Arts in 1966, the first woman so honored. She was named a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1979. She died in Paris on 6 March 1992.  Her name sometimes appears written as \"Elena\", but the correct version, in Portuguese, is \"Helena\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Despite being a French citizen, Vieira da Silva is considered to be Portugal's greatest contemporary artist by many. In 1988 in honor of her 80th birthday, the Gulbenkian Museum in Lisbon and the Grand Palais in Paris had major retrospectives of her work.  Vieira da Silva’s work is included in the permanent collections of the Museum of Modern Art in Paris, the Stedelijk in Amsterdam, the National Museum of Women in the Arts, the Museum of Modern Art, New York, the Tate Gallery, the National Gallery of Canada, the Guggenheim Museum and the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.  Vieira da Silva’s initial work featured a decorative style of abstract patterning. She enjoyed toying with the idea of space and creating a false perception of space by having her painting set on a neutral background with flecks color giving a sense of depth. In the 1930s Vieira da Silva began producing her characteristic works which were heavily impastoed, and overlaid with a complex arrangement of small rectangles. In 1943, Vieira da Silva exhibited in Peggy Guggenheim's show \"Exhibition by 31 Women\" at the Art of This Century gallery in New York. As she evolved as an artist, she focused more on spatial manipulations using a wide range of techniques. She employed detailed patterns to create fabricated architectural forms and worked with complex lines, luminous spots and patterned surfaces. By the late 1950s she was internationally known for her dense and complex compositions, influenced by the art of Paul Cézanne and the fragmented forms, spatial ambiguities, and restricted palette of cubism and abstract art. She is considered to be one of the most important Post-War abstract artists although she is not a “pure” abstract painter. Her work is related to French Tachisme, American Abstract expressionism, and Surrealism, as were many of her contemporaries who were painting in Post-War Paris during the mid to late 1940s and early 1950s. Her paintings often resemble mazes, cities seen in profile or from high above or even library shelves in what seems to be an allegory to a never-ending search for Knowledge or the Absolute. Vieira da Silva has also created many prints, designs, for tapestries, ceramic decorations, and stained glass windows. She exhibited her work widely, winning a prize for painting at the São Paulo Art Biennial in São Paulo in 1961.  In 1966-76 she made a stained-glass window for the Saint Jacques church in Reims together with Josef Sima. In 1974 she made the painting \"A Library Burning\" which uses many of the elements from that window. She decorated in 1988 the new \"Cidade Universitária\" subway station of Lisbon with \"azulejo\" panels.  In November 1994, the Árpád Szenes-Vieira da Silva Foundation was inaugurated in Lisbon, a museum that displays a large collection of paintings by both artists.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Helena Vieira da Silva (13 June 1908 – 6 March 1992) was a Portuguese abstract painter. She was considered a leading member of the European abstract expressionism movement known as Art Informel. Her works feature complex interiors and city views using lines that explore space and perspective. She also worked in tapestry and stained glass.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974600}
{"src_title": "Dormition Cathedral, Moscow", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "Archaeological investigations in 1968 indicated that the site of the present Cathedral was a medieval burial ground, supporting the hypothesis that a wooden church existed on the site in the 12th century. This was replaced by a limestone structure built around 1326, which is mentioned in historical records.  In the 14th century, Metropolitan Peter persuaded Ivan I (Ivan Kalita) that he should build a cathedral to the Theotokos (Blessed Virgin Mary) in Moscow like the Cathedral of the Dormition in the capital city Vladimir. Construction of the cathedral began on August 4, 1326, and the cathedral was finished and consecrated on August 4, 1327. At that time Moscow became the capital of the Vladimir-Suzdal' principality.  By the end of the 15th century the old cathedral had become dilapidated, and in 1472 the Moscow architects Kryvtsov and Myshkin began construction of a new cathedral. Two years later, in May 1474, the building was nearing completion when it collapsed due to earthquake.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Present structure.", "content": "Following the disaster, Ivan III then invited Aristotele Fioravanti, a celebrated architect and engineer from Bologna, Italy, to come to Moscow and entrusted him with the task of designing the cathedral from scratch in the traditions of Russian architecture. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir was once again taken as a model for the building, and so Fioravanti travelled to Vladimir in order to study Russian methods of building. He designed a light and spacious masterpiece that combined the spirit of the Renaissance with Russian traditions. The foundation for the new cathedral was laid in 1475, and in 1479 the new cathedral was consecrated by Metropolitan Geronty. The interior was painted with frescoes and adorned with many icons, including the Theotokos of Vladimir and Blachernitissa.  The design of the new church, with its five domes (symbolic of Jesus Christ and the Four Evangelists) proved immensely popular, and was taken as a template for numerous other churches throughout Russia.  In 1547, the coronation of the first Russian Tsar, Ivan the Terrible, took place in this cathedral. From 1721 it was the scene of the coronation of the Russian emperors. The ritual installation of metropolitans and patriarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church also took place in this cathedral, and their tombs are to be found here.  The cathedral suffered from many disasters in its history, including fires in 1518, 1547, 1682, and 1737, and looting under the armies of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Time of Troubles in 1612. During the French occupation of Russia, it was looted and used as a horse stable.  It was thoroughly restored in 1894-1895 and from 1910-1918. On November 21, 1917, the cathedral was the setting for the installation of Tikhon (Belavin), the Metropolitan of Moscow, as the first patriarch of the restored Patriarchate of Moscow. However, following the 1917 Russian Revolution, the new Bolshevik government closed all churches in the Moscow Kremlin, and converted the cathedral into a museum. By special permission from Vladimir Lenin, the last Pascha (Easter service) was held in 1918. The final moment of this Paschal service was the subject of an unfinished painting by Pavel Korin entitled \"Farewell to Rus\". Most of the church treasures were transferred to the Kremlin Armory, or were sold overseas.  The building was repaired in 1949/50, 1960 and 1978.  In 1990, the Dormition Cathedral was returned to the church for periodic religious services, shortly before the dissolution of the Soviet Union. It was restored to the Russian Orthodox Church in 1991.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Dormition Cathedral is a tremendous six-pillared building with five apses and five domes. It was modeled after the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, in that it made extensive use of limestone masonry on a high limestone base, and was laid out as a three nave church with a vaulted cross-dome. It is built of well-trimmed white-stone blocks. However, Fioravanti did not use cantilever vaults as was common in Russian architecture, but introduced groin vaults and transverse arches. For the upper portion of the building, he used specially-made bricks, larger than the standard Russian size, which reduced weight and allowed for more slender arch supports. Thus, the easternmost pair of columns in front of the apses are typically Russian in the use of massive rectangular open piers, whereas the remaining four are simpler Corinthian columns. The slim shape of these columns contributes significantly to the light, spacious effect of the interior.  Inside, the church decoration is dominated by its fresco painting. The huge iconostasis dates from 1547, but its two highest tiers are later additions from 1626 and 1653/1654 under Patriarch Nikon. In addition to its liturgical function, the iconostasis also served as a sort of trophy wall, in that Russian Tsars would add the most important icons from cities they had conquered to its collection. One of the oldest, \"icons with the bust of Saint George\" dates from the 12th century and was transferred to Moscow by Tsar Ivan IV on the conquest of the city of Veliky Novgorod in 1561.  However, one of the most important icons of the Russian Orthodox Church, the \"Theotokos of Vladimir\" kept at the Cathedral from 1395-1919 is now at the Tretyakov Gallery.  Near the south entrance to the Cathedral is the Monomach Throne of Ivan IV (1551).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the arts.", "content": "The plaza in front of the Cathedral is the setting for the famous Coronation Scene in Mussorgsky's opera \"Boris Godunov\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cathedral of the Dormition (, or \"Uspensky sobor\"), also known as the Assumption Cathedral or Cathedral of the Assumption is a Russian Orthodox church dedicated to the Dormition of the Theotokos. It is located on the north side of Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin in Russia, where a narrow alley separates the north from the Patriarch's Palace with the Twelve Apostles Church. Separately in the southwest, also separated by a narrow passage from the church, is the Palace of Facets. The Cathedral is regarded as the mother church of Muscovite Russia. In its present form it was constructed between 1475–79 at the behest of the Moscow Grand Duke Ivan III by the Italian architect Aristotele Fioravanti. From 1547 to 1896 it was where the Coronation of the Russian monarch was held. In addition, it is the burial place for most of the Moscow Metropolitans and Patriarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church and it also serves as a part of Moscow Kremlin Museums.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974601}
{"src_title": "Marie Louise d'Orléans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Marie Louise d'Orléans was born at the Palais Royal in Paris. She was the eldest daughter of Philippe of France, Duke of Orléans and of his first wife, Princess Henrietta of England. As a \"petite-fille de France\" she was entitled to the attribute of \"Royal Highness,\" although, as was customary at court at the palace of Versailles, her style, \"Mademoiselle d'Orléans\", was more often used. Charming, pretty and graceful, Marie Louise, who was her father's favourite child, had a happy childhood, residing most of the time in the Palais Royal, and at the château de Saint-Cloud situated a few kilometres west of Paris. Marie Louise spent a lot of time with both her paternal and maternal grandmothers—Anne of Austria, who doted on her and left the bulk of her fortune to her when she died in 1666; and Henrietta Maria, who lived in Colombes.  Marie Louise's mother died in 1670. The following year, her father married Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. All her life, Marie Louise would maintain an affectionate correspondence with her stepmother.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen.", "content": "In July 1679, Marie was informed by her father, Philippe, and uncle, King Louis XIV of her betrothal to Charles II of Spain. Distressed by the arranged marriage, Marie spent most of her time weeping, since she had fallen in love with her cousin Louis. The proxy marriage took place at the Palace of Fontainebleau on 30 August 1679; standing for the groom was Mademoiselle d'Orléans' distant cousin Louis Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti. Until mid-September there were a series of formal events held in honour of the new Queen of Spain. Marie Louise went to the convent of Val-de-Grâce, before her departure, where the heart of her mother was kept. She would never return to France. On 19 November 1679, Marie Louise married Charles in person in Quintanapalla, near Burgos, Spain. This was the start of a lonely existence at the Spanish court. Her new husband had fallen in love with her and remained so until the end of his life. However, the confining etiquette of the Spanish Court (e.g., touching the Queen was forbidden), the King's mental and physical infirmities and her unsuccessful attempts to bear a child caused her distress.  Her French attendants were accused of plotting against the King and his family and, as a result, one of her personal maids was tortured. Riots occurred outside the palace in Madrid. Unlike the fashionable palaces at Versailles, Saint-Cloud and Paris, her new residences were the forbidding \"Real Alcázar de Madrid\" and the even more stark \"Palacio del Buen Retiro—\"a country palace where Marie Louise was allowed to stable her French horses. She also spent time in the \"Palacio Real de Aranjuez\", south of Madrid.  After ten years of marriage the couple had no children. Marie Louise confided to the French ambassador, that  \"she was really not a virgin any longer, but that as far as she could figure things, she believed she would never have children.\"  During the last years of her life she became overweight. She was reportedly fond of sweetened lemon and cinnamon drinks which required around thirty-two pounds of sugar per day. After horseback riding on 11 February 1689, she felt a severe pain in the abdomen which forced her to lie down the rest of the evening. She died the following night.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The death of Marie Louise left her husband heartbroken. There were rumours that she had been poisoned by the notorious \"intrigante\" Olympia Mancini, comtesse de Soissons, at the behest of her mother-in-law, the dowager queen Mariana of Austria, because of Marie Louise's childlessness. Mariana and Marie Louise had, however, not been known to be estranged and the elder queen appeared devastated at the young queen's death. It seems likely that the real cause of Marie Louise's death was appendicitis.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Marie Louise d'Orléans (26 March 1662 – 12 February 1689) was Queen consort of Spain from 1679 to 1689 as the first wife of King Charles II of Spain. She was a granddaughter of Louis XIII of France. In her adopted Spain, she was known as \"María Luisa de Orleans\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974602}
{"src_title": "Anders Järryd", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Järryd turned professional in 1980. He won his first tour doubles title in 1981 in Linz, Austria. One year later he captured his first top-level singles title, also at Linz. In 1983, Järryd won his first Grand Slam doubles title at the French Open, partnering his fellow Swede Hans Simonsson. Järryd had a strong year in 1984, winning two singles and five doubles titles. He also finished runner-up in the men's doubles at the US Open that year, partnering Stefan Edberg.  1985 saw Järryd's career-best Grand Slam singles performance, when he beat Claudio Panatta, Scott Davis, Vincent Van Patten, Danie Visser and Heinz Günthardt to reach the semi-finals at Wimbledon before being knocked-out in four sets by Boris Becker. Järryd reached his career-high singles ranking of world No. 5 in July 1985, and captured the world No. 1 doubles ranking that August. At the French Open and US Open, Järryd progressed to career best finishes in those two tournaments, finishing the fourth round and quarterfinal respectively. In 1986 he won the WCT Finals by beating Boris Becker in the final, while he and Edberg were the men's doubles runners-up at the French Open.  Järryd won three of the four Grand Slam men's doubles titles in 1987, at the Australian Open (partnering Edberg), French Open (partnering Robert Seguso) and US Open (partnering Edberg). Järryd was also a member of Swedish team which won the Davis Cup that year. He won two singles rubbers in the final where Sweden beat India 5–0. (Järryd also played on three Swedish teams which finished runners-up in the Davis Cup in 1986, 1988 and 1989.)  In 1988, Järryd partnered John Fitzgerald to finish runner-up in the men's doubles at both the French Open and Wimbledon. Järryd also won a men's doubles bronze medal at the Olympic Games that year, partnering Edberg. Järryd was also a member of the Swedish team which won the World Team Cup in 1988. The following year, Järryd partnered Fitzgerald to win the men's doubles title at Wimbledon; thus completing a career set of all four Grand Slam men's doubles titles. 1991 again saw Järryd capture three of the four men's doubles titles, as he partnered Fitzgerald to win the French Open, Wimbledon and US Open, his last Grand Slam titles. Järryd reached his last Grand Slam doubles final at the 1993 Australian Open, partnering Fitzgerald again.  Over the course of his career, Järryd won eight top-level singles titles and 59 tour doubles titles. His final singles title came in 1993 at Rotterdam. He won his final doubles title in 1995 at St. Petersburg. Järryd retired from the professional tour in 1996.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anders Per Järryd (; born 13 July 1961) is a former professional tennis player from Sweden. During his career he won eight Grand Slam doubles titles (three French Open, two Wimbledon, two US Open, one Australian Open), reached the world No. 1 doubles ranking, and achieved a career-high singles ranking of world No. 5.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974603}
{"src_title": "Ivangorod", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The fortress, established in 1492 during the reign of Ivan III of Moscow, took its name (literally: Ivan-town — \"gorod\" in Russian means \"town\" or \"city\") from that of the Tsar. Between 1581 and 1590 and from 1612 to 1704, Sweden controlled the area. Ivangorod was granted town privileges and administered as a Russian township under the Crown of Sweden (who conquered it in 1612 from boyar Teuvo Aminev) until 1649, when its burghers were ordered to remove to a Narva suburb. In 1617 Russia and Sweden signed the Treaty of Stolbovo, which placed the area under Swedish sovereignty. Russia reconquered it during the Great Northern War in 1704. Despite other changes in territory and sovereignty, Ivangorod was considered an administrative part of the town of Narva from 1649 until 1945. In 1780, Ivangorod, together with Narva, was included into Narvsky Uyezd of St. Petersburg Governorate. In 1796, Narvsky Uyezd was abolished and merged into Yamburgsky Uyezd.  During the Estonian War of Independence (1918-1920), the newly independent Republic of Estonia established control over the whole of Narva, including Ivangorod, in January 1919, a move which Soviet Russia recognized in the 1920 Treaty of Tartu. In January 1945 Soviet authorities defined the Narva River as the border between the Estonian SSR and Russian SFSR, and as a result the administration of Ivangorod transferred from Narva to the Kingiseppsky District of Leningrad Oblast. Having grown in population, Ivangorod gained town status on October 28, 1954.  After the restoration of Estonian independence in 1991, there have been some disputes about the Estonian-Russian border in the Narva area, as the new constitution of Estonia (adopted in 1992) recognizes the 1920 Treaty of Tartu border to be currently legal. The Russian Federation, however, regards Estonia as a successor of the Estonian SSR and recognizes the 1945 border between two former national republics. Officially, Estonia has no territorial claims in the area, which is also reflected in the new Estonian-Russian border treaty, according to which Ivangorod remains a part of Russia. Although the foreign ministers of Estonia and Russia signed the treaty in 2005, due to continuing political tensions it has not been ratified.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with two rural localities, incorporated within Kingiseppsky District as Ivangorodskoye Settlement Municipal Formation. As a municipal division, Ivangorodskoye Settlement Municipal Formation is incorporated within Kingiseppsky Municipal District as Ivangorodskoye Urban Settlement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restricted access.", "content": "The town of Ivangorod is included into the border security zone, intended to protect the borders of Russia from unwanted activity. In order to visit the zone, a permit issued by the local Federal Security Service department or a valid Schengen visa is required. An EU passport with a Russian visa is also valid (2016).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry.", "content": "Ivangorod has enterprises of textile, food, and timber industries, as well as a plant producing metallic plants and reservoirs. The Narva Hydroelectric Station is located in the town limits as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "The railway connecting St. Petersburg with Tallinn passes through Ivangorod. There is infrequent suburban service to Baltiysky railway station of St. Petersburg, as well as passenger service to Tallinn.  The A180 Highway connects St. Petersburg and Ivangorod. It coincides with the European route E20 connecting St. Petersburg via Tallinn with Shannon Airport.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Ivangorod contains thirty-three cultural heritage monuments of federal significance and additionally seven objects classified as cultural and historical heritage of local significance. All federal monuments are related to the Ivangorod Fortress. The fortress functions as a museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Ivangorod is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ivangorod (; ; ) is a town in Kingiseppsky District of Leningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the right bank of the Narva River by the Estonia–Russia border, west of St. Petersburg. Population:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974604}
{"src_title": "Bessus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "At the Battle of Gaugamela (1 October 331 BC), in which Alexander defeated Darius III, Bessus commanded the left wing of the Persian army, chiefly composed of warriors from his Satrapy who had been mobilized before the Battle of Issus. The envelopment ordered by Darius failed and the Persians lost the battle after hours of fierce fighting. Bessus survived the battle and remained with his king, whose routed army eluded Alexander's forces and spent the winter in Ecbatana. The next year Darius attempted to flee to Bactria in the east. Bessus, conspiring with fellow satraps, deposed Darius and, according to sources, put him in golden chains. It is not clear whether Bessus was motivated primarily by personal ambition or by disillusionment with Darius as a leader. He may have intended to surrender the deposed king to the Macedonians, but Alexander ordered his forces to continue to pursue the Persians.  According to sources, the panicked conspirators stabbed Darius and left him dying in a cart to be found by a Macedonian soldier. The Babylonian Chronicle known as BCHP 1 indicates this happened in July 330 BC. The site has been identified near modern Ahuan.  Bessus immediately proclaimed himself King of Kings of Persia and adopted the throne name Artaxerxes (V). His self-proclaimed ascension was justifiable, since the Satrap of Bactria, known as \"Mathišta\", was the Persian noble next in the line of succession to the Persian throne. But since most of the Persian Empire had already been conquered and Bessus only ruled over a loose alliance of those provinces not yet occupied by the Macedonians, historians do not generally regard him as an official King of Kings of Persia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capture and execution.", "content": "Bessus returned to Bactria and tried to organize resistance among the eastern satrapies. Alexander was forced to move his force to suppress the uprising in 329 BC, entering Bactria. After burning the crops Bessus fled east, crossing the river Oxus. However his own Bactrian mounted levies deserted \"en masse\", rather than abandon their homeland. Bessus was seized by several of his chieftains who handed him over to the pursuing Macedonians in an isolated village. The Macedonian vanguard was commanded by General Ptolemy who, under orders from Alexander, had the former satrap put in a wooden collar and tied naked to a stake by the road down which the main army was marching. Alexander questioned Bessus as to why he had betrayed Darius and continued to lead resistance to the Macedonians. Bessus claimed that he had been only one of several nobles who had jointly agreed on the need to dethrone their irresolute king. Unsatisfied by his responses Alexander ordered the prisoner to be whipped and taken to Balkh and then to Hamadan for trial and punishment.  A fellow conspirator against Darius, Satibarzanes Satrap of Aria, had already surrendered to Alexander and had been pardoned. However, unlike Bessus, Satibarzanes had not aspired to the Persian throne. At Hamadan, Alexander ordered that Bessus's nose and earlobes be cut off, which was a Persian custom for those involved in rebellion and regicide; the Behistun inscription relates that Darius the Great punished the usurper Phraortes of Media (who was the son of Upadaranma, king of Media) in a similar manner (c. 521 BC).  Ancient reports contradict each other about the nature of Bessus's execution. The historian Quintus Curtius Rufus says he was crucified in the place where Darius had been killed, Arrian states that he was tortured and then decapitated in Ecbatana, and Plutarch suggests that he was torn apart in Bactria by recoiling trees after a Macedonian trial, a style which was according to Persian custom: two trees would have been forcibly bent towards each other, the victim tied to both, and then the trees released, causing an agonizing and drawn-out death in which the ligaments, tendons, muscles and organs would slowly come apart as the trees straightened themselves.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bessus, also known as Artaxerxes V (died summer 329 BC), was a prominent Persian Satrap of Bactria in Persia, and later self-proclaimed King of Kings of Persia. According to classical sources, he killed his predecessor and relative, Darius III, after the Persian army had been defeated by Alexander the Great.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974605}
{"src_title": "Germaine Tailleferre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Marcelle Germaine Taillefesse was born at Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, Val-de-Marne, France, but as a young woman she changed her last name to \"Tailleferre\" to spite her father, who had refused to support her musical studies. She studied piano with her mother at home, composing short works of her own, after which she began studying at the Paris Conservatory where she met Louis Durey, Francis Poulenc, Darius Milhaud, Georges Auric, and Arthur Honegger. At the Paris Conservatory her skills were rewarded with prizes in several categories. Most notably, Tailleferre wrote 18 short works in the \"Petit livre de harpe de Madame Tardieu\" for Caroline Luigini, the Conservatory’s Assistant Professor of harp.  With her new friends, she soon was associating with the artistic crowd in the Paris districts of Montmartre and Montparnasse, including the sculptor Emmanuel Centore who later married her sister Jeanne. It was in the Montparnasse atelier of one of her painter friends where the initial idea for \"Les Six\" began. The publication of Jean Cocteau's manifesto \"Le coq et l'Arlequin\" resulted in Henri Collet's media articles that led to instant fame for the group, of which Tailleferre was the only female member.  In 1923, Tailleferre began to spend a great deal of time with Maurice Ravel at his home in Montfort-l'Amaury. Ravel encouraged her to enter the \"Prix de Rome\" Competition. In 1926, she married Ralph Barton, an American caricaturist, and moved to Manhattan, New York. She remained in the United States until 1927, when she and her husband returned to France. They divorced shortly thereafter.  Tailleferre wrote many of her most important works during the 1920s, including her \"First Piano Concerto\", the \"Harp Concertino\", the ballets \"Le marchand d'oiseaux\" (the most frequently performed ballet in the repertoire of the Ballets suédois during the 1920s), \"La nouvelle Cythère\", which was commissioned by Sergei Diaghilev for the ill-fated 1929 season of the famous Ballets Russes, and \"Sous les ramparts d'Athènes\" in collaboration with Paul Claudel, as well as several pioneering film scores, including \"B'anda\", in which she used African themes.  The 1930s were even more fruitful, with the \"Concerto for Two Pianos, Chorus, Saxophones, and Orchestra\", the \"Violin Concerto\", the opera cycle \"Du style galant au style méchant\", the operas \"Zoulaïna\" and \"Le marin de Bolivar\", and her masterwork, \"La cantate de Narcisse\", in collaboration with Paul Valéry. Her work in film music included \"Le petit chose\" by Maurice Cloche and a series of documentaries.  At the outbreak of World War II, she was forced to leave the majority of her scores at her home in Grasse, with the exception of her recently completed \"Three Études for Piano and Orchestra\". Escaping across Spain to Portugal, she found passage on a boat that brought her to the United States, where she lived the war years in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.  After the war, in 1946, she returned to her home in France, where she composed orchestral and chamber music, plus numerous other works including the ballets \"Paris-Magie\" (with Lise Delarme) and \"Parisiana\" (for the Royal Ballet of Copenhagen), the operas \"Il était un petit navire\" (with Henri Jeanson), \"Dolores\", \"La petite sirène\" (with Philippe Soupault, based on Hans Christian Andersen's story \"The Little Mermaid\"), and \"Le maître\" (to a libretto by Ionesco), the musical comedy \"Parfums\", the \"Concerto des vaines paroles\" for baritone voice, piano, and orchestra, the \"Concerto for Soprano and Orchestra\", the \"Concertino for Flute, Piano, and Orchestra\", the \"Second Piano Concerto\", the \"Concerto for Two Guitars and Orchestra\", her \"Second Sonata for Violin and Piano\", and the \"Sonata for Harp\", as well as an impressive number of film and television scores. The majority of this music was not published until after her death.  In 1976, she accepted the post of accompanist for a children's music and movement class at the \"École alsacienne\", a private school in Paris. During the last period of her life, she concentrated mainly on smaller forms due to increasing problems with arthritis in her hands. She nevertheless produced the \"Sonate champêtre\" for oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and piano; the \"Sonata for Two Pianos\"; \"Chorale and Variations for Two Pianos or Orchestra\"; a series of children's songs (on texts by Jean Tardieu); and pieces for young pianists. Her last major work was the \"Concerto de la fidelité\" for coloratura soprano and orchestra, which was premièred at the Paris Opera the year before her death.  Germaine Tailleferre continued to compose right up until a few weeks before her death, on 7 November 1983 in Paris. She is buried in Quincy-Voisins, Seine-et-Marne, France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "\"See List of compositions by Germaine Tailleferre\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Germaine Tailleferre (; 19 April 18927 November 1983) was a French composer and the only female member of the group of composers known as \"Les Six\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974606}
{"src_title": "Gigi Fernández", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Fernández was recognized primarily as a doubles specialist during her professional career. She won a career doubles Grand Slam with 17 Grand Slam women's doubles title – six French Open, five US Open, four Wimbledon, and two Australian Open winning at least one Grand Slam title every year from 1988–1997, except 1989, and for three straight years winning three of the four Grand Slam doubles titles in the same year (1992–1994). She won 14 of her 17 Grand Slam titles partnering Natasha Zvereva; their partnership is the second most successful doubles pair in Grand Slam history after Martina Navratilova and Pam Shriver in the Open era.  In mixed doubles, Fernández was the runner-up in three of the four Grand Slam mixed doubles events in 1995 (Australian Open, Wimbledon, and US Open) partnering Cyril Suk. Fernández captured 68 career titles in women's doubles and reached the world No. 1 doubles ranking in 1991 and attained the No. 1 ranking again in 1993, 1994 and 1995. She won a total of 69 doubles titles during her career.  Fernández represented the United States at the Olympic Games in 1992 (Barcelona) and 1996 (Atlanta). She teamed with Mary Joe Fernández (no relation) to win the women's doubles gold medal on both occasions. The first gold medal was won against the home team of Conchita Martínez and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario with the king and queen of Spain in the audience. The two medals are on Fernández's desk, and a license plate on her car states \"DBL GLD\".  Fernández represented Puerto Rico when San Juan played host to the Pan Am Games in 1979. Just 15, Fernández won a bronze medal. In 1982 at the Central American-Caribbean Games in Cuba, she teamed with Marilda Juliá to win doubles gold and won a silver medal in the singles as well. She represented Puerto Rico at the 1984 Olympics.  Fernández was also on the United States team that won the Federation Cup in 1990.  In singles, Fernández reached as high as world No. 17. She also won two top-level titles and reached the semifinals at Wimbledon in 1994 (ranked 99 becoming the lowest-ranked grand Slam singles semifinalist at Wimbledon) and the quarterfinals at the US Open in 1991 and 1994.  Fernández retired from the professional tour in 1997, and in 1999, she was named Puerto Rico's \"Female Athlete of the Century\".  On July 12, 2010, Fernández was inducted in the International Tennis Hall of Fame with Zvereva.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Her father Tuto was a well-known doctor in Puerto Rico. Her cousin José Ferrer was a famous Puerto Rican actor and director. Fernández started playing tennis when she was seven. She studied at the prestigious Academia San José in Guaynabo. When she turned professional in 1983, she became Puerto Rico's first female professional athlete. Before turning professional, she played tennis for one season at Clemson University in 1982–83, where she was singles and doubles All-American and reached the National Collegiate Athletics Association singles final.  Since retiring from the tour, Fernández has worked as a tennis coach. She has coached players including the former world No. 1 doubles player Rennae Stubbs, Lisa Raymond, and Samantha Stosur. She coached Sam Stosur to her first Grand Slam title at the 2005 US Open with Lisa Raymond. She also coached for the Puerto Rican national team and the University of South Florida.  She earned a Bachelor of Arts in psychology from the University of South Florida in 2003 and later graduated from Rollins College's Crummer School of Business where she earned a Master of Business Administration. She is the mother of twins, Karson Xavier and Madison Jane, and the partner of retired professional golfer and former LPGA and WWE executive Jane Geddes.  In 2010, Fernández started a company named Baby Goes Pro. She presently resides in Connecticut, and is the Director of Adult Tennis at Chelsea Piers Connecticut, as well as Summer Director at The Long Ridge Tennis Club.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Beatriz \"Gigi\" Fernández (born February 22, 1964) is a Puerto Rican professional tennis player. She turned professional in 1983 and is the first Puerto-Rican to be inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974607}
{"src_title": "National Assembly (Hungary)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Diet of Hungary () was a legislative institution in the medieval kingdom of Hungary from the 1290s, and in its successor states, Royal Hungary and the Habsburg kingdom of Hungary throughout the Early Modern period. The name of the legislative body was originally \"Parlamentum\" during the Middle Ages, the \"Diet\" expression gained mostly in the Early Modern period. It convened at regular intervals with interruptions during the period of 1527 to 1918, and again until 1946.  The articles of the 1790 diet set out that the diet should meet at least once every 3 years, but, since the diet was called by the Habsburg monarchy, this promise was not kept on several occasions thereafter. As a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, it was reconstituted in 1867.  The Latin term \"Natio Hungarica\" (\"Hungarian nation\") was used to designate the political elite which had participation in the diet, consisting of the nobility, the Catholic clergy, and a few enfranchised burghers, regardless of language or ethnicity. Natio Hungarica was a geographic, institutional and juridico-political category.  The democratic character of the Hungarian parliament was reestablished with the fall of the Iron Curtain and the end of the communist dictatorship in 1989. Today's parliament is still called the \"Országgyűlés,\" as in royal times, but is called the 'National Assembly' to distance itself from the historical royal diet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2010–2014 Parliament.", "content": "At the sixth parliamentary elections, four parties or party alliances passed the minimum threshold: the Fidesz – Hungarian Civic Union in alliance with the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) (263 seats in common, 227 for Fidesz and 36 for KDNP). Fidesz-KDNP candidates won enough seats to achieve a two-thirds majority required to modify major laws and the country's constitution. The Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP) won 59 seats, while its former coalition party Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ) failed to win any seats and became extra-parliamentary after 20 years. There were two newcomers to the Országgyűlés: Jobbik (47 seats) and Politics Can Be Different (LMP) (16 seats). 1 independent (former Fidesz member Oszkár Molnár) got into the Parliament, winning a constituency (Edelény) in Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén County.  The other prestigious party, the Hungarian Democratic Forum also lost all its seats.  The heads of the factions are:  The new parliamentary session hold the inaugural session on 14 May 2010. The President of Fidesz and Prime Minister is Viktor Orbán. Pál Schmitt served as Speaker of the National Assembly until August 2010 when he became President of Hungary. He was replaced by László Kövér.  After the 2010 local elections, held on 3 October, Katalin Szili founded the Social Union and became its first chairperson. As a result, she quit the Hungarian Socialist Party and their parliamentarian group. Continuing the parliamentarian work as formally independent MP.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2006–2010 Parliament.", "content": "At parliamentary elections in 2006, four parties or party alliances passed the minimum threshold: the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP) (190 seats), the coalition party Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ) (20 seats), the Fidesz – Hungarian Civic Union in alliance with the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) (164 seats in common, 141 for Fidesz and 23 for KDNP), and the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF) (11 seats) and 1 independent (István Gyenesei) got into the Parliament, winning a constituency in Somogy county.  The heads of the factions were:  The head of the allied faction Fidesz-KDNP was Viktor Orbán. The head of the minority government (since 2008, when SZDSZ left the coalition) was Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány then Gordon Bajnai. The speaker of the Assembly was Katalin Szili (2006-2009) then Béla Katona (2009-2010) of the MSZP.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical composition of the National Assembly since 1990.", "content": "The numbers come from the legislature's inaugural session. Later changes may occur:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The National Assembly (; \"Country Assembly\") is the parliament of Hungary. The unicameral body consists of 199 (386 between 1990 and 2014) members elected to 4-year terms. Election of members is done using parallel voting; involving single-member districts and one list election; parties must win at least 5% of the popular vote in order to enter the list of members of the assembly (but area winners enter regardless). The Assembly includes 25 standing committees to debate and report on introduced bills and to supervise the activities of the ministers. The Constitutional Court of Hungary has the right to challenge legislation on the grounds of constitutionality. The assembly has met in the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest since 1902.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974608}
{"src_title": "Araliaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The morphology of Araliaceae varies widely. Many studies have found that there is no unifying characteristic capable of classifying the family. In general, Araliaceae has large, usually alternate leaves, often with aromatic ethereal oils, five-petaled flowers, two to five carpels, simple umbels, and berries without carpophores or oil cavities. Some taxa carry prickles, and the family is often woody but also occasionally herbaceous. While Araliaceae is predominantly a tropical family, some taxa are also endemic to temperate climates. They are found in the Americas, Eurasia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and Pacific islands.  Some examples of Araliaceae include the angelica tree (\"Aralia spinosa\"), the devil's club (\"Oplopanax horridus\"), ivy (\"Hedera\" spp., including\" Hedera helix\")\",\" and herbs such as ginseng\" Panax \"spp. Leaves are sometimes lauroid (resembling \"Laurus\") and simple to compound; when compound, they are ternate, pinnate, or palmate.  Araliaceae are found in the pluvial montane forest, very humid montane forest, and humid lowland river forest regions. They are present, too, in laurel forest, cloud forest, and warm, humid habitats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy and Systematics.", "content": "Araliaceae is one of six angiosperm families recognized by APG IV belonging to the Apiales, an order within the Asterids. Araliaceae is accepted to be a monophyletic branch within the Apiales.  Within Araliaceae, there are four accepted groups:  1. The Greater \"Raukaua\" group, sister to the rest of the main Araliaceae clades.  2. The Aralia-Panax group, consisting of the mostly monophyletic genera \"Aralia\" and \"Panax.\"  3. The Polyscias-Pseudopanax group, sister to both genus \"Cussonia\" and the Asian Palmate group.  4. The Asian Palmate group, largest of the groups representing Araliaceae.  There are also multiple taxa that float around these groups, but are not within them.  The generic level classification of the Araliaceae has been unstable and remains under study. For instance, numerous genera have been synonymized under \"Schefflera\", within which about half the species within Araliaceae are placed. Recent molecular phylogenies have shown that this large pantropical genus is polyphyletic and some believe it should be divided again into several genera, though these would probably not correspond with the previously recognized genera.  Recent molecular systematics techniques have made major improvements into understanding of the evolution of Araliaceae, leading to the knowledge existing today. Due to widely varying morphological characters, the systematics of Araliaceae had been largely debated over the past century, especially in the absence of molecular evidence. For instance, Araliaceae were previously merged into the closely related Apiaceae (synonym: Umbelliferae) in some taxonomic treatments that have since been rejected. The family is closely related to the Apiaceae and Pittosporaceae, but some of the exact boundaries between Araliaceae and the other families of Apiales are still uncertain and are currently being examined.  One example group that proved problematic for Araliaceae systematics is subfamily Hydrocotyloideae. Molecular phylogenies suggest at least some of the genera traditionally spanning across Araliaceae and Apiaceae as Hydrocotyloideae appear to be more closely related to Araliaceae. It has been recommended that subfamily Hydrocotyloideae be narrowed to just include genera \"Hydrocotyle,\" \"Trachymene,\" and \"Harmsiopanax\" to form a monophyletic group in Araliaceae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subfamilies and genera.", "content": "Subfamily Aralioideae  Subfamily Hydrocotyloideae", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "List of foliage plant diseases (Araliaceae)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Araliaceae is a family of flowering plants composed of 55 genera and 1500 species consisting of primarily woody plants and some herbaceous plants. The morphology of Araliaceae varies widely, but it is predominantly distinguishable based on its woody habit, tropical distribution, and the presence of simple umbels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974609}
{"src_title": "Lycopodium clavatum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Lycopodium clavatum\" is a spore-bearing vascular plant, growing mainly prostrate along the ground with stems up to long; the stems are much branched, and densely clothed with small, spirally arranged microphyll leaves. The leaves are 3–5 mm long and 0.7–1 mm broad, tapered to a fine hair-like white point. The branches bearing strobili or spore cones turn erect, reaching above ground, and their leaves are modified as sporophylls that enclose the spore capsules or sporangia. The spore cones are yellow-green, long, and broad. The horizontal stems produce roots at frequent intervals along their length, allowing the stem to grow indefinitely along the ground. The stems superficially resemble small seedlings of coniferous trees, though it is not related to these.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Lycopodium clavatum\" has a widespread distribution across several continents. There are distinct subspecies and varieties in different parts of its range:  Although globally widespread, like many clubmosses, it is confined to undisturbed sites, disappearing from farmed areas and sites with regular burning. As a result, it is endangered in many areas. In the UK it is one of 101 species named as a high priority for conservation by the wild plant charity Plantlife.  Common names for this species include wolf's-foot clubmoss, common clubmoss, wolf-paw clubmoss, running ground-pine, running pine, running moss, princess pine, and others.  The spores of this moss, \"lycopodium powder\", are explosive if present in the air in high enough densities. They were used as flash powder in early photography and magic acts.  Bioactive secondary metabolites in clubmosses include triterpenoids with acetylcholinesterase inhibitor activity isolated from this species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lycopodium clavatum (common club moss, stag's-horn clubmoss, running clubmoss, or ground pine) is the most widespread species in the genus \"Lycopodium\" in the clubmoss family.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974610}
{"src_title": "Prince Valdemar of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Prince Valdemar was born on 27 October 1858 at Bernstorff Palace in Gentofte north of Copenhagen. His father was Prince Christian of Denmark, later King Christian IX. His mother was Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel. He was baptised on 21 December 1858.  In March 1863, the Danish royal family, including four-year-old Valdemar, travelled to London for the wedding of his eldest sister, Alexandra, to the Prince of Wales, the son and heir of Queen Victoria. That November, his parents succeeded to the throne of Denmark following the death of King Frederick VII.  Prince Valdemar received his early education from tutors. In the summer of 1874, he accompanied his father during his visit to Iceland for the millennium celebrations. After his confirmation in 1874, as was customary for princes at that time, he started a military education and entered the naval college. In 1879, he was sub-lieutenant and in 1880 lieutenant. In the following years, he participated in several naval expeditions. From 1883, Valdemar lived at Bernstorff Palace near Copenhagen with his nephew Prince George of Greece, who had been taken as a boy to Denmark to be enlisted in the Danish royal navy, and be consigned to the care of Valdemar, who was an admiral in the Danish fleet. Feeling abandoned by his father on this occasion, George would later describe to his fiancée the profound attachment he developed for his uncle from that day forward.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "He married Princess Marie d'Orleans on 20 October 1885 in a civil ceremony in Paris. They had a religious ceremony on 22 October 1885 at the Château d'Eu, the residence of Prince Philippe, Count of Paris. The wedding was believed by one source to have been politically arranged, and in France, it was believed that the Count of Paris (the bride's uncle) was personally responsible for the match. However, the same source claimed that \"there was every reason to believe that [it was] a genuine love match\". At the time of their marriage, it was decided that any sons would be brought up in Valdemar's Lutheran faith, while any daughters would be raised as Catholics, the faith of their mother. The couple's four sons were consequently Lutherans, while their only daughter, Margaret was raised a Catholic and married a Catholic prince.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Valdemar had a lifelong naval career. He was the first president of the Seamen's Association of 1856.  He died on 14 January 1939 in the Yellow Palace in Copenhagen and was buried in Roskilde Cathedral. He was the last surviving child of Christian IX.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prince Valdemar of Denmark (27 October 1858 – 14 January 1939) was the third son and youngest child of Christian IX and Louise of Hesse-Kassel. He had a lifelong naval career.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974611}
{"src_title": "Passau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the 2nd century BC, many of the Boii tribe were pushed north across the Alps out of northern Italy by the Romans. They established a new capital called Boiodurum by the Romans (from Gaulish \"Boioduron\"), now within the Innstadt district of Passau.  Passau was an ancient Roman colony called Batavis, Latin for \"for the \"Batavi\".\" The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe often mentioned by classical authors, and they were regularly associated with the Suebian marauders, the Heruli. \"Batavis\" (Passau-Altstadt) was a Roman castrum in the province of Raetia, while another late Roman castrum, \"Boiotro\" (Passau-Innstadt), was in the province of Noricum.  During the second half of the 5th century, St. Severinus established a monastery here. The site was subject to repeated raids by the Alemanni. In 739, an English monk called Boniface founded the diocese of Passau, which for many years was the largest diocese of the German Kingdom/Holy Roman Empire, covering territory in southern Bavaria and most of what is now Upper and Lower Austria. From the 10th century the bishops of Passau also exercised secular authority as Prince-Bishops in the immediate area around Passau (see ). In the Treaty of Passau (1552), Archduke Ferdinand I, representing Emperor Charles V, secured the agreement of the Protestant princes to submit the religious question to a diet. This led to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555.  During the Renaissance and early modern period, Passau was one of the most prolific centres of sword and bladed weapon manufacture in Germany (after Solingen). Passau smiths stamped their blades with the Passau wolf, usually a rather simplified rendering of the wolf on the city's coat-of-arms. Superstitious warriors believed that the Passau wolf conferred invulnerability on the blade's bearer, and thus Passau swords acquired a great premium. According to the \"\", aside from the wolf, some cabalistic signs and inscriptions were added. As a result, the whole practice of placing magical charms on swords to protect the wearers came to be known for a time as \"Passau art\". (See Eduard Wagner, \"Cut and Thrust Weapons\", 1969.) Other cities' smiths, including those of Solingen, recognized the marketing value of the Passau wolf and adopted it for themselves. By the 17th century, Solingen was producing more wolf-stamped blades than Passau was.  In 1662, a devastating fire consumed most of the city. Passau was subsequently rebuilt in the Baroque style.  Passau was secularised and divided between the Electorate of Bavaria and the Electorate of Salzburg in 1803. The portion belonging to Salzburg became part of Bavaria in 1805.  From 1892 until 1894, Adolf Hitler and his family lived in Passau. The city archives mention Hitler being in Passau on four different occasions in the 1920s for speeches. In addition, Heinrich Himmler spent some time here.  In November 1933, the building of \"\" (Hall of the Nibelungs) was announced. Intended to hold 8,000 to 10,000 guests, and another 30,000 in front of it, in 1935 the hall also became quarters for a unit of the \"Austrian Legion\". Beginning in 1934, these troops had occupied a building that belonged to Sigmund Mandl, a Jewish merchant. That building, in turn, was referred to as \"SA barracks\".  Beginning in 1940, Passau offered the building at Bräugasse 13 to Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle.  During World War II, the town also housed three sub-camps of the infamous Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp: Passau I (Oberilzmühle), Passau II (Waldwerke Passau-Ilzstadt) and Passau III (Jandelsbrunn).  On May 3, 1945, a message from Major General Stanley Eric Reinhart’s 261st Infantry Regiment stated at 3:15 am: \"AMG Officer has unconditional surrender of PASSAU signed by Burgermeister, Chief of Police and Lt. Col of Med Corps there. All troops are to turn themselves in this morning.\"  It was the site of a post World War II American sector displaced persons camp. On 2 June 2013, the old town suffered from severe flooding as a result of several days of rain and its location at the confluence of three rivers Peak elevations of floods as early as 1501 are displayed on a wall at the Old City Hall. Flood water reaches the base of that wall on average once every 5 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "Until 2013, the City of Passau was subdivided into eight statistical districts, which in general coincide with formerly separate municipalities. Since 2013, the city is divided in 16 so-called areas of open council (\"Bürgerversammlungsgebiete\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "Many river cruises down the Danube start at Passau and there is a cycling path all the way down to Vienna. It is on the designated heritage route, the Route of Emperors and Kings.  Passau is notable for its gothic and baroque architecture. The town is dominated by the Veste Oberhaus and the Veste Niederhaus, both parts of the former fortress of the Bishop, on the mountain crest between the Danube and the Ilz.  Tourism in Passau focuses mainly on the three rivers, the St. Stephen's Cathedral (\"Der Passauer Stephansdom\") and the \"Old City\" (\"Die Altstadt\").  With 17,774 pipes and 233 registers, the organ at St. Stephen's was long held to be the largest church pipe organ in the world and is today second in size only to the organ at First Congregational Church of Los Angeles, which was expanded in 1994. Organ concerts are held daily between May and September. St.Stephen's is a true masterpiece of Italian Baroque, built by Italian architect Carlo Lurago and decorated in part by Carpoforo Tencalla.  Among many other churches are the Jesuits church of St. Michael, the oldest parish church of St. Paul and the pilgrim church Mariahilf on the hill south of the rivers Inn and Danube.  Before the cathedral is a large square (Domplatz) with the Lamberg-Palais, where the Peace of Passau was concluded. The medieval Old Residence south of the cathedral and the baroque New Residence further west at Residenzplatz were the palaces of the Prince-Bishops within the town. Right beside the 14th century Gothic Town Hall with its neo Gothic tower and the big 19th century former Hauptzollamtsgebäude (Main Customs Office) at the Danube is the Scharfrichterhaus, an important jazz and cabaret stage on which political cabaret is performed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Migrant entry point.", "content": "Due to its location on the German-Austrian border, and in the south-east of the country, Passau has become a major migrant entry point into Germany. Refugees and economic migrants from the Middle East, Asia and Africa who have reached Europe, often entering either overland via Greece or across the sea via the Mediterranean (see Operation Triton), then head north and sometimes enter Germany. In 2015 the BBC reported that traffickers drive migrants and refugees through Austria and leave them on the side of the autobahn. The migrants and refugees then often walk unaccompanied into Passau, the first German town northwards. This situation has caused the government of Passau to divert funds from flood prevention to housing and feeding the refugees and migrants, around 10% of whom are unaccompanied children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns - sister cities.", "content": "Passau is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Passau () is a town in Lower Bavaria, Germany, also known as the Dreiflüssestadt (\"City of Three Rivers\") because the Danube is joined there by the Inn from the south and the Ilz from the north.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974612}
{"src_title": "Salvador Luria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Luria was born Salvatore Edoardo Luria in Turin, Italy to an influential Italian Sephardi Jewish family. His parents were Davide and Ester (Sacerdote) Luria. He attended the medical school at the University of Turin studying with Giuseppe Levi. There, he met two other future Nobel laureates: Rita Levi-Montalcini and Renato Dulbecco. He graduated from the University of Turin in 1935. From 1936 to 1937, Luria served his required time in the Italian army as a medical officer. He then took classes in radiology at the University of Rome. Here, he was introduced to Max Delbrück's theories on the gene as a molecule and began to formulate methods for testing genetic theory with the bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria.  In 1938, he received a fellowship to study in the United States, where he intended to work with Delbrück. Soon after Luria received the award, Benito Mussolini's fascist regime banned Jews from academic research fellowships. Without funding sources for work in the U.S. or Italy, Luria left his home country for Paris, France in 1938. As the Nazi German armies invaded France in 1940, Luria fled on bicycle to Marseille where he received an immigration visa to the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phage research.", "content": "Luria arrived in New York City on September 12, 1940, and soon changed his first and middle names. With the help of physicist Enrico Fermi, whom he knew from his time at the University of Rome, Luria received a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship at Columbia University. He soon met Delbrück and Hershey, and they collaborated on experiments at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and in Delbrück's lab at Vanderbilt University.  His famous experiment with Delbrück in 1943, known as the Luria–Delbrück experiment, demonstrated statistically that inheritance in bacteria must follow Darwinian rather than Lamarckian principles and that mutant bacteria occurring randomly can still bestow viral resistance without the virus being present. The idea that natural selection affects bacteria has profound consequences, for example, it explains how bacteria develop antibiotic resistance.  From 1943 to 1950, he worked at Indiana University. His first graduate student was James D. Watson, who went on to discover the structure of DNA with Francis Crick. In January 1947, Luria became a naturalized citizen of the United States.  In 1950, Luria moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. In the early 1950s, Luria and Giuseppe Bertani discovered the phenomenon of host-controlled restriction and modification of a bacterial virus: a culture of \"E. coli\" can significantly reduce the production of phages grown in other strains; however, once the phage become established in that strain, they also become restricted in their ability to grow in other strains. It was later discovered by other researchers that bacteria produce enzymes that cut viral DNA at particular sequences but not the bacteria's own DNA, which is protected by methylation. These enzymes became known as restriction enzymes and developed into one of the main molecular tools in molecular biology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later work.", "content": "In 1959, he became chair of Microbiology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). At MIT, he switched his research focus from phages to cell membranes and bacteriocins. While on sabbatical in 1963 to study at the Institut Pasteur in Paris, he found that bacteriocins impair the function of cell membranes. Returning to MIT, his lab discovered that bacteriocins achieve this impairment by forming holes in the cell membrane, allowing ions to flow through and destroy the electrochemical gradient of cells. In 1972, he became chair of The Center for Cancer Research at MIT. The department he established included future Nobel Prize winners David Baltimore, Susumu Tonegawa, Phillip Allen Sharp and H. Robert Horvitz.  In addition to the Nobel Prize, Luria received a number of awards and recognitions. He was named a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1960. From 1968 to 1969, he served as president of the American Society for Microbiology. In 1969, he was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University together with Max Delbrück, co-winner with Luria of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969. In the U.S. he won the 1974 National Book Award in Science for his popular science book \"Life: the Unfinished Experiment\" and received the National Medal of Science in 1991.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activism.", "content": "Throughout his career, Luria was an outspoken political advocate. He joined with Linus Pauling in 1957 to protest against nuclear weapon testing. Luria was an opponent of the Vietnam War and a supporter of organized labor. In the 1970s, he was involved in debates over genetic engineering, advocating a compromise position of moderate oversight and regulation rather than the extremes of a complete ban or full scientific freedom. Due to his political involvement, he was blacklisted from receiving funding from the National Institutes of Health for a short time in 1969.  He was a friend of the noted linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky, and communicated with the Jewish American writer Elie Wiesel through a letter, in which he criticized Israel's involvement in the Guatemalan genocide and, satirically, Wiesel's silence on any issue concerning Israel's \"terrorist\" activities world-wide. As described by Chomsky: \"In the mid-1980s, Salvador Luria, a friend of mine who is a Nobel laureate in biology and politically active, knew about this [i.e., the genocide]. It wasn't a big secret. He asked me to collect articles from the Hebrew press which described Israel's participation in genocidal attacks in Guatemala — not just participation, it's a leadership role — because he wanted to send it to Elie Wiesel with a polite letter saying: as a fellow Nobel laureate, I would like to bring this to your attention. Could you use your influence — he didn't ask him to say anything, that's too much, but privately could you communicate to the people you know well at a high level in Israel and say it's not nice to take part in genocide. He never got a response.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "He died in Lexington, Massachusetts of a heart attack.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salvador Edward Luria (August 13, 1912 – February 6, 1991) was an Italian microbiologist, later a naturalized U.S. citizen. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969, with Max Delbrück and Alfred Hershey, for their discoveries on the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses. Salvador Luria also showed that bacterial resistance to viruses (phages) is genetically inherited.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974613}
{"src_title": "S7 Airlines", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "What is now S7 Airlines started in 1957 as \"the Tolmachevo united squadron\" of the General Directorate of Civil Aviation of the Soviet Union. After the Soviet Union disintegration and during the 1990s Russian economic reforms, a state-run Siberia Airlines was created based on the squadron in 1992 and later privatized in 1994. The same year Siberia was assigned an IATA airline code.  In 1997, Siberia Airlines tried to buy Vnukovo Airlines, to make Moscow its next main hub, but this didn't eventuate. After the 1998 Russian financial crisis, Vnukovo Airlines was heading towards bankruptcy, and Siberia Airlines advised it to merge, but Vnukovo refused. In 1999, Siberia Airlines signed a document to take over Vnukovo Airlines, in the event Vnukovo ceased operations due to insolvency.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Development since the 2000s.", "content": "Siberia Airlines began merging with Vnukovo Airlines in 2001. The same year, the airline absorbed Baikal Airlines and then in 2004, the airline absorbed Chelyabinsk Airlines and Enkor. In 2002, Siberia Airlines began its services from Vnukovo Airlines' former base Moscow-Vnukovo, but after some time it shifted all flights (including the charter flights from Moscow-Sheremetyevo) to Moscow-Domodedovo.  The first non-Russian aircraft, Airbus A310s, were acquired in 2004. In summer 2004, during the Farnborough Airshow, the company signed a memorandum of understanding to purchase fifty Sukhoi Superjet 100s, with the first to be delivered in 2007. However, the airline subsequently dropped its plans to order this aircraft, citing that the aircraft's changed specifications no longer met its requirements.  Siberia Airlines rebranded itself as S7 Airlines in 2005.  In line with an International Air Transport Association (IATA) resolution, from December 2006 the airline began to publish its fares for international destinations originating in Russia in euros, rather than US dollars. This resulted in a fare increase, as the conversion rate used was 1 euro = 1 US dollar. Fuel surcharges were also published in euros. Its domestic fares were still to be shown in the local currency. Also in December 2006, the airline became the second Russian air carrier to complete, and pass, the IATA Operational Safety Audit, which is the first global air safety standard.  It was announced in April 2007 that a new division had been set up within the airline, called Globus. This division was to focus on charter flights for tourists to foreign holiday destinations. Initially, the aircraft for this division would be drawn from the mainline fleet, but during 2010–2014, ten Boeing 737-800 aircraft were leased with an all-economy layout, with the option for a further ten aircraft.  S7 joined the Oneworld airline alliance in 2010.  In November 2015, S7 Airlines made an offer to acquire a majority stake in bankrupt Transaero. However, the proposal was rejected by shareholders.  In 2016, American band OK Go partnered with S7 to film a \"zero-g\" music video for their song \"Upside Down & Inside Out\", aboard a reduced gravity aircraft.  On 28 August 2018, S7 announced the investment of $192.87 million for a new manufacturing plant of its business plan \"Victory\" in Moscow. The investment is expected to produce 1000 jobs. In December 2018, a few months after the completion of its purchase of Sea Launch the parent holding company was renamed from S7 Group to S7 AirSpace Corporation to reflect the transition from an aviation-only business.  On 31 March 2019, chairwoman and co-owner Natalia Fileva died after the Epic LT private plane she was in crashed while landing at Frankfurt Egelsbach Airport. In August 2019, S7 Airlines announced the charity work by collecting the financial support for Siberian forests, harmed by massive fires. Therefore, the airline decided to colour one of the Airbus A320-200 to the hybrid-retro livery, to underline its previous and technical name – Siberia Airlines, by combining two liveries: of 1992-2005 and 2017-today. Also in August 2019, the airline's head announced that S7 Airlines and Globus Airlines will merge till December 2019, therefore closing the operations of the second airline. By early December 2019, the merger had been completed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Financial and operational performance.", "content": "There are financial and operational performance S7 Airlines starting from 2011:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Destinations.", "content": "S7 Airlines operates to almost 150 destinations domestically within Russia and internationally throughout Europe and Asia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Codeshare agreements.", "content": "S7 has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fleet.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current fleet.", "content": ", the S7 Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fleet development.", "content": "On 29 May 2007, the airline announced a proposed order for fifteen Boeing 787 Dreamliners scheduled for delivery in 2014, with an option for ten additional aircraft. However, the order was officially cancelled on 29 January 2009, with S7 stating that it was considering the possibility of taking the aircraft under a leasing scheme. As of November 2008, all Soviet-made aircraft had left the fleet.  In April 2018, S7 renewed interest in the Sukhoi Superjet by planning to purchase 25 Sukhoi Superjet 75 aircraft, with an option of 50 more for the new modification of the Superjet family, and become the launch customer. These will replace the airline's aging Embraer 170 aircraft. The airline plans to take deliveries of this aircraft from 2023. However in September 2019, it was announced the project had been scrapped.  In October 2018, the airline took delivery of its first Boeing 737 MAX 8 and became the Russian launch customer of the aircraft type.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retired Fleet.", "content": "At different times, the S7 Airlines fleet has consisted of the following aircraft:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subsidiaries.", "content": "S7 Technics is a subsidiary of S7, located on the grounds of Tolmachevo Airport.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "S7 Airlines, legally JSC Siberia Airlines (, \"АО Aviakompania Sibir\"), is an airline headquartered in Ob, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia, with offices in Moscow. As of 2008, it was Russia's largest domestic airline, with its main bases at Domodedovo International Airport and Tolmachevo Airport.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974614}
{"src_title": "Zina Garrison", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "The youngest of seven children, Garrison started playing tennis at the age of 10 and entered her first tournament at the age of 12. At 14, she won the national girls' 18s title. In 1981, she won both the Wimbledon and US Open junior titles and was ranked the world No. 1 junior player. Garrison graduated from Sterling High School in Houston, Texas in 1982.  Garrison began suffering from the eating disorder bulimia when she was 19, following the death of her mother. \"I had never been comfortable with my looks and felt I had lost the only person who loved me unconditionally\", Garrison told the \"Observer Sport Monthly\" in 2006. \"The pressure of being labeled 'the next Althea Gibson' only made things worse. I felt I was never going to be allowed to grow into just becoming me.\"  Garrison turned professional in 1982, and skipped her graduation at Ross Sterling High School to compete in the French Open, her first tournament as a professional, where she reached the quarterfinals. She was awarded the WTA Newcomer of the Year in 1982.  Despite battling bulimia during her first few years on the tour, Garrison enjoyed notable success on-court. She reached the Australian Open semifinals in 1983, her first full year on the tour, and finished the year ranked world No. 10. She won her first top-level singles titles in 1984 at the European Indoor Championships in Zürich. She was a Wimbledon semifinalist in 1985, and in 1986, she won her first tour doubles at the Canadian Open (partnering Gabriela Sabatini).  At the Australian Open in 1987, Garrison won the mixed doubles (partnering Sherwood Stewart) and finished runner-up in the women's doubles (partnering Lori McNeil). A year later, Garrison and Stewart captured the mixed doubles title at Wimbledon.  At the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul, Garrison teamed with Pam Shriver to win the women's doubles gold medal for the United States, defeating Jana Novotná and Helena Suková of Czechoslovakia in the final. Garrison defeated Shriver in the quarterfinals of the singles event, where she won a bronze medal. At the US Open, she defeated defending champion Navratilova for the first time in her career, advancing to the semifinals, where she lost to Sabatini.  In 1989, Garrison defeated Chris Evert 7–6, 6–2 in the quarterfinals of the US Open in Evert's final tournament. Garrison lost to Navratilova in the semifinals. She finished 1989 ranked a career-high world No. 4 in singles.  The highlight of Garrison's career came in 1990 at Wimbledon, as she defeated Samantha Smith, Cecilia Dahlman, Andrea Leand, Helena Suková, then French Open champion Monica Seles in the quarterfinals 3–6, 6–3, 9–7, and defending Wimbledon champion and world No. 1 Steffi Graf in the semifinals 6–3, 3–6, 6–4 to reach her only Grand Slam singles final, becoming the first African-American woman to do so since Gibson. Moreover, it ended Graf's record 13-time streak of Grand Slam finals. Then, she lost to Navratilova 6–4, 6–1, who thus won her record ninth women's singles title at Wimbledon. Garrison claimed her third mixed doubles title at Wimbledon that year (partnering Rick Leach).  In 1992, Garrison finished runner-up in the Australian Open women's doubles (partnering Mary Joe Fernandez).  Garrison retired from professional tennis in 1996, having remained ranked prior to that year within the top 25 for 14 consecutive years. During her career, she won 14 top-level singles titles and 20 doubles titles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and post-tennis career.", "content": "Garrison married Willard Jackson in September 1989; however, the marriage ended in divorce in 1997.  Since retiring from the tour, Garrison has worked as a television commentator and maintained active roles in the community and in tennis. She founded the Zina Garrison Foundation for the Homeless in 1988, and the Zina Garrison All-Court Tennis Program, which supports inner-city tennis in Houston, in 1992. She has also served as a member of the United States President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. She is a member of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority.  Garrison has maintained a presence on the professional tennis scene, and was the captain for the U.S. Federation Cup (later Fed Cup) team. Garrison also led the U.S. women's team at the 2008 Beijing Games tennis event where team members Venus and Serena Williams won a gold medal in doubles.  After \"piling on weight\" in her 40s, Garrison participated in season 16 of the reality TV competition \"The Biggest Loser\", titled \"\", which premiered September 11, 2014 on NBC. Despite losing 8 lbs., she was the first person eliminated from the program.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing style.", "content": "Garrison played an attacking style. It was common for her to slice her backhand and attack the net (a chip-and-charge tactic). Garrison had excellent volleys and overheads. She was able to rally when she wanted to but her main game plan was to get to the net so she could finish with the volley.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major finals.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Olympics.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Singles: 1 bronze medal.", "content": "Garrison lost in the semifinals to Steffi Graf 2–6, 0–6. In 1988, there was no bronze medal play-off match, both beaten semifinal players received bronze medals.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Zina Lynna Garrison (born November 16, 1963) is a former professional tennis player from the United States. She was a women's singles runner-up at Wimbledon in 1990, a three-time Grand Slam mixed doubles champion, and a women's doubles gold medalist and singles bronze medalist at the 1988 Olympic Games.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974615}
{"src_title": "Freshwater pearl mussel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "Subspecies within the species \"Margaritifera magaritifera\" include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The freshwater pearl mussel is one of the longest-living invertebrates in existence. The oldest known specimen in Europe was caught in 1993 in Estonia when it was 134 years old.  Like all bivalve molluscs, the freshwater pearl mussel has a shell consisting of two parts that are hinged together, which can be closed to protect the animal's soft body within. The shell is large, heavy and elongated, typically yellowish-brown in colour when young and becoming darker with age. Older parts of the shell often appear corroded, an identifying feature of this mussel species. The inner surface of the shell is pearl white, sometimes tinged with attractive iridescent colours. Like all molluscs, the freshwater pearl mussel has a muscular 'foot'; this very large, white foot enables the mussel to move slowly and bury itself within the bottom substrate of its freshwater habitat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The native distribution of this species is Holarctic. The freshwater pearl mussel can be found on both sides of the Atlantic, from the Arctic and temperate regions of western Russia, through Europe to northeastern North America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Clean, fast-flowing streams and rivers are required for the freshwater pearl mussel, where it lives buried or partly buried in fine gravel and coarse sand, generally in water at depths between 0.5 and 2 metres, but sometimes at greater depths. Clean gravel and sand is essential, particularly for juvenile freshwater pearl mussels, for if the stream or river bottom becomes clogged with silt, they cannot obtain oxygen and will die. Also essential is the presence of a healthy population of salmonids, a group of fish including salmon and trout, on which the freshwater pearl mussel relies for part of its life cycle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifecycle.", "content": "Capable of living for up to 130 years, the freshwater pearl mussel begins life as a tiny larva, measuring just 0.6 to 0.7 millimetres long, which is ejected into the water from an adult mussel in a mass of one to four million other larvae. This remarkable event takes place over just one to two days, sometime between July and September. The larvae, known as glochidia, resemble tiny mussels, but their minute shells are held open until they snap shut on a suitable host. The host of freshwater pearl mussel larvae are juvenile fish from the salmonid family, which includes the Atlantic salmon and sea trout. The chances of a larva encountering a suitable fish are very low, and thus nearly all are swept away and die; only a few are inhaled by an Atlantic salmon or sea trout, where they snap shut onto the fish's gills.  Attached to the gills of a fish, the glochidia live and grow in this oxygen-rich environment until the following May or June, when they drop off. The juvenile must land on clean gravely or sandy substrates if it is to successfully grow. Attached to the substrate, juvenile freshwater pearl mussels typically burrow themselves completely into the sand or gravel, while adults are generally found with a third of their shell exposed. Should they become dislodged, freshwater pearl mussels can rebury themselves, and are also capable of moving slowly across sandy sediments, using their large, muscular foot.  The freshwater pearl mussel grows extremely slowly, inhaling water through exposed siphons, and filtering out tiny organic particles on which it feeds. It is thought that in areas where this species was once abundant, this filter feeding acted to clarify the water, benefiting other species which inhabited the rivers and streams. Maturity is reached at an age of 10 to 15 years, followed by a reproductive period of over 75 years in which about 200 million larvae can be produced. In early summer each year, around June and July, male freshwater pearl mussels release sperm into the water, where they are inhaled by female mussels. Inside the female, the fertilized eggs develop in a pouch on the gills for several weeks, until temperature or other environmental cues trigger the female to release the larvae into the surrounding water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats and conservation.", "content": "Once the most abundant bivalve mollusc in ancient rivers around the world, numbers of the freshwater pearl mussel are now declining in all countries and this species is nearly extinct in many areas. The causes of this decline are not fully understood, but alteration and degradation of its freshwater habitat undoubtedly plays a central role. The negative impacts humans have on rivers and streams come from a wide range of activities such as river regulation, drainage, sewage disposal, dredging, and water pollution, including the introduction of excess nutrients. Anything that affects the abundance of the fish hosts will also affect the freshwater pearl mussel; for example, the introduction of exotic fish species, such as the rainbow trout, reduce the number of native fish hosts. Introduced species are also directly affecting the freshwater pearl mussel; the invasion of the zebra mussel (\"Dreissena polymorpha\"), which has been spread to new locations by being transported on the bottom of boats or in ballast waters, has impacted freshwater pearl mussel populations in all countries it has invaded.  The freshwater pearl mussel, which is completely protected in all European countries, has been the focus of a significant amount of conservation efforts. Measures have included the transfer of adult mussels to areas where it had gone extinct, the culture of juvenile mussels, and the release of juvenile trout, which have been infected with glochidia, into small rivers, but mainly the freshwater pearl mussel has benefited from habitat restoration projects in some areas. Due to the essential role salmonid fish play in the life of the freshwater pearl mussel, the conservation of salmon and trout is also central in the survival of this endangered freshwater mussel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The freshwater pearl mussel (\"Margaritifera margaritifera\") is an endangered species of freshwater mussel, an aquatic bivalve mollusc in the family Margaritiferidae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974616}
{"src_title": "Cybersquatting", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Legal resolution.", "content": "Some countries have specific laws against cybersquatting beyond the normal rules of trademark law. The United States, for example, has the U.S. Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act (ACPA) of 1999. This expansion of the Lanham (Trademark) Act (15 U.S.C.) is intended to provide protection against cybersquatting for individuals as well as owners of distinctive trademarked names. However, some notable personalities, including rock star Bruce Springsteen and actor Kevin Spacey, failed to obtain control of their names on the internet.  Jurisdiction is an issue, as shown in the case involving Kevin Spacey, in which Judge Gary A. Feess, of the United States District Court of the Central District of California, ruled that the actor would have to file a complaint in a Canadian court, where the current owner of kevinspacey.com resided. Spacey later won the domain through the Forum (alternative dispute resolution) f.k.a National Arbitration Forum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Since 1999, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has provided an arbitration system wherein a trademark holder can attempt to claim a squatted site. In 2006, there were 1823 complaints filed with WIPO, which was a 25% increase over the 2005 rate. In 2007 it was stated that 84% of the claims made since 1999 were decided in the complaining party's favor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Social media.", "content": "With the rising of social media websites such as Facebook and Twitter, a new form of cybersquatting involves registering trademark-protected brands or names of public figures on popular social media websites.  On June 5, 2009, Tony La Russa, the manager of the St. Louis Cardinals, filed a complaint against Twitter, accusing Twitter of cybersquatting. The dispute centered on a Twitter profile that used La Russa's name, had a picture of La Russa, and had a headline that said \"Hey there! Tony La Russa is now using Twitter.\" The profile encouraged users to \"join today to start receiving Tony La Russa's updates.\" According to La Russa, the status updates were vulgar and derogatory. La Russa argued that the author of the profile intended, in bad faith, to divert Internet traffic away from La Russa's website and make a profit from the injury to La Russa's mark. On June 26, 2009, La Russa filed a notice of voluntary dismissal after the parties settled the case.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Efforts to curtail cybersquatting in social media.", "content": "Social networking websites have attempted to curb cybersquatting, making cybersquatting a violation of their terms of service.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twitter.", "content": "Twitter's name squatting policy forbids the cybersquatting as seen in many domain name disputes, like \"username for sale\" accounts: \"Attempts to sell or extort other forms of payment in exchange for usernames will result in account suspension.\" Additionally, Twitter has an \"Impersonation Policy\" that forbids non-parody impersonation. An account may be guilty of impersonation if it confuses or misleads others; \"accounts with the clear intent to confuse or mislead may be permanently suspended.\" Twitter's standard for defining parody is whether a reasonable person would be aware that the fake profile is a joke. Lastly, soon after the La Russa suit was filed, Twitter took another step to prevent \"identity confusion\" caused by squatting by unveiling \"Verified Accounts\". Usernames stamped with the \"verified account\" insignia indicate that the accounts are real and authentic.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Facebook.", "content": "Facebook reserves the right to reclaim usernames on the website if they infringe on a trademark. Trademark owners are responsible for reporting any trademark infringement on a username infringement form Facebook provides. Furthermore, Facebook usernames require \"mobile phone authentication\". In order to obtain a username, the individual needs to verify the account by phone.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Cybersquatting (also known as domain squatting), according to the United States federal law known as the Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act, is registering, trafficking in, or using an Internet domain name with bad faith intent to profit from the goodwill of a trademark belonging to someone else. The cybersquatter then offers to sell the domain to the person or company who owns a trademark contained within the name at an inflated price.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974617}
{"src_title": "United Baltic Duchy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical background.", "content": "During World War I the German Imperial Army had occupied the Courland Governorate of the Russian Empire by the autumn of 1915. The front stabilised along the line Riga–Daugavpils–Baranovichi.  Following the February Revolution of 1917 in Russia, the Russian Provisional Government declared the establishment of the Autonomous Governorate of Estonia on, amalgamating the former Russian Governorate of Estonia and the northern portion of the Governorate of Livonia. After the October Revolution later in the same year, the elected Estonian Provincial Assembly declared itself the sovereign power in Estonia on 28 November 1917. On 24 February 1918, a day before the arrival of German troops, the Estonian Salvation Committee of the Provincial Assembly issued the Estonian Declaration of Independence. The Western Allies recognized the Republic of Estonia \"de facto\" in May 1918.  The term 'Grand Duchy of Livonia' refers to the Livonia region, which made up most of the young United Baltic Duchy.  The Latvian Provisional National Council was constituted on the basis of the law of self-government which the Russian Provisional Government granted to Latvia on 5 July 1917. The Latvian Provisional National Council first met on 16 November 1917 in Valka. On 30 November 1917, the Council declared an autonomous Latvian province within ethnographic boundaries, and a formal independent Latvian republic was declared on 15 January 1918.  After the Russian Revolution, German troops had started advancing from Courland, and by the end of February 1918 the German military administered the territories of Estonia that had declared independence and the Russian Governorate of Livonia. With the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918, Bolshevist Russia accepted the loss of the Courland Governorate, and by agreements concluded in Berlin on 27 August 1918, the loss of the Autonomous Governorate of Estonia and the Governorate of Livonia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attempt to create the United Baltic Duchy.", "content": "As a parallel political movement under the German military administration, Baltic Germans began forming provincial councils between September 1917 and March 1918.  On 8 March 1918, the local Baltic German-dominated'declared the restoration of Duchy of Courland ('), which was formally recognised by Kaiser Wilhelm on 15 March 1918. On 12 April 1918, a Provincial Assembly (\") composed of 35 Baltic Germans, 13 Estonians, and 11 Latvians passed a resolution calling upon the German Emperor to recognize the Baltic provinces as a monarchy and make them a German protectorate.  The United Baltic Duchy was nominally recognized as a sovereign state by emperor Wilhelm II only on 22 September 1918, half a year after Soviet Russia had formally relinquished all authority over former Russian Imperial Baltic governorates to Germany in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. On 5 November 1918, a temporary Regency Council (\") for the new state led by Baron Adolf Pilar von Pilchau was formed on a joint basis from the two local Land Councils.  The capital of the new state was to be Riga. It was to be a confederation of seven cantons:'(Courland), Riga,'(Latgale),'(South Livonia),'(North Livonia),'(), and'(Estonia), the four first cantons thus covering the territory corresponding to today's Latvia and the latter three corresponding to today's Estonia.  The first head of state of the United Baltic Duchy was to be Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg, not as a sovereign monarch, but as a subordinate to the German, similar to other princes of the German Empire. But Adolf Friedrich never assumed office. The appointed Regency Council consisting of four Baltic Germans, three Estonians and three Latvians functioned until 28 November 1918, without any international recognition, except Germany.  In October 1918, the Chancellor of Germany Prince Maximilian of Baden proposed to have the military administration in the Baltic replaced by civilian authority. The new policy was stated in a telegram from the German Foreign Office to the military administration of the Baltic: \"The government of the Reich is unanimous in respect of the fundamental change in our policy towards the Baltic countries, namely that in the first instance policy is to be made with the Baltic peoples.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Independent Estonia and Latvia.", "content": "On 18 November 1918, Latvia proclaimed independence. August Winnig, the last representative of the German government, signed an agreement with representatives of the Estonian Provisional Government about handing over power on Estonian territory on 19 November. In Latvia, the Germans formally handed over authority to the Latvian national government headed by on 7 December 1918.  The'was formed by the government of the United Baltic Duchy as its national defense force. Upon taking command of the ', Major Alfred Fletcher, with the backing of the Baltic German land barons, began dismissing native Latvian elements and replacing them with Baltic Germans and'troops. Concurrently, German officers assumed most of the command positions. In his book \"Vanguard of Nazism: The Free Corps Movement in Postwar Germany, 1918–1923\", author Robert G.L. Waite notes: \"By mid-February 1919, Latvians composed less than one-fifth of their own army\". Britain backed down after recognizing the gravity of the military situation, and the White Russian units and the'moved on and captured Riga on 22 May 1919.  After the capture of Riga, the'were accused of killing 300 Latvians in (), 200 in (), 125 in (), and over 3,000 in Riga. After taking part in the capture of Riga, in June 1919 General ordered his troops not to advance east against the Red Army, as the Allies had been expecting, but north, against the Estonians. On 19 June 1919, the Iron Division and'units launched an attack to capture areas around (), the'continued its advance towards the Estonian coast preparatory for a push on Petrograd. However, the'was defeated by the 3rd Estonian Division (led by ) and North Latvian Brigade in the Battle of, 19–23 June 1919.  On the morning of 23 June 1919, the Germans began a general retreat toward Riga. The Allies again insisted that the Germans withdraw their remaining troops from Latvia, and intervened to impose a ceasefire between the Estonians and the \" when the Estonians were about to march into Riga. Meanwhile, an Allied mission composed of British troops under General Sir Hubert de la Poer Gough had arrived in the Baltic to clear the Germans from the region and organize native armies for the Baltic states.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The defeat of Germany in World War I in November 1918, followed by the defeat in 1919 of the'and German'units of General in Latvia by the 3rd Estonian Division and North Latvian Brigade, rendered the United Baltic Duchy irrelevant.  To ensure its return to Latvian control, the'was placed under British authority. After taking command of the'in mid-July 1919, Lt Col Harold Alexander (the future Alexander of Tunis), gradually dismissed the Baltic German elements. The Baltic nations of Estonia and Latvia were established as republics.  Võidupüha or Victory Day or the Victory Day in the Battle of Võnnu is a public holiday in Estonia which takes on June 23. The holiday has been celebrated since 1934 and marks the victory of Estonia and neighboring Latvia in the Battle of Cēsis against the Baltische Landeswehr on June 23, 1919.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The United Baltic Duchy, (,, ) also known as the Grand Duchy of Livonia, was a state proposed by the Baltic German nobility and exiled Russian nobility after the Russian Revolution and German occupation of the Courland, Livonian, and Estonian governorates of the Russian Empire. It was proposed in April 1918, after Estonia and Latvia had formally declared independence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974618}
{"src_title": "Saint-Roch, Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1521, the tradesman Jean Dinocheau had a chapel built on the outskirts of Paris, which he dedicated to Saint Susanna. In 1577, his nephew Etienne Dinocheau had it extended into a larger church. In 1629, it became the parish church and thereafter underwent further work. The first stone of the church of Saint-Roch was laid by Louis XIV in 1653, accompanied by his mother Anne of Austria. Originally designed by Jacques Lemercier, the building's construction was halted in 1660 and was resumed in 1701 under the direction of architect Jacques Hardouin-Mansart, brother of the better-known Jules Hardouin-Mansart. Work was finally completed in 1754.  At the time of the French Revolution, the church of Saint-Roch was often at the centre of events and was the scene of many shootings which have left their mark on the façade. 13 Vendémiaire was one such occasion, this was pivotal in the rise of Napoleon. It was not only the outside of the church that was damaged. During the Revolution it was ransacked, and many works of art were stolen or destroyed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "The church contains the memorials of Denis Diderot, the Comte de Grasse, Baron d'Holbach, Henri de Lorraine-Harcourt, the playwright Pierre Corneille, André le Nôtre, Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin and Marie Anne de Bourbon, daughter of Louis XIV, and Claude-Adrien Helvétius. In 1791, several tombs were relocated from the Couvent des Jacobins, Saint-Honoré when it was taken over by Jacobin Club; they included that of the soldier François de Créquy (1629-1687), designed by Charles Le Brun and executed by Antoine Coysevox, and the painter Pierre Mignard (1612-1695).  Other notable burials included César de Vendôme (1664), René Duguay-Trouin (1736), Claude-Adrien Helvétius (1771), and Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1806), while the Marquis de Sade, the Marquis de Lafayette and Vauban were among those married in this church.  After the failed November 1830 Polish Uprising, Saint-Roch became known as the 'Polish church' due to the many exiles who attended service there; they included Chopin (1810-1849), who allegedly composed a Veni Creator prayer he played on the church organ during Mass.  On 18 November 1880 Prince Roland Bonaparte and Marie-Félix Blanc were married at the church.  In 1825 a mass composed by Hector Berlioz was performed at the church.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Church of Saint-Roch () is a late Baroque 126 meter-long church in Paris, dedicated to Saint Roch. Located at 284 rue Saint-Honoré, in the 1st arrondissement, it was built between 1653 and 1740.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974619}
{"src_title": "Andrew Bobola", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bobola was born in 1591 into a noble family in the Sandomir Palatinate in the Province of Lesser Poland of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, then a constituent part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1611 he entered the Society of Jesus in Vilnius, then in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the other part of the Commonwealth. He subsequently professed solemn vows and was ordained in 1622, after which he served for several years as an advisor, preacher, Superior of a Jesuit residence, and other jobs in various places.  From 1652 Bobola also worked as a country \"missionary\", in various locations of Lithuania: these included Polotsk, where he was probably stationed in 1655, and also Pinsk, (both now in Belarus). On 16 May 1657, during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, he was captured in the village of Janów (now Ivanava, Belarus) by the Cossacks of Bohdan Chmielnicki and, after being subjected to a variety of tortures, killed.  One description of Bobola's death written in 1865 states:  A second account states that when Bobola refused to renounce his religion, he was stripped, tied to a hedge and whipped. In mockery, the Cossacks placed a crown of twigs on his head and then dragged him to his place of execution, a butcher's shop.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Bobola's body was originally buried in the Jesuit church in Pinsk. It was later moved to their church in Polotsk. By the beginning of the 18th century, however, nobody knew where Bobola's body was buried. In 1701 Father Martin Godebski, S.J., the Rector of the Pinsk College, reputedly had a vision of Bobola. This caused him to order a search for the body. It was reportedly found completely incorrupt, which is recognized by the Church and its supporters as evidence of holiness. In 1719 the casket was officially reopened and the body inspected by qualified medical personnel (five physicians and pharmacists). It was reportedly still completely incorrupt: pliable and with soft flesh. In 1922, the Bolsheviks moved the corpse, later described by an American journalist as a \"remarkably well-preserved mummy\", to the Museum of Hygiene of People's Commissioners of Health in Moscow. The whereabouts of the remains was not known to the Catholic authorities, and Pope Pius XI charged the Papal Famine Relief Mission in Russia, headed by American Jesuit Father Edmund A. Walsh, with the task of locating and \"rescuing\" them. In October 1923—as a kind of \"pay\" for help during famine—the remains were released to Walsh and his Assistant Director, Father Louis J. Gallagher, S.J. Well-packed by the two Jesuits, they were delivered to the Holy See by Gallagher on All Saints' Day (1 November) 1923. In May 1924, the relics were installed in Rome's Church of the Gesù, the main church of the Society of Jesus.  Since 19 June 1938 the body has been venerated at a shrine in Warsaw, with an arm remaining at the original shrine in Rome (see photo at left).  Declared Blessed by Pope Pius IX on 30 October 1853, Bobola was canonized by Pope Pius XI on 17 April 1938. His feast day was originally celebrated by the Jesuits on 23 May, but it is now generally celebrated on 16 May. In 2002, the Bishops' Conference of Poland declared Bobola a patron saint of Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "<BR", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andrew Bobola, S.J. (, 1591 – 16 May 1657) was a Polish missionary and martyr of the Society of Jesus, known as the Apostle of Lithuania and the \"hunter of souls\". He was tortured to death during the Khmelnytsky Uprising. He was canonized in 1938 by Pope Pius XI.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974620}
{"src_title": "TKS (spacecraft)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The TKS spacecraft was designed by Vladimir Chelomei (the VA capsule) and V. N. Bugayskiy (the FGB block) as a manned spacecraft launched with Proton rocket alternative to the Soyuz spacecraft for use with \"Almaz\" space stations. Development began in 1965; the \"Almaz programme\" had been abandoned by the time the first TKS spacecraft flew in 1977. The VA spacecraft (\"\"Vozvrashaemiy Apparat\"\") was flown separately on four test missions with two craft per launch to test the design, as well as one \"all-up\" test mission and three resupply missions.  The project had further evolved with space station \"\"Modulny\"\" (\"\"Modular\"\") based on the TKS design outline, reworked to dock with Salyut 7, Mir and ISS space stations. This development was designated FGB, or Functional Cargo Block.  The TKS spacecraft consisted of an 11F74 \"Vozvraschaemyi Apparat\" (or \"Return Vehicle\" commonly referred to as the VA), attached to an 11F77 \"Transportniy Korabl Snabzheniya\" (\"Functional/Cargo Block\" module or FGB).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "TKS VA.", "content": "The TKS VA spacecraft was itself a very compact and efficient spacecraft. Typically it would reenter the atmosphere within 2 orbits, but could fly autonomously for up to 31 hours. The pressurized crew re-entry capsule was equipped with its own environmental control system, and topped with reaction control system, de-orbit braking engine, parachute system, and soft landing engines. Although extensively flight tested, it never flew with a crew on board.  The VA design was derived from the planned capsule for the Chelomei's LK-1 manned circumlunar spacecraft of the 1960s. It was also the basis for Chelomei's LK-700 Lunar Lander crew capsule. The VA looked somewhat similar to the Apollo capsule, but was 30% smaller than its NASA counterpart.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "TKS FGB.", "content": "The FGB was entered from the VA spacecraft via a short tunnel. At the aft end a pilot station was equipped with controls and windows for manual docking with the Almaz space station. The docking port was also located here. Operational TKS spacecraft would have delivered KSI film return capsules to Almaz stations. These would have been stored around the docking port for transfer to the film capsule airlock for loading.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Missions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "VA spacecraft test flights.", "content": "Four flights with eight VA spacecraft without an FGB module were conducted to speed up the development of the TKS spacecraft:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "TKS-1 (Kosmos 929).", "content": "Kosmos 929 was the first flight of a \"complete\" TKS spacecraft (VA spacecraft with FGB), launched on 17 July 1977 – it was a \"solo\" test flight and was not destined for a Salyut space station. The VA capsule returned to Earth 16 August 1977. The remainder of the spacecraft – the FGB – deorbited on 2 February 1978.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "TKS-2 (Kosmos 1267).", "content": "On 25 April 1981, TKS-2 was launched unmanned as Kosmos 1267, the first FGB to dock with a space station. After separation and recovery of the VA capsule on 24 May 1981, the FGB docked on 19 June with Salyut 6, after 57 days of autonomous flight. It remained attached to the station until both deorbited and were destroyed on 29 July 1982.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "TKS-3 (Kosmos 1443).", "content": "On 2 March 1983, TKS-3 was launched unmanned as Kosmos 1443. This time, the VA remained attached and the first \"complete\" TKS docked to Salyut 7 two days after launch. TKS-3 separated from the station on 14 August. After undocking, the FGB and the VA spacecraft separated and the VA spacecraft continued in space for four more days demonstrating autonomous flight, before the VA capsule successfully re-entered on 23 August 1983, landing 100 km south-east of Aralsk and returning 350 kg of material from the station. The FGB deorbited itself on 19 September 1983.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "TKS-4 (Kosmos 1686).", "content": "TKS-4 was launched unmanned as Kosmos 1686 on 27 September 1985. The landing systems, ECS, seats, and manned controls were removed from the VA spacecraft, and instead other payload was installed: a high-resolution photo apparatus, an infrared telescope and the \"Ozon\" spectrometer. The TKS successfully docked with Salyut 7.  The \"military\" long-duration crew Salyut 7 EO-4, consisting of Viktor Savinykh, Alexander Volkov and the commander Vladimir Vasyutin, had manned Salyut 7 that month to conduct experiments with TKS-4. Commander Vasyutin fell ill soon after arriving at the station. Originally scheduled to have a six-month stay aboard Salyut 7, Vasyutin's illness forced the crew to make an emergency return to Earth on 21 November 1985, preventing the crew from finishing the TKS experiments. The crew of Soyuz T-15 returned to Salyut 7 in May 1986, to conclude some of the experiments and ferry equipment to the then new Mir space station.  Salyut 7 was moved to a higher orbit after that mission, while awaiting another \"TKS\" crew – there were even plans to return using the Buran shuttle. Such flights never materialized before Salyut 7 and Kosmos 1686 deorbited on 7 February 1991, burning up together over Argentina.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further usage.", "content": "The TKS design, which has never been flown manned, has gone on to provide the basic structure for several later space-station components, such as:  Two TKS/Almaz VA capsules were bought for commercial use by the private spaceflight company Excalibur Almaz. As of 2014, one of those were auctioned for 1 million euro, and the other was reportedly shipped away from the company's headquarters on Isle of Man in an undisclosed direction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Existing hardware.", "content": "Some VA capsules are on display in museums or in storage.  Known articles include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "TKS-based and descendant spacecraft and modules.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The TKS spacecraft (,, \"Transport Supply Spacecraft\", GRAU index 11F72) was a Soviet spacecraft conceived in the late 1960s for resupply flights to the military Almaz space station.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974621}
{"src_title": "Mathematical statistics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Introduction.", "content": "Statistical data collection is concerned with the planning of studies, especially with the design of randomized experiments and with the planning of surveys using random sampling. The initial analysis of the data often follows the study protocol specified prior to the study being conducted. The data from a study can also be analyzed to consider secondary hypotheses inspired by the initial results, or to suggest new studies. A secondary analysis of the data from a planned study uses tools from data analysis, and the process of doing this is mathematical statistics.  Data analysis is divided into:  While the tools of data analysis work best on data from randomized studies, they are also applied to other kinds of data. For example, from natural experiments and observational studies, in which case the inference is dependent on the model chosen by the statistician, and so subjective.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Topics.", "content": "The following are some of the important topics in mathematical statistics:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Probability distributions.", "content": "A probability distribution is a function that assigns a probability to each measurable subset of the possible outcomes of a random experiment, survey, or procedure of statistical inference. Examples are found in experiments whose sample space is non-numerical, where the distribution would be a categorical distribution; experiments whose sample space is encoded by discrete random variables, where the distribution can be specified by a probability mass function; and experiments with sample spaces encoded by continuous random variables, where the distribution can be specified by a probability density function. More complex experiments, such as those involving stochastic processes defined in continuous time, may demand the use of more general probability measures.  A probability distribution can either be univariate or multivariate. A univariate distribution gives the probabilities of a single random variable taking on various alternative values; a multivariate distribution (a joint probability distribution) gives the probabilities of a random vector—a set of two or more random variables—taking on various combinations of values. Important and commonly encountered univariate probability distributions include the binomial distribution, the hypergeometric distribution, and the normal distribution. The multivariate normal distribution is a commonly encountered multivariate distribution.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistical inference.", "content": "Statistical inference is the process of drawing conclusions from data that are subject to random variation, for example, observational errors or sampling variation. Initial requirements of such a system of procedures for inference and induction are that the system should produce reasonable answers when applied to well-defined situations and that it should be general enough to be applied across a range of situations. Inferential statistics are used to test hypotheses and make estimations using sample data. Whereas descriptive statistics describe a sample, inferential statistics infer predictions about a larger population that the sample represents.  The outcome of statistical inference may be an answer to the question \"what should be done next?\", where this might be a decision about making further experiments or surveys, or about drawing a conclusion before implementing some organizational or governmental policy. For the most part, statistical inference makes propositions about populations, using data drawn from the population of interest via some form of random sampling. More generally, data about a random process is obtained from its observed behavior during a finite period of time. Given a parameter or hypothesis about which one wishes to make inference, statistical inference most often uses:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regression.", "content": "In statistics, regression analysis is a statistical process for estimating the relationships among variables. It includes many ways for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. More specifically, regression analysis helps one understand how the typical value of the dependent variable (or 'criterion variable') changes when any one of the independent variables is varied, while the other independent variables are held fixed. Most commonly, regression analysis estimates the conditional expectation of the dependent variable given the independent variables – that is, the average value of the dependent variable when the independent variables are fixed. Less commonly, the focus is on a quantile, or other location parameter of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable given the independent variables. In all cases, the estimation target is a function of the independent variables called the regression function. In regression analysis, it is also of interest to characterize the variation of the dependent variable around the regression function which can be described by a probability distribution.  Many techniques for carrying out regression analysis have been developed. Familiar methods, such as linear regression, are parametric, in that the regression function is defined in terms of a finite number of unknown parameters that are estimated from the data (e.g. using ordinary least squares). Nonparametric regression refers to techniques that allow the regression function to lie in a specified set of functions, which may be infinite-dimensional.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nonparametric statistics.", "content": "Nonparametric statistics are values calculated from data in a way that is not based on parameterized families of probability distributions. They include both descriptive and inferential statistics. The typical parameters are the mean, variance, etc. Unlike parametric statistics, nonparametric statistics make no assumptions about the probability distributions of the variables being assessed.  Non-parametric methods are widely used for studying populations that take on a ranked order (such as movie reviews receiving one to four stars). The use of non-parametric methods may be necessary when data have a ranking but no clear numerical interpretation, such as when assessing preferences. In terms of levels of measurement, non-parametric methods result in \"ordinal\" data.  As non-parametric methods make fewer assumptions, their applicability is much wider than the corresponding parametric methods. In particular, they may be applied in situations where less is known about the application in question. Also, due to the reliance on fewer assumptions, non-parametric methods are more robust.  Another justification for the use of non-parametric methods is simplicity. In certain cases, even when the use of parametric methods is justified, non-parametric methods may be easier to use. Due both to this simplicity and to their greater robustness, non-parametric methods are seen by some statisticians as leaving less room for improper use and misunderstanding.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics, mathematics, and mathematical statistics.", "content": "Mathematical statistics is a key subset of the discipline of statistics. Statistical theorists study and improve statistical procedures with mathematics, and statistical research often raises mathematical questions. Statistical theory relies on probability and decision theory.  Mathematicians and statisticians like Gauss, Laplace, and C. S. Peirce used decision theory with probability distributions and loss functions (or utility functions). The decision-theoretic approach to statistical inference was reinvigorated by Abraham Wald and his successors, and makes extensive use of scientific computing, analysis, and optimization; for the design of experiments, statisticians use algebra and combinatorics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mathematical statistics is the application of probability theory, a branch of mathematics, to statistics, as opposed to techniques for collecting statistical data. Specific mathematical techniques which are used for this include mathematical analysis, linear algebra, stochastic analysis, differential equations, and measure theory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974622}
{"src_title": "Nakajima Ki-84", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Design of the Ki-84 commenced in early 1942 to meet an Imperial Japanese Army Air Service requirement for a replacement to Nakajima's own, earlier Ki-43 fighter, then just entering service. The specification recognized the need to combine the maneuverability of the Ki-43 with performance to match the best western fighters, and heavy firepower. The Ki-84 first flew in March 1943 and deliveries from Nakajima's Ota factory commenced in April 1943. Although the design was itself solid, growing difficulties in securing skilled pilots, proper fuel and construction materials, and adequate manufacture often prevented the aircraft from reaching its full potential in the field.  The design of the Ki-84 addressed the most common complaints about the popular and highly maneuverable Ki-43: insufficient firepower, poor defensive armor, and lack of climbing speed. The Ki-84 was a cantilever low-wing monoplane of all-metal construction, except for the fabric-covered control surfaces. It had retractable tailwheel landing gear. Armament comprised two fuselage-mounted, synchronized 12.7 mm (.50 in) machine guns — these proved challenging to synchronize properly with the \"Hayate's\" four-blade propeller — and two wing-mounted 20 mm cannon, a considerable improvement over the two 12.7 mm (.50 in) machine guns used in the Ki-43 \"Hayabusa\". Defensive armor offered \"Hayate\" pilots better protection than the unsealed wing tanks and light-alloy airframe of the Ki-43. In addition, the Ki-84 used a 65 mm (2.56 in) armor-glass canopy, 13 mm (.51 in) of head and back armor, and multiple bulkheads in the fuselage, which protected both the methanol-water tank (used to increase the effectiveness of the supercharger) and the centrally located fuel tank.  It was the Nakajima firm's own-designed 35.8 litre displacement, Ha-45 \"Homare\" (\"Praise or Honor\") air-cooled eighteen-cylinder radial engine, first accepted for military use in 1941, that gave the \"Hayate\" its high speed and prowess in combat. Derived from the Nakajima Homare engines common to many Japanese aircraft, the \"Hayate\" used the \"Homare 21\" direct-injection version of the engine, using water injection to aid the supercharger in giving the Ki-84 a rated 1,491 kW (2,000 hp) at takeoff. This combination theoretically gave it a climb rate and top speed roughly competitive with the top Allied fighters. Initial \"Hayate\" testing at Tachikawa in early summer 1943 saw test pilot Lieutenant Funabashi reach a maximum level airspeed of 624 km/h (387 mph) in the second prototype. After the war a captured late-production example was tested in the US and achieved a speed of 680 km/h (422 mph) using 92 octane AvGas, plus methanol injection.  The complicated direct-injection engine was a compact design (only 3 cm/11⁄4 inches larger in diameter than the Ki-43's 27.9 L 14-cylinder Nakajima Sakae radial) that required a great deal of care in construction and maintenance and it became increasingly difficult to maintain the type's designed performance as the Allies advanced toward the Japanese homeland. To compound reliability problems, the Allied submarine blockade prevented delivery of crucial components, such as the landing gear. Many landing gear units were compromised by the poor-quality heat treatment of late-war Japanese steel. As a result, many \"Hayates\" suffered strut collapses on landing. Further damage was caused by inadequately trained late war pilots, who sometimes found it difficult to transition to the relatively \"hot\" Ki-84 from the comparatively docile Ki-43, which had a significantly lower landing speed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational service.", "content": "The first major operational involvement was during the battle of Leyte at the end of 1944, and from that moment until the end of the Pacific war the Ki-84 was deployed wherever the action was intense. The 22nd Sentai re-equipped with production Hayates. Though it lacked sufficient high-altitude performance, it performed well at medium and low levels. Seeing action against the USAAF 14th Air Force, it quickly gained a reputation as a combat aircraft to be reckoned with. Fighter-bomber models also entered service. On April 15, 1945, 11 Hayates attacked US airfields on Okinawa, destroying many aircraft on the ground.  In the final year of the war the Ki-84, the Ki-100 (essentially a radial-engined version of the inline-powered Kawasaki Ki-61) and Kawanishi's N1K2-J were the three Japanese fighters best suited to combat the newer Allied fighters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Camouflage and markings.", "content": "The Ki-84 is known to have appeared in three Japanese Ministry of Munitions sanctioned camouflage schemes;  Type N: The entire airframe was left in its original natural metal. Because of the different grades of alloy used for various panels, the overall finish soon weathered or oxidized to a pale metallic grey, with variations in shade and texture, depending on the grade of duralumin used for each area of skin. A black \"anti-glare\" panel was painted on the top forward fuselage and engine cowling (see photo of 73 \"Hiko-Sentai\" aircraft).  Type B: Irregular blotches or stripes of dark green on the basic natural metal scheme. This was applied once the aircraft reached its operational base. On occasion the edges of national (hinomaru) and Sentai markings were accidentally covered.  Type S: Three variations were seen on Ki-84s; \"S1\" – Dark green upper surfaces, with light gray/green lower surfaces. \"S2\" – The light gray/green on the lower surfaces was replaced by a pale blue/gray. These colors were often applied on an unprimed airframe; because of this and the poor adhesion of Japanese paints in the later years of the war this scheme often weathered quickly, with large patches of natural metal being visible (see photo of 85 \"Hiko-Sentai\" Ki-84 on a Korean base). \"S10\" – The upper surfaces were left in a red/brown primer with the under surfaces in natural metal. The black anti-glare panel was optional.  Other schemes were applied, particularly by the \"Shinbu-Tai\" \"Special Attack\" units. For example, a Ki-84 of 57 \"Shinbu-Tai\", flown by Corporal Takano, had very dark brown-green upper surfaces (some sources state black), with a large red \"arrow\" outlined in white painted along the entire length of the fuselage and engine cowling. White Kana characters \"hitt-chin\" (be sure to sink) were painted above the arrow on the rear fuselage. The under surfaces were light gray.  Factory applied markings included six \"hinomaru\" (national insignia), outlined with a 75 mm (2.95 in) white border on camouflaged aircraft, on either side of the rear fuselage and on the upper and lower outer wings. Yellow/orange identification strips were applied to the leading edges of wings, extending from the roots to 1⁄3 of the wingspan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Not included:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operators.", "content": "Wartime  Post-war", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "After the war a number of aircraft were tested by the allied forces, two at the Allied Technical Air Intelligence Unit - South-West Pacific Area (ATAIU-SWPA) as S10 and S17 and a further two in the United States as FE-301 and FE-302 (Later T2-301 and T2-302).  One example captured at Clark Field during 1945, serial number 1446, was transported aboard the USS \"Long Island\" aircraft carrier to the United States. In 1952 it was sold off as surplus to Edward Maloney, owner of the Ontario Air Museum (Planes of Fame Air Museum) and restored to flying condition before being returned to Japan for display at the Arashiyama Museum in Kyoto in 1973. With unsupervised access allowed to the aircraft, parts were stolen from the Ki-84, and coupled with the years of neglect it could no longer fly. Following the museum's closure in 1991, the aircraft was transferred to the Tokko Heiwa Kinen-kan Museum, Kagoshima Prefecture, where it still is displayed to this day. It is the only surviving Ki-84.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nakajima is a single-seat fighter flown by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service in the last two years of World War II. The Allied reporting name was \"Frank\"; the Japanese Army designation was. The Ki-84 is generally considered the best Japanese fighter to operate in large numbers during the conflict. The aircraft boasted high speeds and excellent maneuverability with an armament (up to two 30 mm and two 20 mm cannon) that gave it formidable firepower. The Ki-84's performance matched that of any single-engine Allied fighter it faced, and its operational ceiling enabled it to intercept high-flying B-29 Superfortress bombers. Pilots and crews in the field learned to take care with the plane's high-maintenance Nakajima Homare engine and a landing gear prone to buckling. The difficulties of Japan's situation late in the war took a toll on the aircraft's field performance as manufacturing defects multiplied, quality fuel proved difficult to procure and experienced pilots grew scarce. Nevertheless, a well-maintained Ki-84 was Japan's fastest fighter. A total of 3,514 aircraft were built.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974623}
{"src_title": "Lev Gumilyov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "His parents, the two prominent poets Nikolay Gumilyov and Anna Akhmatova, divorced when Lev was 7 years old, and his father was executed when Lev was just 9. Lev spent most of his youth, from 1938 until 1956, in Soviet labor camps. He was arrested by the NKVD in 1935 and released, but rearrested again and sentenced to five years in 1938. After serving the time, he joined the Red Army and took part in the Battle of Berlin of 1945. However, he was arrested again in 1949 and sentenced to ten years in prison camps. Aiming to secure his release, Akhmatova published a dithyramb to Joseph Stalin, which did not help to release Lev, although it possibly prevented her own imprisonment. The Soviet secret police had already prepared an order for her arrest, but Stalin decided not to sign it. Relations between Lev and his mother became strained, as he blamed her for not helping him enough. She described her feelings about the arrest of Lev and the period of political repressions in \"Requiem\" (published in 1963).  After Stalin's death in 1953, Gumilyov joined the Hermitage Museum, whose director, Mikhail Artamonov, he would come to appreciate as his mentor. Under Artamonov's guidance, he became interested in Khazar studies and in steppe peoples in general. In the 1950s and 1960s he participated in several expeditions to the Volga Delta and to the North Caucasus. He proposed an archeological site for Samandar as well as the theory of the Caspian transgression in collaboration with geologist Alexander Alyoksin as one of the reasons for Khazar decline. In 1960 he started delivering lectures at Leningrad University. Two years later, he defended his doctoral thesis on ancient Turks. From the 1960s he worked in the Geography Institute, where he would defend another doctoral thesis, this time in geography.  Although the official Soviet authorities rejected his ideas and banned most of his monographs from publication, Gumilyov came to attract much publicity, especially in the Perestroika years of 1985-1991. As an indication of his popularity, the Kazakh president Nursultan Nazarbayev ordered the L.N.Gumilyov Eurasian National University (Евразийский Национальный университет имени Л. Н. Гумилёва, founded in 1996) to be erected just opposite his own palace on the central square of the new Kazakh capital, Astana.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideas.", "content": "Gumilyov attempted to explain the waves of nomadic migration that rocked the great steppe of Eurasia for centuries by geographical factors such as annual vacillations in solar radiation, which determine the area of grasslands that could be used for grazing livestock. According to this idea, when the steppe areas shrank drastically, the nomads of Central Asia began moving to the fertile pastures of Europe or China.  To describe the genesis and evolution of ethnic groups, Gumilyov introduced the concept of \"passionarity\", meaning the level of activity to expand typical for an ethnic group, and especially for their leaders, at the given moment of time. He argued that every ethnic group passes through the same stages of birth, development, climax, inertia, convolution, and memorial. It is during the \"acmatic\" phases, when the national passionarity reaches its maximum heat, that the great conquests are made. Gumilyov described the current state of Europe as deep inertia, or \"introduction to obscuration\", to use his own words. The passionarity of the Arabic world, on the other hand, is still high, according to him.  Drawing inspiration from the works of Konstantin Leontyev and Nikolay Danilevsky, Gumilyov regarded Russians as a \"super-ethnos\" which is kindred to Turkic-Mongol peoples of the Eurasian steppe. Those periods when Russia has been said to conflict with the steppe peoples, Gumilyov reinterpreted as the periods of consolidation of Russian power with that of steppe in order to oppose destructive influences from Catholic Europe, that posed a potential threat to integrity of the Russian ethnic group.  In accordance with his pan-Asiatic theories, he supported the national movements of Tatars, Kazakhs, and other Turkic peoples, in addition to those of the Mongolians and other East Asians. Unsurprisingly, Gumilyov's teachings have enjoyed immense popularity in Central Asian countries. In Kazan, for example, a monument to him was opened in August 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Several researchers, such as Vadim Rossman, John Klier, Victor Yasmann, Victor Schnirelmann, and Mikhail Tripolsky describe Gumilyov's views as antisemitic. According to these authors, Gumilyov did not extend this ethnological ecumenism to the medieval Jews, whom he regarded as a parasitic, international urban class that had dominated the Khazars and subjected the early East Slavs to the \"Khazar Yoke\". This last phrase he adapted from the traditional term \"Tatar Yoke\" for the Mongol domination of medieval Russia, a term Gumilyov rejected for he did not regard the Mongol conquest as a necessarily negative event. In particular, he asserted that the Radhanites had been instrumental in the exploitation of East Slavic people and had exerted undue influence on the sociopolitical and economic landscape of the early Middle Ages. Gumilyov maintained that the Jewish culture was by nature mercantile and existed outside and in opposition to its environment. According to this view, Jews share a specific way of thinking, and this is associated with the moral norms of Judaism. According to Gumilev, the medieval Jews also did not bear arms themselves, but waged wars by proxies or mercenaries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lev Nikolayevich Gumilyov (; 1 October 1912, St. Petersburg – 15 June 1992, St. Petersburg) was a Soviet historian, ethnologist, anthropologist and translator from Persian. He had a reputation for his highly non-orthodox theories of ethnogenesis and historiosophy. He was exponent of eurasianism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974624}
{"src_title": "Madagascar (2005 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "At the Central Park Zoo, Marty the zebra celebrates his tenth birthday but has grown bored with his daily routine and longs to experience the wild. Marty's best friend is Alex the lion, who enjoys showing off for the public and his celebrity status as \"the king of New York\". Alex attempts to cheer Marty up, but Marty, still unsatisfied, learns that the zoo's penguins—Skipper, Kowalski, Rico, and Private—are trying to escape, and follows them out. Alex, Melman the giraffe, and Gloria the hippopotamus pursue Marty and attempt to convince him to return. The four, along with the penguins and two chimpanzees named Mason and Phil, converge at Grand Central Station where the authorities sedate them using tranquilizer guns. Under pressure from anti-captivity activists, the zoo is forced to ship the escaped animals by sea to a Kenyan wildlife preserve. During their travels, the penguins escape and take over the ship, intent on taking it to Antarctica. Their antics on the bridge cause the crates containing Alex, Marty, Melman, and Gloria to fall overboard and wash ashore on Madagascar.  Initially believing themselves to be at the San Diego Zoo, the animals come across a pack of lemurs led by King Julien XIII. The predatory fossa attack the lemurs, but are scared off by Alex's fearsome appearance. Alex blames Marty for the group's predicament and attempts to signal for help to get back to civilization. Marty finds the wild to be exactly what he was looking for, and Gloria and Melman soon join him in enjoying the island. Alex eventually comes around, but without the raw steaks he was provided at the zoo, hunger sets in and his prey drive begins to show. King Julien has the lemurs befriend the zoo animals in the hope that Alex's presence will keep the fossa at bay, despite his adviser Maurice's warnings about Alex's predatory nature. When Alex loses control and attacks Marty, Julien realizes that he is a threat and banishes him to the predator side of the island, where the fossa live. Seeing what has happened to Alex, and how dangerous the wild can be, Marty begins to regret his decision to leave the zoo.  The penguins, having been to Antarctica and found it inhospitable, land the ship at Madagascar. Seeing the chance to return Alex to New York, Marty crosses over to the predator side and attempts to convince the grizzled, starving Alex to return, but Alex refuses out of fear that he will attack Marty again. The fossa attack Marty, and though Gloria, Melman, and the penguins come to the rescue, they are outnumbered. Alex overcomes his predatory instincts, rescues his friends, and scares the fossa away from the lemur territory forever. The lemurs regain their respect for Alex, and the penguins satisfy his hunger by feeding him sushi. As the lemurs throw a farewell celebration for the foursome, the penguins decide not to break the news that the ship has run out of fuel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "In 1998, DreamWorks and PDI had started development on an animated film titled \"Rockumentary\" without being formally announced as a parody of The Beatles in a most likely animated mockumentary of their rise and fall to fame, which featured a Beatles-esque penguin rock band. The idea was scrapped, but after production on \"Madagascar\" started, director Eric Darnell decided to revive the penguins, but make them a commando unit instead of a rock band.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "\"Madagascar\" was released on DVD and VHS on November 15, 2005 by DreamWorks Home Entertainment. The DVD included a short animated film \"The Madagascar Penguins in a Christmas Caper\", and a music video \"I Like to Move It,\" featuring characters from the film dancing to the song. A Blu-ray version of the film was released on September 23, 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "The film was a commercial success. On its opening weekend, the film grossed $47,224,594 with a $11,431 average from 4,131 theaters making it the number 3 movie of that weekend behind \"\" and \"The Longest Yard\". However, the film managed to claim the top position in the U.S. box office the following week with a gross of $28,110,235. In the United States, the film eventually grossed $193,595,521, and in foreign areas grossed $339,085,150 with a summative worldwide gross of $532,680,671. As of April 2019, the film is DreamWorks Animation's ninth highest-grossing film in the United States behind \"Shrek 2\", \"Shrek the Third\", \"Shrek\", \"Shrek Forever After\", \"How to Train Your Dragon\", \"\", \"Kung Fu Panda\", and \"Monsters vs. Aliens\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a 54% approval rating based on 191 reviews, with an average rating of 6.07/10. The consensus reads: \"Though its story is problematic in spots and its humor is hit-or-miss for the adult crowd, \"Madagascar\" boasts impressive visuals and enough spunky charm to keep children entertained.\" On Metacritic, the film has a 57% approval rating based on 36 reviews falling under the \"Mixed or Average\" category.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "The film has won three awards and several nominations.  In 2008, the American Film Institute nominated this film for its Top 10 Animation Films list.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "Madagascar is the soundtrack to the 2005 DreamWorks film of the same name. It was released by Geffen Records on May 24, 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequels and spin-offs.", "content": "A sequel titled \"\" was released on November 7, 2008, and picked up right where the first one left off, with the same voice cast. A second sequel, \"\", was released on June 8, 2012. A short film called \"The Madagascar Penguins in a Christmas Caper\" was released with the \"Madagascar\" DVD, and was theatrically released with \"\" in the United States. A 2009 spinoff series, \"The Penguins of Madagascar\", premiered in March 2009 on Nickelodeon. It is the first Nicktoon to be produced by both Nickelodeon and DreamWorks. \"Merry Madagascar\", a holiday special featuring characters from the film series, premiered on November 17, 2009 on NBC. \"Madly Madagascar\", a Valentine's Day special featuring characters from the film series, was released on DVD on January 29, 2013. A spin-off film starring the Penguins was released on November 26, 2014, another spin-off series featuring the Lemur King Julien was released on December 19, 2014, on Netflix, and a third sequel, \"Madagascar 4\", was set for release on May 18, 2018, but it was removed from its schedule due to the studio's restructuring.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Madagascar is a 2005 American computer-animated comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by DreamWorks Pictures. It was directed by Eric Darnell and Tom McGrath from a screenplay by Mark Burton, Billy Frolick, Darnell, and McGrath, and features an ensemble cast, consisting of Ben Stiller, Chris Rock, David Schwimmer, Jada Pinkett Smith, Sacha Baron Cohen, Cedric the Entertainer, Andy Richter, Tom McGrath, Chris Miller, Jeffrey Katzenberg, Christopher Knights, Conrad Vernon, Eric Darnell, David P. Smith, Elisa Gabrielli, Bob Saget, David Cowgill, and Stephen Apostolina.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974625}
{"src_title": "Traian Vuia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and early career.", "content": "Vuia was born to Romanian parents Simion Popescu and Ana Vuia living in Surducul-Mic, a village in the Banat region, Austro-Hungarian Empire, today in Romania; the place is now called Traian Vuia. After graduating from high school in Lugoj, in 1892, he enrolled in the School of Mechanics at the Polytechnic University of Budapest where he received his engineering diploma. He then joined the Faculty of Law in Budapest, Hungary, where he earned a PhD in law in May 1901 with the thesis \"Military and Industry, State and Contract regime\".  He returned to Lugoj, where he studied the problem of human flight and designed his first flying machine, which he called the \"airplane-car\". He attempted to build the machine, but due to financial constraints decided to go to Paris in July 1902, hoping to find someone interested in financing his project, possibly balloon enthusiasts. He met with considerable skepticism from people who believed that a heavier-than-air machine could not fly. He then visited Victor Tatin, the well-known theoretician and experimenter who had built an aircraft model which flew in 1879. Tatin was interested in the project, but doubted that Vuia had a suitable engine or that his aircraft would be stable. Vuia then presented his plan to the Académie des Sciences in Paris on February 16, 1903, but was rejected with the comment, \"The problem of flight with a machine which weighs more than air can not be solved and it is only a dream.\"  Undeterred, Vuia applied for a French patent on May 15, 1903, and obtained patent No. 332106 for his design. He began to build his first flying machine in the winter of 1902–03. Overcoming more financial difficulties, he also started construction of an engine of his own design for which he was granted various patents, the first in 1904.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flying experiments.", "content": "By December 1905 Vuia had finished construction of his first airplane, the \"Vuia I\". This was a high-wing monoplane constructed entirely of steel tubing. The basic framework consisted of a pair of triangular frames, the lower members forming the sides of the rectangular chassis which bore four pneumatic-tyred wheels, the front pair steerable. The wing was mounted on the apices of these frames and resembled those of Otto Lilienthal's gliders, with a number of curved steel tubes radiating outwards from centres at the apex of each of the side frames, braced by wires attached to a pair of kingposts, and covered in varnished linen. Pitch control was achieved by varying the angle of attack of the wing. A trapezoidal rudder was mounted behind and below the wing. It was powered by a carbonic acid gas engine driving a single tractor propeller. The 25 hp engine had to be adapted by Vuia himself as a suitable engine was not available. Liquid carbon dioxide was vaporized in a Serpollet boiler and fed to a Serpollet engine. The fuel supply was enough for a running time of about five minutes at full power. The aircraft was constructed for Vuia by the Parisian engineering company of Hockenjos and Schmitt. Vuia chose a site in Montesson, near Paris, for testing. At first he used the machine without the wings mounted so he could gather experience controlling it on the ground. The wings were put on in March and on March 18, 1906, it lifted off briefly. After accelerating for about, the aircraft left the ground and travelled through the air at a height of about for a distance of about, but then the engine cut out and it came down. Caught by the wind it was damaged against a tree. On August 9 a longer hop of at a height of about 2.5 m (8 ft) was made, ending in a heavy landing which damaged the propeller.  In August 1906 he modified the aircraft, reducing the camber of the wing and adding an elevator. In this form it is sometimes called the Vuia I-bis. The British aviation historian Charles Harvard Gibbs-Smith described this aircraft as \"the first man-carrying monoplane of basically modern configuration\", yet \"unsuccessful\" because it was incapable of sustained flight.  The French journal \"L'Aérophile\" emphasized that Vuia's machine had the capability to take off from a flat surface, without assistance such as an incline, rails, or catapult. At the time Europe was aware of the efforts of the Wright brothers who on December 17, 1903, had flown their \"Wright Flyer\" from level ground using a dolly undercarriage running on a guide rail, though few yet recognised the achievement. The Wrights had made sustained and controlled flights in a complete circuit by September 1904.  The main characteristics of the Vuia I: In 1907 Vuia built the Vuia II, using an Antoinette internal combustion engine. This aircraft had the same basic configuration as the Vuia I-bis, but was both smaller and lighter, with a total weight (including pilot) of and a wingspan of. Vuia succeeded in making a brief powered hop on July 5, travelling, but damaging the aircraft and suffering slight injuries on landing. No further attempts were made to fly the aircraft.  Charles Dollfus, former curator of the Air Museum in Paris, wrote that aviation pioneer Alberto Santos Dumont's use of wheels on his aircraft was influenced by Dumont's having seen Vuia's flight attempts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Documentation.", "content": "Vuia reportedly made his first powered hop on March 18, 1906, in the presence of his mechanic and two close friends. Accounts of this test, published at the time, and of his later airborne tests, till August 19, 1906, are based on letters he wrote to \"L'Aérophile\", the official journal of the Aéro Club of France. Vuia made the first known public demonstration of his airplane on October 8, 1906, when he became airborne for four meters, witnessed by Ernest Archdeacon and Édouard Surcouf. Another journal of the period, \"Flight\", credited him with a five-meter hop on October 8, 1906, as the earliest entry in a list of his tests shown in a table of \"the performances which have been made by the most prominent aviators of the last few years\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "Between 1918 and 1921 Vuia built two experimental helicopters on the Juvisy and Issy-les-Moulineaux aerodromes.  He is buried at the Bellu cemetery in Bucharest, Romania.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Another invention by Vuia was a steam generator with internal combustion that generates very high pressure – more than 100 atm (10 MPa) – that is still used today in thermal power stations. Traian Vuia and one of his partners, Emmanuel Yvonneau, patented several types of gas generators.  On May 27, 1946, Vuia was named an Honorary Member of the Romanian Academy.  His birthplace, Bujoru, in Timiș was renamed Traian Vuia after his death.  Timişoara International Airport Traian Vuia (TSR), Romania's third largest airport, carries his name.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Traian Vuia or Trajan Vuia (; August 17, 1872 – September 3, 1950) was a Romanian inventor and aviation pioneer who designed, built and tested the first tractor monoplane. He was the first to demonstrate that a flying machine could rise into the air by running on wheels on an ordinary road. He is credited with a powered hop of made on March 18, 1906, and he later claimed a powered hop of. Though unsuccessful in sustained flight, Vuia's invention influenced Louis Blériot in designing monoplanes. Later, Vuia also designed helicopters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974626}
{"src_title": "Maurice de Vlaminck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Maurice de Vlaminck was born on Rue Pierre Lescot in Paris. His father Edmond Julien was Flemish and taught violin and his mother Joséphine Caroline Grillet came from Lorraine and taught piano. His father taught him to play the violin. He began painting in his late teens. In 1893, he studied with a painter named Henri Rigalon on the. In 1894 he married Suzanne Berly. The turning point in his life was a chance meeting on the train to Paris towards the end of his stint in the army. Vlaminck, then 23, met an aspiring artist, André Derain, with whom he struck up a lifelong friendship. When Vlaminck completed his army service in 1900, the two rented a studio together, the Maison Levanneur, which now houses the Cneai, for a year before Derain left to do his own military service. In 1902 and 1903 he wrote several mildly pornographic novels illustrated by Derain. He painted during the day and earned his livelihood by giving violin lessons and performing with musical bands at night.  Vlaminck participated in the controversial 1905 Salon d'Automne exhibition. After viewing the boldly colored canvases of Vlaminck, Henri Matisse, André Derain, Albert Marquet, Kees van Dongen, Charles Camoin, and Jean Puy, the art critic Louis Vauxcelles disparaged the painters as \"\"fauves\"\" (wild beasts), thus giving their movement the name by which it became known, Fauvism.  In 1911, Vlaminck traveled to London and painted by the Thames. In 1913, he painted again with Derain in Marseille and Martigues. In World War I he was stationed in Paris, and began writing poetry. Eventually he settled in Rueil-la-Gadelière, a small village south-west of Paris. He married his second wife, Berthe Combes, with whom he had two daughters. From 1925 he traveled throughout France, but continued to paint primarily along the Seine, near Paris. Resentful that Fauvism had been overtaken by Cubism as an art movement Vlaminck blamed Picasso \"for dragging French painting into a wretched dead end and state of confusion\". During the Second World War Vlaminck visited Germany and on his return published a tirade against Picasso and Cubism in the periodical \"Comoedia\" in June 1942. A gifted story teller, Vlaminck wrote many autobiographies, which were somewhat marred either by vagueness or lack of absolute truthfulness.  Vlaminck died in Rueil-la-Gadelière on 11 October 1958.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artistic career.", "content": "Two of Vlaminck's groundbreaking paintings, \"Sur le zinc\" (At the Bar) and \"L'homme a la pipe\" (Man Smoking a Pipe) were painted in 1900.  For the next few years Vlaminck lived in or near Chatou (the inspiration for his painting \"houses at Chatou\"), painting and exhibiting alongside Derain, Matisse, and other Fauvist painters. At this time his exuberant paint application and vibrant use of colour displayed the influence of Vincent van Gogh. \"Sur le zinc\" called to mind the work of Toulouse-Lautrec and his portrayals of prostitutes and solitary drinkers, but does not attempt to probe the sitter's psychology—a break with the century-old European tradition of individualized portraiture. According to art critic Souren Melikian, it is \"the impersonal cartoon of a type.\" In his landscape paintings, his approach was similar. He ignored the details, with the landscape becoming a vehicle through which he could express mood through violent colour and brushwork. An example is \"Sous bois\", painted in 1904. The following year, he began to experiment with \"deconstruction,\" turning the physical world into dabs and streaks of colour that convey a sense of motion. His paintings \"Le Pont de Chatou\" (The Chatou Bridge), \"Les Ramasseurs de pommes de terre\" (The Potato Pickers), \"La Seine a Chatou\" (The River Seine at Chatou) and \"Le Verger\" (The Orchard) exemplify this trend.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artistic influences.", "content": "Vlaminck's compositions show familiarity with the Impressionists, several of whom had painted in the same area in the 1870s and 1880s. After visiting a Van Gogh exhibit, he declared that he \"loved Van Gogh that day more than my own father\". From 1908 his palette grew more monochromatic, and the predominant influence was that of Cézanne. His later work displayed a dark palette, punctuated by heavy strokes of contrasting white paint.  Some of his works are held at the Minneapolis Institute of Art.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maurice de Vlaminck (4 April 1876 – 11 October 1958) was a French painter. Along with André Derain and Henri Matisse he is considered one of the principal figures in the Fauve movement, a group of modern artists who from 1904 to 1908 were united in their use of intense colour. Vlaminck was one of the Fauves at the controversial Salon d'Automne exhibition of 1905.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974627}
{"src_title": "Kataklysm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Kataklysm was formed in Montreal, Quebec in September 1991. At the beginning of their career, they were known for their fast and technical brand of death metal, known as the \"Northern Hyperblast\". Nuclear Blast Records soon took notice of the band in 1992 after noticing the band's debut demo \"The Death Gate Cycle of Reincarnation\", which gained significant praise from the underground metal scene. In 1994, Kataklysm signed to Nuclear Blast and released their first EP \"The Mystical Gate of Reincarnation\", followed by their debut album Sorcery in 1995. This was followed in 1996 by their second full length album \"Temple of Knowledge\", which they accompanied with their first music video for the album's track, \"The Awakener\". Following the release of this album however, founding member and lead vocalist Sylvain Houde departed from the band. This, as Houde himself confessed, was due to the emotional effects surrounding the end of his romantic relationship. Subsequently, the band's bassist Maurizio Iacono replaced Houde as vocalist, ceding his duties as bassist to Stephane Barbe. The band's musical direction shifted from being primarily spearheaded by Houde to both Iacono and founding guitarist JF Dagenais instead.  In 1998, the band released their third studio album \"Victims of this Fallen World\", (Iacono's first as vocalist) which has been noted as incorporating a more groove-oriented and melodic musical style of death metal. The following album \"The Prophecy (Stigmata of the Immaculate)\" released in 2000 consolidated this style, lessening the chaotic nature of their work thus far and incorporating greater influences from thrash metal. The band's 2001 album \"\" added further melody to the band's approach to death metal and the band continued to gain attention and positive critical reception. In the following year, the band released \"Shadows & Dust\", which has been viewed by critics as one of the band's most successful releases because of the overwhelmingly positive reception the band received and the increase in sales compared to the band's prior releases, being the first album to chart in countries such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and featured one of the band's most recognisable tracks: \"In Shadows & Dust\".  Two years later, in 2004, the band released \"Serenity in Fire\". The album was notable for the absence of drummer Max Duhamel, Kataklysm's drummer, being temporarily replaced by Martin Maurais, due to injury. The album was again positively received and featured two of the band's best known tracks: \"As I Slither\" and \"The Ambassador of Pain\". Duhamel eventually recovered and played on the band's eighth studio album, released in 2006, titled \"In the Arms of Devastation\". The album was a considerable success, with sales exceeding 50,000 units and saw the band's highest charting entries thus far. The band's following album, Prevail, continued to display the band's growing popularity, with sales again exceeding the 50,000 mark. The album's single \"Taking the World by Storm\" also became the band's most highly viewed track on YouTube, with over three million views.  The band released their 11th studio album \"Waiting for the End to Come\" on October 29, 2013, followed by their twelfth album \"Of Ghosts and Gods\" in July 31, 2015, both to high praise. The band's thirteenth studio album, \"Meditations\", was released in June 2018. The album gained their first album to chart on the Billboard Top 100 charts, positioning at #61, alongside being their highest charting album in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and the band's native Canada.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Members of Kataklysm have cited major influences as Metallica, Megadeth, Slayer, Anthrax, Pantera, Sepultura, Exhorder, Testament, Death, At the Gates, Napalm Death, Obituary, Cannibal Corpse, Kreator, Exodus, Fear Factory, Carcass and Entombed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Members.", "content": "Current members Former members Timeline", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kataklysm is a Canadian death metal band. They have released thirteen studio albums, one EP and two DVDs as of 2018. Kataklysm won their first Juno Award (Canadian equivalent of the Grammy) for best album of the year in the \"heavy metal\" category for their 2015 album \"Of Ghosts & Gods\".The band's albums have charted throughout the world, including the Billboard Top 100 in the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974628}
{"src_title": "Price", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Functions of prices.", "content": "In a free-enterprise exchange economy characterized by private ownership of the means of production, prices serve five functions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Price and value.", "content": "The paradox of value was observed and debated by classical economists. Adam Smith described what is now called the \"diamond – water paradox\": diamonds command a higher price than water, yet water is essential for life and diamonds are merely ornamentation. Use value was supposed to give some measure of usefulness, later refined as marginal benefit while exchange value was the measure of how much one good was in terms of another, namely what is now called relative price.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Negative oil price.", "content": "In April 2020, for the first time in history, because of global health/economic crisis situation, price of (futures contract for) West Texas Intermediate benchmark crude oil turned negative, with a barrel of oil at -$37.63 a barrel, a one-day drop of $55.90, or 306%, according to Dow Jones Market Data. \"Negative prices means someone with a long position in oil would have to pay someone to take that oil off of their hands. Why would they do that? The main reason is a fear that if forced to take delivery of crude on the expiration of the May oil contract, there would be nowhere to put it as a glut of crude fills up available storage.\"  In a sense the price is still positive, just the direction of payment reverses, i.e. in this case you are paid to take some goods.  This is very unusual, while negative interest rates are similar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Austrian School theory.", "content": "One solution offered to the paradox of value is through the theory of marginal utility proposed by Carl Menger, one of the founders of the Austrian School of economics.  As William Barber put it, human volition, the human subject, was \"brought to the centre of the stage\" by marginalist economics, as a bargaining tool. Neoclassical economists sought to clarify choices open to producers and consumers in market situations, and thus \"fears that cleavages in the economic structure might be unbridgeable could be suppressed\".  Without denying the applicability of the Austrian theory of value as \"subjective\" only, within certain contexts of price behavior, the Polish economist Oskar Lange felt it was necessary to attempt a serious \"integration\" of the insights of classical political economy with neo-classical economics. This would then result in a much more realistic theory of price and of real behavior in response to prices. Marginalist theory lacked anything like a theory of the social framework of real market functioning, and criticism sparked off by the capital controversy initiated by Piero Sraffa revealed that most of the foundational tenets of the marginalist theory of value either reduced to tautologies, or that the theory was true only if counter-factual conditions applied.  One insight often ignored in the debates about price theory is something that businessmen are keenly aware of: in different markets, prices may not function according to the same principles except in some very abstract (and therefore not very useful) sense. From the classical political economists to Michal Kalecki it was known that prices for industrial goods behaved differently from prices for agricultural goods, but this idea could be extended further to other broad classes of goods and services.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Price as productive human labour time.", "content": "Marxists assert that value derives from the volume of socially necessary labour time exerted in the creation of an object. This value does not relate to price in a simple manner, and the difficulty of the conversion of the mass of values into the actual prices is known as the transformation problem. However, many recent Marxists deny that any problem exists. Marx was not concerned with proving that prices derive from values. In fact, he admonished the other classical political economists (like Ricardo and Smith) for trying to make this proof. Rather, for Marx, price equals the cost of production (capital-cost and labor-costs) plus the average rate of profit. So if the average rate of profit (return on capital investment) is 22% then prices would reflect cost-of-production plus 22%. The perception that there is a transformation problem in Marx stems from the injection of Walrasian equilibrium theory into Marxism where there is no such thing as equilibrium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Confusion between prices and costs of production.", "content": "Price is commonly confused with the notion of cost of production, as in \"I paid a high cost for buying my new plasma television\"; but technically these are different concepts. Price is what a buyer pays to acquire products from a seller. Cost of production concerns the seller's expenses (e.g., manufacturing expense) in producing the product being exchanged with a buyer. For marketing organizations seeking to make a profit, the hope is that price will exceed cost of production so that the organization can see financial gain from the transaction.  Finally, while pricing is a topic central to a company's profitability, pricing decisions are not limited to for-profit companies. The behavior of non-profit organizations, such as charities, educational institutions and industry trade groups, also involve setting prices. For instance, charities seeking to raise money may set different \"target\" levels for donations that reward donors with increases in status (e.g., name in newsletter), gifts or other benefits; likewise educational and cultural nonprofits often price seats for events in theatres, auditoriums and stadiums. Furthermore, while nonprofit organizations may not earn a \"profit\", by definition, it is the case that many nonprofits may desire to maximize \"net revenue\"—total revenue less total cost—for various programs and activities, such as selling seats to theatrical and cultural performances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Price point.", "content": "The price of an item is also called the \"price point\", especially where it refers to stores that set a limited number of price points. For example, Dollar General is a general store or \"five and dime\" store that sets price points only at even amounts, such as exactly one, two, three, five, or ten dollars (among others). Other stores will have a policy of setting most of their prices ending in 99 cents or pence. Other stores (such as dollar stores, pound stores, euro stores, 100-yen stores, and so forth) only have a single price point ($1, £1, €1, ¥100), though in some cases this price may purchase more than one of some very small items.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Market price.", "content": "In economics, market price is the economic price for which a good or service is offered in the marketplace. It is of interest mainly in the study of microeconomics. Market value and market price are equal only under conditions of market efficiency, equilibrium, and rational expectations.  On restaurant menus, \"market price\" (often abbreviated to \"m.p.\" or \"mp\") is written instead of a specific price, meaning \"price of dish depends on market price of ingredients, and price is available upon request\", and is particularly used for seafood, notably lobsters and oysters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other terms.", "content": "Basic price is the price a seller gets after removing any taxes paid by a buyer and adding any subsidy the seller gets for selling.  Producer price is the amount the producer gets from a buyer for a unit of a good or service produced as output minus any tax, it excludes any transport charges invoiced separately by the producer.  Price optimization is the use of mathematical techniques by a company to determine how customers will respond to different prices for its products and services through different channels.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A price is the (usually not negative) quantity of payment or compensation given by one party to another in return for one unit of goods or services. A price is influenced by both production costs and demand for the product. A price may be determined by a monopolist or may be imposed on the firm by market conditions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974629}
{"src_title": "Tortona", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Known in ancient times as Dertona, the city was probably the oldest colony under Roman rule in the westernmost section of the Valley of the Po, on the road leading from Genua (Genoa) to Placentia (Piacenza). The city was founded c. 123–118 BC at the junction of the great roads; the Via Postumia and the Via Aemilia Scauri which merged to become the Via Julia Augusta. The site made Dertona an important military station under the Romans. Strabo speaks of it as one of the most considerable towns in this part of Italy, and from Pliny wrote that it was a Roman colony. Velleius mentions it among those founded under the Republic, it appears to have been recolonised under Augustus, from whence we find it bearing in inscriptions the title of \"Julia Dertona\". The assassin of Caesar, Brutus, encamped at Dertona on his march in pursuit of Mark Antony, after the Battle of Mutina, and it was one of the places where a body of troops was usually stationed during the later ages of the empire.  A bishopric was founded at Tortona early, but its first bishops are purely legendary, like Saint Marcianus of Tortona, called the first bishop of Piedmont and a disciple of Barnabas, the companion of Paul. Until the 9th century, the city was under the rule of its bishop; in 1090 it became a free commune with the name of Terdona. In 1133 the diocese was separated from the archbishopric of Milan to the new archdiocese of Genoa (\"CE\" \"Lombardy\").  In 1155 Frederick Barbarossa besieged, captured and leveled Tortona to the ground, leaving not one stone upon another.  During the Middle Ages, Tortona was a faithful ally of the Guelphs and was destroyed several times. From 1260 to 1347 the city was dominated by a series of different Italian noble families and adventurers like Facino Cane, who in the unsettled affairs of Lombardy had assembled a string of lordships and great wealth which he bequeathed to his wife, Beatrice, and arranged with his friends that a marriage should be effected between her and Filippo Maria Visconti. According to Machiavelli \"By this union Filippo became powerful, and reacquired Milan and the whole of Lombardy. By way of being grateful for these numerous favors, as princes commonly are, he accused Beatrice of adultery and caused her to be put to death\". In this way, in 1347, Tortona was decisively incorporated into the territories of the Duchy of Milan, under which remained until 1735. Then following the vicissitudes of the War of the Polish Succession, the city was occupied by the King of Sardinia, and \"count of Tortona\" was added to the titles of the House of Savoy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Colli Tortonesi.", "content": "Tortona is the capital of an area known as Colli Tortonesi, which stretches from the town to the border with Liguria. The area is known for the variety and of its products and for the intensive wine production, including Barbera, Dolcetto, Moscato and Timorasso, the autochthonous wine of the region which traces its origin back to the 14th century. Truffles are another important fruit of this land and the Colli Tortonesi is the only place in Piedmont to have three varieties of truffle: White truffle, Black Truffle and scorzone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "People.", "content": "People born in Tortona, or with close links to the town, include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "<BR", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tortona (;, ) is a \"comune\" of Piemonte, in the Province of Alessandria, Italy. Tortona is sited on the right bank of the Scrivia between the plain of Marengo and the foothills of the Ligurian Apennines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974630}
{"src_title": "Jersey cattle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the breed.", "content": "As its name implies, the Jersey was bred on the British Channel Island of Jersey. It apparently descended from cattle stock brought over from the nearby Norman mainland, and was first recorded as a separate breed around 1700.  The breed was isolated from outside influence for over 200 years, from 1789 to 2008.  Before 1789, cows would be given as dowry for inter-island marriages between Jersey and Guernsey. This was, however, not widespread.  In 1789, imports of foreign cattle into Jersey were forbidden by law to maintain the purity of the breed, although exports of cattle and semen have been important economic resources for the island. The restriction on the import of cattle was initially introduced to prevent a collapse in the export price. The United Kingdom levied no import duty on cattle imported from Jersey. Cattle were being shipped from France to Jersey and then shipped onward to England to circumvent the tariff on French cattle. The increase in the supply of cattle, sometimes of inferior quality, was bringing the price down and damaging the reputation of Jersey cattle. The import ban stabilised the price and enabled a more scientifically controlled programme of breeding to be undertaken.  Sir John Le Couteur studied selective breeding and became a Fellow of the Royal Society; his work led to the establishment of the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society in 1833. At that time, the breed displayed greater variation than it does today, with white, dark brown, and mulberry beasts. However, since the honey-brown cows sold best, the breed was developed accordingly. In 1860, 1,138 cows were exported via England, the average price being £16 per head. By 1910, over 1,000 head were exported annually to the United States alone. It is now the fastest-growing dairy breed in the world.  On 1866, at the annual general meeting of the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society, H.G. Shepard noted in his history that \"it was resolved – on the motion of Col. Le Couteur, that the Hon. Secretary be hereby invited to open and to carry on a \"herd book\" in which the pedigree of bulls, cows, and heifers shall be entered for reference to all the members of the Society.\" In 1869 for the first time, prizes were awarded at the society's shows for herd book stock cattle.  The States of Jersey took a census of stock in 1866, and Jersey then supported 12,037 head of cattle, of which 611 were bulls.  In July 2008, the States of Jersey took the historic step of ending the ban on imports, and allowing the import of bull semen from any breed of cattle, although only semen that is genetically pure enables the resultant progeny to be entered in the Jersey Herd Book. For many decades, each of the 12 parishes in Jersey would hold cattle shows in the spring, summer, and autumn, followed in turn by the main shows held by the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society, where the best of the parish shows would compete. The colour of the rosette secured by a prize-winning cow was said to determine its export value. Today, the RJAHS holds two shows a year, where usually five or six of the remaining 23 herds compete against each other for the top prizes. A Jersey cattle show is also held in Jersey, by the West Show Association.  In February 2010, semen from an impure breed Jersey bull had been imported into the island despite strict laws and checks, and 100 cows had been impregnated with the semen. Their offspring will not be recorded in the Jersey Herd Book.  Jersey cattle were exported to the United States from about 1850. A breed society, the American Jersey Cattle Club, was formed in 1868. In the USA, a distinction is sometimes made between the \"American Jersey\", which is comparatively coarse and large and has been selectively bred mainly for milk yield, and the original or \"Island\" type; the latter may also be called \"Miniature Jersey\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Jersey cow ranges from only. Factors contributing to the popularity of the breed has been their greater economy of production, due to:  Jerseys occur in all shades of brown, from light tan to almost black. They are frequently fawn in colour. All purebred Jerseys have a lighter band around their muzzles, a dark switch (long hair on the end of the tail), and black hooves, although in recent years, colour regulations have been relaxed to allow a broadening of the gene pool.  The cows are calm and docile; bulls may be unpredictable or aggressive.  Jersey cattle have a greater tendency towards postparturient hypocalcaemia (or \"milk fever\") in dams, and tend to have frail calves that require more attentive management in cold weather than other dairy breeds due to their smaller body size (which results in an increased surface area-to-mass ratio, increasing heat loss).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Jersey is a British breed of small dairy cattle from Jersey, in the British Channel Islands. It is one of three Channel Island cattle breeds, the others being the Alderney – now extinct – and the Guernsey. It is highly productive – cows may give over 10 times their own weight in milk per lactation; the milk is high in butterfat and has a characteristic yellowish tinge.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974631}
{"src_title": "Vicia cracca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Cow vetch is in the family Fabaceae and similar to a pea in growth habit with climbing stems growing to 150 cm long, perennial, sending out noose-like branched tendrils from the tips of its leaves when it contacts another plant and securely fastens itself. This can cause \"strangling\" of smaller plants. An individual plant may reach a length (or height) of 2 m with a white taproot, which may extend up to 1 m. The leaves are 3–8 cm long, pinnate, with 8–12 pairs of leaflets, each leaflet 5–10 mm long.  The plant is fast-growing and flowers prolifically, sending out 10 to 40 flowered one-sided racemes cascading pea-flower shaped purple to violet flowers from the leaf axil during its late spring to late summer flowering period. The flowers are mostly visited by bumblebees; when the flowers drop off and tiny bright green seed pods 10–20 mm long, start to form. Cow vetch is very similar to hairy vetch (\"Vicia villosa\"), but is distinguished from the latter by its smooth stem. The seed pods are 2 cm long and contain 6 to 8 seeds. They resemble those of a very small pea. The tiny seeds within are ripe when the pods have turned black. Unripened seeds are swollen and have a green tint to them, but they unswell when they become ripe. The seed pods vary from light brown to dark brown with black spots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Vicia cracca\" is native to Europe and Asia, and has been introduced to large areas of North America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Recorded as very frequent on waste ground as an introduced species occurring casually. In hedges and waste places.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "Cow vetch is widely used as a forage crop for cattle, and is beneficial to other plants because, like other leguminous plants, it enriches the soil in which it grows by its nitrogen-fixing properties. Cow vetch is also much appreciated by bees and butterflies as a source of nectar. The plant may also be used to curb erosion.  Owners of pet birds such as budgerigars often use cow vetch as a nutritious food; the birds are especially fond of the seeds but may also eat the foliage.  Its utility as a cover crop and source of green manure has encouraged the introduction and naturalisation of cow vetch far beyond its native range. In North America the plant is naturalised from southern Canada to upstate South Carolina; it is considered an invasive weed in some areas and its sale may be regulated.  Cow vetch can be a potentially detrimental species in areas where it is not native. The vetch may crowd out native plants, especially in areas of disturbed soil where the vetch may dominate before other plants have a chance to take hold. This is especially a concern in prairie and other natural habitat restoration or land reclamation projects in North America.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vicia cracca (tufted vetch, cow vetch, bird vetch, blue vetch, boreal vetch), is a species of vetch native to Europe and Asia. It occurs on other continents as an introduced species, including North America, where it is a common weed. It often occurs in disturbed habitats, including old fields and roadside ditches.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974632}
{"src_title": "Brethren of the Free Spirit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The set of beliefs ascribed to the Free Spirits is first to be found in a text called the \"Compilatio de novo spiritu\" put together by Albert the Great in the 1270s, concerning a group of persons investigated in the Swabian Ries area of Germany. The themes which occur in these documents, and which would emerge again in subsequent investigations, included:  During the late thirteenth century, such concerns increasingly became applied to the various unregulated religious groups such as beguines and beghards, who had greatly increased in number in the preceding decades. Concerns over such sentiments then began to occur elsewhere, especially during the 1300s, and especially in Italy. Partly motivated by such concerns, in 1308 Pope Clement V summoned a general council, which met at Vienne from October 1311 to May 1312. In particular, it had to engage with the report from the Paris inquisition (1308–1310) into the beguine Marguerite Porete’s \"The Mirror of Simple Souls\" (Porete’s writing, which had become well read through France, had been condemned in 1310 as heresy, and Porete had been burned at the stake). It was the Council of Vienne which first associated these various beliefs with the idea of the 'Free Spirit'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fourteenth and fifteenth century.", "content": "During subsequent centuries, there was great fear of the Heresy of the Free Spirit, and many individuals and groups were accused of it. In particular, beguine and beghard groups came under suspicion.  John of Dirpheim, Bishop of Strasbourg from 1306 to 1328, was a particularly fervent opponent of heresy. Another person accused, by Bishop John's colleague Henry of Virneburg, Bishop of Cologne, was Meister Eckhart, a German Dominican, who lived during the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. In 1326, Eckhart was charged by the Pope for teaching heresy. He rigorously denied and defended against that charge until he disappeared from public life. Eckhart may have been familiar with the work of Marguerite Porete through his proximity to theologians involved in her trial, such as Berengar of Landora and William of Poitiers. More broadly, as a result of his prominence and through the statements of his used in the bull \"In agro Dominico\" he came to be recognised by the later mystical tradition as the \"father\" of the Free Spirit. This is seen particularly in the writings of Jan van Ruusbroec and his followers.  During the late fourteenth century, western Germany became a particularly important area for pursuing the heresy. An example of one person executed is the wandering preacher Nicholas of Basel, who was executed sometime between 1393 and 1397. Another known case was the execution of Löffler, who admitted adherence to the movement, in Bern. False beliefs about the annihilation of the will were virulently attacked by the late fourteenth century Theologia Deutsch.  In the early fifteenth century, Jean Gerson accused Jan van Ruusbroec of misdescribing the nature of union with God in a way that placed him in the company of the 'Free Spirit' heretics.  By the early fifteenth century, the Catholic Church in Germany viewed heresy as a serious threat. It became a leading topic for discussion at the Council of Basel in 1431. Johannes Nider, a Dominican reformer who attended the council, became concerned that beliefs of the Free Spirit heresy, and other heresies, were mixed with elements of witchcraft. In his 1434 work, \"Formicarius\", Nider combined the Free Spirit heresy with witchcraft in his condemnation of false teachings. \"Formicarius\" also became a model for \"Malleus maleficarum\", a later work by Heinrich Kramer in 1486. By the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, the Church's efforts to eradicate heresy and witchcraft resulted in heresy trials and the parallel civil authorities conducting witch burnings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similarities to other Christian beliefs.", "content": "Fears over sets of beliefs similar to the Heresy of the Free Spirit have recurred at various points in Christian history. Fears over esotericism and antinomianism, such as were detected in the Heresy of the Free Spirit, may be detected in the early Church's response to Gnosticism. Fears of suspect forms of prayer were particularly apparent in reactions to the fourth and fifth century Messalianism.  What was perhaps novel in the fears of the Heresy of the Free Spirit was the fear of the notion of personal annihilation. This was a new idea to the mystical tradition, but was also seen as the root of many of the other dangers that were perceived in mystics in the late medieval period.  Similarities may also be detected with seventeenth-century quietism.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Brethren of the Free Spirit were adherents of a loose set of beliefs deemed heretical by the Catholic Church but held (or at least believed to be held) by some Christians, especially in the Low Countries, Germany, France, Bohemia and northern Italy between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. The movement was first identified in the late thirteenth century. It was not a single movement or school of thought, and it caused great unease among Church leaders at the time. Adherents were also called Free Spirits.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974633}
{"src_title": "Alfonso II of Naples", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Naples, Alfonso was the eldest child of Ferdinand I of Naples by his first wife, Isabella of Clermont. In 1463, when Alfonso was fifteen, his maternal great uncle Giovanni Antonio del Balzo Orsini, Prince of Taranto, died, and he obtained some lands from the inheritance. When his mother died in 1465, he succeeded to her feudal claims, including the title King of Jerusalem.  Alfonso's education was at his father's humanist court. His tutor between 1468 and 1475 was the humanist Giovanni Pontano, whose \"De principe\" describes the proper virtues and manner of life becoming to a prince; the work took the form of letter of advice to the twenty-year old Alfonso, then Duke of Calabria, in 1468. Pontano dedicated a further treatise on courage, \"De fortitudine\", to Alfonso in 1481, after his victory over the Ottoman invasion of Otranto, and remained close as his personal secretary until Alfonso's abdication.  As a condottiero, Alfonso fought in the most important wars of the age, such the war following the Pazzi Conspiracy (1478–1480) and the War of Ferrara (1482–1484). Alfonso had shown himself a skilled and determined soldier, helping his father in the suppression of the conspiracy of the barons (1485) and in the defense of the Kingdom's territory against the Papal claims.  When his father died, the kingdom's finances were exhausted and the invasion of King Charles VIII of France was imminent; Charles, (instigated by Lodovico Sforza, who wished to stir up trouble to allow him to seize power in Milan), had decided to reassert the Angevin claim Naples. Charles invaded Italy in September 1494. Alfonso managed to regain the support of Pope Alexander VI, who invited Charles to devote his effort against the Turks instead. Alfonso was crowned on 8 May 1494 by the papal legate Juan de Borja Lanzol de Romaní, el mayor.  Charles, however, did not relent; by early 1495 Charles was approaching Naples, after having defeated Florence and the Neapolitan fleet under Alfonso's brother Frederick at Porto Venere. Alfonso, terrified by a series of portents, as well as unusual dreams, abdicated in favour of his son, Ferdinand II. He then fled to a Sicilian monastery. He died in Messina later that year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Renaissance culture.", "content": "Alfonso participated in the brilliant Renaissance culture that surrounded his father's court. His lasting contribution to European culture was the example set at his villas of \"La Duchesca\" and especially \"Poggio Reale\" just outside Naples, which so captivated Charles VIII of France during his brief sojourn at Naples during February–June 1495, that he was inspired to emulation of the \"earthly paradise\" he encountered.  Poggio Reale, which Giorgio Vasari said was designed by Giuliano da Maiano and which was laid out in the 1480s, has utterly disappeared and no extensive description has survived. Decades later, Vasari reported, \"At Poggio Reale [Giuliano da Maiano] laid out the architecture of that palazzo, always considered a most beautiful thing; and to fresco it he brought there Pietro del Donzello, a Florentine, and Polito his brother who was considered in that time a good master, who painted the whole palazzo, inside and out, with the history of the said king.\" There are no archives to connect Giuliano or his brother Benedetto with the project; for documentation only a section and plan, reproduced with apologies for its inaccuracy, by Sebastiano Serlio. Serlio's reproduction seems to show an idealized plan, identical on all four sides, ranged around a court with a double arcading.  It is clear that the Aragonese court at Naples introduced the Moorish garden traditions of Valencia, with its shaded avenues and baths, sophisticated hydraulics that powered splendid waterworks, formal tanks, fishponds and fountains, as a luxurious and secluded setting for court life, and combined them with Roman features: Alfonso's Poggio Reale was built around three sides of an arcaded courtyard with tiers of seating round a sunken centre that could be flooded for water spectacles; on the fourth side it opened onto a garden that framed a spectacular view of Vesuvius.  It was all unlike anything experienced by the French king, who retreated from Italy, loaded with tapestries and works of art, and filled with building and gardening ambitions, but he would die young only three years later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Alfonso's wife was Ippolita Maria Sforza, whom he married on 10 October 1465 in Milan. His mistress, by whom he also had children, was Trogia Gazzela.  He had three children with Ippolita: And two with Trogia :", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Alfonso II of Naples is portrayed by Augustus Prew in the Showtime series \"The Borgias\", although he is portrayed as much younger and flamboyant than his historical counterpart was in the 1490s. Sancia of Aragon is portrayed as his half-sister rather than his daughter. In the European series \"Borgia\" written by Tom Fontana, where he is played by Raimund Wallisch, his portrayal is historical more accurate in terms of his age and Sancia being his daughter. In \"Da Vinci's Demons\" he is played by Kieran Bew and is depicted as a sadistic warlord, bitterly jealous of Lorenzo the Magnificent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfonso II (4 November 1448 – 18 December 1495) was Duke of Calabria and ruled as King of Naples from 25 January 1494 to 23 January 1495. He was a soldier and a patron of Renaissance architecture and the arts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974634}
{"src_title": "Canal Saint-Martin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Gaspard de Chabrol, prefect of Paris, proposed building a canal from the river Ourcq, 100 km northeast of Paris, to supply the city with fresh water to support a growing population and help avoid diseases such as dysentery and cholera, while also supplying fountains and allowing the streets to be cleaned. Construction of the canal was ordered by Napoleon I in 1802 and construction took place until 1825, funded by a new tax on wine.  The canal was also used to supply Paris with grain, building materials and other goods, carried on canal boats. Two ports were created on the canal in Paris to unload the boats: Port de l'Arsenal and the Bassin de la Villette.  By the 1960s, traffic had dwindled to a trickle and the canal narrowly escaped being filled in and paved over for a highway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Route.", "content": "The entrance to the canal from the vast terminal basin (Bassin de la Villette) of the Canal de l'Ourcq is at a double lock near the Place de Stalingrad. Continuing towards the river Seine, the canal is bordered by the Quai de Valmy on the right bank and the Quai de Jemmapes on the left, passing through three more double staircase locks before disappearing under the three successive \"voûtes\" (tunnels) – du Temple, Richard-Lenoir and Bastille – to emerge in the Port de l'Arsenal, the principal port for boats visiting and residing in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Today, the canal is a popular destination for Parisians and tourists. Some take cruises on the canal in passenger boats. Others watch the barges and other boats navigate the series of locks and pass under the attractive cast-iron footbridges. There are many popular restaurants and bars along the open part of the canal, which is also popular with students.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Métro stations.", "content": "The canal can be accessed from the following Paris Métro stations: Stalingrad, République, Goncourt, (Paris Métro) Jacques Bonsergent, Jaurès.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Art The canal inspired painters such as Alfred Sisley (1839-1899). In the present day, many intricate works of graffiti are visible along the canal, and there is a large multimedia art space on its banks at the former municipal undertakers building at 104 rue d'Aubervilliers ('104').  Film and television  Music", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Canal Saint-Martin is a 4.6 km (2.86 mi) long canal in Paris, connecting the Canal de l'Ourcq to the river Seine. Over nearly half its length (2069 m), between the Rue du Faubourg du Temple and the Place de la Bastille, it was covered, in the mid-19th century, to create wide boulevards and public spaces on the surface. The canal is drained and cleaned every 10–15 years, and it is always a source of fascination for Parisians to discover curiosities and even some treasures among the hundreds of tonnes of discarded objects.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974635}
{"src_title": "Carry (investment)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Interest rates carry trade / Maturity transformation.", "content": "For instance, the traditional revenue stream from commercial banks is to borrow cheap (at the low overnight rate, i.e., the rate at which they pay depositors) and lend expensive (at the long-term rate, which is usually higher than the short-term rate).  This works with an upward-sloping yield curve, but it loses money if the curve becomes inverted. Many investment banks, such as Bear Stearns, have failed because they borrowed cheap short-term money to fund higher interest bearing long-term positions. When the long-term positions default, or the short-term interest rate rises too high (or there are simply no lenders), the bank cannot meet its short-term liabilities and goes under.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Currency.", "content": "The currency carry trade is an uncovered interest arbitrage. The term carry trade, without further modification, refers to currency carry trade: investors borrow low-yielding currencies and lend (invest in) high-yielding currencies. It is thought to correlate with global financial and exchange rate stability and retracts in use during global liquidity shortages, but the carry trade is often blamed for rapid currency value collapse and appreciation.  A risk in carry trading is that foreign exchange rates may change in such a way that the investor would have to pay back more expensive currency with less valuable currency. In theory, according to uncovered interest rate parity, carry trades should not yield a predictable profit because the difference in interest rates between two countries should equal the rate at which investors expect the low-interest-rate currency to rise against the high-interest-rate one. However, carry trades weaken the currency that is borrowed, because investors sell the borrowed money by converting it to other currencies.  By early year 2007, it was estimated that some US$1 trillion may have been staked on the yen carry trade. Since the mid-1990s, the Bank of Japan has set Japanese interest rates at very low levels making it profitable to borrow Japanese yen to fund activities in other currencies. These activities include subprime lending in the USA, and funding of emerging markets, especially BRIC countries and resource rich countries. The trade largely collapsed in 2008 particularly in regard to the yen.  The European Central Bank extended its quantitative easing programme in December 2015. Accommodative ECB monetary policy made low-yielding EUR an often used funding currency for investment in risk assets. The EUR was gaining in times of market stress (such as falls in China stocks in January 2016), although it was not a traditional safe-haven currency.  Most research on carry trade profitability was done using a large sample size of currencies. However, small retail traders have access to limited currency pairs, which are mostly composed of the major G20 currencies, and experience reductions in yields after factoring in various costs and spreads.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Known risks.", "content": "The 2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis has among its origins the undisciplined use of the carry trade. Particular attention has been focused on the use of Euro denominated loans to purchase homes and other assets within Iceland. Most of these loans defaulted when the relative value of the Icelandic currency depreciated dramatically, causing loan payment to be unaffordable.  The US dollar and the Japanese yen have been the currencies most heavily used in carry trade transactions since the 1990s. There is some substantial mathematical evidence in macroeconomics that larger economies have more immunity to the disruptive aspects of the carry trade mainly due to the sheer quantity of their existing currency compared to the limited amount used for FOREX carry trades, but the collapse of the carry trade in 2008 is often blamed within Japan for a rapid appreciation of the yen. As a currency appreciates, there is pressure to cover any debts in that currency by converting foreign assets into that currency. This cycle can have an accelerating effect on currency valuation changes. When a large swing occurs, this can cause a carry reversal. The timing of the carry reversal in 2008 contributed substantially to the credit crunch which caused the 2008 global financial crisis, though relative size of impact of the carry trade with other factors is debatable. A similar rapid appreciation of the US dollar occurred at the same time, and the carry trade is rarely discussed as a factor for this appreciation.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The carry of an asset is the return obtained from holding it (if positive), or the cost of holding it (if negative) (see also Cost of carry).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974636}
{"src_title": "Jan Švankmajer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Prague. An early influence on his later artistic development was a puppet theatre he was given for Christmas as a child. He studied at the College of Applied Arts in Prague and later in the Department of Puppetry at the Prague Academy of Performing Arts, where he befriended Juraj Herz. He contributed to Emil Radok's film \"Johanes doctor Faust\" in 1958 and then began working for Prague's Semafor Theatre where he founded the Theatre of Masks. He then moved on to the Laterna Magika multimedia theatre, where he renewed his association with Radok.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As a filmmaker.", "content": "This theatrical experience is reflected in Švankmajer's first film \"The Last Trick\", which was released in 1964. Under the influence of theoretician Vratislav Effenberger, Švankmajer moved from the mannerism of his early work to classic surrealism, first manifested in his film \"The Garden\" (1968), and joined the Czechoslovak Surrealist Group.  Švankmajer has gained a reputation over several decades for his distinctive use of stop-motion technique, and his ability to make surreal, nightmarish, and yet somehow funny pictures. Švankmajer's trademarks include very exaggerated sounds, often creating a very strange effect in all eating scenes. He often uses fast-motion sequences when people walk or interact. His movies often involve inanimate objects being brought to \"life\" through stop motion. Many of his films also include clay objects in stop motion, otherwise known as claymation. Food is a common subject and medium. Švankmajer also uses pixilation in many of his films, including Food (1992) and Conspirators of Pleasure (1996).  Stop-motion features in most of his work, though his feature films have included much more live action sequences than animation.  Many of his movies, like the short film \"Down to the Cellar\", are made from a child's perspective, while at the same time often having a truly disturbing and even aggressive nature. In 1972 the communist authorities banned him from making films, and many of his later films were suppressed. He was almost unknown in the West until the early 1980s. Writing in The New York Times, Andrew Johnston praised Švankmajer's artistry, stating \"while his films are rife with cultural and scientific allusions, his unusual imagery possesses an accessibility that feels anchored in the shared language of the subconscious, making his films equally rewarding to the culturally hyperliterate and to those who simply enjoy visual stimulation.\" Among his best known works are the feature films \"Alice\" (1988), \"Faust\" (1994), \"Conspirators of Pleasure\" (1996), \"Little Otik\" (2000) and \"Lunacy\" (2005), a surreal comic horror based on two works of Edgar Allan Poe and the life of Marquis de Sade. The two stories by Poe, \"The System of Doctor Tarr and Professor Fether\" and \"The Premature Burial\", provide \"Lunacy\" its thematic focus, whereas the life of Marquis de Sade provides the film's blasphemy. His short film \"Dimensions of Dialogue\" (1982) was selected by Terry Gilliam as one of the ten best animated films of all time. His films have been called \"as emotionally haunting as Kafka's stories.\" In 2010 he released \"Surviving Life\", a live-action and cutout animation story about a married man who meets another woman in his dreams.  His most recent release is called \"Insects\" (\"Hmyz\"). It had a projected budget of 40 million CZK, which was partially funded through an Indiegogo campaign which reached more than double its goal, and was released in January 2018. The film is based on the play \"Pictures from the Insects' Life\" by Josef and Karel Čapek, which Švankmajer describes as following: \"\"From the Life of Insects\" is a misanthropic play. My screenplay only extends this misanthropy, as man is more like an insect and this civilisation is more like an anthill. One should also remember the message in Kafka’s \"Metamorphosis\".\"  In 2000, Švankmajer received Lifetime Achievement Award at the World Festival of Animated Film - Animafest Zagreb.  On 27 July 2013 he received the Innovation & Creativity Prize by Circolino dei Films, an independent Italian cultural organization.  On 10 July 2014, he received the 2014 FIAF Award during a special ceremony of the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival.  On 27 September 2018, he received the Raymond Roussel Society Medal in recognition of his extraordinary contribution: an inspiring, unique and universal work.  He was married to Eva Švankmajerová, an internationally known surrealist painter, ceramicist, and writer until her death in October 2005. Švankmajerová collaborated on several of her husband's movies, including \"Alice\", \"Faust\", and \"Otesánek\". They had two children, Veronika (b. 1963) and Václav (b. 1975, an animator).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jan Švankmajer (; born 4 September 1934) is a Czech retired filmmaker and artist whose work spans several media. He is a self-labeled surrealist known for his animations and features, which have greatly influenced other artists such as Terry Gilliam, the Brothers Quay, and many others.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974637}
{"src_title": "Pinus contorta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are four subspecies of \"Pinus contorta\", and one of them is sometimes considered to have two varieties. The subspecies are sometimes treated at the rank of variety.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Depending on subspecies, \"Pinus contorta\" grows as an evergreen shrub or tree. The shrub form is krummholz and is approximately high. The thin and narrow-crowned tree is high and can achieve up to in diameter at chest height. The \"murrayana\" subspecies is the tallest. The crown is rounded and the top of the tree is flattened. In dense forests, the tree has a slim, conical crown. The formation of twin trees is common in some populations in British Columbia. The elastic branches stand upright or overhang and are difficult to break. The branches are covered with short shoots that are easy to remove.  The species name is \"contorta\" because of the twisted, bent pines found at coastal areas and the tree's twisted needles. \"Pinus contorta\" is occasionally known under several English names: black pine, scrub pine, and coast pine. \"P. contorta\" subsp. \"latifolia\" will hybridise with the closely related jack pine (\"Pinus banksiana\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Needles and buds.", "content": "The egg-shaped growth buds are reddish-brown and between long. They are short pointed, slightly rotated, and very resinous. Spring growth starts in beginning of April and the annual growth is completed by early July. The dark and mostly shiny needles are pointed and long and wide. The needle edge is weak to clearly serrated. The needles are in pairs on short shoots and rotated about the shoots' longitudinal axes. In Alberta above, 1 to 5 needles occur per short shoot. A population with a high proportion of three-needled short shoots occurs in the Yukon. Needles live an average of four to six years, with a maximum of 13 years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cones.", "content": "The cones are long. The cones have prickles on the scales.  Many populations of the Rocky Mountain subspecies, \"P. contorta\" subsp. \"latifolia\", have serotinous cones. This means that the cones are closed and must be exposed to high temperatures, such as from forest fires, in order to open and release their seeds. The variation in their serotiny has been correlated with wildfires and mountain pine beetle attacks. The cones of the coastal Pacific subspecies, \"P. contorta\" subsp. \"contorta\", are typically non-serotinous, and those of the inland Pacific subspecies, \"P. contorta\" subsp. \"murrayana\", are completely non-serotinous.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Pinus contorta\" is a fire-dependent species, requiring wildfires to maintain healthy populations of diverse ages. The bark of the lodgepole pine is fairly thin, minimizing the tree's defense to fire; however, the heat of fire opens the cones to release the seeds. This allows the species to regenerate and maintain its place in the forest habitat. One plant community in which \"Pinus contorta\" is found is the closed-cone pine forest of coastal California.  Excessive wildfire prevention disrupts the fire ecology. The stands are usually so densely populated that the trees self-thin, or out-compete each other, leaving dead trees standing. These become a dry ladder fuel that can accelerate the fire to the crown of living trees. When the fire reaches the crowns of the trees, it can jump from tree to tree and becomes relatively unstoppable.  The natural fire regime for this species is primarily driven by climate. The fires occur most often after years of drought. \"Pinus contorta\" occurs from the upper montane to the subalpine region. These types of forests experience a lot of moisture in the form of snow in the winter due to their altitude. The density of the tree stand also inhibits the establishment of an understory. With all of that being said, the likelihood of a surface fire occurring is rare. Thus, infrequent but severe fires dominate this species.  An example of the climate that plays a huge role in the fire regime of \"Pinus contorta\" is quite complex. There are three different oscillations that play a major role in droughts. These are the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO) and El Nino (ENSO). A combination of these oscillations being in effect (+) or not in effect (-) have a global effect on the water available to these forests. So when the AMO +, ENSO – and PDO –, there is going to be a drought and likely a severe subalpine fire. \"Suillus tomentosus\", a fungus, produces specialized structures called tuberculate ectomycorrhizae with the roots of lodgepole pine (\"Pinus contorta\" var. \"latifolia\"). These structures have been shown to be the location of concentrations of nitrogen-fixing bacteria which contribute a significant amount of nitrogen to tree growth and allow the pines to colonize nutrient-poor sites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "This species is attacked by blue stain fungus (\"Grosmannia clavigera\"), distributed by the mountain pine beetle from its mouth.  A study released in 2011 concluded that \"Pinus contorta\" could experience significant reductions in distribution due to climate change by the late 21st century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Tree plantations of \"Pinus contorta\" have been planted extensively in Norway, Sweden and UK for forestry, such as timber uses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medicinal.", "content": "The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and of California used different parts of the plant internally and externally as a traditional medicine for various ailments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Pinus contorta\" is cultivated as an ornamental tree by the horticulture industry. Plant nurseries grow \"Pinus contorta\" subsp. \"contorta\" and \"Pinus contorta\" subsp. \"murrayana\" for use in traditional and wildlife gardens, and as smaller selections of the native plant for natural landscaping. The Shore pine's (ssp. \"contorta\") smaller varieties and cultivars are also used in container gardening, including as large bonsai specimens.  Cultivars of this species include:  The cultivar \"Chief Joseph\" has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Emblem.", "content": "Lodgepole pine is the Provincial tree of Alberta, Canada.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "\"Pinus contorta\" is a serious invasive species of wilding conifer in New Zealand, along with several other western North American pine species. It is listed on the National Pest Plant Accord and is prohibited from sale, commercial propagation, and distribution.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pinus contorta, with the common names lodgepole pine and shore pine, and also known as twisted pine, and contorta pine, is a common tree in western North America. It is common near the ocean shore and in dry montane forests to the subalpine, but is rare in lowland rain forests. Like all pines (member species of the genus \"Pinus\"), it is an evergreen conifer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974638}
{"src_title": "Anne of Kiev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Anne was a daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Grand Prince of Kiev and Prince of Novgorod, and his second wife Ingegerd Olofsdotter of Sweden. Her exact birthdate is unknown; Philippe Delorme has suggested 1027, while Andrew Gregorovich has proposed 1032, citing a mention in a Kievan chronicle of the birth of a daughter to Yaroslav in that year.  Anne's exact place in the birth order of her siblings is unknown, although she was almost certainly the youngest daughter. Little is known about Anne's childhood or education. It is assumed that she was literate, at least enough to write her name, because her signature in Cyrillic exists on a document from 1061. Delorme has pointed out that Yaroslav founded a number of schools in his kingdom and suggests that education was highly valued in his family, leading him to propose a significant level of education for Anne. Gregorovich has suggested that Anne learned French in preparation for her marriage to King Henry I of France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engagement.", "content": "The negotiations for Anne's marriage to the 18-years-older King Henry took place in the late 1040s, after the death of Henry's first wife, Matilda of Frisia, and their only child. Due to the pressing need for an heir, and the Church's growing disapproval of consanguineous marriages, it became necessary for Henry to seek an unrelated bride. The Kievan Rus' were not unknown to the French. Yaroslav had married several of his children to Western rulers in an attempt to avoid the influence of the Byzantine Empire.  In the autumn of 1049 or the spring of 1050, Henry sent Bishop Gauthier of Meaux, Goscelin of Chauny, and other unnamed advisors to Yaroslav's court. It is possible that there were two diplomatic missions to the Rus at this time, with Roger of Chalons also present. No record of the marriage negotiations or the dowry arrangements survives, although Anne reportedly left Kiev with \"rich presents\". Gregorovich claims that part of the wealth she brought to France included the jacinth jewel that Abbot Suger later mounted on a reliquary of St. Denis. Anne left Kiev in the summer or fall of 1050 and traveled to Reims.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queenship.", "content": "Anne married Henry on 19 May 1051, during the feast of Pentecost. Henry was nearly twenty years older than Anne.Her wedding on 19 May 1051 followed the installation of Lietbert as bishop of Cambrai, and Anne was crowned immediately following the marriage ceremony, making her the first French queen to celebrate her coronation in Reims Cathedral.  Anne and Henry were married for nine years and had three sons: Philip, Robert (who died young), and Hugh. Anne is often credited with introducing the Greek name \"Philip\" to royal families of Western Europe, as she bestowed it on her first son; she might have imported this Greek name from her Eastern Orthodox culture. There may also have been a daughter, Emma, perhaps born in 1055; it is unknown if she married or when she died.  As queen, Anne would have had the privilege of participating in the royal council, but there are almost no records of her doing so. In one 1058 charter, Henry granted a privilege to a couple of villages associated with the monastery of Saint-Maur-des-Fossés doing so \"with the approval of my wife Anne and our children Philip, Robert, and Hugh.\" Anne seems to have possessed territories in the same region under the terms of her dower.  In 1059, King Henry began feuding with the Church over issues related to Gregorian Reform. During this time, Pope Nicholas II sent Queen Anne a letter counselling her to follow her conscience to right wrongs and intervene against oppressive violence, while also encouraging her to advocate with her husband so that he might govern with moderation. According to Delorme, some historians have interpreted this letter from the Pope as being indicative of Anne's conversion to Roman Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regency.", "content": "Upon Henry's death on 4 August 1060, Philip succeeded to the throne. Count Baldwin V of Flanders, the husband of Henry's sister Adela, was assigned to be Philip's guardian. Anne may still have played an active role in government at that point; an act from 1060 shows her name following Philip's, and her name appears in four times as many charters as Baldwin's. She also hired Philip's tutor, who was known at court by a Greek title.  Queen Anne's only existing signature dates from this period, inscribed on a document issued at Soissons for the abbot of, now held in the National Library of France. Under the symbol of the king, Anne added a cross and eight letters in Cyrillic, probably meaning \"Anna Reina\". Evidence for Anne's role in government, however, disappears in 1061, around the time she remarried. Her second husband was Count Ralph IV of Valois. This marriage was controversial because of the couple's affinity, as Ralph was Henry's cousin, and bigamy, since Ralph was still technically married to his second wife, Haquenez. Ralph was excommunicated for these transgressions. King Philip's advisers may have encouraged him to turn away from his mother, perhaps mistrusting Ralph's influence. Ralph began referring to himself as the king's stepfather in the late 1060s. He died in 1074, leaving Anne a widow once again. In 1062, Anne gave a significant amount of money to restore a dilapidated chapel at Senlis, originally dedicated to St. Vincent of Saragossa, bequeathing lands and income to the new establishment so that the organization could sustain itself. She also wrote a letter explaining her reasons for dedicating the monastery. The letter betrays an adherence to Greek Orthodox theology. For instance, the term \"Mary, mother of God\" is used rather than the more common \"Our Lady\", perhaps referring to the Eastern concept of the Theotokos. Some scholars believe that Anne did not write this letter herself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and aftermath.", "content": "The exact date of Anne's death is unknown. Delorme believes that she died on 5 September—the day commemorated at Senlis—in 1075 (the year of her last signed document), while others have proposed 1080. A \"terminus ante quem\" is provided by a 1089 document of Philip I, which indicates that Anne had died by then. In 1682, the Jesuit antiquary Claude-Francois Menestrier announced that he had discovered Anne's tomb at the Cistercian Abbey of Villiers. The discovery was subsequently disputed, as Villiers was not built until the thirteenth century, although it's possible Anne's remains had been moved there at some point following her death. Whatever monument may have been there was destroyed in the French Revolution.  In the 18th and 19th centuries, increased diplomatic contact between France and Russia led to a revived antiquarian interest in Anne, and a number of short biographies were published. In the 20th century, Anne became a symbol of Ukrainian nationalism. On the other hand, a film was produced in the Soviet Union, \"Yaroslavna, the Queen of France\" (1978), which was not related with \"Ukrainian nationalism\" in any way. An opera called \"Anna Yaroslavna\", written by Antin Rudnytsky, was first performed at Carnegie Hall in 1969. In 1998, the Ukrainian government issued a postage stamp in her honor. In 2005, the Government of Ukraine sponsored the construction of a bronze statue of Queen Anne at Senlis, which was unveiled by President Viktor Yushchenko on 22 June.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anne of Kiev (c. 1030 – 1075) was a Rus' princess who became queen of France in 1051 upon marrying King Henry I. She ruled the kingdom as regent during the minority of their son Philip I from Henry's death in 1060 until her controversial marriage to Count Ralph IV of Valois. Anne founded the Abbey of St. Vincent at Senlis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974639}
{"src_title": "Mike Bossy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bossy is the fifth son among ten children, and grew up in a family of Detroit Red Wings fans in Saint-Alphonse, in the Ahuntsic-Cartierville area of Montreal. Bossy attended St. Pius X Comprehensive High School. His mother Dorothy was English, and his father Borden, who maintained a backyard ice rink at their apartment building, was either Ukrainian or Austrian. When he was 12 years old, Bossy broke a", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early stardom.", "content": "Bossy, who had averaged 77 goals per season in junior with Laval, was passed over by twelve teams in the 1977 NHL amateur draft, including the New York Rangers and Toronto Maple Leafs, who each passed over him twice. Toronto expected him hold out for more than they wanted to pay, according to Bossy, while the Rangers opted for highly-ranked Lucien DeBlois and Ron Duguay. Other teams passed for various reasons: the Buffalo Sabres took Ric Seiling, preferring his checking ability, while the Cleveland Barons, who had the fifth overall pick, passed when Bossy's agent Pierre Lacroix gave the Barons inflated salary requirements, prompting them to select Mike Crombeen instead. Scotty Bowman, coach of the Montreal Canadiens, later regretted that", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dynasty years.", "content": "Going into the 1979-80 season, Bossy signed a new two-year contract with the Islanders worth $500,000. After finishing in first place the season before, the Islanders got off to their worst start in six years, and in early December were out of a playoff spot; the Islanders won only 6 of their first 21 games. Coach Al Arbour split up the Trio Grande by shifting Gillies, but while Bossy and Trottier still scored the bulk of the team's goals the remaining lines were ineffectual. Bossy and Trottier scored the only Islander goals in a 5-2 season-opening loss to the Philadelphia Flyers, and Bossy had both goals in their second game, another 5-2 loss, this time to Buffalo. Down 3-0 to Chicago on October 27, Arbour reunited the linemates with explosive results - Trottier recorded a hat trick, and he, Gillies and Bossy all scored in a 49-second span (an Islanders team record) in a 6-4 Islanders victory. Still, the Islanders were giving up goals faster than they could score them - in November, a run of five games in which they had yielded a cumulative 26 goals culminated in a 6-3 loss to the St. Louis Blues in which Bossy, Gillies and Trottier were the only Islanders to put the puck in the net. It took", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "As the 1983–84 NHL season got underway, Bossy had five goals in the first three games of the season, before missing six games with a hip injury. Bossy put together a 15-game point streak that ended in early December. He promptly put together a 19-game streak that lasted until mid-January. On January 15, Bossy scored his 400th career regular season goal, the fastest to hit that milestone, doing so in his 506th game, a 4-2 win against the Rangers. Bossy was named to appear the 1984 NHL All-Star Game, which would have been his sixth consecutive All-Star game, but a collision with Detroit's Dwight Foster resulted in a knee injury and Rick Middleton took his place in the starting lineup; Bossy wound up missing six games with this injury. At the end of the season, Bossy had 51 goals, for his seventh consecutive season with at least 50. Bossy was named a First Team All-Star for the fourth straight year, and again won the Lady Byng Trophy; the Lady Byng Trophy was presented to Bossy at the NHL Awards by Canadian astronaut Marc Garneau.  In the 1984 Stanley Cup playoffs, Bossy scored four times combined in the opening rounds against the Capitals and Rangers, but then equaled that total against the Canadiens, including three game-winners, as the Islanders won their record 19th straight playoff series and advanced to their fifth straight Stanley Cup final. Bossy missed game 1 of the 1984 Stanley Cup Finals, a rematch against the Oilers, with tonsillitis. When he", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "At the end of his shortened playing career, Bossy had impressive numbers. He scored 573 goals and 553 assists in only 752 games. In 129 playoff games, he had eighty-five goals and seventy-five assists. When he retired, he held the record for most goals per season average with 57.3. While he wanted to be considered a great overall player, he was best known for his impressive scoring output. In Stan Fischler's \"The All-New Hockey's 100\", Bossy says, \"About 90 percent of the time I don't aim: I just try to get my", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-playing career.", "content": "After his playing days were over, he was unable to play hockey or even work out because of his back and knees. Bossy returned to Laval with his family. He went into business with Pierre La Croix, his agent, and joined Titan, a hockey stick manufacturer, as vice-president. He was also a broadcaster for the Quebec Nordiques. By 1992, in addition to golfing and public speaking, he represented Karhu, Titan's former parent company, and CUMIS, an insurance agency, in public relations positions.  In 1993, Bossy broke into radio, and by 1994, he was part of the \"Y'e", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "At the 1985 All-Star Game, Bossy and other NHL all-stars took part in filming scenes for the music video for \"Tears Are Not Enough\", a Canadian charity single produced by David Foster, who wanted hockey players to participate as being emblematic of Canada. Bossy said of the experience that", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accomplishments.", "content": "Bossy hold several Islanders team records, including as the all-time regular season goals leader with 573. He is also the team leader in career playoff goals with 85, and holds the team single-season record for playoff goals, which he achieved in three straight playoffs starting with 1980-81.  As of 2018, Bossy holds or shares the following NHL records:  He also led the league in goals twice, in 1978-79 and 1980-81 (both predate the Rocket Richard Trophy).  Here is a selected list of other official NHL record categories where Bossy was once the record-holder and/or is ranked very highly:  Bossy has several significant career achievements that are not official NHL records. He reached 100 career goals faster (in terms of career", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Bossy met his future wife Lucie Creamer when he was 14, and she was working the snack bar at a rink where he was playing; they were married July 23, 1977. Bossy and his wife have two daughters, Josiane and Tanya, and two grandchildren.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michael Dean Bossy or, according to some sources, Michael Jean Bossy (born January 22, 1957) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player who played his entire National Hockey League (NHL) career for the New York Islanders, and was a crucial part of their four-year reign as Stanley Cup champions in the early 1980s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974640}
{"src_title": "Jičín", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The surrounding countryside was settled by Slavic tribes at the beginning of the 6th century. The town of Jičín was probably founded at the end of the 12th century, in the place of today's village of \"Staré Místo\" (i.e. Old Place), under the castle of Veliš. It was moved two km northward to its present location shortly afterward, which was better protected by the Cidlina River. The first written reference of Jičín comes from a document by the wife of King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia, Queen Guta (\"Jitka\"), dated August 1, 1293. It is believed that the town was named after her (meaning Guta's town, \"Jitčino město\" in Czech). The town was built with a regular street layout around a rectangular square and was surrounded by wooden fortifications with reinforced bastions and a trench.  Jičín was first property of the king, but during most of the 14th century and at the beginning of the 15th century it belonged to the House of Vartenberk. When the town was founded two churches were built, a wooden parish church at the southwestern corner of the square and the stone Church of St. James the Great with a cemetery at the southeastern corner. The first was rebuilt in stone into the Parish Church of St. Ignatius at the end of the 14th century.  During the 15th century Jičín changed its lords several times until it became a property of the House of (1487–1607). With the succession of Vilém Trčka in 1453, the town began to be rebuilt in stone. The fortifications were rebuilt as well, with three gates connecting the center with peripheries: the western Prague Gate (1577), the northern Holín Gate, and the eastern Valdice Gate (1568), which is the only one preserved today. After a large fire in 1572, most of the wooden houses were replaced by stone Renaissance buildings, often decorated with sgrafitoes; the parish church was rebuilt as well. In the second half of the 16th century, a small palace of the House of Trčka was built on the southern side of the square, together with a similar Hetman's house on Lesser Square (\"Malé náměstí\"). The palace was completely rebuilt by Zikmund Smiřický in 1607, but was badly damaged by a fire after an explosion.  The biggest expansion of the town started in 1621 during the Thirty Years' War, when the town became a property of the generalissimo Albrecht von Wallenstein, who made it the center of his Duchy of Friedland and minted his own coins there. Several architects worked for him, notably G. Marini, A. Spezza, G. Pieroni, and, since 1630, N. Sebregondi. He had the palace (locally known as \"Zámek\", i.e. château) and the Church of St. James rebuilt completely in the North-Italian style and connected them via a roofed footbridge. The church, intended as a seat of a never-established bishopric, has never been completed, so it lacks a spire and a cupola. The town was to be rebuilt completely into a modern town with separated representative and craftsman parts. The letter was placed into the New Town started in 1624 to the north of the central square with the Church of St. Mary de Sale and a new cemetery. Much of these plans remained unfilled due to the early death of Wallenstein in 1634, after which the town lost much of its importance. The parish Church of St. Ignatius together with the college was given to the Jesuits in 1627. The construction of a villa with a loggia (\"Libosad\") was started to the northeast of the center in 1630. There was a Baroque garden in front of it and a park around. It is connected with the town by a 1.7 km-long alley of linden trees. Near Libosad, in the current village of Valdice, a Carthusian monastery with the Church of Assumption was founded in 1627. It served as the tomb of the house of Wallenstein until 1785; today the monastery is used as a prison.  In 1710 the town became a property of the House of Trauttmansdorff, which meant the arrival of the period of High Baroque, during which many constructions were completed. Many statues and sculptures in the town today come from this period. In 1784 Jičín became the seat of a new region. During the first half of the 19th century the town spread quickly, especially eastward. Until 1918, the town was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), head of the JICIN - JIČIN district, one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Bohemia.  In the second half of the 19th century, many Neo-Renaissance houses were built. After World War II, during communist rule, many prefabricated apartment complexes sprung up around the town. LB was the latest princess of the kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — Sister cities.", "content": "Jičín is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jičín (;, \"Gitschin\" or \"Jitschin\";, \"Gitzinum\"; ) is a town in the Hradec Králové Region of the Czech Republic. It lies approximately 85 km northeast of Prague in the scenic region of the Bohemian Paradise (\"Český ráj\") under the Prachov Rocks (\"Prachovské skály\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974641}
{"src_title": "Senecio inaequidens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Senecio inaequidens\" is a perennial chamaephyte up to 1 m in height, often much ramified, with each stem ending in one or a few capitula yellow in colour, forming a loose floral display. A single plant produces 26 to 500 capitula each year, with approximately 90 florets, 74% of them developing a viable achene. The leaves are linear, entire or almost so and without petioles.  \"S. inaequidens\" exists as a diploid genotype and a tetraploid cytotype. Initially the diploid \"S. madagascarensis\" and \"S. harveianus\" were assumed to be different species; however molecular analysis showed that they only differ in cytotype.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "It is native to Southern Africa, including Lesotho, South Africa, Eswatini, Namibia, Mozambique and Botswana.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "In its native habitat \"S.inaequidens\" occurs at elevations from sea level to 2850 m in a wide range of naturally or anthropogenically disturbed habitats such as river banks, rocky slopes, heavily grazed or recently burned grasslands, and road verges. The tetraploid cytotype was only found in the uKhalhamba and Maloti mountain ranges, and this is the cytotype of \"S.inaequidens\" which was inadvertently exported to Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invasive spread.", "content": "The plant is a wide spread neophyte in Europe and an invasive species in Central Europe. It was introduced through wool imports from Southern Africa. In Europe the ports of entry were Bremen, Calais, Mazamet, and Verviers.  \"S. inaequidens\" commonly exists in ruderal habitats such as railroads, roads and motorways, vacant or disused land They can be seen on disused land as pioneer species but so far often disappear in an ecological succession. In Central Europe where \"S.inaequidens\" first spread, the plant so far seems to use previously unused ecological niches. There does not seem a clear advantage over native vegetation, except in higher altitude. In the European Alps ecologists and farmers are worried that \"S.inaequidens\" has the advantage of invading grazing fields on the alm pastures. The furthest north it was found was Norway \"S. inaequidens\" is also present in Korea and Taiwan.  In South America and Australia the diploid variant \"S.madagascariensis\" is highly invasive.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "\"Senecio inaequidens\" contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids having hepatotoxic properties that are poisonous to mammals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Senecio inaequidens, known as narrow-leaved ragwort and South African ragwort, is a species of flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974642}
{"src_title": "Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Before the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) was created and implemented, there were many different regulations on hazard classification in use in different countries, resulting in multiple standards, classifications and labels for the same hazard. Given the $1.7 trillion per year international trade in chemicals requiring hazard classification, the cost of compliance with multiple systems of classification and labeling is significant. Developing a worldwide standard accepted as an alternative to local and regional systems presented an opportunity to reduce cost and improve compliance.  The GHS development began at the 1992 Rio Conference on Environment and Development by the United Nations also called Earth Summit (1992) when the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), various governments and other stakeholders agreed that \"A globally harmonized hazard classification and compatible labelling system, including material safety data sheets and easily understandable symbols, should be available if feasible, by the year 2000\".  The universal standard for all countries was to replace all the diverse classification systems; however, it is not a compulsory provision of any treaty. The GHS provides a common infrastructure for participating countries to use when implementing a hazard classification and Hazard Communication Standard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hazard classification.", "content": "The GHS classification system is a complex system with data obtained from tests, literature, and practical experience.  The main elements of the hazard classification criteria are summarized below:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical hazards.", "content": "Substances or articles are assigned to 8 different hazard classes largely based on the United Nations Dangerous Goods System. Additions and changes have been necessary since the scope of the GHS includes all target audiences.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Substitute substances.", "content": "Sometimes companies are able to replace hazardous substances with substances featuring a reduced health risk. As an assistance to assess possible substitute substances, the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance (IFA) has developed the Column Model. On the basis of just a small amount of information on a product, substitute substances can be evaluated with the support of this table. The current version from 2020 already includes the amendments of the 12th CLP Adaptation Regulation 2019/521.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classification of mixtures.", "content": "The GHS approach to the classification of mixtures for health and environmental hazards is also complex. It uses a tiered approach and is dependent upon the amount of information available for the mixture itself and for its components. Principles that have been developed for the classification of mixtures, drawing on existing systems such as the European Union (EU) system for classification of preparations laid down in Directive 1999/45/EC. The process for the classification of mixtures is based on the following steps:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Testing requirements.", "content": "The GHS document does not include testing requirements for substances or mixtures. In fact, one of the main goals of the GHS is to reduce the need for animal testing. The GHS criteria for determining health and environmental hazards are test method neutral, allowing different approaches as long as they are scientifically sound and validated according to international procedures and criteria already referred to in existing systems. Test data already generated for the classification of chemicals under existing systems should be accepted when classifying these chemicals under the GHS, thereby avoiding duplicative testing and the unnecessary use of test animals. The GHS physical hazard criteria are linked to specific UN test methods. It is assumed that mixtures will be tested for physical hazards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hazard communication.", "content": "Per GHS, hazards need to be communicated:  Comprehensibility is challenging for a single culture and language, so global harmonization is complex. The GHS Purple Book includes a comprehensibility-testing instrument in Annex 6. Factors that were considered in developing the GHS communication tools include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "GHS label elements.", "content": "The standardized label elements included in the GHS are:  The additional label elements included in the GHS are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "GHS label format.", "content": "The GHS includes directions for application of the hazard communication elements on the label. In particular, it specifies for each hazard, and for each class within the hazard, what signal word, pictogram, and hazard statement should be used. The GHS hazard pictograms, signal words and hazard statements should be located together on the label. The actual label format or layout is not specified in the GHS. National authorities may choose to specify where information should appear on the label or allow supplier discretion. There has been discussion about the size of GHS pictograms and that a GHS pictogram might be confused with a transport pictogram or \"diamond\". Transport pictograms are different in appearance than the GHS pictograms. Annex 7 of the Purple Book explains how the GHS pictograms are expected to be proportional to the size of the label text so that generally the GHS pictograms would be smaller than the transport pictograms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Safety data sheet.", "content": "The safety data sheet or SDS (The GHS dropped the word \"material\" from material safety data sheet in its final revisions) is specifically aimed at use in the workplace. It should provide comprehensive information about the chemical product that allows employers and workers to obtain concise, relevant and accurate information in perspective to the hazards, uses and risk management of the chemical product in the workplace. While there were some differences in existing industry recommendations and country specific requirements, there was agreement on a 16 section SDS to include the following headings in the order specified:  The primary difference between the GHS and the international industry recommendations is that sections 2 and 3 have been reversed in order. The GHS SDS headings, sequence and content are similar to the ISO, European Union and ANSI MSDS/SDS requirements. The SDS should provide a clear description of the data used to identify the hazards. A table comparing the content and format of a MSDS/SDS versus the GHS SDS is provided in Appendix A of the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) GHS guidance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Training.", "content": "Current training procedures for Hazard Communication in the United States are more detailed than the GHS training recommendations. Educating employees on the updated chemical and product classifications and related pictograms, signal words, hazard statements and precautionary measures at the level of detail by the national authority represents the greatest training challenge. Training will be a key component of the overall GHS approach and should incorporate information as it is introduced into the workplace. Employees and emergency responders will need to be trained on all new program elements, from hazard statements to pictograms. Bear in mind, if the importation of products using only GHS labeling is permitted prior to its adoption in the United States and Canada, employers may need to begin employee training earlier than expected.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "The United Nations goal was broad international adoption, and as of 2017, GHS has been adopted to varying degrees in nearly all major countries. GHS adoption by country:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is an internationally agreed-upon standard managed by the United Nations that was set up to replace the assortment of hazardous material classification and labelling schemes previously used around the world. Core elements of the GHS include standardized hazard testing criteria, universal warning pictograms, and harmonized safety data sheets which provide users of dangerous goods with a host of information. The system acts as a complement to the UN Numbered system of regulated hazardous material transport. Implementation is managed through the UN Secretariat. Although adoption has taken time, as of 2017, the system has been enacted to significant extents in most major countries of the world. This includes the European Union, which has implemented the United Nations' GHS into EU law as the CLP Regulation, and United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974643}
{"src_title": "Schwules Museum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The museum was first located at Mehringdamm 61 in Kreuzberg when it was founded in 1985, and since the summer of 2013, it has been located in a former printing factory at Lützowstraße 73 in Berlin-Mitte, more than doubling its exhibition space.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History and mission.", "content": "The impetus for the founding of the Schwules Museum was a successful exhibition on gay topics at the Berlin Märkisches Museum in summer 1984, called \"\"Eldorado - Homosexual Women and Men in Berlin 1850-1950\"\". It was the first public exhibition shown in Germany of recent research on gay life. In 1985 the \"Verein der Freunde eines Schwulen Museums in Berlin e.V.\" (Society of Friends of a Gay Museum in Berlin) was founded and opened its own museum dedicated exclusively to LGBTQ+ topics at Mehringdamm 61 in the district of Kreuzberg. The building acquired the nickname \"Homo-Hof\" (\"the gay courtyard\") because it also housed the gay nightclub \"SchwuZ\", a gay-friendly café and the, a support group which campaigns for LGBTQ+ rights.  In December 2009, the museum received its first allocation of public money, a two-year grant from the cultural funds of the Berlin Senate. This was used to broaden its focus to encompass other minority sexual identities besides male homosexuality, mainly to put more emphasis on lesbian and transgender people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibitions.", "content": "The museum shows several temporary exhibitions every year. These include historical exhibitions illuminating particular periods or historical developments, such as:  From December 2004 to May 2013, there was a permanent exhibition called \"Selbstbewusstsein und Beharrlichkeit. 200 Jahre schwule Geschichte\" (\"Self-Awareness and Endurance: 200 Years of Gay History\"). It covers period 1790 to 1990, showing how gay people met up with each other and organised networks, and depicted the strategies, options and problems of gay people in seeking to live a self-determined life. In association with this theme, the social and legal background was presented, such as the anti-gay Paragraph 175 of the German penal code; the associated marginalisation, persecution and criminalisation of homosexuality; as well as the successes of LGBT social movements.  The museum also holds series of exhibitions on individuals, groups and organisations, such as Der Kreis (\"The Circle\") and \"Gesellschaft für Reform des Sexualrechts\" (\"Society for the Reform of Sexual Law\"). A continuing series of homages to LGBT people in public life has included Oscar Wilde, Marlene Dietrich, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Michel Foucault and Thomas Mann.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Schwules Museum (English: Gay Museum) in Berlin, Germany is a museum and research centre with collections focusing on LGBTQ+ history and culture. It opened in 1985 and it was the first museum in the world dedicated to gay history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974644}
{"src_title": "Rusalka (opera)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition history.", "content": "Kvapil's libretto, based on Erben's and Božena Němcová's work, was written before he had any contact with the composer. The plot contains elements which also appear in \"The Little Mermaid\" by Hans Christian Andersen and in \"Undine\" by Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, and has been described as a \"sad, modern fairy tale\", in a similar vein to his previous play, \"Princessa Pampeliška\". The libretto was completed by 1899, when Kvapil began looking for composers interested in setting his text to music. His composer friends were engaged with other works, but mentioned that Dvořák was looking for a project. The composer, always interested in Erben's stories, read the libretto and composed his opera quite rapidly, with the first draft begun on 22 April 1900 and completed by the end of November. Coming after his four symphonic poems inspired by the folk-ballads of Erben of 1896–97, \"Rusalka\" may be viewed as the culmination of Dvořák's exploration of a \"wide variety of drama-creating musical techniques\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance history.", "content": "\"Rusalka\" was first performed in Prague on 31 March 1901, with Růžena Maturová as the first Rusalka. It became an enormous success in Czech lands, and soon gained success also abroad.  The first performance outside Bohemia took place in Ljubljana. The opera was given in Vienna by a Czech company in 1910; in German translation it was given in Stuttgart in 1935. The UK stage premiere was at Sadler's Wells Theatre in 1959; a 1983 production by English National Opera was filmed and revived several times.  The United States premiere of the opera was presented by the San Diego Opera in 1975 with Kathryn Bouleyn in the title role. \"Rusalka\" was first performed in New York at the Metropolitan Opera in 1993, a production from the Vienna State Opera, directed by Otto Schenk, with Gabriela Beňačková and Neil Rosenshein.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act 1.", "content": "\"A meadow by the edge of a lake\"  Three wood-sprites tease the Water-Gnome, ruler of the lake. Rusalka, the Water-Nymph, tells her father she has fallen in love with a human Prince who comes to hunt around the lake, and she wants to become human to embrace him. He tells her it is a bad idea, but nonetheless steers her to a witch, Ježibaba, for assistance. Rusalka sings her \"Song to the Moon\", asking it to tell the Prince of her love. Ježibaba tells Rusalka that, if she becomes human, she will lose the power of speech and immortality; moreover, if she does not find love with the Prince, he will die and she will be eternally damned. Rusalka agrees to the terms and drinks a potion. The Prince, hunting a white doe, finds Rusalka, embraces her, and leads her away, as her father and sisters lament.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 2.", "content": "\"The garden of the Prince's castle\"  A Gamekeeper and his nephew, the Kitchen-Boy, note that the Prince is to be married to a mute and nameless bride. They suspect witchcraft and doubt it will last, as the Prince is already lavishing attentions on a Foreign Princess who is a wedding guest. The Foreign Princess, jealous, curses the couple. The prince rejects Rusalka. Rusalka then goes back to the lake with her father the Water-Gnome. Though she has now won the Prince's affections, the Foreign Princess is disgusted by the Prince's fickleness and betrayal and she scorns him, telling him to follow his rejected bride to Hell.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 3.", "content": "\"A meadow by the edge of a lake\"  Rusalka asks Ježibaba for a solution to her woes and is told she can save herself if she kills the Prince with the dagger she is given. Rusalka rejects this, throwing the dagger into the lake. Rusalka becomes a \"bludička\", a spirit of death living in the depths of the lake, emerging only to lure humans to their deaths. The Gamekeeper and the Kitchen Boy consult Ježibaba about the Prince, who, they say, has been betrayed by Rusalka. The Water-Goblin says that it was actually the Prince that betrayed Rusalka. The wood-sprites mourn Rusalka's plight. The Prince, searching for his white doe, comes to the lake, senses Rusalka, and calls for her. He asks her to kiss him, even knowing her kiss means death and damnation. They kiss and he dies; and the Water-Goblin comments that \"All sacrifices are futile.\" Rusalka thanks the Prince for letting her experience human love, commends his soul to God, and returns to her place in the depths of the lake as a demon of death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Instrumentation.", "content": "Rusalka is scored for 2 flutes, 1 piccolo, 2 oboes, 1 English horn, 2 clarinets, 1 bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, 1 tuba, percussion, harp and strings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Dvořák's music is generally through-composed, and uses motifs for Rusalka, her damnation, the water sprite and the forest. His word-setting is expressive while allowing for nationally inflected passages, and \"Grove\" judges that the work shows the composer at the height of his maturity. He uses established theatrical devices – dance sections, comedy (Gamekeeper and Turnspit) and pictorial musical depiction of nature (forest and lake). Rodney Milnes (who provided the translation for an ENO production) admired the \"wealth of melodic patterns that are dramatic in themselves and its shimmering orchestration\". One writer considered the final section of the opera – the duet for the Prince and Rusalka – as \"[twelve] or so of the most glorious minutes in all opera\" in their \"majestic, almost hymnic solemnity\" while another described the opera as a \"vivid, profoundly disturbing drama\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rusalka (), Op. 114, is an opera ('lyric fairy tale') by Antonín Dvořák. The Czech libretto was written by the poet Jaroslav Kvapil (1868–1950) based on the fairy tales of Karel Jaromír Erben and Božena Němcová. A rusalka is a water sprite from Slavic mythology, usually inhabiting a lake or river. \"Rusalka\" was the ninth opera Dvořák composed. It is one of the most successful Czech operas, and represents a cornerstone of the repertoire of Czech opera houses.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974645}
{"src_title": "William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Lord Titchfield was the eldest son of William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland and Margaret Cavendish-Harley and inherited many lands from his mother and his maternal grandmother. He was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "On 8 November 1766, Portland married Lady Dorothy Cavendish, a daughter of William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire and Charlotte Boyle. They were parents of six children:  Through his son Charles, Portland is a great-great-great-grandfather of Queen Elizabeth II (see ancestry of Elizabeth II).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political and public offices.", "content": "Portland was elected to sit in the Parliament for Weobley in 1761 before entering the Lords when he succeeded his father as Duke of Portland the next year. He was associated with the aristocratic Whig party of Lord Rockingham and served as Lord Chamberlain of the Household in Rockingham's first Government (1765–1766)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.", "content": "Portland served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in Rockingham's second ministry (April–August 1782). He faced strong demands for conciliatory measures following years of coercion and taxation brought about by the British government's engagement in the American War of Independence. Portland resolved to make concessions and, overcoming the resistance of Lord Shelburne, the Home Secretary to whom he reported, convinced Parliament to repeal the Declaratory Act and modify Poynings' Law. Following Rockingham's death, Portland resigned from Lord Shelburne's ministry along with other supporters of Charles James Fox.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "First premiership.", "content": "In April 1783, Portland was brought forward as titular head of a coalition government as Prime Minister, whose real leaders were Charles James Fox and Lord North. He served as First Lord of the Treasury in this ministry until its fall in December of the same year. During his tenure the Treaty of Paris was signed formally ending the American Revolutionary War. The government was brought down after losing a vote in the House of Lords on its proposed reform of the East India Company after George III had let it be known that any peer voting for this measure would be considered his personal enemy.  In 1789, Portland became one of several vice presidents of London's Foundling Hospital. This charity had become one of the most fashionable of the time, with several notables serving on its board. At its creation, fifty years earlier, Portland's father, William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland, had been one of the founding governors, listed on the charity's royal charter granted by George II. The hospital's mission was to care for the abandoned children in London; and it achieved rapid fame through its poignant mission, its art collection donated from supporting artists, and popular benefit concerts put on by George Frideric Handel. In 1793, Portland took over the presidency of the charity from Lord North.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Home secretary.", "content": "Along with many conservative Whigs such as Edmund Burke, Portland was deeply uncomfortable with the French Revolution and broke with Fox over this issue, joining Pitt's government as Home Secretary in 1794. In this role he oversaw the administration of patronage and financial inducements, often secret, to secure the passage of the 1800 Act of Union. He continued to serve in the cabinet until Pitt's death in 1806—from 1801 to 1805 as Lord President of the Council and then as a Minister without Portfolio.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Second premiership.", "content": "In March 1807, after the collapse of the Ministry of all the Talents, Pitt's supporters returned to power; and Portland was, once again, an acceptable figurehead for a fractious group of ministers that included George Canning, Lord Castlereagh, Lord Hawkesbury, and Spencer Perceval.  Portland's second government saw the United Kingdom's complete isolation on the continent but also the beginning of recovery, with the start of the Peninsular War. In late 1809, with Portland's health poor and the ministry rocked by the scandalous duel between Canning and Castlereagh, Portland resigned, dying shortly thereafter.  He was Recorder of Nottingham until his death in 1809.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Death and burial.", "content": "The 3rd Duke of Portland died on 30 October 1809 at Burlington House, Piccadilly, after an operation for the stone and was buried at St Marylebone Parish Church, London.  He had lived expensively: with an income of £17,000 a year (worth £577,000 in 2005), he had debts at his death computed at £52,000 (£1.76 million in 2005), which were paid off by his succeeding son selling off some property including Bulstrode.  Along with Sir Robert Peel, Lord Aberdeen, Benjamin Disraeli, William Ewart Gladstone, Marquess of Salisbury, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Bonar Law, and Neville Chamberlain, he is one of nine British prime ministers to die while his direct successor was in office, and the first to do so.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Portland Vase of Roman glass was given its name due to its having been owned by Portland at his family residence at Bulstrode Park.  Portland parish in Jamaica was named after the 3rd Duke of Portland. The Titchfield School, founded in 1786, also in the parish is also named in his honour. The school's crest is derived from the Earl of Portland's personal crest.  Two major streets in Marylebone are named after the 3rd Duke of Portland: Portland Place and Great Portland Street. Both were built on land he once owned.  North Bentinck Arm and South Bentinck Arm were named for the Bentinck family by George Vancouver in 1793, along with other names on the British Columbia Coast such as Portland Canal and Portland Channel.  The department of Manuscripts and Special Collections, The University of Nottingham holds a number of papers relating to the 3rd Duke: the 3rd Duke's personal and political papers (Pw F) are part of the Portland (Welbeck) Collection; and the Portland (London) Collection (Pl) contains correspondence and official papers of the 3rd Duke, especially in series Pl C.  The Portland Estate Papers held at Nottinghamshire Archives also contain items relating to the 3rd Duke's properties.  The Portland Collection of fine and decorative art includes pieces owned and commissioned by the 3rd Duke, including paintings by George Stubbs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William Henry Cavendish Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, (14 April 1738 – 30 October 1809) was a British Whig and Tory politician during the late Georgian era. He served as Chancellor of the University of Oxford (1792–1809) and twice as the Prime Minister, of Great Britain (1783) and then of the United Kingdom (1807–09). The twenty-four years between his two terms as Prime Minister is the longest gap between terms of office of any British Prime Minister.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974646}
{"src_title": "Peter Lindbergh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Lindbergh was born on 23 November 1944 in Lissa (Leszno), Reichsgau Wartheland, German-occupied Poland. He spent his childhood in Duisburg.  As a teenager, he worked as window dresser for the Karstadt and Horten department stores in Duisburg. Coming from a part of Germany close to the Dutch border, North Rhine-Westphalia, he spent summer holidays with his family in the Netherlands on the coast near Noordwijk. The vast beaches and the industrial settings of his hometown Duisburg, influenced his work strongly over the years. In the early 1960s, he moved to Lucerne and months later to Berlin where he enrolled in the Berlin Academy of Fine Arts. He hitchhiked to Arles in the footsteps of his idol, Vincent van Gogh. Lindbergh recalled these years: \"I preferred actively seeking out van Gogh’s inspirations, my idol, rather than painting the mandatory portraits and landscapes taught in art schools\". After several months in Arles, he continued through to Spain and Morocco, a journey which took him two years.  Returning to Germany, he studied abstract art at the Kunsthochschule (College of Art) in Krefeld, North Rhine-Westphalia, with Günther C. Kirchberger. Influenced by Joseph Kosuth and the conceptual art movement, he was invited in 1969, before graduating, to present his work at the avant-garde Galerie Denise René. These works were exhibited in the \"Objets ludiques\" exhibition at the Tinguely Museum in Basel in 2014. After moving to Düsseldorf in 1971, he turned his attention to photography and worked for two years assisting German photographer Hans Lux, before opening his own studio in 1973. Becoming well known in his native country, he joined the \"Stern\" magazine family along with photographers Helmut Newton, Guy Bourdin and Hans Feurer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photography.", "content": "In 2014 Lindbergh said: \"This should be the responsibility of photographers today to free women, and finally everyone, from the terror of youth and perfection.\" In 2016, Lindbergh declared that \"A fashion photographer should contribute to defining the image of the contemporary woman or man in their time, to reflect a certain social or human reality. How surrealistic is today’s commercial agenda to retouch all signs of life and of experience, to retouch the very personal truth of the face itself?\"  The journalist Suzy Menkes wrote that \"Refusing to bow to glossy perfection is Peter Lindbergh's trademark – the essence of the images that look into each person's unvarnished soul, however familiar or famous the sitter\".  In 1989, Linda Evangelista, Naomi Campbell, Tatjana Patitz, Cindy Crawford, and Christy Turlington, young models then, were photographed together for the first time by him for the January 1990 British Vogue cover. This has been credited as the start of the era of supermodels. His cover inspired singer George Michael to cast his models in the video for his song \"Freedom '90\". Around the same time, Italian fashion designer Gianni Versace featured the new supermodels who had been featured two years earlier in Lindbergh's photographs, for his Fall–Winter 1991 fashion show. In a 2008 interview with art historian Charlotte Cotton, he explained:  Using black-and-white photography was really important to creating the supermodel. Every time I tried to shoot them in colour, because their beauty was close to perfection, it ended up looking like a bad cosmetics advert. With black and white, you can really see who they are. It toned down the commercial interpretation that colour gives. What’s so striking about black and white is how it really helps a sense of reality to come through.  Lindbergh's first book, \"10 Women\" (1996) had sold more than 100,000 copies as of 2008.  He twice photographed the Pirelli calendar, in 1996 and 2002. The latter, which used actresses instead of models for the first time, was shot on the back lot of Paramount Studios, and was described by art critic Germaine Greer as \"Pirelli's most challenging calendar yet.\" Lindbergh was the first photographer in the fifty-year history of the Pirelli calendar to be invited to photograph it for a third time (for the 2017 edition).  Lindbergh collaborated on two complete issues of \"Vogue\" photographed by him and his assistant, Jethro Gaines of J.Gaines Studio, one celebrating Vogue Germany 30th anniversary in October 2009, and the other for Vogue Spain in December 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Films.", "content": "Lindbergh directed a number of films and documentaries.  \"Models, The Film\" (1991) was shot in New York and starred Linda Evangelista, Tatjana Patitz, Naomi Campbell, Cindy Crawford and Stephanie Seymour.  \"Inner Voices\" (1999) was a drama documentary examining self-expression in Lee Strasberg method acting. It won the Best Documentary Award at the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) in 2000.  \"Pina Bausch, Der Fensterputzer\" (2002) was an experimental film about his friend Pina Bausch.  \"Everywhere at Once\" (2008) was directed by Lindbergh and Holly Fisher. Narrated by Jeanne Moreau, the film consists of refilmed Lindbergh photographs, many of them unpublished, interwoven with excerpts from Tony Richardson's film \"Mademoiselle\". It had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival in New York in 2008, after the Avant-premiere at the Cannes Film Festival in 2007.  \"Peter Lindbergh — Women’s Stories\" (2019) was directed by Jean-Michel Vecchiet. It is a documentary film about Lindbergh's life and also features his first wife, Astrid Lindbergh.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Lindbergh photographed the movie poster for Tony Scott's movie \"The Hunger\" (1983) featuring David Bowie, Susan Sarandon and Catherine Deneuve, and the album cover for the soundtrack, Pedro Almodóvar's movie poster for \"Talk To Her\" (2002) and also Charlotte Rampling's documentary \"The Look\" (2011).  Lindbergh photographed many music record covers, among them Jane Birkin's single \"Quoi\" (1985); Tina Turner's single \"Foreign Affair\" (1990) and album \"Foreign Affair\" (1989), and the videoclip for Turner's single \"Missing You\". Lindbergh shot covers for Sheryl Crow's \"The Globe Sessions\" (1998) and Beyoncé's album \"I Am... Sasha Fierce\" (2008). He directed the videoclip for Lionel Ritchie's single \"The Last Party\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Lindbergh divorced his first wife Astrid, who appeared with him in the documentary \"Peter Lindbergh — Women’s Stories\". He later married Petra Sedlaczek. Lindbergh had four sons, Benjamin, Jérémy, Simon, Joseph and seven grandchildren.  He died on 3 September 2019 in Paris, at age 74. A funeral mass was held at Saint-Sulpice church in Paris; among the guests were Carla Bruni, Charlotte Rampling, Anna Wintour, Kate Moss, Naomi Campbell, Julianne Moore, Salma Hayek and Francois-Henri Pinault.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Lindbergh (born Peter Brodbeck; 23 November 1944 – 3 September 2019) was a German fashion photographer and film director.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974647}
{"src_title": "The Running Man (novel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 2025, the world's economy is in shambles and America has become a totalitarian dystopia. 28-year-old Ben Richards, an impoverished resident of the fictional Co-Op City, is unable to find work, having been blacklisted from his trade. His gravely ill daughter Cathy needs medicine, and his wife Sheila has resorted to prostitution to bring in money for the family. In desperation, Richards turns to the Games Network, a government-operated television station that runs violent game shows. After rigorous physical and mental testing, Richards is selected to appear on \"The Running Man\", the Network's most popular, lucrative, and dangerous program. He meets with Dan Killian, the executive producer of the program, who describes the challenges he will face once the game begins. He also meets Fred Victor, the director of the show, and Bobby Thompson, the emcee and host.  The contestant is declared an enemy of the state and released with a 12-hour head start before the Hunters, an elite team of Network-employed hitmen, are sent out to kill him. The contestant earns $100 per hour that he stays alive and avoids capture, an additional $100 for each law enforcement officer or Hunter he kills, and a grand prize of $1 billion if he survives for 30 days. Viewers can receive cash rewards for informing the Network of the runner's whereabouts. The runner is given $4,800 and a pocket video camera before he leaves the studio. He can travel anywhere in the world, and each day he must videotape two messages and mail them back to the studio for broadcasting. If he neglects to send the messages, he will be held in default of his Games contract and stop accumulating prize money, but will continue to be hunted indefinitely. Killian states that no contestant has survived long enough to claim the grand prize, nor does he expect anyone to ever do so. Richards simply hopes that he will last long enough to secure his family's future with his prize money.  As the game begins, Richards obtains a disguise and false identification records, traveling first to New York City and then Boston. In Boston, he is tracked down by the Hunters and only narrowly escapes, setting off an explosion in the basement of a YMCA building that kills five police officers. He sneaks away through a sewer pipe and emerges in the city's impoverished ghetto, where he takes shelter with gang member Bradley Throckmorton and his family. Richards learns from Bradley that the air is severely polluted and that the city's poor have become a permanent underclass. Bradley also says that the Network exists only as a propaganda machine to pacify and distract the public. Richards tries to incorporate this information into his video messages, but finds that the Network dubs over his voice with obscenities and threats during the broadcast.  Bradley smuggles Richards past a government checkpoint to Manchester, New Hampshire, where he disguises himself as a half-blind priest. In addition, Bradley provides Richards with a set of mailing labels for his videotapes that will leave the Network unable to track him by their postmarks. While spending three days in Manchester, Richards learns that another contestant has been killed, and he dreams that Bradley has betrayed him after being tortured. He travels to a safe house owned by a friend of Bradley in Portland, Maine, but is reported by the owner's mother. As the police and the Hunters close in on the safe house, Richards is wounded, but manages to escape and spends the night sleeping at an abandoned construction site. The next morning, after arranging to mail his videotapes, Richards carjacks a woman named Amelia Williams and takes her hostage. Alerting the media to his presence, he makes his way to an airport in Derry. The police confront Richards, but he bluffs his way onto a plane past both them and the lead Hunter, Evan McCone, by pretending to be carrying an explosive charge powerful enough to destroy the entire facility. By this time, Richards has broken the \"Running Man\" survival record of eight days and five hours.  Richards takes McCone and Amelia as hostages and has the plane fly low over populated areas to avoid being shot down by a surface-to-air missile. However, Killian calls Richards aboard the plane and reveals that he knows Richards has no explosives, as the plane's security system would have detected them. To Richards' surprise, Killian offers him a chance to replace McCone as lead Hunter. Richards is hesitant to take the offer, worried that his family will become a target. Killian then informs him that Sheila and Cathy were murdered over ten days earlier, before Richards even first appeared on the show, and gives him some time to make his decision. Richards falls asleep and dreams of his murdered family and a gruesome crime scene. With nothing left to lose, he calls Killian back and accepts the offer. He kills the flight crew and McCone, but suffers a mortal gunshot wound from the latter. Richards allows Amelia to jump off the plane with a parachute, then uses his last strength to override the autopilot and fly toward the skyscraper serving as the headquarters of the Games Network.  The book ends with the plane crashing into the tower, resulting in the deaths of Richards and Killian. The novel closes with the description, \"The explosion was tremendous, lighting up the night like the wrath of God, and it rained fire twenty blocks away.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Richard Bachman.", "content": "\"The Running Man\" is the last of four books written by King that were published between 1977 and 1982 under the name Richard Bachman, which were reissued in one volume as \"The Bachman Books\" (1985). The others are \"Rage\" (1977), \"The Long Walk\" (1979), and \"Roadwork\" (1981). King created \"Richard Bachman\" to be his long-term alias, not just a temporary writing identity, but the author's real identity was leaked to the media shortly after the publication of the fifth Bachman novel, \"Thinner\" (1984).  Although Bachman is now known to be King, King has revived the Bachman pen-name for two further novels: \"The Regulators\" (1996) and \"Blaze\" (2007). King also based \"The Dark Half\", a horror novel published in 1989, on the outing of Bachman.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Writing the book.", "content": "According to King's 2002 memoir \"\", he wrote \"The Running Man\" within a single week, compared to his normal 2,000-word or ten-page daily output—so that writing a novel normally takes approximately three months. In \"The Importance of Being Bachman\", a new introduction to the 1996 edition of \"The Bachman Books\", King describes \"The Running Man\" as \"a book written by a young man who was angry, energetic, and infatuated with the art and the craft of writing.\"  In the same introduction King describes Ben Richards as \"scrawny\" and \"pre-tubercular\". He observes that Arnold Schwarzenegger, who played Ben Richards in the film adaptation of \"The Running Man\", portrayed the character very differently than he wrote about him in the book, saying that Richards (in the book) was \"as far away from the Arnold Schwarzenegger character in the movie as you can get.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Running Man is a science fiction thriller novel by American writer Stephen King, first published under the pseudonym Richard Bachman in 1982 as a paperback original. It was collected in 1985 in the omnibus \"The Bachman Books\". The novel is set in a dystopian United States during the year 2025, in which the nation's economy is in ruins and world violence is rising.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974648}
{"src_title": "Jean Meslier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Jean Meslier was born in Mazerny in the Ardennes. He began learning Latin from a neighbourhood priest in 1678 and eventually joined the seminary; he later claimed, in the Author's Preface to his \"Testament\", this was done to please his parents. At the end of his studies, he took Holy Orders and, on 7 January 1689, became priest at Étrépigny, in Champagne.  One public disagreement with a local nobleman aside, Meslier was to all appearances generally unremarkable, and he performed his office without complaint or problem for 40 years. He lived like a pauper, and every penny left over was donated to the poor.  When Meslier died in Étrépigny, there were found in his house three copies of a 633-page octavo manuscript in which the village curate denounces organised religion as \"but a castle in the air\" and theology as \"but ignorance of natural causes reduced to a system\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thought.", "content": "In his \"Testament\", Meslier repudiated not only the God of conventional Christianity, but even the generic God of the natural religion of the deists. For Meslier, the existence of evil was incompatible with the idea of a good and wise God. He denied that any spiritual value could be gained from suffering, and he used the deist's argument from design against god, by showing the evils that he had permitted in this world. To him, religions were fabrications fostered by ruling elites; although the earliest Christians had been exemplary in sharing their goods, Christianity had long since degenerated into encouraging the acceptance of suffering and submission to tyranny as practised by the kings of France: injustice was explained away as being the will of an all-wise Being. None of the arguments used by Meslier against the existence of God were original. In fact, he derived them from books written by orthodox theologians in the debate between the Jesuits, Cartesians, and Jansenists. Their inability to agree on a proof for God's existence was taken by Meslier as a good reason not to presume that there were compelling grounds for belief in God.  Meslier's philosophy was that of an atheist. He also denied the existence of the soul and dismissed the notion of free will. In Chapter V, the priest writes, \"If God is incomprehensible to man, it would seem rational never to think of Him at all\". Meslier later describes God as \"a chimera\" and argues that the supposition of God is not prerequisite to morality. In fact, he concludes that \"Whether there exists a God or not [...] men's moral duties will always be the same so long as they possess their own nature\".  In his most famous quote, Meslier refers to a man who \"wished that all the great men in the world and all the nobility could be hanged, and strangled with the guts of the priests.\" Meslier admits that the statement may seem crude and shocking, but comments that this is what the priests and nobility deserve, not for reasons of revenge or hatred, but for love of justice and truth.  Equally well-known is the version by Diderot: \"And [with] the guts of the last priest let's strangle the neck of the last king.\" During the political unrest of May 1968, the radical students of the Sorbonne Occupation Committee paraphrased Meslier's epigram, stating that \"humanity won’t be happy till the last capitalist is hung with the guts of the last bureaucrat.\" Meslier also vehemently attacked social injustice and sketched out a kind of rural proto-communism. All the people in a region would belong to a commune in which wealth would be held in common, and everybody would work. Founded on love and brotherhood, the communes would ally to help each other and preserve peace.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Voltaire's \"Extrait\".", "content": "Various edited abstracts (known as \"extraits\") of the \"Testament\" were printed and circulated, condensing the multi-volume original manuscript and sometimes adding material that was not written by Meslier. Abstracts were popular because of the length and convoluted style of the original.  Voltaire often mentions Meslier (referring to him as \"a good priest\") in his correspondence, in which he tells his daughter to \"read and read again\" Meslier's only work, and says that \"every honest man should have Meslier's \"Testament\" in his pocket.\" However, he also described Meslier as writing \"in the style of a carriage-horse\".  Voltaire published his own expurgated version as \"Extraits des sentiments de Jean Meslier\" (first edition, 1762). Voltaire's edition changed the thrust of Meslier's arguments (or drew on other Extraits which did this) so that he appeared to be a deist—like Voltaire—rather than an atheist.  The following passage is found at the end of Voltaire's \"Extrait\", and has been cited in support of the view that Meslier was not really an atheist. However, the passage does not appear in either the 1864 complete edition of the \"Testament\", published in Amsterdam by Rudolf Charles, or in the complete works of Meslier published 1970–1972.  Another book, \"Good Sense\" (), published anonymously in 1772, was long attributed to Meslier, but was in fact written by Baron d'Holbach.  The complete \"Testament\" of Meslier was published in English translation (by Michael Shreve) for the first time in 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In his book \"In Defense of Atheism\" (2007) the atheist philosopher Michel Onfray describes Meslier as the first person to write an entire text in support of atheism:  Prior to announcing Meslier as the first atheist philosopher, Onfray considers and dismisses Cristóvão Ferreira, a Portuguese and former Jesuit who renounced his faith under Japanese torture in 1633 and went on to write a book titled \"The Deception Revealed\". However, Onfray decides that Ferreira was not such a good candidate as Meslier, since Ferreira converted to Zen Buddhism.  The Situationist cultural theorist Raoul Vaneigem praised Meslier's resistance to hierarchical authority, claiming that \"the last full-fledged exemplars of priests genuinely loyal to the revolutionary origins of their religion were Jean Meslier and Jacques Roux fomenting jacquerie and riot\".  According to Colin Brewer (2007), who co-produced a play about Meslier's life, Historians argue about who was the first overt, post-Classical atheist but Meslier was arguably the first to put his name to an incontrovertibly atheist document. That this important event is largely unrecognised (Meslier was absent from both Richard Dawkins’ and Jonathan Miller's recent TV series on atheism) is due partly to Voltaire who published, in 1761, a grossly distorted \"Extract\" that portrayed Meslier as a fellow-deist and entirely suppressed Meslier's anti-monarchist, proto-communist opinions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean Meslier (; also Mellier; 15 June 1664 – 17 June 1729) was a French Catholic priest (abbé) who was discovered, upon his death, to have written a book-length philosophical essay promoting atheism and materialism. Described by the author as his \"testament\" to his parishioners, the text criticizes and denounces all religions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974649}
{"src_title": "Toyota Production System", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Goals.", "content": "The main objectives of the TPS are to design out overburden (muri) and inconsistency (mura), and to eliminate waste (muda). The most significant effects on process value delivery are achieved by designing a process capable of delivering the required results smoothly; by designing out \"mura\" (inconsistency). It is also crucial to ensure that the process is as flexible as necessary without stress or \"muri\" (overburden) since this generates \"muda\" (waste). Finally the tactical improvements of waste reduction or the elimination of muda are very valuable. There are eight kinds of muda that are addressed in the TPS:  The elimination of waste has come to dominate the thinking of many when they look at the effects of the TPS because it is the most familiar of the three to implement. In the TPS many initiatives are triggered by inconsistency or over-run reduction which drives out waste without specific focus on its reduction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concept.", "content": "Toyota Motor Corporation published an official description of TPS for the first time in 1992; this booklet was revised in 1998. In the foreword it was said: \"The TPS is a framework for conserving resources by eliminating waste. People who participate in the system learn to identify expenditures of material, effort and time that do not generate value for customers and furthermore we have avoided a 'how-to' approach. The booklet is not a manual. Rather it is an overview of the concepts, that underlie our production system. It is a reminder that lasting gains in productivity and quality are possible whenever and wherever management and employees are united in a commitment to positive change\". TPS is grounded on two main conceptual pillars:  Toyota has developed various tools to transfer these concepts into practice and apply them to specific requirements and conditions in the company and business.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "This system, more than any other aspect of the company, is responsible for having made Toyota the company it is today. Toyota has long been recognized as a leader in the automotive manufacturing and production industry.  Industrial engineering is the wider science behind TPS.  Toyota received their inspiration for the system, not from the American automotive industry (at that time the world's largest by far), but from visiting a supermarket. The idea of just-in-time production was originated by Kiichiro Toyoda, founder of Toyota. The question was how to implement the idea. In reading descriptions of American supermarkets, Ohno saw the supermarket as the model for what he was trying to accomplish in the factory. A customer in a supermarket takes the desired amount of goods off the shelf and purchases them. The store restocks the shelf with enough new product to fill up the shelf space. Similarly, a work-center that needed parts would go to a \"store shelf\" (the inventory storage point) for the particular part and \"buy\" (withdraw) the quantity it needed, and the \"shelf\" would be \"restocked\" by the work-center that produced the part, making only enough to replace the inventory that had been withdrawn.  While low inventory levels are a key outcome of the System, an important element of the philosophy behind its system is to work intelligently and eliminate waste so that only minimal inventory is needed. Many Western businesses, having observed Toyota's factories, set out to attack high inventory levels directly without understanding what made these reductions possible. The act of imitating without understanding the underlying concept or motivation may have led to the failure of those projects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Principles.", "content": "The underlying principles, called the Toyota Way, have been outlined by Toyota as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Respect for people.", "content": "External observers have summarized the principles of the Toyota Way as:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Continuously solving root problems drives organizational learning.", "content": "What this means is that it is a system for thorough waste elimination. Here, waste refers to anything which does not advance the process, everything that does not increase added value. Many people settle for eliminating the waste that everyone recognizes as waste. But much remains that simply has not yet been recognized as waste or that people are willing to tolerate.  People had resigned themselves to certain problems, had become hostage to routine and abandoned the practice of problem-solving. This going back to basics, exposing the real significance of problems and then making fundamental improvements, can be witnessed throughout the Toyota Production System.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sharing.", "content": "Toyota originally began sharing TPS with its parts suppliers in the 1990s. Because of interest in the program from other organizations, Toyota began offering instruction in the methodology to others. Toyota has even \"donated\" its system to charities, providing its engineering staff and techniques to non-profits in an effort to increase their efficiency and thus ability to serve people. For example, Toyota assisted the Food Bank For New York City to significantly decrease waiting times at soup kitchens, packing times at a food distribution center, and waiting times in a food pantry. Toyota announced on June 29, 2011 the launch of a national program to donate its Toyota Production System expertise towards nonprofit organizations with goal of improving their operations, extending their reach, and increasing their impact. By September, less than three months later, SBP, a disaster relief organization based out of New Orleans, reported that their home rebuilds had been reduced from 12 to 18 weeks, to 6 weeks. Additionally, employing Toyota methods (like \"kaizen\") had reduced construction errors by 50 percent. The company included SBP among its first 20 community organizations, along with AmeriCorps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Workplace Management\".", "content": "Taiichi Ohno's \"Workplace Management\" (2007) outlines in 38 chapters how to implement the TPS. Some important concepts are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Toyota Production System (TPS) is an integrated socio-technical system, developed by Toyota, that comprises its management philosophy and practices. The TPS is a management system that organizes manufacturing and logistics for the automobile manufacturer, including interaction with suppliers and customers. The system is a major precursor of the more generic \"lean manufacturing\". Taiichi Ohno and Eiji Toyoda, Japanese industrial engineers, developed the system between 1948 and 1975.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974650}
{"src_title": "Władysław Anders", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Before World War II.", "content": "Anders was born on 11 August 1892 to his father Albert Anders and mother Elizabeth (maiden name Tauchert) in the village of Krośniewice–Błonie, sixty miles west of Warsaw, in what was then a part of the Russian Empire.  Both his parents were of Baltic-German origin and he was baptised as a member of the Protestant Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. Anders had three brothers – Karol, Tadeusz and Jerzy, all of whom also went on to pursue careers in the military. Anders attended a technical high school in Warsaw and later studied at Riga Technical University, where he became a member of the Polish student fraternity. After graduation Anders was accepted into the Russian Military School for reserve officers. As a young officer, he served in the 1st Krechowiecki Lancers Regiment of the Imperial Russian Army during World War I.  When Poland regained its independence in November 1918 he joined the newly-formed Polish Army. During the Polish–Soviet War of 1919-1921 he commanded the 15th Poznań Uhlans Regiment and was awarded the Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari. After the war Anders continued his military education in France at the Ecole Superieur de Guerre and upon graduation he returned to Poland, where he served on the general staff of the Polish Army under General Tadeusz Jordan-Rozwadowski (Chief of the General Staff from 1920 to 1921).  Anders opposed Józef Piłsudski's coup d'état in Poland in 1926, but unlike Jordan-Rozwadowski, he avoided persecution by the Sanation regime that assumed power after the coup. Piłsudski made him the commander of a cavalry brigade in 1931 and he was promoted to the rank of general three years later.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Anders commanded the Nowogródzka Cavalry Brigade during the German Army's invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was immediately called into action, taking part in the Battle of Mława. After the collapse of the Polish Northern Front the brigade withdrew towards Warsaw, and also fought heavy battles against the Germans around Minsk Mazowiecki and in the second phase of the Battle of Tomaszów Lubelski. After learning about the Soviet invasion of Poland, Anders retreated south in the direction of Lwów (now called Lviv), hoping to reach the Hungarian or Romanian border, but was intercepted by Soviet forces and captured on 29 September, after being wounded twice.  He was initially jailed in Lwów and subsequently transferred to the Lubyanka prison in Moscow on 29 February 1940. During his imprisonment Anders was interrogated, tortured and unsuccessfully urged to join the Red Army.  After the launch of Operation Barbarossa and the signing of the Sikorski-Maisky agreement, Anders was released by the Soviets with the aim of forming a Polish Army to fight against the Germans alongside the Red Army. Continued friction with the Soviets over political issues as well as shortages of weapons, food and clothing, led to the eventual evacuation of Anders' men – known as Anders' Army – together with a sizeable contingent of Polish civilians who had been deported to the USSR from Soviet-occupied Poland, via the Persian Corridor into Iran, Iraq, and finally into Mandatory Palestine. The evacuation, which took place in March 1942, was based on the British-Soviet-Polish understanding. The soldiers involved were evacuated from the Soviet Union and made their way through Iran to British-ruled Palestine, where they passed under British command. Here, Anders formed and led the Polish 2nd Corps, while continuing to agitate for the release of Polish nationals still in the Soviet Union.  The Polish 2nd Corps became a major tactical and operational unit of the Polish Armed Forces in the West. Anders commanded the Corps throughout the Italian Campaign, capturing Monte Cassino on 18 May 1944, later fighting on the Gothic Line and in the final spring offensive.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After World War II.", "content": "After the war the Soviet-installed communist government of Poland deprived him of Polish citizenship and of his military rank. Anders had, however, always been unwilling to return to a Soviet-dominated Poland where he probably would have been jailed and possibly executed, and remained in Britain. He was prominent in the Polish Government in Exile in London and became inspector-general of the Polish forces-in-exile, as well as working on behalf of various charities and welfare organisations.  His book about his experiences during the Second World War, \"An Army in Exile\", was first published by MacMillan & Co, London, in 1949.  He died in London on 12 May 1970, where his body lay in state at the church of Andrzej Bobola, and many of his former soldiers and their families came to pay their last respects. He was buried, in accordance with his wishes, amongst his fallen soldiers from the 2nd Polish Corps at the Polish War Cemetery at Monte Cassino in Italy.  After the collapse of communist rule in Poland in 1989, his citizenship and military rank were posthumously reinstated.  Many personal effects which once belonged to Anders are on display in the Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum in London.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Private life.", "content": "Anders was married twice. He had two children with his first wife Irena Maria Jordan-Krąkowska (born 1894, died 1981) – a daughter, Anna (born 1919, died 2006) and a son, George (born 1927, died 1983).  In 1948, he married the actress and singer Irena Jarosiewicz, better known under her stage name Renata Bogdańska, with whom he had a daughter, Anna Maria (born in 1950).  Post-war, Anders was accused of being an anti-Semite.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medals.", "content": "Anders received numerous awards and decorations:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Władysław Albert Anders (11 August 1892 – 12 May 1970) was a general in the Polish Army and later in life a politician and prominent member of the Polish government-in-exile in London.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974651}
{"src_title": "Separation of variables", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ordinary differential equations (ODE).", "content": "Suppose a differential equation can be written in the form  which we can write more simply by letting formula_2:  As long as \"h\"(\"y\") ≠ 0, we can rearrange terms to obtain:  so that the two variables \"x\" and \"y\" have been separated. \"dx\" (and \"dy\") can be viewed, at a simple level, as just a convenient notation, which provides a handy mnemonic aid for assisting with manipulations. A formal definition of \"dx\" as a differential (infinitesimal) is somewhat advanced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternative notation.", "content": "Those who dislike Leibniz's notation may prefer to write this as  but that fails to make it quite as obvious why this is called \"separation of variables\". Integrating both sides of the equation with respect to formula_6, we have  or equivalently,  because of the substitution rule for integrals.  If one can evaluate the two integrals, one can find a solution to the differential equation. Observe that this process effectively allows us to treat the derivative formula_9 as a fraction which can be separated. This allows us to solve separable differential equations more conveniently, as demonstrated in the example below.  (Note that we do not need to use two constants of integration, in equation (1) as in  because a single constant formula_11 is equivalent.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "Population growth is often modeled by the differential equation  where formula_13 is the population with respect to time formula_14, formula_15 is the rate of growth, and formula_16 is the carrying capacity of the environment.  Separation of variables may be used to solve this differential equation.  To evaluate the integral on the left side, we simplify the fraction  and then, we decompose the fraction into partial fractions  Thus we have  Therefore, the solution to the logistic equation is  To find formula_22, let formula_23 and formula_24. Then we have  Noting that formula_26, and solving for \"A\" we get", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Partial differential equations.", "content": "The method of separation of variables is also used to solve a wide range of linear partial differential equations with boundary and initial conditions, such as the heat equation, wave equation, Laplace equation, Helmholtz equation and biharmonic equation.  The analytical method of separation of variables for solving partial differential equations has also been generalized into a computational method of decomposition in invariant structures that can be used to solve systems of partial differential equations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example: homogeneous case.", "content": "Consider the one-dimensional heat equation. The equation is  The variable u denotes temperature. The boundary condition is homogeneous, that is Let us attempt to find a solution which is not identically zero satisfying the boundary conditions but with the following property: \"u\" is a product in which the dependence of \"u\" on \"x\", \"t\" is separated, that is:  Substituting \"u\" back into equation and using the product rule,  Since the right hand side depends only on \"x\" and the left hand side only on \"t\", both sides are equal to some constant value − λ. Thus:  and  − λ here is the eigenvalue for both differential operators, and \"T(t)\" and \"X(x)\" are corresponding eigenfunctions.  We will now show that solutions for \"X(x)\" for values of λ ≤ 0 cannot occur:  Suppose that λ < 0. Then there exist real numbers \"B\", \"C\" such that  From we get  and therefore \"B\" = 0 = \"C\" which implies \"u\" is identically 0.  Suppose that λ = 0. Then there exist real numbers \"B\", \"C\" such that  From we conclude in the same manner as in 1 that \"u\" is identically 0.  Therefore, it must be the case that λ > 0. Then there exist real numbers \"A\", \"B\", \"C\" such that and  From we get \"C\" = 0 and that for some positive integer \"n\",  This solves the heat equation in the special case that the dependence of \"u\" has the special form of.  In general, the sum of solutions to which satisfy the boundary conditions also satisfies and. Hence a complete solution can be given as  where \"D\" are coefficients determined by initial condition.  Given the initial condition  we can get  This is the sine series expansion of \"f(x)\". Multiplying both sides with formula_36 and integrating over \"[0,L]\" result in  This method requires that the eigenfunctions of \"x\", here formula_38, are orthogonal and complete. In general this is guaranteed by Sturm-Liouville theory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Example: nonhomogeneous case.", "content": "Suppose the equation is nonhomogeneous,  with the boundary condition the same as.  Expand \"h(x,t)\", \"u(x,t)\" and \"f(x)\" into  where \"h\"(\"t\") and \"b\" can be calculated by integration, while \"u\"(\"t\") is to be determined.  Substitute and back to and considering the orthogonality of sine functions we get  which are a sequence of linear differential equations that can be readily solved with, for instance, Laplace transform, or Integrating factor. Finally, we can get  If the boundary condition is nonhomogeneous, then the expansion of and is no longer valid. One has to find a function \"v\" that satisfies the boundary condition only, and subtract it from \"u\". The function \"u-v\" then satisfies homogeneous boundary condition, and can be solved with the above method.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Example: mixed derivatives.", "content": "For some equations involving mixed derivatives, the equation does not separate as easily as the heat equation did in the first example above, but nonetheless separation of variables may still be applied. Consider the two-dimensional biharmonic equation  Proceeding in the usual manner, we look for solutions of the form  and we obtain the equation  Writing this equation in the form  we see that the derivative with respect to \"x\" and \"y\" eliminates the first and last terms, so that  i.e. either \"F(x)\" or \"G(y)\" must be a constant, say -λ. This further implies that either formula_46 or formula_47 are constant. Returning to the equation for \"X\" and \"Y\", we have two cases  and  which can each be solved by considering the separate cases for formula_50 and noting that formula_51.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Curvilinear coordinates.", "content": "In orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, separation of variables can still be used, but in some details different from that in Cartesian coordinates. For instance, regularity or periodic condition may determine the eigenvalues in place of boundary conditions. See spherical harmonics for example.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Matrices.", "content": "The matrix form of the separation of variables is the Kronecker sum.  As an example we consider the 2D discrete Laplacian on a regular grid:  where formula_53 and formula_54 are 1D discrete Laplacians in the \"x\"- and \"y\"-directions, correspondingly, and formula_55 are the identities of appropriate sizes. See the main article Kronecker sum of discrete Laplacians for details.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Software.", "content": "Some mathematical programs are able to do separation of variables: Xcas among others.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, separation of variables (also known as the Fourier method) is any of several methods for solving ordinary and partial differential equations, in which algebra allows one to rewrite an equation so that each of two variables occurs on a different side of the equation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974652}
{"src_title": "Lapsana communis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Nipplewort is an annual or perennial herbaceous plant growing to tall, with erect, hairy branching stems and clear (not milky) sap. The leaves are alternate and spirally arranged; the larger leaves at the base of the flowering stem are often pinnate, with a large oval terminal leaflet and one to four small side leaflets, while smaller leaves higher on the stem are simple oval; all leaves have toothed margins. The flowers are yellow, produced in a capitulum diameter, the capitula being numerous in loose clusters at the top of the stem. The capitulum is surrounded by a whorl of involucral bracts, the outer ones very small and the inner ones erect, narrow and stiff and all the same length. The eight to fifteen florets are all ligulate and pale yellow, shaped like a tongue with a five-toothed tip. Each has five stamens and a gynoecium composed of two fused carpels. The fruit is a cypsela surrounded by the hardened remains of the involucral bracts. The numerous small seeds are retained in the cypsela until the plant is shaken by the wind or a passing animal. Pappus is absent.nipplewort is also edible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "The young leaves are edible, and can be used in salads or cooked like spinach. The scientific name comes from \"Lapsane\", an edible herb described by Marcus Terentius Varro of ancient Rome. The English name 'Nipplewort' derives from its closed flower buds, which resemble nipples. Because of its resemblance to nipples, under the doctrine of signatures it was once used as treatment for breast ulcers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Nipplewort is found growing in arable fields, woods, hedges, roadsides, wasteland, hedgerows, woodland margins and clear-felled areas in forests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Away from its native area, \"Lapsana communis\" is common throughout the British Isles, naturalised, and sometimes considered an invasive species, in many areas around the world, including Australia, Chile, New Zealand, Greenland, and most of Canada and the United States.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lapsana communis, the common nipplewort, is a species of flowering plant in the sunflower family. It is native to Europe and southwestern Asia. and widely naturalized in other regions including North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974653}
{"src_title": "Social integration", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition of integration.", "content": "Integration was first studied by Park and Burgess in 1921 through the concept of assimilation. They defined it as \"a process of interpenetration and fusion in which persons and groups acquire the memories, sentiments, and attitude of other persons and groups and, by sharing their experience and history, are incorporated with them in a common cultural life.\"  While some scholars offered an assimilation theory, arguing that immigrants would be assimilated into the host society economically, socially and culturally over successive generations, others developed a multiculturalism theory, anticipating that immigrants could maintain their ethnic identities through the integration process to shape the host society with a diversified cultural heritage.  Extending from the assimilation theory, a third group of scholars proposed a segmented integration theory, stressing that different groups of migrants might follow distinct trajectories towards upward or downward mobility on different dimensions, depending on their individual, contextual and structural factors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Measurements of social integration.", "content": "Compared with other dimensions of integration, social integration focuses more on the degree to which immigrants adapt local customs, social relations, and daily practices. It is usually measured through social network, language, and intermarriage. The most commonly used indicator of social integration is social network, which refers to the connection that immigrants build with others in the host society. While some researchers use the total number of immigrants’ friends as a measure, others use the frequency of interaction with friends. Recent studies, published in 2020, use access to social activities (e.g., being able to join a local sports team) as a measurement for social integration. One thing worthy noting is that more and more studies differentiate local friends from immigrant friends because the former is considered more important in integrating immigrants into the local society than the latter.  Language is another important variable to access the degree of immigrants’ social integration. A higher level in grasping local language results in more chances to communicate with local people and a better understanding of local culture. A typical question used in survey is as “Do you understand the local people’s language?” In the United States, for instance, the fluency of English is a widely used indicator and can be easily found in a report on immigration.  Intermarriage is also an indicator of social integration. For those who are unmarried, they will be asked: “Would you consider marrying a local people?”; for those married, question will be like “Would you like your children to consider marrying a local people?” Answers to these questions are a good predictor of immigrants’ willingness to be integrated into the host society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples and uses.", "content": "In many instances education is used as a mechanism for social promotion. Neither education nor work can be ensured without a form of law. In relation to tolerant and open societies, members of minority groups often use social integration to gain full access to the opportunities, rights and services available to the members of the mainstream of society with cultural institutions such as churches and civic organizations. Mass media content also performs a social integration function in mass societies.  The 2005 documentary ”Utan gränser – en film om idrott och integration” (\"Without Borders - A Film About Sports and Integration\") was a film described by Swedish newspaper Aftonbladet as \"a documentary on how to succeed with integration\" of migrants into Swedish society.  The term \"social integration\" first came into use in the work of French sociologist Émile Durkheim. He wanted to understand why rates of suicide were higher in some social classes than others. Durkheim believed that society exerted a powerful force on individuals. He concluded that a people's beliefs, values, and norms make up a collective consciousness, a shared way of understanding each other and the world.  A 2012 research review found that working-class students were less socially integrated than middle-class students at university.  Recent research also shows that immigrants should be independent and proactive in order to achieve better social integration in their host countries. For further information, see here.  From a demographic and cultural standpoint, recent longitudinal studies suggest that social isolation or integration has shown to increase in older Spanish individuals, especially those whom may be suffering from neurocognitive disorders such as dementia and overall cognitive decline.  The United Nations has a Social Integration Branch, which is a part of the Division for Social Policy and Development (Department of Economic and Social Affairs). It also issues a quarterly publication named \"Bulletin on Social Integration Policies\". The UN Alliance of Civilizations initiative works on Migration and Integration as a key for intercultural understanding. An Online Community on Migration and Integration shows Good Practices from around the world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Social integration is the process during which newcomers or minorities are incorporated into the social structure of the host society.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974654}
{"src_title": "RCD Mallorca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Early Years.", "content": "Founded on the 5 March 1916, what would later become RCD Mallorca was registred at the Spanish Football Federation under the name of Alfonso XIII Foot-Ball Club.  Weeks after its establishment, the club wasted little time forming the directors of Alfonso XIII FBC, headed by engineer Adolfo Vázquez Humasqué and eight other football fans. Their first stadium, the Buenos Aires field, was ignagurated with a competitive fixture against FC Barcelona just 20 days after registering further fast-tracked development. Despite the fixture ending in a disappointing 8-0 defeat, it was not long before King Alfonso XIII himself requested the royal adoption of ‘Real’ in the team's title, therefore becoming Real Sociedad Alfonso XIII Foot-Ball Club. In 1917, the Catalan Federation granted Real Sociedad Alfonso XIII admission into the second tier league championship as an unofficial champion of the Balearic Islands. Booking a place in the final, Los Bermellones went on to record their first title with a resounding 3-1 victory over Futbol Club Palafrugell, in Barcelona.  Until the 1930’s, the board of directors managed to organise fixtures against peninsular clubs such as RCD Espanyol and Real Murcia, while also hosting rare exhibitions against foreign sides including: Ajax in 1923, Uruguay’s national team in 1925, Chilean outfit Colo-Colo in 1927 and one of the Czech Republic’s oldest teams, Prague Meteor, in 1930.  In 1931, following the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic which prohibited any form of reference to monarchy, the club was renamed to Club Deportivo Mallorca.  Although major fixtures and competitions across Spain were soon interrupted by the outbreak of the Civil War in 1936, the squad enjoyed a highly successful spell by winning every possible championship they entered into, as football on the island remained resistant to the deferral experienced throughout the country. When the war finally ended, matches with teams from the Peninsula were quick to resume and the Second Division was inagurated, based on five groups of eight teams each.  It was during a period in the Second Division that, on 22 September 1945, the time had come to wave goodbye to Buenos Aires Field and up sticks to Es Fortí, a 16,000-maximum capacity stadium which would be called home for over half a century and undergo several expansions. A line-up featuring forward Sebastián Pocoví, defender Saturnino Grech and goalkeeper Antoni Ramallets beat Jerez 3-0 on the opening game of the new campaign the following day, with Carlos Sanz scoring Es Fortí’s first goal in front of packed-out terraces. The title Es Fortí was short-lived however, with the board later changing the name of the stadium to Lluís Sitjar, in honour of the man who had driven the construction of the field.  During the 1949-1950 season, the Balearic club recovered their “Real” title, becoming Real Club Deportivo Mallorca", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1990s and 2000s: Peak.", "content": "In 1990–91, Mallorca reached the Copa del Rey final for the first time, losing by one goal to Atlético Madrid.  Argentine Héctor Cúper was hired as manager in 1997. In his first season, the club reached the 1998 Copa del Rey Final, and lost on penalties to FC Barcelona after a 1–1 draw in Mestalla. However, as Barcelona also won the league, Mallorca were their opponents in the 1998 Supercopa de España and won 3–1 on aggregate for their first major honour. Barcelona's double also meant Mallorca entered the 1998–99 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, the final staging of the tournament – they lost the final 2–1 to Italy's S.S. Lazio at Villa Park.  In 1999, Mallorca also finished a best-ever 3rd and qualified for the first time to the UEFA Champions League, but were eliminated on the away goals rule by Molde FK of Norway before the group stage. Luis Aragonés matched 3rd place in 2001, before leaving for an Atlético Madrid still in the second tier. On 28 June 2003, Mallorca won the Copa del Rey with a 3–0 win over Recreativo de Huelva in the final in Elche; the goals were scored by Walter Pandiani and Samuel Eto'o (two).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010s: Decline and return.", "content": "Mallorca was relegated from La Liga on the last day of the 2012–13 season. In January 2016, with the team at risk from relegation to the third tier, American investor Robert Sarver and former NBA player Steve Nash bought the club for just over €20 million.  On 4 June 2017, Mallorca fell into the third tier for the first time since 1981, with one game of the season still to play. A year later, they bounced back in the 2017–18 season after winning the play-off final against CF Rayo Majadahonda. In June 2019, Mallorca secured a second consecutive promotion to the 2019–20 La Liga, following a 3–2 win on aggregate over Deportivo de La Coruña in the 2019 Segunda División play-offs – having lost the first game 2–0.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Squad.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current squad.", "content": "\"As per the Club ́s official website: www.rcdmallorca.es\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Management & Staff.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical staff.", "content": "Head coach: Vicente Moreno", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Board of directors.", "content": "President: Andy Kohlberg  Chief Executive Officer: Maheta Molango  Board of Directors Member: Robert Sarver  Board of Directors Member: Steve Nash  Board of Directors Member: Utz Claassen  Honorary Secretary: Rosemary Mafuz", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidents.", "content": "Real Sociedad Alfonso XIII Football Club  Club Deportivo Mallorca  Real Club Deportivo Mallorca", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Individual.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Cup players.", "content": "The following players have been selected by their country in the World Cup Finals, while playing for Mallorca.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Real Club Deportivo Mallorca, S.A.D. (,, \"Royal Sporting Club Mallorca\") is a Spanish football club based in Palma, in the Balearic Islands. Founded on 5 March 1916 it currently plays in La Liga, holding home games at the Visit Mallorca Stadium with a 23,142-seat capacity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974655}
{"src_title": "William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Grenville was the son of Whig Prime Minister George Grenville. His mother Elizabeth was the daughter of Tory statesman Sir William Wyndham Bart. He had two elder brothers Thomas and Georgehe was thus uncle to the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Chandos.  He was also related to the Pitt family by marriage; William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham had married his father's sister Hester, and thus the younger Grenville was the first cousin of William Pitt the Younger.  Grenville was educated at Eton, Christ Church, Oxford, and Lincoln's Inn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Grenville entered the House of Commons in 1782. He soon became a close ally of the Prime Minister, his cousin William Pitt the Younger, and served in the government as Paymaster of the Forces from 1784 to 1789. In 1789 he served briefly as Speaker of the House of Commons before he entered the cabinet as Home Secretary. He became Leader of the House of Lords when he was raised to the peerage the next year as Baron Grenville, of Wotton under Bernewood in the County of Buckingham. The next year, in 1791, he succeeded the Duke of Leeds as Foreign Secretary. Grenville's decade as Foreign Secretary was a dramatic one, seeing the Wars of the French Revolution. During the war, Grenville was the leader of the party that focused on the fighting on the continent as the key to victory, opposing the faction of Henry Dundas which favoured war at sea and in the colonies. Grenville left office with Pitt in 1801 over the issue of Catholic Emancipation. He did part-time military service at home as Major in the Buckinghamshire Yeomanry cavalry in 1794 and as Lieutenant-Colonel in the South Buckinghamshire volunteer regiment in 1806. In his years out of office, Grenville became close to the opposition Whig leader Charles James Fox, and when Pitt returned to office in 1804, Grenville did not take part. Following Pitt's death in 1806, Grenville became the head of the \"Ministry of All the Talents\", a coalition between Grenville's supporters, the Foxite Whigs, and the supporters of former Prime Minister Lord Sidmouth, with Grenville as First Lord of the Treasury and Fox as Foreign Secretary as joint leaders. Grenville's cousin William Windham served as Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, and his younger brother, Thomas Grenville, served briefly as First Lord of the Admiralty. The Ministry ultimately accomplished little, failing either to make peace with France or to accomplish Catholic emancipation (the later attempt resulting in the ministry's dismissal in March, 1807). It did have one significant achievement, however, in the abolition of the slave trade in 1807.  In the years after the fall of the ministry, Grenville continued in opposition, maintaining his alliance with Lord Grey and the Whigs, criticising the Peninsular War and, with Grey, refusing to join Lord Liverpool's government in 1812. In the post-war years, Grenville gradually moved back closer to the Tories, but never again returned to the cabinet. His political career was ended by a stroke in 1823. Grenville also served as Chancellor of the University of Oxford from 1810 until his death in 1834.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Historians find it hard to tell exactly what separate roles Pitt, Grenville, and Dundas played in setting war policy with France, but agree that Grenville played a major role at all times until 1801. The consensus of scholars is that war with France presented an unexpected complex of problems. There was a conflict between secular ideologies, the conscription of huge armies, the new role of Russia as a continental power, and especially the sheer length and cost of the multiple coalitions. Grenville energetically worked to build and hold together the Allied coalitions, paying suitable attention to smaller members such as Denmark and Sardinia. He negotiated the complex alliance with Russia and Austria. He hoped that with British financing they would bear the brunt of ground campaigns against the French. Grenville's influence was at the maximum during the formation of the Second Coalition. His projections of easy success were greatly exaggerated, and the result was another round of disappointment. His resignation in 1801 was due primarily to the king's refusal to allow Catholics to sit in Parliament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dropmore House.", "content": "Dropmore House was built in the 1790s for Lord Grenville. The architects were Samuel Wyatt and Charles Tatham. Grenville knew the spot from rambles during his time at Eton College, and prized its distant views of his old school and of Windsor Castle. On his first day in occupation, he planted two cedar trees. At least another 2,500 trees were planted. By the time Grenville died, his pinetum contained the biggest collection of conifer species in Britain. Part of the post-millennium restoration is to use what survives as the basis for a collection of some 200 species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Lord Grenville married the Honourable Anne, daughter of Thomas Pitt, 1st Baron Camelford, in 1792. The marriage was childless. He died in January 1834, aged 74, when the barony became extinct. Lady Grenville died in June 1863.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ministry of All the Talents.", "content": "Changes", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William Wyndham Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville, (25 October 1759 – 12 January 1834) was a British Pittite Tory and politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1806 to 1807, though he was a supporter of the British Whig Party for the duration of the Napoleonic Wars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974656}
{"src_title": "Dennis W. Sciama", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and early life.", "content": "Sciama was born in Manchester, England, the son of Nelly Ades and Abraham Sciama. He was of Syrian-Jewish ancestry—his father born in Manchester and his mother born in Egypt both traced their roots back to Aleppo, Syria.  Sciama earned his PhD in 1953 at the University of Cambridge supervised by Paul Dirac, with a dissertation on Mach's principle and inertia. His work later influenced the formulation of scalar-tensor theories of gravity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career and research.", "content": "Sciama taught at Cornell University, King's College London, Harvard University and the University of Texas at Austin, but spent most of his career at the University of Cambridge (1950s and 1960s) and the University of Oxford as a Senior Research Fellow in All Souls College, Oxford (1970s and early 1980s). In 1983, he moved from Oxford to Trieste, becoming Professor of Astrophysics at the International School of Advanced Studies (SISSA), and a consultant with the International Centre for Theoretical Physics. He also taught at the Scuola Normale Superiore of Pisa.  From 1972 to 1973 he was the Donegall Lecturer in Mathematics at Trinity College Dublin.  During the 1990s, he divided his time between Trieste (with a residence in nearby Venice) and his main residence at Oxford, where he was a visiting professor until the end of his life.  Sciama made connections among some topics in astronomy and astrophysics. He wrote on radio astronomy, X-ray astronomy, quasars, the anisotropies of the cosmic microwave radiation, the interstellar and intergalactic medium, astroparticle physics and the nature of dark matter. Most significant was his work in general relativity, with and without quantum theory, and black holes. He helped revitalize the classical relativistic alternative to general relativity known as Einstein-Cartan gravity.  Early in his career, he supported Fred Hoyle's steady state cosmology, and interacted with Hoyle, Hermann Bondi, and Thomas Gold. When evidence against the steady state theory, e.g., the cosmic microwave radiation, mounted in the 1960s, Sciama abandoned it and worked on the Big Bang cosmology; he was perhaps the only prominent Steady-State supporter to switch sides (Hoyle continued to work on modifications of steady-state for the rest of his life, while Bondi and Gold moved away from cosmology during the 1960s).  During his last years, Sciama became interested in the issue of dark matter in galaxies. Among other aspects he pursued a theory of dark matter that consists of a heavy neutrino, certainly disfavored in his realization, but still possible in a more complicated scenario.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Doctoral students.", "content": "Several leading astrophysicists and cosmologists of the modern era completed their doctorates under Sciama's supervision, notably:  Sciama also strongly influenced Roger Penrose, who dedicated his \"The Road to Reality\" to Sciama's memory. The 1960s group he led in Cambridge (which included Ellis, Hawking, Rees, and Carter), has proved of lasting influence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards and honours.", "content": "Sciama was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1983. He was also an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society and the Academia Lincei of Rome. He served as president of the International Society of General Relativity and Gravitation, 1980–84.  His work at SISSA and the University of Oxford led to the creation of a lecture series in his honour, the Dennis Sciama Memorial Lectures. In 2009, the Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation at the University of Portsmouth elected to name their new building, and their supercomputer in 2011, in his honour.  Sciama has been portrayed in a number of biographical projects about his most famous student, Stephen Hawking. In the 2004 BBC TV movie \"Hawking\", Sciama was played by John Sessions. In the 2014 film \"The Theory of Everything\", Sciama was played by David Thewlis; physicist Adrian Melott strongly criticized the portrayal of Sciama in the film.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Sciama was of Jewish-Syrian descent and an avowed atheist. In 1959, Sciama married Lidia Dina, a social anthropologist, who survived him, along with their two daughters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dennis William Siahou Sciama, (; 18 November 1926 – 18/19 December 1999) was a British physicist who, through his own work and that of his students, played a major role in developing British physics after the Second World War. He was the Ph.D supervisor to many famous cosmologists, including Stephen Hawking, Martin Rees and David Deutsch; he is considered one of the fathers of modern cosmology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974657}
{"src_title": "Omsk Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Central planners in Moscow first identified Omsk as a metro-eligible city during the 1960s, due to its length along the Irtysh River and its relatively narrow streets. But after the plan was approved and financed, the planners decided to build an express tram instead, and the money allocated to Omsk was given to Chelyabinsk. In 1979, a Gosplan commission rejected a plan to build an express tram system since it was predicted to be unable to handle projected passenger flows without severely discomforting riders. In 1986, metro plans were revisited and financing began, along with the demolition of residential buildings to make way for tracks and a yard.  Construction began in 1992 between the stations Tupolevskaya () and Rabochaya (). The initial plans involved opening the section between the stations Marshala Zhukova and Rabochaya on the right bank of the Irtysh River to connect downtown to the manufacturing district, and then later to connect the line to the opposite bank of the Irtysh. Due to poor financial circumstances, by 2003 just the section between Tupolevskaya and Rabochaya was completed (with no intermediate stations). At that time the plans changed and the authorities decided to connect the two banks of the Irtsh with a metro bridge, going between one station on the right bank and three on the left bank. The combined metro (lower level) and motor-vehicle (upper level) bridge was built and opened to vehicular traffic in 2005.  The current phase of construction involves four stations:  This section is in length. The average speed is expected to be 36 km/h and travel time along the entire route is expected to be 10 minutes 12 seconds. Daily ridership is projected at 190,000 passengers and yearly ridership at 69 million.  Since 2014, construction on the system had stalled, but an 84.6 million Ruble contract was awarded to the Russian firm Sibmost to carry out detailed design studies on completing the light metro line, from Biblioteka Pushkina to Prospekt Rokossovskogo, with five stations. On September 9, 2015, it was announced that the construction will continue, in view of the high cost of preserving and maintaining the core structural features of the metro.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stations.", "content": "All of the stations will be shallow.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Omsk Metro () is a cancelled rapid transit line that underwent various phases of construction from 1992 to 2018 in Omsk, Russia. It was to become Siberia's second metropolitan underground railway system after the Novosibirsk Metro which opened in the mid 1980s. The opening date for the first line was pushed back four times, from 2008 to 2010, then 2015, then 2016. As of 2018, only one station is open and serves as a pedestrian subway. Construction was suspended by the government of the Omsk Oblast in May 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974658}
{"src_title": "Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "His father, Antoni, was the municipal architect of Poznań and came from a Czech family settled in western Poland. Józef was educated in Poznań and Warsaw. In 1794 he served in Poland's Kościuszko Uprising as a second lieutenant of artillery, was taken prisoner, and remained until 1797 in the Russian Army. After resigning in the rank of lieutenant colonel in 1798, he studied in the Holy Roman Empire until 1800, when he enlisted in the Polish Legion at Marseille. There he began his scientific and scholarly work and conceived the idea of a great philosophical system. Ten years later he moved to Paris where he would spend most of his life working unremittingly to the last in the most difficult material circumstances.  He wrote exclusively in French, in the desire that his ideas, of whose immortality he was convinced, be accessible to all; he worked, he said, \"through France for Poland.\" He published over a hundred works, and left many more in manuscript; at 75 years of age and nearing death, he exclaimed: \"God Almighty, there's still so much more I wanted to say!\"  In science, Hoene-Wroński set himself an extraordinary task: the complete reform of philosophy as well as that of mathematics, astronomy and technology. He not only elaborated a system of philosophy, but also applications to politics, history, economics, law, psychology, music and pedagogy. It was his aspiration to reform human knowledge in an \"absolute, that is, ultimate\" manner.  In 1803, Wroński joined the Marseille Observatory, and began developing an enormously complex theory of the structure and origin of the universe. During this period, he took up a correspondence with nearly all of the major scientists and mathematicians of his day, and was well respected at the observatory. In 1803 Wronski \"experienced a mystical illumination, which he regarded as the discovery of the Absolute.\"  In 1810, he published the results of his scientific research in a massive tome, which he advocated as a new foundation for all of science and mathematics. His theories were strongly Pythagorean, holding numbers and their properties to be the fundamental underpinning of essentially everything in the universe. His claims were met with little acceptance, and his research and theories were generally dismissed as grandiose rubbish. His earlier correspondence with major figures meant that his writings garnered more attention than a typical crackpot theory, even earning a review from the great mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange (which turned out to be categorically unfavorable). In the ensuing controversy, he was forced to leave the observatory.  He immediately turned his focus towards applying philosophy to mathematics (his critics believed that this meant dispensing with mathematical rigor in favor of generalities). In 1812, he published a paper purporting to show that every equation has an algebraic solution, directly contradicting results which had been recently published by Paolo Ruffini; Ruffini turned out to be correct.  He later turned his attention to disparate and largely unsuccessful pursuits such as a fantastical design for caterpillar-like vehicles which he intended to replace railroad transportation, but did not manage to persuade anyone to give the design serious attention. In 1819, he travelled to England in an attempt to obtain financial backing from the Board of Longitude to build a device to determine longitude at sea. After initial difficulties, he was given an opportunity to address the Board, but his pretentious address, \"On the Longitude\", contained much philosophizing and generalities, but no concrete plans for a working device, and thus failed to gain any support from the Board. He remained for several years in England and, in 1821, published an introductory text on mathematics in London, which moderately improved his financial situation.  In 1822, he returned to France, and again took up a combination of mathematics and far-fetched ideas, despite being in poverty and scorned by intellectual society. Along with his continuing Pythagorean obsession, he spent much time working on several notoriously futile endeavors, including attempts to build a perpetual motion machine, to square the circle and to build a machine to predict the future (which he dubbed the \"prognometre\"). In 1852, shortly before his death, he did find a willing audience for his ideas: the occultist Eliphas Levi who met Wroński and was greatly impressed and \"attracted by his religious and scientific utopianism.\" Wroński was \"a powerful catalyst\" for Levi's occultism.  Wroński died in 1853 in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France, on the outskirts of Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "During his lifetime nearly all his work was dismissed as nonsense. However, some of it came to be regarded in a more favourable light in later years. Although most of his inflated claims were groundless, his mathematical work contains flashes of deep insight and many important intermediary results, the most significant of which was his work on series. He had strongly criticized Lagrange for his use of infinite series, introducing instead a novel series expansion for a function. His criticisms of Lagrange were for the most part unfounded but the coefficients in Wroński's new series proved important after his death, forming a determinant now known as the Wronskian (the name which Thomas Muir had given them in 1882).  The level of Wroński's scientific and scholarly accomplishments and the amplitude of his objectives placed Wroński in the first rank of European metaphysicians in the early 19th century. But the abstract formalism and obscurity of his thought, the difficulty of his language, his boundless self-assurance and his uncompromising judgments of others alienated him from most of the scientific community. He was perhaps the most original of the Polish metaphysicians, but others were more representative of the Polish outlook.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Books", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński (;, ; 23 August 1776 – 9 August 1853) was a Polish Messianist philosopher, mathematician, physicist, inventor, lawyer, occultist and economist. He was born Hoene to a municipal architect in 1776 but changed his name in 1815.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974659}
{"src_title": "Paul Biedermann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "In 2008, Biedermann was ranked 9th in the world in the 200 m freestyle and 21st in the world in the 400 m freestyle. He won the 200 m freestyle long course at the 2008 European Aquatics Championships final, finishing in a time of 1:46.59. His times for the 400 m freestyle (3:47.69) and 200 m freestyle (NR in 1:46.37) qualified him for the Olympic Games in Beijing. At the Olympics, he placed fifth in the 200 m freestyle final (1:46.00) and 17th overall in the 400 m freestyle (3:48.03).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2009 Long Course and 2010 Short Course World Championships.", "content": "On 26 July 2009, Biedermann won the 400 m freestyle final at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships. He passed 1500 m Olympic champion Oussama Mellouli in the final 50 metres and finished with a time of 3:40.07, shaving nearly three seconds off his own personal best and bettering Ian Thorpe's 2002 world record by one-hundredth of a second. On 28 July, he claimed his second gold of the meet in the 200 m freestyle, defeating Michael Phelps in a world record time of 1:42.00 and cutting more than four seconds off of his time since last year. Many criticise the authenticity of Biedermann's world records in the 200m and 400m freestyle, as they were swum with the now banned \"super-suits,\" such as the LZR Racer, that were proven to give an unfair advantage particularly over the longer distance freestyle races.  In the 2010 Short Course Worlds, Biedermann won gold in the 400 m freestyle, beating Oussama Mellouli again in a race that unfolded almost identically to their race in Rome the previous year. In the 200 m freestyle, although he was the world record holder, he only placed 5th. He was over a second behind the first-place finisher Ryan Lochte.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011 Long Course World Championships.", "content": "Biedermann collected bronze medals in the 200 m freestyle, 400 m freestyle, and 4 × 100 m medley relay, as well as finishing 4th in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay. He was out-touched by Michael Phelps by 0.09 seconds in the individual 200 m freestyle. However, Biedermann got the better of Phelps in the relay lead-off leg by beating him by 0.33 seconds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012 Summer Olympics.", "content": "At the 2012 Summer Olympics, he competed in the 200 m freestyle, finishing 5th (0.6 seconds from a medal); the 400 m freestyle; and the 4 x 200 m freestyle relay as a member of the German team that finished 4th.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016 Summer Olympics.", "content": "At the 2016 Summer Olympics, he competed in the 200 m freestyle where he finished in 6th place. He also competed as part of the 4 x 200 m freestyle relay team which finished in 6th place. Following the games, he announced his retirement from competitive swimming.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Paul Biedermann (born 7 August 1986) is a German retired competitive swimmer, a 400 metre freestyle long course world champion, and former 200 metre freestyle long course world champion. He holds the long course and short course world records in the 200 meters freestyle, and the long course world record in the 400 meters freestyle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974660}
{"src_title": "The Kreutzer Sonata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Summary.", "content": "During a train ride, Pozdnyshev overhears a conversation concerning marriage, divorce and love. When a woman argues that marriage should not be arranged but based on true love, he asks \"what is love?\" and points out that, if understood as an exclusive preference for one person, it often passes quickly. Convention dictates that two married people stay together, and initial love can quickly turn into hatred. He then relates how he used to visit prostitutes when he was young, and complains that women's dresses are designed to arouse men's desires. He further states that women will never enjoy equal rights to men as long as men view them as objects of desire, yet describes their situation as a form of power over men, mentioning how much of society is geared towards their pleasure and well-being and how much sway they have over men's actions.  After he meets and marries his wife, periods of passionate love and vicious fights alternate. She bears five children, and then receives contraceptives: \"The last excuse for our swinish life – children – was then taken away, and life became viler than ever.\" His wife takes a liking to a violinist, Troukhatchevsky, and the two perform Beethoven's \"Kreutzer Sonata\" (Sonata No. 9 in A Major for piano and violin, Op. 47) together. Pozdnyshev complains that some music is powerful enough to change one's internal state to a foreign one. He hides his raging jealousy and goes on a trip, returns early, finds Troukhatchevsky and his wife together and kills his wife with a dagger. The violinist escapes: \"I wanted to run after him, but remembered that it is ridiculous to run after one's wife's lover in one's socks; and I did not wish to be ridiculous but terrible.\"  Later acquitted of murder in light of his wife's apparent adultery, Pozdnyshev rides the trains seeking forgiveness from fellow passengers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Censorship.", "content": "After the work had been forbidden in Russia by the censors, a mimeographed version was widely circulated. In 1890, the United States Post Office Department prohibited the mailing of newspapers containing serialized installments of \"The Kreutzer Sonata\". This was confirmed by the U.S. Attorney General in the same year. Theodore Roosevelt called Tolstoy a \"sexual moral pervert.\" The ban on its sale was struck down in New York and Pennsylvania courts in 1890.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epilogue.", "content": "In the Epilogue To The Kreutzer Sonata, published in 1890, Tolstoy clarifies the intended message of the novella, writing:  Countering the argument that widespread abstinence would lead to a cessation of the human race, he describes chastity as an ideal that provides guidance and direction, not as a firm rule. Writing from a position of deep religiosity (that he had explained in his \"Confession\" in 1882), he points out that not Christ, but the Church (which he despises) instituted marriage. \"The Christian's ideal is love of God and his neighbor, self-renunciation in order to serve God and his neighbour; carnal love, marriage, means serving oneself, and therefore is, in any case, a hindrance in the service of God and men\".  During the international celebration of Tolstoy's 80th birthday in 1908, G. K. Chesterton criticized this aspect of Tolstoy's thought in an article in the 19 September issue of \"Illustrated London News\": \"Tolstoy is not content with pitying humanity for its pains: such as poverty and prisons. He also pities humanity for its pleasures, such as music and patriotism. He weeps at the thought of hatred; but in \"The Kreutzer Sonata\" he weeps almost as much at the thought of love. He and all the humanitarians pity the joys of men.\" He went on to address Tolstoy directly: \"What you dislike is being a man. You are at least next door to hating humanity, for you pity humanity because it is human.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Films.", "content": "\"The Kreutzer Sonata\" has been adapted for film well over a dozen times. Some of these include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "The novella, inspired by Beethoven's music, in turn gave rise to Leoš Janáček's First String Quartet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ballet.", "content": "In 2000, the Carolina Ballet, with original choreography by Robert Weiss and combining the music of Beethoven, Janáček, and J. Mark Scearce, mounted an innovative production combining dance and drama, with a narrator/actor telling the story and flashbacks leading into the ballet segments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Painting.", "content": "The novella inspired the 1901 painting \"Kreutzer Sonata\" by René François Xavier Prinet, which shows a passionate kiss between the violinist and the pianist. The painting was used for years in Tabu perfume ads.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Novels.", "content": "Arab Israeli author Sayed Kashua's 2010 novel \"Second Person Singular\" echoes \"The Kreutzer Sonata\" set in present-day Israel. A copy of \"The Kreutzer Sonata\" also functions as a major plot device.  The Dutch author Margriet de Moor wrote a book called \"Kreutzersonate\" after Janáček's string quartet, which was inspired by the novella and Beethoven.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Kreutzer Sonata (, ) is a novella by Leo Tolstoy, named after Beethoven's Kreutzer Sonata. The novella was published in 1889, and was promptly censored by the Russian authorities. The work is an argument for the ideal of sexual abstinence and an in-depth first-person description of jealous rage. The main character, Pozdnyshev, relates the events leading up to his killing of his wife: in his analysis, the root causes for the deed were the \"animal excesses\" and \"swinish connection\" governing the relation between the sexes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974661}
{"src_title": "David Jarolím", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Born in Caslav, Czechoslovakia, Jarolím began his professional career with SK Slavia Praha before transferring to German club FC Bayern Munich while still a teenager. Although he spent three seasons with the German giants, from 1997 to 2000, he played in only one competitive match with the first team squad.  Jarolím transferred to second division club 1. FC Nürnberg before the 2000–01 season, and played in nine matches during their promotion campaign. During the 2001–02 season, Jarolím established himself as a key player in the Nürnberg squad, attracting the attention of other top clubs.  Following Nürnberg's relegation after the 2002–03 season, an agreement was reached for Jarolím's transfer to Hamburger SV at the close of the 2003–04 season. However, just before the close of the transfer window in September 2003, the deal was brought forward, allowing Jarolím to play for Hamburg during that season. Jarolím has been an important member of Hamburg's first team squad ever since. After Rafael van der Vaart joined Real Madrid, he took over as team captain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "A former Czech U-21 international, Jarolím made his senior debut for the reformed Czech Republic national team on 8 October 2005. He was selected for the 2006 FIFA World Cup but did not see much playing time. During Euro 2008 qualifying he was regularly used as a substitute, making only one start, but did manage a goal in the 7–0 thrashing of San Marino. He played in all three matches at the tournament but the Czechs failed to progress past the group stage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Jarolím's father Karel, current coach of Czech Republic national football team, is also a former Slavia player and Czechoslovakia international. David's older brother Lukáš and cousin Marek Jarolím are also professional players.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching and management career.", "content": "After retiring at the end of the 2013-14 season, Jarolím was appointed sporting director of Mladá Boleslav. On 25 September 2019 it was confirmed, that Jarolím had been appointed manager of Olympia Radotín. He left the club at the end of the season. On 28 September 2019, he was then appointed manager of SK Rakovník. However, after only 9 days in charge, it was announced that his contract had been terminated by mutual agreement for personal reasons.  On 8 January 2020 Jarolím was hired as U19 manager of FC Slavoj Vyšehrad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Bayern Munich  Hamburger SV", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "David Jarolím (; born 17 May 1979 in Čáslav) is a Czech former footballer and current manager of FC Slavoj Vyšehrad's U19 team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974662}
{"src_title": "CzechTek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first CzechTek was held in 1994 at Hostomice, it was organized by the Spiral Tribe sound system and a group of artists called the Mutoid Waste Company. Various foreign sound systems also attended. The festival was held at the same location the following two years. After that the festival was held in a different location in the Czech Republic each year, usually on ex-military land or in a meadow near a forest. The location of the meeting was always revealed one day before the event on Czech rave websites. Unlike more commercial festivals such as Love Parade or the Street Parade there was little or no organisation, since the idea of free tekno is based on personal freedom and responsibility, although later teknivals required organisation due to large numbers of attendees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CzechTek 2005.", "content": "In 2005, the CzechTek festival took place in Mlýnec in Tachov District, close to the German border in the west of the country. The organisers claimed to have permission from the landowner to set up the event, but shortly after the festival began, around 1,000 riot police arrived, using heavy equipment including tear gas, water cannons and the military BVP vehicle. Police cited damage to private property, and argued that the owners of the neighbouring properties had not agreed to allow access to vehicles and that the authorities had not been informed of the event.  The police damaged cars, electronic equipment and other property, and clashes between police and revellers resulted in multiple injuries on both sides. Police used massive amounts of tear gas and stun grenades, broke car windows with iron bars or threw gas grenades in. One participant was killed by a truck on his way to the festival in the early morning hours. Several dozen festival-goers were injured, fifteen seriously, and about fifty policemen were injured, five seriously.  Following the police actions there were protests outside the Czech Interior Ministry. The Czech president Vaclav Klaus criticized the police's use of heavy force. The Prime Minister, Jiří Paroubek, defended the action, declaring that the tekno fans were \"not dancing children but dangerous people\".  Several months after the clash, all charges against police were dropped, in most cases due to failure to identify individual police officers, and in other cases because it was deemed that an offence had not been committed. In April 2006, there was a march followed by a free party in Strasbourg, France to protest against police repression in general and against the actions of the Czech police in closing CzechTek specifically.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CzechTek 2006.", "content": "On 14 June 2006 an agreement was signed between the Czech Army and the Association of Czech Sound Systems. The festival was held on land which was part of the Hradiště Military Region. Close cooperation with the state administration caused some resentment among the freetekno community, but the festival went ahead without any repeat of the previous year's violence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Czechtek discontinued.", "content": "After the event in 2006, the co-ordinators announced on the official CzechTek website that the festival had been discontinued, stating that \"in regard of the fact that the situation around Czechtek isn't bearable anymore, the representatives of the Czech freetekno community came to this radical decision. This year, and very probably even never again, any action of size and under the name Czechtek won't be realized\". The reasons given were:  The announcement was signed by: Oktekk, Strahov, NSK, AKA.IO, Komatsu, Spiritual, Mayapur, Layka, Pentatonika, Merkur, Fatal Noise, Matchbox, Luxor, Cirkus Alien, Vosa, Bazooka, Koryto, Shamanic, Zuqwa, Czajovna, Figura, Machine Works, Metro, Ultimate Crew, Basswood, Mutaphone, FDM, Jednota, TMC, NabaziGangoo, Massive Elementz, UANDU Tribe, MHD, Hondzik Sound, Witacid, Iluzor, Detox23, Pandemic, Spectro, Radiator, Swampsound, Gummo, EskanoiZZe, Tsunami, Yaga, Synthetik, MiMiK, Squakka, Mandala, Alkaline, Dynamodestroy, Triptekk, Tekkirk, Remek, FSS, Shadow cabaret, Invaders, Mushroom, Bassmekk, Swazarm, Techamin, Laydakk, Othersidesystem, Inkognito, T2B and others.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "CzechTek was an annual teknival normally held on the weekend at the end of July in the Czech Republic. It attracted thousands of free tekno dancers from several European countries (40,000 people attended in 2003 and 2006). Open invitations were usually made to all sound systems, performers and all people with positive thinking.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974663}
{"src_title": "Trimethylglycine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure and reactions.", "content": "Trimethylglycine is an \"N\"-methylated amino acid. It is a zwitterion as the molecule contains both a quaternary ammonium group and a carboxyl group. The carboxyl group will be partially protonated in aqueous solution below pH 4, that is, below pH pK-2.  Demethylation of TMG gives dimethylglycine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production and biochemical processes.", "content": "Processing sucrose from sugar beets yields glycine betaine as a byproduct. The value of the TMG rivals that of the sugar content in sugar beets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biosynthesis.", "content": "In most organisms, glycine betaine is biosynthesized by oxidation of choline in two steps. The intermediate, betaine aldehyde, is generated by the action of the enzyme mitochondrial choline oxidase (choline dehydrogenase, EC 1.1.99.1). Betaine aldehyde is further oxidised in the mitochondria in mice to betaine by the enzyme betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.1.8). In humans betaine aldehyde activity is performed by a nonspecific cystosolic aldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme (EC 1.2.1.3)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biological function.", "content": "TMG is an organic osmolyte. Sugar beet was cultivated from Sea beet, which requires osmolytes in order to survive in the salty soils of coastal areas. TMG also occurs in high concentrations (~10 mM) in many marine invertebrates, such as crustaceans and molluscs. It serves as a potent appetitive attractant to generalist carnivores such as the predatory sea-slug \"Pleurobranchaea californica\".  TMG is an important cofactor in methylation, a process that occurs in every mammalian cell donating methyl groups (-CH) for other processes in the body. These processes include the synthesis of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin. Methylation is also required for the biosynthesis of melatonin and the electron transport chain constituent coenzyme Q, as well as the methylation of DNA for epigenetics.  The major step in the methylation cycle is the remethylation of homocysteine, a compound which is naturally generated during demethylation of the essential amino acid methionine. Despite its natural formation, homocysteine has been linked to inflammation, depression, specific forms of dementia, and various types of vascular disease. The remethylation process that detoxifies homocysteine and converts it back to methionine can occur via either of two pathways. The pathway present in virtually all cells involves the enzyme methionine synthase (MS), which requires vitamin B as a cofactor, and also depends indirectly on folate and other B vitamins. The second pathway (restricted to liver and kidney in most mammals) involves betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase (BHMT) and requires TMG as a cofactor. During normal physiological conditions, the two pathways contribute equally to removal of homocysteine in the body. Further degradation of betaine, via the enzyme dimethylglycine dehydrogenase produces folate, thus contributing back to methionine synthase. Betaine is thus involved in the synthesis of many biologically important molecules, and may be even more important in situations where the major pathway for the regeneration of methionine from homocysteine has been compromised by genetic polymorphisms such as mutations in the MS gene.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "TMG in agriculture and aquaculture.", "content": "Factory farms supplement fodder with TMG and lysine to increase livestocks' muscle mass (and, therefore, \"carcass yield\", the amount of usable meat).  Salmon farms apply TMG to relieve the osmotic pressure on the salmon's cells when workers transfer the fish from freshwater to saltwater.  TMG supplementation decreases the amount of adipose tissue in pigs; however, research in human subjects has shown no effect on body weight, body composition, or resting energy expenditure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "TMG in the human diet.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dietary supplement.", "content": "Although TMG supplementation decreases the amount of adipose tissue in pigs, research on human subjects has shown no effect on body weight, body composition, or resting energy expenditure when used in conjunction with a low calorie diet. The Food and Drug Administration of the United States approved anhydrous trimethylglycine (also known by the brand name Cystadane) for the treatment of homocystinuria, a disease caused by abnormally high homocysteine levels at birth. TMG is also used as the hydrochloride salt (marketed as betaine hydrochloride or betaine HCl). Betaine hydrochloride was once permitted in over-the-counter (OTC) drugs as a gastric aid in the United States. US Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Section 310.540, which became effective on November 10, 1993, banned betaine hydrochloride from being used in OTC products due to insufficient evidence to classify it as \"generally recognized as safe and effective\".  TMG supplementation may cause diarrhea, stomach upset, or nausea. TMG supplementation lowers homocysteine but also raises LDL-cholesterol.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses: PCR.", "content": "Trimethylglycine can act as an adjuvant of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process, and other DNA polymerase-based assays such as DNA sequencing. By an unknown mechanism, it aids in the prevention of secondary structures in the DNA molecules, and prevents problems associated with the amplification and sequencing of GC-rich regions. Trimethylglycine makes guanosine and cytidine (strong binders) behave with thermodynamics similar to those of thymidine and adenosine (weak binders). It has been determined under experiment that it is best used at a final concentration of 1 M.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Speculative uses.", "content": "Laboratory studies and two clinical trials have indicated that TMG is a potential treatment of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis.  TMG has been proposed as a treatment for depression. In theory, it would increase \"S\"-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) by remethylating homocysteine. The same homocysteine-to-methionine result could be achieved by supplementing with folic acid and vitamin B12, methionine then serving as a precursor to synthesis of SAMe. SAMe as a dietary supplement has been shown to work as a nonspecific antidepressant.  Research with the goal of developing environmentally safe biomimetic ship coatings is using TMG, among others, as a non-toxic anti-fouling coating.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "IEX Ion Exchange Chromatography.", "content": "In the book from Amersham Biosciences/GE Healthcare, Ion Exchange Chromatography & Chromatofocusing - Principles and Methods, page 48. \"Zwitterionic additives such as betaine can prevent precipitation and can be used at high concentrations without interfering with the gradient elution\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Trimethylglycine (TMG) is an that occurs in plants. Trimethylglycine was the first betaine discovered; originally it was simply called betaine because, in the 19th century, it was discovered in sugar beets. Since then, many other betaines have been discovered, and the more specific name \"glycine betaine\" distinguishes this one.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974664}
{"src_title": "Peter John Olivi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "A Franciscan and theological author, born at Sérignan, Diocese of Béziers, 1247–48. At twelve he entered the Friars Minor at Béziers, and later studied at Paris. He was already present there in 1268, when Bonaventure gave his \"Collationes de septem donis Spiritus sancti\", and was probably still there in 1273, at the \"Collationes in Hexaemeron\". Returning to his native province, he taught in different places, and was probably in Narbonne around 1277–79. During the preparation of Nicholas III's Bull \"Exiit qui seminat\", in the summer of 1279, Olivi accompanied his provincial minister to Italy, but was not himself part of the commission that work on the Bull. He was asked to express briefly his opinion with regard to Franciscan poverty, but composed much longer questions on the evangelical perfection. Upon his return to Languedoc, he was promoted as biblical lecturer at Montpellier and produce a number of major biblical commentaries (on Matthew, Isaiah, Genesis, Job and John). One opponent (described as \"brother Ar.\", to be identified with Arnaud Gaillard, then a formed bachelor back from Paris) voiced his opposition to Olivi's views on the vow, which prompted him to write a \"Treatise on poor use\" (\"De usu paupere\"). The controversy between the two young theologians raged on many different issues, which attracted the attention of the General Chapter of Strasburg in 1282. Although we know only of Olivi's fate, both were probably suspended from teaching. His doctrine was examined by seven franciscans theologians at Paris, who first drew a list of errors (\"Littera septem sigillorum\") and then substantiated it by a roll of extracts (\"rotulus\"). Olivi defended himself in several responses (1283–85), and finally the General Chapter of Montpellier (1287) decided in his favour. The new general superior, Matthew of Aquasparta, sent him as lector in theology to the convent of Santa Croce in Florence, whence Matthew's successor, Raymond Gaufredi, sent him as lector to Montpellier. At the General Chapter of Paris in 1292 Olivi again gave explanations, which were apparently satisfactory. He spent his last years in the convent of Narbonne and died, surrounded by his friends, after an earnest profession of his Catholic Faith (published by Wadding ad a. 1297, n. 33) on 14 March 1298.  Olivi's work \"On Sale, Purchase, Usury and Restitution\", or more simply \"On Contracts\" (as in the latest edition by S. Piron, 2012), contains a subtle discussion of the pricing of risks and probabilities in connection with valuing compensation due for compulsory requisitioning of property.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and controversy.", "content": "Peace was not obtained by his death. His friends, friars and seculars, showed an exaggerated veneration for their leader, and honoured his tomb as that of a saint; on the other hand the General Chapter of Lyon in 1299 ordered his writings to be collected and burnt as heretical. The General Council of Vienne in 1312 established, in the Decretal \"Fidei catholicæ fundamento\" (Bull. Franc., V, 86), the Catholic doctrine against three points of Olivi's teaching, without mentioning the author; these points referred to the moment Christ's body was transfixed by the lance, the manner in which the soul is united to the body and the baptism of infants. In 1318 the friars of his order went so far as to destroy Olivi's tomb, a desecration, and in the next year two further steps were taken against him: his writings were absolutely forbidden by the General Chapter of Marseilles, and a special commission of theologians examined Olivi's \"Postilla in Apocalypsim\" and marked out sixty sentences, chiefly joachimistical extravagances (see Joachim of Flora. For text see Baluzius-Mansi, \"Miscellanea\", II, Lucca, 1761, 258–70; cf. also Denifle, \"Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis\", II, i, Paris, 1891, 238–9). It was only in 1326 that those sentences were really condemned by John XXII, when the fact that Emperor Louis IV the Bavarian used Olivi's writings in his famous Appeal of Sachsenhausen in 1324 had again drawn attention to the author. Though Olivi was never official condemned as a heretic his name included as a banned author in several editions of the Index of Prohibited Books. Father Ehrle considers (Archiv, III, 440) that Olivi was not the impious heretic he is painted in some writings of the Middle Ages, and states (ibid., 448) that the denunciation of his theological doctrine was rather a tactical measure of the adversaries of the severe principles of poverty and reform professed by Olivi. For the rest, Olivi follows in many points the doctrine of St. Bonaventure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "The numerous works of Olivi, now edited for the most, can be divided into five classes:  1. Speculative works  2. Exegetical works  3. Works on observance of the Rule of Saint Francis and evangelical perfection  4. Apologetical works and letters  5. Devotional works", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter John Olivi, also Pierre de Jean Olivi or Petrus Joannis Olivi (1248 – March 14, 1298), was a Franciscan theologian and philosopher who, although he died professing the faith of the Roman Catholic Church, became a controversial figure in the arguments surrounding poverty at the beginning of the 14th century. In large part, this was due to his view that the Franciscan vow of poverty also entailed \"usus pauper\" (i.e., 'poor' or'restricted' use of goods); while contemporary Franciscans generally agreed that \"usus pauper\" was important to the Franciscan way of life, they disagreed that it was part of their vow of poverty. His support of the extreme view of ecclesiastical poverty played a part in the ideology of the groups coming to be known as the Spiritual Franciscans or Fraticelli.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974665}
{"src_title": "Type 90 tank", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "After the adoption of the Type 74, the Japanese High Command was already looking for a superior, completely indigenous tank design to defeat the Soviet T-72. As a result, development of a prototype, the TK-X MBT began between 1976 and 1977. Joint development was performed by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and TRDI (Japan Defense Agency's Technology Research and Development Institute). Major subcontractors included Japan Steel Works, Daikin Industries, Mitsubishi Electric, Fujitsu and NEC.  Two prototypes of the Type 90 were completed in 1980, both armed with a Japanese 120 mm gun (produced by Japan Steel Works Limited) firing Japanese ammunition (produced by Daikin Industries Limited). Testing and design modifications such as improvements to the turret and half Modular type ceramic composite armour continued until 1986.  A second series of four prototypes was built between 1986 and 1988, incorporating changes resulting from trials with the first two prototypes. These were armed with the Rheinmetall 120 mm smoothbore gun also fitted to the German Leopard 2 and, in a modified version, the US M1A1/M1A2 Abrams MBT. These second prototypes were used for development and then user trials, all of which were completed by 1989, before Japan formally introduced the Type 90 in 1990. Mass production began in 1990, and 30 vehicles were produced by the end of the year.  With the exception of the 120 mm smoothbore gun, which is made under license from Rheinmetall of Germany, the Type 90 and its subsystems are all designed and built in Japan, leading to higher per unit costs than comparable models from NATO countries such as the M1 Abrams and the Challenger 2. Development of upgrades to the Type 90 suffered both as a result of limited budget, which caused procurement delays, and funding prioritization in favor of the Type 10 Main Battle Tank. Due to a perception that Type 90s are unsuited to operations in the tight confines of Japan's urban areas, they are preferentially assigned to the JGSDF Fuji School Brigade and the 7th Armored Division based in Hokkaido, where there is sufficient room for maneuver. With the exception of training exercises such as the annual Combined Live Fire Exercise hosted by the United States Army at Yakima Training Center in Washington state, the Type 90 has never been deployed overseas, and has never been tested in combat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "The Type 90 mounts a Rheinmetall L44 120 mm smoothbore cannon licensed produced by Japan Steel Works Limited. This is the same gun that is mounted on the German Leopard 2, the American Abrams, and the South Korean K1A1 tank. Before Rheinmetall's gun was selected, Japan had successfully produced a domestic version of the 120 mm smoothbore for testing, but the lower cost of the Rheinmetall gave it an advantage over the domestic version..  Since its introduction there have been several upgrades to the fire-control system, including the addition of a Yttrium-Aluminium-Garnet laser rangefinder with a range of 300 to 5,000 meters, a 32-bit ballistics analysis computer, improved thermal imaging and Automated-tracking systems, and improved gun stabilization. The FCS also has an automated tracking system, and is capable of engaging moving or stationary targets while moving in day or night. The automatic target tracking system uses a thermal image display which can be controlled by either the tank gunner or commander. It is capable of tracking soldiers, vehicles and helicopters. The targeting computer can also calculate lead on moving targets.  The commander's sight consists of a 3× / 10× (day-only sight). The sight can track vertically from −29 to +29 degrees, as well as track horizontally through 180 degrees. The gunners sight has a 10 x zoom.  The gun is armed and loaded by a mechanical bustle autoloader (conveyor-belt type) developed by Mitsubishi of Japan. As with autoloader-equipped Russian main battle tanks, the French Leclerc, and the Swedish Strv 103, the Type 90 achieves manpower savings by reducing the crew to three. Its ability to operate without a loader also allows the use of a smaller turret. The autoloader can reload in around two seconds, and the practical auto-loading and firing cycle for one target is around 4–6 seconds.  Mounted in front of the gunner's hatch on the turret is the ubiquitous Browning M2 machine gun, manufactured under license by Sumitomo Heavy Industries, part of the Sumitomo Group. In addition to the.50-caliber machine gun, a Japanese-built 7.62 mm machine gun is mounted coaxially to the left of the main gun.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armor.", "content": "The profile of the Type 90 is similar to the German Leopard 2A4 and it uses modular ceramic and steel composite armor, common in contemporary tank designs. The adoption of modular composite armor design facilitates the upgrading and exchange of the armor. The level of protection is high, and the front of the turret and front of the hull do not penetrate DM33 KE ammunition fired from close range, and do not affect the interior of the vehicle.  The Type 90 is smaller than most main battle tanks with a height of, a width of, and a weight of. It was designed with a distinctive low-slung turret with boxy, vertical sides and a long overhanging bustle. In comparison, the Leopard 2A4's dimensions are high and wide with a weight of.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mobility.", "content": "The powerpack of the Type 90 tank has the Mitsubishi 10ZG32WT 10-cylinder two-stroke cycle diesel engine providing 1500 hp, coupled with Mitsubishi MT1500 automatic transmission with four forward and two reverse gears, manufactured by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (designated 10ZG32WT, MT1500). The development of the 10ZG32WT prototype was started in 1972 and was finished in 1982. It can attain a top output of 1,120 kW (1,500 horsepower).  The hydropneumatic suspension units are mounted on the front and rear pair of road wheels, which can be adjusted on-the-fly to deal with uneven terrain, a requirement on Japan's rough, mountainous terrain.  According to the Japanese Ministry of Defense official data report, the acceleration of the type is 0–200 m in 20 seconds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manufacture.", "content": "The Type 90 has an approximate unit cost of 790 million Japanese yen or approximately 7.4 million US dollars at 2008 exchange rates.  341 Type 90 tanks were produced between 1990 and 2009 with an average annual production number of 19 vehicles. The original procurement plan was established in the 1980s while Japan was experiencing asset price bubble. After the asset price bubble burst in 1991 and the collapse of Soviet Union in 1992, Japan started to cut its defense budget. In order to save budget for Kongo Class missile destroyers and other new weapons, Japan made a plan to reduce the size of its tank force. The production of Type 90 therefore slowed down and part of its budget was shifted to the research and development of the new Type 10 main battle tank.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Being 12 tonnes heavier than its predecessor Type 74 tank made Type 90 more challenging to operate outside Hokkaido. Some politicians therefore criticized the effectiveness of Type 90 due to difficulty in transportation. In fact, more than 65% of major bridges in Japan were still considered passable for Type 90 while overseas main battle tanks such as Challenger 2 and Leopard 2 could only use 40% of bridges in Japan.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The is a main battle tank (MBT) of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF). It was designed and built by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries as a replacement for all deployed Type 61 and Type 74 tanks, and entered service in 1990. It is to be superseded by the Type 10 tank.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974666}
{"src_title": "Jocelyn Bell Burnell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and early life.", "content": "Jocelyn Bell was born in Lurgan, Northern Ireland, to M. Allison and G. Philip Bell. Her father was an architect who had helped design the Armagh Planetarium, and during visits she was encouraged by the staff to pursue astronomy professionally. Young Jocelyn also discovered her father's books on astronomy.  She grew up in Lurgan and attended the Preparatory Department of Lurgan College from 1948 to 1956, where she, like the other girls, was not permitted to study science until her parents (and others) protested against the school's policy. Previously, the girls' curriculum had included such subjects as cooking and cross-stitching rather than science.  She failed the eleven-plus exam and her parents sent her to The Mount School, a Quaker girls' boarding school in York, England. There she was favourably impressed by her physics teacher, Mr Tillott, and stated:  Bell Burnell was the subject of the first part of the BBC Four three-part series \"Beautiful Minds\", directed by Jacqui Farnham.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career and research.", "content": "She graduated from the University of Glasgow with a Bachelor of Science degree in Natural Philosophy (physics), with honours, in 1965 and obtained a PhD degree from the University of Cambridge in 1969. At Cambridge, she attended New Hall, Cambridge, and worked with Hewish and others to construct the Interplanetary Scintillation Array just outside Cambridge to study quasars, which had recently been discovered.  On 28 November 1967, she detected a \"bit of scruff\" on her chart-recorder papers that tracked across the sky with the stars. The signal had been visible in data taken in August, but as the papers had to be checked by hand, it took her three months to find it. She established that the signal was pulsing with great regularity, at a rate of about one pulse every one and a third seconds. Temporarily dubbed \"Little Green Man 1\" (LGM-1) the source (now known as PSR B1919+21) was identified after several years as a rapidly rotating neutron star. This was later documented by the BBC \"Horizon\" series. In a 2020 lecture at Harvard, she related how the media was covering the discovery pulsars, with interviews taking a standard 'disgusting' format: Hewish would be asked on the astrophysics, and she would be the 'human interest' part, asked about vital statistics, how many boyfriends she had, what colour is her hair, and asked to undo some buttons for the photographs. The Daily Telegraph science reporter shortened 'pulsating radio source' to \"pulsar\".  She worked at the University of Southampton between 1968 and 1973, University College London from 1974 to 82 and the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh (1982–91). From 1973 to 1987 she was a tutor, consultant, examiner, and lecturer for the Open University. In 1986, she became the project manager for the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. She was Professor of Physics at the Open University from 1991 to 2001. She was also a visiting professor at Princeton University in the United States and Dean of Science at the University of Bath (2001–04), and President of the Royal Astronomical Society between 2002 and 2004.  Bell Burnell is currently Visiting Professor of Astrophysics at the University of Oxford, and a Fellow of Mansfield College. She was President of the Institute of Physics between 2008 and 2010. In February 2018 she was appointed Chancellor of the University of Dundee. In 2018, Bell Burnell visited Parkes, NSW, to deliver the keynote John Bolton lecture at the Central West Astronomical Society (CWAS) AstroFest event.  In 2018, she was awarded the Special Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics, worth three million dollars (£2.3 million), for her discovery of radio pulsars. The Special Prize, in contrast to the regular annual prize, is not restricted to recent discoveries. She donated all of the money \"to fund women, under-represented ethnic minority and refugee students to become physics researchers\", the funds to be administered by the Institute of Physics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nobel Prize controversy.", "content": "That Bell did not receive recognition in the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics has been a point of controversy ever since. She helped build the Interplanetary Scintillation Array over two years and initially noticed the anomaly, sometimes reviewing as much as of paper data per night. Bell later said that she had to be persistent in reporting the anomaly in the face of scepticism from Hewish, who was initially insistent that it was due to interference and man-made. She spoke of meetings held by Hewish and Ryle to which she was not invited. In 1977, she commented on the issue:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Her publications include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal and non-academic life.", "content": "Bell Burnell is house patron of Burnell House at Cambridge House Grammar School in Ballymena. She has campaigned to improve the status and number of women in professional and academic posts in the fields of physics and astronomy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quaker activities and beliefs.", "content": "From her school days, she has been an active Quaker and served as Clerk to the sessions of Britain Yearly Meeting in 1995, 1996 and 1997. She delivered a Swarthmore Lecture under the title \"Broken for Life\", at Yearly Meeting in Aberdeen on 1 August 1989, and was the plenary speaker at the US Friends General Conference Gathering in 2000. She spoke of her personal religious history and beliefs in an interview with Joan Bakewell in 2006.  Bell Burnell served on the Quaker Peace and Social Witness Testimonies Committee, which produced \"Engaging with the Quaker Testimonies: a Toolkit\" in February 2007. In 2013 she gave a James Backhouse Lecture which was published in a book entitled \"A Quaker Astronomer Reflects: Can a Scientist Also Be Religious?\", in which Burnell reflects about how cosmological knowledge can be related to what the Bible, Quakerism or Christian faith states.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "In 1968, soon after her discovery, Bell married Martin Burnell; the couple divorced in 1993 after separating in 1989. Her husband was a local government officer, and his career took them to various parts of Britain. She worked part-time for many years while raising her son, Gavin Burnell, who is a member of the condensed matter physics group at the University of Leeds.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Dame Susan Jocelyn Bell Burnell (; born 15 July 1943) is an astrophysicist from Northern Ireland who, as a postgraduate student, co-discovered the first radio pulsars in 1967. She was credited with \"one of the most significant scientific achievements of the 20th century\". The discovery was recognised by the award of the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics, but despite the fact that she was the first to observe the pulsars, Bell was not one of the recipients of the prize.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974667}
{"src_title": "Pension fund", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classifications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Open vs. closed pension funds.", "content": "Open pension funds support at least one pension plan with no restriction on membership while closed pension funds support only pension plans that are limited to certain employees.  Closed pension funds are further subclassified into:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public vs. private pension funds.", "content": "A public pension fund is one that is regulated under public sector law while a private pension fund is regulated under private sector law.  In certain countries the distinction between public or government pension funds and private pension funds may be difficult to assess. In others, the distinction is made sharply in law, with very specific requirements for administration and investment. For example, local governmental bodies in the United States are subject to laws passed by the states in which those localities exist, and these laws include provisions such as defining classes of permitted investments and a minimum municipal obligation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "By country.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romania.", "content": "The pension system in Romania is made of three pillars. One is the state pension (Pillar I – Mandatory), the second is a private mandatory pension where the state transfers a percentage of the contribution it collects for the public pension, and the third is an optional private pension (Pillar III – Voluntary).  The Financial Supervisory Authority – Private Pension is responsible for the supervision and regulation of the private pension system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Turkey.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "Social Security Institution was established by the Social Security Institution Law No:5502 which was published in the Official Gazette No: 26173 dated 20.06.2006 and brings the Social Insurance Institution, General Directorate of Bağ-kur and General Directorate of Emekli Sandığı whose historical development are summarized above under a single roof in order to transfer five different retirement regimes which are civil servants, contractual paid workers, agricultural paid workers, self-employers and agricultural self-employers into a single retirement regime that will offer equal actuarial rights and obligations.  OYAK (Ordu Yardımlaşma Kurumu/Armed Forces Pension Fund) provides its members with \"supplementary retirement benefits\" apart from the official retirement fund, T.C.Emekli Sandığı/SSK, to which they are primarily affiliated.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Private.", "content": "In addition to the retirement benefit, OYAK pays \"disability benefits\" to the members on duty when they become partially or fully disabled as well as \"death benefits\" to the heirs of the deceased member if the death occurs during the member's subscription to the foundation.  OYAK is incorporated as a private entity under its own law subject to Turkish civic and commercial codes. OYAK, while fulfilling its legal duties, as set in the law, also provides its members with social services such as loans, home loans and retirement income systems.  The initial source of OYAK's funds is a compulsory 10 percent levy on the base salary of Turkey's 200,000 serving officers who, together with 25,000 current pensioners, make up OYAK's members.  Some other Turkish private pension funds:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "In the United States, pension funds include schemes which result in a deferral of income by employees, even if retirement income provision isn't the intent. The United States has $19.1 trillion in retirement and pension assets ($9.1 trillion in private funds, $10 trillion in public funds) as of December 31, 2016. The largest 200 pension funds accounted for $4.540 trillion as of September 30, 2009.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A pension fund, also known as a superannuation fund in some countries, is any plan, fund, or scheme which provides retirement income.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974668}
{"src_title": "Chow Yun-fat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Chow was born in Lamma Island, Hong Kong, to Chan Lai-fong () who was a cleaning lady and vegetable farmer, and Chow Yung-Wan (), who worked on a Shell Oil Company tanker. Chow grew up in a farming community on Lamma Island, in a house with no electricity. He woke up at dawn each morning to help his mother sell herbal jelly and Hakka tea-pudding on the streets; in the afternoons, he went to work in the fields. His family moved to Kowloon when he was ten. At 17, he left school to help support the family by doing odd jobs including bellboy, postman, camera salesman and taxi driver. His life started to change after college when he responded to a newspaper advertisement, and his actor-trainee application was accepted by TVB, the local television station. He signed a three-year contract with the studio and made his acting debut. Chow became a heartthrob and familiar face in soap operas that were exported internationally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "When Chow appeared in the 1980 TV series \"The Bund\" on TVB. The series, about the rise and fall of a gangster in 1930s Shanghai, was a hit throughout Asia and made Chow a star.  Although Chow continued his TV success, his goal was to become a film actor. However, his occasional ventures into low-budget films were disastrous. Success finally came when he teamed up with director John Woo in the 1986 gangster action-melodrama \"A Better Tomorrow\", which swept the box offices in Asia and established Chow and Woo as megastars. \"A Better Tomorrow\" won him his first Best Actor award at the Hong Kong Film Awards. It was the highest-grossing film in Hong Kong history at the time, and set a new standard for Hong Kong gangster films. Taking the opportunity, Chow quit TV entirely. With his new image from \"A Better Tomorrow\", he made many more 'gun fu' or 'heroic bloodshed' films, such as \"A Better Tomorrow 2\" (1987), \"Prison on Fire\", \"Prison on Fire II\", \"The Killer\" (1989), \"A Better Tomorrow 3\" (1990), \"Hard Boiled\" (1992) and \"City on Fire\", an inspiration for Quentin Tarantino's \"Reservoir Dogs\".  Chow may be best known for playing honorable tough guys, whether cops or criminals, but he has also starred in comedies like \"Diary of a Big Man\" (1988) and \"Now You See Love, Now You Don't\" (1992) and romantic blockbusters such as \"Love in a Fallen City\" (1984) and \"An Autumn's Tale\" (1987), for which he was named Best Actor at the Golden Horse Awards. He brought together his disparate personae in the 1989 film \"God of Gamblers\", directed by the prolific Wong Jing, in which he was by turns a suave charmer, a broad comedian, and an action hero. The film surprised many, became immensely popular, broke Hong Kong's all-time box office record, and spawned a series of gambling films as well as several comic sequels starring Andy Lau and Stephen Chow. The often tough demeanor and youthful appearance of Chow's characters has earned him the nickname \"Babyface Killer\".  The \"Los Angeles Times\" proclaimed Chow Yun-Fat \"the coolest actor in the world\". In the mid '90s, Chow moved to Hollywood in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to duplicate his success in Asia. His first two films, \"The Replacement Killers\" (1998) and \"The Corruptor\" (1999), were box office disappointments. In his next film \"Anna and the King\" (1999), Chow teamed up with Jodie Foster, but the film suffered at the box office. Chow accepted the role of Li Mu-Bai in the (2000) film \"Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon.\" It became a winner at both the international box office and the Oscars. In 2003, Chow came back to Hollywood and starred in \"Bulletproof Monk\". In 2006, he teamed up with Gong Li in the film \"Curse of the Golden Flower,\" directed by Zhang Yimou.  In 2007, Chow played the pirate captain Sao Feng in \"\". However, his part was omitted when the movie was shown in mainland China, where government censors felt that Chow's character \"vilified and humiliated\" Chinese people.  In the poorly received film \"Dragonball Evolution\", Chow Yun-fat played Master Roshi.  In 2014, Chow returned to Hong Kong cinema in \"From Vegas to Macau\". For the part, he lost 13 kg within 10 months.  In October 2014, Chow supported the Umbrella Movement, a civil rights movement for universal suffrage in Hong Kong. His political stance eventually resulted in censorship by the Chinese government.  In February 2015, Chow reprised his role as Ken in the sequel \"From Vegas to Macau II\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Book.", "content": "On 26 June 2008, Chow released his first photo collection, which includes pictures taken on the sets of his films. Proceeds from the book's sales were donated to Sichuan earthquake victims. It is published by Louis Vuitton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Chow has been married twice; first was in 1983 to Candice Yu, an actress from Asia Television; the marriage lasted nine months. In 1986, Chow married Singaporean Jasmine Tan. They had a stillborn daughter in 1991. Chow has a goddaughter, Celine Ng, a former child model for Chickeeduck, McDonald's, Toys'R'Us and other companies.  Despite his wealth, Chow lives modestly. He is frequently seen at food stalls and on public transportation. In interviews, he has said he plans to leave his fortune to charity.  Chow supported the Umbrella Movement protests in 2014. Chow also voiced support for the 2019-20 Hong Kong protests even though Mainland China has banned him from working there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "Chow has appeared in over 121 films and 24 television series.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and nominations.", "content": "Hong Kong Film Awards  Chinese American Film Festival", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wealth.", "content": "In 2014, Chow was the second-highest earning actor in Hong Kong, earning HK$170 million (US$21.9 million). His reported net worth is HK$5.6 billion (US$714 million). Chow also said he would donate 99% of his wealth to charity via setting up a foundation to help the needy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chow Yun-fat (born 18 May 1955), previously known as Donald Chow, is a Hong Kong actor known for his collaborations with filmmaker John Woo in the action heroic bloodshed–genre films \"A Better Tomorrow\", \"The Killer\", and \"Hard Boiled\", and in the West for his roles as Li Mu-bai in \"Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon\" and Sao Feng in \"\". He mainly plays in drama films and has won three Hong Kong Film Awards for Best Actor and two Golden Horse Awards for Best Actor in Taiwan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974669}
{"src_title": "Škocjan Caves", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Škocjan Caves represents the most significant underground phenomena in both the Karst region and Slovenia. Škocjan Caves was also entered on the List of Ramsar wetlands of international importance on 18 May 1999. Together with the underground stream of the Reka River, they represent one of the longest karst underground wetlands in Europe.  Explored length of caves is 6,200 m, caves have formed in 300 m thick layer of Cretaceous and Paleocene limestone.  The Reka River disappears underground at Big Collapse Doline () into Škocjan Caves and then flows underground for 34 km surfacing near Monfalcone where it contributes approximately one third of the flow of the Timavo River, which flows 2 kilometers from the Timavo Springs to the Adriatic Sea. The view of the big river in the rainy season, as it disappears underground at the bottom of Big Collapse Doline, 160 m below the surface, is both majestic and frightening.  The exceptional volume of the underground canyon is what distinguishes Škocjan Caves from other caves and places it among the most famous underground features in the world. The river flowing through the underground canyon turns northwest before the Cerkvenik Bridge and continues its course along Hanke's Channel (). This underground channel is approximately 3.5 km long, 10 to 60 m wide and over 140 m high. At some points, it expands into huge underground chambers. The largest of these is Martel's Chamber with a volume of 2.2 million cubic m and it is considered the largest discovered underground chamber in Europe and one of the largest in the world. The canyon of such dimensions nevertheless ends with a relatively small siphon: one that cannot deal with the enormous volume of water that pours into the cave after heavy rainfall, causing major flooding, during which water levels can rise by more than one hundred metres.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of exploration.", "content": "The first written sources on Škocjan Caves originate in the era of Antiquity (2nd century B.C.) by Posidonius of Apamea and they are marked on the oldest published maps of this part of the world; for example the Lazius-Ortelius map from 1561 and Mercator's \"Novus Atlas\" from 1637. The fact that the French painter Louis-François Cassas (1782) was commissioned to paint some landscape pieces also proves that in the 18th century the caves were considered one of the most important natural features in the Trieste hinterland. His paintings testify that at that time people visited the bottom of Big Collapse Doline (). The Carniolan scholar Johann Weikhard von Valvasor described the sink of the Reka River and its underground flow in 1689.  In order to supply Trieste with drinking water, an attempt was made to follow the underground course of the Reka River. The deep shafts in the Karst were explored as well as Škocjan Caves. The systematic exploration of Škocjan Caves began with a speleology expedition in 1884. Explorers reached the banks of \"Mrtvo jezero\" (Dead Lake) in 1890. The last major achievement was the discovery of Silent Cave () in 1904, when some local men climbed the sixty-metre wall of Müller Hall (). The next important event took place in 1990, nearly 100 years after the discovery of Dead Lake (). Slovenian divers managed to swim through the siphon \"Ledeni dihnik\" and discovered over 200 m of new cave passages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "From time immemorial, people have been attracted to the gorge where the Reka River disappears underground as well as the cave entrances. The Reka River sinks under a rocky wall; on the top of it lies the village of Škocjan, after which the caves are named. Škocjan Caves Regional Park is archaeologically extremely rich; it was inhabited beginning more than ten thousand years ago. A valuable archaeological find in Fly Cave () indicates the influence of Greek civilization, where a cave temple was located after the end of the Bronze Age and in the Iron Age. This region was certainly one of the most significant pilgrimage sites in Europe, three thousand years ago, especially in the Mediterranean, where it was of important cult significance in connection with the afterlife and communication with ancestral spirits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "It is difficult to establish when tourism in Škocjan Caves truly commenced. According to some sources, in 1819, the county councilor Matej Tominc (Tominc Cave is named after him) ordered that steps be built to the bottom of Big Collapse Doline (). According to other sources, the steps were only renovated. A visitors' book was introduced 1 January 1819. This date is considered the beginning of modern tourism in Škocjan Caves.  In recent years, Škocjan Caves has had around 100,000 visitors per year. The first part of the Caves—Marinič Cave and Mahorčič Cave with Little Collapse Doline ()—was opened to tourists by 1933. It was severely damaged in a flood in 1963. In 2011, it was renovated and a new steel bridge was added. Visitors can also view the part of the underground canyon with Big Collapse Doline (). Tours of the cave are conducted in Slovenian, English, Italian and German.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Škocjan Caves (;, ) is a cave system in Slovenia. Due to its exceptional significance, Škocjan Caves was entered on UNESCO’s list of natural and cultural world heritage sites in 1986. International scientific circles have thus acknowledged the importance of the caves as one of the natural treasures of planet Earth. Ranking among the most important caves in the world, Škocjan Caves represents the most significant underground phenomena both on the Karst Plateau and in Slovenia. Following independence from Yugoslavia in 1991, Slovenia committed itself to actively protecting the Škocjan Caves area and established Škocjan Caves Regional Park and its managing authority, the Škocjan Caves Park Public Service Agency.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974670}
{"src_title": "Prince Carl Philip, Duke of Värmland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Prince Carl Philip was born on 13 May 1979 at the Stockholm Palace, Sweden. He was baptised at the Royal Chapel on 31 August 1979. His mother is of half German and half Brazilian descent.  Carl Philip was heir apparent to the throne of Sweden for seven months, until 1 January 1980 when a change in the constitution came into effect which made natural birth order the basis for succession to the throne, replacing the principle of agnatic primogeniture. His elder sister Victoria became heir apparent, with Carl Philip becoming second in line.  During 1984–1986, Prince Carl Philip attended the Västerled parish preschool. In the autumn of 1986, he started school at Smedslättsskolan in Bromma which he attended at junior level. For the intermediate level, he attended Ålstensskolan in Bromma, proceeding from there, in the autumn of 1992, to senior level at Enskilda Gymnasiet in Stockholm. In the autumn of 1994, Carl Philip enrolled at Kent School. He then continued his studies in a science programme at Lundsbergs upper secondary school. He graduated in the spring of 1999. In 2007–2008, he studied graphic design at the Rhode Island School of Design for one year. In 2011, Prince Carl Philip finished his studies in Agricultural and Rural Management at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences in Alnarp.  Carl Philip has dyslexia, as do his father King Carl XVI Gustaf and his sister Crown Princess Victoria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interests.", "content": "Prince Carl Philip has been a scout and is fond of outdoor life. He is keen on sport and athletics, especially football, swimming, sailing and skiing. In 2003, he completed the historic Swedish \"Vasaloppet\", the longest cross country ski race in the world. Carl Philip also enjoys car racing, a passion he inherited from his great-uncle and godfather, Prince Bertil, and has a licence to compete. Prince Carl Philip has taken part in the racing series Porsche Carrera Cup Scandinavia in a Porsche 911 GT3. Since 2013 he has raced in the Scandinavian Touring Car Championship.  The prince completed his military service at the Amphibious Battalion at Vaxholm Coastal Artillery Regiment as a combat boat commander (Combat Boat 90) in the autumn of 2000. In December 2002, the Prince was promoted to \"fänrik\" (midshipman), and in 2004 to the rank of \"löjtnant\" (sub-lieutenant) in the Swedish Navy. In 2007 and 2008 he went to the Swedish National Defense College. The course was divided in three weeks autumn 2007 and three weeks spring 2008. After that course he was appointed \"kapten\" in the Swedish Navy (lieutenant). On 1 October 2014, Prince Carl Philip achieved the rank of major.  With a great interest for design and drawing, the prince began studying graphic design in Stockholm in 2003, studies which he continues still.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and family.", "content": "Prince Carl Philip dated Emma Pernald from 1999 to 2009. Pernald worked at a PR firm for several years. However, the prince and Pernald broke off their relationship in March 2009. She revealed in the Swedish newspaper \"Expressen\" that she and the prince mutually decided to go their separate ways. Pernald made no further comment as to the reason for the break-up.  In April 2010, Carl Philip was linked in the press with former glamour model Sofia Hellqvist. In August 2010, Royal Court spokesperson Nina Eldh confirmed the relationship between Carl Philip and Hellqvist in a statement released by the palace. On 27 June 2014, it was announced that Carl Philip and Hellqvist were engaged. They married on 13 June 2015 in Stockholm's Royal Palace chapel, and thousands of people lined the streets for the occasion. In an interview he criticized the press for suggesting that Hellqvist was not welcome in the royal family. He told the press that the opposite was true and that his family easily accepted her into the family. He compared the \"bullying\" of her past to that of himself being bullied for having dyslexia.  On 19 April 2016, Princess Sofia gave birth to a son, Prince Alexander, Duke of Södermanland. Their second child, also a son, was born on 31 August 2017, titled Prince Gabriel, Duke of Dalarna.  On 7 October 2019 Carl Philip's father the king issued a statement rescinding the royal status of Prince Alexander and Prince Gabriel in an effort to more strictly associate Swedish royalty to the office of the head of state; they are still to be styled as princes and dukes of their provinces, and they remain in the line of succession to the throne. Carl Philip and his wife commented that their sons now will have more freedom of choice for their future lives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles, and honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "Prince Carl Philip's coat of arms is based on the greater coat of arms of Sweden. It features in the first and fourth quarters, the Three Crowns; in the second, the lion of the House of Bjelbo; and in the third, the eagle of the arms of Värmland, representing the titular designation of his dukedom. In the centre, on an inescutcheon, is the dynastic arms of the House of Bernadotte. Surrounding the shield is the chain of the Order of the Seraphim.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Prince Carl Philip of Sweden, Duke of Värmland (Carl Philip Edmund Bertil; born 13 May 1979), is the only son and the second of three children of King Carl XVI Gustaf and Queen Silvia., Prince Carl Philip is fourth in the line of succession, after his older sister, Crown Princess Victoria, his niece and goddaughter Princess Estelle, and his nephew Prince Oscar. He lives with his wife, Princess Sofia, and two sons, Prince Alexander and Prince Gabriel, in Villa Solbacken in central Stockholm.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974671}
{"src_title": "James Dwight Dana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Dana was born February 12, 1813, in Utica, New York. His father was merchant James Dana (1780–1860) and his mother was Harriet Dwight (1792–1870). Through his mother he was related to the Dwight New England family of missionaries and educators including uncle Harrison Gray Otis Dwight and first cousin Henry Otis Dwight. He showed an early interest in science, which had been fostered by Fay Edgerton, a teacher in the Utica high school, and in 1830 he entered Yale College in order to study under Benjamin Silliman the elder.  Graduating in 1833, for the next two years he was teacher of mathematics to midshipmen in the Navy, and sailed to the Mediterranean while engaged in his duties. In 1836 and 1837 he was assistant to Professor Silliman in the chemical laboratory at Yale, and then, for four years, acted as mineralogist and geologist of the United States Exploring Expedition, commanded by Captain Charles Wilkes, in the Pacific Ocean. His labors in preparing the reports of his explorations occupied parts of thirteen years after his return to America in 1842. His notebooks from the four years of travel contained fifty sketches, maps, and diagrams, including views of both Mount Shasta and Castle Crags. Dana's sketch of Mount Shasta was engraved in 1849 for publication in the \"American Journal of Science and Arts\" (which Silliman had founded in 1818), along with a lengthy article based on Dana's 1841 geological notes. In the article he described in scientific terms the rocks, minerals, and geology of the Shasta region. As far as is known, his sketch of Mount Shasta became the second view of the mountain ever published.  In 1844 he again became a resident of New Haven, and married Professor Silliman's daughter, Henrietta Frances Silliman. In 1850, he was appointed as Silliman's successor, as Silliman Professor of Natural History and Geology in Yale College, a position which he held until 1892. In 1846 he became joint editor, and during the later years of his life was chief editor, of the \"American Journal of Science and Arts\", to which he was a constant contributor, principally of articles on geology and mineralogy.  The 1849 publication of his geology of Mount Shasta was undoubtedly a response to the California gold rush publicity. Dana was the pre-eminent U.S. geologist of his time, and he also was one of the few trained observers anywhere who had first-hand knowledge of the northern California terrain. He had previously written that there was a likelihood that gold was to be found all along the route between the Umpqua River in Oregon and the Sacramento Valley. He was probably deluged with inquiries about the Shasta region, and was forced to publish in more detail some advice to the would-be gold miners.  Dana was responsible for developing much of the early knowledge on Hawaiian volcanism. In 1880 and 1881 he led the first geological study of the volcanics of Hawaii island. Dana theorized that the volcanic chain consisted of two volcanic strands, dubbed the \"Loa\" and \"Kea\" trends. The Kea trend included Kīlauea, Mauna Kea, Kohala, Haleakala, and West Maui. The Loa trend includes Lōihi, Mauna Loa, Hualālai, Kahoolawe, Lānai, and West Molokai.  Following another expedition by fellow geologist C. E. Dutton in 1884, Dana returned to the island once again and in 1890 he published a manuscript on the island that was the most detailed of its day, and would be the definitive source upon the island's volcanics for decades.  Dana died on April 14, 1895.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Dana was married to Henrietta Silliman in 1844.  Their son, Edward Salisbury Dana (1849–1935), was also a distinguished mineralogist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Dana's best known books were his  The \"Manual of Mineralogy\" by J. D. Dana became a standard college text, and has been continuously revised and updated by a succession of editors including W. E. Ford (13th-14th eds., 1912–1929), Cornelius S. Hurlbut (15th-21st eds., 1941–1999), and beginning with the 22nd by Cornelis Klein. The 23rd edition is now in print under the title \"Manual of Mineral Science (Manual of Mineralogy)\" (2007), revised by Cornelis Klein and Barbara Dutrow.  Dana's \"System of Mineralogy\" has also been revised, the 6th edition (1892) being edited by his son Edward Salisbury Dana. A 7th edition was published in 1944, and the 8th edition was published in 1997 under the title \"Dana's New Mineralogy\", edited by R. V. Gaines et al.  Between 1856 and 1857, Dana published a number of manuscripts in an effort to reconcile scientific findings with the Bible. Among these, he wrote \"Science and the Bible: A Review of \"The Six Days of Creation\" of Prof. Tayler Lewis\" (1856), and \"Creation, Or, The Biblical Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science\" (1885).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "Dana was awarded the Copley Medal by the Royal Society in 1877, the Wollaston Medal by the Geological Society of London in 1874 and the Clarke Medal by the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1882. Dana was president of the Geological Society of America in 1890.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "James Dwight Dana FRS FRSE (February 12, 1813 – April 14, 1895) was an American geologist, mineralogist, volcanologist, and zoologist. He made pioneering studies of mountain-building, volcanic activity, and the origin and structure of continents and oceans around the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974672}
{"src_title": "Santa Cecilia in Trastevere", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first church on this site was founded probably in the 3rd century, by Pope Urban I; it was devoted to the young Roman woman Cecilia, martyred it is said under Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (A.D. 222-235). Tradition holds that the church was built over the house of the saint. The baptistery associated with this church, together with the remains of a Roman house of the early Empire, was found during some excavations under the Chapel of the Relics. By the late fifth century, at the Synod of 499 of Pope Symmachus, the church is mentioned as the \"Titulus Ceciliae\". On 22 November 545, Pope Vigilius was celebrating the Feast of the saint in the church, when the emissary of Empress Theodora, Anthemius Scribo, captured him.  Pope Paschal I rebuilt the church in 822, and moved here the relics of St Cecilia from the Catacombs of St Calixtus. More restorations followed in the 18th century.  The Cardinal priest who is currently assigned to Santa Cecilia in Trastevere is Gualtiero Bassetti. His predecessors include: are Pope Stephen III, Pope Martin IV (1261-1281), Adam Easton (1383), Pope Innocent VIII (1474-1484), Thomas Wolsey (1515), Pope Gregory XIV (1585-1590), Michele Mazzarino (1647), Giuseppe Doria Pamphili (1785), Mariano Rampolla (1887-1913), and Carlo Maria Martini (d. 2012).  Since 1527, a community of Benedictine nuns has lived in the monastery next to Santa Cecilia, and has had charge of the basilica.  The inscriptions found in Santa Cecilia, a valuable source illustrating the history of the church, have been collected and published by Vincenzo Forcella.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art and architecture.", "content": "The church has a façade built in 1725 by Ferdinando Fuga, which incloses a courtyard decorated with ancient mosaics, columns and a \"cantharus\" (water vessel). Its decoration includes the coat of arms and the dedication to the titular cardinal who paid for the facade, Francesco Cardinal Acquaviva d'Aragona.  Among the artifacts remaining from the 13th century edifice are a mural painting depicting the \"Last Judgment\" (1289–93) by Pietro Cavallini in the choir of the nuns, and the ciborium (1293) in the presbytery by Arnolfo di Cambio. The Gothic ciborium is surrounded by four marble columns white and black, decorated with statuettes of angels, saints, prophets, and evangelists.  The \"Last Judgement\" fresco which remains today, covering the entire width of the west wall of the entrance, is likely part of a cycle of Old and New Testament scenes by Cavallini on the north and south nave walls, based on remaining fragments of an Annunciation scene and stories of the life of Jacob. The frescoes were plastered over in a remodeling under Cardinal Francesco Acquaviva in 1724, which included building an enclosed choir, the floor of which cuts off part of the \"Last Judgement.\" Rediscovered in 1900, the fresco may be viewed during limited weekday hours for a small 2,50 euro fee paid to the Benedictine nuns who of the church.  The apse has remains of 9th century mosaics depicting the \"Redeemer with Saints Paul, Cecilia, Paschal I, Peter, Valerian, and Agatha\".  The ceiling of \"Cappella dei Ponziani\" was decorated \"God the Father with evangelists\" (1470) by Antonio del Massaro (Antonio da Viterbo or \"il Pastura\"). The \"Cappella delle Reliquie\" was frescoed and provided with an altarpiece by Luigi Vanvitelli. The nave is frescoed with the \"Apotheosis of Santa Cecilia\" (1727) by Sebastiano Conca. The church contains two altarpieces by Guido Reni: \"Saints Valerian and Cecilia\" and a \"Decapitation of Saint Cecilia\" (1603).  Under the ciborium of di Cambio that shelters the main altar, is a glass case enclosing the white marble sculpture of St Cecilia (1600) by the late-Renaissance sculptor Stefano Maderno. A marble slab in the pavement in front of the case, quotes Maderno's sworn statement that he has recorded the body as he saw it when the tomb was opened in 1599. The statue depicts the three axe strokes described in the 5th-century account of her martyrdom. It also underscores the incorruptibility of her cadaver (an attribute of some saints), which miraculously still had congealed blood after centuries. This statue could be conceived as proto-Baroque, since it depicts no idealized moment or person, but a theatric scene, a naturalistic representation of a dead or dying saint. It is striking, because it precedes by decades the similar high-Baroque sculptures by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (for example, his \"Blessed Ludovica Albertoni\") and Melchiorre Cafà (Santa Rosa de Lima).  The crypt is decorated in cosmatesque style, and contains the relics of St. Cecilia and her husband St. Valerian. In the apse of the crypt are the remains of an altar whose inscription indicates that it was dedicated by Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) on 3 June 1080.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Santa Cecilia in Trastevere is a 5th-century church in Rome, Italy, in the Trastevere rione, devoted to the Roman martyr Saint Cecilia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974673}
{"src_title": "Gardens of Vatican City", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Pious tradition claim that the foundation site of the Vatican Gardens was spread with sacred soil brought from Mount Calvary by Empress Saint Helena to symbolically unite the blood of Jesus Christ with that shed by thousands of early Christians, who died in the persecutions of Emperor Nero Caesar Augustus.  The gardens date back to medieval times when orchards and vineyards extended to the north of the Papal Apostolic Palace. In 1279, Pope Nicholas III (Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, 1277–1280) moved his residence back to the Vatican from the Lateran Palace and enclosed this area with walls. He planted an orchard \"(pomerium)\", a lawn \"(pratellum),\" and a garden \"(viridarium)\". Firstly, they appeared near the hills of Sant'Egidio where today the Palazzetto del Belvedere and the Courtyards of the Vatican Museums are located. The site received a major re-landscaping at the beginning of the 16th century, during the pontificate of Pope Julius II. Donato Bramante's original design was then split into three new courtyards, the \"Cortili del Belvedere\", the \"\"della Biblioteca\"\" and the \"\"della Pigna\"\" (or \"Pine Cone\") in the Renaissance landscape design style. Also in Renaissance style, a great rectangular Labyrinth, formal in design, set in boxwood and framed with Italian stone pines, \"(Pinus pinea)\" and cedars of Lebanon, \"(Cedrus libani)\". In place of Nicholas III's enclosure, Bramante built a great rectilinear defensive wall.  In 1921 a fire broke out inside the sanctuary of the Basilica of Loreto and destroyed a statue of the Virgin Mary, known as Our Lady of Loreto. The statue was commissioned by Pope Pius XI in 1922. It was carved from cedars of Lebanon from the Vatican Gardens. The sculpture, designed by Enrico Quattrini and painted by Leopoldo Celani, is still one of the most venerated today in the Basilica of Loreto, in the Marche region.  Since the end of 2014, the Vatican Museums and the Directorate of Technical Services of the Governorate of Vatican City State have been running the project of restoration and conservation of various stone artifacts in the gardens. The goal of the project has been to prevent the deterioration of the objects of art-historical interest.  In October 2017 the professionals involved in the restoration conducted a study to consider, from a scientific point of view, modern methods and eco-sustainable techniques in application to the conservation of the artifacts over time. After a careful study, they opted for non-toxic and environmentally friendly products, such as oregano (Origanum vulgare) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris), along with other plant protection products used individually or combined.  Today's Vatican Gardens are spread over nearly, they contain a variety of medieval fortifications, buildings and monuments from the 9th century to the present day, set among vibrant flower beds and topiary, green lawns and a patch of forest. There are a variety of fountains cooling the gardens, sculptures, an artificial grotto devoted to Our Lady of Lourdes, and an Olive tree donated by the government of Israel.  Both the Vatican and Castel Gandalfo gardens became open to the general public in 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patroness of the Gardens.", "content": "Pope Pius XI designated Saint Therese of Lisieux \"The Little Flower\" as the official Patroness of the gardens on May 17, 1927, according to her the title as \"\"Sacred Keeper of the Gardens\"\" and within the same year, a small chapel dedicated to her was built within the gardens near the Leonine walls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of Marian images enshrined.", "content": "The following are venerated images of the Blessed Virgin Mary enshrined at the Vatican Gardens:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gardens of Vatican City (), also informally known as the Vatican Gardens () in Vatican City, are private urban gardens and parks which cover more than half of the country, located in the west of the territory and owned by the Pope. There are some buildings, such as Radio Vatican and the Governor's Palace, within the gardens.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974674}
{"src_title": "Caspian Flotilla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Establishment.", "content": "The Caspian Flotilla (CF) was created in November 1722 in Astrakhan by the order of Peter the Great. Led by the admiral Fyodor Apraksin, it participated in Peter's Persian campaign of 1722–1723 and the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813), assisting the Russian army in capturing Derbent and Baku during the Persian Expedition of 1796. As a result of the Treaty of Gulistan of 1813, the CF remained the only military flotilla in the Caspian Sea. Baku became its main base in 1867.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revolution.", "content": "As the situation on the Caspian Sea stabilized in due course, the number of ships in the CF began to decrease. By the beginning of the 20th century, it had two gunboats and a few armed steamers. The sailors of the CF were actively engaged in the revolutionary movement in Baku in 1903–1905 and establishment of the Soviet authority in 1917 in that region. In order to provide assistance to the Red Army, they formed the Military Fleet of the Astrakhan Region (\"Военный флот Астраханского края\", or Voyenniy flot Astrakhanskogo kraya) in April – June 1918, reinforced with torpedo boats and submarines from the Baltic Sea in the fall of 1918. On October 13, the Soviets renamed it to the Astrakhan-Caspian Military Flotilla (\"Астрахано-Каспийская военная флотилия\", or Astrakhano-Kaspiyskaya voennaya flotiliya). The ships of the flotilla were captured by the counterrevolutionary Centrocaspian Dictatorship in August 1918 and later regained by the Soviets after the overthrow of the Musavat government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet era.", "content": "In July 1919, the Astrakhan-Caspian Military Flotilla was combined with the Volga Military Flotilla (Волжская военная флотилия, or Volzhskaya voyennaya flotiliya) and renamed to the Volga-Caspian Military Flotilla (Волжско-Каспийская военная флотилия). On May 1, 1920, the Soviets established the Caspian Fleet, which comprised three auxiliary cruisers, ten torpedo boats, four submarines and other ships. Together with the Caspian Fleet, there was the Red Fleet of the Soviet Azerbaijan, stationed in Baku, as well. Both fleets completed the conquest of the Caspian Sea from the White Army. In July 1920, Caspian and Azerbaijani fleets were combined into the Naval Forces of the Caspian Sea (\"Морские Силы Каспийского моря\", or Morskiye Sily Kaspiyskogo morya) and would later be renamed to the Caspian Flotilla on June 27, 1931.  During the Great Patriotic War of 1941–1945, the Caspian Flotilla secured vital sea shipping of army units, military equipment and different cargo, especially during the Battle of Stalingrad and the battle for the Caucasus. (During the war, some of the Lend Lease were shipped to the USSR via the Persian Corridor and the Caspian Sea).  During the Cold War the Caspian Flotilla was used to test missile armed ekranoplanes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-Soviet era.", "content": "Following the Dissolution of the Soviet Union, the fleet shrank, and the Kazakh contingent was removed to serve as a basis for Kazakhstan's naval service. For several years, Russia continued to lead a joint Turkmen-Russian force based at Astrakhan.  Among the Flotilla's units, from 2000, has been a new Naval Infantry brigade, the 77th, based at Kaspiysk. The headquarters and two battalions of the brigade were scheduled to be established by August 1, 2000. It was reported by the AVN Military News Agency in June 2000 that the new brigade, which had inherited the lineage of the disbanded 77th Guards Motor Rifle Division, formerly with the Northern Fleet, was to have its troops housed in Kaspiysk and Astrakhan and have as many as 195 combat vehicles and one Gepard class frigate sent to it from Chukotka and the Northern Fleet, respectively. The brigade was also to have helicopters added to it, according to the June 2000 report. The Brigade's full name was the 77th Detached Guards Moscow-Chernigov Order of Lenin, the Red Banner, Order of Suvorov Marine Brigade. It was disbanded in 2009.  The brigade comprised a headquarters at Kaspiysk; the 414th Detached Naval Infantry Battalion (Kaspiysk); the 725th Detached Naval Infantry Battalion (Kaspiysk); the 727th Detached Naval Infantry Battalion (Astrakhan); the 1200th Detached Reconnaissance Battalion (Kaspiysk); the 1408th Independent Howitzer Artillery Battalion; the 1409th Independent Howitzer Artillery Battalion; the 975th Detached Naval Infantry Battalion (Kaspiysk); the 1387th Detached Air Defence Missile and Artillery Battalion; and the 530th Detached Electronic Countermeasures Company. Also, the flotilla has received 3 new \"Buyan\"-class stealth type river gunboats built by the St. Petersburg Almaz shipyard. On 13 and 23 November 2009, there were two separate sets of explosions at the 31st Arsenal of the Caspian Sea Flotilla, an ammunition depot, in Ulyanovsk. Ten servicemen died. The depot was to be closed.  The first Russian warship equipped with the Caliber missile system entered service with Caspian Flotilla in 2012. On 7 October 2015, Russia's Defense Minister Sergey Shoigu announced that four Russian Navy warships in the Caspian Sea had fired a total of 26 Kalibr-class cruise missiles at the positions of the terrorist group ISIL in Syria.  As of 2016, 85 percent of Caspian Flotilla consists of modern ships and vessels. In 2014-2015, Flotilla received 3 Buyan-M missile corvettes, one modernized frigate and auxiliary vessels. On 20 September 2016, Rear Admiral Igor Osipov was replaced by Rear Admiral Sergey Pinchuk.  In Dagestan, a regiment of the marine infantry was formed 01.12.2018 as part of the Caspian Flotilla (CFL) of the Southern Military District (YuVO).  To date, the new formation is fully staffed with modern weapons and military equipment, including BTR-82A armored personnel carriers, 120-mm self-propelled artillery guns 2S9 \"Nona\", 122-mm howitzers D-30, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV ) \"Eleron\" and \"Orlan\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Caspian Flotilla () is the flotilla of the Russian Navy in the Caspian Sea. Established in November 1722 by the order of Tsar Peter the Great as part of the Imperial Russian Navy, the Caspian Flotilla is the oldest brown-water navy flotilla in the Russian Navy. In 1918, the fleet was inherited by the Russian SFSR then the Soviet Union in 1922, where it formed part of the Soviet Navy and was awarded the Order of the Red Banner in 1945. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Caspian Flotilla and most of its vessels were inherited by the Russian Federation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974675}
{"src_title": "Kruševac", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The etymology is derived from the Serbian word for \"river stone\", \"krušac\" which was largely used for a building at that time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Kruševac was founded in 1371, as a fortified town in the possession of Lord Lazar Hrebeljanović. The Lazarica Church (or \"Church of St, Stephen\") was built by Lazar between 1375–78, in the Morava architectural style. It is mentioned in one of Lazar's edicts in 1387, as his seat, when he affirmed the rights of Venetian merchants on Serbian territory. In preparation for the Battle of Kosovo (1389) against the Ottoman Empire, the Serbian army assembled in the city. The site of Lazar's palace is marked by a ruined enclosure containing a fragment of the tower of his spouse Princess Milica, and, according to legend, tidings of the defeat were brought to her by crows from the battlefield. After the battle, the city was held by Princess Milica as her seat. The little that remains of Lazar's city is the Kruševac Fortress, which was declared a Cultural Monument of Exceptional Importance in 1979. Several old Ottoman houses were left at the beginning of the 20th century, besides an old Turkish fountain and bath, which was known as \"Alacahisar\" (Aladža Hisar) during Ottoman rule between 1427–1833 (nominally to 1867) when Kruševac was the seat of the Sanjak of Kruševac. The Ottoman rule was interrupted during Austrian occupations between 1688–1690 and 1717–1739.  A large monument dedicated to Serbs fallen at the Battle of Kosovo was sculpted by Đorđe Jovanović and unveiled by King Petar I Karađorđević of Serbia in 1904. A detail on the monument, among others, is a statue of the famous blind Serbian poet Filip Višnjić.  At the beginning of the German occupation of Yugoslavia the units of Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland commanded by Dragutin Keserović and supported by one detachment of communists attacked the German garrison in September 1941 but failed to liberate the town after four days battle. During World War II mass executions of patriots and antifascists occurred on hill Bagdala. Largest execution was in summer of 1943. At place of executions now is a monument named Slobodište (from the Serbian word \"sloboda\", which means 'freedom'). Kruševac was liberated on 14 October when chetnik collaborators and Germans left the city together.  Kruševac progressed profusely during the SFRY. A large number of factories were built in that era, while Kruševac became one of the strongest industrial centres in both Serbia and Yugoslavia. The machine factory IMK 14. oktobar Kruševac employed around 7,000 workers.  However, the large Kruševac industry hasn't survived the NATO bombing and post-Milošević transition. In 2002 alone 5 factories went bankrupt. From 2002 to 2014 27 factories closed and around 11,000 workers lost their jobs. The unemployment rate in Kruševac is 39%.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Settlements.", "content": "Aside from the urban area of Kruševac, the city administrative area includes the following 100 settlements:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "According to the 2011 census results, the city of Kruševac has a total population of 128,752 inhabitants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnic groups.", "content": "The ethnic composition of the city administrative area:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The most notable large companies based in the city of Kruševac are: Trayal Corporation, 14. oktobar, Rubin and Cooper Tire & Rubber Company Serbia. As of September 2017, Kruševac has one of 14 free economic zones established in Serbia.  The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2019):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Seats in the city parliament won in the 2016 local elections:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "The city's main football club is FK Napredak Kruševac, who regularly play in the Serbian SuperLiga.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – Sister cities.", "content": "Kruševac is twinned with: Other forms of co-operation and city friendship similar to the twin/sister city programmes:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kruševac ( ) is a city and the administrative center of the Rasina District in central Serbia. It is located in the valley of West Morava, on Rasina river. According to the 2011 census, the city administrative area has a population of 128,752, while the urban area has 73,316 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974676}
{"src_title": "Dmitry Dokhturov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "General.", "content": "During the War of the Third Coalition, he participated in the Battle of Dürenstein; during this battle, in the cross-fire between Pierre Dupont and himself, Johann Heinrich von Schmitt was shot by one of Dokhturov's infantrymen. Dokhturov also commanded the first column in the Battle of Austerlitz, where his force was isolated with its back to a lake. When some of his men tried to escape over the frozen lake, French artillery fire shattered the ice and many Russians perished. In general, however, he managed to extricate his troops from the French envelopment at Pratzen. During the War of the Fourth Coalition, Dokhturov fought at Eylau and Friedland. Promoted to General of Infantry in 1810, Dokhturov fought in the Battle of Smolensk. In the Battle of Borodino he commanded in the center of the Russian line and after Pyotr Bagration was mortally wounded, he commanded the left flank. Dokhturov was involved in heavy fighting once again when he led his Sixth Corps in the Battle of Maloyaroslavets. When the Russians discovered that some French troops were near Fominskoe, Field Marshal Kutusov ordered Dokhturov to attack them. But just before Dokhturov attacked, Russian partisans warned him that the French force near Fominskoe was no mere detachment; it was the main French army, commanded by Napoleon himself. Thus was a Russian catastrophe averted. Kutusov then sent Dokhturov to Maloyaroslavets, a town with a population of 1,600 people. Here Dokhturov encountered the corps of Napoleon's stepson, Eugène de Beauharnais, which consisted of largely Italian troops. Battle raged all day in the streets of Maloyaroslavets, as 32,000 Russians fought 24,000 Italians. The Italians in particular fought with distinction in this battle. By the end of the day the town had burned to the ground, killing hundreds of wounded Russian and Italian soldiers who in their desperate condition could not drag themselves out of the inferno. The battle was a draw, with perhaps a small advantage for the Italians. There were about 7,000 casualties on each side. Eugene and his Italians occupied Maloyaroslavets, but Dokhturov and his Russians occupied a strong position just south of town blocking the road to Kaluga. In the aftermath of the Hundred Days, during the advance of Field Marshal Tolly's Russian army into France in 1815, Dokhturov commanded the right column.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dmitry Sergeyevich Dokhturov () (1756 - November 14(26), 1816, Moscow) was a Russian infantry general and a prominent military leader during the Patriotic War of 1812.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974677}
{"src_title": "Paris sewers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Until the Middle Ages, the drinking water in Paris was taken from the River Seine. The wastewater was poured onto fields or unpaved streets, and finally filtered back into the Seine. Around 1200, Phillipe Auguste had the Parisian streets paved, incorporating a drain for wastewater in their middle. In 1370 Hugues Aubriot, a Parisian provost had a vaulted, stone-walled sewer built in the \"rue Montmartre\". This sewer collected the wastewater and took it to the \"Menilmontant brook\". However, the wastewater was still drained in the open air.  Under the reign of Louis XIV, a large ring sewer was built on the right bank, and the Bièvre River was used as a sewer for the left bank of the Seine. On at least two occasions in the late 1700s, Paris refused to build an updated water system that scientists had studied. Women were actually carrying water from the river Seine to their residences in buckets. Voltaire wrote about it, saying that they \"will not begrudge money for a Comic Opera, but will complain about building aqueducts worthy of Augustus\". Louis Pasteur himself lost three children to typhoid. Under Napoleon I, the first Parisian vaulted sewer network was built. It was 30 km long.  In 1855, as a part of his plan to improve the sanitation and traffic circulation in Paris, Napoleon III ordered the construction of new boulevards, aqueducts and sewers. His prefect for the Seine, Baron Haussmann, and the engineer Eugène Belgrand, designed the present Parisian sewer and water supply networks. Thus was built, more than a century ago, a double water supply network (one for drinking water and one for non drinking water) and a sewer network that was 600 km long in 1878. From 1880 to 1913, efforts were taken to connect Parisian buildings to the sewers (they were most at the time \"connected to the city's clean water network and the rest had access to free neighborhood taps (\"fontaines\")\"). By 1914, 68% of all buildings in Paris had direct connections to the sewer. Research shows that this contributed to a decline in mortality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "From Belgrand to the present.", "content": "Belgrand's successors went on extending the Parisian network: from 1914 to 1977, more than 1000 km of new sewers were built.  At the end of World War I, the 50 km2 of sewage fields were no longer sufficient to protect the Seine. A general sewage treatment programme, designed to meet the needs for 50 years, was drawn up and became state-approved in 1935: this was the beginning of industrial sewage treatment.  The aim was to carry all the Parisian wastewater to the Achères treatment plant using a network of effluent channels. Since then, the Achères plant has continued to grow. At the end of 1970, it was one of the biggest sewage treatment plants in Europe. Its actual capacity is more than 2 million cubic metres per day.  This programme has been gradually upgraded: modernization of the Achères and Noisy-le-Grand (a small station farther upstream) facilities, construction of a new plant at Valenton, and expansion of the Colombes experimental station.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modernization now and in the future.", "content": "The aims of the modernization programme launched by the Mayor of Paris in 1991 were: to protect the Seine from storm overflow pollution by reducing the amount of untreated water discharged directly into the Seine, to reinforce the existing sewers, to enable the network to function better.  This project, which is costing an estimated 152 million euros over the first 5 years, will include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The sewer in fictional stories.", "content": "The sewer system is described in Victor Hugo's 1862 novel, \"Les Misérables\" (Part 5, \"Jean Valjean\"; Book II, \"The Intestine of the Leviathan\", ch.1, \"The Land Impoverished by the Sea\"): \"...Paris has another Paris under herself; a Paris of sewers; which has its streets, its crossings, its squares, its blind alleys, its arteries, and its circulation, which is slime, minus the human form.\"  The sewer system plays a key part in H. L. Humes' 1958 novel, \"The Underground City\". Humes, an American novelist, was a cofounder of the \"Paris Review\".  The sewer features in a section of Max Brook's \"World War Z\". Many people fled to the sewers to escape the dead, but were followed, leaving one of the most dangerous campaigns of the \"war\".  In the American television show \"The Honeymooners\" episode \"The Man from Space\", broadcast 31 December 1955, sewer worker Ed Norton comes in dressed as an 18th-century fop, and announces that he will win the Raccoon lodge costume ball because he is dressed as \"Pierre Francois Brioschi, designer of the Paris sewers.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museum.", "content": "The Paris Sewer Museum (), is dedicated to the sewer system of Paris. Tours of the sewage system have been popular since the 1800s and are currently conducted at the sewers. Visitors are able to walk upon raised walkways directly above the sewage itself. The entrance is near the Pont de l'Alma.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The sewers of the French capital Paris date back to the year 1370 when the first underground system was constructed under Rue Montmartre. Consecutive French governments enlarged the system to cover the city's population, including expansions under Louis XIV and Napoleon III, and modernisation programs in the 1990s under Mayor Jacques Chirac. The system has featured in popular culture through its existence, including Victor Hugo's 1862 novel, \"Les Misérables\", and H. L. Humes' 1958 novel \"The Underground City\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974678}
{"src_title": "Republican Guard (France)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Republican Guard is the heir of the various bodies that preceded it in the course of French history and whose task was to honor and protect the high authorities of the State and City of Paris : Gardes Françaises of the Kings, Consular and Imperial guard of Napoleon, etc.. Its name derives from the Municipal Guard of Paris, established on 12 Vendémiaire XI (October 4, 1802) by Napoleon Bonaparte. It distinguished itself in battles of historical significance, including Danzig and Friedland in 1807, Alcolea in 1808 and Burgos in 1812.  In 1813 it was dissolved following the attempted coup of General Malet and replaced by the Imperial Gendarmerie of Paris and then, under the Restoration, the Royal Guard of Paris and the Royal Mounted Police of Paris. In 1830, it was recreated, and again removed after the Revolution of 1848 in favor of the Civic Guard (which proved to be a transient institution).  June 1848 saw the creation of the Republican Guard of Paris, including an infantry regiment and a regiment of cavalry. On February, 1 1849, a Napoleon III decree made the Guard a part of the French National Gendarmerie. It received its insignia July 14, 1880. It didn't take part in the First World War as a unit but more than one third of its personnel were seconded to Army regiments for the duration of the conflict. As a consequence, its flag and banner decorated with the Knight's Cross of the Legion of Honour. During the Second World War, it reported to the police headquarters and took the name of Guard of Paris. Part of its staff rallied to General de Gaulle and the Guard was involved in the fighting alongside the FFI during the liberation of Paris.  In 1952, the guard was renamed the Legion of the Republican Guard of Paris and took part in the Indochina War, which earned it the Croix de Guerre.  In 1978, the guard took its current name of \"Republican Guard.\" President Giscard d'Estaing gave it, on 11 November 1979, its new insignia. Michele Alliot-Marie, Minister of Defence, said in October 2002: \"The Republican Guard has a popularity that transcends borders,\" it contributes \"to the splendour of the French military and France.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Missions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ceremonial duties.", "content": "These ceremonial functions are performed mainly by the first infantry regiment, the cavalry regiment and occasionally by the second infantry regiment.  Detachments from the cavalry regiment reinforce the two infantry regiments in carrying out ceremonial and security duties in and around state buildings. These include the lining of both sides of the entry stairs of the Elysée or Matignon Palaces (and other buildings) by dismounted cavalry on special occasions. These Republican Guards belong to the Cavalry Regiment and not to the infantry units whose mission is to ensure the security of these palaces and of senior government figures. Certain ceremonial duties in the form of honour guards are performed during state visits to the Paris museums or the Opera, as well as during other ceremonies (for example at the French Academy).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Security missions.", "content": "Although the ceremonial duties attract more public attention, more than 80% of the missions assigned to the Garde are security missions. These include missions performed for the state such as protection of state buildings but also missions performed for the benefit of the population (for example patrols in the parks and streets).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other missions.", "content": "Some guards are assigned to more specific missions:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "The Republican Guard belongs to the French National Gendarmerie. It is made up of approx. 2,800 men and women (drawn from an overall body of 100,000 gendarmes). As a historically Parisian organization, the guards wear the armorial bearings of the city on their uniforms.  It consists of two infantry regiments (one includes a motorcycle squadron) and a horse cavalry regiment. It also has four musical formations, as well as display teams demonstrating prowess in horseback or motorcycle maneuvers. The Guard is commanded by a \"general de division\" (major general). It is headquartered in the \"Quartier des Célestins\", Paris, built in 1895-1901, designed by the renowned French architect Jacques Hermant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cavalry regiment.", "content": "Headquartered in the Quartier des Célestins, and Quartier Carnot barracks the cavalry regiment is made up of approx. 480 gendarmes and civilians of which a little more than 10% are women. It has approximately 550 horses (11% mares) and remains the last mounted regiment in the French armed forces.  The regiment is composed of:  This unit has a section of high level sportsmen, in particular Hubert Perring, dressage champion of France in 2005, and member of the French team for the World Equestrian Games of 2006.  The Guard Cavalry Regiment is twinned with the British Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment, the Italian Carabinieri Cavalry Regiment and the Senegalese Red Guard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Special displays of the cavalry regiment.", "content": "Exhibition drill squads present five shows and reenactments:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Infantry regiments.", "content": "The Republican Guard has two regiments of infantry:  Each of the seven security and honor companies is composed of three regular sections (i.e., platoons) and one peloton d'intervention (intervention platoon). The regular sections perform ceremonial duties and guards. The intervention platoons provide special security in the government buildings and palaces protected by the Guard. They are also tasked with police missions in support of the Gendarmerie in the Paris area (home arrests, escorts etc.). One of the seven intervention platoons is permanently deployed on a rotational basis to either French Guiana in support of forces combating illegal gold mining or to another French oversea territory (typically Guadeloupe or Saint Martin).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Band and Orchestra of the Republican Guard.", "content": "Depending on needs, the orchestra performs in three configurations:  It was founded in 1848 by Jean-Georges Paulus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chœur de l'Armée française (Armed Forces Choir).", "content": "This men's choir is composed of 46 professional singers. In spite of its name (Choir of the French army), it is part of the Garde républicaine and thus reports to the Gendarmerie and through the Ministers of the Armed Forces and Interior (owing to the military character of the service). The choir performs mainly during official ceremonies and commemorations but also during festivals and sport events of national and international importance. Since 2007, it has been led by a woman, Major Aurore Tillac, who serves as choir master and director.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Republican Guard () is part of the National Gendarmerie. It is responsible for providing guards of honour for the state and security in the Paris area.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974679}
{"src_title": "William of Champeaux", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "William was born at Champeaux near Melun. After studying under Anselm of Laon and Roscellinus, he taught in the school of the cathedral of Notre-Dame, of which he was made canon in 1103. Among his pupils was Peter Abelard, of which he had a disagreement with because Abelard challenged some of his ideas, and William thought Abelard was too arrogant. Abelard calls him the \"supreme master\" of dialectic after he replaced his master as the new teacher. In 1108 he resigned his positions as archdeacon of Paris and master of Notre Dame, and retreated to the shrine of St Victor, outside the city walls of Paris, where, under his influence, there formed what would become the abbey of St Victor.  He was a friend of Bernard of Clairvaux, having helped Bernard recuperate from ill-health, later he motivated Bernard to write some of his important works including the \"Apologia\", which was dedicated to William.  William left St Victor in 1113 when he became bishop of Châlons-en-Champagne, in which time he took part in the dispute concerning investitures as a supporter of Pope Callixtus II, whom he represented at the conference of Mousson. In 1114, he issued the \"Grande charte champenoise\" (Great Champagne Chart) which defined the agricultural and viticultural possessions of the Abbey of Saint-Pierre-aux-Monts, thus giving rise to the modern-day Champagne wine region. After relinquishing his Benedictine Abbacy, he moved to a Cistercian monastery in Rheims, where he also composed a number of spiritual books, such as his \"Vita Prima\", which were widely read in monastic circles.  His surviving works are a fragment on the Eucharist, inserted by Jean Mabillon in his edition of the works of St Bernard, and the \"Moralia A brevi ala\" and \"De Origine Animae\". In the last of these he maintains that children who die unbaptized must be lost, the pure soul being defiled by the grossness of the body, and declares that God's will is not to be questioned. He upholds the theory of Creationism (i.e., that a soul is specially created for each human being). Ravaisson-Mollien has discovered a number of fragments by him, among which the most important is the \"De Essentia Dei et de Substantia Dei\"; a \"Liber Sententiarum\", consisting of discussions on ethics and scriptural interpretation, is also ascribed to Champeaux.  He is considered the founder of an early version of moderate realism, a philosophy which held that universals exist in particular things as common substances individuated by accidents and in the mind as concepts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Guillaume de Champeaux (c. 1070 – 18 January 1121 in Châlons-en-Champagne), known in English as William of Champeaux and Latinised to Gulielmus de Campellis, was a French philosopher and theologian.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974680}
{"src_title": "Johan and Peewit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Publication history.", "content": "Initially titled simply \"Johan\", the series first appeared in the newspaper \"La Dernière Heure\" in 1947, and then in \"Le Soir\" from 1950 until 1952. It began publication in the Franco-Belgian comics magazine \"Spirou\" on September 11, 1952, and the initially blond-haired hero became dark-haired.  In 1954, Johan was joined by Pirlouit, and the series took its final name. It was in \"Johan et Pirlouit\", on October 23, 1958, that the first smurf appeared.  Peyo stated that Pirlouit was his favourite character, and \"Johan et Pirlouit\" was the only series on which he always did the drawings without the aid of the studio. Their adventures appeared regularly in \"Spirou\" in the 1950s and early 1960s, but the success of the Smurfs meant that they were much neglected afterwards, aside from a very short one-off adventure in 1977. However, following Peyo's death, other artists and writers have revived the series with 4 more albums between 1994 and 2001.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "Set in the Middle Ages in an unnamed European kingdom, the series follows the adventures of Johan, a brave young page to the King, and Peewit, his faithful, if boastful and cheating, midget sidekick. Johan rides off in search of adventure with his trusty horse Bayard, while Peewit gallops sporadically, and grudgingly, behind on his goat, Biquette. The pair are driven by duty to their King and the courage to defend the underpowered. Struggles for power between deposed lords and usurping villains form the basis of many of the plots which also contain elements of detective fiction as the pair hunt down traitors and outlaws, as well as fantasy, with witches and sorcerers, giants, ghosts and, above all, the Smurfs.  The first few adventures did not feature Peewit. From his first appearance in 1947, Johan had a number of solo adventures and met Peewit in 1954, thus, in line with many other comic series of the time, giving Johan's earnest hero a comic relief sidekick similar to Tintin's Captain Haddock, Spirou's Fantasio or Gil Jourdan's Libellule.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Merchandising.", "content": "While never as popular as the Smurfs, Johan and certainly Peewit enjoyed their share of fame and popularity as well, and consequently some merchandising was made. In 1959, a first Peewit figurine was made by Dupuis, followed a few years later by a Johan. In the 1970s, Bully and Schleich made Johan and Peewit figurines in their series of PVC Smurf figurines. Plush puppets were made as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In other media and comics.", "content": "Originally a \"Johan and Peewit\" adventure, \"The Smurfs and the Magic Flute\" was adapted into an animated film in 1976 in Europe, with considerable success. It was re-released in 1983 in the wake of the success of the \"Smurfs\" cartoons from Hanna-Barbera, and enjoyed some success in the USA as well.  Johan and Peewit were also featured in some of the animated Smurf cartoons, being the main stars in many episodes. In France and other European countries, their TV cartoon adventures were treated as a separate series from that of the Smurfs, even though the latter feature heavily.  In the early 1980s, some records about their adventures were made in France and Italy, contributors including Cristina D'Avena.  Another Peyo series was \"Benoît Brisefer\" (best known in English as \"Steven Strong\") about a little boy with extraordinary strength. Benoît's adventures are set in modern times. In one episode a man strongly resembling Johan can be seen signing into a luxury hotel near a film studio — he even wears a brown jacket and red trousers similar to Johan's; in another, Benoît reads a newspaper which appears to indicate the announcement of a film called \"Johan: The Return II\" with a photo of Johan next to it.  When the Smurfs got their own series, Johan and Peewit did not feature. However, they did appear in a 2008 Smurf adventure called \"Les schtroumpfeurs de flûte\" (French: \"The Flute Smurfers\"). This story, published to mark the 50th anniversary of the first appearance of the Smurfs, is a prequel to \"La flûte à six schtroumpfs\" (published in English as \"The Smurfs and the Magic Flute\") and tells how the Smurfs first deliver the flute which was to be the basis of the 1958 story. Johan and Peewit help out a human friend of the Smurfs, but do not actually get to meet the little blue elves themselves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stories and English translations.", "content": "Few of Johan and Peewit's adventures have been published in English: \"La Flûte à six Schtroumpfs\" as \"The Smurfs and the Magic Flute\" (Hodder and Stoughton UK, 1979, Random House USA, 1983 and Papercutz USA, 2010), \"La guerre des sept fontaines\" as \"The War of the Seven Springs\" (Papercutz USA, 2013), and \"La Flèche noire\" (Fantasy Flight Publishing USA, 1995) under the title \"The Black Arrow\".  Below is a list of the French titles, their year of publication, an English translation of the titles and a brief description.  The first 13 albums were published by Dupuis; those that came afterwards were published by Le Lombard.  As well as \"Spirou\" magazine, some of the shorter stories, like \"Sortilèges au château\", were published in \"Risque-Tout\" (French for \"Daredevil\") which came from the same publishers.  Johan's adventures published in newspapers prior to his appearing in \"Spirou\" are not included.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johan and Peewit () is a Belgian comics series created by Peyo. Since its initial appearance in 1947 it has been published in 13 albums that appeared before the death of Peyo in 1992. Thereafter, a team of comic book creators from Studio Peyo continued to publish the stories.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974681}
{"src_title": "Archduke Ludwig Viktor of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born in Vienna shortly after his sister Archduchess Maria Anna had died at four years of age, followed by a stillborn brother. His elder siblings included Emperor Franz Joseph, Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico and Archduke Karl Ludwig.  During the Revolutions of 1848 and the Vienna Uprising, pampered \"Luziwuzi\" with his royal family had to flee the Austrian capital, at first to Innsbruck, later to Olomouc. Ludwig Viktor pursued the usual military career and was appointed General of the Infantry, but had no intentions to interfere in politics. He rejected his brother Maximilian's ambitions in the Second Mexican Empire and especially plans to marry him to Princess Imperial Isabel, daughter of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil. Instead he concentrated on building up his own art collection and had Heinrich von Ferstel design and build the a city palace on the new Schwarzenbergplatz in Vienna, where Ludwig Viktor hosted homophile soirées.  Despite his mother's attempts to arrange a marriage for him with Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria, youngest sister of Empress Elisabeth, he remained a bachelor all his life. As a result of his very public homosexuality and transvestitism, culminating in a brawl at the Central Bathhouse Vienna, his brother Emperor Franz Joseph finally forbade him to stay in Vienna. The same emperor joked that he should be given a ballerina as adjutant to keep him out of trouble.  Ludwig Viktor retired to Klessheim Palace near Salzburg where he became known as a philanthropist and patron of the arts. He died in 1919, at the age of 76, and is buried at the Siezenheim cemetery. He was the last surviving grandchild of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor.  He was awarded Order of the White Eagle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "<br> Ludwig Viktor - 'Archduke Luziwuzi' at The World of The Habsburgs", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduke Ludwig Viktor Joseph Anton of Austria (15 May 1842 – 18 January 1919) from the House of Habsburg was the youngest son born to Archduke Franz Karl of Austria and Princess Sophie of Bavaria and younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974682}
{"src_title": "Neonaticide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Statistics.", "content": "90% of neonaticidal mothers are 25 years of age or younger. Less than 20% are married. Less than 30% are seen as psychotic or depressed. They have typically denied or concealed the pregnancy since conception.  45% of all child murders occur in the first 24 hours of life, and thus can be classified as neonaticide. For the period 1982–1987, approximately 1.1% of all homicides have been of children under one year of age. 8–9% of all murders are of persons under 18 years of age. Of these, almost twice as many sons as compared to daughters are victims. In half of the cases death occurs literally \"at the hands of\" the parent. Weapons are almost never used in neonaticide. Drowning, strangulation, head trauma, suffocation, and exposure (to the elements) are all common methods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current law.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romania.", "content": "The new Penal Code of Romania, which came into force in 2014, resolved the issues of the previous Code, under which the law was unclear. Article 200 of the new Penal Code stipulates that the killing of a newborn during the first 24 hours, by the mother who is in a state of mental distress, shall be punished with imprisonment of one to five years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Under the Born-Alive Infants Protection Act of 2002, a woman who gives childbirth after an attempted abortion is the mother of a born-alive infant if the infant is observed with any of the following signs of life: breathing, heartbeat, pulsation of the umbilical cord, or confirmed voluntary muscle movement, regardless of the gestational age of the child. Although medical guidelines recommend withholding resuscitation for infants with practically no chance of surviving, and allow parental discretion if the chance of survival is marginal, any child that has a better-than-marginal chance of survival who is allowed to die would be considered the victim of infanticide or neonaticide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "An early reference to filicide (the killing of a child by a parent) is in Greek mythology. In his play \"Medea\", Euripides portrayed Medea as having killed her two sons after Jason abandoned her for the daughter of the King of Corinth giving us what has been termed the Medea Complex. Under the Roman Law, \"patria potestas\", the right of a father to kill his own children was protected. It was not until the 4th century that the Roman state, influenced by Christianity, began to regard filicide as a crime. Still, mothers who killed their infants or newborns received lesser sentences under both the laws of the church and the state.  The church consistently dealt more leniently with those mothers whose children died by overlaying, an accidental death by smothering when a sleeping parent rolled over on the infant. The opinions of the church in these deaths may reflect an awareness of one of society's first attempts to understand the severe problem of overpopulation and overcrowding. England has traditionally viewed infanticide as a \"special crime,\" passing its first Infanticide Act in 1623 under the Stuarts and more recently in the Infanticide Acts of 1922 and 1938. Most recently England passed the Infanticide Act of 1978 which allows a lesser sentence for attempted infanticide. Unlike England and other European countries, the United States has not adopted special statutes to deal with infanticide or neonaticide. Nonetheless, juries and judges, as reflected in their verdicts and sentences, have consistently considered the difficulties and stresses of a mother during the post-partum period.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern times.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "In June 2016 it was reported that 27 babies were born in Queensland hospitals in 2015, only to later die after not receiving care. This was also reported to be happening as early as 2007 in Victoria, where 52 babies were born alive after failed late-term abortions and were \"simply put on a shelf and left to die.\" This is generally accepted as fitting the definition of infanticide in Victoria and other states.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural aspects.", "content": "The Chinese, as late as the 20th century, killed newborn daughters because they were unable to transmit the family name. Additionally, daughters were viewed as weaker and not as useful in time of war or for agricultural work. In the past, Inuit killed infants with known congenital anomalies and often one of a set of twins. Similarly, Mohave Indians had killed all children of racially mixed ancestry at birth.  In their 1981 paper, Sakuta and Saito reviewed infanticide in Japan and describe the two distinct types of infanticide commonly seen. The Mabiki type corresponds to the ancient means of \"thinning out\" or population control; the Anomie type, a product of modern society, corresponds to the \"unwanted child.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prevention.", "content": "A number of studies have evaluated risk factors in infant homicide with the aim of preventing it.  Anonymous delivery, a system where mothers can give birth in a hospital for free without showing ID, has been found to reduce the rate of police reported neonaticides in Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Baby hatch.", "content": "In the Middle Ages and in the 18th and 19th centuries, a \"foundling wheel\" system was used where mothers could leave them anonymously to be found and cared for. In modern times, baby hatch systems have been introduced in hospitals and other areas to allow mothers to leave children.  The hatches are usually in hospitals, social centres, or churches, and consist of a door or flap in an outside wall which opens onto a soft bed, heated or at least insulated. Sensors in the bed alert carers when a baby has been put in it so that they can come and take care of the child. In Germany, babies are first looked after for eight weeks during which the mother can return and claim her child without any legal repercussions. If this does not happen, after eight weeks the child is put up for adoption.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Neonaticide is the deliberate act of a parent murdering their own child during the first 24 hours of life. As a noun, the word \"neonaticide\" may also refer to anyone who practices or who has practiced this.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974683}
{"src_title": "Kal Online", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "Beginning at level one, the player must work their way up through the government positions of the individual classes to gain skills and unlock new quests. Each class has its own strengths and weaknesses. In order to level up players must kill monsters to gain experience points. Experience points the player gains from killing monsters varies, depending on factors such as player level, monster level, experience events/scrolls etc. With the latest job changes added, there are 6 jobs per class.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classes.", "content": "The player is able to choose between four character classes. Currently, only five classes are unlocked for playing. These are Knight, Archer, Magician, Thief, Shaman and Sword Trickster (only available in G2 (New) server). In all classes the players gets to choose a certain job direction. Mainly, this choice will be to pick either an attack class, or a support class.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Combat.", "content": "Players may use their character to fight monsters and opponents in the same ways; they can use their normal attacks which do not consume magic points, and also can use their special attacks which consume magic points. Monsters give experience and items, which can vary between different monsters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Player versus Player.", "content": "Currently there are six events in which players can fight one another. Every PvP mode, except for the 'duel' and 'assassin' mode, gives \"Honor points\", which the player can use to upgrade their skills, buy new weapons and accessories.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Castle Siege.", "content": "Castle siege is a mode in the game where one alliance defends the Geum-Oh Castle, whilst three alliances can sign up to attack. The attacking alliances must remove the flag in the middle of the castle, held by the defending alliance. After a flag is hoisted, it must be defended in order to gain the \"spawn point\" inside the castle.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Destructing Key Points.", "content": "The goal of this mode is for two teams to destroy towers. After three small towers are taken down, the giant tower can be destroyed. The team who has killed the most opposing players and destroyed the most towers wins.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Protecting Leader.", "content": "Two guilds fight each other; one is left with the task of defending their own guild leader while he prays. There are a total of three rounds. If a leader is killed, or the round ends, the roles are then reversed and the defenders become the attackers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Suffering Valley.", "content": "Two guilds must fight monsters to gain points, higher level monsters are worth more points. Killing opposing players also rewards the winning player's team more points. The team with the most points after 1 hour is declared the winner.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Battlefield Island.", "content": "Players have to keep as many pillars up as possible. Monsters appear from nests and attack the pillars. There is also an enemy team which can also attack the pillars. Each team has two points, and the middle is neutral ground. If an enemy sets up a pillar, the team who controls the center will lose stats. The team with the most points/bases wins.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Guilds.", "content": "Groups of players called \"Guilds\" can be formed in the game and require six players to create. Each guild has a leader and a co-leader - the leader is the founder of the guild, and he can add, remove and rank players in the guild. Each guild has its own name (changeable through using scrolls which are bought through the game's website, using a currency called KalCash). Each guild rank has a customisable title, though the original ranks (in order of highest-to-lowest) are: Leader, SubLeader, Chief, Member, Temporary member.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Servers.", "content": "The game currently has two international servers: G1 and G2 (New)  Server one (Hanin), has existed since KalOnline opened in 2004 and currently has the most players. Naraeha was then released two years later. Bango, the third and newest server, had the fewest players, but now its closed. Initially the game was only available in Korea, but due to large popularity in Korea, an international server was later added.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kal Online is an MMORPG created by the Korean company Inixsoft in February 2004. The player is given a choice of characters of different classes, their appearance customisable. The player can customize various attributes of their character as they progress throughout the game.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974684}
{"src_title": "Official (ice hockey)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "On-ice officials.", "content": "As the name implies, on-ice officials do their job on the hockey rink. They are traditionally clad in a black hockey helmet, black trousers, and a black-and-white vertically striped shirt. They wear standard hockey skates and carry a finger whistle, which they use to stop play. They communicate with players, coaches, off-ice officials, both verbally and via hand signals. Starting in 1955 with the introduction of the black-and-white jersey, NHL on-ice officials wore numbers on their back for identification. In 1977, NHL officials removed the number and had only their surnames on the back of their jerseys for identification, normally in a single row across the shoulders. (Some officials with long names would have their name in two rows, the most notable example being Andy Van Hellemond.) However, in 1994, NHL officials returned to wearing solely numbers on their shirts, a procedure adopted by other sports leagues.  In the early days of hockey when the NHL was formed (1917), the referees would be clad in a vest and tie along with their pants and carry a bell, not a whistle, to stop the game in progress. In those days, penalties were assessed more on common sense rather than following strict rules, and the official would deem what was allowed and not, as well as the length of the penalties.  Later, NHL referees wore cream-colored sweaters over a shirt and tie, from the 1930s to the early 1950s. They then briefly wore orange sweaters with half-zip fronts (and without neckties), until the black-and-white-striped jersey was introduced in 1955.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Referees.", "content": "A \"referee\" is responsible for the general supervision of the game and can be identified by the red or orange armbands. Under most officiating systems, the referee is the only official with the authority to assess penalties for violations of the rules. However, the linesmen can report a variety of penalties, such as \"Too many men on the ice\" and major penalties, to the referee, who may then assess the penalty. The referee also conducts the opening face-off in each period and face-offs that follow after a goal is scored, which are done at the centre ice face-off dot.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Linesmen.", "content": "\"Linesmen\" are primarily responsible for watching for violations involving the centre line and the blue line. Such infractions include icing and offside, after which the linesmen conduct faceoffs. They are also expected to break up scuffles, fistfights and other altercations that occur during the game. In some leagues, the rules allow linesmen to call some penalties (such as \"Too many men on the ice\"), while others only allow them to report the infraction to the referee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Assistant referees.", "content": "In some leagues, the linesmen are given the title of assistant referee. When given this title, they are given more responsibility to stop play and to call penalties that the referee may not see. The NCAA previously used this designation prior to altering its officiating systems in 2006.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Off-ice officials.", "content": "\"Off-ice officials\", with the exception of the video goal judge in professional leagues, do not have any direct impact on the outcome of the game. They serve primarily administrative and advisory roles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Goal judge.", "content": "The \"goal judge\" determines whether a player has scored a goal by watching to see if the puck has crossed the goal line completely. They act only in an advisory role; the referee has the sole authority to award goals, and thus can override the opinion of the goal judge.  One goal judge is positioned outside the rink directly behind each goal net. For arenas so equipped, the goal judge turns on a red light behind the goal to signal a score. The red goal light, and the adjacent green light are connected to the arena game clock. When the clock operator stops the clock, or the time remaining expires, the red light is not able to be activated. In the NHL, the green light is activated only when the game clock reads 00.0 seconds: in lower levels the green light may be linked to the scoreboard's siren or turn on whenever time is stopped.  In games governed by the IIHF, goal judges wear the same black-and-white striped shirts as on-ice officials. This is not the case for goal judges in North America for games under different hockey codes: their goal judges are usually dressed in apparel bearing a league or hockey association logo, such as sport coats or athletic jackets.  In the mid 2000s, the National Hockey League relocated goal judges to higher locations (most commonly the press box, a catwalk or the lower section of the upper deck) with wireless signals. The idea was to allow teams to sell the prime seats, but also to give officials a better view of the action as to be able to reject goals if violations (illegally kicked in, player in the crease, offside) took place. However, with the expansion of video replay and the addition of a second referee on the ice, the role of the goal judge became relegated to activating the goal lights. The league ceased using goal judges after the 2018–2019 season. The video goal judge now activates the goal lights from the video replay booth.  Goal judges were first used around 1877 in Montreal, and were initially called umpires.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Video goal judge.", "content": "The video goal judge reviews replays of disputed goals. As the referee does not have access to television monitors, the video goal judge's decision in disputed goals is taken as final. In the NHL, goals may only be reviewed in the following situations: puck crossing the goal line completely and before time expired, puck in the net prior to goal frame being dislodged, puck being directed into the net by hand or foot, puck deflected into the net off an official, and puck deflected into the goal by a high stick (stick above the goal) by an attacking player. All NHL goals are subject to review, and although most arenas have a video goal judge, officials from the NHL Hockey Operations Department, located in the Situation Room (also known as the \"War Room\") at the NHL office in Toronto, will often make the final decision. Arena video goal judges are used in case the communication link with Toronto is not working, and also for other situations such as timing or proper statistic attribution.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Official scorer.", "content": "The \"official scorer\" keeps the official record of the game. He is responsible for obtaining a list of eligible players from both teams prior to the start of the game. He awards points for goals and assists, and his decision in this regard is final. The official scorer typically sits in an elevated position away from the edge of the rink.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Penalty timekeeper.", "content": "The \"penalty timekeeper\" records the penalties imposed by the referee. He is responsible for ensuring that the correct penalty times are posted on the score clock and that players leave the penalty box at the appropriate times.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Game timekeeper.", "content": "The \"game timekeeper\" is responsible for stopping and starting the game clock.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistician.", "content": "The \"statistician\" records all required data concerning individual and team performances.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In ice hockey, an official is a person who has some responsibility in enforcing the rules and maintaining the order of the game. There are two categories of officials, \"on-ice officials\", who are the \"referees\" and \"linesmen\" that enforce the rules during game play, and \"off-ice officials\", who have an administrative role rather than an enforcement role.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974685}
{"src_title": "Karel Husa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Husa learned to play the violin and the piano in early childhood. After passing his final examination at high school, he enrolled in the Prague Conservatory in 1941, where he studied with Jaroslav Řídký, and attended courses in conducting led by Metod Doležil and Pavel Dědeček.  After the end of the Second World War, Husa was admitted to the graduate school of the Prague Academy, where he attended courses led by Řídký and graduated in 1947. He then continued composition and conducting studies in Paris. In 1947, he studied with Arthur Honegger and Nadia Boulanger. He studied conducting at the École Normale de Musique de Paris and at the Conservatoire de Paris. His conducting teachers included Jean Fournet, Eugène Bigot and André Cluytens. He subsequently divided his career between composing and conducting.  Husa's String Quartet No. 1 received its premiere in June 1950, and won him international attention, as well as the 1950 Lili Boulanger Award and the 1951 Bilthoven Festival Prize. Other performances in the aftermath of these prizes included the International Society for Contemporary Music in Brussels (1950), festivals in Salzburg (1950), Darmstadt (1951), and the Netherlands (1952) as well as at various concerts in Germany, France, Sweden, England, Switzerland, Australia and the United States. Other compositions written by Karel Husa during his time in Paris include \"Divertimento\" for String Orchestra, \"Concertino\" for Piano and Orchestra, \"Évocations de Slovaquie\", \"Musique d'amateurs\", \"Portrait\" for String Orchestra, \"First Symphony\", \"First Sonata\" for Piano, and \"Second String Quartet\". Throughout this period, the composer's underlying preoccupation and interest was style, which was primarily influenced by Vítězslav Novák, Leoš Janáček, Béla Bartók and Igor Stravinsky.  From 1954 until 1992, Husa was a professor at Cornell University, eventually holding the Kappa Alpha chair in music. Composers who studied with Husa include Steven Stucky, Christopher Rouse, John S. Hilliard, Jerry Amaldev, Christopher Kaufman, David Conte, and Byron Adams. He was also a lecturer at Ithaca College from 1967 to 1986, and served as the first Director of the Cayuga Chamber Orchestra from 1977 to 1984. Husa composed \"Music for Prague 1968\", a work in memory of the 1968 Soviet bloc invasion of Czechoslovakia, which became one of his most celebrated compositions. His String Quartet No. 3 won the Pulitzer Prize in 1969. Husa was the 1993 recipient of the Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition for his Concerto for Cello and Orchestra. He was a National Patron of Delta Omicron, an international professional music fraternity. In 2012, Husa received an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from the University of Louisville. In his final years, Husa resided in Apex, North Carolina.  Husa and his wife Simone were married for 64 years. The couple had four daughters, Annette, Catherine, Elizabeth and Caroline. His widow and daughters survive him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karel Husa (August 7, 1921 – December 14, 2016) was a Czech-born classical composer and conductor, winner of the 1969 Pulitzer Prize for Music and 1993 University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition. In 1954, he immigrated to the United States and became an American citizen in 1959.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974686}
{"src_title": "Valgrind", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Valgrind is in essence a virtual machine using just-in-time (JIT) compilation techniques, including dynamic recompilation. Nothing from the original program ever gets run directly on the host processor. Instead, Valgrind first translates the program into a temporary, simpler form called Intermediate Representation (IR), which is a processor-neutral, SSA-based form. After the conversion, a \"tool\" (see below) is free to do whatever transformations it would like on the IR, before Valgrind translates the IR back into machine code and lets the host processor run it. Valgrind recompiles binary code to run on host and target (or simulated) CPUs of the same architecture. It also includes a GDB stub to allow debugging of the target program as it runs in Valgrind, with \"monitor commands\" that allow you to query the Valgrind tool for various sorts of information.  A considerable amount of performance is lost in these transformations (and usually, the code the tool inserts); usually, code run with Valgrind and the \"none\" tool (which does nothing to the IR) runs at 1/4 to 1/5 of the speed of the normal program.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tools.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memcheck.", "content": "There are multiple tools included with Valgrind (and several external ones). The default (and most used) tool is \"Memcheck\". Memcheck inserts extra instrumentation code around almost all instructions, which keeps track of the \"validity\" (all unallocated memory starts as invalid or \"undefined\", until it is initialized into a deterministic state, possibly from other memory) and \"addressability\" (whether the memory address in question points to an allocated, non-freed memory block), stored in the so-called \"V bits\" and \"A bits\" respectively. As data is moved around or manipulated, the instrumentation code keeps track of the A and V bits, so they are always correct on a single-bit level.  In addition, Memcheck replaces the standard C memory allocator with its own implementation, which also includes \"memory guards\" around all allocated blocks (with the A bits set to \"invalid\"). This feature enables Memcheck to detect off-by-one errors where a program reads or writes outside an allocated block by a small amount. The problems Memcheck can detect and warn about include the following:  The price of this is lost performance. Programs running under Memcheck usually run 20–30 times slower than running outside Valgrind and use more memory (there is a memory penalty per allocation). Thus, few developers run their code under Memcheck (or any other Valgrind tool) all the time. They most commonly use such tools either to trace down some specific bug, or to verify that there are no latent bugs (of the kind Memcheck can detect) in the code.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other tools.", "content": "In addition to Memcheck, Valgrind has several other tools:  There are also several externally developed tools available. One such tool is ThreadSanitizer, another detector of race conditions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Platforms supported.", "content": "As of version 3.4.0, Valgrind supports Linux on x86, x86-64 and PowerPC. Support for was added in version 3.5.0. Support for Linux on ARMv7 (used for example in certain smartphones) was added in version 3.6.0. Support for Solaris was added in version 3.11.0. There are unofficial ports to other UNIX-like platforms (like FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and NetBSD). From version 3.7.0 the ARM/Android platform support was added.  Since version 3.9.0 there is support for Linux on MIPS64 little and big endian, for MIPS DSP ASE on MIPS32, for s390x Decimal Floating Point instructions, for POWER8 (Power ISA 2.07) instructions, for Intel AVX2 instructions, for Intel Transactional Synchronization Extensions, both RTM and HLE and initial support for Hardware Transactional Memory on POWER.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History and development.", "content": "It is named after the main entrance to Valhalla in Norse mythology.  The original author of Valgrind is Julian Seward, who in 2006 won a Google-O'Reilly Open Source Award for his work on Valgrind.  Several others have also made significant contributions, including Cerion Armour-Brown, Jeremy Fitzhardinge, Tom Hughes, Nicholas Nethercote, Paul Mackerras, Dirk Mueller, Bart Van Assche, Josef Weidendorfer, and Robert Walsh.  It is used by a number of Linux-based projects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Limitations of Memcheck.", "content": "In addition to the performance penalty, an important limitation of Memcheck is its inability to detect all cases of bounds errors in the use of static or stack-allocated data. The following code will pass the \"Memcheck\" tool in Valgrind without incident, despite containing the errors described in the comments:  The experimental valgrind tool exp-sgcheck has been written to address this limitation in Memcheck. It will detect array overrun errors, provided the first access to an array is within the array bounds. Note that exp-sgcheck will not detect the array overrun in the code above, since the first access to an array is out of bounds, but it will detect the array overrun error in the following code.  The inability to detect all errors involving the access of stack allocated data is especially noteworthy since certain types of stack errors make software vulnerable to the classic stack smashing exploit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Valgrind () is a programming tool for memory debugging, memory leak detection, and profiling. Valgrind was originally designed to be a free memory debugging tool for Linux on x86, but has since evolved to become a generic framework for creating dynamic analysis tools such as checkers and profilers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974687}
{"src_title": "Seawolf-class submarine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The \"Seawolf\" design was intended to combat the threat of advanced Soviet ballistic missile submarines such as the, and attack submarines such as the in a deep-ocean environment. \"Seawolf\"-class hulls are constructed from HY-100 steel, which is stronger than the HY-80 steel employed in previous classes, in order to withstand water pressure at greater depths.  \"Seawolf\" submarines are larger, faster, and significantly quieter than previous \"Los Angeles\"-class submarines; they also carry more weapons and have twice as many torpedo tubes. The boats are able to carry up to 50 UGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missiles for attacking land and sea surface targets. The boats also have extensive equipment to allow shallow water operations. The class uses the more advanced ARCI Modified AN/BSY-2 combat system, which includes a larger spherical sonar array, a wide aperture array (WAA), and a new towed-array sonar. Each boat is powered by a single S6W nuclear reactor, delivering to a low-noise pump-jet.  As a result of their advanced design, however, \"Seawolf\" submarines were much more expensive. The projected cost for 12 submarines of this class was $33.6 billion, but construction was stopped at three boats when the Cold War ended.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "is roughly longer than the other two boats of her class, due to the insertion of a section known as the Multi-Mission Platform (MMP) which allows launch and recovery of Remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROV) and Navy SEALs. The MMP may also be used as an underwater splicing chamber for tapping of undersea fiber optic cables. This role was formerly filled by the decommissioned. \"Jimmy Carter\" was modified for this role by General Dynamics Electric Boat at the cost of $887 million.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Seawolf\" class is a class of nuclear-powered fast attack submarines (SSN) in service with the United States Navy. The class was the intended successor to the, and design work began in 1983. A fleet of 29 submarines was to be built over a ten-year period, but that was reduced to 12 submarines. The end of the Cold War and budget constraints led to the cancellation of any further additions to the fleet in 1995, leaving the \"Seawolf\" class limited to just three boats. This, in turn, led to the design of the smaller. The \"Seawolf\" class cost about $3 billion per unit ($3.5 billion for USS \"Jimmy Carter\"), making it the most expensive SSN submarine and second most expensive submarine ever, after the French SSBN.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974688}
{"src_title": "Archduke Franz Karl of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and marriage.", "content": "Franz Karl was born in Vienna, the third son of Emperor Francis II (I) by his second marriage with Princess Maria Theresa from the House of Bourbon, daughter of King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and Maria Carolina of Habsburg-Lorraine. On 4 November 1824 in Vienna he married Princess Sophie of Bavaria from the House of Wittelsbach, a daughter of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria by his second wife Caroline of Baden. Sophie's paternal half-sister, Caroline Augusta of Bavaria was by this time Franz Karl's stepmother, having married his thrice-widowed father in 1816. The Wittelsbachs condoned the unappealing manners of Sophie's husband in consideration of the incapability of his elder brother Ferdinand and Sophie's chance to become Austrian Empress.  Franz Karl was an unambitious and generally ineffectual man, although he was, together with his uncle Archduke Louis a member of the \"Geheime Staatskonferenz\" council, which after the death of Emperor Francis II ruled the Austrian Empire in the stead of his mentally ill brother Ferdinand from 1835 to 1848. The decisions, however, were actually made by the Minister of State Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich and his rival Count Franz Anton von Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky. His wife Sophie had already transferred her ambitions, when she urged Franz Karl to renounce his claims to the throne at the time of his brother's abdication on 2 December 1848, allowing their eldest son Franz Joseph I to take the throne.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and burial.", "content": "Archduke Franz Karl died in Vienna in 1878, six years after the death of his wife. He is buried at the Imperial Crypt at the Capuchin Church. Franz Karl was the last Habsburg whose viscera were entombed at the Ducal Crypt of St. Stephen's Cathedral and whose heart was placed at the Herzgruft of the Augustinian Church according to a centuries-long family rite.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours and awards.", "content": "He received the following awards:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Ludwigsorden] [[Category:Grand Crosses of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order]] [[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Red Eagle, 1st class]] [[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Rue Crown]] [[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown (Württemberg)]] [[Category:Burials at the Imperial Crypt]]", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduke Franz Karl Joseph of Austria (17 December 1802 – 8 March 1878) was a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. He was the father of two emperors: Franz Joseph I of Austria and Maximilian I of Mexico. Through his third son Karl Ludwig, he was the grandfather of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria – whose assassination sparked the hostilities that led to the outbreak of World War I – and the great-grandfather of the last Habsburg emperor Karl I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974689}
{"src_title": "Capgras delusion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "The following two case reports are examples of the Capgras delusion in a psychiatric setting:  The following case is an instance of the Capgras delusion resulting from a neurodegenerative disease:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Causes.", "content": "It is generally agreed that the Capgras delusion has a complex and organic basis (\"caused by structural damage to organs\") and can be better understood by examining neuroanatomical damage associated with the syndrome.  In one of the first papers to consider the cerebral basis of the Capgras delusion, Alexander, Stuss and Benson pointed out in 1979 that the disorder might be related to a combination of frontal lobe damage causing problems with familiarity and right hemisphere damage causing problems with visual recognition.  Further clues to the possible causes of the Capgras delusion were suggested by the study of brain-injured patients who had developed prosopagnosia. In this condition, patients are unable to recognize faces consciously, despite being able to recognize other types of visual objects. However, a 1984 study by Bauer showed that even though conscious face recognition was impaired, patients with the condition showed autonomic arousal (measured by a galvanic skin response measure) to familiar faces, suggesting that there are two pathways to face recognition—one conscious and one unconscious.  In a 1990 paper published in the \"British Journal of Psychiatry\", psychologists Hadyn Ellis and Andy Young hypothesized that patients with Capgras delusion may have a \"mirror image\" or double dissociation of prosopagnosia, in that their conscious ability to recognize faces was intact, but they might have damage to the system that produces the automatic emotional arousal to familiar faces. This might lead to the experience of recognizing someone while feeling something was not \"quite right\" about them. In 1997, Ellis and his colleagues published a study of five patients with Capgras delusion (all diagnosed with schizophrenia) and confirmed that although they could consciously recognize the faces, they did not show the normal automatic emotional arousal response. The same low level of autonomic response was shown in the presence of strangers. Young (2008) has theorized that this means that patients with the disease experience a \"loss\" of familiarity, not a \"lack\" of it. Further evidence for this explanation comes from other studies measuring galvanic skin responses (GSR) to faces. A patient with Capgras delusion showed reduced GSRs to faces in spite of normal face recognition. This theory for the causes of Capgras delusion was summarised in \"Trends in Cognitive Sciences\" in 2001.  William Hirstein and Vilayanur S. Ramachandran reported similar findings in a paper published on a single case of a patient with Capgras delusion after brain injury. Ramachandran portrayed this case in his book \"Phantoms in the Brain\" and gave a talk about it at TED 2007. Since the patient was capable of feeling emotions and recognizing faces but could not feel emotions when recognizing familiar faces, Ramachandran hypothesizes that the origin of Capgras syndrome is a disconnection between the temporal cortex, where faces are usually recognized (see temporal lobe), and the limbic system, involved in emotions. More specifically, he emphasizes the disconnection between the amygdala and the inferotemporal cortex.  In 2010, Hirstein revised this theory to explain why a person with Capgras syndrome would have the particular reaction of not recognizing a familiar person. Hirstein explained the theory as follows:  Furthermore, Ramachandran suggests a relationship between the Capgras syndrome and a more general difficulty in linking successive episodic memories because of the crucial role emotion plays in creating memories. Since the patient could not put together memories and feelings, he believed objects in a photograph were new on every viewing, even though they normally should have evoked feelings (e.g., a person close to him, a familiar object, or even himself). Others like Merrin and Silberfarb (1976) have also proposed links between the Capgras syndrome and deficits in aspects of memory. They suggest that an important and familiar person (the usual subject of the delusion) has many layers of visual, auditory, tactile, and experiential memories associated with them, so the Capgras delusion can be understood as a failure of object constancy at a high perceptual level.  Most likely, more than just an impairment of the automatic emotional arousal response is necessary to form the Capgras delusion, as the same pattern has been reported in patients showing no signs of delusions. Ellis suggested that a second factor explains why this unusual experience is transformed into a delusional belief; this second factor is thought to be an impairment in reasoning, although no definitive impairment has been found to explain all cases. Many have argued for the inclusion of the role of patient phenomenology in explanatory models of the Capgras syndrome in order to better understand the mechanisms that enable the creation and maintenance of delusional beliefs.  Capgras syndrome has also been linked to reduplicative paramnesia, another delusional misidentification syndrome in which a person believes a location has been duplicated or relocated. Since these two syndromes are highly associated, it has been proposed that they affect similar areas of the brain and therefore have similar neurological implications. Reduplicative paramnesia is understood to affect the frontal lobe, and thus it is believed that Capgras syndrome is also associated with the frontal lobe. Even if the damage is not directly to the frontal lobe, an interruption of signals between other lobes and the frontal lobe could result in Capgras syndrome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Because it is a rare and poorly understood condition, there is no definitive way to diagnose the Capgras delusion. Diagnosis is primarily made on psychological evaluation of the patient, who is most likely brought to a psychologist's attention by a family member or friend believed to be an imposter by the person under the delusion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Treatment has not been well studied and so there is no evidence-based approach. Treatment is generally therapy, often with support of antipsychotic medication.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Capgras syndrome is named after Joseph Capgras, a French psychiatrist who first described the disorder in 1923 in his paper co-authored by Jean Reboul-Lachaux, on the case of a French woman, \"Madame Macabre,\" who complained that corresponding \"doubles\" had taken the places of her husband and other people she knew. Capgras and Reboul-Lachaux first called the syndrome \"l'illusion des sosies\", which can be translated literally as \"the illusion of look-alikes.\"  The syndrome was initially considered a purely psychiatric disorder, the delusion of a double seen as symptomatic of schizophrenia, and purely a female disorder (though this is now known not to be the case) often noted as a symptom of hysteria. Most of the proposed explanations initially following that of Capgras and Reboul-Lachaux were psychoanalytical in nature. It was not until the 1980s that attention was turned to the usually co-existing organic brain lesions originally thought to be essentially unrelated or accidental. Today, the Capgras syndrome is understood as a neurological disorder, in which the delusion primarily results from organic brain lesions or degeneration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural References.", "content": "A central character in Richard Powers's 2006 novel \"The Echo Maker\" suffers from Capgras Delusion subsequent to traumatic brain injury.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Capgras delusion is a psychiatric disorder in which a person holds a delusion that a friend, spouse, parent, or other close family member (or pet) has been replaced by an identical impostor. It is named after Joseph Capgras (1873–1950), a French psychiatrist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974690}
{"src_title": "American Wedding", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "While on a date in a fancy restaurant with Michelle Flaherty, Jim Levenstein is ready to propose to her. Jim's dad calls to inform him that he has the ring. Michelle misinterprets when Jim stalls the question. Jim's dad arrives as Jim is receiving fellatio, and a mishap grasps the restaurant's attention. Jim proposes and Michelle accepts.  Jim wants to exclude Steve Stifler from the wedding, having concerns that Stifler's behavior is not socially acceptable. When Jim is worried about learning to dance, Stifler agrees to teach him. Jim also asks Stifler to tone down his obnoxious personality, in exchange that he be allowed to attend the wedding and host a bachelor party. The boys go on a road trip when they discover there is only one designer who makes the dress that Michelle wants. They go to Chicago looking for \"Leslie Summers\"; Stifler unwittingly walks into a gay bar, and his raucous behavior gets him into a dispute with several patrons. Stifler challenges one of these patrons, Bear, to a dance-off. Stifler wins, and Bear offers to provide strippers for the bachelor party. Leslie reveals himself and agrees to make the dress for Michelle and hits on Kevin Myers, who is uncomfortable with the unrequited attention. Michelle's parents, who were initially skeptical of Jim, agree to have a preliminary dinner with him.  Michelle's younger sister, Cadence, flies in for the wedding. Both Paul Finch and Stifler are attracted to her, and in an effort to win her over, they each adopt the other's personality and mannerisms. Stifler arranges the bachelor party, including strippers, for everyone at Jim's house except Jim, who unknowingly has arranged dinner with Michelle's parents there. The party is abruptly halted by the unexpected return of the three. With assistance from Bear, who poses as a butler named \"Mr. Belvedere\", Jim nearly succeeds in keeping the activities a secret, until Michelle's mother opens a closet door and is shocked to find Kevin inside, stripped to his boxers and tied to a chair. The boys explain that it was an attempt to make Jim seem like a hero that went wrong, and Michelle's parents accept this and tell him that if he puts that much effort into the upcoming marriage, they can give their blessing.  Michelle is concerned that Jim's paternal grandmother may dislike her for not being Jewish. She is also concerned about Stifler having been invited to the wedding. On the night before the wedding, Stifler inadvertently disrupts the walk-in refrigerator's power supply while retrieving a bottle of champagne in an attempt to seduce Cadence. Previously, Stifler—unaware of Cadence's presence—had revealed his true rude and obnoxious personality. When Stifler later returns, the flowers are dead. Jim asks him to leave, and all the others, including Cadence, support Jim's decision.  Feeling guilty for his thoughtless behavior, Stifler convinces the florist to put together a new batch of flowers, and he enlists the help of his football players and Bear. As a gesture of remorse, he also gives a rose to Cadence, much to the amazement of Jim and Michelle. Moved by his actions, Cadence agrees to have sex with him in a supply closet before the ceremony, but Stifler's presence is delayed by a brief thank-you meeting Jim calls among his groomsmen, citing how he is grateful to have friends like them to back him up.  Quickly returning to the hotel, Stifler hears someone in the supply closet and steps inside, unaware that Cadence was interrupted by wedding preparations and that the ushers, the MILF guys from high school, placed Jim's grandmother in that closet to sustain her hostility about the wedding; Stifler only realizes this upon walk-in by Finch and Kevin. She becomes pleasant, particularly towards Stifler, making Michelle and Jim's dad unknowingly happy.  Despite the chaotic events leading up to it, Michelle and Jim get married. At the reception, the couple dances while Stifler dances with Cadence. Finch is sitting by himself when Stifler's mom arrives. Although agreeing they are over each other, Stifler's mom mentions having a double suite and invites Finch to join her. The film ends with the MILF guys spying on Stifler's mom and Finch in her suite's couple-size bathtub, having oral sex.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The film's soundtrack includes songs by Van Morrison, Blue October, The Working Title, Foo Fighters, Feeder, Avril Lavigne, American Hi-Fi, Sum 41, the All-American Rejects, Joseph Arthur, New Found Glory, and Hot Action Cop. Badly Drawn Boy and The Libertines also have songs in the feature. Note that most songs used were already singles. And, this is the first film to feature the song \"Laid\" (Matt Nathanson covering the band James) in both the trailers and the opening sequence. Notably, it is also the only film in the series to not play the song \"Mrs. Robinson\" in a scene where Finch has sex with Stifler's mother. It is also the first of the \"American Pie\" films not to feature a blink-182 song.  The song \"Into the Mystic\", played at the end of the film when Jim and Michelle take to the dance floor at the reception, begins as Van Morrison's recording, but midway through it changes to The Wallflowers' cover version due to licensing reasons. The band's lead singer Jakob Dylan is the brother of the film's director Jesse Dylan.  The film's soundtrack peaked at number 23 on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart.  Songs that appear during Stifler's dance in the gay bar:  Songs that appear during the bachelor party:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "\"American Wedding\" was released in the United States on August 1, 2003 and opened at #1 with $33,369,440 before dropping 53.7% the next weekend, landing at #3 behind the new releases of \"S.W.A.T.\" and \"Freaky Friday\". Closing about 3.5 months later (November 20, 2003), the film had grossed a domestic total of $104,565,114 and $126,884,089 overseas for a worldwide total of $231,449,203, based on a $55 million budget. Despite being a huge box office success, it is the lowest-grossing film in the series, making roughly $3 million less than \"American Reunion\" would in 2012.  \"American Wedding\" grossed $15.85 million on DVD and was the number seven DVD rental in 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"American Wedding\" received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, assigns the film a rating of 54%, based on 155 reviews, with an average rating of 5.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Raunchier and even more gross than the first two American Pies, \"American Wedding\" ought to please fans of the series.\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 43 out of 100, based on 34 critics, which indicates \"mixed or average reviews\".  Robert Koeler of \"Variety\" compared it to the works of John Waters and called it a \"strong finish\" for the franchise. Roger Ebert rated it 3/4 stars and wrote that the film \"is proof of the hypothesis that no genre is beyond redemption.\" Elvis Mitchell of \"The New York Times\" wrote that the film \"struggles so hard to be tasteless that it's almost quaint.\" Mick LaSalle of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" rated it 2/5 stars and called it strained and desperate to find jokes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "American Wedding (known as American Pie 3: The Wedding or American Pie: The Wedding, in some countries) is a 2003 American sex comedy film and a sequel to \"American Pie\" and \"American Pie 2\". It is the third (originally intended final) installment in the \"American Pie\" theatrical series. It was written by Adam Herz and directed by Jesse Dylan. Another sequel, \"American Reunion\", was released nine years later. This stands as the last film in the series to be written by Herz, who conceptualized the franchise, and also the only film in the series that does not star Chris Klein, who plays Oz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974691}
{"src_title": "Veronika Decides to Die", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "Veronika is a young woman from Ljubljana, Slovenia, who appears to have a perfect life, but nevertheless decides to commit suicide by overdosing with sleeping pills. While she waits to die, she cancels the suicide letter she starts to her parents while suddenly provoked by a magazine article.  The magazine article wittily asks \"Where is Slovenia?\", so she writes a letter to the press justifying her suicide, the idea is to make the press believe that she has killed herself because people don't even know where Slovenia is. Her plan fails and she wakes up from the coma in Villette, a mental hospital in Slovenia, where she is told she has only a few days to live due to heart condition caused by the overdose.  Her presence there affects all of the mental hospital's patients, especially Zedka, who has clinical depression; Mari, who has panic attacks; and Eduard, who has schizophrenia, and with whom Veronika falls in love. During her internment in Villette she realizes that she has nothing to lose and can, therefore, do what she wants, say what she wants and be who she wants without having to worry about what others think of her; as a mental patient, she is unlikely to be criticized. Because of this new-found freedom, Veronika experiences all the things she never allowed herself to experience, including hatred and love.  In the meantime, Villette's head psychiatrist, Dr. Igor, attempts a fascinating but provocative experiment: can you \"shock\" someone into wanting to live by convincing her that death is imminent? Like a doctor applying defibrillator paddles to a heart attack victim, Dr. Igor's \"prognosis\" jump-starts Veronika's new appreciation of the world around her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film adaptations and cultural references.", "content": "\"Veronika Decides to Die\" was adapted into a screenplay and released in 2009. The 2005 Japanese film \"ベロニカは死ぬことにした (Beronika wa shinu koto ni shita)\" is also based on the novel. The song \"Saint Veronika\" by Canadian band Billy Talent references this novel. The song \"Veronika Decides to Die\" by Plymothian ska-rock band NoComply is also a direct reference to the book. \"Veronika Decides to Die\" inspired Danish Melodic doom/death metal band Saturnus to make an album dedicated to this book.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Veronika Decides to Die () is a novel by Paulo Coelho. It tells the story of 24-year-old Slovenian Veronika, who appears to have everything in life going for her, but who decides to kill herself. This book is partly based on Coelho's experience in various mental institutions (see the biography \"Confessions of a Pilgrim\" by Juan Arias), and deals with the subject of madness. The gist of the message is that \"collective madness is called sanity\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974692}
{"src_title": "Mil Mi-10", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The advent of the Mi-6 gave the Soviet Union the very useful ability to move and place large, bulky or heavy loads with precision. Limitations of the Mi-6 in the flying crane role included a weight to payload ratio and the inability of the crew to easily see the load and its intended final position. A Council of Ministers directive of 20 February 1958 tasked OKB-329 (OKB Mil) with the development of a dedicated flying crane helicopter for carrying bulky loads unable to be carried in the hold of a Mi-6.  The Mil OKB's response drew heavily on the Mi-6, utilising the dynamic components and Soloviev D-25V turboshaft engines, on a slim fuselage sitting on four tall strut braced undercarriage legs, with a wide track allowing the helicopter to taxi over loads, or for mobile loads to be moved underneath. The fuselage can carry 28 passengers inside the cabin as well as of cargo loaded through a side door in the aft fuselage, by an integral boom and winch. Underslung loads can be attached directly to the fuselage by hydraulically operated clamps, or carried on a pallet lifted by the winch and braced by cables and/or struts to the undercarriage legs. The external sling system of the Mi-6, with a capacity of could also be fitted under the centre fuselage.  The first prototype V-10 emerged with canted main undercarriage legs with single wheels on all four legs, as well as a retractable emergency escape chute extending below the cockpit and external auxiliary fuel tanks either side of the centre fuselage. As development progressed the main undercarriage legs were replaced with vertical units carrying twin wheels, twin nose undercarriage wheels after a period retaining the single wheels, an Auxiliary power unit (APU) installed behind the cockpit on the starboard side and emergency escape slide cables for use when the pallet is carried. The first prototype V-10 was completed in 1959 and was soon officially allocated the service designation Mi-10. The first flight took place on 15 June 1960 and flight testing continued successfully until in May 1960 the first prototype crashed during a precautionary landing resulting from loss of gearbox oil pressure, only the Navigator/ radio operator surviving. After joining the flight test programme the second prototype began a series of world record breaking altitude/payload flights for turbine powered helicopters. State acceptance trials were passed successfully in 1961, but production did not commence until 5 March 1964 at the Rostov-on-Don factory, with first flight of a production aircraft on 10 September 1964, leading to a total of forty of the long-legged Mi-10 helicopters built, from 1964 to 1969.  An early production Mil Mi-10 was exhibited in western Europe for the first time at the June 1965 Paris Air Show at Le Bourget Airport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mi-10K (short legged version).", "content": "The limitations of the Mi-10 in the slung load mission soon became obvious, chiefly, the loss of payload due to the heavy and complicated undercarriage, and more importantly the almost complete lack of oversight of the slung load, despite the inclusion of a CCTV (closed circuit television) system intended for observation of slung loads.  Foregoing the requirement to carry palleted or podded cargoes, Mil redesigned the Mi-10 with a much shorter, fixed, four-leg undercarriage and replaced the extendible escape chute with a gondola fitted with flying controls for a pilot to fly the aircraft during slung load operations. The remainder of the aircraft is essentially identical with the long-legged version. Seventeen of the new flying crane were produced as the Mi-10K, including two conversions from Mi-10s from 23 March 1974 to 1977.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational service.", "content": "The operational service of the Mi-10 was of moderate success, being distributed mainly to units of the VVS (\"Voyenno-Vozdushnyye Sily\" - Soviet Air Force) which already operated the Mi-6. Operations with no load were found to be unstable, and the best procedure for take-off was found to be a rolling take-off, which usually also resulted in nose-wheel shimmy when lightly loaded. The main mission of the early Mi-10 virtually evaporated with the improvements in contemporary ballistic missiles; thus the majority of the long-legged variants were converted to Mi-10PP, (or mi-10P), airborne Electronic Counter-Measures helicopters, carrying a large ST-900 Step' (\"Step\"' - Steppe) ECM pod under the fuselage mounted on a pallet.  Other Mi-10 long legged aircraft were converted to carry out a wide variety of missions but usually only as single prototypes. Of special note was the Mi-10R (R - \"recordnyy\"- record) record breaking helicopter, converted from a production machine, with the undercarriage of a Mi-6 fitted with fairings and spats, as well as a tail bumper to reduce the risk of damage to the rear fuselage on landing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World records.", "content": "\"Data from:\"Mil's heavylift helicopters : Mi-6, Mi-10, V-12 and Mi-26 The Mi-10R has held seven world records, none of which are still current, in the FAI E1 General class for rotorcraft powered by turbine engines.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Mil Mi-10 (NATO reporting name Harke), given the product number izdeliye 60, is a Soviet military transport helicopter of flying crane configuration, developed from the Mi-6, entering service in 1963.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974693}
{"src_title": "Hot Shots!", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The film begins at Flemner Air Base 20 years in the past. A pilot named Leland \"Buzz\" Harley (Bill Irwin) loses control of his plane and ejects, leaving his co-pilot Dominic \"Mailman\" Farnham (Ryan Stiles) to crash. Although Mailman survives, he is mistaken for a deer owing to the branches stuck to his helmet and is shot by a hunter.  Topper Harley (Charlie Sheen) wakes up from a nightmare he is having about the event when Lt. Commander Block (Kevin Dunn) asks him to return to active duty as a pilot in the U.S. Navy, to help on a new top secret mission: Operation Sleepy Weasel, commanded by the incompetent and oblivious Admiral Benson (Lloyd Bridges). Harley starts to show some psychological problems, especially when his father is mentioned. His therapist, Ramada (Valeria Golino), tries to keep Topper from flying, but she relents, and also starts to build a budding romance with Topper. Meanwhile, Topper gets into a rivalry with another fighter pilot, Kent Gregory (Cary Elwes), a former lover of Ramada and Mailman's son, who blames Buzz Harley for his father's death and believes Topper cannot handle combat pressure.  Meanwhile, Block starts privately meeting with an airplane tycoon, Mr. Wilson, who has recently built a new \"Super Fighter\" that will make the American pilots superior. Block reveals that he brought back Topper for the reason of making Sleepy Weasel fail. Block would then report that it was the Navy's planes that were the real reason for the mission failure and that they need to be replaced with Wilson's planes. During one of the last training missions, an accident between Pete \"Dead Meat\" Thompson (William O'Leary) and Jim \"Wash-Out\" Pfaffenbach (Jon Cryer) leaves Dead Meat dead and Wash Out reassigned to radar operator. Block believes this is enough to convince the Navy to buy new fighters, but Wilson calls it a \"minor incident\", saying the planes need to fail in combat.  Meanwhile, Topper starts to show more feelings for Ramada, but she is conflicted by her past with Gregory. On the carrier S.S. \"Essess\", Benson reveals the mission to be an attack of an Iraqi nuclear plant and Block assigns Topper to lead the mission, much to Gregory's chagrin. Wilson, who is also on board, instructs a crew member to sabotage the planes, putting the pilots' lives at risk. In the midst of the mission, Block mentions Buzz Harley to Topper, who becomes overcome with emotion and unable to lead. Block just starts to call out for the mission to be aborted when Iraqi fighters attack the squadron. All the planes' weapons fail, and Block, realizing what has happened, tells Topper that he saw what really happened with Buzz and Mailman: That Buzz tried to do everything possible to save Mailman, but ended up falling out of the plane, failing in his attempts.  Inspired, Topper single-handedly beats the Iraqi fighters and bombs the nuclear plant, dropping a bomb directly on Saddam Hussein (who was taking a sunbath at the plant). Back aboard ship, Wilson's plan is revealed, and his standing with the military is lost. Back in port, Gregory accepts Topper as a great pilot and lets Ramada be with Topper. The end credits show Dead Meat and Mailman in spirit with Dead Meat saluting and Mailman giving a thumbs up.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "The film debuted at number one in the United States. \"Hot Shots\" was both a critical and commercial success, grossing over $180 million worldwide. The film holds an 83% approval rating at \"Rotten Tomatoes\" based on 24 reviews. The film was chosen for the 1991 Royal Film Performance.  Kenneth Turan of the \"Los Angeles Times\" named five key differences between the film and \"\", and why he preferred the former over the latter:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related.", "content": "The fictional carrier-based \"Oscar EW-5894 Phallus Tactical Fighter Bomber\" were Folland Gnats flown by U.S. Navy pilots. The enemy planes in the third act were the Northrop F-5 and Northrop T-38 Talon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hot Shots! is a 1991 American Navy comedy film directed by Jim Abrahams, co-writer and co-director of \"Airplane!\", and written by Abrahams and Pat Proft. It stars Charlie Sheen, Cary Elwes, Valeria Golino, Lloyd Bridges, Jon Cryer, Kevin Dunn, Kristy Swanson, and Bill Irwin. It was followed by a sequel, \"Hot Shots! Part Deux\" in 1993. The film is primarily a parody of \"Top Gun\", with some scenes spoofing other popular films, including \"Weeks\", \"The Fabulous Baker Boys\", \"Dances with Wolves\", \"Marathon Man\", \"Rocky\", \"Superman\" and \"Gone with the Wind\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974694}
{"src_title": "Vic Elford", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Elford started as a co-driver, partnering David Seigle-Morris in a Triumph TR3A. By 1961 he had acquired the confidence to see himself as a potential driver in his own right: the confidence was not shared by team manager Marcus Chambers, and Elford purchased a race-tuned Mini which he rallied as a privateer with limited success before selling it at the end of the season. 1962 found him achieving success in several UK rallies driving a factory sponsored DKW Junior. The next year saw a return to Triumph and Elford achieved impressively fast times with the Triumph TR4s, although reliability of the cars in Elford's hands was disappointing, and the following year Elford switched to Ford: this was the beginning of a successful three-year rallying stint with the Ford Cortinas.  In 1967 Elford was European rally champion in a works Porsche 911. Among other victories he won the 1968 Rally Monte Carlo in a Porsche 911 and only a week later the 24 Hours of Daytona in a Porsche 907, Porsche's first ever overall win in a 24-hour race. Later that year, he also won the Targa Florio teamed with veteran Umberto Maglioli in a famous come-from-behind race after he lost 18 minutes in the first lap due to a tyre failure. Elford then entered the French Grand Prix and finished fourth in his first F1 race – a wet one, too.  By finishing the 1969 Monaco Grand Prix despite troubles, he became the only driver to do well in both famous events in Monte Carlo since Louis Chiron.  Racing in the World Sportscar Championship for Martini Racing against the mighty JWA Gulf team, he was clocked at over 380 km/h in the Porsche 917LH in practise for the 1971 24 Hours of Le Mans. He went on to win the 1971 12 Hours of Sebring in a Porsche 917K, as well as several 1000km Nürburgring races. During the 1972 24 Hours of Le Mans, when he saw a burning Ferrari Daytona in front of him, Elford stopped in mid-race to save the driver. When opening the door, Elford found an empty cockpit, as the driver already had escaped. Elford then noticed the wreck of a Lola among the trees, with Jo Bonnier having been killed. Cameras caught the act and Elford was named Chevalier of the National Order of Merit by French President Georges Pompidou.  A Targa Florio, Sebring and Daytona winner, his favourite track was nonetheless the Nürburgring despite the disappointing results in his three F1 attempts there, of which the first two ended in lap 1 accidents. His two last GPs were at the Nürburgring. In addition to the 1000 km, Elford won some 500 km races there, winning a total of 6 major races. Only Rudolf Caracciola and Stirling Moss beat that record.  Elford lap records included: Targa Florio, Nürburgring, Daytona, Sebring, Norisring, Monza, Buenos Aires, Road Atlanta, Laguna Seca, Riverside and Le Mans.  On 4 February 1967 at Lydden Circuit, he won the first ever Rallycross event. Later that year he won the 84 Hour \"Marathon de la Route\" event at the Nürburgring, on the full 28 km long combined versions that was rarely used since the 1930s. Fellow pilots Hans Herrmann and Jochen Neerpasch preferred \"the rally driver\" to steer the Porsche 911 through the 7 hours long, four consecutive night turns in rainy and foggy conditions. The winning car was fitted with a semi-automatic Sportomatic transmission, as was another Porsche 911S entered by the factory team. Although he raced five years for Porsche, Elford also raced for Ford, Triumph, Lancia, Alfa-Romeo, Ferrari, Chaparral, Shadow, Cooper, Lola, Chevron, and Subaru. He also drove McLaren in F1 & CanAm, Chevrolet in TransAm.  Overseas, Elford was also racing in CanAm and the Daytona 500 of NASCAR.  Elford nowadays lives in South Florida, United States.  On 25 January 2015, Elford received the 2015 Phil Hill Award from Road Racing Drivers Club. It was presented to him by club president Bobby Rahal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Elford has authored a number of books on the subject of motorsport:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Victor Henry Elford (born 10 June 1935, in London) is a former sportscar racing, rallying and Formula One driver from England. He participated in 13 World Championship F1 Grands Prix, debuting on 7 July 1968. He scored a total of 8 championship points.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974695}
{"src_title": "Solesmes Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Priory.", "content": "Solesmes Abbey was founded in 1010 by Geoffrey, Lord of Sable, who donated the monastery and its farm to the Benedictine monks of the Saint-Pierre de la Couture Abbey, \"for the redemption of his soul and those of his parents, or those who went before him and those who come after him\". The church was dedicated on 12 October, sometime between 1006 and 1015. The Abbey celebrated a Jubilee Year from 11 October 2010 to 12 October 2010. The rebuilding of the church started towards the end of the fifteenth century. Prior Philibert de la Croix changed its plan from the basilica form to a Latin cross. His successor, Jean Bougler (1505-1556), completed the restoration of the church, added the tower, and rebuilt the cloisters, sacristy, and library. Under his direction two famous groups of statuary, known as the \"Saints of Solesmes\", were set up in the church. In the sixteenth century these masterpieces were in danger of being destroyed by the Huguenots and other Iconoclasts, but the monks saved them by erecting barricades.  From the 17th century on, Solesmes Abbey underwent a slow decline under a series of commendatory priors. The superior was a layman who received part of the monastery's income without living there. However, in 1664, the monastery was aggregated to the St. Maur Congregation and a stricter monastic observance was resumed.  Following the French Revolution, the newly formed National Constituent Assembly prohibited all religious vows on 13 February 1790. At Solesmes one of the seven monks (the sub-prior) broke his vows to become a constitutional priest and soldier of the Republic. At the beginning of 1791, the monks began to leave the monastery, and those who wished to remain there were imprisoned or deported to the Island of Jersey. One of them, Dom Pierre Papion, hid in order to celebrate secret masses across the region. After signing the Concordat, he became chaplain of the hospice de Sablé. Solesmes, whose occupants had been forced out in March 1791, was then commandeered as the country residence of a certain Henri Lenoir Chantelou and its archives were burned in a \"civic\" bonfire on 14 July 1794. The church was reopened at the time of the Concordat and the Lenoir de Chantelou family were given statues by Napoleon himself so that those at Mans were not removed.  In 1825, government property administrators sold the monastic buildings and 145 acres with its farms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abbey.", "content": "In 1831 the remaining buildings, which had escaped demolition in the Revolution but were threatened with destruction for want of a buyer, came to the attention of a locally born priest, Prosper Guéranger. Inspired by a vision of a restored monastic life in France, he acquired them for the home of a new Benedictine community. In 1832, it was decided to demolish the buildings, starting with the east wing, which has now disappeared. The Benedictines moved in on 11 July 1833. Against all expectation the new community flourished and in 1837 not only received Papal approval, but was elevated to the rank of an abbey and made the head of the newly created French Benedictine Congregation, now the Solesmes Congregation within the Benedictine Confederation.  In 1866 a convent, St. Cecilia's Abbey, Solesmes, was also founded at Solesmes, by Mother Cécile Bruyère (the first abbess) with the support of Dom Guéranger, which was the first house of the nuns of the Solesmes Congregation.  Since its restoration Solesmes has been dissolved by the French Government no fewer than four times. In 1880, 1882, and 1883 the monks were ejected by force but, receiving hospitality in the neighbourhood, succeeded each time in re-entering their abbey. Between 1901 and 1922 the monks were forced into exile in England. They settled on the Isle of Wight and built the present Quarr Abbey. The community survived those trials and those of two World Wars and is still at Solesmes.  As part of its mission of monastic revival the abbey has been the mother house of some twenty five other monastic foundations, including the monastery at Palendriai in Lithuania.  The abbey is noted for its contribution to the advancement of the Roman Catholic liturgy and the revival of Gregorian chant. A documentary film on life at Solesmes was made in 2009 and focuses on the tradition of the chant at the monastery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Solesmes Abbey or St. Peter's Abbey, Solesmes (\"Abbaye Saint-Pierre de Solesmes\") is a Benedictine monastery in Solesmes (Sarthe, France), famous as the source of the restoration of Benedictine monastic life in the country under Dom Prosper Guéranger after the French Revolution. The current abbot is the Right Reverend Dom Philippe Dupont, O.S.B.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974696}
{"src_title": "Walcheren", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "As early as Roman times, the island functioned as a point of departure for ships going to Britain; it had a temple of the goddess Nehalennia who was popular with those who braved the waters of the North Sea. The Romans called it \"Wallacra\", a term most likely associated with \"Walhaz\", the name Germans used for Romans.  Walcheren became the seat of the Danish Viking Harald (fl. 841-842), who conquered what would become the Netherlands together with his brother Rorik (fl. 842-873) (or Rurik) in the ninth century. One fringe theory has it that Ahmad ibn Rustah (fl. 10th century) described Walcheren when reporting on the seat of the Rus' Khaganate. Another fringe theory mentions Walcheren as the seat of Hades, described by Homer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treaty of Dover.", "content": "Under the Secret Treaty of Dover, concluded in 1670 between Charles II of England and Louis XIV of France, England was supposed to get possession of Walcheren as well as the isle of Cadzand, as the reward for helping France in the then impending war against the Dutch Republic. In the event, the Dutch resistance - much stronger than anticipated - managed to repulse the French-English attack, and the treaty was not implemented.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "Starting on 30 July 1809, a British armed force of 39,000 men landed on Walcheren, the Walcheren Campaign, with a view to assisting the Austrians in their war against Napoleon, and attacking the French fleet moored at Flushing (Vlissingen). The expedition turned into a disaster – although Flushing surrendered the Austrians had already been decisively defeated at the Battle of Wagram in early July and were suing for peace. Meanwhile, the French fleet had moved to Antwerp, and the British lost over 4,000 men to a disease called \"Walcheren Fever\", thought to be a combination of malaria and typhus, as well as to enemy action. The French suffered some 4000 dead, wounded and captured. With the strategic reasons for the campaign gone and the worsening conditions, the British force was withdrawn in December.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Strategically situated at the mouth of the River Scheldt, Walcheren was the key that allowed use of the deep-water port of Antwerp, located further upstream on the right bank of the southern estuary of the river. It was fought over during World War II in 1940 between Dutch and German troops in the Battle of the Netherlands, and again in 1944 in the Battle of Walcheren Causeway, the fourth and final stage of the Battle of the Scheldt. On 3 October 1944 the RAF bombed the sea wall at Westkapelle causing the Inundation of Walcheren. The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division cleared South Beveland to the east and approached the island on 31 October 1944. The plan was to cross the Sloe Channel, but leading troops of the 5th Canadian Infantry Brigade found that assault boats were useless in the deep mud of the channel. The only route open was the 40 metre wide Walcheren Causeway, a mile-long land bridge from South Beveland to the island. The Canadian Black Watch sent a company across on the evening of 31 October, but was stopped. The Calgary Highlanders sent two companies over in succession, the second attack opening up a bridgehead on the island. The Highlanders were eventually thrown back, having lost 64 killed and wounded. \"Le Régiment de Maisonneuve\" relieved them on the causeway, followed by the 1st Battalion, Glasgow Highlanders of the British 52nd Infantry Division. Meanwhile, on 1 November 1944, British Commandos landed in the village of Westkapelle in order to silence the German coastal batteries looking out over the Scheldt. The amphibious assault (\"\") proved a success and by 8 November, all German resistance on the island had ceased.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Topography.", "content": "\"Topographic map of Walcheren, 2010-2011. Click to enlarge.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Walcheren () is a region and former island in the Dutch province of Zeeland at the mouth of the Scheldt estuary. It lies between the Eastern Scheldt in the north and the Western Scheldt in the south and is roughly the shape of a rhombus. The two sides facing the North Sea consist of dunes and the rest of its coastline is made up of dykes. Middelburg, the provincial capital, lies at Walcheren's center. Vlissingen, to the south, is the main harbour and the third municipality is Veere.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974697}
{"src_title": "Luís Carlos Prestes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Tenente revolt.", "content": "Prestes helped organize the failed \"tenente\" revolts of 1922, an uprising of the largely middle class officer corps and poor conscripted servicemen against the agrarian oligarchies that dominated Brazil's Old Republic (1889–1930). Because Prestes was sick with typhoid fever, he was unable to fight on the day of the revolt. From 1924, Prestes became one of the leaders of the insurrectionist movement, leading the \"Coluna Prestes\" (Prestes' Column) on a march through the Brazilian countryside. The march did not aim to defeat the enemy forces of the Federal government, but rather to ensure the insurrectionists' survival and their ability to continue threatening the dictatorship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1930 revolution.", "content": "The \"tenente\" revolt heralded the end of the 'coffee and milk' \"coronelismo\" politics and the beginning of social reforms. The Revolution of 1930 ended Brazil's Old Republic. Joined by many moderate \"tenentes\", but not Prestes, the Revolution of 1930 installed Getúlio Vargas as Brazil's provisional president. Although the \"tenentes\" sympathized with him, Vargas was a far more conservative figure. As the \"tenentes\" wanted Prestes to join Vargas, Prestes decided to meet him in Porto Alegre and explained his idea of socialist revolution to Vargas for about two hours. Vargas was highly impressed by Prestes and even donated 800 \"contos de réis\" (about $400,000 at the time, or about $5,860,000 in 2017 USD) to the revolutionary cause. However, Prestes viewed Vargas as the leader of a bourgeois revolution and decided to route most of the donated money to the Latin American branch of the Comintern, financing the group for a few years. Another part of the money was routed to \"tenente\" member Siqueira Campos, who died in a plane crash while flying from Argentina to Brazil. His body was discovered three days later, but the money was never found.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alignment to Marxism.", "content": "As Getúlio Vargas was gaining power in Brazil, Prestes turned to Marxism while in exile in Buenos Aires. In the 1930s he became the leader of the \"Aliança Nacional Libertadora\" (National Liberating Alliance) (ANL), a left-wing popular front launched in 1935, consisting of socialists, communists, and other progressives led by the Communist Party in opposition to Vargas' crackdown against organized labor.  Getúlio Vargas, who had by this time become Brazil's legally-recognized president (no longer merely \"ad interim\"), thus looked to a form of authoritarian government. He endeavored to suppress his enemies on the left, led by Prestes, through violence and state terror in order to survive with his coalition intact during the agitated years that began in 1934. Vargas had become allied with Brazils' agrarian oligarchies, having an established network of economic and political power, and the Integralists, a fascist movement with a mass popular support-base in urban Brazil. Vargas' political power forced the Brazilian Congress to respond to the growth of the Communist movement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imprisonment.", "content": "As a result of Vargas' increased political power, the Brazilian Congress branded all leftist opposition as \"subversive\" under a March 1935 National Security Act. The new act allowed the President to ban the ANL. Vested with its new emergency powers, the federal government imposed a crackdown on the entire left, with arrests, torture, and summary trials. By mid-1935 Brazilian politics had become drastically destabilized. In July the government moved against the ANL, with troops raiding offices, confiscating propaganda, seizing records, and jailing leaders. The ANL became forced, reluctantly, to begin an armed insurrection in November. The authoritarian regime, like its fascist counterparts in Europe, responded by imprisoning and torturing Prestes and violently crushing the Communist movement through state terror.  Vargas, seeking to co-opt Brazil's fascist movement and paramilitary, known as \"Integralism\" and led by Plínio Salgado, tolerated a tide of anti-Semitism, and may have targeted Prestes' wife to appease his new supporters. Vargas deported the pregnant, German-Jewish wife of Luís Carlos Prestes, Olga Benario, to Nazi Germany, where she later died in a concentration camp. According to Prestes, he was a virgin until he met Olga Benario.  After Vargas began abandoning fascist-style autocracy in 1945, following his rapprochement with the World War II Allies in 1943, political prisoners were released, including Luís Carlos Prestes. Prestes gave an astute assessment of Vargas' politics, commenting, \"Getúlio is very flexible. When it was fashionable to be a fascist, he was a fascist. Now that it is fashionable to be democratic, he will be a democrat.\" Many members of the Brazilian Communist Party were disgusted by Prestes and decided to leave the party.  However, Prestes was correct in his assessment. Vargas astutely responded to the newly liberal sentiments of a middle class that was no longer fearful of disorder and proletarian discontent by moving away from fascist repression. Vargas promised \"a new postwar era of liberty\" that included presidential elections, amnesty for political prisoners, and the legalization of opposition parties, including the Communist Party, which had become more moderate and weaker. When asked how he could give his support to the man who deported his wife to her death, Prestes answered by saying that the good of the common man was above personal disputes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In the elections of December 2, 1945, Prestes won the highest number of votes in his race for the Senator of the Federal District. Later that month, Vargas was ousted by the hard-right wing of the military partly because of his liberalizing moves; the Communist movement became persecuted once again. However, the party made another comeback following Brazil's move toward democratization in the 1950s and early 1960s.  Under the presidency of João Goulart (1961–1964), a protégé of Getúlio Vargas, and another gaúcho from Rio Grande do Sul, the closeness of the government to the historically disenfranchised working class and peasantry and even to the Communist Party under none other than Luís Carlos Prestes was equally remarkable. Goulart appeared to have been co-opting the Communist movement in a manner reminiscent of Vargas' co-option of the Integralists shortly, and not coincidentally, before his ouster by reactionary forces. Once again, Prestes was imprisoned and the Communist movement was persecuted.  The experience of the failed \"tenente\" rebellion and Vargas' suppression of the Communist movement left Prestes, and some of his comrades, skeptical of armed conflict for the rest of his life. His well-cultivated skepticism later helped precipitate the permanent schism between hard-line Maoists and orthodox Moscow-influenced militants in the Brazilian Communist Party during the early 1960s. Prestes went on to lead the pro-Soviet faction of the party known as the Brazilian Communist Party (or PCB) while the Maoists formed the Communist Party of Brazil (or PCdoB). While the Maoists went underground and engaged in urban combat against the military dictatorship after 1964, Prestes' faction did not.  In 1970, Prestes went to Moscow with his second wife and children, and only returned to Brazil after amnesty for political offenders was granted ten years later.  After his return to Brazil, Prestes later abandoned the PCB without renouncing Marxism. He became a supporter of the Brazil's Democratic Labour Party and took part in Leonel Brizola's presidential campaign in 1989. Prestes died on March 7, 1990, aged 92.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Luís Carlos Prestes (January 3, 1898 – March 7, 1990) was a lieutenant, later communist militant and Brazilian politician. He was one of the organizers of the 1920s \"tenente\" revolts and the communist opposition to the Vargas Era in Brazil. He was also the general-secretary of the Brazilian Communist Party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974698}
{"src_title": "Beautiful Thing (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The story is set and filmed on Thamesmead, a working class area of South East London dominated by post-war council estates.  The main character, Jamie (Glen Berry), is a teenager who is infatuated with his classmate, Ste. Jamie's single mother, Sandra (Linda Henry), is pre-occupied with ambitious plans to run her own pub and has an ever-changing string of lovers; the latest of these is Tony (Ben Daniels), a neo-hippie.  Sandra finds herself at odds with Leah (Tameka Empson), a sassy and rude neighbour who has been expelled from school, does several drugs, and constantly listens and sings along to her mother's Cass Elliot records. While Jamie's homosexuality remains concealed, his introverted nature and dislike of football are reason enough for his classmates to bully him at every opportunity.  Ste (Scott Neal), who is living together with his drug-dealing brother and abusive, alcoholic father in the flat next door to Sandra and Jamie's, is beaten by his brother so badly that Sandra takes pity and lets him sleep over one night. In the absence of a third bed, Ste has to make do with sleeping 'top-to-toe' with Jamie. On the second night they share a bed, the boys change sleeping arrangements and Jamie kisses Ste for the first time.  The next morning, Ste panics, leaves the flat before Jamie has awakened, and avoids him for days. Jamie works up the nerve to steal a \"Gay Times\" from a newsagent, apparently starting to accept his sexuality and affection for Ste. Jamie finally spots Ste at a nearby party and confronts him about his sexuality; they prepare to leave together. The party ends badly, with Sandra taking vengeance on Leah for gossiping. Leah then threatens to'spill the beans' about Ste and Jamie and confesses to having covered up for Ste in front of his father and brother. Ste reacts by angrily rejecting Jamie and running away.  Slowly, Ste accepts Jamie's love. Their relationship develops as they visit a gay pub together. Sandra follows them and discovers their secret. The film reaches its climax as a bad trip by Leah (on an unnamed drug) precipitates Sandra's breakup with Tony, the news of Sandra's new job comes out, and Sandra confronts Ste and Jamie about their relationship. Sandra comes to accept her son's sexuality.  The film ends with the two boys slow-dancing in the courtyard of their council flats to the Cass Elliot song \"Dream a Little Dream of Me\" while a protective Sandra dances defiantly at their side with Leah as the local residents look on. Some onlookers are shocked, some strongly disapprove and some enjoy the moment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "\"Beautiful Thing\" has been mostly commended by contemporary critics. The film holds a 91% approval rating on the reviewing aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes based on 22 reviews, with a weighted average of 6.67/10. The site's consensus reads: \"An engaging slice of life drama that happens to double as a gay coming-of-age story, \"Beautiful Thing\" captures its place and time with deceptive depth and skill\".  Roger Ebert wrote \"The most interesting scenes involve the characters around them, who all but steal the movie. The boys’ lives contain few surprises, but from the other characters there is one astonishment after another.\" Stephen Holden from The New York Times commented \"Ms. Henry is wonderful as a woman whose fighting spirit masks a streak of hard-bitten tenderness.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "In the United States, the film was released domestically by Sony Pictures Classics. The film was released on DVD in UK in 2001 and again in 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Links to other media.", "content": "Some of the actors that appeared in \"Beautiful Thing\" appeared in other work by Jonathan Harvey. Harvey himself made a cameo appearance in the film, which he also did in \"Gimme Gimme Gimme\" and \"Beautiful People\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "A soundtrack for the film was released by MCA Records on 15 October 1996.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Beautiful Thing is a 1996 British film directed by Hettie MacDonald and released by Channel 4 Films. The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey based on his own original play of the same name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974699}
{"src_title": "Lucien Bianchi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Bianchi was born in Milan, Italy, but moved to Belgium in 1946 when he was still a child, with his father who was a race mechanic working, before the Second World War, in the Alfa Romeo competition department. His grandnephew, Jules Bianchi, who made his Formula One debut with the Marussia team for the season competing under the French flag, also died as a result of injuries sustained in a racing accident.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Racing career.", "content": "Lucien Bianchi's first race event was at the Alpine Rally in 1951. He won the 1957, 1958 and 1959 \"Tour de France\" as well as the Paris 1000 sports car race in the latter two years.  He entered Formula One in 1959, although only with sporadic appearances at first. He drove various cars under the banner of the ENB team, including a Cooper T51, a Lotus 18 and an Emeryson. After a couple of races for the UDT Laystall team in 1961, driving another Lotus, he returned to ENB for whom he drove their ENB-Maserati. He finally secured a more regular drive in Formula One in 1968, with the Cooper-BRM team, although success was elusive despite a bright start. Bianchi managed his best Formula One performance, finishing third at the 1968 Monaco Grand Prix, in his first race for Cooper.  Bianchi also raced touring cars, sports cars and rally cars, being successful in all disciplines, his biggest victories coming in the 1968 24 Hours of Le Mans, behind the wheel of a Ford GT40 with Pedro Rodríguez and at Sebring in 1962 with Jo Bonnier. He was also leading the 1968 London-Sydney Marathon when his Citroën DS collided with a non-competing car.  He was killed when his Alfa Romeo T33 spun into a telegraph pole during Le Mans testing in 1969.  At Circuit Zolder, the fourth turn of the circuit, entering the back stretch, is named LucienBianchiBocht in his memory.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lucien Bianchi (10 November 1934 – 30 March 1969), born Luciano Bianchi, was an Italian born Belgian racing driver who raced for the Cooper, ENB, UDT Laystall and Scuderia Centro Sud teams in Formula One. He entered a total of 19 Formula One World Championship races, scoring six points and had a best finish of third at the 1968 Monaco Grand Prix.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974700}
{"src_title": "Wenger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The history of Wenger S.A. is strongly linked to the history of the Swiss Army knife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Company origins.", "content": "Founded 1893 at Courtetelle in the Delémont valley in the Canton of Jura, the industrial cutlery house of Paul Boechat & Cie (the future Wenger) received a contract from the Swiss Army to produce knives as the second industrial cutlery manufacturer of Switzerland. In 1897 Theodore Wenger, a minister who had served in the US, was returning home to Switzerland and was hired by the group of entrepreneurs that had bought Boechat & Cie two years earlier (later renaming the company \"Wenger et Cie.\"). One of Wenger's first acts was to acquire a manufacturer of spoons and forks which he moved to a rented factory in Delémont.  In 1900, a new facility was built. Both the utensil operations and the Courtetelle cutlery production were incorporated into the new plant now called Fabrique Suisse de Coutellerie et Services. In 1908 the Swiss Army decided to split the contract, with half of the order going to Victorinox, in the German-speaking canton of Schwyz, and the other half to Wenger in the French-speaking part of the canton of Bern. In 1929, after Theo Wenger's death, Kaspar Oertli gained majority share in the company.  In 1988, Wenger started producing watches, one year before Victorinox.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Crisis and restart.", "content": "After the 9/11 attacks all air traveling and related industries were facing a severe crisis. This was also the case for the Swiss Army knife manufacturers especially Wenger S.A. Changing airport security regulations which precluded the carrying of pocket knives diminished the sales of Swiss Army knives at duty-free shops. The crisis led to the acquisition of Wenger by its competitor Victorinox in 2005. With the backing of Victorinox, Wenger was able to maintain its own production and branding of Swiss army knives and watches. Wenger knives are advertised as the \"Genuine Swiss Army Knife\" and Victorinox as the \"Original Swiss Army Knife\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rebranding after acquisition.", "content": "After being acquired by Victorinox, in 2005 Wenger S.A. started to develop new products. In the process of rebranding itself as a provider of multifunctional tools for outdoor adventures, Wenger started to cooperate with individuals such as Ueli Steck and Mike Horn acting as their brand ambassadors providing each of them with a suited multi-functional tool adapted to their specific challenges. Additionally Wenger cooperated with Alinghi providing the sailors with a suited multifunctional tool. Most recently Wenger supports the Patagonia Expedition Race.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Product lines merging.", "content": "On January 30, 2013, Wenger and Victorinox announced that the separate knife brands were going to be merged into one brand: Victorinox. The press release stated that Wenger's factory in Delémont would continue to produce knives and all employees at this site will retain their jobs. They further elaborated that an assortment of items from the Wenger line-up will remain in production under the Victorinox brand name. Wenger's U.S. headquarters will be merged with Victorinox's location in Monroe, Connecticut. Wenger's watch and licensing business will continue as a separate brand.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent developments.", "content": "On March, 2016, during the Baselworld 2016 expo, Victorinox relaunched the Wenger brand with marketing emphasising Swiss values at a reasonable price. Wenger changed its slogan to \"A Swiss Company Since 1893\" from \"Maker of the genuine Swiss Army Knife\", which was used for decades.  In 2017, Victorinox released a Swiss Army Knife model named “Wenger Red”. This knife has the Wenger logo and the Wenger brand name in the scale of the knife. This knife is delivered in a box with the Victorinox logo and brand name. This part number is produced in Delémont, Switzerland. This is the only Swiss Army Knife with the Wenger logo and brand name that is being produced and sold as today.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "The two main product lines of Wenger S.A. are the \"Genuine Swiss Army Knife\" and Wenger Watch. Additionally Wenger S.A. makes kitchen cutlery under the brand names of Swibo, Grand Maitre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genuine Swiss Army Knife.", "content": "Most of the traditional products produced by Wenger are pocket knives with a body size of about 75mm to 125mm (3\" to 5\") and blades of about 50mm to 100mm (2\" to 4\") with features like can openers and screwdrivers in a red- or black-coloured case.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Special editions.", "content": "The Giant  The Swiss Army knife is famous for integrating different tools into one knife. Wenger integrated 87 tools with 141 functions into one knife called The Giant, which was featured in \"Guinness World Records\".  Heritage  Based on the original plans of the Swiss Army knife of 1908 Wenger introduced the limited edition line called Heritage.  TitaniumLine, Alinghi Sui 1, Mike Horn Knife & Patagonia Expedition Race  All three are multifunctional knives developed in cooperation with the individuals and organizations involved suited to their specific challenges. The Titanium Line is a product suited to the challenges a speed climber like Ueli Steck faces. For the Swiss Americas Cup participant Alinghi Wenger developed an easy to use knife for sailors. As the main sponsor of the Wenger Patagonia Expedition Race, Wenger created a knife suited to the challenges the participants of the race have to face. For the adventurer Mike Horn Wenger released a knife in 2009.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Wenger Watches.", "content": "Wenger Watches are made in Switzerland. The company's head office is located in Delémont Switzerland. Wenger watches are supposedly related to the basic ideas and concept of the Swiss Army Knife, having a multifunctional outdoor focus. Additionally Wenger produces several watches focusing only on elegance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other products.", "content": "Wenger also makes notepads that can function as a twofold wallet.  Wenger produced bayonets for the Swiss Stgw 90 assault rifle. The bayonet has an overall length of 310 mm and a muzzle ring diameter of 22 mm. The 177 mm long blade is single-edged and it has no fuller. The bayonets were manufactured exclusively for the Swiss Army by Wenger and Victorinox (before the two companies merged).  In North America, licensed products using the Wenger and SwissGear trademarks are owned independently from Victorinox SA, and are used to market camping equipment (particularly tents, backpacks and sleeping bags), luggage, backpacks and office/business needs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wenger is one of two companies that have manufactured Swiss Army knives. Based in Delémont, Wenger was acquired by rival Victorinox in 2005. Since 2013, Wenger Swiss Army knives are integrated in the Victorinox collection (as the \"Delémont collection\"); the brand Wenger remains for watches and licensed products.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974701}
{"src_title": "Syringa vulgaris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Syringa vulgaris\" is a large deciduous shrub or multistemmed small tree, growing to high. It produces secondary shoots (suckers) from the base or roots, with stem diameters up to, which in the course of decades may produce a small clonal thicket. The bark is grey to grey-brown, smooth on young stems, longitudinally furrowed, and flaking on older stems. The leaves are simple, and 3–8 cm broad, light green to glaucous, oval to cordate, with pinnate leaf venation, a mucronate apex, and an entire margin. They are arranged in opposite pairs or occasionally in whorls of three. The flowers have a tubular base to the corolla 6–10 mm long with an open four-lobed apex 5–8 mm across, usually lilac to mauve, occasionally white. They are arranged in dense, terminal panicles long. The fruit is a dry, smooth, brown capsule, 1–2 cm long, splitting in two to release the two-winged seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy and naming.", "content": "\"Syringa vulgaris\" was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 and the description was published in \"Species Plantarum\". The Latin specific epithet \"vulgaris\" means \"common\" (in the sense of \"widespread\"}.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Garden history.", "content": "Lilacs—both \"S. vulgaris\" and \"S.\" × \"persica\" the finer, smaller \"Persian lilac\", now considered a natural hybrid—were introduced into northern European gardens at the end of the 16th century, from Ottoman gardens, not through botanists exploring the Balkan habitats of \"S. vulgaris\". The Holy Roman Emperor's ambassador, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, is generally credited with supplying lilac slips to Carolus Clusius, about 1562. Well-connected botanists, such as the great herbalist John Gerard, soon had the rarity in their gardens: Gerard noted that he had lilacs growing \"in very great plenty\" in 1597, but lilacs were not mentioned by Shakespeare, and John Loudon was of the opinion that the Persian lilac had been introduced into English gardens by John Tradescant the elder. Tradescant's Continental source for information on the lilac, and perhaps ultimately for the plants, was Pietro Andrea Mattioli, as one can tell from a unique copy of Tradescant's plant list in his Lambeth garden, an adjunct of his \"Musaeum Tradescantianum\"; it was printed, though probably not published, in 1634: it lists \"Lilac Matthioli\". That Tradescant's \"lilac of Mattioli's\" was a white one is shown by Elias Ashmole's manuscript list, \"Trees found in Mrs Tredescants Ground when it came into my possession\" (1662): \"Syringa alba\".  In the American colonies, lilacs were introduced in the 18th century. Peter Collinson, F.R.S., wrote to the Pennsylvania gardener and botanist John Bartram, proposing to send him some, and remarked that John Custis of Virginia had a fine \"collection\", which Ann Leighton interpreted as signifying common and Persian lilacs, in both purple and white, \"the entire range of lilacs possible\" at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "The lilac is a very popular ornamental plant in gardens and parks, because of its attractive, sweet-smelling flowers, which appear in early summer just before many of the roses and other summer flowers come into bloom.  In late summer, lilacs can be attacked by powdery mildew, specifically \"Erysiphe syringae\", one of the Erysiphaceae. No fall color is seen and the seed clusters have no aesthetic appeal.  Common lilac tends to flower profusely in alternate years, a habit that can be improved by deadheading the flower clusters after the color has faded and before seeds, few of which are fertile, form. At the same time, twiggy growth on shoots that have flowered more than once or twice can be cut to a strong, outward-growing side shoot.  It is widely naturalised in western and northern Europe. In a sign of its complete naturalization in North America, it has been selected as the state flower of the state of New Hampshire, because it \"is symbolic of that hardy character of the men and women of the Granite State\". Additional hardiness for Canadian gardens was bred for in a series of \"S. vulgaris\" hybrids by Isabella Preston, who introduced many of the later-blooming varieties. Their later-developing flower buds are better protected from late spring frosts. The \"Syringa \"×\" prestoniae\" hybrids range primarily in the pink and lavender shades.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "Most garden plants of \"S. vulgaris\" are cultivars, the majority of which do not exceed tall. Between 1876 and 1927, the nurseryman Victor Lemoine of Nancy, France introduced over 153 named cultivars, many of which are considered classics and still in commerce today. Lemoine's \"French lilacs\" extended the limited color range to include deeper, more saturated hues, and they also introduced double-flowered \"sports\", with the stamens replaced by extra petals.  In the UK these cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Syringa vulgaris (lilac or common lilac) is a species of flowering plant in the olive family Oleaceae, native to the Balkan Peninsula, where it grows on rocky hills. Grown for its scented purple flowers in spring, this large shrub or small tree is widely cultivated and has been naturalized in parts of Europe and North America. It is not regarded as an aggressive species, found in the wild in widely scattered sites, usually in the vicinity of past or present human habitations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974702}
{"src_title": "Jennie Garth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Garth was born in Urbana, Illinois, to John and Carolyn Garth. The youngest of seven children (though their only child together), Garth spent much of her youth on a 25-acre horse ranch between Sadorus and Arcola, Illinois. For a time the family stayed in Tuscola, Illinois; but eventually they settled in Glendale, Arizona, when Garth was around 13 years old. She studied dance and modeled, and was soon discovered at a local talent competition by Randy James, Hollywood scout and manager. She attended Greenway High School as a freshman and transferred to Apollo High School in her sophomore year. Determined to become an actress, Garth would receive audition materials from Los Angeles that she would work on with Jean Fowler, a local acting coach. She left school during her junior year to work in Los Angeles with James and would later obtain her high school diploma in California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1990, she landed the role of Kelly Taylor in the series \"Beverly Hills, 90210\". Throughout the series, Garth's character went through several trials and tribulations, and dealt with difficult issues in her personal life and with her family. Garth appears in all ten seasons of the show. She directed two episodes which was the second most of any cast member. She won a Young Artist Award and was nominated for a Teen Choice Award for the role. She was also instrumental in launching the spin-offs \"Melrose Place\" and \"90210\", with the character of Kelly becoming a continuity icon by appearing in the most franchise episodes.  Her successful role on \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" opened the door to several lead roles in made-for-TV films in the 1990s, including \"Danielle Steel's Star\" (1993), \"Without Consent\" (1994), \"Lies of the Heart: The Story of Laurie Kellogg\" (1994), \"Falling for You\" (1995), and \"An Unfinished Affair\" (1996). She also had minor and supporting roles in the theatrical films \"Telling You\" (1998), \"My Brother's War\" (1997), and \"Power 98\" (1996).  Garth ranked No. 59 on the \"FHM\" 100 Sexiest Women of 2000, and #93 on the magazine's 100 Sexiest Women of 2001.  In 2002, Garth co-starred with Amanda Bynes in the WB sitcom \"What I Like About You\" as Valerie Tyler. She and Bynes appeared on the show for all four seasons. The show centered around the relationship of the Tyler sisters, along with their friendships and romances. In 2003, she starred in the television movies \"The Last Cowboy\" and the Christmas family drama \"Secret Santa\", playing a journalist. She and the cast of \"Secret Santa\" won the \"2004 CAMIE Award\".  In 2005, she voiced her \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" character Kelly Taylor, as well as an additional role in the DVD Film \"\". The ensemble cast included Seth MacFarlane, Alex Borstein, Mila Kunis, and Drew Barrymore. Garth also starred in the TV teen drama film \"Girl, Positive\" (2007), playing a teacher who was HIV positive. She and co-star Andrea Bowen (known for the series \"Desperate Housewives\") each won a Prism Award for their performances. In 2007, Garth appeared on \"Dancing with the Stars\": season five and was paired with Derek Hough. They reached the semi-finals in the competition.  In September 2008, Garth returned to the role of Kelly Taylor on the series premiere of The CW's spin-off series \"90210\". In the new series, Garth's character, Kelly Taylor, is a Guidance Counselor at the fictional West Beverly High, where her half-sister Erin Silver attends. Kelly was reintroduced with a four-year-old son, whose father is ex-boyfriend Dylan McKay. The writers were eager to have her share scenes with former \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" co-star Shannen Doherty, who reprised her role of Brenda Walsh. Tori Spelling, who played Donna Martin in the original series, later joined the spinoff in a recurring role as well. Garth also reprised the role in season two.  On November 21, 2008, Garth appeared on the game show \"Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?\". She won $100,000 for her charity, the American Heart Association, for which she is spokeswoman for its \"Go Red for Women\" campaign. This TV show also noted that Garth owns a horse ranch in Santa Barbara, California. In 2009, she played the role of Natasha in Candace Bushnell's Web series of \"The Boardroom\". She also appeared in a cameo role on the December 7 episode of the children's television show \"Sesame Street\", entitled \"Mary Mary Quite Contrary\". In January 2010, Garth starred in an iVillage web series created by NBC Universal, \"Garden Party\", about farm life, fresh produce and healthy eating. On February 18, 2014, it was announced that production had started on \"The Jennie Garth Project\", a ten-episode reality television series that will air on HGTV. It chronicles Garth as she renovates a home in Hollywood Hills, California for herself and her three children.  On May 3, 2017, Garth launched MomGiftBox.com, \"an online subscription box of products to indulge, inspire and pamper moms with every purchase benefiting a charity.\" Garth collaborated with Dune Jewelry and launched Travelling Heart Collection in February 2018", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other ventures.", "content": "In 1993, she released a workout video titled \"Body In Progress\". She has appeared in infomercials for Keurig Vue beverage brewer and Wen healthy hair care system, and commercials for migraine headaches and RAINN Crisis hotline. In 2004, she appeared in a print ad for Wish-Bone salad dressings as part of their $25,000 Kitchen Makeover contest. In 2012, she appeared in a television commercial for clothing retailer Old Navy with \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" co-stars Luke Perry and Jason Priestley. She has graced the cover of numerous magazines, including \"Veronica\", \"TV Guide\", \"Woman's World\", \"Health\", \"Entertainment Weekly\", \"Cookie\", \"Sassy\", \"Soap Opera Digest\" and \"People\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Garth was married to musician Daniel B. Clark from 1994 to 1996.  In 1995, Garth met her second husband, actor Peter Facinelli, while filming the movie \"An Unfinished Affair\". Garth and Facinelli married on January 20, 2001, in a traditional Roman Catholic wedding mass. They have three daughters; Luca Bella (b. 1997), Lola Ray (b. 2002), and Fiona Eve (b. 2006). In March 2012, Facinelli filed for divorce. The divorce was finalized in June 2013. Although there was no requirement to do so, Garth had converted to Catholicism when she married Facinelli.  Garth subsequently began dating actor David Abrams in the fall of 2014 after they met on a blind date, and they became engaged in April 2015. They married on July 11, 2015. Garth and Abrams separated in 2017. In April 2018, the couple filed for divorce. In February 2019 the couple appeared to have reconciled with Abrams filing a petition to dismiss the divorce proceedings.  In 2002, Garth was diagnosed with a leaky heart valve, a condition she stated would require monitoring for the rest of her life. She revealed the diagnosis in 2009. \"Down the road it’s something that could get more complicated or it could not,\" she commented. \"People have had valve replacements and that kind of thing... but I’m prepared, that’s the key.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Dancing with the Stars\" performances.", "content": "In 2007, Garth appeared on season five of \"Dancing with the Stars\" and was paired with Derek Hough. They reached the semi-finals in the competition.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jennifer Eve Garth (born April 3, 1972) is an American actress. She is known for starring as Kelly Taylor throughout the \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" franchise (1990–2000) and Val Tyler on the sitcom \"What I Like About You\" (2002–06). In 2012, she starred in her own reality show, \"Jennie Garth: A Little Bit Country\" on CMT.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974703}
{"src_title": "Nothofagus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The genus \"Nothofagus\" was first formally described in 1850 by Carl Ludwig Blume who published the description in his book \"Museum botanicum Lugduno-Batavum, sive, Stirpium exoticarum novarum vel minus cognitarum ex vivis aut siccis brevis expositio et descriptio\".  Four sub-genera are recognized, based on morphology and DNA analysis:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species list.", "content": "The following is a list of species, hybrids and varieties accepted by the Plants of the World Online as at April 2020:  In 2013, Peter Brian Heenan and Rob D. Smissen proposed splitting the genus into four, turning the four recognized subgenera into the new genera \"Fuscospora\", \"Lophozonia\" and \"Trisyngyne\", with the five South American species of subgenus \"Nothofagus\" remaining in genus \"Nothofagus\". The proposed new genera are not accepted at the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Extinct species.", "content": "The following additional species are listed as extinct:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The pattern of distribution around the southern Pacific Rim suggests the dissemination of the genus dates to the time when Antarctica, Australia, and South America were connected in a common land-mass or supercontinent referred to as Gondwana. However, genetic evidence using molecular dating methods has been used to argue that the species in New Zealand and New Caledonia evolved from species that arrived in these landmasses by dispersal across oceans. Uncertainty exists in molecular dates and controversy rages as to whether the distribution of \"Nothofagus\" derives from the break-up of Gondwana (i.e. vicariance), or if long-distance dispersal has occurred across oceans. In South America, the northern limit of the genus can be construed as La Campana National Park and the Vizcachas Mountains in the central part of Chile.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The species of subgenus \"Brassospora\" are evergreen, and distributed in the tropics of New Guinea, New Britain, and New Caledonia. In New Guinea and New Britain \"Nothofagus\" is characteristic of lower montane rain forests between 1000 and 2500 meters elevation, occurring infrequently at elevations as low as 600 meters and in upper montane forests between 2500 and 3150 meters elevation. \"Nothofagus\" is most commonly found above the \"Castanopsis-Lithocarpus\" zone in the lower montane forests, and below the conifer-dominated upper montane forests. \"Nothofagus\" grows in mixed stands with trees of other species or in pure stands, particularly on ridge crests and upper slopes. The Central Range has the greatest diversity of species, with fewer species distributed among the mountains of western and northern New Guinea, New Britain, and Goodenough and Normanby islands.  The New Caledonian species are endemic to the main island (Grand Terre), most commonly on soils derived from ultramafic rocks between 150 to 1350 meters elevation. They occur in isolated stands, forming a low or stunted and irregular and fairly open canopy. The conifers \"Agathis\" and \"Araucaria\" are sometimes present as emergents, rising 10 to 20 meters above the \"Nothofagus\" canopy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beech mast.", "content": "Every four to six years or so, \"Nothofagus\" produces a heavier crop of seeds and is known as the beech mast. In New Zealand, the beech mast causes an increase in the population of introduced mammals such as mice, rats, and stoats. When the rodent population collapses, the stoats begin to prey on native bird species, many of which are threatened with extinction. This phenomenon is covered in more detail in the article on stoats in New Zealand.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nothofagus, also known as the southern beeches, is a genus of 43 species of trees and shrubs native to the Southern Hemisphere in southern South America (Chile, Argentina) and Australasia (east and southeast Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and New Caledonia). The species are ecological dominants in many temperate forests in these regions. Some species are reportedly naturalised in Germany and Great Britain. The genus has a rich fossil record of leaves, cupules, and pollen, with fossils extending into the late Cretaceous period and occurring in Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica, and South America. In the past, they were included in the family Fagaceae, but genetic tests revealed them to be genetically distinct, and they are now included in their own family, the Nothofagaceae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974704}
{"src_title": "Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "He was a son of Lord Augustus FitzRoy, a Captain in the Royal Navy, and Elizabeth Cosby, daughter of Colonel William Cosby, who served as a colonial Governor of New York. His father was the third son of the 2nd Duke of Grafton and Lady Henrietta Somerset, which made FitzRoy a great-grandson of both the 1st Duke of Grafton and the Marquess of Worcester. He was notably a fourth-generation descendant of King Charles II and the 1st Duchess of Cleveland; the surname FitzRoy stems from this illegitimacy. His younger brother was the 1st Baron Southampton. From the death of his uncle in 1747, he was styled Earl of Euston as his grandfather's heir apparent. Lord Euston was educated at Newcome's School in Hackney and at Westminster School, made the Grand Tour, and obtained a degree at Peterhouse, University of Cambridge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1756, he entered Parliament as MP for Boroughbridge, a pocket borough; several months later, he switched constituencies to Bury St Edmunds, which was controlled by his family. However, a year later, his grandfather died and he succeeded as 3rd Duke of Grafton, which elevated him to the House of Lords.  He first became known in politics as an opponent of Lord Bute, a favourite of King George III. Grafton aligned himself with the Duke of Newcastle against Lord Bute, whose term as Prime Minister was short-lived largely because it was felt that the peace terms to which he had agreed at the Treaty of Paris were not a sufficient return for Britain's performance in the Seven Years' War.  In 1765, Grafton was appointed a Privy Counsellor; then, following discussions with William Pitt the Elder, he was appointed Northern Secretary in Lord Rockingham's first government. However, he retired the following year, and Pitt (by then Lord Chatham) formed a ministry in which Grafton was First Lord of the Treasury but not Prime Minister.  Chatham's illness, at the end of 1767, resulted in Grafton becoming the Government's effective leader (he is credited with entering the office of Prime Minister in 1768), but political differences, the impact of the Corsican Crisis and the attacks of \"Junius\" led to his resignation in January 1770. Also, in 1768, Grafton became Chancellor of Cambridge University. He became Lord Privy Seal in Lord North's ministry (1771) but resigned in 1775, being in favour of conciliatory action towards the American colonists. In the second Rockingham ministry of 1782, he was again Lord Privy Seal and continued in post in the following Shelburne ministry until March 1783.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious interests.", "content": "In later years he was a prominent Unitarian, being one of the early members of the inaugural Essex Street Chapel under Rev. Theophilus Lindsey when founded in 1774. Grafton had associated with a number of liberal Anglican theologians when at Cambridge, devoted much time to theological study and writing after leaving office as Prime Minister. In 1773 in the House of Lords he supported a bill to release Anglican clergy from subscribing to all the Thirty-nine Articles. He became an advocate of moral reformation among the upper classes and of liturgical reform. He was author of:  He was a sponsor of Richard Watson's \"Consideration of the Expediency of Revising the Liturgy and Article of the Church of England\" (published 1790) and he funded the printing of 700 copies of Griesbach's edition of the Greek New Testament in 1796.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Horseracing.", "content": "The Duke also had horse racing interests. His racing silks were sky blue, with a black cap.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Grafton County, New Hampshire, in the United States, is named in his honour, as are the towns of Grafton, New South Wales, Australia, the town of Grafton, New York, the unincorporated community of Grafton, Virginia, and possibly the township (since 1856 a city) of Grafton, West Virginia. The Grafton Centre Shopping Mall in Cambridge is also named after him, and indeed lies on Fitzroy Street. Cape Grafton in Far North Queensland was named after him by Lieutenant James Cook during his first voyage of discovery.  Grafton had the longest post-premiership of any prime minister in British history, totalling 41 years and 45 days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "On 29 January 1756, he married The Hon. Anne Liddell, daughter of Henry Liddell, 4th Baronet Ravensworth (1708–1784). They had three children:  In 1764, the Duke had a very public affair with the courtesan Nancy Parsons whom he kept at his town house and took to the opera. This brazen lack of convention offended society's standards. After the Duchess had become pregnant by her lover, the Earl of Upper Ossory, she and the Duke were divorced by Act of Parliament, passed 23 March 1769. Three months later, on 24 June 1769, the Duke married Elizabeth Wrottesley (1 November 174525 May 1822), daughter of the Reverend Sir Richard Wrottesley, Dean of Worcester. They had the following children:  Grafton was thus the first British Prime Minister, before Sir Anthony Eden, to be divorced and the second, after Sir Robert Walpole, to marry while in office. Grafton would be the only Prime Minister to divorce and remarry whilst in office until 2020.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Augustus Henry FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, (28 September 173514 March 1811), styled Earl of Euston between 1747 and 1757, was a British Whig statesman of the Georgian era. He is one of a handful of dukes who have served as Prime Minister.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974705}
{"src_title": "Fluoroform", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synthesis.", "content": "About 20M kg/y are produced industrially as both a by-product of and precursor to the manufacture of Teflon. It is produced by reaction of chloroform with HF:  It is also generated biologically in small amounts apparently by decarboxylation of trifluoroacetic acid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical.", "content": "Fluoroform was first obtained by Maurice Meslans in the violent reaction of iodoform with dry silver fluoride in 1894. The reaction was improved by Otto Ruff by substitution of silver fluoride by a mixture of mercury fluoride and calcium fluoride. The exchange reaction works with iodoform and bromoform, and the exchange of the first two halogen atoms by fluorine is vigorous. By changing to a two step process, first forming a bromodifluoro methane in the reaction of antimony trifluoride with bromoform and finishing the reaction with mercury fluoride the first efficient synthesis method was found by Henne.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Industrial applications.", "content": "CHF is used in the semiconductor industry in plasma etching of silicon oxide and silicon nitride. Known as R-23 or HFC-23, it was also a useful refrigerant, sometimes as a replacement for chlorotrifluoromethane (cfc-13) and is a byproduct of its manufacture.  When used as a fire suppressant, the fluoroform carries the DuPont trade name, FE-13. CHF is recommended for this application because of its low toxicity, its low reactivity, and its high density. HFC-23 has been used in the past as a replacement for Halon 1301[cfc-13b1] in fire suppression systems as a total flooding gaseous fire suppression agent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organic chemistry.", "content": "Fluoroform is weakly acidic with a pK = 25–28 and quite inert. Attempted deprotonation results in defluorination to generate F and difluorocarbene (CF). Some organocopper and organocadmium compounds have been developed as trifluoromethylation reagents.  Fluoroform is a precursor of Ruppert's reagent CFSi(CH), which is a source of the nucleophilic CF anion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Greenhouse gas.", "content": "CHF is a potent greenhouse gas. A ton of HFC-23 in the atmosphere has the same effect as 11,700 tons of carbon dioxide. This equivalency, also called a 100-yr global warming potential, is slightly larger at 14,800 for HFC-23. The atmospheric lifetime is 270 years.  HFC-23 was the most abundant HFC in the global atmosphere until around 2001, which is when the global mean concentration of HFC-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane), the chemical now used extensively in automobile air conditioners, surpassed those of HFC-23. Global emissions of HFC-23 have in the past been dominated by the inadvertent production and release during the manufacture of the refrigerant HCFC-22 (chlorodifluoromethane).  Substantial decreases are evident in developed or Annex 1 countries HFC-23 emissions from the 1990s to the 2000s (UNFCCC greenhouse gas emissions databases). The UNFCCC Clean Development Mechanism projects have provided funding and facilitated the destruction of HFC-23 co-produced from a portion of HCFC-22 produced in developing or non-Annex 1 countries since 2003. Developing countries have become the largest producers of HCFC-22 in recent years according to data compiled by the Ozone Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization. Emissions of all HFCs are included in the UNFCCCs Kyoto Protocol. To mitigate its impact, CHF can be destroyed with electric plasma arc technologies or by high temperature incineration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fluoroform is the chemical compound with the formula CHF. It is one of the \"haloforms\", a class of compounds with the formula CHX (X = halogen) with C symmetry. Fluoroform is used in diverse applications in organic synthesis. It is not an ozone depleter but is a greenhouse gas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974706}
{"src_title": "Roman de la Rose", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early.", "content": "\"The Romance of the Rose\" was both popular and controversial. One of the most widely read works in France for three centuries, it was possibly the most read book in Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. Its emphasis on sensual language and imagery provoked attacks by Jean Gerson, Christine de Pizan and many other writers and moralists of the 14th and 15th centuries. Historian Johan Huizinga writes: \"It is astonishing that the Church, which so rigorously repressed the slightest deviations from dogma of a speculative character, suffered the teaching of this breviary of the aristocracy (for the \"Roman de la Rose\" was nothing else) to be disseminated with impunity.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern.", "content": "Later reactions suggested that it had a tenuous encyclopedic quality. The nineteenth-century scholar and writer Gaston Paris wrote that it was \"an encyclopedia in disorder\" and British author C. S. Lewis described it as having an \"encyclopedic character\". One historian wrote that while the \"Roman de la Rose\" is obviously not an encyclopedia, \"it evokes one, represents one, dreams one, perhaps, with all its aspirations and limitations\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manuscripts and incunabula.", "content": "About 300 manuscripts are extant, one of the highest figures for a secular work. Many of these are illustrated, most with fewer than ten remaining illustrations, but there are a number with twenty or more illustrations, and the exceptional Burgundian British Library Harley MS 4425 has 92 large and high quality miniatures, despite a date around 1500; the text was copied by hand from a printed edition. These are by the artist known as the Master of the Prayer Books of around 1500, commissioned by Count Engelbert II of Nassau. The peak period of production was the 14th century, but manuscript versions continued to be produced until the advent of printing, and indeed afterwards – there are at least seven manuscripts dated after 1500. There are also seven incunabula printed editions before 1500, the first from Geneva in about 1481, followed by two from Lyons in the 1480s and four from Paris in the 1490s. An edition from Lyons in 1503 is illustrated with 140 woodcuts. Digital images of more than 140 of these manuscripts are available for study in the \"Roman de la Rose\" Digital Library.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translation and influence.", "content": "Part of the story was translated from its original Old French into Middle English as \"The Romaunt of the Rose\", which had a great influence on English literature. Chaucer was familiar with the original French text, and a portion of the Middle English translation is thought to be his work. Critics suggest that the character of \"La Vieille\" acted as source material for Chaucer's Wife of Bath. There were several other early translations into languages including Middle Dutch (Heinrik van Aken, c. 1280). \"Il Fiore\" is a \"reduction\" of the poem into 232 Italian sonnets by a \"ser Durante\", sometimes thought to have been Dante, although this is generally thought unlikely. Dante never mentions the \"Roman\", but is often said to have been highly conscious of it in his own work. In 1900, the pre-Raphaelite F. S. Ellis translated the whole of the poem into English verse, with the exception of a section describing a sexual encounter, which he included in an appendix in Old French with the note that he \"believes that those who will read them will allow that he is justified in leaving them in the obscurity of the original\". C. S. Lewis's 1936 study \"The Allegory of Love\" renewed interest in the poem.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Le Roman de la Rose (The Romance of the Rose) is a medieval poem in Old French, styled as an allegorical dream vision. As poetry, \"The Romance of the Rose\" is a notable instance of courtly literature meant to entertain and to teach about the art of romantic love. Throughout the narrative, the word \"Rose\" is used both as the name of the titular lady and as an abstract symbol of female sexuality. The names of the other characters function both as personal names and as metonyms illustrating the different factors that lead to and constitute a love affair.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974707}
{"src_title": "Roberto Burle Marx", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Roberto Burle Marx was born in São Paulo. He was the fourth son of Rebecca Cecília Burle, a member of the traditional Pernambuco family of French ancestry, Burle Dubeux, and Wilhelm Marx, a German Jew born in Stuttgart and raised in Trier. The family moved to Rio de Janeiro in 1913.  Burle Marx's first landscaping inspirations came while studying painting in Germany, where he often visited the Botanical Garden in Berlin and first learned about Brazil's native flora. Upon returning to Brazil in 1930, he began collecting plants in and around his home. He went to school at the National School of Fine Arts in Rio in 1930 where he focused on visual arts under Leo Putz and Candido Portinari. While in school he associated with several of Brazil's future leaders in architecture and botanists who continued to be of significant influence in his personal and professional life. One of these was his professor, Brazilian Modernism's Lucio Costa, the architect and planner who lived down the street from Burle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1932, Burle Marx designed his first landscape for a private residence by the architects Lucio Costa and Gregori Warchavchik. This project, the Schwartz house was the beginning of a collaboration with Costa which was enriched later by Oscar Niemeyer who designed the Brazilian Pavilion at the New York World's Fair in 1939. Niemeyer also designed the Pampulha complex in 1942 for which Marx designed gardens. His first garden design was completed in 1933. In 1937, Burle Marx gained international recognition and admiration for this abstract design of a roof garden for the Ministry of Education building. The design highlighted elements of tension and drama.  In 1949 he acquired the Sítio de Santo Antonio da Bica, a 365,000m2 estate in the Barra de Guaratiba neighborhood on the outskirts of Rio de Janeiro. Burle Marx began taking expeditions into the Brazilian rain forest with botanists, landscape architects, architects and other researchers to gather plant specimens. He learned to practice studying plants in situ from the botanist Henrique Lahmeyer de Mello Barreto and established his garden, nursery and tropical plant collection at Guaratiba. This property was donated to the Brazilian government in 1985 and became a national monument. Now called Sítio Roberto Burle Marx, under the direction of IPHAN-Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional / Ministério da Cultura, it houses over 3,500 species of plants. The house was rebuilt in a valley on the site of a garden house belonging to the original plantation estate.  Roberto Burle Marx founded a landscape studio in 1955 and in the same year he founded a landscape company, called Burle Marx & Cia. Ltda. He opened an office in Caracas, Venezuela in 1956 and started working with architects Jose Tabacow and Haruyoshi Ono in 1968. Marx worked on commissions thorough out Brazil, Argentina, in Chile and many other South American countries, France, South Africa, Washington D.C. and Los Angeles. Additionally his artwork can be found displayed throughout the city of Rio de Janeiro \"it is an open-air museum of works displaying his unmistakable style, one wholly his own\" (Montero 2001 p. 29). Roberto Burle Marx's 62-year career ended when he died June 4, 1994 two months before his 85th birthday.  He spent time in the Brazilian forests where he was able to study and explore. Burle Marx was one of the first Brazilians to speak out against deforestation. This enabled him to add significantly to the botanical sciences, by discovering new rocks and plants for example. At least 50 plants bear his name. Marx was also involved in efforts to protect and conserve the rain forest from the destructive commercial activities of deforestation for bananas and other crops and clear cutting of timber.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "Burle Marx's artistic style was avant-garde and modern. Much of his work has a sense of timelessness and perfection. He explored an anti-mimitec and skeptical aesthetic developed from modernism with a distinctly Brazilian style. His designs were also influenced by cubism and abstractionism. Another strong influence was Brazilian folk art.  His aesthetics were often nature based, for example, never mixing flower colours, utilisation of big groups of the same specimen, using native plants and making a rocky field into a relaxing garden. He was very interested in each plant's character and what effect that has on the whole garden. He sought a depth in his designs by understanding how animals interacted with plants and how they bloomed, amongst other plant characteristics. Burle Marx had a great skill in utilising the sculptural form of plants. Burle Marx was mindful of the dynamic of walking through a garden. The sensation of mobility is an important element of experiencing his landscapes. He also made clever use of enormous scale, lighting and reflection particularly in his use of water. Burle Marx was able to extend the architecture of a building into the garden. He preferred to work on public spaces because, in his words, they are able to provide dignity for the masses.  Marx's work \"can be summarized in four general design concepts—the use of native tropical vegetation as a structural element of design, the rupture of symmetrical patterns in the conception of open spaces, the colorful treatment of pavements, and the use of free forms in water features\" (Vaccarino 2000, p. 17). This approach is exemplified by the Copacabana Beach promenade, where native sea breeze resistant trees and palms appear in groupings along Avenida Atlantica. These groupings punctuate Portuguese stone mosaics which form a giant abstract painting where no section along the promenade is the same. This \"painting\" is viewed from the balconies of hotels, and offers an ever-changing view for those driving along the beach. The mosaics continue the entire two and a half-mile distance of the beach. The water feature, in this case, is of course the ocean and beach, which is bordered by a 30-foot wide continuous scallop patterned mosaic walk (Eliovson 1991; Montero 2001). Copacabana Beach is \"the most famous in Brazil\" (Eliovson 1991 p. 103).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Roberto Burle Marx has received the following prizes, diplomas of merit and honorary memberships: The landscape architecture prize at the 2nd International Exhibition of Architecture (1953), title of Knight of the Order of the Crown from Belgium (1959), Diploma d’Honneur in Paris (1959), the Santos Dumont Medal of the Brazilian Government (1963), the Fine Arts Medal of The American Institute of Architects in Washington (1965), doctor of the Royal College of Art, London (1982) and an honorary doctorate from the Queen of the Netherlands. The Missouri Botanical Garden awarded him the Greensfelder Award and the Kentucky Botanic Garden proclaimed October 14, 1985 in his honor (Eliovson 1991).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roberto Burle Marx (August 4, 1909 – June 4, 1994) was a Brazilian landscape architect (as well as a painter, print maker, ecologist, naturalist, artist and musician) whose designs of parks and gardens made him world-famous. He is accredited with having introduced modernist landscape architecture to Brazil. He was known as a modern nature artist and a public urban space designer. His work had a great influence on tropical garden design in the 20th century. Water gardens were a popular theme in his work. He was deftly able to transfer traditional artistic expressions such as graphic design, tapestry and folk art into his landscape designs. He also designed fabrics, jewellery and stage sets.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974708}
{"src_title": "Archduke Rainer Ferdinand of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Milan, the capital of the Austrian Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, he was a son of Viceroy Archduke Rainer of Austria (1783–1853) and his consort Princess Elisabeth of Savoy (1800–1856). Rainer spent most of his youth at the Royal Villa of Monza. He studied law at the University of Vienna and in 1843 joined the Austrian Imperial Army in the rank of an \"Oberst\" (Colonel).  In 1852, he married his cousin Archduchess Maria Karoline of Austria (1825–1915), a daughter of Archduke Charles, known for his victory at the 1809 Battle of Aspern. The marriage was a very happy one, and, with numerous public appearances and charitable activities, the couple was probably the most popular amongst the Habsburg family. The lavish celebration of their diamond wedding in 1912 was rated as one of the last great events of the dissolving Austro-Hungarian Monarchy before World War I. However, the marriage remained childless.  In 1854, Rainer achieved the rank of \"Generalmajor\" in the Imperial Army and in 1861 was raised to \"Feldmarschall-Leutnant\" (Field marshal lieutenant). Beside his military career, he was also interested in art and science, in particular the emerging Papyrology. In 1899 he donated his extensive Faiyum papyrus collection to the Austrian National Library, part of the UNESCO Memory of the World Register since 2001.  Already in 1857, Archduke Rainer was appointed president of the Austrian Imperial Council by Emperor Francis Joseph I. In the course of the implementation of the 1861 February Patent constitution, he took up office as nominal Minister-President chairing the liberal cabinet of State Minister Anton von Schmerling.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduke Rainer Ferdinand Maria Johann Evangelist Franz Ignaz of Austria (11 January 1827 – 27 January 1913), a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine and nephew of Emperor Francis II, was an Austrian politician who served as Minister-President of Austria from 1861 to 1865.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974709}
{"src_title": "Wisła Kraków", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Wisła Kraków was founded in 1906 when students of the Second Practical School in Kraków, inspired by their professor Tadeusz Łopuszański, formed a football club.  In this first, historic season of the League, the fight for the championship was decided between two teams: Wisła Kraków and 1. FC Katowice. This rivalry was treated very seriously, not only by the two sides involved, but also by the whole nation. 1. FC was regarded as the team supported by the German minority, while Wisła, at the end of this historic season, represented ambitions of all Poles. Some time in the fall of 1927 in Katowice, an ill-fated game between 1.FC and Wisła took place. Stakes were very high – the winner would become the Champion. Kraków's side won 2–0 and became the Champion. 1.FC finished second, third was Warta Poznań.  In 1949, the club was renamed to Gwardia-Wisła Kraków. In 1955 the club returned to its original name, TS Wisła. In 1967, the club was once again renamed, to GTS Wisła, a name which held until 1990 when the club reverted to its original name, TS Wisła. In the late 1990s, the football section of the club was incorporated and was renamed Wisła Kraków SSA.  The club has had its ups and downs, winning national championships and earning European qualification. It was also relegated to the second division on three occasions. Since the football section has been bought by Tele-Fonika Kable S.A. in 1998, the team has been far and away the most successful club in Poland, winning seven national championships and finishing in second place three times, totalling ten top two finishes in 12 years.  At international level, Wisła has competed in all three of the European competitions. The club's greatest success came in the 1978–79 season, when Wisła was able to reach the quarter-finals of the European Cup, eventually to be knocked out by Malmö FF 3–5 on aggregate. Most recently, Wisła narrowly missed out on a chance to compete in the 2005–06 UEFA Champions League group stage, being defeated 4–5 by Panathinaikos after extra time.  Wisła also twice reached the second round of the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1967–68 and 1984–85, falling 0–5 and 2–3 by Hamburger SV and Fortuna Sittard respectively.  \"The White Star\" has competed in the UEFA Cup ten times.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stadium.", "content": "Wisła's Stadium is located at 22 Reymonta Street in Kraków. The stadium was originally built in 1953 and currently has a capacity of 33,326. The stadium was renovated in 2010, being upgraded to UEFA elite standards. The Wisła Stadium has also been chosen as a reserve venue for the UEFA Euro 2012 tournament, jointly held in Poland and Ukraine. The record attendance of 45,000 at Wisła Stadium came on 29 September 1976 when Wisła defeated Celtic 2–0. The venue has been a fortress for Wisła, where the team is especially difficult to defeat. It is worth noting that Wisła holds the all-time European football record for consecutive home games without a loss. The streak began following a loss on 16 September 2001 to KSZO Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski, and ended more than five years later on 11 November 2006, when GKS Bełchatów defeated Wisła 4–2. The number of matches without a loss was then settled at 73, overcoming the former Polish record of 48 which belonged to Legia Warsaw. During the 2008–09 season, Wisła lost points at home only twice, drawing with ŁKS Łódź and being defeated by Lech Poznań.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Supporters and rivalries.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fan Friendlies.", "content": "Wisła fans formerly had relations with Lechia Gdańsk and Śląsk Wrocław until 2016, when their alliance fell apart. They formed a new group with Ruch Chorzów and Widzew Łódź which divided Wisła fans. The club also has relations with Italian side Lazio, and formerly held relations with Unia Tarnów.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Holy War.", "content": "The term \"Holy War\" refers to the intense rivalry between the two Kraków-based teams; Wisła and KS Cracovia. In 1906, the establishment of the two first Polish football clubs, Cracovia and Wisła, created a rivalry that now dates back more than 100 years. The term \"Holy War\" was first used to describe the rivalry of Kraków's Jewish teams, Makkabi and Jutrzenka. A Jutrzenka defender, Ludwik Gintel, who later joined the Cracovia side referred to the derby match against Wisła as the \"Holy War\". The phrase was incorporated into a song and has since been popular amongst both Wisła and Cracovia fans.  The first recorded Kraków Derby was contested on 20 September 1908, a 1–1 draw. A historic derby match between Cracovia and Wisła occurred on 8 May 1913. It was the first time Polish teams played a championship game officially sanctioned by FIFA; Cracovia won 2–1. The most famous derby took place in 1948 when after the first post-war season, both Cracovia and Wisła accumulated an even number of points and the championship had to be decided by an additional game played at a neutral venue. On 5 December 1948, Cracovia defeated Wisła 3–1 and was crowned national champions. As of May 2011, the Kraków derby game between Wisła and Cracovia has been contested 183 times, with Wisła winning 82 times, tying 42 times and Cracovia winning 59 times.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Poland's Derby.", "content": "The match contested between Wisła Kraków and Legia Warsaw is commonly recognized as the greatest rivalry in Polish club football. The two sides have been the most successful clubs in Poland during the past decade and the rivalry between two of Poland's premier cities of Kraków and Warsaw sparks the rivalry even more. The regional differences of Kraków (South) and Warsaw (North), and the fact that Kraków used to be the capital of Poland before Warsaw (in the years 1041–1596) and the full official name of Kraków is Stołeczne Królewskie Miasto Kraków, or \"Royal Capital City of Kraków\" in English, also add a greater meaning to the match.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Additional teams.", "content": "In addition to the professional team, Wisła Kraków plays also in the Polish Junior league and has a reserve team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Records.", "content": "Team records Records individual", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "UEFA Ranking.", "content": "Club Ranking for 2014 (Previous year rank in italics, UEFA Club Coefficients in parentheses)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable players.", "content": "Had international caps for their respective countries. Players whose name is listed in bold represented their countries while playing for Wisła.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wisła Kraków () is a Polish football club based in Kraków. Wisła play in the Ekstraklasa, the top level of the Polish football league system. Wisła is one of the oldest and most successful Polish football clubs. It ranks third in the number of national titles won (13), behind Górnik Zabrze and Ruch Chorzów (14), and second in all-time victories. Wisła was founded in 1906 under the name TS Wisła (Polish Towarzystwo Sportowe Wisła).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974710}
{"src_title": "Samuil Marshak", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Marshak was born to a Jewish family on 3 November 1887 in Voronezh. His father was a foreman at a soap-making plant. He had a good home education and later studied at the gymnasium (secondary school) of Ostrogozhsk, a suburb of Voronezh. He started to write poetry during his childhood years in Voronezh. His brother Ilya (who wrote under the pseudonym M. Ilin) (1896—1953) and sister Liya (who wrote as Elena Ilina) (1901—1964) also both became Soviet authors.  In 1902, the Marshak family moved to Saint Petersburg. There was a complication: as a Jew, Marshak could not legally live outside the Pale of Settlement, thus he could not attend school while living in the city. Philanthropist and scholar Baron David Gunzburg took an interest in Marshak and introduced him to the influential critic Vladimir Stasov. Stasov was so impressed by the schoolboy's literary talent that he arranged an exception from the Pale laws for Samuil and his family. He also introduced Marshak to Maxim Gorky and Feodor Chaliapin.  In 1904, Samuil was diagnosed with tuberculosis and could no longer continue to live in the cold climate of Saint Petersburg. Maxim Gorky arranged for Samuil to live with his family in the Black Sea resort town of Yalta (1904–1907). Gorky and Chaliapin also paid for his education and therapy. However, he spent much of this period in Kerch, living with the Fremerman family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Young poet, philosopher and translator.", "content": "In 1904, he published his first works in the magazine \"Jewish Life\" and in the mid- to late 1900s, Marshak created a body of Zionist verse, some of which appeared in such periodicals as \"Young Judea\". In 1907 he returned to Saint Petersburg and subsequently published numerous works in the popular magazine \"Satyricon\".  Marshak failed to gain admission at a university in Russia due to 'political insecurity' and earned his living giving lessons and writing for magazines. From his first trip to the Middle East he brought back many impressions, poems and a beautiful wife.  In 1912 he moved to England and studied philosophy at the University of London. He fell in love with English culture and with poetry written in English. In his senior year at the University he published his translations of the poems written by William Blake, Robert Burns and William Wordsworth, published in Russia. His 1913 visit to an experimental \"free\" school in Wales (led by the Tolstoyan Philip Oyler) is noted as the event that sparked his professional interest in children.  Shortly before World War I, in 1914, he returned to Russia and devoted himself to translation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children's poetry.", "content": "In 1914 Marshak and his wife worked with children of Jewish refugees in Voronezh. The death of Marshak's young daughter in 1915 directed him toward children's literature. In 1920 he moved to Ekaterinodar (now Krasnodar) to head the province's orphanages and it was there that he and a group of enthusiasts, including Elena Vasilieva, organized \"Children's town\" that included a children's theater, library, and studios. For this theater, he co-wrote plays that later became the book \"Theater for Children\".  In 1922, Marshak moved back to what was then Petrograd to become the head of the Children's Literature Studio. He published the following works at the publishing house \"Радуга\" (\"Rainbow\"): \"Детки в клетке\" (\"Kids in a cage\"), \"Пожар\" (\"Fire\") 1923, \"Сказка о глупом мышонке\" (\"The Tale of a Silly Mouse\"), \"Синяя птица\" (\"Blue bird\"), \"Цирк\" (\"Circus\"), \"Мороженое\" (\"Ice Cream\"), \"Вчера и сегодня»\" (\"Yesterday and today\") 1925, \"Багаж\" (\"Luggage\") 1926, \"Пудель\" (\"Poodle\"), \"Почта\" (\"Post Office\") 1927, and \"Вот какой рассеянный\" (\"What an absent-minded guy\") 1930.  Marshak had a prolific career in children's literature. Soviet critic Viktor Shklovsky wrote that \"Samuil Marshak understood that many new writers would appear in the new Soviet republic. He stood at the door of literature, a benevolent angel, armed not with a sword or with a pencil, but with words on work and inspiration.\" Marshak's contributions to the field of children's literature was not just limited to his own writings. In 1924, he became the head of the children's branch of the state publishing house Gosizdat (GIZ), a position he held for over a decade. Through his role as editor, Marshak attracted some of Russia's best writers to try their hand at writing for children, including Evgeniy Shvarts and OBERIU member Daniil Kharms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translations.", "content": "Among his Russian translations there are William Shakespeare's sonnets and songs from Shakespeare's plays, \"The Merry Wives of Windsor\" (together with Mikhail Morozov, who translated prosaic scenes), poems of Robert Burns, William Blake, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, William Wordsworth, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning, Robert Louis Stevenson, W. B. Yeats, Edward Lear, Lewis Carroll, Rudyard Kipling, T. S. Eliot, A. A. Milne, English and Scottish folk ballads, poems from Nursery rhymes. Besides English poetry, he translated poems of Heinrich Heine, Sándor Petőfi, Gianni Rodari and Hovhannes Tumanyan.  His main work in this area is translation of Shakespeare's sonnets (1948). This translation has enjoyed great success over the years. Some Shakespeare sonnets in Marshak's translation have been set to music (in classical style by Dmitry Kabalevsky, in pop style by Tikhon Khrennikov, Mikael Tariverdiev, Alla Pugacheva and others, even in rock style — Kruiz). His translations are considered classics in Russia. But many of Marshak's poetic translations became so entrenched in Russian culture, that it was often quipped that he was not so much a translator as a co-author.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In 1937 Marshak moved to Moscow, where he worked on children's books and translations. During World War II, he published satires against the Nazis. After the war he continued to publish children's books including: \"Разноцветная книга\" (\"Multicolored book\") 1948, \"Круглый год\" (\"All year round\") 1948, \"Тихая сказка\" (\"A Quiet tale\") 1956, etc.  In the last years of his life, he wrote aphoristic verses that he named \"lyrical epigrams\". They were published in his last book, \"Selected Lyrics\" (Избранная Лирика) in 1963. He also published three tale plays: \"The Twelve Months\" 1943, \"Afraid of Troubles - Cannot Have Luck\" 1962, and \"Smart Things\" 1964.  Although not widely known, in the Soviet era, Marshak was on a (political) razor's edge and barely escaped death in 1937. His name was often mentioned in the documents of the eliminated Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee. However, the process of the committee ended in August 1952 (12 executed and 98 subjected to repression) and Marshak was not accused. In 1953 with the death of Josef Stalin and the onset of Khrushchev Thaw Marshak was out of danger. There is an opinion that Stalin's death saved Marshak from inevitable death in the period of the fight against cosmopolitism.  Samuil Marshak died on 4 July 1964 and was buried in Moscow.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Samuil Yakovlevich Marshak (alternative spelling: Samuil Yakovlevich Marchak) (; 4 July 1964) was a Russian and Soviet writer of Jewish origin, translator and poet who wrote for both children and adults. He translated the sonnets and some other of the works of William Shakespeare, English poetry (including poems for children), and poetry from other languages. Maxim Gorky proclaimed Marshak to be \"the founder of Russia's (Soviet) children's literature.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974711}
{"src_title": "Christian Lindner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Christian Lindner was born in Wuppertal, Germany. His father Wolfgang Lindner is a teacher of mathematics and computer science at the \"Städtisches Gymnasium\" in Wermelskirchen.  After graduating from Gymnasium in 1998 and an alternative civilian service, Christian Lindner studied political science at the University of Bonn from 1999 to 2006.  After eleven semesters he acquired the academic degree of Master of Arts (MA). In his master's thesis at the Institute of Political Science, he dealt with the topic: \"tax competition and revenue sharing. Can the financial constitution be reformed?\". In 2006, he began writing his dissertation under supervision from political science professor Frank Decker, which he has so far not completed due to his political activities.  While studying Lindner undertook his National Service obligations as a reserve officer in the Air Force. In 2002, he was promoted to First lieutenant (Oberleutnant) in the Reserve. In 2008 he was a liaison officer to the state command Landeskommando of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Düsseldorf and since September 2011 he has held the rank of Captain (Hauptmann) in the Reserve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early political career.", "content": "Lindner joined the FDP in 1995. He has been a member of the Executive Board of the FDP in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia since 1998 and became Secretary General in 2004 (until February 2010). At the May 2000 election for the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia, the 21-year old Lindner was elected, becoming the youngest MP in the history of the state parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia. Lindner was from 2000 initially'spokesman for Intergenerational Affairs, Family and Integration' and then from 2005 to 2009 was also vice chairman of the FDP parliamentary group in the parliament and spokesman for Innovation, Science and Technology. In 2007 he also became a member of the Executive Board of the FDP on federal level.  From 2009 Lindner served as a member of the German Bundestag. In the negotiations to form a coalition government following the 2009 federal elections, he was part of the FDP delegation in the working group on families, integration of immigrants and culture, led by Maria Böhmer and Hans-Joachim Otto.  From December 2009 until his surprise resignation in December 2011, Lindner was also Secretary General of the FDP on federal level, under the leadership of party chairman Philipp Rösler. His resignation was caused by an internal party vote which had been forced by a group centered around the Eurosceptic FDP parliamentarian Frank Schäffler to determine the FDP's future course on questions pertaining to the European Stability Mechanism (ESM).  Lindner was later chosen to serve as Chairman of the NRW FDP in the 2012 state election of North Rhine-Westphalia, succeeding Daniel Bahr. In the election, the FDP received 8.6% of the vote, surpassing all expectations at the time. Following the party's victory at that election he was elected Parliamentary leader of the FDP in the NRW Landtag, succeeding Gerhard Papke on 15 May 2012. In March 2013, he was elected one of Rösler’s deputies, alongside Sabine Leutheusser-Schnarrenberger and Holger Zastrow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "FDP Chairman.", "content": "Linder was elected the new chairman of the FDP following the resignation of Chairman Philipp Rösler after the 2013 German federal elections in which the FDP failed to clear the 5% hurdle to enter the Bundestag for the first time since 1949.  Ahead of the 2014 European elections, Lindner and Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte served as ‘mediators’ between Olli Rehn and Guy Verhofstadt, the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe’s candidates for the presidency of the European Commission; eventually, the candidates agreed to jointly lead the ALDE’s campaign for elections, with Verhofstadt running to succeed José Manuel Barroso. At the time, Linder was widely regarded to support Rehn.  Lindner was a FDP delegate to the Federal Convention for the purpose of electing the President of Germany in 2017, where he endorsed the government's candidate Frank-Walter Steinmeier. That same year, he led his party's successful campaign for the 2017 state elections of North Rhine-Westphalia, which resulted in the FDP joining the state government of incoming Minister-President Armin Laschet. Linder himself did not take a position in the new government because of his aim to lead the FDP back to the Bundestag in September 2017, which he achieved with a result of 10.7%. After that success he was elected leader of the FDP parliamentary group in the Bundestag.  In October 2017, Angela Merkel's CDU and Katrin Göring-Eckardt's and Cem Özdemir's Greens started negotiations with the FDP to form a government, in which Lindner was widely seen as the future Minister of Finance, as the CDU had even nominated the former Minister Wolfgang Schäuble as President of the Bundestag to make place for the FDP. Such a coalition was the only realistic possibility to form a government (except for a Grand coalition) but had almost never been used before on any regional level in Germany. In November 2017, after midnight, Lindner and his party left the already prolonged negotiations after four unsuccessful weeks, which led to the longest government formation in German history and finally in March 2018 once more to a Grand Coalition with the SPD, which had previously rejected any participation in the new government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political positions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Entrepreneurship.", "content": "In early 2015, an impassioned response to heckling by Lindner, defending entrepreneurs and startup culture made it onto newspaper front pages and became one of the most watched political speeches in months. Lindner was speaking before the state legislature in North Rhine-Westphalia about the importance of entrepreneurship and how failed entrepreneurs deserve a second chance when a Social Democratic member in the audience heckled: “That [failure] is something you have experience in.” That was a reference to an Internet company co-founded by Lindner that failed after the dot-com bubble burst in the early 2000s. Lindner responded with a finger-wagging, 21⁄2-minute tirade. “If one succeeds, one ends up in the sights of the Social Democratic redistribution machinery and, if one fails, one can be sure of derision and mockery,” he responded, also pointing out that this particular member preferred to have a secure job in public service for his entire life, rather than daring to found a company, and how the message of that heckling attempt was the total opposite of what had been announced just minutes earlier by the president of the state legislature (who happened to be an SPD member, just like the heckler).  \"Bild\", the highest-circulation daily newspaper in Germany, praised Lindner on its front page. The Berlin daily \"Tagesspiegel\" said the rant offered a welcome contrast to the “persistent fog of alternative-less Merkelism” that characterized debate in the Bundestag.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Financial policy.", "content": "Shortly after the 2017 elections, Lindner ruled out taking on new debt to manage the balancing act of cutting income taxes and increasing investment on digital infrastructure. He criticized outgoing Finance Minister Wolfgang Schäuble for not being tough enough on Greece and not cutting income taxes for middle-class workers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2011, Lindner married journalist Dagmar Rosenfeld; they had started dating in 2009. On 19 April 2018 they announced their separation. In 2018 he started dating journalist Franca Lehfeldt.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christian Wolfgang Lindner (born 7 January 1979) is a German politician, member of the Bundestag and leader of the liberal Free Democratic Party of Germany (FDP).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974712}
{"src_title": "Uposatha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Observance days.", "content": "Depending on the culture and time period, uposatha days have been observed from two to six days each lunar month.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theravada countries.", "content": "In general, Uposatha is observed about once a week in Theravada countries in accordance with the four lunar phases: the new moon, the full moon, and the two quarter moons in between. In some communities, such as in Sri Lanka, only the new moon and full moon are observed as uposatha days.  In Burmese Buddhism, Uposatha (called \"ubot nei\") is observed by more pious Buddhists on the following days: waxing moon ( \"la hsan\"), full moon ( \"la pyei nei\"), waning moon ( \"la hsote\"), and new moon ( \"la kwe nei\"). The most common days of observance are the full moon and the new moon. In precolonial Burma, Uposatha was a legal holiday that was observed primarily in urban areas, where secular activities like business transactions came to a halt. However, since colonial rule, Sunday has replaced Uposatha as the legal day of rest. All major Burmese Buddhist holidays occur on Uposathas, namely Thingyan, the beginning of Vassa (beginning in the full moon of Waso, around July, to the full moon of Thadingyut, around October). During this period, Uposatha is more commonly observed by Buddhists than during the rest of the year. During Uposatha days, Buddhist monks at each monastery assemble and recite the patimokkha, a concise compilation of the Vinaya.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mahayana countries.", "content": "In Mahayana countries that use the Chinese calendar, the Uposatha days are observed ten times a month, on the 1st, 8th, 14th, 15th, 18th, 23rd, 24th and final three days of each lunar month. Alternatively, one can only observe Uposatha days six times a month; on the 8th, 14th, 15th, 23rd and final two days of each lunar month. In Japan, these six days are known as the.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Names of Full Moon Uposatha Days.", "content": "The Pali names of the uposatha days are based on the Sanskrit names of the \"nakśatra\" (Pali: \"nakkhatta\"), the constellations or lunar mansions through which the moon passes within a lunar month.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The word Uposatha derives from the Muluposatha Sutta (AN 3.70), in which a lay woman Visakha, goes to the Blessed One and says she is oberserving the Uposatha day. The Buddha replies that there are different Uposatha days, then proceeds to tell her the correct version of the Uposatha day. The Uposatha of the Noble Disciples.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practice.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lay practice.", "content": "On each uposatha day, devout Upāsaka and Upāsikā practice the Eight Precepts, perhaps echoing the Buddha's teaching that laypeople should \"imitate\" arhats on Uposatha days. The first five of the eight precepts are similar to the five precepts, that is, to refrain from killing living beings, stealing, wrong speech and to abstain from intoxicating drink or drugs, but the third precept is abstinence of all sexual activity instead of refraining from sexual offenses. The eight precepts are similar to the ten precepts observed by novice monks, except that the seventh and eighth precepts for the novices are combined, the ninth novice precept becomes the eighth, and the tenth novice precept (non-acceptance of gold and silver, use of money) is excluded as being impracticable for a lay person. Thus, the final three precepts are to abstain from eating at the wrong time (after midday); to abstain from entertainment such as dancing, singing, music, watching shows, as well as to abstain from wearing garlands, perfumes, cosmetics, and personal adornments; and to abstain from luxurious seats and beds.  For lay practitioners who live near a Buddhist temple, the \"uposatha\" is an opportunity for them to visit it, make offerings, listen to sermons by monks and participate in meditation sessions. For lay practitioners unable to participate in the events of a local monastery, the \"uposatha\" is a time to intensify one's own meditation and Dhamma practice, for instance, meditating an extra session or for a longer time, reading or chanting special Buddhist texts, recollecting or giving in some special way.  Presently, the \"uposatha\" vows are mostly associated with Theravāda Buddhism in South and Southeast Asia, but it was a widespread practice in China as well, and is still practiced.  The eight precepts are meant to give lay people an impression of what it means to live as a monastic, and the precepts \"may function as the thin end of a wedge for attracting some to monastic life.\" The objective of the eight precepts is different from the five in that they are less moral in nature, but more focused on developing meditative concentration, and preventing distractions. Among the eight precepts, the third precept is about maintaining chastity. Buddhist tradition therefore requires lay people to be chaste on observance days, which is similar to the historical Indian tradition of being chaste on \"parvan\" days. As for the sixth rule, this means not having food after midday, in imitation of a nearly identical rule for monks. Fluids are allowed. Taiwanese physician Ming-Jun Hung and his co-authors have analyzed early and medieval Chinese Buddhist Texts and argue that the main purposes of the half-day fast is to lessen desire, improve fitness and strength, and decrease sleepiness. Historically, Chinese Buddhists have interpreted the eight precepts as including vegetarianism.  The seventh precept is sometimes also interpreted to mean not wearing colorful clothes, which has led to a tradition for people to wear plain white when observing the eight precepts. This does not necessarily mean, however, that a Buddhist devotee dressed in white is observing the eight precepts all the time. As for the eighth precept, not sitting or sleeping on luxurious seats or beds, this usually comes down to sleeping on a mat on the floor. Though not specified in the precepts themselves, in Thailand and China, people observing the precepts usually stay in the temple overnight. This is to prevent temptations at home which break the eight precepts, and helps foster the community effort in upholding the precepts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Monastic practice.", "content": "On the new-moon and full-moon uposatha, in monasteries where there are four or more bhikkhus, the local Sangha will recite the Patimokkha. Before the recitation starts, the monks will confess any violations of the disciplinary rules to another monk or to the Sangha. Depending on the speed of the Patimokkha chanter (one of the monks), the recitation may take from 30 minutes to over an hour. Depending on the monastery, lay people may or may not be allowed to attend.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Communal reciprocity.", "content": "Describing his experience of Uposatha day in Thailand, Khantipalo (1982a) writes:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Special Uposatha days.", "content": "In Thailand five full-moon Uposatha days are of special significance and are called puja: is the most sacred Buddhist holiday. It is the anniversary of the Buddha's birth, awakening and parinibbana. Anniversary of the Buddha's delivering the \"Anapanasati Sutta\". This event is not connected to an Uposatha (Poya) day in Sri Lanka and perhaps is particular to Thailand. Anniversary of the assembling of 1250 monks in the Buddha's presence during which time he delivered the \"Ovada-Patimokkha Gatha.\"  In Sri Lanka, three full moon Uposatha or Poya days are of special significance.  In Tibet and Bhutan, there are four full moon Uposatha days that are of importance  In China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam there are certain full moon Uposatha days of importance.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Uposatha () is a Buddhist day of observance, in existence from the Buddha's time (600 BCE), and still being kept today in Buddhist countries. The Buddha taught that the Uposatha day is for \"the cleansing of the defiled mind,\" resulting in inner calm and joy. On this day, both lay and ordained members of the sangha intensify their practice, deepen their knowledge and express communal commitment through millennia-old acts of lay-monastic reciprocity. On these days, the lay followers make a conscious effort to keep the Five Precepts or (as the tradition suggests) the eight precepts. It is a day for practicing the Buddha's teachings and meditation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974713}
{"src_title": "Soyuz T-15", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission highlights.", "content": "Soyuz T-15 was both the first expedition to Mir and the last to Salyut 7.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flight to Mir.", "content": "Due to the pressure of launching Mir in time for the 27th Communist Party Congress, mission planners were left without the newer Soyuz-TM spacecraft or any of the planned modules to launch to the station at first. It was decided to launch an older Soyuz-T as Soyuz T-15 on a dual mission to both Mir and Salyut 7.  Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov first docked with the Mir space station on 15 March 1986 after their launch on 13 March. Plans for Mir intended that only the newer Soyuz-TM would dock with Mir's forward port, leaving the aft port free for arriving Progress spacecraft. However, the older Soyuz-T was not equipped with the Kurs approach system used on Mir's front port, but only with the older Igla approach system used for Mir's aft port. Therefore, Soyuz T-15 had to approach Mir's aft port, and then manually maneuver around the station to dock manually at the forward port. At 20 km Soyuz T-15's Igla system acquired its counterpart on Mir's aft port. At 200 meters, the Igla system was shut off, and the crew manually maneuvered around the station to dock at the front port. For this manual approach, the same laser range finder was used as for the Soyuz T-13 docking with the uncooperative Salyut 7 station in 1985.  During their nearly 55-day stay on Mir, the crew unloaded two Progress spacecraft, launched after their arrival. The mission was mostly designed to test out the new space station's systems since it had been launched with little scientific equipment, most of which would have to wait for the launch of add-on modules. Despite Mir's name literally meaning \"Peace\", US officials during this time accused the Soviet Union of performing military experiments on their supposedly civilian space stations. After the cosmonauts' return to Earth, Leonid Kizim in an official press conference stated that Mir was not being used for any military purposes and that \"The US is accusing us of this sort of action in order to justify their own plans to extend the arms race into space.\" The Reagan Administration did not however reiterate these claims so as not to negatively impact the planned 1987 summit meeting between President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The crew transfers to Salyut 7.", "content": "In preparation for the trip to Salyut 7, the crew loaded Soyuz T-15 with their personal belongings, plants grown on Mir, and other items. At that time Salyut 7 was still 4000 km ahead of Mir in a lower orbit in the same inclination. Therefore, on 4 May, Mir was lowered by 13 km in order to expedite the approach to Salyut 7 and conserve Soyuz T-15's limited fuel supply for the transfer. On 5 May 1986 12:12:09 UTC they undocked from Mir for their journey to Salyut 7 – at this time, the distance between the two space stations had been reduced to 2500 km due to Mir's maneuver. After a crossing of 29 hours, Soyuz T-15 docked with Salyut 7 on 6 May 16:57:52 UTC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Experiments on Salyut 7.", "content": "The previous crew on Salyut 7, Salyut 7 EO-4, had been assigned to conduct experiments with TKS-4 (Kosmos 1686). However, commander Vladimir Vasyutin had fallen ill and the crew had to return prematurely to Earth. Therefore, they were unable to perform EVAs, which would have had implications for the Mir program. After arriving at Salyut 7, the crew of Soyuz T-15 conducted two EVAs and collected experiment results, experimental apparatuses, and samples of materials to finish the work of the previous crew. The first EVA was on 28 May, when the crewmembers climbed outside to retrieve space exposure experiments and test the Ferma-Postroital (\"girder-constructor\") device. A deployment canister converted a folded girder cartridge into a 15-meter girder in only a few minutes. The girder was retracted by reversing the process at the end of the EVA. This first EVA lasted 3 hours and 50 minutes. The second EVA consisted of girder and welding experiments. On 31 May, Kizim and Solovyov attached measurement devices to the top of the retracted girder, then re-extended it with an aim toward studying its rigidity. They then used an electron gun to weld several of the girder's joints. This second EVA lasted five hours.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ferry flight back to Mir.", "content": "The crew removed 20 instruments with a total mass of 350 to 400 kg from Salyut 7 before returning to Mir. Mir maneuvered twice again between 24–25 June, raising its orbit slightly and moving closer to Salyut 7. On 25 June, Soyuz T-15 undocked from Salyut 7 to begin their 29-hour journey back to Mir, to which they returned on 25–26 June.  On 3 July, Kizim surpassed Valeri Ryumin's record for time spent in space. On 6 July, he became the first human to have spent a full year in space. The crew spent their last 20 days on Mir conducting Earth observations.  Meanwhile, between 19 and 22 August, engines on Kosmos 1686 boosted Salyut 7 to a record-high mean orbital altitude of 475 km to forestall reentry. Atmospheric drag took its toll, however, and the station reentered over South America 55 months later. Pieces of Salyut 7 and Kosmos 1686 were found in Argentina.  Soyuz T-15 was the last mission to use the Soyuz-T spacecraft, due to its replacement by the Soyuz-TM.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Soyuz T-15 (, \"Union T-15\") was a crewed mission to the Mir and Salyut 7 space stations and was part of the Soyuz programme. It marked the final flight of the Soyuz-T spacecraft, the third generation Soyuz spacecraft, which had been in service for seven years from 1979 to 1986. This mission marked the first time that a spacecraft visited, and docked with, two space stations in the same mission.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974714}
{"src_title": "Ozone therapy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Proposed uses.", "content": "Ozone therapy consists of the introduction of ozone into the body via various methods, usually involving its mixture with various gases and liquids before injection, with potential routes including the vagina, rectum, intramuscular (in a muscle), subcutaneously (under the skin), or intravenously (directly into veins). Ozone can also be introduced via autohemotherapy, in which blood is drawn from the patient, exposed to ozone and re-injected into the patient.  This therapy has been proposed as a primary or adjunct therapy for various diseases, including osteoarthritis, herniated disk, chronic wounds, hepatitis B and C, herpes zoster, HIV-AIDS, multiple sclerosis, cancer, heart disease, Alzheimer's dementia, and Lyme disease, though supportive evidence for some of these applications is limited. The American Cancer Society warned in 2010 that evidence for the efficacy of ozone therapy against cancer is inconclusive, and the therapy may be dangerous. For treatment of HIV/AIDS, although ozone deactivates the viral particles outside the body, well-designed studies have shown there is no benefit for living patients.  The United States Food and Drug Administration initially stated in 1976, and reiterated its position in 2006, that when inhaled, ozone is a toxic gas which has no demonstrated safe medical application, though their position statements primarily deal with its potential for causing inflammation and pulmonary edema in the lungs. They also emphasize that in order for ozone to be effective as a germicide, it must be present at concentrations far greater than can be safely tolerated by humans or other animals. More recent reviews have highlighted that different routes of administration may result in different therapeutic and side effect profiles, though a statistically robust meta-analysis of available research has not been performed to date.  Ozone has been suggested for use in dentistry with preliminary evidence supporting its use.  Some reviews have suggested ozone as potential treatment for herniated discs and diabetic neuropathy.  There is some controversy about its use by athletes in an attempt to increase performance; although its use is not disallowed in and of itself, it can be mixed with banned substances for administration prior to injection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Much of the concern related to ozone therapy revolves around the safety of blood ozonation. When inhaled by mammals in high levels, ozone reacts with compounds in tissues lining the lungs and triggers a cascade of pathological effects including pulmonary edema; however, ozone therapy does not usually involve inhalation of ozone gas. It has been argued that while peroxides (a product of ozone) are naturally generated inside phagocyte cells to kill bacteria, outside the cell they can damage tissue. Proponents suggest that its effects are tissue dependent, though the subject is still debated.  A 1982 German study of ozone safety has been widely cited by ozone proponents, but its results are disputed. Based on a questionnaire sent to ozone therapists, the study concluded that of 5,579,238 ozone applications (treating 384,775 patients) only 27 complications arose that could conceivably be due to \"ozone per se\" (including 1 death and 1 amaurosis). Thus the side-effect rate attributable to ozone was calculated at 0.0005%. This conclusion was disputed on several grounds: the survey could not be taken as representative, given that 77% of contacted therapists chose not to respond, with unknown motives; the criteria for reporting of incidents was unclear, as was the criteria for determining the subset of these that were attributable to ozone; and the incidence rate should more appropriately be calculated per patient, rather than per treatment, yielding a more worrying incident rate of 0.1–0.2%. It was further pointed out that the risks of conventional medicines are weighed against their proven efficacy, so it is unreasonable to accept comparable risks in unproven treatments. In Germany from 1975 to 1983, research revealed six deaths, four cases of visual disturbance, three cases of paraplegias, four gas embolisms in the pulmonary circuit, two heart attacks, four pulmonary embolisms, two cases of apoplectic paralysis, and two cases of abnormal heart rhythm following ozone therapy. These all occurred following direct injection of O/O gas, a method now regarded as malpractice by most (though not all) ozone practitioners. In each case, the clinical picture corresponded either to gas embolism or allergic shock. The fact that one case of apparent allergic shock followed injection of a very small quantity of gas raises the unknown possibility that other methods of administration might also carry a risk of allergic shock.  Other serious incidents reported include transmission of hepatitis C and one case of a heart attack following some hours after autohemotherapy, though the therapy's contribution in this last case has been disputed.  Two therapists have stated that in 30 years they have together performed over 60,000 major autohemotherapy treatments on humans without encountering any side effects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 1856, just 16 years after its discovery, ozone was first used in a health care setting to disinfect operating rooms and sterilize surgical instruments. By the end of the 19th century the use of ozone to disinfect drinking water of bacteria and viruses was well established in mainland Europe.  In 1892 \"The Lancet\" published an article describing the administration of ozone for treatment of tuberculosis. During World War I, ozone was tested at Queen Alexandra Military Hospital in London as a possible disinfectant for wounds. The gas was applied directly to wounds for as long as 15 minutes. This resulted in damage to both bacterial cells and human tissue. Other sanitizing techniques, such as irrigation with antiseptics, were found preferable.  Beginning in 1991 the FDA has prosecuted and sent to jail several people presenting themselves as medical doctors and selling ozone therapy products as a medical cure or operating medical clinics using ozone therapy for healing human illness. Arrests following similar activity have been made in other countries as well.  In April 2016, the FDA prohibited the medical use of ozone, \"In any medical condition for which there is no proof of safety and effectiveness\", stating \"Ozone is a toxic gas with no known useful medical application in specific, adjunctive, or preventive therapy. In order for ozone to be effective as a germicide, it must be present in a concentration far greater than that which can be safely tolerated by man and animals.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ozone therapy is an alternative medical treatment that introduces ozone or ozonides to the body. In April 2003, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) prohibited all medical uses of ozone, \"In any medical condition for which there is no proof of safety and effectiveness\", stating \"Ozone is a toxic gas with no known useful medical application in specific, adjunctive, or preventive therapy. In order for ozone to be effective as a germicide, it must be present in a concentration far greater than that which can be safely tolerated by man and animals.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974715}
{"src_title": "Giverny", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A settlement has existed in Giverny since neolithic times and a monument uncovered attests to this fact. Archeological finds have included bootees dating from Gallo-Roman times and to the earlier 1st and 2nd centuries AD. The town was known in ancient deeds as \"Warnacum\". The cultivation of grapes has been an occupation of the inhabitants of Giverny since Merovingian times. The village church dates from the Middle Ages and is built partially in the Romanesque style, though additions have since been made. It is dedicated to Sainte-Radegonde. The village has remained a small rural setting with a modest population (numbering around 301 in 1883 when Monet discovered it) and has since seen a boom in tourism since the restoration of Monet's house and gardens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monet at Giverny.", "content": "Claude Monet noticed the village of Giverny while looking out of a train window. He made up his mind to move there and rented a house and the area surrounding it. In 1890 he had enough money to buy the house and land outright and set out to create the magnificent gardens he wanted to paint. Some of his most famous paintings were of his garden in Giverny, famous for its rectangular \"Clos Normand\", with archways of climbing plants entwined around colored shrubs, and the water garden, formed by a tributary to the Epte, with the Japanese bridge, the pond with the water lilies, the wisterias and the azaleas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Giverny Colony.", "content": "Beginning around 1887, several American Impressionist artists settled to work in Giverny, drawn by the landscapes, the overall atmosphere, and the presence of Monet. These included Willard Metcalf, Louis Ritman, Theodore Wendel, and John Leslie Breck. Soon many American extended their visits from summer through the entire year. American painter Theodore Earl Butler married Monet's stepdaughter and sometime-model Suzanne Hoschedé there in 1892.  Frederick Carl Frieseke spent every summer from 1906 through 1919 in a residence next door to Monet's. The term Decorative Impressionism was coined in 1911 to describe Frieseke's work, and the term describes the work of a \"second wave\" of American painters in Giverny such as Richard E. Miller. In December 1910, six of the Giverny artists (Frieseke, Miller, Lawton S. Parker, Guy Rose, Edmund Greacen and Karl Anderson) were given a show at the Madison Gallery in New York which termed them \"The Giverny Group.\"  World War I largely marked the end of the art colony.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attractions.", "content": "Claude Monet's property at Giverny (house and gardens), left by his son to the Académie des Beaux-Arts in 1966, became a Museum opened to public visit in 1980 after completion of large-scale restoration work: the huge Nymphea's studio was restored and the precious collection of Japanese woodblock prints was displayed in several rooms, hung in the manner chosen by the master himself; the gardens were replanted as they once were. The house became a popular tourist attraction (the Claude Monet Foundation), particularly in the summer when the flowers are in bloom.  The other main attraction of the village is the Museum of Impressionism Giverny, dedicated to the history of impressionism and its continuation in the Giverny art colony and along the valley of the River Seine.  The Hôtel Baudy was a center of artistic life in the Giverny heyday. It is now still a café and restaurant, with period decoration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giverny () is a commune in the northern French department of Eure. The village is located on the \"right bank\" of the river Seine at its confluence with the river Epte. It lies west-northwest of Paris, in the old province of Normandy. It is best known as the location of Claude Monet's garden and home. Several American Impressionist artists also settled in Giverny, drawn by the landscapes, the overall atmosphere, and the presence of Monet. Other attractions include the Museum of Impressionism Giverny, dedicated to the history of impressionism and the Giverny art colony, and the Hôtel Baudy, which was the center of artistic life in Giverny's heyday. It is now a café and restaurant, with period decoration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974716}
{"src_title": "Sumac", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Sumacs are dioecious shrubs and small trees in the family Anacardiadeae that can reach a height of. The leaves are usually pinnately compound, though some species have trifoliate or simple leaves. The flowers are in dense panicles or spikes long, each flower very small, greenish, creamy white or red, with five petals. The fruits are reddish, thin-fleshed drupes covered in varying levels of hairs at maturity and form dense clusters at branch tips, sometimes called sumac bobs.  The leaves and bark of most sumac species contain high levels of tannins and have been used in the manufacturing of leather by many cultures around the world. The Hebrew name \"og ha-bursaka'im\" means \"tanner's sumac\". The dried fruits of some species are ground to produce a tangy, crimson spice popular in many countries (see za'atar). Fruits are also used to make a traditional \"pink lemonade\" beverage by steeping them in water before straining to remove hairs which may irritate the mouth or throat, sometimes adding sweeteners such as honey or sugar. Although widely and erroneously stated to be rich in vitamin C, most Rhus species contain only trace amounts and none should be considered a dietary source of this nutrient. It is high amounts of malic acid that produce the tart flavor. In comparative research, the fruits of Rhus coriaria were found to contain the highest levels of ascorbic acid at approximately 39 mg/kg, which would require an adult to consume several pounds daily to reach the US daily dietary reference intake of vitamin C. Sumacs were also cultivated in mishnaic times and are therefore reckoned with those fruits to which the law of \"pe'ah\" applied (Pe'ah 1:5), but in Israel, where it grew wild abundantly, it was not very highly valued and a lenient attitude was adopted about \"pe'ah\" (Dem. 1:1).  Sumacs propagate both by seed (spread by birds and other animals through their droppings), and by new shoots from rhizomes, forming large clonal colonies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The taxonomy of \"Rhus\" has a long history, with de Candolle proposing a subgeneric classification in 1825, with five sections. At its largest circumscription, \"Rhus\", with over 250 species, has been the largest genus in the family Anacardiaceae.  Other authors used subgenera and placed some species in separate genera, hence the use of \"Rhus\" \"sensu lato\" and \"Rhus\" \"sensu stricto\" (\"s.s.\"). One classification uses two subgenera, \"Rhus\" (about 10 spp.) and \"Lobadium\" (about 25 spp.), while at the same time \"Cotinus\", \"Duckera\", \"Malosma\", \"Metopium\", \"Searsia\" and \"Toxicodendron\" segregated to create \"Rhus\" \"s.s.\". Other genera that have been segregated include \"Actinocheita\" and \"Baronia\". As defined, \"Rhus\" \"s.s.\" appears monophyletic by molecular phylogeny research. However the subgenera do not appear to be monophyletic. The larger subgenus, \"Lobadium\", has been divided further into sections, \"Lobadium\", \"Terebinthifolia\". and \"Styphonia\" (two subsections).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word'sumac' traces its etymology from Old French \"sumac\" (13th century), from Mediaeval Latin \"sumach\", from Arabic'(), from Syriac'()- meaning \"red\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "Species including the fragrant sumac (\"R. aromatica\"), the littleleaf sumac (\"R. microphylla\"), the skunkbush sumac (\"R. trilobata\"), the smooth sumac, and the staghorn sumac are grown for ornament, either as the wild types or as cultivars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spice and beverage flavoring.", "content": "The fruits (drupes) of \"Rhus coriaria\" are ground into a reddish-purple powder used as a spice in Middle Eastern cuisine to add a tart, lemony taste to salads or meat. In Arab cuisine, it is used as a garnish on \"meze\" dishes such as \"hummus\" and \"tashi\", it is also commonly added to \"Falafel\". Syria uses the spice also, it is one of the main ingredients of Kubah Sumakieh in Aleppo of Syria, it is added to salads in the Levant, as well as being one of the main ingredients in the Palestinian dish, \"musakhan\". In Afghan, Armenian, Bangladeshi, Indian, Iranian, Mizrahi, and Pakistani cuisines, sumac is added to rice or \"kebab\". In Armenian, Azerbaijani, Central Asian, Syrian, Jordanian, Lebanese and Turkish cuisines, it is added to salads, \"kebab\" and \"lahmajoun\". \"Rhus coriaria\" is used in the spice mixture \"za'atar\".  In North America, the smooth sumac (\"R. glabra\") and the staghorn sumac (\"R. typhina\") are sometimes used to make a beverage termed \"sumac-ade\", \"Indian lemonade\", or \"rhus juice\". This drink is made by soaking the drupes in cool water, rubbing them to extract the essence, straining the liquid through a cotton cloth, and sweetening it. Native Americans also use the leaves and drupes of the smooth and staghorn sumacs combined with tobacco in traditional smoking mixtures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dye and tanning agent.", "content": "The leaves of certain sumacs yield tannin (mostly pyrogallol-type), a substance used in vegetable tanning. Notable sources include the leaves of \"R. coriaria\", Chinese gall on \"R. chinensis\", and wood and roots of \"R. pentaphylla\". Leather tanned with sumac is flexible, light in weight, and light in color. One type of leather made with sumac tannins is morocco leather.  The dyeing property of sumac needed to be considered when it was shipped as a fine floury substance in sacks as a light cargo accompanying heavy cargoes such as marble. Sumac was especially dangerous to marble: \"When sumac dust settles on white marble, the result is not immediately apparent, but if it once becomes wet, or even damp, it becomes a powerful purple dye, which penetrates the marble to an extraordinary depth.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traditional medicinal use.", "content": "Sumac was used as a treatment for several different ailments in medieval medicine, primarily in Middle Eastern and South Asian countries (where sumac was more readily available than in Europe). An 11th-century shipwreck off the coast of Rhodes, excavated by archeologists in the 1970s, contained commercial quantities of sumac drupes. These could have been intended for use as medicine, as a culinary spice, or as a dye. A clinical study showed that dietary sumac decreases the blood pressure in patients with hypertension and can be used as disjunctive treatment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Some beekeepers use dried sumac bobs as a source of fuel for their smokers.  Sumac stems also have a soft pith in the center that is easily removed to make them useful in traditional Native American pipemaking. They were commonly used as pipe stems in the northern United States.  Dried sumac wood fluoresces under long-wave ultraviolet radiation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity and control.", "content": "Some species formerly recognized in \"Rhus\", such as poison ivy (\"Toxicodendron radicans\", syn. \"Rhus toxicodendron\"), poison oak (\"Toxicodendron diversilobum\", syn. \"Rhus diversiloba\"), and poison sumac (\"Toxicodendron vernix\", syn. \"Rhus vernix\"), produce the allergen urushiol and can cause severe allergic reactions. Poison sumac may be identified by its white drupes, which are quite different from the red drupes of true \"Rhus\" species.  Mowing of sumac is not a good control measure, since the wood is springy, resulting in jagged, sharp-pointed stumps when mown. The plant will quickly recover with new growth after mowing. Goats have long been considered an efficient and quick removal method, as they eat the bark, which helps prevent new shoots. Sumac propagates by rhizome. Small shoots will be found growing near a more mature sumac tree via a shallow running root quite some distance from the primary tree. Thus, root pruning is a means of control without eliminating the species altogether.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sumac () or (), also spelled sumach, sumak, soumak, and sumaq, is any one of about 35 species of flowering plants in the genus Rhus and related genera, in the family Anacardiaceae. Sumac grows in subtropical and temperate regions throughout the world, especially in East Asia, Africa, and North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974717}
{"src_title": "Texel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name \"Texel\" is Frisian, but because of historical sound-changes in Dutch, where all -x- sounds have been replaced with -s- sounds (compare for instance English \"fox\", Frisian \"fokse\", German \"Fuchs\" with Dutch \"vos\"), the name is typically pronounced \"Tessel\" in Dutch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The All Saints' Flood (1170) created the islands of Texel and Wieringen from North Holland. In the 13th century Ada, Countess of Holland was held prisoner on Texel by her uncle William.  Texel received city rights in 1415.  Texel was involved in the Battle of Scheveningen (1653) during the First Anglo-Dutch War and the Battle of Texel (1673) during the Third Anglo-Dutch War. Texel is famous in military history as the only place where a navy was defeated on horseback. Occupying Holland in January 1795, the French continental army learned that the Dutch navy had been frozen into the ice around Texel, so Commandant Louis Joseph Lahure and 128 men rode up to it and demanded surrender. No shots were fired.  HMS Lutine, a British frigate loaded with British gold, sank along the Texel coast in a storm during 1799. Her wreck shifted in the sands; despite several intensive, well financed searches, only a few treasures have been found. A beaker made from a silver bar is displayed in the National Maritime Museum at Greenwich. Her bell was recovered and is now in the headquarters of Lloyds of London, where it is tolled before announcing important news.  In 1797, Texel was involved in the Battle of Camperdown during the French Revolutionary Wars.  During the American Revolution, Texel was used as a haven port for the USS \"Bonhomme Richard\" before it sank off the coast of Flamborough Head in Britain in September 1779. In that final action, John Paul Jones defeated and captured the British ship HMS \"Serapis\", which he sailed to Texel for desperately needed repairs. This event further complicated Anglo-Dutch relations.  During the First World War in 1914, the Battle off Texel took place off the coast of Texel.  On the night of 31 August 1940, the sea to the northwest of Texel was the scene of the sinking of two British destroyers and the severe damage of a third by German mines in what is known as the Texel Disaster.  At the end of Second World War in 1945, the Georgian uprising on Texel took place on the island.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The municipality is located at north of the mainland of the province of North Holland and west of the mainland of the province of Friesland. The island of Texel is situated north of the city of Den Helder, northeast of the uninhabited island of Noorderhaaks, which is part of the municipality, and southwest of the island of Vlieland.  The island includes the seven villages:  The island of Texel was originally made up of two islands, Texel proper to the south and Eierland to the northeast, which were connected by shoals. In the early seventeenth century, the islands were connected by a dyke to keep the North Sea from ravaging the coastal areas of Texel proper. In the mid-nineteenth century a polder completed the northern half of the island. Today, Texel forms the largest natural barrier between the North Sea and the Wadden Sea.  The dune landscape along the western coast of the island is protected as Dunes of Texel National Park.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landscape.", "content": "The dune landscape on Texel is a unique habitat for wildlife. Notable areas include De Slufter, where the tide comes in and meets the dunes, forming a marshy environment rich in both fauna and flora. Texel is known for its wildlife, particularly in winter, when birds of prey and geese take up residence. About one third of Texel is a protected nature reserve. A wetland called Utopia has been designed for birds to nest in.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The tourism industry forms a substantial part of the economy in Texel. Approximately 70% of activities on Texel are in some way related to tourism. Popular forms of tourism on Texel include cycling, walking, swimming and horse riding. Farming (sheep, potatoes, dairy, tulips, and grain) and fishing (primarily from Oudeschild) are traditional.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local government.", "content": "The municipal council of Texel consists of 15 seats, which are divided as follows (from the most recent election results in 2018:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Transport around the island is typically by bicycle, bus (Texelhopper) or car. Texel has an extensive cycle path network. Transport to Texel is usually by ferry (Royal TESO), from Den Helder, or by air via Texel International Airport. The ferry Texelstroom uses 80% compressed natural gas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Texel () is a municipality and an island with a population of 13,643 in the province of North Holland in the Netherlands. It is the largest and most populated island of the West Frisian Islands in the Wadden Sea. The island is situated north of Den Helder, northeast of Noorderhaaks, and southwest of Vlieland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974718}
{"src_title": "Sleeping with the Enemy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Laura Burney has a seemingly idyllic life and perfect marriage to Martin, a successful Boston financial counselor. Beneath Martin's charming, handsome exterior, however, is an obsessive and controlling personality who has physically, emotionally, and sexually abused Laura throughout their nearly four-year marriage. On one occasion, Martin jealously claims that Laura has flirted with their new Cape Cod neighbor, an attractive doctor she has only glimpsed distantly before physically assaulting her, then later, in a recurring pattern, apologetically showers her with flowers and gifts.  Martin accepts the doctor's invitation for an evening sail, despite knowing Laura fears water. As a severe storm unexpectedly rolls in, Martin and the doctor struggle to control the vessel. Laura, unable to swim, is apparently swept overboard. After an extensive Coast Guard search, Laura is presumed drowned. A memorial service follows, and Martin is left inconsolable.  It is shown that Laura is alive. After secretly learning to swim, Laura planned her fake death to escape Martin's abuse, waiting for an opportune moment. During the storm, Laura jumped overboard, swam ashore, and returned home. Laura quickly changes her clothes, dons a wig, and gathers some stashed belongings and money before heading to a nearby bus station. Before leaving, she flushes her wedding band down the toilet.  Laura moves to Cedar Falls, Iowa. Previously, Laura told Martin that her blind, stroke-impaired mother, Chloe, died, but she secretly moved Chloe to an Iowa nursing home. Laura rents a house, finds a job, and settles into a new life as \"Sara Waters\". Her friendly neighbor, Ben Woodward, a young drama teacher, is attracted to Laura, though he gradually suspects she has a troubled past. They eventually have a fun date, but when a kiss turns more physical, Laura resists and demands Ben to leave. The next morning, Laura confides to him that she escaped an abusive marriage.  Meanwhile, Martin receives information indicating Laura may be alive and that Chloe never died. This is confirmed when Martin finds Laura's wedding ring in the toilet where it failed to flush. Martin travels to Chloe's nursing home, posing as a detective investigating Laura's husband. He learns that Chloe's \"nephew\" has just visited. Laura, disguised as a man, is also at the nursing home, and, unknowingly, barely misses encountering Martin. Martin discovers Laura's whereabouts and learns about Ben, whom he tracks to the college. Martin later trails the couple to Laura's house and breaks in while she and Ben are picnicking outside. Laura notices the small clues Martin deliberately left inside the house, including straightened towels and the kitchen cabinets rearranged to Martin's exacting standards.  Martin confronts Laura before she can escape. Ben comes to the front door, and to protect him, Laura begs off, claiming fatigue. Ben appears to leave, but breaks down the door and struggles with Martin, who knocks him unconscious. As he aims a gun at Ben, Laura distracts Martin, then knees his groin. Laura grabs Martin's dropped gun and holds him at gunpoint.  Calling the police, she informs them she killed an intruder. Hanging up, she shoots Martin. He collapses, seemingly dead. Still alive, he seizes Laura by the hair and grabs the dropped gun, aiming it at her. Martin pulls the trigger, but the gun is empty. Martin finally dies from his wounds. Laura helps Ben as they wait for the police.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": ", the film held a 20% 'Rotten' rating based on 34 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes. The site's consensus states: \"A game Julia Roberts gives it her all, but \"Sleeping with the Enemy\" is one stalker thriller that's unlikely to inspire many obsessions of its own.\"  Roger Ebert gave the film 1.5 stars upon its release, calling it \"a slasher movie in disguise, an up-market version of the old exploitation formula where the victim can run, but she can't hide.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "The film's opening ended \"Home Alone\"s twelve week run atop the box office. By the end of its run, the film had grossed $101,599,005 in the domestic box office; with an international total of $73,400,000, the film's worldwide gross was $174,999,005; based on a $19 million budget, the film was a box office success. The film was released in the United Kingdom on April 12, 1991, and opened on #2, behind \"\". The next week, the film remained in the same position.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The original music for the film was composed and conducted by Jerry Goldsmith. Columbia Records released an album concurrently with the film containing just over 38 minutes of score plus the Van Morrison song \"Brown Eyed Girl\". In 2011, La-La Land Records issued a limited edition album of 3500 copies expanding Goldsmith's score (but omitting the song).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media releases.", "content": "The film reached #1 in the rental charts in September 1991. It was released on LaserDisc in Australia, the United States, United Kingdom and Japan by Fox Video in 1991. It also received various releases on VHS, was released on DVD on 2 September 2003, and subsequently entered the market of Blu-ray on in June 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "The score by Jerry Goldsmith won the BMI Film Music Award, 1992, and the film was nominated for the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films Saturn Award for 1992 in four categories: Best Actress (Roberts), Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor (Bergin), Best Horror Film and Best Music (Goldsmith).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sleeping with the Enemy is a 1991 American romantic psychological thriller film directed by Joseph Ruben and starring Julia Roberts, Patrick Bergin and Kevin Anderson. The film is based on Nancy Price's novel of the same name of 1987. Roberts plays a woman who escapes from her abusive husband, from Cape Cod to Cedar Falls, Iowa, where she captures the attention of a kindly college drama teacher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974719}
{"src_title": "Panait Istrati", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Brăila, Istrati was the son of the laundress Joița Istrate and of a Greek smuggler from the village of Faraklata in Kefalonia (whom Panait never met).  He studied in primary school for six years in Baldovinești, after being held back twice. He then earned his living as an apprentice to a tavern-keeper, then as a pastry cook and peddler. In the meantime, he was a prolific reader.  His first attempts at writing date from around 1907 when he started sending pieces to the socialist periodicals in Romania, debuting with the article, \"Hotel Regina\" in \"România Muncitoare\". Here, he later published his first short stories, \"Mântuitorul\" (\"The Redeemer\"), \"Calul lui Bălan\" (\"Bălan's Horse\"), \"Familia noastră\" (\"Our Family\"), \"1 Mai\" (\"May Day\"). He also contributed pieces to other leftist newspapers such as \"Dimineața\", \"Adevărul\", and \"Viața Socială\".  In 1910, he was involved in organizing a strike action in Brăila. He went to Bucharest, Istanbul, Cairo, Naples, Paris (1913–1914), and Switzerland (where he settled for a while, trying to cure his tuberculosis). Istrati's travels were marked by two successive unhappy marriages, a brief return to Romania in 1915 when he tried to earn his living as a hog farmer, and long periods of vagabondage.  While in the sanatorium, Istrati met Russian Jewish-Swiss Zionist writer Josué Jéhouda, who became his friend and French language tutor.  Living in misery, ill and depressed, he attempted suicide in 1921 on his way to Nice, but his life was rescued in time. Shortly before the attempt, he had written to Romain Rolland, the French writer he admired most and with whom he had long tried to get in touch. Rolland received the letter through the Police and immediately replied. In 1923 Istrati's story \"Kyra Kyralina\" (or \"Chira Chiralina\") was published with a preface by Rolland. It became the first in his \"Adrien Zograffi\" literary cycle. Rolland was fascinated with Istrati's adventurous life, urging him to write more and publishing parts of his work in \"Clarté\", the magazine that he and Henri Barbusse owned. The next major work by Istrati was the novel \"Codine\".  Pamfil Șeicaru named Istrati \"poor poet of deflowered arses\". Istrati is the first Romanian author to write a novel – \"Chira Chiralina\" – in which a character is homosexual.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Istrati and communism.", "content": "Istrati shared the leftist ideals of Rolland, and, as much as his mentor, placed his hopes in the Bolshevik vision. In 1927 he visited the Soviet Union on the anniversary of the October Revolution, accompanied by Christian Rakovsky during the first stage of the journey (Rakovsky was Soviet ambassador to Paris, and by then already falling out of favor with Joseph Stalin). He travelled through large sections of the European part, witnessing celebrations in Moscow and Kiev. He was joined in Moscow by his future close friend, Nikos Kazantzakis; while in the city, Panait Istrati met Victor Serge and expressed his wish to become a citizen of the Soviet Union. He and Kazantzakis wrote Stalin a congratulatory letter that remained unanswered.  In 1928–29, after a tumultuous stay in Greece (where he was engaged in fights with the police and invited to leave the country), he went again to the Soviet Union. Through extended visits in more remote places such as the Moldavian ASSR (where he got in touch with his friend Ecaterina Arbore), Nizhny Novgorod, Baku and Batumi, Istrati learned the full truth of Joseph Stalin's communist dictatorship, out of which experience he wrote his famous book, \"The Confession of a Loser\", the first in the succession of disenchantments expressed by intellectuals such as Arthur Koestler and André Gide. Istrati dealt with the mounting persecution of Old Bolsheviks and the gradual victimization of whole population groups. His views were also harshly made clear in two letters he sent to the GPU leadership in December 1928.  Thereafter, he suffered a crisis of conscience mainly due to being branded a \"Trotskyist\" or even a \"Fascist\" by his former communist friends, the most violent of which proved to be Henri Barbusse. Rolland had praised Istrati's letters to the GPU, but he nonetheless chose to stay clear of the controversy. Istrati came back to Romania ill and demoralised, was treated for tuberculosis in Nice, then returned to Bucharest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Last years.", "content": "The political opinions Istrati expressed after his split with Bolshevism are rather ambiguous. He was still closely watched by the Romanian secret police (\"Siguranța Statului\"), and he had written an article (dated April 8, 1933) in the French magazine \"Les Nouvelles littéraires\", aptly titled \"L'homme qui n'adhère à rien\" (\"The man who will adhere to nothing\").  At the same time, Istrati started publishing in \"Cruciada Românismului\" (\"The Crusade of Romanianism\"), the voice of a left-leaning splinter group of the ultra-nationalist Iron Guard. As such, Istrati became associated with the group's leader Mihai Stelescu, who had been elected as a member of Parliament for the Iron Guard in 1933 and whose dissidence was the reason for his brutal assassination by the Decemviri later in the same year; Istrati was himself assaulted several times by the Guard's squads.  Isolated and unprotected, Panait Istrati died at Filaret Sanatorium in Bucharest. He was buried in Bellu Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of works.", "content": "Adrian Zografi series  Outside the \"Adrian Zografi\" cycle  Editions  This list and many of Istrati's works are on Wikisource.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "While in the Soviet Union, Istrati wrote a screenplay based on his own work entitled, \"The Bandits\", a project that was never completed.  \"Kira Kiralina\" was filmed in 1927 as a Soviet silent film. The novel was filmed for a second time in 1993, as a Romanian-Hungarian production directed by Gyula Maár. A third production, the Dan Pița-directed \"Kira Kiralina\", appeared in 2014. There is also a 1958 Franco-Romanian film, \"Ciulinii Bărăganului\", and \"Codine\" (\"Codin\"), a Franco-Romanian co-production of 1962.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Panait Istrati (; sometimes rendered as \"Panaït Istrati\"; August 10, 1884 – April 16, 1935) was a Romanian working class writer, who wrote in French and Romanian, nicknamed \"The Maxim Gorky of the Balkans\". Istrati was first noted for the depiction of one homosexual character in his work.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974720}
{"src_title": "Holašovice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Holašovice is first mentioned in 1263. In 1292, King Wenceslaus II gave the village and several others to the Cistercian monastery of Vyšší Brod. It remained the property of the monastery until 1848.  Between 1520 and 1525, Holašovice was nearly wiped out by the bubonic plague. Only two of its inhabitants survived. A column erected over the plague grave at the north end of the village commemorates this event. The monastery gradually repopulated the village with settlers from Bavaria and Austria. By 1530, the population had risen to 17, according to the monastery's records, and it had become a mainly German-speaking enclave within the Czech language area. By 1900, there were 163 inhabitants of German ethnic origin and 1 of Czech ethnic origin.  After the displacement of German residents at the end of the Second World War, many farms in the village were deserted and fell into disrepair. Holašovice became a desolate and abandoned place under the Czech post-war Communist regime.  From 1990, the village was lavishly restored and inhabited once more. It now has a population of around 140.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buildings.", "content": "Holašovice is a typical Bohemian village for the Hlubocká Blatská area around České Budějovice. It consists of 23 brick farmyards containing 120 buildings, each with their gable end facing a central broad village green, with a fish pond and chapel.  The buildings date from the 18th to 20th century, with most of them built in the second half of the 19th century. They are constructed in the South Bohemian Folk Baroque style. The chapel of St. John of Nepomuk in the village green was built in 1755.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Holašovice (, o \"Holschowitz\") is a small historic village located in the south of the Czech Republic, 16 kilometres west of České Budějovice. Village belongs to the municipality Jankov. To the south lies the protected landscape area of Blanský Forest. The village was deserted after the Second World War, allowing its medieval plan and vernacular buildings in the South Bohemian Folk or Rural Baroque style to remain intact. It was restored and repopulated from 1990, and it was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974721}
{"src_title": "Maria Sophie of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "In the winter of 1857, at the age of 16, Marie's hand was sought by Francis II, Crown Prince of Naples, Duke of Calabria, and the eldest son of Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, King of Naples. The marriage was political, since Ferdinand wished to ally himself with the Emperor of Austria, Franz Josef I, a powerful fellow absolutist. At that time the kingdom was already threatened by revolutionary forces. At that time Marie had not experienced menarche, and underwent treatments to induce menses (Hamann 80). She also had to learn Italian. She was married by proxy. In January 1859 she traveled to Vienna to spend time with her sister before they went to Trieste to formally enter her new kingdom, and say farewell to her family on the Neapolitan royal yacht \"Fulminante\". She set sail for Bari and 3 February 1859 was married there. (Hamann 82).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen.", "content": "On 8 January 1859 in Munich at the Allerheiligen-Hofkirche Maria Sophie was married by proxy and then again married in-person on 3 February 1859 in Bari to the Duke of Calabria, the eldest son of Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, King of Naples. Within the year, with the death of the king, her husband ascended to the throne as Francis II of the Two Sicilies, and Maria Sophie became queen of a realm that was shortly to be overwhelmed by the forces of Giuseppe Garibaldi and Piedmontese army.  In September 1860, as the Garibaldine troops were moving towards Naples, his capital, Francis II decided to leave the city. At the beginning, he planned to organise a resistance in Capua. However, after that city had also been lost to the Garibaldines in the aftermath of the battle of the Volturnus (October), he and Marie Sophie took refuge in the strong coastal fortress of Gaeta, 80 km north of Naples.  During the Siege of Gaeta in late 1860 and early 1861, the forces of Victor Emmanuel II bombarded and eventually overcame the defenders. It was this brief \"last stand of the Bourbons\" that gained Maria Sophia the reputation of the strong \"warrior queen\" that stayed with her for the rest of her life. She was tireless in her efforts to rally the defenders, giving them her own food, caring for the wounded, and daring the attackers to come within range of the fortress cannon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rome.", "content": "With the fall of Gaeta and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Maria Sophia and her husband went into exile in Rome, the capital of what for 1,000 years had been the sizeable Papal States, a large piece of central Italy but which, by 1860, had been reduced to the city of Rome, itself, as the armies of Victor Emanuel II came down from the north to join up with Garibaldi, the conqueror of the south. King Francis set up a government in exile in Rome that enjoyed diplomatic recognition by most European states for a few years as still the legitimate government of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.  Her wealth and privilege were, to a certain extent, overshadowed by personal tragedies. Her marriage was not consummated for many years, as her husband suffered from phimosis. While in exile in Rome, Maria fell in love with another man, may be with an officer of the papal guard, and became pregnant by him. She retreated to her parents' home at Possenhofen, where a family council decided that she must give birth in secret to prevent scandal. On 24 November 1862, Maria Sophie gave birth to a daughter in St. Ursula's Convent in Augsburg. The child was immediately given to the family of the father. Maria Sophia was forced to promise that she would never see her daughter again. In later life, Maria Sophie suffered from depression, which is believed to have been rooted in this event.  A year later, on the advice of her family, Maria Sophia decided to confess the affair to her husband. Afterwards, the relationship between the two improved for a time. Francis submitted to an operation which allowed him to consummate the marriage, and Maria became pregnant a second time, this time by her husband. Both were overjoyed at the turn of events and full of hope. On 24 December 1869, after ten years of marriage, Marie Sophie gave birth to a daughter, Maria Cristina Pia. Cristina was born on the birthday of her aunt, Empress Elisabeth, who became her godmother. Unfortunately, the baby lived only three months and died on 28 March 1870. Maria Sophie and her husband never had another child.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1870, Rome fell to the forces of Italy and the King and Queen fled to Bavaria. The king died in 1894. Maria Sophia spent time in Munich, and then moved to Paris where she presided over somewhat of an informal Bourbon court-in-exile. It was rumored she was involved in the anarchist assassination of King Humbert in 1900 in hopes of destabilizing the new nation-state of Italy. Recent historians have resurrected that rumor based on the apparent credence given to this conspiracy theory by the then Prime Minister of Italy, Giovanni Giolitti. Others regard it as anecdotal. In any event, the case against Maria Sophia is circumstantial.  During World War I, Maria Sophie was actively on the side of the German Empire and Austria-Hungary in their war with the Kingdom of Italy. Again, the rumors claimed she was involved in sabotage and espionage against Italy in the hope that an Italian defeat would tear the nation apart and that the kingdom of Naples would be restored.  During her life, she generated an almost cult-like air of admiration even among her political enemies. Gabriele d'Annunzio called her the \"stern little Bavarian eagle\" and Marcel Proust spoke of the \"soldier queen on the ramparts of Gaeta\". She and her sister Elisabeth were considered amongst the great beauties of their age. (Hamann 1986, p. 129)  Maria Sophie died in Munich in 1925. Since 1984 her remains now rest with those of her husband and their daughter in the Church of Santa Chiara in Naples.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes and citations.", "content": "This item originated as an abridged and edited version of an article that appears in an online encyclopedia of Naples and has been inserted here by the author and copyright holder of that article.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Sophie Amalie, Duchess in Bavaria (4 October 1841, Possenhofen Castle – 19 January 1925, Munich) was the last Queen consort of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. She was one of the ten children of Maximilian Joseph, Duke in Bavaria and Princess Ludovika of Bavaria. She was born as Duchess Maria Sophia in Bavaria. She was the younger sister of the better-known Elisabeth of Bavaria (\"Sisi\") who married Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974722}
{"src_title": "Boeing 367-80", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "By the late 1940s two developments encouraged Boeing to begin considering building a passenger jet. The first was the maiden flight in 1947 of the B-47 Stratojet. The second was the maiden flight in 1949 of the world's first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet. Boeing President Bill Allen led a company delegation to the UK in summer 1950, where they saw the Comet fly at the Farnborough Airshow, and also visited the de Havilland factory at Hatfield, Hertfordshire where the Comets were being built. Boeing felt it had mastered the swept wing and podded engines which it saw as key technologies that would enable it to improve on the Comet.  In 1950 Boeing tentatively produced a specification for a jet airliner dubbed the \"Model 473-60C\". The airlines were unconvinced because they had no experience with jet transports and were enjoying success with piston engined aircraft such as the Douglas DC-4, DC-6, Boeing Stratocruiser and Lockheed Constellation.  Boeing was experienced at selling to the military but had not enjoyed the same success with civil airliners. This market was dominated by Douglas which was adept at meeting the needs of airlines by refining and developing its range of propeller-driven aircraft, and in 1950 was marketing the forthcoming DC-7. Boeing decided the only way to overcome the airlines' suspicion of the jet – and of itself – was to show them a completed aircraft.  As the first of a new generation of passenger jets, Boeing wanted the aircraft's model number to emphasize the difference from its previous propeller-driven aircraft which bore 300-series numbers. The 400-, 500- and 600-series were already used by missiles and other products, so Boeing decided that the jets would bear 700-series numbers, and the first would be the 707. Boeing had studied developments of its existing Model 367 (the KC-97 Stratofreighter) incorporating swept wings and podded engines; and chose to build the, which retained little of the KC-97 except the upper fuselage diameter (and the possibility of building some of the fuselage with existing tooling). Although the design was announced publicly as the Model 707, the prototype was referred to within Boeing simply as the Dash 80 or \"-80\".  The Dash 80 fuselage was wide enough at for five-abreast seating; two on one side of the aisle and three on the other. The fuselage diameter for the production KC-135 was widened to and Boeing originally hoped to build the 707 fuselage with that width. By the time the Boeing company committed to production, the decision had been made to design the production model 707 as a six-abreast design, with a larger fuselage, after C. R. Smith, CEO of American Airlines, told Boeing he wouldn't buy the 707 unless it was an inch wider than the then-proposed Douglas DC-8 passenger jet. This decision did not unduly delay the introduction of the production model since the -80 had been largely hand-built, using little production tooling.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "By early 1952 the designs were complete and in April the Boeing board approved the program. Construction of the Dash 80 started in November in a walled-off section of Boeing's Renton plant. As a proof of concept prototype there was no certification and no production line and most of the parts were custom built. The aircraft was not fitted with an airline cabin; a plywood lining housed the instrumentation for the flight test program.  The Dash 80 rolled out of the factory on May 15, 1954, two years after the project was approved and 18 months after construction had started. During a series of taxi trials the port landing gear collapsed on May 22; the damage was quickly repaired and the first flight was on July 15, 1954.  Following flights revealed a propensity to \"Dutch roll\" - an alternating yawing and rolling motion. Boeing already had experience with this on the B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress and had developed a yaw damper system on the B-47 that could be adapted to the Dash 80. Other problems were found with the engines and brakes, the latter once failing completely on landing causing the aircraft to overshoot the runway.  Boeing used the Dash 80 on demonstration flights for airline executives and other industry figures. These focused attention on the question of what the cabin of a passenger jet should look like. In a departure from its usual practice Boeing hired industrial design firm Walter Dorwin Teague to create a cabin as radical as the aircraft itself.  Prior to demonstration for passenger airlines, the Dash 80 was fitted with Boeing's Flying Boom for aerial refueling which served as a prototype for the KC-135 Stratotanker and its later derivatives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The barrel roll.", "content": "As part of the Dash 80's demonstration program, Bill Allen invited representatives of the Aircraft Industries Association (AIA) and International Air Transport Association (IATA) to the Seattle's 1955 Seafair and Gold Cup Hydroplane Races held on Lake Washington on August 6, 1955. The Dash 80 was scheduled to perform a simple flyover, but Boeing test pilot Alvin \"Tex\" Johnston instead performed two barrel rolls to show off the jet airliner.  The next day, Allen summoned Johnston to his office and told him not to perform such a maneuver again, to which Johnston replied that he was simply \"selling airplanes\" and asserted that doing so was completely safe.  Boeing Chief Test Pilot John Cashman stated that just before he piloted the maiden flight of the Boeing 777 on June 12, 1994, his last instructions from then-Boeing President Phil Condit were \"No rolls.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use as an experimental aircraft.", "content": "After the arrival of the first production 707 in 1957 the Dash 80 was adapted into a general experimental aircraft and used by Boeing to test a variety of new technologies and systems. One of its most important tasks during the late 1950s was to test systems for the new Boeing 727, including the fitting of a fifth engine in the rear fuselage. Other tests included experiments with different airfoil shapes and a number of high lift devices such as blown flaps, in which compressed air bled from the engines is directed over the flaps to increase lift during takeoff and landing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final flight.", "content": "After 2,350 hours and 1,691 flights the aircraft was withdrawn from use in 1969 and placed in storage. On May 26, 1972 Boeing donated the to the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum, which had designated it one of the 12 most significant aircraft of all time. For the next 18 years the aircraft was stored at a \"desert boneyard\" now called the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group (AMARG) at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base near Tucson, Arizona before being retrieved by Boeing in 1990 for restoration. The Dash 80's final flight was to Dulles International Airport near Washington, D.C. on August 27, 2003. Repainted to its original yellow and brown Boeing livery, it was put on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, an annex of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum, located adjacent to Dulles Airport in Chantilly, Virginia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Boeing 367-80, known simply as the Dash 80, is an American quadjet prototype aircraft built by Boeing to demonstrate the advantages of jet propulsion for commercial aviation. It served as basis for the design of the KC-135 tanker and the 707 airliner.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974723}
{"src_title": "Maria Theresa of Austria-Este (1849–1919)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "On 20 February 1868, at St. Augustine's Church in Vienna, Maria Theresa married the future Ludwig III, last king of Bavaria.  The couple had thirteen children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "On 20 February 1868 she married Prince Ludwig, eldest son of Bavaria's Prince Regent Luitpold, in the Augustinerkirche in Vienna. The couple had fallen in love during a visit of Ludwig at Pfingsten in Austria to attend the burial of Archduchess Mathilda and their decision to marry initially angered the Emperor, who had wished for her to marry Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany. The chief witness was Count Antonius Schaffgotsch.  The family mostly lived on their farms at Leutstetten south of Munich, where Maria Theresa cultivated rose gardens.  Maria Theresa became queen consort of Bavaria in 1913 when her husband the reigning Prince Regent proclaimed himself king as King Ludwig III in place of his living but insane cousin King Otto. She became the first Catholic queen in Bavaria since Bavaria was made a kingdom 1806. She spoke German, Hungarian, Czech, French, and Italian.  In 1914, she hosted festivities during the royal Bavarian jubilee. She appeared with her husband when war was announced. During World War I, she visited wounded soldiers and encouraged the women of Bavaria to support the troops by providing food and clothes, including with the donations references to legendary heroines.  On 7 November 1918 Ludwig III was forced to abdicate the Bavarian throne, and Maria Theresa fled Munich with her family to Wildenwart Castle near Frasdorf, in order to escape from the Bolsheviks. The health of the Queen soon declined and she died there on 3 February 1919, being buried at the local chapel. On 5 November 1921 her remains were transferred to the cathedral of Munich along with those of her husband, who died less than a month before.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jacobite succession.", "content": "Maria Theresa was the niece and heir of the childless Francis V, Duke of Modena who had been, at the time of his death, the Jacobite heir-general to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland; as such, she became the heir after his death in 1875. Neither she, nor any of her Jacobite forebears since 1807, ever seriously pursued this claim.  Maria Theresa was the first Jacobite heir-general since James Francis Edward Stuart (1688-1766) who could (but for her religion) also have claimed to be a natural-born citizen of Great Britain. While she was not born on British soil, as James had been, Maria Theresa was a descendant of the Electress Sophia of Hanover. Under the terms of the Sophia Naturalization Act 1705, the Electress Sophia and all \"issue of her body\" were declared to be natural-born British subjects, regardless of the actual place of their birth, unless they were Roman Catholics. The 1705 Act was not repealed until 1948 and, consequently, Maria Theresa would have been covered by its provisions.  Following her death in 1919, Maria Theresa's son Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria inherited the Jacobite claim. Like his mother, he and his descendants have not pursued a claim to the British thrones.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Theresa of Austria-Este (Maria Theresa Henriette Dorothee; 2 July 1849 – 3 February 1919) was the last Queen of Bavaria. She was the daughter and only child of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este and his wife, Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974724}
{"src_title": "Joan II, Countess of Burgundy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "In the beginning of 1314, Joan's sister Blanche and her sister-in-law Margaret were convicted of adultery with two knights, upon the testimony of their sister-in-law Isabella, in the Tour de Nesle Affair. Joan was thought to have known of the affairs, and was placed under house arrest at Dourdan as punishment. She continued to protest her innocence, as did her husband, who had refused to repudiate her, and by 1315 – through the influence of her mother and husband – her name had been cleared by the Paris Parlement, and she was allowed to return to court.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen.", "content": "With the death of King John I of France, her husband became King Philip V of France; Joan became queen consort. She was crowned with her husband at Reims on 9 January 1317.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Countess of Burgundy and Artois.", "content": "Her father, the Count of Burgundy, died in 1302, and his titles were inherited by his only legitimate son, Robert. Upon Robert's death in 1315, the County of Burgundy was inherited by Joan. In 1329, she inherited her mother's County of Artois.  After her husband's death, Joan lived in her own domains. The death of her spouse dealt her a devastating blow from which she never recovered, sinking into a deep depression for the rest of her life. After her beloved sister died in 1326, she was said to be \"so sorrowful as never before she had been.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "She died at Roye-en-Artois, on 21 January 1330, and was buried in Saint-Denis beside her husband. Her titles were inherited by her eldest daughter, Joan III, who had married Odo IV, Duke of Burgundy, in 1318. With Joan II's death, the County and Duchy of Burgundy became united through this marriage. The Counties of Burgundy and Artois were eventually inherited by her younger daughter Margaret in 1361.  Joan left provision in her will for the founding of a college in Paris; it was named \"Collège de Bourgogne\", \"Burgundy College.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "With Philip V of France:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Joan (as Jeanne) is a character in \"Les Rois maudits\" (\"The Accursed Kings\"), a series of French historical novels by Maurice Druon. She was portrayed by in the 1972 French miniseries adaptation of the series, and by Julie Depardieu in the 2005 adaptation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joan II, Countess of Burgundy (; 15 January 1292 – 21 January 1330), was Queen of France by marriage to Philip V of France, and ruling Countess of Burgundy and Countess of Artois. She was the eldest daughter and heiress of Otto IV, Count of Burgundy, and Mahaut, Countess of Artois.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974725}
{"src_title": "Moïse Tshombe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "A member of the Lunda tribes, Tshombe was born near Musumba, Belgian Congo, the son of a successful businessman. He received his education from an American missionary school and later trained as an accountant. In the 1950s, he took over a chain of stores in Katanga Province and became involved in politics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Along with Godefroid Munongo, he founded the Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT) party. CONAKAT promoted a federal Congo independent of the Belgian colonial empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President of Katanga.", "content": "CONAKAT won control of the Katanga provincial legislature in the May 1960 general elections. One month later the Congo became an independent republic. Tshombe became President of the autonomous province of Katanga. Patrice Lumumba was tasked with forming a national government. Members of his party, the Mouvement National Congolais, were given charge of the portfolios of national defence and interior, despite Tshombe's objections. The portfolio for economic affairs was awarded to a CONAKAT member, but this was undercut by the positioning of nationalists in control of the Ministry and Secretariat for Economic Coordination. Mines and land affairs were placed under separate portfolios. Tshombe declared that this diluting of CONAKAT's influence rendered his agreement to support the government \"null and void\".  On the evening of 11 July, Tshombe, accusing the central government of communist leanings and dictatorial rule, announced that Katanga was seceding from the Congo. Favoring continued ties with Belgium, he asked the Belgian government to send military officers to recruit and train a Katangese army. Tshombe demanded United Nations recognition for independent Katanga, and he announced that any intervention by UN troops would be met with force. Nonetheless, Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and his successor, Cyrille Adoula, successfully requested intervention from UN forces. UN forces were sent under the direction of UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld.  France, wishing to take advantage of Katangese minerals, sent to Tshombe the reinforcement of the mercenary Bob Denard and his men. It was supported by the networks of Jacques Foccart, the \"Mr. Africa\" of the French government.  Lumumba's government was dissolved, and Lumumba taken prisoner by Mobutu and detained at Camp Hardy in Thysville. Harold Charles d'Aspremont Lynden (Belgian minister for African Affairs) sent a highly confidential telegram on 16 January 1961 to the government in Léopoldville (President Joseph Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu) to send Lumumba to Katanga. That would have stemmed from Lumumba's increasing popularity among soldiers, who might release him. Meanwhile, soldier mutinies and unrest increased by the day, at Prison Camp Hardy in Thysville. The telegram has still not been shown to exist.  Whilst being flown in a Sabena Douglas DC-4 plane to Katanga, Lumumba was beaten by the Congolese soldiers escorting him. In custody in Katanga, Lumumba was visited by Katangese notables and Belgian officers, who included Tshombe, Godefroid Munongo, Kibwe, Kitenge, Grandelet, Son, Gat, Huyghé, Tignée, Verscheure, Segers and Rougefort. Lumumba's execution, on 17 January, was carried out by a firing squad led by a Belgian mercenary, Julien Gat.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prime Minister of the Congo.", "content": "In 1963, UN forces succeeded in suppressing Katanga, driving Tshombe into exile in Northern Rhodesia, later to Spain. In July 1964, he returned to the Congo to serve as prime minister in a new coalition government. His cabinet was sworn in on 10 July. Tshombe's national support was derived from the backing of provincial political bosses, customary chiefs, and foreign financial interests. Among his first acts in office were the lifting of a curfew in Léopoldville, the release of 600 political prisoners—including Antoine Gizenga, and the ordering of Katangese gendarmes to return from their exile in Angola to the Congo and join the national army. In a New Year's message at the beginning of 1965, Tshombe rejected conciliation with the Simba rebels and called for their total defeat. He was dismissed from his position in October 1965 by President Kasa-Vubu. In November, General Mobutu, who had staged a successful coup against Kasa-Vubu, brought charges of treason against Tshombe, who again fled the country and settled in Francoist Spain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1967, Tshombe was sentenced to death \"in absentia\". On 30 June 1967, he was in a Hawker Siddeley jet aircraft that was hijacked by Francis Bodenan, an agent of the SDECE of France. According to the Congolese government, Tshombe was going to Africa.  Tshombe was taken to Algeria, jailed, and placed under house arrest. The pilots of the plane, Britons Trevor Coppleston and David Taylor, were released and returned to the United Kingdom. The Congolese government demanded his extradition to Congo, and his Western supporters agitated for his release. The Algerians resisted both demands. A part of his supporters gathered to form the Tshombe Emergency Committee in the U.S., including Marvin Liebman and William F. Buckley, to press for his release and move to Spain. Long-time aide Michel Struelens travelled to different European cities to lobby for Tshombe, eventually to no avail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Tshombe died in 1969; the official cause of death was listed as \"death from heart failure.\" He was buried in a Methodist service at Etterbeek Cemetery, near Brussels, Belgium. Owing to his role in the death of Lumumba and his association with Western interests, Tshombe's surname to black African nationalists became synonymous with \"sellout\".  The plot of the 1978 war film \"The Wild Geese\" is based in part on speculation that Tshombe's plane had initially been diverted to Rhodesia before being sent to Algeria. The film's characters Col. Allen Faulkner and President Julius Limbani were largely based on Tshombe and his military ally Maj. \"Mad Mike\" Hoare.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Moïse Kapend Tshombe (sometimes written Tshombé) (10 November 1919 – 29 June 1969) was a Congolese businessman and politician. He served as the president of the secessionist State of Katanga from 1960 to 1963 and as prime minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1964 to 1965.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974726}
{"src_title": "Maurice (novel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "Maurice Hall, age fourteen, discusses sex and women with his prep-school teacher Ben Ducie just before Maurice progresses to his public school. This scene sets the tone for the rest of the novel, as Maurice feels removed from the depiction of marriage with a woman as the goal of life.  After becoming friends with fellow university student Clive Durham, who introduces him to the ancient Greek writings about same-sex love, Maurice enjoys a discreet, committed partnership with him, hoping for more from their attachment, but Clive marries a woman and claims to be heterosexual.  Maurice is devastated, but he becomes a stockbroker, in his spare time helping to operate a Christian mission's boxing gym for working-class boys in the East End, although under Clive's influence he has long since abandoned his Christian beliefs.  He makes an appointment with a hypnotist, Mr. Lasker Jones, in an attempt to \"cure\" himself. Lasker Jones refers to his condition as \"congenital homosexuality\" and claims a 50 per cent success rate in curing this \"condition\". After the first appointment, it is clear that the hypnotism has failed.  Maurice is invited to stay with the Durhams. There, at first unnoticed by him, is the young under-gamekeeper Alec Scudder (called Scudder for large passages of the book), who has noticed Maurice. One night, a heartbroken Maurice calls for Clive to join him. Believing that Maurice is calling for him, Alec climbs to his window with a ladder and the two spend the night together.  After their first night together, Maurice panics and refuses to answer Alec's letters. Wounded by this rejection, Alec threatens to blackmail Maurice. Maurice goes to Lasker Jones one more time. Knowing that the therapy is failing, he tells Maurice to consider relocating to a country where same-sex relationships are legal, such as France or Italy. Maurice wonders if same-sex relationships will ever be acceptable in England, to which Lasker Jones replies \"I doubt it. England has always been disinclined to accept human nature.\"  Maurice and Alec meet at the British Museum in London to discuss the supposed blackmail. It becomes clear that they are in love with each other, and Maurice calls him Alec for the first time.  After another night together, Alec tells Maurice that he is emigrating to Argentina and will not return. Maurice asks Alec to stay with him, and indicates that he is willing to give up his social and financial position, as well as his upper-class status. Alec does not accept the offer. After initial resentment, Maurice decides to bid Alec farewell. He is taken aback when Alec is not at the harbour. In a hurry, he makes for the Durhams' estate, where the two lovers were supposed to have met before at a boathouse. He finds Alec, who assumes Maurice had received the telegram Alec had sent to his residence. Alec had changed his mind, and intends to stay with Maurice, telling him that they \"shan't be parted no more\".  Maurice visits Clive and outlines what has happened with Alec. Clive is left speechless and unable to comprehend. Maurice leaves to be with Alec, and Clive never sees him again.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Original ending.", "content": "In the original manuscripts, Forster wrote an epilogue concerning the post-novel fate of Maurice and Alec that he later discarded, because it was unpopular among those to whom he showed it. This epilogue can still be found in the Abinger edition of the novel. This edition also contains a summary of the differences between various versions of the novel.  The Abinger reprint of the Epilogue retains Maurice's original surname of Hill. (Although this surname had been chosen for the character before Maurice Hill (geophysicist) was even born, it certainly could not be retained once the latter had become a Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, Forster's own College. It might, of course, have been changed before that time.)  The epilogue contains a meeting between Maurice and his sister Kitty some years later. Alec and Maurice have by now become woodcutters. It dawns upon Kitty why her brother disappeared. This portion of the novel underlines the extreme dislike that Kitty feels for her brother. The epilogue ends with Maurice and Alec in each other's arms at the end of the day discussing seeing Kitty and resolving that they must move on to avoid detection or a further meeting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The novel was made into a film \"Maurice\" (1987), directed by James Ivory and starring James Wilby as Maurice, Hugh Grant as Clive and Rupert Graves as Alec.  A stage adaptation, written by Roger Parsley and Andy Graham, was produced by SNAP Theatre Company in 1998 and toured the UK, culminating with a brief run at London's Bloomsbury Theatre. Shameless Theatre Company staged another production in 2010 at the Above The Stag Theatre in London. Above the Stag staged it again in September/October 2018, as part of the theatre's first season in their new premises. It was directed by James Wilby. The US premiere opened on 24 February 2012 at the New Conservatory Theatre Center in San Francisco.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maurice is a novel by E. M. Forster. A tale of homosexual love in early 20th-century England, it follows Maurice Hall from his schooldays through university and beyond. It was written in 1913–1914, and revised in 1932 and 1959–1960. Forster was close friends with the poet Edward Carpenter, and upon visiting his Derbyshire home in 1912, was motivated to write \"Maurice\". The relationship between Carpenter and his partner, George Merrill, was the inspiration for that of Maurice and Alec Scudder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974727}
{"src_title": "Peter Bondra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and family.", "content": "Bondra was born in 1968 in Bakivtsi, Lutsk Raion, Ukraine, which was then a part of the Soviet Union. Bondra's father (a Rusyn) had moved to Lutsk from Jakubany, Czechoslovakia, when he was 16, and where he met his wife (a Pole). The parents moved with Peter and his two older brothers, Juraj and Vladimír, to Poprad when Peter was three years old. His father died in 1982.  Bondra was a Soviet citizen when he arrived in the United States, later obtaining a Slovak passport and citizenship in 1994. Currently, Bondra and his wife Luba, as well as their daughter Petra and two sons, David and Nick, reside in Riva, Maryland, and has participated in multiple alumni games and appearances with the current Capitals organization. His son David is a forward of HC Kunlun Red Star and also plays for Slovak national team, similarly to his father. His other son, Nick, is beginning his collegiate career at Amherst College in 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Bondra played one season for HK Poprad in the lower ranks of Czechoslovak league competition, and transferred to VSŽ Košice in the First Division at the age of 18. His older brother Juraj also played there on defense, having already won one championship title with the team the year before. As early as his second season with Košice, Peter was considered one of the top shooters in the Czechoslovak league, and won the league championship together with his brother in 1988.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National Hockey League.", "content": "Bondra was drafted by the Washington Capitals in the 1990 NHL Entry Draft, 156th overall. Before joining the Capitals, he played for TJ VSŽ Košice (now called HC Košice) for four seasons from 1986 to 1990 in Czechoslovakia. In Washington, Bondra became one of the more prolific goal-scorers of the 1990s. Due to the language barrier, he became good friends with Ukrainian-born Capitals player Dmitri Khristich, with whom he conversed in both Russian and Ukrainian. His deepest playoff run came in 1997–98, when the Capitals advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals before being swept by the Detroit Red Wings. In the 2003–04 season, Bondra's 14th with Washington, the Capitals endured a disappointing year and in a salary purge move traded veteran members of the team to contenders. As a result, Bondra was traded to the Ottawa Senators for Brooks Laich and a second round draft pick. At the press conference announcing this trade, Bondra notably broke into tears.  In 14 years with the Capitals, Bondra scored 472 goals and racked up 353 assists in 961 games. He holds the Capitals team records in short-handed goals (32) and hat tricks (19). With Washington, he appeared in five All-Star Games (1993, 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999). In 1997 and 1999, Bondra won the Fastest Skater Competition on All-Star weekend. In 2004, the Capitals held a vote for fans to determine the top 30 players in franchise history to celebrate their 30th season in the league. Bondra finished second with 2,018 votes. The winner, Olaf Kölzig, beat him by only 20 votes.  During the 1994–95 (with 34 in a lockout-shortened season) and 1997–98 seasons (with 52), Bondra led the league in goals scored, although the Maurice \"Rocket\" Richard Trophy for most goals scored in a season did not exist until the 1998–99 season.  After the 2004–05 NHL season was canceled due to the NHL labor dispute, Bondra played a handful of games with HK Tatravagónka ŠKP Poprad of the Slovak Extraliga. Prior to the 2005–06 season, Bondra was in talks to rejoin the Capitals, though he ended up signing with the Atlanta Thrashers for one season.  On December 10, Bondra signed a one-year contract with the Chicago Blackhawks. On December 22, 2006, he scored his 500th NHL career goal at the United Center, in Chicago's 3–1 victory against the Toronto Maple Leafs. Bondra drove to the net and netted the rebound of Jassen Cullimore's shot from the left point past Toronto's Jean-Sébastien Aubin, 6:37 into the third period on the power play. Bondra was the 37th player in league history to reach the 500-goal mark and the fourth player to record his 500th goal in a Blackhawks sweater, joining Bobby Hull, Stan Mikita and Michel Goulet.  On October 29, 2007, Bondra announced his retirement from professional hockey at the age of 39. Since retirement, Bondra has represented Colosseo USA, a Slovak company that makes custom video scoreboards.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Bondra has represented Slovakia on seven occasions in international competition, including the 1994 Winter Olympics qualifying tournament, the 1998 Winter Olympics, the 2006 Winter Olympics, the 1996 World Cup of Hockey and the Ice Hockey World Championship in 2002 and 2003. He scored a tournament-leading seven goals (including the tournament-winning goal) and ranked third among all players with nine points to lead Slovakia 4–3 over Russia to the gold medal at the 2002 World Championship. He notched five points (three goals, two assists) in eight games to help Slovakia earn the bronze medal at the 2003 World Championship. Overall, he played 47 games and scored 35 goals for Slovakia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Peter Bondra (; born February 7, 1968) is a Soviet-born Slovak former professional ice hockey player. He was the general manager of the Slovakia national team from 2007 to 2011. A two-time 50-goal scorer, Bondra became the 37th player in National Hockey League (NHL) history to score 500 NHL goals. He has the fewest points among all players who reached that milestone with 892.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974728}
{"src_title": "Georges Duby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Impact of the Mâconnais book.", "content": "Although Duby authored dozens of books, articles and reviews during his prolific career—for academic as well as popular audiences—his reputation and legacy as a scholar will always be attached to his first monograph, a published version of his 1952 doctoral thesis entitled \"La société aux XIe et XIIe siècles dans la région mâconnaise\" (\"Society in the 11th and 12th centuries in the Mâconnais region\"). \"La société\" exerted a profound influence on medieval scholarship in the second half of the twentieth century, placing the study of medieval feudal society on an entirely new footing. Working from the extensive documentary sources surviving from the Burgundian monastery of Cluny, as well as the dioceses of Mâcon and Dijon, Duby excavated the complex social and economic relationships among the individuals and institutions of the Mâconnais region, charting a profound shift in the social structures of medieval society around the year 1000.  Duby argued that in early eleventh century, governing institutions—particularly comital courts established under the Carolingian monarchy—that had represented public justice and order in Burgundy during the ninth and tenth centuries receded and gave way to a new feudal order wherein independent aristocratic knights wielded power over peasant communities through strong-arm tactics and threats of violence. The emergence of this new, decentralized society of dynastic lords could then explain such later eleventh-century phenomena as the Peace of God, the Gregorian reform movement and the Crusades.  Following upon this, Duby formulated a famous theory about the Crusades: that the tremendous response to the idea of holy war against the Muslims can be traced to the desire of disinherited (but well-armed) second and third sons of this French parvenue aristocracy to make their fortunes by venturing abroad and settling in the Levant. While Duby's theory had long-lasting influence, later scholars such as Jonathan Riley-Smith have done much to discredit it, arguing that there was no large-scale shortage of land in Western Europe at the time, that knights actually lost money going on crusade, and that lay religious sentiment was their primary motivation.  Duby's intensive and rigorous examination of a local society based on archival sources and a broad understanding of the social, environmental and economic bases of daily life became a standard model for medieval historical research in France for decades after the appearance of \"La société\". Throughout the 1970s and 80's, French doctoral students investigated their own corners of medieval France, Italy and Spain in a similar way, hoping to compare and contrast their own results with those of Duby's Mâconnais and its thesis about the transformation of European society at the end of the first millennium.  Although he was never formally a student in the circle of scholars around Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre that came to be known as the Annales School, Duby was in many ways the most visible exponent of the \"Annaliste\" tradition, emphasizing the need to place people and their daily lives at the center of historical inquiry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Histoire des mentalités.", "content": "Duby was also a pioneer in what he and other \"Annaliste\" historians in the 1970s and 80's came to call the \"history of mentalities\", or the study of not just what people did, but their value systems and how they imagined their world. In books like \"The Three Orders: Feudal Society Imagined\" and \"The Age of Cathedrals\", Duby showed how ideals and social reality existed in dynamic relationship to one another. His distilled biographical essay on William Marshal set the knight's career in the context of feudal loyalties, honour and the chivalric frame of mind.  Duby's interest in the idea of historical \"mentalities\" extended to thinking about the position of contemporary society vis-a-vis its past. In \"Le Dimanche de Bouvines\" (1973) on the pivotal 1214 battle of Bouvines, Duby chose not to analyze the battle itself, but the ways it had been represented and remembered over time and the role its memory had played in the formation of French ideas about its medieval past. The book remains a classic of \"Annales\"-style historiography, eschewing the \"great man\" and event-oriented theories of political history in favor of asking questions about the evolution of historical perceptions and ideas over the long term, the \"longue durée\". Duby also wrote frequently in newspapers and popular journals and was a regular guest on radio and television programs promoting historical awareness and support for the arts and social sciences in France. He served as the first director of Société d'édition de programmes de télévision (aka La Sept), a French broadcast network dedicated to educational programming.  His last book, \"L'histoire continue\" (\"History Continues\") (1991; Engl. trans. 1994), is an intellectual autobiography. In it, Duby stresses the importance of the historian as a public figure who can make the past relevant and exciting to those in the present.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georges Duby (7 October 1919 – 3 December 1996) was a French historian who specialised in the social and economic history of the Middle Ages. He ranks among the most influential medieval historians of the twentieth century and was one of France's most prominent public intellectuals from the 1970s to his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974729}
{"src_title": "Old New Synagogue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The synagogue was originally called the New or Great Synagogue and later, when newer synagogues were built in the 16th century, it became known as the Old-New Synagogue. Another explanation derives the name from the Hebrew עַל תְּנַאי (al tnay), which means \"on condition\" and sounds identical to the Yiddish \"alt-nay,\" or old-new. According to legend angels have brought stones from the Temple in Jerusalem to build the Synagogue in Prague—\"on condition\" that they are to be returned, when the Messiah comes, i.e., when the Temple in Jerusalem is rebuilt and the stones are needed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "Nine steps lead from the street into a vestibule, from which a door opens into a double-nave with six vaulted bays. This double-nave system was most likely adapted from plans of monasteries and chapels by the synagogue's Christian architects. The molding on the tympanum of the synagogue’s entryway has a design that incorporates twelve vines and twelve bunches of grapes, said to represent twelve tribes of Israel. Two large pillars aligned east to west in the middle of the room each support the interior corner of four bays. The bays have two narrow Gothic windows on the sides, for a total of twelve, again representing the twelve tribes. The narrow windows are probably responsible for many older descriptions of the building as being dark; it is now brightly lit with several electric chandeliers.  The vaulting on the six bays has five ribs instead of the typical four or six. It has been suggested that this was an attempt to avoid associations with the Christian cross. Many scholars dispute this theory, pointing to synagogues that have quadripartite ribs, and Christian buildings that have the unusual five rib design.  The bimah from which Torah scrolls are read is located between the two pillars. The base of the bimah repeats the twelve vine motif found on the tympanum. The Aron Kodesh where the Torah scrolls are stored is located in the middle of the customary eastern wall. There are five steps leading up to the Ark and two round stained glass windows on either side above it. A lectern in front of the ark has a square well a few inches below the main floor for the service leader to stand in.  The twelve lancet windows in the synagogue, which directed light towards the bimah, apparently led members to compare the structure with Solomon's Temple.  The synagogue follows orthodox custom, with separate seating for men and women during prayer services. Women sit in an outer room with small windows looking into the main sanctuary. The framework of the roof, the gable, and the party wall date from the Middle Ages.  An unusual feature found in the nave of this synagogue is a large red flag near the west pillar. In the centre of the flag is a Star of David and in the centre of the star is a \"Jewish hat.\" Both the hat and star are stitched in gold. Also stitched in gold is the text of \"Shema Yisrael\". Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor awarded the Jewish community their own banner in recognition for their services in the defence of Prague during the Thirty Years War. The banner now on display is a modern reproduction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Golem of Prague.", "content": "It is said that the body of Golem (created by Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel) lies in the attic where the genizah of Prague's community is kept. A legend is told of a Nazi agent during World War II broaching the genizah, but who perished instead. In the event, the Gestapo apparently did not enter the attic during the war, and the building was spared during the Nazis' destruction of synagogues. The lowest three meters of the stairs leading to the attic from the outside have been removed and the attic is not open to the general public. Renovation in 1883 and exploration of the attic in August 2014 found no trace of a golem.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Old New Synagogue (; ), also called the Altneuschul, situated in Josefov, Prague, is Europe's oldest active synagogue. It is also the oldest surviving medieval synagogue of twin-nave design.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974730}
{"src_title": "Jamón Jamón", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In a lone building on a busy road going through an arid desert in Spain, the beautiful Silvia spends her evenings making potato omelettes to sell at the factory where she works sewing men's underwear. Her mother Carmen works as a prostitute in a roadside brothel nearby. José Luis, pampered son of the factory owners, has been seeing Silvia on the side and when she tells him she has missed two periods, he picks up a soda can tab from the ground to serve as an engagement ring and promises he will stand by her. He cannot promise marriage until he can convince his wealthy parents that she will be a suitable bride.  Appalled, his mother Conchita refuses approval but his father Manuel refuses to intervene. Conchita then decides to get rid of Silvia, by finding somebody to seduce her. She picks Raúl, an aspiring bullfighter and part-time model. After his advances are repulsed a few times Raúl is genuinely smitten by Silvia, and he starts to woo her in earnest. Meanwhile Conchita comes to desire the Raúl for herself. Alarmed at the failure of her ploy, she gives Raúl a motorcycle as an enticement. Enraged by all this, José Luis forces himself upon Silvia to revenge himself against Raúl. Desperate to keep Raúl, Conchita seduces him at the isolated ham warehouse that she supervises. José Luis arrives and is furious. Seizing upon hams to use as weapons, the two men fight, which results in the death of José Luis, while Raúl is badly wounded. With Conchita weeping over her injured lover, her husband Manuel arrives with Silvia. The two comfort each other, he having lost his son and she her fiancé. Then Silvia's mother Carmen turns up to embrace the corpse of José Luis, her lost son-in-law and (in her professional capacity) client. In a timeless moment, across the desert a shepherd herds a flock of sheep.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The film was shot on the Monegros desert near Zaragoza.  In Spanish, \"jamón\" means \"ham.\" In one scene José comments that the taste of Silvia's two breasts is like ham.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Bigas Luna won the Silver Lion at the 1992 Venice Film Festival for the film.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "\"Házmelo otra vez\" (Concha Valdés Miranda)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jamón Jamón (; ) is a 1992 Spanish romantic comedy-drama film directed by Bigas Luna and starring Javier Bardem, Jordi Mollá and Penélope Cruz in her debut film. It centers on a young woman named Silvia played by Cruz. The movie engages in word play and pun and rhapsodises on the juxtaposition of old and new in Spain and many other emotional contrasts such as erotic desire and food.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974731}
{"src_title": "Cyclamen purpurascens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The species name \"purpurāscēns\" is a present participle from the Latin verb \"purpurāscō\" \"become purple\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Cyclamen purpurascens\" grows in deciduous or mixed woodland, especially among beeches and over limestone, at above sea level in continental Europe from eastern France across the Alps to Poland and south to Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is also found in mountainous parts of Romania and western Russia, where it has been introduced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"C. purpurascens\" blooms from summer to autumn, keeps its leaves through the winter, and produces seeds and new leaves the next summer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tuber.", "content": "Flowers and leaves come from buds at the top of a round-flattened tuber. Roots come from the sides and bottom. Older tubers may become distorted, forming \"fingers\" with separate growth points. Misshapen tubers are also found in \"Cyclamen rohlfsianum\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "Flowers appear before or with the leaves, and have 5 upswept petals. Flowers are sweetly scented, ranging in color from pale rose-pink to purple or rose-carmine and are long. Petals are elliptical and twisted, often curled into auricles, although less prominent than those of \"Cyclamen hederifolium\". Forma \"album\" has white flowers, though it is more difficult to establish. 'Lake Garda' has silver leaves and pink flowers.  This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leaves.", "content": "Leaves are kidney-shaped to heart-shaped, as wide as long or wider. The leaf edge is smooth or slightly toothed, unlike the closely related species \"Cyclamen colchicum\", which is always prominently toothed. Leaf color varies from all-green to all-silver, but the most common pattern is green with light green to silver marbling that roughly follows the outline of the leaf. The underside is red-purple. Because of the cool and moist climate in the plant's native range, it is almost evergreen: new leaves appear in summer while the old leaves are fading. All other cyclamens, except for the closely related \"Cyclamen colchicum\", are summer-dormant in their native range.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fruit.", "content": "After fertilization, the flower stem coils tightly, starting at the end. Seeds, amber when ripe, are held in a round pod, which ripens the summer a year after flowering and opens by 5-10 flaps.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flower forms.", "content": "\"Cyclamen purpurascens\" has three naturally occurring forms, distinguished by flower color:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leaf forms.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plain leaf.", "content": "Plain leaf forms have all-green leaves. A distinct plain-leaf form is the Fatra form, also called \"Cyclamen fatrense\" (misspelled \"fatranse\"), from the Fatra Mountains in Slovakia, which has plain leaves (either matt or shiny) and larger and more abundant flowers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Silver leaf.", "content": "Plants of the Silver Leaf Group have silver on the leaves. Subtypes include the Lake Bled form (silver with a netted pattern of veins near the margin), selected from plants near Lake Bled in the Julian Alps of Slovenia, and the Limone or Lake Garda form (silver with a very thin green border and gray arrowhead pattern in the center), selected from plants near Limone sul Garda near Lake Garda in Italy.  Other leaf patterns in the Lake Garda area include dark green with silver or lighter green marbling and plain green.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "The cultivated variety 'Green Ice', developed by Jan Bravenboer of Green Ice Nursery in the Netherlands, has a Christmas tree–shaped silver center and broad green margin. 'Green Lake' is similar, but has a light green zone in the center of the silver.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Cyclamen purpurascens (Alpine, European or purple cyclamen) is a species of flowering plant in the genus \"Cyclamen\" of the family Primulaceae, native to central Europe, northern Italy, and Slovenia. It is a tuberous perennial with (usually) variegated leaves, and deep pink flowers in summer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974732}
{"src_title": "Kosovo Polje", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is located in central Kosovo, some southwest of Pristina, the capital of Kosovo. It is served by the Fushë Kosovë railway station.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Kosovo Polje was named after the Kosovo Field of the 1389 Battle of Kosovo. The settlement of Kosovo Polje was established in 1921 during the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (see Colonisation of Kosovo).  Prior to the 1999 Kosovo War, the town of Kosovo Polje had, according to the figures of the Federal Statistical Office in Belgrade from March 1991, a total population of 35,570 inhabitants, while the ethnic makeup was 56.6% Albanian, 23.7% Serb and 19.6% from other communities.  Kosovo Polje saw considerable violence before, during and after the Kosovo War. In December 1998, Serbian deputy mayor of Kosovo Polje Zvonko Bojanić was executed by members of the Kosovo Liberation Army, despite taking a moderate line on Serb-Albanian relations. KLA representatives denied responsibility for the act. At the war's end in June 1999, most of the Albanian population returned while many of the town's Serbs were expelled. The remaining Serb population found themselves in an enclave in an Albanian-dominated region. Thousands of Serbs and Roma from other parts of Kosovo, who had fled their homes, took refuge in Kosovo Polje, where a large refugee camp was established. Ethnic tension flared repeatedly in the years after the war and a number of Serbs were killed by Albanian nationalists. Under this continuing pressure, the Serb population of Kosovo Polje shrank steadily until, by July 2002, the newspaper \"Blic\" was reporting that only 550 Serbs remained in Kosovo Polje. The town was seriously affected by the March 2004 unrest in Kosovo, which saw almost all Serb inhabitants expelled and their homes burned down. A number are reported to have returned since then and at least some of the destroyed properties have been rebuilt by UNMIK.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "There are two magnesium mines operating on the territory of Kosovo Polje: Goleš and Strezovce.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "According to the last official census done in 2011, the municipality of Kosovo Polje has 34,827 inhabitants. Based on the population estimates from the Kosovo Agency of Statistics in 2016, the municipality has 37,591 inhabitants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnic groups.", "content": "The ethnic composition of the municipality:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kosovo Polje (, \"Kosovo Field\") or Fushë Kosova (), is a town and municipality located in the District of Pristina in central Kosovo. According to the 2011 census, the town of Kosovo Polje has 12,919 inhabitants, while the municipality has 33,977 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974733}
{"src_title": "Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) project was initiated in 1990 with the objective of acquiring an Indian launch capability for geosynchronous satellites.  GSLV uses major components that are already proven in the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) launchers in the form of the S125/S139 solid rocket booster and the liquid-fueled Vikas engine. Due to the thrust required for injecting the satellite in a GTO orbit the third stage was to be powered by a LOX/LH2 Cryogenic engine which at that time India did not possess or had the technology know-how to build one.  The first development flight of the GSLV (Mk.I configuration) was launched on 18 April 2001 was a failure as the payload failed to reach the intended orbit parameters. The launcher was declared operational after the second development flight successfully launched the GSAT-2 satellite. During the initial years from the initial launch to 2014 the launcher had a checkered history with only 2 successful launches out of 7.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cryogenic Engine Controversy.", "content": "The third stage was to be procured from Russian company Glavcosmos, including transfer of technology and design details of the engine based on an agreement signed in 1991. Russia backed out of the deal after US objected to the deal as in violation of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) May 1992. As a result, ISRO initiated the Cryogenic Upper Stage Project in April 1994 and began developing its own cryogenic engine. A new agreement was signed with Russia for 7 KVD-1 cryogenic stages and 1 ground mock-up stage with no technology transfer, instead of 5 cryogenic stages along with the technology and design as per the earlier agreement. These engines were used for the initial flights and were named GSLV Mk.1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vehicle description.", "content": "The tall GSLV, with a lift-off mass of, is a three-stage vehicle with solid, liquid and cryogenic stages respectively. The payload fairing, which is long and in diameter, protects the vehicle electronics and the spacecraft during its ascent through the atmosphere. It is discarded when the vehicle reaches an altitude of about.  GSLV employs S-band telemetry and C-band transponders for enabling vehicle performance monitoring, tracking, range safety / flight safety and preliminary orbit determination. The Redundant Strap Down Inertial Navigation System/Inertial Guidance System of GSLV housed in its equipment bay guides the vehicle from lift-off to spacecraft injection. The digital auto-pilot and closed loop guidance scheme ensure the required altitude maneuver and guide injection of the spacecraft to the specified orbit.  The GSLV can place approximately into an easterly Low Earth orbit or (for the Mk. II version) into an 18° geostationary transfer orbit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Liquid boosters.", "content": "The first GSLV flight, GSLV-D1 used the L40 stage. Subsequent flights of the GSLV used high pressure engines in the strap-on boosters called the L40H. The GSLV uses four L40H liquid strap-on boosters derived from the L37.5 second stage, which are loaded with 42.6 tons of hypergolic propellants (UDMH & NO). The propellants are stored in tandem in two independent tanks diameter. The engine is pump-fed and generates of thrust, with a burn time of 150 seconds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First stage.", "content": "GSLV-D1 used the S125 stage which contained of solid propellant and had a burn time of 100 seconds. All subsequent launches have used enhanced propellant loaded S139 stage. The S139 stage is 2.8 m in diameter and has a nominal burn time of 109 seconds. The stage generates a maximum thrust of 4700 kN.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second stage.", "content": "The GS2 stage is powered by the Vikas engine. It has a diameter of.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third stage.", "content": "The third stage of the GSLV Mk.II is propelled by the Indian CE-7.5 cryogenic rocket engine while the older defunct Mk.I is propelled using a Russian made KVD-1. It uses liquid hydrogen (LH2) and liquid oxygen (LOX) The Indian cryogenic engine was built at the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre The engine has a default thrust of but is capable of a maximum thrust of.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "GSLV rockets using the Russian Cryogenic Stage (CS) are designated as the GSLV Mk I while versions using the indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) are designated the GSLV Mk II. All GSLV launches have been conducted from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "GSLV Mark I.", "content": "The first developmental flight of GSLV Mark I had a 129 tonne (S125) first stage and was capable of launching around 1500 kg into geostationary transfer orbit. The second developmental flight replaced the S125 stage with S139. It used the same solid motor with 138 tonne propellant loading. The chamber pressure in all liquid engines were enhanced, enabling a higher propellant mass and burn time. These improvements allowed GSLV to carry an additional 300 kg of payload. The fourth operational flight of GSLV Mk I, GSLV-F06, has a 15 tonne propellant loading in the third stage, called the C-15.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "GSLV Mark II.", "content": "This variant uses an Indian cryogenic engine, the CE-7.5, and is capable of launching 2500 kg into geostationary transfer orbit. Previous GSLV vehicles (GSLV Mark I) have used Russian cryogenic engines.  For launches from 2018 a 6% increased thrust version of the Vikas engine was developed. It was demonstrated on 29 March 2018 in the GSAT 6A launch second stage. It will be used for the four Vikas engines first stage boosters on future missions.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) is an expendable launch system operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). GSLV was used in thirteen launches from 2001 to 2018, with more launches planned. Even though GSLV Mk III shares the name, it is an entirely different launcher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974734}
{"src_title": "Eliezer Ben-Yehuda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Eliezer Yitzhak Perlman (later Eliezer Ben-Yehuda) was born in Luzhki ( (\"Lužki\"), Vilna Governorate of the Russian Empire (now Vitebsk Oblast, Belarus). He attended a Jewish elementary school (a \"cheder\") where he studied Hebrew and Bible from the age of three, as was customary among the Jews of Eastern Europe. By the age of twelve, he had read large portions of the Torah, Mishna, and Talmud. His mother and uncle hoped he would become a rabbi, and sent him to a yeshiva. There he was exposed to the Hebrew of the enlightenment which included some secular writings. Later, he learned French, German, and Russian, and was sent to Dünaburg for further education. Reading the Hebrew-language newspaper, \"HaShahar\", he became acquainted with the early movement of Zionism and concluded that the revival of the Hebrew language in the Land of Israel could unite all Jews worldwide.  Upon graduation in 1877 Ben-Yehuda went to Paris for four years. While there, he studied various subjects at the Sorbonne University--including the history and politics of the Middle East. It was in Paris that he met a Jew from Jerusalem, who spoke Hebrew with him. It was this conversation that convinced him that the revival of Hebrew as the language of a nation was feasible.  In 1881 Ben-Yehuda immigrated to Palestine, then ruled by the Ottoman Empire, and settled in Jerusalem. He found a job teaching at the Alliance Israelite Universelle school. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspora lifestyle, Ben‐Yehuda set out to develop a new language that could replace Yiddish and other regional dialects as a means of everyday communication between Jews who moved to Israel from various regions of the world. Ben-Yehuda regarded Hebrew and Zionism as symbiotic: \"The Hebrew language can live only if we revive the nation and return it to the fatherland,\" he wrote.  To accomplish the task, Ben-Yehuda insisted with the Committee of the Hebrew Language that, to quote the Committee records, \"In order to supplement the deficiencies of the Hebrew language, the Committee coins words according to the rules of grammar and linguistic analogy from Semitic roots: Aramaic and especially from Arabic roots\" (Joshua Blau, page 33).  Ben-Yehuda was married twice, to two sisters. His first wife, Devora (née Jonas), died in 1891 of tuberculosis, leaving him with five small children. Her final wish was that Eliezer marry her younger sister, Paula Beila. Soon after his wife Devora's death, three of his children died of diphtheria within a period of 10 days. Six months later, he married Paula, who took the Hebrew name \"Hemda.\" Hemda Ben-Yehuda became an accomplished journalist and author in her own right, ensuring the completion of the Hebrew dictionary in the decades after Eliezer's death, as well as mobilising fundraising and coordinating committees of scholars in both Palestine and abroad.  Ben‐Yehuda raised his son, Ben-Zion Ben-Yehuda (the first name meaning \"son of Zion\"), entirely in Hebrew. He did not allow his son to be exposed to other languages during childhood. He even berated his wife for singing a Russian lullaby. Ben-Zion thus became the first native speaker of modern Hebrew as a mother tongue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Journalistic career.", "content": "Ben-Yehuda was the editor of several Hebrew-language newspapers: \"HaZvi\", \"Hashkafa\", and \"HaOr\". \"HaZvi\" was closed down for a year in the wake of opposition from Jerusalem's ultra-Orthodox community, which fiercely objected to the use of Hebrew, their holy tongue, for everyday conversation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lexicography.", "content": "Ben-Yehuda was a major figure in the establishment of the Committee of the Hebrew Language (Va'ad HaLashon), later the Academy of the Hebrew Language, an organization that still exists today. He was the author of the first modern Hebrew dictionary and became known as the \"reviver\" (המחיה) of the Hebrew language, despite opposition to some of the words he coined. Many of these words have become part of the language but others never caught on.  Ancient languages and modern Standard Arabic were major sources for Ben-Yehuda and the Committee. According to Joshua Blau, quoting the criteria insisted on by Ben-Yehuda: \"In order to supplement the deficiencies of the Hebrew language, the Committee coins words according to the rules of grammar and linguistic analogy from Semitic roots: Aramaic, Canaanite, Egyptian [sic] ones and especially from Arabic roots.\" Concerning Arabic, Ben-Yehuda maintained, inaccurately according to Blau and historical evidence, that Arabic roots are \"ours\": \"the roots of Arabic were once a part of the Hebrew language... lost, and now we have found them again!\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and commemoration.", "content": "In December 1922, Ben-Yehuda, 64, died of tuberculosis, from which he suffered most of his life. He was buried on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem. His funeral was attended by 30,000 people.  Ben-Yehuda built a house for his family in the Talpiot neighborhood of Jerusalem, but died three months before it was completed. His wife Hemda lived there for close to thirty years. Ten years after her death, her son Ehud transferred the title of the house to the Jerusalem municipality for the purpose of creating a museum and study center. Eventually it was leased to a church group from Germany who established a center there for young German volunteers. The house is now a conference center and guesthouse run by the German organization Action Reconciliation Service for Peace (ARSP), which organizes workshops, seminars and Hebrew language ulpan programs.  In his book \"Was Hebrew Ever a Dead Language\", Cecil Roth summed up Ben-Yehuda's contribution to the Hebrew language: \"Before Ben‐Yehuda, Jews \"could\" speak Hebrew; after him, they \"did\".\" This comment reflects the fact that there are no other examples of a natural language without any native speakers subsequently acquiring several million native speakers, and no other examples of a sacred language becoming a national language with millions of \"first language\" speakers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eliezer Ben‐Yehuda (; ; born Eliezer Yitzhak Perlman; 7 January 1858 – 16 December 1922) was a Hebrew lexicographer and newspaper editor. He was the driving force behind the revival of the Hebrew language in the modern era.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974735}
{"src_title": "Kiryat Arba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biblical town: etymology and location.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the Hebrew Bible.", "content": "Kiryat Arba is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as the former name of Hebron and as the place where Abraham's wife, Sarah, has died: \"And Sarah died at Kiriath-arba (that is, Hebron)\" (). The Book of Joshua says: \"Now the name of Hebron formerly was Kiriath-arba; this Arba was the greatest man among the Anakim.\" ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Identification.", "content": "Some researchers identify Tel Rumeida with the biblical town.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Meaning.", "content": "There are various explanations for the name, not mutually exclusive. According to the biblical commentator Rashi, \"Kiryat Arba\" (\"Town of \"Arba\"\") means either the town (\"kirya\") of Arba, the giant who had three sons, or the town of the four giants: \"Anak\" (the son of Arba) and his three sons – Ahiman, Sheshai and Talmai – who are described as being the sons of a \"giant\" in : \"On the way through the Negev, they (Joshua and Caleb) came to Hebron where [they saw] Ahiman, Sheshai and Talmi, descendants of the Giant (\"ha-anak\")...\"  Some say that \"Anak\" (\"giant\", see Anak) is a proper name (Targum Jonathan and the Septuagint), and that he, \"Anak\", may have been the father of the three others mentioned in the Book of Numbers as living in Hebron, previously known as \"Kiryat Arba.\"  Alternatively, the name may refer to the four couples buried in the Machpela Cave: Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca, Jacob and Leah, and according to the Zohar, Adam and Eve.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "A secret government plan to establish the settlement began with the expropriation of Palestinian land ostensibly for a military base. According to the minutes of a meeting between senior officials in the office of Defense Minister Moshe Dayan in July 1970, houses would be constructed \"for military purposes\" before being turned over to Jewish civilians as a settlement. This method of settlement foundation, which was very common at the time, was intended to give the appearance of compliance with International Law. Israeli settlers claimed that Jewish settlement around Hebron was justified in light of the 1929 Hebron massacre and the continuous presence of Jews in the area until then. The town is a self-sufficient community, with pre-nursery through post-secondary educational institutions, medical facilities, shopping centers, a bank and a post office. Kiryat Arba attained local council status in 1979. While Kiryat Arba is located within the territory of the Har Hebron Regional Council, it is an independent local council.  Israeli settlers living at Kiryat Arba have been subjected to multiple attacks by Palestinians. In 1980, three 20-year-old yeshiva students studying in Kiryat Arba were among the six Jews killed by terrorists after praying in the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron on Friday night. Between 1981 and 1986, four people from Kiryat Arba were shot and wounded in the Hebron marketplace. In 1994, a 17-year Sarit Prigral from Kiryat Arba was shot and killed in a drive-by shooting. In March 2003, Eli and Dina Horowitz were shot to death in their home and five others wounded. On November 26, 2009, a Palestinian stabbed and wounded two Israelis at a Kiryat Arba gas station. The Palestinian was then shot dead by an Israeli soldier. On August 31, 2010, four residents, including a pregnant woman, were shot to death in their car by Hamas militants outside Kiryat Arba. The Palestinian Authority arrested the perpetrators, but promptly released them after Hamas accused it of treason. On October 8, 2010, Israeli troops killed two of the perpetrators and arrested six during a raid in Hebron. In October 2011, a Palestinian stoning attack near Kiryat Arba caused the car of a resident to overturn, killing him and his infant son. The man's handgun and wallet were then stolen. Following an investigation by Shin Bet, the IDF and police, two Palestinians from Halhul were arrested for throwing the stones that caused the car to overturn, and three others were arrested for stealing the gun. On June 30, 2016, a Palestinian from the nearby village of Bani Naim entered a house in Kiryat Arba and stabbed to death 13-year-old Hallel Yaffa Ariel, an Israeli-American girl. The attacker was shot to death, after also wounding a security guard who responded to the Ariel stabbing.  In October 2018, Eliyahu Libman was elected council head beating Malachi Levinger, the son of Moshe Levinger, who had served as head of council for 10 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The settlement has the following high schools and yeshivas:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kiryat Arba or Qiryat Arba (), lit. \"Town of the Four,\" is an urban Israeli settlement on the outskirts of Hebron, in the Judean Mountains region of the West Bank. Founded in 1968, in it had a population of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974736}
{"src_title": "John of Montfort", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "John of Montfort was born in 1295, the only son to Arthur II of Brittany and his second wife Yolande of Dreux. In 1322 he inherited from his mother the title of count of Montfort-l'Amaury, and in 1329 he married Joanna of Flanders in Chartres. Joanna was the daughter of Louis I, Count of Nevers, and Joan, Countess of Rethel. They had:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Succession to Duke John III.", "content": "On 30 April 1341, John III, Duke of Brittany, died without a male heir. His half-brother, John of Montfort, was a candidate for the succession, which was also claimed by Joan of Penthièvre, niece of John III and wife of Charles of Blois, himself a nephew of the Philip VI, King of France. The King was, of course, favourable to his nephew.  The Duchy of Brittany historically had a \"semi-Salic\" mode of inheritance; male primogeniture was followed unless no direct male descendants remained. At that point the closest female descendant inherited as Duchess, with her husband serving as Duke by \"right of representation\". The position of John of Montfort was legally founded on the belief that a brother (even a half-brother) was a closer heir than a beneficiary niece, and that the Salic form of inheritance adopted by the Kingdom of France should be followed. This argument was based on the fact that since 1297 Brittany had been a \"Duché-pairie\" (\"member and part of the crown\"), and that the legislation of the suzerain kingdom should therefore be applied. Challenges to the Salic law of the Franks had historically been rejected for the Kingdom of France, allowing Philip V to gain the throne in 1316, and Philip VI most recently. This made Edward III's support of John of Montfort quite ironic, in that the argument for Edward III to inherit the Kingdom of France was based on the opposing philosophy that the crown should be able to descend through a female line.  A civil war, termed the War of the Breton Succession, then began and lasted 23 years. This conflict was also called \"La guerre de deux Jeanne\", after the French names of the two duchesses in competition: Jeanne de Penthièvre and Jeanne de Flanders, wife of John of Montfort.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early stages of the War (1341).", "content": "After the funeral of John III, Charles of Blois returned to the Court of France and John of Montfort returned to his Breton estate in Guérande. Then, incited by his wife (according to tradition), he went with a small army to Nantes where he was well received by the inhabitants who swore their loyalty. John then went to Limoges where he managed to obtain the ducal treasury. John returned to Nantes and was recognised as Duke in May 1341 by an assembly composed of members of the towns and minor nobles, but shunned by the major vassals with the exception of Hervé VII, Count of Léon. Thanks to the ducal treasury, he recruited mercenaries which allowed him to perform in June and July a 'great ride in Brittany' (as described by Arthur de la Borderie) and take control of the duchy. John first gained Rennes, then Vannes and the places surrounding the Château de Suscinio, Auray, Hennebont, and then Quimperlé. Having failed to take the domains of Rohan, he submitted Quimper and Brest before descending to Carhaix, and then went back northward and captured Saint-Brieuc, Lamballe, Jugon, Dinan, Dol-de-Bretagne, and returned to Nantes via Ploërmel.  Always accompanied by Hervé VII of Léon, John obtained the submission, if not the support, of some of the major nobles who possessed several of these strongholds and had been loyal to Charles of Blois. However it would probably require getting Josselin, or the support of the high secular clergy and great lords, or more, to control the domains of the Penthièvres and the House of Rohan, which represented about two-thirds of Brittany. John also went to England and met with Edward III of England in Windsor, who promised him military assistance and invested him with the Honour of Richmond.  Charles of Blois then made an appeal to Philip VI, who summoned John of Montfort to a Court of Peers session in Conflans in September 1341. In this context by the judgment of Conflans, the Duchy of Brittany was attributed to Charles of Blois. Philip VI agreed to receive \"l'hommage lige\" of Charles of Blois on behalf of his wife, and confiscated from John of Montfort the French lands of the County of Montfort-l'Amaury, as well as the Viscounty of Limoges that he held more unduly.  In October 1341, Charles of Blois and John II, Duke of Normandy (later King of France), put together an army and penetrated into Brittany. They managed to retrieve a number of strongholds which had been lost, including Nantes, which relented on 21 November 1341 after three weeks of siege. John of Montfort was captured and imprisoned in the Louvre in Paris. Despite the change of camp of Hervé VII de Leon (due to criticisms from John regarding his handling of the siege of Nantes), Joanna, the wife of John of Montfort, continued the armed struggle supported by his allies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subsequent stages of the War (1342–1345).", "content": "After a winter break that ended on 15 April 1342, Charles of Blois resumed the fight and regained a large part of Brittany between May and September 1342. King Edward III of England decided to intervene on behalf of the House of Montfort. Charles de Blois failed to take Hennebont, which was defended by Joanna of Flanders, while Robert III of Artois was mortally wounded besieging Vannes in vain leading an English contingent. In January 1343, through Pope Clement VI, a truce was signed at Malestroit to bring peace and the liberation of John of Montfort. The latter was released in September 1343 and retired to England 27 March 1345. His return to the struggle with reinforcements provided by King Edward III of England put an end to the truce. John of Montfort unsuccessfully laid siege to Quimper, then fell ill and died in Hennebont on 16 September 1345.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tomb of John of Monfort.", "content": "He was buried in the convent of the Dominicans of Quimperlé where his tomb, which had already been desecrated, was found again in December 1883. His remains are now in the Church of Sainte-Croix de Quimperlé.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John of Montfort (, ) (1295 – 16 September 1345, Château d'Hennebont), sometimes known as John IV of Brittany, and 6th Earl of Richmond from 1341 to his death. He was the son of Arthur II, Duke of Brittany and his second wife, Yolande de Dreux. He contested the inheritance of the Duchy of Brittany by his niece, Joan of Penthièvre, which led to the War of the Breton Succession, which in turn evolved into being part of the Hundred Years' War between England and France. John's patron in his quest was King Edward III of England. He died in 1345, 19 years before the end of the war, and the victory of his son John IV over Joan of Penthièvre and her husband, Charles of Blois.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974737}
{"src_title": "Brassica juncea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cultivar.", "content": "\"Brassica juncea\" cultivars can be divided into four major subgroups: integrifolia, juncea, napiformis, and tsatsai.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "In 100 grams, cooked mustard greens provide 26 calories and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value) of vitamins A, C, and K which is especially high as a multiple of its Daily Value. Mustard greens are a moderate source of vitamin E and calcium. Greens are 92% water, 4.5% carbohydrates, 2.6% protein and 0.5% fat (table).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "The leaves, seeds, and stems of this mustard variety are edible. The plant appears in some form in African, Bangladeshi, Chinese, Italian, Indian, Japanese, Nepali, Pakistani, Korean, and African-American (soul food) cuisines. Cultivars of \"B. juncea\" are grown for their greens, and for the production of oilseed. The mustard condiment made from the seeds of the \"B. juncea\" is called brown mustard and is considered to be spicier than yellow mustard.  Because it may contain erucic acid, a potential toxin, mustard oil is restricted from import as a vegetable oil into the United States. Essential oil of mustard, however, is accepted as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe). But in Russia, this is the main species grown for the production of mustard oil. It is widely used in canning, baking and margarine production in Russia, and the majority of Russian table mustard is also made from \"B. juncea\".  The leaves are used in African cooking, and all plant parts are used in Nepali cuisine, particularly in the mountain regions of Nepal, as well as in the Punjabi cuisine in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, where a dish called \"sarson da saag\" (mustard greens) is prepared. \"B. juncea\" subsp. \"tatsai\", which has a particularly thick stem, is used to make the Nepali pickle called \"achar\", and the Chinese pickle \"zha cai\".  The Gorkhas of the Indian states of Darjeeling, West Bengal and Sikkim as well as Nepal prepare pork with mustard greens (also called \"rayo\" in Nepali). It is usually eaten with relish and steamed rice, but can also be eaten with \"roti\" (griddle breads). In Nepal it is also a common practice to cook these greens with meat of all sorts specially goat meat; which is normally prepared in a pressure cooker with minimal use of spices to focus on the flavour of the greens and dry chillies. \"Brassica juncea\" (especially the seeds) is more pungent than greens from the closely related \"Brassica oleracea\" (kale, broccoli, and collard greens), and is frequently mixed with these milder greens in a dish of \"mixed greens\".  Chinese and Japanese cuisines also make use of mustard greens. In Japanese cuisine, it is known as \"takana\" and often pickled for use as filling in onigiri or as a condiment. Many varieties of \"B. juncea\" cultivars are used, including \"zha cai\", \"mizuna\", \"takana\" (var. \"integrifolia\"), \"juk gai choy\", and \"xuelihong\". Asian mustard greens are most often stir-fried or pickled. A Southeast Asian dish called \"asam gai choy\" or \"kiam chai boey\" is often made with leftovers from a large meal. It involves stewing mustard greens with tamarind, dried chillies and leftover meat on the bone. Brassica juncea is also known as \"gai choi\", \"siu gai choi\", \"xaio jie cai\", baby mustard, Chinese leaf mustard or \"mostaza\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Green manure.", "content": "Vegetable growers sometimes grow mustard as a green manure. Its main purpose is to act as a mulch, covering the soil to suppress weeds between crops. If grown as a green manure, the mustard plants are cut down at the base when sufficiently grown, and left to wither on the surface, continuing to act as a mulch until the next crop is due for sowing, when the mustard is dug in. In the UK, mustard sown in summer and autumn is cut down starting in October. April sowings can be cut down in June, keeping the ground clear for summer-sown crops. One of the disadvantages of using mustard as a green manure is its propensity to harbor club root.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phytoremediation.", "content": "This mustard plant is used in phytoremediation to remove heavy metals, such as lead, from the soil in hazardous waste sites because it has a higher tolerance for these substances and stores the heavy metals in its cells. In particular, \"Brassica juncea\" was particularly effective at removing cadmium from soil. The process of removing heavy metals ends when the plant is harvested and properly discarded. Phytoremediation has been shown to be cheaper and easier than traditional methods for heavy metal reduction in soils. In addition, it has the effect of reducing soil erosion, reducing cross-site contamination.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Brassica juncea, commonly brown mustard, Chinese mustard, Indian mustard, leaf mustard, Oriental mustard and vegetable mustard, is a species of mustard plant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974738}
{"src_title": "Modchip", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Function and construction.", "content": "Modchips operate by replacing or overriding a system's protection hardware or software. They achieve this by either exploiting existing interfaces in an unintended or undocumented manner, or by actively manipulating the system's internal communication, sometimes to the point of re-routing it to substitute parts provided by the modchip.  Most modchips consist of one or more integrated circuits (microcontrollers, FPGAs, or CPLDs), often complemented with discrete parts, usually packaged on a small PCB to fit within the console system it is designed for. Although there are modchips that can be reprogrammed for different purposes, most modchips are designed to work within only one console system or even only one specific hardware version.  Modchips typically require some degree of technical skill to install since they must be connected to a console's circuitry, most commonly by soldering wires to select traces or chip legs on a system's circuit board. Some modchips allow for installation by directly soldering the modchip's contacts to the console's circuit (\"quicksolder\"), by the precise positioning of electrical contacts (\"solderless\"), or, in rare cases, by plugging them into a system's internal or external connector.  Memory cards or cartridges that offer functions similar to modchips work on a completely different concept, namely by exploiting flaws in the system's handling of media. Such devices are not referred to as modchips, even if they are frequently traded under this umbrella term.  The diversity of hardware modchips operate on and varying methods they use mean that while modchips are often used for the same goal, they may work in vastly different ways, even if they are intended for use on the same console. Some of the first modchips for the Nintendo Wii known as drive chips, modify the behaviour and communication of the optical drive to bypass security. While on the Xbox 360, a common modchip took advantage of the fact short periods of instability in the CPU could be used to fairly reliably lead it to incorrectly compare security signatures. The precision required in this attack meant the modchip made use of a CPLD. Other modchips, such as the XenoGC and clones for the Nintendo GameCube, invoke a debug mode where security measures are reduced or absent, in this case a stock Atmel AVR microcontroller was used. A more recent innovation are optical disk drive emulators or ODDE, these replace the optical disk drive and allow data to come from another source bypassing the need to circumvent any security. These often make use of FPGAs to enable them to accurately emulate timing and performance characteristics of the optical drives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Most cartridge-based console systems did not have modchips produced for them. They usually implemented copy protection and regional lockout with game cartridges, both on hardware and software level. Converters or passthrough devices have been used to circumvent the restrictions, while flash memory devices (game backup devices) were widely adopted in later years to copy game media. Early in the transition from solid-state to optical media, CD-based console systems did not have regional market segmentation or copy protection measures due to the rarity and high cost of user-writable media at the time.  Modchips started to surface with the PlayStation system, due to the increasing availability and affordability of CD writers and the increasing sophistication of DRM protocols. At the time, a modchip's sole purpose was to allow the use of imported and copied game media.  Today, modchips are available for practically every current console system, often in a great number of variations. In addition to circumventing regional lockout and copy protection mechanisms, modern modchips may introduce more sophisticated modifications to the system, such as allowing the use of user-created software (homebrew), expanding the hardware capabilities of its host system, or even installing an alternative operating system to completely re-purpose the host system (\"e.g.\" for use as a home theater PC).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anti-modchip measures.", "content": "Most modchips open the system to copied media, therefore the availability of a modchip for a console system is undesirable for console manufacturers. They react by removing the intrusion points exploited by a modchip from subsequent hardware or software versions, changing the PCB layout the modchips are customized for, or by having the firmware or software detect an installed modchip and refuse operation as a consequence. Since modchips often hook into fundamental functions of the host system that cannot be removed or adjusted, these measures may not completely prevent a modchip from functioning but only prompt an adjustment of its installation process or programming, e.g. to include measures to make it undetectable (\"stealth\") to its host system.  With the advent of online services to be used by video game consoles, some manufacturers have executed their possibilities within the service's license agreement to ban consoles equipped with modchips from using those services.  In an effort to dissuade modchip creation, some console manufacturers included the option to run homebrew software or even an alternative operating system on their consoles. However, some of these features have been withdrawn at a later date. An argument can be made that a console system remains largely untouched by modchips as long as their manufacturers provide an official way of running unlicensed third-party software.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legality.", "content": "One of the most prominent functions of many modchips—the circumvention of copy protection mechanisms—is outlawed by many countries' copyright laws such as the Digital Millennium Copyright Act in the United States, the European Copyright Directive and its various implementations by the EU member countries, and the Australian Copyright Act. Other laws may apply to the many diversified functions of a modchip, e.g. Australian law specifically allowing the circumvention of region coding.  The ambiguity of applicable law, its nonuniform interpretation by the courts, and constant profound changes and amendments to copyright law do not allow for a definitive statement on the legality of modchips. A modchip's legality under a country's legislature may only be individually asserted in court.  Most of the very few cases that have been brought before a court ended with the conviction of the modchip merchant or the manufacturer under the respective country's anti-circumvention laws. A small number of cases in the United Kingdom and Australia were dismissed under the argument that a system's copy protection mechanism would not be able to prevent the actual infringement of copyright—the actual process of copying game media—and therefore cannot be considered an effective technical protection measure protected by anti-circumvention laws. In 2006, Australian copyright law has been amended to effectively close this legal loophole.  In a 2017 lawsuit against a retailer, a Canadian court ruled in favor of Nintendo under anti-circumvention provisions in Canadian copyright law, which prohibit any breaching of technical protection measures. The court ruled that even though the retailer claimed the products could be used for homebrew, thus asserting exemptions for maintaining interoperability, the court ruled that because Nintendo offers development kits for its platforms, interoperability could be achieved without breaching TPMs, and thus the defence is invalid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternatives.", "content": "An alternative of installing a modchip is a process of softmodding a device. A softmodded device does not need to permanently have any additional hardware pieces inside. Instead, the software of a device or its internal part is modified in order to change the device's behaviour.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A modchip (short for modification chip) is a small electronic device used to alter or disable artificial restrictions of computers or entertainment devices. Modchips are mainly used in video game consoles, but also in some DVD or Blu-ray players. They introduce various modifications to its host system's function, including the circumvention of region coding, digital rights management, and copy protection checks for the purpose of using media intended for other markets, copied media, or unlicensed third-party (homebrew) software.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974739}
{"src_title": "Mahakala", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "is a Sanskrit bahuvrihi of'\"great\" and'\"time/death\", which means \"beyond time\" or death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "According to \"Shaktisamgama Tantra\", the spouse of Mahakali is extremely frightening. Mahakala has four arms, three eyes and is of the brilliance of 10 million black fires of dissolution, dwells in the midst of eight cremation grounds. He is adorned with eight skulls, seated on five corpses, holds a trident, a drum, a sword and a scythe in his hands. He is adorned with ashes from the cremation ground and surrounded by numbers of loudly shrieking vultures and jackals. At his side is his consort symbolized as Kālī (काली, “the power of time”). Both Mahakala and Kālī (काली, “the power of time”) represent the ultimate destructive power of Brahman and they are not bounded by any rules or regulations. They have the power to dissolve even time and space into themselves and exist as Void at the dissolution of the universe. They are responsible for the dissolution of the universe at the end of Kalpa. They are also responsible for annihilating great evils and great daemons when other gods, Devas and even Trimurtis fail to do so. Mahakala and Kali annihilates men, women, children, animals, the world and the entire universe without mercy because they are \"Kala\" or \"Time\" in the personified form and Time is not bound by anything and Time does not show mercy, nor does it wait for anything or anyone. In some parts of Odisha, Jharkhand and Dooars, (that is, in northern Bengal), wild elephants are worshiped as Mahakala. Mahakala is typically black in color. Just as all colors are absorbed and dissolved into black, all names and forms are said to melt into those of Mahakala, symbolizing his all-embracing, comprehensive nature. Black can also represent the total absence of color, and again in this case it signifies the nature of Mahakala as ultimate or absolute reality. This principle is known in Sanskrit as \"nirguna\", beyond all quality and form, and it is typified by both interpretations.  Mahayana Buddhism, and all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, rely on Mahakala as guardian deity. He is depicted in a number of variations, each with distinctly different qualities and aspects. He is also regarded as the emanation of different beings in different cases, namely Avalokiteśvara () or Cakrasaṃvara (). Mahakala is almost always depicted with a crown of five skulls, which represent the transmutation of the five kleśās (negative afflictions) into the five wisdoms.  The most notable variation in Mahakala's manifestations and depictions is in the number of arms, but other details can vary as well. For instance, in some cases there are Mahakalas in white, with multiple heads, without genitals, standing on varying numbers of various things, holding various implements, with alternative adornments, and so on.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Six-Armed Mahakala.", "content": "Nyingshuk came from Khyungpo Nenjor, the founder of the Shangpa Kagyu, and spread to all the lineages—Sakya, Nyingma, and Gelug—as well as various Kagyu lineages. There are also terma lineages of various forms of Six-Armed Mahakala. Nyinghsuk, though derived from the Shangpa, is not the major Shangpa one—it is in a dancing posture rather than upright, and is a very advanced Mahakala practice.  The White Six-Armed Mahakala (Skt: \"Ṣadbhūjasītamahākāla\"; ) is popular among Mongolian Gelugpas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Four-Armed Mahakala.", "content": "Various Four-Armed Mahakalas (Skt. \"Chaturbhūjamahākāla\", ) are the primary protectors of the Karma Kagyu, Drikung Kagyu, Drukpa Lineage and the Nyingma of Tibetan Buddhism. A four-armed Mahakala is also found in the Nyingma school, although the primary protector of the Dzogchen (Skt: \"Mahasandhi\") teachings is Ekajati.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Two-Armed Mahakala.", "content": "The two-armed \"Black-Cloaked Mahakala\" () is a protector of the Karma Kagyu school clad in the cloak of a \"māntrika\" \"warlock\". His imagery derives from terma of the Nyingma school and was adopted by the Karma Kagyu during the time of Karma Pakshi, 2nd Karmapa Lama. He is often depicted with his consort, Rangjung Gyalmo. He is often thought to be the primary protector, but he is in fact the main protector of the Karmapas specifically. Four-Armed Mahakala is technically the primary protector. Six-Armed Mahakala ( is also a common dharmapala in the Kagyu school.  Pañjaranātha Mahakala \"Mahakala, Lord of the Tent\", an emanation of Mañjuśrī, is a protector of the Sakya school.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mahakala Bhairava.", "content": "Mahakala is also known as Mahakala Bhairava and Kala Bhairava in Hinduism, and many temples in India and Nepal are dedicated solely for Mahakala Bhairava, for example at the temple in Ujjain, which is mentioned more than once by Kālidāsa. The primary temple, place of worship for Mahakala is Ujjain. Mahakala is also a name of one of Shiva's principal attendants (Sanskrit: \"gaṇa\"), along with Nandi, Shiva's mount and so is often represented outside the main doorway of early Hindu temples.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mahakala in Japan.", "content": "Mahakala (known as \"Daikokuten\" 大黑天) enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan, as he is one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japanese folklore.  The Japanese also use the symbol of Mahakala as a monogram. The traditional pilgrims climbing the holy Mount Ontake wear tenugui on white Japanese scarves with the Sanskrit seed syllable of Mahakala.  In Japan, this deity is variously considered to be the god of wealth or of the household, particularly the kitchen. He is recognised by his wide face, smile, and a flat black hat, in stark contrast to the fierce imagery portrayed in Tibetan Buddhist art. He is often portrayed holding a golden mallet, otherwise known as a magic money mallet, and is seen seated on bales of rice, with mice nearby (mice signify plentiful food).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mahākāla is a deity common to Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism. According to Hinduism, Mahākāla is a manifestation of Shiva and is the consort of the goddess Mahākālī; he most prominently appears in the sect of Shaktism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974740}
{"src_title": "Lactuca serriola", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Lactuca serriola\" has a spineless reddish stem, containing a milky latex, growing from.  The leaves get progressively smaller as they reach its top. They are oblong or lanceolate, often pinnately lobed and (especially for the lower leaves), waxy grey green. Fine spines are present along the veins and leaf edges. The undersides have whitish veins. They emit latex when cut.  The flower heads are wide, pale yellow, often tinged purple, with 12-20 ray flowers but no disc flowers. The bracts are also often tinged purple. It flowers from July until September in the northern hemisphere. The achenes are grey, tipped with bristles. The pappus is white with equal length hairs.  Similar to \"Mycelis muralis\" but showing more than 5 florets.  It can cause pulmonary emphysema in cattle feeding exclusively on the plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary and medicinal uses.", "content": "\"Lactuca serriola\" can be eaten as a salad, although it has something of a bitter taste. Young leaves can be eaten raw or cooked. Older leaves can be steamed.  Its presence in some ancient deposits has been linked more to its soporific properties which might suggest ritual use. The Ancient Greeks also believed its pungent juice to be a remedy against eye ulcers and Pythagoreans called the lettuce \"eunuch\" because it caused urination and relaxed sexual desire. The Navajo used the plant as a ceremonial emetic. In the island of Crete in Greece the leaves and the tender shoots of a variety called maroula (μαρούλα) or agriomaroulo (αγριομάρουλο) are eaten boiled. It is used by a growing number of Jews and the Samaritans as the Maror (bitter herb) on Pesach.  \"Lactuca serriola\" contains lactucarium, which is the milky sap (white latex) that flows through the stem of the plant. It is used as a medicinal herb when dried after contact with air. Although the standard definition of lactucarium requires its production from \"Lactuca virosa\", it was recognized that smaller quantities of lactucarium could be produced in a similar way from \"Lactuca sativa\" and \"Lactuca canadensis\" var. \"elongata\", and even that lettuce-opium obtained from \"Lactuca serriola\" or \"Lactuca quercina\" was of superior quality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Egyptian god Min is associated with this species of lettuce. Also, archaeobotanical evidence in Greek archaeological contexts is scanty, although uncarbonised seeds have been retrieved from a 7th-century BC deposit in a sanctuary of Hera on Samos. It is also described by Theophrastus. In mythology, Aphrodite is said to have laid Adonis in a lettuce bed, leading to the vegetable's association with food for the dead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pathogen resistance.", "content": "\"Lactuca serriola\" is the wild progenitor of cultivated lettuce (\"Lactuca sativa\"), and can be affected by lettuce downy mildew, one of the most serious diseases of lettuce. \"L. serriola\" has shown resistance to the plant pathogen \"Bremia lactucae\", the cause of the disease. This pathogen is able to undergo sexual reproduction, and once virulent strains have been produced, can undergo rapid asexual reproductive cycles. As a result, there are many strains, which vary in virulence.  Resistance to \"Bremia lactucae\" in \"Lactuca serriola\" is due to \"Dm\" genes, or single dominant genes. Nine of the dominant genes that confer resistance are \"Dml, Dm, Dm3, Dm6, Dml4, Dml5, DmlO,\" \"Dm5/8, Dm10\", \"Dm4, Dm7, Dm11,\" and \"Dm13\". These genes are mapped in four linkage groups, so the genes within each group will be more likely to be inherited together. \"Lactuca serriola\" and \"B. lactucae\" have a gene-for-gene relationship, meaning that each resistance gene in the plant is associated with a specific gene in the pathogen, with avirulence being dominant to virulence. The possible combinations of these \"Dm\" genes can provide the plant with resistance to multiple strains of \"Bremia lactucae\".  Testing for the presence of new resistance factors is conducted by screening samples of \"L. serriola\" with various isolates of \"B. lactucae.\" Samples of \"L. serriola\" can be found around the world with genetic diversity between populations regarding the \"Dm\" genes. This genetic diversity is considered a resource for lettuce breeding because it provides a greater variety of genes to be used in response to new strains of \"B. lactucae\", which continually emerge. There is especially high diversity within the Mediterranean area and Southwest Asia, but \"L. serriola\" has established populations on all continents and has the most widespread distribution compared to other \"Lactuca\" species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lactuca serriola, also called prickly lettuce, milk thistle (not to be confused with \"Silybum marianum\", also called milk thistle), compass plant, and scarole, is an annual or biennial plant in the dandelion tribe within the daisy family. It has a slightly fetid odor and is commonly considered a weed of orchards, roadsides and field crops. It is the closest wild relative of cultivated lettuce (\"Lactuca sativa\" L.).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974741}
{"src_title": "Geomatics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview and etymology.", "content": "The term was proposed in French (\"géomatique\") at the end of the 1960s by scientist Bernard Dubuisson to reflect at the time recent changes in the jobs of surveyor and photogrammetrist. The term was first employed in a French Ministry of Public Works memorandum dated 1st June 1971 instituting a \"standing committee of geomatics\" in the government.  The term was popularised in English by French-Canadian surveyor Michel Paradis in a \"The little Geodesist that could\" article in 1981 and in a keynote address at the centennial congress of the in April 1982. He claimed that at the end of the 20th century the needs for geographical information would reach a scope without precedent in history and that, in order to address these needs, it was necessary to integrate in a new discipline both the traditional disciplines of land surveying and the new tools and techniques of data capture, manipulation, storage and diffusion.  Geomatics includes the tools and techniques used in land surveying, remote sensing, cartography, geographic information systems (GIS), global-navigation satellite systems (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, Compass), photogrammetry, geophysics, geography, and related forms of earth mapping. The term was originally used in Canada, because it is similar in origin to both French and English, but has since been adopted by the International Organization for Standardization, the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, and many other international authorities, although some (especially in the United States) have shown a preference for the term \"geospatial technology\".  The related field of \"hydrogeomatics\" covers the area associated with surveying work carried out on, above or below the surface of the sea or other areas of water. The older term of hydrographics was considered too specific to the preparation of marine charts, and failed to include the broader concept of positioning or measurements in all marine environments.  A \"geospatial network\" is a network of collaborating resources for sharing and coordinating geographical data and data tied to geographical references. One example of such a network is the Open Geospatial Consortium's efforts to provide \"ready global access to geographic information\".  A number of university departments which were once titled \"surveying\", \"survey engineering\" or \"topographic science\" have re-titled themselves using the terms \"geomatics\" or \"geomatic engineering\".  The rapid progress and increased visibility of geomatics since the 1990s has been made possible by advances in computer hardware, computer science, and software engineering, as well as by airborne and space observation remote-sensing technologies.  The science of deriving information about an object using a sensor without physically contacting it is called remote sensing, which is a part of geomatics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Science.", "content": "Geospatial science is an academic discipline incorporating fields such as surveying, geographic information systems, hydrography and cartography. Spatial science is typically concerned with the measurement, management, analysis and display of spatial information describing the Earth, its physical features and the built environment.  The term spatial science or spatial sciences is primarily used in Australia. Australian universities which offer degrees in spatial science include Curtin University, the University of Tasmania, the University of Adelaide,Melbourne University and RMIT University.  In the U.S., Texas A&M University offers a bachelor's degree in Spatial Sciences and is home to its own Spatial Sciences Laboratory. Beginning in 2012, the University of Southern California started to place more emphasis on the spatial science branch of its geography department, with traditional human and physical geography courses and concentrations either not being offered on a regular basis or phased out. In place, the university now offers graduate programs strictly related to spatial science and its geography department offers a spatial science minor rather than the original geography major.  Spatial information practitioners within the Asia-Pacific region are represented by the professional body called the Surveying and Spatial Sciences Institute (SSSI).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engineering.", "content": "Geomatics Engineering, Geomatic Engineering, Geospatial Engineering is a rapidly developing engineering discipline that focuses on spatial information (i.e. information that has a location). The location is the primary factor used to integrate a very wide range of data for spatial analysis and visualization. Geomatics engineers apply engineering principles to spatial information and implement relational data structures involving measurement sciences, thus using geomatics and acting as spatial information engineers. Geomatics engineers manage local, regional, national and global spatial data infrastructures. Geomatics Engineering also involves aspects of Computer Engineering, Software Engineering and Civil Engineering.  Geomatics is a field that incorporates several others such as the older field of land surveying engineering along with many other aspects of spatial data management ranging from data science and cartography to geography. Following the advanced developments in digital data processing, the nature of the tasks required of the professional land surveyor has evolved and the term \"surveying\" no longer accurately covers the whole range of tasks that the profession deals with. As our societies become more complex, information with a spatial position associated with it becomes more critical to decision-making, both from a personal and a business perspective, and also from a community and a large-scale governmental viewpoint.  Therefore, the geomatics engineer can be involved in an extremely wide variety of information gathering activities and applications. Geomatics engineers design, develop, and operate systems for collecting and analyzing spatial information about the land, the oceans, natural resources, and manmade features.  The more traditional land surveying strand of geomatics engineering is concerned with the determination and recording of boundaries and areas of real property parcels, and the preparation and interpretation of legal land descriptions. The tasks more closely related to civil engineering include the design and layout of public infrastructure and urban subdivisions, and mapping and control surveys for construction projects.  Geomatics engineers serve society by collecting, monitoring, archiving, and maintaining diverse spatial data infrastructures. Geomatics engineers utilize a wide range of technologically advanced tools such as digital theodolite/distance meter total stations, Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment, digital aerial imagery (both satellite and air-borne), and computer-based geographic information systems (GIS). These tools enable the geomatics engineer to gather, process, analyze, visualize and manage spatially related information to solve a wide range of technical and societal problems.  Geomatics engineering is the field of activity that integrates the acquisition, processing, analysis, display and management of spatial information. It is an exciting and new grouping of subjects in the spatial and environmental information sciences with a broad range of employment opportunities as well as offering challenging pure and applied research problems in a vast range of interdisciplinary fields.  In different schools and in different countries the same education curriculum is administered with the name surveying in some, and in others with the names geomatics, civil engineering surveying, geomatics engineering, geospatial (information) engineering, surveying engineering, or geodesy and geoinformatics. While these occupations were at one time often taught in civil engineering education programs, more and more universities include the departments relevant for geo-data sciences under informatics, computer science or applied mathematics. These facts demonstrate the breadth, depth and scope of the highly interdisciplinary nature of geomatics engineering. The job of \"geospatial engineer\" is well established in the U.S. military.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Application areas include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Areas of knowledge.", "content": "Geomatics integrates science and technology from both new and traditional disciplines:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the \"discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information\". Under another definition, it \"consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic data\". It includes geomatics engineering (and surveying engineering) and is related to geospatial science (also geospatial engineering and geospatial technology).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974742}
{"src_title": "Echinopsis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Studies in the 1970s and 1980s resulted in several formerly separate genera being absorbed into \"Echinopsis\":  Some have proposed merging \"Rebutia\" as well.  Like several other taxonomic changes in Cactaceae, this one has not been universally accepted. Amateur and professional growers still use names like \"Echinopsis\" (in the older sense), \"Lobivia\", \"Setiechinopsis\" and \"Trichocereus\", although many of the others listed above fell out of common usage long before the change.  Changing the genus name necessitated using some different specific epithets to avoid creating duplicate names. Thus both \"Echinopsis bridgesii\" and \"Trichocereus bridgesii\" previously existed. These are very different plants: \"Echinopsis bridgesii\" is a short clumping cactus, whereas \"Trichocereus bridgesii\" is a tall columnar cactus similar to \"E.\" (or \"T.\") \"pachanoi\". Under the new classification, \"Trichocereus bridgesii\" becomes \"Echinopsis lageniformis\".  The genus name \"Trichocereus\" was given to a number of columnar cacti in 1909 by Vincenzo Riccobono, before the genus was subsumed—along with \"Lobivia\"—into \"Echinopsis\" in 1974 by Friedrich. A 2012 genetic and morphological study by Albesiano found \"Trichocereus\" to be monophyletic if it included three species of \"Harrisia\".  A 2012 genetic analysis of chloroplast DNA indicates \"Echinopsis\" is made up of several divergent lineages. \"E. spachiana\" was not included in the study but is thought to be related to a \"Helianthocereus\" clade.  Many hybrids exist, mostly between similar species but also between more distinct ones, such as the cross between \"E. pachanoi\" and \"E. eyriesii\" which was sold under the name \"Trichopsis pachaniesii\" by Sacred Succulents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Echinopsis\" species are native to South America (Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay and Uruguay). They grow only in situations where the soil is sandy or gravelly, or on the sides of hills in the crevices of rocks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "The growing and resting seasons for \"Echinopsis\" are the same as for \"Echinocactus\". Research by J. Smith (former Curator at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew) showed that species like the Chilean \"Echinopsis cristata\" and its Mexican relatives thrive if potted in light loam, with a little leaf mould and a few nodules of limestone. The limestone keeps the soil open; it is important that the soil should be well drained. In winter, water must be given very sparingly, and the atmosphere should be dry; the temperature need not exceed during the night, and in very cold weather it may be allowed to fall to, provided a higher temperature of is maintained during the day. In spring, the plants should receive the full influence of the increasing warmth of the sun; and during hot weather, they will be benefited by frequent spraying overhead, which should be done in the evening. The soil should never be saturated, as the soft fibrous roots will rot if kept wet for any length of time.  None of the species need to be grafted to grow freely and remain healthy, as the stems are all robust enough and of sufficient size to take care of themselves. The only danger is in keeping the plants too moist in winter, for although a little water now and again keeps the stems fresh and green, it deprives them of that rest which is essential to the development of their large, beautiful flowers in summer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Echinopsis is a large genus of cacti native to South America, sometimes known as hedgehog cactus, sea-urchin cactus or Easter lily cactus. One small species, \"E. chamaecereus\", is known as the peanut cactus. The 128 species range from large and treelike types to small globose cacti. The name derives from \"echinos\" hedgehog or sea urchin, and \"opsis\" appearance, a reference to these plants' dense coverings of spines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974743}
{"src_title": "Endress+Hauser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Company structure.", "content": "The group comprises 134 companies in 48 countries. The group's parent company is Endress+Hauser AG in Reinach, Switzerland: a stock corporation under Swiss law whose shares are not listed on a stock exchange. Shareholders are the families of the eight children of company founder Georg H Endress, each holding 12 percent. An additional 4 percent has been placed in the non-profit Georg H Endress Foundation.  Today, Endress+Hauser provides sales and support in 125 countries and manufactures in the major economic regions. The company operates production facilities in Brazil, Germany, the United States, China, France, India, the Czech Republic, Italy, Japan, Singapore, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and South Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products, services, customers.", "content": "Endress+Hauser manufactures Electronic instruments for process automation including level, flow, pressure and temperature measurement; instruments for liquid, solids and gas analysis; data acquisition and system integration. Under the Analytik Jena brand, the group markets analytical instruments and bioanalytical systems for laboratories.  Commercial customers mainly operate in the food and beverage, chemical, life sciences, oil and gas, water and wastewater, power and energy and primaries and metals industries. In the laboratory business the group also serves customers from healthcare and academia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The company was founded as L Hauser KG on 1 February 1953 by Swiss engineer Georg H. Endress (1924–2008) and German banker Ludwig Häusser (1895–1975). Starting capital was a modest 2,000 deutschmarks; the first ‘operating facility’ was a room in Hauser’s apartment in Lörrach, Germany. The business has traded under the name Endress+Hauser since 1957.  In the beginning, the company sold innovative level instruments produced by the British company Fielden Electronics. Soon after, Georg H Endress started to develop his own devices. In 1955, he registered his first patent and set up a production facility.  The company expanded the portfolio by adding new measurement principles and pursued business opportunities in other countries. The first foreign subsidiary was established in 1960 in the Netherlands. In 1968, a holding company was registered in Switzerland. In 1970, Endress+Hauser entered the US and Japanese markets.  In 1975, co-founder Ludwig Hauser died; the Endress family became sole shareholder. In the following years, the company expanded its offering through acquisitions and start-ups. Measurement value recording, liquid analysis and flow measurement engineering were added as new fields of activity, followed later by pressure and temperature measurement technologies.  Klaus Endress, the second-eldest son of the company founder, took over as the group’s CEO in 1995. By that time, Endress+Hauser had grown into a global company with 4,339 employees and net sales of 679.6 million Swiss francs.  In 2005, Endress+Hauser acquired Innovative Sensor Technology IST AG, a Swiss-based provider of physical, chemical and biological sensors with operations in Ebnat-Kappel, Switzerland, and Roznov, Czech Republic.  In 2008, Georg H Endress died. The shareholder family had created a family charter while the company founder was still alive. It states “Endress+Hauser shall remain a family company oriented toward sustainable success.”  In 2013, Endress+Hauser entered the laboratory instrumentation business with the acquisition of German company Analytik Jena AG. Additional takeovers (SpectraSensors Inc., Kaiser Optical Systems Inc., SensAction AG, Blue Ocean Nova AG) strengthened the segment of process analysis and measurement of quality parameters. Besides this strategic focal point, the issue of digitalization was another major factor of influence in company development.  On 1 January 2014, Matthias Altendorf took over as CEO of the Endress+Hauser Group from Klaus Endress, who became president of the Supervisory Board. At that time the company generated net sales of €1.814 billion and employed 11,919 staff worldwide. Although not a member of the family, the new CEO has been with the company for more than 25 years. He promotes digitalization and applications for the Industrial Internet of Things and wants to further develop the offering in the field of laboratory and process analysis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Endress+Hauser in the US.", "content": "Endress+Hauser Inc. opened the first US office in Beverly, Massachusetts, in 1970 and moved to Greenwood, Indiana, in 1973. For a while E+H had a subsidiary Ondyne, Inc in Concord, California that primarily made moisture measurement instruments. In 1991 this facility was closed and most of the personnel moved to Greenwood, IN. In addition to its own sales organization, the company relies on a nationwide network of select representatives to support customers. Additionally, the group offers lab and field calibration services and operates various process training facilities in the US. Endress+Hauser produces flow, level, pressure and temperature instruments in Greenwood, Indiana, and liquid analysis technology in Anaheim, California; Kaiser Optical Systems Inc. manufactures Raman analyzers in Ann Arbor, Michigan; and SpectraSensors Inc. with headquarters in Houston, Texas, assembles its TDLAS gas analyzers in Rancho Cucamonga, California. According to Endress+Hauser, 80 percent of the instruments delivered in the US are made in the US. The laboratory business is represented by Analytik Jena US LLC, based in Upland, California. The group employs more than 850 people in the US; the representative network accounts for another 350 sales engineers and service technicians. Todd Lucey has been managing director of Endress+Hauser Inc. since 2004.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Endress+Hauser in the UK.", "content": "Endress+Hauser Ltd was established in 1968 and today employs 210 people. The company provides products, and services to customers in Britain and designs and manufactures industrial temperature sensors. The managing director is Steven Endress, a grandson of the company founder. The laboratory business in the UK is represented by Analytik Jena UK Ltd in London From its premises in Richmond, MHT Technology Ltd supplies the oil, gas and petrochemical industries with inventory management and stock reconciliation systems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Endress+Hauser in Canada.", "content": "Endress+Hauser Canada Ltd was founded in 1990. Today, more than 150 employees serve customers from headquarters in Burlington, Ontario, and offices in Montreal, Quebec, Calgary and Edmonton, Alberta. Technical representatives are based in Windsor, Saskatoon and Vancouver. In Atlantic Canada, Northern Ontario, Manitoba, Calgary (well servicing) and British Columbia, sales are handled through representatives. The managing director is Anthony Varga.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Endress+Hauser in South Africa.", "content": "Endress+Hauser (Pty) Ltd in Sandton was founded in 1984. With 120 employees, the company serves the South African market as well as customers in other subequatorial African countries such as Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Bernhard Klöss has been managing director of Endress+Hauser (Pty) Ltd since the beginning of 2019. In the country’s Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment program, Endress+Hauser has reached a level 4 rating. In addition to the group’s sales and service operations, in Benoni Endress+Hauser Pyrotemp (Pty) Ltd manufactures temperature measurement devices and system products.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Endress+Hauser in Australia.", "content": "Established in 2001 after a period of distributor representation, Endress+Hauser Australia Pty Ltd based in North Ryde, New South Wales, has developed as a full-fledged subsidiary. The company serves customers throughout the country.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Endress+Hauser in Ireland.", "content": "The group’s sales organization in Ireland was established in 1979, initially as an agency. Today Endress+Hauser (Ireland) Ltd, with offices in Kildare and Cork and 26 staff, assists customers nationwide. The managing director is Christophe Roche. In addition, the group has held a minority stake in the engineering-based calibration management software development company CompuCal Calibration Solutions Ltd, Little Island, since 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Endress+Hauser in India.", "content": "The group's sales organization in India was established in 1994. Today Endress + Hauser India Pvt. Ltd with 9 branch offices assist customers across India.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Endress+Hauser (Endress and Hauser) is a Swiss-based globally operating process and laboratory instrumentation and automation supplier. In 2018, the family-owned company generated net sales of €2.455 billion, recorded a net income of €232.2 million and employed 13,928 staff worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974744}
{"src_title": "Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Louis Antoine was born at Versailles, as the eldest son of Charles Philippe, Count of Artois, the youngest brother of King Louis XVI of France. He was born one year after the death of his great-grandfather, Louis XV of France. His mother was Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy (known as \"Marie Thérèse\" in France), the daughter of Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia and Maria Antonia of Spain.  From 1780 until 1789, Louis Antoine and his younger brother, Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry, were educated by Armand-Louis de Sérent \"marquis de Sérent\", their \"gouverneur\", in the \"château de Beauregard\", a few miles from Versailles. On the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 the two young princes followed their father into exile to first Turin, then to Germany and finally England.  In 1792, Louis Antoine joined the émigré army of his cousin, the Prince of Condé.  In June 1795, his uncle, the \"comte de Provence\", proclaimed himself King Louis XVIII. Later that year, the 20-year-old Louis Antoine led an unsuccessful royalist uprising in the Vendée. In early 1797, he joined his brother and uncle in the German Duchy of Brunswick, hoping to join the Austrian Army. The defeat of Austria by France obliged them to flee, and they took refuge in Mittau, Courland, under the protection of Tsar Paul I of Russia.  There, on 10 June 1799, he married his first cousin, Marie Thérèse of France, the eldest child of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, and the only member of the immediate royal family to survive the French Revolution. Since her release from the Temple Prison in 1795, she had been living at the Austrian court. They had no children.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military service.", "content": "In April 1800, Louis Antoine took command of a regiment of cavalry in the Bavarian army and took part in the battle of Hohenlinden against the French, showing some ability.  In early 1801, Tsar Paul made peace with Bonaparte, and the French court in exile fled to Warsaw, then controlled by Prussia. For the next ten years, Louis-Antoine accompanied and advised his uncle, Louis XVIII. They returned to Russia when Alexander I became Tsar, but in mid-1807 the treaty between Napoleon and Alexander forced them to take refuge in England. There, at Hartwell House, King Louis reconstituted his court, and Louis-Antoine was granted an allowance of £300 a month. Twice (in 1807 and 1813) he attempted to return to Russia to join the fight against Napoleon, but was refused permission by the Tsar. He remained in England until 1814 when he sailed to Bordeaux, which had declared for the King. His entry into the city on 12 March 1814 was regarded as the beginning of the Bourbon restoration. From there, Louis Antoine fought alongside the Duke of Wellington to restore his cousin Ferdinand VII to the throne of Spain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flight to England and return.", "content": "Louis Antoine was unable to prevent Napoleon's return to Paris as chief of the royalist army in the southern Rhône River valley, and he was again forced to flee to England during the \"Hundred Days\". He loyally served Louis XVIII after the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo. In 1823, he commanded a French army sent into Spain to restore the King's absolute powers, known as the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis. He was victorious in the Battle of Trocadero, after which the reactionary power of King Ferdinand VII of Spain was firmly restored. For this achievement, he was awarded the title of a \"Prince of Trocadero\".  Upon the King's death in 1824, his father became King Charles X and Louis-Antoine became Dauphin, heir-apparent to the throne. He supported his father's reactionary policy of purging France of her recent revolutionary and imperial past, expelling former imperial officers from the Army.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "July Revolution.", "content": "Masses of angry demonstrators demanded the abdication of Charles and of his descendants in July 1830, in what became known as the July Revolution, in favour of his cousin Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans. They sent a delegation to the Tuileries Palace to force his compliance.  Charles reluctantly signed the document of abdication on 2 August 1830; Louis Antoine followed 20 minutes later. It is said that Louis Antoine spent this time listening to the entreaties of his wife not to sign, while the former Charles X sat weeping. After that, he also abdicated (in favour of his nephew, the Duke of Bordeaux). For the final time he left for exile, where he was known as the \"Count of Marnes\". He never returned to France.  Louis Antoine and his wife travelled to Edinburgh, Scotland, in November 1830 and took up residence in a house at 21 (now 22) Regent Terrace near Holyrood Palace where Charles X was staying.  Emperor Francis I of Austria offered the Prague Castle in Prague to the royal entourage in 1832, so Louis-Antoine and Charles X moved there. Francis I, however, died in 1835, and his successor Ferdinand I of Austria told the French royal family that he needed the palace for his coronation in the summer of 1836. The exiled French kings and their entourage therefore left and eventually arrived at the palace of Grafenberg in Gorizia on 21 October 1836.  Many legitimists did not recognize the abdications as valid, and recognized Charles X as king until his death in 1836, with Louis XIX succeeding him. Louis Antoine died in Görz, Austria, in 1844, aged 69. He was buried in his father Charles X's crypt in the church of the Franciscan monastery of Kostanjevica near Görz, now Nova Gorica, Slovenia. Upon his death, his nephew the Duke of Bordeaux became head of the royal family of France under the regnal name Henry V, although he used the title of Count of Chambord in exile.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In fiction and film.", "content": "The newborn Duke of Angoulême is portrayed by an uncredited child actor in a brief scene from the Sofia Coppola motion picture \"Marie Antoinette\". This scene contains a great error as it mistakenly names his parents as being Louis XVIII and Marie Josephine Louise of Savoy, who never had children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis Antoine of France, Duke of Angoulême (6 August 1775 – 3 June 1844) was the elder son of Charles X of France and the last Dauphin of France from 1824 to 1830. He was technically King of France and Navarre for less than 20 minutes before he himself abdicated, due to his father's abdication during the July Revolution in 1830. He never reigned over the country, but after his father's death in 1836, he was the legitimist pretender as Louis XIX.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974745}
{"src_title": "Toastmasters International", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The organization grew out of a single club, Smedley Chapter One Club, which would become the first Toastmasters club. It was founded by Ralph C. Smedley on October 22, 1924, at the YMCA in Santa Ana, California, United States. It originated as a set of classes with the aim of improving the communication skills of the young men under his charge. Toastmasters International was incorporated under Californian law on December 19, 1932.  The first international chapter was established in Vancouver, Canada in 1932. The organization began admitting women in 1973.  Throughout its history, Toastmasters has served over four million people, and today the organization serves over 358,000 members in 141 countries, through its 16,400 member clubs. Toastmasters membership increased rapidly around the turn of the century, nearing 16,000 clubs worldwide by 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toastmasters club structure.", "content": "Toastmasters International uses a local club-based structure, each having around 20–40 members. Meetings are held every week or other week and usually in the evening, although some clubs meet in the morning or afternoon. Each club operates as a separate entity with a set of requirements leading to chartered status for them to be recognised as official Toastmasters clubs. Chartered status allows for clubs to use the names, promotional material and programme of Toastmasters International.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Meeting format.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Table Topics.", "content": "Part of meetings is devoted to Table Topics, which are off-the-cuff speeches which are assigned on the spot by a Topicsmaster. The goal of this is to think on one's feet with minimal preparation. In some clubs attendees are then asked to vote on who they thought gave the best speech.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Prepared speeches.", "content": "Every meeting is based around a set of organized speeches. Speakers are given feedback, often by a more experienced member who then gives an impromptu speech with constructive feedback based on their performance.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Public speaking championship.", "content": "Toastmasters runs an international public speaking championship formally known as the Toastmasters International World Champion of Public Speaking, which is held annually at its International Convention in August. It started in 1938 and involves over 33,000 participants in 141 countries making it the world's largest speech contest. There is a six-month process of elimination to reach the semifinals, in which in 2018 there were 106 participants who got that far. There are ten places in the final and speeches are judged on content, gestures, organization and style.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Toastmasters International (TI) is a US headquartered nonprofit educational organization that operates clubs worldwide for the purpose of promoting communication, public speaking and leadership.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974746}
{"src_title": "Ivan Paskevich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ivan Paskevich was born in Poltava on 19 May 1782, to a well-known family of Ukrainian Cossack gentry, he was educated at the Page Corps, where his progress was rapid, and in 1800 received his commission in the Guards and was named aide-de-camp to the tsar. His first active service was in 1805, in the auxiliary army sent to the assistance of Austria against France, when he took part in the Battle of Austerlitz, 2 December 1805, where Austrian – Russian troops were defeated by the French under Napoleon. From 1807 to 1812, Ivan Paskevich was engaged in the campaigns against the Ottomans, and distinguished himself by many brilliant and daring exploits, being made a general officer in his thirtieth year. During the war with France in 1812–1814 he was present, in command of the 26th division of infantry, at all the most important engagements, and he won promotion to the rank of lieutenant general. On the outbreak of Russo-Persian War (1826–28) in 1826 he was appointed second in command, and, in the spring of the following year he replaced Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov as chief command. Under his leadership, Echmiadzin and the Nakhichevan Khanate were conquered from the Persians. After the Persians unsuccessfully tried to recapture Echmiadzin, the tsar granted Paskevich the title of \"Erivanskii\" (\"Count of Yerevan),\" a million rubles and a diamond-mounted sword for his services. The Russo-Turkish War, 1828–1829 immediately followed and he successfully led the eastern or Caucasus front. For this he was made a Field Marshal at the age of forty-seven. In 1830, he was engaged in the Caucasian War on the territory of present-day Dagestan. At the same time he appointed the high-ranking Muslim cleric Mir-Fatah-Agha from Iran as head of the recently established Caucasus Committee. Paskevich hoped that by the help of Mir-Fattah's high stature in the Muslim community, he could make a very valuable contribution to the Russian consolidation of power in the Caucasus. Together with Mir-Fatah's high esteem among Muslims and his devised plans for the Caucasus, they managed to keep the entire Caucasus stable from rebellious Muslim insurrections for many years to come. In June 1831, after the death of Field Marshal von Diebitsch, commander of Russian troops in Congress Poland, Paskevich was appointed his successor in crushing the Polish uprising. His armies, following the decisive success of Diebitsch at the Battle of Ostrołęka in May, advanced slowly, but Paskevich redeemed his reputation at the Battle of Warsaw, giving a death blow to Polish hopes of restoring independence. He was created \"Prince of Warsaw\" and awarded the office of Namestnik of the Kingdom of Poland. With the kingdom's autonomy limited by the Organic Statute of the Kingdom of Poland, the period under Namestnik Paskevich – known in Poland as the \"Paskevich Night\" – became infamous for political and economic repressions, as well as for Russification. On the outbreak of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 he was appointed to command the Russian troops sent to aid Austria, and finally compelled the Hungarians' surrender at Világos.  In 1854 Paskevich took command of the Army of the Danube, which was then engaging the Turks in the initial stage of the conflict which evolved into the Crimean War. Though he laid siege to Silistria, Paskevich advocated aborting the campaign due to Austria's threat to intervene in the war. On 9 June he suffered a combat injury and was compelled to return to Russia, handing command of the army to General Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov. Paskevich died in Warsaw, where in 1870 a memorial was erected to him before the Koniecpolski Palace. It was demolished in October 1917 by the Poles. His remains were reburied by his son in the family mausoleum on the grounds of the Homel Palace. His widow Irina died in 1925.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Count Ivan Fyodorovich Paskevich-Yerevansky, Serene Prince of Warsaw (, tr. ; – ) was a Imperial Russian military leader of Ukrainian Cossack ethnicity. For his victories, he was made Count of Yerevan in 1828 and Namestnik of the Kingdom of Poland in 1831. He attained the rank of field marshal in the Russian army, and later in the Prussian and Austrian armies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974747}
{"src_title": "Nativity play", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Liturgical.", "content": "The term \"Nativity Drama\" is used by Wellesz in his discussion of the \"troparion\" hymns in the Christmas liturgy of Byzantine Rite Churches, from Sophronius in the seventh century. Goldstein argues that the label \"drama\" is misleading, that the \"troparia\" are more akin to an oratorio than a play, and that the form is not a precursor of later more decidedly dramatic forms.  Saint Francis of Assisi performed Midnight Mass in Greccio on Christmas Eve 1223 in front of a life-size nativity scene (crib or creche) built by Giovanni Velita, with live animals. This is sometimes credited as the first nativity play. However, more formal Nativity plays have featured in Christian worship since medieval mystery plays. The twelfth to nineteenth pageants of the 48-play York Mystery Cycle dealt with the Nativity story. In Germany, the Weihnachten services on Christmas Eve include a children's mass called \"Weihnachtsgeschichte\", which features a \"Krippenspiel\" (\"crib play\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular.", "content": "In Latin America \"pastorelas\" (\"shepherd's plays\") are performed in many local communities. These were imported during Spanish colonization of the Americas but are no longer common in Spain. They recount the story of the shepherds travelling to worship the newborn Christ, augmenting the Biblical text with apocryphal events, indigenous beliefs, regional features, anachronisms, satire and buffoonery. Each community's play evolves into a distinctive tradition.  In Belgium, puppet theatres often put on variations on the Nativity play in the weeks before Christmas, with parents and their children in the audience. The play often depicts the Massacre of the Innocents which occurred after the birth of Jesus. Joan Gross traces this augmentation back to cryptic protests in the late nineteenth century against the abuse of native peoples by colonists in the King Leopold II's Congo Free State.  In Townsville, Queensland Australia, the Stable on the Strand is an annual nativity play held at the city's oceanfront park.  Nativity plays are also popular in the United States. Many larger congregations have an annual play which is popular in the community: one example is The Gift of Christmas, produced annually by Prestonwood Baptist Church at its main campus in Plano, Texas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In schools.", "content": "Many, especially Christian-oriented, primary schools and Sunday Schools put on a Nativity play before the Christmas break begins. Children in costume act as the human and angel characters, and often as the animals and props. The infant Jesus is sometimes represented by a doll, but sometimes played by a real baby. Parents, grandparents, stepparents and siblings, schoolteachers and sometimes the church community in general form the audience. The tradition of Nativity plays in British state primary schools is declining in favour of secular plays, because of the need to include pupils of other faiths. However, a survey in 2012 found that 20% of schools were planning a traditional Nativity play and a further 50% were intending to stage an updated version of the Christmas story, sometimes with new music and extra characters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary.", "content": "Modern writers to have written Nativity plays include Laurence Housman (\"Bethlehem\", 1902; musical accompaniment by Joseph Moorat c.1919); Lucjan Rydel (\"Polish Bethlehem\", 1904); Cicely Hamilton (\"The Child in Flanders: A Nativity Play\", 1922); and Dorothy L. Sayers (\"He That Should Come\", 1938).  Jean-Paul Sartre's first play was \"Bariona ou le fils du tonerre\", a nativity play performed on Christmas Eve 1940 while a prisoner of war in a German stalag. Sartre saw Christ as part of the Jewish Resistance to the Roman Empire's occupation, mirroring the French Resistance of Nazi Germany's occupation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Nativity play or Christmas pageant is a play which recounts the story of the Nativity of Jesus. It is usually performed at Christmas, the feast of the Nativity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974748}
{"src_title": "Populus alba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a medium-sized deciduous tree, growing to heights of up to (rarely more), with a trunk up to in diameter and a broad, rounded crown. The bark is smooth and greenish-white to greyish-white with characteristic diamond-shaped dark marks on young trees, becoming blackish and fissured at the base of old trees. The young shoots are covered with whitish-grey down, including the small buds. The leaves are long, five-lobed, with a thick covering of white scurfy down on both sides, but thicker underneath; this layer wears off long, produced in early spring; they are dioecious, with male and female catkins on separate trees; the male catkins are grey with conspicuous dark red stamens, the female catkins are greyish-green. The female catkins lengthen to after pollination, with several green seed capsules, maturing in late spring to early summer. It also propagates by means of root suckers growing from the lateral roots, often as far as from the trunk, to form extensive clonal colonies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hybridization.", "content": "White poplar hybridizes with the closely related common aspen \"Populus tremula\"; the resulting hybrid, known as grey poplar (\"Populus × canescens\"), is intermediate between its parents, with a thin, grey, downy coating on the leaves, which are also much less deeply lobed than white poplar leaves. It is a very vigorous tree with marked hybrid vigour, reaching tall and a trunk diameter over, much larger than either of its parents. Most grey poplars in cultivation are male, but female trees occur naturally and some of these are also propagated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "White poplar requires abundant light and ample moisture, and stands up well to flood water and slightly acidic soils. Its green-and-white leaves make it an effective ornamental tree, but the root suckers may cause problems in some situations. It is very attractive as an open-grown tree in water meadows, and because of its extensive root system and tolerance of salt, is also planted to strengthen coastal sand dunes.  The majority of white poplars in cultivation in northern Europe are female trees.  White poplar was first introduced to North America in 1748 and has a long history in cultivation. It is now found in 43 states throughout the contiguous U.S. It has come to be considered weedy or invasive; it has been banned in Connecticut and is the most common introduced tree species on Cape Breton Island.  In US intensive forest management, it is being replaced by various \"Populus\" sect. \"Aigeiros\" hybrids. The wood is soft, and used for cellulose and to make cheap boxes.  A conical cultivar from Turkestan, \"Populus alba\" 'Pyramidalis' (Bolle's poplar; syn. \"P. bolleana\") is sometimes planted in parks.  A yellow dye is produced from the bark of the white poplar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sculpture.", "content": "The wood is soft but close-grained and easy to carve, shrinking very little during seasoning. It has been used for sculpture from Europe to China and the US. The \"Penitent Magdalene\" by Donatello is one 15th-century example.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "An Old English name \"abele\", now never used, is derived from the Latin \"albellus\", white, by way of Old French \"aubel\" and Low German name \"abeel\".  Leuce/Leuka, the \"White Poplar\"; Leuce or Leuka (Ancient Greek: Λεύκη) (\"White\" or specifically \"White Poplar\") was the most beautiful of the nymphs and an Oceanid, a daughter of Oceanus. Pluto fell in love with her and abducted her to the underworld. She lived out the span of her life in his realm, and when she died, the god sought consolation by creating a suitable memorial of their love: In the Elysian Fields, where the pious spend their afterlives, he brought forth a white tree into existence from her body, which became sacred for him from that moment on. In Ancient Greco-Roman mythology, it is a symbol of a peaceful afterlife and a memory of those we love who have died, and in the language of flowers, its meaning is \"time\". Herakles crowned himself with this tree to celebrate his return from the underworld.  According to ancient Roman mythology, the white poplar was consecrated to Hercules because he destroyed Cacus in a cavern adjoining the Aventine Hill, which was covered with these trees; in the moment of his triumph, he bound his brows with a branch of white poplar as a token of his victory. Persons offering sacrifices to Hercules were always crowned with branches of this tree, and all who had gloriously conquered their enemies in battle wore garlands of it, in imitation of Hercules. Homer in \"Iliad\" compares the fall of Simoisius when killed by Ajax to that of a poplar.  Ovid mentions that Paris had carved the name of Ænone on a poplar, as Shakespeare has Orlando carve the name of Rosalind upon the trees of the forest of Arden.  Virgil gives directions for the culture of this tree and Horace speaks of the white poplar as delighting to grow on the banks of rivers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive potential.", "content": "The white poplar is an invasive species in many parts of Australia. In Western Australia, it has formed dense stands in disturbed wetlands from Perth to Albany and it is considered a threat to riparian vegetation in Victoria. It has spread along the Murrumbidgee River and in wet areas in rural parts of the Australian Capital Territory. Despite that, it is still sold in nurseries around Australia. White poplar is also an environmental weed in South Africa.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Populus alba, commonly called silver poplar, silverleaf poplar, or white poplar, is a species of poplar, most closely related to the aspens (\"Populus\" sect. \"Populus\"). It is native to Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula through central Europe (north to Germany and Poland) to central Asia. It grows in moist sites, often by watersides, in regions with hot summers and cold to mild winters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974749}
{"src_title": "Carl-Gustaf Rossby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Carl-Gustaf Rossby was born in Stockholm, Sweden. He was the first of five children born to Arvid and Alma Charlotta (Marelius) Rossby. He attended Stockholm University, where he developed his first interest in mathematical physics. Rossby came into meteorology and oceanography while studying geophysics under Vilhelm Bjerknes at the Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen in Bergen, Norway during 1919, where Bjerknes' group was developing the groundbreaking concepts that became known as the Bergen School of Meteorology, including theory of the polar front. He also studied at the University of Leipzig and at the Lindenberg Observatory (\"Meteorologisches Observatorium Lindenberg\") in Brandenburg where upper air measurements by kite and balloon were researched. In 1921 he returned to Stockholm to join the Meteorological and Hydrographic Office (which later became the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute) where he served as a meteorologist on a variety of oceanographic expeditions. While ashore between expeditions, he studied mathematical physics at the University of Stockholm (Filosofie Licentiat, 1925).  In 1925 Rossby was granted a fellowship from the Sweden-America Foundation \"to study the application of the polar front theory to American weather\". In the U.S. Weather Bureau in Washington, DC he combined theoretical work on atmospheric turbulence with the establishment of the first weather service for civil aviation. In 1928 he became associate professor in the Aeronautics Department of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Shortly after this MIT launched the first department of meteorology in the US. In 1931 he also became a research associate at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI). His interests during this time ranged over atmospheric thermodynamics, mixing and turbulence, and the interaction between oceans and the atmosphere.  On 9 January 1939 he became an American citizen and in that same year, assistant director of research at the U.S. Weather Bureau. His appointment as chair of the department of meteorology at the University of Chicago in 1940 began the period in which he turned his attention to large-scale atmospheric motions. He identified and characterized both the jet stream and Rossby waves in the atmosphere. During World War II, Rossby organized the training of military meteorologists, recruiting many of them to his Chicago department in the post-war years where he began adapting his mathematical description of atmospheric dynamics to weather forecasting by electronic computer, having started this activity in Sweden using BESK. In 1947 he became founding director of the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) in Stockholm, dividing his time between there, the University of Chicago and with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. After the war he visited an old friend Professor Hans Ertel in Berlin. Their cooperation led to the mathematical formulation of Rossby waves. Between 1954 and his death in Stockholm in 1957, he championed and developed the field of atmospheric chemistry. His contributions to meteorology were noted in the December 17, 1956 issue of \"Time\" magazine. His portrait appeared on the cover of that issue, the first meteorologist on the cover of a major magazine. During this period he considered the effect of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and its potential warming effect.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carl-Gustaf Arvid Rossby ( 28 December 1898 – 19 August 1957) was a Swedish-born American meteorologist who first explained the large-scale motions of the atmosphere in terms of fluid mechanics. He identified and characterized both the jet stream and the long waves in the westerlies that were later named Rossby waves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974750}
{"src_title": "Hosta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Hostas are herbaceous perennial plants, growing from rhizomes or stolons, with broad lanceolate or ovate leaves varying widely in size by species from 1–18 in (3–45 cm) long and 0.75–12 in (2–30 cm) broad. The smallest varieties are called miniatures. Variation among the numerous cultivars is even greater, with clumps ranging from less than four in (10 cm) across and three in (8 cm) high to more than six ft (200 cm) across and four ft (130 cm) high. Leaf color in wild species is typically green, although some species (e.g., \"H. sieboldiana\") are known for a glaucous waxy leaf coating that gives a blue appearance to the leaf. Some species have a glaucous white coating covering the underside of the leaves. Natural mutations of native species are known with yellow-green (\"gold\") colored leaves or with leaf variegation (either white/cream or yellowish edges or centers). Variegated plants very often give rise to sports that are the result of the reshuffling of cell layers during bud formation, producing foliage with mixed pigment sections. In seedlings variegation is generally maternally derived by chloroplast transfer and is not a genetically inheritable trait.  The flowers of hosta are produced on upright scapes that are woody and remain on the plant throughout winter, they are generally taller than the leaf mound, and end in terminal racemes. The individual flowers are usually pendulous, 0.75–2 in (2–5 cm) long, with six tepals, white, lavender, or violet in color and usually scentless. The only strongly fragrant species is \"Hosta plantaginea\", which has white flowers up to four in (10 cm) long; it is also unusual in that the flowers open in the evening and close by morning. This species blooms in late summer and is sometimes known as \"August Lily\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Taxonomists differ on the number of \"Hosta\" species; there may be as many as 45. Accordingly, the list of species given here may be taken loosely. The genus may be broadly divided into three subgenera. Interspecific hybridization occurs since all the species have the same chromosome number (2n = 2x = 60); except \"H. ventricosa\" which is a natural tetraploid that sets seed through apomixis. Many cultivated hostas formerly described as species have been reduced to cultivars; these often have their names conserved, and retain Latinized names which resemble species names (e.g., \"Hosta\" 'Fortunei').  Accepted species as of October 2014:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Hostas are widely cultivated, being particularly useful in the garden as shade-tolerant plants whose striking foliage provides a focal point. The plants are long-lived perennials that are winter hardy in USDA Zones 3 to 8 and recommended for heat zones 8 to 1. Though \"Hosta plantaginea\" originates in China, most of the species that provide the modern plants were introduced from Japan to Europe by Philipp Franz von Siebold in the mid-19th century originating from shady locations with more moisture than they are generally cultivated. Newer species have been discovered on the Korean peninsula as well. Hybridization within and among species and cultivars has produced numerous cultivars, with over 6,100 registered and named varieties, and perhaps as many more that are not yet registered with the American Hosta Society. Cultivars with golden- or white-variegated leaves are especially prized. Popular cultivars include 'Francee' (green leaves with white edges), 'Gold Standard' (yellow leaves with green edges, discovered by Pauline Banyai) 'Undulata' (green leaves with white centers), 'June' (blue-green leaves with creamy centers), and 'Sum and Substance' (a huge plant with chartreuse-yellow leaves). Newer, fragrant cultivars such as 'Guacamole' are also popular.  The American Hosta Society and the British \"Hosta\" and \"Hemerocallis\" Society support Hosta Display Gardens, often within botanical gardens. Hostas are frequently exhibited at major shows such as the Chelsea Flower Show.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "The following is a list of cultivars that have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "While usually grown for ornamental purposes in the United States, all species of hosta are edible, and are commonly grown as vegetables in some Asian cultures.  However, hostas are toxic to dogs, cats, and horses due to the saponins contained in the plant. Symptoms include vomiting and diarrhea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pests and diseases.", "content": "Hosta leaves and stems are eaten by deer, rabbits, slugs and snails, and the roots and rhizomes are eaten by voles, all of these can cause extensive damage to collections in gardens. Some varieties seem more resistant to slug damage, which is more prevalent later in the growing season, than others. Insect pests include Vine weevils and cutworms.  Foliar nematodes, which leave streaks of dead tissue between veins, have become an increasing problem where pesticide use has decreased.  A potexvirus called 'Hosta Virus X' was first identified in Minnesota, USA in 1996. Plants that are infected are destroyed to prevent its spread as the disease can be transmitted from plant to plant by contaminated sap. Symptoms include dark green \"ink bleed\" marks in the veins of yellow-colored leaves, and/or tissue collapse between veins. It can take years for symptoms to show, so symptomless plants in infected batches should also be considered infected.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hosta (, syn. \"Funkia\") is a genus of plants commonly known as hostas, plantain lilies and occasionally by the Japanese name giboshi. Hostas are widely cultivated as shade-tolerant foliage plants. The genus is currently placed in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Agavoideae, and is native to northeast Asia (China, Japan, Korea, and the Russian Far East). Like many \"lilioid monocots\", the genus was once classified in the Liliaceae. The genus was named by Austrian botanist Leopold Trattinnick in 1812, in honor of the Austrian botanist Nicholas Thomas Host. In 1817, the generic name \"Funkia\" was used by German botanist Kurt Sprengel in honor of Heinrich Funk, a collector of ferns and alpines; this was later used as a common name and can be found in some older literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974751}
{"src_title": "Princess Isabella of Parma", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born \"Isabella Maria Luisa Antonietta Ferdinanda Giuseppina Saveria Dominica Giovanna\" at \"Buen Retiro Palace\" in Madrid, Isabella was an Infanta of Spain and grew up at the court of her grandfather, Philip V of Spain. Her father was the Spanish Prince Philip, who was Duke of Parma in Italy. Her mother was the 14-year-old Élisabeth of France, the eldest daughter of Louis XV of France. Isabella's parents' marriage was not happy, and for nearly 10 years Isabella remained an only child. Isabella was very close to her mother and was distraught when she died of smallpox in 1759. Henceforth, Isabella was convinced she would die young, as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "In 1760 a marriage was arranged between Isabella and Archduke Joseph of Austria, heir to the Habsburg Monarchy. After a marriage by proxy, Isabella was escorted to Austria. On 6 October 1760, at the age of 18, Isabella married Joseph II in a ceremony lasting for days. Joseph was thrilled with his new bride and overwhelmed Isabella with his love. In return, she increasingly locked herself away, so much so that shortly after their wedding, Isabella was plunged into melancholy. This marriage signaled the first marital union of Philip I of Castile's most senior descendant (by absolute primogeniture), with the Royal House of Habsburg-Lorraine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relationship with Maria Christina.", "content": "The princess spent most of her time in the Viennese court, not with her husband, but with his sister, Archduchess Maria Christina, who later became, by marriage, Duchess of Saxony-Teschen. The two women seemed to have had a romantic lesbian affair. During the few years Isabella and Christina knew each other, they exchanged 200 letters and \"billets\" while living at the same court. They spent so much time together that they earned the comparison with Orpheus and Eurydice.  Isabel and Mimi were united not only by a shared interest in music and art but also by a deep mutual love. Every day they wrote long letters to each other in which they revealed their feelings. While the letters of Maria Christina showed her happy nature, Isabel's feelings were mixed and, in her expressions of affection, showed a certain pessimism, reflecting her growing obsession with death.  In one such letter, Isabella wrote:  In a different letter, she wrote: \"\"I am told that the day begins with God. I, however, begin the day by thinking of the object of my love, for I think of her incessantly.\"\"  Only the letters of Isabella have been preserved; those of Maria Christina were destroyed after her death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pregnancies and depression.", "content": "However, as wife of the heir to the throne, Isabella knew that her duty was to give birth to a healthy heir. Despite this, the princess developed disquieted feelings toward her husband, spurred by anxieties over sexual intimacy and the possibilities of pregnancy.  By late 1761, one year into the marriage, Isabella was pregnant. It was an especially difficult pregnancy, and Isabella suffered symptoms of physical illness, melancholy and lingering fears of death. Joseph, infatuated and inexperienced, failed to fully understand his wife's misery. On March 20, 1762, after nine months of mental and physical strain, Isabella gave birth to a daughter they named Maria Theresa. Isabella remained bedridden for 6 weeks after giving birth.  In August 1762 and January 1763 Isabella suffered two separate miscarriages that aggravated her mental unrest, causing her to fall into a depression that eroded her will to live.  In 1763, Isabella was six months pregnant with a baby girl when she contracted smallpox. On 22 November of the same year, this brought on premature labor ending in the death of the child, who was given the name Maria Christina, a few hours after birth. In total, out of four pregnancies, only one child survived infancy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Isabella followed her daughter in death at Schönbrunn Palace in 1763, a week after giving birth to her. She was buried in Maria Theresa's vault in the Imperial Crypt Vaults in Vienna. Joseph could not find comfort and did not recover from the death of his wife.  His second marriage (January 1765 – May 1767) to Princess Maria Josepha of Bavaria was unhappy and did not produce children. Subsequently, in August 1765, Isabella's father-in-law Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor died, and Joseph succeeded him as Holy Roman Emperor with the title of Joseph II. (In 1767, Maria Josepha died of smallpox.)  Isabella had predicted even before her death that their daughter would follow this same road shortly after. Her forebodings were fulfilled on 23 January 1770, when the little Archduchess Maria Theresa died at age 7 of pleurisy. The loss was overwhelming for Joseph. After the death of his only child, Joseph withdrew increasingly from public life.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Princess Isabella of Parma (Isabella Maria Luisa Antonietta Ferdinanda Giuseppina Saveria Domenica Giovanna; 31 December 1741 – 27 November 1763) was the daughter of Infante Felipe of Spain, Duke of Parma, and his wife, Louise Élisabeth, eldest daughter of Louis XV of France and Maria Leszczyńska. At 18, Isabella was married to Archduke Joseph of Austria, later Joseph II, with whom she was not happy, finding more fulfilment in her close friendship with his sister Archduchess Maria Christina. The difficult birth of her daughter Maria Theresa, followed by two miscarriages, affected her mental condition, and she died soon after giving birth to another stillborn daughter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974752}
{"src_title": "Nitriding", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Processes.", "content": "The processes are named after the medium used to donate. The three main methods used are: \"gas nitriding\", \"salt bath nitriding\", and \"plasma nitriding\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gas nitriding.", "content": "In gas nitriding the donor is a nitrogen-rich gas, usually ammonia (NH), which is why it is sometimes known as \"ammonia nitriding\". When ammonia comes into contact with the heated work piece it dissociates into nitrogen and hydrogen. The nitrogen then diffuses onto the surface of the material creating a nitride layer. This process has existed for nearly a century, though only in the last few decades has there been a concentrated effort to investigate the thermodynamics and kinetics involved. Recent developments have led to a process that can be accurately controlled. The thickness and phase constitution of the resulting nitriding layers can be selected and the process optimized for the particular properties required.  The advantages of gas nitriding over other variants are:  The disadvantages of gas nitriding are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Salt bath nitriding.", "content": "In salt bath nitriding the nitrogen donating medium is a nitrogen-containing salt such as cyanide salt. The salts used also donate carbon to the workpiece surface making salt bath a nitrocarburizing process. The temperature used is typical of all nitrocarburizing processes: 550 to 570 °C. The advantages of salt nitriding is that it achieves higher diffusion in the same period of time compared to any other method.  The advantages of salt nitriding are:  The disadvantages are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plasma nitriding.", "content": "Plasma nitriding, also known as \"ion nitriding\", \"plasma ion nitriding\" or \"glow-discharge nitriding\", is an industrial surface hardening treatment for metallic materials.  In plasma nitriding, the reactivity of the nitriding media is not due to the temperature but to the gas ionized state. In this technique intense electric fields are used to generate ionized molecules of the gas around the surface to be nitrided. Such highly active gas with ionized molecules is called plasma, naming the technique. The gas used for plasma nitriding is usually pure nitrogen, since no spontaneous decomposition is needed (as is the case of gas nitriding with ammonia). There are hot plasmas typified by plasma jets used for metal cutting, welding, cladding or spraying. There are also cold plasmas, usually generated inside vacuum chambers, at low pressure regimes.  Usually steels are beneficially treated with plasma nitriding. This process permits the close control of the nitrided microstructure, allowing nitriding with or without compound layer formation. Not only is the performance of metal parts enhanced, but working lifespans also increase, and so do the strain limit and the fatigue strength of the metals being treated. For instance, mechanical properties of austenitic stainless steel like resistance to wear can be significantly augmented and the surface hardness of tool steels can be doubled.  A plasma nitrided part is usually ready for use. It calls for no machining, or polishing or any other post-nitriding operations. Thus the process is user-friendly, saves energy since it works fastest, and causes little or no distortion.  This process was invented by Dr. Bernhardt Berghaus of Germany who later settled in Zurich to escape Nazi persecution. After his death in late 1960s the process was acquired by Klockner group and popularized globally.  Plasma nitriding is often coupled with physical vapor deposition (PVD) process and labeled Duplex Treatment, with enhanced benefits. Many users prefer to have a plasma oxidation step combined at the last phase of processing to produce a smooth jetblack layer of oxides which is resistant to wear and corrosion.  Since nitrogen ions are made available by ionization, differently from gas or salt bath, plasma nitriding efficiency does not depend on the temperature. Plasma nitriding can thus be performed in a broad temperature range, from 260 °C to more than 600 °C. For instance, at moderate temperatures (like 420 °C), stainless steels can be nitrided without the formation of chromium nitride precipitates and hence maintaining their corrosion resistance properties.  In the plasma nitriding processes, nitrogen gas (N) is usually the nitrogen carrying gas. Other gasses like hydrogen or Argon are also used. Indeed, Argon and H can be used before the nitriding process during the heating of the parts to clean the surfaces to be nitrided. This cleaning procedure effectively removes the oxide layer from surfaces and may remove fine layers of solvents that could remain. This also helps the thermal stability of the plasma plant, since the heat added by the plasma is already present during the warm up and hence once the process temperature is reached the actual nitriding begins with minor heating changes. For the nitriding process H gas is also added to keep the surface clear of oxides. This effect can be observed by analysing the surface of the part under nitriding (see for instance ).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Materials for nitriding.", "content": "Examples of easily nitridable steels include the SAE 4100, 4300, 5100, 6100, 8600, 8700, 9300 and 9800 series, UK aircraft quality steel grades BS 4S 106, BS 3S 132, 905M39 (EN41B), stainless steels, some tool steels (H13 and P20 for example) and certain cast irons. Ideally, steels for nitriding should be in the hardened and tempered condition, requiring nitriding to take place at a lower temperature than the last tempering temperature. A fine-turned or ground surface finish is best. Minimal amounts of material should be removed post nitriding to preserve the surface hardness.  Nitriding alloys are alloy steels with nitride-forming elements such as aluminum, chromium, molybdenum and titanium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Systematic investigation into the effect of nitrogen on the surface properties of steel began in the 1920s. Investigation into gas nitriding began independently in both Germany and America. The process was greeted with enthusiasm in Germany and several steel grades were developed with nitriding in mind: the so-called nitriding steels. The reception in America was less impressive. With so little demand the process was largely forgotten in the US. After WWII the process was reintroduced from Europe. Much research has taken place in recent decades to understand the thermodynamics and kinetics of the reactions involved.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nitriding is a heat treating process that diffuses nitrogen into the surface of a metal to create a case-hardened surface. These processes are most commonly used on high-carbon, low-alloy steels. They are also used on medium and high-carbon steels, titanium, aluminium and molybdenum. In 2015, nitriding was used to generate unique duplex microstructure (Martensite-Austenite, Austenite-ferrite), known to be associated with strongly enhanced mechanical properties Typical applications include gears, crankshafts, camshafts, cam followers, valve parts, extruder screws, die-casting tools, forging dies, extrusion dies, firearm components, injectors and plastic-mold tools.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974753}
{"src_title": "Hana Hegerová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born Carmen Mária Štefánia Farkašová, from 1937 to 1942 Hegerová attended ballet school at the National Theater in Bratislava. After completing her primary education in Komárno in 1950, she worked as a clerk for Škoda Works and as a teacher at a vocational school. From 1951 to 1953, Hegerová attended professional theatrical courses at the State Theater Conservatory, then in 1957 joined the company of the Petr Jilemnický Theatre in Žilina.  In 1954, Hegerová played the title role in the film \"Frona\" under the name Hana Čelková. 1957 saw her first appearance as a singer in \"Tatra Revue\" in Bratislava. After she came to Prague, the foremost Czech actor Jan Werich offered her an engagement in the ABC Theatre, however, she refused. From 1958 to 1961, she performed at the Rokoko Theatre in Prague, and from 1961 to 1966 at the Semafor Theater where she appeared in the jazz opera \"Dobře placená procházka\" by Jiří Suchý (libretto) and Jiří Šlitr (music), and film \"Kdyby tisíc klarinetů\" (\"If a Thousand Clarinets\"). Hegerová's repertoire included many chansons by Czech and Slovak authors, and also Czech versions of songs from the repertoire of Édith Piaf (\"\"Mylord\"\"), Jacques Brel (\"\"Ne me quitte pas\"\"), and songs by Kurt Weill (\"\"Surabaya Johnny\"\", \"\"The Barbara Song\"\") and many others. In 1967, Hana Hegerová appeared at the Paris Olympia with the songs of Jacques Brel and Charles Aznavour. She also performed at the World's Fair in Montreal. From 1977 to 1981, during the Czechoslovak normalization, Hegerová was forced to stop her activities abroad, and her concert activities were also restricted in Czechoslovakia. Following the Velvet Revolution she began to perform more often in public. During this time she received many music awards, for example, the \"Platinum Disc\" in 1992 and the Czech \"Gramy\" in 1996. In 2002, Hana Heregová received a Medal of Merit from Czech President Václav Havel.  In August 2011, the national press announced that the diva decided to retire from the music industry, saying for MusicServer: \"I have decided that I no longer want it. I don't want to sing, I don't want to go public. I want to get rid of stress. Simply, Hana Hegerová enterprise is terminated, only Hana Hegerová remains as a private person who finally wants to enjoy peaceful days with her dog. Wish me luck so that there are still lots of them left.\"  In December 2014, she was hospitalized with serious heart problems in the General University Hospital (\"Všeobecná fakultní nemocnice\") in Prague.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hana Hegerová (born October 20, 1931), is a Slovak singer and actress. Often referred to as the Queen of Czechoslovak chanson, she gained popularity primarily as a singer of chanson. Outside of her homebase, Hegerová has attained a recognition especially in German-speaking countries. She lives in Prague, Czech Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974754}
{"src_title": "Rhodopsin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "Rhodopsin consists of two components, a protein molecule also called scotopsin and a covalently-bound cofactor called retinal. Scotopsin is an opsin, a light-sensitive G protein coupled receptor that embeds in the lipid bilayer of cell membranes using seven protein transmembrane domains. These domains form a pocket where the photoreactive chromophore, retinal, lies horizontally to the cell membrane, linked to a lysine residue in the seventh transmembrane domain of the protein. Thousands of rhodopsin molecules are found in each outer segment disc of the host rod cell. Retinal is produced in the retina from vitamin A, from dietary beta-carotene. Isomerization of 11-\"cis\"-retinal into all-\"trans\"-retinal by light sets off a series of conformational changes ('bleaching') in the opsin, eventually leading it to a form called metarhodopsin II (Meta II), which activates an associated G protein, transducin, to trigger a cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) second messenger cascade.  Rhodopsin of the rods most strongly absorbs green-blue light and, therefore, appears reddish-purple, which is why it is also called \"visual purple\". It is responsible for \"monochromatic\" vision in the dark.  Several closely related opsins differ only in a few amino acids and in the wavelengths of light that they absorb most strongly. Humans have eight other opsins besides rhodopsin, as well as cryptochrome (light-sensitive, but not an opsin).  The photopsins are found in the cone cells of the retina and are the basis of color vision. They have absorption maxima for yellowish-green (photopsin I), green (photopsin II), and bluish-violet (photopsin III) light. The remaining opsin, melanopsin, is found in photosensitive ganglion cells and absorbs blue light most strongly.  In rhodopsin, the aldehyde group of retinal is covalently linked to the amino group of a lysine residue on the protein in a protonated Schiff base (-NH=CH-). When rhodopsin absorbs light, its retinal cofactor isomerizes from the 11-cis to the all-trans configuration, and the protein subsequently undergoes a series of relaxations to accommodate the altered shape of the isomerized cofactor. The intermediates formed during this process were first investigated in the laboratory of George Wald, who received the Nobel prize for this research in 1967. The photoisomerization dynamics has been subsequently investigated with time-resolved IR spectroscopy and UV/Vis spectroscopy. A first photoproduct called photorhodopsin forms within 200 femtoseconds after irradiation, followed within picoseconds by a second one called bathorhodopsin with distorted all-trans bonds. This intermediate can be trapped and studied at cryogenic temperatures, and was initially referred to as prelumirhodopsin. In subsequent intermediates lumirhodopsin and metarhodopsin I, the Schiff's base linkage to all-trans retinal remains protonated, and the protein retains its reddish color. The critical change that initiates the neuronal excitation involves the conversion of metarhodopsin I to metarhodopsin II, which is associated with deprotonation of the Schiff's base and change in color from red to yellow.  The structure of rhodopsin has been studied in detail via x-ray crystallography on rhodopsin crystals. Several models (e.g., the \"bicycle-pedal mechanism\", \"hula-twist mechanism\") attempt to explain how the retinal group can change its conformation without clashing with the enveloping rhodopsin protein pocket. Recent data support that rhodopsin is a functional monomer, instead of a dimer, which was the paradigm of G-protein-coupled receptors for many years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phototransduction.", "content": "Rhodopsin is an essential G-protein coupled receptor in phototransduction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "The product of light activation, Metarhodopsin II, initiates the visual phototransduction pathway by stimulating the G protein transducin (G), resulting in the liberation of its α subunit. This GTP-bound subunit in turn activates cGMP phosphodiesterase. cGMP phosphodiesterase hydrolyzes (breaks down) cGMP, lowering its local concentration so it can no longer activate cGMP-dependent cation channels. This leads to the hyperpolarization of photoreceptor cells, changing the rate at which they release transmitters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deactivation.", "content": "Meta II (metarhodopsin II) is deactivated rapidly after activating transducin by rhodopsin kinase and arrestin. Rhodopsin pigment must be regenerated for further phototransduction to occur. This means replacing all-trans-retinal with 11-cis-retinal and the decay of Meta II is crucial in this process. During the decay of Meta II, the Schiff base link that normally holds all-trans-retinal and the apoprotein opsin (aporhodopsin) is hydrolyzed and becomes Meta III. In the rod outer segment, Meta III decays into separate all-trans-retinal and opsin. A second product of Meta II decay is an all-trans-retinal opsin complex in which the all-trans-retinal has been translocated to second binding sites. Whether the Meta II decay runs into Meta III or the all-trans-retinal opsin complex seems to depend on the pH of the reaction. Higher pH tends to drive the decay reaction towards Meta III.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retinal disease.", "content": "Mutation of the rhodopsin gene is a major contributor to various retinopathies such as retinitis pigmentosa. In general, the disease-causing protein aggregates with ubiquitin in inclusion bodies, disrupts the intermediate filament network, and impairs the ability of the cell to degrade non-functioning proteins, which leads to photoreceptor apoptosis. Other mutations on rhodopsin lead to X-linked congenital stationary night blindness, mainly due to constitutive activation, when the mutations occur around the chromophore binding pocket of rhodopsin. Several other pathological states relating to rhodopsin have been discovered including poor post-Golgi trafficking, dysregulative activation, rod outer segment instability and arrestin binding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Microbial rhodopsins.", "content": "Some prokaryotes express proton pumps called bacteriorhodopsins, archaerhodopsins, proteorhodopsins, and xanthorhodopsins to carry out phototrophy. Like animal visual pigments, these contain a retinal chromophore (although it is an all-\"trans\", rather than 11-\"cis\" form) and have seven transmembrane alpha helices; however, they are not coupled to a G protein. Prokaryotic halorhodopsins are light-activated chloride pumps. Unicellular flagellate algae contain channelrhodopsins that act as light-gated cation channels when expressed in heterologous systems. Many other pro- and eukaryotic organisms (in particular, fungi such as \"Neurospora\") express rhodopsin ion pumps or sensory rhodopsins of yet-unknown function. Very recently, microbial rhodopsins with guanylyl cyclase activity have been discovered. While all microbial rhodopsins have significant sequence homology to one another, they have no detectable sequence homology to the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family to which animal visual rhodopsins belong. Nevertheless, microbial rhodopsins and GPCRs are possibly evolutionarily related, based on the similarity of their three-dimensional structures. Therefore, they have been assigned to the same superfamily in Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rhodopsin (also known as visual purple) is a light-sensitive receptor protein involved in visual phototransduction. It is named after ancient Greek ῥόδον (rhódon) for \"rose\", due to its pinkish color, and ὄψις (ópsis) for \"sight\". Rhodopsin is a biological pigment found in the rods of the retina and is a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). It belongs to opsins. Rhodopsin is extremely sensitive to light, and thus enables vision in low-light conditions. When rhodopsin is exposed to light, it immediately photobleaches. In humans, it is regenerated fully in about 30 minutes, after which rods are more sensitive.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974755}
{"src_title": "Jaap Stam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Kampen, Overijssel, Stam started his career with local amateur football club DOS Kampen. On 15 August 1992, Stam made his professional debut for FC Zwolle in a 1–1 draw against SC Heracles in the Eerste Divisie. He became a first team regular right away and moved to Eredivisie club Cambuur Leeuwarden for the following season, but relegated in his first season which brought him back into the Eerste Divisie. Two seasons at Cambuur earned him a transfer to Eredivisie club Willem II. At Willem II, he immediately impressed at the Eredivisie level, which meant his final breakthrough. A shock 1–0 home victory over Ajax led to Stam's transfer to PSV Eindhoven in the same season in which they eventually won the KNVB Cup, his first professional trophy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PSV.", "content": "Stam was a key player for PSV in the 1996–97 season, as the team won the Eredivisie league championship and the Johan Cruyff Shield. Individually, Stam won the VVCS Footballer of the Year award.  In 1998, Stam became the then most expensive Dutch football player in history and the most expensive defender in history when Manchester United bought him for £10.6 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manchester United.", "content": "Stam spent three seasons at Manchester United, during which time United won three Premier League titles, one FA Cup, the Intercontinental Cup and the UEFA Champions League. He scored his only goal for the club in a 6–2 away victory against Leicester City.  Early in the 2001–02 season, Stam was controversially sold to Lazio in Italy after Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson was reportedly furious with allegations Stam had made in his autobiography \"Head to Head\" about himself and the club. Stam made numerous statements in the book about his views on opposing players, and notoriously alleged that Ferguson's approach to buy him was done without the permission of PSV. Laurent Blanc was signed as his replacement.  In 2007, however, Ferguson described the decision to sell Stam as an error: \"At the time he had just come back from an achilles injury and we thought he had just lost a little bit. We got the offer from Lazio, £16.5m for a centre back who was 29. It was an offer I couldn't refuse. But in playing terms it was a mistake. He is still playing for Ajax at a really good level.\" On the financial report, Manchester United announced the fee was £15.3 million; Lazio declared the fee was £16 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lazio.", "content": "During his time with Lazio, Stam was found guilty of having the banned steroid nandrolone in his system following a Serie A game, and received a five-month ban, which was eventually reduced by a month after appeals. He was the second Lazio player suspended in 2001, after Fernando Couto. In his last season at the club, he won the Coppa Italia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Milan.", "content": "Stam joined Milan after UEFA Euro 2004. He reached his second Champions League final with the \"Rossoneri\" in 2005, but was a runner-up after his team was defeated by Liverpool in a penalty shoot-out.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ajax.", "content": "On 30 January 2006, it was announced that he would return to the Eredivisie and play for Ajax, where he signed a two-year contract for a €2.5 million transfer fee. Stam was named team captain upon his arrival at the club. In his first season, he won both the Johan Cruyff Shield and the KNVB Cup; another Johan Cruyff Shield was added to his trophies at the start of the 2007–08 season.  On 29 October 2007, Stam announced his retirement from professional football with immediate effect after playing six league games for Ajax in the 2007–08 league season. His final game was in a 0–0 draw against NEC on 20 October 2007.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Stam made his debut for the Netherlands on 24 April 1996 in a 1–0 defeat to Germany. He was also an important player in the Dutch team that finished fourth in the 1998 FIFA World Cup.  During UEFA Euro 2000, he once again reached the semi-finals with the Dutch team, hosted in his home country and Belgium. Stam missed an important penalty kick in the penalty shoot-out in the semi-finals, which led to defeat against Italy.  Stam reached his third semi-finals in an international competition with his nation at Euro 2004 in Portugal and retired from international football after the tournament. The reason cited for his international retirement was that he wanted to focus on his new team, Milan, as well as his family.  In total, he played 67 matches for the Netherlands, scoring three goals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-playing career.", "content": "In October 2008, Stam returned to Manchester United as a scout for the club, responsible for most of South America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soccer Aid.", "content": "Stam has been involved with Soccer Aid, which puts celebrities and football legends together in two teams (England and Rest of the World) for a charity game in aid of UNICEF. Stam has appeared in five Soccer Aid matches 2008, 2012, 2014, 2016 and 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coaching and managerial career.", "content": "In 2009, Stam became an assistant coach for PEC Zwolle, and on 30 October was appointed caretaker manager. Following his stint with Zwolle, Stam penned a three-year contract with Ajax in 2013 as an assistant coach, and as defensive coach starting in the 2013–14 Eredivisie season. On 28 May 2014, Stam was revealed as one of the new managers of Jong Ajax, the reserve team in the Eerste Divisie. He was joined by Andries Ulderink and they signed a contract beginning on 1 July 2014 and lasting until 30 June 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reading.", "content": "On 13 June 2016, Stam was appointed as manager of English Championship club Reading on an initial two-year contract. He enjoyed a successful first season with the club, leading them to the Championship play-offs. On 4 July 2017, Stam signed a new two-year contract extension with Reading, keeping him at the club until 2019. On 21 March 2018, Reading announced that Stam had left the club with immediate effect following a run of one win in 18 league matches left the team 20th in the league table.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PEC Zwolle.", "content": "On 28 December 2018, Stam was appointed as the new manager of Eredivisie club PEC Zwolle on a year-and-a-half contract.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feyenoord.", "content": "On 6 March 2019, Feyenoord announced that Stam would succeed Giovanni van Bronckhorst as Feyenoord's new manager. He signed a two-year contract, effective 1 June 2019. Following a 0–4 defeat to Ajax, Stam resigned on 28 October 2019, saying \"I've thought about this for a long time. My final conclusion is that it's better for the club, the players and myself if I step aside.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "FC Cincinnati.", "content": "On 21 May 2020, Major League Soccer club FC Cincinnati announced that Stam would succeed interim manager Yoann Damet. He signed a year-and-a-half contract.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "PSV  Manchester United  Lazio  Milan  Ajax  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jakob \"Jaap\" Stam (; born 17 July 1972) is a Dutch football manager for FC Cincinnati in Major League Soccer and former professional player. Stam played primarily as a centre-back. He was known for possessing \"a rare combination of speed, strength and ball-playing ability\", as well as an excellent positional sense. Due to his wide range of skills, in his prime he was also capable of playing as a full-back on the right flank.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974756}
{"src_title": "Bregenz Forest Mountains", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "The term Bregenz Forest Mountains refers to the range according to the Alpine Club classification of the Eastern Alps (AVE); the term Bregenz Forest, by contrast, refers to a landscape or region which is part of the Bregenzer Ache basin area. As a result, the Bregenz Forest Mountains and the Bregenz Forest are not conterminous.  The Bregenz Forest region also includes the southwestern parts of the Allgäu Alps. On the other hand, the Bregenz Forest Mountains reach, to an extent, into the landscapes of the eastern Rhine Valley, as well as to the Walgau Valley of the Ill River and the Großes Walsertal in the south.  As the range is not geologically uniform, the name is rarely used outside of Alpine literature, is also not used in Vorarlberg state geography and land-use planning and belongs to one of the most disputed mountain groups in the AVE. According to an alternative orographically and hydrologically-oriented mountain range classification (Hubert Trimmel, 1962), the mountains belong to a Rhine Valley–Walgau–Bregenz Forest group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The mountain range is part of a landscape arranged in several tiers rising from the Rhine Valley in the west up to the adjacent Lechquellen Mountains. Most of the area is shaped by a Mittelgebirge character with extended forests and Alpine pastures, except for small High Alpine region in the southeast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Neighbouring ranges.", "content": "The Bregenz Forest Mountains are bordered by the following other Alpine ranges:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Peaks.", "content": "The main peaks of the Bregenz Forest Mountains include the following: see Coordinates Bregenz Forest Mountains  Other important and well-known peaks in the Bregenz Forest Mountains (in order of height):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nature Conservancy.", "content": "Due to the remoteness of some areas, there are many nature reserves that can be found in the Bregenz Forest Mountains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mountain huts.", "content": "In the Bregenzerwald mountains there are comparatively few alpine huts with overnight accommodation. This is due to the fact that the majority of the mountain tours can be undertaken as day trips from the valley valleys.  Mountain huts run by the Austrian Alpine Club: There are many more huts and restaurants in this region. Therefore, it is advisable to inquire about the exact opening hours and the accessibility of the huts at the Alpenverein or in the valley resorts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Long-distance Routes.", "content": "The nordalpine long distance route (DE: Nordalpine Weitwanderweg 01) and the Limestone Alps Way (DE: Kalkalpenweg) runs through the central part of the Bregenzerwald mountain range with the following sections: The greater part of this section is still in the Lechquellen Mountains. It is only at the Faschina Pass (Faschinajoch) that the Bregenzerwald Forest is entered. The Via Alpina, a cross-border hiking trail with five partial routes through the whole Alps, runs along the edge of the Bregenzerwald mountain range.  The Red Trail of the Via Alpina runs as follows with two stages through the Bregenzerwald Mountains:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fixed Rope Routes.", "content": "Geology and geography of the Bregenzerwald Mountains are not exactly conducive to the construction of climbing routes. As easy-to-get-on routes of the simplest level can still apply:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Bregenz Forest Mountains, also the Bregenzerwald Mountains (), are a range of the Northern Limestone Alps, named after the town of Bregenz. The Bregenz Forest Mountains are entirely located in the Austrian state of Vorarlberg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974757}
{"src_title": "Špilberk Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1620, after losing The Battle of White Mountain on November 8, the leading Moravian members of the anti-Habsburg insurrection were imprisoned in Špilberk for several years. The town of Brno bought the castle in 1560 and made it into a municipal fortress. The bastion fortifications of Špilberk helped Brno to defend itself against Swedish raids during the Thirty Years' War, and then successful defence led to further fortification and the strengthening of the military function of the fortress.  At the same time Špilberk was used as a prison. Protestants were the first prisoners forced to serve time here, followed later by participants in the revolutions of 1848–49, although hardened criminals, thieves and petty criminals were also kept here. Franz Freiherr von der Trenck, Austrian soldier and one of the most controversial persons of the period was also jailed and died here on October 4, 1749. Later, apart from several significant French revolutionaries captured during the coalition wars with France, Jean-Baptiste Drouet, famous as the former postmaster of Sainte-Menehould who had arrested King Louis XVI, was the most known of them all. A group of fifteen Hungarian Jacobins led by the writer Ferenc Kazinczy was also especially noteworthy. More than a quarter of a century later, from 1822 on, specially constructed cells for \"state prisoners\" in the northern wing of the former fortress were filled with Italian patriots known as Carbonari, who had fought for the unification, freedom and independence of their country. The poet Silvio Pellico, who served a full eight years here, made the Špilberk prison famous all over Europe with his book \"Le mie prigioni – My prisons\".  The last large \"national\" group of political prisoners at Špilberk consisted of nearly 200 Polish revolutionaries, mostly participants in the Kraków Uprising of 1846. After that, the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph dissolved the Špilberk prison in 1855, and after departure of the last prisoners three years later, its premises were converted into barracks which remained as such for the next hundred years.  Špilberk entered public consciousness as a centre of tribulation and oppression on two more occasions; firstly, during the First World War when, together with military prisoners, civilian objectors to the Austro-Hungarian regime were imprisoned here, and secondly in the first year of the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia. Several thousand Czech patriots suffered in Špilberk at that time, some of whom were put to death. For the majority of them however, Špilberk was only a station on their way to other German prisons and Nazi concentration camps. In 1939–41, the German army and Gestapo carried out an extensive reconstruction at Špilberk in order to turn it into model barracks in the spirit of the so beloved romantic historicism of the German Third Reich ideology.  The Czechoslovak army left Špilberk in 1959, putting to a definite end its military era. The following year, Špilberk became the seat of the Brno City Museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Špilberk Castle (German: \"Spielberg\", locally \"Špilas\") is a castle on the hilltop in Brno, Southern Moravia. Its construction began as early as the first half of the 13th century by the Přemyslid kings and complete by King Ottokar II of Bohemia. From a major royal castle established around the mid-13th century, and the seat of the Moravian margraves in the mid-14th century, it was gradually turned into a huge baroque citadel considered the harshest prison in the Austro-Hungarian empire, and then into barracks. This prison had always been part of the Špilberk fortress and is frequently referenced by the main character, Fabrizio, in Stendahl's novel, \"The Charterhouse of Parma.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974758}
{"src_title": "Mestalla Stadium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Estadio Mestalla was inaugurated with a friendly match on 20 May 1923 between Valencia CF and Levante UD. The new stadium had a capacity of 17,000 spectators, which was increased to 25,000 four years later. During the Civil War, the Mestalla was used as a concentration camp and storage warehouse. It would only keep its structure, since the rest was an empty plot of land with no terraces and a grandstand damaged during the war.  During the 1950s, the Mestalla was renovated, resulting in a stadium with a seating capacity of 60,000 spectators. It was severely damaged by the flood of October 1957 when the Turia River broke its banks. The stadium soon returned to operational use with some more improvements, such as the addition of artificial lighting, and was inaugurated during the 1959 Fallas festivities.  In 1969, the stadium's name was changed to Estadio Luis Casanova, to honour club president Luis Casanova Giner. The change lasted for a quarter of a century, when Casanova admitted that he was completely overwhelmed by such an honour and requested in 1994 that the stadium's name be returned to Mestalla.  1972 saw the inauguration of the club's head office, located in the back of the numbered terraces. It consisted of an office designed in the avant-garde style with a trophy hall, which held the flag the club was founded on. The summer of 1973 ushered in another change at Mestalla, the introduction of goal seats, which meant the elimination of fourteen rows of standing room terraces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future.", "content": "A replacement stadium, Nou Mestalla, started construction in 2007, but is yet to be completed. The new stadium is due to have a capacity of 61,500.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Internationals and Cup Finals.", "content": "Mestalla held the Spain national football team for the first time in 1925. It was chosen the national team's group venue when Spain staged the 1982 World Cup, and at the 1992 Summer Olympics held in Barcelona, all of Spain's matches up to the final were held at Mestalla, as they won Gold.  Mestalla has been the setting for important international matches, has held nine cup finals, has also been a temporary home for Levante UD, home of the Spanish national team and exile for Castellón and Real Madrid in the European Cup. Mestalla hosted the 2011 Copa del Rey Final between FC Barcelona and Real Madrid C.F., and the 2014 Copa del Rey Final between the same two teams. In total the stadium hosted ten Copa del Rey finals with the first one played in 1926.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1982 FIFA World Cup.", "content": "The stadium was one of the venues of the 1982 FIFA World Cup (known as \"Luis Casanova Stadium\" at the time of the tournament), and held the following matches:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Metro: Aragón station (Lines 5 and 7) Metrovalencia  Facultats station (Lines 3 and 9) Metrovalencia  Bus lines:  Amadeo of Savoia street in: line 32.  Reyes Prosper street: line 71.  Avenida de Aragón: lines 10, 12, 80, 41 and 79  Avenida Blasco Ibáñez: lines 10, 29, 30, 31, 71, 79, 81, 89 and 90.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mestalla (, ) is a football stadium in Valencia, Spain. The stadium is the home of Valencia Club de Fútbol and has a capacity of 48,600 seats, making it the 7th-largest stadium in Spain, and the largest in the Valencian Community. The North Stand of the stadium is known for its very steep section.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974759}
{"src_title": "Charles, Count of Valois", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Charles had as appanage the counties of Valois, Alençon and Perche (1285). He became in 1290 count of Anjou and of Maine by his marriage with Margaret, eldest daughter of Charles II, titular king of Sicily; by a second marriage, contracted with the heiress of Baldwin II de Courtenay, last Latin emperor of Constantinople, he also had pretensions on this throne. But he was son, brother, brother-in-law, son-in-law, and uncle of kings or of queens (of France, of Navarre, of England, and of Naples), becoming, moreover, after his death, father of a king (Philip VI).  Charles thus dreamed of more and sought all his life for a crown he never obtained. In 1284, the pope recognized him as King of Aragon (under the vassalage of the Holy See), as son of his mother, in opposition to King Peter III, who after the conquest of the island of Sicily was an enemy of the papacy. Charles then married Marguerite of Sicily, daughter of the Neapolitan king, in order to re-enforce his position in Sicily, supported by the Pope. Thanks to this Aragonese Crusade undertaken by his father Philip III against the advice of his brother, the future Philip the Fair, he believed he would win a kingdom and won nothing but the ridicule of having been crowned with a cardinal's hat in 1285, which gave him the sobriquet of the \"King of the Cap.\" He would never dare to use the royal seal which was made on this occasion and would have to renounce the title.  His principal quality was to be a good military leader. He commanded effectively in Flanders in 1297. The king quickly deduced that his brother could conduct an expedition in Italy against Frederick II of Sicily. The affair was ended by the peace of Caltabellotta.  Charles dreamed at the same time of the imperial crown and married in 1301 Catherine de Courtenay, who was a titular empress. But it needed the connivance of the Pope, which he obtained by his expedition to Italy, where he supported Charles II of Anjou against Frederick II of Sicily, his cousin. Named papal vicar, he lost himself in the imbroglio of Italian politics, was compromised in a massacre at Florence and in sordid financial exigencies, reached Sicily where he consolidated his reputation as a looter and finally returned to France discredited in 1301–1302.  Charles was back in shape to seek a new crown when the German king Albert of Habsburg was murdered in 1308. Charles's brother, who did not wish to take the risk himself of a check and probably thought that a French puppet on the imperial throne would be a good thing for France, encouraged him. The candidacy was defeated with the election of Henry VII as German king, for the electors did not want France to become even more powerful. Charles continued to dream of the eastern crown of the Courtenays.  He did benefit from the affection which Philip the Fair, who had suffered from the remarriage of their father, brought to his only full brother, and he found himself given responsibilities which largely exceeded his talent. Thus it was he who directed in 1311 the royal embassy to the conferences of Tournai with the Flemish; he quarreled there with his brother's chamberlain Enguerrand de Marigny, who openly flouted him. Charles did not pardon the affront and would continue the vendetta against Marigny after the king's death.  He was doggedly opposed to the torture of Jacques de Molay, grand master of the Templars, in 1314.  The premature death of Louis X in 1316 gave Charles hopes for a political role, but he could not prevent his nephew Philip, from taking the regency while awaiting the birth of Louis X's posthumous son. When that son (John I of France) died after a few days, Philip took the throne as Philip V. Charles was initially opposed to Philip's succession, for Louis X had left behind a daughter, Joan. However, he later switched sides and backed Philip V, probably realizing that Philip's precedent would bring him and his line closer to the throne.  In 1324, he commanded with success the army of his nephew Charles IV (who succeeded Philip V in 1322) to take Guyenne and Flanders from King Edward II of England. He contributed, by the capture of several cities, to accelerate the peace, which was concluded between the king of France and his niece, Isabella, queen-consort of England.  The Count of Valois died 16 December 1325 at Nogent-le-Roi, leaving a son who would take the throne of France under the name of Philip VI and commence the branch of the Valois: a posthumous revenge for the man of whom it was said, \"Son of a king, brother of a king, uncle of three kings, father of a king, but never king himself.\" Had he survived for three more years and outlived his nephew, Charles would have become King of France in his own right. Charles was buried in the now-demolished church of the Couvent des Jacobins in Paris – his effigy is now in the Basilica of St Denis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and children.", "content": "Charles was married three times.  His first marriage, in 1290, was to his double second cousin Margaret, Countess of Anjou, (1272–1299), daughter of King Charles II of Naples. They had the following children:  In 1302 he remarried Catherine I of Courtenay (1274–1307), titular Empress of Constantinople. They had four children:  Finally, in 1308, he married Mahaut of Châtillon (1293–1358), daughter of Guy III of Châtillon, Count of Saint Pol. They had also four children:  Charles de Valois was also known to have one natural child by an unknown mother. This child was placed in a nunnery, and yet was also treated as a legitimate heir to estates, being granted title to lands in Avignon upon her majority:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Charles is a major character in \"Les Rois maudits\" (\"The Accursed Kings\"), a series of French historical novels by Maurice Druon. He was portrayed by in the 1972 French miniseries adaptation of the series, and by Jacques Spiesser in the 2005 adaptation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles of Valois (12 March 1270 – 16 December 1325), the third son of Philip III of France and Isabella of Aragon, was a member of the House of Capet and founder of the House of Valois, whose rule over France would start in 1328.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974760}
{"src_title": "Hermine Reuss of Greiz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Hermine was born in Greiz as the fifth child and fourth daughter of Heinrich XXII, Prince Reuss of Greiz (28 March 1846 – 19 April 1902), and Princess Ida Mathilde Adelheid of Schaumburg-Lippe (28 July 1852 – 28 September 1891), daughter of Adolf I, Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe. Her father was the ruler of the Principality of Reuss-Greiz, a state of the German Empire, in what is present-day Thuringia. Princess Hermine's disabled elder brother became Heinrich XXIV, Prince Reuss of Greiz in 1902.  Upon her mother's early death, she was raised at the court of Princess Louise of Prussia, daughter of Emperor Wilhelm I, and her husband Grand Duke Frederick I of Baden. Like Hermine's father, Princess Louise was an implacable enemy of Prince Bismarck.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First marriage.", "content": "Princess Hermine was married on 7 January 1907 in Greiz to Prince Johann George Ludwig Ferdinand August of (11 September 1873 – 7 April 1920).  They were the parents of five children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage to ex-Emperor Wilhelm II.", "content": "In January 1922, a son of Princess Hermine sent birthday wishes to the exiled German Emperor Wilhelm II, who then invited the boy and his mother to Huis Doorn. Wilhelm found Hermine very attractive, and greatly enjoyed her company. The two had much in common, both being recently widowed: Hermine just over a year and a half before, and Wilhelm only nine months prior.  By early 1922, Wilhelm was determined to marry Hermine. Despite grumblings from Wilhelm's monarchist supporters and the objections of his children, 63-year-old Wilhelm and 34-year-old Hermine married on 5 November 1922 in Doorn. By all accounts, it was a happy marriage. Hermine's first husband had also been older than she was, by fourteen years. Wilhelm and Hermine were 4th cousins once removed through mutual descent from Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt and 5th cousins through common descent from King George II of Great Britain.  In 1927, Hermine wrote \"An Empress in Exile: My Days in Doorn\", an account of her life up to that time. She cared for the property management of Huis Doorn and by establishing her own relief organization, she stayed in contact with monarchist and nationalist circles in the Weimar Republic. Hermine also shared her husband's antisemitism. She remained a constant companion to the aging emperor until his death in 1941. They had no children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Following the death of Wilhelm, Hermine returned to Germany to live on her first husband's estate in Saabor, Lower Silesia. During the Vistula–Oder Offensive of early 1945, she fled from the advancing Red Army to her sister's estate in Rossla, Thuringia. After the end of the Second World War, she was held under house arrest at Frankfurt on the Oder in the Soviet occupation zone, and later imprisoned in the Paulinenhof Internment Camp. On 7 August 1947, aged only 59, she died suddenly of a heart attack in a small flat in Frankfurt, while under strict guard by the Red Army occupation forces. She was buried in the Antique Temple of Sanssouci Park, Potsdam, in what would become East Germany. Some years earlier, it was the resting place of several other members of the Imperial family, including Wilhelm's first wife, Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dramatic representation.", "content": "In 2014, Janet McTeer played a fictional Princess Hermine in \"The Exception\" alongside Christopher Plummer as Kaiser Wilhelm II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Popular Culture.", "content": "The humorous novel \"Mad, Mad Marjorie\" by Andrew Shaffer, Hermine features as the object of boyhood adulation of the character Andreas Stackenwalter.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Hermine Reuss of Greiz (; 17 December 1887 – 7 August 1947), widowed Princess of Schönaich-Carolath, was the second wife of Wilhelm II (1859–1941). They were married in 1922, four years after he had abdicated as German Emperor and King of Prussia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974761}
{"src_title": "Apatura ilia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The wingspan is 55–60 mm. in the female 60 to 70 mm for the male. The upper side of the wings is dark brown, with metallic blue-violet hues in the male, and it has a clear postdiscal band on the hindwing and several light spots on the forewing. These clear areas can be presented in two different aspects: they are white on the butterflies of the nominal form \"ilia\", and clear fawn in the form \"clytie\". For both forms, the forewing also has an orange-coloured ocellus, which makes it possible to differentiate the species from \"Apatura iris\". A similar ocellus is present on the hindwing in both species. The reverse side of the forewing is brown and the back of the hindwing is dull brown with, as in \"Apatura iris\", an orange ocellus centered black. Mounted specimens", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "\"A. ilia\" flies from May to September in one or two generations. It feeds on tree honeydew and flies near their summit. It goes down only to find moisture, honeydew shrubs or excrement. The eggs are laid singly on leaves. The caterpillar host plants are willows and poplars, in particular \"Populus tremula\" and \"Populus nigra\". \"A. ilia\" either pupates in the same year or winters as a young caterpillar, becoming brown, stuck to a twig. The greyish green chrysalis hangs from a leaf or twig.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biotope.", "content": "Flourishes only in damp deciduous woods with good naturalness, forests or edges of interior clearings and river valleys at altitudes between sea level and about 600m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and distribution.", "content": "It is present in most of Europe and across the Palearctic to Japan. However, it is absent from the European Mediterranean islands and the southernmost regions, from the majority of Spain and Portugal, southern Italy and Greece, as well as Nordic countries (Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Poland, northern Germany and the British Isles).  This species belongs to a group of 35 European butterflies for which ecologists had sufficient data to assess the possible movements of their range in Europe. Of these 35 butterflies studied, Apatura ilia was an exception it is the only species that has seen the northern limits of its area move slightly down to the south while its southern limit remained stable.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Apatura ilia, the lesser purple emperor, is a species of butterfly native to most of Europe and east across the Palearctic. It is named for its similarity to the purple emperor butterfly.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974762}
{"src_title": "Gunnar Nordahl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sweden.", "content": "Nordahl started out at Hörnefors IF in Sweden before moving to first Degerfors IF and then IFK Norrköping. He won four Swedish championships with IFK Norrköping and once scored seven goals in one game. During his time in Swedish clubs, Nordahl scored 149 goals in 172 matches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italy.", "content": "Nordahl transferred to A.C. Milan on 22 January 1949. Later, he would team up with his national team strike partners, Gunnar Gren and Nils Liedholm to form the renowned Gre-No-Li trio. Playing eight seasons with Milan, he is Serie A's multi-top-scorer a record five times (1949–50, 1950–51, 1952–53, 1953–54 and 1954–55). Nordahl is also Milan's all-time top-scorer, with 210 league goals.  Nordahl is the third-highest Serie A goalscorer of all time, with 225 goals in 291 matches, only behind Silvio Piola and Francesco Totti. That makes Nordahl the top goalscorer among non-Italian players, and he is also the most \"efficient\" goalscorer goals in Serie A ever with 0.77 goals/match.. He was nicknamed \"il pompiere\" (the fireman), because of his former job while he played in Sweden. After leaving Milan, Nordahl played for Roma for two seasons. Nordahl's record for most goals scored in Serie A (not including Divisione Nazionale, before Serie A was installed) of 35 in 1949–50 in a season was broken by Gonzalo Higuaín in the 2015–16 season who scored 36. Nordahl, together with the mentioned Gre-No-Li is today legendary in Milan. When Milan striker Andriy Shevchenko scored his 100 goal in Serie A for Milan, it is said that some old Milanese supporters commented: \"Well he can double that number, and then add another 26, then, and just then, he has passed \"Il Cannoniere\".\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Nordahl was first called up to the Swedish national team in 1942. In 1948, he helped Sweden to win the Olympic football tournament, becoming the tournament's top scorer on the way. The Swedish team also included his brothers Bertil and Knut Nordahl. Nordahl's transfer to Milan forced him to retire from the national team, as the rules at the time prevented professionals from the Swedish national team, being not called to 1950 FIFA World Cup along his fellows Gren and Liedholm. In his 33 matches in the national team, he scored a total of 43 goals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nils Gunnar Nordahl (; 19 October 1921 – 15 September 1995) was a Swedish football player. A highly prolific, powerful, and physically strong striker, with an eye for goal, he is best known for his spell at A.C. Milan from 1949 to 1956, in which he won the Scudetto twice, and also the title of \"pluricapocannoniere\", with an unprecedented five top scorer (\"Capocannonieri\") awards, more than any other player in the history of the Italian championship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974763}
{"src_title": "Grauballe Man", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Evidence.", "content": "Grauballe Man was initially dated to the late 3rd century BC by analysing the stratigraphic layer of peat that his body was found in. This date was subsequently confirmed by radiocarbon dating his liver, the results of which were published in 1955.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "Information about the Grauballe Man's life have been ascertained from his remains. His hands were smooth and did not show evidence of hard work, indicating that Grauballe Man was not employed in hard labour such as farming. Study of his teeth and jaws indicated that he had suffered from \"periods of starvation or a poor state of health during his early childhood.\" The man's skeleton showed signs of significant calcium deficiency, and his spine also suffered the early stages of \"spondylosis deformans\", a generalized disease of aging that is secondary to the degeneration of intervertebral disks. Due to the shrinkage that the corpse suffered in the bog, the man's actual height is not known. It is known that he had dark hair, although this too was altered in the bog, and now appears reddish in colour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "The corpse was not found with any artifacts or any evidence of clothing, indicating that when he died he was entirely naked, or his clothing had deteriorated, something that had also happened with the Tollund Man. The actual manner of his death was by having his throat cut ear to ear, severing his trachea and oesophagus. Such a wound could not have been self-inflicted, indicating that this was not suicide. A damaged area to the skull that was initially thought to have been inflicted by a blow to the head, has since been determined by a CT scan to have been fractured by pressure from the bog long after his death. He was around 30 years old when he died.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discovery, preservation and exhibition.", "content": "The Grauballe Man's body was first discovered buried in the bog on 26 April 1952 by a team of peat diggers. One of the workmen, Tage Busk Sørensen, stuck his spade into something that he knew was not peat; upon revealing more they discovered the head protruding from the ground, and the local postman, who was passing, alerted the local doctor as well as an amateur archaeologist named Ulrik Balslev. With the body still in the peat, various locals came to visit it over the next day, one of whom accidentally stepped on its head. The following morning, Professor Peter Glob from the Prehistory Museum at Aarhus came to visit the body, and arranged for it to be removed to the museum, still encased in a block of surrounding peat.  Glob and his team decided that they should not only research the body but that they should also attempt to preserve it so that it could be exhibited to the public. This concept was new at the time as most of the bog bodies previously discovered had been re-buried, sometimes in consecrated ground, with the Tollund Man which had been discovered two years earlier having only its head preserved. Despite the warnings of some scientists who believed that the corpse should immediately undergo preservation, it was exhibited straight away in order to capitalise on public interest. Indeed, the scientists' fears were proved right, as mould started to appear on certain areas of the body as a result of it having to be kept permanently moist.  The body then underwent research, including a post-mortem, and then preservation, which was organised by conservator C. Lange-Kornbak, who had to decide on the best way to do this, as no entire bog body had ever been preserved before. He examined various methods for doing so, before deciding on a programme of tanning the body to turn it into leather and then stuffing it with oak bark. In 1955, the body went on display at the Moesgaard Museum near Aarhus, only to be removed for a time in 2001-2002 when it underwent more modern scientific study, including radiological study, CT scanning, 3D visualisation, stereolithography and analyses of the gut contents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern culture.", "content": "The Grauballe Man is the subject of a poem by Seamus Heaney, as is the Tollund Man.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Grauballe Man is a bog body that was uncovered in 1952 from a peat bog near the village of Grauballe in Jutland, Denmark. The body is that of a man dating from the late 3rd century BC, during the early Germanic Iron Age. Based on the evidence of his wounds, he was most likely killed by having his throat slit. His corpse was then deposited in the bog, where his body was naturally preserved for over two millennia. He was not the only bog body to be found in the peat bogs of Jutland: with other notable examples Tollund Man and the Elling Woman, Grauballe Man represents an established tradition at the time; it is commonly thought that these killings, including that of Grauballe Man, were examples of human sacrifice, possibly an important rite in Iron Age Germanic paganism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974764}
{"src_title": "Lille OSC", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1944–1955: The first decade.", "content": "Before the Second World War, the city of Lille had two clubs in Ligue 1; Olympique Lillois and Sporting Club Fivois. Weakened by the war, the two clubs decided to merge in the autumn of 1944, giving birth to Lille Olympique Sporting Club (LOSC). Within its first decade of existence, the new club won two league titles and reached the second place for four consecutive seasons. In the Coupe de France the club accumulated five wins in seven finals, including five successive finals. The final of the Latin Cup was also reached.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1956–1980: Lille loses its way.", "content": "Lille were relegated for the first time in 1956. The club became a mid-table side and in the late 1960s, after a long period of anonymity, and weighed down by a lack of facilities and resources, Lille abandoned its professional status. It was feared that the club might disappear. However, some young leaders, such as Max Pommerolle, came and gave new impetus to the club. Nevertheless, the results remained erratic and the only titles that ignited the fans' passions were won in the Second Division.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1980–2000: Laying the foundations for future success.", "content": "In July 1980, Lille was the first French club to opt for the status of a mixed economy company, of which the city of Lille became the majority shareholder. The team of presidents Amyot, Deschot and Dewailly all struggled to compete with the top teams in the country. Jacques Amyot's resignation in 1990 led to three more difficult years for the club which compromised its very existence. It took Bernard Lecomte's arrival in 1993 to set the club finances on the road to recovery. After a final relegation in 1997, the team trained by Bosnian coach Vahid Halilhodžić was soon promoted back to the elite, in the same year the French Football League was privatised.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2000–present: A steady climb to the top.", "content": "In just its first season back in the top flight 2000–01 French Division 1, Lille qualified for Europe for the first time in the club's history, booking its place in the 2000–01 Champions League. On the back of the club's new status, Lille entered into a decisive new era under the guidance of chairman and chief executive officer Michel Seydoux and coach Claude Puel. The club left the historical Stade Grimonprez-Jooris to join the Stadium Lille Métropole and became a regular on the European scene. Amongst its most emphatic results was the 1–0 victory over Manchester United at the Stade de France in 2005, the 2–0 triumph over Milan in San Siro in 2006 and the 1–0 home win over Liverpool in 2010. A steady development off the pitch (inauguration of the Domaine de Luchin training complex in 2007, opening of the Grand Stade in 2012), coupled with the sporting progression under the expert hand of coach Rudi Garcia, took Lille back to the summit of the French game with the League and Cup double in 2011 (56 years after the club's last trophy). In 2012, LOSC confirmed its place at the top table of the domestic game with another qualification for Europe's most prestigious club competition, the Champions League in 2012–13. With the club finishing just outside the UCL places that season, Garcia left to join Roma, while former Montpellier coach René Girard was appointed the new Lille manager. After two years in charge of the club, Girard left his role as the head coach by mutual consent. He was joined by assistants Gerard Bernadet and Nicolas Girard in making the exit. In May 2015, the Ivory Coast national team head coach Hervé Renard was appointed as the new manager. On 11 November 2015, Renard was terminated as manager and was replaced by Frederic Antonetti. On 23 November 2016, a year after being appointed, Lille terminated Antonetti's contract with the club lying second last in the table. In March 2017, Lille appointed Marcelo Bielsa as new manager of the club. In November 2017, Bielsa was suspended by Lille following an unauthorized trip to Chile with the club lying second from bottom on the table again and only managing 3 wins from the first 14 games of the season.  On 23 December 2017, Bielsa was terminated by Lille and replaced with former Saint-Etienne manager Christophe Galtier. After a difficult 2017–2018 season, Lille managed to avoid relegation to Ligue 2 by defeating Toulouse 3–2 in the second last game of the campaign.  In the 2018–19 Ligue 1 season, Lille secured the second place to qualify for the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League group stage, they returned to the competition after a seven-year absence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stadiums.", "content": "Stade Pierre-Mauroy was inaugurated in 2012. Originally named the \"Centre Olympique de Lille Est\", the club's sporting venue is spread over five hectares and features three natural grass football pitches and one synthetic pitch, as well as a number of buildings including a medical centre and gymnasium. These attributes had seen the club house part of the LOSC Youth Academy here, before all the club's operations were moved to the Domaine de Luchin in Camphin-en-Pé.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club rivalries.", "content": "The Derby du Nord is a football match contested between Lille and RC Lens. The derby name refers only to their geographical location in France since Lille is the only club of the two actually situated in the department of Nord. Lens are situated in the western department of Pas-de-Calais. The name can also refer to matches involving Lille and Valenciennes as both clubs are located within Nord, however, the match historically refers to matches involving Lille and Lens. As a result, the Lille–Valenciennes match is sometimes referred to as \"Le Petit Derby du Nord\". The two clubs first met in 1937 when Lille were playing under the Olympique Lillois emblem. Due to each club's close proximity towards each other being separated by only and sociological differences between each club's supporters, a fierce rivalry developed. The Derby du Nord is underpinned by social and economic differences, since the city of Lens is known as an old, working-class, industrial city and Lille as a middle-class, modern, internationally oriented one. Nowadays the matches, which can spark intense feelings on both sides, have gained prominence as they may determine berths in continental competitions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management and staff.", "content": "Lille Olympique Sporting Club – LOSC Lille ()", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching history.", "content": "Former coaches include Georges Heylens (1984–89), a former Belgian international player, Jacques Santini (1989–92), who coached the France national team between 2002 and 2004, Bruno Metsu (1992–93), who coached the Senegal national team at the 2002 World Cup, Pierre Mankowski (1993–94), who was formerly the assistant coach of the France national team and Vahid Halilhodžić (1998–02), who can be credited with the club's revival in the late nineties. Rudi Garcia, who played for Lille from 1980 to 1988, replaced Claude Puel at the beginning of the 2008 season. Puel had been with Lille since 2002. Thanks to his successes with the club, Puel had been approached by Portuguese club Porto to replace José Mourinho and league rivals Lyon to replace Alain Perrin; he finally decided to join Lyon after six seasons at the club.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lille Olympique Sporting Club (), commonly called LOSC, also referred to as LOSC Lille, Lille OSC or simply Lille, is a French professional association football club based in Lille in Hauts-de-France. The club was founded in 1944 as a result of a merger and plays in Ligue 1, the first division of French football. Lille has played its home matches since 2012 at Stade Pierre-Mauroy in nearby Villeneuve d'Ascq, which replaced the club's previous home of Stade Lille-Metropole in the same community.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974765}
{"src_title": "Henrietta Szold", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Henrietta Szold was born in Baltimore, Maryland, December 21, 1860. She was the daughter of Rabbi Benjamin Szold of Hungarian birth, who was the spiritual leader of Baltimore's Temple Oheb Shalom. She was the eldest of eight daughters. In 1877, she graduated from Western High School. For fifteen years she taught at Miss Adam’s School and Oheb Shalom religious school, and gave Bible and history courses for adults. Highly educated in Jewish studies, she edited Professor Marcus Jastrow's Talmudic Dictionary. To further her own education, she attended public lectures at Johns Hopkins University and the Peabody Institute.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Szold established the first American night school to provide English language instruction and vocational skills to Russian Jewish immigrants in Baltimore. Beginning in 1893, she worked as the first editor for the Jewish Publication Society, a position she maintained for over 23 years. \"The sole woman at the JPS, Szold's duties included the translation of a dozen works, writing articles of her own, editing the books, and overseeing the publication schedule.  In 1896, one month before Theodor Herzl published his magnum opus, \"Der Judenstaat\", Szold described her vision of a Jewish state in Palestine as a place to ingather Diaspora Jewry and revive Jewish culture. In 1898, the Federation of American Zionists elected Szold as the only female member of its executive committee. During World War I, she was the only woman on the Provisional Executive Committee for General Zionist Affairs.  In 1899 she took on the lion's share of producing the first \"American Jewish Year Book\", of which she was sole editor from 1904 to 1908.\" She also collaborated in the compilation of the \"Jewish Encyclopedia\".  In 1902, Szold took classes in advanced Jewish studies at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. However, its rabbinic school was for men only. Szold begged the school's president, Solomon Schechter, to allow her to study, he did only with the provision that she not seek ordination. Szold did well at the seminary, earning the respect from other students and faculty alike. Her commitment to Zionism was heightened by a trip to Palestine in 1909, at age 49. Here, she discovered her life's mission: the health, education and welfare of the Yishuv (pre-state Jewish community of Palestine). Szold joined six other women to found Hadassah, which recruited American Jewish women to upgrade health care in Palestine. Hadassah's first project was the inauguration of an American-style visiting nurse program in Jerusalem. Hadassah funded hospitals, a medical school, dental facilities, x-ray clinics, infant welfare stations, soup kitchens and other services for Palestine's Jewish and Arab inhabitants. Szold persuaded her colleagues that practical programs open to all were critical to Jewish survival in the Holy Land. She founded Hadassah in 1912 and served as its president until 1926.  In the 1920s and 1930s she was a supporter of Brit Shalom, a small organization dedicated to Arab-Jewish unity and a binational solution. In 1933 she immigrated to Palestine and helped run Youth Aliyah, an organization that rescued 30,000 Jewish children from Nazi Europe. In October 1934 Szold laid the cornerstone of the new Rothschild-Hadassah-University Hospital on Mount Scopus. In 1942, she was one of the co-founders of the Ihud party which advocated the same program.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Szold never married and never had children of her own. While she was in her forties, she had an unrequited relationship with Talmudic scholar Rabbi Louis Ginzberg. He was fifteen years her junior, and he returned her feelings only platonically. After their relationship ended, she expressed her sadness: \"Today it is four weeks since my only real happiness was killed.\" Years afterward, she said: \"I would exchange everything for one child of my own.\"  Szold was the oldest of eight daughters and had no brothers. In Orthodox Judaism, it was not the norm for women to recite the Mourners' Kaddish. In 1916, Szold's mother died, and a friend, Hayim Peretz, offered to say Kaddish for her. In a letter, she thanked Peretz for his concern but said she would do it herself.  Szold's answer to Peretz is cited by \"Women and the Mourners' Kaddish,\" a responsum written by Conservative Rabbi David Golinkin. This responsum, adopted unanimously by Conservative Judaism's Va'ad Halakhah (Law Committee) of the Rabbinical Assembly of Israel, permits women to recite the Mourners' Kaddish in public when a minyan is present. Szold was religiously traditional, but advocated a larger role for women in Rabbinic Judaism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On February 13, 1945, at age 84, Henrietta Szold died in the same Hadassah Hospital she helped to build in Jerusalem. She was buried in the Jewish Cemetery on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem.  From 1948 to 1967, the Mount of Olives was cut off from the rest of Jerusalem by the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine and the 1949 Armistice Agreements. After Israel regained the region in the Six-Day War, Kalman Mann, then-director general of Hadassah Medical Center, went with a group of rabbis to the cemetery to assess the condition of Szold's grave. They found that it had been paved over by a road built by the Jordanians, who had also vandalized many grave markers. They were able to locate Szold's burial site using a cemetery chart and \"counting the indentations in the ground\". The grave was later rebuilt and remarked with a new stone marker in an official ceremony.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Kibbutz Kfar Szold, in Upper Galilee is named after her. The Palmach, in recognition of her commitment to \"Aliyat Hanoar\" Youth Aliyah, named the illegal immigration (Ha'apalah) ship \"Henrietta Szold\" after her. The ship, carrying immigrants from the Kiffisia orphanage in Athens, sailed from Piraeus on July 30, 1946, with 536 immigrants on board, and arrived on August 12, 1946. The passengers resisted capture, but were transferred to transport for Cyprus.  In 1949, Hadassah inaugurated the Henrietta Szold prize, which was awarded that year to Eleanor Roosevelt.  The Henrietta Szold Institute, National Institute for Research in the Behavioral Sciences, located in Jerusalem, is named after her. The institute is Israel's foremost planner of behavioral science intervention and training programs.  Public School 134 on Manhattan's Lower East Side in New York City is also named after her.  In Israel, Mother's Day is celebrated on the day that Szold died, on the 30th of Shevat.  In the northwest corner of Szold's home city of Baltimore, Szold Drive, a short street in a residential neighborhood with homes built in the 1950s, is named after her as well. The northernmost part of the street is in Baltimore County.  In New York City, Szold Place, formerly Dry Dock Street runs from East 10th Street to East 12th Street in the East Village neighborhood of Manhattan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "In 2007, Szold was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henrietta Szold (, ; December 21, 1860 – February 13, 1945) was a U.S. Jewish Zionist leader and founder of Hadassah, the Women's Zionist Organization of America. In 1942, she co-founded Ihud, a political party in Mandatory Palestine dedicated to a binational solution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974766}
{"src_title": "Nedelin catastrophe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Launch preparations.", "content": "On 23 October 1960, the prototype R-16 had been installed on launching pad 41 (\"\") awaiting final tests before launch. The missile was over 30 m long, 3.0 m in diameter and had a launch weight of 141 tons. The rocket was fueled with the hypergolic pair of UDMH as fuel and a saturated solution of dinitrogen tetroxide in nitric acid as the oxidizer — which was used because of the high boiling temperatures and hence storability of the fuel and oxidizer, despite being extremely corrosive and toxic. These risks were accounted for in the safety requirements of the launch procedures, but Nedelin's insistence on achieving a test launch ahead of the November 7 anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution resulted in extreme schedule pressure, in a context of substantial emerging engineering difficulties. Ultimately pre-launch tests began to overlap with launch preparations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accident.", "content": "A short circuit in the replaced main sequencer caused the second-stage engine to fire while being tested before launch. This detonated the first stage fuel tanks directly below, destroying the missile in an enormous explosion. Before seeking refuge, the camera operator remotely activated automatic cameras set around the launching pad that filmed the explosion in detail. People near the rocket were instantly incinerated; those farther away were burned to death or poisoned by the toxic fuel component vapors. Andrei Sakharov described many details: as soon as the engine fired, most of the personnel there ran to the perimeter, but were trapped inside the security fence and then engulfed in the fireball of burning fuel. The explosion incinerated or asphyxiated Nedelin, a top aide, the USSR's top missile-guidance designer, and over 70 other officers and engineers. Others died later of burns or poisoning. Missile designer Mikhail Yangel and the test range commanding officer survived only because they had left to smoke a cigarette behind a bunker a few hundred metres away, but nonetheless suffered burn injuries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Complete secrecy was immediately imposed on the events of 24 October by Nikita Khrushchev. A news release stated that Nedelin had died in a plane crash and the families of the other engineers were advised to say their loved ones had died of the same cause. Khrushchev also ordered Leonid Brezhnev to head an investigation commission and go to the site. Among other things, the commission found that many more people were present on the launch pad than should have been — most were supposed to be safely offsite in bunkers.  When Brezhnev arrived at the firing range in 25 October, he said: \"Comrades! We do not intend to put anyone on trial; we are going to investigate the causes and take actions to recover from the disaster and continue operations.” But, I. A. Doroshenko was punished by the event.  Afterwards, Yangel was asked by Nikita Khrushchev \"But why have you remained alive?\" Yangel answered in a trembling voice: \"Walked away for a smoke. It's all my fault.\" Later he suffered a heart attack and was off work for months.  After the committee presented its report, the R-16 program resumed in January 1961 with first successful flight in 2 February 1961. The delay to the R-16 spurred the USSR toward the development of more effective ICBMs and sparked Khrushchev's decision to install IRBMs in Cuba. Before the disaster Yangel had ambitions to challenge Sergei Korolev as leader of the Manned Space program, but he was directed to focus on the R-16.  A memorial to the victims of the test was erected in the first half of the 1960s in the Park of Baikonur and is still visited by RKA officials before any manned launch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Official acknowledgment.", "content": "A news release stated that Nedelin had died \"in a plane crash while on an undisclosed mission.\" The Italian news agency Continentale first reported on 8 December 1960, from undisclosed sources, that Marshal Nedelin and 100 people had been killed in a rocket explosion. \"The Guardian\" reported on 16 October 1965, that captured spy Oleg Penkovsky had confirmed details of the missile accident, and exiled scientist Zhores Medvedev provided further details in 1976 in the British weekly magazine \"New Scientist\". However, it was not until 16 April 1989, that the Soviet Union acknowledged the events, with a report appearing in the weekly newsmagazine \"Ogoniok\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nedelin catastrophe or Nedelin disaster was a launch pad accident that occurred on 24 October 1960 at Baikonur test range (of which Baikonur Cosmodrome is a part), during the development of the Soviet ICBM R-16. As a prototype of the missile was being prepared for a test flight, an explosion occurred when the second stage engine ignited accidentally, killing an unknown number of military and technical personnel working on the preparations. Despite the magnitude of the disaster, news of it was suppressed for many years and the Soviet government did not acknowledge the event until 1989. The disaster is named after Chief Marshal of Artillery Mitrofan Ivanovich Nedelin, who was killed in the explosion. As commanding officer of the Soviet Union's Strategic Rocket Forces, Nedelin was head of the R-16 development program.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974767}
{"src_title": "Gabriel Marcel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Marcel was born on 7 December 1889 in Paris, France. His mother Laure Meyer, who was Jewish, died when he was young and he was brought up by his aunt and father, Henry Marcel. When he was eight he moved for a year where his father was minister plenipotentiary.  Marcel completed his DES thesis (\"\", roughly equivalent to an MA thesis) and obtained the \"agrégation\" in philosophy from the Sorbonne in 1910, at the unusually young age of 20. During the First World War he worked as head of the Information Service, organized by the Red Cross to convey news of injured soldiers to their families. He taught in secondary schools, was a drama critic for various literary journals, and worked as an editor for Plon, the major French Catholic publisher.  Marcel was the son of an agnostic, and was himself an atheist until his conversion to Catholicism in 1929. Marcel was opposed to anti-Semitism and supported reaching out to non-Catholics.  He died 8 October 1973 in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Existential themes.", "content": "He is often classified as one of the earliest existentialists, although he dreaded being placed in the same category as Jean-Paul Sartre; Marcel came to prefer the label \"neo-Socratic\" (possibly because of Søren Kierkegaard, the father of Christian existentialism, who was a neo-Socratic thinker himself). While Marcel recognized that human interaction often involved objective characterisation of \"the other\", he still asserted the possibility of \"communion\" – a state where both individuals can perceive each other's subjectivity.  In \"The Existential Background of Human Dignity\", Marcel refers to a play he had written in 1913 entitled \"Le Palais de Sable\", in order to provide an example of a person who was unable to treat others as subjects.  Roger Moirans, the central character of the play, is a politician, a conservative who is dedicated to defending the rights of Catholicism against free thought. He has set himself up as the champion of traditional monarchy and has just achieved a great success in the city council where he has attacked the secularism of public schools. It is natural enough that he should be opposed to the divorce of his daughter Therese, who wants to leave her unfaithful husband and start her life afresh. In this instance he proves himself virtually heartless; all his tenderness goes out to his second daughter, Clarisse, whom he takes to be spiritually very much like himself. But now Clarisse tells him that she has decided to take the veil and become a Carmelite. Moirans is horrified by the idea that this creature, so lovely, intelligent, and full of life, might go and bury herself in a convent and he decides to do his utmost to make her give up her intention... Clarisse is deeply shocked; her father now appears to her as an impostor, virtually as a deliberate fraud...  In this case, Moirans is unable to treat either of his daughters as a subject, instead rejecting both because each does not conform to her objectified image in his mind. Marcel notes that such objectification \"does no less than denude its object of the one thing which he has which is of value, and so it degrades him effectively.\"  Another related major thread in Marcel was the struggle to protect one's subjectivity from annihilation by modern materialism and a technologically driven society. Marcel argued that scientific egoism replaces the \"mystery\" of being with a false scenario of human life composed of technical \"problems\" and \"solutions\". For Marcel, the human subject cannot exist in the technological world, instead being replaced by a human object. As he points out in \"Man Against Mass Society\" and other works, technology has a privileged authority with which it persuades the subject to accept his place as \"he\" in the internal dialogue of science; and as a result, man is convinced by science to rejoice in his own annihilation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "For many years, Marcel hosted a weekly philosophy discussion group through which he met and influenced important younger French philosophers like Jean Wahl, Paul Ricœur, Emmanuel Levinas, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Marcel was puzzled and disappointed that his reputation was almost entirely based on his philosophical treatises and not on his plays, which he wrote in the hope of appealing to a wider lay audience. He also influenced phenomenologist and Thomistic philosopher Karol Wojtyla (later Pope John Paul II), who drew on Marcel's distinction between \"being\" and \"having\" in his critique of technological change.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main works.", "content": "His major books are the \"Metaphysical Journal\" (1927), \"Being and Having\" (1933), \"Homo Viator\" (1945), \"Mystery of Being\" (1951), and \"Man Against Mass Society\" (1955). He gave the William James Lectures at Harvard in 1961–1962, which were subsequently published as \"The Existential Background of Human Dignity\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gabriel Honoré Marcel (1889–1973) was a French philosopher, playwright, music critic and leading Christian existentialist. The author of over a dozen books and at least thirty plays, Marcel's work focused on the modern individual's struggle in a technologically dehumanizing society. Though often regarded as the first French existentialist, he dissociated himself from figures such as Jean-Paul Sartre, preferring the term \"philosophy of existence\" or \"neo-Socrateanism\" to define his own thought. \"The Mystery of Being\" is a well-known two-volume work authored by Marcel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974768}
{"src_title": "Metaxa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Born in 1848 in Greece, Spyros Metaxa was a descendant of a family of silk merchants. His first foray into business was in the trade of fine goods. During his professional travels, he was exposed to a number of different spirits and wines from all around the world. Spirits of his time tended to be harsh on the palate, without much aroma or character. Spyros Metaxa wanted a smoother drink and created Metaxa in 1888.  Aided by his brothers, Elias and Alexander, Spyros Metaxa built his first distillery in 1888 in Piraeus, the port of Athens. The \"Salamina Warrior\", the Metaxa emblem, is said to have been inspired by a medallion found in the foundations of the distillery.  Metaxa became a commercial success, started being exported to countries across the Mediterranean, and in 1900 was exported to the US.  In 1968, the distillery and the Metaxa cellars were relocated to new facilities in Athens' northern suburb of Kifissia where they are today.  Although it was first compared to a Cognac, and later to a brandy, Metaxa is not classified in either of these spirit categories due to the presence of the Muscat wines and the Mediterranean botanicals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Creation.", "content": "The company's current Metaxa master, the equivalent of a master distiller or master blender, Constantinos Raptis, is the fifth since 1888. For more than 25 years, he has overseen the entire production process.  Raptis selects Muscat wines from Samos for aromatic concentration and intensity, and wine distillates for their character. The wine distillates and Muscat wines are aged separately, until he decides they are ready to be combined in Limousin oak casks. Mediterranean botanicals are added as the final touch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Samos.", "content": "The island of Samos is in the Eastern Mediterranean. The highest mountain is Mount Ambelos (1,160m). Ampelos means \"vine\" in Greek. Here the slopes of the mountain are covered in vineyards, mainly of the Muscat grape. Grapes are cultivated in terraces and hand-picked.  Muscat grapes grow well in few places around the world. Warm sun, a tough mineral soil and rainfall at the right times of year are all part of the island's natural life. Samos produces some of the most aromatic wines in the world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "MΕΤΑΧΑ () is a Greek amber spirit created by Spyros Metaxa in 1888. Its taste comes from the combination of Muscat wines from the island of Samos, aged wine distillates, and Mediterranean botanicals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974769}
{"src_title": "Peter Šťastný", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "NHL career.", "content": "Peter Šťastný was a prolific scorer in the NHL in the 1980s. He started his career in the NHL with the Quebec Nordiques in 1980 and was traded in 1990 to the New Jersey Devils. As a star member of a team playing in a francophone city, Stastny endeared himself to the Quebec fans by learning to speak French, and later learned to speak English. He retired as a member of the St. Louis Blues in 1995.  When the startling news broke in 1980 that Czechoslovakia player of the year, Peter Šťastný, and his brother, Anton, had defected to Canada to play with the Quebec Nordiques, it represented a watershed moment in professional hockey as one of the first major stars of Eastern bloc hockey to join the NHL. The following year, his brother, Marián, joined them and they became the third trio of brothers to play on the same professional hockey team (the first being the Bentley brothers of the Chicago Blackhawks in the 1940s and the second being the Plager brothers of the St. Louis Blues in the 1970s).  The trickle of Czechoslovak and Soviet hockey players rapidly became a flood following his footsteps. According to Peter, his defection \"was the best decision I ever made. It has given my family the choices and options that people behind the Iron Curtain could only dream of. Then, to play pro hockey with my two brothers was like icing on the cake.\"  On the ice, Peter proved to be both consistent and productive. He scored 450 goals and added 789 assists for a total of 1239 points in the regular season. After retiring as a player, he captained the Slovak national team in various international tournaments and still enjoys huge popularity among Slovaks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Šťastný was born in Bratislava, the fourth son of Stanislav and Frantiska Šťastný. His two older brothers, Vladimir (born 1945) and Bohumil (born 1947), were born when the family still lived in the village of Pružina, about 170 kilometres northeast of Bratislava. They moved to Bratislava before the birth of Marián (1953), Peter (1956), Anton (1959), and Eva (1966). Stanislav worked for a state-run company that built hydro-electric dams until 1980 when he retired, and mainly dealt with managing inventory. Frantiska stayed at home and raised the children. Vladimir served as an assistant coach of the Slovak national ice hockey team. He is the only coach with all three medals in Slovak ice hockey history.  Peter is the father of Yan Stastny, who made his NHL debut in 2005–06 with the Edmonton Oilers and is currently playing in Nuremberg, Germany, and Paul Stastny, who began his career with the Colorado Avalanche (the same franchise as the Quebec Nordiques, Peter's first NHL team) in 2006–07, followed by the St. Louis Blues, for whom Peter also played. Paul now plays for the Vegas Golden Knights. Paul wears the same number (#26) that Peter did. Born in Quebec City but raised in St. Louis, Yan played for Team USA in the 2005 and 2006 IIHF World Championships. Paul would represent Team USA in the 2010 Winter Olympics and 2014 Winter Olympics. The family is thus the first hockey family known to have represented four countries in international play (Czechoslovakia, Canada, Slovakia, USA). Paul broke the record for a scoring streak in a rookie season in the NHL and was a finalist for the 2006–2007 Calder Memorial Trophy—the NHL honour for \"Rookie of the Year\" won by his father in 1980–81.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career in politics.", "content": "Šťastný has always been known for his resentment of the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia. He joined the party SDKÚ-DS of the former Prime-minister Mikuláš Dzurinda to pursue a career in the European Parliament since he is fluent in both English and French. He was elected as leader of the 2004 European Parliament candidate list for the SDKU.  In the June 2009 election he was re-elected as the second of his party's MEPs. His campaign slogan was \"With Courage and Determination for a Strong Slovakia\" (Slovak: S odvahou a nasadením pre silné Slovensko). He was MEP until 2014. He is a signatory of the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Široký controversy.", "content": "Šťastný has called for Juraj Široký to step-down as the President of Slovak Ice Hockey Federation, stating poor performance, pursuing own financial interests over the welfare of Slovak Hockey as well as moral incredibility after it was revealed that Mr Široký was former ŠtB officer and he still has not sufficiently explained his friendship and involvement with Viktor Kožený and his fraudulent financial manoeuvres regarding so-called Harvard Funds. These grievances were penned in a letter to René Fasel in a letter describing Široký as a threat to democracy and integrity of the game in March 2008, as a result of Široký's actions in the 1980s (during which time Peter and two of his brothers had defected to Canada). Three months later, with Široký having not resigned from HC Slovan Bratislava, for whom Šťastný had played prior to his defection to Canada, or the Slovak Ice Hockey Federation, Šťastný resigned from the Slovak Hockey Hall of Fame as a result, and had all references to him pulled from Samsung Arena, the home arena of Slovan at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Šťastný was the first player in ice hockey history to represent three countries in three international tournaments.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Šťastný (; born 18 September 1956), also known colloquially as \"Peter the Great\" and \"Stosh\", is a retired Slovak-Canadian professional ice hockey player who played in the National Hockey League (NHL) from 1980 to 1995. Stastny is the second highest scorer of the 1980s, after Wayne Gretzky. During his time with the Quebec Nordiques, Stastny became a Canadian citizen. From 2004 to 2014, he served as a Member of the European Parliament for Slovakia. During his NHL career, he played with the Quebec Nordiques, New Jersey Devils, and St. Louis Blues.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974770}
{"src_title": "Carlos Pace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Pace was a contemporary of the Fittipaldi brothers, Wilson and Emerson, and began racing in Brazil in the late 1960s. He travelled to Europe in 1970 and competed in British Formula 3, winning the Forward Trust championship in a Lotus car. In 1971 he moved up to Formula Two with Frank Williams, but did not score any points from six races. Nevertheless, he moved up to Formula One in, competing with a Williams-entered March. He scored points on two occasions and finished eighteenth in the Drivers' Championship. His best result came at the non-championship Victory Race, in which he finished in second position. He also competed in some further F2 and Can-Am races.  For, Pace moved to the Surtees team and improved to eleventh place in the championship after scoring a fourth place in Germany and his first championship podium finish with third in Austria. He also set the fastest lap in both of these events. He also competed in three F2 races for Surtees, but his main racing activities outside F1 were in the World Sportscar Championship, in which he drove for the works Ferrari team. Sharing a 312PB with Arturo Merzario, the duo finished second at the Nürburgring and at Le Mans (after starting in pole position for the latter event), and third at Watkins Glen.  He remained with Surtees for and scored a fourth-place finish in Brazil, but parted company with the outfit mid-season after falling out with the founder, John Surtees. He drove a privately entered Brabham for Goldie Hexagon Racing at the French Grand Prix but failed to qualify, before moving to the works team alongside namesake Carlos Reutemann for the next race. After initially struggling with the new machinery, he finished fifth and set the fastest lap at Monza, and repeated the feat on his way to second, behind Reutemann, at Watkins Glen, securing a one-two finish for Brabham.  The Brabham team's BT44B chassis were competitive throughout the season, allowing Pace and Reutemann to feature at the front of the grid. Pace duly took his first and only Formula One victory in front of his home crowd at the Brazilian Grand Prix, took his first pole position at the following race in South Africa, and also finished on the podium at Monaco and Silverstone, ending the season sixth overall in the Drivers' Championship and helping Brabham to second in the Constructors' Championship, behind Ferrari.  He remained with Brabham for, but the car was much less competitive due to a change of engine, from Ford-Cosworth to Alfa Romeo. The Italian flat 12 units were larger, heavier, less reliable and less economical than their V8 predecessors, restricting Pace to fourteenth place in the championship, whilst Reutemann left the team before the end of the season.  By the start of the season, the competitiveness and durability of the Alfa engines had been much improved for Pace and his new teammate, John Watson. He demonstrated this fact by taking second position at the season opener in Argentina, and running strongly in the next two Grands Prix before suffering from mechanical trouble, but he was unable to capitalise on the improved performance for the rest of the season due to his sudden death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and honours.", "content": "Pace was killed in a private light aircraft accident near São Paulo, Brazil on 18 March 1977, 13 days after fellow F1 driver Tom Pryce and marshal Jansen Van Vuuren lost their lives during the 1977 South African Grand Prix. The Interlagos track, the scene of his only F1 win in 1975, was renamed Autódromo José Carlos Pace in his honour. Pace is buried in Cemitério do Araçá, São Paulo.  In the 1977 motorsport film \"Bobby Deerfield\", the eponymous title character is represented by Pace in the racing scenes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "José Carlos Pace (October 6, 1944 – March 18, 1977) was a racing driver from Brazil. He participated in 73 Formula One World Championship Grands Prix, debuting on March 4, 1972. He won one race, achieved six podiums, and scored a total of 58 championship points. He also secured one pole position.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974771}
{"src_title": "Dieffenbachia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Species.", "content": "The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families lists the following species:  \"Dieffenbachia\" includes a number of unresolved taxonomic names, such as \"Dieffenbachia amoena\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "In a survey which began in 1998, researchers in Costa Rica noticed that the strawberry poison frog \"Oophaga pumilio\", deposited almost all (89%) of their tadpoles on the leaf axils of \"Dieffenbachia\". As a result, the frog population fluctuated with the abundance of \"Dieffenbachia\", especially in secondary forest. A majority of the plants were eradicated by 2012 when the surveyors returned to the same area, with only 28% of 2002 plant numbers remaining. Researchers concluded that the reason for the rapid decline in \"Dieffenbachia\" was due to increased abundance of the collared peccary \"Pecari tajacu\" in the La Selva Biological Station research area; a small pig-like animal which feeds on \"Dieffenbachia\" and other plants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "With a minimum temperature of, dieffenbachia must be grown indoors in temperate areas. They need light, but filtered sunlight through a window is usually sufficient. They also need moderately moist soil, which should be regularly fertilized with a proprietary houseplant fertilizer. Leaves will periodically roll up and fall off to make way for new leaves. Yellowing of the leaves is generally a sign of problematic conditions, such as a nutrient deficiency in the soil. Dieffenbachia respond well to hot temperatures and dry climates.  Dieffenbachia prefer medium sunlight, moderately dry soil and average home temperatures of. Most require water about twice a week.  As \"Dieffenbachia seguine\" comes from the tropical rain forest, it prefers to have moisture at its roots, as it grows all the time, it needs constant water, but with loose well aerated soils.  The cultivars 'Camille' and 'Tropic Snow' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "The cells of the \"Dieffenbachia\" plant contain needle-shaped calcium oxalate crystals called raphides. If a leaf is chewed, these crystals can cause a temporary burning sensation and erythema. In rare cases, edema of tissues exposed to the plant has been reported. Mastication and ingestion generally result in only mild symptoms. With both children and pets, contact with dieffenbachia (typically from chewing) can cause a host of unpleasant symptoms, including intense numbing, oral irritation, excessive drooling, and localized swelling. However, these effects are rarely life-threatening. In most cases, symptoms are mild, and can be successfully treated with analgesic agents, antihistamines, or medical charcoal. Moreover, severe cases can occur if \"Dieffenbachia\" makes prolonged contact with oral mucosal tissue. In such cases, symptoms generally include severe pain which can last for several days to weeks. Hospitalization may be necessary if prolonged contact is made with the throat, in which severe swelling has the potential to affect breathing. Gastric evacuation or lavage is \"seldom\" indicated. In patients with exposure to toxic plants, 70% are children younger than 5 years.  Stories that \"Dieffenbachia\" is a deadly poison are urban legends.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dieffenbachia is a genus of tropical flowering plants in the family Araceae. It is native to the New World Tropics from Mexico and the West Indies south to Argentina. Some species are widely cultivated as ornamental plants, especially as houseplants, and have become naturalized on a few tropical islands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974772}
{"src_title": "Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "She received her first name, which was taken from the Greek word for \"peace\", because she was born at the end of the Austro-Prussian War. Alice considered Irene an unattractive child and once wrote to her sister Victoria that Irene was \"not pretty.\" Though not as pretty as her sister Elizabeth, Irene did have a pleasant, even disposition. Princess Alice brought up her daughters simply. An English nanny presided over the nursery and the children ate plain meals of rice puddings and baked apples and wore plain dresses. Her daughters were taught how to do housework, such as baking cakes, making their own beds, laying fires and sweeping and dusting their rooms. Princess Alice also emphasized the need to give to the poor and often took her daughters on visits to hospitals and charities.  The family was devastated in 1873 when Irene's haemophiliac younger brother Friedrich, nicknamed \"Frittie\", fell through an open window, struck his head on the balustrade and died hours later of a brain hemorrhage. In the months following the toddler's death, Alice frequently took her children to his grave to pray and was melancholy on anniversaries associated with him. In the autumn of 1878 Irene, her siblings (except for Elizabeth) and her father became ill with diphtheria. Her younger sister Princess Marie, nicknamed \"May\", died of the disease. Her mother, exhausted from nursing the children, also became infected. Knowing she was in danger of dying, Princess Alice dictated her will, including instructions about how to bring up her daughters and how to run the household. She died of diphtheria on 14 December 1878. Following Alice's death, Queen Victoria resolved to act as a mother to her Hessian grandchildren. Princess Irene and her surviving siblings spent annual holidays in England and their grandmother sent instructions to their governess regarding their education and approving the pattern of their dresses. With her sister Alix, Irene was a bridesmaid at the 1885 wedding of their maternal aunt, Princess Beatrice, to Prince Henry of Battenberg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Irene married Prince Henry of Prussia, the third child and second son of Frederick III, German Emperor and Victoria, Princess Royal on 24 May 1888 at the chapel of the Charlottenburg Palace in Berlin. As their mothers were sisters, Irene and Henry were first cousins. Their marriage displeased Queen Victoria because she had not been told about the courtship until they had already decided to marry. At the time of the ceremony, Irene's uncle and father-in-law, the German emperor, was dying of throat cancer, and less than a month after the ceremony, Irene's cousin and brother-in-law ascended the throne as Kaiser Wilhelm II. Heinrich's mother, Empress Victoria, was fond of Irene. However, Empress Victoria was shocked because Irene did not wear a shawl or scarf to disguise her pregnancy when she was pregnant with her first son, the haemophiliac Prince Waldemar, in 1889. Empress Victoria, who was fascinated by politics and current events, also couldn't understand why Heinrich and Irene never read a newspaper. However, the couple were happily married and they were known as \"The Very Amiables\" by their relatives because of their pleasant natures. The marriage produced three sons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Their descendants also include two grandchildren, two great-grandchildren and six great-great grandchildren.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family relationships.", "content": "Irene transmitted the haemophilia gene to her eldest and youngest sons, Waldemar and Heinrich. Waldemar's health worried her from early childhood. She was later devastated when the youngest child, four-year-old Heinrich, died after he fell and bumped his head in February 1904. Six months after little Heinrich's death, Irene became an aunt to Tsarevich Alexei of Russia, son of her youngest sister, Tsarina Alexandra, who also had hemophilia. Two of her first cousins, Queen Victoria Eugenia of Spain and Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, would also give birth to hemophiliac sons.  Irene, raised to believe in a proper Victorian code of behaviour, was easily shocked by what she saw as immorality. In 1884, the same year that her elder sister Victoria married Prince Louis of Battenberg, another sister, Elizabeth, married Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia, and when Elizabeth converted from Lutheranism to Russian Orthodoxy, in 1891, Irene was deeply upset. She wrote to her father that she \"cried terribly\" over Elizabeth's decision. In 1892, Irene's father, Grand Duke Louis IV, died, and her brother, Ernest, succeeded him as Grand Duke of Hesse. Two years later, in May 1894, Ernest Louis was married off by Queen Victoria to a first cousin, Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. It was amidst the wedding festivities that Irene's youngest surviving sister, Alix, accepted the marriage proposal of Tsarevich Nicholas, a second cousin, and when Nicholas' father died prematurely in November 1894, Irene and her husband traveled to St. Petersburg to be present at both his funeral and the wedding of Alix, who had taken the name Alexandra Feodorovna upon her conversion to Orthodoxy, to the new tsar, Nicholas II. Despite the disagreement that she had over the conversion of two of her sisters to Russian Orthodoxy, she remained close with all of her siblings. In 1907, Irene helped arrange what later turned out to be a disastrous marriage between Elizabeth's ward, Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia, to Prince Vilhelm, Duke of Södermanland. Wilhelm's mother, the Queen of Sweden, was an old friend of both Irene and Elizabeth. Grand Duchess Maria later wrote that Irene pressured her to go through with the marriage when she had doubts. She told Maria that ending the engagement would \"kill\" Elizabeth. In 1912, Irene was a source of support to her sister Alix when Alexei nearly died of complications of haemophilia at the Imperial Family's hunting lodge in Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Irene's ties to her sisters were disrupted by the advent of World War I, which put them on opposing sides of the war. When the war ended, she received word that Alix, her husband and children and her sister Elizabeth had been killed by the Bolsheviks. Following the war and the abdication of the Kaiser, Germany was no longer ruled by the Prussian Royal Family, but Irene and her husband retained their estate, Hemmelmark, in northern Germany.  When Anna Anderson surfaced in Berlin in the early 1920s, claiming to be the surviving Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia, Irene visited the woman, but decided that Anderson could not be the niece she had last seen in 1913. Princess Irene was not impressed.  Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna, sister of the murdered tsar, commented on the visit of Princess Irene,", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine (\"Irene Luise Marie Anne, Princess of Hesse and by Rhine\", 11 July 1866 – 11 November 1953) was the third child and third daughter of Princess Alice of the United Kingdom and Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine. Her maternal grandparents were Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Her paternal grandparents were Prince Charles of Hesse and by Rhine and Princess Elizabeth of Prussia. She was the wife of Prince Henry of Prussia, a younger brother of Wilhelm II, German Emperor and her first cousin. The SS \"Prinzessin Irene\", a liner of the North German Lloyd was named after her.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974773}
{"src_title": "Hôtel de Crillon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The building that is now the hotel was constructed in 1758, after King Louis XV commissioned the architect Ange-Jacques Gabriel to build two neoclassical palaces in what would become the Place de la Concorde. The two identical buildings, separated by the rue Royale, were initially designed to be offices of the French state. The eastern building, Hôtel de la Marine, housed the headquarters of the French Navy until 2015. The western building that would become the Hôtel de Crillon was first occupied by Louis Marie Augustin, Duke of Aurmont, a famous patron of the arts. The building was further enhanced by its second owner, the architect Louis-François Trouard, who had the Salon de Aigles built in 1775.  On 6 February 1778, the building was the venue where the newly founded United States and France signed their first treaties. Americans Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane and Arthur Lee met French diplomat Conrad Alexandre Gérard de Rayneval to conclude the French-American treaty that recognised the Declaration of Independence of the United States and a trade agreement.  In 1788, François Félix de Crillon (son of Louis de Crillon, Duke of Crillon) acquired the building for his home. However, the government of the French Revolution confiscated the property in 1791. During this period, the home was used by King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette. Two years later in 1793, King Louis XVI as well as Queen Marie Antoinette were guillotined in the Place de la Concorde directly in front of the building.  Eventually, the building was returned to the Crillon family, whose descendants lived there for more than a century until 1904. In 1907, the Société du Louvre purchased the property and transformed it into a hotel. The building then underwent a two-year refurbishment under the supervision of architect Walter-André Destailleur. This included the purchase of two neighbouring buildings on the rue Boissy d'Anglas to enlarge the property. The new Hôtel de Crillon opened on 12 March 1909.  The hotel housed members of the American delegation to the Paris Peace Conference after World War I, including President Wilson’s key advisor, Edward House.  From 1992 to 2012, the hotel was the venue of the \"Bal des débutantes\", an annual fashion event which was cited by \"Forbes\" in 2005 as one of the world's ten best parties. The hotel has been visited by many notable figures over the years, including Theodore Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, Madonna and Taylor Swift.  In March 2013, Hôtel de Crillon closed for a series of renovations led by Aline Asmar d'Amman. This project was designed to renovate and modernize the space. The renovation combined the hotel's protected landmark features, such as the 19th-century grand staircase and saloons, with modern styles and amenities. Tristan Auer, Chahan Minassian, Cyril Vergniol and Karl Lagerfeld worked alongside d'Amman on this €200 million euro project. Karl Lagerfeld designed \"Les Grands Apartements\", the most extravagant suites on the property. The 2013 renovations lasted until July 2017..", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ownership.", "content": "Until 2005, through Concorde Hotels & Resorts, the Hôtel de Crillon was part of the Société du Louvre (whose shares were listed on the Paris Stock Exchange) and was controlled by the Taittinger family holding company. The Starwood Capital Group bought the hotel from the former Taittinger group in 2005.  On 1 November 2010, \"Le Figaro\" reported that a sale was in final negotiations to a Saudi group related to the Saudi Arabian royal family. On 23 November 2010, Starwood announced the sale of the hotel to a Saudi Arabian royal family member, Prince Mutaib bin Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al Saud.  In December 2013, Rosewood Hotels & Resorts announced that it would manage the property, which reopened on 5 July 2017.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hôtel de Crillon () is a historic luxury hotel in Paris which opened in 1909 in a building dating to 1758. Located at the foot of the Champs-Élysées, the Crillon along with the Hôtel de la Marine is one of two identical stone palaces on the Place de la Concorde. It has been listed since 1900 as a \"monument historique\" by the French Ministry of Culture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974774}
{"src_title": "Crates of Thebes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Crates was born c. 365 BC in Thebes. He was the son of Ascondus, and was the heir to a large fortune, which he is said to have renounced to live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. Diogenes Laërtius preserves several different accounts of this story; one of them has Crates giving his money away to the citizens of Thebes, apparently after seeing the beggar king Telephus in a tragedy; whereas another account has him placing his money in the hands of a banker, with the agreement that he should deliver it to his sons, unless they too became philosophers, in which case he should distribute it among the poor.  He moved to Athens where tradition says he became a pupil of Diogenes of Sinope; the precise relationship between Crates and Diogenes is uncertain, but there is one apparent reference to Crates referring to himself as \"a fellow-citizen of Diogenes, who defied all the plots of envy\". Crates is also described as being the student of Bryson the Achaean, and of Stilpo. He lived a life of cheerful simplicity, and Plutarch, who wrote a detailed biography of Crates which unfortunately does not survive, records what sort of man Crates was:  He is said to have been deformed with a lame leg and hunched shoulders. He was nicknamed the Door-Opener () because he would enter any house and people would receive him gladly and with honour:  He attracted the attentions of Hipparchia of Maroneia, the sister of one of Crates' students, Metrocles. Hipparchia is said to have fallen in love with Crates and with his life and teachings, and thus rejecting her wealthy upbringing in a manner similar to Crates, she married him. The marriage was remarkable (for ancient Athens) for being based on mutual respect and equality between the couple. Stories about Hipparchia appearing in public everywhere with Crates are mentioned precisely because respectable women did not behave in that way, and as part of Cynic shamelessness, they had sexual intercourse in public. They had at least two children, a girl, and a boy named Pasicles. We learn that Crates is supposed to have initiated his son into sex by taking him to a brothel, and he allowed his daughter a month's trial marriage to potential suitors.  He was the teacher of Zeno of Citium in the last years of the century, and was undoubtedly the biggest influence on Zeno in his development of Stoic philosophy. Zeno always regarded Crates with the greatest respect, and some of the accounts we have of Crates have probably come down to us via Zeno's writings. His other pupils included Metrocles, Monimus, Menippus, Cleomenes, Theombrotus, and Crates' brother Pasicles. He may also have taught Cleanthes, Zeno's successor as head of the Stoic school.  Crates was, apparently, in Thebes in 307 BC, when Demetrius Phalereus was exiled there. He is said to have died at a great age (c. 285 BC), and was buried in Boeotia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Crates wrote a book of letters on philosophical subjects, the style of which is compared by Diogenes Laërtius to that of Plato; but these no longer survive. There are 36 surviving \"Cynic epistles\" attributed to Crates, but these are later, 1st-century, compositions. Crates was also the author of some philosophical tragedies, and some smaller poems apparently called \"Games\" (, \"Paignia\"). Several fragments of his thought survive. He taught a simple asceticism, which seems to have been milder than that of his predecessor Diogenes: Some of his philosophical writings were infused with humour, in the form of spoudaiogeloion. He urged people not to prefer anything but lentils in their meals, because luxury and extravagance were the chief causes of seditions and insurrections in a city. This jest would later be the cause of much satire, as in book 4 of Athenaeus' \"Deipnosophistae\" where a group of Cynics sit down for a meal and are served course after course of lentil soup.  One of his poems parodied a famous hymn to the Muses written by Solon. But whereas Solon wished for prosperity, reputation, and \"justly acquired possessions,\" Crates had typically Cynic desires:  There are also several fragments surviving of a poem Crates wrote describing the ideal Cynic state which begins by parodying Homer's description of Crete. Crates' city is called \"Pera\", which in Greek refers to the beggar's wallet which every Cynic carried:  The word \"tuphos\" () in the first line, is one of the first known Cynic uses of a word which literally means mist or smoke. It was used by the Cynics to describe the mental confusion which most people are wrapped-up in. The Cynics sought to clear away this fog and to see the world as it really is.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later cultural references.", "content": "The relationship between Crates and Hipparchia became the subject of a number of fictional accounts, such as the play \"Spozalizio d' Ipparchia filosofa\", written by Italian nun Clemenza Ninci in the 17th century, or Christoph Martin Wieland's novel \"Krates und Hipparchia\" (1804). A fictional biography of Crates was written by French author Marcel Schwob in his 1896 work \"Vies imaginaires\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Crates (; c. 365 – c. 285 BC) of Thebes was a Cynic philosopher. Crates gave away his money to live a life of poverty on the streets of Athens. He married Hipparchia of Maroneia who lived in the same manner that he did. Respected by the people of Athens, he is remembered for being the teacher of Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism. Various fragments of Crates' teachings survive, including his description of the ideal Cynic state.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974775}
{"src_title": "Silke Spiegelburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "She won the pole vault at the 2001 World Youth Championships with a height of 4.00 metres. She reached the final of the event at the 2002 World Junior Championships in Athletics the following year, but managed only eighth place. Success came at the 2003 European Athletics Junior Championships, however, as she took the gold medal with a clearance of 4.15 m. She made her Olympic debut the following year at the 2004 Athens Games and qualified for the final with a vault of 4.40 m, but she did not reach that height in the final round and ended the competition in thirteenth place. She set a world junior record mark in the pole vault in August 2005, clearing 4.48 m in Münster.  Spiegelburg reached the final at the 2006 IAAF World Indoor Championships and went on to finish sixth in the pole vault final at the 2006 European Athletics Championships in Gothenburg. She twice achieved marks of 4.56 m on the European circuit that season and came sixth at the end of year 2006 IAAF World Athletics Final. In 2007, she improved her indoor best to 4.50 m and came fifth at the 2007 European Athletics Indoor Championships. She also made her debut at the 2007 World Championships in Athletics, but did not get past the qualifying stage. She ended the year with a personal best of 4.60 m at the 2007 IAAF World Athletics Final.  Her 2008 was somewhat of a breakthrough as she reached 4.70 m for the first time in July 2008 at the Golden Gala. This ranked her joint second among German pole vaulters, behind Annika Becker, and tied with Yvonne Buschbaum. She came seventh at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and equalled her outdoor best at the 2008 IAAF World Athletics Final to take the gold medal.  She claimed her first medal at continental level at the 2009 European Athletics Indoor Championships – she was runner-up on countback to Yuliya Golubchikova but took the silver medal with a German indoor record mark of 4.75 m. She won the bronze medal at the 2009 European Team Championships in June and went on to claim the national pole vault title at the 2009 German Athletics Championships the following month. This gained her a berth at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics, where she cleared 4.65 m – the second highest performance – but ended up in fourth place by merit of countback. She equalled her outdoor best of 4.70 m at the Memorial van Damme, taking third place, but managed only sixth at the 2009 IAAF World Athletics Final.  In the 2010 outdoor season Spiegelburg started with a win at the Qatar Athletic Super Grand Prix – the first stop on the inaugural 2010 IAAF Diamond League. She was narrowly defeated by Svetlana Feofanova at the 2010 European Team Championships, but then beat Lisa Ryzih to claim another national title at the German Championships. She was behind Feofanova at the 2010 European Athletics Championships, but was also ahead of Ryzih, and she left the competition with a European silver medal. She also improved her outdoor best to 4.71 m that season.  She started her 2011 season well with a new national indoor record of 4.76 m at the BW-Bank Meeting in Karlsruhe. At the 2011 European Team Championship she improved her outdoor personal best to 4.75 metres.  At the Diamond League Meeting in Monaco (20 July 2012) she jumped 4,82 metres breaking the German Record.  At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London (XXX Olympic Games) she finished in 4th position with 4.65 metres (6 August 2012).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Silke Spiegelburg (born 17 March 1986 in Georgsmarienhütte, Lower Saxony) is a German pole vaulter. She is the younger sister of Richard Spiegelburg. She represented Germany at the Summer Olympics in 2004, 2008 and 2012, as well as having competed at the World Championships in Athletics. She is a European silver medallist in the event both indoors and outdoors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974776}
{"src_title": "Salix babylonica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Salix babylonica\" is a medium- to large-sized deciduous tree, growing up to tall. It grows rapidly, but has a short lifespan, between 40 and 75 years. The shoots are yellowish-brown, with small buds. The leaves are alternate and spirally arranged, narrow, light green, 4–16 cm long and 0.5–2 cm broad, with finely serrate margins and long acuminate tips; they turn a gold-yellow in autumn. The flowers are arranged in catkins produced early in the spring; it is dioecious, with the male and female catkins on separate trees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Salix babylonica\" was described and named scientifically by Carolus Linnaeus in 1736, who knew the species as the pendulous-branched (\"weeping\") variant then recently introduced into the Clifford garden in Hartekamp in The Netherlands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Horticultural selections and related hybrids.", "content": "Early Chinese cultivar selections include the original weeping willow, \"Salix babylonica\" 'Pendula', in which the branches and twigs are strongly pendulous, which was presumably spread along ancient trade routes. These distinctive trees were subsequently introduced into England from Aleppo in northern Syria in 1730, and have rapidly become naturalised, growing well along rivers and in parks. These plants are all females, readily propagated vegetatively, and capable of hybridizing with various other kinds of willows, but not breeding true from seed. This type of tree is grown very easily through plant propagation.  Two cultivated hybrids between pendulous \"Salix babylonica\" and other species of \"Salix\" willows also have pendulous branchlets, and are more commonly planted than \"S. babylonica\" itself:  Cultivars derived from either of these hybrids are generally better adapted than \"S. babylonica\" to the more humid climates of most heavily populated regions of Europe and North America.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relation to \"Salix matsudana\".", "content": "A similar willow species also native to northern China, \"Salix matsudana\" (Chinese willow), is now included in \"Salix babylonica\" as a synonym by many botanists, including the Russian willow expert Alexey Skvortsov. The only reported difference between the two species is \"S. matsudana\" has two nectaries in each female flower, whereas \"S. babylonica\" has only one; however, this character is variable in many willows (for example, crack willow, \"Salix fragilis\", can have either one or two), so even this difference may not be taxonomically significant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"S. babylonica,\" especially its pendulous-branched (\"weeping\") form, has been introduced into many other areas, including Europe and the southeastern United States, but beyond China, it has not generally been as successfully cultivated as some of its hybrid derivatives, being sensitive to late-spring frosts. In the more humid climates of much of Europe and eastern North America, it is susceptible to a canker disease, willow anthracnose (\"Marssonina salicicola\"), which makes infected trees very short-lived and unsightly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "\"Salix babylonica\" (Babylon willow) has many cultivars, including:  Various cultivars of \"Salix matsudana\" (Chinese willow) are now often included within \"Salix babylonica\", treated more broadly, including:  Yet other weeping willow cultivars are derived from interspecific \"Salix\" hybrids, including \"S. babylonica\" in their parentage. The most widely grown weeping willow cultivar is \"Salix × sepulcralis\" 'Chrysocoma', with bright yellowish branchlets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Peking willow is a popular ornamental tree in northern China, and is also grown for wood production and shelterbelts there, being particularly important around the oases of the Gobi Desert, protecting agricultural land from desert winds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin: China, not Babylon.", "content": "The epithet \"babylonica\" in this Chinese species' scientific name \"(S. babylonica),\" as well as the related common names \"Babylon willow\" or \"Babylon weeping willow\", derive from a misunderstanding by Linnaeus that this willow was the tree described in the \"Bible\" in the opening of Psalm 137 (here in Latin and English translations):  Despite these Biblical references to \"willows\", whether in Latin or English, the trees growing in Babylon along the Euphrates River in ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and named \"gharab\" in early Hebrew, are not willows (\"Salix\") in either the modern or the classical sense, but the Euphrates poplar \"(Populus euphratica),\" with willow-like leaves on long, drooping shoots, in the related genus \"Populus.\" Both \"Populus\" and \"Salix\" are in the plant family Salicaceae, the willow family.  These Babylonian trees are correctly called poplars, not willows, in the New International Version of the \"Bible\" (English, 1978):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salix babylonica (Babylon willow or weeping willow; ) is a species of willow native to dry areas of northern China, but cultivated for millennia elsewhere in Asia, being traded along the Silk Road to southwest Asia and Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974777}
{"src_title": "Felix of Cantalice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Felix was the third of four sons born to Santi and Santa Porri. They were poor farmers. At about the age of ten, Felix was hired out first as a shepherd to a family at Cittàducale, where he later worked as a farm hand. Until the age of twenty-eight he worked as a farm laborer and shepherd. He developed the habit of praying while he worked. Toward the end of autumn 1543, Felix entered the newly founded Capuchin friars as a lay brother at the Citta Ducale friary in the municipality of Anticoli Corrado. It is said that he was well noted for his piety. In 1547 he was sent to Rome as quaestor of the Capuchin Friary of St. Bonaventure, where he spent his remaining 40 years begging alms to help in the friars' work of aiding the sick and the poor.  In Rome, Brother Felix became a familiar sight, wandering barefoot through the streets, with a sack slung over his shoulders, knocking on doors to seek donations. He received permission from his superiors to help the needy, especially widows with many children. It is said that his begging sack was as bottomless as his heart. Brother Felix blessed all benefactors and all those he met with a humble “Deo Gratias!” (thanks be to God!), causing many to refer to him as “Brother Deo Gratias\". Felix was so successful in his work that during the famine of 1580, the political leader of Rome asked the Capuchins if they would 'lend' Felix to them so he could collect food and provisions for the entire city. The Capuchins agreed and Felix embraced his new task. He preached in the street, rebuked corrupt politicians and officials, and exhorted young men to stop leading dissolute lives. He also composed simple teaching canticles, and arranged for children to gather in groups to sing them as a way to teach them the catechism.  The plain-spoken Brother Felix was a good friend of St. Philip Neri and an acquaintance of Charles Borromeo. Felix developed a reputation as a healer. As he got older, his superior ordered him to wear sandals to protect his health. Cardinal Santori had offered to use his influence to have the elderly Felix relieved of the difficult task of questing, but Felix refused.  Felix died in Rome in 1587 on his 72nd birthday and was buried in the crypt of the Church of Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "He was beatified on 1 October 1625 by Pope Urban VIII and canonized on 22 May 1712 by Pope Clement XI. He was the first Capuchin friar in the history of the Order to be canonized. His feast day is celebrated on the Calendar of Saints of the Franciscan Order on May 18.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Iconography.", "content": "Felix is usually represented in art as holding in his arms the Infant Jesus, because of a vision he is said to have had, when the Blessed Virgin appeared to him and placed the Divine Child in his arms. Pope John Paul II observed that Felix is \"shown bearing the Infant Jesus in his arms because in bearing the burdens of the needy he had carried in his arms the poor Christ himself.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "A titular church in Rome is erected in his honor, the Church of San Felice da Cantalice a Centocelle.  In 19th-century Poland, the Felician Sisters, a religious congregation of Franciscan Sisters of the Third Order Regular, was founded to care for the poor and adopted him as their patron saint.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Felix of Cantalice, O.F.M. Cap. (), was born on 18 May 1515 to peasant parents in Cantalice, Italy, in the central Italian region of Lazio. Canonized by Pope Clement XI in 1712, he was the first Capuchin friar to be named a saint.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974778}
{"src_title": "Zea (plant)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Zea is derived from the Greek name (ζειά) for another cereal grain (possibly spelt).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognized species.", "content": "The five accepted species names in the genus are:  \"Zea mays\" is further divided into four subspecies: \"Z. m. huehuetenangensis\", \"Z. m. mexicana\", \"Z. m. parviglumis\", and \"Z. m. mays\". The first three subspecies are teosintes; the last is maize, or corn, the only domesticated taxon in the genus \"Zea\".  The genus is divided into two sections: \"Luxuriantes\", with \"Z. diploperennis\", \"Z. luxurians\", \"Z. nicaraguensis\", \"Z. perennis\"; and \"Zea\" with \"Z. mays\". The former section is typified by dark-staining knobs made up of heterochromatin that are terminal on most chromosome arms, while most subspecies of section \"Zea\" may have none to three knobs between each chromosome end and the centromere and very few terminal knobs (except \"Z. m. huehuetenangensis\", which has many large terminal knobs).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Both annual and perennial teosinte species occur. \"Z. diploperennis\" and \"Z. perennis\" are perennial, while all other species are annual. All species are diploid (n=10) with the exception of \"Z. perennis\", which is tetraploid (n=20). The different species and subspecies of teosinte can be readily distinguished based on morphological, cytogenetic, protein, and DNA differences and on geographic origin. The two perennials are sympatric and very similar and some consider them to be one species. What many consider to be the most puzzling teosinte is \"Z. m. huehuetenangensis\", which combines a morphology rather like \"Z. m. parviglumis\" with many terminal chromosome knobs and an isozyme position between the two sections. Considered to be phenotypically the most distinctive, as well as the most threatened, teosinte is \"Zea nicaraguensis\". This teosinte thrives in flooded conditions along 200 m of a coastal estuarine river in northwest Nicaragua.  Teosintes strongly resemble maize in many ways, notably their tassel (male inflorescence) morphology. Teosintes are distinguished from maize most obviously by their numerous branches each bearing bunches of distinctive, small female inflorescences. These spikes mature to form a two-ranked 'ear' of five to 10 triangular or trapezoidal, black or brown disarticulating segments, each with one seed. Each seed is enclosed by a very hard fruitcase, consisting of a cupule or depression in the rachis and a tough lower glume. This protects them from the digestive processes of ruminants that forage on teosinte and aid in seed distribution through their droppings. Teosinte seed exhibits some resistance to germination, but will quickly germinate if treated with a dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin of maize and interaction with teosintes.", "content": "Teosintes are critical components of maize evolution, but opinions vary about which taxa were involved. According to the most widely held evolutionary model, the crop was derived directly from \"Z. m. parviglumis\" by selection of key mutations; but in some varieties up to 20% of its genetic material came from \"Z. m. mexicana\" through introgression.  All but the Nicaraguan species of teosinte may grow in or very near corn fields, providing opportunities for introgression between teosinte and maize. First, and later-generation hybrids are often found in the fields, but the rate of gene exchange is quite low. Some populations of \"Z. m. mexicana\" display Vavilovian mimicry within cultivated maize fields, having evolved a maize-like form as a result of the farmers' selective weeding pressure. In some areas of Mexico, teosintes are regarded by maize farmers as a noxious weed, while in a few areas, farmers regard it as a beneficial companion plant, and encourage its introgression into their maize.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early dispersal of maize in the Americas.", "content": "According to Matsuoka et al., the available early maize gene pool can be divided into three clusters:  Also, some other intermediate genomes, or admixtures of these clusters occur.  According to these authors, \"The maize of the Andes Mountains with its distinctive hand grenade-shaped ears was derived from the maize of lowland South America, which in turn came from maize of the lowlands of Guatemala and southern Mexico.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Zea\" species are used as food plants by the larvae (caterpillars) of some Lepidoptera species including (in the Americas) the fall armyworm (\"Spodoptera frugiperda\"), the corn earworm (\"Helicoverpa zea\"), and the stem borers \"Diatraea\" and \"Chilo\"; in the Old World, it is attacked by the double-striped pug, the cutworms heart and club and heart and dart, \"Hypercompe indecisa\", the rustic shoulder-knot, the setaceous Hebrew character and turnip moths, and the European corn borer (\"Ostrinia nubilalis\"), among many others.  Virtually all populations of teosintes are either threatened or endangered: \"Z. diploperennis\" exists in an area of only a few square miles; \"Z. nicaraguensis\" survives as about 6000 plants in an area of 200 × 150 m. The Mexican and Nicaraguan governments have taken action in recent years to protect wild teosinte populations, using both \"in situ\" and \"ex situ\" conservation methods. Currently, a large amount of scientific interest exists in conferring beneficial teosinte traits, such as nitrogen fixation, insect resistance, perennialism, and flood tolerance, to cultivated maize lines, although this is very difficult due to linked deleterious teosinte traits.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zea is a genus of flowering plants in the grass family. The best-known species is \"Z. mays\" (variously called maize, corn, or Indian corn), one of the most important crops for human societies throughout much of the world. Several wild species are commonly known as teosintes and are native to Mesoamerica.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974779}
{"src_title": "The Movies", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"The Movies\" allows players to run their own movie studio, including designing the studio itself and managing the careers of film stars. The game starts at the birth of cinema and continues into the future.  Players can create their own movies using in-game assets and at one time could upload them to the website The Movies Online.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Lionhead Studios co-founder Peter Molyneux came up with the original idea and development began in February 2002. An early version of the game was ready to show to journalists at the European Computer Trade Show in September 2002.  The game was released in November 2005 and by the end of the year had sold above 50,000 copies in the United Kingdom, a number that Eurogamer's Kristan Reed called \"relatively minor\". The game ultimately received a \"Silver\" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Stunts and Effects\".", "content": "In June 2006, Lionhead studios released the expansion pack \"The Movies: Stunts and Effects\". Feral Interactive ported the expansion to Mac OS in 2008. The expansion added stunts and stuntmen, new special effects, fewer camera placement restrictions, and expanded environments and clothing options.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The BAFTA nominated Soundtrack for the game was composed by Daniel Pemberton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in Machinima.", "content": "Using \"The Movies\", Alex Chan, a French resident with no previous filmmaking experience, took four days to create \"The French Democracy\", a short machinima political film about the 2005 civil unrest in France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Review aggregator Metacritic gave the PC version a score of 84 out of 100 (\"Generally favorable reviews\") based on 62 reviews from critics. The first review was published by GameSpy, which gave the game a 3.5 out of 5. Metacritic gave the expansion, \"The Movies: Stunts & Effects\", a score of 78 out of 100 based on 37 reviews from critics.  \"Computer Games Magazine\" gave \"The Movies\" their 2005 \"Best Utility\" and \"Best Original Music\" awards. The game won the best simulation award at the 2006 BAFTA Video Games Awards  Looking back at the game in 2015, Rock, Paper, Shotgun said that it had promising features but failed to deliver on them. In 2016, The Guardian called The Movies Online service \"[p]erhaps the most forward-thinking feature\" because it pre-dated YouTube by a year.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Movies is a business simulation game created by Lionhead Studios for Microsoft Windows and subsequently ported to Mac OS X by Feral Interactive. Players run a Hollywood film studio, creating films that can be exported from the game. \"The Movies\" was released in November 2005 to positive reviews, including several awards, but sold poorly. An expansion, \"\", was released in 2006.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974780}
{"src_title": "Juniperus virginiana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Juniperus virginiana\" is a dense slow-growing coniferous evergreen tree that may never become more than a bush on poor soil, but is ordinarily from tall, with a short trunk in diameter (rarely to in height, and in diameter. The oldest tree reported, from West Virginia, was 940 years old. The bark is reddish-brown, fibrous, and peels off in narrow strips. The leaves are of two types; sharp, spreading needle-like juvenile leaves long, and tightly adpressed scale-like adult leaves long; they are arranged in opposite decussate pairs or occasionally whorls of three. The juvenile leaves are found on young plants up to 3 years old, and as scattered shoots on adult trees, usually in shade. The seed cones are long, berry-like, dark purple-blue with a white wax cover giving an overall sky-blue color (though the wax often rubs off); they contain one to three (rarely up to four) seeds, and are mature in 6–8 months from pollination. The juniper berry is an important winter food for many birds, which disperse the wingless seeds. The pollen cones are long and broad, shedding pollen in late winter or early spring. The trees are usually dioecious, with pollen and seed cones on separate trees.  There are two varieties, which intergrade where they meet:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Eastern juniper is a pioneer species, which means that it is one of the first trees to repopulate cleared, eroded, or otherwise damaged land. It is unusually long lived among pioneer species, with the potential to live over 900 years. It is commonly found in prairies or oak barrens, old pastures, or limestone hills, often along highways and near recent construction sites. It is an alternate host for cedar–apple rust, an economically significant fungal disease of apples, and some management strategies recommend the removal of \"J. virginiana\" near apple orchards  In many areas it is considered an invasive species, even if native. It is fire-intolerant, and was previously controlled by periodic wildfires. Low branches near the ground burn and provide a ladder that allows fire to engulf the whole tree. Grasses recover quickly from low severity fires that are characteristic of prairies that kept the trees at bay. With the urbanization of prairies, the fires have been stopped with roads, plowed fields, and other fire breaks, allowing \"J. virginiana\" and other trees to invade. Trees are destructive to grasslands if left unchecked, and are actively being eliminated by cutting and prescribed burning. The trees also burn very readily, and dense populations were blamed for the rapid spread of wildfires in drought stricken Oklahoma and Texas in 2005 and 2006.  Eastern juniper benefits from increased CO levels, unlike the grasses with which it competes. Many grasses are C4 plants that concentrate CO levels in their bundle sheaths to increase the efficiency of RuBisCO, the enzyme responsible for photosynthesis, while junipers are C3 plants that rely on (and may benefit from) the natural CO concentrations of the environment, although they are less efficient at fixing CO in general.  Damage done by \"J. virginiana\" includes outcompeting forage species in pastureland. The low branches and wide base occupy a significant portion of land area. The thick foliage blocks out most light, so few plants can live under the canopy. However, studies have found that \"Juniperus virginiana\" forests that replace grasslands have a statistically insignificant decrease to a significant increase in levels of soil nitrogen. \"J. virginiana\" forests have higher overall nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), despite the common grassland species \"Andropogon gerardi\" having a far higher NUE during photosynthesis (PNUE). The forests store much greater amounts of carbon in both biomass and soil, with most of the additional carbon stored aboveground. There is no significant difference in soil microbial activity.  Cedar waxwings are fond of the \"berries\" of these junipers. It takes about 12 minutes for their seeds to pass through the birds' guts, and seeds that have been consumed by this bird have levels of germination roughly three times higher than those of seeds the birds did not eat. Many other birds (from bluebirds to turkeys) and many mammals also consume them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The fine-grained, soft brittle pinkish- to brownish-red heartwood is fragrant, very light and very durable, even in contact with soil. Because of its rot resistance, the wood is used for fence posts. The aromatic wood is avoided by moths, so it is in demand as lining for clothes chests and closets, often referred to as cedar closets and cedar chests. If correctly prepared, it makes excellent English longbows, flatbows, and Native American sinew-backed bows. The wood is marketed as \"eastern redcedar\" or \"aromatic cedar\". The best portions of the heartwood are one of the few woods good for making pencils, but the supply had diminished sufficiently by the 1940s that it was largely replaced by incense-cedar.  Juniper oil is distilled from the wood, twigs and leaves. The essential oil contains cedrol which has toxic and possibly carcinogenic properties. The cones are used to flavor gin.  Native American tribes have historically used juniper wood poles to mark out agreed tribal hunting territories. French traders named Baton Rouge, Louisiana, (meaning \"red stick\") from the reddish color of these poles. It is still used in ceremony by some Nations.  The Cahokia Woodhenge series of timber circles built by the precolumbian Mississippian culture in western Illinois was constructed using massive red cedar logs. One version of the circle, \"Woodhenge III\"(thought to have been constructed in approximately 1000 CE), had 48 posts in the diameter circle and a 49th pole in the center.  Among many Native American cultures, the smoke of the burning cedar is used to drive away evil spirits prior to conducting a ceremony, such as a healing ceremony.  During the Dust Bowl drought of the 1930s, the Prairie States Forest Project encouraged farmers to plant shelterbelts (wind breaks) made of \"Juniperus virginiana\" throughout the Great Plains. They thrive under adverse conditions – both drought tolerant and cold tolerant, they grow well in rocky, sandy, and clay substrates. Competition between trees is minimal, so they can be planted in tightly spaced rows, and the trees still grow to full height, creating a solid windbreak in a short time.  A number of cultivars have been selected for garden planting, including 'Canaertii' (narrow conical; female) 'Corcorcor' (with a dense, erect crown; female), 'Goldspire' (narrow conical with yellow foliage), and 'Kobold' (dwarf). Some cultivars previously listed under this species, notably 'Skyrocket', are actually cultivars of \"J. scopulorum\".  In the Missouri, Oklahoma and Arkansas Ozarks, eastern juniper is commonly used as a Christmas tree.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Allergen.", "content": "The pollen is a known allergen, although not as potent as that of the related \"Juniperus ashei\" (Ashe juniper), which sheds pollen a month earlier. People allergic to one are usually allergic to both. \"J. virginiana\" sheds pollen as early as late winter and through early spring. Consequently, what begins as an allergy to Ashe juniper in the winter may extend into spring, since the pollination of the eastern juniper follows that of the Ashe juniper.  Contact with the leaves or wood can produce a mild skin rash in some individuals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Juniperus virginiana, known as red cedar, eastern redcedar, Virginian juniper, eastern juniper, red juniper, pencil cedar, and aromatic cedar, is a species of juniper native to eastern North America from southeastern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and east of the Great Plains. Further west it is replaced by the related \"Juniperus scopulorum\" (Rocky Mountain juniper) and to the southwest by \"Juniperus ashei\" (Ashe juniper).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974781}
{"src_title": "Candace Cameron Bure", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Candace Helaine Cameron was born in Panorama City, Los Angeles, California on April 6, 1976, to Robert and Barbara Cameron.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Bure guest-starred in roles on shows such as \"St. Elsewhere\", \"Growing Pains\", and \"Who's the Boss?\" (Among the roles for which she auditioned was the lead on \"Small Wonder\", which ultimately went to Tiffany Brissette.) In a 1985 episode of the sitcom \"Punky Brewster\", Cameron portrayed a girl named Jennifer Bates who had been kidnapped by her father. In 1987, she had a role as the youngest sister of Eric Stoltz in the teen comedy \"Some Kind of Wonderful\".  Bure began the most prominent role of her career in 1987 on the ensemble sitcom \"Full House\", as Donna Jo \"D.J.\" Tanner, the oldest daughter. The long-running series ended in 1995, and she was a member of the cast during its entire run.  While on \"Full House\", she was also featured in the made-for-TV movies \"No One Would Tell\", playing an abused teen; \"She Cried No\", as a date-raped teen; \"NightScream\", a mystery; and \"Camp Cucamonga\", an adventure comedy. Cameron guest-starred in the failed pilot \"Real Mature\", and in an episode of \"Bill Nye The Science Guy\" as \"Candace the Science Gal\". She also appeared in the Tom Hanks and Sally Field feature film \"Punchline\".  Bure hosted the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards in 1990 with her \"Full House\" co-star Dave Coulier and David Faustino, and again in 1994 with Joey Lawrence and Marc Weiner, becoming the first person to host twice or more (followed by Whitney Houston, Rosie O'Donnell, and Jack Black).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After \"Full House\".", "content": "After \"Full House\" ended in 1995, Bure guest-starred on \"Cybill\" and \"Boy Meets World\".  After the birth of her children, she took a self-imposed hiatus from television and film to devote her time to her family and children. In the 2000s, she appeared as an interviewee on the retrospective \"I Love the '80s\" and \"I Love the '80s Strikes Back\". She would later co-host \"50 Cutest Child Stars: All Grown Up\" on the E! network, along with Keshia Knight Pulliam of \"The Cosby Show\" fame.  In 2007, she guest-starred on the sitcom \"That's So Raven\". The following year, she co-starred with Randy Travis in \"The Wager\" and starred with Tom Arnold in the television movie \"Moonlight and Mistletoe\" for the Hallmark Channel in 2008. Cameron returned to a television series in 2009 and was cast in \"Make It or Break It\", The series ended in 2012.  On March 4, 2014, she was announced as one of the celebrities to compete on season 18 of \"Dancing with the Stars\". Her professional partner was Mark Ballas. The couple made it to the finals and ultimately ended in third place behind Amy Purdy and Meryl Davis who took second and first place, respectively.  It was announced in 2015 that Bure would reprise her role as D.J. Tanner in the 2016 Netflix spinoff \"Fuller House\", her character now going by D.J. Tanner-Fuller. Filming began that July 2015. The following month, it was announced that Bure would become a co-host of \"The View\", starting with season 19. In March 2016, \"Fuller House\" was picked up for a second season. ABC also announced in August 2016 that Bure would return as a co-host of \"The View\" for season 20. On December 8, 2016, Bure announced that she was leaving \"The View\" due to commitments with \"Fuller House\" and Hallmark Channel projects, and the bi-coastal commutes being tough on both her and her family. In January 2019, \"Fuller House\" was renewed for its fifth and final season to air later that year. The series concluded on June 2, 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hallmark.", "content": "Bure has added the title of executive producer to her many television credits. While she has acted in a number of Hallmark channel movies, including the 2017 \"Switched for Christmas\", she is producing a one-hour Christmas special called \"Christmas in America\". The special will feature people all over America as they celebrate, take part in outdoor festivals, Christmas light festivities, and more. With her daughter Natasha, she will serve as the host of the 26th annual Movieguide Awards for the network on February 8, 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "Cameron Bure has written four books: \"Reshaping It All: Motivation for Physical and Spiritual Fitness\" (), published in January 2011, which was a \"New York Times\" best seller; \"Balancing It All: My Story of Juggling Priorities and Purpose\" (), published in January 2014; \"Dancing Through Life: Steps of Courage and Conviction\" (), published in August 2015; and \"Kind is the New Classy: The Power of Living Graciously\" (), published in April 2018.  In a September 2015 interview, Bure said that \"Dancing Through Life\" reveals more personal issues than her first two books, and in an April 2018 interview she shares that \"Kind Is the New Classy\" is a practical guide to the thought patterns and practices that have helped her stay centered in who she is while practicing graciousness toward others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Cameron married Russian NHL hockey player Valeri Bure on June 22, 1996. The couple was first introduced at a charity hockey game by her \"Full House\" co-star Dave Coulier. They have three children: a daughter, Natasha (born 1998), and two sons (born 2000 and 2002). Her daughter Natasha Bure competed in season 11 of \"The Voice\" at the age of 18. Her brother-in-law is hockey hall of famer Pavel Bure.  Bure is a conservative Republican. She became a Christian at the age of 12, and she credits her faith as the binding force in her marriage. She has revealed she suffered from bulimia nervosa in her early twenties.  Bure is a supporter of Compassion International. The Bure family sponsor three children through the organization.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Candace Cameron Bure (; born Candace Helaine Cameron; April 6, 1976) is an American actress, producer, author, and talk show panelist. She is known for her role as D.J. Tanner on \"Full House\", which she reprised as D.J. Tanner-Fuller on \"Fuller House\". She is also known for her work with Hallmark Channel, playing the title character in Hallmark Channel's film adaptation of the Aurora Teagarden novel series, as well having starred in many of their holiday films.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974782}
{"src_title": "Rudbeckia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name was given by Carolus Linnaeus to honor his patron and fellow botanist at Uppsala University, Olof Rudbeck the Younger (1660-1740), as well as Rudbeck's late father Olof Rudbeck the Elder (1630-1702), a distinguished Naturalist, Philologist, and Doctor of Medicine (he had discovered the lymphatic system), and founder of Sweden's first botanic garden, now the Linnaean Garden at Uppsala. In 1730 Linnaeus had been invited into the home of the younger Rudbeck (now almost 70) as tutor his youngest children. Rudbeck had then recommended Linnaeus to replace him as a lecturer at the university and as the botanical garden demonstrator, even though Linnaeus was only in his second year of studies. In his book \"The Compleat Naturalist: A Life of Linnaeus\", Wilfred Blunt quotes Linnaeus's dedication: So long as the earth shall survive and as each spring shall see it covered with flowers, the Rudbeckia will preserve your glorious name. I have chosen a \"noble\" plant in order to recall your merits and the services you have rendered, a \"tall\" one to give an idea of your stature, and I wanted it to be one which branched and which flowered and fruited freely, to show that you cultivated not only the sciences but also the humanities. Its rayed flowers will bear witness that you shone among savants like the sun among the stars; its perennial roots will remind us that each year sees you live again through new works. Pride of our gardens, the Rudbeckia will be cultivated throughout Europe and in distant lands where your revered name must long have been known. Accept this plant, not for what it is but for what it will become when it bears your name.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Many species are used in prairie restorations, for ornamental use, and by livestock for forage. An abundance of these plants on a rangeland indicates good health. They are deer and rabbit resistant.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudbeckia is a plant genus in the Asteraceae or composite family. Rudbeckia flowers feature a prominent, raised central disc in black, brown shades of green, and in-between tones, giving rise to their familiar common names of coneflowers and black-eyed-susans. All are native to North America, and many species are cultivated in gardens for their showy yellow or gold flower heads that bloom in mid to late summer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974783}
{"src_title": "Baranavichy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "In the second half of the 17th century, Baranavichy housed the Jesuit mission. In the second half of the 18th century, Baranavichy was the property of Massalski and Niesiołowski families. The village was administratively part of the Nowogródek Voivodeship until the Third Partition of Poland (1795), when it was annexed by Imperial Russia. In the 19th century, it belonged to the Countess E.A. Rozwadowski. It was part of the Novogrodek (now Navahrudak) okrug, which was part of Slonim Governorate, the Lithuania Governorate, the Grodno Governorate and then the Minsk Governorate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Growth.", "content": "The town's history began on 17 (29) November 1871, the beginning of construction of a movement to the new section of the Smolensk-Brest. The name of the station arose during construction was that the nearby village, Baranavichy, whose first mention in the testament of A.E Sinyavskaya in 1627. Then, in 1871, not far from the station, the locomotive depot was built.  In 1874 was the appearance of the railway junction. In the wooden station buildings lived the railway workers of Baranavichy. The new railway linked Moscow with the western outskirts of Imperial Russia.  The impetus for more intensive settlement of the areas adjacent to the station from the south was the May 27, 1884 decision by the governor of Minsk to build a town, Rozvadovo, on the lands of the landlord, Rozwadowski. The town was built according to the governor's plan approved. In the village were 120 houses and 500 people.  The plans approved by Emperor Alexander III assumed that there would be also one railway linking Vilnius, Luninets, Pinsk and Rovno. Therefore, 2.5 km from the station, the Moscow-Brest railway crossed the track Vilnius-Rovno from Polesie railways. At the junction was another station, Baranavichy (according to Polesie Railways), which became the second centre of the city.  As before, workers and traders settled near the station. The new settlement was called New Baranavichy, unlike Rozvadovo, which became informally called Old Baranavichy. It was developed on the land owned by peasants of the villages near the new station (Svetilovichi, Gierow and Uznogi). More convenient than the landlords' land, its lease terms and proximity to administrative agencies contributed to the rapid growth of this settlement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th century.", "content": "At the beginning of World War I, Baranavichy was the location for the Stavka, the headquarters of the Russian General Staff, but after the Great Retreat of Russians from Congress Poland, it became a frontline city. It was taken by the German Empire during the Baranovichi Offensive of 25 July 1916 and was under German occupation for two years. Finally, the Germans surrendered the town to Belarusian People's Republic.  After the settlement was left by the Germans in January 1919, it was captured by the Soviets. In the early stages of the Polish–Soviet War, it was briefly captured by the Poles on 18 March 1919 and again captured, for longer, in April 1919, five months after Poland regained independence. The Russians retook it on 17 July 1920, but the Poles took it again on 30 September 1920. On 1 August 1919, it received city rights and became a powiat centre in the Polish Nowogródek Voivodeship. In 1921, Baranowicze had over 11,000 inhabitants (67% Jews, the rest being mostly Belarusians, Poles and Russians). Soon, the city started to grow and became an important centre of trade and commerce for the area. The city's Orthodox cathedral was built in the Neoclassical style in 1924 to 1931 and was decorated with mosaics that had survived the demolition of the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Warsaw. In 1930, a monument to Hungarian Lieutenant colonel Artur Buol, a hero of Polish fights in the Polish–Soviet War, was unveiled in Baranowicze. In the interbellum, grandparents and father of Polish politicians Lech Kaczyński and Jarosław Kaczyński lived in Baranowicze.  The city was also an important military garrison, with a KOP Cavalry Brigade, the 20th Infantry Division and the Nowogródzka Cavalry Brigade stationed there. Because of the fast growth of local industry, a local branch of the Polish Radio was opened in 1938. In 1939 Baranavichy had almost 30,000 inhabitants and was the biggest and the most important city in the Nowogródek Voivodeship.  After the invasion of Poland, the Soviet Union took the city on 17 September 1939, and annexed it to the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. The local Jewish population of 9,000 was joined by approximately 3,000 Jewish refugees from the Polish areas occupied by Germany. After the start of Operation Barbarossa, the city was seized by the Wehrmacht on June 25, 1941. It was part of Generalbezirk Weißruthenien in Reichskommissariat Ostland during the German occupation. In August 1941, a ghetto was created in the city, with more than 12,000 Jews kept in terrible conditions in six buildings at the outskirts. From March 4 to December 14, 1942, the entire Jewish population of the ghetto was sent to various German concentration camps and killed in gas chambers. Only about 250 survived the war.  The city was liberated by the Red Army on 8 July 1944. It was also the seat of the Baranavichy Voblast from 1939 to 1941 and again from 1944 to 1954. Meanwhile, intensive industrialization took place. In 1991, the city became part of independent Belarus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "As a fairly young city, Baranavichy does not have many cultural heritage monuments. Most are buildings erected in the interwar period, including the Catholic Church of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, the former Bank of Poland building, the building of the Polish Radio Baranowicze station, the fire station and the Orthodox Church of the Protection of the Holy Virgin. Few old houses from the early 20th century are preserved. There is a railway museum in the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The city is on the main east-west highway in Belarus, the M1, which forms a part of European route E30.  The first rail line through the city opened in around 1870. Additional railways built helped the city become an important rail junction.  The large airbase, north of the city, is used by the Belarusian Air Force.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Baranavichy is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Sports-related links:  History-related links:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baranavichy (;, Łacinka: ;,,,, ) is a city in the Brest Region of western Belarus, with a population (as of 2019) of 179,000. It is a significant railway junction and home to Baranavichy State University.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974784}
{"src_title": "PPS submachine gun", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The PPS was created in response to a Red Army requirement for a compact and lightweight weapon with similar accuracy and projectile energy to the Soviet PPSh-41 submachine gun widely deployed at the time, with reduced rate of fire, produced at lower material cost and requiring fewer man-hours, particularly skilled labour.  Sudayev was ordered by the State Commission for Armaments to perfect for large-scale production the sub-machine gun design of Lieutenant I.K. Bezruchko-Vysotsky from the Dzerzhinsky Artillery Academy, who had created two prototypes in 1942; the second of these was the basis of Sudayev's gun.  During design, emphasis was placed on simplifying production and eliminating most machining operations; most of the weapon's parts were sheet-steel stamped. These measures reduced the number of machined components to a bare minimum, cutting down machining time by more than half, to 2.7 hours of machining instead of 7.3 hours for the PPSh-41. There were also savings of over 50% in raw steel usage, down to 6.2 kg instead of 13.9 kg, and fewer workers were required to manufacture and assemble the parts. Thanks to the improvements in production efficiency, the Soviet planners estimated that the new gun would have allowed an increase in monthly submachine gun output from 135,000 units to 350,000 weapons.  Prototypes were field tested between 26 April and 12 May 1942; the evaluation commission's report was largely favorable, but still proposed some minor improvements mostly aimed at strengthening the gun's structure. By July, Shpagin had finished his own improved model (PPSh-2), and it was pitted in field trials against the PPS, which was found superior in most respects: accuracy, reliability, maneuverability. (This was apparently a large scale contest, in which 20 designs participated. On July 28, 1942 GAU head N.D. Yakovlev and his aide Ivan Novikov presented Sudayev's gun to the State Defense Committee for approval. The firearm was accepted into service as the PPS-42 (Russian: Пистолет-пулемёт Судаева—ППС or \"Pistolet Pulemyot Sudayeva\" model of 1942). The weapon was put into small-scale production during the Siege of Leningrad; mass production did not commence until early 1943 at the Sestroretsk Arsenal (over 45,000 weapons were produced before being replaced by the improved PPS-43). The factory in charge for the pilot production starting in December 1942 was the Sestroretsk Tool Factory (Russian:.) The first series guns were presented for personal inspection to Andrei Zhdanov and Leonid Govorov in the same month. The full-scale production began in 1943, and the official count of PPS-42 guns produced was 46,572. Most were used during the military trials by the soldiers of the Leningrad Front. The military trials officially took place between January and April 1943.  Due to the massive investment already made in machinery for PPSh-41 production, which was already being produced in more than a million pieces per year, it turned out it would have been uneconomical to completely abandon its production in favor of the PPS. By end of the war some two million PPS-43 submachine guns were made. Due to the oversupply of the Soviet army with submachine guns after the war, production of the PPS in the Soviet Union ceased in 1946.  In the last two years of the war, Sudayev continued to experiment with improvements for his submachine gun. Six of his later prototype models, made in 1944 and 1945, are found in the Military Historical Museum of Artillery, Engineers and Signal Corps. These have variations in bolt shape and weight, as well as more obvious outward differences like a wooden, non-folding stock or a folding bayonet.  The PPS remained in service with some Soviet forces until the mid-1950s. Among the last to relinquish it were crews of armored vehicles and the Naval Infantry. Some World War II-era weapons found their way to the Chinese People's Liberation Army and were subsequently captured by UN forces in the Korean War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design details.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operating mechanism.", "content": "The PPS is an automatic blowback-operated weapon that fires from an open bolt. The bolt is cylindrical in shape and contains a spring-loaded claw extractor, which pulls the empty case out of the chamber to be ejected. The ejector is mounted at the head of the recoil spring guide rod, which runs through a hole in the bolt. The charging handle is integral to the bolt and is located on the right side; it reciprocates during firing. Early versions of the PPS had a fixed but replaceable firing pin, held in place by the extractor spring. Pulling the trigger releases the bolt, which moves forward, stripping a round from the magazine, chambering it and striking the primer in one motion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "The PPS has a trigger mechanism that allows only fully automatic fire and a manual safety that secured them against accidental discharges. When in the \"safe\" position (engaged by sliding a metal bar forward of the trigger guard), both the bolt and trigger are disabled.  The weapon is fed from curved 35-round box magazines. They are not interchangeable with magazines used in the PPSh-41, nor can the gun use drum magazines. It is chambered for the 7.62×25mm Tokarev M1930 pistol cartridge.  The submachine gun's rifled barrel (with 4 right-hand grooves) is mounted in a perforated sheet metal heat guard and is equipped with a crude muzzle brake, consisting of a strip of steel bent into a U-shape that deflects exiting muzzle gases to the sides and backwards, thus compensating for recoil.  A folding stock is attached to the receiver with a spring-loaded catch button on the top. The stock folds up and over the receiver top cover and the weapon can be fired in this arrangement. The submachine gun also has a pistol grip but was not provided with a forward grip as the magazine well was intended to fulfil this role. The PPS was usually supplied with two magazine pouches, an oil bottle, bore brush and sling.  Even when compared to modern weapons, the PPS 43's simplicity of design (many parts serve multiple purposes) and manufacture, along with its reliability and ease of use, and remarkably effective safety system, make it one of the best sub-machineguns ever made, in the eyes of many renowned firearms historians worldwide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "The PPS is fitted with a set of open-type iron sights consisting of a fixed front post protected from impact by two sheet metal plates and a flip rear sight with two pivoting notches, for firing at 100 and 200 m.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The PPS (Russian: ППС – \"Пистолет-пулемёт Судаева\" or \"Pistolet-pulemyot Sudayeva\", in English: \"Sudayev's submachine-gun\") is a family of Soviet submachine guns chambered in 7.62×25mm Tokarev, developed by Alexei Sudayev as a low-cost personal defense weapon for reconnaissance units, vehicle crews and support service personnel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974785}
{"src_title": "Earley parser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Earley recogniser.", "content": "The following algorithm describes the Earley recogniser. The recogniser can be easily modified to create a parse tree as it recognises, and in that way can be turned into a parser.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The algorithm.", "content": "In the following descriptions, α, β, and γ represent any string of terminals/nonterminals (including the empty string), X and Y represent single nonterminals, and \"a\" represents a terminal symbol.  Earley's algorithm is a top-down dynamic programming algorithm. In the following, we use Earley's dot notation: given a production X → αβ, the notation X → α • β represents a condition in which α has already been parsed and β is expected.  Input position 0 is the position prior to input. Input position \"n\" is the position after accepting the \"n\"th token. (Informally, input positions can be thought of as locations at token boundaries.) For every input position, the parser generates a \"state set\". Each state is a tuple (X → α • β, \"i\"), consisting of  The state set at input position \"k\" is called S(\"k\"). The parser is seeded with S(0) consisting of only the top-level rule. The parser then repeatedly executes three operations: \"prediction\", \"scanning\", and \"completion\".  Duplicate states are not added to the state set, only new ones. These three operations are repeated until no new states can be added to the set. The set is generally implemented as a queue of states to process, with the operation to be performed depending on what kind of state it is.  The algorithm accepts if (X → γ •, 0) ends up in S(\"n\"), where (X → γ) is the top level-rule and \"n\" the input length, otherwise it rejects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pseudocode.", "content": "Adapted from Speech and Language Processing by Daniel Jurafsky and James H. Martin, DECLARE ARRAY S;  function INIT(words)  function EARLEY-PARSE(words, grammar)  procedure PREDICTOR((A → α•Bβ, j), k, grammar)  procedure SCANNER((A → α•aβ, j), k, words)  procedure COMPLETER((B → γ•, x), k)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "Consider the following simple grammar for arithmetic expressions:  <P> ::= <S> # the start rule <S> ::= <S> \"+\" <M> | <M> <M> ::= <M> \"*\" <T> | <T> <T> ::= \"1\" | \"2\" | \"3\" | \"4\"  With the input:  This is the sequence of state sets:  The state (P → S •, 0) represents a completed parse. This state also appears in S(3) and S(1), which are complete sentences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Constructing the parse forest.", "content": "Earley's dissertation briefly describes an algorithm for constructing parse trees by adding a set of pointers from each non-terminal in an Earley item back to the items that caused it to be recognized. But Tomita noticed that this does not take into account the relations between symbols, so if we consider the grammar S → SS | b and the string bbb, it only notes that each S can match one or two b's, and thus produces spurious derivations for bb and bbbb as well as the two correct derivations for bbb.  Another method is to build the parse forest as you go, augmenting each Earley item with a pointer to a shared packed parse forest (SPPF) node labelled with a triple (s, i, j) where s is a symbol or an LR(0) item (production rule with dot), and i and j give the section of the input string derived by this node. A node's contents are either a pair of child pointers giving a single derivation, or a list of \"packed\" nodes each containing a pair of pointers and representing one derivation. SPPF nodes are unique (there is only one with a given label), but may contain more than one derivation for ambiguous parses. So even if an operation does not add an Earley item (because it already exists), it may still add a derivation to the item's parse forest.  SPPF nodes are never labeled with a completed LR(0) item: instead they are labelled with the symbol that is produced so that all derivations are combined under one node regardless of which alternative production they come from.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computer science, the Earley parser is an algorithm for parsing strings that belong to a given context-free language, though (depending on the variant) it may suffer problems with certain nullable grammars. The algorithm, named after its inventor, Jay Earley, is a chart parser that uses dynamic programming; it is mainly used for parsing in computational linguistics. It was first introduced in his dissertation in 1968 (and later appeared in an abbreviated, more legible, form in a journal).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974786}
{"src_title": "Karmapa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin of the lineage.", "content": "Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Karmapa Lama (, 1110–1193), was a disciple of the Tibetan master Gampopa. A talented child who studied Buddhism with his father from an early age and who sought out great teachers in his twenties and thirties, he is said to have attained enlightenment at the age of fifty while practicing dream yoga. He was henceforth regarded by the contemporary highly respected masters Shakya Śri and Lama Shang as the Karmapa, a manifestation of Avalokiteśvara, whose coming was predicted in the \"Samadhiraja Sutra\" and the \"Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra\".  The source of the oral lineage, traditionally traced back to the Buddha Vajradhara, was transmitted to the Indian master of mahamudra and tantra called Tilopa (989-1069), through Naropa (1016–1100) to Marpa Lotsawa and Milarepa. These forefathers of the Kagyu (Bka' brGyud) lineage are collectively called the \"Golden Rosary\".  Karma Pakshi, 2nd Karmapa Lama (1204–1283), is often said to be the first person ever recognized and empowered as a tulku (), a reincarnated lama (bla ma).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Black Crown.", "content": "The Karmapas are the holders of the Black Crown () and are thus sometimes known as \"the Black Hat Lamas\". This crown ( \"self-arisen crown\"), is traditionally said to have been woven by the dakinis from their hair and given to the Karmapa in recognition of his spiritual realization. The physical crown displayed by the Karmapas was offered to Deshin Shekpa, 5th Karmapa Lama by the Yongle Emperor of China as a material representation of the spiritual one.  The crown was last known to be located at Rumtek Monastery in Sikkim, the last home of the 16th Karmapa, although that location has been subject to some upheaval since 1993 causing some to worry as to whether or not it is still there. An inventory of items remaining at Rumtek is purported to be something the Indian government is going to undertake in the near future.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "The history of the Karmapa lineage, including biographical details of the historical Karmapas, can be found at the following web sites. Notice that the websites are written to those loyal to one or other of the rival 17th Karmapas, and their accounts of previous incarnations may not be written from a neutral point of view.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Karmapa (honorific title \"His Holiness the Gyalwa\" (རྒྱལ་བ་, Victorious One) \"Karmapa\", more formally as \"Gyalwang\" (རྒྱལ་དབང་ཀརྨ་པ་, King of Victorious Ones) \"Karmapa\", and informally as the \"Karmapa Lama\") is the head of the Karma Kagyu, the largest sub-school of the Kagyu (བཀའ་བརྒྱུད, ), itself one of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Karmapa was Tibet's first consciously incarnating lama.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974787}
{"src_title": "Eastern grey kangaroo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The eastern grey kangaroo was described by George Shaw in 1790 as \"Macropus giganteus\".  There are two subspecies:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The eastern grey kangaroo is the second largest and heaviest living marsupial and native land mammal in Australia. An adult male will commonly weigh around whereas females commonly weigh around. They have a powerful tail that is over 1 m long in adult males.<ref name=\"Green-Barber/Old 2018 blood\">Green-Barber, J., Ong, O., Kanuri, A., Stannard, H. and Old, J. (2018). \"Blood constituents of free-ranging eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus)\" Australian Mammalogy\" 40: 136-145.</ref> Large males of this species are more heavily built and muscled than the lankier red kangaroo and can occasionally exceed normal dimensions. One of these, shot in eastern Tasmania weighed, with a total length from nose to tail (possibly along the curves). The largest known specimen, examined by Lydekker, had a weight of and measured along the curves. When the skin of this specimen was measured it had a \"flat\" length of. The eastern grey is easy to recognise: its soft grey coat is distinctive, and it is usually found in moister, more fertile areas than the red. Red kangaroos, though sometimes grey-blue in colour, have a totally different face than grey kangaroos. Red kangaroos have distinctive markings in black and white beside their muzzles and along the sides of their face. Grey kangaroos do not have these markings, and their eyes seem large and wide open. Where their ranges overlap, it is much more difficult to distinguish between eastern grey and western grey kangaroos, which are closely related. They have a very similar body and facial structure, and their noses/muzzles are fully covered with fine hair (though that is not obvious at a distance, their noses do look noticeably different from the noses of reds and wallaroos). The eastern grey's colouration is a light-coloured grey or brownish-grey, with a lighter silver or cream, sometimes nearly white, belly. The western grey is a dark dusty brown colour, with more contrast especially around the head. Indigenous Australian names include \"iyirrbir\" (Uw Oykangand and Uw Olkola) and \"kucha\" (Pakanh). The highest ever recorded speed of any kangaroo was set by a large female eastern grey kangaroo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Although the red is better known, the eastern grey is the kangaroo most often encountered in Australia, due to its adaptability. Few Australians visit the arid interior of the continent, while many live in and around the major cities of the south and east coast, from where it is usually only a short drive to the remaining pockets of near-city bushland where kangaroos can be found without much difficulty. The eastern grey prefers open grassland with areas of bush for daytime shelter and mainly inhabits the wetter parts of Australia. It also inhabits coastal areas, woodlands, sub-tropical forests, mountain forests, and inland scrubs.<ref name=\"Frith/Calaby 1969\">Frith, H. J. and Calaby, J. H. (1969). \"Kangaroos\". Melbourne, Australia: Cheshire Publishing.</ref>  Like all kangaroos, it is mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, and is mostly seen early in the morning, or as the light starts to fade in the evening.<ref name=\"Green-Barber/Old 2018 camera\">Green-Barber, J. and Old, J. (2018). \"Is camera trap videography suitable for assessing activity patterns in eastern grey kangaroos?\" Pacific Conservation Biology\" 24: 134-141.</ref> In the middle of the day, kangaroos rest in the cover of the woodlands and eat there but then come out in the open to feed on the grasslands in large numbers. The eastern grey kangaroo is predominantly a grazer, eating a wide variety of grasses, whereas some other species (e.g. the red kangaroo) include significant amounts of shrubs in the diet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "Eastern grey kangaroos are gregarious and form open-membership groups.<ref name=\"Colagross/Cockbrun 1993\">Colagross, A. M. L. and Cockburn, A. (1993). \"Vigilance and grouping in the eastern grey kangaroo, \"Macropus giganteus\".\" \"Australian Journal of Zoology\" 41: 325-334.</ref> The groups contain an average of three individuals. Smaller groups join together to graze in preferred foraging areas, and to rest in large groups around the middle of the day. They exist in a dominance hierarchy and the dominant individuals gain access to better sources of food and areas of shade. However, kangaroos are not territorial and usually fight only when females are inside of them. Eastern grey kangaroos adjust their behaviour in relation to the risk of predation with reproductive females, individuals on the periphery of the group and individuals in groups far from cover being the most vigilant. Vigilance in individual kangaroos does not seem to significantly decrease when the size of the group increases. However, there is a tendency for the proportion of individuals on the periphery of the group to decline as group size increases. The open membership of the group allows more kangaroos to join and thus provide more buffers against predators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Females may form strong kinship bonds with their relatives. Females with living female relatives have a greater chance of reproducing. Most kangaroo births occur during the summer. Eastern grey kangaroos are obligate breeders in that they can only reproduce in one kind of habitat.  The female kangaroo is usually permanently pregnant, except on the day she gives birth; however, she has the ability to freeze the development of an embryo until the previous joey is able to leave the pouch. This is known as diapause, and will occur in times of drought and in areas with poor food sources. The composition of the milk produced by the mother varies according to the needs of the joey. In addition, the mother is able to produce two different kinds of milk simultaneously for the newborn and the older joey still in the pouch. Unusually, during a dry period, males will not produce sperm, and females will only conceive if there has been enough rain to produce a large quantity of green vegetation. Females take care of the young without any assistance from the males. The joeys are heavily reliant on their mothers for about 550 days which is when it is weaned. Females sexually mature between 17 and 28 months while males mature at around 25 months.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Status.", "content": "It is popularly thought, but not confirmed by evidence, Despite the commercial harvest and some culls, the eastern grey remains common and widespread. Eastern greys are common in suburban and rural areas where they have been observed to form larger groups than in natural areas.<ref name=\"Green-Barber/Old 2018 town\">Green-Barber, J. and Old, J. (2018). \"Town roo, country roo: a comparison of behaviour in eastern grey kangaroos Macropus giganteus in developed and natural landscapes\" Australian Zoologist\" 39: 520-533.</ref> It still covers the entire range it occupied when Europeans arrived in Australia in 1788 and it often comes into conflict with agriculture as it uses the more fertile districts that now carry crops or exotic pasture grasses, which kangaroos readily eat. Kangaroo meat has also been considered to replace beef in recent years, as their soft feet are preferable to hooves in erosion prone areas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The eastern grey kangaroo (\"Macropus giganteus\") is a marsupial found in eastern third of Australia, with a population of several million. It is also known as the great grey kangaroo and the forester kangaroo. Although a big eastern grey male typically masses around 66 kg (weight 145 lb.) and stands almost 2 m (6.6 ft.) tall, the scientific name, \"Macropus giganteus\" (gigantic large-foot), is misleading: the red kangaroo of the semi-arid inland is larger, weighing up to 90 kg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974788}
{"src_title": "Western grey kangaroo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Long known to the Aboriginal Australians, for Europeans, the western grey kangaroo was the centre of a great deal of sometimes comical taxonomic confusion for almost 200 years. It was first noted by European explorers when Matthew Flinders landed on Kangaroo Island in 1802. Flinders shot several for food but assumed that they were eastern grey kangaroos. In 1803, French explorers captured several Kangaroo Island western grey kangaroos and shipped them to Paris, where they lived in the \"Ménagerie du Jardin des Plantes\" for some years. Eventually, researchers at the Paris Museum of Natural History recognized that these animals were indeed distinct from the eastern grey kangaroo and formally described the species as \"Macropus fuliginosus\" in 1817. For reasons that remain unclear, the species was incorrectly described as native to Tasmania.  There the matter rested for over 100 years, and it was not until 1917 that researchers realized that the \"forester kangaroo\" of Tasmania was in fact \"Macropus giganteus\", the same eastern grey kangaroo that was, and still is, widespread in the southeastern part of the mainland. By 1971, it was understood that the Kangaroo Island kangaroo belonged to the same species as the kangaroos of southern and Western Australia, and that this population extended through much of the eastern part of the continent as well (see range map). For a time, three subspecies were described, two on the mainland and one on Kangaroo Island. The current classification scheme emerged in the 1990s.  The western grey kangaroo is not found in the north or the far southeast of Australia, and the eastern grey does not extend beyond the New South Wales–South Australia border, but the two species are both common in the Murray–Darling basin area. They never interbreed in the wild, although it has proved possible to produce hybrids between eastern grey females and western grey males in captivity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are two subspecies of the western grey kangaroo:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The western grey kangaroo is one of the largest macropods in Australia. It weighs and its length is with a tail, standing approximately tall. It exhibits sexual dimorphism with the male up to twice the size of female. It has thick, coarse fur with colour ranging from pale grey to brown; its throat, chest and belly have a paler colour.  This species is difficult to distinguish from its sibling species, the eastern grey kangaroo (\"Macropus giganteus\"). However, the western grey kangaroo has darker grey-brown fur, darker colouration around the head, and sometimes has a blackish patch around the elbow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behaviour.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "It feeds at night, mainly on grasses but also on leafy shrubs and low trees. It has a nickname \"stinker\" because mature males have a distinctive curry-like odour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction and development.", "content": "The kangaroo lives in groups of up to 15. The males compete for females during the breeding season. During these \"boxing\" contests, they lock arms and try to push each other over. Usually, only the dominant male in the group mates. The gestation period is 30–31 days, after which, the incompletely developed fetus (referred to as a \"joey\") attaches to the teat in the pouch for 130–150 days. Females sexually mature between 26 and 36 months while males mature at around 72 months.  Western grey kangaroo is closely related to eastern grey kangaroo (\"M. giganteus\"), and their distribution overlaps extensively, especially in the Murray–Darling basin. However, the two species interbreed only rarely in the wild. Although hybridisation occurs in both directions in the overlap zone between the two species in the wild, this does not seem to be the case with captive animals. Although interbreeding between the two species does occasionally occur in captive animals, viable offspring are only produced when the mating pair consists of a female eastern grey kangaroo and a male western grey kangaroo. This is an example of unidirectional hybridisation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relationship with humans.", "content": "Western grey kangaroo is classified as Least Concern by IUCN Red List, with a population showing an increasing trend. Total population is estimated to 2,348,393 individuals.  Though the feeding habits of \"M. fuliginosus\" can be problematic for agriculture, it is protected and controlled exclusively by the state faunal authorities. Because it is considered a competitor for water and pasture by ranchers, this species is considered a pest in some areas. To limit agricultural damage, kangaroo culling has been allowed under license every year.  Commercial hunting for meat and skin also allowed under regulation, with skins providing a high-quality, long-lasting leather. About 40% of harvested meat is using for human consumption; leather is used as a material for handbags, briefcases, and belts.  Commercial hunting is permitted in New South Wales, South Australia, and Western Australia, but disallowed in Tasmania, Northern Territory and Kangaroo Island.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The western grey kangaroo (\"Macropus fuliginosus\"), also referred to as a western grey giant kangaroo, black-faced kangaroo, mallee kangaroo, and sooty kangaroo, is a large and very common kangaroo found across almost the entire southern part of Australia, from just south of Shark Bay through coastal Western Australia and South Australia, into western Victoria, and in the entire Murray–Darling basin in New South Wales and Queensland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974789}
{"src_title": "Yacón", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Commonly called \"jicama\" in Ecuador, yacón is sometimes confused with that unrelated plant (\"Pachyrhizus erosus\"), which is a bean. The yacón, in contrast, is a close relative of the sunflower and Jerusalem artichoke. The plant produces a perennial rhizome to which are attached the edible, succulent storage roots, the principal economic product of the plant. The rhizome develops just under the surface of the soil and continuously produces aerial shoots. Dry and/or cold seasons cause the aerial shoots to die back, but the plant resprouts from the rhizome under favourable conditions of temperature and moisture. The edible storage tubers are large and typically weigh from a few hundred grams to a kilogram or so. The tubers contain fructooligosaccharide, an indigestible polysaccharide made up of fructose. Fructooligosaccharides taste sweet, but pass through the human digestive tract unmetabolised, hence have very little caloric value. Moreover, fructooligosaccharides have a prebiotic effect, meaning they are used by beneficial bacteria that enhance colon health and aid digestion. Yacón plants can grow to over 2 m in height and produce small, inconspicuous yellow flowers at the end of the growing season. Unlike many other root vegetables domesticated by the indigenous peoples of the Andes (ulluco, oca, and mashua), yacón is not photoperiod sensitive, and can produce a commercial yield in the subtropics, as well.  Traditionally, yacón roots are grown by farmers at midelevations on the eastern slopes of the Andes descending toward the Amazon. It is grown occasionally along field borders where the juicy tubers provide a welcome source of refreshment during field work. Until as recently as the early 2000s, yacón was hardly known outside of its limited native range, and was not available from urban markets; however, press reports of its use in Japan for its purported antihyperglycemic properties made the crop more widely known in Lima and other Peruvian cities. Companies have also developed novel products such as yacón syrup and yacón tea. Both products are popular among diabetics and dieters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Yacón can easily be grown in gardens in climates with only gentle frosts. It grows well in Kathmandu, Nepal and southern Australia (including Tasmania) and New Zealand, where the climate is mild and the growing season long. The plant was introduced to Japan in the 1980s, and from there, its cultivation spread to other Asian countries, notably South Korea, China, and the Philippines, and is now widely available in markets in those countries. Yacón has also recently been introduced into farmers' markets and natural food stores in the United States and has been available from niche online health food stores in the United Kingdom since 2007.  Yacon is also grown on the Atherton tablelands in Queensland. The plant can be grown using cuttings and the purple corms at the bottom of the stalks. It will not reproduce from the tubers which, if not harvested, rot in the ground providing fertilizer for following crops.  Yacon should be planted in a well-dug bed in early spring, near the time of the last expected frost. While aerial parts are damaged by frost, the tubers are not harmed unless they freeze solid. Yacón is a vigorous grower much like Jerusalem artichokes. The plants grow best with fertilizer.  After the first few frosts, the tops will die and the tuberous storage roots are ready for digging up. It is generally best to leave the perennial rhizomes in the ground for propagating the following spring, or, alternatively, they can be kept in the refrigerator or buried away from frost until spring. While usable-sized edible tubers develop fairly early in the season, they taste much sweeter after they have matured and have been exposed to some frost. After harvest tubers left in the sun to harden taste much better than those eaten immediately.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The leaves of the yacón contain quantities of protocatechuic, chlorogenic, caffeic, and ferulic acids, which gives tisanes made from the leaves prebiotic and antioxidant properties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious use.", "content": "In colonial times, yacón consumption was identified with a Catholic religious celebration held at the time of an earlier Inca feast. In the Moche era, it may have been food for a special occasion. Effigies of edible food may have been placed at Moche burials for the nourishment of the dead, as offerings to lords of the other world, or in commemoration of a certain occasion. Moche depicted such yacón on their ceramics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The yacón (\"Smallanthus sonchifolius\") is a species of perennial daisy traditionally grown in the northern and central Andes from Colombia to northern Argentina for its crisp, sweet-tasting, tuberous roots. Their texture and flavour are very similar to jicama, mainly differing in that yacón has some slightly sweet, resinous, and floral (similar to violet) undertones to its flavour, probably due to the presence of inulin, which produces the sweet taste of the roots of elecampane, as well. Another name for yacón is Peruvian ground apple, possibly from the French name of potato, \"pomme de terre\" (ground apple). The tuber is composed mostly of water and fructooligosaccharide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974790}
{"src_title": "University of Königsberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Albert, former Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights and first Duke of Prussia since 1525, had purchased a piece of land behind Königsberg Cathedral on the Kneiphof island of the Pregel River from the Samland chapter, where he had an academic gymnasium (school) erected in 1542. He issued the deed of foundation of the \"Collegium Albertinum\" on 20 July 1544, after which the university was inaugurated on 17 August.  The newly established Protestant duchy was a fiefdom of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the university served as a Lutheran counterpart to the Catholic Cracow Academy. Its first rector was the poet Georg Sabinus, son-in-law of Philipp Melanchthon. Lithuanian scholars Stanislovas Rapalionis and Abraomas Kulvietis were among the first professors of university. All professors had to take an oath on the Augsburg Confession. Since the Prussian lands lay beyond the borders of the Holy Roman Empire, both Emperor Charles V and Pope Paul III withheld their approval, nevertheless the Königsberg academy received the royal privilege by King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland on 28 March 1560.  From 1618 the Prussian duchy was ruled in personal union by the Margraves of Brandenburg and in 1657 the \"Great Elector\" Frederick William of Brandenburg finally acquired full sovereignty over Prussia from Poland by the Treaty of Wehlau. The \"Albertina\" was the second oldest university (after the University of Frankfurt (Oder)) and intellectual centre of Protestant Brandenburg-Prussia. Initially it comprised four colleges: Theology, Medicine, Philosophy and Law, later also natural sciences. Subsequent rectors included numerous Hohenzollern Prussian royals (at last Crown Prince William 1908–1918), who had never been to the university, usually represented by a prorector in charge of academic affairs.  The Prussian lands remained unharmed by the disastrous Thirty Years' War, which gained the Königsberg university an increasing popularity among students. In the 17th century, it was known as a home to Simon Dach, serving as rector in 1656/57, and his fellow poets. Tsar Peter I of Russia visited the \"Albertina\" in 1697, leading to increased contacts between Prussia and the Russian Empire. Notable Russian students at Königbserg were Kirill Razumovsky, later president of the Russian Academy of Sciences and General Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich. The university and the city had profound impact on the development of Lithuanian culture. The first book in Lithuanian language was printed here in 1547 and several important Lithuanian writers attended the \"Albertina\". The university was also the preferred educational institution of the Baltic German nobility.  The 18th century went down in cultural history as the \"Königsberg Century\" of Enlightenment, a heyday initiated by the \"Albertina\" student Johann Christoph Gottsched and continued by the philosopher Johann Georg Hamann and writer Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel the Elder. Notable alumni were Johann Gottfried Herder, Zacharias Werner, Johann Friedrich Reichardt, E. T. A. Hoffmann, and foremost the philosopher Immanuel Kant, rector in 1786 and 1788. These scholars laid the foundations for the later Weimar Classicism and German Romanticism movements.  The \"Albertina\"'s magnificent botanical garden was inaugurated in 1811 during the Napoleonic Wars. Two years later, Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel established his outstanding observatory next door to the garden. Other university professors included such giants of the science world as the philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1806–07), the biologist Karl Ernst von Baer (1817–34), the mathematician Carl Gustav Jacobi (1829–42), the mineralogist Franz Ernst Neumann (1828–76) and the physicist Hermann von Helmholtz (1849–55).  In the 19th and 20th centuries, the university was most famous for its school of Mathematics, founded by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, and continued by his pupils Ludwig Otto Hesse, Friedrich Richelot, Johann G. Rosenhain and Philipp Ludwig von Seidel. It was later associated with the names of Hermann Minkowski (Albert Einstein's teacher), Adolf Hurwitz, Ferdinand von Lindemann and David Hilbert, who was one of the greatest modern mathematicians. The mathematicians Alfred Clebsch and Carl Gottfried Neumann (both born in Königsberg and educated under Ludwig Otto Hesse) founded the \"Mathematische Annalen\" in 1868, which soon became the most influential mathematical journal of the time.  Celebrating the university's 300 years jubilee 0n 31 August 1844, King Frederick William IV of Prussia laid the foundation for the new main building of the \"Albertina\", which was inaugurated in 1862 by Crown Prince Frederick and Prorector Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz. The building on central Paradeplatz was erected in a neo-Renaissance style according to plans designed by Friedrich August Stüler. The facade was adorned by an equestrian figure in relief of Albert of Prussia. Below it were niches containing statues of the Protestant reformers Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon. Inside was a handsome staircase, borne by marble columns. The Senate Hall contained a portrait of Emperor Frederick III by Lauchert and a bust of Immanuel Kant by Hagemann, a student of Schadow. The adjacent hall (\"Aula\") was adorned with frescoes painted in 1870.  The university library was situated on Mitteltragheim in 1901 and contained over 230,000 volumes. On Dritte Fliess Strasse was the Palästra Albertina, established in 1898 for the encouragement of the higher forms of sport among the students and citizens. Nearby were the government offices, adorned with mural paintings by Knorr and Schmidt. In 1900, the university had 900 students.  During the university's last years, the \"Albertina\" faculty and the German Student Union after the territorial separation of the Province of East Prussia by the Treaty of Versailles stressed its affiliation with the Reich, pushing intellectual life towards German nationalism. On 10 July 1944, the university celebrated its 400th anniversary in presence of Reich Minister Walther Funk. A few weeks later, during the nights of 26/27 and 29/30 August, Königsberg was extensively bombed by the Royal Air Force. From January to April 1945 the city was further devastated by the East Prussian Offensive of the Red Army and the final Battle of Königsberg. When General Otto Lasch signed the capitulation on April 9, the historic inner city was destroyed by the attacks, and 80% of the university campus lay in ruins. The faculty had fled, many of them were received at the University of Göttingen.  The remaining premises including the \"Albertina\" main building were used by the Kaliningrad State Pedagogical Institute from 1948, which in 1967 received the status of a Kaliningrad State University.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The University of Königsberg () was the university of Königsberg in East Prussia. It was founded in 1544 as the world's second Protestant academy (after the University of Marburg) by Duke Albert of Prussia, and was commonly known as the Albertina.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974791}
{"src_title": "Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten trained first with his father Dirk van Hoogstraten and stayed in Dordrecht until about 1640. On the death of his father, he moved to Amsterdam where he entered the workshop of Rembrandt. A short time later, he started out on his own as a master and painter of portraits.  He later made several travels which took him (1651) to Vienna, Rome and London, finally retiring to Dordrecht. There he married in 1656, and held an appointment as provost of the mint.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paintings and etches.", "content": "A sufficient number of Van Hoogstraten's works have been preserved to show that he strove to imitate different styles at different times. In a portrait dated 1645, currently in the Lichtenstein collection in Vienna, he imitates Rembrandt. He continued in this vein until as late as 1653 when he produced a figure of a bearded man looking out of a window. This, one of the more characteristic examples of his style, is exhibited in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. He was also skilled at Tromp-l'oeil still lifes.  A view of the Vienna Hofburg, dated 1652, displays his skill as a painter of architecture. In contrast, a piece at the Hague representing a \"Lady Reading a Letter as she crosses a Courtyard\" (Mauritshuis) or a \"Lady Consulting a Doctor,\" (in the Rijksmuseum at Amsterdam), imitates de Hooch. One of his last remaining works is a portrait of Mathys van den Brouck, dated 1670.  Hoogstraten also employed his skill with perspective to construct \"peepshows\", or \"perspective boxes\". For example, \"A Peepshow with Views of the Interior of a Dutch House\" is a box with convincing 3D views of the interior of a Dutch house when viewed through peepholes on either end of the box. One of his perspective boxes is on show at the National Gallery in London. It shows the interior of a typical Dutch house of his time.  He produced many etchings as well, and some of his plates are still preserved. His self-portrait, engraved by himself at the age of fifty, still exists.  His pupils were his younger brother Jan van Hoogstraten, Aert de Gelder, Cornelis van der Meulen, and Godfried Schalcken.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art theoretician.", "content": "Van Hoogstraten's fame derives from his versatile career as a painter, poet and zealous social climber. Besides painting and directing a mint, he devoted some of his time to literary labours. His \"magnum opus\" is a book on painting, the \"Introduction to the Academy of Painting, or the Visible World\" (original title: 'Inleyding tot de hooge schoole der schilderkonst: anders de zichtbaere werelt', Rotterdam, 1678) which is in length and theoretical scope one of the most ambitious treatises on the art of painting published in the Dutch Republic in the seventeenth century. It covers issues such as pictorial persuasion and illusionism, the painter's moral standards and the relation of painting to philosophy, referring to various ancient and modern authors. While reacting to international, mainly Southern European ideas on painting which Van Hoogstraten may have encountered during his travels, the treatise also reflects contemporary talk and thought on art from Dutch studios. He wrote it as a sequel to Karel van Mander's early-17th-century book on painting and painters entitled \"Het Schilder-Boeck\". One of van Hoogstraten's many students, Arnold Houbraken, later wrote the book entitled \"The Great Theatre of Dutch Painters\", which included a biography of his teacher. This biography is the basis of most of the information that we have about van Hoogstraten today.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sonnets and tragedies.", "content": "Van Hoogstraten also composed sonnets and tragedies. We are indebted to him for some of the familiar sayings of Rembrandt.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten (2 August 1627, Dordrecht – 19 October 1678, Dordrecht) was a Dutch painter of the Golden Age, who was also a poet and author on art theory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974792}
{"src_title": "Mikhail Frunze", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and political activity.", "content": "Frunze was born in 1885 in Pishpek (present-day Bishkek in Kyrgyzstan), then a small Imperial Russian garrison town in the Kyrgyz part of Russian Turkestan (Semirechye Oblast). His father was a Romanian para-medic (feldsher) (originally from the Kherson Governorate) and his mother was Russian. Frunze began his higher studies at Verniy (present-day Almaty), and in 1904 he attended the Saint Petersburg Polytechnical University. Frunze became active in the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). At the Second Congress of the RSDLP in London (1903), Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov, the two main leaders, confronted each other in an ideological split over party tactics (Martov argued for a large party of activists, whilst Lenin wanted a small group of professional revolutionaries with a large fringe group of sympathisers). Frunze at the age of 18 sided with Lenin's majority, the so-called \"Bolsheviks\" (\"majoritarians\"), as opposed to Martov's minority, the \"Mensheviks\" (or \"minoritarians\").  Two years after the Second Congress, Frunze became an important leader in the 1905 Revolution. He led striking textile workers in Shuya and Ivanovo. Following the end of the movement, Frunze was arrested in 1907 and sentenced to death; he was imprisoned and spent several months on death row awaiting his execution. His sentence was commuted to life at hard labour. After 10 years in Siberian prisons, Frunze escaped to Chita. There he became editor of the Bolshevik weekly newspaper \"Vostochnoe Obozrenie\" (Eastern Review).  During the February Revolution of 1917, Frunze headed the Minsk civilian militia before his election as president of the Byelorussian Soviet. He later went to Moscow and led an armed force of workers to aid in the struggle for control of the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russian Civil War.", "content": "After the October Revolution of 1917, Frunze was appointed in 1918 as Military Commissar for the Ivanovo-Voznesensk Province. In the course of the Russian Civil War of 1917-1922, he was appointed as head of the Southern Army Group of the (March 1919). After Frunze's troops defeated Admiral Alexander Kolchak and the White Army in Omsk, Leon Trotsky (the head of the Red Army) gave overall command of the Eastern Front to him (19 July 1919). Frunze drove out Basmachi insurgents and White Army troops from his native Turkestan. He captured Khiva in February and Bukhara in September 1920.  In November 1920, Frunze's army took the Crimea and managed to push White general Pyotr Wrangel and his troops out of Russia. As commander of the southern front, Frunze also led the destruction of Nestor Makhno's anarchist movement in Ukraine and the nationalist movement of Symon Petliura.  In December 1921, Frunze visited Ankara, during Turkish War of Independence, as an ambassador of the Ukrainian SSR, and established Turkish–Soviet relations. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk valued him as an ally and a friend, to the extent that he placed a statue of Frunze as a part of the Republic Monument at the Taksim Square, in Istanbul.  In 1921, Frunze was elected to the Central Committee of the Russian Bolshevik Party. On 2 June 1924 he became candidate member of the Politburo and in January 1925, became the Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council.  Frunze's support of Grigory Zinoviev brought him into conflict with Joseph Stalin, one of Zinoviev's chief opponents. They had previously been on amiable terms, as Stalin had displayed respect towards his fellow \"old guard\" revolutionary and former prisoner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Frunze had been noted among communist leaders as possessing a very creative and almost unorthodox view on matters of implementation and policy. He gained the respect and admiration of his comrades thanks to his fearless and successful pursuit of complicated military objectives, and his endurance during the period when the Communist party was illegal. He had been considered as a potential successor to Lenin, due to his strength in both theoretical and practical matters of advancing the Communist party agenda, and his seeming lack of personal ambition separate from the party.  Frunze suffered from a chronic ulcer. Although doctors recommended surgery, he favoured more conservative treatments. After an especially severe episode in 1925, Frunze was hospitalised. Stalin and Anastas Mikoyan both came to visit him, and impressed on him the need for an operation.  Not long before his death, Frunze wrote to his wife: \"At present I am feeling absolutely healthy, and it seems ridiculous to even think of, and even more-so to undergo an operation. Nevertheless, both party representatives are requiring it.\"  Frunze died during surgery on 31 October 1925. Given the internecine politics, there were rumours that Stalin or another rival had secretly ordered his death, but V. Topolyansky, in his 2006 book, said there is no evidence to support this. But a 26 October 2010 article in \"Izvestiya\" reported that Frunze had been administered a chloroform dose that exceeded the normal dose by sevenfold.  Frunze was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 1926, the capital city of Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, was renamed \"Frunze\" in his honour. It reverted to its former name in 1991, after dissolution of the Soviet Union. Frunze is still commemorated in the city: his equestrian statue stands in front of the main railway station. A street and a museum in the centre of the city are named after him. In addition, the museum contains his childhood home, a cottage that was installed inside a larger modern structure.  Shuya is home to another memorial museum dedicated to Frunze.  Multiple villages in Russia were named for him. Streets in many Russian cities are named after him.  The Frunze Military Academy in Moscow, one of the most respected in the former Soviet Union, was named in his honour.  The Soviet 2nd Rifle Division was formerly known as 2nd Belarusian Red Banner Rifle Division in the name of M.V. Frunze.  There are stations named \"Frunzenskaya\" in his honour on the Moscow Metro, Saint Petersburg Metro and Minsk Metro, and a stone carving of his likeness stands at one end of the station.  After his death, the first name for boys Frunzik (roughly \"Little Frunze\") became quite popular in the Caucusus and Soviet Turkestan. The most notable of these is probably Frunzik Mkrtchyan.  The Russian battleship Poltava was renamed \"Frunze\" in his honour in January 1926, as was the second Kirov-class nuclear battlecruiser (now the \"Admiral Lazarev\") in 1981.  General Frunze is also honoured with a place right behind Ataturk, in the Monument of the Republic, located at the heart of Taksim Square, in Istanbul, Turkey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary depictions.", "content": "Boris Pilnyak's story \"The Tale of the Unextinguished Moon\" was based on Frunze's death. His death also forms the central element of the first two chapters of Vasily Aksyonov's novel \"Generations of Winter\".  Marxist activist Tariq Ali featured Frunze in his 2017 biography of Vladimir Lenin, \"The Dilemmas of Lenin\". Ali portrays Frunze as a significant figure in developing the military tactics of the Red Army during the civil war. He emphasizes Frunze's concept of Marxist military tactics, which strongly influenced Soviet military organization.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mikhail Vasilyevich Frunze (; 2 February 1885 – 31 October 1925) was a Bolshevik leader during and just prior to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Frunze was born in modern-day Kyrgyzstan. He became active with the Bolsheviks and rose to the rank of a major Red Army commander in the Russian Civil War of 1917-1918. He is best known for defeating Baron Peter von Wrangel in Crimea. The capital of the Kyrghyz SSR (modern Bishkek) was named in his honor from 1926 until 1991, when the Soviet Union was dissolved.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974793}
{"src_title": "ESCP Business School", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The school was established in Paris on 1 December 1819 as the world's first business school by a group of economic scholars and businessmen including the well-known economist Jean-Baptiste Say and the celebrated trader Vital Roux. It was modeled on the first Grande École, the École Polytechnique founded by Lazare Carnot and Gaspard Monge, but was initially much more modest, mainly because it had not been supported by the state. It gradually gained in stature and importance during the 19th century and moved to its current Parisian location on Avenue de la République in 1898.  In 1828, the project to put the school under the authority of the French Ministry of Commerce and Industry failed. The school remained independent by the intervention of Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui who took it over. Several times during the first half of the 19th century, French politics planned on grouping ESCP with French elite engineering schools such as École Polytechnique or École Centrale Paris, but that never occurred. From 1838, the French state began to give scholarships to ESCP's students and in 1852 it accredited ESCP's programs.  Finally, in 1869 the Paris Chamber of Commerce bought the school to train future business leaders to modern commercial methods. Until 1870 there was only one business school in France: ESCP. In 1892, ESCP set up selective admission processes which still take the form of competitive exams.  On 5 April 1973 the concept of a multi-campus business school was founded with the consecutive inaugurations of campuses in the United Kingdom (London in 1974, move to Oxford in 1975) and in Germany (Düsseldorf in 1975, move to Berlin in 1985). Since then, the school has deepened its European presence to become an integrated pan-European business school:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campus.", "content": "ESCP students can study in campuses in France (Paris), in the UK (London), Spain (Madrid), Germany (Berlin), Italy (Turin), and Poland (Warsaw). They can spend either 6 months or 1 year on each campus according to their study choices. Each campus has its own specifics and develops programs with local academic institutions. For instance, in Spain ESCP provides a Master in Business Project Management co-delivered with the Technical University of Madrid and in Italy a double-degree program is availabe for engineers together with Polytechnic University of Turin.  Since 2017, ESCP has two campuses in Paris. One near the Place de la République (11th arrondissement of Paris) and another one near the Montparnasse Tower (15th arrondissement of Paris). Each campus is dedicated to a specific range of programs. The campus in the 11th arrondissement hosts all the graduate programs whereas the campus in the 15th arrondissement hosts the undergraduate education, the executive education and the school's start-up Incubator, the Blue Factory. This organization is unique to Paris. In every other school undergraduate, graduate and executive education are dispensed in the same campus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable alumni.", "content": "Politics", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "ESCP Business School is a European school of management with campuses in Paris, Berlin, London, Madrid, Turin, and Warsaw. In France, ESCP is one of the most selective French Grandes écoles and referred to in France as one of the \"trois Parisiennes\" (three Parisians), together with HEC Paris and ESSEC Business School. Established in 1819, it is considered as the world's oldest business school.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974794}
{"src_title": "Kiang", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The kiang is the largest of the wild asses, with an average height at the withers of. They range from high at the withers, with a body long, and a tail of. Kiangs have only slight sexual dimorphism, with the males weighing from, while females weigh. They have a large head, with a blunt muzzle and a convex nose. The mane is upright and relatively short. The coat is a rich chestnut colour, darker brown in winter and a sleek reddish brown in late summer, when the animal moults its woolly fur. The summer coat is 1.5 cm long and the winter coat is double that length. The legs, underparts, end of the muzzle, and the inside of the ears are all white. A broad, dark chocolate-coloured dorsal stripe extends from the mane to the end of the tail, which ends in a tuft of blackish brown hairs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "The genus \"Equus\", which includes all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from \"Dinohippus\", via the intermediate form \"Plesippus\". One of the oldest species is \"Equus simplicidens\", described as zebra-like with a donkey-shaped head. The oldest fossil to date is ~3.5 million years old from Idaho, USA. The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged \"Equus livenzovensis\" documented from western Europe and Russia.  Molecular phylogenies indicate the most recent common ancestor of all modern equids (members of the genus \"Equus\") lived ~5.6 (3.9–7.8) mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Myr before present date for the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Myr BP. The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones (subgenus \"E. (Asinus)\", including the kulan, onager, and kiang), followed by the African zebras (subgenera \"E. (Dolichohippus)\", and \"E. (Hippotigris)\"). All other modern forms including the domesticated horse (and many fossil Pliocene and Pleistocene forms) belong to the subgenus \"E. (Equus)\" which diverged ~4.8 (3.2–6.5) million years ago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The kiang is closely related to the onager (\"Equus hemionus\"), and in some classifications it is considered a subspecies, \"E. hemionus kiang\". Molecular studies, however, indicate that it is a distinct species. An even closer relative, however, may be the extinct \"Equus conversidens\" of Pleistocene America, to which it bears a number of striking similarities; however, such a relationship would require kiangs to have crossed Beringia during the Ice Age, for which little evidence exists. Kiangs can crossbreed with onagers, horses, donkeys, and Burchell's zebras in captivity, although, like mules, the resulting offspring are sterile. Kiangs have never been domesticated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Kiangs are found on the Tibetan Plateau, between the Himalayas in the south and the Kunlun Mountains in the north. This restricts them almost entirely to China, but numbers up to 2500 to 3000 are found across the borders in the Ladakh and Sikkim regions of India, and smaller numbers along the northern frontier of Nepal.  Three subspecies of kiangs are currently recognised:  The eastern kiang is the largest subspecies; the southern kiang is the smallest. The western kiang is slightly smaller than the eastern and also has a darker coat. However, no genetic information confirms the validity of the three subspecies, which may simply represent a cline, with gradual variation between the three forms.  Kiangs inhabit alpine meadows and steppe country between elevation. They prefer relatively flat plateaus, wide valleys, and low hills, dominated by grasses, sedges, and smaller amounts of other low-lying vegetation. This open terrain, in addition to supplying them with suitable forage absent in the more arid regions of central Asia, may make it easier for them to detect, and flee from, predators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "Like all equids, kiangs are herbivores, feeding on grasses and sedges, especially \"Stipa\", but also including other local plants such as bog sedges, true sedges, and meadow grasses. When little grass is available, such as during winter or in the more arid margins of their native habitat, they have been observed eating shrubs, herbs, and even \"Oxytropis\" roots, dug from the ground. Although they do sometimes drink from waterholes, such sources of water are rare on the Tibetan Plateau, and they likely obtain most of their water from the plants they eat, or possibly from snow in winter.  Their only real predator other than humans is the wolf. Kiangs defend themselves by forming a circle, and with heads down, kick out violently. As a result, wolves usually attack single animals that have strayed from the group. Kiangs sometimes gather together in large herds, which may number several hundred individuals. However, these herds are not permanent groupings, but temporary aggregations, consisting either of young males only, or of mothers and their foals. Older males are typically solitary, defending a territory of about from rivals, and dominating any local groups of females. Territorial males sometimes become aggressive towards intruders, kicking and biting at them, but more commonly chase them away after a threat display that involves flattening the ears and braying.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Kiangs mate between late July and late August, when older males tend reproductive females by trotting around them, and then chasing them prior to mating. The length of gestation has been variously reported as seven to 12 months, and results in the birth of a single foal. Females are able to breed again almost immediately after birth, although births every other year are more common. Foals weigh up to at birth, and are able to walk within a few hours. The age of sexual maturity is unknown, although probably around three or four years, as it is in the closely related onager. Kiang live for up to 20 years in the wild.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Travellers' accounts.", "content": "Natural historian Chris Lavers points to travellers' tales of the kiang as one source of inspiration for the unicorn, first described in Indika by the Ancient Greek physician Ctesias.  Ekai Kawaguchi, a Japanese monk who traveled in Tibet from July, 1900 to June 1902, reported:  Thubten Jigme Norbu, the elder brother of Tenzin Gyatso the 14th Dalai Lama, reporting on his trip from Kumbum Monastery in Amdo to Lhasa in 1950, said:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The kiang (\"Equus kiang\") is the largest of the wild asses. It is native to the Tibetan Plateau, where it inhabits montane and alpine grasslands. Its current range is restricted to plains of the Tibetan plateau and Ladakh, India, and northern Nepal along the Tibetan border. Other common names for this species include Tibetan wild ass, khyang and gorkhar. Travellers' accounts of the kiang are one inspiration for the unicorn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974795}
{"src_title": "Filarete", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Antonio di Pietro Averlino was born c. 1400 in Florence where he probably trained as a craftsman. Sources suggest that he worked in Florence under the Italian painter, architect, and biographer Lorenzo Ghiberti, who gave him his more famous name “Filarete” which means “a lover of virtue”. In the mid 15th century, Filarete was expelled from Rome after being accused of attempting to steal the head of John the Baptist and he moved to Venice and then eventually to Milan. There he became a ducal engineer and worked on a variety of architectural projects for the next fifteen years. According to his biographer, Vasari, Filarete died in Rome c. 1469.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bronze doors of Old St. Peter's Basilica.", "content": "A commission granted by Pope Eugene IV meant that Filarete, over the course of twelve years, cast the bronze central doors for Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, which were completed in 1445. Although they were created during the Renaissance, the doors have distinct Byzantine influences and seem tied to the Medieval era. Some critics have noted that the doors offer a glimpse into the mind of Filarete, claiming that they show his “mind of medieval complexity crammed full of exciting but not quite assimilated classical learning”.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Architectural works.", "content": "In Milan Filarete built the Ospedale Maggiore (c. 1456), the overall form of which was rationally planned as a cross within a square, with the hospital church at the center of the plan. Some of the surviving sections of the much-rebuilt structure show the Gothic detail of Milan's \"Quattrocento\" craft traditions, which are at odds with Filarete's design \"all'antica\" or \"after the Antique\". Filarete also worked on the Castello Sforzesco or Sforza Castle and on the Duomo di Milano or Milan Cathedral.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Filarete's treatise on architecture and the ideal city of Sforzinda.", "content": "Filarete completed his substantial book on architecture sometime around 1464, which he referred to as his \"Libro architettonico\" (\"Architectonic book\"). Neither he nor his immediate contemporaries ever referred to it as a \"Trattato\" (\"Treatise\"), though it is usually now called such. The \"Libro\", which comprises twenty-five volumes, enjoyed a fairly wide circulation in manuscript form during the Renaissance. The most well known and best preserved copy of the \"Libro\" is a profusely illustrated manuscript known as the \"Codex Magliabechiano\" (probably drafted c. 1465; now held in the archives of the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze). The fact that the \"Codex Magliabechiano\" is dedicated to Piero de' Medici and was conserved in Florence suggests that Filarete was well regarded in his native Florence despite his loyalty to Milan. The book, which is written as a fictional narrative, consists principally of a detailed account of the technical aspects of architecture (e.g., site and material selection, drawing, construction methods, and so on) and a sustained polemic against the Gothic style of Northern Italy, which Filarete calls the \"barbarous modern style.\" Filarete argues instead for the use of classical Roman models.  The most famous part of his book is his plan for Sforzinda, an ideal city named after Francesco Sforza, then Duke of Milan. Although Sforzinda was never built, certain aspects of its design are described in considerable detail. The basic layout of the city is an eight-point star, created by overlaying two squares so that all the corners were equidistant. This shape is then inscribed within a perfect circular moat. This shape is iconographic and probably ties to Filarete’s interest in magic and astrology. Consistent with \"Quattrocento\" or fifteenth century notions concerning the talismanic power of geometry and the crucial importance of astrology, Filarete provides, in addition to pragmatic advice on materials, construction, and fortifications, notes on how to propitiate celestial harmony within Sforzinda. His architectonical drawings and even more his allegorical drawings traced on the margins of the Codex Magliabechianus - such as the Allegory of Vertue and the Allegory of the Reason and Will - Filarete shows a remarkable possession of classical sources, maybe known also through the advice of his friend Francesco Filelfo da Tolentino, the main humanist then at the court of Milan.  In terms of planning, each of the outer points of the star had towers, while the inner angles had gates. Each of the gates was an outlet of radial avenues that each passed through a market square, dedicated to certain goods. All the avenues finally converged in a large square which was centrally located. The town contained three squares – one for the prince’s palace, one for the cathedral, and one for the market. Because the Renaissance was much taken with the idea of the canal town, in Filarete's Sforzinda every other street had a canal for cargo transport. The canal system also connected with the river, and thus the outside world, for the import and export of goods. The city also contained many buildings, including parishes and separate schools for boys and girls. An example of a building that appears in the treatise is Filarete’s House of Vice and Virtue, a ten-storey structure with a brothel on the bottom and an academy of learning on the higher levels. Filarete did much study on representation of Vices and Virtues, and there are suggestions that his radial design for the city was inspired by St. Augustine’s Earthly City, whose circular shape was divided into sections, each of which had its own Vice and Virtue.  The design of Sforzinda may have been in part a direct response to the Italian cities of the Medieval period, whose growth did not necessarily depend on city planning as such, which meant they could be difficult to navigate. In part, the Renaissance humanist interest in classical texts may have stimulated preoccupations with geometry in city layouts, as for example, in Plato's description of Atlantis. Filarete’s ideal plan was meant to reflect on society – where a perfect city form would be the image of a perfect society, an idea that was typical of the humanist views prevalent during the High Renaissance. The Renaissance ideal city implied the centralized power of a prince in its organization, an idea following closely on the heels of Dante’s that “The human race is at its best under a monarch.” Thus it could be argued that the Renaissance ideal city form was tensioned between the perceived need for a centralized power and the potential reality of tyranny.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Influence on architecture and urbanism.", "content": "Filarete's plan of Sforzinda was the first ideal city plan of the Renaissance and his thorough organization of its layout embodied a greater level of conscious city planning than anyone before him. Despite the many references to medieval symbolism incorporated into Sforzinda's design, the city's principles became the archetype for the humanist city during the High Renaissance. The treatise gained interest from many important leaders such as Giangaleazzo Sforza and Piero de' Medici and later when Francesco di Giorgio and Leonardo da Vinci began to plan their ideal cities they borrowed ideas from Filarete.  Although it was never built, Sforzinda served as an inspiration for many future city plans. For example, in the 16th century, Renaissance military engineers and architects combined Filarete's ideal city schemes with defensive fortifications deriving from a more sociopolitical agenda. This notion of combining the ideal and the fortified city became widely disseminated throughout Europe and beyond.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antonio di Pietro Aver(u)lino (; – ), known as Filarete (; from, meaning \"lover of excellence\"), was a Florentine Renaissance architect, sculptor, medallist, and architectural theorist. He is perhaps best remembered for his design of the ideal city of Sforzinda, the first ideal city plan of the Renaissance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974796}
{"src_title": "Kikuyu people", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "The group was formed in Canton, Ohio, in 1958 while its members were attending Canton McKinley High School. Originally known as The Mascots, and then The Triumphs, the friends began recording with \"Miracles\" in 1961, which was a moderate hit in the Cleveland area. In 1963, they took the name \"The O'Jays,\" in tribute to Cleveland radio disc jockey Eddie O'Jay who was part of the powerful management team of Frankie Crocker, Herb Hamlett & Eddie O'Jay, (Toop, 1991). In 1963, The O'Jays released \"Lonely Drifter,\" their first national chart hit on the \" Billboard\" Hot 100, peaking at #93. Their debut album, released shortly thereafter was \"Comin' Through.\"  Throughout the 1960s, they continued to chart with minor hits such as \"Lipstick Traces,\" (which they performed nationally on the ABC Television program, \"Shivaree\"), \"Stand In For Love,\" \"Stand Tall,\" \"Let It All Out,\" \"I'll Be Sweeter Tomorrow,\" \"Look Over Your Shoulder,\" \"Deeper In Love With You,\" and \"One Night Affair.\" However, while they issued dozens of singles throughout the decade, they never hit the US top 40 (although \"Lipstick Traces\" made it to #19 in Canada). On the R&B charts, The O'Jays were somewhat more prominent, but their only top 10 R&B single prior to 1972 was 1968's \"I'll Be Sweeter Tomorrow.\"  In spite of their success as a touring group and on the R&B charts, the group had been considering quitting the music industry in 1972. Around that time, original members Bill Isles and Bobby Massey departed, leaving the group a trio. The remaining three original members, Eddie Levert, William Powell, and Walter Williams, soldiered on and Gamble & Huff, a team of producers and songwriters with whom the O'Jays had been working for several years, signed them to their Philadelphia International label. Suddenly, The O'Jays' fortunes changed, and they finally scored with their first million-seller, \"Back Stabbers,\" from the album of the same name. This album produced several more hit singles, including \"992 Arguments,\" \"Sunshine,\" \"Time To Get Down,\" and the #1 pop smash, \"Love Train.\"  During the remainder of the 1970s, the O'Jays continued releasing hit singles, including \"Put Your Hands Together\" (Pop #10), \"For the Love of Money\" (Pop #9), \"Give the People What They Want,\" \"Let Me Make Love To You,\" \"I Love Music\" (Pop #5), \"Livin' for the Weekend,\" \"Message in Our Music,\" and \"Darlin' Darlin' Baby (Sweet Tender Love).\" Original member William Powell died of cancer in 1977 at age 35.  After adding Sammy Strain (born December 9, 1939) (of Little Anthony and the Imperials), the O'Jays continued recording, though with limited success. In 1978, the group released \"Use ta Be My Girl,\" which was their final Top-Five hit, though they continued placing songs on the R&B charts throughout the 1980s. The O'Jays' success was not confined to the United States, as they also logged up nine hit singles in the United Kingdom between 1972 and 1983, including four tracks that reached the Top 20 in the UK Singles Chart. Their 1987 album, \"Let Me Touch You,\" was a breakthrough of sorts, and included the #1 R&B hit \"Lovin' You.\" Though they continued charting on the R&B charts in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the O'Jays never again achieved pop success. In 1992, Sammy Strain left the group and returned to the Imperials. Strain's departure was filled by Nathaniel Best, who was later replaced by Eric Grant. Later in the 1990s, the group did little recording, though they remained a popular live draw. Their latest album was \"Imagination\" that was released in 2004.  In 2003, the trio co-starred in the movie \"The Fighting Temptations,\" which starred Cuba Gooding Jr. and Beyoncé Knowles. In the film, they played three barbers with incredible vocal harmony who joined the local church choir to help out the film's protagonists: Darrin (Gooding) and Lilly (Knowles), who were the choir director and lead singer, respectively.  In 2005, the O'Jays were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Original members Eddie Levert, Walter Williams, Bobby Massey and, posthumously, William Powell, were inducted. In a note of controversy, Sammy Strain was also inducted with the group, while original member Bill Isles was not. (Strain is one of the few artists in popular music history who is a double RRHOF inductee: with The O'Jays in 2005, and Little Anthony and the Imperials in 2009). In 2006, the O'Jays performed at the ESPY awards, hosted by Lance Armstrong. \"For the Love of Money\" was the theme song to the hit reality TV show \"The Apprentice,\" starring Donald Trump, and the group once performed the song live on the show.  On February 23, 2007, Radio-Canada's website reported that Canadian Industry Minister, Jim Prentice, had used the song \"For The Love of Money\" without the group's permission during a political event, a faux pas since Prentice is responsible for the application of the Copyright Act in Canada. Radio-Canada also reported that Prentice has since been contacted by the attorneys for both the O'Jays and Warner/Chappell Music.  On June 28, 2009, at the 2009 BET Award Show in the Shrine Auditorium the O'Jays were honored with BET's 2009 Life Time Achievement Award. Tevin Campbell, Trey Songz, Tyrese Gibson, and Johnny Gill performed a medley of the group's songs, followed by the presentation of the award by Don Cornelius. The group reminisced, joked with the audience, and accepted their award before performing renditions of their hit songs.  On October 30, 2010, the group performed at Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear in Washington, D.C. In Cleveland, Ohio, on August 17, 2013, The O'Jays were inducted into The National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame. The O'Jays are also two-time Grammy Hall of Fame Inductees for their songs \"\"Love Train\" \" (inducted 2006) and \"\"For the Love of Money\"\" (inducted 2016).  On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed The O'Jays among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Top Twenty singles.", "content": "The following singles reached the Top Twenty on either the United States \"Billboard\" Hot 100 pop singles chart or the United Kingdom's UK Singles Chart.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Top Twenty albums.", "content": "The following albums reached the Top Twenty on the United States \"Billboard\" 200 pop albums chart.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gold and platinum records.", "content": "Gold discs, signifying sales in excess of five hundred thousand copies (USA) were awarded to their singles \"Back Stabbers,\" \"Love Train,\" \"For the Love of Money,\" \"I Love Music,\" and \"Use ta Be My Girl;\" plus for the albums' \"Back Stabbers,\" \"Ship Ahoy,\" \"The O'Jays Live in London,\" \"Survival,\" \"Travelin' at the Speed of Thought,\" \"Message in the Music,\" \"Emotionally Yours,\" and \"Family Reunion.\" \"For the Love of Money\" was used as the theme for the two reality shows \"The Apprentice\" and \"The Celebrity Apprentice\" on NBC-TV.  The following albums by The O'Jays have received the RIAA Platinum Record Award indicating sales in excess of one million copies: \"Ship Ahoy,\" \"Family Reunion,\" \"Identify Yourself,\" and \"So Full Of Love.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The O'Jays are an American R&B group from Canton, Ohio, formed in 1958 and originally consisting of Eddie Levert (born June 16, 1942), Walter Lee Williams (born August 25, 1943), William Powell (January 20, 1942 – May 26, 1977), Bobby Massey (born 1942, Canton) and Bill Isles (January 4, 1941 – March 28, 2019). The O'Jays made their first chart appearance with \"Lonely Drifter\" in 1963, but reached their greatest level of success once Gamble & Huff, a team of producers and songwriters, signed them to their Philadelphia International label in 1972. With Gamble & Huff, the O'Jays (now a trio after the departure of Isles and Massey) emerged at the forefront of Philadelphia soul with \"Back Stabbers\" (1972), and topped the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 the following year with what some consider to be the first disco hit song, \"Love Train.\" Numerous other hits followed through the 1970s and into the 1980s and 1990s, and The O'Jays were inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2004, and The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2005 and in 2013 they were inducted into National Rhythm and Blues Hall of Fame.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974797}
{"src_title": "Isabelle Collin Dufresne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Isabelle Collin Dufresne was brought up in a strict religious upper-middle-class family, but she rebelled at an early age. She was instructed at a Catholic school, and then a reform school. In 1953, she received a BA in Art at \"Le Sacré Cœur\" in Grenoble, France. She soon left France to live with an older sister in New York City.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Salvador Dalí and New York City.", "content": "In 1954, after a meeting with Salvador Dalí, she became his \"muse\", pupil, studio assistant, and lover in both Port Lligat, Spain, and in New York City. Later, she would recall, \"I realized that I was'surreal', which I never knew until I met Dalí\". In the 1960s, Dufresne began to follow the progressive American Pop Art scene including Jasper Johns, Robert Rauschenberg and James Rosenquist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Warhol and \"The Factory\".", "content": "In 1963, Dalí introduced Dufresne to Andy Warhol, and soon she moved into the orbit of his unorthodox studio, \"The Factory\". In 1964 she selected the stage name \"Ultra Violet\" at Warhol's suggestion, because it was her preferred fashion — her hair color at the time was often violet or lilac. She became one of many \"superstars\" in Warhol's Factory, and played multiple roles in over a dozen films between 1965 and 1974.  In 1967 Ultra Violet played a part (with, among others, Taylor Mead) in the surrealistic play \"Desire Caught by the Tail\" by Pablo Picasso when it was set for the first time in France at a festival in Saint-Tropez. She would eventually appear in more than 20 films, not counting numerous documentaries made at the Factory.  At various points in her career she would meet numerous celebrities, including John Graham, John Chamberlain, Edward Ruscha, Rudolf Nureyev, Miloš Forman, Howard Hughes, Richard Nixon, Aristotle Onassis, Maria Callas, Marcel Duchamp, Man Ray, Marc Chagall, Bob Dylan, John Lennon and Yoko Ono. In later reminiscences, she would name Ruscha, Nureyev, and Forman among her past lovers.  In 1969, she was \"dethroned\" as Warhol's primary muse by Viva, a more recent discovery.  Although a full participant in activities at the Factory, she generally avoided the heavy drug usage prevalent at the time, saying that her body reacted badly to drugs. She had tried smoking as a rebellious teen, had gotten very sick as a result, and resolved to abstain from drug usage. She would later observe, \"If I had lived like all those young people, I would be dead today\".  In the 1980s, she gradually drifted away from the Factory scene, taking a lower profile and working independently on her own art. In her autobiography, published the year after Warhol's unexpected demise in 1987, she chronicled the activities of many Warhol superstars, including several untimely deaths during and after the Factory years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "In 1988, Ultra Violet published her autobiography, \"Famous for 15 Minutes: My Years with Andy Warhol\". This autobiography was edited extensively and partially translated from French to English by her New York penthouse roommate Natalie Durkee. After a review of the book in the \"New York Times\", it was published worldwide, eventually in 17 languages. After a book tour, she returned to France; in 1990 she opened a studio in Nice and wrote another book detailing her own ideas about art, \"L'Ultratique\". She lived and worked as an artist in New York City, and also maintained a studio in Nice for the rest of her life.  In 2000, she was featured in \"Message to Andy Warhol\", a \"concept art documentary\" by Laurent Foissac. On April 10, 2005 she joined a panel discussion \"Reminiscences of Dalí: A Conversation with Friends of the Artist\" as part of a symposium \"The Dalí Renaissance\" for a major retrospective show at the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Her conversation with another former Dalí protégée, French singer/actress Amanda Lear, is recorded in the 236-page exhibition catalog, \"The Dalí Renaissance: New Perspectives on His Life and Art after 1940\".  In 2006, she had a solo show at Stefan Stux Gallery in Chelsea, Manhattan. In 2007 she gave a retrospective lecture at the New York Institute of Technology.  In 2010, filmmaker David Henry Gerson released \"Ultra Violet for Sixteen Minutes\", a short documentary showing her perspectives on fame, art, religion, and her current artistic practice.  In 2011, she was featured in a brief article about the surviving former Warhol \"Superstars\". Regarding her famous past and her artwork today, she has said, \"People always want to know about the past, but I'm much more interested in tomorrow\". In 2011, she exhibited a series of artworks as her personal memorial of the September 11 attacks, which were displayed in the exhibit \"Memorial IX XI\" at Queensborough Community College.  In a 2012 interview, she said, \"I'm a New Yorker, I'm an American, and I'm an artist. Because of those three things, I had to do something about 9/11, and the question was what to do, which is not simple\".  On August 12, 2014 independent record label Refinersfire released a posthumous limited edition 2-disc collection of original music and private conversations of Ultra Violet and Andy Warhol. The music was recorded in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and features cover performances of \"La vie en Rose\", \"Mojo Queen\", and the original songs \"Famous for Fifteen Minutes\" and \"Moon Rock\". Ultra Violet also had recorded private telephone conversations between herself and Andy Warhol, which feature topics such as police harassment, their films, the business of art, the RFK assassination, and Valerie Solanas and her attempt on Warhol's life.  She gave her last TV-interview for the German documentary \"Wie ich lernte, die Zahlen zu lieben/How I Learned to Love the Numbers\" about OCD by Oliver Sechting & Max Taubert.  Her last exhibition in New York, \"Ultra Violet: The Studio Recreated\", closed three weeks before her death. It included paintings, sculptures, photographs, films, and neon art.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1973, a near-death experience and a bout with depression launched Ultra Violet on a spiritual quest, culminating in her baptism in 1981. For the rest of her life, she was a practicing member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.  Dufresne died on 14 June 2014 in New York City at the age of 78, from cancer. She had never married. Dufresne was survived by two sisters. She is buried in Saint-Égrève near Grenoble.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Isabelle Collin Dufresne (stage name Ultra Violet; 6 September 1935 – 14 June 2014) was a French-American artist, author, and both a colleague of Andy Warhol and one of the pop artist's so-called superstars. Earlier in her career, she worked for and studied with surrealist artist Salvador Dalí. Dufresne lived and worked in New York City, and also had a studio in Nice, France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974798}
{"src_title": "Cassis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is situated on the Mediterranean coast, about east of Marseille. Cap Canaille, between Cassis and La Ciotat (\"the \"civitas\"\") is one of the highest maritime bluffs in Europe, a sailor's landmark for millennia. It is east of Marseille and in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône. One of its main beach, called \"Bestouan\" is made cooler by a karstic source.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The site where Cassis now sits was first occupied between 500 and 600 BC by the Ligures, who constructed a fortified habitation at the top of the Baou Redon. These people lived by fishing, hunting, and by farming.  The current site of Cassis could have been inhabited by the Greeks, though no proof has yet been found.  During the Roman times, Cassis was part of the maritime route made by the Emperor Antoninus Pius. It was a small village, established mainly around the Arena and Corton beaches. The principal livelihood was fishing and maritime trade with North Africa and the Middle East. Several archaeological discoveries attest to this.  From the 5th to the 10th century, invasions by foreign tribes led the population to seek refuge in the \"castrum\", a fortified city that, in 1223, became the property of the Seigneurie des Les Baux-de-Provence.  In the fifteenth century, Cassis was ceded to the Counts of Provence, then René of Anjou gave the town to the Bishops of Marseille, who ruled the town until the Revolution of 1789.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industrial Revolution.", "content": "In the eighteenth century, Cassis started to develop outside the ramparts of the fortified city and around the port. After the Bourbon Restoration, new industries developed here, including the drying of cod, the manufacture of olive oil and clothing, coral work, wine-making and the exploitation of local stone (cement, limestone). \"Stone of Cassis\", which was quarried here since antiquity made the town famous. It has been used for the quays of the large Mediterranean ports (Alexandria, Algiers, Piraeus, Marseille, and Port Said). A claim that it was used for the base of the Statue of Liberty in New York City gained wide circulation but has been proved apocryphal. Today, the stone is used more for domestic purposes such as the construction of sinks and fireplaces.  In the twentieth century, as these industries began to disappear, the workforce turned to tourism and wine making. Cassis was one of the first three vineyards to profit from the \"appellation d'origine contrôlée\" (label of controlled origin) introduced in 1936.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin of the name.", "content": "The oldest form is Tutelæ Charsitanæ, attested since the first century. It then drifts into Carsicis (15th century) and Castrum Cassitis (1323). These place names suggest a Car-s theme derived from the pre-Indo-European *Kar meaning stone or rock, to which has been added the suffix -ite. The French language has retained the Provençal Cassis spelling, which is identical in both the classical and Mistralian standards.  The final \"s\" is not pronounced in the local variant of Provençal but is pronounced in the general Provençal. This pronunciation of the final \"s\" is found in the motto of the city that rhymes Paris, Cassis and vist with each other (pronunciation in Provençal \"mistralien\": /pa.ʁis/, /ka.sis/, /vis/). In French, the two pronunciations are combined.  The Provençal motto of the commune attributed to Frédéric Mistral is \"Qu a vist Paris, se noun a vist Cassis, n'a rèn vist\", which means \"Who has seen Paris and not Cassis, has not seen anything\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns/sister cities.", "content": "Cassis is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cassis (; Occitan: \"Cassís\") is a commune situated east of Marseille in the department of Bouches-du-Rhône in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, whose coastline is known in English as the French Riviera, in Southern France. In 2016, it had a population of 7,265.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974799}
{"src_title": "Charles Lucien Bonaparte", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Bonaparte was the son of Lucien Bonaparte and Alexandrine de Bleschamp, and a nephew of Emperor Napoleon I. Born in Paris, he was raised in Italy. On 29 June 1822, he married his cousin, Zénaïde, in Brussels. Soon after the marriage, the couple left for Philadelphia in the United States to live with Zénaïde's father, Joseph Bonaparte. Before leaving Italy, Carlo had already discovered a warbler new to science, the moustached warbler, and on the voyage he collected specimens of a new storm-petrel. On arrival in the United States, he presented a paper on this new bird, which was later named after Alexander Wilson.  Bonaparte then set about studying the ornithology of the United States and updating Wilson's \"Ornithology or History of the Birds of the United States\". The revised edition was published between 1825 and 1833. His other publications included \"Observations on the Nomenclature of Wilson's Ornithology\" (in the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy) and \"Synopsis of the Birds of the United States\" (in the Annals of the Lyceum of New York). In 1824, Bonaparte tried to get the then unknown John James Audubon accepted by the Academy of Natural Sciences, but this was opposed by the ornithologist George Ord who disliked Audubon's dramatic bird poses and considered him to be a \"a back-country upstart who romanticized his subject matter,\" according to the Audubon Galleries.  At the end of 1826, Bonaparte and his family returned to Europe. He visited Germany, where he met Philipp Jakob Cretzschmar, and England, where he met John Edward Gray at the British Museum, and renewed his acquaintance with Audubon. In 1828, the family settled in Rome. In Italy, he was the originator of several scientific congresses, and lectured and wrote extensively on American and European ornithology and other branches of natural history. Between 1832 and 1841, Bonaparte published his work on the animals of Italy, \"Iconografia della Fauna Italica\". He had also published \"Specchio Comparativo delle Ornithologie di Roma e di Filadelfia\" (Pisa, 1827), presenting a comparison between birds of the latitude of Philadelphia and Italian species. He created the genus \"Zenaida\", after his wife, for the mourning dove and its relatives. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1845.  In 1840, he became Prince of Canino and Musignano after his father's death and became involved in politics, particularly the anti-Austrian party which he joined in 1848. He did not, however, lose interest in his favourite studies for he organized and presided over several scientific congresses in Italy.  In 1849, he was elected to the Roman Assembly and participated in the creation of the Roman Republic. According to Jasper Ridley, when the Assembly convened for the first time: \"When the name of Carlo Bonaparte, who was a member for Viterbo, was called, he replied to the roll-call by calling out \"Long live the Republic!\"\" (\"Viva la Repubblica!\"). He participated in the defense of Rome against the 40,000 French troops sent by his cousin Louis Napoleon. He left Rome after the Republican army was defeated in July 1849. He landed at Marseilles, but was ordered to leave the country by Louis Napoleon. He reaffirmed his political beliefs the following year in naming Wilson's bird-of-paradise (\"Cicinnurus respublica\") in honor of the republican idea.  He travelled to the United Kingdom, attending the meeting of the British Association in Birmingham. He then visited Sir William Jardine in southern Scotland. Charles then began work on preparing a methodical classification of all the birds in the world, visiting museums across Europe to study the collections. In 1850, he was allowed to return to France and made Paris his home for the rest of his life. In 1854, he became director of the Jardin des Plantes. In 1855, he was made a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He published the first volume of his \"Conspectus Generum Avium\" before his death, the second volume being edited by Hermann Schlegel.  Bonaparte also studied amphibians and reptiles, and is the author of \"Vipera ursinii\", commonly known as Orsini's viper.  Bonaparte was extremely prolific and is responsible for coining Latin names for a large number of bird species. As of August 2019, in the online list of birds maintained by Frank Gill and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC), Bonaparte is credited as the authority for 165 genera, 203 species and 262 subspecies.  Lucien Charles Bonaparte died in Paris at age 54.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Prince Charles and Princess Zénaïde Bonaparte had twelve children, listed below :", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "In conjunction with M. de Pouancé, he also prepared descriptive catalogue of pigeons and one of parrots which were published after his death. Among his papers published are:  He published several scientific papers on ornithological topics in the Bolognese journal \"Nuovi annali delle scienze naturali\", as Carlo Luciano Bonaparte.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Several birds are named after him:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte, 2nd Prince of Canino and Musignano (24 May 1803 – 29 July 1857), was a French biologist and ornithologist. Lucien and his wife had twelve children, including Cardinal Lucien Bonaparte.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974800}
{"src_title": "Banded hare-wallaby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The description of the species was published in the 1807 report of a French expedition to Australia. The authors, zoologist François Péron and illustrator Charles Lesueur, described a specimen collected at Bernier Island during their visit to the region in 1801, naming the new species as \"Kangurus faciatus\".  Evidence suggested that the mernine was the only living member of the sthenurine subfamily, and a recent osteology-based phylogeny of macropodids found that the banded hare-wallaby was indeed a bastion of an ancient lineage, agreeing with other (molecular) appraisals of the evolutionary history of \"L. fasciatus\". However, the authors analysis did not support the placement of the mernine within Sthenurinae, but suggest it belongs to a plesiomorphic clade which branched off from other macropodids in the early Miocene and put forward the new subfamily Lagostrophinae. Recent analysis of mtDNA extracted from fossils of the sthenurine \"Simosthenurus\" supports this conclusion. This new subfamily includes the banded hare-wallaby and the fossil genus \"Troposodon\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The average banded hare-wallaby weighs 1.7 kg, females weigh more than the males. It measures about 800 mm from the head to the end of the tail, with the tail almost the same length (averaging 375 mm) as the body. It has a short nose; its long, grey fur is speckled with yellow and silver and fades into a light grey on the underbelly. No colour variation is seen on the face or head, and its colouring is solid grey. Dark, horizontal stripes of fur start at the middle of the back and stop at the base of the tail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "The banded hare-wallaby is nocturnal and tends to live in groups at nesting sites; this species is quite social. Nesting occurs in thickets under very dense brush. This macropod prefers to live in \"Acacia ligulata\" scrub. Males are extremely aggressive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The species was once found on the mainland, in the southwest of Western Australia and South Australia, but is now restricted to Bernier Island and Dorre Island off Western Australia. Although the banded hare-wallaby was once found across the south-western portion of Australia, it is believed to have been extinct on the mainland since 1963, and the last recorded evidence of the banded hare-wallaby on the Australian mainland was in 1906. The devastation of the species possibly can be attributed to the loss of habitat to the clearing of vegetation, the loss of food (due to competition with other animals), and predators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diversity.", "content": "Two subspecies are recognized: \"L. f. fasciatus\" and \"L. f. baudinettei\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "This diprotodontian is a vegetarian and receives most of its water from food. It prefers to eat various grasses, fruit, and other vegetation. Male aggression is usually brought out in competition for food with other males and is very rarely expressed toward females.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Mating season starts in December and ends in September. The banded hare-wallaby reaches maturity at one year of age, breeding usually starts in the second year. Gestation appears to last several months and mothers generally raise one young each year, although females may produce two young per year. Young remain in their mother's pouch for six months and continue to be weaned for another three months. In situations where a mother's young dies, some mothers have an extra embryo to possibly rear another.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The banded hare-wallaby, mernine, or munning (\"Lagostrophus fasciatus\") is a marsupial currently found on the Islands of Bernier and Dorre off western Australia. A small population has recently been established on Faure Island, and it appears to have been successful. It has also been reintroduced to Wadderin Sanctuary, near Narembeen in the central wheatbelt, in 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974801}
{"src_title": "Akseli Gallen-Kallela", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Gallen-Kallela was born Axel Waldemar Gallén in Pori, Finland in a Swedish-speaking family. His father Peter Gallén worked as police chief and lawyer. Gallen-Kallela was raised in Tyrvää. At the age of 11 he was sent to Helsinki to study at a grammar school, because his father opposed his ambition to become a painter. After his father's death in 1879, Gallen-Kallela attended drawing classes at the Finnish Art Society (1881–1884) and studied privately under Adolf von Becker.  In 1884 he moved to Paris, to study at the Académie Julian. In Paris he became friends with the Finnish painter Albert Edelfelt, the Norwegian painter Carl Dörnberger, and the Swedish writer August Strindberg.  He married Mary Slöör in 1890. The couple had three children, Impi Marjatta, Kirsti and Jorma. On their honeymoon to East Karelia, Gallen-Kallela started collecting material for his depictions of the \"Kalevala\". This period is characterized by romantic paintings of the \"Kalevala\", like the \"Aino Myth\", and by several landscape paintings. In December 1894, Gallen-Kallela moved to Berlin to oversee the joint exhibition of his works with the works of Norwegian painter Edvard Munch. Here he became acquainted with the Symbolists.  In March 1895, he received a telegram that his daughter Impi Marjatta had died from diphtheria. This would prove to be a turning point in his work. While his works had previously been romantic, after his daughter's death Gallen-Kallela painted more aggressive works like \"the Defense of the Sampo\", \"Joukahainen's Revenge\", \"Kullervo Cursing\" and \"Lemminkäinen's Mother\".  On his return from Germany, Gallen studied print-making and visited London to deepen his knowledge, and in 1898 studied fresco-painting in Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "For the Paris World Fair in 1900, Gallen-Kallela painted frescoes for the Finnish Pavilion. In these frescoes, his political ideas became most apparent. One of the vipers in the fresco \"Ilmarinen Plowing the Field of Vipers\" is wearing the Romanov crown, and the process of removing the vipers from the field was a clear reference to his wish for an independent Finland.  The Paris Exposition secured Gallen-Kallela's stature as the leading Finnish artist. In 1901 he was commissioned to paint the fresco, \"Kullervo Goes to War\", for the concert hall of the Helsinki Student's Union. Between 1901 and 1903 he painted the frescoes for the Jusélius Mausoleum in Pori, memorializing the 11-year-old daughter of the industrialist F.A. Jusélius. (The frescoes were soon damaged by dampness, and were completely destroyed by fire in December 1931. Jusélius assigned the artist's son Jorma to repaint them from the original sketches. The reconstruction was completed just before Jorma's death in 1939.)  Gallen-Kallela officially finnicized his name to the more Finnish-sounding Akseli Gallen-Kallela in 1907.  In 1909, Gallen-Kallela moved to Nairobi in Kenya with his family, he was the first Finnish artist to travel south of the Sahara, and there he painted over 150 expressionist oil paintings and bought many east African artefacts. But he returned to Finland after a couple of years, because he realized Finland was his main inspiration. Between 1911 and 1913 he designed and built a studio and house at Tarvaspää, about 10 km northwest of the centre of Helsinki.  In 1918, Gallen-Kallela and his son Jorma took part in the fighting at the front of the Finnish Civil War. When the regent, General Mannerheim, later heard about this, he invited Gallen-Kallela to design the flags, official decorations and uniforms for the newly independent Finland. For the flag, Gallen-Kallela proposed a white-blue cross flag, with colors inverted (white cross on blue), but this was considered too similar to the Swedish flag and particularly the Greek flag of the time. In 1919 he was appointed aide-de-camp to Mannerheim.  From December 1923 to May 1926, Gallen-Kallela lived in the United States, where an exhibition of his work toured several cities, and where he visited the Taos art-colony in New Mexico to study indigenous American art. In 1925 he began the illustrations for his \"Great Kalevala\". This was still unfinished when he died of pneumonia in Stockholm on 7 March 1931, while returning from a lecture in Copenhagen, Denmark.  His studio and house at Tarvaspää was opened as the Gallen-Kallela Museum in 1961; it houses some of his works and research facilities on Gallen-Kallela himself.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Akseli Gallen-Kallela (26 April 1865 – 7 March 1931) was a Finnish painter who is best known for his illustrations of the \"Kalevala\", the Finnish national epic (\"illustration, below\"). His work is considered very important for the Finnish national identity. He changed his name from Gallén to Gallen-Kallela in 1907.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974802}
{"src_title": "Generalized inverse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Motivation.", "content": "Consider the linear system  where formula_1 is an formula_9 matrix and formula_10 the column space of formula_1. If formula_1 is nonsingular (which implies formula_13) then formula_14 will be the solution of the system. Note that, if formula_1 is nonsingular, then  Now suppose formula_1 is rectangular (formula_18), or square and singular. Then we need a right candidate formula_19 of order formula_20 such that for all formula_10  That is, formula_23 is a solution of the linear system formula_7. Equivalently, we need a matrix formula_19 of order formula_26 such that  Hence we can define the generalized inverse or g-inverse as follows: Given an formula_9 matrix formula_1, an formula_20 matrix formula_19 is said to be a generalized inverse of formula_1 if formula_27 The matrix formula_34 has been termed a regular inverse of formula_1 by some authors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "The Penrose conditions define different generalized inverses for formula_2 and formula_37  where formula_42 indicates conjugate transpose. If formula_4 satisfies the first condition, then it is a generalized inverse of formula_1. If it satisfies the first two conditions, then it is a reflexive generalized inverse of formula_1. If it satisfies all four conditions, then it is the pseudoinverse of formula_1. A pseudoinverse is sometimes called the Moore–Penrose inverse, after the pioneering works by E. H. Moore and Roger Penrose.  When formula_1 is non-singular, any generalized inverse formula_48 and is unique, but in all other cases, there are an infinite number of matrices that satisfy condition (1). However, the Moore–Penrose inverse is unique.  There are other kinds of generalized inverse:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reflexive generalized inverse.", "content": "Let  Since formula_68, formula_69 is singular and has no regular inverse. However, formula_69 and formula_71 satisfy conditions (1) and (2), but not (3) or (4). Hence, formula_71 is a reflexive generalized inverse of formula_69.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "One-sided inverse.", "content": "Let  Since formula_69 is not square, formula_69 has no regular inverse. However, formula_77 is a right inverse of formula_69. The matrix formula_69 has no left inverse.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The following characterizations are easy to verify:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Any generalized inverse can be used to determine whether a system of linear equations has any solutions, and if so to give all of them. If any solutions exist for the \"n\" × \"m\" linear system  with vector formula_81 of unknowns and vector formula_82 of constants, all solutions are given by  parametric on the arbitrary vector formula_84, where formula_4 is any generalized inverse of formula_1. Solutions exist if and only if formula_87 is a solution, that is, if and only if formula_88. If \"A\" has full column rank, the bracketed expression in this equation is the zero matrix and so the solution is unique.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transformation consistency properties.", "content": "In practical applications it is necessary to identify the class of matrix transformations that must be preserved by a generalized inverse. For example, the Moore-Penrose inverse, formula_89 satisfies the following definition of consistency with respect to transformations involving unitary matrices \"U\" and \"V\":  The Drazin inverse, formula_91 satisfies the following definition of consistency with respect to similarity transformations involving a nonsingular matrix \"S\":  The unit-consistent (UC) inverse, formula_93 satisfies the following definition of consistency with respect to transformations involving nonsingular diagonal matrices \"D\" and \"E\":  The fact that the Moore-Penrose inverse provides consistency with respect to rotations (which are orthonormal transformations) explains its widespread use in physics and other applications in which Euclidean distances must be preserved. The UC inverse, by contrast, is applicable when system behavior is expected to be invariant with respect to the choice of units on different state variables, e.g., miles versus kilometers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, and in particular, algebra, a generalized inverse of an element \"x\" is an element \"y\" that has some properties of an inverse element but not necessarily all of them. Generalized inverses can be defined in any mathematical structure that involves associative multiplication, that is, in a semigroup. This article describes generalized inverses of a matrix formula_1.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974803}
{"src_title": "Immunodeficiency", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "By affected component.", "content": "In reality, immunodeficiency often affects multiple components, with notable examples including severe combined immunodeficiency (which is primary) and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (which is secondary).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Primary or secondary.", "content": "Distinction between primary versus secondary immunodeficiencies are based on, respectively, whether the cause originates in the immune system itself or is, in turn, due to insufficiency of a supporting component of it or an external decreasing factor of it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Primary immunodeficiency.", "content": "A number of rare diseases feature a heightened susceptibility to infections from childhood onward. Primary Immunodeficiency is also known as congenital immunodeficiencies. Many of these disorders are hereditary and are autosomal recessive or X-linked. There are over 95 recognised primary immunodeficiency syndromes; they are generally grouped by the part of the immune system that is malfunctioning, such as lymphocytes or granulocytes.  The treatment of primary immunodeficiencies depends on the nature of the defect, and may involve antibody infusions, long-term antibiotics and (in some cases) stem cell transplantation. The characteristics of lacking and/or impaired antibody functions can be related to illnesses such as X-Linked Agammaglobulinemia and Common Variable Immune Deficiency", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Secondary immunodeficiencies.", "content": "Secondary immunodeficiencies, also known as acquired immunodeficiencies, can result from various immunosuppressive agents, for example, malnutrition, aging, particular medications (e.g., chemotherapy, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, immunosuppressive drugs after organ transplants, glucocorticoids) and environmental toxins like mercury and other heavy metals, pesticides and petrochemicals like styrene, dichlorobenzene, xylene, and ethylphenol. For medications, the term \"immunosuppression\" generally refers to both beneficial and potential adverse effects of decreasing the function of the immune system, while the term \"immunodeficiency\" generally refers solely to the adverse effect of increased risk for infection.  Many specific diseases directly or indirectly cause immunosuppression. This includes many types of cancer, particularly those of the bone marrow and blood cells (leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma), and certain chronic infections. Immunodeficiency is also the hallmark of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV directly infects a small number of T helper cells, and also impairs other immune system responses indirectly.  Various hormonal and metabolic disorders can also result in immune deficiency including anemia, hypothyroidism and hyperglycemia.  Smoking, alcoholism and drug abuse also depress immune response.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Immunodeficiency and autoimmunity.", "content": "There are a large number of immunodeficiency syndromes that present clinical and laboratory characteristics of autoimmunity. The decreased ability of the immune system to clear infections in these patients may be responsible for causing autoimmunity through perpetual immune system activation.  One example is common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) where multiple autoimmune diseases are seen, e.g., inflammatory bowel disease, autoimmune thrombocytopenia, and autoimmune thyroid disease. Familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, an autosomal recessive primary immunodeficiency, is another example. Low blood levels of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, rashes, lymph node enlargement, and enlargement of the liver and spleen are commonly seen in these patients. Presence of multiple uncleared viral infections due to lack of perforin are thought to be responsible. In addition to chronic and/or recurrent infections many autoimmune diseases including arthritis, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, scleroderma and type 1 diabetes are also seen in X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA). Recurrent bacterial and fungal infections and chronic inflammation of the gut and lungs are seen in chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) as well. CGD is caused by a decreased production of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase by neutrophils. Hypomorphic RAG mutations are seen in patients with midline granulomatous disease; an autoimmune disorder that is commonly seen in patients with granulomatosis with polyangiitis and NK/T cell lymphomas. Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome (WAS) patients also present with eczema, autoimmune manifestations, recurrent bacterial infections and lymphoma. In autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED) also autoimmunity and infections coexist: organ-specific autoimmune manifestations (e.g., hypoparathyroidism and adrenocortical failure) and chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. Finally, IgA deficiency is also sometimes associated with the development of autoimmune and atopic phenomena.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Causes.", "content": "The cause of immunodeficiency varies depending on the nature of the disorder. The cause can be either genetic or acquired by malnutrition and poor sanitary conditions. Only for some genetic causes, the exact genes are known.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Available treatment falls into two modalities: treating infections and boosting the immune system.  Prevention of Pneumocystis pneumonia using trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is useful in those who are immunocompromised. In the early 1950s Immunoglobulin(Ig) was used by doctors to treat patients with primary immunodeficiency through intramuscular injection. Ig replacement therapy are infusions that can be either subcutaneous or intravenously administrated, resulting in higher Ig levels for about three to four weeks, although this varies with each patient.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prognosis.", "content": "Prognosis depends greatly on the nature and severity of the condition. Some deficiencies cause early mortality (before age one), others with or even without treatment are lifelong conditions that cause little mortality or morbidity. Newer stem cell transplant technologies may lead to gene based treatments of debilitating and fatal genetic immune deficiencies. Prognosis of acquired immune deficiencies depends on avoiding or treating the causative agent or condition (like AIDS).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Immunodeficiency or immunocompromise is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious disease and cancer is compromised or entirely absent. Most cases of immunodeficiency are acquired (\"secondary\") due to extrinsic factors that affect the patient's immune system. Examples of these extrinsic factors include HIV infection and environmental factors, such as nutrition. In the clinical setting, the immunosuppression by some drugs, such as steroids, can be either an adverse effect or the intended purpose of the treatment. Examples of such use is in organ transplant surgery as an anti-rejection measure and in patients suffering from an overactive immune system, as in autoimmune diseases. Some people are born with intrinsic defects in their immune system, or primary immunodeficiency. A person who has an immunodeficiency of any kind is said to be immunocompromised. An immunocompromised person may be particularly vulnerable to opportunistic infections, in addition to normal infections that could affect everyone. Immunodeficiency also decreases cancer immunosurveillance, in which the immune system scans the body's cells and kills neoplastic ones.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974804}
{"src_title": "Emil Maurice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and association with Hitler.", "content": "A watchmaker by trade, Maurice was a close early associate of Adolf Hitler; their personal friendship dated back to 1919 when they were both members of the German Workers Party (DAP). Maurice officially joined the DAP on 1 December 1919 and his party number was 594 (the count began at 501). With the founding of the \"Sturmabteilung\" in 1920, Maurice became the first \"Oberster SA-Führer\" (Supreme SA Leader). Maurice led the SA stormtroopers in fights that were known to break out with other groups during those early days. Hitler later in his book \"Mein Kampf\" mentions one fight in particular from November 1921 where Maurice was at the forefront of the SA unit during the fighting. Back in July 1921, Maurice became a personal chauffeur for Adolf Hitler. In March 1923, Maurice also became a member of the \"Stabswache\" (Staff Guard), a small separate bodyguard dedicated to Hitler's service rather than \"a suspect mass\" of the party, such as the SA. It was given the task of guarding Hitler at Nazi parties and rallies. In May 1923, the unit was renamed \"Stoßtrupp\" (Shock Troop) 'Adolf Hitler'. Maurice, Julius Schreck, Joseph Berchtold, and Erhard Heiden, were all members of the \"Stoßtrupp\". On 9 November 1923, the \"Stoßtrupp\", along with the SA and several other paramilitary units, took part in the abortive Beer Hall Putsch in Munich. In the aftermath of the putsch, Hitler, Rudolf Hess, Maurice and other Nazi leaders were incarcerated at Landsberg Prison. The Nazi Party and all associated formations, including the \"Stoßtrupp\", were officially disbanded. After Hitler's release from prison, the Nazi Party was officially refounded. In 1925, Hitler ordered the formation of a new bodyguard unit, the \"Schutzkommando\" (protection command). It was formed by Julius Schreck and included old \"Stoßtrupp\" members, Maurice and Heiden. That same year, the \"Schutzkommando\" was expanded to a national level. It was renamed successively the \"Sturmstaffel\" (storm squadron), and finally on 9 November the \"Schutzstaffel\" (SS). Hitler became SS member No. 1 and Emil Maurice became SS member No. 2. At that time, Maurice became an SS-\"Führer\" in the new organization, although the leadership of the SS was assumed by Schreck, the first \"Reichsführer-SS\". Maurice became Hitler's permanent chauffeur in 1925. Later when Maurice informed Hitler in December 1927 that he was having a relationship with Hitler's half-niece Geli Raubal, Hitler forced an end to the affair. Maurice was dismissed from Hitler's personal service in 1928, but allowed to remain a member of the SS.  When the SS was reorganized and expanded in 1932, Maurice became a senior SS officer and would eventually be promoted to the rank SS-\"Oberführer\". While Maurice never became a top commander of the SS, his status as SS member #2 effectively credited him as an actual founder of the organization. Heinrich Himmler, who ultimately would become the most recognized leader of the SS, was SS member #168.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conflict with Himmler over Jewish heritage.", "content": "After Himmler had become \"Reichsführer-SS\", Maurice fell afoul of Himmler's racial purity rules for SS officers when he had to submit details of his family history before he was allowed to marry in 1935. Himmler stated, \"without question...Maurice is, according to his ancestral table, not of Aryan descent\". All SS officers had to prove racial purity back to 1750, and it turned out that Maurice had Jewish ancestry: Charles Maurice Schwartzenberger (1805–1896), the founder of the Thalia Theater in Hamburg, was his great-grandfather.  Even though Maurice had been a party member since 1919, taken part in the abortive Beer Hall Putsch, for which he was awarded the prestigious Blood Order, and been a bodyguard for Hitler, Himmler considered him to be a serious security risk given his \"Jewish ancestry\". Himmler recommended that Maurice be expelled from the SS, along with other members of his family. To Himmler's annoyance, Hitler stood by his old friend. In a secret letter written on 31 August 1935, Hitler compelled Himmler to make an exception for Maurice and his brothers, who were informally declared \"Honorary Aryans\" and allowed to stay in the SS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Maurice became engaged on 31 March 1935 to the medical student – later doctor – Hedwig Maria Anna Ploetz, the daughter of Colonel Rudolf Ploetz. They married on 5 November 1935 in Munich. In 1936, he became a Reichstag deputy for Leipzig and from 1937 was the chairman of the Munich Chamber of Commerce. From 1940 to 1942, he served in the \"Luftwaffe\" as an officer. After the war, in 1948, he was sentenced to four years in a labour camp and had 30% of his assets confiscated. In 1951, he owned a watch shop in Munich. He died on 6 February 1972 in Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emil Maurice (19 January 1897 – 6 February 1972) was an early member of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) and a founding member of the \"Schutzstaffel\" (SS). He was Hitler's first personal chauffeur, succeeded first by Julius Schreck and then Erich Kempka. He was one of the few persons of mixed Jewish and ethnic German ancestry to serve in the SS.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974805}
{"src_title": "Dinka people", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Precolonial history.", "content": "According to oral traditions the Dinka originated from the Gezira in what is now Sudan. In medieval times this region was ruled by the kingdom of Alodia, a Christian, multi-ethnic empire dominated by Nubians. Living in its southern periphery and interacting with the Nubians, the Dinka absorbed a sizable amount of the Nubian vocabulary. From the 13th century, with the disintegration of Alodia, the Dinka began to migrate out of the Gezira, fleeing slave raids and other military conflicts as well as droughts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As part of Sudan.", "content": "The Dinka's religions, beliefs and lifestyle have led to conflict with the Arab Muslim government in Khartoum. The Sudan People's Liberation Army, led by late Dr. John Garang De Mabior, a Dinka, took arms against the government in 1983. During the subsequent 21-year civil war, many thousands of Dinka, along with fellow non-Dinka southerners, were massacred by government forces. The Dinka, led by Salva Kiir Mayardit, have also engaged in a separate civil war with the Nuer and other groups who accuse them of monopolising power.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Christianity Among the Dinka.", "content": "In 1983 due to Sudan’s Second Civil war many young educated Dinka men were forced to flee from the cities where they were working, back to rural Dinka villages. Some of these men were Christians who had been converted by the Anglican Church Missionary Society and they took their faith with them when they fled. Among these men were ordained clergymen who began preaching in the villages. Songs and singing were used to teach the mostly illiterate Dinka about the faith and Biblical lessons. A large number of Dinka people have converted to Christianity in great numbers and are learning how to adapt or reject ancient religious practices and rituals to match Christian teachings. The Christian conversion of the Dinka people did not only happen in the rural villages but also among Dinka refugees as they fled the war-torn country. The Lost Boys of Sudan were converted in great numbers in the refugee camps of Ethiopia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bor massacre.", "content": "On November 15, 1991 the event known as the \"Dinkas Massacre\" commenced in South Sudan. Forces led by the breakaway faction of Riek Machar deliberately killed an estimated 2,000 civilians in Dinkas of Hol, Nyarweng, Twic, Bor and others in villages and wounded several thousand more over the course of two months. It is estimated that 100,000 people left the area following the attack.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Pastoral strategies.", "content": "The Dinka's migrations are determined by the local climate, their agro-pastoral lifestyle responding to the periodic flooding and dryness of the area in which they live. They begin moving around May–June at the onset of the rainy season to their “permanent settlements” of mud and thatch housing above flood level, where they plant their crops of millet and other grain products. These rainy season settlements usually contain other permanent structures such as cattle byres (luak) and granaries. During dry season (beginning about December–January), everyone except the aged, ill, and nursing mothers migrates to semi-permanent dwellings in the toic for cattle grazing. The cultivation of sorghum, millet, and other crops begins in the highlands in the early rainy season and the harvest of crops begins when the rains are heavy in June–August. Cattle are driven to the toic in September and November when the rainfall drops off and allowed to graze on harvested stalks of the crops.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dinka Tribes.", "content": "The number of Dinka sub-divisions is hotly contested as the border or line between group, sub-division and sections is blurred and often difficult to determine. For example, one can divide the Atuot into Apak and Reel, Boor into Athooc and Gok, and Panaruu into Awet and Kuel and Ciec into Ador and Lou where Ador and Lou are sub-divided into Ciec Manyiel (Jieng). Malual is the largest of those groups, numbering over a million people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rek people.", "content": "The Rek is an ethnic group in South Sudan, a subgroup of the Dinka. Its members speak South-Western Dinka, also called Rek, a Nilotic language. Many members of this ethnicity are Christians. Some estimates put the Rek population at or exceeding 500,000 people.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural and religious beliefs.", "content": "The Dinkas' pastoral lifestyle is also reflected in their religious beliefs and practices. Most revere one God, Nhialic, who speaks through spirits that take temporary possession of individuals in order to speak through them. The sacrificing of oxen by the \"masters of the fishing spear\" is a central component of Dinka religious practice. Age is an important factor in Dinka culture, with young men being inducted into adulthood through an initiation ordeal which includes marking the forehead with a sharp object. Also during this ceremony they acquire a second cow-colour name. The Dinka believe they derive religious power from nature and the world around them, rather than from a religious tome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dinka diaspora.", "content": "Sizable groups of Dinka refugees may be found in distant lands, including the United States (Jacksonville, Florida and Clarkston, a working-class suburb of Atlanta, Georgia and in the Midwest such as Omaha Nebraska, Des Moines Iowa, Sioux Falls South Dakota, and Kansas City, Missouri), as well as Edmonton and Calgary in Canada, and Melbourne and Sydney in Australia.  The experience of Dinka refugees was portrayed in the documentary movies \"Lost Boys of Sudan\" by Megan Mylan and Jon Shenk and \"God Grew Tired Of Us\", Joan Hechts' book \"The Journey of the Lost Boys\" and the fictionalized autobiography of a Dinka refugee, Dave Eggers' \"\". Other books on and by the Lost Boys include \"The Lost Boys of Sudan\" by Mark Bixler, \"God Grew Tired of Us\" by John Bul Dau, \"They Poured Fire On Us From The Sky\" by Alephonsion Deng, Benson Deng, and Benjamin Ajak and, \"A Long Walk to Water\" by Linda Sue Park. In 2004 the first volume of the graphic novel 'Echoes of the Lost Boys of Sudan' was released in Dallas, Texas, United States, chronicling in art and dialogue four lost boys' escapes from the destruction of their hometowns in South Sudan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dinka people () are a Nilotic ethnic group native to South Sudan, but also having a sizable diaspora population. They mostly live along the Nile, from Mangalla to Renk, in regions of Bahr el Ghazal, Upper Nile (former two of three Southern Provinces in Sudan) and Abyei Area of the Ngok Dinka in South Sudan. The Dinka mainly live on traditional agriculture and pastoralism, relying on cattle husbandry as a cultural pride, not for commercial profit or for meat, but cultural demonstrations, rituals, marriages' dowries and milk feedings for all ages. The Dinka cultivate food crops and cash crops. The food crops are grains, mainly sorghum and millet. The cash crops include groundnuts, sesame and gum-arabic. Cattle are confined to riversides, the Sudd and grass areas during the dry season, but are taken to high grounds in order to avoid floods and water during the rainy season.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974806}
{"src_title": "Jacek Malczewski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Malczewski was born in Radom, Congress Poland, under occupation of the Russian Empire. During his childhood and early youth he was greatly influenced by his father Julian, a Polish patriot and social activist who introduced him to the world of romantic literature inspired by the November Uprising. On his mother's side, he was related to the Szymanowski family whom they often visited on their Masovian country estate in Cygów. The attractiveness of the Polish landscape and associated folklore had been awakened in him by Feliks Karczewski, his uncle and long-time guardian, who had invited future novelist Adolf Dygasiński to his estate, to act as Jacek's home tutor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artistic career.", "content": "Malczewski moved to Kraków at age 17, and began his artistic education in 1872 under the watchful eye of Polish painter and draughtsman and attended his first art classes in the workshop of Władysław Łuszczkiewicz at the School of Fine Arts. A year later, in 1873, assessed by Jan Matejko himself, Malczewski formally enrolled at the School, and studied with Łuszczkiewicz, Feliks Szynalewski and Florian Cynk. In 1876 he went to Paris and studied for a year at the École des Beaux-Arts, in the studio of Henri Lehmann. He next moved to the Académie Suisse.  Malczewski had already begun master classes with Jan Matejko in 1875 before embarking on the trip to France, and completed them in 1879 after his return from abroad. In spite of considerable stylistic differences between them, Malczewski was greatly influenced by Matejko's historical painting filled with neo-romantic metaphor and patriotic themes. In 1879, Malczewski completed a course in composition under Matejko. He was equally impressed with the dramatic art of earlier Polish romantic painter Artur Grottger. His painting revolved around a few carefully selected motifs, constantly retold and expanded according to mythology and filled with national symbols. His own imagination enabled Malczewski to channel his creativity and let new aesthetic ideas emerge giving rise to what became Poland's school of Symbolism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inspiration.", "content": "Over the course of some 30 years between 1885 and 1916, Malczewski regularly visited Paris, Munich and Vienna. He made several trips to Italy, Greece and Turkey. He also took part in an archaeological expedition organized by his friend Karol Lanckoroński. He drew his inspiration from a wide variety of sources often exotic or biblical, and translated them back into Polish folklore, tradition and motifs in his own painting. His most famous canvases include \"Błędne koło\" (Vicious Circle, 1895–97), \"Melancholia\" (1890–1894), \"Natchnienie malarza\" (Painter's Muse, 1897), \"Wizja\" (A vision, 1912), the \"Thanatos\" series, and \"Bajki\" (Fables). Many of his paintings prominently feature self-portraits in elaborate costume, a trademark of his style, often displaying a great sense of self-mocking humour.  In 1897–1900 and 1912–1921 Malczewski served as professor of the Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków. He was elected Rector of the Academy in 1912. His art has been compared to that of the Frenchman Gustave Moreau, the Swiss Arnold Böcklin, and even to the Spaniard Salvador Dalí. His paintings won numerous awards at international exhibitions including Berlin in 1891, Munich in 1892, and Paris in 1900.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Malczewski was married to Maria \"née\" Garlewska and they had two children, Julia (born 1888) and Rafał (born 1892), also a painter. His son later sold off all of his father's works left to him, to the National Museum in Warsaw before World War II. During the war he left Poland and after travels in Southern Europe and Brazil, finally settled in Montreal.  It is believed that the subject of numerous nude studies in Jacek Malczewski's paintings, Maria Bal (Balowa) \"née\" Brunicka, was also his long-time lover. He lost his sight towards the end of his life and died in Kraków on October 8, 1929. He was buried at Skałka, Poland's national \"Panthéon\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacek Malczewski (; 15 July 1854 – 8 October 1929) is one of the most revered painters of Poland, associated with the patriotic Young Poland movement following a century of Partitions. He is regarded as the father of Polish Symbolism. His creative output combined the predominant style of his times, with historical motifs of Polish martyrdom, the romantic ideals of independence, Christian and Greek mythology, folk tales, as well as his love of the natural world. He was the father of painter Rafał Malczewski.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974807}
{"src_title": "Ilse Koch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Koch was born Margarete Ilse Köhler in Dresden, Germany, the daughter of a former military commander. She was known as a polite and happy child in her elementary school. At the age of 15, she entered an accountancy school. Later, she entered employment as a bookkeeping clerk. At the time the economy of Germany had not yet recovered from defeat in World War I. In 1932, she became a member of the Nazi Party. Through some friends in the SA and SS, she met Karl-Otto Koch in 1934.  In 1936, she began working as a guard and secretary at the Sachsenhausen concentration camp near Berlin, where her fiancé was the Commandant. The couple married the same year. In 1937, her husband was posted to Buchenwald.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War crimes.", "content": "While at Buchenwald, Koch allegedly engaged in a gruesome experiment, where it was claimed that she ordered selected tattooed prisoners to be murdered and skinned to retrieve the tattooed parts of their bodies. It was allegedly done to help a prison doctor,, in his dissertation on tattooing and criminality.  In 1940, she built an indoor sports arena, which cost over 250,000 reichsmarks (approximately $62,500), most of which had been seized from the inmates. In 1941, Karl-Otto Koch was transferred to Lublin, where he helped establish the Majdanek concentration and extermination camp. Ilse Koch remained at Buchenwald until 24 August 1943, when she and her husband were arrested on the orders of Josias von Waldeck-Pyrmont, SS and Police Leader for Weimar, who had supervisory authority over Buchenwald. The charges against the Kochs comprised private enrichment, embezzlement, and the murder of prisoners to prevent them from giving testimony.  Ilse Koch was imprisoned until 1944 when she was acquitted for lack of evidence. Her husband was found guilty and sentenced to death by an SS court in Munich, and was executed by firing squad on 5 April 1945 in the court of the camp he once commanded. She then lived with her surviving family in the town of Ludwigsburg, where she was arrested by U.S. authorities on 30 June 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First trial.", "content": "Koch and 30 other accused were arraigned before the American military court at Dachau (General Military Government Court for the Trial of War Criminals) in 1947. Prosecuting her was future United States Court of Claims Judge Robert L. Kunzig. She was charged with \"participating in a criminal plan for aiding, abetting and participating in the murders at Buchenwald\".  Koch announced in the courtroom that she was eight months pregnant but on 19 August 1947, she was sentenced to life imprisonment for \"violation of the laws and customs of war\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reduction of sentence.", "content": "Gen. Lucius D. Clay was the interim military governor of the American Zone in Germany, and he reduced the judgment to four years' imprisonment on 8 June 1948, after she had served two years of her sentence, on the grounds that \"there was no convincing evidence that she had selected inmates for extermination in order to secure tattooed skins, or that she possessed any articles made of human skin\". News of the reduced sentence did not become public until 16 September 1948, and Clay stood firm despite the ensuing uproar. Jean Edward Smith reported in his biography \"Lucius D. Clay: An American Life\" that the general maintained that the leather lamp shades were really made out of goat skin. The book quotes a statement made by Clay years later:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second trial.", "content": "Under the pressure of public opinion, Koch was re-arrested in 1949 and tried before a West German court. The hearing opened on 27 November 1950 before the District Court at Augsburg and lasted seven weeks, during which 250 witnesses were heard, including 50 for the defense. Koch collapsed and had to be carried from the court in late December 1950, and again on 11 January 1951. At least four witnesses for the prosecution testified that they had seen Koch choose tattooed prisoners, who were then killed, or had seen or been involved in the process of making human-skin lampshades from tattooed skin. However, this charge was dropped by the prosecution when they could not prove lampshades or any other items were actually made from human skin.  On 15 January 1951, the Court pronounced its verdict, in a 111-page-long decision, for which Koch was not present in court. It was concluded that the previous trials in 1944 and 1947 were not a bar to proceedings under the principle of \"ne bis in idem\", as at the 1944 trial Koch had only been charged with receiving, while in 1947 she had been accused of crimes against foreigners after 1 September 1939, and not with crimes against humanity of which Germans and Austrians had been defendants both before and after that date. She was convicted of charges of incitement to murder, incitement to attempted murder and incitement to the crime of committing grievous bodily harm, and on 15 January 1951 was sentenced to life imprisonment and permanent forfeiture of civil rights.  On 10 May 1950 Koch was indicted by Dr.Hans Ilkow, who served at the superior court in Augsburg as chief prosecutor. On 15 June 1951, also known as \"German Judgement\" day, Koch officially started her life imprisonment sentence. Koch appealed to have the judgment quashed, but the appeal was dismissed on 22 April 1952 by the Federal Court of Justice. She later made several petitions for a pardon, all of which were rejected by the Bavarian Ministry of Justice. Koch protested her life sentence, to no avail, to the International Human Rights Commission.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Karl and Ilse Koch had two sons, one of whom committed suicide after the war \"because he couldn't live with the shame of the crimes of his parents.\" Another son, Uwe, conceived in her prison cell at Dachau with a fellow German prisoner, was born in the Aichach prison near Dachau where Koch was sent to serve her life sentence and was immediately taken from her. At the age of 19, Uwe Köhler learned that Koch was his mother and began visiting her regularly at Aichach.  Koch hanged herself at Aichach women's prison on 1 September 1967 at age 60. She suffered from delusions and had become convinced that concentration camp survivors would abuse her in her cell.  In 1971, her son Uwe sought posthumous rehabilitation for his mother. Uwe was determined to clear his mother's name after her death in 1967. Through his usage of the press, he used clemency documents from her former lawyer in 1957 and his impression of her based on their relationship in an attempt to rewrite people's attitude towards Koch.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ilse Koch (22 September 1906 – 1 September 1967) was the wife of Karl-Otto Koch, commandant of the Nazi concentration camps Buchenwald (1937–1941) and Majdanek (1941–1943). In 1947, she became one of the first prominent Nazis tried by the U.S. military.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974808}
{"src_title": "Katla (volcano)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography and physical appearances.", "content": "Katla is one of the largest volcanoes in Iceland. It is situated to the north of Vík í Mýrdal and to the east of the smaller glacier Eyjafjallajökull. Its peak reaches and is partially covered by the Mýrdalsjökull glacier. The system has an area of. The Eldgjá canyon is part of the same volcanic system.  The caldera of the Katla volcano has a diameter of and is covered with of ice. The volcano normally erupts every 40–80 years. The flood discharge at the peak of an eruption in 1755 has been estimated at 200,000–400,000 m/s (7.1–14.1 million cu ft/sec), comparable to the combined average discharge of the Amazon, Mississippi, Nile, and Yangtze rivers (about 266,000 m/s (9.4 million cu ft/sec)).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"Katla\" derives from the word \"ketill\" (\"kettle\"), referring to the form of the volcano. \"Katla\" is also used as a female first name.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prehistoric activity.", "content": "It is thought that Katla is the source of Vedde Ash, more than of tephra dated to 10,600 years BP found at a number of sites including Vedde in Norway, Denmark, Scotland and North Atlantic cores.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historic activity.", "content": "Sixteen eruptions have been recorded for Katla since 930. The last major eruption started on 12 October 1918 and lasted for 24 days. It was likely a VEI-5 level eruption. The 1918 eruption resulted in extending the southern coast by 5 km due to laharic flood deposits. Its present dormancy is among the longest in known history.  Minor (VEI-1?) eruptions occurred in:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Katla () is a large volcano in southern Iceland. It is very active; twenty eruptions have been documented between 930 and 1918, at intervals of 20–90 years. It has not erupted violently for years, although there may have been small eruptions that did not break the ice cover, including ones in 1955, 1999, and 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974809}
{"src_title": "Laches (dialogue)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Summary.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education and the value of military training.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Has military education a place in higher education? [178a–180a].", "content": "Lysimachus, son of Aristides, and Melesias, son of Thucydides (not the historian Thucydides), request advice from Laches and Nicias on whether or not they should have their sons (who are named after their famous grandfathers) trained to fight in armor. After each gives their opinion, Nicias for and Laches against, they seek Socrates for counsel.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Laches introduces Socrates to the discussion [180a–181d].", "content": "Socrates questions what the initial purpose of the training is meant to instill in the children. Once they determine that the purpose is to instill virtue, and more specifically courage, Socrates discusses with Laches and Nicias what exactly courage is. The bulk of the dialogue is then the three men (Laches, Nicias and Socrates) debating various definitions of courage.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Nicias on the advantages of fighting in armour [181e–182d].", "content": "Nicias argues in favor of an education in fighting in armour for young men. He mentions that it promotes physical fitness, prepares a man for military duties, gives an advantage over untrained opponents, helps one understand military strategy, makes one braver, and gives one a martial appearance.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Laches on the futility of fighting in armour [182e–184c].", "content": "Laches argues against the need for fighting in armour by claiming that the Spartans do not practice it; the instructors that Laches has seen are not brave soldiers and so have not benefitted from this knowledge; and it causes cowards to take foolish and damaging military risks.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "The need for expert advice: are the generals qualified to speak about education? [184d–187d].", "content": "Melesias and Lysimachus ask Socrates to decide which side is correct. Socrates begins by trying to clarify what the actual topic is. He determines that the issue is the care of young men's character and asks if there are qualified teachers for this. Socrates confesses not to be skilled in this and assumes that Laches and Nicias are either versed in character building or else know of experts in that field. Socrates proposes to question them about this to see if they have qualified expertise.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "The generals agree to cooperate with Socrates and put Their expertise to the test [187e–189d].", "content": "Nicias warns about Socrates' philosophical methods of getting the interlocuter to examine their own conscience. Laches states that he likes to hear discussions that are \"musical\", when a person's discourse is in tune with their actions. Paraphrasing Solon, Laches agrees to participate in Socrates' inquiry because he likes to learn from good men.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "An inquiry into the nature of bravery.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The need to define bravery [189d–190d].", "content": "Socrates uses a medical analogy to help define goodness: If eyes can be improved by adding sight to them, then a boys' character can be improved by adding goodness to it. As knowledge of what sight is is necessary before it can be considered as an improvement, so too it is necessary to have knowledge of what good is before it is used to improve a character. Rather than try to define what the whole of goodness is, Socrates thinks it would be easier to define an aspect of goodness that is relevant to the question: bravery.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Laches' first definition: to be brave is to stand and fight [190e–192b].", "content": "Laches advances that to be brave is to be a soldier who can hold his position in combat without running away. Socrates explains that his definition is very specific to military infantry and what he was really looking for is a notion of bravery that pertains to all military situations and extends to all situations in life.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Laches' second definition: bravery is endurance [192b–193d].", "content": "Laches offers an opinion that courage is \"a certain perseverance of the soul\". However, Socrates challenges this idea by arguing that there are many instances in battle when the prudent thing to do is to withdraw or flee. Since courage is a virtue, Socrates argues, it cannot contradict prudence, and therefore the idea that courage always demands perseverance must be false. Laches is forced to admit this contradiction.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Impasse: Nicias is asked to help [193e–194c].", "content": "Socrates expresses his perplexity in trying to account for bravery. Laches wishes to pursue the conversation, saying that he has a sense of what bravery is, but is not able to express it properly. Socrates states that like a good huntsman pursuing a trail, they must persevere in the search for their quarry. They invite Nicias to give his definition of bravery.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Nicias' definition: bravery is a special kind of knowledge [194d–196c].", "content": "Nicias then offers another definition. He suggests that courage is \"knowledge of what is to be feared and hoped for both in war and in all other matters\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Implications of Nicias' definition: can animals and children be brave? [196d–197e].", "content": "Since bravery is the knowledge of what is fearful and encouraging, Socrates asks if a pig could be brave. Nicias denies that animals can be brave as he believes that a certain amount of wisdom is necessary for bravery and that very few people can be considered brave. Socrates playfully suggest that Nicias is being influenced by a sophist named Damon and offers to respond to Nicias' assertion.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Nicias has defined goodness, not bravery [198a–199e].", "content": "Nicias agrees that something 'fearful' is the expectation of a future evil and something 'hopeful' is the expectation of a future good. Socrates then argues that full knowledge of any subject involves an understanding not only of future matters, but also of past and present. Thus if courage is the knowledge of future evils and goods, it must also necessarily be the knowledge of those of the present and past too. He then asserts that Nicias' definition actually amounts to a definition of all virtue (since it implies knowledge of all good and evil) and therefore, since courage is in fact only a part of virtue, a contradiction arises and the definition must be false.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "The discussion breaks up: Socrates suggests they all have much to learn [200a–201a].", "content": "And so, in the end, Socrates finds both his companions' theories to be unsatisfactory, and the dialogue ends in aporia, an English term derived from the ancient Greek ἀπορία meaning \"philosophical confusion\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Critical commentary.", "content": "There are many different interpretations as to why the dialogue ends in aporia. Certain commentators, such as Iain Lane, view the Socratic method of elenchus as an end in itself; that debate is the central premise and function of the dialogue. Others, such as Gregory Vlastos, see the dialogue ending because of the specific deficiencies of the characters' definitions.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Laches (; Greek: Λάχης) is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato. Participants in the discourse present competing definitions of the concept of courage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974810}
{"src_title": "David Grossman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Grossman was born in Jerusalem. He is the elder of two brothers.  His mother, Michaella, was born in Mandatory Palestine; his father, Yitzhak, emigrated from Dynów in Poland with his widowed mother at the age of nine. His mother's family was Zionist and poor, his grandfather having paved roads in the Galilee and supplemented his income by buying and selling rugs. His maternal grandmother who was a manicurist left Poland after police harassments, never before having left her birthplace. Accompanying by her son and daughter, she migrated to Palestine where she worked cleaning residences in wealthy neighborhoods.  Grossman's father was a bus driver, then a librarian, and it was through him that David – \"a reading child\" – was able to build up an interest in literature, which would later become his career. Grossman recalled, \"He gave me many things, but what he mostly gave me was Sholem Aleichem.\" Sholem Aleichem, who was born in Ukraine, is one of the greatest writers in Yiddish, though he is now best known as the man whose stories were the inspiration for \"Fiddler on the Roof\". At age 9, Grossman won a national competition on knowledge of the works of Sholem Aleichem, and subsequently worked as a child actor for the national radio. He continued working for Israel Broadcasting for nearly 25 years.  In 1971, Grossman began his national service working in military intelligence. Although he was in the army when the Yom Kippur War broke out in 1973, he saw no action.  Grossman studied philosophy and theater at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. After university he started working in radio, where he'd once been a child actor. He eventually became an anchor on Kol Yisrael, Israel's national broadcasting service. In 1988 he was sacked for refusing to bury the news that the Palestinian leadership had declared its own state and conceded Israel's right to exist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Grossman lives in Mevasseret Zion on the outskirts of Jerusalem. He is married to Michal Grossman, a child psychologist. They had three children, Yonatan, Ruthi, and Uri. Uri was a tank-commander in the Israel Defense Forces, and was killed in action in the 2006 Lebanon War. Uri's life was later celebrated in Grossman's book \"Falling Out of Time\".  In 2015, Grossman withdrew his candidacy for the Israel Prize for Literature after Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu tried to remove two of the judging panel whom he claimed were \"anti-Zionist\". He was awarded the prize in 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics and activism.", "content": "Grossman is an outspoken left-wing peace activist. He has been described by \"The Economist\" as epitomising Israel's left-leaning cultural elite.  Initially supportive of Israel's action during the 2006 Lebanon War on the grounds of self-defense, on August 10, 2006, he and fellow authors Amos Oz and A.B. Yehoshua held a press conference at which they strongly urged the government to agree to a ceasefire that would create the basis for a negotiated solution, saying: \"We had a right to go to war. But things got complicated.... I believe that there is more than one course of action available.\"  Two days later, Grossman's 20-year-old son Uri, a Staff Sergeant in the 401st Armored Brigade, was killed in southern Lebanon when his tank was hit by an anti-tank missile shortly before the ceasefire came into effect. Grossman explained that the death of his son did not change his opposition to Israel's policy towards the Palestinians. Although Grossman had carefully avoided writing about politics, in his stories, if not his journalism, the death of his son prompted him to deal with the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in greater detail. This appeared in his 2008 book \"To The End of the Land\".  Two months after his son's death, Grossman addressed a crowd of 100,000 Israelis who had gathered to mark the anniversary of the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin in 1995. He denounced Ehud Olmert's government for a failure of leadership and he argued that reaching out to the Palestinians was the best hope for progress in the region: Of course I am grieving, but my pain is greater than my anger. I am in pain for this country and for what you [Olmert] and your friends are doing to it.  About his personal link to the war, Grossman said: There were people who stereotyped me, who considered me this naive leftist who would never send his own children into the army, who didn't know what life was made of. I think those people were forced to realise that you can be very critical of Israel and yet still be an integral part of it; I speak as a reservist in the Israeli army myself.  In 2010 Grossman, his wife, and her family attended demonstrations against the spread of Israeli settlements. While attending weekly demonstrations in Sheikh Jarrah in East Jerusalem against Jewish settlers taking over houses in Palestinian neighbourhoods, he was assaulted by police. When asked by a reporter for \"The Guardian\" about how a renowned writer could be beaten, he replied: \"I don't know if they know me at all.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "David Grossman (; born January 25, 1954) is an Israeli author. His books have been translated into more than 30 languages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974811}
{"src_title": "1955 Formula One season", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Season summary.", "content": "Mercedes drivers again dominated the championship, with Fangio taking four races, and his new teammate Stirling Moss the British Grand Prix. Ferrari won at Monaco after all of the Mercedes cars broke down and Lancia driver Alberto Ascari crashed into the harbour. Although Ascari was apparently unscathed, the double World Champion crashed fatally at Monza while testing sportscars four days later.  The disaster at the 24 Hours of Le Mans on 11 June which killed Pierre Levegh and over 80 spectators led to the cancellations of the French, German, Spanish and Swiss Grands Prix. The French round, which was supposed to be held at Reims between the Dutch and British rounds, on 3 July, was first rescheduled to 25 September and subsequently cancelled. Then the German event, scheduled for 31 July at the Nürburgring, the Swiss round at Bremgarten, planned to take place on 21 August, and the Spanish round, on 23 October at Pedralbes, followed suit. Pedralbes and Bremgarten were then abandoned and never used again for racing; motor racing was banned altogether in Switzerland and no motor-race was held in Switzerland until the 2018 Zürich ePrix. These cancellations effectively handed the Drivers' title to Fangio after he finished 2nd to Moss at the British Grand Prix; although he wasn't actually crowned champion until well after the British Grand Prix, because the German, Swiss and Spanish rounds were cancelled after the British Grand Prix took place.  1955 would be the final season for Mercedes Benz as a constructor until the team's revival in 2010. It would also mark the final win for Mercedes until the 2012 Chinese Grand Prix.  Aside from Ascari's death this year, Italian Mario Alborghetti died at the non-championship Pau Grand Prix in France driving a Maserati; and during the Indianapolis 500, two drivers were killed during the month-long event: Americans Manny Ayulo in practice and previous race winner Bill Vukovich during the race 2 weeks later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teams and drivers.", "content": "The following teams and drivers competed in the 1955 FIA World Championship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1955 Drivers' Championship – final standings.", "content": "Championship points were awarded on an 8–6–4–3–2 basis for the first five places at each race. One point was awarded for fastest race lap at each race. Only the best 5 results counted towards the Championship. Numbers without parentheses are Championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Non-championship race results.", "content": "Other Formula One races also held in 1955, which did not count towards the World Championship.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1955 Formula One season was the ninth season of FIA Formula One motor racing. It featured the 1955 World Championship of Drivers, which commenced on 16 January 1955 and ended on September 11 after seven races. Juan Manuel Fangio won his second consecutive World Championship title in a season that was curtailed by tragedies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974812}
{"src_title": "Thonon Évian F.C.", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Football in Gaillard.", "content": "In 2003 \"Football Croix-de-Savoie 74\" was formed as a result of a merger between \"FC Gaillard\" and \"FC Ville-la-Grand\". Gaillard was founded in 1924 and spent most of its life playing in the Ligue Rhône-Alpes, while Ville-la-Grand was founded in 1928. The new club finished 3rd in the Championnat de France amateur (CFA) Groupe B section for the 2003–04 season. Normally, only the top club in each of the four amateur groups are promoted to the Championnat National; however, both the 1st and 2nd placed clubs in the group were reserve sides of professional teams, namely Lyon and Metz. As such, Croix-de-Savoie was promoted. The club's first season in National saw them narrowly avoid relegation, finishing 14th out of 20, two points above relegated 17th place Besançon. The 2005–06 season was less successful; Croix-de-Savoie finished 18th with 41 points, one point behind SO Châtellerault, thus falling back to the fourth division. Croix-de-Savoie's average attendance also dropped from 933 to 716.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The foundation.", "content": "In 2007, a merger between \"Croix-de-Savoie 74\" and \"Olympique Thonon-Chablais\" created \"Olympique Croix-de-Savoie 74\". Whilst the former club had been heavily associated with the commune of Gaillard, the new club moved to the nearby commune of Thonon-les-Bains because the stadium in Gaillard was, in August 2005, deemed unfit for use in the National division. The decision resulted in club being forced to move to Stade Joseph-Moynat in Thonon, a facility with 2,700 seats and a total capacity of 6,000. The club returned to the Championnat National as the CFA Group B winners (with a record 108 points) for the 2008–09 season. In the summer of 2009, the president of the Groupe Danone, Franck Riboud, was made honorary president of the football club. Riboud yet again changed the name of the team to \"Evian Thonon Gaillard Football Club\". He also put money into the team to improve the youth system of the club and harboured aspirations of the side achieving promotion to Ligue 2. On 16 April 2010, the club completed the feat in Riboud's first season presiding over the club achieving promotion to Ligue 2, for the first time, following its 1–0 victory over Amiens.  After earning promotion to Ligue 2 for the 2010–11 season, Evian was rumoured to be pursuing a move to play its home matches at the Stade de la Praille in Geneva, Switzerland after it was determined that the club's current facility, the Stade Joseph-Moynat, did not meet the Ligue de Football Professionnel's (LFP) standards. Thonon-les-Bains, the commune where the club situates itself, is a few kilometres from the Swiss border and is only, a 45-minute car drive, from the city of Geneva. It was reported that the club's president, Patrick Trotignon, had been advocating the move since the beginning of the 2009–10 Championnat National season just in case the club achieved promotion to the second division. The vice-president of Swiss club Servette FC, the regular occupant of the stadium, questioned the move citing possible schedule conflicts, as well as the health of the pitch if both clubs were to use the stadium on a weekly basis. However, Benoît Genecand, president of Fondation du Stade de Genève (FSG), which owned and operated the facility, disputed the claims of the Servette official. Servette responded immediately to Genecand's comments via a press release posted on the club's official website. Evian petitioned to the State Council of Geneva and obtained approval from the LFP for the move in early May. On 20 May 2010, Evian received a favourable ruling from the French Football Federation (FFF) with the Federal Council voting in favour of the move. According to the federation, the move now had to be agreed upon by a UEFA executive committee. On 8 June, UEFA officially denied Evian's request to play at the Stade de la Praille meaning the club would play its home matches at the Parc des Sports in nearby Annecy.  On 9 January 2011, Evian recorded an upset victory over the defending French champions Olympique de Marseille in the Coupe de France, defeating the Ligue 1 club 3–1 in the Round of 64. Strong form throughout the season saw Evian secure a second successive promotion as champions of Ligue 2.  In their first season in Ligue 1, \"Les Roses\" finished in a respectable ninth place, one place above French giants Marseille. In the following season, the club finished in sixteenth position, avoiding relegation by just two points. Evian also reached the Coupe de France final for the first time in the club's history, where they were beaten 3–2 by Bordeaux, falling victim to a last-minute winner by Cheick Diabaté.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relegation and dissolution.", "content": "At the end of the 2015–16 Ligue 2 season, the club finished in the relegation places. The DNCG imposed an additional relegation for the subsequent season, which would place Evian in the fourth tier of the French football pyramid, the Championnat de France Amateur (CFA). On 2 August 2016 the club was placed in receivership, given a probationary period of two months to save itself, and assessed a further administrative relegation at the end of the 2016–17 season.  On 9 August, the French Football Federation confirmed Evian's decision to cease operation in the CFA. On 7 December 2016, Evian was renamed Thonon Evian Savoie Football Club.  In 2018, Thonon Evian Savoie FC and Union Sportive Evian Lugrin FC merged to form Thonon Évian FC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Players.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First team squad.", "content": "\"As of 22 September 2019.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Thonon Évian Grand Genève Football Club, formerly Thonon Évian F.C and Évian Thonon Gaillard Football Club (), commonly referred to as Evian TG or simply Evian, is a French association football club based in Thonon-les-Bains that was founded on 1 July 2007.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974813}
{"src_title": "Ion (dialogue)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Dialogue summary.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ion's skill: Is it genuine? (530a–533c).", "content": "Ion has just come from a festival of Asclepius at the city of Epidaurus, after having won first prize in the competition. Socrates engages him in discussion and Ion explains how his knowledge and skill is limited to Homer, whom he claims to understand better than anyone alive. Socrates finds this puzzling as to him it seems that Homer treats many of the same subjects as other poets like Hesiod, subjects such as war or divination, and that if someone is knowledgeable in any one of those he should be able to understand what \"both\" of these poets say. Furthermore, this man is probably not the poet, like Ion, but a specialist like a doctor, who knows better about nutrition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The nature of poetic inspiration (533d–536d).", "content": "Socrates deduces from this observation that Ion has no real skill, but is like a soothsayer or prophet in being divinely possessed:  \"For not by art do they utter these things, but by divine influence; since, if they had fully learned by art to speak on one kind of theme, they would know how to speak on all. And for this reason God takes away the mind of these men and uses them as his ministers, just as he does soothsayers and godly seers, in order that we who hear them may know that it is not they who utter these words of great price, when they are out of their wits, but that it is God himself who speaks and addresses us through them.\" (534b–d)  Socrates offers the metaphor of a magnet to explain how the rhapsode transmits the poet's original inspiration from the muse to the audience. He says that the god speaks first to the poet, then gives the rhapsode his skill, and thus, gods communicate to the people. Socrates posits that Ion must be out of his mind when he acts, because he can weep even though he has lost nothing, and recoil in fear when in front of an admiring audience. Ion says that the explanation for this is very simple: it is the promise of payment that inspires his deliberate disconnection from reality. Ion says that when he looks at the audience and sees them weeping, he knows he will laugh because it has made him richer, and that when they laugh, he will be weeping at losing the money (535e).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ion's choice: To be skilled or inspired (536e–542a).", "content": "Ion tells Socrates that he cannot be convinced that he is possessed or mad when he performs (536d,e). Socrates then recites passages from Homer which concern various arts such as medicine, divining, fishing, and making war. He asks Ion if these skills are distinct from his art of recitation. Ion admits that while Homer discusses many different skills in his poetry, he never refers specifically to the rhapsode's craft, which is acting. Socrates presses him about the exact nature of his skill. Ion maintains that his knowledge makes him a capable military general but states that when he recites passages concerning military matters, he cannot tell whether he does it with a general's skill, or with a rhapsode's. Socrates notices that Ion changes his occupation. He was first a rhapsode and then has become a general. He gently berates the rhapsode for being Protean, which after all, is exactly what a rhapsode is: a man who is convincingly capable of being different people on stage.  Through his character Socrates, Plato argues that “Ion’s talent as an interpreter cannot be an art, a definable body of knowledge or an ordered system of skills,” but instead must come from the divine inspiration of the Muses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Commentary.", "content": "Plato’s argument is supposed to be an early example of a so-called genetic fallacy since his conclusion arises from his famous lodestone (magnet) analogy. Ion, the rhapsode “dangles like a lodestone at the end of a chain of lodestones. The muse inspires the poet (Homer in Ion’s case) and the poet inspires the rhapsode.” Plato’s dialogues are themselves “examples of artistry that continue to be stageworthy;” it is a paradox that “Plato the supreme enemy of art is also the supreme artist.” Plato develops a more elaborate critique of poetry in other dialogues such as in \"Phaedrus\" 245a, \"Symposium\" 209a, \"Republic\" 398a, \"Laws\" 817 b–d. However, some researchers perceive it as a critique of unjustified belief rather than a critique of poetry in general.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Plato's Ion (; ) Socrates discusses with the titular character, a professional rhapsode who also lectures on Homer, the question of whether the rhapsode, a performer of poetry, gives his performance on account of his skill and knowledge or by virtue of divine possession. It is one of the shortest of Plato's dialogues.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974814}
{"src_title": "Viktor Chernomyrdin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Chernomyrdin was born in Chernyi Otrog, Orenburg Oblast, Russian SFSR. His father was a labourer and Viktor was one of five children. Chernomyrdin completed school education in 1957 and found employment as a mechanic in an oil refinery in Orsk. He worked there until 1962, except for his military service from 1957 to 1960. His other occupations on the plant during this period included machinist, operator and chief of technical installations.  He became a member of the CPSU in 1961. In 1962, he was admitted to Kuybyshev Industrial Institute (which was later renamed Samara Polytechnical Institute). In his entrance exams he performed very poorly. He failed the maths sections of the test and had to take the exam again, getting a C. He got only one B, in Russian language, and Cs in the other tests. He was admitted only because of very poor competition. In 1966, he graduated from the institute. In 1972, he completed further studies at the Department of Economics of the Union-wide Polytechnic Institute by correspondence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Chernomyrdin began developing his career as a politician when he worked for the CPSU in Orsk between 1967 and 1973. In 1973, he was appointed the director of the natural gas refining plant in Orenburg, a position which he held until 1978. Between 1978 and 1982, Chernomyrdin worked in the heavy industry arm of the CPSU Central Committee.  In 1982, he was appointed deputy Minister of the natural gas industries of the Soviet Union. Concurrently, beginning from 1983, he directed Glavtyumengazprom, an industry association for natural gas resource development in Tyumen Oblast. During 1985–1989 he was the minister of gas industries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Founder of Gazprom.", "content": "In August 1989, under the leadership of Chernomyrdin, the Ministry of Gas Industry was transformed into the \"State Gas Concern\", Gazprom, which became the country's first state-corporate enterprise. Chernomyrdin was elected its first chairman. The company was still controlled by the state, but now the control was exercised through shares of stock, 100% of which were owned by the state.  When the Soviet Union dissolved in late 1991, assets of the former Soviet state in the gas sector were transferred to newly created national companies such as Ukrgazprom and Turkmengazprom. Gazprom kept assets located in the territory of Russia, and was able to secure a monopoly in the gas sector.  Gazprom's political influence increased markedly after Russian President Boris Yeltsin appointed the company's chairman Chernomyrdin as his Prime Minister in 1992. Rem Viakhirev took Chernomyrdin's place as Chairman both of the Board of Directors and of the Managing Committee. Gazprom was one of the backbones of the country's economy in 1990s, though the company underperformed during that decade. In the 2000s, however, Gazprom became the largest extractor of natural gas in the world and the largest Russian company.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime Minister of Russia.", "content": "In May 1992, Boris Yeltsin appointed Chernomyrdin as Deputy Prime Minister in charge of fuel and energy. On 14 December 1992, Chernomyrdin was confirmed by the VII Congress of People's Deputies of Russia as Prime Minister.  While he had been critical of his predecessor Gaidar, Chernomyrdin largely continued Gaidar's policies.  In April 1995, he formed a political bloc called Our Home – Russia, which was aimed at becoming the central force in the parliament, but failed in this, gaining only 10% of the votes.  In 1995, Chernomyrdin signed a decree calling for the development of a national strategy for tiger conservation  On 18 June 1995, as a result of Shamil Basayev-led terrorists taking over 1500 people hostage in Budyonnovsk, negotiations between Chernomyrdin and Basayev led to a compromise which became a turning point for the First Chechen War. In exchange for the hostages, the Russian government agreed to halt military actions in Chechnya and begin a series of negotiations.  When Boris Yeltsin was undergoing a heart operation on 6 November 1996, Chernomyrdin served as Acting President for 23 hours.  Chernomyrdin remained Prime Minister until his sudden dismissal on 23 March 1998. Following the 1998 Russian financial crisis in August, Yeltsin re-appointed Chernomyrdin as Prime Minister, and attempted to groom him as his successor. However, the Duma twice refused to confirm Chernomyrdin as the head of the government. Rather than risking a third rejection and thus forcing the dissolution of the State Duma and political crisis, Chernomyrdin withdrew his nomination and the President asked the more popular Yevgeny Primakov to form a new cabinet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomatic career.", "content": "During the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 Chernomyrdin was a special representative of Russia in Yugoslavia.  In December 1999 Chernomyrdin was elected a member of the State Duma. In May 2001, Vladimir Putin appointed Chernomyrdin Ambassador of Russia to Ukraine. This action was interpreted by some Russian media agencies as a move to distance Chernomyrdin from the centre of Russian politics. In 2003, he dismissed talk of an apology for the Holodomor Famine made by the Soviet Union.  In February 2009 Chernomyrdin again strained the relations between Ukraine and Russia when he in an interview said \"It is impossible to come to an agreement on anything with the Ukrainian leadership. If different people come in, we'll see\". The Ukrainian foreign ministry said in a response it could declare Chernomyrdin \"persona non grata\" over the row.  On 11 June 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev relieved Chernomyrdin as Russian Ambassador in Kiev, and appointed him as \"presidential adviser and special presidential representative on economic cooperation with CIS member countries\". In a parting shot at the Ukrainian government, Chernomyrdin stated that Russia should not apologise to Ukraine over voicing its suspicions about Ukraine being unable to pay for its natural gas, and further stated that Russia wants Ukraine to pay for the gas it consumes, and hence Russia is right to be concerned about the solvency of the Ukrainian state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Chernomyrdin died on the morning of 3 November 2010 after a long illness. According to people close to Chernomyrdin, such as singer Lev Leshchenko, the former Prime Minister was deeply affected by the death of his wife Valentina, seven and a half months earlier.  Chernomyrdin was buried beside his wife in Novodevichy Cemetery on 5 November 2010. On 3 November Russian President Dmitry Medvedev signed an order to show Chernomyrdin's funeral in a live broadcast on Russian federal TV channels (only the funerals of the former President Boris Yeltsin and Patriarch Alexy II were granted the same right in recent years). The head of the Presidential Administration of Russia, Sergey Naryshkin, supervised the funeral ceremony. Condolences on the death of Chernomyrdin were voiced on 3 November 2010 by Russian President Dmitry Medvedev, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, other state figures in Russia and Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sayings.", "content": "In Russian-speaking countries, Chernomyrdin is known for his numerous malapropisms and syntactically incorrect speech. His idioms received the name \"Chernomyrdinki\", and are somewhat comparable to Bushisms in style and effect. One of his expressions \"We wanted it as good as possible, but it turned out as always\" (\"Хотели как лучше, а получилось как всегда\" in Russian) about the economic reforms in Russia was widely quoted. The phrase was uttered after a highly unsuccessful monetary exchange performed by the Russian Central Bank in July 1993.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Viktor Stepanovich Chernomyrdin (, ; 9 April 19383 November 2010) was a Russian politician. He was the first chairman of the Gazprom energy company and the second-longest-serving Prime Minister of Russia (1992–1998) based on consecutive years. He was a key figure in Russian politics in the 1990s, and a participant in the transition from a planned to a market economy. From 2001 to 2009, he was Russia's ambassador to Ukraine. After that he was designated as a presidential adviser.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974815}
{"src_title": "Ryan X-13 Vertijet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "Just after World War II, Ryan engineers wondered whether the Ryan/U.S. Navy FR-1 Fireball, which had a thrust-to-weight ratio of 1 at low fuel quantities, would take off vertically. The United States Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics in 1947 awarded Ryan a contract, originally under the designation F3R, to investigate the development of a vertically launched jet fighter. This was part of a program to evaluate the feasibility of submarine-based aircraft. Ryan conducted remote controlled VTOL tethered rig tests from 1947 to 1950 and a flying rig in 1951. Ryan was awarded an Air Force contract in 1953 to develop an actual flying jet-powered VTOL aircraft, which was given the designation X-13. Two prototypes were built.  The Ryan X-13 Vertijet was long. It was just large enough to accommodate the single-place cockpit with a tilting seat and the thrust Rolls-Royce Avon turbojet. The high-mounted delta wing of the aircraft had a wingspan of only and was capped with flat endplates. The nose of the aircraft had a hook on the underside and a short pole for gauging distance from the trailer. The hook was used to hang the Vertijet from the vertical trailer bed landing platform. After the aircraft was secured vertically, the trailer was lowered to horizontal and then used to transport the aircraft on the ground. Pitch and yaw control in hover were provided by vectored engine thrust. Roll control was provided by \"puffer\" jets (also known as \"jet reaction control\") mounted outboard of the wingtip endplates. The first prototype (#54-1619) was fitted with temporary landing gear and made its first horizontal flight on December 10, 1955. Later, it made full horizontal to vertical attitude conversions and back again at altitude. The first prototype then had the landing gear replaced with a tail-mounted framework that held it in a vertical attitude on the ground. Using this rig, hooking practice was conducted. The second prototype (#54-1620), on April 11, 1957, made a vertical take-off from the vertically raised trailer, transitioned to horizontal flight and back again. It then returned to the vertical trailer and landed by hooking the landing wire. Flight tests were performed by two test pilots: Ryan's Chief Test Pilot Peter F. \"Pete\" Girard, and Ryan Test Pilot W. L. \"Lou\" Everett.  On July 28–29, 1957, the X-13 was demonstrated in Washington, D.C. It crossed the Potomac River and landed at the Pentagon.  The Air Force chose not to continue development of the Ryan X-13 Vertijet because of the lack of an operational requirement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The X-13 was designed to investigate vertical takeoff, horizontal flight transition, and return to vertical flight for landing. The first prototype of the X-13 was equipped with temporary tricycle landing gear. The X-13 was flown conventionally on December 10, 1955 to test its aerodynamic characteristics. The Vertijet was then fitted with a temporary \"tail sitting\" rig. On May 28, 1956, it was flown from the ground in a vertical position to test its hovering qualities. The X-13 VertiJet completed its first full-cycle flight at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on April 11, 1957, when it took off vertically from its mobile trailer, angled over into a horizontal attitude, and flew for several minutes. The X-13 then transitioned to vertical flight and slowly descended back onto its trailer and landed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Survivors.", "content": "Only two X-13 aircraft were built and both are on public display:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ryan X-13 Vertijet (company designation Model 69) was an experimental vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) jet aircraft built by Ryan Aeronautical and flown in the United States in the 1950s. The main objective of the project was to demonstrate the ability of a pure jet to vertically takeoff, hover, transition to horizontal forward flight, and vertically land.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974816}
{"src_title": "Josef Škvorecký", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born the son of a bank clerk in Náchod, Czechoslovakia, Škvorecký graduated in 1943 from the Reálné \"gymnasium\" in his native Náchod. For two years in the Second World War he was a slave labourer in a Messerschmitt aircraft factory in Náchod.  After the war, he began to study at the Faculty of Medicine of Charles University in Prague, but after his first term he moved to the Faculty of Arts, where he studied philosophy and graduated in 1949. In 1951 he gained a PhD in philosophy. He then taught for two years at the Social School for Girls in Hořice v Podkrkonoší. Between 1952 and 1954 he performed his military service in the Czechoslovak Army.  He worked briefly as a teacher, editor and translator in the 1950s. In this period he completed several novels including his first novel \"The Cowards\" (written 1948–49, published 1958) and \"The End of the Nylon Age\" (1956). They were condemned and banned by the Communist authorities after their publication. His prose style, open-ended and improvisational, was an innovation, but this and his democratic ideals were a challenge to the Communist regime. As a result, he lost his job as editor of the magazine \"Světová literatura\" (\"World Literature\"). Škvorecký kept writing, and helped nurture the democratic movement that culminated in the Prague Spring in 1968.  After the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia that year, Škvorecký and his wife, writer and actress Zdena Salivarová, fled to Canada.  In 1971, he and his wife founded 68 Publishers which, over the next 20 years, published banned Czech and Slovak books. The imprint became an important mouthpiece for dissident writers, such as Václav Havel, Milan Kundera, and Ludvík Vaculík, among many others. For providing this critical literary outlet, the president of post-Communist Czechoslovakia, Václav Havel, later awarded the couple the Order of the White Lion in 1990.  He taught at the Department of English at the University of Toronto where he was eventually appointed Professor Emeritus of English and Film. He retired in 1990. In Canada, he is considered to be a Canadian author despite the fact that he is mostly published in Czech.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary works.", "content": "Most of Škvorecký's novels are available in English: the novels \"The Cowards\", \"Miss Silver's Past\", \"The Republic of Whores\", \"The Miracle Game\", \"The Swell Season\", \"The Engineer of Human Souls\" which won a Canadian Governor General's Award, \"The Bride of Texas\", \"Dvořák in Love\", \"The Tenor Saxophonist's Story\", \"Two Murders in My Double Life\", \"An Inexplicable Story or The Narrative of Questus Firmus Siculus\", his selected short stories \"When Eve Was Naked\" and the two short novels \"The Bass Saxophone\" and \"Emöke\". A recurring character in several of his novels is Danny Smiricky, who is a partial self-portrait of the author.  He wrote four books of detective stories featuring Lieutenant Boruvka of the Prague Homicide Bureau: \"The Mournful Demeanor of Lieutenant Boruvka\", \"Sins for Father Knox\", \"The End of Lieutenant Boruvka\" and \"The Return of Lieutenant Boruvka\".  His poetry was published as a collection in 1999 as \"...there's no remedy for this pain\" (...\"na tuhle bolest nejsou prášky\").  His non-fiction works include \"Talkin' Moscow Blues\", a book of essays on jazz, literature and politics, an autobiography \"Headed for the Blues\", and two books on the Czech cinema including \"All the Bright Young Men and Women\".  Škvorecký wrote for films and television. The feature film \"The Tank Battalion\" was adapted from his novel \"The Republic of Whores\". Other features, written for Prague TV, include \"Eine kleine Jazzmusik\", adapted from his story of the same name, \"The Emöke Legend\" from a novella of the same name, and a two-hour TV drama \"Poe and the Murder of a Beautiful Girl\", based on Edgar Allan Poe's story \"The Mystery of Marie Roget\". Three very successful TV serials were made from his stories: \"Sins for Father Knox\", \"The Swell Season\" and \"Murders for Luck\".  A film version of the novel \"Pastor's End\" was produced in 1968, but was never shown and went straight into locked Communist archives due to the fact that its author \"illegally\" fled the country. In the spring and summer of 1968 Škvorecký and the Czech film director Miloš Forman jointly wrote a script synopsis to make a film version of \"The Cowards\". After Škvorecký fled the Warsaw Pact invasion the synopsis was translated into English, but no film was made. In the 21st century the English translation was translated back into Czech and has been published.  Prominent in his writing for radio was a long-running monthly series on literature for Voice of America. From 1973 to 1990 he wrote more than 200 of these shows covering notable literary works and discussing literary themes.  He died on January 3, 2012 in Toronto, Ontario from cancer; he was 87 years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Among his numerous literary awards are the Neustadt International Prize for Literature (1980), the Canadian Governor General's Award for English-language fiction (1984), the Czech Republic State Prize for Literature (1999), the Prize of the Comenius Pangea Foundation \"For Improvement of Human Affairs\" (2001) which he received with the Polish film director Andrzej Wajda as well as the Angelus Award (2009).  Nominated for the Nobel Prize in 1982.  Awarded the Order of the White Lion by the President of Czechoslovakia, Václav Havel, 1990.  In 1992 he was made a Member of the Order of Canada.  Škvorecký was a Guggenheim Fellow, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.  Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, République Française, 1996.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected bibliography.", "content": "Novels  Novellas  Collections of short stories  Collections of essays", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josef Škvorecký, (; September 27, 1924 – January 3, 2012) was a Czech-Canadian writer and publisher. He spent half of his life in Canada, publishing and supporting banned Czech literature during the communist era. Škvorecký was awarded the Neustadt International Prize for Literature in 1980. He and his wife were long-time supporters of Czech dissident writers before the fall of communism in that country. Škvorecký's fiction deals with several themes: the horrors of totalitarianism and repression, the expatriate experience, and the miracle of jazz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974817}
{"src_title": "Albizia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "They are usually small trees or shrubs with a short lifespan, though the famous \"Samán del Guère\" near Maracay in Venezuela is a huge \"Albizia saman\" specimen several hundred years old. The leaves are pinnately or bipinnately compound. The small flowers are in bundles, with stamens much longer than the petals. The stamens are usually showy, although in some species such as \"A. canescens\" the flowers are inconspicuous.  Unlike those of \"Mimosa\", \"Albizia\" flowers have many more than 10 stamens. \"Albizia\" can also be told apart from another large related genus, \"Acacia\", by its stamens, which are joined at the bases instead of separate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Numerous species placed in \"Albizia\" by early authors were eventually moved to other genera, most notably \"Archidendron\". Other genera of Ingeae (\"Abarema\", \"Archidendropsis\", \"Blanchetiodendron\", \"Calliandra\", \"Cathormion\", \"Enterolobium\", \"Havardia\", \"Hesperalbizia\", \"Hydrochorea\", \"Pararchidendron\", \"Paraserianthes\", \"Pseudosamanea\" and \"Serianthes\") have also received their share of former \"Albizia\" species, as have the Mimoseae \"Newtonia\" and \"Schleinitzia\". Some presumed \"silk trees\" are in fact misidentified members of the not very closely related genus \"Erythrophleum\" from the Caesalpinioideae and \"Lebeckia\" from the Faboideae.  The delimitation of \"Falcataria\" and \"Pithecellobium\", close relatives of \"Albizia\", is notoriously complex, with species having been moved between the genera time and again, and this will likely continue. These include \"Falcataria moluccana\" (the Moluccan albizia, formerly named \"Albizia moluccana\"), a common shade tree on tea plantations. Other closely related genera like \"Chloroleucon\" and \"Samanea\" are often merged with \"Albizia\" entirely.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Albizias are important forage, timber, and medicinal plants, and many are cultivated as ornamentals for their attractive flowers - notably \"Albizia julibrissin\".  Some species are used as food plants by the larvae of moths in the genus \"Endoclita\", including \"E. damor\", \"E. malabaricus\", and \"E. sericeus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasiveness.", "content": "Molucca albizia (\"Falcataria moluccana\" (synonyms: \"Adenanthera falcataria, Albizia falcataria, Paraserianthes falcataria\")) is considered an invasive species in Hawaii and on many other Pacific Islands. The tree grows very rapidly and can quickly colonize disturbed areas in wet environments. It tends to shed large branches, damaging power lines, houses, and other infrastructure in Hawaii.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albizia is a genus of more than 160 species of mostly fast-growing subtropical and tropical trees and shrubs in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae. The genus is pantropical, occurring in Asia, Africa, Madagascar, America and Australia, but mostly in the Old World tropics. In some locations, some species are considered weeds.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974818}
{"src_title": "Albizia julibrissin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "\"Albizia julibrissin\" is known by a wide variety of common names, such as Persian silk tree and pink siris. It is also called Lenkoran acacia or bastard tamarind, though it is not too closely related to either genus. The species is called Chinese silk tree, silk tree or mimosa in the United States, which is misleading - the former name can refer to any species of \"Albizia\" which is most common in any one locale. And, although once included in \"Mimosa\", neither is it very close to the Mimoseae. To add to the confusion, several species of \"Acacia\", notably \"Acacia baileyana\" and \"Acacia dealbata\", are also known as \"mimosa\" (especially in floristry), and many Fabaceae trees with highly divided leaves are called thus in horticulture.  Its leaves slowly close during the night and during periods of rain, the leaflets bowing downward; thus its modern Persian name shabkhosb (شب خسب) means \"night sleeper\". In Japan its common names are nemunoki, nemurinoki and nenenoki which all mean \"sleeping tree\". Nemu tree is a partial translation of \"nemunoki\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"A. julibrissin\" is a small deciduous tree growing to tall, with a broad crown of level or arching branches. The bark is dark greenish grey in colour and striped vertically as it gets older. The leaves are bipinnate, long and broad, divided into 6–12 pairs of pinnae, each with 20–30 pairs of leaflets; the leaflets are oblong, long and broad. The flowers are produced throughout the summer in dense inflorescences, the individual flowers with small calyx and corolla (except the central ones), and a tight cluster of stamens 2–3 cm long, white or pink with a white base, looking like silky threads. They have been observed to be attractive to bees, butterflies and hummingbirds. The fruit is a flat brown pod long and broad, containing several seeds inside.  There are two varieties:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat, cultivation and uses.", "content": "Original habitats of the tree include regions from Iran (Persia) and the Republic of Azerbaijan to China and Korea.  \"A. julibrissin\" is widely planted as an ornamental plant in parks and gardens, grown for its fine leaf texture, flowers and attractive horizontal canopy. Other positive attributes are a fast growth rate, low water requirements and the ability to thrive planted in full sun in hot summer climates. It is very frequently planted in semi-arid areas like California's Central Valley, central Texas and Oklahoma. Although capable of surviving drought, growth will be stunted and the tree tends to look sickly. As such it should be given infrequent, deep waterings during the summer, which will benefit growth and flowering.  The broad crown of a mature tree makes it useful for providing dappled shade. The flower colour varies from white in \"A. julibrissin\" f. \"alba\", to rich red-tipped flowers. Variants with cream or pale yellow flowers are also reported. Other cultivars are becoming available: 'Summer Chocolate' has red foliage ageing to dark bronze, with pale pink flowers; 'Ishii Weeping' (or 'Pendula') has a drooping growth habit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"A. julibrissin\" f. \"rosea\".", "content": "There is also a form, \"A. julibrissin\" f. \"rosea\" (pink silk tree) which has, in the past, been classed either as a variety or as a cultivar. This is a smaller tree, only growing to 5–7 m (15-25 ft) tall, with the flowers always pink. Native to the northeast of the species' range in Korea and Northern China, it is more cold-tolerant than the typical form, surviving temperatures down to at least -25 °C. The selected cultivar \"A. julibrissin\" 'Ernest Wilson' (also known as 'E.H.Wilson' or 'Rosea') is a cold-tolerant tree with deep pink flower colour. In Japan, \"A. julibrissin\" f. \"rosea\" is often used for non-traditional bonsai. The name \"nemunoki\"*(Jap. ねむの木, Kanji: 合歓木) and its variants is a \"kigo\" representing the summer in haiku, especially a sleepy summer evening.  \"A. julibrissin\" f. \"rosea\" has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit; likewise the cultivar 'Summer Chocolate'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "The sweet-scented flowers are a good nectar source for honeybees and butterflies.  There is conflicting information on the toxicity of pods and seeds to humans and animals; some parts of the plant may contain neurotoxin. Consult with a medical professional expert before eating or feeding.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "In the wild, the tree tends to grow in dry plains, sandy valleys, and uplands. It has become an invasive species in the United States. It has spread from southern New York, New Jersey and Connecticut, west to Missouri and Illinois, and south to Florida and Texas. It is cultivated in California and Oregon. Its seeds are numerous and they are fertile even over long periods of drought. Each pod, which resembles a flattened bean pod made of paper, contains an average of 8 seeds. The pods burst in strong winds, and the seeds carry over surprisingly long distances.  Breeding work is currently under way in the United States to produce ornamental plants which will not set seed and can therefore be planted without risk. However, in the eastern United States it is generally a short-lived tree, being highly susceptible to mimosa vascular wilt, a fungal disease caused by a species of \"Fusarium\", though the disease does not seem to have seriously impacted its populations. Because of its invasive tendencies and disease susceptibility, it is rarely recommended as an ornamental plant in the US, though it is still widely planted in parts of Europe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albizia julibrissin, the Persian silk tree or pink silk tree, is a species of tree in the family Fabaceae, native to southwestern and eastern Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974819}
{"src_title": "Mount Damavand", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Symbolism and mythology.", "content": "Damavand is a significant mountain in Persian mythology. It is the symbol of Iranian resistance against despotism and foreign rule in Persian poetry and literature. In Zoroastrian texts and mythology, the three-headed dragon Aži Dahāka was chained within Mount Damāvand, there to remain until the end of the world. In a later version of the same legend, the tyrant Zahhāk was also chained in a cave somewhere in Mount Damāvand after being defeated by Kāveh and Fereydūn. Persian poet Ferdowsi depicts this event in his masterpiece, the \"Shahnameh\":  \"biyâvarad Zahhâk râ čon navand \"be kuh-e Damâvand krdš beband\"  He brought Zahhak like a horse to mount Damavand, And tied him at the peak tight and bound  The mountain is said to hold magical powers in the \"Shahnameh\". Damāvand has also been named in the Iranian legend of Arash (as recounted by Bal'ami) as the location from which the hero shot his magical arrow to mark the border of Iran, during the border dispute between Iran and Turan. The poem Damāvand by Mohammad Taqī Bahār is also one fine example of the mountain's significance in Persian literature. The first verse of this poem reads:  \"Ey div-e sepid-e pâyi dar band, \"Ey gonbad-e giti, ey Damāvand\"  O white giant with feet in chains O dome of the world, O Damāvand  Mount Damavand is depicted on the reverse of the Iranian 10,000 rials banknote.  The origins and meaning of the word \"Damavand\" is unclear, yet some prominent researchers have speculated that it probably means \"The mountain from which smoke and ash arises\", alluding to the volcanic nature of the mountain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "Mount Damavand first erupted in the Pleistocene almost 1.78 million years ago. After several known eruptions around 600,000 and 280,000 years ago, its last eruption was around 5300 BC in the Holocene. Its steep cone is formed of ash and lava flows mainly of trachyte, andesite and basalt. The Quaternary lavas are directly on the Jurassic sediments. The volcano is crowned by a small crater with sulfuric deposits. There are also fumaroles, hot springs, and mineral deposits of travertine. Mount Damavand could be considered as a potentially active volcano, because there are fumaroles near the summit crater emitting sulfur, which were known to be active on July 6, 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thermal springs.", "content": "Mineral hot springs are mainly located on the volcano's flanks and at the base, giving evidence of volcanic heat comparatively near the surface of the earth. While no historic eruptions have been recorded, hot springs at the base and on the flanks, and fumaroles and solfatara near the summit, indicate a hot or cooling magma body still present beneath the volcano.  The most important of these hot springs are located in \"Abe Garm Larijan\" in a village by the name Larijan in the district of Larijan in Lar Valley. The water from this spring is useful in the treatment of chronic wounds and skin diseases. Near these springs there are public baths with small pools for public use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Routes to the summit.", "content": "A major settlement for mountain climbers is the new Iranian Mountain Federation Camp in the village of Polour, located on the south of the mountain.  There are at least 16 known routes to the summit, with varying levels of difficulty. Some of them are dangerous and require ice climbing. The most popular route is the southern route which has steps and a camp midway called Bargah Sevom Camp/Shelter at. The longest route is the Northeastern and it takes two days to reach the summit starting from downhill village of Nāndal and a night stay at Takht-e Fereydoun (elevation, a two-story shelter. The western route is noted for its sunset view. Sīmorgh shelter in this route at is a newly constructed two story shelter. There is a frozen waterfall/icefall (Persian name Ābshār Yakhī) about tall and the elevation of is the highest fall in Iran and Middle East.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wildlife.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fish.", "content": "Damavand rivers and slopes are famous for brown trout (\"Salmo trutta\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mammals.", "content": "Armenian mouflon (\"Ovis orientalis\") and wild goat (\"Capra aegagrus\") live in the region of Damavand Mts. Persian leopard (\"Panthera pardus saxicolor\") and Syrian brown bear (\"Ursus arctos syriacus\") live in this region. Some smaller mammals are the snow vole (\"Chionomys nivalis\"), mouse-like hamster (\"Calomyscus bailwardi\") and Afghan pika (\"Ochoton rufescens\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Birds.", "content": "The attractive and unreachable Caspian snowcock (\"Tetraogallus caspius\") lives at high altitudes. Golden eagle (\"Aquila chrysaetos\") breeds in this area. Griffon vultures (\"Gyps fulvus\") are common. Chukar partridge (\"Alectoris chukar\") has a high population and nests between stone and shrubs. Red-fronted serin (\"Serinus pusillus\"), linnet (\"Carduelis cannabina\"), snow finch (\"Montifringilla nivalis\"), rock sparrow (\"Petronia petronia\"), rock bunting (\"Emberiza cia\") and horned lark (\"Eremophila alpestris\") are native; in winter they come to the lower hillsides. In spring wheatear (\"Oenanthe oenanthe\"), rock thrush (\"Monticola saxatilis\"), and nightingale (\"Luscinia megarhynchos\") come from Africa for breeding. Grey-necked bunting (\"Emberiza buchanani\"), black-headed bunting (\"Emberiza melanocephala\") and common rosefinch (\"Carpodacus erythrinus\") come from India.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reptiles and amphibians.", "content": "Marsh frogs (\"Rana ridibunda\") live in Lar riversides. Meadow viper (\"Vipera ursinii\"), blunt-nosed viper (\"Macrovipera lebetina\"), Iranian valley viper (\"Vipera latifii\") and Caucasian agama (\"Laudakia caucasia\") are among the reptiles of this mountainous region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flora.", "content": "On the southern slope of Damavand, there are remnants of wild pistachia trees (\"Pistacia atlantica\"). Along its riversides different kinds of \"Salix\" trees like willow (\"Salix acomphylla\") and oleaster (\"Elaeagnus angustifolia\") are found. Greek juniper (\"Juniperus excelsa\") is common in the higher altitudes. On northern slopes, because of higher humidity, there are wild oak, beech and hazel trees like: Persian Oak (\"Quercus macranthera\"), Eastern Hornbean (\"Carpinus orientalis\"), and Oriental beech (\"Fagus orientalis\"). There are also many wild flowers such as mountain tulip (\"Tulipa montana\") and Persian stone cress (\"Aethionema grandiflorum\"). At higher altitudes, shrubs tend to be sphere and cushion like, examples are : \"Astragalus\" species (\"Astragalus microcephalus\"), mountain sainfoin (\"Onobrychis cornuta\") and prickly (\"Acantholimon erinaceum\"). Different kinds of grasses complete this alpine scene. \"Iris barnumiae demawendica\" (formerly \"Iris demawendica\"), is found and named after the mountain.  Between mid-May to mid-June the foothills of.This unique type of poppy, growing in areas between 2000 to 3500 meters high, is mentioned as Lar poppy or Rineh poppy in valid botany books. (Rineh and Lar are villages located in the foothills of Damavand).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National Heritage Site.", "content": "An anthropologist of Mazandaran Cultural Heritage and Tourism Department, Touba Osanlou, has said that a proposal has been made by a group of Iranian mountaineers to register the highest peak in the Middle East, Mount Damavand as a national heritage site. Mazandaran Cultural Heritage and Tourism Department has accepted the proposal, the Persian daily Jam-e Jam reported. Osanlou noted that the Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization is presently in the process of renaming an upcoming ancient festivity after Mount Damavand. \"We have proposed Tirgan Festivity, Tabari Nowruz, to be named as Damavand National Day,\" she added. Tirgan Festivity is held in Amol County's Rineh region in Mazandaran province.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mount Damavand ( ), a potentially active volcano 5600-m high, is a stratovolcano which is the highest peak in Iran and the highest volcano in Asia. Damāvand has a special place in Persian mythology and folklore. It is in the middle of the Alborz range, adjacent to \"Varārū\", \"Sesang\", \"Gol-e Zard\", and \"Mīānrūd\". It is near the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, in Amol County, Mazandaran Province, 66 kilometres (41 miles) northeast of the city of Tehran.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974820}
{"src_title": "Uzi Narkiss", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Uzi Narkiss was born in Jerusalem to Polish Jewish parents. His first memory was of going into hiding during the 1929 Arab riots. Narkiss attended high school at Gymnasia Rehavia. He joined the Palmach at the age of 16 and was involved in Haganah operations against British Mandatory forces in Palestine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "In April 1948, Narkiss headed the assault on Katamon with the Fourth Battalion of the Harel Brigade, during which time they captured the monastery at San Simon — a key strategic position. Following the final departure of the British in May 1948 and the Israeli Declaration of Independence, Narkiss was appointed to assist those besieged in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City. Narkiss' unit, dubbed a \"diversionary force,\" succeeded in penetrating Zion Gate, bringing in supplies and evacuating the wounded from those under siege. When military reinforcements failed to appear, however, Narkiss ordered his men to retreat, with the Old City falling to Jordanian forces shortly thereafter.  Narkiss spent several years in France during the formative years of Israel, seconded to study at the École de Guerre (the French Military Academy) and later in the capacity of Israeli military attaché, having been awarded the Légion d’honneur by the French government. Narkiss returned to Israel to continue his military career and in 1965 became the first director of the Israel National Defense College.  During the Six-Day War on June 5, 1967, with seven brigades under his command known as Central Command, Narkiss was responsible for combating any possible Jordanian offensive. Capturing the Old City was not part of the plan. Israeli units moved effectively to take key positions in east Jerusalem, where one key location was Ammunition Hill. Still, to Narkiss' dismay, the politicians would still not allow the Old City to be taken. But with a looming cease fire approaching after an emergency meeting of the UN, Moshe Dayan gave the order to Narkiss who quickly capitalised on the opportunity to capture the city before any cease fire prevented this as an option. Under his direction, the Old City was captured on June 7 and Jerusalem was reunified under Israeli control. From Narkiss' viewpoint, this completed the campaign he had begun 19 years earlier, and whose previous failure had haunted him.  After the war the Palestinian village of Beit Awwa was completely destroyed. Moshe Dayan claimed the destruction was carried out under the orders of an officer who wished to expel the residents; Brigadier General Uzi Narkiss claimed the credit for the action.  Narkiss retired from the IDF in 1968, subsequently holding key positions in the Jewish Agency and the World Zionist Organization. In 1948 Uzi Narkiss searched the body of the dead Palestinian commander Abdul Kader Husseini for his Koran on the battlefield. In the 1980s he wanted to give it to Kader's son Faisal Husseini but only \"in the presence of journalists and TV cameras – otherwise I am not interested\". Husseini was not interested under such terms, therefore Narkiss kept it in his library.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal Life.", "content": "He died in Jerusalem at the age of 72.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Uzi Narkiss (; January 6, 1925 – December 17, 1997) was an Israeli general. Narkiss was commander of the Israel Defense Forces units in the Central Region during the 1967 Six-Day War. Narkiss appears in the famous photograph of Defense Minister Moshe Dayan flanked by Chief of Staff Yitzhak Rabin and himself, taken in the Old City of Jerusalem shortly after its capture from Jordanian forces in the war.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974821}
{"src_title": "Tomas Tranströmer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Tranströmer was born in Stockholm in 1931 and raised by his mother Helmy, a schoolteacher, following her divorce from his father, Gösta Tranströmer, an editor. He received his secondary education at the Södra Latin Gymnasium in Stockholm, where he began writing poetry. In addition to selected journal publications, his first collection of poems, \"17 Poems\", was published in 1954. He continued his education at Stockholm University, graduating as a psychologist in 1956 with additional studies in history, religion and literature. Between 1960 and 1966, Tranströmer split his time between working as a psychologist at the Roxtuna center for juvenile offenders and writing poetry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Poetry.", "content": "Tranströmer is considered to be one of the \"most influential Scandinavian poet[s] of recent decades\". Tranströmer published 15 collected works over his extensive career, which have been translated into over 60 languages. An English translation by Robin Fulton of his entire body of work, \"New Collected Poems\", was published in the UK in 1987 and expanded in 1997. Following the publication of \"The Great Enigma\", Fulton's edition was further expanded into \"The Great Enigma: New Collected Poems,\" published in the US in 2006 and as an updated edition of \"New Collected Poems\" in the UK in 2011. He published a short autobiography, \"Minnena ser mig\" \"(The Memories see me)\", in 1993.  By the mid-1960s, Tranströmer became close friends with poet Robert Bly. The two corresponded frequently, and Bly would translate Tranströmer's poems into English. In 2001 Bonniers, Tranströmer's publisher, released \"Air Mail\", a work consisting of Tranströmer's and Bly's day-to-day correspondence on personal, contemporary and literary matters c. 1965–1991 – in a style that vividly conveyed how close friends the two had soon become. Bly also helped arrange readings for his fellow poet in America. The Syrian poet Adunis helped spread Tranströmer's fame in the Arab world, accompanying him on reading tours.  In the 1970s, other poets accused Tranströmer of being detached from his own age, since he did not deal overtly with social and political issues in his poems and novels. His work, though, lies within and further develops the Modernist and Expressionist/Surrealist language of 20th-century poetry; his clear, seemingly simple pictures from everyday life and nature in particular reveals a mystic insight to the universal aspects of the human mind. A poem of his was read at Anna Lindh's memorial service in 2003.  Tranströmer went to Bhopal immediately after the gas tragedy in 1984, and alongside Indian poets such as K. Satchidanandan, took part in a poetry reading session outside the plant.  Tranströmer suffered a stroke in 1990 that left him partially paralyzed and unable to speak; however, he continued to write and publish poetry through the early 2000s. One of his final original volumes of poetry, \"Den stora gåtan\", was published in 2004, translated into English in 2006 as \"The Great Enigma\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Tranströmer played the piano throughout his life; after his stroke, which paralyzed the right side of his body, he taught himself to play only with his left hand. He often said that the playing was a way for him to continue living after the stroke.  Tranströmer's daughter is a concert singer. In 2011 she released the album \"Dagsmeja\", containing songs based on Tranströmer's poems.  Many composers and musicians have worked with his poems. Among these are Jan Garbarek, Torbjörn Nilsson, Maurice Karkoff, Lennart Hedwall, Håkan Parkman, Fredrik Jakobsson, Gustav Alexandrie, Ulf Grahn, Stig Gustav Schönberg, Madeleine Isaksson, Per Gunnar Petersson, Margareta Hallin, Lars Edlund, Sven-David Sandström, Johan-Magnus Sjöberg, Jan Sandström, Andrea Tarrodi, Maria Löfberg, Anders Eliasson and Bo Hansson.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Tranströmer died in Stockholm on 26 March 2015 at 83, less than 3 weeks before his 84th birthday.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards and honours.", "content": "Other awards include the Övralid Prize, the Petrarca-Preis in Germany and the Swedish Award from International Poetry Forum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nobel Prize in Literature, 2011.", "content": "Tranströmer was announced as the recipient of the 2011 Nobel Prize in Literature. He was the 108th winner of the award and the first Swede to win since 1974. Tranströmer had been considered a perennial frontrunner for the award in years past, with reporters waiting near his residence on the day of the announcement in prior years. The Swedish Academy revealed that he had been nominated every single year since 1993.  Tranströmer's wife, Monica, said he had been notified by telephone four minutes before the announcement was made. The Nobel Committee stated that Tranströmer's work received the prize “because, through his condensed, translucent images, he gives us fresh access to reality.\"  Permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy Peter Englund said, \"He's been writing poetry since 1951 when he made his debut. And has quite a small production, really. He's writing about big questions. He's writing about death, he's writing about history and memory, and nature.\" Prime Minister of Sweden Fredrik Reinfeldt said he was ”happy and proud” at the news of Tranströmer's achievement. Meanwhile, international response to the award has been mixed. The prize announcement led to the immediate reissuing of at least two volumes of Tranströmer's poetry.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Tomas Gösta Tranströmer (; 15 April 1931 – 26 March 2015) was a Swedish poet, psychologist and translator. His poems captured the long Swedish winters, the rhythm of the seasons and the palpable, atmospheric beauty of nature. Tranströmer's work is also characterized by a sense of mystery and wonder underlying the routine of everyday life, a quality which often gives his poems a religious dimension. He has been described as a Christian poet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974822}
{"src_title": "Merimde culture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Archaeological work.", "content": "The culture was concentrated around the main settlement site of 25 hectares in the West delta of the Nile in Lower Egypt 45 km northwest of Cairo. The site was discovered by German archaeologist and former Roman Catholic priest Hermann Junker, who excavated 6,400 m2 of the site during his West Nile Delta expedition in 1928. The expedition was financed by Albert Rothbart from New York City for the account of the Vienna Academy.  Later excavations in the 1970s performed by the Egyptian Antiquities Organization and the German Institute of Archaeology led to the establishment of the stratigraphical sequence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Merimde shows a sequence of occupations which lasted almost a millennium according to some estimates. While Junker identified three sequences, others such as Joseph Eiwanger established in 1977 that there are five with significantly different levels of development. Artifacts such as ceramics were quite primitive during phase I —a phase characterized by a light occupation. Eiwanger documented that storage areas appeared during phase II when the intensity of the occupation increased.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Archaeological evidence suggests that the Merimde economy was dominated by agriculture although some fishing and hunting were practiced to a lesser degree. The settlement consisted of small huts made of wattle and reed with a round or elliptical ground plan. Merimde pottery lacked rippled marks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Burials.", "content": "Burials had unique characteristics, different from those practiced in Upper Egyptian Predynastic Egypt and later Dynastic Egypt. There were no separate areas for cemeteries and the dead were buried within the settlement in a contracted position in oval pits without grave goods and offerings.  In the time of the Maadi culture, the place was used as a cemetery.  Excavations of Merimde burials have yielded a number of skeletons, chiefly those of females. The fossils are generally taller and more robust than later predynastic Egyptian specimens. In this regard, the Merimde skeletons are most similar to those associated with the Tasian culture. Furthermore, although the Merimde crania are dolichocephalic (long-headed) like many of the other predynastic skulls, they have a large and wide vault like the Tasian crania. Skulls excavated from Badarian, Amratian sites tend instead to be smaller and narrow.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Merimde culture (also Merimde Beni-Salame or Benisalam) () was a Neolithic culture in the West Nile Delta in Lower Egypt, which corresponds in its later phase to the Faiyum A culture and the Badari culture in Predynastic Egypt. It is estimated that the culture evolved between 4800 and 4300 BC. Merimde also refers to the archaeological site of the same name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974823}
{"src_title": "Pietro Pomponazzi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Pietro Pomponazzi was born in Mantua and began his education there. He completed his studies at Padua, where he became a medical doctor in 1487. In 1488 he was elected extraordinary professor of philosophy at Padua, where he was a colleague of Alessandro Achillini, the Averroist. From about 1495 to 1509 he occupied the chair of natural philosophy until the closing of the schools of Padua, when he took a professorship at Ferrara where he lectured on the Aristotle's \"De anima\" (the soul) and entelechy. In 1512 he was invited to Bologna where he remained until his death and where he produced all his important works.  The predominance of medical science at Padua had cramped his energies, but at Ferrara, and even more at Bologna, the study of psychology and theological speculation were more important. In 1516 he produced his great work \"De immortalitate animae\" (\"On the Immortality of the Soul\"), which gave rise to a storm of controversy between the orthodox Thomists of the Catholic Church, the Averroists headed by Agostino Nifo, and the so-called Alexandrist School. The treatise was burned at Venice, and Pomponazzi himself ran serious risk of death at the hands of the Catholics. Two pamphlets followed, the \"Apologia\" and the \"Defensorium,\" wherein he explained his paradoxical position as Catholic and philosophic materialist. His last two treatises, the \"De incantationibus\" and the \"De fato\", were posthumously published in an edition of his works printed at Basel.  Pomponazzi is profoundly interesting as the herald of the Renaissance. He was born in the period of transition when scholastic formalism was losing its hold over men both in the Church and outside. Hitherto the dogma of the Church had been based on Aristotle as interpreted by Thomas Aquinas. So close was this identification that any attack on Aristotle, or even an attempt to reopen the old discussions on the Aristotelian problems, was regarded as a dangerous heresy. Pomponazzi claimed the right to study Aristotle for himself, and devoted himself to the \"De anima\" with the view of showing that Thomas Aquinas had entirely misconceived the Aristotelian theory of the active and the passive intellect.  In \"On the Immortality of the Soul\" Pomponazzi argued specifically that Aquinas and Aristotle clash over the question of the immortality of the soul. While Pomponazzi himself does not follow Aristotle in this respect, he argues that Aristotle very clearly argues for the absolute mortality of the soul, with only limited features of immortality. He was not the first to make this claim, and appears to have been influenced by the Greek commentator on Aristotle, Alexander of Aphrodisias. He further claims that the immortality of the soul cannot be determined through reason, and thus must be left to the powers of God. Since the scriptures reveal that God has made the soul immortal, argued Pomponazzi, we too can accept as true the immortality of the soul and thereby go beyond the limits of reason. (This debate influenced his 1591-1631 successor in the chair Cesare Cremonini, whose adherence to Aristotle led to the opposite conclusion of the mortality of the soul.)  Pomponazzi declared his adherence to the Catholic faith, and despite the controversy over his initial work, it was not condemned by the Church. Again it was established that the principle that religion and philosophy, faith and knowledge, may be diametrically opposed and yet coexist for the same thinker. This curious paradox he exemplifies in the \"De incantatione\", where he sums up against the existence of demons and spirits on the basis of the Aristotelian theory of the cosmos, and, as a believing Christian, asserts his faith in their existence. In this work he insists emphatically upon the orderly sequence of nature, cause and effect. They grow to maturity and then decay; so religions have their day and succumb. Even Christianity, he added (with the proviso that he is speaking as a philosopher) was showing indications of decline.  He died in Bologna.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pietro Pomponazzi (16 September 1462 – 18 May 1525) was an Italian philosopher. He is sometimes known by his Latin name, \"Petrus Pomponatius\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974824}
{"src_title": "Bryher (novelist)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bryher was born in September 1894 in Margate. Her father was the shipowner and financier John Ellerman, who at the time of his death in 1933, was the richest Englishman who had ever lived. He lived with her mother Hannah Glover, but did not marry her until 1908.  Bryher traveled in Europe as a child, to France, Italy and Egypt. At the age of fourteen she was enrolled in a traditional English boarding school and at around this time her mother and father married. On one of her travels, Ellerman journeyed to the Isles of Scilly off the southwestern coast of Great Britain and acquired her future pseudonym from her favourite island, Bryher.  During the 1920s, Bryher was an unconventional figure in Paris. Among her circle of friends were Ernest Hemingway, James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Sylvia Beach and Berenice Abbott. Her wealth enabled her to give financial support to struggling writers, including Joyce and Edith Sitwell. She also helped with finance for Sylvia Beach's bookshop Shakespeare and Company and certain publishing ventures, and started a film company Pool Group. She also helped provide funds to purchase a flat in Paris for the destitute Dada artist and writer Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifelong relationship and later life.", "content": "Bryher knew from an early age that she was lesbian. In 1918 she met and became involved in a same-sex relationship with poet Hilda Doolittle (better known by her initials, H.D.). The relationship was an open one, with both taking other partners. In 1921 she entered into a marriage of convenience with the American author Robert McAlmon, whom she divorced in 1927.  That same year she married Kenneth Macpherson, a writer who shared her interest in film and who was at the same time H.D.'s lover. In Burier, Switzerland, overlooking Lake Geneva, the couple built a Bauhaus-style structure that doubled as a home and film studio, which they named Kenwin. They formally adopted H.D.'s young daughter, Perdita. In 1928, H.D. became pregnant with Macpherson's child, but chose to abort the pregnancy. Bryher divorced MacPherson in 1947; she and Doolittle no longer lived together after 1946, but continued their relationship until Doolittle's death in 1961.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmmaking and film criticism.", "content": "Bryher, H.D., and Macpherson formed the film magazine \"Close Up\", and the Pool Group. Only one \"POOL\" film, \"Borderline\" (1930), starring H.D. and Paul Robeson, survives in its entirety. In common with the \"Borderline\" novellas, it explores extreme psychic states and their relationship to surface reality. Bryher herself plays an innkeeper.  Bryher's most notable non-fiction work was \"Film Problems of Soviet Russia\" (1929). In \"Close Up\" she compared Hollywood unfavorably with Soviet filmmaking, arguing that the studio system had \"lowered the standards\" of cinema. Her writings also helped to bring Sergei Eisenstein to the attention of the British public.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II and after.", "content": "In a 1933 article in \"Close up\" entitled \"What Shall You Do in the War?\", Bryher wrote about the situation of Jews in Germany, urging readers to take action. Starting that year, her home in Switzerland became a \"receiving station\" for refugees; she helped more than 100 people escape Nazi persecution before she began to fear for her own safety and returned to the UK. This experience influenced her 1965 \"Science Fantasy\" novel \"Visa for Avalon\", about a group of people trying to escape an unnamed country for a place called Avalon on the eve of revolution.  From 1940 to 1946 she lived in London with H.D. and supervised the literary magazine \"Life and Letters To-day\". She later wrote a memoir of these years entitled \"The Days of Mars\", as well as a novel, \"Beowulf\" (1948), set during the Blitz.  Starting in 1952, she wrote a series of historical novels. Most are set in Britain during various eras; \"Roman Wall\" (1954) and \"The Coin of Carthage\" (1963) are set in the Roman Empire; \"Ruan\" (1960) is set in a post-Arthurian Britain. They are well researched and vivid, typically set in times of turmoil and often seen from the perspective of a young man. \"Ruan\" portrays the adventures of a Druid Novice who yearns to escape the confines of his surroundings and upbringing to become a sea captain.  Acclaimed in her own time, her historical novels have now fallen out of print but used copies are readily available. Since 2000, \"Visa for Avalon\", her early semi-autobiographical novels \"Development\" and \"Two Selves\", her memoir \"The Heart to Artemis\", and her historical novel \"The Player's Boy\" have been republished.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bryher (2 September 1894 – 28 January 1983) was the pen name of the English novelist, poet, memoirist, and magazine editor Annie Winifred Ellerman, of the Ellerman ship-owning family.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974825}
{"src_title": "Maserati Quattroporte", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Quattroporte I (AM107, 1963–1969).", "content": "The original Maserati Quattroporte (\"Tipo AM107\") was built between 1963 and 1969. It was a large saloon powered by V8 engines—both firsts for a series production Maserati automobile.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The task of styling the Quattroporte was given to Turinese coachbuilder Pietro Frua, who drew inspiration from a special 5000 GT (chassis number 103.060) which he had designed in 1962 for Prince Karim Aga Khan. While the design was by Frua, body construction was carried out by Vignale.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Series I (1963–1966).", "content": "The Quattroporte was introduced at the October–November 1963 Turin Motor Show, where a pre-production prototype was on the Maserati stand next to the Mistral coupé. Regular production began in 1964. The Tipo 107 Quattroporte joined two other grand tourers, the Facel Vega and the Lagonda Rapide, capable of traveling at speeds of up to on the new motorways in Europe. It was equipped with a 4.1-litre () V8 engine, rated at DIN at 5,000 rpm, and equipped with either a five-speed ZF manual transmission or a three-speed Borg Warner automatic on request. Maserati claimed a top speed of. The car was also exported to the United States, where federal regulations mandated twin round headlamps in place of the single rectangular ones found on European models.  Between 1963 and 1966, 230 units were made.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Series II (1966–1969).", "content": "In 1966, Maserati revised the Tipo 107, adding the twin headlights already used on the U.S. model. A leaf-sprung solid axle took place of the previous De Dion tube. The interior was completely redesigned, including the dashboard which now had a full width wood-trimmed fascia. In 1968 alongside the 4.1-litre a 4.7-litre version became also available (\"AM107/4700\"), developing DIN. Top speed increased to a claimed, making the Quattroporte 4700 the fastest four-door sedan in the world at the time.  Around 500 of the second series were made, for a total of 776 \"Tipo 107\" Quattroportes. Production ended in 1969.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Specifications.", "content": "The first generation of the Quattroporte had a steel unibody structure, complemented by a front subframe. Front suspension was independent, with coil springs and hydraulic dampers. Rear suspension used a coil sprung De Dion tube featuring inboard brakes on the first series, later changed to a more conventional Salisbury leaf sprung solid axle with a single trailing link on the second series. On both axles there were anti-roll bars. Brakes were solid Girling discs all around. A limited slip differential was optional.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Engines.", "content": "The long lived quad cam, all-aluminium Maserati V8 engine made its début on the Quattroporte. It featured two chain-driven overhead camshafts per bank, 32 angled valves, hemispherical combustion chambers, inserted cast iron wet cylinder liners, and was fed through an aluminium, water-cooled inlet manifold by four downdraft twin-choke Weber carburetors—initially 38 DCNL 5 and 40 DCNL 5 on 4200 and 4700 cars respectively, later changed to 40 DCNF 5 and 42 DCNF 5 starting from December 1968. ! Model! Engine! Peak power! Peak torque! Top speed", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "The Maserati Quattroporte () is a four-door full-size luxury sports saloon produced by Italian automobile manufacturer Maserati. The name translated from Italian literally means \"four doors\". The car is currently in its sixth generation, with the first generation introduced in 1963.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974826}
{"src_title": "Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Petra Laurentien Brinkhorst was born in Leiden on 25 May 1966, the daughter of the former Dutch minister of Economic Affairs, Laurens Jan Brinkhorst and Jantien Brinkhorst-Heringa. She has one brother. She is known by her middle name, Laurentien, a portmanteau of her parents' given names.  Princess Laurentien started primary school in Groningen. Her family then moved to The Hague, where she completed her primary education. She spent four years at the Christelijk Gymnasium Sorghvliet, and a year at the Eerste Vrijzinnige Christelijk Lyceum, both in The Hague. In 1984, she passed the Baccalauréat A examinations at the Lycée français in Tokyo. Her father was working in Japan at the time, being the Permanent Envoy of the European Union.  Princess Laurentien studied History at the University of Groningen, where she received her \"propaedeuse\" in 1986. After this she studied at College of Queen Mary of the University of London where she received her Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in Political Science in 1989 and subsequently at the University of California, Berkeley, where she obtained her Master of Journalism (MJ) degree in 1991.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interests and activities.", "content": "Princess Laurentien has a long record of fighting against illiteracy in the Netherlands, which is now to be considered a negligible issue. In 2009, she was designated UNESCO Special Envoy on \"Literacy for Development\" in recognition of her \"outstanding commitment to the promotion of education and her profound dedication to the Organization's ideals and objectives\". In 2010 she was co-recipient of the Major Bosshardt Prize for her work in combating illiteracy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "The engagement of Prince Constantijn and Laurentien Brinkhorst was announced on 16 December 2000. The civil marriage was conducted by Wim Deetman, the mayor of the Hague, in the Oude Raadzaal, Javastraat, the Hague, on 17 May 2001. The church wedding took place two days later on 19 May in the Grote of St Jacobskerk, with Reverend Carel ter Linden officiating.  Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien have three children: Eloise (b. 2002), Claus-Casimir (b. 2004), and Leonore (b. 2006).  Prince Constantijn, Princess Laurentien, and their children recently (2015) moved from Brussels to The Hague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles, and honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles and styles.", "content": "Laurentien's full title and style is: \"Her Royal Highness\" Princess Petra Laurentien of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Mrs. van Amsberg.  Laurentien was not legally created a princess, but custom allows a wife to use her husband’s titles. All children of the marriage hold the titles Count or Countess of Orange-Nassau and \"Jonkheer\" or \"Jonkvrouw van Amsberg\".  By Royal Decree of 15 January 2003, nr. 36, Princess Laurentien was granted her own personal standard.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands (née \"Petra Laurentien Brinkhorst\"; born 25 May 1966) is the wife of Prince Constantijn and sister-in-law of King Willem-Alexander and Queen Máxima.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974827}
{"src_title": "Melrose Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Old Melrose.", "content": "An earlier monastery was founded by, then later dedicated to, Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne on a site about two miles (3 km) east of Melrose Abbey. This was shortly before his death in 651 at Bamburgh. Set in a bend of the River Tweed, a graveyard marks the site. Saint Cuthbert, who grew up nearby, trained at Old Melrose abbey. He was prior from 662 before he moved to Lindisfarne (Holy Island). The visionary Dryhthelm was also a monk there in the early eighth century. The abbey site was raided by Kenneth I of Scotland in 839.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cistercian abbey.", "content": "Melrose was the first Cistercian abbey in Scotland. King David I wanted the new abbey to be built on the same site, but the Cistercians insisted that the land was not good enough for farming and selected the current site. It was said to have been built in ten years. The church of the convent was dedicated to St. Mary (like all Cistercian houses) on 28 July 1146. The abbey became the mother church of the order in Scotland. Its first community came from Rielvaux, the Yorkshire house colonized from Cîteaux.  In the 12th century, around Melrose, the Cistercians implemented new farming techniques and marketed Melrose wool throughout the great trading ports across northern Europe. A town slowly grew up around the abbey. During a time of famine four thousand starving people were fed by the monastery for three months.  The monastery had 100 monks, exclusive of the abbot and dignitaries. The privileges and possessions of the abbey were very extensive. Its founder David endowed it with the lands of Melrose, Eildon, and other places; and the right of fishery on the River Tweed. Succeeding monarchs increased its property. The house was famed for its wealth, for many of its abbots were men of distinction and honour. Waltheof of Melrose, stepson of King David and at one time prior of Kirkham, was abbot of Melrose from 1148-1159. He endowed Melrose with a reputation for sanctity and learning which placed it on a par with houses such as Fountains and Rievaulx and made it the premier abbey in Scotland. The tomb of St. Waltheof, in the chapter house, later became the focus of pilgrimage.  One of the earliest accounts of the settlement reached at Runnymede is found in the \"Chronicle of Melrose Abbey\". Melrose was located on one of the main roads running from Edinburgh to the south making it particularly vulnerable to attack. In 1322, the town was attacked by the army of Edward II, and much of the abbey was destroyed. It was rebuilt by order of King Robert the Bruce, with Sir James Douglas being principal auditor of finance for the project. In 1385, the abbey was burned by the army of Richard II of England, \"partly because of support for the Avignon Pope Clement VII\" he forced the army of Robert II of Scotland back to Edinburgh. It was rebuilt over a period of about 100 years—construction was still unfinished when James IV visited in 1504.  From 1541, the abbacy was held by a series of commendators. In 1544, as English armies raged across Scotland in an effort to force the Scots to allow the infant Mary, Queen of Scots to marry the son of Henry VIII, the abbey was again badly damaged and was never fully repaired. This led to its decline as a working monastery. The last abbot was James Stuart (the illegitimate son of James V), who died in 1559. In 1590, Melrose's last monk died.  The abbey withstood one final assault, and some of its walls still show the marks of cannon fire after having been bombarded by Oliver Cromwell's troops during the English Civil War. In 1618, a portion of the abbey's church was converted into a parish church for the surrounding town. A plain vault was inserted into the crossing, removing the original ribbed vaulting in the central section. It was used until 1810 when a new church was erected in the town. In 1812, a stone coffin was exhumed from the aisle in the abbey's south chancel. Some speculated the remains were those of Michael Scot, the philosopher and \"wizard.\"  At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Sir Walter Scott was appointed Sheriff-Depute of Roxburghshire. In 1822, with the financial assistance of the Duke of Buccleuch, Sir Walter supervised the extensive repair work that was to preserve the ruins. In 1918, the duke gave the ruins to the state, by which time the abbey had undergone further restoration and repair. It is now in the care of Historic Environment Scotland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Robert the Bruce.", "content": "Robert the Bruce's heart is said to have been buried in the church, perhaps brought back from a crusade with the body of Lord Douglas in either 1330 or 1331. The position was marked by a small metal plaque.  In 1996, an archaeological excavation on the site unearthed a conical lead container and an engraved copper plaque that read \"The enclosed leaden casket containing a heart was found beneath Chapter House floor, March 1921, by His Majesty's Office of Works.\" The casket was investigated by AOC archaeology in Leith and contained a still recognisable human heart in a thick black liquor. As there are no records of anyone else's heart being buried at Melrose it was presumed to be that of Robert the Bruce. The container was reburied at Melrose Abbey on 22 June 1998 under a memorial stone.  There is no way to prove conclusively whether the heart belonged to King Robert. There is no record of any other heart being buried on the site; however, the Chapter House would be an unusual location for a king's heart to be buried: most high-status burials would have happened next to the altar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The abbey is laid out on a traditional east-west axis. The west section is almost wholly absent other than its foundations. The eastern section is more intact. A graveyard serving the local community lies to the south and south-east of the abbey. The majority of stones date from the 19th century. The abbey is the only Scottish abbey to still retain some of its original floor tiles. The northern cloisters are equally erased to foundation level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributes.", "content": "Sir Walter Scott described Melrose Abbey in one of his poems, \"The Lay of the Last Minstrel, Canto Second\".  A Presbyterian congregation in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, has built what may be the last Gothic cathedral in the U.S. and patterned it after Melrose Abbey. The church, Kirk in the Hills, completed in 1958, is located on a lakeside setting north of Detroit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The abbey is part of five other abbeys and historic sights through Scotland on Borders Abbeys Way walk. In 2018 the site received 58,286 visitors.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "St Mary's Abbey, Melrose is a partly ruined monastery of the Cistercian order in Melrose, Roxburghshire, in the Scottish Borders. It was founded in 1136 by Cistercian monks at the request of King David I of Scotland and was the chief house of that order in the country until the Reformation. It was headed by the abbot or commendator of Melrose. Today the abbey is maintained by Historic Environment Scotland as a scheduled monument.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974828}
{"src_title": "Jardin des plantes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Garden plan.", "content": "The grounds of the \"Jardin des plantes\" include four buildings containing exhibited specimens. These buildings are officially considered as museums following the French law (they are labelled \"musée de France\") and the French Museum of Natural History calls them \"galeries\" (French for 'galleries'):  In addition to the gardens and the galleries, there is also a small zoo, the \"ménagerie du Jardin des plantes\", founded in 1795 by Bernardin de Saint-Pierre from animals of the \"ménagerie royale de Versailles\", the menagerie at Versailles, which was dismantled during the French Revolution.  The \"Jardin des plantes\" maintains a botanical school, which trains botanists, constructs demonstration gardens, and exchanges seeds to maintain biotic diversity. About 4,500 plants are arranged by family on a one hectare (10,000 m2) plot. Three hectares are devoted to horticultural displays of decorative plants. An Alpine garden has 3,000 species with world-wide representation. Specialized buildings, such as a large Art Deco winter garden, and Mexican and Australian hothouses display regional plants, not native to France. The Rose Garden, created in 1990, has hundreds of species of roses and rose trees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Founded in 1626, the garden was not planted by Guy de La Brosse, Louis XIII's physician, until 1635 as a medicinal herb garden. It was originally known as the Jardin du Roi. In 1640 it opened to the public. After a period of decline, Jean-Baptiste Colbert took administrative control of the gardens. Dr. Guy-Crescent Fagon was appointed in 1693, and he surrounded himself with a team of experienced botanists, including Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, Antoine de Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu and his son Adrien-Henri.  The holdings include 6,963 specimens of the herbarium collection of Joseph Tournefort, donated on his death to the Jardin du Roi.  The Comte de Buffon became the curator in 1739 and he expanded the gardens greatly, adding a maze, the labyrinth, which remains today. In 1792 the Royal Menagerie was moved to the gardens from Versailles.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Jardin des plantes (French for \"Garden of the Plants\"), also known as the Jardin des plantes de Paris () when distinguished from other \"jardins des plantes\" in other cities, is the main botanical garden in France. The term \"Jardin des plantes\" is the official name in the present day, but it is in fact an elliptical form of \"Jardin royal des plantes médicinales\" (\"Royal Garden of the Medicinal Plants\"), which is related to the original purpose of the garden back in the 17th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974829}
{"src_title": "Archduke Johann Salvator of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Johann Salvator was born in Florence, the youngest son of Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany and his second wife, Princess Maria Antonia of the Two Sicilies. He was baptized in Florence's Battistero di San Giovanni as \"Giovanni Nepomuceno Maria Annunziata Giuseppe Giovanni Batista Ferdinando Baldassare Luigi Gonzaga Pietro Alessandrino Zanobi Antonino\". He pursued a career in the Austrian Army and was a good friend of Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria, with both sharing liberal opinions.  After Bulgaria was granted autonomy by the Ottoman Empire, Johann Salvator was an unsuccessful candidate for the throne. Prince Alexander of Battenberg would be elected Prince of Bulgaria in 1879. During the Austro-Hungarian occupation of the Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, he was put in command of a division of the occupying army and won numerous honours.  On 16 October 1889, he resigned his army commission and renounced his title and the privileges he enjoyed as a member of the Austrian Imperial Family. After renouncing his titles he assumed the name \"Johann (or John) Orth\", the surname Orth derived from the name of a castle he had owned, Schloss Orth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disappearance.", "content": "In 1889, Johann Salvator married Ludmilla (\"Milli\") Stubel, an opera dancer in London. Shortly after his marriage, he purchased a ship named the \"Santa Margareta\", on which he and his wife sailed for South America. In February 1890 he set off from Montevideo, Uruguay, heading for Valparaíso in Chile. He was last seen on 12 July in Cape Tres Puntas, Argentina. It is believed that his ship was lost during a storm off the coast of Cape Horn. He was officially declared dead on 2 February 1911 in Vienna.  In the years following Salvator's disappearance, numerous sightings of him were reported. Rumors persisted that he and his wife sailed to South America and assumed new identities. Several men also came forward claiming to be the \"missing Duke\". One of the more publicised claims came in May 1945 when a German born lithographer living in Kristiansand, Norway named Alexander Hugo Køhler made a deathbed confession claiming that he was Johann Salvator. Køhler claimed that, as Johann Orth, he \"bought\" the identity of Alexander Hugo Køhler and assumed his life. Køhler claimed that the real Alexander Hugo Køhler posed as Salvator and it was he who died at sea.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduke Johann Salvator of Austria (, ; 25 November 1852 – declared dead in absentia 2 February 1911) was a member of the Tuscan branch of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. He was Archduke and Prince of Austria, Prince of Hungary, Bohemia and Tuscany. After renouncing those titles, he was known as Johann (John) Orth. He disappeared while sailing with his wife in July 1890 and is believed to have died when his ship encountered a storm near Cape Horn. Salvator was declared dead in absentia in February 1911.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974830}
{"src_title": "Yitzhak Navon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Yitzhak Navon was born in Jerusalem to Yosef and Miryam Navon, a descendant of a Sephardic family of rabbis, and had ancestry in Jerusalem going back centuries. On his father's side, he was descended from Sephardi Jews who settled in Turkey, after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492. His ancestors, the Baruch Mizrahi family immigrated from Turkey to Jerusalem in 1670. On his mother's side, he was descended from the renowned Moroccan-Jewish kabbalist rabbi Chaim ibn Attar, who immigrated to then Palestine (land of Israel) and settled in Jerusalem in 1742.  He attended the Doresh Tziyon and Takhemoni elementary schools and the Hebrew University high school.  Navon studied Arabic and Islamic studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He taught Hebrew literature for several years. He was fluent in Arabic, Hebrew, Ladino, French and English.  Navon was a member of the Haganah's Arab Intelligence Unit and worked undercover in Jerusalem. During the war, he listened to wiretapped conversations of the British Army. Later he was sent by the Israeli foreign service to Uruguay and Argentina to track down Nazis.  Navon was married to Ofira Navon née Resnikov, who died of cancer in 1993. They had a son, Erez, and an adopted daughter, Naama. Navon died in Jerusalem at the age of 94.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1951, Navon became the political secretary of Israel's first prime minister, David Ben-Gurion. The following year he was appointed Ben-Gurion's bureau chief. He remained in this position under Prime Minister Moshe Sharett. His judgment was crucial to advice the government received during the Suez Crisis and Lavon Affair.  In 1963 Ben-Gurion resigned as prime minister, Navon became a civil service department head at the Ministry of Education and Culture. Navon began a long campaign fighting illiteracy in Israel, which was 12% of the Jewish population. It's a shame and disgrace that more than 200,000 adults in Israel do not know how to read or write in any language, and we must do everything possible to erase this stain from us. Navon ordered the mobilisation of hundreds of woman soldiers serving compulsory national service to teach in new schools. Two years later, Navon was elected to the Knesset as a member of Ben-Gurion's Rafi. The new party which had dared challenge the Mapai establishment was driven by'modernization and scientification'; it merged into the Israeli Labor Party (part of the Alignment) in 1968. But the labour elite of which Navon was one, would in the future dictate the Left's agenda. Navon served as deputy speaker of the Knesset and chairman of the Knesset Committee on Foreign and Defense Affairs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President of Israel (1978–83).", "content": "On 19 April 1978, Navon was elected by the Knesset to serve as the fifth President of Israel. The race was uncontested and Navon received 86 votes in the 120-member Knesset with 23 members casting blank votes. He assumed office on 29 May 1978 and was the first president with small children to move into Beit HaNassi, the presidential residence in Jerusalem. His wife, Ofira, was active in promoting the welfare of Israeli children.  As president, Navon met with Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and was influential in the peace talks. According to Haaretz newspaper, he achieved more in one visit than five by Israel's Prime Minister.  Although the Israeli presidency is a ceremonial office, Navon was an outspoken advocate of a judicial commission of inquiry to probe Israel's role in the Sabra and Shatila massacre perpetrated by Lebanese Falangists in 1982.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minister of Education.", "content": "In 1983, Navon turned down the opportunity to run for a second term of office. Instead he returned to politics, the only Israeli ex-president to do so. When the polls showed that Navon was more popular than Labor chairman Shimon Peres, Peres was pressured to step aside and allow Navon to take over the party leadership. Navon's fluency in the Arabic language made him especially popular among Arab and Mizrahi voters. But Navon did not accept the chairmanship. In 1984, he was elected to the Knesset and served as minister of education and culture from 1984 to 1990. Navon was again Minister of Education during the first Intifada on the West Bank. During the summer of 1989 there were riots and protests. Jerusalem parents appealed to Navon by petition, to reopen their schools. Navon a socialistic Jew was impressed by the legal implications: \"This action is immoral and ineffective and will cause irreversible damage in the long and short run to Palestinian children and to our own.\" As the violence escalated moderates suffered at the hands of extremists.  Remaining in the Knesset until 1992, he briefly left politics. Navon emerged from retirement to chair a Commission of Inquiry on Israeli medical authorities' controversial practice of discarding blood donated by Israelis of Ethiopian origin due to concerns about AIDS transmission.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "In 2003 the Spanish government granted Navon an award at Herzliya.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "Navon wrote two musicals based on Sephardic folklore: \"Romancero Sefardi\" (1968) and \"Bustan Sefardi\" (\"Sephardic Garden\" 1970), which were successfully performed at Habimah, Israel's national theater in Tel Aviv. He is also the author of \"The Six Days and the Seven Gates\" (1979), a modern legend of the reunification of Jerusalem, first published in Hebrew by Shikmona Publishing Company and later translated into English.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yitzhak Rachamim Navon (; 9 April 1921 – 6 November 2015) was an Israeli politician, diplomat, and author. He served as the fifth President of Israel between 1978 and 1983 as a member of the centre-left Alignment party. He was the first Israeli president born in Jerusalem and the first Mizrahi Jew to serve in that office.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974831}
{"src_title": "Boletus reticulatus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer described the summer cep as \"Boletus reticulatus\" in 1774. Jean-Jacques Paulet described it as \"Boletus aestivalis\" in 1793, the species name derived from the Latin \"aestas\" \"summer\". The two names were used in literature for many years.  \"Boletus reticulatus\" is classified in \"Boletus\" section \"Boletus\", alongside close relatives such as \"B. aereus\", \"B. edulis\", and \"B. pinophilus\". A genetic study of the four European species found that \"B. reticulatus\" was sister to \"B. aereus\". More extensive testing of worldwide taxa revealed that \"B. reticulatus\" was most closely related to two lineages that had been classified as \"B. edulis\" from southern China and Korea/northern China respectively. The common ancestor of these three species was related to a lineage consisting of \"B. aereus\" and the genetically close \"B. mamorensis\". Molecular analysis suggests that the \"B. aereus/mamorensis\" and \"B. reticulatus\"/Chinese \"B.\" \"edulis\" lineages diverged around 6 to 7 million years ago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The summer cep's fruiting body is a mushroom with a swollen bulbous stem, and large convex cap. The cap is more or less round and usually up to 20(40) centimetres in diameter. It bears a velvety brown, rust to chocolate cuticle which when dry often cracks to reveal the white flesh underneath, giving the appearance of a net.  The darker, more uniform shade and the velvety feel of the cap are a key feature distinguishing this species as is the vagueness or total absence of a white edge to the cap margin as seen in \"Boletus edulis\". The tubes and pores of the hymenium are initially white, darkening with age to pale yellow and finally brown. The stipe is central (up to 16(30) cm in height) and has a strongly marked reticulated pattern with a variable white to brown colour.  The flesh is white and thick and remains firm if yellowish as the mushroom ages, and is often attacked by insect larvae. Its odour is pleasant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The summer cep is found in woods throughout Europe, after hot and humid weather, from the start of summer until the end of autumn. It is particularly common in the south and west of France. It is less host-specific than other porcini mushrooms.  \"Boletus reticulatus\" has been recovered from southern Africa, where it was likely introduced, growing under the Mexican species \"Pinus patula\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "The summer cep, like most ceps, is edible and useful in cooking. However, its flesh is somewhat less firm than other ceps. Based on analysis of fruit bodies collected in Portugal, there are 334 kilocalories per 100 gram of bolete (as dry weight). The macronutrient composition of 100 grams of dried bolete includes 22.6 grams of protein, 55.1 grams of carbohydrates, and 2.6 grams of fat. By weight, fresh fruit bodies are about 91% water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Some books (in French) with information about this mushroom:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Boletus reticulatus (formerly known as Boletus aestivalis (Paulet) Fr.), and commonly referred to as the summer cep is a basidiomycete fungus of the genus \"Boletus\". It occurs in deciduous forests of Europe where it forms a symbiotic mycorrhizal relationship with species of oak (\"Quercus\"). The fungus produces fruiting bodies in the summer months which are edible and popularly collected. The summer cep was formally described by Jacob Christian Schäffer as \"Boletus reticulatus\" in 1774, which took precedence over \"B. aestivalis\" as described by Jean-Jacques Paulet in 1793.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974832}
{"src_title": "Nikolay Chkheidze", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Chkheidze was born to an aristocratic family in Puti, Kutais Governorate (in the present-day Imereti province of Georgia). From his marriage with Alexandra Taganova (X-1943), he will have four children including a daughter who will accompany him in exile.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1892, Chkheidze, together with Egnate Ninoshvili, Silibistro Jibladze, Noe Zhordania and Kalenike Chkheidze (his brother), became a founder of the first Georgian Social-Democratic group, Mesame Dasi (the \"third team\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russia.", "content": "From 1907 to 1917, Chkheidze was a member of Tiflis Gubernyia in the Russian State Duma and gained popularity as a spokesman for the Menshevik faction within the Russian Social Democratic Party. He was an active member of the irregular freemasonic lodge, the Grand Orient of Russia’s Peoples. In 1917, the year of the Russian Revolution, Chkheidze became Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. He failed to prevent the rise of radical Bolshevism and refused a post in the Russian Provisional Government. However, he did support its policies and advocated revolutionary \"oboronchestvo\" (defencism). He also voted to continue the war against the German Empire..", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transcaucasia.", "content": "In October 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia. At the time, Chkheidze was in Georgia. He remained in Georgia and on 23 February 1918, became leader of the Transcaucasian Federation in Tiflis. Some months later the federation was dissolved.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Democratic Republic of Georgia.", "content": "On 26 May 1918, the Act of Independence of Georgia was adopted, Chkheidze was elected chairman of the National Council of Georgia: this Georgian Provisional Assembly decided to appoint a government, to prepare elections and to create a constitutional commission. In February 1919 he was elected a member of the Constituent Assembly of Georgia and on March 12 president of this assembly, but could not participate in its first session because he was located in Paris. Chairing the Georgian delegation to the Versailles Conference, he tried to gain the Entente's support for the Democratic Republic of Georgia. He also proposed to Georges Clemenceau and to David Lloyd George a French or British protectorate for Georgian foreign affairs and defense, but was unsuccessful. Chkheidze, who had 14 years of parliamentary life experience, oversaw the writing of the Constitution by Razhden Arsenidze and 14 other MPs of the majority and the opposition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France.", "content": "In March 1921, when the Red Army invaded Georgia, Chkheidze fled with his family to France via Constantinople. In 1923 and 1924, as part of the Social Democratic Labour Party of Georgia in exile, Chkheidze opposed a national uprising in Georgia. Chkheidze, Irakly Tsereteli, Datiko Sharashidze, and Kale Kavtaradze formed a group called \"Oppozitsia\". In their mind, the Red Army and Cheka were too strong, and the unarmed Georgian people too weak. After the August Uprising of 1924, 10,000 Georgians were executed, and between 50,000 and 100,000 Georgians were deported to Siberia or to Central Asia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 13 June 1926, Chkheidze committed suicide, in his official residence in Leuville-sur-Orge, France. He was buried in Paris, in the Père Lachaise Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikoloz Semyonovich Chkheidze (; ), commonly known as Karlo Chkheidze ( – 13 June 1926), was a Georgian politician. In the 1890s, he promoted Social Democratic movement in Georgia. He became a key figure in the Russian Revolution (February 1917 to October 1917) as the Menshevik president of the Executive Committee of the Soviet of Petrograd (until September 1917). Later he served as president of the Transcaucasian Sejm (February 1918 to May 1918), and he held office in the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (April–May 1918). Later he became president of parliamentary assemblies of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, National Council, Constituent Assembly and Parliament (May 1918 to March 1921).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974833}
{"src_title": "Luca Cambiaso", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Cambiaso was born in Moneglia, then part of the Republic of Genoa, the son of a painter named Giovanni Cambiaso.  Cambiaso was precocious, and at the age of fifteen he painted, along with his father, some subjects from Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\" on the facade of a house in Genoa. In 1544, at the age of seventeen, he was involved in the decoration of the Palazzo Doria, now the Prefettura, perhaps working with Marcantonio Calvi, a painter of his father's generation. He aided in the vault decoration of the church of San Matteo, in collaboration with Giovanni Battista Castello. His \"Resurrection\" and \"Transfiguration\" altarpieces for San Bartolomeo degli Armeni date from c. 1560. In 1563, he painted a \"Resurrection\" for \"San Giovanni Battista\" in Montalto Ligure.  This was followed by frescoes for the Villa Imperiale at Genoa-Turalba (also called the Palazzo Imperiali Terralba) with a \"Rape of the Sabines\" (c. 1565) and the Palazzo Meridiana (formerly Grimaldi; also in 1565). In the Capella Lercari of the Duomo di San Lorenzo, Cambiaso frescoed a \"Presentation\" and \"Marriage of the Virgin\" in 1569, remainder of chapel by Castello. In 1583 Cambiaso accepted an invitation from Philip II to complete for the Escorial a series of frescoes begun by Castello; and the 1911 Encyclopædia states the principal reason for traveling to Spain was that he hoped royal influence would gain favor with the Vatican for his marriage plans, but this failed. In the Escorial he executed a \"Paradise\" on the vaulting of the church, with a multitude of figures. For this picture he received 2,000 ducats, probably the largest sum that had, up to that time, ever been given for a single work. His paintings in Spain, hew to strict religious thematic.  His son Orazio Cambiaso became a painter. Other followers from Genoa include Giovanni Andrea Ansaldo, Simone Barabino, Giulio Benso, Battista and Bernardo Castello, Giovanni Battista Paggi, Francesco Spezzini, and Lazzaro Tavarone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style and output.", "content": "Cambiaso had an ardent fancy, and was a bold designer in a Raphaelesque mode. His main influences are said to have been Correggio and the Late Renaissance Venetian school. His extreme facility astonished the Spanish painters. It is said that Philip II, watching one day with pleasure the off-hand zest with which Cambiaso was painting a head of a laughing child, was allowed the further surprise of seeing the laugh changed, by a touch or two upon the lips, into a weeping expression. The artist painted sometimes with a brush in each hand, and with a certainty equalling or transcending that even of Tintoretto. His fresco technique was very spontaneous and he used small drawings to create full-size sketches on the walls without the aid of cartoons.  Cambiaso is best represented in Genoa. In the church of San Giorgio is a canvas of the \"Martyrdom of San Giorgio\"; Santa Maria da Carignano houses a \"Pietà\", containing his own portrait and (according to tradition) that of his beloved sister-in-law.  He painted notable nocturnes, including an \"Adoration of the Shepherds\" (1570) and the so-called \"Madonna of the Candle\" (1575). The former painting appears inspired by Correggio's \"Nativity\".  Cambiaso was a prolific draftsman. In his early drawings Cambiaso showed a preference for bold foreshortenings and exaggerated gestures. In the mid-1560s he began to draw in a simplified, geometric style that may have been inspired by similar works by Albrecht Dürer and other German artists.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Luca Cambiaso (also known as Luca Cambiasi and Luca Cangiagio (being Cangiaxo the surname in Ligurian); 18 November 1527 - 6 September 1585) was an Italian painter and draftsman and the leading artist in Genoa in the 16th century. He is considered the founder of the Genoese school who established the local tradition of historical fresco painting through his many decorations of Genoese churches and palaces. He produced a number of poetic night scenes. He was a prolific draughtsman who sometimes reduced figures to geometric (even cubic) forms. He was familiarly known as Lucchetto da Genova.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974834}
{"src_title": "Paris Métro Line 1", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In November 1898, the City of Paris decided to undertake preliminary work of the metro network with the construction of the first line of the Parisian subway system. Work lasted twenty months under the leadership of engineer Fulgence Bienvenüe and was financed by the municipality of Paris. The line was divided into eight parts distributed between several companies. On 19 July 1900, the line was opened between Porte Maillot and Porte de Vincennes to connect the various sites of the World Fair. Only eight stations were finalized and opened with the inauguration; ten more were gradually opened between 6 August and 1 September 1900. The line followed the east–west monument axis in Paris. These eighteen stations were entirely built under the control of engineer Fulgence Bienvenüe, the majority of them 75 metres long and 4.10 metres wide. In March 1934, the first extension into the suburbs brought service to Château of Vincennes towards the east.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rolling Stock.", "content": "Line 1 has had five different types of rolling stock throughout the years (from ).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Automation.", "content": "After successfully opening Line 14 as a fully automatic line, the RATP began to explore the possibility of automating existing lines on the system. The agency first focused on Line 1, since it is the busiest of all of the Paris subway lines, and also the line most frequented by tourists. Automation not only allowed Paris to remain as a model for technological innovations in the railway industry but also increases the number of lines in normal service when RATP workers are striking \"(from MP 05)\". This was shown when the transport union engaged in industrial action in September 2019 without affecting service on Line 1.  Work began in 2007 and was largely carried out without interrupting passenger traffic. Preliminary work involved electrical and signaling upgrades throughout the entire line. Work also commenced on converting the original Porte Maillot station (also known as \"Espace Maillot\") into a light maintenance facility for the MP 05 rolling stock. In 2009, work commenced on installing platform screen doors; with Bérault and Porte Maillot being the first stations to be equipped. Due to its curved platform, Bastille (in 2011) was among the last stations to be equipped. During this time, individual stations were intermittently closed to allow platforms to be leveled with the height of the train floors (from ).  Although most of the stations remain the same as they were prior to automation (with the exception of the platform screen doors), many stations like St. Paul, received brand new signage. Franklin D. Roosevelt received a complete overhaul from its post World War II facade to a more contemporary & modern look.  On 3 November 2011, the first eight trains of the new MP 05 rolling stock were put into service on Line 1. These trains ran alongside the MP 89 CC rolling stock until enough automated stock was available for passenger service. This cascading was achieved thanks to the SAET () system, which is the first version of Siemens Transportation Systems' Trainguard MT CBTC. The arrival of the new stock allowed the RATP to accelerate transfer of the MP 89 from Line 1 to Line 4 at a rate of about 2 to 3 trains per month between November, 2011 and November, 2012. That rate increased to 4 trains per month during November and December, 2012.  Major milestones were reached in May and July, 2012 as full automation reached sufficient levels by which the MP 89 were no longer needed during late evenings and weekends respectively. For the \"Nuit Blanche\" during October, 2012, Line 1 also operated in full automation. The final milestone was reached on 15 December 2012, as full automation of Line 1 approached 100%, allowing the remaining MP 89 trains to be pulled from regular service on 21 December 2012. Due to insufficient storage space on Line 4, the remaining 6 to 7 MP 89 trains remained stored on the Line 1 tracks near Fontenay until a new garage in the Montrouge area opened. That opening was tentatively set for February/March, 2013 and will coincide with the opening of the new Mairie de Montrouge station opening on Line 4.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future.", "content": "A western extension of Line 1 from La Défense station to the center of Nanterre is being considered. Another proposal being investigated would have a new station constructed at Fontenay – Rigollots, just before the line climbs to the surface to enter Fontenay shops, and then continue eastward to Val de Fontenay to connect with RER lines A and E.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Map and stations.", "content": "This line has 25 stations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Line 1 passes near several places of interest:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paris Métro Line 1 (French: \"Ligne 1 du métro de Paris\") is one of the sixteen lines of the Paris Métro. It connects La Défense – Grande Arche in the northwest and Château de Vincennes in the southeast. With a length of, it constitutes an important \"East-West\" transportation route for the City of Paris. Excluding RER () commuter lines, it is the most utilised line on the network with 181.2 million travellers in 2017 or 496,000 people per day on average.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974835}
{"src_title": "Paris Métro Line 2", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Birth of the line.", "content": "On March 30, 1898 a déclaration d'utilité publique was made, recognizing the public benefit of the first six planned lines of the Paris metro. In response, the city began rapidly constructing the first line in hopes of opening it in time for the world's fair in 1900. During the first stage of development, three lines designated A, B, and C were planned for construction:  However, after a detailed traffic study was conducted, changes were proposed to the tracks lying west of Étoile: the segment from Étoile to Porte Maillot of line C would be integrated into line A, and line C would pick up the segment from Étoile to Porte Dauphine. This change allowed trains on line B to stop at Porte Dauphine, and thus Porte Dauphine was designated the terminus and origin of line B.  Shortly thereafter, line B was split into two lines in hopes of simplifying its use; the section from Porte Dauphine to Nation was designated as Line 2 North, and the remaining section from Nation to Étoile was designated Line 2 South. Line 2 South would eventually become line 6.  The first section of line 2 was constructed at the same time as line 1, opening only a little later on December 3, 1900. This section consisted of three stations, Porte Dauphine, Victor Hugo, and Étoile, and was circulated by rolling stock consisting of three cars each. At Étoile, trains reversed direction via a track transfer (due to it serving as only a temporary terminus), while at Porte Dauphine and Nation direction was reversed using a turn-around loop.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Map and stations.", "content": "This line counts 25 stations.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Line 2 is one of the sixteen lines of the Paris Métro rapid transit system in Paris, France. Situated almost entirely above the former city walls (\"boulevards extérieurs\"), it runs in a semi-circle in the north of Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974836}
{"src_title": "Rahel Sanzara", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Johanna Bleschke was the oldest of a town musician's four children. After graduating from a school for 'higher daughters', she went into an apprenticeship as a bookbinder in Blankenburg. In 1913 she moved to Berlin, where she met physician and author Ernst Weiss. Their relationship lasted for more than twenty years, and she acted in productions of Weiss' dramas. After a short stint as a wartime nurse in 1914/15 she received an education as a dancer and launched a successful career. Since 1916 she also worked successfully as a movie actress and received actress training from Otto Falckenberg in Munich, and found employment first in Prague, and from 1921 to 1924 at the Landestheater Darmstadt.  Her first novel \"Das verlorene Kind (The Lost Child)\" was published in 1926 and caused great controversy for its subject matter, the lust murder of a four-year-old girl by an older boy. The book, based on a real 19th century crime case and drawing from both genres of detective novel and psychological drama received rave reviews and quickly saw several editions and was translated into eleven languages. It is still in print and continues to sell well today. Rahel Sanzara was to be awarded the respected Kleist-Preis in 1926, but she turned it down. Her subsequent novels couldn't repeat her debut's success.  In 1927, Rahel Sanzara married the Jewish stock broker Walter Davidsohn, who emigrated to France to escape persecution from the Nazis, while she remained in Berlin, already weakened by cancer. She died in 1936 after a long illness.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rahel Sanzara (also Sansara; pseudonym for Johanna Bleschke) (9 February 1894 – 8 February 1936) was a German dancer, actress and novelist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974837}
{"src_title": "Paris Métro Line 9", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "Line 9 was originally envisioned as a branch of Line 2 Sud (now known as Line 6) between Porte de Saint-Cloud and Trocadero. However, it was concluded by the CMP to combine this segment with a proposed segment that was to be built towards Opera, and thus Line 9 is created. The first section between Trocadero and Exelmans opened on 8 November 1922.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction and Extensions.", "content": "Construction of the original sections (as well as the extension towards République) proved to be difficult due to public opposition in the various arrondissements as well as unstable soil above the tunnels. Public support for the line's construction was greatly difficult due in part to proposed sections that various entities saw as impossible to build and operate under government regulations at the time. In addition, unstable soil led to the collapse of several sections of tunnel being constructed. The double-decker tunnel, which is located between stations Richelieu - Drouot and République (and carries Line 9 on the lower level, while Line 8 is situated on the upper level) was especially problematic due to unstable ground at Grand Boulevards. As a result, this particular section had to be reinforced by central piers.  The first extension into the suburbs, towards Pont de Sèvres, opened on 3 February 1934. On 14 October 1937, the eastern extension towards Mairie de Montreuil opened. Since then, few changes to the line's infrastructure have been made. \"(from )\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "Line 9 is operated with the MF 01 stock in five-car sets. Before that, line 9 was the last line equipped of the pre-war Sprague-Thomson-trains, which were removed from service on 16 April 1983. On 9 February 2011, the STIF announced plans to acquire 66 new Mf 01-trainsets. The €330 million order began deliveries during June 2013 and will continue through 2016 to replace the current stock on line 9. The Last MF67 on Line 9 was pulled from service on November 28, 2016. On 21 October 2013, the first MF 01 railcar (#096) entered revenue service along Line 9, after spending the course of June through September running along Line 5. The Auteuil workshops, which Line 10 used to share with Line 9, was not equipped to handle maintenance operations for the MF 01 rolling stock, and thus heavy maintenance work was done at the Bobigny workshops along Line 5.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future.", "content": "A two-station extension to Montreuil - Hôpital is planned for the future. The new stations will connect line 9 with tramway 1 and future metro line 11.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Metro line 9 passes near several places of interest :", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paris Métro Line 9 is one of 16 lines of the Paris Métro. The line links Pont de Sèvres in Boulogne in the west with Montreuil in the east via the city center of Paris, creating a parabola type shape to its route. It is the third busiest line on the network.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974838}
{"src_title": "Paris Métro Line 6", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Chronology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "South circulator \"(le circulaire sud)\".", "content": "Initially, the planners of the Métro envisaged a loop line similar to the Circle line of the London Underground that followed the route of the Wall of the Farmers-General. However, the difficulties of operating such a line forced a separation of the circle into two lines: the north and south circulators. An initial plan was to run trains from Gare d'Austerlitz to Gare de Lyon, and from there operate along Line 1 to Nation. The abandonment of the project allowed designers to choose a new route via Place d'Italie to Nation; this option, using Bercy, is the origin of what is now Line 6.  The northern circulator, now Line 2, opened in 1903, while the tracks from Étoile to Trocadéro (referred to as Line 2 Sud) opened on 2 October 1900 as part of a branch of Line 1 meant to serve the World Expo of that year. The line was extended southward to Passy three years later but was not fully opened and only allowed four-car trains.  Work on the line was not particularly difficult, apart from the occasional sewer displacements and land stabilisation around Denfert-Rochereau due to old mines. On the other hand, the crossing of the Seine at Passy was much trickier; from 1903 to 1906, the construction of a viaduct over the Pont de Bir-Hakeim gave way to another project unrelated to the Métro. The original bridge, built in 1878, was replaced with one made of metal supporting the railway viaduct above. To the east, another bridge had to be built above the Pont de Bercy. Originally finished in 1864, it was enlarged by in order to hold the Métro and is the only viaduct in the system made of stone. Both the overpasses and underground stations in this section were designed similarly to those of Line 2 Nord, although elevated stations on the southern half are fully covered with side-walls made of brick, not glass.  On 24 April 1906, the line from Étoile to Place d'Italie opened. In October of the next year, it was decided to merge the \"circulaire sud\" with Line 5, as a result running trains between Étoile and Gare du Nord via Austerlitz. This consolidation eliminated the 2 Sud designation.  Following the bombardment of Paris during World War I, elevated rapid transit lines became a defence system. Trains were no longer lit at night from February to July 1918. However, underground trains became incredibly dark and resulted in complaints from passengers and employees. \"La compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris\" (CMP), which operated Line 5, was authorised to make electrical and lighting changes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Line 6.", "content": "At the time, Line 6 was confined to the railway between Place d'Italie and Nation. Infrastructure works were completed in 1906, but the CMP was in no hurry to open what was perceived as a low-profiting stretch of track. Upon the urging of the City of Paris, the CMP opened Line 6 on 1 March 1909 and remained this way until 1931, when the need for a link across the southern part of the city was needed to provide access to a cultural exhibition at the Bois de Vincennes. Engineers decided upon Line 6 taking over the section west of Place d'Italie so as to create a line from Étoile to Nation, with Line 5 ending at Place d'Italie. After the exhibit closed, the old service pattern returned.  On 6 October 1942, at the height of the German occupation of the city, Line 6 was continually operated. The northern extension of Line 5 to Pantin significantly elongated the line; it was agreed upon that the line was too long, and the remedy was to end Line 5 at Place d'Italie, thereby creating a full southern loop from Étoile to Nation as Line 6 stands today.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rubber tyre conversion.", "content": "A change in Line 6's operation occurred during the 1970s: Kléber station was expanded to four tracks with two island platforms, a rare arrangement in the Paris Métro, and converted to the line's control terminal, with Étoile acting as a simple turn-around stop.  After doing the same to Lines 1, 4, and 11, the RATP decided in 1971 to convert Line 6 to rubber-tyres for the sake of noise and vibration reduction not only to passengers but also residents near the elevated portions of the line. Work began the next year and finished in May 1974. During this time, a temporary yard was created with of track to facilitate vehicle movement. Simultaneously, the line was equipped with a central control station.  The MP 73 rolling stock quickly replaced the old Sprague-Thomson during the month of July 1974. Unlike the MP 59 cars which also have rubber tyres, the MP 73 stock has grooved ones for better adhesion on the long stretches of elevated track; the rails are ribbed for the same reason. No adhesion failures have been reported since the switchover, even in heavy rain.  With the ongoing modernization and upcoming automation of Line 4, it is currently envisioned that the MP 73 will be replaced by renovated and shortened MP 89CC railcars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Route and stations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themed or unique stations.", "content": "Four stations on Line 6 have unique, cultural theming:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Line 6 is one of the sixteen lines of the Paris Métro rapid transit system. Following a semi-circular route around the southern half of the city above boulevards formed by the former wall of the 'Fermiers généraux' built between 1784 and 1791, it runs between Charles de Gaulle – Étoile in the west and Nation in the east.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974839}
{"src_title": "Paris Métro Line 13", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Route.", "content": "At in length, counting both of its northern branches, it is the longest line of the Métro. In 2004, it carried over 114 million riders, about 540,000 per weekday. Annual traffic grew by about ten million passengers after the opening of two new stations on the Asnières branch on 14 June 2008. According to data from December 2009, there are 610,050 riders per day.  Line 13's use of two northern branches serving highly populated areas, its long length, extension into the suburbs, and rapid development of areas that it serves have culminated in the line's overloading, further highlighted by associations representing passengers. It is the most crowded line in the system, especially the section closest to Saint-Lazare.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Line B of the \"Nord-Sud\" Company.", "content": "On 28 December 1901, the \"Société du chemin de fer éléctrique souterrain Nord-Sud de Paris\", or Nord-Sud Company, obtained a concession from the City of Paris to build a rapid transit network of two lines concurrent with the more prominent CMP, which had already opened the first lines of the Métro.  Connecting Porte de Saint-Ouen (Paris Métro) and Saint-Lazare (Paris Métro), the construction of Line B began on 19 June 1905 with of track. Four years later, building commenced on the branch to Porte de Clichy. The line ran under Rue d'Amsterdam until its split at La Fourche, with each branch following either the Avenue de Clichy or the Avenue de Saint-Ouen. No connection was provided to the CMP.  On 26 February 1911, Line B opened between Saint-Lazare and Porte de Saint-Ouen, with the northwestern branch to Porte de Clichy opening a year later. Due to the narrow width of Rue d'Amsterdam, Berlin (renamed to Liège) station was built unusually with non-aligned platforms. The Nord-Sud Company operated Line B with 368 trains per day, a minimum of 2.5 minute headways.  On 1 January 1930, the CMP absorbed the Nord-Sud Company and renamed Line B to Line 13 in accordance with its numerical naming policy. The electrical supply also needed to be changed; the Nord-Sud Company used overhead power, while the CMP relied on third rail technology. In order to allow interoperability, Line 13 was switched to third rail power.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Overcrowding.", "content": "Line 13 is perhaps the least-appreciated line of the Métro by riders and is the object of a number of criticisms on part of its constant overcrowding, especially north of Saint-Lazare where the line splits in two, leading to reduced frequencies. It is not rare for passengers to wait for several trains to load before being able to board due to the sheer volume of users. Within trains, there may be up to 4.5 people per square metre, while the cars on Line 13 can only hold four people per square metre.  In December 2003, the extension of Line 14 to Saint-Lazare resulted in a large increase of passengers using the station; within a year, the number of people using Saint-Lazare rose from 40.8 million to 64.1 million. Due to this, the chronic congestion of Line 13 has only worsened.  Important economic development at Plaine Saint-Denis around a vast urban project since the construction of the Stade de France has also worsened conditions on the line since a number of companies have moved there, forcing more employees to use the line for their commutes.  In 2007, the delay of the automatic control system named Ouragan led the RATP to propose to STIF the employment of \"pushers\" (\"poussers\", control assistants), responsible for smoother boarding and detraining at the busiest stations on Line 13.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interim measures.", "content": "Since December 2006, more than eighty additional trains have been added to provide supplemental service, a nearly 10% increase including additional Asnières branch service. Two years later, an automatic reversal at Châtillon-Montrouge went into effect, which reduces the turn-back time by ten seconds so as to circulate trains every 95 seconds. This has in turn required the installation of platform screen doors to prevent passengers from falling onto the tracks when no train operator is on board.  On 17 December 2006, Line 13 has had its own command post and centralised control (\"poste de commande et de contrôle centralisé\", PCC) managed from Malakoff. It involves the coordination of a number of officials to reduce the number of delays and incidents on the line. Since 29 July 2008, the PCC integrates the manoeuvre and start functions that were previously operated at each terminal.  At the end of 2010, it was revealed that ten stations would receive platform screen door installation in an attempt to increase the average speed of trains and reduce track-related incidents. After a test a few years earlier, the RATP decided that such doors must be built as crowding increases so that passengers cannot fall off the platform; to do this, the agency recruited the Kaba Group to perform automation and installation on Lines 1 and 13. The company uses the ClearSy security system to control door opening and closing. However, the new platform screen doors are not the same as the prototypes installed at Invalides.  On 29 December 2009, the RATP announced that Miromesnil would be the first of twelve stations to be equipped with these doors and that work would begin in June 2010, finishing three months later. After that, the following stations will receive platform screen doors: Saint-Lazare, Champs-Élysées – Clemenceau, Basilique de Saint-Denis, Saint-Denis – Port de Paris, Invalides (replacement), Varenne, Saint-François-Xavier, Duroc, Liège, Montparnasse – Bienvenüe, and Place de Clichy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Future.", "content": "After the northwestern branch was extended by with two more stations, Les Agnettes and Les Courtilles, a further extension with a third station (Port de Gennevilliers) will be added later.  Line 13 is one of the most crowded of the Parisian network. Various solutions have been investigated to enhance capacity:  The last solution was the one that was adopted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Enhancements.", "content": "The trains on Line 13 are currently being refurbished, and the first refitted train entered service in January 2007. These refitted trains have new features such as automatic displays and announcements, which are now added to all new or refitted rolling stock but also a reduced number of seats to allow for more standing passengers. The capacity of each train is increased by 26.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Line 13 passes near several places of interest:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paris Métro Line 13 (opened as Line B; French: \"Ligne 13 du métro de Paris\") is one of the sixteen lines of the Paris Métro. It was built by the Nord-Sud Company before becoming Line 13 when the Nord-Sud was merged into the Compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris (CMP) in 1930. Line 13 was extended in 1976 to reach the northern end of Line 14, which was then absorbed into it. The number 14 was eventually reused for a new line in 1998.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974840}
{"src_title": "Atacama people", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The origins of Atacameño culture can be traced back to 500 AD. The Tiwanaku people were the first known conquerors. At the start of the 15th century, the Atacameño were conquered by the Inca Topa Inca Yupanqui, who introduced a new social order, the Inca sun cult and various customs including coca leaves. The Inca regime constructed roads from the Salar de Atacama to what is now north east Argentina.  In 1535, the first Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area and it was finally annexed under Spanish control in 1556. In the 18th century, the Atacameño Tomás Paniri joined the uprisings led by the Peruvian Túpac Amaru II and the Bolivian Túpac Katari. In 1824, the region became part of Bolivia and in 1883 fell into Chilean hands. In 2007, the Atacameño population was estimated at 21,015 people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The Atacameños protected their villages with strong stone walls known as \"pukara\", a Quechua word. They also developed ceramic crafts, copper work (using copper extracted from Chuquicamata) and gold work. Many of the historic villages still exist today with the same names, including Quitor, Chiu-Chiu, Lasana, Turi, Topayín, Susques, Calama, Toconao, Antofagasta de la Sierra, and one of the most important settlements in the region, San Pedro de Atacama.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "The original language of the Atacameños was the recently extinct language of Kunza.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cuisine.", "content": "The Atacameño were lamini herders who made best use of the scarce water and sparse terrain by using their livestock - llama and alpaca - both as pack animals and for their meat, hide and wool.  Like many other Andean people, the Atacameño created a terraced agriculture to prevent water run-off. They grew various crops, including pumpkins, zucchini, chili, beans, tobacco, melon, corn, and, above all, potatoes and quinoa. They fertilized the crops with guano from seabirds, which they transported inland on llama. They also ate meat from their livestock and bought fish and shellfish from coastal peoples in return for \"ch'arki\", a dried, salted meat they produced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ceramics.", "content": "The first period, between the years of 400 AD and 900 AD, saw the Atacameño produce pink glazed pottery, including anthropomorphic jugs, as well as golden jewelry and cups.  During the second period, between 900 AD and 1200 AD, black glaze pottery was used, showing the influence of Tiwanaku culture. Artifacts included tablets for inhaling hallucinogens from the Huilco tree and San Pedro cactus, with carved images of human figurines, condors and religious objects.  In the third period, from 1200 AD to 1500 AD, shows the influence of the Inca civilization with the construction of stone “pukara” fortresses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "Smoking hallucinogenic substances was a central part of Atacameño religious culture. Smoking ceremonies were believed to bring humans closer to the gods, allowing the smoker to take on the power of birds, cats or snakes. Finely carved tablets were used to hold the drug, which was then inhaled using wooden or bone tubes. The Atacameños also adopted the Inca sun cult and constructed altars in high places, especially on Licancabur volcano, which was considered sacred and the home of their many gods. They believed in life after death and buried their dead with all the necessary belongings they would need for the journey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Archeological centres and museums.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "San Pedro de Atacama.", "content": "San Pedro de Atacama was the Atacameños primary oasis settlement and the centre of their cultural development. Today, tourism is its main economic activity along with agriculture.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "R.P. Gustavo Le Paige Archeological Museum.", "content": "The R.P. Gustavo Le Paige Archeological Museum, located in San Pedro de Atacama, holds much of the historical and archeological remains of the Atacameño people. It was founded by the Belgian Jesuit priest Gustavo Le Paige, who moved to San Pedro in 1955 and became fascinated with Atacameño culture. Over the years he collected a wide range of artifacts from ancient burial sites, workshops and settlements, housing them in the museum which bears his name, which he founded in 1963. The collection now contains mummies and more than 380,000 pieces of ceramics, textiles and metallic artifacts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Communities.", "content": "Atacameño communities currently living in Argentina include:  Atacameño communities currently living in Chile include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Atacama people, known as atacameños or atacamas in Spanish and Kunzas, Likan-antai or Likanantaí in English, are indigenous people from the Atacama Desert and altiplano region in the north of Chile and Argentina and southern Bolivia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974841}
{"src_title": "Jamaica coalition (politics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "After the German federal election in 2005, a Jamaica coalition became mathematically possible and was initially discussed, but the Free Democrats decided they would rather remain in opposition than form a coalition with the Social Democrats (SPD) or the Greens.  At the state level, the Greens announced in October 2009 that they would support a CDU/FDP coalition in Saarland, forming Germany's first Jamaica coalition in state government. This move was partly prompted by desire to prevent an SPD minority government in Saarland dependent upon support from Die Linke. The Saarland coalition collapsed in January 2012.  A Jamaica coalition is currently in power in the state of Schleswig-Holstein. After the 2017 Schleswig-Holstein state election, CDU leader Daniel Günther became Minister President by forming a coalition with the Free Democrats led by Wolfgang Kubicki and the Greens led by Monika Heinold.  A Jamaica coalition was unsuccessfully negotiated at the national level in Germany following the 2017 federal election. After the SPD initially announced their return to opposition, it became the only viable coalition that didn't involve Alternative for Germany. Coalition talks failed after the FDP pulled out of talks, citing an inability to find a compromise on migration and energy policy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Black traffic light.", "content": "Another nickname for this coalition is \"black traffic light\" (German: \"Schwarze Ampel\" or the portmanteau word \"Schwampel\"). This term alludes to the classic traffic light coalition, an alliance between the SPD (red), FDP (yellow), and the Greens, together whose symbolic colors match the colors of most German traffic lights. In a black traffic light, the CDU's color black would replace the SPD's red. Classic traffic light coalitions have already governed at the state level in Brandenburg, Bremen and Rhineland-Palatinate. The first known appearance of the short form \"Schwampel\" was in the Tageszeitung newspaper (Bremen edition) on 4 October 1991.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use of the term in Belgium.", "content": "In Belgian politics, the term Jamaica coalition refers to a coalition of Christian democrats (CD&V and cdH), liberals (Open Vld and MR) and greens (Groen and Ecolo). The term has been adopted from German politics, even though the colors of the Belgian parties in question (orange, blue and green, respectively) do not correspond to those of the Jamaican flag. Even if this kind of coalition remains hypothetical on a federal, regional or provincial level, it has been formed in various municipalities, such as in Holsbeek in 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jamaica coalition (; also known as the Jamaica alliance, Jamaica traffic light, black traffic light or Schwampel) is a term in German politics describing a coalition among the parties of the Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU), Free Democratic Party (FDP), and the Green Party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974842}
{"src_title": "Cryptomeria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Cryptomeria\" is a very large evergreen tree, reaching up to tall and trunk diameter, with red-brown bark which peels in vertical strips. The leaves are arranged spirally, needle-like, long; and the seed cones globular, diameter with about 20–40 scales. It is superficially similar to the related giant sequoia (\"Sequoiadendron giganteum\"), from which it can be differentiated by the longer leaves (under in the giant sequoia) and smaller cones ( in the giant sequoia), and the harder bark on the trunk (thick, soft and spongy in giant sequoia).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Endemism.", "content": "Sugi has been cultivated in China for so long that it is frequently thought to be native there. Forms selected for ornament and timber production long ago in China have been described as a distinct variety \"Cryptomeria japonica\" var. \"sinensis\" (or even a distinct species, \"Cryptomeria fortunei\"), but they do not differ from the full range of variation found in the wild in Japan, and there is no definite evidence the species ever occurred wild in China. Genetic analysis of the most famous Chinese population, on Tianmu Mountain, containing trees estimated to be nearly 1000 years old, supports the hypothesis that the population originates from an introduction.  However, the famed Japanese botanist and plant ecology expert Akira Miyawaki has proven since the 1970s that trees such as Japanese Cedar, Cypress and Larch Pine, i.e. including Cryptomeria, which were so far believed to be native to Japan, had in fact been progressively introduced into Japan over many centuries by foresters in order to produce timber. Akira Miyawaki calculated that only about 0.06% of contemporary Japanese forests are actual indigenous forests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "\"Cryptomeria\" grows in forests on deep, well-drained soils subject to warm, moist conditions, and it is fast-growing under these conditions. It is intolerant of poor soils and cold, drier climates.  It is used as a food plant by the larvae of some moths of the genus \"Endoclita\" including \"E. auratus\", \"E. punctimargo\" and \"E. undulifer\". Sugi (and hinoki) pollen is a major cause of hay fever in Japan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "The earliest fossil record of \"Cryptomeria\" are descriptions based on vegetative organs of †\"Cryptomeria kamtschatica\" of the Late Eocene from Kamchatka, Russia and †\"Cryptomeria protojaponica\" and †\"Cryptomeria sichotensis\" from the Oligocene of Primorye, Russia. Several fossil leafy shots of †\"Cryptomeria yunnanensis\" have been described from Rupelian stage strata of the Lühe Basin in Yunnan, China.  For the Neogene, \"Cryptomeria\" is well represented as seed cones, leafy shoots and wood in the fossil records of Europe and Japan. †\"Cryptomeria rhenana\" was described from the early Late Miocene to the Late Miocene of Rhein in Morsbach, Germany, from the Early and Middle Pliocene of Northern Italy, to the Middle Pliocene of Dunarobba, Italy and to the Early Pleistocene of Umbria, Italy. † \"Cryptomeria anglica\"was described from the Late Miocene of La Cerdana, Spain, to the Late Middle Miocene of Brjánslækur, Iceland and from the Late Miocene to the early Pliocene of Derbyshire, England. †\"Cryptomeria miyataensis\" was described from the Late Miocene of Akita, Japan. \"Cryptomeria japonica\" was described from the Late Miocene of Georgia and from the Pliocene of Duab, Abkhazia. It has also been described from the Pliocene of Honshu, Japan, Late Pliocene of Osaka, Japan and from the Pleistocene of Kyushu, Japan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timber.", "content": "\"Cryptomeria japonica\" timber is extremely fragrant, weather and insect resistant, soft, and with a low density. The timber is used for the making of staves, tubs, casks, furniture and other indoor applications. Easy to saw and season, it is favoured for light construction, boxes, veneers and plywood. Wood that has been buried turns dark green and is much valued. Resin from the tree contains cryptopimaric and phenolic acid.  The wood is pleasantly scented, reddish-pink in colour, lightweight but strong, waterproof and resistant to decay. It is favoured in Japan for all types of construction work as well as interior panelling, etc. In Darjeeling district and Sikkim in India, where it is one of the most widely growing trees, \"C. japonica\" is called \"Dhuppi\" and is favoured for its light wood, extensively used in house building.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mechanical properties.", "content": "In dry air conditions, the initial density of Japanese cedar timber has been determined to be about 300–420 kg/m3. It displays a Young's modulus of 8017 MPa, 753 MPa and 275 MPa in the longitudinal, radial and tangential direction in relation to the wood fibers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Ornamental.", "content": "\"Cryptomeria japonica\" is extensively used in forestry plantations in Japan, China and the Azores islands, and is widely cultivated as an ornamental tree in other temperate areas, including Britain, Europe, North America and eastern Himalaya regions of Nepal and India.  The cultivar 'Elegans' is notable for retaining juvenile foliage throughout its life, instead of developing normal adult foliage when one year old (see the picture with different shoots). It makes a small, shrubby tree tall. There are numerous dwarf cultivars that are widely used in rock gardens and for bonsai, including 'Tansu', 'Koshyi', 'Little Diamond', 'Yokohama' and 'Kilmacurragh.'  The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Symbolism.", "content": "Sugi is the national tree of Japan, commonly planted around temples and shrines, with many hugely impressive trees planted centuries ago. Sargent (1894; \"The Forest Flora of Japan\") recorded the instance of a \"daimyō\" (feudal lord) who was too poor to donate a stone lantern at the funeral of the \"shōgun\" Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616) at Nikkō Tōshō-gū, but requested instead to be allowed to plant an avenue of sugi, so that \"future visitors might be protected from the heat of the sun\". The offer was accepted; the Cedar Avenue of Nikkō, which still exists, is over long, and \"has not its equal in stately grandeur\".  Cryptomeria are often described and referred to in Japanese literature. For instance, cryptomeria forests and their workers, located on the mountains north of Kyoto, are featured in Yasunari Kawabata's famous book The Old Capital.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cryptomeria (literally \"hidden parts\") is a monotypic genus of conifer in the cypress family Cupressaceae, formerly belonging to the family Taxodiaceae. It includes only one species, Cryptomeria japonica (syn. \"Cupressus japonica\" L.f.). It used to be considered by some to be endemic to Japan (see remark below under 'Endemism'), where it is known as sugi (). The tree is called Japanese cedar or Japanese redwood in English.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974843}
{"src_title": "United World Colleges", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "UWC was originally founded in 1962 to bridge social, national and cultural divides caused by the Cold War. The first UWC college, UWC Atlantic College in Wales, United Kingdom, was founded in 1962 by Kurt Hahn, a German educationalist who had previously founded Schule Schloss Salem in Germany, Gordonstoun in Scotland, and the Outward Bound movement.  Hahn envisaged a college educating boys and girls aged 16 to 20. The selection would be based on personal motivation and potential, regardless of any social, economic or cultural factors. A scholarship programme would facilitate the recruitment of young people from different socio-economic backgrounds.  There are currently 18 UWC schools and colleges in operation. UWC Simón Bolivar was a member of the movement until its closing in 2012 by the Venezuelan government. The location and opening date for each UWC school and college is given below:  The current President of UWC is Queen Noor of Jordan (1995–present). Former South African President Nelson Mandela was joint President (1995–1999) alongside Queen Noor, and subsequently Honorary President of UWC (1999–2013). Former UWC presidents are Lord Mountbatten (1967–1978) and Prince Charles (1978–1995).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selection.", "content": "Most UWC students are selected through a system of national committees, which operate in 159 countries and territories as of early 2018. Selection is based on merit, independent of the students' socio-economic background. However, this does not necessarily mean that all selected students will be financially able to attend.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cost of Attendance.", "content": "Without financial assistance, the total cost of two years at UWC is £59,000 (United Kingdom), $104,000 (Canada), 509,000 kr. (Norway), €60,000 (Germany), $77,330 (USA), $164,800 (Singapore), or $636,000 (Hong Kong). These costs are comparable to other private or independent school systems in the United States or United Kingdom. A majority of national committee-selected students pursuing the IB Diploma receive financial assistance from UWC, based on their socio-economic needs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academics.", "content": "UWC values experiential learning alongside providing its 16-19-year-old students with the International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma, an internationally recognised educational programme developed in close collaboration with UWC in the late 1960s. The IB Diploma Programme aims \"to develop students who have excellent breadth and depth of knowledge – students who flourish physically, intellectually, emotionally and ethically\". The mission statement of the International Baccalaureate, is similar to the mission of UWC: \"to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect\".  A core component of the IB Diploma Programme is Creativity, Action and Service, so UWC students participate in various activities that encourage these traits, with a concentration on community service and social justice.  Five UWC schools (UWC Thailand, UWC South East Asia in Singapore, UWC Maastricht in the Netherlands, UWC East Africa in Tanzania and Waterford Kamhlaba UWC of Southern Africa in Swaziland) also offer non-residential educational programmes for younger students.  Four UWC schools also admit students into lower years, taught using a number of different curricula based on the UWC educational model, and some offer the IB Primary Years Programme and IB Middle Years Programme.  UWC also runs \"short courses\", often hosted on UWC school and college campuses during academic breaks, although some are conducted in countries where there is no existing UWC school or college, such as the UWC short course in Turkey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "Each UWC school and college offers activities in line with the Creativity, Activity and Service (CAS) programme integral to the IB Diploma Programme and a UWC education. Examples of CAS activities across UWC school and college campuses include dance, scuba diving, and tutoring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "[[Category:International school associations]]", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "UWC (or United World Colleges) is a system of fee-paying independent schools and educational programs with a stated mission of \"mak[ing] education a force to unite people, nations and cultures for peace and a sustainable future\". The organisation was founded on the principles of German educationalist Kurt Hahn. Most of the schools and colleges offer two-year residential programmes, for people aged 16–19 years, during which they complete the IB Diploma Programme. The organisation emphasizes the breadth of nationalities participating in its programs. UWC consists of 18 schools and colleges on five continents, several short educational programmes, and national committees in 159 countries and territories. UWC International is a UK registered charity, governed by the International Board and the International Council. The executive arm of the International Board is the International Office, located in London, United Kingdom.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974844}
{"src_title": "Ignacy Domeyko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Domeyko was born at a manor house located within the then Russian partition of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, at Niedźwiadka Wielka ( — Miadzviedka) Manor (Bear Cub Manor) near Nieśwież (Nesvizh), Minsk Governorate, Imperial Russia (now Karelichy district, Belarus). The Domeyko family held the Polish coat of arms \"Dangiel\". His father, Hipolit Domeyko, who was president of the local land court (), died when Ignacy was seven years old; his uncles then served as his guardians.  In his youth he was a subject of the Russian Empire. Domeyko, however, had been brought up in the culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, a multicultural state whose educated and dominant classes had spoken Polish as a \"lingua franca\" and that, shortly before Domeyko's birth, had been dismembered in the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. For this reason, and because Domeyko subsequently spent most of his life in Chile, he is considered a person of national importance to Poles, Belarusians, Lithuanians and Chileans.  Domeyko enrolled at Vilnius University, then known as the Imperial University of Vilna, in 1816 as a student of mathematics and physics. He studied under Jędrzej Śniadecki. Involved with the Philomaths, a secret student organisation dedicated to Polish culture and the restoration of Poland's independence, he was a close friend of Adam Mickiewicz. In 1823–24, during the investigation and trials of the Philomaths, Domeyko and Mickiewicz spent months incarcerated at Vilnius' Uniate Basilian monastery.  After participating in the November 1830 Uprising, in which Domeyko served as an officer under General Dezydery Chłapowski, in 1831 Domeyko was forced into exile in order not to face Russian reprisals.  Journeying through Germany, he arrived in France, where he would earn an engineering degree at Paris' \"École des Mines\" (School of Mining). He also studied at the Sorbonne and maintained his political engagements with Belarusians, Poles, and Lithuanians.  In 1838 Domeyko left for Chile. There he made substantial contributions to mineralogy and the technology of mining, studied several previously unknown minerals, advocated for the civil rights of the native tribal peoples, and was a meteorologist and ethnographer. He is also credited with introducing the metric system to Latin America.  He served as a professor at a mining college in Coquimbo (La Serena) and after 1847 at the University of Chile (\"Universidad de Chile\", in Santiago), of which he was rector for 16 years (1867–83).  Domeyko gained Chilean citizenship in 1849, but declared at the time that \"I may now never change my citizenship, but God grants me hope that wherever I may be—whether in the Cordilleras or in [the Vilnius suburb of] Paneriai—I shall die a Lithuanian.\" The term \"Lithuanian\" at that time, however, designated any inhabitant, whatever his ethnicity, of the territories of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania.  In 1884 Domeyko returned for an extended visit to Europe and remained there until 1889, visiting his birthplace and other places in the former Commonwealth, as well as Paris and Jerusalem.  In 1887 he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Jagiellonian University, in Kraków.  In 1889, soon after returning to Santiago, Chile, Domeyko died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memorials.", "content": "Named for Domeyko are the mineral \"domeykite\", the shellfish \"Nautilus domeykus\", the genus \"Domeykosaurus\", the ammonite \"Amonites domeykanus\", asteroid \"2784 Domeyko\", the \"Cordillera Domeyko\" mountain range in the Andes, and the Chilean town of \"Domeyko\".  A bronze bust of Domeyko stands in the \"Casa Central\" of Santiago's University of Chile, of which Domeyko was long-time rector.  In 1992, a plaque in Spanish and Polish was placed on a building at \"Krakowskie Przedmieście 64\", in Warsaw, Poland, commemorating the \"distinguished son of the Polish nation and eminent citizen of Chile.\"  On the 200th anniversary of his birth, UNESCO declared 2002 to be \"Ignacy Domeyko Year.\" Several commemorative events were held in Chile under the auspices of Polish President Aleksander Kwaśniewski and Chilean President Ricardo Lagos.  In 2002, Poland and Chile jointly issued a postage stamp commemorating the 200th anniversary of Domeyko's birth.  Also in 2002, a 200th-birthday plaque honoring him was placed in the entry gate to Uniate Basilian monastery in Vilnius, Lithuania, where he and Adam Mickiewicz were held in 1823–24 during the investigation and trials of the Philomaths.  In 2015 a Belarusian climber Pavel Gorbunov placed a memorial plate on the top of Cerro Kimal in Cordillera Domeyko.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ignacy Domeyko or Domejko, pseudonym: \"Żegota\" (, ; 31 July 1802 – 23 January 1889) was a Polish geologist, mineralogist, educator, and founder of the University of Santiago, in Chile. Domeyko spent most of his life, and died, in his adopted country, Chile.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974845}
{"src_title": "Archduchess Mathilda of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Her forenames were derived from her mother's sisters, Mathilde, Grand Duchess of Hesse (1813–1862), Adelgunde, Duchess of Modena (1823–1914) and Princess Alexandra of Bavaria (1826–1875), with whom Hildegard had a very close relationship.  Mathilde had two elder siblings: Maria Theresia (1845–1927) in 1865 married Duke Philipp of Württemberg (1838–1917) and her only brother, Karl Albrecht (1847–1848), who died of smallpox at the age of 18 months.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "After the death of his father Archduke Karl, Archduke Albrecht inherited in 1847 the Weilburg Palace in Baden bei Wien, that Karl had built for his wife Princess Henrietta of Weilburg (1797–1829). Albrecht and his family usually spent summers there, Archduchess Hildegard being especially fond of its renowned public baths. Because of his charity, he was popularly named \"Engelsherz\" (Angel's Heart). During the winter, the family lived in Vienna. Her family was very close to the imperial family, and Empress Elisabeth greatly enjoyed the company of her cousin Archduchess Hildegard.  Among Mathilde's circle of friends was the Archduchess Marie Therese (1849–1919), later Queen of Bavaria, who was of the same age and also the stepdaughter of Karl Ferdinand (1818–1874), Mathilde's uncle.  A distant cousin, Archduke Ludwig Salvator (1847–1915), of the Italian Habsburg line, fell in love with Mathilde and sought to marry her, but they never became engaged. Mathilde was intended to become Queen of Italy as the wife of Umberto of Savoy (1844–1900) in order to improve the already tense relations between Austria-Hungary and Italy.  During her stay in Munich for the funeral of her brother King Maximilian II (1811–1864) in March 1864, Mathilde's mother became ill with a lung inflammation and pleurisy, and died; Mathilde was then 15 years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Mathilde died at the age of 18 in Schloss Hetzendorf, the Viennese home of Empress Elisabeth, on 6 June 1867. The archduchess had put on a gauze dress to go to the theatre. Before leaving for the theatre, she wanted to smoke a cigarette but shortly thereafter her father, who had forbidden smoking, approached her, and she hid the cigarette behind her dress, immediately setting light to its very flammable material and giving her second and third-degree burns. Her death was witnessed by her whole family.  Archduchess Mathilde was buried in the imperial vault in the Imperial Crypt beside her mother and her brother Karl Albrecht.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduchess Mathilde of Austria (Mathilde Marie Adelgunde Alexandra; 25 January 1849, in Vienna – 6 June 1867, in Schloss Hetzendorf near Vienna) was an Austrian noblewoman. She was the second daughter of Archduke Albert, Duke of Teschen and Princess Hildegard of Bavaria (1825–1864).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974846}
{"src_title": "Walk on Water (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Eyal is an agent in Mossad, the Israeli security service. He is a hitman who targets enemies of Israel. His wife has recently committed suicide, and the agency decides that he needs to take on a less challenging assignment: to find an aging Nazi war criminal and get him \"before God does\".  In order to track down the old man, Eyal poses as a tour guide and befriends the Nazi's adult grandchildren, Axel and Pia. Pia lives on a kibbutz, an Israeli commune. Her brother Axel visits her in order to convince Pia to return to Germany for their father's seventieth birthday. It is later revealed that Pia's estrangement with her parents began when she discovered that they were hiding her grandfather. She shares this information with Axel.  Although he has a job to perform, Eyal truly befriends Axel and Pia. Axel and Pia are decent people who demonstrate that most Germans have gotten beyond the hatred that led to the Holocaust. They spend time together and Eyal enjoys himself, even if he would not openly admit so. His friendship with Axel allows him to display some humanity, letting down his tough-guy machismo. Eyal and Axel even take a mud bath by the Dead Sea, showering off together in the nude afterward.  When the three are at dinner one night in a Tel Aviv restaurant, Axel speaks privately to the Palestinian waiter, Rafik, and finds out where the best club in town is. Later that evening, Axel, Pia, and Eyal arrive at the club. Eyal is shocked to discover that it is a gay club. He sees Axel dancing with Rafik and is taken aback.  Eyal is initially disgusted and disappointed to discover that Axel is gay. He asks to be removed from the assignment, not attempting to hide his homophobia as the reason. His boss, Menachem, insists that Eyal finish the mission. Eyal visits Germany and comes to realize that Axel's orientation is unimportant. During the visit, Axel runs into a group of friends, drag queens, coming off the U-bahn. A group of skinheads attack them and Eyal defends the queens. In doing so, he reveals that he is fluent in German. He tells Axel that his parents were German, leaving out that most of the Jews in his mother's region of Germany had been killed by Axel's grandfather. Later during the visit, Eyal runs into Menachem, whose family was also killed by the grandfather's Nazi activities.  Axel invites Eyal to his father's birthday party. The guests are uncomfortable about Eyal's nationality and religion, but still polite. After the cake is brought out, Axel's parents surprise the guests by bringing out Axel's aged grandfather. Axel angrily confronts his mother and goes to Eyal's room, only to find a folder full of information on Axel's family. Meanwhile, Eyal meets with Menachem and tells him that they can easily take the grandfather and bring him to Israel to be tried for his war crimes. Menachem reveals that they are the only two on this mission, and the aim is to kill the grandfather. Eyal is clearly conflicted, but takes the case of poisons that Menachem gives him.  Eyal arrives at Axel's house and enters the grandfather's room, unbeknownst to all but Axel. Axel sneaks up behind Eyal and watches as he fills a syringe with poison, doing nothing to intervene. Ultimately, though, Eyal is unable to fulfill the task. He leaves, and Axel tenderly caresses his grandfather's face before turning off his oxygen tank, killing him. He goes to Eyal's room, where Eyal tells him that the suicide note his wife wrote told him that he kills everything that comes near him. Eyal says that he doesn't want to kill anymore and breaks down in Axel's arms.  The story jumps ahead 2 years. Eyal and Pia are married with a child named Tom and living on the Kibbutz. Eyal and Axel remain good friends.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The film's soundtrack included a rendition of the classic Esther and Avi Ofarim hit \"Cinderella Rockefella\" sung by Rita Kleinstein and Ivri Lider, as well as a remix of Lider's \"Mary La'Netzach\" (\"Mary Forever\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release history.", "content": "\"Walk on Water\" premiered on February 5, 2004, at the Berlin International Film Festival. It opened in Israel on March 18, 2004. It was first shown in the United States on October 24, 2004, at the Milwaukee International Film Festival. It opened in limited release in American theatres on March 4, 2005.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Walk on Water (original Hebrew title: ללכת על המים; English transliteration: \"Lalekhet Al HaMayim\") is a 2004 Israeli film directed by Eytan Fox and starring Lior Ashkenazi, Knut Berger, and Caroline Peters. The screenplay was written by Gal Uchovsky. Most of the dialogue takes place in English, although there is much in Hebrew and German. Its name derives in part from Jesus' walking on water.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974847}
{"src_title": "Alfa Romeo 166", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In order to keep the design fresh, Alfa Romeo made a series of modifications to the Lancia Kappa based underpinnings, radically changing the suspension set up, and also taking a clean paper approach to the interior. The 166 served as the replacement for the 164. Production began in the end of 1996, and model was available from the end of 1998.  The car was initially available with a 2.0-litre Twin Spark (155 PS), a 2.5-litre V6 (190 PS), a 3.0 V6 (226 PS) or a V6 2.0 Turbo (205 PS) petrol engine. Diesel engines were a L5 2.4-litre 10v common rail turbodiesel version with, and output, praised for its refinement.  The TS model used a five speed manual gearbox, whilst the 2.5 and 3.0 had the option of a Sportronic automatic gearbox. The 3.0 V6, L5 2.4 and V6 Turbo were otherwise supplied with a six speed manual gearbox.  The top models were named \"Super\", and included MOMO leather interior, 17\" alloy wheels, rain sensitive wipers, cruise control, climate control and ICS (Integrated Control System) with colour screen. Options included xenon headlamps, GSM connectivity and satellite navigation.  The suspension system consisted of wishbones at the front and a multi link setup at the rear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Facelift (2003).", "content": "In September 2003, the 166 was substantially revised, being unveiled at the Frankfurt Motor Show. As well as upgrades to the chassis, interior, and the engine range, the styling was substantially altered. The new front end resembled the also recently revised 156.  The 2.0-litre V6 Turbo model was dropped because of marketing problems, the V6 2.5 was re rated at and a 3.2 litre V6 (240 PS) was introduced. Both the new 3.2 litre and the 2.0 Twin Spark models now featured the six speed manual gearbox, whilst the 3.0 model was retained, but made available only in Sportronic form.  The L5 2.4 was re engineered with Multi-Jet technology which allows up to five injections per cycle, second stage common rail, with maximum injection pressure of 1400 bar and four valves per cylinder, to output a class-leading.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "End of production.", "content": "In October 2005, the Alfa Romeo 166 was officially withdrawn from sale in markets for RHD. Sales of the 166 never grew as Alfa Romeo had hoped, following the facelift in September 2003, and the additional lack of a diesel engine in the United Kingdom, Australian, and Irish markets limited its reach into company car sectors. The 2.4 JTD diesel engine was only optional on markets for LHD.  In June 2007, production of the 166 effectively ended, with no direct successor. In September 2008, the platform was sold to the Chinese state run manufacturer GAC Group. In total, less than 100,000 units were made.  In August 2009, \"Autocar\" named the 166 as \"Britain's Worst Depreciating Used Car\", as it held just 14.4% of its original used value after three years.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Alfa Romeo 166 (Type 936) is an executive car produced by the Italian automaker Alfa Romeo, between October 1996 and June 2007. The car was designed by \"Centro Stile Alfa Romeo\", under the control of Walter de Silva, and was facelifted in September 2003.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974848}
{"src_title": "Aengus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "In Old Irish his name is \"Óengus\" or \"Oíngus\". The name is attested in Adomnán's \"Life of St Columba\" as \"Oinogus(s)ius\". This is believed to come from a Proto-Celtic name meaning \"true vigour\". The Dindsenchas state that Boand named her son by the Dagda Oengus because union with the Dagda was her \"one desire.\" In Middle Irish this became \"Áengus\", and in Modern Irish \"Aonghus\",.  He is also known as \"Óengus Óc\"/\"Aengus Óg\" (\"Aengus the young\"), \"Mac ind Óc\" (\"son of the young\"), \"Maccan\"/\"Macán\", or \"Mac Óc/Mac Óg\" (\"young son\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Aengus is variously described in the following terms:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tales.", "content": "Aengus' parents were The Dagda and Boann, and his foster-father was variously Elcmar or Midir. He was said to have lived at Newgrange by the River Boyne, where he raised Manannán's blonde-haired daughter Curcog as his foster.  The Dagda had an affair with the river goddess Boann, wife of Nechtan. To hide her pregnancy, the Dagda made the sun stand still for nine months so that Aengus was conceived, gestated and born in one day. When he came of age Aengus dispossessed the Dagda of his home, Brú na Bóinne (an area of the Boyne Valley that contains the passage tombs Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth). He arrived after the Dagda had shared out his land among his children, and none was left for Aengus, so Aengus asked his father if he could live in Brú na Bóinne for \"a day and a night\", and the Dagda agreed. Irish has no indefinite article, so \"a day and a night\" is the same as \"day and night\", which covers all time, and so Aengus took possession of Brú na Bóinne forever. In another—and probably the original—version of this story, appearing in \"The Wooing of Etain\", it is the Dagda who helps his son Aengus take Brú na Bóinne from Elcmar, with the same trick. In this version, Midir is Aengus's foster-father, while Elcmar is the husband of Boann cuckolded by the Dagda. This tale probably dramatizes the idea \"that the blooming of youth denies the process of aging - at the youthful stage of life time passes slowly and vitality seems to be permanent\". In \"The Fosterage of the House of the Two Pails,\" a similar story is related in which Manannán mac Lir, called the High King over all the Tuatha Dé, convinces Aengus to cast a spell by reciting a poem before his foster-father Elcmar, to force him out of the Brú until ogham and pillar, heaven and earth, and the sun and the moon have been blended together. After the poem, called \"Luck and Prosperity\" is recited, Elcmar tells Aengus that he would have given him the Brú if he had but asked, but due to Manannán's incantation, he and his people would face woe and madness in their banishment from the Brú. In this version of the story, Aengus is genuinely remorseful for having banished Elcmar.  According to \"Death Tales of the Tuatha de Danaan\", Aengus killed his stepfather Elcmar for killing Midir.  Aengus also killed Lugh Lámhfhada's poet for lying about his brother Ogma an Cermait. The poet claimed that Ogma an Cermait was having an affair with one of Lugh's wives.  In \"The Wooing of Etain\", Aengus was able to partially lift a spell against Étaín, the horse goddess he had won for his brother Midir. Midir's wife Fuamnach in a jealous rage had turned Etain into a beautiful fly. Turning her into a woman at night, Aengus made her his lover until Fuamnach found out about it and drove her away. Aengus killed his foster mother for her treachery.  Aengus fell in love with a girl he had seen in his dreams. His mother, Boann, goddess of the River Boyne, and a cow goddess whose milk formed the Milky Way (Bealach na Bó Finne, or the White Cow's Way in Irish), searched Ireland for a year, then his father, the Dagda, did the same. Finally, King Bodb Derg of Munster found her after a further year.  Aengus went to the lake of the Dragon's Mouth and found 150 girls chained in pairs, his girl, Caer Ibormeith, among them. On November 1, Caer and the other girls would turn into swans for a year, every second Samhain. Aengus was told he could marry Caer if he could identify her in her swan form. Aengus turned himself into a swan and they flew away, singing beautiful music that put all listeners asleep for three days and nights.  Aengus was the foster-father and protector of Diarmuid Ua Duibhne of the Fianna. He rescued Diarmuid and Gráinne during their pursuit by the Fianna.  Aengus owned a sword named Moralltach, the Great Fury, given to him by Manannan mac Lir. This he gave to his foster-son Diarmuid Ua Duibhne, along with a sword named Beagalltach, the Little Fury, and two spears of great power, Gáe Buide and Gáe Derg. When the young man died, Aengus took his body back to Brú na Bóinne where he breathed life into it when he wished to speak with Diarmuid.  In other legends Aengus was able to repair broken bodies and return life to them.  In the Dindsenchas, Aengus shaped his kisses into four birds that followed Cairbre wherever he went to mock him each day before sunrise. This mockery continued until Cairbre's druid enchanted a tree from Fid Frosmuine with song, which caused the tree to grow above all others and detain Aengus' birds.  Also in the Dindsenchas, a tale called \"Tuag Inber\" is relayed in which Aengus provides Eochu and Ablend a swift horse while they are encamped with their cattle. He tells them to unbridle the horse in a meadow before it sheds its water and causes their deaths; Eochu and Ablend forget to unharness the horse when it exhausts itself in a meadow, and it forms a well, around which Eochu builds confinement. The poem of Loch Ri is nearly identical to \"Tuag Inber,\" except the character names differ and Aengus is replaced by Midir.  Similarities have been found between Aengus and the greek god Hermes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Irish mythology, Aengus or Óengus, also called Mac ind Óic, is one of the Tuatha Dé Danann and probably originally a god associated with youth, love and poetic inspiration. The son of The Dagda and Boann, he is also known as Maccan Óc (\"the young boy\" or \"young son\"), and corresponds to the Welsh mythical figure Mabon and the Celtic god Maponos. He plays a central role in five myths reported by medieval Irish texts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974849}
{"src_title": "Warzone (game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Setting.", "content": "\"Warzone\" takes place in a fictional dieselpunk future in which a space faring humanity has explored beyond Pluto and has uncovered ancient artifacts which unleashed an evil entity known as the Dark Soul and an obscure magical force known as the Dark Symmetry. This force soon started corrupting both man and thinking machines, instilling hatred and fear in their minds, then sent its own minions, consisting of legions of undead mutants and alien monsters called Nefarites, in an attempt to conquer humanity. In light of these events, technological and social progress has largely come to an halt. Most people are citizens of one of the major megacorporations, who have colonized the inner planets of the solar system, and who fight against each other when not fighting the evil forces of the Dark Soul. The Earth has become known as Dark Eden following a global apocalypse, and it is home only to tribal survivors and renegades. This background is intricately tied to that of the \"Mutant Chronicles\" role-playing game.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Warzone\" is a tabletop miniature wargame in which players take turns issuing orders, moving model troops on a model battlefield, and resolving combats that occur by rolling dice. It is played at the skirmish scale, where one model represents one soldier. The game became gradually more complex with later editions and expansions adding more details and special abilities.  \"Warzone\" is mostly compared and contrasted to \"Warhammer 40,000\", which targets the same market audience, and has similar gameplay, although \"Warzone\" never reached the latter's volume of market penetration. \"Warzone\" aims for a more realistic feel, being set in a more plausible future, with recognizable weaponry, megacorporations that represent modern-day nations and cultures, and a focus upon the power of units of soldiers, whereas \"Warhammer\" aims for more of a fantasy feel, with a greater variety of weapons, aliens, and a predominant focus upon the power of individual heroes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "Three different editions of \"Warzone\" have been produced through the years: the original \"Warzone\", \"Warzone 2nd Edition\", and \"Ultimate Warzone\" in 1998. All have since gone out of print.  During the production of the third supplement for \"Warzone 2nd Edition\", Target Games underwent a significant restructuring which resulted in the establishment of Paradox Entertainment as an independent company and the license for the \"Warzone\" brand being sold to them. Development and production of the \"Warzone\" line was not resumed after the disruption and a license to use the brand in the context of miniature wargaming was awarded to Excelsior Entertainment Owned by Thom Talamini and Christopher Schroeder (as well as licenses for the related \"Chronopia\" brand).  The remaining stocks of original \"Warzone\" and \"Chronopia\" miniatures were sold to Irish company Prince August, who still have copies of the boxed game and supplements of the second edition in stock. The original moulds were destroyed.  In 2008 Fantasy Flight Games released a 54mm collectible miniature game set in the \"Mutant Chronicles\" universe, but the game was cancelled shortly after release due to poor sales.  A new edition of \"Warzone\" was unveiled in February 2013 by Prodos Games (under licence to Paradox Entertainment). It is called \"Warzone Resurrection\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Video Game.", "content": "An Online Real-Time Strategy game was in development after Paradox Entertainment had acquired the license but the production was quietly shut down. The game would have been called \"Warzone Online\" and would have featured a then brand new Game Engine called the Valpurgius Engine. It would have been released on both the Xbox and Windows platforms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Mark Donald reviewed \"Warzone\" for \"Arcane\" magazine, rating it a 6 out of 10 overall. Donald comments that \"\"Warzone\" is worth investigating, especially if you already swear by the RPG. However, I wouldn't recommend it to serious megalomaniacs who live for wargaming.\"  \"Warzone\" won the Origins Award for \"Best Miniatures Rules of 1995\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Warzone is a tabletop miniature wargame based on the Mutant Chronicles universe and role-playing game. It features squad-based combat at a skirmish level, although vehicles and large models were introduced in later supplements to the main rule book.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974850}
{"src_title": "March 1933 German federal election", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Nazis seizure of power commenced on 30 January, when President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor, who immediately urged the dissolution of the Reichstag and the calling of new elections. In early February, the Nazis \"unleashed a campaign of violence and terror that dwarfed anything seen so far\". Stormtroopers began attacking trade union and Communist Party (KPD) offices and the homes of left-wingers.  In the second half of February, the violence was extended to the Social Democrats, with gangs of brownshirts breaking up Social Democrat meetings and beating up their speakers and audiences. Issues of Social Democratic newspapers were banned. Twenty newspapers of the Centre Party, a party of Catholic Germans, were banned in mid-February for criticising the new government. Government officials known to be Centre Party supporters were dismissed from their offices, and stormtroopers violently attacked party meetings in Westphalia. Only the Nazis and DNVP were allowed to campaign unmolested.  Six days before the scheduled election date, the German parliament building was set alight in the Reichstag fire, allegedly by the Dutch Communist Marinus van der Lubbe. That event reduced the popularity of the KPD and enabled Hitler to persuade Hindenburg to pass the Reichstag Fire Decree as an emergency decree according to Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. The emergency law removed many civil liberties and allowed the arrest of Ernst Thälmann and 4,000 other leaders and members of the KPD shortly before the election, suppressing the Communist vote and consolidating the position of the Nazis.  Although Hitler could have banned the KPD outright, he opted not to do so. He feared a violent Communist uprising in the event of a ban, and he also believed the KPD's presence on the ballot could siphon off votes away the Social Democrats. Instead, he opted to simply have Communists functionaries jailed by the thousands. The courts and prosecutors, both already hostile to the KPD long before 1933, obligingly agreed with the line that since the Reichstag fire was a Communist plot, KPD membership was an act of treason. As a result, for all intents and purposes, the KPD was \"outlawed\" on the day the Reichstag Fire Decree took effect and \"completely banned\" as of the day of the election. While the Social Democrats (SPD) were then not as heavily oppressed as the Communists, the Social Democrats were also restricted in their actions, as the party's leadership had already fled to Prague, and many members were acting only from the underground. Hence, the Reichstag fire is widely believed to have had a major effect on the outcome of the election. As a replacement parliament building and for 10 years to come, the new parliament used the Kroll Opera House for its meetings.  The resources of big business and the state were thrown behind the Nazis' campaign to achieve saturation coverage all over Germany. Brownshirts and SS patrolled and marched menacingly through the streets of cities and towns. A \"combination of terror, repression and propaganda was mobilized in every... community, large and small, across the land\". Irene von Goetz wrote, \"In a decree issued on 17 February 1933, Göring ordered the Prussian police force to make unrestrained use of firearms in operations against political opponents (the so-called \"Schießerlass,\" or shooting decree)\".  To ensure a Nazi majority in the vote, Nazi organisations also \"monitored\" the vote process. In Prussia, 50,000 members of the SS, SA and \"Der Stahlhelm\" were ordered to monitor the votes as so-called deputy sheriffs or auxiliary police (\"Hilfspolizei\") in another decree by acting Interior Minister Hermann Göring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "The Black-White-Red Struggle Front (KSWR) was an alliance of the German National People's Party with \"Der Stahlhelm\" and the Agricultural League", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Despite achieving a much better result than in the November 1932 election, the Nazis did not do as well as Hitler had hoped. In spite of massive violence and voter intimidation, the Nazis won only 43.9% of the vote, rather than the majority that he had expected.  Therefore, Hitler was forced to maintain his coalition with the DNVP to control the majority of seats. The Communists (KPD) lost about a quarter of their votes, and the Social Democrats suffered only moderate losses. Although the KPD had not been formally banned, it was a foregone conclusion that the KPD deputies would never be allowed to take their seats. Within a few days, all KPD representatives had been under arrest or gone into hiding.  Although the Nazi-DNVP coalition had enough seats to conduct the basic business of government, Hitler needed a two-thirds majority to pass the Enabling Act, which allowed the Cabinet, effectively the Chancellor to enact laws without the approval of the Reichstag for four years. With certain exceptions, such laws could deviate from the Weimar Constitution. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to arrest all 81 Communist deputies and to keep several Social Democrats out of the chamber.  Hitler then obtained the necessary supermajority by persuading the Centre Party to vote with him with regard to the \"Reichskonkordat\". The bill was passed on 23 March with 444 votes for and 94 against. Only the Social Democrats, led by Otto Wels, opposed the measure, which came into effect on 27 March. As it turned out, the atmosphere of that session was so intimidating that the measure would have still passed even if all Communist and Social Democratic deputies had been present and voted against it. The bill's provisions turned the government into a \"de facto\" legal dictatorship.  Within four months, the other parties had been shuttered by outright banning or Nazi terror, and Germany had become formally a one-party state. Although three more elections were held during the Nazi era, voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and guest candidates, and voting was not secret.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Federal elections were held in Germany on 5 March 1933, after the Nazi seizure of power on 30 January and just six days after the Reichstag fire. Nazi stormtroopers had unleashed a widespread campaign of violence against the Communist Party (KPD), left-wingers, trade unionists, the Social Democratic Party of Germany, and the Centre Party. They were the last multi-party elections in a unified Germany until 1990.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974851}
{"src_title": "Sinoatrial block", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Symptoms.", "content": "Sinoatrial blocks are typically well tolerated. They are not as serious as an AV block and most often do not require treatment. In some people, they can cause fainting, altered mental status, chest pain, hypoperfusion, and signs of shock. They can also lead to cessation of the SA node and more serious dysrhythmias.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "In a first degree sinoatrial block, there is a lag between the time that the SA node fires and actual depolarization of the atria. This rhythm is not easily detectable using state of the art (the highest level of scientific development at the current state in time) diagnostic equipment, thus is currently not recognizable on an ECG strip because an ECG strip does not denote when the SA node fires. It can be detected only during an electrophysiology study when a small wire is placed against the SA node from within the heart and the electrical impulses can be recorded as they leave the p-cells in the centre of the node [ see pacemaker potential ], followed by observing a delay in the onset of the p wave on the ECG.  Second degree SA blocks are broken down into two subcategories just like AV blocks are:  The first is a second degree type I, or Wenckebach block. This rhythm is irregular, and the R-R interval gets progressively smaller, while the P-R interval remains constant, until a QRS segment is dropped. Note that this is quite different from the Wenckebach AV block, in which the PR interval gets progressively longer, before the dropped QRS segment. The pause of a second degree type I is less than twice the shortest R-R interval and is not a multiple of the P-R interval. The cause is a gradual lengthening of conduction time from the SA node to the atria. The p-cells in the centre of the node produce the rhythm at a regular rate, but their conduction across the node to where it meets atrial tissue is where the slowing occurs.  A second degree type II, or sinus exit block, is a regular rhythm that may be normal or slow. It is followed by a pause that is a multiple of the P-P interval usually (2-4). Conduction across the SA node is normal until the time of the pause when it is blocked.  A third degree sinoatrial block looks very similar to a sinus arrest. However, a sinus arrest is caused by a failure to form impulses. A third degree block is caused by failure to conduct them. The rhythm is irregular and either normal or slow. It is followed by a long pause that is not a multiple of the P-R interval. The pause ends with a P wave, instead of a junctional escape beat the way a sinus arrest would.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Emergency treatment consists of administration of atropine sulfate or transcutaneous pacing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A sinoatrial block is a disorder in the normal rhythm of the heart, known as a heart block, that is initiated in the sinoatrial node. The initial action impulse in a heart is usually formed in the sinoatrial node (SA node) and carried through the atria, down the internodal atrial pathways to the atrioventricular node (AV) node. In normal conduction, the impulse would travel across the bundle of His (AV bundle), down the bundle branches, and into the Purkinje fibers. This would depolarize the ventricles and cause them to contract.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974852}
{"src_title": "Wylie transliteration", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Consonants.", "content": "The Wylie scheme transliterates the Tibetan characters as follows:  In Tibetan script, consonant clusters within a syllable may be represented through the use of prefixed or suffixed letters or by letters superscripted or subscripted to the root letter (forming a \"stack\"). The Wylie system does not normally distinguish these as in practice no ambiguity is possible under the rules of Tibetan spelling. The exception is the sequence \"gy-\", which may be written either with a prefix \"g\" or a subfix \"y\". In the Wylie system, these are distinguished by inserting a period between a prefix \"g\" and initial \"y\". E.g. གྱང \"wall\" is \"gyang\", while གཡང་ \"chasm\" is \"g.yang\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vowels.", "content": "The four vowel marks (here applied to the base letter ཨ) are transliterated: When a syllable has no explicit vowel marking, the letter \"a\" is used to represent the default vowel \"a\" (e.g. ཨ་ = a).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Capitalization.", "content": "Many previous systems of Tibetan transliteration included internal capitalisation schemes—essentially, capitalising the root letter rather than the first letter of a word, when the first letter is a prefix consonant. Tibetan dictionaries are organized by root letter, and prefixes are often silent, so knowing the root letter gives a better idea of pronunciation. However, these schemes were often applied inconsistently, and usually only when the word would normally be capitalised according to the norms of Latin text (i.e. at the beginning of a sentence). On the grounds that internal capitalisation was overly cumbersome, of limited usefulness in determining pronunciation, and probably superfluous to a reader able to use a Tibetan dictionary, Wylie specified that if a word was to be capitalised, the first letter should be capital, in conformity with Western capitalisation practices. Thus a particular Tibetan Buddhist sect (Kagyu) is capitalised \"Bka' brgyud\" and not \"bKa' brgyud\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extensions.", "content": "Wylie's original scheme is not capable of transliterating all Tibetan-script texts. In particular, it has no correspondences for most Tibetan punctuation symbols, and lacks the ability to represent non-Tibetan words written in Tibetan script (Sanskrit and phonetic Chinese are the most common cases). Accordingly, various scholars have adopted \"ad hoc\" and incomplete conventions as needed.  The Tibetan and Himalayan Library at the University of Virginia developed a standard, Extended Wylie Tibetan System or EWTS, that addresses these deficiencies systematically. It uses capital letters and Latin punctuation to represent the missing characters. Several software systems, including Tise, now use this standard to allow one to type unrestricted Tibetan script (including the full Unicode Tibetan character set) on a Latin keyboard.  Since the Wylie system is not intuitive for use by linguists unfamiliar with Tibetan, a new transliteration system based on the International Phonetic Alphabet has been proposed to replace Wylie in articles on Tibetan historical phonology.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wylie transliteration is a method for transliterating Tibetan script using only the letters available on a typical English language typewriter. The system is named for the American scholar Turrell V. Wylie, who created the system and described it in a 1959 paper published in the \"Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies\". It has subsequently become a standard transliteration scheme in Tibetan studies, especially in the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974853}
{"src_title": "Andreas Krieger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Athletics career.", "content": "At the 1986 European Championships in Athletics, Krieger won the gold medal in the shot put event after putting the shot at 21.10 m (69 ft 3 in). Krieger retired in 1991.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Doping.", "content": "Krieger was systematically doped with steroids from the age of 16 onward. According to Werner Franke and Brigitte Berendonk's 1991 book, \"Doping: From Research to Deceit\", Krieger took almost 2,600 milligrams of steroids in 1986 alone— nearly 1,000 milligrams more than Ben Johnson took during the 1988 Summer Olympics.  As early as the age of 18, Krieger began developing visibly male characteristics. Eventually, years of doping left him with many masculine traits. By 1997, at the age of 31, Krieger underwent sex reassignment surgery and changed his name to Andreas. Krieger had \"felt out of place and longed in some vague way to be a boy\", and said in a 2004 interview in \"The New York Times\" that he was \"glad that he became a man\". However, he felt that receiving hormones without his consent deprived him of the right to \"find out for myself which sex I wanted to be.\" Krieger's sex change operation dominated Germany's news headlines and focused widespread attention on the legacy of doping in East Germany, leading other former athletes to speak out in public for the first time.  Krieger gave evidence at the trial of Manfred Ewald, leader of the East German sports programme and president of the East German Olympic committee and Manfred Hoeppner, East German medical director in Berlin in 2000. Both Ewald and Hoepner were convicted of accessory to the \"intentional bodily harm of athletes, including minors\".  Krieger was forced to retire in part due to experiencing severe pain from lifting massive amounts of weight while on steroids. Even today, he has severe pain in his hips and thighs, and can only withstand mild exertion.  The Heidi Krieger Medal (), named after Krieger, is now awarded annually to Germans who combat doping. Krieger's gold medal from 1986 forms part of the trophy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Krieger is married to former East German swimmer Ute Krause, who was also a victim of massive doping by East German sports officials.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcasting.", "content": "The PBS series \"Secrets of the Dead\" featured Krieger in an episode covering the doping of East German athletes by the East German government covered-up by the Stasi.  In 2008 Ukrainian filmmakers released the documentary \"Doping. Factory of Champions\" based on Krieger's story.  Krieger’s story was mentioned in the first episode of the BBC documentary \"The Lost World of Communism\".  Krieger's half-sister through his father's second marriage, Susann Krieger, won the Deutsche Radiopreis 2017 (German Radio Prize) for her feature \"Gedoptes Gold – Wie aus Heidi Andreas wurde\" (\"\"Doped Gold – how Heidi became Andreas\"\"), about her brother's life and her reunion with him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andreas Krieger (born 20 July 1966 in East Berlin) is a German former shot putter who competed on the women's East German athletics team at SC Dynamo Berlin as Heidi Krieger.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974854}
{"src_title": "Alexey Shchusev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Shchusev studied under Leon Benois and Ilya Repin at the Imperial Academy of Arts in 1891–1897. From 1894 to 1899, he travelled in North Africa and Central Asia. Shchusev was a diligent student of old Russian art and won public acclaim with his restoration of the 12th-century St. Basil Church in Ovruch, Ukraine. He dwelt on 15th-century Muscovite architecture to design the Trinity Cathedral in Pochayiv Lavra and a memorial church on the Kulikovo Field. He was then commissioned by the Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna to design a cathedral for Marfo-Mariinsky Convent in Moscow. The result was a charming medieval structure of the purest Novgorodian style (1908–1912).  Shchusev embarked upon his most wide-scale project in 1913, when his design for the Kazan Railway Station won a contest for a Moscow terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway. This Art Nouveau design fused elements of the Kremlin towers and traditional Tatar architecture in one of the most imaginative Revivalist designs ever put to execution. The construction of the railway station, however, was not finished until 1940.  After briefly experimenting with Neoclassicism, Shchusev turned to Constructivism in the 1920s. He taught at Vkhutemas from 1920 through 1924. Upon Lenin's death in 1924, he was asked to design a mausoleum for him. It took him just several days to come up with an original architectural solution blending Constructivist elements with features taken from some ancient mausoleums, i.e., the Step Pyramid and the Tomb of Cyrus.  There are two notable Constructivist designs of Shchusev: the Ministry of Agriculture or Narkomzem in Moscow (1928–1933) and the Institute of Resorts in Sochi (1927–1931), considered to be a major source for Alvar Aalto's Paimio Sanatorium.  After the mausoleum commission, Shchusev was cherished by the Communist authorities. In 1926, he was nominated director of the Tretyakov Gallery. He was appointed head of the group that designed major bridges and apartment complexes in Moscow. His name was attached to the luxurious designs of the Hotel Moskva just a few steps from the Kremlin (1930–1938) and the NKVD headquarters on Lubyanka Square (1940–1947). Some say that he was the first to come up with the idea of Gothic skyscrapers in Moscow.  It is debated whether these Stalinist designs were really Shchusev's or if they were actually executed by his disciples. The discussion of their artistic merits was exacerbated when the Moscow authorities announced their intention to demolish the Hotel Moskva in 2004. Actually, all these designs, whether executed for Moscow, Tbilisi (such as a building of the Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute), or Tashkent, featured Shchusev's trademark blend of Neoclassical elements with national architectural traditions.  It is believed that the author of the Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow was one of the Shchusev's office architect Isidore Frantsuz. According to Russian architectural historian Alexei Klimenko: \"It was proven by architectural critic Selim Khan-Magomedov. The Soviet government did not want the public to know about the Jewish origin of the true author, and the work was credited to Shchusev\".  A. Klimenko, who was a graduate student at the institute, where Khan-Magomedov was working then, said that Khan-Magomedov \"found the drawings, on which the name\" Frantsuz \" was scraped and on the top of it was written \" A. Shchusev. \" For that Khan-Magomedov was almost thrown out of the Communist party, and there was a scandal on the grounds of nationality: don’t trash their Jewish surnames into history of Soviet architecture in general, and the Red Square in particular\".  There is another known case where Shchusev was accused of plagiarism. In 1937, the architects L. I. Saveliev and O. A. Stapran appealed to the Union of Architects with a complaint against Schusev alleging that he assumed the authorship of their \"Moscow\" hotel project. As a result of that complaint Shchusev was removed from the board of the Moscow branch of the Union of Architects.  In 1946, Shchusev established the Museum of Architecture, which helped to preserve remnants of demolished medieval churches and monasteries. His last works of importance were the Komsomolskaya station of the Moscow Metro, whose decoration was stylized after 17th-century Muscovite churches, and the plan for reconstruction of Novgorod after the ancient city had been destroyed by the Nazis (in recognition of that, one of Novgorod's modern streets was named after him). Shchusev died four years after the end of World War II and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "Shchusev was awarded the Stalin Prizes in 1941, 1946, 1948, and posthumously in 1952; the Order of Lenin and other orders and medals.  The Shchusev State Museum of Architecture in Moscow has been named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexey Viktorovich Shchusev (; – 24 May 1949) was an acclaimed Russian and Soviet architect whose works may be regarded as a bridge connecting Revivalist architecture of Imperial Russia with Stalin's Empire Style.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974855}
{"src_title": "Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Castiglione was born in Genoa. His early training is unclear. He may have studied with Sinibaldo Scorza. Wittkower describes him as a \"passionate student\" of Anthony van Dyck, who arrived in 1621, and Peter Paul Rubens, who stayed in the city in the first decade of the 17th century and whose paintings were readily accessible there. He may have trained under the Genoese Bernardo Strozzi. He lived in Rome from 1634 to about 1645, then returned to Genoa. He also traveled to Florence and Naples. He was back in Rome in 1647, before moving in 1651 to be a court artist in Mantua for Duke Carlo II and his wife Isabella Chiara de Austria. He died in Mantua.  He had various brushes with the law in his lifetime. The Queen's Gallery in London, where an exhibition of his work was held in 2013, made the following statement: \"Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione was also a violent and impetuous man, who was repeatedly in court for assault, allegedly attempted to throw his sister off a roof and was forced to leave Rome, probably after committing murder. The turbulence that characterised his life overshadowed his artistic brilliance, and Castiglione struggled to achieve recognition in his lifetime. Much of what is known about the artist is derived not from fulfilled commissions, but from court documents.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artistic achievements.", "content": "He painted portraits, historical pieces and landscapes, but chiefly excelled in fairs, markets and rural scenes with animals. Noah's ark and the animals entering the Ark was a favorite subject of his.  Castiglione was a brilliant draftsman and pioneered the development of the oil sketch (often using a mixture of mediums) as a finished work - previously they had been used only for working studies for another finished piece, for example by Rubens. He returned to the same subjects over and over again, but with significantly different compositions each time.  He also executed a number of etchings (see cover of edition of \"The genius of Castiglione\" published in 1648). \"Diogenes searching for a Man\" is one of the principal of these; others are about religious themes. Some are moralistic stories such as that of the \"blind leading the blind\". The etchings are remarkable for light and shade, and have even earned for Castiglione the name of a second Rembrandt. He was exposed to Rembrandt's etching by 1630. In about 1648 he invented the monotype, the only printmaking technique to be an Italian invention, making over twenty over the succeeding years. His most popular and influential prints were a series of exotic heads, mostly of vaguely Oriental males, but also of women. These were produced in great numbers. Among the topics of his etchings are \"Diogenes with his lantern, Noah leading animals into Arc\", St Joseph Asleep during Flight from Egypt\", \"Circe surrounded by animals\", \"Silenus at the fountain\", \"Nativity\", \"Resurrection of Lazarus\", and \"Genius of Castiglione\".  Castiglione was renowned for his ability to paint animals, mostly barn animals, and this was often a dominant motif in his paintings. For example, in the painting of \"Jesus clearing the temple of Moneylenders\", the religious event is a minor, background part of the painting, the stampede of animals is far more prominent than the scattering of bankers. Castiglione's attention to detail in the depiction of nature is regarded as proof of the influence of Scorza and the Flemish still life and animal painter Jan Roos who was a long-term resident of Genoa. It has been suggested that it was Jan Roos who convinced Castiglione to enliven his religious and mythological compositions with animal and still life elements.  In Mantua, he received his name of Grechetto, from the classic air of his pastoral depictions. In his later years, he was severely afflicted by gout. His brother Salvatore and his son Francesco excelled in the same subjects; and it is thought that many paintings which are ascribed to Benedetto are only copies after him, or perhaps originals by his son or brother. He also influenced Anton Maria Vassallo (c1640-60). Among those who engraved after him were Giovanni Lorenzo Bertolotto in Genoa, the Venetian Anton Maria Zanetti, Michele l'Asne, Louis de Chatillon, and Coreneille Coemans.  His paintings are to be found in Rome, Venice, Naples, Florence, and more especially Genoa and Mantua. \"The Presepio\" (Nativity of Jesus) for the church of San Luca, Genoa, ranks among his most celebrated paintings, and the Louvre contains eight characteristic examples. He painted a \"SS. Mary Magdalene and Catharine\" for the church of the Madonna di Castello and \"St. James defeats the Moors\" for the Oratorio di San Giacomo della Marina, both in Genoa.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione (baptized 23 March 16095 May 1664) was an Italian Baroque painter, printmaker and draftsman, of the Genoese school. He is best known now for his etchings, and as the inventor of the printmaking technique of monotyping. He was known as \"Il Grechetto\" in Italy and in France as \"Le Benédette\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974856}
{"src_title": "Infanta Maria Theresa of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Maria Teresa was born in Kleinheubach, Kingdom of Bavaria the second daughter of Miguel I of Portugal and Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. Her father became king of Portugal in 1828 after deposing his niece Queen Maria II. He reigned until 1834 when Maria II of Portugal was restored and Miguel was forced into exile.  Described as one of the most beautiful women in Europe, Maria Theresa became the third wife of Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria, a younger brother of the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, at Kleinheubach on 23 July 1873. Despite providing him with two daughters Archduchess Maria Annunziata of Austria (1876–1961) and Archduchess Elisabeth Amalie of Austria (1878–1960), the marriage was an unhappy one due to her husband's bullying and tormenting of her. In addition to their daughters she also became the step mother to his children by his first wife, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, Archduke Otto Franz of Austria, Archduke Ferdinand Karl of Austria and Archduchess Margarete Sophie of Austria.  Maria Theresa managed to obtain considerable influence at the Austrian court when Empress Elisabeth effectively withdrew from the social scene in Vienna after the suicide of her only son, Crown Prince Rudolf, in January 1889. Maria Theresa stood in for the Empress and carried out honours at the Hofburg Imperial Palace with the Emperor until the death of her husband in 1896 when court etiquette ruled she had to go into retirement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Widowhood.", "content": "She remained such an influential figure behind the scenes at court after the death of her husband that when rumors spread that she was to marry the master of her household, Count Cavriani, no one dared to say a word against her. In the end the rumors turned out to be false. During her widowhood she spent the winter months living in Vienna and the summer months at Reichstadt castle in Bohemia.  She offered encouragement and support to her stepson Franz Ferdinand in his determination to marry Countess Sophie Chotek against his family's will. She traveled to a convent in Prague herself to fetch Sophie and took her into her own house, even pleading on Sophie's behalf with the Emperor Franz Joseph. After the union was finally permitted, Maria Theresa made all the arrangements for the wedding, insisting that it take place in her own private chapel.  She remained close to Franz Ferdinand and Sophie until their assassination in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. It was she who broke the news of the couple's death to their children Sophie, Maximilian and Ernst. She also managed to ensure the children's financial security after telling the Emperor that if he did not grant them a yearly income, she would resign the allowance which she drew as a widow in their favour. (Most of Franz Ferdinand's property went to his nephew the Archduke Charles).  On 21 November 1916, her brother-in-law Emperor Franz Joseph died, and Archduke Karl of Austria, son of Archduke Otto Franz of Austria and nephew of Franz Ferdinand, became the new Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. He reigned until November 1918 when the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed following its defeat in the First World War. After his departure from Austria (he never formally abdicated), Maria Theresa accompanied Karl and his wife Zita into exile in Madeira, but eventually returned to Vienna, where she spent the rest of her life.  In 1929, following a decline in her finances, Maria Theresa engaged two agents to sell the Napoleon Diamond Necklace, a piece inherited from her husband, in the United States. After a series of botched sales attempts, the pair finally sold the necklace for $60,000 with the aid of the great-nephew of Maria Theresa, the Archduke Leopold of Austria, Prince of Tuscany but he claimed nearly 90% of the sale price as \"expenses\". Maria Theresa appealed to the United States courts, ultimately resulting in the recovery of the necklace, the imprisonment of her great-nephew, and the absconding of the two agents.  Maria Theresa died in Vienna during World War II. She survived her husband by 48 years.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Infanta Maria Theresa of Portugal (; 24 August 1855 – 12 February 1944) was a Princess of the House of Braganza. She became by marriage an Archduchess of Austria and also sister-in-law of Emperors Franz Joseph I of Austria and Maximilian I of Mexico, as well as step-grandmother of Emperor Charles I of Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974857}
{"src_title": "Diksmuide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medieval origins.", "content": "The 9th-century Frankish settlement of \"Dicasmutha\" was situated at the mouth of a stream near the River Yser (). The name is a compound of the Dutch words (dike) and (river mouth). By the 10th century, a chapel and marketplace were already established. The city's charter was granted two centuries later and defensive walls built in 1270. The economy was already then based mainly on agriculture, with dairy products and linen driving the economy.  From the 15th century to the French Revolution, Diksmuide was affected by the wars between the Netherlands, France, Spain, and Austria, with a corresponding decline in activity; it was captured by Allied forces in the Capitulation of Diksmuide in 1695. The 19th century was more peaceful and prosperous.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "At the outset of World War I, German troops crossed the Belgian border near Arlon, then proceeded hurriedly towards the North Sea to secure the French ports of and Dunkirk. The Battle of the Yser started in October 1914. Thanks to the water the Belgians were able to stop the Germans; at the end of October, they opened the floodgates holding back the River Yser and flooded the area. As a result, the river became a front line throughout the First World War. The city was first attacked on 16 October 1914 and defended by Belgian and French troops, which marked the beginning of the battle. Colonel Alphonse Jacques led the troops that prevented from being taken by the German Army. Despite the heavy Belgian losses, the press, politicians, literary figures and the military itself created propaganda which formed public opinion into making the action appear strategic and heroic.  By the time the fighting ended, the town had been reduced to rubble. It was, however, completely rebuilt in the 1920s.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Most of the area west of the city is a polder riddled with drainage trenches. The major economic activity of the region is dairy farming, producing the famous butter of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974858}
{"src_title": "Copenhagen Central Station", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first railway station in Copenhagen was built in 1847, approximately at the present station location. It served Roskildebanen, and it was made of wood because it was built outside the fortifications where buildings with foundations were not allowed. An expansion was soon necessary due to plans to extend the railway network in Denmark. A new larger station, designed by H. J. Herholdt, opened in 1864.  The second station also proved too small, especially because there was only one track leading out of the city. It was decided to build a new station, including a tunnel to Østerport station, and with tracks out of the city to the south. Designed by Heinrich Wenck, the present station was finished on 1 December 1911. The tunnel (the Boulevard Line) was opened in 1917.  The station was overhauled in 1980. Escalators and lifts were established to the platforms, and the station concourse, which was originally split into arrival, departure, and freight sections, was redone completely. The station was overhauled again from 2004 to 2008. This overhaul replaced the roof, lowered platforms 3 to 6 to international standards and lengthened them. The towers and the bridge over the platforms, upon which the main station building is placed, were reconditioned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Services.", "content": "Copenhagen Central Station provides Copenhagen with Intercity and Express trains across Denmark, as well as services to several international destinations. Direct international trains connect to Stockholm and Hamburg several times a day. Intercity trains run half-hourly from Copenhagen during daytime and serve as a link between the major cities and towns in Denmark, including Odense, Aarhus, Aalborg, Esbjerg, Thisted and Sønderborg. Regional trains (stops at major stations within the Greater Copenhagen area) connect the main parts of Zealand to the capital. Veolia Transport trains on the Øresundståg regional rail network depart to southern and western Sweden every 20 minutes. A special ticket fare system exists between the Copenhagen local traffic area and the most southern part of Sweden, Skåne county.  All S-train services except the F-line stop at the station.  København H is served by the Copenhagen Metro network by the City Circle Line which opened on 29 September 2019, servicing lines M3 and M4.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future.", "content": "The station needs more capacity followed the opened of the Copenhagen–Ringsted Line on 31 May 2019. The Danish Ministry of Transport has started planning of an extension: proposals include a four-track terminal station on a bridge over the present tracks, or in a tunnel under them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "Copenhagen Central Station is used as a location at 1:12:36 in the 1975 \"Olsen-banden\" film \"The Olsen Gang on the Track\". Egon (Ove Sprogøe) hides a suitcase in the luggage storage at Copenhagen Central Station in \"The Olsen Gang Outta Sight\" (1977) and the lost luggage department is also used as a location later in the same film.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Copenhagen Central Station (,, abbreviated København H) is the main railway station in Copenhagen, Denmark, and the largest railway station in Denmark, although Nørreport Station has a larger passenger throughput if urban S-train and Metro services are included. It is situated between the districts of Indre By and Vesterbro with entrances from Bernstorffsgade (at Tivoli Gardens), Banegårdspladsen, Reventlowsgade and access to platforms from Tietgensgade.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974859}
{"src_title": "Bálint Balassi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Balassi was born at Zólyom in the Kingdom of Hungary (today Zvolen, Slovakia). He was educated by the reformer Péter Bornemisza and by his mother, the highly gifted Protestant zealot, Anna Sulyok.  His first work was a translation of Michael Bock's \"Wurlzgertlein für die krancken Seelen\", (published in Kraków), to comfort his father while in Polish exile. On his father's rehabilitation, Bálint accompanied him to court, and was also present at the coronation diet in Pressburg (today's Bratislava), capital of Royal Hungary in 1572. He then joined the army and fought the Turks as an officer in the fortress of Eger in North-Eastern Hungary. Here he fell violently in love with Anna Losonczi, the daughter of the captain of Temesvár, and evidently, from his verses, his love was not unrequited. But after the death of her first husband she gave her hand to Kristóf Ungnád.  Naturally Balassi only began to realize how much he loved Anna when he had lost her. He pursued her with gifts and verses, but she remained true to her pique and to her marriage vows, and he could only enshrine her memory in immortal verse.  In 1574 Bálint was sent to the camp of Gáspár Bekes to assist him against Stephen Báthory; but his troops were encountered and scattered on the way there, and he himself was wounded and taken prisoner. His not very rigorous captivity lasted for two years, during which he accompanied Báthory where the latter was crowned as King of Poland. He returned to Hungary soon after the death of his father, János Balassi.  In 1584 married his cousin, Krisztina Dobó, the daughter of the valiant commandant, István Dobó of Eger. This became the cause of many of his subsequent misfortunes. His wife's greedy relatives nearly ruined him by legal processes, and when in 1586 he turned Catholic to escape their persecutions they slandered him that he and his son had embraced Islam. His desertion of his wife and legal troubles were followed by some years of uncertainty, but in 1589 he was invited to Poland to serve there in the impending war with Turkey. This did not take place and after a spell in the Jesuit College of Braunsberg, Balassi, somewhat disappointed, returned to Hungary in 1591. In the 15 years war he joined the Army, and died at the siege of Esztergom-Víziváros the same year as the result of a severe leg wound caused by a cannonball. He is buried in Hybe in today's Slovakia. Balassi's poems fall into four divisions: hymns, patriotic and martial songs, original love poems, and adaptations from the Latin and German. They are all most original, exceedingly objective and so excellent in point of style that it is difficult even to imagine him a contemporary of Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos and Péter Ilosvay. But his erotics are his best productions. They circulated in manuscript for generations and were never printed until 1874, when Farkas Deák discovered a perfect copy of them in the Radványi library. For beauty, feeling and transporting passion. there is nothing like them in Magyar literature until we come to the age of Mihály Csokonai Vitéz and Sándor Petőfi. Balassi was also the inventor of the strophe which goes by his name. It consists of nine lines a b c c b d d b, or three rhyming pairs alternating with the rhyming third, sixth and ninth lines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family tree.", "content": "The family tree of the Balassi family:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary award.", "content": "Hungarian literary award that bears the name of Balassi: Balint Balassi Memorial Sword Award. Founded by: Pal Molnar.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baron Bálint Balassi de Kékkő et Gyarmat (, barón z Ďarmôt a Kameňa; 20 October 155430 May 1594) was a Hungarian Renaissance lyric poet. He wrote mostly in Hungarian, but was also proficient in further eight languages: Latin, Italian, German, Polish, Turkish, Slovak, Croatian and Romanian. He is the founder of modern Hungarian lyric and erotic poetry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974860}
{"src_title": "Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The museums belonging to the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden originated from the collections of the Saxon electors, several of whom were also Kings of Poland. Historical sources show that August I, Elector of Saxony, founded the electoral Kunstkammer (literally “art chamber”) in 1560, a collection of art located in the Dresden Castle. August the Strong and his son, August III, Kings of Poland, were important patrons and remarkable connoisseurs of the arts. They developed their art collections in a systematic fashion; in the process, they not only provided a foundation of extraordinary masterpieces for the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, but also made these works accessible to select circles in their own time.  The Staatliche Kunstsammlungen has been a state-owned enterprise since January 1, 2009. The association includes twelve museums which operate independently within the context of their own collection, but all share various institutions and facilities as well as a central administration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museums.", "content": "Twelve museums belong to the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnographic museums.", "content": "Further institutions, such as the Kunstbibliothek (Art Library), the Kunstfonds (Art Fund) and the Gerhard Richter Archiv (Gerhard Richter Archive) also belong to the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Locations.", "content": "The museums of the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen are housed in six buildings. With the exception of Pillnitz Castle, they are all located in the historic center of Dresden.  Dresden Castle houses the Historic Green Vault (\"Historisches Grüne Gewölbe\") and the New Green Vault (\"Neues Grüne Gewölbe\"), the Numismatic Cabinet (\"Münzkabinett\"), the Collection of Prints, Drawings and Photographs (\"Kupferstich-Kabinett\"), and the Armory (\"Rüstkammer\") with the Turkish Chamber (\"Türckische Cammer\").  The Zwinger palace contains the Old Masters Picture Gallery (\"Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister\"), the Porcelain Collection (\"Porzellansammlung\"), and the Royal Cabinet of Mathematical and Physical Instruments (\"Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon\").  The Albertinum hosts the New Masters Gallery (\"Galerie Neue Meister\") and the Sculpture Collection (\"Skulpturensammlung\").  Pillnitz Castle houses the Arts and Crafts Museum (\"Kunstgewerbemuseum\") and the Japanisches Palais the Ethnographical Museum Dresden (\"Museum für Völkerkunde\"). The Saxon Folk Art Museum and Puppet Theatre Collection (\"Museum für Sächsische Volkskunst and Puppentheatersammlung\") can be found in the Jägerhof in Dresden-Neustadt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current status.", "content": "The Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden is owned by the State of Saxony. It is a member of the Konferenz Nationaler Kultureinrichtungen, a union of more than twenty cultural institutions in the former East Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden (, \"Dresden State Art Collections\") is a cultural institution in Dresden, Germany, owned by the State of Saxony. It is one of the most renowned and oldest museum institutions in the world, originating from the collections of the Saxon electors in the 16th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974861}
{"src_title": "Pavel Tretyakov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Together with other Moscow businessmen he acted as the founder of the Moscow merchant bank (becoming one of its heads), the Moscow commercial and industrial company, some other large firms. He amassed a considerable fortune (4.4 million rubles), consisting of real estate (5 houses in Moscow), securities, money and bills.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collecting art.", "content": "Tretyakov started to collect art in 1854 at the age of 22; his first purchase was 10 canvases by Old Dutch masters. He laid down for himself the aim of creating a Russian National Gallery. In his collection Tretyakov included the most valuable and remarkable products, first of all the contemporaries, from 1870 - mainly members of the society of circulating art exhibitions (\"Tovarishchestvo peredvizhnyh hudozhestvennyh vystavok\" or Peredvizhniki, Передвижники in Russian). He bought paintings at exhibitions and directly from artists' studios, sometimes he bought the whole series: in 1874 he acquired V.V. Vereschagin's \"Turkestan series\" (13 pictures, 133 figures and 81 studies), in 1880 - his \"Indian series\" (78 studies). In his collection there were over 80 studies by Alexander Ivanov. In 1885 Tretyakov bought 102 studies by V.D. Polenov painted by the artist during journeys across Turkey, Egypt, Syria and Palestine. He also acquired Vasnetsov’s collection of the sketches made during his work on St Volodymyr's Cathedral in Kiev. Tretyakov had the fullest collection of such artists as: V.G. Perov, I.N. Kramskoi, Ilya Repin, Vasily Surikov, I.I. Levitan, and Valentin Serov. Aspiring to show the beginnings and development of the domestic school of art, Tretyakov began to acquire pictures by masters of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries and landmarks of Old Russian painting. He also conceived the creation of a \"Russian pantheon\" - a portrait gallery of famous Russians. He commissioned especially for it portraits of figures of domestic culture from leading masters of this genre - N.N. Ge, Kramskoi, N.V. Nevrev, Perov, Repin.  In 1870-80 Tretyakov also began to collect illustrations (471 by 1893), and in 1890 he began to collect icons. During his lifetime they were kept in his study and were not put on public display. He also had a small collection of sculpture (9 sculptures by 1893).  At first the gallery was located in Tretyakov's house in Lavrushenski pereulok. But as his collection expanded he decided to reconstruct his house to accommodate it. In 1870-1880 the house was reconstructed a number of times by the architect Kaminski.  Tretyakov wanted to transfer the gallery to the city as discreetly as possible, without any fuss; he didn't want to be in the centre of general attention and an object of gratitude. But this was not possible and he was very dissatisfied.  From 1881 his gallery became popular (by 1885 it was visited by about 30 thousand people). In 1892 Tretyakov inherited a collection of Western European painting from his brother and placed it in two halls of the western school. The collection in Tretyakov's gallery was equal in importance with the largest museums in Russia at that time, and became one of sights of Moscow. In August 1892 Tretyakov donated his collection and a private residence to Moscow. By then in the collection there were 1287 pictures and 518 graphics of the Russian school, 75 pictures and 8 figures of the West-European school, 15 sculptures and a collections of icons.  On August 15, 1893 the official opening of a museum under the name \"Pavel and Sergey Tretyakov City art gallery\" (nowadays Tretyakov Gallery) took place. By 1890 it was visited by up to 150 thousand people annually. Tretyakov continued to build up his collection, for example, in 1894 he donated a gallery of 30 pictures, 12 figures and a marble statue “The Christian martyrs“ works by M.M. Antokolski. He was also involved in studying the collection, and from 1893 he produced its catalogue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other work.", "content": "Apart from engaging in collecting, Tretyakov was active in charity. Charity for him was as natural as the creation of a national gallery.  He was an honorary member of the Society of Collectors of the Applied Arts and of the Musical Society from the dates of their foundations. He granted large amounts of money to these organizations, supporting all their educational undertakings. He supported an initiative to help the families of soldiers who died during the Crimean and Russo-Turkish War. He established grants in commercial schools in Moscow and Alexandrovskoe. He never refused monetary help to artists and others, and carefully looked after the affairs of painters who without fear entrusted their savings to him. He repeatedly lent money to his counsellor and adviser I.N. Kramskoi, and to V.G. Khudyakov, K.A. Trutovski, M.K. Klodt.  With his brother Sergey he supported the Moscow School for the Deaf, founded in 1860 by the artist Ivan Karlovich Arnold, and became its patron. In 1900 the school was renamed the Arnoldo-Tretyakov School.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Pavel Tretyakov died in December 1898, and his funeral was held at the Church of St. Nicholas in Tolmachi where he was an active parishioner. He was buried in Danilov Cemetery, but in 1948 his remains were transferred to Novodevichy Cemetery.  Tretyakov bequeathed half of his estate to charitable purposes. He provided for the financing of the gallery, and also for a shelter for the widows, juvenile children and unmarried daughters of artists who had died.  In his will he also provided large sums for the school for the deaf. He bought a big stone house with a garden for the school. 150 boys and girls lived in this house. Here they were looked after till they reached the age of 16. Tretyakov selected the best teachers, and became acquainted with the methods of study.  A minor planet 3925 Tret'yakov, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Zhuravlyova in 1977 is named after Pavel Tretyakov and his brother Sergei Mikhailovich Tretyakov (1824–1892).  His daughter Vera married the pianist and composer Alexander Siloti.. His other daughter, Lyubov, married the maritime artist, Nikolay Gritsenko.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pavel Mikhaylovich Tretyakov (; December 27, 1832 – December 16, 1898) was a Russian businessman, patron of art, collector, and philanthropist who gave his name to the Tretyakov Gallery and Tretyakov Drive in Moscow. His brother Sergei Tretyakov was also a famous patron of art and a philanthropist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974862}
{"src_title": "Beitar Illit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "Beitar Illit, (lit. Upper Beitar) is named after the ancient Jewish city of Betar, whose ruins lie away.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "According to the ARIJ, Beitar Illit was established in 1985 on land which Israel had confiscated from two nearby Palestinian villages: 3,140 dunams from Husan and 1,166 dunams from Nahalin.  It was established by a small group of young families from the religious Zionist yeshiva of Machon Meir. The first residents settled in 1990. As Beitar Illit began to grow, an influx of Haredi Jewish Bobover families came to predominate, while the original group moved on. The city is now home to many Hasidic groups, including Bobov, Boston, Boyan, Breslov, Karlin-Stolin and Slonim. The city has expanded to three adjacent hills.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Beitar Illit lies in the northern Judean Hills at about 700 m above sea level. It is located just west of the intersection of Route 60, the north–south artery which roughly follows the watershed from Nazareth through Jerusalem to Beersheba, and Route 375, which descends west into the Elah Valley to the coastal plain and Tel Aviv area. It takes about 10 minutes to get to Jerusalem; Tel Aviv is around 60 minutes away. Beitar Illit is connected to West Jerusalem by the Tunnels Highway, which passes directly underneath the Arab town of Beit Jala and allows access to Jerusalem without coming within view of Arabs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "At the end of 2003, the population was 23,000 and in 2006 it was 29,100. According to statistics from the Ministry of the Interior, the population in January 2007 was 35,000, an increase of 20% over one year. A Ministry of Interior report from July 2013 placed the population at 45,710.  With an annual birth rate of 1,800 births, Beitar Illit has the fastest population growth among the West Bank settlements. Approximately 63 percent of the population is under the age of 18, which is the highest percentage of children in any Israeli settlement or city. According to local authorities the population may reach 100,000 by 2020, based on population growth and the building of new apartments to attract more Haredim from Bnei Brak and Jerusalem.  The population of Beitar Illit is 100% Haredi. Approximately 50% of the population is Hasidic. An estimated 10 percent of the population is English-speaking. There are three English-speaking synagogues, two English-speaking kollels (one for retirees), and an English-speaking women's group. All incoming residents used to be screened by an acceptance committee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "As the population of Beitar Illit is Haredi, the schools are all Haredi schools. The city has close to 20,000 schoolchildren. Of these, approximately 6,000 are enrolled in the city's 225 preschools and daycare centers. Elementary school-age boys attend the city's 27 Talmud Torahs, and elementary school-age girls attend 18 elementary schools. Secondary education includes 21 yeshivas for boys and 11 high schools and post-high schools for girls. Married adult men study in 75 kollels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Employment.", "content": "A significant number of men work, mostly at home or in Jerusalem. Women are employed by local business process outsourcing companies that accommodate the Haredi lifestyle, such as Greenpoint, Matrix, and CityBook. In 2010, it was reported that 64.3% of working-age men and 45.8% of working-age women in Beitar Illit were unemployed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "One hundred and forty synagogues and 15 mikvehs serve the population.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Beitar Illit has been awarded the Israel Ministry of Interior's gold prize, recognizing \"responsible management and sustainable urban planning\", for eight years running. In 2002, it received the Ministry of Interior's prize for water conservation in public gardens, urban public institutions, and urban water administration. The municipal welfare department was awarded a prize and recognized by the national government as an \"outstanding department\" for its work in preventing teen dropouts.  The city is well known for its landscaping and general cleanliness. There are 94 parks and hundreds of playgrounds in the city. From 2000 to 2013, Beitar Illit earned five out of five stars in the Council for a Beautiful Israel's annual \"Beautiful Town in a Beautiful Israel\" contest, which recognizes a city's investment in environment, aesthetics, and maintenance of appearance and cleanliness. In 2005 the city won the Council for a Beautiful Israel's \"Beauty Flag\", which is awarded every five years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status under international law.", "content": "Like all settlements in the Israeli-occupied territories, Beitar Illit is considered illegal under international law, though Israel disputes this while the Trump Administration in November 2019 shifted its position declaring \"the establishment of Israeli civilian settlements in the West Bank is not \"per se\" inconsistent with international law.\" The international community considers Israeli settlements to violate the Fourth Geneva Convention's prohibition on the transfer of an occupying power's civilian population into occupied territory. The Israeli government disputes that the Fourth Geneva Convention applies to the Palestinian territories as they had not been legally held by a sovereign prior to Israel taking control of them. This view has been rejected by the International Court of Justice and the International Committee of the Red Cross.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "At an international conference in Karlsruhe in November 2010, Jawad Hasan claimed that sewage and urban runoff from Beitar Illit have contaminated the local hydrological system. The Palestinian Authority claims that sewage flows into neighboring Palestinian fields and orchards. Farmers from Wadi Fukin have complained that since the establishment of Beitar Illit in 1985, 11 natural wells have gone dry and they have suffered from overflow from the settlement's backed up sewers. The Israeli government has ordered Beitar Illit to address these sewage problems.  In 2010, the Israeli interior ministry announced plans to build 112 new apartments during a visit by U.S. vice-president Joe Biden, leading to widespread news coverage that embarrassed the Israeli government.  Beitar Illit was one of four cities named in a petition to the Israeli High Court in December 2010 alleging a pattern of discrimination against Sephardi girls in the local Haredi schools. A Beitar Illit spokesman denied the charges, stating that the percentage of Sephardi girls in the school matched the percentage of Sephardim in the settlement.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Beitar Illit (; officially Betar Illit; \"Illit\" is pronounced \"ee-leet\"; ) is an Israeli settlement organized as a city council in the Gush Etzion settlement bloc, south of Jerusalem, in the Judaean Mountains of the West Bank. Beitar Illit is one of Israel's largest and most rapidly growing settlements, and in had a population of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974863}
{"src_title": "Mathilde Bonaparte", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Trieste, Mathilde Bonaparte was raised in Florence and Rome. She was originally engaged to her first cousin, the future Napoleon III of France, but the engagement was broken following his imprisonment at Ham. She married a rich Russian nobleman, Anatole Demidov, on November 1, 1840 in Rome. Anatole was raised to the station of \"Prince\" by Grand Duke Leopold II of Tuscany shortly before the wedding to fulfill the wishes of Mathilde's father and to preserve Mathilde's station as \"Princess\". Anatole's princely title was never recognised in Russia. They had no children.  The marriage between these two strong and prominent personalities was stormy. Prince Demidoff insisted on keeping his lover, Valentine de St Aldegonde, which of course was fiercely resisted by Mathilde. In 1846, Mathilde fled the household for Paris with her new lover Émilien de Nieuwerkerke and with Anatole's jewelry. The jewelry constituted the dowry that Anatole was forced to bankroll for his father-in-law so it formed the property of Anatole.  Princess Mathilde's mother was Emperor Nicholas I of Russia's first cousin, and the emperor supported Mathilde in her clashes with her spouse, a Russian subject. As consequence, Anatole chose to live much of his remaining life outside Russia.  The terms of the separation announced by the Tribunal in Petersburg forced Anatole to pay annual alimony of 200,000 French francs. Anatole vigorously pursued the return of his property, which led Mathilde and her strong circle of literary friends to mount highly personal and unfair counter-attacks using the public media. In the end, Anatole's heirs never recovered his property since Mathilde's last will was altered towards the end of her life. Princess Mathilde lived in a mansion in Paris, where she was a prominent member of the new aristocracy during and after the Second French Empire as a hostess to men of arts and letters as a salon hostess. She disliked etiquette, but welcomed her visitors, according to Abel Hermant, with an extreme refinement of snobbery and politeness. Théophile Gautier was employed as her librarian in 1868. Referring to her uncle, Emperor Napoleon I, she once told Marcel Proust: \"If it weren't for him, I'd be selling oranges in the streets of Ajaccio.\"  At the fall of the monarchy in 1870, she lived in Belgium for a while, but soon returned to Paris. Throughout her time in France, she maintained ties with the imperial court in Saint Petersburg, her maternal cousins. In 1873, following the death of Prince Demidoff in 1870, she married the artist and poet Claudius Marcel Popelin (1825–1892). She was the only member of the Bonaparte family to stay in France after May 1886, when the French Republic expelled the princes of the former ruling dynasties. In 1896, she was invited to a ceremony at Invalides by Félix Faure at a visit of Emperor Nicholas II Russia and his wife Empress Alexandra.  She died in Paris in 1904, aged 83.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "An aged Princess Mathilde makes a brief appearance in Proust's \"À l'ombre des jeunes filles en fleurs\" (\"In the Shadow of Young Girls In Flower\"), the second volume of \"In Search of Lost Time\". She mentions that if she wants to visit les Invalides, she does not need an invitation: she has her own set of keys.  Princess Mathilde is referred to several times in Gore Vidal's novel \"1876\" as being a friend of the fictional narrator, Charles Schermerhorn Schuyler.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mathilde Laetitia Wilhelmine Bonaparte, Princesse Française, Princess of San Donato (27 May 1820 – 2 January 1904), was a French princess and salonnière. She was a daughter of Napoleon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte and his second wife, Catharina of Württemberg, daughter of King Frederick I of Württemberg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974864}
{"src_title": "Angelo Peruzzi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Peruzzi began his Serie A career with Roma in 1987. He was loaned to Hellas Verona in 1989, but was one of the two Roma players (the other being Andrea Carnevale) to be suspended for a year in October 1990 after failing a doping test because of an appetite suppressant he was taking at the time, which contained the banned substance Phentermine. His signing with Juventus in 1991 successfully revived his career and he soon surpassed Stefano Tacconi as the club's starting goalkeeper, remaining with the team until 1999, and winning the Serie A Goalkeeper of the Year Award in 1997 and 1998, as well as the Guerin d'oro in 1997. Peruzzi won three Serie A titles, a Coppa Italia, two Supercoppa Italiana titles, a UEFA Cup, a UEFA Super Cup, an Intercontinental Cup and was part of Juventus' 1996 UEFA Champions League title squad that defeated Ajax in the final on penalties, saving two in the final shoot-out. He also reached two more consecutive Champions League finals with the Turin-based club, as well as a semi-final finish during his final season with the club. Peruzzi also won a runners-up medal in the 1995 UEFA Cup final and in the 1992 Coppa Italia final, and was voted to the ESM Team of the Year during the 1996–97 and the 1997–98 seasons. Over this period, several pundits began to consider him one of the most reliable goalkeepers in the world, if not the best one, due to his consistency, with Maurizio Crosetti describing him as \"the best goalkeeper in the world\" in 1997.  Following the departure Gianluca Pagliuca, Peruzzi's perceived career rival in his position, from Internazionale to Bologna in 1999, Peruzzi left Juventus for Inter in 1999 on a 28 billion lire (€14.461 million) transfer fee, and a reported 8 billion lire pre-tax wage. Peruzzi spent one unsuccessful season with the club – despite his excellent performances –, under his former Juventus manager Marcello Lippi, finishing the league season in fourth place, and reaching the Coppa Italia final.  The following season, he transferred to Lazio for 40 billion lire (€20.658 million; in cash plus Marco Ballotta deal), and made over 200 appearances in Serie A and European competitions with the club, winning the Supercoppa Italiana in 2000 and the Coppa Italia in 2004. He kept playing at a very high level, being generally considered the best Italian goalkeeper behind Gianluigi Buffon.  Although his contract with the \"Biancocelesti\" ran until 2008, Peruzzi retired at the end of the 2006–07 season: after the 0–0 draw with Roma 29 April 2007, Peruzzi stated that he had played his last match due to the frustration of nagging injuries. However, he was put on in the final few minutes in Lazio's final home match of the season, a goalless draw against Parma on 20 May, as a goodbye to the fans. He was named the Serie A Goalkeeper of the Year for the third time in his career on 28 January 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Peruzzi was capped 31 times in 11 years with Italy, between 1995 and 2006. He was also a member of the national squad that competed at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, making two appearances during the tournament. Peruzzi made his senior debut under manager Arrigo Sacchi, in a 4–1 home win over Estonia, in an UEFA Euro 1996 qualifying match, on 25 March 1995, and he was named Italy's starting goalkeeper at Euro 1996, although Italy suffered a group-stage elimination. He was scheduled to be the starter at the 1998 FIFA World Cup under Cesare Maldini, but suffered a late injury and was replaced in the starting line-up by Gianluca Pagliuca.  After the 1998 World Cup, Maldini was replaced by Italy's former goalkeeper and record-setter Dino Zoff, who confirmed Peruzzi as first-choice goalkeeper during his first year as Italy's coach. Nonetheless, after a match against Norway in 1999, Zoff decided to give Gianluigi Buffon the starting spot, and Peruzzi, who was overtaken even by Francesco Toldo, decided not to participate in the Euro 2000 as the third goalkeeper.  Peruzzi did not play for Italy again until making a substitute appearance in a friendly against Spain on 28 April 2004, and was subsequently called up by Giovanni Trapattoni as the team's third keeper behind Buffon and Toldo at Euro 2004. In August 2005, he was the starter in two World Cup qualifiers against Scotland and Belarus, while Buffon was shelved with a shoulder injury; Peruzzi then served as second goalkeeper (behind Buffon) in the 2006 World Cup under Marcello Lippi, as Italy won the tournament for the fourth time. Even though he did not take the field, teammate Daniele De Rossi highlighted Peruzzi's important role in the squad as a key dressing room personality, due to his leadership and experience. Peruzzi retired from international football after the tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "A powerful, athletic, complete, and consistent goalkeeper – although injury-prone –, Peruzzi was renowned for his physical strength, positioning, explosive reactions, speed, and agility, in spite of his sturdy physique; he particularly excelled at quickly rushing off his line to parry or collect the ball on the ground, as well as at anticipating his opponents outside the penalty area, which made him particularly effective in teams which relied on a zonal marking defensive system with high defensive lines. Due to his modest height for a goalkeeper, he was less effective at coming out to collect crosses, and preferred to punch the ball out rather than trying to catch it, although his handling was generally reliable. While he was extremely gifted both technically and acrobatics-wise, he was an efficient goalkeeper, who performed spectacular dives only in case of strict necessity: he indeed believed that \"a great keeper must walk across the line: this way he disheartens the opposing strikers, because he seems to save shots effortlessly\". Throughout his career, he also stood out for his concentration, and for his ability to produce decisive saves even after not having been called into action for long periods of time during a match; he was also effective at stopping penalties, while he was not particularly skilled with the ball at his feet, and usually preferred to clear the ball away whenever it was passed back to him.  A precocious talent in his youth, he was regarded as one of the best goalkeepers in the world in his prime during the 1990s, but also stood out for his longevity in his later career, which enabled him to maintain a consistently high level of performances. Although he was known for his personality, leadership from the back, strong mentality, and the confidence he inspired in his teammates throughout his career, he had quite a kind, calm and reserved character off the pitch, which, although made him very popular with his teammates, led some pundits to accuse him of not being as effective at directing his back-line.  Because of his stocky physique, Peruzzi was given the nicknames \"Tyson\" in reference to the boxer Mike Tyson's similarly powerful build, and \"The Boar\" (\"Cinghialone,\" in Italian).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "After his retirement, Peruzzi worked in the Italy national team staff as one of Marcello Lippi's collaborators. He was then appointed Ciro Ferrara's assistant on the Italy under-21 team and in 2012 followed him in joining Sampdoria in Serie A.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Juventus  Lazio", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Italy", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Angelo Peruzzi (; born 16 February 1970) is an Italian football coach and former goalkeeper, and a three-time winner of the Serie A Goalkeeper of the Year award. He is currently team manager for Lazio.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974865}
{"src_title": "Pierre Cambronne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Military career.", "content": "Cambronne was born in Nantes (Loire-Atlantique). He joined the Grenadiers as a volunteer in 1792, serving under Charles François Dumouriez in Belgium, in the Vendée, took part in the battle of Quiberon, then in the expedition to Ireland under Hoche in 1796. He then joined the Army of the Alps under André Masséna, where he was promoted to command of a grenadier company at the Battle of Zurich (1799).  In 1800, he commanded a company under Latour d'Auvergne, and later succeeded him as First Grenadier of France. He was made a Colonel at the Battle of Jena in 1806, given command of the 3rd Regiment of the Voltigeurs of the Guard in 1810, and was made a Baron the same year. (\"Voltigeur\", a French word meaning \"vaulter\" or \"leaper\", was a designation given to elite light infantry units in the French Army, who acted as advance units of the main column.)  Cambronne then fought in Spain, then joined La Grande Armée. In Russia he commanded the 3rd Regiment of Voltigeurs of the Guard, and took part in the battles of Bautzen, Dresden, and Leipzig, before being promoted to General.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The hundred days and Waterloo.", "content": "He became major of the Imperial Guard in 1814, and accompanied Napoléon into exile to the island of Elba, where he was a military commander. He then returned with Napoléon to France on 1 March 1815 for the Hundred Days, capturing the fortress of Sisteron (5 March), and was made a Count by Napoléon when they arrived at Paris. Cambronne was seriously wounded at the Battle of Waterloo and was taken prisoner by the British. He subsequently married the nurse who cared for him.  The exact circumstances of his surrender to the British are disputed. At the battle's conclusion, Cambronne was commanding the last of the Old Guard when General Colville called on him to surrender. According to a journalist named Rougement, Cambronne replied: \"\"La garde meurt mais ne se rend pas!\"\" (\"The Guard dies but does not surrender!\"). These words were often repeated and put on the base of a statue of Cambronne in Nantes after his death.  Other sources reported that Colville insisted and ultimately Cambronne replied with one word: \"\"Merde!\"\" (literally, \"Shit!\", figuratively, \"Go to hell!\") This version of the reply became famous in its own right, becoming known as \"le mot de Cambronne\" (\"the word of Cambronne\") and repeated in Victor Hugo's account of Waterloo in his novel \"Les Misérables\" and in Edmond Rostand's play \"L'Aiglon\". The name Cambronne was later used as a polite euphemism (\"What a load of old Cambronne!\") and sometimes even as a verb, \"\"cambronniser\"\".  Cambronne always denied both Rougement's account and the one-word response, stating that he could not have said such a thing and remained alive. A series of letters to \"The Times\" claimed that British Colonel Hugh Halkett, commanding the 3rd Hanoverian Brigade, captured Cambronne before he made any reply.  \"The Guard dies...\" statement has also been ascribed to General Claude-Etienne Michel. In July 1845 the sons of General Michel requested a royal decree stating that the words attributed to General Cambronne had in fact been said by their father, producing a number of witnesses and published historical works as evidence. The attribution was left undecided.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further career.", "content": "He was tried for treason in France, but well defended by the royalist Antoine Pierre Berryer, he was acquitted on 26 April 1816. He later married Mary Osburn, the Scottish nurse who had cared for him after Waterloo.  In 1820, Louis XVIII made him Commandant at Lille with the rank of brigadier, and made him a viscount. He retired to his birthplace in 1823, dying there in 1842. A statue of Cambronne was erected in Nantes in 1848, and a square in Paris, the \"Place Cambronne\", also commemorates him.  He was buried in Cemetery Miséricorde, Nantes.  He makes a fictional appearance in C. S. Forester's Hornblower short story \"St. Elizabeth of Hungary\". Hornblower discovers Cambronne in the West Indies on a rather surprising errand. Cambronne's exact words at Waterloo are discussed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Jacques Étienne Cambronne, later Pierre, 1st Viscount Cambronne (26 December 1770 – 29 January 1842), was a general of the First French Empire. A main strategist of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars, he was wounded at the Battle of Waterloo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974866}
{"src_title": "Fort George, Highland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The first Fort George.", "content": "The first Fort George was built in 1727 in Inverness; it was a large fortress capable of housing 400 troops on a hill beside the River Ness, on the site of (and incorporating portions of) the medieval castle which had been rebuilt as a citadel by Oliver Cromwell but later abandoned. The first commanding officer of the original Fort George was Sir Robert Munro, 6th Baronet, Colonel of the 42nd Royal Highlanders (Black Watch) and chief of the Highland Clan Munro.  During the 1745 rising the fort was seized by the Jacobites, who had it blown up in 1746 to prevent the Hanoverians from using it as a base. In 1747 Colonel William Skinner, the King's Military Engineer for North Britain, let a contract to rebuild the fortress at a new location.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Siting and construction.", "content": "The site chosen was a level spit of land at Ardersier, about 11 miles (18 km) northeast of Inverness, which forms a promontory jutting into the Moray Firth and controls the sea approach to Inverness. With its own harbour below the walls, the fort could be supplied by sea in the event of a siege.  Work began in 1748, with Colonel Skinner in charge, and the Adam brothers, John, Robert and later James, acting as contractors, overseeing around 1,000 soldiers who provided labour and defended the site against attack. By 1757 the main defences were in place, and Fort George was finally completed in 1769. The original budget was £92,673 19s 1d, but the final cost was more than £200,000, a vast figure at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fortifications.", "content": "The fortifications form an example of defence in depth. The main walls are stone-faced, in plan faceted and angled with projecting bastions and redoubts so that every wall face is covered by fire from guns sited on top of other walls. The walls are many yards wide and grassed over, on top of barrel-vaulted casemates which form underground bunkers designed to protect the entire garrison from artillery fire. The approach to the fortress from the landward side is across a wide area of loose shingle which creates a protective barrier.  Sloping grassy banks designed to absorb artillery shells all but hide the fort from view. The entrance is reached via a ravelin, a free-standing defensive structure incorporating a guardhouse and completely exposed to fire from the main fort, then by a raised wooden walkway, complete with drawbridge, bridging across a wide ditch set between heavily defended bastions. The ditch forms a wide killing ground openly exposed to gunfire from these walls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational use.", "content": "Following the Childers Reforms, the 72nd (Highland) Regiment of Foot and the 78th (Highlanders) Regiment of Foot amalgamated to form the Seaforth Highlanders with its depot in the barracks in 1881. In 1961 the regiment amalgamated with the Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders to form the Queen's Own Highlanders (Seaforth and Camerons): the new regiment formed its depot at Fort George at that time. The barracks became the home of the Black Watch, 3rd Battalion, Royal Regiment of Scotland in 2007.  In November 2016 the Ministry of Defence announced that the site would close in 2032, with Defence Minister Sir Michael Fallon commenting that it was no longer needed because the Highland rebellions are over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visitor access.", "content": "The barracks are still in use as a military establishment, but much of the site is open to the public (entrance charge). Historic Environment Scotland use part of one of the barracks to display reconstructions of life in the early days of the fort, and the Grand Magazine displays the Seafield Collection of Arms as well as forming a stage for actors recreating the lives and stories of soldiers in the 18th century. The site received 71,906 visitors during 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Highlanders' Museum (Queen's Own Highlanders Collection).", "content": "The former Lieutenant Governors’ House is home to the Highlanders' Museum, the official regimental museum of the Queen's Own Highlanders and Lovat Scouts. The exhibits include uniforms, weapons, medals, First World War memorial plaques known as \"death pennies\", photographs, paintings, memorabilia and regimental regalia. Displays include the history of the regiments, their links to the clans, the Highland charge, Sergeant Alexander Edwards and other notable regimental members, and the regiments' activities in different conflicts. The regimental Chapel is also open to visitors, and features many regimental colours and memorials.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Fort George (Gaelic: or, the latter meaning literally \"the garrison\"), is a large 18th-century fortress near Ardersier, to the north-east of Inverness in the Highland council area of Scotland. It was built to control the Scottish Highlands in the aftermath of the Jacobite rising of 1745, replacing a \"Fort George\" in Inverness constructed after the 1715 Jacobite rising to control the area. The current fortress has never been attacked and has remained in continuous use as a garrison.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974867}
{"src_title": "Keyhole Markup Language", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "The KML file specifies a set of features (place marks, images, polygons, 3D models, textual descriptions, etc.) that can be displayed on maps in geospatial software implementing the KML encoding. Each place always has a longitude and a latitude. Other data can make the view more specific, such as tilt, heading, altitude, which together define a \"camera view\" along with a timestamp or timespan. KML shares some of the same structural grammar as Geography Markup Language (GML). Some KML information cannot be viewed in Google Maps or Mobile.  KML files are very often distributed in KMZ files, which are zipped KML files with a.kmz extension. The contents of a KMZ file are a single root KML document (notionally \"doc.kml\") and optionally any overlays, images, icons, and COLLADA 3D models referenced in the KML including network-linked KML files. The root KML document by convention is a file named \"doc.kml\" at the root directory level, which is the file loaded upon opening. By convention the root KML document is at root level and referenced files are in subdirectories (e.g. images for overlay images).  An example KML document is: <?xml version=\"1.0\" encoding=\"UTF-8\"?> <kml xmlns=\"http://www.opengis.net/kml/2.2\"> <Document> <Placemark> </Placemark> </Document> </kml> The MIME type associated with KML is \"application/vnd.google-earth.kml+xml\"; the MIME type associated with KMZ is \"application/vnd.google-earth.kmz\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geodetic reference systems in KML.", "content": "For its reference system, KML uses 3D geographic coordinates: longitude, latitude and altitude, in that order, with negative values for west, south and below mean sea level if the altitude data is available. The longitude, latitude components (decimal degrees) are as defined by the World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84). The vertical component (altitude) is measured in meters from the WGS84 EGM96 Geoid vertical datum. If altitude is omitted from a coordinate string, e.g. (-77.03647, 38.89763) then the default value of 0 (approximately sea level) is assumed for the altitude component, i.e. (-77.03647, 38.89763, 0).  A formal definition of the coordinate reference system (encoded as GML) used by KML is contained in the OGC KML 2.2 Specification. This definition references well-known EPSG CRS components.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "OGC standard process.", "content": "The KML 2.2 specification was submitted to the Open Geospatial Consortium to assure its status as an open standard for all geobrowsers. In November 2007 a new KML 2.2 Standards Working Group was established within OGC to formalize KML 2.2 as an OGC standard. Comments were sought on the proposed standard until January 4, 2008, and it became an official OGC standard on April 14, 2008.  The OGC KML Standards Working Group finished working on change requests to KML 2.2 and incorporated accepted changes into the KML 2.3 standard. The official OGC KML 2.3 standard was published in August 4, 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Keyhole Markup Language (KML) is an XML notation for expressing geographic annotation and visualization within two-dimensional maps and three-dimensional Earth browsers. KML was developed for use with Google Earth, which was originally named Keyhole Earth Viewer. It was created by Keyhole, Inc, which was acquired by Google in 2004. KML became an international standard of the Open Geospatial Consortium in 2008. Google Earth was the first program able to view and graphically edit KML files, but other projects such as Marble have added KML support.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974868}
{"src_title": "Jarosław Kaczyński", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kaczyński was born on 18 June 1949, the identical twin brother of Lech Kaczyński. They were born in Warsaw. His father was Raymund Kaczyński, an engineer who served as a soldier in the Armia Krajowa in World War II, and his mother was Jadwiga Kaczyńska, a philologist at the Polish Academy of Sciences. As children, Kaczyński starred with his brother in the 1962 Polish film \"The Two Who Stole the Moon\" (), based on a popular children's story by Kornel Makuszyński.  He studied law and administration of Warsaw University before completing a doctorate in law in 1976. Kaczyński was the executive editor of the \"Tygodnik Solidarność\" weekly magazine from 1989 to 1991.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1990s.", "content": "In 1991, he created the centrist, Christian democratic Centre Agreement party and later became its chairman, remaining in the role until 1998. In the years 1991 to 1993 and since 1997, Kaczyński was a member of the Sejm. In the same year, he worked under direction of the president of Poland, Lech Wałęsa, as the head of his presidential chancellery. Wałęsa fired Kaczyński, who then led the movement against him. During this time an effigy of Wałęsa was burned at a protest organized by Kaczyński.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2005 elections.", "content": "Kaczyński was the Law and Justice prime ministerial candidate in the September 2005 Polish parliamentary election. However, when the party emerged as winner of the election, he pledged that he would not take the position, expecting that his nomination would reduce the chances of his brother Lech Kaczyński, who was a candidate for the October presidential election. Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz was appointed prime minister.  In the following months, he was a frontbench MP and the leader of his party. He was said to have enormous influence on the prime minister's decision-making process. Kaczyński was described as the architect of the coalition with the populist Self-Defense of the Republic of Poland () and the far-right League of Polish Families party.  Critics have accused the first PiS government of splitting the country over religious and cultural issues and picking \"needless fights with Germany and the European Union\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prime minister.", "content": "Following reports of a rift between Kaczyński and Marcinkiewicz, the latter resigned on 7 July 2006. Kaczyński was appointed prime minister by his brother, the president, Lech Kaczyński, on 10 July, and sworn in on 14 July, following the formation of a cabinet and a confidence vote in the Sejm. They were the first pair of brothers in the world to serve as president and prime minister of a country and the only twin brothers to have done so.  At the request of his government, taxes were reduced. Kaczyński controversially initiated a nationwide program (\"lustracja\") which required thousands of public employees, teachers, and journalists to formally declare whether or not they had collaborated with the security services of the former communist regime. Kaczyński's government was criticised both domestically and abroad for poor foreign relationships with Germany and Russia.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2007 parliamentary election.", "content": "Despite gaining votes, Law and Justice lost the parliamentary election on 21 October 2007, finishing a distant second behind the pro-European Christian-democratic and conservative liberal party Civic Platform. Kaczyński was succeeded as prime minister by Donald Tusk, but remained chairman of Law and Justice and became leader of the opposition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010 presidential election.", "content": "Following the death of his brother, Jarosław announced that he would run for president against Bronisław Komorowski in the election held on 20 June 2010. Joanna Kluzik-Rostkowska ran his electoral campaign staff and the spokesperson was Paweł Poncyljusz. Kaczyński appeared to soften his image during the campaign in order to win centrist voters. The campaign's motto was \"Poland Comes First\". He polled 36.5% of the vote in the first round, against the acting president Bronisław Komorowski's 41.5%. In the second round he lost with 47.0% of the votee to Komorowski's 53.0%.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to power.", "content": "In order to win over moderate voters, rather than running as PiS's candidate for president or prime minister, Kaczyński put forward more moderate PiS members in the 2015 presidential and parliamentary elections. Andrzej Duda ran as PiS's presidential candidate, while Beata Szydło was its candidate for prime minister. PiS won both elections. In the parliamentary election, PiS became the first party to win an outright majority since the end of communism. But despite being a popular leader among PiS's base, he himself remains unpopular among the wider public, with some polls showing that more Poles think Kaczyński is not trustworthy compared to Duda or Szydło.  In 2017, \"Politico\" described him as the de facto ruler of Poland and as one of the most influential politicians in Poland. On 19 November 2017, Donald Tusk attacked Kaczyński's leadership by claiming it played into the Kremlin's hands and endangered the independence of Poland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political views.", "content": "Kaczyński's project is said to consist of a conservative \"moral revolution\" culminating in the creation of a \"fourth republic\" drawing a radical break from the compromises surrounding the fall of communism in Poland. Kaczyński has been labelled as \"polarizing\". He opposes LGBT rights and has described them as a threat to Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Kaczyński resides in Warsaw. He lived with his ailing mother until her hospitalization. Kaczyński owns no computer and is said to have opened his first bank account only in 2009.  In 2006, the Polish newspaper \"Rzeczpospolita\" reported on communist-era secret service files which documented a discussion on his sexuality. In the files, a former SB (Służba Bezpieczeństwa) officer speculated on Kaczyński's sexual orientation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The main character of the political satire web series \"The Chairman's Ear\", chairman Jarosław (depicted by series creator Robert Górski), is modeled on Kaczyński.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jarosław Aleksander Kaczyński (; born 18 June 1949) is a Polish politician and lawyer who is currently serving as leader of the Law and Justice party (known by its Polish acronym PiS), which he co-founded in 2001 with his twin brother, Lech Kaczyński, who served as president of Poland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974869}
{"src_title": "Boris Diaw", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Professional basketball career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pau-Orthez (2001–2003).", "content": "From 2001 to 2003, Diaw played for Pau-Orthez of the LNB Pro A, a French professional basketball league. In 2002, he competed in the league's All-Star game and the Slam Dunk contest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Atlanta Hawks (2003–2005).", "content": "Diaw was selected by the Atlanta Hawks with the 21st overall pick in the 2003 NBA draft. On July 10, 2003, he signed a multi-year deal with the Hawks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phoenix Suns (2005–2008).", "content": "In August 2005, he was traded with two future first round picks to the Phoenix Suns in exchange for future teammate Joe Johnson.  In Phoenix, Diaw blossomed into an all-round player, playing any position from center to point guard and garnered the nickname \"3D\" because of his multidimensional play (his motto being \"drive, dish, defend\") and the combination of his number (3) and surname. Diaw averaged 13.3 points, 6.9 rebounds, 6.2 assists and 1.0 blocks per game on 52.6% field goal shooting and 73.1% from the free throw line in the 2005–06 season where he played both forward positions and then center after injuries to Amar'e Stoudemire and Kurt Thomas.  During the 2006 NBA playoffs, as the Suns' starting center, Diaw averaged 18.7 points, 6.7 rebounds, 5.2 assists and 1.1 blocks per game. In Game 1 of the 2006 Western Conference Finals against the Dallas Mavericks, Diaw scored a career-high 34 points, including the game-winner with 0.5 seconds remaining in regulation, to help the Suns to a 121–118 victory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Charlotte Bobcats (2008–2012).", "content": "On December 10, 2008, Diaw, along with Raja Bell and Sean Singletary, was traded to the Charlotte Bobcats in exchange for Jason Richardson and Jared Dudley.  On September 28, 2011, Diaw signed with JSA Bordeaux of France for the duration the 2011 NBA lockout. In December 2011, he returned to the Charlotte Bobcats.  On March 21, 2012, Diaw was waived by the Bobcats.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "San Antonio Spurs (2012–2016).", "content": "Two days later, he signed with the San Antonio Spurs for the rest of the season.  On July 12, 2012, Diaw re-signed with the Spurs to a reported two-year, $9.2 million deal. Diaw helped the Spurs reach the 2013 NBA Finals where they faced the Miami Heat. San Antonio lost the series in seven games.  On June 15, 2014, Diaw won his first NBA championship after the Spurs defeated the Miami Heat 4–1 in the 2014 NBA Finals. He was inserted into the starting lineup beginning with Game 3, and he led all players in the series in total assists (29) and was second in total rebounds (43) behind teammate Tim Duncan (50). Diaw averaged 35 minutes per game in the Finals, an increase of over 10 minutes from the regular season.  On July 15, 2014, Diaw re-signed with the Spurs to a reported three-year, $22 million contract.  On August 1, 2015, Diaw played for Team Africa at the 2015 NBA Africa exhibition game.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Utah Jazz (2016–2017).", "content": "On July 8, 2016, Diaw was traded, along with a 2022 second-round pick and cash considerations, to the Utah Jazz in exchange for the rights to Olivier Hanlan. In early November 2016, Diaw missed eight games with a right leg contusion. On July 13, 2017, he was waived by the Jazz.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Levallois Metropolitans (2017–2018).", "content": "On September 17, 2017, Diaw signed with the Levallois Metropolitans, a French team, for the 2017–18 season. With Levallois, he played in the LNB Pro A and EuroCup. He averaged 11.1 points, 6.4 rebounds in 31.2 minutes per game in 31 Pro A games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "Diaw announced his retirement via his Twitter account on September 6, 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National team career.", "content": "In 2000, Diaw won the FIBA Europe Under-18 Championship with the French junior national team. In July 2006, Diaw was named the captain of the senior men's French national basketball team. He won the bronze medal at the EuroBasket 2005.  Diaw led the French team at the 2006 FIBA World Championship, with 107 points and 22 assists, in 9 games. In 2013, Diaw and the French team won the gold medal at the EuroBasket tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Player profile.", "content": "At 6'8\" and 250 lbs, Diaw was a natural forward. However, his passing skills and ability to score inside earned him a reputation for being capable of playing all positions well. Diaw began the 2005–06 season as a reserve, substituted (effectively) at point guard when starting point guard Steve Nash was injured, started at small forward, and was finally moved to center when all three Suns centers were injured. Diaw's breakout season (13.3 points, 6.9 rebounds and 6.2 assists per game) was recognized with the Most Improved Player Award. Diaw was lauded for his unselfish but assertive play.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career as basketball executive.", "content": "In 2009, Diaw became vice-president and shareholder of the JSA Bordeaux basketball club in his native France and took over as president one year later. In 2017, he stepped down as president of the club.  On July 4, 2019, Diaw was announced as the new president of Metropolitans 92, succeeding Jean-Pierre Aubry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Diaw's mother, Élisabeth Riffiod, is regarded as one of the best centers in French women's basketball history. She is a member of the French Basketball Hall of Fame. Diaw's father, Issa Diaw, is a former Senegalese high jump champion. Diaw has a half-brother, Paco Diaw, who was a guard at Georgia Tech, but transferred to Lee University, a small NAIA school in the Southern States Athletic Conference. His other brother, Martin Diaw, played basketball for Division II's California University of Pennsylvania.  Diaw and fellow French NBA star and Spurs teammate Tony Parker are long-time friends and former roommates. Diaw was the best man at Parker's wedding to actress Eva Longoria.  In 2005, Diaw established a non-profit foundation, Babac'Ards, to organize sports activities for Senegalese youth and aid \"developmental education\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Boris Babacar Diaw-Riffiod (born April 16, 1982), better known as Boris Diaw, is a French retired professional basketball player. Diaw, who began his professional career in Pro A, returned to that league after 14 seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played mostly at the power forward position. In 2006, Diaw was named the NBA's Most Improved Player as a member of the Phoenix Suns. He won an NBA championship with the San Antonio Spurs in 2014.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974870}
{"src_title": "Esprit Holdings", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first joint fashion line established by Susie and Doug Tompkins (who had previously founded The North Face) was sold from a VW bus and their headquarters was the Tompkins' apartment in San Francisco. Susie assumed the creative and Doug Tompkins the financial role in the business. At that time ( mid-60's ) their sales success was due to their original \"Big Mama\", Helene W. Japhe, who agreed to represent them exclusively as their sales agent, taking their line \"on the road\" and having great success. After Helene Japhe's departure from the company and San Francisco, the business continued to flourish under more professional administration and management until its US downturn and eventual sale to a Hong Kong firm.  In 1979, the Esprit logo was developed by John Casado.  The 1980s saw the introduction of the \"Real People Campaign\", which was shot by photographer Oliviero Toscani, using architects and designers for its projects, starting with Italian Ettore Sottsass, who developed the first Esprit Europe Headquarters in Düsseldorf. He established the overall concept of the stores in the style of the Memphis design movement. Architects and designers included Antonio Citterio and Norman Foster.  In February 2012, Esprit announced that it planned to close all retail stores in North America because they were not competitive in this market and were losing money.  In December 2015, Esprit announced it would be returning to the Canadian market. Since the announcement, Esprit has opened two stores, one at Metrotown in Metro Vancouver, and one at West Edmonton Mall, with plans to open a third store in fall 2016, in Mississauga.  In May 2018, it was announced that Esprit will close all 67 stores in New Zealand and Australia.  By the end of 2019, Esprit was operating 389 retail stores and about 4,800 wholesale distribution points.  In April 2020, Espirit announced to close all 56 stores in Asia (Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia and Macau). Since 7 April 2020, all Esprit stores in Singapore were closed and Esprit already exited Singapore's market, with the remaining countries such as Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia and Macau to all follow suit by 30 June 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Product lines.", "content": "Esprit's products include casual sportswear and \"collection\" business clothing for both men and women; \"de.corp\" urban casual clothing for young women; \"kids\" clothing for children 7 to 14 years old; sports wear including skiwear, fitness fashion and streetwear; accessories such as bags; shoes; and bodywear, day and night underwear and swimwear for men, women and children.  In 1998, the \"edc\" of young people's clothing was founded.  Since 1990, Esprit has grown through licensees. More than 30 license holders include Coty/Lancaster (scents) and Falke (socks and stockings). Under the name \"Esprit timewear + jewel\", Egana Holdings Ltd. produces watches and jewellery.  Esprit home sells furniture, carpets, wallpaper, lighting, living accessories, home textiles and bathrooms; Esprit kids’ world sells maternity wear, toys, buggies and nursery furniture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Company.", "content": "In the 2018/2019 business year, Esprit Holdings Limited reported worldwide sales of €1.5 billion.  The Group operates more than 429 directly managed retail stores worldwide and distributes its products via more than 4,900 wholesale locations around the globe. The company has more than 255,000 square metres of sales area in more than 40 countries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Esprit Holdings Limited () is a publicly owned manufacturer of clothing, footwear, accessories, jewellery and housewares under the Esprit label. The company is headquartered in Kowloon, Hong Kong, and Ratingen (near Düsseldorf), Germany. In the 2018–2019 business year, Esprit generated a worldwide sales of around €1.5 billion (as of 30 June 2019). Esprit operates 429 retail stores worldwide and distributes products to more than 4,900 wholesale locations around the globe. Esprit has more than 255,000 square meters of retail space in 40 countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974871}
{"src_title": "Dur-Sharrukin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Sargon II ruled from 722 to 705 BC. The demands for timber and other materials and craftsmen, who came from as far as coastal Phoenicia, are documented in contemporary Assyrian letters. The debts of construction workers were nullified in order to attract a sufficient labour force. The land in the environs of the town was taken under cultivation, and olive groves were planted to increase Assyria's deficient oil-production. The great city was entirely built in the decade preceding 706 BC, when the court moved to Dur-Sharrukin, although it was not completely finished yet. Sargon was killed during a battle in 705. After his unexpected death his son and successor Sennacherib abandoned the project, and relocated the capital with its administration to the city of Nineveh, 20 km south. The city was never completed and it was finally abandoned a century later when the Assyrian empire fell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Destruction by ISIL.", "content": "On 8 March 2015 the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant reportedly started the plunder and demolition of Dur-Sharrukin, according to the Kurdish official from Mosul Saeed Mamuzini. The Iraqi Tourism and Antiquities Ministry launched the related investigation on the same day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The town was of rectangular layout and measured 1758.6 by 1635 metres. The enclosed area comprised 3 square kilometres, or 288 hectares. The length of the walls was 16280 Assyrian units, which according to Sargon himself corresponded to the numerical value of his name. The city walls were massive and 157 towers protected its sides. Seven gates entered the city from all directions. A walled terrace contained temples and the royal palace. The main temples were dedicated to the gods Nabu, Shamash and Sin, while Adad, Ningal and Ninurta had smaller shrines. A temple tower, ziggurat, was also constructed. The palace was adorned with sculptures and wall reliefs, and the gates were flanked with winged-bull \"shedu\" statues weighing up to 40 tons. Sargon supposedly lost at least one of these winged bulls in the river.  In addition to the great city, there was a royal hunting park and a garden that included \"all the aromatic plants of Hatti and the fruit-trees of every mountain\", a \"record of power and conquest\", as Robin Lane Fox has observed. Surviving correspondence mentions the moving of thousands of young fruit trees, quinces, almonds, apples and medlars. \"On the central canal of Sargon's garden stood a pillared pleasure-pavilion which looked up to a great topographic creation: a man-made Garden Mound. This Mound was planted with cedars and cypresses and was modelled after a foreign landscape, the Amanus mountains in north Syria, which had so amazed the Assyrian kings. In their flat palace-gardens they built a replica of what they had encountered.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "Dur-Sharrukin is roughly a square with a border marked by a city wall 24 meters thick with a stone foundation pierced by seven massive gates. A mound in the northeast section marks the location of the palace of Sargon II. At the time of its construction, the village on the site was named Maganuba. The site was first noticed by the French Consul General at Mosul, Paul-Émile Botta in 1842. Botta believed, however, that Khorsabad was the site of biblical Nineveh. The site was excavated by Botta in 1842-44, joined in the later stages by artist Eugène Flandin. Victor Place resumed the excavations from 1852 to 1855.  A significant number of the items recovered by the French at Dur-Sharrukin were lost in two river shipping incidents. In 1853, Place attempted to move two 30-ton statues and other material to Paris from Khorsabad on a large boat and four rafts. All of the vessels except two of the rafts were scuttled by pirates. In 1855, Place and Jules Oppert attempted to transport the remaining finds from Dur-Sharrukin, as well as material from other sites being worked by the French, mainly Nimrud. Almost all of the collection, over 200 crates, was lost in the river. Surviving artifacts from this excavation were taken to the Louvre in Paris.  The site of Khorsabad was excavated 1928–1935 by American archaeologists from the Oriental Institute in Chicago. Work in the first season was led by Edward Chiera and concentrated on the palace area. A colossal bull estimated to weigh 40 tons was uncovered outside the throne room. It was found split into three large fragments. The torso alone weighed about 20 tons. This was shipped to Chicago. The preparation and shipment of the bull back to the Oriental Institute was incredibly arduous. The remaining seasons were led by Gordon Loud and Hamilton Darby. Their work examined one of the city gates, continued work at the palace, and excavated extensively at the palace's temple complex. Since Dur-Sharrukin was a single-period site that was evacuated in an orderly manner after the death of Sargon II, few individual objects were found. The primary discoveries from Khorsabad shed light on Assyrian art and architecture.  In 1957, archaeologists from the Iraqi Department Antiquities, led by Fuad Safar excavated at the site, uncovering the temple of Sibitti.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dur-Sharrukin (\"Fortress of Sargon\";, Syriac: ܕܘܪ ܫܪܘ ܘܟܢ), present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of Sargon II of Assyria. Khorsabad is a village in northern Iraq, 15 km northeast of Mosul. The great city was entirely built in the decade preceding 706 BC. After the unexpected death of Sargon in battle, the capital was shifted 20 km south to Nineveh.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974872}
{"src_title": "Thomas Percy (bishop of Dromore)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born as Thomas Percy in Bridgnorth, the son of Arthur Lowe Percy a grocer and farmer at Shifnal who sent Thomas to Christ Church, Oxford in 1746 following an education firstly at Bridgnorth Grammar School followed by nearby Adams' Grammar School in local Newport. He graduated in 1750 and proceeded M.A. in 1753. In the latter year he was appointed to the vicarage of Easton Maudit, Northamptonshire, and three years later was instituted to the rectory of Wilby in the same county, benefices which he retained until 1782. In 1759 he married Anne, daughter of Barton Gutterridge.  Dr Percy's first work, 'Hao Kiou Choaan, or The Pleasing History', was published in 1761. This is a heavily revised and annotated version of a manuscript translation of the \"Haoqiu zhuan\" (好逑傳), and is the first full publication in English of a Chinese novel. The following year, he published a two-volume collection of sinological essays (mostly translations) entitled 'Miscellaneous Pieces Relating to the Chinese.' In 1763, he published \"Five Pieces of Runic Poetry\", translated from the Icelandic. The same year, he also edited the Earl of Surrey's poems with an essay on early blank verse, translated the Song of Solomon, and published a key to the New Testament. His \"Northern Antiquities\" (1770) is a translation from the French of Paul Henri Mallet. His edition of the 'Household Book' of the Earl of Northumberland (1770) (\"The Regulations and Establishment of the Household of Henry Algernon Percy, the Fifth Earl of Northumberland, at his Castles of Wresill and Lekinfield in Yorkshire. Begun anno domini M.DXII\") is of the greatest value for the illustrations of domestic life in England at that period.  These works are of little estimation when compared with the \"Reliques of Ancient English Poetry\" (1765). In the 1760s, he obtained a manuscript of ballads (the Percy Folio) from a source in Northumberland. He had in mind the idea of writing a history of the Percy family of the peerage (the Dukes of Northumberland), and he had sought materials of local interest. He had sought out old tales from near Alnwick, the ancestral home of the Northumberland Percy family, and he had come across many ballad tales.  In 1763, Percy, aiming for the market that \"Ossian\" had opened for \"ancient poetry\" (see James MacPherson), published \"Five Pieces of Runic Poetry\" from Icelandic, which he translated and \"improved.\"  Percy was a friend of Samuel Johnson, Joseph and Thomas Warton, and James Boswell. In 1764, Dr Johnson and others encouraged Percy to preserve the poetry he was finding at home. Percy therefore took the \"ballad\" material he had from his folio and began searching for more ballads, in particular. He wanted to collect material from the border areas, near Scotland. In 1765, he published the \"Reliques\" to great success.  Appointed a chaplain to the king in 1769, Percy was formally admitted to Emmanuel College, Cambridge that year, and received a doctorate of divinity from Cambridge in 1770.  Still not having secured an adequate living, Thomas Percy continued with his project of commemorating the Alnwick area, and so he composed his own ballad poem on Warkworth Castle, then a ruin, which the Dukes of Northumberland controlled and which the Duchess of Northumberland favored for its sublime views. Combining the vogue for the \"Churchyard Poets\" and the ballad vogue that he himself had set in motion, Thomas Percy wrote \"The Hermit of Warkworth\" in 1771. Samuel Johnson famously composed three ex tempore parodies of this verse in the 1780s. When an admirer too often told Johnson of the beautiful \"simplicity\" of the ballad verse form, Johnson pointed out that the line between simplicity and simple mindedness is narrow: just remove the sense. He then demonstrated: Thomas Percy was angered by the parody, but Hester Thrale says that he soon came to his senses and realized that Johnson was satirizing the form, and not the poem.  Soon after, he said,  This extemporized parody was written down by Boswell and others. It may have been aimed less at Percy than at the ballads that were then appearing nearly daily on every subject.  Percy carried out most of the literary work for which he is now remembered at Easton Maudit. When he became famous, he was made domestic chaplain to the Duke and Duchess of Northumberland, and was tempted into the belief that he belonged to the illustrious house of Percy. Through his patron's influence he became Dean of Carlisle Cathedral in 1778 and was ordained as Bishop of Dromore in County Down in 1782.  His wife died before him in 1806; the bishop, blind but otherwise in sound health, lived another five years. Both were buried in the transept which Percy had added to Dromore Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary work.", "content": "The \"Reliques of Ancient English Poetry\" set the stage not only for Robert Burns, but also for Wordsworth and Coleridge's \"Lyrical Ballads.\" The book is based on an old manuscript collection of poetry, which Percy claimed to have rescued in Humphrey Pitt's house at Shifnal, Shropshire, \"from the hands of the housemaid who was about to light the fire with it.\" The manuscript was edited in its complete form by JW Hales and FJ Furnivall in 1867-1868. This manuscript provides the core of the work but many other ballads were found and included, some by Percy's friends Johnson, William Shenstone, Thomas Warton, and some from a similar collection made by Samuel Pepys.  Percy \"improved\" 35 of the 46 ballads he took from the Folio. In the case of The Beggar's daughter of Bednal Green (Bethnal Green), he added the historical character of Simon de Montfort, Earl of Evesham. In this version the ballad became so popular that it was used in two plays, an anonymous novel, operas by Thomas Arne and Geoffrey Bush, and Carl Loewe's ballad \"Der Bettlers Tochter von Bednall Green\". A fuller account of the history of the ballad can be found in \"The Green\" by A. J. Robinson and D. H. B. Chesshyre.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas Percy (13 April 1729 – 30 September 1811) was Bishop of Dromore, County Down, Ireland. Before being made bishop, he was chaplain to George III of the United Kingdom. Percy's greatest contribution is considered to be his \"Reliques of Ancient English Poetry\" (1765), the first of the great ballad collections, which was the one work most responsible for the ballad revival in English poetry that was a significant part of the Romantic movement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974873}
{"src_title": "Italian Navy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Before and during World War II.", "content": "The \"Regia Marina\" was formed on March 17, 1861, after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy. The Italian Navy assumed its present name after the Italian monarchy was abolished following a popular referendum held on June 2, 1946.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After World War II.", "content": "At the end of its five years involvement in World War II, Italy was a devastated nation. After the end of hostilities the \"Regia Marina\", which at the beginning of the war was the fourth largest navy in the world with a mix of modernised and new battleships, started a long and complex rebuilding process. The important combat contributions of the Italian naval forces after the signing of the armistice with the Allies on September 8, 1943, and the subsequent cooperation agreement on September 23, 1943, left the Regia Marina in a poor condition, with much of its infrastructure and bases unusable and its ports mined and blocked by sunken ships. However, a large number of its naval units had survived the war, albeit in a low efficiency state, which was due to the conflict and the age of many vessels. The vessels that remained were:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The peace treaty.", "content": "The peace treaty signed on February 10, 1947 in Paris was onerous for Regia Marina. Apart from territorial and material losses, also the following restrictions were imposed:  The treaty also ordered Italy to put the following ships at the disposals of the victorious nations United States, Soviet Union, Great Britain, France, Greece, Yugoslavia and Albania as war compensation:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The entry into NATO.", "content": "Great changes in the international political situation, which were developing into the Cold War, convinced the United Kingdom and United States to discontinue the transfer of Italy's capital ships as war reparations. Some had already been dismantled in La Spezia between 1948 and 1955, including the aircraft carrier. However, the Soviet Union demanded the surrender of the battleship \"Giulio Cesare\" and other naval units designated for transfer. The cruisers \"Attilio Regolo\" and \"Scipione Africano\" became the French \"Chateaurenault\" and \"Guichen\", while \"\" became the Greek \"Elli\". After break up and/or transfers, only a small part of the fleet remained to be recommissioned into the Marina. As Western attention turned to the Soviets and the Mediterranean Sea, Italian seas became one of the main sites of confrontation between the two superpowers, contributing to the re-emergence of Italy's naval importance thanks to her strategic geographical position.  With the new elections in 1946, the Kingdom of Italy became a Republic, and the Regia Marina took the name of \"Marina Militare\" (Military Navy). As the Marshall Plan began to rebuild Italy and Europe was rapidly being divided into two geopolitically antagonistic blocs, Italy began talks with the United States to guarantee adequate security considerations. The US government in Washington wished to keep its own installations on the Italian Peninsula and relaxed the Treaty restrictions by including Italy in the Mutual Defense Assistance Programme (MDAP). On April 4, 1949, Italy joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and, in order for the navy to contribute actively in the organization, the Treaty restrictions were definitively repealed by the end of 1951, with the consent of all of Western nations.  Within NATO, the Italian Navy was assigned combat control of the Adriatic Sea and Strait of Otranto, as well as the defence of the naval routes through the Tyrrhenian Sea. To ensure these tasks a \"\"Studio sul potenziamento della Marina italiana in relazione al Patto Atlantico\"\" (Study about the development of the Italian Navy with reference to the Atlantic Pact) was undertaken, which researched the structures and the methods for the development of the navy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Naval ensign.", "content": "The ensign of the Italian Navy is the Italian tricolour defaced with the coat of arms of the Marina Militare. The quarters refer to the four Medieval Italian Thalassocracies, or \"Maritime Republics\" (Italian: \"Repubbliche Marinare\"): The shield has a golden crown, that distinguishes military vessels from merchant: the crown, \"\"corona rostrata\"\", was proposed in 1939 by Admiral Domenico Cavagnari to the Government, as an acknowledgement of the Italian Navy's origin in Roman times. In the proposal, Adm. Cavagnari wrote that \"in order to recall the common origin [of the Navy] from the Roman sailorship, the Insignia will be surmounted by the towered Crown with rostra, the emblem of honour and valour the Roman Senate awarded to the leaders of naval victories, conquerors of lands and cities across the seas\".  A further difference is that St. Mark's lion, symbolising the Republic of Venice, does not hold the gospel in its paw (as it does on the civil ensign, where the book is open at the words \"\"Pax tibi Marce, evangelista meus\"\", meaning \"Peace to you Mark, my Evangelist\") and is wielding a sword instead: such an image is consistent with the pictorial tradition from Venetian history, in which the book is shown open during peacetime and closed during wartime.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure and organisation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "In 2012 the Navy began a restructuring process that will see a 21% decrease in personnel by 2025. A new structure was implemented in January 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coast Guard.", "content": "The Corps of the Port Captaincies – Coast Guard (Italian language: \"Corpo delle Capitanerie di porto – Guardia costiera\"') is the coast guard of Italy and is part of the Italian Navy under the control of the Ministry of Infrastructures and Transports. In Italy, it is commonly known as simply the \"Guardia costiera\". The Coast Guard has approximately 11 000 staff.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Corps.", "content": "The Italian Navy is divided into seven corps (by precedence) and one:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fleet.", "content": "Command of the Italian Fleet (ships, submarines and amphibious forces) and Naval aviation falls under Commander in Chief Naval Fleet", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ships and submarines.", "content": "Today's Italian Navy is a modern navy with ships of every type. The fleet is in continuous evolution, and as of today oceangoing fleet units include: 2 light aircraft carriers, 3 amphibious assault ships, 4 destroyers, 13 frigates and 8 attack submarines. Patrol and littoral warfare units include: 10 offshore patrol vessels. 10 mine countermeasure vessels, four coastal patrol boats, and a varied fleet of auxiliary ships are also in service.  The flagship of the fleet is the carrier \"Cavour\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aircraft.", "content": "The Italian Navy operates a diverse fleet of aircraft including fixed-wing, rotary and UAVs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Future.", "content": "The 2014 Naval Act allocated Euro 5.4 billion for the following vessels:  The 2017 budget allocated 12.8 billion (2017–2032 years) for the following ships:  The 2018 budget allocated about 1 Billion Euros for:  Planned:  For the Naval Aviation the Navy plans to expand for replace the following assets:  For the Marine Brigade \"San Marco\" the Navy plans to acquire following assets:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Italian Navy (, \"Military Navy\"; abbreviated as MM) is the Navy of the Italian Republic. It is one of the four branches of Italian Armed Forces and was formed in 1946 from what remained of the \"Regia Marina\" (Royal Navy) after World War II. As of August 2014, the Italian Navy had a strength of 30,923 active personnel with approximately 184 vessels in service, including minor auxiliary vessels. It is considered a multiregional and a blue-water navy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974874}
{"src_title": "Mitsubishi J2M", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The J2M was designed by Jiro Horikoshi, creator of the A6M Zero, to meet the 14-Shi (14th year of the Showa reign, or 1939) official specification. It was to be a strictly local-defense interceptor, intended to counter the threat of high-altitude bomber raids, and thus relied on speed, climb performance, and armament at the expense of manoeuvrability. The J2M was a sleek, but stubby craft with its oversized Mitsubishi Kasei engine buried behind a long cowling, cooled by an intake fan and connected to the propeller with an extension shaft.  Teething development problems stemming from the Kasei engine cooling system, and the main undercarriage members led to a slowdown in production. A continual set of modifications resulted in new variants being introduced with the ultimate high-altitude variant, the J2M4 Model 34 flying for the first time in August 1944. It had a 1,420 hp Kasei 23c engine equipped with a turbo supercharger (mounted in the side of the fuselage just behind the engine) that allowed the rated power to be maintained up to. Two upward-aimed, oblique-firing (aimed at seventy degrees) 20 mm cannons, mounted in the German \"Schräge Musik\" style, were fitted behind the cockpit with the four wing cannons retained. Unresolved difficulties with the turbo supercharger caused the project to be terminated after only two experimental J2M4s were built.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first few produced J2M2s were delivered to the development units in December 1942 but severe problems were encountered with the engines. Trials and improvements took almost a year and the first batch of the serial built J2M2 Model 11 was delivered to 381st Kōkūtai in December 1943. Parallel with the J2M2, production of the J2M3 \"Raiden\" Model 21 started. The first J2M3s appeared in October 1943 but deliveries to combat units started at the beginning of February 1944.  The \"Raiden\" made its combat debut in June 1944 during the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Several J2Ms operated from Guam and Saipan and a small number of aircraft were deployed to the Philippines. Later, some J2Ms were based in Chosen airfields, Genzan (Wonsan), Ranan (Nanam), Funei (Nuren), Rashin (Najin) and Konan under Genzan Ku, for defence of these areas and fighting against Soviet Naval Aviation units.  Primarily designed to defend against the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, the type was handicapped at high altitude by the lack of a turbocharger. However, its four-cannon armament supplied effective firepower and the use of dive and zoom tactics allowed it to score occasionally.  Insufficient numbers and the American switch to night bombing in March 1945 limited its effectiveness.  J2Ms took part in one of the final aerial combats of the Second World War when four Raidens, accompanied by eight Mitsubishi A6M Zeros, all belonging to the 302nd Kokutai, intercepted a formation of US Navy F6F Hellcats from the aircraft-carrier USS \"Yorktown\" (CV-10) during the morning of 15 August 1945 over the Kanto Plain. In the engagement, that took place only two hours before Japan officially announced its surrender, four Hellcats were lost along with two Raidens and two Zeros.  Two captured J2Ms were U.S. Technical Air Intelligence Command (TAIC) tested using 92 octane fuel plus methanol, with the J2M2 (Jack11) achieving a speed of 655 km/h (407 mph) at 5,520 m (17,400 ft), and J2M3 (Jack21) achieving a speed of 671 km/h (417 mph) at 4,980 m (16,600 ft).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "After the decisive Battle of Midway in 1942 Japan's military leaders rushed to re-equip their forces for defense of the home islands. In fighter designs the interceptor role now took priority over forward projection of offensive power. Allied forces, meanwhile, sought to establish air superiority over Japanese-held territories via B-29 bombing raids on industrial targets.  The struggle to meet production demands sparked a Japanese initiative to recruit \"shonenko\" (child labour) from Taiwan (Formosa). Though the target of 25,000 youths was never reached, over 8,400 Taiwanese youths aged 12 to 14 relocated to Mitsubishi plants to help build the J2M Raiden.  The Allied advance took its toll. In 1945 aircraft production in Japan collapsed, as numbers for the J2M reflect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "A surviving J2M is on display at the Planes of Fame museum in Chino, California.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mitsubishi J2M \"Raiden\" (雷電, \"Lightning Bolt\") is a single-engined land-based fighter aircraft used by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service in World War II. The Allied reporting name was \"Jack\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974875}
{"src_title": "Lymantria dispar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "The European gypsy moth (\"Lymantria dispar dispar\") is native to temperate forests in western Europe. It had been introduced to Canada in 1912 and in the United States in 1869.  The Asian gypsy moth (\"Lymantria dispar asiatica\") is native to southern Europe, northern Africa, Asia and Pacific. It is spreading to northern Europe (Germany, and other countries), where it hybridized with the European gypsy moth. A colony had been reported from Great Britain in 1995. It has also spread to North America since the early 20th century and is considered to be invasive to that continent.  This moth is an important defoliator on broad-leaf and conifer trees.  In North America a biological control was introduced. \"Ooencyrtus kuvanae\" is a parasitoid wasp of Lepidoptera eggs. It parasitizes the eggs of other moths, not just this species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The order Lepidoptera contains moths and butterflies characterized by having a complete metamorphosis; larvae transform to pupae and then metamorphosing into adult moths or butterflies. The genus is Lymantriidae. Lymantriid larvae are commonly called tussock moths because of the tufts of hair on larvae.  The meaning of the name \"Lymantria dispar\" is composed of two Latin-derived words. \"Lymantria\" means 'destroyer'. The word \"dispar\" is derived from the Latin word that means 'to separate' and it depicts the differing characteristics between the sexes.  The North American gypsy moth and the European gypsy moth are of the same subspecies, often listed as \"Lymantria dispar dispar\". Confusion over the species and subspecies, for classification still exists. The U. S. Department of Agriculture defines the Asian gypsy moth as \"any biotype of \"Lymantria dispar\" possessing female flight capability\", despite \"Lymantria dispar asiatica\" not being the only classified subspecies that is capable of flight. Traditionally, \"Lymantria dispar\" has been referred to as \"gypsy moths\" even when referring to Japanese, Indian and Asiatic gypsy moths.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lymantria dispar, the gypsy moth, is a species of moth in the family Erebidae. \"Lymantria dispar\" covers many subspecies, subspecies identification such as \"L. d. dispar\" or \"L. d. japonica\" leaves no ambiguity in identification. \"Lymantria dispar\" subspecies have a range which covers in Europe, Africa, Asia, North America and South America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974876}
{"src_title": "Mottled umber", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The species can be found in western Europe from northern Scandinavia to the Mediterranean, then east to the Caucasus, northern Iran, Russia, Russian Far East, and Ussuri.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The female of this species is wingless and rather spider-like and can be found on the trunks and stems of its larval food plants. She is white or yellow-and-black patched. The male is fully winged (wingspan 40–45 mm) and very variable. The ground colour of the forewing is pale yellow or light yellow ochre and suffused dark grey. The basal and distal fasciae are dark brown. The basal fascia is bordered on the inner side by a brown cloud; the distal fascia has a brown cloud on the outer edge. There is also a brown cloud along the costa. There are two dark brown oblong spots in the upper half of the terminal area. The hindwing is grey white with grey suffusion. There is a grey-black discal spot on both wings. There are numerous and significant deviations from this colour pattern and some specimens are very dark. Truly melanic forms are also frequent. As with the peppered moth, the darker forms tend to be prevalent in industrial areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "The adults have been recorded from September to December in the Great Britain and Ireland. Males are attracted to light.  The larva is also variable from cream to dark brown. It feeds on a wide variety of trees and shrubs (see list below) and can be a serious pest in orchards. The species overwinters as an egg.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The mottled umber (\"Erannis defoliaria\") is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is common throughout much of the Palearctic region. The species was first described by Carl Alexander Clerck in 1759.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974877}
{"src_title": "Winter moth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The forewing ground colour of the winged males varies from grey-yellow to beige-brown or occasionally slightly reddish-tinted. The patterns are often band-shaped dark brownish, often indistinct. The fringe is yellowish. The hindwings are pale grey or yellow grey. The antennae are short and finely hairy. The flightless female has a brownish-grey body with rudimentary wing stubs that are brown to grey and have dark bands. Body length for both sexes approximately 1.0 centimeters. Larvae at hatching are 1/10 inch (2.5 mm) in length and will grow to 3/4 inch (20 mm) over a six-week period. In North America, winter moth can be confused with the related native species Bruce spanworm (\"Operophtera bruceata\"). In fact, the two species hybridize.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Native to Northern and Central Europe: In the South, its range extends to Northern Italy; in the East to the Caucasus and Asia Minor; in the North to the Baltic. The genetic populations of winter moth in Europe are a result of recolonization following the last glacial period. As an invasive species, this moth is found in Nova Scotia, coastal New England (Massachusetts, Maine, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New York) and also the Pacific northwest (mainly Vancouver Island). In New England, expansion inland and north appears to be curtailed by cold winter temperatures, so for example, coastal Maine but not inland. Locally milder winters, as part of global climate change, may be allowing expansion of afflicted territory. A study conducted in Massachusetts documented that winter moth defoliation reduced the annual trunk diameter growth rate of oak trees by an average of 47% while not significantly impacting growth rates of the less defoliated maple trees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "Winter moth larvae (caterpillars) emerge in early spring from egg masses laid near leaf buds after a series of days in which the daytime high temperatures reach into the 50s Fahrenheit. Research conducted in the Netherlands indicated that as climate warming is causing spring temperatures to become warmer sooner, some of the winter moth eggs were hatching before tree leaf buds - first food for the caterpillars - had begun to open. Early hatchlings starved. Late hatchlings survived. Because hatch timing is genetically controlled, the moths are evolving to resynchronize with bud opening by delaying the response to the temperature trigger by 5 to 10 days. The larvae, like the adults, can withstand below freezing temperatures at night. Larval dispersal is the dominant source of density-dependent larval mortality and likely regulates high density population dynamics of winter moth in New England. Larvae prefer Oak and Apple, but also feed on Maple, Birch, Hornbeam, Chestnut, Hazel, Quince, Beech, Larch, Poplar, Cherry, Pear, Rose, Raspberry, Blueberry, Willow, Elm, and other leafy trees and shrubs.  Recently hatched larvae feed on expanding leaf buds, often after having burrowed inside the bud, and later on foliage, for approximately six weeks. In addition to feeding on the tree where they hatched, young larvae will also product silk strands to 'balloon' (be wind-blown) to other trees. Defoliation can approach 90%. By mid-May the larvae, green in color and about an inch long, descend to the ground. Very little mortality due to disease has been noted in winter moth larvae in North America. Pupation occurs in the soil in late May. Adults emerge from the soil in late fall to early winter, when, upon mating, the flightless female lays eggs in bark crevices and on branches. With such a long pupal period, winter moth is vulnerable to numerous pupal predators and parasitoids.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biological control.", "content": "In Europe, where winter moths are native, two parasitic species, a wasp (\"Agrypon flaveolatum\") and a fly (\"Cyzenis albicans\") prey on winter moth caterpillars. The wasps insert eggs into the larvae. The flies lay eggs on leaves, which the larvae ingest when eating the leaves. As a biological control, the wasp was introduced in Canada but is not being pursued in the United States because there is not sufficient evidence that the wasp would not lay eggs in larvae of other moth species. Introduction of \"C. albicans\", which is species-specific to preying on winter moths, has proven successful in strongly reducing, although not entirely eliminating, winter moth infestation in Nova Scotia, Canada. Test introductions were begun in eastern Massachusetts in 2005. This proved successful, so more fly releases have taken place at sites from southeast Connecticut to coastal Maine. As moth densities can reach ten million larvae per acre, several years are needed before parasitism by the flies reaches 20-50%. Once this is achieved the winter moth density declines and leaf defoliation is reduced to levels not as harmful to the trees.. The delay in establishment is likely the result of heavy mortality from predators and hyperparasitoids on the pupating \"C. albicans\". Management of winter moth in Massachusetts using biological control with \"C. albicans\" is showing positive results.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The winter moth (\"Operophtera brumata\") is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is an abundant species of Europe and the Near East and a famous study organism for evaluating insect population dynamics. It is one of very few lepidopterans of temperate regions in which adults are active in late fall and early winter. The adults use endothermy for movement in these cold temperatures. The female of this species is virtually wingless and cannot fly, but the male is fully winged and flies strongly. After the initial frosts of late fall, the females emerge from their pupa, walk to and up trees, there emitting pheromones in the evening to attract males. Fertilized, she ascends to lay, on average, around 100 eggs. Typically, the larger the female moth is the more eggs she lays.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974878}
{"src_title": "Rimavská Sobota", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "It is located around east of Bratislava and around southeast of Banská Bystrica and west of Košice. The town, along with the district lies in the Rimava river valley in the Slovenské rudohorie mountains, in the Southern Slovak Basin. There are two protected areas close to the town in the district, Cerová vrchovina to the south and Muránska planina National Park to the north.  The town is composed of 11 parts/boroughs: Bakta, Dúžava, Kurinec, Mojín, Nižná Pokoradz, Rimavská Sobota, Sabová, Sobôtka, Včelinec, Vinice and Vyšná Pokoradz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first traces of settlement in the town's territory come from the Neolithic. Other archaeological discoveries are dated to the middle and late Bronze Age and Iron Age. Several tribes have passed through the area, including Celts, Germanic tribes and several others during the Migration Period. The Slavs settled here most likely in the 7th and 8th centuries. The old Hungarian tribes came at the beginning of the 10th century and settled in the 11th century. A medieval town was probably founded in the second half of the 11th century and became a market town.  The first written record about Rimavská Sobota was in 1268 as \"Rymoa Zumbota\" and belonged to the Archbishop of Kalocsa, who owned the land from 1150 to around 1340. In 1334 the ownership changed to Thomas Szécsényi from Transylvania. The town received a privilege charted in 1335 on the basis of the Buda municipal law. In the first half of the 15th century, it was a small town, and economic development had begun, when the first guilds were established. However, it was interrupted by Turkish occupation, first in 1553–1593 and then in 1596–1686. It was centre of Filek sanjak firstly in Budin Eyalet, latterly Eğri Eyalet. The town was growing again in the 18th century, with the guilds of tanners, weavers, shoe-makers and others being set up. It became a free privileged town in the 1790s. From 1850 to 1922 it was the capital of the Gömör-Kishont county. Industry started to develop in the 20th century, with a cannery being established.  After the break-up of Austria-Hungary, the town was occupied by the Czechoslovak Legions in January 1919. However, the army of the Hungarian Soviet Republic came to the town in May 1919, but control reverted to Czechoslovakia in July 1919. After the First Vienna Award in 1938, the town belonged to Hungary to the end of 1944. During the Socialist Czechoslovakia, food industry developed here; for example, a sugar factory was established in 1966 and a meat processing plant in 1977.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The town's main trade is agriculture and food processing. Agricultural production is aimed at animal production: beef-raising, sheep farming, and farming of permanent grass fields, meadows and pasture lands. Rimavská's hollow basin is an important agricultural area, where almost all crops can be grown, including the more thermophilic ones, such as sugar beet, wheat, rye, vegetable, tobacco, vine, lucerne, and corn. Forest resources are under both state and private administration. The town also has electrotechnical, mechanical, and chemical businesses. All industrial companies were privatized during the Slovak economy transformation.  The most important transport line goes through the southern part of the county. Rimavská Sobota is from Banská Bystrica and from Bratislava. The district is also the site of former Czechoslovakia (now Radio Slovakia International, RSI) shortwave radio antenna tower facility, using a 250 kW transmitter to reach listening audiences as far away as North America. The towers and masts of the station have heights up to 171 metres.  Rimavská Sobota's tourist industry is as yet largely undeveloped, due to a lack of infrastructure, although the area possesses natural, historical, and cultural potential.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "According to the 2001 census, there were 25,088 people living in the town, the majority being Slovaks (59.28%), with a significant minority of Hungarians (35.26%), a small percentage of Roma (3.01%) and others. The religious make-up was: 47.84% Roman Catholics, 25.44% without denomination, 10.33 Protestants and 5.26% not specified.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Rimavská Sobota is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rimavská Sobota (;, ) is a town in southern Slovakia, in the Banská Bystrica Region, on the Rimava river. It has approximately 24,000 inhabitants. The town is a historical capital of the Malohont, Gemer-Malohont county (from 1850 to 1922).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974879}
{"src_title": "Werenfried van Straaten", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ecclesiastical career.", "content": "Born in Mijdrecht, Netherlands, he originally intended to become a teacher and enrolled at the University of Utrecht in 1932 to study Classical Philology. There he was also editor in a student newspaper and co-founder of a political party, which had only a short existence. He decided instead to follow a religious life and in 1934 entered the Premonstratensian Tongerlo Abbey, of the Norbertine Order, in the province of Antwerp, in Belgium, taking the religious name Werenfried, in honour of an early Medieval Germanic saint. He became the abbot's secretary, after a bout of tuberculosis that left him too weak for missionary work. He was ordained a priest on 25 July 1940.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Humanitarian work.", "content": "He first rose to public attention at Christmas, 1947, when he wrote an article entitled \"Peace on Earth? No Room at the Inn,\" in which he appealed to all faithful to help the fourteen million German civilians displaced from the east at the end of World War II, six million of whom were Roman Catholics. These refugees and expellees resided in very primitive camps, mostly former Nazi concentration camps or Allied POW camps located in the western occupation zones of Germany and - for a minority - in the Netherlands and Belgium, and suffered from malnutrition and lack of medical care.  The response to the article of Van Straaten was unexpectedly generous, proving charity still existed and hatred was lessening towards the former enemies. He earned his nickname, \"Bacon Priest\" () due to his appeals to Flemish farmers for contributions of food for the German refugees, appeals which met with considerable amounts of meat being donated. His next concern was the pastoral care of the six million displaced Catholics, some of which were housed in purely Protestant areas, without their own churches and pastors. With the action \"A vehicle for God\" he converted used buses and trucks into mobile altars. In 1953, van Straaten called the International Building Order into being to motivate students to help refugees and displaced persons build their own homes in Germany.  This initial work led to the formation of Aid to the Church in Need (\"Kirche in Not\"), centered in Königstein, Germany, in 1952. After 1950, he was active in Catholic relief work worldwide, through church appeals, public speaking, and his newsletter, \"The Mirror\", which he began publishing in 1953. After the plight of the expellees in the newly founded Federal Republic of Germany was largely alleviated, his concern became the persecuted church in the now communist-dominated Eastern Europe. After the collapse of the Soviet regime, he tried to bridge the trenches to the Catholic Church, through generous help to the Russian Orthodox Church.  Werenfried van Straaten succeeded in combining social engagement with dedication to the proclamation of the faith. For his life's work he was honored many times by the church and the state. He also wrote a number of books, including \"They Call Me The Bacon Priest\" (1960).  In his later years he was active in anti-abortion activism, demonstrating and speaking out against abortion in Western Europe and the United States.  He died on January 31, 2003 at Bad Soden in Germany at the age of 90 years. He is buried in the cemetery of Königstein im Taunus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Werenfried Prize.", "content": "At the 3rd International Congress Treffpunkt Weltkirche, held from 11 to 13 April 2008, in Augsburg, the Father Werenfried Prize was awarded for the first time to the Friends of the St. Clemens Church in Berlin. This prize, endowed with 1000 euros, was awarded jointly with the Katholische Sonntagszeitung. At the 5th international congress of Treffpunkt Weltkirche, held from 12 to 15 March 2015, in Würzburg, the Father Werenfried Prize was awarded to Gabriele Kuby.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Werenfried van Straaten, born Philippus Johannes Hendricus van Straaten O. Praem. (January 17, 1913 – January 31, 2003), was a Dutch Roman Catholic priest and social activist. He was a Premonstratensian priest expatriate in Germany, who became known for his humanitarian work, particularly as founder of the international Catholic association Aid to the Church in Need. He was known affectuously as the \"\"Bacon Priest\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974880}
{"src_title": "Duchy of Troppau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Opava was initially established as a Moravian province under the rule of King Ottokar's son Nicholas I, who first appeared as a \"Lord of Opava\" in 1269 and became the progenitor of the Opava branch of the Přemyslid dynasty. After Ottokar was killed in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld, Nicholas had to ward off against claims raised by his stepmother Kunigunda of Halych and her lover Zavis of Falkenstein residing at Hradec Castle near Opava. Nevertheless, he reached his confirmation by both the Habsburg king Rudolf I of Germany and his stepbrother King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia and retained his territory even after the murder of the last Přemyslid king Wenceslaus III of Bohemia in 1306.  Upon the extinction of the royal branch of the Přemyslid dynasty and the subsequent turmoil around the Bohemian throne, Henry of Carinthia gave Opava in pawn to the Silesian duke Bolesław III the Generous. When finally in 1310 the mighty House of Luxembourg ascended to the throne, it was redeemed by King John of Bohemia in 1311. Opava was officially raised to a duchy in 1318 and was confirmed as a fief for Nicholas' son Duke Nicholas II by King John, who soon had to fend off the Hungarian troops of King Casimir III of Poland. The conjunction with Silesia was accomplished when Duke Nicholas II married Anna of Racibórz, sister of the Piast Duke Leszek of Racibórz, also a Bohemian vassal since 1327. When Leszek died without heirs in 1336, King John vested his brother-in-law Nicholas II with the Silesian Duchy of Racibórz (Ratibor, Ratiboř), whereafter he ruled both duchies in personal union until his death in 1365, when his eldest son John I succeeded him.  In 1377, Duke John I again separated Opava from the duchies of Racibórz and Krnov (Jägerndorf, Krnów) and granted it to his younger brothers Nicholas III (†1394), Wenceslaus I (†1381) and Przemko (†1433). Afterward, Opava ownership changed several times, mainly due to purchase and partitions. Przemko's sons sold their shares to the Bohemian king George of Poděbrady by 1462; their Přemyslid cousins however retained Racibórz and Krnov. In 1465 King George gave Opava to his second son Victor, who also became Duke of Münsterberg in 1462. Victor in turn had to cede it to the Bohemian anti-king Matthias Corvinus in 1485, who installed his illegitimate son John as duke.  In 1506 King Vladislas II Jagiellon of Bohemia granted Opava to Duke Casimir II of Cieszyn (Teschen), who had married a daughter of Victor and held the duchy until his death in 1528, after which it was again seized by Bohemia. Meanwhile, in 1521, with the death of Duke Valentin of Racibórz, the Opava line of the Přemyslids had finally become extinct and all their possessions had fallen back to the Bohemian Crown, which in 1526 passed to the Habsburg Monarchy. Prince Karl I of Liechtenstein was invested with the Duchy of Troppau in 1614 by Emperor Matthias of Habsburg. After the 1620 Battle of White Mountain Prince Karl also acquired the Duchy of Krnov, and ever since the heads of the Princely Family of Liechtenstein bear the title \"Duke of Troppau and Jägerndorf\".  In 1742, in the course of the First Silesian War and the Treaty of Breslau, the Duchy was divided once more, with the part north of the Opava River including Głubczyce (Leobschütz, Hlubčice) and Hlučín (Hultschin) becoming part of Prussia. The southern part with Krnov, Bruntál (Freudenthal), Fulnek and Opava itself remained part of Austrian Silesia, a crown land of the Austrian Empire from 1804.  The Austrian Duchy of Troppau ceased to exist when the Austro-Hungarian Empire was dissolved in 1918 and the area (\"Troppauer Land\") including the city became part of Czechoslovakia. The Prussian share remained a part of the Silesian province until 1945, when it fell to Poland in accord with the Potsdam Agreement.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Principality of Opava () () or Duchy of Troppau () was a historic territory split off from the Margraviate of Moravia before 1269 by King Ottokar II of Bohemia to provide for his natural son, Nicholas I. The Opava territory thus had not been part of the original Polish Duchy of Silesia in 1138, and was first ruled by an illegitimate offshoot of the Bohemian Přemyslid dynasty, not by the Silesian Piasts like many of the neighbouring Silesian duchies. Its capital was Opava (\"Troppau\") in the modern day Czech Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974881}
{"src_title": "Arado Ar 232", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The Ar 232 design resulted from a tender offered by the \"Reichsluftfahrtministerium\" (German Air Ministry, RLM) in late 1939 for a replacement for the Ju 52/3m transport. Both Arado and Henschel were asked for rear-loading designs powered by two 1,193 kW (1,600 hp) BMW 801A/B radial engines, which was just entering prototype production and not currently used on any front-line designs. The Arado design beat out Henschel's after an examination of the plans, and an order for three prototypes was placed in 1940.  Wilhelm van Nes led the design of the Ar 232. He began at the cargo area, with a bay directly behind the \"stepless cockpit\" that was 6.6 m (21 ft 73⁄4 in) long, 2.3 m (7 ft 61⁄2 in) wide and 2.0 m (6 ft 63⁄4 in) high. Typical designs of the era used a side-mounted door for access, but the Ar 232 used hydraulically powered clamshell-doors on the rear of the bay with a ramp to allow cargo to be rolled into the hold. The twin tail configuration tail surfaces were mounted on the end of a long boom to keep the area behind the doors clear so trucks could drive right up to the ramp, much like the 1944-era American Fairchild C-82 Packet of a differing twin boom fuselage configuration. The high-set tail on its \"pod-and-boom\" configuration fuselage allowed the Ar 232 to be loaded and unloaded faster than other designs.  For short-field performance, the Ar 232 incorporated Arado's own \"travelling flap\" design for the entire rear surface of the wing. Even loaded to 16,000 kg (35,270 lb), it could take-off in 200 m (656 ft). This distance could be further reduced by using \"Starthilfe\" liquid fuelled monopropellant rocket assist (RATO) jettisonable propulsion units for take-off.  Normally operated by a crew of four, the pilot was the only member without two roles. The navigator operated a 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 machine gun in the nose, the radio operator a 20 mm MG 151 cannon in a rotating turret on the roof, and the loadmaster a 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 machine gun firing rearward from the extreme rear of the cargo bay above the cargo doors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landing gear design innovations.", "content": "The most noticeable feature of the Ar 232 was the landing gear. Normal operations from prepared runways used a tricycle gear — a then-novel feature for German military aircraft—but the sideways-retracting main gear's lever-action lower oleo-strut suspended arm – carrying the main gear's wheel/tire unit at the bottoms of the maingears' struts could \"break\", or kneel, after landing to place the fuselage closer to the ground and thereby reduce the ramp angle. An additional set of eleven smaller, non-retractable twinned wheels per side, mounted along the ventral centreline of the fuselage from just behind the semi-retractable nosewheel aftwards to just forward of the wing's trailing edge, supported the aircraft once the main landing gear's lever-action lower arm had \"knelt\", or could be used for additional support when landing on soft or rough airfields. The aircraft was intended to be capable of taxiing at low speeds on its row of small wheels, thus being able to negotiate small obstacles such as ditches up to 1.5 m (5 ft) in width. The appearance of the row of small wheels led to the nickname \"millipede\". In flight, the main legs fully retracted inwards into the wings, while the fixed support wheels remained exposed and the nose wheel only semi-retracted, with the nosewheel tire's lowest point while retracted never going above the lowest point of the 22 auxiliary centre-line wheels' tires.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Even before the prototypes were complete in 1941, the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 project had been earmarked to use the BMW 801A/B, and was proving to be a capable design, with each BMW 801 radial weighing about 1,012 kg (2,231 lb). Production of the BMW 801 was insufficient to supply this new demand, and the Ar 232 was forced to use another engine. Eventually, the BMW Bramo 323 \"Fafnir\" nine-cylinder radial, itself weighing some 550 kg (1,210 lbs), from Focke-Wulf's Fw 200 land-based maritime patrol aircraft as an alternate powerplant choice was selected instead, as it was already in production and could meet requirements if the Ar 232 really did replace the Ju 52/3m in service. The prototypes were far enough along that switching engines would have seriously delayed the program, so the first two were to be completed as the Ar 232A, and the third and a newly ordered fourth as the Ar 232B. The third and fourth prototypes (and all production aircraft) used four engines (in place of the two specified in the RLM specification) in order to provide the desired performance. The first two prototypes, bearing the \"Stammkennzeichen\" alphabetic codes GH+GN and VD+YA respectively, started trials in early 1941. The first flight resulted in the collapse of the nose gear, but the twenty-two \"millipede wheels\" saved the aircraft from damage. A further ten pre-production machines were built, and were used operationally as the Ar 232A-0 while awaiting production versions. In general, the Ar 232 completely outperformed the Ju 52/3m. It carried roughly double the load over longer distances, operated from shorter runways and rougher fields if need be, and cruised about 70 km/h (44 mph) faster.  The Ar 232B program ran at the same time. With the quartet of 895 kW (1,200 hp) Bramo 323s replacing the twin BMW 801s, each Bramo 323 with its aforementioned 550 kg dry weight apiece; power increased from 2,386 kW (3,200 hp) to 3,580 kW (4,800 hp), solving the A model's problem of having little excess power in case of engine failure. This change also required the wing to be extended slightly, the span increasing just over 3 m (9 ft 10 in) in total. The extra weight of the Bramo nine-cylinder engines also moved the center of gravity forward, which was offset by stretching the cargo area rearward another meter, adding to the cargo capacity it could carry internally.  Two four-engined prototypes were ordered, the V3 and V4, and V3 first flew in May 1942. A further 10 were then ordered as the Ar 232B-0, and were used widely in an operational role. However, this was the only order for the design, as the \"Luftwaffe\" gave transport aircraft production a very low priority. Many of those produced were used by Arado to transport aircraft parts between its factories, and did not see front-line service.  Plans were also made to replace the outer wing sections and control surfaces with wooden versions to conserve aluminium. Originally to be known as the Ar 232C, the design dragged on and was later renamed the Ar 432. Plans were finally put into place to start production in October 1945, but the war ended without even a prototype being produced. Two even larger planned versions, the Ar 532 and the Ar 632, would have almost doubled the wingspan to 60 m (196 ft 10 in), as large as Germany's six-engined BV 238 flying boat design, and added another two engines.  Two of the B-0s were captured by British forces at the end of the war. After test flights by Eric \"Winkle\" Brown, who gave the design excellent marks, they were used by the Royal Air Force on flights between England and Germany after the war.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Arado Ar 232 \"Tausendfüßler\" (German: \"Millipede\"), sometimes also called \"Tatzelwurm\", was a cargo aircraft, designed and built in small numbers by the German firm Arado Flugzeugwerke during World War II. The design introduced, or brought together, almost all of the features now considered to be \"standard\" in modern cargo transport aircraft designs, including a box-like fuselage slung beneath a high wing; a rear loading ramp (that had first appeared on the December 1939-flown Junkers Ju 90 V5 fifth prototype four-engined transport via its \"Trapoklappe\"); a high-mounted twin tail for easy access to the hold; and various features for operating from rough fields. Although the \"Luftwaffe\" was interested in replacing or supplementing its fleet of outdated Junkers Ju 52/3m transports, it had an abundance of types in production at the time, and did not purchase large numbers of the Ar 232.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974882}
{"src_title": "Tabernanthe iboga", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Iboga is native to tropical forests, preferring moist soil in partial shade. It bears dark green, narrow leaves and clusters of white tubular flowers on an erect and branching stem, with yellow-orange fruits resembling an olive.  Normally growing to a height of 2 m, \"T. iboga\" may eventually grow into a small tree up to 10 m tall, given the right conditions. Its flowers are white and pink, while the fruit can be either an elongated oval shape, or a round spherical shape, both having an orange color. Its yellow-colored roots contain a number of indole alkaloids, most notably ibogaine, which is found in the highest concentration in the root-bark. The root material, bitter in taste, causes anesthetic sensation in the mouth as well as systemic numbness to the skin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alkaloids.", "content": "Indole alkaloids, which make up about 6% of the root chemical composition of iboga, include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traditional use.", "content": "The Iboga tree is central to the \"Bwiti\" spiritual practices in West-Central Africa, mainly Gabon, Cameroon and the Republic of the Congo, where the alkaloid-containing roots or bark are used in various ceremonies to create a near-death experience. Iboga is taken in massive doses by initiates of this spiritual practice, and on a more regular basis is eaten in smaller doses in connection with rituals and tribal dances performed at night. Bwitists have been subject to persecution by Catholic missionaries. Léon M'ba, before becoming the first President of Gabon in 1960, defended the Bwiti religion and the use of iboga in French colonial courts. In 2000, the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Gabon declared \"Tabernanthe iboga\" to be a national treasure.  In lower doses, iboga has a stimulant effect and is used to maintain alertness while hunting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Addiction treatment claims.", "content": "Anecdotal reports of self-treated opioid addicts indicated a reduced desire to sustain opiate abuse following iboga ingestion. Since 1970, iboga has been legally prohibited in the United States following several fatalities. Preliminary research for the potential use of ibogaine in the treatment of opioid dependence is ongoing in the 21st century, with several clinics using ibogaine in Western countries, Panama, and Caribbean islands. Iboga extracts, as well as the purified alkaloid ibogaine, have attracted attention because of their purported ability to reverse addiction to drugs such as alcohol and opiates. Ibogaine is a k-opioid agonist which may be the mechanism for how it affects opiate withdrawal symptoms.  Ibogaine is classified as a schedule 1 controlled substance in the United States, and is not approved there for addiction treatment (or any other therapeutic use) because of its hallucinogenic and cardiovascular side effects, as well as the absence of safety and efficacy data in human subjects. In most other countries, it remains unregulated and unlicensed.  Independent ibogaine treatment clinics have emerged in Mexico, Canada, the Netherlands, South Africa, and New Zealand, all operating in what has been described as a \"legal gray area\". Covert, illegal neighborhood clinics are also known to exist in the United States, despite active DEA surveillance. Addiction specialists warn that the treatment of drug dependence with ibogaine in non-medical settings, without expert supervision and unaccompanied by appropriate psychosocial care, can be dangerous — and, in approximately one case in 300, potentially fatal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal status.", "content": "Iboga is outlawed or restricted in Belgium, Poland, Denmark, Croatia, France, Sweden, and Switzerland. In the United States, ibogaine is classified by the Controlled Substances Act on the list of schedule I drugs, although the plant itself remains unscheduled.  Non-profit organization \"Föreningen för hollistisk missbruksvård\" is trying to convince the Swedish government to start up clinical investigations of its anti-addictive properties, loosen up the prohibition law against ibogaine, and allow the creation of treatment facilities in Sweden.  Exportation of iboga from Gabon is illegal since the passage of a 1994 cultural protection law.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "While little data is available on the exploitation and existing habitat of the iboga plant, the destructive effects of harvesting and slow growth could have already severely damaged the wild iboga population.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tabernanthe iboga (iboga) is a perennial rainforest shrub native to West Africa. An evergreen bush indigenous to Gabon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Republic of Congo, it is cultivated across West Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974883}
{"src_title": "Iveco Daily", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First generation (1978–1992).", "content": "The first series Daily was offered with two models, the 35 and the 50 (3.5 and 5.0 tons). The larger one (Daily 50) had load capacity up to 17 m3. In 1985, a turbodiesel version named \"TurboDaily\" was introduced. An Alfa Romeo badge engineered version was sold as the Alfa Romeo AR8, similarly to the Fiat Ducato based AR6. The OM version was initially called OM Grinta, and later the turbocharged version OM TurboGrinta. In Switzerland, these were also sold as Saurer-Fiat and as Saurer-OM.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second generation (1990–2000).", "content": "The second generation Daily was introduced in 1990, with a totally revised cab and improvements on the Sofim engine (at that time, with a 2.5 L capacity). Following the entry of Ford's commercial operation into Iveco, in 1986, The Daily 3.5 ton was soon removed from the UK market as it was now direct competition with Ford's Transit, the Daily stayed on in the UK at rated above 4.0 ton, and now sold as Iveco-Ford Truck. The Daily has no other connection with the Transit.  The second generation was facelifted in 1996; it differs only slightly exterior-wise, but the engine was now available in 2.8-litre capacity 76 KW (103 hp). The 59-12 (chassis cabs and panel vans) and 59-13 (minibus) models were launched (GVW 6.4 tons). All-wheel-drive variants were also made available.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Third generation (2000–2006).", "content": "With third series the Daily got new light groups (wider and lower). The Turbodaily name was dropped as all turbodiesels came with Unijet technology (common rail). Two new versions were released: \"Agile\", with automatic gearshift, and \"CNG\", a natural gas version. Also two new load classes were introduced: Daily 65 and Daily 28 (6.5 tons and 2.8 tons). The Iveco Daily was made \"Van of the Year\" for the year 2000.  The third generation of the Iveco Daily and the second generation of the Renault Mascott share many panels and some components of the cab, including the doors due to an agreement between Iveco and Renault stipulated in July 1994. The agreement provided for the production and sharing of common components for a total of 120 thousand pieces a year produced in the various factories of Brescia (Italy, Iveco), Suzzurra (Italy, Iveco), Valladolid (Spain, Iveco) and Batilly (France, SoVAB Renault factory).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engines.", "content": "Originally there were models with three engine options, all of type 8140 of 2.8 liters. A variant was a suction diesel with 66 kW (90 hp), but they rarely sold. Another had turbocharger, intercooler and 78 kW (106 hp). The last variant gave 92 kW (125 hp) and had common rail injection. Shortly after receiving the largest engine variable geometry turbocharger and an output of 107 kW (146 hp).  In 2003 came F1A engine with 2.3 litre stroke volume and second-generation common rail injection with 74 kW (101 hp) and 88 kW (120 hp), and in 2004 came the new F1C engine of 3.0 liters, based on F1A with timing chain and 100 kW (136 hp) or 122 kW (166 hp). At this time, the old 8140-engine was completely replaced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transmissions.", "content": "The motors up to 88 kW (120 hp) had five-speed gearbox, while the more powerful engines also available with a six-speed gearbox. The model could also be obtained with electronic / hydraulic controlled manual gearbox, called \"Agile\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fourth generation (2006–2011).", "content": "The fourth generation was designed by Giugiaro and arrived to markets in the middle of 2006. It's available as: Van, cabin cruiser, Combi, Minibus, Agile, and CNG. The minibus is also commercialized with the Irisbus brand. Certain models with clean engines have been sold as the \"Iveco EcoDaily\" in some European markets.  For the first time since the year 2000, an all-wheel-drive version of the Daily is available starting from 2007. This is developed in co-operation with the company SCAM and is available as single cab and double cab with the wheelbases and and double cab with wheelbase of. Permissible total weight in two versions: or.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fifth generation (2011–2014).", "content": "The fifth generation was introduced 29 June 2011 and came into the market at the beginning of September 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Iveco Daily Ousheng.", "content": "A version produced by Naveco (Nanjing Iveco) of China called the Iveco Daily Ousheng (欧胜) was a facelift based on the fifth generation Iveco Daily, and extended production starting from 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Engines.", "content": "Euro 5  EEV", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sixth generation (2014–present).", "content": "The sixth generation was introduced in July 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engines.", "content": "Euro 5  Euro 6", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electric version.", "content": "A version powered by a 30 kW (40 HP) electric motor (60 kW peak) supplied by a battery with a capacity of 76 Ah and 21.2 kWh was announced in August 2010.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Iveco Daily is a large light commercial van produced by the Italian automaker Iveco since 1978; it was also sold as the Fiat Daily by Fiat until 1983. Unlike the more car-like unibody Fiat Ducato, the Daily uses a separate ladder frame typical of heavier commercial vehicles. The Iveco Daily is produced at the Iveco Suzzara plant, near Mantova in Italy, where Iveco has recently made substantial investments to renew the production lines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974884}
{"src_title": "Soviet submarine K-278 Komsomolets", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The Project 685 was designed by the Rubin Design Bureau in response to a challenge to develop an advanced submarine that could carry a mix of torpedoes and cruise missiles with conventional or nuclear warheads. The order to design the submarine was issued in 1966 and design was completed in 1974. The keel was laid down on 22 April 1978 at Severodvinsk. \"K-278\" was launched on 3 June 1983 and commissioned on 28 December 1983.  \"K-278\" had a double hull, the inner one being composed of titanium, which gave her an operating depth far greater than that of the best American submarines. The pressure hull was composed of seven compartments with the second and third protected by stronger forward and aft bulkheads creating a \"safety zone\" in case of an emergency. An escape capsule was fitted in the sail above these compartments to enable the crew to abandon ship in the event of an underwater emergency. Initial Western intelligence estimates of \"K-278\"'s speed were based on the assumption that it was powered by a pair of liquid-metal lead-bismuth reactors. When the Soviet Union revealed that the submarine used a single OK-650b-3 conventional pressurized-water reactor, these speed estimates were lowered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crew.", "content": "According to Norman Polmar and Kenneth J. Moore, two Western experts on Soviet submarine design and operations, the Project 685's advanced design included many automated systems which, in turn, allowed for fewer crew members than would be expected for a submarine of its size. The manning table approved by the Soviet Ministry of Defense in 1982 called for a crew of just 57 men. This was later increased to 64: 30 officers, 22 warrant officers, and 12 petty officers and seamen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "In October 1988, \"K-278\" was honored by becoming one of the few Soviet submarines to be given an actual name: \"Komsomolets\" (\"Комсомолец\", meaning \"a member of the Komsomol\"), and her commanding officer, Captain 1st rank Yuriy Zelenskiy was honored for diving to a depth of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sinking.", "content": "On 7 April 1989, while under the command of Captain 1st Rank Evgeny Vanin and running submerged at a depth of about southwest of Bear Island (Norway), fire broke out in an engineering compartment due to a short-circuit, and even though watertight doors were shut, the resulting fire spread through bulkhead cable penetrations. The reactor scrammed and propulsion was lost. Electrical problems spread as cables burned through, and control of the boat was threatened. An emergency ballast tank blow was performed and the submarine surfaced eleven minutes after the fire began. Distress calls were made, and most of the crew abandoned ship.  The fire continued to burn, fed by the compressed air system. At 15:15, several hours after the boat surfaced, it sank in of water, about SSW off Bear Island. The commanding officer and four others who were still on board entered the escape capsule and ejected it. Only one of the five to reach the surface was able to leave the capsule and survive before it sank again in the rough seas.  Rescue aircraft arrived quickly and dropped small rafts, but winds and sea conditions precluded their use. Many men had already died from hypothermia in the water of the Barents Sea. The floating fish factory B-64/10 \"Aleksey Khlobystov\" (\"Алексей Хлобыстов\") arrived 81 minutes after \"K-278\" sank, and took aboard 25 survivors and 5 fatalities. Initially, only 42 of the 69 crewmen died in the accident, including the commanding officer. An additional number succumbed to inhalation of toxic gases aboard the rescue ship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "In addition to her eight standard torpedoes \"K-278\" was carrying two torpedoes armed with nuclear warheads. Under pressure from Norway, the Soviet Union used deep sea submersibles operated from the oceanographic research ship \"Keldysh\" to search for \"K-278\". In June 1989, two months after the sinking, the wreck was located. Soviet officials stated that any possible leaks were insignificant and posed no threat to the environment.  In 1993, Vice Admiral (ret.) Chernov, commander of the submarine group of which the \"Komsomolets\" was part, founded the \"Komsomolets\" Nuclear Submarine Memorial Society, a charity to support the widows and orphans of his former command. Since then, the Society's charter has expanded to provide assistance to the families of all Soviet and Russian submariners lost at sea. 7 April has become a day of commemoration for all submariners lost at sea.  An expedition in mid-1994 revealed some plutonium leakage from one of the two nuclear-armed torpedoes. On 24 June 1995, \"Keldysh\" set out again from St. Petersburg to the \"Komsomolets\" datum to seal the hull fractures in Compartment 1 and cover the nuclear warheads, and declared success at the end of a subsequent expedition in July 1996. Furfurol, the jelly-like sealant, was projected to make the wreck radiation safe for 20 to 30 years, that is, until 2015 or 2025.  Norwegian authorities from the Marine Environmental Agency and Radiation Agency are taking water and ground samples from the vicinity of the wreck on a yearly basis.  In July 2019, a joint Norwegian-Russian expedition took water samples out of a ventilation pipe and from several meters above, and analyzed them for caesium-137. That pipe had been identified as a leak in several Mir missions up to 1998 and 2007. The activity levels in the six samples out of the pipe ranged between less than (the on-board detection limit of) 10 Bq/l to 100 Bq/l (on 8 July) and 800 Bq/l (9 July). No activity could be detected in the free-water samples. Due to dilution, there is no threat to the environment. The Norwegian limit on caesium-137 in food products is 600 Bq/kg. The background activity of caesium-137 in the water body is as low as 0.001 Bq/l. More sensitive measurements of the samples are underway.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The K-278 \"Komsomolets\" was the \"Project-685 Plavnik\" (Russian: проект-685 плавник, meaning \"fin\", also known by its NATO reporting name of \"Mike\"-class), nuclear-powered attack submarine of the Soviet Navy— the only submarine of her design class.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974885}
{"src_title": "Adventist Development and Relief Agency", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission.", "content": "The organization's mission statement is: \"ADRA works with people in poverty and distress to create just and positive change through empowering partnerships and responsible actions.\". It's stated reason for existence is \"to follow Christ's example by being a voice for, serving, and partnering with those in need\"., and the 1983 organizational documents include a biblical rationale for conducting humanitarian work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Purpose.", "content": "ADRA partners with communities, organizations, and governments in order to develop:  ADRA says that it serves people without discriminating their ethnic, political, or religious association. Priority is given to those with disabilities, children, and senior citizens.  ADRA's areas of expertise include: Education, Emergencies, Food/nutrition, HIV/AIDS, Health, Refugees and IDPs, Shelter, Training and development, Water and sanitation, Women, Children, Monitoring and Evaluation, Programme management, and Security.  A Los Angeles Times story from 1998 reports on ADRA's 1996 10-year strategic plan, which calls the agency \"a bona fide ministry of Jesus Christ and the Seventh-day Adventist Church\" and \"provides a strategy to reach people previously untouched by other church institutions. The church's mission is incomplete without ADRA's distinctive ministry.\" Much has been said about faith-based agencies taking US government funding and using those funds to further religious doctrinal missions, however ADRA does not proselytise. It claims to operate \"by love with no strings attached\". As a global organisation, ADRA is a signatory of the Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief, which states that \"aid will not be used to further a particular political or religious standpoint\", that \"aid is given regardless of the race, creed, or nationality\", and that organizations \"shall respect culture and custom.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "ADRA was established as the Seventh-day Adventist Welfare Service (SAWS) in November 1956. The name was changed to Seventh-day Adventist World Service in 1973.  In 1983, the organisation was renamed the 'Adventist Development and Relief Agency' to better reflect its missions and activities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International Development Degree Program.", "content": "In 1996 ADRA and Andrews University established the ADRA Professional Leadership Institute (APLI). The institute provided field-based training and continuing professional education to ADRA staff around the world. By the year 2000, the APLI program was used as a model by the Food Aid Management members as an example of \"best practices for local capacity building.\" The model was well received by Africare, World Vision, and others. By 2003, the ADRA and Andrews University partnership offered a master's degree in International Development. More than 160 students had graduated. Sixty of those graduates had moved into management positions across the network. Seventh-day Adventist institutions of higher education on four continents offered degrees in International Development.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Nations.", "content": "The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) granted ADRA general Consultative Status in 1997.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Emergency Response.", "content": "So far in 2014, ADRA International has responded to approximately 60 emergencies worldwide, by which more than 127,000 people have directly benefited.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Adventist Development and Relief Agency International (ADRA or ADRA International) is a humanitarian agency operated by the Seventh-day Adventist Church for the purpose of providing individual and community development and disaster relief. It was founded in 1956, and it is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974886}
{"src_title": "Extraction (chemistry)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Laboratory applications and examples.", "content": "Liquid-liquid extractions in the laboratory usually make use of a separatory funnel, where two immiscible phases are combined to separate a solute from one phase into the other, according to the relative solubility in each of the phases. Typically, this will be to extract organic compounds out of an aqueous phase and into an organic phase, but may also include extracting water-soluble impurities from an organic phase into an aqueous phase.  Common extractants may be arranged in increasing order of polarity according to the Hildebrand solubility parameter:  ethyl acetate < acetone < ethanol < methanol < acetone:water (7:3) < ethanol:water (8:2) < methanol:water (8:2) < water  Solid-liquid extractions at laboratory scales can use Soxhlet extractors. A solid sample containing the desired compound along with impurities is placed in the thimble. An extracting solvent is chosen in which the impurities are insoluble and the desired compound has at least limited solubility. The solvent is refluxed and condensed solvent falls into the thimble and dissolves the desired compound which then passes back through the filter into the flask. After extraction is complete the solvent can be removed and the desired product collected.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Everyday applications and examples.", "content": "Boiling tea leaves in water extracts the tannins, theobromine, and caffeine out of the leaves and into the water, as an example of a solid-liquid extraction.  Decaffeination of tea and coffee is also an example of an extraction, where the caffeine molecules are removed from the tea leaves or coffee beans, often utilising supercritical fluid extraction with CO or standard solid-liquid extraction techniques.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Extraction in chemistry is a separation process consisting in the separation of a substance from a matrix. Common examples include \"liquid-liquid extraction\", and \"solid phase extraction\". The distribution of a solute between two phases is an equilibrium condition described by partition theory. This is based on exactly how the analyte moves from the initial solvent into the extracting solvent. The term \"washing\" may also be used to refer to an extraction in which impurities are extracted from the solvent containing the desired compound.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974887}
{"src_title": "Bohuslav Balbín", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Balbín was born in Hradec Králové into a middle class Roman Catholic family. He was educated mostly in the Jesuit schools, he soon joined the Society of Jesus. After finishing studies in philosophy at University of Olomouc, he taught in Jesuit colleges in Prague, Třeboň, Brno, Jičín, Jindřichův Hradec and Český Krumlov.  After writing of several textbooks and didactic theatre plays, he also became acquainted with historical sources of archives and libraries. His entire life was devoted to collecting and editing materials about Czech history, and his researches have often been utilized by the Bollandists. Balbín died, aged 66, in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "He wrote over thirty works, the most important from which is \"Miscellanea Historica regni Bohemiae\" (\"Varieties from the History of the Czech Kingdom\" \", 6 vols., Prague, 1679–87), in which he described the geography, natural history, and chief historical events of his native land. The work includes brief \"vitae\" of prominent Czechs. The sections of the work:  Bohuslav Balbín (Balbinus) is known in Czech Lands mostly for his \"Apology for the Slavic and especially Czech language\", written in Latin. He was the first to edit the ancient chronicle of the tenth century known as the \"Life of St. Ludmilla and Martyrdom of St. Wenceslas\", which is considered the oldest historical work written in the Czech lands by a Czech (written in Latin). Balbinus wrote also \"De archiepiscopis Bohemiae\" (\"The Archbishops of Bohemia\", Prague, 1682) and \"Bohemia Sancta, sive de sanctis Bohemiae, Moraviae, Silesiae, Lusatiae\" (\"Sacred Bohemia, or the Saints of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia\" Prague, 1682). His book \"Vita beatae Joannis Nepomuceni martyris\" (Life of Saint and martyr John of Nepomuk) was published in Prague, 1670, is in large part responsible for the developed legend of Saint John of Nepomuk. Balbin also wrote one reference book about stylistics (1666) and two works devoted to rhetoric (1677, 1688)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bohuslav Balbín (3 December 1621 Hradec Králové – 29 November 1688 Prague) was a Czech writer, historian, geographer and Jesuit, called the \"Czech Pliny\". He became well known also as an advocate of the Czech language in the time of incoming germanization of the Czech lands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974888}
{"src_title": "Yasnaya Polyana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early history.", "content": "The estate of Yasnaya Polyana was originally owned by the Kartsev family. In the 18th century, it was purchased by major-general Sergey Volkonskiy and then passed to his son, general-in-chief Prince Nikolai Volkonskiy, the grandfather of the writer. Nikolai lived in what is now known as the 'Volkonskiy house' before commencing to build the main, single-storey manor house in 1810, at the highest point of the estate. This was flanked by two two-storey wings, linked by decking. He also built stables, a coach-house, a bathhouse, summerhouse, and two orangeries linked by a gallery, and created a formal French garden, an English landscape garden with a cascade of ponds, and long avenues of birch and oak trees.  The house passed from Nikolai Volkonskiy to his only daughter, Maria Nikolayevna, the mother of Leo Tolstoy. Her husband, Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy, a veteran of the war against Napoleon in 1812, added a second storey to the house, providing accommodation for an extended family of thirteen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leo Tolstoy at Yasnaya Polyana.", "content": "Leo Tolstoy was born on September 9, at Yasnaya Polyana. His parents died when he was very young, and he was raised there by relatives. In 1854, to pay off gambling debts, Tolstoy sold the central part of the house to a neighbour, who dismantled it and rebuilt it on his own land. Only the two wings remained; Tolstoy occupied one while the other became dilapidated. He brought his wife there after their marriage in 1862.  At the time Tolstoy lived there, the Yasnaya Polyana estate comprised about, on a gently sloping hillside with dense original forest (The Forest of the Old Order) at the upper end, and a series of four ponds at different levels. The estate had four clusters of peasant houses for about 350 peasants living and working on the estate.  Tolstoy wrote \"War and Peace\" at Yasnaya Polyana between 1862 and 1869, and wrote \"Anna Karenina\" there between 1873 and 1877. He wrote the novels in his study by hand in very small handwriting, with many additions and deletions and notes, and gave the draft to his wife, who made a clean copy at night, which Tolstoy then rewrote the next day. Each chapter went through five or six drafts, and she recopied \"War and Peace\" seven times before it was finished. All the drafts were saved by his wife and are now in the Rumyantsev Museum in Moscow.  Tolstoy's thirteen children, of whom four died in childhood, were all born at Yasnaya Polyana. They were born on the same leather sofa where Tolstoy himself was born, which was kept in his study next to his writing desk, and is still there today.  When he was living and working at Yasnaya Polyana, Tolstoy awakened at 7:00 a.m. (07:00 local time), did physical exercises, and walked in the park, before starting his writing. During the harvest season he often worked in the fields with the peasants, both for physical exercise and to make his writing about peasant life more realistic. He also visited the school for peasant children which he had created in one building, where he told stories to the children.  Tolstoy entertained almost all the important Russian cultural and artistic figures of his time at Yasnaya Polyana. His guests are known to have included Anton Chekhov, Turgenev, Maxim Gorky, the painters Valentin Serov, and Ilya Repin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After Tolstoy's death.", "content": "In 1911, Tolstoy's widow Sofia Alexandrovna applied to Tsar Nicholas II to have Yasnaya Polyana made into a state museum. The Tsar refused, but did grant a pension to the family which allowed the house and estate to be preserved as they were.  In 1919, the Soviet Government formally put Yasnaya Polyana under the protection of the state, and in June 1921 Yasnaya Polyana was nationalized and became a state museum, receiving 3,147 visitors in its first year.  In October 1941, as the Germans approached Moscow, 110 crates filled with the exhibits of the museum were evacuated to Moscow, and then to Tomsk. The estate was occupied by the Germans for 45 days, who turned the Leo Tolstoy House into a hospital, and German soldiers who died in the hospital were buried around Tolstoy's grave. A fire during the occupation damaged the upper floor of the house. Following the war the estate was restored to the way it looked when Count Tolstoy lived there. Soviet propaganda made use of the Germans' disregard of the house's cultural value in the 1942 war documentary film \"Moscow Strikes Back\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Kuzminskiy wing.", "content": "The Kuzminsky wing, like the house of Leo Tolstoy, was originally part of the large house built by Tolstoy's father, and later demolished. In 1859 Tolstoy turned it into a school for the peasant children of his estate, where he practised his theories of education. After 1862, it became the home of the younger sister of his wife, Tatyana Andreyevna Kuzminskiy, and her family. By 1897 it had become dilapidated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Volkonskiy house.", "content": "The Volkonskiy house (not to be confused with the Volkonsky House in Moscow) is the oldest structure on the estate. It was used as a carpet factory at one time. During Tolstoy's time it housed the estate's servants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grave of Leo Tolstoy.", "content": "Long before he died Tolstoy announced the place where he wanted to be buried; in a small clearing called \"the place of the green wand\", next to a long ravine in a part of the old forest called the Forest of the Old Order (Старый Заказ, ) because cutting trees there had been forbidden since the time of his grandfather, and many trees there were over a hundred years old. The name 'place of the green wand' had been given by Tolstoy's older brother Nikolai, who said that the person who found the magic wand there would never die or be ill. He and his brother frequently sat in the darkness in the clearing and talked.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "The Bald Hills estate in \"War and Peace\", owned by Prince Bolkonsky and later by Nikolai Rostov, is modelled on Yasnaya Polyana. Yasnaya Polyana is one of four major cities in the Erangel map in the video game \"PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds\". It also features in the 1990 Jay Parini novel \"The Last Station\", and in the 2009 film version.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yasnaya Polyana (, literally: \"Bright Glade\") is a writer's house museum, the former home of the writer Leo Tolstoy. It is southwest of Tula, Russia, and from Moscow.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974889}
{"src_title": "Princess Mathilde of Saxony (born 1863)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "As a young girl, Mathilde was quiet and gentle, but she was not especially good-looking. Her father, George of Saxony, had planned a marriage between Mathilde and Archduke Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia, however Rudolf rejected this arrangement and instead married Princess Stéphanie of Belgium.  It was then agreed that Mathilde would marry a nephew of Emperor Franz Joseph I and the presumptive heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. However, Franz Ferdinand rejected this arrangement. Dynastic relations between the Saxon royal family and the Habsburgs were once again strained when Franz Ferdinand chose to marry (morganatically) Sophie Chotek, Countess Chotek of Wognin. (Relations between the two nations improved only when Mathilde's younger sister Maria Josepha married her second cousin, Archduke Otto Francis.)  Mathilde became embittered by these rejections and turned critical and waspish; she also turned to alcohol to ease her unhappiness, acquiring the nickname \"Schnapps-Mathilde\" for obvious reasons. She made life difficult for other members of the royal family, and as a consequence was the least popular of the family by a wide margin among the people of Saxony.  She was a talented painter and took lessons from the artist Alfred Diethe from 1890 to 1901. Some of her paintings, mainly landscapes and scenes of court life in Pillnitz, were made into prints. Others appeared on postcards, which were sold to raise money for charity.  Mathilde died unmarried on 27 March 1933 at the age of 70. She was interred in the \"New Tomb\" of the Katholische Hofkirche in Dresden.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Mathilde of Saxony, Duchess of Saxony (19 March 1863 – 27 March 1933) was the third child and third-eldest daughter of George of Saxony and his wife, Maria Anna of Portugal. She was an elder sister of the Kingdom of Saxony's last king, Frederick Augustus III of Saxony.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974890}
{"src_title": "InterContinental Hotels Group", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bass Hotels.", "content": "The origins of the business can be traced back to 1777, when William Bass established the Bass Brewery in Burton-upon-Trent. In 1875, its red triangle logo was the first ever trademark registered in the United Kingdom.  The company later changed its name and, in 1969, Bass Charrington, as it was known at the time, launched the Crest Hotel chain, marking its first entry into the lodging sector.  In 1988, the British government limited the number of pubs which brewers could directly own, resulting in Bass's further investing in the expansion of its hotel business. This led to it purchasing Holiday Inn International from shareholders.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "InterContinental.", "content": "Pan American Airways founder Juan Trippe established the American Intercontinental Hotels chain as a division of Pan Am and opened the first hotel in Belém, Brazil in 1946. On 19 August 1981, Pan Am sold the holding company Inter-Continental Hotels Corporation (IHC) to UK-based Grand Metropolitan for $50 million. As GrandMet focused its core business and expanded into fast food through the purchase of Burger King, it sold IHC to the Japanese-based Saison Group in 1988.  In March 1998, Saison Group sold IHC to the British brewery Bass. In 2000, Bass sold its brewing assets (and the rights to the Bass name) to the Belgian brewer Interbrew for £2.3 billion and changed its name to Six Continents.  In 2003, the independent corporation InterContinental Hotels Group (IHG) was created after Six Continents split into two companies: Mitchells & Butlers took control of the restaurant assets, while IHG focused on hotels and soft drinks. IHG retained Britvic, the soft drinks division, until December 2005 when it sold its interest in the company by an initial public offering. In April/May 2014, the company reportedly rejected a $10 billion takeover bid from a publicly unknown suitor, believed to be Starwood.  In April 2017, the company announced that it been the subject of a malware attack and hackers had stolen credit card details.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "The company worldwide headquarters and Europe offices are in Denham, Buckinghamshire in England. The Americas office is in Dunwoody, Georgia in Greater Atlanta. The South East Asia & Korea offices are in Singapore, Australasia offices in Sydney, Japan offices in Tokyo, India Middle East & Africa offices in Dubai, and the Greater China offices are in Pudong, Shanghai. In 2006, IHG and Lend Lease Group (Lend Lease US Public Partnerships), joined forces in the Privatization of Army Lodging program.  As of 2012, of IHG's more than 5,400 hotels, 4,433 are operated under franchise agreements, 907 were managed by the company but separately owned, and eight were directly owned. As at 31 March 2019, IHG has 842,759 guest rooms and 5,656 hotels across nearly 100 countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International boycott.", "content": "The InterContinental Hotels Group became the target of an international boycott campaign in May 2013, over their plan to operate an Intercontinental-brand luxury hotel in Lhasa, Tibet. According to campaigners from the Free Tibet campaign, the hotel was a \"PR coup for the Chinese government\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Price fixing.", "content": "In July 2012, the Office of Fair Trading alleged that IHG had broken competition law by preventing online travel agents from discounting the price of room-only hotel accommodation. In February 2014, IHG agreed to end the practice of price fixing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Data breach.", "content": "In February 2017, the hotel chain admitted to a data breach. They asserted that the compromise was minor, having impacted 12 properties. However, in April 2017 it raised the number to 1,200 hotels. The attackers had installed malware designed to access payment card data, which could be used to clone cards and make fraudulent payments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "VAT rules.", "content": "In May 2012, the UK Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) warned IHG that it must not use adverts showing prices for hotel rooms excluding VAT. Because the ASA thought the adverts were likely to be viewed by consumers who must pay VAT, it had decided the adverts were misleading. It ordered IHG that the ads must not appear in their current form again. However, in August 2012, a report by \"Which?\" magazine showed that the hotel chain was still breaching VAT rules.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Living wage.", "content": "In November 2017, the Mayor of London, Sadiq Khan, accused the hotel chain of reneging on a commitment to pay the living wage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food poisoning.", "content": "In July 2016 Intercontinental Adelaide was responsible for giving at least 70 diners salmonella food poisoning. Twenty-one of these people had to be treated at hospital.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hygiene standards.", "content": "In September 2017 a consumer rights group accused Intercontinental Beijing Sanlitun of substandard hygiene conditions. Specifically during an undercover operation they had marked bed linen and toilets with an invisible stamp. Upon returning the next day the marks were still there.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loyalty scheme.", "content": "In April 2015 IHG changed the terms and conditions of their Priority Club. Up until then the points were awarded for life and members were told that they would never expire. Following the change, points will now expire if no 'earn' or'redeem' activity occurs within 12 consecutive months. Many of those members never received any communication about the change and their points expired.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Brands.", "content": "IHG Group has several brands, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable properties.", "content": "The Crowne Plaza Liverpool John Lennon Airport is the former terminal building of Liverpool Speke Airport, constructed in the 1930s and used until 1986. Its notable art deco features led to its listing as a heritage building, and subsequent adaption as a hotel.  The hotel in the Wilshire Grand Tower in downtown Los Angeles is the largest InterContinental in the Americas and the tallest building in Los Angeles.  The InterContinental Davos is well known for its modern architecture.  The Hotel International Prague was owned by the InterContinental Hotels Group, until being sold in 2014.  InterContinental Group is eliminating the travel-sized tubes of shampoo, conditioner and bath gel from its 843,000 rooms across its global chain of hotels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "IHG Rewards Club.", "content": "IHG Rewards Club is the loyalty programme for over 5,600 hotels under the IHG umbrella. There are three elite tiers of IHG rewards club which include Gold Elite, Platinum Elite and Spire Elite.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "InterContinental Hotels Group plc, informally InterContinental Hotels or IHG, is a British multinational hospitality company headquartered in Denham, Buckinghamshire, England. IHG has about 842,749 guest rooms and 5,656 hotels across nearly 100 countries. IHG owns several brands, including InterContinental, Regent Hotels, Six Senses Hotels, Kimpton Hotels and Resorts, Hualuxe, Crowne Plaza, voco Hotels, Hotel Indigo, Holiday Inn, Holiday Inn Express, Holiday Inn club vacations, avid, Candlewood Suites, EVEN Hotels, and Staybridge Suites. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974891}
{"src_title": "Minié ball", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Designs.", "content": "The Minié ball is a conical bullet with three exterior grease-filled grooves and a conical hollow in its base. The bullet was designed by Minié with a small iron plug and a lead skirting. Its intended purpose was to expand under the pressure of the powder deflagration, pressing the skirt out to grip the rifling, and secondarily to obturate the barrel and increase muzzle velocity.  The precursor to the Minié ball was created in the 1830s by the French Army captains Montgomery and Henri-Gustave Delvigne. Their design was made to allow rapid muzzle loading of rifles, an innovation that brought about the widespread use of the rifle rather than the smoothbore musket as a mass battlefield weapon. Delvigne had invented a ball that could expand upon ramming to fit the grooves of a rifle in 1826. The design of the ball had been proposed in 1832 as the cylindro-conoidal bullet by Captain John Norton, but had not been adopted.  Captain James H. Burton, an armorer at the Harpers Ferry Armory, developed an improvement on Minié's design when he added a deep cavity at the base of the ball, which filled up with gas and expanded the bullet's rim upon firing. The result was not only better range, but also a cheaper bullet, which was used in the Crimean War and then the American Civil War. Burton's version of the ball weighed 1.14 ounces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "The bullet could be quickly removed from the paper cartridge with the gunpowder poured down the barrel and the bullet pressed past the muzzle rifling and any detritus from prior shots. It was then rammed down the barrel with the ramrod, which ensured that the charge was packed and the hollow base was filled with powder. When the rifle was fired, the expanding gas pushed forcibly on the base of the bullet, deforming the skirt to engage the rifling. This provided spin for accuracy, a better seal for consistent velocity and longer range, and cleaning of barrel detritus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effects.", "content": "Wounds inflicted by the conical Minié ball were different from those caused by the round balls from smoothbore muskets, since the conical ball had a higher muzzle velocity and greater mass, and easily penetrated the human body. Round balls tended to remain lodged in the flesh, and they were often observed to take a winding path through the body. Flexed muscles and tendons, as well as bone, could cause the round ball to deviate from a straight path. The Minié ball tended to cut a straight path and usually went all the way through the injured part; the ball seldom remained lodged in the body. If a Minié ball struck a bone, it usually caused the bone to shatter. The damage to bones and resulting compound fractures were usually severe enough to necessitate amputation. A hit on a major blood vessel could also have serious and often lethal consequences.  One of the more famous documented cases involving Minié ball injuries concerned a Confederate soldier wounded during Jubal Early's raid on Washington, D.C. on July 12, 1864. The soldier, a private in the 53rd North Carolina Infantry, was hit in the side of the head by a.58 caliber Minié ball, which shattered his skull and lodged in the right hemisphere of the brain. He went into convulsions and became paralyzed on one side of his body, but started recovering within eight days of being hospitalized. However, within three more days, his condition deteriorated and he eventually lost consciousness and died, having survived with his wound for 16 days. An autopsy of the soldier found that the right hemisphere of the brain was extensively damaged and large areas of it had necrosed. The brain was removed, preserved in formaldehyde and donated to the Army Museum in Washington. The primary cause of death had been infection caused by both the initial injury and subsequent necrosis of brain tissue. With 21st-century medical treatment, the soldier might well have survived with some degree of physical disability.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Minié ball, or Minni ball, is a type of muzzle-loading spin-stabilized bullet for rifled muskets named after its developer, Claude-Étienne Minié, inventor of the French Minié rifle. It came to prominence in the Crimean War and American Civil War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974892}
{"src_title": "Nepeta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Most of the species are herbaceous perennial plants, but some are annuals. They have sturdy stems with opposite heart-shaped, green to gray-green leaves. \"Nepeta\" plants are usually aromatic in foliage and flowers.  The tubular flowers can be lavender, blue, white, pink, or lilac, and spotted with tiny lavender-purple dots. The flowers are located in verticillasters grouped on spikes; or the verticillasters are arranged in opposite cymes, racemes, or panicles – toward the tip of the stems.  The calyx is tubular or campanulate, they are slightly curved or straight, and the limbs are often 2-lipped with five teeth. The lower lip is larger, with 3-lobes, and the middle lobe is the largest. The flowers have 4 hairless stamens that are nearly parallel, and they ascend under the upper lip of the corolla. Two stamen are longer and stamens of pistillate flowers are rudimentary. The style protrudes outside of the mouth of the flowers.  The fruits are nutlets, which are oblong-ovoid, ellipsoid, ovoid, or obovoid in shape. The surfaces of the nutlets can be slightly ribbed, smooth or warty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected species.", "content": "Species include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Some \"Nepeta\" species are cultivated as ornamental plants. They can be drought tolerant – water conserving, often deer repellent, with long bloom periods from late spring to autumn. Some species also have repellent properties to insect pests, including aphids and squash bugs, when planted in a garden.  \"Nepeta\" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including \"Coleophora albitarsella\", and as nectar sources for pollinators, such as honey bees and hummingbirds.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nepeta is a genus of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae. The genus name is reportedly in reference to Nepete, an ancient Etruscan city. There are about 250 species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974893}
{"src_title": "Monte Carlo Rally", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1911 beginnings and controversy.", "content": "In 1909 the \"Automobile Club de Monaco\" (\"Sport Automobile Velocipédique Monégasque\") started planning a car rally at the behest of Albert I, Prince of Monaco. The Monte Carlo Rally was to start at points all over Europe and converge on Monte Carlo. In January 1911 23 cars set out from 11 different locations and Henri Rougier was among the nine who left Paris to cover a route. The event was won by Rougier in a Turcat-Méry 25 Hp. The rally comprised both driving and then somewhat arbitrary judging based on the elegance of the car, passenger comfort and the condition in which it arrived in the principality. The outcry of scandal when the results were published changed nothing, so Rougier was proclaimed the first winner.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1966 controversy.", "content": "The 1966 event was the most controversial in the history of the Rally. The first four finishers, driving three, Timo Mäkinen, Rauno Aaltonen and Paddy Hopkirk, and Roger Clark's 4th-placed Ford Cortina were all disqualified because they used non-dipping single filament quartz iodine bulbs in their headlamps, in place of the standard double filament dipping glass bulbs, which are fitted to the series production version of each models sold to the public. This elevated Pauli Toivonen (Citroën ID) into first place overall. Rosemary Smith (Hillman Imp) was also disqualified from sixth place, after winning the \"Coupe des Dames\", the ladies' class. In all, ten cars were disqualified. Teams threatened to boycott the event. The headline in \"Motor Sport\" read \"The Monte Carlo Fiasco.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent history.", "content": "From 1973 to 2008 the rally was held in January as the first event of the FIA World Rally Championship, but between 2009 to 2011 it has been the opening round of the Intercontinental Rally Challenge (IRC) programme, a championship for N/A 4WD cars, before returning to the WRC championship season again in 2012. As recently as 1991, competitors were able to choose their starting points from approximately five venues roughly equidistant from Monte Carlo (one of Monaco's administrative areas) itself.  With often varying conditions at each starting point (typically comprising dry tarmac, wet tarmac, snow, and ice, sometimes all in a single stage of the rally), this event places a big emphasis on tyre choices, as a driver has to balance the need for grip on ice and snow with the need for grip on dry tarmac. For the driver, this is often a difficult choice as the tyres that work well on snow and ice normally perform badly on dry tarmac.  The Automobile Club de Monaco confirmed on 19 July 2010 that the 79th Monte-Carlo Rally would form the opening round of the new Intercontinental Rally Challenge season. To mark the centenary event, the Automobile Club de Monaco has also confirmed that Glasgow, Barcelona, Warsaw and Marrakesh have been selected as start points for the rally.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Col de Turini.", "content": "This rally features one of the most famous special stages in the world. The stage is run from La Bollène-Vésubie to Sospel, or the other way around, over a steep and tight mountain road with many hairpin turns. On this 31km route it passes over the \"Col de Turini\", a mountain pass road which normally has ice and/or snow on sections of it at that time of the year. Spectators also throw snow on the road—in 2005, Marcus Grönholm and Petter Solberg both ripped a wheel off their cars when they skidded on snow probably placed there by spectators, and crashed into a wall. Grönholm went on to finish fifth, but Solberg was forced to retire as the damage to his car was extensive. In the same event, Sébastien Loeb set one of the fastest times in the modern era, with 21 minutes 40 seconds.  Sospel has an elevation of 479m, and the D70 has a maximum elevation of 1603m, for an average gradient of 6.7%. The Turini is also driven at night, with thousands of fans watching the \"Night of Turini\", also known as the \"Night of the Long Knives\" due to the strong high beam lights cutting through the night. In the 2007 edition of the rally, the Turini was not used, but it returned for the 2008 route. For both the 2009 and 2010 event the stage was run at night and shown live on Eurosport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Past winners.", "content": "\"(list by driver / co-driver and vehicle type)\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Monte Carlo Rally or Rallye Monte Carlo (officially Rallye Automobile de Monte-Carlo) is a rallying event organised each year by the Automobile Club de Monaco which also organises the Formula One Monaco Grand Prix and the \"Rallye Monte-Carlo Historique\". The rally now takes place along the French Riviera in the Principality of Monaco and southeast France. Previously, competitors would set off from all four corners of Europe and 'rally', in other words, meet, in Monaco to celebrate the end of a unique event. From its inception in 1911 by Prince Albert I it was an important means of demonstrating improvements and innovations to automobiles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974894}
{"src_title": "Marlo Morgan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "\"Mutant Message Down Under\".", "content": "Marlo Morgan self-published a book in 1990 titled \"Mutant Message Down Under\", which purported to chronicle the journey of a middle-aged, white, American woman with a group of 62 desert Aborigines, the \"Real People\", across the continent of Australia. The author states the book was written after the fact inspired by actual experience.  \"Mutant Message Down Under\" quickly attained word of mouth popularity with the New Age movement in the United States, was picked up for bookstore distribution by Bookpeople, then consequently picked up by giant publishing firm HarperCollins, and marketed as fiction by them. Nearly a million copies of the HarperCollins publication have been sold around the world. Morgan completed many lecture tours promoting the book in the United States and Europe. In her lectures Ms Morgan speaks of her actual experience with the \"Real People\" and states she is an Aborigine.  According to the 90-page report published by the Perth-based \"Dumbartung Aboriginal Corporation\", a survey of Aboriginal groups in Central and Western Australia failed to uncover any indication whatsoever of Ms Morgan’s presence in the area or of the existence of the \"Real People\" tribe. They claim that Aboriginal groups believe Ms Morgan’s desert journey to be fabricated and that her book and teaching lack credibility. The \"Dumbartung Aboriginal Corporation\" stated that it was deeply offensive to Aboriginal people for a white person to be misrepresenting Aboriginal culture for self-promotion and profit. Aboriginal people expressed anger that Ms Morgan’s false message is being accepted as fact by a naive American and European market and were extremely concerned about the resulting long-term implications for their culture.  In 1996 a group of Aboriginal elders, seriously disturbed by the book's implications, received a grant to travel to the States and confront Marlo Morgan about her book and to try to prevent a Hollywoodisation of it. She admitted publicly that she had faked it but this received little publicity in the USA. The Aboriginal people are angry that this book continues to be promoted and sold widely because it gives a false picture of their traditional culture and of their current political and social status. This is regarded as damaging to their struggle for survival.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marlo Morgan (born September 29, 1937) is an American author, best known for the bestselling book \"Mutant Message Down Under\". She has also written \"Message from Forever\" (1998), another novel based on Australian Aboriginal themes. In 1996, she was confronted about the veracity of her book by Aborginal protesters and admitted the stories from her books were fake.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974895}
{"src_title": "Robert Sean Leonard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Leonard was born in Westwood, New Jersey, to Joyce Patricia (née Peterson), a nurse, and Robert Leonard, a teacher at Collier High School. He grew up in Ridgewood, where he attended Ridgewood High School before moving on to Fordham University and later the Columbia University School of General Studies. He studied theatre at HB Studio.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Because he shares his birth name with another actor, Leonard modified his name for his Screen Actors Guild membership with \"Sean\", the name of his brother.  Leonard is a three-time Tony Award nominee, winning Best Featured Actor in a Play in 2001 for his role as A. E. Housman in Tom Stoppard's \"The Invention of Love\". He had a prior association with Stoppard's work, playing the role of Valentine in the New York premiere of \"Arcadia\" at Lincoln Center in 1995. His 2003 Tony nomination was for his portrayal of Edmund Tyrone in a well-received revival of Eugene O'Neill's \"Long Day's Journey Into Night\" that co-starred Philip Seymour Hoffman, Brian Dennehy and Vanessa Redgrave. Leonard has also appeared in Broadway musical productions, in 2001 replacing Craig Bierko as the lead performer in a revival of \"The Music Man\". On February 8, 2011, it was announced that Leonard would co-star as Paul Verrall in the 2011 Broadway revival of \"Born Yesterday\" beginning in March.  In 1997, Leonard received rave reviews for his role in the Christopher Reeve-directed television film \"In the Gloaming\". \"Entertainment Weekly\" said that, in the film, Leonard \"does a first-rate job of juggling Danny's mixture of despair, neediness, and mordant jokiness.\"  From 2004, he played Dr. James Wilson, head of the oncology department, on the FOX TV series \"House\", until the series ended in 2012. In 2007 Leonard appeared on \"Entertainment's Weekly\"s 100 list as \"Dr. Underrated.\"  In 2016, Leonard played King Arthur in David Lee's adaptation of the musical \"Camelot\" at the Westport Country Playhouse in Westport, Connecticut. From February to April 2017, he appeared in the Broadway revival of \"Sunday in the Park with George\" as Jules/Bob.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Leonard maintains a close friendship with \"House\" co-star Hugh Laurie. He is also a friend since childhood of Ethan Hawke, his costar in \"Dead Poets Society\" and \"Tape\". Hawke and Leonard founded the Malaparte theater company, along with James Waterston, Steve Zahn, and Frank Whaley. Leonard has been married to Gabriella Salick since 2008. They have two daughters: Eleanor (born 2009) and Claudia (born 2012).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Lawrence Leonard (born February 28, 1969), known by his stage name Robert Sean Leonard, is an American actor. He is known for playing Dr. James Wilson in the television series \"House\" (2004–2012) and Neil Perry in the film \"Dead Poets Society\". Leonard won a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play for his performance in \"The Invention of Love\" in 2001. His other theater credits include \"Candida\", \"Long Day's Journey Into Night\", \"Breaking the Code\", \"The Speed of Darkness\", \"Philadelphia, Here I Come!\", \"Arcadia\", \"The Music Man\", \"Born Yesterday\", and \"To Kill a Mockingbird\". From 2013 to 2014, Leonard had a recurring role as Dr. Roger Kadar on the television series \"Falling Skies\". He also starred as the leading role in \"Swing Kids\" and played Peter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974896}
{"src_title": "Rastislav of Moravia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "According to the \"Annals of Fulda\", Rastislav was a nephew of Mojmir I, the first known ruler of Moravia. His career before 846 is unknown, but it is conceivable that he served as a hostage for his uncle at Louis the German's court. The latter invaded Moravia in 846, deprived Mojmir I of his throne, and installed Rastislav as the new duke of Moravia. Rastislav seems to have already been Christian when he became duke, but there is no doubt that he was baptized at the latest in 846 as part of the conditions for his support by the East Frankish king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Towards independence.", "content": "In the first eight years of Rastislav's reign there is no report of Moravian rebellion, which suggests that he remained loyal to Louis the German. In this period Rastislav seems to have acquired new territories in the east and established a border with the First Bulgarian Empire. According to the \"Annals of St-Bertin\", in 853 Charles the Bald, king of West Francia, bribed the Bulgarians to ally with the Slavs (apparently the Moravians) and together attack Louis the German's kingdom. In the course of the Bulgarian–Moravian attack, Louis the German deposed his prefect of the Eastland, Ratpot, who soon allied with Rastislav. The alliance suggests that, by this time, Rastislav felt secure enough to challenge Frankish overlordship.  In 855 the East Frankish king gathered a large army to invade Moravia. His army, however, foundered before the walls of one of Rastislav's strongholds, perhaps at Mikulčice (now in the Czech Republic) that seems to have been rebuilt in the previous years. Unprepared for a prolonged siege, the king was forced to withdraw from the region. As the king was retreating, his army defeated a large Moravian force that attacked his camp. Nevertheless, Rastislav's army followed the Franks and pillaged many of their estates on the river Danube. In 856 Louis the German turned over the command of the southeastern marches of his kingdom to his son, Carloman with the responsibility to hold the Moravians in check. According to the \"Annals of Fulda\", Carloman led a new expedition against Rastislav in 858, but this campaign was also a failure, for Rastislav remained defiant. Carloman even struck an alliance with Rastislav against his father.  Pribina, the Slavic \"dux\" of Lower Pannonia, died fighting the Moravians in 861, which suggests that Carloman also had conceded this province to Rastislav. In response to the ongoing rebellion of his son and Rastislav, Louis the German negotiated a counteralliance with Boris I of Bulgaria. The king made it seem that he was leading a new campaign against Rastislav, but at the last moment he moved against Carloman, who thus had no choice but to surrender.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius.", "content": "In order to increase his maneuverability, Rastislav attempted to curtail the activities of the Frankish missionaries in his realm. For this purpose, in around 862 he turned first to Rome. Having met with no success, he then asked for \"teachers\" in Constantinople, in order to educate local Moravians as priests. His embassy also emphasized the need for \"teachers\" capable of working in Slavic language.  Rastislav's request was granted when Constantine and Methodius, two brothers who had learned the Slavic dialect spoken in Thessaloniki (Greece), arrived with a few disciples in Moravia in 863. The two brothers undertook the task assigned to them by using the Slavonic language for teaching and for divine mass, and Constantine even created a script for the Slavs. The Frankish clergy soon came to realize that the activities of the two Byzantine brothers represented a threat to their influence. As the Byzantine missionaries enjoyed Rastislav's protection, Louis the German dispatched Bishop Solomon of Constance to Rome where he described how the diocese of Passau had been \"fragmented and brought to ruin\" by the defection of the Moravians.  Louis the German was also planning to launch a major campaign against Rastislav with the support of Boris I of Bulgaria. Although at the last minute the latter pulled out of the campaign, Louis' new expedition against Rastislav was a success. In August 864 Louis the German invaded Moravia, crossing the Danube to besiege the \"civitas Dowina\" (identified, although not unanimously, with Devín Castle in Slovakia). The king apparently took Rastislav by surprise, and trapped him within the fortress. Unable to escape the Frankish siege, Rastislav surrendered, turned over a numerous high-ranking hostages and swore a new oath of fidelity.  The king's campaign, however, did not result in the subjugation of Rastislav. In 865, according to the \"Annals of St-Bertin\", Louis the German sent his hosts against the \"Wends\" (Slavs), and the \"Annals of Fulda\" reports for the same year that Werner, a count in Upper Pannonia, was summoned before the king, accused of conspiring with Rastislav. In late 866 Constantine and Methodius departed from Moravia for Venice where the pope's envoys persuaded them to come to Rome. Here Pope Hadrian II approved their Slavic translations of the Scriptures, consecrated their Slavic disciples as priests, and even allowed them to sing the Slavic liturgy in Rome's churches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Last years.", "content": "Early in 868 Louis the German's son Carloman fought two successful engagements against Rastislav and returned with plunder. In August the king himself was planning to invade Moravia again, but he suddenly fell ill. Now the king's youngest son, Charles the Fat, advanced on Rastislav's stronghold and burned all of his fortifications, seized treasures, and defeated all who came against him in battle. By that time, according to the \"Annals of Fulda\", Rastislav, who had earlier granted his \"old city\" to his nephew Svatopluk, ruled from his \"indescribable fortress\" that might be identified with Mikulčice (Czech Republic). In 869 Pope Hadrian II who had decided to revive the archdiocese of Illyricum consecrated Methodius archbishop of Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) and papal legate of all the Slavs living in the territories ruled by Rastislav, Svatopluk and Pribina's son, Koceľ.  Svatopluk, in the meantime, entered into negotiations with Carloman without Rastislav's knowledge, and accepted Carloman's lordship over his person and his realm. Rastislav was \"beside himself with rage\" when he learned of his nephew's betrayal, and arranged for assassins to strangle Svatopluk at a banquet. The latter, however, was warned of the plan and evaded death by pretending to go hawking. When Rastislav set out with his soldiers to hunt down his nephew, Svatopluk captured his uncle and sent him in bonds to Carloman.  Rastislav was dispatched under guard to Regensburg (Louis' capital city) while Carloman invaded Rastislav's realm and subdued all of his fortresses. Louis the German had Rastislav presented to him bound with a heavy chain. While the assembled Franks, Bavarians, and Slavs condemned Rastislav to death for treason, the king commuted his punishment to blinding and imprisonment. Rastislav died in prison. Rastislav was canonised in 1994 by the Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church in Prešov.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rastislav or Rostislav, also known as St. Rastislav, (Latin: \"Rastiz\", Greek: Ῥασισθλάβος / \"Rhasisthlábos\") was the second known ruler of Moravia (846–870). Although he started his reign as vassal to Louis the German, king of East Francia, he consolidated his rule to the extent that after 855 he was able to repel a series of Frankish attacks. Upon his initiative two brothers, Cyril and Methodius. sent by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III in 863, translated the most important Christian liturgical books into Slavonic. Rastislav was dethroned by his nephew Svatopluk I of Moravia, who handed him over to the Franks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974897}
{"src_title": "Brazilian aircraft carrier São Paulo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The aircraft carrier \"São Paulo\" was built in France between 1957 and 1960, and served in the French Navy as \"Foch\". In September 2000, she was purchased by Brazil for US$30 million – no aircraft were included in the price – to replace the aged World War II-era carrier, which had been in commission for over 40 years. Brazil had previously approached other countries, such as Spain, who wanted to construct a US$500 million carrier for Brazil, about the acquisition of a carrier. The government had already purchased a flotilla of 23 used A-4 Skyhawk fighter planes from Kuwait for $70 million; these planes, along with existing helicopters already in the national defense inventory, were to compose the \"São Paulo\" fighter-bomber group. These A-4s (designated AF-1) are capable of carrying armament including rockets, free-fall bombs, and Sidewinder air-to-air missiles.  The \"Clemenceau\"-class aircraft carriers, of which \"São Paulo\" is the last surviving member, are of conventional CATOBAR design. The flight deck is long by wide; the landing area is angled at 8 degrees off of the ship's axis. The forward aircraft elevator is to starboard, and the rear elevator is positioned on the deck edge to save hangar space. The forward of two catapults is on the bow to port; the second catapult is farther back on the angled landing deck. The hangar deck dimensions are by with overhead.  In September 2000, \"São Paulo\" was purchased while still operational, an unusual process for such a large ship. She was received by the Brazilian Navy and was incorporated into the Brazilian Navy on 15 November 2000. The incorporation of \"São Paulo\" and the AF-1 fighter group marked the realization of Brazil's long-held goal of being able to conduct aerial defense of its naval forces with fixed-wing aircraft.  President Fernando Henrique Cardoso noted during the transfer ceremony that: Since her construction, \"São Paulo\" has received multiple upgrades, leaving her with a diverse range of technologies.  The carrier arrived in Rio de Janeiro on 17 February 2001.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brazilian service.", "content": "In her first three years of service as \"São Paulo\", the ship completed several missions, some in foreign waters, particularly Operations ARAEX, PASSEX, and TEMPEREX, which is used annually to qualify and train the Argentine Navy's Super Étendards and S-2T Turbo Trackers.  Toward the end of its commissioned life, \"São Paulo\" mainly served to train pilots to fly carrier operations. She was actively used for the qualification and re-qualification of rotary and fixed-wing pilots (with about 500 catapult launches), and she was used during the first Brazilian exercises to practice carrier-based attack missions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2005 fire.", "content": "On 17 May 2005, an explosion took place in the steam network of the engine room. The explosion initially killed one crew member and injured ten others. All casualties were airlifted by helicopter to the Marcilio Dias Naval Hospital, Rio de Janeiro. Two of the injured crew later died in hospital from their injuries. Cause of the explosion was a rupture in the steam pipeline. After this accident, the Navy decided to undertake an extensive overhaul to repair and modernize the ship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Upgrade (2005–2010) and sea trials.", "content": "During 2005–10, \"São Paulo\" underwent extensive modernization. The upgrade included inspection and repair of the steam turbines; maintenance of the surface condensers; retubing of boilers; repair of two high-pressure compressors; revision of the AC electrical generator; purchase of spare parts; maintenance of pumps, valves, and structural items; addition of two API oil-water separators; installation of two water cooling units; upgrade of the chemical oxygen generator; repair and treatment of oil tanks; substitution of the Naval Tactical Data System; installation of a closed-circuit television system; installation of an IFF transponder; installation of a MAGE system (ESM); flight deck inspection, repair, and painting; upgrade of the Optical Landing System processing unit; and revision of the aircraft catapults. The upgrade was completed in July 2009, and the \"São Paulo\" was initially due to be fully operational by August 2010.  Twelve Brazilian Navy A-4 Skyhawks were also scheduled to be upgraded by Embraer at a cost of $140 million. The upgrade was similar to the ones done for the AMX and F-5EM aircraft of the Brazilian Air Force. The program included restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar (specifically the Elta 2032 radar system), power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. Possible weapons to be included in the upgrade were MAA-1B, Python 4, and Derby AAMS.  The Brazilian Navy contracted Marsh Aviation to convert four S-2T Turbo Trackers to an airborne early warning (AEW) configuration, and four more for tanking and Carrier Onboard Delivery duties.  According to an article in the October 2010 issue of Air Forces Monthly, it has been confirmed that Brazil has purchased ex-Australian and ex-Uruguayan C-1 Trader airframes, for conversion into AEW planes and Tanker aircraft. All of the planes were to be upgraded to S-2T Turbo Tracker configuration with Honeywell TPE 331-14GR engines. The purchase included nine airframes, of which two were for tanker conversion to refuel the AF-1 Skyhawks, and three were for AEW. The rest were purchased as for spares or for cargo duties. The AEW radar requirement was to have a range of 250 miles at 25,000 feet. Operational lifespan for the airframes was to be 10 years. They were expected to be ready in 2011 and 2012.  \"São Paulo\"s SH-3 helicopter fleet was to be replaced by six S-70B Seahawk helicopters. They were purchased in 2008, upgraded, and refurbished for delivery. The helicopters and a package of engines and support equipment were scheduled for delivery in 2009.  At the end of 2010, sea trials began, and as of 2011 \"São Paulo\" had been evaluated by the CIASA (Inspection Commission and Training Advisory).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Refit and decommissioning (2012–2018).", "content": "\"São Paulo\" was expected to rejoin the fleet in late 2013, but suffered another major fire in 2012. As of September 2016, she continued to undergo repairs; the commander of the Brazilian Navy, Admiral Eduardo Leal Ferreira, said plans were in place to renew the carrier's propulsion system. The ship's catapult was also reported to have problems. On 14 February 2017, the Navy announced the ship would be demobilised and subsequently decommissioned, citing the uneconomical cost of further repairs. The Brazilian Navy formally decommissioned the aircraft carrier NAe \"São Paulo\" on 22 November 2018. As of February 2020, there is an effort to turn the ship into a museum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Crew.", "content": "\"São Paulo\"s complement is 1,920 (the ship's company is 64 officers and 1274 sailors, with an additional 582 in the air group).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "NAe São Paulo (pennant number A12) was a in service with the Brazilian Navy. \"São Paulo\" was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy as and was transferred in 2000 to Brazil, where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. IHS Jane's reported that during its career with the Brazilian Navy, \"São Paulo\" suffered from serviceability issues and never managed to operate for more than three months at a time without the need for repairs and maintenance. On 14 February 2017, the navy announced the ship's demobilisation and subsequent decommissioning.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974898}
{"src_title": "Han Dongfang", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and work.", "content": "Han graduated high school in Beijing but did not attend college or university. Despite this, Han was an avid reader of everything from Greek to Chinese classics and worked as an assistant librarian at Beijing Normal University. In 1983, attracted by higher wages, Han began a job at the Fengtai Locomotive Maintenance Section in Beijing. While working there Han's feelings about workers' rights were emboldened, as he saw China's \"savage\" economic policies had a lack for regard for China's \"society and environment.\" Because of this, Han believed that workers needed to protect and represent their own interests, which most likely served as a key incentive for him to join the BWAF.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public Security Soldiers Corps.", "content": "In 1980, Han decided to join the \"Gong An Bing\", or Public Security Soldiers Corps. After going through basic training at the Qinghe prison labor camp, Han was given command of a squad consisting of 12 men. During an annual review of the camp, Han claimed that officers were stealing a third of the food rations from his men, and that his men were also being beaten and abused. Han then claimed that these acts were in violation of Chairman Mao's teachings that officers and soldiers should share good and bad fortunes and be treated as equals. Han's application to join the Communist Party was then allegedly destroyed by a battalion commandant the following day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tiananmen Square.", "content": "On April 17, 1989, Han gave a speech at the Tiananmen Square protests that praised the moral courage of the students at the Square and advocated for the protection and constitutional right for Chinese workers to freely organize. During this speech, Han also focused his attention towards the People’s Liberation Army, claiming that the army and the people \"are like fish and water\" and should not antagonize or attack one another. While it was considered normal for many workers to hide their identities in the early stages of the protests, Han gave his name freely to those who asked. Han said he did this because he felt like he needed to set an example and encourage others to own their words and be prepared to \"face the consequences\" for what they said. Han made more impromptu speeches throughout the movement, often accompanied by his wife Chen Jingyun.  Despite Han’s speeches and fervor for the movement, many student protesters at Tiananmen Square were apprehensive and questioned whether or not workers should be welcome or permitted into the Tiananmen protests. Many of the student leaders, particularly the security members, were concerned about the movement being infiltrated by government agents or police who would purposefully provoke violence or \"hooliganism.\" Likewise, many students felt that the movement needed to remain solely run by students to avoid giving the government grounds for accusing them of trying to start a revolution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beijing Workers' Autonomous Federation.", "content": "Han joined the movement and became a leader within BWAF when its membership numbered just a few hundred. Han and Li Jinjin wrote appeals for workers and students to join together in the Tiananmen protests. The BWAF tried to read some of these documents on the student owned loudspeakers in Tiananmen Square, but were turned down by the students. Undeterred, the BWAF pooled their money together and bought their own hand cranked system to use as a loudspeaker.  Han said that he saw the BWAF as an opportunity to educate workers about China's constitution and how much of their rights were not put into practice. Han did not have much faith that the BWAF or the Tiananmen Protests would survive very long, but he felt that the BWAF was important since its legacy would live on through the workers who would be educated about China's constitution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Han's arrest after Tiananmen protests.", "content": "After finding out he was at the top of the most wanted list, Han wanted to avoid the \"humiliation\" of being tracked down the police and turned himself in to \"straighten out\" the police and tell them what really happened at the protests. Han then spent 22 months in prison, where he often debated with interrogators and prison guards about the formation of the Tiananmen protests, particularly about the protests’ spontaneous rather than planned nature. Han was freed in 1992 after an international campaign pressured the Chinese government to release him to the United States for treatment of tuberculosis, which he contracted while imprisoned. Han then attempted to travel back to China but was expelled to Hong Kong, where he founded the \"China Labor Bulletin\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Han Dongfang (born 1963) is a Chinese advocate for workers' rights. He won the 1993 Democracy Award from the U.S. National Endowment for Democracy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974899}
{"src_title": "Mojmir II of Moravia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Mojmir succeeded his father Svatopluk I as the king of Great Moravia in 894. At the same time, the Principality of Nitra was given as an appanage to his brother Svatopluk II. But Svatopluk II, supported by Arnulf of Carinthia, king of East Francia, rebelled against Mojmir II in 895 and again in 897, when he concluded an agreement of cooperation with Arnulf. As a result, Mojmir II attacked his brother, but was defeated by East Frankish troops sent to support Svatopluk II's rebellion.  Weakened by internal conflict, Great Moravia lost its peripheral territories: It ceded the Balaton Principality to the Eastern Franks in 894, after Magyar tribes had looted this region. Bohemia, seceding from Great Moravia in the following year, became Arnulf’s vassal, and Lusatia followed suit in 897. Another danger emerged, when Magyars crossed the Carpathians to settle permanently in the Carpathian Basin (895/896). In 896, they settled or were settled in the scarcely populated territories of Great Moravia, residing around the upper/middle Tisza River in 900/901. After several looting raids in Europe, they moved to Transdanubia.  Despite these disasters, Mojmir managed to consolidate his power. In 898 he asked the Pope to consecrate new Great Moravian clerics in order to decrease the influence of Bavarian clerics in his country. The Bavarians (Eastern Franks), upset by the 898 demand, sent troops to Great Moravia, which Mojmir defeated. Moreover, Mojmir captured the still rebellious Svatopluk II, but the latter was eventually rescued by the Bavarian troops, with whom he fled to Germany.  After the death of Arnulf, the Pope finally sent his legates to consecrate a Great Moravian archbishop and three bishops in 899, thus decreasing the influence of the Bavarian clergy. The only thing we know about them is that the archbishop allowed liturgies to be conducted in Old Church Slavonic again (i.e., as opposed to Latin liturgies) and one of them had his seat in Nitra.  As mentioned above, in 900 the Magyars invaded Transdanubia (a former Great Moravian territory occupied by Franks) and raided Bavaria together with Mojmir’s troops. Eastern Francia was compelled to conclude a peace treaty with Great Moravia in 901 and Mojmir was reconciled with his brother, who is assumed to have returned to Great Moravia about this time. The peace treaty with the Eastern Franks also put an end to wars between Great Moravia and the Frankish vassal Bohemia lasting since 895. When and whether the territory that is now southern Poland seceded from Great Moravia is unknown.  Nevertheless, the Magyars became dangerous for both Eastern Francia and Great Moravia. Mojmir stopped their attacks in 902 and 906. In 904, he was even assisted by a Bavarian contingent. Mojmir II and Svatopluk II probably died in 906, a year of intense warfare with the Magyars.  In 907, the Magyars routed the Bavarian army at the three battles of Bratislava. Mojmir or any name of a successor is not mentioned in connection with these important battles.  After 907 the Great Moravian Empire began to disintegrate. The remnants of the core territory of Great Moravia were divided between the newly established states of Bohemia and the Kingdom of Hungary, and small local rulers continued to rule for some decades in the mountains of what is now Slovakia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mojmir II (Latin: \"Moymirus\", Czech and Slovak: \"Mojmír II.\", born after 871, died after 901) was a member of the House of Mojmir and since 894 the last known ruler of Great Moravia. He probably died in the beginning of the 10th century in a battle against the Magyars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974900}
{"src_title": "Topher Grace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Grace was born in New York City, the son of Pat, an assistant to the schoolmaster of the New Canaan Country School, and John Grace, a Madison Avenue executive. He has a sister, Jenny.  Grace grew up in Darien, Connecticut, where actress Kate Bosworth was a middle-school friend, and actress Chloë Sevigny—who later appeared with him in high school stage plays—was sometimes his babysitter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Grace was cast as Eric Forman on Fox's \"That '70s Show\", which debuted in 1998. He played the role until the show's 8th and final season. His character was written out and replaced with a new character named Randy Pearson (Josh Meyers). Grace made a brief guest appearance in the final episode.  Grace played a prep school student who used marijuana and introduced his girlfriend to freebasing in director Steven Soderbergh's 2000 film \"Traffic\", as well as having uncredited cameos as himself in Soderbergh's \"Ocean's Eleven\" and its 2004 sequel, \"Ocean's Twelve\". \"The joke is that you're supposed to play the worst version of yourself and I don't think too many people are comfortable with that. I never thought for a second that people were really going to think that's what I was like. I think that people will know that I was faking it in those movies\", he told \"Flaunt\" magazine in 2007.  He planned to cameo in \"Ocean's Thirteen\". However, due to his role in \"Spider-Man 3\", he had to abandon these plans. As Grace said, \"I was doing reshoots on \"Spider-Man 3\". I was bummed. I actually talked to Steven Soderbergh about that and we had a thing and then I couldn't do it.\" He appeared in director Mike Newell's 2003 film \"Mona Lisa Smile\". In 2004, Grace played the leading roles in \"Win a Date with Tad Hamilton!\" and \"In Good Company\". That same year, he starred in \"P.S.\", which received only a limited theatrical release. Grace won the National Board of Review's 2004 award for Breakthrough Performance Actor for his work in \"In Good Company\" and \"P.S.\"  On January 15, 2005, Grace hosted \"Saturday Night Live\".  In 2007, Grace portrayed Eddie Brock/Venom in \"Spider-Man 3\", directed by Sam Raimi. Grace himself was a fan of the comics and read the Venom stories as a child. In 2009, Grace became the subject of a recurring column on the entertainment/pop culture site \"Videogum\", entitled \"What's Up With Topher Grace?\"  In 2010, Grace appeared in the ensemble comedy \"Valentine's Day\" and played the character of Edwin in \"Predators\".  In 2011, Grace appeared in the 1980s retro comedy \"Take Me Home Tonight\". He co-wrote the script and co-produced the film. Grace also starred opposite Richard Gere in the spy thriller \"The Double\".  In 2012, Grace starred alongside Mary Elizabeth Winstead and Matthew Gray Gubler in the social film \"The Beauty Inside\", which won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding New Approach to an Original Daytime Program or Series in 2013. The film was directed by Drake Doremus and written by Richard Greenberg.  In 2014, Grace starred in the indie thriller \"The Calling\", alongside Susan Sarandon, and appeared in Christopher Nolan's sci-fi adventure \"Interstellar\", in a supporting role.  In October 2013, Grace joined HBO comedy pilot \"People In New Jersey\" with Sarah Silverman, but in January 2014, the pilot was passed on.  Grace co-starred in the comedy film \"American Ultra\" (2015), alongside Jesse Eisenberg and Kristen Stewart, playing a CIA agent. That same year, he co-starred in \"Truth\", with Robert Redford and Cate Blanchett, and based on the story of CBS's \"60 Minutes\" report that George W. Bush had received preferential treatment to keep him out of the Vietnam War. Grace played Mike Smith, a researcher on the story.  In January 2018, Grace joined the supernatural-thriller \"Delirium\", which centers on a man recently released from a mental institute who inherits a mansion after his parents die. After a series of disturbing events, he comes to believe it is haunted.  In 2019, he played Billy Bauer in the 2nd episode of \"Black Mirror\"’s 5th season, titled \"Smithereens\".  In 2020, Grace was cast in ABC's \"Home Economics\" pilot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editing and \"Lou's Cafe\".", "content": "Grace has long held an interest in making his own edits of popular films, particularly those involving \"Star Wars.\" He has stated that this has become a source of relaxation for him. His edits were shared on his now-gone pop-culture website, Cereal Prize.  In 2012, he edited the \"Star Wars\" Prequel trilogy into one 85-minute film, titled \"Star Wars: Episode III.5: The Editor Strikes Back\" and showed it to select audiences. The edit utilized original footage, music from the series, and a portion from Anthony Daniels' audiobook recordings.  In 2014, he created a cut of \"Boogie Nights\" that served as a reconstruction of the character Brock Landers' fake movie \"Angels Live in My Town\".  In 2018, he created his own edit of \"The Hobbit\", stating that “I think that maybe \"The Hobbit\" should’ve been one movie, and many people would agree. Money drives a lot of those franchises. It's better when the art leads”. He specifically edited this as a way to relax while portraying David Duke in Spike Lee's \"BlacKkKlansman\".  In 2019, Grace and editor Jeff Yorkes started a Twitter account for \"Lou's Cafe\", the pseudonym by which the two credit their work. The name comes from the diner featured in the film \"Back to the Future\". Later that year, he and Yorkes were commissioned by Pixar to edit a retrospective for \"Toy Story 4\", which was titled \"Toy Story 4 Ever\" and released on Pixar's YouTube account.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Grace started dating actress Ashley Hinshaw in January 2014, and the two became engaged in January 2015. On May 29, 2016, Grace and Hinshaw married near Santa Barbara, California. On August 1, 2017, Hinshaw confirmed that she and Grace were expecting their first child. Their daughter, Mabel Jane Grace, was born on November 1, 2017. On January 5, 2020, Hinshaw confirmed that she and Grace are expecting their second child together.  Grace is a supporter of FINCA International, a microfinance organization.<ref name=\"http://www.finca.org/\">Topher Grace about FINCA on Jimmy Fallon, finca.org, March 20, 2011.</ref", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christopher John \"Topher\" Grace ( ; born July 12, 1978) is an American actor. He is known for playing Eric Forman in the Fox sitcom \"That '70s Show\", Eddie Brock / Venom in Sam Raimi's film \"Spider-Man 3\", Pete Monash in \"Win a Date with Tad Hamilton!\", Carter Duryea in \"In Good Company\", Edwin in \"Predators\", Getty in \"Interstellar\", Adrian Yates in \"American Ultra\", and David Duke in Spike Lee's film \"BlacKkKlansman\". His other film roles include \"Traffic\", \"Mona Lisa Smile\", \"Valentine's Day\", \"Take Me Home Tonight\", \"The Big Wedding\", \"War Machine\" and \"Breakthrough\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974901}
{"src_title": "Temple of Saturn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Construction of the temple is thought to have begun in the later years of the Roman Kingdom under Tarquinius Superbus. Its inauguration by the consul Titus Lartius took place in the early years of the Republic, making it the oldest Republican temple after the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The altar of Saturn, which stood in front of the temple, is thought to have been much older and was associated with Saturn's founding of the city on the Capitoline Hill. The temple was completely reconstructed by Munatius Plancus in 42 BC.  The present ruins represent the third phase of the Temple of Saturn, which was built after a fire in 360 AD. The extant inscription on the frieze commemorates this restoration undertaken after the fire. This late 4th century rebuilding reflects pagan revivalism during this time period. The temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire.  In Roman mythology, Saturn ruled during the Golden Age, and he continued to be associated with wealth. His temple housed the treasury, the \"aerarium\", where the Roman Republic's reserves of gold and silver were stored. The state archives and the insignia and official scale for the weighing of metals were also housed there. Later, the \"aerarium\" was moved to another building, and the archives transferred to the nearby \"Tabularium\". The temple's podium, constructed out of concrete covered with travertine, was used for posting bills.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Collapse has left little standing but the remains of the front porch. The partially preserved pediment displays the inscription:  meaning \"The Senate and People of Rome restored [the temple] consumed by fire.\" The pediment and eight surviving columns represent one of the iconic images of Rome's ancient architectural heritage. Except for the Ionic columns capitals carved in the Late Antique style, all of the materials remaining were taken from other buildings. Examples of the \"spolia\" used to construct the Temple of Saturn include Egyptian granite column shafts and a late Republican acanthus frieze.  Based on other cult images of Saturn, the statue of the god in the interior was veiled and equipped with a scythe. The image was made of wood and filled with oil. The legs were covered with bands of wool which were removed only on December 17, the day of the Saturnalia. On this feast day, slaves were allowed temporary freedom and family members exchanged gifts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Temple of Saturn (Latin: \"Templum Saturni\" or \"Aedes Saturni\"; ) was an ancient Roman temple to the god Saturn. Its ruins stand at the foot of the Capitoline Hill at the western end of the Roman Forum. The original dedication of the temple is traditionally dated to 497 BC, but ancient writers disagreed greatly about the history of this site.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974902}
{"src_title": "Münster rebellion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rebellion.", "content": "After the German Peasants' War (1524–1525), a forceful attempt to establish theocracy was made at Münster, in Westphalia (1532–1535). Here the group had gained considerable influence, through the adhesion of Bernhard Rothmann, the Lutheran pastor, and several prominent citizens; and the leaders, Jan Matthys (also spelled Matthijs, Mathijsz, Matthyssen, Mathyszoon), a baker from Haarlem, and Jan Bockelson (or Beukelszoon), a tailor from Leiden. Bernhard Rothmann was a tireless and vitriolic opponent of Catholicism and a writer of pamphlets that were published by his ally and wealthy wool merchant Bernhard Knipperdolling. The pamphlets at first denounced Catholicism from a radical Lutheran perspective, but soon started to proclaim that the Bible called for the absolute equality of man in all matters including the distribution of wealth. The pamphlets, which were distributed throughout northern Germany, successfully called upon the poor of the region to join the citizens of Münster to share the wealth of the town and benefit spiritually from being the elect of Heaven.  With so many adherents in the town, at the elections for the magistracy, Rothmann and his allies had little difficulty in obtaining possession of the town, and placing Bernhard Knipperdolling as the mayor after deposing the mainly Lutheran magistrates, who, until then, had seen him as an ally in their own distrust of, and dislike for, Catholics. Matthys was a follower of Melchior Hoffman, who, after Hoffman's imprisonment at Strasbourg, obtained a considerable following in the Low Countries, including Bockelson, who became known as John of Leiden. John of Leiden and Gerrit Boekbinder had visited Münster, and returned with a report that Bernhard Rothmann was there teaching doctrines similar to their own. Matthys identified Münster as the \"New Jerusalem\", and on January 5, 1534, a number of his disciples entered the city and introduced adult baptism. Rothmann apparently accepted \"baptism\" that day, and well over 1000 adults were soon baptised. Vigorous preparations were made, not only to hold what had been gained, but to spread their beliefs to other areas. The many Lutherans who left were outnumbered by the arriving Anabaptists, there was an orgy of iconoclasm in cathedrals and monasteries, and rebaptism became compulsory. The property of the emigrants was shared out with the poor and soon a proclamation was issued that all property was to be held in common.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Siege.", "content": "The city was then besieged by Franz von Waldeck, its expelled bishop. In April 1534 on Easter Sunday, Matthys, who had prophesied God's judgment to come on the wicked on that day, made a sally forth with only twelve followers, believing that he was a second Gideon, and was cut off with his entire band. He was killed, his head severed and placed on a pole for all in the city to see, and his genitals nailed to the city gate.  The 25-year-old John of Leiden was subsequently recognized as Matthys' religious and political successor, justifying his authority and actions by the receipt of visions from heaven. His authority grew, eventually proclaiming himself to be the successor of David and adopting royal regalia, honors and absolute power in the new \"Zion\". There were at least three times as many women of marriageable age as men now in the town and he made polygamy compulsory and himself took sixteen wives. (John is said to have beheaded Elisabeth Wandscherer in the marketplace for refusing to marry him; this act might have been falsely attributed to him after his death.) Meanwhile, most of the residents of Münster were starving as a result of the year-long siege.  After lengthy resistance, the city was taken by the besiegers on June 24, 1535 and John of Leiden and several other prominent Anabaptist leaders were captured and imprisoned. In January 1536 John of Leiden, Bernhard Knipperdolling and one more prominent follower, Bernhard Krechting, were tortured and executed in the marketplace of Münster. Their bodies were exhibited in cages, which hung from the steeple of St. Lambert's Church. The bones were removed later, but the cages hang there still.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The Münster Rebellion was a turning point for the Anabaptist movement. It never again had the opportunity of assuming political importance, as both Catholic and Lutheran civil powers adopted stringent measures to counter this. It is difficult to trace the subsequent history of the group as a religious body, through changes in the names used and beliefs held.  The Batenburgers under Jan van Batenburg preserved the violent millennialist stream of Anabaptism seen at Münster. They were polygamous and believed force was justified against anyone not in their sect. Their movement went underground after the suppression of the Münster Rebellion, with members posing as Catholics or Lutherans as necessary. Some nonresistant Anabaptists found leaders in Menno Simons and the brothers Obbe and Dirk Philips, Dutch Anabaptist leaders who repudiated the distinctive doctrines of the Münster Anabaptists. This group eventually became known as the Mennonites after Simons. They rejected any use of violence and preached a faith based on compassion and love of enemy.  In August 1536 the leaders of Anabaptist groups influenced by Melchior Hoffman met in Bocholt in an attempt to maintain unity. The meeting included followers of Batenburg, survivors of Münster, David Joris and his sympathisers, and the nonresistant Anabaptists. At this meeting the major areas of dispute between the sects were polygamous marriage and the use of force against non-believers. Joris proposed compromise by declaring the time had not yet come to fight against the authorities, and that it would be unwise to kill any non-Anabaptists. The gathered Anabaptists agreed to the compromise of no more force, but the meeting did not prevent the fragmentation of Anabaptism.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Münster rebellion (, \"Anabaptist dominion of Münster\") was an attempt by radical Anabaptists to establish a communal sectarian government in the German city of Münster then under the large Prince-Bishopric of Münster in the Holy Roman Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974903}
{"src_title": "Nikolay Semyonov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Semyonov was born in Saratov, the son of Elena Dmitrieva and Nikolai Alex Semyonov. He graduated from the department of physics of Petrograd University (1913–1917), where he was a student of Abram Fyodorovich Ioffe. In 1918, he moved to Samara, where he was enlisted into Kolchak's White Army during Russian Civil War.  In 1920, he returned to Petrograd and took charge of the electron phenomena laboratory of the Petrograd Physico-Technical Institute. He also became the vice-director of the institute. In 1921, he married philologist Maria Boreishe-Liverovsky (student of Zhirmunsky). She died two years later. In 1923, Nikolay married Maria's niece Natalia Nikolayevna Burtseva. She brought Nikolay a son (Yuri) and a daughter (Lyudmila).  During that difficult time, Semyonov, together with Pyotr Kapitsa, discovered a way to measure the magnetic field of an atomic nucleus (1922). Later the experimental setup was improved by Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach and became known as Stern–Gerlach experiment.  In 1925, Semyonov, together with Yakov Frenkel, studied kinetics of condensation and adsorption of vapors. In 1927, he studied ionisation in gases and published an important book, \"Chemistry of the Electron\". In 1928, he, together with Vladimir Fock, created a theory of thermal disruptive discharge of dielectrics.  He lectured at the Petrograd Polytechnical Institute and was appointed Professor in 1928. In 1931, he organized the Institute of Chemical Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences (which moved to Chernogolovka in 1943) and became its first director. In 1932, he became a full member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Significant works.", "content": "Semyonov's outstanding work on the mechanism of chemical transformation includes an exhaustive analysis of the application of the chain theory to varied reactions (1934–1954) and, more significantly, to combustion processes. He proposed a theory of degenerate branching, which led to a better understanding of the phenomena associated with the induction periods of oxidation processes.  Semyonov wrote two important books outlining his work. \"Chemical Kinetics and Chain Reactions\" was published in 1934, with an English edition in 1935. It was the first book in the U.S.S.R. to develop a detailed theory of unbranched and branched chain reactions in chemistry. \"Some Problems of Chemical Kinetics and Reactivity\", first published in 1954, was revised in 1958; there are also English, American, German, and Chinese editions. In 1956, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (together with Sir Cyril Norman Hinshelwood) for this work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours and awards.", "content": "Semyonov was also an Honorary Doctor of several universities: Oxford (1960), Brussels (1962), London (1965), Budapest Technical University (1965), Polytechnic Institute of Milan (1964) and others.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov (or Semënov), (; – 25 September 1986) was a Russian/Soviet physicist and chemist. Semyonov was awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on the mechanism of chemical transformation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974904}
{"src_title": "Pierre Clostermann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Clostermann was born in Curitiba, Brazil, into a French diplomatic family. He was the only son of Madeleine Carlier from Lorraine and Jacques Clostermann from Alsace. After receiving flying tuition from German pilot Karl Benitz (died in 1943, Russia), he completed his secondary education in France and gained his private pilot's licence in 1937.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "On the outbreak of war in 1939 the French authorities refused his application for service, so he travelled to Los Angeles to become a commercial pilot, studying at the California Institute of Technology. Clostermann joined the in the United Kingdom in March 1942. After training at RAF Cranwell and 61 OTU, Clostermann, a sergeant pilot, was posted in January 1943 to No. 341 Squadron RAF (known to the Free French as \"Groupe de Chasse n° 3/2 \"Alsace\"\"), flying the Supermarine Spitfire.  He scored his first two victories on 27 July 1943, destroying two Focke-Wulf Fw 190s over France. In October 1943, Clostermann received a commission as an officer, and was assigned to the British No. 602 Squadron RAF, remaining with the unit for the next ten months. He flew a variety of missions including fighter sweeps, bomber escorts, high-altitude interdiction over the Royal Navy's Scapa Flow base, and strafing or dive-bombing attacks on V-1 launch sites on the French coast. He flew air-cover for the through Normandy Landings, and was one of the first Free French pilots to land on French soil, at temporary airstrip B-11, near Longues-sur-Mer, Normandy on 18 June 1944. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross shortly afterwards, after which he was reassigned to French Air Force Headquarters. In December 1944 he returned to the front line on re-secondment to the Royal Air Force as a supernumerary flight lieutenant. He joined No. 274 Squadron RAF flying the new Hawker Tempest Mk V. In an aircraft which he named \"Le Grand Charles\", Clostermann flew an intensive and highly successful round of fighter sweeps, airfield attacks, \"rat scramble\" interceptions of Messerschmitt 262 jet fighters, and rail interdiction missions over northern Germany over the next two months.  In March 1945 he briefly served with No. 56 Squadron, before transfer to No. 3 Squadron. On 24 March 1945 he was wounded in the leg by German flak, and after belly-landing his badly damaged aircraft was hospitalized for a week. From 8 April 1945 he was commander of \"A\" Flight, No. 3 Squadron RAF. He was awarded a bar to his DFC.  On 12 May 1945 during a victory fly-past to mark the war's conclusion, another Tempest collided with his, and as a result an air pile-up occurred with four close formation low-flying aeroplanes of his flight involved, with three pilots being killed. Clostermann bailed out, his parachute opening just a few yards above the ground. He continued operations with No. 122 Wing RAF until he left the military altogether on 27 July 1945 with the RAF rank of wing commander and the French rank of \"lieutenant\".  In his 432 sorties, Clostermann was credited officially with 33 victories (19 solo, 14 shared, most of them against fighters) and five \"probables\", with eight more \"damaged\". He also claimed 225 motor vehicles destroyed, 72 locomotives, five tanks, and two E-boats (fast torpedo boats). Many references credit him with 29 to 33 victories, although these probably include his \"ground\" kills of enemy aircraft. Recent, more detailed analysis of his combat reports and squadron accounts indicate that his actual score was 11 destroyed, with possibly another seven, for a total of 15–18 victories.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Clostermann authored an account of his wartime experiences entitled \"Le Grande Cirque\" (translated into English and published as \"The Big Show\"). One of the very first post-war fighter pilot memoirs, its various editions have sold over two and a half million copies. William Faulkner commented that this is the finest aviation book to come out of World War II. The book was reprinted, in expanded form, in both paperback and hardcover editions in 2004. It was also adapted in comic book form by Manuel Perales, in close collaboration with Clostermann. Clostermann also wrote \"Feux du Ciel\" (\"Flames in the Sky\") published in 1957, a collection of heroic air combat exploits from both Allied and Axis sides.  After the war, Clostermann continued his career as an engineer, participating in the creation of Reims Aviation, supporting the Max Holste Broussard prototype, acting as a representative for Cessna, and working for Renault.  He served eight terms as a \"député\" (Member of Parliament) in the French National Assembly between 1946 and 1969.  He also briefly re-enlisted in the \"Armée de l'Air\" in 1956–57 to fly ground-attack missions during the Algerian War. He subsequently published a novel based on his experiences there, entitled \"Leo 25 Airborne\".  During the Falklands War in early 1982 comments publicly emerged from Clostermann expressing praise for the courage displayed by Argentine Air Force and Argentine Navy pilots during their air-to-sea attacks on the Royal Navy. Clostermann had written the comments, which were partly motivated by ethnic insults towards Argentinians that he had become aware of in the British press during the conflict, in a letter to a class of Argentine fighter-pilots who were being trained at that time in France at an Armée de l'Air establishment, at which his son was an instructor. The private letter's comments, from a renowned World War II military hero, swiftly found their way across the Atlantic Ocean to Buenos Aires, where they were published in newspapers as war propaganda. As a result of this perceived \"betrayal\" of his links with the United Kingdom via his war service in the Royal Air Force, Clostermann attracted hostility from parts of the British press.  He also attracted controversy in France for his vehement anti-war stance in the run-up to the 1991 Gulf War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Clostermann died on 22 March 2006 at his home at Montesquieu-des-Albères, in the French Pyrenees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private life.", "content": "Closterman was married and had three sons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "On 6 June 2004, a road in Longues-sur-Mer, near temporary airstrip B-11, was named after Clostermann.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Henri Clostermann (28 February 1921 – 22 March 2006) was a World War II French fighter pilot. During the conflict he achieved 33 air-to-air combat victories, earning the accolade \"France's First Fighter\" from General Charles de Gaulle. His wartime memoir, \"The Big Show (Le Grand Cirque)\" became a notable bestseller. After the war, he worked as an engineer and was a Member of France's Parliament.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974905}
{"src_title": "Aden Adde", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early Life and Career.", "content": "Daar was born on December 9, 1908, in the town of Beledweyne, situated in the south-central Hiraan region of Somalia. He hails from the Udejeen clan of Hawiye. He was an orphan, who lost his parents at a young age. Osman Daar, was an avid reader, and self taught on many subjects. He spoke Arabic, Somali, and Italian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Somali Youth League.", "content": "Daar joined the incipient Somali Youth League (SYL) political party in 1944, a nationalist organization that campaigned for an independent Somalia. Quickly rising through the ranks, he became the local secretary of the SYL's Beledweyne branch in 1946. A decade later, he became Chairman of the National Legislative Assembly, and would eventually lead the SYL itself two years afterwards.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "By the time Somalia gained its independence in 1960, Daar had attained widespread prominence as a nationalist figure. In short order, he was elected the country's first President, a position he would assume from 1960 to 1967. In the 1967 presidential election, Daar was defeated by Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, his former Prime Minister. His term as president ended on July 6, 1967. Daar accepted the loss graciously, making history as the first head of state in Africa to peacefully hand over power to a democratically elected successor.  Shermarke was assassinated two years later by one of his own bodyguards. The slaying led to an unopposed, bloodless coup d'état by the Somali Army on October 21, 1969, the day after Shermarke's funeral. Spearheading the putsch was Major General Muhammad Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manifesto.", "content": "In 1990, with the start of the civil war, Daar along with former Minister of Information Ismail Jim'ale Osoble, former Minister of Education Hassan Ali Mire, and about 100 other Somali politicians signed a manifesto expressing concern over the violence and advocating reconciliation. Daar was summarily arrested, and remained imprisoned until the ultimate collapse of Barre's regime the following year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "After his release, Daar spent the better part of his later years on his farm in Janale, in southern Somalia.  On May 22, 2007, it was erroneously reported that he had died in a hospital in Nairobi, Kenya. He was, however, in critical condition and on life support. Daar died in hospital on June 8, 2007, at the age of 98.  The Transitional Federal Government, then headed by former President of Somalia Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, declared 21 days of mourning, complete with a national memorial service, and issued a statement that Daar would receive a state funeral. It also renamed Mogadishu International Airport to Aden Adde International Airport in his honor.  President Adde is the longest-lived Somali President.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aden Abdulle Osman Daar (, ) (December 9, 1908 – June 8, 2007), popularly known as Aden Adde, was a Somali politician who served as the first president of Somalia from July 1, 1960 to July 6, 1967. A leader of the Mudug Regional Council, he was the first President of the Somali Republic present-day known as Somalia. He previously served in the Somali Youth League In 1944. In 1946, he was named Secretary of the party's section in Beledweyne, Somalia. In 1951, the Mudug Regional Council appointed him for the Regional Council, and two years later, he became Vice President of the Regional Council. In 1944, he joined the Somali Youth League. From 1954 until 1956, he was the President of the Somali Youth League. He was re-elected in May of 1958, and he continued to hold this position simultaneously along with that of President of the Legislative Assembly until 1960.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974906}
{"src_title": "Strega Prize", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1944 Maria and Goffredo Bellonci started to host a literary salon at their home in Rome. These Sunday gatherings of writers, artists and intellectuals grew to include many of the most notable figures of Italian cultural life. The group became known as the \"Amici della Domenica\", or ‘Sunday Friends’. In 1947 the Belloncis, together with Guido Alberti, owner of the firm which produces the Strega liqueur, decided to inaugurate a prize for fiction, the winner being chosen by the Sunday friends.  The activities of the Bellonci circle and the institution of the prize were seen as marking a tentative return to ‘normality’ in Italian cultural life: a feature of the reconstruction which followed the years of Fascism, war, occupation and liberation.  The first winner of the Strega, elected by the Sunday Friends, was Ennio Flaiano, for his first and only novel \"Tempo di uccidere\", which is set in Africa during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. It has been translated into English as \"The Short Cut\".  Maria Bellonci published a history of the Strega prize, titled \"Come un racconto gli anni del premio Strega\", in 1971.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The selection process.", "content": "Since the death of Maria Bellonci in 1986, the prize has been administered by the \"Fondazione Maria e Goffredo Bellonci\". The members of the now 400-strong prize jury, drawn from Italy’s cultural elite, are still known as the Sunday Friends. For a book to be considered it must have the support of at least two Friends. This initial long list is whittled down at a first ballot to a short list of five. The second round of voting, followed by the proclamation of the victor, takes place on the first Thursday in July in the nymphaeum of the Villa Giulia, Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sponsorship.", "content": "Telecom Italia have joined Liquore Strega as sponsors of the prize.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Premio Strega speciale, 2006.", "content": "In 2006, the seventieth year of the Strega Prize, a special award was made to the Constitution of Italy, a document which was drawn up and approved during 1946, the year of the Strega’s birth. The award was received by former President of the Italian Republic Oscar Luigi Scalfaro.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Strega Prize ( ) is the most prestigious Italian literary award. It has been awarded annually since 1947 for the best work of prose fiction written in the Italian language by an author of any nationality and first published between 1 May of the previous year and 30 April.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974907}
{"src_title": "Tarragon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "French tarragon is the variety used for cooking in the kitchen and is not grown from seed, as the flowers are sterile; instead it is propagated by root division.  Russian tarragon (\"A. dracunculoides\" L.) can be grown from seed but is much weaker in flavor when compared to the French variety. However, Russian tarragon is a far more hardy and vigorous plant, spreading at the roots and growing over a meter tall. This tarragon actually prefers poor soils and happily tolerates drought and neglect. It is not as strongly aromatic and flavorsome as its French cousin, but it produces many more leaves from early spring onwards that are mild and good in salads and cooked food. Russian tarragon loses what flavor it has as it ages and is widely considered useless as a culinary herb, though it is sometimes used in crafts. The young stems in early spring can be cooked as an asparagus substitute. Horticulturists recommend that Russian tarragon be grown indoors from seed and planted out in the summer. The spreading plants can be divided easily.  A better substitute for French tarragon is Spanish tarragon (\"Tagetes lucida\"), also known as Mexican mint marigold, Mexican tarragon, Texas tarragon, or winter tarragon. It is much more reminiscent of French tarragon, with a hint of anise. Although not in the same genus as the other tarragons, Spanish tarragon has a stronger flavor than Russian tarragon that does not diminish significantly with age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "Tarragon has an aromatic property reminiscent of anise, due to the presence of estragole, a known carcinogen and teratogen in mice. The European Union investigation revealed that the danger of estragole is minimal even at 100–1,000 times the typical consumption seen in humans. Estragole concentration in fresh tarragon leaves is about 2900 mg/kg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary use.", "content": "Tarragon is one of the four \"fines herbes\" of French cooking, and is particularly suitable for chicken, fish, and egg dishes. Tarragon is the main flavoring component of Béarnaise sauce. Fresh, lightly bruised sprigs of tarragon are steeped in vinegar to produce tarragon vinegar.  Tarragon is used to flavor a popular carbonated soft drink in the countries of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (where it originally comes from) and, by extension, Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan. The drink, named Tarkhuna, is made out of sugary tarragon concentrate and colored bright green.  Tarragon is one of the main ingredients in Chakapuli, Georgian national dish.  In Iran, tarragon is used as a side dish in sabzi khordan (fresh herbs), or in stews and in Persian style pickles, particularly khiar shoor (pickled cucumbers).  In Slovenia, tarragon is used in a variation of the traditional nut roll sweet cake, called \"potica\". In Hungary a popular kind of chicken soup is flavored with tarragon.  \"cis\"-Pellitorin, an isobutyramide eliciting a pungent taste, has been isolated from the tarragon plant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "\"A. dracunculus\" oil contained predominantly phenylpropanoids such as methyl chavicol (16.2%) and methyl eugenol (35.8%). Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of the essential oil revealed the presence of \"trans\"-anethole (21.1%), α-\"trans\"-ocimene (20.6%), limonene (12.4%), α-pinene (5.1%), \"allo\"-ocimene (4.8%), methyl eugenol (2.2%), β-pinene (0.8%), α-terpinolene (0.5%), bornyl acetate (0.5%) and bicyclogermacrene (0.5%) as the main components. The organic compound capillin was initially isolated from \"Artemisia capillaris\" in 1956.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quotes.", "content": "James Andrew Beard, American cookbook author, teacher, syndicated columnist and television personality, was quoted as saying, \"I believe that if ever I had to practice cannibalism, I might manage if there were enough tarragon around.\"  Fernand Point, French chef and restaurateur, was quoted as saying \"A Bearnaise sauce is simply an egg yolk, a shallot, a little tarragon vinegar, and butter, but it takes years of practice for the result to be perfect.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tarragon (\"Artemisia dracunculus\"), also known as estragon, is a species of perennial herb in the sunflower family. It is widespread in the wild across much of Eurasia and North America, and is cultivated for culinary and medicinal purposes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974908}
{"src_title": "2007 World Men's Handball Championship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Stadiums.", "content": "12 German cities were hosts for the 2007 Championship. The most modern stadiums – spread all over the country – had been selected. The final match took place in the \"Kölnarena\" in Cologne (\"Köln\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification.", "content": "\"2007 World Men's Handball Championship – qualification\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tournament structure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary round.", "content": "The 24 competing teams will be drawn into six preliminary groups of four teams each, and the matches in the preliminary round are scheduled to be held from 20 to 22 January. The two top teams from each group then proceed to the main round, while the third and fourth-placed teams play in the Presidents-Cup.  On 14 July 2006, the groups of the tournament were determined:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidents-Cup.", "content": "The teams placed third and fourth in the preliminary round groups are divided into four groups of three teams, as such:  The matches are scheduled for 24 to 26 January. On 28 January, the winners of group I and II then play each other for the 13th place, the runners-up play each other for the 15th place, and the third-placed play off for 17th place. The Group III and IV teams play off for 19th, 21st and 23rd place in the same fashion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Main round.", "content": "The main round is scheduled for 24 to 28 January, and the teams will be divided into two groups of six teams. The teams carry forward match results from matches against the other team from their group to qualify for the main round. Four teams from each main round group qualify for the quarter-finals.  No placement matches for the places 9 to 12 are scheduled.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Knockout stage.", "content": "The knockout stage is scheduled to make up the last week of the tournament, starting on Tuesday 30 January and continuing until Sunday 4 February. The quarter-finals are set up so that the winner of one group will face the fourth-placed team in the other. Semi-finals and consolation matches are held on 1 February; two days later, the 5th and 7th place play-offs take place on 3 February, with the 3rd place play-off and final is scheduled for the following day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Seedings.", "content": "The seedings for the preliminary round have been partially determined; the full seedings will be revealed when all qualifying matches have been played. Currently, the following seedings (in IHF terminology, \"performance row\") have been confirmed:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2007 World Men's Handball Championship took place from 19 January to 4 February 2007 in Germany. 24 national teams played in 12 German cities. It was the 20th edition of the World Championship in team handball and was won by the hosts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974909}
{"src_title": "Bertrade de Montfort", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "She was the daughter of Simon I de Montfort and Agnes of Evreux. Her brother was Amaury de Montfort.  In speaking of Fulk IV, Count of Anjou, the chronicler John of Marmoutier would recount: The lecherous Fulk then fell passionately in love with the sister of Amaury de Montfort, whom no good man ever praised save for her beauty.  Bertrade and Fulk were married, and they became the parents of a son, Fulk.  However, in 1092 Bertrade left her husband to live with King Philip I of France. Philip married her on 15 May 1092, despite the fact that they both had spouses living. He was so enamoured of Bertrade that he refused to leave her even when threatened with excommunication. Pope Urban II did excommunicate him in 1095, and Philip was prevented from taking part in the First Crusade.  According to Orderic Vitalis, Bertrade was anxious that one of her sons succeed Philip, and sent a letter to King Henry I of England asking him to arrest her stepson Louis. Orderic also claims she sought to kill Louis, first through the arts of sorcery and then by poison. Whatever the truth of these allegations, Louis succeeded Philip in 1108. William of Malmesbury says: Bertrade, still young and beautiful, took the veil at Fontevraud Abbey, always charming to men, pleasing to God, and like an angel. She lived on until 1117.  Her son from her first marriage, Fulk V of Anjou, later became King of Jerusalem \"iure uxoris\". The dynasties founded by Fulk's sons ruled for centuries, one of them in England (Plantagenet), the other in Jerusalem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "With Fulk IV, Count of Anjou:  With Philip I of France:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bertrade de Montfort (c. 1070 – 14 February 1117) was a queen consort of France by her marriage to Philip I of France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974910}
{"src_title": "Dagesh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Dagesh kal.", "content": "A or (, or, also \"\"\" lene\", \"weak/light \"dagesh\"\", opposed to \"strong dot\") may be placed inside the consonants \"bet\", \"gimel\", \"dalet\", \"kaf\", \"pe\" and \"tav\". They each had two sounds: the original \"hard\" (plosive) sound, and a \"soft\" (fricative) sound. Before the Babylonian captivity, the soft sounds did not exist in Hebrew, but were added as a result of Aramaic-influenced pronunciation of Hebrew after this point in history. The letters take on their hard sounds when they have no vowel sound before them, and take their soft sounds when a vowel immediately precedes them, across word boundaries in Biblical Hebrew, but not in Modern Hebrew. When vowel diacritics are used, the hard sounds are indicated by a central dot called \"dagesh\", while the soft sounds lack a \"dagesh\". In Modern Hebrew, however, the \"dagesh\" only changes the pronunciation of \"bet\", \"kaf\", and \"pe\" (traditional Ashkenazic pronunciation also varies the pronunciation of \"tav\", and some traditional Middle Eastern pronunciations carry alternate forms for \"dalet\").  <nowiki>***</nowiki> The letter \"hey\" (ה) when word final is usually silent in order to indicate the presence of a word-final vowel. But when it receives a \"dagesh kal\", the \"hey\" is pronounced instead of being silent. This is the rule in historic pronunciation, but in Modern Hebrew, this rule is generally ignored. However, when a non-silent word-final \"hey\" (הּ) occurs, it can take a furtive patach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pronunciation.", "content": "In Israel's general population, the pronunciation of some of the above letters has become pronounced the same as others:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dagesh hazak.", "content": "\"Dagesh ḥazak\" or \"dagesh ḥazaq\" (, \"strong dot\", i.e. \"gemination \"dagesh\"\", or, also \"\"dagesh\" forte\") may be placed in almost any letter, this indicated a gemination (doubling) of that consonant in the pronunciation of pre-modern Hebrew. This gemination is not adhered to in modern Hebrew and is only used in careful pronunciation, such as reading of scriptures in a synagogue service, recitations of biblical or traditional texts or on ceremonious occasions, and then only by very precise readers.  The following letters, the gutturals, almost never have a dagesh: \"aleph\" א, \"he\" ה, \"chet\" ח, \"ayin\" ע, \"resh\" ר. (A few instances of \"resh\" with dagesh are masoretically recorded in the Hebrew Bible, as well as a few cases of \"aleph\" with a dagesh, such as in Leviticus 23:17.)  The presence of a dagesh ḥazak or consonant-doubling in a word may be entirely morphological, or, as is often the case, is a lengthening to compensate for a deleted consonant.  A \"dagesh ḥazak\" may be placed in letters for one of the following reasons:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rafe.", "content": "In Masoretic manuscripts the opposite of a \"dagesh\" would be indicated by a \"rafe\", a small line on top of the letter. This is no longer found in Hebrew, but may still sometimes be seen in Yiddish and Ladino.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unicode encodings.", "content": "In computer typography there are two ways to use a dagesh with Hebrew text. Here are Unicode examples:  Some fonts, character sets, encodings, and operating systems may support neither, one, or both methods.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The dagesh () is a diacritic used in the Hebrew alphabet. It was added to the Hebrew orthography at the same time as the Masoretic system of niqqud (vowel points). It takes the form of a dot placed inside a Hebrew letter and has the effect of modifying the sound in one of two ways.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974911}
{"src_title": "Eric V of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nickname.", "content": "The king’s nickname ”Klipping” or ”Glipping” refers to a medieval coin that has become ”clipped” (a \"clipped penny\") or cut in order to indicate devaluation. The nickname is an unkind reference to his lack of trustworthiness. He \"short-changed\" his people and the monarchy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regency.", "content": "When his father King Christopher I was murdered in 1259, Prince Eric was too young to rule in his own right. The Danish court appointed his mother, Queen Margaret Sambiria (Danish: \"Sprænghest\") as regent. She was the daughter of Sambor II, Duke of Pomerania and Matilda of Mecklenberg, and was a clever and intelligent woman. Immediately, she had to fight to keep her son on the throne from two powerful enemies; Archbishop Jacob Erlandsen (ca. 1220-1274) and Erik Abelsøn who was Duke of Schleswig from 1260 until his death in 1272. Archbishop Erlandsen had excommunicated the bishop who had anointed young Eric as king. Duke Eric was a nephew of King Christopher and had been in frequent conflict with the king.  Taking advantage of the situation, Chief Jaromar II of Rügen (c. 1218–1260) gathered an army of Wends and invaded Zealand. Queen Margaret raised an army, but was soundly defeated in 1259 near Ringsted. Jarimar went on to attack and pillage Copenhagen later that year. He shipped his army to Skåne inorder to continue his campaign. Unfortunately for him, he encountered the wrath of a farmer's wife, who killed him outright. The Wends fled back to Rűgen. Believing the Wendish incursion showed the Queen was weak, Duke Eric rebelled. The queen was forced to raise another army and march to Jutland to put the Duke in his place. She defeated the Duke, and while he negotiated a truce with her, he gathered allies in northern Germany to help him attack. The combined forces defeated Queen Margaret in 1261 at the Battle of Lohede south of Danevirke in Schleswig-Holstein. She and her son were captured and were forced to cede royal properties in southern Jutland to secure their release. In 1260, Queen Margaret had released Archbishop Erlandsen from prison thinking he would be grateful, but he subsequently issued an interdict over all of Denmark trying to force the Queen and her son, King Eric off the throne. In 1263, acting as regent of Denmark, the Queen wrote to Pope Urban IV asking him to intervene with Archbishop Erlandsen. After several years of quibbling, the Pope agreed to several items that the Queen wanted. He issued a dispensation to alter the terms of the Danish succession that would permit women to inherit the Danish throne. This would make it possible for one of King Eric's sisters to become the reigning Queen of Denmark in the event of his death, because he had no children. Although Pope Urban IV gave his consent, it never became an issue. King Eric's son, Prince Eric Menved, eventually succeeded to the Danish throne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "As an adult ruler, King Eric V tried to enforce his power over the church and nobility. In the 1270s, the King attacked Småland. His conflict with the church was brought to a satisfying result, with the help of the Pope. By 1282, he had so offended the nobles throughout Denmark that he was forced to accept a charter (Danish: \"håndfæstning\" - a kind of a Danish Magna Carta) which limited his authority and guaranteed the ancient rights and customs that preserved the power of the nobles. The King signed the charter at Nyborg Castle, recognized as Denmark’s first-ever constitution in existence. However at the time of King Eric's death, the rights and guarantees the 1282 charter would lose their effectiveness, since the next king would not be bound by the same agreement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mysterious death.", "content": "Legend has it that several nobles swore an oath that they would murder Eric in revenge for personal slights or policies the king enforced that they did not like. Chief among the conspirators was marshal (Danish: \"marsk\") Stig Andersen Hvide and Jacob Nielsen, Count of Halland. They paid Rane Jonsen (1254-1294) one of the king's companions, to keep them informed as to the king's activities, in order to fulfill their oath.  November 1286 found the king at Viborg, in central Jutland. After a long day's hunt in the countryside led by Rane Jonsen, the king and a few attendants couldn't find their way back to the king's farm at Viborg. Rane suggested that they take shelter for the night of 22 November 1286 in the church barn in the village of Finderup (\"Finderup Lade\"). The assassins, dressed as Franciscan friars, were kept informed as to the kings' whereabouts and waited for everyone to settle down for the night. Once the king fell asleep, they rushed from their hiding places and stabbed and hacked the king to death. Tradition has it that he received 56 stab wounds. The folktale that grew up around this event has Stig Andersen personally striking the first blows in revenge for King Eric's seduction of Stig's wife while Stig himself was off with the king's army. Eric's bloody corpse was discovered the next morning.  The court immediately blamed the nation's most powerful noblemen Stig Andersen Hvide and Count Jacob of Halland and outlawed them and seven others. Only one was accused of killing the king, the others were accused of involvement. Whether they actually had anything to do with the murder remains a mystery. Stig Hvide fled the country to take up piracy. Certainly Stig Hvide was not the only person who had reason to want to see King Eric eliminated. Valdemar IV, who King Eric was forced to accept as Duke of Schleswig in 1283, as well as many of Archbishop Jakob Erlandsen's appointments to bishoprics, remained bitter enemies of the king until his death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "King Eric V married Agnes of Brandenburg (c. 1257–1304) on 11 November 1273 at Schleswig. She was the daughter of John I, Margrave of Brandenburg (d. 1266) and Brigitte of Saxony. The marriage was probably agreed upon during King Eric's captivity in Brandenburg by Agnes' father from 1262 to 1264. Tradition claims that the King was released from captivity on his promise to marry Agnes without a dowry. They had the following issue:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eric V Klipping (1249 – 22 November 1286) was King of Denmark (1259–1286) and son of King Christopher I of Denmark. From 1259-1266, he ruled under the auspices of his competent mother, Margaret Sambiria (1230-1282). Between 1261 and 1262, the young King Eric was a prisoner in Holstein following a military defeat. Afterwards, he lived in Brandenburg, where he was initially held captive by John I, Margrave of Brandenburg (c. 1213-1266).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974912}
{"src_title": "Saints Cyril and Methodius Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "According to oral tradition, the site where Saints Cyril and Methodius Cathedral stands was the site of a small church built by Bořivoj I, Duke of Bohemia, and dedicated by Saint Methodius himself. This link is based historically upon early and continuing reference to the name \"Na Zderaze\" for the existing church building. In 1091, the Czech lord Zderad was killed during the siege of Brno, and was buried in the earlier church which was near Prague. Zderad's name was then immortalized in the name of the street \"Na Zderaze\" which is adjacent to the cathedral, thus establishing a connection to this site that was hallowed by St. Methodius.  From 1115, the church of Saints Peter and Paul stood on the site of the present church, around which the Knights of the Cross built the Zderazsky monastery. During the Hussite Wars, the church was largely destroyed, leaving only a part of the choir standing. In 1705, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Prague, Breuner, established a retirement home for priests on the site of the monastery next to which a church was later built.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "In 1942, during World War II, the cathedral was where a last stand was made by SOE-trained Czech and Slovak agents involved in the assassination of \"SS-Obergruppenführer\" Reinhard Heydrich. SS and Police Leader of Waffen-SS Karl Fischer von Treuenfeld commanded the Nazi forces that stormed the church on 18 June 1942. After a fierce gun battle, two of the Czechoslovaks were killed and the rest committed suicide to avoid capture.  There is a museum in the church crypt dedicated to them as national heroes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "\"This article incorporates text from \"\" at under a license.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Saints Cyril and Methodius Cathedral in Nové Město, Prague, the Czech Republic, is the principal Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974913}
{"src_title": "El Jadida", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portuguese cistern.", "content": "Expanded since 1514, this former warehouse (possibly an armory) was converted into a cistern in the sixteenth century. The underground chamber, measuring 34 meters by 34 meters, was constructed with five rows of five stone pillars. The cistern is famous especially for the thin layer of water that covers the floor, and which creates fine and ever-changing reflections from the little light there is and the spartan shapes of the columns and the roof. Its visual qualities are such that several movies have been filmed within the cavernous space, of which Orson Welles' \"Othello\" is the best known internationally.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fortress of Mazagan.", "content": "The design of the Fortress of Mazagan is a response to the development of modern artillery in the Renaissance. The star form of the fortress measures \"c\" 250m by 300m. The slightly inclined, massive walls are \"c\" 8m high on average, with a thickness of 10m, enclosing a patrolling peripheral walkway 2m wide. At the present time the fortification has four bastions: the Angel Bastion in the east, St Sebastian in the north, St Antoine in the west, and the Holy Ghost Bastion in the south. The fifth, the Governor's Bastion at the main entrance, is in ruins, having been destroyed by the Portuguese in 1769. Numerous colonial-era Portuguese cannons are still positioned on top of the bastions.  The fort had three gates: the Seagate, forming a small port with the north-east rampart, the Bull Gate in the north-west rampart, and the main entrance with a double arch in the centre of the south rampart, originally connected to land via a drawbridge. A ditch, \"c\" 20m wide and 3m deep, formerly filled with seawater, surrounded the fort. During the time of the French Protectorate the ditch was filled in with earth and a new entrance gate was opened leading to the main street, the Rua da Carreira, and to the Seagate. Along this street are situated the best preserved historic buildings, including the Catholic Church of the Assumption and the cistern.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "El Jadida, was first known as \"al-Breyja\" when it was seized by the Portuguese in 1502. Then, it became known as \"Mazagão\". The Portuguese built a citadel in 1514, and a larger fortification in 1541. The Portuguese would continue to control the city until 1769, when they abandoned Mazagão, their last territory in Morocco. Upon their forced departure, the Portuguese destroyed the Governor's Bastion and evacuated to the Portuguese colony of Brazil, where they founded a new settlement called \"Nova Mazagão\" (now in Amapá). The city was then taken over by Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah in 1769 and remained uninhabited, having been dubbed al-Mahdouma (\"The Ruined\"). Eventually, Sultan Abd al-Rahman of Morocco ordered that a mosque be built and the destroyed portions of the city rebuilt. The reinvigorated city was renamed al-Jadida, or \"The New\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "El Jadida has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification \"Csa\"). In winter there is more rainfall than in summer. The average annual temperature in El Jadida is. About of precipitation falls annually.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The city houses many post-secondary academic institutions:  Chouaib Doukkali University, including the following institutions:  Office of Vocational Training and Promotion of Labor (OFPPT), including the following institutions:  and:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nearby cities.", "content": "Near El Jadida, are located the city of Azemmour in the northeast and the town of Sidi Bouzid in the southwest. Within a perimeter of around 120 km or less, are located Casablanca, Berrechid, Settat, Sidi Bennour, Oualidia, Youssoufia, Safi.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "El Jadida or al-Jadida (Arabic: \"الجديدة\", Berber: \"ⴰⵍ-ⵊⴰⴷⵉⴷⴰ\", French: \"el-Jadida\"), with former names Cap Soleis, Portus Rutilis, Rusibis, Mazighen (Arabic: \"مازيغن\", Berber: \"ⵎⴰⵣⵉⴳⴻⵏ\"), al-Breyja (Arabic: \"البريجة\"), Mazagão (Arabic: \"مازاگاو\", Berber: \"ⵎⴰⵣⴰⴳⴰⵡ\"), al-Mahdouma (Arabic: \"المهدومة\") and Mazagan (Arabic: \"مازاگان\", Berber: \"ⵎⴰⵣⴰⴳⴰⵏ\"), is a port city on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, located 100 km south of the city of Casablanca, in the province of El Jadida and the region of Casablanca-Settat. It has a population of 194,934 (2014 census). From the sea, El Jadida's old city has a very \"un-Moorish\" appearance because of its massive Portuguese-built walls of hewn stone, one of the Seven Wonders of Portuguese Origin in the World. The \"Portuguese Fortified City of Mazagan\" was registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004, on the basis of its status as an \"outstanding example of the interchange of influences between European and Moroccan cultures\" and as an \"early example of the realisation of the Renaissance ideals integrated with Portuguese construction technology\". According to UNESCO, the most important buildings from the Portuguese period are the cistern, and the Manueline Church of the Assumption.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974914}
{"src_title": "Yves Bonnefoy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Bonnefoy was born in Tours, Indre-et-Loire, the son of Marius Elie Bonnefoy, a railroad worker, and Hélène Maury, a teacher. He studied mathematics and philosophy at the Universities of Poitiers and the Sorbonne in Paris. After the Second World War he travelled in Europe and the United States and studied art history. From 1945 to 1947 he was associated with the Surrealists in Paris (a short-lived influence that is at its strongest in his first published work, \"Traité du pianiste\" (1946)). But it was with the highly personal \"\" (\"On the Motion and Immobility of Douve\", 1953) that Bonnefoy found his voice and that his name first came to public notice. Bonnefoy's style is remarkable for the deceptive simplicity of its vocabulary.  Bonnefoy's work has been translated into English by, among others, Emily Grosholz, Galway Kinnell, John Naughton, Alan Baker, Hoyt Rogers, Antony Rudolf, Beverley Bie Brahic and Richard Stamelmann. In 1967 he joined with André du Bouchet, Gaëtan Picon, and Louis-René des Forêts to found \"L'éphémère\", a journal of art and literature. Commenting on his work, Bonnefoy has said:  He taught literature at a number of universities in Europe and in the USA: Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts (1962–64); Centre Universitaire, Vincennes (1969–1970); Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; Princeton University, New Jersey; University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut;Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut; University of Geneva; University of Nice (1973–1976); University of Provence, Aix (1979–1981); and Graduate Center, City University of New York, where he was made an honorary member of the Academy of the Humanities and Sciences. In 1981, following the death of Roland Barthes, he was given the chair of comparative study of poetry at the Collège de France.  Bonnefoy died on 1 July 2016 at the age of 93 in Paris. President François Hollande stated of Bonnefoy on his death that he would be remembered for \"elevating our language to its supreme degree of precision and beauty\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honours.", "content": "Bonnefoy was honoured with a number of prizes throughout his creative life. Early on he was awarded the \"Prix des Critiques\" in 1971. Ten years later, in 1981, The French Academy gave him its grand prize, which was soon followed by the Goncourt Prize for Poetry in 1987. Over the next 15 years, Bonnefoy was awarded both the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca and the Balzan Prize (for Art History and Art Criticism in Europe) in 1995, the Golden Wreath of Struga Poetry Evenings in 1999, and the Grand Prize of the First Masaoka Shiki International Haiku Awards in 2000. Toward the final years of his life, Bonnefoy was recognized with the Franz Kafka Prize in 2007 and, in 2011, he received the Griffin Lifetime Recognition Award, presented by the trustees of the Griffin Poetry Prize. In 2014, he was co-winner of the Janus Pannonius International Poetry Prize.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yves Jean Bonnefoy (24 June 1923, Tours – 1 July 2016 Paris) was a French poet and art historian. He also published a number of translations, most notably the plays of William Shakespeare which are considered among the best in French. He was professor at the Collège de France from 1981 to 1993 and is the author of several works on art, art history, and artists including Miró and Giacometti, and a monograph on Paris-based Iranian artist Farhad Ostovani. \"The Encyclopædia Britannica\" states that Bonnefoy was ′′perhaps the most important French poet of the latter half of the 20th century.′′", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974915}
{"src_title": "Ernst Öpik", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "Öpik was born in Kunda, Lääne-Viru, Governorate of Estonia, then a part of the Russian Empire. He went to the University of Moscow to specialize in the study of minor bodies, such as asteroids, comets, and meteors. He completed his doctorate at the University of Tartu.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Astronomical work.", "content": "In 1916 Öpik published an article in the \"Astrophysical Journal\", in which he estimated the densities of visual binary stars. In his sample was ο Eridani B, a white dwarf star. Öpik determined its density as 25,000 times the density of the Sun but concluded that the result is impossible.  In 1922, Ernst Öpik published a paper in which he estimated the distance of the Andromeda Galaxy. He determined the distance using a novel astrophysical method based on the observed rotational velocities of the galaxy, which depends on the total mass around which stars are rotating, and on the assumption that the luminosity per unit mass was the same as that of our galaxy. He concluded that the distance was 450 kpc. His result was in good accordance with other estimates of these days (100 to 1000 kpc) and were closer to recent estimates (778 kpc) than Hubble's result (275 kpc). His method is still widely used.  In 1922 he correctly predicted the frequency of craters on Mars long before they were detected by space probes. In 1932 he postulated a theory concerning the origins of comets in our solar system. He believed that they originated in a cloud orbiting far beyond the orbit of Pluto. This cloud is now known as the Oort cloud or alternatively the Öpik-Oort Cloud in his honour. From October 1931 to the end of July 1933, Öpik, Harlow Shapley and Samuel L. Boothroyd headed the Arizona meteor expedition, which detected approximately 22,000 meteors. He also invented a rocking camera for the study of meteors. In 1951 he published a paper concerning the triple-alpha process, describing the burning of helium-4 into carbon-12 in the cores of red giant stars. However, this achievement is often overlooked because Edwin Salpeter's paper on the same subject had already been published by the time Öpik's paper reached Britain and the United States.  In 1958 he published \"Physics of Meteor Flight in the Atmosphere\".  In 1972, Öpik published a piece on the origin of the Moon by capture in the \"Irish Astronomical Journal\" (vol. 10, pp. 190–238). He included breakup and re-assembly of rings into which the Moon was broken.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Yarkovsky effect connection.", "content": "The Yarkovsky effect was discovered by the Russian civil engineer Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky (1844–1902), who worked on scientific problems in his spare time. Writing in a pamphlet around the year 1900, Yarkovsky noted that the diurnal heating of a rotating object in space would cause it to experience a force that, while tiny, could lead to large long-term effects in the orbits of small bodies, especially meteoroids and small asteroids. Yarkovsky's work might have been forgotten had it not been for Öpik, who read Yarkovsky's pamphlet sometime around 1909. Decades later, Öpik discussed the possible importance of the Yarkovsky effect for moving meteoroids about the solar system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile.", "content": "Öpik fled his native country in 1944 because the approaching Red Army raised fear among Estonians. Living as a refugee in Germany, he became the Estonian rector of the Baltic University in Exile in the displaced persons camps. In 1948 he was offered a post in Armagh and remained there despite offers of lucrative jobs in America. From the early 1960s to the mid-1970s he also held a position at the University of Maryland, which he visited annually, typically for one semester. As air travel became more common, his refusal to fly made travel to the U.S. from Armagh systematically more difficult and he eventually ceased the annual ritual.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "He won the J. Lawrence Smith Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1960, the Meteoritical Society Frederick C. Leonard Memorial Medal in 1968, the Kepler Gold Medal from the American Association for the Advancement of Science & Meteoritical Society in 1972, the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1975 and the Bruce Medal in 1976.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The asteroid 2099 Öpik is named in his honour. The crater Öpik on the Martian moon Phobos is also named for him.  His grandson, Lembit Öpik, was the Liberal Democrat Member of Parliament for Montgomeryshire in Wales from 1997 to 2010, and has advocated searching for asteroids that may collide with the Earth. Lembit also became Chairman of the Parliament of Asgardia in 2019 and is a Member of the Supreme Space Council (SSC)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernst Julius Öpik ( – 10 September 1985) was an Estonian astronomer and astrophysicist who spent the second half of his career (1948–1981) at the Armagh Observatory in Northern Ireland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974916}
{"src_title": "Representational state transfer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Roy Fielding defined REST in his 2000 PhD dissertation \"Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures\" at UC Irvine. He developed the REST architectural style in parallel with HTTP 1.1 of 1996–1999, based on the existing design of HTTP 1.0 of 1996.  In a retrospective look at the development of REST, Fielding said:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architectural properties.", "content": "The constraints of the REST architectural style affect the following architectural properties:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architectural constraints.", "content": "Six guiding constraints define a RESTful system. These constraints restrict the ways that the server can process and respond to client requests so that, by operating within these constraints, the system gains desirable non-functional properties, such as performance, scalability, simplicity, modifiability, visibility, portability, and reliability. If a system violates any of the required constraints, it cannot be considered RESTful.  The formal REST constraints are as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Client-server architecture.", "content": "The principle behind the client-server constraints is the separation of concerns. Separating the user interface concerns from the data storage concerns improves the portability of the user interfaces across multiple platforms. It also improves scalability by simplifying the server components. Perhaps most significant to the Web is that the separation allows the components to evolve independently, thus supporting the Internet-scale requirement of multiple organizational domains.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statelessness.", "content": "The client-server communication is constrained by no client context being stored on the server between requests. Each request from any client contains all the information necessary to service the request, and the session state is held in the client. The session state can be transferred by the server to another service such as a database to maintain a persistent state for a period and allow authentication. The client begins sending requests when it is ready to make the transition to a new state. While one or more requests are outstanding, the client is considered to be \"in transition\". The representation of each application state contains links that can be used the next time the client chooses to initiate a new state-transition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cacheability.", "content": "As on the World Wide Web, clients and intermediaries can cache responses. Responses must, implicitly or explicitly, define themselves as either cacheable or non-cacheable to prevent clients from providing stale or inappropriate data in response to further requests. Well-managed caching partially or completely eliminates some client-server interactions, further improving scalability and performance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Layered system.", "content": "A client cannot ordinarily tell whether it is connected directly to the end server, or to an intermediary along the way. If a proxy or load balancer is placed between the client and server, it won't affect their communications and there won't be a need to update the client or server code. Intermediary servers can improve system scalability by enabling load balancing and by providing shared caches. Also, security can be added as a layer on top of the web services, and then clearly separate business logic from security logic. Adding security as a separate layer enforces security policies. Finally, it also means that a server can call multiple other servers to generate a response to the client.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Code on demand (optional).", "content": "Servers can temporarily extend or customize the functionality of a client by transferring executable code: for example, compiled components such as Java applets, or client-side scripts such as JavaScript.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uniform interface.", "content": "The uniform interface constraint is fundamental to the design of any RESTful system. It simplifies and decouples the architecture, which enables each part to evolve independently. The four constraints for this uniform interface are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Applied to Web services.", "content": "Web service APIs that adhere to the REST architectural constraints are called RESTful APIs. HTTP-based RESTful APIs are defined with the following aspects:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship between URI and HTTP methods.", "content": "The following table shows how HTTP methods are intended to be used in HTTP APIs, including RESTful ones.  The GET method is safe, meaning that applying it to a resource does not result in a state change of the resource (read-only semantics). The GET, PUT and DELETE methods are idempotent, meaning that applying them multiple times to a resource results in the same state change of the resource as applying them once, though the response might differ.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discussion.", "content": "Unlike SOAP-based Web services, there is no \"official\" standard for RESTful Web APIs. This is because REST is an architectural style, while SOAP is a protocol. REST is not a standard in itself, but RESTful implementations make use of standards, such as HTTP, URI, JSON, and XML. Many developers also describe their APIs as being RESTful, even though these APIs actually don't fulfill all of the architectural constraints described above (especially the uniform interface constraint).  The following table shows how HTTP methods are typically used in REST APIs based on HTTP with historical method semantics.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Representational state transfer (REST) is a software architectural style that defines a set of constraints to be used for creating Web services. Web services that conform to the REST architectural style, called \"RESTful\" Web services, provide interoperability between computer systems on the Internet. RESTful Web services allow the requesting systems to access and manipulate textual representations of Web resources by using a uniform and predefined set of stateless operations. Other kinds of Web services, such as SOAP Web services, expose their own arbitrary sets of operations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974917}
{"src_title": "Peter Fendi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Peter Fendi was born in Vienna on 4 September 1796 to Joseph and Elizabeth Fendi. His father was a schoolmaster. He fell from a changing table as an infant, an accident which caused irreparable damage to his spine. Fendi demonstrated a talent for drawing from childhood. He was admitted to the St. Anna's Academy of Fine Art in 1810 at the age of thirteen, where he studied for three years under, Hubert Maurer and Johann Baptist von Lampi the Elder.  Fendi met Joseph Barth, an art collector and the personal ophthalmologist of Joseph II, and through Barth's connections to other influential artists, in 1818 Fendi found a job at the Imperial Gallery of Coins and Antiquities, where he worked as a draughtsman and engraver. Fendi received a gold medal in 1821 for his oil painting \"Vilenica\", and was elected a member of the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna in 1836.  Both nobles and commoners occasionally employed Fendi to give instruction in drawing and painting, and later in life teaching took up more of his time; his pupils included Carl Schindler and. He died on 28 August 1842.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Fendi painted in oil and watercolours, as well as working with printing, etching, lithography and wood carving. Multicolored prints by Fendi are considered pioneering achievements in the field of lithography. Fendi is remembered for his genre scenes, influenced by Dutch painters such as Adriaen Brouwer, Adriaen van Ostade and Rembrandt. Other influences on Fendi's artistic development included the works of Italians such as Giovanni Bellini, Tintoretto, Titian, and Paolo Veronese, which he saw on a trip to Venice in 1821. He is also well known for his portraits of the aristocracy.  Fendi engraved a series five of Austrian banknotes that were issued in 1841.  His works are preserved in the Albertina Museum, the Austrian Gallery in the Belvedere, Kunsthistorisches Museum, and in the collections of the Prince of Liechtenstein in Vaduz.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Fendi (4 September 1796 – 28 August 1842) was an Austrian court painter, portrait and genre painter, engraver, and lithographer. He was one of the leading artists of the Biedermeier period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974918}
{"src_title": "Atari Portfolio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "DIP Research Ltd. based in Guildford, Surrey, UK released a product in the UK called the \"DIP Pocket PC\" in 1989. Soon after its release, DIP licensed this product to Atari for sale as the \"Portfolio\" in the UK and US. In Italy, Spain and Germany, it was originally marketed as \"PC Folio\" instead. DIP officially stood for \"Distributed Information Processing\", although secretly it actually stood for \"David, Ian and Peter\", the three founding members of the company who were former employees of Psion. The original founder of the company (first called \"Crushproof Software\") was Ian H. S. Cullimore, and the other two David Frodsham and Peter Baldwin. Cullimore was involved in designing the early Organiser products at Psion before the DIP Pocket PC project. The technologic successor of the Portfolio was the also DIP-developed Sharp PC-3000/3100. DIP Research was later acquired by Phoenix Technologies in 1994.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technology.", "content": "The Portfolio uses an Intel 80C88 CPU running at 4.9152 MHz and runs \"DIP Operating System 2.11\" (DIP DOS), an operating system mostly compatible to MS-DOS 2.11, but with some DOS 2.xx functionality lacking and some internal data structures more compatible with DOS 3.xx. It has 128 KB of RAM and 256 KB of ROM which contains the OS and built-in applications. The on-board RAM is divided between system memory and local storage (the C: drive). The LCD is monochrome without backlight and had 240×64 pixels or 40 characters × 8 lines.  Power is supplied by three AA size removable alkaline batteries. The computer's memory is preserved during battery changes. There is also an optional AC adapter (110 V: HPC-401, 220 V: HPC-402).  There is an expansion port on the right side of the computer for parallel (HPC-101), serial (HPC-102), modem or MIDI expansion modules. It uses a Bee Card expansion port for removable memory (aka Credit Card Memory or CCM), which is not compatible with PC card as it predated that standard. Expansion cards were available in sizes of 32 KB (HPC-201), 64 KB (HPC-202), and 128 KB (HPC-203) initially, and later were available in capacities up to 4 MB. The expansion cards were backed up by a replaceable battery, which last approximately two years. Built-in applications include a text editor, spreadsheet (Lotus 1-2-3 compatible), phone book and time manager. Expansion cards contain programs such as a chess game (HPC-750), a file manager (HPC-704), and a finance manager (HPC-702). Most text-based DOS applications can run on the Portfolio as long as they did not directly access the hardware and could fit into the small memory.  Other expansion modules include a floppy drive, and a memory expansion unit (HPC-104). The memory expansion unit gives the Portfolio an additional 256 KB of RAM, which can be partitioned into several drives. It also features a pass-through expansion connector, allowing the use of more than one expansion unit. In theory, multiple memory expanders can be attached, increasing the available storage to over 640 KB.  A card reader (HPC-301) connects to a desktop PC to read and write to the expansion cards. The kit contains an ISA card, a special cable, the card reader, and software distributed on floppy disk.  A modem expansion module converts the portfolio into a miniature computer terminal. The modem is powered from the portfolio and came with an acoustic coupler consisting of two round shells that could be mounted over both ends of a handset with the aid of velcro strips. A direct connection to a telephone with a standard telephone lead is also possible. The complete terminal and coupler are portable, weighing only a few hundred grams.  Also, using the parallel port expansion module (HPC-101), a standard parallel cable and the software supplied (DOS based), the Portfolio can be connected to a PC for transferring files to and from the unit.  Credits for the development of the product can be found in an easter egg if one selects Setup, then Help, and then presses + (\"Alt\" plus \"left square bracket\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Atari Portfolio (Atari PC Folio) is an IBM PC-compatible palmtop PC, released by Atari Corporation in June 1989. This makes it the world's first palmtop computer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974919}
{"src_title": "Ivan Sirko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "The first biography of Ivan Sirko, written by Dmytro Yavornytsky in 1890, gave Sirko's place of birth as the sloboda of Merefa near the city of Kharkiv. Historian Yuriy Mytsyik states that this could not be the case. In his book \"Otaman Ivan Sirko\" (1999) he writes that Merefa was established only in 1658 (more than 40 years after the birth of the future otaman). The author also notes that Sirko later in his life did actually live in Merefa with his family on his own estate, and according to some earlier local chronicles there even existed a small settlement called Sirkivka. However, Mytsyik also points out that in 1658–1660 Sirko served as a colonel of the Kalnyk Polk (a military and administrative division of the Cossack Hetmanate) in Podilia, a position usually awarded to the representative of a local population. The author also gives a reference to the letter of Ivan Samiylovych to kniaz G. Romodanovsky (the tsar's voyevoda) in which the hetman refers to Sirko as one born in Polish lands instead of in Sloboda Ukraine (part of Moscovy). Mytsyik also recalls that another historian, Volodymyr Borysenko, allowed for the possibility that Sirko was born in Murafa near the city of Sharhorod (now in Vinnytsia Oblast). The author explains during that time when people were fleeing the war (known as the \"Ruin\", 1659–1686) they may have established a similarly named town in Sloboda Ukraine further east.  Further, Mytsyik in his book states that Sirko probably was not of Cossack heritage, but rather of the Ukrainian (Ruthenian) Orthodox szlachta. Mytsyik points out that a local Podilian nobleman, Wojciech Sirko, married a certain Olena Kozynska sometime in 1592. Also in official letters the Polish administration referred to Sirko as \"urodzonim\", implying a native-born Polish subject. Mytsyik states that Sirko stood about 174–176 cm tall and had a birthmark on the right side of the lower lip, a detail which Ilya Repin failed to depict in his artwork when he used General Dragomirov as a prototype of the otaman. Mytsyik also recalls the letter of the Field Hetman of the Crown John III Sobieski (later king of Poland) which referred to Sirko as \"a very quiet, noble, polite [man], and has... great trust among Cossacks\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "He changed his political orientation several times. In 1654 he came to Zaporozhian Sich became polkovnyk (colonel) and in 1659 together with Russian prince Aleksei Trubetskoi fought against the Crimean Khanate. Although Sirko opposed the alliance with Moscow during the Pereyaslav Rada after he became Koshovyi Otaman of the Zaporozhian Host in 1663 he won several battles against Poles, Tatars and hetman Petro Doroshenko in alliance with Muscovy. In 1664, he was one of the inspirators of an uprising in Right-bank Ukraine against Poland which is known from his letter to the Czar.  He was the first Cossack ataman to accept Kalmyks into his army. Despite his pro-Moscow orientation he distrusted and hated pro-Russian hetman Ivan Briukhovetsky, but at the same time married his son Roman to Briukhovetsky's daughter. In 1668 this rivalry even forced Ivan Sirko to switch sides again and briefly join Petro Doroshenko in his fight against \"Muscovite boyars and Voivodes\", but in 1670 once again Sirko pledged loyalty to Russian tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Afterwards he captured Turkish stronghold Ochakiv and besieged Ismail which he failed to capture.  Following the death of Demian Mnohohrishny in 1672 Sirko entered the struggle for the hetman title, but instead was sent by the Russian tsar to Tobolsk, Siberia. In 1673 he returned to Ukraine and once again fought against Tatars and Turks, and captured the fortresses Arslan and Ochakiv. In 1675 Zaporozhian Cossacks defeated Ottoman Turkish forces in a major battle, however, the Sultan of Turkey Mehmed IV still demanded that the Cossacks submit to Turkish rule. The Cossacks led by Ivan Sirko replied in an uncharacteristic manner: they wrote a letter, replete with insults and profanities, which later became the subject of a painting by Ilya Repin. After his death, Ivan Sirko – one of the most popular otamans in Ukrainian history – was remembered as a legendary Cossack and became a hero of many myths, folk songs and poems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Burial.", "content": "Sirko died at his estate Hrushivka (today Soloniansky Raion, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast) on August 11, 1680. Next day he was buried near the Chortomlynska Sich. In 1709 the Russian Army totally destroyed the Sich and the grave of the otaman was not fixed until 1734. The Cossacks replaced the broken cross with a memorial rock that has survived to the present, but they erroneously marked the date of his death as May 4. In 1967 the Kakhovka Reservoir was threatening the otaman's burial site, forcing him to be reburied near the village of Kapulivka, Nikopol Raion, but without his skull. The skull of Sirko was sent to the Leningrad laboratory for a plastic-archaeological reconstruction for the Ethnographic Institute of the Soviet Academy of Science. It was not until 1987 when writer Yuriy Mushketyk remembered the 'beheaded otaman' and wrote a letter to the Association for Preservation of History and Culture of Ukraine. The journal \"Pamyatky Ukrainy\" (Attractions of Ukraine) responded to the call of the writer and after over 20 years with the help of anthropologist Serhiy Seheda the remains of Ivan Sirko were returned to his native land.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The otaman is widely remembered in numerous literary works of Ivan Nechuy-Levytsky, Adrian Kashchenko, Volodymyr Malyk, Mykola Zerov, Borys Modzalevsky, and many others.  In 1966 when the President of France Charles de Gaulle was visiting the Soviet Union, he personally requested to bring him to the burial location of Ivan Sirko.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ivan Sirko (, tr., ;, ;, ; c. 1610–1680) was a Ukrainian Cossack military leader, Koshovyi Otaman of the Zaporozhian Host and putative co-author of the famous semi-legendary Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks that inspired a major painting by the 19th-century artist Ilya Repin. Known as Urus-shaitan () among the Ottoman Turkish authorities and their Khanate allies, he was reputed and highly regarded by his contemporaries for his daring raids and unorthodox tactics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974920}
{"src_title": "Nizhny Novgorod Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Nizhny Novgorod (known during the Soviet era as Gorky) is a large city on the Volga River. In the mid-1970s its population exceeded one million, meeting the Soviet requirement for the development of a rapid-transit system. Construction began on December 17, 1977, and the network was opened to the public on November 20, 1985. Russia's third subway system, it is the tenth in the former Soviet Union.  Drilling of tunnels began in September 1978 from the Leninskaya station. Developing design documentation, modifying roads and tram lines, and demolishing houses were time-consuming. In 1979, piles were driven for the foundation of the Moskovskaya station. In June 1980, it was proposed to expand the Gorky Metro to three lines.  On July 13, 1984, during construction of the Moskovskaya station, its walls collapsed; two workers from the student brigade, who were helping with construction, died. According to urban legend, the ghosts of the dead students still walk through the tunnels and metro stations.  On November 20, 1985, the Gorky Metro was opened. The first line was long, with six stations (Moskovskaya, Chkalovskaya, Leninskaya, Zarechnaya, Dvigatel Revolyutsii, and Proletarskaya), a depot and an engineering building. Two more stations were opened (Avtozavodskaya and Komsomolskaya, from the Proletarskaya station) in 1987, and Kirovskaya and Park Kultury opened in 1989.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-Soviet era.", "content": "Although the pace of metro construction in the Soviet Union was impressive, the consequences of the dissolution of the Soviet Union complicated the metro's future. When the first stage was completed in 1989, construction began on the second stage. Throughout Russia, segments which opened in the early 1990s were mainly completed; bankrupt companies and workers struggled to finish them. On December 20, 1993, two stations opened on the new Line 2: Kanavinskaya and Burnakovskaya.  On September 9, 2002, the 13th station (Burevestnik, on Line 2) was opened. On September 22, 2012, the metro was closed for the first time to switch power to the new control system of the Line 1 Gorkovskaya station, which was under construction; the station opened on November 4 of that year. The Line 2 Strelka station was opened on June 12, 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "System.", "content": "The metro has 14 stations, 13 of which are underground. There is also a ghost station: Yarmarka, whose construction was abandoned in favour of the Strelka station. The system has two lines, with a cross-platform interchange at Moskovskaya. After the construction of Line 3 (Nagornaya), there will be two more transfer stations: Operny Teatr and Olgino.  Line 1 has right-hand traffic. Line 2 has left-hand traffic because the rails split at Moskovskaya due to the lack of a full-length tunnel on that line.  The underground stations have shallow level designs. Moskovskaya has the typical USSR five-pillar span; Chkalovskaya, Leninskaya, Park Kultury, and Kanaviskaya are standard single-vaults, and the rest are standard pillar tri-spans. The surface station, Burevestnik, has a side-platform layout.  The metro's rolling stock, supplied by the Proletarskoye depot, consists of eighty Metrovagonmash 81-717/81-714s; each train is four cars long. The interval between trains is 71⁄2 to eight minutes at midday.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "City layout.", "content": "Unlike other Soviet-era metros, Nizhny Novgorod does not have the usual triangular layout (three lines and six spokes intersecting in the city centre) because of the city's unusual layout. Nizhny Novgorod is on the Volga River, at its confluence with the Oka River. During the 20th century, the city developed polycentrically. The historic city centre (including the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin), including most of its administrative, cultural, and educational facilities, is on the high, hilly bank of the Oka. The low, flat, opposite bank contains most of the city's industries and some large residential districts grouped around Kanavino. Kanavino also has the city's central railway station and the largest urban transport hubs; Sormovo's largest industries are the Krasnoye Sormovo plant and Avtozavod (GAZ).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metro layout.", "content": "Faced with such a geographical arrangement, the metro planners adopted a design which would have two lines with four spokes, opened in a series of stages (and each stage in segments). The system's hub, the Moskovskaya station (next to Nizhny Novgorod's main railway station), would have a four-track, two-island platform for cross-platform transfer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stages.", "content": "The first stage would be the Avtozavodskaya Line, following the south bank of the Oka through the residential and industrial zones of the Leninsky district, the GAZ automobile plant and into the Avtozavodsky City District. The second stage, the Sormovskaya Line, would run west from Moskovskaya into the Sormovo districts. The third stage would incorporate a combined auto-metro bridge across the Oka, bringing the Avtozavodskaya Line into the city centre. The fourth and final stage would be the Sormovskaya Line to the Meshcherskoye Ozero residential area north-west of the railway station, on the Volga. The system, with over 20 stations, was planned for completion by the late 1990s.  The order in which the stages were opened was influenced by industry-specific Soviet-era passenger flow and the depot-placement issue; cross-river traffic was less heavy. GAZ was the Avtozavodsky district's chief employer, and many workers lived in the northern parts of the city. The only suitable location for the rail depot was near the automobile plant.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Lines.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Line 1.", "content": "Line 1, Avtozavodskaya, runs between Park Kultury and Gorkovskaya and was opened in 1985. It has one interchange station (Moskovskaya, on line 2), and connects the lower and upper cities by bridge.  It was designed in 1980. During the Soviet era, the line was called Avtozavodsko-Meshcherskaya and was intended to last until the residential micro-district near Meshchersky Lake was built.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Line 2.", "content": "Line 2, also known as Sormovsko-Meshcherskaya or Sormovskaya, runs between the Burevestnik and Moskovskaya stations and was opened in 1993. In January 1981, the line was known as Sormovsko-Nagornaya and was planned to connect the industrial lower city and the historic upper city. Construction of the line was halted several times due to crises in Russia. For the 2018 FIFA World Cup, the Strelka station was built near Nizhny Novgorod Stadium. After the World Cup, it is planned to extend the line to the Volga station in Meshchera and the Varya station in Sormovo. The Yarmarka ghost station is also planned to be completed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Future plans.", "content": "The Gorkovskaya station, the first station on the Oka River, opened in November 2012. Before the extension of Line 1 in 2012, low ridership was a challenge. Despite a longer line than other Russian Metro systems at the time (including Novosibirsk, Samara and Yekaterinburg), its passenger traffic was one of the lowest with a 16.8 million annual ridership in 2004. In comparison, the Novosibirsk system had almost double the annual ridership of the Nizhny Novgorod Metro.  Construction of the metro bridge began in 1995 and was completed in November 2009. After the extension of Line 1 to the city centre, there are three proposals for development. The first was the extension of the Sormovskaya Line to the Strelka station, near the Nizhny Novgorod Stadium for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The second is the extension of the Sormovskaya Line to Sormovo. The third proposal is the eastern extension of the line in the city centre, with construction of the Operny Teatr and Sennaya stations.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nizhny Novgorod Metro (), formerly known as the Gorky Metro (), is a rapid-transit system which serves the city of Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. Opened in 1985, it consists of 15 stations and is long. The metro connects with the City Rail system at the Moskovskaya station. It has the third-largest number of stations of any Russian subway system, the largest two being Moscow and St. Petersburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974921}
{"src_title": "Xuande Emperor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Zhu Zhanji was the eldest son of the Hongxi Emperor and Empress Chengxiaozhao. He was described as a crown prince who was endowed with the quality of an excellent monarch in a section of his biography surrounded by superstition. His grandfather, the Yongle Emperor, had high hopes that he might play an important part to assist his father.  He was fond of poetry and literature. Although he continued to refer to Beijing as the secondary capital on all official documents, he maintained it as his residence and continued to rule there in the style of his grandfather, the Yongle Emperor. He permitted Zheng He to lead the seventh and last of his maritime expeditions.  The Xuande Emperor's uncle, Zhu Gaoxu (the Prince of Han), had been a favorite of the Yongle Emperor for his military successes, but he disobeyed imperial instructions and in 1417 had been exiled to the small fief of Le'an in Shandong. When Zhu Gaoxu revolted, the Xuande Emperor took 20,000 soldiers and attacked him at Le'an. Zhu Gaoxu surrendered soon afterward, was reduced to the status of a commoner. Six hundred rebelling officials were executed, and 2,200 were banished. The emperor did not wish to execute his uncle at the start, but later events angered the emperor so much that Zhu Gaoxu was executed through fire torture. All his sons were executed as well. It is very likely that Zhu Gaoxu's arrogance, well detailed in many historic texts, offended the emperor. A theory states that when the emperor went to visit his uncle, Zhu Gaoxu intentionally tripped him.  In 1428, the Xuande Emperor granted King Hashi of Chūzan the family name Shang (尚, Shō in Japanese), gave him the title of \"Liuqiu Wang\" (琉球王, Jap: \"Ryūkyū-Ō\", King of Ryūkyū), and gifted him a red lacquered tablet with \"Chung Shan\" (中山, \"Chūzan\" in Japanese) inscribed in gold, which was then placed on the Chūzonmon gate near Shuri Castle.  The Xuande Emperor wanted to withdraw his troops from Việt Nam, but some of his advisors disagreed. After Ming garrisons suffered heavy casualties, the emperor sent Liu Sheng with an army. These were badly defeated by the Vietnamese. The Ming forces withdrew and the Xuande Emperor eventually recognized the independence of Việt Nam. In the north, the Xuande Emperor was inspecting the border with 3,000 cavalry troops in 1428 and was able to retaliate against a raid by the Mongols of the Northern Yuan dynasty. The Ming government let Arughtai's Eastern Mongols battle with Toghon's Oirat tribes of the west. The Ming imperial court received horses annually from Arughtai, but he was defeated by the Oirats in 1431 and was killed in 1434 when Toghon took over eastern Mongolia. The Ming government then maintained friendly relations with the Oirats. China's diplomatic relations with Japan improved in 1432. Relations with Korea were generally good with the exception of the Koreans resenting having to send virgins occasionally to the Xuande Emperor's imperial harem.  A privy council of eunuchs strengthened centralized power by controlling the Jinyiwei (secret police), and their influence continued to grow. In 1428, the notorious censor Liu Guan was sentenced to penal servitude and was replaced by the incorruptible Gu Zuo (d. 1446), who dismissed 43 members of the Beijing and Nanjing censorates for incompetence. Some censors were demoted, imprisoned, and banished, but none were executed. Replacements were put on probation as the censorate investigated the entire Ming administration including the military. The same year the emperor reformed the rules governing military conscription and the treatment of deserters. Yet the hereditary military continued to be inefficient and to suffer from poor morale. Huge inequalities in tax burdens had caused many farmers in some areas to leave their farms in the past forty years. In 1430, the Xuande Emperor ordered tax reductions on all imperial lands and sent out \"touring pacifiers\" to coordinate provincial administration, exercising civilian control over the military. They attempted to eliminate the irregularities and the corruption of the revenue collectors. The emperor often ordered retrials that allowed thousands of innocent people to be released.  In the ninth year of the Ming Xuande emperor the Jurchens in Manchuria under Ming rule suffered from famine forcing them to sell their daughters into slavery and moving to Liaodong to beg for help amd relief from the Ming dynasty government.  The Xuande Emperor died of illness in 1435 after ruling for ten years. He ruled over a remarkably peaceful period with no significant external or internal problems. Later historians have considered his reign to be the height of the Ming dynasty's golden age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The emperor as an artist.", "content": "The Xuande Emperor was known as an accomplished painter, particularly skilled at painting animals. Some of his art work is preserved in the National Palace Museum, Taipei and Arthur M. Sackler Museum (a division of Harvard Art Museum) in Cambridge. Robert D. Mowry, the curator of Chinese art at the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, described him as \"the only Ming emperor who displayed genuine artistic talent and interest.\"  Also, the Xuande mark and period (1426–35) is often considered one of the most sophisticated periods in the history of Chinese Blue and White porcelain crafts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "For details on the Xuande Emperor see \"The Cambridge History of China\" Vol 7, pages 285 to 304. This article is essentially a summary of those pages.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Xuande Emperor (; 16 March 1399 31 January 1435), personal name Zhu Zhanji (朱瞻基), was the fifth Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1425 to 1435. His era name \"Xuande\" means \"Proclamation of Virtue\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974922}
{"src_title": "Gérard Philipe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born Gérard Albert Philip in Cannes in a well-off family, he was of one quarter Czech ancestry from his maternal grandmother. His father, Marcel Philip (1893–1973), was a barrister and businessman in Cannes; his mother was Maria Elisa \"Minou\" Philip, née Vilette (1894–1970). On his mother's advice, in 1944 Gérard changed his surname from \"Philip\" to \"Philipe\".  As a teenager Philipe took acting lessons before going to Paris to study at the Conservatoire of Dramatic Art.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early Films.", "content": "Philipe made his film debut in \"Les Petites du quai aux fleurs\" (1943), directed by Marc Allégret, in an uncredited role.  He had a minor role in \"Box of Dreams\" (1945) then was third billed in \"Land Without Stars\" (1946) after Jani Holt and Pierre Brasseur; George Lacombe wrote and directed.  When he was 19 years old, he made his stage debut at a theater in Nice; and the following year his strong performance in the Albert Camus play \"Caligula\" made his reputation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stardom.", "content": "Philippe had a lead role in \"The Idiot\" (1946), an adaptation of the novel by Fyodor Dostoevsky, co-starring Edwige Feuillère for director Georges Lampin. This was widely seen overseas and established Philippe as a leading man. He was in \"Ouvert pour cause d'inventaire\" (1946), a short film that was an early work for Alain Renais.  He was invited to work with the \"Théâtre national populaire\" (T.N.P.) in Paris and Avignon, whose festival, founded in 1947 by Jean Vilar, is France's oldest and most famous.  Philippe gained fame as a result of his performance in Claude Autant-Lara's \"Devil in the Flesh\" (1947), alongside Micheline Presle. It was a huge box office success.  He went on to star in \"La Chartreuse de Parme\" (1948) for director Christian-Jacque, which was even more popular than \"Devil in the Flesh\". He followed it with \"Such a Pretty Little Beach\" (1949) for Yves Allegret; \"All Roads Lead to Rome\" (1949), a reunion with Presle, for Jean Boyer; and \"Beauty and the Devil\" (1950) for Rene Clair.  Philippe was one of several stars in Max Ophuls' version of \"La Ronde\" (1950). He followed it with another all-star film, \"Lost Souvenirs\" (1951) for Christian-Jacques.  In 1951, Philipe married Nicole Fourcade (1917–1990), an actress/writer, with whom he had two children. She adopted the pseudonym, Anne Philipe, and wrote about her husband in two books, the first called \" Souvenirs\" (1960) and a second biography titled \"Le Temps d'un soupir\" (\"No Longer Than a Sigh\", 1963).  Philippe was in \"Juliette, or Key of Dreams\" (1951) with Suzanne Cloutier for Marcel Carne; \"The Seven Deadly Sins\" (1952), an all-star anthology film; and \"Fan Fan the Tulip\" (1953), a swashbuckling adventure with Gina Lollobrigida for Christian-Jacque which was very popular.  He was in \"Beauties of the Night\" (1952), again with Lollobrigida, and Martine Carol, directed by Clair; \"The Proud and the Beautiful\" (1953) with Michele Morgan; two more all-star anthologies: \"It Happened in the Park\" (1953) and \"Royal Affairs in Versailles\" (1954).  Philippe tried an English movie, \"Lovers, Happy Lovers!\" (1954) (also known as \"Knave of Hearts\"), directed by Rene Clement and co-starring Valerie Hobson.  He then did \"The Red and the Black\" (1954) with Danielle Darrieux and had a big success with \"The Grand Maneuver\" (1955) for Rene Clair, co-starring Morgan.  Phillippe did \"The Best Part\" (1956) for Yves Allegret and was one of many stars in \"If Paris Were Told to Us\" (1956).  He wrote, directed and starred in \"Bold Adventure\" (1956), a comic adventure film.  He starred in \"Lovers of Paris\" (1957) for Julien Duvivier and \"Montparnasse 19\" (1958) for Jacques Becker. He was one of many stars in \"Life Together\" (1958) and top billed in \"The Gambler\" (1958).  In 1958 he went to New York and performed on Broadway in the all-French \"Lorenzaccio\" and \"Le Cid\".  Phillipe played Valmont in Roger Vadim's modern day version of \"Les liaisons dangereuses\" (1959), appearing alongside Jeanne Moreau.  His last film was \"Fever Mounts at El Pao\" (1960) for Luis Buñuel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "He died from liver cancer while working on a film project in Paris, a few days short of his 37th birthday. (His doctors concealed from him the nature of his disease.) In accordance with his last wishes, he is buried, dressed in the costume of Don Rodrigue (The Cid), in the village cemetery in Ramatuelle, Var near the Mediterranean Sea coast.  To commemorate the centenary of the cinema in 1995, the French government issued a series of limited edition coins that included a 100 franc coin bearing the image of Philipe. Among the most popular French actors of modern times, he has been elevated to mythic status in his homeland, not least because of his early death at the peak of his popularity.  In 1986, his portrait appeared on a French commemorative postage stamp. There is a film festival named in his honour as well as a number of theatres and schools (such as the College Gérard Philipe - Cogolin) in various parts of France. In Germany he has been scarcely less respected than in his native country; a cultural centre is named after him in Berlin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "http://www.radio.cz/fr/rubrique/faits/gerard-philippe-comedien-francais-tres-aime-des-tcheques", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gérard Philipe (4 December 1922 – 25 November 1959) was a prominent French actor who appeared in 34 films between 1944 and 1959. Active in both theater and cinema, he was, until his untimely death, one of the main stars of the post-war period. His image has remained youthful and romantic, which has made him one of the icons of French cinema.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974923}
{"src_title": "Fulk IV, Count of Anjou", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Fulk, born 1043, was the younger son of Geoffrey II, Count of Gâtinais (sometimes known as Aubri), and Ermengarde of Anjou. Ermengarde was a daughter of Fulk the Black, count of Anjou, and the sister of Geoffrey Martel who preceded Fulk and his brother Geoffrey as Count of Anjou.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Count of Anjou.", "content": "When Geoffrey Martel died without direct heirs he left Anjou to his nephew Geoffrey III of Anjou, Fulk le Réchin's older brother. Fulk fought with his brother, whose rule was deemed incompetent, and captured him in 1067. Under pressure from the Church he released Geoffrey. The two brothers soon fell to fighting again, and the next year Geoffrey was again imprisoned by Fulk, this time for good. Substantial territory was lost to Angevin control due to the difficulties resulting from Geoffrey's poor rule and the subsequent civil war. Saintonge was lost, and Fulk had to give the Gâtinais to Philip I of France to placate the king. Much of Fulk's rule was devoted to regaining control over the Angevin baronage, and to a complex struggle with Normandy for influence in Maine and Brittany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Author of the \"History of Anjou\".", "content": "In 1096 Fulk wrote an incomplete history of Anjou and its rulers titled \"Fragmentum historiae Andegavensis\" or \"History of Anjou.\" The authorship and authenticity of this work is disputed. Only the first part of the history, describing Fulk's ancestry, is extant. The second part, supposedly describing Fulk's own rule, has not been recovered. If he did write it, it is one of the first medieval works of history written by a layman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Succession.", "content": "He died in 1109 leaving the restoration of the countship, as it was under Geoffrey Martel, to his successors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Fulk may have married as many as five times; there is some doubt regarding the exact number or how many he repudiated.  His first wife was Hildegarde of Beaugency. Together they had a daughter:  After her death, before or by 1070, he married Ermengarde de Bourbon. Together they had a son before Fulk repudiated her in 1075, possibly on grounds of consanguinity:  Around 1076 he married Orengarde de Châtellailon. He repudiated her in 1080, possibly on grounds of consanguinity.  He then married an unnamed daughter of Walter I of Brienne by 1080. This marriage also ended in divorce, in 1087.  Lastly, in 1089, he married Bertrade de Montfort, who was apparently \"abducted\" by King Philip I of France in or around 1092. They had a son:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fulk IV (in French \"Foulques IV\") (1043–14 April 1109), called le Réchin, was the Count of Anjou from 1068 until his death. The nickname by which he is usually referred has no certain translation. Philologists have made numerous very different suggestions, including \"quarreler\", \"rude\", \"sullen\", \"surly\" and \"heroic\". He was noted to be \"a man with many reprehensible, even scandalous, habits\" by Orderic Vitalis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974924}
{"src_title": "Chiatura", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography and History.", "content": "The city is located inland, in a mountain valley on the banks of the Qvirila River.  In 1879 the Georgian poet Akaki Tsereteli explored the area in search of manganese and iron ores, discovering deposits in the area. After other intense explorations it was discovered that there are several layers of commercially exploitable manganese oxide, peroxide and carbonate with thickness varying between and. The state set up the JSC Chiaturmanganese company to manage and exploit the huge deposit. The gross-balance of workable manganese ores of all commercial categories is estimated as 239 million tonnes, which include manganese oxide ores (41.6%), carbonate ores (39%), and peroxide ores (19%). As a result, the company developed a rail link to transport manganese ore to the ferro-alloy plant in Zestaphoni, which operated today by Georgian Railways is fully electrified. Manganese production rose to 60% of global output by 1905.  In Chiatura are located the Tsereteli State Theater, 10 schools, Faculty of the Georgian Technical University, and the Mgvimevi Cathedral (10th-11th centuries). During the 1905 Russian Revolution Chiatura was the only Bolshevik stronghold in mostly Menshevik Georgia. 3,700 miners worked 18 hours a day sleeping in the mines, always covered in soot. They didn't even have baths. Joseph Stalin persuaded them to back Bolshevism during a debate with the Mensheviks. They preferred his simple 15-minute speech to his rivals' oratory. They called him \"sergeant major Koba\". He set up a printing press, protection racket and \"red battle squads\". Stalin put Vano Kiasashvili in charge of the armed miners. The mine owners actually sheltered him as he would protect them from thieves in return and he destroyed mines whose owners refused to pay up.  In 1906 a gold train carrying the miners' wages was attacked by Kote Tsintsadze's Druzhina (Bolshevik Expropriators' Club). They fought for two hours, killing a Gendarme and soldier, and stealing 21,000 roubles. The miners went on a successful 55-day strike in June–July 1913. They demanded an 8-hour day, higher wages and no more night work. The police allowed the RSDRP to lead the strike provided they didn't make any political demands. They were supported by fellow strikers in Batumi and Poti.  Chiatura is the seat of the Archbishop of Chiatura.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cablecars.", "content": "Due to the steep sided river valley, production workers spent a large amount of time walking up from the town to the mines, there by reducing productivity. In 1954 an extensive cable car system was installed to transport workers around the valley and up to the mines. Still utilising the same infrastructure installed originally in the 1950s, today some 17 separate aerial lift cable car systems still exist around the town. Some of the most interesting lines are just outside the city. As of October 2017, the central hub with 4 lines is being rebuilt with modern cable car technology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Chiatura is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chiatura () is a city in the Imereti region of Western Georgia. In 1989, it had a population of about 30,000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974925}
{"src_title": "Michael Clarke Duncan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Duncan was born in Chicago, Illinois, and raised in a single-parent household with his sister, Judy, and mother, Jean Duncan (a house cleaner), after his father left. He always wanted to act, but had to drop out of the Communications program at Alcorn State University to support his family when his mother became ill.  Duncan's large frame— and —helped him in his jobs digging ditches for Peoples Gas Company and being a bouncer at several Chicago clubs. Duncan also played basketball at Kankakee Community College and for one season for the Alcorn State Braves.  In 1979, he participated in the Disco Demolition Night at Comiskey Park, home of the Chicago White Sox, where he was among the first 100 people to run onto the field and he slid into third base. During the ensuing riot his silver belt buckle was stolen while he was stealing a baseball bat from the dugout.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Duncan took security jobs while in Los Angeles while trying to get some acting work in commercials. During this time, he worked as a bodyguard for celebrities like Will Smith, Martin Lawrence, Jamie Foxx, LL Cool J, and The Notorious B.I.G., all the while doing bit parts in television and films. When rapper Notorious B.I.G. was killed in 1997, Duncan quit the personal-protection business.  After having begun his career with several bit parts playing bouncers in films such as \"Bulworth\" and \"A Night at the Roxbury\", Duncan first came to prominence when he was cast as Bear in the blockbuster Michael Bay action film \"Armageddon\" (1998). During the production of the film, Duncan struck up a friendship with castmate Bruce Willis and it was Willis' influence that helped him to get his breakout role as gentle giant John Coffey in the Frank Darabont film \"The Green Mile\" (1999). Starring alongside Tom Hanks, Duncan's performance netted him an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor in a Supporting Role and a Golden Globe nomination for Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Motion Picture.  Following his role as Coffey, Duncan was then cast in a string of films that helped to establish him as an actor in both action and comedy roles: \"The Whole Nine Yards\" (2000), \"See Spot Run\" (2001), \"Planet of the Apes\" (2001), \"The Scorpion King\" (2002), and \"Daredevil\" (2003), in the last of which he played The Kingpin from Marvel Comics.  When Duncan was cast as the Kingpin in 2002, he faced the dual challenge of portraying a typically white character and having to gain to fit the character's large physique. In July 2006, Duncan showed interest in returning for the role of the Kingpin, but stated that he would not be willing to regain the weight that he had lost. In 2009, he stopped eating meat and later appeared in a PETA ad campaign, touting the health benefits and his increased strength from a vegetarian diet.  In 2005, Duncan appeared in two action films, \"The Island\" and \"Sin City\" where he played Manute, a powerful mobster. Critic Roger Ebert singled out Duncan for praise for his role in \"The Island\", writing that \"[Duncan] has only three or four scenes, but they're of central importance, and he brings true horror to them.\" Duncan appeared in a supporting role in the 2006 comedy \"\" as Lucius Washington and, in 2009, Duncan played Balrog in \"\" and starred as the titular Cleon \"Slammin Salmon in Broken Lizard's farce \"The Slammin' Salmon\".  Famous for his deep, resonant voice, Duncan also did voice roles for films such as \"Brother Bear\" (2003) and its sequel, \"Brother Bear 2\" (2006), \"Kung Fu Panda\" (2008) and \"Green Lantern\" (2011) playing the voice of Kilowog from DC Comics alongside Ryan Reynolds.  His other voice roles include' TV series such as \"Loonatics Unleashed\" and \"\", Quiznos commercials, and a number of video games such as \"\", \"\", \"\", \"Saints Row\", \"Soldier of Fortune\", and \"God of War II\", where he provided the voice of the Titan Atlas. He additionally reprised his role as the Kingpin in \"\".  In addition to his film roles, Duncan also guest starred in numerous television shows. Among these, he appeared in an episode of \"The Suite Life of Zack & Cody\" and a first-season episode of \"\". In 2008, he appeared as \"Mr. Colt\" in the second-season premiere of \"Chuck\", \"Chuck Versus the First Date\" and as a guest star on two episodes of \"Two and a Half Men\". Most notably, in April 2011, Duncan guest starred on an episode of TV series \"Bones\" as Leo Knox which, in 2012, led to Duncan receiving his first starring role as the same character in the spinoff series \"The Finder\". The \"Bones\" Season 8 episode \"The Partners in the Divorce\", which aired three weeks after his death, was dedicated to him.  During the week of May 14, 2012, Duncan appeared as a guest on the late night talk show \"The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson\" when the show was taping for a week in Scotland. Duncan was one of the show's most frequent guests, appearing a total of 18 times, and, the day after Duncan's death in September, Ferguson began his show with a tribute to him. In January 2013 during \"The Late Late Show\"s winter break, reruns of the Scotland episodes were broadcast with a tribute to Duncan at the beginning of each of the five episodes, featuring Duncan on a pink background and the text \"In memory of our friend Michael Clarke Duncan.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "At the time of his death, Duncan was with reality television personality Omarosa Manigault.  In 2013, Manigault appeared in the cast of \"The All-Star Celebrity Apprentice\" and played in Duncan's honor for his favorite charity and one he had benefited from himself, the Sue Duncan Children's Center. In episode 2 of the season, Manigault won $40,000 for the charity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health problems and death.", "content": "On July 12, 2012, Duncan was taken to Cedars Sinai Medical Center after suffering a heart attack. Duncan's publicist, Joy Fehily, issued a statement on August 6 that read he was moved from the intensive-care unit but remained hospitalized following his heart attack. On September 3, Duncan died in Los Angeles at the age of 54.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Funeral.", "content": "On September 10, 2012, a private funeral was held in Los Angeles, and Duncan was interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Hollywood Hills.  Seven months after his death and according to his family, Omarosa was under suspicion for changing his will and testament. They also claim that Omarosa manipulated Duncan in his final days, lied about her engagement and sold his belongings without the family's knowledge.  Following Duncan's death, many memorials used one of his most famous lines from \"The Green Mile\": “Heaven. I’m in heaven.”", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Michael Clarke Duncan (December 10, 1957September 3, 2012) was an American actor best known for his breakout role as John Coffey in \"The Green Mile\" (1999), for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and various similar honors. He also appeared in motion pictures such as \"Armageddon\" (1998), \"The Whole Nine Yards\" (2000), \"The Scorpion King\" (2002), \"Daredevil\" (2003), and \"\" (2006), and had voice roles in films such as \"Brother Bear\" (2003), \"Kung Fu Panda\" (2008) and \"Green Lantern\" (2011).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974926}
{"src_title": "Ex nihilo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Theology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Ex nihilo nihil fit\": uncreated matter.", "content": "\"Ex nihilo nihil fit\" means that nothing comes from nothing. In ancient creation myths the universe is formed from eternal formless matter, namely the dark and still primordial ocean of chaos. In Sumerian myth this cosmic ocean is personified as the goddess Nammu \"who gave birth to heaven and earth\" and had existed forever; in the Babylonian creation epic Enuma Elish pre-existent chaos is made up of fresh-water Apsu and salt-water Tiamat, and from Tiamat the god Marduk created Heaven and Earth; in Egyptian creation myths a pre-existent watery chaos personified as the god Nun and associated with darkness, gave birth to the primeval hill (or in some versions a primeval lotus flower, or in others a celestial cow); and in Greek traditions the ultimate origin of the universe, depending on the source, is sometimes Okeanos (a river that circles the Earth), Night, or water.  To these can be added the account of the Book of Genesis, which opens with God separating and restraining the waters, not creating the waters themselves out of nothing. The Hebrew sentence which opens Genesis, \"Bereshit bara Elohim et hashamayim ve'et ha'aretz\", can be translated into English in at least three ways:  It has been known since the Middle Ages that on strictly linguistic and exegetical grounds option 1 is not the preferred translation. Our society sees the origin of matter as a question of crucial importance, but for ancient cultures this was not the case, and the authors of Genesis wrote of creation they were concerned with God bringing the cosmos into operation by assigning roles and functions. This was still the situation in the early 2nd century CE, but by that time Christian scholars were beginning to see a tension between the idea of world-formation and the omnipotence of God, and by the beginning of the 3rd century the tension was resolved, world-formation was overcome, and creation \"ex nihilo\" had become a fundamental tenet of Christian theology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Creatio ex nihilo\": the creation of matter.", "content": "\"Creatio ex nihilo\", in contrast to \"ex nihilo nihil fit\", is the idea that matter is not eternal but was created by God at the initial cosmic moment. The concept is sometimes claimed to be present in a 2nd century BCE Jewish work called Second Maccabees, or in the 1st century CE Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria, but it seems to have originated around 200 CE in disputes between Christians, gnostics, and neo-Platonists, and by the 3rd century creation \"ex nihilo\" had become a fundamental tenet of Christian theology.  Most modern biblical scholars are aware that scripture does not support \"ex nihilo\" creation, and consequently find other reasons for continuing to hold it. Some argue that it is indeed implied in scripture, even if never actually stated; others that it gains validity from having been held by so many for so long; and others find support in modern cosmological theories surrounding the Big Bang. Some examine alternatives to \"creatio ex nihilo\", such as the idea that God created from his own self or from Christ, but this seems to imply that the world is more or less identical with God; or that God created from pre-existent matter, which at least has biblical support, but this implies that the world does not depend on God for its existence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metaphysics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cosmological argument and Kalam osmological argument.", "content": "A major argument for \"creatio ex nihilo\", the cosmological argument, states in summary:  An expansion of the first cause argument is the Kalam cosmological argument, which also requires \"creatio ex nihilo\":", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In Jewish philosophy.", "content": "The idea of creation \"ex nihilo\" was introduced into Judaism in the 10th century CE by Saadia Gaon, who in his work \"Book of Beliefs and Opinions\" imagined a God far more awesome and omnipotent than that of the rabbis, the traditional Jewish teachers who had so far dominated Judaism and whose God had created the world from pre-existing matter. Today Jews, like Christians, tend to believe in creation \"ex nihilo,\" although some Jewish scholars recognise that Genesis 1:1 recognises the pre-existence of matter to which God gives form.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Islamic.", "content": "Islam shares with Christianity and Judaism the concept that God is First Cause and absolute creator; he did not create the world from pre-existing matter.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Creation \"ex nihilo\" is a theistic answer to the question of how the universe comes to exist: the Big Bang theory, by contrast, is a scientific theory; it offers no explanation of cosmic existence but only a description of the first few moments of that existence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974927}
{"src_title": "Princess Maria Luisa of Bourbon-Two Sicilies", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Maria Luisa was born at the Palace of Caserta. She was baptised with the names \"Maria Luisa Immacolata\"; her godmother was Princess Maria Luisa Carlota of Parma. Her father died when she was only four years old and she was raised primarily by her mother.  In 1860, when Maria Luisa was five, her half-brother King Francis II of the Two Sicilies was defeated by the Expedition of the Thousand. She and her family fled to Rome where they resided briefly at the Quirinal Palace at the invitation of the Pope Pius IX. Her mother rented the Palazzo Nipoti in Rome, and it was there that she lived for the next seven years.  Even as a child Maria Luisa was known for her piety. She was particularly devoted to her namesake patrons, the Immaculate Heart of Mary and Saint Aloysius Gonzaga. On 24 December 1865, she made her first communion in the chapel in the Roman College where Saint Aloysius made his vows.  In the summer of 1867 Maria Luisa and her family were vacationing at Albano Laziale when cholera broke out. Her mother died on 8 August, followed by her youngest brother Gennaro on 13 August.  Following their mother's death, Maria Luisa and her siblings moved into the Palazzo Farnese, the residence of her half-brother King Francis II. She was taught Italian, French, and German. She became a competent artist in both oil and watercolour.  In October 1867 Rome was attacked by the forces of Giuseppe Garibaldi. Maria Luisa and her sister Maria Pia were given refuge in the Apostolic Palace in Vatican City until the papal victory at the Battle of Mentana.  In 1870 Rome was again attacked by the armies of the King of Italy. Maria Luisa and her sister Maria Pia fled to Bolzano and then to Cannes in France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 25 November 1873 in Cannes, Maria Luisa married Prince Henry of Bourbon-Parma, Count of Bardi, son of Charles III, Duke of Parma and his wife Princess Louise Marie Thérèse of France. Henry's older brother Robert had married Maria Luisa's older sister Maria Pia in 1869.  After the wedding Henry and Maria Luisa went to Egypt for their honeymoon. There she became sick with a fever. The couple decided to return home, and on 30 March 1874 they disembarked at Marseilles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "It was decided to take Maria Luisa to the town of Cauterets where there were sulphur baths. On the way they stopped at the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes where she was immersed in the water twice. Her physicians said that her case was hopeless, and at the end of July it was decided to move her to Pau. She died there on 23 August, the Feast of the Immaculate Heart of Mary.  Maria Luisa's remains were buried in the chapel at Villa Borbone, near Viareggio.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Maria Luisa of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (full Italian name: \"Maria Luisa Immacolata di Borbone, Principessa di Borbone delle Due Sicilie\") (21 January 1855, Naples, Two Sicilies – 23 August 1874, Pau, Armagnac, France) was the youngest daughter of King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies and his wife Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria. She was known for her piety and for her charity to the poor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974928}
{"src_title": "Lyonel Feininger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Lyonel Feininger was born to German-American violinist and composer Karl Feininger and American singer Elizabeth Feininger. He was born and grew up in New York City, but traveled to Germany at the age of 16 in 1887 to study. In 1888, he moved to Berlin and studied at the Königliche Akademie Berlin under Ernst Hancke. He continued his studies at art schools in Berlin with Karl Schlabitz, and in Paris with sculptor Filippo Colarossi. He started as a caricaturist for several magazines including \"Harper's Round Table\", \"Harper's Young People\", \"Humoristische Blätter\", \"Lustige Blätter\", \"Das Narrenschiff\", \"Berliner Tageblatt\" and \"Ulk\".  In 1900, he met Clara Fürst, daughter of the painter. He married her in 1901, and they had two daughters. In 1905, he separated from his wife after meeting Julia Berg. He married Berg in 1908 and the couple had three boys.  The artist was represented with drawings at the exhibitions of the annual Berlin Secession in the years 1901 through 1903.  Feininger's career as cartoonist started in 1894. He was working for several German, French and American magazines. In February 1906, when a quarter of Chicago's population was of German descent, James Keeley, editor of The \"Chicago Tribune\" traveled to Germany to procure the services of the most popular humor artists. He recruited Feininger to illustrate two comic strips \"The Kin-der-Kids\" and \"Wee Willie Winkie's World\" for the \"Chicago Tribune\". The strips were noted for their fey humor and graphic experimentation. He also worked as a commercial caricaturist for 20 years for various newspapers and magazines in both the United States and Germany. Later, Art Spiegelman wrote in \"The New York Times Book Review,\" that Feininger's comics have \"achieved a breathtaking formal grace unsurpassed in the history of the medium.\"  Feininger started working as a fine artist at the age of 36. He was a member of the \"Berliner Sezession\" in 1909, and he was associated with German expressionist groups: Die Brücke, the Novembergruppe, Gruppe 1919, the Blaue Reiter circle and Die Blaue Vier (The Blue Four). His first solo exhibit was at Sturm Gallery in Berlin, 1917. When Walter Gropius founded the Bauhaus in Germany in 1919, Feininger was his first faculty appointment, and became the master artist in charge of the printmaking workshop. From 1909 until 1921, Feininger spent summer vacations on the island of Usedom to recover and to get new inspiration. Typical of works from this period were marine settings from the shores of the Baltic See (Ostsee). He continued to create paintings and drawings of Benz for the rest of his life, even after returning to live in the United States. A tour of the sites appearing in the works of Feininger follows a path with markers in the ground to guide visitors.  He designed the cover for the Bauhaus 1919 manifesto: an expressionist woodcut 'cathedral'. He taught at the Bauhaus for several years. Among the students who attended his workshops were Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack (German/Australian (1893–1965), Hans Friedrich Grohs (German 1892 - 1981), and Margarete Koehler-Bittkow (German/American, 1898–1964).  When the Nazi Party came to power in 1933, the situation became unbearable for Feininger and his wife. The Nazi Party declared his work to be \"degenerate\". They moved to America after his work was exhibited in the 'degenerate art' (\"Entartete Kunst\") in 1936, but before the 1937 exhibition in Munich. He taught at Mills College before returning to New York. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1955.  In addition to drawing, Feininger created art with painted toy figures being photographed in front of drawn backgrounds.  Feininger produced a large body of photographic works between 1928 and the mid-1950s. He kept his photographic work within his circle of friends, and it was not shared with the public in his lifetime. He gave some prints away to his colleagues Walter Gropius and Alfred H. Barr Jr..  Feininger also had intermittent activity as a pianist and composer, with several piano compositions and fugues for organ extant.  His sons, Andreas Feininger and T. Lux Feininger, both became noted artists, the former as a photographer and the latter as a photographer and painter. T. Lux Feininger died July 7, 2011 at the age of 101.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major retrospective.", "content": "A major retrospective exhibition of Lyonel Feininger's work was put on in 2011-2012: it opened initially at the Whitney Museum of American Art, June 30 through October 16, 2011, subsequently at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, January 1 through May 13, 2012. The exhibition is described as \"the first in Feininger's native country in more than forty-five years, and the first ever to include the full breadth of his art\" and as \"accompanied by a richly illustrated monograph with a feature essay that provides a broad overview of Feininger's career...\" Many critics have argued that the artist's work was at its most mature around 1910 in works in which the power of Feininger as illustrator balance his abstract side; however, we have to consider the possibility that Feininger used cubism as a more artistically succinct tool to establish his version of the concept known as the objective correlative.  Feininger was also a composer: in tandem with the Whitney retrospective, the American Symphony Orchestra under Leon Botstein, at Carnegie Hall on 21 October 2011, performed three orchestral fugues written by Feininger. Barbara Haskell, curator of the Whitney exhibit, wrote that for his entire life, Feininger credited Bach with having been his \"master in painting.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art market.", "content": "At a 2001 Christie's auction in London, Feininger's painting \"The Green Bridge\" (1909) was sold for £2.42 million.  At a 2007 Sotheby’s auction in New York, Feininger’s oil painting \"Jesuits III\" (1915) sold for $23,280,000.  At a 2017 Sotheby's auction in New York, Feininger's oil painting \"Fin de séance\" (1910) sold for $5,637,500.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lyonel Charles Feininger (July 17, 1871January 13, 1956) was a German-American painter, and a leading exponent of Expressionism. He also worked as a caricaturist and comic strip artist. He was born and grew up in New York City, traveling to Germany at 16 to study and perfect his art. He started his career as a cartoonist in 1894 and met with much success in this area. He was also a commercial caricaturist for 20 years for magazines and newspapers in the USA and Germany. At the age of 36, he started to work as a fine artist. He also produced a large body of photographic works between 1928 and the mid 1950s, but he kept these primarily within his circle of friends. He was also a pianist and composer, with several piano compositions and fugues for organ extant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974929}
{"src_title": "John Casimir of the Palatinate-Simmern", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Count Palatine John Casimir was born in Simmern as the third son of Frederick III, Elector Palatine, and Marie of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, of the Simmern middle electoral line of the House of Wittelsbach. In 1564 John Casimir suggested himself as a bridegroom for Elizabeth I of England and sent her his portrait via the Scottish courtier Sir James Melville. Elizabeth, however, showed no interest in him.  On 26 November 1568 he was engaged to the 16-year-old Lutheran Elisabeth of Saxony, a daughter of Augustus, Elector of Saxony and his first wife Anne of Denmark. The wedding took place in Heidelberg on June 6, 1570. The marriage was political, as John Casimir wanted to link Calvinism to Saxony through the marriage. Their marriage turned out to be unhappy, and not only because of religious differences. John Casimir ordered his wife under house arrest accusing her of adultery. Elisabeth gave birth to six children, three of whom were stillborn; the other three were daughters. She died in prison on April 2, 1590.  From March, 1571 Johann Casimir resided in Kaiserslautern for a decade. When his father died in 1576, he ordered in his will that the Palatinate was to remain Calvinist. His son, Louis VI, inherited the main part of the Palatinate, including Heidelberg, and John Casimir inherited a smaller portion, which became the independent Count Palatine of Lautern (essentially consisting of the city of Kaiserslautern and surrounding area). John Casimir's brother Ludwig, who had been secretly raised by his mother as a Lutheran, did not honor his father's wish and instead supported Lutheranism. Many professors of theology, including Zacharias Ursinus, left the Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg and were welcomed to Lautern by Johann Casimir who built the Collegium Casimirianum in Neustadt as a substitute university for them in 1578.  John Casimir was in regular contact with Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester and his nephew Sir Philip Sidney who, as agent for Elizabeth I, was sent to the continent to assist in the formation of a Protestant league. In 1576, John Casimir entered France leading four thousand troops. As a result of this campaign, he was made \"duc d’Étampes\" by Henry III of France for a few months, in 1576–1577. This was a theoretical position, as he never actually visited his French duchy. He visited England in 1579 to seek the Queen's financial support for his campaigns on behalf of the United Provinces. In February 1579 the Earl of Leicester took him to Oxford and he was entertained for three weeks at the English court. From 1583 to 1592 Casimir acted as regent for his nephew Elector Frederick IV.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "With Elisabeth of Saxony:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Casimir, Count Palatine of Simmern (German: \"Johann Casimir von Pfalz-Simmern\") (7 March 1543 – ) was a German prince and a younger son of Frederick III, Elector Palatine. A firm Calvinist, he was a leader of mercenary troops in the religious wars of the time, including the Dutch Revolt. From 1583–1592 he acted as regent for his nephew, Elector Palatine Frederick IV.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974930}
{"src_title": "Joseph Valachi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Valachi was born on September 22, 1904, in the East Harlem area of New York City, United States, into an impoverished Italian immigrant family from the region of Campania. His father was a violent alcoholic, and Valachi would later blame his background for his turn to organized crime.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minutemen.", "content": "Valachi's criminal career began with a small gang, known as the Minutemen, which was so called for carrying out smash and grab burglaries and escaping within a minute. Valachi was the driver for the gang, and his ability to make a quick getaway earned him a reputation as a rising star in the New York City criminal underworld. In 1921, Valachi was arrested on grand larceny charges, and in 1923, he was arrested in the aftermath of a botched robbery. He pleaded guilty to attempted burglary and was sentenced to 18 months' imprisonment but was released after he had served only nine months. Valachi returned to discover he had been replaced with a new driver by the Minutemen and so he formed a new burglary gang.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italian-American Mafia.", "content": "In 1930, Valachi was inducted as a made man into the American Mafia, also known as the \"Cosa Nostra\" (\"our thing\"). He soon became a \"soldato\" (soldier) in the Reina family, now known as the Lucchese family, led by Gaetano Reina. Valachi joined during the height of the Castellammarese War, a violent power struggle within Italian organized crime between the factions of Joe Masseria and Salvatore Maranzano over control of operations in the United States. Reina was assassinated after he had switched allegiances from Masseria to Maranzano. Valachi fought as part of the Reina family on the side of Maranzano, which eventually emerged victorious after Masseria's assassination on April 15, 1931. Maranzano proclaimed himself \"capo di tutti capi\" (\"boss of all bosses\") in the Italian-American Mafia, and Valachi became one of his bodyguards. That position was short-lived, as Maranzano himself was assassinated five months after the end of the Castellammarese War by a coalition of his subordinates, led by Charles \"Lucky\" Luciano. Valachi then became a soldier in the family headed by Luciano, eventually known as the Genovese family, in the crew headed by Anthony \"Tony Bender\" Strollo. In July 1932, Valachi married Carmela Reina, the eldest daughter of Gaetano Reina.  In 1953, boss Vito Genovese allegedly ordered the murder of mobster Steven Franse. Genovese had tasked Franse with supervising his wife Anna while he hid in Italy. Outraged over Anna's potential love affairs and her lawsuit against him, Genovese ordered Valachi to set up Franse's murder. On June 18, 1953, Valachi lured Franse to his restaurant in the Bronx, where Franse was strangled to death by Pasquale Pagano and Fiore Siano (Valachi's nephew).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Federal testimony.", "content": "Valachi was convicted of narcotics violations in 1959 and sentenced to 15 years in prison. Valachi's motivations for becoming an informer had been the subject of some debate: Valachi claimed to be testifying as a public service and to expose a powerful criminal organization that he had blamed for ruining his life, but it is also possible he was hoping for government protection as part of a plea bargain in which he was sentenced to life imprisonment instead of the death penalty for a murder, which he had committed in 1962 while in prison for his narcotics violation.  Valachi murdered a man in prison who he feared mob boss, and fellow prisoner, Vito Genovese had ordered to kill him. Valachi and Genovese were both serving sentences for heroin trafficking. On June 22, 1962, using a pipe left near some construction work, Valachi bludgeoned an inmate to death who he had mistaken for Joseph DiPalermo, a Mafia member who he believed had been contracted to kill him. After time with FBI handlers, Valachi came forward with a story of Genovese giving him a kiss on the cheek, which he took as a \"kiss of death.\" A $100,000 bounty for Valachi's death had been placed by Genovese.  When Valachi decided to co-operate with the U.S. Justice Department, Attorney William G. Hundley became his protector and later stated, \"We'd put dark glasses and wigs on him and take him to the Roma restaurant. He was a hell of a guy... My days with Valachi convinced me that the Cosa Nostra was the most overrated thing since the Communist Party.\"  In October 1963, Valachi testified before Arkansas Senator John L. McClellan's Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U.S. Senate Committee on Government Operations, known as the Valachi hearings, stating that the Italian-American Mafia actually existed, the first time a member had acknowledged its existence in public. Valachi's testimony was the first major violation of omertà, breaking his blood oath. He was the first member of the Italian-American Mafia to acknowledge its existence publicly, and is credited with popularization of the term \"cosa nostra\".  Although Valachi's disclosures never led directly to the prosecution of any Mafia leaders, he provided many details of history of the Mafia, operations and rituals; aided in the solution of several unsolved murders; and named many members and the major crime families. The trial exposed American organized crime to the world through Valachi's televised testimony.  After the Justice Department first encouraged and then blocked publication of Valachi's memoirs, a biography, heavily influenced by the memoirs as well as interviews with Valachi, was written by journalist Peter Maas and published in 1968 as \"The Valachi Papers\", forming the basis for a later film of the same title, starring Charles Bronson in the titular role.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On April 3, 1971, Valachi died of a heart attack while he was serving his sentence at the Federal Correctional Institution, La Tuna, in Anthony, Texas. He was buried four days later at the Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Lewiston, New York.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Michael Valachi (September 22, 1904 – April 3, 1971) was an American gangster in the Genovese crime family who is notable as the first member of the Italian-American Mafia to, in 1963, acknowledge its existence publicly. He is credited with popularization of the term \"cosa nostra\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974931}
{"src_title": "Ink wash painting", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Brush painting was one of the \"Four Arts\" expected to be learnt by China's class of scholar-officials. Ink wash painting appeared during the Tang dynasty (618–907), and its early development is credited to Wang Wei and Zhang Zao, among others.  In the Ming dynasty, Dong Qichang would identify two distinct styles: a clearer, grander Northern School (Beizonghua or Beihua J: Hokushūga), and a freer, more expressive Southern School (Nanzonghua or Nanhua J: Nanshuga), also called \"Literati Painting\" (Wenrenhua J: Bunjinga).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "East Asian writing on aesthetics is generally consistent in stating that the goal of ink and wash painting is not simply to reproduce the appearance of the subject, but to capture its spirit. To paint a horse, the ink wash painting artist must understand its temperament better than its muscles and bones. To paint a flower, there is no need to perfectly match its petals and colors, but it is essential to convey its liveliness and fragrance. In this, it has been compared to the later Western movement of Impressionism. It is also particularly associated with the Chán or Zen sect of Buddhism, which emphasises \"simplicity, spontaneity and self-expression\", and Daoism, which emphasises \"spontaneity and harmony with nature,\" especially when compared with the less spiritually-oriented Confucianism.  In landscape painting the scenes depicted are typically imaginary, or very loose adaptations of actual views. Mountain landscapes are by far the most common, often evoking particular areas traditionally famous for their beauty, from which the artist may have been very distant. Water is very often included.  East Asian ink wash painting has long inspired modern artists in the West. In his classic book \"Composition\", American artist and educator Arthur Wesley Dow (1857–1922) wrote this about ink wash painting: \"The painter... put upon the paper the fewest possible lines and tones; just enough to cause form, texture and effect to be felt. Every brush-touch must be full-charged with meaning, and useless detail eliminated. Put together all the good points in such a method, and you have the qualities of the highest art\". Dow's fascination with ink wash painting not only shaped his own approach to art but also helped free many American modernists of the era, including his student Georgia O'Keeffe, from what he called a \"story-telling\" approach. Dow strived for harmonic compositions through three elements: line, shading, and color. He advocated practicing with East Asian brushes and ink to develop aesthetic acuity with line and shading.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technique.", "content": "Ink wash painting uses tonality and shading achieved by varying the ink density, both by differential grinding of the ink stick in water and by varying the ink load and pressure within a single brushstroke. Ink wash painting artists spend years practicing basic brush strokes to refine their brush movement and ink flow. In the hand of a master, a single stroke can produce astonishing variations in tonality, from deep black to silvery gray. Thus, in its original context, shading means more than just dark-light arrangement: It is the basis for the beautiful nuance in tonality found in East Asian ink wash painting and brush-and-ink calligraphy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Materials and tools.", "content": "Ink wash painting is usually done on xuan paper (Chinese) or washi (Japanese paper) both of which are highly absorbent and unsized. Silk is also used in some forms of ink painting. Many types of xuan paper and washi do not lend themselves readily to a smooth wash the way watercolor paper does. Each brush stroke is visible, so any \"wash\" in the sense of Western style painting requires partially sized paper. Paper manufacturers today understand artists' demands for more versatile papers and work to produce kinds that are more flexible. If one uses traditional paper, the idea of an \"ink wash\" refers to a wet-on-wet technique, applying black ink to paper where a lighter ink has already been applied, or by quickly manipulating watery diluted ink once it has been applied to the paper by using a very large brush.  In ink wash paintings, as in calligraphy, artists usually grind inkstick over an inkstone to obtain black ink, but prepared liquid inks (墨汁 in Japanese, \"bokuju\") are also available. Most inksticks are made of soot from pine or oil combined with animal glue. An artist puts a few drops of water on an inkstone and grinds the inkstick in a circular motion until a smooth, black ink of the desired concentration is made. Prepared liquid inks vary in viscosity, solubility, concentration, etc., but are in general more suitable for practicing Chinese calligraphy than executing paintings. Inksticks themselves are sometimes ornately decorated with landscapes or flowers in bas-relief and some are highlighted with gold.  Ink wash painting brushes are similar to the brushes used for calligraphy and are traditionally made from bamboo with goat, cattle, horse, sheep, rabbit, marten, badger, deer, boar and wolf hair. The brush hairs are tapered to a fine point, a feature vital to the style of wash paintings.  Different brushes have different qualities. A small wolf-hair brush that is tapered to a fine point can deliver an even thin line of ink (much like a pen). A large wool brush (one variation called the \"big cloud\") can hold a large volume of water and ink. When the big cloud brush rains down upon the paper, it delivers a graded swath of ink encompassing myriad shades of gray to black.  Once a stroke is painted, it cannot be changed or erased. This makes ink and wash painting a technically demanding art-form requiring great skill, concentration, and years of training.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ink wash painting (; ; ), or sumi-e (), is a type of East Asian brush painting that uses black ink – as used in East Asian calligraphy – in different concentrations. Emerging in Tang dynasty China (618–907), it, and associated stylistic features, overturned earlier, more realistic techniques. These associated features include a preference for shades of black over variations in colour, and an emphasis on brushwork and the perceived \"spirit\" or \"essence\" of a subject over direct imitation. It flourished in the Song dynasty China (960–1279), as well as in Japan after it was introduced by Zen Buddhist monks in the 14th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974932}
{"src_title": "HC Sparta Praha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Milestones.", "content": "Highest national league participation: From the league foundation in 1936 to 1950 and from 1951 up to this day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The HC Sparta Praha hockey club is one of the oldest hockey clubs in the world and one of the most successful and famous clubs in Czechoslovakian and later Czech ice hockey history.  Sparta’s great successes were reached in the years following World War II as it won two national titles in a row—1952–53 and 1953–54—under the name Spartak Sokolovo. The next highly successful period came much more recently when Sparta won the national league in 1989–90 and again in 1992–93. Another recent achievement (along with two third-place finishes in 1995–96 and 1996–97) was Sparta’s participation in the final group of the European League (EHL) in 1996–97.  After a few years of bad luck and less success, Sparta returned to the top of the Czech Extraliga in 1999/00 when they were crowned league champions. That victory was the first of four championships they would win over seven seasons, adding Extraliga titles in 2002, 2006 and 2007. In addition to those achievements, Sparta managed to be part of the Top Four in the European League (EHL) again in 1999–2000 and achieved the greatest result in Czech hockey history: second place.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Present.", "content": "HC Sparta Praha has regularly been one of the best teams in the Czech Extraliga, making the playoffs almost every year. HC Sparta Praha's home games are played at O Arena which is the largest hockey arena in the Czech Republic with a capacity of over 17,300 spectators. They moved there from the Tipsport Arena in 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Domestic.", "content": "Czech Extraliga  Czechoslovak Extraliga  Bohemian-Moravian League", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Spengler Cup  Tatra Cup  IIHF European Champions Cup  European Hockey League  Champions Hockey League", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pre-season.", "content": "Tipsport Hockey Cu", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Hockey Club Sparta Praha, commonly known as HC Sparta Prague, is a Prague based Czech ice hockey team playing in the Czech Extraliga. The club has won four Czech championships (most recently in 2007) and four Czechoslovak championships, as well as two Spengler Cups, making it one of the most successful hockey clubs in Czech history. The team HC Sparta Praha plays its home games at O Arena, the largest arena in the country.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974933}
{"src_title": "Ula-class submarine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The ordering of a new Norwegian submersible design stemmed from a 1972 decision to modernise the Royal Norwegian Navy (RNoN) submarine flotilla, which then consisted of the aging submarines. The contract was signed on 30 September 1982 for six boats with Thyssen Nordseewerke, Emden. An option for two more submarines was included in the original deal, however, it was never picked up.  The construction of the vessels was an international project. The combat systems were made in Norway by Kongsberg, the attack sonar is German and the flank sonars French. The hull sections were produced in Norway and assembled in Germany by Thyssen Nordseewerke. In Germany, the design is known as the \"U-Boot-Klasse 210\".  When commissioned, the \"Ula\"s were the first Norwegian submarines to have enough bunks for the entire crew and a shower.  The \"Ula\"-class submarines are among the most silent and maneuverable submarines in the world. This, in combination with their relatively small size, makes them difficult to detect from surface vessels and ideal for operations in coastal areas. The \"Ula\" class is regarded as both the most effective and cost-effective weapons in the RNoN.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ship history.", "content": "In 1989, while undergoing trials, \"Ula\" was damaged by a practice torpedo. In March 1991, \"Uredd\" was involved in an accident while docking. In February 1992, \"Uredd\" suffered a control room fire.  In recent years, several submarines of the \"Ula\" class have been deployed in the Mediterranean Sea in support of the NATO Operation Active Endeavour, where their intelligence-gathering ability surpassed expectations. Their operational availability proved to be highest of all ships taking part in the operation. This mission highlighted a need for better temperature regulation for crew comfort in warm waters. As a result, HNoMS \"Ula\" was \"tropicalized\" by the installation of new cooling systems, and two more of the class designated for \"tropicalization\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future submarine capability.", "content": "During 2006-2008 the \"Ula\" class was slated for modernisation. Most notably, new communication equipment (Link 11), new electronic warfare support measures and a periscope upgrade. In May 2008, a contract for new sonars was signed, with the first submarine to have new sonar 21 months after that, and the last 52 months later. Furthermore, Kongsberg was contracted in 2012 to upgrade the submarines' combat systems. The \"Ula\" class will probably be kept in service until 2020.  In 2012 the Norwegian MoD set 2014 as a deadline for deciding whether to further extend the operative life of the Ula class after their slated end-of-life in 2020, or to replace them with a new fleet. In December 2014, the Norwegian Ministry of Defence made the decision to begin the process of replacing the \"Ula\"s. As part of that decision, the \"Ula\"-class submarines would be kept in service for a further five years, but would not exceed 35 years total service as that would be too costly.  In 2016, two suppliers (DCNS and Thyssen Krupp) were shortlisted to provide competing options to replace the Ula-class boats. In February 2017, Thyssen Krupp was selected to provide four replacement submarines based on the Type 212-class for service entry starting in the mid-2020s. A firm build contract is anticipated in the first half of 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vessels.", "content": "Six submarines were delivered (1989–1992) to the RNoN. All are based at Haakonsvern in Bergen. The boats are all named after places in Norway, with the exception of \"Uredd\" (\"Fearless\" in English), in honour of the World War II submarine. The ship prefix for RNoN vessels is KNM (\"Kongelig Norsk Marine\", Royal Norwegian Navy), in English HNoMS (His Norwegian Majesty's Ship).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Citations Books", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Ula\" class is a Norwegian submarine type which was assembled in Germany in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The class, consisting of six vessels, is currently the only submarine type in service with the Royal Norwegian Navy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974934}
{"src_title": "Princess Maria Carolina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1822–1869)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth and marriage.", "content": "Maria Carolina was born in Vienna on 26 April 1822, the only surviving child of Prince Leopold of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, Prince of Salerno and his wife (and niece) Archduchess Maria Clementina of Austria, daughter of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor.  Nicknamed \"Lina\" since her birth, the princess spent the first years of her life under the supervision of her mother in the Austrian imperial court at Vienna and was also officially introduced there in society. As a teenager, she returned with her family to Naples.  In the 1830s and 1840s there were not many princesses from European nobility who were in a marriageable age, so Maria Carolina had several suitors for her hand. The choice finally fell on Prince Henry, Duke of Aumale, fifth and second-youngest son of King Louis-Philippe I of France and his wife Maria Amalia of the Two Sicilies, who became impressed with her during a stay at her father's palace in Naples. The marriage negotiations began in late August 1844, and already on 17 September of the same year at the \"Revue de Paris\", their engagement was officially announced. The union was anything but a love match. Henri d'Orléans described his wife in a letter to his teacher Alfred-Auguste de Cuvillier-Fleury as \"not nice, but nothing unpleasant about herself\". Cuvillier-Fleury agreed with him, adding that she also had an \"exquisite appearance\" (\"[...] \"n'est pas jolie, mais c'est une miniature exquise.\"\"). Henry agreed with the marriage only after intense pressure from his parents after they rejected other candidates and finally opted for the small and graceful Maria Carolina to forestall any other marriage proposals to her from other European princes.  The marriage took place on 25 November 1844 (the date corresponded to the wedding anniversary of the French royal couple) in Naples at the request of the groom, although Maria Carolina's future in-laws would have preferred it that the marriage would be celebrated in Paris. The civil wedding was performed in the royal palace of King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, and on the same day the religious ceremony was celebrated with great pomp. The bride received the large amount of 517,000 gold francs as a dowry. The festivities on the occasion of the wedding, such as balls, receptions, hunting events or theater galas, lasted more than two weeks. However, Maria Carolina traveled already on 2 December 1844 together with her husband by ship to Toulon. From there the newlyweds had a grand reception by the city to Paris, where they settled in a serie of rooms at the Tuileries Palace.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First years of marriage and issue.", "content": "During the first months of 1845, which for Maria Carolina where filled by ceremonial duties at official occasions such as balls, theatrical performances or meetings with nobles, she and her husband had finally the opportunity to know each other better. They developed a mutual respect, and during all her life the princess was a faithful and devoted wife who never made claims. Her charming ways, gentleness and kindness gained the love of her husband's family. Contemporaries described her as amiable and witty ( \"[...] \"on la dit gentille, spirituelle\"; [...]\"). In May 1845 she moved with her husband to the Château de Chantilly, which Henry specially made rebuild and modernize.  Maria Karolina remained at her husband's side after he was appointed in September 1847 Governor General of Algeria and therefore his presence in that country was necessary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exile in England. Death.", "content": "After the February Revolution of 1848 The Orléans family went into exile in England and were, by decree from 16 May 1848, permanently banned from France. Maria Carolina followed her husband, and they temporarily moved to Claremont House. Their strained finances forced the princess to sell parts of their precious jewels to pay for their maintenance.  Maria Carolina soon become a close friend of Queen Victoria, who gave her and her family the \"Orléans House\" in Twickenham, London as their residence. They moved from Claremont to their new home on 16 April 1852. After a long journey in August 1864 across Europe (including Belgium, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Spain, Switzerland and the Orient), Maria Carolina preferably spent her time in the \"Wood Norton Hall\" estate at Worcestershire.  The unexpected death of her eldest son Louis Philippe, Prince of Condé, in 1866 plunged Maria Carolina into a deep depression from which she never fully recovered. After a six-week bout of illness, she died on 6 December 1869 aged 47 at Orleans House from infectious tuberculosis.  Four days after her death, on 10 December 1869, Maria Carolina was buried in the Catholic Chapel of Weybridge until 1876, when her remains were returned to France by her husband to be buried in the Chapelle royale de Dreux. After the death of his wife, Henry preferred to remain a widower until his own death in 1897.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Maria Carolina and Henry had seven children, from only two survived childbirth but both died young:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Maria Carolina Augusta of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (26 April 1822 – 6 December 1869) was a Princess of Bourbon-Two Sicilies by birth and a princess of the House of Orléans through her marriage to Prince Henry of Orléans, Duke of Aumale.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974935}
{"src_title": "Coroner (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career and breakup.", "content": "The Swiss thrash trio Coroner were originally road crew for Celtic Frost. They eventually cut their own songs, recording their demo \"Death Cult\" in 1986 with Tom G. Warrior of Celtic Frost on vocals. Their first full-length album \"R.I.P.\", released in 1987, featured bass player Ron Broder on vocals and he assumed the role for the rest of the group's existence.  The group released four more albums through to 1993, ending with a greatest hits collection, \"Coroner\", in 1995. Lack of media exposure brought this band to disbanding in 1995 — and to their farewell tour consequent to their self-titled album in January and February 1996.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reunion.", "content": "In March 2005, talks of a reunion were in the works, but later retracted. The main reason was that neither Marky, Ron, nor Tommy had the time it would require to do this properly, and also that none of them liked to \"reheat things, except spaghetti sauce.\" In June 2010, however, Coroner announced that they would reunite for next year's installments of Maryland Deathfest, Hellfest Summer Open Air and Bloodstock Open Air. The band was asked if they were planning to write a new album. Guitarist Tommy Vetterli replied, \"you know, making a new album is kind of difficult... (Pause) Well, you never know. Maybe after four or five shows we'll get into it and say, 'Hey! Let's do an album!' Nobody knows what's going to happen. We don't have a master plan\".  In April 2011, drummer Marky Edelmann was asked why Coroner decided to reunite after their 15-year break up. He replied, \"It was a total trip; it was really like a time warp. It was totally strange. Sometimes you could play the songs automatically; it was still somehow programmed. It was really funny; your arms go left and right, and you don't know why. 'Oh, wow, that's why. I have to hit this cymbal right now.' [Laughs] So that was really quite a trip. It makes me feel like being [brought] back [in time] 15 years or more. And I missed playing drums, totally. That was also something I'm very happy about now — to just play drums.\" Marky also stated that a new Coroner album was not in the cards, but he also stated that the band could reissue their back catalog.  In June 2011, Vetterli told RadioMetal.com that Coroner has been recording shows for a future live album and also plan to release a career spanning DVD in the future. Asked about new material, he mentioned that they might record one song or two. Tommy also stated that if Coroner makes a new album he would have to \"try to convince\" Marky and Ron and would not do it without them.  On February 12, 2014, drummer Marky Edelmann announced that he would be leaving Coroner at the end of the month, citing a disinterest in new material, as opposed to Broder and Vetterli. On May 24, 2014, Diego Rapacchietti was announced as the new drummer for Coroner.  Despite their earlier decision not to release new material, guitarist Tommy Vetterli stated that Coroner plans to work on a potential follow-up to \"Grin\". In June 2015, Ron revealed in an interview (released on Italian webzine \"Artists and Bands\") that: \"We are still individually in the process of collecting songwriting ideas. We have not started recording yet, but once we come together, it will probably proceed quickly. We are planning on hitting the studio towards the end of this year, hopefully.\" On July 26, 2016, it was announced that Coroner had entered the studio to begin recording their new album, which was initially set for release in 2017; however, it did not surface in 2017 and there had been no news about the album until April 2020, when Coroner announced via Twitter that they were \"going to record a NEW album this year.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evolution and style.", "content": "Musically, Coroner evolved from a speed metal band with gothic and classical overtones like Celtic Frost and Bathory into a technical-based band. Coroner's first album, \"R.I.P.\", was based on neoclassical lines and was technical and classically influenced.  The second album, \"Punishment for Decadence\", saw a progression into a more complex sound with a unison of bass and guitar. Tempo changes interspersed mid-paced sections and the odd slow passage between the faster passages started to emerge. Lyrically, Coroner began to write about themes such as politics and personal introspection.  \"No More Color\" was produced by Pete Hinton and the band. Coroner's music became more technical on \"No More Color\" as the guitar work was characterized by intricate modes and arpeggios, solo work that was chromatically colorful, as well as the \"de rigueur\" crunchy chords and speed runs; the drumming went beyond the 4/4 time of Coroner's two previous albums to incorporate unusual time signatures which became their trademark. Ron Royce's bass playing is also worth a mention as having an advanced three-finger technique which enables him to double the rhythm line as well as perform more intricate riffs. Prime examples of this are the opener \"Die By My Hand\" with its vicious riffing and the harmonic minor inspired riff in the middle of \"Mistress of Deception\". The closer \"Last Entertainment\" is a prescient take on TV. The opening track \"Die By My Hand\" is a classic piece of prog come thrash metal. It is technical but also brutal.  \"Mental Vortex\" continued the evolution over \"No More Color\". Continuing with the previous album's technical formula, the speed metal formula was re-integrated into Coroner's sound on this album but with a tone that made it sound not at all like \"R.I.P.\" or \"Punishment for Decadence\". There were slower songs but none of the songs on \"Mental Vortex\" stayed the same speed for very long. The songs on \"Mental Vortex\" ranged from four to eight minutes. The last track \"I Want You (She's So Heavy)\" is a cover of The Beatles song, and a video was shot of it. Overall, the tone was a shift from the thrash/technical of \"No More Color\" which showed them gravitating towards their opus \"Grin\".  \"Grin\" saw a much more industrial sound and was a natural progression from \"Mental Vortex\" but was different from most of their previous material. It involved a much more reflective guitar riff and underlying bass line. It was slower and more refined in its metal sensibility. Brooding guitar over Royce's bass produced an almost hypnotic trance-like sound on some tracks. The lead guitar still shone on all tracks.  Their eponymous album, \"Coroner\", was a compilation which contained unreleased material and a selection of hits from previous albums.  The band appears on Brütal Legend with the song \"Skeleton On Your Shoulder\".  Includes 2 demos, 2 remixes, the soundtrack for an unreleased documentary and a record of one of their last concerts before the reunion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Band members.", "content": "As of 2014, no founding member has remained in Coroner, since founding drummer Marquis Marky abandoned the band that year after a 31 year-duty. Bassist/vocalist Ron Royce and guitarist Tommy T. Baron have been the only continual members of Coroner since 1985.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Coroner is a Swiss thrash metal band from Zürich. They garnered relatively little attention outside of Europe. Formed in 1983, the band broke up in 1996, but reformed 14 years later. The band has performed at multiple live venues and festivals around the world since 2011, and plans to release a new album in 2020 or 2021. Coroner's music combines elements of thrash, classical music, avant-garde music, progressive rock, jazz, and industrial metal with suitably gruff vocals. With their increasingly complex style of progressive rock-infused thrash, they have been called \"the Rush of thrash metal\". Coroner's sound then progressed and the production became more refined, resulting in the more progressive albums \"No More Color\" (1989), \"Mental Vortex\" (1991) and \"Grin\" (1993).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974936}
{"src_title": "Rudolf Weigl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Weigl was born in Prerau (now \"Přerov\"), Moravia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to Austrian-German parents. When he was a child, his father died in a bicycle accident. His mother, Elisabeth Kroesel, married a Polish secondary-school teacher, Józef Trojnar, and they raised Weigl in Jasło, Poland.  Later the family moved to Lviv (\"Lwów\" in Polish, \"Lemberg\" in German and Yiddish), where in 1907 Weigl graduated from the biology department at the Lwów University, where he had been a pupil of Professors Benedykt Dybowski (1833–1930) and J. Nusbaum–Hilarowicz (1859–1917). After graduation, Weigl became Nusbaum's assistant and in 1913 completed his \"habilitacja\" in the department of comparative zoology and anatomy, which effectively gave him tenure.  After the outbreak of World War I in 1914 Weigl was drafted into the medical service of the Austro-Hungarian army and began research on typhus and its causes. Weigl worked at a military hospital in Przemyśl, where he supervised the Laboratory for the Study of Spotted Typhus.  During the Nazi German occupation of Poland in World War II, Weigl's research attracted the attention of the Nazis. When they occupied Lviv, they ordered him to set up a vaccine production plant at his Institute. About a thousand people worked there. Weigl employed and protected Polish intellectuals, Jews and members of the Polish underground. His vaccines were smuggled into ghettos in Lviv and Warsaw, saving countless lives, until the Institute was shut down by the Soviet Union following their 1944 anti-German offensive.  In 1945 Weigl moved to Kraków, Poland. He was appointed Chair of the General Microbiology Institute of Jagiellonian University, and later Chair of Biology of the Poznań Medical Faculty. Production of the vaccine remained at Kraków for some years until discontinued.  Weigl died on 11 August 1957 in the Polish mountain resort of Zakopane.  The Weigl Institute features prominently in Andrzej Żuławski's 1971 film, \"The Third Part of the Night\".  In 2003, a half-century after his death, Professor Weigl was recognized by Israel as a Righteous among the Nations of the World.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vaccine development.", "content": "In 1930, following Charles Nicolle's 1909 discovery that lice were the vector of epidemic typhus, and following the work done on a vaccine for the closely related Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Weigl took the next step and developed a technique to produce a typhus vaccine by growing infected lice and crushing them into a vaccine paste. He refined this technique over the years until 1933, when he performed large-scale testing.  The method comprised four major steps: Growing lice meant feeding them blood, the more human the better. At first he tested his method on Guinea pigs, but around 1933 he began large-scale testing on humans, feeding the lice human blood by letting them suck human legs through a screen. This could cause typhus during the latter phase, when the lice were infected. He alleviated this problem by vaccinating the human \"injectees\", which successfully protected them from death (though some did develop the disease). Weigl himself developed the disease, but recovered.  The first major application of his vaccine was conducted between 1936 and 1943 by Belgian missionaries in China. The vaccine was dangerous to produce and hard to make on a large scale. Over time, other vaccines were developed that were less dangerous and more economical to produce, including the Cox vaccine developed on egg yolk.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudolf Stefan Jan Weigl (2 September 1883 – 11 August 1957) was a Polish biologist and inventor of the first effective vaccine against epidemic typhus. He founded the Weigl Institute in Lwów (now Lviv), where he conducted vaccine research.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974937}
{"src_title": "Franz Kruckenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The revolutionary Schienenzeppelin.", "content": "After the first World War he opened an engineering consultancy in Heidelberg. Initially he worked on a hanging monorail concept, but could not get the financing for a prototype. Later together with Hermann Föttinger he founded the Flugbahn-Gesellschaft mbH to build a high-speed propeller driven train, the \"Schienenzeppelin\". The first test runs were carried out on 25 September 1930 between Kreiensen and Altenbeken on the Braunschweig-Paderborn line. On 21 June 1931 his Schienenzeppelin made the first run on the Hamburg-Berlin line. Between Ludwigslust and Wittenberge the Schienenzeppelin achieved a world speed record for trains of. It was the fastest railcar in the world for more than 20 years. A major problem was the propeller, causing noise and wind. Kruckenberg rebuilt the Schienenzeppelin to a hydraulically driven car, which still had a top speed of with only 441 kW.  The Schienenzeppelin was revolutionary for its time, since the aerodynamic streamline profile and the light weight design were proven as feasible features for high speed railways. While Kruckenberg's ideas continue to influence high speed train design today (ICE, Acela, TGV, AVE) the Schienenzeppelin was scrapped in 1939.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "SVT 137 - prototype for following high speed trains.", "content": "After the Schienenzeppelin Kruckenberg designed the DRG Class SVT 137 155 in 1934. This prototype of a three car DMU had a diesel-hydraulic transmission and was ready for service in 1938. On a test run, on 23 June 1939, this train achieved a world speed record for diesel trains of 215 km/h between Hamburg and Berlin. Parts of that train set are still preserved in Dresden.  After World War II Kruckenberg designed the DB Class VT 10.5 express daytime (\"Senator\", 7 car set) and night sleeper (\"Komet\", 8 car set) following the SVT 137 155 ideas. Many of the \"Senator\" design features were additionally based around the Talgo concept. Both trains were of unprecedented light weight construction of 0.92 t/seat, but had disadvantages in maintenance due to their six engine concept (four Diesel engines for propulsion, two for electricity generation). Thus they were taken out of service in 1959 and 1960 respectively.  Later the DB Class VT 11.5 (\"TEE\") und DR Class VT 18.16 (\"Vindobona\") DMUs were derived from Kruckenberg's SVT 137 155 concept.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Friedrich Kruckenberg (* 21 August 1882 in Uetersen, Germany; † 19 June 1965 in Heidelberg) was an engineer and pioneer of high speed railway systems. He designed several high speed trains. His most famous design was the Schienenzeppelin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974938}
{"src_title": "Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Princess Adelaide Sofia Amelia of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg was born in Kleinheubach, near Miltenberg, Bavaria on 3 April 1831, Easter Sunday. She was a daughter of Constantine, Hereditary Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg (1802–1838), and Princess Agnes of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. Adelaide was four and half years old when her mother died and seven when she also lost her father. Adelaide and her brother, Charles, were brought up by their paternal grandparents, Charles Thomas, Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg (1783–1849) and his wife Princess Sophie of Windisch-Graetz. Her maternal grandparents were Karl Ludwig, Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Countess Amalie Henriette of Solms-Baruth.  Princess Adelaide belonged to the Löwenstein-Wertheim family, an originally morganatic branch of the House of Wittelsbach which was eventually elevated to princely status and then mediatised in 1819.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 24 September 1851, Adelaide married Miguel de Bragança, the former occupant of the Portuguese throne. The bride was 20 years old while the groom was almost 49.  Miguel had at first served as Regent in Portugal for his niece and betrothed Queen Maria II of Portugal but had seized the throne for himself on 23 June 1828. He was an avid conservative and admirer of Klemens Wenzel von Metternich. He overturned the Constitutional Charter written by his brother, Pedro I of Brazil, and tried to rule as an absolute monarch. This resulted in the so-called Liberal Wars (1828–1834), actually a prolonged civil war between progressive constitutionalists and authoritarian absolutists.  The war had ended in 1834 with the deposition of Miguel, who renounced all claims to the throne of Portugal in exchange for an annual pension. (Since he reneged on the terms of his deposition, he never collected the pension.) He was forced into a lifelong exile. He remained the senior male member of the Portuguese line of the House of Braganza, but he was never restored to the throne and it is disputed whether his descendants' dynastic rights were restored. On 15 January 1837, his support of Infante Carlos, Count of Molina, the first Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne, resulted in the removal of his own rights to said throne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Matchmaker and later life.", "content": "Her husband, Miguel, died on 14 November 1866 before any of their children had reached adulthood. Adelaide, who was a very ambitious woman, would spend the next several decades attempting to secure prominent marriages for her children.  As a result of her largely successful attempts, her grandchildren would include (among others) Duarte Nuno, Duke of Braganza, Elisabeth Amalia, Princess of Liechtenstein, Elisabeth, Queen of the Belgians, Marie Gabrielle, Crown Princess of Bavaria, Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, Antoinette, Crown Princess of Bavaria, Xavier, Duke of Parma, Zita, Empress of Austria, Felix of Bourbon-Parma and Infanta Maria Adelaide of Portugal. Many of her descendants have inherited her longevity.  In 1895, two years after the marriage of her last daughter, Adelaide, a devout Catholic, retired to the abbey of Sainte-Cécile de Solesmes in north-western France. She professed as a nun there on 12 June 1897. The community later moved to Cowes and then to Ryde on the Isle of Wight, where Adelhaid died on 16 December 1909 at the age of 78. In 1967 both her body and that of her husband were moved to the Braganza mausoleum in the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora in Lisbon. During her life, she lived during the reign of 6 Portuguese kings: her future husband Miguel I until 1834; his niece Maria II until 1853 (from 1837 along with his consort Fernando II); his grandnephews Pedro V until 1861 and Luís I until 1889; his great-grandnephew Carlos I until 1908 and his great-great-grandnephew Manuel II from 1908.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg (3 April 1831 – 16 December 1909) was the wife of Miguel de Bragança, former occupant of the Portuguese throne but only following his deposition. As a widow, she secured advantageous marriages for their six daughters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974939}
{"src_title": "HC Kometa Brno", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The club was founded in 1953 as an army ice hockey club with the name Rudá hvězda Brno (\"Red Star\"). The majority of players were transferred from two hockey clubs in Brno (TJ Spartak Brno Zbrojovka and TJ Spartak GZ Královo Pole). In 1962, the club changed its name to ZKL Brno (ZKL is an abbreviation of \"Ball Bearing Factory\") and stopped being an army team. In 1976, the name was changed to Zetor Brno. Shortly after the revolution (1994), the club changed its name to HC Kometa Brno. \"Kometa\" was the team's nickname since the 1950s (as opposed to the official \"Red Star\") and the team was commonly referred to by this name since its beginning.  In 1996, the team was relegated from Czech Extraliga to the second highest ice hockey league, the 1st Czech Republic Hockey League. For many years, the team struggled due to poor financing and multiple changes of owners, facing relegation again in 2001–2002. The club almost ceased to exist, playing in the East division of the third-highest Czech ice hockey league. By the 2003–2004 season, it returned to the first league. In 2004, Kometa played its first playoff series since 1997, reached the semifinals in 2008, and reached the finals in 2009.  On 1 April 2009, Kometa principal investor Rene Burger bought the licence for another South Moravian club, HC Znojemští Orli. This club began to serve as a farm team for Brno.  In March 2012, the team managed to defeat HC Sparta Praha, the winner of the 2011–12 Czech Extraliga regular season, in six games, qualifying for the playoff semifinals. In the semifinals, they defeated HC Plzeň 1929, the runner-up of the regular season, in five games. In the final, Kometa lost the Czech Extraliga championship final to HC Pardubice in six games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Domestic.", "content": "Czech Extraliga  Czech 1. Liga  Czechoslovak Extraliga  1st. Czech National Hockey League", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "IIHF European Cup", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pre-season.", "content": "Spengler Cup  Rona Cup  Tipsport Hockey Cup", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Players.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current roster.", "content": "As for the 2018/19 season.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "HC Kometa Brno (\"Comet\" in English) is a professional ice hockey team based in Brno, Czech Republic. They play in the Czech Extraliga. Kometa is the most successful ice hockey club in the Czech Republic with 13 Czechoslovak (and Czech) league championship titles. Holding three European Cup titles, Kometa ranks as the most successful Czech club in international ice hockey. The team HC Kometa Brno has won two Czech championships seasons, capturing the title in both 2016–2017 and in 2017–2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974940}
{"src_title": "Maple (software)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Core functionality.", "content": "Users can enter mathematics in traditional mathematical notation. Custom user interfaces can also be created. There is support for numeric computations, to arbitrary precision, as well as symbolic computation and visualization. Examples of symbolic computations are given below.  Maple incorporates a dynamically typed imperative-style programming language (resembling Pascal), which permits variables of lexical scope. There are also interfaces to other languages (C, C#, Fortran, Java, MATLAB, and Visual Basic), as well as to Microsoft Excel.  Maple supports MathML 2.0, which is a W3C format for representing and interpreting mathematical expressions, including their display in web pages. There is also functionality for converting expressions from traditional mathematical notation to markup suitable for the typesetting system LaTeX.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Maple is based on a small kernel, written in C, which provides the Maple language. Most functionality is provided by libraries, which come from a variety of sources. Most of the libraries are written in the Maple language; these have viewable source code. Many numerical computations are performed by the NAG Numerical Libraries, ATLAS libraries, or GMP libraries.  Different functionality in Maple requires numerical data in different formats. Symbolic expressions are stored in memory as directed acyclic graphs. The standard interface and calculator interface are written in Java.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first concept of Maple arose from a meeting in late 1980 at the University of Waterloo. Researchers at the university wished to purchase a computer powerful enough to run the Lisp-based computer algebra system Macsyma. Instead, they opted to develop their own computer algebra system, named Maple, that would run on lower cost computers. Aiming for portability, they began writing Maple in programming languages from the BCPL family (initially using a subset of B and C, and later on only C). A first limited version appeared after three weeks, and fuller versions entered mainstream use beginning in 1982. By the end of 1983, over 50 universities had copies of Maple installed on their machines.  In 1984, the research group arranged with Watcom Products Inc to license and distribute the first commercially available version, Maple 3.3. In 1988 Waterloo Maple Inc. (Maplesoft) was founded. The company’s original goal was to manage the distribution of the software, but eventually it grew to have its own R&D department, where most of Maple's development takes place today (the remainder being done at various university laboratories). In 1989, the first graphical user interface for Maple was developed and included with version 4.3 for the Macintosh. X11 and Windows versions of the new interface followed in 1990 with Maple V. In 1992, Maple V Release 2 introduced the Maple \"worksheet\" that combined text, graphics, and input and typeset output. In 1994 a special issue of a newsletter created by Maple developers called \"MapleTech\" was published.  In 1999, with the release of Maple 6, Maple included some of the NAG Numerical Libraries. In 2003, the current \"standard\" interface was introduced with Maple 9. This interface is primarily written in Java (although portions, such as the rules for typesetting mathematical formulae, are written in the Maple language). The Java interface was criticized for being slow; improvements have been made in later versions, although the Maple 11 documentation recommends the previous (\"classic\") interface for users with less than 500 MB of physical memory.  Between 1995 and 2005 Maple lost significant market share to competitors due to a weaker user interface. With Maple 10 in 2005, Maple introduced a new \"document mode\" interface, which has since been further developed across several releases.  In September 2009 Maple and Maplesoft were acquired by the Japanese software retailer Cybernet Systems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "Features of Maple include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples of Maple code.", "content": "The following code, which computes the factorial of a nonnegative integer, is an example of an imperative programming construct within Maple: <!-- not implemented, yet... --> <syntaxhighlight lang=\"mupad\"> myfac := proc(n::nonnegint) end proc;  Simple functions can also be defined using the \"maps to\" arrow notation:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Integration.", "content": "Find  Output:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Determinant.", "content": "Compute the determinant of a matrix.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Series expansion.", "content": "series(tanh(x), x = 0, 15)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Solve equations numerically.", "content": "The following code numerically calculates the roots of a high-order polynomial:  The same command can also solve systems of equations:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plotting of function of single variable.", "content": "Plot formula_7 with formula_8 ranging from -10 to 10:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plotting of function of two variables.", "content": "Plot formula_9 with formula_8 and formula_11 ranging from -1 to 1:  plot3d(x^2+y^2, x = -1..1, y = -1..1);", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Animation of functions.", "content": "plots:-animate(subs(k = 0.5, f), x=-30..30, t=-10..10, numpoints=200, frames=50, color=red, thickness=3);  plots:-animate3d(cos(t*x)*sin(3*t*y), x=-Pi..Pi, y=-Pi..Pi, t=1..2);", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Laplace transform.", "content": "f := (1+A*t+B*t^2)*exp(c*t);  inttrans:-invlaplace(1/(s-a), s, x);", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fourier transform.", "content": "inttrans:-fourier(sin(x), x, w)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Integral equations.", "content": "Find functions formula_17 that satisfy the integral equation  eqn:= f(x)-3*Int((x*y+x^2*y^2)*f(y), y=-1..1) = h(x): intsolve(eqn,f(x));", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use of the Maple engine.", "content": "The Maple engine is used within several other products from Maplesoft:  Listed below are third-party commercial products that no longer use the Maple engine:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maple is a symbolic and numeric computing environment as well as a multi-paradigm programming language. It covers several areas of technical computing, such as symbolic mathematics, numerical analysis, data processing, visualization, and others. A toolbox, MapleSim, adds functionality for multidomain physical modeling and code generation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974941}
{"src_title": "Alphonse, Count of Poitiers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Birth and early life.", "content": "Born at Poissy, Alphonse was a son of Louis VIII, King of France and Blanche of Castile. He was a younger brother of Louis IX of France and an older brother of Charles I of Sicily. In 1229, his mother, who was regent of France, forced the Treaty of Paris on Raymond VII of Toulouse after his rebellion. It stipulated that a brother of King Louis was to marry Joan of Toulouse, daughter of Raymond VII of Toulouse, and so in 1237 Alphonse married her. Since she was Raymond's only child, they became rulers of Toulouse at Raymond's death in 1249.  By the terms of his father's will he received an \"appanage\" of Poitou and Auvergne. To enforce this Louis IX won the battle of Taillebourg in the Saintonge War together with Alphonse against a revolt allied with king Henry III of England, who also participated in the battle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Crusades.", "content": "Alphonse took part in two crusades with his brother, St Louis, in 1248 (the Seventh Crusade) and in 1270 (the Eighth Crusade). For the first of these, he raised a large sum and a substantial force, arriving in Damietta on 24 October 1249, after the town had already been captured. He sailed for home on 10 August 1250. His father-in-law had died while he was away, and he went directly to Toulouse to take possession. There was some resistance to his accession as count, which was suppressed with the help of his mother Blanche of Castile who was acting as regent in the absence of Louis IX. The county of Toulouse, since then, was joined to Alphonse's \"appanage\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1252, on the death of his mother, Blanche of Castile, Alphonse was joint regent with Charles of Anjou until the return of Louis IX. During that time he took a great part in the campaigns and negotiations which led to the Treaty of Paris in 1259, under which King Henry III of England recognized his loss of continental territory to France (including Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Poitou) in exchange for France withdrawing support from English rebels.  Aside from the crusades, Alphonse stayed primarily in Paris, governing his estates by officials, inspectors who reviewed the officials' work, and a constant stream of messages. His main work was on his own estates. There he repaired the evils of the Albigensian war and made a first attempt at administrative centralization, thus preparing the way for union with the crown. He is remembered for founding the bastide town of Villeneuve-sur-Lot which straddles the River Lot and still contains many of its original structures, including one of the first bridges across the river. The charter known as \"Alphonsine,\" granted to the town of Riom, became the code of public law for Auvergne. Honest and moderate, protecting the middle classes against exactions of the nobles, he exercised a happy influence upon the south, in spite of his naturally despotic character and his continual and pressing need of money. He is noted for ordering the first recorded local expulsion of Jews, when he did so in Poitou in 1249.  When Louis IX again engaged in a crusade (the Eighth Crusade), Alphonse again raised a large sum of money and accompanied his brother. This time, however, he did not return to France, dying while on his way back, probably at Savona in Italy, on 21 August 1271.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Alphonse's death without heirs raised some questions as to the succession to his lands. One possibility was that they should revert to the crown, another that they should be redistributed to his family. The latter was claimed by Charles of Anjou, but in 1283 Parlement decided that the County of Toulouse should revert to the crown, if there were no male heirs. Alphonse's wife Joan (who died four days after Alphonse) had attempted to dispose of some of her inherited lands in her will. Joan was the only surviving child and heiress of Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne, and Marquis of Provence, so under Provençal and French law, the lands should have gone to her nearest male relative. But, her will was invalidated by Parlement in 1274. One specific bequest in Alphonse's will, giving his wife's lands in the Comtat Venaissin to the Holy See, was allowed, and it became a Papal territory, a status that it retained until 1791.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alphonse or Alfonso (11 November 122021 August 1271) was the Count of Poitou from 1225 and Count of Toulouse (as Alphonse II) from 1249. As count of Toulouse, he also governed the Marquisate of Provence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974942}
{"src_title": "Giuseppe Terragni", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Giuseppe Terragni was born to a prominent family in Meda, Lombardy. He attended the Technical College in Como then studied architecture at the Politecnico di Milano university. In 1927 he and his brother Attilio opened an office in Como. They remained in practice until Giuseppe's death during the war years.  A pioneer of the modern movement in Italy, Terragni produced some of its most significant buildings. A founding member of the fascist Gruppo 7 and a leading Italian Rationalist, Terragni fought to move architecture away from neo-classical and neo-baroque revivalism. In 1926 he and other progressive members of Gruppo 7 issued the manifesto that made them the leaders in the fight against revivalism.  In a career that lasted only 13 years, Terragni created a small but remarkable group of designs; most of them were built in Como, which was one of the centers of the Modern Movement in Italy. These works form the nucleus of the language of Italian rationalist or modernistic architecture. Terragni was also one of the leaders of the artistic group called \"astrattisti comaschi\" with Mario Radice and Manlio Rho, one of the most important events in Italian Modern Art. He also contributed to the 1932 Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution.  In his last designs, Terragni achieved a more distinctive Mediterranean character through the fusion of modern theory and tradition.  His brother, Attilio, was the Fascist Podestà (mayor) of Como when the Casa del Fascio was commissioned, and his chief architectural patron was one of Mussolini's mistresses. His career was sidetracked by Italy's entry into World War II, where he was part of the Italian army sent to the Eastern Front. After the Italians collapsed near Stalingrad, Terragni produced drawings of the suffering around him and suffered a nervous breakdown. Terragni returned to Como where he died of thrombosis in 1943.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giuseppe Terragni (; 18 April 1904 – 19 July 1943) was an Italian architect who worked primarily under the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini and pioneered the Italian modern movement under the rubric of Rationalism. His most famous work is the Casa del Fascio built in Como, northern Italy, which was begun in 1932 and completed in 1936; it was built in accordance with the International Style of architecture and frescoed by abstract artist Mario Radice. In 1938, at the behest of Mussolini's fascist government, Terragni designed the Danteum, an unbuilt monument to the Italian poet Dante Alighieri structured around the formal divisions of his greatest work, the Divine Comedy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974943}
{"src_title": "War of the Quadruple Alliance", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Post-1714, Spain recovered remarkably quickly from the War of the Spanish Succession, thanks to reforms initiated by chief minister Giulio Alberoni, supported by his fellow Italian Elisabeth Farnese, who became Philip V's second wife in 1714. In the 1713 Peace of Utrecht, Spain ceded its possessions in Italy and Flanders to Habsburg Austria and Savoy and recovering them was a priority for the new administration of Philip V of Spain.  The 1701 to 1714 war was fought to ensure neither France or the Habsburg Monarchy could ever be united with Spain but Philip now cast doubts on his renunciation of the French throne agreed at Utrecht. Charles VI of Austria also refused to formally accept this principle, as well as delaying implementation of the Dutch Barrier in the newly acquired Austrian Netherlands, an objective for which the Dutch Republic effectively bankrupted themselves. In late 1716, former opponents Britain and France agreed an Anglo-French alliance to ensure enforcement of Utrecht; in January 1717, these two and the Dutch formed the Triple Alliance.  Its key principles were confirmation by Charles and Philip that they renounced their respective claims to the thrones of France and Spain, while Savoy and Austria would exchange Sicily and Sardinia. Spain saw little benefit in this and decided to seize the opportunity to recover territorial losses agreed at Utrecht. As neither Savoy nor Austria possessed significant navies, the most obvious targets were the islands of Sardinia and Sicily, an ambition that aligned with the Italian dynastic claims of Elizabeth Farnese.  In August 1717, Spanish forces landed on Sardinia and by November had re-established control of the island. They met little opposition; Austria was engaged in the 1716–1718 Austro-Turkish War, while France and the Netherlands needed peace to rebuild their shattered economies. Attempts to resolve the situation through diplomacy failed and in June 1718, a British naval force arrived in the Western Mediterranean as a preventive measure.  Emboldened by their success in Sardinia, in July 1718 the Spanish landed 30,000 men on Sicily but the strategic position had now changed. Austria signed the July 1718 Treaty of Passarowitz with the Ottoman Empire, and on 2 August, joined Britain, France and the Dutch in the Quadruple Alliance, which gave its name to the war that followed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The war.", "content": "The Spanish took Palermo on 7 July, then divided their army; on 18 July, Marquess of Lede opened the siege of Messina, while the duke of Montemar occupied the rest of the island. On 11 August, a British squadron commanded by Sir George Byng eliminated the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Cape Passaro. This was followed in the autumn by the landing of a small Austrian army, assembled in Naples by the Austrian Viceroy Count Wirich Philipp von Daun, near Messina to lift the siege by the Spanish forces. The Austrians were defeated in the First Battle of Milazzo on 15 October, and only held a small bridgehead around Milazzo.  In 1718, Cardinal Alberoni began plotting to replace the Duc d'Orléans, regent to the 5-year old King Louis XV of France, with Philip V. This plot became known as the Cellamare Conspiracy. After the plot was discovered, Alberoni was expelled from France, which declared war on Spain. By 17 December 1718, the French, British, and Austrians had all officially entered the war against Spain. The Dutch would join them later, in August 1719.  The Duc d'Orléans ordered a French army under the Duke of Berwick to invade the western Basque districts of Spain in April 1719, still under the shock of Philip V's military intervention against them. The Duke of Berwick's army met very little resistance, but was forced back by heavy losses due to disease. A second attack in Catalonia suffered the same fate. In Sicily, the Austrians started a new offensive under Count Claude Florimond de Mercy. They first suffered a defeat in the Battle of Francavilla (20 June 1719). But the Spanish were cut off from their homeland by the British fleet and it was just a matter of time before their resistance would crumble. Mercy was then victorious in the second Battle of Milazzo, took Messina in October and besieged Palermo.  It was also in 1719 that the Irish exile, the Duke of Ormonde, organized an expedition with extensive Spanish support to invade Britain and replace King George I with James Stuart, the Jacobite \"Old Pretender\". However, his fleet was dispersed by a storm near Galicia in 1719, and never reached Britain. A small force of 300 Spanish marines under George Keith, tenth Earl Marischal did land near Eilean Donan, but they and the highlanders who supported them were defeated at the Battle of Eilean Donan in May 1719 and the Battle of Glen Shiel a month later, and the hopes of an uprising soon fizzled out.  In retaliation for this attack, a British fleet captured Vigo and marched inland to Pontevedra in October 1719. This caused some shock to the Spanish authorities as they realized how vulnerable they were to Allied amphibious attacks, with the potential to open up a new front away from the French frontier.  The French captured the Spanish settlement of Pensacola in Florida in May 1719, pre-empting a Spanish attack on South Carolina. While Spanish forces retook the town in August 1719, it fell to the French again towards the end of the year and they destroyed the town before withdrawing.  A 1,200 strong Spanish force set out from Cuba to take the British settlement of Nassau in the Bahamas. After taking a large amount of plunder they were eventually driven off by the local militia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Peace.", "content": "Displeased with his kingdom's military performance, Philip dismissed Alberoni in December 1719, and made peace with the allies with the Treaty of The Hague on 17 February 1720.  In the treaty, Philip was forced to relinquish all territory captured in the war. However, his third surviving son's right to the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza after the death of Isabella's childless half-cousin, Antonio Farnese, was recognized.  France returned Pensacola and the remaining conquests in the north of Spain in exchange for commercial benefits. Included in the terms of this treaty, Victor Amadeus was forced to exchange Sicily for that of the less important Kingdom of Sardinia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The war provided a unique example during the eighteenth century when Britain and France were on the same side. It came during a period between 1716 and 1731 when the two countries were allies. Spain would later join with France in the Bourbon Compact, and the two would become enemies of the British once more.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The War of the Quadruple Alliance (1718–1720) was caused by Spanish attempts to recover territorial losses agreed by the 1713 Peace of Utrecht. Primarily conducted in Italy, it included minor engagements in the Americas and Northern Europe, as well as the Spanish-backed 1719 Jacobite Rising. Spain recaptured Sardinia in 1717 without opposition, followed by a landing on Sicily in July 1718. This led to the Quadruple Alliance on 2 August 1718, comprising Britain, France, Emperor Charles VI and the Dutch Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974944}
{"src_title": "Encephalitis lethargica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Encephalitis lethargica is characterized by high fever, sore throat, headache, lethargy, double vision, delayed physical and mental response, sleep inversion and catatonia. In severe cases, patients may enter a coma-like state (akinetic mutism). Patients may also experience abnormal eye movements (\"oculogyric crises\"), Parkinsonism, upper body weakness, muscular pains, tremors, neck rigidity, and behavioral changes including psychosis. Klazomania (a vocal tic) is sometimes present.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "The causes of encephalitis lethargica are uncertain.  Some studies have explored its origins in an autoimmune response, and, separately or in relation to an immune response, links to pathologies of infectious disease — viral and bacterial, e.g., in the case of influenza, where a link with encephalitis is clear. Postencephalitic parkinsonism was clearly documented to have followed an outbreak of encephalitis lethargica following the 1918 influenza pandemic; evidence for viral causation of the Parkinson's symptoms is circumstantial (epidemiologic, and finding influenza antigens in encephalitis lethargica patients), while evidence arguing against this cause is of the negative sort (e.g., lack of viral RNA in postencephalitic parkinsonian brain material). In reviewing the relationship between influenza and encephalitis lethargica (EL), McCall and coworkers conclude, as of 2008, that while \"the case against influenza [is] less decisive than currently perceived... there is little direct evidence supporting influenza in the etiology of EL,\" and that \"[a]lmost 100 years after the EL epidemic, its etiology remains enigmatic.\" Hence, while opinions on the relationship of encephalitis lethargica to influenza remain divided, the preponderance of literature appears skeptical.  German neurologist Felix Stern, who examined hundreds of encephalitis lethargica patients during the 1920s, pointed out that the encephalitis lethargica typically evolved over time. The early symptom would be dominated by sleepiness or wakefulness. A second symptom would lead to an oculogyric crisis. The third symptom would be recovery, followed by a Parkinson-like symptom. If patients of Stern followed this course of disease, he diagnosed them with encephalitis lethargica. Stern suspected encephalitis lethargica to be close to polio without evidence. Nevertheless, he experimented with the convalescent serum of survivors of the first acute symptom. He vaccinated patients with early stage symptoms and told them that it might be successful. Stern is author of the 1920s definitive book \"Die Epidemische Encephalitis\" (1920 and 2nd ed. 1928). Stern was driven to suicide during the Holocaust by the German state, his research forgotten.  In 2010, in a substantial Oxford University Press compendium reviewing the historic and contemporary views on EL, its editor, Joel Vilensky of the Indiana University School of Medicine, quotes Pool, writing in 1930, who states, \"we must confess that etiology is still obscure, the causative agent still unknown, the pathological riddle still unsolved...\", and goes on to offer the following conclusion, as of that publication date:Subsequent to publication of this compendium, an enterovirus was discovered in encephalitis lethargica cases from the epidemic. In 2012, Oliver Sacks acknowledged this virus as the probable cause of the disease. Other sources have suggested \"Diplococcus\" as a cause.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occurrences.", "content": "Retrospective diagnosis tentatively suggests numerous accounts of encephalitis lethargica throughout history:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The encephalitis lethargica pandemic of 1915–1926.", "content": "In the winter of 1916–1917, a \"new\" illness suddenly appeared in Vienna and other cities, and rapidly spread world-wide over the next three years. Earlier reports appeared throughout Europe as early as the winter of 1915–1916, but communication about the disease was slow and chaotic, given the varied manifestation of symptoms and difficulties disseminating information in wartime. Until Constantin von Economo identified a unique pattern of damage among the brains of deceased patients and introduced the unifying name \"encephalitis lethargica,\" reports of the protean disease came in under a range of names: botulism, toxic ophthalmoplegia, epidemic stupor, epidemic lethargic encephalitis, acute polioencephalitis, Heine-Medin disease, bulbar paralysis, hystero-epilepsy, acute dementia, and sometimes just \"an obscure disease with cerebral symptoms.\" Just ten days before von Economo's breakthrough in Vienna, Jean-René Cruchet described forty cases of \"subacute encephalomyelitis\" in France.  In the ten years that the pandemic raged, nearly five million people's lives were taken or ravaged. Encephalitis lethargica assumed its most virulent form between October 1918 and January 1919. The pandemic disappeared in 1927 as abruptly and mysteriously as it first appeared. The great encephalitis pandemic coincided with the 1918 influenza pandemic, and it is likely that the influenza virus potentiated the effects of the encephalitis virus or lowered resistance to it in a catastrophic way.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aftermath of the pandemic (postencephalitic syndromes).", "content": "Many surviving patients of the 1915–1926 encephalitis lethargica pandemic seemed to make a complete recovery and return to their normal lives. However, the majority of survivors subsequently developed neurological or psychiatric disorders, often after years or decades of seemingly perfect health. Post-encephalitic syndromes varied widely: sometimes they proceeded rapidly, leading to profound disability or death; sometimes very slowly; sometimes they progressed to a certain point and then stayed at this point for years or decades; and sometimes, following their initial onslaught, they remitted and disappeared. Postencephaltic Parkinsonism is perhaps the most widely recognized of such syndromes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "There have been several proposed diagnostic criteria for encephalitis lethargica. One, which has been widely accepted, includes an acute or subacute encephalitic illness where all other known causes of encephalitis have been excluded. Another diagnostic criterion, suggested more recently, says that the diagnosis of encephalitis lethargica \"may be considered if the patient’s condition cannot be attributed to any other known neurological condition and that they show the following signs: Influenza-like signs; hypersomnolence (hypersomnia), wakeability, ophthalmoplegia (paralysis of the muscles that control the movement of the eye), and psychiatric changes.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Modern treatment approaches to encephalitis lethargica include immunomodulating therapies, and treatments to remediate specific symptoms.  There is little evidence so far of a consistent effective treatment for the initial stages, though some patients given steroids have seen improvement. The disease becomes progressive, with evidence of brain damage similar to Parkinson's disease.  Treatment is then symptomatic. Levodopa (-DOPA) and other anti-Parkinson drugs often produce dramatic responses; however, most people given -DOPA experience improvements that are short lived.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable cases.", "content": "Notable cases include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Encephalitis lethargica is an atypical form of encephalitis. Also known as \"sleeping sickness\" or \"sleepy sickness\" (distinct from tsetse fly-transmitted sleeping sickness), it was first described in 1917 by the neurologist Constantin von Economo and the pathologist Jean-René Cruchet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974945}
{"src_title": "Brambling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "In 1758 Linnaeus included the species in the 10th edition of his \"Systema Naturae\" under its current binomial name, \"Fringilla montifringilla\". \"Montifringilla\" is from Latin \"mons, montis\" mountain and \"fringilla\" finch. The English name is probably derived from Common West Germanic *\"brâma\", meaning bramble or a thorny bush (compare Standard German \"Brämling\" with the same meaning).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The brambling is similar in size and shape to a common chaffinch. Breeding-plumaged male bramblings are very distinctive, with a black head, dark upperparts, orange breast and white belly. Females and younger birds are less distinct, and more similar in appearance to some chaffinches. In all plumages, however, bramblings differs from chaffinches in a number of features:  An additional difference for all plumages except breeding-plumaged males is the bill colour - yellow in the brambling, dull pinkish in the common chaffinch (breeding-plumaged male bramblings have black bills, common chaffinches in the corresponding plumage have grey bills).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "This bird is widespread, in the breeding season, throughout the forests of northern Europe and east across the Palearctic. It is migratory, wintering in southern Europe, North Africa, northern India, northern Pakistan, China, and Japan. It regularly strays into Alaska during migration and may continue as far south as the western United States. The global population of bramblings is about 100 to 200 million, with a decreasing trend.  Open coniferous or birch woodland is favoured for breeding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "This species is almost entirely migratory. In Europe, it forms large flocks in the winter, sometimes with thousands or even millions of birds in a single flock. Such large gatherings occur especially if beech mast is abundant. Bramblings do not require beech mast in the winter, but winter flocks of bramblings will move until they find it. This may be an adaptation to avoid competition with the common chaffinch. Bramblings mostly eat seedsin winter, but insects in summer. It builds its nest in a tree fork, and decorates the exterior with moss or lichen to make it less conspicuous. It lays 4–9 eggs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The brambling (\"Fringilla montifringilla\") is a small passerine bird in the finch family Fringillidae. It has also been called the cock o' the north and the mountain finch. It is widespread and migratory, often seen in very large flocks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974946}
{"src_title": "Kildrummy Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The castle was probably built in the mid-13th century under Gilbert de Moravia. It has been posited that siting of Kildrummy Castle was influenced by the location of the Grampian Mounth trackway crossings, particularly the Elsick Mounth and Cryne Corse Mounth. Kildrummy Castle underwent siege numerous times in its history, first in defence of the family of Robert the Bruce in August–September 1306 (leading to the executions of Nigel Bruce and many other Scots), and again in 1335 by David of Strathbogie. On this occasion Christina Bruce held off the attackers until her husband Sir Andrew Murray came to her rescue. In the reign of David II, Walter Maule of Panmure was warden of Kildrummy Castle.  In 1374 the castle's heiress Isobel was seized and married by Alexander Stewart, who then laid claim to Kildrummy and the title of \"Earl of Mar\". In 1435 it was taken over by James I, becoming a royal castle until being granted to Lord Elphinstone in 1507.  The castle passed from the Clan Elphinstone to the Clan Erskine before being abandoned in 1716 following the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1715.  In May 1585 Margaret Haldane, the wife of David Erskine, Commendator of Dryburgh, was held at Kildrummy in the custody of the Master of Elphinstone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Kildrummy Castle is \"shield-shaped\" in plan with a number of independent towers. The flat side of the castle overlooks a steep ravine; moreover, on the opposite side of the castle the walls come to a point, which was once defended by a massive twin-towered gatehouse. The castle also had a keep, called the \"Snow Tower\", taller than the other towers, built in the French style, as at Bothwell Castle. Extensive earthworks protected the castle, including a dry moat and the ravine. Most of the castle foundations are now visible, along with most of its lower-storey walls. Archaeological excavations in 1925 uncovered decorative stone flooring and evidence of battles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "The castle was given into the care of the Ministry of Works in 1951, and is now owned by its successor organisation, Historic Environment Scotland. Kildrummy Castle gardens, in the quarry used to excavate stone for the castle, are both open to the public.  A hotel (the \"Kildrummy Castle Hotel\") has been built on the old estate, overlooking the ruins.  Kildrummy Castle was the venue for the Scottish Sculpture Open, sometimes known as the Kildrummy Open, organised by the Scottish Sculpture Workshop from 1981 to 1997.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kildrummy Castle is a ruined castle near Kildrummy, in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Though ruined, it is one of the most extensive castles dating from the 13th century to survive in eastern Scotland, and was the seat of the Earls of Mar. It is owned today by Historic Environment Scotland and is open to the public as a scheduled ancient monument with gardens that are included in the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974947}
{"src_title": "Itzhak Perlman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Perlman was born in 1945 in Tel Aviv, (now Israel). His parents, Chaim and Shoshana Perlman, were Jewish natives of Poland and had independently immigrated to Palestine in the mid-1930s before they met and later married. Perlman contracted polio at age four and has walked using leg braces and crutches since then and plays the violin while seated., he uses crutches or an electric Amigo scooter for mobility.  Perlman first became interested in the violin after hearing a classical music performance on the radio. At the age of three, he was denied admission to the Shulamit Conservatory for being too small to hold a violin. He instead taught himself how to play the instrument using a toy fiddle until he was old enough to study with Rivka Goldgart at the Shulamit Conservatory and at the Academy of Music in Tel Aviv, where he gave his first recital at age 10. He moved to the United States at age 13 to study at the Juilliard School with the violin pedagogue Ivan Galamian and his assistant Dorothy DeLay.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performing.", "content": "Perlman appeared on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" twice in 1958, and again in 1964, on the same show with the Rolling Stones. He made his debut at Carnegie Hall in 1963 and won the Leventritt Competition in 1964. Soon afterward, he began to tour widely. In addition to an extensive recording and performance career, he has continued to make guest appearances on American television shows such as \"The Tonight Show\" and \"Sesame Street\" as well as playing at a number of functions at the White House.  Although he has never been billed or marketed as a singer, he sang the role of \"Un carceriere\" (\"a jailer\") on a 1981 EMI recording of Puccini's \"Tosca\" that featured Renata Scotto, Plácido Domingo, and Renato Bruson, with James Levine conducting. He had earlier sung the role in an excerpt from the opera on a 1980 Pension Fund Benefit Concert telecast as part of the Live from Lincoln Center series with Luciano Pavarotti as Cavaradossi and Zubin Mehta conducting the New York Philharmonic.  On 5 July 1986, he performed on the New York Philharmonic's tribute to the 100th anniversary of the Statue of Liberty, which was televised live on ABC Television in the United States. The orchestra, conducted by Zubin Mehta, performed in Central Park.  In 1987, he joined the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra (IPO) for their concerts in Warsaw and Budapest as well as other cities in Eastern bloc countries. He toured with the IPO in the spring of 1990 for its first-ever performance in the Soviet Union, with concerts in Moscow and Leningrad, and toured with the IPO again in 1994, performing in China and India.  In 2015 on a classical music program entitled \"The Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center\" produced by WQXR in New York City, it was revealed that Perlman performed the uncredited violin solo on the 1989 Billy Joel song \"The Downeaster Alexa\".  While primarily a solo artist, Perlman has performed with a number of other musicians, including Yo-Yo Ma, Pinchas Zukerman, Jessye Norman, Isaac Stern, and Yuri Temirkanov at the 150th anniversary celebration of Tchaikovsky in Leningrad in December 1990. He has also performed and recorded with his friend and fellow Israeli violinist Pinchas Zukerman on numerous occasions over the years.  As well as playing and recording the classical music for which he is best known, Perlman has also played jazz, including an album made with jazz pianist Oscar Peterson, and in addition, klezmer. Perlman has been a soloist for a number of film scores such as the theme of the 1993 film \"Schindler's List\" by John Williams, which subsequently won an Academy Award for Best Original Score. More recently, he was the violin soloist for the 2005 film \"Memoirs of a Geisha\" along with cellist Yo-Yo Ma. Perlman played selections from the musical scores of the movies nominated for \"Best Original Score\" at the 73rd Academy Awards with Yo-Yo Ma and at the 78th Academy Awards.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Selected performances.", "content": "Perlman played at the state dinner attended by Queen Elizabeth II on 7 May 2007, in the East Room at the White House.  He performed John Williams's \"Air and Simple Gifts\" at the 2009 inauguration ceremony for Barack Obama along with Yo-Yo Ma (cello), Gabriela Montero (piano), and Anthony McGill (clarinet). While the quartet did play live, the music played simultaneously over speakers and on television was a recording made two days prior due to concerns over the cold weather damaging the instruments. Perlman was quoted as saying: \"It would have been a disaster if we had done it any other way.\"  He made an appearance in Disney's \"Fantasia 2000\" to introduce the segment \"Pines of Rome\", along with Steve Martin.  On 2 November 2018, Perlman reprised the 60th anniversary of his first appearance on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" as a guest on \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teaching.", "content": "In 1975, Perlman accepted a faculty post at the Conservatory of Music at Brooklyn College. In 2003, Mr. Perlman was named the holder of the Dorothy Richard Starling Foundation Chair in Violin Studies at the Juilliard School, succeeding his teacher, Dorothy DeLay. He also currently teaches students one-on-one at the Perlman Music Program on Long Island, NY, rarely holding master classes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Perlman Music Program.", "content": "The Perlman Music Program, founded in 1994 by Perlman's wife, Toby Perlman, and Suki Sandler, started as a summer camp for exceptional string musicians between the ages of 12 and 18. Over time, it expanded to a year-long program. Students have the chance to have Itzhak Perlman himself coach them before they play at venues such as the Sutton Place Synagogue and public schools. By introducing students to each other and requiring them to practice together, the program strives to have musicians who would otherwise practice alone and develop a network of friends and colleagues. Rather than remain isolated, participants in the program find an area where they belong.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conducting.", "content": "At the beginning of the new millennium, Perlman began to conduct. He took the post of principal guest conductor at the Detroit Symphony Orchestra. He served as music advisor to the Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra from 2002 to 2004. In November 2007, the Westchester Philharmonic announced the appointment of Perlman as artistic director and principal conductor. His first concert in these roles was on 11 October 2008, in an all-Beethoven program featuring pianist Leon Fleisher performing the Emperor Concerto.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Instruments.", "content": "Perlman plays the \"Soil Stradivarius\" violin of 1714, formerly owned by Yehudi Menuhin and considered one of the finest violins made during Stradivari's \"golden period.\" Perlman also plays the Guarneri del Gesù 1743 'Sauret' and the Carlo Bergonzi 1740 'ex-Kreisler'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Perlman lives in New York City with his wife, Toby, also a classically trained violinist. They have five children, including Navah Perlman, a concert pianist and chamber musician. Perlman is a distant cousin of the Canadian comic and television personality Howie Mandel. Perlman has synesthesia and was interviewed for \"Tasting the Universe\" by Maureen Seaberg, which is about the condition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "With Andre Previn  With Oscar Peterson", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Itzhak Perlman (; born 31 August 1945) is an Israeli-American violinist, conductor, and music teacher. Over the course of his career Perlman has performed worldwide, and throughout the United States, in venues that have included a State Dinner at the White House honoring Queen Elizabeth II, and at the Presidential Inauguration of President Obama. He has conducted the Detroit Symphony Orchestra, the Philadelphia Orchestra, and the Westchester Philharmonic. In 2015, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He has been awarded 16 Grammy Awards and a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, and four Emmy Awards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974948}
{"src_title": "Sissi (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Princess Elisabeth, nicknamed \"Sissi\", is the second oldest daughter of Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria and Princess Ludovika of Bavaria. She is a carefree, impulsive and nature-loving child. She is raised with her seven siblings at the family seat Possenhofen Castle on the shores of Lake Starnberg in Bavaria. She has a happy childhood free of constraints associated with her royal status.  With her mother and her demure older sister Helene (called \"Néné\"), 16-year-old Sissi travels from Possenhofen to the spa town of Bad Ischl in Upper Austria. Ludovika's sister, Archduchess Sophie, is the mother of the young emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. Helene is called by Archduchess Sophie to meet the young emperor Franz Joseph in the imperial villa so that the two might be immediately engaged. Sissi is unaware of the real reason for the journey and is forbidden by her aunt to participate in any social events due to her girlishly impetuous ways. Sissi spends her time fishing in the forest where by chance she meets Franz Josef. The emperor is unaware that the girl is his cousin Sissi. He takes a liking to her and invites her for an afternoon hunting trip in the Alps. They meet as arranged in the mountains where they talk and become acquainted. Sissi falls in love with him but does not reveal her true identity. During their trip, Sissi learns of the planned marriage between Franz Joseph with her sister. The Emperor confesses that he envies the man who will marry Sissi and confesses that he feels no connection to Néné. Upon hearing his indirect declaration of love, Sissi becomes distraught due to her loyalty to Néné. She runs away from Franz Joseph without any explanation.  When Sissi returns to their residence, Néné reveals the reason for the trip to Bad Ischl: to become engaged with Franz Joseph. Unexpectedly, a new guest, the Prince of Lippe, arrives and Sissi is invited by the Archduchess to act as his partner at the Emperor's birthday celebration. At his birthday party, Franz Joseph is suddenly confronted by Sissi's appearance there with her mother and sister. He realises who Sissi is and tries to talk to her, openly confessing his love and asking her to marry him. Sissi rejects Franz Joseph in order not to betray her sister. He defies his mother's reservations and Sissi's resistance and announces, to the surprise of his guests, his betrothal to Sissi. Néné is heartbroken and leaves the party crying. Sissi, in a state of shock, is forced to obey the Emperor's wishes.  In Possenhofen, preparations for the wedding have started. Sissi is not excited about her impending marriage, as the hurt Néné has left for an indefinite period. For her sister's sake, Sissi attempts to break her engagement, however, Néné returns with a new suitor, Maximilian Anton, Hereditary Prince of Thurn and Taxis. The sisters reunite and Néné gives her blessing to Sissi for her marriage.  For the wedding ceremony, Sissi travels with her family on the steamboat \"Franz Joseph\" down the Danube to Vienna. People line the banks, waving flags and cheering their future Empress. As part of a grand procession, Sissi enters the city in a gilded carriage. The wedding takes place in the Augustinian Church on April 24, 1854.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filming locations.", "content": "\"Sissi\" was filmed in some original places the Empress visited, including Schönbrunn Palace and the Kaiservilla in Bad Ischl. The scenes of her youth on Lake Starnberg, however, were actually filmed at Schloss Fuschl at Lake Fuschl in the Salzkammergut region because Possenhofen Castle was in a poor condition at the time. The wedding celebration was filmed at St. Michael's Church, Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "An early movie about the life of the empress was \"The King Steps Out\", a 1936 American light comedy film directed by Josef von Sternberg, starring Grace Moore. Since the rights to the original play \"Sissys Brautfahrt\" by Ernst Décsey and Robert Weil aka Gustav Holm were bought from Marischka by Columbia Pictures, he bought instead the novel \"Sissi\" from Marie Blank-Eisman, published in 1952. Marischka then adapted the script based on the novel.  \"Sissi\" was viewed by 20 to 25 million people in cinemas. It is one of the most successful German-language movies. The movie was followed by \"The Young Empress\" in 1956 and \"Fateful Years of an Empress\" in 1957. In 1962, a condensed version of the trilogy was released in English under the title \"Forever My Love\". The trilogy is a popular Christmas television special, and is shown on channels in German-speaking countries and Hungary. The Empress' date of birth on Christmas Eve 1837 adds to the appeal of the film as a Christmas special.  The success of the movie marked Empress Elisabeth's entrance to popular culture which made the historical figure even more legendary. The popularity of the films attracted tourists to places which were associated with the Empress, specifically those in Austria. The popularity also led to the creation of the 1992 musical \"Elisabeth\", which became the most successful German-language musical of all time. The trilogy was parodied in the 2007 animated film \"Lissi\".  Romy Schneider's role as Elisabeth is considered her acting breakthrough. She became synonymous with her role in the film, even as she progressed in her acting career. Schneider reprised the role of Elisabeth in Luchino Visconti's 1972 film \"Ludwig\", this time portraying the Empress as a mature yet cynical woman.  The films have been dubbed in languages including French, English, Spanish, Japanese and Hungarian. \"Sissi\" was very popular when it aired on Mainland Chinese television in the 1980s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sissi is a 1955 Austrian film directed by Ernst Marischka and starring Romy Schneider, Karlheinz Böhm, Magda Schneider, Uta Franz, Gustav Knuth, Vilma Degischer and Josef Meinrad. \"Sissi\" is the first installment in the trilogy of films about Empress Elisabeth of Austria, who was known to her family as \"Sisi\" (with one s and therefore a long /i:/). It was followed by \"The Young Empress\" and \"Fateful Years of an Empress\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974949}
{"src_title": "Kalanchoe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Most are shrubs or perennial herbaceous plants, but a few are annual or biennial. The largest, \"Kalanchoe beharensis\" from Madagascar, can reach tall, but most species are less than tall.  Kalanchoes are characterized by opening their flowers by growing new cells on the inner surface of the petals to force them outwards, and on the outside of the petals to close them. Kalanchoe flowers are divided into 4 sections with 8 stamens. The petals are fused into a tube, in a similar way to some related genera such as \"Cotyledon\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The genus was first described by the botanist Michel Adanson in 1763.  Kamel's species was most likely \"Kalanchoe ceratophylla\" as he describes the plant as having deeply divided leaves. \"Kalanchoe ceratophylla\" and \"Kalanchoe laciniata\" are both called (apparently \"Buddhist monastery \"[samghārāma]\" herb\") in China. In Mandarin Chinese, it does not seem very close in pronunciation (\"qiélán cài\", but possibly \"jiālán cài\" or \"gālán cài\" as the character has multiple pronunciations), but the Cantonese \"gālàahm choi\" is closer. The genus Bryophyllum was described by Salisbury in 1806 and the genus Kitchingia was created by Baker in 1881. \"Kitchingia\" is now regarded as a synonym for \"Kalanchoe\", while \"Bryophyllum\" has also been treated as a separate genus, since species of \"Bryophyllum\" appear to be nested within Kalanchoe on molecular phylogenetic analysis, \"Bryophyllum\" is considered as a section of the former, dividing the genus into three sections, \"Kitchingia\", \"Bryophyllum\", and \"Eukalanchoe\". these were formalised as subgenera by Smith and Figueiredo (2018).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Adanson cited Georg Joseph Kamel (Camellus) as his source for the name. The name came from the Cantonese name \"Kalanchauhuy\", 伽藍菜.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and ecology.", "content": "The genus is predominantly native to the Old World. Only one species of this genus originates from the Americas, 56 from southern and eastern Africa and 60 species in Madagascar. It is also found in south-eastern Asia and China.  These plants are the food plant of the caterpillars of Red Pierrot butterfly. The butterfly lays its eggs on phylloclades, and after hatching, caterpillars burrow into phylloclades and eat their inside cells.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "These plants are cultivated as ornamental houseplants and rock or succulent garden plants. They are popular because of their ease of propagation, low water requirements, and wide variety of flower colors typically borne in clusters well above the phylloclades. The section \"Bryophyllum\"—formerly an independent genus—contains species such as the \"air-plant\" \"Kalanchoe pinnata\". In these plants, new individuals develop vegetatively as plantlets, also known as bulbils or gemmae, at indentations in phylloclade margins. These young plants eventually drop off and take root. No males have been found of one species of this genus which does flower and produce seeds, and it is commonly called the mother of thousands: \"Kalanchoe daigremontiana\" is thus an example of asexual reproduction.  The cultivars ‘Tessa’ and ‘Wendy’ have gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity and traditional medicine.", "content": "In common with other Crassulaceae (such as the genera \"Tylecodon\", \"Cotyledon\" and \"Adromischus\"), some \"Kalanchoe\" species contain bufadienolide cardiac glycosides which can cause cardiac poisoning, particularly in grazing animals. This is a particular problem in the native range of many \"Kalanchoe\" species in the Karoo region of South Africa, where the resulting animal disease is known as krimpsiekte (shrinking disease) or as cotyledonosis. Similar poisonings have also occurred in Australia.  In traditional medicine, \"Kalanchoe\" species have been used to treat ailments such as infections, rheumatism and inflammation. \"Kalanchoe\" extracts also have immunosuppressive effects. \"Kalanchoe pinnata\" has been recorded in Trinidad and Tobago as being used as a traditional treatment for hypertension.  A variety of bufadienolide compounds have been isolated from various \"Kalanchoe\" species. Five different bufadienolides have been isolated from \"Kalanchoe daigremontiana\". Two of these, daigremontianin and bersaldegenin 1,3,5-orthoacetate, have been shown to have a pronounced sedative effect. They also have the strong positive inotropic effect associated with cardiac glycosides, and with greater doses an increasing effect on the central nervous system.  Bufadienolide compounds isolated from \"Kalanchoe pinnata\" include bryophillin A which showed strong anti-tumor promoting activity, and bersaldegenin-3-acetate and bryophillin C which were less active. Bryophillin C also showed insecticidal properties.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kalanchoe, or kal-un-KOH-ee, or kal-un-kee, also written \"Kalanchöe\" or \"Kalanchoë\", is a genus of about 125 species of tropical, succulent flowering plants in the family Crassulaceae, mainly native to Madagascar and tropical Africa. Kalanchoe was one of the first plants to be sent into space, sent on a resupply to the Soviet Salyut 1 space station in 1971.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974950}
{"src_title": "Tajikistani Civil War", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "There were numerous prerequisites for civil war in Tajikistan, such as economic hardship, communal way of life of Tajiki people and their high religiousness. Under Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev's 'Perestroika' policies, a Muslim-Democratic movement began to emerge in Tajiki SSR. The backbone of opposition were Party of Tajikistan Muslim Resurrection, Democratic party of Tajikistan and some other movements. Fight between former communist elite and opposition shifted from political sphere to ethnic and clan one.  Tensions began in the spring of 1992 after opposition members took to the streets in demonstrations against the results of the 1991 presidential election. President Rahmon Nabiyev and Speaker of the Supreme Soviet Safarali Kenjayev orchestrated the dispersal of weapons to pro-government militias, while the opposition turned to rebels in Afghanistan for military aid.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conflict (1992–93).", "content": "Fighting broke out in May 1992 between old-guard supporters of the government and a loosely organized opposition composed of ethnic and regional groups from the Garm and Gorno-Badakhshan areas (the latter were also known as Pamiris). Ideologically, the opposition included democratic liberal reformists and Islamists. The government, on the other hand, was dominated by people from the Leninabadi region, which had also made up most of the ruling elite during the entire Soviet period. It was also supported by people from the Kulob region, who had held high posts in the Ministry of Internal Affairs in Soviet times. After many clashes, the Leninabadis were forced to accept a compromise and a new coalition government was formed, incorporating members of the opposition and eventually dominated by them. On 7 September 1992, Nabiyev was captured by opposition protesters and forced at gunpoint to resign his presidency. Chaos and fighting between the opposing factions reigned outside of the capital Dushanbe.  With the aid of the Russian military and Uzbekistan, the Leninabadi-Kulobi Popular Front forces routed the opposition in early and late 1992. The coalition government in the capital was forced to resign. In December 1992 the Supreme Soviet (parliament), where the Leninabadi-Kulobi faction had held the majority of seats all along, convened and elected a new government under the leadership of Emomali Rahmonov, representing a shift in power from the old power based in Leninabad to the militias from Kulob, from which Rahmonov came.  The height of hostilities occurred from 1992–93 and pitted Kulobi militias against an array of groups, including militants from the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan (IRP) and ethnic minority Pamiris from Gorno-Badakhshan. In large part due to the foreign support they received, the Kulobi militias were able to soundly defeat opposition forces and went on what has been described by Human Rights Watch as an ethnic cleansing campaign against Pamiris and Garmis. The campaign was concentrated in areas south of the capital and included the murder of prominent individuals, mass killings, the burning of villages and the expulsion of the Pamiri and Garmi population into Afghanistan. The violence was particularly concentrated in Qurghonteppa, the power base of the IRP and home to many Garmis. Tens of thousands were killed or fled to Afghanistan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Continued conflict (1993–97).", "content": "In Afghanistan, the opposition reorganized and rearmed with the aid of the Jamiat-i-Islami. The group's leader Ahmad Shah Masoud became a benefactor of the Tajik opposition. Later in the war the opposition organized under an umbrella group called the United Tajik Opposition, or UTO. Elements of the UTO, especially in the Tavildara region, became the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, while the leadership of the UTO was opposed to the formation of the organization.  Other combatants and armed bands that flourished in this civil chaos simply reflected the breakdown of central authority rather than loyalty to a political faction. In response to the violence the United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan was deployed. Most fighting in the early part of the war occurred in the southern part of the country, but by 1996 the rebels were battling Russian troops in the capital city of Dushanbe. Islamic radicals from northern Afghanistan also began to fight Russian troops in the region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armistice and aftermath (1997–present).", "content": "A United Nations-sponsored armistice finally ended the war in 1997. This was in part fostered by the Inter-Tajik Dialogue, a Track II diplomacy initiative in which the main players were brought together by international actors, namely the United States and Russia. The peace agreement completely eliminated the Leninabad region (Khujand) from power. Presidential elections were held on November 6, 1999.  The UTO warned in letters to United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan and Tajik President Emomali Rahmon on 23 June 1997 that it would not sign the proposed peace agreement on June 27 if prisoner exchanges and the allocation of jobs in the coalition government were not outlined in the agreement. Akbar Turajonzoda, second-in-command of the UTO, repeated this warning on 26 June, but said both sides were negotiating. President Rahmonov, UTO leader Sayid Abdulloh Nuri and Russian President Boris Yeltsin met in the Kremlin in Moscow on 26 June to finish negotiating the peace agreement. The Tajik government had previously pushed for settling these issues after the two sides signed the agreement, with the posts in the coalition government decided by a joint commission for national reconciliation and prisoner exchanges by a future set of negotiations. Russian Foreign Minister Yevgeny Primakov met with the Foreign Ministers of Iran, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan to discuss the proposed peace accord.  By the end of the war, Tajikistan was in a state of complete devastation. The number of those killed was estimated at anywhere from 30,000 to as many as 60,000. Around 1.2 million people were refugees inside and outside the country. Tajikistan's physical infrastructure, government services and economy were in disarray and much of the population was surviving on subsistence handouts from international aid organizations. The United Nations established a Mission of Observers in December 1994, maintaining peace negotiations until the warring sides signed a comprehensive peace agreement in 1997.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Targeting of journalists.", "content": "Journalists were particularly targeted for assassination and dozens of Tajik journalists were killed. Many more fled the country, leading to a brain drain. Notable individuals murdered include journalist and politician Otakhon Latifi, journalist and Jewish leader Meirkhaim Gavrielov, politician Safarali Kenjayev and four members of the United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan: Yutaka Akino, a noted Japanese scholar of Central Asian history; Maj. Ryszard Szewczyk from Poland; Maj. Adolfo Scharpegge from Uruguay; and Jourajon Mahramov from Tajikistan; and documentary filmmaker Arcady Ruderman.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tajikistani Civil War (), also known as the Tajik Civil War, began in May 1992 when regional groups from the Garm and Gorno-Badakhshan regions of Tajikistan rose up against the newly-formed government of President Rahmon Nabiyev, which was dominated by people from the Khujand and Kulob regions. The rebel groups were led by a combination of liberal democratic reformers and Islamists, who would later organize under the banner of the United Tajik Opposition. The government was supported by Russian border guards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974951}
{"src_title": "Magdalena River", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Course.", "content": "The headwaters of the Magdalena River are in the south of Colombia, where the Andean subranges Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental separate, in Huila Department. The river then runs east of north in a great valley between the two cordilleras. It reaches the coastal plain at about nine degrees north, then runs west for about, then north again, reaching the Caribbean Sea at the city of Barranquilla in the zone known as Bocas de Ceniza.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fish.", "content": "The Magdalena River basin, which includes the Cauca River and other tributaries, is very rich in fish., 213 fish species were known from the basin. Since then several new species have been described from the basin such as five \"Hemibrycon\" in 2013, two \"Ancistrus\" in 2013 and a \"Farlowella\" in 2014. Among the more famous species in the basin are \"Kronoheros umbriferus\", \"Ctenolucius hujeta\", \"Geophagus steindachneri\", \"Ichthyoelephas longirostris\", \"Panaque cochliodon\", \"Pimelodus blochii\", \"Potamotrygon magdalenae\", \"Prochilodus magdalenae\", \"Pseudoplatystoma magdaleniatum\" and \"Salminus affinis\". About 55% of the fish species in the basin are endemic, including four endemic genera: The catfish \"Centrochir\" and \"Eremophilus\", and the characids \"Carlastyanax\" (often included in \"Astyanax\") and \"Genycharax\". In general, the fish fauna shows connections with surrounding basins, notably Atrato and Maracaibo, but to a lesser extent also Amazon–Orinoco.  The most productive fishing areas in Colombia are in the basin, but there has been a drastic decrease in the annual harvest with a fall of about 90% between 1975 and 2008. The primary threats are pollution (such as human waste, mining, farming and deforestation causing siltation) and habitat loss (such a dams). Additional dams are being constructed, including El Quimbo (opened in 2015) and Ituango (expected operational in 2018), which has caused some controversy. As a result of the pollution, heavy metals have also been detected in some commercially important fish in the river., 19 fish species in the river basin were recognized as threatened.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other animals.", "content": "The Magdalena River and its valley crosses a wide variety of ecosystems, like páramo in its headwaters, dry forest in the upper part of its valley, rainforest in its middle course, and swamps and wetlands in its lower course. The spectacled caiman, green iguana and brown pelican are abundant in these ecosystems but other animal species like the West Indian manatee, Magdalena tinamou, Todd's parakeet, American crocodile, Colombian slider, Magdalena River turtle, Dahl's toad-headed turtle and red-footed tortoise are in danger of extinction.  In addition, there is a possible risk posed by invasive hippopotamus. Originally imported by Pablo Escobar, these hippopotami became feral following his demise, and have since expanded beyond their original home on Hacienda Napoles into nearby regions of the Magdalena River.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Due to its geographical position in the north of South America, the Magdalena River was since precolumbian times a route towards the interior of today Colombia and Ecuador. Several Carib speaking peoples such as the Panche and the Yariguí ascended through the western bank of the river, while its eastern portion was inhabited by the Muisca civilization, which called the river \"Yuma\".  Likewise, the Spanish conquistadores who arrived to today's Colombia early in the 16th century used the river to push to the wild and mountainous inland after Rodrigo de Bastidas discovered and named the river on April 1, 1501. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the river was the only transport link communicating Bogotá with the Caribbean Sea port Cartagena de Indias and thus with Europe.  In 1825, the Congress of Colombia awarded a concession to establish steam navigation in the Magdalena River to Juan Bernardo Elbers, but his company closed shortly after. By 1845, steamboats regularly travelled on the river until 1961, when the last steamers ceased operation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In mass media.", "content": "Much of the film \"Love in the Time of Cholera\" takes place in the historic, walled city of Cartagena in Colombia. Some screen shots showed the Magdalena River and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range.  \"The General in His Labyrinth\", by Gabriel García Márquez, is a fictionalized account of the final voyage of Simón Bolívar down the Magdalena River, where he revisits many cities and villages along the river.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Magdalena River (, ; Less commonly \"Rio Grande de la Magdalena\") is the principal river of Colombia, flowing northward about through the western half of the country. It takes its name from the biblical figure Mary Magdalene. It is navigable through much of its lower reaches, in spite of the shifting sand bars at the mouth of its delta, as far as Honda, at the downstream base of its rapids. It flows through the Magdalena River Valley.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974952}
{"src_title": "Joseph Klausner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Joseph Klausner was born in Olkeniki, Vilna Governorate in 1874. At the turn of the 20th century, the Klausners left Lithuania and settled in Odessa. Klausner was active in the city's scientific, literary and Zionist circles. He was a committed Zionist who knew Theodore Herzl personally and attended the First Zionist Congress.  In 1912, Klausner visited Palestine for the first time, and settled there in 1919. In 1925, he became a professor of Hebrew literature at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He specialized in the history of the Second Temple period. Although not an Orthodox Jew, he observed Sabbath and the dietary laws. He had a wide grasp of the Talmud and Midrashic literature.  Joseph Klausner was a member of the circle of Russian Zionist political activists from Odessa, which included Ze'ev Jabotinsky and Menachem Ussishkin. Although not a 'party man,' he supported Revisionist Zionism. In July 1929, Klausner established the Pro-Wailing Wall Committee to defend Jewish rights, and resolve problems over access and arrangements for worship at the Western Wall. His house in Talpiot neighborhood of Jerusalem was destroyed in the 1929 Palestine riots.  Despite his Zionist ideology, Klausner had numerous disagreements with Chaim Weizmann. The two were candidates in the presidential election of 1949; Weizmann was declared the first President of Israel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic career.", "content": "Klausner earned his Ph.D. in Germany. One of his most influential books was about Jesus. The book \"Jesus of Nazareth\", and its sequel, \"From Jesus to Paul\", gained him fame. In it, Klausner described how Jesus was best understood as a Jew and Israelite who was trying to reform the religion, and died as a devout Jew. Herbert Danby, an Anglican priest, translated the work from Hebrew into English so that English scholars might avail themselves of the information. A number of clergymen, incensed at Danby for translating the book, demanded his recall from Jerusalem. Later in his career, he was given a chair in Jewish history.  Amos Oz wrote about Klausner in his semi-autobiographical work \"A Tale of Love and Darkness\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "In both 1941 and 1949, Klausner was awarded the Bialik Prize for Jewish thought. In 1958, he was awarded the Israel Prize in Jewish studies. In 1982, in recognition of his scholarly achievements, the State of Israel issued a stamp with his picture on it.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Gedaliah Klausner (; 20 August 1874 – 27 October 1958), was a Jewish historian and professor of Hebrew Literature. He was the chief redactor of the \"Encyclopedia Hebraica\". He was a candidate for president in the first Israeli presidential election in 1949, losing to Chaim Weizmann. Klausner was the great uncle of Israeli author Amos Oz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974953}
{"src_title": "Nordic walking", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Nordic walking (originally Finnish sauvakävely) is fitness walking with specially designed poles. While trekkers, backpackers and skiers had been using the basic concept for decades, Nordic walking was first formally defined with the publication of \"\"Hiihdon lajiosa\"\" (translation: \"A part of cross-country skiing training methodic\") by Mauri Repo in 1979. \"(.)\" Nordic walking's concept was developed on the basis of off-season ski-training activity while using one-piece ski poles.  For decades hikers and backpackers used their one-piece ski poles long before trekking and Nordic walking poles came onto the scene. Ski racers deprived of snow have always used and still do use their one-piece ski poles for ski walking and hill bounding. The first poles specially designed and marketed to fitness walkers were produced by Exerstrider of the US in 1988. \"Nordic Walker\" poles were produced and marketed by Exel in 1997. Exel coined and popularized the term 'Nordic Walking' in 1999.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Benefits.", "content": "Compared to regular walking, Nordic walking (also called pole walking) involves applying force to the poles with each stride. Nordic walkers use more of their entire body (with greater intensity) and receive fitness building stimulation not present in normal walking for the chest, latissimus dorsi muscle, triceps, biceps, shoulder, abdominals, spinal and other core muscles that may result in significant increases in heart rate at a given pace. Nordic walking has been estimated as producing up to a 46% increase in energy consumption, compared to walking without poles.  According to the findings of the research, conducted by the group scientists from various universities*, both Nordic walking and conventional walking are beneficial for older adults. However, Nordic walking provides additional benefits in muscular strength compared to conventional walking, making it suitable for improving aerobic capacity and muscular strength as well as other components of functional fitness in a short period of time. The key points stated by the study authors are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Nordic walking poles are significantly shorter than those recommended for cross-country skiing. Nordic walking poles come in one-piece, non-adjustable shaft versions, available in varying lengths, and telescoping two or three piece twist-locking versions of adjustable length. One piece poles are generally stronger and lighter, but must be matched to the user. Telescoping poles are 'one-size fits all', and are more transportable.  Nordic walking poles feature a range of grips and wrist-straps, or rarely, no wrist-strap at all. The straps eliminate the need to tightly grasp the grips. As with many trekking poles, Nordic walking poles come with removable rubber tips for use on hard surfaces and hardened metal tips for trails, the beach, snow and ice. Most poles are made from lightweight aluminium, carbon fiber, or composite materials. Special walking shoes are not required, although there are shoes being marketed as specifically designed for the sport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technique.", "content": "The cadences of the arms, legs and body are, rhythmically speaking, similar to those used in normal, vigorous, walking. The range of arm movement regulates the length of the stride. Restricted arm movements will mean a natural restricted pelvic motion and stride length. The longer the pole thrust, the longer the stride and more powerful the swing of the pelvis and upper torso.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nordic walking is a total-body version of walking that can be enjoyed both by non-athletes as a health-promoting physical activity, and by athletes as a sport. The activity is performed with specially designed walking poles similar to ski poles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974954}
{"src_title": "Edita Gruberová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "Born in Rača, Bratislava, Gruberová began her musical studies at the Bratislava Conservatory (\"Konzervatórium v Bratislave\"), where she was a student of Mária Medvecká. She then continued at the Academy of Performing Arts in Bratislava (VŠMU). While studying, she was a singer of the Lúčnica folk ensemble and appeared several times in the Slovak National Theatre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1968, Gruberová made her operatic debut in Bratislava as Rosina in \"The Barber of Seville\". After winning a singing competition in Toulouse, she was then engaged as a soloist of the opera ensemble of the \"J. G. Tajovský Theatre\" in Banská Bystrica, Slovakia, from 1968 to 1970. Since communist Czechoslovakia was going through a period called normalization, during which the borders were closed with non-communist countries, Medvecká surreptitiously arranged for an audition for Gruberová in the summer of 1969 at Vienna State Opera, which immediately engaged her. The following year, she made her first major breakthrough when she sang the Queen of the Night. Gruberová then decided to emigrate to the West. In subsequent years, she became a soloist in Vienna and was invited to sing at many of the most important opera houses in the world, especially in coloratura roles.  Gruberová made her debut at Glyndebourne in 1973 and at the Metropolitan Opera in 1977, both as the Queen of the Night. In 1977, she first appeared at the Salzburg Festival, as Thibault in \"Don Carlo\", under Herbert von Karajan. In 1982, she appeared opposite Ingvar Wixell and Luciano Pavarotti in Jean-Pierre Ponnelle's film of \"Rigoletto\". Gruberová made her Royal Opera House debut as Giulietta in Bellini's \"I Capuleti e i Montecchi\" in 1984. Other important roles she has sung include Zerbinetta in \"Ariadne auf Naxos\", Gilda in \"Rigoletto\", Violetta in \"La traviata\", Lucia in \"Lucia di Lammermoor\", Konstanze in \"Die Entführung aus dem Serail\", the title role in Massenet's \"Manon\" and Oscar in \"Un ballo in maschera\"; she sang Donna Anna in \"Don Giovanni\" at La Scala in 1987, Marie in \"La fille du régiment\" in 1987, the title role in \"Semiramide\" in 1992 in Zürich, Queen Elizabeth I in Donizetti's \"Roberto Devereux\" in Vienna in 1990. In 2003, she added the title role in \"Norma\" to her repertoire, and sang it in Munich in 2008/09.  She gave her last staged opera performance on 27 March 2019 as Queen Elizabeth I in \"Roberto Devereux\" at the Bavarian State Opera.  She is an Austrian and Bavarian Kammersängerin and honorary member of the Vienna State Opera.  Gruberová has made many recordings, most notably in recent years full-length recordings and extended selections from Donizetti's Tudor Queens trilogy and other \"bel canto\" operas, lately exclusively on Nightingale label. More than a dozen of her filmed and televised opera appearances have been released on DVD, including \"I Puritani\", \"Die Zauberflöte\", \"Così fan tutte\", \"Die Entführung aus dem Serail\", \"Ariadne auf Naxos\", \"Norma\", \"Manon\", \"Beatrice di Tenda\", \"Lucrezia Borgia\", and \"Linda di Chamounix\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edita Gruberová (born 23 December 1946) is a Slovak coloratura soprano. She had enjoyed huge success in roles such as Zerbinetta in \"Ariadne auf Naxos\" and Queen of the Night in \"The Magic Flute\". In her later career, she explores heavier roles in the Italian bel canto repertoire, such as the title role in \"Lucia di Lammermoor\", Elvira in Bellini's \"I Puritani\", or Elisabetta in Donizetti's \"Roberto Devereux\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974955}
{"src_title": "Vasily Sokolovsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sokolovsky was born into a peasant family in Kozliki, a small town in the province of Grodno (now in Białystok County in Poland, then part of the Russian Empire). He worked as a teacher in a rural school, where he took part in a number of protests and demonstrations against the Tsar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Sokolovsky joined the Red Army in February 1918.  He began his formal military schooling in 1919, but was frequently called up by the Red Army and forced to leave his schoolwork. He graduated in 1921 and became the chief of staff of a division stationed in Turkmenistan. He was wounded during a battle near Samarkand and subsequently decorated for bravery. After the Russian Civil War ended in 1922/1923 he held a number of staff positions, eventually becoming the chief of staff for the Moscow Military District and then the Deputy Chief of the General Staff, the position he held at the beginning of the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa (22 June 1941).  In December 1941, with German forces a mere 20 kilometers from Moscow, Sokolovsky was made the chief of staff of the Soviet Western Front, where he was able to help co-ordinate the Soviet winter counter-attacks that forced the Germans away from Moscow. He remained in this position until February 1943, when he became the commander of the Western Front.  He led this front through the Battle of Kursk. In the summer of 1943, the Soviets launched Operation Kutuzov on 12 July against Army Group Centre in the Orel salient, directly north of the Kursk salient. The Bryansk Front, under the command of Markian Popov, attacked the eastern face of the Orel salient while the Western Front, commanded by Sokolovsky, attacked from the north. The operation ended on 18 August 1943 with the Soviet capture of Orel and collapse of the Orel bulge. In October–November 1943, Sokolovsky commanded the Western Front in failed Soviet Orsha offensives against Gotthard Heinrici's 4th Army in the Orsha region of Belarus. In April 1944 the Western Front was broken into two parts and Sokolovsky was made chief of staff of 1st Ukrainian Front under Georgy Zhukov. He remained in this position until the end of the war in 1945. As the chief of staff of 1st Ukrainian Front, Sokolovsky helped plan and execute the capture of Berlin. Sokolovsky sat next to Zhukov as he accepted the German Instrument of Surrender in Berlin.  After World War II, Sokolovsky became the deputy commander-in-chief of the Soviet Forces in East Germany until July 3, 1946. On that day Sokolovsky was promoted to the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union, and also made commander-in-chief of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany and head of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany. His walking out of a meeting of the Allied Control Council on 20 March 1948 as the Soviet representative on that body effectively immobilized it from that date. In 1949 he became the Soviet Union's Deputy Minister of Defense, a position he held until 1952, when he was made the Chief of the General Staff. In 1960 Sokolovsky became the Inspector-General of the Ministry of Defense. He retained this position until his death on May 10, 1968.  Sokolovsky became widely known in the West with the publication in 1962 of \"Military Strategy\", a book that contained rare detail on Soviet thinking about war, particularly nuclear war.  Sokolovsky was a key member of the Soviet war command during World War II and known as an excellent planner and exceptional military leader. He was particularly well-trusted by Marshal Georgy Zhukov. The urn containing Sokolovsky’s ashes is buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis.  Sokolovsky appears as a prominent figure in William T. Vollmann's 2005 National Book Award-winning novel, \"Europe Central\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vasily Danilovich Sokolovsky (; July 21, 1897 – May 10, 1968) was a Soviet general and Marshal of the Soviet Union who led Red Army forces on the Eastern Front during World War II. As Georgy Zhukov's chief of staff, Sokolovsky helped plan and execute the Capture of Berlin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974956}
{"src_title": "François de Charette", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early activities.", "content": "A nobleman born in Couffé, arrondissement of Ancenis, Charette served in the French Navy under Toussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la Motte, notably during the American War of Independence, and became \"lieutenant de vaisseau\". He notably served on the 74-gun \"Hercule\", under Puget-Bras.  Following the outbreak of the French Revolution, he quit the Navy in 1789 and emigrated to Koblenz (Trier) in 1792 (a common move for royalist aristocrats). He soon returned to France to live at his property in La Garnache, and became one of the royalist volunteers who assisted in defending King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette from physical harm during the mob attack on Tuileries Palace (the \"Journée du 10 août\"); arrested in Angers, he was released through the intervention of Charles François Dumouriez.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vendée War.", "content": "In 1793, the Revolt in the Vendée against the French First Republic broke out, and the peasant fighters asked Charette to be their leader. He joined Jacques Cathelineau following the taking of Saumur in June 1793 and fought in most of the battles of the Catholic and Royal Army. On 19 September 1793, he participated in the victorious Battle of Tiffauges. Afterwards he and Louis Marie de Lescure had marched on Saint-Fulgent to pursue Jean-Baptiste Kléber, who had escaped. Charette won another victory over the Republicans at the First Battle of Noirmoutier. Some of the captured soldiers took part in the Machecoul Massacres and a quarter of them were executed for retribution by Charette's troops, against his orders. After the parting of the Vendean leaders in September 1793, he and his men retreated. He became the leader of the Lower Vendée, and successfully used guerrilla warfare against the Republican troops, capturing a Republican camp in Saint-Christophe-du-Ligneron, near Challans, but ran out of supplies and was decisively attacked by the troops of Nicolas Haxo. Trapped in the, Charette, with the fellow leader Couëtus was informed of an escape route by a local to the isle. Leaving behind all guns, ammunition, horses, refugees and the wounded, Charette, Couëtus and their men swam through the marshes to Châteauneuf. By a chance stroke of luck, Charette met up with the army of Joly, and both him and Charette retaliated by circling Haxo, gaining back supplies and distracting the Republican army from the refugees.Haxo later attacked the Isle of Noirmoutier, with Louis Turreau, which had been taken by Charette the month before, and after promising life to the inhabitants if they surrendered, against Haxo's command Turreau killed most men, women and children on the isle at the steps of the local church (La chapelle de la Pitié), including D'Elbée who had taken refuge there after sustaining 14 wounds at the battle of Cholet.  After this, Charette's army returned and collected reinforcements; Revolutionary brutality and the 'Infernal Columns' sent by the Convention to destroy the Vendée forced many peasants to join Charette's army for merely safety. Charette won a victory at Saint-Fulgent, only to be chased into hiding in the forest of Grala. He emerged from it to attack the 'Brouzils'; he was wounded in the arm but kept on until the end of the fight. After obtaining food for his starving army, Charette was brought to La Morière, a convent near Machecoul, to recover from his wound; he was only able to rest there for a few days when his location was betrayed and the Republicans surrounded the convent. Warned, he was able to escape, but the nuns and a large number of the refugees who had come with Charette's army and had hidden in the church were massacred.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Defeat.", "content": "On 17 February 1795, after being introduced to it by his sister, Charette signed the Treaty of La Jaunaye with the emissaries of the National Convention, which included freedom of religion guarantees and excluded the conscription of local peasants from the \"levée en masse\". The republicans soon reneged on the terms of the treaty, and their parole, repudiating the guarantees of religious freedom; and they began conscripting peasants once again. They also murdered thousands of royalist prisoners including the Bishop of Dol. Charette and his men returned to the fight again in July and moved to help the planned invasion at Quiberon by French royalist emigrés with assistance from the British Royal Navy.  The Count of Artois, the Bourbon successor to the throne of France, made him Lieutenant General and gave orders to prepare for a royal return which, however, did not eventuate. Charette remained loyal to the old dynasty and the Catholic religion, as did his men and most of the Vendean and Breton peasantry. He, and all the loyal royalists, later refused to join the liberal Orléanists. After the failure of the Quiberon expedition, Charette and his men were pursued by General Lazare Hoche. Charette was wounded but escaped. However, due to lack of munitions he was eventually captured outside La Chabotterie and taken to Nantes for a trial. He was sentenced to death by a republican court and then taken to the town square in procession for a public execution by firing squad. A plaque has been erected and still stands upon the place where he was shot. Today, memorial ceremonies continue to take place there.  According to a contemporary writing in \"Walker's Hibernian Magazine\", it was Charette who said, by way of extenuating the number of deaths for which he was responsible, \"Omelets are not made without breaking eggs.\"  Charette was described by Napoleon as a great character and military leader who \"betrays genius\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Depictions in films and popular culture.", "content": "Charette is a character in the episode \"The Frogs and the Lobsters\" of the \"Hornblower\" film/television series. Charette is a royalist general in exile who, with the support of the British Royal Navy, attempts and fails to rally the surviving royalists and raise an army in France to restore the king to power. Unlike his real-life counterpart here he is slain in battle defending a captured fortification. He is also fluent in English in the television adaptation.  Charette has been since 2018 the lead character and his life story is depicted in the production of \"Le Dernier Panache\" (“The Last Plume”), at the French theme park, Puy Du Fou.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "François Athanase de Charette de la Contrie (2 May 1763 – 29 March 1796) was a French Royalist soldier and politician. He served in the French Royal Navy during the American Revolutionary War and was one of the leaders of the Revolt in the Vendée against the revolutionary regime. His nephew Athanase-Charles-Marie Charette de la Contrie was a noted military leader and grandson of Charles X the last king of France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974957}
{"src_title": "Dolný Kubín", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The name is derived from the archaic Slovak word meaning a \"glade covered by smoke after burnt roots\". \"Dolný Kubín\" means \"Lower Kubín\", in contrast with to Vyšný (\"Upper\") Kubín. The location and the settlement was known also as \"Kublen\" (1314), \"Clbin\" (1393), \"Culbyn\" (1408), \"Kubyn Nysny\" (1547), \"Dolny Kubin\" (1773). Other names in the past include,.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Dolný Kubín lies at an altitude of above sea level and covers an area of. It is located in northern Slovakia on the Orava River, between the Lesser Fatra, Oravská Magura and Chočské vrchy mountains. It is located around from Ružomberok, from the Polish border and from Bratislava. The town is composed of 10 boroughs: \"Banisko\", \"Beňova Lehota\", \"Brezovec\", \"Kňažia\", \"Malý Bysterec\", \"Medzihradné\", \"Mokraď\", \"Staré mesto\", \"Veľký Bysterec\" and \"Záskalie\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is \"Dfb\" (Warm Summer Continental Climate).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first written reference of the location dates from 1314 and is about the land (not the settlement yet) Kubín. In 1325, the existence of \"Superior Kolbyn\" (Vyšný Kubín) was recorded what could indicate also the existence of Dolný Kubín, more detailed information about the settlement are from 1380s. The settlement belonged to the Orava Castle and was the center for the neighboring settlements. The citizens lived by animal husbandry and hunting, but also by quarrying. It was granted town privileges (town status, town charter) in 1632, and its importance was further strengthened in 1633 when the town was granted the right to hold markets. In 1683 the town became the seat of the Orava county and in 1776 also the seat of a processus district. In the 19th century Dolný Kubín was a centre of Slovak national life and the poet Pavol Országh Hviezdoslav and other Slovak national revivalists were active in the town.  After World War I, Dolný Kubín remained the seat of the Orava County until 1923, when Orava became a part of Váh County and it became the seat of the district. During World War II, the local garrison actively participated in preparation of Slovak National Uprising. Between December 1944 and January 1945, the town suffered from retaliatory actions and mass arrests. Red Army arrived to the town in the night from 4 to 5 April 1945, warmly welcomed by the local population.  The town experienced major developments mainly after World War II, when electrical works as well as other enterprises were established.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landmarks and culture.", "content": "The Gothic St. Catherine church was built in the 14th century. The Čaplovič Library, containing collection of newspapers, books, maps and other printed works from 15th to the 19th century, along with the P. O. Hviezdoslav Museum, is located in the town. The Orava Gallery focuses on the art works from the 15th century to the 20th century and is seated in the former County House from the 17th century. The Slovak poetical and prose competition, called \"Hviezdoslavov Kubín (Hviezdoslav's Kubín)\", takes place in the town since 1954. The Orava Castle is located few kilometres north-east of the town.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "According to the 2001 census, the town had 19,948 inhabitants. 97.03% of inhabitants were Slovaks, 1.07% Czechs and 0.28% Roma. The religious make-up was 65.11% Roman Catholics, 16.62% Lutherans and 14.55% people with no religious affiliation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Dolný Kubín is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genealogical resources.", "content": "The records for genealogical research are available at the state archive \"Statny Archiv in Bytca, Slovakia\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dolný Kubín (; ) is a town in northern Slovakia in the Žilina Region. It is the historical capital of the Orava region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974958}
{"src_title": "Behavioral economics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "McNair was born October 21, 1950, in Lake City, South Carolina, to Pearl M. and Carl C. McNair. He had two brothers, Carl S. and Eric A. McNair. In the summer of 1959, he refused to leave the segregated Lake City Public Library without being allowed to check out his books. After the police and his mother were called, he was allowed to borrow books from the library, which is now named after him. A children's book, \"Ron's Big Mission\", offers a fictionalized account of this event. His brother, Carl S., also wrote the official biography, \"In the Spirit of Ronald E. McNair—Astronaut: An American Hero\".  McNair graduated as valedictorian of Carver High School in 1967.  In 1971, he received a Bachelor of Science degree in engineering physics, magna cum laude, from the North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University in Greensboro, North Carolina.  In 1976, he received a Ph.D. degree in Physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology under the guidance of Michael Feld, becoming nationally recognised for his work in the field of laser physics.  After graduation from MIT (receiving four honorary doctorates, a score of fellowships and commendations while achieving a 6th-degree black belt in taekwondo), he became a staff physicist at the Hughes Research Lab in Malibu, California.  McNair was a member of the Omega Psi Phi Fraternity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Astronaut career.", "content": "In 1978, McNair was selected as one of thirty-five applicants from a pool of ten thousand for the NASA astronaut program. He flew as a mission specialist on STS-41-B aboard \"Challenger\" from February 3 to February 11, 1984, becoming the second African American to fly in space.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Challenger\" disaster.", "content": "Following the STS-41-B mission, McNair was selected for STS-51-L as one of three mission specialists in a crew of seven. The mission launched on January 28, 1986. He was killed when \"Challenger\" disintegrated nine miles above the Atlantic Ocean 73 seconds after liftoff.  He was buried at the Rest Lawn Memorial Park in Lake City, South Carolina.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music in space.", "content": "McNair was an accomplished saxophonist.  Before his last fateful space mission he had worked with the composer Jean-Michel Jarre on a piece of music for Jarre's then-upcoming album \" Rendez-Vous\". It was intended that he would record his saxophone solo onboard the \"Challenger\", which would have made McNair's solo the first original piece of music to have been recorded in space (although the song \"Jingle Bells\" had been played on a harmonica during an earlier Gemini 6 spaceflight). However, the recording was never made, as the flight ended in the disaster and the deaths of its entire crew. The final track on \"Rendez-Vous\", \"Last Rendez-Vous,\" has the subtitle \"Ron's Piece,\" and the liner notes include a dedication from Jarre: \"Ron was so excited about the piece that he rehearsed it continuously until the last moment. May the memory of my friend the astronaut and the artist Ron McNair live on through this piece.\" Ron McNair was supposed to have taken part in Jarre's \"Rendez-vous Houston\" concert through a live feed from the orbiting Shuttlecraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public honors.", "content": "McNair was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 2004, along with all crew members lost in the \"Challenger\" and \"Columbia\" disasters.  A variety of public places, people and programs have been renamed in honor of McNair.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ronald Erwin McNair (October 21, 1950 – January 28, 1986) was an American NASA astronaut and physicist. He died during the launch of the Space Shuttle \"Challenger\" on mission STS-51-L, in which he was serving as one of three mission specialists in a crew of seven.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974959}
{"src_title": "Claude Lecourbe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "After having studied at a college in Poligny and in Lons-le-Saunier, Lecourbe enlisted in the Regiment of Aquitaine where he served for eight years as an enlisted man. Having been promoted to corporal when the French Revolution started he became commandant of the National Guard of Ruffey-sur-Seille in 1789. He was then given command of the 7th volunteer battalion of the Jura, with which he served in the armies of the Rhine and the Nord. Having been promoted to colonel in 1791 Lecourbe distinguished himself in the battle of Fleurus. Having been promoted to general of brigade in 1794 and to general of division in 1798, he fought against Alexander Suvorov in Switzerland and distinguished himself in the Second Battle of Zurich under André Masséna.  Lecourbe's friendship with Jean-Victor Moreau and his vocal defense of Moreau in the process Georges Cadoudal brought on the enmity of Napoleon Bonaparte which forced his retirement in 1805. After Napoleon's abdication he was made a count by Louis XVIII of France. The count of Artois recalled Lecourbe to active duty in February 1815 and made him inspector-general of the 6th military Division with headquarters in Besançon.  Upon Napoleon's return from exile on Elba, Lecourbe offered him his services and during the Hundred Days he commanded the Army of the Jura (I Corps of Observation), operating in the Jura against Archduke Ferdinand. With an army of only 8,000 he held the city of Belfort for 15 days against the 40,000 Austrian troops of General Colloredo-Mansfeld, only agreeing a ceasefire on 11 July 1815, a feat which earned him a place of honour in French schoolbooks. After Louis's second return to the throne, Lecourbe retired and on 22 October 1815 he died in Belfort after a long illness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "A statue commemorating him stands in the Place de la Liberté in Lons-le-Saunier, where a street is also named after him. Streets named in his honour can also be found in Paris and in Besançon. In Belfort a statue commemorates him as \"The glorious defender of the city\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Claude Jacques Lecourbe (22 February 1759 – 22 October 1815), born in Besançon, was a French general during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974960}
{"src_title": "Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Thomas was born 7 January 1355 at Woodstock Palace in Oxfordshire after two short-lived brothers, one of whom had also been baptised Thomas. He married Eleanor de Bohun in 1374, was given Pleshey Castle in Essex, and was appointed Constable of the Realm. The younger sister of Woodstock's wife, Mary de Bohun, was subsequently married to Henry of Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby, who later became King Henry IV of England.  In 1377, at the age of 22, Woodstock was knighted and created Earl of Buckingham. On 22 June 1380 he became Earl of Essex in right of his wife. In 1385, he received the title Duke of Aumale, and at about the same time was created Duke of Gloucester.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campaign in Brittany.", "content": "Thomas of Woodstock was in command of a large campaign in northern France that followed the War of the Breton Succession of 1343–64. The earlier conflict was marked by the efforts of John IV, Duke of Brittany to secure control of the Duchy of Brittany against his rival Charles of Blois. John was supported in this struggle by the armies of the Kingdom of England, whereas Charles was supported by the Kingdom of France. At the head of an English army, John prevailed after Charles was killed in battle in 1364, but the French continued to undermine his position, and he was later forced into exile in England.  John returned to Brittany in 1379, supported by Breton barons who feared the annexation of Brittany by France. An English army was sent under Woodstock to support his position. Due to concerns about the safety of a longer shipping route to Brittany itself, the army was ferried instead to the English continental stronghold of Calais in July 1380.  As Woodstock marched his 5,200 men east of Paris, they were confronted by the army of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, at Troyes, but the French had learned from the Battle of Crécy in 1346 and the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 not to offer a pitched battle to the English. Eventually, the two armies simply marched away. French defensive operations were then thrown into disarray by the death of King Charles V of France on 16 September 1380. Woodstock's chevauchée continued westwards largely unopposed, and in November 1380 he laid siege to Nantes and its vital bridge over the Loire towards Aquitaine. However, he found himself unable to form an effective stranglehold, and urgent plans were put in place for Sir Thomas Felton to bring 2,000 reinforcements from England. By January, though, it had become apparent that the Duke of Brittany was reconciled to the new French king Charles VI, and with the alliance collapsing and dysentery ravaging his men, Woodstock abandoned the siege.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dispute with King Richard II.", "content": "Thomas of Woodstock was the leader of the Lords Appellant, a group of powerful nobles whose ambition to wrest power from Thomas's nephew, King Richard II of England, culminated in a successful rebellion in 1388 that significantly weakened the king's power. Richard II managed to dispose of the Lords Appellant in 1397, and Thomas was imprisoned in Calais to await trial for treason.  During that time he was murdered, probably by a group of men led by Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk, and the knight Sir Nicholas Colfox, presumably on behalf of Richard II. This caused an outcry among the nobility of England that is considered by many to have added to Richard's unpopularity.  Thomas was buried in Westminster Abbey, first in the Chapel of Saint Edmund and Saint Thomas in October 1397, and two years later reburied in the Chapel of Saint Edward the Confessor. His wife was buried next to him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and progeny.", "content": "Thomas married Eleanor de Bohun (c. 1366–1399), the elder daughter and co-heiress with her sister, Mary de Bohun, of their father Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford (1341–1373). Thomas of Woodstock and his wife Eleanor had:  As he was attainted as a traitor, his dukedom of Gloucester was forfeit. The title Earl of Buckingham was inherited by his son, who died in 1399 only two years after Thomas' own death. Thomas of Woodstock's eldest daughter, Anne, married into the powerful Stafford family, who were Earls of Stafford. Her son, Humphrey Stafford was created Duke of Buckingham in 1444 and also inherited part of the de Bohun estates.  The other part of these estatesincluding the Earldom of Hereford, which had belonged to Mary de Bohun and had then become incorporated into the holdings of the House of Lancasterbecame a matter of contention in the latter 15th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester (7 January 13558 or 9 September 1397) was the fifth surviving son and youngest child of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974961}
{"src_title": "Bee hummingbird", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The bee hummingbird is the smallest living bird. Females weigh and are long, and are slightly larger than males, with an average weight of and length of. Like all hummingbirds, it is a swift, strong flier.  The male has a green pileum and bright red throat, iridescent gorget with elongated lateral plumes, bluish upper parts, and the rest of the underparts mostly greyish white. The male is smaller than the female. The female is green above, whitish below, with white tips to the outer tail feathers. Compared to other small hummingbirds, which often have a slender appearance, the bee hummingbird looks rounded and plump.  Female bee hummingbirds are bluish green with a pale gray underside. The tips of their tail feathers have white spots. During the mating season, males have a reddish to pink head, chin, and throat. The female lays only two eggs at a time, each about the size of a coffee bean.  The brilliant, iridescent colors of the bee hummingbird's feathers make the bird seem like a tiny jewel. The iridescence is not always noticeable, but depends on the viewing angle. The bird's slender, pointed bill is adapted for probing deep into flowers. The bee hummingbird feeds mainly on nectar, and an occasional insect or spider, by moving its tongue rapidly in and out of its mouth. In the process of feeding, the bird picks up pollen on its bill and head. When it flies from flower to flower, it transfers the pollen. In this way, it plays an important role in plant reproduction. In one day, the bee hummingbird may visit 1,500 flowers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "The bee hummingbird has been reported to visit 10 plant species, nine of them native to Cuba. These flowers include \"Hamelia patens\" (Rubiaceae), \"Chrysobalanus icaco\" (Chrysobalanaceae), \"Pavonia paludicola\" (Malvaceae), \"Forsteronia corymbosa\" (Apocynaceae), \"Lysiloma latisiliquum\" (Mimosaceae), \"Turnera ulmifolia\" (Passifloraceae), \"Antigonon leptopus\" (Polygonaceae), \"Clerodendrum aculeatum\" (Verbenaceae), \"Tournefortia hirsutissima\" (Boraginaceae), and \"Cissus obovata\" (Vitaceae). They occasionally eat insects and spiders. In a typical day, bee hummingbirds will consume up to half their body weight in food.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and distribution.", "content": "The bee hummingbird is endemic to the entire Cuban archipelago, including the main island of Cuba and the Isla de la Juventud in the West Indies. Its population is fragmented, found in Cuba's mogote areas in Pinar del Rio province and more commonly in Zapata Swamp (Matanzas province) and in eastern Cuba, with reference localities in Alexander Humboldt National Park and Baitiquirí Ecological Reserve (Guantanamo province) and Gibara and Sierra Cristal (Holguin province).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "The bee hummingbird's breeding season is March–June. They lay up to two eggs at a time. Males in the “bee” hummingbird clade court females with sound from tail‐feathers, which flutter during display dives.  Using bits of cobwebs, bark, and lichen, the female builds a cup-shaped nest that is about in diameter. Nests have been built on single clothespins. She lines the nest with soft plant fibers. There she lays her eggs, which are no bigger than peas. She alone incubates the eggs and raises the young.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coevolution with flowers.", "content": "The bee hummingbird interaction with the flowers that supply nectar is a notable example of bird–plant coevolution with its primary food source (flowers for nectar).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The bee hummingbird, zunzuncito or Helena hummingbird (\"Mellisuga helenae\") is a species of hummingbird which is the world's smallest bird. It is endemic to Cuba.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974962}
{"src_title": "György Dózsa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "From peasant crusade to rebellion.", "content": "Dózsa was born in Dálnok (today Dalnic). During the wars against the Ottoman Empire, he was a soldier of fortune who won a reputation for valour.  In 1514, the Hungarian chancellor, Tamás Bakócz, returned from the Holy See with a papal bull issued by Leo X authorising a crusade against the Ottomans. He appointed Dózsa to organize and direct the movement. Within a few weeks, Dózsa had gathered an army of some 40,000 so-called \"hajdú\", consisting for the most part of peasants, wandering students, friars, and parish priests - some of the lowest-ranking groups of medieval society. They assembled in their counties, and by the time he had provided them with some military training, they began to air the grievances of their status. No measures had been taken to supply these voluntary crusaders with food or clothing. As harvest-time approached, the landlords commanded them to return to reap the fields, and, on their refusing to do so, proceeded to maltreat their wives and families and set their armed retainers upon the local peasantry.  The volunteers became increasingly angry at the failure of the nobility to provide military leadership (the original and primary function of the nobility and the justification for its higher status in the society.) The rebellious, anti-landlord sentiment of these \"Crusaders\" became apparent during their march across the Great Hungarian Plain, and Bakócz cancelled the campaign. The movement was thus diverted from its original object, and the peasants and their leaders began a war of vengeance against the landlords.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Growing rebellion.", "content": "By this time, Dózsa was losing control of the people under his command, who had fallen under the influence of the parson of Cegléd, Lőrinc Mészáros. The rebellion became more dangerous when the towns joined on the side of the peasants. In Buda and elsewhere, the cavalry sent against them were unhorsed as they passed through the gates.  The rebellion spread quickly, principally in the central or purely Magyar provinces, where hundreds of manor houses and castles were burnt and thousands of the gentry killed by impalement, crucifixion, and other methods. Dózsa's camp at Cegléd was the centre of the \"jacquerie\", as all raids in the surrounding area started out from there.  In reaction, the papal bull was revoked, and King Vladislaus II issued a proclamation commanding the peasantry to return to their homes under pain of death. By this time, the uprising had attained the dimensions of a revolution; all the vassals of the kingdom were called out against it, and soldiers of fortune were hired in haste from the Republic of Venice, Bohemia, and the Holy Roman Empire. Meanwhile, Dózsa had captured the city and fortress of Csanád (today's Cenad), and signaled his victory by impaling the bishop and the castellan.  Subsequently, at Arad, Lord Treasurer István Telegdy was seized and tortured to death. In general, however, the rebels only executed particularly vicious or greedy noblemen; those who freely submitted were released on parole. Dózsa not only never broke his given word, but frequently assisted the escape of fugitives. He was unable to consistently control his followers, however, and many of them hunted down rivals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Downfall and execution.", "content": "In the course of the summer, Dózsa seized the fortresses of Arad, Lippa (today Lipova), and Világos (now Şiria), and provided himself with cannons and trained gunners. One of his bands advanced to within 25 kilometres of the capital. But his ill-armed ploughmen were outmatched by the heavy cavalry of the nobles. Dózsa himself had apparently become demoralized by success: after Csanád, he issued proclamations which can be described as millenarian.  As his suppression had become a political necessity, Dózsa was routed at Temesvár (today Timișoara, Romania) by an army of 20,000 led by John Zápolya and István Báthory. He was captured after the battle, and condemned to sit on a smouldering, heated iron throne, and forced to wear a heated iron crown and sceptre (mocking his ambition to be king). While he was suffering, a procession of nine fellow rebels who had been starved beforehand were led to this throne. In the lead was Dózsa's younger brother, Gergely, who was cut in three despite Dózsa asking for Gergely to be spared. Next, executioners removed some pliers from a fire and forced them into Dózsa's skin. After tearing his flesh, the remaining rebels were ordered to bite spots where the hot pliers had been inserted and to swallow the flesh. The three or four who refused were simply cut up, prompting the others to comply. In the end, Dózsa died from the ordeal, while the rebels who obeyed were released and left alone.  The revolt was repressed but some 70,000 peasants were tortured. György's execution, and the brutal suppression of the peasants, greatly aided the 1526 Ottoman invasion as the Hungarians were no longer a politically united people. Another consequence was the creation of new laws, an effort in the Hungarian Diet led by István Werbőczy. The resulting Tripartitum elaborated the old rights of peasants, but also greatly enhanced the status of lesser nobility (gentry), erecting an iron curtain between Hungarians until 1848 when serfdom was abolished.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Today, on the site of the martyrdom of the hot throne, there is the Virgin Mary Monument, built by architect László Székely and sculptor György Kiss. According to the legend, during György Dózsa's torture, some monks saw in his ear the image of Mary. The first statue was raised in 1865, with the actual monument raised in 1906. Hungarian opera composer Ferenc Erkel wrote an opera, \"Dózsa György\", about him.  His revolutionary image and Transylvanian background were drawn upon during the Communist regime of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej. The Hungarian component of his movement was downplayed, but its strong anti-feudal character was emphasized.  In Budapest, a square, a busy six-lane avenue, and a metro station bear his name, and it is one of the most popular street names in Hungarian villages. A number of streets in several cities of Romania were named \"Gheorghe Doja\". Also, a number of streets in serval cities of Serbia were named \"Ulica Doža Đerđa\". Two Postage stamps were issued in his honor by Hungary on 12 June 1919 and on 15 March 1947, the latter in the \"social revolutionists\" series.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "György Dózsa (or \"György Székely\", ; 1470 – 20 July 1514) was a Székely man-at-arms (and by some accounts, a nobleman) from Transylvania, Kingdom of Hungary who led a peasants' revolt against the kingdom's landed nobility. He was eventually caught, tortured, and executed along with his followers, and remembered as both a Christian martyr and a dangerous criminal. During the reign of king Vladislas II of Hungary (1490–1516), royal power declined in favour of the magnates, who used their power to curtail the peasants’ freedom.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974963}
{"src_title": "Dogma", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The word \"dogma\" was translated in the 17th century from Latin \"dogma\" meaning \"philosophical tenet\" or principle, derived from the Greek \"dogma\" (δόγμα) meaning literally \"that which one thinks is true\" and the verb \"dokein\", \"to seem good\". The plural, based on the Greek, is \"dogmata\" (), though \"dogmas\" may be more commonly used in English and other languages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "Formally, the term dogma has been used by some theistic religious groups to describe the body of positions forming the group's most central, foundational, or essential beliefs, though the term may also be used to refer to the entire set of formal beliefs identified by a theistic or non-theistic religious group. In some cases dogma is distinguished from religious opinion and those things in doctrine considered less significant or uncertain. Formal church dogma is often clarified and elaborated upon in its communication.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buddhism.", "content": "View or position (Pali ', Sanskrit ') is a central idea in Buddhism. In Buddhist thought, a view is not a simple, abstract collection of propositions, but a charged interpretation of experience which intensely shapes and affects thought, sensation, and action. Having the proper mental attitude toward views is therefore considered an integral part of the Buddhist path, as sometimes correct views need to be put into practice and incorrect views abandoned, while othertimes all views are seen as obstacles to enlightenment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Christianity.", "content": "Christianity is defined by a set of core beliefs shared by virtually all Christians, though how those core beliefs are implemented and secondary questions vary within Christianity. When formally communicated by the organization, these beliefs are sometimes referred to as 'dogmata'. The organization's formal religious positions may be taught to new members or simply communicated to those who choose to become members. It is rare for agreement with an organization's formal positions to be a requirement for attendance, though membership may be required for some church activities. Protestants to differing degrees are less formal about doctrine, and often rely on denomination-specific beliefs, but seldom refer to these beliefs as dogmata. The first unofficial institution of dogma in the Christian church was by Saint Irenaeus in his \"Demonstration of Apostolic Teaching\", which provides a'manual of essentials' constituting the 'body of truth'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Catholicism and Eastern Christianity.", "content": "For Catholicism and Eastern Christianity, the dogmata are contained in the Nicene Creed and the canon laws of two, three, seven, or twenty ecumenical councils (depending on whether one is Church of the East, Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, or Roman Catholic). These tenets are summarized by John of Damascus in his \"Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith\", which is the third book of his main work, titled \"The Fount of Knowledge\". In this book he takes a dual approach in explaining each article of the faith: one, directed at Christians, where he uses quotes from the Bible and, occasionally, from works of other Church Fathers, and the second, directed both at members of non-Christian religions and at atheists, for whom he employs Aristotelian logic and dialectics.  The decisions of fourteen later councils that Catholics hold as dogmatic and a small number of decrees promulgated by popes exercising papal infallibility (for examples, see Immaculate Conception and Assumption of Mary) are considered as being a part of the Church's sacred body of doctrine.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Islam.", "content": "In Islam the Quran\", Hadith\", and \"aqidah\" correspond, albeit differently across cultural and theological lines, to the Latin terms \"dogma/dogmata\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stoicism.", "content": "In Stoicism \"dogma\" (δόγμα) is a principle established by reason and experience. Stoicism has many dogmas, such as the well-known Stoic dogma \"the only good is moral good, and the only evil is moral evil\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pyrrhonism.", "content": "In Pyrrhonist philosophy \"dogma\" refers to assent to a proposition about a non-evident matter. The main principle of Pyrrhonism is expressed by the word \"acatalepsia\", which connotes the ability to withhold assent from doctrines regarding the truth of things in their own nature; against every statement its contradiction may be advanced with equal justification. Consequently, Pyrrhonists withhold assent with regard to non-evident propositions, i.e., dogmas. Pyrrhonists argue that dogmatists, such as the Stoics, Epicureans, and Peripatetics, have failed to demonstrate that their doctrines regarding non-evident matters are true.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Dogma is an official system of principles or doctrines of a religion, such as Roman Catholicism, or the positions of a philosopher or of a philosophical school such as Stoicism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974964}
{"src_title": "Huis ten Bosch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "17th and 18th century.", "content": "Construction of Huis ten Bosch began on 2 September 1645, under the direction of Bartholomeus Drijffhout, and to a design by Pieter Post and Jacob van Campen. It was commissioned by Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, the wife of stadtholder Frederick Henry, on a parcel of land granted to her by the States General (Loonstra 1983, Slothouwer 1945). The first stone was laid by Elizabeth of Bohemia.  After her husband's death in 1647, Amalia dedicated the palace to him. Led by the architect-painters Jacob van Campen and Pieter Post, other major artists of the day, such as Gerard van Honthorst, Jacob Jordaens, Thomas Willeboirts Bosschaert, Theodoor van Thulden, Caesar van Everdingen, Salomon de Bray, Pieter Soutman, Gonzales Coques, Pieter de Grebber, Adriaen Hanneman and Jan Lievens, filled the Oranjezaal (\"Orange Hall\" ) with paintings glorifying the late prince. Between 1734 and 1737 the architect Daniel Marot added two wings to the palace, including a new dining room.  Over the next century and a half, the palace would change possession from the Nassau family, the king of Prussia, and many stadtholders until the Batavian Revolution in 1795. The government of the newly created Batavian Republic gave the palace to the Batavian (Dutch) people who still own it to this day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "19th and 20th century.", "content": "The National Art Gallery, predecessor of the Rijksmuseum, was housed in the building from 1800 to 1805. Napoleon Bonaparte's brother, Louis, king of Holland, briefly lived in the palace between 1805 and 1807.  When William Frederick, Prince of Orange-Nassau, the only surviving son of the last stadtholder, was proclaimed King of the Netherlands as William I in 1815, he made Huis ten Bosch Palace one of his official residences. It became a favourite location for many members of the Royal Family. In 1899 the palace was the site of several meetings of the First International Peace Conference at The Hague. During World War I it became the primary residence of Queen Wilhelmina.  The Queen and her family were forced to evacuate the palace for Britain (from which the Queen's family, but not the Queen herself, would move on to Canada) when the German army invaded the Netherlands during World War II. The Nazi administration planned to demolish the palace, but the controller convinced them otherwise. However, the palace was damaged beyond habitation.  Between 1950 and 1956, the palace was restored and once again became a Royal residence. It became the prime residence once more in 1981.  The palace has undergone major reconstructions since it was built. Currently, it consists of a central part with two long wings, spanning approximately 110 meters from end to end.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Huis ten Bosch (, ; English: \"House in the Woods\") is a royal palace in The Hague, Netherlands. It is one of three official residences of the Dutch monarch; the two others being the Noordeinde Palace in The Hague and the Royal Palace in Amsterdam.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974965}
{"src_title": "Morus alba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "On young, vigorous shoots, the leaves may be up to long, and deeply and intricately lobed, with the lobes rounded. On older trees, the leaves are generally long, unlobed, cordate at the base and rounded to acuminate at the tip, and serrated on the margins. The trees are generally deciduous in temperate regions, but trees grown in tropical regions can be evergreen. The flowers are single-sex catkins; male catkins are long, and female catkins long. Male and female flowers are usually on separate trees although they may occur on the same tree. The fruit is long; in the species in the wild it is deep purple, but in many cultivated plants it varies from white to pink; it is sweet but bland, unlike the more intense flavor of the red mulberry and black mulberry. The seeds are widely dispersed in the droppings of birds that eat the fruit.  The white mulberry is scientifically notable for the rapid plant movement involved in pollen release from its catkins. The stamens act as catapults, releasing stored elastic energy in just 25 μs. The resulting movement is approximately, over half the speed of sound, making it the fastest known movement in the plant kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Two varieties of \"Morus alba\" are recognized:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Cultivation of white mulberry for silkworms began over four thousand years ago in China. In 2002, 6,260 km of land were devoted to the species in China.  The species is now extensively planted and widely naturalized throughout the warm temperate world. It has been grown widely from the Indian subcontinent west through Afghanistan and Iran to southern Europe for over a thousand years for leaves to feed silkworms.  More recently, it has become widely naturalized in disturbed areas such as roadsides and the edges of tree lots, along with urban areas in much of North America, where it hybridizes readily with the locally native red mulberry \"(Morus rubra)\". There is now serious concern for the long-term genetic viability of the red mulberry because of extensive hybridization in some areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "White mulberry leaves are the preferred feedstock for silkworms, and are also cut for food for livestock (cattle, goats, etc.) in areas where dry seasons restrict the availability of ground vegetation. The leaves are prepared as tea in Korea. The fruit are also eaten, often dried or made into wine.  For landscaping, a fruitless mulberry was developed from a clone for use in the production of silk in the U.S. The industry never materialized, but the mulberry variety is now used as an ornamental tree where shade is desired without the fruit. A weeping cultivar of white mulberry, \"Morus alba\" 'Pendula', is a popular ornamental plant. The species has become a popular lawn tree across the desert cities of the southwestern United States, prized for its shade and also for its cylindrical berry clusters composed of sweet, purplish-white fruits. The plant's pollen has become problematical in some cities where it has been blamed for an increase in hay fever.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Morus alba, known as white mulberry, is a fast-growing, small to medium-sized mulberry tree which grows to tall. It is generally a short-lived tree with a lifespan comparable to that of humans, although there are some specimens known to be over 250 years old. The species is native to northern China and India, and is widely cultivated and naturalized elsewhere (United States, Mexico, Australia, Kyrgyzstan, Argentina, Turkey, Iran, etc.).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974966}
{"src_title": "Basilios Bessarion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Bessarion was born in Trebizond, the Black Sea port in northeastern Anatolia that was the heart of Pontic Greek culture and civilization during the Byzantine and Ottoman periods. The year of his birth has been given as 1389, 1395 or 1403.  Bessarion's Neoplatonism  Bessarion was educated in Constantinople, then went in 1423 to Peloponnese to study Neoplatonism under Gemistus Pletho. Under Pletho, he \"went through the liberal arts curriculum..., with a special emphasis on mathematics...including the study of astronomy and geography\" that would have related \"philosophy to physics...cosmology and astrology\" and Pletho's “mathematics would include Pythagorean number-mysticism, Plato’s cosmological geometry and the Neoplatonic arithmetic which connected the material world with the world of Plato’s Forms. Possibly it also included astrology...\" Woodhouse also mentions that Bessarion \"had a mystical streak...[and] was proficient in Neoplatonic vocabulary...mathematics...and Platonic theology\".  Bessarion's Neoplatonism stayed with him his whole life, even as a cardinal. He was very familiar with Neoplatonist terminology and used it in his letter to Pletho's two sons, Demitrios and Andronikos, on the death of his still-beloved teacher in 1452. Perhaps the most remarkable thing about his life was that a Neoplatonist could have played such a significant role in the Roman Church for at least a brief time, though he was attacked for his views by more orthodox Catholic academics shortly after his death.  Bessarion's life as a monk and role in the Council of Ferrara  On becoming a tonsured monk, he adopted the name of an old Egyptian anchorite Bessarion, whose story he has related. In 1436 became abbot of a monastery in Constantinople and in 1437, he was made metropolitan of Nicaea by the Byzantine Emperor John VIII Palaeologus, whom he accompanied to Italy in order to bring about a reunion between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) churches. The emperor hoped to use the possibility of re-uniting the churches to obtain help from Western Europe against the Ottoman Empire. Bessarion participated in the Byzantine delegation to the Council of Ferrara-Florence as the most eminent representative of unionists, although originally belonged to the party of anti-unionists. On 6 July 1439 he was the one who read the declaration of the Greek Association of Churches in the cathedral of Florence, in the presence of Pope Eugene IV and the Emperor John VIII Palaeologus.  Some have impugned Bessarion's sincerity in adhering to the Union. It has been argued that he was pragmatic patriot and thought religious Union would be the only hope and refuge for the Byzantine Empire faced with the Ottoman advance. However, Gill upholds Bessarion's sincerity in being convinced to the truth of the Roman position in the matters discussed at the Council quoting from the bishop's own \"Oratio Dogmatica\":  Upon his return to the East, he found himself bitterly resented for his attachment to the minority party that saw no difficulty in a reconciliation of the two churches. At the Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438–1445), Bessarion supported the Roman church and gained the favour of Pope Eugene IV, who invested him with the rank of cardinal at a consistory of 18 December 1439.  From that time, he resided permanently in Italy, doing much, by his patronage of learned men, by his collection of books and manuscripts, and by his own writings, to spread abroad the new learning. His palazzo in Rome was a virtual Academy for the studies of new humanistic learning, a center for learned Greeks and Greek refugees, whom he supported by commissioning transcripts of Greek manuscripts and translations into Latin that made Greek scholarship available to Western Europeans. He supported Regiomontanus in this fashion and defended Nicholas of Cusa. He is known in history as the original patron of the Greek exiles (scholars and diplomats) including Theodore Gaza, George of Trebizond, John Argyropoulos and many others.  He held in succession the archbishopric of Siponto and the suburbicarian sees of Sabina and Frascati. At the papal conclave of 1455 which elected the Aragonese candidate, Alfons de Borja, as Callixtus III, Cardinal Bessarion was an early candidate for his disinterest in the competition between Roman factions that pressed candidates of the Orsini and Colonna factions. He was opposed for his Greek background by the French Cardinal Alain de Coëtivy. \"It is probable that the cardinals were less afraid of his Greek training and temperament than they were of his known austerity and passion for reform\", Francis A. Burkle-Young has observed.  For five years (1450–1455), he was legate at Bologna, and he was engaged on embassies to many foreign princes, among others to Louis XI of France in 1471. Other missions were to Germany to encourage Western princes to help their fellow Christians in the East. For these efforts, his fellow humanist Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, then Pius II, gave him the purely ceremonial title of Latin Patriarch of Constantinople in 1463.  As \"primus Cardinalium\" (from April 1463) — the title Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals was not yet in use — Cardinal Bessarion presided over the Papal conclave, 1464 and Papal conclave, 1471.  Vexation at an insult offered him by Louis XI is said to have hastened his death, which took place on 19 November 1472 at Ravenna. He is buried in the basilica of Santi Apostoli, Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Bessarion was one of the most learned scholars of his time. Besides his translations of Aristotle's \"Metaphysics\" and Xenophon's \"Memorabilia\", his most important work is a treatise directed against George of Trebizond, a vehement Aristotelian who had written a polemic against Plato, which was entitled \"In Calumniatorem Platonis\" (\"Against the Slanderer of Plato\"). Bessarion, though a Platonist, was not so thoroughgoing in his admiration as Gemistus Pletho, and he strove instead to reconcile the two philosophies. His work, by opening up the relations of Platonism to the main questions of religion, contributed greatly to the extension of speculative thought in the department of theology.  It was thanks to him that the Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus), an important compendium of Greek Mythology, has survived to the present.  His library, which contained a very extensive collection of Greek manuscripts, was presented by him in 1468 to the Senate of the Republic of Venice, and forms the nucleus of the famous library of St Mark's, the \"Biblioteca Marciana\". It comprised 482 Greek and 264 Latin manuscripts.  Most of Bessarion's works are in Migne, \"Patrologia Graeca\", vol. 161.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Basilios (or Basilius) Bessarion (Greek: Βασίλειος Βησσαρίων; 2 January 1403 – 18 November 1472), a Catholic cardinal bishop and the titular Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, was one of the illustrious Greek scholars who contributed to the great revival of letters in the 15th century. He was educated by Gemistus Pletho in Neoplatonic philosophy. Later, he became a cardinal, and was twice considered for the papacy. He has been mistakenly known also as Johannes Bessarion or Giovanni Bessarione due to an erroneous interpretation of Gregory III Mammas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974967}
{"src_title": "Mongolian cuisine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "The nomads of Mongolia sustain their lives directly from the products of domesticated animals such as cattle, horses, camels, yaks, sheep, and goats, as well as game. Meat is either cooked, used as an ingredient for soups and dumplings (buuz, khuushuur,, manti), or dried for winter (borts). The Mongolian diet includes a large proportion of animal fat which is necessary for the Mongols to withstand the cold winters and their hard work. Winter temperatures are as low as −40 °C (−40 °F) and outdoor work requires sufficient energy reserves. Milk and cream are used to make a variety of beverages, as well as cheese and similar products.  The nomads in the countryside are self-supporting on principle. Travelers will find gers marked as \"guanz\" in regular intervals near the roadside, which operate as simple restaurants. In the ger, which is a portable dwelling structure (yurt is a Turkic word for a similar shelter, but the name is ger in Mongolian), Mongolians usually cook in a cast-iron or aluminum pot on a small stove, using wood or dry animal dung fuel (\"argal\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Common foods.", "content": "The most common rural dish is cooked mutton, usually without any other ingredients. To accompany the meats, vegetables and flour products may be used to create side dishes as well. In the city, every other local displays a sign saying \"buuz\". Those are steamed dumplings filled with meat. Other types of dumplings are boiled in water (, manti), or deep fried in mutton fat (khuushuur). Other dishes combine the meat with rice or fresh noodles made into various stews (\"\", \"budaatai huurga\") or noodle soups (\"guriltai shol\").  The most surprising cooking method is only used on special occasions. In this case, the meat (often together with vegetables) gets cooked with the help of stones, which have been preheated in a fire. This either happens with chunks of mutton in a sealed milk can (khorkhog), or within the abdominal cavity of a deboned goat or marmot (\"boodog\").  Milk is boiled to separate the cream (\"öröm\", clotted cream). The remaining skimmed milk is processed into cheese (\"byaslag\"), dried curds (aaruul), yogurt, kefir, and a light milk liquor (\"shimiin arkhi\"). The most prominent national beverage is airag, which is fermented mare's milk. A popular cereal is barley, which is fried and malted. The resulting flour (arvain guril) is eaten as a porridge in milk fat and sugar or drunk mixed in milky tea. The everyday beverage is salted milk tea (süütei tsai), which may turn into a robust soup by adding rice, meat, or bansh. As a result of the Russian influence during socialism, vodka has also gained some popularity with a surprising number of local brands (usually grain spirits).  Horse meat is eaten in Mongolia and can be found in most grocery stores.  Mongolian sweets include boortsog, a type of biscuit or cookie eaten on special occasions.  Vodka is the most popular alcoholic beverage; Chinggis vodka (named for Genghis Khan) is the most popular brand, making up 30% of the distilled spirits market.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mongolian cuisine predominantly consists of dairy products, meat, and animal fats. The most common rural dish is cooked mutton. In the city, steamed dumplings filled with meat—\"buuz\"— are popular.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974968}
{"src_title": "Héctor Babenco", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Babenco was born in Buenos Aires and raised in Mar del Plata. His mother, Janka Haberberg, was a Polish Jewish immigrant, and his father, Jaime Babenco, was an Argentine \"gaucho\" of Ukrainian Jewish origin. Babenco lived in Europe from 1964 to 1968. In 1969, he decided to stay in São Paulo, Brazil, permanently.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "His first solo feature film as a director was \"O Rei da Noite\" (\"King of the Night\") (1975), starring Paulo José and Marília Pêra.  Babenco had an international success with \"Pixote – A lei do mais fraco\" (1981). It concerns Brazil's abandoned children. In the words of E. Ruby Rich while it concerns \"a pair of boys who form a symbiotic sexual union\", the film cannot \"be held up as an example of how gay desire can be depicted, given its sensationalistic and sordid treatment of gay sex as accommodation, substitution, and punishment\". The film featured impressive work of young actor Fernando Ramos da Silva, 10 years old at the time, who was discovered in the suburbs of São Paulo. The film received numerous prizes.  For \"Kiss of the Spider Woman\" (1985), Babenco was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director, the first Latin American to be nominated in this category.  He directed some of the most respected American actors of his time, including William Hurt, John Lithgow, Raul Julia, Jack Nicholson, Meryl Streep, Tom Berenger, Daryl Hannah, Aidan Quinn and Kathy Bates.  In 2012 Babenco was part of the jury in the 34th Moscow International Film Festival.  His last film was \"My Hindu Friend\" (2016), which stars Willem Dafoe. It recounts the story of a film director close to death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2010, Barbenco married actress Bárbara Paz. He was previously married to Xuxa Lopes and Raquel Arnaud. He was the father of two daughters, Janka Babenco and Myra Arnaud Babenco, from his previous marriages, and also had two grandchildren.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health issues and death.", "content": "In 1994, Babenco fell ill and had to undergo a bone marrow transplant to treat a lymphatic cancer.  On July 12, 2016, Barbenco was admitted to Hospital Sírio-Libanês to treat sinusitis. The following night, he suffered a cardiac arrest, and passed away shortly thereafter.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Héctor Eduardo Babenco (February 7, 1946July 13, 2016) was an Argentine-Brazilian film director, screenwriter, producer and actor who worked in worked in several countries including Brazil, Argentina, and the United States. He was one of the first Brazilian filmmakers to gain international critical acclaim, through his films which often dealt with social outcasts on the fringes of society. His best-known works include \"Pixote\" (1980), \"Kiss of the Spider Woman\" (1985), \"Ironweed\" (1987), \"At Play in the Fields of the Lord\" (1990) and \"Carandiru\" (2003).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974969}
{"src_title": "Karl Max, Prince Lichnowsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Pre-1914 life and career.", "content": "He was the sixth Prince and eighth Count Lichnowsky. He succeeded his father in 1901. His father was Carl, Prince Lichnowsky, fifth Prince and seventh Count Lichnowsky, a general of cavalry, and his mother was Marie, Princess of Croy. He was the head of an old noble Bohemian family, possessing estates at Kuchelna, then in Austrian Silesia, and Grätz in Austrian Moravia (Now Hradec nad Moravicí, Czech Republic). As a hereditary member of the upper house of the Prussian Diet, Lichnowsky played a part in domestic politics, adopting in general a moderate attitude and deprecating partisan legislation. Though a Roman Catholic, he avoided identifying himself with the clerical party in Germany.  Entering the diplomatic service, Lichnowsky was appointed an attaché at the London embassy in 1885 and later served as legation secretary at Bucharest. He became German Ambassador to Austria-Hungary in 1902, replacing Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg-Hertefeld, but was forced into retirement in 1904, accused of too much independence from the Foreign Office after several conflicts with Friedrich von Holstein, head of the Office's political division. In 1904, he married Countess Mechtilde von Arco-Zinneberg (1879-1958).  He spent eight years in retirement, as his memoirs relate, \"on my farm and in my garden, on horseback and in the fields, but reading industriously and publishing occasional political articles.\" For several years, newspaper rumour in Germany had connected the name Lichnowsky with practically every important diplomatic post that became vacant, and even with the Imperial chancellorship. No official appointment was forthcoming, however, beyond the designation of privy councilor (German: \"Wirklicher Geheimrat\") in 1911.  In 1912, Lichnowsky was appointed ambassador to the United Kingdom, in which post he served until the outbreak of war in 1914. Soon after his appointment, he filed a report on a conversation with Lord Haldane, British secretary of state for war. In it, Haldane had made clear that Britain could go to war if Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia and Germany attacked France. The report was said to have infuriated Kaiser Wilhelm II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The 1914 Crisis.", "content": "During the July Crisis of 1914, Lichnowsky was the only German diplomat who raised objections to Germany's efforts to provoke an Austro-Serbian war, arguing that Britain would intervene in a continental war. On 25 July, he implored the German government to accept an offer of British mediation in the Austro-Serbian dispute. On 27 July, he followed with a cable arguing that Germany could not win a continental war. This cable was not shown to Kaiser Wilhelm II. A cable on 28 July relayed an offer from King George V to hold a conference of European ambassadors to avoid general war. A final cable on 29 July to the German Foreign Office stated simply \"if war breaks out it will be the greatest catastrophe the world has ever seen.\" These warnings went unheeded, and by the time the final cable reached Berlin, Austrian troops were already bombarding Belgrade.  On Britain's declaration of war on 4 August 1914, Lichnowsky returned to Germany. So highly was he thought of, a British military guard of honour saluted his departure – a rare privilege in the circumstances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "His 1916 pamphlet.", "content": "His privately printed pamphlet, \"My Mission to London 1912-1914\", circulated in German upper-class circles in 1916, accused his government of failing to support him in efforts to avert World War I; its 1917 publication in the United States led to his expulsion from the Prussian House of Lords. In 1918, the renamed \"Lichnowsky Memorandum\" was published in \"The Disclosures from Germany\" (New York: American Association for International Conciliation, 1918). It was also published in the Danish journal \"Politiken\" in March 1918, from which a British copy was published by Cassell & Co., later in 1918, with a preface by Professor Gilbert Murray.  The pamphlet mainly covers the period 1912–1914, and occasionally back to 1900. Lichnowsky deplored the German alliance with Austria-Hungary (though he owned land in Austria and had served as a diplomat in Vienna), feeling that it inevitably pulled German diplomacy into Balkan crises and tensions with Russia, without any compensating benefits to Germany with its new industries, trade and colonies. \"This is a return to the days of the Holy Roman Empire and the mistakes of the Hohenstaufens and Habsburgs,\" he wrote.  The Kaiser had commented on 31 July 1914 about an encircling British diplomacy during the crisis: \"For I no longer have any doubt that England, Russia and France have agreed among themselves, knowing that our treaty obligations compel us to support Austria-Hungary, to use the Austro-Serb conflict as a pretext for waging a war of annihilation against us.... Our dilemma over keeping faith with the old and honourable Emperor has been exploited to create a situation which gives England the excuse she has been seeking to annihilate us with a spurious appearance of justice on the pretext that she is helping France and maintaining the well-known Balance of Power in Europe, i.e. playing off all European States for her own benefit against us.\"  In contrast, Lichnowsky outlined how the British foreign minister Sir Edward Grey had helped, with two treaties, on dividing the Portuguese Empire and establishing the Berlin–Baghdad railway, and had supported Germany's policy in the resolution of the Balkan Wars in 1912 and 1913 that excluded Russia. Britain had held back from declaring war until 4 August, after Belgium had been invaded, yet in a telegram sent to him from Berlin on 1 August: \"... England was already mentioned as an opponent...\"  Lichnowsky summed up his view on blame for the outbreak of war, and the failure of diplomacy, in three main points:  \"In view of the above, undeniable, facts, it is no wonder that the whole of the civilised world outside Germany places the entire responsibility for the world war upon our shoulders.\"  At the pamphlet's end, he forecasts that the Central Powers were doomed to lose World War I, and says: \"The world will belong to the Anglo-Saxons, Russians and Japanese.\" The German role, he wrote, \"will be that of thought and commerce, not that of the bureaucrat and soldier. (Germany) made its appearance too late, and its last chance of making good the past, that of founding a Colonial Empire, was annihilated by the world war.\"  The pamphlet heavily influenced the minds of the French and British politicians who promulgated the Versailles Peace Treaty in 1919.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comments.", "content": "In his column in the 11 May 1918, issue of \"Illustrated London News\" G. K. Chesterton would note:  The latter refers to the harsh terms the Germans imposed on Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in early March 1918. Chesterton was reminding his readers that, were Germany to win the war in the west, it would impose equally harsh terms on Belgium and France, in line with the 1914 Septemberprogramm.  Professor Murray summarised his 1918 foreword to the pamphlet with:  Lichnowsky was seen as a 'Good German' who had truthfully warned his government but had been ignored at the crucial moment.  Lichnowsky's viewpoint was largely followed by the controversial historian Fritz Fischer in his 1961 book \"Germany's Aims in the First World War\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Max, Prince Lichnowsky (Kreuzenort, Upper Silesia, Prussia [now Krzyżanowice, Poland], 8 March 1860 – Kuchelna, Czechsoslovakia, 27 February 1928) was a German diplomat who served as ambassador to Britain during the July Crisis and who was the author of a 1916 pamphlet that deplored German diplomacy in mid-1914 which, he argued, contributed heavily to the outbreak of the First World War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974970}
{"src_title": "Abies grandis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The grand fir was first described by Scottish botanical explorer David Douglas, who in 1831 collected specimens of the tree along the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest.  \"Abies grandis\" is a large evergreen coniferous tree growing to 40–70 m (exceptionally 100 m) tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 2 m. The leaves are needle-like, flattened, 3–6 cm long and 2 mm wide by 0.5 mm thick, glossy dark green above, and with two green-white bands of stomata below, and slightly notched at the tip. The leaf arrangement is spiral on the shoot, but with each leaf variably twisted at the base so they all lie in two more-or-less flat ranks on either side of the shoot. On the lower leaf surface, two green-white bands of stomata are prominent. The base of each leaf is twisted a variable amount so that the leaves are nearly coplanar. Different length leaves, but all lined up in a flat plane, is a useful way to quickly distinguish this species. The cones are 6–12 cm long and 3.5–4.5 cm broad, with about 100-150 scales; the scale bracts are short, and hidden in the closed cone. The winged seeds are released when the cones disintegrate at maturity about 6 months after pollination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "There are two varieties, probably better treated at subspecies rank though not yet formally published as such:  Grand fir is very closely related to white fir, with the interior variety \"idahoensis\" particularly similar to the western forms of white fir from western Oregon and California, intergrading with it where they meet in the Cascades of central Oregon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The inner bark of the grand fir was used by some Plateau Indian tribes for treating colds and fever. The foliage has an attractive citrus-like scent, and is sometimes used for Christmas decorations in the United States, including Christmas trees. It is also planted as an ornamental tree in large parks.  For medicine uses, The Okanagan-Colville tribe used it as a Strengthener's drug for a general feeling of weakness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timber.", "content": "The lumber is non-resinous and fine textured. In the North American logging industry, the grand fir is often referred to as \"hem fir\", with hem fir being a number of species with interchangeable types of wood (specifically the California red fir, noble fir, Pacific silver fir, white fir, and western hemlock). Grand fir is often shipped along with these other species. It can also referred to as \"white fir\" lumber, an umbrella term also referring to \"Abies amabilis\", \"Abies concolor\", and \"Abies magnifica\".  Lumber from the grand fir is considered a softwood. As such, it is used for paper making, packing crates, and construction. Hem fir is frequently used for framing, and is able to meet the building code span requirements of numerous construction projects.  As a hem fir, the trunk of the grand fir is considered slightly below the \"Douglas fir-larch\" species combination in strength, and stronger than the \"Douglas fir-South\" and \"spruce-pine-fir (South)\" species combos (both umbrella terms for a number of species with similar wood). Because it is nearly as strong as Douglas fir-larch, it often meets the structural load-bearing requirements for framing in residential, light commercial, and heavy construction. Excluding Douglas fir-larch, hem fir's modulus of elasticity value as a stiffness factor in floor systems (denoted as MOE or E) is stronger than all other western species combinations. Hem fir is preferred by many builders because of its ability to hold and not be split by nails and screws, and its low propensity for splintering when sawed.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Abies grandis (grand fir, giant fir, lowland white fir, great silver fir, western white fir, Vancouver fir, or Oregon fir) is a fir native to the Pacific Northwest and Northern California of North America, occurring at altitudes of sea level to 1,800 m. It is a major constituent of the Grand Fir/Douglas Fir Ecoregion of the Cascade Range.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974971}
{"src_title": "Karl von Stürgkh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Stürgkh descended from a Styrian noble family (originally from the Bavarian Upper Palatinate region), which had been elevated to the status of Imperial Counts in 1721. He owned large estates in Halbenrain and was elected a member of the Austrian Imperial Council in 1891. From 1909 until 1911 he served as education minister in the cabinets of Richard von Bienerth-Schmerling and Paul Gautsch von Frankenthurn.  Gautsch resigned when rising prices led to bloody unrest in Vienna and even a shooting in parliament (the bullets just missed Stürgkh), whereafter Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria appointed him Austrian Minister-President (Prime Minister) on 3 November 1911. He went on to rule the Cisleithanian lands autocratically: On 16 March 1914 he used the continuous filibustering in parliament to indefinitely adjourn the convenings of the Imperial Council and to pass laws by emergency decrees. This \"de facto\" elimination of the legislature turned out to be fatal in the following July Crisis, when upon the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria the deputies were not able to interact with the government on the way to World War I.  Stürgkh together with Foreign Minister Leopold Berchtold and Chief-of-Staff Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf advocated a preventive strike against Serbia, mainly for internal reasons, in order to defy Pan-Slavism in the Bohemian, Carniolan and Croatian crown lands. After the declaration of war on 28 July, Stürgkh implemented a harsh censorship and kept refusing to convoke the parliament.  He served as Prime Minister until he was shot and killed by Friedrich Adler, son of the Social Democratic party chairman Victor Adler, while having lunch in the Meissl & Schadn Hotel's dining room. Adler's action was a protest against Stürgkh's government without the legislature. Emperor Franz Joseph appointed Ernest von Koerber his successor, one of his last official acts, as he died four weeks later. Adler was sentenced to death, pardoned by Emperor Charles I and finally amnestied after the war.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl von Stürgkh (30 October 1859 – 21 October 1916) was an Austrian politician and Minister-President of Cisleithania during the 1914 July Crisis that led to the outbreak of World War I. He was shot and killed by the Social Democratic politician Friedrich Adler.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974972}
{"src_title": "Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Louise was the daughter of Guillaume de Penancoët, Seigneur de Kéroualle (d. 1690) and his wife (married on 27 February 1645) Marie de Ploeuc de Timeur (d. January 1709), paternal granddaughter of René de Penancoët, Seigneur de Kéroualle et Villeneuve, and his wife (married on 12 October 1602) Julienne Emery du Pont-l'Abbé, Dame du Chef du Bois, and maternal granddaughter of Sébastien de Ploeuc, Marquis de Timeur, and his wife (married on 8 January 1617) Marie de Rieux (d. 1628). The name Kéroualle was derived from an heiress whom an ancestor François de Penhoët had married in 1330.  The Kérouaille family were nobles in Brittany, and their name was so spelt by themselves. The form \"Quérouaille\" was commonly used in England. All are derivations of the original Breton name Kerouazle, which is the most common form in Brittany.  Louise had a sister, Henriette Mauricette de Penancoët de Kérouaille, who married firstly in 1674 Philip Herbert, 7th Earl of Pembroke and secondly in 1685 Jean-Timoléon Gouffier, Marquis de Thais. Her paternal aunt, Suzanne de Penancoët married Claude Le Veyer; their daughter Catherine became the matriarch of the Breton noble family de Saisy de Kerampuil of Carhaix, Brittany. Her maternal aunt Renée Mauricette de Ploeuc de Timeur married Donatien de Maillé, Marquis de Carman (d. 1652).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mistress to Charles II.", "content": "Louise was early introduced to the household of Henrietta Anne Stuart, Duchess of Orléans, sister of Charles II of Great Britain, and sister-in-law of Louis XIV of France. Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, asserts that her family threw her in the way of Louis XIV in the hope that she would become a royal mistress. In 1670, she accompanied Henrietta on a visit to Charles II at Dover. The sudden death of Henrietta left her unprovided for, but Charles II appointed her as a lady-in-waiting to his own queen, Catherine of Braganza. Unlike her predecessor Barbara Palmer, who had openly insulted the Queen, Louise was careful to show her every respect, and relations between the two women were never less than amicable.  It was later said that Louise had been selected by the French court to fascinate Charles II, but for this there seems to be no evidence. Yet when there appeared a prospect that Charles would show her favour, the intrigue was vigorously pushed by the French ambassador, Colbert de Croissy, who was aided by the secretary of state Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington, and his wife.  Louise, who concealed great cleverness and a strong will under an appearance of languor and a rather childlike beauty (diarist John Evelyn speaks of her \"baby face\"), yielded only when she had already established a strong hold on Charles' affections and character. Her son Charles (1672–1723) was created Duke of Richmond in 1675.  The support Louise received from the French envoy was given on the understanding that she should serve the interests of her native sovereign. The bargain was confirmed by gifts and honours from Louis XIV and was loyally carried out by Louise. However, she was much disliked by the people in England. Louis gave her a pair of earrings worth the astonishing sum of eighteen thousand pounds, his most expensive gift to England that year and certainly more lavish than anything he had ever given Charles' queen.  However, the hatred openly avowed for her in England was due as much to her own activity in the interest of France as to her notorious promiscuity. Nell Gwynne, another of Charles' mistresses, called her \"Squintabella\", and when mistaken for her, replied, \"Pray good people be civil, I am the \"Protestant\" whore.\"  The titles of Baroness Petersfield, Countess of Fareham and Duchess of Portsmouth were granted to her for life on 19 August 1673. Her pensions and money allowances of various kinds were enormous. In 1681 alone she received £136,000. The French court gave her frequent presents, and in December 1673 conferred upon her the title \"Duchess of Aubigny\" in the Peerage of France at the request of Charles II.  At about this time Louise was instrumental in bringing to Charles II's attention a young Frenchman who proposed a solution to the longitude problem. While the Frenchman's proposal was ineffective, it led Charles to establish the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and appoint John Flamsteed as Astronomer Royal.  Louise's thorough understanding of Charles' character enabled her to retain her hold on him to the end. She contrived to escape uninjured during the crisis of the \"Popish Plot\" in 1678: she found an unexpected ally in Queen Catherine, who was grateful for the kindness and consideration which Louise had always shown her. She was strong enough to maintain her position during a long illness in 1677 and in spite of a visit to France in 1682. One of Charles' nicknames for her was 'Fubbs', meaning plump or chubby. This female form was much in vogue at the time, and in 1682 the royal yacht HMY \"Fubbs\" – in reference to Louise's nickname – was built. In February 1685, she assisted in measures to see that Charles II was received into the Catholic Church on his deathbed. That Charles was truly attached to her is shown by his dying instruction to his brother to \"do well by Portsmouth\", making her one of three women in his life, along with the Queen and Nell Gwynne, who were in his thoughts at the end.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After Charles II's death.", "content": "Soon after the death of Charles II, Louise quickly fell from favour. She retired to France, where, except for one short visit to England during the reign of James II and her attendance at the Coronation of George I, she remained. Her attendance at George I's coronation was remarked upon by the Countess of Dorchester when they met the Countess of Orkney (\"we three whores\"). Between them, they had been in turn the maîtresse en titre for successive kings for over 20 years. Her pensions and a grant on the Irish revenue given her by Charles II were lost either in the reign of James II or at the Revolution of 1688.  During her last years, she lived at Aubigny and was harassed by debt. The French king Louis XIV and, after his death, the regent Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, gave her a pension and protected her against her creditors. Louise died in Paris on 14 November 1734, aged 85.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louise Renée de Penancoët de Kéroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth (5 September 1649 – 14 November 1734) was a mistress of Charles II of England.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974973}
{"src_title": "Magnolia × soulangeana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Hybrid origin.", "content": "\"Magnolia\" × \"soulangeana\" was initially bred by French plantsman Étienne Soulange-Bodin (1774–1846), a retired cavalry officer in Napoleon's army, at his château de Fromont near Paris. He crossed \"Magnolia denudata\" with \"M. liliiflora\" in 1820, and was impressed with the resulting progeny's first precocious flowering in 1826.  From France, the hybrid quickly entered cultivation in England and other parts of Europe, and also North America. Since then, plant breeders in many countries have continued to develop this plant, and over a hundred named horticultural varieties (cultivars) are now known.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Growing as a multistemmed large shrub or small tree, \"Magnolia\" × \"soulangeana\" has alternate, simple, shiny, dark green oval-shaped leaves on stout stems. Its flowers emerge dramatically on a bare tree in early spring, with the deciduous leaves expanding shortly thereafter, lasting through summer until autumn.  \"Magnolia\" × \"soulangeana\" flowers are large, commonly 10–20 cm (4–8 in) across, and colored various shades of white, pink, and maroon. An American variety, 'Grace McDade' from Alabama, is reported to bear the largest flowers, with a 35 cm (14 in) diameter, white tinged with pinkish-purple. Another variety, \"Magnolia\" × \"soulangeana\" 'Jurmag1', is supposed to have the darkest and tightest flowers. The exact timing and length of flowering varies between named varieties, as does the shape of the flower. Some are globular, others a cup-and-saucer shape.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Magnolia\" × \"soulangeana\" is notable for its ease of cultivation, and its relative tolerance to wind and alkaline soils (two vulnerabilities of many other magnolias). The cultivar 'Brozzonii' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Magnolia\" × \"soulangeana, the saucer magnolia, is a hybrid plant in the genus \"Magnolia\" and family Magnoliaceae. It is a deciduous tree with large, early-blooming flowers in various shades of white, pink, and purple. It is one of the most commonly used magnolias in horticulture, being widely planted in the British Isles, especially in the south of England; and in the United States, especially the east and west coasts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974974}
{"src_title": "Prussian Blue (duo)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In an interview with \"Vice Magazine\", the twins stated, \"Part of our heritage is German American. Also our eyes are blue, and Prussian Blue is just a really pretty color.\" They also remarked, \"there is also the discussion of the lack of 'Prussian Blue' coloring (Zyklon B residue) in the so-called gas chambers in the concentration camps. We think it might make people question some of the inaccuracies of the 'Holocaust' myth.\" This is a reference to claims made by many Holocaust deniers that the Holocaust either did not happen or had far fewer victims than generally believed.  Lynx and Lamb Gaede first performed together by singing at a white nationalist festival called \"Eurofest\" in 2001. They began learning how to play instruments in 2002 (Lamb plays the guitar and Lynx plays the violin). In the same year they appeared on a VH1 special called \"Inside Hate Rock\". In 2003, they were featured in a Louis Theroux BBC documentary, entitled \"Louis and the Nazis\", on racism and white supremacy in the United States. Lamb, Lynx, and their mother, April Gaede, also appeared in the low-budget 2003 horror film \"Dark Walker\".  The twins recorded and released a debut CD at the end of 2004 called \"Fragment of the Future\" (Resistance Records) which had both acoustic folk-rock and bubblegum-pop sounds. A year later, they recorded their second album, \"The Path We Chose\", which has a more traditional rock sound including both acoustic and electric guitar. Most of the songs on the second album lack the racial and white supremacist overtones of \"Fragment of the Future\" and are about more mainstream subject matter, like boys, crushes, and dating. On October 20, 2005, Prussian Blue was featured in a critical segment on ABC's \"Primetime\". A DVD, \"Blonde Hair Blue Eyes\", featuring three music videos and some live performances, was released in 2005. The pair toured the United States in 2005. On August 22, 2006, they were again featured in a critical segment on ABC's \"Primetime\".  The twins moved with their mother and stepfather, Mark Harrington, and their younger half-sister, Dresden, from Bakersfield to Kalispell in Montana, in 2006; in their mother's words, Bakersfield was \"not white enough.\" Some of their new neighbors did not welcome them; many city residents passed out flyers warning people of the family's views, and signs proclaiming \"No Hate Here\" appeared on some windows around the town. Some of the people who passed out flyers received threatening letters from members of out-of-state white supremacist organizations. The Montana Human Rights Network planned a rally in Kalispell to protest against the family's racist views.  The twins toured Europe in the summer of 2007, performing at events for white nationalist organizations. They also appeared as guests on \"The Political Cesspool\". But as of early 2009, the band's website and MySpace page were no longer operational.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideology.", "content": "The duo had strong ties to the National Vanguard organization, a \"white nationalist\" group formed by disaffected former members of the National Alliance. Their ideology has been described as racist and white supremacist by mainstream media outlets. \"The Daily Telegraph\" reported that, on stage, the twins executed Nazi salutes.  According to ABC News, the girls were homeschooled by their mother, April Gaede, an activist and writer for the white nationalist organization National Vanguard. The twins' maternal grandfather, who lives in Squaw Valley, Fresno County, California, wears a Nazi swastika belt buckle; he also features the swastika on his truck and has registered it as a cattle brand. During their ABC interview, the twins said they believed that Adolf Hitler was a great man with good ideas, and they described the Holocaust as being exaggerated. They have also been criticized for stipulating that the goods they donated to Hurricane Katrina victims should only go to white people: \"After a day of trying, the supplies ended up with few takers, dumped at a local shop that sells Confederate memorabilia.\"  A 2011 profile in \"The Daily\" describes the twins' rejection of some of their previous politics:  But after enrolling in public school and moving to Montana — a predominantly white state, albeit one with a decidedly hippie-ish vibe — Lamb and Lynx decided they simply no longer believed what they'd been taught....\"I'm glad we were in the band,\" Lynx said, \"but I think we should have been pushed toward something a little more mainstream and easier for us to handle than being front-men for a belief system that we didn't even completely understand at that time. We were little kids.  Despite this, they still made statements that were skeptical about elements of the Holocaust.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lyrics and influences.", "content": "About half of the songs on Prussian Blue's first album are covers of other songs put out by other white pride bands with one (Lamb Near the Lane) co-written by David Lane and a few of the others by Ian Stuart Donaldson and Ken McLellan. One of their infamous cover songs, \"Victory Day\", was a cover song from the racist band RaHoWa. Two of Prussian Blue's songs on their first album are dedicated to famous German Nazi and white nationalist activists, including Rudolf Hess and Robert Jay Mathews. One of those songs, dedicated to Donaldson, Mathews, Hess, and William L. Pierce, which was written by Lamb, is \"Sacrifice\".  Another song, \"Gone With the Breeze,\" is dedicated to Mathews. The cover songs on their album invoke ideas like Valhalla and Vinland, taken from Norse mythology and sagas. Several songs, including \"Victory Day,\" refer to a holy war waged under the banner of Creativity.  The lyrics to their song \"The Stranger\" are taken from a Rudyard Kipling poem of the same name.  Prussian Blue also released a cover of a song called \"Ocean of Warriors\" in mp3 format, dedicated to white participants in the 2005 Sydney, Australia race rioting.  In 2006, a compilation album was released through the far right National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD) titled \"For The Fatherland\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "Prussian Blue appeared in two British television documentaries. The first, 2003's \"Louis and the Nazis\" by documentary maker Louis Theroux, was an account of white nationalists, including Prussian Blue. The second, \"Nazi Pop Twins\", by James Quinn, was first aired in 2007. This documentary stressed the tension that existed between the twins and their mother, April. In this documentary, Lynx and Lamb disavowed their mother's race-related views and said that they want to perform music that was not focused on race. Lynx told Quinn that they wore the infamous T-shirts bearing a smiley face that resembled Adolf Hitler because she believed they \"were a joke\" and said that \"being proud of being white\" did not mean she was a racist. Louis Theroux revisited the twins and their mother to collect material for his book \"Call of the Weird\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End of white nationalist politics.", "content": "A 2012 article in the UK newspaper \"The Daily Mirror\" reported that the girls hold more liberal views than the politics they promoted through their music in their early teens. The twins support the legalization of marijuana. While the article characterized them as \"laid-back liberals celebrating the joys of ethnic diversity\" and speculates if the twins' use of marijuana was part of their change of politics from white nationalism to apolitical whereas a blog belonging to one of the girls says the changes are not due to any usage of cannabis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prussian Blue was an American white nationalist, Neo-Nazi pop duo formed of Lynx Vaughan Gaede and Lamb Lennon Gaede, fraternal twins born on June 30, 1992, in Bakersfield, California. The duo Prussian Blue was formed in early 2003 by their mother April Gaede, who now goes by April Harrington. The twins referred to the Holocaust as a myth and promoted Holocaust denial and their group was described as racist and white supremacist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974975}
{"src_title": "Yemen Arab Republic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 after the Great War, northern Yemen became an independent state as the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. On 27 September 1962, revolutionaries inspired by the Arab nationalist ideology of United Arab Republic (Egyptian) President Gamal Abdel Nasser deposed the newly crowned King Muhammad al-Badr, took control of Sanaʽa, and established the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR). This coup d'état marked the beginning of the North Yemen Civil War that pitted YAR troops, assisted by the United Arab Republic (Egypt), against Badr's royalist forces, supported by Saudi Arabia and Jordan. Conflict continued periodically until 1967, when Egyptian troops were withdrawn to join the conflict of the Six-Day War. By 1968, following a final royalist siege of Sanaʽa, most of the opposing leaders reached a reconciliation. Saudi Arabia recognized the Republic in 1970.  Unlike East and West Germany or North and South Korea, the YAR and its southern neighbor, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY), also known as South Yemen, remained relatively friendly, though relations were often strained. Following the Yemenite War of 1972, the two nations declared that unification would eventually occur. However, these plans were put on hold due to the Yemenite War of 1979, and war was stopped only by an Arab League intervention. The goal of unity was reaffirmed by the northern and southern heads of state during a summit meeting in Kuwait in March 1979.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unification.", "content": "In May 1988, the YAR and PDRY governments came to an understanding that considerably reduced tensions. They agreed to renew discussions concerning unification, to establish a joint oil exploration area along their undefined border, to demilitarize the border, and to allow Yemenis unrestricted border passage on the basis of a national identification card.  Official Yemeni unification took place on May 22, 1990, with a planned, 30-month process, scheduled for completion in November 1992. The first stamp bearing the inscription \"Yemen Republic\" was issued in October 1990. While government ministries proceeded to merge, both currencies remained valid until 11 June 1996. A civil war in 1994 delayed the completion of the final merger.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Yemen Arab Republic (YAR; '), also known as North Yemen or Yemen (Sanaʽa)\"', was a country from 1962 to 1990 in the western part of what is now Yemen. Its capital was at Sanaʽa. It united with the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (commonly known as South Yemen), on May 22, 1990, to form the current Republic of Yemen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974976}
{"src_title": "Schmitz Cargobull", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Company history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Founding and expansion.", "content": "The company has its origins in the year 1892. The company's founder, Heinrich Schmitz, began to construct wagons at the family's forge located in Altenberge near Münster. The forge's new business first began to gain headway at the end of the 1920s as a result of increasing motorisation. During this time the company transformed from a craftsman's business into an industrial vehicle manufacturer. The first motor vehicle trailer equipped with solid rubber tyres was delivered in 1928. From 1935 onward semi-trailers and box vehicles with a steel exterior on a wooden frame were manufactured. In 1950 Schmitz Cargobull produced its first insulated and refrigerated body.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Expansion, crises and reorientation.", "content": "The company continued to expand during the 1960s and especially after the first oil crisis at the beginning of the 1970s when large-scale orders from the Near East increased the speed of the company's growth. The beginning of the Iran–Iraq War put an end to the orders from Arabian countries in the 1980s and Schmitz Cargobull underwent a crisis.  The political reforms in Eastern Europe and the German Reunification provided the company with new momentum until the company experienced another decline in orders in the middle of the 1990s. This resulted in a rigorous transformation of the production: The product range was restricted to 4 basic types, the number of required parts heavily reduced, the production and delivery times shortened and the labour cost ratio reduced.  In March 1999 the company's stock market launch was withdrawn due to poor demand for the shares. Since then no further plans for another stock market launch have been made. In the 2004/2005 business year Schmitz Cargobull declared a turnover of more than 1 billion euros (1.21 bil euros, 36,000 vehicles produced) for the first time. The turnover had doubled within five years and 1,500 new employees had been hired.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Current business development.", "content": "In the 2007/2008 business year the company achieved a turnover of more than 2 billion euros (2.14 bil euros, 66,500 vehicles produced) for the first time. The level of incoming orders decreased drastically as a result of the financial crisis. The turnover for the 2009/2010 business year decreased by 70% to 660 million euros (12,800 vehicles produced). Yet in the 2010/2011 business yearly turnover once again exceeded the billion threshold and is currently 1.5 billion euros. In November 2012 a joint-venture contract was signed with the Chinese Dongfeng Motor Company, Ltd. The collaboration intends to produce semi-trailers for the Chinese market. In April 2013 Schmitz Cargobull announced its plans to open a new production facility in Russia to the south of St Petersburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Products and services.", "content": "Schmitz Cargobull's product range consists of: Schmitz Cargobull offers the following services through its subsidiaries:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Schmitz Cargobull in Great Britain.", "content": "In 1991 Schmitz Cargobull took over a production facility for refrigerated vehicles (York Thermostar) in Harelaw, County Durham. The Harelaw plant was modernised and equipped with flexible production lines for manufacturing box vehicles and curtainsiders. Production ceased in July 2010 as a result of the drastic decrease in turnover in England due to the worldwide financial crisis. The plant in Harelaw was shut down in 2011. After the end of 2010 and during 2011, in particular, the order situation in Great Britain stabilised and Schmitz Cargobull saw renewed success on the British trailer market. The head office of Schmitz Cargobull (UK) Ltd. is located in Warrington, Cheshire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Locations.", "content": "The majority of the production is carried out in Germany and is marketed internationally. The primary sales markets consist of Western, Northern, Central and Eastern Europe as well as the Asia-Pacific, Near and Middle East. The company maintains production sites in Germany in Altenberge, Vreden, Gotha, Berlin and Toddin and also in other European countries in Saragossa (Spain), Panevėžys (Lithuania) and St Petersburg (Russia). An additional production facility opened in Wuhan (China) in 2014. Schmitz Cargobull is represented in all European countries with its own sales branches and sales partners and maintains a network of approximately 1,200 authorised workshops throughout Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brand.", "content": "The Schmitz Cargobull brand name with the blue elephant as its trademark was introduced at the end of the 1980s. Up until that time the company operated under the name Schmitz-Anhänger Fahrzeugbau GmbH and Co. KG.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Schmitz Cargobull AG is a German manufacturer of semi-trailers, trailers and truck bodies. The company's head office is located in Horstmar, Germany, and its registered office is in the neighbouring city of Altenberge in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The family-owned company had 6,500 employees in the 2018/2019 business year and generated a turnover of 2.290 billion euros. It is thus the market leader in Europe. The families of Dr. Heinz Schmitz, Peter Schmitz and Bernd Hoffmann hold equal shares in the company.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974977}
{"src_title": "Clouded Apollo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Its range of distribution extends from the Pyrenees, across the Central Massif, the Alps, and the Carpathians as far as central Asia. It inhabits all European countries including Norway, where it appears rarely and only in certain places. A subspecies lived in Denmark, but is now extinct. A great number of geographical races and individual forms are distinguished in this extensive region. The most striking specimens include the dark race from the eastern Bavarian Alps (subspecies \"hartmanni\"); form \"melania\" has the most pronounced dark colouring.  The paper of Dr. I.N. Bolotov and colleagues (2013) summarizes data on the northern localities of \"Parnassius mnemosyne\", which are mostly situated in the Russian Federation and gives a thorough description of the species' northern range location. It is shown that the northernmost populations in the exist within the karst landscapes in the north of White Sea-Kuloi Plateau (between 65°35' and 66°03' N) in the downstream of the Soyana and Kuloi rivers and in the north of Timan Highland (66°10' N) along the shore of Kosminskoe Lake (the Pechora River basin). Northern limits of the clouded Apollo's range appear to be strongly determined by the distribution of its larval host plants (primarily \"Corydalis solida\" and the role of climate and relief seem to be of minor importance. Many Russian populations inhabit the state nature reserve territories: Kizgi Scerries Reserve (Karelia Republic), Pinega and Soyansky reserves (Arkhangelsk Oblast), Pechoro-Ilychsky and Belaja Kedva reserves (Komi Republic).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habits.", "content": "The clouded Apollo is locally common in some places in central Europe. The female lays whitish eggs with a granular surface. The caterpillar feeds only on sunny days, otherwise it is hidden under leaves or stones. The blunt-ended chrysalis lies on the ground in a light spun covering. The caterpillars feed exclusively on \"Corydalis\" species. To prevent the continuing disappearance of this butterfly from many places in central Europe, it is now protected in some regions. They inhabit small patches and individuals move from patch to patch and conservation of a network of patches is required to maintain the gene pool.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The species was named in the classical tradition for Mnemosyne the mother of the nine Muses", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "partial list  For a list of subspecies types in the British Museum (Natural History), see Ackery, P. R. (1973) \"A list of the type-specimens of \"Parnassius\" (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in the British Museum (Natural History)\". \"Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology\" 29 (1) (9.XI.1973): 1—35, 1 pl. online here", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The clouded Apollo (\"Parnassius mnemosyne\") is a butterfly species of the family of swallowtail butterflies (Papilionidae) found in the Palearctic ecozone.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974978}
{"src_title": "Bali tiger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomic history.", "content": "In 1912, the German zoologist Ernst Schwarz described a skin and a skull of an adult female tiger in the Senckenberg Museum collection, that had originated in Bali. He named it \"Felis tigris balica\" and argued that it is distinct from the Javan tiger by its brighter fur colour and smaller skull with narrower zygomatic arches. In 1969, the distinctiveness of the Bali tiger was questioned, since morphological analysis of several tiger skulls from Bali revealed that size variation is similar to Javan tiger skulls. Hue and striping pattern of fur neither differs significantly.  In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy, and now recognizes the extinct Bali and Javan tiger populations, as well as the Sumatran tiger population as \"P. t. sondaica\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Bali tiger was described as the smallest tiger in the Sunda islands. In the 20th century, only seven skins and skulls of tigers from Bali were known to be preserved in museum collections. The common feature of these skulls is the narrow occipital plane, which is analogous with the shape of tiger skulls from Java. Skins of males measured between the pegs are long from head to end of tail; those of females. The weight of males ranged from, and of females from.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and ecology.", "content": "Most of the known Bali tiger zoological specimens originated in western Bali, where mangrove forests, dunes and savannah vegetation existed. The main prey of the Bali tiger was likely Javan rusa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extirpation.", "content": "At the end of the 19th century, palm plantations and irrigated rice fields were established foremost on Bali‘s rich volcanic northern slopes and the alluvial strip around the island. Tiger hunting started after the Dutch gained control over Bali. During the Dutch colonial period, hunting trips were conducted by European sportsmen coming from Java, who had a romantic but disastrous Victorian hunting mentality and were equipped with high-powered rifles. The preferred method of hunting tigers was to catch them with a large, heavy steel foot trap hidden under bait, a goat or a muntjac, and then shoot them at close range. Surabayan gunmaker E. Munaut is confirmed to have killed over 20 tigers in only a few years. In 1941, the first game reserve, today's West Bali National Park, was established in western Bali, but too late to save Bali‘s tiger population from extinction. It was probably eliminated by the end of World War II. A few tigers may have survived until the 1950s, but no specimen reached museum collections after the war.  A few tiger skulls, skins and bones are preserved in museums. The British Museum in London has the largest collection, with two skins and three skulls; others include the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt, the Naturkunde Museum in Stuttgart, the Naturalis museum in Leiden and the Zoological Museum of Bogor, Indonesia, which owns the remnants of the last known Bali tiger. In 1997, a skull emerged in the old collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum and was scientifically studied and properly documented.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural significance.", "content": "The tiger had a well-defined position in Balinese folkloric beliefs and magic. It is mentioned in folk tales and depicted in traditional arts, as in the \"Kamasan\" paintings of the Klungkung kingdom. The Balinese considered the ground powder of tiger whiskers to be a potent and undetectable poison for one's foe. A Balinese baby was given a protective amulet necklace with black coral and \"a tiger's tooth or a piece of tiger bone\". The traditional Balinese \"Barong\" dance preserves a figure with the mask of a tiger called \"Barong Macan\".  Balinese people are fond of wearing tiger parts as jewelry for status or spiritual reasons, such as power and protection. Necklaces of teeth and claws or male rings cabochoned with polished tiger tooth ivory still exist in everyday use. Since the tiger has disappeared on both Bali and neighboring Java, old parts have been recycled, or leopard and sun bear body parts have been used instead.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bali tiger was a \"Panthera tigris sondaica\" population, which lived in the Indonesian island of Bali. This population has been extinct since the 1950s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974979}
{"src_title": "Nakajima Ki-27", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1935, the Imperial Japanese Army held a competition between Nakajima, Mitsubishi, and Kawasaki to design a low-wing monoplane to replace the Kawasaki Ki-10 (Army Type 95 Fighter) biplane. The new fighter was to have also a better performance than the experimental Mitsubishi Ki-18.  The results were the Nakajima Ki-27, the Kawasaki Ki-28, and the Mitsubishi Ki-33 (a modification of the Mitsubishi A5M carrier-based fighter). The Nakajima design was based on its earlier Ki-11 monoplane fighter which lost to the Ki-10 in the Type 95 Fighter competition. When the follow-up Nakajima Ki-12 proposal with a liquid-cooled engine and retractable landing gear was deemed too complex by the Japanese officials, the Ki-27 was designed by Koyama Yasushi to have an air-cooled radial engine and fixed landing gear. The aircraft had the Nakajima trademark wing with a straight leading edge and tapered trailing edge which would reappear again on the Ki-43, Ki-44, and Ki-84.  The Ki-27 made its first flight on 15 October 1936. Although it had a slower top speed and worse climb performance than its competitors, the Army chose the Nakajima design for its outstanding turning ability granted by its remarkably low wing loading. The Army ordered 10 pre-production samples (Ki-27a) for further testing, which featured an enclosed cockpit with sliding canopy and larger wings.  The type was officially accepted into service in 1937 as the Army Type 97 Fighter. In addition to Nakajima, the Ki-27 was also manufactured by Tachikawa Aircraft Company Ltd and Manshukoku Hikoki Seizo KK, with a total of 3,368 built before production ended in 1942.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Ki-27 was the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force's main fighter until the start of World War II. When placed into combat service over northern China in March 1938, the Ki-27 enjoyed air superiority until the introduction of the faster Soviet-built Polikarpov I-16 fighters by the Chinese.  In the 1939 Battle of Khalkhin Gol against the USSR in Mongolia, the Ki-27 faced both Polikarpov I-15 biplane and Polikarpov I-16 monoplane fighters. In the initial phase of the conflict, its performance was a match for the early model I-16s, and was considerably superior to the I-15 biplane. With better trained Ki-27 pilots, the IJAAF gained aerial superiority. The Ki-27 was armed with two 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 89 machine guns and as with most aircraft of the period, lacked armor protection for the pilot and self-sealing or fire suppression in the fuel tanks.  Later, the Soviet Air Force received improved I-16s. The faster, more heavily armed (with twin wing-mounted 20mm ShVAK cannons) and armored I-16 now nullified the Ki-27's advantages and it could now escape from the Ki-27 in a dive. The VVS introduced new tactics consisting of flying in large tightly knit formations, attacking with altitude and/or speed advantage and hit-and-run (high-energy) tactics much as Claire Chennault would later formulate for the 1941-era Flying Tigers (likewise to fly against Japanese forces).  Japanese losses mounted but despite this they claimed 1,340 aircraft (six times the admitted Soviet losses and three times as many as Soviet aircraft admitted to being in the theatre). Japanese losses numbered 120 (including Ki-10s) while the Russians claimed 215 vs. a peak Japanese strength of 200 fighters. (Overclaiming remained commonplace through World War Two, despite gun cameras and expert intelligence assessments.) Top scoring pilot of the incident and top scoring IJAAF pilot on the Ki-27 and overall World War II IJAAF ace was Warrant Officer Hiromichi Shinohara, who claimed 58 Soviet planes (including an IJAAF record of 11 in one day) whilst flying Ki-27s, only to be shot down himself by a number of I-16s on 27 August 1939.  The preference of Japanese fighter pilots for the Ki-27's high rate of turn caused the Army to focus excessively on manoeuvrability, a decision which later handicapped the development of faster and more heavily armed fighters. The Ki-27 served until the beginning of World War II in the Pacific, escorting bombers attacking Malaya, Singapore, Netherlands East Indies, Burma and the Philippines (where it initially fared poorly against the Brewster F2A Buffalo).  The type also saw extensive action against the American Volunteer Group in the early months of the war. Soon outclassed by the American Curtiss P-40 Warhawks, the Ki-27 was replaced in front line service by the Nakajima Ki-43, while surviving examples continued to serve as a trainer.  The Ki-27 was also exported for use with Manchukuo and Thai armed forces, seeing combat with both. In Thai service, Ki-27s reportedly damaged two North American P-51 Mustangs and shot down one Lockheed P-38 Lightning.  In the final months of the war, desperate lack of aircraft forced the Japanese to utilize all available machines and the Ki-27 and 79 were no exception. Some were equipped with up to of explosives for \"kamikaze\" attacks, but some were redeployed as fighters, suffering terrible losses as on 16 February 1945 when the 39th Educational Flight Regiment scrambled 16 Ki-79 trainers from Yokoshiba Airfield to oppose a massive air raid from U.S. Task Force 58 carrier group, losing six aircraft with more damaged and five pilots killed, in return damaging at least one Hellcat and possibly downing a second.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "Data from", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "Two aircraft survive today:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The was the main fighter aircraft used by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force up until 1940. Its Allied nickname was \"Nate\", although it was called \"Abdul\" in the \"China Burma India\" (CBI) theater by many post war sources; Allied Intelligence had reserved that name for the nonexistent Mitsubishi Navy Type 97 fighter, expected to be the successor to the carrier-borne Type 96 (Mitsubishi A5M) with retractable landing gear and an enclosed cockpit.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974980}
{"src_title": "John Adams Whipple", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Whipple was born in Grafton, Massachusetts, to Jonathan and Melinda (Grout) Whipple. While a boy he was an ardent student of chemistry, and on the introduction of the daguerreotype process into the United States (1839–1840) he was the first to manufacture the necessary chemicals. His health having become impaired through this work, he devoted his attention to photography. He made his first daguerreotype in the winter of 1840, \"using a sun-glass for a lens, a candle box for a camera, and the handle of a silver spoon as a substitute for a plate.\" Over time he became a prominent daguerreotype portraitist in Boston. In addition to making portraits for the Whipple and Black studio, Whipple photographed important buildings in and around Boston, including the house occupied by General George Washington in 1775 and 1776 (photographed circa 1855, now in the Smithsonian).  Whipple married Elizabeth Mann (1819-1891) on May 12, 1847 in Boston.  Between 1847 and 1852 Whipple and astronomer William Cranch Bond, director of the Harvard College Observatory, used Harvard's Great Refractor telescope to produce images of the moon that are remarkable in their clarity of detail and aesthetic power. This was the largest telescope in the world at that time, and their images of the moon took the prize for technical excellence in photography at the great 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition in London.  On the night of July 16–17, 1850, Whipple and Bond made the first daguerreotype of a star (Vega). In 1863, Whipple used electric lights to take night photographs of Boston Common.  Whipple was as prolific as an inventor as a photographer. He invented crayon daguerreotypes and crystallotypes (daguerreotypes on glass). With his partner or assistant, William Breed Jones, he developed the process for making paper prints from glass albumen negatives (crystallotypes). His American patents include Patent Number 6,056, the \"Crayon Daguerreotype\"; Patent Number 7,458, the \"Crystallotype\" (Credit shared with William B. Jones).  Whipple died suddenly, of pneumonia, on April 10, 1891 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was buried at Westborough, Worcester Co., Massachusetts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Adams Whipple (September 10, 1822 – April 10, 1891) was an American inventor and early photographer. He was the first in the United States to manufacture the chemicals used for daguerreotypes; he pioneered astronomical and night photography; he was a prize-winner for his extraordinary early photographs of the moon; and he was the first to produce images of stars other than the sun (the star Vega and the Mizar-Alcor stellar sextuple system, which was thought to be a double star until 2009.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974981}
{"src_title": "Hong River", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Red River begins in China's Yunnan province in the mountains south of Dali. It flows generally southeastward, passing through Dai ethnic minority areas before leaving China through Yunnan's Honghe Autonomous Prefecture. It enters Vietnam at Lào Cai Province and forms a portion of the international border between China and Vietnam. The river, known as Thao River for this upper stretch, continues its southeasterly course through northwestern Vietnam before emerging from the mountains to reach the midlands. Its main tributaries, the Black River (Da River) and Lô River join in to form the very broad Hồng near Việt Trì, Phú Thọ Province. Downstream from Việt Trì, the river and its many distributaries spread out to form the Red River Delta. The Red River flows past the Vietnamese capital Hanoi before emptying into the Gulf of Tonkin.  The reddish-brown heavily silt-laden water gives the river its name. The Red River is notorious for its violent floods with its seasonally wide volume fluctuations. The delta is a major agricultural area of Vietnam with vast area devoted to rice. The land is protected by an elaborate network of dikes and levees.  The Black River and Lô River are the Red River's two chief tributaries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a travel and transportation route.", "content": "In the 19th century, the Red River was thought to be a lucrative trade route to China. The late 19th-century French explorers were able to travel up the Red River until Manhao in South Yunnan, and then overland toward Kunming.  The Red River remained the main commercial travel route between the French Indochina and Yunnan until the opening of the Kunming–Haiphong Railway in 1910. Although French steamers would be able to go as far upstream as Lao Cai during the rainy season, during the dry season (November to April) steamship would not go upstream of Yên Bái; thus, during that part of the year goods were moved by small vessels (junks).  Thanks to the river, Haiphong was in the early 20th century the sea port most easily accessible from Kunming. Still, the travel time between Haiphong and Kunming was reckoned by the Western authorities at 28 days: it involved 16 days of travel by steamer and then a small boat up the Red River to Manhao (425 miles), and then 12 days overland (194 miles) to Kunming.  Manhao was considered the head of navigation for the smallest vessels (\"wupan\" 五版); so Yunnan's products such as tin would be brought to Manhao by pack mules, where they would be loaded to boats to be sent downstream.  On the Manhao to Lao Cai section, where the current may be quite fast, especially during the freshet season, traveling upstream in an \"wupan\" was much more difficult than downstream. According to one report, one could descend from Manhao to Lao Cai in just 10 hours, while sailing in the reverse direction could take 10 days, and sometimes as much as one month.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dams.", "content": "A number of hydroelectric dams have been constructed on the Red River in Yunnan:  Many more dams exist on the Red River's tributaries, both in Yunnan and in Vietnam. One of the earliest of them is the Thác Bà Dam in Vietnam, constructed in 1972, which forms the Thác Bà Lake.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hong River (; ), also known as the Red River, the and ( \"Mother River\") in Vietnamese, and the (, \"\" Nguyên Giang) in Chinese, is a river that flows from Yunnan in Southwest China through northern Vietnam to the Gulf of Tonkin. According to C. Michael Hogan, the associated Red River Fault was instrumental in forming the entire South China Sea at least as early as 37 million years before present.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974982}
{"src_title": "Christoph Waltz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Waltz was born on 4 October 1956 in Vienna, Austria, the son of Johannes Waltz, a German set designer, and Elisabeth Urbancic, an Austrian costume designer. Waltz comes from a family of theatrical heritage: his maternal grandmother was Burgtheater and silent film actress Maria Mayen, and his step-grandfather, Emmerich Reimers, and his great-grandfather, Georg Reimers, were both stage actors who also appeared in silent films. Waltz's maternal grandfather, Rudolf von Urban, was a psychiatrist and a student of Sigmund Freud.  Waltz's father died when he was seven years old, and his mother later married composer and conductor Alexander Steinbrecher. Steinbrecher was previously married to the mother of director Michael Haneke; as a result, Waltz and Haneke shared the same stepfather.  Waltz had a passion for opera as a youth, having seen his first opera (\"Turandot\" with Birgit Nilsson in the title role) at around the age of ten. As a teenager, Waltz would visit the opera twice a week. He was uninterested in theatre, and had wished to become an opera singer.  After graduating from Vienna's Theresianum, Waltz went to study acting at the renowned Max Reinhardt Seminar. At the same time, he also studied singing and opera at the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna, but eventually decided that his voice was not good enough for an opera career. In the late 1970s, Waltz spent some time in New York City where he trained with Lee Strasberg and Stella Adler. He studied script interpretation under Adler, and credits his analytical approach to her teaching.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "On his return to Europe, Waltz found work as a stage actor, making his debut at the Schauspielhaus in Zurich. He also performed in Vienna, Salzburg, Cologne and Hamburg. He became a prolific television actor in the years 1980 to 2000. In 2000, he made his directorial debut, with the German television production \"Wenn man sich traut\". Before coming to the attention of a larger audience in Tarantino's \"Inglourious Basterds\", he had played Dr. Hans-Joachim Dorfmann in the British TV series \"The Gravy Train\" in 1990. The show is a story of intrigue and misdeeds set in the offices of the European Union in Brussels.  In Quentin Tarantino's 2009 film \"Inglourious Basterds\", Waltz portrayed SS-Standartenführer Hans Landa, also known as \"The Jew Hunter\". Clever, courteous, multilingual—but also self-serving, cunning, implacable and murderous—the character of Landa was such that Tarantino feared he \"might have written a part that was un-playable\". Waltz received the Best Actor Award for the performance at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival and received acclaim from critics and the public. In 2009, he began sweeping critics' awards circuits, receiving awards for Best Supporting Actor from the New York Film Critics Circle, the Boston Society of Film Critics, Los Angeles Film Critics Association, and for Best Supporting Actor at the 67th Golden Globe Awards and the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards in January 2010.  The following month, he won the BAFTA for Best Supporting Actor, and won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Tarantino acknowledged the importance of Waltz to his film by stating: \"I think that Landa is one of the best characters I've ever written and ever will write, and Christoph played it to a tee. It's true that if I couldn't have found someone as good as Christoph I might not have made \"Inglourious Basterds\"\".  Waltz played gangster Benjamin Chudnofsky in \"The Green Hornet\" (2011); that same year, he starred in \"Water for Elephants\" and Roman Polanski's \"Carnage\". He played German bounty hunter Dr. King Schultz in Quentin Tarantino's \"Django Unchained\" (2012), a role Tarantino wrote specifically for Waltz. During a training accident prior to filming, Waltz injured his pelvis. His role garnered him acclaim once again, with Waltz winning the Golden Globe, the BAFTA, and ultimately the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.  Waltz has been cast as the former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the film \"Reykjavik\", based on the 1986 peace talks between the United States and USSR. In April 2013, he was selected as a member of the main competition jury at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival. He directed a production of the opera Der Rosenkavalier at the Vlaamse Opera, in Antwerp in late 2013, and in Ghent early 2014. In 2014, he was selected as a member of the jury for the 64th Berlin International Film Festival. He starred as Walter Keane in Tim Burton's \"Big Eyes\", which opened on 25 December 2014, and appeared as Ernst Stavro Blofeld in \"Spectre\", the 24th film in the \"James Bond\" franchise. In July 2019, it was reported that Waltz would reprise the role in \"No Time to Die\" (2020).  In 2015, it was announced that Waltz would direct and star in the film \"Georgetown\" (formerly titled \"The Worst Marriage in Georgetown\"), which is based on the true crime story of the murder of Viola Drath. In July 2016, he portrayed lead villain Captain Leon Rom, a corrupt Belgian captain, in the reboot \"The Legend of Tarzan\".  In 2017, Waltz appeared in the films \"Tulip Fever\" and \"Downsizing\". In 2019, Waltz appeared in the action fantasy \"\". He directed a production of the opera Falstaff, again at the Vlaamse Opera, in Antwerp in late 2017, and in Ghent in early 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Waltz has three children with his former wife, Jackie, a psychotherapist originally from New York. The two lived in London and their marriage lasted 17 years. Waltz married his second wife, German costume designer Judith Holste, with whom he has a daughter. They divide their time between Berlin and Los Angeles.  Waltz's native language is German, and he also speaks both English and French fluently. He speaks all three of these in \"Inglourious Basterds\" and \"Django Unchained\", and although his character in \"Inglourious Basterds\" also spoke Italian, Waltz said on the \"Adam Carolla Podcast\" that he is not fluent in Italian.  Waltz was born in Vienna to a German father who applied for him to become a citizen of Germany after his birth. He received Austrian citizenship in 2010, thus holding citizenships of both Austria and Germany, but considers his German passport a \"legal, citizenship law banality\" despite the fact that he had not previously been able to vote in Austria's national elections. Asked whether he felt Viennese, he responded: \"I was born in Vienna, grew up in Vienna, went to school in Vienna, graduated in Vienna, studied in Vienna, started acting in Vienna – and there would be a few further Viennese links. How much more Austrian do you want it?\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christoph Waltz (; born 4 October 1956) is a German-Austrian actor and director, since 2009 mainly active in the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974983}
{"src_title": "Louis Alexandre, Count of Toulouse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born at the Château de Clagny in Versailles, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon was the third son and youngest child of Louis XIV born out-of-wedlock with Madame de Montespan. At birth, he was put in the care of Madame de Montchevreuil along with his older sister Françoise-Marie de Bourbon.  Louis Alexandre was created Count of Toulouse in 1681 at the time of his legitimation, and, in 1683, at the age of five, grand admiral. In February 1684, he became colonel of an infantry regiment named after him and in 1693 \"mestre de camp\" of a cavalry regiment. During the War of Spanish Succession, he was given the task of defending Sicily. In January 1689, he was named governor of Guyenne, a title which he exchanged for that of governor of Brittany six years later. On 3 January 1696, he was created a marshal of France, becoming commander of the royal armies the following year. During the War of the Spanish Succession he commanded the French fleet at the Battle of Vélez-Málaga in 1704.  Though his father had legitimated him and his three surviving siblings, and even declared his two sons by Madame de Montespan fit to eventually succeed him to the throne of France, this was not to be, as immediately after Louis XIV's death the Parlement of Paris reversed the king's will.  Unlike his brother, Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine, who was barred from the regency council, Toulouse was not kept from a political role, and soon after, he was named (minister of the Navy), inheriting a seasoned staff headed by Joseph Pellerin. He remained in this capacity until being succeeded by Joseph Fleuriau d'Armenonville in 1722, the same Fleuriau d'Armenonville who had sold him the castle of Rambouillet in 1706.  The proposal of his marriage to Charlotte de Lorraine, \"Mademoiselle d'Armagnac\", member of a cadet branch of the House of Guise had met with the categorical refusal of Louis XIV.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 2 February 1723, the comte de Toulouse married Marie Victoire de Noailles, a daughter of the Anne Jules, duc de Noailles, in a private ceremony in Paris. She was the widow of Louis de Pardaillan de Gondrin (1688-1712), his nephew, son of his half-brother Louis Antoine de Pardaillan de Gondrin, whose mother was \"Madame de Montespan\". The marriage was kept secret until the death of the regent. The couple had one son:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Court.", "content": "He and his sisters tried to avoid the court and the intrigues of their brother, the duc du Maine, and his wife Anne Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon, the duchess, at the Château de Sceaux.  Shortly before his death in 1715, Louis XIV added a codicil to his will stating that if all legitimate members of the House of Bourbon, both those descended from Louis and more distant kinsmen, died out, the throne of France could be inherited by the duc du Maine and the comte de Toulouse. The decision was reversed after the death of Louis XIV when Louis Alexandre's cousin, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, as the new regent, had the \"Parlement de Paris\" void that portion of the will.  The comte de Toulouse died at the Château de Rambouillet on 1 December 1737. He was buried in the village 12th century Saint-Lubin church. On 30 September 1766, the countess died at the Hôtel de Toulouse, the Parisian mansion not far from the Louvre which the count had bought from Phélypeaux, marquis de La Vrillière, in 1712. She too was buried in the family crypt in the Rambouillet church.  Upon the count's death, the duc de Penthièvre, succeeded his father in his posts and titles. Because of the marriage of \"Mademoisellle de Penthièvre\" to Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the comte de Toulouse is an ancestor of the modern House of Orléans, which also descends from Toulouse's two surviving full sisters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, \"comte de Toulouse\" (1681), \"duc de Penthièvre\" (1697), (1711), (6 June 1678 – 1 December 1737), a legitimated prince of the blood royal, was the son of Louis XIV and of his mistress Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan. At the age of five, he became grand admiral of France\" (Grand Admiral of France).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974984}
{"src_title": "Jared Padalecki", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Padalecki was born in San Antonio, Texas, to Gerald and Sherri Padalecki. His father is of Polish descent, while his mother has German, Scottish, French, and English ancestry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "He was a 2000 candidate for the Presidential Scholars Program. In 1998, Padalecki and his partner Chris Cardenas won the National Forensic League national championship in Duo Interpretation. Although he had originally planned to attend the University of Texas after graduating from high school in 2000, Jared decided to move Los Angeles County, California instead to pursue an acting career.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Padalecki won Fox Broadcasting's 1999 \"Claim to Fame Contest\"; he subsequently appeared at the Teen Choice Awards, where he met an agent. His first role was a minor role in the 1999 film \"A Little Inside\". In 2000, he was cast as Dean Forester on the television series \"Gilmore Girls\", a role he played until 2005. Throughout the early 2000s, he appeared in several made-for-television films, including \"Silent Witness\", \"Close to Home\", and the Disney Channel Original Movie \"A Ring of Endless Light\".  Padalecki had an uncredited role as a high school bully in 2003's comedy \"Cheaper by the Dozen\", which he played after being asked by fellow actor and friend Tom Welling, who played Charlie Baker, and the director of the movie, who wanted someone larger than Charlie to pick on him. Padalecki originally auditioned for Welling's role, but gave it up in order to film a pilot titled \"Young MacGyver\" which was never picked up.  In 2004, he appeared in the Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen comedy \"New York Minute\" as Trey Lipton, a cute boy to whom the Olsens' characters are attracted. He also landed a short role in the thriller \"Flight of the Phoenix\" alongside Dennis Quaid and Hugh Laurie. In 2005, Padalecki starred opposite Elisha Cuthbert, Chad Michael Murray, and Paris Hilton in \"House of Wax\" as Wade. In 2005, he appeared in \"Cry Wolf\", another horror film, as Tom.  That same year, Padalecki was cast as Sam Winchester on the WB series, \"Supernatural\". Sam and his brother Dean (Jensen Ackles) drive throughout the United States hunting paranormal predators, fighting demons and angels, and dealing with all manner of fantasy & sci-fi genre. The show is currently in its fourteenth season on the CW. It owns the title of the longest-running North American sci-fi series in history. The series was renewed for its fifteenth and final season in January 2019.  In 2007, Jared served as the host of MTV's horror reality series, \"Room 401\", which was discontinued after only eight episodes due to poor ratings.  He had the lead role in 2008's \"The Christmas Cottage\" as Thomas Kinkade, alongside acclaimed actor Peter O'Toole.  He also had the lead role in the 2009 version of \"Friday the 13th\" as Clay Miller, a character who heads out to Camp Crystal Lake in search of his sister who has gone missing.  On September 23, 2019, it was announced that Padalecki was cast as the titular role in a reboot series of \"Walker, Texas Ranger\", which is currently in development at The CW. The reboot was ordered to series in January, 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Padalecki's engagement to his \"Supernatural\" co-star Genevieve Cortese was announced in January 2010. They met when Cortese guest starred as Ruby on the show's fourth season. Padalecki proposed to her in front of their favorite painting, \"Joan of Arc\", by French realist Jules Bastien-Lepage at New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art in October 2009. The pair married on February 27, 2010, in Cortese's hometown of Sun Valley, Idaho. On October 10, 2011, the couple announced that they were expecting their first child together. Their son, Thomas Colton Padalecki, was born on March 19, 2012. On December 22, 2013, Cortese gave birth to their second son, Austin Shepherd \"Shep\" Padalecki. Their daughter, Odette Elliott Padalecki, was born on March 17, 2017. The couple resides in Austin, Texas with their three children.  Padalecki and \"Supernatural\" co-stars Jensen Ackles and Misha Collins supported Beto O'Rourke for the 2018 Senate election in Texas.  Padalecki is the owner of Stereotype, a '90s-themed bar in Austin, Texas, which opened in 2018. On October 27, 2019, Padalecki was arrested and charged with assault and public intoxication following a physical altercation at the bar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Always Keep Fighting.", "content": "In March 2015, Padalecki launched his \"Always Keep Fighting\" campaign through Represent.com. His first campaign raised funds for To Write Love On Her Arms, which supports people struggling with depression, addiction, self-injury, and suicide. The cause is particularly close to Padalecki, who has been candid about his own struggles with depression. For the second campaign in the \"Always Keep Fighting\" series in April 2015, Padalecki partnered with co-star Jensen Ackles to release a shirt featuring both of their faces, to benefit their newly formed joint charitable fund. Over 70,000 shirts were sold. Most recently, Padalecki launched a third campaign selling a further 40,000 shirts.  During San Diego Comic-Con 2015, more than 6,000 fans surprised Padalecki at the \"Supernatural\" panel by holding up candles for him, after having revealed his battle with depression earlier in the year.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jared Tristan Padalecki (born July 19, 1982) is an American actor. He is best known for playing the role of Sam Winchester in the TV series \"Supernatural\". He grew up in Texas and rose to fame in the early 2000s after appearing on the television series \"Gilmore Girls\" as well as the films \"New York Minute\" (2004) and \"House of Wax\" (2005).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974985}
{"src_title": "Thai massage", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Practice.", "content": "The practice of Thai Yoga Massage is said to be thousands of years old but it is still part of Thailand's medical system due to its perceived healing properties at both emotional and physical level. There are differences in certain practices associated with the massage when performed in the Western and Thai contexts. Western cultural sensibilities might be different in terms of accepting shamanic healing practices such as increasing the intensity of the massage or the giver jumping around the massage table like the Hindu god Hanuman. Traditional Thai massage uses no oils or lotions. The recipient remains clothed during a treatment. There is constant body contact between the giver and receiver, but rather than rubbing on muscles, the body is compressed, pulled, stretched and rocked. The concept of metta (loving kindness), based on Bhuddist teachings, is an integral part of this practice. Well known practitioners also emphasize meditation and devotion on part of the practitioner as integral to the effectiveness of this practice.  The recipient wears loose, comfortable clothing and lies on a mat or firm mattress on the floor. In Thailand, a dozen or so subjects may be receiving massage simultaneously in one large room. The true ancient style of the massage requires that the massage be performed solo with just the giver and receiver. The receiver will be positioned in a variety of yoga-like positions during the course of the massage, that is also combined with deep static and rhythmic pressures.  The massage generally follows designated lines (\"sen\") in the body. The legs and feet of the giver can be used to position the body or limbs of the recipient. In other positions, hands fix the body, while the feet do the massaging. A full Thai massage session may last two hours and includes rhythmic pressing and stretching of the entire body. This may include pulling fingers, toes, ears, cracking knuckles, walking on the recipient's back, and moving the recipient's body into many different positions. There is a standard procedure and rhythm to the massage, which the giver will adjust to fit the receiver.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The founder of Thai massage and medicine is said to have been Chiwaka Komaraphat (ชีวกโกมารภัจจ์ Jīvaka Komarabhācca), who is said in the Pāli Buddhist canon to have been the Buddha's physician over 2,500 years ago. He is recorded in ancient documents as having extraordinary medical skills, his knowledge of herbal medicine, and for having treated important people of his day, including the Buddha himself.  In fact, the history of Thai massage is more complex than this legend of a single founder would suggest. Thai massage, like Thai traditional medicine (TTM) more generally, is a combination of influences from Indian, Chinese, Southeast Asian cultural spheres, and traditions of medicine, and the art as it is practiced today is likely to be the product of a 19th-century synthesis of various healing traditions from all over the kingdom. Even today, there is considerable variation from region to region across Thailand, and no single routine or theoretical framework that is universally accepted among healers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Training.", "content": "A licensed, traditional massage practitioner is required to complete at least 800 hours training. Massage therapists must acquire a professional license and must register at the Public Health Ministry's Department of Health Service Support (HSS). To qualify for a license, therapists must be trained in courses created by the HSS. The standard courses are provided free. Alternatively, students can go to one of the 181 schools nationwide approved to train therapists using standard HSS courses.  Wat Pho, the center of Thai medicine and massage for centuries, opened the Wat Pho Thai Traditional Medical and Massage School in 1955 on the temple grounds, the first such school approved by the Thai Ministry of Education. Wat Pho offers four basic courses of Thai medicine: Thai massage, Thai midwife-nurse, Thai pharmacy, and Thai medical practice.  Thai massage is also taught and practiced in other countries. Some schools have merged the course material to include understanding of clinical approach like chiropractic adjustment, posture assessment along with energy balance to give a complete understanding of Thaiyoga bodywork. This trend has led to opening new schools in Europe, India and Nepal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effectiveness.", "content": "All types of massage, including Thai massage, can help people relax, temporarily relieve muscle and / or joint pain, and temporarily boost a person's mood. However, many practitioners' claims go far beyond those effects well demonstrated by clinical study. Some clinicians dispute its efficacy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dangers.", "content": "According to the Thai Public Health Ministry, massage can be dangerous for women at different stages of pregnancy. A physician at the Department of Thai Traditional and Alternative Medicine cautioned that women in their first trimester \"should avoid massage because it may lead to miscarriage,\" Those who are more than six months into their pregnancy should \"also be cautious about getting a massage.\" The warnings came on the heels of a case where a pregnant 25 year-old suffered a miscarriage and fell into a coma while getting a foot massage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Massage and sex services.", "content": "Massage is big business in Thailand. It is regulated by the Public Health Ministry. The Commerce and Tourism and Sports Ministries have set a target of 20 billion baht per year to be generated by the spa business, but only 500 of the 2,000 spas nationwide are legally registered with the authorities. The legal difference between a \"spa\" and a \"massage parlour\" is unclear. The Federation of Thai Spa Associations (FTSPA) in 2016 urged authorities to clamp down on sexual services being offered at some massage parlours. The FTSPA maintains that influential figures have used legal loopholes to open \"pretty spas\" or massage parlours where tourists can buy sexual services.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thai massage or Thai yoga massage is a traditional healing system combining acupressure, Indian Ayurvedic principles, and assisted yoga postures. The idea of Shen-lines \"alias\" energy-lines was first used is \"Thai yoga massage\". These are similar to \"nadis\" as per the phylosophy of yoga by Gorakhnath.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974986}
{"src_title": "Yusef Lateef", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Lateef was born in Chattanooga, Tennessee. His family moved, in 1923, to Lorain, Ohio, and again in 1925, to Detroit, Michigan, where his father changed the family's name to \"Evans\".  Throughout his early life Lateef came into contact with many Detroit-based jazz musicians who went on to gain prominence, including vibraphonist Milt Jackson, bassist Paul Chambers, drummer Elvin Jones and guitarist Kenny Burrell. Lateef was a proficient saxophonist by the time of his graduation from high school at the age of 18, when he launched his professional career and began touring with a number of swing bands. The first instrument he bought was an alto saxophone but after a year he switched to the tenor saxophone, influenced by the playing of Lester Young.  In 1949, he was invited by Dizzy Gillespie to tour with his orchestra. In 1950, Lateef returned to Detroit and began his studies in composition and flute at Wayne State University.  It was during this period that he converted to Islam as a member of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and changed his name. He twice made the pilgrimage to Mecca.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prominence.", "content": "Lateef began recording as a leader in 1957 for Savoy Records, a non-exclusive association which continued until 1959; the earliest of Lateef's album's for the Prestige subsidiary New Jazz overlap with them. Musicians such as Wilbur Harden (trumpet, flugelhorn), bassist Herman Wright, drummer Frank Gant, and pianist Hugh Lawson were among his collaborators during this period.  By 1961, with the recording of \"Into Something\" and \"Eastern Sounds\", Lateef's dominant presence within a group context had emerged. His \"Eastern\" influences are clearly audible in all of these recordings, with spots for instruments like the rahab, shanai, arghul, koto and a collection of Chinese wooden flutes and bells along with his tenor and flute. Even his use of the western oboe sounds exotic in this context; it is not a standard jazz instrument. Indeed, the tunes themselves are a mixture of jazz standards, blues and film music usually performed with a piano/bass/drums rhythm section in support. Lateef made numerous contributions to other people's albums including his time as a member of saxophonist Cannonball Adderley's Quintet during 1962–64.  In the late 1960s he began to incorporate contemporary soul and gospel phrasing into his music, still with a strong blues underlay, on albums such as \"Detroit\" and \"Hush'n'Thunder\". Lateef expressed a dislike of the terms \"jazz\" and \"jazz musician\" as musical generalizations. As is so often the case with such generalizations, the use of these terms do understate the breadth of his sound. For example, in the 1980s, Lateef experimented with new-age and spiritual elements.  In 1960, Lateef again returned to school, studying flute at the Manhattan School of Music in New York City. He received a bachelor's degree in music in 1969 and a master's degree in music education in 1970. Starting in 1971, he taught courses in \"autophysiopsychic music\" at the Manhattan School of Music, and he became an associate professor at the Borough of Manhattan Community College in 1972.  In 1975, Lateef completed his dissertation on Western and Islamic education and earned an Ed.D. in education from the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In the early 1980s, Lateef was a senior research fellow at the Center for Nigerian Cultural Studies at Ahmadu Bello University in the city of Zaria, Nigeria. Returning to the US in 1986, he took a joint teaching position at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Hampshire College.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "His 1987 album \"Yusef Lateef's Little Symphony\" won the Grammy Award for Best New Age Album. His core influences, however, were clearly rooted in jazz, and in his own words: \"My music is jazz.\"  In 1992, Lateef founded YAL Records. In 1993, Lateef was commissioned by the WDR Radio Orchestra Cologne to compose \"The African American Epic Suite\", a four-part work for orchestra and quartet based on themes of slavery and disfranchisement in the United States. The piece has since been performed by the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra and the Detroit Symphony Orchestra.  In 2005, Nicolas Humbert & Werner Penzel, directors of \"Step Across The Border\", filmed Brother Yusef, in his wooden house in the middle of a forest in Massachusetts. In 2010 he received the lifetime Jazz Master Fellowship Award from the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), an independent federal agency. Established in 1982, the National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Masters award is the highest honor given in jazz.  Manhattan School of Music, where Lateef had earned a bachelor's and a master's degree, awarded him its Distinguished Alumni Award in 2012.  Lateef's last albums were recorded for Adam Rudolph's \"Meta Records\". To the end of his life, he continued to teach at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Hampshire College in western Massachusetts. Lateef died on the morning of December 23, 2013, at the age of 93, survived by his son, Yusef Lateef and his wife, Ayesha Lateef.  Following his death, Lateef's family auctioned off many of his instruments, in the hopes that they would continue to be played. Woodwind player Jeff Coffin purchased Lateef's main tenor saxophone as well as his bass flute.  On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Yusef Lateef among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Lateef said what he remembered most about his childhood was \"My passion for nature.\"  In 1980, Lateef declared that he would no longer perform any place where alcohol was served. In 1999 he said “Too much blood, sweat and tears have been spilled creating this music to play it where people are smoking, drinking and talking.\"  Lateef's first wife, Tahira, died before him, as did a son and a daughter. He was survived by his wife, Ayesha; a son, Yusef; a granddaughter; and several great-grandchildren.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yusef Abdul Lateef (born William Emanuel Huddleston; October 9, 1920 – December 23, 2013) was an American jazz multi-instrumentalist, composer, and prominent figure among the Ahmadiyya Community in America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974987}
{"src_title": "Triangulation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Applications.", "content": "Optical 3D measuring systems use this principle to determine the spatial dimensions and the geometry of an item. Basically, the configuration consists of two sensors observing the item. One of the sensors is typically a digital camera device, and the other one can also be a camera or a light projector. The projection centers of the sensors and the considered point on the object's surface define a (spatial) triangle. Within this triangle, the distance between the sensors is the base \"b\" and must be known. By determining the angles between the projection rays of the sensors and the basis, the intersection point, and thus the 3D coordinate, is calculated from the triangular relations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Triangulation today is used for many purposes, including surveying, navigation, metrology, astrometry, binocular vision, model rocketry and, in the military, the gun direction, the trajectory and distribution of fire power of weapons.  The use of triangles to estimate distances dates to antiquity. In the 6th century BC, about 250 years prior to the establishment of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the Greek philosopher Thales is recorded as using similar triangles to estimate the height of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. He measured the length of the pyramids' shadows and that of his own at the same moment, and compared the ratios to his height (intercept theorem). Thales also estimated the distances to ships at sea as seen from a clifftop by measuring the horizontal distance traversed by the line-of-sight for a known fall, and scaling up to the height of the whole cliff. Such techniques would have been familiar to the ancient Egyptians. Problem 57 of the Rhind papyrus, a thousand years earlier, defines the \"seqt\" or \"seked\" as the ratio of the run to the rise of a slope, \"i.e.\" the reciprocal of gradients as measured today. The slopes and angles were measured using a sighting rod that the Greeks called a \"dioptra\", the forerunner of the Arabic alidade. A detailed contemporary collection of constructions for the determination of lengths from a distance using this instrument is known, the \"Dioptra\" of Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD), which survived in Arabic translation; but the knowledge became lost in Europe until in 1615 Snellius, after the work of Eratosthenes, reworked the technique for an attempt to measure the circumference of the earth. In China, Pei Xiu (224–271) identified \"measuring right angles and acute angles\" as the fifth of his six principles for accurate map-making, necessary to accurately establish distances, while Liu Hui (c. 263) gives a version of the calculation above, for measuring perpendicular distances to inaccessible places.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In trigonometry and geometry, triangulation is the process of determining the location of a point by forming triangles to it from known points.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974988}
{"src_title": "Udaloy-class destroyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Project 1155 dates to the 1970s when it was concluded that it was too costly to build large-displacement, multi-role combatants. The concept of a specialized surface ship was developed by Soviet designers. Two different types of warships were laid down which were designed by the Severnoye Design Bureau: Project 956 destroyer and Project 1155 large anti-submarine ship. The \"Udaloy\" class are generally considered the Soviet equivalent of the American s. There are variations in SAM and air search radar among units of the class. Based on the, the emphasis on anti-submarine warfare (ASW) left these ships with limited anti-surface and anti-air capabilities.  In 2015, the Russian Navy announced that five out of the eight Project 1155 ships will be refurbished and upgraded as part of the Navy modernization program by 2022. In addition to overhauling their radio-electronic warfare and life support systems, they will receive modern missile complexes to fire P-800 Oniks and Kalibr cruise missiles. The ships are to have their service life extended by 30 years until sufficient numbers of s are commissioned. Upgrades will include replacing the Rastrub-B Silex missiles with 3S-24 angling launchers fitted with four 3S-34 containers using the 3M-24/SS-N-25 Switchblade anti-ship missile, and two 3S-14-1155 universal VLS with 16 cells for Kalibr land attack, anti-ship, and anti-submarine cruise missiles in place of one of the AK-100 guns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Udaloy II.", "content": "Following \"Udaloy\"s commissioning, designers began developing an upgrade package in 1982 to provide more balanced capabilities with a greater emphasis on anti-shipping. The Project 1155.1 Fregat II Class Large ASW Ship (NATO Codename Udaloy II) is roughly the counterpart of the Improved \"Spruance\" class; only one was originally completed, but in 2006 \"Admiral Kharlamov\" was reported to have been upgraded to a similar standard. In April 2010 Severnaya Verf shipyard announced that the destroyer \"Vice-Admiral Kulakov\", which had been retired in 1990, was being upgraded to Udaloy II standard and has since resumed patrolling in 2013.  Similar to \"Udaloy\" externally, it was a new configuration replacing the SS-N-14 with SS-N-22 \"Sunburn\" (Moskit) anti-ship missiles, a twin 130 mm gun, UDAV-1 anti-torpedo rockets, and gun/SAM CIWS systems. A standoff ASW capability is retained by firing SS-N-15 missiles from the torpedo tubes.  Powered by a modern gas turbine engine, the Udaloy II is equipped with more capable sonars, an integrated air defense fire control system, and a number of digital electronic systems based on state-of-the-art circuitry. The original MGK-355 Polinom integrated sonar system (with NATO reporting names Horse Jaw and Horse Tail respectively for the hull mounted and towed portions) on \"Udaloy\"-I ships is replaced by its successor, a newly designed Zvezda M-2 sonar system that has a range in excess of in the 2nd convergence zone. The Zvezda sonar system is considered by its designers to be the equivalent in terms of overall performance of the AN/SQS-53 on US destroyers, though much bulkier and heavier than its American counterpart: the length of the hull mounted portion is nearly 30 meters. The torpedo approaching warning function of the Polinom sonar system is retained and further improved by its successor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "In 2008 became the first Russian warship to transit the Panama Canal since World War II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Udaloy\" class, Russian designations Project 1155 \"Fregat and Project 11551 \"Fregat-M\" (, 'Fregat' meaning Frigate), are series of anti-submarine guided missile destroyers built for the Soviet Navy, seven of which are currently in service with the Russian Navy. Twelve ships were built between 1980 and 1991, while the thirteenth ship built to a modified design, known as \"Udaloy II\" class, followed in 1999. They complement the Sovremennyy-class destroyers in anti-aircraft and anti-surface warfare operations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974989}
{"src_title": "Cathedral of St Peter, Bautzen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Churches.", "content": "The first church was built around the 1000 AD. Near the beginning of the 13th century, a cathedral was built under the supervision of Bishop Bruno II. The Bishop established the Catholic priest foundation at this time as well. This first cathedral was not specifically the Cathedral of St. Peter, as both John the Baptist and St. Peter were the patron saints for the church.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern Cathedral.", "content": "Between 1456 and 1463, the cathedral that now stands was constructed and named after St. Peter. A fourth nave was added to the original structure.  A fire decimated much of the city and church in 1634, and the church required a new vault and significant restoration work. The entire interior of the church, with the exception of the original Gothic-style which can still be seen today.  Various cities came to Bautzen to help rebuild the city and Cathedral. Names of many Germanic cities are written on the lintels in the church to commemorate the rebuilding of the cathedral.  The church is a mixture of several different architectural styles, the most prominent being Gothic and Baroque. The early church was entirely a Gothic structure, but it has since been heavily modified. Today, only parts of the interior are Gothic in nature. The Baroque dome was added to the tower in 1664.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Simultaneum Era.", "content": "In 1523, an Evangelical Lutheran started preaching in the church. Since 1530, both Catholics and Lutherans have shared the building. A 4-meter (12 ft) tall screen separated the sanctuary. In 1567 the Holy See separated the Lusatian areas outside Saxony from the Saxon parts of the ancient Meissen diocese and established there the Prefecture Apostolic of Meissen, seated at St. Peter's of Bautzen, with Johannes Leisentritt as its first prefect. In canon law an apostolic prefecture is a diocese on approval.  According to its location and its seat the prefecture used to be called alternatively the \"Apostolic Prefecture of the Two Lusatias\" (Upper and Lower Lusatia) or \"Apostolic Prefecture of Bautzen\". In 1583, the dean of the cathedral, Leisentrit, ordered that a contract be made between the two sects defining when each would be able to use the cathedral, among other details. This contract is still in effect today and has been only interrupted a few times in history, such as the Bohemian Uprising of 1620 that expelled the Catholics from the building for a short time.  On 24 June 1921 Pope Benedict XV elevated the \"Apostolic Prefecture of Meißen\" to the new Diocese of Meißen by his apostolic constitution \"Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum\" and thus St. Peter's became the cathedral of that diocese. The 1743-founded \"Apostolic Vicariate in the Saxon Hereditary Lands\" was dissolved and its area and institutions integrated into the new Meißen diocese in 1921. In 1980 the seat of the diocese was moved to Dresden, leading the diocese to be renamed Dresden-Meissen, and St. Peter's becoming the co-cathedral, besides the Trinity Cathedral in Dresden.  Today, Catholic and Lutheran altars are located on separate sides of the sanctuary. The Catholic high-altar was built in 1723. It was designed by a student of Balthasar Permoser, the same man that designed the Zwinger in Dresden. The altar murals were painted by the Venetian painter Pellegrini.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "St. Peter's Cathedral is an interdenominational church in Bautzen, Germany. It is among the oldest and largest simultaneum churches in Germany. Located in the heart of the city's \"Old Town\", the church and the square it is situated within is a major tourist attraction.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974990}
{"src_title": "Rudolf I, Duke of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Rudolf was born in Basel, the son of Duke Louis II, Duke of Upper Bavaria and his third wife Matilda of Habsburg, a daughter of King Rudolf I of Germany. Since the 1255 partition of the Wittelsbach territories, his father ruled over the Electoral Palatinate and Upper Bavaria with his residence at Alter Hof in Munich and Heidelberg Castle, while his younger brother Duke Henry XIII ruled over the lands of Lower Bavaria.  As the eldest surviving son, Rudolf succeeded his father as Duke of Upper Bavaria upon his death in February 1294. In September he married Mechtild of Nassau, daughter of King Adolf of Germany, thereby continuing the marriage politics of his father. However, King Adolf dashed the Princes' expectations and in 1298 was declared deposed in favour of late King Rudolf's son and heir Duke Albert of Austria. In the Battle of Göllheim, Rudolf supported his father-in-law Adolf against his maternal uncle Albert. The Habsburg duke won the fight, while the king was killed in battle.  Albert was elected on 27 July 1298 and Rudolf then joined the Habsburg party, however, the strong dynastic policy of the new king caused led to a resurgence of the Wittelsbach dynastic conflicts. In 1301 King Albert put pressure on Rudolf to accept his ambitious younger brother Louis IV, the future Holy Roman Emperor, as co-regent. He broke Rudolf's remaining resistance by laying siege to his Heidelberg residence in 1301.  After Albert's assassination in 1308, both Rudolf and Louis hoped to become his successor. Nevertheless, the Princes around the mighty Archbishop of Mainz, Peter von Aspelt, arranged the candidacy of the Luxembourg count Henry VII. In the election on 27 November Rudolf voted for Henry. In 1310 he accompanied the new king on his campaign to Italy. However, he had to terminate his participation when upon the death of Duke Stephen I of Bavaria new disputes on the partition of the Wittelsbach lands and the electoral dignity between Rudolf and Louis IV culminated in a civil war.  Finally on 21 June 1313, peace between the brothers was made at Munich: while Rudolf retained the Electoral Palatinate, the treaty provided Louis with the opportunity to secure his election as German king when Henry of Luxembourg died on 24 August. Much to the annoyance of his brother, Louis was able to defeat his Habsburg rival Frederick the Fair at the Battle of Gammelsdorf on 9 November. After the renunciation of Henry's son King John of Bohemia, he finally was elected King of the Romans in Frankfurt on 20 October 1314 – against the vote of his envious brother Rudolf, who supported Frederick of Habsburg.  In the following throne quarrel with the Habsburgs, Rudolf was attacked by his brother in both Bavaria and the Palatinate. Put on the defensive, Rudolf in 1317 agreed to give up his rule in favour of Louis, until the conflict with the Habsburg rival was ended. According to the Renaissance historian Johannes Aventinus (1477–1534), Rudolf proceeded to England where he died two years later. He later received the epithet \"the Stammerer\" due to his many desperate fights against his capable younger brother.  Louis IV, crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1328, by the 1329 Treaty of Pavia granted the Electoral Palatinate to late Rudolf's sons Rudolf II the Blind and Rupert I and Rudolf's grandson Rupert II, a son of Adolf. This way finally Rudolf I and his grandson Rupert II became the ancestors of the elder (Palatinate) line of the Wittelsbach dynasty, which returned to power also in Bavaria in 1777 after the extinction of the younger (Bavarian) line, the descendants of Louis IV.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and children.", "content": "Rudolf was married on 1 September 1294 in the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg to Mechtild of Nassau, daughter of King Adolf of Germany. The couple had the following children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudolf I of Bavaria, called \"the Stammerer\" (; 4 October 1274 – 12 August 1319), a member of the Wittelsbach dynasty, was Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine from 1294 until 1317.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974991}
{"src_title": "Baldwin I, Margrave of Flanders", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Elopement with princess.", "content": "At the time Baldwin first appears in the records he was already a count, presumably in the area of Flanders, but this is not known. Count Baldwin rose to prominence when he eloped with Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, king of West Francia. Judith had previously been married to Æthelwulf and Æthelbald, kings of Wessex, but after the latter's death in 860, she returned to France.  Around the Christmas of 861, at the instigation of Baldwin and with her brother Louis's consent, Judith escaped the custody into which she had been placed in the city of Senlis, Oise after her return from England. She fled north with Count Baldwin. Charles had given no permission for a marriage and tried to capture Baldwin, sending letters to Rorik of Dorestad and Bishop Hungar, forbidding them to shelter the fugitive. After Baldwin and Judith had evaded his attempts to capture them, Charles had his bishops excommunicate the couple. Judith and Baldwin responded by travelling to Rome to plead their case with Pope Nicholas I. Their plea was successful and Charles was forced to accept the situation. The marriage took place on 13 December 862 in Auxerre. By 870, Baldwin had acquired the lay-abbacy of Saint Peter's Abbey in Ghent and is assumed to have also acquired the counties of Flanders and Waasland, or parts thereof by this time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Baldwin I and Judith had four children:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Baldwin developed himself as a very faithful and stout supporter of Charles and played an important role in the continuing wars against the Vikings. He is named in 877 as one of those willing to support the emperor's son, Louis the Stammerer. During his life, Baldwin expanded his territory into one of the major principalities of Western Francia. He died in 879 and was buried in the Abbey of St-Bertin, near Saint-Omer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baldwin I (probably 830s – 879), also known as Baldwin Iron Arm (the epithet is first recorded in the 12th century), was the first margrave of Flanders.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974992}
{"src_title": "Spyker F1", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Although created in 2006, the team's roots can be traced back to the year, when it was founded as Jordan Grand Prix. The Silverstone-based squad and facilities were bought by the Midland group in 2005 and renamed Midland F1 in 2006, before being sold to Spyker Cars towards the end of the 2006 season.  Rumours had been floating about in the paddock throughout the mid-season about the possible sale of the team, less than two years after Alex Shnaider originally bought it from Eddie Jordan. Reports suggested a price tag of $128m, and that Shnaider was seriously considering the possibility of the sale. Formula One teams had become more valuable, because no more teams could enter after 2008, with the maximum of 12 places already filled.  On 9 September 2006, it was revealed that the team was sold to Spyker Cars, a Dutch manufacturer of hand-built cars. Spyker paid $106.6 million for the team. On 10 September, ITV commentators said that both Shnaider and former consultant Johnny Herbert were no longer involved in the team since the announcement of the sale.  Former Midland drivers Christijan Albers and Tiago Monteiro were retained for the remaining part of the 2006 season, while it was also confirmed at Spyker's debut race in China that Albers would be staying with the successor team for the 2007 season. As part of the purchase of Midland by Spyker, the cars had a revised livery for the final three races of 2006. The name of the team also changed to Spyker MF1 Racing, as FIA regulations preclude a change of a team's name during a season but do allow for a sponsor name to be added to the front.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2007 season.", "content": "The previous team boss of Midland, Colin Kolles, remained as team principal into 2007. Michiel Mol became the new Director of F1 racing and member of the Spyker board, and Mike Gascoyne became the Chief Technology Officer from the end of the 2006 season. The team used customer 2006-spec Ferrari engines in 2007, replacing the Toyota units, which went to the Williams team. Although the team remained based in the UK, it chose to register under the Dutch motor racing authority and therefore run under the Dutch flag during 2007, reflecting its new ownership.  For the second race driver, Spyker signed one of their 2006 third drivers, Adrian Sutil, to drive for the team in 2007. The official FIA entry list for 2007 was posted on various websites on 4 December 2006, and on the list the Spyker F1 Team was assigned car numbers 20 and 21, but only Christijan Albers' name was made official on the entry list, with the second seat, and car number 21 left TBA, since Sutil had not been confirmed at the time. However, the car numbers were swapped inside the team as Albers wanted to drive a car with an odd number, hence Albers (and later Winkelhock and Yamamoto) raced with number 21 and Sutil 20. Spyker signed four test and reserve drivers for the 2007 season: Adrián Vallés, Fairuz Fauzy, Giedo van der Garde and Markus Winkelhock.  In March, Spyker announced a sponsor deal with Etihad Airways and Aldar Properties, two companies from Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. The official name of the entrant during the season was Etihad Aldar Spyker F1 Team.  On 10 July, Albers was released from his Spyker contract, due to a lack of sponsorship money, which would have compromised the team's development programme. Mol described it as \"one of the toughest decisions of my career\". Despite former Red Bull Racing driver Christian Klien testing for the team on 12 July 2007, Albers' replacement for the 2007 European Grand Prix was Winkelhock.  During the 2007 European Grand Prix, Winkelhock became the only driver to lead a Grand Prix in a Spyker, due to the team's tyre selection. However, Winkelhock did not keep his race drive as this went to Sakon Yamamoto.  In August, the new B-Spec Spyker model, which the team hoped to use at the 2007 Turkish Grand Prix, failed the crucial rear crash test which is set by the FIA. All cars must pass these tests to be allowed to race. However, a few days later it was confirmed that the car had passed the crash test in time to compete in the Italian Grand Prix.  On 30 September at the 2007 Japanese Grand Prix, the team scored its first and only championship point. Driver Sutil finished 9th on the track, but was promoted to 8th place and into the points scoring positions when stewards ruled post-race that Toro Rosso's Vitantonio Liuzzi had overtaken Sutil under a yellow flag on lap 55; Liuzzi was subsequently given a 25-second penalty that dropped his time below Sutil's.  On 14 August, Spyker Cars announced that it might need to sell all or part of the team due to a potential split of the team from its parent company. The team was sold to a consortium named \"Orange India\" led by Indian businessman Vijay Mallya and Dutch entrepreneur (and existing board member) Michiel Mol after approval by Spyker's shareholders. Mallya attended the Chinese Grand Prix as team owner. The team was renamed Force India for the 2008 season.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Spyker F1 Team, known as the Etihad Aldar Spyker F1 Team for sponsorship reasons, was a Formula One team that competed in the 2007 Formula One World Championship, and was created by Spyker Cars after their buyout of the short-lived Midland F1 (formerly Jordan Grand Prix) team. The change to the Spyker name was accompanied by a switch in racing livery from the red and white previously used by Midland, to an orange and silver scheme—already seen on the Spyker Spyder GT2-R—orange being the national colour and the auto racing colour of the Netherlands. At the end of the 2007 season the team was sold and renamed Force India.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974993}
{"src_title": "Hyles euphorbiae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Spurge Hawk-Moth - Fore wings grey, with an almost square olive-brown blotch; at the base another olive-brown blotch near the middle, and a long oblique band of the same colour, commencing in a point at the extreme apex of the wing, and gradually growing wider until it reaches the margin, where it is very broad: hind wings pink, with a black blotch at the base, and a black band half-way between this black blotch and the margin, and a snowy-white blotch at the anal angle: thorax and body olive-brown, with a white line on each side of the thorax just at the base of the wings; this line runs on each side along the head just above the eye, and the two meet at the nose; the body has on each side at the base two square black spots and two square white spots, and beyond them, nearer the apex, and also on each side, are three white lines.  The caterpillar is smooth and black, with innumerable whitish dots; there are also eleven large spots of the same colour arrayed in a row on each side of the back, and beneath these as many spots of the same size and of a bright coral-red colour; the head is of the same coral-red colour, and a line of the same colour runs all along the back, from the head to the horn; the horn is red at the base and black at the tip. It feeds on sea-spurge.  The chrysalis is pale brown and delicately lined and dotted with black in the manner of network; it buries itself in the loose dry sand on the sea coast.  The eggs are covered with liquid gum, which enables them to stick on the small leaves of the spurge. In a fortnight these hatch and produce little black caterpillars; the white and red spots appear as the caterpillar increases in size, and in a few weeks it becomes a most beautiful object, and so conspicuous as to attract the sea-gulls and terns, which devour them in numbers. We have never had the pleasure of finding either the caterpillar or perfect moth. Our description of the caterpillar is taken from the \"Entomological Magazine\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hyles euphorbiae, the spurge hawk-moth, is a European moth of the family Sphingidae. This hawk moth is used as an agent of biological pest control against the noxious weed leafy spurge (\"Euphorbia virgata\"), but usually only in conjunction with other agents. The larvae consume the leaves and bracts of the plant. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of \"Systema Naturae\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974994}
{"src_title": "Globular Amphora culture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Extent.", "content": "The Globular Amphora culture was located in an area defined by the Elbe catchment on the west and that of the Vistula on the east, extending southwards to the middle Dniester and eastwards to reach the Dnieper. West of the Elbe, some globular amphorae are found in megalithic graves. The GAC finds in the steppe area are normally attributed to a rather late expansion between 2950 and 2350 cal. BC from a centre in Wolhynia and Podolia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The economy was based on raising a variety of livestock, pigs particularly in its earlier phase, in distinction to the Funnelbeaker culture's preference for cattle. Settlements are sparse, and these normally just contain small clusters pits. No convincing house-plans have yet been excavated. It is suggested that some of these settlements were not year-round, or may have been temporary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Burials.", "content": "The GAC is primarily known from its burials. Inhumation was in a pit or cist. A variety of grave offerings were left, including animal parts (such as a pig's jaw) or even whole animals, e.g., oxen. Grave gifts include the typical globular amphorae and stone axes. There are also cattle-burials, often in pairs, accompanied by grave gifts. There are also secondary burials in Megalithic graves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interpretation.", "content": "The inclusion of animals in the grave is seen as an intrusive cultural element by Marija Gimbutas. The practice of suttee, hypothesized by Gimbutas is also seen as a highly intrusive cultural element. The supporters of the Kurgan hypothesis point to these distinctive burial practices and state this may represent one of the earliest migrations of Indo-Europeans into Central Europe. In this context and given its area of occupation, this culture has been claimed as the underlying culture of a Germanic-Baltic-Slavic continuum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "In a 2017 genetic study published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, the fifteen samples of mtDNA was extracted. The majority of the samples belonged to subclades of U and Haplogroup H (mtDNA), while J, W and K was also detected. The remains were found to closely related to Neolithic European farmers and Western Hunter-Gatherers, with little genetic relations to the Yamnaya culture in the east. The authors of the study suggested that the Globulara Amphora culture was non-Indo-European-speaking, but with cultural influences from Yamnaya.  A February 2018 study published in Nature included an analysis of eight males of the Globular Amphora culture. Three of them carried haplogroup I2a2a1b and a subclade of it; two carried I2a2; one carried I2; one carried BT and one carried CT.  In a 2019 genetic study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 15 skeletons from the Koszyce mass grave in southern Poland, which is ascribed to the Globular Amphora culture. The individuals were all shown to be members of an extended family, and to have been buried with great care by someone who knew them very well. Most of them were female and children. All had been executed by a violent blow to the head, perhaps by invading Corded Ware groups. The older males of the family are missing from the grave, suggesting that they were away or had fled. Of the eight samples of Y-DNA extracted, all were found to belong to I2a-L801. The fifteen samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to various subclades of T, H, J, K, HV. The skeletons were determined to have about 70% Neolithic farmer ancestry and 30% Western Hunter-Gatherer ancestry, meaning they had no steppe ancestry. The archaeological and genetic evidence collected from the grave indicated that the Globular Amphora culture was patriarchal and kinship-oriented, which appears to have been the norm for Late Neolithic communities in Central Europe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Globular Amphora culture (GAC, (KAK); ), c. 3400–2800 BC, is an archaeological culture in Central Europe. Marija Gimbutas assumed an Indo-European origin, though this is contradicted by newer genetic studies that show a connection to the earlier wave of Neolithic farmers rather than to invaders from the southern Russian steppes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974995}
{"src_title": "Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Elisabeth Christine was the eldest daughter of Louis Rudolph, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and his wife Princess Christine Louise of Oettingen-Oettingen. At age 13 Elisabeth Christine became engaged to the future Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, through negotiations between her ambitious grandfather, Anthony Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and Charles' sister-in-law, Empress Wilhelmine Amalia, whose father was John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Calenberg and thus belonged to another branch of the House of Welf. However, the Lutheran Protestant bride opposed the marriage at first, since it involved her converting to Roman Catholicism, but finally she gave in. She was tutored in Catholicism by her mother-in-law, Empress Eleonore, who introduced her to the Marian cult and made a pilgrimage with her to Mariazell in 1706. On 1 May 1707, she was converted in Bamberg, Germany. She was forced to swear the Tridentine Creed rather than a modified version she had hoped. Prior to the wedding, she was forced to undergo a medical examination to prove her fertility by a doctor and the Jesuit confessor of Charles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spain.", "content": "At the time of the wedding, Charles was fighting for his claim to the Spanish throne against the French candidate Philip, so he was living in Barcelona. Elisabeth Christine arrived in Spain in July 1708 and married Charles on 1 August 1708 in the church of Santa María del Mar, Barcelona. As Philip had already fathered a son, Elisabeth Christine was immediately pressured to produce a son. During her time in Spain, she had a long-term correspondence with her mother, which was reportedly a consolation for the continuous pressure to produce a son. In 1711, Charles left for Vienna to succeed as Emperor. He left Elisabeth Christine behind in Spain, appointing her as General Governor of Catalonia in his absence. She ruled Catalonia alone until 1713, when the war ended with Philip recognized by all of Austria's allies. Her official role as regent had been to sustain the morale of Charles' Catalan subjects, but Martino claimed that she actually governed more effectively than Charles had during his Spanish reign. She then joined her husband in Austria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Austria.", "content": "As empress, Elisabeth Christine as well as her predecessor were described as accomplished in music, discretion, modesty and diligence, and was regarded to fulfill her representational role as empress well both within the Spanish court protocol of hunting and balls and amateur theater as well as the religious devotion days of \"pietas austriaca\". She was an excellent shot and attended shooting matches, participated in hunting while she and her ladies-in-waiting dressed in amazon attire and also played billiards. Elisabeth Christine was later rumored to be a crypto-Protestant, likely because she was a patron of Jansenists such as Johann Christoph Bartenstein.  Charles VI did not allow her any political influence whatsoever after her arrival in Austria in 1713. However, she was described as intelligent and self-sufficient, and she established political connections among the ministers, especially Starhemberg, and she took some initiative to engage in politics on her own. In the 1720s, she appeared to have had some influence in the treaty with the Russian Tsar through her family connections in Northern Germany, and she allied herself with the court faction which opposed the plans to marry her daughters to members of the Spanish royal house.  The marriage of Elisabeth Christine was dominated by the pressure upon her to give birth to a male heir. This she later fulfilled when she gave birth to a male heir named Archduke Leopold John in 1716. However, at age 7 months the infant Leopold died. She reportedly found the situation very stressing and was tormented by the loss of confidence in Charles VI that this caused. Three years after her marriage, court doctors prescribed large doses of liquor to make her more fertile, which gave her face a permanent blush. During her 1725 pregnancy, Charles unsuccessfully had her bedchamber decorated with erotic images of male beauty so as to make her expected baby male by stimulating her fantasy. After this, the court doctors prescribed a rich diet to increase her fertility, which made her so fat that she became unable to walk, experienced breathing problems, insomnia and dropsy and had to be lowered into her chairs by a specially constructed machine.  Though her health was devastated by the different prescriptions as how to make her conceive another son, Charles VI apparently did care for her: he continued to refer to her by her pet name White Liz, expressed sincere concern in his diary about her health and left her an independent income in his will. Charles had a mistress before the marriage, and he had a mistress, countess Althann, from 1711 onward, though Althann was not an official mistress and had been married to one of his ministers shortly before the arrival of the empress to make the relationship more discreet.  Elisabeth Christine got along very well with her mother-in-law Eleonore and her sister-in-law Wilhelmine Amalia, and the three empresses were described as supportive toward each other: Wilhelmine Amalia nursed Elisabeth Christine when she had the smallpox, and Elisabeth Christine nursed Eleonore during her last illness.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Empress Dowager.", "content": "In 1740, Charles VI died, leaving her a widow. As a widow, she never received the large income left to her in the will of Charles because of the crisis of the state, but her daughter Maria Theresa provided a comfortable existence for her court. Though the traditional view has been that she had a good relationship with her daughter the empress, there is actually nothing to confirm such a thing. While Maria Theresa is known to have freely expressed her affection for people she cared for, she never did so with her mother; she visited her regularly, but the visits were formal, and during her interaction she behaved strictly according to Spanish court etiquette. In 1747, the Prussian ambassador claimed that she was politically active, \"without arousing the suspicion that she is trying to meddle\" in political matters. Elisabeth Christine died in Vienna.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (28 August 1691 – 21 December 1750) was Princess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Holy Roman Empress, German Queen, Queen of Bohemia and Hungary; and Archduchess of Austria by her marriage to Emperor Charles VI. She was renowned for her delicate beauty and also for being the mother of Empress Maria Theresa. She was the longest serving Holy Roman Empress.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974996}
{"src_title": "Fiat Coupé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Fiat Coupé made media headlines in auto magazines during 1992, after several spy shots were taken revealing the car on test. Fiat had decided to produce a new coupé based upon the Tipo platform when the Pininfarina factory was suddenly dormant after the Cadillac Allante project failed around 1990. Two designs were put forward, with Fiat's in-house Centro Stile team competing with Pininfarina.The concept as put forward by Centro Stile's Chris Bangle unexpectedly won the Fiat management over. The design previously offered by Pininfarina was eventually accepted by Peugeot, who adopted it as the 406 Coupe in October 1996.  On its launch in January 1994, the Coupé was available with a four cylinder, 2.0 L 16V engine, in both turbo (190 PS) and normally aspirated (139 PS) versions. Both engines were later versions of Fiat's twin-cam design and inherited from the Lancia Delta Integrale, winner of the World Rally Championship a record six times. 1996 brought in a 1.8 L 16V engine (not available in the United Kingdom, 131 PS), along with a 2.0 litre five cylinder 20V (147 PS), and a five cylinder 2.0 litre 20V turbo (220 PS). Along with the new engines Fiat also made some minor design changes including the front grill, steering wheel,the door panel now included leather, the interior centre console was redesigned and the digital clock was replaced with an analog one.  Production of the right-hand drive models for markets including the UK began in early 1995, and continued until the end of Coupe production five years later.  Both the turbocharged 16v/4-cylinder and 20v/5-cylinder (4v per cyl.) versions were equipped with a very efficient \"Viscodrive\" limited-slip differential to counter the understeer that plagues most powerful front wheel drive cars.  Additionally, the Coupé featured independent suspension all round: at the front MacPherson struts and lower wishbones anchored to an auxiliary crossbeam, offset coil springs and anti roll bar; at the rear, trailing arms mounted on an auxiliary subframe, coil springs and an anti roll bar. 1998 saw the release of the Limited Edition which could be identified externally by a body kit, titanium grey details such as the wheels, fuel cap, rear light cups, mirror casings and the Brembo brake calipers at the front were now painted red. Inside, the Limited Edition specification included a push-button start, Recaro seats with red leather inserts, Sparco pedals and the recognisable body-coloured dash was replaced with a titanium grey example. Mechanically, there were few changes over a standard 20V Turbo model, but the LE (as they came to be known) did add a six speed gearbox for the first time, strut brace and the engine covers were all painted red.  The LE was produced in Black (flat), Red (flat), Vinci Grey (metallic), Crono Grey (flat) and Steel Grey (metallic).  Each Limited Edition ('LE') Coupé was manufactured with a badge located by the rear view mirror which contained that car's unique number (it is rumoured that Michael Schumacher was the original owner of LE No. 0001, however when the question was raised to him personally he confirmed he had owned one, but a red one, while LE No. 0001 is a Crono Grey one). Originally, a spokesman from Fiat stated only approximately 300 Limited Editions would be built (although the plaques always allowed for four-figure numbers). The final amount was much higher, with numbers as high as 1400 touted by some. This angered many of the owners of the original 300 cars and almost certainly impacted residual values. The original number however was quoted by a spokesman for Fiat UK, so probably that number only applied to the United Kingdom.  In 1998, the 2.0 litre five cylinder 20V got a Variable Inlet System, which brought the power to. In addition, the sills of the Turbo version were colour matched with the body paintwork. Fiat also released the 2.0 litre five cylinder Turbo 'Plus'. This model came with an option kit that made it virtually identical to the LE, except for minor interior design changes and without the unique identification badge of the LE.  In early 2000, Fiat released another special version of the Fiat Coupé. Featuring the 1.8 litre engine, it was only available throughout mainland Europe and marketed as an elegant and affordable edition. This final version had different leather seats, white speedo with yellow arrows, new 16 inch bbs rims and the new \"honeycomb\"grill. Production finished in the summer of that year, with no plans for a direct successor.  Fiat also made changes throughout the rest of the range: new seats, side skirts, wheels for the 2.0 litre 20V model, 'Plus' edition wheels and a six speed transmission as standard on turbo models, and Fiat manufactured seats on the 'Plus' that were virtually identical to the original Plus Recaro seats with the addition of extra airbags.  The 2.0 litre 20V Turbo model is capable of accelerating from 0–100 km/h (0 to 62 mph) in 6.5 seconds and 6.3 seconds for the 20v Turbo Plus, with a top speed of or with later six speed gearbox. When production finally ended in December 2000, a total number of 72,762 units had been produced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tuning, modifying and racing.", "content": "Since the turbo versions shared their motors with a few popular Fiats and Lancia's they are a known base to a lot of European tuners.  The 16v/20v turbo engines are sought after because of their huge tuning headroom and simple design which makes them easy to swap in other Fiat/Lancia/Alfa Romeo cars.  The most common swap chassis are Fiat Bravo HGT and Alfa Romeo GTV since they share a very similar platform.  4wd conversions have been done quite a few times to the Coupe chassis since it shares a similar floor pan as the Alfa Romeo 155 Q4 and Lancia Delta/Dedra Integrale", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fiat Coupé, internally designated as the type 175, was a two door, four seat coupé manufactured and marketed by Fiat between 1993 and 2000 across a single generation. The Coupé was introduced at Bologna Motor Show in December 1993 and is noted for its distinctive, angular exterior design by Chris Bangle at Centro Stile Fiat. Its interior was designed by Pininfarina.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974997}
{"src_title": "Mikhail Tomsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life (1880–1920).", "content": "Born in Kolpino, Saint Petersburg Governorate in a lower-middle-class family of Russian ethnicity, Tomsky moved to Estonia (then part of the Russian Empire) and was involved in the 1905 Revolution. He helped form the \"Revel Soviet of Workers' Deputies\" and the \"Revel Union of Metal Workers\". Tomsky was arrested and deported to Siberia.  He escaped and returned to St. Petersburg where he became president of the \"Union of Engravers and Chromolithographers\".  Tomsky was arrested in 1908 and then exiled to France, but returned to Russia in 1909 where he was again arrested for his political activities and sentenced to five years of hard labour. He was freed by the Provisional Government after the February Revolution in 1917 and moved to Moscow where he participated in the October Revolution. In 1918 he attended the Fourth All Russian Conference of Trade Unions (12–17 March), where he moved a resolution concerning the \"Relations between the Trade Unions and the Commissariat for Labour\" which stated that the October Revolution had changed \"the meaning and character of state organs and significance of proletarian organs as well\". It was elaborated that previously the old ministry of Labour had acted as arbitrator between Labour and Capital, whereas the new Commissariat was the champion of the economic policy of the working class.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career (1920–1928).", "content": "He was elected to the Central Committee in March 1919, to its Orgburo in 1921 and to the Politburo in April 1922.  Tomsky was an ally of Nikolai Bukharin and Alexey Rykov, who led the moderate (or right) wing of the Communist Party in the 1920s.  Together, they were allied with Joseph Stalin's faction and helped him purge the United Opposition - led by Leon Trotsky, Lev Kamenev, and Grigory Zinoviev - from the Party during the struggle that followed Lenin's death in 1924.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demise (1928–1936).", "content": "In 1928 Stalin moved against his former allies, defeating Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky at the April 1929 Plenary Meeting of the Central Committee and forcing Tomsky to resign from his position as leader of the trade union movement in May 1929. Tomsky was put in charge of the Soviet chemical industry, a position which he occupied until 1930. He was not re-elected to the Politburo after the 16th Communist Party Congress in July 1930, but remained a full member of the Central Committee until the next Congress in January 1934, when he was demoted to candidate (non-voting) member.  Tomsky headed the State Publishing House from May 1932 until August 1936, when he was accused of terrorist connections during the First Moscow Trial of Zinoviev and Kamenev. Rather than face arrest by the NKVD, Tomsky committed suicide by gunshot in his dacha in Bolshevo, near Moscow. He was posthumously accused of high treason and other crimes during the third (March 1938) show trial of Bukharin, Rykov and others. The Soviet government cleared Tomsky of all charges during perestroika in 1988.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mikhail Pavlovich Tomsky (Russian: Михаи́л Па́влович То́мский, born \"Mikhail Pavlovich Yefremov\"sometimes transliterated as \"Efremov\"; Михаи́л Па́влович Ефре́мов; 31 October 1880 – 22 August 1936) was a factory worker, trade unionist and Bolshevik leader. He was the Soviet leader of the All-Russian Central Council of Trade Unions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974998}
{"src_title": "Maria Amalia, Holy Roman Empress", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Maria Amalia was born an Austrian archduchess in Hofburg Palace, Vienna; about eleven weeks after the death of her infant brother Leopold Joseph, her parents' only son. Her mother, Empress Wilhelmine Amalia, was unable to conceive more children after Maria Amalia, supposedly because her father, Emperor Joseph I, had contracted syphilis from one of his mistresses and passed the disease to his wife, rendering the Empress infertile. Maria Amalia's father had a long line of mistresses, both servants and nobles, and several illegitimate children.  When Maria Amalia was nine-years-old, her father died of smallpox and was succeeded by his brother Emperor Charles VI. Charles ignored a decree signed during the reign of his and Joseph's father, Emperor Leopold I, that gave Maria Amali and her sister Maria Josepha precedence in succession as the daughters of Leopold's eldest son. Instead, he promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which replaced Maria Amalia and Maria Josepha with his own daughter Maria Theresa in the line of succession. The displaced archduchesses were not allowed to marry until they renounced their rights to the Austrian succession.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Maria Amalia was proposed as a bride for the Italian Victor Amadeus, Prince of Piedmont, heir to the Kingdom of Sicily and Duchy of Savoy. The union was supposed to create better relations between Savoy and Austria, but the plan was ignored by the Duke of Savoy. The younger Victor Amadeus subsequently died of smallpox, unmarried, in 1715.  In 1717, Maria Amalia met her future spouse, Charles Albert of Bavaria, when he visited Vienna on his way to participate in the war against the Ottoman Empire in Belgrade. He used the time to become acquainted with the Imperial family, and wished to marry into the Habsburg dynasty for dynastic and economic reasons. They met a second time in 1718. However, Charles Albert initially asked to marry her elder sister Maria Josepha, but she was already engaged at the time of his proposal. Maria Amalia and her sister Maria Josepha were both given a very strict Catholic upbringing with focus on Catholic religious duties by their mother, but Maria Amalia was described as having a more vivid and extrovert personality than the more serious Maria Josepha.  Having agreed to recognize the Pragmatic Sanction, Maria Amalia married Prince-Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria on 5 October 1722 in Vienna. The opera \"I veri amici\" (\"The True Friends\") by Tomaso Albinoni was performed at the wedding. Maria Amalia received a grand dowry, including jewelry worth 986.500 gulden, but outside the religious festivities, the wedding was not celebrated as much in Vienna as it would be in Munich, where festivities lasted from 17 October to 4 November.  They lived at Nymphenburg Palace in Munich and had seven children. In May 1727, at the birth of the heir, Maximilian III Joseph, Maria Amalia was given her own residence, the Fürstenried Palace as a puerperal gift; and in 1734, Charles Albert named the Amalienburg in the Nymphenburg Palace Park after her. Similar to her mother, she was forced to accept the infidelity of her spouse: her husband also had six illegitimate children. However, their relationship is described as a moderately happy one, as they had similar personalities and interests. Like Charles Albert, she enjoyed court life, pomp and parties, and together they made the Bavarian court a cultural center. Maria Amalia was interested in politics, had a passion for hunting, and managed to engage also in her interest for travels with the argument that pilgrimages would make it easier for her to give birth to sons. She protected churches and convents and had a close relationship with her sister-in-law Maria Anna, who was a member of the Poor Clares in Munich. She liked the opera and her apartments at the royal Munich residence is regarded as a notable example of the Rococo.  Despite the fact that Maria Amalia had renounced her claims to the Austrian lands upon her marriage, Charles Albert claimed the Habsburg lands by marriage to her during the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740. After an agreement with the spouse of her elder sister Maria Josepha, who would otherwise have a stronger claim than her, her husband invaded Bohemia. Maria Amalia was crowned as Queen of Bohemia in Prague on December 7, 1741. On 12 February 1742, Maria Amalia became Holy Roman Empress following Charles Albert's coronation as Holy Roman Emperor in Frankfurt, where she herself was crowned as Empress Consort. However on 14 February 1742, Bavaria was occupied by Austria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Maria Amalia's husband died on 20 January 1745 and was buried at the Theatine Church in Munich. On his death, she persuaded her son Maximilian to make peace with her cousin Maria Theresa. As a widow, she mainly resided at Fuerstenried Palace. In 1754, Maria Amalia founded a medical hospital, managed by the nuns of the Elisabetinerinnen, whom she invited to Munich. This is counted as the first modern hospital in the city.  Maria Amalia died in Munich at the Nymphenburg Palace.  The following anecdote is from the fifth volume of Casanova's \"History of My Life\":", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Maria Amalia of Austria (Maria Amalie Josefa Anna; 22 October 1701 – 11 December 1756) was Holy Roman Empress, Queen of the Germans, Queen of Bohemia, Electress and Duchess of Bavaria etc. as the spouse of Emperor Charles VII. By birth, she was an archduchess of Austria, the daughter of Emperor Joseph I and Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Maria Amalia had seven children, only four of whom lived through to adulthood, including Maximilian III, Elector of Bavaria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4974999}
{"src_title": "Richard Rodney Bennett", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Bennett was born at Broadstairs, Kent, but was raised in Devon during World War II. His mother, Joan Esther, née Spink (1901–1983) was a pianist who had trained with Gustav Holst and sang in the first professional performance of \"The Planets\". His father, Rodney Bennett, (1890–1948) was a children's book author, poet and lyricist, who worked with Roger Quilter on his theatre works and provided new words for some of the numbers in the \"Arnold Book of Old Songs\".  Bennett was a pupil at Leighton Park School. He later studied at the Royal Academy of Music with Howard Ferguson, Lennox Berkeley and Cornelius Cardew. Ferguson regarded him as extraordinarily brilliant, having perhaps the greatest talent of any British composer in his generation, though lacking in a personal style. During this time, Bennett attended some of the Darmstadt summer courses in 1955, where he was exposed to serialism. He later spent two years in Paris as a student of the prominent serialist Pierre Boulez between 1957 and 1959. He always used both his first names after finding another Richard Bennett active in music.  Bennett taught at the Royal Academy of Music between 1963 and 1965, at the Peabody Institute in Baltimore, United States from 1970 to 1971, and was later International Chair of Composition at the Royal Academy of Music between 1994 and the year 2000. He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1977, and was knighted in 1998.  Bennett produced over 200 works for the concert hall, and 50 scores for film and television. He was also a writer and performer of jazz songs for 50 years. Immersed in the techniques of the European avant-garde via his contact with Boulez, Bennett subsequently developed his own dramato-abstract style. In his later years, he adopted an increasingly tonal idiom.  Bennett regularly performed as a jazz pianist, with such singers as Cleo Laine, Marion Montgomery (until her death in 2002), Mary Cleere Haran (until her death in 2011), and more recently with Claire Martin, performing the Great American Songbook. Bennett and Martin performed at such venues as The Oak Room at the Algonquin Hotel in New York, and The Pheasantry and Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club in London.  In later years, in addition to his musical activities, Bennett became known as an artist working in the medium of collage. He exhibited these collages several times in England, including at the Holt Festival, Norfolk in 2011, and at the Swaledale Festival, Yorkshire, in 2012. The first ever exhibition of his collages was in London in 2010, at the South Kensington and Chelsea Mental Health Centre, curated by the Nightingale Project, a charity that takes music and art into hospitals. Bennett was a patron of this charity. Bennett is honoured with four photographic portraits in the collection of the National Portrait Gallery, London.  Anthony Meredith's biography of Bennett was published in November 2010. Bennett is survived by his sister Meg (born 1930), the poet M. R. Peacocke, with whom he collaborated on a number of vocal works.  Bennett's cremated remains are buried at Green-wood Cemetery, Brooklyn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Despite his early studies in modernist techniques, Bennett's tastes were eclectic. He wrote in a wide range of styles, including jazz, for which he had a particular fondness. Early on, he began to write music for feature films. He said that it was as if the different styles of music that he was writing went on 'in different rooms, albeit in the same house'. Later in his career the different aspects all became equally celebrated – for example in his 75th birthday year (2011), there were numerous concerts featuring all the different strands of his work. At the BBC Proms for example his \"Murder on the Orient Express Suite\" was performed in a concert of film music, and in the same season his \"Dream Dancing\" and \"Jazz Calendar\" were also featured. Also at the Wigmore Hall, London, on 23 March 2011 (a few days before Bennett's 75th birthday), a double concert took place in which his Debussy-inspired piece \"Sonata After Syrinx\" was performed in the first concert, and in the Late Night Jazz Event which followed, Bennett and Claire Martin performed his arrangements of the Great American Songbook (Cole Porter, George Gershwin, Rodgers and Hart and so on). See also Tom Service's appreciation of Bennett's music published in The Guardian in July 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film and television scores.", "content": "He wrote music for films and television; among his scores were the \"Doctor Who\" story \"The Aztecs\" (1964) for television, and the feature films \"Billion Dollar Brain\" (1967), \"Lady Caroline Lamb\" (1972) and \"Equus\" (1977). His scores for \"Far from the Madding Crowd\" (1967), \"Nicholas and Alexandra\" (1971), and \"Murder on the Orient Express\" (1974), each earned him Academy Award nominations, with \"Murder on the Orient Express\" gaining a BAFTA award. Later works include \"Enchanted April\" (1992), \"Four Weddings and a Funeral\" (1994), and \"The Tale of Sweeney Todd\" (1998). He was also a prolific composer of orchestral works, piano solos, choral works and operas. Despite this eclecticism, Bennett's music rarely involved stylistic crossover.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Albums.", "content": "Solo: with Marion Montgomery with Carol Sloane (singer) with Chris Connor (singer)  with Mary Cleere Haran (singer) with Claire Martin Opera Orchestral Choral", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sir Richard Rodney Bennett (29 March 193624 December 2012) was an English composer of film, TV and concert music, and also a jazz pianist and occasional vocalist. He was based in New York City from 1979 until his death there in 2012.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975000}
{"src_title": "Travnik", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Travnik is located near the geographic center of Bosnia and Herzegovina at. The river Lašva passes through the city, flowing from west to east before joining the Bosna. Travnik itself is built in the large Lašva valley, which connects the Bosna river valley in the east with the Vrbas river valley in the west.  Travnik is found above sea level. Its most distinguishing geographic feature are its mountains, Vilenica and Vlašić. Vlašić, named after the Vlachs, is one of the tallest mountains in the country at.  Large karst spring, the Plava Voda wellspring, rises under Vlašić mountain, just below Travnik Castle, in the very center of Old Town of Travnik.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Travnik has a continental climate, located between the Adriatic sea to the South and Pannonia to the North. Average summer temperature is. Average winter temperature on the other hand is a cold. It snows in Travnik every year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Although there is evidence of some settlement in the region dating back to the Bronze Age, the true history of Travnik begins during the first few centuries AD. Dating from this time there are numerous indications of Roman settlement in the region, including graves, forts, the remains of various other structures, early Christian basilicas, etc. In the city itself, Roman coins and plaques have been found. Some writing found indicates the settlement is closely connected to the known Roman colony in modern-day Zenica, away.  In the Middle Ages the Travnik area was known as the \" župa Lašva\" province of the medieval Bosnian Kingdom. The area is first mentioned by Bela IV of Hungary in 1244. Travnik itself was one of a number of fortified towns in the region, with its fortress \"Kaštel\" becoming today's old town sector. The city itself is first mentioned by the Ottomans during their conquest of nearby Jajce.  After the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia in the 15th century, much of the local population converted to Islam. The city quickly grew into one of the more important settlements in the region, as authorities constructed mosques, marketplaces, and various infrastructure. During 1699 when Sarajevo was set afire by soldiers of Field-Marshal Prince Eugene of Savoy, Travnik became the capital of the Ottoman province of Bosnia and residence of the Bosnian viziers. The city became an important center of government in the whole Western frontier of the empire, and consulates were established by the governments of France and Austria-Hungary.  The period of Austrian occupation brought westernization and industry to Travnik, but also a reduction of importance. While cities such as Banja Luka, Sarajevo, Tuzla, and Zenica grew rapidly, Travnik changed so little that during 1991 it had a mere 30,000 or so people, with 70,000 in the entire municipality.  A large fire started by a spark from a locomotive in September 1903 destroyed most of the towns buildings and homes, leaving only some hamlets and the fortress untouched. The cleanup and rebuilding took several years.  From 1929 to 1941, Travnik was part of the Drina Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.  During the Bosnian War, the town mostly escaped damage from conflict with Serbian forces, hosting refugees from nearby Jajce, but the area experienced fighting between local Bosniak and Croat factions before the Washington Agreement was signed in 1994. After the war, Travnik was made the capital of the Central Bosnia Canton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "The town of Travnik is the administrative centre of the Travnik Municipality, whose area of jurisdiction covers Travnik and the outlying villages and small towns. Travnik is also the capital of the Central Bosnia Canton, one of the ten Cantons of Bosnia. The municipality government has various bureau's dedicated to help in the running of the region, ranging from the bureau of urbanization and construction, to the bureau of refugees and displaced persons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The economy of the Travnik region, which was never anything extraordinary, suffered greatly during the war period of the early 1990s. In 1981 Travnik's GDP per capita was 63% of the Yugoslav average. Nowadays, most of the region deals with typical rural work such as farming and herding. As for urban industry, Travnik has several factories producing everything from matches to furniture. Food processing is also a strong industry in the region, especially meat and milk companies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "Like many Bosnian towns, Travnik's tourism is based largely on its history and geography. Nearby Mt. Vlašić is one of the tallest peaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and an excellent spot for skiing, hiking, and sledding. Though tourism isn't very strong for the city, Mt. Vlašić is probably its chief tourist attraction. The city itself is also of interest. Numerous structures dating to the Ottoman era have survived in near perfect condition, such as numerous mosques, oriental homes, two clock towers (\"sahat kula\"; Travnik is the only city in Bosnia and Herzegovina to have two clock towers), and fountains. The city's old town dates back to the early 15th century, making it one of the most popular widely accessible sites from that time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Travnik has a strong culture, mostly dating back to its time as the center of local government in the Ottoman Empire. Travnik has a popular old town district however, which dates back to the period of Bosnian independence during the first half of the 15th century. Numerous mosques and churches exist in the region, as do tombs of important historical figures and excellent examples of Ottoman architecture. The city museum, built in 1950, is one of the more impressive cultural institutions in the region.  Travnik became famous by important persons who were born or lived in the city. The most important of which are Ivo Andrić (writer, Nobel Prize for literature in 1961), Miroslav Ćiro Blažević (football coach of Croatian national team, won third place 1998 in France), Josip Pejaković (actor), Seid Memić (pop-singer) and Davor Džalto (artist and art historian, the youngest PhD in Germany and in the South-East European region).  One of the main works of Ivo Andrić, himself a native of Travnik, is the \"Bosnian Chronicle\" (or \"Travnik Chronicle\"), depicting life in Travnik during the Napoleonic Wars and itself written during World War II. In this work Travnik and its people - with their variety of ethnic and religious communities - are described with a mixture of affection and exasperation.  The Bosnian Tornjak, one of Bosnia's two major dog breeds and national symbol, originated in the area, found around Vlašić mountain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "The local football team is NK Travnik, established in 1922.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Travnik is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Travnik () is a city and the administrative center of Central Bosnia Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is situated in central Bosnia and Herzegovina, west of Sarajevo. As of 2013, city had a population of 16,534 inhabitants, while the municipality had 53,482 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975001}
{"src_title": "Beauvais Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Work was begun in 1225 under count-bishop Milo of Nanteuil, with funding from his family, immediately after the third in a series of fires in the old wooden-roofed basilica, which had reconsecrated its altar only three years before the fire; the choir was completed in 1272, in two campaigns, with an interval (1232–38) owing to a funding crisis provoked by a struggle with Louis IX. The two campaigns are distinguishable by a slight shift in the axis of the work and by changes in stylistic handwriting. Under Bishop, an extra 4.9 m was added to the height, to make it the highest-vaulted cathedral in Europe. The vaulting in the interior of the choir reaches 48 m (157.48 feet) in height, far surpassing the concurrently constructed Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Amiens, with its nave. (A formerly often-quoted beginning date of 1247 was based on an error made by an early historian of Beauvais.)  The work was interrupted in 1284 by the collapse of some of the vaulting of the recently completed choir. This collapse has been seen as a disaster that produced a failure of nerve among the French masons working in Gothic style. The collapse also marked the beginning of an age of smaller structures generally, which was associated with demographic decline, the Hundred Years' War, and with the thirteenth century.  However, large-scale Gothic design continued, and the choir was rebuilt at the same height, albeit with more columns in the chevet and choir, converting the vaulting from quadripartite vaulting to sexpartite vaulting. The transept was built from 1500 to 1548. In 1573, the fall of the 153 m (502 feet) central tower stopped work again. The tower made the church the tallest structure in the world (1569–1573). Afterwards little structural addition was made.  The choir has always been wholeheartedly admired, with Eugène Viollet-le-Duc calling the Beauvais choir \"the Parthenon of French Gothic.\"  Its façades, especially that on the south, exhibit all the richness of the late Gothic style. The carved wooden doors of both the north and the south portals are masterpieces, respectively, of Gothic and Renaissance workmanship. The church possesses an elaborate astronomical clock in neo-Gothic taste (1866) and tapestries of the 15th and 17th centuries, but its chief artistic treasures are stained glass windows of the 13th, 14th, and 16th centuries, the most beautiful of them from the hand of Renaissance artist Engrand Le Prince, a native of Beauvais. To him also is due some of the stained glass in St-Etienne, the second church of the town, and an interesting example of the transition stage between the Gothic and the Renaissance styles.  During the Middle Ages, on January 14, the Feast of Asses was annually celebrated in Beauvais cathedral, in commemoration of the Flight into Egypt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structural condition.", "content": "In the race to build the tallest cathedral in the 13th century, the builders of Saint-Pierre de Beauvais pushed technology to its limits. Even though the structure was to be taller, the buttresses were made thinner in order to pass maximum light into the cathedral. In 1284, only twelve years after completion, part of the choir vault collapsed, along with a few flying buttresses. It is now believed that the collapse was caused by resonant vibrations due to high winds.  The accompanying photograph shows lateral iron supports between the flying buttresses; it is not known when these external tie rods were installed. The technology would have been available at the time of the initial construction, but the extra support might not have been considered necessary until after the collapse in 1284, or even later. In the 1960s, the tie rods were removed; the thinking was that they were ungraceful and unnecessary. However, the oscillations created by the wind became amplified, and the choir partially disassociated itself from the transept. Subsequently, the tie rods were reinstalled, but this time with rods made of steel. Since steel is less ductile than iron, the structure became more rigid, possibly causing additional fissures.  As the floor plan shows, the original design included a nave that was never built. Thus, the absence of shouldering support that would have otherwise been provided by the nave contributes to the structural weakness of the cathedral.  With the passage of time, other problems surfaced, some requiring more drastic remedies. The north transept now has four large wood-and-steel lateral trusses at different heights, installed during the 1990s to keep the transept from collapsing (see photograph below). In addition, the main floor of the transept is interrupted by a much larger brace that rises out of the floor at a 45-degree angle. This brace was installed as an emergency measure to give additional support to the pillars that, until now, have held up the tallest vault in the world.  These temporary measures will remain in place until more permanent solutions can be determined. Various studies are under way to determine with more assurance what can be done to preserve the structure. Columbia University is performing a study on a three-dimensional model constructed using laser scans of the building in an attempt to determine the weaknesses in the building and remedies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "Several of the chapels contain medieval stained glass windows made during the 13th through to the 15th centuries. In a chapel close to the northern entrance, there is a medieval clock (14th – 15th century), possibly the oldest fully preserved and functioning mechanical clock in Europe. In its vicinity, the highly complicated Beauvais Astronomical clock with moving figures was installed in 1866.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cathedral of Saint Peter of Beauvais () is a Roman Catholic church in the northern town of Beauvais, France. It is the seat of the Bishop of Beauvais, Noyon, and Senlis. Construction was begun in the 13th-century. The cathedral is of the Gothic style. It consists only of a transept (16th-century) and choir, with apse and seven polygonal apsidal chapels (13th-century), which are reached by an ambulatory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975002}
{"src_title": "Eschscholzia californica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a perennial or annual plant growing to tall with alternately branching glaucous blue-green foliage. The leaves are alternately divided into round, lobed segments. The flowers are solitary on long stems, silky-textured, with four petals, each petal long and broad; flower color ranges through yellow, orange and red (with some pinks). Flowering occurs from February to September in the northern hemisphere (spring, summer, fall). The petals close at night (or in cold, windy weather) and open again the following morning, although they may remain closed in cloudy weather. The fruit is a slender, dehiscent capsule long, which splits in two to release numerous small black or dark brown seeds. It survives mild winters in its native range, dying completely in colder climates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Its native habitat includes California and extends to Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Sonora and northwest Baja California. The Antelope Valley California Poppy Reserve is located in northern Los Angeles County. At the peak of the blooming season, orange flowers seem to cover all 1,745 acres (706 ha) of the reserve. Other prominent locations of California poppy meadows include Bear Valley (Colusa County) and Point Buchon (San Luis Obispo County).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Eschscholzia californica\" was the first named species of the genus \"Eschscholzia\", named by the German botanist Adelbert von Chamisso after the Baltic German botanist Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, his friend and colleague on Otto von Kotzebue’s scientific expedition to California and the greater Pacific circa 1810 aboard the Russian ship \"Rurik\".  California poppy is highly variable, with over 90 synonyms. Some botanists accept two subspecies — one with four varieties (e.g., Leger and Rice, 2003) — though others do not recognize them as distinct (e.g., Jepson 1993):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pollen production.", "content": "A UK study of meadow flowers that focused on commercial mixes, but which also tested various common plants such as ragwort and dandelion, ranked the California poppy highly in pollen production, although it did not produce a significant amount of nectar. On a per-flower basis it ranked second, with a rate of 8.3±1.1μl. The corn poppy, \"Papaver rhoeas\", topped the list for per-flower pollen production with its rate of 13.3 ± 2.8μl. When measuring the entire capitulum the top two species were the ox-eye daisy, \"Leucanthemum vulgare\", with 15.9 ± 2μl, and \"Cosmos bipinnatus\", which had a rate nearly equivalent to that of the corn poppy. As poppies are not wind-pollinated, their pollen poses no allergy risk via inhalation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "California poppy leaves are used as food or garnish, while the seeds are used in cooking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"E. californica\" is drought-tolerant, self-seeding, and easy to cultivate. It is best grown as an annual in full sun and sandy, well-drained soil or loam. Horticulturalists have produced numerous cultivars with a range of colors and blossom and stem forms. These typically do not breed true on reseeding. Seeds are often sold as mixtures. The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive potential.", "content": "Because of its beauty and ease of growing, the California poppy was introduced into several regions with similar Mediterranean climates. It is commercially sold and widely naturalized in Australia, and was introduced to South Africa, Chile, and Argentina. It is recognized as a potentially invasive species within the United States, although no indications of ill effects have been reported for this plant where it has been introduced outside of California. The golden poppy has been displaced in large areas of its original habitat, such as Southern California, by more invasive exotic species, such as mustard or annual grasses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chilean population.", "content": "In Chile, it was introduced from multiple sources between the mid-19th century and the early 20th century. It appears to have been both intentionally imported as an ornamental garden plant and accidentally introduced along with alfalfa seed grown in California. Since Chile and California have similar climatic regions and have experienced much agricultural exchange, it is perhaps not surprising that it was introduced to Chile. Once there, its perennial forms spread primarily in human-disturbed environments (Leger and Rice, 2003).  The introduced Chilean populations of California poppy appear to be larger and more fecund in their introduced range than in their native range (Leger and Rice, 2003). Introduced populations have been noted to be larger and more reproductively successful than native ones (Elton, 1958), and there has been much speculation as to why. An increase in resource availability, decreased competition, and release from enemy pressure have all been proposed as explanations.  One hypothesis is that the plant's resources devoted in the native range to a defense strategy can, in the absence of enemies, be devoted to increased growth and reproduction (the EICA Hypothesis, Blossey & Nötzold, 1995). However, this is not the case with introduced populations of \"E. californica\" in Chile: the Chilean populations were actually more resistant to Californian caterpillars than native populations (Leger and Forister, 2005).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "State flower of California.", "content": "During the 1890s Sarah Plummer Lemmon advocated for the adoption of the golden poppy as the state flower of California, eventually writing the bill passed by the California Legislature and signed by Governor George Pardee in 1903. As the official state flower of California, \"Eschscholzia californica\" is pictured on welcome signs along highways entering California and on official Scenic Route signs.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Eschscholzia californica, the California poppy, golden poppy, California sunlight or cup of gold, is a species of flowering plant in the family Papaveraceae, native to the United States and Mexico. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant flowering in summer, with showy cup-shaped flowers in brilliant shades of red, orange and yellow (occasionally pink). It is also used as food or a garnish. It became the official state flower of California in 1903.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975003}
{"src_title": "Chapel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest Christian places of worship were not dedicated buildings but rather a dedicated chamber within a building, such as a room in an individual's home. Here one or two people could pray without being part of a communion/congregation. People who like to use chapels may find it peaceful and relaxing to be away from the stress of life, without other people moving around them. The word \"chapel\", like the associated word \"chaplain\", is ultimately derived from Latin. More specifically, the word \"chapel\" is derived from a relic of Saint Martin of Tours: traditional stories about Martin relate that while he was still a soldier, he cut his military cloak in half to give part to a beggar in need. The other half he wore over his shoulders as a \"small cape\" (). The beggar, the stories claim, was Christ in disguise, and Martin experienced a conversion of heart, becoming first a monk, then abbot, then bishop. This cape came into the possession of the Frankish kings, and they kept the relic with them as they did battle. The tent which kept the cape was called the \"capella\" and the priests who said daily Mass in the tent were known as the \"capellani\". From these words, via Old French, we get the names \"chapel\" and \"chaplain\".  The word also appears in the Irish language in the Middle Ages, as Welsh people came with the Norman and Old English invaders to the island of Ireland. While the traditional Irish word for church was \"eaglais\" (derived from \"ecclesia\"), a new word, \"séipéal\" (from \"cappella\"), came into usage. In British history, \"chapel\" or \"meeting house\" were formerly the standard designations for church buildings belonging to independent or Nonconformist religious societies and their members. They were particularly associated with the pre-eminence of independent religious practice in rural regions of England and Wales, the northern industrial towns of the late 18th and 19th centuries, and centres of population close to but outside the City of London. As a result, \"chapel\" is sometimes used as an adjective in the UK to describe the members of such churches: for example in the sentence \"I'm Chapel.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of chapel.", "content": "A bridge chapel is a small place of Christian worship, built either on, or immediately adjacent to, a road bridge; they were commonly established during pre-Reformation mediaeval era in Europe.  A castle chapel, in European architecture, is a chapel built within a castle.  A parecclesion or parakklesion is a type of side chapel found in Byzantine architecture.  A capilla posa (Posa chapel) is an architectural feature of the monastery-ensembles of Mexico in the 16th century, consisting of four vaulted quadrangular buildings located at the ends of the atrium outside them.  A capilla abierta (open chapel) is one of the most distinct Mexican church construction forms. Mostly built in the 16th century during the early colonial period.  A proprietary chapel is one that originally belonged to a private individual. In the 19th century they were common, often being built to cope with urbanisation. Frequently they were established by evangelical philanthropists with a vision of spreading Christianity in cities whose needs could no longer be met by the parishes. Some functioned more privately, with a wealthy person building a chapel so that they could invite their favorite preachers. They are anomalies in the English ecclesiastical law, having no parish area, but being permitted to have an Anglican clergyman licensed there. Historically many Anglican churches were proprietary chapels. Over the years they have often been converted into normal parishes.  A court chapel is a chapel as a musical ensemble associated with a royal or noble court. Most of these are royal (court) chapels, but when the ruler of the court is not a king, the more generic \"court chapel\" is used, for instance for an imperial court.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern usage.", "content": "While the usage of the word \"chapel\" is not exclusively limited to Christian terminology, it is most often found in that context. Nonetheless, the word's meaning can vary by denomination, and non-denominational chapels (sometimes called \"meditation rooms\") can be found in many hospitals, airports, and even the United Nations headquarters. Chapels can also be found for worship in Judaism.  The word \"chapel\" is in particularly common usage in the United Kingdom, and especially in Wales, for Nonconformist places of worship; and in Scotland and Ireland for Roman Catholic churches. In the UK, due to the rise in Nonconformist chapels during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, by the time of the 1851 census, more people attended the independent chapels than attended the state religion's Anglican churches.  In Roman Catholic Church canon law, a chapel, technically called an \"oratory\", is a building or part thereof dedicated to the celebration of services, particularly the Mass, which is not a parish church. This may be a private chapel, for the use of one person or a select group (a bishop's private chapel, or the chapel of a convent, for instance); a semi-public oratory, which is partially available to the general public (a seminary chapel that welcomes visitors to services, for instance); or a public oratory (for instance, a hospital or university chapel).  Chapels that are built as part of a larger church are holy areas set aside for some specific use or purpose: for instance, many cathedrals and large churches have a \"Lady Chapel\" in the apse, dedicated to the Virgin Mary; parish churches may have such a \"Lady Chapel\" in a side aisle or a \"Chapel of Reservation\" or \"Blessed Sacrament Chapel\" where the consecrated bread of the Eucharist is kept in reserve between services, for the purpose of taking Holy Communion to the sick and housebound and, in some Christian traditions, for devotional purposes.  Common uses of the word chapel today include:  The first airport chapel was created in 1951 in Boston for airport workers but grew to include travelers. It was originally Catholic, but chapels today are often multifaith.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A chapel is a Christian place of prayer and worship that is usually relatively small, and is distinguished from a church. The term has several senses. Firstly, smaller spaces inside a church that have their own altar are often called chapels; the Lady chapel is a common type of these. Secondly, a chapel is a place of worship, sometimes non-denominational, that is part of a building or complex with some other main purpose, such as a school, college, hospital, palace or large aristocratic house, castle, barracks, prison, funeral home, cemetery, airport, or a military or commercial ship. Thirdly, chapels are small places of worship, built as satellite sites by a church or monastery, for example in remote areas; these are often called a chapel of ease. A feature of all these types is that often no clergy were permanently resident or specifically attached to the chapel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975004}
{"src_title": "Horizon-class frigate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "France, Italy and the UK issued a joint requirement in 1992 after the failure of the NATO Frigate Replacement for the 90s (NFR-90) project. The resulting CNGF programme consisted of the Horizon frigate and its Principal Anti Air Missile System (PAAMS).  Problems emerged almost immediately: the primary problem was that of differing requirements: France wanted anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) escorts for its aircraft carriers, but only a limited range was necessary due to the self-defence capability of. Italy too required only close-range capabilities, as in its home waters of the Mediterranean Sea the ships would operate under Italian Air Force cover or escorts for its aircraft carrier. The Royal Navy, however, required more capable ships which could throw a large defensive \"bubble\" over a fleet operating in hostile areas. The compromise which largely solved this problem was the adoption of a standard radar interface which allowed France and Italy to install the EMPAR multi-function passive electronically scanned array radar and the UK to install the more capable SAMPSON active electronically scanned array radar – the SAMPSON radar has a higher data rate and an adaptive beam that allows a greater ability to track multiple targets, long-range detection of low-RCS targets, a lower false-alarm rate, and overall higher tracking accuracy.  An international joint venture company (IJVC) was established in 1995 comprising the national prime contractors, DCN (France), GEC-Marconi (UK) and Orizzonte (Italy). In the period 1995–1996 significant arguments, changing requirements and technological problems led to the slippage of the in-service-date of the frigates to around 2006.  In early 1997 a disagreement emerged as to the choice of vertical launching system (VLS) for the PAAMS Aster missile. France and Italy favoured their own Sylver Vertical Launching System, while the UK was leaning toward the American Mk 41 – capable of firing the Tomahawk land attack missile. This issue was eventually resolved when the SYLVER launcher was selected by the PAAMS development team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "UK withdrawal.", "content": "On 26 April 1999 the UK announced that it was withdrawing from the CNGF project to pursue its own national design. The \"Financial Times\" summarised the main disagreements between the partner countries:  The resulting Type 45 destroyer is armed with the PAAMS missile system and has benefited from investment in the Horizon project.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Franco-Italian project.", "content": "France and Italy continued their collaboration under the Horizon project. In September 2000, the two countries signed a contract to jointly produce four ships, ordering two ships each which would deploy the PAAMS missile system. The Italian Navy ordered two units, and, to replace the s. \"Andrea Doria\" was accepted on 22 December 2007 and received the flag of the Italian Navy. Full operation capability was achieved in the summer of 2008. The French Navy ordered two units, and to replace the carrier escorts. The project cost France €2.16bn (~US$3bn) at 2009 prices. A further two Horizons were cancelled; instead the two s were to be replaced by the FREDA air-defence variant of the Franco-Italian FREMM multipurpose frigate. However these plans were put in doubt by the 2013 French White Paper on Defence and National Security. France has bought forty Aster 15s and eighty Aster 30s for their ships. On the Italian units the three cannon will be upgraded to the 76/62mm Super Rapid Multi Feeding David/Strales version with the capacity to use the DART guided projectile in the anti-missile role.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Horizon class is a class of air-defence destroyers in service with the French Navy and the Italian Navy, designated as destroyers using NATO classification. The programme started as the Common New Generation Frigate (CNGF), a multi-national collaboration to produce a new generation of air-defence frigates. In Italy the class is known as the Orizzonte class, which translates to \"horizon\" in French and English. The UK then joined France and Italy in the Horizon-class frigate programme; however, differing national requirements, workshare arguments and delays led to the UK withdrawing on 26 April 1999 and starting its own national project, the Type 45 destroyer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975005}
{"src_title": "Italian aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The \"Giuseppe Garibaldi\" is the fourth ship of the Italian Navy to be named after the 19th century Italian General Giuseppe Garibaldi. All four ships, including the missile cruiser, together with an image of Garibaldi, are depicted in the crest.  Built by Fincantieri (Italcantieri) at the Monfalcone shipyards on the Gulf of Trieste, she was laid down on 26 March 1981, launched on 11 June 1983, and commissioned on 30 September 1985. \"Garibaldi\" is classed as an anti-submarine warfare carrier (ASW), and is based in Taranto.  The ship is powered by four Fiat COGAG gas turbines built under license from GE, offering a sustained power of 81,000 hp (60 MW). Driving two shafts the ship has a maximum speed of and can travel for at around.  The ship was equipped with four Otomat Mk2 short range surface-to-surface missile system installed at the stern of the ship (removed in 2003 to improve the flight deck and satellite communications) and two ILAS three triple tube torpedo launchers. Defences are provided by two eight-cell SAM launchers firing the SARH \"Aspide\" missile, and three Oto Melara Twin 40L70 DARDO CIWS.  The ship also has many countermeasures including two SCLAR twenty-barrel launchers for chaff, decoy, flares, or jammers, the SLQ-25 Nixie and SLAT anti-torpedo systems and ECM systems.  The air arm consists of a maximum of sixteen AV-8B Harrier IIs and two search and rescue helicopters, or eighteen Agusta helicopters or a mix of helicopters and fighters. The flight deck is the characteristic off-axis design with a 6.5 degree ski-jump for STOL aircraft; it is long and wide.  A 1937 law gave control of all national fixed-wing air assets to the Italian Air Force and the navy was only permitted to operate helicopters. At the time of the ship's commissioning the \"Garibaldi\" the Italian Navy Aviation did not receive her Harriers so she was reclassified as an \"Incrociatore portaeromobili\" (Italian for \"Aircraft carrying cruiser\"). Until 1988 only Italian helicopters landed on her deck, as well as Royal Navy Sea Harriers during NATO joint maneuvers. The ban on fixed-wing aircraft was lifted in 1989, and the Italian Navy acquired Harrier II fighters to fly from the \"Giuseppe Garibaldi\".  In 2009 \"Giuseppe Garibaldi\" was replaced as the flagship of the Italian navy by the new and larger carrier.  The ship underwent a modernization in 2003 and a major restructuring in 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Combat operations.", "content": "In 1999 with the Kosovo War in the Balkans, Italy committed Harrier AV-8B II+ fighters embarked aboard \"Giuseppe Garibaldi\", from 13 May to early June 1999. The planes carried out 30 sorties in 63 hours of flight. The planes used Mk 82 GBU-16 bombs and AGM-65 Maverick missiles. The Italian naval force in addition to the aircraft carrier \"Giuseppe Garibaldi\", with its air group, included the.  Following the attacks of 11 September 2001 and the war on terror declared by U.S. President Bush, Italy participated in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. \"Giuseppe Garibaldi\" was engaged as the command ship of GRUPNAVIT I, 1 Italian Shipping Group, which also included \"Zeffiro\", the patrol team and the airman supplier in Etna. The group set sail from Taranto on 18 November 2001. They trained in the Indian Ocean from 3 December 2001 to 1 March 2002 and returned to Taranto 18 March 2002. During the mission, the AV-8B Harrier unit carried out 288 missions for a total of 860 hours of flight. Tasks carried out included interception/interdiction, sea and air support, and aircraft interdiction in Afghanistan.  Participating in the 2011 military intervention in Libya after the transfer of authority to NATO and the decision to participate in strike air-ground operations, the Italian government assigned under NATO command four Italian Navy AV-8B plus (from Garibaldi) in addition to Italian air force aircraft. As of 24 March, the Italian Navy was engaged in Operation Unified Protector with the light aircraft carrier \"Garibaldi\", the \"Maestrale\"-class frigate and the auxiliary ship. Additionally the and \"Maestrale\"-class frigate were patrolling off the Sicilian coast in an air-defence role. In total, until the end of the mission in Libya, the eight Italian Navy AV-8Bs flying from the carrier \"Giuseppe Garibaldi\" dropped 160 guided bombs during 1221 flight hours.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giuseppe Garibaldi is an Italian aircraft carrier, the first through deck aviation ship ever built for the Italian Navy, and the first Italian ship built to operate fixed-wing aircraft. She is equipped with short take-off and vertical landing aircraft (STOVL) aircraft and helicopters. \"Giuseppe Garibaldi\" was involved in combat air operations off Somalia, Kosovo, Afghanistan and Libya.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975006}
{"src_title": "Otto Katz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and studies.", "content": "The German-speaking Jewish family of Edmund Katz, a successful manufacturer, the father of the young Otto, was part of the thriving Jewish community in Jistebnice. Leopold Katz, an uncle of Otto's, was a historian and lawyer famous for having discovered the \"Jistebnice Hymnal\", a collection of Hussite psalms calling for reform. \"Leopold became a patron of the Czech Academy of Arts and Sciences and prominent leader of the Czech Jewish movement.\". The mother of Otto, Franštika Piskerová, died prematurely in 1900 after giving birth to three sons (Leopold, named after his uncle, in 1891, Robert in 1893 and Otto) and their father Edmund subsequently married a German, Otilie Schulhof. The family moved to Prague where the family business continued to thrive and then moved to, the industrial centre, Pilsen. After classical studies in Prague, where Otto revealed a gift for languages (he fluently spoke five: German, Czech, English, French and Russian), he joined the prestigious Imperial Export Academy, which prepared young men for top jobs in international trade, in 1913 where he became fascinated with the Redl case. He did not finish his studies and was sent by his father for military training. During World War I, he refused to become an officer because of socialist sympathies developed in Vienna. Mobilized, injured on Christmas night in 1914, he deserted twice and spent several months under fortress-arrest.  Demobilized in January 1919, Otto was employed at Pössneck in Thuringia before joining the \"Meva\", a metallurgical company in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bohemian life.", "content": "The young Otto's marked preference was for literature, theatre, pretty actresses and all the cultural life of Prague which was very active at that time. He frequented fashionable cafés such as the Arco and the Continental, where he rubbed shoulders with the young intelligentsia who spoke only of social or artistic revolution. Helped by a regularly paid allowance by his father, Otto frequented the avant-guard (Franz Kafka, Max Brod, Franz Werfel) and led a life of pleasure in 1922 while adhering to the German Communist Party. Thanks to his allowance, he published some poems privately. Rudolf Fuchs, a German Jewish writer, encouraged him to become a writer. He was also close to Egon Kisch with whom he shared communist political views.  He met a leftist actress Sonya Bogsová, whom he married but their communist activities monitored by the Prague authorities encouraged them to settle in Berlin in 1921. Despite the birth of a daughter Petra, the marriage was strained by the frenzy of the German capital in the 1920s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Agitprop with Willi Münzenberg.", "content": "Through a meeting in 1924 with Babette Gross, the sister of Margarete Buber-Neumann, Otto Katz met Willi Münzenberg, Babette's husband. Münzenberg saw Otto Katz's potential and included within his group the young dandy eager to serve the cause of the Soviet Union.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otto Katz, also known as André Simone amongst other aliases, was born in Jistebnice south of Prague, Bohemia, on May 27, 1895. He was hanged on December 3, 1952, after he was convicted in the Slánský trial. He was one of the most influential agents of the Soviet Union under Stalin in Western intellectual and artistic circles during the 1930s and 1940s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975007}
{"src_title": "Alexander Archipenko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Alexander Archipenko was born in Kiev, (Russian Empire, now Ukraine) in 1887, to Porfiry Antonowych Archipenko and Poroskowia Vassylivna Machowa Archipenko; he was the younger brother of Eugene Archipenko.  From 1902 to 1905 he attended the Kiev Art School (KKHU). In 1906 he continued his education in the arts at Serhiy Svetoslavsky (Kiev), and later that year had an exhibition there with Alexander Bogomazov. He then moved to Moscow where he had a chance to exhibit his work in some group shows.  Archipenko moved to Paris in 1908 and was a resident in the artist's colony La Ruche, among émigré Ukrainian artists: Wladimir Baranoff-Rossine, Sonia Delaunay-Terk and Nathan Altman. After 1910 he had exhibitions at \"Salon des Indépendants\", \"Salon d'Automne\" together with Aleksandra Ekster, Kazimir Malevich, Vadym Meller, Sonia Delaunay-Terk, Georges Braque, André Derain and others.  In 1912 Archipenko had his first personal exhibition at the Museum Folkwang at Hagen in Germany, and from 1912 to 1914 he was teaching at his own Art School in Paris.  Four of Archipenko's Cubist sculptures, including \"Family Life\" and five of his drawings, appeared in the controversial \"Armory Show\" in 1913 in New York City. These works were caricatured in the New York World.  Archipenko moved to Nice in 1914. In 1920 he participated in \"Twelfth Biennale Internazionale dell'Arte di Venezia\" in Italy and started his own Art school in Berlin the following year. In 1922 Archipenko participated in the \"First Russian Art Exhibition\" in the Gallery van Diemen in Berlin together with Aleksandra Ekster, Kazimir Malevich, Solomon Nikritin, El Lissitzky and others.  In 1923 he emigrated to the United States, and participated in an exhibition of \"Russian Paintings and Sculpture\". He became a US citizen in 1929. In 1933 he exhibited at the Ukrainian pavilion in Chicago as part of the Century of Progress World's Fair. Alexander Archipenko contributed the most to the success of the Ukrainian pavilion. His works occupied one room and were valued at $25,000 dollars.  In 1936 Archipenko participated in an exhibition \"Cubism and Abstract Art\" in New York as well as numerous exhibitions in Europe and other places in the U.S. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1962.  Alexander Archipenko died on February 25, 1964, in New York City. He is interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contribution to art.", "content": "Archipenko, along with the French-Hungarian sculptor Joseph Csaky, exhibited at the first public manifestations of Cubism in Paris; the Salon des Indépendants and Salon d'Automne, 1910 and 1911, being the first, after Picasso, to employ the Cubist style in three dimensions. Archipenko departed from the neo-classical sculpture of his time, using faceted planes and negative space to create a new way of looking at the human figure, showing a number of views of the subject simultaneously. He is known for introducing sculptural voids, and for his inventive mixing of genres throughout his career: devising'sculpto-paintings', and later experimenting with materials such as clear acrylic and terra cotta. Inspired by the works of Picasso and Braque, he is also credited for introducing the collage to wider audiences with his \"Medrano\" series.  The sculptor Ann Weaver Norton apprenticed with Archipenko for a number of years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public collections.", "content": "Among the public collections holding works by Alexander Archipenko are:  Archipenko's statue of King Solomon, at the University of Pennsylvania campus, dominates the walk from 36th and Locust to Walnut. Its creation began in 1964 when, shortly before he died, the artist completed a four–foot sculpture designed for enlargement. His wife oversaw its first casting. In 1968, the 1.5-ton statue was produced. In 1985, it was given to the University by Mr and Mrs Jeffrey H. Loria and was installed at its present location. Cubist in form, it has been described as evoking \"the feeling of smallness in the face of power that one must have felt standing before King Solomon himself.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexander Porfyrovych Archipenko (also referred to as Olexandr, Oleksandr, or Aleksandr;, Romanized: Olexandr Porfyrovych Arkhypenko; May 30, 1887February 25, 1964) was a Ukrainian-born American avant-garde artist, sculptor, and graphic artist. He was one of the first to apply the principles of Cubism to architecture, analyzing human figure into geometrical forms.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975008}
{"src_title": "Ford Cougar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Cougar was Ford's second attempt to reintroduce a sports coupé in Europe, in the same vein as the successful, but long absent Capri – the first attempt having been the Mazda MX-6 based Probe. Just as the Capri had been based on the Cortina, the Cougar was based on the large family car available at the time, the Mondeo.  It went on sale in Europe in December 1998 to mixed reviews, partly due to the then new and controversial New Edge styling, a crisp style which was subsequently applied to most of the Ford range. Unlike its famous forebearer, the Capri, Cougar sales were never brisk, despite good reports of the model as a \"driver's car\".  Like its (indirect) predecessor, the Ford Probe, the 1998 Cougar was sold and built in the United States. Cars destined to be sold in Europe and the United Kingdom were finished in Ford's Köln plant in Germany, where the cars had European specification lighting installed, Ford badges applied (and in the case of United Kingdom and Australian cars, converted to RHD); in the United States, it had different branding, in this case being branded as the Mercury Cougar, while in Europe and Australia, it was known as the Ford Cougar.  In England, Ford unveiled the car in July 1998, at the English Grand Prix, Silverstone. The television advertisements featured the silver model driven by Dennis Hopper due to his appearance in the film \"Easy Rider\". At the same time, Steppenwolf's hit from 1968, \"Born To Be Wild\" played, as this was featured in the film and the same scene the advertisement recreated.  The Cougar was retired from the European market in August 2002, some time after its demise in England, in February 2001. After the first two years of production, only 12,000 units reportedly had been sold in the United Kingdom. Released in Australia in October 1999, the Cougar only came with the optional 2.5-litre 24-valve Duratec V6, and continued until March 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanical.", "content": "The Cougar came equipped with the 2.0-litre 16 valve Zetec, or the 2.5 litre 24 valve Duratec V6 engines with two specification levels, largely equivalent to a Mondeo Ghia (standard) and Ghia X (simply X). Manual and automatic transmissions were available. All variants came with sixteen inch alloy wheels as standard.  The 2.0 litre version had 96 kW as standard, while the 2.5 was rated at 125 kW.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Specifications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Handling.", "content": "The car has been described by critics as “(putting) its power down effectively and (tackling) twisty roads with confidence.” The standard wheels had 215 mm wide tyres, which greatly contributed to its cornering abilities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Extras.", "content": "An \"X Pack\" was available on the larger engine; this included leather upholstered and heated front seats, with six way electric adjustment for the driver's seat, and a Ford RDS6000 six speaker radio with six CD autochanger.  Available at an extra cost, and not included in the \"X Pack\" were heated windscreen, electric tilt, slide sunroof, and metallic paint.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Safety and security.", "content": "The standard safety kit includes driver, passenger, and side airbags, plus ABS brakes and seat belts that reduce chest injuries. The Cougar is well protected against theft and break in, due to an engine immobiliser, remote control central and double locking systems, and an alarm.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Ford Cougar is a coupé that was produced and sold in the market in Europe between 1998 and 2002, and sold in Canada and the United States from 1999 to 2002 as the Mercury Cougar. The car was originally intended to be the third generation Probe, but after a rationalization of the three coupés available in the United States, the Probe name was dropped in favor of the Cougar. It is an example of a sports coupé/liftback.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975009}
{"src_title": "Tiglath-Pileser III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Formerly the governor of Kalhu (Biblical Calah/Nimrud) and a general, the usurper Pulu assumed his Assyrian throne-name (Tiglath-Pileser) from two more-legitimate predecessors. He described himself as a son of Adad-nirari III in his inscriptions, but the accuracy of this claim remains uncertain. He seized the throne in the midst of civil war on 13 \"Ayaru\", 745 BCE. As a result of Pulu seizing the throne in a bloody \"coup d'état\", the old royal family was slaughtered, and the new monarch set Assyria on the path to expand the empire in order to ensure the survival of the kingdom.  A mutilated brick inscription states that he is the son of Adad-nirari (III); however, the Assyrian King List makes Tiglath-pileser (III) the son of Ahur-nirari (V), son of Adad-nirari (III). This is quite a discrepancy for the King list places Adad-nirari III four monarchs before Tiglath-pileser's reign and depicts Ashur-nirari (V) as both his father and immediate predecessor upon the throne. The list goes on to relate that Shalmaneser III (IV), and Ashur-dan III (III) were brothers, being the sons of Adad-nirari (III). Ashur-nirari (V) is also said to be a son of Adad-nirari (III), implying brotherhood with Shalmaneser III (IV), and Ashur-dan III (III). The Assyrian records contain very little information concerning Adad-nirari (III) and nothing about Shalmaneser III (IV) or Ashur-dan III (III). Significantly, an alabaster stele was discovered in 1894 at Tell Abta displaying the name Tiglath-pileser imprinted over that of Shalmaneser (IV), a successor of Adad-Nirari (III) and the third sovereign prior to Tiglath-pileser (III). This find coupled with the aforementioned absence of information relative to Shalmaneser III (IV) and Ashur-dan III (III) strongly implies that Tiglath-pileser was a usurper to the throne and that he destroyed the records of his three immediate predecessors—Ashur-nirari (V), Shalmaneser III (IV), and Ashur-dan III (III). More so it was in Babylon that he was referred to as Pulu and his son as Ululayu. Pulu and both his sons taking up Assyrian names is another suggestion that they were foreigners who had usurped the crown of Assyria at the revolt of Kalhu. The identification of Pul (2 Kings 15:19) with Tiglath-Pileser III has been bolstered by the discovery and interpretation of the Phoenician inscription from Incirli, line 5 of which reads: פאל מל[ך] אשר רב \"Pu'lu, the great king of Assyria\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Assyrian power in the Near East greatly increased as the result of Tiglath-Pileser's military reforms (see \"Reforms\" below) and of his campaigns of conquest. Upon ascending the throne, he claimed (in Annal 9, which dates to 745 BCE, his first regnal year) to have annexed Babylonia, from \"Dur-(Kuri)galzu, Sippar of Shamash,... the cities [of Ba]bylonia up to the Uqnu river [by the shore of the Lo]wer [Sea]\" (which referred to the Persian Gulf), and subsequently placed his eunuch over them as governor. Also in his first year of reign he defeated the powerful kingdom of Urartu (Armenia), whose hegemony under the rulership of Sarduri II had extended to Asia Minor, northern Mesopotamia, western Iran and Syria; there he found unrivalled horses for his war-chariots. He also defeated the Medes before making war on and conquering the Neo-Hittites, Syria and Phoenicia. He took Arpad in 740 BCE after three years of siege, annexed it as a province (over which he placed one of his eunuchs as governors), and subjected Hamath to tribute. Assyrian inscriptions record in 740 BCE, the fifth year of his reign, a victory over Azariah (Uzziah), king of Judah, whose achievements appear in 2 Chronicles 26. He also subjugated Damascus, the Arabs under Queen Zabibe, Menahem of Israel and Sam'al's king Azriyau, who all paid him tribute. In 737 and 736 BCE he turned his attention again to Iran, conquering the Medes and Persians and occupying a large part of Iran. According to the royal inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser many of the inhabitants were enslaved and deported to other parts of the Assyrian empire, as commonly done by his predecessors. At sieges, captives were slaughtered, and their bodies raised on stakes and displayed before the city (\"illustration, right\").  In October 729 BCE, Tiglath-Pileser assumed total control of Babylon, capturing the Babylonian king Nabu-mukin-zeri (ABC 1 Col.1:21) and having himself crowned as \"King Pulu of Babylon.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biblical account.", "content": "Biblical records describe how Tiglath-Pileser III exacted 1,000 talents of silver as tribute from King Menahem of the Kingdom of Israel (2 Kings 15:19) and later defeated his successor Pekah (2 Kings 15:29).  Pekah had allied with Rezin, king of the Arameans against Ahaz (known to the Assyrians as Yahu-khazi), of the Kingdom of Judah, who responded by appealing for the Assyrian monarch's help with the Temple gold and silver. Tiglath-Pileser answered swiftly. He first marched his army down the eastern Mediterranean coast, taking coastal cities all the way to Egypt. This cut off his enemies' access to the sea. Once this was achieved, he returned to the Northern Kingdom of Israel, destroyed their army, and deported the Reubenites, Gadites, and the people of Manasseh to Halah, Habor, Hara, and the Gozan river (1 Chron 5:26). He then installed an Israelite puppet king, Hoshea, (732–723 BCE) in the place of Pekah. He concluded this extensive campaign by marching north and west, ravaging Aramaea, seizing Damascus, executing Rezin, and deporting the survivors to Kir (2 Kings 16:9).  Beyond this, the Assyrian alliance was not beneficial to Ahaz (2 Chron 28:20).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reforms.", "content": "Upon ascending the throne, Tiglath-Pileser instituted several reforms to different sectors of the Assyrian state, which arguably revived Assyria's hegemony over the Near East.  The first of such reforms entailed thwarting the powers of the high Assyrian officials, which during the reigns of his predecessors had become excessive. Officials such as Shamshi-ilu, who was \"turtanu (General)\" and a prominent official since the time of Adad-nirari III, often led their own campaigns and erected their own commemorative stelae, often without mentioning the king at all.  The second reform targeted the army. Instead of a largely native Assyrian army which normally campaigned only in the summer time, Tiglath-Pileser incorporated large numbers of conquered people into the army, thus adding a substantial foreign element. This force mainly comprised the light infantry, whereas the native Assyrians comprised the cavalry, heavy infantry, and charioteers. As a result of Tiglath-Pileser's military reforms, the Assyrian Empire was armed with a greatly expanded army which could campaign throughout the year. The addition of the cavalry and the chariot contingents was to counter the steppe cultures lurking nearby to the north, who sometimes invaded the northern colonies with cavalry and primitive chariots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Tiglath-Pileser III's conquests and reforms led to the establishment of the Neo-Assyrian Kingdom as a true empire. He built a royal palace in Kalhu (the biblical Calah/Nimrud, the so-called \"central palace\"), later dismantled by Esarhaddon. He had his royal annals engraved across the bas-reliefs depicting his military achievements on the sculptured slabs decorating his palace.  On his death he was succeeded by his son Ululayu, who took the name Shalmaneser V and further campaigned in the Levant, defeated Egypt, and captured Samaria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tiglath-Pileser III (cuneiform: ; Akkadian: \"Tukultī-apil-Ešarra\", meaning \"my trust is in the son of the Ešarra\"; \"Tiglat Pil’eser\") was a prominent king of Assyria in the eighth century BCE (ruled 745–727 BCE) who introduced advanced civil, military, and political systems into the Neo-Assyrian Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975010}
{"src_title": "Surgical mask", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Usage.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health care workers.", "content": "A surgical mask is intended to be worn by health professionals during surgery and certain health care procedures to catch microorganisms shed in liquid droplets and aerosols from the wearer's mouth and nose.  Evidence supports the effectiveness of surgical masks in reducing the risk of infection among other healthcare workers and in the community. However, a Cochrane review found that there is no clear evidence that disposable face masks worn by members of the surgical team would reduce the risk of wound infections after clean surgical procedures.  For healthcare workers, safety guidelines recommend the wearing of a face-fit tested N95 or FFP3 respirator mask instead of a surgical mask in the vicinity of pandemic-flu patients, to reduce the exposure of the wearer to potentially infectious aerosols and airborne liquid droplets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "General public.", "content": "In community and home settings, the use of facemasks and respirators generally are not recommended, with other measures preferred such as avoiding close contact and maintaining good hand hygiene.  Surgical masks are popularly worn by the general public all year round in East Asian countries like China, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan to reduce the chance of spreading airborne diseases to others, and to prevent the breathing in of airborne dust particles created by air pollution.  In Japan and Taiwan, it is common to see these masks worn during the flu season, as a show of consideration for others and social responsibility. Surgical masks provide some protection against the spread of diseases, and improvised masks provide about half as much protection.  More recently, due to the rising issue of smog in South and Southeast Asia, surgical masks and air filtering face masks are now frequently used in major cities in India, Nepal and Thailand when air quality deteriorates to toxic levels. Additionally, face masks are used in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore during the Southeast Asian haze season. Air filtering surgical-style masks are quite popular across Asia and as a result, many companies have released masks that not only prevent the breathing in of airborne dust particles but are also fashionable.  Additionally, surgical masks have become a fashion statement, particularly in contemporary East Asian culture bolstered by its popularity in Japanese and Korean pop culture which have a big impact on East Asian youth culture.  Surgical masks may also be worn to conceal identity. In the United States banks, convenience stores, etc. have banned their use as a result of criminals repeatedly doing so. In the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, some protestors wore surgical masks amongst other types of mask to avoid recognition, and the government tried to ban such use.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "A surgical mask is a loose-fitting, disposable device that creates a physical barrier between the mouth and nose of the wearer and potential contaminants in the immediate environment. If worn properly, a surgical mask is meant to help block large-particle droplets, splashes, sprays, or splatter that may contain viruses and bacteria, keeping it from reaching the wearer's mouth and nose. Surgical masks are effective barriers for retaining large droplets released from the mouth and nose by the wearer in public. Surgical masks help reduce exposure of the wearer's saliva and respiratory secretions to others that could otherwise travel up to 26 feet. Surgical mask also remind wearers not to touch their mouth or nose, which could otherwise transfer viruses and bacteria after having touched a contaminated surface.  A surgical mask, by design, does not filter or block very small particles in the air that may be transmitted by coughs, sneezes, or certain medical procedures. Surgical masks also do not provide complete protection from germs and other contaminants because of the loose fit between the surface of the face mask and the face.  A surgical mask is not to be confused with a respirator and is not certified as such. Surgical masks are not designed to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne bacteria or virus particles and are less effective than respirators, which are designed for this purpose. Collection efficiency of surgical mask filters can range from less than 10% to nearly 90% for different manufacturers’ masks when measured using the test parameters for NIOSH certification. However, a study found that even for surgical masks with \"good\" filters, 80–100% of subjects failed an OSHA-accepted qualitative fit test, and a quantitative test showed 12–25% leakage.  Modern surgical masks are made from paper or other non-woven material and should be discarded after each use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical form.", "content": "The design of the surgical masks depends on the mode; usually, the masks are three-ply (three layers). This three-ply material is made up of a melt-blown polymer, most commonly polypropylene, placed between non-woven fabric. The melt-blown material acts as the filter that stops microbes from entering or exiting the mask. Pleats are commonly used to allow the user to expand the mask such that it covers the area from the nose to the chin. The masks are secured to the head with ear loops, head ties, or elastic straps.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Physical properties and quality.", "content": "Performance of surgical masks is evaluated based on such parameters as filtration (mask capture of exhaled aerosols), exposure (transfer of aerosols from outside), mask airflow resistance (pressure difference during breathing, ΔP, also known as breathability), liquid penetration resistance, air and water vapor permeability, water repellency (for outer and inner surfaces).  Filtration and exposure is typically measured in bacterial filtration efficiency (BFE) and particulate filtration efficiency (PFE).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Modern surgical masks began to be used in the 1960s. Their adoption caused cloth facemasks, which had been used since the late 19th century, to completely fall out of use in the developed world. However, cloth masks and surgical masks both continued to be used in developing countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "COVID-19 pandemic.", "content": "During the COVID-19 pandemic, some jurisdictions banned the practise of selling surgical masks to other nations due to a limited supply; however, Taiwan made refinements to those rules by permitting them to be mailed to first and second-degree relatives.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regulation.", "content": "In the United States, surgical masks are cleared for marketing by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. As of 2009, manufacturers of surgical masks must demonstrate that their product is at least as good as a mask already on the market to obtain “clearance” for marketing. Manufacturers may choose from filter tests using a biological organism aerosol, or an aerosol of 0.1 μm latex spheres.  In the European Economic Area (EEA), surgical masks have to be certified through the CE marking process in order to be commercialized. CE marking of surgical masks involves the respect of many obligations indicated in the Medical Device Regulation (Council Regulation 2017/745 of 5 April 2017 concerning medical devices, OJ No L 117/1 of 2017-05-05).  Surgical masks for use in the US and the EEA conform to ASTM F2100 and EN 14683 respectively. In both standards, a mask must have a Bacterial Filtration Efficiency (BFE) of more than 95%, simulated with particles of size 3.0 μm.  In China, two types of masks are common: surgical masks that conform to YY 0469 standard (BFE ≥ 95%, PFE ≥ 30%, splash resistance) and single-use medical masks that conform to YY/T 0969 standard (BFE ≥ 95%). Daily protective masks conforming to GB/T 32610 standard is yet another type of masks that can have similar appearance to surgical masks.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A surgical mask, also known as a face mask, is intended to be worn by health professionals during healthcare procedures. It is designed to prevent infections in patients and treating personnel by catching bacteria shed in liquid droplets and aerosols from the wearer's mouth and nose. They are not designed to protect the wearer from breathing in airborne bacteria or viruses whose particles are smaller. With respect to some infections like influenza they appear as effective as respirators, such as N95 or FFP masks; though the latter provide better protection in laboratory experiments due to their material, shape and tight seal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975011}
{"src_title": "Minims (religious order)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The founder of the Order, Saint Francis of Paola, was born in 1416 and named in honor of St. Francis of Assisi. The boy became ill when he was only one month old, and his mother prayed to St. Francis and promised that her son would spend a year in a Franciscan friary if he were healed. Her prayer was granted, and at 13 years of age Francis fulfilled that votive year. After this year he dedicated himself to a life of solitude and penance as a hermit.  In 1435, two followers joined Francis and began the community, which was first called the \"Poor Hermits of St. Francis of Assisi.\" Francis and his followers founded hermitages at Paterno in 1444 and Milazzo, Sicily, in 1469. The Archbishop of Cosenza approved the group and established them as a religious order on November 30, 1470, and this approval was confirmed by Pope Sixtus IV in his bull \"Sedes Apostolica\" of May 17, 1474. At that time, the pope also changed their status from that of hermits to mendicant friars.  The name \"Minims\" comes from the Italian word \"minimo\", meaning the smallest or the least, and their founder would call himself \"il minimo dei minimi\". Francis of Paola wanted to distinguish himself as being of even less significance than the Friars Minor founded by his patron saint. Francis composed a rule for the community in 1493, which was approved under the name of \"Hermits of the Order of the Minims\". The definitive version of the rule was solemnly approved by Pope Julius II in the Bull \"Inter ceteros\", July 28, 1506, who also simplified the name of the community to the Order of Minims ().  In addition to the standard three religious vows of chastity, poverty and obedience, the rule contains the vow of \"a Lenten way of life\" (), which is considered to be the distinctive feature of the Minims. This vow is for perpetual abstinence from all meat and dairy products, veganism, except in case of grave illness and by order of a physician. Because of asceticism, The Order is also discalced in character and there are other acts of humility.  The Minim habit consists of a black wool tunic, with broad sleeves, a hood, and a short scapular. It has a thick, black cord (with four knots that signify the four vows) with a tassel to gird the robe.  The Order of the Minims spread throughout Italy in the fifteenth century and was introduced to France in 1482, and later to Spain and to Germany in 1497. The houses in Spain, Germany, and France were suppressed during the period following the French Revolution. By the turn of the 20th century, only 19 friaries remained, all but one of them in Italy. On December 31, 2010, the Order had 46 communities with 174 members, 112 of them priests. The majority of these were in Italy, but they are also established in Cameroon, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Czech Republic, India, Mexico, Ukraine and the United States of America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paulaner brewery.", "content": "The Munich friary of the German Minims brewed beer as means of support, but after the friars were expelled, the brewery continued independently. It continues to brew the Paulaner brand of beer, which draws its name from Francis of Paola.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Nuns.", "content": "St. Francis was called to France in 1483 by King Louis XI to serve as his deathbed confessor. While he was there, the Spanish ambassador, Don Pedro de Lucena, who was a very pious man, grew to know and admire him. He sent reports of the holy friar to his family back in Jaén. His daughter, Elena, and her two daughters, Maria and Francisca, felt so inspired by Don Pedro's reports, they wanted to dedicate themselves to the way of life Francis had established. Through the ambassador, they communicated their interest to the saint, and asked for a rule of life which they might follow. St. Francis welcomed their request heartily, and, to this end, he adapted the rule of the friars for them to live as cloistered nuns.  Don Pedro donated a portion of his estate to the young women, and there they formed a small monastic community. They received the Minim religious habit from a Friar Lionet on June 11, 1495, and established the Monastery of Jesus and Mary. This was first and remains the oldest monastery of the Minim nuns. Francisca was elected as the first corrector (religious superior) of the community. She spent many years as the corrector of the monastery, gaining a reputation for holiness, and is today honored as Blessed Francisca. Their proper rule was approved by the Holy See in 1506, at the same time as that of the friars.  The Federation of Minim Nuns of Saint Francis of Paola includes 14 monasteries in Spain, Italy, Mexico, and the Philippines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable Minim Nuns.", "content": "A new community was established in Barcelona on Easter 1623. In 1936, the 25 members of the community in Barcelona were arrested by soldiers of the Republic of Spain. Charged with treason, nine choir nuns and an extern Sister were executed on July 23. They were beatified by Pope Francis on October 13, 2013, and are commemorated on July 23. The Minim Daughters of Mary Immaculate is a separate institute founded in 1867 in Guanajuanto, Mexico, by Venerable Pablo de Anda Padilla. The sisters work in schools and medical centers in Mexico, Cuba, Ecuador, Rome, and Nogales, Arizona.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Minims (also called the Minimi or Order of Minims, abbreviated O.M.) are members of a Roman Catholic religious order of friars founded by Saint Francis of Paola in fifteenth-century Italy. The Order soon spread to France, Germany and Spain, and continues to exist today.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975012}
{"src_title": "Prunus padus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Prunus padus\" is native to northern Europe and spans central latitudes of Asia, including Japan. Its distribution includes the British Isles, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Ukraine, France, Spain, Portugal, Northern Italy, Austria, and the Balkans. The Mayday tree is abundant as an introduced species in Anchorage, Alaska, having been planted in great numbers by landscapers and homeowners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The fruit is astringent due to its tannin content.  There are two varieties:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The flowers are hermaphroditic and pollinated by bees and flies. The fruit is readily eaten by birds, which do not taste astringency as unpleasant.  Bird-cherry ermine moth (\"Yponomeuta evonymella\") uses bird-cherry as its host plant, and the larvae can eat single trees leafless.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poison.", "content": "The glycosides prulaurasin and amygdalin, which can be poisonous to some mammals, are present in some parts of \"P. padus\", including the leaves, stems and fruits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The fruit of this tree is seldom used in western Europe, but, once upon a time, it may possibly have been commonly eaten further east. According to Herodotus writing about 2500 years ago, a strange race of men and women, all bald from birth, who live in what may possibly be the foothills of the Urals, pick the bean-sized fruits of a tree called \"pontic\" to make a black juice from, and from the leftover lees of the fruit make a cake-like dish, this juice and cakes being the main sustenance of the bald peoples. According to A. D. Godley, a translator of the works of Herodotus published in the early 1920s, it is said that the Cossacks make a similar juice from \"Prunus padus\" and call this juice a similar name as the bald men called their juice according to Scythian traders according to Herodotus.  It was used medicinally during the Middle Ages.  The bark of the tree, placed at the door, was supposed to ward off plague.  The variety commutata is sold as an ornamental tree in North America under the common name Mayday. It is valued for its hardiness and spring display of fragrant, white flowers. The common name Mayday tree is not related to the distress signal mayday, as the name for the tree was in use prior to the adoption of \"mayday\" as an international distress signal.  A taboo on the use of the wood of the hackberry (or hagberry) was reported by natives of Advie, in northeast Scotland, being regarded as a \"witches tree\".  In Siberia the fruit of the tree is used for culinary purposes. The dried berries are ground and turned into flour of varying degree of fineness that serves as an ingredient in the bird-cherry cake. The flour is brown, and so is the cake, even though there is no chocolate in it. The flour and the cake can be purchased at stores and bakeries. Fresh berries can be run through the grinder and turned into jam.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prunus padus, known as bird cherry, hackberry, hagberry, or Mayday tree, is a flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae. It is a species of cherry, a deciduous small tree or large shrub up to 16 m tall. It is the type species of the subgenus \"Padus\", which have flowers in racemes. It is native to northern Europe and northern Asia", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975013}
{"src_title": "Ménagerie du Jardin des plantes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The location.", "content": "The Zoo is located directly by the Seine in the centre of Paris. It takes up about one third of the Jardin des Plantes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "From herb garden to menagerie.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The botanical garden.", "content": "In the beginning the term \"Jardin des Plantes\" referred only to a botanical garden of, created and built by the royal physicians Jean Herouard and Guy de La Brosse. It therefore became known as \"the royal herb garden\". Created in 1626 and opened for the public in 1635, it is the oldest part of the national research and educational institute for science, the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, which was founded in 1793.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The foundation of the menagerie.", "content": "In the course of the French Revolution the menagerie was founded in 1793. According to a decision of the National Assembly in 1793, exotic animals in private hands were to be donated to the Menagerie in Versailles or killed, stuffed and donated to the natural scientists of the Jardin des Plantes. However, the scientists let the animals (the exact number of which is unknown) live. In due course the Royal Menagerie in Versailles (\"ménagerie royale\") was dissolved and these animals were also transferred to the Jardin des Plantes. Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1737–1814) is considered to be the founder of the menagerie. He was committed to the principles of keeping exotic animals in their natural environment, having regard to their needs, placing them under scientific supervision, and allowing public access in the interest of public education.  The Jardin was free for all visitors and tourists right from its inception. While the menagerie at first was just provisional it grew in the first three decades of the 19th century to be the largest exotic animal collection in Europe. The Zoo was under the scientific leadership of the former head of the zoological department at the museum, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1772–1844). From 1805 onwards the menagerie was under the leadership of Frédéric Cuvier, who was replaced in 1836 by Geoffroy's son Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "The institutional incorporation of the menagerie within the National Research Institute of the National Natural History Museum facilitated the academic study of the animals by doctors and zoologists. Studies related to systematics, morphology and anatomy were all carried out, notably by Georges Cuvier. Étienne Geoffroy, Frédéric Cuvier (the brother of Georges Cuvier) performed research in the area of behavioral observation. Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Frédéric Cuvier published their results in the quarterly work \"Histoire des Mammifières\". It was first published in 1826 and became one of the foundational books concerning the biology of exotic animals. Furthermore, F. Cuvier's plans regarding the breeding of new domestic animal species were formulated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attractions and species growth.", "content": "The expanding range of species was chiefly the result of French travelling researchers, colonial officials and donations from private people, which accounts for the fact that the animals in the Jardine were not limited to local French species.  The so-called \"Rotonde\" was added to the basic enclosures in 1804, and from 1808 was used to harbour large animals such as elephants. In 1805 the \"bear ditch\" followed and in 1821, a so-called \"Fauverie\" or predator enclosure. The \"Volieren\" enclosure (voleries, birdhouses) for diurnal birds of prey was added in 1825, and two years later a birdhouse specifically for pheasants. A monkey house was set up for the first time in 1837, while reptiles had to wait until 1870 for their enclosure. Most animals were kept in functional, classicist, gallery-like buildings. These buildings and the zoo itself can be seen as an expression of the Imperial Power of France.  In another part was the \"Vallée Suisse\" which had been built as a romantic garden. Here were several small enclosures which held exotic animals such as antelopes. Some buildings from this period still exist today - the semicircular birdhouse for pheasants (1827), the reptile house and the new pheasants enclosure (1881). At the beginning of the 20th century a hibernation enclosure (1905), a small monkey house (1928), a vivarium (1929), another monkey house (1934) and a reptile house (1932) had been built. A half century passed after this improvement without any further innovations except the restoration of the bear pit and some technical corrections.  A new enclosure for diurnal birds of prey was built in 1983. A variety of renovations were carried out in the 1980s. At the beginning of the 21st century the pheasants enclosure from 1881 was renovated. However, as all of the structures are listed buildings, it is almost impossible to create new structures here. However the Jardin des Plantes still exists today and is the second oldest civil zoo in the world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The ménagerie du Jardin des plantes is a zoo in Paris, France, belonging to the botanical garden \"Jardin des Plantes\". It is the second oldest zoological garden in the world (after Tiergarten Schönbrunn). Today it does not have very large animals like elephants, but a lot of rare smaller and medium-sized mammals and a variety of birds and reptiles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975014}
{"src_title": "Trinità dei Monti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1494, Saint Francis of Paola, a hermit from Calabria, bought a vineyard from the papal scholar and former patriarch of Aquileia, Ermolao Barbaro, and then obtained the authorization from Pope Alexander VI to establish a monastery for the Minimite Friars. In 1502, Louis XII of France began construction of the church of the Trinità dei Monti next to this monastery, to celebrate his successful invasion of Naples. Building work began in a French style with pointed late Gothic arches, but construction lagged. The present Italian Renaissance church was eventually built in its place and finally consecrated in 1585 by the great urbanizer Pope Sixtus V, whose \"via Sistina\" connected the Piazza della Trinità dei Monti (outside the church) to the Piazza Barberini across the city. The architect of the facade is not known for certain, but Wolfgang Lotz suggests that it may have originated in a design by Giacomo della Porta (a follower of Michelangelo), who had built the church of Sant'Atanasio dei Greci, which has similarities, a little earlier. The double staircase in front of the church was by Domenico Fontana.  In front of the church stands the \"Obelisco Sallustiano\", one of the many obelisks in Rome, moved here in 1789. It is a Roman obelisk in imitation of Egyptian ones, originally constructed in the early years of the Roman Empire for the Gardens of Sallust near the Porta Salaria. The hieroglyphic inscription was copied from that on the obelisk in the Piazza del Popolo known as Flaminio Obelisk.  During the Napoleonic occupation of Rome, the church, like many others, was despoiled of its art and decorations. In 1816, after the Bourbon restoration, the church was restored at the expense of Louis XVIII.  The inscriptions found in Santissima Trinità dei Monti, a valuable source illustrating the history of the church, have been collected and published by Vincenzo Forcella.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "In the first chapel to the right is a \"Baptism of Christ\" and other scenes of the life of \"John the Baptist\" by the Florentine Mannerist painter Giambattista Naldini. In the third chapel on the right is an \"Assumption of the Virgin\" by a pupil of Michelangelo, Daniele da Volterra (the last figure on the right is said to be a portrait of Michelangelo). In the fourth chapel, the \"Cappella Orsini\", are scenes of the \"Passion of Christ\" by Paris Nogari and the funeral monument of Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi by Leonardo Sormani. In a chapel near the high altar is a canvas of the \"Crucifixion\" painted by Cesare Nebbia.  In the Cappella Pucci, on the left, are frescoes (1537) by Perino del Vaga finished by Federico and Taddeo Zuccari in 1589. The second chapel on the left has a well-known canvas of the \"Deposition\" in grisaille, by Daniele da Volterra, which imitates in \"trompe l'oeil\" a work of sculpture; flanking it are frescoes by Pablo de Céspedes and Cesare Arbasia. The first chapel on the left has frescoes by Nebbia. In the sacristy anteroom are more frescoes by Taddeo Zuccari: a \"Coronation of the Virgin\", an \"Annunciation\", and a \"Visitation\".  The frescoes in the dome are by Perino del Vaga  In a niche along a corridor that opens onto the cloister, is the fresco (reputed to be miraculous) of the \"Mater Admirabilis\", depicting the Virgin Mary, painted by a young French girl in 1844.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Convent.", "content": "The refectory has a frescoed ceiling by Andrea Pozzo. In the cloister there is an astrolabes table, and along a corridor are the anamorphic frescoes (steeply sloping perspectives that have to be viewed from a particular point to make pictorial sense), portraying \"St John on Patmos\" and \"St Francis of Paola as a hermit\" all by Emmanuel Maignan (1637). An upper room was painted with ruins by Charles-Louis Clérisseau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious affiliations.", "content": "The kings of France remained patrons of the church until the French Revolution and the church continued to be the church of the Minimite Friars until its partial destruction in 1798.  It has been a titular church since the \"Titulus Santissimae Trinitatis in Monte Pincio\" was established by Pope Sixtus V in 1587 and has been held ever since by a French Cardinal. The current (2010) Cardinal Priest is Philippe Barbarin, Archbishop of Lyon and Primate of the Gauls.  By the Diplomatic Conventions of 14 May and 8 September 1828 between the Holy See and the Government of France the church and monastery were entrusted to the 'Religieuses du Sacré-Coeur de Jésus' (Society of the Sacred Heart), a French religious order, for the purpose of educating young girls. In 2003 the French government were proposing to make funds available for necessary work on the church but was concerned that the Society might find it difficult to continue their work there in the future and in March 2003 the Society decided that it would withdraw from the Trinità no later than the summer of 2006. On July 12, 2005, the Vatican and the French Embassy to the Holy See announced that the Church, Convent and school would be entrusted from 1 September 2006 to the Monastic Fraternities of Jerusalem.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The church of the Santissima Trinità dei Monti, often called merely the Trinità dei Monti (French: \"La Trinité-des-Monts\"), is a Roman Catholic late Renaissance titular church in Rome, central Italy. It is best known for its commanding position above the Spanish Steps which lead down to the Piazza di Spagna. The church and its surrounding area (including the Villa Medici) are a French State property.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975015}
{"src_title": "Maximilian Hell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born as \"Rudolf Maximilian Höll\" in Selmecbánya, Hont County, Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia), but later changed his surname to \"Hell\". He was the third son from the second marriage of his father Matthias Cornelius Hell (Matthäus Kornelius Hell) and his mother Julianna Staindl. The couple had a total of 22 children. Registry entries indicate that the family was of German descent, while Maximilian Hell later in life (ca. 1750) is known to declare himself as Hungarian.  The place of birth of Maximilian's father is unknown; the settlements Körmöcbánya (today Kremnica), Schlagenwald, (today Horní Slavkov) or Schlackenwerth (today Ostrov nad Ohří) are most frequently given. Born in a mixed German, Hungarian and Slovak town, he presumably knew Slovak to a certain extent and he probably understood Hungarian, but his mother tongue was German. Even so, Hell considered himself a Hungarian. Hell with another Jesuit priest, János Sajnovics tried to explore the already widely discussed but insufficiently documented affinity between the language of the Sami, Finns and the Hungarians during and after their residency in Vardø. (\"Demonstratio idioma Ungarorum et Lapponum idem esse\", 1770 Copenhagen)  Hell became the director of the Vienna Observatory in 1756. He published the astronomical tables \"Ephemerides astronomicae ad meridianum Vindobonemsem\" (\"Ephemerides for the Meridian of Vienna\"). He and his assistant János Sajnovics went to Vardø in the far north of Norway (then part of Denmark-Norway) to observe the 1769 transit of Venus. He was elected as a foreign member of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters on October 13, 1769. This society also funded the publication of his 1770 account of the Venus passage \"Observatio transitus Veneris ante discum Solis die 3. Junii anno 1769\" (Copenhagen, 1770).  There was some controversy about Hell's observations of the transit of Venus because he stayed in Norway for eight months, collecting non-astronomical scientific data about the arctic regions for a planned encyclopedia (which never appeared, in part due to the suppression of the Jesuit order). The publication of his results was delayed, and some (notably Joseph Johann Littrow) accused Hell posthumously of falsifying his results. However, Simon Newcomb carefully studied Hell's notebooks and exonerated him a century after his death in Vienna.  Besides astronomy, Hell also had an interest in magnet therapy (the alleged healing power of magnets), although it was Franz Anton Mesmer who went further with this and received most of the credit.  In 1771, Hell was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.  The crater Hell on the Moon is named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maximilian Hell () (May 15, 1720 – April 14, 1792) was a Hungarian astronomer and an ordained Jesuit priest from the Kingdom of Hungary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975016}
{"src_title": "Otto Carius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "World War II.", "content": "World War II broke out soon after Carius graduated from school. He enlisted in the army and was only accepted after twice being rejected as unfit for military service for being underweight. He first served in the infantry before volunteering for the Panzer branch; his father referred to tanks as \"metal deathtraps.\" Carius was transferred to the 502nd Heavy Panzer Battalion in 1943 and fought in the northern sectors of the Eastern Front.  At the beginning of 1945 he was made commander of a Jagdtiger company of the 512th Heavy Anti-tank Battalion, which by that time was engaged in fighting on the Western Front. On 8 March 1945, the 2nd Company was directed to the front line near Siegburg, where it took part in the defense of the Rhine against the American forces crossing the river, with limited success. Eventually, after being trapped in the Ruhr Pocket east of the Rhine, he ordered all his Jagdtigers destroyed to prevent enemy forces from capturing them intact and then surrendered to the US Army on 7 May. He was released from captivity on 21 May, two weeks later.  He is considered a \"panzer ace\", credited with destroying more than 150 enemy tanks and one plane; most of his kills were on the Eastern Front.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After the war, Carius studied pharmacy at Heidelberg University and set up a pharmacy which he named the \"Tiger Apotheke\" as a tribute to the Tiger tank. He also authored a book about his wartime experiences called \"Tigers in the Mud\", which was released in 1960. Carius ran his pharmacy until retiring in 2011. He died on 24 January 2015 at age 92.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otto Carius (27 May 1922 – 24 January 2015) was a German tank commander in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during World War II. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975017}
{"src_title": "Jiří Raška", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Frenštát pod Radhoštěm in 1941. His father died of leukaemia when Jiří Raška was nine years old, leaving his mother to raise four children on her own. His interest in winter sports was not surprising. His cousin and uncle, both active jumpers, took him as their disciple. \"\"We were saying that children in Frenštát are born with skis on their feet,\"\" Raška said in the interview for Czech newspaper Lidové noviny. Raška was however also active in other sports, like football, cycling and handball.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Introduction to ski jumping.", "content": "As a young jumper he got into coach Zdeněk Remsa's legendary group, the “Remsa Boys”. When military service on Šumava threatened Raška’s budding career, Remsa arranged his entrance into the military sports club Dukla Liberec. In 1964 he travelled to the Winter Olympic Games in Innsbruck as a substitute. There he watched Josef Matouš, who led after the first round and had an opportunity to become the second Czech Winter Olympic medalist, but ended up without a medal. Four years later, Raška was in a similar situation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career successes.", "content": "Thanks to the fourth place in the 1966 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships and a second place in the Four Hills Tournament, he travelled to the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble as one of the favourites. Raška himself was hoping to take the fifth place and would not have been disappointed with the tenth place. Czech writer Ota Pavel described his first jump in the normal hill event: \"\"It was a beautiful flight in the infinite silence, that took short human age. Painter and editor Ota Mašek nearly fainted, photographer Jarda Skála stopped photographing. Coach Remsa was washing his face with snow and squeaking Norwegian Wirkola stopped squeaking.\"\" Raška jumped 79 metres, which was less than Austrian Baldur Preiml, but thanks to better style he led after the first round. In the second jump he did not fare well, reaching only 72.5 meters, but he went on to victory. Jiří Raška became the first Czech winner in the Winter Olympics. He added the silver medal in the large hill event, beaten only by Vladimir Beloussov of the Soviet Union.  That year he managed to win six races in a row. At the 1970 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships in Vysoké Tatry, over a hundred thousand visitors came to see him jump. He finished second in the large hill event and eighth in the normal hill event.  In 1969 he became a world record holder for only one day. At the new ramp in Planica he jumped 164 meters, four meters more than was the day-old record of his rival Bjørn Wirkola of Norway. However, the following day his record was broken by Manfred Wolf (165 m) from East Germany. Raška's other successes included a silver medal at the World Championships in the large hill in 1970, victory in the Four Hills Tournament the year after, bronze in the historically first Ski-flying World Championships, and fifth place in the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo.  In 1974 he became a coach but continued with active jumping. \"\"I decided to end immediately as the first junior beats me,\"\" he said to the Hospodářské noviny (Czech newspaper). Thus he ended his competition career in 1976 after being defeated by František Novák.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "Between 1994 and 1996 he was together with Medal and later on Malec coach of the Czech representation. During the 1990s he was also a coach of the Czech junior representation and vice-chair of the Czech Ski Union. In the Union’s poll he was elected as a Czech skier of the century. He died in 2012 in Nový Jičín.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jiří Raška (; 4 February 1941 – 20 January 2012) was a Czechoslovakian ski jumper. He is regarded as the most famous Czech ski jumper, Olympic winner of the century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975018}
{"src_title": "Prague Zoo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The idea for a zoological garden in Prague was first proposed in 1881 in a newspaper article by Count Sweerts-Spork, on the occasion of the marriage of Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria and Princess Stéphanie of Belgium. In 1919, at a meeting of the advisory board for mathematics and natural sciences at the Ministry of Education and National Enlightenment, a committee was established to start the preparatory work on the establishment of the zoo. The zoo was opened to the public on 28 September 1931.  In 1938, the first artificially bred Andean condor in the world was hatched and reared, and the first artificially bred polar bear, a female named Ilun, followed in 1942. In 1959 Dr. Zdeněk Veselovský was appointed as director of the zoo. Under his leadership, the zoo achieved some world-class successes in the area of breeding and scientific research.  In 1971 a new pavilion opened for large mammals, including elephants, hippos and rhinos, followed by a big cat pavilion in 1991.  In 2001 the first artificial breeding of a Przewalski's Horse in the world took place at the zoo. In 2002 Prague suffered the worst floods in its history. A large part of the zoo was flooded and 134 animals died. Well known is the story of Gaston, a sea lion, which the Vltava and Elbe rivers took to Germany, where Gaston died of total exhaustion. However, thanks to a big wave of solidarity and donations, Prague Zoo greatly flourished in the next decade.  In 2004 the country's largest and most expensive animal pavilion, named the \"Indonesian Jungle\", was opened, and the first Western gorilla was born in Czech Republic, named Moja. This was followed in 2007 by the first breeding of a Komodo dragon in Prague Zoo. In 2009 a new exhibition for brown fur seals was opened, with an enlarged swimming pool and a grandstand. The following year saw a Texas tortoise bred in Europe for the first time.  In 2011 Moja, a western gorilla famous from the multimedia project \"The Revealed\", was moved to Cabarceno Natural Park in Spain. Four Przewalski's horses were transported to Mongolia to be released into the wild as part of Return of the Wild Horses reintroduction and in situ conservation project.  In 2012 the zoo saw its highest number of babies born, numbering 1,557 from 211 species, including the world's first breeding of the crowned river turtle and the rufous-cheeked laughingthrush, as well as Prague Zoo's first breeding of the red panda. In 2013 a large new Elephant Valley pavilion was introduced and the first elephant was born in Prague Zoo, named Sita. The zoo was flooded in June the same year for a second time, but most animals were evacuated in time.  In 2014, a pavilion was opened for 33 critically endangered Chinese giant salamanders, including three adults. The collection features the largest of such salamanders in Europe.  After 13 years of waiting, the zoo is among the three unique zoos in the world, which have a breeding pair of Lesser Antillean iguana.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prague Zoological Garden (Czech: \"Zoologická zahrada hl. m. Prahy\") is a zoo in Prague, Czech Republic. It was opened in 1931 with the goal to \"advance the study of zoology, protect wildlife, and educate the public\" in the district of Troja in the north of Prague. In 2013, the zoo occupied with in use for exhibits, and housed around 5,000 animals from just 676 species, including 132 species listed as threatened.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975019}
{"src_title": "Altiplano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The Altiplano is an area of inland drainage (endorheism) lying in the central Andes, occupying parts of northern Chile and Argentina, western Bolivia and southern Peru. Its height averages about 3,750 meters (12,300 feet), slightly less than that of the Tibetan Plateau. Unlike conditions in Tibet, the Altiplano is dominated by massive active volcanoes of the Central Volcanic Zone to the west, such as Ampato (6288 m), Tutupaca (5,816 m), Parinacota (6348 m), Guallatiri (6071 m), Paruma (5,728 m), Uturunku (6,008 m) and Licancabur (5,916 m), and the Cordillera Real in the north east with Illampu (6,368 m), Huayna Potosí (6,088 m), Janq'u Uma (6,427 m) and Illimani (6,438 m). The Atacama Desert, one of the driest areas on the planet, lies to the southwest of the Altiplano; to the east lies the humid Amazon rainforest.  The Altiplano is noted for hypoxic air caused by very high elevation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "At various times during the Pleistocene epoch, both the southern and northern Altiplano were covered by vast pluvial lakes. Remnants are Lake Titicaca, straddling the Peru–Bolivia border, and Poopó, a salt lake that extends south of Oruro, Bolivia. \"Salar de Uyuni\", locally known as \"Salar de Tunupa\", and \"Salar de Coipasa\" are two large dry salt flats formed after the Altiplano paleolakes dried out.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climatic zones.", "content": "The term Altiplano is sometimes used to identify the altitude zone and the type of climate that prevails within it: it is colder than that of the \"tierra fría\" but not as cold as that of the tierra helada. Scientists classify the latter as commencing at an elevation of approximately 4,500 meters (or about 15,000 feet). Alternate names used in place of \"altiplano\" in this context include \"puna\" and \"páramos\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "In general the climate is cool and humid to semi-arid and even arid, with mean annual temperatures that vary from near the western mountain range to near Lake Titicaca; and total annual rainfall that ranges between less than to the south west to more than near and over Lake Titicaca. The diurnal cycle of temperature is very wide, with maximum temperatures in the order of and the minimum in the order of.  The coldest temperatures occur in the southwestern portion of the Altiplano during the winter months of June and July. The seasonal cycle of rainfall is marked, with the rainy season concentrated between December and March. The rest of the year tends to be very dry, cool, windy and sunny. Snowfall may happen between April and September, especially to the north, but it is not very common (between one and five times a year).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "Several mechanisms have been put forth for the formation of the Altiplano plateau; hypotheses try to explain why the topography in the Andes incorporates this large area of low relief at high altitude (high plateau) within the orogen:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Altiplano (Spanish for \"high plain\"), Collao (Quechua and Aymara: Qullaw, meaning \"place of the Qulla\") or Andean Plateau, in west-central South America, is the area where the Andes are the widest. It is the most extensive area of high plateau on Earth outside Tibet. The bulk of the Altiplano lies in Bolivia, but its northern parts lie in Peru, and its southern parts lie in Chile and Argentina.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975020}
{"src_title": "Morimond Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Situated in the diocese of Langres, Morimond was founded in 1115 by Count Odelric of Aigremont and his wife Adeline of Choiseul and settled from Citeaux. The first abbot, known as a \"pillar of the Cistercians\", was Arnold the German. Thanks to his energy and influence, Morimond grew very rapidly, and established numerous colonies in France, Germany, Poland, Bohemia, Spain, and Cyprus. The only daughter-house in England and Wales was Dore Abbey, founded in 1147. Amongst the best-known were Ebrach Abbey in Germany (1126); Heiligenkreuz Abbey in Austria (1134); and Aiguebelle Abbey in France (1137), which was later restored by the Reformed Cistercians. Over the next two centuries Morimond continued to be active in the foundation of new Cistercian houses, so much so that towards the end of the 18th century, Morimond counted amongst its filiations nearly seven hundred monasteries and nunneries.  Briefs from various popes placed the principal Military Orders of Spain under the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbot of Morimond: the Order of Calatrava (1187); the Order of Alcantara (1214); the Order of Christ in Portugal (1319), and later on, those of the Orders of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus in Savoy.  The name \"Morimond\" is from the Latin \"\"mori mundo\"\", or \"Die to the world\": all who entered these Cistercian abbeys in the 12th century renounced worldly life. One of the famous men who passed through Morimond was Otto of Freising, son of Margrave Leopold III of Austria and his spouse Agnes, daughter of Emperor Henry IV. He studied in Paris and then entered the abbey, of which he became abbot. Pope Benedict XII, third of the Avignon popes (1334–1342), also began his career as a monk in Morimond.  The cruciform abbey church with three aisles and closed choir, the sides of which are occupied by chapels linked by a gangway, was built to be restrained and severe, according to the Cistercian building prescriptions, without towers or artistic adornment. In 1572, during the Wars of Religion, and again in 1636 in the Thirty Years' War, Morimond was destroyed; it was abandoned in 1791 in the French Revolution. Only the church survived, but fell into ruin during the 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remains.", "content": "Today, of the medieval structures, only a fragment of the north aisle is still standing, although there remain from the 18th century the gateway, the library and some pavilions and arcades.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Morimond Abbey is a religious complex in Parnoy-en-Bassigny, Haute-Marne department, in the Champagne-Ardenne region of France. It was the fourth of the four great daughter abbeys of Cîteaux Abbey, of primary importance in the spread of the Cistercian Order, along with La Ferté to the south, Pontigny to the west and Clairvaux to the north.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975021}
{"src_title": "John Henry, Margrave of Moravia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Henry was born at Mělník, the third surviving son of King John of Bohemia (1296–1346) and his wife, the Přemyslid princess Elizabeth (1292–1330). John Henry therefore was the younger brother of Emperor Charles IV. At the time of his birth, the marriage of his parents was already broken; his mother fled to the court of their son-in-law Duke Henry XIV of Bavaria, and John Henry was raised in Cham, Upper Palatinate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "County of Tyrol.", "content": "King John made attempts to reconcile with his former rival Henry, duke of Carinthia and count of Tyrol, whom he had deposed as king of Bohemia in 1310. In 1327, his younger son John Henry and Henry's daughter, Countess Margaret of Tyrol, were betrothed. As Henry had no sons, King John expected a considerable enlargement of the Luxembourg lands and control over the Tyrolean mountain passes to Italy. John Henry and Margaret were married on 16 September 1330 at Innsbruck. Their suzerain, Emperor Louis IV, in the same year secretly promised Carinthia, the March of Carniola, and large parts of Tyrol to Henry's nephews Dukes Albert II and Otto of Austria.  Henry died on 2 April 1335, and Emperor Louis IV consequently gave Carinthia and southern Tyrol including the overlordship of the prince-bishoprics of Trent and Brixen to the Austrian dukes. King John felt deprived. He put an end to his quarrels with King Casimir III of Poland and campaigned in Austria. A peace was concluded at the city of Enns on 9 October 1336, when John renounced Carinthia, while Margaret and John Henry gained Tyrol.  John Henry's brother Charles acted as regent for his 14-year-old brother John Henry and soon came into conflict with the Tyrolian nobility. Furthermore, John Henry and his wife had developed a strong aversion to each other. Margaret finally took the lead of the insurgence against her husband, when she refused him the access to Castle Tyrol on 1 November 1341. John Henry fled to the Patriarchal State of Aquileia, while his wife claimed that their marriage had never been consummated. Margaret was backed by Emperor Louis IV, who himself had plans to assure the Tyrolian heritage for the House of Wittelsbach. He had the scholars Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham render an opinion that the marriage was not valid. In 1342, Margaret took her inheritance of Tirol to her next husband, the Emperor's eldest son Margrave Louis I of Brandenburg.  Humiliated, John Henry returned to Bohemia. Furious King John allied with Pope Clement VI, who banned both Louis and Margaret; nevertheless, the Luxembourg rule over Tyrol was terminated. In 1346 John died in the Battle of Crécy and was succeeded by his eldest son, Charles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Margraviate of Moravia.", "content": "After John Henry's marriage was conclusively terminated according to canon law in 1349, he married Margaret, daughter of Duke Nicholas II of Opava, and Charles IV gave him the Margraviate of Moravia as appanage. In turn, John henry had to renounce all rights to the Bohemian throne. His second marriage produced several sons, including the future Margrave Jobst of Moravia. After Margaret of Opava died in 1363, John Henry married Margaret, the daughter of Duke Albert II of Austria and widow of Margaret of Tyrol's son from her marriage with Louis, Count Meinhard III of Tyrol.  John Henry is buried at St Thomas's Abbey, in Brno.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Henry of Luxembourg (, ; 12 February 1322 – 12 November 1375), a member of the House of Luxembourg, was Count of Tyrol from 1335 to 1341 and Margrave of Moravia from 1349 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975022}
{"src_title": "Tadeusz Kantor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Kantor was born to Marian Kantor-Mirski and Helena Berger. His family were staunch Catholics. His mother was related to composer and conductor Krzysztof Penderecki, through her German father. Born in Wielopole Skrzyńskie, Galicia (then in Austria-Hungary, now in Poland), Kantor graduated from the Cracow Academy in 1939. During the Nazi occupation of Poland, he founded the Independent Theatre, and served as a professor at the Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków as well as a director of experimental theatre in Kraków from 1942 to 1944. After the war, he became known for his avant-garde work in stage design including designs for \"Saint Joan\" (1956) and \"Measure for Measure\" (1956). Specific examples of such changes to standard theatre were stages that extended out into the audience, and the use of mannequins as real-life actors.  In 1955, with a group of visual artists disenchanted with the growing institutionalization of avant-garde, he formed a new theatre ensemble called Cricot 2. In the 1960s, Cricot 2 gave performances in many theatres in Poland and abroad, gaining recognition for their stage \"happenings\". His interest was mainly with the absurdists and Polish writer and playwright Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz (also known as \"Witkacy\"). Stage productions of Witkacy's plays \"The Cuttlefish\" (1956) and \"The Water Hen\" (1969) were regarded as his best achievements during this time. A 1972 performance of \"The Water Hen\" was described as \"the least-publicised, most talked-about event at the Edinburgh festival\".  \"Dead Class\" (1975) was the most famous of his theatre pieces of the 1970s. A TV-Movie of the production was made in 1977, directed by Andrzej Wajda. In the play, Kantor himself played the role of a teacher who presided over a class of apparently dead characters who are confronted by mannequins representing the characters' younger selves. He had begun experimenting with the juxtaposition of mannequins and live actors in the 1950s.  His later works of the 1980s were very personal reflections. As in \"Dead Class\", he would sometimes represent himself on stage. In the 1990s, his works became well known in the United States due to presentations at Ellen Stewart's La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club which inspired Lower East Side cultural leaders such as the Nuyorican poet Giannina Braschi.  Throughout his life, Kantor had an interesting and unique relationship with Jewish culture; despite being a nominal Catholic Kantor incorporated many elements of what was known as \"Jewish theatre\" into his works.  Kantor died in Kraków.  The new Center for the Documentation of the Art of Tadeusz Kantor, was opened in Krakow in 2014.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tadeusz Kantor (6 April 1915 – 8 December 1990) was a Polish painter, assemblage and Happenings artist, set designer and theatre director. Kantor is renowned for his revolutionary theatrical performances in Poland and abroad. Laureate of Witkacy Prize - Critics' Circle Award (1989).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975023}
{"src_title": "André Glucksmann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "André Glucksmann was born in 1937 in Boulogne-Billancourt, the son of Ashkenazi Jewish parents from Austria-Hungary. His father was from Bukovina, which later became part of Romania, and his mother from Prague, which later became the capital of Czechoslovakia.  Glucksmann's father was killed in World War II, and his mother and sister were active in the French Resistance. The family \"narrowly escaped deportation to the camps\" during the Holocaust, which influenced Glucksmann's developing ideas of \"the state as the ultimate source of barbarism\".  He studied at the Lycée la Martinière in Lyon, and later enrolled at École normale supérieure de Saint-Cloud. His first book, \"Le Discours de la Guerre\", was published in 1968.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "In 1975 he published the anti-Marxist book \"La Cuisinière et le Mangeur d'Hommes\" - subtitled \"Réflexions sur l'État, le marxisme et les camps de concentration\", in which he argued that Marxism leads inevitably to totalitarianism, tracing parallels between the crimes of Nazism and Communism. In his next book \"Les maitres penseurs\", published in 1977 and translated into English as \"Master Thinkers\" (Harper & Row, 1980), he traced the intellectual justification for totalitarianism back to the ideas articulated by various German philosophers such as Fichte, Hegel, Marx, and Nietzsche. In the years of the Vietnam War, Glucksmann rose to national prominence after expressing his support for Vietnamese boat people. He began working with Bernard-Henri Lévy criticizing Communism. Both had formerly been well known Marxists. Shortly afterwards they became known, along with others of their generation who rejected Marxism, as New Philosophers, a term coined by Lévy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1980s and 1990s.", "content": "In 1985, Glucksmann signed a petition to President Reagan urging him to continue his support for the Contras in Nicaragua. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, Glucksmann became an advocate for the use of nuclear power. In 1995 he supported the resumption of nuclear tests by Jacques Chirac. He supported the NATO intervention in Serbia in 1999. He also called for Chechnya to become independent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "In his book \"Dostoyevsky in Manhattan\", Glucksmann asserts that nihilism, particularly as depicted by Dostoyevsky in his novels \"Demons\" and \"The Brothers Karamazov\", is the 'characteristic form' of modern terrorism. Drawing on Ivan Karamazov's dictum that \"If there is no God, everything is permitted\", Glucksmann argues that:  The inner nature of nihilistic terrorism is that everything is permissible, whether because God exists and I am his representative, or because God does not exist and I take his place.  His 2006 book \"Une rage d’enfant\" is an autobiography which talks about how his experiences as a young Jew in occupied France led to his interest in philosophy and his belief in the importance of intervention:  My style of thinking is to compare what happens on the TV, in the news and so on, and then extract what I can from books of philosophers to understand it. Philosophy for me is like subtitles. The problem comes from current events but the answer is supplied by philosophy.  Glucksmann criticises the notion that Islamic terrorism is a product of the clash of civilizations between Islam and the West, arguing that the first victims of Islamic terrorism are Muslims:  Why do the 200,000 slaughtered Muslims of Darfur not arouse even half a quarter of the fury caused by 200-times fewer dead in Lebanon? Must we deduce that Muslims killed by other Muslims don’t count – whether in the eyes of Muslim authorities or viewed through the bad conscience of the West?", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Glucksmann supported military action by the West in Afghanistan and Iraq, and was highly critical of Russian foreign policy, supporting for example Chechen independence. However, he was against the Abkhazian and South Ossetian independence from Georgia, arguing that Georgia is essential to maintaining European Union \"energy independence,\" vis-a-vis Russia, through access to oil and gas reserves in the former Soviet republics: \"If Tbilisi falls, there will be no way to get around Gazprom and guarantee autonomous access to the gas and petroleum wealth of Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan\". As proof of Russia's plans to use energy blackmail, Glucksmann referenced a biting anti-Gazprom satirical song performed at the annual satirical award show \"Silver Rubber Boot\", which made jokes like: \"If the Eurovision Song Contest denies victory to Russia again, we are going to drive to their concert and block their gas with our bodies!\" Glucksmann cited this as evidence that the Russian people want to cut off gas to Ukraine and Europe. He wrote:  Consider a popular song performed by a military choir in Moscow. Its chorus depicts the \"radiant future\" that Gazprom is preparing: \"Europe has a problem with us? We will cut off its gas...\" The Russian public loves the song.  Glucksmann supported Nicolas Sarkozy for the April–May 2007 presidential election.  In August 2008 he co-signed an open letter with Václav Havel, Desmond Tutu, and Wei Jingsheng calling upon the Chinese authorities to respect human rights both during and after the Beijing Olympic Games.  He was a signatory of the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Glucksmann died in Paris on 10 November 2015 at the age of 78.  In reaction to his death, President François Hollande said that Glucksmann always \"listened to the suffering of peoples\". Former president and opposition leader Nicolas Sarkozy commented on Glucksmann's death by saying: \"[Glucksmann] turned a page in French thought from the second half of the 20th Century\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "\"Note: Many of his works were translated into German by his long-term colleague Helmut Kohlenberger.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "André Glucksmann (; 19 June 1937 – 10 November 2015) was a French philosopher, activist and writer. He was a leading figure of the new philosophers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975024}
{"src_title": "Kakutsa Cholokashvili", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Kakutsa Cholokashvili was born into an aristocratic family of Prince Ioseb Cholokashvili at the family estate at Matani in the eastern Georgian province of Kakheti (then part of the Tiflis Governorate, Russian Empire). The contemporary Russian administrative documents spelled his surname \"Челокаев\" (Chelokayev). Cholokashvili attended the Gymnasium for Nobility in Tiflis (Tbilisi), which was then directed by the historian Ekvtime Takaishvili. In 1909 he was drafted into the Russian military. He served in the 16th Tver Dragoon Regiment and returned to Georgia with the rank of podporuchik in 1912.  With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Cholokashvili was recalled to active duty and assigned to lead a cavalry squadron on the Austro-Hungarian front. Wounded later that year, he was transferred to the Caucasus Front. During the Battle of Sarikamish in December 1914, he commanded a cavalry squadron under General Vasily Gabashvili and distinguished himself by capturing and defending a strategic fortification known as \"the Eagle's Nest\" against the overwhelming Ottoman troops. He was severely wounded and awarded the Gold Sword for Bravery in 1916. After treatment at the St. Nino Hospital in Tiflis, he was enlisted in the nascent Georgian Cavalry Legion which marched into Persia as part of General Baratov's 1915–1917 expedition. Shortly thereafter, he was promoted to the rank of podpolkovnik (lieutenant-colonel).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Independent Georgia.", "content": "After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Cholokashvili returned to Georgia and became involved in Georgia's independence movement. He joined the National Democratic Party of Georgia and helped organize national cavalry units early in 1918. After Georgia declared its independence as a Democratic Republic in May 1918, Cholokashvili was put in charge of a squadron in the Cavalry Division of the People's Guard of Georgia commanded by Colonel Giorgi Khimshiashvili. In this capacity, Cholokashvili served in the campaigns against Armenia (December 1918 – January 1919), White Russian forces (February–October 1919), pro-Bolshevik rebels in Gori (November–December 1919), and in a raid in the Batumi Oblast (February–March 1920). In April 1920, Cholokashvili and several of his fellow officers were dismissed from service after they protested against what they saw an unjustified dismissal and arrest of their colleague on criminal charges.  When the Soviet Russian Red Army invaded Georgia in February 1921, Cholokashvili was still negotiating his return to the army. He accompanied General David Chavchavadze to western Georgia to recruit volunteers for the Georgian cavalry. By the time they formed two cavalry squadrons and took to the field, Tiflis had fallen and a Soviet republic had been proclaimed in Georgia. In March 1921, the Georgian government and military leadership sailed in European exile; Cholokashvili remained in Georgia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Partisan leader.", "content": "As the Soviets pushed for the efforts to consolidate their power in Georgia, an underground opposition movement emerged. In February 1922, Cholokashvili was arrested by the Soviet security agents on charges of \"counter-revolutionary activities\" in Sighnaghi in his native Kakheti, but he escaped and took to the mountainous Pankisi Valley, where he formed a group of followers known as the Band of Sworn Men (შეფიცულთა რაზმი) and joined the rebellious Khevsur mountaineers. The Bolsheviks used air force and artillery to squash the uprising. With Chechnya as his refuge, Cholokashvili and his guerrillas held out for two years. Revenge killings of the Soviet secret police executioners made him a folk hero.  Foreign diplomats reported that \"the affair of Chelokaev\" was a source of much trouble for the Bolshevik military leaders. The Soviet officialdom and historians referred to the movement as \"political banditry\". In his 1976 study of the Georgian revolt, the Soviet Russian historian Trifonov wrote that \"the most numerous and dangerous band was that of Chelokaev. In the fall of 1922 it consisted of about 500 persons.\"  In August 1924, Cholokashvili left his mountainous refuge once again to join a larger anti-Soviet uprising in Georgia. He took command of the single largest rebel unit operating in eastern Georgia. Cholokashvili raided the town of Manglisi on 29 August, but, unable to get closer to Tiflis, he withdrew and attacked the Bolsheviks at Dusheti. Hunted down by the Soviet forces, Cholokashvili escaped on several occasions before conceding defeat. In September 1924, he fled across the porous border with Turkey. The Cholokashvili family—his wife and two little daughters—were rounded up and put in jail; his father-in-law was executed. Kakutsa's younger brother, Simon, had been killed earlier, during the revolt in Kakheti.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Emigration.", "content": "After leaving Georgia, Cholokashvili moved from Turkey to France, where many Georgian political émigrés had found refuge. He and his followers settled down at Viroflay, but received a cool welcome from the Leuville-sur-Orge-based Georgian government-in-exile, dominated by the Social-Democrats (Mensheviks). The Mensheviks treated Cholokashvili, a former nobleman, with suspicion, but were eager to exploit his standing among the Georgian nationalists for their political ends. On the other hand, Kakutsa (and many of his fellow military officers such as General Giorgi Kvinitadze) contemned the Mensheviks for their alleged disregard of national interests and indifference to the army. Later in the 1920s, Cholokashvili was close to the right-wing nationalistic organization Tetri Giorgi.  Making use of and contributing to further division among the Georgian émigrés, the Soviet intelligence leadership, especially, Lavrenty Beria, a Georgian, was able to infiltrate the expatriate Georgian community. Beria now targeted Cholokashvili, whose wife and children he held hostage. He even tried to bribe him into making a pro-Soviet recantation, but Cholokashvili demurred. Beria then foisted forged gold coins on Kakutsa and denounced him to the French police in 1927. Cholokashvili was arrested, but acquitted of charges. Cholokashvili was then framed for stealing French War Ministry funds. The Soviet agents also spread rumors that Kakutsa planned to assassinate the exiled Menshevik leaders, Noe Zhordania and Noe Ramishvili. Beria's designs were foiled as Kakutsa's health rapidly declined; he died of tuberculosis, in 1930, at the Plaz-Coutant sanatorium near Passy, Haute-Savoie.  Cholokashvili was first buried at the Cimetière de Saint-Ouen. He was later reburied to the Leuville Cemetery of Georgian émigrés and, finally, to the Mtatsminda Pantheon in Tbilisi, Georgia's capital, in 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Under the Soviet rule, Cholokashvili's name was expurgated from the Georgian history for several decades. With the rise of nationalist and pro-independence movements in the 1980s, Kakutsa re-emerged as a major symbol of Georgian patriotism and resistance to the Soviet regime. In October 1990, his closest companion and comrade-in-arms, the 94-year-old émigré Aleksandre Sulkhanishvili, returned from his 66-year-long exile to a hero's welcome in Tbilisi, bringing Kakutsa's banner to Georgia. Sulkhanishvili died less than a month after his return and was buried in his native village.  On 20–21 November 2005, Cholokashvili's remains were brought to Georgia and afforded a state funeral, in the presence of high-ranking government and church officials and thousands of Georgians, at the Mtatsminda Pantheon. In 2007, Cholokashvili's portrait was depicted on Georgia's new 200-lari banknote. The same year, Tbilisi's Marjanishvili Theatre staged Levan Tsuladze's successful production of \"Kakutsa Cholokashvili\", an epic patriotic play by Guram Kartvelishvili.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kaikhosro \"Kakutsa\" Cholokashvili (; ;, \"Kaikhosro Chelokayev\") (July 14, 1888 – June 27, 1930) was a Georgian military officer and a commander of an anti-Soviet guerrilla movement in Georgia. He is regarded as a national hero in Georgia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975025}
{"src_title": "French aircraft carrier Clemenceau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The development of \"Clemenceau\" represented France's effort to produce its own class of multi-role aircraft carriers to replace the American and British ships provided at the end of World War II. The ship had a small but effective design, using some of the elements of United States carriers, but on a smaller scale. The vessels were given relatively heavy gun armament for their size, and some stability problems were encountered which required bulging the hull.  The \"Clemenceau\"-class aircraft carriers are of conventional CATOBAR design. The landing area is long by wide; it is angled at 8 degrees off of the ship's axis. The flight deck is long. The forward aircraft elevator is to starboard, and the rear elevator is positioned on the deck edge to save hangar space. The forward of two catapults is at the bow to port, the aft catapult is on the angled landing deck. The hangar deck dimensions are by - with overhead.  \"Clemenceau\" went through a major refit from September 1977 to November 1978. She was refitted again with new defensive systems from 1September 1985 to 31August 1987, this included the replacement of four of the 100 mm guns with a pair of Crotale surface-to-air missile launchers. She was modified in 1978 to enable her aircraft to deliver several AN 52 bombs. In 1993 she was modified again to take nuclear capable Air-Sol Moyenne Portée missiles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Throughout the course of the aircraft carrier's lengthy career, it participated in the majority of French naval operations. From 12January to 5February 1962, \"Clemenceau\" participated in a NATO exercise known as \"BigGame\" with the United States Sixth Fleet in the western Mediterranean as an anti-submarine aircraft carrier. This was followed from 9March to 2April with another NATO exercise called OTAN Dawn Breeze VII, in the Gibraltar zone.  In January 1968, \"Clemenceau\" participated in the search for the lost submarine in the Mediterranean when contact was lost from port at Toulon. \"Minerve\" remained lost until French Defence Minister Florence Parly announced on 22 July 2019 that the wreck had been discovered.  During the same year, the carrier was deployed to the south Pacific for French nuclear bomb testing in Polynesia including Canopus, the first French hydrogen bomb. With the deployment of the fleet, codenamed Alfa Force (), the naval force present around two atolls represented more than 40% of the tonnage of the entire French navy. \"Clemenceau\" was the flagship of a fleet composed of forty ships.  During 1974–1977 \"Clemenceau\" was deployed off the African coast in the Indian Ocean in \"Operation Saphir I\" and \"Operation Saphir II\" in support of newly independent Djibouti. During the Lebanese Civil War \"Clemenceau\" was deployed in the East Mediterranean in 1983–84. The carrier rotated with, providing constant on-station air support to French peacekeepers in the Multinational Force in Lebanon FSMB and the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon UNIFIL. The carrier's main support engagement was in \"Operation Olifant\". In 1987–1988 she participated in \"Operation Prométhée\" in the Gulf of Oman during the war between Iraq and Iran. The Promethée battle force (Task Force 623), included \"Clemenceau\", the mine counter-measures support ship \"Loire\", and s \"Meuse\", \"Var\", and \"Marne\". In 1990, escorted by the cruiser and the tanker \"Var\", she transported 40 helicopters, (SA-341F/ -342 Gazelles, SA-330 Pumas), three Br-1050 Alizés and trucks to Iraq during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. The carrier was mainly engaged in \"Operation Salamandre\" in the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea during the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait. During 1993 to 1996 \"Clemenceau\" completed several tours including combat operations and air patrol over the former Yugoslavia in Operation Balbuzard () in order to support the UN's troops, then \"Salamandre\" in the Adriatic Sea during the Yugoslav Wars.  \"Clemenceau\" operated around the world with a career total of more than one million nautical miles traveled, the equivalent of circumnavigating the globe 48 times. The carrier has passed 3,125 days at sea, with 80,000 hours of function, and conducted more than 70,000 catapult-launches.  In 1983, the \"bâtiment\" was the first unit of the French Navy to embark female personnel. Three women were assigned on board: one \"maître principal\", one \"secrétaire militaire\" and one \"premier maître\".  Loyal to the tradition of the French Navy, \"Clemenceau\" welcomed on board numerous fine art painters, some for a week and others for up to two months.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disposal.", "content": "On 31 December 2005, \"Clemenceau\" left Toulon to be dismantled in Alang, India despite protests about improper disposal and a lack of facilities for the management of toxic waste. On 6January 2006 the Supreme Court of India temporarily denied access to Alang. After having been boarded by activists, held by Egyptian authorities, and then transiting the Suez Canal on 15January, a court ruling by the \"Conseil d'État\" ordered \"Clemenceau\" to return to French waters. Able UK, based at the Graythorp yard near Hartlepool received a disassembly contract to use accepted practices in scrapping the ship. The dismantling started on 18November 2009 and the break-up was completed by the end of2010.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Clemenceau (), often affectionately called le Clem, was the French Navy's sixth aircraft carrier and the lead ship of her class. The carrier served from 1961 to 1997, and was dismantled and recycled in 2009. The carrier was the second French warship to be named after Georges Clemenceau, the first being a laid down in 1939 but never finished.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975026}
{"src_title": "Gustav, Prince of Vasa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "After his birth, he was raised under the supervision of the royal governesses Hedvig Ulrika De la Gardie and Charlotte Stierneld in succession.  When he was ten years old, his father was deposed by the Coup of 1809 and the family was forced into exile. The Gustavian party tried to get him accepted as crown prince in 1809 and 1810, but were unsuccessful. Queen Charlotte, wife of the new king, was one of the leading figures of the Gustavian Party, and often visited ex-queen Frederica in her house arrest and worked for prince Gustav to be acknowledged as heir to the throne. She wrote of this issue in her diaries: during a dinner, General Georg Adlersparre told her that Jean Baptiste Bernadotte had asked whether she had any issue, and was interested when he found she had not. She said that the throne already had an heir in the deposed King's son. Adlersparre became upset and expressed the opinion of his party that none of the instigators of the coup would accept this as they feared that the boy would take revenge against them when he became King, and that they would go as far as take up the old rumour that the deposed King was, in fact, illegitimate and the son of Queen Sophia Magdalena and Count Adolf Fredrik Munck af Fulkila to prevent this.  Between the time after the coup and before the royal family left Sweden, they were held under house arrest. During that period, Queen Charlotte described him in her famous diary as an obedient and dutiful child with a great ability to learn. He was not haughty as his younger sister Princess Sophie, but humble. Rather, he seemed too quiet and too careful for his age. When Princess Sophie asked him why their father was no longer King, he told her that it was best not to talk about it. He asked no questions and did not appear to miss his father. After he was told that his father had been deposed, he acted embarrassed towards his mother. However, when she told him that he too had lost his position as heir, he cried and embraced her without a word. The announcement gave him much relief and happiness.  In 1816, he assumed the title of Count of Itterburg. He served as an officer to the Habsburgs of Austria, and in 1829, Emperor Francis I created him Prince of Vasa (). During the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829) there was some talk of Gustav becoming its first king, but this never materialized. He was made a Field Marshal-Lieutenant in the Austrian Army in 1836.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In 1828, he became engaged to Princess Marianne of the Netherlands, but political pressure forced an end to any wedding plans. On 9 November 1830, he married in Karlsruhe his first cousin Princess Louise Amelie of Baden (5 June 1811 in Schwetzingen – 19 July 1854 in Karlsruhe). They divorced in 1843. A son, Louis, was born in 1832 but died shortly after birth. Their daughter, Princess Carola, married the Catholic King Albert I of Saxony, but they had no issue.  Gustaf died on 5 August 1877. In 1884, his (and his infant son's) remains were moved to Stockholm, to be buried beside his father.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prince Gustav Vasa, Count Itterburg (; 9 November 1799 at Stockholm – 4 August/5 August 1877 at Pillnitz), born Crown Prince of Sweden and later called Gustaf Gustafsson von Holstein-Gottorp, Prince of Vasa, was the son of King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden and Queen Frederica. His Austrian princely title (from 1829) was actually spelled \"Wasa\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975027}
{"src_title": "Postcrossing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "How it works.", "content": "If a member sends a postcard they will receive at least one postcard back from a random postcrosser somewhere in the world.  The first step is to request to send a postcard. The website will display and send the member an email with the address of another postcrosser and a postcard ID (e.g.: US-787) which uniquely identifies that postcard in the system. The member then mails a postcard to that postcrosser and writes the postcard ID on it. The postcrosser receives the postcard and registers it using the postcard ID that is on the postcard. At this point, the sender is eligible to receive a postcard from a different postcrosser. Each member can write a profile text which will be visible to the postcrosser who requested an address. This profile can contain personal information about the recipient or postcard preferences.  Initially each member can have up to five postcards traveling at any time. Every time one of the sent postcards is registered, that postcrosser can request another address. The number of postcards allowed to travel at any single time goes up the more postcards a member sends and stops at 100.  The Postcrossing system allows for the same two members to exchange postcards only once. By default, members will exchange postcards with countries other than their own. Users can decide to exchange postcards with other users in his or her own country. Users are allowed to untick the \"send to repeated countries\" option in their profile, but this does not guarantee no repetitions.  A small percentage of mailed postcards get lost during their travels, while others may arrive with the postcard ID unreadable and are difficult to register. There are also members who become inactive while postcards are on the way to them. The system behind the website accounts for all these factors and compensates active members by attempting to reduce the difference between the number of sent and received postcards of each member.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Users distribution.", "content": "\"Last updated February 29, 2020.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The idea for the project was created by Paulo Magalhães, who started the site on July 14, 2005. The motivation was based on the fact that he liked to receive mail, especially postcards. \"The element of surprise of receiving postcards from different places in the world (many of which you would probably never have heard of) can turn your mailbox into a box of surprises – and who wouldn't like that?\"  The project started initially as a hobby for Magalhães, but its unexpected success revealed that the idea was more popular than he ever predicted. He initially hosted the project on an old computer housed in a clothes closet at his home, which was shown to be insufficient. Based on word of mouth, the project quickly expanded over the Portuguese borders where the project was developed.  Over time the project received attention from the media, which contributed to its growth and popularity. Postcrossing reached its first million exchanged postcards on April 11, 2008 and has since grown even more rapidly. It reached the second million on February 26, 2009 with a postcard that traveled from Germany to Norway. The third million was reached on September 24, 2009 with a postcard traveling from Finland to Slovenia. The fourth million was reached on March 28, 2010 with a postcard traveling from the Czech Republic to the Netherlands. The popularity of the site has led to the academic community exploring what makes postcrossing so successful and what other digital communication technologies can learn from that success.  Postcrossing.com celebrated its five-year anniversary on July 14, 2010 with a photography contest for its members. Shortly after celebrating their fifth birthday, Postcrossing.com reached 5,000,000 postcards received on August 24, 2010 with a postcard traveling from Isle of Man (registered under an Italian member) to Thailand. The 7,000,000th postcard was sent on April 4, 2011 from China and received on April 19, 2011 in the Netherlands. The 10,000,000th postcard travelled from Japan to Germany and was registered on January 27, 2012. The 15,000,000th postcard travelled from Germany to Italy and was registered on December 31, 2012. At the moment, 1,000,000 postcards are registered in about two months. In January 2017 the number of postcards passed 39 million.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Postcrossing-themed stamps.", "content": "On October 11, 2011, PostNL released the first set of Dutch Postcrossing-themed stamps at the philatelic exhibition Postex in Apeldoorn. The sheet of 10 stamps was designed by communication agency The Stone Twins, and depicted different types of postcards seemingly strewn about (as if scattered on a doormat).  Finland was the second country to follow suit, with Itella launching their own stamps in honor of Postcrossing on September 9, 2013. Designed by Kokoro & Moi, the set includes four different first-class stamps.  On January 2, 2014, Belposhta also launched their own Postcrossing-themed stamps in Belarus. The stamp was designed by Inga Turlo and features the words \"Happy Postcrossing\" in both English and Belarusian.  On May 28, 2014, Guernsey Post launched a stamp designed by their marketing team, featuring the words \"Happy Postcrossing\" over an outline of Guernsey with a smiley face, giving the \"thumbs-up\" to the hobby of Postcrossing.  On January 27, 2015 the Russian Post issued a stamp designed by Olga Shushlebina. The stamp features the words \"Я ❤ посткроссинг\" (Russian: \"I ❤ postcrossing\") and schematic pictures of world sights.  On March 25, 2016 the Russian Post again issued a stamp featuring the same words designed by I. Sidenko.  Further Postcrossing stamps were issued on March 29, 2016 by PostNL, in 2016 by Guernsey Post and Polish Post, in 2017 by Indonesia Post, and in 2018 by Swiss Post and Moldova Post. Furthermore, the Åland Islands' Åland Post will launch a Postcrossing-themed stamp on June 7, 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Postcrossing is an online project that allows its members to send and receive postcards from all over the world. The project's tag line is \"send a postcard and receive a postcard back from a random person somewhere in the world!\" Its members, also known as postcrossers, send postcards to other members and receive postcards back from other random postcrossers. Where the postcards come from is always a surprise.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975028}
{"src_title": "Jean-Baptiste Dumas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Dumas was born in Alès (Gard), and became an apprentice to an apothecary in his native town. In 1816, he moved to Geneva, where he attended lectures by M. A. Pictet in physics, C. G. de la Rive in chemistry, and A. P. de Candolle in botany, and before he had reached his majority, he was engaged with Pierre Prévost in original work on problems of physiological chemistry and even of embryology. In 1822, he moved to Paris, acting on the advice of Alexander von Humboldt, where he became professor of chemistry, initially at the Lyceum, later (1835) at the École polytechnique. He was one of the founders of the École centrale des arts et manufactures (later named École centrale Paris) in 1829.  In 1832 Dumas became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. From 1868 until his death in 1884 he would serve the academy as the permanent secretary for its department of Physical Sciences. In 1838, Dumas was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The same year he became correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands and, when that became the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1851, he joined as a foreign member. Dumas was president of Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale from 1845 to 1864.  After 1848, he exchanged much of his scientific work for ministerial posts under Napoléon III. He became a member of the National Legislative Assembly. He acted as minister of agriculture and commerce for a few months in 1850–1851, and subsequently became a senator, president of the municipal council of Paris, and master of the French mint, but his official career came to a sudden end with the fall of the Second Empire. Dumas was a devout Catholic who would often defend Christian views against critics.  Dumas died at Cannes in 1884, and is buried at the Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris, in a large tomb near the back wall. His is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel tower.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific work.", "content": "Dumas was one of the first to criticise the electro-chemical doctrines of Jöns Jakob Berzelius, which, at the time his work began, were widely accepted as the true theory of the constitution of compound bodies, and opposed a unitary view to the dualistic conception of the Swedish chemist. In a paper on the atomic theory, published in 1826, he anticipated to a remarkable extent some ideas which are frequently supposed to belong to a later period; and the continuation of these studies led him to the ideas about substitution (metalepsis) which were developed about 1839 into the theory (Older Style Theory) that in organic chemistry there are certain types which remain unchanged even when their hydrogen is replaced by an equivalent quantity of a halide element. The classification of organic compounds into homologous series was advanced as one consequence of his researches into the acids generated by the oxidation of the alcohols.  Dumas also showed that kidneys remove urea from the blood.  Vapour densities and atomic masses  Dumas perfected the method of measuring vapor densities which was also important in determining atomic weights (see below). A known amount of the substance being analyzed was put into a previously weighed glass bulb, which was then sealed and heated in water to vaporize the substance. The pressure was recorded with a barometer, and the bulb is allowed to cool to determine the mass of the vapor. The universal gas law was then used to determine the moles of gas within the bulb.  In an 1826 paper, he described his method for ascertaining vapour densities, and the redeterminations which he undertook by its aid of the atomic weights of carbon and oxygen proved the forerunners of a long series which included some thirty of the elements, the results being mostly published in 1858–1860. He showed \"in all elastic fluids observed under the same conditions, the molecules are placed at equal distances\". He also determined the atomic weight of titanium, one of the rare earth elements.  Dumas established new values for the atomic mass of thirty elements, setting the value for hydrogen to 1.  Determination of nitrogen  In 1833, Dumas developed a method for estimating the amount of nitrogen in an organic compound, founding modern analysis methods. He made important revisions to the existing combustion methods with a sophisticated pneumatic trough. These revisions were the flushing of the combustion tube with carbon dioxide and the addition of potassium hydroxide in the pneumatic trough. Flushing with carbon dioxide eliminated the nitrogen present in the air that previously occupied the combustion tube, eliminating the need for correction due to nitrogen in the air. The potassium hydroxide dissolved the passing carbon dioxide gas, which left nitrogen as the only gas in the collection tube.  Theory of substitution and theory of chemical types  At the Tuileries palace in Paris, guests of a soiree began reacting adversely to a gas suddenly emitted by the candles. Alexandre Brongniart asked his son-in-law, Dumas, to investigate. Dumas found that the coughing and dangerous fumes were caused by chlorine present in the candle wax. Chlorine had been used to whiten the candles, and Dumas concluded that it must have combined during the candle-making process. This led Dumas to investigate the behavior of chlorine substitution in other chemical compounds.  One of the most important research projects of Dumas was that on the action of chlorine on acetic acid to form trichloroacetic acid – a derivative of essentially the same character as the acetic acid itself. Dumas extended this to a theory (sometimes considered a law) which states that in an organic compound, a hydrogen atom may be substituted for any halogen.  In his published paper on the subject, Dumas introduces his theory of types. Since the trichloracetic acid retained similar properties to acetic acid, Dumas reasoned that there were certain chemical structures that remained comparatively unchanged even if one atom were changed within them. The basis of this theory rests in the natural history of organism classification, which Dumas learned under the botanist de Candolle. This new theory challenged Berzelius's previous theory of electrochemical dualism and was also a competitor of radical theory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "He married Herminie Brongniart, daughter of Alexandre Brongniart, in 1826.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean Baptiste André Dumas (14 July 180010 April 1884) was a French chemist, best known for his works on organic analysis and synthesis, as well as the determination of atomic weights (relative atomic masses) and molecular weights by measuring vapor densities. He also developed a method for the analysis of nitrogen in compounds.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975029}
{"src_title": "Archduke Joseph, Palatine of Hungary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Joseph was one of fifteen children born to Leopold II and Maria Louisa of Spain. He was born in Florence, where his father was ruling as Grand Duke of Tuscany.  In 1796, he was made Palatine of Hungary (\"nádor\" in Hungarian). This old title was, in effect, a deputy of the king, when he was absent from the country. Throughout his years in office he supported and promoted economic reforms, public works, and construction projects that aimed to bring Hungary closer to Europe. He did not govern with a heavy hand, harsh measures were usually imposed from Vienna. His years saw the first steamboat and railroad in Hungary, the regulation of the Danube, and the founding of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.  He was very popular among the Magyars, and became the founder of the Hungarian branch of the Habsburg family. His statue now stands in a place of honor at the very heart of Budapest in a square named for him, in front of the Ministry of Finance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First marriage.", "content": "Joseph married the Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia (1783–1801), on 30 October 1799 at Saint Petersburg. He was 23 years old, while she was 16. She died of puerperal fever soon after delivering a short-lived daughter, the Archduchess Alexandrine of Austria, on 9 March 1801 in Buda.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "Joseph's second wife was Princess Hermine of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym (1797–1817). They were married on 30 August 1815 at Schaumburg Castle, when he was 39 and she was 17. She died in childbirth two years later. Both of Joseph's children with Hermine died unmarried and without issue. They were Archduchess Hermine of Austria (14 September 1817, Buda – 13 February 1842, Vienna), and Archduke Stephen, Palatine of Hungary (14 September 1817, Buda – 19 February 1867, Menton).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Third marriage.", "content": "Joseph third wife was the Duchess Maria Dorothea of Württemberg, whom he wed on 24 August 1819 at Kirchheim unter Teck. He was 43 years old, and she was 21. They were the parents of five children:  Joseph had one illegitimate son: Gavio Clùtos (2 March 1810 – January 1859).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Anton Johann, Archduke of Austria (,,, 9 March 1776, Florence – 13 January 1847, Buda), was the Palatine of Hungary from 1796 to 1847. He was the seventh son of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor and Maria Luisa of Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975030}
{"src_title": "The Man Who Planted Trees", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The story begins in the year 1913, when a young man who is the narrator was travelling alone on a hiking trip through Provence, France, and into the Alps, enjoying the relatively unspoiled wilderness. He runs out of water in a treeless, desolate valley where only wild lavender grows and there is no trace of civilization except old, empty crumbling buildings. He finds only a dried-up well, but is saved by a middle-aged shepherd who takes him to a spring he knows of.  Curious about this man and why he has chosen such a lonely life, the narrator stays with him for a time. The shepherd, Elzéard Bouffier, after being widowed, decided to restore the ruined landscape of the isolated and largely abandoned valley by single-handedly cultivating a forest, by planting acorns. He makes holes in the ground with his straight iron staff and drops into them acorns that collected from miles away. He is also growing beech and birch saplings for planting.  The narrator leaves the shepherd, returns home, and later fights in the First World War. In 1920, shell-shocked and depressed after the war, the man returns. He is surprised to see young saplings of all forms taking root in the valley, and new streams running through it, where the shepherd has made dams higher up in the mountains. The narrator makes a full recovery in the peace and beauty of the regrowing valley, and continues to visit the region and M. Bouffier every year. He finds on one visit that Bouffier is no longer a shepherd, because of the sheep eating his young trees, and has become a bee keeper instead.  The valley receives official protection after the First World War, with the French authorities mistakenly believing that the rapid growth of the new forest is a bizarre natural phenomenon, as they are unaware of Bouffier's selfless deeds. Over four decades, Bouffier continues to plant trees, and the valley is turned into a kind of Garden of Eden. By the end of the story, the valley is vibrant with life and is peacefully settled, with more than 10,000 people living there, not knowing they owe their happiness to Bouffier. The narrator tells one of his friends, a government forester, the truth about the new forest, and the friend also helps to protect it.  In 1945, the narrator visits the now very old Bouffier one last time. In 1947, in a hospice in Banon, the man who planted trees peacefully passes away.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "The story itself is so touching that many readers have believed that Elzéard Bouffier was a genuine historical figure and that the narrator of the story was a young Jean Giono himself, and that the tale is part autobiographical. Certainly, Giono lived during this time. While he was alive, Giono enjoyed allowing people to believe that the story was real, and considered it as a tribute to his skill. His daughter, Aline Giono, described it as \"a family story for a long time\". However, Giono himself explained in a 1957 letter to an official of the city of Digne:Sorry to disappoint you, but Elzéard Bouffier is a fictional person. The goal was to make trees likeable, or more specifically, make planting trees likeable. In the letter, he describes how the book was translated in a multitude of languages, distributed freely, and therefore was a success. He adds that, although \"it does not bring me a cent\", it is one of the texts of which he is most proud.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spoken-word recordings.", "content": "In 1985 the Paul Winter Consort recorded an album with Robert J. Lurtsema as the narrator. It was made into a book-on-tape in 1990 by Earth Music Productions. In 1992, the American radio show \"Hearts of Space\" did a musically-accompanied reading (episode 290, first aired on 15 May) with narration by Robert J. Lurtsema. It has also been recorded for BBC Radio 4 with Bill Paterson narrating.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related works.", "content": "The original book has inspired a 2012 book on the same theme: \"The Man Who Planted Trees: Lost Groves, Champion Trees, and an Urgent Plan to Save the Planet\" by Jim Robbins. Robbins work cites Giono's work and goes on to consider the modern-day work of David Milarch, a Michigan nurseryman.  Environmentalist and silvologist Gabriel Hemery wrote a sequel in 2016 titled: \"The Man Who Harvested Trees and Gifted Life\". The short story follows a girl's life-long relationship with a forest and its trees.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Man Who Planted Trees (French title: \"L'homme qui plantait des arbres\") is a short story published in 1953 by French author Jean Giono. An allegorical tale, it tells the story of one shepherd's long and successful single-handed effort to re-forest a desolate valley in the foothills of the Alps in Provence throughout the first half of the 20th century. It was written in French, but first published in English.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975031}
{"src_title": "Czech Social Democratic Party", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Social Democratic Czechoslavonic party in Austria () was a political group founded on 7 April 1878 in Austria-Hungary as a regional wing of the Social Democratic Party of Austria. Founded in Břevnov atop earlier social democratic initiatives, such as the Ouls, it represented much of the Kingdom of Bohemia in the Austrian parliament, and its significant role in the political life of the empire was one of the factors that led to the creation of an independent Czechoslovakia. After the collapse of Austria-Hungary at the end of the First World War, the party became one of the leading parties of the first Czechoslovak Republic. Its members were split over whether to join the Comintern, which in 1921 resulted in the fracturing of the party, with a large part of its membership then forming the new Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. During the occupation of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany, the party was officially abolished, but its members organized resistance movements contrary to the laws of the German-controlled Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, both at home and abroad. After the re-establishment of the Czechoslovak Republic in 1945, the party returned to its pre-war structure and became a member of the National Front which formed a new governing coalition. In 1948, after the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia gained a parliamentary majority, the Czech Social Democratic Party was incorporated into the Communist Party. At the time of the Prague Spring, a reformist movement in 1968, there were talks about allowing the recreation of a Social Democratic party, but Soviet intervention put an end to such ideas. It was only after the Velvet Revolution of 1989 that the party was recreated. Since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, which came into effect on 1 January 1993, the ČSSD has been one of the major political parties of the Czech Republic, and until October 2017 was always one of the two parties with the largest number of seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  At the 1998 parliamentary election, the party won the largest number of seats but failed to form a coalition government, so formed a minority government under its leader Miloš Zeman. With only 74 seats out of 200, the government had confidence and supply from the Civic Democratic Party (ODS), under the so-called Opposition Agreement.  At the elections of 2002, the party gained 70 of the 200 seats in the of Deputies of the Czech Republic Chamber of Deputies. Its leader Vladimír Špidla became prime minister, heading a coalition with two small centre-right parties, the Christian and Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party (KDU–ČSL) and the Freedom Union – Democratic Union (US-DEU) until he was forced to resign in 2004 after the ČSSD lost in the European Parliament elections of 2004  The next leader was Stanislav Gross, serving as leader from 26 June 2004 to 26 April 2005 and as prime minister from 4 August 2004 to 25 April 2005. He resigned after a scandal when he was unable to explain the source of money used to buy his house.  The successor of Gross as prime minister was Jiří Paroubek, while Bohuslav Sobotka became acting party leader from 26 April 2005 to 13 May 2006. Paroubek was then elected as the new party leader in the run-up to the June 2006 elections, at which the party won 32.3% of the vote and 74 out of 200 seats. The election at first caused a stalemate, since the centre-right parties plus the Green Party and the centre-left parties each had exactly 100 seats. The stalemate was broken when two ČSSD deputies, Miloš Melčák and Michal Pohanka, abstained during a vote of confidence, allowing a coalition of the Civic Democrats (ODS), the KDU-ČSL, and the Green Party to form a government. Hence the ČSSD went into opposition.  At the 2010 legislative elections on 28 and 29 May, the ČSSD gained 22.08% of the vote but remained the largest party, with 56 seats. Failing to form a governing coalition, it remained in opposition to a government coalition of the ODS, conservative TOP 09 and conservative-liberal Public Affairs parties. Paroubek resigned as leader on 7 June and was succeeded by Sobotka.  The Party remained the largest Party even after the 2013 legislative election of 25 and 26 October 2013 and in December formed a governing coalition with the populist ANO 2011 and the centrist Christian and Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party. The leader of ČSSD, Bohuslav Sobotka, became the new Prime Minister of the Czech Republic.  The party suffered heavy losses in the 2017 legislative election and was reduced to only 15 seats, the worst result in its history. ČSSD suffered another defeat in the Prague Municipal, local and Senate elections in 2018. ČSSD lost 12 senators (only one managed to win re-election), all Prague deputies and more than half of their local councillors. In 2019 ČSSD lost all their representatives in the European Parliament. Some political commentators have interpreted the string of poor results as a sign of ČSSD losing their position in national politics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Policy positions.", "content": "In economic matters, the ČSSD party platform is typical of Western European social democratic parties. It supports a mixed economy, a strong welfare state, and progressive taxation.  In foreign policy it supports European integration, including joining the eurozone, and is critical of US foreign policy, especially when in opposition—though it does not oppose membership of the Czech Republic in NATO.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name of the party over time.", "content": "Czech lands as part of Austria-Hungary: Czechoslovakia: Czech Republic:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Election results.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Czech Republic wide elections.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Senate.", "content": "1996 whole Senate elected (81 seats), in next elections only one third of seats to be contested", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Current Representatives.", "content": "ČSSD has following members of the government (2013–2017):", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Czech Social Democratic Party (, ČSSD) is a social-democratic political party in the Czech Republic. It holds 15 seats in the Chamber of Deputies following the 2017 legislative election in which the party lost 35 seats. The party has been led by Jan Hamáček since 2018. It has been a junior coalition party within a minority cabinet since June 2018, and was a senior coalition party from 1998 to 2006 and from 2013 to 2017.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975032}
{"src_title": "Wilhelm von Gloeden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Wilhelm von Gloeden's background is something of a mystery. Although Gloeden alleged he was a minor German aristocrat from Mecklenburg, the heirs of the baronial branch of the Gloeden family have always insisted that no such person existed in their family records and that his claim to a barony was without warrant; the barony became extinct in 1885 with the death of Baron Falko von Gloeden.  It is believed he was the son of head forester Carl Hermann Gloeden (1820–1862) and his wife Charlotte Maassen (1824–1901; from 1864 Charlotte von Hammerstein).  After studying art history in Rostock (1876), Gloeden studied painting under at the Weimar Saxon-Grand Ducal Art School (1876–77) until he was forced by lung disease (apparently tuberculosis) to interrupt his studies for a year, convalescing at a sanatorium in the Baltic Sea resort of Görbersdorf, now known as Sokołowsko.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taormina.", "content": "In a search for health, he travelled to Italy (1877–78), first staying in Naples before moving on to Taormina in Sicily. He lodged at the Hotel Vittoria before buying a house near San Domenico Convent. Apart from the period 1915–18, during the First World War, when he was forced to leave Sicily to avoid internment as an enemy alien, he remained in Taormina until his death in 1931.  The mayor of the town in 1872–1882 was the German landscape painter (1843–1939), who had moved there in 1863. Through him, Gloeden became acquainted with the local inhabitants. He set up his photographic studio at first as a hobby and was exhibiting his work internationally by 1893 (London), including Cairo (1897), Berlin (1898–99, including a solo exhibition), Philadelphia (1902), Budapest & Marseilles (1903), Nice (1903 & 1905), Riga (1905), Dresden (1909) and Rome (World Fair 1911). His well-known study of two young boys clinging to an Ionic column was published in \"The Studio\" (London) in June 1893 (above a nude study by Baron Corvo of Cecil Castle, cousin of Charles Kains Jackson), which brought his work to the notice of a wider public.  In 1895, when his family's fortune was lost through the \"Hammerstein affair\", Gloeden received as a gift from his friend and patron the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, a large-format plate camera. Soon his work brought him visitors from Europe, including royalty, industrialists, writers, including Oscar Wilde in December 1897, and artists. In 1930, Gloeden ceased work as a photographer and sold his house on the Piazza San Domenico in Taormina in return for an annuity and residence rights. Gloeden scrupulously shared the proceeds of his sales with his models. The names of some of the models are known: Pasquale Stracuzzi (known as \"Pasqualino\"); Vincenzo Lupicino (known as \"Virgilio\" & seen in the \"Boy with Flying Fish\" photographs); Peppino Caifasso or Carafasso (who posed as \"Ahmed\"); Pietro Caspano or Capanu; Nicola Scilio, also spelt Sciglio; Giuseppe De Cristoforo; and Maria Intelisano (niece of the parish priest of nearby Castelmola).  His cousin Guglielmo Plüschow (1852–1930), also a photographer of nudes, helped von Gloeden get more familiar with the technical side of photography (until then von Gloeden had not been a hobby photographer). Other important teachers of von Gloeden were local photographer (1859–1925) in the Via Teatro Greco and the pharmacist/photographer Giuseppe Bruno (1836–1904) in the Corso.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "While today Gloeden is mainly known for his nudes, in his lifetime he was also famous for his landscape photography that helped popularize tourism to Italy. In addition, he documented damage in from the 1908 Messina earthquake, which may explain why the locals mostly approved of his work.  The majority of Gloeden's pictures were made before the First World War, in the years from 1890 to 1910. During the war, he had to leave Italy. After returning in 1918, he photographed very little but continued to make new prints from his voluminous archives. In total, he took over 3000 images (and possibly up to 7000), which after his death were left to one of his models, Pancrazio Buciunì (also spelled Bucini; his dates sometimes given as – but probably should be 1879–1963), known as'(or ') for his North African looks. \"\" had been Gloeden's lover since the age of 14 when he had first joined his household. In 1933, some 1,000 glass negatives from Gloeden's collection (inherited by Buciuni) and 2,000 prints were confiscated by Benito Mussolini's Fascist police under the allegation that they constituted pornography, and were destroyed; another 1,000 negatives were destroyed in 1936, but Buciuni was tried and cleared at a court in Messina (1939–1941) of disseminating pornographic images. Most of the surviving pictures (negatives and prints) are now in the Fratelli Alinari photographic archive in Florence (which in 1999 bought 878 glass negatives and 956 vintage prints formerly belonging to Buciuni to add to its existing collection of 106 prints) and further prints (which fetch hundreds of pounds at auction) are in private collections or held by public institutions such as the in Milan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attitudes towards his work during his lifetime and later.", "content": "Gloeden generally made several different kinds of photographs. The ones that garnered the most widespread attention in Europe and overseas were usually relatively chaste studies of peasants, shepherds, fisherman, etc., featured in clothing like togas or Sicilian traditional costume, and which generally downplayed their homoerotic implications. He also photographed landscapes and some studies were of, or included, women. His models were usually posed either at his house, among the local ancient ruins, or on Monte Ziretto (), located two kilometres to the north of Taormina and famous in antiquity for its quarries of red marble. He wrote in 1898: \"The Greek forms appealed to me, as did the bronze-hued descendants of the ancient Hellenes, and I attempted to resurrect the old, classic life in pictures...The models usually remained merry and cheerful, lightly clad and at ease in the open air, striding forward to the accompaniment of flutes and animated chatter. More than a few greatly enjoyed the work and anxiously awaited the moment when I would show them the finished picture.\"  More explicit photos in which boys aged between about 10 and 20, and occasionally older men, were nude (sometimes with prominent genitalia) and which, because of eye contact or physical contact were more sexually suggestive, were traded \"under the counter\" and among close friends of the photographer, but \"as far as is known, Gloeden's archive contained neither pornographic nor erotically lascivious motifs\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other similar photographers at the time.", "content": "Gloeden's cousin Guglielmo Plüschow also photographed male nudes, working in Rome. Plüschow was already a firmly established photographer when Gloeden started doing photographs of his own in the early 1890s. It is even speculated that Gloeden was taught the (then difficult) art of photography by Plüschow. However, Gloeden soon eclipsed Plüschow, and later works by Plüschow often were erroneously attributed to Gloeden. From an artistic standpoint, Plüschow's work is somewhat inferior to Gloeden's as his lighting is often too harsh and the poses of his models look quite stilted.  Up until 1907, Plüschow's assistant Vincenzo Galdi secretly made work which he tried to pass off as Plüschow's own. However, Galdi's pictures lack elegance, often feature females, and generally tend to border on the pornographic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wilhelm Iwan Friederich August Freiherr von Gloeden (September 16, 1856 – February 16, 1931) was a German photographer who worked mainly in Italy. He is mostly known for his pastoral nude studies of Sicilian boys, which usually featured props such as wreaths or amphoras, suggesting a setting in the Greece or Italy of antiquity. From a modern standpoint, his work is commendable due to his controlled use of lighting as well as the often elegant poses of his models. His innovations include the use of photographic filters and special body makeup (a mixture of milk, olive oil, and glycerin) to disguise skin blemishes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975033}
{"src_title": "Mammea americana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tree.", "content": "The mammee tree is – high and is similar in appearance to the southern magnolia \"(Magnolia grandiflora)\". Its trunk is short and reaches - in diameter. The tree's upright branches form an oval head. Its dark-green foliage is quite dense, with opposite, leathery, elliptic leaves. The leaves can reach wide and twice as long.  The mammee flower is fragrant, has 4 or 6 white petals, and reaches – wide when fully blossomed. The flowers are borne either singly or in clusters of two or three, on short stalks. There can be, in a single flower, pistils, stamens or both, so there can be male, female or hermaphrodite flowers on one tree.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fruit.", "content": "The mammee apple is a berry, though it is often misinterpreted to be a drupe. It is round or slightly irregular, with a brown or grey-brown thick rind. In fact, the rind consists of the exocarp and mesocarp of the fruit, while the pulp is formed from the endocarp. The stem is thick and short. The mammee apple has more or less visible floral remnant at the apex.  Mammee apples' diameter ranges from to. When unripe, the fruit is hard and heavy, but its flesh slightly softens when fully ripe. Beneath the skin, there is a white, dry membrane, whose taste is astringent, that adheres to the flesh. The flesh is orange or yellow, not fibrous, and can have various textures (crispy or juicy, firm or tender). Generally, the flesh smell is pleasant and appetizing.  Small fruits contain a single seed, while larger ones might have up to four. The seeds are brown, rough, oval and around long. The juice of the seed leaves an indelible stain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Propagation.", "content": "Propagation can be done by seed. Germination takes place from 60–260 days. Grafting is the preferred method of propagation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The tree comes from tropical South America. In 1529, it was included by Oviedo in his \"Review of the Fruits of the New World\". It was then introduced to various regions in the Old World: West Africa, particularly Sierra Leone, Zanzibar, Southeast Asia and Hawaii. In the United States, the species is uniquely found in Hawaii and Florida. In the latter state, mammee apples were probably introduced from the Bahamas.  The mammea apple tree is confined to tropical or subtropical climates. In Central America, the species is found to grow up to an altitude of 1,000 m. It thrives best in rich, deep and well-drained soil, but is very adaptive; it also grows on limestone in Jamaica, in the oolithic limestone of the Bahamas, and on ancient coral bedrock in Barbados as well as coral cays off the coast of Florida.  The tree is very sensitive to low temperatures, but seems remarkably resistant to pests and diseases.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "In Trinidad & Tobago, the grated seeds are mixed with rum or coconut oil to treat head lice and chiggers.  Underripe fruits are rich in pectin, and the tree bark is high in tannin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culinary interest.", "content": "Though edible, this fruit has received little attention worldwide.  The raw flesh can be served in fruit salads, or with wine, sugar or cream, especially in Jamaica. In the Bahamas, the flesh is first put in salted water to remove its bitterness, before cooking it with much sugar to make a sort of jam. The flesh can also be consumed stewed.  In the French West Indies, an aromatic liqueur, ', or ', is distilled from the mammee flowers. This liqueur is believed to be tonic or digestive.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "Various parts of the tree contain insecticidal substances, especially the seed kernel. In Puerto Rico, mammee leaves are wrapped around young tomato plants to keep mole crickets and cutworms away. In a similar way, the bark gum is melted with fat in Jamaica and Mexico, then applied to feet to repel chiggers or fleas on animals. The same effect is also obtained from infusions of half-ripe fruits.  In the Virgin Islands, the tannin from the bark is used to tan leather. The mammee timber is heavy and hard, yet easy to work; it has received, however, only limited commercial interest.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mammea americana, commonly known as mammee, mammee apple, mamey, mamey apple, Santo Domingo apricot, tropical apricot, or South American apricot, is an evergreen tree of the family Calophyllaceae, whose fruit is edible. It has also been classified as belonging to the family Guttiferae, which would make it a relative of the mangosteen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975034}
{"src_title": "American Paint Horse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Registration.", "content": "The American Paint Horse's combination of color and conformation has made the American Paint Horse Association (APHA) the second-largest breed registry in the United States. While the colorful coat pattern is essential to the identity of the breed, American Paint Horses have strict bloodline requirements and a distinctive stock-horse body type. To be eligible for registry, a Paint's sire and dam must be registered with the American Paint Horse Association, the American Quarter Horse Association, or the Jockey Club (Thoroughbreds). At least one of the parents must be a registered American Paint Horse. There are two categories of registration, regular, for horses with color, and solid Paint-bred, for those without color.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regular APHA registration.", "content": "In addition to bloodlines, to be eligible for the Regular Registry of the American Paint Horse Association (APHA), the horse must also exhibit a \"natural paint marking\", meaning either a predominant hair coat color with at least one contrasting area of solid white hair of the required size with some underlying unpigmented skin present on the horse at the time of its birth. Or, in the case of a predominantly white hair coat, at least one contrasting area of the required size of colored hair with some underlying pigmented skin present on the horse. Natural Paint markings usually must cover more than two inches and be located in certain designated areas of the body.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Solid Paint-Bred.", "content": "Solid colored offspring of two registered Paint parents, called \"Solid Paint-Breds\" or \"Breeding Stock Paints,\" are also eligible for registration, with certain restrictions. They are able to participate in some recognized Paint breed shows, and there are alternative programs offered, and many incentive programs within the registry are available to Solid Paint-bred horses. If a solid-colored horse is bred to a regular registry Paint horse, it is possible to produce a spotted foal. In some cases, such as the recessive sabino patterns, described below, even a solid colored horse may still carry genes for color. However, in the case of the dominant tobiano pattern, a Breeding Stock Paint will not carry these color genes, though it may retain other desirable traits.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Color.", "content": "Each Paint Horse has a particular combination of white and another color of the equine spectrum. Most common are horses with white spots combined with black, bay, brown, and chestnut or sorrel. Less common are horses with spot colors influenced by dilution genes such as palomino, buckskin, cremello, perlino, pearl or \"Barlink factor\", and champagne, various shades of roan, or various shades of dun, including grullo. Paints may also carry the gray gene and have spots that eventually fade to white hair, though retaining pigmented skin underneath the areas that were once dark.  Spots can be any shape or size, except leopard complex patterning, which is characteristic of the Appaloosa, and located virtually anywhere on the Paint's body. Although Paints come in a variety of colors with different markings and different underlying genetics, these are grouped into only four defined coat patterns: overo (includes frame, splash and sabino), tobiano and tovero and solid.  Breeding Stock Paints can sometimes showcase small color traits, particularly if they carry sabino genetics. Such traits include blue eyes, pink skin on lips and nostrils, roan spots, and minimal roaning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paint or Pinto?", "content": "The terms \"paint\" and \"pinto\" are sometimes both used to describe paint horses. But \"Paint\" horses are the breed and \"Pinto\" is actually the coloring of the horse", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The American Paint Horse shares a common ancestry with the American Quarter Horse and the Thoroughbred. A registered Paint horse should conform to the same \"stock horse\" body type desired in Quarter Horses: a muscular animal that is heavy but not too tall, with a low center of gravity for maneuverability, and powerful hindquarters suitable for rapid acceleration and sprinting.  When the American Quarter Horse Association emerged in 1940 to preserve horses of the \"stock\" type, it excluded those with pinto coat patterns and \"crop out\" horses, those born with white body spots or white above the knees and hocks. Undeterred, fans of colorful stock horses formed a variety of organizations to preserve and promote Paint horses. In 1965 some of these groups merged to form the American Paint Horse Association.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The Paint Horse is used in a variety of equestrian disciplines, most commonly Western pleasure, reining and other Western events, although it is also ridden English in hunt seat or show jumping competition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetic problems.", "content": "One medical issue associated with the breed is the genetic disease lethal white syndrome (LWS). Also called Overo lethal white syndrome (OLWS) or, less often, white foal syndrome (WFS), it is linked to a recessive gene associated with the frame overo pattern. Horses that are heterozygous carriers of the gene do not develop the condition and are physically healthy. However, when a foal is born that is homozygous for the LWS gene, it should be humanely euthanized shortly after birth, or else will die within a few days from complications involving an underdeveloped intestinal tract. A DNA test is available for LWS so that horses who are carriers of this gene are not bred to one another. Horses can carry the LWS gene and not visibly exhibit overo coloring; cases have appeared in the offspring of both tobiano and solid-colored parents, though all cases to date are horses that had overo ancestors. LWS is also not unique to Paint Horses; it can occur in any equine breed where the frame overo coat pattern is found.  Due to the heavy influx of American Quarter Horse breeding, some Paints may also carry genetic disorders such as hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP), hereditary equine regional dermal asthenia (HERDA), equine polysaccharide storage myopathy (called PSSM - polysaccharide storage myopathy - in Paints, Quarter Horses and Appaloosas), malignant hyperthermia (MH) and glycogen branching enzyme deficiency (GBED). The influence of Thoroughbred breeding puts some bloodlines at higher risk for Wobbler's syndrome.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The American Paint Horse is a breed of horse that combines both the conformational characteristics of a western stock horse with a pinto spotting pattern of white and dark coat colors. Developed from a base of spotted horses with Quarter Horse and Thoroughbred bloodlines, the American Paint Horse Association (APHA) breed registry is now one of the largest in North America. The registry allows some non-spotted animals to be registered as \"Solid Paint Bred\" and considers the American Paint Horse to be a horse breed with distinct characteristics, not merely a color breed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975035}
{"src_title": "Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "On the death of his godfather, the Earl of Surrey, Edmund was granted the earl's lands north of the Trent, primarily in Yorkshire. In 1359, he joined his father King Edward III on an unsuccessful military expedition to France and was made a knight of the Garter in 1361. In 1362, at the age of twenty-one, he was created Earl of Cambridge by his father.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Edmund took part in several military expeditions to France in the 1370s. In 1369, he brought a retinue of 400 men-at-arms and 400 archers to serve with John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, on campaigns in Brittany and Angoulême. The following year, he first joined Pembroke again on an expedition to relieve the fortress of Belle Perche and then accompanied his eldest brother Edward, the Black Prince, on a campaign that resulted in the siege and sack of Limoges. In 1375, he sailed with the Earl of March to relieve Brest, but after some initial success, a truce was declared.  In the 1370s, English envoys entered into an alliance with Ferdinand I of Portugal, where Portugal promised to attack Castile with the Lancastrian army. As a consequence of the Caroline War in France, John of Gaunt was forced to postpone the invasion of Castile. In 1381, Edmund finally led an abortive expedition to press John's claim to Castile, joining with King Ferdinand in attacking Castile as part of the Fernandine Wars. After months of indecisiveness, a peace was again declared between Castile and Portugal, and Edmund had to lead his malcontented troops home.  Edmund was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Warden of the Cinque Ports on 12 June 1376 and held office until 1381. On 6 August 1385, he was elevated to Duke of York. Edmund acted as Keeper of the Realm in 1394/95 when his nephew, King Richard II of England, campaigned in Ireland and presided over Parliament in 1395. He was also keeper of the realm in 1396 during the king's brief visit to France to collect his child-bride Isabella of Valois. The duke was left as Custodian of the Realm in the summer of 1399 when Richard II departed for another extended campaign in Ireland. In late June of that year, the exiled Henry Bolingbroke landed at Bridlington in Yorkshire. He raised an army to resist Bolingbroke, then decided instead to join him, for which he was well rewarded. He thereafter remained loyal to the new Lancastrian regime as Bolingbroke overthrew Richard II to become King Henry IV.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In Richard II's will, Edmund was highly emphasised as the king's heir despite the stronger claims of Henry of Bolingbroke and Edmund Mortimer. This was not due to any preference Richard had for Edmund, but rather a desire the king had to set Edmund's son, Edward, on the throne. Towards the end of his life, in 1399, he was appointed Warden of the West March for a short period. Otherwise, from 1399 onward he retired from public life.  Edmund of Langley died in his birthplace and was interred at King's Langley Priory; however, his tomb was relocated to the nearby All Saints' Church, Kings Langley in 1575 after the priory had been dissolved. When the tomb was moved again during church restoration work in 1877, three bodies, one male and two female, were found inside. His dukedom passed to his eldest son, Edward. He was the last of his siblings to die, and lived the longest out of all of them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Langley's first wife, Isabella, was a daughter of King Peter of Castile and María de Padilla. She was also the sister of the Infanta Constance of Castile, the second wife of Langley's brother John of Gaunt.  They had two sons and a daughter:  After Isabella's death in 1392, Langley married his second cousin once removed Joan Holland, whose great-grandfather Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent, was the half-brother of Langley's grandfather Edward II; she and Langley were thus both descended from King Edward I. The young Joan was the granddaughter of his late sister-in-law Joan of Kent. The marriage produced no children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shakespeare's Duke of York.", "content": "Edmund, the 1st Duke of York, is a major character in Shakespeare's \"Richard II\". In the play, Edmund resigns his position as an adviser to his nephew Richard II, but is reluctant to betray the king. He eventually agrees to side with Henry Bolingbroke to help him regain the lands Richard confiscated after the death of Bolingbroke's father, John of Gaunt. After Bolingbroke deposes Richard and is crowned Henry IV, Edmund discovers a plot by his son Aumerle to assassinate the new king. Edmund exposes the plot, but his wife Isabella convinces Henry to pardon her son.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, KG (5 June 13411 August 1402) was the fourth surviving son of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault. Like many medieval English princes, Edmund gained his nickname from his birthplace: Kings Langley Palace in Hertfordshire. He was the founder of the House of York, but it was through the marriage of his younger son, Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge, to Anne de Mortimer, great-granddaughter of Edmund's elder brother Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, that the House of York made its claim to the English throne in the Wars of the Roses. The other party in the Wars of the Roses, the incumbent House of Lancaster, was formed from descendants of Edmund's elder brother John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, Edward III's third son.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975036}
{"src_title": "Luyten's Star", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Properties.", "content": "This star is approximately a quarter the mass of the Sun and has 35% of the Sun's radius. Luyten's Star is at the maximum mass at which a red dwarf can be fully convective, which means that most if not all of the star forms an extended convection zone. It has a stellar classification of M3.5V, with the V luminosity class indicating this is a main-sequence star that is generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen at its core. The projected rotation rate of this star is too low to be measured, but is no greater than 1 km/s. Measurements of periodic variation in surface activity suggest a leisurely rotation period of roughly 116 days (which would give a velocity of ~0.15 km/s). The effective temperature of the star's outer envelope is a relatively cool 3,150 K, giving the star the characteristic red-orange hue of an M-type star.  At present, Luyten's Star is moving away from the Solar System. The closest approach occurred about 13,000 years ago when it came within 3.67 parsecs. The star is currently located 1.2 light years distant from Procyon, and the latter would appear as a visual magnitude −4.5 star in the night sky of one of the planets orbiting Luyten's Star. The closest encounter between the two stars occurred about 600 years ago when Luyten's Star was at its minimal distance of about 1.12 ly from Procyon. The space velocity components of Luyten's Star are U = +16, V = −66 and W = −17 km/s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Planetary system.", "content": "In March 2017, two candidate planets were discovered orbiting Luyten's Star. The outer planet, GJ 273b, is a Super Earth in its star's habitable zone. It has a mass of 2.89 ± 0.26 Earth masses and orbits at a distance of 0.09110 ± 0.00002 AU, completing one orbital period in 18.650 ± 0.006 days. While the planet is on the innermost edge of the star's conservative habitable zone, the incident flux is only 1.06S⊕, so it may be potentially habitable if water and an atmosphere are present; depending on albedo, its equilibrium temperature could be anywhere between 206 and 293 Kelvin. The inner planet, GJ 273c, is one of the lightest exoplanets detected by radial velocities, with a mass of only 1.18 ± 0.16 Earth masses. However, it orbits much further in, with an orbital period of only 4.7234 ± 0.00004 days.  GJ 273b is one of the closest known planets in its star's habitable zone.  In 2019, two more candidate planets were detected by radial velocity, making a total of four known planets in the system.  In October 2017, \"Sónar Calling GJ 273b\", a project by Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence (METI) and Sónar, a music festival in Barcelona, transmitted a series of radio signals towards Luyten's star from a radar antenna at Ramfjordmoen, Norway. The signal consisted of a scientific and mathematical tutorial on how to decode the messages and was accompanied by 33 encoded musical compositions by various musicians. A second signal series was transmitted on May 14, 15, and 16, 2018. Assuming anyone is listening, the soonest a response could be expected would be 2036.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Luyten's Star (GJ 273) is a red dwarf in the constellation Canis Minor located at a distance of approximately from the Sun. It has a visual magnitude of 9.9, making it too faint to be viewed with the unaided eye. It is named after Willem Jacob Luyten, who, in collaboration with Edwin G. Ebbighausen, first determined its high proper motion in 1935.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975037}
{"src_title": "Tom Fogerty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Tom Fogerty was born in Berkeley, California, United States. He began singing rock and roll in high school. He and his younger brother, John, had separate groups. Tom's band, Spider Webb and the Insects (which featured Jeremy Levine of the Seeds), signed a recording contract with Del-Fi Records but broke up in 1959 before releasing any records. The Blue Velvets—a group led by John—began backing Tom. Eventually Tom joined the band, and the group recorded three singles (with Tom on lead vocals) for Orchestra Records in 1961 and 1962. By the mid 1960s, the group had been renamed The Golliwogs and were recording with Fantasy Records, with Tom and John sharing lead vocal duties. In 1968, the band was again renamed—this time to Creedence Clearwater Revival—and John had become full-time lead singer and primary songwriter. During the few years of the life of CCR, Tom sang backing vocals and wrote songs, but only one of his songs from when CCR was named the Golliwogs (\"Walking on the Water\") was re-recorded and chosen to be put on CCR's debut album. This lack of vocal and songwriting opportunity, along with festering, long-standing animosity with his brother, led him to leave the band in early 1971, after finishing the recording of \"Pendulum\".  After leaving the band, Fogerty began performing and recording as a solo artist. He had minor hits like \"Goodbye Media Man\", \"Cast The First Stone\", \"Joyful Resurrection\", and \"B.A.R.T\". He remained with Fantasy Records and his 1971 solo debut album, \"Tom Fogerty\", reached No. 78 on the Billboard 200 chart. On the follow-up, \"Excalibur\", Jerry Garcia and Merl Saunders played on the sessions. Stu Cook and Doug Clifford (CCR's former bass guitarist and drummer) as well as John Fogerty performed on the 1974 follow-up album, \"Zephyr National\". The song \"Joyful Resurrection\" features a complete reunion of CCR though John Fogerty recorded his parts separately. Cook and Clifford also backed Tom on his second LP release of 1974 titled \"Myopia\".  Throughout the rest of the 1970s and 1980s, Tom Fogerty continued to record. He claimed all royalties from the CCR period and sued Fantasy Records. Later, Tom re-signed with Fantasy. At the October 1980 reception for Tom's marriage to Tricia Clapper, all four members of CCR reunited and performed for the first time in a decade. They took the stage once more for a final time at a school reunion three years later. Tom Fogerty lived in Scottsdale, Arizona, for the remainder of his life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "At some point in the 1980s, Fogerty underwent back surgery, and was given a blood transfusion which was not screened for HIV. This caused him to become infected with the disease and subsequently resulted in his contraction of AIDS alongside his ensuing complications with tuberculosis, all of which eventually led to his death on September 6, 1990. After his death, a music compilation titled \"The Very Best of Tom Fogerty\" was released.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas Richard Fogerty (November 9, 1941 – September 6, 1990) was an American musician, best known as the rhythm guitarist for Creedence Clearwater Revival. He was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1993.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975038}
{"src_title": "Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Semyonov was born in the Transbaikal region of eastern Siberia. His father, Mikhail Petrovich Semyonov, was of partial Buryat descent. Semyonov was a fluent Mongolian and Buryat language speaker. He joined the Imperial Russian Army in 1908, and graduated from Orenburg Military School in 1911. He was commissioned as a \"yesaul\" (Cossack ensign) and distinguished himself in battle against the Germans and Austro-Hungarians in World War I, earning the Saint George's Cross for courage.  According to Pyotr Wrangel:<br>  Semenov was a Transbaikalian Cossack – dark and thickset, and of the rather alert Mongolian type. His intelligence was of a specifically Cossack calibre, and he was an exemplary soldier, especially courageous when under the eye of his superior. He knew how to make himself popular with Cossacks and officers alike, but he had his weaknesses in a love of intrigue and indifference to the means by which he achieved his ends. Though capable and ingenious, he had received no education, and his outlook was narrow. I have never been able to understand how he came to play a leading role. He was somewhat of an outsider among his fellow officers because of his ethnicity. While serving in the Caucasus in World War I he met another officer shunned by his peers, Baron Ungern-Sternberg, whose eccentric nature and disregard of the rules of etiquette and decorum repelled others. He and Sternberg tried to organize a regiment of Assyrian Christians to aid in the fight against the Turks. In July 1917 Semyonov left the Caucasus and was appointed Commissar of the Provisional Government in the Baikal region, responsible for recruiting a regiment of Buryat volunteers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Russian Civil War in Transbaikal.", "content": "After the October Revolution Semyonov stirred up an anti-Soviet rebellion, but was defeated and fled to the northeastern Chinese city of Harbin. In August 1918 he managed to consolidate his positions in the Transbaikal region with the help of the Czechoslovak Legions and imposed his ruthless regime. In his rule over this region, he has been described as a \"plain bandit <nowiki>[who]</nowiki> drew his income from holding up trains and forcing payments, no matter what the nature of the load nor for whose benefit it was being shipped.\" As a part Buryat Mongol, Ataman Semyonov declared a \"Great Mongol State\" in 1918 and had designs to unify the Oirat Mongol lands, portions of Xinjiang, Transbaikal, Inner Mongolia, Outer Mongolia, Tannu Uriankhai, Kobdo, Hulunbei'er and Tibet into one Mongolian state. The White Siberian Provisional Government appointed Semyonov commander of a detached unit with headquarters in Chita. Initially Adm. Aleksandr Kolchak refused to recognize Semyonov's authority, but he had no choice and had to accept Semyonov as de facto leader and confirm him as Commander-in-Chief of the Chita military district. In early 1919 Semyonov declared himself \" Ataman \" of the Transbaikal Cossack Host with support from the Imperial Japanese Army, elements of which had been deployed to Siberia. The region under his control, also called Eastern Okraina, extended from Verkhne-Udinsk near Lake Baikal to the Shilka River and the town of Stretensk, to Manzhouli, where the Chinese Eastern Railway met the Chita Railway, and northeast some distance along the Amur Railway.  Semyonov handed out copies of the \"Protocols of the Elders of Zion\" to the Japanese troops he became associated with.  After the fall of Kolchak's Siberian government, the admiral transferred power to Semyonov in the Far East. However, Semyonov was unable to keep his forces in Siberia under control: they stole, burned, murdered and raped, and developed a reputation for being little better than thugs. In July 1920 the Japanese Expeditionary Corps started a limited withdrawal in accordance with the Gongota Agreement signed with the Far Eastern Republic, undermining support for Semyonov. Transbaikal partisans, internationalists and the 5th Soviet Army under Genrich Eiche launched an operation to retake Chita. In October 1920 units of the Red Army and guerrillas forced Semyonov's army out of the Baikal region. After having retreated to Primorye, Semyonov tried to continue fighting the Soviets, but was finally forced to abandon all Russian territory by September 1921.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In exile.", "content": "After failing to settle in Nagasaki via Harbin, Semyonov stayed in the United States for a period of time, where he was soon accused of committing acts of violence against the American soldiers of the Expeditionary Corps. He was eventually acquitted and returned to China, where he was given a monthly 1000-yen pension by the Japanese government. In Tianjin he had ties with the Japanese intelligence community and mobilized exiled Russian and Cossack communities, planning to eventually overthrow the Soviets. He was also employed by Puyi, the dethroned Emperor of China, whom he wished to restore to power.  Semyonov was captured in Dalian by Soviet paratroopers in September 1945 during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, when the Soviet Army conquered Manchukuo. He was charged with counterrevolutionary activities and sentenced to death by hanging by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR. He was executed on August 29, 1946.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov, or Semenov (; September 13 (25), 1890 – August 30, 1946), was a Japanese-supported leader of the White movement in Transbaikal and beyond from December 1917 to November 1920, Lieutenant General and \"Ataman\" of Baikal Cossacks (1919).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975039}
{"src_title": "Mayflower Compact", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Reasons for the Compact.", "content": "The \"Mayflower\" was originally bound for the Colony of Virginia, financed by the Company of Merchant Adventurers of London. Storms forced them to anchor at the hook of Cape Cod in Massachusetts, however, as it was unwise to continue with provisions running short. This inspired some of the non-Puritan passengers (whom the Puritans referred to as 'Strangers') to proclaim that they \"would use their own liberty; for none had power to command them\" since they would not be settling in the agreed-upon Virginia territory. To prevent this, the Pilgrims determined to establish their own government, while still affirming their allegiance to the Crown of England. Thus, the Mayflower Compact was based simultaneously upon a majoritarian model and the settlers' allegiance to the king. It was in essence a social contract in which the settlers consented to follow the community's rules and regulations for the sake of order and survival.  The Pilgrims had lived for some years in Leiden, a city in the Dutch Republic. Historian Nathaniel Philbrick states, \"Just as a spiritual covenant had marked the beginning of their congregation in Leiden, a civil covenant would provide the basis for a secular government in America.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Text.", "content": "The original document has been lost, but three versions exist from the 17th century: printed in \"Mourt's Relation\" (1622), which was reprinted in \"Purchas his Pilgrimes\" (1625); hand-written by William Bradford in his journal \"Of Plimoth Plantation\" (1646); and printed by Bradford's nephew Nathaniel Morton in \"New-Englands Memorial\" (1669). The three versions differ slightly in wording and significantly in spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. William Bradford wrote the first part of \"Mourt's Relation\", including its version of the compact, so he wrote two of the three versions. The wording of those two versions is quite similar, unlike that of Morton. Bradford's handwritten manuscript is kept in a vault at the State Library of Massachusetts.  Modern version  The document was signed under the Old Style Julian calendar, since England did not adopt the Gregorian calendar until 1752. The Gregorian date would be November 21.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Signers.", "content": "A list of 41 male passengers who signed the document was supplied by Bradford's nephew Nathaniel Morton in his 1669 \"New England's Memorial\". Thomas Prince first numbered the names in his 1736 \"A Chronological History of New-England in the form of Annals\". The original document has been lost, so Morton is the sole source for the signers. He probably had access to the original document, but he could not have known the actual order in which it was signed simply by inspecting it. Morton's arrangement of names might not have been the arrangement on the original document, and the names on the original may not have been arranged in any orderly fashion. Prince's numbers are based solely on Morton, as he himself stated.  Morton's list of names was unnumbered and untitled in all six editions (1669–1855), although their order changed with successive editions. In his original 1669 edition, the names were placed on two successive pages forming six short columns, three per page. In subsequent editions, these six short columns were combined into three long columns on a single page in two different ways, producing two different orders in unnumbered lists of signers. The second (1721) and third (1772) editions changed the order of the first edition by combining the first and fourth columns into the first long column, and similarly for the other columns. The fifth (1826) and sixth (1855) editions returned the names to their original first edition order by combining the first and second short columns into the first long column, and similarly for the other columns. Prince numbered the names in their original 1669 Morton order. He added titles (Mr. or Capt.) to 11 names that were given those titles by William Bradford in the list of passengers at the end of his manuscript.  The following list of signers is organized into the six short columns of Morton (1669) with the numbers and titles of Prince. The names are given their modern spelling according to Morison. Use the numbers for the order used by genealogists and half of unnumbered lists (Samuel Fuller will be the eighth name), but merge the half columns vertically into full columns for the order used by the other half of unnumbered lists (John Turner will be the eighth name).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mayflower Compact, originally titled Agreement Between the Settlers of New Plymouth, was the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. It was written by the male passengers of the \"Mayflower,\" consisting of separatist Puritans, adventurers, and tradesmen. The Puritans were fleeing from religious persecution by King James I of England.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975040}
{"src_title": "Bacteriorhodopsin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "Bacteriorhodopsin is an integral membrane protein usually found in two-dimensional crystalline patches known as \"purple membrane\", which can occupy up to nearly 50% of the surface area of the archaeal cell. The repeating element of the hexagonal lattice is composed of three identical protein chains, each rotated by 120 degrees relative to the others. Each chain has seven transmembrane alpha helices and contains one molecule of retinal buried deep within, the typical structure for retinylidene proteins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "Bacteriorhodopsin is a light-driven proton pump. It is the retinal molecule that changes its conformation when absorbing a photon, resulting in a conformational change of the surrounding protein and the proton pumping action. It is covalently linked to Lys216 in the chromophore by Schiff base action. After photoisomerization of the retinal molecule, Asp85 becomes a proton acceptor of the donor proton from the retinal molecule. This releases a proton from a \"holding site\" into the extracellular side (EC) of the membrane. Reprotonation of the retinal molecule by Asp96 restores its original isomerized form. This results in a second proton being released to the EC side. Asp85 releases its proton into the \"holding site,\" where a new cycle may begin.  The bacteriorhodopsin molecule is purple and is most efficient at absorbing green light (wavelength 500-650 nm, with the absorption maximum at 568 nm). Bacteriorhodopsin has a broad excitation spectrum. For a detection wavelength between 700 and 800 nm, it has an appreciable detected emission for excitation wavelengths between 470 nm and 650 nm (with a peak at 570 nm). When pumped at 633 nm, the emission spectrum has appreciable intensity between 650 nm and 850 nm.  Bacteriorhodopsin belongs to the microbial rhodopsins. They have similarities to vertebrate rhodopsins, the pigments that sense light in the retina. Rhodopsins also contain retinal; however, the functions of rhodopsin and bacteriorhodopsin are different, and there is limited similarity in their amino acid sequences. Both rhodopsin and bacteriorhodopsin belong to the 7TM receptor family of proteins, but rhodopsin is a G protein-coupled receptor and bacteriorhodopsin is not. In the first use of electron crystallography to obtain an atomic-level protein structure, the structure of bacteriorhodopsin was resolved in 1990. It was then used as a template to build models of G protein-coupled receptors before crystallographic structures were also available for these proteins. It has been excessively studied on both mica and glass substrates using Atomic force microscopy and Femtosecond crystallography.  Many proteins have homology to bacteriorhodopsin, including the light-driven chloride pump halorhodopsin (for which the crystal structure is also known), and some directly light-activated channels like channelrhodopsin.  All other phototrophic systems in bacteria, algae, and plants use chlorophylls or bacteriochlorophylls rather than bacteriorhodopsin. These also produce a proton gradient, but in a quite different and more indirect way involving an electron transfer chain consisting of several other proteins. Furthermore, chlorophylls are aided in capturing light energy by other pigments known as \"antennas\"; these are not present in bacteriorhodopsin-based systems. It is possible that phototrophy independently evolved at least twice, once in bacteria and once in archaea.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bacteriorhodopsin is a protein used by Archaea, most notably by halobacteria, a class of the Euryarchaeota. It acts as a proton pump; that is, it captures light energy and uses it to move protons across the membrane out of the cell. The resulting proton gradient is subsequently converted into chemical energy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975041}
{"src_title": "Spyker", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1880, Dutch brothers Hendrik Jan and Jacobus Spijker, blacksmiths by profession, start their company for building and maintaining carriages in Hilversum, The Netherlands.  In 1898, Spyker manufactured the \"Golden Coach\", still in use as one of the two prime ceremonial state coaches of the Dutch monarchy.  In 1899 they started building automobiles, and in 1900 put their first models on display, two-cylinder 3 hp and 5 hp similar to the Benz.  Four-cylinder models were introduced in 1903, along with the six-cylinder \"Spyker 60 HP\", a racer which was the world's first ever four-wheel drive car with a single engine and four-wheel brakes. It was the first ever car built with front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout, and its engine with six cylinders was also a world's first.  The 1905 cars featured a round radiator grille, which became a feature of many of the pre war cars. In 1907, an 18 hp model competed in the 15,000 km Peking to Paris monster race, finishing second in the most gruelling race of its time.  Hendrik-Jan Spijker died in 1907 on his return journey from England when the ferry he was on, the SS Berlin, sank, and this loss led to the bankruptcy of the original company. A group of investors bought the company and restarted production, but Jacobus Spijker was no longer involved.  In 1913, the company was having financial problems again, and in 1915 was taken over by new owners and renamed \"Nederlandsche Automobiel en Vliegtuigfabriek Trompenburg\" (Dutch Car and Aircraft company). Under the new owners, the previous complex model range was simplified and a new car, the 13/30 C1, introduced; sales were disappointing.  In 1914, Spyker merged with Dutch Aircraft Factory N.V. and the company motto became \"Nulla Tenaci invia est via\" latin for \"For the tenacious no road is impassable\". During World War I, in which the Netherlands were neutral, some 100 Spyker fighter aircraft and 200 aircraft engines were produced.  In 1919, after World War I, a two-seater car, the C1 \"Aerocoque\", featuring aerodynamically streamlined bodywork influenced by aircraft design, was shown for the first time. It was intended as a show car, but was also produced on a very limited scale. The car's bodywork, featuring swooping fenders and an aircraft-like tail, infused by the company's knowledge of aircraft aerodynamics, was mainly designed by Jaap Tjaarda van Sterkenburg, brother of John Tjaarda and uncle of Tom Tjaarda, both also car designers.  On November 27, 1920 the first Spyker 30/40HP C4 was completed, sporting a 6-cylinder Maybach engine of. The car waws nicknamed \"Tenax\" (latin for \"tenacious\") and improved the long-distance endurance record, held since 1907 by the Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost by some 6,000 km. The C4 completed 30,360 km in the Dutch winter weather in just over a month.  In 1922, racing driver Selwyn Edge took to Brooklands in a Spyker C4 fitted with streamlined racing bodywork, setting a new \"Double 12\" average world speed record, covering 1,782 miles (2,868 km) at an average speed of for the 24 hour aggregate of two 12-hour periods.  Also in 1922, the company went bankrupt again and was acquired by Spyker's distributor in Britain, who renamed the company \"Spyker Automobielfabriek\". Production continued and prices dropped but the company continued to decline. Final production was of the C2 two-ton truck and the C4 car, which lasted until 1926 when funds finally ran out.  It is estimated total Spyker car production was at most 2000 cars.  In 1999, a new company, Spyker Cars, was founded, unrelated to the original company but for the brand name, motto and logo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "License production and auto rental.", "content": "Before Hendrik-Jan Spijker's death, he and his brother had developed a special relationship with Dutch electrical pioneer,. The Spijker brothers had known Hofstede Crull already when he was a young man racing on the velocipede circuits in the Netherlands and in Germany while he was an engineering student first in Mittweida and later in Hannover at the Technische Hochschule in the 1880s. Hofstede Crull had already owned his first automobile in the 1890s. In the first decade, he had accumulated a collection of automobiles which included a number of the Spijker racing models. He housed the collection in one of the wings of the, one of the companies he had founded. Although this was all a hobby for him initially, he began assembling Spijkers at Heemaf with the approval of the Spijker brothers and subsequently with that of those who had taken over Spijker. He provided them with improvements on the automobiles. Heemaf's board of directors complained that Hofstede Crull was using a part of the factory as his personal garage and auto park. To circumvent the criticism, he established the \"Spijker Automobiel Verhuur Maatschappij\" which along with Amsterdam's \"Trompenburg Bedrijf\" became the first auto rental companies in the Netherlands. One of his other companies was the \"American Refined Motor Company\", which helped improve mechanical motor parts. This all stemmed from an automobile accident that he, Hofstede Crull, and his chauffeur, a man named Poorthuis, had in 1909 when he subsequently discovered a defect in the Spijker's steering mechanism which he improved.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spyker on stamps and in film.", "content": "Both Spyker brand automobiles appear on Dutch postage stamps (first day of issue: May 10, 2004).  The car driven by Kenneth More in the 1953 film \"Genevieve\", about the London to Brighton Veteran Car Run, is a 1905 Spyker 12/16-HP.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Spyker or Spijker was a Dutch carriage, automobile and aircraft manufacturer, started in 1880 by blacksmiths Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker. Originally located in Hilversum, the company relocated to Trompenburg, Amsterdam in 1898.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975042}
{"src_title": "Maurice Halbwachs", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Born in Reims, France, Halbwachs attended the École Normale Supérieure in Paris. There he studied philosophy with Henri Bergson, who had a big influence on his thought. Halbwachs' early work on memory was all in some measure pursued to coincide with Bergson's view on the subject of memory being a particularly personal and subjective experience. He aggregated in Philosophy in 1901. He taught at various \"lycées\" before traveling to Germany in 1904, where he studied at the University of Göttingen and worked on cataloging Leibniz's papers. He was nominated to co-edit an edition of Leibniz's work which never came to fruition.  He returned to France in 1905 and met Émile Durkheim, who sparked his interest in sociology. Initially, when first meeting Durkheim, Halbwachs was looking for advice on how to move from his previous focus on Philosophy to Sociology. Halbwachs also began to focus on scientific objectivism rather than his Bergsonian Individualism. He soon joined the editorial board of \"L'Année Sociologique\", where he worked with François Simiand editing the Economics and Statistics sections. In 1909 he returned to Germany to study Marxism and economics in Berlin.  He also had a son, Pierre Halbwachs, who influenced Deleuze in the 1940s.  From Deleuze ABCedaire : \"Deleuze says that it was there in Deauville, without his parents and his younger brother, where he was completely nil in his studies, until something happened, such that Deleuze ceased being an idiot. Until Deauville, and the year in the lycee there that he spent during the \"funny war,\" he had been null in class, but at Deauville, he met a young teacher, Pierre Halbwachs (son of a famous sociologist), with fragile health, only one eye, so deferred from military duty. For Deleuze, this encounter was an awakening, and he became something of a disciple to this young \"maître\". Halbwachs would take him out to the beach in winter, on the dunes, and introduced him, for example, to Gide's _Les Nourritures terrestres_, to Anatole France, Baudelaire, other works by Gide, and Deleuze was completely transformed. But since they spent so much time together, people began to talk, and the lady in whose pension Deleuze and his brother were staying warned Deleuze about Halbwachs, then wrote to his parents about it. The brothers were to return to Paris, but then the Germans invaded, and so they took off on their bicycles to meet their parents in Rochefort... and en route, they ran into Halbwachs with his father! Later in life, Deleuze met Halbwachs, without the same admiration, but at age 14, Deleuze feels he was completely right.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teaching.", "content": "Throughout World War I, Halbwachs worked at the War Ministry. Beginning in 1919, shortly after the end of the war, he became professor of sociology and pedagogy at the University of Strasbourg. He remained in this position for over a decade, taking leave for a year as a visiting professor at the University of Chicago, when he was called to the Sorbonne in 1935. There he taught sociology and worked closely with Marcel Mauss and served as the editor of \"Annales de Sociologie\", the successor journal to \"L'Année Sociologique\". In 1944 he received one of France's highest honors, a chair at the Collège de France in Social Psychology. During this time, Halbwachs dedicated his time to in-depth research in the field where sociology and psychology overlap.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "A longtime socialist, Halbwachs was detained by the Gestapo in Paris in July, 1944 after protesting the arrest of his Jewish father-in-law. He was deported to the concentration camp, Buchenwald, where he died of dysentery in February 1945.  In 1940, Halbwachs' brother in-law, Georges Basch committed suicide. His parents in-law Victor and Mme Basch aged 84 years old at the time were murdered by Germans.  Part of his books were offered by his widow to the library of the \"Centre d'études sociologiques\" and are now held at the Human and Social Sciences Library Paris Descartes-CNRS.  Towards the end of his life, Halbwachs was recognized for his contributions to sociology. He was elected into the Conservative Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. He was also recognized as the Vice President of the French Psychological Society, while also being called to chair at Sorbonne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main ideas.", "content": "Halbwachs' most important contribution to the field of sociology came in his book \"La Mémoire collective\", 1950 (\"The Collective Memory\"), in which he advanced the thesis that a society can have a collective memory and that this memory is dependent upon the \"cadre\" or framework within which a group is situated in a society. Thus, there is not only an individual memory, but also a group memory that exists outside of and lives beyond the individual. Consequently, an individual's understanding of the past is strongly linked to this group consciousness. This idea of memory Halbwachs pursued to prove through peoples expression of commemoration in our culture. Commemoration offers collective memory tie to society and its conceptions where physical monuments and rituals fix and affirm collectivity.  Halbwachs Collective Memory includes two laws governing how this form of memory will evolve. The two laws are called a Law of Fragmentation, and a Law of Concentration.  Halbwachs also wrote an important book on suicide, \"Les Causes du suicide\", 1930 (\"The Causes of Suicide\"). In this book he followed the footsteps of his mentor Émile Durkheim, expanding and elaborating upon the former's theories on suicide. Specifically, he focused on ideas such as, the ways in which rural and urban styles of life explain variations in suicide rates. Halbwachs also continued to further Durkheim's conceptualization of how specific family styles and religious backgrounds alter rates of suicide.  Halbwachs included in his \"Les Cadres Sociaux de la Memoire (1952)\" the significance of the collective memory operating on the systems of family, religion and social communities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maurice Halbwachs (; 11 March 1877 – 16 March 1945) was a French philosopher and sociologist known for developing the concept of collective memory. Halbwachs also contributed to the sociology of knowledge with his \"La Topographie Legendaire des Evangiles en Terre Sainte;\" study of the spatial infrastructure of the New Testament. (1951)", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975043}
{"src_title": "Garde à Vue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Jérôme Martinaud, a wealthy, influential attorney in a small French town, falls under suspicion for the rape and murder of two little girls. He is the only suspect, but the evidence against him is circumstantial. As the city celebrates New Year's Eve, the police, led by Inspector Antoine Gallien, who is investigating the double rape/murder case, brings the lawyer in for questioning. At first politely, and then less so, the interrogation team consisting of Inspectors Gallien and Marcel Belmont chips away at the suspect's alibi. They interrogate him for hour after hour while Martinaud continues to maintain his innocence. We learn all about the evidence; we meet Martinaud's wife Chantal who tells Gallien about the rift between them and the origin of it, which may be an eight-year-old girl (Camille) Martinaud was in love with. In the face of overwhelming evidence, and feeling let down by his wife, Martinaud confesses to the two rapes and murders. However a fresh corpse is discovered inside the boot of a car that was reported to be stolen, and the car's owner turns out to be guilty of the crime - exonerating Martinaud. Martinaud leaves the police station and finds his wife, who has committed suicide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Screenwriter Michel Audiard discovered John Wainwright's novel, published in \"Série noire\" in 1980, and brought the project to Les Films Ariane. They suggested it to Claude Miller who decided to make Martinaud's character more psychologically complex than he was in the book.  Miller asked Lam Lê to create a complete storyboard for the film before the shooting. Filming started January 27, 1981 and wrapped March 13, 1981. The picture was filmed entirely in a studio and in chronological order.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "It won the César Award for Best Writing, Best Actor, Best Supporting Actor, and Best Editing. The film had 2,098,038 admissions in France and was the 17th-most-attended film of the year.  The film received mixed reviews from English-speaking critics. \"Time Out\" said it was \"a fine psychological thriller\" in which \"the potential staginess of the material... is admirably shaken by inspired adaptation, \"mise en scène\" and editing.\" In \"The New York Times\", Janet Maslin called it \"a slow, claustrophobic crime melodrama with a lot of talk\" but \"the actors help keep the film relatively engrossing.\" Roy Armes wrote that the film \"shows Miller's skills at their finest,\" and added that it is \"a pure, hundred-minute spectacle, a story that holds the attention unerringly but which in its unfolding destroys its own painfully built logic.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "1981: Prix Méliès - Best Film  1981: Montreal World Film Festival - Best Screenplay  1982 César Awards:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remake.", "content": "\"Garde à Vue\" was remade in 2000 as \"Under Suspicion\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Garde à Vue (also known as The Inquisitor) is a 1981 French psychological crime drama directed by Claude Miller and starring Romy Schneider, Michel Serrault, Lino Ventura and Guy Marchand. It is based on the British novel \"Brainwash\", by John Wainwright.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975044}
{"src_title": "Aktau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The territory of what is now Aktau was once inhabited by ancient tribes of Scythians. Archeological finds in the area include old settlements and utensils. The current territory of Mangystau hosted a spur route of the northern silk road, which resulted in the founding of several Sufi shrines in Aktau's vicinity. However, the area had very little population prior to Soviet times and no cities of any relevancy, almost certainly due to the scarcity of fresh water.  In 1958, uranium prospectors settled the site of modern Aktau, naming the settlement Melovoye () after the bay on which it stood. After the development of the uranium deposits was started, the settlement was closed and renamed Guryev-20 (). In 1963, its closed status was lifted, town status was granted, and the name was changed to Aktau. However, in 1964 it was given yet another name, Shevchenko (), to honor the Ukrainian poet Taras Shevchenko who spent 1850–1857 in political exile in Novopetrovskoye, about to the northwest. This Ukrainian name for the city may have been granted due to the large number of Ukrainian workers who settled in the city. Their descendants are easily identifiable to this day by surnames ending in '-enko'. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Kazakhstan gaining independence, the name Aktau was restored in 1991, but the city's airport still retains SCO as its IATA code.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nuclear power plant.", "content": "Aktau was once the site of a nuclear power station. The BN-350 FBR went online in 1973, and was shut down in 1999. The long-term plans of the Government of Kazakhstan include the construction of a new nuclear power station to be built near the site. In addition to producing plutonium, BN-350 was used to provide power and for desalination to supply fresh water to the city. The current station is not considered powerful enough to supply the fresh water and energy needed at this time, and blackouts are a common occurrence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Aktau has an international airport that was built in 1996. Aktau also has a developed seaport.  Kazakhstan has been increasing the importance of Aktau's port with its changes in international export policy. It has been attempting to halt the transit of grain through the Black Sea and instead use routes over the Caspian or via Turkmenistan. Aktau's port has been expanded (completion achieved summer 2015) to accommodate ever larger quantities and more diverse types of cargo. The intent is for cargo to transit by ship over the Caspian Sea and then by rail through Azerbaijan and Georgia for delivery in Turkey and beyond. This new route was made possible by the opening of a railway connecting Georgia and Turkey in 2014.  There is also a railway station Mangystau, about 12 km away from Aktau's city center. Trip from Aktau to Astana will take around 2 days, to Almaty around 3 days.  Buses and taxis are the principal means of public transport within the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate and leisure.", "content": "Aktau experiences a cold desert climate (Köppen \"BWk\"), with warm to hot dry summers and cold winters, with a mean January temperature of, and a mean July temperature of. It is notable that most of the city of Aktau lies below sea level in the Caspian Depression and is proximate to the lowest point in Kazakhstan and the former Soviet Union at Karagiye.  The beach season lasts from May to September, with an average sea temperature of. Aktau has both rocky hills and sandy beaches along the seashore. There are several modern resorts on the coast to the south of the city. The beaches of the Caspian shore are popular in the summer, due to the hot climate of the season. Tourists come mainly from other parts of Kazakhstan. The city has a variety of local hotels and western chains of Renaissance and Holiday Inn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "The main attraction in the city remains the Caspian Sea with its long side walks and beaches. Other sights include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Aktau is the home of football club FC Caspiy. The club's home ground is Zhastar Stadium which has a capacity of 5,000. In 2019, they finished 2nd place in the Kazakhstan First Division and gained outright promotion to the Kazakhstan Premier League, the top division of football in Kazakhstan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Time capsule.", "content": "In 1967 the people of Aktau erected a Time capsule to send a message to future generations of the Mangyshlak Peninsula, including names of people who helped to build the town in the desert. The letter was put in a metallic cylinder in a triangular marble urn. It was opened in November 2017. The capsule is located in District 2, opposite the 'Kazakhstan Trade Center.'  A ceremony to open the capsule was arranged and people traveled from far and wide to attend. This was subsequently postponed and then cancelled when it became known that capsule was, in fact, missing. Previously the capsule had been buried in another part of the town but building works in that location caused it to be relocated to the District 2 location. Sadly the capsule didn't make the move. An official from the time of the creation of the capsule who had been involved in the drafting of a message to be included within the capsule was able to remember word for word the message that was written which by all accounts contained a theme of hope for the future.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry.", "content": "Major industry of the city remains hydrocarbon production as one of the biggest producing regions of the country. In addition to its strategic location as the main seaport, Aktau attracted the biggest players of the oil service industry:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aktau city project.", "content": "On September 11, 2007, President Nursultan Nazarbayev started the \"Aktau city\" project in order to develop tourism and attract investment. A totally new city was to have been built to the north-west of the current city with 4 million square meters of new residential and business buildings. The architecture style would have been derived from UAE's construction experience under the patronage of Sheikh Abdullah ibn Zaid Al Nahayan. In August 2013, the project was called off.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Aktau is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aktau (; ) is a city in Kazakhstan, located on the Eastern shore of the Caspian Sea. Its current name means \"white mountain\" in Kazakh, which may be due to its cliffs that overlook the Caspian. From 1964 to 1991 city was known as Shevchenko (). Its former name was given due to the eponymous Ukrainian poet's period of exile in the area. It is located on the Mangyshlak Peninsula and is the capital of Mangystau Region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975045}
{"src_title": "Tsuga heterophylla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Habitat.", "content": "\"Tsuga heterophylla\" is an integral component of Pacific Northwest forests west of the Coast Ranges, where it is a climax species. It is also an important timber tree throughout the region, along with many of its large coniferous associates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Western hemlock is a large evergreen coniferous tree growing to tall, exceptionally, and with a trunk diameter of up to. It is the largest species of hemlock, with the next largest (mountain hemlock, \"T. mertensiana\") reaching a maximum of. The bark is brown, thin and furrowed. The crown is a very neat broad conic shape in young trees with a strongly drooping lead shoot, becoming cylindric in older trees; old trees may have no branches in the lowest. At all ages, it is readily distinguished by the pendulous branchlet tips. The shoots are very pale buff-brown, almost white, with pale pubescence about long. The leaves are needle-like, long and broad, strongly flattened in cross-section, with a finely serrated margin and a bluntly acute apex. They are mid to dark green above; the underside has two distinctive white bands of stomata with only a narrow green midrib between the bands. They are arranged spirally on the shoots but are twisted at the base to lie in two ranks on either side of the shoot. The cones are small, pendulous, slender cylindrical, long and broad when closed, opening to broad. They have 15–25 thin, flexible scales long. The immature cones are green, maturing gray-brown 5–7 months after pollination. The seeds are brown, long, with a slender, long pale brown wing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Western hemlock is closely associated with temperate rain forests, and most of its range is less than from the Pacific Ocean. There is however an inland population in the Columbia Mountains in southeast British Columbia, northern Idaho and western Montana. It mostly grows at low altitudes, from sea level to, but up to in the interior part of its range in Idaho.  It is a very shade-tolerant tree; among associated species in the Pacific Northwest, it is matched or exceeded in shade tolerance only by Pacific yew and Pacific silver fir. Young plants typically grow up under the canopy of other conifers such as Sitka spruce or Douglas-fir, where they can persist for decades waiting to exploit a gap in the canopy. They eventually replace these conifers, which are relatively shade-intolerant, in climax forest. However, storms and wildfires will create larger openings in the forest where these other species can then regenerate.  Initial growth is slow; one-year-old seedlings are commonly only tall, and two-year-old seedlings tall. Once established, saplings in full light may have an average growth rate of (rarely ) annually until they are tall, and in good conditions still annually when tall. The tallest specimen, tall, is in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California (United States). It is long-lived, with trees over 1200 years old known.  Western hemlock forms ectomycorrhizal associations with some well-known edible fungi such as chanterelles (\"Cantharellus formosus\", \"C. subalbidus\", and \"Craterellus tubaeformis\"). It is capable of associating with wood-decay fungi in addition to soil fungi; this enables its seedlings to survive on rotting stumps and logs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Western hemlock is the state tree of Washington.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Western hemlock is cultivated as an ornamental tree in gardens in its native habitats and along the U.S. Pacific Coast, where its best reliability is seen in wetter regions. In relatively dry areas, as at Victoria, British Columbia, it is exacting about soil conditions. It needs a high level of organic matter (well-rotted wood from an old log or stump is best; animal manures may have too much nitrogen and salt), in a moist, acidic soil. It is also cultivated in temperate regions worldwide. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Forestry.", "content": "When planted well upon the banks along a river, western hemlock can help to reduce erosion.  Outside of its native range, western hemlock is of importance in forestry, (as a softwood) for timber and paper production, it is used for making doors, joinery and furniture. It can also be an ornamental tree in large gardens, in northwest Europe and southern New Zealand.  It has naturalised in some parts of Great Britain and New Zealand, not so extensively as to be considered an invasive species, but an introduced species tree.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "The edible cambium can be collected by scraping slabs of removed bark. The resulting shavings can be eaten immediately, or can be dried and pressed into bread, as was done by the Native Americans of southeastern Alaska. The bark also serves as a source of tannin for tanning.  Tender new growth needles (leaves) can be chewed directly or made into a bitter tea, rich in vitamin C (similar to some other hemlock and pine species).  Western hemlock boughs are used to collect herring eggs during the spring spawn in southeast Alaska. The boughs provide an easily collectible surface for the eggs to attach to as well as providing a distinctive taste. This practice originates from traditional gathering methods used by Native Alaskans from southeast Alaska, specifically the Tlingit people.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Tsuga heterophylla, the western hemlock or western hemlock-spruce, is a species of hemlock native to the west coast of North America, with its northwestern limit on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, and its southeastern limit in northern Sonoma County, California.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975046}
{"src_title": "Princess Wilhelmine, Duchess of Sagan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Wilhelmine was born to Peter von Biron, the last Duke of Courland, and his third wife Anna Charlotte Dorothea von Medem (1761–1821). She had three conjugal sisters: Maria Luise Pauline (1782–1845), Johanna Katharina (1783–1876), wife of Fürst Don Francesco, Duke of Acerenza (brother of the 8th Prince of Belmonte), and Dorothea (1793–1862), later wife of Edmond de Talleyrand-Périgord (1787–1872), nephew of the French statesman Talleyrand.  Wilhelmine spent her earliest childhood in Mitau. In 1795 the Duke was forced to cede his Duchy to the Russian Empire, and the family moved to the Duchy of Sagan (Żagań) in Silesia, which had been acquired in 1786. Among other properties bought by her father during the 1780s was County Náchod in Bohemia, which included Ratibořice Castle. Wilhelmine, who inherited both Sagan and Náchod, selected this castle as her summer residence.  The young duchess was very beautiful, intelligent, eloquent and educated in philosophy and history. She fell in love with Finnish general Gustav Armfelt, her mother's lover and her tutor. The secret relationship with a much older and married Armfelt resulted in the birth of an illegitimate daughter named Adelaide Gustava Aspasia (nicknamed \"Vava\"), who was born in secrecy in Hamburg on 13 January 1801. The delivery was traumatic, and, due to an incompetent midwife, she lost the ability to have further children. Wilhelmine gave up her child to one of Armfelt's relatives in Finland and never saw her again. Wilhelmine greatly regretted this decision as time went on. To protect her reputation, Armfelt organized a marriage for her with an émigré French nobleman, (1768–1836), the son of the Princesse de Guéméné, the original governess of the children of King Louis XVI of France. The marriage did not last and ended in divorce in 1805.  Wilhelmine spent the rest of her life moving between Vienna, Prague, Ratibořice and Sagan (Żagań). She also undertook journeys to Italy, England and France. Her second marriage with prince Vasily Troubetzkoy (1776–1841), which lasted from 1805 to 1806, also ended in divorce. In Vienna, she set up a salon attended by the highest nobility. An attractive woman, she attracted many aristocratic lovers. She had a short-lived and turbulent relationship during the spring of 1810 with Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, an Austrian army commander.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metternich.", "content": "Although Wilhelmine first met Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (1773–1859) in 1801, their love affair did not start until the spring of 1813. The passion between the two is documented by over 600 letters written by Metternich that were discovered in 1949 by Marie Ulrichová in Plasy Cloister. These letters also describe the minute details of the political situation of the day and the corresponding decisions made by Metternich as a diplomat and government official.  Modern historians speculate that Wilhelmine, who hated Napoleon, was the one who pushed Metternich away from a cautious pro-French position. The negotiations in 1813 that resulted in an anti-Napoleonic coalition between Prussia, Austria and Russia were held in one of Wilhelmine's homes, Ratibořice Castle.  During the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), the relationship ended, as Wilhelmine didn't like playing the role of an unacknowledged mistress, a role forced onto her as Metternich was married, and also because Alfred Windischgraetz (alternative spelling) appeared in Vienna, and she could not resist resuming her affair with him, writing \"with friends one counts the days, with you I count the nights, and I would not wish to miss a single one of them\". This distracted Metternich at a critical stage in the negotiations.  Because of the impossibility of having any more children, she became a foster parent to many young girls. From 1819 until 1828, Wihelmine was married to Prince Karl Rudolf von der Schulenburg (1788–1856). This marriage also ended in divorce. What she feared the most - being alone - eventually became reality toward the end of her life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relation with Božena Němcová.", "content": "Famous Czech author Božena Němcová (1820–1862) was one of the poor family girls supported by Wilhelmine. Němcová portrayed Wilhelmine in her 1855 novel \"Babička (The Grandmother)\" as an ideal woman. The portrait is so touching that Czech collocation \"\"paní kněžna\"\" (meaning \"the princess\") became a synonym for Wilhelmine.  All four Courland sisters are known to have had illegitimate children, Johanna at age sixteen. Because of her unknown origin (even the date of her birth is disputed) and the favour shown her by the duchess, several historians believe that Němcová could have been an illegitimate daughter of Wilhelmine and either Metternich, Count Karel Clam-Martinic or Windischgrätz.  Helena Sobková, a writer of popular-history books about Němcová, believes that Němcová may actually have been the niece of Wilhelmine. In 1816 an illegitimate daughter was born to Wilhelmine's younger sister, Dorothea, and Karel Clam-Martinic (1792–1840). The child's fate is unknown, and it is possible that Wilhelmine gave the child to Němcová's parents to raise as their own. This suggestion, however, has not been definitely proven.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Katharina Friederike \"Wilhelmine\" Benigna, Princess of Courland, Duchess of Sagan (born 8 February 1781 in Mitau, Duchy of Courland and Semigallia; died 29 November 1839 in Vienna, Austrian Empire) was a German noble from the ruling family of Courland and Semigallia (today part of Latvia) and a sovereign Duchess of Sagan. Wilhelmine is mainly known for her relationship with Klemens Metternich, a statesman of the Austrian Empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975047}
{"src_title": "Tadeusz Rydzyk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Tadeusz Rydzyk was according to articles linked in Polish Wikipedia born out of wedlock to his mother, the widowed Mrs. Rydzyk, and her boyfriend Bronisław Kordaszewski and spent his childhood in Olkusz. He studied at the Higher Spiritual Seminary of Redemptorists in Tuchów, and later at the Catholic Theology Academy in Warsaw. He was ordained a priest in 1971 and taught religion in Toruń, Szczecinek and Kraków. In 1986 Fr. Rydzyk left for West Germany where he was involved with a radio station \"Radio Maria International in Balderschwang\" (later closed by the Catholic Church authorities for moving away from Catholic doctrine).  Following his return to Poland in 1991, Rydzyk started Radio Maryja, the second worldwide Catholic radio station (the first being Vatican Radio). He established the Catholic newspaper \"Nasz Dziennik\" ('Our Daily') and the television station \"Trwam\" ('I Persist').  On 8 October 2009, Fr. Rydzyk earned a PhD in Theology from the Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "During XIX International Catholic Film Festival Niepokalanów 2004 for the first time awards Multimedia in service of a Gospel were given and recipients were Fr. Tadeusz Rydzyk and Mel Gibson.  On September 15, 2007 he was awarded the Mater Verbi Catholic weekly „Niedziela” prize on Jasna Góra. The prize is given to people who contributed to \"Niedziela\" from Poland and abroad.  On June 28, 2009, Fr. Tadeusz Rydzyk received św. Stanisław Medal in appreciation of works that he has inspired.  On October 26, 2009 he received medal „Zło dobrem zwyciężaj” for his work for the Church and for Poland and for promoting teachings of Jerzy Popiełuszko.  In 2010, Tadeusz Rydzyk received the Blessed Jerzy Ciesielski Award.  In September 2010, he received \"Sursum Corda\" prize of the weekly \"Niedziela.\"  In December 2013, he received the „Tibi Mater Polonia” Cross.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "In February 2011, Fr. Rydzyk was fined 3500 zlotys after the local district court in Toruń found that he broke the law by using Radio Maryja to call for donations to TV Trwam, the University of Social and Media Culture and the geothermal drilling conducted by the Lux Veritatis Foundation.  In June 2011, while meeting members of the European Parliament, he called Poland \"an uncivilized country\" and \"a totalitarian regime,\" and claimed that it was not ruled by Poles. The Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs protested against these statements and sent a diplomatic note to the Holy See, to which Catholic religious orders, including the Redemptorists, are subject.  In 2006, the US-based Anti-Defamation League accused Rydzyk and his Radio Maryja station of antisemitism. However, Rydzyk also has Jewish backers, including Jonny Daniels, an Orthodox Jew from England who heads the \"From the Depths Foundation\" in Warsaw that highlights the heroism of Poles who rescued Jews during the war and who is a frequent guest on Rydzyk's media outlets. Daniels said that he \"feels like a part of the Radio Maryja family.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Father Tadeusz Rydzyk (; born 3 May 1945 in Olkusz) is a Roman Catholic priest and Redemptorist, founder and director of the conservative Radio Maryja station, and founder of the University of Social and Media Culture in Toruń.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975048}
{"src_title": "Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Tadeusz Kamil Marcjan Żeleński (of the \"Ciołek\" coat-of-arms) was born on 21 December 1874 in Warsaw, to Wanda, \"née\" Grabowska, who was from a Frankist family, and Władysław Żeleński, a prominent composer and musician. Tadeusz's cousin was the notable Polish neo-romantic poet Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer. Because higher education in Polish was forbidden in Warsaw under Russian rule, in 1892 Żeleński left for Kraków, in Austrian-ruled Galicia, where he enrolled at the Jagiellonian University medical school.  Completing his studies in 1900, Żeleński began medical practice as a pediatrician. In 1906 he opened a practice as a gynaecologist, which gave him financial freedom. The same year, he co-organised the famous \"Zielony Balonik\" (\"Green Balloon\") cabaret, which gathered notable personalities of Polish culture, including his brother Edward and Jan August Kisielewski, Stanisław Kuczborski, Witold Noskowski, Stanisław Sierosławski, Rudolf Starzewski, Edward Leszczyński, Teofil Trzciński, Karol Frycz, Ludwik Puget, Kazimierz Sichulski, Jan Skotnicki and Feliks Jasieński.  In the sketches, poems, satirical songs, and short stories that he wrote for \"Zielony Balonik\", Boy-Żeleński criticized and mocked the conservative authorities and the two-faced morality of the city folk, but also the grandiloquent style of \"Młoda Polska\" and Kraków's bohemians. This earned him a reputation as the \"\"enfant terrible\"\" of Polish literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I and interbellum.", "content": "At the outbreak of World War I, Żeleński was conscripted into the Austro-Hungarian Army and served as medic to railway troops. After the war, he returned to Poland and, in 1922, moved to Warsaw. He did not return to his medical practice but instead focused entirely on writing.  Working for various dailies and magazines, Boy-Żeleński soon became one of the authorities of the Polish liberal and democratic intelligentsia. He criticized the two-faced morality of the clergy, promoted the secularization of public life and culture, and was one of the strongest advocates for the equality of women. He was one of the first public figures in Poland to support the women's right to legal abortion. Also, Boy-Żeleński often fought in his essays against the Polish romantic tradition, which he saw as irrational and as seriously distorting the way Polish society thought about its past.  In addition, Boy translated over 100 classics of French literature, which ever since have been considered among the best translations of foreign literature into Polish. In 1933, Boy-Żeleński was admitted to the prestigious Polish Academy of Literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "After the outbreak of World War II, Boy-Żeleński moved to Soviet-occupied Lwów, where he stayed with his wife's brother-in-law. In Lviv, Boy joined the Soviet-led University as the head of the Department of French Literature. Criticized by many for his public and frequent collaboration with the Soviet occupation forces, he maintained contacts with many prominent professors and artists, who found themselves in the city after the Polish Defensive War. He also took part in creating the Communist propaganda newspaper \"Czerwony Sztandar\" (Red Banner) and became one of the prominent members of the Society of Polish Writers.  After Nazi Germany broke the German–Soviet treaty and attacked the USSR and the Soviet-held Polish Kresy, Boy remained in Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine). The city was captured on the night of 4 July 1941; he was arrested and taken to the Wulka hills where he was murdered for being \"a Soviet spy\", together with 45 other Polish professors, artists and intelligentsia in what became known as the massacre of Lviv professors.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tadeusz Kamil Marcjan Żeleński (better known by his pen name, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński; 21 December 1874 – 4 July 1941) was a Polish stage writer, poet, critic and, above all, the translator of over 100 French literary classics into Polish. He was a pediatrician and gynecologist by profession.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975049}
{"src_title": "Stone loach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The stone loach is a small, slender bottom-dwelling fish that can grow to a length of, but typically is around. Its eyes are situated high on its head and it has three pairs of short barbels on its lower jaw below its mouth. It has a rounded body that is not much laterally flattened and is a little less deep in the body than the spined loach (\"Cobitis taenia\") and lacks that fish's spines beneath the eye. It has rounded dorsal and caudal fins with their tips slightly notched, but the spined loach has even more rounded fins. The general colour of this fish is yellowish-brown with blotches and vertical bands of darker colour. An indistinct dark line runs from the snout to the eye. The fins are brownish with faint dark banding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The stone loach is a common species and is found over most of Europe in suitable clear rivers and streams with gravel and sandy bottoms. It is present in upland areas, also chalk streams, lakes and reservoirs as long as the water is well-oxygenated. These fish sometimes venture into estuaries but not into brackish water. They live on the bottom, often partly buried, and they are particularly active at night when they rootle among the sand and gravel for the small invertebrates on which they feed.  It is found in Baltic states, Eastern Europe, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Moldova, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. It has been extirpated from Greece.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "The larvae of stone loaches are benthic, they and small juveniles prefer sandy substrates with a slower current, as they grow they move on to gravel bottoms and faster currents. As adults they prey on relatively large benthic invertebrates such as gammarids, chironomids and other insect larvae. It normally feeds at nights when it uses the barbels around its mouth to detect its prey. They are tolerant of moderate organic pollution and stream canalization but they are highly sensitive to heavy metal pollution, chemical pollution and low oxygen levels which mean that the presence of stone loaches in a river is an indicator of good water quality. They are short-lived fish, normally living to age 3–4 years with 5 years being exceptional.  Stone loaches breed over gravel or sand or among aquatic vegetation. In streams with low productivity spawning may be annual but where the water has higher productivity there may be multiple spawning events within a season. The females release eggs in open water, often close to the surface. The eggs drift and adhere to different substrates and are often covered by sand or detritus. A female stone loach may spawn each day for short periods. In Great Britain spawning lasts from April to August and the females may lay as many as 10,000 eggs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The stone loach (\"Barbatula barbatula\") is a European species of fresh water ray-finned fish in the family Nemacheilidae. It is one of nineteen species in the genus \"Barbatula\". Stone loaches live amongst the gravel and stones of fast flowing water where they can search for food. The most distinctive feature of this small fish is the presence of barbels around the bottom jaw, which they use to detect their invertebrate prey. The body is a mixture of brown, green and yellow.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975050}
{"src_title": "Josef Václav Frič", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Already at a high school, Frič joined the illegal activities of radical democrats. He had to flee from Prague (1846) and worked in Paris and London, among the Polish emigration. In 1847, he returned to Prague and joined secret society \"Repeal\". In June 1848, Repeal launched an armed struggle. Frič organized fighting on the barricades. After the defeat of the rebellion he fled to Vienna, then to Zagreb and later he joined the Slovak revolutionary army of Ľudovít Štúr. In Slovakia he was seriously wounded. In 1849, after an amnesty in Austria Frič returned to Prague. He formed a new radical democratic organization \"Českomoravské bratrstvo\" (\"Bohemian-Moravian Brotherhood\"). During preparations for a new rebellion he was arrested. He was sentenced to 18 years in prison in Komárno. In 1854, Frič was released. He lived in Prague under police supervision. He joined the literary life. He helped to form the almanac \"Máj\", in which he announced a new generation of poets, with Jan Neruda as the leader). However, in 1858 Frič was arrested again. He was sent into exile in Transylvania. In 1859 he was allowed to emigrate, subsequently living in London and Paris. In exile he founded the magazines \"Čech\" and \"Blaník\". In 1879, he was allowed to return to Prague. The new political situation for him was unintelligible, so he focused only on literature and writing memoirs. He was one of the few Czech politicians of the 19th century to demand a break of Austria-Hungary. Frič worked closely with the radical democrats in other countries (Mieroslawski, Gercen, Bakunin, Kinkel, Garibaldi, Teleki, Kossuth). His most important literary work is the patriotic poem \"The Vampire\" (1849).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josef Václav Frič (5 September 1829 – 14 October 1890) was a Czech poet, journalist and radical democrat revolutionary. He was a participant in the revolution of 1848.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975051}
{"src_title": "Bohuslav Sobotka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Youth.", "content": "He comes from Telnice. His family moved to Slavkov u Brna in the early 1980s. There he completed Primary School Tyršova. He studied at Gymnasium Bučovice from 1986 to 1990. He studied at Masaryk University where he received a Master's degree in Law.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Sobotka was first elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1996. From 2002 to 2006, he was Finance Minister of the Czech Republic. Sobotka was also a Deputy Prime Minister from 2003 to 2004 and from 2005 to 2006.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minister of Finance.", "content": "As the minister of finance he formed an advisory body of economists. It later became the National Economic Council of Czech government. His austerity policy included dismissal of employees and restrictions on savings accounts and health benefits, a policy he later criticized. When Jiří Paroubek became the new prime minister in 2005, Sobotka reduced his restrictions which led to an increase in the deficit.  Sobotka was elected to the chamber again in 2006 but his party lost the election and went into opposition. Sobotka became a Minister of Finance in a Shadow Cabinet of Social democrats. His party won legislative election in 2010 but failed to form a governing coalition and remained in opposition.  Sobotka then served as interim leader of ČSSD after the resignation of Jiří Paroubek following the election. He also briefly served as interim chairman in 2006, after the resignation of Stanislav Gross. Sobotka was elected the chairman of the party on 18 March 2011 when he defeated Michal Hašek who became the First Deputy Chairman. On 18 March 2011, Sobotka was officially elected the party chairman.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leader of ČSSD.", "content": "Sobotka led his party in the legislative elections of 2013. The party won the election, gaining 20.45% of votes. The formation of a new government was marked by a conflict between Bohuslav Sobotka and Michal Hašek who, along his allies from the Party, attended a secret post-election meeting with the Czech President Miloš Zeman. They called on Sobotka to resign due to the party's poor election result. Hašek and his allies also eliminated Sobotka from the team negotiating the next government. The secret meeting was later revealed and Hašek was accused of publicly lying about it. It led to public protests in the country in support of Sobotka, which in turn led to Hašek's retreat and a creation of a new government-formation negotiations led by Sobotka. Bohuslav Sobotka resigned on 14 June 2017 as Leader of the Social Democrats after some opinion polls showed his party with support of 10% saying that “party has to undergo deeper changes, so that it would be able to better address people and to mobilize its supporters and members” ahead of the 2017 legislative election. However, Sobotka will compete in the election as leader of the party in the South Moravian Region. After his resignation, Minister of Interior Milan Chovanec has assumed the position of acting Leader of the ČSSD, while Minister of Foreign Affairs Lubomír Zaorálek became its candidate for Prime Minister.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prime Minister (2014–17).", "content": "Sobotka was designated as prime minister on 17 January 2014 and appointed, alongside his Cabinet, by President Miloš Zeman on 29 January 2014. His cabinet consisted of members of the coalition government – the ČSSD, ANO 2011, and Christian and Democratic Union–Czechoslovak People's Party.  He was the 11th Prime Minister of the Czech Republic and the 1st left-wing Prime Minister after 6 years of right-wing political control in the Czech Republic. Sobotka's government coalition had in the Chamber of Deputies 111 seats out of 200 and his ČSSD had 50 seats.  Bohuslav Sobotka's views on the European Union and the Czech Republic's membership in the European Union as Prime Minister were relatively positive. Sobotka noted that ˈˈmembership of the Czech Republic in the European Union is a benefit.ˈˈ He has also said that membership provides better security measures and economic stability. However, in early 2016, Sobotka said there would be a national debate on the country's place in the European Union in the case of British withdrawal from it.  On 26 May 2015, he and his coalition government faced the first attempt to overthrow the Government when opposition called on vote of no-confidence to the Government of the Czech Republic because of Finance Minister of the Czech Republic Andrej Babiš. The attempt was unsuccessful as Members of Parliament did not support the vote of no confidence in the current Government.  In December 2016, Sobotka called for higher corporate taxes, saying: “The way taxation is set up right now it only obliges the big and rich players, who export their profits out of the Czech Republic. Annually, these sums amount to 200 to 300 billion [crowns].”  On 2 May 2017, Sobotka announced that he will resign because he cannot bear responsibility for Finance Minister Andrej Babiš. Sobotka stated that Babiš failed to clear up questions surrounding financial transactions connected to his business activity. Sobotka changed his mind on 5 May 2017 and instead decided to dismiss Babiš from his position.  On 15 June 2017, Bohuslav Sobotka resigned as leader of ČSSD.  On 5 December 2017, Sobotka's Cabinet resigned following his loss at the general elections in October. Andrej Babiš was appointed prime minister on 6 December 2017, and his new government assumed office on 13 December 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-premiership.", "content": "Sobotka resided to his hometown Vyškov in January 2018 and stated that he plans to restart his political career. Members of local ČSSD stated they don't intend him to run in the upcoming municipal election.  On 22 March 2018, Sobotka announced that he will resign as member of the Chamber of Deputies (MP) effective 1 April 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Sobotka was married from 2003 till 2017 to Olga Sobotková, the wife of the 11th Prime Minister of the Czech Republic since its founding. He has 2 sons - David (2003) and Martin (2009). Prime Minister Sobotka likes to read historical mystery, sci-fi, and contemporary literature. He also likes going to theatre and to the cinema where he prefers Czech films.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bohuslav Sobotka (; born 23 October 1971) is a Czech former politician who served as the Prime Minister of the Czech Republic from January 2014 to December 2017 and Leader of the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) from 2010 until his resignation in June 2017. He was Member of the Chamber of Deputies (MP) from 1996 to 2018. Sobotka also served as Finance Minister from 2002 to 2006.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975052}
{"src_title": "Nitride", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses of nitrides.", "content": "Like carbides, nitrides are often refractory materials owing to their high lattice energy which reflects the strong attraction of \"N\" for the metal cation. Thus, titanium nitride and silicon nitride are used as cutting materials and hard coatings. Hexagonal boron nitride, which adopts a layered structure, is a useful high-temperature lubricant akin to molybdenum disulfide. Nitride compounds often have large band gaps, thus nitrides are usually insulators or wide bandgap semiconductors; examples include boron nitride and silicon nitride. The wide band gap material gallium nitride is prized for emitting blue light in LEDs. Like some oxides, nitrides can absorb hydrogen and have been discussed in the context of hydrogen storage, e.g. lithium nitride.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "Classification of such a varied group of compounds is somewhat arbitrary. Compounds where nitrogen is not assigned −3 oxidation state are not included, such as nitrogen trichloride where the oxidation state is +3; nor are ammonia and its many organic derivatives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nitrides of the s-block elements.", "content": "Only one alkali metal nitride is stable, the purple-reddish lithium nitride (LiN), which forms when lithium burns in an atmosphere of N. Sodium nitride has been generated, but remains a laboratory curiosity. The nitrides of the alkaline earth metals have the formula MN are however numerous. Examples include BeN, MgN, CaN, and SrN. The nitrides of electropositive metals (including Li, Zn, and the alkaline earth metals) readily hydrolyze upon contact with water, including the moisture in the air:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nitrides of the p-block elements.", "content": "Boron nitride exists as several forms (polymorphs). Nitrides of silicon and phosphorus are also known, but only the former is commercially important. The nitrides of aluminium, gallium, and indium adopt diamond-like wurtzite structure in which each atom occupies tetrahedral sites. For example, in aluminium nitride, each aluminium atom has four neighboring nitrogen atoms at the corners of a tetrahedron and similarly each nitrogen atom has four neighboring aluminium atoms at the corners of a tetrahedron. This structure is like hexagonal diamond (lonsdaleite) where every carbon atom occupies a tetrahedral site (however wurtzite differs from sphalerite and diamond in the relative orientation of tetrahedra). Thallium(I) nitride, TlN is known, but thallium(III) nitride, TlN, is not.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transition metal nitrides.", "content": "For the group 3 metals, ScN and YN are both known. Group 4, 5, and 6 transition metals (the titanium, vanadium and chromium groups) all form nitrides. They are refractory, with high melting point and are chemically stable. Representative is titanium nitride. Sometimes these materials are called \"interstitial nitrides.\"  Nitrides of the group 7 and 8 transition metals decompose readily. For example, iron nitride, FeN decomposes at 200 °C. Platinum nitride and osmium nitride may contain N units, and as such should not be called nitrides. Nitrides of heavier members from group 11 and 12 are less stable than copper nitride, CuN and ZnN: dry silver nitride (AgN) is a contact explosive which may detonate from the slightest touch, even a falling water droplet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Molecular nitrides.", "content": "Many metals form molecular nitrido complexes, as discussed in the specialized article. The main group elements also form some molecular nitrides. Cyanogen ((CN)) and tetrasulfur tetranitride (SN) are rare examples of a molecular binary (containing one element aside from nitrogen) nitrides. They dissolve in nonpolar solvents. Both undergo polymerization. SN is also unstable with respect to the elements, but less so that the isostructural SeN. Heating SN gives a polymer, and a variety of molecular sulfur nitride anions and cations are also known.  Related to but distinct from nitride is pernitride,.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In chemistry, a nitride is a compound of nitrogen where nitrogen has a formal oxidation state of −3. Nitrides are a large class of compounds with a wide range of properties and applications.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975053}
{"src_title": "Chalk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mining.", "content": "Chalk is mined from chalk deposits both above ground and underground. Chalk mining boomed during the Industrial Revolution, due to the need for chalk products such as quicklime and bricks. Some abandoned chalk mines remain tourist destinations due to their massive expanse and natural beauty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deposits.", "content": "The Chalk Group is a European stratigraphic unit deposited during the late Cretaceous Period. It forms the famous White Cliffs of Dover in Kent, England, as well as their counterparts of the Cap Blanc Nez on the other side of the Dover Strait. The Champagne region of France is mostly underlain by chalk deposits, which contain artificial caves used for wine storage. Some of the highest chalk cliffs in the world occur at Jasmund National Park in Germany and at Møns Klint in Denmark – both once formed a single island.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation.", "content": "Ninety million years ago what is now the chalk downland of Northern Europe was ooze accumulating at the bottom of a great sea. Chalk was one of the earliest rocks made up of microscopic particles to be studied under the microscope, when it was found to be composed almost entirely of coccoliths. Their shells were made of calcite extracted from the rich seawater. As they died, a substantial layer gradually built up over millions of years and, through the weight of overlying sediments, eventually became consolidated into rock. Later earth movements related to the formation of the Alps raised these former sea-floor deposits above sea level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "The chemical composition of chalk is calcium carbonate, with minor amounts of silt and clay. It is formed in the sea by sub-microscopic plankton, which fall to the sea floor and are then consolidated and compressed during diagenesis into chalk rock.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Most people first encounter chalk in school where it refers to blackboard chalk, which was originally made of mineral chalk, since it readily crumbles and leaves particles that stick loosely to rough surfaces, allowing it to make writing that can be readily erased. Blackboard chalk manufacturers now may use mineral chalk, other mineral sources of calcium carbonate, or the mineral gypsum (calcium sulfate). While gypsum-based blackboard chalk is the lowest cost to produce, and thus widely used in the developing world, calcium-based chalk can be made where the crumbling particles are larger and thus produce less dust, and is marketed as \"dustless chalk\". Colored chalks, pastel chalks, and sidewalk chalk (shaped into larger sticks and often colored), used to draw on sidewalks, streets, and driveways, are primarily made of gypsum.  Chalk is a source of quicklime by thermal decomposition, or slaked lime following quenching of quicklime with water. In southeast England, deneholes are a notable example of ancient chalk pits. Such bell pits may also mark the sites of ancient flint mines, where the prime object was to remove flint nodules for stone tool manufacture. The surface remains at Cissbury are one such example, but perhaps the most famous is the extensive complex at Grimes Graves in Norfolk.  Woodworking joints may be fitted by chalking one of the mating surfaces. A trial fit will leave a chalk mark on the high spots of the corresponding surface. Chalk transferring to cover the complete surface indicates a good fit. Builder's putty also mainly contains chalk as a filler in linseed oil.  Chalk may be used for its properties as a base. In agriculture, chalk is used for raising pH in soils with high acidity. The most common forms are CaCO (calcium carbonate) and CaO (calcium oxide). Small doses of chalk can also be used as an antacid. Additionally, the small particles of chalk make it a substance ideal for cleaning and polishing. For example, toothpaste commonly contains small amounts of chalk, which serves as a mild abrasive. Polishing chalk is chalk prepared with a carefully controlled grain size, for very fine polishing of metals. Chalk can also be used as fingerprint powder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Previous uses.", "content": "Several traditional uses of chalk have been replaced by other substances, although the word \"chalk\" is often still applied to the usual replacements. Tailor's chalk is traditionally a hard chalk used to make temporary markings on cloth, mainly by tailors. It is now usually made of talc (magnesium silicate).  Chalk was traditionally used in recreation. In field sports, such as tennis played on grass, powdered chalk was used to mark the boundary lines of the playing field or court. If a ball hits the line, a cloud of chalk or pigment dust will be visible. In recent years, powdered chalk has been replaced with titanium dioxide. In gymnastics, rock-climbing, weightlifting and tug of war, chalk — now usually magnesium carbonate — is applied to the hands and feet to remove perspiration and reduce slipping.  Chalk may also be used as a house construction material instead of brick or wattle and daub: quarried chalk was cut into blocks and used as ashlar, or loose chalk was rammed into blocks and laid in mortar. There are still houses standing which have been constructed using chalk as the main building material. Most are pre-Victorian though a few are more recent.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Chalk is a soft, white, porous, sedimentary carbonate rock, a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite. Calcite is an ionic salt called calcium carbonate or CaCO. It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite shells (coccoliths) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores. Flint (a type of chert) is very common as bands parallel to the bedding or as nodules embedded in chalk. It is probably derived from sponge spicules or other siliceous organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction. Flint is often deposited around larger fossils such as Echinoidea which may be silicified (i.e. replaced molecule by molecule by flint).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975054}
{"src_title": "Kohtla-Järve", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The history of Kohtla-Järve is closely tied to the history of extraction of oil shale – the main mineral of Estonia.  There is evidence that a number of settlements existed on the territory of modern Kohtla-Järve since the High Middle Ages. In the Danish Land Book, Järve and Kukruse villages were first mentioned in 1241 by the names \"Jeruius\" and \"Kukarus\" respectively, and Sompa village in 1420 by the name \"Soenpe\". Local residents were aware of oil shale's flammable capability in ancient times, but its industrial extraction in Estonia began only in the 20th century. In 1916, researches showed that oil shale could be used both as fuel and as a raw material for chemical industry, and mining started near Järve village. In 1919 the State Oil Shale Industrial Corporation was formed and extraction by shaft and open-pit mining was extended. Settlements for workers began to appear adjacent to the mines. In 1924 the oil shale processing factory was built near Kohtla railway station, and the nearby settlement, named Kohtla-Järve, started to grow.  During World War II the value of the Estonian oil shale deposit grew. The Germans, who occupied Estonia, considered it as an important source of fuel. However, they failed to begin full-scale extraction.  After the war, the next occupier of Estonia, the Soviet Union, required constantly increasing quantities of oil shale for its industries and extraction greatly expanded. Kohtla-Järve, as the main settlement in the mining area, received city status on 15 June 1946. Since that time, during the next twenty years, there was a process of administrative amalgamation of neighboring settlements within the limits of Kohtla-Järve. Kohtla and Kukruse were added to the city in 1949; Jõhvi, Ahtme and Sompa in 1960. The town of Kiviõli and the boroughs of Oru, Püssi and Viivikonna were subordinated to the city in 1964. Thus, Kohtla-Järve greatly expanded, becoming a city with a unique layout, as its parts remained scattered among woods, agricultural areas and oil shale mines. Total population of the city increased mainly by workers sent from different parts of Soviet Union, reaching (with subordinated settlements) 90,000 in 1980.  After Soviet Union collapsed and Estonia regained independence in 1991 the number of city districts decreased, as Jõhvi, Kiviõli and Püssi became separate towns. The volume of oil shale extraction and processing decreased dramatically during the 1990s, and many Kohtla-Järve citizens moved to Tallinn or Russia, due to high unemployment in Ida-Viru County.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Kohtla-Järve is known for its chemical industry. It is the headquarters of Viru Keemia Grupp, an Estonian holding group of oil shale industry, power generation, and public utility companies. Eastman Chemical Company also has a manufacturing site located in Kohtla-Järve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Kohtla-Järve has a unique layout. The districts of the city are scattered across the northern part of Ida-Viru County in a considerably large area. The distance between Järve and Sirgala districts is about 30 km. After the administrative reform of 2017, Viivikonna and Sirgala are not part of the municipality anymore.  The city is subdivided into four administrative districts (): Viivikonna (including Sirgala) had a population of 99, totaling 37,201 people in the whole municipality in 2011.  The populations of many of the smaller exclaves have rapidly declined since the 1990s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Kohtla-Järve is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kohtla-Järve (Russian: Кохтла-Ярве) is a city and municipality in north-eastern Estonia, founded in 1924 and incorporated as a town in 1946. The city is highly industrial, and is both a processor of oil shales and is a large producer of various petroleum products. The city is also very diverse ethnically: it contains people of over 40 ethnic groups Only 21% of the population are ethnic Estonians; most of the rest are Russians. Kohtla-Järve is the fifth-largest city in Estonia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975055}
{"src_title": "German tanker Altmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The Altmark Incident.", "content": "\"Altmark\" (Captain Heinrich Dau) was assigned to support \"Admiral Graf Spee\" during her raid in the South Atlantic between September and December 1939. Seamen rescued from the ships sunk by \"Admiral Graf Spee\" were transferred to \"Altmark\". After \"Admiral Graf Spee\" was heavily damaged by British cruisers in Battle of the River Plate and subsequently scuttled by her crew, in the Río de la Plata in December 1939, \"Altmark\" attempted to return to Germany, steaming around the north of Great Britain and then within the Norwegian littoral. On 14 February 1940 \"Altmark\", proceeding south within Norwegian territorial waters, was discovered by three British Lockheed Hudson Mk.II aircraft from RAF Thornaby and pursued by several British destroyers led by. Late on 16 February 1940 in Jøssingfjord she was fired upon while the Norwegian Navy stood by and took no action save for raising a protest flag. The German tanker then received a boarding party from HMS \"Cossack\". During an attempted escape across the ice, seven of the \"Altmark\" crew were shot down. During the skirmish \"Altmark\" was run onto the rocks. It had been the British intention to tow the ship back to a Scottish port, but the damage to the tanker's stern frustrated this idea.  An attack by one belligerent upon its enemy in neutral waters is a breach of neutrality, in this case a breach of Norwegian neutrality by Britain. Because Hitler feared Norway would be insufficiently resolute to protect the German iron-ore traffic that passed legitimately along the Norwegian littoral, at Admiral Erich Raeder's urging he decided on the invasion of Norway and Denmark in March 1940.  The British justification for the attack on the \"Altmark\" was set out in a Note to the Norwegian Government from Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax dated 10 March 1940. The problem the British Government faced was the wording of The Hague Convention XIII of 1907 to which it was a signatory. Article 10 provides that: \"The neutrality of a Power is not affected by the mere passage through its territorial waters of warships or prizes belonging to belligerents.\"  This meant that the \"Altmark\" was within its rights to sail through Norwegian waters with prisoners aboard providing that it did not come to a protracted stop longer than 24 hours. In the diplomatic letter, the British government confirmed that it was not contrary to the law of neutrality to sail a prison ship through neutral waters, and Britain often did this herself. In fact the British complaint had nothing to do with the prisoners. \"Altmark\" was a fleet tanker assimilated to a warship and was proceeding to Germany from the Atlantic by the north-about route. Instead of sailing down the North Sea as he would do in peacetime, the master of the \"Altmark\" had elected to sail the entire leg of the voyage southwards within Norwegian territorial waters in order to attract immunity from attack there under international law. There was no other reason for him to want to voyage through waters so dangerous to navigation. With no valid breach of international law, the British excused their violation of international law by contriving that the \"Altmark's\" course abused international law even without a violation, and since the Norwegians had declined to stop a voyage that was not in violation of international convention the British Admiralty decided it was justified in taking action contrary to law, essentially announcing that it had the right to determine what course an enemy ship must travel to be entitled to the protections of international law.  The question remains unresolved to this day as to whether, as the Hague Conventions stood in 1940, a warship could legitimately seek immunity from attack in neutral waters by widely varying its course to reach them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subsequent history.", "content": "The ship, renamed Uckermark on 6 August 1940, then resumed the role for which she had been built. During Admiral Lütjens' Atlantic adventure with the battleships and between January and March 1941, \"Uckermark\", under Captain Zatorski, was a supply ship and scout attached to the squadron. As the result of her reports the battleships were directed to various merchant vessels, which were then sunk.  On 9 September 1942 she left France for Japan with a cargo of vegetable oil and fuel, supplying the auxiliary cruiser on the way, arriving at Yokohama on 24 November 1942. \"Uckermark\" was then intended as the replenishment ship for the German raider, which was raiding merchant shipping in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean areas.  On 30 November 1942, \"Uckermark\" was anchored in Yokohama, Japan, next to \"Thor\" and the Australian passenger liner \"Nankin\", which \"Thor\" had captured in March five days out from Fremantle, Australia, en route to Colombo, Ceylon. While the crew was at lunch, \"Uckermark\" suffered a huge explosion that ripped the vessel apart. \"Uckermark\", \"Thor\", and \"Nankin\" were sunk by the explosion. The cause of the explosion was thought to be a spark from tools used by a repair gang working near the cargo tanks. The \"Uckermark\" had delivered 5000ts of gasoline to Yokohama. It seems to be logical that the residual fumes and gasoline did explode. Diesel fuel does not explode the way the ship went up. 53 crewmen from \"Uckermark\" died in the explosion. The severely damaged ship was beyond repair and was scrapped.  Some of the survivors of the ship were sent to France on the blockade runner \"Doggerbank\" and perished when the ship was mistakenly sunk by the on 3 March 1943 with all but one of the 365 strong crew lost at sea.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Altmark was a German oil tanker and supply vessel, one of five of a class built between 1937 and 1939. She is best known for her support of the German commerce raider, the \"pocket battleship\" and her subsequent involvement in the \"Altmark Incident\". In 1940 she was renamed the \"Uckermark\" and used as supply tanker for the battleships and during Operation Berlin before sailing to Japan on September 1942 as a blockade breaker.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975056}
{"src_title": "Descriptive geometry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Protocols.", "content": "Aside from the Orthographic, six standard principal views (Front; Right Side; Left Side; Top; Bottom; Rear), descriptive geometry strives to yield four basic solution views: the true length of a line (i.e., full size, not foreshortened), the point view (end view) of a line, the true shape of a plane (i.e., full size to scale, or not foreshortened), and the edge view of a plane (i.e., view of a plane with the line of sight perpendicular to the line of sight associated with the line of sight for producing the true shape of a plane). These often serve to determine the direction of projection for the subsequent view. By the 90° circuitous stepping process, projecting in any direction from the point view of a line yields its true length view; projecting in a direction parallel to a true length line view yields its point view, projecting the point view of any line on a plane yields the plane's edge view; projecting in a direction perpendicular to the edge view of a plane will yield the true shape (to scale) view. These various views may be called upon to help solve engineering problems posed by solid-geometry principles", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heuristics.", "content": "There is heuristic value to studying descriptive geometry. It promotes visualization and spatial analytical abilities, as well as the intuitive ability to recognize the direction of viewing for best presenting a geometric problem for solution. Representative examples:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The best direction to view.", "content": "A standard for presenting computer-modeling views analogous to orthographic, sequential projections has not yet been adopted. One candidate for such is presented in the illustrations below. The images in the illustrations were created using three-dimensional, engineering computer graphics.  Three-dimensional, computer modeling produces virtual space \"behind the tube\", as it were, and may produce any view of a model from any direction within this virtual space. It does so without the need for adjacent orthographic views and therefore may seem to render the circuitous, stepping protocol of Descriptive Geometry obsolete. However, since descriptive geometry is the science of the legitimate or allowable imaging of three or \"more\" dimensional space, on a flat plane, it is an indispensable study, to enhance computer modeling possibilities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Finding the shortest connector between two given skew lines PR and SU.", "content": "Given the X, Y and Z coordinates of P, R, S and U, projections 1 and 2 are drawn to scale on the X-Y and X-Z planes, respectively.  To get a true view (length in the projection is equal to length in 3D space) of one of the lines: SU in this example, projection 3 is drawn with hinge line H parallel to SU. To get an end view of SU, projection 4 is drawn with hinge line H perpendicular to SU. The perpendicular distance \"d\" gives the shortest distance between PR and SU.  To get points Q and T on these lines giving this shortest distance, projection 5 is drawn with hinge line H parallel to PR, making both PR and SU true views (any projection of an end view is a true view). Projecting the intersection of these lines, Q and T back to projection 1 (magenta lines and labels) allows their coordinates to be read off the X, Y and Z axes.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "General solutions.", "content": "General solutions are a class of solutions within descriptive geometry that contain all possible solutions to a problem. The general solution is represented by a single, three-dimensional object, usually a cone, the directions of the elements of which are the desired direction of viewing (projection) for any of an infinite number of solution views.  For example: To find the general solution such that two, unequal length, skew lines in general positions (say, rockets in flight?) appear:  In the examples, the general solution for each desired characteristic solution is a cone, each element of which produces one of an infinite number of solution views. When two or more characteristics of, say those listed above, are desired (and for which a solution exists) projecting in the direction of either of the two elements of intersections (one element, if cones are tangent) between the two cones produces the desired solution view. If the cones do not intersect a solution does not exist. The examples below are annotated to show the descriptive geometric principles used in the solutions. TL = True-Length; EV = Edge View.  Figs. 1-3 below demonstrate (1) Descriptive geometry, general solutions and (2) simultaneously, a potential standard for presenting such solutions in orthographic, multiview, layout formats.  The potential standard employs two adjacent, standard, orthographic views (here, Front and Top) with a standard \"folding line\" between. As there is no subsequent need to 'circuitously step' 90° around the object, in standard, two-step sequences in order to arrive at a solution view (it is possible to go directly to the solution view), this shorter protocol is accounted for in the layout. Where the one step protocol replaces the two-step protocol, \"double folding\" lines are used. In other words, when one crosses the double lines he is not making a circuitous,90° turn but a non-orthodirectional turn directly to the solution view. As most engineering computer graphics packages automatically generates the six principal views of the glass box model, as well as an isometric view, these views are sometimes added out of heuristic curiosity.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Descriptive geometry is the branch of geometry which allows the representation of three-dimensional objects in two dimensions by using a specific set of procedures. The resulting techniques are important for engineering, architecture, design and in art. The theoretical basis for descriptive geometry is provided by planar geometric projections. The earliest known publication on the technique was \"Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt\", published in Linien, Nuremberg: 1525, by Albrecht Dürer. Italian architecr Guarino Guarini was also a pioneer of projective and descriptive geometry, as is clear from his \"Placita Philosophica\" (1665), \"Euclides Adauctus\" (1671) and \"Architettura Civile\" (1686—not published until 1737), anticipating the work of Gaspard Monge (1746–1818), who is usually credited with the invention of descriptive geometry. Gaspard Monge is usually considered the \"father of descriptive geometry\" due to his developments in geometric problem solving. His first discoveries were in 1765 while he was working as a draftsman for military fortifications, although his findings were published later on.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975057}
{"src_title": "Plague of Justinian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Byzantine historian Procopius first reported the epidemic in 541 from the port of Pelusium, near Suez in Egypt. Two other firsthand reports of the plague's ravages were by the Syriac church historian John of Ephesus and Evagrius Scholasticus, who was a child in Antioch at the time and later became a church historian. Evagrius was afflicted with the buboes associated with the disease but survived. During the disease's four returns in his lifetime, he lost his wife, a daughter and her child, other children, most of his servants and people from his country estate.  According to contemporary sources, the outbreak in Constantinople was thought to have been carried to the city by infected rats on grain ships arriving from Egypt. To feed its citizens, the city and outlying communities imported large amounts of grain, mostly from Egypt. The rat (and flea) population in Egypt thrived on feeding from the large granaries maintained by the government.  Procopius, in a passage closely modelled on Thucydides, recorded that at its peak the plague was killing 10,000 people in Constantinople daily, but the accuracy of the figure is in question, and the true number will probably never be known. He noted that because there was no room to bury the dead, bodies were left stacked in the open. Funeral rites were often left unattended to, and the entire city smelled like the dead. In his \"Secret History,\" he records the devastation in the countryside and reports the ruthless response by the hard-pressed Justinian:  When pestilence swept through the whole known world and notably the Roman Empire, wiping out most of the farming community and of necessity leaving a trail of desolation in its wake, Justinian showed no mercy towards the ruined freeholders. Even then, he did not refrain from demanding the annual tax, not only the amount at which he assessed each individual, but also the amount for which his deceased neighbors were liable.  As a result of the plague in the countryside, farmers could not take care of crops and the price of grain rose in Constantinople. Justinian had expended huge amounts of money for wars against the Vandals in the region of Carthage and the Ostrogoths' kingdom in Italy. He had invested heavily in the construction of great churches, such as Hagia Sophia. As the empire tried to fund the projects, the plague caused tax revenues to decline through the massive number of deaths and the disruption of agriculture and trade. Justinian swiftly enacted new legislation to deal more efficiently with the glut of inheritance suits being brought as a result of victims dying intestate.  The plague's long-term effects on European and Christian history were enormous. As the disease spread to port cities around the Mediterranean, the struggling Goths were reinvigorated and their conflict with Constantinople entered a new phase. The plague weakened the Byzantine Empire at a critical point, when Justinian's armies had nearly retaken all of Italy and the western Mediterranean coast; the evolving conquest would have reunited the core of the Western Roman Empire with the Eastern Roman Empire. Although the conquest occurred in 554, the reunification did not last long. In 568, the Lombards invaded Northern Italy, defeated the small Byzantine army that had been left behind and established the Kingdom of the Lombards. Gaul suffered severely, so it is unlikely that Britain escaped.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics of the Justinian plague strain.", "content": "The Plague of Justinian is generally regarded as the first historically recorded epidemic of \"Yersinia pestis\". This conclusion is based on historical descriptions of the clinical manifestations of the disease and the detection of \"Y. pestis\" DNA from human remains at ancient grave sites dated to that period.  Genetic studies of modern and ancient \"Yersinia pestis\" DNA suggest that the origin of the Justinian plague was in Central Asia. The most basal or root level existing strains of the \"Yersinia pestis\" as a whole species are found in Qinghai, China. After samples of DNA from \"Yersinia pestis\" were isolated from skeletons of Justinian plague victims in Germany, it was found that modern strains currently found in the Tian Shan mountain range system are most basal known in comparison with the Justinian plague strain. Additionally, a skeleton found in Tian Shan dating to around 180 AD and identified as an \"early Hun\" was found to contain DNA from \"Yersinia pestis\" closely related to the Tian Shan strain basal ancestor of the Justinian plague strain German samples. This finding suggests that the expansion of nomadic peoples who moved across the Eurasian steppe, such as the Xiongnu and the later Huns, had a role in spreading plague to West Eurasia from an origin in Central Asia.  Earlier samples of \"Yersinia pestis\" DNA have been found in skeletons dating from 3000–800 BC, across West and East Eurasia. The strain of \"Yersinia pestis\" responsible for the Black Death, the devastating pandemic of bubonic plague, does not appear to be a direct descendant of the Justinian plague strain. However, the spread of Justinian plague may have caused the evolutionary radiation that gave rise to the currently extant 0ANT.1 clade of strains.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Virulence and mortality rate.", "content": "The number of deaths is uncertain. Some modern scholars believe that the plague killed up to 5,000 people per day in Constantinople at the peak of the pandemic. According to one view, the initial plague ultimately killed perhaps 40% of the city's inhabitants and caused the deaths of up to a quarter of the human population of the Eastern Mediterranean. Frequent subsequent waves of the plague continued to strike throughout the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries, with the disease becoming more localized and less virulent. A revisionist view expressed by scholars such as Lee Mordechai and Merle Eisenberg has recently argued that the mortality of the Justinian Plague was far lower than previously believed.  After the last recurrence in 750, pandemics on the scale of the Plague of Justinian did not appear again in Europe until the Black Death of the 14th century.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Plague of Justinian or Justinianic Plague (541–549 AD) was the beginning of the first plague pandemic, the first Old World pandemic of plague, the contagious disease caused by the bacterium \"Yersinia pestis\". The disease afflicted the entire Mediterranean Basin, Europe, and the Near East, severely affecting the Sasanian Empire and the Roman Empire and especially its capital, Constantinople. The plague is named for the Roman emperor in Constantinople, Justinian I (r. 527–565), who according to his court historian Procopius contracted the disease and recovered in 542, at the height of the epidemic which killed about a fifth of the population in the imperial capital. The contagion arrived in Roman Egypt in 541 and spread around the Mediterranean Sea until 544; in Northern Europe and the Arabian Peninsula it persisted until 549.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975058}
{"src_title": "Dassault Super Mystère", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Super Mystère represents the final step in evolution which began with the Dassault Ouragan and progressed through the Mystère II/III and Mystère IV. While earlier Mystère variants could attain supersonic speeds only in a dive, the Super Mystère could exceed the speed of sound in level flight. This was achieved thanks to the new thin wing with 45° of sweep (compared with 41° of sweep in the Mystère IV and only 33° in Mystère II) and the use of an afterburner-equipped turbojet engine.  The first prototype Super Mystère B.1, powered by a Rolls-Royce Avon RA.7R, took to the air on 2 March 1954. The aircraft broke the sound barrier in level flight the following day.  As the Super Mystère B.2, sometimes known as the SMB.2, the aircraft entered production in 1957. The production version differed from the prototype by having a more powerful SNECMA Atar 101G engine. A total of 180 Super Mystère B.2s were built.  In 1958, two Super Mystère B.4 prototypes were built. Equipped with a new 48° swept wing and a more powerful SNECMA Atar 9B engine, the aircraft were capable of Mach 1.4. Production never materialized because the faster Dassault Mirage III was entering service.  In 1973, the Israeli Air Force and Honduras Air Force upgraded their Super Mystère B.2s with a non-afterburning version of the Pratt & Whitney J52-P8A and new avionics. In Israeli service these upgraded SMB.2s were also known as the IAI Sa'ar (after a Hebrew word meaning \"storm\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Super Mystère served with the French Air Force until 1977. In addition, 24 aircraft were sold to the Israeli Air Force in 1958. The aircraft saw action in the 1967 Six-Day War and the 1973 Yom Kippur War. They were well liked by the Israeli pilots and were a match for the Arab MiG-19 aircraft in air-to-air combat.  In 1976, Israel sold 12 complete airframes to Honduras. In 1979, Honduras purchased 4 more complete airframes, totaling 16 aircraft. They were involved in numerous border skirmishes with Sandinistan Nicaragua and were finally withdrawn from service in 1996, replaced by 12 Northrop F-5Es. The 11 surviving aircraft are for sale as surplus and 1 more is preserved at the Honduras Air Museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dassault Super Mystère is a French fighter-bomber and was the first Western European supersonic aircraft to enter mass production.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975059}
{"src_title": "Marcantonio Raimondi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Marcantonio's date of birth is unknown, but was by 1482 at the latest. He was possibly born in Argine, near Bologna, Italy, where he is assumed to have grown up. He trained in the workshop of the leading goldsmith and painter in Bologna, Francesco Francia. Vasari claimed that Marcantonio quickly demonstrated more aptitude than Francia, and started designing and producing fashionable waist-buckles (among other items) in \"niello\" (engraved metal which is filled in with alloy in a contrasting colour). This is doubted, however, by Arthur Mayger Hind, who sees no evidence of a background in niello technique in his early engravings.  No paintings produced by Marcantonio are known or documented, although some drawings survive. His first dated engraving, \"Pyramus and Thisbe\", comes from 1505, although a number of undated works come from the years before this. From 1505–11, Marcantonio engraved about 80 pieces, with a wide variety of subject matter, from pagan mythology, to religious scenes. His early works use his own compositions, combining elements from Francia and other North Italian artists, and like all Italian printmakers in these years he was strongly affected by the enormously accomplished prints of Dürer, which were widely distributed in Italy. Like other printmakers such as Giulio Campagnola, he borrowed elements of Dürer's landscapes in a cut and paste fashion, and also borrowed from his technique. Dürer was in Bologna in 1506, as was Michelangelo, and he may have met one or both of them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproductions.", "content": "About this time he began to make copies of Dürer's woodcut series, the Life of the Virgin. This was extremely common practice, although normally engravers copied other expensive engravings rather than the cheaper woodcuts. However Dürer's woodcuts had raised the standard of the medium considerably, and since Marcantonio continued to copy a large number of both Dürer's engravings and woodcuts, he must have found it profitable.  His early copies included Dürer's famous AD monogram, and Dürer made a complaint to the Venetian Government, which won him some legal protection for his monogram, but not his compositions, in Venetian territory - an important case in the slowly evolving history of intellectual property law.  Marcantonio appears to have spent some of the last half of the decade in Venice, but no dates are known.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rome.", "content": "Around 1510, Marcantonio travelled to Rome and entered the circle of artists surrounding Raphael. This influence began showing up in engravings titled \"The Climbers\" (in which he reproduced part of Michelangelo's \"Soldiers surprised bathing\", also called \"Battle of Cascina\"). After a reproduction of a work by Raphael, entitled \"Lucretia\", Raphael trained and assisted Marcantonio personally.  Another famous engraving, the \"Judgement of Paris\", dated 1515 or 1516, after Raphael, became the composition source for Édouard Manet when he painted The Luncheon on the Grass.  The two started a successful printing establishment under a colorgrinder, Il Baveria, that quickly expanded into an engraving school with Marcantonio at the head. Among his most distinguished pupils were Marco Dente (Marco da Ravenna), Giovanni Jacopo Caraglio and Agostino de Musi (Agostino Veneziano).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Marcantonio and his pupils continued to make engravings based upon Raphael's work, even after Raphael's death in 1520. In many instances, Marcantonio would not copy the finished painting, but instead worked from early sketches and drafts. This method produced variations on a theme and were moderately successful.  Around 1524, Marcantonio was briefly imprisoned by Pope Clement VII for making the I modi set of erotic engravings, from the designs of Giulio Romano, which were later accompanied by sonnets written by Pietro Aretino. At the intercession of the Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici, Baccio Bandinelli and Pietro Aretino, he was released, and set to work on his plate of the \"Martyrdom of St. Lawrence\" after Bandinelli.  During the Sack of Rome, in 1527, he was forced to pay a heavy ransom by the Spaniards and fled in poverty. It is unclear where he stayed after his departure from Rome until his death in 1534.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Marcantonio Raimondi, often called simply Marcantonio (c. 1470/82 – c. 1534), was an Italian engraver, known for being the first important printmaker whose body of work consists largely of prints copying paintings. He is therefore a key figure in the rise of the reproductive print. He also systematized a technique of engraving that became dominant in Italy and elsewhere. His collaboration with Raphael greatly helped his career, and he continued to exploit Raphael's works after the painter's death in 1520, playing a large part in spreading High Renaissance styles across Europe. Much of the biographical information we have comes from his life, the only one of a printmaker, in Vasari's \"Lives of the Artists\". He is attributed with around 300 engravings. After years of great success, his career ran into trouble in the mid-1520s; he was imprisoned for a time in Rome over his role in the series of erotic prints \"I Modi\", and then, according to Vasari, lost all his money in the Sack of Rome in 1527, after which none of his work can be securely dated.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975060}
{"src_title": "Lesser bushbaby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Breeding.", "content": "Lesser bushbabies usually give birth during the rainy season. The offspring are usually twins. After the birth there is usually a second period of heat. A female’s gestation period is between 125–142 days and will usually consist of the female mating with up to 6 different males.  Lesser bushbaby mothers initially shelter their offspring in a nest or tree hollow, later on concealing the infants in foliage while they forage at night. In some species, such as dwarf galagos (\"Galago demidoff\" group), the day-sleeping nests may be shared by groups of females or occasionally by visiting males.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Galagos generally consume insects and gums, however some have been known to eat small invertebrates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "Galagos are brown grey to light grey in color, with many showing a yellowish tint to the sides and limbs. They also have a distinct dark marking around the eye.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "Galagos are tree dwelling primates and are capable of leaping great distances, using flattened disks on their feet and hands as a way of grasping branches. However they do walk on the ground sometimes, either bipedally or on all fours. Galagos are solitary foragers, however they do meet up at night in groups, and sleep during the day in groups of around 6. Calls are a big part of galago life and there are up to 18 distinct calls. All these calls are part of three categories, defensive and aggressive, social contact, and annunciatory. They also have very highly developed hearing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lesser bushbabies, or lesser galagos, are strepsirrhine primates of the genus Galago. They are classified, along with the bushbabies (genus \"Euoticus\") and the rest of the galagos (genus \"Otolemur\"), in the family Galagidae. They are probably the most numerous primate in Africa, and can be found in every large forest on the continent. Galagos also prefer savannahs, woodlands, riverine bush and the fringes of forests. They mark their territory by urinating on their hands and leaving traces on the trees they climb across, and they follow these detectable paths through the trees night after night. Males will also urinate on females to mark them. They are related to lorises, and have similar behavior and anatomy. They are much faster, however, and typical hunt by speed rather than by stealth. Primitive bushbabies are thought to have been the ancestors of all lemurs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975061}
{"src_title": "Karatsuba algorithm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The standard procedure for multiplication of two \"n\"-digit numbers requires a number of elementary operations proportional to formula_4, or formula_5 in big-O notation. Andrey Kolmogorov conjectured that the traditional algorithm was \"asymptotically optimal,\" meaning that any algorithm for that task would require formula_6 elementary operations.  In 1960, Kolmogorov organized a seminar on mathematical problems in cybernetics at the Moscow State University, where he stated the formula_6 conjecture and other problems in the complexity of computation. Within a week, Karatsuba, then a 23-year-old student, found an algorithm (later it was called \"divide and conquer\") that multiplies two \"n\"-digit numbers in formula_8 elementary steps, thus disproving the conjecture. Kolmogorov was very excited about the discovery; he communicated it at the next meeting of the seminar, which was then terminated. Kolmogorov gave some lectures on the Karatsuba result at conferences all over the world (see, for example, \"Proceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians 1962\", pp. 351–356, and also \"6 Lectures delivered at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Stockholm, 1962\") and published the method in 1962, in the Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The article had been written by Kolmogorov and contained two results on multiplication, Karatsuba's algorithm and a separate result by Yuri Ofman; it listed \"A. Karatsuba and Yu. Ofman\" as the authors. Karatsuba only became aware of the paper when he received the reprints from the publisher.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Algorithm.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Basic step.", "content": "The basic step of Karatsuba's algorithm is a formula that allows one to compute the product of two large numbers formula_9 and formula_10 using three multiplications of smaller numbers, each with about half as many digits as formula_9 or formula_10, plus some additions and digit shifts. This basic step is, in fact, a generalization of a similar complex multiplication algorithm, where the imaginary unit is replaced by a power of the base.  Let formula_9 and formula_10 be represented as formula_15-digit strings in some base formula_16. For any positive integer formula_17 less than formula_15, one can write the two given numbers as  where formula_21 and formula_22 are less than formula_23. The product is then  formula_24  where  These formulae require four multiplications and were known to Charles Babbage. Karatsuba observed that formula_28 can be computed in only three multiplications, at the cost of a few extra additions. With formula_29 and formula_30 as before one can observe that  An issue that occurs, however, when computing formula_32 is that the above computation of formula_33 and formula_34 may result in overflow (will produce a result in the range formula_35), which require a multiplier having one extra bit. This can be avoided by noting that  This computation of formula_37 and formula_38 will produce a result in the range of formula_39. This method may produce negative numbers, which require one extra bit to encode signedness, and would still require one extra bit for the multiplier. However, one way to avoid this is to record the sign and then use the absolute value of formula_37 and formula_38 to perform an unsigned multiplication, after which the result may be negated when both signs originally differed. Another advantage is that even though formula_42 may be negative, the final computation of formula_32 only involves additions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "To compute the product of 12345 and 6789, where \"B\" = 10, choose \"m\" = 3. We use \"m\" right shifts for decomposing the input operands using the resulting base (\"B\" = \"1000\"), as:  Only three multiplications, which operate on smaller integers, are used to compute three partial results:  We get the result by just adding these three partial results, shifted accordingly (and then taking carries into account by decomposing these three inputs in base \"1000\" like for the input operands):  Note that the intermediate third multiplication operates on an input domain which is less than two times larger than for the two first multiplications, its output domain is less than four times larger, and base-\"1000\" carries computed from the first two multiplications must be taken into account when computing these two subtractions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recursive application.", "content": "If \"n\" is four or more, the three multiplications in Karatsuba's basic step involve operands with fewer than \"n\" digits. Therefore, those products can be computed by recursive calls of the Karatsuba algorithm. The recursion can be applied until the numbers are so small that they can (or must) be computed directly.  In a computer with a full 32-bit by 32-bit multiplier, for example, one could choose \"B\" = 2 =, and store each digit as a separate 32-bit binary word. Then the sums \"x\" + \"x\" and \"y\" + \"y\" will not need an extra binary word for storing the carry-over digit (as in carry-save adder), and the Karatsuba recursion can be applied until the numbers to multiply are only one-digit long.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Asymmetric Karatsuba-like formulae.", "content": "Karatsuba's original formula and other generalizations are themselves symmetric. For example, the following formula computes with 6 multiplications in formula_45, where formula_46 is the Galois field with two elements 0 and 1.  where formula_48 and formula_49. We note that addition and subtraction are the same in fields of characteristic 2.  This formula is symmetrical, namely, it does not change if we exchange formula_50 and formula_51 in formula_52 and formula_53.  Based on the second Generalized division algorithms, Fan et al. found the following asymmetric formula:  where formula_55 and formula_56.  It is asymmetric because we can obtain the following new formula by exchanging formula_50 and formula_51 in formula_59 and formula_60.  where formula_62 and formula_63.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Efficiency analysis.", "content": "Karatsuba's basic step works for any base \"B\" and any \"m\", but the recursive algorithm is most efficient when \"m\" is equal to \"n\"/2, rounded up. In particular, if \"n\" is 2, for some integer \"k\", and the recursion stops only when \"n\" is 1, then the number of single-digit multiplications is 3, which is \"n\" where \"c\" = log3.  Since one can extend any inputs with zero digits until their length is a power of two, it follows that the number of elementary multiplications, for any \"n\", is at most formula_64.  Since the additions, subtractions, and digit shifts (multiplications by powers of \"B\") in Karatsuba's basic step take time proportional to \"n\", their cost becomes negligible as \"n\" increases. More precisely, if \"t\"(\"n\") denotes the total number of elementary operations that the algorithm performs when multiplying two \"n\"-digit numbers, then  for some constants \"c\" and \"d\". For this recurrence relation, the master theorem for divide-and-conquer recurrences gives the asymptotic bound formula_66.  It follows that, for sufficiently large \"n\", Karatsuba's algorithm will perform fewer shifts and single-digit additions than longhand multiplication, even though its basic step uses more additions and shifts than the straightforward formula. For small values of \"n\", however, the extra shift and add operations may make it run slower than the longhand method. The point of positive return depends on the computer platform and context. As a rule of thumb, Karatsuba's method is usually faster when the multiplicands are longer than 320–640 bits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pseudocode.", "content": "Here is the pseudocode for this algorithm, using numbers represented in base ten. For the binary representation of integers, it suffices to replace everywhere 10 by 2.  It's important to note that the \"split_at\" function works as follows: split_at(\"12345\", 3) returns: high=\"12\", low=\"345\". procedure karatsuba(num1, num2)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Karatsuba algorithm is a fast multiplication algorithm. It was discovered by Anatoly Karatsuba in 1960 and published in 1962. It reduces the multiplication of two \"n\"-digit numbers to at most formula_1 single-digit multiplications in general (and exactly formula_2 when \"n\" is a power of 2). It is therefore faster than the traditional algorithm, which requires formula_3 single-digit products. For example, the Karatsuba algorithm requires 3 = 59,049 single-digit multiplications to multiply two 1024-digit numbers (\"n\" = 1024 = 2), whereas the traditional algorithm requires (2) = 1,048,576 (a speedup of 17.75 times).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975062}
{"src_title": "Artabanus II of Parthia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "\"\" is the Latin form of the Greek \"Artábanos\" (), itself from the Old Persian \"*Arta-bānu\" (\"the glory of Arta.\"). The Parthian and Middle Persian variant was \"Ardawān\" ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background and kingship of Media Atropatene.", "content": "Artabanus was not from the ruling branch of the Arsacid royal family; his father was a Dahae prince, who was most likely descended from the former Parthian monarch Mithridates II (), whilst his mother was a daughter of the incumbent Parthian King of Kings Phraates IV (). Born between 30–25 BC, Artabanus was raised amongst the Dahae in Central Asia. When he reached adulthood, he became the ruler of Media Atropatene, which occurred sometime during the late reign of Phraates IV or during the reign of the latters son and successor Phraates V (). The factor behind Artabanus' rise to kingship of Media Atropatene is unclear. The kingdom served as Artabanus' headquarters of his attacks against the Parthian king Vonones I (), with whom he fought against over the crown. Vonones I, who had originally resided in Rome, had been placed on the Parthian throne by a faction led by the Karin and Suren clans. His rule was supported by the Romans. However, the Parthian nobility was quickly alienated by Vonones I, who had become Romanized during his stay in Rome. This increased Artabanus' odds—after years of fighting—to finally defeat Vonones I, who fled to Armenia and became its king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Artabanus, now the monarch of the Parthian Empire, attempted to depose Vonones I from the Armenian throne and appoint his own son instead. This was attempt instantly opposed by the Romans, who regarded this as posing a danger to their interests. As a result, the Roman emperor Tiberius () sent his stepson Germanicus to prevent this from happening. However, the Roman general was met with no resistance by the Parthians, and reached an agreement with Artabanus to appoint Artaxias III the new king of Armenia and renounce their support of Vonones I. The Romans thus acknowledged Artabanus as the legitimate Parthian ruler. In order to ratify the friendly relationship between the two empires, Artabanus and Germanicus met on an island in the Euphrates in 18.  The Romans moved Vonones I to Cilicia, where he was killed the following year after attempting to flee. His death and the now unchallenged dominance of Artabanus split the Parthian nobility, since not all of them supported a new branch of the Arsacid family taking over the empire. In 19/20, the Parthian satrap of Sakastan, Drangiana and Arachosia, named Gondophares, declared independence from Artabanus and founded the Indo-Parthian Kingdom. He assumed the titles of \"Great King of Kings\" and \"\"Autokrator\"\", demonstrating his new-found independence. Nevertheless, Artabanus and Gondophares most likely reached an agreement that the Indo-Parthians would not intervene in the affairs of the Arsacids.  Artabanus spent the following years increasing his authority. To the northeast, he was victorious in his efforts to have a new dynasty established in Khwarazm, thus starting a new era in the history of the country. Artabanus most likely operated in western Bactria as well, which had been part of the Parthian domains for centuries.  In AD 35, he tried a new way to conquer Armenia and to establish his son Arsaces I as King there. A war with Rome seemed inevitable. The faction among the Parthian magnates which was hostile to Artabanus II applied to Tiberius for a king of the race of Phraates IV. Tiberius sent Phraates IV's grandson, Tiridates III, and ordered Lucius Vitellius the Elder (the father of the Roman emperor Vitellius) to restore Roman authority in the East. By very dexterous military and diplomatic operations Vitellius succeeded completely. Artabanus II was deserted by his followers and fled to the East. Tiridates III, who was proclaimed King, could no longer maintain himself, because he appeared to be a vassal of the Romans. Artabanus II returned from Hyrcania with a strong army of Scythian (Dahae) auxiliaries and was again acknowledged by the Parthians. Tiridates III left Seleucia and fled to Syria. Artabanus II wasn’t strong enough for a war with Rome; he therefore concluded a treaty with Vitellius in 37, in which he gave up all further pretensions. A short time afterwards Artabanus II was deposed again, and a certain Cinnamus was proclaimed king. Artabanus II took refuge with his vassal, the King Izates bar Monobaz. Izates, by negotiations and the promise of a complete pardon, induced the Parthians to restore Artabanus II once more to the throne. Shortly afterwards Artabanus II died and was succeeded by his son, Vardanes I, whose reign was still more turbulent than that of his father.  Artabanus II had four sons: Arsaces I, Orodes, Artabanus, Vardanes I and an adoptive son named Gotarzes II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Artabanus II (also spelled Artabanos II or Ardawan II; \"Ardawān\"), incorrectly known in older scholarship as Artabanus III, was King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 12 to 38/41, with a one-year interruption. He was the nephew and successor of Vonones I (). His father was a Dahae prince, whilst his mother was a daughter of the Parthian King of Kings Phraates IV ()", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975063}
{"src_title": "Peracetic acid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production.", "content": "Peracetic acid is produced industrially by the autoxidation of acetaldehyde:  It forms upon treatment of acetic acid with hydrogen peroxide with a strong acid catalyst: As an alternative, acetyl chloride and acetic anhydride can be used to generate a solution of the acid with lower water content.  Peracetic acid is generated \"in situ\" by some laundry detergents. This route involves the reaction of tetraacetylethylenediamine (TAED) in the presence of an alkaline hydrogen peroxide solution. The peracetic acid is a more effective bleaching agent than hydrogen peroxide itself. PAA is also formed naturally in the environment through a series of photochemical reactions involving formaldehyde and photo-oxidant radicals.  Peracetic acid is always sold in solution as a mixture with acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide to maintain its stability. The concentration of the acid as the active ingredient can vary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The United States Environmental Protection Agency first registered peracetic acid as an antimicrobial in 1985 for indoor use on hard surfaces. Use sites include agricultural premises, food establishments, medical facilities, and home bathrooms. Peracetic acid is also registered for use in dairy and cheese processing plants, on food processing equipment, and in pasteurizers in breweries, wineries, and beverage plants. It is also applied for the disinfection of medical supplies, to prevent biofilm formation in pulp industries, and as a water purifier and disinfectant. Peracetic acid can be used as a cooling tower water disinfectant, where it prevents biofilm formation and effectively controls \"Legionella\" bacteria. A trade name for peracetic acid as an antimicrobial is Nu-Cidex.  In the European Union, Peroxyacetic acid was reported by the EFSA after submission in 2013 by the US Department of Agriculture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epoxidation.", "content": "Although less active than more acidic peracids (e.g., \"m\"-CPBA), peracetic acid in various forms is used for the epoxidation of various alkenes. Useful application are for unsaturated fats, synthetic and natural rubbers, and some natural products such as pinene. A variety of factors affect the amount of free acid or sulfuric acid (used to prepare the peracid in the first place).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Peracetic acid is a strong oxidizing agent and severe irritant to the skin, eyes, and respiratory system. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency published the following Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGL):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peracetic acid (also known as peroxyacetic acid, or PAA), is an organic compound with the formula CHCOH. This organic peroxide is a colorless liquid with a characteristic acrid odor reminiscent of acetic acid. It can be highly corrosive.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975064}
{"src_title": "Vigabatrin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medical uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epilepsy.", "content": "In Canada, vigabatrin is approved for use as an adjunctive treatment (with other drugs) in treatment resistant epilepsy, complex partial seizures, secondary generalized seizures, and for monotherapy use in infantile spasms in West syndrome.  As of 2003, vigabatrin is approved in Mexico for the treatment of epilepsy that is not satisfactorily controlled by conventional therapy (adjunctive or monotherapy) or in recently diagnosed patients who have not tried other agents (monotherapy).  Vigabatrin is also indicated for monotherapy use in secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, partial seizures, and in infantile spasms due to West syndrome.  On August 21, 2009, Lundbeck announced that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration had granted two New Drug Application approvals for vigabatrin. The drug is indicated as monotherapy for pediatric patients one month to two years of age with infantile spasms for whom the potential benefits outweigh the potential risk of vision loss, and as adjunctive (add-on) therapy for adult patients with refractory complex partial seizures (CPS) who have inadequately responded to several alternative treatments and for whom the potential benefits outweigh the risk of vision loss.  In 1994, Feucht and Brantner-Inthaler reported that vigabatrin reduced seizures by 50-100% in 85% of children with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome who had poor results with sodium valproate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Others.", "content": "Vigabatrin reduced cholecystokinin tetrapeptide-induced symptoms of panic disorder, in addition to elevated cortisol and ACTH levels, in healthy volunteers.  Vigabatrin is also used to treat seizures in succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency (SSADHD), which is an inborn GABA metabolism defect that causes intellectual disability, hypotonia, seizures, speech disturbance, and ataxia through the accumulation of γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). Vigabatrin helps lower GHB levels through GABA transaminase inhibition. However, this is in the brain only; it has no effect on peripheral GABA transaminase, so the GHB keeps building up and eventually reaches the brain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adverse effects.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Central nervous system.", "content": "Sleepiness (12.5%), headache (3.8%), dizziness (3.8%), nervousness (2.7%), depression (2.5%), memory disturbances (2.3%), diplopia (2.2%), aggression (2.0%), ataxia (1.9%), vertigo (1.9%), hyperactivity (1.8%), vision loss (1.6%) (See below), confusion (1.4%), insomnia (1.3%), impaired concentration (1.2%), personality issues (1.1%). Out of 299 children, 33 (11%) became hyperactive.  Some patients develop psychosis during the course of vigabatrin therapy, which is more common in adults than in children. This can happen even in patients with no prior history of psychosis. Other rare CNS side effects include anxiety, emotional lability, irritability, tremor, abnormal gait, and speech disorder.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gastrointestinal.", "content": "Abdominal pain (1.6%), constipation (1.4%), vomiting (1.4%), and nausea (1.4%). Dyspepsia and increased appetite occurred in less than 1% of subjects in clinical trials.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Body as a whole.", "content": "Fatigue (9.2%), weight gain (5.0%), asthenia (1.1%).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teratogenicity.", "content": "A teratology study conducted in rabbits found that a dose of 150 mg/kg/day caused cleft palate in 2% of pups and a dose of 200 mg/kg/day caused it in 9%. This may be due to a decrease in methionine levels, according to a study published in March 2001. In 2005, a study conducted at the University of Catania was published stating that rats whose mothers had consumed 250–1000 mg/kg/day had poorer performance in the water maze and open-field tasks, rats in the 750-mg group were underweight at birth and did not catch up to the control group, and rats in the 1000 mg group did not survive pregnancy.  There is no controlled teratology data in humans to date.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sensory.", "content": "In 2003, vigabatrin was shown by Frisén and Malmgren to cause irreversible diffuse atrophy of the retinal nerve fiber layer in a retrospective study of 25 patients. This has the most effect on the outer area (as opposed to the macular, or central area) of the retina. Visual field defects had been reported as early as 1997 by Tom Eke and others, in the UK. Some authors, including Comaish et al. believe that visual field loss and electrophysiological changes may be demonstrable in up to 50% of Vigabatrin users.  The retinal toxicity of vigabatrin can be attributed to a taurine depletion.  Due to safety issues, the Vigabatrin REMS Program is required by the FDA to ensure informed decisions before initiating and to ensure appropriate use of this drug.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interactions.", "content": "A study published in 2002 found that vigabatrin causes a statistically significant increase in plasma clearance of carbamazepine.  In 1984, Drs Rimmer and Richens at the University of Wales reported that administering vigabatrin with phenytoin lowered the serum phenytoin concentration in patients with treatment-resistant epilepsy. Five years later, the same two scientists reported a fall in concentration of phenytoin of 23% within five weeks in a paper describing their failed attempt at elucidating the mechanism behind this interaction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacology.", "content": "Vigabatrin is an irreversible mechanism-based inhibitor of gamma-aminobutyric acid aminotransferase (GABA-AT), the enzyme responsible for the catabolism of GABA. Inhibition of GABA-AT results in increased levels of GABA in the brain. Vigabatrin is a racemic compound, and its [S]-enantiomer is pharmacologically active.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacokinetics.", "content": "With most drugs, elimination half-life is a useful predictor of dosing schedules and the time needed to reach steady state concentrations. In the case of vigabatrin, however, it has been found that the half-life of biologic activity is far longer than the elimination half-life.  For vigabatrin, there is no range of target concentrations because researchers found no difference between the serum concentration levels of responders and those of non-responders. Instead, the duration of action is believed to be more a function of the GABA-T resynthesis rate; levels of GABA-T do not usually return to their normal state until six days after stopping the medication.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Vigabatrin was developed in the 1980s with the specific goal of increasing GABA concentrations in the brain in order to stop an epileptic seizure. To do this, the drug was designed to irreversibly inhibit the GABA transaminase, which degrades the GABA substrate. Although the drug was approved for treatment in the United Kingdom in 1989, the authorized use of Vigabatrin by US Food and Drug Administration was delayed twice in the United States before 2009. It was delayed in 1983 because animal trials produced intramyelinic edema, however, the effects were not apparent in human trials so the drug design continued. In 1997, the trials were temporarily suspended because it was linked to peripheral visual field defects in humans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Society and culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brand Names.", "content": "Vigabatrin is sold as Sabril in Canada, Mexico, and the United Kingdom. The brand name in Denmark is Sabrilex. Sabril was approved in the United States on August 21, 2009 and is currently marketed in the U.S. by Lundbeck Inc., which acquired Ovation Pharmaceuticals, the U.S. sponsor in March 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Generic equivalents.", "content": "On January 16, 2019, the FDA approved the first generic version of Sabril (vigabatrin) in the United States.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vigabatrin, brand name Sabril, is a medication used to treat epilepsy. It became available as a generic medication in 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975065}
{"src_title": "Garry Winogrand", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Winogrand's parents, Abraham and Bertha, emigrated to the US from Budapest and Warsaw. Garry grew up with his sister Stella in a predominantly Jewish working-class area of the Bronx, New York, where his father was a leather worker in the garment industry, and his mother made neckties for piecemeal work.  Winogrand graduated from high school in 1946 and entered the US Army Air Force. He returned to New York in 1947 and studied painting at City College of New York and painting and photography at Columbia University, also in New York, in 1948. He also attended a photojournalism class taught by Alexey Brodovitch at The New School for Social Research in New York in 1951.  Winogrand had a complicated relationship with women. He married Adrienne Lubeau in 1952. They had two children, Laurie in 1956 and Ethan in 1958. They separated in 1963 and divorced in 1966.  \"Being married to Garry was like being married to a lens,\" Lubeau once told photography curator Trudy Wilner Stack. Indeed, \"colleagues, students and friends describe an almost obsessive picture-taking machine.\"  Around 1967 Winogrand married his second wife, Judy Teller. They were together until 1969.  In 1972 he married Eileen Adele Hale, with whom he had a daughter, Melissa. They remained married until his death in 1984.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Winogrand worked as a freelance photojournalist and advertising photographer in the 1950s and 1960s. Between 1952 and 1954 he freelanced with the PIX Publishing agency in Manhattan on an introduction from Ed Feingersh, and from 1954 at Brackman Associates.  Winogrand's beach scene of a man playfully lifting a woman above the waves appeared in the 1955 \"The Family of Man\" exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York which then toured the world to be seen by 9 million visitors. His first solo show was held at Image Gallery in New York in 1959. His first notable exhibition was in \"Five Unrelated Photographers\" in 1963, also at MoMA in New York, along with Minor White, George Krause, Jerome Liebling, and Ken Heyman.  In the 1960s, he photographed in New York City at the same time as contemporaries Lee Friedlander and Diane Arbus.  In 1964 Winogrand was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation to travel \"for photographic studies of American life\".  In 1966 he exhibited at the George Eastman House in Rochester, New York with Friedlander, Duane Michals, Bruce Davidson, and Danny Lyon in an exhibition entitled \"Toward a Social Landscape,\" curated by Nathan Lyons. In 1967 his work was included in the \"influential\" \"New Documents\" show at MoMA in New York with Diane Arbus and Lee Friedlander, curated by John Szarkowski.  His photographs of the Bronx Zoo and the Coney Island Aquarium made up his first book \"The Animals\" (1969), which observes the connections between humans and animals. He took many of these photos when, as a divorced father, accompanying his young children to the zoo for amusement.  He was awarded his second Guggenheim Fellowship in 1969 to continue exploring \"the effect of the media on events\", through the then novel phenomenon of events created specifically for the mass media. Between 1969 and 1976 he photographed at public events, producing 6,500 prints for Papageorge to select for his solo exhibition at MoMA, and book, \"Public Relations\" (1977).  In 1975, Windogrand's high-flying reputation took a self-inflicted hit. At the height of the feminist revolution, he produced \"Women Are Beautiful\", a much-panned photo book that explored his fascination with the female form. \"Most of Winogrand’s photos are taken of women in either vulgar or at least, questionable positions and seem to be taken unknown to them,\" says one critic. \"This candid approach adds an element of disconnect between the viewer and the viewed, which creates awkwardness in the images themselves.\"  He supported himself in the 1970s by teaching, first in New York. He moved to Chicago in 1971 and taught photography at the Institute of Design, Illinois Institute of Technology between 1971 and 1972. He moved to Texas in 1973 and taught at the University of Texas at Austin between 1973 and 1978. He moved to Los Angeles in 1978.  In 1979 he used his third Guggenheim Fellowship to travel throughout the southern and western United States investigating the social issues of his time.  In his book \"Stock Photographs\" (1980) he showed \"people in relation to each other and to their show animals\" at the Fort Worth Fat Stock Show and Rodeo.  Szarkowski, the Director of Photography at New York's MoMA, became an editor and reviewer of Winogrand's work. Szarkowski called him the central photographer of his generation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Winogrand was diagnosed with gallbladder cancer on 1 February 1984 and went immediately to the Gerson Clinic in Tijuana, Mexico, to seek an alternative cure (6,000 per week in 2016). He died on 19 March, at age 56.  At the time of his death his late work remained largely unprocessed, with about 2,500 rolls of undeveloped film, 6,500 rolls of developed but not proofed exposures, and about 3,000 rolls only realized as far as contact sheets being made. In total he left nearly 300,000 unedited images.  The Garry Winogrand Archive at the Center for Creative Photography (CCP) comprises over 20,000 fine and work prints, 20,000 contact sheets, 100,000 negatives and 30,500 35 mm colour slides as well as a small number of Polaroid prints and several amateur and independent motion picture films. Some of his undeveloped work was exhibited posthumously, and published by MoMA in the overview of his work \"Winogrand, Figments from the Real World\" (2003).  Yet more from his largely unexamined archive of early and late work, plus well known photographs, were included in a retrospective touring exhibition beginning in 2013 and in the accompanying book \"Garry Winogrand\" (2013). Photographer Leo Rubinfien who curated the 2013 retrospective at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art felt that the purpose of his show was to find out, \"...was Szarkowski right about the late work?” Szarkowski felt that Winogrand's best work was finished by the early 1970s. Rubinfien thought, after producing the show and in a shift from his previous estimation of 1966 to 1970, that Winogrand was at his best from 1960 to 1964.  All of Winogrand's wives and children attended a retrospective exhibit at the San Francisco Art Museum after his death. On display was a 1969 letter from Judith Teller, Winogrand's second wife:  Frank Van Riper of the \"Washington Post\" described him as \"one of the greatest documentary photographers of his era\" but added that he was \"a bluntspoken, sweet-natured native New Yorker, who had the voice of a Bronx cabbie and the intensity of a pig hunting truffles.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "Winogrand's work is held in the following public collections:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Garry Winogrand (14 January 1928 – 19 March 1984) was an American street photographer from the Bronx, New York, known for his portrayal of U.S. life and its social issues, in the mid-20th century. Though he photographed in California, Texas and elsewhere, Winogrand was essentially a New York photographer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975066}
{"src_title": "Élisabeth of France", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Élisabeth was born on 3 May 1764 in the Palace of Versailles, the youngest child of Louis, Dauphin of France and Marie-Josèphe of Saxony. Her paternal grandparents were King Louis XV of France and Queen Maria Leszczyńska. As the granddaughter of the king, she was a Petite-Fille de France.  At the sudden death of her father in 1765, Élisabeth's oldest surviving brother, Louis Auguste (later to be Louis XVI) became the new Dauphin (the heir apparent to the French throne). Their mother Marie Josèphe died in March 1767 from tuberculosis. This left Élisabeth an orphan at just two years old, along with her older siblings: Louis Auguste, Louis Stanislas, Count of Provence, Charles Philippe, Count of Artois and Clotilde, (\"Madame Clotilde\").  Élisabeth and her elder sister Clothilde were raised by \"Madame de Marsan\", Governess to the Children of France. The sisters were considered very dissimilar in personality. While Elisabeth was described as \"proud, inflexible, and passionate\", Clothilde was in contrast estimated to be \"endowed with the most happy disposition, which only needed guiding and developing\". They were given the usual education of contemporary royal princesses, focusing upon accomplishments, religion and virtue,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Louis XVI.", "content": "On 10 May 1774, her grandfather Louis XV died, and her elder brother Louis Auguste ascended the throne as Louis XVI.  In August 1775, her sister Clothilde left France for her marriage to the crown prince of Sardinia. The farewell between the sisters was described as intense, with Élisabeth hardly able to tear herself from Clothilde's arms. Queen Marie Antoinette commented:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adult life.", "content": "On 17 May 1778, after the visit of the court to Marly, Madame Élisabeth formally left the children's chamber and became an adult when she, upon the wish of the king her brother, was turned over to the king by her governess and given her own household, with Diane de Polignac as maid of honour and the Bonne Marie Félicité de Sérent as lady-in-waiting. The ceremony was described: \"Mme Elizabeth accompanied by the Princesse de Guéménée, the under governesses, and the ladies in attendance, went to the King's apartments, and there Mme de Guéménée formally handed over her charge to His Majesty, who sent for Mme la Comtesse Diane de Polignac, maid of honour to the Princess and Mme la Marquise de Sereat, her lady-in-waiting, into whose care he gave Mme Elizabeth.\"  Several attempts were made to arrange a marriage for her. The first suggested partner was Jose, Prince of Brazil. She made no objections to the match, but was reportedly relieved when the negotiations were discontinued.  Next, she was offered a proposal by the Duke of Aosta (future Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia), brother of the crown prince of Savoy and brother-in-law of her sister Clothilde. The court of France, however, did not consider it proper for a French princess to be married to a", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Revolution.", "content": "Élisabeth and her brother Charles-Philippe, comte d'Artois, were the staunchest conservatives in the royal family. Unlike Artois, who, on the order of the king, left France on 17 July 1789, three days after the storming of the Bastille, Élisabeth refused to emigrate when the gravity of the events set in motion by the French Revolution became clear.  On 5 October 1789, Élisabeth saw the Women's March on Versailles from Montreuil, and immediately returned to the Palace of Versailles. She advised the king to carry out \"a vigorous and speedy repression of the riot\" rather than to negotiate, and that the royal family should relocate to some town further from Paris, so as to be free from any influence of factions. Her advice was countered by Necker, and she retired to the queen's apartments. She was not disturbed when the mob stormed the palace to assassinate the queen, but awoke and called to the king, who was worried about her. When the mob demanded that the king return with them to Paris, and Lafayette advised him to consent, Élisabeth unsuccessfully advised the king differently:  Élisabeth accompanied the royal family to Paris, where she chose to live with them in the Tuileries Palace rather than with her aunts \"mesdames\" Adélaïde and Victoire, in the château de Bellevue. The day after their arrival, Madame de Tourzel stated that the royal family was woken by large crowds outside, and that every member of the family, \"even the Princesses\", was obliged to show themselves to the public wearing the national cockade.  In the Tuileries, Élisabeth was housed in the Pavillon de Flore. Initially on the first floor beside the queen, she swapped with the Princesse de Lamballe to the second floor in the Pavillon de Flore after some fish market women had climbed into her apartment through the windows.  In contrast to the queen, Madame Élisabeth had a good reputation among the public, and was referred to as the \"Sainte Genevieve of the Tuileries\" by the market women of Las Halles. The court life at the Tuileries was described as subdued. Élisabeth attended dinner with the royal family, worked on a tapestry with the queen after dinner and participated in the evening family supper with the count and countess of Provence every day, and continued to manage her property in Montreuil by letter. She also maintained a significant correspondence with friends both inside and outside France, particularly her exiled brothers and her friend Marie-Angélique de Bombelles, which is preserved and describes her political views.  In February 1791, she chose not to emigrate with her aunts Adélaïde and Victoire. She commented in a letter:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beatification.", "content": "The Cause of Beatification of Élisabeth was introduced in 1924, but has not", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assessment.", "content": "Élisabeth, who had turned thirty a week before her death, was executed essentially because she was a sister of the king; however, the general consensus of the French revolutionaries was that she was a supporter of the ultra-right royalist faction. There is much evidence to suggest that she actively supported the intrigues of the comte d'Artois to bring foreign armies into France to crush the Revolution. In monarchist circles, her exemplary private life elicited much admiration. Élisabeth was much praised for her charitable nature, familial devotion and devout Catholic faith. There can be no question that she saw the Revolution as the incarnation of evil on earth and viewed civil war as the only means to drive it from the land.  Royalist literature represents her as a Catholic martyr, while left-wing historians severely criticise her for extreme conservatism, which seemed excessive even to Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. Several biographies have been published of her in French, while extensive treatment of her life is given in Antonia Fraser's biography of Marie Antoinette and Deborah Cadbury's investigative biography of Louis XVII.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Élisabeth of France (\"Élisabeth Philippe Marie Hélène de France\"; 3 May 1764 – 10 May 1794), known as \"Madame\" Élisabeth, was a French princess and the youngest sibling of King Louis XVI. She remained beside the king and his family during the French Revolution and was executed at Place de la Révolution in Paris during the Terror. She is regarded by the Roman Catholic Church as a martyr and is venerated as a Servant of God.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975067}
{"src_title": "Hermann II, Count of Celje", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Hermann II was the younger son of Count Hermann I of Celje and his wife, Catherine of Bosnia. The House of Celje were Styrian vassals of the Habsburg dukes of Styria and Carinthia with estates along the river Savinja, in present-day Slovenia, as well as in much of Carniola and parts of Carinthia. Hermann's mother was a member of the House of Kotromanić, daughter of Ban Stephen II of Bosnia and thus cousin of the first King of Bosnia, Tvrtko I. His older brother Hans (c. 1363–1372) having predeceased their father, Hermann was the sole heir of their father upon the latter's death on 21 March 1385. The death of his son-less cousin William on 19 September 1392 made him the sole possessor of the family titles and estates.  Hermann II married Anna, daughter of Count Henry of Schaunberg and Ursula of Gorizia, in c. 1377. They had six children: Frederick (1379–1454), Hermann (1380–1426), Elizabeth (1382), Anne (c. 1384–c. 1439), Louis (1387–1417) and Barbara (1392–1451). Hermann had his illegitimate son, Hermann (1383–1421), legitimized and installed as Bishop of Freising. For his legitimate issue he arranged prestigious marriages, but encountered serious problems with his firstborn. Frederick was married to Elizabeth of Krk until she was murdered in 1422; Frederick himself was likely the culprit. He quickly remarried to Veronika of Desenice, but Hermann refused to accept a minor noblewoman as his daughter-in-law. He accused her of witchcraft and had her drowned. Frederick's rebellion against Hermann ended with Frederick's imprisonment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rise of Celje.", "content": "In 1396, Hermann bravely fought at the side of King Sigismund of Hungary during the battle against the Ottoman Turks in the Bulgarian town of Nicopolis. The Christian coalition was soundly defeated. Hermann saved Sigismund's life. The two escaped the battlefield on the same fishing boat and underwent a long journey back to Hungary together. Sigismund rewarded Hermann by assigning to him the district of Varaždin in 1397, followed in 1399 by various other districts in Zagorje along the border of the Kingdom of Croatia and the Holy Roman Empire. These grants were hereditary and made the Celje counts the greatest landowners in Slavonia; from then on, they styled themselves \"counts of Celje and Zagorje\".  Hermann's loyalty persisted during the Hungarian civil war, when Sigismund's kingdoms of Croatia and Hungary were being claimed by King Ladislaus of Naples with the support of Sigismund's rebellious vassals. The rebels succeeded in capturing and imprisoning Sigismund in 1401. Hermann and the Palatine of Hungary Nicholas II Garay procured his release later that year, after Hermann threatened to invade Hungary. The relations between the two men then became even closer. Sigismund had promised to remove foreigners such as Hermann from state offices upon being liberated, but never carried out the promise.  In 1405, Sigismund married Hermann's youngest daughter Barbara and granted extensive lands in Slavonia to his father-in-law. Anne, another daughter of Hermann, was married to the Palatine, linking the three families through affinity. In 1406, Sigismund named Hermann Ban of Dalmatia and Croatia and Ban of Slavonia. He held these offices until 1408 and again from 1423 until 1435, benefiting from the dedicated support of Eberhard, the German-born Bishop of Zagreb. All of this made the House of Celje the most powerful family in the Kingdom of Croatia. Hermann was one of the founding members of Sigismund's elite Order of the Dragon, established in 1408. For reasons of economy rather than religious fanaticism, Hermann expelled all Jews from his domain.  When Count Frederick III of Ortenburg, the last of his line, died in 1418, his domain was inherited by Hermann. From then on, he controlled three quarters of Carinthia. This made it easier for him to attain imperial immediacy, his family's long-set goal. The marriage of his son Louis and Duke Ernest of Bavaria's daughter Beatrix provided Hermann with a powerful ally against his Habsburg overlords. His goal was finally achieved in 1423 when Duke Ernest of Styria and Carinthia renounced his feudal supremacy over the counts of Celje. This was a reward by Sigismund, also King of Germany since 1411, for Hermann's successful negotiation with the dissatisfied Croatian nobles. It came with the right of coinage as well as the right to collect tolls and revenues from various mines. Now enjoying a direct legal relationship with the Crown, Hermann was free to concentrate on a new goal: becoming Prince of the Holy Roman Empire. He was close to succeeding in this endeavour as well in 1430, but the draft charter granting him this honour never seems to have been published, possibly due to Habsburg objections.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bosnian succession.", "content": "In 1426, the Kingdom of Bosnia was under constant threat of Ottoman raids. Its king, Tvrtko II, was desperate to obtain Hungarian protection. King Sigismund agreed but under a condition: the childless Tvrtko was to recognize Hermann, his second cousin and Sigismund's father-in-law, as his heir presumptive. The Bosnian nobility was outraged by the demand. Hermann's accession would have meant an increased influence of Hungary over Bosnia, something they were determined to prevent. Besides, they were used to controlling the royal succession and considered it their right to elect kings. They also feared that Hermann, whose domain enveloped Bosnia, would assist Tvrtko in curbing their power and privileges. The plan nevertheless went ahead; a treaty providing for Hermann's accession in the event of Tvrtko's death without male issue was signed on 2 September 1427.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and aftermath.", "content": "Hermann died in Pressburg on 13 October 1435. Tvrtko indeed died childless, but only eight years later, and Hermann thus never became King of Bosnia. As it happened, the Bosnian crown never passed to the House of Celje at all. Hermann was buried in the Pleterje Charterhouse, a monastery he had founded in 1403 as the last Carthusian monastery in the Slovene lands. The Celje were recognized as princes of the Holy Roman Empire a year following his death, though there is spurious evidence that suggests this may have taken place shortly before Hermann's death, on 27 September 1435. Hermann's allodial titles passed undivided to his firstborn and the only son who outlived him, the 56-year-old Frederick II.  The most outstanding among the counts of Celje, Hermann inherited the headship of a family of merely local significance and eventually transformed it into one of Central Europe's most prominent noble families. Hermann's efforts to help Sigismund strengthen the royal authority and centralize the state earned him a bad reputation in old Hungarian historiography, which was itself usually sympathetic to Hungarian nobility. He was portrayed as a selfish manipulator of a weak king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Hermann married Anna, a daughter of Henry VII, Count of Schaunberg. They had six children who survived infancy:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hermann II (; early 1360s – 13 October 1435), Count of Celje, was a Styrian nobleman and magnate most notable as the faithful supporter and father-in-law of the Hungarian king Sigismund of Luxembourg. Hermann's loyalty to the King ensured him generous grants of land and privileges that led him to become the greatest landowner in Slavonia. He served as governor of Carniola, and twice as ban of the combined provinces of Slavonia, Croatia and Dalmatia, and was recognized by a treaty in 1427 as heir presumptive to the Kingdom of Bosnia. The House of Celje's rise to power culminated in achieving the dignity of Prince of the Holy Roman Empire. At the peak of his power, he controlled two thirds of the land in Carniola, most of Lower Styria and exercised power over all of medieval Croatia. Hermann was the most important representative of the line of Celje counts, having brought the family from merely local importance to the focus of Central European politics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975068}
{"src_title": "Marc Riboud", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Riboud was born in Saint-Genis-Laval and went to the lycée in Lyon. He photographed his first picture in 1937, using his father's Vest Pocket Kodak camera. As a young man during World War II, he was active in the French Resistance, from 1943 to 1945. After the war, he studied engineering at the École Centrale de Lyon from 1945 to 1948.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Until 1951 Riboud worked as an engineer in Lyon factories, but took a week-long picture-taking vacation, inspiring him to become a photographer. He moved to Paris where he met Henri Cartier-Bresson, Robert Capa, and David Seymour, the founders of Magnum Photos. By 1953 he was a member of the organization. His ability to capture fleeting moments in life through powerful compositions was already apparent, and this skill was to serve him well for decades to come.  Over the next several decades, Riboud traveled around the world. In 1957, he was one of the first European photographers to go to China, and in 1968, 1972, and 1976, Riboud made several reportages on North Vietnam. Later he traveled all over the world, but mostly in Asia, Africa, the U.S. and Japan. Riboud has been witness to the atrocities of war (photographing from both the Vietnam and the American sides of the Vietnam War), and the apparent degradation of a culture repressed from within (China during the years of chairman Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution). In contrast, he has captured the graces of daily life, set in sun-drenched facets of the globe (Fès, Angkor, Acapulco, Niger, Bénarès, Shaanxi), and the lyricism of child's play in everyday Paris. In 1979 Riboud left the Magnum agency.  Riboud's photographs have appeared in numerous magazines, including \"Life\", \"Géo\", \"National Geographic\", \"Paris Match\", and \"Stern\". He twice won the Overseas Press Club Award, received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2009 Sony World Photography Awards and has had major retrospective exhibitions at the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris and the International Center of Photography in New York.  Riboud was made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society in 1998.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photography.", "content": "One of Riboud's best known images is \"Eiffel Tower Painter\", taken in Paris in 1953. It depicts a man painting the tower, posed like a dancer, perched between the metal armature of the tower. Below him, Paris emerges from the photographic haze. Lone figures appear frequently in Riboud's images. In \"Ankara\", a central figure is silhouetted against an industrial background, whereas in \"France\", a man lies in a field. The vertical composition emphasizes the landscape, the trees, sky, water and blowing grass, all of which surround but do not overpower the human element.  An image taken by Riboud on 21 October 1967, entitled \",\" is among the most celebrated anti-war pictures. Shot in Washington, D.C. where thousands of anti-war activists had gathered in front of the Pentagon to protest against America's involvement in Vietnam, the picture shows a young girl, Jan Rose Kasmir, with a flower in her hands and a kindly gaze in her eyes, standing in front of several rifle-wielding soldiers stationed to block the protesters. Riboud said of the photo, \"She was just talking, trying to catch the eye of the soldiers, maybe trying to have a dialogue with them. I had the feeling the soldiers were more afraid of her than she was of the bayonets.\"  In contrast to the images in his photo essay, \"A Journey to North Vietnam\" (1969), Riboud says in the accompanying interview: \"My impression is that the country's leaders will not allow the slightest relaxation of the population at large [...] it is almost as if [...] they are anxious to forestall the great unknown – peace.\" In the same \"Newsweek\" article, he expanded further in his observations on life in North Vietnam:  I was astonished, for example, at the decidedly gay atmosphere in Hanoi's Reunification Park on a Sunday afternoon [...] I honestly did not have the impression they were discussing socialism or the 'American aggressors' [...] I saw quite a few patriotic posters crudely 'improved' with erotic graffiti and sketches.  There is a divide between what is photographed (or published) and what Riboud had to say by way of his interview. Commenting on this in 1970, the author Geoffrey Wolff wrote:  Riboud's photographs illustrate the proposition. The French photographer has been to North Vietnam twice [...] and he is most friendly, on the evidence of his pictures, to the people and the institutions he found there. His photographs are of happy faces,[...] An Air Force ace illustrates how he shot the American \"air pirates\" from the sky [...] Who knows the truth about these places?  American, revolutionary political Rap Metal band, Rage Against the Machine used two of Riboud's photographs for their second single \"Bullet in the Head\". Both photographs carry strong political and social messages, but are very different. The front cover is a picture of American school children pledging allegiance to the 'flag' (Stars and Stripes) in a classroom; the back cover picture, is of a young (probably Vietnamese) boy, who is pointing a pistol, while soldiers stand on parade in the background. It is unclear who or what the boy is aiming at and whether the gun is real or a toy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "In 1961 Riboud married the American sculptor Barbara Chase, who was living in Paris. They had two children. She became well known for her novel, \"Sally Hemings\" (1979), which earned critical acclaim and became a bestseller. They divorced before 1981.  He later married Catherine Chaine, a journalist and author.  Riboud died in Paris on 30 August 2016, at the age of 93.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marc Riboud (; 24 June 1923 – 30 August 2016) was a French photographer, best known for his extensive reports on the Far East: \"The Three Banners of China\", \"Face of North Vietnam\", \"Visions of China\", and \"In China\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975069}
{"src_title": "Dharmapala", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "A protector of Buddhist dharma is called a dharmapala. They are typically wrathful deities, depicted with terrifying iconography in the Mahayana and tantric traditions of Buddhism. The wrathfulness is intended to depict their willingness to defend and guard Buddhist followers from dangers and enemies. The \"Aṣṭagatyaḥ\" (the eight kinds of nonhuman beings) is one category of \"dharmapālas\", which includes the Garuda, Deva, Naga, Yaksha, Gandharva, Asura, Kinnara and Mahoraga.  In Vajrayana iconography and thangka depictions, dharmapala are fearsome beings, often with many heads, many hands, or many feet. Dharmapala often have blue, black or red skin, and a fierce expression with protruding fangs. Although dharmapala have a terrifying appearance, they only act in a wrathful way for the benefit of sentient beings.  The devotional worship of \"dharmapālas\" in the Tibetan tradition is traceable to early 8th-century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tibetan Buddhism.", "content": "There are many different dharmapalas in Tibetan Buddhism. Each school has its own principle dharmapalas and most monasteries have a dedicated dharmapāla which was originally comparable to a genius loci. The many forms of Mahakala are emanations of Avalokiteshvara. Kalarupa and Yamantaka are considered by practitioners to be emanations of Manjushri the Bodhisattva of Wisdom.  Principal wisdom protector dharmapalas include:  Other dharmapalas include: The main functions of a dharmapāla are said to be to avert the inner and outer obstacles that prevent spiritual practitioners from attaining spiritual realizations, as well as to foster the necessary conditions for their practice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shingon Buddhism.", "content": "In Japanese Shingon Buddhism, a descendant of Tangmi, or Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, dharmapālas such as Acala and Yamantaka are classified as Wisdom Kings. Other dharmapālas, notably Mahakala, belong to the Deva realm, the fourth and lowest class in the hierarchy of honorable beings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Related deities.", "content": "In Tibetan Buddhism, there are two other classes of defender, the lokapālas and s. Papiya, Guan Yu and Hachiman are also known as defenders.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A dharmapāla (, Chinese: 達磨波羅, 達摩波羅,, 護法鬼神, 諸天鬼神, 護法龍天, 諸天善神, ) is a type of wrathful god in Buddhism. The name means \"\"Dharma\" protector or defender\" in Sanskrit, and the \"dharmapālas\" are also known as the Defenders of the Law (Dharma), or the Protectors of the Law. There are two kinds of dharmapala, Worldly Protectors and Wisdom Protectors. Only Wisdom Protectors are enlightened beings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975070}
{"src_title": "Karel Havlíček Borovský", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "He lived and studied at the Gymnasium in Německý Brod (today Havlíčkův Brod is named after Borovský), and his house on the main square is today the Havlíček Museum. In 1838 he moved to Prague to study philosophy at Charles University and, influenced by the revolutionary atmosphere before the Revolutions of 1848, decided on the objective of becoming a patriotic writer. He devoted himself to studying Czech and literature. After graduating he began studying theology because he thought the best way to serve the nation would be as a priest. He was expelled after one year for \"showing too little indication for spiritual ministry\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After failing to find a teacher's job in Bohemia, he left for Moscow to work as a tutor in a Russian teacher's family: with a recommendation by Pavel Josef Šafařík. He became a Russophile and a Pan-Slav, but after recognizing the true reality of the Russian society he took the pessimistic view that \"Pan-Slavism is a great, attractive but feckless idea\". His memories of the Russian stay were published first in magazines and then as a book \"Obrazy z Rus\" (\"Pictures from Russia\").  He returned to Bohemia in 1844, aged 24 and used his writing skills to criticize the fashion of embracing anything written in the recently reborn Czech language. He specifically aimed at a novel by Josef Kajetán Tyl. In 1846 Havlíček attained a position as editor of the \"Pražské noviny\" newspaper with the help of František Palacký.  In April 1848 he changed the name of the newspaper to \"Národní noviny\" (\"National News\") and it became one of the first newspapers of the Revolutionary-era Czech liberals, and one of the most influential publications of 1848-1849. \"Národní noviny\" became popular especially for his sharp-tongued epigrams and its wit. Havlíček was concerned with the preparations of the Congress of the Slavs in Prague. In July 1848 he was elected as a member of the Austrian Empire Constituent Assembly in Vienna and later in Kroměříž. He eventually relinquished his seat to focus on journalism.  Havlíček was a \"liberal nationalist\" politically, but refused to allow a \"party line\" to inform his opinions. Often, he would criticize those that agreed with him as much as those that disagreed. He excoriated revolutionaries for their radicalism, but also advocated ideas like universal suffrage-a concept altogether too radical for most of his fellow liberals. He was a pragmatist, and had little patience for those that spent their time romanticizing the Czech nationality without helping it achieve political or cultural independence. He used much of the space in his newspapers to educate the people on important issues-stressing areas like economics, which were sorely neglected by other nationalist writers.  The Bohemian revolution was defeated in March 1849 with the dissolution of the Kroměříž assembly, but Havlíček continued to criticize the new regime. He was brought to court for his criticism (there was no freedom of the press in the Habsburg's territory) but was found not guilty by a sympathetic jury. \"Národní noviny\" had to cease publication in January 1850, but Havlíček did not end his activities. In May 1850 he began publishing the magazine \"Slovan\" in Kutná Hora. The magazine was a target of censorship from the start. It had to stop publication in August 1851, and Havlíček stood again at the court to answer on charges of dissent. Again, he was found not guilty by a sympathetic jury of Czech commoners.  Havlíček translated and introduced some satirical and critical authors into the Czech language culture including Nikolai Gogol (1842) and Voltaire (1851).  In the night of December 16, 1851, he was arrested by the police and forced into exile in Brixen, Austria (present-day Italy). He was depressed from the exile, but continued writing and wrote some of his best work: Tyrolské elegie (Tirol Laments), Křest svatého Vladimíra (Baptism of St. Vladimir) and Král Lávra (King Lavra, based on the legend of Labraid Loingsech).  When he returned from Brixen in 1855, he learned that his wife had died a few days earlier. Most of his former friends, afraid of the Bach system, stood aloof from him. Only a few publicly declared support for him.  In 1856, Havlíček died of tuberculosis, aged 35. Božena Němcová put a crown of thorns on his head in the coffin. His funeral was attended by about 5,000 Czechs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memorials.", "content": "In 1911, a monument was raised to Havlicek in Chicago by Czech residents of the city in Douglas Park. The bronze statue by Joseph Strachovsky was cast by V. Mašek in Prague and shows Havlicek in a revolutionary pose, dressed in a full military uniform and a draped cape with his outstretched arm motioning the viewer to join him. The statue was moved to Solidarity Drive on today's Museum Campus in the vicinity of the Adler Planetarium in 1981.  In the year 1918 was new Rifle Regiment of the 3rd division of Czechoslovak legions in Russia named \"regiment of Karel Havlíček Borovský\"  In 1925 a biographical film was released.  In 1945, the 20 Czechoslovak koruna banknote bore Havlicek's portrait.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karel Havlíček Borovský (; Borová, today \"Havlíčkova Borová;\" 31 October 1821 – 29 July 1856) was a Czech writer, poet, critic, politician, journalist, and publisher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975071}
{"src_title": "Iptables", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Xtables allows the system administrator to define \"tables\" containing \"chains\" of \"rules\" for the treatment of packets. Each table is associated with a different kind of packet processing. Packets are processed by sequentially traversing the rules in chains. A rule in a chain can cause a goto or jump to another chain, and this can be repeated to whatever level of nesting is desired. (A jump is like a “call”, i.e. the point that was jumped from is remembered.) Every network packet arriving at or leaving from the computer traverses at least one chain.  The origin of the packet determines which chain it traverses initially. There are five \"predefined chains\" (mapping to the five available Netfilter hooks), though a table may not have all chains. Predefined chains have a \"policy\", for example DROP, which is applied to the packet if it reaches the end of the chain. The system administrator can create as many other chains as desired. These chains have no policy; if a packet reaches the end of the chain it is returned to the chain which called it. A chain may be empty.  A chain does not exist by itself; it belongs to a \"table\". There are three tables: \"nat\", \"filter\", and \"mangle\". Unless preceded by the option \"-t\", an iptables command concerns the \"filter\" table by default. For example, the command \"iptables -L -v -n\", which shows some chains and their rules, is equivalent to \"iptables -t filter -L -v -n\". To show chains of table \"nat\", use the command \"iptables -t nat -L -v -n\"  Each rule in a chain contains the specification of which packets it matches. It may also contain a \"target\" (used for extensions) or \"verdict\" (one of the built-in decisions). As a packet traverses a chain, each rule in turn is examined. If a rule does not match the packet, the packet is passed to the next rule. If a rule does match the packet, the rule takes the action indicated by the target/verdict, which may result in the packet being allowed to continue along the chain or may not. Matches make up the large part of rulesets, as they contain the conditions packets are tested for. These can happen for about any layer in the OSI model, as with e.g. the codice_8 and codice_9 parameters, and there are also protocol-independent matches, such as codice_10.  The packet continues to traverse the chain until either  Targets also return a verdict like codice_11 (codice_16 modules will do this) or codice_12 (e.g. the codice_18 module), but may also imply codice_19 (e.g. the codice_20 module; codice_19 is an internal name) to continue with the next rule as if no target/verdict was specified at all.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Userspace utilities.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Front-ends.", "content": "There are numerous third-party software applications for iptables that try to facilitate setting up rules. Front-ends in textual or graphical fashion allow users to click-generate simple rulesets; scripts usually refer to shell scripts (but other scripting languages are possible too) that call iptables or (the faster) codice_22 with a set of predefined rules, or rules expanded from a template with the help of a simple configuration file. Linux distributions commonly employ the latter scheme of using templates. Such a template-based approach is practically a limited form of a rule generator, and such generators also exist in standalone fashion, for example, as PHP web pages.  Such front-ends, generators and scripts are often limited by their built-in template systems and where the templates offer substitution spots for user-defined rules. Also, the generated rules are generally not optimized for the particular firewalling effect the user wishes, as doing so will likely increase the maintenance cost for the developer. Users who reasonably understand iptables and want their ruleset optimized are advised to construct their own ruleset.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "iptables is a user-space utility program that allows a system administrator to configure the IP packet filter rules of the Linux kernel firewall, implemented as different Netfilter modules. The filters are organized in different tables, which contain chains of rules for how to treat network traffic packets. Different kernel modules and programs are currently used for different protocols; \"iptables\" applies to IPv4, \"ip6tables\" to IPv6, \"arptables\" to ARP, and \"ebtables\" to Ethernet frames.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975072}
{"src_title": "Bada Shanren", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Bada Shanren, a purported child prodigy born to a handicapped father, began painting and writing poetry in his early childhood. About the year 1644, when the Ming emperor committed suicide and the Manchu army from the north attacked Beijing, the young Han Chinese man sought refuge in a vihara. Because he was a Ming prince, the dynastic upheaval created a great amount of uncertainty for his position in society. As years passed and the Manchurian court became more firmly established, there was less and less insecurity among the Qing regime about remaining Ming loyalties and possible future rebellions. Due to these more stable circumstances, after 40 years, Bada Shanren deemed it acceptable to leave the monastery and to re-enter day-to-day life among society. In the aftermath of a nervous breakdown that could have been staged to avoid retribution for his family background, Zhu Da abandoned his monastic life and developed a career as a professional painter, adopting a series of descriptive pseudonyms, most notably Bada Shanren by which he is most often known today. He is said to have screamed and made weird sounds while painting. The stylized vertical writing of his pseudonym Bada Shanren () looks like the characters for \"laugh\" () and \"cry\" (), thus by signing his paintings he implied his confusion and feelings of grief for the fate of his country and home.  His paintings feature sharp brush strokes which are attributed to the sideways manner by which he held his brush. In the 1930s, Chinese painter Zhang Daqian produced several forgeries of Bada Shanren's works but they are easily spotted by the trained eye, because the modern copies were softer and rounder. Yale University scholar Fred Fangyu Wang was a major collector of Bada Shanren paintings from the 1960s until his death in 1997.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bada Shanren (born Zhu Da; c. 1626–1705) was a Han Chinese painter of ink wash painting and a calligrapher. He was of royal descent, being a direct offspring of the Ming dynasty prince Zhu Quan who had a feudal establishment in Nanchang. His master lineage's accession was revoked following the last Ning Lineage King Zhu Chenhao's rebellion in 1521, but the rest of the lineage was allowed to retain status in Jiangxi. Art historians have named him as a brilliant painter of the period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975073}
{"src_title": "Celebration, Florida", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the early 1990s, the Disney Development Company (DDC) established the Celebration Company to spearhead its development within about of land in the southern portion of the Reedy Creek Improvement District. Total investment for the project is estimated at US$2.5 billion.  The master plan was developed by the two Driehaus Prize winners, Cooper, Robertson & Partners and Robert A. M. Stern, and the extensive landscape, parks, trails and pathways were designed by the San Francisco firm EDAW (now AECOM). Urban Design Associates, of Pittsburgh, PA, developed design guidelines, called a Pattern Book, as a tool for the design of new architecture within the community. Celebration is planned in an early 20th-century architectural style and is not zoned for high-density residences. Celebration was named the \"New Community of the Year\" in 2001 by the Urban Land Institute.  The first phase of residential development occurred in the summer of 1996 with Celebration Village, West Village, and Lake Evalyn; this was followed by the North Village, South Village, East Village and Aquila Reserve and the final Artisan Park phases. Disney CEO Michael Eisner took an especially keen interest in the development of the new town in the early days, encouraging the executives at Disney Development Company to \"make history\" and develop a town worthy of the Disney brand and legacy that extended to Walt Disney's vision of an Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow (EPCOT). DDC executives collaborated extensively with leaders in education, health, and technology in addition to planners and architects to create the vision and operating policies for the town.  Later phases included construction by a number of developers, including David Waronker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Celebration is located at (28.320059, −81.540149).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of, of which, or 0.28%, is water.  Celebration is under USPS ZIP code 34747, sometimes known as Kissimmee. This is due to the city being unincorporated, as Celebration is not a subdivision and is still considered an unincorporated town.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "As of the census of 2010, there were 7,427 people, 3,063 households, and 716 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 704.9 people per square mile (272.16.0/km2). There were 4,566 housing units at an average density of 102.4/sq mi (39.6/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 91.0% white (with 81.9% of the population non-Hispanic white), 1.5% black, 3.2% Asian, 2.2% from two or more races and 0.26% Native American. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 11.2% of the population.  There were 3,063 households, out of which 32.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.0% were married couples living together, 4.5% had a female householder with no married spouse present, and 35.0% were non-families. 24.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 3.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.96.  The age distribution was 25.6% under the age of 18, and 9.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.5 males in that age range.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $74,231, and the median income for a family was $92,334. Males had a median income of $51,250 versus $46,650 for females. The per-capita income for the CDP was $39,521, and 4.1% of the population lived below the poverty line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "The area is organized under state law as a community development district. As a result, voting is restricted to local landowners. The largest landowners are entities controlled by The Walt Disney Company.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "City life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Downtown.", "content": "Celebration Town Center contains shops, restaurants, and other commercial establishments, as well as 106 residences.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Worship.", "content": "Celebration has six Christian churches, one Jewish congregation, and one hospital ministry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Commerce.", "content": "There are now more than 500 registered companies listed as doing business in the shopping plazas, small office complexes, and the Disney World office building park. This community holds the only Class A office buildings in Osceola County.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Villages.", "content": "Celebration is separated into areas referred to as \"villages.\" The main village, closest to downtown, is where the first homes were constructed. North Village, closest to U.S. 192, houses the Georgetown Condos as well as Acadia Estate Homes. East Village includes Roseville Corner and Aquila Loop. Lake Evalyn, generally considered its own area of Celebration but not quite its own village, includes a small lake where one can find a multitude of ducks, alligators, and the occasional river otter. South Village houses the Spring Park Loop estate homes and Heritage Hall. Additionally, Siena Condos complete the outer edge of South Village by Celebration Blvd. Mirasol includes condos with concierge service and a day spa. Artisan Park is at the end of Celebration Ave and houses condos, townhomes, single-family residences as well as a clubhouse consisting of a pool, gym, and restaurant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Events.", "content": "Celebration hosts many celebrations every year, including community-wide yard sales, an art show, an exotic car festival, an annual Radio Disney Holiday concert, an Oktoberfest Celebration, the \"Great American Pie Festival\" (televised on The Food Network), a \"Posh Pooch\" festival, and downtown events for the Fall and Christmas seasons when autumn leaves and \"snow\" (small-scale soap flakes) are released into the Town Center. The community also hosts a large Independence Day fireworks celebration. The town events are organized on the Internet by the Community Calendar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Civil suit.", "content": "In 2016, the \"Wall Street Journal\" reported that Celebration Town Center condominium owners \"are battling leaky roofs, balconies that have become separated from the sides of buildings and mold spreading in their walls. Their properties have become so dilapidated, they say, they're having trouble selling them.\"  An April 2016 civil suit seeks to force the Town Center Foundation, a controlling entity under sole direction of Lexin Capital, \"which took control of part of Celebration in 2004, to pay for upward of $15 million to $20 million in repairs\" which were deferred over ten years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "91% of residents who work outside their homes drive to work.  The two main roads going through the center of the Celebration's downtown area are Market Street and Front Street. Other streets in Celebration include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The School District of Osceola County, Florida, operates public schools in Celebration. Celebration is zoned to the Celebration School for K-8. Celebration High School, located in the city, serves Celebration for grades 9–12. There are private education options provided by The Montessori Academy of Celebration (K-8). Private graduate education is available at Stetson University Celebration Campus. There are free classes offered at the community center by clubs for cooking, gardening, art, writing, and technology.  The Osceola Library System operates the West Osceola Branch Library in Celebration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Celebration is a census-designated place (CDP) and a master-planned community in Osceola County, Florida, United States, located near Walt Disney World Resort and originally developed by The Walt Disney Company. The town, whose population was 7,427 at the 2010 census, is part of the Orlando–Kissimmee Metropolitan Statistical Area.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975074}
{"src_title": "Duchy of Milan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The House of Visconti had ruled Milan since 1277, in which year Ottone Visconti defeated Napoleone della Torre. The Duchy of Milan \"(Ducatus Mediolani)\" as a state of the Holy Roman Empire was created on 1 May 1395, when Gian Galeazzo Visconti, purchased a diploma for 100,000 Florins from King Wenceslaus. It was this diploma that installed Visconti as Duke of Milan and Count of Pavia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visconti rule (1395–1447).", "content": "The Duchy, as defined in the diploma of 1395, included the territory surrounding Milan, between the Adda and Ticino rivers, but the dominions of Gian Galeazzo Visconti extended beyond, including 26 towns and spanned from Piedmont to Veneto and from present-day Canton of Ticino to Umbria. Milan thus became one of the five major states of the Italian peninsula in the 15th century. The House of Visconti had been expanding their dominions for nearly a century, under the reigns of Azzone Visconti, Luchino Visconti, Giovanni Visconti, Bernabò Visconti and Gian Galeazzo Visconti: during the rule of Azzone Visconti, the Ossola in Piedmont had been conquered in 1331, followed by Bergamo and Pavia (Lombardy) and Novara (Piedmont) in 1332, Pontremoli (Tuscany) in 1333, Vercelli (Piedmont) and Cremona (Lombardy) in 1334, the Lombard cities of Como, Crema, Lodi and the Valtellina in 1335, Bormio (Lombardy) and Piacenza (Emilia) in 1336, and Brescia and the Val Camonica in 1337.  The brothers Luchino and Giovanni Visconti added Bellinzona (present-day Switzerland in 1342, Parma (Emilia) in 1346 and several territories in southwestern Piedmont in 1347: Tortona, Alessandria, Asti, and Mondovì. Bernabò conquered Reggio Emilia in 1371 and Riva del Garda in 1380, and Gian Galeazzo greatly expanded Milan's dominions, first estwards, with the conquest of the Venetian cities of Verona (1387), Vicenza (1387), Feltre (1388), Belluno (1388) and Padova (briefly, from 1388 to 1390), and later southwards, conquering Lucca, Pisa and Siena in Tuscany in 1399, Bologna in Emilia in 1402, and Perugia and Assisi in Umbria also in 1402.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ambrosian Republic (1447–1450).", "content": "When the last Visconti Duke, Filippo Maria, died in 1447 without a male heir, the Milanese declared the so-called Golden Ambrosian Republic, which soon faced revolts and attacks from its neighbors. In 1450 mercenary captain Francesco Sforza, having previously married Filippo Maria Visconti's illegitimate daughter Bianca Maria, conquered the city and restored the Duchy, founding the House of Sforza.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sforza rule (1450–1499).", "content": "During the rule of the Visconti and Sforza, the duchy had to defend its territory against the Swiss, the French and the Venetians, until the \"Betrayal of Novara\" in 1500 when the duchy passed to the French-claim of Louis XII.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "French rule (1499–1526).", "content": "In 1498, the Duke of Orleans became King of France as Louis XII, and immediately sought to make good his father's claim to Milan. He invaded in 1499 and soon ousted Lodovico Sforza. The French ruled the duchy until 1512, when they were ousted by the Swiss, who put Lodovico's son Massimiliano on the throne. Massimiliano's reign did not last very long. The French, now under Francis I, invaded the area in 1515 and reasserted their control at the Battle of Marignano. The French took Massimiliano as their prisoner. The French were again driven out in 1521, this time by the Austrians, who installed Massimiliano's younger brother, Francesco II Sforza.  Following the French defeat at Pavia in 1525, which left the imperial armies of Charles V dominant in Italy, Francesco joined the League of Cognac against the emperor along with Venice, Florence, the Pope, and the French. This resulted quickly in his own expulsion from Milan by imperial forces, but he managed to remain in control of various other cities in the duchy, and was again restored to Milan itself by the peace concluded at Cambrai in 1529.  In 1535, Francesco died without heirs, the question of succession again arose, with both the emperor and the King of France claiming the duchy, leading to more wars. The Duchy of Parma was created in 1545 from a part of the Duchy of Milan south of the Po River, as a fief for Pope Paul III's illegitimate son, Pier Luigi Farnese, centered on the city of Parma.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spanish Habsburg rule (1556–1707).", "content": "The emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor held the duchy from 1535, eventually investing it on his son Philip II, King of Spain from 1556. The possession of the duchy by Habsburg Spain was finally recognized by the French in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559.  The Duchy of Milan remained in Habsburg Spain hands until the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), when the Austrians invaded it (1701) and obtained it with the \"Convention of Milan\" in 1707.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Austrian Habsburg rule (1714–1796).", "content": "The duchy remained in Austrian hands until it was overrun by the French army of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1796. The duchy was ceded by Austria in the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, and formed the central part of the new Cisalpine Republic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "After the defeat of Napoleon, based on the decisions of the Congress of Vienna on 9 June 1815, the Duchy of Milan was not restored. The Duchy instead became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, a constituent of the Austrian Empire and with the Emperor of Austria as its king. This kingdom ceased to exist when the remaining portion of it was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy in 1866.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Duchy of Milan was a state of the Holy Roman Empire in northern Italy. It was created in 1395 by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Lord of Milan, who obtained from Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, the founding diploma. At that time, it included twenty-six towns and the wide rural area of the middle Padan Plain east of the hills of Montferrat. During much of its existence, it was wedged between Savoy to the west, Venice to the east, the Swiss Confederacy to the north, and separated from the Mediterranean by Genoa to the south. The Duchy eventually fell to Habsburg Austria with the \"Convention of Milan\" during the War of the Spanish Succession. The Duchy remained an Austrian possession until 1796, when a French army under Napoleon Bonaparte conquered it, and it ceased to exist a year later as a result of the Treaty of Campo Formio, when Austria ceded it to the new Cisalpine Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975075}
{"src_title": "Quantity", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In mathematics, the concept of quantity is an ancient one extending back to the time of Aristotle and earlier. Aristotle regarded quantity as a fundamental ontological and scientific category. In Aristotle's ontology, quantity or quantum was classified into two different types, which he characterized as follows:  In his \"Elements\", Euclid developed the theory of ratios of magnitudes without studying the nature of magnitudes, as Archimedes, but giving the following significant definitions:  For Aristotle and Euclid, relations were conceived as whole numbers (Michell, 1993). John Wallis later conceived of ratios of magnitudes as real numbers as reflected in the following:  That is, the ratio of magnitudes of any quantity, whether volume, mass, heat and so on, is a number. Following this, Newton then defined number, and the relationship between quantity and number, in the following terms: \"By \"number\" we understand not so much a multitude of unities, as the abstracted ratio of any quantity to another quantity of the same kind, which we take for unity\" (Newton, 1728).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quantitative structure.", "content": "Continuous quantities possess a particular structure that was first explicitly characterized by Hölder (1901) as a set of axioms that define such features as \"identities\" and \"relations\" between magnitudes. In science, quantitative structure is the subject of empirical investigation and cannot be assumed to exist \"a priori\" for any given property. The linear continuum represents the prototype of continuous quantitative structure as characterized by Hölder (1901) (translated in Michell & Ernst, 1996). A fundamental feature of any type of quantity is that the relationships of equality or inequality can in principle be stated in comparisons between particular magnitudes, unlike quality, which is marked by likeness, similarity and difference, diversity. Another fundamental feature is additivity. Additivity may involve concatenation, such as adding two lengths A and B to obtain a third A + B. Additivity is not, however, restricted to extensive quantities but may also entail relations between magnitudes that can be established through experiments that permit tests of hypothesized observable manifestations of the additive relations of magnitudes. Another feature is continuity, on which Michell (1999, p. 51) says of length, as a type of quantitative attribute, \"what continuity means is that if any arbitrary length, a, is selected as a unit, then for every positive real number, \"r\", there is a length b such that b = \"r\"a\". A further generalization is given by the theory of conjoint measurement, independently developed by French economist Gérard Debreu (1960) and by the American mathematical psychologist R. Duncan Luce and statistician John Tukey (1964).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quantity in mathematics.", "content": "Magnitude (how much) and multitude (how many), the two principal types of quantities, are further divided as mathematical and physical. In formal terms, quantities—their ratios, proportions, order and formal relationships of equality and inequality—are studied by mathematics. The essential part of mathematical quantities consists of having a collection of variables, each assuming a set of values. These can be a set of a single quantity, referred to as a scalar when represented by real numbers, or have multiple quantities as do vectors and tensors, two kinds of geometric objects.  The mathematical usage of a quantity can then be varied and so is situationally dependent. Quantities can be used as being infinitesimal, arguments of a function, variables in an expression (independent or dependent), or probabilistic as in random and stochastic quantities. In mathematics, magnitudes and multitudes are also not only two distinct kinds of quantity but furthermore relatable to each other.  Number theory covers the topics of the discrete quantities as numbers: number systems with their kinds and relations. Geometry studies the issues of spatial magnitudes: straight lines, curved lines, surfaces and solids, all with their respective measurements and relationships.  A traditional philosophy of mathematics, stemming from Aristotle and remaining popular until the eighteenth century, held that mathematics is the \"science of quantity\". Quantity was considered to be divided into the discrete (studied by arithmetic) and the continuous (studied by geometry and later calculus). The theory fits reasonably well elementary or school mathematics but less well the abstract topological and algebraic structures of modern mathematics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quantity in physical science.", "content": "Establishing quantitative structure and relationships \"between\" different quantities is the cornerstone of modern physical sciences. Physics is fundamentally a quantitative science. Its progress is chiefly achieved due to rendering the abstract qualities of material entities into physical quantities, by postulating that all material bodies marked by quantitative properties or physical dimensions are subject to some measurements and observations. Setting the units of measurement, physics covers such fundamental quantities as space (length, breadth, and depth) and time, mass and force, temperature, energy, and quanta.  A distinction has also been made between intensive quantity and extensive quantity as two types of quantitative property, state or relation. The magnitude of an \"intensive quantity\" does not depend on the size, or extent, of the object or system of which the quantity is a property, whereas magnitudes of an \"extensive quantity\" are additive for parts of an entity or subsystems. Thus, magnitude does depend on the extent of the entity or system in the case of extensive quantity. Examples of intensive quantities are density and pressure, while examples of extensive quantities are energy, volume, and mass.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quantity in natural language.", "content": "In human languages, including English, number is a syntactic category, along with person and gender. The quantity is expressed by identifiers, definite and indefinite, and quantifiers, definite and indefinite, as well as by three types of nouns: 1. count unit nouns or countables; 2. mass nouns, uncountables, referring to the indefinite, unidentified amounts; 3. nouns of multitude (collective nouns). The word ‘number’ belongs to a noun of multitude standing either for a single entity or for the individuals making the whole. An amount in general is expressed by a special class of words called identifiers, indefinite and definite and quantifiers, definite and indefinite. The amount may be expressed by: singular form and plural from, ordinal numbers before a count noun singular (first, second, third...), the demonstratives; definite and indefinite numbers and measurements (hundred/hundreds, million/millions), or cardinal numbers before count nouns. The set of language quantifiers covers \"a few, a great number, many, several (for count names); a bit of, a little, less, a great deal (amount) of, much (for mass names); all, plenty of, a lot of, enough, more, most, some, any, both, each, either, neither, every, no\". For the complex case of unidentified amounts, the parts and examples of a mass are indicated with respect to the following: a measure of a mass (two kilos of rice and twenty bottles of milk or ten pieces of paper); a piece or part of a mass (part, element, atom, item, article, drop); or a shape of a container (a basket, box, case, cup, bottle, vessel, jar).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further examples.", "content": "Some further examples of quantities are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Quantity is a property that can exist as a multitude or magnitude, which illustrate discontinuity and continuity. Quantities can be compared in terms of \"more\", \"less\", or \"equal\", or by assigning a numerical value in terms of a unit of measurement. Mass, time, distance, heat, and angular separation are among the familiar examples of quantitative properties.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975076}
{"src_title": "Fletcher-class destroyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The \"Fletcher\" class (named for Admiral Frank F. Fletcher) was the largest class of destroyer ordered, and was also one of the most successful and popular with the destroyer men themselves. Compared to earlier classes built for the Navy, they carried a significant increase in anti-aircraft weapons and other weaponry, which caused displacements to rise. Their flush deck construction added structural strength, although it did make them rather cramped, as less space was available below decks compared with a raised forecastle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The \"Fletcher\"-class was the first generation of destroyers designed after the series of Naval Treaties that had limited ship designs heretofore. The growth in the design was in part to answer a question that always dogged U.S. Navy designs, that being the long range required by operations in the Pacific Ocean. They were also to carry no less than five guns and ten deck-mounted torpedo tubes on the centerline, allowing them to meet any foreign design on equal terms. Compared to earlier designs, the \"Fletcher\"s were large, allowing them to eventually absorb the addition of two 40 mm Bofors quadruple mount AA guns as well as six 20 mm Oerlikon dual AA gun positions. This addition to the AA suite required the deletion of the forward quintuple torpedo mount, a change done under the 4 April 1945 anti-\"kamikaze\" program.  \"Fletcher\"s were also much less top-heavy than previous classes, allowing them to take on additional equipment and weapons without major redesign. They were fortunate in catching American production at the right moment, becoming \"the\" destroyer design, and only \"Fletcher\"-class derivatives, the \"Sumner\" and \"Gearing\" classes, would follow it. The first design inputs were in the fall of 1939 from questionnaires distributed around design bureaus and the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. The design parameters were the armaments desired of the next destroyer. As such, the questions were of how many guns, torpedoes, and depth charges were seen as desirable. Also asked was at what point would the design grow large enough to become a torpedo target instead of a torpedo delivery system. The answer that came back was that five dual purpose guns, twelve torpedoes, and twenty-eight depth charges would be ideal, while a return to the 1500-ton designs of the past was seen as undesirable. Speed requirements varied from, and shortcomings in the earlier \"Sims\" class, which were top heavy and needed lead ballast to correct this fault, caused the \"Fletcher\" design to be widened by of beam. As with other previous U.S. flush deck destroyer designs, seagoing performance suffered. This was mitigated by deployment to the Pacific Ocean, which is relatively calm.  To achieve with a 500-ton increase in displacement, shaft horsepower was increased from 50,000 to 60,000 compared to the previous \"Benson\" and \"Gleaves\" classes. The \"Fletcher\"s featured air-encased boilers producing steam at and, with emergency diesel generators providing 80 kW of electric power. Typically, Babcock & Wilcox boilers and General Electric geared steam turbines were equipped, although other designs and manufacturers were probably used to maximize the rate of production.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "The main gun armament of the Fletcher was five dual-purpose 5 inch/38 caliber (127 mm) guns in single mounts, guided by a Mark 37 Gun Fire Control System, including a Mk 12 fire control radar and a Mk 22 height-finder (both replaced by the circular Mk 25 radar postwar) linked by a Mark 1A Fire Control Computer and stabilized by a Mk 6 8,500 rpm gyroscope.  Ten torpedo tubes were fitted in two quintuple mounts on the centerline amidships, firing the 21-inch Mark 15 torpedo. Anti-submarine armament was two depth charge racks for 600-pound charges at the stern, augmented by six K-gun depth charge throwers for 300-pound charges amidships.  Besides the main dual-purpose guns, initial (April-May 1942) anti-aircraft armament was light; a quadruple 1.1\"/75 caliber gun (located in an elevated tub between the number three and four 5\"/38 caliber gun mounts), and six Oerlikon 20 mm cannons (two in front of and below the bridge, and four amidships). Beginning in June 1942, the 1.1\" gun was replaced by a twin Bofors 40 mm gun mount, plus another twin mount on the fantail between the depth charge racks. In February 1943, the fantail-mounted Bofors was removed, and instead, one twin mount was placed on each side of the aft funnel, bringing the total number of 40 mm barrels to six. In 1942 and 1943, the number of Oerlikon cannons was steadily increased. Ships were often modified before leaving the shipyard with a seventh 20 mm mount in front of the bridge behind the number two 5\"/38 caliber gun mount, and anywhere from one to three mounts on the flying bridge depending upon the bridge configuration of the ship. In combat, commanders often requisitioned additional guns, and some Fletchers mounted up to thirteen 20 mm cannons. In June and July 1943, two more twin Bofors mounts were added in place of the 20 mm cannons in front of and below the bridge, giving a total of ten barrels. With this modification, the Oerlikon cannons were rearranged and their number was standardized at seven; four amidships and three in a heart-shaped mount on the fantail.  Due to the increasing threat from \"kamikaze\" attacks, beginning in July 1945 some ships returning to the United States for refit received further antiaircraft modifications, replacing the forward set of quintuple torpedo tubes with a large gun platform housing two quadruple 40 mm guns (for a total of fourteen barrels). The seven single 20 mm guns were replaced with six twin mounts (four amidships and two on the fantail, rather than three as before).  Three (, \"Stevens\", and \"Halford\") were built with aircraft catapults, resulting in the deletion of the rear torpedo tube mount and number 3 5-inch gun mount. This alteration was not a success in service, and was not repeated. These three destroyers were later converted to the normal \"Fletcher\"-class configuration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "Nineteen were lost during World War II; six more were damaged, evaluated as constructive total losses, and not repaired. Postwar, the remainder were decommissioned and put into reserve.  With the outbreak of the Korean War many were returned to active duty. During this time 39 were refitted, reducing their overall main armament and the number of torpedo tubes to accommodate other weapons. A new ahead-throwing weapon called Weapon Alpha was installed in many of the ships. Others carried trainable Hedgehogs. Eighteen ships were redesignated as escort destroyers (DDE), optimized for anti-submarine warfare; these reverted to destroyer (DD) designation in 1962.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other navies.", "content": "Many of the ships were sold to other navies during the mid-1950s, including:  Any remaining were broken up in the 1970s. The last \"Fletcher\" in service, BAM \"Cuitlahuac\" (ex-\"John Rodgers\"), left the Mexican navy in 2001, meaning the total service life of the \"Fletcher\"s stretched over almost six decades and into the 21st century.  Four ships have been preserved as museum ships, although only \"Kidd\" was never modernized and retains her World War II configuration:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Argentina.", "content": "A total of five \"Fletcher\"s were transferred to the Argentine Navy in two batches. The first batch of three ships was transferred in 1961 and the second in 1971. By the late 1970s, the ships were obsolete and they did not play a significant role in the Falklands War, being stricken that year for scrapping or use as a target ship.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The \"Fletcher\" class was a class of destroyers built by the United States during World War II. The class was designed in 1939, as a result of dissatisfaction with the earlier destroyer leader types of the \"Porter\" and \"Somers\" classes. Some went on to serve during the Korean War and into the Vietnam War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975077}
{"src_title": "Jiajing Emperor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born as heir apparent of a vassal prince, Zhu Houcong was not brought up to succeed to the throne. However, the throne became vacant in 1521 with the sudden death of the Hongzhi Emperor's son, the Zhengde Emperor, who did not leave an heir. Prior to Zhengde Emperor's death, the line of succession was as follows:  The 14-year-old Zhu Houcong, then heir presumptive, succeeded to the throne, and so relocated from his father's princedom (near present-day Zhongxiang, Hubei) to the capital, Beijing. As the Jiajing Emperor, Zhu Houcong had his parents posthumously elevated to an \"honorary\" imperial rank, and had an imperial-style Xianling Mausoleum built for them near Zhongxiang.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign as emperor.", "content": "Custom dictated that an emperor who was not an immediate descendant of the previous one should be adopted by the previous one, to maintain an unbroken line. Such a posthumous adoption of Zhu Houcong by the Hongzhi Emperor was proposed, but he resisted, preferring instead to have his father declared emperor posthumously. This conflict is known as the \"Great Rites Controversy.\" The Jiajing Emperor prevailed and hundreds of his opponents were banished, flogged in the imperial court (), or executed. Among the banished was the poet Yang Shen.  The Jiajing Emperor was known to be intelligent and efficient; whilst later he went on strike, and choose not to attend any state meetings, he did not neglect the paperwork and other governmental matters. The Jiajing Emperor was also known to be a cruel and self-aggrandizing emperor and he also chose to reside outside of the Forbidden City in Beijing so he could live in isolation. Ignoring state affairs, the Jiajing Emperor relied on Zhang Cong and Yan Song to handle affairs of state. In time, Yan Song and his son Yan Shifan – who gained power only as a result of his father's political influence – came to dominate the whole government even being called the \"First and Second Prime Minister\". Ministers such as Hai Rui and Yang Jisheng challenged and even chastised Yan Song and his son but were thoroughly ignored by the emperor. Hai Rui and many ministers were eventually dismissed or executed. The Jiajing Emperor also abandoned the practice of seeing his ministers altogether from 1539 onwards, and for a period of almost 25 years refused to give official audiences, choosing instead to relay his wishes through eunuchs and officials. Only Yan Song, a few handful of eunuchs and Daoist priests ever saw the emperor. This eventually led to corruption at all levels of the Ming government. However, the Jiajing Emperor was intelligent and managed to control the court.  The Ming dynasty had enjoyed a long period of peace, but in 1542 the Mongol leader Altan Khan began to harass China along the northern border. In 1550, he even reached the suburbs of Beijing. Eventually the Ming government appeased him by granting special trading rights. The Ming government also had to deal with wokou pirates attacking the southeastern coastline. Starting in 1550, Beijing was enlarged by the addition of the outer city.  The deadliest earthquake of all times, the Shaanxi earthquake of 1556 that killed over 800,000 people, occurred during the Jiajing Emperor's reign.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot of Renyin year.", "content": "The Jiajing Emperor's ruthlessness and lecherous life also led to an internal plot by his concubines and palace maids to assassinate him in October, 1542 by strangling him while he slept. His pursuit of eternal life led him to believe that one of the elixirs of extending his life was to force virgin palace maids to collect menstrual blood for his consumption. These arduous tasks were performed non-stop even when the palace maids were taken ill and any unwilling participants were executed on the Emperor's whim. A group of palace maids who had had enough of the emperor's cruelty decided to band together to murder him in an event known as the Renyin Plot (). The lead palace maid tried to strangle the emperor with ribbons from her hair while the others held down the emperor's arms and legs but made a fatal mistake by tying a knot around the emperor's neck which would not tighten. Meanwhile, some of the young palace maids involved began to panic and one (Zhang Jinlian) ran to the empress. The plot was exposed and on the orders of the empress and some officials, all of the palace maids involved, including the emperor's favourite concubine (Consort Duan) and another concubine (Consort Ning, née Wang), were ordered to be executed by slow slicing and their families were killed. The Jiajing Emperor later determined that Consort Duan had been innocent, and dictated that their daughter, Luzheng, be raised by Imperial Noble Consort Shen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taoist pursuits.", "content": "The Jiajing Emperor was a devoted follower of Taoism and attempted to suppress Buddhism. After the assassination attempt in 1542, the emperor moved out of the imperial palace, and lived with a 13-year-old teenage girl who was small and thin, and was able to satisfy his sexual appetite (Lady Shan). The Jiajing Emperor began to pay excessive attention to his Taoist pursuits while ignoring his imperial duties. He built the three Taoist temples Temple of Sun, Temple of Earth and Temple of Moon and extended the Temple of Heaven by adding the \"Earthly Mount\". Over the years, the emperor's devotion to Taoism was to become a heavy financial burden for the Ming government and create dissent across the country.  Particularly during his later years, the Jiajing Emperor was known for spending a great deal of time on alchemy in hopes of finding medicines to prolong his life. He would forcibly recruit young girls in their early teens and engaged in sexual activities in hopes of empowering himself, along with the consumption of potent elixirs. He employed Taoist priests to collect rare minerals from all over the country to create elixirs, including elixirs containing mercury, which inevitably posed health problems at high doses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy and death.", "content": "After 45 years on the throne (the second longest reign in the Ming dynasty), the Jiajing Emperor died in 1567 – possibly due to mercury overdose from Chinese alchemical elixir poisoning – and was succeeded by his son, the Longqing Emperor. Though his long rule gave the dynasty an era of stability, the Jiajing Emperor's neglect of his official duties resulted in the decline of the dynasty at the end of the 16th century. His style of governance, or the lack thereof, would be emulated by his grandson later in the century.  The time when the Jiajing Emperor was buried was very close to the time of completion of the manuscript copy of the lost Yongle Encyclopedia was completed. Jiajing Emperor died in December 1566, but was buried three months later, in March 1567. One possibility is that they were waiting for the manuscript to be completed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portrayal in art.", "content": "The Jiajing Emperor was portrayed in contemporary court portrait paintings, as well as in other works of art. For example, in this panoramic painting below, the Jiajing Emperor can be seen in the right half riding a black steed and wearing a plumed helmet. He is distinguished from his entourage of bodyguards as an abnormally tall figure.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Jiajing Emperor (; 16September 150723January 1567) was the 12th Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1521 to 1567. Born Zhu Houcong, he was the former Zhengde Emperor's cousin. His father, Zhu Youyuan (1476–1519), the Prince of Xing, was the fourth son of the Chenghua Emperor (reigned from 1464 to 1487) and the eldest son of three sons born to the emperor's concubine, Lady Shao. The Jiajing Emperor's regnal name, \"Jiajing\", means \"admirable tranquility\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975078}
{"src_title": "RTBF", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally named the Belgian National Broadcasting Institute (; ), the state-owned broadcasting organization was established by law on 18 June 1930. On 14 June 1940 the INR was forced to cease broadcasting as a result of the German invasion. The German occupying forces, who now oversaw its management, changed the INR's name to '. A number of INR personnel were able to relocate to the BBC's studios in London from where they broadcast as \" / \" under the'(RNB) established by the Belgian government in exile's Ministry of Information.  At the end of the war the INR and the RNB coexisted until 14 September 1945, when a Royal Decree merged the two and restored the INR's original mission. The INR was one of 23 broadcasting organizations which founded the European Broadcasting Union in 1950. Television broadcasting from Brussels began in 1953, with two hours of programming each day. In 1960 the INR was subsumed into RTB (') and moved to new quarters at the Reyers building in 1967. RTB's first broadcast in colour,'(a gardening and nature programme), was transmitted in 1971. Two years later, RTB began broadcasting news in colour.  In 1977, broadcasting became a concern for Belgium's language communities, rather than the national government as a whole. Accordingly, the French-language section of RTB became RTBF (') and a second television channel was set up with the name. In 1979 became. Along with French channels,, and Swiss channel TSR, RTBF jointly established the European French-speaking channel in 1984. On 21 March 1988, became. On 27 September 1989 a subsidiary company of RTBF was set up with the name, which subsequently became'in May 1995. In 1993, was replaced by and.  In mid January 2010, RTBF became RTBF.be. The change was made because of the growing importance of new media. The '.be' suffix stresses these new developments. RTBF.be underlines that this change isn't anecdotal and that the internet has gained its place in the media landscape, just as TV and radio have done years ago.  On 11 June 2013, RTBF was one of the few European public broadcasters to join in condemning the closure of Greece's public broadcaster ERT. By 2011, the analogue systems for RTBF.be were planned to be phased out for Wallonia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Television channels.", "content": "Television channels are transmitted:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Video on demand.", "content": "The VOD, Video on demand offer of the RTBF is available on several platforms:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Radio channels.", "content": "The RTBF broadcasts radio channels in either analogue format (FM and digital format (using DAB and DVB-T). All channels are also broadcast live over the Internet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Digital-only channels.", "content": "They also have a TMC service transmitted on Classic 21.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Bye Bye Belgium\".", "content": "On 13 December 2006, at 20:21 CET (19:21 UTC), RTBF replaced an edition of its regular current affairs programme \"\" with a fake special news report in which it was claimed that Flanders had proclaimed independence, effectively dissolving the Belgian state. The programme had been preceded by a caption reading \"This may not be fiction\", which was repeated intermittently as a subtitle to the images on screen. After the first half-hour of the 90-minute broadcast, however – by which point RTBF.be's response line had been flooded with calls – this was replaced with a caption reading \"This is fiction\".  The video featured images of news reporters standing in front of the Flemish Parliament, while Flemish separatists waved the flag of Flanders behind them. Off to the side, Francophone and Belgian nationalists were waving Belgian flags. The report also featured footage of King Albert and Queen Paola getting on a military jet to Congo, a former Belgian colony.  RTBF justified the hoax on the grounds that it raised the issue of Flemish nationalism, but others felt that it raised the issue of about how much the public can trust the press.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "RTBF (\"Radio-Télévision Belge de la Communauté Française\") is a public-service broadcasting organisation delivering radio and television services to the French-speaking Community of Belgium, in Wallonia and Brussels. Its counterpart in the Flemish Community is the Dutch-language VRT (\"Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroeporganisatie\"), and in the German-speaking Community it is BRF (\"Belgischer Rundfunk\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975079}
{"src_title": "Zenwalk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Zenwalk was originally called Minislack up to version 1.1, taking its current name with version 1.2 released 2005-08-12. Originally using KDE as its desktop environment, Zenwalk now uses Xfce as of version 0.3, although GNOME and KDE packages have always been available separately.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aims.", "content": "The Zenwalk Project aims to create a lightweight Linux distribution (through using only one application per task on the release ISO image), optimization for a specific instruction set architecture to increase execution speed, and introduces a comprehensive package management system with dependency resolution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Community.", "content": "The Zenwalk Project has a forum that allows users and developers alike to post their issues, concerns and praise.  The newest official software packages are published in the \"-snapshot\" tree. When sufficient testing and debugging have been completed, a package is moved to the \"-current\" tree, where most users can download software to update their systems.  The community is also encouraged to take part in software package development, since the official software pool is considered limiting by some users. This allows third-party software to be made compatible with the Zenwalk directory structure, as well as improved interoperability with the rest of the distribution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Package management.", "content": "Zenwalk uses the netpkg package management system. It is developed in-house, and it provides the main functionality of the apt-get variety of package managers. It uses Slackware's.tgz package format, but adds dependency resolution capabilities. The system uses meta files to provide dependency information, as well as package description during the install process. This convenience is only available to the official Zenwalk mirrors listed in the netpkg configuration file, \"netpkg.conf\". In addition to the original \"netpkg\" command line interface, \"xnetpkg\" provides a GUI frontend with similar capabilities.  Additionally, Zenwalk is compatible with Slackware package management tools such as slapt-get and its frontends, and have similar functionality as that of netpkg.  As of Zenwalk 4.6, package compatibility with Slackware is still maintained. Slackware packages may be used to substitute Zenwalk packages where necessary. Additional package availability can be found at LinuxPackages.net.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Supported architectures.", "content": "Starting with version 8.0, Zenwalk Linux is built and optimized primarily for the x86_64 architecture, the old 32 bits i486 architecture is no longer supported.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Project versions.", "content": "There are five main versions of Zenwalk :", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derivatives.", "content": "There are currently three known Zenwalk-based distributions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Live USB.", "content": "A Live USB of Zenwalk Linux for versions up to 5.2 can be created manually or with UNetbootin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zenwalk is a Desktop focused Linux distribution founded by Jean-Philippe Guillemin. It is based on Slackware with very few modifications at system level making it 100% compatible with it. Zenwalk aims to be a modern and multi-purpose Linux distribution by focusing on Internet applications, multimedia and programming tools. Additionally, Zenwalk comes with many specialized tools, designed for beginner through advanced users as it offers system configuration via both graphical and command-line operations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975080}
{"src_title": "Mentha arvensis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Wild mint is a herbaceous perennial plant generally growing to and rarely up to tall. It has a creeping rootstock from which grow erect or semi-sprawling squarish stems. The leaves are in opposite pairs, simple, long and broad, hairy, and with a coarsely serrated margin. The flowers are pale purple (occasionally white or pink), in whorls on the stem at the bases of the leaves. Each flower is long and has a five-lobed hairy calyx, a four-lobed corolla with the uppermost lobe larger than the others and four stamens. The fruit is a two-chambered carpel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "Subspecies include:  The related species \"Mentha canadensis\" is also included in \"M. arvensis\" by some authors as two varieties, \"M. arvensis\" var. \"glabrata\" Fernald (in reference to North American plants) and \"M. arvensis\" var. \"piperascens\" Malinv. ex L. H. Bailey (in reference to eastern Asian plants).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Chemical substances that can be extracted from wild mint include menthol, menthone, isomenthone, neomenthol, limonene, methyl acetate, piperitone, beta-caryophyllene, alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, tannins and flavonoids. Mint extracts and menthol-related chemicals are used in food, drinks, cough medicines, creams and cigarettes. Menthol is widely used in dental care, as a mouthwash potentially inhibiting streptococci and lactobacilli bacteria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diseases.", "content": "Two main diseases that can significantly damage Japanese mint (\"M. arvensis\" var. \"piperascens)\" and its yield are the rust fungus and the mildew attacks. Mildew attacks usually only occur on the west coast of United States where the weather can be foggy and humid, a condition that attracts mildew. Rust fungus is a disease that is common for most of the Mentha plants such as peppermint and spearmint. These diseases are flagged due to the almost to none probability of controlling once it starts in a mint farm. They are typically cut immediately when discovered to help reduce the probability of contaminating the rest of the plant leaves.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mentha arvensis, the corn mint, field mint, or wild mint, is a species of flowering plant in the mint family Lamiaceae. It has a circumboreal distribution, being native to the temperate regions of Europe and western and central Asia, east to the Himalaya and eastern Siberia, and North America. \"Mentha canadensis\", the related species, is also included in \"Mentha arvensis\" by some authors as two varieties, \"M. arvensis\" var. \"glabrata\" Fernald (North American plants such as American Wild Mint) and \"M. arvensis\" var. \"piperascens\" Malinv. ex L. H. Bailey (eastern Asian plants such as Japanese mint).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975081}
{"src_title": "Electronic ticket", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Airline ticket.", "content": "E-tickets in the airline industry were devised in about 1994, and have now largely replaced the older multi-layered paper ticketing systems. Since 1 June 2008, it has been mandatory for IATA members to use e-ticketing. Where paper tickets are still available, some airlines charge a fee for issuing paper tickets.  When a reservation is confirmed, the airline keeps a record of the booking in its computer reservations system. Customers can print out or may be provided with a copy of a e-ticket itinerary receipt which contains the record locator or reservation number and the e-ticket number. It is possible to print multiple copies of an e-ticket itinerary receipt.  Besides providing itinerary details, an e-ticket itinerary receipt also contains:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Checking in with an e-ticket.", "content": "Passengers with e-tickets are required to check-in at the airport for a flight in the usual manner, except that they may be required to present an e-ticket itinerary receipt or personal identification, such as a passport, or credit card. They can also use the Record locator, often called booking reference, a code of six letters and digits. Producing a print-out of an e-ticket itinerary receipt may be required to enter the terminal of some airports or to satisfy immigration regulations in some countries.  The introduction of e-tickets has allowed for various enhancements to checking-in processes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Self-service and remote check-in.", "content": "Several websites assist people holding e-tickets to check in online in advance of the twenty-four-hour airline restriction. These sites store a passenger's flight information and then when the airline opens up for online check-in the data is transferred to the airline and the boarding pass is emailed back to the customer. With this e-ticket technology, if a passenger receives his boarding pass remotely and is travelling without check-in luggage, he may bypass traditional counter check-in.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "E-ticket limitations.", "content": "The ticketing systems of most airlines are only able to produce e-tickets for itineraries of no more than 16 segments, including surface segments. This is the same limit that applied to paper tickets.  Another critical limitation is that at the time e-tickets were initially designed, most airlines still practiced product bundling. By the time the industry began 100% e-ticket implementation, more and more airlines began to unbundle previously included services (like checked baggage) and add them back in as optional fees (ancillary revenue). However, the e-ticket standard did not anticipate and did not include a standardized mechanism for such optional fees.  IATA later implemented the Electronic Miscellaneous Document (EMD) standard for such information. This way, airlines could consistently expose and capture such fees at time of booking through travel reservation systems, rather than having to surprise passengers with them at check-in.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "IATA mandated transition.", "content": "As part of the IATA Simplifying the Business initiative, the association instituted a program to switch the industry to 100% electronic ticketing. The program concluded on June 1, 2008, with the association saying that the resulting industry savings were approximately US$3 billion.  In 2004, IATA Board of Governors set the end of 2007 as the deadline for airlines to make the transition to 100% electronic ticketing for tickets processed through the IATA billing and settlement plan; in June 2007, the deadline was extended to May 31, 2008.  As of June 1, 2008 paper tickets can no longer be issued on neutral stock by agencies reporting to their local BSP. Agents reporting to the ARC using company-provided stock or issuing tickets on behalf of an airline (GSAs and ticketing offices) are not subject to that restriction.  The industry was unable to comply with the IATA mandate and paper tickets remain in circulation as of February 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Train tickets.", "content": "Amtrak started offering electronic tickets on all train routes on 30 July 2012. These tickets can be ordered over the internet and printed (as a PDF file), printed at a Quik-Trak kiosk, or at the ticket counter at the station. Electronic tickets can also be held in a smart phone and shown to the conductor using an app. Mobile tickets are common with operators of US commuter train networks (e.g. MTA LIRR and Metro North) but they are usually only offered on the US version of the App Store and only accept US-issued credit cards as the app's payment page asks the user for the credit card's ZIP code to complete the purchase.  Several European train operators also offer self-printable or downloadable tickets. Often tickets can also be delivered by SMS or MMS. Railway operators in other countries also issue electronic tickets. The national operators of Denmark and Netherlands have a nationwide system where RFID smartcards are used as train tickets. In the UK, the issuance of printable or mobile tickets is at the discretion of train operators and is often available for advance tickets only (i.e. valid only on a specific train). This is very common in Europe for local urban rail, such as rapid transit/metros.  In India, an SMS sent by the Indian Railways, along with a valid proof of identity is considered equivalent to a ticket.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport, concert, and cinema tickets.", "content": "Many sport, concert venues, and cinemas use electronic ticketing for their events. Electronic tickets, or \"eTickets\" as they are sometimes referred, are often delivered as PDFs or another downloadable format that can be received via email or through a mobile app. Electronic tickets allow spectators to download their tickets, as opposed to waiting for physical tickets to arrive in the mail. A printed copy of these tickets or a digital copy on a mobile phone should be presented on coming to the venue. These tickets now normally also have a barcode, which may be scanned on entry into the venue to streamline crowd processing. Electronic tickets have become increasingly prevalent in the entertainment industry over the last decade.  In some cases, spectators who want to see a match may not need a printable electronic ticket. If someone with a membership to a football team books a ticket online, the member can just verify his/her reservation with a membership card at the entrance. This is common with teams in the English Premiership League.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementations.", "content": "In January 2017 it was reported that Germany's Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure, Alexander Dobrindt wants to create an electronic ticket to connect public bus and train services as well as parking spaces and potentially car-sharing services across all cities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An electronic ticket, often called e-ticket, is the digital ticket equivalent of a paper ticket. The term is most commonly associated with airline issued tickets. Electronic ticketing for urban or rail public transport is usually referred to as travel card or transit pass. It is also used in ticketing in the entertainment industry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975082}
{"src_title": "Business incubator", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The formal concept of business incubation began in the US in 1959 when Joseph L. Mancuso opened the Batavia Industrial Center in a Batavia, New York, warehouse. Incubation expanded in the U.S. in the 1980s and spread to the UK and Europe through various related forms (e.g. innovation centres, pépinières d'entreprises, technopoles/science parks).  The U.S.-based International Business Innovation Association estimates that there are about 7,000 incubators worldwide. A study funded by the European Commission in 2002 identified around 900 incubation environments in Western Europe. As of October 2006, there were more than 1,400 incubators in North America, up from only 12 in 1980. Her Majesty's Treasury identified around 25 incubation environments in the UK in 1997; by 2005, UKBI identified around 270 incubation environments across the country. In 2005 alone, North American incubation programs assisted more than 27,000 companies that provided employment for more than 100,000 workers and generated annual revenues of $17 billion. In 2018, research group named Social Innovation Monitor (SIM) has identified 197 incubators in Italy where almost 60% of them are in the North of Italy. Moreover, big corporations are applying strategies of open innovation through the creation of programme of corporate incubation. Some examples these programmes are: TIM #Wcap Accelerator and FoodForward by Deloitte Italia.  Incubation activity has not been limited to developed countries; incubation environments are now being implemented in developing countries and raising interest for financial support from organizations such as UNIDO and the World Bank.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of services.", "content": "Since startup companies lack many resources, experience and networks, incubators provide services which helps them get through initial hurdles in starting up a business. These hurdles include space, funding, legal, accounting, computer services and other prerequisites to running the business.  According to the Small Business Administration's website, their mission provides small businesses with four main services. These services are:  Among the most common incubator services are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "There are a number of business incubators that have focused on particular industries or on a particular business model, earning them their own name.  More than half of all business incubation programs are \"mixed-use\" projects, meaning they work with clients from a variety of industries. Technology incubators account for 39% of incubation programs.  One example of a specialized type of incubator is a \"bio incubator\". Bioincubators specialize in supporting life science-based startup companies. Entrepreneurs with feasible projects in life sciences are selected and admitted to these programs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The incubation process.", "content": "Unlike many business assistance programs, business incubators do not serve any and all companies. Entrepreneurs who wish to enter a business incubation program must apply for admission. Acceptance criteria vary from program to program, but in general only those with feasible business ideas and a workable business plan are admitted. It is this factor that makes it difficult to compare the success rates of incubated companies against general business survival statistics.  Although most incubators offer their clients office space and shared administrative services, the heart of a true business incubation program are the services it provides to startup companies. More than half of incubation programs surveyed by the National Business Incubation Association in 2006 reported that they also served affiliate or virtual clients. These companies do not reside in the incubator facility. Affiliate clients may be home-based businesses or early-stage companies that have their own premises but can benefit from incubator services. Virtual clients may be too remote from an incubation facility to participate on site, and so receive counseling and other assistance electronically.  The amount of time a company spends in an incubation program can vary widely depending on a number of factors, including the type of business and the entrepreneur's level of business expertise. Life science and other firms with long research and development cycles require more time in an incubation program than manufacturing or service companies that can immediately produce and bring a product or service to market. On average, incubator clients spend 33 months in a program. Many incubation programs set graduation requirements by development benchmarks, such as company revenues or staffing levels, rather than time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Goals and sponsors.", "content": "Business incubation has been identified as a means of meeting a variety of economic and socioeconomic policy needs, which may include job creation, fostering a community's entrepreneurial climate, technology commercialization, diversifying local economies, building or accelerating growth of local industry clusters, business creation and retention, encouraging minority entrepreneurship, identifying potential spin-in or spin-out business opportunities, or community revitalization.  About one-third of business incubation programs are sponsored by economic development organizations. Government entities (such as cities or counties) account for 21% of program sponsors. Another 20% are sponsored by academic institutions, including two- and four-year colleges, universities, and technical colleges. In many countries, incubation programs are funded by regional or national governments as part of an overall economic development strategy. In the United States, however, most incubation programs are independent, community-based and resourced projects. The U.S. Economic Development Administration is a frequent source of funds for developing incubation programs, but once a program is open and operational it typically receives no federal funding; few states offer centralized incubator funding. Rents and/or client fees account for 59% of incubator revenues, followed by service contracts or grants (18%) and cash operating subsidies (15%).  As part of a major effort to address the ongoing economic crisis of the US, legislation was introduced to \"reconstitute Project Socrates\". The updated version of Socrates supports incubators by enabling users with technology-based facts about the marketplace, competitor maneuvers, potential partners, and technology paths to achieve competitive advantage. Michael Sekora, the original creator and director of Socrates says that a key purpose of Socrates is to assist government economic planners in addressing the economic and socioeconomic issues (see above) with unprecedented speed, efficiency and agility.  Many for-profit or \"private\" incubation programs were launched in the late 1990s by investors and other for-profit operators seeking to hatch businesses quickly and bring in big payoffs. At the time, NBIA estimated that nearly 30% of all incubation programs were for-profit ventures. In the wake of the dot-com bust, however, many of those programs closed. In NBIA's 2002 State of the Business Incubation survey, only 16% of responding incubators were for-profit programs. By the 2006 SOI, just 6% of respondents were for-profit.  Although some incubation programs (regardless of nonprofit or for-profit status) take equity in client companies, most do not. Only 25% of incubation programs report that they take equity in some or all of their clients.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Incubator networks.", "content": "Incubators often aggregate themselves into networks which are used to share good practices and new methodologies. Europe's European Business and Innovation Centre Network (\"EBN\") association federates more than 250 European Business and Innovation Centres (EU|BICs) throughout Europe. France has its own national network of technopoles, pre-incubators, and EU|BICs, called RETIS Innovation. This network focuses on internationalizing startups.  Of 1000 incubators across Europe, 500 are situated in Germany. Many of them are organized federally within the ADT (\"Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Innovations-, Technologie-, und Gründerzentren e.V.\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A business incubator is a company that helps new and startup companies to develop by providing services such as management training or office space. The National Business Incubation Association (NBIA) defines business incubators as a catalyst tool for either regional or national economic development. NBIA categorizes their members' incubators by the following five incubator types: academic institutions; non-profit development corporations; for-profit property development ventures; venture capital firms, and combination of the above.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975083}
{"src_title": "Neo-Kantianism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The \"back to Kant\" movement began in the 1860s, as a reaction to the German materialist controversy in the 1850s.  In addition to the work of Hermann von Helmholtz and Eduard Zeller, early fruits of the movement were Kuno Fischer's works on Kant and Friedrich Albert Lange's \"History of Materialism\" (\"Geschichte des Materialismus\", 1873–75), the latter of which argued that transcendental idealism superseded the historic struggle between material idealism and mechanistic materialism. Fischer was earlier involved in a dispute with the Aristotelian idealist Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg concerning the interpretation of the results of the Transcendental Aesthetic, a dispute that prompted Hermann Cohen's 1871 seminal work \"Kants Theorie der Erfahrung\" (\"Kant's Theory of Experience\"), a book often regarded as the foundation of 20th-century neo-Kantianism. It is in reference to the Fischer–Trendelenburg debate and Cohen's work that Hans Vaihinger started his massive commentary on the \"Critique of Pure Reason\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "Hermann Cohen became the leader of the Marburg School (centered in the town of the same name), the other prominent representatives of which were Paul Natorp and Ernst Cassirer. Another important group, the Southwest (German) School (also known as the Heidelberg School or Baden School, centered in Heidelberg, Baden in Southwest Germany) included Wilhelm Windelband, Heinrich Rickert and Ernst Troeltsch. The Marburg School emphasized epistemology and philosophical logic, whereas the Southwest school emphasized issues of culture and value. A third group, mainly represented by Leonard Nelson, established the neo-Friesian School (named after post-Kantian philosopher Jakob Friedrich Fries).  The neo-Kantian schools tended to emphasize scientific readings of Kant, often downplaying the role of intuition in favour of concepts. However, the ethical aspects of neo-Kantian thought often drew them within the orbit of socialism, and they had an important influence on Austromarxism and the revisionism of Eduard Bernstein. Lange and Cohen in particular were keen on this connection between Kantian thought and socialism. Another important aspect of the neo-Kantian movement was its attempt to promote a revised notion of Judaism, particularly in Cohen's seminal work, one of the few works of the movement available in English translation.  The neo-Kantian school was of importance in devising a division of philosophy that has had durable influence well beyond Germany. It made early use of terms such as epistemology and upheld its prominence over ontology. Natorp had a decisive influence on the history of phenomenology and is often credited with leading Edmund Husserl to adopt the vocabulary of transcendental idealism. Emil Lask was influenced by Edmund Husserl's work, and himself exerted a remarkable influence on the young Martin Heidegger. The debate between Cassirer and Heidegger over the interpretation of Kant led the latter to formulate reasons for viewing Kant as a forerunner of phenomenology; this view was disputed in important respects by Eugen Fink. An abiding achievement of the neo-Kantians was the founding of the journal \"Kant-Studien\", which still survives today.  By 1933 (after the rise of Nazism), the various neo-Kantian circles in Germany had dispersed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contemporary neo-Kantianism.", "content": "In the analytic tradition, the revival of interest in the work of Kant that has been underway since Peter Strawson's work \"The Bounds of Sense\" (1966) can also be viewed as effectively neo-Kantian, not least due to its continuing emphasis on epistemology at the expense of ontology. Around the same time as Strawson, Wilfrid Sellars also renewed interest in Kant's philosophy. His project of introducing a Kantian turn in contemporary analytic philosophy has been taken up by his student Robert Brandom. Brandom's work has transformed Sellars' project to introducing a Hegelian phase in analytic philosophy. In the 1980s, interest in neo-Kantianism has revived in the wake of the work of Gillian Rose, who is a critic of this movement's influence on modern philosophy, and because of its influence on the work of Max Weber. The Kantian concern for the limits of perception strongly influenced the antipositivist sociological movement in late 19th-century Germany, particularly in the work of Georg Simmel (Simmel's question 'What is society?' is a direct allusion to Kant's own: 'What is nature'?). The current work of Michael Friedman is explicitly neo-Kantian.  Continental philosophers drawing on the Kantian understandings of the transcendental include Jean-François Lyotard and Jean-Luc Nancy.  Classical conservative thinker Roger Scruton has been greatly influenced by Kantian ethics and aesthetics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In late modern continental philosophy, neo-Kantianism () was a revival of the 18th-century philosophy of Immanuel Kant. More specifically, it was influenced by Arthur Schopenhauer's critique of the Kantian philosophy in his work \"The World as Will and Representation\" (1818), as well as by other post-Kantian philosophers such as Jakob Friedrich Fries and Johann Friedrich Herbart.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975084}
{"src_title": "Donald E. Westlake", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Westlake was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Lillian (Bounds) and Albert Joseph Westlake, and was raised in Albany, New York.  Westlake wrote constantly in his teens, and after 200 rejections, his first short story sale was in 1954. Sporadic short story sales followed over the next few years, while Westlake attended Champlain College (a now defunct college created in the post WWII GI Bill boom) of Plattsburgh, New York, and Binghamton University in Binghamton, New York. He also spent two years in the United States Air Force.  Westlake moved to New York City in 1959, initially to work for a literary agency while writing on the side. By 1960, he was writing full-time. His first novel under his own name, \"The Mercenaries\", was published in 1960; over the next 48 years, Westlake published a variety of novels and short stories under his own name and a number of pseudonyms.  He was married three times, the final time to Abigail Westlake (also known as Abby Adams Westlake and Abby Adams), a writer of nonfiction (her two published books are \"An Uncommon Scold\" and \"The Gardener's Gripe Book\"). The couple moved out of New York City to Ancram in upstate New York in 1990. Abby Westlake is a well-regarded gardener, and the Westlake garden has frequently been opened for public viewing in the summer.  Westlake died of a heart attack on December 31, 2008, while on the way to a New Year's Eve dinner, while he and his wife were on vacation in Mexico.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pseudonyms.", "content": "In addition to writing consistently under his own name, Westlake published under several pseudonyms. In the order they debuted:  Westlake sometimes made playful use of his pseudonyms in his work:  Additionally, Westlake conducted a mock \"interview\" with Richard Stark, Tucker Coe and Timothy J. Culver in an article for the non-fiction book \"Murder Ink: The Mystery Reader's Companion\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing style.", "content": "Donald Westlake was known for the great ingenuity of his plots and the audacity of his gimmicks. His writing and dialogue are lively. His main characters are fully rounded, believable, and clever. Westlake's most famous characters include the hard-boiled criminal Parker (appearing in fiction under the Richard Stark pseudonym) and Parker's comic flip-side John Dortmunder. Westlake was quoted as saying that he originally intended what became \"The Hot Rock\" to be a straightforward Parker novel, but \"It kept turning funny,\" and thus became the first John Dortmunder novel.  Most of Donald Westlake's novels are set in New York City. In each of the Dortmunder novels, there is typically a detailed foray somewhere through the city. He wrote just two non-fiction books: \"Under an English Heaven\", regarding the unlikely 1967 Anguillan \"revolution\", and a biography of Elizabeth Taylor.  Westlake was an occasional contributor to science fiction fanzines such as \"Xero\", and used \"Xero\" as a venue for a harsh announcement that he was leaving the science fiction field.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motion pictures and television.", "content": "Several of Westlake's novels have been made into motion pictures: 1967's \"Point Blank\" (based on \"The Hunter\") with Lee Marvin as Parker (changed to Walker); \"\" (based on \"The Score\") with Michel Constantin as Parker (changed to Georges), also in 1967; 1968's \"The Split\" (from the book \"The Seventh\") with Jim Brown as Parker (changed to McClain); \"The Hot Rock\" in 1972 with Robert Redford; \"Cops and Robbers\" in 1973; \"\"The Outfit\"\" with Robert Duvall as Parker (changed to Macklin), also in 1973; \"Bank Shot\" in 1974 with George C. Scott; \"The Busy Body\" (with an \"all-star cast\") in 1967; \"Slayground\" with Peter Coyote as Parker (changed to Stone) in 1983; \"Why Me?\" with Christopher Lambert, Christopher Lloyd, and J. T. Walsh in 1990; \"Payback\" in 1999, the second film made from \"The Hunter\", with Mel Gibson as Parker (changed to Porter); \"What's the Worst That Could Happen?\" in 2001 with Martin Lawrence as Dortmunder (changed to Kevin Caffery); Constantin Costa-Gavras adapted \"The Ax\" for the European screen in 2005, to great critical and public acclaim – entitled \"Le Couperet\", the film takes place in France and Belgium rather than the novel's setting of New England; \"Parker\" in 2013, based on \"Flashfire\", with Jason Statham as Parker.  In his introduction to one of the short stories in \"Thieves' Dozen\", Westlake mentioned legal troubles with Hollywood over his continued use of the Dortmunder novel characters; the movie studios attempted to assert that he had sold the rights to the characters to them permanently as a result of the Redford film.  The novel \"Jimmy the Kid\" has been adapted three times: in Italy as \"\" in 1976; in the U.S. as \"Jimmy the Kid\" in 1982, starring Gary Coleman; and in Germany as \"Jimmy the Kid\" in 1998, starring Herbert Knaup.  The novel \"Two Much!\" has been adapted twice: in France as \"Le Jumeau\" (\"The Twin\") in 1984; and in the U.S. as \"Two Much\" in 1995, starring Antonio Banderas and Melanie Griffith.  Jean-Luc Godard's \"Made in U.S.A.\" in 1966 was an extremely loose adaptation of \"The Jugger\". Neither the film's producer nor Godard purchased the rights to the novel, so Westlake successfully sued to prevent the film's commercial distribution in the United States.  Westlake was himself a screenwriter. His script for the 1990 film \"The Grifters,\" adapted from the novel by Jim Thompson, was nominated for an Academy Award. (Westlake the screenwriter adapted Jim Thompson's work in a straightforward manner, but Westlake the humourist played on Thompson's name later that year in the Dortmunder novel \"Drowned Hopes\" by featuring a character named \"Tom Jimson\" who is a criminal psychopath.) Westlake also wrote the screenplay \"The Stepfather\" (from a story by Westlake, Brian Garfield and Carolyn Lefcourt), the film of which was popular enough to inspire two sequels and a remake, projects in which Westlake was not involved.  In 1987 Westlake wrote the teleplay \"Fatal Confession\", a pilot for the TV series \"Father Dowling Mysteries\" based on the novels by Ralph McInerny. He also appeared in a small role (as the mystery writer Rich Vincent) in the third-season episode, \"The Hardboiled Mystery.\"  While the seventeenth James Bond film \"GoldenEye\" was in post-production, Westlake wrote story treatments for the eighteenth James Bond film (eventually titled \"Tomorrow Never Dies\") in collaboration with Bond series writer-producer Michael G. Wilson. None of Westlake's ideas made it into the completed film, but in 1998 the author used the first treatment as the basis for a novel, \"Fall of the City.\" The existence of the novel (and its connection to the Bond treatments) was revealed in an article published in issue #32 of the magazine \"MI6 Confidential\"; the article also provides a detailed analysis of the two treatments. \"Fall of the City\" was published under the title \"Forever and a Death\" in June 2017 by Hard Case Crime.  Westlake co-wrote the story for the pilot of the ill-fated 1979 TV series \"Supertrain\" with teleplay writer Earl W. Wallace; Westlake and Wallace shared \"created by\" credit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Donald Edwin Westlake (July 12, 1933 – December 31, 2008) was an American writer, with more than a hundred novels and non-fiction books to his credit. He specialized in crime fiction, especially comic capers, with an occasional foray into science fiction and other genres. Westlake is perhaps best-remembered for creating two professional criminal characters who each starred in a long-running series: the relentless, hard-boiled Parker (published under the pen name Richard Stark), and John Dortmunder, who featured in a more humorous series.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975085}
{"src_title": "Ocellated lizard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Common names.", "content": "Additional common names for \"T. lepidus\" include eyed lizard, and jeweled lacerta (in the pet trade),", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Timon lepidus\" is one of the largest members of its family. The adult is in total length (including tail) and may reach up to, weighing more than. About two-thirds of its length is tail. Newly hatched young are long, excluding tail.  This is a robust lizard with a serrated collar. The male has a characteristic broad head. It has thick, strong legs, with long, curved claws. The dorsal background colour is usually green, but sometimes grey or brownish, especially on the head and tail. This is overlaid with black stippling that may form a bold pattern of interconnected rosettes. The underside is yellowish or greenish with both the male and female sporting bright blue spots along the flanks, though the male is typically brighter in colour than the female. Young are green, grey, or brown, with yellowish or white, often black-edged, spots all over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geographic range.", "content": "\"Timon lepidus\" is native to southwestern Europe. It is found throughout the Iberian peninsula (Spain, Portugal), and is patchily distributed in southern France and extreme northwestern Italy. The range for each subspecies is:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Timon lepidus\" is found in various wild and cultivated habitats from sea level up to in southern Spain. It is rare at higher altitudes. It prefers dry, bushy areas, such as open woodland and scrub, old olive groves and vineyards, and is sometimes found on more open, rocky or sandy areas. It can occasionally be seen basking on roadsides. The lizard usually stays on the ground, but climbs well on rocks and in trees. It can dig holes and sometimes uses abandoned rabbit burrows.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "\"Timon lepidus\" feeds mainly on large insects, especially beetles, and also robs birds’ nests and occasionally takes reptiles, frogs, and small mammals. It also eats fruit and other plant matter, especially in dry areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Breeding in \"T. lepidus\" occurs in late spring or early summer. Males are territorial in spring and fight in the breeding season. The female lays up to 22 eggs in June and July about three months after mating, hiding them under stones and logs or in leaf litter or in loose damp soil. It tends to lay fewer, larger eggs in dry areas. The eggs hatch in eight to 14 weeks. The lizard is sexually mature at two years of age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "\"Timon lepidus\" was listed as near threatened on The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. the species has been under protection in Spain; capture and trade is forbidden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gastronomy.", "content": "The ocellated lizard was part of the traditional cuisine of Extremadura, Spain. In this region, the lizard was usually prepared in \"guisado\", made by frying slices of lizard in olive oil, after which they were stewed over a slow fire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The ocellated lizard or jewelled lizard (\"Timon lepidus\") is a species of lizard in the family Lacertidae (wall lizards). The species is endemic to southwestern Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975086}
{"src_title": "Occasionalism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Islamic theological schools.", "content": "The doctrine first reached prominence in the Islamic theological schools of Iraq, especially in Basra. The ninth century theologian Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari argued that there is no Secondary Causation in the created order. The world is sustained and governed through direct intervention of a divine primary causation. As such the world is in a constant state of recreation by God.  The most famous proponent of the Asharite occasionalist doctrine was Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali, an 11th-century theologian based in Baghdad. In \"The Incoherence of the Philosophers\", Al-Ghazali launched a philosophical critique against Neoplatonic-influenced early Islamic philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina. In response to the philosophers' claim that the created order is governed by secondary efficient causes (God being, as it were, the Primary and Final Cause in an ontological and logical sense), Ghazali argues that what we observe as regularity in nature based presumably upon some natural law is actually a kind of constant and continual regularity. There is no independent necessitation of change and becoming, other than what God has ordained. To posit an independent causality outside of God's knowledge and action is to deprive Him of true agency, and diminish his attribute of power. In his famous example, when fire and cotton are placed in contact, the cotton is burned not because of the heat of the fire, but through God's direct intervention, a claim which he defended using logic. In the 12th century, this theory was defended and further strengthened by the Islamic theologian Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, using his expertise in the natural sciences of astronomy, cosmology and physics.  Because God is usually seen as rational, rather than arbitrary, his behaviour in normally causing events in the same sequence (i.e., what appears to us to be efficient causation) can be understood as a natural outworking of that principle of reason, which we then describe as the laws of nature. Properly speaking, however, these are not laws of nature but laws by which God chooses to govern his own behaviour (his autonomy, in the strict sense) — in other words, his rational will. This is not, however, an essential element of an occasionalist account, and occasionalism can include positions where God's behaviour (and thus that of the world) is viewed as ultimately inscrutable, thus maintaining God's essential transcendence. On this understanding, apparent anomalies such as miracles are not really such: they are simply God behaving in a way that \"appears\" unusual \"to us\". Given his transcendent freedom, he is not bound even by his own nature. Miracles, as breaks in the rational structure of the universe, can occur, since God's relationship with the world is not mediated by rational principles.  In a 1978 article in \"Studia Islamica\", Lenn Goodman asks the question, \"Did Al-Ghazâlî Deny Causality?\" and demonstrates that Ghazali did not deny the existence of observed, \"worldly\" causation. According to Goodman's analysis, Ghazali does not claim that there is never any link between observed cause and observed effect: rather, Ghazali argues that there is no \"necessary\" link between observed cause and effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dualism.", "content": "One of the motivations for the theory is the dualist belief that mind and matter are so utterly different in their essences that one cannot affect the other. Thus, a person's mind cannot be the true cause of his hand's moving, nor can a physical wound be the true cause of mental anguish. In other words, the mental cannot cause the physical and vice versa. Also, occasionalists generally hold that the physical cannot cause the physical either, for no necessary connection can be perceived between physical causes and effects. The will of God is taken to be necessary.  The doctrine is, however, more usually associated with certain seventeenth century philosophers of the Cartesian school. There are hints of an occasionalist viewpoint here and there in Descartes's own writings, but these can mostly be explained away under alternative interpretations. However, many of his later followers quite explicitly committed themselves to an occasionalist position. In one form or another, the doctrine can be found in the writings of: Johannes Clauberg, Claude Clerselier, Gerauld de Cordemoy, Arnold Geulincx, Louis de La Forge, François Lamy, and (most notably), Nicolas Malebranche.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hume's arguments, Berkeley and Leibniz.", "content": "These occasionalists' negative argument, that no necessary connections could be discovered between mundane events, was anticipated by certain arguments of Nicholas of Autrecourt in the fourteenth century, and were later taken up by David Hume in the eighteenth. Hume, however, stopped short when it came to the positive side of the theory, where God was called upon to replace such connections, complaining that \"We are got into fairy land [...] Our line is too short to fathom such immense abysses.\" Instead, Hume felt that the only place to find necessary connections was in the subjective associations of ideas within the mind itself. George Berkeley was also inspired by the occasionalists, and he agreed with them that no efficient power could be attributed to bodies. For Berkeley, bodies merely existed as ideas in percipient minds, and all such ideas were, as he put it, \"visibly inactive\". However, Berkeley disagreed with the occasionalists by continuing to endow the created minds themselves with efficient power. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz agreed with the occasionalists that there could be no efficient causation between distinct created substances, but he did not think it followed that there was no efficient power in the created world at all. On the contrary, every simple substance had the power to produce changes in \"itself\". The illusion of transeunt efficient causation, for Leibniz, arose out of the pre-established harmony between the alterations produced immanently within different substances. Leibniz means, that if God did not exist, \"there would be nothing real in the possibilities, not only nothing existent, but also nothing possible.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quantum mechanics.", "content": "In 1993, Karen Harding's paper \"Causality Then and Now: Al Ghazali and Quantum Theory\" described several \"remarkable\" similarities between Ghazali's concept of occasionalism and the widely accepted Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. She stated: \"In both cases, and contrary to common sense, objects are viewed as having no inherent properties and no independent existence. In order for an object to exist, it must be brought into being either by God (al Ghazili) or by an observer (the Copenhagen Interpretation).\" She also stated: Continuing philosopher Graham Harman's work on Occasionalism in the context of Object Oriented Ontology, in 2020 Simon Weir proposed an alternate view of the relationship between Quantum theory and Occasionalism, opposed to the Copenhagen Interpretation, where virtual particles act as one of many kinds of mediating sensual objects.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Occasionalism is a philosophical theory about causation which says that created substances cannot be efficient causes of events. Instead, all events are taken to be caused directly by God. (A related theory, which has been called \"occasional causation\", also denies a link of efficient causation between mundane events, but may differ as to the identity of the true cause that replaces them.) The theory states that the illusion of efficient causation between mundane events arises out of God's causing of one event after another. However, there is no necessary connection between the two: it is not that the first event \"causes\" God to cause the second event: rather, God first causes one and then causes the other.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975087}
{"src_title": "Paco Rabanne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Rabanne was born 18 February 1934 in the Basque town of Pasajes, Gipuzkoa province. His father, a Republican Colonel, was executed by Francoist troops during the Spanish Civil War. Rabanne's mother was chief seamstress at Cristóbal Balenciaga’s first couture house in San Sebastian, Spain, and moved Rabanne’s family when he opened Balenciaga at Paris in 1937, due to the Spanish Civil War. In mid-1950s Paris, while studying architecture at l'École Nationale des Beaux-Arts, Rabanne earned money making fashion sketches for Dior and Givenchy, and shoe sketches for Charles Jourdan, nevertheless he subsequently took a job with France’s foremost developer of reinforced concrete, August Peret, working there for over ten years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fashion.", "content": "He started his career in fashion by creating jewelry for Givenchy, Dior, and Balenciaga and founded his own fashion house in 1966. He used unconventional material such as metal, paper, and plastic for his metal couture and outlandish and flamboyant designs.  For the debut of his namesake brand in 1966, he presented “Manifesto: 12 unwearable dresses in contemporary materials.”  Rabanne is known for the green costume worn by Jane Fonda in the 1968 science-fiction film \"Barbarella\". Françoise Hardy was a big fan of Rabanne's designs. For and the resulting Live à Bercy, singer Mylène Farmer had Rabanne do her live-concert stage costumes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fragrance.", "content": "In 1968, he began collaborating with fragrance company Puig, which resulted in the company marketing Rabanne's perfumes. In 1976, the company built a perfume factory in Chartres, France. In the 1980s, in Brazil, his men's perfume brand registration was forfeited due to a court judgement that the brand was never officially present in Brazil despite heavy advertising and a strong local awareness. The court reasoned that because the Puig's local distributor was smuggling perfume into Brazil, the company could not show proof of payment of import duties. It took six or seven years to recover his brand name in Brazil.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other interests.", "content": "In 1994, Rabanne wrote the book, \"Has the Countdown Begun? Through Darkness to Enlightenment\".  In 2005, Rabanne opened in Moscow, Russia, the first exhibition of his drawings. His reasoning for showing the drawings then was, \"I am 72 years old and I wanted to present my drawings this year before disappearing from this planet. I have not shown them to anyone except Salvador Dalí 30 years ago who told me to keep going.\" One of the black-and-white sketches depicts a child letting go of a dove and a white balloon into the sky, which he said was inspired by the commemoration ceremony for the 2004 Beslan attack in Beslan, North Ossetia, in which 319 hostages were killed, including 186 children, 12 servicemen, and 31 hostage-takers. Rabanne wanted the money that the drawing sold for to go to the women of Beslan.  In 2006, Rabanne visited Kiev, Ukraine. He summed up the changes since the Orange Revolution: \"Ukraine reminds me of a flower unfolding its petals before my very eyes.\"  A re-edit of his classic \"le 69\" bag was relaunched by Comme des Garçons.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francisco Rabaneda Cuervo (born 18 February 1934), more commonly known under the pseudonym of Paco Rabanne (; ), is a Spanish fashion designer of Basque origin who became known as an \"enfant terrible\" of the 1960s French fashion world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975088}
{"src_title": "Sixtus Affair", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Affair.", "content": "In 1917 the war was dragging on towards its fourth year, and Charles decided to secretly enter into peace negotiations with France. He used his brother-in-law, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, an officer in the Belgian army, as intermediary as well as enlisting the help of his loyal childhood friend and aide-de-camp Tamás Erdődy. Charles initiated contact with the Prince via contacts in neutral Switzerland, and Empress Zita wrote a letter inviting him to Vienna. Zita's mother Maria Antonia delivered the letter personally. Another intermediary was Jozef Retinger, a London-based Polish literary scholar and budding politician who was a friend of Sixtus, Xavier and Zita de Bourbon-Parma and who had received backing from the British to support the initiative. Sixtus arrived with French-agreed conditions for talks: the restoration to France of Alsace-Lorraine (annexed by Germany after the Franco-Prussian War in 1870); restoration of the independence of Belgium; independence for the kingdom of Serbia; and the handover of Constantinople to Russia. Charles agreed, in principle, to the first three points and wrote a letter dated 25 March 1917, to Sixtus giving \"the secret and unofficial message that I will use all means and all my personal influence\" to the President of France.  This attempt at dynastic diplomacy eventually foundered. Germany refused to negotiate over Alsace-Lorraine and, seeing a Russian collapse on the horizon, was loath to give up the war.  In April 1918, after the German-Russian Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Austrian Foreign Minister Count Ottokar von Czernin made a speech attacking the incoming French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau as being the main obstacle to a peace favouring the Central Powers. Clemenceau was incensed and had Emperor Charles' 24 March 1917 letter published. For a while, there were fears that Germany might occupy Austria. Czernin persuaded Charles to send a 'Word of Honour' to Austria's allies saying that Sixtus had not been authorised to show the letter to the French Government, that Belgium had not been mentioned, and that Clemenceau had lied about the mentioning of the Alsace. Czernin had actually been in contact with the German Embassy throughout the whole crisis, and was attempting to persuade the Emperor to step down because of the Affair. After this failed, Czernin resigned himself.  This affair was an embarrassment to Charles and forced Austria-Hungary into an even more dependent position with regard to its German ally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beatification of Charles I.", "content": "For his role as a peacemaker during 1917-1918, Emperor Charles I of Austria was solemnly declared blessed in a Mass of Beatification on 3 October 2004 by Pope John Paul II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sixtus Affair () was a failed attempt by Emperor Charles I of Austria to conclude a separate peace with the allies in World War I. The affair was named after his brother-in-law and intermediary, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975089}
{"src_title": "Poveglia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The island is first mentioned in chronicles of 421, when people from Padua and Este fled there to escape the barbarian invasions. In the 9th century the island's population began to grow, and in the following centuries its importance grew steadily, until it was governed by a dedicated Podestà. In 1379 Venice came under attack from the Genoan fleet; the people of Poveglia were moved to the Giudecca.  The island remained uninhabited in the subsequent centuries; in 1527 the doge offered the island to the Camaldolese monks, who refused the offer. From 1645 on, the Venetian government built five octagonal forts to protect and control the entrances to the lagoon. The Poveglia octagon is one of four that still survive.  In 1776 the island came under the jurisdiction of the \"Magistrato alla Sanità\" (Public Health Office), and became a check point for all goods and people coming to and going from Venice by ship. In 1793, there were several cases of the plague on two ships, and consequently the island was transformed into a temporary confinement station for the ill (\"lazaretto\"); this role became permanent in 1805, under the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte, who also had the old church of San Vitale destroyed; the old bell-tower was converted into a lighthouse. The \"lazaretto\" was closed in 1814.  The island was used as a quarantine station from 1793 until 1814. In 1922 the existing buildings were converted into an asylum for the mentally ill and later used as a nursing home/long-term care facility, until its closure in 1968. Afterwards, the island was briefly used for agriculture and then completely abandoned.  In 2014 the Italian state auctioned a 99-year lease of Poveglia, which would remain state property, to raise revenue, hoping that the buyer would redevelop the hospital into a luxury hotel. The highest bid was from Italian businessman Luigi Brugnaro, (€513,000); he planned to invest €20 million euros in a restoration plan. The lease did not proceed because his project was judged not to meet all the conditions. Other sources suggested that the deal was annulled because the bid was too low. Brugnaro initially fought the cancellation of the lease, but after he became mayor of Venice, he renounced any intentions to the island.  In 2015, a private group, Poveglia per Tutti, was hoping to raise €25–30 million for a new plan to include \"a public park, a marina, a restaurant, a hostel [and] a study centre\" according to The Telegraph. As of mid-2019, however, the island still sat vacant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buildings and structures.", "content": "The surviving buildings on the island consist of a cavana, a church, a hospital, an asylum, a bell-tower and housing and administrative buildings for the staff. The bell-tower is the most visible structure on the island, and dates back to the 12th century. It belonged to the church of San Vitale, which was demolished in 1806. The tower was re-used as a lighthouse.  The existence of an asylum on Poveglia seems to be confirmed by a sign for \"Reparto Psichiatria\" (Psychiatric Department) still visible among the derelict buildings, as photographed by Ransom Riggs in his May 2010 photo-essay documenting his visit to Poveglia. However, there seems to be no evidence of an alleged prison.  A bridge connects the island on which the buildings stand with the island that was given over to trees and fields. The octagonal fort is on a third, separate island, next to the island with the buildings, but unconnected to it. The fort itself today consists solely of an earthen rampart faced on the outside with brick.  The island contains one or more plague pits. An estimate published by National Geographic suggest that over 100,000 people died on the island over the centuries and were buried in plague pits. Another source, Atlas Obscura, provides an estimate of 160,000 people.  News reports published in 2014/2015 confirmed that the building and rusting artefacts still existed. The island contained dilapidated buildings including the church of St Vitale, a hospital, an asylum, and prison plus residential and office buildings.  Photographer Mike Deere visited the island in 2014, after paying a fisherman to take him there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "Some time after the island had become a quarantine station for ships arriving at Venice in the 18th century, a plague was discovered on two ships. The island was sealed off and used to host people with infectious diseases, leading to legends of terminally ill Venetians waiting to die before their ghosts returned to haunt the island.  A doctor allegedly experimented on patients with crude lobotomies. According to various reports, most recently by the Travel Channel, the doctor jumped from the bell tower in the 1930s after claiming he had been driven mad by ghosts. He later died. Decades later, nearby residents claimed to still hear the bell, although it was removed many years earlier. That report, titled \"Haunted History\", also states that some restoration work had started recently but that \"abruptly stopped without explanation\".  The island has been featured on the paranormal shows \"Ghost Adventures\" and \"Scariest Places on Earth\".  Poveglia was also featured in the \"Alex Rider\" series by Anthony Horowitz as \"Malagosto\", the main assassin training centre for SCORPIA.  A dark Polish graphic novel by Roman Pietraszko (art) and Maciej Kur (script) titled \"Żyjesz?\" (\"Are you alive?\") is set on the island of Poveglia during the Plague and focuses on a sick girl and a boy trying to escape from the island while being hunted down by the plague doctors.  An island inspired by Poveglia is the main location in the \"Sandman\" graphic novel \"\", in the first story \"Death and Venice\". The island is owned in the 18th century by a rich nobleman and alchemist, who finds a way to shield his palazzo, himself, and his guests from the ravages of time to repeat the same day over and over. The narrator visits the island as a boy and later as an adult, where (like Poveglia) it has been long since abandoned with a reputation of being haunted.  Linda Medley's graphic novel \"Castle Waiting\" refers to Poveglia as 'The Island of No Return'. The character Dr. Fell was driven mad attempting to treat the plague victims.  Laurie R. King's novel \"Island of the Mad\" features Poveglia as the hiding place of a group of women who wish to escape the rising Fascist regime, and use the ghost stories of the island as cover to keep unwanted visitors away.  David Nathaniel Holcomb’s gothic fantasy novels “Grim’s Squad” features Poveglia as Grim’s Squad’s home base.  In the novel \"The Dark Temple\" by R.D. Shah, the island is one of the centers of the cult of Mithraism, with an underground Mithras temple (Mithraeum), in a cavern.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Poveglia () is a small island located between Venice and Lido in the Venetian Lagoon, northern Italy. A small canal divides the island into two separate parts. The island first appears in the historical record in 421, and was populated until the residents fled warfare in 1379. For more than 100 years beginning in 1776, the island was used as a quarantine station for those suffering the plague and other diseases, and later as a mental hospital. Because of this, the island is frequently featured on paranormal shows. The mental hospital closed in 1968, and the island has been vacant since.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975090}
{"src_title": "Slovenian euro coins", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Slovenian euro design.", "content": "The Slovenian euro coins were the first to feature a new common side, with a new map of Europe on the bicoloured and Nordic-gold coins. For images of the common side and a detailed description of the coins, see euro coins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Circulating mintage quantities.", "content": "The following table shows the mintage quantity for all Slovenian euro coins, per denomination, per year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mints.", "content": "2007: Finland 2008: Netherlands 2009–2011: Finland 2012–2013: Slovakia 2014–2018: Netherlands", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Commemorative coins.", "content": "Slovenia joined the Eurozone on January 1, 2007. In such a short time they already built a small collection of collectors coins, with face value ranging from 3 to 100 euro. Although they are all legal tender in Slovenia, these coins are not really intended to be used as means of payment, so generally they do not circulate (the only exception is the 3 euro coins which can be found in circulation although very, very rarely).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selection process for the national side.", "content": "The first stage of the selection process started in April 2004, involving preliminary discussions with numismatists, designers and experts. The general public was also invited through the mass media to participate in a public tender concerning proposals of motifs (132 tenderers proposed 699 motifs). A special expert commission (9 different individual experts and members of different institutions, including the Ministry of Finance and the Bank of Slovenia) dealt with the proposals and the process. The second stage of selection started when the Government of the Republic of Slovenia confirmed the commission's decision that invitations would be addressed to some prominent designers for the production of designs.  The commission invited five well-known Slovene designers. A special jury of reputable Slovene artists, designers, professors and connoisseurs of Slovene cultural heritage was appointed to review and assess the designs submitted for the Slovene euro coins. The commission of the Bank of Slovenia and Ministry of Finance unanimously agreed with the proposed selected designs prepared by Mr Miljenko Licul, along with Ms Maja Licul and Mr Janez Boljka. The Government of the Republic of Slovenia gave their consent and adopted the decision on 28 July 2005 to submit the selected design proposals for the national side of the Slovene euro coins to ECOFIN (Economic and Financial Committee) - Coins Sub-Committee, which acknowledged the compliance of the Slovene design proposals with European legislation on 5 October 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "The use of the Prince's Stone (, ) on the 2-cent coin caused a minor political stir in the Austrian State of Carinthia. The stone, a fragment of an ancient Roman column from nearby Virunum that was used in the ritual of installing the princes of Carantania and later of the Duchy of Carinthia, is kept in a museum in Klagenfurt (Slovene: Celovec), the Carinthian capital, where it is also considered a historical icon of the state. The Carinthian state government (headed by governor Jörg Haider) issued a resolution of protest on 25 October 2005, which was rejected as \"not to be taken seriously\" by the then Slovenian foreign minister, Dimitrij Rupel. However, there were also objections against its use on the Slovene side. On academic grounds, for instance, Peter Štih, professor of history at the Ljubljana University and member of the Slovene Academy of Sciences, argued that the Prince's Stone cannot be considered a Slovenian but rather a Carinthian historic symbol.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Slovenian euro coins were first issued for circulation on 1 January 2007 and a unique feature is designed for each coin. The design of approximately 230 million Slovenian euro coins (total value of approximately €80 million) was unveiled on 7 October 2005. The designers were Miljenko Licul, Maja Licul and Janez Boljka. The Mint of Finland was chosen to mint the coins through an international tender in 2007.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975091}
{"src_title": "Armand Peugeot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Born in 1849 into a Protestant family at Herimoncourt, in eastern France, Armand Peugeot was the son of Emile Peugeot and grandson of Jean-Pierre Peugeot. The family had a metal working business, producing a range of practical goods such as springs, saws, spectacle frames and coffee grinders. In 1872 he married Sophie Leonie Fallot (1852-1930) and they had five children, but their only son, Raymond, died in 1896. Armand Peugeot died on 2 January 1915 in Neuilly-sur-Seine, near Paris. He was a great great grandson of Jean-Pierre Peugeot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "He was a graduate of the École Centrale Paris, a prestigious engineering school in France. In 1881, Armand travelled to England where he saw the potential of bicycles and their manufacture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business.", "content": "From 1865, Armand and his second cousin Eugène became involved with the running of the company, then called Peugeot Frères Aînés. They took it into cycle manufacture in 1882, and exhibited a steam-powered tricycle at the 1889 World Fair in Paris. They created their first car in their workhouse which is located in eastern France.  By 1892, the company name was Les Fils de Peugeot Frères, and they had begun to manufacture cars with Daimler engines. Armand wanted to increase production, but Eugène did not want to commit the company to the necessary investment. So, on 2 April 1896, Armand set up his own company, Société Anonyme des Automobiles Peugeot. He built a factory at Audincourt, dedicated to the manufacture of cars with an internal combustion engine.  In February 1910, without a male heir, he agreed to merge his company with Eugène’s. When he stepped down from managing the company in 1913, Peugeot were the largest car manufacturer in France, producing 10,000 cars per year.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Armand Peugeot (; born 26 March 1849 – died 2 January 1915) was an industrialist in France, pioneer of the automobile industry and the man who transformed Peugeot into a manufacturer of bicycles and, later, of automobiles. He was accepted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 1999.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975092}
{"src_title": "Franz Ritter von Epp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Franz Epp was born in Munich in 1868, the son of the painter Rudolph Epp and Katharina Streibel. He spent his school years in Augsburg and after this joined the military academy in Munich. He served as a volunteer in East Asia during the Boxer rebellion in 1900–01 and then became a company commander in the colony of German South-West Africa (now Namibia), where he took part in the bloody Herero and Namaqua Genocide. During the First World War, he served as the commanding officer of the Royal Bavarian Infantry Lifeguards Regiment in France, Serbia, Romania, and at the Isonzo front.  For his war service, Epp received numerous medals, of which the Pour le Mérite (29 May 1918) was the most significant. He was also knighted, being made Ritter von Epp on 25 February 1918, and received the Bavarian Military Order of Max Joseph (23 June 1916).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Freikorps.", "content": "After the end of the war, Epp formed the \"Freikorps Epp\", a right-wing paramilitary unit mostly made up of war veterans, of which the future leader of the SA Ernst Röhm was a member. This unit took part in the crushing of the Bavarian Soviet Republic in Munich, being responsible for various massacres. Epp joined the \"Reichswehr\" and was promoted to Generalmajor in 1922. He took his leave from the German Army after getting involved with right-wing associations in 1923.  When it became necessary for the Nazi Party to purchase a newspaper to publicize its political creed, Epp made available some 60,000 Reichsmarks from secret army funds to acquire the \"Völkischer Beobachter\", which became the daily mouthpiece of the party.  As the \"Sturmabteilung\" (SA) expanded, it became an armed band of several hundred thousand men, whose function was to guard Nazi rallies and disrupt those of other political parties. Some of its leaders, particularly Ernst Röhm, visualized the SA as supplanting the regular army when Adolf Hitler came to national power. To this end, a department was set up under Epp called the \"Wehrpolitisches Amt\" (Army political office). Nothing came of this, as a distrustful Hitler had the SA crushed and many of its leaders killed in the Night of the Long Knives in the summer of 1934.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career in parliament.", "content": "Epp became a member of the German parliament, the \"Reichstag\", for the Nazi Party after leaving the Bavarian People's Party in 1928, holding this position until 1945. He served as the Nazi Party's head of its Military-Political Office from 1928 to 1945, and later as leader of the German Colonial Society, an organization devoted to regaining Germany's lost colonies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reichskommissar of Bavaria.", "content": "Epp's final notable historical action occurred on 9 March 1933, two weeks before the Reichstag passed the enabling act, which granted Hitler dictatorial powers. On the orders of Hitler and Wilhelm Frick, he abolished the Government of Bavaria and set up a Nazi regime. He became \"Reichskommissar\", later \"Reichsstatthalter\", for Bavaria in 1933, in this position clashing with Bavaria's Nazi prime minister Ludwig Siebert, with Siebert eventually succeeding Epp.  On 8 May 1933, von Epp's \"DO X\" crashed at the Passau Kachlet. The city named one of its streets \"Ritter-von-Epp-Straße\".  Epp's attempt to limit the influence of the central government on Bavarian politics failed. He, however, retained his post as \"Reichsstatthalter\" until the end of the war, although by then he was politically insignificant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arrest and death.", "content": "He was arrested on Paul Giesler's orders in 1945, for being associated with the \"Freiheitsaktion Bayern\", an anti-Nazi group led by Rupprecht Gerngroß. However, Epp had not wanted to be directly involved with the group, as he considered their goal—surrender to the Allies—a form of backstabbing of the German Army.  Suffering from a heart condition, he was hospitalised at Bad Nauheim at the end of the war. On 9 May 1945, a clerk at the hospital alerted agents from the US Counterintelligence Corps that Epp was a patient there, and he was arrested and sent to a prison camp in Munich to await trial at Nuremberg. He died in detention on 31 January 1947.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Franz Ritter von Epp, from 1916 \"Ritter von Epp\", (16 October 1868 – 31 January 1947) was a German general and politician who started his military career in the Bavarian Army. Successful wartime military service earned him a knighthood in 1916. After the end of World War I and the dissolution of the German Empire, von Epp was a commanding officer in the \"Freikorps\" and the \"Reichswehr\". He was a member of Bavarian People's Party, before joining the Nazi Party in 1928, when he was elected as a member of the German parliament or \"Reichstag\", a position he held until the fall of Nazi Germany. He was the \"Reichskommissar\", later \"Reichsstatthalter\", for Bavaria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975093}
{"src_title": "Toni Kukoč", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kukoč grew up as a youth in Split, Croatia. His father was devoted to athletics, having played football as a goalkeeper in a lower ranked local club. Possessing excellent motor skills, young Toni grew up participating in different sports, including table tennis and football. He especially excelled in table tennis as an adolescent, winning different youth category titles. He soon switched to basketball as his sport of choice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "Kukoč began playing for his home town club, KK Jugoplastika, at the age of 17. He achieved significant success during his time with the club, winning the prestigious EuroLeague as the team recorded three winning year seasons consecutively (1989–1991). His team won the Triple Crown in 1990 and 1991. Kukoč was awarded as the EuroLeague Final Four MVP both times.  Afterwards, he played for Benetton Treviso and won the Italian League championship in 1992 and the Italian Cup in 1993. He also played in the EuroLeague final in 1993, winning the EuroLeague Final Four MVP once again. He was nicknamed \"the White Magic\", \"the Spider from Split\", \"the Pink Panther\", \"the Waiter\", and \"the Croatian Sensation\". Throughout the 1990s, he won several European Basketball Player of the Year Awards.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chicago Bulls.", "content": "After being drafted by the NBA's Chicago Bulls in 1990, Kukoč continued to play in Europe, until finally reporting to the Bulls in 1993, when the team had just finished its first three-peat and had lost Michael Jordan to retirement. Although disappointed that he could not play with Jordan, Kukoč made his NBA debut on November 5, 1993.  The 6'11\" (2.11 m) Kukoč came off the bench in 1993–94 behind small forward Scottie Pippen and power forward Horace Grant. On January 21, 1994, in a game against the Indiana Pacers, Reggie Miller made a mid-range jumper with 0.8 seconds remaining to give the Pacers a 95-93 lead. Scottie Pippen inbounded the ball to Kukoc, who hit a three-point jumper at the buzzer to give the Bulls the win, 96-95. Kukoč put up a solid rookie season, averaging double-digit scoring and earning a berth on the NBA All-Rookie Second Team.  On May 13, 1994, at the end of Game 3 of the Eastern Conference Semifinals, the Bulls and the New York Knicks were tied at 102 with 1.8 seconds left. Bulls coach Phil Jackson designed the last play for Kukoč, with Scottie Pippen charged with inbounding the basketball. Pippen was so angered by Jackson's decision to not let him take the potential game-winner that he refused to leave the bench and re-enter the game when the timeout was over. Kukoč did hit the game-winner, a 23-foot fadeaway jumper at the buzzer, though the Bulls eventually lost the series in seven games  After Grant left in the offseason, Kukoč moved into the starting lineup and finished the 1994–95 season second on the Bulls in scoring, rebounds and assists, behind Pippen. Furthermore, Michael Jordan would return to the Bulls in March, fulfilling Kukoč's wish to play alongside him.  For the 1995–96 season, the Bulls were bolstered by both Jordan's return to full form and the offseason acquisition of exceptional rebounder Dennis Rodman. With Pippen still at small forward, coach Phil Jackson saw it best to have Kukoč continue to be a bench player. Kukoč was third on the team in scoring (behind Jordan and Pippen) and was rewarded for his efforts with the NBA Sixth Man of the Year Award. He also assisted the Bulls to a 25-game turnaround and the best record in league history at the time at 72–10 (later surpassed by the 2015–16 Golden State Warriors), as well as the fourth championship in team history. Kukoč was the 4th and is currently the last player to win the NBA Sixth Man of the Year Award and the NBA title in the same year having joined Kevin McHale, Bill Walton, and Bobby Jones in accomplishing that feat.  In 1997 and 1998, Kukoč again came off the bench as sixth man as the Bulls won their fifth and sixth NBA titles. Once again, he was the team's third-leading scorer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career ending and retirement.", "content": "During the 1998-99 offseason, Jordan retired, Pippen was traded to the Houston Rockets, and Jackson took a break from coaching, effectively breaking up the Bulls dynasty. Kukoč was the highest-scoring player from the Bulls' previous season that remained with the team.  In the lockout-shortened 1998–99 season, he led the team in scoring, rebounding, and assists. During the 1999–2000 season as Chicago continued their rebuilding scheme, Kukoč was traded to the Philadelphia 76ers in a three-team deal involving the Golden State Warriors that sent Bruce Bowen, John Starks and a 2000 first-round pick to the Bulls. The following season, he was dealt to the Atlanta Hawks, along with Nazr Mohammed, Pepe Sánchez, and Theo Ratliff, in a blockbuster deal that sent Dikembe Mutombo and Roshown McLeod to the 76ers. After a short stint with the Hawks, he was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks, along with Leon Smith, in a deal for Glenn Robinson. On September 12, 2006, Kukoč announced that he would retire from professional basketball if he could not be signed by either the Milwaukee Bucks or the Chicago Bulls for the 2006–07 NBA season. Although various NBA teams had shown interest in his services, Kukoč expressed a desire to be close to his residence in the city of Highland Park, Illinois.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National team career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Yugoslavia.", "content": "Kukoč was on the junior Yugoslavian Under-19 national team that won the 1987 FIBA Under-19 World Cup, where he was named the tournament MVP. He was also on the senior men's Yugoslavian national team that got the silver medal at the 1988 Summer Olympic Games. He was named the MVP of the 1990 FIBA World Championship, where he also won a gold medal. With Yugoslavia, he also won the gold medal at the EuroBasket 1989 and the EuroBasket 1991. He was also named the MVP of the 1991 EuroBasket tournament.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Croatia.", "content": "Kukoč went on to win a silver medal with Croatia, at the 1992 Summer Olympic Games, in Barcelona. He also won bronze medals at both the 1994 FIBA World Championship, in Canada, and at the 1995 EuroBasket, in Greece.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Kukoč and his wife, Renata, purchased their Highland Park home, just after arriving in Chicago, in 1993. After undergoing hip replacement surgery in 2009, he now plays at least one round of golf daily, and won Croatia's national amateur golf championship in 2011. His son, Marin, played for Highland Park High School's varsity basketball team, and then enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania. His daughter, Stela, plays college volleyball at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Toni Kukoč (; born September 18, 1968) is a Croatian former professional basketball player who is currently Special Advisor to Jerry Reinsdorf, the owner of the Chicago Bulls. After a highly successful period in European basketball, he was one of the first established European stars to play in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He won the NBA Sixth Man of the Year Award in 1996.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975094}
{"src_title": "Franz Josef Gerstner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Gerstner was born in Komotau in Bohemia then part of the Habsburg Monarchy. (Today it's Chomutov in the Czech Republic). He was the son of Florian Gerstner (1730–1783) and Maria Elisabeth, born Englert. He studied at the Jesuits gymnasium in Komotau. After that he studied mathematics and astronomy at the Faculty of Philosophy at the Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague between 1772 and 1777. In 1781 he started to study medicine at the University of Vienna, but later decided to quit his studies. Instead, he worked as an assistant at the astronomical observatory in Vienna under supervision of Maximilian Hell. In 1784 he returned to Prague, where he got a position at the Klementinum astronomical observatory in Prague. In 1789 he became professor of higher mathematics, mechanics and hydraulics at the University in Prague.  In 1792 Gerstner married Gabriele von Mayersbach († 1808). They had nine childen including Franz Anton von Gerstner (1796-1840).  In 1795 Gerstner became a member of the government commission which tried to improve higher technical education in the Austrian empire. Following his suggestion, the old engineering school in Prague () was converted by the decree of Emperor Joseph I to a polytechnic school in 1803. The new Polytechnic Institute in Prague was officially opened on Nov. 10th 1806, and Gerstner became its first director. In 1811 he was appointed by the Emperor to the position of the Director of hydraulic engineering in Bohemia. In 1823 he was forced to stop due to an illness his classes at the University. Gerstner died and was burried in Mladějov, Bohemia, in 1832.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "From his works the most influential was \"Handbook of mechanics\" (). This fundamental text-book was published in three volumes (1831, 1832 and 1834), with more than 1400 subscribers.  In 1804 Gerstner published a pioneering work \"Theory of water waves\". The so-called Gerstner wave is the trochoidal wave solution for periodic water waves – the first correct and nonlinear theory of water waves in deep water, appearing even before the first correct linearised theory.  His work focused on applied mechanics, hydrodynamics and river transportation. He helped to build the first iron works and first steam engine in Bohemia.  In 1807, he proposed the construction of a horse-drawn railway between the Austrian Empire towns of České Budějovice () and Linz, one of the first railways on the European continent. The construction of this railway was started in summer 1825 by his son Franz Anton (Ritter) von Gerstner (1796, Prague - 1840, Philadelphia). The regular transport between České Budějovice and Linz started on August 1st, 1832.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "1802-1803 Gerstner served as a chairman of the Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences  In 1808 he received the Imperial Order of Leopold  In 1810 Gerstner was elevated to the nobility as Ritter von Gerstner", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The polytechnic school founded by Gerstner exists till today as the Czech Technical University in Prague (ČVUT).  The institute for artificial intelligence and cybernetics research at ČVUT bears the name \"Gerstner Laboratory\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Josef Gerstner (from 1810 Franz Josef Ritter von Gerstner, ; 23 February 1756 – 25 July 1832) was a German-Bohemian physicist, astronomer and engineer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975095}
{"src_title": "Lluís Llach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Music.", "content": "He is one of the main representatives of \"nova cançó\" (New Song), a movement of musicians, and singers who defied Francisco Franco's dictatorship by singing political songs in Catalan during a time where the language, and other cultural manifestations of Catalan identity were allowed although Castillian was the official language in public institutions. His famous song \"L'Estaca\" about a rotten stick about to fall was clear enough as an image of the regime. As many other singers, writers and politically involved artists, Llach left Spain and lived in voluntary exile in Paris until the death of the dictator.  Though partially dependent on arrangers, like Manel Camp or Carles Cases in his early works, Llach's songwriting has largely evolved from the more basic early compositions to a vastly more complex harmonic and melodic writing. Self-taught as a guitarist, Llach only strums simple chords on guitar. As a pianist, he shows a good knowledge of the European song tradition from Schubert to Hahn with touches of Satie (\"Nounou\") and his local imitators like Mompou and Manuel Blancafort (\"A la taverna del mar\"). Llach has used salsa piano patterns (\"Terra\") and jazzy whole-step block modulations (\"El jorn dels miserables\") and progressions (\"Cançó d'amor a la llibertat\"). Some early songs depicted some inspiration from Baroque dances (\"Laura\", \"Jo sé\", \"Vinyes verdes vora el mar\") and ostinato chord patterns (\"Non\", \"Somniem\"). Among his influences as singer, Llach has recognized Mahalia Jackson and Jacques Brel.  His lyrics can range from the most traditionally romantic songs, to more complex, philosophical song-cycles and also to some more ironic, politically based compositions, with a more upbeat tempo. Sea and vitalistic attitude in face of death are two of his cherished topics. When he doesn't write the lyrics of his songs he puts music to a variety of poets, including Constantine P. Cavafy, Màrius Torres, Josep Maria de Segarra, Pere Quart and, perhaps more often than with any of the others, Miquel Martí i Pol. Llach has occasionally performed as a classical baritone, including a series of performances of Gabriel Fauré's Requiem, and has also been a wine producer. He marked his retirement as front man in music with a farewell concert in Verges (March 2007), in Baix Empordà on the Costa Brava, the village in which he grew up. Afterwards, he has performed incidental music for theatre pieces.  His 1968 song \"L'Estaca\" has become the anthem of numerous freedom and political movements, including Solidarność in Poland, the Tunisian Revolution, the Indignados or Occupy movement in Spain, and the Catalan independence movement, regularly sung by crowds at demonstrations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Llach is a supporter of Catalan independence and the left-wing party ERC. He stood for election in the parliamentary elections of September 2015, as an independent candidate in the Junts pel Sí (Together for Yes) pro-independence alliance. He headed the alliance's list for Girona, one of the four constituencies, and was elected. The coalition got in fact 11 out of 17 seats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "In July 2017, Lluis Llach was criticized for stating that civil servants in Catalonia who continued to follow Spanish law after a future declaration of independence would be \"punished\".  In October 2017, he made statements which caused significant controversy by comparing participants in the 2017 Barcelona anti-independence demonstrations to \"carrion\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature about Lluís Llach.", "content": "Pep Blay's \"Lluís Llach\" (Col·lecció \"Los Autores\", SGAE, Barcelona, 1995) is a biography about the Catalan musician and songwriter Llach, which contains an interesting chronology, a collection of pictures, an anthology of songs and a discography.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lluís Llach i Grande (; born 7 May 1948) is a Spanish singer-songwriter from Catalonia. He is one of the main representatives of the \"nova cançó\" genre and an outspoken advocate of the right to self-determination of Catalonia. His most famous song, \"L'Estaca\", has become the unofficial anthem of the Catalan independence movement. He was a member of the Catalan Parliament from September 2015 until January 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975096}
{"src_title": "Neo-Keynesian economics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "John Maynard Keynes provided the framework for synthesizing a host of economic ideas present between 1900 and 1940 and that synthesis bears his name, as is generally known as Keynesian economics. The first generation of Keynesians were focused on unifying the ideas into workable paradigms, combining them with ideas from classical economics and the writings of Alfred Marshall.  These neo-Keynesians generally looked at labor contracts as sources of wage stickiness to generate equilibrium models of unemployment. Their efforts (known as the neo-classical synthesis) resulted in the development of the IS–LM model and other formalizations of Keynes' ideas. This intellectual program would produce eventually monetarism and other versions of Keynesian macroeconomics in the 1960s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Neoclassical synthesis.", "content": "After Keynes, Keynesian analysis was combined with neoclassical economics to produce what is generally termed \"the neoclassical synthesis\", which dominates mainstream macroeconomic thought. Though it was widely held that there was no strong automatic tendency to full employment, many believed that if government policy were used to ensure it, the economy would behave as classical or neoclassical theory predicted.  In the post-World War II years, Keynes's policy ideas were widely accepted. For the first time, governments prepared good quality economic statistics on an ongoing basis and a theory that told them what to do. In this era of New Deal liberalism and social democracy, most western capitalist countries enjoyed low, stable unemployment and modest inflation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "IS–LM model (investment saving–liquidity preference money supply).", "content": "It was with John Hicks that Keynesian economics produced a clear model which policy-makers could use to attempt to understand and control economic activity. This model, the IS–LM model, is nearly as influential as Keynes' original analysis in determining actual policy and economics education.  It relates aggregate demand and employment to three exogenous quantities, i.e. the amount of money in circulation, the government budget and the state of business expectations. This model was very popular with economists after World War II because it could be understood in terms of general equilibrium theory. This encouraged a much more static vision of macroeconomics than that described above.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phillips curve's successes and collapse.", "content": "The second main part of a Keynesian policy-maker's theoretical apparatus was the Phillips curve. This curve, which was more of an empirical observation than a theory, indicated that increased employment over unemployment implied increased inflation. Keynes had only predicted that increase employment would cause a higher price, not a higher inflation rate. Thus the economist could use the IS–LM model to predict, for example, that an increase in the money supply would raise output and employment—and then use the Phillips curve to predict an increase in inflation.  The strength of Keynesianism's influence can be seen by the wave of economists which began in the late 1940s with Milton Friedman- Milton Friedman rejected Keynesian teaching this is misleading. Instead of rejecting macro-measurements and macro-models of the economy, they embraced the techniques of treating the entire economy as having a supply and demand equilibrium, but unlike the Keynesians—they argued that \"crowding out\" effects would hobble or deprive fiscal policy of its positive effect. Instead, the focus should be on monetary policy, which was largely ignored by early Keynesians. The monetarist critique pushed Keynesians toward a more balanced view of monetary policy and inspired a wave of revisions to Keynesian theory.  Through the 1950s, moderate degrees of government demand leading industrial development and use of fiscal and monetary counter-cyclical policies continued and reached a peak in the \"go go\" 1960s, where it seemed to many Keynesians that prosperity was now permanent. However, with the oil shock of 1973 and the economic problems of the 1970s, modern liberal economics began to fall out of favor. During this time, many economies experienced \"stagflation\" : high and rising unemployment, coupled with high and rising inflation, contradicting the Phillips curve's prediction.  This stagflation meant that both expansionary (anti-recession) and contractionary (anti-inflation) policies had to be applied simultaneously, a clear impossibility. This dilemma led to the rise of ideas based upon more classical analysis, including monetarism, supply-side economics and new classical economics. This produced a \"policy bind\" and the collapse of the Keynesian consensus on the economy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New Keynesian economics.", "content": "Through the 1980s, Keynesian macroeconomics fell out of fashion as a policy tool and as a field of study. Instead, it was felt that combining economics with behavioral science, game theory and monetary theory were more important areas of study. On the policy level, it was the era of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, who advocated slashing the size of the government sector. However, beginning in the late 1980s economics began shifting back to a study of macro-economics and policy makers began to look for means of managing the global financial network, which was increasingly interlinked.  In the 1990s, the \"uncoupling\" of money supply and inflation caused an increasing questioning of the original form of monetarism. The repeated failures of \"big bang\" marketization in the former Soviet Bloc have encouraged the recent revival in Keynesian ideas, with particular emphasis on giving the Keynesian macroeconomic analysis theoretically sound foundations in microeconomics. These theories have been called new Keynesian economics. The heart of the new Keynesian view rests on microeconomic models that indicate that nominal wages and prices are \"sticky\", i.e. do not change easily or quickly with changes in supply and demand, so that quantity adjustment prevails. According to economist Paul Krugman, this \"works beautifully in practice but very badly in theory\". This integration is further spurred by work of other economists which questions rational decision-making in a perfect information environment as a necessity for micro-economic theory. Imperfect decision making such as that investigated by Joseph Stiglitz underlines the importance of management of risk in the economy.  New classical economics relied on the theory of rational expectations to reject Keynesian economics. Most well-known is the Lucas critique by Robert Lucas, who argues that rational expectations will defeat any monetary or fiscal policy. However, new Keynesians argue that this critique only works if the economy has a unique equilibrium at full employment. Price stickiness means that there are a variety of possible equilibria in the short run, so that rational expectations models do not produce any simple result.  Some macroeconomists have returned to the IS–LM model and the Phillips curve as a first approximation of how an economy works. New versions of the Phillips curve, such as the triangle model, allow for stagflation since the curve can shift due to supply shocks or changes in built-in inflation. In the 1990s, the original ideas of \"full employment\" had been replaced by the NAIRU theory, sometimes called the \"natural rate of unemployment\". This theory pointed to the dangers of getting unemployment too low because accelerating inflation can result, but it is unclear exactly what the value of the NAIRU is—or whether it really exists or not.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Neo-Keynesian economics is a school of macroeconomic thought that was developed in the post-war period from the writings of John Maynard Keynes. A group of economists (notably John Hicks, Franco Modigliani and Paul Samuelson), attempted to interpret and formalize Keynes' writings and to synthesize it with the neoclassical models of economics. Their work has become known as the neoclassical synthesis and created the models that formed the core ideas of neo-Keynesian economics. These ideas dominated mainstream economics in the post-war period and formed the mainstream of macroeconomic thought in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975097}
{"src_title": "Georg, Crown Prince of Saxony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Georg was born on 15 January 1893 in Dresden, capital of Kingdom of Saxony. He was the son of Prince Frederick Augustus, the later King Frederick Augustus III and his wife, Luise, née Archduchess Luise of Austria, Princess of Tuscany. His siblings were the Princes Friedrich Christian and Ernst Heinrich and the Princesses Margarete, Maria Alix and Anna Monika  After his parents divorced in 1902, his father took sole parental responsibility for his children. He emphasised the Christian faith and a Catholic lifestyle. The children were educated by private tutors in a \"prince's school\" established by their father at the Saxon court. Most of the teachers were Protestants; this contributed to his later ecumenical attitude. Georg became Saxony's crown prince at age eleven, when his father acceded to the throne in 1904.  After graduating from high school in 1912, Georg studied political sciences for three months at the University of Breslau. He then began to study economics. During this time, he joined the \"KDSt.V. Winfridia\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First World War.", "content": "After completing his studies in 1912, Georg joined the 1st Royal Saxon Leib-Grenadier Regiment No. 100. His friend and fellow officer Ludwig Renn also served in that regiment; at the time, Ludwig still used his birth name \"Arnold Friedrich Vieth von Golßenau\".  Georg held the rank of Captain when he was sent to the front at the start of World War I. He suffered a serious leg injury during the first months of the war. In 1915, Kaiser Wilhelm II granted him the Iron Cross first class \"in recognition of the services he rendered in the recent battles.\".  On 27 July 1916, he was added to the staff of Army Group Gallwitz. On 30 August 1916, he received the Military Order of St. Henry for his services in this staff.  On 30 November 1917, he was promoted to major and made commander of the 5th Royal Saxon Infantry Regiment \"Crown Prince\" No. 104. He commanded this regiment on both the Eastern and the Western Front. He held this command until 22 May 1918.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engaged to be married.", "content": "In the spring of 1918, newspapers announced the prince's engagement to Duchess Marie Amelia, daughter of Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg, the heir to the throne of the Kingdom of Württemberg. The end of the Saxon monarchy and the prince's desire to become a priest apparently led to the end of the engagement. The duchess died unmarried in 1923.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abolition of monarchy and Jesuit priest.", "content": "When Germany lost the war, the monarchies in Germany collapsed. Georg's father abdicated on 13 November 1918. This marked a fundamental turning point in his career planning. In 1919, he decided to renounce his rights on the Saxon throne, and become a Catholic priest instead. This decision was very controversial among people who hoped that the monarchy might one day be restored, and also met with significant concerns from the side of the Catholic Church. For example, Franz Löbman, the Apostolic Vicar for Saxony and Lusatia, and Archbishop Adolf Bertram of Breslau initially held that Georg should continue to hold political responsibility for Saxony. Nevertheless, Georg entered the Franciscan Order.  Finding the Franciscan life too intellectually limiting, Georg soon applied to transfer to the Jesuits instead. In the winter semester 1919/20, he studied philosophy at the University of Tübingen. During this period, he joined the \"A.V. \"Guestfalia Tübingen\". In the next semester, he studied at the University of Breslau.  In the winter semester 1920/21, he began studying theology at the University of Freiburg. He joined the KDSt.V. \"Hohenstaufen\" and Saxo-Thuringia. He completed this study in 1923. In the same year, he formally renounced his rights to the Saxon throne and became a Jesuit priest.  He was ordained as priest in Trzebnica on 15 July 1924 by Bishop Christian Schreiber of Meissen. The next day, he celebrated his first mass at the royal palace in Szczodre (. His uncle Maximilian gave the homily during this service. Thereafter, the prince was generally known as \"Pater Georg\" (Father George) and used the last name \"von Sachsen.\" After his ordination, Georg worked as an auxiliary priest in his native Diocese of Meissen.  He then continued his studies at the Jesuit Collegium Canisianum in Innsbruck. In the fall of 1925, he joined the Upper German province of the Society of Jesus, however, in 1927, he switched to the East German province, which included his native Saxony. From 1928 to 1930, he studied at a Jesuit college in Valkenburg.  From 1933, he did pastoral work in Berlin. He helped building the Jesuit residence \"Canisius College\" with the Catholic \"Gymnasium at Lietzensee\". He took his final vows in Berlin in 1936. He gave lectures and spiritual exercises all over Germany. In his lectures, he promoted ecumenism and in particular the movement. Among his friends were spiritual leaders of different religions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opponent of Nazism.", "content": "During one of his many lectures, he said in Meissen in 1929, referring to the increasing antisemitic agitation by some right-wing parties: \"Love is the order of the day in the relationship between Catholics and Protestant, and also to our Jewish fellow citizens\". So he opposed Nazism from the beginning. He found it unbearable that the Nazi Party and after 1933 the state vilified and sought to destroy core values that were important to him personally — monarchical and dynastic Saxon traditions and fundamental values of Western Christianity. He felt that his family honor was offended and his work as a pastor was significantly impeded.  He worked in Berlin where he was credited with protecting Jews from the Nazi regime in notable contrast to his pro-Nazi brothers-in-law, Prince Frederich of Hohenzollern and Prince Franz Joseph of Hohenzollern-Emden.  As critic of the regime and a member of the former Saxon royal family, but in particular as a Catholic priest and a member of the Jesuit order, he was seen as highly suspect by the Nazi regime. He was shadowed by the Gestapo because he helped Jews leaving the country and he helped opposition politicians hiding from the regime. Sometimes, he had to go into hiding himself, and the police searched his home several times. He knew some of the people who later attempted the failed 20 July plot, in particular Ulrich von Hassell and General Paul von Hase. It is not clear whether he actually participated in the resistance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "The former prince died on 14 May 1943 apparently while swimming in the Groß Glienicke Lake in Berlin, Germany. Georg's diary was found on the lakeshore with a final Latin entry reading, which is the Latin version of a phrase Jesus frequently spoke to his disciples in the Gospel of John and means \"I go to the Father\" or \"I go to my Father.\" His body was found several weeks after his death. Some people, including his brother Ernst Heinrich expressed doubts that his death had been an accident. Nevertheless, the autopsy determined that he died after suffering a heart attack.  He was buried in the Catholic Church of the Royal Court of Saxony, today known as the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, in Dresden on 16 June 1943. His grave was disturbed by Russian soldiers in 1945 and later by the floods of August 2002.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "\"Prinz Georg, 15. Januar 1893–1943\", type-written memoirs", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georg, Crown Prince of Saxony or George (15 January 1893 – 14 May 1943) the last Crown Prince of Saxony, was the heir to the King of Saxony, Frederick Augustus III, at the time of the monarchy's abolition on 13 November 1918. He later became a Roman Catholic priest and a Jesuit.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975098}
{"src_title": "Comma (music)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Commas in different contexts.", "content": "In the column labeled \"Difference between semitones\", m2 is the minor second (diatonic semitone), A1 is the augmented unison (chromatic semitone), and S, S, S, S are semitones as defined here. In the columns labeled \"Interval 1\" and \"Interval 2\", all intervals are presumed to be tuned in just intonation. Notice that the Pythagorean comma (PC) and the syntonic comma (SC) are basic intervals that can be used as yardsticks to define some of the other commas. For instance, the difference between them is a small comma called schisma. A schisma is not audible in many contexts, as its size is narrower than the smallest audible difference between tones (which is around six cents, also known as just noticeable difference, or JND).  Many other commas have been enumerated and named by microtonalists  The syntonic comma has a crucial role in the history of music. It is the amount by which some of the notes produced in Pythagorean tuning were flattened or sharpened to produce just minor and major thirds. In Pythagorean tuning, the only highly consonant intervals were the perfect fifth and its inversion, the perfect fourth. The Pythagorean major third (81:64) and minor third (32:27) were dissonant, and this prevented musicians from freely using triads and chords, forcing them to write music with relatively simple texture. In late Middle Ages, musicians realized that by slightly tempering the pitch of some notes, the Pythagorean thirds could be made consonant. For instance, if you decrease by a syntonic comma (81:80) the frequency of E, C–E (a major third), and E–G (a minor third) become just. Namely, C–E is flattened to a justly intonated ratio of  and at the same time E–G is sharpened to the just ratio of  This brought to the creation of a new tuning system, known as quarter-comma meantone, which permitted the full development of music with complex texture, such as polyphonic music, or melodies with instrumental accompaniment. Since then, other tuning systems were developed, and the syntonic comma was used as a reference value to temper the perfect fifths in an entire family of them. Namely, in the family belonging to the syntonic temperament continuum, including meantone temperaments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternative definitions.", "content": "In quarter-comma meantone, and any kind of meantone temperament tuning system that tempers the fifth to a size smaller than 700 cents, the comma is a diminished second, which can be equivalently defined as the difference between:  In Pythagorean tuning, and any kind of meantone temperament tuning system that tempers the fifth to a size larger than 700 cents (such as -comma meantone), the comma is the opposite of a diminished second, and therefore the opposite of the above-listed differences. More exactly, in these tuning systems the diminished second is a descending interval, while the comma is its ascending opposite. For instance, the Pythagorean comma (531441:524288, or about 23.5 cents) can be computed as the difference between a chromatic and a diatonic semitone, which is the opposite of a Pythagorean diminished second (524288:531441, or about −23.5 cents).  In each of the above-mentioned tuning systems, the above-listed differences have all the same size. For instance, in Pythagorean tuning they are all equal to the opposite of a Pythagorean comma, and in quarter-comma meantone they are all equal to a diesis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notation.", "content": "In the years 2000–2004, Marc Sabat and Wolfgang von Schweinitz worked together in Berlin to develop a method to exactly indicate pitches in staff notation. This method was called the extended Helmholtz-Ellis JI pitch notation. Sabat and Schweinitz take the \"conventional\" flats, naturals and sharps as a Pythagorean series of perfect fifths. Thus, a series of perfect fifths beginning with F proceeds and so on. The advantage for musicians is that conventional reading of the basic fourths and fifths remains familiar. Such an approach has also been advocated by Daniel James Wolf and by Joe Monzo, who refers to it by the acronym HEWM (Helmholtz-Ellis-Wolf-Monzo). In the Sabat-Schweinitz design, syntonic commas are marked by arrows attached to the flat, natural or sharp sign, septimal commas using Giuseppe Tartini's symbol, and undecimal quartertones using the common practice quartertone signs (a single cross and backwards flat). For higher primes, additional signs have been designed. To facilitate quick estimation of pitches, cents indications may be added (downward deviations below and upward deviations above the respective accidental). The convention used is that the cents written refer to the tempered pitch implied by the flat, natural, or sharp sign and the note name. One of the great advantages of any such a notation is that it allows the natural harmonic series to be precisely notated. A complete legend and fonts for the notation (see samples) are open source and available from Plainsound Music Edition. Thus a Pythagorean scale is, while a just scale is.  Composer Ben Johnston uses a \"−\" as an accidental to indicate a note is lowered a syntonic comma, or a \"+\" to indicate a note is raised a syntonic comma; however, Johnston's \"basic scale\" (the plain nominals ) is tuned to just-intonation and thus already includes the syntonic comma. Thus a Pythagorean scale is, while a just scale is.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tempering of commas.", "content": "Commas are frequently used in the description of musical temperaments, where they describe distinctions between musical intervals that are eliminated by that tuning system. A comma can be viewed as the distance between two musical intervals. When a given comma is tempered out in a tuning system, the ability to distinguish between those two intervals in that tuning is eliminated. For example, the difference between the diatonic semitone and chromatic semitone is called the diesis. The widely used 12-tone equal temperament \"tempers out\" the diesis, and thus does not distinguish between the two different types of semitones. On the other hand, 19-tone equal temperament does not temper out this comma, and thus it distinguishes between the two semitones.  Examples:  The following table lists the number of steps used that correspond various just intervals in various tuning systems. Zeros indicate commas. The comma can also be considered as the interval that remains after a full circle of intervals. The Pythagorean comma, for instance, is the difference obtained, say, between A and G after a circle of twelve just fifths. A circle of three just major thirds, such as A–C–E–G, produces the \"small diesis\" 125/128 (41,1 cent) between G and A. A circle of four just minor thirds, such as G–B–D–F–A, produces an interval of 648/625 between A and G. Etc. An interesting property of temperaments is that this difference remains whatever the tuning of the intervals forming the circle. In this sense, commas and other minute intervals can never be completely tempered out, whatever the tuning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comma sequence.", "content": "A comma sequence defines a musical temperament through a unique sequence of commas at increasing prime limits. The first comma of the comma sequence is in the q-limit, where q is the nth odd prime, and n is the number of generators. Subsequent commas are in prime limits, each one prime beyond the last.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other intervals called commas.", "content": "There are also several intervals called commas, which are not technically commas because they are not rational fractions like those above, but are irrational approximations of them. These include the Holdrian and Mercator's commas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In music theory, a comma is a very small interval, the difference resulting from tuning one note two different ways. The word \"comma\" used without qualification refers to the syntonic comma, which can be defined, for instance, as the difference between an F tuned using the D-based Pythagorean tuning system, and another F tuned using the D-based quarter-comma meantone tuning system. Intervals separated by the ratio 81:80 are considered the same note because the 12-note Western chromatic scale does not distinguish Pythagorean intervals from 5-limit intervals in its notation. Other intervals are considered commas because of the enharmonic equivalences of a tuning system. For example, in 53TET, B and A are both approximated by the same interval although they are a septimal kleisma apart.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975099}
{"src_title": "Gliese 581", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of observations.", "content": "Gliese 581 is known at least from 1886, when it was included in Eduard Schönfeld's \"Southern (SD)\"—the fourth part of the \"\". The corresponding designation is BD -7 4003.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The name \"Gliese 581\" refers to the catalog number from the 1957 survey \"Gliese Catalogue of Nearby Stars\" of 965 stars located within 20 parsecs of the Earth. Other names of this star include \"BD-07° 4003\" (BD catalogue, first known publication) and \"HO Librae\" (variable star designation). It does not have an individual name such as \"Sirius\" or \"Procyon\". The star is a red dwarf with spectral type M3V, located 20.4 light-years away from Earth. It is located about two degrees north of Beta Librae, the brightest star in the Libra constellation. Its mass is estimated to be approximately a third that of the Sun, and it is the 89th closest known star system to the Sun.  An M-class dwarf star such as Gliese 581 has a much lower mass than the Sun, causing the core region of the star to fuse hydrogen at a significantly lower rate. From the apparent magnitude and distance, astronomers have estimated an effective temperature of 3200 K and a visual luminosity of 0.2% of that of the Sun. However, a red dwarf such as Gliese 581 radiates primarily in the near infrared, with peak emission at a wavelength of roughly 830 nm (estimated using Wien's displacement law, which assumes the star radiates as a black body), so such an estimate will underestimate the star's total luminosity. (For comparison, the peak emission of the Sun is roughly 530 nm, in the middle of the visible part of the spectrum.) When radiation over the entire spectrum is taken into account (not just the part that humans are able to see), something known as the bolometric correction, this star has a bolometric luminosity 1.3% of the Sun's total luminosity. A planet would need to be situated much closer to this star in order to receive a comparable amount of energy as the Earth. The region of space around a star where a planet would receive roughly the same energy as the Earth is sometimes termed the \"Goldilocks Zone\", or, more prosaically, the habitable zone. The extent of such a zone is not fixed and is highly specific for each planetary system. Gliese 581 is a very old star. Its slow rotation makes it very inactive, making it better suited than most red dwarfs for having habitable planets.  Gliese 581 is classified as a variable star of the BY Draconis type, and has been given the variable star designation HO Librae. This is a star that exhibits variability because of the presence of star spots combined with the rotation of the star. However, the measured variability is close to the margin of error, and, if real, is most likely a long term variability. Its brightness is stable to 1%. Gliese 581 emits X-rays.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes.", "content": "=11.59\\end{smallmatrix}</math>, with the absolute magnitude of the Sun, formula_1, the visual luminosity can be calculated from, formula_2.</ref", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gliese 581 () is a star of spectral type M3V (a red dwarf) at the center of the Gliese 581 planetary system, about 20 light years away from Earth in the Libra constellation. Its estimated mass is about a third of that of the Sun, and it is the 89th closest known star to the Sun.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975100}
{"src_title": "Otto Freundlich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Freundlich was born in Stolp, Province of Pomerania, Prussia. His mother was a first cousin of the writer Samuel Lublinski. Otto studied dentistry before deciding to become an artist. He went to Paris in 1908, living in Montmartre in Bateau Lavoir near to Pablo Picasso, Braque and others. In 1914 he returned to Germany. After World War I, he became politically active as a member of the November Group. In 1919, he organized the first Dada - exhibition in Cologne with Max Ernst and Johannes Theodor Baargeld. In 1925, he joined the Abstraction-Création group. After 1925, Freundlich lived and worked mainly in France. In Germany, his work was condemned by the Nazis as degenerate and removed from public display. Some works were seized and displayed at the infamous Nazi exhibition of degenerate art including his monumental sculpture \"Der Neue Mensch (The New Human)\" which was photographed unsympathetically and used as the cover illustration of the exhibition catalogue. \"Der Neue Mensch\" was never recovered and is assumed to have been destroyed. One of his sculptures was recovered in an excavation in Berlin and put on display at the Neues Museum.  While in Paris, he became a member of the Union des Artistes Allemandes Libres.  He moved to France in 1924, and during the occupation moved with his wife to the Pyrenees. Freundlich was interned by the Vichy authorities but released, for a time, under the influence of Pablo Picasso. In 1943 he was arrested and deported to Majdanek Concentration Camp, where he was murdered on the day he arrived.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Documentary Film.", "content": "Although Otto Freundlich has been largely overlooked since being vilified by the Nazis, a documentary \"Das Geht Nur Langsam (It Takes Time)\" was released in 2012. The film traces his vision to build streets of sculptures running through Europe symbolizing his utopian ideas for a world society.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otto Freundlich (10 July 1878 – 9 March 1943) was a German painter and sculptor of Jewish origin. A part of the first generation of abstract painters in Western art, Freundlich was a great admirer of cubism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975101}
{"src_title": "Claudie Haigneré", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and training.", "content": "Born in Le Creusot, France, Claudie Haigneré studied medicine at the Faculté de Médecine (Paris-Cochin) and Faculté des Sciences (Paris-VII). She went on to obtain certificates in biology and sports medicine (1981), aviation medicine and space medicine (1982), and rheumatology (1984). In 1986 she received a diploma in the biomechanics and physiology of movement (1986) and received her doctorates in rheumatology (1984) and neuroscience (1992).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Space career.", "content": "Out of 10,000 candidates, France's space center selected only six men, and one woman: Claudie Haigneré. She first qualified as an engineer and emergency pilot to the Space Shuttle. She first served as a back-up crew member for the 1993 Mir \"Altaïr\" mission in which her future husband Jean-Pierre Haigneré participated. The asteroid 135268 Haigneré is named in their combined honour. In 1994, Claudie Haigneré began training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia for the Franco-Russian Cassiopée mission and learned Russian during her time there. On August 17, 1996, she became the first French woman to go to space as she and two Russian cosmonauts, commander Valery Korzun and flight engineer Aleksandr Kaleri, launched into space aboard the Soyuz TM-24 on the Russian-French \"Cassiopée\" mission. While on the mission, visited the Mir space station for 16 days and she conducted comprehensive experiments in the fields of physiology and development biology, fluid physics, and technology. In 1999, Haigneré commanded a Soyuz capsule during reentry and became the first woman qualified to do so. As the flight engineer on Soyuz TM-33 in 2001, she became the first European woman to visit the International Space Station. After the mission, Claudie Haigneré continued her involvement in space science by attending scientific workshops and conferences. She also contributed to data analysis and constructions for the scientific programs of future projects. She eventually retired from ESA on June 18, 2002.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Following her career as an astronaut, Claudie Haigneré entered French politics in Jean-Pierre Raffarin's government. She was minister delegate for Research and New Technologies from 2002 to 2004 and succeeded Noëlle Lenoir as minister delegate for European Affairs from 2004 to 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organizational involvement.", "content": "Haigneré was named as the founding director of Universcience in 2009. At that time, she was an advisor to the Director General of the ESA. In 2015, Haigneré resumed serving as a special advisor to ESA's Director General.  Claudie Haigneré recently accepted the position to chair the Jury of the DStv Eutelsat Star Awards, which is an annual pan-African student competition in which students write an essay or create a poster focusing on science and technology fields as a source of inspiration to unlock opportunities for Africa. The essays and posters will then be judged by an international panel of industry experts, government and academic world members, based on accuracy, creativity, originality and innovation. Claudie Haigneré's acceptance of this assignment marks the first time a woman has served on the panel for the DStv Eutelsat Star Awards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Claudie Haigneré received many special honors for her spaceflight career. She received the Chevalier of the Légion d'Honneur as well as the Chevalier of the Ordre National du Mérite. To recognize her outstanding involvement in the Franco-Russian space cooperation, she received the Russian Order of Friendship. She also received the Russian \"Medal for Personal Valour\".  Claudie Haigneré is also an honorary member of the Société Française de Médecine Aéronautique et Spatiale and the Association Aéronautique et Astronautique de France (AAAF). She also holds membership in the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA) and of the Académie de l'Air et de l'Espace (ANAE).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Claudie (André-Deshays) Haigneré (born 13 May 1957) is a French doctor, politician, and former astronaut with the Centre National d'Études Spatiales (1985–1999) and the European Space Agency (1999–2002).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975102}
{"src_title": "First Vatican Council", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "This council was summoned by Pope Pius IX by a bull on 29 June 1868. The first session was held in St. Peter's Basilica on 8 December 1869. Preliminary sessions dealt with general administrative matters and committee assignments. Bishop Bernard John McQuaid complained of rainy weather, inadequate heating facilities, and boredom. Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley of Newark, New Jersey, noted the high prices in Rome. When Lord Houghton asked Cardinal Manning what had been going on, he answered: “Well, we meet, and we look at one another, and then we talk a little, but when we want to know what we have been doing, we read the \"Times\"”.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Papal infallibility.", "content": "The doctrine of papal infallibility was not new and had been used by Pope Pius in defining as dogma, in 1854, the Immaculate Conception of Mary, the mother of Jesus. However, the proposal to define papal infallibility itself as dogma met with resistance, not because of doubts about the substance of the proposed definition, but because some considered it inopportune to take that step at that time. Richard McBrien divides the bishops attending Vatican I into three groups. The first group, which McBrien calls the \"active infallibilists\", was led by Henry Edward Manning and Ignatius von Senestréy. According to McBrien, the majority of the bishops were not so much interested in a formal definition of papal infallibility as they were in strengthening papal authority and, because of this, were willing to accept the agenda of the infallibilists. A minority, some 10 per cent of the bishops, McBrien says, opposed the proposed definition of papal infallibility on both ecclesiastical and pragmatic grounds, because, in their opinion, it departed from the ecclesiastical structure of the early Christian church. From a pragmatic perspective, they feared that defining papal infallibility would alienate some Catholics, create new difficulties for union with non-Catholics, and provoke interference by governments in ecclesiastical affairs. Those who held this view included most of the German and Austro-Hungarian bishops, nearly half of the Americans, one third of the French, most of the Chaldaeans and Melkites, and a few Armenians. Only a few bishops appear to have had doubts about the dogma itself.  On 24 April 1870, the dogmatic constitution on the Catholic faith was adopted unanimously. The draft presented to the council on 8 March drew no serious criticism, but a group of 35 English-speaking bishops, who feared that the opening phrase of the first chapter, \"\" ('Holy Roman Catholic Church'), might be construed as favouring the Anglican branch theory, later succeeded in having an additional adjective inserted, so that the final text read: \"\" ('Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church'). The constitution thus set forth the teaching of the \"Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church\" on God, revelation and faith.  There was stronger opposition to the draft constitution on the nature of the church, which at first did not include the question of papal infallibility, but the majority party in the council, whose position on this matter was much stronger, brought it forward. It was decided to postpone discussion of everything in the draft except infallibility. The decree did not go forward without controversy; Cardinal, Archbishop of Bologna, proposed adding that the pope is assisted by \"the counsel of the bishops manifesting the tradition of the churches\". Pius IX rejected Guidi's view of the bishops as witnesses to the tradition, maintaining: \"I am the tradition.\"  On 13 July 1870, a preliminary vote on the section on infallibility was held in a general congregation: 451 voted simply in favour (), 88 against (), and 62 in favour but on condition of some amendment (). This made evident what the final outcome would be, and some 60 members of the opposition left Rome so as not to be associated with approval of the document. The final vote, with a choice only between and, was taken on 18 July 1870, with 433 votes in favour and only 2 against defining as a dogma the infallibility of the pope when speaking. The two votes in opposition were cast by Bishops Aloisio Riccio and Edward Fitzgerald.  The dogmatic constitution states, in chapter 4:9, that the Pope has \"full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the whole Church\" (chapter 3:9); and that, when he: None of the bishops who had argued that proclaiming the definition was inopportune refused to accept it. Some Catholics, mainly of German language and largely inspired by the historian Ignaz von Döllinger, formed the separate Old Catholic Church in protest; von Döllinger did not formally join the new group himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Suspension.", "content": "Discussion of the rest of the document on the nature of the church was to continue when the bishops returned after a summer break. However, in the meanwhile the Franco-Prussian War broke out. With the swift German advance and the capture of Emperor Napoleon III, French troops protecting papal rule in Rome withdrew from the city.  Consequently, on 20 September 1870, one month after the Kingdom of Italy had occupied Rome, Pope Pius IX, who then considered himself a prisoner in the Vatican, issued the bull, adjourning the council indefinitely. While some proposed to continue the council in the Belgian city of Mechlin, it was never reconvened. The council was formally closed in 1960, prior to the formation of the Second Vatican Council.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The First Vatican Council () was convoked by Pope Pius IX on 29 June 1868, after a period of planning and preparation that began on 6 December 1864. This, the twentieth ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, held three centuries after the Council of Trent, opened on 8 December 1869 and adjourned on 20 October 1870. Unlike the five earlier general councils held in Rome, which met in the Lateran Basilica and are known as Lateran councils, it met in the Vatican Basilica, hence its name. Its best-known decision is its definition of papal infallibility.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975103}
{"src_title": "Helium flash", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Red giants.", "content": "During the red giant phase of stellar evolution in stars with less than 2.0 the nuclear fusion of hydrogen ceases in the core as it is depleted, leaving a helium-rich core. While fusion of hydrogen continues in the star's shell causing a continuation of the accumulation of helium ash in the core, making the core denser, the temperature still is unable to reach the level required for helium fusion, as happens in more massive stars. Thus the thermal pressure from fusion is no longer sufficient to counter the gravitational collapse and create the hydrostatic equilibrium found in most stars. This causes the star to start contracting and increasing in temperature until it eventually becomes compressed enough for the helium core to become degenerate matter. This degeneracy pressure is finally sufficient to stop further collapse of the most central material but the rest of the core continues to contract and the temperature continues to rise until it reaches a point () at which the helium can ignite and start to fuse.  The explosive nature of the helium flash arises from its taking place in degenerate matter. Once the temperature reaches 100 million–200 million kelvin and helium fusion begins using the triple-alpha process, the temperature rapidly increases, further raising the helium fusion rate and, because degenerate matter is a good conductor of heat, widening the reaction region.  However, since degeneracy pressure (which is purely a function of density) is dominating thermal pressure (proportional to the product of density and temperature), the total pressure is only weakly dependent on temperature. Thus, the dramatic increase in temperature only causes a slight increase in pressure, so there is no stabilizing cooling expansion of the core.  This runaway reaction quickly climbs to about 100 billion times the star's normal energy production (for a few seconds) until the temperature increases to the point that thermal pressure again becomes dominant, eliminating the degeneracy. The core can then expand and cool down and a stable burning of helium will continue.  A star with mass greater than about 2.25 starts to burn helium without its core becoming degenerate, and so does not exhibit this type of helium flash. In a very low-mass star (less than about 0.5 ), the core is never hot enough to ignite helium. The degenerate helium core will keep on contracting, and finally becomes a helium white dwarf.  The helium flash is not directly observable on the surface by electromagnetic radiation. The flash occurs in the core deep inside the star, and the net effect will be that all released energy is absorbed by the entire core, leaving the degenerate state to become nondegenerate. Earlier computations indicated that a nondisruptive mass loss would be possible in some cases, but later star modeling taking neutrino energy loss into account indicates no such mass loss.  In a one solar mass star, the helium flash is estimated to release about, or about 0.3% of the energy release of a type Ia supernova, which is triggered by an analogous ignition of carbon fusion in a carbon–oxygen white dwarf.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Binary white dwarfs.", "content": "When hydrogen gas is accreted onto a \"white dwarf\" from a binary companion star, the hydrogen can fuse to form helium for a narrow range of accretion rates, but most systems develop a layer of hydrogen over the degenerate white dwarf interior. This hydrogen can build up to form a shell near the surface of the star. When the mass of hydrogen becomes sufficiently large, runaway fusion causes a nova. In a few binary systems where the hydrogen fuses on the surface, the mass of helium built up can burn in an unstable helium flash. In certain binary systems the companion star may have lost most of its hydrogen and donate helium-rich material to the compact star. Note that similar flashes occur on neutron stars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shell helium flash.", "content": "Shell helium flashes are a somewhat analogous but much less violent, nonrunaway helium ignition event, taking place in the absence of degenerate matter. They occur periodically in asymptotic giant branch stars in a shell outside the core. This is late in the life of a star in its giant phase. The star has burnt most of the helium available in the core, which is now composed of carbon and oxygen. Helium fusion continues in a thin shell around this core, but then turns off as helium becomes depleted. This allows hydrogen fusion to start in a layer above the helium layer. After enough additional helium accumulates, helium fusion is reignited, leading to a thermal pulse which eventually causes the star to expand and brighten temporarily (the pulse in luminosity is delayed because it takes a number of years for the energy from restarted helium fusion to reach the surface). Such pulses may last a few hundred years, and are thought to occur periodically every 10,000 to 100,000 years. After the flash, helium fusion continues at an exponentially decaying rate for about 40% of the cycle as the helium shell is consumed. Thermal pulses may cause a star to shed circumstellar shells of gas and dust.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "In the science-fiction novella \"The Wandering Earth\" (Chinese: 流浪地球) written in 2000 by Liu Cixin, the prediction of a helium flash is what drives the plot to escape the solar system. This plot element was not in the 2019 movie based on the novella.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A helium flash is a very brief thermal runaway nuclear fusion of large quantities of helium into carbon through the triple-alpha process in the core of low mass stars (between 0.8 solar masses () and 2.0 ) during their red giant phase (the Sun is predicted to experience a flash 1.2 billion years after it leaves the main sequence). A much rarer runaway helium fusion process can also occur on the surface of accreting white dwarf stars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975104}
{"src_title": "The Manuscript Found in Saragossa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "\"The Manuscript Found in Saragossa\" collects intertwining stories, all of them set in whole or in part in Spain, with a large and colorful cast of Romani, thieves, inquisitors, a cabbalist, a geometer, the cabbalist's beautiful sister, two Moorish princesses (Emina and Zubeida) and others that the brave, perhaps foolhardy, Walloon Guard Alphonse van Worden meets, imagines or reads about in the Sierra Morena mountains of 18th-century Spain while en route to Madrid. Recounted to the narrator over the course of sixty-six days, the novel's stories quickly overshadow van Worden's frame story. The bulk of the stories revolve around the Gypsy chief Avadoro, whose story becomes a frame story itself. Eventually the narrative focus moves again toward van Worden's frame story and a conspiracy involving an underground — or perhaps entirely hallucinated — Muslim society, revealing the connections and correspondences between the hundred or so stories told over the novel's sixty-six days.  The stories cover a wide range of genres and subjects, including the gothic, the picaresque, the erotic, the historical, the moral and the philosophic; and as a whole, the novel reflects Potocki's far-ranging interests, especially his deep fascination with secret societies, the supernatural and \"Oriental\" cultures. The novel's stories-within-stories sometimes reach several levels of depth, and characters and themes — a few prominent themes being honor, disguise, metamorphosis and conspiracy — recur and change shape throughout. Because of its rich and varied interlocking structure, the novel echoes favorable comparison to many celebrated literary antecedents such as the ancient BCE \"Jatakas\" and \"Panchatantra\" as well as the medieval \"Arabian Nights\" and \"Decameron\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Textual history.", "content": "The first \"days\" of \"The Manuscript Found in Saragossa\" were initially published apart from the rest of the novel in 1805, while the stories comprising the Gypsy chief's tale were added later. The novel was written incrementally and was left in its final form—though never exactly completed—at the time of the author's suicide in 1815.  Potocki composed the book entirely in French. Sections of the original French-language manuscripts were later lost, but have been back-translated into French from a Polish translation that had been made in 1847 by Edmund Chojecki from a complete French-language copy, now lost.  The first integral French-language version of the work, based on several French-language manuscripts and on Chojecki's 1847 Polish translation, was edited by René Radrizzani and published in 1989 by the renowned French publishing house of José Corti.  Translations of the novel from the French rely, for the missing sections, on Chojecki's Polish translation. The most recent English-language edition, published by Penguin Books in 1995, was translated by Ian Maclean.  The most recent and complete French-language version to date was edited by François Rosset and Dominique Triaire and published in 2006 in Leuven, Belgium, as part of a critical scholarly edition of the Complete Works of Potocki. Unlike Radrizzani's 1989 edition of the \"Manuscript Found in Saragossa\", Rosset and Triaire's edition is based solely on Potocki's French-language manuscripts found in libraries in France, Poland (in particular, previously unknown autograph pieces that they discovered in Poznań), Spain and Russia, as well as in the private collection of Potocki's heirs.  Rosset and Triaire identified two versions of the novel: one unfinished, of 1804, published in 1805; and the full version of 1810, which appears to have been completely reconceived in comparison to the 1804 version. Whereas the first version has a lighter, more sceptical tone, the second one tends toward a darker, more religious mood. In view of the differences between the two versions, the 1804 and 1810 versions have been published as two separate books; paperback editions were issued in early 2008 by Flammarion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film, TV, theatre.", "content": "In 1965, director Wojciech Has adapted the novel into a Polish-language black-and-white film \"The Saragossa Manuscript\" (Polish title: \"Rękopis znaleziony w Saragossie\"), starring Zbigniew Cybulski. The film was released in a full-length Polish version (180 minutes) and in shortened versions in other countries (152 minutes in the United States, and 125 in the United Kingdom).  The film was admired by many 1960s counterculture figures, notably Grateful Dead guitarist Jerry Garcia, who financed a complete print, as well as Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola, and Luis Buñuel. Neil Gaiman has referenced the book and film, in passing, in at least three different works. The film was shot near Częstochowa and in Wrocław, Poland. A detailed outline of the movie's plot is available online.  In 1973, the novel was adapted into a television mini-series in France, under the title \"La Duchesse d'Avila\", with Jean Blaise as Van Worden.  The late Vi Marriott adapted the book for The Cherub Theatre Company, which was performed by them under the title 'Ten Days A-Maze' and won several awards at the 1997 Edinburgh Fringe.*  A later adaption is the Romanian-language play \"Saragosa, 66 de Zile\" (\"Saragossa, 66 Days\"), written and directed by Alexandru Dabija in 1999 at the Odeon Theatre Bucharest, and first represented at The Theater der Welt Festival in Berlin.  Christine Mary Dunford adapted an English-language stage version from Ian Maclean's translation of the novel.  Subsequently, the novel (and film) acted themselves as a frame-story for an episode of the Italian TV series \"Inspector Montalbano\".  In 2001, composer José Evangelista premiered the opera \"Manuscrit trouvé à Saragosse\" on a libretto by Alexis Nouss based on the novel.  In 2017, the Italian filmmaker Alberto Rondalli adapted the book in a movie titled Agadah.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Manuscript Found in Saragossa (; also known in English as \"The Saragossa Manuscript\") is a frame-tale novel written in French at the turn of 18th and 19th centuries by the Polish author Count Jan Potocki (1761–1815). It is narrated from the time of the Napoleonic Wars, and depicts events several decades earlier, during the reign of King Philip V (r. 1700–46).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975105}
{"src_title": "PDCA", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Meaning.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plan.", "content": "Establish objectives and processes required to deliver the desired results.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Do.", "content": "The do phase allows the plan from the previous step to be done. Small changes are usually tested, and data is gathered to see how effective the change is.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Check.", "content": "During the check phase, the data and results gathered from the do phase are evaluated. Data are compared to the expected outcomes to see any similarities and differences. The testing process is also evaluated to see if there were any changes from the original test created during the planning phase. If the data is placed in a chart it can make it easier to see any trends if the PDCA cycle is conducted multiple times. This helps to see what changes work better than others, and if said changes can be improved as well.  Example: Gap analysis, or Appraisals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act.", "content": "Also called \"Adjust\", this act phase is where a process is improved. Records from the \"do\" and \"check\" phases help identify issues with the process. These issues may include problems, non-conformities, opportunities for improvement, inefficiencies and other issues that result in outcomes that are evidently less-than-optimal. Root causes of such issues are investigated, found and eliminated by modifying the process. Risk is re-evaluated. At the end of the actions in this phase, the process has better instructions, standards or goals. Planning for the next cycle can proceed with a better base-line. Work in the next do phase should not create recurrence of the identified issues; if it does, then the action was not effective.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "About.", "content": "PDCA was made popular by W. Edwards Deming, who is considered by many to be the father of modern quality control; however, he always referred to it as the \"Shewhart cycle\". Later in Deming's career, he modified PDCA to \"Plan, Do, Study, Act\" (PDSA) because he felt that \"check\" emphasized inspection over analysis. The PDSA cycle was used to create the model of know-how transfer process, and other models.  The concept of PDCA is based on the scientific method, as developed from the work of Francis Bacon (\"Novum Organum\", 1620). The scientific method can be written as \"hypothesis–experiment–evaluation\" or as \"plan–do–check\". Walter A. Shewhart described manufacture under \"control\"—under statistical control—as a three-step process of specification, production, and inspection. He also specifically related this to the scientific method of hypothesis, experiment, and evaluation. Shewhart says that the statistician \"must help to change the demand [for goods] by showing [...] how to close up the tolerance range and to improve the quality of goods.\" Clearly, Shewhart intended the analyst to take action based on the conclusions of the evaluation. According to Deming, during his lectures in Japan in the early 1950s, the Japanese participants shortened the steps to the now traditional \"plan, do, check, act\". Deming preferred \"plan, do, study, act\" because \"study\" has connotations in English closer to Shewhart's intent than \"check\".  A fundamental principle of the scientific method and PDCA is iteration—once a hypothesis is confirmed (or negated), executing the cycle again will extend the knowledge further. Repeating the PDCA cycle can bring its users closer to the goal, usually a perfect operation and output.  Another fundamental function of PDCA is the \"hygienic\" separation of each phase, for if not properly separated measurements of effects due to various simultaneous actions (causes) risk becoming confounded.  PDCA (and other forms of scientific problem solving) is also known as a system for developing critical thinking. At Toyota this is also known as \"Building people before building cars\". Toyota and other lean manufacturing companies propose that an engaged, problem-solving workforce using PDCA in a culture of critical thinking is better able to innovate and stay ahead of the competition through rigorous problem solving and the subsequent innovations.  Deming continually emphasized iterating towards an improved system, hence PDCA should be repeatedly implemented in spirals of increasing knowledge of the system that converge on the ultimate goal, each cycle closer than the previous. One can envision an open coil spring, with each loop being one cycle of the scientific method, and each complete cycle indicating an increase in our knowledge of the system under study. This approach is based on the belief that our knowledge and skills are limited, but improving. Especially at the start of a project, key information may not be known; the PDCA—scientific method—provides feedback to justify guesses (hypotheses) and increase knowledge. Rather than enter \"analysis paralysis\" to get it perfect the first time, it is better to be approximately right than exactly wrong. With improved knowledge, one may choose to refine or alter the goal (ideal state). The aim of the PDCA cycle is to bring its users closer to whatever goal they choose.  When PDCA is used for complex projects or products with a certain controversy, checking with external stakeholders should happen before the Do stage, since changes to projects and products that are already in detailed design can be costly; this is also seen as Plan-Check-Do-Act.  Rate of change, that is, rate of improvement, is a key competitive factor in today's world. PDCA allows for major \"jumps\" in performance (\"breakthroughs\" often desired in a Western approach), as well as kaizen (frequent small improvements). In the United States a PDCA approach is usually associated with a sizable project involving numerous people's time, and thus managers want to see large \"breakthrough\" improvements to justify the effort expended. However, the scientific method and PDCA apply to all sorts of projects and improvement activities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "PDCA (plan–do–check–act or plan–do–check–adjust) is an iterative four-step management method used in business for the control and continuous improvement of processes and products. It is also known as the Deming circle/cycle/wheel, the Shewhart cycle, the control circle/cycle, or plan–do–study–act (PDSA). Another version of this PDCA cycle is OPDCA. The added \"O\" stands for \"observation\" or as some versions say: \"Observe the current condition.\" This emphasis on observation and current condition has currency with the literature on lean manufacturing and the Toyota Production System. The PDCA cycle, with Ishikawa’s changes, can be traced back to S. Mizuno of the Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1959.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975106}
{"src_title": "Lifestyle (sociology)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Individual identity.", "content": "A lifestyle typically reflects an individual's attitudes, way of life, values, or world view. Therefore, a lifestyle is a means of forging a sense of self and to create cultural symbols that resonate with personal identity. Not all aspects of a lifestyle are voluntary. Surrounding social and technical systems can constrain the lifestyle choices available to the individual and the symbols she/he is able to project to others and the self.  The lines between personal identity and the everyday doings that signal a particular lifestyle become blurred in modern society. For example, \"green lifestyle\" means holding beliefs and engaging in activities that consume fewer resources and produce less harmful waste (i.e. a smaller ecological footprint), and deriving a sense of self from holding these beliefs and engaging in these activities. Some commentators argue that, in modernity, the cornerstone of lifestyle construction is consumption behavior, which offers the possibility to create and further individualize the self with different products or services that signal different ways of life.  Lifestyle may include views on politics, religion, health, intimacy, and more. All of these aspects play a role in shaping someone's lifestyle.  In the magazine and television industries, \"lifestyle\" is used to describe a category of publications or programs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of lifestyles studies.", "content": "Three main phases can be identified in the history of lifestyles studies:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifestyles and social position.", "content": "Earlier studies on lifestyles focus on the analysis of social structure and of the individuals' relative positions inside it. Thorstein Veblen, with his 'emulation' concept, opens this perspective by asserting that people adopt specific'schemes of life', and in particular specific patterns of 'conspicuous consumption', depending on a desire for distinction from social strata they identify as inferior and a desire for emulation of the ones identified as superior. Max Weber intends lifestyles as distinctive elements of status groups strictly connected with a dialectic of recognition of prestige: the lifestyle is the most visible manifestation of social differentiation, even within the same social class, and in particular it shows the prestige which the individuals believe they enjoy or to which they aspire. Georg Simmel carries out formal analysis of lifestyles, at the heart of which can be found processes of individualisation, identification, differentiation, and recognition, understood both as generating processes of, and effects generated by, lifestyles, operating \"vertically\" as well as \"horizontally\". Finally, Pierre Bourdieu renews this approach within a more complex model in which lifestyles, made up mainly of social practices and closely tied to individual tastes, represent the basic point of intersection between the structure of the field and processes connected with the habitus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lifestyles as styles of thought.", "content": "The approach interpreting lifestyles as principally styles of thought has its roots in the soil of psychological analysis. Initially, starting with Alfred Adler, a lifestyle was understood as a style of personality, in the sense that the framework of guiding values and principles which individuals develop in the first years of life end up defining a system of judgement which informs their actions throughout their lives. Later, particularly in Milton Rokeach's work, Arnold Mitchell's VALS research and Lynn Kahle's LOV research, lifestyles' analysis developed as profiles of values, reaching the hypothesis that it is possible to identify various models of scales of values organized hierarchically, to which different population sectors correspond. Then with Daniel Yankelovich and William Wells we move on to the so-called AIO approach in which attitudes, interests and opinions are considered as fundamental lifestyles' components, being analysed from both synchronic and diachronic points of view and interpreted on the basis of socio-cultural trends in a given social context (as, for instance, in Bernard Cathelat's work). Finally, a further development leads to the so-called profiles-and-trends approach, at the core of which is an analysis of the relations between mental and behavioural variables, bearing in mind that socio-cultural trends influence both the diffusion of various lifestyles within a population and the emerging of different modalities of interaction between thought and action.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lifestyles as styles of action.", "content": "Analysis of lifestyles as action profiles is characterized by the fact that it no longer considers the action level as a simple derivative of lifestyles, or at least as their collateral component, but rather as a constitutive element. In the beginning, this perspective focussed mainly on consumer behaviour, seeing products acquired as objects expressing on the material plane individuals’ self-image and how they view their position in society. Subsequently, the perspective broadened to focus more generally on the level of daily life, concentrating – as in authors such as Joffre Dumazedier and Anthony Giddens – on the use of time, especially loisirs, and trying to study the interaction between the active dimension of choice and the dimension of routine and structuration which characterize that level of action. Finally, some authors, for instance Richard Jenkins and A. J. Veal, suggested an approach to lifestyles in which it is not everyday actions which make up the plane of analysis but those which the actors who adopt them consider particularly meaningful and distinctive.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "A healthy or unhealthy lifestyle will most likely be transmitted across generations. According to the study done by Case et al. (2002), when a 0-3-year-old child has a mother who practices a healthy lifestyle, this child will be 27% more likely to become healthy and adopt the same lifestyle. For instance, high income parents are more likely to eat more fruit and vegetables, have time to exercise, and provide the best living condition to their children. On the other hand, low-income parents are more likely to participate in unhealthy activities such as smoking to help them release poverty-related stress and depression. Parents are the first teacher for every child. Everything that parents do will be very likely transferred to their children through the learning process.  Adults may be drawn together by mutual interest that results in a lifestyle. For example, William Dufty described how pursuing a sugar-free diet led to such associations:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Class.", "content": "Lifestyle research can contribute to the question of the relevance of the class concept.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media culture.", "content": "The term lifestyle was introduced in the 1950s as a derivative of that of style in art:  Theodor W. Adorno noted that there is a \"culture industry\" in which the mass media is involved, but that the term \"mass culture\" is inappropriate:  The media culture of advanced capitalism typically creates new \"life-styles\" to drive the consumption of new commodities:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lifestyle is the interests, opinions, behaviours, and behavioural orientations of an individual, group, or culture. The term was introduced by Austrian psychologist Alfred Adler with the meaning of \"a person's basic character as established early in childhood\", as in his 1929 book, \"The Case of Miss R.\" The broader sense of lifestyle as a \"way or style of living\" has been documented since 1961. Lifestyle is a combination of determining intangible or tangible factors. Tangible factors relate specifically to demographic variables, i.e. an individual's demographic profile, whereas intangible factors concern the psychological aspects of an individual such as personal values, preferences, and outlooks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975107}
{"src_title": "Markus Winkelhock", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Stuttgart, Winkelhock won races in a string of junior formulae including Formula König, German Formula Renault and the Formula Renault Eurocup from 1998–2000.  In 2001, Winkelhock joined the German Formula 3 Championship, where he remained until the championship became the F3 Euroseries in 2003. His record was fifth overall in 2001 (three wins), seventh in 2002 (one win) and fourth in 2003 (two wins).  He switched to touring car racing in 2004, with a season in the DTM in an AMG-Mercedes CLK. But he failed to score a point all year with the Persson team.  Winkelhock switched back to single-seater racing in 2005, joining the World Series by Renault with Draco. He won three times but there were also some less than shining moments – notably when he crashed at Monaco in qualifying and on the first lap of the race.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formula One.", "content": "On 24 January 2006, Marcus Winkelhock was confirmed a test and reserve driver in the Midland F1 team, (formerly Jordan Grand Prix) for the Formula One season. He participated in Friday test sessions for the team at the Bahrain, Australian, German and Hungarian Grands Prix.  He was re-signed for by the team, which by then had been renamed as Spyker F1. He also made a brief return to the DTM in 2007, starting three races.  Following Christijan Albers's departure from Spyker after the 2007 British Grand Prix, Winkelhock was confirmed as his replacement for the European Grand Prix on 18 July. The deal was only for one race with Sakon Yamamoto set to race for Spyker for the rest of the season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2007 European Grand Prix.", "content": "Due to Christijan Albers's departure from the Spyker F1 Team, Winkelhock was called in for the 10th race of the season, the European Grand Prix. Winkelhock started last on the 22-car grid alongside team mate Adrian Sutil. But on the formation lap with the rest of the field on dry-weather tyres, the team made a last-second decision to call Winkelhock into the pits to switch to the full wet tyres. When pouring rain forced almost all the others to pit at the end of the first lap, Winkelhock was able to move into the lead, passing some cars as they pitted, and even passing Kimi Räikkönen on the track as the Finn tip-toed around to the pits, eventually building a lead of 19 seconds by the end of the second lap. By lap 4 he had a lead of 33 seconds over Ferrari's Felipe Massa in 2nd place.  As the rain got heavier the race stewards first sent out the safety car, and then suspended the race following a series of spin-offs in the first corner behind the safety car. The race restarted after the rain had eased. Winkelhock and his team chose to start on full wet tyres on a drying track in the hope of further showers, as the team expected he would be overtaken by faster cars anyway. The gamble failed and, having restarted the race from pole position, Winkelhock quickly fell down the order. He retired on lap 15 with hydraulic problems that caused a small fire. He had led for a total of six laps.  According to Bob Varsha of the Speed Channel commentary team, Winkelhock is the only driver in Formula One history to start last on the grid and lead the race in his first Grand Prix, and due to the red flag and restart, is also the only driver in Formula One history to start both last and first on the grid in the same Grand Prix.  Despite leading his debut race, the Spyker team eventually opted against giving Winkelhock a drive for the remainder of the 2007 season for sponsorship reasons, and instead decided to give the drive to former Super Aguri driver Sakon Yamamoto.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Formula One career.", "content": "Winkelhock returned to the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters after he lost his Spyker seat, and has remained in the series, driving for Team Rosberg, for 2008 (12th), 2009 (10th) and 2010 (12th).  In 2011, he competed in the FIA GT1 World Championship for the All-Inkl.com Münnich Motorsport team alongside team boss Marc Basseng driving a Lamborghini. They won the championship the following year, the team having switched to the Mercedes SLS due to a change in the regulations.  Winkelhock was to move with Münnich Motorsport to the World Touring Car Championship for 2013, however he left the team before the start of the season in order to focus on his GT racing commitments, and was replaced by defending champion Robert Huff.  Since 2013, he has more or less settled in the Blancpain Endurance Series and also won the 2017 Nurburgring 24 hours sportscar race.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Racing record.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career summary.", "content": "As Winkelhock was a guest driver, he was ineligible for points.<br>", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complete Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters results.", "content": "- Driver did not finish, but completed 90% of the race distance.<br>", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complete FIA GT Series results.", "content": "‡ — Guest driver – Not eligible for points.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complete Blancpain GT World Challenge Europe results.", "content": "Winkelhock was ineligible to score points during the Moscow weekend due to Nikolaus Mayr-Melnhof's absence.<br>", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complete WeatherTech SportsCar Championship results.", "content": "Winkelhock did not complete sufficient laps in order to score full points.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Markus Winkelhock (born 13 June 1980) is a German professional racing driver, who has taken part in one Formula One Grand Prix, which he briefly led. He is the son of Manfred Winkelhock and nephew of Joachim Winkelhock, both of whom were Formula One drivers in the 1980s. Having switched to sports and touring car racing, he has also won the FIA GT1 World Championship in 2012 with team-mate Marc Basseng.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975108}
{"src_title": "Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Paris, of Breton descent, after studying at the École Normale Supérieure he was sent to the French School at Athens in 1853, he directed some excavations in Chios, and wrote an historical account of the island.  After his return he filled various educational offices, and took his doctorate with two theses, \"Quid Vestae cultus in institutis veterum privatis publicisque valuerit\" and \"Polybe, ou la Grèce conquise par les Romains\" (1858). In these works his distinctive qualities were already revealed. His minute knowledge of the language of the Greek and Roman institutions, coupled with his low estimate of the conclusions of contemporary scholars, led him to go directly to the original texts, which he read without political or religious bias. When, however, he had succeeded in extracting from the sources a general idea that seemed to him clear and simple, he attached himself to it as if to the truth itself.  From 1860 to 1870 he was professor of history at the faculty of letters at Strasbourg, where he had a brilliant career as a teacher, but never yielded to the influence exercised by the German universities in the field of classical and Germanic antiquities.  It was at Strasbourg that he published his remarkable volume \"La Cité antique\" (1864), in which he showed forcibly the part played by religion in the political and social evolution of Greece and Rome. The book was so consistent throughout, so full of ingenious ideas, and written in so striking a style, that it ranks as one of the masterpieces of the French language in the 19th century. By this literary merit Fustel set little store, but he clung tenaciously to his theories. When he revised the book in 1875, his modifications were very slight, and it is conceivable that, had he recast it, as he often expressed the desire to do in the last years of his life, he would not have abandoned any part of his fundamental thesis.  Fustel de Coulanges was appointed to a lectureship at the École Normale Supérieure in February 1870, to a professorship at the Paris faculty of letters in 1875, and to the chair of medieval history created for him at the Sorbonne in 1878, he applied himself to the study of the political institutions of ancient France. The invasion of France by the German armies during the Franco-Prussian War attracted his attention to the Germanic invasions under the Roman Empire. Pursuing the theory of JB Dubos, but also transforming it, he maintained that those invasions were not marked by the violent and destructive character usually attributed to them; that the penetration of the German barbarians into Gaul was a slow process; that the Germans submitted to the imperial administration; that the political institutions of the Merovingians had their origins in the Roman laws at least as much as, if not more than, in German usages; and, consequently, that there was no conquest of Gaul by the Germans.  This thesis he sustained in his \"Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France\", the first volume of which appeared in 1874. It was the author's original intention to complete this work in four volumes, but as the first volume was keenly attacked in Germany as well as in France, Fustel was forced in self-defence to recast the book entirely. He re-examined all the texts and wrote a number of dissertations, which were dominated by his general idea and characterized by a total disregard for the results of such historical disciplines as diplomatic. From this crucible issued an entirely new work, less well arranged than the original, but rich in facts and critical comments. The first volume was expanded into three volumes, \"La Gaule romaine\" (1891), \"L'Invasion germanique et la fin de l'empire\" (1891) and \"La Monarchie franque\" (1888), followed by three other volumes, \"L'Alleu et le domaine rural pendant l'époque mérovingienne\" (1889), \"Les Origines du système féodal: le bénéfice et le patronat...\" (1890) and \"Les Transformations de la royauté pendant l'époque carolingienne\" (1892).  Thus, in six volumes, he had carried the work no farther than the Carolingian period. The dissertations not embodied in his work were collected by himself and (after his death) by his pupil, Camille Jullian, and published as volumes of miscellanies: \"Recherches sur quelques problèmes d'Histoire\" (1885), dealing with the Roman colonate, the land system in Normandy; the Germanic mark, and the judiciary organization in the kingdom of the Franks; \"Nouvelles recherches sur quelques problèmes d'histoire\" (1891); and \"Questions historiques\" (1893), which contains his paper on Chios and his thesis on Polybius.  His life was devoted almost entirely to his teaching and his books. In 1875, he was elected member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, and in 1880 reluctantly accepted the post of director of the École Normale. Without intervening personally in French politics, he took a keen interest in the questions of administration and social reorganization arising from the fall of the imperialist régime and the disasters of the war.  He wished the institutions of the present to approximate more closely to those of the past, and devised for the new French constitution a body of reforms which reflected the opinions he had formed upon the democracy at Rome and in ancient France. But these were dreams which did not hold him long, and he would have been scandalized had he known that his name was subsequently used as the emblem of a political and religious party. He died at Massy (then called Seine-et-Oise) in 1889.  Throughout his historical career — at the École Normale and the Sorbonne and in his lectures delivered to the empress Eugénie — his sole aim was to ascertain the truth, and in the defence of truth his polemics against what he imagined to be the blindness and insincerity of his critics sometimes assumed a character of harshness and injustice. But, in France at least, these critics were the first to render justice to his learning, his talents and his disinterestedness.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges (; 18 March 1830 – 12 September 1889) was a French historian. Joseph McCarthy argues that his first great book, \"The Ancient City\" (1864) was based on his in-depth knowledge of the primary Greek and Latin texts. The book argued that:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975109}
{"src_title": "Cakile maritima", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a glabrous, succulent annual, with a slender or stout taproot. It has a branched stem prostrate or ascending, growing up to. The lobed leaves, are flesh-like and alternate (spaced), they are different from top and bottom of the stem, the lower leaves are obovate or oblancelate, while the upper ones are oblong. It blooms in the UK, between June and August. The small flowers come in shades of white, lilac-coloured or purple, with 4 petals measuring up to across. Later it produces green maturing to brown, seed capsules (fruit), that are short and stubby. They contain 2 yellow, brown, smooth seeds. The seed oil contains a high level of erucic acid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phytochemistry.", "content": "Due to its highly efficient antioxidant system, it can withstand even high doses of Cadmium pollution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "It was published and described by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 'Fl. Carniol.' edition 2, Vol.2 on page 35, in 1772.  The specific epithet \"maritima\", refers to the Latin term for 'of the sea'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Cakile maritima\" is native to temperate areas of North Africa, western Asia and Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "It is found in Africa within Algeria, the Canary Islands, Egypt, Libya, the Madeira Islands, Morocco and Tunisia. In Western Asia, it is found in the Caucasus, Georgia, Iran, Israel, Syria and Turkey. In Eastern Europe, it is found in Estonia and Ukraine. In middle Europe, it is found within Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Poland. In Northern Europe, in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and the United Kingdom. In Southeastern Europe, within Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia. In Southeastern Europe, within France, Portugal and Spain. It is also widely naturalised outside of its native range, in North America.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "It grows on the foreshores near large dune systems, and in shingle banks. It is tolerant of salt spray and transient seawater inundation. It is pollinated by a wide range of insects, from \"Apis mellifera\", \"Eristalis intricarius\" and \"Pieris rapae\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Veterinary significance.", "content": "As the seed oil contains a high level of erucic acid which can have pathological effects on the cardiac muscle of several animal species. However, orange-bellied parrots feed on its seed during their northward migrating journey from Tasmania and Australia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The seed oil can be used for industrial applications.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cakile maritima, the European searocket, is a common plant in the mustard family. It is widespread in Europe, North Africa and western Asia, especially on coastlines. It can now be found in many other areas of the world where it has been introduced. It is an inhabitant of the west and east coasts of North America, where it has the potential to become a noxious weed. This is an annual plant which grows in clumps or mounds in the sand on beaches and bluffs. The shiny leaves are fleshy, green and tinted with purple or magenta, and long-lobed. It has white to light purple flowers and sculpted, segmented, corky brown fruits one to three centimeters long. The fruits float and are water-dispersed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975110}
{"src_title": "Battle of Gibraltar (1607)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Forces.", "content": "A Dutch fleet of 26 warships was led by Jacob van Heemskerk. The Dutch flagship was \"Æolus\". Other Dutch ships were \"De Tijger\", \"De Zeehond\", \"De Griffioen\", \"De Roode Leeuw\", \"De Gouden Leeuw\", \"De Zwarte Beer\", \"De Witte Beer\", and \"De Ochtendster\".  A Spanish fleet of 21 ships, including 10 galleons, was led by Don Juan Álvarez de Ávila. The Spanish flagship \"San Augustin\" was commanded by Don Juan's son. Other ships were \"Nuestra Señora de la Vega\" and \"Madre de Dios\". The Spanish fleet was covered by a fortress, although the Dutch fleet was out of range of its guns at all times and they could not intervene in the battle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "Van Heemskerk left some of his ships at the bay entrance to prevent the escape of any Spanish ships. Twenty from the Dutch fleet were ordered to focus on the Spanish galleons while the rest attacked the smaller vessels. Van Heemskerk was killed during the first approach on the Spanish flagship as a cannon ball severed his leg. The Dutch then doubled up on the galleons and a few of the galleons caught fire. One exploded due to a shot into the powder magazine. The Dutch captured the Spanish flagship but let it go adrift.  Following the destruction of the Spanish ships, the Dutch deployed boats and killed hundreds of swimming Spanish sailors. The Dutch lost 100 men including admiral Van Heemskerk. Sixty Dutch were wounded. Depending on the sources, most or all of the Spanish ships were lost and between 350 and 4,000 Spaniards were killed or captured. Álvarez de Ávila was amongst the dead.  The battle resulted in a 12-year truce in which the Dutch Republic achieved de facto recognition by the Spanish Crown.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The naval battle of Gibraltar took place on 25 April 1607, during the Eighty Years' War, when a Dutch fleet surprised and engaged a Spanish fleet anchored at the Bay of Gibraltar. During the four hours' of action, most of the Spanish ships were destroyed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975111}
{"src_title": "Leopold Koželuch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Koželuch was born on 26 June 1747 in Velvary, in present-day Czech Republic. His father was Antonín Bartholomäus Koželuh, a shoemaker. He was baptised Jan Antonín, but by 1773 he had adopted the name Leopold to avoid confusion with his elder cousin, the composer Jan Antonín Koželuh. He also Germanised his surname to Koželuch. After starting his musical education in Velvary, Koželuch moved to Prague where he studied with his cousin and František Xaver Dušek, the latter teaching him in the keyboard and composition.  From 1771 to 1778 Koželuch wrote ballets and pantomimes which were performed in Prague. The success of these works led him to abandon plans to study law in favour of a musical career. He moved to Vienna for this purpose in 1778, where he quickly established himself as a pianist, albeit one who did not perform in public, composer and teacher. Pianist Kemp English observes that in Vienna Koželuch \"found himself in the right place at the right time\", and was able to advance his career there with carefully cultivated connections. He composed a cantata for the death of Maria Theresa in 1780. His pupils would include Maria Theresia Paradis, Archduchess Elisabeth of Württemberg and Archduchess Marie Louise. His appointment to teach Archduchess Elizabeth was an official court position, succeeding Georg Christoph Wagenseil. In 1781 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart resigned his appointment as court organist in Salzburg following a quarrel with his employer, the Archbishop of Salzburg. The Archbishop offered the position to Koželuch, but Koželuch refused, later expressing concerns to a friend that he might too have fallen victim to what he saw as Mozart's ill-treatment. In 1784 Koželuch expanded into publishing, and soon formed his own firm, Musikalisches Magazin, which would later come under the management of his brother Antonín Tomáš. Koželuch would use the firm, in combination with overseas partners, to publish many of his compositions.  By 1790, a time at which Mozart and Joseph Haydn were at the height of their careers, Koželuch's reputation was such as to move Ernst Ludwig Gerber to say the following of his status within Europe: \"Leopold Kozeluch is without question with young and old the generally most loved among our living composers, and this with justification\". Koželuch's esteem in royal circles grew again in 1791, when he composed a well-received cantata commissioned for the coronation of Emperor Leopold II in Prague. Mozart composed \"La clemenza di Tito\" for the same occasion. Mozart's death later in the year afforded Koželuch another opportunity: Emperor Franz II offered him Mozart's positions in his court, \"Kammer Kapellmeister\" (music director) and \"Hofmusik Compositor\" (composer), and at double Mozart's salary. Koželuch would remain in the positions until his death. Koželuch joined a masonic lodge in 1791, marking another coincidence between his career and Mozart's and serving to advance himself further within Viennese society.  Koželuch's compositional output declined after the turn of the century as he focused on his court duties, teaching, and the lucrative work of arranging Scottish, Irish and Welsh folk songs for the publisher George Thomson. William Crotch reflected on Koželuch's reputation in a lecture in 1806, remarking that he had \"sunk in unmerited neglect\" while Mozart's reputation had enjoyed posthumous growth. In 1809, Ludwig van Beethoven, a frequent disparager of rival composers, would write to Thomson referring to Koželuch as \"Miserabilis\".  Koželuch died on 7 May 1818. His daughter, Catherina Cibbini-Kozeluch, became a prominent pianist and composer based in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Koželuch left around 400 compositions. Among these there are about thirty symphonies, twenty-two piano concertos, including a concerto for piano four-hands, arguably one of the best examples of this rare genre, two clarinet concertos, twenty-four violin sonatas, sixty-three piano trios, six string quartets, two oratorios (one of which, \"Moisè in Egitto\", has recently been produced and recorded), nine cantatas and various liturgical works. Among his music there are also operas and works for ballet, which—with the exception of one opera —have yet to be heard in recent years. Numerous arrangements by him of Scottish songs for the Edinburgh collector George Thomson were popular, and some of these have also been recorded.  Milan Poštolka, a musicologist, catalogued Koželuch's works in 1964.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Keyboard.", "content": "Koželuch's substantial output of keyboard compositions reflected the promotion of his reputation as a specialist keyboard virtuoso. Christopher Hogwood argues that Koželuch's keyboard sonatas, especially those which open in minor keys, \"substantially anticipated... the tragic-pathetic manner\" of Beethoven and Schubert, and that in them he \"created the internationally praised \"cantabile\" idiom\". Hogwood further states that \"Koželuch's sonatas are, in the true sense, 'classics'—that is to say,'models for imitation and study'—and display to perfection precisely those features that theorists required of a sonata at the end of the 18th century.\" The oeuvre of sonatas spans almost the entirety of Koželuch's career: the first was composed in 1773; the final three date from after 1810. The sonatas cater for different purposes. Some are exhibitionist works; some are simpler; some are cast in a Romantic style that foreshadows Beethoven. In the third category, Koželuch was composing slow minor-key introductions to sonatas as much as 17 years before Beethoven composed his Piano Sonata No. 8 (\"Pathetique\"), while neither Mozart nor Haydn ever did so. Koželuch's composed his sonatas to be played on the newly emerging fortepiano rather than the harpsichord. The popularity of the sonatas in turn helped to make the fortepiano fashionable.  Twenty-two Koželuch keyboard concertos survive. The musicologist Richard Wigmore argues that they \"conspicuously lack the melodic abundance, rich woodwind colouring and operatic-style dialogues of Mozart's great Viennese concertos\", but nonetheless \"beguile with their limpid grace, their sparkling keyboard writing (often in just two parts), and their sense of proportion.\" Most are scored only for strings, oboes, horns and soloist—sparser than Mozart's scoring of his contemporaneous concertos—suggesting that the works were intended for small-scale performances.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chamber.", "content": "Koželuch's chamber music, especially his output from the 1790s, is among the more advanced of his works, often foreshadowing the expressionism of Beethoven. Musicologist Roger Hickman refers to this period of chamber music output as representing a more \"daring character\" on the part of the composer, and argues that these works \"must have been noted by the young Schubert\". Koželuch's only string quartets date from this period. A set of six published as Opus 32 and Opus 33, they became known throughout Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Orchestral and choral.", "content": "Koželuch probably composed most of his symphonies during his first decade in Vienna, a period in which his Viennese contemporaries, including Mozart, were focusing on other genres. The musicologist Allan Badley labels Koželuch's symphonic compositions as \"modest by the standards of the time\". Badley argues that Koželuch's symphonies are influenced by those of his Prague teacher František Xaver Dušek in their orchestration and thematic organisation.  Almost all of Koželuch's choral works, including cantatas and five of his six operas, have been lost. His opera \"Gustav Wasa\" (presumably from 1792) was performed in Finland in 2018, for the first time since the death of the composer.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Leopold Koželuch (, born \"Jan Antonín Koželuh\", alternatively also \"Leopold Koželuh\", \"Leopold Kotzeluch\") (26 June 1747 – 7 May 1818) was a Czech composer and music teacher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975112}
{"src_title": "Tengiz Kitovani", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Born in Tbilisi, Kitovani graduated from the Tbilisi Fine Arts Academy and taught at a boarding school in the town of Tetritsqaro, and then worked as a main painter for the Tbilisi State Advertising Bureau between 1967 and 1969.  Kitovani entered the national politics early in 1990 when the independence movement reached its climax in then-Soviet Georgia. Elected to the Supreme Council of Georgia the same year, he was closely associated with Zviad Gamsakhurdia, a Soviet-era dissident who went on to become the chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Council and eventually the President of Georgia in 1991. In December 1990, Gamsakhurdia decreed the creation of the National Guard of Georgia and appointed Kitovani as its head. However, the two men collided in August 1991, when Gamsakhurdia sacked him as National Guard commander. Kitovani subsequently claimed that Gamsakhurdia was intending to disband the National Guard, and had been ordered to do so by the leaders of the Moscow Putsch who had briefly taken power in the Soviet Union, but did not produce the documents he claimed to possess confirming this. Kitovani refused to accept his dismissal and left Tbilisi with most of his troops to entrench himself in the Rkoni Gorge. This was the beginning of the end for Gamsakhurdia, whose inflexible politics forced many of his former supporters into opposition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military coup and civil war.", "content": "The confrontation between pro- and anti-Gamsakhurdia factions quickly degenerated into a series of strikes and armed clashes, and eventually, Kitovani, joined by Gamsakhurdia’s former Prime Minister Tengiz Sigua and the paramilitary leader Jaba Ioseliani, launched a violent coup in December 1991. Ioseliani, as well as Gamsakhurdia’s supporters and some independent observers, claimed that Kitovani hired some Soviet/Russian troops stationed in Tbilisi to join the attack on the government.  On January 2, 1992, the deposition of Gamsakhurdia and the formation of the Military Council had been announced with Kitovani and Ioseliani as its leaders. Gamsakhurdia had been forced into exile by January 6, 1992, and the coup leaders invited the former Soviet foreign minister Eduard Shevardnadze to head the post-coup provisional government – the State Council – in March 1992. As a result of the power-sharing arrangement that was eventually struck between Ioseliani, Kitovani, Sigua and Shevardnadze, Kitovani remained the commander of the National Guard and retained a considerable influence on decision making. In May 1992, Shevardnadze appointed Kitovani Minister of Defence and Deputy Prime Minister in an effort to bring the National Guard under central control. However, both Kitovani and Ioseliani were reluctant to concede power to Shevardnadze and tended to engage in unilateral actions, and in doing so frequently conflicted with each other.  The first and most obvious of such actions was taken by Kitovani during a planned military operation against Gamsakhurdia’s supporters who had formed pockets of armed resistance in western Georgia and had taken Georgian government officials hostage. On the night of August 13, 1992, Kitovani’s force entered the autonomous republic of Abkhazia, whose leadership had taken a series of steps towards secession from Georgia, in order to establish control over the region’s railways sabotaged by Gamsakhurdia's loyal militias. Although this operation and show of force resulted in the eventual release of the hostages, Kitovani, acting most probably on his own initiative, proceeded towards Abkhazia’s capital of Sukhumi and forced the Abkhaz leaders into flight. Shevardnadze failed to have Kitovani’s force withdrawn from Abkhazia and the country became involved in a thirteen-month-long war which would end in Georgia’s loss of control over most of Abkhazia. Another version of these events, often quoted in Georgia, says that Russia, while supporting the Abkhaz, also instigated Kitovani to trigger the conflict and perhaps even promised support for his leadership ambitions in Georgia after a successful operation. Later, Shevardnadze would accuse Kitovani of provoking an armed conflict in Abkhazia, claiming that Kitovani disavowed his order and advance with his military to Sukhumi. Kitovani however blamed Shevardnadze for preventing him from following up an offensive on Sukhumi with an attack on the Abkhaz stronghold in Gudauta, home to a Russian military base which supplied the secessionist forces with instructors and munitions. Shevardnadze’s successor as President of Georgia, Mikheil Saakashvili, has also accused Kitovani of being a \"Russian agent\" and blamed him for the loss of Abkhazia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conflict with Shevardnadze.", "content": "During the war in Abkhazia, Kitovani developed a power centre rivalling Shevardnadze’s and on several occasions challenged Shevardnadze, now Head of State, on defence matters, suggesting that he should be responsible only for foreign policy. Kitovani stood as a candidate in Georgia's parliamentary elections of October 11, 1992 and was elected in the single-mandate constituency of Bolnisi. In the aftermath of the elections, Shevardnadze attempted to replace him as Minister of Defence with a professional soldier, General Anatoli Kamkamidze, but was unable to do so. Amid persistent rumors that he was planning a new military coup, Kitovani was finally forced into resignation in May 1993 – though a protégé, Gia Karkarashvili, was named as his replacement, and he was able to retain some of his power – partly, according to widespread rumours in Tbilisi, through his control over Georgia’s \"energy mafia\" and his \"special relationship\" with Russian defence minister Pavel Grachev.  However, Shevardnadze was able to exploit the military setback in Abkhazia to embark on a crackdown on the paramilitary groups and ultimately their leaders. After the pro-Gamsakhurdia rebellion had been quashed with Russian aid by December 1993, Shevardnadze was able to increasingly consolidate his power and deprive both Kitovani and Ioseliani of influence over national security policy.  After spending some time in Russia, Kitovani returned to Tbilisi and, together with Tengiz Sigua and Boris Kakubava, leader of a faction of ethnic Georgian IDPs from Abkhazia, founded the National Front for the Liberation of Abkhazia in the autumn of 1994.  On January 13, 1995, Kitovani, with the support of Tengiz Sigua, led a force of some 700 lightly armed supporters in a march against Abkhazia. They were stopped by Georgian police and arrested. Kitovani was tried for having organized an unlawful armed force and sentenced to eight years' imprisonment in October 1996. He served four years of his eight-year term and was pardoned by Shevardnadze on medical grounds on May 22, 1999.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Emigration and return.", "content": "Since early 2000s, Kitovani has lived in Moscow from where he harshly criticized the Shevardnadze government on several occasions. In February 2002, he responded scandalously to the mysterious suicide of Nugzar Sajaia, Shevardnadze’s close ally and an influential Chairman of Georgia’s National Security Council, making allegations that Sajaia was a homosexual and had ordered the 2001 murder of journalist Giorgi Sanaia. Later that year, Kitovani accused Shevardnadze of being behind the 2002 assassination of Kakhi Asatiani, a businessman and former soccer star. He also upheld Russia’s claims that some 700 Chechen fighters had spent that winter in Georgia’s Pankisi Gorge. He further claimed that Russian General Gennady Shpigun, abducted and killed in Chechnya in 1999/2000, was in fact held captive and put to death in Pankisi, with the body then taken to southern Chechnya. Georgia dismissed all these claims, however. Georgian Prosecutor-General Nugzar Gabrichidze claimed that Kitovani had been in close contact with National Guard veterans who staged a failed mutiny on March 23, 2003. Kitovani, however, denied any links with the mutiny.  Kitovani returned to Tbilisi, in December 2012, after the change of government in the aftermath of the October 2012 parliamentary election.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tengiz Kitovani () (born June 9, 1938) is a retired Georgian politician and military commander with high-profile involvement in the Georgian Civil War early in the 1990s when he commanded the National Guard of Georgia and served as a Defense Minister until being gradually sidelined by Eduard Shevardnadze who had earlier been invited to lead the nation after a successful coup d'etat launched by Kitovani and his allies against President Zviad Gamsakhurdia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975113}
{"src_title": "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born at Altona, Duchy of Holstein (then a part of the Denmark–Norway kingdoms), the son of Jacob Struve (1755–1841). Struve's father moved the family away from the French occupation to Dorpat (nowadays Tartu) in Imperial Russia to avoid military service, equipped with Danish passports.  In 1808 he entered the Imperial University of Dorpat, where he first studied philology, but soon turned his attention to astronomy. From 1813 to 1820, he taught at the university and collected data at the Dorpat Observatory, and in 1820 became a full professor and director of the observatory. His teachings have had a strong effect that is still felt at the university.  Struve was occupied with research on double stars and geodesy in Dorpat until 1839, when he founded and became director of the new Pulkovo Observatory near St Petersburg. Among other honors, he won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1826. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in March 1827 and was awarded their Royal Medal the same year. Struve was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1833, and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1834. In 1843 he formally adopted Russian nationality. He retired in 1862 due to failing health.  The asteroid 768 Struveana was named jointly in his honour and that of Otto Wilhelm and Karl Hermann Struve and a lunar crater was named for another 3 astronomers of the Struve family: Friedrich Georg Wilhelm, Otto Wilhelm and Otto.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Struve's name is best known for his observations of double stars, which he carried on for many years. Although double stars had been studied earlier by William Herschel and John Herschel and Sir James South, Struve outdid any previous efforts. He discovered a very large number of double stars and in 1827 published his double star catalogue \"Catalogus novus stellarum duplicium\". Stars of his catalogue are sometimes indicated by the Greek letter sigma, Σ. Thus, 61 Cygni is also designated as Σ2758.  Since most double stars are true binary stars rather than mere optical doubles (as William Herschel had been the first to discover), they orbit around one another's barycenter and slowly change position over the years. Thus Struve made micrometric measurements of 2714 double stars from 1824 to 1837 and published these in his work \"Stellarum duplicium et multiplicium mensurae micrometricae\".  Struve carefully measured the \"constant of aberration\" in 1843. He was also the first to measure the parallax of a star Vega, although Friedrich Bessel had been the first to measure the parallax of a star (61 Cygni).  In an 1847 work, \"Etudes d'Astronomie Stellaire: Sur la voie lactee et sur la distance des etoiles fixes,\" Struve was one of the first astronomers to identify the effects of interstellar extinction (though he provided no mechanism to explain the effect). His estimate of the average rate of visual extinction, 1 mag per kpc, is remarkably close to modern estimates (0.7–1.0 mag per kpc).  He was also interested in geodetic surveying, and in 1831 published \"Beschreibung der Breitengradmessung in den Ostseeprovinzen Russlands\". He initiated the Struve Geodetic Arc, which was a chain of survey triangulations stretching from Hammerfest in Norway to the Black Sea, through ten countries and over 2,820 km, to establish the exact size and shape of the earth. UNESCO listed the chain on its List of World Heritage Sites in Europe in 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Struve was the second of a dynasty of astronomers through five generations. He was the great-grandfather of Otto Struve and the father of Otto Wilhelm von Struve. He was also the grandfather of Hermann von Struve, who was Otto Struve's uncle.  In 1815 he married Emilie Wall (1796–1834) in Altona, who bore 12 children, 8 of which survived early childhood. In addition to Otto Wilhelm von Struve, other children were Heinrich Wilhelm von Struve (1822–1908), a prominent chemist, and Bernhard Wilhelm von Struve (1827–1889), who served as a government official in Siberia and later as governor of Astrakhan and Perm.  After his first wife died, he remarried to Johanna Henriette Francisca Bartels (1807–1867), a daughter of the mathematician Martin Bartels, who bore him six more children. The most well-known was Karl de Struve (1835–1907), who served successively as Russian ambassador to Japan, the United States, and the Netherlands.  Bernhard's son Pyotr Berngardovich Struve (1870–1944) is probably the best known member of the family in mainland Russia (his other descendants mainly resigned in the Baltic region and subsequently Germany). He was one of the first Russian marxists and penned the Manifesto of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party upon its creation in 1898. Even before the party split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, Struve left it for the Constitutional Democratic party, which promoted ideas of liberalism. He represented this party at all the pre-revolutionary State Dumas. After the Russian Revolution, he published several striking articles on its causes and joined the White movement. In the governments of Pyotr Wrangel and Denikin he was one of the ministers. During the following three decades, Pyotr lived in Paris, while his children were prominent in the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve (, trans. \"Vasily Yakovlevich Struve\"; 15 April 1793 – ) was a Baltic German astronomer and geodesist from the famous Struve family. He is best known for studying double stars and for initiating a triangulation survey later named Struve Geodetic Arc in his honor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975114}
{"src_title": "Fredric Brown", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Works.", "content": "Brown was born in Cincinnati. He began to sell mystery short stories to American magazines from 1936. His first science fiction story, \"Not Yet the End\", was published in the Winter 1941 issue of the magazine \"Captain Future\".  His science fiction novel \"What Mad Universe\" (1949) is a parody of pulp SF story conventions. \"Martians, Go Home\" (1955) is both a broad farce and a satire on human frailties as seen through the eyes of a billion jeering, invulnerable Martians who arrive not to conquer the world but to drive it crazy.  \"The Lights in the Sky Are Stars\" (1952) tells the story of an aging astronaut who is trying to get his beloved space program back on track after Congress has cut off the funds for it.  Brown's flash fiction short story \"The Hobbyist\" (1961) is about a man named Sangstrom, who is in a desperate search for an undetectable poison but winds up getting more than he bargained for.  The short story \"Arena\" was used as the basis for the episode of the same name in the. It was also adapted in 1973 for issue 4 of Marvel Comics' \"Worlds Unknown.\"  Brown's first mystery novel, \"The Fabulous Clipjoint\", won the Edgar Award for outstanding first mystery novel. It began a series starring Ed and Ambrose Hunter, and depicts how a young man gradually ripens into a detective under the tutelage of his uncle, an ex–private eye now working as a carnival concessionaire.  Many of his books make use of the threat of the supernatural or occult before the \"straight\" explanation at the end. For example, \"Night of the Jabberwock\" is a humorous narrative of an extraordinary day in the life of a small-town newspaper editor.  \"The Screaming Mimi\" (which became a 1958 movie starring Anita Ekberg and Gypsy Rose Lee, and directed by Gerd Oswald, who also directed the \"Fun and Games\" episode of \"The Outer Limits\", the plot of which was similar to Brown's short story \"Arena\"), and \"The Far Cry\" are noir suspense novels reminiscent of the work of Cornell Woolrich. \"The Lenient Beast\" experiments multiple first-person viewpoints, among them a gentle, deeply religious serial killer, and examines racial tensions between Anglos and Latinos in the US state of Arizona. \"Here Comes a Candle\" is told in straight narrative sections alternating with a radio script, a screenplay, a sportscast, a teleplay, a stage play, and a newspaper article.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popularity and influence.", "content": "His short story \"Arena\" was voted by Science Fiction Writers of America as one of the top 20 SF stories written before 1965. His 1945 short story \"The Waveries\" was described by Philip K. Dick as \"what may be the most significant—startlingly so—story SF has yet produced\". The opening of \"Knock\" is a complete two-sentence short-short story in itself.  Brown was one of three dedicatees of Robert A. Heinlein's \"Stranger in a Strange Land\" (the other two being Robert Cornog and Philip José Farmer).  In his non-fiction book \"Danse Macabre\" (1981), a survey of the horror genre since 1950, writer Stephen King includes an appendix of \"roughly one hundred\" influential books of the period: Fredric Brown's short-story collection \"Nightmares and Geezenstacks\" is included, and is, moreover, asterisked as being among those select works King regards as \"particularly important\".  Brown's short story \"Naturally\" was adapted into \"Geometria\", a short film by director Guillermo del Toro. Another short story, \"The Last Martian\", was adapted into \"Human Interest Story\", an episode of \"Alfred Hitchcock Presents\".  In the third episode of the third series of Amazon's adaptation of Philip K. Dick's \"The Man In The High Castle\" Oberstgruppenführer Smith remarks, when told of the possibility of travel between worlds, that \"this is like something out of Fredric Brown\", implying that Brown's work is known in the German-occupied areas of the former United States.  His novel \"The Lights in the Sky Are Stars\" gives its name to the final episode of 2007 anime \"Gurren Lagann\".  Philosopher and novelist Umberto Eco in his book \"On Ugliness\" describes Brown's short story \"Serenity\" as, \"one of the finest short stories produced by contemporary science fiction\" and uses its twist ending as an example of how ugliness and aesthetics are relative to different cultures.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fredric Brown (October 29, 1906 – March 11, 1972) was an American science fiction and mystery writer. He is known for his use of humor and for his mastery of the \"short short\" form—stories of 1 to 3 pages, often with ingenious plotting devices and surprise endings. Humor and a somewhat postmodern outlook carried over into his novels as well. One of his stories, \"Arena\", is officially credited for an adaptation as an of the American television series \".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975115}
{"src_title": "Interest rate risk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Calculation.", "content": "Interest rate risk analysis is almost always based on simulating movements in one or more yield curves using the Heath-Jarrow-Morton framework to ensure that the yield curve movements are both consistent with current market yield curves and such that no riskless arbitrage is possible. The Heath-Jarrow-Morton framework was developed in the early 1991 by David Heath of Cornell University, Andrew Morton of Lehman Brothers, and Robert A. Jarrow of Kamakura Corporation and Cornell University.  There are a number of standard calculations for measuring the impact of changing interest rates on a portfolio consisting of various assets and liabilities. The most common techniques include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "At banks.", "content": "The assessment of interest rate risk is a very large topic at banks, thrifts, saving and loans, credit unions, and other finance companies, and among their regulators. The widely deployed CAMELS rating system assesses a financial institution's: (C)apital adequacy, (A)ssets, (M)anagement Capability, (E)arnings, (L)iquidity, and (S)ensitivity to market risk. A large portion of the (S)ensitivity in CAMELS is \"interest rate risk\". Much of what is known about assessing interest rate risk has been developed by the interaction of financial institutions with their regulators since the 1990s. Interest rate risk is unquestionably the largest part of the (S)ensitivity analysis in the CAMELS system for most banking institutions. When a bank receives a bad CAMELS rating equity holders, bond holders and creditors are at risk of loss, senior managers can lose their jobs and the firms are put on the FDIC problem bank list.  See the (S)ensitivity section of the CAMELS rating system for a substantial list of links to documents and examiner manuals, issued by financial regulators, that cover many issues in the analysis of interest rate risk.  In addition to being subject to the CAMELS system, the largest banks are often subject to prescribed stress testing. The assessment of interest rate risk is typically informed by some type of stress testing. See: Stress test (financial), List of bank stress tests, List of systemically important banks.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Interest rate risk is the risk that arises for bond owners from fluctuating interest rates. How much interest rate risk a bond has depends on how sensitive its price is to interest rate changes in the market. The sensitivity depends on two things, the bond's time to maturity, and the coupon rate of the bond.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975116}
{"src_title": "Thomas Say", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Born in Philadelphia into a prominent Quaker family, Thomas Say was the great-grandson of John Bartram, and the great-nephew of William Bartram. His father, Dr. Benjamin Say, was brother-in-law to another Bartram son, Moses Bartram. The Say family had a house, \"The Cliffs\" at Gray's Ferry, adjoining the Bartram family farms in Kingessing township, Philadelphia County. As a boy, Say often visited the family garden, Bartram's Garden, where he frequently took butterfly and beetle specimens to his great-uncle William.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "He became an apothecary. A self-taught naturalist, Say helped found the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (ANSP) in 1812. In 1816, he met Charles Alexandre Lesueur, a French naturalist, malacologist, and ichthyologist who soon became a member of the Academy and served as its curator until 1824.  At the Academy, Say began his work on what he would publish as \"American Entomology\". To collect insects, he made numerous expeditions to frontier areas, risking American Indian attacks and hazards of traveling in wild countryside. In 1818, Say accompanied his friend William Maclure, then the ANSP president and father of American geology; Gerhard Troost, a geologist; and other members of the Academy on a geological expedition to the off-shore islands of Georgia and Florida, then a Spanish colony. In 1819–20, Major Stephen Harriman Long led an exploration to the Rocky Mountains and the tributaries of the Missouri River, with Say as zoologist. Their official account of this expedition included the first descriptions of the coyote, swift fox, western kingbird, band-tailed pigeon, rock wren, Say's phoebe, lesser goldfinch, lark sparrow, lazuli bunting, orange-crowned warbler, checkered whiptail lizard, collared lizard, ground skink, western rat snake, and western ribbon snake.  In 1823, Say served as chief zoologist in Long's expedition to the headwaters of the Mississippi River. He traveled on the \"Boatload of Knowledge\" to the New Harmony Settlement in Indiana (1826–34), a utopian society experiment founded by Robert Owen. Say was accompanied by Maclure, Lesueur, Troost, and Francis Neef, an innovative pedagogue. There he later met Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz, another naturalist.  On January 4, 1827, Say secretly married Lucy Way Sistare, whom he had met as one of the passengers to New Harmony, near the settlement. She was an artist and illustrator of specimens, as in the book \"American Conchology\", and was elected as the first woman member of the Academy of Natural Sciences.  At New Harmony, Thomas Say carried on his monumental work describing insects and mollusks, leading to two classic works:  During their years in New Harmony, Say and Lesueur experienced considerable difficulties. Say was a modest and unassuming man, who lived frugally like a hermit. He abandoned commercial activities and devoted himself to his studies, making difficulties for his family.  Say died, apparently from typhoid fever, in New Harmony on 10 October 1834, when he was 47 years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and honors.", "content": "Say described more than 1,000 new species of beetles, more than 400 species of insects of other orders, and seven well-known species of snakes.  Other zoologists honored him by naming several taxa after him:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Frederick Valentine Melsheimer, also considered the \"Father of Entomology\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas Say (June 27, 1787 – October 10, 1834) was an American entomologist, conchologist, and herpetologist. His definitive studies of insects and shells, numerous contributions to scientific journals, and scientific expeditions to Florida, Georgia, the Rocky Mountains, Mexico, and elsewhere made him an internationally known naturalist. Say has been called the father of American descriptive entomology and American conchology. He served as librarian for the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, curator at the American Philosophical Society, and professor of natural history at the University of Pennsylvania.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975117}
{"src_title": "Red-handed tamarin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "This species is native to wooded areas north of the Amazon River in Brazil, Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, and possibly Venezuela. A population of tamarins south of the Amazon River that lack the contrasting feet and hands was previously believed to be a sub-population of red-handed tamarins but is now treated as a separate species, the black tamarin.  Populations of red-handed tamarins appear to be expanding into the historical range of the pied tamarin, with the red-handed tamarin gradually displacing the pied tamarin through interspecific competition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "This species prefers trees with small crowns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The red-handed tamarin's body measures ; including the tail it measures. It weighs.  The fur of the red-handed tamarin is dark brown or black, with contrasting reddish-orange hair on its feet and hands (hence the common name). The dark face is hairless, the big ears stick out of the fur. As with all marmosets, there are claws instead of nails on the fingers and toes (with the exception of the big toe). Furthermore, the thumb is not opposable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology and behavior.", "content": "The life expectancy of \"Saguinus midas\" is approximately 10 years in the wild and 16 years in captivity. These tamarins live in cooperative groups of 4 to 15 members with little competition within group even between breeding males. Adults can reach sexual maturity at age of 16-20 months. Only one female in the group will breed during breeding season with the other females suppressing the instinct. The gestation period is 140–170 days and mothers typically give birth to two offspring. Young tamarins are cared for primarily by the father and turned over to the mother only to nurse, however the entire group helps with the care of the young. Defense is a priority in a group, and when one tamarin is threatened the others will rush to its defense. The red-handed tamarin is territorial and can be aggressive, with sharp canines and claws instead of fingernails on all fingers and all but the large toe.  The red-handed tamarin is an exceptional climber and spends most of its time among the vines and branches of the trees. It is quick and agile and is a superb jumper known to jump distances of over from a tree to the ground with no sign of injury. It is omnivore. Its diet consists of leaves, plant exudates, fruit, flowers, eggs, insects and other arthropods, frogs, spiders, lizards, and nectar. Its natural predators include small cats, birds of prey, and snakes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The red-handed tamarin (\"Saguinus midas\"), also known as the golden-handed tamarin or Midas tamarin, is a New World monkey belonging to the family \"Callitrichidae\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975118}
{"src_title": "Chaim Soutine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Soutine was born Chaim Sutin, in Smilavichy in the Minsk Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Belarus). He was the tenth of eleven children. From 1910 to 1913 he studied in Vilnius at a small art academy. In 1913, with his friends Pinchus Kremegne (1890–1981) and Michel Kikoine (1892–1968), he emigrated to Paris, where he studied at the École des Beaux-Arts under Fernand Cormon. He soon developed a highly personal vision and painting technique. For a time, he and his friends lived at La Ruche, a residence for struggling artists in Montparnasse where he became friends with Amedeo Modigliani (1884–1920). Modigliani painted Soutine's portrait several times, most famously in 1917, on a door of an apartment belonging to Léopold Zborowski (1889–1932), who was their art dealer. Zborowski supported Soutine through World War I, taking the struggling artist with him to Nice to escape the possible German invasion of Paris.  After the war Paul Guillaume, a highly influential art dealer, began to champion Soutine's work. In 1923, in a showing arranged by Guillaume, the prominent American collector Albert C. Barnes (1872–1951), bought 60 of Soutine's paintings on the spot. Soutine, who had been virtually penniless in his years in Paris, immediately took the money, ran into the street, hailed a Paris taxi, and ordered the driver to take him to Nice, on the French Riviera, more than 400 miles away.  Soutine once horrified his neighbours by keeping an animal carcass in his studio so that he could paint it (\"Carcass of Beef\"). The stench drove them to send for the police, whom Soutine promptly lectured on the relative importance of art over hygiene. There's a story that Marc Chagall saw the blood from the carcass leak out onto the corridor outside Soutine's room, and rushed out screaming, 'Someone has killed Soutine.' Soutine painted 10 works in this series, which have since become his most well-known. His carcass paintings were inspired by Rembrandt's still life of the same subject, \"Slaughtered Ox\", which he discovered while studying the Old Masters in the Louvre. Soutine produced the majority of his works from 1920 to 1929. From 1930 to 1935, the interior designer Madeleine Castaing and her husband welcomed him to their summer home, the mansion of Lèves, becoming his patrons, so that Soutine could hold his first exhibition in Chicago in 1935. He seldom showed his works, but he did take part in the important exhibition \"The Origins and Development of International Independent Art\" held at the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume in 1937 in Paris, where he was at last hailed as a great painter. Soon afterwards France was invaded by German troops. As a Jew, Soutine had to escape from the French capital and hide in order to avoid arrest by the Gestapo. He moved from one place to another and was sometimes forced to seek shelter in forests, sleeping outdoors. Suffering from a stomach ulcer and bleeding badly, he left a safe hiding place for Paris in order to undergo emergency surgery, which failed to save his life. On August 9, 1943, Chaim Soutine died of a perforated ulcer. He was interred in Cimetière du Montparnasse, Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In February 2006, an oil painting of his controversial and iconic series \"Le Bœuf Écorché\" (1924) sold for a record £7.8 million ($13.8 million) to an anonymous buyer at a Christie's auction held in London—after it was estimated to fetch £4.8 million. In February 2007, a 1921 portrait of an unidentified man with a red scarf \"(L'Homme au Foulard Rouge)\" sold for $17.2 million—a new record—at Sotheby's London auction house. In May 2015, \"Le Bœuf\", circa 1923, oil on canvas, achieved a record price for the artist of $28,165,000 at the Christie's curated auction \"Looking forward to the past\".  One of the beef paintings, known as “Le boeuf,” was sold for $1 million in 2004 and resold six months later for twice that price to the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.. Heirs of the first seller sued to have the painting returned, claiming the price was unfairly low, and a complex settlement in 2009 required the painting to be transferred to them.  Some years after Soutine's death, Roald Dahl placed him as a character in his short story \"Skin\".  The Jewish Museum in New York has presented major exhibitions of Soutine's work in \"An Expressionist in Paris: The Paintings of Chaim Soutine\" (1998) and \"Chaim Soutine: Flesh\" (2018).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chaïm Soutine (13 January 1893 – 9 August 1943) was a Belarusian painter who made a major contribution to the expressionist movement while living and working in Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975119}
{"src_title": "Tissot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "Tissot was founded in 1853 by Charles-Félicien Tissot and his son Charles-Émile Tissot in the Swiss city of Le Locle, in the Neuchâtel area of the Jura Mountains. Charles-Emile Tissot left for Russia in 1858 and succeeded in selling their savonnette pocket watches across the Russian Empire. Tissot merged with Omega in 1930 and Tissot-Omega watches from this era are sought after by collectors.  Tissot was used for downhill skiing in Switzerland in 1938 and the Davis Cup in 1957. Tissot's first engagement as an official timekeeper was in 1938 where they timed a series of Ski races in Villars-sur-Ollon, near the company's hometown in the Jura mountains.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent development.", "content": "Tissot has been a subsidiary of the Swiss Swatch Group since 1983, the largest watch producer and distributor in the world. After joining Swatch, Tissot was still based in Le Locle, Switzerland and marketed in 160 countries around the world. Tissot watches are currently classified by the Swatch Group as \"mid-range market\" products.  Tissot is an official timekeeper for the world championships in cycling, motorcycling, fencing and ice hockey, etc. Tissot was also a key sponsor for the Formula One teams Lotus, Renault, and Sauber. For early events, handheld stopwatches were sufficient to provide official timings. Today, Tissot works with various sporting bodies to develop systems to produce ever more accurate timings for specific events. In competitive cycling, for instance, sensors are placed on the bikes and track which are then linked by computers to provide track timings and performance data.  Tissot also unveiled its brand new worldwide campaign, 'Tissot, This is Your Time'. The message at the heart of the campaign emphasises the watch that relates to the milestones in one's life. A new tagline, new visuals and powerful communication all serve to emphasise Tissot's position in the market.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Motto and slogan.", "content": "The company motto/slogan of Tissot is \"Innovators by Tradition\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Watch manufacturing.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable inventions.", "content": "Tissot introduced the first mass-produced pocket watch as well as the first pocket watch with two time zones in 1853 and the first anti-magnetic watch, in 1929–30. The Tissot company was also the first to make watches out of plastic (Idea 2001 in 1971), stone (the Alpine granite RockWatch in 1985), mother of pearl (the Pearl watch in 1987), and wood (the Wood watch in 1988).  Tissot introduced its first tactile watch, with \"T-Touch,\" technology in 1999; watches containing this technology have touch-sensitive sapphire crystals to control various functions like compass, barometer, altimeter and thermometer. The latest models in the T-Touch series, the T-Touch Expert Solar and T-Touch Lady Solar, have 25 functions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Environmental rating.", "content": "In December 2018, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) released an official report giving environmental ratings for 15 major watch manufacturers and jewelers in Switzerland. Tissot, along with 7 other manufacturers including Omega, Rolex and Longines, was given the lowest environmental rating as \"Latecomers/Non-transparent\", suggesting that the manufacturer has taken very few actions addressing the impact of its manufacturing activities on the environment and climate change.  There are concerns over the lack of transparency in manufacturing activities and the sourcing of precious raw materials such as gold, which is a major cause of environmental issues such as pollution, soil degradation and deforestation. The situation is especially serious in the developing countries which are top producers of gold, including China, Russia and South Africa. It is estimated that the watch and jewelry sector uses over 50% of world's annual gold production (over 2,000 tons), but in most cases the watch companies are not able to or are unwilling to demonstrate where their raw materials come from and if the material suppliers use eco-friendly sourcing technologies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable patrons and owners.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brand Ambassadors.", "content": "Tissot has partnered with a wide range of celebrities from basketball players, actors, cricket players, to MotoGP racers to be their brand ambassadors. As of 2018, brand ambassadors include Tony Parker, Liu Yi Fei, Virat Kohli, Deepika Padukone, Huang Xiaoming, Jorge Lorenzo, Thomas Luethi, Marc Márquez and recently Rana Daggubati.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable Wearers.", "content": "Tissot watches have been worn by Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, Sarah Bernhardt, singer Carmen Miranda, Grace Kelly, Elvis Presley and Nelson Mandela.  James Stewart wore a Tissot watch in \"Rear Window\". T-Touch watches have been worn by Angelina Jolie in the movies \"\" and \"Mr. & Mrs. Smith\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sponsorships.", "content": "Tissot has been the official timekeeper for a multitude of major sports, including MotoGP, ice hockey, cycling, the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) the Fencing World Championships, the Women's National Basketball Association, for many years. Being the official timekeeper means that Tissot has the responsibility of actually timing each of these sports. It has sponsored the Swiss national team, the Chinese Basketball Association and other basketball-related events, teams, and organizations.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tissot SA () is a Swiss luxury watchmaker. The company was founded in Le Locle, Switzerland by Charles-Félicien Tissot and his son, Charles-Émile Tissot, in 1853. Since 1983, Tissot SA has been a subsidiary of the Swiss Swatch Group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975120}
{"src_title": "Coxsone Dodd", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Function words might be prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, grammatical articles or particles, all of which belong to the group of closed-class words. Interjections are sometimes considered function words but they belong to the group of open-class words. Function words might or might not be inflected or might have affixes.  Function words belong to the closed class of words in grammar in that it is very uncommon to have new function words created in the course of speech, whereas in the open class of words (that is, nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs) new words may be added readily (such as slang words, technical terms, and adoptions and adaptations of foreign words). See neologism.  Each function word either gives some grammatical information on other words in a sentence or clause, and cannot be isolated from other words, or it may indicate the speaker's mental model as to what is being said.  Grammatical words, as a class, can have distinct phonological properties from content words. Grammatical words sometimes do not make full use of all the sounds in a language. For example, in some of the Khoisan languages, most content words begin with clicks, but very few function words do. In English, very few words other than function words begin with voiced \"th\" (see Pronunciation of English th); English function words may have fewer than three letters 'I', 'an', 'in' while non-function words usually have three or more 'eye', 'Ann', 'inn' (see three letter rule).  The following is a list of the kind of words considered to be function words:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clement Seymour \"Sir Coxsone\" Dodd (26 January 1932 – 4 May 2004) was a Jamaican record producer who was influential in the development of ska and reggae in the 1950s, 1960s and beyond.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975121}
{"src_title": "White Fang", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The story begins before the wolf-dog hybrid is born, with two men and their sled dog team on a journey to deliver the coffin of Lord Alfred to a remote town named Fort McGurry in the higher area of the Yukon Territory. The men, Bill and Henry, are stalked by a large pack of starving wolves over the course of several days. Finally, after all of their dogs and Bill have been eaten, four more teams find Henry escaping from the wolves; the wolf pack scatters when they hear the large group of people coming.  The story then follows the pack, which has been robbed of its last prey. When the pack finally brings down a moose, the famine is ended; they eventually split up, and the story now follows a she-wolf and her mate, One Eye. The she-wolf gives birth to a litter of five cubs by the Mackenzie River, and all but one die from hunger. One Eye is killed by a lynx while trying to rob her den for food for the she-wolf and her cub; his mate later discovers his remains near the lynx's den. The surviving cub and the she-wolf are left to fend for themselves. Shortly afterward, the she-wolf kills all the lynx's kittens to feed her cub, prompting the lynx to track her down, and a vicious fight breaks out. The she-wolf eventually kills the lynx but suffers severe injury; the lynx carcass is devoured over a period of seven days as the she-wolf recovers from her injuries.  One day, the cub comes across five Aboriginal people, and the she-wolf comes to his rescue. One man, Grey Beaver, recognizes the she-wolf as his brother's wolfdog, Kiche, who left during a famine. Grey Beaver's brother is dead, and so he takes Kiche and her cub and christens the cub White Fang. White Fang has a harsh life in the Indigenous People’s camp; the current puppy pack, seeing him as a wolf, immediately attacks him. The Indigenous people save him, but the pups never accept him, and the leader, Lip-Lip, singles him out for persecution. White Fang grows to become a savage, callous, morose, solitary, and deadly fighter, \"the enemy of his kind\".  It is at this time that White Fang is separated from his mother, who is sold off to another Indigenous people’s Camp by Three Eagles. He realizes how hard life in the wild is when he runs away from camp, and earns the respect of Grey Beaver when he saves his son Mit-Sah from a group of boys seeking revenge. When a famine occurs, he runs away into the woods and encounters his mother Kiche, only for her to chase him away, for she has a new litter of cubs. He also encounters Lip-Lip, whom he fights and kills before returning to the camp.  When White Fang is five years old, he is taken to Fort Yukon, so that Grey Beaver can trade with the gold-hunters. There, when Grey Beaver is drunk, White Fang is bought by an evil dog-fighter named Beauty Smith. White Fang defeats all opponents pitted against him, including several wolves and a lynx, until a bulldog called Cherokee is brought in to fight him. Cherokee has the upper hand in the fight when he grips the skin and fur of White Fang's neck and begins to throttle him. White Fang nearly suffocates, but is rescued when a rich, young gold hunter, Weedon Scott, stops the fight, and forcefully buys White Fang from Beauty Smith.  Scott attempts to tame White Fang, and after a long, patient effort, he succeeds. When Scott attempts to return to California alone, White Fang pursues him, and Scott decides to take the dog with him back home. In Sierra Vista, White Fang must adjust to the laws of the estate. At the end of the book, an escaped convict, Jim Hall, tries to kill Scott's father, Judge Scott, for sentencing him to prison for a crime he did not commit, not knowing that Hall was \"railroaded\". White Fang kills Hall and is nearly killed himself, but survives. As a result, the women of Scott's estate name him \"The Blessed Wolf\". The story ends with White Fang relaxing in the sun with the puppies he has fathered with the sheep-dog Collie.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main characters.", "content": "Major animal characters:  Major human characters:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major themes.", "content": "Critics have identified many underlying themes in the novel. Tom Feller describes the story as \"an allegory of humanity's progression from nature to civilization\". He also expresses that \"the [story's] implication is that the metamorphosis of both the individual and society will require violence at some point.\" Paul Deane states that \"[in the novel] society demands a conformity that undermines individualism.\" London himself took influence from Herbert Spencer's words: \"survival of the fittest\", as well as Friedrich Nietzsche's idea of a \"superman\" (or \"superdog\", in this instance) and of \"the worship of power\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "The novel is partly an autobiographical allegory based on London's conversion from teenage hoodlum to married, middle-class writer. In writing it, he was influenced by the ideas of Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, and Friedrich Nietzsche. Conditions in the US also influenced the story.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication history.", "content": "Since the novel has been published it has been translated into over 89 different languages and released as a three-volume Braille edition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Upon its release, \"White Fang\" was an immediate success worldwide, and became especially popular among younger readers. Robert Greenwood called \"White Fang\" \"one of London's most interesting and ambitious works.\" Virginia Crane claims that the novel is \"generally regarded as artistically inferior to its companion piece [\"The Call of the Wild\"], but [that it] helped establish London as a popular American literary figure\".  Shortly after the book's publication, London became a target in what would later be called the nature fakers controversy, a literary debate highlighting the conflict between science and sentiment in popular nature writing. President Theodore Roosevelt, who first spoke out against the \"sham naturalists\" in 1907, specifically named London as one of the so-called \"nature fakers\". Citing an example from \"White Fang\", Roosevelt referred to the fight between the bulldog and the wolfdog \"the very sublimity of absurdity.\" London only responded to the criticism after the controversy had ended. In a 1908 essay entitled \"The Other Animals\", he wrote:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The novel has been adapted into numerous pictures and sequels, animated specials, as well as an audiobook format. A television series, \"White Fang\", was filmed in Arrowtown, New Zealand, in 1993.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "White Fang is a novel by American author Jack London (1876–1916) — and the name of the book's eponymous character, a wild wolfdog. First serialized in \"Outing\" magazine, it was published in 1906. The story details White Fang's journey to domestication in Yukon Territory and the Northwest Territories during the 1890s Klondike Gold Rush. It is a companion novel (and a thematic mirror) to London's best-known work, \"The Call of the Wild\" (1903), which is about a kidnapped, domesticated dog embracing his wild ancestry to survive and thrive in the wild.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975122}
{"src_title": "Stadion Letná", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first wooden stadium at its location opened in 1921, in 1930 it hosted the third Women's World Games. The stadium burned in 1934 and a new main reinforced concrete grandstand was built in 1937. In 1969 all the other grandstands were replaced by reinforced concrete ones and capacity was extended to 35,880 spectators. The 1994 reconstruction into its present form saw Letná closed for nine months, till the stadium met all international standards. The running track was removed and all spectator places were now seated.  Letná has frequently hosted international matches, in October 1989 the venue saw a crowd of 34,000 watch home side Czechoslovakia defeat Switzerland in a qualifying match for the 1990 FIFA World Cup. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, Letná continued as an international stadium, hosting matches of the Czech Republic national football team from 1995, including qualification matches for UEFA Euro 1996, in which the Czechs defeated the Netherlands and Norway.  The playing surface was renovated in 2001, including the installation of a new under-soil heating and watering system and grass from Germany. This necessitated Sparta playing league matches at the end of the 2000–01 season at the nearby Stadion Evžena Rošického.  Sparta was hit by a 55,000 CHF fine from European football governing body UEFA in 2001 following racist slurs from the crowd targeted at black Brazilian Luis Robson in a UEFA Champions League match at Letná against Spartak Moscow. It was, at the time, the biggest fine ever handed out by UEFA to a club for racist chanting.  Since 2002, the stadium have a heated turf. In 1994 the stadium was reopened after a complete modernization, all seats have since been seated and the stadium meets all required standards. In 2009, major changes took place at the stadium, barriers were removed, two video screens were installed and infrared radiators were installed to heat the \"opposite\" tribune.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Non football activities.", "content": "Since the beginning the stadium has been used as a speaking tribune for events that took place in front of it, in/around the Milada Horaková street and the large \"Letná Plain\". During the Velvet revolution in 1989, were at the plain assebled some 800,000 people for anti-government demonstrations. The speaking tribune was later removed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The stadium is served by the tram stop \"Sparta\", called at by services 1, 2, 8, 12, 25 and 26. The nearest metro stations are Vltavská to the east and Hradčanská to the west.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Generali Česká pojišťovna Arena, previously, and still commonly known as Letná Stadium ( ), is a football stadium in Prague. It is the home venue of Sparta Prague and occasionally hosts the matches of the Czech Republic national football team. It has capacity for 19,416 people.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975123}
{"src_title": "Jaroslav Plašil", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Plašil, aged 18, was signed by Monaco in 2000, but in his first two-year spell, he only started 8 matches. He was subsequently loaned to Ligue 2 club Créteil. After a decent performance, Plašil returned to Monaco at the start of the 2003 season and for the next four years he was a regular in the starting team and even enjoyed his finest moment in the 2003–04 season when the principality side reached the final of the UEFA Champions League. In that season, Plašil contributed a goal to Monaco's record-breaking 8–3 defeat of Deportivo La Coruña.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Osasuna.", "content": "On 25 August 2007, Plašil signed a four-year deal at La Liga team CA Osasuna for a fee of €2.25 million, to replace the injured Javad Nekounam.  He made his debut on 16 September, replacing Javier García Portillo for the final 19 minutes of a goalless home draw against FC Barcelona. His first goal for the team from Pamplona came on 2 December, a left-foot volley to open a 2–1 victory at Deportivo de La Coruña. Three days later he got his first goal in the Reyno de Navarra Stadium, to begin a 1–1 draw against Sevilla FC. He finished the season with four goals from 35 games, the last being the only one in a win over rivals Real Zaragoza on 10 February 2008, in first-half added time.  On 5 October 2008, Plašil was sent off in the first half of a 0–1 home loss to Racing de Santander for handball from Ezequiel Garay's shot, although he missed the penalty kick. He again totalled four goals in 32 games, concluding on 31 May 2009 with an equaliser in a 2–1 home win over Real Madrid.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bordeaux.", "content": "On 9 June 2009, French champions Bordeaux signed Plašil on a four-year deal for an estimated €3 million. He made his debut for Bordeaux when they won the 2009 Trophée des Champions.  On 31 May 2013, Plašil captained Bordeaux in its 3–2 defeat of Evian in the 2013 Coupe de France Final at the Stade de France.  On 2 September 2013, Plašil signed on loan for Serie A club Catania. He played 29 times for the Sicilians, scoring on 29 September to open a 2–0 win over Chievo, their first win of the season.  On 7 June 2017, Plašil extended his contract for one more year. Six months later, he was one of three \"Girondins\" sent off in a 2–1 loss at fourth-tier US Granville in the last 64 of the cup; he received a five-match ban for dissent.  In July 2019, Plašil retired at the age of 37. He immediately joined the coaching staff at Bordeaux's reserve team in the Championnat National 3.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Plašil made his debut for the Czech Republic on 31 March 2004, replacing Martin Jiránek for the final 21 minutes of a 2–1 friendly loss to the Republic of Ireland at Lansdowne Road. In his next game on 2 June he scored his first goal in a 3–1 friendly win over Bulgaria. He was selected for UEFA Euro 2004 in Portugal where his team reached the semi-finals; his lone appearance was a 2–1 win that eliminated neighbours Germany on 23 June at the Estádio José Alvalade. He started in what BBC Sport called an \"under-strength\" Czech team, making way for Karel Poborský with 20 minutes remaining.  He started all three of the Czechs' group games at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany, their first since partition, where they were eliminated at the expense of eventual champions Italy. Plašil played 13 times in qualification for UEFA Euro 2008, scoring to cap a 3–0 win over Germany in the Allianz Arena on 17 October 2007 that qualified his team to the finals in Austria and Switzerland; it was Joachim Löw's first defeat as national manager. In the final tournament, Plašil started each game in Group A and scored to put the Czechs 2–0 up against Turkey in the last game, which they eventually lost 3–2 to be eliminated.  Plašil played every minute of the Czech Republic's campaign at UEFA Euro 2012 in Poland and Ukraine, where they were eliminated 1–0 by Portugal in the quarter-finals. He was called up for his fourth time at the continental championship when he was chosen for UEFA Euro 2016 in France. On 5 June in a pre-tournament friendly, he won his 100th cap in a 2–1 home friendly loss to South Korea. He started all three group matches at the tournament as the Czech national team exited with two losses and a draw.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jaroslav Plašil (; born 5 January 1982) is a Czech former professional footballer who played as a midfielder. He spent most of his career in France with Monaco and Bordeaux, making 411 Ligue 1 appearances. He played 367 total times for the latter, and captained them to victory in the 2012–13 Coupe de France. He also played two seasons with Osasuna in Spain and one on loan to Catania in Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975124}
{"src_title": "Assault on Precinct 13 (2005 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "On New Year's Eve, Detroit Police Department's Sergeant Jake Roenick, veteran cop Jasper O'Shea and secretary Iris Ferry are the only people on site at the soon-to-be-closed Precinct 13. Roenick, a former Marine, is deskbound and abusing alcohol and prescription drugs, blaming himself for a botched undercover operation eight months prior that resulted in the deaths of two members of his team. Psychiatrist Alexandra Sabian is treating a reluctant and dismissive Roenick at the station.  Crime lord Marion Bishop is arrested when he kills an undercover police officer. Two Sheriff's Department Deputies are transferring Bishop with three other criminals: addict ex-lawyer Beck, petty crook Anna, and counterfeiter Smiley. When a raging snowstorm shuts down the roads, the transport bus is directed to the nearby Precinct 13.  Masked gunmen cut off the Precinct's communication, attack the station, kill the Deputies and demand Bishop be handed over to them. The lawmen believe the attackers are Bishop's men. When they kill one of the attackers, they discover he is from a crew of undercover officers led by Captain Marcus Duvall of Precinct 21. Rather than trying to avenge the cop that Bishop murdered, they are actually Bishop's crooked partners in crime. Bishop balked when Duvall and his crew demanded a larger cut, so Duvall and his men (starting with the original dead cop) are trying to kill Bishop before he can testify about their involvement.  Heavily outnumbered and outgunned, Roenick sets free and arms the prisoners to bolster the defense of the station. Roenick and Bishop forge an uneasy truce between cops and criminals, as both groups know they will be killed by Duvall to protect his secret. Their combined efforts repel several more attacks.  Off-duty cop Capra, who has been partying and wants to make a move on Iris, returns to the station. Duvall's men shoot at him, but he makes it into the Precinct. Beck believes that Capra is a plant for Duvall, but Roenick vouches for him. Beck doesn't believe him and tries to attempt a mutiny, but Bishop sides with Roenick and forcefully reminds Beck that Roenick is in charge. With Capra's vehicle outside the front door, Beck and Smiley secretly plan to make a break for it. At the same time, the rest of the defenders are also planning to use the vehicle, with Anna and Dr. Sabian volunteering to be the driver and \"gunman\" in an effort to get help. Beck and Smiley happen to sneak out first, both getting killed by Duvall's men, inadvertently providing a distraction for Anna and Sabian to get away. Duvall had anticipated this and hidden Kahane, his second in command, in the back seat. Kahane kills Anna, then Duvall kills Sabian after she refuses to give intel on Precinct 13's defenders.  With only five defenders left alive, Roenick and Bishop decide to take action instead of waiting for another attack. When someone inside unlocks the back door, they suspect Capra to be a mole for Duvall and put him in handcuffs.  The storm eases just enough to allow Duvall to call in some corrupt SWAT officers by helicopter, who land on the roof of Precinct 13. The defenders set fire to the station to cover their escape and flee through a utilities tunnel underneath the building. Emerging from the tunnel, they find themselves surrounded by the corrupt policemen. The real Duvall insider is revealed to be O'Shea, and Duvall prepares to execute the rest. Bishop secretly plants a flash bang grenade on O'Shea, killing him. In the confusion Iris and Capra flee in Duvall's truck. When Kahane shoots out their tires and moves in for the kill, Iris manages to kill him with his own knife.  Roenick and Bishop are chased into a small urban forest, where they work together to survive the final confrontation with Duvall and his remaining men. Duvall wounds both of them before Roenick finally manages to kill Duvall. Bishop, more mobile of the two, takes Roenick's gun and flees, with Roenick promising to personally arrest him in the future. When Iris arrives with police, fire and medical services, Roenick claims that only he and the dead cops are present – giving Bishop a head start. Roenick and Iris leave the forest as the sun rises. Iris mentions to Roenick that he was like a totally different person through the whole encounter. Roenick, smiling, replies, \"Yeah? Well get used to it.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "\"Assault on Precinct 13\" was mostly filmed on location in Detroit, as well as in Ontario, Canada (Toronto and Hamilton).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception and box office.", "content": "The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics, with a 59% positive rating on \"Rotten Tomatoes\", the site's critical consensus being \"This remake has been praised by some as an expertly made B-movie, and dismissed by others as formulaic\", and a metascore of 54 on \"Metacritic\".  \"Assault on Precinct 13\" was not financially successful, and was widely considered a box office failure; made on a budget of $30 million, it went on to earn $35.3 million worldwide.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Assault on Precinct 13 is a 2005 French-American action thriller film directed by Jean-François Richet and starring Ethan Hawke and Laurence Fishburne. The cast also includes John Leguizamo, Maria Bello, Ja Rule, Drea de Matteo, Brian Dennehy, Aisha Hinds and Gabriel Byrne. It is a loose remake of John Carpenter's 1976 film of the same name, with an updated plot.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975125}
{"src_title": "Kost Levytsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Levytsky was born on November 18, 1859 in the settlement of Tysmenytsia of today's Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast into the family of a Greek Catholic priest. He was the oldest child of Rev. Antin Levytsky (b. ab. 1832 - d. 1909), who was in particular the priest in Nyzhniv and Constancia Kozorowska Levytska (b. ab. 1843 - d. 17 Feb. 1900). After finishing the Stanislaviv gymnasium he studied at Law faculties of Lviv and Vienna Universities. In 1884 he was awarded the Doctor's degree in law, and in 1890 opened the barrister's office in Lviv.  Kost Levytsky took active part in public and political life in his student years, he was one of the leaders of Academic Fraternity, the Circle of Law. From the first years of his barrister's practice K. Levytsky was a practical advocate of the rights and freedoms of people. He united his professional activity with that in the sphere of Ukrainian enterprises, he was a co-founder and leading figure in the economic associations Zorya, People's trade, Dniester, Province Credit Union. At the same time he was a well-known scientist in law, translated foreign laws into Ukrainian, worked with Ukrainian law terminology; he had published German-Ukrainian Law Dictionary, a series of popular works in law for the broad circles of Galician people, founded such professional editions as Chasopys pravnycha (Law periodical) and Zhyttia i pravo (Life and Law) and was their editor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Kost Levytsky was a patriarch of Ukrainian political life, leader of the land's first political organization Narodna Rada (People's Council, 1885), a cofounder and a head of Ukrainian National Democratic Party. In 1907 he was elected an ambassador of the Austrian parliament, in 1908, that of Galician Sejm, headed the ambassador's clubs. He fought for the national aspirations of Ukrainian people. K. Levytsky was the author of the conception of the national movement development through evolution, organic work and broad political work in masses; he was the adherent of the strategic course for Galicia autonomy as the first step to ward statehood. He favoured development of the mass Ukrainian societies, units of intellectuals, peasants, youths, the Sokil-Sich movement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First World War and its aftermath.", "content": "At the onset of the World War I he headed the Supreme Ukrainian Council (1914) in Vienna, which defined Tsarist Russia as the main enemy of the nation, and called Ukrainians to the struggle against it for the restoration of a united Ukrainian state.  In 1916, as a prosecutor for the Austro-Hungarian Empire, he played a role in the sentencing to death of Ukrainian Russophiles, and sent others to imprisonment in Talerhof.  In Autumn 1918, in the course of disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian empire K. Levytsky became a member of the Ukrainian National Council, which announced formation of the Ukrainian state on October 19, and on November 1 the Council headed a victorious armed uprising in Lviv, Galicia and Bukovyna, which resulted in formation of the West Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR). Being an experienced public and political figure, K. Levytsky headed the first government – State Secretariate – which developed under the war the state and army formation activity for independence against Poland.  After K. Levytsky's resignation in December 1918 he was a head of the commission on elaboration of the election reform, a representative in the affairs of press and propaganda, in foreign affairs; he also headed diplomatic missions of ZUNR which were sent to Riga (1920), Geneva (1921), he was a member of the ZUNR delegation in Genoa (1922), headed a Committee of political emigration. After the government self-liquidation in 1923, in accordance with the decision of the League of Nations on annexation of Eastern Galicia, he returned to Lviv.  In the years between wars he was a member of the Central Committee of the Ukrainian National Democratic Association (1925–1939), was a director of Centrobank, head of the Union of Ukrainian Barristers, author of fundamental scientific works including \"The History of the Liberation Struggles of the Galician Ukrainians Since the War of 1914–1918\" (Parts I–III. – Lviv, 1929–1930), \"The Great Derangement: On the History of Ukrainian State in March–November 1918 on the Basis of Recollections and Documents\" (Lviv, 1931).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second World War and the independent Ukrainian state.", "content": "After the Soviet Army entered Western Ukraine, in September 1939 (according to the secret part of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact), he was arrested by the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs and incarcerated in Lubyanka prison in Moscow. Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, Vyacheslav Molotov, and Lavrentiy Beria were involved in the proceedings concerning his case. In the spring of 1941, he was released and returned to Lviv. After the start of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, an independent Ukrainian State was proclaimed on June 30, 1941. Levytsky headed the State Representative Body – a Council of Seniors (Ukrainian National Council). He worked to curb the excesses of the occupational regime, carried on negotiations with the administration of \"Distrikt Galizien\", petitioned to end groundless repressions, and pleaded for the release of prisoners, often with positive results.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Kost Levytsky died on November 12, 1941 and was buried at in Lviv.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kost Levytsky (; 1859 – 1941) was a Ukrainian politician. He was a founder of the Ukrainian National Democratic movement and the leader of the State Representative Body of the Ukrainian government declared on June 30, 1941", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975126}
{"src_title": "Master E. S.", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Master E. S. probably came from southwestern Germany or Switzerland, as did the engraver called the Master of the Playing Cards. This view rests mainly on stylistic comparisons with the contemporary painting of that region. Although evidence indicates that he was most active in the Upper Rhine region, there also is evidence that he visited Mainz, to the south on the Rhine at the confluence of the Main River opposite Wiesbaden, a major economic and cultural centre.  None of the attempts to match documented persons with his initials have met with general acceptance. The term master meant someone who had completed an apprenticeship and ran his own workshop, as E. S. clearly did. Marriage and employing apprentices to learn the skills could sometimes also be requirements.  E. S. probably came from a background and training as a goldsmith, rather than as a painter. He sometimes used goldsmith punches in his prints (for example, to make the circles on the borders of the clothes in the \"Delilah\" print above) and some works are clearly designs for metalwork. He was the first printmaker to sign his prints with an engraved monogram, which was standard practice on significant pieces of metalwork. He engraved two images of Saint Eligius, the patron-saint of goldsmiths. He liked to fill his engravings with decorative detail, sometimes overloading the composition, and only slowly does a sense of volume or recession develop in his work.  Since his earliest prints show a practiced use of the burin, he is presumed to have worked as a goldsmith for some years before beginning printmaking. His date of birth is estimated on this basis. His level of production of prints probably means that he worked on these only during his later years. Another important printmaker and goldsmith, Israhel van Meckenem, was probably his leading assistant at the end of his career and forty-one of his plates passed to him, being reworked by van Meckenem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Shestack divides the engravings of E. S. into three stylistic periods: around 1450, up to 1460, and after 1460. During the second period he made significant technical developments. Firstly, deeper incisions with the burin, which allowed more impressions to be taken from each plate, although the number still may have been limited to about sixty or so, before wear on the plate began to show and reworking was necessary for it to be used again. His use of hatching (parallel lines) and cross-hatching to depict shading and volume, steadily grew more sophisticated and his figure-drawing became more confident, sometimes overconfident. Many figures of this period have contorted poses even when at rest. In works from the third period, his figures are more relaxed and flat surfaces are given prominence in the compositions.  Many faces of his subjects have a rather pudding-like appearance, and are overly-large for their bodies, which diminishes the quality of otherwise, fine works. Much of his work still has great charm, and the secular and comic subjects he engraved are rarely found in the surviving painting of the period.  Lehrs catalogues three hundred and eighteen engravings by E. S. and of these, ninety-five are unique, and fifty exist in only two impressions (copies). There are a further thirty-eight engravings by his probable assistant, Israhel van Meckenem, which are considered to be copies of engravings by E. S. which have not survived. In total, Shestack estimates, there may have been about five hundred engravings by E. S.  Hind notes the influence of the Master of the Playing Cards on the work of Master E. S. He adds that \"E. S. does not rank high as an artist, but on the technical side he was one of the greatest influences in the progress of the art of engraving.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Drawings.", "content": "Two very fine drawings, universally accepted as works by E. S., are in Berlin and the Louvre, but there are others which are disputed. The composition of the \"Baptism of Christ\" (picture at right), which is in the Louvre, was turned into two engravings by E. S., in doing which he complicated the compositions, filling empty spaces with new detail. Shestack considers that this reveals that his compositional method, here and perhaps commonly, was to begin by copying accurately a painting or other work by someone else. He then, in working on the engraving, introduced extra detail in a goldsmith's style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Ars Moriendi\".", "content": "He produced a series of eleven engravings for the \"Ars moriendi\" (\"The Art of Dying\"), a very popular devotional work. These were no doubt intended to be inserted into a manuscript copy of the book. The very controversial question of whether these were copies of woodcut versions of the same compositions in blockbooks was effectively solved in 1942, when Fritz Saxl published a set of manuscript illuminations using the same compositions found in the London library of the Wellcome Institute. These clearly predated all printed versions, all of which now can be seen to be derived from no doubt different versions of manuscript drawings in the same tradition. It has also been suggested that E. S. later designed the woodcuts for the earliest of the blockbooks, which are now seen as being created later than his engravings.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Master E. S. (c. 1420 – c. 1468; previously known as the \"Master of 1466\") is an unidentified German engraver, goldsmith, and printmaker of the late Gothic period. He was the first major German artist of old master prints and was greatly copied and imitated. The name assigned to him by art historians, \"Master E. S.\", is derived from the monogram, E. S., which appears on eighteen of his prints (variants appear on others). The title, Master, is used for unidentified artists who operated independently. He was probably the first printmaker to place his initials on his work.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975127}
{"src_title": "Mariya Volkonskaya", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Volkonskaya had a sister Sophia. At the age of eighteen Mariya married Prince Sergey Volkonsky, who was older. Popularly known in Irkutsk as the Princess of Siberia, she founded a local hospital and opened a concert hall, in addition to hosting musical and cultural soirees in her home. In Irkutsk Mariya had a blue and white timber mansion.  The Volkonskys had four children; two died at early age. The eldest one, Nikolay (2 January 1826 – 17 January 1828) was born before the exile and died in St Petersburg after his mother's departure for Siberia. The second child named Sophia died on her birth day (1 July 1830), while Mikhail (1832–1909) and Yelena Princess Kotchoubey-Rakhmanoff (1835–1916) survived into the 20th century.  A number of literary works, including Alexander Pushkin's \"Eugene Onegin\" and Nikolay Nekrasov's poem \"Russian Women\" were dedicated to Volkonskaya. A passage in \"Eugene Onegin\" reads:  In 1922, it was proved that Volkonskaya was the subject of six poems by Pushkin (written in 1820, 1822, 1824, 1825, 1828 and 1829). Pushkin also dedicated a few lines to the sudden passing of Volkonskaya's little son, Nikolai. However, Pushkinist Mikhail Gershenzon rebutted the view that Pushkin was in love with Mariya. Volkonskaya herself died of heart problems on the estate of her son-in-law Nikolay Arkadievich Kotchoubey (the Ukrainian village Voronki).  In September 2001 photos of the Decembrist Volkonsky family, their relatives and other Decembrists were ceremonially handed over to the Russian State Historical Museum by Signora Elena Cicognani of Rome, \"née\" Princess Elena Vadimovna Volkonskaya, great-granddaughter of Mikhail (1832–1909), in the presence of her cousin Andrew (Andrey Sergeievich) Kotchoubey of New York, great-grandson of Yelena Molchanov-Kotchoubey-Rakhmanoff (1835–1916).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Maria Nikolaevna Volkonskaya (\"née\" Raevskaya; ; December 25, 1805August 10, 1863) was the youngest daughter of the Russian general Nikolay Raevsky and Sophia Konstantinova, granddaughter of Mikhail Lomonosov. In 1825 Maria married the future Decembrist Major General Prince Sergey Grigorievich Volkonsky. When Volkonsky was arrested and exiled to Siberia, she followed him into exile on the condition that her children born after her departure to Siberia would be forever struck from the noble estate and become bonded laborers (); the threat, however, was not put into practice.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975128}
{"src_title": "Garry's Mod", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Garry's Mod\" is a physics-based sandbox game and its base game mode has no set objectives. The player is able to spawn non-player characters, ragdolls, and props, and interact with them by various means. Using the physics gun, ragdolls and props can be picked up, rotated, and frozen in place. The tool gun is a multi-purpose item for various tasks, such as welding and constraining props together, and altering the facial expressions of ragdolls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "User-created content.", "content": "\"Garry's Mod\" includes the functionality to modify the game by developing scripts written in the Lua programming language. Notable mods include \"Spacebuild\", \"Wiremod\", \"Elevator: Source\", \"DarkRP\", \"Prop Hunt\", and \"Trouble in Terrorist Town\". Specialised servers, known as Fretta servers, rotate between custom game modes every fifteen minutes. \"Garry's Mod\" version 12 introduced the \"Toybox\" section, through which the player could browse and install user-created mods. In \"Garry's Mod\" version 13, this was mostly replaced with support for the Steam Workshop.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fretta Contest.", "content": "In late 2009, Facepunch launched the \"Fretta Contest\", a competition in which people were to develop \"Garry's Mod\" game modes using the proprietary Fretta programming framework, with the winner to be natively added to the game. The winner of this contest was \"Trouble in Terrorist Town\" (\"TTT\"), wherefore it was added to the game in July 2010, alongside another Fretta game, \"Dogfight: Arcade Assault\". \"TTT\" assigns players to three groups: Traitors, Detectives, and Innocents. Detectives are known to all players, whereas Traitors are only known to other Traitors and otherwise appear as Innocents. While Traitors attempt to eliminate all other players, Innocents and Detectives need to co-operate to identify and eliminate all Traitors. To do the latter, Detectives are given special equipment, such as DNA scanners that can trace a dead player's killer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"GMod Tower\".", "content": "In July 2009, four developers working under the name \"PixelTail Games\" opened a \"Garry's Mod\" server called \"GMod Tower\". \"GMod Tower\" was a network of servers, designed as a social media platform for users to play minigames with friends and socialise in a hub area. Within hours of the server's opening, the website for \"GMod Tower\" reached two million views. \"GMod Tower\" temporarily shut down between January 2012 and April that year. PixelTail later expanded \"GMod Tower\" into \"Tower Unite\", a standalone game. When the game launched into early access in April 2016, \"GMod Tower\" was shut down permanently.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Machinima.", "content": "\"Garry's Mod\" has also been used as the basis for user-made machinima. One of the more notable examples is \"Half-Life: Full-Life Consequences\", a machinima of a poorly-written fanfic in the \"Half-Life\" universe written in 2008 by a user named Squirrelking, whom \"The Verge\" named the \"Cormac McCarthy of terrible fan fiction\". YouTube user Djy1991 used \"Garry's Mod\" to animate the fanfic, using literal interpretation of some of the work's typographical errors and awkward grammar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Development and release.", "content": "\"Garry's Mod\" was created by the video game programmer Garry Newman. He started developing games under the studio name Facepunch Studios after dropping out of college, at the time out of a room in his parents' house. He did this as a hobby, simultaneous to his occupation as a PHP programmer for a dating website, from which he was later fired when he launched his own such website. His first game was \"Facewound\", described as \"\"Mario\" with guns\", while \"Garry's Mod\" later came about as a side-project in the form of a mod for the Source game engine and principally the game \"Half-Life 2\". Newman soon found more enjoyment in developing \"Garry's Mod\" than in developing \"Facewound\", so development on \"Facewound\" was mostly halted (and put on indefinite hiatus in 2004) to focus on \"Garry's Mod\". The first iteration of the mod, version 1, was released on 24 December 2004. Initial feedback was polarised, with some criticising the mod for its similarity to an existing mod, \"JBMod\". However, the increasing positive reception led Newman to continue development. Through 2004 and 2005, Newman released several updated versions of \"Garry's Mod\", adding new features along the way and culminating in version 9.0.4 on 27 November 2005. Out of Newman's one-man operation grew a team of multiple people for a remake of the mod as a standalone game.  Valve, the developers of Source, contacted Newman to suggest a commercial, standalone release of the mod through their digital distribution service Steam, which Newman initially rejected. Valve and Facepunch later struck a publishing agreement wherein Valve would release \"Garry's Mod\" onto Steam at a price of, while the two companies would equally share profits. The last free version of \"Garry's Mod\" remained available for download, rechristened as the demo to the retail game. The standalone game was released on 29 November 2006. Despite the game no longer being a mod, Valve and Facepunch stuck with the \"\"Garry's Mod\"\" name, which Newman later cited as a mistake, stating that he should have called it \"\"Sandbox\"\" instead. Because \"Garry's Mod\" still required a separate Source-based game to function properly, a bundle including \"Garry's Mod\" and Valve's \"\" was also released. A port of the Microsoft Windows version for Mac OS X was released on 23 September 2010. Support for Kinect, a full-body motion tracking peripheral, was added to the Windows version in December 2012. When \"Garry's Mod\" was moved over to Valve's SteamPipe content delivery system, with the move completed on 5 June 2013, an experimental Linux client was also introduced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "In 2005, \"Garry's Mod\" was awarded \"PC Mod of the Year\" by \"GameSpy\". In 2017, Brendan Caldwell of \"Rock, Paper, Shotgun\" described the game as a \"must-own sandbox game\", and \"PCGamesN\" included it in its 2019 list of \"best sandbox games on PC\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial performance.", "content": "In its first day, \"Garry's Mod\" sold 5,729 copies, and 312,541 by early December 2008. Further sales milestones were reached with 770,628 copies sold by late October 2010, 1 million by July 2011, 1.4 million by March 2012, 3.5 million by July 2013, 6 million by September 2014, and 10 million by January 2016. By December 2019, Newman estimated that the game sold about 1.5 million copies annually, and stated that it had achieved over 15 million sales in total.  Sales of the game attributed for revenues of by December 2008, by March 2013, and by February 2014. The game's success allowed Facepunch to grow further, eventually branching out into other games, such as \"Rust\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Successor.", "content": "Newman stated in September 2015 that a sequel to \"Garry's Mod\" was in early development, with Newman looking to include virtual reality content and chose a name other than \"\"Garry's Mod 2\"\" for it. Newman later announced \"Sandbox\" (stylized as \"S&box\"), a sandbox game using Unreal Engine 4, in September 2017 as a potential spiritual successor to \"Garry's Mod\". In December 2019, Newman announced that development on the game had been paused. He resumed development in March 2020, announcing that \"Sandbox\" would be shifted to the Source 2 engine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Garry's Mod (often abbreviated as GMod) is a sandbox game developed by Facepunch Studios and published by Valve. The game was created by Garry Newman as a mod for Valve's Source game engine and released in December 2004, before being expanded into a standalone release and published by Valve in November 2006. Ports of the original Microsoft Windows version for Mac OS X and Linux followed in September 2010 and June 2013, respectively. The base game mode of \"Garry's Mod\" has no set objectives and provides the player with a world to freely manipulate. Other game modes, notably \"Trouble in Terrorist Town\", are created by other developers as mods and are installed separately, by means such as the Steam Workshop. As of January 2016, \"Garry's Mod\" has sold 10 million copies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975129}
{"src_title": "Henry the Younger of Poděbrady", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Heinrich the Younger of Poděbrady was a son of King George of Podebrady of Bohemia from his second marriage with Johana of Rožmitál. He received a humanist training and participated in knightly tournaments. His father, George, was King of Bohemia, but this crown was not heritable. George persuaded Emperor Frederick III in 1459 to appoint his eldest son Victor to Imperial Count. In 1462, Frederick also appointed Henry the Younger and his elder brother Henry the Elder to Imperial Count. Earlier, George had appointed his three sons Count of Glatz and enfeoffed them with the County of Glatz and the Duchy of Münsterberg. In 1465 he also enfeoffed them with the Duchy of Opava, which he had acquired in 1464.  In 1471, Henry the Younger married Catherine, the daughter of William III, Landgrave of Thuringia. His father died soon thereafter. Although Henry had stood at his father's side politically and religiously when he was young, he then turned to the Catholic faith. George's successor King Vladislas II undertook to protect George's sons and to take over their debts. George's sons initially ruled his territories together, but in 1472, the inheritance was split. Henry the Younger received Poděbrady, Kostomlaty nad Labem and possessions in Silesia. From his mother he inherited Lichnice Castle, Melnik and Teplice.  At the state convention of Benešov in 1472, Henry was elected as the provincial administrator on the recommendation of his mother, who also took part. Unlike his mother, however, he sided with the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus. The reason for this was probably that Vladislas repaid his debts only slowly, while Matthias Corvinus did so without hesitation. In 1475, Henry sold the Lordship of Kolín, which he had received from his older brother Victor, for ducats to Matthias Corvinus, who stationed his Hungarian occupation troops there. After Henry appointed the Corvinus supported and despot Racek Kocovský as the administrator of Konopiště, Vladislas's supporters aligned with those of Matthias Corvinus. In 1478 it came to a reconciliation between Henry and Vladislas under the Treaty of Brno.  Henry prepared the agreement to appointment Vladislas as King of Bohemia and played a significant role in resolving various religious and legal disputes Bohemia. In 1488 he chose the side of the Silesian princes who rebelled against Matthias Corvinus. After the rebellion was suppressed, he had to assign his inherited possessions of Poděbrady and Kostomlaty to John Corvinus, an illegitimate son of Matthias Corvinus. Henry was, however, granted a life interest in these possessions.  Henry the Younger died in 1492 at the Poděbrady Castle. His body was transferred to Kłodzko () and buried in the Franciscan monastery founded by his brother Henry the Elder. In 1558 he and eight other members of the Poděbrady family who had been buried there as well, were reburied in the church in Kłodzko. His main heir was Henry the Elder, who also took care of Henry's widow and her children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary activity.", "content": "Henry was also active in literature. In his works he dealt with contemporary history, the conversion to Catholicism, property disputes and his political stance. His poems about happiness, virtue, chivalry, and wisdom are in the contemporary style of the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. He translated several novels and wrote entertaining prose. In his travels with King Matthias Corvinus, he met many humanists. Through him, the works of Giovanni Boccaccio became known in Bohemia. He translated them from German, and even added some of his own.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry the Younger of Poděbrady (also: \"Henry the Younger of Münsterberg\"; or ; or ; 18 May 1452, Prague – 1 July 1492, Poděbrady) was an Imperial Count and Count of Glatz. From 1462 to 1471, he served as Duke of Münsterberg jointly with his older brothers Victor and Henry the Elder. He also ruled Duchy of Opava jointly with his brothers from 1465 to 1472. Henry the Younger, held at times the office of regent of Bohemia and is also known as an author.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975130}
{"src_title": "Roch Marc Christian Kaboré", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Kaboré was born in Ouagadougou, the capital city of Burkina Faso, then called Upper Volta. He attended school from 1962 to 1968, when he received his CPS (Certificate of Primary School). On completing this basic education certificate, he attended the Collège Saint Jean-Baptiste de la Salle, a selective school in Ouagadougou. He studied there from 1968 to 1975, passing his \"BEPC\" or General Certificate ('O' Level) in 1972 and his \"baccalauréat\" ('A' level) in 1975. He went on to study economics at the University of Dijon, majoring in business administration. There, he completed his BA in 1979 and his Master's in 1980.  Kaboré met his future wife, Sika Bella Kaboré, while both were studying in France. The couple married in 1982 and have three children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Banking career.", "content": "Kaboré, like his father, Charles Bila Kaboré (who was a government minister under President Maurice Yaméogo), worked as a banker for the International Bank of Burkina (BIB). He was eventually promoted to head Burkina Faso's largest bank during the presidency of Thomas Sankara. In 1984, aged 27, he was named the General Director of the BIB; he remained in that post until September 1989, when he was appointed to the government.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "He served in the government of Burkina Faso as a Minister, was a Special Adviser of the President, and has been a Deputy in the National Assembly. He became Prime Minister in 1994. When the Congress for Democracy and Progress was formed in early February 1996, Kaboré resigned as Prime Minister and became the new ruling party's First Vice-President, as well as Special Adviser at the Presidency.  On 6 June 2002, he was elected as President of the National Assembly of Burkina Faso, succeeding Mélégué Maurice Traoré. In the May 2007 parliamentary election, Kaboré was re-elected to the National Assembly as the first candidate on the CDP's national list. Following the election, the National Assembly again elected Kaboré as its president. He received 90 votes, while Norbert Tiendrébéogo received 13; there were seven invalid votes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resignation from the CDP.", "content": "Kaboré, along with a number of other prominent figures in the CDP, announced his resignation from the party on 6 January 2014. Those who resigned said that the party was being run in an undemocratic and damaging manner, and they expressed opposition to plans to amend the constitution to eliminate term limits, which would allow President Blaise Compaoré to stand for re-election in 2015. On 25 January 2014, a new opposition party led by Kaboré, the People's Movement for Progress (\"Mouvement du Peuple pour le Progrès\", MPP), was founded.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "At an MPP convention held at the Ouagadougou \"Palais des Sports\" on 4–5 July 2015, Kaboré was officially confirmed as the MPP candidate for the presidential elections due to be held on 29 November 2015.  In the election of 29 November 2015, Kaboré won the election in the first round of voting, receiving 53.5% of the vote against 29.7% for the second place candidate, Zephirin Diabré. He was sworn in as President on 29 December 2015. He appointed Paul Kaba Thieba, an economist, as Prime Minister on 7 January 2016. The composition of the new government was announced on 13 January, with Kaboré personally taking charge of the ministerial portfolio for defense and veteran affairs. Jean-Claude Bouda, who previously served as Minister of Youth, was appointed on 20 February 2017 to take over from Kaboré as Minister of Defense.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Roch Marc Christian Kaboré (born 25 April 1957) is a Burkinabé politician and banker and the President of Burkina Faso, in office since 2015. Previously he served as the Prime Minister of Burkina Faso between 1994 and 1996 and President of the National Assembly of Burkina Faso from 2002 to 2012. He also served as President of the Congress for Democracy and Progress (CDP). In January 2014, he left the ruling CDP and joined a new opposition party, the People's Movement for Progress.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975131}
{"src_title": "Charlotte, Princess Royal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Charlotte was born on 29 September 1766 at Buckingham House, London, to British monarch, King George III and Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She was christened on 27 October 1766 at St James's Palace by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Secker, and her godparents were her paternal aunts Caroline Matilda and Louisa and Caroline Matilda's husband King Christian VII of Denmark. The Duke of Portland, Lord Chamberlain, and the Dowager Countess of Effingham, stood proxy for the King and Queen of Denmark.  Charlotte was officially designated as Princess Royal on 22 June 1789. After the birth of three sons in a row, her parents were delighted to have a Princess in the nursery. Like all of her siblings, Charlotte was inoculated, in her case, in December 1768 along with her brother William. As the eldest daughter of the monarch, Charlotte was assumed to be destined for an important marriage on the continent, and her education was considered to be of the utmost importance, beginning when she was only eighteen months old. Since French was the official language in every European court, the little Princess was given a Frenchwoman to be her tutor, in order that she should have no accent. Her memory was another of her beginning subjects. She was taught to recite little verses and stories, and as a result had an almost uncanny ability to recall detail for the rest of her life. Her early childhood was not all scholarly pursuits. When she was almost three years old, she took place in her first tableau dressed like Columbine, where she danced with her seven-year-old brother George, Prince of Wales. She was not a naturally musical child and later abhorred such displays of children, declaring that they made children vain and self-important. This did not stop her parents from continuing to show her off. In late 1769, she and the Prince of Wales were once again displayed, this time to the public in a \"junior drawing room\" in St James's Palace. Charlotte was dressed in a Roman toga and lay on a sofa. Though this type of thing was common in German courts, it was considered vulgar in England, where in reaction a London mob drove a hearse into the Palace courtyard. Afterward, the Prince of Wales told Lady Mary Coke that the whole event had made Charlotte \"terribly tired\". Wisely, the King and Queen decided to never repeat the experience.  Though she was the eldest daughter, Charlotte was constantly compared to her sister Augusta Sophia, only two years younger than she. When Augusta was a month old, Lady Mary Coke called her \"the most beautiful baby I have ever seen\" while Charlotte was \"very plain\". Passing judgment once again three years later, Charlotte was now \"the most sensible agreeable child I ever saw, but in my opinion far from pretty\" while Augusta was still \"rather pretty\". Although the Princess Royal was never as beautiful as her younger sister, she did not share in Augusta's primary flaw: painful shyness, though Charlotte did suffer from a stammer that her attendant Mary Dacres tried to help her young charge overcome. In 1770, the cluster of the three eldest princesses was completed with the birth of Princess Elizabeth, the seventh child. For the time being the family remained comparatively small (there were fifteen royal children in all), and Charlotte was fortunate in having parents who preferred spending time with their numerous children to spending all their time at court and took her education seriously. However, given the frequency with which children were being produced and the troubles that plagued George III's reign, Charlotte's childhood was not as utopian as her parents planned it to be.  Like her siblings, the Princess Royal was educated by tutors and spent most her childhood at Buckingham House, Kew Palace, and Windsor Castle, where her wet nurse was Frances, wife of James Muttlebury.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 18 May 1797, the Princess Royal was married at the Chapel Royal, St James's Palace, London, to Frederick, Hereditary Prince of Württemberg, the eldest son and heir apparent of Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg and his wife, Margravine Sophia Dorothea of Brandenburg-Schwedt.  The younger Frederick succeeded his father as the reigning Duke of Württemberg on 22 December 1797. Duke Frederick II had two sons and two daughters by his first marriage to the late Princess Augusta (3 December 1764 – 27 September 1788), the daughter of Duke Karl II of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and Princess Augusta of Great Britain (the elder sister of George III); Princess Augusta was also the elder sister of Caroline of Brunswick, the estranged wife of the future George IV (then Prince of Wales). The marriage between Duke Frederick and the Princess Royal produced one child: a stillborn daughter on 27 April 1798.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Württemberg.", "content": "In 1800, the French army occupied Württemberg and the Duke and Duchess fled to Vienna. The following year, Duke Frederick concluded a private treaty that ceded Montbéliard to France and brought him Ellwangen in exchange two years later. He assumed the title Elector of Württemberg on 25 February 1803. In exchange for providing France with a large auxiliary force, Napoleon recognized the Elector as King of Württemberg on 26 December 1805. Electress Charlotte became queen when her husband formally ascended the throne on 1 January 1806 and was crowned as such on the same day at Stuttgart, Germany.  Württemberg seceded from the Holy Roman Empire and joined Napoleon's short-lived Confederation of the Rhine. However, the newly elevated king's alliance with France technically made him the enemy of his father-in-law, George III. George III, incensed by his son-in-law's assumption of the title and his role as one of Napoleon's most devoted vassals, accordingly refused to address his daughter as \"Queen of Württemberg\" in correspondence. In 1813, King Frederick changed sides and went over to the Allies, where his status as the brother-in-law of the Prince Regent (later George IV) helped his standing. After the fall of Napoleon, he attended the Congress of Vienna and was confirmed as king. He died in October 1816.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dowager Queen.", "content": "The Dowager Queen of Württemberg continued to live at the Ludwigsburg Palace, near Stuttgart, and received visits from her younger siblings, the Duke of Kent, the Duke of Sussex, the Duke of Cambridge, the Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg, and Princess Augusta Sophia. She was a godmother (by proxy) at the christening of her niece, Princess Victoria of Kent (the future Queen Victoria), in 1819. In 1827, she returned to Britain for the first time since her wedding in 1797 in order to have surgery for dropsy.  She died at Ludwigsburg Palace on 6 October 1828 and is buried in its royal vault.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles, honours and arms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "As a daughter of the sovereign, Charlotte had use of the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a \"label argent of three points, the centre point bearing a rose gules, the outer points each bearing a cross gules\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Charlotte, Princess Royal (Charlotte Augusta Matilda; 29 September 1766 – 5 October 1828), was Queen of Württemberg as the wife of King Frederick I. She was the first daughter and fourth child of King George III of the United Kingdom and his wife, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975132}
{"src_title": "Benz Patent-Motorwagen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Specifications.", "content": "After developing a successful gasoline-powered two-stroke piston engine in 1873, Benz focused on developing a motorized vehicle while maintaining a career as a designer and manufacturer of stationary engines and their associated parts.  The Benz Patent-Motorwagen was a three-wheeled automobile with a rear-mounted engine. The vehicle contained many new inventions. It was constructed of steel tubing with woodwork panels. The steel-spoked wheels and solid rubber tires were Benz's own design. Steering was by way of a toothed rack that pivoted the unsprung front wheel. Fully elliptic springs were used at the back along with a beam axle and chain drive on both sides. A simple belt system served as a single-speed transmission, varying torque between an open disc and drive disc. The first Motorwagen used the Benz single-cylinder four-stroke engine with trembler coil ignition. This new engine produced at 250 rpm in the Patent-Motorwagen, although later tests by the University of Mannheim showed it to be capable of at 400 rpm. It was an extremely light engine for the time, weighing about. Although its open crankcase and drip oiling system would be alien to a modern mechanic, its use of a pushrod-operated poppet valve for exhaust would be quite familiar. A large horizontal flywheel stabilized the single-cylinder engine's power output. An evaporative carburettor was controlled by a sleeve valve to regulate power and engine speed. The first model of the Motorwagen had not been built with a carburettor, rather a basin of fuel soaked fibers that supplied fuel to the cylinder by evaporation.  Benz later made more models of the Motorwagen: model number 2 had engine, and model number 3 had engine, allowing the vehicle to reach a maximum speed of approximately. The chassis was improved in 1887 with the introduction of wooden-spoke wheels, a fuel tank, and a manual leather shoe brake on the rear wheels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bertha Benz's Trip.", "content": "Bertha Benz, Karl's wife, whose dowry financed their enterprise, was aware of the need for publicity. She took the Patent-Motorwagen No. 3 and drove it on the first long-distance internal combustion automobile road trip to demonstrate its feasibility. That trip occurred in early August 1888, when she took her sons Eugen and Richard, fifteen and fourteen years old, respectively, on a ride from Mannheim through Heidelberg, and Wiesloch, to her maternal hometown of Pforzheim.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Benz Patent-Motorwagen (\"patent motorcar\"), built in 1885, is widely regarded as the world's first production automobile, that is, a vehicle designed to be propelled by an internal combustion engine. The original cost of the vehicle in 1885 was 600 imperial German marks, approximately 150 US dollars (). The vehicle was awarded the German patent number 37435, for which Karl Benz applied on 29 January 1886. Following official procedures, the date of the application became the patent date for the invention once the patent was granted, which occurred in November of that year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975133}
{"src_title": "Amelanchier alnifolia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"saskatoon\" derives from the Cree inanimate noun \"misâskwatômina\" (\"misâskwatômin\" \"NI sg\", saskatoonberry, \"misâskwatômina\" \"NI pl\" saskatoonberries). The city of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, is named after this berry.  The species name \"alnifolia\" is a feminine adjective. It is a compound of the Latin word for \"alder\",, and the word for \"leaf\",.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a deciduous shrub or small tree that most often grows to, rarely to, in height. Its growth form spans from suckering and forming colonies to clumped.  The leaves are oval to nearly circular, long and broad, on a leaf stem, margins toothed mostly above the middle. The foliage is browsed by deer and livestock.  As with all species in the genus \"Amelanchier\", the flowers are white, with five quite separate petals. In \"A. alnifolia\", they are about across, and appear on short racemes of three to 20 somewhat crowded together, in spring while the new leaves are still expanding.  The fruit is a small purple pome in diameter, ripening in early summer in the coastal areas and late summer further inland. They are eaten by wildlife including birds, squirrels and bears. It is also a larval host to the pale tiger swallowtail, two-tailed swallowtail, and the western tiger swallowtail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "The three varieties are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "Seedlings are planted with between rows and between plants. An individual bush may bear fruit 30 or more years.  Saskatoons are adaptable to most soil types with exception of poorly drained or heavy clay soils lacking organic matter. Shallow soils should be avoided, especially if the water table is high or erratic. Winter hardiness is exceptional, but frost can damage blooms as late as May. Large amounts of sunshine are needed for fruit ripening.  With a sweet, nutty taste, the fruits have long been eaten by Canada's aboriginal people, fresh or dried. They are well known as an ingredient in pemmican, a preparation of dried meat to which saskatoon berries are added as flavour and preservative. They are used in saskatoon berry pie, jam, wines, cider, beers, and sugar-infused berries similar to dried cranberries used for cereals, trail mix, and snack foods.  In 2004, the British Food Standards Agency suspended saskatoon berries from retail sales pending safety testing; the ban eventually was lifted after pressure from the European Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diseases and pests.", "content": "\"A. alnifolia\" is susceptible to cedar-apple rust, \"entomosporium\" leaf spot, fireblight, brown rot, \"cytospora\" canker, powdery mildew, and blackleaf. Problem insects include aphids, thrips, mites, bud moths, Saskatoon sawflies, and pear slug sawflies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrients.", "content": "Saskatoon berries contain significant amounts of total dietary fiber, riboflavin and biotin, and the dietary minerals, iron and manganese, a nutrient profile similar to the content of blueberries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Polyphenols.", "content": "Also similar in composition to blueberries, saskatoons have total polyphenol content of 452 mg per 100 g (average of 'Smoky' and 'Northline' cultivars), flavonols (61 mg) and anthocyanins (178 mg), although others have found the phenolic values to be either lower in the 'Smoky' cultivar or higher. Quercetin, cyanidin, delphinidin, pelargonidin, petunidin, peonidin, and malvidin were present in saskatoon berries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Amelanchier alnifolia, the saskatoon, Pacific serviceberry, western serviceberry, alder-leaf shadbush, dwarf shadbush, chuckley pear, or western juneberry, is a shrub with edible berry-like fruit, native to North America from Alaska across most of western Canada and in the western and north-central United States. Historically, it was also called pigeon berry. It grows from sea level in the north of the range, up to elevation in California and in the Rocky Mountains, and is a common shrub in the forest understory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975134}
{"src_title": "Communauté de communes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Legal status.", "content": "The \"communauté de communes\" was created by a statute of the French Parliament enacted on February 6, 1992. The statute was modified by the Chevènement Law of 1999.  Unlike the \"communautés d'agglomération\" and the \"communautés urbaines\", \"communautés de communes\" are not subjected to a minimum threshold of population to come into existence. The only constraint is geographical continuity.  According to the \"\" (general law over regional administrative structures), a \"communauté de communes\" is a public establishment of inter-communal cooperation (EPCI), formed by several French municipalities, which cover a connected territory without enclave.  In 1999 when the Chevènement Law regulatory modifications came into force, \"communautés de communes\" already in existence that did not meet the criterion of geographical continuity were left untouched.  The communes involved build a space of solidarity with a joint project of development, infrastructure building, etc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Constitutional.", "content": "The \"communautés de communes\" are currently funded by local taxes:  The is a modified version of the tax whereby a proportion of the monies levied by the \"communautés des communes\" is paid back to the individual communes. The is sometimes presented as an unfair burden on the economy or even as a device for exporting jobs outside France, and it has been subject to a series of reforms over the years but central government undertakings to abolish it (and presumably to replace it) have yet to come to fruition. If they do, funding of the \"communautés de communes\" will change fundamentally.  A \"communauté de communes\" is administered by a council \"(conseil communautaire)\" made up of delegates from the municipal councils of each member commune. The number of seats allocated to each commune reflects the size of the commune. A member commune must have at least one seat on the council, and no individual commune may have more than half of the seats on the \"conseil communautaire\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Objectives.", "content": "Article 5214-16 of the CGCT requires the \"communauté de communes\" to exercise its responsibilities in the following policy areas:  The \"communauté de communes\" may also choose to exercise its responsibilities in at least one of the following six policy areas:  The \"communauté de communes\" may define its own personnel requirements and appoint appropriately qualified employees. In addition, and subject to départemental agreement it may exercise directly powers and responsibilities in certain social policy areas which are more normally handled at the départemental level.  Subject to these requirements, it is for the communes themselves to determine precisely which competences they will delegate to the \"communauté de communes\": they will do this based on their view of the individual commune's best interests. Once powers and responsibilities have been delegated to the \"communauté de communes\", they shall be exercised collectively through the \"communauté de communes\" and may no longer be exercised independently by individual member communes.  In 2008 there were 2,393 \"communautés de communes\" in France. Of these, roughly 1,000 had been in existence for less than a year. New \"communautés\" are currently being created at a more rapid rate than in the early years. Nevertheless, there are still many rural communes that have not joined one of these groupings.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A communauté de communes (, \"community of communes\") is a federation of municipalities (communes) in France. It forms a framework within which local tasks are carried out together. It is the least-integrated form of \"intercommunality\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975135}
{"src_title": "Henriette of France (1727–1752)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Anne Henriette and her older twin sister Princess Louise Élisabeth were born at the Palace of Versailles on 14 August 1727, to Louis XV of France and queen Maria Leszczyńska. While the birth of the twins was considered a political disappointment, because the Salic Law disqualified them as heirs to the throne and the succession was thus still unsolved after their birth, their father, the King was delighted, and commented that after all talk of him not being able to be a father, he was now the father of two.  Along with her twin, she was baptised at Versailles on 27 April 1737. Henriette was named after her paternal great-great grandmother Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans, with Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon and Louise Anne de Bourbon as her godparents. As the legitimate daughter of the king, she was a \"fille de France\", but as the younger of the twins, she was referred as \"Madame Seconde\"; as an adult, she became known as \"Madame Henriette\", or only \"Madame\", as the eldest daughter of the king present in Versailles after the marriage of her sister.  The eldest children of Louis XV, the twins Élisabeth and Henriette, Marie-Louise, Adélaïde and their brother, the Dauphin of France, were raised in Versailles under the supervision of the Governess of the Children of France, Marie Isabelle de Rohan, \"duchesse de Tallard\", while their younger siblings, Victoire, Sophie, Therese and Louise, were sent to be raised at the Abbey of Fontevraud in June 1738.  In 1739, her twin moved to Spain to marry the Infante Philip, a younger son of King Philip V. Henriette was reportedly despondent about being separated from her twin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adult life.", "content": "One of the reasons why her younger sisters were sent away from Versailles to be raised was the high expense of raising royal French children, who were allowed to participate in court life as well as arrange their own festivities even in childhood; those kept at court participated in court life from the age of twelve. From 1744 onward, Henriette and Adelaide accompanied their father to the Opera in Paris, and from 1746, they hunted with him five days a week. In 1744, Henriette and Adelaide were officially transferred from the royal nursery and the King created their own household, the Household of the \"Mesdames aînées\" ('Elder Mesdames') and appointed two ladies-in-waiting (\"dame pour accompagner Mesdames\"); two years later, they were given their own \"dame d'honneur\".  Henriette was considered to be a beauty and prettier than her elder twin. She was described as gentle and melancholic to her temperament, reserved but intensely loyal, and gifted in music. She was evidently the favorite child of her father, and it was said that she had no enemies at court.  Despite her beauty, no serious marriage negotiations was ever meade for Henriette. In 1740, Louis François, Prince of Conti took the opportunity to suggest a marriage between himself and Henriette when he became alone with the king during a hunt, explaining that he believed that he could make Henriette happy, and that such a marriage would mean that she would never have to leave her father and France; but the king did not react favorably to the proposal.  Henriette reportedly fell mutually in love with her cousin, Louis Philippe, \"duc de Chartres\", the heir to the House of Orléans, and reportedly wished to marry him. The King initially liked the idea, but changed his mind, not wanting the house of Orleans too close to the throne, and the plans were finnally discontinued in 1743, when the duke de Chartres married someone else, and Henriette remained unmarried.  Her twin Élisabeth, who was described as ambitious, was not satisfied as the spouse of a prince without a throne; she kept in contact with the French court through correspondence, and had already by 1740 established a net of contacts there to assist her in her ambition to obtain independent power positions for herself and her spouse \"worthy of the birth of both\"; Henriette was one of her most fervent champions in this issue. Otherwise regarded as habitually apathetic about politics, Henriette was reportedly passionately devoted to working for the political ambition of her twin, as was her younger sister Adelaide and her sister-in-law Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain; the powerful Noailles and Maurepas allied with the queen to achieve the same, and the French ambassador at Madrid, Monseigneur Vaurdal, Archbishop of Rheims.  Henriette, as well as her siblings, disliked their father's extramarital liaisons because they caused their father to neglect their mother, and their discontent with their father's adultery was directed toward his mistresses, notably Madame de Pompadour, who from 1745 onward was their father's official mistress at court and influential upon the affairs of state. With her brother, the Dauphin Louis, and her sister, \"Madame Adélaïde\", she called the powerful mistress, \"Maman Putain\" (\"Mother Whore\"). When Louise Élisabeth returned from Parma for a year-long visit to Versailles in 1748, she and \"Madame de Pompadour\" became close friends, which led to a temporary estrangement between the sisters.  In 1747, her brother Louis was forced to marry Maria Josepha of Saxony, Dauphine of France, against his will shortly after the death of his beloved first spouse, Maria Teresa Rafaela, in childbirth. This caused Louis to initially be hostile toward Maria Josepha, even more so when his only child with the Spanish Infanta died at the age of two, but she eventually managed to win his affection, upon the advice of Henriette.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Henriette died of smallpox in 1752 at the age of twenty-four. In February of that year, she had felt somewhat unwell and tired, but when the king asked her to accompany him on a sledge ride, she gave no signs of her discomfort, and accepted the invitation anyway. She was badly affected by the chilly weather, and died after just three days of illness. Her family was described as being in a \"state of stupefaction over the rapidity of the illness.\"  Louis XV reacted with \"violent\" despair upon her death and gave order of the highest honors around her funeral; in order to enhance the public mourning, her remains were placed at the Tuileries instead of Versailles prior to the funeral, dressed in one of her finest dresses and made up so to appear alive. The public funeral reception was however not to the king's taste, as the public \"drank, laughed and amused themselves\", which was taken as a sign of the diminishing reputation of the monarchy. At the time, the public interpreted the death of Henriette as a sign of divine disapproval of the king's lifestyle.  Her heart was interred in the Abbey of Val-de-Grace, while her remains were buried at the Basilica of Saint Denis, along with her sister Elisabeth. Her tomb, like other royal tombs at Saint-Denis, was destroyed during the French Revolution.  Madame Campan later wrote about her: \"Madame Henriette, twin sister of the Duchess of Parma, was much regretted, for she had considerable influence over the King’s mind, and it was remarked that if she had lived she would have been assiduous in finding him amusements in the bosom of his family, would have followed him in his short excursions, and would have done the honours of the 'petits soupers' which he was so fond of giving in his private apartments.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anne \"Henriette\" of France(14 August 1727 – 10 February 1752) was a French princess, the twin of Louise Élisabeth of France, and the second child of King Louis XV of France and queen consort Marie Leszczyńska.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975136}
{"src_title": "Irène Némirovsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Némirovsky was born Irina Lvivna Nemirovska () in 1903 in Kiev, then Russian Empire, the daughter of a wealthy banker, Léon (Lev) Némirovsky. Her volatile and unhappy relationship with her mother became the heart of many of her novels.  Her family fled the Russian Empire at the start of the Russian Revolution in 1917, spending a year in Finland in 1918 and then settling in Paris, where Némirovsky attended the Sorbonne and began writing when she was 18 years old.  In 1926, Némirovsky married Michel Epstein, a banker, and had two daughters: Denise, born in 1929; and Élisabeth, in 1937.  In 1929, she published \"David Golder\", the story of a Jewish banker unable to please his troubled daughter, which was an immediate success, and was adapted to the big screen by Julien Duvivier in 1930, with Harry Baur as David Golder. In 1930 her novel \"Le Bal\", the story of a mistreated daughter and the revenge of a teenager, became a play and a movie.  The \"David Golder\" manuscript was sent by post to the \"Grasset\" publisher with a poste restante address and signed \"Epstein\". H. Muller, a reader for \"Grasset\" immediately tried to find the author but couldn't get hold of him/her. \"Grasset\" put an ad in the newspapers hoping to find the author, but the author was busy: she was having her first child, Denise. When Némirovsky finally showed up as the author of \"David Golder\", the unverified story is that the publisher was surprised that such a young woman was able to write such a powerful book.  Although she was widely recognized as a major author – even by some anti-Semitic writers like Robert Brasillach – French citizenship was denied to the Némirovskys in 1938.  Némirovsky was of Russian-Jewish origin, but was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church in 1939 and wrote in \"Candide\" and \"Gringoire\", two magazines with ultra-nationalist tendencies. After the war started, \"Gringoire\" was the only magazine that continued to publish her work, thus \"guarantee[ing] Némirovsky's family some desperately needed income\".  By 1940, Némirovsky's husband was unable to continue working at the bank, and Némirovsky's books could no longer be published, because of her Jewish ancestry. Upon the Nazis' approach to Paris, they fled with their two daughters to the village of Issy-l'Evêque (the Némirovskys initially sent them to live with their nanny's family in Burgundy, while staying on in Paris themselves; they had already lost their Russian home and refused to lose their home in France), where Némirovsky was required to wear the Yellow star.  On 13 July 1942, Némirovsky (then 39) was arrested as a \"stateless person of Jewish descent\" by policemen employed by Vichy France. As she was being taken away, she told her daughters, \"I am going on a journey now.\" She was brought to a convoy assembly camp at Pithiviers, and on 17 July 1942, together with 928 other Jewish deportees, transported to German concentration camp Auschwitz. Upon her arrival there two days later, her forearm was marked with an identification number. She died a month later of typhus. On 6 November 1942, her husband, Michel Epstein, was sent to Auschwitz and immediately sent to the gas chambers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rediscovery.", "content": "Némirovsky is now best known as the author of the unfinished \"Suite Française\" (Denoël, France, 2004, ; translation by Sandra Smith, Knopf, 2006, ), two novellas portraying life in France between 4 June 1940 and 1 July 1941, the period during which the Nazis occupied most of France. These works are considered remarkable because they were written during the actual period itself, and yet are the product of considered reflection, rather than just a journal of events, as might be expected considering the personal turmoil experienced by the author at the time.  Némirovsky's older daughter, Denise, kept the notebook containing the manuscript for \"Suite Française\" for fifty years without reading it, thinking it was a journal or diary of her mother's, which would be too painful to read. In the late 1990s, however, she made arrangements to donate her mother's papers to a French archive and decided to examine the notebook first. Upon discovering what it contained, she instead had it published in France, where it became a bestseller in 2004. It has since been translated into 38 languages and as of 2008 has sold 2.5 million copies.  The original manuscript has been given to the \"Institut mémoires de l'édition contemporaine\" (IMEC), and the novel has won the Prix Renaudot – the first time the prize has been awarded posthumously.  Némirovsky's surviving notes sketch a general outline of a story arc that was intended to include the two existing novellas, as well as three more to take place later during the war and at its end. She wrote that the rest of the work was \"in limbo, and what limbo! It's really in the lap of the gods since it depends on what happens.\"  In a January 2006 interview with the BBC, her daughter, Denise, said, \"For me, the greatest joy is knowing that the book is being read. It is an extraordinary feeling to have brought my mother back to life. It shows that the Nazis did not truly succeed in killing her. It is not vengeance, but it is a victory.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "Several reviewers and commentators have raised questions regarding Némirovsky's conversion to Catholicism, her generally negative depiction of Jews in her writing and her use of ultra-nationalist publications to provide for her family. A criticism of her work by Ruth Franklin was published in \"The New Republic\" and stated that: Némirovsky was the very definition of a self-hating Jew. Does that sound too strong? Well, here is a Jewish writer who owed her success in France \"entre deux guerres\" in no small measure to her ability to pander to the forces of reaction, to the fascist right. Némirovsky's stories of corrupt Jews – some of them even have hooked noses, no less! – appeared in right-wing periodicals and won her the friendship of her editors, many of whom held positions of power in extreme-right political circles. When the racial laws in 1940 and 1941 cut off her ability to publish, she turned to those connections to seek special favors for herself, and even went so far as to write a personal plea to Marshal Pétain.  Myriam Anissimov's introduction to the French edition of \"Suite Française\" describes Némirovsky as a \"self-hating Jew,\" due to the fact that Némirovsky's own situation as a Jew in France is not at all seen in the work. The paragraph was omitted from the English edition.  A long article in \"The Jewish Quarterly\" argued that there had been an \"abdication of critical responsibility in exchange for the more sensational copy to be had from Némirovsky’s biography\" by most reviewers in the British press.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Fire in the Blood\".", "content": "In 2007 another novel by Némirovsky was published, after a complete manuscript was found in her archives by two French biographers. \"Chaleur du sang\" – translated to English by Sandra Smith as \"Fire in the Blood\" – is a tale of country folk in a Burgundy village, based on Issy-l'Évêque where Némirovsky and her family found temporary refuge while hiding from the Nazis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "A biography of Némirovsky was published in 2006. The book, \"\" was written by Jonathan Weiss.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "\"'Critical reviews of \"Suite Française\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Irène Némirovsky (; 24 February 1903 – 17 August 1942) was a novelist of Ukrainian Jewish origin who was born in Kiev, Ukraine under the Russian Empire. She lived more than half her life in France, and wrote in French, but was denied French citizenship. Arrested as a Jew under the racial laws – which did not take into account her conversion to Roman Catholicism – she died at Auschwitz at the age of 39. Némirovsky is best known for the posthumously published \"Suite française\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975137}
{"src_title": "Sasha Sokolov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Sokolov is a Canadian citizen and has lived the larger part of his life so far in the United States and Canada. During the Second World War, his father, Major Vsevolod Sokolov, worked as a military attaché at the Soviet embassy in Canada. In 1946 Major Sokolov (agent \"Davey\") was deported from Canada in relation to spying activity. After returning to the Soviet Union in 1946 and growing up there, Sokolov did not fit into the Soviet system. In 1965 he was discarded from a military university, probably because he had tried to flee the country. After that he studied journalism at Moscow State University from 1966 to 1971. Shortly after his first daughter was born in 1974 his first marriage ended.  Sokolov made several attempts to flee from Soviet Union. He was caught while crossing the Iranian border, and only his father's connections helped him to avoid long imprisonment.  He met his second wife, the Austrian-born Johanna Steindl while she was teaching German at the University in Moscow. She smuggled the text of his first novel into the West. Only after she started a hunger strike in the Stephansdom in Vienna, Austria, in 1975, was Sokolov allowed to leave the Soviet Union. Sokolov left Vienna in late 1976 for the United States after his first novel had been published. In early 1977, Johanna Steindl gave birth to Sokolov's son, who has become a journalist. He also had a second daughter named Maria Goldfarb, born in New York in 1986, who has become an artist. Sasha Sokolov later married again several times and is now married to the US rower Marlene Royle.  His second novel, \"Between Dog and Wolf,\" builds even more on the particularities of the Russian language and was deemed untranslatable for many years. Thus, it has become a much lesser success than \"A School for Fools\", which has been translated into many languages. However, in late 2016, \"Between Dog and Wolf\" was translated into English by Alexander Boguslawski, a longtime friend of Mr. Sokolov, and published by Columbia University Press. Sokolov's 1985 novel, \"Palisandriia,\" was translated as \"Astrophobia\" and published by Grove Press in the US in 1989. The complete manuscript of his fourth book is said to have been lost when the Greek house it had been written in burnt down. Sokolov, who leads a rather reclusive life, says that he keeps writing, but doesn't want to be published any more.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sasha Sokolov (born Александр Всеволодович Соколов/\"Alexander Vsevolodovitch Sokolov\" on November 6, 1943, in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada) is a paradoxical writer of Russian literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975138}
{"src_title": "Delicious (website)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Functionality.", "content": "Delicious used a non-hierarchical classification system in which users could tag each of their bookmarks with freely chosen index terms (generating a kind of folksonomy). A combined view of everyone's bookmarks with a given tag was available; for instance, the URL http://delicious.com/tag/wiki displayed all of the most recent links tagged \"wiki\". Its collective nature made it possible to view bookmarks added by other users.  Delicious also allowed users to group links with similar topics together to form a \"Stack\", and include title and descriptions for the Stack page. Stacks could be worked on collaboratively with other users, and could be followed and shared with other users. Stacks were added in September 2011 and removed in July 2012.  Delicious had a \"hotlist\" on its home page and \"recent\" pages, which helped to make the website a conveyor of Internet memes and trends. Users could also explore stacks on the home page by navigating categories such as Arts & Design or Education.  Delicious was one of the most popular social bookmarking services. Many features contributed to this, including the website's simple interface, its human-readable URL scheme, a novel domain name, a simple REST-like API, and RSS feeds for web syndication.  Use of Delicious was free and a user could download his or her own data through the site's API in an XML or JSON format, or export it to a standard Netscape bookmarks format.  All bookmarks posted to Delicious were publicly viewable by default, although users could mark specific bookmarks as private, and imported bookmarks were private by default. The public aspect was emphasized; the site was not focused on storing private (\"not shared\") bookmark collections. Delicious linkrolls, tagrolls, network badges, RSS feeds, and the site's daily blog posting feature could be used to display bookmarks on weblogs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The precursor to Delicious was Muxway, a link blog that had grown out of a text file that Schachter maintained to keep track of links related to Memepool. In September 2003, Schachter released the first version of Delicious. In March 2005, he left his day job to work on Delicious full-time, and in April 2005 it received approximately $2 million in funding from investors including Union Square Ventures and Amazon.com.  When Delicious was first launched, it was the first use of the term \"tag\" in the modern sense, and it was the first explicit opportunity where website users were given the ability to add their own tags to their bookmarks so that they could more easily search for them at a later time. This major breakthrough was not much noticed as most thought the application at the time \"cool\" but obvious.  Yahoo acquired Delicious on December 9, 2005. Various guesses suggest it was sold for somewhere between US$15 million and US$30 million. In 2018, Schachter said the actual number was \"definitely less\" than US$30 million.  On December 16, 2010, an internal slide from a Yahoo meeting leaked, indicating that Delicious would be \"sunsetted\" in the future, which seemed to mean \"shut down\". Later Yahoo clarified that they would be selling Delicious, not ending it. This news resulted in Delicious users looking for alternative sites. This benefited Pinboard, also a bookmarking site, which saw a huge surge of traffic and activity on its site. Various other services such as Google Bookmarks and Spabba also offered bookmarks migration tools to allow users to migrate and safeguard their bookmarks out of Delicious.  On April 27, 2011, Delicious announced the site was sold to Avos Systems, a company created by Chad Hurley and Steve Chen. Unbeknownst to members, Yahoo continued to operate the site until September 2011.  On September 26, 2011, Delicious launched its completely new version 3.0 design in beta. This redesign came in as a surprise to many of its users, with many features being disabled, removed or temporarily unavailable. AVOS Systems removed the Delicious Support Forum and had advised users that communication with Avos should take place via email. Reaction from users was overwhelmingly negative.  On November 9, 2011, AVOS Systems announced that they had acquired the link-saving service, Trunk.ly. Trunk.ly offered to automatically save all links that users have \"liked\" on Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn. This acquisition led to the launch of Twitter Connector on Delicious on March 2, 2012.  On May 8, 2014, Science, Inc. announced it had acquired the Delicious website from AVOS, without acquiring staff. Science, Inc. is a \"technology investment and advisory firm\", which said it intended to keep the site \"largely as is\".  On January 11, 2016, the Delicious blog announced ownership had transitioned to a new company formed between Science and of Domainersuite.  On June 1, 2017, Pinboard acquired Delicious. The service was shut down and became read-only on June 15, and its users have been encouraged to subscribe to the Pinboard service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Delicious under Avos Systems.", "content": "After being purchased by AVOS Systems on April 27, 2011, Delicious went through significant UI redesigns and became more social.  On September 26, 2011, Delicious launched its completely new version 3.0 design in beta. Delicious added a new feature called Stacks that allows users to group multiple related links into a single page, and customize the Stack by adding title, description and a featured image.  On December 13, 2011, Delicious continued its work to redesign its site, including UI changes to link-saving page and Stacks page. The new design, especially for the Stacks page, was similar to the design of another popular social photo-sharing website Pinterest.  On January 20, 2012, Delicious added more social features into its Stacks page, allowing users to collaborate on the same Stack, as a public Stack or a private Stack among a group of users. The users can also comment on a stack and create a stack as a response to the original stack. This new social feature was considered as a good step against competitor such as Pinterest which did not offer private boards at the time.  On March 2, 2012, Delicious continued its effort to be more social, by providing a Twitter Connector that allows users to connect their Twitter accounts to their Delicious accounts. This new feature allowed tweeted links to be automatically saved into the Delicious account.  On July 20, 2012, Delicious reversed its position on the Stacks feature. All Stacks created by members were converted to tags in early August, 2012, without any loss of member data. This was part in response to AVOS's direction for Delicious and partly from feedback from Delicious members, many of whom felt that Stacks were trying to emulate features of the visual bookmarking site, Pinterest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The \"del.icio.us\" domain name was a well-known example of a domain hack, an unconventional combination of letters to form a word or phrase.  In an interview Schachter explained how he chose the name: \"I'd registered the domain when.us opened the registry, and a quick test showed me the six letter suffixes that let me generate the most words. In early discussions, a friend referred to finding good links as 'eating cherries' and the metaphor stuck, I guess.\"  On September 6, 2007, Schachter announced the website's name would change to \"Delicious\" when the site would be redesigned. The new design went live on July 31, 2008. In January 2016, changes to the website were announced, including a move back to \"del.icio.us\".  On April 24, 2016, Delicious transitioned back to \"del.icio.us\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Delicious (stylized del.icio.us) was a social bookmarking web service for storing, sharing, and discovering web bookmarks. The site was founded by Joshua Schachter and Peter Gadjokov in 2003 and acquired by Yahoo! in 2005. By the end of 2008, the service claimed more than 5.3 million users and 180 million unique bookmarked URLs. Yahoo sold Delicious to AVOS Systems in April 2011, and the site relaunched in a \"back to beta\" state on September 27 that year. In May 2014, AVOS sold the site to Science Inc. In January 2016 Delicious Media, a new alliance, reported it had assumed control of the service.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975139}
{"src_title": "Optimum currency area", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Models.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Optimum currency area with stationary expectations.", "content": "Published by Mundell in 1961, this is the most cited by economists. Here asymmetric shocks are considered to undermine the real economy, so if they are too important and cannot be controlled, a regime with floating exchange rates is considered better, because the global monetary policy (interest rates) will not be fine tuned for the particular situation of each constituent region.  The four often cited criteria for a successful currency union are:  Additional criteria suggested are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Optimum currency area with international risk sharing.", "content": "Here Mundell tries to model how exchange rate uncertainty will interfere with the economy; this model is less often cited.  Supposing that the currency is managed properly, the larger the area, the better. In contrast with the previous model, asymmetric shocks are not considered to undermine the common currency because of the existence of the common currency. This spreads the shocks in the area because all regions share claims on each other in the same currency and can use them for dampening the shock, while in a flexible exchange rate regime, the cost will be concentrated on the individual regions, since the devaluation will reduce its buying power. So despite a less fine tuned monetary policy the real economy should do better.  Mundell's work can be cited on both sides of the debate about the euro. However, in 1973 Mundell himself constructed an argument on the basis of the second model that was more favorable to the concept of a (then-hypothetical) shared European currency.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European Union.", "content": "OCA theory has been most frequently applied to discussions of the euro and the European Union. Many have argued that the EU did not actually meet the criteria for an OCA at the time the euro was adopted, and attribute the Eurozone's economic difficulties in part to continued failure to do so. Europe does indeed score well on some of the measures characterising an OCA (such as symmetry of shocks). By looking at the correlation of a region's GDP growth rate with that of the entire zone, the Eurozone countries show slightly greater correlations compared to the U.S. states. However, it has lower labour mobility than the United States, possibly due to language and cultural differences. In O'Rourke's paper, more than 40% of U.S. residents were born outside the state in which they live. In the Eurozone, only 14% people were born in a different country than the one in which they live. In fact, the U.S. economy was approaching a single labor market in the nineteenth century. However, for most parts of the Eurozone, such levels of labour mobility and labor market integration remain a distant prospect. Furthermore, the U.S. economy, with a central federal fiscal authority, has stabilization transfers. When a state in the U.S. is in recession, every $1 drop in that state’s GDP would have an offsetting transfer of 28 cents. Such stabilizing transfers are not present in both the Eurozone and EU; thus, they cannot rely on fiscal federalism to smooth out regional economic disturbances. The European crisis, however, may be pushing the EU towards more federal powers in fiscal policy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Michael Kouparitsas (Chicago Fed) considered the United States as divided into the eight regions of the Bureau of Economic Analysis, (Far West, Rocky Mountain, Plains, Great Lakes, Mideast, New England, Southwest, and Southeast). By developing a statistical model, he found that five of the eight regions of the country satisfied Mundell's criteria to form a single Optimal Currency Area. However, he found the fit of the Southeast and Southwest to be questionable. He also found that the Plains would not fit into an optimal currency area.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Keynesian.", "content": "The notion of a currency that does not accord with a state, specifically one \"larger\" than a state – formally, of an international monetary authority without a corresponding fiscal authority – has been criticized by Keynesian and Post-Keynesian economists, who emphasize the role of deficit spending by a government (formally, fiscal authority) in the running of an economy, and consider using an international currency without fiscal authority to be a loss of \"monetary sovereignty\".  Specifically, Keynesian economists argue that fiscal stimulus in the form of deficit spending is the most powerful method of fighting unemployment during a liquidity trap. Such stimulus may not be possible if states in a monetary union are not allowed to run sufficient deficits.  The Post-Keynesian theory of Neo-Chartalism holds that government deficit spending creates money, that ability to print money is fundamental to a state's ability to command resources, and that \"money and monetary policy are intricately linked to political sovereignty and fiscal authority\". Both of these critiques consider the transactional benefits of a shared currency to be minor compared to these drawbacks, and more generally place less emphasis on the \"transactional\" function of money (a medium of exchange) and greater emphasis on its use as a unit of account.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Self-fulfilling argument.", "content": "In Mundell’s first model, countries regard all of the conditions as given, and assuming they have adequate information, they can then judge whether the costs of forming a currency union outweigh the benefits. However, another school of thought argues that some of the OCA criteria are not given and fixed, but rather they are economic outcomes (i.e., endogenous) determined by the creation of the currency union itself.  Consider goods market interaction as an example: if the OCA criteria were applied before the currency union forms, then many countries might exhibit low trade volumes and low market integration; which means that OCA criteria are not met. Thus, the currency union might not be formed based on those current characteristics. However, if the currency union was established anyway, its member-states would trade so much more that, in the end, the OCA criteria would be met. This logic suggests that the OCA criteria can be self-fulfilling. Furthermore, greater integration under the OCA project might also improve other OCA criteria. For example, if goods markets are better connected, shocks will be more rapidly transmitted within the OCA and will be felt more symmetrically.  However, caution should be employed when analysing the self-fulfilling argument. Firstly, the self-fulfilling effect's impact may not be significant. According to a recent study by Richard Baldwin, a trade economist at the Graduate Institute of International Studies in Geneva, the boost to trade within the Eurozone from the single currency is much smaller: between 5% and 15%, with a best estimate of 9%.  The second counter-argument is that further goods market integration might also lead to more specialization in production. Once individual firms can easily serve the whole OCA market, and not just their national market, they will exploit economies of scale and concentrate production. Some sectors in the OCA might end up becoming concentrated in a few locations. The United States is a good example: financial services are centered in New York City, entertainment in Los Angeles, and technology in Silicon Valley. If specialization increases, each country will be less diversified and will face more asymmetric shocks; weakening the case for the self-fulfilling OCA argument.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In economics, an optimum currency area (OCA), also known as an optimal currency region (OCR), is a geographical region in which it would maximize economic efficiency to have the entire region share a single currency.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975140}
{"src_title": "Saint Apollonia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Martyrdom.", "content": "Ecclesiastical historians have claimed that in the last years of Emperor Philip the Arabian (reigned 244–249), during otherwise undocumented festivities to commemorate the millennium of the founding of Rome (traditionally in 753 BC, putting the date about 248), the fury of the Alexandrian mob rose to a great height, and when one of their poets prophesied a calamity, they committed bloody outrages on the Christians, whom the authorities made no effort to protect.  Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria (247–265), relates the sufferings of his people in a letter addressed to Fabius, Bishop of Antioch, of which long extracts have been preserved in Eusebius' \"Historia Ecclesiae\". After describing how a Christian man and woman, Metras and Quinta, were seized and killed by the mob, and how the houses of several other Christians were pillaged, Dionysius continues:  At that time Apollonia, \"parthénos presbytis\" (mostly likely meaning a deaconess) was held in high esteem. These men seized her also and by repeated blows broke all her teeth. They then erected outside the city gates a pile of wood and threatened to burn her alive if she refused to repeat after them impious words (either a blasphemy against Christ, or an invocation of the heathen gods). Given, at her own request, a little freedom, she sprang quickly into the fire and was burned to death.  This brief tale was extended and moralized in Jacobus da Voragine's \"Golden Legend\" (c. 1260).  Apollonia and a whole group of early martyrs did not await the death they were threatened with, but either to preserve their chastity or because they were confronted with the alternative of renouncing their faith or suffering death, voluntarily embraced the death prepared for them, an action that runs perilously close to suicide, some thought. Augustine of Hippo touches on this question in the first book of \"The City of God\", apropos suicide:  But, they say, during the time of persecution certain holy women plunged into the water with the intention of being swept away by the waves and drowned, and thus preserve their threatened chastity. Although they quitted life in this wise, nevertheless they receive high honour as martyrs in the Catholic Church and their feasts are observed with great ceremony. This is a matter on which I dare not pass judgment lightly. For I know not but that the Church was divinely authorized through trustworthy revelations to honour thus the memory of these Christians. It may be that such is the case. May it not be, too, that these acted in such a manner, not through human caprice but on the command of God, not erroneously but through obedience, as we must believe in the case of Samson? When, however, God gives a command and makes it clearly known, who would account obedience there to a crime or condemn such pious devotion and ready service?\"  The narrative of Dionysius does not suggest the slightest reproach as to this act of St. Apollonia; in his eyes she was as much a martyr as the others, and as such she was revered in the Alexandrian Church. In time, her feast was also popular in the West. A later narrative mistakenly duplicated Apollonia, making her a Christian virgin of Rome in the reign of Julian the Apostate, suffering the same dental fate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches celebrate the feast day of St. Apollonia on February 9, and she is popularly invoked against the toothache because of the torments she had to endure. She is represented in art with pincers in which a tooth is held.  Saint Apollonia is one of the two patron saints of Catania.  William S. Walsh noted that, though the major part of her relics were preserved in the former church of St. Apollonia at Rome, her head at the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere, her arms at the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, parts of her jaw in St. Basil's, and other relics are in the Jesuit church at Antwerp, in St. Augustine's at Brussels, in the Jesuit church at Mechlin, in St. Cross at Liege, in the treasury of the cathedral of Porto, and in several churches at Cologne. These relics consist in some cases of a solitary tooth or a splinter of bone. In the Middle Ages, objects claimed to be her teeth were sold as toothache cures.  There was a church dedicated to her in Rome, near the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere, but it no longer exists. Only its little square, the \"Piazza Sant'Apollonia\" remains. One of the principal train stations of Lisbon is also named for this saint. There is a statue of Saint Apollonia in the church at Locronan, France. The island of Mauritius was originally named \"Santa Apolónia\" in her honor in 1507 by Portuguese navigators. A parish church in Eilendorf, a suburb of Aachen, Germany, is named in honor of Saint Apollonia.  The Madonna Della Strada Chapel at Loyola University Chicago contains a stained glass window on the north wall depicting St. Apollonia. The windows along this wall correspond with the colleges of the university at the time the chapel was built. The Loyola University School of Dentistry closed in 1993, but the window in the chapel remains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presence in England.", "content": "There are 52 known images of her in various English churches that survived the ravages of the 16th-century Commissioners. These are concentrated in Devon and East Anglia. Most of these images are on the panels of rood screens or featured in stained glass with only one being a stone capital (Stokeinteignhead, Devon). She is also depicted in a tapestry of circa 1499 at St. Mary's Guildhall, Coventry.  By county, some of the locations are:  Her image is the side support of the arms of the British Dental Association.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Apollonia () was one of a group of virgin martyrs who suffered in Alexandria during a local uprising against the Christians prior to the persecution of Decius. According to church tradition, her torture included having all of her teeth violently pulled out or shattered. For this reason, she is popularly regarded as the patroness of dentistry and those suffering from toothache or other dental problems. French court painter Jehan Fouquet painted the scene of St. Apollonia's torture in \"The Martyrdom of St. Apollonia\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975141}
{"src_title": "American Pie Presents: Band Camp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Matt Stifler, the younger brother of Steve Stifler, is eager to enter the family business of making porn films so he can prove himself to his older brother. After Matt plays a prank on the school band, the school's guidance counselor Chuck \"The Sherminator\" Sherman, who attended high school with Steve, decides that a worthwhile punishment would be for Matt to attend band camp. Matt is initially disgruntled by the idea but soon agrees to it, interested in the notorious sexual behavior of band camp girls (citing Jim's marriage and sex life with Michelle as an example).  Upon arrival, Matt is extremely disrespectful to the rules along with everyone at Tall Oaks and even gets his school's band in trouble. Jim's dad, Noah Levenstein, the camp's MACRO (Morale And Conflict Resolution Officer) recommends he start trying to fit in and earn the band's trust. Matt conspires with his nerdy roommate, Ernie, to film the other band members in a bid called 'Bandeez Gone Wild', using hidden cameras.  During a lunch time scuffle Matt accepts a duel with rival band leader Brandon, wherein the performers show off their music skills, with Brandon playing the snare drum, and Matt playing the triangle. When it seems Matt has lost, he leaves the stage and comes back playing the bagpipes, also wearing a kilt, to the tune of \"Play That Funky Music\" to win the duel. Matt and Elyse later are attracted to each other and share a kiss while watching clouds in the sky. A day before the finals the cheerleading group of East Great Falls arrives and catches Matt in a band camp uniform and teases him by taking a photo and sharing it on the internet. Matt later offers a deal of showing them his film 'Bandeez Gone Wild' in exchange for deleting his uniform photo. While showing the girls his video an odd turn of events occur and Elyse sees the video, and feeling hurt, she leaves.  The various school bands compete for points throughout camp with East Great Falls leading on the last day, but an ill-fated prank by Matt that was intended for the rival team causes the band to lose and Elyse to lose a chance at a scholarship. Once the new term starts, Matt visits with Chuck, who reveals that he and the rest of Steve Stifler's friends really could not stand him, and begins to fix his mistakes by deleting the naked videos he took of others at band camp, reconcile with his band camp buddies and then persuades the school band to play Elyse's piece to the Conservatory head (instrumental of Tal Bachman's aeroplane) ironic of blatant plagiarism, winning Elyse a scholarship (Brandon had been disqualified for plagiarism), and Matt her affection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical Response.", "content": "The film has received negative reviews from critics on Rotten Tomatoes with a 17% approval rating based on six reviews.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "American Pie Presents: Band Camp is a 2005 American sex comedy film released by Universal Pictures. It is the first installment in \"American Pie Presents\" film series, a spin-off of the \"American Pie\" franchise. Tad Hilgenbrinck stars as Matt Stiffler, a troubled student sent to band camp to change his ways. Chris Owen and Eugene Levy reprise their roles from previous \"American Pie\" films.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975142}
{"src_title": "Rent (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "On Christmas Eve 1989, aspiring filmmaker Mark Cohen, and his roommate, Roger Davis, learn that the rent previously waived by their old friend and landlord, Benjamin \"Benny\" Coffin III, is due (\"Rent\"). Their former roommate Tom Collins shows up and gets mugged. Mark and Roger meet with Benny, who tells them he plans to evict the homeless from the nearby lot and build a cyber studio (\"You'll See\"). He offers them free rent if they get Maureen, Mark's ex-girlfriend, to cancel her protest against his plans, but they refuse.  A street drummer, Angel, finds Collins and they bond since they both have AIDS. Roger, who is HIV-positive and a former drug addict, tries to compose his one last great song (\"One Song Glory\"). He's visited by his downstairs neighbor, Mimi, an exotic dancer and heroin addict (\"Light My Candle\").  On Christmas Day, Mark and Roger are visited by Collins and Angel (in drag), bearing gifts (\"Today 4 U\"). They invite Mark and Roger to attend Life Support, an AIDS support group. Roger turns them down, while Mark goes to fix Maureen's sound equipment. He runs into Joanne, Maureen's new girlfriend, who bonds with him as they discuss Maureen's promiscuity (\"Tango: Maureen\"). Mark arrives at the Life Support meeting (\"Life Support\"). He films the meeting for the documentary that he's making about people living with HIV/AIDS.  Mimi visits Roger (\"Out Tonight\"). Roger, whose ex-girlfriend died of HIV/AIDS, rebukes her advances and throws her out (\"Another Day\"). The next day, he joins Mark, Collins and Angel at a Life Support meeting (\"Will I?\"). Leaving the meeting, the group imagines what it would be like to move to Santa Fe, New Mexico (\"Santa Fe\"). Roger and Mark leave to help Maureen set up for her performance, and Angel and Collins reveal they are falling in love (\"I'll Cover You\"). Maureen performs her song that calls out Benny for changing who he was when he got married and blames him for trying to shut down the tent city (\"Over the Moon\"). The performance starts a riot because Benny called in police to make sure the protest stayed peaceful, but it escalated into violence. Once the protest is over, the group goes to The Life Cafe and celebrates Mark selling his riot footage to a local news station (\"La Vie Bohème\" or \"La Vie Bohème A\"). Roger and Mimi reveal they are falling for each other, and reveal they are HIV positive (\"I Should Tell You\"). They share a kiss and continue celebrating with their friends (\"Viva La Vie Bohème!\" or \"La Vie Bohème B\").  On New Years Day, Benny has padlocked the apartment, but Angel breaks the lock with a garbage can. Mark takes a job at Buzzline, the television news program that he sold his riot footage to. After another fight, Maureen proposes to Joanne; the relationship ends when Maureen flirts with another woman at the engagement party (\"Take Me or Leave Me\"). After being persuaded by Mimi, his ex-girlfriend, Benny gives the group back their apartment. Over the following year, Roger grows distrustful of Mimi, and their relationship ends (\"Without You\"). Angel becomes more ill and dies in Collins' arms. At Angel's funeral, the group goes their separate ways after a bitter argument, although Maureen and Joanne reconcile in the process (\"I'll Cover You/Goodbye Love\").  Roger sells his guitar, buys a car, and moves to Santa Fe. He returns because he still loves Mimi. Mark quits his job at Buzzline to pursue his own film (\"What You Own\"). On Christmas Eve 1990, Mark and Roger reunite with Collins, who reveals that he has reprogrammed an ATM to dispense cash when someone inputs the code: A-N-G-E-L. Joanne and Maureen find Mimi on the streets, near death. Mimi and Roger reconcile, and he sings the song that he has written over the past year (\"Finale A/Your Eyes\"). Mimi appears to die but suddenly awakens. She tells them that she was heading to the light, but Angel told her to go back. As Mark's documentary is shown for the first time, the friends reaffirm that there is \"no day but today\" (\"Finale B\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "Review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 46% based on reviews from 172 critics, with an average rating of 5.9/10. The site's critic consensus reads, \"Fans of the stage musical may forgive \"Rent\" its flaws, but weak direction, inescapable staginess and an irritating faux-boho pretension prevent the film from connecting on screen.\" On another review aggregator, Metacritic, the film received a score of 53 out of 100 based on 35 reviews, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternate ending.", "content": "In addition to four deleted scenes, the DVD release includes an alternate ending, showing all the main characters (including Benny, who was not present in the other ending) except Angel standing in the positions where they were during the \"Seasons of Love\" opening, all standing in a line of spotlights, with Angel's spot empty. Later in the scene, he enters from the side and walks down the line to take his place, stopping as he passes Collins to take his hand for a moment. Although this tableau is used in the finale of the musical, it was dropped from the film for fear that audiences may have wondered why Angel had returned or why the characters were lined up on stage again. In the commentary, Chris Columbus adds that he \"didn't want audiences to think that everything was okay and Angel was alive again.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "Rent: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album to the 2005 film of the same name. The two-disc soundtrack, containing 28 tracks, was originally packaged in eight different slipcovers, each featuring one of the eight most prominent characters in the film.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remixes.", "content": "In promotion for the film, Warner Brothers had dance remixes of several of the songs commissioned. These were sent to clubs, and were also made of available for purchase on CD and download.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Seasons of Love: The Remixes (CD).", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Seasons of Love: The Remixes (Digital Download).", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Take Me or Leave Me: The Remixes (CD).", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Take Me or Leave Me: The Remixes (Digital Download).", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Rent is a 2005 American musical drama film directed by Chris Columbus. It is an adaptation of the 1996 Broadway musical of the same name, in turn based on Giacomo Puccini's 1896 opera \"La Bohème\". The film, which features six of the original Broadway cast members reprising their roles, depicts the lives of several Bohemians and their struggles with sexuality, drugs, paying their rent, and life under the shadow of AIDS. It takes place in the East Village of New York City from 1989 to 1990.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975143}
{"src_title": "Bank of America Tower (Manhattan)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Details.", "content": "The building is 55 stories high and contains of office space. The tower's architectural spire is tall and was placed on December 15, 2007.  The tower includes three escalators and a total of 52 elevators: 50 to serve the offices and two leading to the New York City Subway's mezzanine below ground, for the 42nd Street–Bryant Park/Fifth Avenue station. As part of the building's construction, a passageway was also built under the north side of 42nd Street connecting with the Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal station. The passageway has never been used, but as part of the reconstruction of 42nd Street Shuttle from 2019 to 2022, the passageway would be opened and a new entrance would be built on the north side of 42nd Street between Broadway and Sixth Avenue.  Several buildings were demolished to make way for the tower. Among them was the Hotel Diplomat, a 13-story structure which had occupied the site at 108 West 43rd Street since 1911, and Henry Miller's Theatre, which was rebuilt and reopened at its previous location. The building's tenants include Bank of America as the anchor tenant and Marathon Asset Management, and the tower's platinum LEED rating and modern column-free office space has enticed tenants from all over the city. The Bank of America Tower is considered a worldwide model for green architecture in skyscrapers.  The building's Urban Garden Room at 43rd Street and Sixth Avenue is open to the public as part of the city's privately owned public space (POPS) program.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environmental features.", "content": "The design of the building makes it environmentally friendly, using technologies such as floor-to-ceiling insulated glazing to contain heat and maximize natural light, and an automatic daylight dimming system. The tower also features a greywater system, which captures rainwater for reuse. Bank of America states that the building is made largely of recycled and recyclable materials. Air entering the building is filtered, as is common, but the air exhausted is cleaned as well. Bank of America Tower is the first skyscraper designed to attain a Platinum LEED Certification.  The Bank of America Tower is constructed using a concrete manufactured with slag, a byproduct of blast furnaces. The mixture used in the tower concrete is 55% cement and 45% slag. The use of slag cement reduces damage to the environment by decreasing the amount of cement needed for the building, which in turn lowers the amount of carbon dioxide greenhouse gas produced through the normal cement manufacturing process. Each ton of regular cement produced creates about one ton of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Temperature control and the production of some of its energy are accomplished in an environmentally friendly manner for the tower. Insulated glazing reduces thermal loss, lowering energy consumption and increasing transparency. Carbon dioxide sensors signal increased fresh air ventilation when elevated levels of carbon dioxide are detected in the building. Conditioned air for the occupants is provided by multiple air column units located in the tenant space that deliver 50 °F air into a raised access floor plenum. This underfloor air system provides users with the ability to control their own space temperature as well as improving the ventilation effectiveness. When building churn occurs, workstation moves can be performed more easily with lower cost and less product waste. The cooling system produces and stores ice during off-peak hours, and allows the ice to melt to help cool the building during peak load, similar to the ice batteries in the 1995 Hotel New Otani Tokyo in Japan. Ice batteries have been used since absorption chillers first made ice commercially available 150 years ago, before the invention of the electric light bulb.  Water conservation features in the tower include waterless urinals, which are estimated to save of water per year and reduce CO emissions by per year (as calculated with the Pacific Institute water-to-air model). The tower has a 4.6-megawatt cogeneration plant, which provides part of the base-load energy requirements.  \"Time\" magazine reported in August 2013 that the Bank of America Tower used twice as much energy overall as the Empire State Building, due to the large energy usage in the Bank of America Tower and the comparatively small occupancy rate of the Empire State Building.  In summer 2013, the Durst Organization employed Brooklyn Grange Rooftop Farm to install and maintain two honeybee hives on the building.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Height.", "content": "With the architectural spire included, the structural height of the Bank of America Tower is, making it the fifth tallest building in New York City (after One World Trade Center, 432 Park Avenue, 30 Hudson Yards, and the Empire State Building). A formal ruling by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat confirmed this.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recognition.", "content": "In June 2008, the New York Academy of Sciences launched a podcast that highlights these green features.  In October 2009, the building was featured on episode 100 of the National Geographic Channel television series \"MegaStructures\".  In June 2010, the Bank of America Tower was the recipient of the 2010 Best Tall Building Americas award by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction incidents.", "content": "Materials fell from the building on three occasions:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bank of America Tower is a skyscraper in the Midtown area of Manhattan in New York City. It is located at One Bryant Park, on Sixth Avenue between 42nd and 43rd Streets diagonally opposite Bryant Park.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975144}
{"src_title": "Château de Ferrières", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early history.", "content": "Sitting at the crest of a long entry drive, the château was designed by the British architect Joseph Paxton. The inspiration for the design of Ferrières was Mentmore Towers in Buckinghamshire, England, the house that Paxton had built for Baron James's cousin, Mayer Amschel de Rothschild. On seeing Mentmore, Baron James is reputed to have summoned Paxton and ordered him to \"Build me a Mentmore, but twice the size\".  Built in the Neo-Renaissance style inspired by the architecture of the Italian Renaissance, with square towers at each corner, the house sits on a formal terrace that gives way to 1.25 km2 of gardens in a parkland landscaped \"à l'anglaise\" that was part of a surrounding 30 km2 forest contained in the estate. The showpiece central hall is 120 feet (37 m) long and 60 feet (18 m) high, its roof a full glass skylight. The sculpting of the interior atlas columns and caryatids was by Charles Henri Joseph Cordier, and the decorative painting was supervised by Eugène Lami. The massive library held more than 8,000 volumes. Because lavish entertaining was important, in addition to the private Rothschild apartments, the Château de Ferrières was built with eighty guest suites. Ferrières was inaugurated 16 December 1862 with a gala attended by Napoleon III.  Baron James acquired a vast collection of works of art, and statues adorned a number of the château's rooms. Several of the many sculptures were by Alexandre Falguière and the 18th-century Italian, Antonio Corradini and the Baron's son later added works by René de Saint-Marceaux.  During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, the Château de Ferrières was seized by the Germans and was the site of negotiations between Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of the North German Confederation, and the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Jules Favre. The Germans again seized the château during the occupation of France in World War II, and this time, they looted its vast art collections.  The château remained empty until 1959, when Guy de Rothschild and his new wife, Marie-Hélène de Zuylen van Nyevelt, set about refurbishing it. From 1959, they hosted regular parties at the château, the theme of which would be personally designed by artists or designers such as Yves Saint Laurent. Their parties would mainly consist of aristocrats, but they always included many of her friends from a wider society, such as Brigitte Bardot, Grace Kelly and Audrey Hepburn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent history.", "content": "In 1975, Guy de Rothschild and his wife charitably donated the château to the chancellery of the University of Paris.  The property is now used as a school called \"École Ferrières\" (Ferrières School), which opened in late 2015 and focuses on gastronomy and the hospitality industry. There are also two restaurants on site, named \"Le Baron\" and \"Le Chai\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Château de Ferrières () is a French château built between 1855 and 1859 for Baron James de Rothschild in the Goût Rothschild. Rothschild ownership of the Château de Ferrières was passed down through the male line according to the rule of primogeniture, until it was donated by the family in 1975. Considered to be the largest and most luxurious 19th-century château in France, it is reached from rue Rucherie in Ferrières-en-Brie in the Seine et Marne département of France, about 26 km east of Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975145}
{"src_title": "Depersonalization", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Individuals who experience depersonalization feel divorced from their own personal self by sensing their body sensations, feelings, emotions, behaviors etc. as not belonging to the same person or identity. Often a person who has experienced depersonalization claims that things seem unreal or hazy. Also, a recognition of a self breaks down (hence the name). Depersonalization can result in very high anxiety levels, which further increase these perceptions.  Depersonalization is a subjective experience of unreality in one's self, while derealization is unreality of the outside world. Although most authors currently regard depersonalization (self) and derealization (surroundings) as independent constructs, many do not want to separate derealization from depersonalization.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prevalence.", "content": "Depersonalization is the third most common psychological symptom, after feelings of anxiety and feelings of depression. Depersonalization is a symptom of anxiety disorders, such as panic disorder. It can also accompany sleep deprivation (often occurring when suffering from jet lag), migraine, epilepsy (especially temporal lobe epilepsy, complex-partial seizure, both as part of the aura and during the seizure), obsessive-compulsive disorder, severe stress or trauma, anxiety, the use of recreational drugs especially marijuana, hallucinogens, ketamine, and MDMA, certain types of meditation, deep hypnosis, extended mirror or crystal gazing, sensory deprivation, and mild-to-moderate head injury with little or loss of consciousness (less likely if unconscious for more than 30 mins). Interoceptive exposure is a non-pharmacological method that can be used to induce depersonalization.  In the general population, transient depersonalization/derealization are common, having a lifetime prevalence between 26-74%. A random community-based survey of 1,000 adults in the US rural south found a 1-year depersonalization prevalence rate at 19%. Several studies, but not all, found age to be a significant factor: adolescents and young adults in the normal population reported the highest rate. In a study, 46% of college students reported at least one significant episode in the previous year. In another study, 20% of patients with minor head injury experience significant depersonalization and derealization. Several studies found that up to 66% of individuals in life-threatening accidents report transient depersonalization at minimum during or immediately after the accidents. Depersonalization occurs 2-4 time more in women than in men.  A similar and overlapping concept called ipseity disturbance (ipse is Latin for \"self\" or \"itself\") may be part of the core process of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. However, specific to the schizophrenia spectrum seems to be \"a \"dis\"location of first-person perspective such that self and other or self and world may seem to be non-distinguishable, or in which the individual self or field of consciousness takes on an inordinate significance in relation to the objective or intersubjective world\" (emphasis in original).  For the purposes of evaluation and measurement depersonalization can be conceived of as a construct and scales are now available to map its dimensions in A study of undergraduate students found that individuals high on the depersonalization/derealization subscale of the Dissociative Experiences Scale exhibited a more pronounced cortisol response in stress. Individuals high on the absorption subscale, which measures a subject's experiences of concentration to the exclusion of awareness of other events, showed weaker cortisol responses.  In general infantry and special forces soldiers, measures of depersonalization and derealization increased significantly after training that include experiences of uncontrollable stress, semi-starvation, sleep deprivation, and lack of control over hygiene, movement, communications, and social interactions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacological and situational causes.", "content": "Depersonalization has been described by some as a desirable state, particularly by those that have experienced it under the influence of mood-altering recreational drugs. It is an effect of dissociatives and psychedelics, as well as a possible side effect of caffeine, alcohol, amphetamine, and cannabis. It is a classic withdrawal symptom from many drugs.  Benzodiazepine dependence, which can occur with long-term use of benzodiazepines, can induce chronic depersonalization symptomatology and perceptual disturbances in some people, even in those who are taking a stable daily dosage, and it can also become a protracted feature of the benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome.  Lieutenant Colonel Dave Grossman, in his book \"\", suggests that military training artificially creates depersonalization in soldiers, suppressing empathy and making it easier for them to kill other human beings.  Graham Reed (1974) claimed that depersonalization occurs in relation to the experience of falling in love.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Depersonalization as a psychobiological mechanism.", "content": "Depersonalization is a classic response to acute trauma, and may be highly prevalent in individuals involved in different traumatic situations including motor vehicle accidents, emotional and verbal abuse, and imprisonment.  Psychologically depersonalization can, just like dissociation in general, be considered a type of coping mechanism. Depersonalization is in that case unconsciously used to decrease the intensity of unpleasant experience, whether that is something as mild as stress or something as severe as chronically high anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. The decrease in anxiety and psychobiological hyperarousal helps preserving adaptive behaviors and resources under threat or danger. Depersonalization is an overgeneralized reaction in that it doesn't diminish just the unpleasant experience, but more or less all experience - leading to a feeling of being detached from the world and experiencing it in a more bland way. An important distinction must be made between depersonalization as a mild, short term reaction to unpleasant experience and depersonalization as a chronic symptom stemming from a severe mental disorder such as PTSD or Dissociative Identity Disorder. Chronic symptoms may represent persistence of depersonalization beyond the situations under threat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Treatment is dependent on the underlying cause, whether it is organic or psychological in origin. If depersonalization is a symptom of neurological disease, then diagnosis and treatment of the specific disease is the first approach. Depersonalization can be a cognitive symptom of such diseases as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's, multiple sclerosis (MS), or any other neurological disease affecting the brain. For those suffering from depersonalization with migraine, tricyclic antidepressants are often prescribed.  If depersonalization is a symptom of psychological causes such as developmental trauma, treatment depends on the diagnosis. In case of dissociative identity disorder or DD-NOS as a developmental disorder, in which extreme developmental trauma interferes with formation of a single cohesive identity, treatment requires proper psychotherapy, and—in the case of additional (co-morbid) disorders such as eating disorders—a team of specialists treating such an individual. It can also be a symptom of borderline personality disorder, which can be treated in the long term with proper psychotherapy and psychopharmacology.  The treatment of chronic depersonalization is considered in depersonalization disorder.  A recently completed study at Columbia University in New York City has shown positive effects from transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to treat depersonalization disorder. Currently, however, the FDA has not approved TMS to treat DP.  A 2001 Russian study showed that naloxone, a drug used to reverse the intoxicating effects of opioid drugs, can successfully treat depersonalization disorder. According to the study: \"In three of 14 patients, depersonalization symptoms disappeared entirely and seven patients showed a marked improvement. The therapeutic effect of naloxone provides evidence for the role of the endogenous opioid system in the pathogenesis of depersonalization.\" The anti convulsion drug Lamotrigine has shown some success in treating symptoms of depersonalization, often in combination with a Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and is the first drug of choice at the depersonalisation research unit at King's College London.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "The Depersonalisation Research Unit at the Institute of Psychiatry in London conducts research into depersonalization disorder. Researchers there use the acronym DPAFU (Depersonalisation and Feelings of Unreality) as a shortened label for the disorder.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Depersonalization can consist of a detachment within the self, regarding one's mind or body, or being a detached observer of oneself. Subjects feel they have changed and that the world has become vague, dreamlike, less real, lacking in significance or being outside reality while looking in. Chronic depersonalization refers to depersonalization/derealization disorder, which is classified by the DSM-5 as a dissociative disorder, based on the findings that depersonalization and derealization are prevalent in other dissociative disorders including dissociative identity disorder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975146}
{"src_title": "Eduard von Knorr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Saarlouis, Rhenish Prussia, Knorr entered the Prussian Navy in 1856. While serving on the corvette \"Danzig\", he fought against pirates off the coast of Morocco later that year. In 1859 he was promoted to Unterleutnant. From 1859–62 he sailed with the \"Elbe\" on an expedition to the Far East. Knorr was promoted to Leutnant in 1862 and Kapitänleutnant in 1865.  On 12 November 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War, Knorr commanded the gunboat in a battle with the French aviso \"Bouvet\" near Havana, for which he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class. In 1871 he was promoted to Korvettenkapitän.  Beginning in 1874, Knorr took part in a voyage through the Pacific Ocean to discuss trade negotiations with Tonga on behalf of the German Empire. He was named Kapitän zur See in 1876, Chief of Staff of the Admiralty in 1881, and Konteradmiral in 1883.  As commander of the West African Squadron in December 1884, Knorr intervened in disputes between rival clans in Douala, Cameroon, imposing German sovereignty over the Cameroon Estuary. He was awarded the Order of the Red Eagle for this success. From 1 April 1885 – 4 July 1885 Knorr was Reichskommissar of the German colony of Kamerun. He then commanded a cruiser squadron travelling to Zanzibar and negotiated with its sultan for the acquisition of a strip of German colonial territory.  In 1886 Knorr commanded a cruiser squadron at Samoa. He was promoted to Vizeadmiral in 1889, Admiral in 1893, and Commanding Admiral in 1895. Raised to the German nobility on 18 January 1896, he received the Order of the Black Eagle on 15 June 1898. Knorr retired in 1899 and was appointed an admiral à la suite of the Seeoffizierkorps.  Knorr died in Berlin. Admiral-Knorr-Straße, a street in Saarlouis, is named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernst Wilhelm Eduard von Knorr (8 March 1840 – 17 February 1920) was a German admiral of the Kaiserliche Marine who helped establish the German colonial empire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975147}
{"src_title": "The Girl Who Loved Tom Gordon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The story is set in motion by a family hiking trip, during which Trisha's brother, Pete, and mother constantly squabble about the mother's divorce from their father, as well as other topics. Trisha falls back to avoid listening and is therefore unable to find her family again after she wanders off the trail to take a bathroom break. Trying to catch up by attempting a shortcut, she slips and falls down a steep embankment and ends up hopelessly lost, heading deeper into the heart of the forest. She is left with a bottle of water, two Twinkies, a boiled egg, a tuna sandwich, a bottle of Surge, a poncho, a Game Boy, and a Walkman. She listens to her Walkman to keep her mood up, either to learn of news of the search for her, or to listen to the baseball game featuring her favorite player, and \"heartthrob,\" Tom Gordon.  As she starts to take steps to survive by conserving what little food she has with her and consuming edible flora, Trisha's family return to their car without her and call the police to start a search. The rescuers search in the area around the path, but not as far as Trisha has gone. The girl decides to follow a creek because of what she read in \"Little House on the Prairie\" (though it soon turns into a swamp-like river), rationalizing that all bodies of water lead eventually to civilization.  As the cops stop searching for the night, she huddles up underneath a tree to rest. Eventually, a combination of fear, hunger, and thirst causes Trisha to hallucinate. She imagines several people from her life, as well as her hero, Tom Gordon, appearing to her. It's left unclear whether increasingly obvious signs of supernatural events in the woods are also hallucinations.  Hours and soon days begin to pass, with Trisha wandering further into the woods. Eventually she begins to believe that she is headed for a confrontation with the God of the Lost, a wasp-faced, evil entity who is hunting her down. Her trial becomes a test of a 9-year-old girl's ability to maintain sanity in the face of seemingly certain death. Racked with pneumonia and near death, she comes upon a road, but just as she discovers signs of civilization, she is confronted by a bear, which she interprets as the God of the Lost in disguise. Facing down her fear, she realizes it is the bottom of the ninth, and she must close the game. In imitation of Tom Gordon, she takes a pitcher's stance and throws her Walkman like a baseball, hitting the bear in the face, and startling it enough to make it back away. A hunter who has come upon the confrontation between girl and beast frightens the beast away and takes Trisha to safety, but Trisha knows that she earned her rescue.  Trisha wakes up in a hospital room. She finds her divorced parents and older brother waiting near her bedside. A nurse tells the girl's family that they must leave so that Trisha can rest because \"her numbers are up and we don't want that.\" Her father is the last to leave. Before he does Trisha asks him to hand her a Red Sox hat (autographed by Tom Gordon) and she points towards the sky, just as Tom Gordon does when he closes a game.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film adaptation.", "content": "Although George A. Romero was attached to write and direct a film adaptation, plans for it stalled in October 2005 before his death.  In August 2019, the project was revived, with Romero's production company still attached. Involved parties with the new production include Chris Romero as producer, \"It\" producer Roy Lee, Jon Berg of Vertigo Films and Ryan Silbert of Origin Story. The production company is Sanibel Films, the production company of Chris Romero and her late husband George Romero. As of the announcement on August 21, 2019, a writer or director had yet to be announced. Andrew Childs serves as executive producer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Girl Who Loved Tom Gordon (1999) is a psychological horror novel by American writer Stephen King. In 2004, a pop-up book adaptation was released with design by Kees Moerbeek and illustration by Alan Dingman. A film adaptation to be produced by Chris Romero was announced in 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975148}
{"src_title": "1994 FIFA World Cup qualification", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Qualified teams.", "content": "\"6 of the 24 teams subsequently failed to qualify for the 1998 finals: Bolivia, Greece, Ireland, Russia, Sweden and Switzerland.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification process.", "content": "The draw was made in New York on 8 December 1991 at Madison Square Garden.  For the first time, three teams qualified from the African zone, because of its performance in the previous tournament. The 24 spots available in the 1994 World Cup were distributed among the continental zones as follows: UEFA, AFC and CAF have a guaranteed number of places, whereas the number of qualifiers from other confederations is dependent on play-offs between OFC's first-placed team and CONCACAF's second-placed team and the winner of this fixture against CONMEBOL's fourth-placed team.  After the first round of 1994 FIFA World Cup finals, the percentage of teams from each confederation that passed through to the round of 16 was as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tiebreakers.", "content": "For FIFA World Cup qualifying stages using a league format, the method used for separating teams level on points is the same for all Confederations. If teams are even on points at the end of group play, the tied teams will be ranked by: For FIFA World Cup qualifying stages using a home-and-away knockout format, the team that has the higher aggregate score over the two legs progresses to the next round. In the event that aggregate scores finish level, the away goals rule is applied, i.e. the team that scored more goals away from home over the two legs progresses. If away goals are also equal, then thirty minutes of extra time are played, divided into two fifteen-minutes halves. The away goals rule is again applied after extra time, i.e. if there are goals scored during extra time and the aggregate score is still level, the visiting team qualifies by virtue of more away goals scored. If no goals are scored during extra time, the tie is decided by penalty shoot-out.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Confederation qualification.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "AFC.", "content": "Qualification for AFC teams consisted of two rounds. Round one saw the teams divided into 6 groups, each team playing the others in their group twice. The winner of each group then went into a final group where they played each other once.  The qualification process began with 29 national teams vying for two spots. Saudi Arabia and Korea Republic qualified.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CAF.", "content": "Qualification for CAF teams also consisted of two rounds. Round one saw the teams divided into 9 groups, each team playing the others in their group twice. The winners of these groups then went into three final groups where they played each other twice.  The qualification process began with 40 national teams vying for three spots. Nigeria, Morocco and Cameroon qualified.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CONCACAF.", "content": "There were three rounds of play for CONCACAF teams. Mexico and Canada received byes and advanced to the second round directly. The remaining teams were divided into Caribbean and Central American zones. In the Caribbean zone, 14 teams played in knockout matches on a home-and-away basis to determine three winners advancing to the second round. In the Central American zone, the six teams were paired up to play knockout matches on a home-and-away basis. The winners advanced to the second round.  In the second round, the eight teams were divided into two groups of four teams each. They played against each other on a home-and-away basis. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the final round.  In the final round, the four teams played against each other on a home-and-away basis. The group winner qualified. The runner-up advanced to the CONCACAF–OFC intercontinental play-off. Mexico took the guaranteed spot and Canada qualified for the play-off.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CONMEBOL.", "content": "Nine CONMEBOL teams entered the competition (Chile was banned by FIFA due to the 1989 Maracanazo incident). The nine teams were divided into two groups. The teams played against each other on a home-and-away basis. Group A had one guaranteed place and one play-off spot, while Group B had two spots for the finals. Colombia, Brazil and Bolivia qualified automatically and Argentina qualified for the play-off.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "OFC.", "content": "Qualification for OFC teams consisted of two rounds. Seven teams entered initially and were divided into two groups, but Western Samoa withdrew. The two group winners then played against each other on a home-and-away basis. The winner advanced to the CONCACAF–OFC intercontinental play-off. Australia won the tie and advanced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "UEFA.", "content": "38 were initially involved in UEFA qualifying, but Liechtenstein withdrew and Yugoslavia was suspended.  The thirty-six teams were divided into six groups: one group of five teams, four groups of six teams each, and one group of seven teams. The teams played against each other on a home-and-away basis. The group winners and runners-up qualified.  Italy, Switzerland, Norway, Netherlands, Spain, Ireland, Romania, Belgium, Greece, Russia, Sweden, and Bulgaria all qualified.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inter-confederation play-offs.", "content": "For the first time, there were two rounds of play in the inter-confederation play-offs. The teams from CONCACAF and OFC first played each other on a home-and-away basis. The winner then played against the team from CONMEBOL on a home-and-away basis. The winner qualified.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1994 FIFA World Cup qualification was a series of tournaments organised by the six FIFA confederations. The 1994 FIFA World Cup featured 24 teams with one place reserved for the host nation, United States, and one place for the defending champions, Germany. The remaining 22 places were determined by a qualification process, in which 147 teams, from the six FIFA confederations, competed. Most of the successful teams were determined within these confederations, with a limited number of inter-confederation play-offs occurring at the end of the process.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975149}
{"src_title": "Council of the Baltic Sea States", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The CBSS was established by the region's Foreign Ministers in Copenhagen in 1992 as a response to the geopolitical changes that took place in the Baltic Sea region with the end of the Cold War. The CBSS founders were Hans-Dietrich Genscher, Uffe Ellemann-Jensen, Thorvald Stoltenberg, Lennart Meri, Janis Jurkans, Algirdas Saudargas, Henning Christophersen, Paavo Väyrynen, Andrei Kozyrev, Margaretha af Ugglas, and Krzysztof Skubiszewski. Since its founding, the CBSS has contributed to ensuring positive developments within the Baltic Sea region and has served as a driving force for multilateral cooperation.  Since 1998 the CBSS has been served by a permanent international Secretariat that is located in Stockholm, Sweden and funded by the Member States. The highest institution of CBSS is the conference of foreign ministers, which convenes every two years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Member states.", "content": "The CBSS has 11 member states as well as the European Union:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Observer states.", "content": "11 other countries have observer status:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidencies.", "content": "The Council Presidency rotates between the eleven Member States on an annual basis. Each Presidency lays down a set of specific priorities to guide the works of the Council for the Presidency year and lasts for one year from 1 July until 30 June.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Committee of Senior Officials.", "content": "The Committee of Senior Officials (CSO) consists of high-ranking representatives of the Ministries of Foreign Affairs of the 11 CBSS Member States as well as of a high-level representative of the European Union. The CSO serves as the main discussion forum and decision-making body for matters related to the work of the Council between Ministerial Sessions. The CSO monitors, facilitates and aims to coordinate the work of all CBSS structures.  The period chaired by each country rotates on an annual basis and follows the Council Presidency. The CSO Chairman is a representative, usually at ambassadorial level, appointed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the country which holds the Council Presidency.  A number of CBSS structures are operating under the auspices of the CSO.  In accordance with the Riga Declaration on the Reform of the CBSS from June 2008 one of the former working groups has been transformed into an Expert Group and the two other working groups have been dissolved.  The CSO monitors the work of the Expert Group on Nuclear and Radiation Safety, the Task Force against Trafficking in Human Beings (TF-THB), the Expert Group on Children at Risk, and coordinates the work undertaken in the agreed three long-term priorities 'Regional Identity', 'Sustainable & Prosperous Region' and 'Safe & Secure Region'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Secretariat.", "content": "A Permanent International Secretariat of the CBSS was established following a decision taken at the 7th Ministerial Session of the CBSS in 1998 in Nyborg, Denmark. The Secretariat was officially inaugurated at its premises on the island of Strömsborg in Stockholm on 20 October 1998. In November 2010, the Secretariat moved into its new premises located in Räntmästarhuset at Slussplan 9, Stockholm, Sweden.  The mandate of the Secretariat is as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Strategic Partners.", "content": "Since the 10th Ministerial Session of the CBSS in 2001, the Council has intensified efforts to coordinate CBSS activities with other organisations actively working to advance regional cooperation in the Baltic Sea Region. The CBSS has taken the initiative to organise annual coordination meetings, (organised and presided over by the CSO Chair), with the participation of Baltic Sea regional organisations, thus providing a more structured channel for involving the strategic partners to voice their concerns and coordinate their efforts with the CBSS and other organisations such as:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Long Term Priorities.", "content": "In June 2014, the Council decided, after an evaluation and review of the CBSS five long-term priorities, to mainstream three renewed long-term priorities for the Council of the Baltic Sea States – \"Regional Identity, Sustainable & Prosperous Region and Safe & Secure Region.\"  Objectives: To counteract all forms of trafficking in human beings, in the Baltic Sea Region via preventive and protective activities and projects based on a coherent and multidisciplinary approach; To promote comprehensive and sustainable child protection in order to prevent and respond to all forms of violence against children through a multi-sectorial approach and increased cooperation between relevant authorities and other stakeholders in the Baltic Sea Region; To strengthen societal resilience to disasters and hazards in all stages of crises through adequate prevention, preparedness, response and recovery; To enhance interoperability and strategic macro-regional cooperation enabling assistance and rapid response to cross-border accidents and emergencies, including disasters that may have cross-border consequences and impact;", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) is a regional intergovernmental organisation working on three priority areas: Regional Identity, Safe & Secure Region and Sustainable & Prosperous Region. These three priority areas aim to address the themes of environment, economic development, entrepreneurship, education, culture, civil security, children's rights and trafficking in human beings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975150}
{"src_title": "Turkish Van", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Breed standards.", "content": "Breed standards allow for one or more body spots as long as there is no more than 20% colour and the cat does not give the appearance of a bicolour. A few random spots are acceptable, but they should not detract from the pattern. The rest of the cat is white. Although red tabby and white is the classic van colour, the colour on a Van's head and tail can be one of the following: red, cream, black, blue, red tabby, cream tabby, brown tabby, blue tabby, tortoiseshell, dilute tortoiseshell (also known as blue-cream), brown-patched tabby, blue-patched tabby and any other colour not showing evidence of crossbreeding with the point-coloured breeds (Siamese, Himalayan, etc.). Not all registries recognise all of these colour variations.  While a few registries recognise all-white specimens as Turkish Vans, most do not. The US-based Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA, the world's largest registry of pedigreed cats) and Fédération Internationale Féline (FIFe, the largest international cat fancier organisation) recognise only van-patterned specimens, as they define the breed by both its type and pattern. The Germany-based but international World Cat Federation (WCF) considers the all-white specimens a separate breed, which it calls the Turkish, a name that is easily confused with the landrace \" (Van cat).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "In 1955, two British women, Laura Lushington and Sonia Halliday, on a trip to Turkey were given some cats that featured what is now termed the Van pattern, and decided to bring them home. They bred true, and were used as foundation stock for the breed. According to Lushington, her original imported cats were: Van Iskenderun Guzelli (female), a cat that came from Hatay Province, Iskenderun, and Stambul Byzantium (male), a cat given by a hotel manager in Istanbul, both in 1955. Two later additions to the gene pool were Antalya Anatolia (female), from the city of Antalya, and Burdur (male), from Burdur city, both in 1959. Lushington did not see Van city before 1963, and only stayed there \"for two days and two nights\". It is unclear why the name \"Turkish Van\" was chosen, or why one of the original 1955 kittens was named \"Van Iskenderun Guzelli\", given their provenance. Of the founding 1955 pair, Lushington wrote, in 1977:  It is unclear whether Lushington was intending to imply that the Hatay and Istanbul kittens had originally come from the Lake Van region, or was simply referring to the Turkish Van founding stock as \"Van kittens\" for short. Neither city is anywhere near Van Province.  Turkish Vans were first brought to the United States in 1982 and accepted into championship for showing in the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) in 1994. Since then, CFA has registered approximately 100 Vans born each year in the US, making them one of the rarest cat breeds. Imported Vans have no human breeding intervention and are quite robust. No other breed is allowed to be mixed into the breeding schedule, and all registered Turkish Vans can trace their ancestry back to imported cats of Laura Lushington.  Called the Turkish cat when first given breed recognition in 1969, the name was changed in 1979 in the UK (1985 in the US) to Turkish Van to better distance the breed from the Turkish Angora cat (originally called Angora) which had its origins around Ankara, in central Turkey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical characteristics.", "content": "The coat on a Turkish Van is considered semi-long-haired. While many cats have three distinct hair types in their coat – guard hair, awn hair and down hair – the Turkish Van has no evident undercoat, only one coat. This makes their coat feel like cashmere or rabbit fur. The lack of an undercoat gives a sleek appearance. The coat is uncommonly water repellant, which makes bathing these cats a challenge, though the coat dries quickly.  The Turkish Van is one of the larger cat breeds. Ideal type should feature broad shoulders with a body that is \"top-heavy\", that is, a cat with its center of gravity forward. The cat is moderately long, and its back legs are slightly longer than its front legs, but neither the cat itself nor its legs are so long as to be disproportionate. These cats are large and muscular. Males can reach and the females weigh about. They have large paws and rippling hard muscle structure which allows them to be very strong jumpers. Vans can easily hit the top of a refrigerator from a cold start on the floor. They are slow to mature and this process can take 3 years, possibly longer. Vans have been known to reach long from nose to tip of tail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "The Turkish Van is an excellent hunter. Although early bloodlines had a tendency to be aggressive, today the breed is generally very social, with a friendly disposition toward people, and the cats tend to develop a strong bond with their owners. Turkish Vans, not just with their owner, are friendly to other animals. They prefer other cats to be of the same kind, but will accept other kinds of cats. They are also friendly to \"cat friendly dogs\" as well. They are very playful and lively. Many Turkish Vans will play fetch, and may bring a toy to their owner to initiate play.  The native Van cat landrace of Turkey have been nicknamed the \"swimming cats\", due to an unusual fascination with water. Despite the modern Turkish Van breed consisting almost entirely of pedigreed, indoor-only cats with no access to large bodies of water, and despite dubious connections between them and the cats of the Lake Van area, some feel that the Turkish Van has a notable affinity for water; for example, instead of swimming in a lake, they may stir their water bowls or play with water in the toilet, and some may even follow their owners into water. However, the idea that the breed likes water more than other cats may be mistaken according to some pet writers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "The piebald spotting gene (partial leucism) appears in other different species (like the horse and the ball python). It also shows up in the common house cat, and other breeds of cat, since the van pattern is merely an extreme expression of the gene.  A Turkish Van may have blue eyes, amber eyes, or be odd-eyed (having one eye of each colour, a condition known as heterochromia iridis). The variability of eye colour is genetically caused by the white spotting factor, which is a characteristic of this breed. The white spotting factor is the variable expression of the piebald gene that varies from the minimal degree (1), as in the blue-eyed cats with white tip on the tail to the maximal degree (8–9) that results in a Van-patterned cat, as in Van cats, when coloured marks occupy at most 20% of the white background, but the white background in the breed covers about 80% of the body. Breeding two cats together with the same level of white spotting will produce cats with a similar degree of spotting.  Van-patterned Turkish Vans are not prone to deafness, because their phenotype is associated with the van pattern (S) semi-dominant gene. Solid-white Turkish angoras carry the epistatic (masking) white colour (W) dominant gene associated with white fur, blue eyes and often deafness. All white Van cats may share this gene. All three types of cat may exhibit eye colours that are amber, blue or odd. Deafness is principally associated with cats having two blue eyes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Turkish Van is a semi-long-haired breed of domestic cat, which was developed in the United Kingdom from a selection of cats obtained from various cities of modern Turkey, especially Southeast Turkey. The breed is rare, and is distinguished by the Van pattern (named for the breed), where the colour is restricted to the head and the tail, and the rest of the cat is white; this is due to the expression of the piebald white spotting gene, a type of partial leucism. A Turkish Van may have blue or amber eyes, or be odd-eyed (having one eye of each colour). The breed has been claimed to be descended from the landrace of usually all-white Van cats (), mostly found near Lake Van, though one of the two original breeders' own writings indicate clearly that none of the breed's foundation cats came from the Van area.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975151}
{"src_title": "Place de la République", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and architecture.", "content": "The square was originally called the Place du Château d'Eau, named after a huge fountain designed by Pierre-Simon Girard and built on the site in 1811. Émile de La Bédollière wrote that the water came from la Villette and that the fountain was \"superb\" in character. In 1867, Gabriel Davioud built a more impressive fountain in the square, which (like the first fountain) was decorated with lions. The square took its current shape as part of Baron Hausmann's vast renovation of Paris. Haussmann also built new barracks on the cities, to garrison troops useful in times of civil unrest.  At the center of the Place de la République is a bronze statue of Marianne, the personification of the French Republic, \"holding aloft an olive branch in her right hand and resting her left on a tablet engraved with Droits de l'homme (the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen).\" The statue sits atop a monument which is high. Marianne is surrounded with three statues personifying liberty, equality, and fraternity, the values of the French Republic. These statues also evoke the three medieval theological virtues. Also at the base is a lion guarding a depiction of a ballot box. The monument has been described as \"an ordinary one, acceptable to a committee in the 1880s and inoffensively unarresting today.\"  The monument was created by the brothers Charles and Léopold Morice. Leopold executed the sculptural segments, while Charles executed the architectural segments. The monument was chosen as part of an art competition announced in early 1879 by the Paris City Council, which sought to create a \"Monument to the French Republic\" in honor of the 90th anniversary of the French Revolution, to be erected on the Place de la République. The Morice statue was chosen by the jury, but a \"vociferous minority opinion among jury members claimed precedence for the second prize\", the submission of Jules Dalou, who had just returned from exile in England. Dalou's statue, which was completely different in style, impressed the jury so much that it was decided in early 1880 to erect his monument to the Republic on the adjacent Place de la Nation. Two inauguration ceremonies for the Morice monument took place, the first on 14 July 1880 with a gypsum model, and the second on 14 July 1883 with the final version in bronze. The monument replaced the second fountain.  Paris mayor Bertrand Delanoë made a renovation of the Place de la République one of his campaign promises in the 2008 campaign for re-election. The project involved the transformation of the square from a \"glorified roundabout\" into a pedestrian zone, with 70% of the square's 3.4 hectares and surroundings roads being reserved for pedestrians. The Paris City Council allocated twelve million euros for renovating the square in 2010, and the project began the same year. The project was completed in 2013. The total cost of the project was 20.4 GBP, about 5 million GBP over budget. The renovation was a finalist for the European Prize for Urban Public Space. The pedestrian area now occupies \"some two hectares in the sunniest part on the north-eastern side\" while the \"other third, to be used by vehicular traffic, is the shadier part on the south-western side.\" The statue of Marianne was cleaned of graffiti and footprints as part of the renovations.  After terrorist attacks against France in January 2015, crowds gathered in the square to mourn and express solidarity against the threat of Islamic extremism. The French Interior Ministry estimated that as many as 1.6 million people participated, making it the largest demonstration in modern French history. Crowds again rallied on the Place de la République following the November 2015 Paris attacks.  In 2016 the Nuit debout movement, which opposed the labour reforms of the El Khomri law, began from an occupation of the Place de la République. In April 2019, Yellow Vest demonstrators clashed with authorities in the square in their 23rd week of protests and dissatisfaction over President Macron's government, the weekend following the Notre-Dame de Paris fire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metro stations.", "content": "The Place de la République is:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Place de la République (formerly known as the Place du Château d'Eau) is a square in Paris, located on the border between the 3rd, 10th and 11th arrondissements. The square has an area of. It is named after the French Republic, was called the Place du Château-d'Eau until 1879, and contains a monument which includes a statue of the personification of France, Marianne.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975152}
{"src_title": "Johann Strauss I", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Strauss was born in Leopoldstadt (now in Vienna). Strauss's parents, Franz Borgias Strauss (October 10, 1764 – April 5, 1816) and Barbara Dollmann (December 3, 1770 – August 28, 1811), were innkeepers (). He was born a Roman Catholic.  His mother died of 'creeping fever' when he was seven and five years later his father drowned, possibly as a result of suicide, in the Danube river. Strauss' guardian, the tailor Anton Müller, placed him as an apprentice to the bookbinder, Johann Lichtscheidl; Strauss took lessons in the violin and viola in addition to fulfilling his apprenticeship. Contrary to a story later told by his son Johann II, Strauss successfully completed his bookbinder apprenticeship in 1822. He also studied music with Johann Polischansky during his apprenticeship and eventually managed to secure a place in a local orchestra, headed by Michael Pamer. Strauss left the orchestra to join a popular string quartet known as the \"Lanner Quartet\", formed by his would-be rivals Joseph Lanner and the Drahanek brothers, Karl and Johann. This string quartet playing Viennese Waltzes and rustic German dances expanded into a small string orchestra in 1824.  Strauss became deputy conductor of the orchestra to assist Lanner in commissions after it became so popular during the Fasching of 1824 and Strauss was soon placed in command of a second smaller orchestra which was formed as a result of the success of the parent orchestra. In 1825, he decided to form his own band and began to write music (chiefly, dance music) for it to play after he realized that he could also possibly emulate the success of Lanner in addition to putting an end to his financial struggles. By so doing, he would have made Lanner a serious rival although the rivalry did not entail hostile consequences as the musical competition was very productive for the development of the waltz as well as other dance music in Vienna.  He soon became one of the best-known and well loved dance composers in Vienna. During the carnival of 1826, Strauss inaugurated his long line of triumphs by introducing his band to the public of Vienna at the in the suburb of Roßau where his Täuberln-Walzer (Op. 1) at once established his reputation. He toured with his band to Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and Britain. The conducting reins and management of this Strauss Orchestra would eventually be passed on to the hands of his sons until its disbandment by Eduard Strauss in 1901.  On a trip to France in 1837 he heard the quadrille and began to compose them himself, becoming largely responsible for introducing that dance to Austria in the 1840 Fasching, where it became very popular. It was this very trip (in 1837) which has proved Strauss' popularity with audiences from different social backgrounds and this paved the way to forming an ambitious plan to perform his music in England for the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838. Strauss also adapted various popular melodies of his day into his works so as to ensure a wider audience, as evidenced in the incorporation of the \"Oberon\" overture into his early waltz, \"Wiener Carneval\", Op. 3, and also the French national anthem \"La Marseillaise\" into his \"Paris-Walzer\", Op. 101. Strauss married Maria Anna Streim in 1825 in the Roman Catholic Lichtental Parish Church in Vienna. The marriage was relatively unhappy due to his prolonged absences caused by frequent tours abroad which led to a gradual alienation. They had seven children; Johann, Josef and Eduard Strauss, the last of whom had a son called Johann Strauss III. Strauss Sr. also had two daughters, Anna, who was born in 1829, and Therese, who was born in 1831. His third son, Ferdinand, born in 1834, lived only ten months.  The family home was called 'Hirschenhaus' but was better known in Vienna as the 'Goldener Hirsch' (The Golden Stag). Strauss was a strict disciplinarian and demanded that none of his sons pursue careers in music, despite their display of musical talent. Johann Junior was to study banking, likewise his brother Josef Strauss was destined for a military career, whereas the youngest Eduard Strauss was expected to join the Austrian consulate.  By 1834 Strauss had taken a mistress, Emilie Trampusch, with whom he had eight children. When her husband openly acknowledged his paternity of a daughter born to Emilie in 1844, Maria Anna sued for divorce. With the ending of the marriage Anna Strauss determined to further Johann Strauss II's musical career, allowing him to develop his skills as a composer.  Despite family problems, Strauss senior continued to tour frequently and was always prepared to write novelty pieces for numerous charitable organizations. His waltzes were gradually developed from a rustic peasant dance into one which posterity would recognize as the Viennese Waltz. They were written in three-quarter time with a short introduction; often with little or no reference to the later chain of five two-part waltz structure; usually appended with a short coda and concluded in a stirring finish, although his son Johann Strauss II expanded the waltz structure and utilized more instruments than his father. While he did not possess a musical talent as rich as his eldest son's, nor a business mind as astute, he was among the handful of early waltz composers along with Joseph Lanner to actively write pieces with individual titles — with the view to boost sales of their sheet music — which enabled music enthusiasts to easily recognize those pieces. In fact, during his performances at the Sperl-Ballroom in Vienna, where he established his name, he actively pursued the concept of collecting a fixed entrance fee from the patrons of the ballroom instead of the old practice of passing around a collection plate where income was reliant on the goodwill of the patrons. Johann Strauss II often played his father's works and openly declared his admiration of them, although it was no secret to the Viennese that their rivalry was intense, with the press at that time fueling it. Johann Strauss I himself refused to play ever again at the Dommayer's Casino, which offered his son his conducting debut, and was to tower over his son during his lifetime in terms of career advancement, although Strauss II was to eclipse him in terms of popularity in the classical repertoire. In 1846, Johann Strauss I was awarded the honorary title of \"K.K. Hofballmusikdirektor\" (Director of Music for the Imperial and Royal Court Balls) by Emperor Ferdinand I.  Strauss died in Vienna on September 25, 1849 at the age of 45 from scarlet fever contracted from one of his illegitimate children. He was buried at the Döblinger cemetery beside his friend Joseph Lanner. In 1904, both of their remains were transferred to the graves of honour at the Zentralfriedhof. The former Döbling Cemetery is now a Strauss-Lanner Park. Hector Berlioz himself paid tribute to the 'Father of the Viennese Waltz' by commenting that \"Vienna without Strauss is like Austria without the Danube\".  Nita Strauss, guitarist with Alice Cooper and others, is a descendant of Johann Strauss.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Galops and polkas.", "content": "Strauss's galops and polkas include:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Johann Strauss I (; also Johann Baptist Strauss, Johann Strauss Sr., the Elder, the Father; March 14, 1804 – September 25, 1849) was an Austrian Romantic composer. He was famous for his waltzes, and he popularized them alongside Joseph Lanner, thereby setting the foundations for his sons to carry on his musical dynasty. He is perhaps best known for his composition of the Radetzky March (named after Joseph Radetzky von Radetz).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975153}
{"src_title": "Victor Brauner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Piatra Neamț, Romania, the son of a Jewish timber manufacturer who subsequently settled in Vienna with his family for a few years. It is there that young Victor attended elementary school. When his family returned to Romania in 1914, he continued his studies at the Lutheran school in Brăila. His interests revolved around zoology during that period.  He attended the National School of Fine Arts in Bucharest (1916–1918) and Horia Igiroşanu private school of painting. He visited Fălticeni and Balcic, and started painting landscapes in the manner of Paul Cézanne. Then, as he testified himself, he went through all the stages: \"Dadaist, Abstractionist, Expressionist\".  On 26 September 1924, the Mozart Galleries in Bucharest hosted his first personal exhibition. In that period he met poet Ilarie Voronca, together with whom he founded the \"75HP\" magazine. It was in this magazine that Brauner published the manifesto \"The Pictopoetry\" and the article \"The Surrationalism\". He painted and exhibited \"Christ at the Cabaret\" (in the manner of George Grosz) and \"The Girl in the Factory\" (in the manner of Hodler). He participated to the \"Contimporanul\" exhibition in November 1924. In 1925, he undertook his first journey to Paris, from where he returned in 1927. In the period 1928–1931 he was a contributor of the \"unu\" magazine (an avant-garde periodical with Dadaist and Surrealist tendencies), which published reproductions of most of his paintings and graphic works: \"clear drawings and portraits made by Victor Brauner to his friends, poets and writers\" (Jaques Lessaigne – \"Painters I Knew\").  In 1930, he settled in Paris, where he met Constantin Brâncuși, who instructed him in methods of art photography. In that same period he became a friend of the Romanian poet Benjamin Fondane and met Yves Tanguy, who would later introduce him to the circle of the Surrealists. He lived on Moulin Vert Street, in the same building as Alberto Giacometti and Tanguy. He painted \"Self-portrait with enucleated eye\", a premonitory theme.  In 1934 André Breton wrote an introduction to the catalogue for Brauner’s first Parisian solo exhibition at the Pierre Gallery. The theme of the eye was omnipresent: \"Mr. K's power of concentration\" and \"The strange case of Mr. K\" are paintings that Breton compared with Alfred Jarry’s play \"Ubu Roi\", \"a huge, caricature-like satire of the bourgeoisie\".  In 1935, Brauner returned to Bucharest. He joined the ranks of the Romanian Communist Party for a short while, without a very firm conviction. On 7 April 1935, he opened a new personal exhibition at the Mozart Galleries. Saşa Pană wrote about it in his autobiographical novel \"Born in 02\":  The catalogue shows 16 paintings; they are accompanied by verse, surrealist images that are exquisite by their bizarreness – they are perhaps the creations of automatic dictation and they certainly bear no connection to the painting itself. They are written in French, but their colorful taste is kept in their Romanian language translation. The exhibition brought about many interesting articles and takings of position regarding Surrealism in arts and literature.  Another remark about Brauner’s participation to Surrealist exhibitions: \"Despite its appearance of abstract formula... this trend is a point of transition to the art that is to come\" (Dolfi Trost, in \"Rampa\" of 14 April 1935). In \"Cuvântul liber\" of 20 April 1935, Miron Radu Paraschivescu wrote in the article \"Victor Brauner’s exhibition\": \"In contrast to what one may see, for instance, in the neighboring exhibition halls, Victor Brauner’s painting means integration, an attitude that is a social one, as far as art allows it. For V. Brauner takes attitude through the very character and ideology of his art\". On 27 April, he created the illustrations for Gellu Naum’s poetry collections – \"The Incendiary Traveler\" and \"The Freedom to Sleep on the Forehead\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exiles.", "content": "In 1938, he returned to France. On 28 August, he lost his left eye in a violent argument between Oscar Domínguez and Esteban Francés. Brauner attempted to protect Esteban and was hit by a glass thrown by Domínguez: the premonition became true.  That same year, he met Jaqueline Abraham, who was to become his wife. He created a series of paintings called \"lycanthropic\" or sometimes \"chimeras\".  He left Paris during Nazi Germany's invasion of France in 1940, together with Pierre Mabille. He lived for a while in Perpignan, at Robert Rius', then at Cant-Blage, in the Eastern Pyrenees and at Saint Feliu d'Amont, where he was forcibly secluded. However, he kept in touch with the Surrealists who had taken refuge in Marseille. In 1941, he was granted the permission to settle in Marseille. Seriously ill, he was hospitalized at the \"Paradis\" clinic.  He painted \"Prelude to a civilization\" in 1954, now in New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art. The painting is in encaustic on Masonite. After the war, he took part in the Venice Biennale, and traveled to Italy.  In 1959, he settled in a studio at 72, rue Lepic, in Montmartre. In 1961, he traveled to Italy again. In the same year, New York City's Bodley Gallery mounted a solo exhibition of Brauner's work. He settled in Varengeville in Normandy, where he spent most of his time working.  In 1965, he created an ensemble of object-paintings, grouped under the titles \"Mythologie\" and \"Fêtes des mères\". These paintings were made in Varengeville and in Athanor in 1964, where Brauner retreated. His last painting, \"La fin et le debut\" (made in 1965), reminds us that \"when the painter's life ends, his work starts living\".  In 1966, he was chosen to represent France at the Venice Biennale, where an entire hall was dedicated to him.  He died in Paris as a result of a prolonged illness. The epitaph on his tomb from the Montmartre cemetery is a phrase from his notebooks: \"Peindre, c'est la vie, la vraie vie, ma vie\" (\"Painting is life, the real life, my life\").  The painter’s notebooks with private notes, which he handed to Max Pol Fouchet, partly enclose the \"key\" of his creation: \"Each painting that I make is projected from the deepest sources of my anxiety...\"  Victor Brauner's brother, Harry Brauner, was a folklorist who later married Lena Constante.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Victor Brauner (, also spelled Viktor Brauner; 15 June 1903 – 12 March 1966) was a Romanian sculptor and painter of surrealistic images.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975154}
{"src_title": "Dorothea von Medem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Anna Charlotte Dorothea was born at Mežotne, now Latvia, to Johann Friedrich von Medem, a Graf from the old Courland nobility, general-poruchik of the Russian Empire, and (as of 1779) Reichsgraf of the Holy Roman Empire; and his second wife, Louise Charlotte von Manteuffel. Her father, a descendant of Konrad von Mandern, was himself awarded the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky in 1774 for his help in preparing the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. He owned many estates in Courland, including Elley and Alt-Autz. Her elder half sister from her father's previous marriage was the poet Elisa von der Recke. Her younger brother was Russian diplomat Christoph Johann von Medem, who built Villa Medem in Mitau (now Jelgava).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duchess of Courland.", "content": "On 6 November 1779, eighteen-year-old Dorothea became the third wife of the 55-year-old, childless Duke Peter von Biron, son of the famous Ernst Johann von Biron. The couple had six children, two of whom died in infancy. The four surviving children were all daughters; however, the youngest one, Dorothea, was probably illegitimate, although recognized by the Duke.  Dorothea was welcomed into the highest social circles thanks to her new status as duchess as well as her beauty. Because her husband was preoccupied with political difficulties at home involving his overlord the King of Poland and the Courland nobility, he frequently sent her on diplomatic missions to Warsaw, lasting months at a time, and to Berlin, Karlovy Vary, and Saint Petersburg for shorter periods. During these long absences Dorothea became alienated from her husband and had numerous love affairs with other men, including Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt, Talleyrand, and the Polish nobleman, Count Alexander Benedykt Batowski, who allegedly fathered her fourth daughter, born in 1793. After the year she gave birth to her illegitimate daughter, also named Dorothea (whom her husband nevertheless acknowledged as his own), the Duchess moved permanently to the in Berlin, where she held an aristocratic salon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1794 she acquired the Gutsherrschaft Löbichau in Altenburgischen and spent her summers at the newly built Schloss there. Inviting poets, philosophers, relatives and friends to Löbichau, it became known as the \"Musenhof der Herzogin von Kurland\". Her sister Elisa von der Recke, who would later be linked with Christoph August Tiedge, came to Löbichau to live and Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Frederick William III of Prussia, Napoleon I of France, Talleyrand, Metternich, Goethe, Schiller and other personalities of the time were the duchess's personal friends. In 1801, she received a proposal from Prince Frederick Adolf of Sweden.  Upon her youngest daughter Dorothea's marriage to Talleyrand's nephew, Edmond de Talleyrand-Périgord, in 1809, the duchess moved to Paris, having an intense relationship with Talleyrand and influenced him to turn against Napoleon. In 1814 she traveled to the Congress of Vienna to confront him about his alleged love affair with her daughter Dorothea. A few years after her death at Löbichau in 1821, the Duchess' body was moved from her place of death to the family vault at Sagan where her husband was buried in 1800.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "With Peter von Biron:  With Alexander Batowski:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "(Anna Charlotte) Dorothea von Medem (3 February 1761 – 20 August 1821) was born a Gräfin (Countess) of the noble German Baltic Medem family and later became Duchess of Courland (a Baltic region). Popularly known as Dorothea of Courland after her marriage to Peter von Biron, the last Duke of Courland, she hosted an aristocratic salon in Berlin and performed various diplomatic duties on behalf of her estranged husband.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975155}
{"src_title": "Door handle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Usage.", "content": "The location of the door handle along the horizontal axis on the door may vary between a few inches or centimeters away from the edge of the door to the exact center of the door, depending on local culture, decorative style or owner preference. The distance from the edge of the door to the center of the handle is called the backset.  The location of the door handle along the vertical axis on the door may vary between.  Door knobs can be difficult for the young and elderly to operate. For this reason, door handles in most American commercial and industrial buildings and in many households are lever-operated, rather than a knob, as the lever does not require a tight grip. Levers are also beneficial on doors with narrow stile widths where the reduced backset leaves insufficient space to comfortably turn a door knob.  Most household door handles use a simple mechanism with a screw-style axle (called a spindle) that has at least one flat side, which is passed through the door jigger, leaving some length exposed on each side of the door to which the handles are attached. Some handles are attached on both sides by screwing or sliding them directly onto the spindle, and then securing one or more retaining screws (set screws) through the knob perpendicular to the flat of the spindle. Handles that lose traction can frequently be repaired by replacing or adjusting the set screw, which prevents them from slipping on the spindle. Other types of handles, typically used in Europe, slide onto the spindle but are affixed only to the door itself without use of set screws.  Types of household handles:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cars.", "content": "Car door handles may protrude from the vehicle's exterior surface or be streamlined into the vehicle's contour. In some automobiles, especially luxury vehicles, the door handles may feature a key-less entry pad utilizing either a numerical code or thumb scan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Foldables.", "content": "On a balcony whose door has an outside shutter, a special door handle is used on the outer side. The protruding part of such handle (usually ring-shaped) can be folded sideways, so that the shutter can be fully closed without being obstructed by the door handle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pocket doors.", "content": "A pocket door handle is a recessed rectangular insert, typically with operating hardware called a door pull.  Door handles can also be called \"handle sets\". In addition there are door handles that are flush-mount and require pressing rather than turning or gripping, and there are touch-free, electronic, and motion-sensor door handles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infection control.", "content": "Of concern is the fact that door handles are instrumental in the spread of many infections. However, some materials, e.g. brass, copper and silver, are slowly poisonous to many germs. The exact mechanism is not known, but is commonly thought to be via the oligodynamic effect, perhaps by some other electrostatic effect. Brass and copper, for example, disinfect themselves of many door handle bacteria within eight hours. Other materials such as glass, porcelain, stainless steel and aluminium do not have this effect. Self-disinfecting door handles are particularly important in hospitals, but useful in any building.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invention.", "content": "The idea of inventing doorknobs via documentation was coined by American inventor Osbourn Dorsey in the year 1878.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A door handle or door knob is a mechanism used to open or close a door. The traditional door knob has a bolt or spindle running through it that sits just above a cylinder, to which the spindle is connected. Turning the knob pulls the cylinder in the direction of the turn. The end of the cylinder is the \"latch bolt\" (more simply known as the \"latch\"), which protrudes into a space carved out of the door frame, and which prevents the door from being opened if the knob is not turned. A spring or similar mechanism causes the latch to return to its protruding state whenever the knob is not being turned. Escutcheon plates are the keyhole covers, usually circular, through which keys pass to enter the lock body. If the door handles have a square or rectangular plate on which the handle is mounted this is called the backplate. The backplate can be plain (for use with latches), pierced for keyholes (for use with locks), or pierced and fitted with turn knobs and releases (for use with bathroom locks). The plate on the front edge of the lock where the latch bolt protrudes is called the faceplate.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975156}
{"src_title": "OGame", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "All OGame universes consist of three classifications: galaxies, systems, and planet slots (which break down to planets, moons, and debris fields). All universes have up to 9 galaxies, each with 499 (1-499) systems, which have 15 planet slots.  Each player starts with one planet at randomly assigned coordinates in slots 4,6,8,10,12, in a random system and galaxy. The first planet always consists of 163 fields, which determine how many building upgrades can be built on the planet, regardless of the slot in the player's system. Originally, the player's empire could consist of up to 9 planets in any unoccupied planet slot. However, with the redesign, that cap was lifted, albeit with the requirement that each planet required two additional levels of research, with a progressive cost. All construction, research, and missions are performed and launched from a planet or moon. Development is done through using five resources: metal, crystal, deuterium, energy, and dark matter. There are different ways to obtain these resources, including mining, trading, and raiding (see Combat below). Players are ranked according to their points, with one point awarded for every thousand resource units invested in construction, research, ships, or defense. No points are given for unspent resources.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Combat.", "content": "Unlike many other real-time strategy games, OGame does not give the player constant control of their spacecraft. Instead, the player sends the ship(s) to a location (using the game's coordinate system) and what happens when the fleet arrives is beyond the player's control; in OGame, combat is resolved when fleets and/or defenses meet. The combat takes place instantly and consists of 1 to 6 rounds. Fleet attacks are usually aimed to obtain other player's planetary resources, which is called raiding, although players may also initiate fleet attacks to destroy an opponent's fleet and collect resources from the debris field created from the battle. Debris fields only contain Metal and Crystal, increasing the probability of a raid from those in search of Deuterium. Defenses are built to defend a planet against an attacking enemy fleet. If destroyed, 70 percent of defensive structures will be recovered after the battle. Destroyed ships are not recovered.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alliances.", "content": "An alliance is a group of players who have banded together and is mostly used for solidarity purposes. Alliances are created for players to protect each other from attacks, join together to raid other planets, or to promote free trade among members. Members of an alliance can use the Alliance Combat System, available in some universes, to synchronize fleet movements and missions with members of the same alliance and temporarily deploy a fleet on an ally's planet. Alliances can utilize certain forums on the boards to instigate wars or truces between each other, as well as create their own alliance page in the game itself.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Merchants.", "content": "Players can hire a merchant using dark matter to trade one resource type for another. The amount of resources traded is limited to the amount of free space in one's storage buildings and the amount of dark matter the player has.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Officers.", "content": "OGame offers four different Officers and a Commander, each costs a set amount of Dark Matter, obtained with in-game exploration or microtransactions to 'hire' for either 1 week or 3 months. The names of the four different officers are the Engineer, the Geologist, the Technocrat and the Fleet Admiral. Each one improves certain elements of chance or resource production.  The Commander officer gives the user extra benefits such as an ad-free interface, a building queue, an improved galaxy view with added information, a message filter, extra shortcuts to enhance play and an 'Empire' view. Empire view gives the player an interface which shows information about all planets, including mine and power plant levels and ships currently docked. Upgrades to buildings can be performed via the Empire view.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resources.", "content": "There are three main resources: Metal, Crystal and Deuterium.  The three main resources (Metal, Crystal, Deuterium) can be created via mines or money. There are separate mines for each resource which can be upgraded to produce the resources faster. These resources are used for making buildings, ships, defenses and for researching technology. To run the mines, energy is needed. Energy is produced by creating the following: solar plant, solar satellites (available via shipyard), and fusion reactor (converts a specified amount of deuterium into energy). These buildings can also be upgraded to produce more energy.  Dark Matter, however, cannot be created. Fleets can be sent out on expeditions to search for it. It can also be bought with real money. Dark Matter is used to \"call a trader\" who trades the main three resources, to buy an officer, or move an existing planet.  Deuterium is the most particularly valuable resource because it seconds as fuel for ships. The bigger the fleet of ships, the more fuel is required to travel certain distances. Players with large fleets will find themselves selling their Metal and Crystal to buy Deuterium, as Deuterium mines are very expensive to upgrade along with maintaining a large fleet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Expeditions.", "content": "Expeditions are fleets that go outside the system but not to another. Astrophysics is needed for expeditions. Expeditions can find resources and the valuable Dark Matter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Moons.", "content": "Moons are created when a debris field is large enough to form together. The largest debris fields will yield a maximum 20 percent chance of creating a Moon, and they will also create the Moons with the most available space. Players in an alliance will often give each other \"moonshots\" by attacking a certain number of ships purposefully left behind.  Once a planet has a Moon orbiting it, many more options are opened up for movement and tracking other ships. A Jump Gate can be built which allows players to send ships instantly from Jump Gate to Jump Gate. After a Jump Gate is used, there is an hour-long cooling period before it can be used again. A Sensor Phalanx also can be built, which tracks enemy ship movements in its range.  Building and upgrading on Moons uses fields just like planets, but Moons have far fewer fields to work with.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "OGame is a browser-based, money-management and space-war themed massively multiplayer online browser game with over two million accounts. OGame was created in 2002 and is produced and maintained by Gameforge. OGame is available in multiple languages, and different nationalities have their own communities. The game does not differ between the nationality communities except in rare cases. Players are generally informed of news, rule changes, or new versions through the official forums.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975157}
{"src_title": "Coat of arms of Luxembourg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Versions.", "content": "There are greater, middle and lesser versions of the coat of arms of Luxembourg. The greater coat of arms has two reguardant and crowned lions as supporters, the Dynastic Order (the Order of the Oak Crown) and all surrounded by ermine mantling crowned with a heraldic royal crown (the crown used by the Grand Duke). The middle coat of arms has the supporters, the order and the crown. The lesser coat of arms has the crown and the escutcheon without external ornaments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arms of the monarch.", "content": "The Grand Duke has a personal coat of arms, the current arms were adopted in 2001:  Quarterly: 1 and 4 Luxembourg, 2 and 3 Nassau (Blazon: \"Azure billetty Or, a lion or armed and langued Gules\"). The lesser variant of the arms of the monarch has no external ornaments. The middle variant has the supporters, the order and the crown.  The greater variant has a dynastic inescutcheon with the arms of the House of Bourbon-Parma (Blazon: \"Azure bordure Gules charged with eight escallops Argent, three fleurs-de-lys Or\"). The supporters are holding a lance Or, flying the flag of Luxembourg, all surrounded by ermine mantling with the crown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical.", "content": "The coat of arms adopted by Grand Duke Adolphe in 1898:  These arms were adopted in 1898 by Grand Duke Adolphe and used by him and his successors up until Grand Duke Jean. Upon acceding to the throne in 1964, Grand Duke Jean used the lesser and medium arms as adopted in 1898. The greater arms featuring the former territorial claims attached to the duchy of Nassau that was annexed by Prussia in 1866 were, however, unreflective of political reality of the time and were not used extensively: They were only used on the Great Seal of Grand Duke Jean.  Prior to acceding the throne, Grand Duke Jean made use of the following arms:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arms of the Hereditary Grand Duke.", "content": "The current greater and lesser coats of arms for the Hereditary Grand Duke are currently prescribed by grand-ducal decree of 31 October 2012 and are similar to that of the Grand Duke's with the addition of a gold label on the shield for differencing. In the greater arms, the supporters also do not carry flags.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The coat of arms of Henry V, Count of Luxembourg (1216–1281).", "content": "Henry V was the first Count of Luxembourg to adopt a primitive form of these arms. His father, Waleran III, Duke of Limburg, bore the arms, \"argent a lion rampant queue fourché gules armed, langued and crowned or\" (white field bearing a red double tailed lion with yellow claws, teeth, tongue and crown). Henry V replaced the white field by a series of white and blue stripes (burely of 10 argent and azure) to differentiate from his half-brother Henry IV, Duke of Limburg.  It is yet uncertain where the origins of this burely of 10 argent and azure are. Jean-Claude Loutsch, Luxembourg's most prominent heraldist, authored the theory that the original Luxembourg dynasties may have born a striped banner (colours unknown). Two dynasties closely related to the first Houses of Luxembourg also adopted striped coats of arms during this period. Both the Counts of Loon and Counts of Grandpré bore the arms burely of 10 or and gules (yellow and red alternating stripes). In such a case, the choice of colour of the stripes would have been determined to match the white field and red lion of Limburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The coat of arms of Henry VI, Count of Luxembourg (1240-1288).", "content": "In 1282, after the death of Waleran IV of Limburg, Henry VI, count of Luxembourg changed his arms by doubling the lion's tail and passing it in saltire as a claim on the duchy of Limburg. After Henry VI's death in 1288 at the Battle of Worringen, Henry VII readopted his grandfather Henry V's arms, which remained in use until the extinction of the House of Luxembourg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lusignan and Stratford.", "content": "The Luxembourg Coat of Arms bears a striking similarity to both the arms of Lusignan and of Stratford. The relationship is unknown, if indeed any exists at all although the link between the Lusignan and Luxembourg coat-of-arms is provided in 'Le Roman de Mélusine' by Couldrette whereby a descendant of the legendary founder and faerie queen of Lusignan adopts the burely of 10 argent and azure, adding the lion rampant due to his similarly-shaped birthmark. Historians have generated various theories as to the connection between the houses and the arms, none conclusive.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The coat of arms of Luxembourg has its origins in the Middle Ages and was derived from the arms of the Duchy of Limburg, in modern-day Belgium and the Netherlands. In heraldic language, the arms are described as: \"Barry of ten Argent and Azure, a Lion rampant queue forchée Gules crowned, armed and langued Or.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975158}
{"src_title": "Nero Decree", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "By the beginning of 1945, the German situation was desperate. Most of the conquered territories had been liberated or recaptured, the Ardennes Offensive had failed, and Allied armies were advancing on Germany proper from both the East and the West. However, Hitler was not willing to accept the terms of unconditional surrender, and considered this as repeating the same shame of Versailles. This was not the first time Hitler had tried to destroy infrastructure before it could be taken. Shortly before the Liberation of Paris, Hitler ordered explosives to be placed around important landmarks, such as the Eiffel Tower, and key transportation hubs. If the Allies came near the city, the military governor, Dietrich von Choltitz was to detonate these bombs, leaving Paris \"lying in complete debris.\" Von Choltitz, however, did not carry out the order and surrendered to the Allies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Decree.", "content": "Its most pertinent section reads as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Actions.", "content": "The decree was in vain. The responsibility for carrying it out fell to Albert Speer, Hitler's Minister of Armaments and War Production. Speer was appalled by the order and lost faith in the dictator. Just as von Choltitz had several months earlier, Speer deliberately failed to carry out the order. Upon receiving it, he requested to be given exclusive power to implement the plan, instead using his power to convince the generals and \"Gauleiters\" to ignore the order. Hitler remained unaware of this until the very end of the war, when Speer, while visiting Hitler in his Berlin bunker, admitted to him that he deliberately disobeyed. Hitler was angry with his minister, but allowed Speer to leave nonetheless. Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945, 42 days after issuing the order. Shortly afterwards, on May 7, 1945, General Alfred Jodl signed the German military surrender, and on May 23 Speer was arrested on the orders of U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, together with the rest of the provisional German government led by Admiral Karl Dönitz, Hitler's successor as head of state.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nero Decree () was issued by Adolf Hitler on March 19, 1945 ordering the destruction of German infrastructure to prevent their use by Allied forces as they penetrated deep within Germany. It was officially titled Decree Concerning Demolitions in the Reich Territory (\"Befehl betreffend Zerstörungsmaßnahmen im Reichsgebiet\") and has subsequently become known as the Nero Decree, after the Roman Emperor Nero, who supposedly engineered the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. The decree was deliberately disobeyed by Albert Speer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975159}
{"src_title": "Talisker distillery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The distillery was founded in 1830 by Hugh and Kenneth MacAskill, and built in 1831 at Carbost after a number of false starts on other sites when they acquired the lease of Talisker House from the Macleod of MacLeod. The distillery was rebuilt 1880–87 and extended in 1900. When a new lease for the distillery was negotiated with the chief of Clan MacLeod in 1892 the annual payment was to be £23.12s and a ten-gallon cask of best-quality Talisker. It was rebuilt in 1960 after a stillhouse fire completely destroyed the distillery. The distillery operates five stills; two wash stills and three spirit stills. All the stills use worm tubs (condensing coils) rather than a modern condenser, which are believed to give the whisky a \"fuller\" flavour (itself an indication of higher sugar content). During this early period, the whisky was produced using a triple distilling method, but changed to the more conventional double distilling in 1928. Talisker was acquired by Distillers Company in 1925 and is now part of Diageo. After the 1960 fire, five exact replicas of the original stills were constructed to preserve the original Talisker flavour. In 1972 the stills were converted to steam heating and the maltings floor was demolished. Talisker's water comes from springs directly above the distillery via a network of pipes and wells.  The malted barley used in production comes from Muir of Ord. Talisker has an unusual feature—swan neck lye pipes. A loop in the pipes takes the vapour from the stills to the worm tubs so some of the alcohol already condenses before it reaches the cooler. It then runs back into the stills and is distilled again. Talisker now has an annual output of three and a half million litres of spirit.  Talisker was the favourite whisky of writers Robert Louis Stevenson and HV Morton. In his poem \"The Scotsman's Return From Abroad\", Stevenson mentioned \"The king o' drinks, as I conceive it, Talisker, Islay, or Glenlivet.\"  Recently, Talisker has come under scrutiny after a radiocarbon study suggested Talisker 1863 whisky was produced much later, either between 1957-58 or 2007-2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Character.", "content": "The spirit is most frequently matured in American oak casks. The malt is peated to a phenol level of approximately 18–22 parts per million (ppm), which is a medium peating level. Additionally, the water used for production, from Cnoc nan Speireag (Hawk Hill), flows over peat which adds additional complexity to the whisky.  The distillery began producing special bottlings of the whisky for connoisseurs in the early 2000s, with a 20- and 25-year bottling (where previously only a 10-year and 18-year were available). The 25-year bottling, despite being more expensive than the 20-year bottling, was distributed more widely.  In 2007 Talisker 18-year-old won \"Best Single Malt In The World 2007\" at the World Whiskies Awards. and in 2015 Talisker 10 Year Old won a Double Gold Medal and \"Best Single Malt Scotch up to 12 years\" in the San Francisco World Spirits Competition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reviews and accolades.", "content": "Talisker whiskies have generally performed very well at international Spirit ratings competitions and have won some acclaim from liquor review organizations. The 10-, 18-, 25- and 30-year Taliskers have been awarded mostly gold medals from the San Francisco World Spirits Competition. The 10- and 18-year varieties, meanwhile, have received scores of 85-89 and 90-95 from Wine Enthusiast. Spirits ratings aggregator proof66.com, which averages scores from the San Francisco World Spirits Competition, Wine Enthusiast, and others, classifies Talisker's 10-year scotch in its highest (\"Tier 1\") performance category.  Talisker Distiller's Edition won Best Islands Single Malt at the 2013 World Whiskies Awards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References in popular culture.", "content": "Talisker is repeatedly referenced in the BBC Radio 4 comedy \"Cabin Pressure\". Three separate episodes (\"Edinburgh\" in series 1, \"Paris\" in series 3 and \"Timbuktu\" in series 4) revolve around First Officer Douglas Richardson's attempts to steal 25-year aged Talisker whisky rightfully belonging to the wealthy regular passenger Mr Birling, and it is also mentioned in several other episodes.  In the movie \"Charlie Wilson's War\", CIA agent Gust Avrakotos presents US Rep. Wilson a bottle of Talisker. The agent explains to Charlie the scotch is mentioned in a Robert Louis Stevenson poem, \"The Scotsman's Return From Abroad\". The bottle is bugged and allows him to listen to the congressman's conversations. Talisker is also referenced in John LeCarre's \"A Legacy of Spies,\" as Alec Leamus' favorite.  In the 2019 Amazon Prime / BBC co-production \"Good Omens\", the demon Crowley (played by Scotsman David Tennant) drinks Talisker by the bottle as he awaits the coming apocalypse. Director Douglas Mackinnon is from the Isle of Skye and inserted references to his home area wherever he could.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "General", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Talisker distillery is an Island single malt Scotch whisky distillery based in Carbost, Scotland on the Isle of Skye. The distillery is operated by Diageo, and Talisker's 10 year old expression has been nominated as part of their \"Classic Malts\" series. The brand is considered a premium Single Malt Whisky.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975160}
{"src_title": "Edison Denisov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Denisov was born in Tomsk, Siberia, into the family of a radio physicist, who gave him the very unusual first name Edison, in honour of Thomas Edison. He studied mathematics before deciding to spend his life composing. This decision was enthusiastically supported by Dmitri Shostakovich, who gave him lessons in composition.  In 1951–56 Denisov studied at the Moscow Conservatory: composition with Vissarion Shebalin, orchestration with Nikolay Rakov, analysis with Viktor Tsukkerman and piano with Vladimir Belov. In 1956–59 he composed the opera \"Ivan-Soldat\" (Soldier Ivan) in three acts based on Russian folk fairy tales.  He began his own study of scores that were difficult to obtain in the USSR at that time, including music by composers ranging from Mahler and Debussy to Boulez and Stockhausen. He wrote a series of articles giving a detailed analysis of different aspects of contemporary compositional techniques and at same time actively experimented as a composer, trying to find his own way.  After graduating from the Moscow Conservatory, he taught orchestration and later composition there. His pupils included the composers Dmitri Smirnov, Elena Firsova, Vladimir Tarnopolsky, Sergey Pavlenko, Ivan Sokolov, Yuri Kasparov, Dmitri Kapyrin, and Aleksandr Shchetinskiy.  In 1979, at the Sixth Congress of the Union of Soviet Composers, he was blacklisted as one of \"Khrennikov's Seven\" for unapproved participation in a number of festivals of Soviet music in the West.  Denisov became a leader of the Association for Contemporary Music reestablished in Moscow in 1990. Later he moved to France, where after an accident and long illness he died in a Paris hospital in 1996.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Denisov's cycle for soprano and chamber ensemble \"Le soleil des Incas\" (1964), setting poems by Gabriela Mistral and dedicated to Pierre Boulez, brought him international recognition following a series of successful performances of the work in Darmstadt and Paris (1965). Igor Stravinsky liked the piece, discovering the \"remarkable talent\" of its composer. However, it was harshly criticised by the Union of Soviet Composers for its \"western influences\", \"erudition instead of creativity\", and \"total composer's arbitrary\" (Tikhon Khrennikov). After that, performances of his works were frequently banned in the Soviet Union.  Later he wrote a flute concerto for Aurèle Nicolet, a violin concerto for Gidon Kremer, works for the oboist Heinz Holliger, clarinettist Eduard Brunner and a sonata for alto saxophone and piano for Jean-Marie Londeix, that became highly popular among saxophone players.  His sombre but striking Requiem, setting a multi-lingual text (English, French, German, and Latin) based on works by the German writer Francisco Tanzer, was given its first performance in Hamburg in 1980.  Among his major works are the operas \"L'écume des jours\" after Boris Vian (1981), \"Quatre Filles\" after Pablo Picasso (1986) and ballet \"Confession\" after Alfred de Musset.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edison Vasilievich Denisov (, 6 April 1929 – 24 November 1996) was a Russian composer in the so-called \"Underground\", \"alternative\" or \"nonconformist\" division of Soviet music.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975161}
{"src_title": "Tunnel rat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Vietnam War.", "content": "During the Vietnam War, \"tunnel rat\" became an unofficial specialty for volunteer combat engineers and infantrymen from Australia and the United States who cleared and destroyed enemy tunnel complexes. Their motto was the tongue-in-cheek Latin phrase \"Non Gratus Anus Rodentum\" (\"not worth a rat's arse\").  In the early stages of the war against the French colonial forces, the Viet Minh created an extensive underground system of tunnels, which was later expanded and improved by the Viet Cong. By the 1960s, the tunnel complexes included hospitals, training areas, storage facilities, headquarters, and barracks. These diverse facilities, coupled with sophisticated ventilation systems, allowed VC guerrillas to remain hidden underground for months at a time.  During the Vietnam War, U.S. and ANZAC troops uncovered a great number of enemy tunnels while patrolling or conducting larger operations. The men of the 3 Field Force, an Australian combat engineering unit that served in Vietnam from 1965-1966, have made a convincing argument that they were the first allied troops to enter the tunnels. Tunnel rats were given the task of destroying them, gathering intelligence within them, and killing or capturing their occupants—often in conditions of close combat. Typically, a tunnel rat was equipped with only a standard issue M1911 pistol or M1917 revolver, a bayonet, a flashlight, and explosives.  Many tunnel rats reportedly came to dislike the intense muzzle blast of the relatively large.45 caliber round, as the.45's loud report could often leave one temporarily deaf when fired in a confined space. Consequently, some preferred to clear tunnels armed with a.38 Special revolver equipped with a sound suppressor and other non-standard weapons. \"A few of the OSS-ordered World War II era suppressed High Standard HD.22 automatics made their way into Tunnel Rat hands. But these weapons were very few in number and wanted by a number of other special units. Personal weapons were used by the rats, ranging from.25 caliber automatics to sawn-off shotguns.\"  Besides enemy combatants, the tunnels themselves presented many potential dangers to tunnel rats. Sometimes they were poorly constructed and they would simply collapse. Tunnels were often booby trapped with hand grenades, anti-personnel mines, and punji sticks. The VC would even use venomous snakes (placed as living booby traps). Rats, spiders, scorpions, and ants also posed threats to tunnel rats. Bats also roosted in the tunnels, although they were generally more of a nuisance than a threat. Tunnel construction occasionally included anti-intruder features such as U-bends that could be flooded quickly to trap and drown the tunnel rat. Sometimes poison gases were used. A tunnel rat might therefore choose to enter the tunnels wearing a gas mask (donning one within was frequently impossible in such a confined space). According to U.S. tunnel rat veterans, however, most tunnel rats usually went without gas masks because wearing one made it even harder to see, hear, and breathe in the narrow dark passages.  Tunnel rats were generally men of smaller stature ( and under), who were able to maneuver more comfortably in the narrow tunnels. Tom Mangold and John Penycate, authors of one of the definitive accounts of tunnel warfare in the Vietnam War, reported that U.S. tunnel rats were almost exclusively white or Hispanic soldiers, many of whom were Puerto Rican or Mexican American.  By Mangold and Penycate's account, the contributions of tunnel rats first garnered public attention in January 1966, after a combined U.S. and Australian operation against the Củ Chi tunnels in Bình Dương Province, known as Operation Crimp. The \"Diehards\" of the U.S. Army's 1st Engineer Battalion, whose exploits are featured in Mangold and Penycate's book, later claimed a special place for tunnel rats in American military history during their rotation through the Cu Chi District of Vietnam in 1969.  In the years since the Vietnam War ended tunnel rats have suffered from a high percentage of Agent Orange injuries and diseases due to soldier's exposure to the chemicals on the ground, or that leeched from topsoil into the tunnel environment. While in the tunnels, soldiers were breathing air heavily saturated with Agent Orange.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Afghanistan.", "content": "Afghanistan features an extensive series of historic tunnels used for transporting water and the \"kariz.\" During the 1979–1989 Soviet war in Afghanistan, such tunnels were used by Mujahideen fighters. The Soviet 40th Army therefore fielded their own tunnel clearance and demolition units, which were given the task of clearing the tunnels of enemy combatants, disarming booby traps, and destroying the underground complexes. According to contemporary accounts, the U.S. Marine Corps and British Royal Marines were involved in similar work in the war in Afghanistan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Israel.", "content": "SAMOOR (\"Weasel\"), a formation within Israel's Yahalom elite combat engineer unit, is charged with many of the same missions that tunnel rats performed during the Vietnam War.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The tunnel rats were American, South Vietnamese, New Zealand, and Australian soldiers who performed underground search and destroy missions during the Vietnam War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975162}
{"src_title": "Hugo Rahner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Rahner was born in 1900 in Pfullendorf, then in the Grand Duchy of Baden, a part of the new German Empire. He entered the Jesuit Order in 1919 and was sent to Valkenburg, in the Netherlands, for theological and philosophical studies. Ordained priest in 1929, he completed his doctorate in theology in 1931, after which he worked on a doctorate in philosophy. From 1937, he taught at the theological faculty in Innsbruck (Austria), specializing in patrology and history of Catholic dogma. The Nazis forced his resignation and exile in the years 1940–1945.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Academic career.", "content": "After the war, he was named Dean and later President of the University of Innsbruck. His work focused on the relation between Church and State in the early years of Christianity. Armed with extensive documentation, Rahner tried to revive the early Christian enthusiasm for the Church. He mentions Tertullian: \"GREAT is the emperor, because he is smaller than the heavens,“ and Ambrose of Milan, \"It is not imperial to deny freedom of speech, it is not priestly to withhold one's opinion.\" All are called into the Church. The Church is called Kyriake, which means \"of the Lord,\" because Christ the Lord is ruler. She has to teach in all centuries to all states, what Christ the Lord and ruler has wonderfully decreed to the people.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Rahner began to suffer from Parkinson's disease in 1963, which slowly caused a change in his personality. He was sent to the Jesuit residence at Berchmans College, now the Munich School of Philosophy, in 1966. After his death, he was buried in the Jesuit community's cemetery in Pullach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theological work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mariology.", "content": "\"'Hugo Rahner's great achievement was his rediscovery, in the Fathers, of the indivisibility of Mary and the Church.\" – Pope Benedict XVI  Rahner's Mariology, following Ambrose of Milan, sees Mary in her role within the Church. His interpretation, based solely on the early writers, greatly influenced Vatican II's treatment of Mary in chapter VIII of the Constitution on the Church, \"Lumen gentium\", and Pope Paul VI, quoting Ambrose, declared Mary the \"Mother of the Church,\" a title actively promoted by Popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI. The latter specifically gives credit to Rahner in this regard.  At first sight, J. Ratzinger argues, it may seem accidental that the Council moved mariology into ecclesiology. But this relation helps to understand what \"\"Church\"\" really is, as Ratzinger maintains: Hugo Rahner showed that Mariology was originally ecclesiology; the Church is like Mary.  The Church is virgin and mother, she is immaculate and carries the burdens of history. She suffers and she is assumed into heaven. Slowly the Church learns that Mary is her mirror, that she is a person in Mary. Mary, on the other hand, is not an isolated individual, who rests in herself. She carries the mystery of the Church.  Pope Benedict lamented that this unity of the Church and Mary, brought to light by Rahner, was overshadowed in later centuries which overburdened Mary with privileges and removed her to a far distance. Both mariology and ecclesiology suffered from this. A Marian view of the Church and an ecclesiological view of Mary in salvation history lead directly to Christ. It brings to light what is meant by holiness and by \"God being human\".  Only one work on mariology, \"Our Lady and the Church\", is translated into English. The book received great praise not only from Pope Benedict XVI but also from the American Jesuit theologian Cardinal Avery Dulles, who said of it: \"With engaging clarity, this pioneering study sets forth the vast range of biblical metaphors the Fathers applied to Mary and the Church: ark of the covenant, valiant woman, treasure-laden ship. This rich theology of poetry and image has much to say to our more prosaic age.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ignatius of Loyola.", "content": "Together with Otto Karrer, Rahner contributed by means of several works to a revised view of St. Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of his Order. Rahner described Ignatius as a theologian, and pointed to the significance of his letters to women. In examining the various stages of Ignatius' development, he applied critical historical method to the surviving documents rather than a hagiographical approach. In this sense Rahner's work is considered a modern turning point in research on Ignatius.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Views on the Early Church.", "content": "Rahner's \"Greek Myths and Christian Mystery\", first published in its original German in 1957, refutes the theories proposed by a number of comparative historians of his age who contended there existed a dependency within early Christianity on the mystery cults and that the early Church arose as \"no more than a genetic derivative of the mystery cults\". In contrast, while Rahner does acknowledge that the Church of late antiquity adopted many of its nonessential markers and ritualistic dressings from with pagan mysticism, all essential elements of the Christian mystery and the emergent Church remained untarnished by external influence and independent from conception. According to this view, the presence of Roman cults which dominated the environment in which the early Church gained its footing and eventually gained supremacy was not necessary for the Church's foundation but merely helped shape features and rites of the institution without invading or influencing Christianity's core tenets. For example, Rahner's analysis notes the centrality of celestial bodies including the Sun (Helios) and Moon (Luna)- both longstanding entities of cultic devotion- in Roman paganism and the early Church's intentional, analogous use of the Sun and Moon as symbols of Jesus Christ and Mary (or, alternatively, the Church), respectively.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Hugo Karl Erich Rahner, S.J. (3 May 1900 in Pfullendorf – 21 December 1968 in Munich), was a German Jesuit, noted theologian, and Church historian. He was Dean and President of the University of Innsbruck and the elder brother of the famous theologian, Karl Rahner, S.J.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975163}
{"src_title": "Slater determinant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Two-particle case.", "content": "The simplest way to approximate the wave function of a many-particle system is to take the product of properly chosen orthogonal wave functions of the individual particles. For the two-particle case with coordinates formula_3 and formula_4, we have  This expression is used in the Hartree method as an ansatz for the many-particle wave function and is known as a Hartree product. However, it is not satisfactory for fermions because the wave function above is not antisymmetric under exchange of any two of the fermions, as it must be according to the Pauli exclusion principle. An antisymmetric wave function can be mathematically described as follows:  This does not hold for the Hartree product, which therefore does not satisfy the Pauli principle. This problem can be overcome by taking a linear combination of both Hartree products:  where the coefficient is the normalization factor. This wave function is now antisymmetric and no longer distinguishes between fermions (that is, one cannot indicate an ordinal number to a specific particle, and the indices given are interchangeable). Moreover, it also goes to zero if any two spin orbitals of two fermions are the same. This is equivalent to satisfying the Pauli exclusion principle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Multi-particle case.", "content": "The expression can be generalised to any number of fermions by writing it as a determinant. For an \"N\"-electron system, the Slater determinant is defined as  where the last two expressions use a shorthand for Slater determinants: The normalization constant is implied by noting the number N, and only the one-particle wavefunctions (first shorthand) or the indices for the fermion coordinates (second shorthand) are written down. All skipped labels are implied to behave in ascending sequence. The linear combination of Hartree products for the two-particle case is identical with the Slater determinant for \"N\" = 2. The use of Slater determinants ensures an antisymmetrized function at the outset. In the same way, the use of Slater determinants ensures conformity to the Pauli principle. Indeed, the Slater determinant vanishes if the set formula_9 is linearly dependent. In particular, this is the case when two (or more) spin orbitals are the same. In chemistry one expresses this fact by stating that no two electrons with the same spin can occupy the same spatial orbital.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As an approximation.", "content": "Most fermionic wavefunctions cannot be represented as a Slater determinant. The best Slater approximation to a given fermionic wave function can be defined to be the one that maximizes the overlap between the Slater determinant and the target wave function. The maximal overlap is a geometric measure of entanglement between the fermions.  A single Slater determinant is used as an approximation to the electronic wavefunction in Hartree–Fock theory. In more accurate theories (such as configuration interaction and MCSCF), a linear combination of Slater determinants is needed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discussion.", "content": "The word \"detor\" was proposed by S. F. Boys to refer to a Slater determinant of orthonormal orbitals, but this term is rarely used.  Unlike fermions that are subject to the Pauli exclusion principle, two or more bosons can occupy the same single-particle quantum state. Wavefunctions describing systems of identical bosons are symmetric under the exchange of particles and can be expanded in terms of permanents.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In quantum mechanics, a Slater determinant is an expression that describes the wave function of a multi-fermionic system. It satisfies anti-symmetry requirements, and consequently the Pauli principle, by changing sign upon exchange of two electrons (or other fermions). Only a small subset of all possible fermionic wave functions can be written as a single Slater determinant, but those form an important and useful subset because of their simplicity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975164}
{"src_title": "Prussian G 8", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A total of 1,054 Prussian G 8 locomotives were built between 1902 and 1913 by various manufacturers. It was the first superheated goods train locomotive in Prussia, which is why it initially suffered from a host of teething troubles. One further problem was the restriction to a axle load; as a result many components had to be made too light in order to save weight. During its period of procurement constant modifications were made to the locomotives: the cylinder bore was increased from ; and the grate area, evaporative heating area and superheater area were also increased in size.  Seven engines were experimentally fitted with \"Stumpf\" parallel flow cylinders (\"Gleichstrom-Zylindern\"). Ten more were given Lenz valve gear. Neither of these variants improved on the standard design however. After the First World War, 336 locomotives had to be given to Germany's former enemies as reparations and 18 units to the Saar Railway. In 1925 the Deutsche Reichsbahn took over 656 locomotives as Class 55.16-22, numbering them as 55 1601-2256 in their renumbering plan. In 1935 they were joined by another twelve were from the \"Saarbahn\", nos. 55 2257-2268. In the Second World War several more came from Poland and were given the numbers of already retired engines between 55 1604 and 55 1710.  After the war the DB ended up with 205 examples, and the DR 50. In the GDR the last one was retired in 1969, whereas the DB had retired them by 1955.  After the Second World War, locomotives 55 1681, 1881 and 2180 were left in Austria. No. 55 1881 was returned to the DB in 1950. The two remaining engines formed ÖBB Class 755 in the ÖBB keeping their serial numbers. Number 755.2180 was retired in 1954, and 755.1681 not until 1957.  Locomotive \"Nr. 4981 Mainz\" (see picture in the infobox) is in working condition. Built in 1913 by Hanomag as No. 6721 and in service with the Prussian state railways as \"4981 Münster\", it sent was to work in 1916, along with 24 others, on the construction of the Baghdad Railway (Bagdadbahn) in Turkey, where she was given Turkish Railways number 44 079. In 1987, the still operational locomotive was purchased by German railway fans, to be hauled across Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Austria to Germany and restored by the Darmstadt-Kranichstein Railway Museum. The journey, which had cost 47,000 deutschmarks of which 36,531 DM were invoiced by Deutsche Bahn for the leg in Germany, is documented in a book.  Two units of the 22 assigned to Italy as war reparations (and classified by the Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane as FS Class 422) survive to this day, both property of the \"Museo Ferroviario Piemontese\"; one is exposed at Savigliano, while the other is kept in a nearby railway station.  The locomotives were equipped with Prussian tenders of classes \"pr 3 T 12\", \"pr 3 T 16.5\" and pr 2'2' T 16.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Prussian Class G 8 locomotives were eight-coupled, superheated, freight locomotives operated by the Prussian state railways. There were two variants: the G 8 built from 1902 with a 14 tonne axle load and the \"reinforced G 8\" (\"verstärkte G 8\") built from 1913 (later designated the G 8.1) with a axle load. The latter was the most numerous German state railway (\"Länderbahn\") locomotive, over 5,000 examples being built.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975165}
{"src_title": "The Burghers of Calais", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1346, England's Edward III, after a victory in the Battle of Crécy, laid siege to Calais, while Philip VI of France ordered the city to hold out at all costs. Philip failed to lift the siege, and starvation eventually forced the city to parley for surrender.  The contemporary chronicler Jean Froissart (c. 1337 – c. 1405) tells a story of what happened next: Edward offered to spare the people of the city if six of its leaders would surrender themselves to him, presumably to be executed. Edward demanded that they walk out wearing nooses around their necks, and carrying the keys to the city and castle. One of the wealthiest of the town leaders, Eustache de Saint Pierre, volunteered first, and five other burghers joined with him. Saint Pierre led this envoy of volunteers to the city gates. It was this moment, and this poignant mix of defeat, heroic self-sacrifice, and willingness to face imminent death that Rodin captured in his sculpture, scaled somewhat larger than life.  According to Froissart's story, the burghers expected to be executed, but their lives were spared by the intervention of England's queen, Philippa of Hainault, who persuaded her husband to exercise mercy by claiming that their deaths would be a bad omen for her unborn child. (Her son, Thomas of Windsor, only lived for one year). Other historians consider the episode may have been a piece of pre-arranged political theatre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "The City of Calais had attempted to erect a statue of Eustache de Saint Pierre, eldest of the burghers, since 1845. Two prior artists were prevented from creating the sculpture: David d'Angers by his death, and Auguste Clésinger by the Franco-Prussian War. In 1884 the municipal corporation of the city invited several artists, Rodin amongst them, to submit proposals for the project.  Rodin's design, which included all six figures rather than just de Saint Pierre, was controversial. The public felt that it lacked \"overtly heroic antique references\" which were considered integral to public sculpture. It was not a pyramidal arrangement and contained no allegorical figures. It was intended to be placed at ground level, rather than on a pedestal. The burghers were not presented in a positive image of glory; instead, they display \"pain, anguish and fatalism\". To Rodin, this was nevertheless heroic, the heroism of self-sacrifice.  In 1895 the monument was installed in Calais on a large pedestal in front of Parc Richelieu, a public park, contrary to the sculptor's wishes, who wanted contemporary townsfolk to \"almost bump into\" the figures and feel solidarity with them. Only later was his vision realised, when the sculpture was moved in front of the newly completed town hall of Calais, where it now rests on a much lower base.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casts.", "content": "Under French law no more than twelve original casts of works of Rodin may be made.  The 1895 cast of the group of six figures still stands in Calais. Other original casts stand at:  Copies of individual statues are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources  Further reading", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Les Bourgeois de Calais is a sculpture by Auguste Rodin, that exists in twelve original castings, and numerous copies. It commemorates an event during the Hundred Years' War, when Calais, a French port on the English Channel, was under siege by the English for about eleven months. Calais commissioned Rodin to create the sculpture in 1884 and the work was completed in 1889.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975166}
{"src_title": "Adolf Miethe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Adolf Miethe grew up in a middle-class family. His father was a chocolate manufacturer and city councillor in Potsdam. After studying physics, chemistry and astronomy in Berlin, he moved to Göttingen, where in 1889 he received his doctorate for a thesis on the actinometry of photographic astronomic fixed star exposures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1887 he co-invented (with Johannes Gaedicke) the photographic magnesium powder flash-light. After earning his doctorate, he worked for Edmund Hartnack's optical workshop in Potsdam designing microscope objectives. In 1891, after the death of Hartnack, he moved to Rathenow and took a job with the optical company Schulze & Barthels, where he developed telescopes, binoculars, and one of the first tele lenses for cameras. In 1894 he went to Voigtländer & Sohn in Braunschweig, where he held the post of technical director and also worked on improving rifle scopes. In 1899 he succeeded Hermann Wilhelm Vogel at the Royal Technical University in Berlin as professor of photography, photochemistry, and spectral analysis.  Miethe was the designer of a camera for color photography, the first photographic product made by the Berlin cabinetmaker Wilhelm Bermpohl. Introduced to the public in 1903, it produced sets of three separate black-and-white images on glass plates by making a series of three photographs of the subject through red, green and blue color fliters, a method of color photography first proposed by James Clerk Maxwell. These were used to reconstitute the full original range of color by projecting transparent positives made from them through similar filters and exactly superimposing the images on the projection screen (additive color), or by making three prints consisting of transparent pigment or dye images in the complementary colors and superimposing those to make a single full-color transparency or print on paper (subtractive color). They were also used to prepare printing plates for illustrating books, periodicals and other mechanically printed media, the only form in which early color photographs were likely to be seen by the general public. There were a number of technical issues with the system, including the relatively long time required to make each sequence of three exposures and the difficulty of correctly balancing them to obtain accurate color values under different lighting conditions. In 1901, Miethe had introduced \"Ethyl Red\", a sensitizing dye that greatly improved the characteristics of panchromatically sensitized photographic emulsions, which in turn obviated the very long exposures previously needed to photograph red-filtered images, simplified color filter design, and generally cleared the path for future progress. Miethe's innovations provided the technological foundation used by such photographic pioneers as the Russian Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, who studied with Miethe for several weeks in 1902.  In 1909, Miethe began working with an observatory for astrophotography. This interest led him to participate in several overseas expeditions, such as one in 1908 to Upper Egypt to examine twilight phenomena and the ultraviolet end of the solar spectrum. In 1910 he took part in a shipborne expedition to Spitsbergen led by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin that focused primarily on meteorological issues but also considered the viability of exploring the polar regions by airship. In 1914, he led an expedition to Norway to observe the 21 August solar eclipse.  In 1921, he set up a research institute for cinema technology for which he served as chairman of the board of trustees.  Miethe wrote several books and close to a hundred articles on photography. He took over the editorship of \"Photographischen Wochenblattes\" (Photographic Week) in 1889, and in 1894 he founded the magazines \"Atelier des Photographen\" (Photographer's Studio) and \"Photographische Chronik\" (Photographic Chronicle).  Miethe died in Berlin in 1927 from the lingering after-effects of an injury suffered in a train accident a year and a half earlier.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adolf Miethe (; 25 April 1862, Potsdam – 5 May 1927, Berlin) was a German scientist, lens designer, photochemist, photographer, author and educator. He co-invented the first practical photographic flash and made important contributions to the progress of practical color photography.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975167}
{"src_title": "Lyman Hall", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Lyman Hall was born on April 12, 1724, in Wallingford, Connecticut. He was the son of John Hall, a minister, and Mary (née Street) Hall. Lyman Hall studied with his uncle Samuel Hall and graduated from Yale College in 1747, a tradition in his family. In 1749, he was called to the pulpit of Stratfield Parish (now Bridgeport, Connecticut). His pastorate was a stormy one: an outspoken group of parishioners opposed his ordination; in 1751, he was dismissed after charges against his moral character which, according to one biography, \"Were supported by proof and also by his own confession.\" He continued to preach for two more years, filling vacant pulpits, while he studied medicine and taught school.  In 1752, he married Abigail Burr of Fairfield, Connecticut, however, she died the following year. In 1757, he was married again to Mary Osborne. He migrated to South Carolina and established himself as a physician at Dorchester, South Carolina, near Charleston, a community settled by Congregationalist migrants from Dorchester, Massachusetts decades earlier. When these settlers moved to the Midway Districtnow Liberty Countyin Georgia, Hall accompanied them. Hall soon became one of the leading citizens of the newly founded town, Sunbury.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revolutionary War.", "content": "On the eve of the American Revolution, St. John's Parish, in which Sunbury was located, was a hotbed of radical sentiment in a predominantly loyalist colony. Though Georgia was not initially represented in the First Continental Congress, through Hall's influence, the parish was persuaded to send a delegateHall himselfto Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to the Second Continental Congress. He was admitted to a seat in Congress in 1775. He was one of the three Georgians to sign the Declaration of Independence, and one of three doctors to sign the Declaration of Independence.  In January 1779, Sunbury was burned by the British. Hall's family fled to the North, where they remained until the British evacuation in 1782. Hall then returned to Georgia, settling in Savannah. In January 1783, he was elected an early governor of the statea position that he held for one year. While governor, Hall advocated the chartering of a state university, believing that education, particularly religious education, would result in a more virtuous citizenry. His efforts led to the chartering of the University of Georgia in 1785. At the expiration of his term as governor, he resumed his medical practice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "In 1790, Hall moved to a plantation in Burke County, Georgia, on the Carolina border, where he died on October 19 at the age of 66. Hall's widow, Mary Osborne, survived later dying in November 1793.  Lyman Hall is memorialized in Georgia where Hall County, Georgia bears his namesake; and in Connecticut, his native state, where the town of Wallingford honored him by naming a high school after its distinguished native son. Elementary schools in Liberty County, Georgia and in Hall County, Georgia are also named for him.  Signers Monument, a granite obelisk in front of the courthouse in Augusta, Georgia, memorializes Hall and the other two Georgians who signed the Declaration of Independence. His remains were re-interred there in 1848 after being exhumed from his original grave on his plantation in Burke County.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Lyman Hall is portrayed in the 1969 Broadway musical \"1776\" and in the 1972 film of the same name by Jonathan Moore. As presented in the play and in the film, Hall is a recently appointed representative of Georgia in the Second Continental Congress. As he is introduced to Delaware's representative, Caesar Rodney, the latter asks if he is a doctor of medicine or theology, Hall answers that he practices both and upon asking of which he could be of service, Rodney replies, \"By all means, the physician first. Then we shall see about the other.\" Later in the film, as Rodney begins to experience shortness of breath due to his cancer, Hall is called upon to escort Rodney home.  Georgia, as Hall states, is divided over the matter of independence, with its people opposed to it, and Hall himself in favor of it. Unsure whether, as a representative, he should follow the judgement of the people or that of his own, Hall decides Georgia's vote to be \"Nay\". Towards the film's climax, during a critical point in the struggle of John Adams to convince his fellow delegates to the Second Continental Congress to choose independence, Hall re-enters the chamber during the night to reconsider Georgia's vote. Unable to sleep, he tells Adams that he had been thinking: \"In trying to resolve my dilemma I remembered something I'd once read, 'that a representative owes the People not only his industry, but his judgment, and he betrays them if he sacrifices it to their opinion.' It was written by Edmund Burke, a member of the British Parliament.\" Hall then walks over to the tally board and changes Georgia's vote to \"Yes.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lyman Hall (April 12, 1724 – October 19, 1790), physician, clergyman, and statesman, was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Georgia. Hall County is named after him. Biography of career states he is one of 3 physicians to sign the Declaration of Independence. This is not accurate. There were 4 physicians: Benjamin Rush of Pennsylvania, and Josiah Bartlett and Matthew Thornton, both from New Hampshire, as well as Lyman Hall.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975168}
{"src_title": "Sayat-Nova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name Sayat-Nova has been given several interpretations. One version reads the name as \"Lord of Song\" (from Arabic \"sayyid\" and Persian \"nava\") or \"King of Songs\". Others read the name as grandson (Persian \"neve\") of Sayad or hunter (\"sayyad\") of song. Charles Dowsett considers all these derivations to be unlikely and proposes the reading New Time (from Arabic \"sa'at\" and Russian \"nova\") instead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "Sayat-Nova's mother, Sara, was born in Tiflis, and his father, Karapet, either in Aleppo or Adana. He was born in Tiflis. Sayat Nova was skilled in writing poetry, singing, and playing the kamancheh, Chonguri, Tambur. He lost his position at the royal court when he fell in love with the king's sister Ana; he spent the rest of his life as an itinerant bard.  In 1759 he was ordained as a priest in the Armenian Apostolic Church. His wife, Marmar, died in 1768, leaving behind four children. He served in locations including Tiflis and Haghpat Monastery. In 1795 he was killed in Haghpat Monastery by the invading army of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, the Shah of Iran. Agha Mohammad Khan demanded that Sayat Nova convert from Christianity to Islam, which he refused to do, considering it tantamount to 'turning Turk' and declaring his religion is undeniably Armenian Christian. Hence he was promptly executed and beheaded. He is buried at the Armenian Cathedral of Saint George in Tbilisi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In Armenia, Sayat Nova is considered a great poet who made a considerable contribution to the Armenian poetry and music of his century. Although he lived his entire life in a deeply religious society, his works are mostly secular and full of romantic expressionism.  About 220 songs have been attributed to Sayat-Nova, although he may have written thousands more. He wrote his songs in Armenian, Georgian, Persian; however, most of his extant songs are in the Azerbaijani language. Sayat Nova had also written some poems moving between all four.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sayat-Nova (; Persian: سایات نوفا; ; born Harutyun Sayatyan; 14 June 1712 – 22 September 1795) was a Georgia-born Armenian poet, musician and \"ashugh\", who had compositions in a number of languages. His songs and poems are in the Armenian, Azerbaijani, Georgian, and Persian languages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975169}
{"src_title": "Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early Life.", "content": "Born in Palermo, Sicily on 27 April 1806, she was the daughter of King Francis I of the Two Sicilies by his second wife, Maria Isabella of Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen of Spain.", "content": "On 27 May 1829, Maria Josepha Amalia of Saxony, the third wife of King Ferdinand VII of Spain, died. Ferdinand VII, old and ill, had gone his reign without producing a male heir, sparking a succession duel between the Infanta Maria Francisca and the Infante Carlos, and the Infanta Luisa Carlotta and the Infante Francisco de Paula. Ferdinand VII declared his intention to marry and assembled the Council of Castile, who tasked the King with remarriage. Following Luisa Carlotta's suggestion, Ferdinand VII sent for Maria Christina, his niece, who had already given birth to a child and pleased the King's eyes. The two were wed on 12 December 1829 at the Church of the Atocha.  With her betrothal and then marriage to Ferdinand VII, Maria Christina became embroiled in the conflict between the Spanish Liberals and the Carlists. The former faction, and the Spanish people, greatly revered Maria Christina, and made her their champion; when she first arrived in Madrid in 1829, the blue of the cloak she wore became their official color. The latter were absolutists and highly conservative, and derived their name from the Carlos's, who they favored for the throne. Using King Philip V's enactment of Salic law, which banned women from taking the throne, Maria Francisca and Carlos pushed for the latter's claim. Ferdinand VII and Maria Christina produced two daughters, Isabella in October 1830 and Luisa Fernanda the next year. However, in a secret session of the \"Cortes\" in 1789, King Carlos IV reversed this law with the Pragmatic Sanction. Seeking to secure the succession of an heir of his siring, no matter their gender, Ferdinand VII announced the Pragmatic Sanction in March 1830.  In July 1832, Maria Christina, Ferdinand VII, their daughters, Maria Francisca and Carlos, and Maria Teresa, Princess of Beira, set out for the Royal Palace of La Granja. On the trip to La Granja, Ferdinand VII was badly injured by a coach accident. He became ill and increasingly sick over the summer. At one point, Ferdinand VII was found unconscious at the palace chapel. Seeking council in the event of Ferdinand VII's death, Maria approached the Carlist Francisco Calomarde, who advised her that the Spanish people would rally behind Carlos. Acting on this, she coerced Ferdinand VII into signing a decree making her regent if he died, with Carlos as her chief adviser. Carlos refused, demanding total governance. Calomarde, with Maria Francisca and Maria Theresa, reissued his warning, coercing King and Queen into repealing the Pragmatic Sanction. When Ferdinand VII appeared to have died, the repealing was announced publicly, and Maria Christina deserted by her courtiers. Ferdinand VII was discovered to be alive, and news of this also spread. Altogether, Luisa Carlotta, at that time in Andalusia, soon arrived at La Granja and speedily re-enacted the Pragmatic Sanction and orchestrated Calomarde's dismissal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regency.", "content": "When Ferdinand died on 29 September 1833, Maria Christina became regent for their daughter Isabella. Isabella's claim to the throne was disputed by Carlos, who claimed that his brother Ferdinand had unlawfully changed the succession law to permit females to inherit the crown (see Carlism). Some supporters of Don Carlos went so far as to claim that Ferdinand had actually bequeathed the crown to his brother but that Maria Christina had suppressed that fact. It was further alleged that the Queen had signed her dead husband's name to a decree recognizing Isabella as heir.  Carlos' attempt to seize power resulted in the First Carlist War. Despite considerable support for Carlos from conservative elements in Spain, the Cristina's side (also known as \"Isabelinos\") successfully retained the throne for her daughter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Downfall.", "content": "On 28 December 1833, shortly after the death of Ferdinand VII, Maria Christina had secretly married an ex-sergeant from the royal guard, Agustín Fernando Muñoz (1808–1873). Maria Christina and Muñoz had several children together while trying to keep their marriage a secret.  Muñoz enlisted in the royal bodyguard, and attracted the attention of Maria Christina. According to one account, he distinguished himself by stopping the runaway horses of her carriage; according to another, he only picked up her handkerchief; a third explanation of his fortune has been given. Maria Christina's husband, King Ferdinand VII of Spain died on 29 September 1833, and on 28 December 1833 she and Muñoz were privately married.  If Maria Christina had officially made the marriage public, she would have forfeited the regency; but her relations with Muñoz were perfectly well known within the Spanish court. When on 13 August 1836 the soldiers on duty at the summer palace La Granja mutinied and forced the regent to grant a constitution, it was generally, though wrongly, believed that they overcame her reluctance by seizing Muñoz, whom they called her \"guapo\", or fancy man, and threatening to shoot him.  Eventually, news of Maria Christina's marriage to this low-ranking soldier became public. That news made Maria Christina deeply unpopular. Her position was undermined by news of her remarriage and concerns that she was not actually supportive of her liberal ministers and their policies. Eventually, the army, which was the backbone of Isabella II's support, and the liberal leadership in the Cortes combined to demand that Maria Christina stand aside from the regency. In 1840 Maria Christina found her position intolerable; she renounced the regency and left Spain with Muñoz. The army commander, General Baldomero Espartero, Count of Luchana, replaced her as regent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exile.", "content": "In 1842 Maria Christina purchased the Château de Malmaison as their residence. In 1843, on the overthrow of General Baldomero Espartero they returned to Spain. In 1844, Muñoz's stepdaughter Queen Isabella II was declared to be of age. On 23 June 1844 Isabella gave to Muñoz the title \"duque de Riánsares\", to which was attached a Grandeza de España; the title came from the river Riánsares, near Muñoz's birthplace in Tarancón. On 12 October 1844 Isabella gave official consent to the marriage between her mother and Muñoz, and it was publicly performed. In 1846 Isabella made Muñoz a Knight of the Golden Fleece. On 30 May 1846 she gave Muñoz a second title, \"marqués de San Agustín\". Muñoz was made a Captain General, the highest rank in the Spanish Army. In 1847 Louis Philippe, King of the French, gave Muñoz the title \"duc de Montmorot\"; he also invested Muñoz with the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur. In 1854, Maria Christina left for France a second time. France remained her primary residence for the remainder of her life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and burial.", "content": "Maria Christina's illness returned and she suffered from serious coughing, fainting and fever. She died in Le Havre, France on 22 August 1878. As the mother of Isabella II, Maria Christina was buried in the royal crypt of El Escorial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and marriage.", "content": "Maria Christina was married to Ferdinand VII, King of Spain, on 12 December 1829. By Ferdinand, she had two daughters: Isabella, future Queen of Spain, on 10 October 1830, and Luisa Fernanda.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies (, ; 27 April 1806 – 22 August 1878) was queen consort of Spain from 1829 to 1833 and regent of the Kingdom from 1833 to 1840.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975170}
{"src_title": "Ernesto Cardenal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Cardenal was born into an upper-class family in Granada, Nicaragua. One of his brothers was fellow priest Fernando Cardenal. A first cousin of the poet Pablo Antonio Cuadra, Cardenal studied literature in Managua and then from 1942 to 1946 in Mexico and from 1947 to 1949 in New York City. In 1949 and 1950, he traveled through Italy, Spain and Switzerland.  In July 1950, he returned to Nicaragua, where he participated in the 1954 April Revolution against Anastasio Somoza García's regime. The coup d'état failed and ended with the deaths of many of his associates. Cardenal subsequently entered the Trappist Monastery of Gethsemani (Kentucky, United States), joining another poet-priest, Thomas Merton, but in 1959, he left to study theology in Cuernavaca, Mexico.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Priesthood.", "content": "Cardenal was ordained a Catholic priest in 1965 in Granada. He went to the Solentiname Islands, where he founded a Christian, almost-monastic, mainly-peasant community, which eventually led to the founding of the artists' colony. The colony engaged with painting as well as sculpture and was visited many times by artists and writers of the region such as Willarson Brandt, Julio Cortázar, Asilia Guillén, and Aedes Margarita. It was there that the famous book \"El Evangelio en Solentiname\" (\"The Gospel in Solentiname\") was written. Cardenal collaborated closely with the leftist Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (Sandinista National Liberation Front, or FSLN) in working to overthrow Anastasio Somoza Debayle's regime.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nicaraguan Revolution.", "content": "Many members of the Solentiname community engaged in the revolutionary process through guerrilla warfare that the FSLN had developed to strike at the regime. The year 1977 was crucial to Cardenal's community, when Somoza's National Guard, as a result of an attack to the headquarters stationed in the city of San Carlos a few kilometres from the community, raided Solentiname and burned it to the ground. Cardenal fled to Costa Rica. On 19 July 1979, immediately after the Liberation of Managua, he was named Minister of Culture by the new Sandinista government. He campaigned for a \"revolution without vengeance.\" His brother Fernando Cardenal, also a Catholic priest (in the Jesuit order), was appointed Minister of Education. When Pope John Paul II visited Nicaragua in 1983, he openly scolded Ernesto Cardenal, who knelt before him on the Managua airport runway, for resisting his order to resign from the government, and admonished him: \"Usted tiene que arreglar sus asuntos con la Iglesia\" (\"You must fix your affairs with the Church\"). On 4 February 1984 Pope John Paul II suspended Cardenal \"a divinis\" because of Cardenal's refusal to leave his political office. This suspension remained in effect until it was lifted by Pope Francis in 2019. Cardenal remained Minister of Culture until 1987, when his ministry was closed for economic reasons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "Cardenal left the FSLN in 1994, protesting the authoritarian direction of the party under Daniel Ortega, calling it a \"robbery of the people and dictatorship not a revolutionary movement\" when he left the government. He was a member of the Movimiento de Renovación Sandinista (Sandinista Renovation Movement, or MRS) that participated in the 2006 Nicaraguan general election. Days before the election, Cardenal explained his decision: \"I think more desirable an authentic capitalism, as Montealegre's [Eduardo Montealegre, the presidential candidate for Nicaraguan Liberal Alliance] would be, than a false Revolution.\"  He was also a member of the board of advisers of the Latin American television station teleSUR.  Cardenal was a polemical figure in Nicaragua's literary and cultural history. He has been described as \"the most important poet right now in Latin America\" politically and poetically. He was a vocal representative for Nicaragua and a key to understanding the contemporary literary and cultural life of Nicaragua. He participated in the Stock Exchange of Visions project in 2007. During a short visit to India, he made a profound impression on a group of writers called the Hungry generation.  Cardenal's tour of the United States in 2011 to promote his newest work stirred up some controversy, as with the American Society for the Defense of Tradition, Family and Property that protested his appearances at Catholic schools such as Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio, because of his Marxist ideology.  On 18 February 2019, Archbishop Waldemar Sommertag, the Vatican nuncio in Nicaragua, announced that Pope Francis had ended Cardenal's suspension and that Cardenal was \"granted with benevolence the absolution of all canonical censures\". His return to ministry was also confirmed by Managua Auxiliary Bishop Silvio Báez, who stated “I visited my friend priest, Father Ernesto Cardenal, in the hospital, with whom I could talk for a few minutes. After praying for him, I knelt in his bed and asked for his blessing as a priest of the Catholic Church, to which he agreed joyfully. Thank you, Ernesto! ”  On 1 March 2020, Cardenal died due to complications from ongoing heart and kidney problems. His funeral was held in the Managua Cathedral on March 3, 2020, and was disrupted by at least 100 pro-Ortega protestors who shouted \"viva Daniel\" and \"traitor\" at his Nicaraguan flag-draped casket. To avoid further harassment, Cardenal's burial was held in secret. At his request, Cardenal's remains were cremated and then buried in the community he founded on the Solentiname Islands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poetry.", "content": "Earlier works were focused on life and love; however, some works like \"Zero Hour\" had a direct correlation to his Marxist political ideas, being tied to the assassination of guerrilla leader Augusto César Sandino. Cardenal's poetry also was heavily influenced by his unique Catholic ideology, mainly liberation theology. Some of his latest works are heavily influenced by his understanding of science and evolution, though it is still in dialogue with his earlier Marxist and Catholic material. Cardenal sums up his later material in a \"PBS NewsHour\" interview:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernesto Cardenal Martínez (20 January 1925 – 1 March 2020) was a Nicaraguan Catholic priest, poet, and politician. He was a liberation theologian and the founder of the primitivist art community in the Solentiname Islands, where he lived for more than ten years (1965–1977). A former member of the Nicaraguan Sandinistas, he was Nicaragua's minister of culture from 1979 to 1987. He was prohibited from administering the sacraments in 1984 by Pope John Paul II, but rehabilitated by Pope Francis in 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975171}
{"src_title": "Pipeline (software)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Implementation.", "content": "Pipelines are often implemented in a multitasking OS, by launching all elements at the same time as processes, and automatically servicing the data read requests by each process with the data written by the upstream process – this can be called a \"multiprocessed pipeline.\" In this way, the CPU will be naturally switched among the processes by the scheduler so as to minimize its idle time. In other common models, elements are implemented as lightweight threads or as coroutines to reduce the OS overhead often involved with processes. Depending upon the OS, threads may be scheduled directly by the OS or by a thread manager. Coroutines are always scheduled by a coroutine manager of some form.  Usually, read and write requests are blocking operations, which means that the execution of the source process, upon writing, is suspended until all data could be written to the destination process, and, likewise, the execution of the destination process, upon reading, is suspended until at least some of the requested data could be obtained from the source process. This cannot lead to a deadlock, where both processes would wait indefinitely for each other to respond, since at least one of the two processes will soon thereafter have its request serviced by the operating system, and continue to run.  For performance, most operating systems implementing pipes use pipe buffers, which allow the source process to provide more data than the destination process is currently able or willing to receive. Under most Unices and Unix-like operating systems, a special command is also available which implements a pipe buffer of potentially much larger and configurable size, typically called \"buffer\". This command can be useful if the destination process is significantly slower than the source process, but it is anyway desired that the source process can complete its task as soon as possible. E.g., if the source process consists of a command which reads an audio track from a CD and the destination process consists of a command which compresses the waveform audio data to a format like MP3. In this case, buffering the entire track in a pipe buffer would allow the CD drive to spin down more quickly, and enable the user to remove the CD from the drive before the encoding process has finished.  Such a buffer command can be implemented using system calls for reading and writing data. Wasteful busy waiting can be avoided by using facilities such as poll or select or multithreading.  Some notable examples of pipeline software systems include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "VM/CMS and z/OS.", "content": "CMS Pipelines is a port of the pipeline idea to VM/CMS and z/OS systems. It supports much more complex pipeline structures than Unix shells, with steps taking multiple input streams and producing multiple output streams. (Such functionality is supported by the Unix kernel, but few programs use it as it makes for complicated syntax and blocking modes, although some shells do support it via arbitrary file descriptor assignment).  Traditional application programs on IBM mainframe operating systems have no standard input and output streams to allow redirection or piping. Instead of spawning processes with external programs, CMS Pipelines features a lightweight dispatcher to concurrently execute instances of built-in programs to run the pipeline. More than 200 built-in programs that implement typical UNIX utilities and interface to devices and operating system services. In addition to the built-in programs, CMS Pipelines defines a framework to allow user-written REXX programs with input and output streams that can be used in the pipeline.  Data on IBM mainframes typically resides in a Record-oriented filesystem and connected I/O devices operate in record mode rather than stream mode. As a consequence, data in CMS Pipelines is handled in record mode. For text files, a record holds one line of text. In general, CMS Pipelines does not buffer the data but passes records of data in a lock-step fashion from one program to the next. This ensures a deterministic flow of data through a network of interconnected pipelines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Object pipelines.", "content": "Beside byte stream-based pipelines, there are also object pipelines. In an object pipeline, processing elements output objects instead of text. Windows PowerShell includes an internal object pipeline that transfers.NET objects between functions within the PowerShell runtime. Channels, found in the Limbo programming language are other examples of this metaphor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pipelines in GUIs.", "content": "Graphical environments such as RISC OS and ROX Desktop also make use of pipelines. Rather than providing a save dialog box containing a file manager to let the user specify where a program should write data, RISC OS and ROX provide a save dialog box containing an icon (and a field to specify the name). The destination is specified by dragging and dropping the icon. The user can drop the icon anywhere an already-saved file could be dropped, including onto icons of other programs. If the icon is dropped onto a program's icon, it's loaded and the contents that would otherwise have been saved are passed in on the new program's standard input stream.  For instance, a user browsing the world-wide web might come across a.gz compressed image which they want to edit and re-upload. Using GUI pipelines, they could drag the link to their de-archiving program, drag the icon representing the extracted contents to their image editor, edit it, open the save as dialog, and drag its icon to their uploading software.  Conceptually, this method could be used with a conventional save dialog box, but this would require the user's programs to have an obvious and easily accessible location in the filesystem that can be navigated to. In practice, this is often not the case, so GUI pipelines are rare.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other considerations.", "content": "The name 'pipeline' comes from a rough analogy with physical plumbing in that a pipeline usually allows information to flow in only one direction, like water often flows in a pipe.  Pipes and filters can be viewed as a form of functional programming, using byte streams as data objects; more specifically, they can be seen as a particular form of monad for I/O.  The concept of pipeline is also central to the Cocoon web development framework or to any XProc (the W3C Standards) implementations, where it allows a source stream to be modified before eventual display.  This pattern encourages the use of text streams as the input and output of programs. This reliance on text has to be accounted when creating graphic shells to text programs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In software engineering, a pipeline consists of a chain of processing elements (processes, threads, coroutines, functions, \"etc.\"), arranged so that the output of each element is the input of the next; the name is by analogy to a physical pipeline. Usually some amount of buffering is provided between consecutive elements. The information that flows in these pipelines is often a stream of records, bytes, or bits, and the elements of a pipeline may be called filters; this is also called the pipes and filters design pattern. Connecting elements into a pipeline is analogous to function composition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975172}
{"src_title": "Elias Canetti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in 1905 to businessman Jacques Canetti and Mathilde \"née\" Arditti in Ruse, a city on the Danube in Bulgaria, Canetti was the eldest of three sons. His ancestors were Sephardi Jews. His paternal ancestors settled in Ruse from Ottoman Adrianople. The original family name was \"Cañete\", named after Cañete, Cuenca, a village in Spain.  In Ruse, Canetti's father and grandfather were successful merchants who operated out of a commercial building, which they had built in 1898. Canetti's mother descended from the Arditti family, one of the oldest Sephardi families in Bulgaria, who were among the founders of the Ruse Jewish colony in the late 18th century. The Ardittis can be traced to the 14th century, when they were court physicians and astronomers to the Aragonese royal court of Alfonso IV and Pedro IV. Before settling in Ruse, they had migrated into Italy and lived in Livorno in the 17th century. Canetti spent his childhood years, from 1905 to 1911, in Ruse until the family moved to Manchester, England, where Canetti's father joined a business established by his wife's brothers. In 1912, his father died suddenly, and his mother moved with their children first to Lausanne, then Vienna in the same year. They lived in Vienna from the time Canetti was aged seven onwards. His mother insisted that he speak German, and taught it to him. By this time Canetti already spoke Ladino (his native language), Bulgarian, English, and some French; the latter two he studied in the one year they were in Britain. Subsequently, the family moved first (from 1916 to 1921) to Zürich and then (until 1924) to Frankfurt, where Canetti graduated from high school.  Canetti went back to Vienna in 1924 in order to study chemistry. However, his primary interests during his years in Vienna became philosophy and literature. Introduced into the literary circles of First-Republic-Vienna, he started writing. Politically leaning towards the left, he was present at the July Revolt of 1927 – he came near to the action accidentally, was most impressed by the burning of books (recalled frequently in his writings), and left the place quickly with his bicycle. He gained a degree in chemistry from the University of Vienna in 1929, but never worked as a chemist.  He published two works in Vienna before escaping to Great Britain. He reflected the experiences of Nazi Germany and political chaos in his works, especially exploring mob action and group thinking in his novel \"Die Blendung\" (\"Auto-da-Fé\", 1935) and non-fiction \"Crowds and Power\" (1960). He wrote several volumes of memoirs, contemplating the influence of his multi-lingual background and childhood.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1934 in Vienna he married Veza (Venetiana) Taubner-Calderon (1897–1963), who acted as his muse and devoted literary assistant. Canetti remained open to relationships with other women. He had a short affair with Anna Mahler. In 1938, after the \"Anschluss\" with Germany, the Canettis moved to London. He became closely involved with the painter Marie-Louise von Motesiczky, who was to remain a close companion for many years. His name has also been linked with the author Iris Murdoch (see John Bayley's \"Iris, A Memoir of Iris Murdoch\", which has several references to an author, referred to as \"the Dichter\", who was a Nobel Laureate and whose works included \"Die Blendung\" [English title \"Auto-da-Fé\"]).  After Veza died in 1963, Canetti married Hera Buschor (1933–1988), with whom he had a daughter, Johanna, in 1972. Canetti's brother Jacques Canetti settled in Paris, where he championed a revival of French chanson. Despite being a German-language writer, Canetti settled in Britain until the 1970s, receiving British citizenship in 1952. For his last 20 years, Canetti lived mostly in Zürich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "A writer in German, Canetti won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1981, \"for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power\". He is known chiefly for his celebrated trilogy of autobiographical memoirs of his childhood and of pre-Anschluss Vienna: \"Die Gerettete Zunge\" (The Tongue Set Free); \"Die Fackel im Ohr\" (The Torch in My Ear), and \"Das Augenspiel\" (The Play of the Eyes); for his modernist novel \"Auto-da-Fé\" (\"Die Blendung\"); and for \"Crowds and Power\", a psychological study of crowd behaviour as it manifests itself in human activities ranging from mob violence to religious congregations.  In the 1970s, Canetti began to travel more frequently to Zurich, where he settled and lived for his last 20 years. He died in Zürich in 1994.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Elias Canetti (; ; 25 July 1905 – 14 August 1994) was a German-language author, born in Ruse, Bulgaria to a merchant family. They moved to Manchester, England, but his father died in 1912, and his mother took her three sons back to the continent. They settled in Vienna.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975173}
{"src_title": "Joseph Hewes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Continental Congress.", "content": "By 1773, the majority of North Carolina was in favor of independence. North Carolina elected Hewes to become a representative of the Continental Congress in 1774. The people of North Carolina thought that he would best represent them because of his activism for the American cause of independence, which appealed to people in other states as well. However initially, Joseph Hewes was not in favor of independence but came to accept the idea due to the urging of his constituents in North Carolina. He was a representative in the last Province of North Carolina House of Burgesses in 1775.  In later years John Adams wrote of the struggles that Hewes experienced as he set about serving in the Continental Congress: \"For many days the majority depended on Mr. Hewes of North Carolina. While a member one day was speaking and reading documents from all the colonies to prove that public opinion, the general sense of all, was in favor of the measure, when he came to North Carolina and produced letters and public proceedings that the majority in that colony was in favor of it, Mr. Hewes, who had hitherto constantly voted against it, started suddenly upright and lifting both hands to heaven as if he had been in a trance, cried out, \"It is done and I will abide by it.\" I would give more for the perfect painting of the terror and horror upon the face of the old majority at that critical moment than for the best piece of Raphael. The question, however, was eluded by an immediate motion for adjournment\".  Though the people of the United States wanted independence, Hewes found it much harder in Congress to convey his opinion without being laughed at or scolded. Even in the year leading up to the revolution, more than two-thirds of the Continental Congress still believed that ties between King George and the colonies could stay intact. Hewes was barely able to speak in Congress because he was usually interrupted by those who disagreed with him. Nevertheless, he was actively involved in many committees, most of which favored the revolution.  One such committee was the Committee of Correspondence, which advocated ideas that supported independence. One of the ideas that Hewes contributed to this committee was the following statement: \"State the rights of the colonies in general, the several instances in which these rights are violated or infringed, and the means most proper to be pursued for obtaining a restoration of them.\"  Traditionally the Quakers were pacifists. Ironically, Hewes was not only one of the few people in favor of a war against Britain but was one of the few Quakers in Congress. The Quakers not only opposed war, but strongly opposed the committees that supported war too. Despite Joseph Hewes' obvious departure from Quaker principles, he did continue to have a relationship with his family and visited his mother, a Quaker minister, when he was able. There isn't any record of Mr. Hewes ever relinquishing his Quaker membership nor is there any evidence that he was disowned by any Friends Monthly Meeting. Upon his death, he left sizable bequests to not only his family but also to several Quaker institutions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secretary of the Navy.", "content": "At the beginning of the year 1776, Hewes was appointed as the new Secretary of the Naval Affairs Committee. John Adams often said that Hewes \"laid the foundation, the cornerstone of the American Navy.\" Alongside General George Washington, Hewes became one of the greatest military achievers in American history. He was also involved with the secret committee of claims, which further promoted the independence of the colonies. Hewes was one of the primary reasons why North Carolina submitted to independence before any other colony.  Hewes was initially faced with an ill-equipped navy of which to fight the British Navy. To remedy this, he provided his own extensive fleet of ships, outfitted them, and chose the most capable of men to captain these ships. John Paul Jones was one of these captains for whom Hewes was instrumental in providing a command. Hewes served until 1779.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "After Hewes signed the Declaration of Independence, he retreated to his home in New Jersey because of his ailing health. Despite his health problems, Hewes ran for re-election in Congress but failed to win. In 1779 he finally served his last few months as a congressman and on November 10, 1779, Joseph Hewes died just before his fiftieth birthday. All of the Continental Congress came to his funeral the following day and mourned the great loss that the country had suffered.  A 1779 inventory signed by Hewes and a 1780 newspaper account of his estate sale indicate that he owned slaves.  Hewes kept a diary in the last years of his life. Before he died, he wrote that he was a sad and lonely man and had never wanted to remain a bachelor. The girl he loved had died a few days before their wedding and he never married leaving no children to inherit his money and estates.  Hewes was a member of Unanimity Lodge No. 7, visited in 1776, and was buried with Masonic funeral honors. He is buried at Christ Church Burial Ground, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Hewes (July 9, 1730 – November 10, 1779) was a native of Princeton, New Jersey, where he was born in 1730. Hewes’s parents were members of the Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers. On his mother's side, Joseph Hewes was a 3rd generation resident of New Jersey. He was the 4th generation of the Hewes family to live in New Jersey. Hewes attended Princeton but there is no evidence that he actually graduated. What is known is that he became an apprentice of a merchant and in fact became a very successful merchant. After finishing his apprenticeship he earned himself a good name and a strong reputation, which would serve him well in becoming one of the most famous signers of the Declaration of Independence for North Carolina, along with William Hooper and John Penn. Hewes moved to Edenton, North Carolina at the age of 30 and won over the people of the colony with his charm and honorable businesslike character. Hewes was elected to the North Carolina legislature in 1763, only three years after he moved to the colony. After being re-elected numerous times in the legislature, Hewes was now focused on a new and more ambitious job as a continental congressman.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975174}
{"src_title": "Interrobang", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Application.", "content": "A sentence ending with an interrobang asks a question in an excited manner, expresses excitement or disbelief in the form of a question, or asks a rhetorical question.  For example:  Writers using informal language may use several alternating question marks and exclamation marks for even more emphasis; however, this is regarded as poor style in formal writing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Historically, writers have used multiple punctuation marks to end a sentence expressing surprise and question.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invention.", "content": "American Martin K. Speckter (1915 – February 14, 1988) conceptualized the interrobang in 1962. As the head of an advertising agency, Speckter believed that advertisements would look better if copywriters conveyed surprised rhetorical questions using a single mark. He proposed the concept of a single punctuation mark in an article in the magazine \"TYPEtalks\". Speckter solicited possible names for the new character from readers. Contenders included \"exclamaquest\", \"QuizDing\", \"rhet\", and \"exclarotive\", but he settled on \"interrobang\". He chose the name to reference the punctuation marks that inspired it: \"interrogatio\" is Latin for \"rhetorical question\" or \"cross-examination\"; \"bang\" is printers' slang for the exclamation mark. Graphic treatments for the new mark were also submitted in response to the article.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early interest.", "content": "In 1965, Richard Isbell created the Americana typeface for American Type Founders and included the interrobang as one of the characters. In 1968, an interrobang key was available on some Remington typewriters. In the 1970s, replacement interrobang keycaps and typefaces were available for some Smith-Corona typewriters. The interrobang was in vogue for much of the 1960s; the word \"interrobang\" appeared in some dictionaries, and the mark was used in magazine and newspaper articles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Continued support.", "content": "Most fonts do not include the interrobang, but it has not disappeared: Lucida Grande, the default font for many UI elements of legacy versions of Apple's OS X operating system, includes the interrobang, and Microsoft provides several versions of the interrobang in the Wingdings 2 character set (on the right bracket and tilde keys on US keyboard layouts), included with Microsoft Office. It was accepted into Unicode and is included in several fonts, including Lucida Sans Unicode, Arial Unicode MS, and Calibri, the default font in the Office 2007, 2010, and 2013 suites.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inverted interrobang.", "content": "A reverse and upside down interrobang (combining ¿ and ¡, Unicode character: ⸘), suitable for starting phrases in Spanish, Galician and Asturian, which use inverted question and exclamation marks, is called an \"inverted interrobang\" or a \"gnaborretni\" (\"interrobang\" written backwards), but the latter is rarely used. In current practice, interrobang-like emphatic ambiguity in Hispanic languages is usually achieved by including both sets of punctuation marks one inside the other (\"¿¡De verdad!?\" or \"¡¿De verdad?!\" [\"Really!?\"]). Older usage, still official but not widespread, recommended mixing the punctuation marks: \"¡Verdad?\" or \"¿Verdad!\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Entering and display.", "content": "Few modern typefaces or fonts include a glyph for the interrobang character. The standard interrobang is at Unicode code point. The inverted interrobang is at Unicode code point. Single-character versions of the double-glyph versions are also available at code points and.  Depending on the browser and the fonts installed by the user, some of these may or may not be displayed, or may be replaced with the character from a different font.  The interrobang can be entered in some Windows word processors with.  On a Linux system supporting the Compose key, an interrobang can be produced by ; reversing the order () creates the inverted interrobang.  On Mac OS X, it is found on the Character Palette, obtained by pressing the key combination.  The interrobang can be inserted in HTML with.  The interrobang can be displayed in LaTeX by using the package textcomp and the command. The inverted interrobang is the command.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prominent uses.", "content": "The State Library of New South Wales, in Australia, uses an interrobang as its logo, as does the educational publishing company Pearson, which intend it to convey \"the excitement and fun of learning\".  Chief Judge Frank H. Easterbrook used an interrobang in the 2012 United States Seventh Circuit opinion \"Robert F. Booth Trust v. Crowley\".  Australian Federal Court Justice Michael Wigney used an interrobang in the first paragraph of his 2018 judgment in Faruqi v Latham [2018] FCA 1328 (defamation proceedings between former Federal Opposition Leader, Mark Latham, and political campaigner and writer, Osman Faruqi).  There is an Italian thriller movie titled \"Interrabang\", which was released on December 31, 1969.  American rock band Bayside titled their 8th studio album Interrobang.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The interrobang (), also known as the interabang (‽) (often represented by?!,!?,?!? or!?!), is an unconventional punctuation mark used in various written languages and intended to combine the functions of the question mark, or interrogative point; and the exclamation mark, or exclamation point, known in the jargon of printers and programmers as a \"bang\". The glyph is a superimposition of these two marks. The interrobang was first proposed in 1962 by Martin K. Speckter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975175}
{"src_title": "Louis, Dauphin of France (son of Louis XV)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Louis's birth secured the throne and his mother's position at court, which previously had been precarious due to her giving birth to three daughters in a row before the birth of the Dauphin.  Louis was baptised privately and without a name by Cardinal Armand de Rohan. On 27 April 1737 when he was seven years old the public ceremony of the other baptismal rites took place. It was at this point that he was given the name Louis. His godparents were his cousin Louis, Duke of Orléans and his great-grandaunt the Dowager Duchess of Bourbon.  Louis' governess was Madame de Ventadour who had previously served as his father's governess. When he was seven years old, the Duke of Châtillon was named his governor, the Count of Muy was named under-governor, and Jean-François Boyer, formerly bishop of Mirepoix, was named preceptor.  From an early age Louis took a great interest in the military arts. He was bitterly disappointed when his father would not permit him to join the 1744 campaign in the War of the Austrian Succession. When his father became deathly ill with fever at Metz, Louis disobeyed orders and went to his bedside. This rash action, which could have resulted in the deaths of both Louis and his father, resulted in a permanent change in the relations between father and son. Until then, Louis XV had doted on his son, but now the relationship was more distant. He was very close to his three older sisters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First marriage.", "content": "In 1744 Louis XV negotiated a marriage between his fifteen-year-old son and the nineteen-year-old Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain, daughter of King Philip V and his Italian wife, Elisabeth Farnese, and first cousin of Louis XV. The marriage contract was signed 13 December 1744; the marriage was celebrated by proxy at Madrid 18 December 1744 and in person at Versailles 23 February 1745.  Louis and Maria Teresa Rafaela were well-matched and had a real affection for each other. They had one daughter, Princess Marie Thérèse of France (19 July 1746 – 27 April 1748). Three days after the birth of their daughter, Louis's wife, Maria Teresa Rafaela, died on 22 July 1746. Louis was only 16 years old. He grieved intensely at the loss of his wife, but his responsibility to provide for the succession to the French crown required he marry again quickly.  In 1746, Louis received the Order of the Golden Fleece from his father-in-law, King Philip V of Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "On 10 January 1747, Louis was married by proxy at Dresden to Maria Josepha of Saxony, the 15-year-old younger daughter of Frederick Augustus II, Prince-Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, and his wife Archduchess Maria Josepha of Austria. A second marriage ceremony took place in person at Versailles on 9 February 1747.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personality.", "content": "Louis was rather plump. He was well-educated: a studious man, cultivated, and a lover of music, he preferred the pleasures of conversation to those of hunting, balls, or spectacles. With a keen sense of morality, he was very much committed to his wife, Marie-Josèphe, as she was to him.  Very devout, he was a fervent supporter of the Jesuits, like his mother and sisters, and was led by them to have a devotion to the Sacred Heart. He appeared in the eyes of his sisters as the ideal of the Christian prince, in sharp contrast with their father, who was a notorious womanizer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and death.", "content": "Kept away from government affairs by his father, Louis was at the center of the \"Dévots\", a group of religiously-minded men who hoped to gain power when he succeeded to the throne.  Louis died of tuberculosis at Fontainebleau in 1765 at the age of 36, while his father was still alive, so he never became king of France. His mother, Queen Marie Leszczyńska, and his maternal grandfather, the former king of Poland, Stanislaus I Leszczyński, Duke of Lorraine, also survived him. His eldest surviving son, Louis-Auguste, duc de Berry, became the new dauphin, ascending the throne as Louis XVI at the death of Louis XV, in May 1774.  Louis was buried in the Cathedral of Saint-Étienne in Sens. His heart was buried at Saint Denis Basilica.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis, Dauphin of France (4 September 1729 – 20 December 1765) was the elder and only surviving son of King Louis XV of France and his wife, Queen Marie Leszczyńska. He had a younger brother, Philippe, who died as a toddler. As a son of the king, Louis was a \"fils de France\". As heir apparent, he became Dauphin of France. However, he died before ascending the throne. Three of his sons became kings of France: Louis XVI (reign: 1774–1792), Louis XVIII (reign: 1814–1815; 1815–1824) and Charles X (reign: 1824–1830).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975176}
{"src_title": "Priboj", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The municipality of Priboj is located between municipality of Čajetina in the north, municipality of Nova Varoš in the east, municipality of Prijepolje in the south-east, border with Montenegro in the south-west, and border with Bosnia and Herzegovina in the north-west. A Bosnian-Herzegovinian exclave (Međurječje village) is surrounded by the Priboj municipality.  The town of Priboj lies on the river Lim. It is 5 km away from Uvac, a smaller river that is the border between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Priboj has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: \"Cfb\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "During the medieval times, the region around modern city of Priboj in the lower valley of the Lim river was called \"Dabar\" and it belonged to the medieval Serbia until the Turkish invasion in the middle of 15th century. Between 1459 and 1463, the town of Priboj was first mentioned in written documents of the Ottoman Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Settlements.", "content": "Aside from the town of Priboj, the municipality includes the following settlements:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "According to the last official census done in 2011, the Municipality of Priboj has 27,133 inhabitants with 49.4% of the municipality's population living in the urban areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnic groups.", "content": "In 1991, the population of the Priboj municipality numbered 35,951 people, and was composed of Serbs (67.26%), Muslims (30.39%) and others. Most of those who in 1991 census declared themselves as Muslims by nationality, in the next census in 2002 declared themselves as Bosniaks, while the smaller number of them still declare themselves as Muslims by nationality.  In 2002, the population of the Priboj town numbered 19,564 people, and was composed of Serbs (13,386), Bosniaks (4,396), Muslims by nationality (1,042) and others. As of 2011, most of Priboj's population is of Serbian ethnicity (75.9%), with nearly 21.2% being Bosniaks and Muslims.  The ethnic composition of the municipality:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Today, most of Priboj's economy is based on agriculture, services and partly industry. Priboj is home to the FAP Corporation, which pushed Priboj's development during the 1970-s and 1980-s, when it was one of the biggest producers of trucks and buses in the former Yugoslavia. Since the 1990s, FAP has been working in limited capacity and since the 2010s its only remaining production is military-oriented.  As of September 2017, Priboj has one of 14 free economic zones established in Serbia.  The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Priboj (, ) is a town and municipality located in the Zlatibor District of southwestern Serbia. The population of the town is 14,920, while the population of the municipality is 27,133.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975177}
{"src_title": "Order of Saint Lazarus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crusades.", "content": "The military order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem originated in a leper hospital founded in the twelfth century by crusaders of the Latin Kingdom. There had been earlier leper hospitals in the East, of which the Knights of St. Lazarus claimed to be the continuation, in order to have the appearance of remote antiquity and to pass as the oldest of all orders. According to Charles Moeller, \"this pretension is apocryphal\"; but documentary evidence does confirm that the edifice was a functioning concern in 1073.  The Order of St. Lazarus was purely an order of hospitallers in the beginning, and adopted the hospital Rule of St. Augustine in use in the West. The Order assumed a military role in the 12th century. The Lazarists wore a green cross upon their mantle.  Hospitals dependent on the Jerusalem leprosarium were eventually established in other towns in the Holy Land, notably in Acre, and in various countries in Europe particularly in Southern Italy (Capua), Hungary, Switzerland, France (Boigny), and England (Burton Lazars). Louis VII of France, on his return from the Second Crusade, gave it the Château of Broigny, near Orléans in 1154. This example was followed by Henry II of England, and by Emperor Frederick II.  In 1154, King Louis VII of France gave the Order of Saint Lazarus a property at Boigny near Orléans which was to become the headquarters of the order outside of the Holy Land. Later, after the fall of Acre in 1291 the Knights of St. Lazarus left the Holy Land and moved first to Cyprus, then Sicily and finally back to Boigny, which had been raised to a barony in 1288.  The Order remained primarily a hospitaller order but did take part in a number of battles. After the fall of Jerusalem in July 1244 and the subsequent Battle of La Forbie the following October, the Order of St. Lazarus, although still called \"of Jerusalem\", transferred to Acre, where it had been ceded territory by the Templars in 1240. The \"Ordinis Fratrum & Militum Hospitalis Leprosorum S. Lazari Hierosolymitani\" under Augustinian Rule was confirmed by Papal Bull \"Cum a Nobis Petitur\" of Pope Alexander IV in April 1255. In 1262 Pope Urban IV assured it the same immunities as were granted to the monastic orders.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Late medieval period.", "content": "The order quickly abandoned their military activities after the fall of Acre in 1291. As a result of this catastrophe the leper hospital of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem disappeared; however, its commanderies in Europe, together with their revenues, continued to exist. In 1308 King Philip IV of France gave the order his temporal protection.  In 1490, Pope Innocent VIII attempted to amalgamate the order and transfer its possessions to the Knights of St. John. Although this was confirmed in 1505 by Pope Julius II, the Order of Saint Lazarus resisted this move and the order of St. John never came into possession of this property except in Germany. In France, the Bull of suppression was ignored and French Grand Masters appointed. The order of Saint John claimed the possession of the French holdings but their claim was legally rejected in 1547 by the Parliament of Paris.  In 1565 Pope Pius IV annulled the Bulls of his predecessors and restored all possessions to the order so that he might give the grand magistry to a favorite, Giovanni de Castiglione. But the latter did not succeed in securing the devolution of the commanderies in France. By the end of the 16th century, the order had retained a significant presence only in France and in Italy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Continuations after 1572.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Royal House of Savoy.", "content": "With the death of the papal favorite, Castiglione, in 1572, the grand magistry of the order was rendered vacant and Pope Gregory XIII united the Italian branch with the Order of Saint Maurice to set up the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus. This order was then linked in perpetuity with the Crown of Savoy and thenceforth the title of its Grand Master was hereditary in that house. By the time of Pope Clement VIII the order had two houses, one at Turin, was to contribute to combats on land, while the other, at Nice, had to provide galleys to fight the Turks at sea. But when thus reduced to the states of the Duke of Savoy, the order merely vegetated until the French Revolution, which suppressed it. In 1816 the King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel I, re-established the titles of Knight and Commander of Sts. Maurice and Lazarus, as simple decorations, accessible without conditions of birth to both civilians and military men.  This became a national order of chivalry on the unification of Italy in 1861, but has been suppressed by law since the foundation of the Republic in 1946. Since 1951 the order has not been recognized officially by the Italian state. However, the House of Savoy in exile continued to bestow the order. Today, it is granted to persons eminent in the public service, science, art, letters, trade, and charitable works.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Royal House of France.", "content": "In 1604, Henry IV of France re-declared the French branch of the order a protectorate of the French Crown. King Henry IV founded in 1608, with the approbation of Pope Paul V, the Order of Notre-Dame du Mont-Carmel. He then, in turn, united to this new order the possessions of St. Lazarus in France, and such is the origin of the title \"Ordres Royaux, Militaires & Hospitaliers de Saint Lazare de Jérusalem & de Notre-Dame du Mont-Carmel réunis\" (\"Royal, Military, and Hospitaller Orders of Our Lady of Mount Carmel and St. Lazarus of Jerusalem united\"). This amalgamation eventually received formal canonical acceptance on 5 June 1668 by a bull issued by Cardinal Legate de Vendôme under Papal authority of Clement IX.  Unlike the situation with the Savoyian Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus where a complete merger took place creating one order, the French branch was not completely merged with the Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, and the orders were managed as two separate entities, with individuals being admitted to one order but not necessarily to both.  During the French Revolution, a decree of 30 July 1791 suppressed all royal and knightly orders in France. Another decree the following year confiscated all the Order's properties. The Holy See, which had originally created the Order, on the other hand did not suppress the order; while Louis, Count of Provence, then Grand Master of the order, who later became Louis XVIII, continued to function in exile and continued admitting various dignitaries to the order.  Scholars differ in their views regarding the extent to which the Order remained active during and after the French Revolution. There is however no doubt of its continuing existence during this time. In different museums, there are preserved a number of paintings of Russian and Baltic nobles, admitted to the order after 1791. In this list are general John Lamb, Prince Suvorov, count Pahlen, count Sievers etc. Some of the new knights are listed in Almanach Royal from 1814 to 1830. King Louis XVIII, the order's protector, and the duc de Châtre, the order's lieutenant-general, both died in 1824. In 1830, a royal decree caused the order to lose its royal protection in France.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "The Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem, also known as the Leper Brothers of Jerusalem or simply as Lazarists, was a Catholic military order founded by crusaders around 1119 at a leper hospital in Jerusalem, Kingdom of Jerusalem, whose care became its original purpose, named after their patron saint, Lazarus. It was recognised by King Fulk of Jerusalem in 1142 and canonically recognised as a hospitaller and military order of chivalry under the rule of Saint Augustine in the Papal bull \"Cum a Nobis Petitur\" of Pope Alexander IV in 1255. Although they were centered on their charism of caring for those afflicted with leprosy, the knights of the Order of Saint Lazarus notably fought in the Battle of La Forbie in 1244 and in the Defense of Acre in 1291. The titular seat was successively situated at Jerusalem, Saint-Jean-d'Acre and - after the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem - split in two main branches in Italy and in Château Royal de Boigny-sur-Bionne in France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975178}
{"src_title": "Spitzkoppe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of ascent.", "content": "Any ascent of the peak involves exposed and delicate rock climbing of a high grade. While the standard route up the peak is not severely difficult in modern technical terms, it presented quite a formidable undertaking in the earliest days, owing to the isolation of the peak, the heat of the desert and the total lack of water.  Before the First World War what is now Namibia was German South-West Africa. It is possible that the main peak was reached as early as 1904, when a soldier of the Imperial Schutztruppe supposedly soloed the peak and made a fire on the summit. What he may have burned remains a mystery, as there is absolutely no natural fuel of any kind on the upper parts of the peak. The legend suggests that he never returned and that his body was never recovered. Certainly, no proof of his conquest is available today. The first documented conquest was made by a team of climbers from Cape Town, led by S. le Roux. The next party – O'Neil, Shipley and Schaff – pioneered a route up the northern extremes of the peak, after having failed on the southwest ridge. They gained access to the gully now known as the \"scramble\" but ran out of time to attempt the final faces. Four days later they made another attempt but finally gave up. Some of the earliest climbers, defeated by an extraordinarily smooth band of granite only about 3m high, resorted to carving steps into the rock with a hammer and chisel.  A few months later Hans and Else Wong and Jannie de Villiers Graaff arrived and they reached the summit at noon, in November 1946. For the next quarter of a century the mountain maintained its reputation of presenting a two- or three-day struggle to potential climbers. (There are accounts of these ascents in old volumes of the \"Journal of The Mountain Club of South Africa\" – one of which can be found at scanned extracts from MCSA Journal).  This era came to an end in 1971, when the peak was climbed in four hours by a party led by J. W. Marchant from the University of Cape Town Mountain and Ski Club. Included were the talented South African climber Gabriel Athiros and Oliver Stansfield from England [2 June 1971]. This team scaled all of the lower pitches without ropes and got through the difficult band without using the artificial steps hacked into the granite. They descended from the peak in two hours and as they reached the base rain began to fall for the first time in over a year. The modern era commenced. E. Haber, together with A. Lombard, C. Ward and Holding completed the first direct ascent of the South West Wall. They began their endeavours in 1977 but did not succeed in finishing the route before 1982. M. Cartwright and M. Hislop freed the route in 1988, giving it a grade of 22, which was later revised to 24. C. Edelstein and G. Mallory left their mark in 1983 by completing \"Royale Flush\", another monster route that was freed only in 2000 by J. Wamsteker and S. Wallis. During 1991 M. Cartwright, K. Smith and M. Seegers put up a difficult route named INXS graded 24 left of the South West Wall route.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General development and history.", "content": "In 1896, a trading post named Spitzkopje was built below the mountain by the German Colonial Society, the centrepiece of a 120,000-hectare farm. The Society built a five-room farmhouse and stables, storerooms and other outbuildings. In 1899 the farm held 120 horses, 1,500 cattle and 4,000 sheep and goats; its manager was a German settler named Carl Schlettwein.Later it was transferred to the Farmer Jooste and a police station was built (the foundation walls are still under Pontok 4 chroma noise).  In 1964, under the \"Odendaal Plan\" of the Odendaal Commission for the creation of home territories (home lands) for the black population, the farm was expropriated with compensation. In 1970 they moved multiple Damara families here, which were in fact a village with a church and school development. Since 1998, the municipal campsite and the area was declared as Gaingu Conservancy on 7 September 2003 around the Great Spitzkoppe. A Hollywood film company erected a high game fence which cuts off the entire area between the large Spitzkoppe and Spitzkoppe Pontoks. This represents about half of the camping places which ceased to exist, access to many climbing rocks and also the normal route to the Great Spitzkoppe barred. The popular Circumnavigation of the Great Spitzkoppe (1–1.5 hours) is no longer possible.  \"Bushman Paradise\" made accessible through a gate with chains, has lost its attractiveness, as almost all of the 2000- to 4000-year-old prehistoric rock paintings have been destroyed. Around the foot of the Great Spitzkoppe you can still find good drawings, especially at the \"Rhino Rock\". The site has a population of community members who over the years started living and grazing their livestock in the area. It has leadership of a headman, vice headman and councillors.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Spitzkoppe (from German for \"\"pointed dome\"\"; also referred to as Spitzkop, Groot Spitzkop, or the \"Matterhorn of Namibia\") is a group of bald granite peaks or inselbergs located between Usakos and Swakopmund in the Namib desert of Namibia. The granite is more than 120 million years old and the highest outcrop rises about above sea level. The peaks stand out dramatically from the flat surrounding plains. The highest peak is about above the floor of the desert below. A minor peak – the Little Spitzkoppe – lies nearby at an elevation of. Other prominences stretch out into a range known as the Pontok Mountains.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975179}
{"src_title": "Cristobal Huet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amateur.", "content": "As a youth, Huet played in the 1988 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with a team from Grenoble.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "HC Lugano.", "content": "Huet played for HC Lugano from the 1998–99 season to 2001–02. His career took a significant turn in these years. He won the National League A Championship in his first year, and reached the European Hockey League final four the next year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Los Angeles Kings.", "content": "Huet was drafted by the Los Angeles Kings as their seventh-round pick, 214th overall, in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft. He played for the Kings in the 2002–2003 and 2003–2004 seasons. He was traded to the Montreal Canadiens in a three-team deal that sent Mathieu Garon to Los Angeles and Radek Bonk from Ottawa to Montreal. During the 2004–05 lockout Huet played for the Adler Mannheim in the Deutsche Eishockey Liga. He led the team to the finals, where the Eagles lost in three straight games to Eisbären Berlin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Montreal Canadiens.", "content": "During the 2005–06 season, Huet eventually won the starting job in goal for the Canadiens at the expense of José Théodore, who was subsequently traded to Colorado in exchange for goaltender David Aebischer. He also won the Molson Cup in February 2006. He won the Best Defensive Player award from the NHL during the first week of March, ousting goaltenders such as the Ottawa Senators' Ray Emery and the New Jersey Devils' Martin Brodeur, with a 3–0–0 record and a 1.67 GAA. For the second time of the year, he was named NHL Best Defensive Player on April 3 with a 3–0–0 record, a 0.65 GAA and 0.979 SV%, ousting goaltenders Martin Brodeur, Flames goalie Miikka Kiprusoff and Detroit's Manny Legace.  On April 23, in his first NHL playoff start, Huet starred in a 6–1 win against the 2nd seeded and eventual Stanley Cup champion Carolina Hurricanes. Huet stopped 42 of 43 shots in the contest to put the Canadiens up 1–0 in the seven game series. Two days later, Huet recorded his first overtime playoff win, when the Canadiens beat the Hurricanes 6–5 in double overtime to take the lead 2–0 in the series. However, Huet and the Canadiens lost the next four games and the series in goaltender duels with rookie Cam Ward, who had taken Martin Gerber's starting spot in the series, and who would later go on to win the Conn Smythe Trophy.  The Canadiens re-signed Huet in the 2006 offseason to a two-year deal at $5.75 million total, earning $3 million the first season and $2.75 million in the second year.  On January 13, 2007, Huet was announced as one of the three goalies of the Eastern Conference All-Star Team in the 55th NHL All-Star Game in Dallas. A month later, however, he suffered a left hamstring injury that caused him to miss most of the final two months of the season. In his absence, the Canadiens struggled, and the team missed the postseason.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Washington Capitals.", "content": "On February 26, 2008 Montreal Canadiens general manager Bob Gainey traded the French netminder to the Washington Capitals for a 2009 second-round draft pick. The Canadiens decided to trade Huet because of highly touted prospect, Carey Price. In Washington, he took over the starting position from Olaf Kölzig, pushing incumbent backup Brent Johnson to the pressbox, and his exceptional play helped lead Washington to secure a playoff berth, where they lost the opening round series against the Philadelphia Flyers in seven games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chicago Blackhawks.", "content": "On July 1, 2008, the first day of unrestricted free-agency, Huet agreed to terms on a new 4-year contract with the Chicago Blackhawks worth a total of $22.4 million or $5.625 million per season.  Following the signing, Blackhawks general manager Dale Tallon announced the team would enter the season with a tandem of Huet and Nikolai Khabibulin. Unable to win the starting job over Khabibulin to start the season, Huet found himself on the bench more often than not. Gradually, he earned back his playing time and both alternated every game for almost 3 months until Khabibulin went down with a groin injury in early February. The tandem, however, earned praise around the NHL. A second Khabibulin injury in early February thrust Huet in the spotlight once again, and he was named the NHL's 3rd star of the week for Feb 15–21, posting a 3–0–0 record and allowing just five goals on 72 shots. In the end however, Khabibulin was named the playoff starter for the Blackhawks, and they defeated the Calgary Flames in the first round as well as the Vancouver Canucks in the second round.  Huet made his next appearance for the Blackhawks during game three of the 2009 Western Conference Finals, where he was called to replace an injured Khabibulin. He made six saves, and allowed the Blackhawks to collect an overtime win. With Khabibulin still recovering from a lower body injury, Joel Quenneville named Huet the team's starting goalie for the fourth game against Detroit. Huet allowed five goals on 21 shots, and was temporarily replaced by Corey Crawford. During the final game of the series, Huet stopped 44 shots en route to a 2–1 overtime loss.  For the first time in his career, Huet started a season as the undisputed number one goaltender, but as the 2009–10 campaign wore on, Antti Niemi eventually replaced Huet as Chicago's starter going into the playoffs. Huet played only twenty minutes in the 2010 Stanley Cup Playoffs, which the Blackhawks won with Niemi in net and with an overall playoff record of 16–6.  On September 27, 2010, Chicago loaned Huet to HC Fribourg-Gotteron of the Swiss National League A in order to stay within the salary cap.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fribourg-Gotteron.", "content": "In his first year with Fribourg-Gotteron, Huet played in 41 games but struggled in the second half of the season, accumulating a 2.84 goals against average as the team finished 8th. Fribourg qualified for the playoffs only to be swept by HC Davos. The following season he improved to a goals against average of 1.99 in 39 games, third best in the league that year. The team defeated HC Lugano in the quarterfinals in 6 games but lost to SC Bern in the semifinals in 5 games. Huet's loan and his contract with the Blackhawks expired when the playoffs ended, thus making him a free agent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lausanne HC.", "content": "Failing to sign with an NHL team, he returned to the National League and signed a 4-year deal with Lausanne HC of the National League B. His first season in Lausanne was a success, as the team won the National League B title and went on to win promotion to the National League by defeating SC Langnau in the qualification round.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement from the French national team.", "content": "In May 2017, Huet played at the 2017 IIHF World Championship, in Paris, representing France. He played his last game at the final round robin game of France, against Slovenia, with a win, and ended with a standing ovation, retiring with France's Team Captain Laurent Meunier. Team France (Les Bleus) did not advance to the medal round, but was not relegated.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Cristobal Huet (; born September 3, 1975) is a French-Swiss former professional ice hockey goaltender who is currently an assistant coach of Lausanne HC of the National League (NL).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975180}
{"src_title": "Ballota nigra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Ballota nigra\" has a very strong characteristic smell that reminds of mould or humidity, and can be recognised by its clusters of hairy, reddish-purple flowers. It can grow up to 3 feet in height.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stem and root.", "content": "It has herbaceous ascending stems, wooden and branched at bottom, covered by down folded hairs. The plant has a taproot system.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Leaves.", "content": "Leaves are opposite and decussate, and range from oval-lanceolate to heart-shaped, with crenate or dentate border. Leaves, dark green and usually pubescent, measure 3–8 cm per 2–6 cm, and have 1–3 cm petiole. Upper face is wrinkled, with a net-like vein pattern.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "Flowers are organized in verticillasters, subspherical to about one-sided, with 15 to 30 flowers. Each verticillaster consist of two condensed dichasial cymes at axils of normal leaves.  Flower has an actinomorphic calyx (length 9–10 mm, width 7 mm), made up by five sepals fused together in a tube with five teeths; and a labiate corolla of 12–13 mm, ranging from pink to pale purple to withish. The corolla consist of a tube of about 6 mm and two lips; the upper one slightly concave (like a hood) and externally hairy; the lower one glabrous, with two minor lateral lobes and a major central bifid lobe. There are four didynamous stamens, running parallel under the upper lip, with glabrous filaments and yellow anthers. Ovary is superior, with a single white style and a 2-parted stigma.  Below the calyx there are five filiform bracts, 8 mm long.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Fruit.", "content": "Each fertilized flower produces a tetrad of black nutlets, cylindrical to ovoid, 2 mm long, partially or fully covered by the calyx. The basal end is flat and attached to the receptacle, while the top end is rounded or pointed.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Biochemistry.", "content": "\"Ballota nigra\" contains diterpenoids like marrubiin, ballonigrin, ballotinone, ballotenol and 7-acetoxymarrubiin. Also, it contains phenylpropanoids that have shown to be antioxidants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy and etymology.", "content": "The plant was described by Linnaeus in \"Species Plantarum\" (May 1753). The name \"Ballota\" comes from the Greek \"ballo\" (to reject), because of the strong offensive odor of the plant; cattle will not eat it. The specific name \"nigra\" could refer to the black colour of dried leaves.  The common name comes from the Old English words \"har\", meaning \"downy or hoary\", and \"hune\", meaning the plant itself. This name refers to the hairs that give the herb its distinctive appearance. In modern times, alternative medicine practitioners have referred to the plant as \"seed of Horus\" and suggested that horehound takes its name from Horus, the Egyptian sun god.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Ballota nigra\" is a nitrophilous plant; it grows in ruins, fallows and hedges, up to 1300 m. It prefers loose, calcareous (alkaline) soils. It tolerates temperatures as low as -5°/-10 °C.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Usually, the plant is used dry, harvested when blooming. Syrups can be made from fresh plants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "Recognized subspecies:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ballota nigra, the black horehound, is a perennial herb of the family Lamiaceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and to central Asia, and it can be found throughout Europe. It is also naturalized in Argentina, New Zealand, and the Eastern United States. It blooms in the Northern Hemisphere from May to August.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975181}
{"src_title": "Masaryk University", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Masaryk University was founded on 28 January 1919 with four faculties: Law, Medicine, Science, and Arts. Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, professor of Charles University and later the first president of Czechoslovakia, contributed greatly to the establishment of Masaryk University. (Masaryk in his scientific and political activities paid attention to the development of Czechoslovak universities and since the 1880s he emphasized the need for broad competition in scientific work. In this context, he pointed out that the only Czech university at that time needed a competitive institution for its development.) The founding of the second Czech university was possible only after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy because of the resistance of the German-controlled city council, which feared giving power to the Czech residents of Brno. Brno was at that time a bilingual city. A notable demonstration in favour of establishing a university in Brno happened in 1905.  From the beginning, the university suffered from a lack of money for development. The fragile state of public finances in 1923–1925 and 1933–1934 led to proposals to abolish both the Faculty of Arts and the Faculty of Science. Both faculties eventually survived until 17 November 1939 when the whole university was closed following the German occupation of Czechoslovakia. A number of professors of Masaryk University were executed or tortured; for example, the Faculty of Science lost one quarter of its teaching staff. Many of the executions took place in the Mauthausen concentration camp in 1942.  The renewal of university life after the end of World War II was interrupted by the Communist takeover. The percentage of students expelled in various faculties ranged from 5 percent at the Faculty of Education to 46 percent at the Faculty of Law, which was completely closed in 1950. In 1953, the Faculty of Education (founded in 1946) was separated from the university. In August 1960, a government decree abolished the Pharmaceutical Faculty and the University was renamed \"Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Brno\".  Relaxation occurred in 1964 with the reintegration of the Faculty of Education into the university and with the reestablishment of the Faculty of Law in 1969. But conditions changed again rapidly with the Normalization of the 1970s after the 1968 invasion of Warsaw Pact troops into Czechoslovakia.  The University was renamed \"Masaryk University in Brno\" in 1990, then regaining its original name by dropping the \"in Brno\" from the title in 2006. A new era of development began after the Velvet Revolution of 1989 and the establishment of the Faculty of Economics and Administration in 1991, the Faculty of Informatics in 1994, the Faculty of Social Studies in 1998, and the Faculty of Sports Studies in 2002.  A new University campus has been under construction in Brno-Bohunice since 2002. The last stage of development should be completed in 2015. Campus houses most Faculty of Medicine, Faculty of Sports Studies, part of Faculty of Sciences as well as several research facilities such as Central European Institute of Technology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment Cetocoen.  In 2013, university signed a long term lease with the city of Brno, creating University Cinema Scala in place of movie theatre with over 80 years tradition which was closed down in 2011. The place has various academic functions, hosting official university ceremonies as well as lectures and conferences. Cinema's programming is managed by Aeropolis, which shares the costs with the university.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "As of 2014, Masaryk University has over 35,000 students and over 2,200 pedagogical staff and offers over 200 bachelor, 290 masters and 130 doctoral full-time study programs, some of them being offered in English or German as well as in combined form.  The Office of International Studies helps facilitate incoming and outgoing student mobility. In the 2012/13 academic year the university hosted over 1,000 international students. Students with special needs are assisted by the Teiresiás centre.  The university opened the Mendel Museum in 2007, creating an exhibition ground dedicated to the popularization of the scientific work and life of Gregor Johann Mendel who conducted his experiments in the Augustinian abbey where the museum is now located. The Mendel Lectures given by the world's top scientists in genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, microbiology and medicine have been held in the Mendel Museum.  The University Cinema Scala has been operated by the Masaryk University since October 2013 as the first university cinema in the Czech Republic. The Freedom Lecture, a public debate on a current social topic with outstanding personalities has been held annually at the cinema on the occasion of International Students' Day (Student Seventeen) since 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Masaryk University together with other institutions of higher education participate in CEITEC – a research centre for both basic and applied research in the field of life sciences.  The university owns and operates Mendel Polar Station in Antarctica. The station facilitates basic biological, geological and climatological research. The station was built in 2005 and 2006 and is staffed during Antarctic summers.  The Technology Transfer Office of Masaryk University was established in 2005 and aims to put research results into practice and support and facilitate cooperation between the scientific community and industry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rankings.", "content": "The university is a highly research-intensive institution. It puts \"a great deal of emphasis on international cooperation with prestigious foreign universities and [other] research institutions\". The university has maintained its position within the world best 600 universities for years 2016–2018. Amongst all universities in the EU-countries joined the EU since 2004, Masaryk University was ranked at 7. According to a recent ranking by QS Students City, the Masaryk university shares fifth place worldwide with Berlin, Vienna, Stockholm and Amsterdam before New York, London and Sydney but behind Prague in the category \"student's view\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable alumni.", "content": "Masaryk University has over 170,000 alumni, some of the notable ones are listed here. The most accomplished scientists include astronomer Jiří Grygar and Luboš Kohoutek, mathematician Otakar Borůvka, psychiatrist Leo Eitinger, sociologist Miloslav Petrusek, paediatric geneticist Renata Laxova and anthropologist Jaroslav Malina. Paleontologist Josef Augusta, who together with illustrator Zdeněk Burian created accurate reconstructions representing all forms of prehistoric life. Neurologist Michal Vytopil also attended the university.  Alumni politicians include former Prime Minister of the Czech Republic Petr Nečas, Governor of South Moravian Region Michal Hašek, former Minister of Health Tomáš Julínek or as of 2014, the leader of Czech Green Party Ondřej Liška. Politician, dissident, human rights activist Jaroslav Šabata also studied there. Martin Palouš is Permanent Representative to the United Nations of the Czech republic (2006– ), before he was Ambassador to the United States for the Czech Republic between 2001 and 2005.  Alumni also include Marketa Lazarová director František Vláčil, playwright Milan Uhde, composer Antonín Tučapský and poets Jan Skácel and Ivan Blatný.  Athlete Šárka Kašpárková and ice hockey players Jiří Holík and Josef Augusta also attended the university.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Masaryk University (MU) (; ) is the second largest university in the Czech Republic, a member of the Compostela Group and the Utrecht Network. Founded in 1919 in Brno as the second Czech university (after Charles University established in 1348 and Palacký University existent in 1573–1860), it now consists of nine faculties and 35,115 students. It is named after Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, the first president of an independent Czechoslovakia as well as the leader of the movement for a second Czech university.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975182}
{"src_title": "Skipjack-class submarine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The \"Skipjack\"s' design was based on the USS \"Albacore\"'s high-speed hull design. The hull and innovative internal arrangement were similar to the diesel-powered \"Barbel\" class that were built concurrently. The design of the \"Skipjack\"s was very different from the s that preceded the \"Skipjack\"s. Unlike the \"Skate\"s, this new design was maximized for underwater speed by fully streamlining the hull like a blimp. This required a single screw aft of the rudders and stern planes. Adoption of a single screw was a matter of considerable debate and analysis within the Navy, as two shafts offered redundancy and improved maneuverability. The so-called \"body-of-revolution hull\" reduced her surface sea-keeping, but was essential for underwater performance. Also like \"Albacore\", the \"Skipjack\"s used HY-80 high-strength steel, with a yield strength of, although this was not initially used to increase the diving depth relative to other US submarines. HY-80 remained the standard submarine steel through the \"Los Angeles\" class. Another \"Barbel\"-like innovation was the combination of the conning tower, control room, and attack center in one space. This was continued in all subsequent US nuclear submarines. Combining the functions in one space was facilitated by the adoption of \"push-button\" ballast control, another feature of \"Albacore\". Previous designs had routed the trim system piping through the control room, where the valves were manually operated. The \"push-button\" system used hydraulic operators on each valve, remotely electrically operated (actually via toggle switches) from the control room. This greatly conserved control room space and reduced the time required to conduct trim operations. The overall layout made coordination of the weapons and ship control systems easier during combat operations. Much of the overall internal arrangement was continued in the subsequent \"Thresher\"- and \"Sturgeon\"-class submarines. The \"Skipjack\"s' five compartments were called the Torpedo Room, Operations Compartment, Reactor Compartment, Auxiliary Machinery Space (AMS), and Engine Room. With the addition of a missile compartment, the arrangement of the first 41 US nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) was similar. The design was primarily single-hull, with a double hull around the torpedo room and AMS for ballast tanks. The design was improved on the \"Thresher\"s, the one-off, and subsequent attack submarines by relocating the torpedo room into the operations compartment via angled midships torpedo tubes to make room for a large sonar sphere in the bow. The \"George Washington\" class, the first SSBNs, were derived from the \"Skipjack\"s, with rebuilt from the incomplete first. The hull of \"Scorpion\" was laid down twice, as the original hull was redesigned to become the \"George Washington\". Also, the material for building was diverted into building, which delayed \"Scamp\"s progress.  The bow planes were moved to the massive sail to cut down on flow-induced noise near the bow sonar arrays. They were known as sail planes or fairwater planes. The \"Skipjack\"s were the first class built with sail planes; they were later backfitted on the \"Barbel\"s. This design feature would be repeated on all U.S. nuclear submarines until the improved, the first of which was launched in 1988. The small \"turtleback\" behind the sail was the exhaust piping of the auxiliary diesel generator.  The \"Skipjack\"s also introduced the S5W reactor to U.S. nuclear submarines. It was known as ASFR (Advanced Submarine Fleet Reactor) during development. The S5W was used on 98 U.S. nuclear submarines of 8 classes and the first British nuclear submarine,, making it the most-used US Navy reactor design to date.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "\"Skipjack\" was authorized in the FY 1956 new construction program and commissioned in April 1959. Each hull cost around $40 million. \"Skipjack\" was certified as the \"world's fastest submarine\" after initial sea trials in March 1959, although the actual speed attained was classified. The \"Skipjack\"s remained the fastest US nuclear-powered submarines until the first of the \"Los Angeles\" class entered service in 1974. This was due to the increased size of the \"Thresher\" and \"Sturgeon\" classes, which retained \"Skipjack\"s S5W power plant, plus the introduction of the \"skewback\" screw, which was quiet but mechanically inefficient. The \"Skipjack\"s saw service during the Vietnam War and most of the Cold War. The \"Skipjack\"-class submarines were withdrawn from service in the late 1980s and early 1990s except for, which sank on 22 May 1968 southwest of the Azores while returning from a Mediterranean deployment, with all 99 crewmembers lost.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ships in class.", "content": "The gap in the hull-number sequence was taken by the two one-of-a-kind submarines and.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Skipjack\" class was a class of United States Navy nuclear submarines (SSNs) that entered service in 1959-61. This class was named after its lead boat,. The new class introduced the teardrop hull and the S5W reactor to U.S. nuclear submarines. The \"Skipjack\"s were the fastest U.S. nuclear submarines until the s, the first of which entered service in 1974.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975183}
{"src_title": "Peter I, Grand Duke of Oldenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Peter Frederick Louis was born on 17 January 1755 at Riesenburg, Prussia. He was the only surviving son of Prince Georg Ludwig of Holstein-Gottorp and Sophie Charlotte of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "On 6 June 1781, he married Duchess Frederica of Württemberg, the second daughter of Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg and his wife, Friederike Dorothea of Brandenburg-Schwedt. Frederica's sister, Sophie, was the wife of Crown Prince Paul of Russia (the future Tsar Paul I. Peter and Frederica became the parents of two sons: August (born in 1783) and George (born in 1784).  Fredericka died due to complications from a miscarriage on 24 November 1785 at Vienna, Austria, predeceasing her husband by forty years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "He was appointed Regent of the Duchy of Oldenburg for his incapacitated cousin Peter Frederick William in 1785.  From 1785 until 1803, he also served as the last Lutheran Prince-Bishop of Lübeck, until that Prince-Bishopric was secularized as the Principality of Lübeck and joined to Oldenburg.  Following the death of Wilhelm in 1823, he himself became reigning Duke of Oldenburg. Although the Duchy of Oldenburg had been elevated to a Grand Duchy in 1815, he refrained from using the title of Grand Duke. His son, Augustus, was the first Duke of Oldenburg to use the style of Grand Duke.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and succession.", "content": "Peter I died on 21 May 1829 in Wiesbaden. He was buried in the Ducal Mausoleum in the Churchyard of Saint Gertrude in Oldenburg.  He was succeeded as Grand Duke of Oldenburg by his eldest son, Paul Friedrich August, the first of the House of Holstein-Gottorp to use the elevated style.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter I or Peter Frederick Louis of Holstein-Gottorp () (17 January 1755 – 21 May 1829) was the Regent of the Duchy of Oldenburg for his incapacitated cousin William I from 1785 to 1823, and then served himself as Duke from 1823-1829.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975184}
{"src_title": "Kraft–McMillan inequality", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Applications and intuitions.", "content": "Kraft's inequality limits the lengths of codewords in a prefix code: if one takes an exponential of the length of each valid codeword, the resulting set of values must look like a probability mass function, that is, it must have total measure less than or equal to one. Kraft's inequality can be thought of in terms of a constrained budget to be spent on codewords, with shorter codewords being more expensive. Among the useful properties following from the inequality are the following statements:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formal statement.", "content": "Let each source symbol from the alphabet  be encoded into a uniquely decodable code over an alphabet of size formula_2 with codeword lengths  Then  Conversely, for a given set of natural numbers formula_5 satisfying the above inequality, there exists a uniquely decodable code over an alphabet of size formula_2 with those codeword lengths.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example: binary trees.", "content": "Any binary tree can be viewed as defining a prefix code for the leaves of the tree. Kraft's inequality states that  Here the sum is taken over the leaves of the tree, i.e. the nodes without any children. The depth is the distance to the root node. In the tree to the right, this sum is", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proof.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proof for prefix codes.", "content": "First, let us show that the Kraft inequality holds whenever formula_9 is a prefix code.  Suppose that formula_10. Let formula_11 be the full formula_2-ary tree of depth formula_13 (thus, every node of formula_11 at level formula_15 has formula_2 children, while the nodes at level formula_13 are leaves). Every word of length formula_18 over an formula_2-ary alphabet corresponds to a node in this tree at depth formula_20. The formula_21th word in the prefix code corresponds to a node formula_22; let formula_23 be the set of all leaf nodes (i.e. of nodes at depth formula_13) in the subtree of formula_11 rooted at formula_22. That subtree being of height formula_27, we have  Since the code is a prefix code, those subtrees cannot share any leaves, which means that  Thus, given that the total number of nodes at depth formula_13 is formula_31, we have  from which the result follows.  Conversely, given any ordered sequence of formula_33 natural numbers,  satisfying the Kraft inequality, one can construct a prefix code with codeword lengths equal to each formula_35 by choosing a word of length formula_35 arbitrarily, then ruling out all words of greater length that have it as a prefix. There again, we shall interpret this in terms of leaf nodes of an formula_2-ary tree of depth formula_13. First choose any node from the full tree at depth formula_39; it corresponds to the first word of our new code. Since we are building a prefix code, all the descendants of this node (i.e., all words that have this first word as a prefix) become unsuitable for inclusion in the code. We consider the descendants at depth formula_13 (i.e., the leaf nodes among the descendants); there are formula_41 such descendant nodes that are removed from consideration. The next iteration picks a (surviving) node at depth formula_42 and removes formula_43 further leaf nodes, and so on. After formula_33 iterations, we have removed a total of  nodes. The question is whether we need to remove more leaf nodes than we actually have available — formula_46 in all — in the process of building the code. Since the Kraft inequality holds, we have indeed  and thus a prefix code can be built. Note that as the choice of nodes at each step is largely arbitrary, many different suitable prefix codes can be built, in general.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proof of the general case.", "content": "Now we will prove that the Kraft inequality holds whenever formula_9 is a uniquely decodable code. (The converse needs not be proven, since we have already proven it for prefix codes, which is a stronger claim.)  Denote formula_49. The idea of the proof is to get an upper bound on formula_50 for formula_51 and show that it can only hold for all formula_52 if formula_53. Rewrite formula_50 as  Consider all \"m\"-powers formula_56, in the form of words formula_57, where formula_58 are indices between 1 and formula_33. Note that, since \"S\" was assumed to uniquely decodable, formula_60 implies formula_61. This means that each summand corresponds to exactly one word in formula_56. This allows us to rewrite the equation to  where formula_64 is the number of codewords in formula_56 of length formula_20 and formula_67 is the length of the longest codeword in formula_9. For an formula_2-letter alphabet there are only formula_70 possible words of length formula_20, so formula_72. Using this, we upper bound formula_50:  Taking the formula_52-th root, we get  This bound holds for any formula_51. The right side is 1 asymptotically, so formula_78 must hold (otherwise the inequality would be broken for a large enough formula_52).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alternative construction for the converse.", "content": "Given a sequence of formula_33 natural numbers,  satisfying the Kraft inequality, we can construct a prefix code as follows. Define the \"i\" codeword, \"C\", to be the first formula_35 digits after the radix point (e.g. decimal point) in the base \"r\" representation of  Note that by Kraft's inequality, this sum is never more than 1. Hence the codewords capture the entire value of the sum. Therefore, for \"j\" > \"i\", the first formula_35 digits of \"C\" form a larger number than \"C\", so the code is prefix free.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In coding theory, the Kraft–McMillan inequality gives a necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a prefix code (in Leon G. Kraft's version) or a uniquely decodable code (in Brockway McMillan's version) for a given set of codeword lengths. Its applications to prefix codes and trees often find use in computer science and information theory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975185}
{"src_title": "Jiří Kolář", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Kolář was born in Protivín on September 29, 1914 in a working-class environment. His father was a baker and his mother a seamstress, and he himself trained early in life as a cabinet maker (which cost him a finger). He later changed trades several times, working as a construction worker, security guard, and bartender, among other jobs. In 1943 he became a full-time writer while living and working in Kladno. He moved to the capital Prague in 1945 to work as an editor of the publishing house Družstvo Dílo. Kolář joined the Communist Party in 1945 but left the Party the same year. Because of his critical stance towards the regime he was not allowed to publish after communists took control in Czechoslovakia in 1948. He married Běla Helclová in 1949. When in 1952 police found his manuscript, \"Prométheova játra\", in the property of Václav Černý he was arrested and spent several months in prison.  Kolář was one of a group of several artists, among whom Václav Havel, Václav Černý, Jan Vladislav and Josef Hiršal, who met and discussed in Café Slavia, both during the period leading up to the Prague Spring when the communist regime grew more permissive, and in the period of normalization after the Prague Spring. Kolář's wild behavior lost him former friends (e.g. he threw coffee on Josef Hiršal's shirt and had his soda water poured on him in return). The failure of the Prague Spring in 1968 brought Kolář and his work into disrepute again. In 1970 cerebral apoplexy stiffened his right arm. Kolář signed Charta 77 and while on a scholarship to West Berlin, the government decided to force him to emigrate; he was therefore not allowed to return home. From 1980 on he lived in Paris. After 1989 he visited his homeland more and more often. In 1999 Kolář injured his spine and he spent his last years in a Prague hospital.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary work.", "content": "Kolář's poetry was first published in 1938 in a private edition; these early poems are not included in his complete work, probably because they are openly erotic, describing oral sex (\"Ústnice\"), sex positions (\"Svícen a trakař\") and sex with a prostitute (\"Růže Večernice\"). Thus \"Křestný list\" (Baptism Certificate, 1941) is considered his debut. \"Křestný list\" and Kolář's three other collections of poems from the 1940s (\"Sedm kantát\", \"Limb a jiné básně\", \"Ódy a variace\") belong stylistically to the existentialist artistic movement of Skupina 42 of which Kolář was a member; other members included Jindřich Chalupecký, Ivan Blatný, Josef Kainar, Jiřina Hauková and Kamil Lhoták.  During the years of Stalinism in Czechoslovakia (1948-1953) Kolář wrote poetic diaries - \"Očitý svědek\" (Eyewitness, 1949), \"Prométheova játra\" (Prometheus' Liver, 1950). In 1957 he wrote a creative re-interpretation of Sun Zi's The Art of War, an ancient Chinese classic on the art of warfare, under the name \"Mistr Sun o básnickém umění\" (Master Sun on the Poetic Arts). In 1964 \"Náhodný svědek\" (Accidental Witness), a selection of his work from the 1940s was published, and in 1966 a censored selection from his 1950s work came out under the name \"Vršovický Ezop\" (Aesop from Vršovice). In the 1960s he started writing experimental poetry, creating new forms of poetry which he gave names such as analfabetogram and cvokogram. In these new forms of poetry the line between the literary and the visual increasingly started to blur, which ultimately led to his experiments in visual art.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visual Art.", "content": "His first exhibitions in 1937 focused on his collages. In the 1960s Kolář first combined painting and poetry but he gradually turned completely to experiments in visual art. In his work he used a scalpel to cut pictures out of magazines. He produced colors in his collages by gluing on printed fragments of paper from various different sources.  His collages were intended to influence the viewer's outlook on life; the technique of using fragments of text and images from various different sources was well suited to achieve the effect Kolář wanted, by showing the destruction and fragmentation of the world Kolář inhabited. Simultaneously, by juxtaposition and contrasting of these different fragments the technique of the collage served to create surprising and visually striking new combinations; for instance, the combination of astronomical maps with Braille writing. Kolář invented or helped to develop new techniques of collage - confrontage, froissage, rollage, chiasmage etc.  Since the 1960s Kolář's visual artwork was featured regularly in exhibitions by galleries and museums,. Some of the more prominent exhibitions of his work were in the New York Guggenheim museum in 1975, and in Prague in 1994 in Dům U Černé Matky Boží.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jiří Kolář (24 September 1914, Protivín – 11 August 2002, Prague) was a Czech poet, writer, painter and translator. His work included both literary and visual art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975186}
{"src_title": "Yuval Ne'eman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Yuval Ne'eman was born in Tel Aviv during the Mandate era, graduated from high school at the age of 15, and studied mechanical engineering at the Technion.  At the age of 15, Ne'eman also joined the Haganah. During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War Ne'eman served in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) as battalion deputy commander, then as Operations Officer of Tel Aviv, and commander of Givati Brigade.  Later (1952–54) he served as Deputy Commander of Operations Department of General Staff, Commander of the Planning Department of the IDF. In this role, he helped organize the IDF into a reservist-based army, developed the mobilization system, and wrote the first draft of Israel's defense doctrine.  Between 1958 and 1960 Ne'eman was IDF Attaché in Great Britain, where he also studied for a PhD in physics under the supervision of 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics winner Abdus Salam at Imperial College London. In 1961, he was demobilized from the IDF with a rank of Colonel.  In 1981, Ne'eman became a founding member of the World Cultural Council.  Between 1998-2002 Ne'eman was the head of the Israeli Engineer Association", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific career.", "content": "One of his greatest achievements in physics was his 1961 discovery of the classification of hadrons through the SU(3) flavour symmetry, now named the \"Eightfold Way\", which was also proposed independently by Murray Gell-Mann. This SU(3) symmetry laid the foundation of the quark model, proposed by Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964 (independently of each other). Ne'eman was founder and director of the School of Physics and Astronomy at Tel Aviv University from 1965 to 1972, President of Tel Aviv University from 1971 to 1977 (following George S. Wise, and succeeded by Haim Ben-Shahar), and director of its Sackler Institute of Advanced Studies from 1979 to 1997. He was also the co-director (along with Sudarshan) of the Center for Particle Theory at the University of Texas, Austin from 1968 to 1990. He was a strong believer in the importance of space research and satellites to Israel's economic future and security, and thus founded the Israel Space Agency in 1983, which he chaired almost until his death. He also served on the Israel Atomic Energy Commission from 1965 to 1984 and held the position of scientific director in its Soreq facility. Nee'man was chief scientist of the Defense Ministry from 1974 to 1976.  He was described as \"one of the most colorful figures of modern science\" and co-authored \"The Particle Hunters\", which was published in English in 1986. \"The Times Literary Supplement\" hailed this book as \"the best guide to quantum physics at present available\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honours.", "content": "He was also awarded with the College de France Medal and the Officer's Cross of the French Order of Merit (Paris, 1972), the Wigner Medal (Istanbul-Austin, 1982), Birla Science Award (Hyderabad, 1998) and additional prizes and honorary doctorates from universities in Europe and USA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In the late 1970s, Ne'eman founded Tehiya, a right-wing breakaway from Likud, formed in opposition to Menachem Begin's support for the Camp David talks that paved the way for peace with Egypt and the evacuation of Yamit. He was elected to the Knesset in the 1981 elections in which Tehiya won three seats. The party joined Begin's coalition about a year after the elections and Ne'eman was appointed Minister of Science and Development, the role later changed to Minister of Science and Technology.  He retained his seat in the 1984 elections, but Tehiya were not included in the grand coalition formed by the Alignment and Likud. After the 1988 elections, Tehiya were again excluded from the governing coalition. Ne'eman resigned from the Knesset on 31 January 1990 and was replaced by Gershon Shafat. However, Tehiya joined the government in June after the Alignment had left, and he was appointed Minister of Energy and Infrastructure and Minister of Science and Technology despite not retaking his seat in the Knesset. He lost his ministerial position following the 1992 elections and did not return to politics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "He died at age 80, on 26 April 2006 in the Ichilov Hospital, Tel Aviv, from a stroke. He left a wife, Dvora; a son and daughter; and a sister, Ruth Ben-Yisrael. His death came decades after that of his adopted brother, William Friedlieb.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yuval Ne'eman (, 14 May 1925 – 26 April 2006) was an Israeli theoretical physicist, military scientist, and politician. He was Minister of Science and Development in the 1980s and early 1990s. He was the President of Tel Aviv University from 1971 to 1977. He was awarded the Israel Prize in the field of exact sciences (which he returned in 1992 in protest of the award of the Israel Prize to Emile Habibi), the Albert Einstein Award, the Wigner Medal, and the EMET Prize for Arts, Sciences and Culture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975187}
{"src_title": "Berula erecta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Berula erecta\" occurs on poorly drained neutral and acidic soils of the lowlands and upland fringe. It is found in the South West of England, especially in Devon. It typically resides in shallow aquatic environments containing moderate nutrient levels. During the winter, its stem and body become completely submerged underwater. \"Berula erecta\" has been shown to survive and grow better after living in stressful conditions with either limiting or excess nutrients or mechanical stress.  \"Berula erecta\" has toothed leaves from one and a half to two inches across, each containing around twenty white flowers. The plant can grow from around one to three feet tall. The stalk has a pale ring at its base that makes the plant distinguishable, and has a scent of carrot or parsnip when crushed.  The natural communities for \"Berula erecta\" are as listed:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The Zuni people use \"Berula erecta\" as an ingredient of \"schumaakwe cakes\" and used it externally for rheumatism. An infusion of the whole plant is used as wash for rashes and athlete's foot infection.  Some Native American peoples have been known to use \"Berula erecta\" for medicinal purposes.  \"Berula erecta\" has been studied for its essential oil that has been believed to possibly have medicinal uses. The plant's essential oil has been shown to contain polyacetylenes. Polyacetylenes have a wide range of beneficial medicinal effects. One is its nematodicidal effects that could potentially be beneficial in agriculture as well its positive effects on human health. Polyacetylenes also are antifungal, antibacterial, and have antiallergenic and anti-inflammatory properties.  However, medicinal use of pure polyacetylenes is not feasible due to their high chemical instability as well as a tendency to evoke allergic reactions. For this reason, consuming smaller and less pure amounts of polyacetylenes from the essential oil of \"Berula erecta\" may be viable.  Following the first cut of the season, \"Berula erecta\" will likely regrow and produce flowers several times again in the same growing season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "\"Berula erecta\" (lesser water parsnip) is a component of Purple moor grass and rush pastures - a type of Biodiversity Action Plan habitat in the UK.  The species is globally classified as a least-concern species, but is a threatened species in the United States. In Estonia, it is a near-threatened species and an endangered species in Norway.  The species is threatened by invasive wetland species such as watercress that can quickly destroy its habitat.  Recommended steps to promote conservation of \"Berula erecta\" are keeping an open canopy for the species as well as maintenance of groundwater sources that may include periodic controlled burns.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Berula erecta, known as lesser water-parsnip or cutleaf waterparsnip or narrow-leaved water-parsnip, is a member of the carrot family. Growing to around tall, it is found in or by water. It is widespread across much of Europe, Asia, Australia, and North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975188}
{"src_title": "Speed climbing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Competition speed climbing.", "content": "Competition speed climbing as governed by the International Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) takes place on 15m artificial walls. Competitors climb a 5 degree overhanging IFSC certified wall, with an auto-belaying system from the top of the wall. Since 2007 the IFSC has created a standard wall for the world record. The standard has a simple rule and it involves climbers competing on the same route, side by side, and whoever reaches the top first wins. The holds and order are always identical, and the difficulty rating is around F6b (approximately YDS 5.10c), which is a level most recreational climbers could complete. The IFSC also sanctions speed climbing competitions and those events that entail world record attempts. Speed climbing competitions is one of the three climbing modalities that will be included in Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games.  Time is determined by mechanical-electric timing (the competitor leaves the starting pad and strikes a switch at the top of the route). When mechanical-electric timing is used, the climbing time is displayed with an accuracy of one hundredth of a second. In the rules modification in 2018, the possibility to use manual timing was removed, and the mechanical-electric timing should record with a precision of 1/1000 second. This precision is only used for ranking in case of a tie. Further, the timing system needs to announce a false start, which is considered a start earlier than 0.1 seconds after the starting beep.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standardized Speed Climbing Wall.", "content": "For such competitions, the speed climbing wall has been normed by the IFSC in a way that records are comparable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Speed Climbing World Records and Champions.", "content": "The standard wall used is 15 meter tall. Speed World Record Requirement  As of 04/28/17, Iranian climber Reza Alipour Shenazandifar holds the men's 15 meter speed world record; 5.48 seconds. Aries Susanti Rahayu from Indonesia holds the women's record at 6.995 seconds and was the first woman to break the 7s barrier.  2018 Speed climbing World Champions are Reza Alipour from Iran (5.63 seconds) and Aleksandra Rudzinska from Poland (7.56 seconds). The IFSC Climbing World Championships took place in Innsbruck, Austria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Outdoor Speed Climbing.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pure speed climbing.", "content": "Full speed climbing is done in such a way that maximizes speed and minimizes danger. When climbing with a partner the climbers will alternate between regular free climbing, simul climbing, aiding, and at times sections of roped soloing. Speed climbing can also be done by an individual in which they alternate between forms of rope soloing, aiding, and free soloing. Strictly speaking, this type of speed climbing is not a style but a combination or perhaps a type of aid climbing. However, the complexity of combining all the styles together leads to what can be recognized as a separate style with its own particular techniques used in no other style.  Speed climbing offers a number of benefits and these include the opportunities to stress-proof learned climbing techniques and to learn more about pacing. Pacing is important since a broad array of paces contributes to the climber's versatility to navigate crags and rock types. A faster pace for most climbers is said to be less strenuous than climbing at their normal speed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Style climbing.", "content": "Records can be recorded while climbing in a particular style. Each of the methods ultimately handicap the rate of progress with the exception of free soloing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Free soloing.", "content": "The simplest way to increase the speed of climbing is to shed all safety precautions such as belaying and placing protection. For some climbers, this is the same as replacing the strength of the rope and the safety gears with mental toughness. This leads to free soloing as rapidly as possible. While strictly speaking this qualifies as full speed climbing or a type of style climbing it is different enough to be recognized as its own category of speed climbing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Outdoor Records.", "content": "Most speed climbing records lack the standards normally associated with objective records. Hans Florine has written \"I will be the first to say that climbing is silly. To make rules about it is just piling ridiculous on top of silly.\" There are no sanctioned speed climbing competitions on significant rock features. Nearly all climbing goals and records are self-designed, self-timed, and self-officiated; few are well documented, and many are disputed.  The collection that follows abides by these loose standards.  Time formate either hrs:min or hrs:min:sec.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "California.", "content": "The Nose, El Capitan  Regular Northwest Route, Half Dome Snake Dike, Half Dome  Joshua Tree National Park  Jackson Falls, Illinois", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Colorado.", "content": "Bastille Crack  Third Flatiron", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Nevada.", "content": "Epinephrine  Cat In The Hat", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "New York.", "content": "The Gunks", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Wyoming.", "content": "Grand Traverse", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Speed climbing is a climbing discipline in which speed is the ultimate goal. Speed Climbing is done on rocks, walls and poles and is only recommended for highly skilled and experienced climbers. Some experts linked this activity to horizontal level walking and running wherein the higher the velocity, the shorter is the contact time and the higher are the reaction forces.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975189}
{"src_title": "Rüdiger von der Goltz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Goltz was born in Züllichau, Brandenburg. A Major-General commanding the German infantry division of Guards on Foot in France, he was transferred to Finland in March 1918 to help the nationalist government in the civil war against the Finnish \"Reds\" and Soviet Russian troops. He commanded the German expedition unit (\"Baltic Sea Division\") which landed at Hanko, Finland, between 3 April and 5 April 1918, and then marched on the socialist-controlled capital Helsinki, which surrendered after the Battle of Helsinki on 13 April 1918. The German military intervention aided the nationalist government of Finland to gain control over most of the country by May 1918. Goltz stayed with his troops in Finland after the Civil War until December 1918 and was a major political influence in the country, described by the Quartermaster General of the White Army Hannes Ignatius as being the \"true regent of Finland\". In the summer of 1918, Goltz wanted to replace the Finnish White forces with a new Finnish conscript army, where all leadership positions were to be staffed by German officers and conscripts were to be trained according to German army standards. Finnish generals Ignatius, von Gerich and Theslöf resigned from the Finnish military staff in protest. The Germans wanted to use Finnish forces against the Allied units fighting in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk.  After the 11 November 1918, armistice, von der Goltz and his division left Helsinki on 16 December 1918. The Inter-Allied Commission of Control insisted that the German troops remain in the Baltic states to prevent the region from being re-occupied by the Red Army. As many of the demoralised German soldiers were being withdrawn from Latvia, a Freikorps unit called the Iron Division (\"Eiserne Division\") was formed and deployed in Riga and used to delay the Red advance. New volunteers arriving from Germany and remnants of the German 8th Army were subsequently added to the Iron Division, which was assigned under the command of Goltz. Also, Baltic Germans and some Latvians formed the \"Baltische Landeswehr\", led by Major Alfred Fletcher.  In late February 1919, only the seaport of Libau (Liepāja) remained in the hands of the German and Latvian forces. In March 1919, General von der Goltz was able to win a series of victories over the Red Army, first occupying Windau (Ventspils), the major port of Courland, and then advancing south and east to retake Riga.  After the Bolsheviks had been driven out from most of Latvia, the Allies ordered the German government to withdraw its troops from the Baltic region. However, the Germans succeeded in negotiating a postponement, arguing that this would have given the Bolsheviks a free hand. General von der Goltz then attempted to seize control of Latvia with the assistance of the local German population. The Latvian nationalist government was deposed while the Freikorps, Latvian and White Russian units moved on to capture Riga on May 23, 1919. The Latvian nationalists sought assistance from the Estonian army which had been occupying northern Latvia since earlier that year.  In June 1919, General von der Goltz ordered his troops not to advance east against the Red Army, as the Allies had been expecting, but north, against the Estonians. On June 19, the Iron Division and \"Landeswehr\" units launched an attack to capture areas around Wenden (Cēsis), but in the battles over the following few days, they were defeated by the 3rd Estonian Division (led by Ernst Põdder). On the morning of June 23, the Germans began a general retreat toward Riga. The Allies again insisted that the Germans withdraw their remaining troops from Latvia and intervened to impose a ceasefire between the Estonians and the Freikorps when the Latvians were about to march into Riga. The British insisted that General von der Goltz leave Latvia, and he turned his troops over to the West Russian Volunteer Army.  Count von der Goltz later claimed in his memoirs that his major strategic goal in 1919 had been to launch a campaign in cooperation with the White Russian forces to overturn the Bolshevik regime by marching on St. Petersburg and to install a pro-German anti-Bolshevist government in Russia.  As President of the United Patriotic Organizations he participated in the Harzburg Front in the early thirties.  From 1924 to 1930, he headed the German government department on the military education of young German youth. On 17 July 1931 he handed over the command of the Economic Policy Association Frankfurt am Main to the Reich President Paul von Hindenburg.  He was married to Hannah Caroline von Hase (1873–1941), a granddaughter of Karl Hase. He died on the Kinsegg estate, in the village of Bernbeuren, Germany, in 1946. His son of the same name, Rüdiger von der Goltz, became a lawyer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gustav Adolf Joachim Rüdiger Graf von der Goltz (8 December 1865 – 4 November 1946) was a German army general during the First World War. He commanded the Baltic Sea Division, which successfully intervened in the Finnish Civil War in the spring of 1918. Goltz stayed with his troops in Finland until December 1918 representing German interests, and in practise ruled the country as a military dictator during this period. After the Armistice of 11 November 1918, Goltz commanded the army of the Baltic German-established Government of Latvia, which in 1919 was instrumental in the defeat of the Russian Bolsheviks and their local allies in Latvia, but suffered a defeat against Estonia and was eventually unsuccessful in retaining German control over the Baltic region after the War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975190}
{"src_title": "The Alchemist (novel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "\"The Alchemist\" follows the journey of an Andalusian shepherd boy named Santiago. Believing a recurring dream to be prophetic, he asks a Gypsy fortune teller in the nearby town about its meaning. The woman interprets the dream as a prophecy telling the boy that he will discover a treasure at the Egyptian pyramids.  Early into his journey, he meets an old king named Melchizedek, or the king of Salem, who tells him to sell his sheep, so as to travel to Egypt, and introduces the idea of a Personal Legend. Your Personal Legend \"is what you have always wanted to accomplish. Everyone, when they are young, knows what their Personal Legend is.\"  Early in his arrival to Africa, a man who claims to be able to take Santiago to the pyramids instead robs him of what money he had made from selling his sheep. Santiago then embarks on a long path of working for a crystal merchant so as to make enough money to fulfill his personal legend and go to the pyramids.  Along the way, the boy meets an Englishman who has come in search of an alchemist and continues his travels in his new companion's company. When they reach an oasis, Santiago meets and falls in love with an Arabian girl named Fatima, to whom he proposes marriage. She promises to do so only after he completes his journey. Frustrated at first, he later learns that true love will not stop nor must one sacrifice to it one's personal destiny, since to do so robs it of truth.  The boy then encounters a wise alchemist who also teaches him to realize his true self. Together, they risk a journey through the territory of warring tribes, where the boy is forced to demonstrate his oneness with \"the soul of the world\" by turning himself into a simoom before he is allowed to proceed. When he begins digging within sight of the pyramids, he is robbed yet again, but accidentally learns from the leader of the thieves that the treasure he sought all along was in the ruined church where he had his original dream.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "Coelho wrote \"The Alchemist\" in only two weeks in 1987. He explained that he was able to write at this pace because the story was \"already written in [his] soul.\"  The book's main theme is about finding one's destiny, although according to \"The New York Times\", \"The Alchemist\" is \"more self-help than literature\". The advice given Santiago that \"when you really want something to happen, the whole universe will conspire so that your wish comes true\" is the core of the novel's philosophy and a motif that plays throughout it.  \"The Alchemist\" was first released by Rocco, an obscure Brazilian publishing house. Albeit having sold \"well\", the publisher after a year decided to give Coelho back the rights. Needing to \"heal\" himself from this setback, Coelho set out to leave Rio de Janeiro with his wife and spent 40 days in the Mojave Desert. Returning from the excursion, Coelho decided he had to keep on struggling and was \"so convinced it was a great book that [he] started knocking on doors\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "In 1994, a comic adaptation was published by Alexandre Jubran. HarperOne, a HarperCollins imprint, produced an illustrated version of the novel, with paintings by the French artist Mœbius, but failed to convince Coelho \"to consent to the full graphic-novel treatment.\" \"The Alchemist: A Graphic Novel\" was published in 2010, adapted by Derek Ruiz and with artwork by Daniel Sampere.  In 2002, a theatrical adaptation of \"The Alchemist\" was produced and performed in London. Since then there have been several productions by the Cornish Collective. In 2009 an Indian adaptation of the novel was staged by Ashvin Gidwani Productions.  In music, \"The Alchemist\" has inspired numerous bands of the same name. In 1997 RCA Red Seal released The Alchemist's Symphony by composer and conductor Walter Taieb with the support of Paulo Coelho, who wrote an original text for the CD booklet. In September 2009, an orchestral performance was conducted at the Ansche Chesed Synagogue in New York. Inspired by \"The Alchemist\", \"an orchestral performance\" was composed by One World Symphony for composer and conductor Sung Jin Hong's wedding.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Alchemist () is a novel by Brazilian author Paulo Coelho that was first published in 1988. Originally written in Portuguese, it became a widely translated international bestseller. An allegorical novel, \"The Alchemist\" follows a young Andalusian shepherd in his journey to the pyramids of Egypt, after having a recurring dream of finding a treasure there.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975191}
{"src_title": "Logging", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Clearcutting.", "content": "Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a method of harvesting that removes essentially all the standing trees in a selected area. Depending on management objectives, a clearcut may or may not have reserve trees left to attain goals other than regeneration, including wildlife habitat management, mitigation of potential erosion or water quality concerns. Silviculture objectives for clearcutting, (for example, healthy regeneration of new trees on the site) and a focus on forestry distinguish it from deforestation. Other methods include shelterwood cutting, group selective, single selective, seed-tree cutting, patch cut, and retention cutting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Logging methods.", "content": "The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the following three are considered industrial methods:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "/ stem-only harvesting.", "content": "Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the landing, where it is bucked and loaded on a truck. This leaves the slash (and the nutrients it contains) in the cut area, where it must be further treated if wild land fires are of concern.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Whole-tree logging.", "content": "Trees and plants are felled and transported to the roadside with top and limbs intact. There have been advancements to the process which now allows a logger or harvester to cut the tree down, top, and delimb a tree in the same process. This ability is due to the advancement in the style felling head that can be used. The trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing. In areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the entire tree including branches and tops. This technique removes both nutrients and soil cover from the site and so can be harmful to the long term health of the area if no further action is taken, however, depending on the species, many of the limbs are often broken off in handling so the end result may not be as different from tree-length logging as it might seem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cut-to-length logging.", "content": "Cut-to-length logging is the process of felling, delimbing, bucking, and sorting (pulpwood, sawlog, etc.) at the stump area, leaving limbs and tops in the forest. Harvesters fell the tree, delimb, and buck it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by a skidder or forwarder. This method is routinely available for trees up to in diameter. Harvesters are employed effectively in level to moderately steep terrain. Harvesters are highly computerized to optimize cutting length, control harvesting area by GPS, and use price lists for each specific log to archive most economical results during harvesting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transporting logs.", "content": "Felled logs are then generally transported to a sawmill to be cut into lumber, to a paper mill for paper pulp, or for other uses, for example, as fence posts. Many methods have been used to move logs from where they were cut to a rail line or directly to a sawmill or paper mill. The cheapest and historically most common method is making use of a river's current to float floating tree trunks downstream, by either log driving or timber rafting. (Some logs sink because of high resin content; these are called deadheads.) To help herd the logs to the mill, in 1960 the Alaskan Lumber and Pulp Mill had a specially designed boat that was constructed of steel. In the late 1800s and the first half of the 1900s, the most common method was the high-wheel loader, which was a set of wheels over ten feet tall that the log or logs were strapped beneath. Oxen were at first used with the high-wheel loaders, but in the 1930s tractors replaced the oxen. In 1960 the largest high wheel loader was built for service in California. Called the Bunyan Buggie, the unit was self-propelled and had wheels high and a front dozer blade that was across and high. Log transportation can be challenging and costly since trees are often far from roads or watercourses. Road building and maintenance may be restricted in National Forests or other wilderness areas since it can cause erosion in riparian zones. When felled logs sit adjacent to a road, heavy machinery may simply lift logs onto trucks. Most often, special heavy equipment is used to gather the logs from the site and move them close to the road to be lifted on trucks. Many methods exist to transport felled logs lying away from roads. Cable logging involves a yarder, which pulls one or several logs along the ground to a platform where a truck is waiting. When the terrain is too uneven to pull logs on the ground, a skyline can lift logs off the ground vertically, similar to a ski lift. Heli-logging, which uses heavy-lift helicopters to remove cut trees from forests by lifting them on cables attached to a helicopter, may be used when cable logging is not allowed for environmental reasons or when roads are lacking. It reduces the level of infrastructure required to log in a specific location, reducing the environmental impact of logging. Less mainstream or now for the most part superseded forms of log transport include horses, oxen, or balloon logging.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety considerations.", "content": "Logging is a dangerous occupation. In the United States, it has consistently been one of the most hazardous industries and was recognized by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.  In 2008, the logging industry employed 86,000 workers, and accounted for 93 deaths. This resulted in a fatality rate of 108.1 deaths per 100,000 workers that year. This rate is over 30 times higher than the overall fatality rate. Forestry/logging-related injuries (fatal and non-fatal) are often difficult to track through formal reporting mechanisms. Thus, some programs have begun to monitor injuries through publicly available reports such as news media. The logging industry experiences the highest fatality rate of 23.2 per 100,000 full-time equivalent (FTE) workers and a non-fatal incident rate of 8.5 per 100 FTE workers. The most common type of injuries or illnesses at work include musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), which include an extensive list of \"inflammatory and degenerative conditions affecting the muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, peripheral nerves, and supporting blood vessels.\" Loggers work with heavy, moving weights, and use tools such as chainsaws and heavy equipment on uneven and sometimes steep or unstable terrain. Loggers also deal with severe environmental conditions, such as inclement weather and severe heat or cold. An injured logger is often far from professional emergency treatment.  Traditionally, the cry of \"Timber!\" developed as a warning alerting fellow workers in an area that a tree is being felled, so they should be alert to avoid being struck. The term \"widowmaker\" for timber that is neither standing nor fallen to the ground demonstrates another emphasis on situational awareness as a safety principle.  In British Columbia, Canada, the BC Forest Safety Council was created in September 2004 as a not-for-profit society dedicated to promoting safety in the forest sector. It works with employers, workers, contractors, and government agencies to implement fundamental changes necessary to make it safer to earn a living in forestry.  The risks experienced in logging operations can be somewhat reduced, where conditions permit, by the use of mechanical tree harvesters, skidders, and forwarders.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. Logging is the process of cutting trees, processing them, and moving them to a location for transport. It is the beginning of a supply chain that provides raw material for many products societies worldwide use for housing, construction, energy, and consumer paper products. Logging systems are also used to manage forests, reduce the risk of wildfires, and restore ecosystem functions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975192}
{"src_title": "Visby-class corvette", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The hull is constructed with a sandwich design consisting of a PVC core with a carbon fibre and vinyl laminate (see also the Oceanic-Creations spin-off). There are multiple advantages to using composite materials in ship hulls. Good conductivity and surface flatness means a low radar signature, while good heat insulation lowers the infrared signature and increases survivability in case of fire. The composite sandwich used is also non-magnetic, which lowers the magnetic signature. Composites are also very strong for their relative weight, and less weight means a higher top speed and better maneuverability. The composite weighs roughly 50% less than the equivalent strength steel.  \"Visby\"s angular tumblehome design reduces its radar signature. Jan Nilsson, one of the designers, told BBC News Online: \"We are able to reduce the radar cross section by 99%. That doesn't mean it's 99% invisible, it means that we have reduced its detection range.\" The 57 mm cannon barrel can be folded into the turret to reduce its cross section. There are plans for additional improvements in this area, especially for the deck rails and masts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Much of the design was based on the experiences learned from the experimental ship HSwMS \"Smyge\". The class was originally designed to be divided into two subcategories where some ships were optimized for surface combat and others for submarine hunting; however, this was changed due to cutbacks.  A helicopter, such as the Agusta Westland A109M selected by Sweden, can land, take off, and refuel on the upper deck. A helicopter hangar was originally planned but was considered to be too cramped and was removed.  The ships took an exceptionally long time from launch to delivery and the construction has been fraught with repeated delays. In 2008, the only weapons system that had been integrated and tested in \"Visby\" was the gun.  Finally, on 16 December 2009, the first two of the corvettes were delivered to the Swedish Navy by the Försvarets materielverk (FMV). The two ships, K32 and K33, were delivered with underwater and surface/air sensors fully integrated. However, the only weapon that had been integrated and test fired on the ships was still the Bofors 57 Mk3 gun. The FMV calls this version 4, which aims to get the ships into service and start training crews.  Version 5 is due in 2012, and is intended to supplement the ships with mine clearance systems, helicopter landing capability (only K31 is certified to date), anti-surface ship missiles and additional stealth adaptation. \"Visby\" was the first of the corvettes to be upgraded to Version 5. On 22 March 2012 FMV reported that the ship had been modified and that the system would be tested before reentering the Swedish Navy by the end of 2012.  Although the design of the ships originally called for the installation of surface-to-air missiles, on 18 September 2008 the Genomförandegruppen cancelled the project in order to rationalize the procurement of defence materiel for the Swedish defence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Units.", "content": "All systems for the ship \"Uddevalla\" were acquired, but the ship was later canceled, so there are now plans to build a full \"Visby\" class simulator.  PTK Visby is the designation of the formation doing system tests and readying the ships for active service within the Swedish Navy. The formation is under the 3rd Naval Warfare Flotilla but takes its orders from the FMV. The system tests are taking a long time partly because of funding issues and partly because of the novel and cutting-edge nature of the platform.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Visby\" class is the latest class of corvette to be adopted by the Swedish Navy after the and corvettes. The ship's design heavily emphasizes low visibility, radar cross-section and infrared signature. The first ship in the class is named after Visby, the main city on the island of Gotland. The class has received widespread international attention because of its capabilities as a stealth ship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975193}
{"src_title": "Vinohrady", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The main east-west avenue of Vinohrady is Vinohradská Avenue leading from Wenceslas Square to Žižkov and Strašnice. Along this street stand headquarter building of Czech Radio, old Vinohrady Market Hall and Vinohrady Water Tower and several stations of Prague Metro Line A (Náměstí Míru, Jiřího z Poděbrad, Flora, Želivského). Parallel to Vinohradská street, there is Slezská street, Korunní street (from Peace Square to Flora) and Francouzská street (from Peace Square to Vršovice]. In the east part of Vinohrady near Strašnice are situated the large Královské Vinohrady Teaching Hospital and Vinohrady Cemeteries.  In the south-north direction, Legerova street as a part of North-South Artery leads at the west margin of Vinohrady, which is a boundary of New Town, along C metro line from Nusle Bridge to the main railway station (Praha hlavní nádraží). Next south-north streets (Bělehradská with Tyl's Square, Italská and many others) are narrower and surmount broken relief crosswise valleys.  The main square of west Vinohrady is \"náměstí Míru\" (Peace Square) with Prague 2 town hall, Vinohrady Theatre, Gothic Revival Saint Ludmila Church (Josef Mocker, 1892) and a station of A metro line. In the central part of Vinohrady near Vinohradská street, there lies \"náměstí Jiřího z Poděbrad\" (George of Poděbrady Square) with a modern \"Church of the Most Sacred Heart of Our Lord\" by Jože Plečnik built in 1932. In Vinohrady is also situated center of the Czech gay scene, including a number of gay-friendly bars.  Famous Czech artists such as Jakub Schikaneder, Otto Gutfreund, Hugo Boettinger and Karel Špillar are buried in Vinohrady Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parks.", "content": "There are several parks in Vinohrady. Havlíčkovy sady (\"Havlíček's Orchards\") is Prague's second-largest park. Villa Gröbe served as summerhouse of the nobility, it is inspired by Italian Renaissance suburban villas and is surrounded by vineyards still in production, founded by Charles IV in the second half of the 14th century. The vineyards and the house deteriorated towards the end of the 20th century, but were renewed. The vineyards now have an area of 1.7 ha and annually produce 4000 liters of wine. There are grown varieties of Müller Thurgau, Rhine Riesling, Dornfelder, Pinot Gris and Pinot Noir, and since 1997 there are annual \"Vinohrady vintage celebrations\", usually in September.  In the north-west part of Vinohrady, near Italská street, are the Riegrovy sady (\"Rieger's Orchards\") with a great view over Prague, Vinohrady Sokol House and a large beer garden. Folimanka Park is situated at the Vinohrady side of Nusle Valley under the large Nusle Bridge. Smaller parks are situated in central Vinohrady: sady Svatopluka Čecha (Svatopluk Čech's Orchards) near Vinohradská street, Bezručovy sady (Petr Bezruč's Orchards) between Slezská and Francouzská street and parks at all main Vinohrady squares.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Královské Vinohrady (in English literally \"Royal Vineyards\" ) is a cadastral district in Prague. It is so named because the area was once covered in vineyards dating from the 14th century. Vinohrady lies in the municipal and administrative districts of Prague 2 (west part), Prague 3 (north-east part) and Prague 10 (south-east part), little parts also of Prague 1 (Prague State Opera and Federal Assembly of Czechoslovakia) and Prague 4 (near Nusle). Between 1788–1867 it was called \"Viničné Hory\" (Vineyard Mountains). From 1867 to 1968 it was called Královské Vinohrady (\"Royal Vineyards\"). In 1875, Královské Vinohrady was divided into two parts, Královské Vinohrady I and Královské Vinohrady II, the part I was renamed to Žižkov and the part II to Královské Vinohrady in 1877. In 1922 Královské Vinohrady was made part of Prague as district XII. In 1949, the west part was conjoined with Prague 2 and the east part remain separate district Prague 12. In 1960, where Prague division was reduced from 16 to 10 administrative districts, the north part of Prague 12 was conjoined with Žižkov into Prague 3 and the south part was joined to Prague 10. Local patriots say that the real reason was that Královské Vinohrady was known as a \"bourgeois\" district and thus politically unreliable for the then-ruling Communist Party of Czechoslovakia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975194}
{"src_title": "William of Rosenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "William of Rosenberg was a member of the influential noble House of Rosenberg. He was the son of Jošt III of Rosenberg and his second wife Anna of Roggendorf (d. 1562). His father died when William was four years old. William and his younger brother Peter Vok then stood under the guardianship of their uncle Peter V. From age seven, he studied at the Protestant private school of Arnošt Kraiger von Kraigk in Mlada Boleslav. In 1544, at the age of nine, he switched to a Catholic school for young nobles at the court of Bishop Wolfgang of Passau.  On 23 April 1551, at the age of sixteen, William was declared an adult by a decree of Emperor Ferdinand I. He took up the administration of the family's possessions and chose as his residence Český Krumlov Castle, which he remodeled in a Renaissance style. From 1552 to 1556, he fought a court case against Henry IV of Plauen, the High Chancellor of Bohemia, about their precedence in Bohemian society. William won. In 1560, he was appointed High Treasurer by King Ferdinand. In 1566, he was appointed commander of the Bohemian army and on 10 June 1566, he began forming an army at Znojmo to fight a war against the Ottoman Empire. Their aim was to recapture Szigetvár, which William's brother-in-law Nikola Šubić Zrinski had lost to the Turks. The Habsburg armies were to meet at Győr. However, the Turks retreated south after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent and no battle ensued.  On 26 May 1570, William was appointed High Burgrave of Bohemia, the highest office in the Kingdom. In this position, he was repeatedly given diplomatic duties, for example, he was sent to Germany twice. In 1572, he negotiated with Emperor Maximilian II, the leader of the Holy League about the next step to take in the ongoing war with then Ottoman Empire. In 1574, he was involved in the negotiations about electing King Rudolf II of Bohemia as the new emperor. In Poland, he represented the interests of Archduke Ernest of Austria, who aimed to be elected King of Poland. His efforts were in vain, although he gained so much sympathy that when King Henry fled, he was considered as a candidate to be the next king. As it happened, King Rudolf was also interested and out of loyalty, William withdrew. Eventually Stephen Bathory, a Transylvanian prince, was elected. However, he died shortly after his election. William was honored with the order of the Golden Fleece for his diplomatic mediation.  In 1587, Sigismund III Vasa was elected as the new King of Poland, defeating the Habsburg candidate Maximilian III. Maximilian then tried to grab power in Poland by invading the country. His army was defeated by the Polish general Jan Zamoyski and he was taken prisoner. William was sent to Poland to negotiate his release. These negotiations led to a peace treaty in March 1589, and Maximilian's release.  In addition to his high political office, William was actively promoting science, literature, music and architecture. Both he and his younger brother Peter Vok acted as patrons of the arts. They supported the Charles University in Prague and founded secondary schools in their territories. They created a library with a vast collection of precious manuscripts and incunables. With its approximately volumes, it was one of the largest libraries of its time. Many humanists such as the Flemish mineralogist, physician and naturalist Anselmus de Boodt were active at his court.  William also supported economic and cultural development in his territories. His Třeboň Castle was expanded and remodeled in a renaissance style by the architect Antonio Ericer between 1565 and 1575. He added the southwest wing, a tower and the entrance gate. In 1573, William expanded the Rosenberg Palace his uncle Peter V had built inside the Prague Castle, using designs made by the architect Ulrico Aostalli. In the town of Roudnice nad Labem, which he acquired in 1577, he renewed the castle and the bridge across the Elbe.  In 1580, William exchanged some territory with his business manager Jakub Krčín of Jelčan: he transferred Sedlčany and Křepenice to Jakub and received a large deer parc and the Leptáč manor near Netolice in return. Between 1583 and 1589, William built his Kratochvíle Castle at Netolice. This castle is one of the most important Renaissance buildings in southern Bohemia. In 1584, he invited the Jesuits to his Český Krumlov Castle and between 1586 and 1588, they constructed a large college building there. The castle, which was his main residence, was extensively remodeled during his reign and he equipped a number of state rooms in the upper castle. In 1580, he added a tower, connected to the castle with a Renaissance arcade. In 1589 he took part in the negotiations of the Treaty of Bytom and Będzin. Around 1590, he added the Little Castle. He gave town rights to Borovany, which was located in his land, and in Libějovice he expanded the old castle into another renaissance castle. In Třeboň, he promoted carp breeding and constructed the Rožmberk Pond.  William died in 1592 and was buried in the St. Vitus Church in Český Krumlov, next to his third wife, Anna Maria of Baden. Since he was childless, his younger brother Peter Vok inherited his possessions. When Peter vok died in 1611, the House of Rosenberg died out in the male line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages.", "content": "William married four times. All four marriages were childless. By marrying German imperial princesses, he gained political influence outside Bohemia, which benefitted his diplomatic efforts. He married:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William of Rosenberg (; 10 March 1535 – 1592), was a Bohemian nobleman. He served as High Treasurer and High Burgrave of Bohemia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975195}
{"src_title": "Jensen Ackles", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ackles was born in Dallas, Texas, the son of Donna Joan (née Shaffer) and Alan Roger Ackles, an actor. He has a brother, Josh, and a sister, Mackenzie. Ackles had planned to study sports medicine at Texas Tech University and to become a physical therapist, but instead moved to Los Angeles to start his acting career. He has English, Irish, Scottish, and German ancestry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After modelling on and off since the age of four, Ackles began to concentrate on an acting career in 1996. He appeared in several guest roles on \"Mr. Rhodes\", \"Sweet Valley High\", and \"Cybill\" before joining the cast of the NBC soap opera \"Days of Our Lives\" as Eric Brady in 1997. He won a 1998 Soap Opera Digest Award for Best Male Newcomer and went on to be nominated three times (in 1998, 1999, and 2000) for a Daytime Emmy Award for \"Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series\" for his work on \"Days of our Lives\". Ackles departed \"Days of our Lives\" in 2000 and went on to appear in the mini-series \"Blonde\", about the life of Marilyn Monroe. He also auditioned for the role of the young Clark Kent on \"Smallville\", a role offered to actor Tom Welling instead. Next he appeared in a guest role on the James Cameron television series \"Dark Angel\" on Fox in 2001 as serial killer Ben/X5-493, the brother of main character Max/X5-452 (played by Jessica Alba). His character died in the episode, but Ackles returned to the show as a series regular in the second season as Ben's sane clone, Alec/X5-494. He remained with the show until its cancellation in 2002. Ackles worked steadily throughout 2003. He joined the cast of the WB's hit show \"Dawson's Creek\" during its final season, playing CJ, Jen Lindley's lover. Afterward, Ackles filmed several episodes of the unaired series \"Still Life\" for Fox before it was abruptly dropped. He also had a small role in the 2004 short film \"The Plight of Clownana\". Ackles was the producer's first choice to play Eliza Dushku's love interest on the second season of \"Tru Calling\"; Ackles turned down the role, which was then offered to Eric Christian Olsen and the character's name was changed to \"Jensen\" because the producers of \"Tru Calling\" liked Ackles' name. Ackles returned to Vancouver (where \"Dark Angel\" was filmed) in 2004 to become a regular on \"Smallville\" playing the assistant football coach Jason Teague, who was also the newest romantic interest for Lana Lang (played by Kristin Kreuk). He also had a lead role in the 2005 film \"Devour\" in which Ackles' father, actor Alan Ackles, also had a role playing the father of Ackles' character, Jake Gray.  In 2005, Ackles joined the cast of the WB show horror/action series \"Supernatural\" where he stars as Dean Winchester. Dean and his brother Sam (Jared Padalecki) drive throughout the United States hunting paranormal predators, fighting demons and angels, and showcasing fantasy & sci-fi pop culture. The show is currently in its fourteenth season on the CW. It owns the title of the longest-running North American sci-fi series in history. In the summer of 2007, Ackles took on the role of Priestly in the independent comedy \"Ten Inch Hero\". The film began hitting the film festival circuit in early 2007 and Ackles received high praise for his comedic timing in the role. In February 2009, the film was released on DVD exclusively by Blockbuster Home Video. He also appeared on stage from June 5–10, 2007 with Lou Diamond Phillips in \"A Few Good Men\" at Casa Mañana Theatre in Fort Worth, Texas, as Lt. Daniel Kaffee. Ackles received strong praise for his work in this role, which was also his professional theatre debut.  In the summer of 2008, Ackles was cast in the remake of the cult film \"My Bloody Valentine 3D\", which opened nationwide on January 16, 2009.  In summer of 2010, Ackles provided the voice for the Red Hood (Jason Todd) in the animated film, \"\", which was released to DVD and Blu-ray on July 27.  On October 22, 2010, Disney Interactive Studios announced that he would be voicing a character named Gibson in the video game, \"\", which was released on December 7, 2010.  After years of performing at Supernatural Conventions, Ackles has released his first original recorded song as a professional singer titled \"Sounds of Someday” which is the first track from an album due for release. In 2018, Ackles collaborated with musician Steve Carlson to form Radio Company. Together Ackles and Carlson completed a debut album entitled \"Radio Company Vol. 1\". The album's first single was released on iTunes with the album set for a November 2019 release.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "After three years of dating, Ackles became engaged to actress and model Danneel Harris in November 2009. The couple married on May 15, 2010 in Dallas, Texas. Their first child, a daughter, was born in May 2013. In August 2016, the couple announced that they were expecting twins, a boy and a girl, who were born in December.  Ackles is a co-owner of a brewery in Dripping Springs, Texas, Family Business Beer Company, with his wife and in-laws. The brewery's name is a reference to \"Supernatural\" (\"family business\" being a tagline for the series).  Ackles and \"Supernatural\" co-stars Jared Padalecki and Misha Collins supported Beto O'Rourke for the 2018 Senate election in Texas.  In 2019, Ackles was chosen to serve as King Bacchus LI in the Krewe of Bacchus parade.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jensen Ross Ackles (born March 1, 1978) is an American actor, singer and director. He has appeared on television as Dean Winchester in The CW horror fantasy series \"Supernatural\", Eric Brady in \"Days of Our Lives\", which earned him several Daytime Emmy Award nominations, Alec/X5-494 in \"Dark Angel\" and Jason Teague in \"Smallville\". He also starred as the lead in the box office success \"My Bloody Valentine 3D\" and provided the voice of Jason Todd in the popular animated film \"\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975196}
{"src_title": "Princess Alexandrine of Baden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Marriage.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "Before he ascended the throne, Alexander II of Russia was sent to Baden in order to present himself as a suitor for Alexandrine's hand in marriage. Alexandrine already regarded herself as his betrothed, as all the preliminary negotiations had taken place. On the journey there, however, Alexander visited the court of Hesse-Darmstadt and met Princess Marie of Hesse and eventually married her instead.  At the urging of his brother Prince Albert, Hereditary Prince Ernst of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (born 1818) began to search for a suitable bride. Albert believed that a wife would be good for his brother: \"Chains you will have to bear in any case, and it will certainly be good for you... The heavier and tighter they are, the better for you. A married couple must be chained to one another, be inseparable, and they must live only for one another.\" With this advice in mind (although Albert was reprimanded for presuming to counsel his elders), Ernest began searching.  Around this time, Ernest was suffering from a venereal disease brought on by his many affairs; Albert consequently counseled him against marrying until he was fully recovered. He also warned that continued promiscuity could leave Ernest unable to father children. Ernest waited a few years before marrying as a result.  On 13 May 1842, in Karlsruhe, Ernest married Princess Alexandrine. To the consternation of his brother and sister-in-law Queen Victoria, the marriage failed to \"settle down\" Ernest. Alexandrine accepted all his faults cheerfully enough, however, and began a fierce devotion to Ernest that became increasingly baffling to the outside world.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Succession and childlessness.", "content": "He succeeded his father, Ernst I, as Duke in 1844. The couple traveled to Windsor to visit their relations. Lady Eleanor Stanley, one of Victoria's maids-of-honour, commented to her mother: \"...the Duke is not well, they say, and he certainly looks dreadfully ill... he however shook hands with us very civilly at meeting, and seemed in great spirits at being with his brother. The Duchess [Alexandrine] told Lady Duoro she had been at Ems in hopes of producing a son and heir, but it had no effect as yet; we were rather amused at her saying it so simply, but she seems a very nice person and very pretty.\"  The couple's relationship at this stage was \"as unclouded as it would ever be\", in the words of historian Charlotte Zeepvat. While touring some farms in Windsor, Alexandrine caught a cold; they left soon after. Lady Eleanor commented again that \"[Alexandrine] was very sweet at parting, and kissed us all round; she looked very delicate, as white as a sheet, and more fit to be in her bed than undertaking a long journey. The parting of the Royalty was not so sorrowful as I expected; plenty of kissing, but no tears\". Victoria was sorry to see them leave, as she loved Ernest loyally for Albert's sake, and had come to see Alexandrine as a sister.  Victoria chose Ernest to be the godfather of her second daughter Princess Alice, and he was consequently expected in England in April 1859 for her confirmation. Though Victoria was eager to see his wife again, and though plans had been arranged the previous year for her to visit, Ernest chose to not bring her along. It was clear that as the chances of producing children had faded, Ernest was taking less and less interest in his wife. The marriage proved to be childless. Though it was most likely that the fault lay with Ernest (due to the venereal disease he contracted before his marriage), Alexandrine seems to have accepted without question that their childlessness was her fault.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Affairs.", "content": "Before and during their marriage, Ernest carried on countless affairs. Alexandrine remained a loyal wife, however, and chose to ignore those relationships of which she was aware. At one point, Ernest had two mistresses, and was living with them and Alexandrine \"in an improbable ménage which made the couple a laughing-stock to all but their family\". Although she loved Alexandrine, Victoria was appalled by her willingness to accept his affairs: \"Uncle E.'s conduct is perfectly monstrous and I must blame Aunt very much. They have not written to me yet - but when they do I shall have to write very strongly.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "As the years went by, Ernest's behavior and manner of dress increasingly became a joke to younger generations. Marie, a daughter of Ernest's nephew and successor Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh later recalled Ernest as \"an old beau, squeezed into a frock-coat too tight for his bulk and uncomfortably pinched in at the waist', sporting a top hat, lemon-coloured gloves, and a rosebud in his lapel\". Prince Ernest Louis of Hesse recalled how Alexandrine used to trail behind her husband calling, \"Ernst, my treasure\"; this caused particular embarrassment at the 1887 Windsor jubilee when Prince Alfred's nephew-in-law Grand Duke Sergei imitated Alexandrine, calling out to Ernest Louis \"Ernst, my treasure\", not realizing that the Duke was approaching from the other end of the room: \"He saw my aghast expression and turned, then we both fled, escaping into different rooms. I burst out laughing but for a long time Sergei was desperately worried, because he didn't know if Uncle had heard him.\"  Ernest died on 22 August 1893 after a short illness. Alexandrine died on 20 December 1904, having survived her husband by eleven years.  Alexandrine is buried in the ducal mausoleum at \"\", Coburg.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Alexandrine of Baden (Alexandrine Luise Amalie Friederike Elisabeth Sophie; 6 December 1820 – 20 December 1904) was the Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha as the wife of Ernest II. She was the eldest child of Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden, and his wife Princess Sophie of Sweden.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975197}
{"src_title": "Ralph Firman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formula Three.", "content": "Educated at Gresham's School between 1988 and 1993, Firman went straight into motor racing on leaving school. Despite leading much of the 1995 British F3 championship, he lost the title at the final round to Oliver Gavin. However, he continued in the championship in 1996 and captured the title at his second attempt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Macau Grand Prix controversy.", "content": "Firman won the prestigious Macau Grand Prix in 1996 under controversial circumstances. At the end of round 1, Firman finished ahead of German Formula 3 champion Jarno Trulli. In round 2, he was overtaken by Trulli on the last lap. Firman was running with a broken front wing. Just as Jarno Trulli was on the way to victory, Firman crashed at the hairpin corner, blocked the track and caused a red flag. The race officials counted the results to the previous lap when Firman was ahead of Trulli, thus giving him the win.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Formula Nippon.", "content": "Firman then moved to Japan, culminating in the 2002 Formula Nippon championship, before returning to Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Formula One.", "content": "Firman secured a seat in Formula One for the season at the Jordan team, alongside Giancarlo Fisichella. He participated in 14 Formula One Grands Prix, debuting at the 2003 Australian Grand Prix. He scored one championship point, in the 2003 Spanish Grand Prix. He was injured in a huge crash during practice for the 2003 Hungarian Grand Prix which forced him to sit out that and the next race, in which he was replaced by Zsolt Baumgartner.  In November 2003, Firman drove a Jordan-Ford EJ13 at Macau's Guia Circuit as part of the Macau Grand Prix's 50th anniversary celebrations, the first time that a contemporary F1 machine had been seen in action around the tight and tricky Guia circuit. Firman clocked an impressive 1:59.4 seconds lap, 13 seconds quicker than F3 poleman Fabio Carbone managed on the same day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Formula One.", "content": "Firman has also competed in the 24 Hours of Le Mans, and was an official test driver for the A1 Grand Prix series in August 2004.  In August 2005, it was announced that he would be the driver for A1 Team Ireland. He had previously been seen to be in competition for the Great Britain seat.  In 2007, Firman, along with Daisuke Ito, won the Japan Super GT GT500 class championship with the Aguri Suzuki co-owned ARTA team. Firman and Ito won the championship before the final race of the season, a first in the series' competitive history.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement from racing.", "content": "Firman retired from racing in 2013, and now runs a British engineering company.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ralph David Firman Jr. (born 20 May 1975) is an English-born former racing driver who raced under Irish citizenship (his mother Angela is from Ireland) and an Irish-issued racing licence. Earlier in his career he raced under a British licence. His father, Ralph Firman Sr., co-founded the Van Diemen racecar constructor with Ross Ambrose, father of V8 Supercars champion Marcos, then more recently founded RFR. He is married to Aldís Kristín Árnadóttir, an Icelandic UK-educated lawyer. Ralph's sister, Natasha, is also a racing driver.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975198}
{"src_title": "European Capital of Culture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Selection process.", "content": "An international panel of cultural experts is in charge of assessing the proposals of cities for the title according to criteria specified by the European Union.  For two of the capitals each year, eligibility is open to cities in EU member states only. From 2021 and every three years thereafter, a third capital will be chosen from cities in countries that are candidates or potential candidates for membership, or in countries that are part of the European Economic Area (EEA)– an example of the latter being Stavanger in Norway, which was a European Capital of Culture in 2008.  A 2004 study conducted for the Commission, known as the \"Palmer report\", demonstrated that the choice of European Capital of Culture served as a catalyst for the cultural development and the transformation of the city. Consequently, the beneficial socio-economic development and impact for the chosen city are now also considered in determining the chosen cities.  Bids from five United Kingdom cities to be the 2023 Capital of Culture were disqualified in November 2017, because by 2023 the UK is no longer an EU member.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The European Capital of Culture programme was initially called the European City of Culture and was conceived in 1983, by Melina Mercouri, then serving as minister of culture in Greece. Mercouri believed that at the time, culture was not given the same attention as politics and economics and a project for promoting European cultures within the member states should be pursued. The European City of Culture programme was launched in the summer of 1985 with Athens being the first title-holder. During the German presidency of 1999, the European City of Culture programme was renamed to European Capital of Culture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of European Capitals of Culture.", "content": "A new framework makes it possible for cities in candidate countries, potential candidates for EU membership or EFTA member states to hold the title every third year as of 2021. This will be selected through an open competition, meaning that cities from various countries may compete with each other.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A European Capital of Culture is a city designated by the European Union (EU) for a period of one calendar year during which it organises a series of cultural events with a strong pan-European dimension.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975199}
{"src_title": "Otto Wichterle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "His father Karel was co-owner of a successful farm-machine factory and small car plant but Otto chose science for his career. After finishing high school in Prostějov, Wichterle began to study at the Chemical and Technological Faculty of the Czech Technical University (now the independent University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague) but he was also interested in medicine. He graduated in 1936 and stayed at the university. In 1939 submitted his second doctorate thesis on chemistry, but the Protectorate regime blocked any further activity at the university. However, Wichterle was able to join the research institute at Baťa's works in Zlín and continue his scientific work. There he led the technical preparation of plastics, namely polyamide and caprolactam. In 1941, Wichterle's team invented the procedure to throw and spool polyamide thread thus making the first Czechoslovak synthetic fiber under the name \"silon\" (the invention came independently of the original American nylon procedure in 1938). Wichterle was imprisoned by the Gestapo in 1942 but was released after a few months.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry background.", "content": "After World War II Wichterle returned to the university, specializing in organic chemistry, and was active in teaching general and inorganic chemistry. He wrote an inorganic chemistry textbook, the concept of which was ahead of its time, and also wrote a German and Czech organic chemistry textbook. In 1949 he expanded his second doctorate with the technology of plastics and devoted himself fully to the establishment of a new department of plastics technology. In 1952 he was made the dean of the newly established Institute of Chemical Technology in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prototype development.", "content": "From that time he devoted himself to studying of the synthesis of cross-linking hydrophilous gels, with the aim of finding a material suitable for employment in permanent contact with living tissues. Wichterle accepted the help of one of his colleagues, Drahoslav Lím, and together they succeeded in preparing a cross-linking gel which absorbed up to 40% of water, exhibited suitable mechanical properties and was transparent. This new material was the Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA), that they patented in 1953. Wichterle thought pHEMA might be a suitable material for contact lenses and gained his first patent for soft contact lenses. On 1954 this material was first used as an orbital implant. On 1957 Wichterle produced around 100 soft lenses from closed polystyrene molds but the edges split and tore as the lenses were removed. In addition, they required hand finishing. He was determined to find a better way. Unfortunately, Wichterle and other prominent teachers had to leave the Institute of Chemical Technology after a political purge staged by its Communist leadership 1958. Research into contact eye lenses at the Institute of Chemical Technology came to an end. The International Symposium on Macromolecular Chemistry held in Prague in 1957 convinced the state leadership of the need to establish a centre for research into synthetic polymers. The Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (CSAS) came into being in 1958, with Professor Wichterle appointed its director. Since the institute's building was under construction at that time, Professor Wichterle conducted the decisive experiments to transform hydrogels into a suitable shape of a contact lens at his own home.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early contact lenses.", "content": "By late 1961 he succeeded in producing the first four hydrogel contact lenses on a home-made apparatus built using a children's building kit (Merkur) and a bicycle dynamo belonging to one of his sons, and a bell transformer. All the moulds and glass tubing needed to dose them with monomer were also individually made by himself. On Christmas afternoon, with the help of his wife Linda, using the machine on his kitchen table, he finally succeeded. He tried the lenses in his own eyes and although they were the wrong power they were comfortable. Thus, he invented a new way of manufacturing the lenses using a centrifugal casting procedure. A few days later, he completed his patent application and produced over 100 lenses by spin casting. He built several new prototype machines using Merkur toys with increasing numbers of spindles which required the stronger motor taken from his gramophone. With these rudimental devices, in the first four months of 1962 they made 5,500 lenses. The early experimental lenses were called Geltakt and the later production lenses Spofalens after the state enterprise SPOFA which manufactured them.  In 1965 National Patent Development Corporation (NPDC) bought the American rights to produce the lenses and then sublicensed the rights to Bausch & Lomb which started to manufacture them in the USA. In 1977 the patents were challenged, mainly by Continuous Curve Contact Lenses and in May 1977 the CSAS sold these patents to avoid any liability if the court case failed. However, Wichterle and NPDC won the court case in 1983.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other achievements.", "content": "Wichterle came to be well-known beyond the frontiers of his country not only through his achievements but also because of his activities in international organizations, chief among which was the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). He took part in the preparations for its Prague symposia in 1957 and 1965, which were much applauded by participants; he had a hand in the inauguration of its fifth, macromolecular, division, of which he was to become the first president, and he gained further credit by combining within it what were for normal administrative purposes the separate fields of pure and applied chemistry.  Wichterle is the author of a large number of studies both great and small as well as several independent books on various aspects of organic, inorganic and macromolecular chemistry, polymer science and biomedical materials, while he had an even higher number of patents out for organic synthesis, polymerization, fibres, the synthesis and shaping of biomedical materials, production methods and measuring devices related to biomedical products. He is the author or co-author of approximately 180 patents and over 200 publications. This was typical of his attitude to scientific research which, he considered, ought to serve society and its requirements by any means possible, without distinction as to \"pure\" and \"applied\" science.  In 1970, Wichterle was expelled again from his position in the institute, this time for signing \"The Two Thousand Words\" — a manifesto asking for the continuation of the democratization process begun in 1968 during the Prague Spring. Punishment by the regime included removing him from his executive positions and making his research more and more difficult mainly by cutting off contacts from abroad and limiting his teaching opportunities. Full recognition did not come until the Velvet Revolution in 1989. In 1990, he was made president of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences till the dissolution of Czechoslovakia and was the honorary president of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic after that. Wichterle was a member of a number of foreign academies of science, he received many awards and honorary doctorates from several universities.  The asteroid number 3899 was named after Wichterle in 1993. Furthermore, a high school in Ostrava (in the district of Poruba) in the Czech Republic was named after him on September 1, 2006.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otto Wichterle (; 27 October 1913 – 18 August 1998) was a Czech chemist, best known for his invention of modern soft contact lenses.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975200}
{"src_title": "Nakajima Kikka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "After the Japanese military attaché in Germany witnessed trials of the Messerschmitt Me 262 in 1942, the Imperial Japanese Navy issued a request to Nakajima to develop a similar aircraft to be used as a fast attack bomber. Among the specifications for the design were the requirements that it should be able to be built largely by unskilled labor, and that the wings should be foldable. This latter feature was to enable the aircraft to be hidden in caves and tunnels around Japan as the navy began to prepare for the defense of the home islands. Nakajima designers Kazuo Ohno and Kenichi Matsumura laid out an aircraft that bore a strong but superficial resemblance to the Me 262.  The \"Kikka\" was designed in preliminary form to use the Tsu-11, a very crude motorjet style of jet engine that was little more than a ducted fan with an afterburner. Subsequent designs were planned around the Ne-10 (TR-10) centrifugal-flow turbojet, and the Ne-12, which added a four-stage axial compressor to the front of the Ne-10. Tests of this powerplant soon revealed that it would not produce anywhere near the power required to propel the aircraft, and the project was temporarily stalled. It was then decided to produce a new axial flow turbojet based on the German BMW 003.  Development of the engine was troublesome, based on little more than photographs and a cut-away drawing; but a suitable unit, the Ishikawajima Ne-20, was finally built. By mid-1945, the \"Kikka\" project was making progress once again and at this stage, reflecting the deteriorating war situation, it is possible that the Navy considered employing the \"Kikka\" as a \"kamikaze\" weapon although the prospect was questionable due to the high cost and complexity associated with contemporary turbojet engines. As well, other more economical projects meant specifically for the role such as the simple Nakajima Tōka (designed to absorb Japanese stock of obsolete engines), the pulsejet-powered Kawanishi Baika, and the infamous Yokosuka Ohka, were either underway or already in mass production.  Compared to the Me 262, the \"Kikka\" airframe was noticeably smaller and even more conventional in design, with straight wings (lacking the slight sweepback of the Me 262) and tail surfaces. The triangular fuselage cross section characteristic of the German design was less pronounced, due to smaller fuel tanks. The main landing gear of the \"Kikka\" was taken from the A6M Zero and the nose wheel from the tail of a Yokosuka P1Y bomber.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aircraft designation clarification.", "content": "The \"Kikka\" is often identified as the Nakajima J9N1, or occasionally J9Y, which according to a researcher at the National Air and Space Museum is incorrect. The official name given to the aircraft was 橘花 \"Kitsuka,\" pronounced Kikka in Kanji used traditionally by the Japanese. Like other Japanese aircraft intended for use in suicide missions, it received only a name. Imperial Japanese Naval aircraft were designated similar to U.S. Naval aircraft of the time frame. A first letter, denoting the role/type of aircraft, separated by a number that denotes where in the series of aircraft of the same role the aircraft resides, followed by a second letter denoting the design and manufacturing firm, and finally, a second number denoting the aircraft subtype. The first three characters remain constant through all the sub-variants an aircraft might be built to.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first prototype commenced ground tests at the Nakajima factory on 30 June 1945. The following month it was dismantled and delivered to Kisarazu Naval Airfield where it was re-assembled and prepared for flight testing. The first flight took place on 7 August 1945 (the day after Hiroshima was bombed by atomic bomb), with Lieutenant Commander Susumu Takaoka at the controls. The aircraft performed well during a 20-minute test flight, with the only concern being the length of the takeoff run. For the second test flight, four days later (4 days prior to Japan's declaration of surrender), rocket assisted take off (RATO) units were fitted to the aircraft. The pilot had been uneasy about the angle at which the rocket tubes had been set, but with no time to correct them they decided to simply reduce the thrust of the rockets from 800 kg to only 400 kg. Four seconds into take off the RATO was actuated, immediately jolting the aircraft back onto its tail leaving the pilot with no effective tail control. After the nine-second burning time of the RATO ran out the nose came down and the nose wheel contacted the runway, resulting in a sudden deceleration, however both engines were still functioning normally. At this point the pilot opted to abort the take off, but fighting to brake the aircraft and perform a ground loop only put him in danger of running it into other installations. Eventually the aircraft ran over a drainage ditch which caught the tricycle landing gear, the aircraft continued to skid forward and stopped short of the water's edge. Before it could be repaired Japan had surrendered and the war was over.  At this point, the second prototype was close to completion, and approximately 23 more airframes were under construction. One of these was a two-seat trainer. Other follow-on versions proposed had included a reconnaissance aircraft, and a fighter armed with two 30 mm Type 5 cannons with 50 rounds per gun. These were expected to be powered by more advanced developments of the Ne-20, known as Ne-20-Kai 5.59 kN (570 kgf) or Ne-130 8.826 kN (900 kgf) or Ne-230 8.679 kN (885 kgf) or Ne-330 13.043 kN (1330 kgf), which were planned to have approximately 15% to 140% better thrust than the Ne-20.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Postwar.", "content": "After the war, airframes 3, 4, and 5 (and possibly other partial airframes) were brought to the U.S. for study. Today, only a single example survives in the National Air and Space Museum: a \"Kikka\" that was taken to the Patuxent River Naval Air Base, Maryland for analysis. This aircraft is very incomplete and is believed to have been patched together from a variety of semi-completed airframes.  Two Ne-20 jet engines had been taken to the US and sent for analysis to the Chrysler Corporation in 1946. This was only revealed in 2005 by W. I. Chapman, who was in charge of the project at the time. A working engine was assembled with the parts of the two Ne-20s, and tested for 11 hours and 46 minutes. A report was issued on 7 April 1947, titled \"Japanese NE-20 turbo jet engine. Construction and performance\". The document is now on display at the Tokyo National Science Museum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "Nakajima Aircraft Company developed some variants of the aircraft:  There was also a modified version of the design to be launched from a 200 m long catapult, the \"Nakajima \"Kikka-kai\" Prototype Turbojet Special Attacker\". This differed in having a projected total weight of 4,080 kg and a maximum speed of 687 km/h at 6,000 m.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The was Japan's first jet aircraft. It was developed late in World War II and the first prototype had only flown once before the end of the conflict. It was also called.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975201}
{"src_title": "Princely abbeys and imperial abbeys of the Holy Roman Empire", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Princely abbeys and imperial abbeys.", "content": "The distinction between a princely abbey and an imperial abbey was related to the status of the abbot: while both prince-abbots and the more numerous imperial abbots sat on the ecclesiastical bench of the College of ruling princes of the Imperial Diet, prince-abbots cast an individual vote while imperial abbots cast only a curial (collective) vote alongside his or her fellow imperial abbots and abbesses. Eight princely abbeys (including similar status priories) and roughly 40 imperial abbeys survived up to the mass secularisation of 1802–03 when they were all secularized. The head of an Imperial abbey was generally an Imperial abbot (\"Reichsabt\") or Imperial abbess (\"Reichsäbtissin\"). (The head of a \"Reichspropstei\"—an Imperial provostry or priory—was generally a \"Reichspropst\"). Collectively, Imperial abbots, provosts and priors were formally known as \"Reichsprälaten\" (Imperial Prelates). A small number of the larger and most prestigious establishments had the rank of princely abbeys (\"Fürstsabtei\"), and were headed by a prince-abbot or a prince-provost (\"Fürstabt\", \"Fürstpropst\"), with status comparable to that of Prince-Bishops. Most however were imperial prelates and as such participated in a single collective vote in the Imperial Diet as members of the Bench of Prelates, later (1575) divided into the Swabian College of Imperial Prelates and the Rhenish College of Imperial Prelates. Despite their difference of status within the Imperial Diet, both the Imperial Prelates and the Prince-Abbots exercised the same degree of authority over their principality. Some abbeys, particularly in Switzerland, gained the status of princely abbeys (\"Fürstsabtei\") during the Middle Ages or later but they either didn't have a territory over which they ruled or they lost that territory after a short while. This was the case with Kreuzlingen, Allerheiligen, Einsiedeln, Muri and Saint-Maurice abbeys. One major exception was the large and powerful Abbey of St. Gall which remained independent up to its dissolution during the Napoleonic period, despite the fact that, as a Swiss abbey, it had stopped taking part in the Imperial Diet and other institutions of the Holy Roman Empire once the independence of the Swiss Confederacy was recognized in 1648. Elsewhere, the Prince-Abbot of St. Blaise's Abbey in the Black Forest held that title, not on account of the status of the abbey, which was not immediate, but because it was conferred on him by the abbey's ownership of the immediate County of Bonndorf.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lists of Imperial abbeys.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of Imperial abbeys with seat and voice at the Imperial Diet of 1792.", "content": "The following list includes the Imperial abbeys which had seat and voice at the Imperial Diet of 1792. They, along with the two Teutonic Order commanderies whose commanders ranked as prelates, are listed according to their voting order on the two Benches of Prelates of the Diet. Not shown are the abbeys of Stablo, Kempten and Corvey, whose abbots had princely status and sat on the Ecclesiastical Bench of the College of Ruling Princes. For additional information on individual abbeys, see: \"List A: Imperial abbeys named in the Matrikel\" below this list.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List A: Imperial abbeys named in the \"Matrikel\".", "content": "The religious houses listed here as List A are those named in the \"Matrikel\", or lists of those eligible to vote in the Imperial Diet, including those whose votes were collective rather than individual. Three of these lists survive and are accessible, from 1521, 1755 (or thereabouts) and 1792. This list includes the Principalities, Imperial abbeys (\"Reichsabteien\" and \"-klöster\"), Imperial colleges (\"Reichsstifte\"), Imperial provostries or priories (\"Reichspropsteien\") and the single Imperial charterhouse (\"Reichskartause\").  The word \"Stift\", meaning a collegiate foundation or canonry, possibly belonging to a variety of different orders or to none at all, and either with or without rules and vows, for either men (\"Herrenstift\") or for women (Frauenstift), has been left untranslated, except when it specifically refers to the chapter of a church. Some of the imperial abbeys were dissolved during the Reformation; others were absorbed into other territories at various times in the general course of political life. Those in Alsace and Switzerland passed out of the Empire in 1648, when Alsace was ceded to France and Switzerland became independent. The great majority of these religious bodies however were secularized during the brief period that included the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, and their aftermath, especially as a result of the German mediatization (\"Reichsdeputationshauptschluss\") of February 1803. Any that survived lost their Imperial status when the Holy Roman Empire was wound up in 1806.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List B: \"Reichsmatrikel\" 1521.", "content": "The \"Matrikel\" of 1521 included a number of religious houses which have not been identified:  Inclusion in the 1521 \"Reichsmatrikel\" is not by itself conclusive evidence that a particular religious house was in fact an Imperial abbey, and the status of the following abbey listed in the \"Matrikel\" is questionable in the absence of further confirmation from other sources:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List C: Imperial abbeys not named in the \"Matrikel\".", "content": "For a variety of reasons a quantity of religious houses that possessed, or claimed, the status of Imperial immediacy either did not attend the Imperial Diet, or were not listed in the surviving Matrikel. The following list is very far from complete, and possibly some of those listed may not in fact have been immediate (\"reichsunmittelbar\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "In German:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princely abbeys (, \"Fürststift\") and Imperial abbeys (, \"Reichskloster\", \"Reichsstift\", \"Reichsgotthaus\") were religious establishments within the Holy Roman Empire which enjoyed the status of imperial immediacy (\"Reichsunmittelbarkeit\") and therefore were answerable directly to the Emperor. The possession of imperial immediacy came with a unique form of territorial authority known as \"Landeshoheit\", which carried with it nearly all the attributes of sovereignty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975202}
{"src_title": "Campylopus introflexus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Individual plants measure, with lanceolate leaves. The costa is wide and occupies about half the leaf width. The plants are found in dense mats and extensive carpets and are yellowish to olive green. They are acrocarpous and perennial. Multiple sporophytes are often present in one plant. The seta are between 7 and 12 millimeters in length, and are yellowish brown to brownish. The capsules are brown and 1.5 millimeters long. It produces spores of 12–14 μm in size.  This species will sometimes reproduce asexually by means of stem tips that break off and are distributed by the wind. Even whole cushions can be relocated by wind, animals, and humans to colonize new isolated or remote locations. Once established, they can cover several hundred square meters within ten years.  In the Netherlands and in Belgium, it is called \"tankmos\" (tank moss) due to its likely spread by tanks during the Second World War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and distribution.", "content": "It has a native southern hemisphere distribution in southern South America, southern part of Africa, southern and eastern Australia, and Atlantic and Pacific islands such as New Zealand, New Caledonia and the South Sandwich Islands.  It is a neophyte in Europe and coastal western North America. In some parts of Europe and North America the species has become mildly invasive, as it temporarily may have a negative and local impact on the diversity. It was first discovered in Britain in 1941, and its spread has been well documented since. In Europe alone, this species has spread in over a thousand mile radius within the span of 70 years. This correlates to around a 14 mile extension of \"C. introflexus\" territory every year since its discovery. This does not include its introduction to the Faroe Islands in 1973, the United States in 1975, and British Columbia in 1994. It currently ranges between approximately 35°N (California) and 66°N (Iceland). It can be found in a variety of settings, often in decalcified habitats such as bogs and dunes. It is a pioneer species found on bare peat after peat-cutting or on bare soils after burning or ploughing. It may also grow on rotting logs, old fence posts, roadsides, mining deposits, and roof shingles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecological effects.", "content": "The effects of the spread of \"Campylopus introflexus\" have been well studied in the Netherlands. A 14 year study found that a lichen dominated grassland became overwhelmingly covered with dense mats of \"C. introflexus\". However, this state was found to be only temporary, with lichens re-colonizing areas with 15-20 years. Studies have also shown that while these \"C. introflexus\" mats inhibit germination of \"Calluna vulgaris\" plants by up to 60%, seedlings germinated under the carpet grow quicker and mature faster.  Since moss carpets add more humus to the soil, the soil ecology changes. Many fly species prefer the moister microclimate produced by \"C. introflexus\" to protect their larvae from desiccation, and they are found more often around the moss beds. However, species such as ground beetles and spiders are less active and found less often in the moss-encroached dunes, most likely due to a loss of food abundance. As a result, birds such as the tawny pipit which eat arthropods have disappeared from the mossy dunes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Campylopus introflexus\" is closely related to \"Campylopus pilifer\". The name \"C. introflexus\" was used previously for \"C. pilifer\", thus all old references for \"C. introflexus\" in North America must be referred to that species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Campylopus introflexus, also known as the heath star moss, is a species of moss. The first description of the species was made by Johannes Hedwig as \"Dicranum introflexum\" in 1801.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975203}
{"src_title": "Nikolai Lobachevsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Nikolai Lobachevsky was born either in or near the city of Nizhny Novgorod in the Russian Empire (now in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia) in 1792 to parents of Polish origin – Ivan Maksimovich Lobachevsky and Praskovia Alexandrovna Lobachevskaya. He was one of three children. His father, a clerk in a land surveying office, died when he was seven, and his mother moved to Kazan. Lobachevsky attended Kazan Gymnasium from 1802, graduating in 1807 and then received a scholarship to Kazan University, which was founded just three years earlier in 1804.  At Kazan University, Lobachevsky was influenced by professor Johann Christian Martin Bartels, a former teacher and friend of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Lobachevsky received a master's degree in physics and mathematics in 1811. In 1814, he became a lecturer at Kazan University, in 1816 he was promoted to associate professor. In 1822, at the age of 30, he became a full professor, teaching mathematics, physics, and astronomy. He served in many administrative positions and became the rector of Kazan University in 1827. In 1832, he married Varvara Alexeyevna Moiseyeva. They had a large number of children (eighteen according to his son's memoirs, while only seven apparently survived into adulthood). He was dismissed from the university in 1846, ostensibly due to his deteriorating health: by the early 1850s, he was nearly blind and unable to walk. He died in poverty in 1856.  On his religious views, he was said to be an atheist..", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Lobachevsky's main achievement is the development (independently from János Bolyai) of a non-Euclidean geometry, also referred to as Lobachevskian geometry. Before him, mathematicians were trying to deduce Euclid's fifth postulate from other axioms. Euclid's fifth is a rule in Euclidean geometry which states (in John Playfair's reformulation) that for any given line and point not on the line, there is only one line through the point not intersecting the given line. Lobachevsky would instead develop a geometry in which the fifth postulate was not true. This idea was first reported on February 23 (Feb. 11, O.S.), 1826 to the session of the department of physics and mathematics, and this research was printed in the UMA (Вестник Казанского университета) in 1829–1830. Lobachevsky wrote a paper about it called \"A concise outline of the foundations of geometry\" that was published by the \"Kazan Messenger\" but was rejected when it was submitted to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences for publication.  The non-Euclidean geometry that Lobachevsky developed is referred to as hyperbolic geometry. Lobachevsky replaced Playfair's axiom with the statement that for any given point there exists \"more than\" one line that can be extended through that point and run parallel to another line of which that point is not part. He developed the angle of parallelism which depends on the distance the point is off the given line. In hyperbolic geometry the sum of angles in a hyperbolic triangle must be less than 180 degrees. Non-Euclidean geometry stimulated the development of differential geometry which has many applications. Hyperbolic geometry is frequently referred to as \"Lobachevskian geometry\" or \"Bolyai–Lobachevskian geometry\".  Some mathematicians and historians have wrongfully claimed that Lobachevsky in his studies in non-Euclidean geometry was influenced by Gauss, which is untrue. Gauss himself appreciated Lobachevsky's published works very highly, but they never had personal correspondence between them prior to the publication. Although three people—Gauss, Lobachevsky and Bolyai—can be credited with discovery of hyperbolic geometry, Gauss never published his ideas, and Lobachevsky was the first to present his views to the world mathematical community.  Lobachevsky's magnum opus \"Geometriya\" was completed in 1823, but was not published in its exact original form until 1909, long after he had died. Lobachevsky was also the author of \"New Foundations of Geometry\" (1835–1838). He also wrote \"Geometrical Investigations on the Theory of Parallels\" (1840) and \"Pangeometry\" (1855).  Another of Lobachevsky's achievements was developing a method for the approximation of the roots of algebraic equations. This method is now known as the Dandelin–Gräffe method, named after two other mathematicians who discovered it independently. In Russia, it is called the Lobachevsky method. Lobachevsky gave the definition of a function as a correspondence between two sets of real numbers (Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet gave the same definition independently soon after Lobachevsky).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impact.", "content": "E. T. Bell wrote about Lobachevsky's influence on the following development of mathematics in his 1937 book \"Men of Mathematics\":  The boldness of his challenge and its successful outcome have inspired mathematicians and scientists in general to challenge other \"axioms\" or accepted \"truths\", for example the \"law\" of causality which, for centuries, have seemed as necessary to straight thinking as Euclid's postulate appeared until Lobachevsky discarded it. The full impact of the Lobachevskian method of challenging axioms has probably yet to be felt. It is no exaggeration to call Lobachevsky the Copernicus of Geometry, for geometry is only a part of the vaster domain which he renovated; it might even be just to designate him as a Copernicus of all thought.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (; – ) was a Russian mathematician and geometer, known primarily for his work on hyperbolic geometry, otherwise known as Lobachevskian geometry and also his fundamental study on Dirichlet integrals known as Lobachevsky integral formula.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975204}
{"src_title": "Józef Elsner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Józef Elsner was born in Grottkau (Grodków), Herzogtum Neisse (Duchy of Nysa), near Breslau (Wrocław), Kingdom of Prussia, on 1 June 1769, to German Silesian Catholic parents Franz Xaver Elsner. His mother was from the famous Matzke family of Glatz, which had intensive contacts with Czech culture in Bohemia. Józef Elsner was initially educated for the priesthood at Breslau's Dominican monastery school, St. Matthew's \"Gymnasium\", and a local Jesuit college, but chose the music field. In 1832–37 he would compose nineteen religious pieces for Breslau Cathedral.  After completing his studies at Breslau (Wrocław) and being a violinist at Brünn (Brno), in 1792 he became 2nd \"Kapellmeister\" at the German Opera in Austrian-ruled Lemberg (Lviv/Lwów). There in 1796 he married Klara Abt, who died a year later. In 1799, with Wojciech Bogusławski, he went to New East Prussia (Prussian-ruled Poland) and became the principal conductor, first at the German Theatre, then at the Polish National Theatre in Warsaw.  Elsner traveled to Paris, Dresden and Posen (Poznań), where he met E.T.A. Hoffmann. Together they founded the \"Musikressource\" in 1805. In 1802 he had married a second wife, Karolina Drozdowska. Due to complaints that he preferred Germans, he resigned from theater work.  During his decades in Warsaw, Elsner's name and family life gradually polonized. Elsner's ethnicity should not be evaluated in terms of 19th- and 20th-century national identity, as he continued to refer to himself primarily as a Silesian.  In 1799-1824 Elsner was the principal conductor at Warsaw's National Theater, where he premiered a number of his operas. Elsner also taught at the Warsaw Lyceum, housed in the Kazimierz Palace.  Elsner taught the composers Ignacy Feliks Dobrzyński and Frédéric Chopin. There are also indications that he privately tutored piano composer and virtuoso Maria Szymanowska. Chopin dedicated to Elsner his Piano Sonata No. 1 in C minor, Op. 4 (1828), composed while he was studying with Elsner. As Chopin's only piano teacher in 1823-29, Elsner taught him music theory and composition; Elsner diaried of Chopin: \"Chopin, Fryderyk, third-year student, amazing capabilities, musical genius.\"  On 18 April 1854, Elsner died at his estate named for himself, Elsnerów, which now lies within the Warsaw city limits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works - summary.", "content": "Elsner's compositions included  Elsner was one of the first composers to weave elements of Polish folk music into his works.  He also wrote \"Sumariusz moich utworów muzycznych\" (\"Summary of My Musical Works\", published 1957).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works - detailed list.", "content": "List of the most important compositions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concertos.", "content": "Opus Key Solo instrument Date of composition Date of premiere", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Symphonies.", "content": "Opus Key Date of composition Date of premiere", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Józef Antoni Franciszek Elsner (sometimes \"Józef Ksawery Elsner\"; baptismal name, \"Joseph Anton Franz Elsner\"; 1 June 176918 April 1854) was a composer, music teacher, and music theoretician, active mainly in Warsaw. He was one of the first composers in Poland to weave elements of folk music into his works.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975205}
{"src_title": "Knipex", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The company was founded in 1882 by C. Gustav Putsch as a forge. In the early days manufacturing was focused on pincers and blacksmith’s tongs, initially handmade then increasingly produced using drop forging hammers and various machines. In 1942 Carl Putsch, the second generation representative, registered the “Knipex“ brand. Especially since the 1950s the program has constantly had additional types of pliers added to it. Karl Putsch took over as manager in 1954. Manufacturing operations became increasingly automated and product innovation took ever greater importance. Starting in the 1990s various subsidiaries joined the Knipex Group. The fourth generation took over the company’s reins. Foreign sales offices were established, and nowadays more than 60 percent of output is exported to numerous countries worldwide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Product line.", "content": "The program currently comprises approximately 100 types of pliers, totalling more than 900 different variants in terms of length, shape and finish. These include commonly used types of pliers such as combination pliers, side cutters and water pump pliers as well as more specialized pliers for use in electrical and plumbing installation and electronics. The range also includes special tools for cutting, stripping and crimping including tools for applications in aerospace, solar power technology and optical fiber installation. Knipex also offers a broad program of high-voltage insulated tools. Knipex has built up a reputation of being a strong innovator in its field with products like self-locking water pump pliers (\"Alligator\" pliers), precision push-button water pump pliers (\"Cobra\" pliers), high-leverage mini bolt cutters (\"Cobolt\" cutters) and parallel jaw, ratchet action wrenches (\"Pliers Wrench\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Employment and training.", "content": "More than 1,000 staff are employed at the Wuppertal site, including more than 40 trainees in different apprenticeships. There is a dedicated training workshop for industrial trainees. All trainees are offered additional works classes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manufacturing.", "content": "In addition to specializing in pliers, the company strategy includes complete in-house manufacturing. The intention here is to directly influence all the products' quality based characteristics, like precision, hardness and ease of operation. In addition to drop forging with its own tool manufacturing the production offering also includes machining (broaching, drilling, milling and grinding) as well as laser machining. The joining of the two pliers shanks - typically by riveting – is followed by repeated heat treatment (heating and tempering) as well as various surface treatments (chrome-plating, painting, polishing).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "KNIPEX Tools LP.", "content": "KNIPEX Tools LP is the North American Sales and Marketing branch of KNIPEX. Located in Arlington Heights, Illinois the company supports their markets in the United States and Canada with a professional sales, marketing, customer service and administrative staff.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knipex Group.", "content": "Knipex is the original parent company of the Knipex group, with a total of over 1,600 employees in four German production companies (\"KNIPEX-Werk\" in Wuppertal, \"RENNSTEIG Werkzeuge\" in Viernau, \"OrbisWill\" in Ahaus and \"Will\" in Neustadt) as well as a number of sales companies abroad, including the USA, Russia, China, the Middle East and Mexico.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knipex museum.", "content": "The company is home of a two story museum exhibiting machinery, tools, workplaces and everyday objects showing what working and living conditions were like in the region's tool industry in the past. The museum is open to the general public once a year as part of the Wuppertal-24h-live event.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Knipex () is a German manufacturer of pliers for professional use. The headquarters are located in Wuppertal-Cronenberg. For four generations, Knipex has been an independent, owner-managed family company.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975206}
{"src_title": "Maria Wörth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A first St. Mary's Church was erected in about 875 during the Christianization in former Carantania, led by the Bishops of Freising based at Innichen Abbey. It was first mentioned in an 894 deed as \"Maria Werd\"—because the site was at that time an island. (The Old High German term \"Wörth\" or \"Werder\", like the Slovene \"Otok\", denotes a piece of land surrounded by water.) The church served for the translation of the relics of Saints Primus and Felician and played an important role within the Christian mission in the Duchy of Carinthia.  In about 1150 Bishop Otto of Freising founded a college of canons here, and had the small \"Winterkirche\" chapel built beside the collegiate church. In 1399 both churches were destroyed by fire, and afterwards rebuilt in the present late Gothic style. The Freising Prince-Bishops gradually lost their influence in Carinthia, and about 1500 the college finally became an annex of Millstatt Abbey, led from 1598 by Jesuits.  With the Suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1773, Millstatt Abbey was dissolved and Maria Wörth passed to the re-established Bendectine St. Paul's Abbey in the Lavanttal in 1809. Not until 1903 the present-day municipality was established on territory of neighbouring Schiefling and Keutschach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights.", "content": "Maria Wörth is a centre of Austrian and European summer tourism, with 330,000 arrivals (although these numbers have declined sharply since the 1950s). Today's parish church Saints Primus and Felician stands on the highest point of the peninsula, with the neighbouring \"Winterkirche\" beneath it. It is a major pilgrimage site and, due to its romantic setting, a popular wedding church. Another tourist attraction is the nearby Pyramidenkogel, an 851-meter high mountain with a 54-meter high observation platform, the Pyramidenkogel Tower.  In 1901 the composer Gustav Mahler built a villa near the hamlet of Maiernigg, on the lakeside in the east of the municipality, where he was already using a \"composing hut\" in which most of his works written between 1900 and 1907 were composed, including his Symphonies No. 5-8. The hut is now open as a small museum. Through his friendship with Alma Mahler, the composer's widow, Alban Berg also composed at Maiernigg, which was visited by many of the Viennese artistic elite.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Wörth is a municipality in the district of Klagenfurt-Land in the Austrian state of Carinthia. The centre of the resort town is situated on a peninsula at the southern shore of the Wörthersee. In the east, the municipal area borders the Carinthian capital Klagenfurt. The municipality consists of the two Katastralgemeinden Maria Wörth and Reifnitz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975207}
{"src_title": "Adoration of the Magi (Botticelli, 1475)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Inserted Medici portraits.", "content": "In the scene numerous characters are present, among which are several members of the Medici family: Cosimo de' Medici (the Magus kneeling in front of the Virgin, described by Giorgio Vasari as \"the finest of all that are now extant for its life and vigour\"), his sons Piero (the second Magus kneeling in the centre with the red mantle) and Giovanni (the third Magus), and his grandsons Giuliano and Lorenzo. The three Medici portrayed as Magi were all dead at the time the picture was painted, and Florence was effectively ruled by Lorenzo.  Whether Botticelli's intimate relations with the Medici brothers allowed the wealthy Gaspare to introduce the portraits of their kinsmen in his altar-piece, or Gaspare was glad for this opportunity to pay a graceful compliment to these powerful personages is hard to tell. It is, however, apparent from the great pains Botticelli took with these figures, that this formed an important part of the task.  Also Gaspare himself is said to be included in the painting, as the old man on the right with white hair and a light blue robe looking and pointing at the observer. Furthermore, Botticelli is alleged to have made a self-portrait as the blonde man with yellow mantle on the far right.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "In his \"Lives\", Vasari describes the \"Adoration\" in the following way: of the heads in this scene is indescribable, their attitudes all different, some full-face, some in profile, some three-quarters, some bent down, and in various other ways, while the expressions of the attendants, both young and old, are greatly varied, displaying the artist's perfect mastery of his profession. Sandro further clearly shows the distinction between the suites of each of the kings. It is a marvelous work in colour, design and composition.  The attention to details, such as the garments rendering, shows the acquisition by the Florentine artist of the influences from the Flemish school at this point of his career.  <br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Adoration of the Magi is a painting by the Italian Renaissance master Sandro Botticelli, dating from 1475 or 1476, early in his career. The work is on display at the Uffizi in Florence. Botticelli was commissioned to paint at least seven versions of \"The Adoration of the Magi\". This version was commissioned by Gaspare di Zanobi del Lama for his funerary chapel in Santa Maria Novella.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975208}
{"src_title": "Luís de Camões", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Many details concerning the life of Camões remain unknown, but he is thought to have been born around 1524. Luís Vaz de Camões was the only child of Simão Vaz de Camões and wife Ana de Sá de Macedo. His birthplace is disputed. Lisbon the capital where he died, Coimbra where he studied or Alenquer that is frequently presented as his birthplace, based on interpretation of Lusiadas, that mentioned Alenquer several times, and the biographical poem (157) below.  “No mundo poucos anos, e cansados, vivi, cheios de vil miséria dura; foi-me tão cedo a luz do dia escura, que não vi cinco lustros acabados. Corri terras e mares apartados buscando à vida algum remédio ou cura; mas aquilo que, enfim, não quer ventura, não o alcançam trabalhos arriscados. Criou-me Portugal na verde e cara pátria minha Alenquer; mas ar corruto que neste meu terreno vaso tinha, me fez manjar de peixes em ti, bruto mar, que bates na Abássia fera e avara, tão longe da ditosa pátria minha!”,  the translation says  “In this world only some few years I lived, and tired, full of vile and hash misery; a dark Light came to me (soul) so early when I didn't even had yet 25 years old. I ran apart lands and seas seeking some medicine or cure for this in life; but what, finally, didn’t got any luck, And risky jobs did not help reach any luck.  Portugal created me in the green and dear homeland of my Alenquer; but the corruption, air that I had in this vase land, it made me now eat fish in you, rough sea, which strikes wild and mean on the Abassia, so far from my blessed homeland!“  Even with this biographic poem stating that is homeland is Alenquer, there ate still interests disputing is birth place. His mother Ana de Sá was also from Alenquer and also related do the famous humanist Damião de Gois, also from Alenquer.  Constância has a museum about him where he was a period in jail, due to that they buit statue of him can be found in the town, but it’s not said in the Constância that it was his homeland.  The Camões family was originally Galician, that passed to the northern Portuguese region of Chaves near Galicia. At an early age, his father Simão Vaz left his family to pursue personal riches in India, only to die in Goa in the following years. His mother was later remarried. His mother was from Alenquer, daughter of Jorge de Macedo, and sister in law of Rui Dias de Gois from Alenquer. Camões lived a semi-privileged life and was educated by Dominicans and Jesuits. For a period, due to his familial relations he attended the University of Coimbra, although records do not show him registered (he participated in courses in the Humanities). His uncle, Bento de Camões, is credited with this education, owing to his position as Prior at the Monastery of Santa Cruz and Chancellor at the University of Coimbra.  He frequently had access to exclusive literature, including classical Greek, Roman and Latin works; he read Latin and Italian, and wrote poetry in Spanish. Camões, as his love of poetry can attest, was a romantic and idealist. It was rumored that he fell in love with Catherine of Ataíde, lady-in-waiting to the Queen, and also Princess Maria, sister of John III of Portugal. It is also likely that an indiscreet allusion to the king in his play \"El-Rei Seleuco\", as well as these other incidents, may have played a part in his exile from Lisbon in 1548. He traveled to the Ribatejo where he stayed in the company of friends who sheltered and fed him. He stayed in the province for about six months.  He enlisted in the overseas militia, and traveled to Ceuta in the fall of 1549. During a battle with the Moors, he lost the sight in his right eye. He returned to Lisbon in 1551, a changed man, living a bohemian lifestyle. In 1552, during the religious festival of Corpus Christi, in the Largo do Rossio, he injured Gonçalo Borges, a member of the Royal Stables. Camões was imprisoned. His mother pleaded for his release, visiting royal ministers and the Borges family for a pardon. Released, Camões was ordered to pay 4,000 réis and serve three years in the militia in the Orient.  He departed in 1553 for Goa on board the \"São Bento\", commanded by Fernão Alves Cabral. The ship arrived six months later. In Goa, Camões was imprisoned for debt. He found Goa \"a stepmother to all honest men\", and he studied local customs and mastered the local geography and history. On his first expedition, he joined a battle along the Malabar Coast. The battle was followed by skirmishes along the trading routes between Egypt and India. The fleet eventually returned to Goa by November 1554. During his time ashore, he continued his writing publicly, as well as writing correspondence for the uneducated men of the fleet.  At the end of his obligatory service, he was given the position of chief warrant officer in Macau. He was charged with managing the properties of missing and deceased soldiers in the Orient. During this time he worked on his epic poem \"Os Lusíadas\" (\"The Lusiads\") in a grotto. He was later accused of misappropriations and traveled to Goa to respond to the accusations of the tribunal. During his return journey, near the Mekong River along the Cambodian coast, he was shipwrecked, saving his manuscript but losing his Chinese lover, Dinamene. His shipwreck survival in the Mekong Delta was enhanced by the legendary detail that he succeeded in swimming ashore while holding aloft the manuscript of his still-unfinished epic.  In 1570 Camões finally made it back to Lisbon, where two years later he published \"Os Lusíadas\", for which he was considered one of the most prominent Iberian poets at the time. In recompense for this poem or perhaps for services in the Far East, he was granted a small royal pension (15000 réis) by the young and ill-fated King Sebastian (ruled 1557–1578).  In 1578 he heard of the appalling defeat of the Battle of Alcácer Quibir, where King Sebastian was killed and the Portuguese army destroyed. The Castilian troops were approaching Lisbon when Camões wrote to the Captain General of Lamego: \"All will see that so dear to me was my country that I was content to die not only in it but with it\". Camões died in Lisbon in 1580, at the age of 56. The day of his death, 10 June OS, is Portugal's national day. He is entombed in the Santa Maria church, part of the Jerónimos Monastery complex, near Vasco da Gama, in the parish of Belém in Lisbon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Works by Camões", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Luís Vaz de Camões (; sometimes rendered in English as Camoens or Camoëns, e.g. by Byron in \"English Bards and Scotch Reviewers\", ; c. 1524 or 1525 – ) is considered Portugal's and the Portuguese language's greatest poet. His mastery of verse has been compared to that of Shakespeare, Vondel, Homer, Virgil and Dante. He wrote a considerable amount of lyrical poetry and drama but is best remembered for his epic work \"Os Lusíadas\" (\"The Lusiads\"). His collection of poetry \"The Parnasum of Luís de Camões\" was lost in his lifetime. The influence of his masterpiece \"Os Lusíadas\" is so profound that Portuguese is sometimes called the \"language of Camões\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975209}
{"src_title": "Stroboscopic effect", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Explanation.", "content": "Consider the stroboscope as used in mechanical analysis. This may be a \"strobe light\" that is fired at an adjustable rate. For example, an object is rotating at 60 revolutions per second: if it is viewed with a series of short flashes at 60 times per second, each flash illuminates the object at the same position in its rotational cycle, so it appears that the object is stationary. Furthermore, at a frequency of 60 flashes per second, persistence of vision smooths out the sequence of flashes so that the perceived image is continuous.  If the same rotating object is viewed at 61 flashes per second, each flash will illuminate it at a slightly earlier part of its rotational cycle. Sixty-one flashes will occur before the object is seen in the same position again, and the series of images will be perceived as if it is rotating backwards once per second.  The same effect occurs if the object is viewed at 59 flashes per second, except that each flash illuminates it a little later in its rotational cycle and so, the object will seem to be rotating forwards.  The same could be applied at other frequencies like the 50 Hz characteristic of electric distribution grids of most of countries in the world.  In the case of motion pictures, action is captured as a rapid series of still images and the same stroboscopic effect can occur.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Audio conversion from light patterns.", "content": "The stroboscopic effect also plays a role in audio playback. Compact discs rely on strobing reflections of the laser from the surface of the disc in order to be processed (it is also used for computer data). DVDs and Blu-ray Discs have similar functions.  The stroboscopic effect also plays a role for laser microphones.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wagon-wheel effect.", "content": "Motion-picture cameras conventionally film at 24 frames per second. Although the wheels of a vehicle are not likely to be turning at 24 revolutions per second (as that would be extremely fast), suppose each wheel has 12 spokes and rotates at only two revolutions per second. Filmed at 24 frames per second, the spokes in each frame will appear in exactly the same position. Hence, the wheel will be perceived to be stationary. In fact, each photographically captured spoke in any one position will be a different actual spoke in each successive frame, but since the spokes are close to identical in shape and color, no difference will be perceived. Thus, as long as the number of times the wheel rotates per second is factor of 24 and 12, the wheel will appear to be stationary.  If the wheel rotates a little more slowly than two revolutions per second, the position of the spokes is seen to fall a little further behind in each successive frame and therefore, the wheel will seem to be turning backwards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unwanted effects in common lighting.", "content": "Stroboscopic effect is one of the particular temporal light artefacts. In common lighting applications, stroboscopic effect is an unwanted effect which may become visible if a person is looking at a moving or rotating object which is illuminated by a time-modulated light source. The temporal light modulation may come from fluctuations of the light source itself or may be due to the application of certain dimming or light level regulation technologies. Another cause of light modulations is the incompatibility of a lamp with an external dimmer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dangers in workplaces.", "content": "Stroboscopic effect may lead to unsafe situations in workplaces with fast moving or rotating machinery. If the frequency of fast rotating machinery or moving parts coincides with the frequency, or multiples of the frequency, of the light modulation, the machinery can appear to be stationary, or to move with another speed, potentially leading to hazardous situations.  Because of the illusion that the stroboscopic effect can give to moving machinery, it is advised that single-phase lighting is avoided. For example, a factory that is lit from a single-phase supply with basic lighting will have a flicker of 100 or 120 Hz (depending on country, 50 Hz x 2 in Europe, 60 Hz x 2 in US, double the nominal frequency), thus any machinery rotating at multiples of 50 or 60 Hz (3000–3600rpm) may appear to not be turning, increasing the risk of injury to an operator. Solutions include deploying the lighting over a full 3-phase supply, or by using high-frequency controllers that drive the lights at safer frequencies or direct current lighting.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The stroboscopic effect is a visual phenomenon caused by aliasing that occurs when continuous motion is represented by a series of short or instantaneous samples. It occurs when the view of a moving object is represented by a series of short samples as distinct from a continuous view, and the moving object is in rotational or other cyclic motion at a rate close to the sampling rate. It also accounts for the \"wagon-wheel effect\", so-called because in video, spoked wheels (such as on horse-drawn wagons) sometimes appear to be turning backwards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975210}
{"src_title": "Michel Richard Delalande", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Paris, he was a contemporary of Jean-Baptiste Lully and François Couperin. Delalande taught music to the daughters of Louis XIV of France, and was director of the French chapel royal from 1714 until his death at Versailles in 1726.  Delalande was arguably the greatest composer of French \"grands motets\", a type of sacred work that was more pleasing to Louis XIV because of its pomp and grandeur, written for soloists, choir and comparatively large orchestra. According to tradition, Louis XIV organized a contest between composers, giving them the same sacred text and time to compose the musical setting. He alone was the judge. Delalande was one of four winners assigned to compose sacred music for each quarter of the year (the other composers being Coupillet, Collasse and Minoret). Delalande's was the most important quarter of the year because of the Christmas holiday. Later he had full responsibility for the church music for the complete year. At his death, since he left no mass of his own, the 1656 requiem of the Dukes of Lorraine by Charles d'Helfer was sung.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Delalande left many versions of his works. His earlier versions show adherence to French Baroque style, but the later revisions incorporate more Italian melismatic lines and greater attention to polyphonic counterpoint.  Also, at least four collections of his works exist, each displaying different looks at composer's work as viewed by the people who assembled each collection.  Scholarship of Delalande's work was for many years hindered because of inconsistencies in the spelling of his last name: de Lalande, Lalande, la Lande, de la Lande, and others. The family wrote the name as 'Delalande'. Finally, in 2006 the definitive \"Thematic Catalogue of the Works of Michel-Richard de Lalande (1657-1726)\" by noted British musicologist Lionel Sawkins came out which runs to 752 pages containing over 3,000 music examples and details of performing requirements and of all source materials, as well as with comprehensive indexes and thematic locators.  Vocal  Instrumental Lalande was an expert organist and harpsichordist, and yet has left not a single note of keyboard music.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michel Richard Delalande [de Lalande] (15 December 1657 – 18 June 1726) was a French Baroque composer and organist who was in the service of King Louis XIV. He was one of the most important composers of grands motets. He also wrote orchestral suites known as \"Simphonies pour les Soupers du Roy\" and ballets.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975211}
{"src_title": "Chelidonium majus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Greater celandine is a perennial herb with an erect habit, and reaches high. The blue-green leaves are pinnate with lobed and wavy margins, up to long. When injured, the plant exudes a yellow to orange latex, or sap.  The flowers consist of four yellow petals, each about long, with two sepals. A double-flowered variety occurs naturally. The flowers appear from late spring to summer, May to September (in UK), in umbelliform cymes of about 4 flowers.  The seeds are small and black, borne in a long, cylindrical capsule. Each has an elaiosome, which attracts ants to disperse the seeds (myrmecochory).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy and naming.", "content": "The greater celandine is one of the many species described by the father of taxonomy, Carl Linnaeus, in volume one of his \"Species Plantarum\" in 1753. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the name \"celandine\" comes from Late Latin \"celidonia\", from earlier Latin \"chelidonia\" or \"chelidonium\", and ultimately from Ancient Greek, from (\"chelidṓn\") \"swallow\", hence the common name \"swallowwort\". Ancient writers said that the flower bloomed when the swallows returned and faded when they left. The common name \"tetterwort\" also refers to \"Sanguinaria canadensis\"  In Devon it is also known as St John's wort.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Chelidonium majus\" is native in most regions of Europe. It is also found in North Africa in Macaronesia, Algeria and Morocco. In Western Asia it is found in the Caucasus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Siberia, Iran and Turkey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "It is considered an aggressive invasive plant in parts of North America, and an invasive plant in other areas. In Wisconsin, for example, it is a restricted plant. Control is obtained mainly via pulling or spraying the plant before seed dispersal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Constituents and pharmacology.", "content": "The whole plant is toxic in moderate doses as it contains a range of isoquinoline alkaloids; use in herbal medicine requires the correct dose. The main alkaloid present in the herb and root is coptisine. Other alkaloids present include methyl 2'-(7,8-dihydrosanguinarine-8-yl)acetate, allocryptopine, stylopine, protopine, norchelidonine, berberine, chelidonine, sanguinarine, chelerythrine, and 8-hydroxydihydrosanguinarine. Sanguinarine is particularly toxic with an of 18 mg per kg body weight (IP in rats). Caffeic acid derivatives, such as caffeoylmalic acid, are also present.  The characteristic latex also contains proteolytic enzymes and the phytocystatin chelidostatin, a cysteine protease inhibitor. It is a traditional folk remedy against warts in France.  \"Chelidonium\" is used to make Ukrain, a drug that has been promoted for, but is not known to be effective for, the treatment of cancer and viral infections.  The fresh herb is no longer used officially. No dose-finding studies exist and the reported clinical studies are characterised by a considerable heterogeneity.  Except for homeopathic medicines, the drug is no longer used in most English-speaking countries. In Germany and Switzerland, extracts of Chelidoni herba are a controversial component of the gastric remedy \"Iberogast\". The OTC-preparation is a top-selling product for the company Bayer, which is now under investigation for not warning consumers from possible hepatotoxic side-effects when taking the drug. Elevated liver-enzymes and toxic hepatitis with a documented fatality have been reported.  The plant is poisonous to chickens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Herbalism.", "content": "The aerial parts and roots of greater celandine are used in herbalism. The above-ground parts are gathered during the flowering season and dried at high temperatures. The root is harvested in autumn between August and October and dried. The fresh rhizome is also used. Celandine has a hot and bitter taste. Preparations are made from alcoholic and hot aqueous extractions (tea). The related plant bloodroot has similar chemical composition and uses as greater celandine.  As far back as Pliny the Elder and Dioscorides (1st century CE) this herb has been recognized as a useful detoxifying agent. The root has been chewed to relieve toothache. John Gerard's \"Herball\" (1597) states that \"the juice of the herbe is good to sharpen the sight, for it cleanseth and consumeth away slimie things that cleave about the ball of the eye and hinder the sight and especially being boiled with honey in a brasen vessell.\"  It was formerly used by some Romani people as a foot refresher; modern herbalists use its purgative properties. The modern herbalist Juliette de Baïracli Levy recommended greater celandine diluted with milk for the eyes and the latex for getting rid of warts. \"Chelidonium\" was a favourite herb of the French herbalist Maurice Mességué. \"Chelidonium majus\" has traditionally been used for treatment of various inflammatory diseases including atopic dermatitis. It is also traditionally used in the treatment of gallstones and dyspepsia.  The Iroquois give an infusion of whole plant, another plant and milk to pigs that drool and have sudden movements.  It was also once used to treat liver disorders, owing to the juice's resemblance to bile.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chelidonium majus, commonly known as greater celandine, nipplewort, swallowwort or tetterwort, is a herbaceous perennial plant in the poppy family Papaveraceae. It is one of two species in the genus Chelidonium. It is native to Europe and western Asia and introduced widely in North America. While the greater celandine belongs to the poppy family, the lesser celandine belongs to the buttercup family.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975212}
{"src_title": "2nd arrondissement of Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The 2nd arrondissement is Paris's smallest arrondissement, with a land area of just 0.992 km (0.383 sq. miles, or 245 acres)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "The 2nd arrondissement reached its peak of settlement in the years before 1861, although it has only existed in its current shape since the re-organization of Paris in 1860. As of the last census (in 1999), the population was 19,585, while the number of jobs provided there was 61,672 – this despite a land area of only 0.992 km, making it the arrondissement with the densest concentration of commercial activity in the capital, with an average of 62,695 jobs per km.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical population.", "content": "1", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The French newspaper \"L'Obs\" has its head office in the arrondissement. Bourbon has its head office in the arrondissement. All Nippon Airways has its Paris Office in the arrondissement. China Airlines also has its France office in the arrondissement.  Aigle Azur's registered office is in the arrondissement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "In terms of state-operated schools, the second arrondissement has three nursery schools (\"écoles maternelles\"), five primary schools (\"écoles élémentaires\"), and one high school (\"collège\").  The nursery schools are \"École Maternelle Dussoubs\", \"École Maternelle Saint Denis\", and \"École Maternelle Vivienne\". The primary schools are \"École Élémentaire Beauregard\", \"École Élémentaire Dussoubs\", \"École Élémentaire Etienne Marcel\", \"École Élémentaire Jussienne\", and \"École Élémentaire Louvois\". \"Collège César Franck\" is the sole state-operated high school in the arrondissement.  \"École Élémentaire Privée Saint-Sauveur\" is the sole private primary school institution in the second arrondissement. Private secondary school institutions include \"École du 2nd Degré Général Privée Rene Reaumur\", \"École Générale et Technologique Privée Lafayette\", \"École du 2nd degré professionnel privée CTRE PRI ENS SOINS ESTHETIQUES\", \"École du 2nd degré professionnel privée EC INTERNATIONALE DE COIFFURE\", \"École du 2nd degré professionnel privée ECOLE DE BIJOUTERIE-JOAILLERIE\", and \"École technologique privée ITECOM INST TECHN COMMUNIC\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2nd arrondissement of Paris (\"II arrondissement\") is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, this arrondissement is colloquially referred to as \"deuxième\" (second/the second).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975213}
{"src_title": "Metz Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Metz Cathedral is a Rayonnant Gothic edifice built of the local yellow Jaumont limestone. As in French Gothic architecture, the building is compact, with slight projection of the transepts and subsidiary chapels. However, it displays singular, distinctive characteristics in both its ground plan and architecture compared to most other cathedrals. Because of the topography of the Moselle valley in Metz, the common west-east axis of the ground plan could not be applied and the church is oriented north-northeast. Moreover, unlike the French and German Gothic cathedrals having three portals surmounted by a rose window and two large towers, this one has a single porch at its western front. The entrance is to the side of the building through another portal placed at the south-western side of the narthex, avoiding the usual alignment of the entrance with the choir.  The nave is supported by flying buttresses and culminates at high, making it one of the highest naves in the world. The height of the nave is contrasted by the relatively low height of the aisles at high, reinforcing the sensation of tallness of the nave. This feature permitted the architects to create large, tall expanses of stained glass. Through its history the cathedral has been subjected to architectural and ornamental modifications with successive additions of Neoclassical and Neogothic elements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction history.", "content": "The cathedral was built on an ancient site from the 5th century dedicated to Saint Stephen the Protomartyr. According to Gregory of Tours, the shrine of Saint Stephen was the sole structure spared during the sack of 451 by Attila's Huns. The construction of the present Gothic cathedral began in 1220 within the walls of an Ottonian basilica dating from the 10th century. The integration into the cathedral's ground plan of a Gothic chapel from the 12th century at the western end resulted in the absence of a main western portal, the south-western porch of the cathedral being the entrance of the former chapel. The work was completed around 1520 and the new cathedral was consecrated on 11 April 1552.  In 1755, French architect Jacques-François Blondel was commissioned by the Royal Academy of Architecture to build a Neoclassical portal at the west end of the cathedral. He separated the cathedral's façade by razing an adjacent cloister and three attached churches, and completed the westwork in 1764.  In 1877, the cathedral was heavily damaged after a conflagration caused by fireworks. After this incident, it was decided to refurbish the cathedral and its adornments in a Neogothic style. The western front was completely rebuilt between 1898 and 1903; Blondel's portal was demolished and a new Neogothic portal was added.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architectural elements and ground plan.", "content": "The following picture presents the ground plan of Saint-Stephen of Metz and the position of the architectural elements:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stained glass.", "content": "The stained glass windows, which together constitute the largest expanse of ancient stained glass in a single building, were made by the master craftsmen Hermann von Münster in the fourteenth century, and Valentin Bousch in the sixteenth. In the twentieth century the artist Marc Chagall created three stained glass windows for the cathedral between 1958 and 1968. Roger Bissière and Jacques Villon provided designs for further windows, including the complete chapel of the Holy Sacrament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Metz Cathedral, otherwise the Cathedral of Saint Stephen, Metz (), is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Metz, capital of Lorraine, France. Dedicated to Saint Stephen, it is the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Metz as the seat of the bishops of Metz. The cathedral treasury displays the collection, assembled over 1,000 years, of the bishopric of Metz, including paraments and items used for the Eucharist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975214}
{"src_title": "Anthurium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description and biology.", "content": "\"Anthurium\" is a genus of herbs often growing as epiphytes on other plants. Some are terrestrial. The leaves are often clustered and are variable in shape. The inflorescence bears small flowers which are perfect, containing male and female structures. The flowers are contained in dense spirals on the spadix. The spadix is often elongated into a spike shape, but it can be globe-shaped or club-shaped. Beneath the spadix is the spathe, a type of bract. This is variable in shape, as well, but it is lance-shaped in many species. It may extend out flat or in a curve. Sometimes it covers the spadix like a hood. The fruits develop from the flowers on the spadix. They are juicy berries varying in color, usually containing two seeds.  The spadix and spathe are a main focus of \"Anthurium\" breeders, who develop cultivars in bright colors and unique shapes. \"Anthurium scherzerianum\" and \"A. andraeanum\", two of the most common taxa in cultivation, are the only species that grow bright red spathes. They have also been bred to produce spathes in many other colors and patterns.  \"Anthurium\" plants are poisonous due to calcium oxalate crystals. The sap is irritating to the skin and eyes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Like other aroids, many species of \"Anthurium\" can be grown as houseplants, or outdoors in mild climates in shady spots. They include Anthurium species such as \"Anthurium crystallinum\" and \"Anthurium clarinervium\" with its large, velvety, dark green leaves and silvery white venation. Many hybrids are derived from \"Anthurium andraeanum\" or \"Anthurium scherzerianum\" because of their colorful spathes. They thrive in moist soils with high organic matter. In milder climates the plants can be grown in pots of soil. Indoors plants thrive at temperatures between and at lower light than other house plants. Wiping the leaves off with water will remove any dust and insects. Plants in pots with good root systems will benefit from a weak fertilizer solution every other week. In the case of vining or climbing Anthuriums, the plants benefit from being provided with a totem to climb.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Propagation.", "content": "\"Anthurium\" can be propagated by seed or vegetatively by cuttings. In the commercial \"Anthurium\" trade, most propagation is via tissue culture.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "For a full list, see the List of \"Anthurium\" species. In 1860 there were 183 species known to science, and Heinrich Wilhelm Schott defined them in 28 sections in the book \"Prodromus Systematis Aroidearum\". In 1905 the genus was revised with a description of 18 sections. In 1983 the genus was divided into the following sections:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anthurium (; Schott, 1829), is a genus of about 1000 species of flowering plants, the largest genus of the arum family, Araceae. General common names include anthurium, tailflower, flamingo flower, and laceleaf.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975215}
{"src_title": "Bernie Geoffrion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Geoffrion was born in Montreal, Quebec, and began playing in the NHL in 1951. He earned the nickname \"Boom Boom\" for his thundering slapshot (which Geoffrion claimed to have 'invented' as a youngster ) from sportswriter Charlie Boire of the \"Montreal Star\" in the late 1940s while playing junior hockey for the Laval Nationale. He was the second player in NHL history to score 50 goals in one season, the first being teammate Maurice Richard. Half the time, he played left-wing on Montreal's front line with fellow superstars Richard and Jean Béliveau, helping the Canadiens to six Stanley Cup championships, and at other times was right wing on the No. 2 line. But Geoffrion had a hard time convincing the NHL of his considerable talents; Maurice Richard, Jean Beliveau, Bobby Hull (Chicago Blackhawks) and Gordie Howe (Detroit Red Wings) were so good that they overshadowed him. Even after Geoffrion won the Art Ross Trophy as league scoring champion in 1955, NHL First All-Star honours went to Richard, while Geoffrion only was selected to the second.  However, Geoffrion's resulting anger was nothing compared to the Montreal Forum fans when Geoffrion scored one goal while crowd-favourite Richard was suspended, and at the time had led the NHL scoring race. The Wings beat the Canadiens in the final round in seven games that year, exactly the same result of the previous season. \"I couldn't deliberately \"not\" score, that isn't the point of hockey, Montreal,\" complained Geoffrion, but fans regardless kept catcalling and jeering him. \"I was so feeling the urge to vomit; I felt terrible,\" Geoffrion emotionally admitted. \"Even thinking about hockey made me feel bad, man did I want to leave. If it had not been for Jean (Béliveau) and Maurice (Richard) visiting, I would have. Usually, it's not too much to expect to be on the First (All-Star) Team when you have more points than anyone else.\"  Early in his playing career, he had a reputation for letting his temper get the best of him. One such example occurred late in the second period of a Canadiens' 3–1 loss to the Rangers at Madison Square Garden on December 20, 1953. With a two-handed swing, Geoffrion's stick made contact with the left side of Ron Murphy's face, resulting in a broken jaw and concussion. The injuries ended Murphy's season. Geoffrion was suspended for the remaining matches between the two teams in that campaign.  In a testament to the rough-and-tumble style of play of that era, Geoffrion broke his nose six times, and received over 400 stitches. In 1958, a training accident severely injured him and his life was saved by emergency surgery. Despite advice from his doctors to stop playing for a season, Geoffrion was on the ice six weeks later to take part in the 1958 Stanley Cup Final.  Geoffrion first retired in 1964 and became head coach of les AS de Québec of the American Hockey League (AHL), but returned two seasons later to play for the New York Rangers. Likely the reason for his first retirement was Béliveau (who was not one of three alternate captains), getting appointed team captain in 1961. This was following the Rocket's retirement in 1960 and Doug Harvey's trade to the Rangers in 1961 (he only lasted a year with the C). Geoffrion, who \"had\" had an A, was devastated by the decision to go with Béliveau.  \"If I didn't keep suffering all those terrible injuries and yet keep coming back, if I weren't fit to lead, would I have gotten the C and kept playing?\" asked Geoffrion, who had, in the 1961 semifinals, had a hurt leg and insisted, even so, that Harvey cut a cast off it so he could play. \"Yes, I think I would. There were times when everybody kept telling me to quit. My doctor even told me I should stop playing, but I came back.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "In 1968 he finally retired as a player and became coach of the Rangers, but resigned after only 43 games due to ulcers in his stomach. In 1972 he became the first coach of the Atlanta Flames, and held the position for two and a half seasons, leading them to their first playoff appearance in 1974. However, 52 games into his third season, he had to resign due to health problems yet again. Geoffrion moved to the Flames' broadcast booth, where he became the colour commentator alongside veteran play-by-play man Jiggs McDonald. He realized a longtime dream of coaching his beloved Canadiens in 1979, but his recurring stomach ailment forced him to step down mid-season.  In the 1970s and into the 1980s, Geoffrion appeared in several television commercials for Miller Lite beer, part of their stable of retired athletes-turned-spokesmen which also included Billy Martin and Bob Uecker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Geoffrion was the son of Jean-Baptiste Geoffrion, a restaurant owner, and his wife, Florina Poitras. He grew up in Drolet, a suburb east of Montreal. Geoffrion was a direct descendant of Pierre Joffrion and his wife Marie Priault, early French settlers in the colony of Montreal. Marie Priault was a King's Daughter.  Geoffrion's widow Marlene is the daughter of fellow Hockey Hall of Famer Howie Morenz and the granddaughter of the sister of the wife of Billy Coutu, the only player banned from the NHL for life. Geoffrion's son Dan (born January 24, 1958) played five seasons of professional hockey, which included stops with the Quebec Nordiques of the World Hockey Association in 1978–79, Canadiens in 1979–80 (with his father as coach), and Winnipeg Jets in 1980–81. His grandson Blake Geoffrion (born February 3, 1988) played for the Nashville Predators and Montreal Canadiens in the NHL. Dan's younger sons, Sebastian and Brice, played for the University of Alabama in Huntsville Chargers. Geoffrion's son-in-law, Hartland Monahan, played in the NHL for several teams in the 1970s, and his grandson Shane Monahan played Major League Baseball for the Seattle Mariners in the late 1990s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retired number.", "content": "The Canadiens announced on October 15, 2005, that Geoffrion's uniform number, 5, would be retired on March 11, 2006. On March 8, Geoffrion was diagnosed with stomach cancer after a surgical procedure uncovered it. Doctors attempted to remove the tumour but found that the cancer had spread. Geoffrion died in Atlanta, Georgia, on March 11, the day his jersey number was to be retired. During his remarks at the pre-game retirement ceremony, Geoffrion's son Bob recounted how his parents had once gone to a boxing match at the Montreal Forum and that Geoffrion had told his wife Marlene that his own number would someday hang from the rafters beside that of her father, Howie Morenz. Fulfilling that prophecy, and in further recognition of the special link between the Morenz and Geoffrion families, the two numbers were raised side by side (Morenz's banner was lowered halfway and was raised back up to the rafters with Geoffrion's banner). Traded to the Montreal Canadiens by the Nashville Predators on February 17, 2012, Blake Geoffrion decided to honor both his grandfather Geoffrion, as well as his great-grandfather Morenz, by wearing #57.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Bernard André Geoffrion (; February 14, 1931 – March 11, 2006), nicknamed Boom Boom, was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and coach. Generally considered as one of the innovators of the slapshot, he was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1972 following a 16-year career with the Montreal Canadiens and New York Rangers of the National Hockey League. In 2017 Geoffrion was named one of the '100 Greatest NHL Players' in history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975216}
{"src_title": "Dempster Highway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Route description.", "content": "The highway begins east of Dawson City, Yukon on the Klondike Highway. There are no highway or major road intersections along the highway's route. It extends in a north-northeasterly direction to Inuvik, passing through Tombstone Territorial Park and crossing the Ogilvie and Richardson mountain ranges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Dempster Highway roughly follows the old dog sled route from Dawson City to Fort McPherson and is named for Corporal (later Inspector) William Dempster of the North-West Mounted Police.  During the late 19th century, and in response to the Klondike Gold Rush, the North-West Mounted Police established a presence in the Yukon and Northwest Territories. Their activities included winter dog sled patrols between outposts and communities. One such patrol followed a route from Dawson City to the NWMP outpost at Fort McPherson, established in 1903.  In December 1910, NWMP Inspector Francis Joseph Fitzgerald led three men on the annual winter patrol from Fort McPherson to Dawson City. They became lost on the trail, and subsequently died of exposure and starvation. When they failed to arrive in Dawson City as expected, Corporal Dempster and two constables were sent out on a rescue patrol in March 1911. Dempster and his men found the bodies of Fitzgerald's patrol on March 22, 1911.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "In 1958, as oil and gas exploration were expanding in the Mackenzie Delta, the Canadian government decided to build a road from Dawson City in Yukon to Aklavik in the Northwest Territories. The road was intended as an overland, year-round supply link to southern Canada. Survey work began in 1958.  With the August, 1959, discovery of oil in the Eagle Plains area, the government granted concessions to the oil industry to stimulate more exploration in the area. This provided more motivation for a road to transport equipment, infrastructure, and revenue to and from the sites. Construction of the road, then known as Yukon Territorial Road No. 11, began at Dawson City in January 1959.  Seasonal maintenance of the existing road continued but no further work was done. In 1964, the road was renamed the Dempster Highway, after petitions by Vancouver Yukoners Association and the Yukon Order of Pioneers. Construction resumed in 1970 as the Canadian government sought to assert sovereignty over their Arctic territories after the American discovery of oil and gas deposits at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska in 1968. Work was further motivated by speculation that an oil pipeline might be built in the Mackenzie Valley.  At the time of its construction, the highway was the most northerly major road project to date. Weather and daylight conditions presented challenges. In 1979, a work crew was trapped in a blizzard in the Richardson Mountains and was almost lost. Construction had to account for the permafrost; heat transfer from the highway to the ground had to be prevented so the permafrost would not melt. To address this, the road was built on top of a gravel berm, ranging from 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) up to 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in), to insulate the permafrost from the road above. Some construction was completed by the Canadian Forces; 3 Field Squadron, RCE from CFB Chilliwack built bridges over the Ogilvie River in 1971 and the Eagle River in 1977.  The final section of road was completed in 1978, at a cost of $132 million. The highway was officially opened on August 18, 1979, at Flat Creek, Yukon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dempster Highway, also referred to as Yukon Highway 5 and Northwest Territories Highway 8, is a highway in Canada that connects the Klondike Highway in Yukon to Inuvik, Northwest Territories on the Mackenzie River delta. The highway crosses the Peel River and the Mackenzie Rivers using a combination of seasonal ferry service and ice bridges. Year-round road access from Inuvik to Tuktoyaktuk opened in November 2017 with the completion of the Inuvik-Tuktoyaktuk Highway, creating the first all-weather road route, connecting to the Canadian road network with the Arctic Ocean, in Canada.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975217}
{"src_title": "Pavlov's House", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Siege.", "content": "The house was a four-story building in the center of Stalingrad, built perpendicular to the embankment of the river Volga and overseeing the \"9th January Square\", a large square named for Bloody Sunday. In late September 1942, between 30 and 50 soldiers of the 42nd Guards Regiment, 13th Guards Division secured the large apartment blocks from German control, following its reconnoiter by four soldiers four days prior which Yakov Pavlov himself led.  The position was quickly fortified under the command of Lieutenant Ivan F. Afanasiev, who ordered the men to lay land mines in all approaches to the square, barbed wire around the perimeter of the apartment block, and to position multiple machine guns in the windows as well as a PTRS anti tank rifle. The Soviets also had large amounts of artillery support from the opposite side of the Volga. Supply and communication trenches were created leading from the rear of Pavlov’s House to the river bank of the Volga, which would receive supply from supply vessels which were often barraged by German artillery when crossing the river.  The strategic benefit of the house was that it defended a key section of the Volga bank. The tactical benefit of the house was its position on a cross-street, giving the defenders a line of sight to the north, south and west. After several days, reinforcements and resupply arrived for Pavlov's men, bringing the unit up to a 25-man understrength platoon and equipping the defenders with machine guns, anti-tank rifles, and mortars. In keeping with Stalin's Order No. 227—\"not one step back\"—Sergeant Pavlov was ordered to fortify the building and defend it to the last bullet and the last man. Taking this advice to heart, Pavlov ordered the building to be surrounded with four layers of barbed wire and minefields, and set up machine-gun posts in every available window facing the square. In the early stages of the defense, Pavlov discovered that an anti-tank rifle—a PTRS-41—he had mounted on the roof was particularly effective when used to ambush unsuspecting German tanks; once the tanks had approached to within range of the building, their thin turret-roof armor became exposed to AT rifle fire from above, and they were unable to elevate their weapons enough to retaliate.  For better internal communication, Pavlov's soldiers breached the walls in the basement and upper floors, and dug a communications trench to Soviet positions outside. Supplies were brought in via the trench or by boats crossing the river, defying German air raids and shelling. Nevertheless, food and especially water was in short supply. Lacking beds, the soldiers tried to sleep on insulation wool torn off pipes but were subjected to harassing fire every night in order to try to break their resistance.  The Germans attacked the building several times a day. Each time German infantry or tanks tried to cross the square and to close in on the house, Pavlov's men laid down a withering barrage of machine gun and AT rifle fire from the basement, the windows and the roof. The defenders, as well as the civilians hiding in the basement, were eventually relieved by counter-attacking Soviet forces after holding out from 27 September to 25 November 1942.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uncertainty on dates.", "content": "Sources conflict on the date at which the siege began, and the date at which the Soviet reinforcements reached the building and lifted the siege.  \"On September 27, a 30-man Russian platoon was ordered to retake a four-story apartment building the Germans had just captured... until November 25, 1942, [...]\"  \"[...] the defenders of Pavlov's House who participated in defense from 26 September 1942 till 25 November 1942.\"  \"The defense of the house lasted for 58 days and nights.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolic meaning.", "content": "Pavlov's House became a symbol of the stubborn and dogged resistance of the Russian forces during the Battle of Stalingrad, which eventually ended in a decisive victory for the Soviet forces after months of massive casualties on both sides. The inability of the German blitzkrieg to make headway against such grinding and self-sacrificial attrition warfare made the failure to capture Pavlov's House (despite numerous attempts) stand out as a symbol of resistance against a vastly superior force.  Vasily Chuikov, commanding general of the Soviet forces in Stalingrad, later joked that the Germans lost more men trying to take Pavlov's House than they did taking Paris.  Pavlov's \"House\" was rebuilt after the battle and is still used as an apartment building today. There is an attached memorial constructed from bricks picked up after the battle on the East side facing the Volga.  Pavlov was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union for his actions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent reporting.", "content": "A Russian TV documentary in 2009, \"Legendary Redoubt\", (Легендарный редут) on the Russian Channel One reported on Pavlov's House. According to the documentary, the house's defense was in fact led by Lieutenant Ivan F. Afanasiev (Иван Ф. Афанасьев). This report does not discount Pavlov's efforts, which led to his earning the Hero of the Soviet Union and those soldiers who took part in the defense, earning numerous decorations of their own. The last member of Pavlov's group, Kamoljon Turgunov from Turakurgan District, Namangan Province, Uzbekistan died on 16 March 2015, aged 93.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pavlov's House ( tr. \"Dom Pavlova\") was a fortified apartment building which Red Army defenders held for 60 days against a heavy \"Wehrmacht\" offensive during the Battle of Stalingrad. The siege lasted from 27 September to 25 November 1942 and eventually the Red Army managed to relieve it from the siege.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975218}
{"src_title": "2006 FIBA World Championship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Squads.", "content": "At the start of tournament, all 24 participating countries had 12 players on their roster.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competing nations.", "content": "The following national teams competed:  Japan qualified as the host country, and Italy, Puerto Rico, Serbia and Montenegro, and Turkey gained FIBA wild-card invitations. Argentina qualified as the champion of the 2004 Olympics. The remaining 18 countries qualified through their continents' qualifying tournaments (six from Europe, four from the Americas, three from each of Asia and Africa and two from Oceania).  The draw for the 2006 World Championship was held in Tokyo on 15 January 2006. In the preliminary rounds, Group A played at Sendai, Group B at Hiroshima, Group C at Hamamatsu and Group D at Sapporo. The Medal Rounds were played at Saitama.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary rounds.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A (Sendai).", "content": "August 19, 2006 August 20, 2006 August 21, 2006 August 23, 2006 August 24, 2006", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B (Hiroshima).", "content": "August 19, 2006 August 20, 2006 August 21, 2006 August 23, 2006 August 24, 2006", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group C (Hamamatsu).", "content": "August 19, 2006 August 20, 2006 August 22, 2006 August 23, 2006 August 24, 2006", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group D (Sapporo).", "content": "August 19, 2006 August 20, 2006 August 22, 2006 August 23, 2006 August 24, 2006", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Knockout stage.", "content": "Venue: Saitama Super Arena", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "Since the inaugural competition one of the two teams competing for the title had been either the USA or Yugoslavia. After the latter's breakup, a Former Yugoslav Republic, Serbia, has taken its place in the final. The 2006 final was the first (the second was in 2019 also including Spain) in which none of these two teams competed. The final was an unexpectedly one-sided affair, with Spain dominating from the beginning and limiting Greece to just 47 points, fewer than the Greeks had scored in any single game in the tournament, and less than half what Greece had scored against the US in the semifinals. Spain won despite having lost power forward Pau Gasol, who was ultimately named the tournament's most valuable player, to injury in a semifinal match against Argentina.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Referees.", "content": "For the World Championship, FIBA selected 40 professional referees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sponsorship.", "content": "• McDonald's", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2006 FIBA World Championship was the 15th FIBA World Championship, the international basketball world championship for men's teams. The tournament was hosted by Japan and held from August 19 to September 3, 2006. It was co-organised by the International Basketball Federation (FIBA), Japan Basketball Association (JABBA) and the 2006 Organizing Committee.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975219}
{"src_title": "Ami Boué", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Proceeding to Edinburgh to study medicine at the university, he came under the influence of Robert Jameson, whose teachings in geology and mineralogy inspired his future career. Boué was thus led to make geological expeditions to various parts of Scotland and the Hebrides, and after taking his degree of M.D. in 1817 he settled for some years in Paris.  In 1820 he issued his \"Essai géologique sur l'Écosse\", in which the eruptive rocks in particular were carefully described. He travelled much in Germany, Austria and southern Europe, studying various geological formations, and becoming one of the pioneers in geological research; he was one of the founders of the Société Géologique de France in 1830, and was its president in 1835. In 1841 he settled in Vienna, and became naturalized as an Austrian.  To the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna he communicated important papers on the geology of the Balkan States (1859–1870), and he also published \"Mémoires géologiques et paléontologiques\" (Paris, 1832) and \"La Turquie d'Europe; observations sur la geographie, la géologie, l'histoire naturelle\", etc. (Paris, 1840).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Boué was an advocate of transmutation of species. He was influenced by the evolutionary views of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.  He was supportive of spontaneous generation and argued that spontaneously generated organisms existed at the microscopic level between animals and plants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Ami Boué Peak on Graham Land in Antarctica and Ami Boué Street in Sofia, Bulgaria are named after Ami Boué.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ami Boué (16 March 179421 November 1881) was a geologist of French origin. He was born at Hamburg, and received his early education there and in Geneva and Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975220}
{"src_title": "Sascha Schneider", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Schneider was born in Saint Petersburg in 1870. During his childhood, his family lived in Zürich, but following the death of his father, Schneider moved to Dresden, where in 1889 he became a student at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts. In 1903, he met best-selling author Karl May, and subsequently became the cover illustrator of a number of May's books including \"Winnetou\", \"Old Surehand\", \"Am Rio de la Plata\". A year later in 1904, Schneider was appointed professor at the \"Großherzoglich-Sächsische Kunstschule Weimar\".  During this period, Schneider lived with painter Hellmuth Jahn. Jahn began blackmailing Schneider by threatening to expose his homosexuality, which was punishable under § 175 of the penal code. Schneider fled to Italy, where homosexuality was not criminalized at that time. In Italy, Schneider met painter Robert Spies, with whom he traveled through the Caucasus Mountains. He then traveled back to Germany, where he lived for six months in Leipzig before returning to Italy, where he resided in Florence. When the First World War started, Schneider returned to Germany again, taking up residence in Hellerau (near Dresden). After 1918, he co-founded an institute called \"Kraft-Kunst\" for bodybuilding. Some of the models for his art trained here.  Schneider, who suffered from diabetes mellitus, suffered a diabetic seizure during a ship voyage in the vicinity of Swinemünde. As a result, he collapsed and died in 1927 in Swinemünde. He was buried in Loschwitz Cemetery, Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Schneider's painting Hypnosis (in Gallery below) inspired a key shot in the Robert Eggers film \"The Lighthouse\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudolph Karl Alexander Schneider, commonly known as Sascha Schneider (21 September 1870 – 18 August 1927), was a German painter and sculptor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975221}
{"src_title": "Product information management", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Electronic catalogs.", "content": "Procurement systems and online shopping platforms such as online marketplaces are based upon electronic catalogs. PIM systems can load descriptive product information as content into a catalog management solution, where products are grouped and managed for specific target markets. Data exchange interface standards such as Open ICEcat allow seamless interchange of electronic catalogs between vendors on the one hand and purchasing firms and marketplace operators on the other. Procurement solutions are closely related, which automate the procurement process for purchasing goods and services. These create transparency for the product data of multiple vendors to support the centralized management of multi-supplier catalogs and facilitate price and quality research.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leading PIM vendors.", "content": "According to the latest report published by independent technology research company Gartner, the Magic Quadrant for Master Data Management Solutions (a merger of MDM Customer and PIM solutions covering now Multidomain MDM) published January 19, 2017, contains two companies in the visionaries leader quadrant, Informatica and Orchestra Networks. Both provide a solid Multidomain MDM solution, where Product is one of the domains. Compared to the Magic Quadrant report for Master Data Management of Product Data Solutions in 2016 we see them, then leading vendors in the market Oracle, IBM, Stibo Systems, Riversand and Tibco Software are reshuffled due to the fact other criteria are used to make up the qualification. Informatica was already present with both their MDM solutions for products in the 2016 report and the combination made them leader in 2017.  A general criticism regarding Gartner and Forrester is that their research is not independent, but that it's pay to play.  Capgemini, the independent system integrator, mentions the leading PIM sources GDSN, Icecat, Syndy, Brandbank (Nielsen Holdings), Salsify, and Shotfarm in their 2017 report.  PS Market Research, another technology research company, identified and ranked leading Product Information Management players CNET, Icecat, IBM, Oracle, Red Hat, Inc., Software AG, Pegasystems Inc., Open Text Corp., and BP Logix..  RnR Market, another technology research company, identified in their 2016 \"Product Information Management Market\" report the key vendors being Adam Systems, Agility Multichannel, IBM, Informatica, inRiver, Oracle, Pimcore, Riversand, SAP AG, Stibo Systems.  Ventana Research, another technology research company, identified and ranked leading Product Information Management vendors Stibo Systems, Informatica, Akeneo, Agility Multichannel, Catsy, Riversand, Sales Layer,Quable,eTEAM PIM, Enterworks, SAP, Bluestone PIM, Oracle, ADAM software and IBM in their 2015 Value Index. The evaluation was based on usability, capability, validation, and ROI.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Link with enterprise content management.", "content": "Enterprise content management is a term encompassing technologies, methods and tools used for gathering, imaging, storing, archiving and providing electronic content. Distinction can be made between four separate sub-areas. Document management systems (DMS) are deployed for archiving, and PDM involves the management of structured, technical data for such applications as parts diagrams and lists. Content management systems (CMS) are more commercially oriented and provide a framework for knowledge management or informational service offerings through the management of unstructured, document-type content. PIM systems are used to manage structured data in a business context for feeding into any kind of distribution channel, from electronic catalogs to online shops to print catalogs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Product information management (PIM) is the process of managing all the information required to market and sell products through distribution channels. This product data is created by an internal organization to support a multichannel marketing strategy. A central hub of product data can be used to distribute information to sales channels such as e-commerce websites, print catalogs, marketplaces such as Amazon and Google Shopping, social media platforms like Instagram and electronic data feeds to trading partners.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975222}
{"src_title": "Battle of Dresden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "On the 16 August, Napoleon had sent Marshal Saint-Cyr's corps to fortify and hold Dresden in order to hinder allied movements and to serve as a possible base for his own manoeuvres. He planned to strike against the interior lines of his enemies and defeat them in detail, before they could combine their full strength. He had a field army of 442,810 men and 1,284 guns in 559 battalions and 395 squadrons against Allied field forces totaling 512,113 men in 556 battalions, 572 squadrons and 68 Cossack regiments, and 1,380 guns.  The Coalition avoided battle with Napoleon himself, choosing to attack his subordinate commanders as per the Trachenberg Plan. On the 23 August, at the Battle of Grossbeeren, south of Berlin, Crown Prince Charles of Sweden (formerly French Marshal Bernadotte, Napoleon's own Marshal) defeated his old comrade Marshal Oudinot. On the 26 August, Prussian Marshal Blücher crushed Marshal MacDonald's army at the Battle of Katzbach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "On the same day as Katzbach, Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, the commander of the Austrian force of over 200,000 men of the Austrian Army of Bohemia and accompanied by Francis II, Alexander I, and Frederick William III, attacked Saint-Cyr. In Dresden, French infantry manned the various redoubts and defensive positions. They hoped to last long enough for reinforcements to arrive. Napoleon arrived quickly and unexpectedly with reinforcements to repel this assault on the city. French counterattacks on the Great Garden in the southeast and on the allied center were successful, and by nightfall the French had regained almost all of Saint-Cyr's original positions.  Although outnumbered three to two, Napoleon attacked the following morning on the 27 August, turned the allied left flank, and won an impressive tactical victory. The flooded Weisseritz cut the left wing of the Allied army, commanded by Johann von Klenau and Ignaz Gyulai, from the main body. Marshal Joachim Murat took advantage of this isolation and inflicted heavy losses on the Austrians. A French participant observed, \"Murat... cut off from the Austrian army Klenau's corps, hurling himself upon it at the head of the carabineers and cuirassiers.... Nearly all his [Klenau's] battalions were compelled to lay down their arms, and two other divisions of infantry shared their fate.\" Of Klenau's force, Lieutenant Field Marshal Joseph, Baron von Mesko de Felsö-Kubiny's division of five infantry regiments was surrounded and captured by Murat's cavalry, which amounted to approximately 13,000 men, and 15 colours. Gyulai's divisions also suffered serious losses when they were attacked by Murat's cavalry during a rainstorm. With damp flints and powder, their muskets would not fire and many battalions became an easy prey to the French cuirassiers and dragoons.  However, Napoleon's failure to follow up on his success allowed Schwarzenberg to withdraw and narrowly escape encirclement. The Coalition had lost some 38,000 men and 40 guns. French casualties totaled around 10,000. Some of Napoleon's officers noted he was \"suffering from a violent colic, which had been brought on by the cold rain, to which he had been exposed during the whole of the battle.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "On the 27 August, General Vandamme received orders to advance on Pirna and bridge the Elbe there. This was accomplished in a pouring rain, without disturbing the Russians drawn up on the heights of Zehista. This advance by Vandamme resulted in the Battle of Kulm three days later. Napoleon's old rival Jean Victor Marie Moreau who had only recently returned from his banishment from the United States was talking to the Tsar (who wished to see Napoleon defeated) and was mortally wounded in the battle, dying later on the 2 September in Louny.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hoffman.", "content": "The author and composer E. T. A. Hoffmann happened to be in Dresden during the battle, being at the time employed by a locally based orchestra. On the 22 August, after the end of the armistice, the Hoffmann Family was forced to relocate from their pleasant house in the suburbs into the town. During the next few days, as the battle raged, they experienced the ongoing bombardments. As Hoffman later recounted, many people were killed by bombs directly in front of him. After the main battle was over, he visited the gory battlefield. His account can be found in \"Vision auf dem Schlachtfeld bei Dresden\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Dresden (26–27 August 1813) was a major engagement of the Napoleonic Wars. The battle took place around the city of Dresden in modern-day Germany. With the recent addition of Austria, the Sixth Coalition felt emboldened in their quest to expel the French from Central Europe. Despite being heavily outnumbered, French forces under Napoleon scored a victory against the Allied army led by Field Marshal Schwarzenberg. However, Napoleon's victory did not lead to the collapse of the coalition, and the lack of effective French cavalry units, caused by a very heavy loss of French horses during the past 1812 French invasion of Russia, precluded a major pursuit. Three days after the battle, the Allies surrounded and captured a French corps at the Battle of Kulm.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975223}
{"src_title": "Herstal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Merovingian and Carolingian golden age.", "content": "The proximity of the Meuse River and the abundance of local resources attracted settlers in this area since the fifth millennium BC. Around the end of the Roman era and at the beginning of the Merovingian period, the hamlet had become a fortified stronghold. The major road that linked Tongeren to Aachen crossed the Meuse here, where a ferry likely carried travelers to Jupille.  The name Herstal is of Franconian origin, consisting of the elements \"hari\" (\"army\") and \"stal\" (\"resting place\", compare \"stable\"). The first mention of Herstal is in Latin documents from ±718 (\"Cheristalius\" corrected to \"Charistalius\") and 723 (\"Harastallius\"). The first possibly non-Latinized occurrences are \"Eristail\" (in 919) and \"Harstail\" (1197). Pippin of Herstal (ca 635–714), Mayor of the Palace and de facto ruler of Austrasia and Neustria and founder of the family that established the Carolingian dynasty, probably chose this location as his main residence because of its proximity to the major cities of Tongeren, Maastricht, and Liège. Pippin was the father of Charles Martel, victor of the decisive Battle of Tours that stopped the Arab-Muslim advance into northwestern Europe, and great grandfather of Charlemagne, also supposedly born in Herstal. Charlemagne lived for at least fifteen years in Herstal but later established his capital in Aachen, ending Herstal's period of medieval glory as capital of the empire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Late Middle Ages until now.", "content": "The town was incorporated into the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia, which became part of the Duchy of Brabant at the end of the 12th century. Despite its proximity to Liège, the territory of Herstal did not become part of the Bishopric of Liège until 1740, when the prince-bishop Georges-Louis de Berghes bought it from Frederick II of Prussia. By that time, the town was mainly known for its able craftsmen: ceramists, blacksmiths, and clockmakers.  In the 19th century, Herstal became a city of coal and steel. It would, however, become world-famous thanks to the foundation of the Fabrique Nationale, a major armament factory, in 1889. Several motorcycle manufacturers also established themselves in town. On August 7, 1914, at the very beginning of World War I, the invading German army executed 27 civilians and destroyed 10 homes in Herstal. After World War II, heavy industry saw a prolonged period of decline, drastically reducing the number of jobs in these areas. Today, Herstal's economy is picking up again, with more than 200 companies established on its territory, including Techspace, which manufactures precision parts for the European Space Agency’s Ariane rocket.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Herstal is a left-wing/socialist stronghold. It was also the strongest area in support of the far-left Workers' Party of Belgium in the 2019 elections, gaining 27.55% of the votes in Herstal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Herstal, formerly known as Heristal, or Héristal, is a municipality of Belgium. It lies in the country's Walloon Region and Province of Liège along the Meuse river. Herstal is included in the \"Greater Liège\" agglomeration, which counts about 600,000 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975224}
{"src_title": "Irving Penn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Penn was born to a Russian Jewish family on June 16, 1917 in Plainfield, New Jersey, to Harry Penn and Sonia Greenberg. Penn's younger brother, Arthur Penn, was born in 1922 and would go on to become a film director and producer. Penn attended Abraham Lincoln High School where he studied graphic design with Leon Friend.  Penn attended the Philadelphia Museum School of Industrial Art (now the University of the Arts) from 1934 to 1938, where he studied drawing, painting, graphics, and industrial arts under Alexey Brodovitch. While still a student, Penn worked under Brodovitch at \"Harper's Bazaar\" which published several of Penn's drawings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Penn worked for three years as a freelance designer and making his first amateur photographs before taking Brodovitch's position as the art director at Saks Fifth Avenue in 1940. Penn remained at Saks Fifth Avenue for a year before leaving to spend a year painting and taking photographs in Mexico and across the US. When Penn returned to New York, Alexander Liberman offered him a position as an associate in the \"Vogue\" magazine Art Department. Penn worked on layout for the magazine before Liberman asked him to try photography.  Penn's first photographic cover for \"Vogue\" magazine appeared in October 1943. The art department of the Office of War Information in London offered him a job as an \"artist-photographer\" but he volunteered with the American Field Service instead. After arriving in Naples with a boatload of American troops in November 1944. Penn drove an ambulance in support of the British Eighth Army as it alternately waited out weather and slogged its way north through a miserable winter in the Italian Apennines. In July 1945, he was transferred from Italy to India. He photographed the soldiers, medical operations, and camp life for the AFS, and various subjects while bivouacked in India. He sailed back to New York in November 1945.  Penn continued to work at \"Vogue\" throughout his career, photographing covers, portraits, still lifes, fashion, and photographic essays. In the 1950s, Penn founded his own studio in New York and began making advertising photographs. Over the years, Penn's list of clients grew to include General Foods, De Beers, Issey Miyake, and Clinique.  Penn met Swedish fashion model Lisa Fonssagrives at a photo shoot in 1947. In 1950, the two married at Chelsea Register Office, and two years later Lisa gave birth to their son, Tom Penn, who would go on to become a metal designer. Lisa Fonssagrives died in 1992. Penn died aged 92 on October 7, 2009 at his home in Manhattan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photography.", "content": "Best known for his fashion photography, Penn's repertoire also includes portraits of creative greats; ethnographic photographs from around the world; Modernist still lifes of food, bones, bottles, metal, and found objects; and photographic travel essays.  Penn was among the first photographers to pose subjects against a simple grey or white backdrop and he effectively used its simplicity. Expanding his austere studio surroundings, Penn constructed a set of upright angled backdrops, to form a stark, acute corner. Subjects photographed with this technique included John Hersey, Martha Graham, Marcel Duchamp, Pablo Picasso, Georgia O'Keeffe, W. H. Auden, and Igor Stravinsky.  Penn's still life compositions are sparse and highly organized, assemblages of food or objects that articulate the abstract interplay of line and volume. Penn's photographs are composed with a great attention to detail, which continues into his craft of developing and making prints of his photographs. Penn experimented with many printing techniques, including prints made on aluminum sheets coated with a platinum emulsion rendering the image with a warmth that untoned silver prints lacked. His black and white prints are notable for their deep contrast, giving them a clean, crisp look.  While steeped in the Modernist tradition, Penn also ventured beyond creative boundaries. The exhibition \"Earthly Bodies\" consisted of series of posed nudes whose physical shapes range from thin to plump; while the photographs were taken in 1949 and 1950, they were not exhibited until 1980.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major collections.", "content": "The Art Institute of Chicago holds the Irving Penn Paper and Photographic Archives, which were donated to the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries and the Department of Photography in 1995. In addition, the Art Institute of Chicago has more than 200 of Penn's fine art prints in its collection, and has mounted several exhibitions of work by the artist including the retrospective \"Irving Penn: A Career in Photography\" (1997–1998) which traveled internationally as well as \"Irving Penn: Underfoot\" (2013).  The Smithsonian American Art Museum (SAAM) possesses a large collection of Penn's works, including a silver gelatin print of Penn's \"The Tarot Reader\", a photograph from 1949 of Jean Patchett and surrealist painter Bridget Tichenor. In 2013, the museum received 100 images as a gift from the Irving Penn Foundation, significantly increasing the number of Penn's works in the collection to 161 images. The Irving Penn Foundation's gift formed the basis of the exhibition, \"Irving Penn: Beyond Beauty,\" which was shown at SAAM before traveling to other museum venues around the United States.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Irving Penn (June 16, 1917October 7, 2009) was an American photographer known for his fashion photography, portraits, and still lifes. Penn's career included work at \"Vogue\" magazine, and independent advertising work for clients including Issey Miyake and Clinique. His work has been exhibited internationally and continues to inform the art of photography.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975225}
{"src_title": "Herbert Huncke", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Greenfield, Massachusetts, and reared in Chicago, Herbert Huncke was a street hustler, high school dropout and drug user. He left Chicago as a teenager after his parents divorced and began living as a hobo, jumping trains throughout the United States and bonding with other vagrants through shared destitution and common experience. Although Huncke later came to regret his loss of family ties, in his autobiography, \"Guilty of Everything\", he states that his lengthy jail sentences were a partial result of his lack of family support.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "New York City and Times Square.", "content": "Huncke hitchhiked to New York City in 1939. He was dropped off at 103rd and Broadway, and he asked the driver how to find 42nd Street. \"You walk straight down Broadway,\" the man said, \"and you will find 42nd Street.\" Huncke, always a stylish dresser, bought a boutonnière for his jacket and headed for 42nd Street. For the next 10 years, Huncke was a 42nd Street regular and became known as the \"Mayor of 42nd Street.\"  At this point, Huncke's regular haunts were 42nd Street and Times Square, where he associated with a variety of people, including prostitutes (both male and female) and sailors. During World War II, Huncke shipped out to sea as a United States Merchant Marine to ports in South America, Africa and Europe. He landed on the beach of Normandy three days after the invasion.  Aboard ships, Huncke would overcome his drug addiction or maintain it with morphine syrettes supplied by the ship medic. When he returned to New York, he returned to 42nd Street, and it was after one such trip where he met the then-unknown William S. Burroughs, who was selling a sub-machine gun and a box of syrettes. Their first meeting was not cordial: from Burroughs' appearance and manner, Huncke suspected that he was \"heat\" (undercover police or FBI). Assured that Burroughs was harmless, Huncke bought the morphine and, at Burroughs' request, immediately gave him an injection. Burroughs later wrote a fictionalized account of the meeting in his first novel, \"Junkie\". Huncke also became a close friend of Joan Adams Vollmer Burroughs, William's common-law wife, sharing with her a taste for amphetamines. In the late 1940s he was invited to Texas to grow marijuana on the Burroughs farm. It was here he renewed his acquaintance with the young Abe Green, a fellow train jumper and much later on in the early beatnik scene, a regular reciter of his own enigmatic brand of spontaneous poetry. Despite his comparative youth, Green was often referred to by Huncke as \"Old Faithful\". Huncke valued loyalty and it is thought that Abe Green was of \"inestimable assistance\" to Lucien Carr and Jack Kerouac when it came to the concealment of the weapon used to kill David Kammerer some years later.  During the late 1940s, Huncke was recruited to be a subject in Alfred Kinsey's research on the sexual habits of the American male. He was interviewed by Kinsey, and recruited fellow addicts and friends to participate. Huncke had been a writer, unpublished, since his days in Chicago and gravitated toward literary types and musicians. In the music world, Huncke visited all the jazz clubs and associated with Billie Holiday, Charlie Parker and Dexter Gordon (with whom he was once busted on 42nd Street for breaking into a parked car). When he first met Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac and William Burroughs, they were interested in writing and also unpublished. They were inspired by his stories of 42nd Street life, criminal life, street slang and his vast experience with drugs. Huncke was immortalized in Kerouac's \"On the Road\" as the character Elmo Hassel.  Although it was his passion for thievery, heroin use and the outlaw lifestyle which fueled his daily activities, when he was caught he refused to inform on his friends. In the late 1940s, Allen Ginsberg, Jack Melody and \"Detroit Redhead\" (Vicki Russell / Priscilla Arminger) flipped a car in Queens, New York, while trying to run down a motorcycle cop. Although Huncke was not at the scene of the crime, he was arrested in Manhattan because he resided with Ginsberg, and he received a lengthy prison sentence.  \"Someone had to do the bid,\" Huncke said years later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing career.", "content": "Huncke himself was a natural storyteller, a unique character with a paradoxically honest take on life. Later, after the formation of the so-called Beat Generation, members of the Beats encouraged Huncke to publish his notebook writings, which he did with limited success in 1964 with Diane DiPrima's Poet's Press. (Huncke's Journal) Huncke used the word \"Beat\" to describe someone living with no money and few prospects. \"Beat to my socks,\" he said. Huncke coined the phrase in a conversation with Jack Kerouac, who was interested in how their generation would be remembered. \"I'm beat,\" was Huncke's reply, meaning tired and beat to his socks. Kerouac used the term to describe an entire generation. Jack Kerouac later insisted that \"Beat\" was derived from beatification, to be supremely happy. However, it is thought that this definition was a defense of the beat way of life, which was frowned upon and offended many American sensibilities.  His autobiography, titled \"Guilty of Everything\", was lived in the 1940s and 1960s but published in 1987.  In 1991, Herbert Huncke was crowned King of the Beaux Arts Ball. He presided with Queen Fay Wray.  Huncke died in 1996 at age 81. He had been living for several years in a garden apartment on East 7th Street near Avenue D in New York City, supported financially by his friends. In his last few years, he lived in the Chelsea Hotel, where his rent came from financial support from Jerry Garcia of The Grateful Dead, whom Huncke never met.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quotes on Huncke.", "content": "Jack Kerouac described Huncke in his \"Now it's Jazz\" reading from \"Desolation Angels\", chapter 77:  Huck, whom you'll see on Times Square, somnolent and alert, sad, sweet, dark, holy. Just out of jail. Martyred. Tortured by sidewalks, starved for sex and companionship, open to anything, ready to introduce a new world with a shrug.  John Clellon Holmes described Albert Ancke, his representation of Huncke in \"Go\" in Chapter 14 of part 2:  A sallow, wrinkled little hustler, hatless and occupying a crumpled sport shirt as though crouched in it to hide his withered body.  Admired by David Wojnarowicz in his personal diaries, \"In the Shadow of the American Dream\", where their meetings/dates are documented.  Frank McCourt mentions knowing Huncke in Chapter 16 of \"Teacher Man\":  Alcohol is not his habit but he'll kindly allow you to buy him a drink at Montero's. His voice is deep, gentle and musical. He never forgets his manners and you'd rarely think of him as Huncke the Junkie. He respects law and obeys none of it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Huncke in film.", "content": "Huncke was featured in several documentaries about the Beat generation, including Janet Forman's \"The Beat Generation: An American Dream,\" Richard Lerner and Lewis MacAdams' \"What Happened to Kerouac?\", John Antonelli's \"Kerouac, the Movie\", and Howard Brookner's documentary about William Burroughs, \"\". He also starred in his only acting role in \"The Burning Ghat\" by James Rasin and Jerome Poynton.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Herbert Edwin Huncke (January 9, 1915 – August 8, 1996) was an American writer and poet, and active participant in a number of emerging cultural, social and aesthetic movements of the 20th century in America. He was a member of the Beat Generation and is reputed to have coined the term.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975226}
{"src_title": "Skjold-class corvette", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development and production.", "content": "The \"Skjold\"-class vessels began with the development of the Royal Norwegian Navy's \"Project SMP 6081\", and the first preproduction version was ordered on 30 August 1996. The first ship of its class, P960, was launched on 22 September 1998 and commissioned 17 April 1999. A Norwegian Parliamentary White Paper of 2001 recommended building five additional boats, and this was agreed to in 2002. Six \"Skjold\"-class vessels replaced the Royal Norwegian Navy's previous fourteen s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The \"Skjold\" design is a surface effect craft, constructed of glass fibre/carbon composite materials. Buoyancy is augmented underway by a fan-blown skirted compartment between the two rigid catamaran-type hulls. This provides an alternative solution to the planing hull/vee hull compromise: the air cushion reduces wave slam at high speeds while presenting a low-drag flat planing profile at the waterline.  To ensure stealth capabilities, anechoic coatings of radar absorbent materials (RAM) have been used in the load-bearing structures over large areas of the ship. This strategy leads to significant weight saving compared to the conventional construction technique of applying RAM cladding to the external surfaces. The ship's profile has a faceted appearance with no right angle structures and few orientations of reflective panels. Doors and hatches are flush with the surfaces and the windows are flush without visible coaming (edge of window aperture) and are fitted with radar reflective screens. The vessels are additionally protected by the Rheinmetall MASS sensor / decoy system.  The final design was changed compared to the prototype \"Skjold\", which itself was rebuilt to the new specifications. Most notably, the vessels use 4 gas turbines combined by Renk COGAG gear units built in a lightweight design. The smaller gas turbines rated 2,000 kW turbines are used for cruising speed. For sprint speed a second, larger gas turbine is combined providing a total of 6,000 kW to the waterjet on each shaft line. Two MTU 123 cruise diesel propulsion units used previously at loiter speeds were removed. The foredeck was strengthened to accommodate the addition of a 76 mm Otobreda Super Rapid gun.  The hull material was produced by a different method to improve strength and minimize vulnerability to fire. The bridge saw some changes, including an upgrade to six weapon systems control consoles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "US Navy.", "content": "The U.S. Navy and Coast Guard expressed interest in the design and leased the P960 for a period of one year, from 2001 until 2002. During that time it was operated by a 14-man Norwegian crew out of Naval Amphibious Base Little Creek.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Skjold\"-class corvettes (skjold means \"shield\" in Norwegian) are a class of six large, superfast, stealth missile corvettes in service with the Royal Norwegian Navy. The boats were formerly classed as MTBs (motor torpedo boats) but, from 2009, the Royal Norwegian Navy has described them as corvettes (\"korvett\") because their seaworthiness is seen as comparable to corvettes, and because they do not carry torpedoes. They were built at the Umoe Mandal yard. With a maximum speed of, the \"Skjold\"-class corvettes were the fastest combat ships afloat at the time of their introduction.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975227}
{"src_title": "Count Richard Belcredi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Richard Graf von Belcredi was born on 12 February 1823, in Jimramov (Ingrowitz), in the Margraviate of Moravia, the youngest son of Count Eduard von Belcredi (1786–1838) and his wife Countess Maria von Fünfkirchen (1790–1860). The Belcredi noble family originally descended from Lombardy, where they had been vested with the estates of Montalto Pavese by the Sforza dukes of Milan. Count Richard's ancestors settled in Moravia from 1769 onwards.  He studied law at the universities of Prague and Vienna; in 1854, he was appointed district captain (\"Bezirkshauptmann\") in Znojmo (Znaim). In 1861, he was elected member of the \"Landtag\" diet of Austrian Silesia and MP of the Imperial Council. He became head of the Austrian Silesian regional government one year later. In 1864, he was promoted to the official rank of \"Geheimrat\" (Secret Councillor) and appointed Imperial-Royal governor of Bohemia in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Three Count Ministry.", "content": "In February 1865, Count Richard Belcredi, as the Austrian minister of state, convened a meeting of Viennese bankers to find ways to finance projects. In June 1865, Emperor Franz Josef I chose Belcredi, a declared Conservative, to become Prime Minister and Minister of State, replacing the government of Archduke Rainer Ferdinand of Austria and Anton von Schmerling, who had resigned after failure in his Liberal centralizing policies. Belcredi accepted his nomination, by his own accounts only from a sense of duty. His cabinet was called the \"Three Count Ministry\" although, actually, four counts were in charge: Minister President Belcredi himself, Alexander von Mensdorff-Pouilly as foreign minister, Johann Larisch von Moennich as finance minister, and Moritz Esterházy de Galantha as a minister without portfolio.  The Austrian government had to face the rising \"Hungarian question\", that eventually led to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. On 20 September 1865, Belcredi had the 1861 February Patent suspended. Against delaying actions by Belcredi, the Compromise was achieved after the Austrian defeat in the Austro-Prussian War and the 1866 Peace of Prague, ending the monarchy's membership in the German Confederation. On October 30, Foreign Minister Mensdorff-Pouilly was succeeded by Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust who conducted the negotiations with Hungary and prepared a draft for the Cisleithanian December Constitution.  Beust's concept of a Dual Monarchy finally prevailed against Belcredi's plans to implement a federation of the Austrian crown lands, similar to later proposals of United States of Greater Austria. On 7 February 1867, Belcredi handed in his resignation. In 1881 he was appointed president of the Imperial-Royal Administrative Court and life member of the Austrian House of Lords.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Count Richard von Belcredi (; 12 February 1823 – 2 December 1902) was an Austrian civil servant and statesman, who served as Minister-President (and 'Minister of State') of the Austrian Empire from 1865 to 1867. During 1881–1895, Belcredi was President of the Cisleithanian Administrative Court.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975228}
{"src_title": "Adam Czerniaków", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Czerniaków was born on 30 November 1880 in Warsaw, Poland (then part of the Russian Partition). He studied engineering in Warsaw and Dresden and taught in the Jewish community's vocational school in Warsaw. From 1927 to 1934 he served as member of the Warsaw Municipal Council, and in May 1930 was elected to the Polish Senate. On 4 October 1939, a few days after Warsaw surrendered to Nazi Germany, Czerniaków was made head of the 24 member Jewish Council (\"Judenrat\"), responsible for implementing German orders in the new Jewish Ghetto. The Warsaw Ghetto was closed to the outside world on November 15, 1940.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Warsaw Ghetto deportations.", "content": "As the German authorities began preparing for mass deportations of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto to the newly built Treblinka extermination camp in July 1942, the Jewish Council was ordered to provide lists of Jews and maps of their residences. On 22 July 1942, the Judenrat received instructions from the SS that all Warsaw Jews were to be \"resettled\" to the East. Exceptions were made for Jews working in Nazi German factories, Jewish hospital staff, members of the Council and the Jewish Ghetto Police with their families. Over the course of the day Czerniaków obtained exemptions for a handful of individuals, including sanitation workers, husbands of women working in factories, and some vocational students. Despite pleading he was unable to obtain an exemption for the children in Janusz Korczak's orphanage or other ghetto orphanages. The orders stated that deportations would begin immediately at the rate of 6,000 people per day, to be supplied by the Jewish Council and the Ghetto Police. Failure would result in the execution of 100 hostages, including Council employees and Czerniaków's wife.  Realizing that deportation meant death, Czerniaków went to plead for the orphans. When he failed, he returned to his office at 26/28 Grzybowska Street and killed himself by taking a cyanide capsule. He left a suicide note to his wife, reading “They demand me to kill children of my nation with my own hands. I have nothing to do but to die,” and one to his fellow members of the Council, explaining: \"I can no longer bear all this. My act will prove to everyone what is the right thing to do.\" He was succeeded by his deputy Marek Lichtenbaum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diary of Adam Czerniaków.", "content": "Czerniaków kept a diary from 6 September 1939 until the day of his death. It was published in 1979 and has been translated into English. His wife, Niunia (dr Felicja Czerniakówa), survived the war and preserved his diaries; their only son, Jaś (Jan), fled to Soviet territory but did not survive the war. Adam Czerniaków is interred in the Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery in Warsaw.  In the 2001 Warner Bros motion picture, \"Uprising\", actor Donald Sutherland portrayed Adam Czerniaków. Excerpts of his diary are featured in the 2010 documentary film \"A Film Unfinished\".  The theatre company Voices of the Holocaust toured England during 2013-14 with the play \"Fragile Fire\" based on the Warsaw Ghetto uprising which featured scenes depicting Czerniaków. In 2015 the actor and writer Tim Dalgleish (formerly of Voices of the Holocaust) wrote a full-length play based on Czerniaków's journals called \"The Last Days of Adam: The true story of Adam Czerniaków\". The play depicted Czerniaków as a conflicted character, torn between the need to ameliorate the worst excesses of the Nazis and the danger of being manipulated into becoming a collaborator.  American composer Arnold Rosner's \"From the Diaries of Adam Czerniaków\", Op. 82 is a half-hour classical music work composed in 1986 and scored for full orchestra and a narrator, who reads selected diary entries. The work was commissioned and later recorded by the conductor David Amos. According to the work's only commercial recording, made in 2015, the English translation of Czerniaków's words was made by Raul Hilberg and Stanislaw Staron, in collaboration with Josef Kermisz of Yad Vashem in Jerusalem.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Adam Czerniaków (30 November 1880 – 23 July 1942) was a Polish engineer and senator who was head of the Warsaw Ghetto Jewish Council (\"Judenrat\") during World War II. He committed suicide on 23 July 1942 by swallowing a cyanide pill, a day after the commencement of mass extermination of Jews known as the Grossaktion Warsaw.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975229}
{"src_title": "Emmy Destinn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Destinn was born Emílie Pavlína Věnceslava Kittlová () in Prague, in what was then the Austro-Hungarian Empire.  Her voice teacher since age thirteen had been Marie Maria von Dreger Loewe-Destinn, and the young singer began using her teacher's surname as a tribute. She was let go after the short engagement at the Dresden Opera and declined by Prague National Theatre in 1897. She debuted on 19 July 1898 at the Berlin Court Opera as Santuzza in \"Cavalleria rusticana\". She made such progress that the intendant of the Berlin Court Opera engaged her at once when she was brought to intendant's notice. She was only nineteen at the time, but her voice and her acting soon won the Berlin public. Her engagement in Berlin lasted until 27 October 1909. She sang in 54 operas, including 12 premieres.  Her fame became international in 1901 when she was invited to sing the part of Senta in \"Der Fliegende Holländer\" at Germany's Bayreuth Festspielhaus. She returned to sing the same role the next year.  Destinn made her London debut at Covent Garden's Royal Opera House on 2 May 1904, as Donna Anna in \"Don Giovanni\". She appeared there in several operas for the next two seasons, including the London premiere of \"Madama Butterfly\" with Caruso. Her Metropolitan Opera debut came in 1908 with an acclaimed performance of \"Aida\", after she was released from her contract with the Berlin Court Opera. Two years later at the Met, she created the role of Minnie in the premiere of Puccini's \"La fanciulla del West\", again opposite Caruso, and under the direction of Arturo Toscanini.  While she was highly successful in the lighter roles of Wagner's operas, her \"spinto\" voice—although large in size, with a ringing top register—was better suited to German music of a less declamatory type. She also excelled in the French part of Carmen, in which she was said to rival Calvé, and in the Italian roles of Aida, Madama Butterfly and Leonora (in \"Il trovatore\").  Destin's career suffered a fatal blow in World War I. She returned to her homeland after the start of the war in 1914, but her links with the patriotic Czech resistance caused her passport to be revoked. She was interned at her chateau for the remainder of the conflict. By the time that she returned to the Met in 1919, her voice had become rusty and she had been replaced in the hearts of New York audiences by a new generation of singers, although she did still continue to sing with the company until 1921.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Last years and death.", "content": "Destinn returned to Czechoslovakia, where she married Joseph Halsbach, a Czech air-force officer, in 1923. She retired from the stage in 1926 and died from a stroke in České Budějovice, Czechoslovakia a month before her 52nd birthday. She is interred in the Vyšehrad cemetery in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Her likeness appeared in 1996 on the 2,000 Czech koruna banknote. The main-belt asteroid 6583 Destinn is named after her.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emmy Destinn ( (); 26 February 1878 – 28 January 1930) was a Czech operatic soprano with a strong and soaring lyric-dramatic voice. She had a career both in Europe and at the New York Metropolitan Opera.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975230}
{"src_title": "Volga Bulgaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin and creation of the state.", "content": "Information from first-hand sources on Volga Bulgaria is rather sparse. As no authentic Bulgar records have survived, most of our information comes from contemporary Arabic, Persian, Indo-Aryan or Russian sources. Some information is provided by excavations. It is believed the territory of Volga Bulgaria was originally settled by Finno-Ugric peoples, including Mari people.  The original Bulgars were Turkic tribes, who settled north of the Black Sea. During their westward migration across the Eurasian steppe, they absorbed other ethnic groups, including Hunnic and certain Iranic peoples. About 630 they founded Old Great Bulgaria which was destroyed by the Khazars in 668. Kubrat's son and appointed heir Batbayan Bezmer moved from the Azov region in about AD 660, commanded by the Kazarig Khagan Kotrag to whom he had surrendered. They reached Idel-Ural in the eighth century, where they became the dominant population at the end of the 9th century, uniting other tribes of different origin which lived in the area. Some Bulgar tribes, however, continued westward and eventually settled along the Danube River, in what is now known as Bulgaria proper, where they created a confederation with the Slavs, adopting a South Slavic language and the Eastern Orthodox faith.  Most scholars agree that the Volga Bulgars were initially subject to the Khazarian Khaganate. This fragmented Volga Bulgaria grew in size and power and gradually freed from the influence of the Khazars. Sometime in the late 9th century unification processes started, and the capital was established at Bolghar (also spelled Bulgar) city, 160 km south from modern Kazan. However complete independence was reached after Khazaria's destruction and conquest by Sviatoslav in the late 10th century, thus Bulgars no longer paid tribute to it.  Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur named the Volga Bulgar people as \"Ulak\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conversion to Islam and further statehood.", "content": "Volga Bulgaria adopted Islam in 922 – 66 years before the Christianization of Kievan Rus'. In 921 Almış sent an ambassador to the Caliph requesting religious instruction. Next year an embassy returned with Ibn Fadlan as secretary. A significant number of Muslims already lived in the country.  The Volga Bulgars attempted to convert Vladimir I of Kiev to Islam; however Vladimir rejected the notion of Rus' giving up wine, which he declared was the \"very joy of their lives\".  Commanding the Volga River in its middle course, the state controlled much of trade between Europe and Asia prior to the Crusades (which made other trade routes practicable). The capital, Bolghar, was a thriving city, rivalling in size and wealth with the greatest centres of the Islamic world. Trade partners of Bolghar included from Vikings, Bjarmland, Yugra and Nenets in the north to Baghdad and Constantinople in the south, from Western Europe to China in the East. Other major cities included Bilär, Suar (Suwar), Qaşan (Kashan) and Cükätaw (Juketau). Modern cities Kazan and Yelabuga were founded as Volga Bulgaria's border fortresses. Some of the Volga Bulgarian cities still have not been found, but they are mentioned in old East Slavic sources. They are: Ashli (Oshel), Tuxçin (Tukhchin), İbrahim (Bryakhimov), Taw İle. Some of them were ruined during and after the Golden Horde invasion.  The Rus' principalities to the west posed the only tangible military threat. In the 11th century, the country was devastated by several raids by other Rus'. Then, at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, the rulers of Vladimir (notably Andrew the Pious and Vsevolod III), anxious to defend their eastern border, systematically pillaged Bulgarian cities. Under Russian pressure from the west, the Volga Bulgars had to move their capital from Bolghar to Bilär.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decline.", "content": "In September 1223 near Samara an advance guard of Genghis Khan's army under command of Uran, son of Subutai Bahadur, entered Volga Bulgaria but was defeated in the Battle of Samara Bend. In 1236, the Mongols returned and in five years had subjugated the whole country, which at that time was suffering from internal war. Henceforth Volga Bulgaria became a part of the Ulus Jochi, later known as the Golden Horde. It was divided into several principalities; each of them became a vassal of the Golden Horde and received some autonomy. By the 1430s, the Khanate of Kazan was established as the most important of these principalities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "A large part of the region's population included Turkic groups such as Sabirs, Barsil, Bilars, Baranjars, and part of the possibly Iranic Burtas (by ibn Rustah). Modern Chuvashes claim to descend from Sabirs and Kazan Tatars from the Volga Bulgars.  Another part comprised Volga Finnic and Magyar (Asagel and Pascatir) tribes, from which Bisermäns probably descend. Ibn Fadlan refers to Volga Bulgaria as Saqaliba, a general Arabic term for Slavic people. Other researches tie the term to the ethnic name Scythian (or Saka in Persian).  According to some historians, over 80% of the country's population was killed during the invasion. The remaining population mostly relocated to the northern areas (territories of modern Chuvashia and Tatarstan). Some autonomous duchies appeared in those areas. The steppe areas of Volga Bulgaria may have been settled by nomadic Kipchaks and Mongols, and the agricultural development suffered a severe decline.  Over time, the cities of Volga Bulgaria were rebuilt and became trade and craft centers of the Golden Horde. Some Volga Bulgars, primarily masters and craftsmen, were forcibly moved to Sarai and other southern cities of the Golden Horde. Volga Bulgaria remained a center of agriculture and handicraft.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Volga Bulgaria (, ) or Volga–Kama Bulghar, was a historic Bulgar state that existed between the 7th and 13th centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama River, in what is now European Russia. Volga Bulgaria was a multi-ethnic state with large numbers of Turkic Bulgars, a variety of Finnic and Ugric peoples, and many East Slavs. The very strategic position of Volga Bulgaria allowed it to create a monopoly between the trade of Arabs, Norse and Avars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975231}
{"src_title": "Margravine Philippine of Brandenburg-Schwedt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Philippine was one of five children born to Margrave Frederick William of Brandenburg-Schwedt and his wife Princess Sophia Dorothea of Prussia. Her siblings included Friederike Dorothea, Duchess of Württemberg and Elisabeth Louise, Princess of Prussia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landgravine of Hesse-Kassel.", "content": "Philippine was very early on chosen by her aunt, Queen Louisa Ulrika of Sweden, as the future queen of Sweden; her mother was the queen's favourite, and Louisa Ulrika wished Philippine to marry her son, Gustav (later Gustav III of Sweden). These plans were broken however when Gustav was married to Sophia Magdalena of Denmark in 1766. Louisa Ulrika then wanted Philippine to marry her younger son, Charles, but instead, Gustav decided that his brother should marry Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp.  On 10 January 1773, Philippine married Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, who was 25 years older, in Berlin. She was his second wife; his first wife, Princess Mary of Great Britain, died the previous year. Philippine thus became stepmother to Frederick's three surviving sons: William, Charles, and Frederick. Philippine would not produce any legitimate children herself however.  During her marriage, Philippine led a widely independent life, even setting up her own court. On 1 March 1777, she gave birth to an illegitimate son, Georg Philippson, fathered by the later Württemberg statesman Georg Ernst Levin von Wintzingerode. She also helped reconcile her husband with his children from his first marriage, from whom he had been estranged since 1754.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Frederick died on 31 October 1785. As a widow, she lived first in Hanau. After the invasion of the French revolutionary army she moved to Berlin. King Frederick William II donated a modern palace to her (Behrenstraße 66). In 1794, she married Wintzingerode secretly with knowledge and approval of the king. Philippine died on 1 May 1800. She is buried in the Berlin Cathedral. The only heir was her second husband Wintzingerode.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Three places, all established in 1778 and incorporated into Wolfhagen in 1971, are named after Philippine:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Margravine Philippine Auguste Amalie of Brandenburg-Schwedt (10 October 1745 – 1 May 1800) was a Landgravine consort of Hesse-Kassel by marriage to Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975232}
{"src_title": "Galerie des machines", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "The Galerie des machines was built for the Universal Exposition of 1889 at the foot of the Champ de Mars in front of the École Militaire. Its architect was Ferdinand Dutert, assisted by the architects Blavette, Deglane and Eugène Hénard. The responsible engineer was Victor Contamin, assisted by the engineers Charton and Pierron. The structure was built by the Société des Forges de Fives-Lille and the Cail factory, and the masonry was erected by the M. Manoury company.  The Galerie des machines formed a huge glass and metal hall with an area of and a height of, it was free of internal supports. The framework consisted of twenty trusses. The structure incorporated the three-pin hinged arch, developed for bridge building.  The Galerie des machines gave the exposition of 1889 an area of about of usable space. It was estimated in 1889 that the building was large enough to hold fifteen thousand horses in the ground floor and the same number of riders in the upper galleries without being crowded at all (the experiment was never made).  The largest vaulted building at the time was St Pancras railway station, built in London in 1868, with a span of and height of. The Palais des Machines had a span of and height of. The proportions of the structure were unfamiliar to people accustomed to heavy stone arches. The trusses were small at the base and larger higher up, and were light and narrow. The Belgian Vierendeel said, \"this lack of proportion produces a bad effect; the girder is not balanced; it has no base... it starts too low... The eye is not reassured... The supports of the Galerie des Machines show another fault: they are too empty.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "During its twenty years of existence, the Galerie des machines was used for various purposes.  During the Exposition Universelle (1900) it held the French Exhibition of Agriculture and Food, the highlight of which was a ship with red and gold sails, a full size replica of the ship \"Le Triomphant\", created by the Menier company. Standing beside it was the \"Grande Roue de Paris\", a Ferris wheel, one of the main attractions of the exhibition of 1900.  The Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus show was held in the gallery from November 30, 1901 to Mars 16, 1902.  From 1902, Henri Desgrange asked the architect Gaston Lambert to modify the Galerie des machines in order to create a track for cycling competitions, the \"auto-vélodrome d'hiver\". The wooden track across was built in 20 days. The velodrome, nicknamed \"La Glacière\" or the \"Vel d'Hiv\", was inaugurated on 20 December 1903 and quickly became a popular success. In 1905 Gabriel Poulain defeated all comers.  The annual General Agricultural Competition was held there until 1908. On 20 May 1904 the newspaper \"Le Matin\" organized a military competition: the Army Walk. The Galerie des machines was transformed into a vast camp in which the competitors would rest, eat, and receive medical care. During the general strike of 1 May 1906, the troops assigned to policing the city were stationed there: six battalions of the 4th (Rennes), 47th (Saint-Malo) and 2nd (Granville) infantry regiments. There were also ten squadrons of cavalry regiments from the 6th army corps, and eight squadrons from various regiments of the 7th corps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Destruction.", "content": "In 1906 the City Council voted to demolish the building while the Senate and Minister of Architecture were in favor of its retention. In 1909 the city announced the destruction of the Galerie des machines to open up the perspective of the Champ de Mars. Desgrange decided to build a new cycling temple next door, at the corner of the Boulevard de Grenelle and the rue Nélaton, the new \"Vel d'Hiv\". The Galerie was demolished in 1910. The disappearance of the Galerie des machines dismayed the Architecture world, since the annual exhibition was the largest annual market for agricultural producers and suppliers, where all the most important business was undertaken.  The Musée d'Orsay in Paris displays a model of the Galerie des Machines at a scale of 1/200.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Citations  Sources  External links", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Galerie des machines (officially Palais des machines) was a pavilion built for the Exposition Universelle (1889) in Paris. Located in the Grenelle district, the huge pavilion was made of iron, steel and glass.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975233}
{"src_title": "Rotary printing press", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Developmental history.", "content": "William Nicholson filed a 1790 patent for a rotary press. The rotary press itself is an evolution of the cylinder press, also patented by William Nicholson, invented by Beaucher of France in the 1780s and by Friedrich Koenig in the early 19th century. Rotary drum printing was invented by Richard March Hoe in 1843. An 1844 patent replaced the reciprocating platforms used in earlier designs with a fixed platform served by rotating drums, and through a series of advances a complete rotary printing press was perfected in 1846, and patented in 1847. It appeared in Edinburgh in 1851 and then traveled to London where it was used by the Times newspaper in 1853, where it then traveled to France in 1866 and Germany in 1873. By the time it reached Spain in 1885 it had become common use. Some sources describe the Parisian Hippolyte Auguste Marinoni as the inventor of the Rotary printing press, but this was the subject of a patent dispute that was decided in Hoe's favor. A.S. Abell of the \"Baltimore Sun\" was the first American user of the rotary press.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of rotary printing presses.", "content": "Today, there are three main types of rotary presses; offset (including web offset), rotogravure, and flexo (short for flexography). Although the three types use cylinders to print, they vary in their method.  In Offset lithography, the image is chemically applied to a plate, generally through exposure of photosensitive layers on the plate material. Lithography is based on the fact that water and oil do not mix, which enables the planographic process to work. In the context of a printing plate, a wettable surface (the non-image area) may also be termed hydrophilic and a non-wettable surface (the image area) hydrophobic.  Gravure is a process in which small cells or holes are etched into a copper cylinder, which are able to be filled with ink. All the colours are etched in different angles, thus while printing every colour is placed in proper position to give the appropriate image.  Flexography is a relief system in which a raised image is created on a typically polymer-based plate.  In stamp collecting, rotary-press-printed stamps are sometimes a different size than stamps printed with a flat plate. This happens because the stamp images are farther apart on a rotary press, which makes the individual stamps larger (typically ).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A rotary printing press is a printing press in which the images to be printed are curved around a cylinder. Printing can be done on various substrates, including paper, cardboard, and plastic. Substrates can be sheet feed or unwound on a continuous roll through the press to be printed and further modified if required (e.g. die cut, overprint varnished, embossed). Printing presses that use continuous rolls are sometimes referred to as \"web presses\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975234}
{"src_title": "Duchy of the Archipelago", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and establishment of the Duchy.", "content": "The Italian city states, especially the Republic of Genoa, Pisa, and the Republic of Venice, had been interested in the islands of the Aegean long before the Fourth Crusade. There were Italian trading colonies in Constantinople and Italian pirates frequently attacked settlements in the Aegean in the 12th century. After the collapse and partitioning of the Byzantine Empire in 1204, in which the Venetians played a major role, Venetian interests in the Aegean could be more thoroughly realized.  The Duchy of the Archipelago was created in 1207 by the Venetian nobleman Marco Sanudo, a participant in the Fourth Crusade and nephew of the former Doge Enrico Dandolo, who had led the Venetian fleet to Constantinople. This was an independent venture, without the consent of the Latin emperor Henry of Flanders. Sanudo was accompanied by Marino Dandolo and Andrea and Geremia Ghisi (as well as Filocalo Navigajoso, possibly). He arranged for the loan of eight galleys from the Venetian Arsenal, set anchor in the harbor of Potamides (now Pyrgaki, in the southwest of Naxos), and largely captured the island.  The Naxiotes continued to resist, however, and established a base inland, around the fortress of Apalyros/Apalire. The latter fell to Sanudo after a five or six weeks' siege, despite the assistance rendered to the Greeks by the Genoese, Venice's main competitors.  With the entire island occupied in 1210, Sanudo and his associates soon conquered Melos and the rest of the islands of the Cyclades, and he established himself as \"Duke of Naxia\", or \"Duke of the Archipelago\", with his headquarters on Naxos. Sanudo rebuilt a strong fortress and divided the island into 56 provinces, which he shared out as fiefs among the leaders of his men, most of whom were highly autonomous and apparently paid their own expenses. Navigaojso had been granted his island domain by Henry of Flanders and was technically vassal of the Latin Empire; Sanudo himself recognized the Latin Empire's authority rather than making the Duchy a vassal of Venice. The conqueror himself ruled for twenty years (1207–27). He held in his personal possession Paros, Antiparos, Milos, Sifnos, Kythnos, Ios, Amorgos, Kimolos, Sikinos, Syros, and Pholegandros.  Sanudo's fellow crusaders conquered lordships of their own, sometimes as vassals of Sanudo like Dandolo for Andros. Although they are often considered to have become Sanudo's vassals as well, the Ghisi brothers, who held Tinos, Mykonos, and the Northern Sporades (Skiathos, Skyros, Skopelos) never recognized the suzerainty of Sanudo. Instead, like him they were directly vassals of the Latin Emperors. Some families thought earlier to have settled at this time in the islands were in fact established later, in the 14th century (Barozzi etc) or the 15th (Querini). Further south, Kythera (or \"Cerigo\"), held by Marco Venier, and Antikythera (or \"Cerigotto\"), held by Jacopo Viaro chose to become vassals of Venice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration, faith and economics.", "content": "The institution of European feudalism caused little disruption to the local islanders who were familiar with the rights of a landowner class under the Byzantine system of the \"pronoia\". The significant legal distinctions between the Byzantine \"pronoia\" and feudalism were of little immediate consequence to those who farmed the land or fished the waters in question. In most cases, the local population submitted relatively peacefully to the authority of their new Venetian lords. Sanudo and his successors prudently followed a conciliatory course with their Byzantine subjects, granting even fiefs to certain among them, in an effort to bind them to the dynasty.  The Venetians brought the Catholic Church with them, but, as they were a minority of habitually absentee landowners, most of the population remained Greek Orthodox. Marco Sanudo himself established a Latin archbishopric on Naxos, but in contrast to his successors, did not attempt to forcibly convert the Greek Orthodox majority. These moves consisted primarily in imposing restrictions on Orthodox clergy and the exclusion of Orthodox Christians from positions of authority.  The islands were of great importance in Venetian grand strategy, with their valuable trade routes to Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean, which the Venetians could now control; Aside from providing safe traveling routes to Venetian ships, the Venetians also exported to Venice corundum and marble, which they mined on Naxos. Certain Latin feudal rights survived in the island of Naxos and elsewhere until they were abrogated in 1720 by the Ottomans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later history.", "content": "The \"Annals\" of the Latin Archipelago center on the family histories of Sanudo and Dandolo, Ghisi, Crispo, and Sommaripa, Venier and Quirini, Barozzi and Gozzadini. Twenty-one dukes of the two dynasties ruled the Archipelago, successively as vassals of the Latin Emperors at Constantinople, of the Villehardouin dynasty of princes of Achaea, of the Angevins of the Kingdom of Naples (in 1278), and after 1418 of the Republic of Venice.  In 1248, the Duchy was nominally granted to William of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea. Marco II Sanudo lost many of the islands, except Naxos and Paros, to the forces of the renewed Byzantine Empire under the admiral Licario in the late 13th century. The Byzantine revival was to prove short-lived though, as they relinquished control of their gains in 1310.  In 1317 the Catalan Company raided the remnants of the Duchy; in 1383, the Crispo family led an armed insurrection and overthrew Sanudo's heirs as Dukes of Archipelago. Under the Crispo dukes, social order and agriculture decayed, and piracy became dominant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collapse and Ottoman conquest.", "content": "Before the last Latin Christian duke, Jacopo IV Crispo, was deposed in 1566 by Ottoman Sultan Selim II, he was already paying the Sultan tribute. The Sultan's appointed representative, the last Duke of Archipelago (1566–79) was a Portuguese Jew (\"Marrano\"), Joseph Nasi.  Latin Christian rule was not entirely removed after that date: the Gozzadini family in Bologna survived as lords of Siphnos and other little islands in the Cyclades until 1617, and the island of Tenos remained Venetian until 1714. The last Venetian ports in Morea (the Peloponnese) were captured in 1718. Gaspar Graziani, a Dalmatian nobleman, was awarded the title of \"Duke of the Archipelago\" in 1616, but the island was again under direct Ottoman rule at the end of 1617; he was the last to hold the title.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and influence.", "content": "Today, Cyclades islands such as Syros and Tinos have some entirely Catholic villages and parishes, while many Greeks from the Cyclades have surnames with a distinctly Italo-Venetian origin e.g. Venieris, Ragousis, Dellaportas, Damigos etc.  \"(interregnum)\" \"(interregnum)\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Duchy of the Archipelago (, ), or also Duchy of Naxos or Duchy of the Aegean, was a maritime state created by Venetian interests in the Cyclades archipelago in the Aegean Sea, in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, centered on the islands of Naxos and Paros. It included all the Cyclades (except Mykonos and Tinos). In 1537 it became a tributary of the Ottoman Empire, and was annexed by the Ottomans in 1579; however, Christian rule survived in islands such as Siphnos (conquered by the Ottomans in 1617) and Tinos (conquered in 1715).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975235}
{"src_title": "Biathlon World Cup", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Competition and format.", "content": "The World Cup season lasts from November or December to late March, with meetings in a different venue every week excluding some holidays and a couple of weeks before the season's major championships (World Championships or Winter Olympics). All in all, the season comprises nine to ten meetings, with events taking place from Wednesday–Thursday through Sunday. Relay competitions are held four to six times per season. Also counting as World Cup events are World Championships, and formerly Winter Olympics events (the last Olympics to count towards the World Cup were the 2010 Winter Olympics: from the 2014 Winter Olympics competitors are no longer awarded World Cup points for their Olympic performances).  The athlete with the highest overall total score (i.e. total score for all disciplines) of the World Cup season is awarded the Big Crystal Globe trophy. A Small Crystal Globe trophy is awarded for the first place in the season total for each discipline. Hence, it is possible for an athlete to win both the Big Crystal Globe and Small Crystal Globes for the same World Cup season.  The tables given below provide an overview of the highest-ranking biathletes and nations of each WC season. For each event, first place gives 60 points, 2nd place – 54 pts, 3rd place – 48 pts, 4th place – 43 pts, 5th place – 40 pts, 6th place – 38 pts, 7th – 36 pts, 8th – 34 points, 9th – 32 points, 10th – 31 points, then linearly decreasing by one point down to the 40th place. Equal placings (ties) give an equal number of points. The sum of all WC points of the season, less the points from an IBU-predetermined number of events (e.g. 2), gives the biathlete's total WC score.  From 1985 to 2000, WC points were awarded so that the first four places gave 30, 26, 24, and 22 points, respectively, and then the 5th to 25th place gave 21, 20,..., down to 1 point. Before this, points were simply awarded linearly from 25 to 1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Women's results.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Women's overall.", "content": "The women's World Cup seasons until 1986–87 were actually called the European Cup, although participation was open to biathletes of all nationalities. Until 1987–88, women raced on shorter tracks than they do today. The 1988–89 season was the first in which women raced on tracks of the same length that they do nowadays.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Race winners.", "content": "Below is a list of all male and female biathletes that have won 7 or more individual World Cup or Olympic races. Biathletes whose names are in bold are still active.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Biathlon World Cup is a top-level biathlon season-long competition series. It has been held since the winter seasons of 1977–78 for men and 1982–83 for women. The women's seasons until 1986–87 season were called the European Cup, although participation was not restricted to Europeans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975236}
{"src_title": "Marc Gené", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born in Sabadell, Gené finished runner-up in the 1987 Catalan Kart Championship (National Class) at the age of 13; he would win both this and the National Class Spanish Kart Championship in 1988. In 1989 he competed in both the European and World championships. Gené won the Senior Class of the 1990 Spanish Kart Championship, making him the youngest driver to do so. He competed again in the World Championship in 1991, placing 13th.  For 1992 Gené moved into Formula Ford, placing fifth in the Spanish championship with a win and two pole positions. He was runner-up in the 1993 European Championship, with one win and three podiums; also, Gené took second place at the Formula Ford World Cup and Festival. In 1994, Gené was named Rookie of the Year in the British Formula 3 Championship; he placed 10th in 1995. In 1996 Gené won the FISA Superformula championship, and in 1997 he competed in six rounds of the FIA Formula 3000 series, though he failed to score a point. In 1998 he won the Open Fortuna by Nissan Championship with six wins and three poles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formula One.", "content": "Gené got his big break in 1999, occupying a race seat with the Minardi team. It was a difficult year; however, after several ninth places and an eighth, he managed to score his first point, and Minardi's first since 1995, with a sixth place at the European Grand Prix, while his team-mate Luca Badoer broke down in tears after his car's gearbox failed and denied the Italian his first points finish in Formula One, as he was running in fourth place with 13 laps to go. Gené continued with Minardi in 2000, but failed to score a single point, with his best finish being eighth at the Australian and Austrian Grands Prix. His team-mate in 2000 was Argentina's Gastón Mazzacane, who also achieved a best finish of eighth, at the European Grand Prix.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Testing.", "content": "Unable to obtain a quality drive for 2001, Gené opted to sign with Williams as test driver. He drove three Grands Prix for the team as temporary substitute. The first of these was the 2003 Italian Grand Prix, where Ralf Schumacher was unable to race because of a concussion. Gené replaced his teammate well, collecting four points for a fifth-place finish, but Schumacher was back in the car for the next race in the USA. Following a back injury to Schumacher at the 2004 USGP, Gené drove in the French and British Grands Prix, but subsequently lost the race seat to Antônio Pizzonia and did not race again in F1.  In November 2004, Gené signed a deal to become a test driver for Scuderia Ferrari alongside former teammate Luca Badoer. His contract was renewed for. A limit on testing in Formula One in 2007 and 2008 had restricted his involvement.  At the end of 2010, Gené along with Badoer and Giancarlo Fisichella was replaced by Jules Bianchi as Ferrari test driver ahead of the 2011 season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sportscar racing.", "content": "Gené has also been hired by Peugeot as a factory driver for their 908 HDi FAP Le Mans Series effort, as well as the 24 Hours of Le Mans since 2007. In 2008, Gené crashed his 908 heavily in practice for the 2008 24 Hours of Le Mans, but escaped with a broken toe. A year later, however, there were no such problems, and the Peugeot he shared with David Brabham and Alex Wurz completed 382 laps on its way to victory in the 2009 24 Hours of Le Mans. He completed the last stint for the team and brought the 908 home to a standing ovation from the avid French crowd, who saw one of their cars stop the recent domination of Audi in the prestigious event. In both 2008 and 2009 he also took part in the 1000 km Spa endurance race, winning in 2008 and finishing 12th in 2009.  Career Statistics (as of 2004 British Grand Prix)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marc Gené i Guerrero (born 29 March 1974) is a Spanish professional racing driver. He is best known as a tester for Williams and Ferrari in Formula One, Minardi Formula One driver and factory driver for Peugeot's Le Mans team, with which he won the 2009 24 Hours of Le Mans. His brother Jordi is also a racing driver, competing in the WTCC for SEAT.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975237}
{"src_title": "Mariusz Czerkawski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Czerkawski first played hockey when he was 8-years-old, and from a young age was part of the GKS Tychy program. After a strong season with GKS Tychy in 1990–91, where he scored 40 points in 24 games, the Boston Bruins drafted him in the 1991 NHL Entry Draft in the fifth round, 105th overall, while Czerkawski joined Djurgårdens IF of the Elitserien for the 1991–92 season. He was the first foreign player to play for Djurgårdens since Canadian Steve Cardwell in 1976–77. Czerkawski did not play often during his first season, and finished with 13 points in 39 games. Loaned to Hammarby of the second-tier Division 1 for 1992–93, Czerkawski greatly improved, and was brought back to Djurgårdens for 1993–94, recording 34 points in 39 games.  After the season ended Czerkawski went to North America, making his National Hockey League (NHL) debut at the end of the 1993–94 NHL season with the Bruins, playing his first game on April 9 against the Tampa Bay Lightning. He scored his first goal on April 13, his third game, against the Ottawa Senators, and finished the season with two goals and one assist in four games. Though previous NHL players had been born in Poland, Czerkawski was the first Polish-trained NHLer. The next season, he played 47 games with the Bruins, collecting 12 goals and 14 assists in a lockout-shortened season.  In 1996, Czerkawski was traded to the Edmonton Oilers. He played season and a half there before another trade sent him to the New York Islanders, where he would have his most productive years, including two 30-goal plus seasons and being named to the 2000 NHL All-Star Game. However, after being traded to the Montreal Canadiens in 2002, he found himself sent to their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Hamilton Bulldogs. His contract was then bought-out by Montreal, after which he signed a one-year contract with the Islanders in 2003, recording another 25-goal season.  The 2004–05 NHL lockout saw the NHL not play in 2004–05, so Czerkawski joined Djurgårdens for the season, where he had 24 points in 46 games. Returning to the NHL, he signed as a free agent with the Toronto Maple Leafs. He played 19 games for the Maple Leafs, scoring 5 points, before being put on waivers and being claimed by the Boston Bruins on 7 March 2006. He played 16 games with the Bruins, scoring four goals and one assist.  Czerkawski joined the Rapperswil-Jona Lakers of the Swiss National League A (NLA) in 2006. He played two seasons for the club, collecting respectively 41 and 53 points. He retired in 2008, though returned to play one final match for Tychy in January 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Czerkawski's first international tournament with the Polish national under-18 team was at the 1989 European U18 Division BChampionship, where he recorded 11 points in 5 games and helped Poland earn promotion to the top level for 1990. Joining the team at the 1990 tournament, he had 12 points in 6 games. He also played for Poland at the 1990 World Junior Championship, scoring one goal in seven games. Poland was relegated to Pool B (the second tier) for 1991, where Czerkawski had 12 goals and 3 assists, for 15 points, in 7 games. He also made his debut for the Polish senior team that year, playing in Pool B at the 1991 World Championships and scoring 8 points in 7 games and helping Poland earn promotion to the top tier for the following year.  At the 1992 Winter Olympics Czerkawski played five games, and had one assist. He played a further 6 games at the 1992 World Championships, but did not score any points. It would not be until 1998 that Czerkawski again played internationally, joining Poland at the renamed Group B of the World Championships, where he had 3 points in 3 games. He would return again in 2000 and had 11 points in 7 games. Poland had earned promotion to the 2002 World Championship and Czerkawski scored 4 points in 3 games, though Poland was relegated back to the second tier (then known as Division I). His final tournament would be at the 2006 World Championship Division I, where he had 7 points in 5 games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Czerkawski was married from 1996 to 1998 to Polish-Swedish actress Izabella Scorupco, and they have a daughter. Since 1 September 2007, he has been married to Emilia Raszyńska, with whom he has a son. After retiring from ice hockey, he took up golf.  For his contribution to the development of Polish ice hockey, Czerkawski received the Knight's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta (5th Class) in 2004.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mariusz Krzysztof Czerkawski (pronounced ; born 13 April 1972) is a Polish former professional ice hockey player who played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Boston Bruins, Edmonton Oilers, New York Islanders, Montreal Canadiens and Toronto Maple Leafs. In addition to playing in the NHL, Czerkawski played for several different European-based teams. A consistent scorer, Czerkawski was the first player born and trained in Poland to play in the NHL. Internationally, Czerkawski represented Poland at several international tournaments, including the 1992 Winter Olympics and the 1992 and 2002 World Championships.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975238}
{"src_title": "Marcel Dionne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Junior career.", "content": "Dionne played in the 1962, 1963 and 1964 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournaments with his Drummondville youth team. Dionne's first junior season was in 1968 for the Drummondville Rangers of the former Quebec Junior Hockey League, in which he scored over two goals a game in Drummondville's losing effort in the Memorial Cup playoffs.  When the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League formed in 1969, Dionne departed to play in the Ontario Hockey Association, then-regarded as a higher-calibre level of competition, spending the next three seasons with the St. Catharines Black Hawks. He became the league's preeminent star, winning scoring titles in 1970 and 1971 and adding a record 122 points in 43 playoff games. Dionne's scoring feats were marred by one of the most infamous events in Canadian junior hockey during the 1971 Richardson Cup finals against the Quebec Remparts. Following a riot in Quebec City after the penalty-filled fourth game of the series in which Dionne's Black Hawks' team bus was attacked by the mob, the fifth game was played at a neutral site, and the remainder of the series was not played due to fears of further violence.  Dionne finished his junior career by shattering the OHA's career scoring record, which was not broken until Dale McCourt did so in the 1977 season. He was subsequently drafted in the first round (second overall, behind Rempart rival Guy Lafleur) by the Detroit Red Wings in the 1971 NHL Entry Draft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NHL career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Detroit Red Wings.", "content": "Dionne played his first four seasons with the Red Wings, where he was one of the few stars on an otherwise stagnant team that failed to make the playoffs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Los Angeles Kings.", "content": "Despite having teammates such as Alex Delvecchio and Mickey Redmond, Dionne's frustrations with losing were evident. His agent, Alan Eagleson pushed for more money. The owner of the Los Angeles Kings, Jack Kent Cooke, offered Dionne $300,000 per year. A deal was struck with the Red Wings and Dionne was traded for Terry Harper, Dan Maloney, cash, and draft picks; Dionne then signed with the Kings on June 23, 1975 and became their franchise player. At the time, it was the richest deal in hockey history.  During his time with the Los Angeles Kings, he played eleven and a half seasons and formed the famed \"Triple Crown Line\", centring Charlie Simmer and Dave Taylor. Despite Dionne's production during the regular season, he was frustrated with the Kings' lack of playoff success; they made the postseason from 1976–82 but only advanced to the second round three times for a total of 43 playoff games. During the 1986–87 season, Dionne mentored the rookies of the Kings as Mickey Redmond had mentored him during his rookie years in Detroit. He took eventual Calder Trophy winner Luc Robitaille, Jimmy Carson and Steve Duchesne under his wing.  Despite the rapport with the rookies, there was also a falling out with coach Pat Quinn; moreover, the aging Kings were on track to miss the playoffs. Dionne did not want to be part of a rebuilding project and either wanted an immediate upgrade to the roster or a trade to a contender. He was traded to the New York Rangers on March 10, 1987; the Kings \"did\" reach the playoffs in the season he was traded.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New York Rangers.", "content": "He played his remaining two and a half seasons there, where the Rangers lost in the first round of the playoffs twice and missed the playoffs once. He retired in 1989.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "In January 2004, Dionne was featured on a Canadian postage stamp. As part of the NHL All-Stars Collection, Dionne was immortalized along with five other All-Stars.  Dionne has homes in Niagara Falls, Ontario and Clarence Center, New York. He has maintained a large business and investment portfolio since his playing days, operating a sports memorabilia store in Buffalo and buying and selling real estate. Dionne owns a diner in Niagara Falls as well as a sports memorabilia store known as the Blue line diner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Achievements.", "content": "During his first season for Detroit in 1972, he set an NHL record for scoring by a rookie with 77 points. This record has since been surpassed.  His best season was 1979–80 when he had 137 points. That season, he was tied for the league lead in points with Wayne Gretzky. Dionne was awarded the Art Ross Trophy for scoring two more goals than Gretzky, the only time he won the award. Dionne also won the Ted Lindsay Award (formerly called the Lester B. Pearson Award) in 1979 and 1980, and the Lady Byng Trophy in 1975 and 1977.  Dionne was the third of seven men to reach the 700-goal plateau, and currently ranks fifth among all-time goal scorers, with 731. He is ranked sixth in points, with 1771. He is tenth in career assists with 1,040. He was second in assists, goals, and points when he retired in 1989 (he is 70 goals, 9 assists, and 79 points behind Gordie Howe in all categories).  He was also the last active player in the NHL to have participated in the 1972 Summit Series. Despite not playing in the 1972 Summit Series, he did play for Team Canada in the 1976 Canada Cup and the 1981 Canada Cup. For the 1976 Canada Cup, his linemates were Bobby Hull and Phil Esposito. He was also on a line with Lanny McDonald and Darryl Sittler and they were on the ice when the tournament winning goal was scored. While on the 1981 team, he was on a line with Wayne Gretzky and Guy Lafleur. Dionne also won a bronze medal in the 1978, 1983 and 1986 World Ice Hockey Championships. In the 1978 edition, he was named the top forward.  Dionne is third in the NHL for most 100+ point seasons. He has had eight 100+ point seasons in his NHL career, only behind Wayne Gretzky's fifteen 100+ point seasons and Mario Lemieux's ten 100+ point seasons.  Marcel Dionne was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1992. In 1998, he was ranked number 38 on \"The Hockey News\"' list of the 100 Greatest Hockey Players, the highest-ranking player to have not won a Stanley Cup since 2001 when No. 14-ranked Ray Bourque won with the Colorado Avalanche. Dionne had not come close to doing so, as he never advanced beyond the second round of the playoffs. When the Los Angeles Kings finally reached the Stanley Cup finals in 1993, after advancing to and winning their first conference finals, Dionne gave Dave Taylor a congratulatory call.  The former Centre Civique arena in Drummondville was renamed Centre Marcel Dionne in his honour after his retirement.  Dionne's younger brother Gilbert also played in the NHL and won a Stanley Cup with the Montreal Canadiens in 1993. Gilbert is Marcel's junior by nineteen years.  Prior to the start of the 1993–94 season, Dionne helped to create local interest in the ECHL's newest franchise, the South Carolina Stingrays. With the help of some young players, Dionne gave an on-ice demonstration of the rules of hockey to the southern audience.  Dionne currently resides in Niagara Falls, Ontario, and owns Marcel Dionne enterprises. He is an occasional member of the Buffalo Sabres Alumni Hockey Team despite never playing, or living there as a player.  He is also a Royal Ambassador for the Kings organization.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marcel Elphège \"Little Beaver\" Dionne (born August 3, 1951) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey centre who played 18 seasons in the National Hockey League for the Detroit Red Wings, Los Angeles Kings and New York Rangers. Marcel Dionne was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1992. In 2017 Dionne was named one of the '100 Greatest NHL Players' in history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975239}
{"src_title": "Dickie Moore (ice hockey)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Moore played left wing with the Montreal Canadiens from 1951 to 1963. He started playing with the Montreal Jr. Royals for three seasons from 1947 to 1950, and made his debut with the Montreal Canadiens in the middle of the 1951–52 season. Moore had played on two Memorial Cup winners, one with the Montreal Royals in 1949 and Montreal Junior Canadiens the following year. In the late 1940s Canadiens GM Frank Selke Sr. anointed him Canada’s best junior.  He was known for his hard accurate shot and his ability to stickhandle the puck. He twice won the Art Ross Trophy as the league's leading scorer. Moore broke Gordie Howe's record of 95 total points in a regular season play with 41 goals and 55 assists.  Moore won the Stanley Cup for the first time in 1953 and was a member of the Montreal Canadiens team that won five consecutive cups from 1956–60.  During his 1957-58 season with the Canadiens, Moore suffered a broken wrist during a collision with Detroit defenceman Marcel Pronovost which threatened to cut short a scoring championship year. Journalist Red Fisher described what happened next: Moore, the competitor, wanted to win the Art Ross. He had his eye on the prize, but Moore, the team man, had other ideas. One night, when the Canadiens were travelling on the train, he asked for a meeting with coach Toe Blake and his linemates, Maurice and Henri Richard. At the time, Henri was Dickie’s closest pursuer in the scoring race. Dickie told them he could still play with his wrist in a cast, but for how long? And as long as he played with an injury that would sideline most players, how much could he contribute to the line? \"It’s not fair to Henri,\" Moore told Blake. \"It’s not fair not to allow him to win the scoring title.\" The meeting lasted no more than a few minutes. It ended abruptly when Maurice and Henri told Blake: \"There’s no damned way he’s going off the line.\" Moore remained on the line. He played with his wrist imprisoned in a cast for the second half of the season. He won the Art Ross with an NHL-leading 36 goals and 48 assists in a 70-game season. Henri finished four points behind. Moore won it again in 1958-59 with 41 goals and 55 assists.  He retired following the 1962–63 season, but came back after a year's hiatus to play for the Toronto Maple Leafs. Another three-year break saw Moore return to play 27 games for the St. Louis Blues. The 37-year-old went out with a bang, picking up 14 postseason points as the Blues made it into the Finals in their inaugural campaign.  In 1974, Moore was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame. In 1998, he was ranked number 31 on \"The Hockey News\"' list of the 100 Greatest Hockey Players.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Following his retirement from hockey, Moore became a successful businessman, operating an equipment and tools rental business for construction in Montreal, Ottawa and Toronto.  On November 12, 2005, the Canadiens retired the uniform number 12 in honour of both Moore and Yvan Cournoyer.  On August 27, 2006, Moore suffered neck, spine and rib injuries when his car was hit by a truck in Montreal. He was trapped in the car for 45 minutes before rescue. He died on December 19, 2015 in Montreal at the age of 84.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal.", "content": "Moore had three children: Richard, Lianne and John. In 1973, Richard died at the age of 16 in a car accident. Richard had been attending Malcolm Campbell High School in Montreal. The Dickie Moore Memorial Awards are presented annually in memory of former Kentville Minor Hockey player Dickie Moore Jr.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Winston \"Dickie\" Moore (January 6, 1931 – December 19, 2015) was a Canadian professional hockey player, successful businessman and community philanthropist. He twice won the Art Ross Trophy as the National Hockey League's leading scorer and was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame. Moore spent much of his career with the Montreal Canadiens, but also played briefly with the Toronto Maple Leafs and St. Louis Blues. In 2017 Moore was named one of the '100 Greatest NHL Players' in history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975240}
{"src_title": "Prokop Diviš", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born Václav Divíšek on 26 March 1698 in Helvíkovice, Bohemia (now Ústí nad Orlicí District, Czech Republic). As a child, he began his studies at the Jesuit gymnasium in the town. In 1716, at the age of 18, he entered a gymnasium run at the Premonstratensian abbey located in the village of Louka, where he completed his basic studies in 1719.  Divíšek then entered the novitiate of the abbey, taking the name Prokop (or Procopius). He completed this period of probation the following year and professed his religious vows in the Order. He then proceeded to study philosophy and theology in preparation for ordination to the Catholic priesthood, which occurred in 1726. From 1729-1735 he taught philosophy at the abbey gymnasium. During this period, he was sent by his abbot to the Paris Lodron University in Salzburg (now the University of Salzburg) to pursue advanced studies in theology. In 1733 he completed his doctoral dissertation, and was granted the degree of Doctor of Theology.  Diviš then returned to his abbey and resumed the monastic life of a canon regular, serving as sub-prior of the abbey. In 1736 he was appointed as pastor of a parish in Přímětice (now part of Znojmo) which was served by the abbey. He served in that capacity for five years, before being recalled to the abbey in April 1741, where he served as its prior. During the spring of the following year, in the course of the First Silesian War, the abbot, Antonin Nolbek, was arrested by the forces of the Kingdom of Prussia and taken to a prison in Prussia. The payment of a large ransom by Diviš for the abbot's release incurred his displeasure, leading him to return Diviš to the parish in Přímětice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientist.", "content": "Back at the parish, Diviš became responsible for the management of farmland belonging to it. He undertook the construction of water conduits on the property. As a result, he became interested in a popular new interest in the scientific community of his day, electricity. He began a series of experiments over the next years, mostly on plant growth and therapy with small electrical voltage. He published the results and allegedly demonstrated at the Imperial Court in Vienna. Diviš also constructed the Denis d'or, which allegedly imitated the sounds of various musical instruments. This instrument is dated to 1753, though only one prototype was built, and it vanished soon after Diviš death. The novelty instrument produced electrical shocks as practical jokes on the player. It is disputed whether the Denis d'or sounds were also produced by electricity or if it was an otherwise acoustical instrument.  The news of the death of Georg Wilhelm Richmann, a professor in St. Petersburg, who was killed by lightning in 1753 during his attempt at measuring the intensity of the electric field in the atmosphere, caused Diviš to become interested in atmospheric electricity. In letters, he proposed to several physicists (among them the Academies of Science in St. Petersburg and Vienna, as well as Leonhard Euler) to construct a \"weather-machine\" – a device that would suppress and prevent thunderstorms and lightning by constantly sucking atmospheric electricity out of the air. His theories were already in his time recognized as fringe science, and thus ignored. When Diviš did not receive answers, he took it up on himself to build such a machine in his own parish.  On 15 June 1754, he erected a forty metres high, free-standing pole in Přímětice, on which he mounted his \"weather-machine\", consisting of several tin boxes and more than 400 metal spikes. A well-established theory in that time was that more pointed spikes would conduct electricity better. The pole was secured by heavy metal chains that inadvertently also grounded his construction, making it actually one of the first grounded lightning rods. He described his invention as being very effective at driving off storms: clouds formed when the pole was taken down and disappeared when erected again. He took these occasional observations as proof of his theory that the pointed spikes extracted latent electricity out of the atmosphere, deposing them safely before lightning could form. Several local newspapers and novelty papers from Southern Germany made reports on his attempts.  His findings were not well received in the scientific community that largely decided to ignore him. In 1759, a drought threatened Přímětice's farmers, who now took action against their priests' attempts to control the weather and consequently destroyed the first \"weather-machine\". This led to a dissent between Diviš and his \"unruly flock\", that only ended when the church superiors advised Diviš to stop his experiments. He was advised to unmount his second \"weather-machine\" which he had then for security reasons mounted on the tower of his church, and hand it over to the Louka abbey.  Diviš continued to correspond with scientists and promote his own theory which he called \"Magia naturalis\". Fricker and Oetinger, two like-minded priests from Württemberg who had visited him during the experiments, helped him publish it abroad under the German name \"Längst verlangte Theorie von der meteorologischen Electricité\" \"(Much desired theory of the metereological electricity)\", in the same year that Diviš died. Again, the theory was largely ignored, though Tetens reviewed them a few years after and called it a work of fantasy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Diviš died on 21 December 1765 in Přímětice.  After years of obscurity, memory of Diviš was reignited in the late 19th century. Now seen as a visionary inventor, supporters saw him as the European inventor of the lightning rod, who invented the lightning rod in the same years as Benjamin Franklin, probably even independently. Despite scientific reviews of Diviš's errors (among others, German physicist Meidinger, who compared evidence about early lightning rods in 1888; and Czech scientific historians Smolka and Haubelt in 2004/05), there are still popular claims that Prokop Diviš invented the lightning rod. Indeed, his free-standing apparatus in 1754 was probably better grounded than Franklin's experimental lightning rods at that time. The \"weather-machine\" failed, however, the common purpose of lightning rods: to actually protect a building; while the grounding chains were not remotely secure.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dom Prokop Diviš, O.Praem. () (26 March 1698 – 21 December 1765) was a Czech canon regular, theologian and natural scientist. In an attempt to prevent thunderstorms from occurring, he inadvertently constructed one of the first grounded lightning rods.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975241}
{"src_title": "Lisa Randall", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Randall was born in Queens, New York City, New York. She is an alumna of Hampshire College Summer Studies in Mathematics; and she graduated from Stuyvesant High School in 1980, where she was a classmate of fellow physicist and science popularizer Brian Greene. She won first place in the 1980 Westinghouse Science Talent Search at the age of 18; and at Harvard University, Randall earned both an AB in physics (1983) and a PhD in theoretical particle physics (1987) under Howard Georgi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academia.", "content": "Randall researches particle physics and cosmology at Harvard, where she is a professor of theoretical physics. Her research concerns elementary particles and fundamental forces, and has involved the study of a wide variety of models, the most recent involving dimensions. She has also worked on supersymmetry, Standard Model observables, cosmological inflation, baryogenesis, grand unified theories, and general relativity.  After her graduate work at Harvard, Randall held professorships at MIT and Princeton University before returning to Harvard in 2001. Professor Randall was the first tenured woman in the Princeton physics department and the first tenured female theoretical physicist at Harvard. (Melissa Franklin was the first tenured woman in the Harvard physics department.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing.", "content": "Randall's books \"Warped Passages: Unraveling the Mysteries of the Universe's Hidden Dimensions\" and \"\" have both been on \"New York Times\" 100 notable books lists.  Between the hardback and paperback release of \"Knocking on Heaven's Door\", the quest for the discovery of the Higgs boson was actually completed, a subject discussed in the book. Scientists at the Large Hadron Collider found a particle identified as the Higgs boson. She said about the discovery, that even if people don't understand everything about it, \"what an exciting thing it is that people are excited that there is something fundamentally new that has been discovered.\" Randall has an e-book entitled \"Higgs Discovery: The Power of Empty Space\". Before the Large Hadron Collider was operating, she wrote an article explaining the discoveries that were expected from using it. She was commonly asked about the misconception that the LHC could make black holes that could destroy the planet. She answered that it was \"not even conceivable unless space and gravity are very different from what we thought.\"  Randall wrote the libretto of the opera \"Hypermusic Prologue: A Projective Opera in Seven Planes\" on the invitation of the composer, Hèctor Parra, who was inspired by her book \"Warped Passages\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional organizations.", "content": "Randall is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2004) and the National Academy of Sciences (2008), and a fellow of the American Physical Society.  Randall has helped organize numerous conferences and has been on the editorial board of several major theoretical physics journals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "In autumn 2004, she was the most cited theoretical physicist of the previous five years. Professor Randall was featured in \"Seed\" magazine's \"2005 Year in Science Icons\" and in \"Newsweek\"s \"Who's Next in 2006\" as \"one of the most promising theoretical physicists of her generation\". In 2007, Randall was named one of \"Time\" magazine's 100 Most Influential People (\"Time\" 100) under the section for \"Scientists & Thinkers\". Randall was given this honor for her work regarding the evidence of a higher dimension.  Other honors:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In an interview she was asked whether she believes in God.  Randall's sister, Dana Randall, is a professor of computer science at Georgia Tech.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lisa Randall (born June 18, 1962) is an American theoretical physicist working in particle physics and cosmology. She is the Frank B. Baird, Jr. Professor of Science on the physics faculty of Harvard University. Her research includes elementary particles, fundamental forces and dimensions of space. She studies the Standard Model, supersymmetry, possible solutions to the hierarchy problem concerning the relative weakness of gravity, cosmology of dimensions, baryogenesis, cosmological inflation, and dark matter. She contributed to the Randall–Sundrum model, first published in 1999 with Raman Sundrum.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975242}
{"src_title": "Klondike Highway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Route description.", "content": "The Klondike Highway winds in the state of Alaska for, up through the White Pass in the Coast Mountains where it crosses the Canada–US border to British Columbia (BC) for, then enters Yukon where it reaches the Alaska Highway near Whitehorse and shares a short section with that highway until north of Whitehorse, where it diverges once more to Dawson City. The highway is long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "South Klondike Highway.", "content": "The original section known locally as the Carcross Road was actually made into a part of the Alaska Highway in 1942, until the Marsh Lake route was opened the next year. As Yukon Highway 5, it formed a loop road with Highway 6, the Tagish Road (now numbered as 8). It was renumbered as Highway 2 in 1978, being incorporated into the Klondike Highway designation. The road underwent alignment improvements during the 1980s. Residents living as far south as from the Alaska Highway still give their residential addresses as historic mile measurements that start at zero at the Alaska Highway, even though the distances are no longer accurate, and kilometre posts count distance from Skagway's ferry terminal.  Construction of the \"Carcross-Skagway Road\" began in the 1950s, was abandoned partway up a mountain from Skagway, resumed in 1976-1977 and was completed between Skagway and Carcross in August 1978. It was only open for a few weeks before seasonal closure. The first full summer season of use was in 1979.  The highway originally was built for tourist traffic, but in 1986 became important as a commercial transportation route, coincident with what seemed to be inevitable abandonment of the White Pass and Yukon Route railway (WP&YR). The new owners of the Faro mine secured government agreement to open the highway for trucking. The last winter closure ended in the spring of 1986.  The Carcross-Skagway Road portion of the highway underwent substantial rerouting, widening and (cold mix) paving in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Mining ore trucks and fuel tankers are the primary current (2013) commercial users of the highway, which also remains a popular tourist route (cars, RVs, buses), and provides a means for the WP&YR to offer economically-priced train excursions connecting at Fraser to buses based at Skagway for the cruise ship industry, or to/from Carcross and Whitehorse to the north.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "North Klondike Highway.", "content": "The quality of roads from Whitehorse to Dawson City prior to 1950 was poor and only for the hardiest of travelers and motorized vehicles. The \"Whitehorse-Mayo Road,\" Yukon's original Highway 2, extended along today's route from Whitehorse to Stewart Crossing, then turned northeast to Mayo, Elsa and Keno City. The last of three bridges was finished in 1960 to replace ferries at Carmacks, Pelly Crossing and Stewart Crossing.  Yukon's original Highway 3, the Dawson-Mayo Road, was opened in September 1955 between Stewart Crossing and Dawson City. The Dawson-Mayo Road became part of Highway 2 in 1978 and was named the Klondike Highway, while the road northeast from Stewart Crossing became Highway 11, and was later named the Silver Trail.  Even as of 1979, the entire Klondike Highway was gravel, but by 1982, some paving had been laid down as far north as Carmacks. Rebuilding and some rerouting was completed in the late 1980s.  Approximately, the first of the North Klondike Highway are still often known as the Mayo Road to the residents of Whitehorse. Although kilometric distance markers have been in place since the early 1980s, residents in this area still identify their residential address as a mile measurement along the Mayo Road.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Klondike Highway is a highway that runs from the Alaska Panhandle through the province of British Columbia and the territory of Yukon in Canada, linking the coastal town of Skagway, Alaska to Dawson City, Yukon. Its route somewhat parallels the route used by prospectors in the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975243}
{"src_title": "Balantidium coli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Morphology.", "content": "\" coli\" has two developmental stages, a trophozoite stage and a cyst stage. In trophozoites, the two nuclei are visible. The macronucleus is long and sausage-shaped, and the spherical micronucleus is nested next to it, often hidden by the macronucleus. The opening, known as the peristome, at the pointed anterior end leads to the cytostome, or the mouth. Cysts are smaller than trophozoites and are round and have a tough, heavy cyst wall made of one or two layers. Usually only the macronucleus and sometimes cilia and contractile vacuoles are visible in the cyst. Living trophozoites and cysts are yellowish or greenish in color.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transmission.", "content": "\"Balantidium\" is the only ciliated protozoan known to infect humans. Balantidiasis is a zoonotic disease and is acquired by humans via the feco-oral route from the normal host, the domestic pig, where it is asymptomatic. Contaminated water is the most common mechanism of transmission.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in disease.", "content": "\"Balantidium coli\" lives in the cecum and colon of humans, pigs, rats, and other mammals. It is not readily transmissible from one species of host to another because it requires a period of time to adjust to the symbiotic flora of the new host. Once it has adapted to a host species, the protozoan can become a serious pathogen, especially in humans. Trophozoites multiply and encyst due to the dehydration of feces.  Infection occurs when the cysts are ingested, usually through contaminated food or water. \"B. coli\" infection in immunocompetent individuals is not unheard of, but it rarely causes serious disease of the gastrointestinal tract. It can thrive in the gastrointestinal tract as long as there is a balance between the protozoan and the host without causing dysenteric symptoms. Infection most likely occurs in people with malnutrition due to the low stomach acidity or people with compromised immune systems.  In acute disease, explosive diarrhea may occur as often as every twenty minutes. Perforation of the colon may also occur in acute infections which can lead to life-threatening situations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "Infection occurs when a host ingests a cyst, which usually happens during the consumption of contaminated water or food. Once the cyst is ingested, it passes through the host’s digestive system. While the cyst receives some protection from degradation by the acidic environment of the stomach through the use of its outer wall, it is likely to be destroyed at a pH lower than 5, allowing it to survive easier in the stomachs of malnourished individuals who have less stomach acid. Once the cyst reaches the small intestine, trophozoites are produced. The trophozoites then colonize the large intestine, where they live in the lumen and feed on the intestinal flora. Some trophozoites invade the wall of the colon using proteolytic enzymes and multiply, and some of them return to the lumen. In the lumen, trophozoites may disintegrate or undergo encystation. Encystation is triggered by dehydration of the intestinal contents and usually occurs in the distal large intestine, but may also occur outside of the host in feces. Now in its mature cyst form, cysts are released into the environment where they can go on to infect a new host.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Epidemiology.", "content": "Balantidiasis in humans is common in the Philippines, but it can be found anywhere in the world, especially among those that are in close contact with swine. The disease is considered to be rare and occurs in less than 1% of the human population. The disease poses a problem mostly in developing countries, where water sources may be contaminated with swine or human feces.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Balantidium coli is a parasitic species of ciliate alveolates that causes the disease balantidiasis. It is the only member of the ciliate phylum known to be pathogenic to humans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975244}
{"src_title": "Stump-tailed macaque", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Physical characteristics.", "content": "The stump-tailed macaque has long, thick, dark brown fur covering its body, but its face and its short tail, which measures between, are hairless. Infants are born white and darken as they mature. As they age, their bright pink or red faces darken to brown or nearly black and lose most of their hair. Males are larger than females, measuring 51.7–65 cm long and weighing 9.7–10.2 kg, while females measure 48.5–58.5 cm and weigh 7.5–9.1 kg. Males' canine teeth, which are important for establishing dominance within social groups, are more elongated than those of the females. Like all macaques, this species has cheek pouches to store food for short periods of time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "This Old World monkey travels quadrupedally, usually on the ground, as it is not very agile in trees. It is generally found in subtropical and tropical broadleaf evergreen forests, in different elevations depending on the amount of rainfall in the area. It depends on rainforests for food and shelter, and is not found in dry forests except where it ranges in the Himalayan region of India, only spending time in secondary forests if it is bordering primary tropical forests. With its thick fur, the stump-tailed macaque can live in cold climates, up to 4,000 meters. It is distributed from northeastern India and southern China into the northwest tip of West Malaysia on the Malay Peninsula. It is also found in Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. It is possibly extinct from Bangladesh.  A study population was introduced to Tanaxpillo, an uninhabited island in Lake Catemaco, Veracruz, Mexico in 1974, where it ranges in seminatural conditions. Most information on the species comes from the introduced population on Tanaxpillo and other captive settings, as few long-term studies have been conducted on the stump-tailed macaque in the wild.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "A study population of female stump-tailed macaques was found to have increased levels of steroid sex hormones, specifically 17β-estradiol and progesterone levels. 17β-estradiol levels were significantly greater during summer and fall and progesterone levels were significantly greater during summer, fall and winter. This explains that stump-tailed macaques have two mating seasons per year: one in summer (July–August) and one in fall (November). This is supported by the distribution of birth frequency in stump-tailed macaques.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The stump-tailed macaque (\"Macaca arctoides\"), also called the bear macaque, is a species of macaque found in South Asia. In India, it is found in south of the Brahmaputra River, in the northeastern part of the country. Its range in India extends from Assam and Meghalaya to eastern Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975245}
{"src_title": "Performative utterance", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Austin's definition.", "content": "In order to define performatives, Austin refers to those sentences which conform to the old prejudice in that they \"are\" used to describe or constate something, and which thus \"are\" true or false; and he calls such sentences \"constatives\". In contrast to them, Austin defines \"performatives\" as follows:  For example, when Paul says \"I promise to do the dishes\" in an appropriate context then he thereby does not just say something, and in particular he does not describe what he is doing; rather, in making the utterance he performs the promise; since promising is an illocutionary act, the utterance is thus a performative utterance. If Peter utters the sentence without the intention to keep the promise, or if eventually he does not keep it, then although something is not in order with the utterance, the problem is not that the sentence is false: it is rather \"unhappy\", or \"infelicitous\", as Austin also says in his discussion of so-called felicity conditions. In the absence of any such flaw, on the other hand, the utterance is to be assessed as \"happy\" or \"felicitous\", rather than as \"true\". Austin dropped this distinction in favour of a distinction between explicit performatives (\"I promise it will never happen again\") and primary or implicit performatives (\"It will never happen again,\" functioning as a promise).  The initial examples of performative sentences Austin gives are these:  As Austin later notices himself, these examples belong (more or less strikingly) to what Austin calls, \"explicit\" performatives; to utter an \"explicit\" performative sentence is to make explicit what act one is performing. However, there are also \"implicit\", \"primitive\", or \"inexplicit\" performatives. When, for instance, one uses the word \"Go!\" in order to command someone to leave the room then this utterance is part of the performance of a command; and the sentence, according to Austin, is neither true nor false; hence the sentence is a performative; – still, it is \"not\" an \"explicit\" performative, for it does not make explicit that the act the speaker is performing is a command.  As Austin observes, the acts purported to be performed by performative utterances may be socially contested. For instance, \"I divorce you\", said three times by a man to his wife, may be accepted to constitute a divorce by some, but not by others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "True/false value and John Searle.", "content": "John R. Searle argued in his 1989 article \"How Performatives Work\" that performatives are true/false just like constatives. Searle further claimed that performatives are what he calls \"declarations\"; this is a technical notion of Searle's account: according to his conception, an utterance is a \"declaration\", if \"the successful performance of the speech act is sufficient to bring about the fit between words and world, to make the propositional content true.\" Searle believes that this double direction of fit contrasts the simple word-to-world fit of assertives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The receiving side.", "content": "Kent Bach and Robert Harnish claimed that performatives are successful only if recipients infer the intention behind the literal meaning, and that therefore the success of the performative act is determined by the receiving side.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performativeness as non-dichotomous variable.", "content": "Eve Sedgwick argued that there are performative aspects to nearly all words, sentences, and phrases. Additionally, according to Sedgwick, performative utterances can be 'transformative' performatives, which create an instant change of personal or environmental status, or 'promisory' performatives, which describe the world as it might be in the future. These categories are not exclusive, so an utterance may well have both qualities. As Sedgwick observes, performative utterances can be revoked, either by the person who uttered them (\"I take back my promise\"), or by some other party not immediately involved, like the state (for example, gay marriage vows pre-legalisation).  Words on a list can be either descriptive or performative. 'Butter' on a shopping list implies that \"I will buy butter\" (a promise to yourself). But 'Butter' printed on your till receipt means \"you have purchased butter\" (simply a description).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performative writing.", "content": "The above ideas have influenced performative writing; they are used as a justification for an attempt to create a new form of critical writing about performance (often about performance art). Such a writing form is claimed to be, in itself, a form of performance. It is said to more accurately reflect the fleeting and ephemeral nature of a performance, and the various tricks of memory and referentiality that happen in the mind of the viewer during and after the performance.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the philosophy of language and speech acts theory, performative utterances are sentences which not only describe a given reality, but also change the social reality they are describing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975246}
{"src_title": "Johann Peter Frank", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "His first studies were in theology. He then studied medicine at the Universities of Strasbourg and Heidelberg, and earned his medical doctorate in 1766. He practiced medicine in Bruchsal and elsewhere for a time, and then became physician to the prince-bishop of Speyer. He was appointed professor of physiology and medical policy at the University of Göttingen in 1784, but the next year he went to Italy for his health and joined the faculty of the University of Pavia, where he succeeded Samuel-Auguste Tissot teaching clinical medicine (1785-1795).  He was appointed sanitary inspector general of Lombardy, and introduced reforms in medical instruction and practice. The rank of councillor was conferred on him by the king of England, and later by the emperor of Austria, who employed him in 1795 for the regulation of the sanitary service of the army and as director general of the principal hospital of Vienna.  In 1804, he went to Vilnius University as professor of clinical medicine, and then for a period of time (1805–1808), he was personal physician to Czar Alexander I, and also professor at the medical and surgical academy of St. Petersburg. In 1808, he returned to Vienna, where he was professor of medicine at the University of Vienna, as well as director of the \"Allegemeines Krankenhaus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Johann Frank was an important figure in the early history of social medicine and public health. For much of his career he worked on the \"System einer vollständigen medicinischen Polizey\" (A Complete System of Medical Policy), which was a comprehensive 9-volume treatise on all aspects of hygiene and public health. This work was first published in 1779, and was continued until 1827, six years after Frank's death. His methodology for public health dealt with subjects such as public sanitation, water supply issues, sexual hygiene, maternal and child welfare, food safety, and prostitution, to name a few.  He stressed the importance of keeping accurate statistical records for hospitals. Reportedly, Frank's system of record compilation was used by obstetrician Ignaz Semmelweiss (1818–1865) to demonstrate the correlation between puerperal sepsis and unsanitary obstetrical practices. As a director of the Narrenturm, he was also responsible for allowing Franz Joseph Gall access to psychiatric patients in the mid-1780s—a major formative experience for Gall.  Frank is credited with being the first physician to describe clinical differences between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "His son Joseph Frank was a noted physician.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition.", "content": "Frank's name features on the Frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. Twenty-three names of public health and tropical medicine pioneers were chosen to feature on the School building in Keppel Street when it was constructed in 1926.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Peter Frank (19 March 1745 – 24 April 1821) was a German physician and hygienist who was a native of Rodalben.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975247}
{"src_title": "Ubaid period", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of research.", "content": "The term \"Ubaid period\" was coined at a conference in Baghdad in 1930, where at the same time the Jemdet Nasr and Uruk periods were defined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dating, extent and periodization.", "content": "The Ubaid period is divided into four principal phases:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence to the north.", "content": "Around 5000 BC, the Ubaid culture spread into northern Mesopotamia and was adopted by the Halaf culture. This is known as the Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period of northern Mesopotamia.  During the late Ubaid period around 4500–4000 BC, there was some increase in social polarization, with central houses in the settlements becoming bigger. But there were no real cities until the later Uruk period.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ubaid influence in the Persian Gulf area.", "content": "During the Ubaid 2 and 3 periods (5500–5000 BC), southern Mesopotamian Ubaid influence is felt further to the south as far as the Persian Gulf. Ubaid artifacts spread also all along the Arabian littoral, showing the growth of a trading system that stretched from the Mediterranean coast through to Oman.  Spreading from Eridu, the Ubaid culture extended from the Middle of the Tigris and Euphrates to the shores of the Persian Gulf, and then spread down past Bahrain to the copper deposits at Oman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Obsidian trade.", "content": "Starting around 5500 BC, Ubaid pottery of periods 2 and 3 has been documented at Sabiyah in Kuwait and in Dosariyah in eastern Saudi Arabia.  In Dosariyah, nine samples of Ubaid-associated obsidian were analyzed. They came from eastern and northeastern Anatolia, such as from Pasinler, Erzurum, as well as from Armenia. The obsidian was in the form of finished blade fragments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decline of influence.", "content": "The archaeological record shows that Arabian Bifacial/Ubaid period came to an abrupt end in eastern Arabia and the Oman peninsula at 3800 BC, just after the phase of lake lowering and onset of dune reactivation. At this time, increased aridity led to an end in semi-desert nomadism, and there is no evidence of human presence in the area for approximately 1,000 years, the so-called \"Dark Millennium\". That might be due to the 5.9 kiloyear event at the end of the Older Peron.  Numerous examples of Ubaid pottery have been found along the Persian Gulf, as far as Dilmun, where Indus Valley Civilization pottery has also been found.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Ubaid culture is characterized by large unwalled village settlements, multi-roomed rectangular mud-brick houses and the appearance of the first temples of public architecture in Mesopotamia, with a growth of a two tier settlement hierarchy of centralized large sites of more than 10 hectares surrounded by smaller village sites of less than 1 hectare. Domestic equipment included a distinctive fine quality buff or greenish colored pottery decorated with geometric designs in brown or black paint; tools such as sickles were often made of hard fired clay in the south. But in the north, stone and sometimes metal were used. Villages thus contained specialised craftspeople, potters, weavers and metalworkers, although the bulk of the population were agricultural labourers, farmers and seasonal pastoralists.  During the Ubaid Period [5000–4000 BC], the movement towards urbanization began. \"Agriculture and animal husbandry [domestication] were widely practiced in sedentary communities\". There were also tribes that practiced domesticating animals as far north as Turkey, and as far south as the Zagros Mountains. The Ubaid period in the south was associated with intensive irrigated hydraulic agriculture, and the use of the plough, both introduced from the north, possibly through the earlier Choga Mami, Hadji Muhammed and Samarra cultures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Society.", "content": "The Ubaid period as a whole, based upon the analysis of grave goods, was one of increasingly polarised social stratification and decreasing egalitarianism. Bogucki describes this as a phase of \"Trans-egalitarian\" competitive households, in which some fall behind as a result of downward social mobility. Morton Fried and Elman Service have hypothesised that Ubaid culture saw the rise of an elite class of hereditary chieftains, perhaps heads of kin groups linked in some way to the administration of the temple shrines and their granaries, responsible for mediating intra-group conflict and maintaining social order. It would seem that various collective methods, perhaps instances of what Thorkild Jacobsen called primitive democracy, in which disputes were previously resolved through a council of one's peers, were no longer sufficient for the needs of the local community.  Ubaid culture originated in the south, but still has clear connections to earlier cultures in the region of middle Iraq. The appearance of the Ubaid folk has sometimes been linked to the so-called Sumerian problem, related to the origins of Sumerian civilisation. Whatever the ethnic origins of this group, this culture saw for the first time a clear tripartite social division between intensive subsistence peasant farmers, with crops and animals coming from the north, tent-dwelling nomadic pastoralists dependent upon their herds, and hunter-fisher folk of the Arabian littoral, living in reed huts.  Stein and Özbal describe the Near East oecumene that resulted from Ubaid expansion, contrasting it to the colonial expansionism of the later Uruk period. \"A contextual analysis comparing different regions shows that the Ubaid expansion took place largely through the peaceful spread of an ideology, leading to the formation of numerous new indigenous identities that appropriated and transformed superficial elements of Ubaid material culture into locally distinct expressions.\"  The earliest evidence for sailing has been found in Kuwait indicating that sailing was known by the Ubaid 3 period.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ubaid period (c. 6500–3800 BC) is a prehistoric period of Mesopotamia. The name derives from Tell al-'Ubaid where the earliest large excavation of Ubaid period material was conducted initially by Henry Hall and later by Leonard Woolley.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975248}
{"src_title": "Formosan rock macaque", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Physical characteristics.", "content": "Rock macaques measure 50–60 cm and weigh 5–12 kg, generally females are smaller. Their tails are moderately long and measure 26–45 cm. This macaque is brown or gray in color. Like all other macaques, it has specialized pouch-like cheeks, allowing it to temporarily hoard its food. The gathered morsels are eaten sometime later, in safe surroundings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life and behavior.", "content": "Among the 22 species of the genus \"Macaca\" that are found in southern and eastern Asia as well as northwestern Africa, the Formosan macaque is endemic to the island of Taiwan (area: 36,000 km).  Formosan rock macaques live in mixed coniferous-hardwood temperate forest, as well as bamboo and grassland at 100-3600m (328-11,812 ft). The social structure of macaques is generally characterized as often occurring as a large stable multimale-multifemale troop. Formosan macaque is considered to be female-bonded which is similar to other species in the genus \"Macaca\". Based on the study of Hsu and Lin, the average overall sex ratio was approximately 1:1, and the average adult sex ratio was close to 0.53. Solitary adult males accounted for 5% of the entire population, and they were seen interacting with social troops especially during mating season.  Rock macaques are diurnal, arboreal, and terrestrial. More often they stay in trees and less so on the ground. They rest in forest and forage in grassland. Their diet consists of fruits, tender leaves, buds, grass stems, insects, snails, and bird eggs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The Formosan rock macaque gives birth to a single offspring. During estrus, the perineum of the female swells at the base of the tail, and there is also swelling along the thighs. Their mating season is from October to January. Gestation may last about five and a half months. Females give birth to babies between spring and summer. Females are entirely responsible for nursing. Youngsters are carried in mother's arms for 2–3 months. Not until one year old, will youngsters be fully separated from their parents carrying.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "Formosan rock macaques are hunted for their meat and for the damage they allegedly do to crops. They are also hunted for the purpose of exports for medical experimental use. In Taiwan, there is a strong culture of feeding macaques (in parks, along roadsides), particularly on the west coast, which increases their interaction and incidents with humans. Recent efforts by the government have tried to stop this behaviour, with mixed results.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Formosan rock macaque (\"Macaca cyclopis\"), Formosan rock monkey, or Taiwanese macaque, is a macaque endemic to the island of Taiwan, which has also been introduced to Japan. Besides humans, Formosan rock macaques are the only native primates living in Taiwan. The species was first described by Robert Swinhoe in 1862.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975249}
{"src_title": "Greek Cypriots", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prehistory and antiquity.", "content": "Cyprus was part of the Mycenaean civilization with local production of Mycenaean vases dating to the Late Helladic III (1400–1050 BC). The quantity of this pottery concludes that there were numerous Mycenaean settlers, if not settlements, on the island. Archaeological evidence shows that Greek settlement began unsystematically in c. 1400 BC, then steadied (possibly due to Dorian invaders on the mainland) with definite settlements established in c. 1200 BC. The close connection between the Arcadian dialect and those of Pamphylia and Cyprus indicates that the migration came from Achaea. The Achaean tribe may have been an original population of the Peloponnese, Pamphylia, and Cyprus, living in the latter prior to the Dorian invasion, and not a subsequent immigrant group; the Doric elements in Arcadian are lacking in Cypriot. Achaeans settled among the old population, and founded Salamis. The epic \"Cypria\", dating to the 7th century BC, may have originated in Cyprus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "The Byzantine era profoundly molded Greek Cypriot culture. The Greek Orthodox Christian legacy bestowed on Greek Cypriots in this period would live on during the succeeding centuries of foreign domination. Because Cyprus was never the final goal of any external ambition, but simply fell under the domination of whichever power was dominant in the eastern Mediterranean, destroying its civilization was never a military objective or necessity.  The Cypriots did however endure the oppressive rule of first the Lusignans and then the Venetians from the 1190s through to 1570. King Amaury, who succeeded his brother Guy de Lusignan in 1194, was particularly intolerant of the Orthodox Church. Greek Cypriot land was appropriated for the Latin churches after they were established in the major towns on the island. In addition, tax collection was also part of the heavy oppressive attitude of the occupiers to the locals of the island, in that it was now being conducted by the Latin churches themselves.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early modern period.", "content": "The Ottoman conquest of Cyprus in 1571 replaced Venetian rule. Despite the inherent oppression of foreign subjugation, the period of Ottoman rule (1570–1878) had a limited impact on Greek Cypriot culture. The Ottomans tended to administer their multicultural empire with the help of their subject \"millets\", or religious communities. The \"millet\" system allowed the Greek Cypriot community to survive, administered on behalf of Constantinople by the Archbishop of the Church of Cyprus. Cypriot Greeks were now able to take control of the land they had been working on for centuries. Although religiously tolerant, Ottoman rule was generally harsh and inefficient. The patriarch serving the Ottoman sultan acted as \"ethnarch\", or leader of the Greek nation, and gained secular powers as a result of the gradual dysfunction of Ottoman rule, for instance in adjudicating justice and in the collection of taxes.Turkish settlers suffered alongside their Greek Cypriot neighbors, and the two groups together endured centuries of oppressive governance from Constantinople. A minority of Greek Cypriots converted to Islam during this period, and are sometimes referred to as \"neo-Muslims\" by historians.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "Politically, the concept of \"enosis\" – unification with the Greek \"motherland\" – became important to literate Greek Cypriots after Greece declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. A movement for the realization of \"enosis\" gradually formed, in which the Church of Cyprus played a dominant role during the Cyprus dispute.  During British rule (1878–1960), the British brought an efficient colonial administration, but government and education were administered along ethnic lines, accentuating differences. For example, the education system was organized with two Boards of Education, one Greek and one Turkish, controlled by Athens and Istanbul, respectively. The resulting education emphasized linguistic, religious, cultural, and ethnic differences and ignored traditional ties between the two Cypriot communities. The two groups were encouraged to view themselves as extensions of their respective motherlands, and the development of two distinct nationalities with antagonistic loyalties was ensured.  The importance of religion within the Greek Cypriot community was reinforced when the Archbishop of the Church of Cyprus, Makarios III, was elected the first president of the Republic of Cyprus in 1960. For the next decade and a half, \"enosis\" was a key issue for Greek Cypriots, and a key cause of events leading up to 1974 when Turkey invaded and occupied the northern part of the island. The island remains divided today, with the two communities almost completely separated. Many Greek Cypriots, most of whom lost their homes, lands and possessions during the Turkish invasion, emigrated mainly to the UK, USA, Australia, South Africa and Europe. There are today estimated to be 335,000 Greek Cypriot emigrants living in Great Britain. The majority of the Greek Cypriots in Great Britain currently live in England; there is an estimate of around 3,000 in Wales and 1,000 in Scotland. By the early 1990s, Greek Cypriot society enjoyed a high standard of living. Economic modernization created a more flexible and open society and caused Greek Cypriots to share the concerns and hopes of other secularized West European societies. The Republic of Cyprus joined the European Union in 2004, officially representing the entire island, but suspended for the time being in the Turkish occupied north.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "Greeks in Cyprus number 659,115, according to the 2011 Cypriot census. There is a notable community of Cypriots and people of Cypriot descent in Greece. In Athens, the Greek Cypriot community numbers ca. 55,000 people. There is also a large Greek Cypriot diaspora, particularly in the United Kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cuisine.", "content": "Cypriot cuisine, as with other Greek cuisine, was imprinted with the spices and herbs made common as a result of extensive trade links within the Ottoman Empire. Names of many dishes came to reflect the sources of the ingredients from the many lands under the Ottoman rule. Coffee houses pervasively spread throughout the island into all major towns and countless villages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "The everyday language of Greek Cypriots is Cypriot Greek, a dialect of Modern Greek. It shares certain characteristics with varieties of Crete, the Dodecanese and Chios, as well as those of Asia Minor.  Greek Cypriots are generally educated in Standard Modern Greek, though they tend to speak it with an accent and preserve some Cypriot Greek grammar.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Greek Cypriots (, ) are the ethnic Greek population of Cyprus, forming the island's largest ethnolinguistic community. According to the 2011 census, 659,115 respondents recorded their ethnicity as Greek, forming almost 99% of the 667,398 Cypriot citizens and over 78% of the 840,407 total residents of the area controlled by the Republic of Cyprus. These figures do not include the 29,321 citizens of Greece residing in Cyprus, ethnic Greeks recorded as citizens of other countries, or the population of Turkish-occupied northern Cyprus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975250}
{"src_title": "A. H. Tammsaare", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Tammsaare was born in Järvamaa, in the municipality of Albu, village of Vetepere, Estonia the son of a farmer. He came from a poor background but managed to collect enough money for his education. More so his family was quite enlightened for the time, with his father for instance ordering newspapers, which most Estonian farmers didn't. He studied in Väike-Maarja and Tartu in Hugo Treffner's Gymnasium, and afterward at the University of Tartu, where he studied law. Tammsaare's studies were interrupted by tuberculosis in 1911. He spent over a year in a sanatorium in Sochi – where his memorial house is open to the public – and the following six years in his brother's farm in Koitjärve, Estonia (now part of Põhja-Kõrvemaa Nature Reserve), reading works of Cervantes, Shakespeare and Homer. His younger sister, Maria Hansen, was the mother of Tammsaare's nephew, actor Arno Suurorg.  In 1918, when Estonia became independent, Tammsaare moved to Tallinn. It was here that Tammsaare wrote those prose works, based on the history and lives of the Estonian people, which have gained him a prominent place in Estonian literature.  Tammsaare was interested in philosophy and psychology. His novels reflect the ideas of Bergson, Jung and Freud. He was, however, skeptical about cosmopolitanism. \"European culture\", he wrote \"is something to be overcome if one wishes to see the triumph of love, justice, and humanity spoken of so glibly\". Like Carl Robert Jakobson and Jaan Tõnisson's \"Tartu Renaissance\" group, he believed that Estonian culture was best served by farmers and intellectuals from rural backgrounds. His work was influenced( at various stages) by Oscar Wilde, Knut Hamsun and André Gide, but, above all, by the Russian realists. \"In the whole of world literature,\" said Tammsaare, I have never read anything to compare to the Russians... there is no one to compare to Tolstoy, Dostoevsky or Gogol\"... Dostoevsky \"really disturbed me: I lived in a waking dream under his influence. I was especially gripped by \"Crime and Punishment\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Tammsaare's early works are characterized by rural \"poetic\" realism. Some of his stories also reflect the atmosphere of the revolutionary year of 1905. During what is sometimes classified as his second period, from 1908 to 1919, he wrote several short urban novels and collections of miniatures. In \"Poiss ja liblikas\" (1915, \"The Boy and the Butterfly\"), Tammsaare shows the influence of Oscar Wilde. Internationally best known is his last novel, \"Devil with a False Passport\".  \"Truth and Justice\" comprises five volumes, which have no individual titles (some were added in translation). Since vol. 3 contains a description about the Russian Revolution of 1905, which is not informed by ideology but by an existential attention to individual suffering, it was often combined with vol. 2 by Soviet censorship.  Even today, the third volume is sometimes called \"artistically inferior\", although the description of the revolution is on par with similar scenes in Pasternak's \"Doctor Zhivago\". In Estonia, the second volume, with its Tartu educational scenes, is today probably the most enjoyed. International critics would probably opt for vol. 1 as the strongest overall; it is a classical peasant novel reminiscent of Hamsun which is also generally held to be the most telling one about \"the Estonian character\", embodied especially in two antagonistic farmer figures Andres and Pearu. Tammsaare himself said later that the different volumes deal with the relation of Man (i.e., the human person) to (1) the land, (2) God, (3) State and society, (4) him- or herself and (5) resignation.  \"Truth and Justice\" was not translated into English until 2014, when Haute Culture Books published the first volume of the saga under the name \"Andres and Pearu\". There are two complete translations into German and one each into French, Latvian, and Czech. Volume 1 has also been translated into Finnish, Polish, and Hungarian (with the title, \"Orcád verítékével\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A. H. Tammsaare (pseudonym, of which there are other variants; born Anton Hansen 30 January 1878 – 1 March 1940), was an Estonian writer whose pentalogy \"Truth and Justice\" (\"Tõde ja õigus\"; 1926–1933) is considered one of the major works of Estonian literature and \"The Estonian Novel\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975251}
{"src_title": "Classified advertising", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Newspaper classifieds.", "content": "Advertisements in a newspaper are typically short, as they are charged for by the line or word, and are one newspaper column wide.  Publications printing news or other information often have sections of classified advertisements; there are also publications that contain only advertisements. The advertisements are grouped into categories or \"classes\" such as \"for sale—telephones\", \"wanted—kitchen appliances\", and \"services—plumbing\", hence the term \"classified\". Classified ads generally fall into two types: individuals advertising sales of their personal goods, and advertisements by local businesses. Some businesses use classified ads to hire new employees.  One issue with newspaper classified advertising is that it does not allow images, even though display ads, which do allow images, can be found in the classified section.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Developments.", "content": "In recent years the term \"classified advertising\" or \"classified ads\" has expanded from merely the sense of print advertisements in periodicals to include similar types of advertising on computer services, radio, and even television, particularly cable television but occasionally broadcast television as well, with the latter occurring typically very early in the morning hours.  Like most forms of printed media, the classified ad has found its way to the Internet, as newspapers have taken their classified ads online and new groups have discovered the benefits of classified advertising.  Internet classified ads do not typically use per-line pricing models, so they tend to be longer. They are also searchable, unlike printed material, tend to be local, and may foster a greater sense of urgency as a result of their daily structure and wider scope for audiences. Because of their self-regulatory nature and low cost structures, some companies offer free classifieds internationally. Other companies focus mainly on their local hometown region, while others blanket urban areas by using postal codes. Craigslist.org was one of the first online classified sites, and has grown to become the largest classified source, bringing in over 14 million unique visitors a month according to Comscore Media Metrix. A growing number of sites and companies have begun to provide specialized classified marketplaces online, catering to niche market products and services, such include boats, pianos, pets, and adult services, amongst others. In many cases, these specialized services provide better and more targeted search capabilities than general search engines or general classified services can provide.  A number of online services called aggregators crawl and aggregate classifieds from sources such as blogs and RSS feeds, as opposed to relying on manually submitted listings.  Additionally, other companies provide online advertising services and tools to assist members in designing online ads using professional ad templates and then automatically distributing the finished ads to the various online ad directories as part of their service. In this sense these companies act as both an application service provider and a content delivery platform. Social classifieds is a growing niche.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "In 2003 the market for classified ads in the United States was $15.9 billion (newspapers), $14.1 billion (online) according to market researcher Classified Intelligence. The worldwide market for classified ads in 2003 was estimated at over $100 billion. Perhaps due to the lack of a standard for reporting, market statistics vary concerning the total market for internet classified ads. The Kelsey Research Group listed online classified ads as being worth $13.3 billion, while Jupiter Research provided a conservative appraisal of $2.6 billion and the Interactive Advertising Bureau listed the net worth of online classified revenue at $2.1 billion.  Newspaper's revenue from classifieds advertisements is decreasing continually as internet classifieds grow. Classified advertising at some of the larger newspaper chains dropped by 14% to 20% in 2007, while traffic to classified sites grew by 23%.  As the online classified advertising sector develops, there is an increasing emphasis toward specialization. Vertical markets for classifieds are developing quickly along with the general marketplace for classifieds websites. Like search engines, classified websites are often specialized, with sites providing advertising platforms for niche markets of buyers or sellers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Classified advertising is a form of advertising which is particularly common in newspapers, online and other periodicals which may be sold or distributed free of charge. Classified advertisements are much cheaper than larger display advertisements used by businesses, although display advertising is more widespread. They were also commonly called \"want\" ads, starting in 1763.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975252}
{"src_title": "IFA F9", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Mechanically the F9 derived from the DKW F8 which had been available between 1939 and 1942. The body closely followed the design of the DKW F9, a prototype with which Auto Union would have replaced the F8 on the Zwickau production lines earlier, had the war not intervened. After the war, the first car assembled at Zwickau was the prewar DKW F8, but the more modern F9 started to appear in 1949 or 1950 (sources differ). Materials shortages probably delayed introduction in both German states, but the eastern car beat the western to the market, and certainly featured the three-cylinder motor from the 1938 F9 prototype (rather than the two-cylinder motor that had been in serial production in 1942) at least three years before Auto Union in Düsseldorf were installing it in their F91.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The bodies.", "content": "Surviving F9s appear largely restricted to saloon versions, but various sports and cabriolet versions were also produced. Steel for consumer industries was in short supply across many parts of Europe during this period, and the F9’s body construction increasingly involved plastic panels, especially after production was moved to Eisenach in 1953. The car was accordingly usefully lighter than its western built Auto Union equivalent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical.", "content": "The F9 featured a three-cylinder two-stroke water-cooled engine of 910 cc with a claimed output, at launch, of. The engine was water-cooled, the radiator being located behind the engine, an unusual configuration but one also found on the DKW F91. The front wheels were driven via a four-speed manual gear box with a free wheel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The IFA F9 was a compact saloon manufactured under the auspices of the Russian and East German states between 1949 or 1950 and 1956. It was initially built at Zwickau at the plant previously owned by Auto Union. In 1953 production was transferred to the former BMW manufacturing plant at Eisenach where its underpinnings subsequently found their way into the Wartburg 311.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975253}
{"src_title": "Paul Wesley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Wesley was born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, to Polish parents Tomasz and Agnieszka Wasilewski, and grew up in Marlboro Township, New Jersey. He has one older sister, Monika Emara (née Wasilewski), and two younger sisters, Leah and Julia. He can play guitar and piano. He loves to travel and watch tennis and good movies and He knows surfboarding, skating and snowboarding and He enjoys these activities in his spare time. In addition to English, he also speaks Polish, having spent four months every year in Poland until the age of 16. Wesley attended Christian Brothers Academy in Lincroft, New Jersey, and Marlboro High School for a period during his high school years. He started his theater studies in New York City and transferred from Marlboro High School to Lakewood Prep School in Howell, New Jersey, because the school was able to better accommodate his acting schedule. During his junior year in high school, he was cast in the soap opera \"Guiding Light\" as character Max Nickerson. He started college at Rutgers University in New Jersey but left after one semester when more roles were offered to him, and he realized he could make a career out of acting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2001–2008: Early acting roles and \"Fallen\".", "content": "In 2001, Wesley, then credited as Paul Wasilewski, was one of the main cast members of the short-lived CBS television series \"Wolf Lake\", playing the role of Lucas \"Luke\" Cates. He appeared opposite Amber Tamblyn in the 2008 CBS television film \"The Russell Girl\", and had the lead role in the 2007 ABC Family miniseries \"Fallen\" opposite Bryan Cranston and Tom Skerritt. Wesley has had a number of roles in television shows such as \"24\", \"8 Simple Rules\", \"American Dreams\", \"Army Wives\", \"Cane\", \"Everwood\", \"Guiding Light\", \"Smallville\", and \"The O.C.\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009–2017: \"The Vampire Diaries\" and film roles.", "content": "Wesley starred as Stefan Salvatore in the hit television series \"The Vampire Diaries\" since its premiere in September 2009 on The CW. In the series, he played a younger brother to Damon Salvatore (played by Ian Somerhalder) as well as the love interest of a 17-year-old girl named Elena Gilbert (played by Nina Dobrev). His work garnered him two People’s Choice Award nominations.  Throughout the years, he has appeared in a variety of films. In 2014, he co-starred in, as well as produced, \"Before I Disappear\", which went on to win the SXSW Film Festival Audience Award and compete at the Venice Film Festival's \"Venice Days\" section. That same year he co-starred in \"Amira and Sam\" which was acquired by Drafthouse Films. In August 2015, it was reported that he joined the cast of \"The Late Bloomer\" opposite Brittany Snow and JK Simmons. Other feature credits include HBO's \"Shot in the Heart\" directed by Agnieszka Holland and Liongate's \"Peaceful Warrior\" opposite Nick Nolte.  In 2014, he was cast opposite Susan Sarandon in the film \"Mother's Day\", and it was also announced he is set to star in and produce the film \"Convergence\". He also co-starred in \"The Baytown Outlaws\" opposite Billy Bob Thornton and Andre Braugher.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018–present: Focus on directing and \"Tell Me a Story\".", "content": "Wesley began directing \"The Vampire Diaries\" in its fifth season and produced the series at the start of season 8. He directed episode 16 in season 2 of \"Shadowhunters\" for Freeform. In November 2016, it was announced that under the label of his newly formed production company, Citizen Media, Wesley signed a deal with Warner Bros. Television to produce four new television shows, including \"Confessions of a Drug-Addicted High School Teacher\", written by Jason Smith; \"Pecos\", written by Shawn Christensen; \"Finding Natalie\", written by Hilary Bettis and \"Shanghai Summer\", written by Oanh Ly.  His theater work includes the co-lead in the well-received off-Broadway production \"Cal in Camo\" at the Rattlestick Theater in New York City. He was also the co-lead in \"Sensitive Skin\" written by Shem Bitterman. In March 2018, Wesley joined the New York Theater Workshop's production of \"Zurich\" in New York City.  In June 2018, it was reported that Wesley, had joined the main cast of the CBS All Access TV series \"Tell Me a Story\" which was created by Kevin Williamson. Paul currently has a development deal at Kapital Entertainment. Other network television directing credits include \"Shadowhunters\" and \"Roswell, New Mexico\". Wesley also appeared in the second episode of the Netflix series \"Medal of Honor\" as Staff Sergeant Clint Romesha.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philanthropy.", "content": "In 2014, Paul was given the Humane Generation Award for his work with the Humane Society. Wesley has hosted two fundraising campaigns on Represent.com to raise funds for charity. For his first campaign, Wesley released a cat shirt design to raise funds for The Humane Society of the United States. The campaign sold almost 3,000 units. For his second campaign, Wesley teamed up with \"The Vampire Diaries\" co-star Ian Somerhalder to release a limited-edition shirt designed by a fan, with the words \"Blood Brothers Since 1864.\" This campaign sold almost 10,000 shirts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Wesley met and began dating Torrey DeVitto in 2007 when they acted together in \"Killer Movie\". They married in a private ceremony in New York City in April 2011. In July 2013, it was reported that they had filed for divorce. The divorce was finalized in December 2013.  Wesley lived in Atlanta, Georgia, while filming \"The Vampire Diaries\" and the rest of the time with DeVitto in Los Angeles, California. He sold his Los Angeles residence after his divorce from DeVitto at the end of 2013. Wesley then began dating co-star Phoebe Tonkin after meeting on the set of \"The Vampire Diaries\". The couple had an on-off relationship and officially broke up in 2017 after four years of dating.  As of February 2019, Wesley is married to Ines de Ramon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paweł Tomasz Wasilewski (; born July 23, 1982), known professionally as Paul Wesley and formerly as Paul Wasilewski, is an American actor, director, and producer. He is known for his lead role on the drama series \"The Vampire Diaries\" as well as his multiple roles on the anthology series \"Tell Me a Story\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975254}
{"src_title": "Naomie Harris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Naomie Harris was born on 6 September 1976 in Islington, London, where she was raised. Her mother, Carmen Harris, sometimes credited as Lisselle Kayla, emigrated from Jamaica to London as a child with her parents and has British and Nigerian ancestors. Harris's father, Brian Clarke, a fashion designer, emigrated from Trinidad to the UK, and has British, Grenadian, and Guyanese ancestors. They separated before Harris was born, and she was raised by her mother and has no relationship with her father. Harris grew up in a council flat in Finsbury Park. Her mother later remarried and Harris has two younger half-siblings. Her mother worked as a screenwriter on \"EastEnders\" and is a healer.  She attended St Marylebone School in London. Harris attended the Anna Scher Theatre where she studied acting as a child before attending Woodhouse College as a sixth-form student. She graduated from Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1998 with a degree in social and political sciences. Harris trained at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Harris has appeared in television and film since she was nine, including a starring role in the remake of the science fiction series \"The Tomorrow People\". In 2000, she played Susan in \"The Witch of Edmonton\" at the Southwark Playhouse. In November 2002, she starred in Danny Boyle's postapocalyptic film \"28 Days Later\". In the same year, she starred in the television adaptation of Zadie Smith's \"White Teeth\". Harris has appeared in \"\", \"\", and Michael Mann's \"Miami Vice.\" She did a comic turn in Michael Winterbottom's indie ensemble piece, \"A Cock and Bull Story\" (2005). She starred in Channel 4's adaptation of the 2006 novel \"Poppy Shakespeare\", which was first shown on 31 March 2008. She also appeared in BBC's historical drama \"Small Island\" in December 2009.  She played Elizabeth Lavenza in Danny Boyle's stage production of Mary Shelley's \"Frankenstein\" for the National Theatre from 22 February to 2 May 2011. She played the lead role in \"The First Grader\", directed by Justin Chadwick, which was premiered on 18 May 2011 in the Seattle International Film Festival. Harris co-starred in the 23rd \"James Bond\" film, \"Skyfall\" (2012), playing Eve Moneypenny. She is the first black actress to play Moneypenny, and is the first Moneypenny to be given a first name.  Harris portrayed Winnie Mandela in the biopic \"\", based on the book of the same name, opposite the actor Idris Elba. The film was released on 29 November 2013. On viewing the film, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela told Harris that it seemed as if she were not acting, but channeling her, and that it was \"the first time she felt truly captured on film\". Harris reprised her role as Moneypenny in the 24th \"Bond\" film, \"Spectre\", which was released on 26 October 2015.  In 2016, Harris starred as Paula in the critically acclaimed film \"Moonlight\". She played the abusive, drug-addicted mother of the film's main character, Chiron. The film follows her son and her through a 20-year period. \"Moonlight\" won the Academy Award for Best Picture and Harris was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role, and Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture, among other awards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Harris has never married and has no children. Since 2012, Harris has been in a relationship with Peter Legler.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and nominations.", "content": "In addition to numerous acting awards, Harris was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2017 New Year Honours, for services to drama. She received the honour from Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace on 23 February 2017. She has also been recognised for her influence with her addition in the 2019 edition of the Powerlist, ranking the 100 most influential Black Britons.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Naomie Melanie Harris (born 6 September 1976) is a British actress. She started her career as a child, appearing in the television series \"Simon and the Witch\" in 1987. She portrayed Selena in the zombie film \"28 Days Later\" (2002), the witch Tia Dalma in the second and third \"Pirates of the Caribbean\" films, and Winnie Mandela in \"\" (2013). She portrayed Eve Moneypenny in the \"James Bond\" films \"Skyfall\" (2012) and \"Spectre\" (2015), and is set to reprise the role in the upcoming film \"No Time to Die\" (2020).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975255}
{"src_title": "Bowstring", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "String forms.", "content": "Most bowstrings may be described as either simple, reverse-twisted, or looped.  Simple strings may be made of any fiber, twisted into a single cord. Such strings have been used in many parts of the world and are still effective and fairly quick to make. However, they tend to be weaker for their weight, and they may also come apart if not kept constantly under tension. They are normally secured to the bow by a knot/round turn and two half-hitches at each end.  Reverse-twisted strings are traditional in Europe and North America for most natural materials. Linen and hemp fiber have been widely used. The form is also used for modern materials. A reverse-twisted string is made of separate bundles, each bundle individually twisted in one direction; the entire group of bundles is then twisted in the other direction. The result tends to be stronger for its weight than a simple or looped string, and holds together better than a simple string. Unlike some looped strings, the full thickness of the string passes around the nocks on the ends of the bow, where wear is usually greatest. Additional threads may also be laid in at the nocking points for the bow stave and for the arrow, which are sites of likely wear. The string may be secured to the bow by a knot at each end, usually a timber hitch, also known as the bowyer's knot.  The traditional \"Flemish\" string has a laid-in loop at one end, which is easier than most knots to fit over the nock of the bow when stringing and unstringing. It is more trouble to make; the short length, towards one end, that will form the loop is reverse-twisted first. The ends of each bundle are then laid into the main length of the bundles, which are reverse-twisted in turn. The Japanese bowstring is made by reverse-twisting in different directions in the core and outer layers of the string. See Kyūdō.  Looped strings are made of one or more continuous loops of material. Modern strings are often made as a single continuous loop: this is then served to give the final form. Disadvantages include the lesser amount of fiber at the ends, where wear is most likely; this may be overcome by serving the string. In many parts of Asia, traditional strings have a single loop in the center, with the ends made of separate lengths tied on using a special knot. This design allows extra fiber to be used at the ends, where weight is less important and wear more likely.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "String materials.", "content": "Traditional materials include linen, hemp, other vegetable fibers, sinew, silk, and rawhide. Almost any fiber may be used in emergency. Natural fibers would be very unusual on a modern recurve bow or compound bow, but are still effective and still used on traditional wooden or composite bows. Sinew and hide strings may be seriously affected by water.  Widely used modern materials are stronger for their weight than any natural material, and most are unaffected by water. They include:  Dacron (strength per strand =, stretch = 2.6%), a commonly used polyester material. Because of its durability and stretch, Dacron is commonly used on beginners' equipment, wooden bows, and older bows. The relatively high stretch causes less shock to the bow, which is an important consideration for wooden-handled recurves. Dacron strings are easy to maintain and can last several years.  Liquid crystal polymers such as Kevlar and Vectran (strength per strand =, stretch = 0.8%) are polymer materials with a higher density and smaller diameter than Dacron, which results in a faster arrow speed (approximately faster). There are two problems with this material. First, its limited stretch causes increased stress in the bow limbs. Secondly, a Kevlar bowstring may only last 1000 shots before breaking as it tends to fatigue due to bending at the nocking point. Failure tends to be sudden rather than gradual.  Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylenes, such as Spectra and Dyneema (strength per strand =, stretch = 1.0%), have been used since the 1990s. They are lighter, therefore faster, than Kevlar—and have a much longer life.  Modern strings are often made from composite fibres—such as a mixture of Vectran and Dyneema—to gain the advantages of both.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Serving.", "content": "Serving a bowstring refers to the use of an additional thread, commonly wrapped round the main string at the nocking points where abrasion is most likely, and also used on looped strings to keep the two sides of the loop together.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A bowstring joins the two ends of the bow stave and launches the arrow. Desirable properties include light weight, strength, resistance to abrasion, and resistance to water. Mass has most effect at the center of the string; of extra mass in the middle of the string slows the arrow about as much as at the ends.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975256}
{"src_title": "Zdeněk Fierlinger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Zdeněk Fierlinger came from an upper-class family. He graduated from business school in 1910 and then worked as a sales representative in Russia. During World War I he joined the Czechoslovak Legion. For his bravery on battlefield Fierlinger was four times awarded by Order of St. George. Among other fights, he participated in the Battle of Zborov.  After the war, Fierlinger returned to Czechoslovakia and joined the diplomatic service. He was successively ambassador to the Netherlands, Romania, the United States, Switzerland and Austria. During this period he was a close friend and collaborator of Edvard Beneš. In 1924 he joined the Czech Social Democratic Party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the Soviet Union.", "content": "Between 1937 and 1945 Fierlinger held the post of envoy (and later ambassador) to the USSR. During his period in Moscow Fierlinger was very close to the leadership of the Czechoslovak Communist Party led by Klement Gottwald. This is evident, for example, when in 1943 when the Communists in conjunction with Fierlinger facilitated the signing of the Soviet-Czech peace treaty in Moscow on 12 December 1943 by Joseph Stalin and Edvard Beneš.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The end of war and arrival of the communists.", "content": "Just before the end of World War II in April 1945 Fierlinger became the exile chairman of the Czechoslovak government and remained such until the 1946 elections. He became a leading figure in the \"left-wing\" social democracy movement which sought the closest possible ties with the Czechoslovak Communist Party.  Between 1946 and 1948 Fierlinger was chairman of the Czech Social Democratic Party. After the communist coup in February 1948, Fierlinger acted as the chief proponent of the \"unification\" of the Social Democrats and the Communists. Through the unification of the party, he became a member of the Central Committee of the Czechoslovak Communist Party in 1948. According to American journalist John Gunther, Fierlinger was subsequently nicknamed \"Dr. Quislinger.\"  Zdeněk Fierlinger subsequently served as Deputy Prime Minister from 1948 to 1953, Minister of the State Office for religious affairs from 1951 to 1953, Chairman of the National Assembly from 15 October 1953 to 23 June 1964 and Minister in charge of the State. He remained a member of the Central Committee until 1966. In 1968, among other things, one of his last public acts was to lead a delegation in protest outside the Soviet Embassy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zdeněk Fierlinger (11 July 1891, Olomouc – 2 May 1976, Prague) was a Czech diplomat and politician. He served as the Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia from 1944 to 1946, first in the London-based exiled government and later in liberated Czechoslovakia. His name is often associated with the merger of his Social Democratic Party with the Czechoslovak Communist Party after the communist coup in 1948. He was the uncle of Paul Fierlinger, the famous animator for numerous PBS cartoons.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975257}
{"src_title": "Škoda Felicia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "As the Felicia benefited from Volkswagen input, it helped to elevate Škoda's image in Western Europe. It heralded the first ever diesel powered Škoda, and became their first car to feature major safety and convenience features. Some SLXi models featured air conditioning and velour upholstery. Anti-lock Braking System (ABS), drivers airbag, and seat belt tensioners were also available.  In April 1998, the Felicia made headlines, after its high satisfaction score gave Škoda the \"Best Manufacturer\" accolade in that year's J.D. Power Car Survey. Production of the Felicia ceased at the end of June 2001, one year after the launch of the Fabia. A total of 1,416,939 cars had been made (the pick up and estate models were available for sale throughout 2001).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Body styles.", "content": "The Felicia came in a variety of body styles, both for personal and professional use. The base model was a five door hatchback, and from June 1995, was accompanied by an estate, replacing the Favorit based Forman, now redubbed as the Felicia Combi (\"Typ\" 795).  There was also a coupe utility version, the Felicia Pickup, (\"Typ\" 797) and a panel van called a Felicia VanPlus. Pickup featured redesigned rear axle to increase space in cargo area. The pickup version was also imported to some countries re branded as the VW Caddy pick-up. The pick up model also had a lifestyle edition named the Felicia Fun, (\"Typ\" 796) conceived mostly for the Western European market.  The rear screen section hinges out into the loadbay, allowing two extra seats to be folded out, giving comfortable seating for four adults. A tonneau cover is available to cover the rear seats, which are otherwise open to the elements. A Truckman top is also available which encloses the rear seats and loadbay, making for a more practical bad weather conversion.  Luggage capacity in the hatchback was 272 litres with the rear seats in the upright position, and this increased to 976 litres with the rear seats folded. For the Combi (estate version), this was 447 and 1,366 litres respectively. In January 1998, the Felicia and Felicia Combi received a minor facelift.  The most obvious visual change was a redesigned radiator grille and larger bumpers, but changes also included minor upgrades to the chassis and bodyshell to improve crash safety.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "In April 1998, three years after its launch onto the United Kingdom market, it made the headlines with an excellent rating in a \"Top Gear\" customer satisfaction survey for N registered cars (sold from August 1995 to July 1996), resulting in the Škoda brand making headlines as the most satisfying brand of car to own - which helped end Skoda's previous reputation in Britain for producing crude and supposedly unreliable and unfashionable cars. The Felicia received high ratings for reliability, build quality and dealer service. These strong showings in motoring surveys have continued with the newer generations of Skoda models.  The Felicia's successor, the Fabia, went on sale in the United Kingdom in early 2000, but the Felicia continued to be imported there until the end of the year, by which time more than 76,000 had been sold, and by 2011, almost 30,000 examples were still registered on the road.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Powertrain.", "content": "All internal combustion engines used in Felicia are inline four-cylinder designs, operate on the four-stroke cycle, are fuel injected, and water cooled. Also a four cylinder carburetor engine (43 kW) was available in some countries. The fundamental layout of the Felicia's powertrain included engines mounted at the front of the vehicle, and orientated transversely.  The line up included the old 1.3 litre overhead valve (OHV) Škoda petrol engines, now with Bosch Mono Motronic single-point fuel injection (up until 1997), and Siemens multi-point fuel injection, with two rated power outputs of and.  There were also two engines sourced from Volkswagen Group: a 1.6 litre petrol engine with Magneti Marelli multi point fuel injection, and a 1.9 D diesel engine. The 1.6 litre model served as a homologation basis for the Škoda Felicia Kit Car used in the World Rally Championship's F2 class.  For the Felicia, Škoda had developed its own aluminium 1.6 OHC engine, wchich appeared in some Favorit prototypes and Rally cars, but Volkswagen decided to use its old 1.6MPI The only transmission was a five speed manual gearbox, which was of a transaxle design, and contained the differential and final drive units. Drive was through the front wheels.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Škoda Felicia, (\"Typ\" 791) was a supermini car produced by the Czech carmaker Škoda Auto from 1994 to 2001. It was the last model on Škoda's own platform, but was one of the first models to benefit from Škoda Auto's takeover by the German company Volkswagen Group. The Felicia was a reworked version of the Favorit, but had a fresh, more modern appearance, with a redesigned front end and a wider range of engines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975258}
{"src_title": "Gholamreza Takhti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Takhti, the youngest child of an Iranian family was born in Khaniabad neighborhood of south Tehran. on August 27, 1930. At the age of 15, he entered \"Poulad Club\" in Southern Tehran and was trained in wrestling. He soon left Tehran to become a manual laborer in the oil-rich city of Masjed Soleiman. When he was called up for military service, his potential in wrestling was discovered and he began to train seriously soon after he was recruited as an Iran Railways employee in 1948.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Takhti won his first Iranian championship in 1950, and on his first trip abroad in 1951, he won a silver medal at the world freestyle championships in Helsinki - the first international medal ever gained by an Iranian wrestler. One year later, he won another silver medal, again in Helsinki, this time in the 1952 Summer Olympic Games.  The subsequent highlights of his career were the gold medal in the 1956 Summer Olympic Games in Melbourne, a gold in the world championships in 1959 (Tehran), another silver in the 1960 Summer Olympic Games in Rome and a silver in the 1961 World Championships in Yokohama. His Olympics career finished with one gold medal & two silver medals. He did however finish fourth in the 1964 Tokyo Olympics as well.  Takhti started as a middleweight wrestler in the 79 kg and 87 kg categories, as he was getting heavier, he decided to move up to the next weight, 97 kg, for the 1964 Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo. He was unable to win a medal and he finished in 4th place.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Character on the wrestling mat.", "content": "Takhti tended to act fairly when competing against rivals during his career, something which originated from traditional values of \"Zurkhaneh\", a kind of heroic behaviour that epitomizes chivalrous qualities known as \"Javanmardi\".  For instance, he once had a match with Russian wrestler Alexander Medved who had an injured right knee. When Takhti found out that Medved was injured, he avoided touching the injured leg and tried to attack the other leg instead. He lost the match, but showed that he valued honorable behavior more than reaching victory.  Another example of his character comes from a match in Moscow. After defeating the then-world champion Anatoli Albul, Takhti saw the sorrow on the face of Albul's mother. Takhti went to her and said, \"I'm sorry about the result, but your son is a great wrestler.\" She smiled and kissed him.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Social and political activisms.", "content": "Takhti was known for his anti-regime views. He was a pro-Mossadegh activist and member of Second National Front and his death sparked a number of anti-Shah demonstrations.  In 1962, a terrible earthquake occurred in Bou'in-Zahra in western Iran, killing over 12,000. Takhti was deeply touched by the suffering. Already one of Iran's biggest stars, he began to walk one of the main avenues of Tehran, asking for assistance for the victims. He inspired other champions to follow in his footsteps, and thousands gave to alleviate the suffering.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Takhti was found dead in his hotel room on January 7, 1968. The Iranian government officially proclaimed his death a suicide. However, some claim that he was murdered because of his political activities against the Pahlavi regime, accusing SAVAK, the Iranian intelligence agency at that time. Because he was a national hero his funeral, organized by Hossein Towfigh, editor in chief of the late Towfigh magazine, drew hundreds of thousands of mourners. Towfigh magazine issued a special edition of their popular weekly magazine where they caricatured Takhti with angel wings flying high above the throngs of Iranian mourners at his own funeral with a caption that read \"Don't cry for me, cry for your own plight.\" Towfigh magazine was shut down by the Shah for several months after printing this cartoon. He is buried at Ebn-e Babooyeh cemetery in Southern part of Tehran, near Shahr-e Ray, where he is commemorated every year by his fans.  After the 1979 political upheaval in Iran, many of the Savak officials, including its chief torturer Bahman Naderipour commonly known by his masked name Mr. Tehrani, were put on trial by the new regime. In an open court hearing published in the then-open newspapers (Keyhaan and Ettela'at were the two most popular outlets reporting the court hearings at the time), Tehrani publicly confessed in the court that Takhti was arrested due to his open support of and collaboration with 'Nehzat Azadi' (Freedom Movement), a moderate anti-government movement lead by Mr. Bazargan and Ayatollah Taleghani during the Shah's rule..  Takhti was survived by his wife and son, Babak Takhti, an author and translator. The movie \"Takhti\", begun by Ali Hatami and finished by Behrooz Afkhami, examined some of the theories about Takhti's death.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gholamreza Takhti (, August 27, 1930 – January 7, 1968) was an Iranian Olympic Gold-Medalist wrestler and Varzesh-e Bastani practitioner. Popularly nicknamed \"Jahān Pahlevān\" (\"The World Champion\") because of his chivalrous behavior and sportsmanship (\"Javanmardi\" in Iranian culture), he was the most popular athlete of Iran in the 20th century, although dozens of Iranian athletes have won more international medals than he did. Takhti is still a hero to many Iranians. He is listed in the FILA wrestling hall of fame.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975259}
{"src_title": "Nanny McPhee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In Victorian England in 1870s, widowed undertaker Cedric Brown has seven unruly children. He is clumsy and loves his children, but since the death of his wife, has spent little time with them and cannot handle them. The children have had a series of nannies, whom they have systematically driven out with their bad behaviour and pranks. They also take great pleasure in tormenting their cook, Mrs. Blatherwick. Besides their father, the only one the children will ever listen to is Evangeline, the family's uneducated but sweet-natured scullery maid.  One day, Cedric discovers multiple references for a \"Nanny McPhee\" throughout the home. That same night during a storm, the children cause havoc in the kitchen at the same time Cedric sees a shadow behind the door and opens it to reveal a frighteningly hideous woman, who states that she is Nanny McPhee and is a \"government nanny\".  With discipline and a little magic, she transforms the family's lives. In the process, she becomes more beautiful each time the children learn a lesson. Her warts and unibrow disappearing, her long tooth and oversized nose shrinking and her wiry greying hair becoming lustrous and auburn. The children, led by the eldest son Simon, try to play their tricks on her, but gradually start to respect her and ask her for advice. They change to responsible people helping their clumsy father in solving the family problems, making Nanny McPhee less and less needed.  The family is financially supported by Cedric's late wife's domineering and short-sighted aunt Lady Adelaide Stitch, who demands custody over one of the children. She first wants Christianna (Chrissie), one of the younger daughters, but Evangeline volunteers to go with her and Adelaide agrees, assuming she is one of the daughters. She also threatens to reduce the family to poverty unless Cedric remarries within the month; the family would lose the house, and they would not be able to stay together.  Desperate, Cedric turns to a vile and frequent widow, Mrs. Selma Quickly. The children assume from reading books of fairy-tales that all stepmothers are terrible women who treat their stepchildren like slaves; therefore they sabotage a visit of Mrs. Quickly, who leaves, angry at Cedric. After the financial rationale for the marriage is explained to the children; they agree to the marriage, and appease Mrs. Quickly by confessing they were to blame for the disturbance of her visit, luring her back to their father with tales of their Great Aunt Adelaide's wealth.  However, the children soon discover that Mrs. Quickly is just as cruel and awful as any fairytale stepmother when she breaks baby Aggie's beloved rattle (which previously belonged to their late mother, and was the only thing they had left of her). When everybody is gathered for the gaudy and garish wedding ceremony Quickly insisted on, they disturb the ceremony by pretending there are bees (inspired by the way Quickly told them to \"behave\" and baby Aggie repeating the word, but pronouncing it as \"beehive\"), chasing the guests, and starting a food fight using the pastries intended for the banquet.  Cedric swiftly understands that they do not like the bride and, recognising that he does not like her either, joins in the commotion himself. Mrs. Quickly cancels the marriage and storms off in anger. This seems to mean that Adelaide's marriage deadline is missed, but Lily interrupts to suggest that Cedric marry Evangeline, and asks Evangeline whether she loves Cedric. She first denies it, claiming that it would be inappropriate because of her role as a scullery maid, but then confirms she does. Cedric, who loves Evangeline back, marries Evangeline then and there, satisfying Aunt Adelaide's conditions for maintaining his allowance; and Nanny McPhee (who is now beautiful), magically makes it snow in August, which transforms the wedding scene and changes Evangeline's clothes into a beautiful wedding dress, and restores the children's late mother's rattle for them.  Nanny McPhee leaves surreptitiously, in accordance with what she told the children before on her first night: \"When you need me, but do not want me, then I must stay. When you want me, but no longer need me, then I have to go\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "On 11 March 2002 Kirk Jones was hired and set to direct \"Nanny McPhee\" based on \"Nurse Matilda\" by Christianna Brand. Emma Thompson wrote the script for the film. Lindsay Doran, Tim Bevan and Eric Fellner produced the film with the budget of $25 million for release in 2005.  On 22 April it was announced that Emma Thompson, Colin Firth, Thomas Sangster, Kelly Macdonald, Angela Lansbury, Eliza Bennett, Jennifer Rae Daykin, Raphaël Coleman, Samuel Honywood, Holly Gibbs, Celia Imrie, Imelda Staunton, Sir Derek Jacobi, Patrick Barlow and Adam Godley joined the film.  On 16 May it was announced that Patrick Doyle would compose the music for the film. Development of the film was completed in Dorset, England. Filming ran 1 April – 9 July 2004. The film reunites Emma Thompson, Colin Firth, Thomas Sangster and Adam Godley who all previously starred in the 2003 film \"Love Actually\". Thompson's work on this film prevented her from reprising her role as Frasier Crane's first wife, Nanny G. on his spin-off series, Frasier in the episode \"Caught in the Act\", so Laurie Metcalf played Nanny G. in the episode.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "The film was theatrically released on 28 October 2005 in the UK by United International Pictures and on 27 January 2006 in the US by Universal Pictures and was released on DVD on 9 May 2006 by Universal Studios Home Entertainment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives \"Nanny McPhee\" a score of 73% based on 133 reviews, a rating deemed Certified \"Fresh\" with an average rating of 6.7/10 with the consensus reading, \"A bit alarming at first, \"Nanny McPhee\" has a hard edge to counter \"Mary Poppins\"-style sweetness, but it still charms us and teaches some valuable lessons.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "The film did well at the box office, earning $122,489,822 - $47,144,110 in the United States and $75,345,712 elsewhere. It premiered in the United States on 27 January 2006 with an opening weekend total of $14,503,650 in 1,995 theatres (an average of $7,270 per theatre) ranking at No. 2 (behind the Martin Lawrence film \"Big Momma's House 2\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sequel.", "content": "Emma Thompson revealed on \"Friday Night with Jonathan Ross\" that two more films were planned. The second film, \"Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang\" (also called \"Nanny McPhee Returns\"), was released in March 2010. It co-stars Rhys Ifans, Maggie Smith, Ralph Fiennes and Maggie Gyllenhaal. The character of Aggie Brown returns as the now elderly Mrs. Docherty. In it, Nanny McPhee takes charge of the children of a woman whose husband has gone to war.  A third film was planned to be set in modern-day England but, despite taking $93 million at the box-office, the sequel under-performed to studio expectations and plans were cancelled for future films.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nanny McPhee is a 2005 British-American comedy fantasy film based on the Nurse Matilda character by Christianna Brand. It was directed by Kirk Jones, co-produced by StudioCanal, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Working Title Films, Three Strange Angels, and Nanny McPhee Productions with music by Patrick Doyle and produced by Lindsay Doran, Tim Bevan, and Eric Fellner. Set in Victorian England, the film stars Emma Thompson as Nanny McPhee, along with Colin Firth and Angela Lansbury.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975260}
{"src_title": "Sergey Biryuzov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Biryuzov was born in Skopin, in the Ryazan Governorate of the Russian Empire, in a working-class family of Russian ethnicity. A member of the CPSU since 1926, he joined the Red Army in the 1920s and was steadily promoted to become the commander of a battalion before going to the Frunze Military Academy in 1934. He graduated in 1937, after which he became the Chief of Staff of a rifle division. In 1939 he was made Chief of Operations for the Kharkov Military district, a position he held until August 1939, after which he became the commanding officer of the 132nd Rifle Division.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Biryuzov commanded this unit for the next three years, a rarity among Soviet generals, especially during World War II–as Soviet generals rarely held command positions for longer than a few months at most. Biryuzov’s division was a part of Southwestern and Bryansk Fronts. Biriuzov was a fine division commander, often leading his division personally into battle. Within the first year of Operation Barbarossa (June 1941), Biryuzov had been wounded five times, two times rather severely. In April 1942, he was made the Chief of Staff of the 48th Army, which was a part of Bryansk Front. He commanded this unit until November 1942, when he was made the Chief of Staff of the 2nd Guards Army. He was in this position until April 1943, helping to lead this powerful unit during Operation Saturn, when 2nd Guards Army helped crush the German 6th Army after the Germans had been surrounded during the Battle of Stalingrad.  In April 1943, he was made the Chief of Staff of the Southern Front, where he was a valuable aide to the Southern Front commander, Fyodor Tolbukhin. On October 20, 1943, Southern Front was renamed 4th Ukrainian Front. Biryuzov remained the Chief of Staff until May 1944 when he was transferred to 3rd Ukrainian Front, along with Tolbukhin. In October 1944, Biryuzov was transferred to command the 37th Army, which was a part of 3rd Ukrainian Front. He held this position through the end of the war, until May 1945. In these command positions, Biriuzov helped plan and carry out the expulsion of all German forces from the Ukraine, and then helped plan and carry out the liberation of Bulgaria and Yugoslavia.  After these commands, Biryuzov was made the Head of the Soviet Military Mission in Bulgaria, a position he held until 1947. Between 1947 and 1953, he commanded the Primorskiy Military District. From 1947-55, Biryuzov held numerous command positions, but he didn’t remain in any position too long. On March 11, 1955, Biriuzov was given the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union. Between April 1955 and April 1962, Biryuzov was the Commander in Chief of the Soviet Air Defense Forces. After this, he was made Commander in Chief of the Strategic Missile Force, and in 1963, he was made the Chief of the General Staff.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On October 19, 1964, Biryuzov and 32 others were killed when their Ilyushin Il-18 crashed against mount Avala near Belgrade. The urn containing his ashes is buried in the Kremlin.  Soviet medals and foreign orders", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sergey Semyonovich Biryuzov (; 21 August 1904 – 19 October 1964) was a Marshal of the Soviet Union and Chief of the General Staff.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975261}
{"src_title": "Tibetan macaque", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "There are four recognized subspecies:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical description.", "content": "The Tibetan macaque is the largest species of macaque and one of the largest monkeys found in Asia. Only the proboscis monkey and the larger species of gray langur come close to match their size among Asian monkeys. Males are the larger sex, commonly attain a weight of and length of long, with a maximum record weight of. Females, in contrast, weigh and measure long. The stump-like tail adds only, with females having a considerably shorter tail. The fur is well-suited to the species' cold environments being long, dense and brown on the back with creamy-buff to grey coloration on the underparts. Some adults are quite dark brown on the back, while others are basically a sandy yellowish-brown color. They have a prominent, pale-buff beard and long whiskers, but have a hairless face. The face is pale pinkish in males but is a more vivid, reddish-pink in females. The infants have silver-and-black fur that changes to its adult color at the age of two.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "The Tibetan macaque lives in mixed sex groups. In their complex social system, females remain for life in their natal group, but males disperse shortly after their adolescence (at about 8 years old). Macaque societies are hierarchical, with higher-ranking males getting better access to the resources, namely food and sexually-receptive females. Alpha males dominate the group, being those that are typically large, strong and newly mature. As they age, males tend to gradually lose their social standing and are frequently subject to challenges for dominance from other males. Such conflicts are frequently quite violent and males may kill each other in battle. Studies of Tibetan macaques at Mount Emei and Huangshan Mountains, China, found the average tenure for an alpha male only lasted about one year. When troop size becomes quite large (in the 40 to 50 range) and competition grows over increasingly stretched resources, some individuals (males, females and juveniles) split from the main group to form a new, smaller group, known as 'fissioning', and move on to a different home range. Usually, it is the lowest-ranking individuals that will split from the main group.  Females first breed at around five years of age. The gestation period is six months with a single offspring being produced at each pregnancy. Most infants being born in January and February. Young macaques are nursed for a year and may continue to do so longer if the female does not give birth again the following year. Males of the group may also be involved in \"alloparenting\" care.  This diurnal species spends most of its time on the ground, where it forages for leaves, fruit, grass and, to a lesser extent, flowers, seeds, roots and insects. When available, bamboo shoots, fruits and leaves are particularly favoured.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "This species is classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN and is listed on Appendix II of the CITES list. Its main threats are all human-related. Principally, they are sensitive to habitat destruction, as they are tied closely to the forest. They are occasionally poisoned by herbicides and pesticides while eating and may catch diseases transmitted from humans. Illegal poaching may occur, with the flesh and the fur of the macaque being used.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tibetan macaque (\"Macaca thibetana\"), also known as the Chinese stump-tailed macaque or Milne-Edwards' macaque, is found from eastern Tibet east to Guangdong and north to Shaanxi in China. It has also been reported from northeastern India. This species lives in subtropical forests (mixed deciduous to evergreen) at altitudes from above sea level.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975262}
{"src_title": "Christine of France", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Daughter of France.", "content": "Christine was born in the Palais du Louvre in Paris, she was the third child and second daughter of King Henry IV of France and his second wife, the Italian Marie de' Medici. As a daughter of the king, she was a Daughter of France. She was a younger sister of Louis XIII of France and Elisabeth of France. She was also an older sister of Nicholas Henri, Duke of Orléans, Gaston, Duke of Orléans and Henrietta Maria of France. Christine was a sister-in-law of Philip IV of Spain through Élisabeth and of Charles I of England through Henrietta Maria. As a child, she was raised under the supervision of the royal governess Françoise de Montglat.  After the marriage of her older sister Elisabeth in 1615 to the future Philip IV of Spain, Christine took on the honorary title of \"Madame Royale\" indicating her status as the eldest and most senior unmarried daughter at the court of her father. After her marriage, the style went to her younger sister Henrietta Maria of France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Princess of Piedmont.", "content": "Christine married Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy, on 10 February 1619 at the Louvre in the capital. From 1619 till her husband's accession, she was known as the Princess of Piedmont. He was a son of Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain. She was said to be volatile and frivolous. Educated at the French court, she introduced French culture to the court of Savoy; she later lived at the \"Palazzo Madama\" which she had rebuilt. She was also the driving force for the reconstruction of the Castello del Valentino as well as the additions to the Royal Palace of Turin. She would also later own \"Vigna di Madama Reale\", old residence of her brother in law Maurice of Savoy.  She did as much as she could to ensure that her court rivalled in splendour that of her sister Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I of England. The sisters would have somewhat of a rivalry. In spite of this, the two sisters maintained an avid correspondence throughout their life which showed their close relationship. She was a confidant to the exiled Queen Henrietta who often wrote to her about her experiences during the English Civil War and her son's restoration. Christine encouraged her husband to claim his right to the rather empty title of King of Cyprus and Jerusalem, a 'kingdom' which led to him being tagged as 'a king without a crown'. She did not keep it a secret that she would rather be a queen than a duchess; she also wanted to transform the minor Duchy of Savoy into a little France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duchess and Regent of Savoy.", "content": "Victor Amadeus became Duke after the death of his father on 26 July 1630. When Christine's husband died in 1637, she was created regent in the name of her son Francis Hyacinth. At the death of Francis Hyacinth in 1638, her second son Charles Emmanuel II succeeded and Christine retained the regency. Both Prince Maurice and his younger brother Prince Thomas of Savoy disputed the power of their sister-in-law and her French entourage. When the first heir Francis Hyacinth died in 1638, both brothers started the Piedmontese Civil War, with Spanish support. The two parties were called \"\"principisti\"\" (supporters of the Princes) and \"\"madamisti\"\" (supporters of Madama Reale).  After four years of fighting, Christine was victorious, thanks to French military support. Not only did she keep the Duchy for her son, she also prevented France getting too much power in the Duchy. When peace was concluded in 1642, Maurice married his fourteen-year-old niece Louise Christine, abandoning the title of cardinal and asking dispensation from Pope Paul V. Maurice became governor of Nice. Christine of France stayed in firm control of the Duchy of Savoy, until her son could follow in her footsteps; her formal regency ended in 1648, but she remained in charge at his invitation until her death.  She lived an uninhibited private life and had relationships with the French Ambassador, Marini, her brother-in-law, Maurizio, and Count Filippo d'Aglié, a handsome learned and courageous man who remained faithful to her all her life. She encouraged her son Charles Emmanuel to marry her niece Françoise Madeleine d'Orléans, the youngest surviving daughter of Gaston, Duke of Orléans, her youngest brother. They married 3 Apr 1663.  Christine died at the Palazzo Madama, Turin on 27 Dec 1663 at the age of 57 and was buried at the Basilica of Sant'Andrea. She had outlived 4 of her seven children.  Françoise Madeleine died in January 1664 and her son later married another cousin, Marie Jeanne of Savoy. Marie Jeanne would give birth to Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia who would later marry another French Princess (and member of the House of Orléans) Anne Marie d'Orléans. 17 years after her death, in 1680, her granddaughter \"Victoria of Bavaria\" via her third daughter Princess Henriette Adelaide of Savoy, would marry her older brother's grandson Louis de France known as 'the Fat' and \"Monseigneur\". Christine thus became a direct ancestress of the Spanish branch of the House of Bourbon via Victoria's second son Philip V of Spain.  It was revealed on NBC's \"Who Do You Think You Are?\" that one of her descendants is model/actress Brooke Shields. Princess Michael of Kent, born Baroness Marie Christine, is also a descendant by Christine's son, Charles Emmanuel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christine of France (10 February 1606 – 27 December 1663) was the sister of Louis XIII and the Duchess of Savoy by marriage. At the death of her husband Victor Amadeus I in 1637, she acted as regent of Savoy between 1637 and 1648.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975263}
{"src_title": "Westminster", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"For a list of street name etymologies for Westminster see Street names of Westminster\"  The name describes an area no more than from Westminster Abbey and the Palace of Westminster immediately to the west of the River Thames. The settlement grew up around the palace and abbey, as a service area for them. The need for a parish church, St Margaret's Westminster for the servants of the palace and of the abbey who could not worship there indicates that it had a population as large as that of a small village. It became larger and in the Georgian period became connected through urban ribbon development with the City along the Strand. It did not become a viable local government unit created as a civil parish.  Henry VIII's Reformation in the early 16th century abolished the abbey and established a cathedral – thus the parish ranked as a \"City\", although it was only a fraction of the size of the City of London and the Borough of Southwark at that time.  Indeed, the cathedral and diocesan status of the church lasted only from 1539 to 1556, but the \"city\" status remained for a mere parish within Middlesex. As such it is first known to have had two Members of Parliament in 1545 as a new Parliamentary Borough, centuries after the City of London and Southwark were enfranchised.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royal seat.", "content": "The former Thorney Island, the site of Westminster Abbey, formed the historic core of Westminster. The abbey became the traditional venue of the coronations of the kings and queens of England from that of Harold Godwinson (1066) onwards.  From about 1200 the Palace of Westminster, near the abbey, became the principal royal residence, a transition marked by the transfer of royal treasury and financial records to Westminster from Winchester. Later the palace housed the developing Parliament and England's law courts. Thus London developed two focal points: the City of London (financial/economic) and Westminster (political and cultural).  The monarchs moved their principal residence to the Palace of Whitehall (1530–1698), then to St James's Palace in 1698, and eventually to Buckingham Palace and other palaces after 1762. The main law courts moved to the Royal Courts of Justice in the late-19th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Victorian divide.", "content": "Charles Booth's poverty map showing Westminster in 1889 recorded the full range of income- and capital-brackets living in adjacent streets within the area; its central western area had become (by 1850) (the) Devil's Acre in the southern flood-channel ravine of the Tyburn (stream), yet Victoria Street and other small streets and squares had the highest colouring of social class in London: yellow/gold. Westminster has shed the abject poverty with the clearance of this slum and with drainage improvement, but there is a typical Central London property distinction within the area which is very acute, epitomised by grandiose 21st-century developments, architectural high-point listed buildings and nearby social housing (mostly non-council housing) buildings of the Peabody Trust founded by philanthropist George Peabody.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Local government.", "content": "The Westminster area formed part of the City and Liberty of Westminster in Middlesex. The ancient parish was St Margaret; after 1727 this became the civil parish of 'St Margaret and St John', the latter a new church required for the increasing population. The area around Westminster Abbey formed the extra-parochial Close of the Collegiate Church of St Peter. Until 1900 the local authority was the combined vestry of St Margaret and St John (also known as the Westminster District Board of Works from 1855 to 1887), which was based at Westminster Town Hall in Caxton Street from 1883.  The Liberty of Westminster, governed by the Westminster Court of Burgesses, also included St Martin in the Fields and several other parishes and places. Westminster had its own quarter sessions, but the Middlesex sessions also had jurisdiction. The area was transferred from Middlesex to the County of London in 1889, and the local government of Westminster was reformed in 1900, when the court of burgesses and the parish vestries were abolished, and replaced by the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster. The borough was given city status at the same time, allowing it to be known as the City of Westminster and its council as Westminster City Council — a title which was retained when it was merged with the boroughs of St Marylebone and Paddington in 1965.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wider uses of the term.", "content": "Thus \"Westminster\", with its focus in public life from early history, is casually used as a metonym for Parliament and the political community of the United Kingdom generally. (The civil service is similarly referred to by the northern sub-neighbourhood it inhabits, \"Whitehall\".) \"Westminster\" is consequently also used in reference to the Westminster system, the parliamentary model of democratic government that has evolved in the United Kingdom and for those other nations, particularly in the Commonwealth of Nations and other parts of the former British Empire that adopted it.  The term \"Westminster Village\", sometimes used in the context of British politics, does not refer to a geographical area at all; employed especially in the phrase \"Westminster Village gossip\", it denotes a supposedly close social circle of members of parliament, political journalists, so-called spin doctors and others connected to events in the Palace of Westminster and Government ministries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Westminster is a government district and former capital of the Kingdom of England in Central London within the City of Westminster, part of the West End, on the north bank of the River Thames. Westminster's concentration of visitor attractions and historic landmarks, one of the highest in London, includes the Palace of Westminster, Buckingham Palace, Westminster Abbey and Westminster Cathedral.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975264}
{"src_title": "Internet Control Message Protocol for IPv6", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Message types and formats.", "content": "ICMPv6 messages may be classified as \"error messages\" and \"information messages\". ICMPv6 messages are transported by IPv6 packets in which the IPv6 Next Header value for ICMPv6 is set to the value 58.  The ICMPv6 message consists of a header and the protocol payload. The header contains only three fields: \"type\" (8 bits), \"code\" (8 bits), and \"checksum\" (16 bits). \"type\" specifies the type of the message. Values in the range from 0 to 127 (high-order bit is 0) indicate an error message, while values in the range from 128 to 255 (high-order bit is 1) indicate an information message. The \"code\" field value depends on the message type and provides an additional level of message granularity. The \"checksum\" field provides a minimal level of integrity verification for the ICMP message.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Control messages are identified by the value in the \"type\" field. The \"code\" field gives additional context information for the message. Some messages serve the same purpose as the correspondingly named ICMP message types.  Note that the table above is not comprehensive. The current complete list of assigned ICMPv6 types can be found at this link: IANA: ICMPv6 Parameters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Checksum.", "content": "ICMPv6 provides a minimal level of message integrity verification by the inclusion of a 16-bit checksum in its header. The checksum is calculated starting with a pseudo-header of IPv6 header fields according to the IPv6 standard, which consists of the source and destination addresses, the packet length and the next header field, the latter of which is set to the value 58. Following this pseudo header, the checksum is continued with the ICMPv6 message. The checksum computation is performed according to Internet protocol standards using 16-bit ones' complement summation, followed by a final ones' complement of the checksum itself and inserting it into the checksum field. Note that this differs from the way it is calculated for IPv4 in ICMP, but is similar to the calculation done in TCP.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Message processing.", "content": "When an ICMPv6 node receives a packet, it must undertake actions that depend on the type of message. The ICMPv6 protocol must limit the number of error messages sent to the same destination to avoid network overloading. For example, if a node continues to forward erroneous packets, ICMP will signal the error to the first packet and then do so periodically, with a fixed minimum period or with a fixed network maximum load. An ICMP error message must never be sent in response to another ICMP error message.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Internet Control Message Protocol version 6 (ICMPv6) is the implementation of the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) for Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6). ICMPv6 is defined in RFC 4443. ICMPv6 is an integral part of IPv6 and performs error reporting and diagnostic functions (e.g., ping), and has a framework for extensions to implement future changes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975265}
{"src_title": "Unix philosophy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The Unix philosophy is documented by Doug McIlroy in the Bell System Technical Journal from 1978:  It was later summarized by Peter H. Salus in A Quarter-Century of Unix (1994):  In their award-winning Unix paper of 1974, Ritchie and Thompson quote the following design considerations:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The UNIX Programming Environment\".", "content": "In their preface to the 1984 book, \"The UNIX Programming Environment\", Brian Kernighan and Rob Pike, both from Bell Labs, give a brief description of the Unix design and the Unix philosophy:  The authors further write that their goal for this book is \"to communicate the UNIX programming philosophy.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Program Design in the UNIX Environment\".", "content": "In October 1984, Brian Kernighan and Rob Pike published a paper called \"Program Design in the UNIX Environment\". In this paper, they criticize the accretion of program options and features found in some newer Unix systems such as 4.2BSD and System V, and explain the Unix philosophy of software tools, each performing one general function:  The authors contrast Unix tools such as cat, with larger program suites used by other systems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Doug McIlroy on Unix programming.", "content": "McIlroy, then head of the Bell Labs Computing Sciences Research Center, and inventor of the Unix pipe, summarized the Unix philosophy as follows:  Beyond these statements, he has also emphasized simplicity and minimalism in Unix programming:  Conversely, McIlroy has criticized modern Linux as having software bloat, remarking that, \"adoring admirers have fed Linux goodies to a disheartening state of obesity.\" He contrasts this with the earlier approach taken at Bell Labs when developing and revising Research Unix:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Do One Thing and Do It Well.", "content": "As stated by McIlroy, and generally accepted throughout the Unix community, Unix programs have always been expected to follow the concept of DOTADIW, or \"Do One Thing And Do It Well.\" There are limited sources for the acronym DOTADIW on the Internet, but it is discussed at length during the development and packaging of new operating systems, especially in the Linux community.  Patrick Volkerding, the project lead of Slackware Linux, invoked this design principle in a criticism of the systemd architecture, stating that, \"attempting to control services, sockets, devices, mounts, etc., all within one daemon flies in the face of the Unix concept of doing one thing and doing it well.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eric Raymond's 17 Unix Rules.", "content": "In his book \"The Art of Unix Programming\" that was first published in 2003, Eric S. Raymond, an American programmer and open source advocate, summarizes the Unix philosophy as KISS Principle of \"Keep it Simple, Stupid.\" He provides a series of design rules:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mike Gancarz: The UNIX Philosophy.", "content": "In 1994, Mike Gancarz (a member of the team that designed the X Window System), drew on his own experience with Unix, as well as discussions with fellow programmers and people in other fields who depended on Unix, to produce \"The UNIX Philosophy\" which sums it up in nine paramount precepts:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Worse is better\".", "content": "Richard P. Gabriel suggests that a key advantage of Unix was that it embodied a design philosophy he termed \"worse is better\", in which simplicity of both the interface \"and\" the implementation are more important than any other attributes of the system—including correctness, consistency, and completeness. Gabriel argues that this design style has key evolutionary advantages, though he questions the quality of some results.  For example, in the early days Unix used a monolithic kernel (which means that user processes carried out kernel system calls all on the user stack). If a signal was delivered to a process while it was blocked on a long-term I/O in the kernel, then what should be done? Should the signal be delayed, possibly for a long time (maybe indefinitely) while the I/O completed? The signal handler could not be executed when the process was in kernel mode, with sensitive kernel data on the stack. Should the kernel back-out the system call, and store it, for replay and restart later, assuming that the signal handler completes successfully?  In these cases Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie favored simplicity over perfection. The Unix system would occasionally return early from a system call with an error stating that it had done nothing—the \"Interrupted System Call\", or an error number 4 (codice_1) in today's systems. Of course the call had been aborted in order to call the signal handler. This could only happen for a handful of long-running system calls such as codice_2, codice_3, codice_4, and codice_5. On the plus side, this made the I/O system many times simpler to design and understand. The vast majority of user programs were never affected because they did not handle or experience signals other than codice_6 and would die right away if one was raised. For the few other programs—things like shells or text editors that respond to job control key presses—small wrappers could be added to system calls so as to retry the call right away if this codice_1 error was raised. Thus, the problem was solved in a simple manner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "In a 1981 article entitled \"The truth about Unix: \"The user interface is horrid\"\" published in \"Datamation\", Don Norman criticized the design philosophy of Unix for its lack of concern for the user interface. Writing from his background in cognitive science and from the perspective of the then-current philosophy of cognitive engineering, he focused on how end users comprehend and form a personal cognitive model of systems--or, in the case of Unix, fail to understand, with the result that disastrous mistakes (such as losing an hour's worth of work) are all too easy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Unix philosophy, originated by Ken Thompson, is a set of cultural norms and philosophical approaches to minimalist, modular software development. It is based on the experience of leading developers of the Unix operating system. Early Unix developers were important in bringing the concepts of modularity and reusability into software engineering practice, spawning a \"software tools\" movement. Over time, the leading developers of Unix (and programs that ran on it) established a set of cultural norms for developing software; these norms became as important and influential as the technology of Unix itself; this has been termed the \"Unix philosophy.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975266}
{"src_title": "Santa Maria della Salute", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Beginning in the summer of 1630, a wave of the plague assaulted Venice, and until 1631 killed nearly a third of the population. In the city, 46,000 people died whilst in the lagoons the number was far higher, some 94,000. Repeated displays of the sacrament, as well as prayers and processions to churches dedicated to San Rocco and San Lorenzo Giustiniani had failed to stem the epidemic. Echoing the architectural response to a prior assault of the plague (1575–76), when Palladio was asked to design the Redentore church, the Venetian Senate on October 22, 1630, decreed that a new church would be built. It was not to be dedicated to a mere \"plague\" or patron saint, but to the Virgin Mary, who for many reasons was thought to be a protector of the Republic.  It was also decided that the Senate would visit the church each year. On November 21 the Feast of the Presentation of the Virgin, known as the \"Festa della Madonna della Salute\", the city's officials parade from San Marco to the Salute for a service in gratitude for deliverance from the plague is celebrated. This involved crossing the Grand Canal on a specially constructed pontoon bridge and is still a major event in Venice.  The desire to create a suitable monument at a place that allows for easy processional access from Piazza San Marco led senators to select the present site from among eight potential locations. The location was chosen partially due to its relationship to San Giorgio, San Marco, and Il Redentore, with which it forms an arc. The \"Salute\", emblematic of the city's piety, stands adjacent to the rusticated single story customs house or Dogana da Mar, the emblem of its maritime commerce, and near the civic center of the city. A dispute with the patriarch, owner of the church and seminary at the site, was resolved, and razing of some of the buildings began by 1631. Likely, the diplomat Paolo Sarpi and Doge Nicolo Contarini shared the intent to link the church to an order less closely associated with the patriarchate, and ultimately the Somascan Fathers, an order founded near Bergamo by a Venetian nobleman Jerome Emiliani, were invited to administer the church. A competition was held to design the building. Of the eleven submissions (including designs by Alessandro Varotari, Matteo Ignoli, and Berteo Belli), only two were chosen for the final round. The architect Baldassare Longhena was selected to design the new church. It was finally completed in 1681 the year before Longhena's death. The other design to make it to the final round was by Antonio Smeraldi (\"il Fracao\") and Zambattista Rubertini. Of the proposals still extant, Belli's and Smeraldi's original plans were conventional counter-reformation linear churches, resembling Palladio's Redentore and San Giorgio Maggiore, while Varotari's was a sketchy geometrical abstraction. Longhena's proposal was a concrete architectural plan, detailing the structure and costs. He wrote: Later in a memorandum, he wrote: \"Firstly, it is a virgin work, never before seen, curious, worthy and beautiful, made in the form of a round monument that has never been seen, nor ever before invented, neither altogether, nor in part, in other churches in this most serene city, just as my competitor (\"il Fracao\") has done for his own advantage, being poor in invention.\"  The Salute, while novel in many ways, still shows the influence of Palladian classicism and the domes of Venice. The Venetian Senate voted 66 in favor, 29 against with 2 abstentions to authorize the designs of the 26-year-old Longhena. While Longhena saw the structure as crown-like, the decorative circular building makes it seem more like a reliquary, a ciborium, and embroidered inverted chalice that shelters the city's piety.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The \"Salute\" is a vast, octagonal building with two domes and a pair of picturesque bell-towers at the back. Built on a platform made of 1,000,000 wooden piles, it is constructed of Istrian stone and \"marmorino\" (brick covered with marble dust). At the apex of the pediment stands a statue of the Virgin Mary who presides over the church which was erected in her honour. The façade is decorated with figures of Saint George, Saint Theodore, the Evangelists, the Prophets, Judith with the head of Holofernes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Facade.", "content": "The main facade is richly decorated by statues of the four evangelists recently attributed to Tommaso Rues:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "While its external decoration and location capture the eye, the internal design itself is quite remarkable. The octagonal church, while ringed by a classic vocabulary, hearkens to Byzantine designs such as the Basilica of San Vitale. The interior has its architectural elements demarcated by the coloration of the material, and the central nave with its ring of saints atop a balustrade is a novel design. It is full of Marian symbolism – the great dome represents her crown, the cavernous interior her womb, the eight sides the eight points on her symbolic star.  The interior is octagonal with eight radiating chapels on the outer row. The three altars to the right of the main entrance are decorated with scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary, patroness of the church, by Luca Giordano: \"The Presentation of Our Lady in the Temple\", \"Assumption of Our Lady\", and \"Nativity of Our Lady\". The third altar to the left of the entrance hosts a painting by Titian titled \"The Descent of the Holy Ghost\".  The Baroque high altar arrangement, designed by Longhena himself, shelters an iconic Byzantine \"Madonna and Child\" of the 12th or 13th century, known as \"Panagia Mesopantitissa\" in Greek (\"Madonna the mediator\" or \"Madonna the negotiator\") and came from Candia in 1669 after the fall of the city to the Ottomans. The statuary group at the high altar, depicting \"The Queen of Heaven expelling the Plague\" (1670) is a theatrical Baroque masterpiece by the Flemish sculptor Josse de Corte. It originally held Alessandro Varotari's painting of the Virgin holding a church that the painter submitted with his architectural proposal.  Tintoretto painted, displayed in the great sacristy, which includes a self-portrait. The most represented artist included in the church is Titian, who painted \"St. Mark Enthroned with Saints Cosmas, Damian, Sebastian and Roch\", the altarpiece of the sacristy, as well as ceiling paintings of \"David and Goliath\", \"Abraham and Isaac\" and \"Cain and Abel\", and eight tondi of the eight Doctors of the Church and the Evangelists, all in the great sacristy, and \"Pentecost\" in the nave.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "The dome of the \"Salute\" was an important addition to the Venetian skyline and soon became emblematic of the city, inspiring painters like Canaletto, J. M. W. Turner, John Singer Sargent, Francesco Guardi, and the Serbian poet Laza Kostić to write a poem of the same title.  The church had a large influence on contemporary architects immediately after its completion. The structures modeled after the church include the shrine in Gostyń, built by Jerzy Catenazzi, Jan Catenazzi, and Pompeo Ferrari between 1675-1728, perhaps according to the original design by Baldassarre Longhena.  In 1959, the church was the subject of a design by John Piper, later adapted as a textile design by Arthur Sanderson & Sons Ltd.  The plans of the Rotunda of Xewkija in Gozo, Malta were based on Santa Maria della Salute, but on a larger scale.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Santa Maria della Salute (), commonly known simply as the Salute, is a Roman Catholic church and minor basilica located at Punta della Dogana in the Dorsoduro sestiere of the city of Venice, Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975267}
{"src_title": "Alcázar of Seville", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The term \"Alcázar\" comes from the Arabic \"al-qaṣr\", (\"the castle\" or \"the palace\", اَلْقَصْر), itself derived from the Latin \"castrum\" (\"castle\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Real Alcázar is situated near the Seville Cathedral and the General Archive of the Indies in one of Andalusia's most emblematic areas. In the year 712, Seville was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate. In the year 913, after a revolt against Cordoba’s government, the first caliph of Andalusia Abd al-Rahman III built a fortified construction in place of a Visigothic Christian basilica. It was a quadrangular enclosure, fortified, and annexed to the walls. In the 11th century, the second king, Al-Mu'tamid, expanded the structure to the west with a new palace ‘Al Mubarak’. Various additions to the construction such as stables and warehouses were also carried out. As Seville was established as the capital of Al-Andalus, the Almohade caliphs made the Alcazar their main residence. With the exception of the walls, the previous buildings were demolished, and were carried out up to a total of twelve palaces. There are few remnants of constructions of that period. Archaeological remains of the Al Mubarak palace are currently preserved under Patio de la Monteria. Several wall painting fragments were found that are now exhibited in the Palacio del Yeso.  With the start of the Christian era in Seville, the Alcazar was converted into the residence of the Christian monarchs. Changes were made to the constructions to fit the needs of the monarchs and the court life. In the years 1364-1366, king Pedro I built the Mudéjar Palace, an example of the Andalusian Mudejar style. Under the Catholic rulers Isabella and Fernando, the upperfloor was extended and transformed into the main residence of the monarchs.  The palace was the birthplace of Infanta Maria Antonietta of Spain (1729-1785), daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese, when the king was in the city to oversee the signing of the Treaty of Seville (1729) which ended the Anglo-Spanish War (1727).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The palace.", "content": "During the five hundred years of construction, various architectural styles succeeded one another. There are no remnants of the initial design, but the structure was probably refurbished with elements of Islamic ornamentation and patterns. Several major gardens were also built. With the start of the Spanish Reconquista in the 13th century, the palace was remodeled with Gothic and Romanesque elements. The 16th century saw major additions built in Renaissance style. Alongside these designs, Islamic decoration and ornamentation was widely used. After damage by the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, that façade of the Palacio Gótico overlooking the Patio del Crucero was completely renovated using Baroque elements. The palace now presents a unique blend of styles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tiles.", "content": "The palace is known for its tile decoration. The two tile types used are majolica and arista tiles. In the arista technique, the green body is stamped and each tile segment has raised ridges. This technique produces tiles with transparent glazes that are not flat. The art of majolica ceramics was developed later in the 15th-16th centuries. The innovation made it possible to \"paint\" directly on ceramics covered with white opaque glazes. Being a trade center, Seville had access to large scale production of these tiles. They were mainly of geometric design inspired by arabesque ornamentation.  In the 16th century, the Catholic Monarchs commissioned Nicola Pisano to make two majolica tile altarpieces in the palace. One still exists in the oratory of the royal apartments, the other one is missing. Later, the artist Cristóbal de Augusta created a tile-work in the Palacio Gotico. It features animals, cherubs and floral designs and gives the palace a bright tapestry look.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Puerta del León.", "content": "The main entrance to the Alcázar takes its name from the 19th century tile-work inlaid above it, a crowned lion holding a cross in its claws and bearing a Gothic script.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Patio de las Doncellas.", "content": "The name, meaning \"The Courtyard of the Maidens\", is a reference to the apocryphal story that the Moors demanded an annual tribute of 100 virgins from the Christian kingdoms of Iberia.  The lower storey of the Patio was built for King Peter of Castile and contains inscriptions that refer to Peter as a \"sultan\". Several reception rooms are arranged around a long rectangular reflecting pool in the center with sunken gardens on either side. For many years, the courtyard was entirely paved in marble with a fountain in the center. However, historical evidence showed the gardens and the reflecting pool were the original design and this arrangement was restored. However, soon after this restoration, the courtyard was temporarily paved with marble once again at the request of movie director Ridley Scott. Scott used the paved courtyard as the set for the court of the King of Jerusalem in his movie \"Kingdom of Heaven\". The courtyard arrangement was converted once more after the movie's production.  The upper story of the Patio was an addition made by Charles V. The addition was designed by Luis de Vega in the style of the Italian Renaissance although he did include both Renaissance and mudéjar plaster work in the decorations. Construction of the addition began in 1540 and ended in 1572.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Los Baños de Doña María de Padilla.", "content": "The \"Baths of Lady María de Padilla\" are rainwater tanks beneath the Patio del Crucero. The tanks are named after María de Padilla, the mistress of Peter the Cruel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Salon de Embajadores.", "content": "The Ambassadors Hall is the ancient throne room built during the reign of Al-Mu'tamid in the 11th century. In the 14th century, Pedro I of Castile remodeled the hall to make it a centerpiece of his royal palace. Plant motifs in plasterwork were added in the corners of the room and spandrels of the arches. Windows were traced with geometric elements. Walls were covered with tiled panels. The orientation of the hall was also changed from facing Mecca to northeast. The doorway now led to the Patio of the Maidens (Patio de las Doncellas). In 1526, Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal celebrated their marriage in this room.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The gardens.", "content": "All the palaces of Al Andalus had garden orchards with fruit trees, horticultural produce and a wide variety of fragrant flowers. The garden-orchards not only supplied food for the palace residents but had the aesthetic function of bringing pleasure. Water was ever present in the form of irrigation channels, runnels, jets, ponds and pools.  The gardens adjoining the Alcázar of Seville have undergone many changes. In the 16th century during the reign of Philip III the Italian designer Vermondo Resta introduced the Italian Mannerist style. Resta was responsible for the Galeria de Grutesco (Grotto Gallery) transforming the old Muslim wall into a loggia from which to admire the view of the palace gardens.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Royal Alcázars of Seville (), historically known as al-Qasr al-Muriq (, \"The Verdant Palace\") and commonly known as the Alcázar of Seville (), is a royal palace in Seville, Spain, built for the Christian king Peter of Castile. It was built by Castilian Christians on the site of an Abbadid Muslim \"alcazar\", or residential fortress destroyed after the Christian conquest of Seville. The palace is a preeminent example of Mudéjar architecture in the Iberian Peninsula but features Gothic, Renaissance and Romanesque design elements from previous stages of construction. The upper storeys of the Alcázar are still occupied by the royal family when they are in Seville, and are administered by the Patrimonio Nacional. It was registered in 1987 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, along with the adjoining Seville Cathedral and the General Archive of the Indies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975268}
{"src_title": "ʼPhags-pa script", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nomenclature.", "content": "ʼPhags-pa script: \"mongxol tshi\", \"Mongolian script\";  Yuan dynasty \"new Mongolian script\";  Modern \"ʼPhags-pa script\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "During the Mongol Empire, the Mongols wanted a universal script to write down the languages of the people they subjugated. The Uyghur-based Mongolian alphabet is not a perfect fit for the Middle Mongol language, and it would be impractical to extend it to a language with a very different phonology like Chinese. Therefore, during the Yuan dynasty (c. 1269), Kublai Khan asked the Tibetan monk ʼPhags-pa to design a new alphabet for use by the whole empire. ʼPhags-pa extended his native Tibetan alphabet to encompass Mongol and Chinese, evidently Central Plains Mandarin. The resulting 38 letters have been known by several descriptive names, such as \"square script\" based on their shape, but today are primarily known as the ʼPhags-pa alphabet.  Descending from Tibetan script it is part of the Brahmic family of scripts, which includes Devanagari and scripts used throughout Southeast Asia and Central Asia. It is unique among Brahmic scripts in that it is written top bottom, like how Chinese used to be written; and like the Manchu alphabet or later Mongolian alphabet.  Despite its origin, the script was written vertically (top to bottom) like the previous Mongolian scripts. It did not receive wide acceptance and was not a popular script even among the elite Mongols themselves, although it was used as an official script of the Yuan dynasty until the early 1350s when the Red Turban Rebellion started. After this it was mainly used as a phonetic gloss for Mongolians learning Chinese characters. It was also used as one of the scripts on Tibetan currency in the twentieth century, as script for Tibetan seal inscriptions from the Middle Ages up to the 20th century and for inscriptions on the entrance doors of Tibetan monasteries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Syllable formation.", "content": "Although it is an alphabet, phagspa is written like a syllabary or abugida, with letters forming a single syllable glued or 'ligated' together. Unlike the ancestral Tibetan script, all ʼPhags-pa letters are written in temporal order (that is, /CV/ is written in the order \"C–V\" for all vowels) and in-line (that is, the vowels are not diacritics). However, vowel letters retain distinct initial forms, and short /a/ is not written except initially, making ʼPhags-pa transitional between an abugida, a syllabary, and a full alphabet. The letters of a ʼPhags-pa syllable are linked together so that they form syllabic blocks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Typographic forms.", "content": "ʼPhags-pa was written in a variety of graphic forms. The standard form (top, at right) was blocky, but a \"Tibetan\" form (bottom) was even more so, consisting almost entirely of straight orthogonal lines and right angles. A \"seal script\" form (Chinese 蒙古篆字 \"měnggǔ zhuànzì\" \"Mongolian Seal Script\"), used for imperial seals and the like, was more elaborate, with squared sinusoidal lines and spirals.  Korean records state that hangul was based on an \"Old Seal Script\" (古篆字), which may be ʼPhags-pa and a reference to its Chinese name 蒙古篆字 měnggǔ zhuànzì (see origin of hangul). However, it is the simpler standard form of ʼPhags-pa that is the closer graphic match to hangul.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Letters.", "content": "Following are the initials of the ʼPhags-pa script as presented in \"Menggu Ziyun\". They are ordered according to the Chinese philological tradition of the 36 initials.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unicode.", "content": "ʼPhags-pa script was added to the Unicode Standard in July 2006 with the release of version 5.0.  The Unicode block for ʼPhags-pa is U+A840–U+A877: U+A856 is transliterated using from the Latin Extended-D Unicode block.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The ʼPhags-pa script is an alphabet designed by the Tibetan monk and State Preceptor (later Imperial Preceptor) Drogön Chögyal Phagpa for Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, as a unified script for the written languages within the Yuan. The actual use of this script was limited to about a hundred years during the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and it fell out of use with the advent of the Ming dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975269}
{"src_title": "Qahal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and meaning.", "content": "The Hebrew word \"qahal\", which is a close etymological relation of the name of \"Qoheleth\" (Ecclesiastes), comes from a root meaning \"convoked [group]\"; its Arabic cognate, \"qāla\", means \"to speak\".  Where the Masoretic Text uses the term \"qahal\", the Septuagint usually uses the Koine Greek term \"ekklesia\",, which means \"summoned group\" (literally, \"they who are called out\"). However, in one particular part of the Priestly Code, the Septuagint instead uses the term, literally meaning \"gathering\", where the Masoretic Text uses \"qahal\". This last term is the origin of the word \"synagogue\" in Hebrew.  Thus, the usual translation of \"qahal\" is \"congregation\" or \"assembly\", although \"asuppot\", \"ʻaṣarah\", \"ʻedah\", \"moʻed\", \"miqra\", and \"sod\", are also usually translated like this.  In particular, the Biblical text consistently distinguishes between \"ʻedah\" and \"qahal\". One passage especially makes the distinction clear; part of the Priestly Code discusses what to do if \"the whole Israelite [ʻedah] commits a sin and the [qahal] is not aware of it[.]\" Scholars conclude that the \"qahal\" must be a judicial body composed of representatives of the \"ʿedah\"; in some biblical passages, \"ʻedah\" is more accurately translated as \"swarm\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biblical exclusions.", "content": "The Deuteronomic Code prohibits certain members of the \"ʿedah\" from taking part in the \"qahal of Yahweh\". In particular, it excludes \"mamzers\", and men who were forcibly emasculated. The descendants of \"mamzers,\" up to the tenth generation, were also prohibited by this law code from taking part in the \"congregation of Yahweh\".  The Greek term \"eunuch\" is usually used to refer forcibly emasculated men, but it is also used in the Septuagint to denote certain foreign political officials (resembling the meaning of \"eunuch\"). This category does not include men who were born without visible testicles (conditions including cryptorchidism), or without a visible penis (conditions including hermaphroditism). There is a dispute, even in traditional Judaism, about whether this prohibited group of men should include those who have become, at some point since their birth, emasculated as the result of a disease  No explanation of the phrase \"mamzer\" is given in the Masoretic Text, but the Septuagint translates it as \"son of a prostitute\" (). In the Talmud, it is suggested that the word \"mamzer\" derives from \"mum zar\", meaning \"a strange blemish\", and thus suggesting illicit parentage in some sense. There are differing opinions in the Talmud as to what this consists of, but the universally accepted ruling refers to the offspring of adultery (defined as relations with a married woman) or incest, as defined in the Book of Leviticus.  In the Talmud, there is a fierce dispute about whether or not the term \"mamzer\" included a child who had a Jewish mother, and a father who is either non-Jewish or a slave (or both); although the Talmud eventually concludes that this is not the case, a number of scholars now suspect that this was actually the original definition of \"mamzer\". Abraham Geiger, a prominent Jewish scholar and rabbi of the mid 19th century, suggested that the etymological origin of \"mamzer\" might be \"me'am zar\", which means \"belonging to a foreign people\".  The Talmud interprets the exclusion of certain people from the \"qahal\" as a prohibition against ordinary Jews marrying such people. Additionally, the biblical reference to the \"tenth generation\" was interpreted, by the classical rabbis, as an idiom meaning \"forever\"; thus the Talmud forbids all the descendants - forever - of these people, from being married to ordinary Jews.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Poland-Lithuania.", "content": "In the 16th century, Jewish communities in the south of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth began to set up new qahals to administer tax collection. These had a minimum of 8 members, and in average Jewish communities had a membership of 22-35 Jews. Their executives were elected by the local Jewish community, and consisted of 4 \"elders\" (Hebrew: \"zeqenim\") with a further 3-5 \"honorary members\" (Hebrew: \"tovim\"). There was one qahal for each Jewish community, although smaller qahals were often made subject to larger ones.  These Polish-Lithuanian \"qahal\"s quickly came to be politically autonomous bodies with major regulatory control over Jewish communities in the region; they administered commerce, hygiene, sanitation, charity, Jewish education, \"kashrut\", and relations between landlords and their tenants. They provided a number of community facilities, such as a rabbi, a \"mikveh\" (ritual bath), and \"gemachen\" (interest-free loans). \"Qahal\"s even had sufficient authority that they could arrange for individuals to be expelled from synagogues, excommunicating (\"Herem\") them.  However, rich and powerful individuals gradually began to dominate the \"qahal\"s, abusing their position for their own benefit. As a result, by the 18th century, many ordinary Jews had begun to clamour for the abolition of those institutions. \"In 1844 they were officially abolished by the tsarist regime in Ukraine and most of the rest of the empire; they continued to exist only in the Baltic region. Afterwards, Jewish communities were only given jurisdiction over religious and charitable affairs, and occasionally over education.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conspiracy theories.", "content": "The qahal exists as a theme in the antisemitic conspiracy theory literature. The theme originated with Jacob Brafman, a Russian Jew who had a falling out with Minsk qahal tax-agents and to get revenge - converted to Lutheranism and then the Russian Orthodox Church, authoring polemics against the Talmud and the qahal. Brafmann authored the books \"The Local and Universal Jewish Brotherhoods\" (1868) and \"The Book of the Kahal\" (1869), claiming that the qahal was an international network under the control of the \"Alliance Israélite Universelle\", its aim being to undermine Christian entrepreneurs, taking over their property and ultimately seizing power. This theory was taken up by anti-Jewish publications in Russia and by some Russian officials, such as P. A. Cherevin and Nikolay Pavlovich Ignatyev, who in the 1880s urged governor-generals of provinces to seek out a supposed \"universal Jewish qahal.\"  Brafmann's image of the qahal spread throughout the world, making its way to the United States by 1881, as it was translated by Zénaïde Alexeïevna Ragozin in \"The Century Magazine\". It prepared the groundwork for \"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion\" and the word qahal features in that text. It is also discussed in other conspiracy works such as Edith Starr Miller's \"Occult Theocrasy\" (1933), which ties it to the Illuminati.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The qahal () was a theocratic organizational structure in ancient Israelite society according to the Hebrew Bible. In later centuries, \"Qahal\" was the name of the autonomous governments of Ashkenazi Jews until being abolished in the 1840s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975270}
{"src_title": "Virginia Satir", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Satir was born 26 June 1916 in Neillsville, Wisconsin, the eldest of five children born to Oscar Alfred Reinnard Pagenkopf and Minnie Happe Pagenkopf. When she was five years old, Satir suffered from appendicitis. Her mother, a devout Christian Scientist, refused to take her to a doctor. By the time Satir's father decided to overrule his wife, the young girl's appendix had ruptured. Doctors were able to save her life, but Satir was forced to stay in the hospital for several months.  A curious child, Satir taught herself to read by age three, and by nine had read all of the books in the library of her small one-room school. When she was five, Satir decided that she would grow up to be \"a children's detective on parents.\" She later explained that \"I didn't quite know what I would look for, but I realized a lot went on in families that didn't meet the eye.\"  In 1929, her mother insisted that the family move from their farm to Milwaukee so that Satir could attend high school. Satir's high school years coincided with the Great Depression, and to help her family she took a part-time job and also attended as many courses as she could so that she could graduate early. In 1932, she received her high school diploma and promptly enrolled in Milwaukee State Teachers College (now University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.) To pay for her education she worked part-time for the Works Projects Administration and for Gimbels Department Store and further supplemented her income by babysitting. She graduated with a bachelor's degree in education, and worked as a teacher for a few years.  Beginning in 1937, for three summers she took courses at Northwestern University in Chicago. She then enrolled full-time at the University of Chicago School of Social Services Administration. She finished her coursework for her master's degree in 1943, and completed her thesis for her degree in 1948.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career as a therapist.", "content": "After graduating social work school, Satir began working in private practice. She met with her first family in 1951, and by 1955 was working with Illinois Psychiatric Institute, encouraging other therapists to focus on families instead of individual patients. By the end of the decade she had moved to California, where she cofounded the Mental Research Institute (MRI) in Palo Alto, California. MRI received a grant from NIMH in 1962, allowing them to begin the first formal family therapy training program ever offered; Satir was hired as its Training Director.  Innovation  One of Satir's most novel ideas at the time, was that the \"presenting issue\" or \"surface problem\" itself was seldom the real problem; rather, how people \"coped\" with the issue \"created\" the problem.\" Satir also offered insights into the particular problems that low self-esteem could cause in relationships.  Long interested in the idea of networking, Satir founded two groups to help individuals find mental health workers or other people who were suffering from similar issues to their own. In 1970, she organized \"Beautiful People,\" which later became known as the \"International Human Learning Resources Network.\" In 1977 she founded the Avanta Network, which was renamed to the Virginia Satir Global Network in 2010.  Recognition  Two years later, Satir was appointed to the Steering Committee of the International Family Therapy Association and became a member of the Advisory Board for the National Council for Self-Esteem.  She has also been recognized with several honorary doctorates, including a 1978 doctorate in Social Sciences from the University of Wisconsin–Madison.  Honors and awards received", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work and influence.", "content": "Satir's entire work was done under the umbrella of \"Becoming More Fully Human\". From the possibility of a nurturing primary triad of father, mother, and child she conceived a process of Human Validation. She continually planted the seeds of hope toward world peace. As she said (Align, 1988, p. 20): \"The family is a microcosm. By knowing how to heal the family, I know how to heal the world.\" With this overview she established professional training groups in the Satir Model in the Middle East, the Orient, Western and Eastern Europe, Central and Latin America, and Russia. The Institute for International Connections, Avanta Network, and the International Human Learning Resources Network are concrete examples of teaching people how to connect with one another and then extend the connections. Her world impact could be summed up in her universal mantra: peace within, peace between, peace among.  In the mid-1970s her work was extensively studied by the co-founders of Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), Richard Bandler and John Grinder, who used it as one of the three fundamental models of NLP. Bandler and Grinder also collaborated with Satir to author \"Changing With Families\" for Science and Behavior Books, which bore the subtitle 'A Book About Further Education for Being Human'. The Virginia Satir Global Network, originally named \"AVANTA\" by Satir, is an international organization that carries on her work and promotes her approach to family therapy.  Satir also significantly influenced Lori Heyman Gordon's development of the PAIRS (\"Practical Application of Intimate Relationship Skills\") relationship education program. Satir served as the honorary founding chairperson of PAIRS Foundation.  In 1984, Satir encouraged marriage and family therapists to shift their focus to relationship education:  Steve Andreas, one of Bandler and Grinder's students, wrote \"Virginia Satir: The Patterns of Her Magic\" (1991) in which he summarized the major patterns of Satir's work, and then showed how Satir applied them in a richly annotated verbatim transcript of a videotaped session titled \"Forgiving Parents\". In this session, Satir works with a woman who hated her mother, and had difficulty connecting with others as a result. Using a variety of role-plays, including a \"family reconstruction\", this woman came to see her mother as her \"best friend\", as detailed in a 31⁄2 year follow-up interview.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career as author.", "content": "Satir published her first book, \"Conjoint Family Therapy\", in 1964, developed from the training manual she wrote for students at MRI. Her reputation grew with each subsequent book, and she travelled the world to speak on her methods. She also became a Diplomate of the Academy of Certified Social Workers and received the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy's Distinguished Service Award.  Satir often integrated meditations and poetic writing into both her public workshops and writings. One of her most well-known works, \"I Am Me,\" was written by Satir in response to a question posed by an angry teenage girl.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Virginia Satir (26 June 1916 – 10 September 1988) was an American author and therapist, known especially for her approach to family therapy and her pioneering work in the field of family reconstruction therapy. She is widely regarded as the \"Mother of Family Therapy\" Her most well-known books are \"Conjoint Family Therapy\", 1964, \"Peoplemaking\", 1972, and \"The New Peoplemaking\", 1988.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975271}
{"src_title": "Nelahozeves", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The oldest surviving written document mentioning Nelahozeves dates to 1352. The village has a three-winged Renaissance chateau in the Italianate Northern Mannerist style, featuring elaborate sgraffito designs that depict scenes from Greek mythology and the Old Testament. The castle is an example of the castello fortezza, a design that was considered very modern in the 16th century. Its predominant characteristics are faux architectural defenses, including decorative bastions and an entry bridge without a moat. The most noteworthy of the castle's interior rooms is the Knight's Hall, which dates from 1564. Dominated by a large Renaissance stone fireplace, it also features ceiling decorations depicting Livy’s interpretations of five Roman virtues, wall frescoes displaying military figures, and a lunette vault decorated with original stucco reliefs.  Construction on Nelahozeves Castle began under the orders of Florian Griesbeck von Griesbach, a Tyrolean aristocrat and adviser to Emperor Ferdinand I, who commissioned the building from royal master builder Bonifaz Wolmut. The castle took more than sixty years to build and was completed at the beginning of the 17th century, more than a decade after Florian's death. However, financial difficulties forced the von Griesbach family to sell the castle to Polyxena, 1st Princess Lobkowicz (1566-1642), in 1623. The castle was severely damaged during the Thirty Years' War, but was reconstructed by Václav Eusebius, 2nd Prince Lobkowicz (1609-1677), who used the castle as the center for administration and management of his estates. However, the castle never served as the Lobkowicz family's primary residence. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was home to the Order of the Sisters of God's Love, a religious institution for widowed or unmarried noblewomen founded by Princess Wilhelmina Lobkowicz (1863-1945). Nelahozeves Castle was confiscated by the Communist government in 1948, and housed an exhibition of modern socialist art run by the Czech Regional Gallery in the 1970s and 80s. It was returned to the Lobkowicz family in 1993, and now features an exhibition of historical period rooms, demonstrating the lifestyle of a Bohemian noble family in the mid-19th century. The castle also houses part of the Lobkowicz collection of paintings.  The 19th-century composer Antonín Dvořák was born in Nelahozeves in 1841, and lived there until the age of 13. In his childhood home, also owned by the Lobkowicz family, the National Museum operates a small museum focusing on his life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nelahozeves is a village on left bank of the Vltava river, 35 km north of Prague, Czech Republic. In 2015 its population was 1,900.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975272}
{"src_title": "School of Fontainebleau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First School of Fontainebleau (from 1531).", "content": "In 1531, the Florentine artist Rosso Fiorentino, having lost most of his possessions at the Sack of Rome in 1527, was invited by François I to come to France, where he began an extensive decorative program for the Château de Fontainebleau. In 1532 he was joined by another Italian artist, Francesco Primaticcio (from Bologna). Rosso died in France in 1540. On the advice of Primaticcio, Niccolò dell'Abbate (from Modena) was invited to France in 1552 by François's son Henri II. Although known for their work at Fontainebleau, these artists were also invited to create works of art for other noble families of the period and were much esteemed and well-paid.  The works of this \"first school of Fontainebleau\" are characterized by the extensive use of stucco (moldings and picture frames) and frescos, and an elaborate (and often mysterious) system of allegories and mythological iconography. Renaissance decorative motifs such as grotesques, strapwork and putti are common, as well as a certain degree of eroticism. The figures are elegant and show the influence of the techniques of the Italian Mannerism of Michelangelo, Raphael and especially Parmigianino. Primaticcio was also directed to make copies of antique Roman statues for the king, thus spreading the influence of classical statuary.  Many of the works of Rosso, Primaticcio and dell'Abate have not survived; parts of the Chateau were remodelled at various dates. The paintings of the group were reproduced in prints, mostly etchings, which were apparently produced initially at Fontainebleau itself, and later in Paris. These disseminated the style through France and beyond, and also record several paintings that have not survived.  The mannerist style of the Fontainebleau school influenced French artists (with whom the Italians worked) such as the painter Jean Cousin the Elder, the sculptors Jean Goujon and Germain Pilon, and, to a lesser degree, the painter and portraitist François Clouet the son of Jean Clouet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Printmaking workshop.", "content": "Although there is no certain proof, most scholars have agreed that there was a printmaking workshop at the Palace of Fontainebleau itself, reproducing the designs of the artists for their works in the palace, as well as other compositions they produced. The most productive printmakers were Léon Davent, Antonio Fantuzzi, and Jean Mignon, followed by the \"mysterious\" artist known from his monogram as \"Master I♀V\" (♀ being the alchemical symbol for copper, from which the printing plates were made), and the workshop seems to have been active between about 1542 and 1548 at the latest; François I died in March 1547, after which funding for the palace ended, and the school dispersed. These were the first etchings made in France, and not far behind the first Italian uses of the technique, which originated in Germany. The earliest impressions of all the Fontainebleau prints are in brown ink, and their intention seems to have been essentially reproductive. The intention of the workshop was to disseminate the new style developing at the palace more widely, both to France and to the Italians' peers back in Italy. Whether the initiative to do this came from the king or another patron, or from the artists alone, is unclear. David Landau believes that Primaticcio was the driving force; he had stepped up to become the director of the work at Fontainebleau after the suicide of Rosso Fiorentino in 1540.  The enterprise seems to have been \"just slightly premature\" in terms of catching a market. The etched prints were often marked by signs of the workshop's inexperience and sometimes incompetence with the technique of etching, and according to Sue Welsh Reed: \"Few impressions survive from these plates, and it is questionable whether many were pulled. The plates were often poorly executed and not well printed; they were often scratched or not well polished and did not wipe clean. Some may have been made of metals soft as copper, such as pewter.\" A broadening market for prints preferred the \"highly finished textures\" of Nicolas Beatrizet, and later \"proficient but ultimately uninspired\" engravers such as René Boyvin and Pierre Milan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second School of Fontainebleau (from 1594).", "content": "From 1584 to 1594, during the Wars of Religion the château of Fontainebleau was abandoned. Upon his accession to the throne, Henri IV undertook a renovation of the Fontainebleau buildings using a group of artists: the Flemish born Ambroise Dubois (from Antwerp) and the Parisians Toussaint Dubreuil and Martin Fréminet. They are sometimes referred to as the \"second school of Fontainebleau\". Their late mannerist works, many of which have been lost, continue in the use of elongated and undulating forms and crowded compositions. Many of their subjects include mythological scenes and scenes from works of fiction by the Italian Torquato Tasso and the ancient Greek novelist Heliodorus of Emesa.  Their style would continue to have an influence on artists through the first decades of the 17th century, but other artistic currents (Peter Paul Rubens, Caravaggio, the Dutch and Flemish naturalist schools) would soon eclipse them.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The School of Fontainbleau () (c.1530 – c.1610) refers to two periods of artistic production in France during the late Renaissance centered on the royal Palace of Fontainebleau that were crucial in forming the French version of Northern Mannerism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975273}
{"src_title": "Albert Cossery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Albert Cossery (Arabic: البرت قصيري) was born in Cairo to a Greek Orthodox family of Syrian descent. His parents were wealthy small-property owners that originally owned land in Damietta. In a conversation with Lebanese writer Abdallah Naaman in 1998, Cossery said, \"We are the \"Shawams\" (Levantines, referring to the Bilad al-Sham) of Egypt. My father is a Greek Orthodox native of the village of al-Qusayr, near Homs, in Syria. Upon arriving in Cairo at the end of the 19th century, the family adopted \"Cossery\" (after al-Qusayr) as their family name due to its simplified pronunciation.\" The Cossery family, as well as all of the elites living in Egypt during this era, were well steeped in French culture. At the age of 17, inspired by reading Honoré de Balzac, he emigrated to Paris to continue studies that he never completed, writing and settled permanently in the French capital in 1945, where he lived until his death in 2008.  In 60 years he only wrote eight novels, in accordance with his philosophy of life in which \"laziness\" is not a vice but a form of contemplation and meditation. In his own words: \"So much beauty in the world, so few eyes to see it.\" At the age of 27 he published his first book, \"Les hommes oubliés de Dieu\" (\"Men God Forgot\"). During his literary career he became close friend of other writers and artists such as Lawrence Durrell, Albert Camus, Jean Genet and Giacometti.  Cossery died on 22 June 2008, aged 94.  His books, which always take place in Egypt or other Arab countries, portray the contrast between poverty and wealth, the powerful and the powerless, in a witty although dramatic way. His writing mocks vanity and the narrowness of materialism and his principal characters are mainly vagrants, thieves or dandies that subvert the order of an unfair society. His novels often feature auto-biographical characters, like Teymour, the hero of the novel \"Un complot de saltimbanques\", a young man who forges a diploma in chemical engineering after a life of enjoyment and lust abroad instead of study and gets back to his home town and enters into an unexpected intringue against the authorities with his dandy friends. He is considered by some to be the last genuine \"anarchist\" or free thinking writer of western culture by his humorous and provocative although lucid and profound view of human relations and society. His writing style does not submit to an academic or experimental approach which makes him a vivid, catchy storyteller, without the boredom nor artificial ambiguity of some classical (which he is) or avantgarde writers. The sageness of his works are monuments to the freedom of being and thought against materialism, the contemporary obsession with consumption and productivity, the arrogance and abuse of authority, the vanity of social formalities and the injustice of the wealthy towards the poor.  In 1990 Cossery was awarded the Grand prix de la francophonie of the Académie française and in 2005 the Grand Prix Poncetton de la SGDL.  The first of his books translated in English are \"Men God Forgot\" (first translated by Harold Edwards of Faruk University, Alexandria, Egypt, not by Henry Miller, whose note on Cossery appeared on a later 1963 City Lights Books edition, and published in the United States in 1946 by George Leite's Circle Editions of Berkeley), \"The House of Certain Death\" (New Directions, 1949), \"The Lazy Ones\" (New Directions, 1952), and \"Proud Beggars\" (Black Sparrow Press, 1981).  Three more of Cossery's novels have since been published in English translation: Anna Moschovakis' \"The Jokers\" (NYRB Classics) and Alyson Waters' \"A Splendid Conspiracy\" and \"The Colors of Infamy\" (New Directions). As of 2014, \"Une ambition dans le désert\" remains untranslated into English.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albert Cossery (3 November 1913 – 22 June 2008) was an Egyptian-born French writer of Levantine origin. Although Cossery lived most of his life in Paris and only wrote in the French language, all of his novels were either set in his home country of Egypt or in an imaginary Middle Eastern country. He was nicknamed \"The Voltaire of the Nile\". His writings pay tribute to the humble and to the misfits of his childhood in Cairo, as well as praise a form of laziness and simplicity very distant from our contemporary society.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975274}
{"src_title": "The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Four days after a Weiberfastnacht's eve party (Wed. 20 February 1974), where Katharina Blum met a man named Ludwig Götten, she calls on Oberkommissar Moeding and confesses to killing a journalist for the newspaper \"Die Zeitung\".  Katharina had met Götten at a friend's party and spent the night with him before helping him to escape from the police. The next morning, the police break into her house, arrest her and question her. The story is sensationally covered by \"Die Zeitung\", and in particular its journalist Tötges. Tötges investigates everything about her life, calling on Katharina's friends and family, including her ex-husband and hospitalized mother, who dies the day after Tötges visits her. He paints a picture of Katharina as a fervent accomplice of Götten, and as a communist run amok in Germany.  Katharina arranges an interview with Tötges. According to Katharina, upon his arrival he suggests that they have sex, whereupon she shoots him dead. She then wanders the city for a few hours before driving to police headquarters and confessing to murder.  The book also details the effects of the case on Katharina's employers and friends the Blornas; Mr Blorna is her lawyer, and Mrs Blorna one of the designers of the apartment block where Katharina resides. Their association with Katharina leads to their exclusion from society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "The story is written from a first-person plural perspective, as if the narrator were presenting a confidential report to the reader on the basis of sources. The technique is documentary, as with \"Group Portrait with Lady\", but with a much more disciplined focus on essentials. The reader is sometimes left to infer who the sources are for many of the reports, and even to wonder whether the narrator may not be one of the characters in the novel. This way, the narrator is dependent on characters and the information they impart, becoming a researcher and critic of his source material. This is implicitly contrasted with the journalists who irresponsibly distort their sources. The attack on vulgar journalism is thus mounted from the perspective of a narrator whose moral authority is enhanced by the use of the'regal' first-person plural form. In some parts of the story, the elaborate and detached manner is also used for comic effect when retelling violent, silly or emotionally conflicted incidents as more and more personal secrets of the characters are revealed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The book has been adapted into the following works:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum, or: how violence develops and where it can lead (original German title: \"Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum oder: Wie Gewalt entstehen und wohin sie führen kann\") is a 1974 novel by Heinrich Böll.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975275}
{"src_title": "Chenopodium album", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Its native range is obscure due to extensive cultivation, but includes most of Europe, from where Linnaeus described the species in 1753. Plants native in eastern Asia are included under \"C. album\", but often differ from European specimens. It is widely naturalised elsewhere, e.g. Africa, Australasia, North America, and Oceania, and now occurs almost everywhere (even, apparently in Antarctica) in soils rich in nitrogen, especially on wasteland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Botany.", "content": "It tends to grow upright at first, reaching heights of 10–150 cm (rarely to 3 m), but typically becomes recumbent after flowering (due to the weight of the foliage and seeds) unless supported by other plants. The leaves are alternate and varied in appearance. The first leaves, near the base of the plant, are toothed and roughly diamond-shaped, 3–7 cm long and 3–6 cm broad. The leaves on the upper part of the flowering stems are entire and lanceolate-rhomboid, 1–5 cm long and 0.4–2 cm broad; they are waxy-coated, unwettable and mealy in appearance, with a whitish coat on the underside. The small flowers are radially symmetrical and grow in small cymes on a dense branched inflorescence 10–40 cm long. Further, the flowers are bisexual and female, with five tepals which are mealy on outer surface, and shortly united at the base. There are five stamens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Chenopodium album\" has a very complex taxonomy and has been divided in numerous microspecies, subspecies and varieties, but it is difficult to differentiate between them. The following infraspecific taxa are accepted by the \"Flora Europaea\":  Published names and synonyms include \"C. album\" var. \"microphyllum\", \"C. album\" var. \"stevensii\", \"C. acerifolium, C. centrorubrum, C. giganteum, C. jenissejense, C. lanceolatum, C. pedunculare\" and \"C. probstii\".  It also hybridises readily with several other \"Chenopodium\" species, including \"C. berlandieri, C. ficifolium, C. opulifolium, C. strictum\" and \"C. suecicum\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regions.", "content": "The species are cultivated as a grain or vegetable crop (such as in lieu of spinach), as well as animal feed in Asia and Africa, whereas in Europe and North America, it is commonly regarded as a weed in places such as potato fields, while in Australia it is naturalised in all states and regarded as an environmental weed in New South Wales, Victoria, Western Australia and the Northern Territory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Potential impact on conventional crops.", "content": "It is one of the more robust and competitive weeds, capable of producing crop losses of up to 13% in corn, 25% in soybeans, and 48% in sugar beets at an average plant distribution. It may be controlled by dark tillage, rotary hoeing, or flaming when the plants are small. Crop rotation of small grains will suppress an infestation. It is easily controlled with a number of pre-emergence herbicides. Its pollen may contribute to hay fever-like allergies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pest control.", "content": "\"Chenopodium album\" is vulnerable to leaf miners, making it a useful trap crop as a companion plant. Growing near other plants, it attracts leaf miners which might otherwise have attacked the crop to be protected. It is a host plant for the beet leafhopper, an insect which transmits curly top virus to beet crops.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses and consumption.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "The leaves and young shoots may be eaten as a leaf vegetable, either steamed in its entirety, or cooked like spinach, but should be eaten in moderation due to high levels of oxalic acid. Each plant produces tens of thousands of black seeds. These are high in protein, vitamin A, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium. Quinoa, a closely related species, is grown specifically for its seeds. The Zuni people cook the young plants' greens. Bathua seeds also double up for rice and dal. Napoleon Bonaparte is said to have once relied on bathua seeds to feed his troops during lean times.  Archaeologists analysing carbonized plant remains found in storage pits and ovens at Iron Age, Viking Age, and Roman sites in Europe have found its seeds mixed with conventional grains and even inside the stomachs of Danish bog bodies.  In India, the plant is called \"bathua\" and found abundantly in the winter season. The leaves and young shoots of this plant are used in dishes such as soups, curries, and paratha-stuffed breads, common in North India. The seeds or grains are used in \"phambra\" or \"laafi\", gruel-type dishes in Himachal Pradesh, and in mildly alcoholic fermented beverages such as\" soora\" and \"ghanti\". In Haryana state, the \"\"bathue ka raita\"\" i.e. the raita (yogurt dip) made with bathua, is very popular in winters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Animal feed.", "content": "As some of the common names suggest, it is also used as feed (both the leaves and the seeds) for chickens and other poultry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The juice of this plant is a potent ingredient for a mixture of wall plaster, according to the Samarāṅgaṇa Sūtradhāra, which is a Sanskrit treatise dealing with Śilpaśāstra (Hindu science of art and construction).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ayurveda.", "content": "In Ayurveda traditional medicine, bathua is thought to be useful for treating various diseases, although there is no clinical evidence such uses are safe or effective.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Chenopodium album is a fast-growing weedy annual plant in the genus \"Chenopodium\". Though cultivated in some regions, the plant is elsewhere considered a weed. Common names include lamb's quarters, melde, goosefoot, manure weed, wild spinach and fat-hen, though the latter two are also applied to other species of the genus \"Chenopodium\", for which reason it is often distinguished as white goosefoot. \"Chenopodium album\" is extensively cultivated and consumed in Northern India as a food crop known as \"bathua\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975276}
{"src_title": "Myriophyllum spicatum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Eurasian watermilfoil has slender stems up to long. The submerged leaves (usually between 15–35 mm long) are borne in pinnate whorls of four, with numerous thread-like leaflets roughly 4–13 mm long. Plants are monoecious with flowers produced in the leaf axils (male above, female below) on a spike 5–15 cm long held vertically above the water surface, each flower is inconspicuous, orange-red, 4–6 mm long. Eurasian water milfoil has 12- 21 pairs of leaflets while northern watermilfoil \"M. sibiricum\" only has 5–9 pairs. The two can hybridize and the resulting hybrid plants can cause taxonomic confusion as leaf characters are intermediate and can overlap with parent species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Myriophyllum spicatum\" is found in disperse regions of North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, and Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Introduced areas.", "content": "\"Myriophyllum spicatum\" was likely first introduced to North America in the 1940s where it has become an invasive species in some areas. By the mid 1970s, watermilfoil had also covered thousands of hectares in British Columbia and Ontario, Canada, and spread some downstream via the Columbia River system into the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Eurasian watermilfoil is now found across most of Northern America where it is recognized as a noxious weed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impact.", "content": "In lakes or other aquatic areas where native aquatic plants are not well established, the Eurasian plant can spread quickly. It has been known to crowd out native plants and create dense mats that interfere with recreational activity. Dense growth of Eurasian milfoil can also have a negative impact on fisheries by creating microhabitats for juvenile fish and obstructing space for larger fish ultimately disrupting normal feeding patterns. Due to the Eurasian milfoil plant's inability to provide the same microhabitat for invertebrates as compared to native aquatic plant species, densely populated areas of Eurasian milfoil create an ecosystem with less food sources for the surrounding fish. Dense Eurasian milfoil growth can also create hypoxic zones by blocking out sun penetration to native aquatic vegetation preventing them from photosynthesizing. Eurasian watermilfoil grows primarily from broken off stems, known as shoot fragments, which increases the rate at which the plant can spread and grow. In some areas, the Eurasian Watermilfoil is an Aquatic Nuisance Species. Eurasian watermilfoil is known to hybridize with the native northern watermilfoil (\"M. sibiricum\") and the hybrid taxon has also become invasive in North America. This hybridization has been observed across the upper midwestern United States (Indiana, Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin) and in the Northwest (Idaho, Washington).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Control.", "content": "The aquatic moth \"Acentria ephemerella\", the water veneer moth, feeds upon and damages this water milfoil. It has been used as an agent of biological pest control against the plant in North America. The milfoil weevil (\"Euhrychiopsis lecontei\") has also been used as biocontrol. Another method for biocontrol is Grass Carp, (one of the Asian Carp species) which have been bred as sterile, is sometimes released into affected areas, since these fish primarily feed on aquatic plants and have proven effective at controlling the spread. However, the carp prefer many native species to the milfoil and will usually decimate preferred species before eating the milfoil. In Washington State the success rate of Grass Carp has been less than expected. They were used in 98 lakes and 39 percent of them had no submerged plant life left after only a short time.  Since roughly 2000, hand-harvesting of invasive milfoils has shown much success as a management technique. Several organizations in the New England states have undertaken large scale, lake-wide hand-harvesting management programs with extremely successful results. Acknowledgment had to be made that it is impossible to completely eradicate the species once it is established. As a result, maintenance must be done once an infestation has been reduced to affordably controlled levels. Well trained divers with proper techniques have been able to effectively control and then maintain many lakes, especially in the Adirondack Park in Northern New York where chemicals, mechanical harvesters, and other disruptive and largely unsuccessful management techniques are banned. After only three years of hand harvesting in Saranac Lake the program was able to reduce the amount harvested from over 18 tons to just 800 pounds per year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management and spread prevention.", "content": "Trailering boats has proven to be a significant vector by which Eurasian milfoil is able to spread and proliferate across otherwise disconnected bodies of water. Effective methods for mitigating this spread, are visual inspections with subsequent hand removal or pressure washing upon boat removal. In the Okanagan River Basin of south-central British Columbia, a specially-adapted rototiller is used to dredge shallow water to damage or destroy the root system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "\"Myriophyllum spicatum\" produces ellagic, gallic and pyrogallic acids and (+)-catechin, allelopathic polyphenols inhibiting the growth of blue-green alga \"Microcystis aeruginosa\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Myriophyllum spicatum (Eurasian watermilfoil or spiked water-milfoil) is native to Europe, Asia, and north Africa, but has a wide geographic and climatic distribution among some 57 countries, extending from northern Canada to South Africa. It is a submerged aquatic plant, grows in still or slow-moving water, and is considered to be a highly invasive species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975277}
{"src_title": "Ideal type", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Meaning.", "content": "An ideal type is formed from characteristics and elements of the given phenomena, but it is not meant to correspond to all of the characteristics of any one particular case. It is not meant to refer to perfect things, moral ideals nor to statistical averages but rather to stress certain elements common to most cases of the given phenomenon. It is also important to pay attention that in using the word \"ideal\" Max Weber refers to the world of ideas (, \"mental images\") and not to perfection; these \"ideal types\" are idea-constructs that help put the seeming chaos of social reality in order.  Weber himself wrote: \"An ideal type is formed by the one-sided accentuation of one or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present and occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those onesidedly emphasized viewpoints into a unified analytical construct...\" It is a useful tool for comparative sociology in analyzing social or economic phenomena, having advantages over a very general, abstract idea and a specific historical example. It can be used to analyze both a general, suprahistorical phenomenon such as capitalism or historically unique occurrences such as in Weber's \"Protestant Ethics\" analysis.  To try to understand a particular phenomenon, one must not only describe the actions of its participants but \"interpret\" them as well. But interpretation poses a problem for the investigator who has to attempt to classify behavior as belonging to some prior \"ideal type\". Weber described four categories of \"Ideal Types\" of behavior: \"zweckrational\" (goal-rationality), \"wertrational\" (value-rationality), \"affektual\" (emotional-rationality) and \"traditional\" (custom, unconscious habit).  Weber, who is keenly aware of the fictional nature of the \"ideal type\", therefore states that it never seeks to claim its validity in terms of a reproduction of or correspondence with social reality. Its validity can be ascertained only in terms of adequacy, which is too conveniently ignored by the proponents of positivism. This does not mean, however, that objectivity, limited as it is, can be gained by \"weighing the various evaluations against one another and making a'statesman-like' compromise among them\", which is often proposed as a solution by those sharing Weber's kind of methodological perspectivism. Such a practice, which Weber calls \"syncretism\", is not only impossible but also unethical, for it avoids \"the practical duty to stand up for our own ideals\" [Weber 1904/1949, p. 58].", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scholarly reception.", "content": "It is commonly argued that idealization plays a key role in the methodology of other social sciences, especially of economics. For example, homo economicus is the result of a consistent abstraction-idealization process. One of the fundamental axioms of neoclassical economics, the law of diminishing marginal utility, followed from the highlighting of Weber-Fechner's law in psychophysics, which highlights that the growth of subjectively perceived intensity of recurrent stimuli with the same physical intensity is always decreasing. The same law emerges in the law of diminishing marginal returns. Homo economicus as presupposed by Neoclassicals is an idealized, abstract creature that can be characterized by an intention to exchange and whose only task is to take economic decisions. For homo economicus, there is no time or social and natural environment, he is ageless, he has no whims, and his decisions are not biased by occasional effects from the (social) environment. So, his behaviour only reflects the objective and consistently prevailing economic laws established by formal rationality. After all, human (and social) sciences, similarly to natural sciences, i.e. abstracting from everything subjective, constrained themselves to phrase only objective truths. However, the conceptualizing routine of neoclassical economics differs from the genuine approach of Max Weber in that Neoclassicals focused exactly on finding and deducing economic laws (in accordance with the efforts of natural sciences), while the ideal-types of the Weberian sociology only supported the interpretative understanding of past events with no references to causal laws. Even if the method and the strategy of creating ideal-typical concepts are common, these are two opposing scientific programs eventually. Weber offers an excellent description and a user's guide to the technique of abstraction and idealization that also directly applies to the conceptualizing strategy of mainstream economics that is on a completely different track with its law-seeking efforts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Critics of ideal type include proponents of the normal type theory. Some sociologists argue that ideal type tends to focus on extreme phenomena and overlook the connections between them, and that it is difficult to show how the types and their elements fit into a theory of a total social system.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ideal type (), also known as pure type, is a typological term most closely associated with sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920). For Weber, the conduct of social science depends upon the construction of abstract, hypothetical concepts. The \"ideal type\" is therefore a subjective element in social theory and research, and one of the subjective elements distinguishing sociology from natural science.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975278}
{"src_title": "Francesco Primaticcio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Bologna, he trained under Giulio Romano in Mantua and became a pupil of Innocenzo da Imola, executing decorations at the Palazzo Te before securing a position in the court of Francis I of France in 1532. Together with Rosso Fiorentino he was one of the leading artists to work at the Chateau Fontainebleau (where he is grouped with the so-called \"First School of Fontainebleau\") spending much of his life there. Following Rosso's death in 1540, Primaticcio took control of the artistic direction at Fontainebleau, furnishing the painters and stuccators of his team, such as Nicolò dell'Abate, with designs. He made cartoons for tapestry-weavers and, like all 16th-century court artists, was called upon to design elaborate ephemeral decorations for masques and fêtes, which survive only in preparatory drawings and, sometimes, engravings. Francis I trusted his eye and sent him back to Italy on buying trips in 1540 and again in 1545.  In Rome, part of Primaticcio's commission was to take casts of the best Roman sculptures in the papal collections, some of which were cast in bronze to decorate the parterres at Fontainebleau.  Primaticcio retained his position as court painter to Francis' heirs, Henry II and Francis II. His masterpiece, the \"Salle d'Hercule\" at Fontainebleau, occupied him and his team from the 1530s to 1559.  Primaticcio's crowded Mannerist compositions and his long-legged canon of beauty influenced French art for the rest of the century.  Primaticcio turned to architecture towards the end of his life, his greatest work being the Valois Chapel at the Abbey of Saint-Denis, although this was not completed until after his death and was destroyed in 1719.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "\"The Oxford Dictionary of Art\",", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francesco Primaticcio (April 30, 1504 – 1570) was an Italian Mannerist painter, architect and sculptor who spent most of his career in France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975279}
{"src_title": "Gaudium et spes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The document was not drafted before the council met, but arose from the floor of the council and was one of the last to be promulgated.  The previous Vatican Council in 1869–70 had tried to defend the role of the church in an increasingly secular world. Those who interpret the purpose of the Second Council as one of embracing this world use \"Gaudium et spes\" as the primary hermeneutic for all its documents. One of the cardinals, Leo Joseph Suenens of Belgium, urged the council to take on social responsibility for Third World suffering, International peace and war, and the poor, sentiments echoed by Cardinal Giovanni Battista Montini of Milan and Cardinal Lercaro of Bologna.  Thomas Rosica points out that the Council Fathers \"... were men who had experienced two world wars, the horror of the Holocaust, the onset of the nuclear weaponry, the hostility of communism, the awesome and only partially understood impact of science and technology.\" In the Introduction it states, \"... the Church has always had the duty of scrutinizing the signs of the times and of interpreting them in the light of the Gospel.\" The mission of the Church needed to recognize the realities of secularization and pluralism. Bishop Christopher Butler points out that a key principle behind the \"audacious change\" in this and in several earlier outward-looking documents of the council was that the Church was Christ himself using us as his instruments to bring salvation to all, and in charity we must presume that those who differ from us are nevertheless people of good will.  Marie-Dominique Chenu, professor of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, \"Angelicum\" was influential in the composition of \"Gaudium et spes\", as was Louis-Joseph Lebret. \"The problem of poverty and of overcoming it through a healthy economy, respectful of the primary value of the person, allows for a vast discussion on political ethics in Gaudium et Spes.\"  \"Gaudium et Spes\" was adopted after \"Lumen Gentium\", the Constitution on the Church, and it reflects the ecclesiological approach of that text. It also recognized and encouraged the role of the laity in the life of the Church in the world. The decree was debated at length and approved by much the largest and most international council in the history of the Church.  \"This council exhorts Christians, as citizens of two cities, to strive to discharge their earthly duties conscientiously and in response to the Gospel spirit.\". This was further expanded in \"Apostolicam Actuositatem\", Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity, of 18 November 1965.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contents.", "content": "The chief focus of Gaudium et Spes was on social teaching. \"The numbers given correspond to section numbers within the text.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gift of Self.", "content": "The \"gift of self\" from GS §24 was a phrase used often by Pope John Paul II and particularly in his Theology of the Body. This phrase has also been described as \"the Law of the Gift\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Promotion of Peace.", "content": "The final chapter of the document is \"The Fostering of Peace and the Promotion of a Community of Nations\". This chapter echoed themes declared near the start of Vatican II by Pope John XXIII in 1963 in his well-regarded encyclical, Pacem in Terris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecumenical impact.", "content": "The document contributed to the ecumenical movement of its time and has had a huge influence on the social teachings of the wider Christian churches and communities, especially the churches that belong to the World Council of Churches..", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gaudium et spes (, \"Joy and Hope\"), the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, was one of the four constitutions resulting from the Second Vatican Council. Together, the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen Gentium (LG), and the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World (GS) stand as the two pillars of the Second Vatican Council. The Dogmatic Constitution treats the nature of the church in itself; the Pastoral Constitution treats its mission in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975280}
{"src_title": "Marco Delvecchio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Delvecchio was born in Milan, Italy, where he started his professional career with Inter (1992 and 1994–95). He went on to represent Venezia (1992–93) and Udinese (1993–94) before joining Roma in 1995. His career reached a high when he transferred to Roma, becoming a key player at the club. He notably won the \"Scudetto\" with Roma in 2001, followed by the 2001 Supercoppa Italiana, under manager Fabio Capello, alongside forwards Francesco Totti, Gabriel Batistuta, and Vincenzo Montella. He also reached the Coppa Italia Final with Roma during the 2002–03 season. He subsequently played one season for Brescia in 2004–05, and was then bought by Parma in 2005. In 2006, Parma released him and he went on to join Ascoli on a free transfer.  On 10 May 2007, Delvecchio and Ascoli mutually agreed to terminate his contract following a combination of a knee injury and Ascoli's relegation to Serie B, the latter following a 1–0 loss to Torino three days earlier. He scored twice in ten appearances for the club.  After one season of inactivity, Delvecchio decided to abandon professional football altogether and accept an offer from Eccellenza Lazio side Pescatori Ostia, where he scored 34 goals throughout the season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Delvecchio was a member of the Italy under-21 teams that won the UEFA European Under-21 Championship in 1994 and 1996; in total, he scored 6 goals for the under-21 side in 24 appearances between 1992 and 1996. He also represented Italy at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, making three appearances and scoring once.  He made his international for the Italy senior side debut under manager Dino Zoff on 16 December 1998, in a friendly match in Rome against the FIFA World-Stars, commemorating the first century since the founding of the Italian Football Federation. He was subsequently called up by Zoff for the 22-man Italian squad that took part at Euro 2000, making three appearances throughout the tournament. His first international goal came against France in the Euro 2000 final, although Italy later conceded an equaliser in the final minute of stoppage time, and were defeated in extra-time from a golden goal. Delvecchio travelled to Korea with the 23-man Italian 2002 World Cup squad, but did not play during the tournament under manager Giovanni Trapattoni. After the World Cup, he scored a goal in a 2–0 friendly win over Northern Ireland, and on 18 February 2004, he made his final appearance for Italy against the Czech Republic, missing out on Trapattoni's Euro 2004 squad. Delvecchio scored 3 goals in 14 starts for the Italy senior team, scoring 4 goals in 22 total appearances for Italy between 1998 and 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Delvecchio was a versatile, powerful, determined, and hard-working forward, who was capable of playing anywhere along the front line, as well as in midfield, as either a winger or as an attacking midfielder, although he was primarily utilised as a central striker or as a supporting forward. Due to his height and strength, his main attributes were his aerial ability, as well as his finishing, and his positioning skills. Despite his large, slender frame, he was also a good passer and dribbler, which enabled him to link-up with other players, create chances, and provide teammates with assists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and media.", "content": "Marco was a contestant on the Italian version of Dancing with the Stars, Ballando con le Stelle 2012, where he placed second alongside professional dancer Sara Di Vaira, with whom he later began a relationship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Player.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Roma", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Marco Delvecchio (; born 7 April 1973) is a retired Italian footballer, who played as a forward. Although he played for several Italian clubs throughout his career, he spent most of it at A.S. Roma, where he is still remembered by the club's fans for his ease in scoring against rivals S.S. Lazio in the Derby della Capitale, and for the contributions he made to the club's league title victory in 2001. At international level, he represented Italy on 22 occasions between 1998 and 2004, scoring 4 goals, taking part at UEFA Euro 2000, reaching the final of the tournament, in which he scored, and at the 2002 FIFA World Cup.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975281}
{"src_title": "Dagger (typography)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The dagger symbol originated from a variant of the obelus, originally depicted by a plain line or a line with one or two dots. It represented an iron roasting spit, a dart, or the sharp end of a javelin, symbolizing the skewering or cutting out of dubious matter. The obelus is believed to have been invented by the Homeric scholar Zenodotus as one of a system of editorial symbols. They marked questionable or corrupt words or passages in manuscripts of the Homeric epics. The system was further refined by his student Aristophanes of Byzantium, who first introduced the asterisk and used a symbol resembling a for an obelus; and finally by Aristophanes' student, in turn, Aristarchus, from whom they earned the name of \"Aristarchian symbols\".  While the asterisk (\"asteriscus\") was used for corrective additions, the obelus was used for corrective deletions of invalid reconstructions. It was used when non-attested words are reconstructed for the sake of argument only, implying that the author did not believe such a word or word form had ever existed. Some scholars used the obelus and various other critical symbols, in conjunction with a second symbol known as the \"metobelos\" (\"end of obelus\"), variously represented as two vertically arranged dots, a -like symbol, a mallet-like symbol, or a diagonal slash (with or without one or two dots). They indicated the end of a marked passage.  It was used much in the same way by later scholars to mark differences between various translations or versions of the Bible and other manuscripts. The early Christian Alexandrian scholar Origen (c. 184–253 AD) used it to indicate differences between different versions of the Old Testament in his \"Hexapla\". Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 310–320 – 403) used both a horizontal slash or hook (with or without dots) and an upright and slightly slanting dagger to represent an obelus. St. Jerome (c. 347–420) used a simple horizontal slash for an obelus, but only for passages in the Old Testament. He describes the use of the asterisk and the dagger as: \"an asterisk makes a light shine, the obelisk cuts and pierces\".  Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) described the use of the symbol as follows: \"The obelus is appended to words or phrases uselessly repeated, or else where the passage involves a false reading, so that, like the arrow, it lays low the superfluous and makes the errors disappear... The obelus accompanied by points is used when we do not know whether a passage should be suppressed or not.\"  Medieval scribes used the symbols extensively for critical markings of manuscripts. In addition to this, the dagger was also used in notations in early Christianity, to indicate a minor intermediate pause in the chanting of Psalms, equivalent to the quaver rest notation or the trope symbol in Hebrew cantillation. It also indicates a breath mark when reciting, along with the asterisk, and is thus frequently seen beside a comma.  In the 16th century, the printer and scholar Robert Estienne (also known as Stephanus in Latin and Stephens in English) used it to mark differences in the words or passages between different printed versions of the Greek New Testament (\"Textus Receptus\").  Due to the variations as to the different uses of the different forms of the obelus, there is some controversy as to which symbols can actually be considered an obelus. The symbol and its variant, the, is sometimes considered to be different from other obeli. The term 'obelus' may have referred strictly only to the horizontal slash and the dagger symbols.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern usage.", "content": "The dagger usually indicates a footnote if an asterisk has already been used. A third footnote employs the double dagger. Additional footnotes are somewhat inconsistent and represented by a variety of symbols, e.g., parallels ( ), section sign, and the pilcrow some of which were nonexistent in early modern typography. Partly because of this, superscript numerals have increasingly been used in modern literature in the place of these symbols, especially when several footnotes are required. Some texts use asterisks and daggers alongside superscripts, using the former for per-page footnotes and the latter for endnotes.  The dagger is also used to indicate death, extinction, or obsolescence. The asterisk and the dagger, when placed beside years, indicate year of birth and year of death respectively. This usage is particularly common in German. When placed immediately before or after a person's name, the dagger indicates that the person is deceased. In this usage, it is referred to as the \"death dagger\". In the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", the dagger symbol indicates an obsolete word.  The dagger should not be confused with the Unicode characters \"Latin cross\" (✝, U+271D), \"box drawings light vertical and horizontal\" (, U+253C), and other cross symbols. The double dagger should not be confused with the palatal click (, U+01C2), Canadian Syllabics Woods-Cree Final Th (, U+167E), the Cross of Lorraine (, U+2628), or the patriarchal cross (, U+2626).  While daggers are freely used in English-language texts, they are often avoided in other languages because of their similarity to the Christian cross. In German, for example, daggers are commonly employed only to indicate a person's death or the extinction of a word, language, species or the like.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A dagger, obelisk, or obelus is a typographical symbol that usually indicates a footnote if an asterisk has already been used. It is one of the modern descendants of the obelus, a mark used historically by scholars as a critical or highlighting indicator in manuscripts. (The term obelisk derives from the ('), which means \"little obelus\"; from (') meaning 'roasting spit).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975282}
{"src_title": "RIA Novosti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "RIA Novosti's history dates back to 24 June 1941, when by a resolution of the USSR Council of People's Commissars and the Communist Party Central Committee, \"\"On the Establishment and Tasks of the Soviet Information Bureau\"\", the Soviet Information Bureau (Sovinformburo) was set up under the USSR Council of People's Commissars and the Central Committee. Its main task was to oversee work to cover international, military events and the events of the country's domestic life in periodicals and on the radio (from 14 October 1941, to 3 March 1942, was based in Kuibyshev – modern-day Samara).  The bureau's main task was to compile reports on the situation on the frontline of the war, work on the home front, and the partisan movement for the radio, newspapers and magazines. Sovinformburo directed the activity of the All-Slavonic Committee, Anti-Nazi Committee of Soviet Women, Anti-Nazi Committee of the Soviet Youth, Anti-Nazi Committee of Soviet Scientists, and the Jewish Anti-Nazi Committee. In 1944, a special bureau on propaganda for foreign countries was set up as part of Sovinformburo.  Through 1,171 newspapers, 523 magazines and 18 radio stations in 23 countries, Soviet embassies abroad, friendship societies, trade unions, women's, youth and scientific organizations, Sovinformburo informed readers and listeners about the struggle of the Soviet people against Nazism and in the post-war years about the main areas of Soviet domestic and foreign policies.  Sovinformburo heads included A.S. Shcherbakov (1941–45), S. A. Lozovsky (1945–48) and Y.S. Khavinson, D.A. Polikarpov. In 1961, the Novosti Press Agency (APN) succeeded Sovinformburo. It became the leading information and press body of Soviet public organizations. The constituent conference was held on 21 February 1961. The conference of representatives of Soviet public organizations adopted a decision to create a press agency of public organizations named Novosti. The agency's guiding body was the Council of the Agency's Founders.  The APN founders were the USSR Journalists Union, USSR Writers Union, Union of Soviet Societies of Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, and the Znaniye Society. On 3 April 1961, the Agency charter was adopted. Under its charter, APN's aim was \"to contribute to mutual understanding, trust and friendship among peoples in every possible way by broadly publishing accurate information about the USSR abroad and familiarizing the Soviet public with the life of the peoples of foreign countries.\" APN's motto was \"Information for Peace, for the Friendship of Nations\". APN had bureaus in over 120 countries. The Agency published 60 illustrated newspapers and magazines in 45 languages with a one-time circulation of 4.3 million copies. With the Union of Soviet Friendship Societies, APN published the newspaper, \"Moscow News\", which in September 1990 became an independent publication. APN Publishing House put out over 200 books and booklets with a total annual circulation of 20 million copies. In 1989, a TV center opened in APN. Later, it was transformed into the TV-Novosti TV company.  The APN heads included Boris Burkov (1961–70), Ivan Udaltsov (1970–75), Lev Tolkunov (1975–83), Pavel Naumov (1983–86), Valentin Falin (1986–88), Albert Vlasov (1988–90).  By a decree of USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev, \"On the Establishment of the Information Agency Novosti,\" the Information Agency Novosti (IAN) succeeded APN on 27 July 1990. \"To provide information support for the USSR's state domestic and foreign policies and proceeding from the interests of the democratization of the mass media,\" the Novosti Press Agency was renamed the Information Agency Novosti (IAN). IAN's tasks remained the same – preparing and publishing printed, TV and radio materials in the USSR and abroad; studying public opinion on Soviet foreign and domestic policies in the USSR and abroad.\" A computer databank was created in the Agency. Initially, it contained over 250,000 documents. In 1991, the Infonews hotline started operating in the Agency. IAN had bureaus in 120 countries. It published 13 illustrated magazines and newspapers. The chairman of the IAN Board was Albert Ivanovich Vlasov.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russian Federation.", "content": "The Russian Information Agency Novosti was created in September 1991 on the basis of IAN and the Russian Information Agency. By a Presidential decree of the Russian president dated 22 August 1991, RIA Novosti was placed within the competence of the Press and Information Ministry. RIA Novosti had about 80 bureaus and news offices abroad, over 1,500 subscribers in CIS countries and about a hundred in non-CIS countries. A Presidential decree of the Russian president of 15 September 1993 \"\"On the Russian Information Agency Novosti\"\", transformed RIA Novosti to a state news-analytical agency. RIA Novosti's radio channel – RIA-Radio worked in 1996. In August 1997, the TV channel Kultura was set up on the basis of the RIA TV channel under the sponsorship of the VGTRK TV and radio broadcasting company. By a decree of the Russian president, \"On Improving the Work of the State Electronic Media,\" the VGTRK information holding was created in May 1998, which RIA Novosti joined.  In May 1998, the agency was renamed the Russian Information Agency Vesti. As a mass media body, it retained the name of RIA Novosti. In 2005, RIA Novosti launched RT (originally Russia Today) a global multilingual television news network, which is a government-funded but autonomous, non-profit organization. RIA Novosti asserts that it \"merely participated in establishing the channel\" which retained \"complete legal, editorial and operational independence.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Closing.", "content": "On 9 December 2013 Russian President Vladimir Putin signed the liquidation of RIA Novosti and merging it with the international radio service Voice of Russia to create Rossiya Segodnya. Dmitry Kiselyov, a former anchorman of the Channel One Russia is appointed as the president of the new information agency. According to her interview, the editor-in-chief of the TV network RT, Margarita Simonyan was completely unaware about the reorganization of the information agency and got the information from listening to competitor radio station Kommersant-FM. However, Rossiya Segodnya will not in any way be related to the television channel RT, which was known as Russia Today before its rebranding in 2009.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "RIA Novosti (), sometimes RIA () for short, was a Russian state-controlled domestic news agency, which used to be one of Russia's international news agencies until 2013. Operating under the purview of the Russian Ministry of Communications and Mass Media, RIA Novosti is headquartered in Moscow and operated about 80 bureaus internationally. On 9 December 2013 President of Russia Vladimir Putin ordered RIA Novosti's liquidation and the creation of a Russian international news agency Rossiya Segodnya. Dmitry Kiselyov, an anchorman of the Russia-1 channel was appointed to be the first president of the new information agency. RIA Novosti was scheduled to be closed down in 2014; starting in March 2014, staff were informed that they had the option of transferring their contracts to Rossiya Segodnya or accepting voluntary redundancy. On 10 November 2014, Rossiya Segodnya launched the Sputnik multimedia platform as the international replacement of RIA Novosti and Voice of Russia. Within Russia itself, however, Rossiya Segodnya continues to operate its Russian language news service under the name RIA Novosti with its ria.ru website.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975283}
{"src_title": "Geography of Ukraine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geographic location.", "content": "Ukraine has a strategic position in Eastern Europe: lying on the northern shores of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, it borders a number of European countries - Poland, Slovakia and Hungary in the west, Belarus in the north, Moldova and Romania in the south-west and Russia in the east. The total geographic area of Ukraine is. Ukraine has an Exclusive Economic Zone of in the Black Sea.  The land border of Ukraine totals. The border lengths with each country are: Belarus, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania on the south and on the west, Russia, and Slovakia. Ukraine is also bordered by of coastline. The border with Russia is the country's longest border - it runs in part through the Sea of Azov.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relief.", "content": "Most of its territory lies within the Great European Plain, while parts of western regions and southern regions lay within the Alpine system. In general Ukraine comprises two different biomes: mixed forest towards the middle of continent and steppe towards the Black Sea littoral. Major provinces include, Polesian Lowland, Dnieper Lowland, Volhynia-Podolie Plateau, Black Sea-Azov Lowland, Donets-Azov Plateau, Central Russian Upland, Carpathians, and Pannonian Basin.  The western regions feature alpine-like section of Carpathian Mountains, the Eastern Carpathians that stretches across Poland, Ukraine and Romania. The highest peak is Hoverla, which is tall. Mountains are limited to the west, the southern tip of Ukraine on the Sea of Azov. The western region has the Carpathian Mountains, and some eroded mountains from the Donets Ridge are in the east near the Sea of Azov. The highest elevation in Ukraine is located at the peak of Mount Hoverla which is above sea level.  Most of Ukraine's area is taken up by the steppe-like region just north of the Black Sea. Most of Ukraine consists of fertile plains (or steppes) and plateaus. In terms of land use, 58% of Ukraine is considered arable land; 2% is used for permanent crops, 13% for permanent pastures, 18% is forests and woodland, and 9% is other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physiographic division of Ukraine.", "content": "Most of Ukraine consists of regular plains with the average height above sea level being. It is surrounded by mountains to its west and extreme south. Wide spaces of the country's plains are located in the south-western part of the East European Plain. The plains have numerous highlands and lowlands caused by the uneven crystallized base of the East European craton. The highlands are characterized by Precambrian basement rocks from the Ukrainian Shield.  Plains are considered elevations of no more than among which there are recognized lowlands (plains) and uplands (plateaus, ridges, hill ridges).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hydrography.", "content": "The territory of Ukraine is bordered by the waters of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. More than 95% of the rivers are part of those two seas' drainage basins. A few rivers are part of the Baltic Sea basin. There are seven major rivers in Ukraine: Desna, Dnipro, Dnister, Danube, Prypiat, Siverian Donets, and Southern Buh.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Ukraine has a mostly temperate climate, with the exception of the southern coast of Crimea which has a subtropical climate. The climate is influenced by moderately warm, humid air coming from the Atlantic Ocean. Average annual temperatures range from in the north, to in the south. Precipitation is disproportionately distributed; it is highest in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast. Western Ukraine, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains receive around of precipitation annually, while Crimea and the coastal areas of the Black Sea receive around.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natural resources.", "content": "Significant natural resources in Ukraine include: iron ore, coal, manganese, natural gas, oil, salt, sulfur, graphite, titanium, magnesium, kaolin, nickel, mercury, and arable land.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environmental issues.", "content": "Ukraine does have many environmental concerns. Some regions lack adequate supplies of potable water. Air and water pollution affects the country, as well as deforestation, and radiation contamination in the northeast stemming from the 1986 accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The geography of Ukraine varies greatly from one region of the country to another, with the majority of the country lying within the East European Plain. Ukraine is the second-largest country by area in Europe (after the Russian Federation). Its various regions have diverse geographic features ranging from highlands to lowlands, as well as climatic range and a wide variety in hydrography.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975284}
{"src_title": "Ponte Milvio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early history.", "content": "A bridge was built by consul Gaius Claudius Nero in 206 BC after he had defeated the Carthaginian army in the Battle of the Metaurus. In 109 BC, censor Marcus Aemilius Scaurus built a new bridge of stone in the same position, demolishing the old one. In 63 BC, letters from the conspirators of the Catiline conspiracy were intercepted here, allowing Cicero to read them to the Roman Senate the next day. In AD 312, Constantine I defeated his stronger rival Maxentius between this bridge and Saxa Rubra, in the famous Battle of the Milvian Bridge.  During the Middle Ages, the bridge was renovated by a monk named Acuzio, and in 1429 Pope Martin V asked a famous architect, Francesco da Genazzano, to repair it because it was collapsing. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the bridge was modified by two architects, Giuseppe Valadier and Domenico Pigiani.  The bridge was badly damaged in 1849 by Garibaldi's troops, in an attempt to block a French invasion, and later repaired by Pope Pius IX in 1850.  In January 1873 the novelist Henry James, an unlikely yet adequate horseman, made the Ponte Milvio the first of many Roman destinations on horseback. He commented “I can stick on a horse better than I supposed.”", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Problems.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Love locks.", "content": "Following the release of the popular book and movie \"I Want You\" (\"Ho voglia di te\" 2006) by author Federico Moccia, couples started - as a token of love - to attach padlocks to a lamppost on the bridge. After attaching the lock, they throw the key behind them into the Tiber. However, after the lamppost partially collapsed in 2007 because of the weight of the padlocks, all parts of the bridge including its balustrades, railings and garbage bins were used. It has continued despite Rome's city council introducing a €50 fine for anyone found attaching locks to the bridge. In 2012 city authorities removed all locks from the bridge. The love lock tradition has since spread around Italy, the rest of Europe and across the globe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Football violence.", "content": "The bridge is known as a place where Italian football hooligans known as Ultras from A.S. Roma often attack fans from opposing teams on match days. The lightning attack or \"puncicata\", as it's known in Roman slang, is where a flash mob of Ultras quickly assault another group of fans stabbing them in the buttocks before running away. The bridge is used because its design and locations make it suitable for this type of ambush. In occasion of games played by the other local team S.S.Lazio, the A.S.Roma fans tend to avoid the area, as it is where Lazio Ultras usually gather.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Milvian (or Mulvian) Bridge ( or ; or ) is a bridge over the Tiber in northern Rome, Italy. It was an economically and strategically important bridge in the era of the Roman Empire and was the site of the famous Battle of the Milvian Bridge.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975285}
{"src_title": "Black September Organization", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The group's name is derived from the Black September conflict which began on 16 September 1970, when King Hussein of Jordan declared military rule in response to \"fedayeen\" attempting to seize his kingdom – resulting in the deaths and expulsion of thousands of Palestinians fighters from Jordan. The BSO began as a small cell of Fatah men determined to take revenge upon King Hussein and the Jordanian Armed Forces. Recruits from the PFLP, as-Sa'iqa, and other groups also joined.  Initially, most of its members were dissidents within Fatah who had been close to Abu Ali Iyad, the commander of Fatah forces in northern Jordan who continued to fight the Jordanian Army after the PLO leadership withdrew. He was killed, allegedly through execution, by Jordanian forces on 23 July 1971. It was alleged by them that the Jordanian Prime Minister at the time, Wasfi Tal, was personally responsible for his torture and death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure of the group.", "content": "There is disagreement among historians, journalists, and primary sources about the nature of the BSO and the extent to which it was controlled by Fatah, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) faction controlled at the time by Yasser Arafat.  In his book \"Stateless\", Salah Khalaf (Abu Iyad), Arafat's chief of security and a founding member of Fatah, wrote that: \"Black September was not a terrorist organization, but was rather an auxiliary unit of the resistance movement, at a time when the latter was unable to fully realize its military and political potential. The members of the organization always denied any ties between their organization and Fatah or the PLO.\"  The denial described in Abu Iyad's claim was mutual: according to a 1972 article in the Jordanian newspaper \"Al-Dustur\", Mohammed Daoud Oudeh, also known as Abu Daoud, a BSO operative and former senior PLO member, told Jordanian police: \"There is no such organization as Black September. Fatah announces its own operations under this name so that Fatah will not appear as the direct executor of the operation.\" A March 1973 document released in 1981 by the U.S. State Department seemed to confirm that Fatah was Black September's parent organization.  According to American journalist John K. Cooley, the BSO represented a \"total break with the old operational and organizational methods of the \"fedayeen\". Its members operated in air-tight cells of four or more men and women. Each cell's members were kept purposely ignorant of other cells. Leadership was exercised from outside by intermediaries and 'cut-offs' \", though there was no centralized leadership.  Cooley writes that many of the cells in Europe and around the world were made up of Palestinians and other Arabs who had lived in their countries of residence as students, teachers, businessmen, and diplomats for many years. Operating without a central leadership (see Leaderless resistance), it was a \"true collegial direction\". The cell structure and the need-to-know operational philosophy protected the operatives by ensuring that the apprehension or surveillance of one cell would not affect the others. The structure offered plausible deniability to the Fatah leadership, which was careful to distance itself from Black September operations.  Fatah needed Black September, according to historian Benny Morris. He writes that there was a \"problem of internal PLO or Fatah cohesion, with extremists constantly demanding greater militancy. The moderates apparently acquiesced in the creation of Black September in order to survive\". As a result of pressure from militants, writes Morris, a Fatah congress in Damascus in August–September 1971 agreed to establish Black September. The new organization was based on Fatah's existing special intelligence and security apparatus, and on the PLO offices and representatives in various European capitals, and from very early on, there was cooperation between Black September and the PFLP.  The PLO closed Black September down in September 1973, on the anniversary it was created by the \"political calculation that no more good would come of terrorism abroad\" according to Morris. In 1974 Arafat ordered the PLO to withdraw from acts of violence outside the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and Israel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Munich massacre.", "content": "The group was responsible for the 1972 Munich massacre in which 11 Israeli Olympic athletes were murdered, nine of whom were first taken hostage, and the killing of a German police officer, during the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany.  Following the attack, the Israeli government, headed by Prime Minister Golda Meir, launched Operation Wrath of God and ordered Mossad to assassinate those known to have been involved in the Munich massacre. By 1979, at least one Mossad unit had assassinated eight Black September and PLO members, including Ali Hassan Salameh, nicknamed the \"Red Prince\", the wealthy, flamboyant son of an upper-class family, and commander of Force 17, Yasser Arafat's personal security squad. Salameh was also behind the 1972 hijacking of Sabena Flight 572 from Vienna to Lod. He was killed by a car bomb in Beirut on 22 January 1979. In Operation Spring of Youth, in April 1973, Israeli commandos killed three senior members of Black September in Beirut, Lebanon. In July 1973, in what became known as the Lillehammer affair, Ahmed Bouchiki, an innocent Moroccan waiter who was mistaken for Ali Hassan Salameh was killed in Norway. Six Israeli operatives were arrested for the murder.  Recent remarks by Abu Daoud, the alleged mastermind of the Munich kidnappings, deny that any of the Palestinians assassinated by Mossad had any relation to the Munich operation, despite the fact that the list includes two of the three surviving members of the kidnap squad arrested at the airport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other attacks.", "content": "Other actions attributed to Black September include:  According to the University of Maryland, College Park's Global Terrorism Database, the group was last known to be active in 1988, when it was responsible for a bombing in Amman, Jordan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Letter bomb attacks and the assassination of Ami Shachori.", "content": "Ami Shachori was the agricultural counsellor in the Israeli Embassy to the United Kingdom in Kensington, London. Shachori was assassinated in a letter bomb attack on 19 September 1972, perpetrated by Black September.  Eight bombs were addressed to embassy staffers. Four were intercepted at a post office sorting room in Earls Court, but the other four letters made it to the embassy. Three of the letters were detected in the consulate post room but Shachori opened his, believing it contained Dutch flower seeds he had ordered. The resulting blast tore a hole in the desk and fatally wounded Shachori in the stomach and chest.  In Shachori's memory an annual memorial lecture on agriculture in London was established.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Black September Organization (BSO) (, \"Munaẓẓamat Aylūl al-aswad\") was a Palestinian militant organization founded in 1970. Besides other actions, the group was responsible for the assassination of the Jordanian Prime Minister Wasfi Tal, and the Munich massacre, in which eleven Israeli athletes and officials were kidnapped and killed, as well as a West German policeman losing his life, during the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, their most publicized event. These attacks led to the creation or specialization of permanent counter-terrorism forces in many European countries. The group was last known to be active around 1988.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975286}
{"src_title": "Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia was formed in 1989 by the Congress of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, which decided to create a party for the territories of Bohemia and Moravia (including Czech Silesia), the areas that were to become the Czech Republic. The new party's organization was significantly more democratic and decentralized than the previous party and gave local district branches of the party significant autonomy.  In 1990, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was reorganized as a federation of the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia and the Communist Party of Slovakia. Later, the Communist Party of Slovakia changed its name to the Party of the Democratic Left, and the federation dissolved in 1992.  During the party's first congress, held in Olomouc in October 1990, party leader Jiří Svoboda attempted to reform the party into a democratic socialist one, proposing a democratic socialist program and changing the name to the transitional \"Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia: Party of Democratic Socialism.\" Svoboda had to balance the criticisms of older conservative communists, who made up a majority of the party's members, with the demands of an increasingly large and moderate bloc of members, led primarily by a group of young KSČM parliamentarians called the Democratic Left, who demanded the immediate social democratization of the party. Delegates approved the new program but rejected the name change.  During 1991 and 1992 factional tensions increased, with the party's conservative anti-revisionist wing increasingly vocal in criticizing Svoboda. There was an increase in popularity of the anti-revisionist Marxist–Leninist Clubs amongst rank and file party members. On the party's other wing, the Democratic Left became increasingly critical of the slow pace of the reforms and began demanding a referendum of members to change the name. In December 1991 the Democratic Left split off and formed the short-lived Party of Democratic Labour. The referendum on changing the name was held in 1992, with 75.94% voting not to change the name.  The party's second congress, held in Kladno in December 1992, showed the increasing popularity of the party's anti-revisionist wing. It passed resolutions reinterpreting the 1990 program as a \"starting point\" for the KSČM, rather than a definitive statement of a post-communist program. Svoboda, who was hospitalized due to an attack by an anti-communist, could not attend the congress but was nevertheless overwhelmingly re-elected. After the party's second congress in 1992, several groups split away. A group of post-communist delegates split off and merged with the Party of Democratic Labour to form the Party of the Democratic Left (SDL). Several independent left-wing members who had participated with the KSČM in the 1992 electoral pact called the Left Bloc left the party to form the Left Bloc Party (SLB). Both groups eventually merged into the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), which does some joint work, and co-operates with the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia.  In 1993, Svoboda attempted to expel the members of the 'For Socialism' platform, a group in the party that wanted a restoration of the pre-1989 communist regime. However, with only the lukewarm support of the KSČM's Central Committee, he briefly resigned. He withdrew his resignation after the Central Committee agreed to move the party's next congress forward to June 1993 to resolve the issues of its name and ideology.  At the 1993 congress, held in Prostějov, Svoboda's proposals were overwhelmingly rejected by two-thirds majorities. Svoboda did not seek re-election as chairman, and neocommunist Miroslav Grebeníček was elected chairman. Grebeníček and his supporters were critical of what they termed the \"inadequacies\" of the pre-1989 regime but supported the retention of the party's communist character and program. The members of the 'For Socialism' platform were expelled at the congress, with the existence of \"platforms\" in the party being banned altogether, on the grounds that they gave too much influence to minority groups. Svoboda left the party and eventually joined the ČSSD in 1997.  The expelled members of 'For Socialism' formed the 'Party of Czechoslovak Communists' (later renamed the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia), led by Miroslav Štěpán. The Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia refuses to work with this group.  The party was left on the sidelines for most of the first decade of the Czech Republic's existence. Václav Havel suspected the KSČM was still an unreconstructed Stalinist party and prevented it from having any influence during his presidency. However, the party provided the one-vote margin that elected Havel's successor Václav Klaus as president.  After a long-running battle with the Ministry of the Interior, the Communist Youth Union (KSM), the KSCM youth section led by Milan Krajča, was dissolved in 2006, allegedly for endorsing in its program the replacement of private with collective ownership of the means of production. The decision met with international protests.  In November 2008, the Senate of the Czech Republic asked the Supreme Administrative Court to dissolve the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia because of its political program, which the Senate claimed contradicted the Constitution of the Czech Republic. 30 out of the 38 senators who were present agreed to this request and expressed the view that the program of KSČM did not reject violence as a means of attaining power and adopted \"The Communist Manifesto\" of Karl Marx. However, this was only a symbolic gesture, as according to the Constitution only the Cabinet may file a petition with the Supreme Administrative Court to dissolve a political party.  For the first two decades after the end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia, the Communist Party was politically isolated. However, after the 2012 regional elections, the party started to participate in coalitions with the Social Democrats, forming part of the ruling coalition in 10 out of 13 regions. Since 2018, the Communists have been providing parliamentary support to Andrej Babiš' Second Cabinet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular support and electoral results.", "content": "The KSČM's strongest bases of support are in the regions hit by deindustrialization, particularly in the Karlovy Vary and Ústí nad Labem Regions. In 2012 the party won a regional election for the first time, in Ústí nad Labem. Its regional leader Oldřich Bubeníček subsequently became the first communist regional governor in the history of Czech Republic. The party is stronger among older voters than younger voters, with the majority of the membership being over 60. The party is also stronger in small and medium-sized towns than in big cities, with Prague consistently being the party's weakest region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parliament of the Czech Republic.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chamber of Deputies (Lower House).", "content": "Notes:", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "The Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (, KSČM) is a communist party in the Czech Republic. It has a membership of 42,994 (2016) and is a member party of the European United Left–Nordic Green Left bloc in the European Parliament.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975287}
{"src_title": "Clas Thunberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Short biography.", "content": "Thunberg began with speed skating rather late, at the age of 18, having led a somewhat rowdy life as a compulsive smoker and drinker before he concentrated fully on his sport. However, from the age of 28 – when he turned up at his first European Allround Championships – and for the following ten years, he was by far the most-winning skater.  Thunberg's greatest strengths were the shortest distances, the 500 through 5000 metres. He never won an international 10000 metre event, although he did win a silver medal on the 10000 metres at the 1924 Winter Olympics – beaten by three seconds by compatriot Julius Skutnabb. Thunberg won three gold medals at the 1924 Olympics – the allround event, the 1500 metres and the 5000 metres. He remains the only person to have won an Olympic gold medal in allround speed skating, as despite the status of allround as the premier skating event, at least up until the 1990s, the event was abolished in the Olympics from 1928 onwards.  Thunberg won five World Allround Championships titles from 1923 to 1931, and also four European Allround Championships titles. He also took two more gold medals at the 1928 Winter Olympics, to end with five, and these two medals made him the oldest Olympic Speed Skating Champion, at the age of 34. However, despite his amazing run, he was occasionally vulnerable on the long distances. If his 500 and 1,500 metre events did not go exactly according to plan, then he could be beaten – as shown in the 1927 season when the 22-year-old Bernt Evensen pipped him to both the World and European title. Evensen, however, could never string together the long run of victories that Thunberg ended up with.  Despite his amazing career record, Thunberg never reached the top of Adelskalender – a statistical invention which ranks skaters according to their personal bests and then converts them into allround performances, using a table. Oscar Mathisen's personal bests on the three longest distances were simply too good for Thunberg to match. However, Mathisen – who was born five years before Thunberg – turned professional during World War I, meaning that the two never met in an ISU-sanctioned event.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Record.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World records.", "content": "Over the course of his career, Thunberg skated four world records:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal records.", "content": "Note that Thunberg's personal record on the 3000 m was not recognised as an official world record.  Thunberg has an Adelskalender score of 192.633 points. His highest ranking on the Adelskalender was a second place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medals.", "content": "An overview of medals won by Thunberg at important championships he participated in, listing the years in which he won each:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arnold Clas (\"Classe\") Robert Thunberg (5 April 1893 – 28 April 1973) was a Finnish speed skater who won five Olympic gold medals – three at the inaugural Winter Olympics held in Chamonix in 1924 (along with a silver and a bronze medal) and two at the 1928 Winter Olympics held in St. Moritz. He was the most successful athlete at both of these Winter Olympics, sharing the honour for 1928 Winter Olympics with Johan Grøttumsbraaten of Norway. No other athlete ever won such a high fraction of all Olympic events at a single Games. He was born and died in Helsinki.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975288}
{"src_title": "Eastern newt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sub-species.", "content": "The eastern newt includes these four subspecies:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life stages.", "content": "Eastern newts have three stages of life: (1) the aquatic larva or tadpole, (2) the red eft or terrestrial juvenile stage, and (3) the aquatic adult.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Larva.", "content": "The larva possesses gills and does not leave the pond environment where it was hatched. Larvae are brown-green, and shed their gills when they transform into the red eft.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Red eft.", "content": "The red eft (juvenile) stage is a bright orangish-red, with darker red spots outlined in black. An eastern newt can have as many as 21 of these spots. The pattern of these spots differs among the subspecies. An eastern newt's time to get from larva to eft is about three months. During this stage, the eft may travel far, acting as a dispersal stage from one pond to another, ensuring outcrossing in the population. The striking coloration of this stage is an example of aposematism — or \"warning coloration\" — which is a type of antipredator adaptation in which a \"warning signal\" is associated with the unprofitability of a prey item (i.e., its toxicity) to potential predators.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adult.", "content": "After two or three years, the eft finds a pond and transforms into the aquatic adult. The adult's skin is a dull olive green dorsally, with a dull yellow belly, but retains the eft's characteristic black-rimmed red spots. It develops a larger, blade-like tail and characteristically slimy skin.  It is common for the peninsula newt (\"N. v. piaropicola\") to be neotenic, with a larva transforming directly into a sexually mature aquatic adult, never losing its external gills. The red eft stage is in these cases skipped.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Homing.", "content": "Eastern newts home using magnetic orientation. Their magnetoreception system seems to be a hybrid of polarity-based inclination and a sun-dependent compass. Shoreward-bound eastern newts will orient themselves quite differently under light with wavelengths around 400 nm than light with wavelengths around 600 nm, while homing newts will orient themselves the same way under both short and long wavelengths. Ferromagnetic material, probably biogenic magnetite, is likely present in the eastern newt's body.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and diet.", "content": "Eastern newts are at home in both coniferous and deciduous forests. They need a moist environment with either a temporary or permanent body of water, and thrive best in a muddy environment. During the eft stage, they may travel far from their original location. Red efts may often be seen in a forest after a rainstorm. Adults prefer a muddy aquatic habitat, but will move to land during a dry spell. Eastern newts have some amount of toxins in their skin, which is brightly colored to act as a warning. Even then, only 2% of larvae make it to the eft stage. Some larvae have been found in the pitchers of the carnivorous plant \"Sarracenia purpurea\".  Eastern newts eat a variety of prey, such as insects, small mollusks and crustaceans, young amphibians, worms, and frog eggs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation concerns.", "content": "Although eastern newts are widespread throughout North America, they, like many other species of amphibians, are increasingly threatened by several factors including habitat fragmentation, climate change, invasive species, over-exploitation, and emergent infectious diseases. Wild eastern newts are known hosts of \"Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis\" and \"Ranavirus\". They are also highly susceptible to the newly emergent chytrid fungus \"Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The eastern newt (\"Notophthalmus viridescens\") is a common newt of eastern North America. It frequents small lakes, ponds, and streams or nearby wet forests. The eastern newt produces tetrodotoxin, which makes the species unpalatable to predatory fish and crayfish. It has a lifespan of 12 to 15 years in the wild, and it may grow to in length. These animals are common aquarium pets, being either collected from the wild or sold commercially. The striking bright orange juvenile stage, which is land-dwelling, is known as a red eft. Some sources blend the general name of the species and that of the red-spotted newt subspecies into the eastern red-spotted newt (although there is no \"western\" one).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975289}
{"src_title": "Červený Kláštor (monastery)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Carthusian Period.", "content": "The monastery was founded in the early 14th century, during the Hungarian Kingdom. Court documents from 1307 state that a man by the name of master Kokos from Brezovica (Berzevice), founded six monasteries as a punishment for murder. In 1319 he donated 62 sectors of his village, Lechnice to the Carthusian order. A wooden structure was built in 1330, which was later replaced by bricks and stones. The monastery gets the name \"Red\" from some brick, such as the cornices below the roofs and ribs of the vaults (unpaved in the chapter hall), and the red tiles that were used on the roofs.  The monastery suffered several quarrels with Czorsztyn lords, and was occupied by Hussites in 1431 and in 1433. It was adversely hit by the Battle of Mohács in 1515, and in 1545 Czorsztyn Knights from Niedzica Castle attacked the monastery, and the monks fled across the Dunajec River into Poland. The monastery was abolished during the Reformation in 1563, becoming a private residence for wealthy noblemen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post Carthusian period.", "content": "In 1699, Ladislav Maťašovský, a bishop in Nitra (Nyitra), purchased the monastery, and donated to the Camaldolese order, who settled down it this area in 1711. In 1782 it was secularized as part of Emperor Joseph II's campaign against monastic orders that in his view didn't pursue useful activities. The monastery’s library was sold to Budapest, and the church equipment to Muszyna, Poland.  In 1820 the Emperor Franz Joseph I donated the monastery to the newly founded Greek-Catholic diocese of Prešov.  The monastery suffered a fire in 1907 and was heavily damaged during the Second World War, but after being rebuilt in 1956–66 it was opened again and serves as a museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museum.", "content": "Today, the monastery remains in the ownership of the state and is open to visitors as a history a museum.  The first museum exhibit covering topics such as the monastery's history, period monastic life and period monastic botany and pharmacy, was established in 1966 by the East Slovak Museum in Košice, as a regional exhibit. This served as the culmination of early conservation and restoration efforts at the monastery that took place during the late 1950s and early 1960s.  Following a further phase of conservation and restoration works on the monastery in the 1980s and early 1990s, an enlarged monastery museum was reopened in 1993. Between 1999 and 2007, the monastery was administered by the Ľubovňa Museum in Stará Ľubovňa. Since 2008, the monastery has been administered by the Monuments Board of the Slovak Republic, which refurbished and expanded the existing exhibits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Červený Kláštor (; meaning \"Red Monastery\") is a medieval monastery located in Slovakia. It is located near the village of Červený Kláštor within the Pieniny Mountains, next to the Dunajec River.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975290}
{"src_title": "Edmílson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "São Paulo, Lyon.", "content": "Born in Taquaritinga, São Paulo, Edmílson signed for São Paulo FC in 1995, winning two Campeonato Paulista titles during his spell. In 2000 he joined Olympique Lyonnais in France at the same time as compatriot Caçapa, also a stopper, both being important as the club won the League Cup in his first season.  In the ensuing off-season, Juninho Pernambucano also made the move to the Rhône-Alpes, and often partnered Edmílson in central midfield as they went on to win three consecutive Ligue 1 titles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Barcelona.", "content": "In July 2004, Edmílson signed with FC Barcelona for a reported €10 million. He made his La Liga debut on 19 September in a 1–1 away draw against Atlético Madrid, and finished his debut campaign with only six matches as the Catalans won the national championship; on 3 October, after having come on as a substitute for Samuel Eto'o during a home fixture against CD Numancia, he himself had to be substituted after only five minutes on the pitch, going on to be sidelined for several months.  Edmílson recovered fully for 2005–06, playing an important part in Frank Rijkaard's team as they won the league and the season's UEFA Champions League. In the latter competition, he appeared in nine matches – six complete – including the first half of the final against Arsenal.  After a poor 2007–08 campaign, both individually and collectively, 32-year-old Edmílson left Barcelona as his contract was not renewed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "On 23 May 2008, Edmílson signed for one year with Villarreal CF. After only a couple of months, however, he returned to his country, joining Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras on a two-year deal and scoring his first goal in the first stage of the Copa Libertadores against Club Real Potosí, on 29 January 2009, just eight days after his arrival.  After not having appeared in the São Paulo championship in 2010, Edmílson cut ties with Palmeiras and, on 31 January, returned to Spain, agreeing to a five-month contract with struggling Real Zaragoza – at that time, he was already the bearer of an Italian passport, thus not counting as a foreign player. He appeared regularly during the remainder of the campaign, as the Aragonese managed to finish out of the relegation zone, and saw his link being extended for another year.  On 12 September 2010, Edmílson scored his first goal for Zaragoza, who lost 3–5 at home against Málaga CF. In June 2011, after having contributed with only 12 games to the club's final escape from relegation, he returned to his country and joined Ceará Sporting Club.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Edmílson made his debut for the Brazil national team on 18 July 2000, against Paraguay. Selected to the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Japan and South Korea, he helped the \"Seleção\" win their fifth tournament, appearing in six out of seven games and scoring his first (and only) international goal in the 5–2 group stage win over Costa Rica.  Originally selected to the 2006 World Cup in Germany, Edmílson was forced to withdraw from the squad after sustaining a knee injury in training before the tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Edmílson is a devout evangelical Christian, having converted when he was 16 years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "São Paulo  Lyon  Barcelona", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Brazil", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "José Edmílson Gomes de Moraes (born 10 July 1976), known simply as Edmílson, is a Brazilian former professional footballer. Either a defensive midfielder or a central defender, he played in three countries in his professional career, representing with team and individual success São Paulo, Lyon and Barcelona (four seasons each in the last two clubs).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975291}
{"src_title": "Sergio Ramos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Blue initially worked as a nude dancer and studied to be an emergency medical technician. During her dancing career, she met a fellow dancer who introduced her to fetish modeling. After that, at the suggestion of a different model, she started performing in porn movies. Her first appearance was in a film with Ed Powers. After a year, she took a three-year break, moving to Nebraska to be with her family, but came back to the industry in 2000.  She worked for Mercenary Pictures for several years and directed several of their series, one of which, \"Black Reign\", won the 2005 AVN Award for Best Ethnic-Themed Series. She was engaged to Mercenary's owner, Lexington Steele. In 2008, Steele and Blue filed federal lawsuits against each other over the ownership of numerous videos that first appeared under the Mercenary Pictures label. The suits were settled in March 2009 after meeting with an alternative dispute resolution jurist. She now distributes her movies through Justin Slayer International signing with them in April 2010.  Blue starred on Playboy TV and hosted \"Private Calls\" and \"Night Calls\" on Playboy Radio until 2008.  Vanessa briefly returned to doing scenes in 2011, and did a series of hardcore scenes for Brazzers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Director.", "content": "Blue has also directed femdom genre of movies under the pseudonym Domina X, and has also been a contract director for DVSX and Adam & Eve.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "In 2008 Blue won an Urban X Award for Videography and was admitted to the Urban X Hall of Fame in 2009.  In 2013 she was inducted into the AVN Hall of Fame.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vanessa Blue (born May 27, 1974) is an American pornographic actress and director. She was inducted into the AVN Hall of Fame in 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975292}
{"src_title": "Erich Loewenhardt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and service.", "content": "Loewenhardt was born in Breslau, Silesia, German Empire on 7 April 1897, the son of a doctor. He received his education at a military school in Lichterfelde. He was 17 when hostilities erupted in August 1914 and was assigned to the German Army's Infantry Regiment Nr. 141; he saw infantry action on the Eastern Front with them. Young Loewenhardt was wounded near Łódź but remained on duty as standard bearer for his regiment as it fought in the Battle of Tannenberg. As reward for his courage, on 2 October 1914 he was commissioned. On 30 October he was both wounded and decorated with the Iron Cross Second Class. After convalescing, he returned to his unit in the Carpathians. In early 1915 he received the Iron Cross 1st Class for saving the lives of five wounded men. Loewenhardt then transferred to the Alpine Corps on the Italian Front. However, he fell ill and was invalided from service as unfit for duty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aerial service.", "content": "After five months' recuperation, Loewenhardt volunteered for the Imperial German Army Air Service and qualified as an aerial observer. He then completed pilot training in 1916. Service in two-seaters with \"Flieger-Abteilung (Artillerie)\" (Flier Detachment (Artillery)) 265 followed. In January 1917, he underwent conversion training for fighters. He joined a fighter squadron, \"Jagdstaffel 10\" in March 1917. On 24 March 1917, Loewenhardt scored his first confirmed aerial victory, destroying an enemy observation balloon over Recicourt.  Loewenhardt was an aggressive, skilled fighter whose score grew steadily. During this period, he flew Albatros and Pfalz planes. By the end of September he was an ace. He survived a forced landing on 20 September with a minor wound; the next day, he shot down his fifth victim. He posted two more claims in October, one of which was confirmed. On 6 November, his aircraft's lower wing was damaged during combat over Winkel Saint Eloi at 0830 hours, a dud antiaircraft shell smashing his left wingtip without exploding. Loewenhardt pulled his craft out of the resulting spin at 15 meters altitude, wheels down, and bounced into a tumbling wreck. He exited the wreckage shaken but otherwise unharmed. On 30 November 1917, he closed out his year with his eighth confirmed victory; he was credited with four balloons and four airplanes.  Loewenhardt scored two more victims in January 1918: a balloon and a Bristol F.2 Fighter. In March, he added five more. On 1 April, just before his 21st birthday, he was appointed to command \"Jasta 10\". The next month, \"Jasta 10\" re-equipped with new Fokker D.VIIs. Loewenhardt continued to score; on 10 May, he destroyed an observation balloon for his 20th victory and became eligible for the \"Pour le Merite\". The next day, he was awarded the Knight's Cross with Swords of the House Order of Hohenzollern; he also received the Austro-Hungarian Empire's Military Merit Cross. The \"Pour le Merite\" (commonly called the Blue Max) came on 31 May 1918, when Loewenhardt's tally had reached 24.  By now, Loewenhardt was locked into an \"ace race\" with Ernst Udet and Lothar von Richthofen for the honor of being the top scoring ace in their fighter wing. The rivalry between Loewenhardt and the younger Richthofen was a friendly one, as they often flew as wingmen. \"Jasta 10\" belonged to \"The Flying Circus\", and when the wing commander's spot came open on 29 June 1918, \"Oberleutnant\" Loewenhardt was tapped for temporary command of it. By then, his tally stood at 27. When he surrendered the JG I command on 6 July, it had risen to 34. By the end of July 1918, Loewenhardt's total was 48: 9 balloons and 39 airplanes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death in action.", "content": "On 8 August, the Allied Forces launched the war's final offensive against the Germans. The British Royal Air Force led the assault, and Loewenhardt downed three of their airplanes. On the 9th, he shot down two more. On the 10th, flying despite a badly sprained ankle, Loewenhardt launched his yellow Fokker D.VII on a mid-day sortie leading a patrol heavily weighted with rookie pilots. He encountered No. 56 Squadron RAF and shot down a Royal Aircraft Factory SE.5a over Chaulnes, France at 1215 hours for his 54th victory. In the aftermath of the combat, he collided with another German pilot, \"Leutnant\" Alfred Wenz from \"Jasta 11\". Loewenhardt's Fokker's landing gear slammed the upper right wing on Wenz's D.VII. Both pilots' planes were equipped with parachutes and both pilots bailed out. Erich Loewenhardt's chute failed to open and he fell to his death.  Having scored 14 of his victories in the Pfalz D.III, he was the most successful pilot in the type.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Correct name spelling.", "content": "The correct spelling of Erich's last name is Loewenhardt. Lowenhardt and Löwenhardt have been used but are both incorrect. This is a common mistake as \"ö\" is regularly translated to \"oe\" or \"o\" in English. Many make the assumption that a change in spelling during translation has occurred and inadvertently misspell the name while trying to undo the translation. It is of Dutch-German heritage. The general public during his life up to the current day are highly liable to make this mistake in written media due to these incorrect assumptions. Both his grave stone and the street in Berlin named after him (loewenhardtdamm) are spelt in this way.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erich Loewenhardt (7 April 189710 August 1918) was the 3rd highest German flying ace with 54 victories during the First World War, behind only Manfred von Richthofen and Ernst Udet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975293}
{"src_title": "Propylene oxide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production.", "content": "Industrial production of propylene oxide starts from propylene.Two general approaches are employed, one involving hydrochlorination and the other involving oxidation. In 2005, about half of the world production was through chlorohydrin technology and one half via oxidation routes. The latter approach is growing in importance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hydrochlorination route.", "content": "The traditional route proceeds via the conversion of propene to propylene chlorohydrin according to the following simplified scheme:  The mixture of 1-chloro-2-propanol and 2-chloro-1-propanol is then dehydrochlorinated. For example:  Lime (calcium hydroxide) is often used to absorb the HCl.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Oxidation of propylene.", "content": "The other general route to propylene oxide involves oxidation of propylene with an organic peroxide. The reaction follows this stoichiometry:  The process is practiced with four hydroperoxides:  In principle, this process produces only water was a side product. In practice, some ring-opened derivatives of PO are generated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Like other epoxides, PO undergoes ring-opening reactions. With water, propylene glycol is produced. With alcohols, reactions, called hydroxylpropylation, analogous to ethoxylation occur. Grignard reagents add to propylene oxide to give secondary alcohols.  Some other reactions of propylene oxide include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Between 60 and 70% of all propylene oxide is converted to polyether polyols by the process called alkoxylation. These polyols are building blocks in the production of polyurethane plastics. About 20% of propylene oxide is hydrolyzed into propylene glycol, via a process which is accelerated by acid or base catalysis. Other major products are polypropylene glycol, propylene glycol ethers, and propylene carbonate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Niche uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fumigant.", "content": "The United States Food and Drug Administration has approved the use of propylene oxide to pasteurize raw almonds beginning on September 1, 2007, in response to two incidents of contamination by \"Salmonella\" in commercial orchards, one incident occurring in Canada and one in the United States. Pistachio nuts can also be subjected to propylene oxide to control \"Salmonella\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Microscopy.", "content": "Propylene oxide is commonly used in the preparation of biological samples for electron microscopy, to remove residual ethanol previously used for dehydration. In a typical procedure, the sample is first immersed in a mixture of equal volumes of ethanol and propylene oxide for 5 minutes, and then four times in pure oxide, 10 minutes each.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "It is a probable human carcinogen, and is included into the List of IARC Group 2B carcinogens.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Natural occurrence.", "content": "In 2016 it was reported that propylene oxide was detected in Sagittarius B2, a cloud of gas in the Milky Way weighing three million solar masses. It is the first chiral molecule to be detected in space.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Propylene oxide is an organic compound with the molecular formula CHCHCHO. This colourless volatile liquid with an odour resembling ether, is produced on a large scale industrially. Its major application is its use for the production of polyether polyols for use in making polyurethane plastics. It is a chiral epoxide, although it is commonly used as a racemic mixture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975294}
{"src_title": "Timaeus of Locri", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historicity.", "content": "In Plato's works, Timaeus appears as a wealthy aristocrat from the Greek colony of Lokroi Epizephyrioi (present-day Locri in Calabria), who had served in high offices in his native town before coming to Athens, where the dialogue of \"Timaeus\" is set. Plato does not explicitly label Timaeus a Pythagorean, but leaves enough hints for the reader to infer this. He appears competent in all areas of ancient philosophy, especially natural philosophy and astronomy.  In antiquity, Timaeus's historical existence was beyond dispute. Cicero reports that Plato traveled to Italy to study with Timaeus and other Pythagoreans. The report of this meeting led Macrobius, a writer of late antiquity, to conclude that Timaeus could not have been in a face-to-face dialogue with Socrates, who, by Timaeus's time, was long dead. Iamblichus lists Timaeus among the notable members of the Pythagorean school. Diogenes Laërtius in his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, suggests that the character of Timaeus was based on the Pythagorean Philolaus. Further references to Timaeus are found in Proclus, \"Commentary on Plato's Timaeus\" (II, 38, I); in commentaries on Aristotle by Simplicius; and in Porphyry, where Timaeus mentions the house of Pythagoras in Croton.  Modern scholarship tends to dismiss Timaeus's historicity, treating him as a literary figure constructed by Plato from features of the Pythagoreans known to him, such as Archytas. The main reason for assigning the status of a literary fiction to Timaeus is the lack of any information that does not stem ultimately from Plato's dialogues. As a counterargument, it has been pointed out that most characters appearing in Plato's dialogues are in fact historical persons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"On the Nature of the World and the Soul\".", "content": "A work in Doric Greek entitled \"On the Nature of the World and the Soul\" (), also called the \"Timaeus Locrus\" after its purported author, starts out by declaring that \"Timaeus of Locri said the following\" and proceeds to summarize the theories that Timaeus defends in Plato's \"Timaeus\". The book has been preserved fully, in more than fifty manuscripts. It is mostly consistent with Plato; it notably omits the Theory of Forms.  \"On the World and the Soul\" was first mentioned in sources of the second century AD (Nicomachus and the commentary on \"Timaeus\" by Calvisius Taurus) and its authenticity was not doubted in antiquity. The work was even believed to have been a main source for Plato's dialogue; a rumor dating back to the third century BC held that Plato's \"Timaeus\" was plagiarized from a Pythagorean book, and this became connected to the \"Timaeus Locrus\".  Modern philology has shown that \"On the World and the Soul\" is a pseudepigraphon from somewhere between the early first century BC to the early first century AD, and is based on Plato's \"Timaeus\", rather than the other way around. The Pseudo-Timaeus employs a simplified mode of reasoning and presentation, presenting conclusions rather than arguments and omitting any dialogue, meaning that it was perhaps intended as a summary of the notoriously difficult original for use in a classroom setting. While it may have originated in part as a set of lecture notes to the Platonic original, it tends to omit difficult sections of the \"Timaeus\" rather than provide explanations. Some of Pseudo-Timaeus's theses are very hard to understand without knowledge of Plato's work.  \"On the World and the Soul\" shows traces of middle Platonist ideas and terminology; in particular, it resembles works by Eudorus of Alexandria and Philo, making it plausible that the author lived in Alexandria and was familiar with Eudorus's philosophy. He modernized the natural philosophy of Plato's \"Timaeus\" by incorporating insights from Hellenistic astronomy and medicine.  The book also appears to incorporate material from one or more now-lost commentaries on \"Timaeus\". R. Harder hypothesized that the composition of \"On the World and the Soul\" was a two-step process, whereby Pseudo-Timaeus, the author of the preserved version of the book, would have edited an earlier, Hellenistic variant of \"Timaeus\". Th. Tobin, by contrast, believes the work to have been composed at once, then translated into Doric.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"On the Nature of the World and the Soul\" was known to the Neoplatonists Iamblichus, Syrianus, Proclus, and Simplicius. The work of Pseudo-Timaeus supported the widely held Neoplatonist conviction that Pythagoreanism and Platonism constituted a singular theory, reflecting the pseudonymous author's intention of placing Plato in the Pythagorean tradition.  Giorgio Valla, in the fifteenth century, translated \"On the Nature of the World and the Soul\" into Latin. His translation was printed in Venice in 1498. The Greek text appeared as part of Aldo Manuzio's collected works of Plato, first published in 1513 and reprinted many times. In the sixteenth century, it was considered a \"Vorlage\" of the \"Timaeus\" (so in Henri Estienne's edition) and often printed along with the works of Plato.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Attributions of other works.", "content": "The \"Suda\" and various scholia on Plato's \"Timaeus\" ascribe to Timaeus of Locri a work entitled \"Mathēmatiká\", of which nothing else is known. This is possibly a false attribution, confusing Timaeus with an astronomer bearing the same name. He is also reported to have authored a biography of Pythagoras, but this may be a confusion with the historian Timaeus of Tauromenium, who devoted part of his history to Pythagoras's life and work.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Timaeus of Locri (; ; ) is a character in two of Plato's dialogues, \"Timaeus\" and \"Critias\". In both, he appears as a philosopher of the Pythagorean school. If there ever existed a historical Timaeus of Locri, he would have lived in the fifth century BC, but his historicity is dubious since he only appears as a literary figure in Plato; all other ancient sources are either based on Plato or are fictional accounts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975295}
{"src_title": "Edgar Morin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "At the beginning of the 20th century, Morin's family migrated from the Greek city of Salonica (Thessaloniki) to Marseille and later to Paris, where Edgar was born. He is of Judeo-Spanish (Sefardi) origin.  When the Germans invaded France in 1940, Morin assisted refugees and joined the French Resistance. As a member of the French Resistance he adopted the pseudonym \"Morin\", which he would use for the rest of his life. He joined the French Communist Party in 1941.  In 1945, Morin married Violette Chapellaubeau and they lived in Landau, where he served as a lieutenant in the French Occupation army in Germany.  In 1946, he returned to Paris and gave up his military career to pursue his activities with the Communist Party. Due to his critical posture, his relationship with the party gradually deteriorated until he was expelled in 1951 after he published an article in \"Le Nouvel Observateur\". In the same year, he was admitted to the National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS).  Morin founded and directed the magazine \"\" (1954–1962). In 1959 his book \"Autocritique\" was published. The book was a sustained reflection on his adherence to, and subsequent exit from, the Communist Party, focusing on the dangers of ideology and self-deception.  In 1960, Morin travelled extensively in Latin America, visiting Brazil, Chile, Bolivia, Peru and Mexico. He returned to France, where he published \"L'Esprit du Temps\", a work on popular culture\".\"  That same year, French sociologist Georges Friedmann brought him and Roland Barthes together to create a Centre for the Study of Mass Communication that, after several name changes, became the Edgar Morin Centre of the EHESS, Paris.  Also in 1960 Morin and Jean Rouch coauthored the film Chronique d'un été, an early example of \"cinéma vérité\" and direct cinema.  Beginning in 1965, Morin became involved in a large multidisciplinary project, financed by the Délégation Générale à la Recherche Scientifique et Technologique in Plozévet.  In 1968, Morin replaced Henri Lefebvre at the. He became involved in the student revolts that began to emerge in France. In May 1968 he wrote a series of articles for Le Monde that tried to understand what he called \"The Student Commune.\" He followed the student revolt closely and wrote a second series of articles in Le Monde called \"The Revolution without a Face,\" as well as coauthoring \"Mai 68: La brèche\" with Cornelius Castoriadis and Claude Lefort.  In 1969, Morin spent a year at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California. Jonas Salk invited him under the recommendation of Jacques Monod and John Hunt, with the sole imposed condition of learning. It was there, in this \"breeding ground for Nobel Prizes\" that he familiarized himself with systems theory. He read Henri Laborit, James Watson, Stéphane Lupasco, Bronowski, and was introduced to the thought of Gregory Bateson and the \"new problematic in ecology\".  In 1983 he published \"De la nature de l’URSS,\" which deepened his analysis of Soviet communism and anticipated the perestroika of Mikhail Gorbachev.  In 2002 Morin participated in the creation of the International Ethical, Scientific and Political Collegium. Also that year, he made a trip to Iran with Dariush Shayegan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophical work.", "content": "In addition to being the UNESCO Chair of Complex Thought, Morin is known as a founder of transdisciplinarity and holds honorary doctorates in a variety of social science fields from 21 universities (Messina, Geneva, Milan, Bergamo, Thessaloniki, La Paz, Odense, Perugia, Cosenza, Palermo, Nuevo León, Université de Laval à Québec, Brussels, Barcelona, Guadalajara, Valencia, Vera Cruz, Santiago, the Catholic University of Porto Alegre, the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, and Candido Mendes University (Rio de Janeiro)).  The University of Messina in Sicily, Ricardo Palma University in Lima, and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), the French National Research Center in Paris, have established research centers based on his transdisciplinary methods and philosophy. In addition, the Multiversidad Mundo Real Edgar Morin, a university based on his work, was established in Mexico. Morin did not embrace the French postmodern or poststructuralist movements, instead pursuing his own research agenda. As a result, US academics did not transport his theories into disciplinary discourses in same fashion as they did Foucault's and Derrida's. Morin's work spans scholarly and popular literature, and he has appeared on the cover of multiple publications including Sciences Humaines and a special issue of Le Monde.  According to Alfonso Montuori in \"Edgar Morin: A partial introduction\" \"The 6 volume Method is perhaps Morin’s culminating work, a remarkable and seemingly inexhaustible treasure trove of insights, reflection, and a real manual for those who are interested in broadening the nature of human inquiry. Drawing on cybernetics, information theory, systems theory, but also integrating all the work he has done before, from the work on imagination in his research on movies to his profound reflections on death, Method integrates Morin’s journey and provides the reader with an alternative to the traditional assumptions and method of inquiry of our time.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edgar Morin (; ; born Edgar Nahoum on 8 July 1921) is a French philosopher and sociologist who has been internationally recognized for his work on complexity and \"complex thought\" (), and for his scholarly contributions to such diverse fields as media studies, politics, sociology, visual anthropology, ecology, education, and systems biology. He holds degrees in history, economics, and law. Though less well known in the anglophone world due to the limited availability of English translations of his over 60 books, Morin is renowned in the French-speaking world, Europe, and Latin America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975296}
{"src_title": "Tu BiShvat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"Tu BiShvat\" is derived from the Hebrew date of the holiday, which occurs on the fifteenth day of Shevat. \"Tu\" stands for the Hebrew letters Tet and Vav, which together have the numerical value of 9 and 6, adding up to 15. The date may also be called \"Ḥamisha Asar BiShvat\" (, \"Fifteenth of Shevat\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Talmud.", "content": "Tu BiShvat appears in the Mishnah in Tractate Rosh Hashanah as one of the four new years in the Jewish calendar. The discussion of when the New Year occurs was a source of debate among the rabbis, who argued:  The rabbis ruled in favor of Hillel on this issue and the 15th of Shevat became the date for calculating the beginning of the agricultural cycle for the purpose of biblical tithes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biblical tithes.", "content": "Of the talmudic requirements for fruit trees which used Tu BiShvat as the cut-off date in the Hebrew calendar for calculating the age of a fruit-bearing tree, Orlah remains to this day in essentially the same form it had in talmudic times. In the Orthodox Jewish world, these practices are still observed today as part of Halacha, Jewish law. Fruit that ripened on a three-year-old tree before Tu BiShvat is considered \"orlah\" and is forbidden to eat, while fruit ripening on or after Tu BiShvat of the tree's third year is permitted. In the 1st, 2nd, 4th and 5th years of the Shmita cycle Maaser Sheni is observed today by a ceremony redeeming tithing obligations with a coin; in the 3rd and 6th years, Maaser Ani is substituted, and no coin is needed for redeeming it. Tu BiShvat is the cut-off date for determining to which year the tithes belong.  Tu BiShvat falls on the 15th day of the Hebrew month of Shevat and begins a three-month series (in years without a leap year) of holidays that occur on the mid-month full moons that culminate in Passover.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kabbalistic and Hasidic customs.", "content": "In the Middle Ages, Tu BiShvat was celebrated with a feast of fruits in keeping with the Mishnaic description of the holiday as a \"New Year.\" In the 16th century, the kabbalist Rabbi Yitzchak Luria of Safed and his disciples instituted a \"Tu BiShvat seder\" in which the fruits and trees of the Land of Israel were given symbolic meaning. The main idea was that eating ten specific fruits and drinking four cups of wine in a specific order while reciting the appropriate blessings would bring human beings, and the world, closer to spiritual perfection.  In Israel, the kabbalistic Tu BiShvat seder has been revived, and is now celebrated by many Jews, religious and secular. Special \"haggadot\" have been written for this purpose.  In the Hasidic community, some Jews pickle or candy the etrog (citron) from Sukkot and eat it on Tu BiShvat. Some pray that they will be worthy of a beautiful etrog on the following Sukkot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Customs in Israel.", "content": "Tu BiShvat is the Israeli Arbor Day, and it is often referred to by that name in international media. Ecological organizations in Israel and the diaspora have adopted the holiday to further environmental-awareness programs. On Israeli kibbutzim, Tu BiShvat is celebrated as an agricultural holiday.  On Tu BiShvat 1890, Rabbi Ze'ev Yavetz, one of the founders of the Mizrachi movement, took his students to plant trees in the agricultural colony of Zichron Yaakov. This custom was adopted in 1908 by the Jewish Teachers Union and later by the Jewish National Fund (Keren HaKayemet L’Israel), established in 1901 to oversee land reclamation and afforestation of the Land of Israel. In the early 20th century, the Jewish National Fund devoted the day to planting eucalyptus trees to stop the plague of malaria in the Hula Valley; today the Fund schedules major tree-planting events in large forests every Tu BiShvat. Over a million Israelis take part in the Jewish National Fund's Tu BiShvat tree-planting activities.  In keeping with the idea of Tu BiShvat marking the revival of nature, many of Israel's major institutions have chosen this day for their inauguration. The cornerstone-laying of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem took place on Tu BiShvat 1918; the Technion in Haifa, on Tu BiShvat 1925; and the Knesset, on Tu BiShvat 1949.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tu BiShvat (; \"\") is a Jewish holiday occurring on the 15th day of the Hebrew month of Shevat (in 2020, Tu BiShvat begins at sunset on February 9 and ends in the evening of February 10). It is also called \"Rosh HaShanah La'Ilanot\" (), literally 'New Year of the Trees'. In contemporary Israel, the day is celebrated as an ecological awareness day, and trees are planted in celebration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975297}
{"src_title": "Gaston Bachelard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Bachelard was a postal clerk in Bar-sur-Aube, and then studied physics and chemistry before finally becoming interested in philosophy. To obtain his doctorate (\"doctorat ès lettres\") in 1927, he wrote two theses: the main one, \"Essai sur la connaissance approchée\", under the direction of Abel Rey, and the complementary one, \"Étude sur l'évolution d'un problème de physique : la propagation thermique dans les solides\", supervised by Léon Brunschvicg.  He was a professor at the University of Dijon from 1930 to 1940 and then was appointed chair in the history and philosophy of science at the University of Paris. In 1958 he became a member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bachelard's psychology of science.", "content": "Bachelard's studies of the history and philosophy of science in such works as \"Le nouvel esprit scientifique\" (\"The New Scientific Spirit\", 1934) and \"La formation de l'esprit scientifique\" (\"The Formation of the Scientific Mind\", 1938) were based on his vision of historical epistemology as a kind of psychoanalysis of the scientific mind.  In the English-speaking world, the connection Bachelard made between psychology and the history of science has been little understood. Bachelard demonstrated how the progress of science could be blocked by certain types of mental patterns, creating the concept of \"obstacle épistémologique\" (\"epistemological obstacle\"). One task of epistemology is to make clear the mental patterns at use in science, in order to help scientists overcome the obstacles to knowledge. Another goal is to “give back to human reason its function of agitation and aggressiveness” as Bachelard put it in ‘L'engagement rationaliste’ (1972).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Epistemological breaks: the discontinuity of scientific progress.", "content": "Bachelard was critical of Auguste Comte's positivism, which considered science as a continual progress. To Bachelard, scientific developments such as Einstein's theory of relativity demonstrated the discontinuous nature of the history of sciences. Thus models that framed scientific development as continuous, such as that of Comte and Émile Meyerson, seemed simplistic and erroneous to Bachelard.  Through his concept of \"epistemological break\", Bachelard underlined the discontinuity at work in the history of sciences. However the term \"epistemological break\" itself is almost never used by Bachelard, but became famous through Louis Althusser.  He showed that new theories integrated old theories in new paradigms, changing the sense of concepts (for instance, the concept of mass, used by Newton and Einstein in two different senses). Thus, non-Euclidean geometry did not contradict Euclidean geometry, but integrated it into a larger framework.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The role of epistemology in science.", "content": "Bachelard was a rationalist in the Cartesian sense, although he recommended his \"non-Cartesian epistemology\" as a replacement for the more standard Cartesian epistemology. He compared \"scientific knowledge\" to ordinary knowledge in the way we deal with it, and saw error as only illusion: \"Scientifically, one thinks truth as the historical rectification of a persistent error, and experiments as correctives for an initial, common illusion (\"illusion première\").\"  The role of epistemology is to show the history of the (scientific) production of concepts; those concepts are not just theoretical propositions: they are simultaneously abstract and concrete, pervading technical and pedagogical activity. This explains why \"The electric bulb is an object of scientific thought... an example of an abstract-concrete object.\" To understand the way it works, one has to take the detour of scientific knowledge. Epistemology is thus not a general philosophy that aims at justifying scientific reasoning. Instead it produces regional histories of science.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shifts in scientific perspective.", "content": "Bachelard saw how seemingly irrational theories often simply represented a drastic shift in scientific perspective. For instance, he claimed that the theory of probabilities was just another way of complexifying reality through a deepening of rationality (even though critics like Lord Kelvin found this theory irrational).  One of his main theses in \"The New Scientific Mind\" was that modern sciences had replaced the classical ontology of the substance with an \"ontology of relations\", which could be assimilated to something like a process philosophy. For instance, the physical concepts of matter and rays correspond, according to him, to the metaphysical concepts of the thing and of movement; but whereas classical philosophy considered both as distinct, and the thing as ontologically real, modern science can not distinguish matter from rays: it is thus impossible to examine an immobile thing, which was precisely the condition for knowledge according to classical theory of knowledge (Becoming being impossible to be known, in accordance with Aristotle and Plato's theories of knowledge).  In non-Cartesian epistemology, there is no \"simple substance\" as in Cartesianism, but only complex objects built by theories and experiments, and continuously improved (VI, 4). Intuition is therefore not primitive, but built (VI, 2). These themes led Bachelard to support a sort of constructivist epistemology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other academic interests.", "content": "In addition to epistemology, Bachelard's work deals with many other topics, including poetry, dreams, psychoanalysis, and the imagination. \"The Psychoanalysis of Fire\" (1938) and \"The Poetics of Space\" (1958) are among the most popular of his works: Jean-Paul Sartre cites the former and Bachelard's \"Water and Dreams\" in his \"Being and Nothingness\" (1943), and the latter had a wide reception in architectural theory circles. In philosophy, this nocturnal side of his work is developed by his student Gilbert Durand.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "His works include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English translations.", "content": "Though most of Bachelard's major works on poetics have been translated into English, only about half of his works on the philosophy of science have been translated.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gaston Bachelard (; ; 27 June 1884 – 16 October 1962) was a French philosopher. He made contributions in the fields of poetics and the philosophy of science. To the latter he introduced the concepts of \"epistemological obstacle\" and \"epistemological break\" (\"obstacle épistémologique\" and \"rupture épistémologique\"). He influenced many subsequent French philosophers, among them Michel Foucault, Louis Althusser, Dominique Lecourt and Jacques Derrida, as well as the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975298}
{"src_title": "Soyombo script", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Creation.", "content": "The Soyombo script was created as the fourth Mongolian script, only 38 years after the invention of the Clear script. The name of the script alludes to this story. It is derived from the Sanskrit word \"Svayambhu\" \"self-created\".  The syllabic system in fact appears to be based on Devanagari, while the base shape of the letters is derived from the Ranjana alphabet. Details of individual characters resemble traditional Mongolian alphabets and the Old Turkic alphabet.  It is unclear whether Zanabazar designed the Soyombo symbol himself or if it had existed beforehand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "The eastern Mongols used the script primarily as a ceremonial and decorative script. Zanabazar had created it for the translation of Buddhist texts from Sanskrit or Tibetan, and both he and his students used it extensively for that purpose.  As it was much too complicated to be adopted as an everyday script, its use is practically nonexistent today. Aside from historical texts, it can usually be found in temple inscriptions. It also has some relevance to linguistic research, because it reflects certain developments in the Mongolian language, such as that of long vowels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Form.", "content": "The Soyombo script was the first Mongolian script to be written horizontally from left to right, in contrast to earlier scripts that had been written vertically. As in the Tibetan and Devanagari scripts, the signs are suspended below a horizontal line, giving each line of text a visible \"backbone\".  The two variations of the \"Soyombo\" symbol are used as special characters to mark the start and end of a text. Two of its elements (the upper triangle and the right vertical bar) form the angular base frame for the other characters.  Within this frame, the syllables are composed of one to three elements. The first consonant is placed high within the angle. The vowel is given by a mark above the frame, except for u and ü which are marked in the low center. A second consonant is specified by a small mark, appended to the inside of the vertical bar, pushing any u or ü mark to the left side. A short oblique hook at the bottom of the vertical bar marks a long vowel. There is also a curved or jagged mark to the right of the vertical bar for the two diphthongs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alphabet.", "content": "The first character of the alphabet represents a syllable starting with a short \"a\". Syllables starting with other vowels are constructed by adding a vowel mark to the same base character. All remaining base characters represent syllables starting with a consonant. A starting consonant without a vowel mark implies a following \"a\".  In theory, 20 consonants and 14 vowels would result in almost 4,000 combinations, but not all of those actually occur in Mongolian. There are additional base characters and marks for writing Tibetan or Sanskrit, and some of the symbols used in these two languages will also not be used in Mongolian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mongolian.", "content": "A syllable in Mongolian can contain the following elements: consonant or vocal carrier (C), vowel (V), length marker (L), diphthong marker (V) and a final consonant C).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vowels.", "content": "Mongolian uses seven vowels, all of which have a short and a long form. The long form is indicated with the length mark:  Diphthong markers are used with other vowel signs to represent diphthongs in Mongolian:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Consonants.", "content": "A final consonant is written with a simplified variant of the basic letter in the bottom of the frame. In cases where it would conflict with the vowels u or ü the vowel is written to the left.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Sanskrit and Tibetan.", "content": "A syllable in Sanskrit or Tibetan can contain the following elements: Consonant in prefix form (C), consonant or vocal carrier (C), stack of medial consonants (C...C), vowel (V) and length marker (L). For Sanskrit, there are two diacritics: anusvara (S) and visarga (S). In Tibetan, syllables can be separated by tsheg (T), a small triangle-shaped sign comparable to a space.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vowels.", "content": "Sanskrit contains additional vowels ṛ, ṝ, ḷ and ḹ.  An anusvara diacritic indicates nasalization (transcribed as ṃ). A visarga indicates post-vocalic aspiration (transcribed as ḥ).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Consonants.", "content": "Soyombo contains the full set of letters to reproduce Sanskrit and Tibetan. Note that some of the letters represent different sounds in Mongolian, Sanskrit, and Tibetan. The primary difference between the three occurs in Mongolian where letters for Sanskrit voiceless sounds are used for voiced stops, while the letters for voiceless aspirated sounds are used for voiceless stops. In Mongolian, letters used specifically for Tibetan and Sanskrit are called 'гали' \"galig\" noting they are characters used for the transcription of foreign sounds.  Consonant clusters in Sanskrit and Tibetan are usually written by stacking several consonants vertically within the same frame. In existing sources clusters occur with up to three consonants, but in theory they could contain as many as possible. Four consonants, ra, la, śa and sa, can also be written as a special prefix, consisting of a small sign written to the left of the main triangle. They are pronounced before the other consonants.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Punctuation.", "content": "Apart from the Soyombo symbol, the only punctuation mark is a full stop, represented by a vertical bar. In inscriptions, words are often separated by a dot at the height of the upper triangle (\"tsheg\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unicode.", "content": "Soyombo script has been included in the Unicode Standard since the release of Unicode version 10.0 in June 2017. The Soyombo block currently comprises 83 characters. The proposal to encode Soyombo was submitted by Anshuman Pandey. The Unicode proposal was revised in December 2015.  The Unicode block for Soyombo is U+11A50–U+11AAF:  The Menksoft IMEs provide alternative input methods.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Soyombo script (, \"Soyombo biçig\") is an abugida developed by the monk and scholar Zanabazar in 1686 to write Mongolian. It can also be used to write Tibetan and Sanskrit.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975299}
{"src_title": "European Figure Skating Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Although they were not held continuously, the European Championships is figure skating's oldest championship. The first European Championships were held in 1891 in Hamburg, Germany. It featured one segment, compulsory figures, with seven competitors, five from Germany and two from Austria. The event was sponsored by the Austrian and German skating federations, after they combined to become one federation. All the medalists were from Germany; Oskar Uhlig won the first gold medal, Anon Schmitson came in second place, and Franz Zilly was third. The second European Championships were held in Vienna in 1892. The event had 10 competitors: one from Hungary, two from Germany, and seven from Austria. It included two segments, compulsory figures and free skating. It was also sponsored by the German/Austrian federation. Austrian Eduard Englemann won the gold medal, Hungarian Tibor von Földváry came in second place, and Georg Zachariades from Austria was third.  The next European Championships was held in 1893 in Berlin; it was the first time the event was under the jurisdiction of the International Skating Union (ISU), which was formed in the summer of 1892. The championships were sponsored by the Berlin Skating Club, and like the previous two years, was organized by the German/Austrian federation. There were eight competitors: three from Austria, two from Germany, and one each from Hungary, Sweden, and Norway. Englemann is listed as the gold medalist; Henning Grenander from Sweden came in second, and Zachariades came in third. Figure skating historian James Hines called the 1893 European Championships \"clearly a success from a skating standpoint\", but it also marked figure skating's \"first major controversy\", due to \"different interpretations of the scoring rules, which could result in a tie depending upon one's interpretation of them\". The Berlin Skating Club declared Grenander the winner, but the ISU declared Englemann the winner. The problem was never resolved, but in 1895, the ISU declared the 1893 results invalid. ISU historian Benjamin T. Wright said that the controversy \"nearly led to the demise\" of the newly-formed ISU.  The next two European Championships, 1894 and 1895, \"experienced a marked decrease in participation, perhaps a result of the scoring debacle\". In 1894, five skaters competed in Vienna. Engelmann won his third Europeans gold medal, Austrian Gustav Hügel came in second, and Földváry came in third. In 1895, which was held in Budapest, three skaters competed, with one withdrawal. Földváry won the gold medal, Hügel again came in second, and Gilbert Fuchs from Germany came in third. There were no European Championships for two years, which Hines speculated was because of the small number of contestants in 1894 and 1895, although the competition returned in 1898. Hines also reported that the European Championships were again interrupted in 1902 and 1903, \"for lack of ice\". By the beginning of World War I, 20 European Championships were held. There were two more interruptions of the European Championships: between 1915 and 1922 due to World War I, and between 1940 and 1946 due to World War II.  Figure skating historian James Hines reported that \"perhaps the most bizarre incident in the history of competitive figure skating occurred at the 1930 European Figure Skating Championships in Slovakia\". The competition's referee was not certified by the ISU and the Yugoslavian judge \"was a replacement who served falsely\" under the name of a judge who was certified. The irregularities were discovered after the competition was over, so the ISU nullified the results and ordered the competition reskated. The winner of the original competition, Joseph Silva from Czechoslovakia, was not able to compete in the second competition. Karl Schäfer from Austria won the reskate and is listed as the gold medalist.  Only men competed at the European Championships until 1930, which is when women single skaters and pair skating were added. All members of the ISU, not just skaters from Europe, were allowed to compete at Europeans until 1948.Ice dance was added to Europeans in 1954. The first time the U.S.S.R. sent skaters to the European Championships was in 1956. Competitions were held in outdoor rinks until 1967 when the ISU ruled that both the European and World Championships be held in covered ice rinks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying.", "content": "Only those competitors who are \"members of a European ISU Member\" are eligible to compete in the European Championships. According to the ISU's Constitution, in order to be eligible to compete in international senior competitions, ISU senior championships, and the Olympics, skaters must have \"reached at least the age of fifteen (15) before July 1 preceding the Events\". Each ISU member country can send at least one competitor per discipline, if they earn the minimum total element scores, which is determined and published each season by the ISU, during the current or during the immediately previous season. Skaters who earn the minimum elements score/points during the Olympic season or during the immediately previous season, as established for the European and Four Continents championships, are eligible to compete in the Olympics.  In 2018, the ISU determined that skaters and couples participating in the 2019 European Championships had to earn the following minimum total elements scores:  The number of additional competitors eligible to compete from ISU member countries is determined by the accumulation of points \"equal to the sum of placements of their Competitors who were entered in this preceding season’s Championships\". Single skaters who do not qualify for the free skating program after being entered in the short program receive 18 points towards the entry quota. Pairs teams and ice dancers who enter the short program or rhythm dance but do not qualify for the free skate or free dance receive the number of points equal to their placement in the short program and rhythm dance. Skaters who move forward to the free skate or free dance, but do not place higher than 16th place, are awarded 16 points. Skaters who withdraw from the competition and were not able to complete the free skate or free dance, but who were in the top 10 in the short program or rhythm dance, are not considered for the entry quota. If an ISU member country sends three competitors to a competition, only the two best-scoring skaters and teams will count for points. Each ISU member country can substitute one skater per discipline, but can submit no more than two substitutes in case there are two or more entries unable to compete.  The number of competitors, or the overall entry quota, per discipline an ISU member country can send to a competition \"is determined in accordance\" with the chart below.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European Figure Skating Championships (also called \"\"Europeans\"\") is an annual figure skating competition in which figure skaters compete for the title of European champion. Medals are awarded in the disciplines of men's singles, women's singles, pair skating, and ice dance. The event is sanctioned by the International Skating Union (ISU) and is the sport's oldest competition. The first European Championships was held in 1891 in Hamburg, Germany and featured one segment, compulsory figures, with seven competitors, all men from Germany and Austria. It has been, other than four periods, held continuously since 1891, and has been sanctioned by the ISU since 1893. Women were allowed to compete for the first time in 1930, which is also the first time pairs skating was added to the competition. Ice dance was added in 1954. Only eligible skaters from ISU member countries in Europe can compete, and skaters must have reached at least the age of 15 before July 1 preceding the competition. ISU member countries can submit 1-3 skaters to compete in the European Championships.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975300}
{"src_title": "Gabriele Falloppio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Modena and died in Padua. His family was noble but very poor and it was only by a hard struggle he succeeded in obtaining an education. Financial difficulties led him to join the clergy, and in 1542, he became a canon at Modena's cathedral. He studied medicine at the University of Ferrara, at that time one of the best medical schools in Europe. He received his MD in 1548 under the guidance of Antonio Musa Brassavola. After taking his degree he worked at various medical schools and then became professor of anatomy at Ferrara, in 1548. Girolamo Fabrici was one of his famous students. He was called the next year to the University of Pisa, then the most important university in Italy. In 1551 Falloppio was invited to occupy the chair of anatomy and surgery at the University of Padua. He also held the professorship of botany and was superintendent of the botanical gardens. Though he died when less than forty, he had made his mark on anatomy for all time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical contributions.", "content": "Falloppio's own work dealt mainly with the anatomy of the head. He added much to what was known before about the internal ear and described in detail the tympanum and its relations to the osseous ring in which it is situated. He also described minutely the circular and oval windows (fenestræ) and their communication with the vestibule and cochlea. He was the first to point out the connection between the mastoid cells and the middle ear. His description of the lacrimal ducts in the eye was a marked advance on those of his predecessors and he also gave a detailed account of the ethmoid bone and its cells in the nose. His contributions to the anatomy of the bones and muscles were very valuable. It was in myology particularly that he corrected Vesalius. He studied the reproductive organs in both sexes, and described the Fallopian tube, which leads from the ovary to the uterus and bears his name to this day.  The aquæductus Fallopii, the canal through which the facial nerve passes after leaving the auditory nerve, is also named after him. Falloppio’s contributions to neuroanatomy, however, are still of interest today due to attempts to better understand the structures he first found. He was interested in the sensory systems in the face. He centered his research on understanding the path of the nerves of the face and structures that lie in their tracks. Here, he left his name to two parts of the human face, only emphasizing his enormous influence on the study of the head. The facial canal was first described by Falloppio, who studied its path, structure, and contents. He also described the Fallopian hiatus, an opening in the anterosuperior part of the petrosal bone.  His contributions to practical medicine were also important. He was the first to use an aural speculum for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the ear, and his writings on surgical subjects are still of interest. He published two treatises on ulcers and tumors, a treatise on surgery, and a commentary on Hippocrates's book on wounds of the head. In his own time he was regarded as somewhat of an authority in the field of sexuality. Fallopio was the first to describe a condom (in his writings, a linen sheath wrapped around the penis), and he advocated the use of such sheaths to prevent syphilis. In an early example of a clinical trial, Falloppio reported that he tested these condoms in 1,100 men, none of whom contracted syphilis. Falloppio was also interested in every form of therapeutics. He wrote a treatise on baths and thermal waters, another on simple purgatives, and a third on the composition of drugs. None of these works, except his \"Anatomy\" (Venice, 1561), were published during his lifetime. As we have them, they consist of manuscripts of his lectures and notes of his students. They were published by Volcher Coiter (Nuremberg, 1575).  Falloppio argued against Fracastoro's theory of fossils, as described as follows in Charles Lyell's \"Principles of Geology\":  Falloppio of Padua conceived that petrified shells had been generated by fermentation in the spots where they were found, or that they had in some cases acquired their form from 'the tumultuous movements of terrestrial exhalations.' Although a celebrated professor of anatomy, he taught that certain tusks of elephants dug up in his time at Puglia were mere earthy concretions, and, consistently with these principles, he even went so far as to consider it not improbable, that the vases of Monte Testaceo at Rome were natural impressions stamped in the soil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "This was the golden age of anatomy and Falloppio's contemporaries included such great anatomists as Vesalius, Eustachius, and Realdo Colombo (whom he succeeded at Padua). It has sometimes been asserted that he was jealous of certain of the great discoverers in anatomy and that this is the reason for his frequent criticisms and corrections of their work. However, Heinrich Häser, an authority in the history of medicine, declared that Falloppio was noted for his modesty and deference to his fellow workers and especially to Vesalius. His purpose in suggesting corrections, therefore, was the advance of the science of anatomy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anatomical names.", "content": "Various anatomical structures are named after Falloppio, including Fallopian tube, Fallopian Canal, and Fallopian ligament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gabriele Falloppio (1523 – October 9, 1562) was an Italian Catholic priest and anatomist often known by his Latin name Fallopius. He was one of the most important anatomists and physicians of the sixteenth century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975301}
{"src_title": "Peter Schlemihl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In the story, Schlemihl sells his shadow to the Devil for a bottomless wallet (the gold sack of Fortunatus), only to find that a man without a shadow is shunned by human societies. The woman he loves rejects him, and he himself becomes involved in guilt. Yet when the devil wants to return his shadow to him in exchange for his soul, Schlemihl, as the friend of God, rejects the proposal and throws away the bottomless wallet besides. He seeks refuge in nature and travels around the world in scientific exploration, with the aid of seven-league boots. When overtaken with sickness, he is reconciled with his fellow men, who take care of him, and in regard for his sickness do not look for his shadow. Finally, however, he returns to his studies of nature and finds his deepest satisfaction in communion with nature and his own better self.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception and cultural influence.", "content": "The story, intended for children, was widely read and the character became a common cultural reference in many countries. People generally remembered the element of the shadow better than how the story ended, simplifying Chamisso's lesson to the idiom \"don't sell your shadow to the Devil.\"  The Yiddish word \"schlemiel\"—borrowed from Hebrew \"shlumi'el\"—refers to a hopelessly incompetent person, a bungler. Consequently, the name is a synonym of one who makes a desperate or silly bargain. Originally the name meant friend of God, Theophilus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later retellings.", "content": "The story was performed on American television, in a 1953 episode of \"Favorite Story\", starring DeForest Kelley as the title character.  Georges Schwizgebel's 2004 paint-on-glass animation \"L'Homme sans ombre\" (\"The Man With No Shadow\") portrays a slight variation on the original story: after being rejected by his lover and society, the main character returns to the devil. Rather than getting back his shadow, he trades his riches for a pair of seven-league boots and travels the world in search of a place where he will be accepted without a shadow. In the end, he becomes a Wayang shadow puppeteer in Indonesia because he can manipulate the puppets directly without affecting their silhouettes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Schlemihl is the title character of an 1814 novella, \"\" (\"Peter Schlemihl's Miraculous Story\"), written in German by exiled French aristocrat Adelbert von Chamisso.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975302}
{"src_title": "Leon Chwistek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Logic and philosophy.", "content": "Starting in 1929, Chwistek was a Professor of Logic at the University of Lwów in a position for which Alfred Tarski had also applied. His interests in the 1930s were in a general system of philosophy of science, which was published in a book translated in English 1948 as \"The Limits of Science\".  In the 1920s-30s, many European philosophers attempted to reform traditional philosophy by means of mathematical logic. Leon Chwistek did not believe that such reform could succeed. He thought that reality could not be described in one homogeneous system, based on the principles of formal logic, because there was not one reality but many.  Chwistek argued against the axiomatic method by demonstrating that the extant axiomatic systems are inconsistent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artist.", "content": "Chwistek developed his theory of the multiplicity of realities first with regard to the arts. He distinguished four basic types of realities, then matched them with four basic types of painting.  The four types of realities were:  The types of painting corresponding to the above were: Chwistek never intended his views to constitute a new metaphysical theory. He was a defender of \"common sense\" against metaphysics and irrational feeling. His theory of plural reality was merely an attempt to specify the various ways in which the term, “real,” is used. Chwistek's fellow-artist and closest friend, Stanislaw Ignacy Witkiewicz, harshly criticized his philosophical views. Witkiewicz's own philosophy was based on a monadic character to the individual's existence, embracing a multiplicity of existences, with the world being made up of a multiplicity of Particular Existences.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leon Chwistek (Kraków, Austria-Hungary, 13 June 1884 – 20 August 1944, Barvikha near Moscow, Russia) was a Polish avant-garde painter, theoretician of modern art, literary critic, logician, philosopher and mathematician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975303}
{"src_title": "Rashid Rida", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ideas.", "content": "Rashid Rida, was a leading exponent of Salafism and was especially critical of what he termed \"blind following\" of traditional Islam. He encouraged both laymen and scholars to interpret the primary sources of Islam themselves. Applying this principle enabled Rida to tackle a number of subjects in a modern way and sometimes led to him holding unorthodox ideas that were considered controversial by some and progressive by others.  One of his controversial views was his support of Darwin's theory of evolution. To justify Darwinism, Rida considered it permissible to \"interpret certain stories of the Qur'an in an allegorical manner, as, for example, the story of Adam.\". He also believed that the origin of the human race from Adam is a history derived from the Hebrews and that Muslims are not obliged to believe in this account.  Other controversial beliefs held by Rida included:<br> - His view that usury (riba) may be permitted in certain cases <br> - His idea that building statues is permissible in Islam as long as there is no danger of their being devoted to improper religious uses.<br> - His support of the British against the Ottomans <br> - His view that \"the minute living bodies which today have been made known by the microscope and are called microbes, may possibly be a species of Jinn\"<br>  Rida focused on the relative weakness of Muslim societies vis-à-vis Western colonialism, blaming Sufi excesses, the blind imitation of the past (taqlid), the stagnation of the ulama, and the resulting failure to achieve progress in science and technology. He held that these flaws could be alleviated by a return to what he saw as the true principles of Islam albeit interpreted (ijtihad) to suit modern realities. This alone could, he believed, save Muslims from subordination to the colonial powers.  Rida had a close relationship with Freemasonry, though his feelings toward the Bahá'í Faith were quite negative.  Despite some controversial ideas held by Rida, his works and in particular his magazine al-Manar spread throughout the Muslim world influencing many individuals including the popular Salafi writer Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani.  Muhammad Rashid Rida was one of the earliest critics of Zionism and wrote an article on the Movement as early as 1898.  Rida died on his way back to Cairo from Suez, where he had gone to see off his patron, King of Saudi Arabia Abdulaziz Ibn Saud.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contributions to Islamist political thought.", "content": "The corruption and tyranny of Muslim rulers (\"caliphs\", sultans, etc.) throughout history was a central theme in Rida's criticisms. Rida, however, celebrated the rule of Muhammad and the Rightly Guided Caliphs, and leveled his attacks at subsequent rulers who could not maintain Muhammad's example. He also criticized the clergy (\"ulama\") for compromising their integrity - and the integrity of the Islamic law (\"sharia\") they were meant to uphold - by associating with worldly corrupt powers.  Rida's ideas were foundational to the development of the modern \"Islamic state\". He \"was an important link between classical theories of the caliphate, such as al-Mawardi's, and 20th-century notions of the Islamic state\".  Rida promoted a restoration or rejuvenation of the Caliphate for Islamic unity, and \"democratic consultation on the part of the government, which he called \"shura\".\" In theology, his reformist ideas, like those of Abduh, were \"based on the argument that: shari'a consists of \"`ibadat\" (worship) and \"mu'amalat\" (social relations). Human reason has little scope in the former and Muslims should adhere to the dictates of the Qur'an and hadith. The laws governing \"mu'amalat\" should conform to Islamic ethics but on specific points may be continually reassessed according to changing conditions of different generations and societies.  Although he did not call for the \"revolutionary establishment\" of an Islamic state, rather advocating only gradual reform of the existing Ottoman government, Rida preceded Abul Ala Maududi, Sayyid Qutb, and later Islamists in declaring adherence to Sharia law as essential for Islam and Muslims, saying  Koran 5:44 applies to `...whomsoever thinks it distasteful to rule in accordance with the just rules which God sent down, and does not rule by them because he has different views, or because he has worldly interests. According to these verses, they are unbelievers; because true faith requires obedience. Obedience requires deeds, and is not consistent with omission'", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Muhammad Rashid Rida (; 23 September 1865 or 18 October 1865 – 22 August 1935) was an early Islamic reformer, whose ideas would later influence 20th-century Islamist thinkers in developing a political philosophy of an \"Islamic state\". Rida is said to have been one of the most influential and controversial scholars of his generation and was deeply influenced by the early Salafi Movement and the movement for Islamic Modernism founded in Cairo by Muhammad Abduh.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975304}
{"src_title": "1556 Shaanxi earthquake", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Shaanxi earthquake's epicenter was in the Wei River Valley in Shaanxi Province, near Huaxian (now Huazhou District of Weinan), Weinan and Huayin. In Huaxian, every single building and home was demolished, killing more than half the residents of the city, with a death toll estimated in the hundreds of thousands. The situation in Weinan and Huayin was similar. In certain areas, crevices opened in the earth. Destruction and death were everywhere, affecting places as far as from the epicenter. The earthquake also triggered landslides, which contributed to the massive death toll. The rupture occurred during the reign of the Jiajing Emperor of the Ming dynasty. Therefore, in the Chinese historical record, this earthquake is often referred to as the Jiajing Great earthquake.  Modern estimates, based on geological data, give the earthquake a magnitude of approximately 8 on the moment magnitude scale or XI on the Mercalli scale, though more recent discoveries have shown that it was 7.9. While it was the deadliest earthquake and the third-deadliest natural disaster in history, there have been earthquakes with considerably higher magnitudes. Following the earthquake, aftershocks continued several times a month for half a year.  In the annals of China it was described in this manner: The earthquake damaged many of the Forest of Stone steles badly. Of the 114 Kaicheng Stone Classics, 40 were broken in the earthquake.  The scholar Qin Keda lived through the earthquake and recorded details. One conclusion he drew was that \"at the very beginning of an earthquake, people indoors should not go out immediately. Just crouch down and wait. Even if the nest has collapsed, some eggs may remain intact.\" The shaking reduced the height of the Small Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi'an by three levels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Loess caves.", "content": "Millions of people at the time lived in artificial loess caves on high cliffs in the area of the Loess Plateau. Loess is the silty soil that windstorms have deposited on the plateau over the ages. The soft loess clay formed over thousands of years due to wind blowing silt into the area from the Gobi Desert. Loess is a highly erosion-prone soil that is susceptible to the forces of wind and water.  The Loess Plateau and its dusty soil cover almost all of Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Gansu provinces and parts of others. Much of the population lived in dwellings called yaodongs in these cliffs. This was the major contributing factor to the very high death toll. The earthquake collapsed many caves and caused landslides, which destroyed many more.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cost.", "content": "The cost of damage done by the earthquake is almost impossible to measure in modern terms. The death toll, however, has been traditionally given as 820,000 to 830,000. The accompanying property damage would have been incalculable—an entire region of inner China had been destroyed and an estimated 60% of the region's population died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign reaction.", "content": "The Portuguese Dominican friar Gaspar da Cruz, who visited Guangzhou later in 1556, heard about the earthquake, and later reported about it in the last chapter of his book \"A Treatise of China\" (1569). He viewed the earthquake as a possible punishment for people's sins, and the Great Comet of 1556 as, possibly, the sign of this calamity (as well as perhaps the sign of the birth of the Antichrist).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1556 Shaanxi earthquake, or Huaxian earthquake (), or Jiajing earthquake (), is the deadliest earthquake in recorded history: according to imperial records approximately 830,000 people lost their lives.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975305}
{"src_title": "Bréguet 19", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The Breguet 19 was designed as a successor to a highly successful World War I light bomber, the 14. Initially, it was designed to be powered by a Bugatti U-16 engine, driving a four-blade propeller, and such a prototype was shown on the 7th Paris Air Show in November 1921. A new design was flown in March 1922, featuring a conventional layout with a single Renault 12Kb inline engine. The aircraft was built in a sesquiplane platform, with lower wings substantially smaller than the upper ones. After trials, the Breguet 19 was ordered by the French Armys \"Aéronautique Militaire\" in September 1923.  The first 11 Breguet 19 prototypes were powered by a number of different engines. A \"trademark\" of Breguet was the wide usage of duralumin as a construction material, instead of steel or wood. At that time, the aircraft was faster than other bombers, and even some fighter aircraft. Therefore, it met with a huge interest in the world, strengthened by its sporting successes. Mass production, for the \"Aéronautique Militaire\" and export, started in France in 1924.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The Breguet 19 was a biplane (sesquiplane), conventional in layout, with braced wings. The fuselage, ellipsoid in cross-section, was a frame of duralumin pipes. The front part was covered with duralumin sheets, the tail with canvas. The wings were canvas covered. It had a conventional fixed landing gear with rear skid. The crew of two, pilot and observer/bombardier, sat in tandem in open cockpits, with dual controls.  A wide variety of engine types were fitted, mostly water-cooled V-12 or W-12 inline engines, including the following:  A fixed Vickers machine gun with an interrupter gear was operated by the pilot, while the observer had twin Lewis Guns. There was also a fourth machine gun, which could be fired by the observer downwards through an opening in the floor. The Br.19CN2 night fighter variant was fitted with two pilot's machine guns. The bomber variant could carry up to of bombs under the fuselage, or in a vertical bomb bay (small bombs up to ). The reconnaissance variant could carry 12x bombs. The reconnaissance variant had a camera mounting, which was optional on the bomber variant. All variants had radio.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Breguet had its baptism of fire in the Spanish Civil War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Greece.", "content": "In the Greco-Italian War of World War II, 18 Breguets were on line at the outbreak of war, with 1 Observation (or Army Cooperation) \"Mira\", under I Corp Command, based at Perigiali, near Corinth and with 2 Observation \"Mira\" under II Corps command, based at Larissa and Kozani. On 4 November 1940, a RHAF (Royal Hellenic Air Force) Breguet from 2 \"Mira\" was sent looking for the attacking 3rd Julia Alpine Division, locating it in a mountain pass near Metsovo. Three more Breguets sent to bomb the Italian division were in turn attacked by three Fiat CR.42 fighters. A Breguet was shot down, one crash-landed and the third returned to base, though badly shot up.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "In total, more than 2,000 Breguet 19s were manufactured in France, and about 700 license-built by Spanish CASA, Japanese Nakajima, Belgian SABCA and the Yugoslavian aircraft factory in Kraljevo.  In April 1925, the factory Nakajima Hikoki KK acquired two aircraft from the French Breguet 19 A2, was a versatile aircraft with long-range bombers. Purchase of two aircraft was the work of well-known promoter and promoter of aviation Asahi Shinbun newspaper group. By factory Nakajima Hikoki KK won two planes had been able to fairly detailed knowledge of aircraft structures. At the same time opened negotiations to purchase licensing rights to manufacture, these negotiations were successful. Licensed production will eventually be made, because the Imperial Army Air Force expressed interest in reconnaissance. Nakajima Hikoki KK then immediately changed the wheel all-metal chassis for two floats and the Naval Air Force offered him. The Navy, however, at that time began to receive new aircraft in this category Yokosho Type 14 and also reflected his interest. Nakajima Hikoki KK it still ranked in the competition, the Air Force has called for maritime reconnaissance aircraft with long-range, this contest was ultimately canceled because it failed to accurately formulate long range category. Some time this plane flew again with wheeled undercarriage and civilian designation J-BBFO as a post. Unlike the French Breguet was driven by a powerful engine Nakajima Loriane 2, the French had first Loriane.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Record variants.", "content": "Both standard and modified Breguet 19s were used for numerous record-breaking flights. The first was the Br.19 prototype, which won a military aircraft speed contest in Madrid on 17 February 1923. On 12 March 1923, it also set an international altitude record of carrying a load. It was later bought by the Spanish government.  Many crews made long-distance flights in Br.19s. In February 1925, Thieffry flew from Brussels to Leopoldville in central Africa, a distance of. Two Br.19 A2s were bought by the Japanese Asahi Shimbun newspaper and fitted with additional fuel tanks. They were flown by H. Abe and K. Kawachi on the Tokyo-Paris-London route in July 1925, covering. Between 27 August and 25 September 1926, the Polish crew of Boleslaw Orlinski flew the Warsaw-Tokyo route () and back, in a modified Br.19 A2, despite the fact that one of its lower wings was broken on the way. On June 8, 1928 a modified Greek Br.A2 (\"ΕΛΛΑΣ\"), flown by C. Adamides and E. Papadakos, embarked on a long distance tour around the Mediterranean landing without incident at Tatoi airfield, Athens, on July 1st. Between 1927 and 1930, Romanian, Yugoslavian and Polish Br.19s were often used in Little Entente air races.  Breguet 19 GRs and TRs set several world records, mostly of long-distance non-stop flights, starting with Arrachart and Lemaitre's flight from Paris to Villa Cisneros in 241⁄2 hours on 2–3 February 1925. On 14–15 July 1926, Girier and Dordilly set a new record of between Paris and Omsk, beaten on 31 August-1 September by Challe and Weiser's, and on 28 October by Dieudonne Costes and Rignot's. From 10 October 1927 – 14 April 1928, Costes and Le Brix flew a Br.19 GR (named \"Nungesser-Coli\") around the world, covering - though the journey between San Francisco and Tokyo was taken by ship.  The Super Bidon was created especially for the purpose of a transatlantic flight. It was named \"Point d'Interrogation\" (\"The Question Mark\"). Dieudonne Costes and Maurice Bellonte set a non-stop distance record of from Paris to Moullart on 27–29 September 1929 on this aircraft. Then on 1–2 September 1930, they flew from Paris to New York City, a distance of making the first non-stop east-west crossing of the North Atlantic by a fixed-wing aircraft. The second Super Bidon, the Spanish Cuatro Vientos, vanished over Mexico with M. Barberan and J. Collar Serra, after a transatlantic flight from Seville to Cuba on 10–11 June 1933.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "The Breguet XIX played a central role in Nevil Shute's second published work \"So Disdained\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Breguet 19 (Breguet XIX, Br.19 or Bre.19) was a light bomber and reconnaissance aircraft, also used for long-distance flights, designed by the French Breguet company and produced from 1924.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975306}
{"src_title": "Max Ophüls", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth and early career.", "content": "Max Ophüls was born in Saarbrücken, Germany, the son of Leopold Oppenheimer, a Jewish textile manufacturer and owner of several textile shops in Germany, and his wife Helene Oppenheimer (née Bamberger). He took the pseudonym Ophüls during the early part of his theatrical career so that, should he fail, it wouldn't embarrass his father.  Initially envisioning an acting career, he started as a stage actor in 1919 and played at the Aachen Theatre from 1921 to 1923. He then worked as a theater director, becoming the first director at the city theater of Dortmund. Ophüls moved into theatre production in 1924. He became creative director of the Burgtheater in Vienna in 1926. Having had 200 plays to his credit, he turned to film production in 1929, when he became a dialogue director under Anatole Litvak at UFA in Berlin. He worked throughout Germany and directed his first film in 1931, the comedy short \"Dann schon lieber Lebertran\" (literally \"In This Case, Rather Cod-Liver Oil\").  Of his early films, the most acclaimed is \"Liebelei\" (1933), which included a number of the characteristic elements for which he was to become known: luxurious sets, a feminist attitude, and a duel between a younger and an older man.  It was at the Burgtheater that Ophüls met the actress Hilde Wall. They were married in 1926.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exile and post-war career.", "content": "Predicting the Nazi ascendancy, Ophüls, a Jew, fled to France in 1933 after the Reichstag fire and became a French citizen in 1938. After the fall of France to Germany, he travelled through Switzerland and Italy to the United States in 1941, only to become inactive in Hollywood. He eventually received help from a longtime fan, director Preston Sturges, and went on to direct a number of distinguished films.  His first Hollywood film was the Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. vehicle, \"The Exile\" (1947). Ophüls' \"Letter from an Unknown Woman\" (1948), derived from a Stefan Zweig novella, is the most highly regarded of the American films. \"Caught\" (1949), and \"The Reckless Moment\" (1949) followed, before his return to Europe in 1950.  Back in France, he directed and collaborated on the adaptation of Schnitzler's \"La Ronde\" (1950), which won the 1951 BAFTA Award for Best Film, and \"Lola Montès\" (1955) starring Martine Carol and Peter Ustinov, as well as \"Le Plaisir\" and \"The Earrings of Madame de...\" (1953), the latter with Danielle Darrieux and Charles Boyer, which capped his career. Ophüls died from rheumatic heart disease on 26 March 1957 in Hamburg, while shooting interiors on \"The Lovers of Montparnasse\", and was buried in Le Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. This final film was completed by his friend Jacques Becker.  Max Ophüls's son Marcel Ophüls became a distinguished documentary-film maker, director of \"The Sorrow and the Pity\" and other films examining the nature of political power.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "All his works feature his distinctive smooth camera movements, complex crane and dolly sweeps, and tracking shots.  Many of his films inspired filmmakers like Paul Thomas Anderson, who gave an introduction on the restored DVD of \"The Earrings of Madame de...\" (1953).  Some of his films are narrated from the point of view of the female protagonist. Film scholars have analyzed films such as \"Liebelei\" (1933), \"Letter from an Unknown Woman\" (1948), and \"Madame de...\" (1953) as examples of the woman's film genre. Nearly all of his female protagonists had names beginning with \"L\" (Leonora, Lisa, Lucia, Louise, Lola, etc.)  Actor James Mason, who worked with Ophüls on two films, wrote a short poem about the director's love for tracking shots and elaborate camera movements:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maximillian Oppenheimer (; 6 May 1902 – 26 March 1957), known as Max Ophüls (; ), was a German-born film director who worked in Germany (1931–1933), France (1933–1940 and 1950–1957), and the United States (1947–1950). He made nearly 30 films, the latter ones being especially notable: \"La Ronde\" (1950), \"Le Plaisir\" (1952), \"The Earrings of Madame de...\" (1953) and \"Lola Montès\" (1955). He was credited as Max Opuls on several of his American films, including \"The Reckless Moment\", \"Caught\", \"Letter from an Unknown Woman\", and \"The Exile\". The annual Filmfestival Max Ophüls Preis in Saarbrücken is named after him.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975307}
{"src_title": "Office Open XML", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In 2000, Microsoft released an initial version of an XML-based format for Microsoft Excel, which was incorporated in Office XP. In 2002, a new file format for Microsoft Word followed. The Excel and Word formats—known as the Microsoft Office XML formats—were later incorporated into the 2003 release of Microsoft Office.  Microsoft announced in November 2005 that it would co-sponsor standardization of the new version of their XML-based formats through Ecma International as \"Office Open XML\". The presentation was made to Ecma by Microsoft's Jean Paoli and Isabelle Valet-Harper.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standardization process.", "content": "Microsoft submitted initial material to Ecma International Technical Committee TC45, where it was standardized to become ECMA-376, approved in December 2006.  This standard was then fast-tracked in the Joint Technical Committee 1 of ISO and IEC. After initially failing to pass, an amended version of the format received the necessary votes for approval as an ISO/IEC Standard as the result of a JTC 1 fast-tracking standardization process that concluded in April 2008. The resulting four-part International Standard (designated ISO/IEC 29500:2008) was published in November 2008 and can be downloaded from the ITTF. A technically equivalent set of texts is published by Ecma as \"ECMA-376 Office Open XML File Formats—2nd edition\" (December 2008); they can be downloaded from their web site.  The ISO standardization of Office Open XML was controversial and embittered, with much discussion both about the specification and about the standardization process. According to \"InfoWorld\", \"OOXML was opposed by many on grounds it was unneeded, as software makers could use OpenDocument Format (ODF), a less complicated office software format that was already an international standard.\" The same \"InfoWorld\" article reported that IBM (which supports the ODF format) threatened to leave standards bodies that it said allow dominant corporations like Microsoft to wield undue influence. The article further says that Microsoft was accused of co-opting the standardization process by leaning on countries to ensure that it got enough votes at the ISO for Office Open XML to pass, although it does not specify exactly who accused Microsoft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Licensing.", "content": "Under the Ecma International code of conduct in patent matters, participating and approving member organisations of ECMA are required to make available their patent rights on a reasonable and non-discriminatory (RAND) basis.  Holders of patents which concern ISO/IEC International Standards may agree to a standardized license governing the terms under which such patents may be licensed, in accord with the ISO/IEC/ITU common patent policy.  Microsoft, the main contributor to the standard, provided a covenant not to sue for its patent licensing. The covenant received a mixed reception, with some like the Groklaw blog criticizing it, and others such as Lawrence Rosen, (an attorney and lecturer at Stanford Law School), endorsing it.  Microsoft has added the format to their \"Open Specification Promise\" in which  Microsoft irrevocably promises not to assert any Microsoft Necessary Claims against you for making, using, selling, offering for sale, importing or distributing any implementation to the extent it conforms to a Covered Specification [...]  This is limited to applications which do not deviate from the ISO/IEC 29500:2008 or Ecma-376 standard and to parties that do not \"file, maintain or voluntarily participate in a patent infringement lawsuit against a Microsoft implementation of such Covered Specification\". The Open Specification Promise was included in documents submitted to ISO/IEC in support of the ECMA-376 fast-track submission. Ecma International asserted that, \"The OSP enables both open source and commercial software to implement [the specification]\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions.", "content": "The Office Open XML specification exists in a number of versions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ECMA-376 1st edition (2006).", "content": "The ECMA standard is structured in five parts to meet the needs of different audiences.  Later versions of the ECMA-376 standard are aligned and technically equivalent to the corresponding ISO standard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "ISO/IEC 29500:2008.", "content": "The ISO/IEC standard is structured into four parts: Parts 1, 2 and 3 are independent standards; for example, Part 2, specifying Open Packaging Conventions, is used by other file formats including XPS and Design Web Format. Part 4 is to be read as a modification to Part 1, which it requires.  A technically equivalent set of texts is also published by Ecma as ECMA-376 2nd edition (2008).  The standard specifies two levels of document & application conformance, \"strict\" and \"transitional,\" for each of WordprocessingML, PresentationML and SpreadsheetML, and also specifies applications' descriptions of \"base\" and \"full\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Compatibility between versions.", "content": "The intent of the changes from ECMA-376 1st Edition to ISO/IEC 29500:2008 was that a valid ECMA-376 document would also be a valid ISO 29500 Transitional document; however, at least one change introduced at the BRM—refusing to allow further values for xsd:boolean—had the effect of breaking backwards-compatibility for most documents. A fix for this had been suggested to ISO/IEC JTC1/SC34/WG4, and was approved in June 2009 as a recommendation for the first revision to Office Open XML.  Applications capable of reading documents compliant to ECMA-376 Edition 1 would regard ISO/IEC 29500-4 Transitional documents containing ISO 8601 dates as corrupt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Application support.", "content": "Some older versions of Microsoft Word and Microsoft Office are able to read and write codice_1 files after installation of the free compatibility pack provided by Microsoft, although some items, such as equations, are converted into images that cannot be edited.  Starting with Microsoft Office 2007, the Office Open XML file formats have become the default file format of Microsoft Office. However, due to the changes introduced in the Office Open XML standard, Office 2007 is not wholly in compliance with ISO/IEC 29500:2008. Office 2010 includes support for opening documents of the ISO/IEC 29500:2008-compliant version of Office Open XML, but it can only save documents conforming to the \"transitional\", not the \"strict\", schemas of the specification. Note that the intent of the ISO/IEC is to allow the removal of the transitional variant from the ISO/IEC 29500 standard.  The ability to read and write Office Open XML format is, however, not limited to Microsoft Office; other office products are also able to read & write this format:  Other office products that offer import support for the Office Open XML formats include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Office Open XML (also informally known as OOXML or Microsoft Open XML (MOX)) is a zipped, XML-based file format developed by Microsoft for representing spreadsheets, charts, presentations and word processing documents. The format was initially standardized by Ecma (as ECMA-376), and by the ISO and IEC (as ISO/IEC 29500) in later versions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975308}
{"src_title": "Bartholomeus Spranger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bartholomeus Spranger was born in Antwerp as the third son of Ioachim Spranger and Anna Roelandtsinne. His father was a trader who had spent time abroad including a long stint in Rome. Showing a keen interest in drawing, he was first apprenticed with Jan Mandijn, where he stayed for 18 months. Upon the death of Mandijn, Spranger studied for some time with Frans Mostaert who died after only a few weeks. He finally studied wwth with Cornelis van Dalem for two years after which he stayed on for another two years in the workshop of van Dalem. As his three masters were mainly known as landscape painters. Spranger further copied prints of Frans Floris and Parmigianino. He traveled to Paris on 1 March 1565 where he worked for six weeks in the workshop of Marc Duval. He then travelled on to Italy, where he first stayed for eight months in Milan. He then worked for three months in Parma as an assistant to Bernardino Gatti on the painting of the dome of the Santa Maria della Steccata.  He worked on wall paintings in various churches. In Rome he became, like El Greco, a protégé of Giulio Clovio. Here he also met Karel van Mander who later included a biography of Spranger in his \"Schilder-boeck\", first published in 1604 and containing, amongst others, biographies of important Netherlandish painters. Pope Pius V appointed him court painter in 1570. He was summoned to Vienna by Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, who died soon after his arrival in 1576.  Maximilian II's successor Rudolf II was even more keen to employ him, and in 1581 he was appointed court painter and also valet de chambre, the court having moved its seat to Prague, where he stayed until his death there in 1611, shortly before Rudolf was deposed. Spranger occupied a house just outside the castle walls. The artist developed a close personal relationship with Rudolf and the two spent many days together engaged in conversation. The emperor would regularly visit Spranger's studio. The emperor bestowed on Spranger the coat of arms of a liegeman in 1588 and granted him a hereditary title in 1595. In the meantime, Spranger supplied the emperor with a continuous stream of paintings of mythological scenes with nudes drawn from nature as well as propaganda pieces which extolled the virtues of Rudolf as a ruler. An example of a work combining the two elements of eroticism and propaganda is the (Kunsthistorisches Museum) which shows Bellona (the Roman goddess of war) sitting on a globe surrounded by Venus, Amor, Athene and Baccus and emblems symbolising Hungary and the Croatian river Sava. The propagandic message is that the empire is safe with Rudolf at the helm. Thanks to the emperor's patronage, Spranger became very wealthy and owned many properties by the time he died.  Spranger married Christina Müller, the daughter of a rich jeweller from Prague in 1582. His wife died in 1600 after al their children had died. This sad story is depicted in Aegidius Sadeler's.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Spranger's paintings for Rudolf mostly depict mythological nudes in various complex poses, with some connection to the Emperor's esoteric Late-Renaissance philosophical ideas. His paintings are the most characteristic of the final phase of Northern Mannerism. By far the best collection is in Vienna. His drawings have great energy, in a very free technique.  Spranger also worked as a sculptor. He may have acquired his knowledge of sculpture through his collaboration with the Flemish sculptor Hans Mont, who also worked at the Prague court. After Mont left the Prague court, Spranger appears to have worked intermittently as a sculptor for the emperor, at least until Adriaen de Vries arrived in Prague in 1601. A terracotta relief of the 'Body of Christ Supported by an Angel' (Courtauld Gallery) is by his hand. The Walters Museum holds a bronze 'Achelous and Deianeira' which is attributed to him. There is no record of any sculpture by Spranger in Rudolf II's collection.  Aegidius Sadeler, who lived in his house in Prague for some time, and Hendrik Goltzius made engravings of his paintings, spreading Spranger's fame around Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "Much the best collection is in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, mostly from the Imperial collection. Most museum print rooms will have examples of his prints. There are 3 oil paintings by Spranger in the Blanton Art Museum in Austin, Texas (\"Saint Catherine\", \"Saint Ursula\", \"Saint Margaret\"), and one in the Wawel Castle Museum in Cracow, Poland (\"Memento mori).\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bartholomeus Spranger or Bartholomaeus Spranger (21 March 1546 in Antwerp – 1611 in Prague) was a Flemish painter, draughtsman, sculptor and designer of prints. Working in Prague as a court artist for the Holy Roman emperor Rudolf II, he responded to his patron's aesthetic preferences by developing a version of the extreme style, full of conceits, which has become known as Northern Mannerism. This style stressed sensuality, which was expressed in smoothly modeled, elongated figures arranged in elegant poses, often including a nude woman seen from behind. Spranger's unique style combining elements of Netherlandish painting and Italian influences, in particular the Roman Mannerists, had an important influence on other artists in Prague and beyond as his paintings were disseminated widely through prints.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975309}
{"src_title": "Uluburun shipwreck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery.", "content": "The shipwreck site was discovered in the summer of 1982 due to Mehmet Çakir's sketching of “the metal biscuits with ears” recognized as oxhide ingots. Turkish sponge divers were often consulted by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology's (INA) survey team on how to identify ancient wrecks while diving for sponges. Çakir's findings urged Oğuz Alpözen, Director of the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, to send out an inspection team of the Museum and INA archaeologists to locate the wreck site. The inspection team was able to locate several amounts of copper ingots just 50 metres from the shore of Uluburun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Apparent route.", "content": "With the evidence provided from the cargo on the ship it can be assumed that the ship set sail from either a Cypriot or Syro-Palestinian port. The Uluburun ship was undoubtedly sailing to the region west of Cyprus, but her ultimate destination can be concluded only from the distribution of objects matching the types carried on board. It has been proposed that ship's destination was a port somewhere in the Aegean Sea. Rhodes, at the time an important redistribution centre for the Aegean, has been suggested as a possible destination. According to the excavators of the shipwreck, the probable final destination of the ship was one of the Mycenaean palaces, in mainland Greece.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dating.", "content": "Peter Kuniholm of Cornell University was assigned the task of dendrochronological dating in order to obtain an absolute date for the ship. The results date the wood at 1305 BC, but given that no bark has survived it is impossible to determine an exact date and it can be assumed that the ship sank sometime after that date. Based on ceramic evidence, it appears that the Uluburun sank toward the end of the Amarna period, but could not have sunk before the time of Nefertiti due to the unique gold scarab engraved with her name found aboard the ship. For now, a conclusion that the ship sank at the end of the 14th century BC is accepted.  The origins of the objects aboard the ship range geographically from northern Europe to Africa, as far west as Sicily and Sardinia, and as far east as Mesopotamia. They appear to be the products of nine or ten cultures. These proveniences indicate that the Late Bronze Age Aegean was the medium of an international trade perhaps based on royal gift-giving in the Near East.  According to a reconstruction by various scholars, the Uluburun shipwreck illustrates a thriving commercial sea network of the Late Bronze Age Mediterranean. In this case, a huge mixed cargo of luxury items, royal gifts and raw materials. According to the findings, it has been suggested that Mycenaean officials were also aboard accompanying the gifts. A small (9.5 x 6.2 cm), folding boxwood writing-tablet was found with partially extant ivory hinges. It likely would have had wax writing surfaces.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The vessel.", "content": "The distribution of the wreckage and the scattered cargo indicates that the ship was between long. It was constructed by the shell-first method, with mortise-and-tenon joints similar to those of the Graeco-Roman ships of later centuries.  Even though there has been a detailed examination of Uluburun's hull, there is no evidence of framing. The keel appears to be rudimentary, perhaps more of a keel-plank than a keel in the traditional sense. The ship was built with planks and keel of Lebanese cedar and oak tenons. Lebanese cedar is indigenous to the mountains of Lebanon, southern Turkey, and central Cyprus. The ship carried 24 stone anchors. The stone is of a type almost completely unknown in the Aegean, but is often built into the temples of Syria-Palestine and on Cyprus. Brushwood and sticks served as dunnage to help protect the ship's planks from the metal ingots and other heavy cargo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cargo.", "content": "The Uluburun ship's cargo consisted mostly of raw materials that were trade items, which before the ship's discovery were known primarily from ancient texts or Egyptian tomb paintings. The cargo matches many of the royal gifts listed in the Amarna letters found at El-Amarna, Egypt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Excavation.", "content": "The Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) began excavating in July 1984 under the direction of its founder, George F. Bass, and was then turned over to INA's Vice President for Turkey, Cemal Pulak, who directed the excavation from 1985 to 1994. The wreck lay between 44 and 52 meters deep on a steep, rocky slope riddled with sand pockets. Half of the staff members who aided in the excavation lived in a camp built into the southeastern face of the promontory, which the ship most likely hit, while the other half lived aboard the \"Virazon\", INA's research vessel at the time. The excavation site utilized an underwater telephone booth and air-lifts. The mapping of the site was done by triangulation. Meter tapes and metal squares were used as an orientation aid for excavators. Since the completion of the excavation in September 1994, all efforts have been concentrated on full-time conservation, study, and sampling for analysis in the conservation laboratory of the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology in Turkey.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Uluburun Shipwreck is a Late Bronze Age shipwreck dated to the late 14th century BC, discovered close to the east shore of Uluburun (Grand Cape), and about miles southeast of Kaş, in south-western Turkey. The shipwreck was discovered in the summer of 1982 by Mehmed Çakir, a local sponge diver from Yalıkavak, a village near Bodrum.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975310}
{"src_title": "Friedrich Jeckeln", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "SS career.", "content": "Jeckeln served in World War I as an officer. After being discharged following Germany's defeat, Jeckeln worked as an engineer before joining the Nazi Party on 1 October 1929. In January 1931, he was accepted into the \"Schutzstaffel\" (SS). By the end of 1931 he was placed in charge of a regiment and then a brigade. In 1932, Jeckeln was elected as a member of the Reichstag. In January 1933, when the Nazi Party came to national power, Jeckeln was put in charge of SS group South. In 1936, he was appointed SS and Police Leader and later promoted to SS-\"Obergruppenführer\".  Jeckeln was known for ruthlessness and brutality. Political opponents, especially members of the KPD, SPD and the unions, were pursued relentlessly until their death. Together with party member Friedrich Alpers, Jeckeln was primarily responsible for the Rieseberg Murders in the summer of 1933.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Holocaust perpetrator.", "content": "After the Second World War began, Jeckeln was transferred to the Waffen-SS. As was the practice in the SS, Jeckeln took a lower rank from his \"Allgemeine-SS\" position and served as an officer in Regiment 2 of the Totenkopf Division. In 1941, he was transferred by \"Reichsführer-SS\" Heinrich Himmler to serve as Higher SS and Police Leader (HSSPF) of Southern, then later in 1941, of Northern Russia. In this role Jeckeln assumed control of all SS-\"Einsatzgruppen\" mass killings and security operations in his district.  Jeckeln developed a method of killing large numbers of people, over the course of the mass killings he had organised in the Ukraine, which included (amongst others) Babi Yar and the Kamianets-Podilskyi Massacre. First applied in the Rumbula massacre on 30 November and 8 December 1941, the method (which became known as the \"Jeckeln System\") involved dividing staff into separate groups, each of which specialised in a separate part of the process:  This system was referred to as \"sardine packing\" (\"Sardinenpackung\"). It was reported that some of the experienced \"Einsatzgruppen\" killers were horrified by its cruelty. At Rumbula, Jeckeln watched on both days of the massacre as 25,000 people were killed. Jeckeln proved to be an effective killer who cared nothing about murdering huge numbers of men, women, children and the elderly. One of only 3 survivors of the Rumbala massacre, Frida Michelson, escaped by pretending to be dead as the victims heaped shoes (later salvaged by Jeckeln's men) upon her: By the end of August 1941, while commanding the \"Kommandostab\" SS First Brigade in Western Ukraine, Jeckeln had personally supervised the murder of more than 44,000 people, the largest total of Jews murdered that month.  On 27 January 1942, Jeckeln was awarded the War Merit Cross with Swords for killing 25,000 at Rumbula \"on orders from the highest level.\" In February 1945, now a \"General der Waffen-SS und Polizei\", Jeckeln was appointed to command the \"SS-Freiwilligen-Gebirgs-Korps\" and also served as Commander of Replacement Troops and Higher SS and Police Leader in Southwest Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial and execution.", "content": "Jeckeln was taken prisoner by Soviet troops near Halbe on 28 April 1945. Along with other German personnel, he was tried before a Soviet military tribunal in the \"Riga Trial\" in Latvia from 26 January 1946 to 3 February 1946. During the investigation, he was calm, answering questions from investigators in essence, on the dock looked dull and impartial.  Jeckeln in his last words was restrained, he fully admitted his guilt and agreed to bear full responsibility for the activities of subordinate police, SS and SD in Ostland. Concluding his speech, he said: \"\"I have to take full responsibility for what happened in the borders of Ostland, within SS, SD and the Gestapo. Thereby increases much my fault. My fate is in the hands of the High Court, and so I ask only to pay attention to mitigating circumstances. I will accept a sentence in full repentance and I will consider as worthy punishment.\"\" Jeckeln and the other defendants were found guilty, sentenced to death and hanged in Riga on 3 February 1946 in front of some 4,000 spectators. Against popular misconception, the execution did not happen in the territory of the former Riga Ghetto, but in Victory Square (Uzvaras laukums).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Jeckeln (2 February 1895 – 3 February 1946) was a German SS commander during the Nazi era. He served as a Higher SS and Police Leader in the occupied Soviet Union during World War II. Jeckeln was the commander of one of the largest collection of \"Einsatzgruppen\" death squads and was personally responsible for ordering and organizing the deaths of over 100,000 Jews, Romani, and others designated by the Nazis as \"undesirables\". After the end of World War II in Europe, Jeckeln was convicted of war crimes by a Soviet military tribunal in Riga and executed in 1946.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975311}
{"src_title": "Yuriy Sedykh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Sedykh began athletics in 1967, his first trainer being Vladimir Ivanovich Volovik. He trained at Burevestnik and later at the Armed Forces sports society in Kiev (Sedykh attained the rank of major in the Soviet Army). From 1972 he was coached by Anatoliy Bondarchuk, who is widely regarded as one of the best hammer coaches in the world. In 1973 he became a member of the USSR National Junior Team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competition.", "content": "He won gold medals at the 1976 Summer Olympics and 1980 Summer Olympics as well as taking first at the 1986 Goodwill Games. He set a world record of 86.74 m. at the 1986 European championships in Stuttgart. He won a first at the 1991 World Championships in Athletics. Only Sedykh and Sergey Litvinov have thrown over 86 meters in the history of the sport (Ivan Tsikhan's 86.73 m throw in 2005 was annulled by the IAAF in April 2014 due to doping sanctions).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coaching.", "content": "Sedykh coached hammer throwers of the French team; Nicolas Figére (80.88) for instance. His compatriot and rival, Sergey Litvinov, went on to coach the Belarusians; Ivan Tikhon and his own son Sergey Lytvynov Jr..", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Technique.", "content": "Unlike many hammer throwers Sedykh threw off three rotations rather than four – he felt three rotations were sufficient. Sedykh often practiced with lighter and heavier hammers.  Yuriy's technique centers on 'pushing' the ball left and letting the hammer turn you, whereas Litvinov advocates uniformly accelerating the hammer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Yuriy's married his first wife Lyudmila Kondratyeva in the mid-1980s but later divorced. Kondratyeva also won gold at the 1980 Olympics, in the Women's 100 metres. Their daughter, Oksana, born in 1985, is also a high-level Russian hammer thrower.  Yuriy subsequently married former Soviet thrower Natalya Lisovskaya. Lisovskaya won the shot put gold in the 1988 Olympics and has the world record of 22,63 m. They have one daughter, Alexia, born in 1993, who won gold in the girls' hammer throw at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics in Singapore. Sedykh and his family moved to Paris, France, where Yuriy was engaged to teach strength and conditioning at university level.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yuriy Georgiyevich Sedykh (; ) (born 11 June 1955) is a retired Soviet track and field athlete who represented the Soviet Union, specialising in the hammer throw. He was a World and Olympic Champion and holds the world record with a throw of 86.74 m.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975312}
{"src_title": "Serenoa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Erect stems or trunks are rarely produced, but are found in some populations. It is a hardy plant; extremely slow-growing, and long-lived, with some plants, especially in Florida possibly being as old as 500–700 years.  Saw palmetto is a fan palm, with the leaves that have a bare petiole terminating in a rounded fan of about 20 leaflets. The petiole is armed with fine, sharp teeth or spines that give the species its common name. The teeth or spines are easily capable of breaking the skin, and protection should be worn when working around a saw palmetto. The leaves are light green inland, and silvery-white in coastal regions. The leaves are 1–2 m in length, the leaflets 50–100 cm long. They are similar to the leaves of the palmettos of genus \"Sabal\". The flowers are yellowish-white, about 5 mm across, produced in dense compound panicles up to 60 cm long.  The fruit is a large reddish-black drupe and is an important food source for wildlife and historically for humans. The plant is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species such as \"Batrachedra decoctor\", which feeds exclusively on the plant.  The generic name honors American botanist Sereno Watson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical use.", "content": "\"Serenoa repens\" extract has been researched as a treatment for people with prostate cancer. However, according to the American Cancer Society, \"available scientific studies do not support claims that saw palmetto can prevent or treat prostate cancer in humans\".  A meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration found that saw palmetto berry extract given therapeutically, even at double and triple doses, did not improve urinary flow or improve the prostate gland size in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Two large trials published between the newer and older meta-analysis found the extract to be no different from placebo. Although a 2016 review included trials with a special standardized extract of saw palmetto called Permixon. This suggests that the lack of an effect found in the most recent Cochrane review was due to the differences in the saw palmetto extracts used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnobotany.", "content": "Indigenous names are reported to include: \"tala\" (Choctaw); \"cani\" (Timucua); \"ta ́:la\" (Koasati); \"taalachoba\" (\"big palm\", Alabama); \"ta:laɬ a ́ kko\" (\"big palm\", Creek); \"talco ́:bˆı \"(\"big palm\", Mikasuki);\" talimushi \"(\"palmetto's uncle\", Choctaw), and \"guana \"(Taino, possibly). Saw palmetto fibers have been found among materials from indigenous people as far north as Wisconsin and New York, strongly suggesting this material was widely traded prior to European contact. The leaves are used for thatching by several indigenous groups, so commonly so that a location in Alachua County, Florida, is named Kanapaha (\"palm house\"). The fruit may have been used to treat an unclear form of fish poisoning by the Seminoles and Bahamians.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Serenoa repens, commonly known as saw palmetto, is the sole species currently classified in the genus Serenoa. It is a small palm, growing to a maximum height around. It is endemic to the subtropical Southeastern United States, most commonly along the south Atlantic and Gulf Coastal plains and sand hills. It grows in clumps or dense thickets in sandy coastal areas, and as undergrowth in pine woods or hardwood hammocks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975313}
{"src_title": "Vincenzo Peruggia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Theft.", "content": "In 1911, Peruggia perpetrated what has been described as the greatest art theft of the 20th century. It was a police theory that the former Louvre worker hid inside the museum on Sunday, August 20, knowing the museum would be closed the following day. But, according to Peruggia's interrogation in Florence after his arrest, he entered the museum on Monday, August 21 around 7 am, through the door where the other Louvre workers were entering. He said he wore one of the white smocks that museum employees customarily wore and was indistinguishable from the other workers. When the Salon Carré, where the \"Mona Lisa\" hung, was empty, he lifted the painting off the four iron pegs that secured it to the wall and took it to a nearby service staircase. There, he removed the protective case and frame. Some people report that he concealed the painting (which Leonardo painted on wood) under his smock. But Peruggia was only, and the \"Mona Lisa\" measures approx., so it would not fit under a smock worn by someone his size. Instead, he said he took off his smock and wrapped it around the painting, tucked it under his arm, and left the Louvre through the same door he had entered.  Peruggia hid the painting in his apartment in Paris. Supposedly, when police arrived to search his apartment and question him, they accepted his alibi that he had been working at a different location on the day of the theft.  After keeping the painting hidden in a trunk in his apartment for two years, Peruggia returned to Italy with it. He kept it in his apartment in Florence, Italy but grew impatient, and was finally caught when he contacted Alfredo Geri, the owner of an art gallery in Florence. Geri's story conflicts with Peruggia's, but it was clear that Peruggia expected a reward for returning the painting to what he regarded as its \"homeland\". Geri called in Giovanni Poggi, director of the Uffizi Gallery, who authenticated the painting. Poggi and Geri, after taking the painting for \"safekeeping\", informed the police, who arrested Peruggia at his hotel. After its recovery, the painting was exhibited all over Italy with banner headlines rejoicing its return and then returned to the Louvre in 1913. While the painting was famous before the theft, the notoriety it received from the newspaper headlines and the large scale police investigation helped the artwork become one of the best known in the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and personal life.", "content": "Peruggia was released from jail after a short time and served in the Italian army during World War I. He later married, had one daughter, Celestina, returned to France, and continued to work as a painter decorator using his birth name Pietro Peruggia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "He died on October 8, 1925 (his 44th birthday) in the town of Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, France. His death was not widely reported by the media; obituaries appeared mistakenly only when another Vincenzo Peruggia died in Haute-Savoie in 1947.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motivations.", "content": "There are currently two predominant theories regarding the theft of the \"Mona Lisa\". Peruggia said he did it for a patriotic reason: he wanted to bring the painting back for display in Italy \"after it was stolen by Napoleon\". Although perhaps sincere in his motive, Vincenzo may not have known that Leonardo da Vinci took this painting as a gift for Francis I when he moved to France to become a painter in his court during the 16th century, 250 years before Napoleon's birth.  Experts have questioned the 'patriotism' motive on the grounds that—if 'patriotism' was the true motive—Peruggia would have donated the painting to an Italian museum, rather than have attempted to profit from its sale. The question of money is also confirmed by letters that Peruggia sent to his father after the theft. On December 22, 1911, four months after the theft, he wrote that Paris was where \"I will make my fortune and that his (fortune) will arrive in one shot.\" The following year (1912), he wrote: \"I am making a vow for you to live long and enjoy the prize that your son is about to realize for you and for all our family.\"  Put on trial, the court agreed, to some extent, that Peruggia committed his crime for patriotic reasons and gave him a lenient sentence. He was sent to jail for one year and 15 days, but was hailed as a great patriot in Italy and served only seven months in jail.  Another theory emerged later. The theft may have been encouraged or masterminded by Eduardo de Valfierno, a con-man who had commissioned the French art forger Yves Chaudron to make copies of the painting so he could sell them as the missing original. The copies would have gone up in value if the original were stolen. This theory is based entirely on a 1932 article by former Hearst journalist Karl Decker in \"The Saturday Evening Post\". Decker claimed to have known \"Valfierno\" and heard the story from him in 1913, promising not to print it until he learned of Valfierno's death. There is no external confirmation for this tale.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vincenzo Peruggia (October 8,1881 – October 8, 1925) was an Italian thief, most famous for stealing the \"Mona Lisa\" on 21 August 1911. Born in Dumenza, Varese, Italy, he died in Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975314}
{"src_title": "Azrou", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The market town of Azrou is located at a strategic crossroads of the N13 and N8 roads towards the northern end of the Middle Atlas. The N13 road connects Azrou to Meknes in the north west and Midelt in the south east. The National Route N8 comes from Fes in the north east and continues to Khenifra and then Marrakech in the south west.  Azrou is at an altitude of 1250 m and surrounded by mountains covered with evergreen holm oak and cedar.  The Cèdre Gouraud Forest is located to the south east, where one of the sub-populations of the Barbary macaque, \"Macaca sylvanus\" (called \"magots\") is found. In addition to its rich biodiversity symbolized by the famous cedar forest there are the butterflies which are unique in the world. The surroundings of Azrou are a centre of attraction for the residents, hikers, and picnickers of the large neighbouring towns. These surroundings are also home to the 'Cedre Gouraud' or 'Grand Cedar', a famous tourist attraction. This place is also famous due to the macaque apes that live in the area and are drawn by tourist activity. Moreover, the Azrou forest provides an excellent hiking and exercising environment and also holds several summer camps for children. Azrou urban construction is in the European style (red tile roofs).  The region is also known for its cherry trees, apple trees, fish farms, and the abandoned sanatorium in the surrounding metropolitan area of Ben Smim.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toponymy.", "content": "\"Azrou\" is a geomorphological name taken from the landform of a large rock outcrop (Aẓro, ⴰⵥⵔⵓ, means \"rock\" or \"stone\" in the Berber language Tamazight) in the centre of the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first record of Azrou village in history in a letter sent by Fernão Taveira to king Emmaniel the 1st of Portugal.  Azrou is mostly known for hosting the first high school in the Berber region: the Berber high school of Azrou (now the Tarik Ibn Ziad School). It was built by the French colonial authorities in order to train Moroccans for the colonial administration. It was one of the instruments for the implementation of a Berber Dhahir, which changed the justice system in areas where Amazigh languages were predominantly spoken, excluding these areas from Sharia and the authority of the Makhzen that applied to the rest of Morocco, and implementing a new legal system ostensibly in accordance with Amazigh laws and customs written in French.  The college became an educational institution in the reference area, forming part of the political and military elites from 1956 to 1973, after independence, the college was renamed Azrou Tarik Ibn Ziad High School.  The town was long neglected by the Moroccan authorities since independence in 1956 to the detriment of the nearby town of Ifrane. Although it is the true capital of the Middle Atlas and a town that has given Morocco many leaders and intellectuals, the town still does not officially rank as provincial capital, although it is in practice.  The town has several hotels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twinning.", "content": "The city has signed a protocol of cooperation with Blois in July 2011", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Azrou (Berber: Aẓro, ⴰⵥⵔⵓ, Arabic: أزرو) is a Moroccan town 89 kilometres south of Fez in Ifrane Province of the Fès-Meknès region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975315}
{"src_title": "Cycas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Range.", "content": "The genus is native to the Old World, with the species concentrated around the equatorial regions - eastern and southeastern Asia including the Philippines with 10 species (9 of which are endemic), eastern Africa (including Madagascar), northern Australia, Polynesia, and Micronesia. Australia has 26 species, while the Indo-Chinese area has about 30. India has 9 species. The northernmost species (\"C. revoluta\") is found at 31°N in southern Japan. The southernmost (\"C. megacarpa\") is found at 26°S in southeast Queensland. Due to the occurrence of large number of \"Cycas\" species in China, Australia and India, those countries are considered as centres of \"Cycas\" diversity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "The earliest fossils of the genus \"Cycas\" appear in the Cenozoic although \"Cycas\"-like fossils that may belong to Cycadaceae extend well into the Mesozoic. \"Cycas\" is not closely related to other genera of cycads, and phylogenetic studies have shown that Cycadaceae is the sister-group to all other extant cycads. \"Cycas\" is thought to retain a number of ancestral characters that have been modified in the other cycads (Stangeriaceae and Zamiaceae): in particular, the ovulate ('female') cone has very large ovules attached to megasporophylls that are held in a lax rosette rather than in the tight cone found in other cycads.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "The plants are dioecious, and the family Cycadaceae is unique among the cycads in not forming seed cones on female plants, but rather a group of leaf-like structures called megasporophylls each with seeds on the lower margins, and pollen cones or strobilus on male individuals.  The caudex is cylindrical, surrounded by the persistent petiole bases. Most species form distinct branched or unbranched trunks but in some species the main trunk can be subterranean with the leaf crown appearing to arise directly from the ground. There are two types of leaves - foliage leaves and scaly leaves. The foliage leaves are pinnate (or more rarely bipinnate) and arranged spirally, with thick and hard keratinose. They are not permanent and fall off leaving back leaf-bases. The leaflets are articulated, have midrib but lack secondary veins. The scaly leaves are persistent, brown in colour and protective in function. Megasporophylls are not gathered in cones. Pollination takes place by air.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The plant takes several years to grow, sexual reproduction takes place after 10 years of exclusive vegetative growth which occurs by bulbils arising at the base of the trunk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "\"Cycas\" species are threatened worldwide and almost all the species are listed in IUCN Redlist. \"Cycas beddomei\" is the only species of the genus \"Cycas\" listed in Appendix I of CITES. \"Cycas rumphii\" and \"Cycas pectinata\" have the most widespread distribution.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cycas is a genus of plants belonging to a very ancient lineage, the Cycadophyta, which are not closely related to palms. ferns, trees or any other modern group of plants. They are evergreen perennials which achieved their maximum diversity in the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, when they were distributed almost worldwide. At the end of the Cretaceous, when the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct, so did most of the cycas in the Northern Hemisphere.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975316}
{"src_title": "Lasius fuliginosus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The species has a wide distribution in Europe and Asia, from Portugal and Ireland in the west, Finland in the north to Italy in the south, and eastwards to Korea and Japan. In the UK, records suggest that while occasionally found further North before 1970, it is now found mostly south of The Wash, in East Anglia and Southern England, with a few colonies found in Ireland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physiology and behavior.", "content": "To communicate alarm, the species has been known to dispense Dendrolasin (C15H22O), a Terpenoid compound, from their mandibular glands.  The species is closely related to the Nitidulid beetle \"Amphotis marginata\", called the \"highwayman\" of the local ant world. The beetles occupy shelters along the foraging trails of \"L. fuliginosis\". When night comes, they patrol the trails and take food from the ants returning to the nest. They specifically target those ants with a lot of food in their bodies. They trick ants into regurgitating into their mouths, a common act between ants and other animals called \"trophallaxis\". The ants soon realize they have been tricked and begin to fight the beetle. The beetle responds by removing itself from the ants' mouths and flattening its body to the ground in a way that ants cannot roll them over and effectively combat them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environment.", "content": "The species builds a \"cardboard\" nest in old hollow trees, using \"board\" – a mixture of chewed wood with saliva. A nest contains only one queen, but a large colony can contain as many as 15,000 workers.  Like other black ants they tend populations of aphids for their honeydew, and can often be seen travelling in both directions, following scent-trails for long distances to their source of food, which is often a tree. The trails the species make to forage and transport food commonly last for months. As the workers clear the paths of vegetation and debris, making the path easy for massive amounts of ants to travel efficiently. They rarely carry other insects back to the nest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction as a hyperparasite.", "content": "While other black ants such as \"Lasius niger\", the smaller but much more common (in the UK) species, a queen founds its own nest by laying eggs and then feeding the new larvae with a fluid produced by breaking down its own muscles; a process that leaves her terrible weak as she cannot tend the larvae and forage for food at the same time. A post-nuptial queen of \"Lasius fuliginosus\" cannot found her own nests, but establishes a nest through social parasitism in another species of the same genus - \"Lasius umbratus\", a rare yellow ant with an underground habit (unlike the common yellow ant \"Lasius flavus\" which makes small mounds in grass and lawns). She kills or ousts the existing queen and lays eggs, which the existing workers tend. Her offspring workers then slowly take over the nest. \"Lasius umbratis\" also establishes its nest in a similar way, by taking over the nest of \"Lasius niger\", the common black ant, so \"Lasius fuliginosus\" is sometimes referred to as a hyperparasite.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lasius fuliginosus, also known as the jet ant or jet black ant, is a species of ant in the subfamily Formicinae. Workers have a black shiny colour and a length of about 4–6 mm, females are larger (6–6.5 mm) and small males reach a length of 4.5–5 mm). The head is heart-shaped.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975317}
{"src_title": "Garou (singer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Profile.", "content": "Garou began playing the guitar at the age of three at the encouragement of his father (he also plays piano and trumpet). He went on to serve in the military and started a band in 1992 called the Untouchables. In 1997, he was discovered by Luc Plamondon while singing American blues tunes in a Sherbrooke bar. He was drafted by Plamondon to play the role of Quasimodo in his musical Notre-Dame de Paris, which made him a star in France.  His first album \"Seul\" became the best-selling French album of 2001 and remains one of the best-selling French albums of all time, achieving 2 million sales in Europe and going three times platinum in Canada.  He continued his string of hits with a \"live album\" and his sophomore effort \"Reviens\" in 2003. Sales for his third album \"Garou\" remained strong and he released his English crossover \"Piece of My Soul\" in 2008. The album debuted at No. 2 in Canada and No. 3 in France. Despite this, the album became his first album in France not to reach platinum status although it became his best-selling album in North America in seven years. His next album, \"Gentleman cambrioleur\" features cover songs in French and English and became his first album to miss the top five in France, where it modestly peaked at No. 35, staying on the charts for 17 weeks. He released \"Version Intégrale\" in 2010 which became another Top 40 hit in France and Canada.  Garou performed the Jean-Pierre Ferland song \"Un peu plus haut, un peu plus loin\" (A Little Higher, A Little Farther) at the 2010 Winter Olympics opening ceremony in Vancouver, British Columbia. He has also performed at the charity event Les Enfoirés for the past 19 years.  His latest effort \"Rhythm and Blues\" became his highest peaking album in four years. It is his second covers album and pays tribute to classic R&B music.  He hosted the first two editions of \"Destination Eurovision\", the selection show to choose the French entry for the Eurovision Song Contest, for France 2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collaborations.", "content": "Garou has become well known for his collaborations. He has worked with Luc Plamondon in Notre-dame de Paris. The single \"Belle\" was lifted from the musical and stayed atop the French charts for a record-breaking 18 weeks. The single remained the most successful song in French history until 2009. In 2000, he had a successful duet with Celine Dion. \"Sous le vent\" became his third number one single in France. In 2004 he worked with Michel Sardou for his fourth and final No. 1 single, \"La Rivière de notre enfance\". The following year he appeared with 15-year-old singer Marilou on \"Tu es comme ça.\"  He has also worked with several popular songwriters, including Jean-Jacques Goldman and Pascal Obispo. For his first album in English, Garou collaborated with some of the biggest names in music. The single \"Stand Up\" was written by Rob Thomas. He also sang the song \"First Day of My Life\", which was a big hit all over Europe in 2006 for former Spice Girl Melanie C, written by Guy Chambers and Enrique Iglesias.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Garou has a daughter named Emelie, with his ex-girlfriend, Ulrika, a former model. After they broke up he dated a former Yemeni singer and entertainer Arwa Jassem known as Lahlouba. From 2007 to June 2010 he dated French singer Lorie.  Garou is a member of the Les Enfoirés charity ensemble since 1999.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Garand (born 26 June 1972), known by his stage name Garou (a diminutive of his last name \"Garand\"), is a Canadian singer and actor from Sherbrooke, Québec.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975318}
{"src_title": "Clay", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formation.", "content": "Clay minerals typically form over long periods as a result of the gradual chemical weathering of rocks, usually silicate-bearing, by low concentrations of carbonic acid and other diluted solvents. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the weathering rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the weathering process, some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of clay deposits: primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation. Secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are typically associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes and marine basins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grouping.", "content": "Depending on the academic source, there are three or four main groups of clays: kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a separate group within the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of \"pure\" clays in these categories, but most \"natural\" clay deposits are mixtures of these different types, along with other weathered minerals.  Varve (or \"varved clay\") is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by seasonal deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion and organic content. This type of deposit is common in former glacial lakes. When fine sediments are delivered into the calm waters of these glacial lake basins away from the shoreline, they settle to the lake bed. The resulting seasonal layering is preserved in an even distribution of clay sediment banding.  Quick clay is a unique type of marine clay indigenous to the glaciated terrains of Norway, Canada, Northern Ireland, and Sweden. It is a highly sensitive clay, prone to liquefaction, which has been involved in several deadly landslides.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Identification.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "X-ray diffraction.", "content": "Powder X-ray diffraction can be used to identify clays.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemical.", "content": "The physical and reactive chemical properties can be used to help elucidate the composition of clays.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical and modern uses.", "content": "Clays exhibit plasticity when mixed with water in certain proportions. However, when dry, clay becomes firm, and when fired in a kiln, permanent physical and chemical changes occur. These changes convert the clay into a ceramic material. Because of these properties, clay is used for making pottery, both utilitarian and decorative, and construction products, such as bricks, walls, and floor tiles. Different types of clay, when used with different minerals and firing conditions, are used to produce earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. Prehistoric humans discovered the useful properties of clay. Some of the earliest pottery shards recovered are from central Honshu, Japan. They are associated with the Jōmon culture, and recovered deposits have been dated to around 14,000 BC. Cooking pots, art objects, dishware, smoking pipes, and even musical instruments such as the ocarina can all be shaped from clay before being fired.  Clay tablets were the first known writing medium. Scribes wrote by inscribing them with cuneiform script using a blunt reed called a stylus. Purpose-made clay balls were used as sling ammunition. Clay is used in many industrial processes, such as paper making, cement production, and chemical filtering. Until the late 20th century, bentonite clay was widely used as a mold binder in the manufacture of sand castings.  Clay, being relatively impermeable to water, is also used where natural seals are needed, such as in the cores of dams, or as a barrier in landfills against toxic seepage (lining the landfill, preferably in combination with geotextiles). Studies in the early 21st century have investigated clay's absorption capacities in various applications, such as the removal of heavy metals from waste water and air purification.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical use.", "content": "Traditional uses of clay as medicine goes back to prehistoric times. An example is Armenian bole, which is used to soothe an upset stomach. Some animals such as parrots and pigs ingest clay for similar reasons. Kaolin clay and attapulgite have been used as anti-diarrheal medicines.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As a building material.", "content": "Clay as the defining ingredient of loam is one of the oldest building materials on Earth, among other ancient, naturally-occurring geologic materials such as stone and organic materials like wood. Between one-half and two-thirds of the world's population, in both traditional societies as well as developed countries, still live or work in buildings made with clay, often baked into brick, as an essential part of its load-bearing structure. Also a primary ingredient in many natural building techniques, clay is used to create adobe, cob, cordwood, and rammed earth structures and building elements such as wattle and daub, clay plaster, clay render case, clay floors and clay paints and ceramic building material. Clay was used as a mortar in brick chimneys and stone walls where protected from water.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Clay is a type of fine-grained natural soil material that contains hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates (clay minerals) that develops plasticity when wet. Geologic clay deposits are mostly composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to particle size and geometry as well as water content, and become hard, brittle and non–plastic upon drying or firing. Depending on the soil's content in which it is found, clay can appear in various colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975319}
{"src_title": "João Pinto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Football career.", "content": "As a youth, Pinto played for Bairro do Falcão (where he was born, in Campanhã, Porto's east side) and Águias da Areosa FC, and once tried to join FC Porto's youth system – refused, he moved to Boavista F.C. instead. As a child, he impressed with his speed and ball control, and was subsequently one of the brightest stars in Portugal's wins in the FIFA U-20 World Cup in Riyadh and Lisbon, being one of three players ever to have been on the winning side in this competition twice, along with goalkeeper Fernando Brassard (whom however did not play in the first tournament) and Argentinian Sergio Agüero; additionally, he made his Primeira Liga debut at only 17.  Pinto's performance in the first youth competition earned him a transfer to Atlético Madrid in 1990, but he was placed instead with the club's B-team. After a forgettable season he rejoined Boavista, played every game, scored eight goals and helped his team win the 1992 Portuguese Cup, in a final against city rivals Porto; shortly after, he signed with S.L. Benfica.  Whilst with Benfica, Pinto's career was threatened in late 1992 by a collapsed lung during an international match for Portugal in Scotland for the 1994 FIFA World Cup qualifiers– he did recover, but was unable to help the team win the title. However, in the next season, he played arguably his best football there, his best moment coming in the Lisbon derby against Sporting CP, where he scored three goals and was on the play of the remaining three in a 6–3 win at the Estádio José Alvalade; this result proved to be decisive for the club's clinching of the 1994 national championship.  Dubbed \"The Golden Boy\", Pinto won club captaincy from veteran António Veloso after the latter's retirement in 1995, but was unable to win a national title again. Arguably, the lack of quality of a poorly managed Benfica side played a part in his lack of development after 1995, as he was considered as the main talent of the Portuguese squad alongside playmaker Rui Costa. Finally, after a wage dispute with president João Vale e Azevedo, he was released from contract weeks before the UEFA Euro 2000 (making him the only free-agent in the competition), where he helped the national team reach the semi-finals after scoring eight goals during the qualifying stage: on 13 June 2000, he netted through a header against England for a 3–2 group stage win, after a two-goal disadvantage; he was also selected for Euro 1996.  After the end of the tournament Pinto had several offers from abroad, and after almost signing with Porto he settled for Sporting instead, agreeing to a four-year deal. After a relatively poor season in 2000–01, the \"Lions\" hired four-time Portuguese Golden Boot winner Mário Jardel, and Pinto returned to his golden years in a magnificent run which ended with the conquest of his second title; named the \"father of the team\" by the Brazilian, he played all but one game and scored nine goals.  Although a highly talented player, Pinto was also known for a series of red cards for aggression and bad tackles – his feud with Porto player and national teammate Paulinho Santos lasted for years, and both players would be frequently sent off after hitting each other. Other incidents that stirred some controversy included one case of aggression against a fireman during the half-time break and elbowing a C.F. Estrela da Amadora player during a practice match.  The lowest point, however, was when Pinto hit Argentine referee Ángel Sánchez (in the third group stage game, against South Korea, at the 2002 World Cup), who had sent him off after a bad tackle early in the match. He was suspended for six months, eventually missing six Portuguese League matches and two international matches for Portugal.  Pinto ended his Portugal career with 81 caps, 23 goals, and appearances in Euro 1996, Euro 2000 and the 2002 World Cup. Never recovering fully from the incident at the latter tournament, he failed to impress in the following seasons, when Sporting failed to reach the top two spots, and in 2004 he was released from contract, returning to Boavista. Although he was close to signing with Al-Hilal FC of Saudi Arabia in the January transfer window, he remained with his first professional club.  After a second season carrying Boavista's squad (who almost qualified for UEFA Cup, with him scoring nine league goals and receiving numerous Player of the match awards), Pinto accepted the invitation of S.C. Braga's board in July 2006, signing for one year. He netted twice in 24 appearances in an eventual fourth-place finish for the Minho side, and extended his contract for the 2007–08 campaign; however, during February 2008, he trained with Toronto FC of Major League Soccer and, late into that month, announced the termination of his contract at Braga, retiring shortly after at nearly 37 years of age.  Subsequently, Pinto worked with the Portuguese Football Federation in directorial capacities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Still in his teens, Pinto had two children from his first marriage to Carla Baía. The elder, Tiago, first played professionally with C.D. Olivais e Moscavide; in 2008 he married television presenter Marisa Cruz, with the couple divorcing five years later.  Pinto's younger brother, Sérgio, was also a footballer, having played almost exclusively in the lower leagues of Portugal and one year in England.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Boavista  Benfica  Sporting", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Portugal", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "João Manuel Vieira Pinto (; born 19 August 1971) is a Portuguese retired professional footballer who played mostly as a forward.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975320}
{"src_title": "The Shadow of the Wind", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The novel is actually a story within a story. The boy, Daniel Sempere, in his quest to discover Julián's other works, becomes involved in tracing the entire history of Carax. His friend, who goes by the alias of Fermín Romero de Torres, was imprisoned and tortured in Montjuïc Castle as a result of his involvement in espionage against the government during the Civil War. He helps Daniel in a number of ways, but their probing into the murky past of a number of people who have been either long dead or long forgotten unleashes the dark forces of the murderous Inspector Fumero.  Thus, unravelling a long story that has been buried in the depths of oblivion, Daniel and Fermín come across a love story, the beautiful yet tragic story of Julián and Penélope, both of whom seem to have been missing since 1919—that is, nearly thirty years earlier. Julián, who was the son of the hatter Antoni Fortuny and his wife Sophie Carax (but preferred to use his mother's last name), and Penélope Aldaya, the only daughter of the extremely wealthy Don Ricardo Aldaya and his beautiful, narcissistic American wife, developed an instant love for each other and lived a clandestine relationship only through casual furtive glances and faint smiles for around four years, after which they decided to elope to Paris, unaware that the shadows of misfortune had been closing in on them ever since they had met. The two lovers are doomed to unknown fates just a week before their supposed elopement, which is meticulously planned by Julián's best friend, Miquel Moliner—also the son of a wealthy father, who had earned much during the war, including a bad reputation for selling ammunition. It is eventually revealed that Miquel loved Julián more than any brother and finally sacrificed his own life for him, having already abandoned his desires and his youth for causes of charity and his friend's well-being after his elopement to Paris -- although without Penélope, who never turned up for the rendezvous.  Penélope's memory keeps burning in Julián's heart, and this eventually forces him to return to Barcelona (in the mid 1930s); however he encounters the harsh truth about Penélope, nothing more than a memory to those who knew her since she had never been seen or heard of again by anyone after 1919. Daniel discovers, from the note Nuria Monfort left for him, that Julián and Penélope are actually half-brother and sister; her father had an affair with his mother and Julián was the result. The worst thing he learns is that after Julián left, Penélope's parents imprisoned her because they were ashamed of her committing incest with him and she was pregnant with his child. Penélope gave birth to a son named David Aldaya, who was stillborn. Penélope died in childbirth, due to her parents' ignoring her cries for help, and her body was placed in the family crypt along with her child's. When returning to the Aldaya Mansion, Julián is enraged and embittered by the news of his love's death along with their child's. He hates every wasted second of his life without Penélope and hates his books all the more. He begins to burn all of his novels and calls himself Lain Coubert.  After finishing reading the book, Daniel marries Beatriz \"Bea\" Aguilar, whom he has loved for a long time, in 1956. Soon after, Bea gives birth to a son. Daniel names his son Julián Sempere, in honor of Julián Carax. In 1966, Daniel takes Julián to the Cemetery of Forgotten Books, where \"The Shadow of the Wind\" is kept.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "The novel received positive to mixed reviews from literary critics. Stephen King wrote, \"If you thought the true gothic novel died with the 19th century, this will change your mind. Shadow is the real deal.\" \"Entertainment Weekly\" assigned the book a grade of A, describing the book as \"wondrous\" and noting that \"there are places in which the book might seem a little over-the-top (doomed love, gruesome murders) but for Zafon's masterful, meticulous plotting and extraordinary control over language\". \"The Guardian\" considered that \"Zafón's novel is atmospheric, beguiling and thoroughly readable, but ultimately lacks the magic its early chapters promise\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Shadow of the Wind () is a 2001 novel by the Spanish writer Carlos Ruiz Zafón and a worldwide bestseller. The book was translated into English in 2004 by Lucia Graves and sold over a million copies in the UK after already achieving success on mainland Europe, topping the Spanish bestseller lists for weeks. It was published in the United States by Penguin Books and in Great Britain by Weidenfeld & Nicolson and Orion Books. It is believed to have sold 15 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling books of all time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975321}
{"src_title": "Australian brushturkey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biology.", "content": "It is a large bird with black feathers and a red head. Its total length is about and a wingspan of about. The subspecies \"A. l. purpureicollis\" from the northern Cape York Peninsula is smaller than the more widespread nominate subspecies. It has a prominent, fan-like tail flattened sideways, and its plumage is mainly blackish, but with a bare red head, and a yellow (in the nominate subspecies) or purple wattle (in \"A. l. purpureicollis\"). The males' wattles become much larger during breeding season, often swinging from side to side as they run. The males' heads and wattles also become much brighter during the breeding and nesting season. The underside of the body is sprinkled with white feathers, more pronounced in older birds. The brushturkey is a clumsy flyer and cannot fly long distances, only taking to the air when threatened by predators or to roost in trees at night and during the heat of the day.  They build large nests on the ground made of leaves, other compostable material, and earth, high and up to across. Mound-building is done by a dominant male, and visited by a succession of local females, for mating and egg-laying. The male works tirelessly, collecting material from all around, and also diligently repelling rival males, which are keen to usurp his position. The effort involved eventually wears him down, and he will ultimately be defeated by a new king. The eggs are very large (90 × 45 mm), and the young are fully fledged on hatching. They can fly within hours, as soon as the feathers are dry. The eggs are hatched by the heat of the composting mound, the temperature of which is regulated by adding or removing material to maintain the temperature in the incubation temperature range. The Australian brushturkey checks the temperature by sticking its beak into the mound. Like some reptiles, incubation temperature affects the sex ratio of chicks, but the mechanism is different between reptiles and these birds, with reptiles exhibiting temperature-dependent sex determination, and megapodes exhibiting temperature-dependent embryo mortality. The sex ratio in brushturkeys is equal at incubation temperatures of 34°C, but results in more males when cooler and more females when warmer (p=0.035). Whether the parents use this to manipulate the sex of their offspring by, for instance, selecting the nesting site accordingly, is unclear. Warmer incubation also results in heavier, fitter chicks (p<0.0001), but how this is linked to gender is also unknown.  The same nesting site is frequently used year after year, with the old nests being added to each breeding season. The average clutch of eggs is between 16 and 24 large white eggs, which are laid September to March. Sometimes, up to 50 eggs laid by several females may be found in a single mound. The eggs are placed in a circle roughly down, apart, always with the large end up. The newly hatched young dig themselves out of the mound and then have to care for themselves.  Brushturkey eggs are a favourite food of goannas, snakes, and dingoes and dogs, though brushturkeys were also a staple of Aboriginal Australians. Often, goannas exhibit wounds on their tails from having been pecked by brushturkeys that ferociously chase them away from their nests.  In situations where they come into contact with humans, such as picnic areas in national parks and suburban gardens, brushturkeys exhibit little fear and often boldly attempt to steal food from tables and raid compost bins. They nest in suburban gardens, and in search of material for their nests remove enormous amounts of mulch from gardens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The Australian brushturkey inhabits rainforests and wet sclerophyll forests, but can also be found in drier scrubs and open areas. In the northern part of its range, the Australian brushturkey is most common at higher altitudes, but individuals move to the lowland areas in winter. In the south, it is common in both mountain and lowland regions.  Brushturkeys are now common in urban environments and can be found in backyards in both Brisbane and Sydney.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "Brushturkeys are fairly common presently, but in the 1930s, the bird was supposed to be approaching extinction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "Brushturkeys feed upon insects, seeds, and fallen fruits, which are exposed by raking the leaf litter or breaking open rotten logs with their large feet. The majority of food is obtained from the ground, with birds occasionally observed feeding on ripening fruits among tree branches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human interaction.", "content": "The Australian brushturkey can damage gardens when raking up the ground looking for food. It can also cause extensive damage to food crops. The Department of Environment, Climate Change, and Water provides hints for living with brushturkeys in urban environments.  They are sometimes hunted for food, including as part of the diet by traditional Aboriginal Australians. Their eggs, which weigh on average, are also sometimes eaten.  The Australian brush-turkey is fully protected in Queensland. Management of its natural habitat and respect for the bird is important if the brush-turkey is to continue to have a secure future. Under the Nature Conservation Act 1992, it is an offence to harm brush turkeys. For a class 1 offence it is 3000 penalty units or 2 years imprisonment. For a class 4 offence it is 100 penalty units or $13,345.00 Au.  In New South Wales, shooting a brush turkey has resulted in fines of up to $22,000 under the Biodiversity Conservation Act.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Australian brushturkey or Australian brush-turkey or gweela (\"Alectura lathami\"), also frequently called the scrub turkey or bush turkey, is a common, widespread species of mound-building bird from the family Megapodiidae found in eastern Australia from Far North Queensland to Eurobodalla on the south coast of New South Wales. The Australian brushturkey has also been introduced to Kangaroo Island in South Australia. It is the largest extant representative of the family Megapodiidae, and is one of three species to inhabit Australia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975322}
{"src_title": "Vasily Arkhipov (vice admiral)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Arkhipov was born into a peasant family in the town of Staraya Kupavna, near Moscow. He was educated in the and participated in the Soviet–Japanese War in August 1945, serving aboard a minesweeper. He transferred to the Caspian Higher Naval School and graduated in 1947.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "After graduating in 1947, Arkhipov served in the submarine service aboard boats in the Black Sea, Northern and Baltic Fleets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"K-19\" accident.", "content": "In July 1961, Arkhipov was appointed deputy commander and therefore executive officer of the new ballistic missile submarine \"K-19\". After a few days of conducting exercises off the south-east coast of Greenland, the submarine developed an extreme leak in its reactor coolant system. This leak led to failure of the cooling system. Radio communications were also affected, and the crew was unable to make contact with Moscow. With no backup systems, Commander Zateyev ordered the seven members of the engineer crew to come up with a solution to avoid nuclear meltdown. This required the men to work in high radiation levels for extended periods. They eventually came up with a secondary coolant system and were able to keep the reactor from a meltdown. Although they were able to save themselves from a nuclear meltdown, the entire crew, including Arkhipov, were irradiated. All members of the engineer crew and their divisional officer died within a month due to the high levels of radiation they were exposed to. Over the course of two years, fifteen more sailors died from the after-effects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Involvement in Cuban Missile Crisis.", "content": "On 27 October 1962, during the Cuban Missile Crisis, a group of eleven United States Navy destroyers and the aircraft carrier located the diesel-powered, nuclear-armed near Cuba. Despite being in international waters, the Americans started dropping signaling depth charges, explosives intended to force the submarine to come to the surface for identification. There had been no contact from Moscow for a number of days and, although the submarine's crew had earlier been picking up U.S. civilian radio broadcasts, once \"B-59\" began attempting to hide from its U.S. Navy pursuers, it was too deep to monitor any radio traffic. Those on board did not know whether war had broken out or not. The captain of the submarine, Valentin Grigorievitch Savitsky, decided that a war might already have started and wanted to launch a nuclear torpedo.  Unlike the other subs in the flotilla, three officers on board \"B-59\" had to agree unanimously to authorize a nuclear launch: Captain Savitsky, the political officer Ivan Semonovich Maslennikov, and the flotilla commodore (and executive officer of B-59) Arkhipov. Typically, Russian submarines armed with the \"Special Weapon\" only required the captain to get authorization from the political officer to launch a nuclear torpedo, but due to Arkhipov's position as Commodore, \"B-59\"s captain also was required to gain Arkhipov's approval. An argument broke out, with only Arkhipov against the launch.  Even though Arkhipov was second-in-command of the submarine \"B-59\", he was in fact Commodore of the entire submarine flotilla, including \"B-4\", \"B-36\" and \"B-130\". According to author Edward Wilson, the reputation Arkhipov had gained from his courageous conduct in the previous year's \"K-19\" incident also helped him prevail. Arkhipov eventually persuaded Savitsky to surface and await orders from Moscow. This effectively averted the general nuclear war which probably would have ensued if the nuclear weapon had been fired. The submarine's batteries had run very low and the air-conditioning had failed, causing extreme heat and high levels of carbon dioxide inside the submarine. They were forced to surface amid the American pursuers and return to the Soviet Union as a result.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Immediately upon return to Russia, many crew members were faced with disgrace from their superiors. One admiral told them \"It would have been better if you'd gone down with your ship.\" Olga, Arkhipov's wife, even said \"he didn't like talking about it, he felt they hadn't appreciated what they had gone through.\" Each captain was required to present a report of events during the mission to the Soviet defense minister, Andrei Grechko. Grechko was infuriated with the crew's failure to follow the strict orders of secrecy after finding out they had been discovered by the Americans. One officer even noted Grechko's reaction, stating that he \"upon learning that it was the diesel submarines that went to Cuba, removed his glasses and hit them against the table in fury, breaking them into small pieces and abruptly leaving the room after that.\"  In 2002, retired Commander Vadim Pavlovich Orlov, a participant in the events, held a press conference revealing the subs were armed with nuclear torpedoes and that Arkhipov was the reason those devices had not been fired. Orlov presented the events less dramatically, saying that Captain Savitsky lost his temper, but eventually calmed down.  When discussing the Cuban Missile Crisis in 2002, Robert McNamara, the U.S. Secretary of Defense at the time, stated, \"We came very close\" to nuclear war, \"closer than we knew at the time.\" Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., an advisor for the John F. Kennedy administration and a historian, continued this thought by stating \"This was not only the most dangerous moment of the Cold War. It was the most dangerous moment in human history.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life and death.", "content": "Arkhipov continued in Soviet Navy service, commanding submarines and later submarine squadrons. He was promoted to rear admiral in 1975, and became head of the Kirov Naval Academy. Arkhipov was promoted to vice admiral in 1981 and retired in the mid-1980s.  He subsequently settled in Kupavna (which was incorporated into Zheleznodorozhny, Moscow Oblast, in 2004), where he died on 19 August 1998. The radiation to which Arkhipov had been exposed in 1961 may have contributed to his kidney cancer, like many others who served with him in the \"K-19\" accident.  Nikolai Vladimirovich Zateyev, the commander of the submarine \"K-19\" at the time of its onboard nuclear accident, died nine days later, on 28 August 1998. Both Arkhipov and Zateyev were 72 at the time of their deaths.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Vasili Arkhipov was married to Olga Arkhipova until his death in 1998. They had a daughter named Yelena.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Character.", "content": "Arkhipov was known to be a shy and humble man. In a PBS documentary titled \"The Man Who Saved the World\", his wife described him as intelligent, polite and very calm. Much of what is known about his personality comes from her. According to her, he enjoyed searching for newspapers during their vacations and tried to stay up-to-date with the modern world as much as possible. In this same interview, Olga alludes to her husband's possible superstitious beliefs as well. She recalls walking in on Vasili burning a bundle of their love letters inside their house, claiming that keeping the letters would mean \"bad luck\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The \"K-19\" accident was the basis for the 2002 film, \"\".  The 4th track on the 2017 album \"The Dusk in Us\" by mathcore band Converge is titled \"Arkhipov Calm\" and is based on his Cuban missile crisis decision.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "In recognition of his actions onboard B-59, Arkhipov received the first \"Future of Life Award,\" which was presented posthumously to his family in 2017. Offered by the Future of Life Institute, this award recognizes exceptional measures, often performed despite personal risk and without obvious reward, to safeguard the collective future of humanity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vasili Alexandrovich Arkhipov (, 30 January 1926 – 19 August 1998) was a Soviet Navy officer credited with preventing a Soviet nuclear strike (and, presumably, all-out nuclear war) during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Such an attack likely would have caused a major global thermonuclear response.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975323}
{"src_title": "Gian Carlo Menotti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Born in Cadegliano-Viconago, Italy, near Lake Maggiore and the Swiss border, Menotti was the sixth of eight children of Alfonso and Ines Menotti, his father being a coffee merchant. Menotti began writing songs when he was seven years old, and at eleven wrote both the libretto and music for his first opera, \"The Death of Pierrot\". He began his formal musical training at the Milan Conservatory in 1923.  Following her husband's death, Ines Menotti went to Colombia in a futile attempt to salvage the family's coffee business. She took Gian Carlo with her, and in 1928 she enrolled him at Philadelphia's Curtis Institute of Music, but she returned to Italy. Armed with a letter of introduction from the wife of Arturo Toscanini, Gian Carlo studied composition at Curtis under Rosario Scalero. Fellow students at Curtis included Leonard Bernstein and Samuel Barber.  Barber became Menotti's partner in life and in work, with Menotti crafting the libretto for Barber's most famous opera, \"Vanessa\", which premiered at the Metropolitan Opera in 1958. As a student, Menotti spent much of his time with the Barber family in West Chester, Pennsylvania. After graduation, the two men bought a house together in Mount Kisco, New York, which they named \"Capricorn\" and shared for over forty years.  In 1974, Menotti adopted Francis \"Chip\" Phelan, an American actor and figure skater he had known since the early 1960s. In the same year, Menotti, persuaded by the good acoustics of the main room, purchased the ancestral home of the Marquess of Tweeddale, Yester House, in the village of Gifford, East Lothian, in Scotland. While there, he jokingly referred to himself as \"Mr McNotti\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career as composer.", "content": "It was at Curtis that Menotti wrote his first mature opera, \"Amelia Goes to the Ball\" (\"Amelia al Ballo\"), to his own Italian text. \"The Island God\" (which he suppressed, though its libretto was printed by the Metropolitan Opera and can be found in many libraries) and \"The Last Savage\" were the only other operas he wrote in Italian, the rest being in English. Like Wagner, he wrote the libretti of all his operas. His most successful works were composed in the 1940s and 1950s. Menotti also taught at the Curtis Institute of Music. Music critic Joel Honig served as his personal secretary during the late 1950s.  Menotti wrote the libretti for two of Samuel Barber's operas, \"Vanessa\" and \"A Hand of Bridge\", as well as revising the libretto for \"Antony and Cleopatra\".  \"Amelia al Ballo\" is the only one of Menotti's operas still to be published in its original or perhaps \"complementary\" Italian libretto (alongside the English) (see Ricordi editions 1937, 1976 and recent): it is an example of the traditional romantic Italianate style, with a nod to (but not an imitation of) Puccini and, notably, Mascagni (whose final opera, \"Nerone\", had premiered in 1935). The success of \"Amelia\" prompted NBC to commission an opera specifically for radio, \"The Old Maid and the Thief\", one of the first such works. Following this, he wrote a ballet, \"Sebastian\" (1944), and a piano concerto (1945) before returning to opera with \"The Medium\" and \"The Telephone, or L'Amour à trois\".  His first full-length opera, \"The Consul\", which premiered in 1950, won both the Pulitzer Prize for Music and the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award for Musical Play of the Year (the latter in 1954). American soprano Patricia Neway starred as the tormented protagonist Magda Sorel, for which she won the Donaldson Award for Best Actress in a Musical in 1950. Menotti apparently intended to give a role to a then-unknown Maria Callas, but the producer would not have it. In 1951, Menotti wrote his Christmas opera \"Amahl and the Night Visitors\" for NBC. It was the first opera ever written for television in America, and first aired on Christmas Eve, 1951. The opera was such a success that the broadcasting of \"Amahl and the Night Visitors\" became an annual Christmas tradition. It remains Menotti's most popular work to this day. Menotti won a second Pulitzer Prize for his opera \"The Saint of Bleecker Street\" in 1955. With \"Goya\", Menotti reverted to a traditional \"Giovane Scuola\" Italian style.  Menotti also wrote several ballets and numerous choral works. Notable among these is his cantata \"The Death of the Bishop of Brindisi\", written in 1963, and the cantata \"Landscapes and Remembrances\" in 1976 – a descriptive work of Menotti's memories of America written for the United States Bicentennial. Also worthy of note is a small Mass commissioned by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Baltimore – \"Mass for the Contemporary English Liturgy\". He also wrote a violin concerto, symphonies, and a stage play, \"The Leper\". It was in the field of opera, however, that he made his most notable contributions to American cultural life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of Menotti's operas.", "content": "OTHER WORKS", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spoleto Festivals.", "content": "Menotti founded the Festival of Two Worlds in Spoleto, Italy in 1958, and its companion festival, Spoleto Festival USA, in Charleston, South Carolina in 1977. For three weeks each summer, Spoleto is visited by nearly a half-million people. These festivals were intended to bring opera to a popular audience and helped launch the careers of such artists as singer Shirley Verrett and choreographers Paul Taylor and Twyla Tharp.  In June and July 2007 the Festival of Two Worlds, which Menotti founded and oversaw until his death, dedicated the 50th Anniversary of the Festival to his memory, organised by his son Francis. Menotti works performed during the festival included \"Maria Golovin\", \"Landscapes and Remembrances\", \"Missa O Pulchritudo\", and \"The Unicorn, the Gorgon, and the Manticore\".  Spoleto in Melbourne  He left Spoleto USA in 1993 to take the helm of the Rome Opera, and in 1986, he extended the concept to a Spoleto Festival in Melbourne, Australia. Menotti was the artistic director during the period of 1986–88, but after three festivals there, he decided to withdraw – and took the naming rights with him. However, while he was in Melbourne, he put the finishing touches to his opera \"Goya\". The Melbourne Spoleto Festival has now become the Melbourne International Arts Festival.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "In 1984 Menotti was awarded a Kennedy Center Honor for achievement in the arts, and in 1991 he was chosen \"Musical America\"'s \"Musician of the Year\". In addition to composing operas to his own texts, on his chosen subject matter, Menotti directed most productions of his work.  In 1997, he was awarded the Brock Commission from the American Choral Directors Association.  In 2010, the main theatre in Spoleto was renamed as the \"Teatro Nuovo Gian Carlo Menotti\" to honour his role as creator and spirit of the festival.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Vocal scores of his compositions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gian Carlo Menotti (, ; July 7, 1911 – February 1, 2007) was an Italian-American composer and librettist. Although he often referred to himself as an American composer, he kept his Italian citizenship. He wrote the classic Christmas opera \"Amahl and the Night Visitors\", along with over two dozen other operas intended to appeal to popular taste.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975324}
{"src_title": "Karel Kryl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Kryl was born on April 12, 1944, in Kroměříž, in the Nazi occupied Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, however his family had roots in Nový Jičín, where they later moved to. The Kryl family owned a printing business, which was confiscated from them after the communist takeover in 1948. Kryl planned to be a potter and studied at an industrial secondary school in Bechyně where he specialized in ceramics. He graduated in 1962.  Kryl moved to Prague in 1968 as an assistant at Czechoslovak Television. In his spare time he performed his romantic and satiric folk songs in numerous small clubs. When the Warsaw Pact armies occupied Czechoslovakia on August 21, 1968, to suppress the Prague Spring reform movement, Kryl released his first album. The title song \"Bratříčku zavírej vrátka\" (\"Keep the Gate Closed, Little Brother\") was composed spontaneously on August 22, 1968 as an immediate reaction to the occupation. The album described his perception of the inhumanity of the regime and his views on life under communist rule. The album, released in early 1969, was banned and removed from shelves shortly after, but this could not prevent the songs from getting around the audience and becoming cult hits.  Kryl left Czechoslovakia in 1969 to attend a music festival at Waldeck Castle in West Germany. Faced with certainty of imprisonment in his homeland, he decided to apply for political asylum and stay abroad. His second album, \"Rakovina\" (meaning \"Cancer\" in Czech) was banned in Czechoslovakia; however, copies were smuggled into the country and circulated widely. The title song, and other songs on the album, reflected on the paralysis that brought the nation of the Prague Spring on its knees and into a new subjugation; they reference the self-sacrifice of Jan Palach as well as the brutal suppression by the Czechoslovak police of peaceful protests on the first anniversary of the 1968 invasion. Kryl attained a second, German, graduation in 1973 and went on to study art history and journalism at the Ludwig Maximilian University in Munich, though he never attained a title. For the majority of his time in exile, Kryl worked for Radio Free Europe and released a number of albums during this period. Though his albums were banned in Czechoslovakia and not played on government-controlled radio stations, many of his songs became iconic back in his homeland, where listening to his records or singing his songs became a major component of underground protest. Kryl went on several tours across Scandinavia, North America and Australia. During this time, he composed songs not only in his native Czech, but also in Polish and German.  In the enthusiastic November days of 1989, during the Velvet Revolution, Kryl returned to Czechoslovakia to attend his mother's funeral. At first he was thrilled with the end of totalism, but he soon became openly disappointed with the course of transformation of the politics and society. He continued to write protest songs (e.g. \"Demokracie\", \"Democracy\") criticising politicians and others responsible for the failure of the country's transition to an authentic democracy, especially those who left the Communist party in or after 1989 and suddenly became 'democrats'. Kryl also attacked those who sought to manipulate the Czech and Slovak citizens by nationalist catchphrases and lies about economic transformation. Due to the conditions in the country that he considered unbearable, he decided to leave for Germany again. On March 3, 1994, just a month before his fiftieth birthday, Karel Kryl died of a heart attack in a Munich hospital.  in memoriam:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "Karel Kryl only released one album in Czechoslovakia (\"Bratříčku, zavírej vrátka\"), but he released many albums while in exile, a prominent example would be Tekuté písky.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karel Kryl (April 12, 1944 Kroměříž – March 3, 1994 Munich) was an iconic Czechoslovak (Moravian born and Czech speaking) poet, singer-songwriter and author of many hit protest songs in which he identified and attacked the hypocrisy, stupidity and inhumanity of the Communist (and later also the post-communist) regime in his home country.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975325}
{"src_title": "George Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Fifth son of the 10th Lord Elphinstone, he was born in Elphinstone Tower, near Stirling, Scotland. Two of his brothers went to sea, and he followed their example by entering the Royal Navy in 1761, in but then transferred to, then commanded by Captain John Jervis, afterwards Earl Saint Vincent. In 1767, he made a voyage to the East Indies in the British East India Company's service, and put £2000 lent him by an uncle to such good purpose in a private trading venture that he laid the foundation of a handsome fortune. He became lieutenant in 1770, commander in 1772, and post captain in 1775.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-Captain.", "content": "During the war in America he was employed against the privateers, and with a naval brigade at the occupation of Charleston, South Carolina. In January 1781, when in command of the 50-gun, he captured a Dutch 50-gun ship which had beaten off a British vessel of equal strength a few days before. On 15 September 1782 in the Delaware Bay he led a squadron that captured the French 38 gun frigate \"Aigle\" during which Captain Latouche Tréville was taken prisoner. After peace was signed he remained on shore for ten years, serving in Parliament as member first for Dunbartonshire, and then for Stirlingshire. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1790.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Admiral.", "content": "When war broke out again in 1793, he was appointed to the 74-gun, in which he took part in the occupation of Toulon by Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood. He particularly distinguished himself by beating a body of the French ashore at the head of a naval brigade of British and Spaniards. He was entrusted with the duty of embarking the fugitives when the town was evacuated. In 1794 he was promoted rear-admiral, and in 1795 he was sent to occupy the Dutch colonies in South Africa thereby establishing the Cape of Good Hope Station. He had a large share in the capture of the Cape in 1795, and in August 1796 captured a whole Dutch squadron in Saldanha Bay. In the interval he had gone on to India, where his health suffered, and the capture at Saldanha was effected on his way home. When the Nore Mutiny broke out in 1797 he was appointed to the command, and was soon able to restore order. He was equally successful at Plymouth, where the squadron was also in a state of effervescence.  At the close of 1798, he was sent as second in command to St Vincent. It was for a long time a thankless post, for St Vincent was at once half incapacitated by ill-health and very arbitrary, while Horatio Nelson, who considered that Keith's appointment was a personal slight to himself, was peevish and insubordinate. In May 1799, he was unable to counter Bruix' expedition, mainly due to sparring among the British naval commanders. Keith followed the enemy to Brest on their retreat, but was unable to bring them to action.  He returned to the Mediterranean in November as commander-in-chief. He co-operated with the Austrians in the siege of Genoa, which surrendered on 4 June 1800. It was however immediately afterwards lost in consequence of the Battle of Marengo, and the French made their re-entry so rapidly that the admiral had considerable difficulty in getting his ships out of the harbour. The close of 1801 and the beginning of the following year were spent in transporting the army sent to recover Egypt from the French. As the naval force of the enemy was completely driven into port, the British admiral had no opportunity of an action at sea, but his management of the convoy carrying the troops, and of the landing at Aboukir, was greatly admired.  He was made Baron Keith of the United Kingdom, an Irish barony having been conferred on him in 1797. On the renewal of the war in 1803 he was appointed Commander-in-Chief, North Sea (which at the time included Nore Command), which post he held till 1807. In February 1812 he was appointed commander-in-chief in the English Channel, and in 1814 he was raised to a viscounty. During his last two commands he was engaged first in overlooking the measures taken to meet a threatened invasion, and then in directing the movements of the numerous small squadrons and private ships employed on the coasts of Spain and Portugal, and in protecting trade.  He was at Plymouth when Napoleon surrendered and was brought to England in by Captain Maitland (1777–1839). The decisions of the British government were expressed through him to the fallen Emperor. Lord Keith refused to be led into disputes, and confined himself to declaring steadily that he had his orders to obey. He was not much impressed by the appearance of his illustrious charge and thought that the airs of Napoleon and his suite were ridiculous. Lord Keith died in 1823 at Tulliallan Castle, near Kincardine-on-Forth, Fife, his property in Scotland, and was buried in the parish church.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family life.", "content": "He was twice married: in 1787 to Jane Mercer, daughter of Colonel William Mercer of Aldie; and in 1808 to Hester Thrale, daughter of Henry Thrale and Hester Thrale, who is spoken of as 'Queeney' in Boswell's \"Life of Johnson\" and Mme d'Arblay's \"Diary\". He had a daughter by each marriage, the second being Georgina Augusta Henrietta Keith, but no son. Thus the viscounty became extinct on his death, but the British and Irish baronies descended to his elder daughter Margaret (1788–1867), who married the Comte de Flahault de la Billarderie, only to become extinct on her death. A portrait of him by Owen is in the Painted Hall in Greenwich and another by George Sanders in the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Freemasonry.", "content": "He was Initiated into Scottish Freemasonry in Lodge Holyrood House (St Luke's), No.44, on 16 June 1769.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Lord Keith and his wife 'Queeney' appear in several of the novels in Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey–Maturin series. He is also mentioned in passing in Robert Brightwell's novel \"Flashman and the Seawolf\", based loosely on the exploits of Thomas, Lord Cochrane (as indeed is, in part, the character of Jack Aubrey).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "There is a panegyrical \"Life of Lord Keith\" by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1882); and biographical notices will be found in John Marshall's \"Royal Naval Biography\", i. 43 (1823–1835), and the \"Naval Chronicle\", x. I. (D. H.).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Admiral of the Red George Keith Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith GCB (7 January 1746 – 10 March 1823) was a British admiral active throughout the Napoleonic Wars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975326}
{"src_title": "White-nosed coati", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Habitat and range.", "content": "White-nosed coatis inhabit wooded areas (dry and moist forests) of the Americas. They are found at any altitude from sea level to, and from as far north as southeastern Arizona and New Mexico, through Mexico and Central America, to far northwestern Colombia (Gulf of Urabá region, near Colombian border with Panama). There has been considerable confusion over its southern range limit, but specimen records from most of Colombia (only exception is far northwest) and Ecuador are all South American coatis.  Coatis from Cozumel Island have been treated as a separate species, the Cozumel Island coati, but the vast majority of recent authorities treat it as a subspecies, \"N. narica nelsoni\", of the white-nosed coati. They are smaller than white-nosed coatis from the adjacent mainland (\"N. n. yucatanica\"), but when compared more widely to white-nosed coatis the difference in size is not as clear. The level of other differences also support its status as a subspecies rather than separate species.  White-nosed coatis have also been found in the U.S. state of Florida, where they are an introduced species. It is unknown precisely when introduction occurred; an early specimen in the Florida Museum of Natural History, labeled an \"escaped captive\", dates to 1928. There are several later documented cases of coatis escaping captivity, and since the 1970s there have been a number of sightings, and several live and dead specimens of various ages have been found. These reports have occurred over a wide area of southern Florida, and there is probable evidence of breeding, indicating that the population is well established.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding habits.", "content": "They are omnivores, preferring small vertebrates, fruits, carrion, insects, snakes and eggs. They can climb trees easily, where the tail is used for balance, but they are most often on the ground foraging. Their predators include boas, raptors, hunting cats, and Tayras (\"Eira barbara\"). They readily adapt to human presence; like raccoons, they will raid campsites and trash receptacles. They can be tamed easily, and have been verified experimentally to be quite intelligent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "While the raccoon and ringtail are nocturnal, coatis are active by day, retiring during the night to a specific tree and descending at dawn to begin their daily search for food. However, their habits are adjustable, and in areas where they are hunted by humans for food, or where they raid human settlements for their own food, they might become more nocturnal. Adult males are solitary, but females and sexually immature males form social groups. They use many vocal signals to communicate with one another, and also spend time grooming themselves and each other with their teeth and claws. During foraging times, the young cubs are left with a pair of babysitters, similar to meerkats. The young males and even some females tend to play-fight. Many of the coatis will have short fights over food.  White-nosed coatis are known pollinators of the balsa tree, as observed in a study of a white-nosed coati population in Costa Rica. The coati were observed inserting their noses into the flowers of the tree and ingesting nectar, while the flower showed no subsequent signs of damage. Pollen from the flowers covers the face of the coati following feeding, and later disseminates through the surrounding forest following detachment. Scientists observed a dependent relationship between the balsa tree, which provides a critical resource of hydration and nutrition to the white-nosed coati when environment resources are scarce, and the coati, which increases proliferation of the tree through pollination.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The white-nosed coati (\"Nasua narica\"), also known as the coatimundi (), is a species of coati and a member of the family Procyonidae (raccoons and their relatives). Local Spanish names for the species include pizote, antoon, and tejón, depending upon the region. It weighs about. However, males are much larger than females: small females can weigh as little as, while large males can weigh as much as. On average, the nose-to-tail length of the species is about with about half of that being the tail length.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975327}
{"src_title": "Dilgo Khyentse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life, ancestry.", "content": "He was born in 1910 in the Denhok Valley at Kham Derge, Eastern Tibet, to a family directly descended from the ninth-century King Trisong Detsen. His father was a minister to the King of Derge. When he was seven years old, he was publicly recognized as one of the reincarnations of Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo by Shechen Gyaltsap Rinpoche (1871–1926) at Shechen, one of the six principal monasteries of the Nyingmapa school. During the next few years Dilgo Khyentse received full schooling from various tutors, in addition to training in meditation, and in the study of the dharma in general, and of tantra specifically.  His root guru was Shechen Gyaltsap Rinpoche, and Dzongsar Khyentse Chokyi Lodro (1893–1959) was his other main spiritual master. After he completed what is known as the Preliminary Practices (Ngöndro), Khyentse spent most of the next 13 years in silent retreat in remote hermitages and caves near his birthplace.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Buddhist studies.", "content": "After completing his retreat at the age of 28, Khyentse spent many years with Dzongsar Khyentse Chokyi Lodro. After receiving from Khyentse Chokyi Lodro the many empowerments of the Rinchen Terdzo (the collection of Revealed Treasures or termas), Dilgo Khyentse requested to spend the rest of his life in solitary meditation. But Khyentse Chokyi Lodro answered, \"The time has come for you to teach and transmit to others the countless precious teachings you have received.\"  Additionally he received teachings at Palpung Monastery from the 11th Tai Situ Rinpoche, and full instruction on the ancient Guhyagarbha Tantra and its various commentaries from Khenpo Tubga at Kyangma Ri-tro. In all he studied with over 50 teachers from the various oral and practice lineages of Tibetan Buddhism.  Later on, the Dalai Lama regarded Dilgo Khyentse as his principal teacher in the Nyingma tradition and of Dzogchen. Khyentse was also one of the main teachers of Chögyam Trungpa, whom he held in high regard,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Move to Tibet, teachings.", "content": "In the 1950s, as rebellions broke out in Kham in response to the imposition of Chinese Communist rule, Khyentse and his family escaped to central Tibet, leaving behind his library of dharma books and most of his own writings. Then in 1959, after the 14th Dalai Lama left Tibet, Khyentse, his family and a few disciples left Tibet, including his brother, the 9th Sangye Nyenpa Rinpoche and Tenga Rinpoche, and headed for Bhutan. The royal family of Bhutan invited him to stay there and teach.  Later, as he made frequent visits to give teachings to the 14th Dalai Lama at Dharamasala in India, he began giving teachings all over the Himalayas, India, Southeast Asia and the West. He also engaged in scholarship and composed numerous poems, meditation texts and commentaries. He was a terton (a discoverer of spiritual treasures) and was considered to have discovered numerous termas. He was one of the leading masters of the pith-instructions of Dzogchen, the Great Perfection, and one of the principal holders of the Longchen Nyingtik tradition.  In 1980, he founded the Shechen Tennyi Dargyeling Monastery in Nepal, where he transplanted the Shechen tradition to a new home near the great stupa of Boudhanath, just northeast of Kathmandu. There he gave many teachings over the years to hundreds of other lamas, disciples, and students from around the world. Over this same period, and until his paranirvana in 1991, Khyentse was involved in publishing as many Tibetan Buddhist teachings as possible, over 300 volumes altogether.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final years.", "content": "He was one of the few Tibetan Lamas accorded the honorific title \"His Holiness\". Following the death of Dudjom Rinpoche in 1987, he became the head of the Nyingma School, and remained so until his death in Bhutan on 28 September 1991.  Student Matthieu Ricard remarked  Final cremation ceremonies were held for him over a three-day period near Paro in Bhutan, in November 1992 and were attended by over 100 lamas, the Royal Family and ministers of Bhutan, 500 western disciples and 50,000 devotees.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Preservation of lineages.", "content": "Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche was a perfect example of a Ri-me master. He was instrumental in safeguarding all of the lineages of Tibetan Buddhism without partiality. He received and gave empowerments, wrote volumes of texts that revitalized and interpreted important transmission teachings.  Gyatrul (b. 1924), in a purport to Karma Chagmé (, fl. 17th century), conveys Khyentse's'samaya' (Sanskrit), diligence and humility in receiving 'wang' (Tibetan), lineal transmission and 'rlung' (Wylie) as rendered into English by B. Alan Wallace:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dilgo Khyentse Yangsi Rinpoche.", "content": "Dilgo Khyentse Yangsi Rinpoche, aka Ugyen Tenzin Jigme Lhundrup (Tib. ཨོ་རྒྱན་བསྟན་འཛིན་འཇིགས་མེད་ལྷུང་གྲུབ་, Wylie o rgyan bstan 'dzin 'jigs med lhun grub), the son of Tsikey Chokling Rinpoche and brother of Phakchok Rinpoche, who currently resides in Bhutan, was appointed as the incarnation of Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche in December 1995:  In 2015 he visited the newly-opened Buddhist Community Centre UK in Aldershot in the United Kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "The film \"Spirit of Tibet: Journey to Enlightenment, The Life and World of Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche\" was released in 1998. It was made by Matthieu Ricard (French photographer, Buddhist monk, and author) who had traveled with Khyentse for 14 years. It tells Khyentse's story from birth to death, to rebirth, and of his escape following China's invasion of Tibet to his determination to preserve and transmit Buddhist teachings far and wide. The film reveals Tibet's art, ritual philosophy, and sacred dance. Along with rarely photographed areas of Tibet, Bhutan and Nepal, the film features interviews with the Dalai Lama, who speaks about his own spiritual life.  The film \"Brilliant Moon: Glimpses of Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche\", written and directed by Neten Chokling, and narrated by Richard Gere and Lou Reed, uses animation, previously unseen archival footage and photos along with new interviews of Tibet's teachers to tell Khyentse's life story.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche () (c. 1910 – 28 September 1991) was a Vajrayana master, scholar, poet, teacher, and head of the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism from 1987 to 1991.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975328}
{"src_title": "Ford S-Max", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "The S-Max was the first vehicle in Ford's lineup to feature their Kinetic Design styling. The Kinetic Design scheme includes angular headlights, twin trapezoidal grilles, and large wheelarches.  It comes with heated front and back windscreens, parking sensors, aux input and dual climate control as standard. One major selling point of the S-Max is its \"Fold Flat System\". This design allows the second and third-row seats to fold seamlessly into the floor, leaving extra storage space.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First generation (2006–2014).", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Models.", "content": "For the English speaking markets there are three derivatives of the S-Max: Edge, Zetec, and the high-end Titanium. Ford has stated that around sixty percent of all S-Max buyers choose Titanium specification. Continental trim levels are Trend, Titanium and the top of the line Titanium S.  In March 2008, a powerful 2.2 175 PS TDCi common rail diesel was added to Titanium series and delivers acceleration from 0-60 mph in 9.0 seconds. In September 2008, the popular 2.0 140 PS TDCi manual engine was offered with a CO of 159 g/km. The S-Max Trend debuted in China in 2010. The Trend is basically a normal S-Max, but without the back row of seats. The idea is to make it cheaper, and to give more storage space to people who might want it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Powertrain.", "content": "All S-Maxes use versions of the Duratorq or Duratec engines. The S-Max uses a five- speed or six- speed manual transmission, and a six-speed automatic option. New petrol engines for the 2010/2011 models:  Engines available for the 2012 Models:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "The Ford S-Max incorporates no breakthrough safety features, but it has received a 5-star/36-point (Best in Class) rating from the Euro NCAP.  The S-Max's safety features include the Intelligent Protection System (IPS) which combines a body structure optimised for strength and crashworthiness with restraint equipment and driver aids that help avoid an accident and features that lessen the likelihood of injuries in an impact. It has many modern airbags, including a knee airbag and a thorax airbag.  S-Max's also have an advanced neck protection system, three point seat belts, optimised pre-tensioners, load limiters, anti-submarining seat subframes, a collapsible steering system and safety pedals. For handling it has an Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) along with Electronic Brakeforce Distribution (EBD) and standard Electronic Stability Program (ESP) system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "The high performance version Ford S-Max was reviewed on \"Top Gear\" (Series 8, Episode 7) against the similar spec Vauxhall Zafira and the Mercedes B200. The S-Max was the cheapest, yet was described as having the best interior and exterior, and being the most comfortable. The presenters, James May and Richard Hammond, also considered it to be the most practical. Overall, they praised the car and declared it to be the best value for money out of the three.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second generation (2015–present).", "content": "The second generation was first presented at the 2014 Paris Motor Show.  After its sibling, Ford Galaxy, was being presented at the 2015 Geneva Motor Show, Ford decided to put it into production in late 2015.  It comes with the same engines as the Galaxy, Mondeo and Edge, which consist of one diesel (in four states of tune) and two petrols. The 1.5 SCTi Ecoboost has 160 hp, and the 2.0 SCTi has 240 hp, the latter can only be had with the Ford 6F automatic transmission. All the diesels average over 50mpg - the best is the 2.0 TDCi Duratorq 120, which produces 57mpg.  Both the 2.0 TDCi 150 and 180 versions come with either a six speed manual or the Powershift, the latter can also be specced with AWD. The final model, the Bi-Turbo 2.0 TDCi 210 comes with the Powershift Gearbox only, and hits 0 to 60 in under nine seconds. The trim levels are similar to any Ford, and mirror those found in the Galaxy, Mondeo and Edge, including Zetec, Titanium and Titanium Sport also an executive spec Vignale is available.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ford S-Max (stylized as Ford S-MAX) is an MPV produced by Ford Europe for the European market. Ford also describes the S-Max as an SAV (sports activity vehicle). Introduced at the 2006 Geneva Motor Show, the S-Max went on sale alongside the new generation Galaxy in June 2006.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975329}
{"src_title": "Serpentinite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formation and petrology.", "content": "Serpentinization is a geological low-temperature metamorphic process involving heat and water in which low-silica mafic and ultramafic rocks are oxidized (anaerobic oxidation of Fe by the protons of water leading to the formation of H) and hydrolyzed with water into serpentinite. Peridotite, including dunite, at and near the seafloor and in mountain belts is converted to serpentine, brucite, magnetite, and other minerals — some rare, such as awaruite (NiFe), and even native iron. In the process large amounts of water are absorbed into the rock increasing the volume, reducing the density and destroying the structure.  The density changes from 3.3 to 2.7 g/cm with a concurrent volume increase on the order of 30-40%. The reaction is highly exothermic and rock temperatures can be raised by about, providing an energy source for formation of non-volcanic hydrothermal vents. The magnetite-forming chemical reactions produce hydrogen gas under anaerobic conditions prevailing deep in the mantle, far from the Earth's atmosphere. Carbonates and sulfates are subsequently reduced by hydrogen and form methane and hydrogen sulfide. The hydrogen, methane, and hydrogen sulfide provide energy sources for deep sea chemotroph microorganisms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation of serpentinite.", "content": "Serpentinite can form from olivine via several reactions. Olivine is a solid solution of forsterite, the magnesium-endmember, and fayalite, the iron-endmember.  Reaction 1c describes the hydration of olivine to yield serpentine and Mg(OH) (brucite). Serpentine is stable at high pH in the presence of brucite like calcium silicate hydrate, (C-S-H) phases formed along with portlandite (Ca(OH)) in hardened Portland cement paste after the hydration of belite (CaSiO), the artificial calcium equivalent of forsterite.  \"Analogy of reaction 1c with belite hydration in ordinary Portland cement\":<br> After reaction, the poorly soluble reaction products (aqueous silica or dissolved magnesium ions) can be transported in solution out of the serpentinized zone by diffusion or advection.  A similar suite of reactions involves pyroxene-group minerals, though less readily and with complication of the additional end-products due to the wider compositions of pyroxene and pyroxene-olivine mixes. Talc and magnesian chlorite are possible products, together with the serpentine minerals antigorite, lizardite, and chrysotile. The final mineralogy depends both on rock and fluid compositions, temperature, and pressure. Antigorite forms in reactions at temperatures that can exceed during metamorphism, and it is the serpentine group mineral stable at the highest temperatures. Lizardite and chrysotile can form at low temperatures very near the Earth's surface. Fluids involved in serpentinite formation commonly are highly reactive and may transport calcium and other elements into surrounding rocks; fluid reaction with these rocks may create metasomatic reaction zones enriched in calcium and called rodingites.  In the presence of carbon dioxide, however, serpentinitization may form either magnesite (MgCO) or generate methane (CH). It is thought that some hydrocarbon gases may be produced by serpentinite reactions within the oceanic crust. or, in balanced form:  Reaction 2a is favored if the serpentinite is Mg-poor or if there isn't enough carbon dioxide to promote talc formation. Reaction 2b is favored in highly magnesian compositions and low partial pressure of carbon dioxide.  The degree to which a mass of ultramafic rock undergoes serpentinisation depends on the starting rock composition and on whether or not fluids transport calcium, magnesium and other elements away during the process. If an olivine composition contains sufficient fayalite, then olivine plus water can completely metamorphose to serpentine and magnetite in a closed system. In most ultramafic rocks formed in the Earth's mantle, however, the olivine is about 90% forsterite endmember, and for that olivine to react completely to serpentine, magnesium must be transported out of the reacting volume.  Serpentinitization of a mass of peridotite usually destroys all previous textural evidence because the serpentine minerals are weak and behave in a very ductile fashion. However, some masses of serpentinite are less severely deformed, as evidenced by the apparent preservation of textures inherited from the peridotite, and the serpentinites may have behaved in a rigid fashion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hydrogen production by anaerobic oxidation of fayalite ferrous ions.", "content": "Serpentine is the product of the reaction between water and fayalite's ferrous (Fe) ions. The process is of interest because it generates hydrogen gas:  The reaction can be viewed simplistically as follows:  This reaction resembles the Schikorr reaction observed in the anaerobic oxidation of the ferrous hydroxide in contact with water:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Extraterrestrial production of methane by serpentinization.", "content": "The presence of traces of methane in the atmosphere of Mars has been hypothesized to be a possible evidence for life on Mars if methane was produced by bacterial activity. Serpentinization has been proposed as an alternative non-biological source for the observed methane traces. Using data from the Cassini probe flybys obtained in 2010–12, scientists were able to confirm that Saturn's moon Enceladus likely has a liquid water ocean beneath its frozen surface. A model suggests that the ocean on Enceladus has an alkaline pH of 11–12. The high pH is interpreted to be a key consequence of serpentinization of chondritic rock, that leads to the generation of H, a geochemical source of energy that can support both abiotic and biological synthesis of organic molecules.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Impact on agriculture.", "content": "Soil cover over serpentinite bedrock tends to be thin or absent. Soil with serpentine is poor in calcium and other major plant nutrients, but rich in elements toxic to plants such as chromium and nickel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decorative stone in architecture.", "content": "Grades of serpentinite higher in calcite, along with the verd antique (breccia form of serpentinite), have historically been used as decorative stones for their marble-like qualities. College Hall at the University of Pennsylvania, for example, is constructed out of serpentine. Popular sources in Europe before contact with the Americas were the mountainous Piedmont region of Italy and Larissa, Greece.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Carvingstone tools, oil lamp-known as the Qulliq and Inuit sculpture.", "content": "Inuit and indigenous people of the Arctic areas and less so of southern areas used the carved bowl shaped serpentinite Qulliq or Kudlik lamp with wick, to burn oil or fat to heat, make light and cook with. Inuit made tools and more recently carvings of animals for commerce.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Swiss ovenstone.", "content": "A variety of chlorite talc schist associated with Alpine serpentinite is found in Val d’Anniviers, Switzerland and was used for making \"ovenstones\" (Ger. \"Ofenstein\"), a carved stone base beneath a cast iron stove.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Neutron shield in nuclear reactors.", "content": "Serpentinite has a significant amount of bound water, hence it contains abundant hydrogen atoms able to slow down neutrons by elastic collision (neutron thermalization process). Because of this serpentinite can be used as dry filler inside steel jackets in some designs of nuclear reactors. For example, in RBMK series it was used for top radiation shielding to protect operators from escaping neutrons. Serpentine can also be added as aggregate to special concrete used in nuclear reactor shielding to increase the concrete density (2.6 g/cm) and its neutron capture cross section.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "It is the state rock of California, USA and the California Legislature specified that serpentine was \"the official State Rock and lithologic emblem.\" In 2010, a bill was introduced which would have removed serpentine's special status as state rock due to it potentially containing chrysotile asbestos. The bill met with resistance from some California geologists, who noted that the chrysotile present is not hazardous unless it is mobilized in the air as dust.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Serpentinite is a rock composed of one or more serpentine group minerals, the name originating from the similarity of the texture of the rock to that of the skin of a snake. Minerals in this group, which are rich in magnesium and water, light to dark green, greasy looking and slippery feeling, are formed by serpentinization, a hydration and metamorphic transformation of ultramafic rock from the Earth's mantle. The mineral alteration is particularly important at the sea floor at tectonic plate boundaries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975330}
{"src_title": "Semion Mogilevich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Mogilevich was born in 1946 to a Jewish family in Kiev's Podol neighborhood.  His first significant fortune derived from scamming fellow Russian Jews eager to emigrate to countries including the United States and Israel; Mogilevich made deals to buy their assets, sell them for fair market value, and forward the proceeds. Instead he simply sold the assets and pocketed the proceeds. He served two terms in prison, of 3 and 4 years, for currency-dealing offenses.  Beginning in the early 1980s, according to the FBI, Mogilevich was the key money-laundering contact for the Solntsevskaya Bratva.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hungary.", "content": "In early 1991, Mogilevich moved to Hungary and married his Hungarian girlfriend Katalin Papp. He had three children with her, and obtained a Hungarian passport. Living in a fortified villa outside Budapest, he continued to invest in a wide array of enterprises, including buying a local armament factory, \"Army Co-Op,\" which produced anti-aircraft guns.  In 1994, the Mogilevich group obtained control over Inkombank, one of the largest private banks in Russia, in a secret deal with bank chairman Vladimir Vinogradov, getting direct access to the world financial system. The bank collapsed in 1998 under suspicions of money laundering.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Czech raid.", "content": "In May 1995, a meeting in Prague between Mogilevich and Sergei Mikhailov, head of the Solntsevo group, was raided by Czech police. The occasion was a birthday party for one of the deputy Solntsevo mafiosi. Two hundred partygoers (including dozens of prostitutes) in the restaurant \"U Holubů\", owned by Mogilevich, were detained and 30 expelled from the country. Police had been tipped off that the Solntsevo group intended to execute Mogilevich at the party over a disputed payment of $5 million. But Mogilevich never showed up and it is believed that a senior figure in the Czech police, working with the Russian mafia, had warned him. Soon, however, the Czech Interior Ministry imposed a 10-year entry ban on Mogilevich, while the Hungarian government declared him \"persona non grata\" and the British barred his entry into the UK, declaring him \"one of the most dangerous men in the world.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toronto exchange.", "content": "In 1997 and 1998, the presence of Mogilevich, Mikhailov and others associated with the Russian Mafia behind a public company trading on the Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX), YBM Magnex International Inc., was exposed by Canadian journalists. On May 13, 1998, dozens of agents for the FBI and several other U.S. government agencies raided YBM's headquarters in Newtown, Pennsylvania. Shares in the public company, which had been valued at $1 billion on the TSX, became worthless overnight.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Money laundering and tax evasion.", "content": "Until 1998, Inkombank and Bank Menatep participated in a US$10 billion money laundering scheme through the Bank of New York. Mogilevich was also suspected of participation in large-scale tax fraud, where untaxed heating oil was sold as highly taxed car fuel – one of the greatest scandals that broke around 1990–1991.  Estimates are that up to one-third of fuels sold went through this scheme, resulting in massive tax losses for various countries of Central Europe (Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Poland). In the Czech Republic the scandal is estimated to have cost the taxpayers around 100 billion CZK (≈US$5 billion) and involved, besides others, murders and the attempted assassination of a journalist writing about the problem.  In 2003, the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation put Mogilevich on the \"Wanted List\" for participation in the scheme to defraud investors in Canadian company YBM Magnex International Inc. Frustrated by their previous unsuccessful efforts to charge him for arms trafficking and prostitution, they had now settled on the large-scale fraud charges as their best hope of running him to ground. He was, however, considered to be the most powerful Russian mobster alive. In a 2006 interview, former Clinton administration anti-organized-crime czar Jon Winer said: \"I can tell you that Semion Mogilevich is as serious an organized criminal as I have ever encountered and I am confident that he is responsible for contract killings.\"  Mogilevich was arrested in Moscow on January 24, 2008, for suspected tax evasion. His bail was placed, and he was released on July 24, 2009. On his release, the Russian interior ministry stated that he was released because the charges against him \"are not of a particularly grave nature\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "FBI Ten Most Wanted list.", "content": "On October 22, 2009, he was named by the FBI as the 494th fugitive to be placed on the Ten Most Wanted list. In December 2015 he was removed from the list. The FBI indicated he no longer met list criteria, for reasons relating to living in a country with which the United States does not maintain an extradition treaty.  In spite of the warrants issued against him, he still lives freely in Moscow, according to the FBI. As to Mogilevich himself, government law enforcement agencies from throughout the world had by then been trying to prosecute him for over 10 years. But he had, in the words of one journalist, \"a knack for never being in the wrong place at the wrong time\".  Both Mogilevich and his associate Mikhailov ceased to travel to the West in the late 1990s.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Semion Yudkovich Mogilevich ( ; born June 30, 1946) is a Ukrainian-born, Russian organized crime boss, described by agencies in the European Union and United States as the \"boss of bosses\" of most Russian Mafia syndicates in the world. Mogilevich is believed to direct a vast criminal empire and is described by the FBI as \"the most dangerous mobster in the world.\" He has been accused by the FBI of \"weapons trafficking, contract murders, extortion, drug trafficking, and prostitution on an international scale.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975331}
{"src_title": "Erasmus Student Network", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1987, the European Community approved a plan to create a mobility scheme for higher education. Part of it was the Erasmus programme - an exchange programme for students to provide students with the opportunity to spend part of their studies abroad.  In 1989 the Erasmus Bureau invited 32 former Erasmus Students for an evaluation meeting in Ghent, Belgium. This meeting was the starting point for the Erasmus Student Network. The lack of peer-to-peer support was singled out as a major issue and the driving force behind the creation of the Erasmus Student Network, named for the Dutch Renaissance humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam.  By 1994 ESN had 60 sections in 14 countries. In 2004 the ESN network consisted of 170 sections in and outside Europe, from Scandinavia to Morocco. In 2005, ESN established its headquarters in Brussels and legally registered as a Belgian non-profit organisation.  As of September 23, 2019, the Erasmus Student Network consists of 529 local associations (\"sections\") in 42 countries and has more than 13,500 volunteers across Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "ESN works on three levels - local, national and international. It is only active within the borders defined by the Council of Europe. Its president for the 2018-19 term is João Pinto", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local level.", "content": "ESN on local level consists of \"sections\" that directly work with the international students. They organize activities like introduction programmes, get-togethers and cultural events and represent the exchange students and their needs towards academic institutions and local authorities. Together the local sections, or rather representatives from the sections form the Annual General Meeting (AGM), the highest decision-making body of ESN.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National level.", "content": "The national level represents the needs of international students towards governments and national authorities. Local sections in the same countries together form a National Platform (NP) who can elect a National Board and elects a National Representative (NR) to represent the national network on the international level.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International level.", "content": "The International Board is the executive body of ESN International and consists of five Board members (President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Communication Manager and Web Project Administrator). Since 2005, the members of the International Board are full-time volunteers living and working in Brussels. The International Board is supported by the Secretariat composed of employed staff.  Each country elects a National Representative and all National Representatives form the Council of National Representatives (CNR). During the year they represent the interest of the network and are, after the AGM, the highest decision-making body.  ESN has five International Committees that work together with its respective international board member in charge. The Committees of ESN are - International Committee for Education (ICE), Network Committee (NEC), Finance Committee (FICO), Communication Committee (ComCom) and IT Committee (IT).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International events.", "content": "Since its foundation in 1989, ESN holds Annual General Meetings (AGM), alternating in major cities throughout Europe.  Other activities include annual Cultural Medleys (CM) from 1999 until 2012, and annual meetings of the organization's five Regional Platforms. These Regional Platforms are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erasmus Student Network (ESN) is a Europe-wide student organisation. Its goal is to support and develop student exchange on a local, national and international level. It is composed of around 13,500 members in over 530 local sections in 42 countries in Higher Education Institutions, including universities, polytechnics, and university colleges.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975332}
{"src_title": "Jean-Baptiste André Godin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Born on the 26th of January 1817 at Esquéhéries (Aisne), Godin was the son of an artisan smith and his wife. Starting work at his father's forge, he entered an iron works at age eleven as an apprentice. At age seventeen, he made a tour of France as journeyman with his older cousin, Jean-Nicholas Moret, also an ironsmith.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "In 1840 he first married Esther Lemaire, at the age of 23. They had a son M. Émile Godin.  On July 14, 1886, after his first wife had died, Godin married Marie-Adèle Moret (27 April 1840 - 18 April 1908), born in Brie-Comte-Robert (Seine-et- Marne). She was the second daughter of his cousin Jean-Nicholas Moret and his wife Marie-Jean Philippe. Before their marriage, she had worked at Le Familistère for nearly 25 years, where she established numerous services for families with children: the nursery, infant school, and primary school; taught teachers; and set up an insurance program for workers, as well as founding health facilities.  After Godin's death in 1888, Marie-Adèle helped care for the minor children of his son M. Émile Godin, who died 15 days after his father. She especially devoted herself to organizing Godin's papers, publishing some of his manuscripts, and working to keep Le Familistère going.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Returning to Esquéhéries with his new wife in 1840, Godin started a small factory for the manufacture of castings for heating-stoves. That year he took out a patent for the stove, which he had invented. He believed that this was going to be a useful product for the age. With his business increasing rapidly, to take advantage of the railroad at Guise, Godin moved the factory there in 1846. He manufactured cookers and heating stoves of many kinds, mainly made from cast iron. Sometimes these were enameled. He became quite wealthy and used his money to establish funds and development for workers.  At the same time, Godin and his cousin Moret had been learning about current socialist and communist thinking. Godin became an ardent disciple of the utopian Charles Fourier, whom he started studying in 1842, and thought hard about the future of workers and their communities. He helped fund V. P. Considerant's (q.v.) 1855 utopian community in Texas, known as \"La Reunion\", at the site of present-day Dallas. He learned by its failure, due partly to colonists ill-suited as agricultural pioneers.  At the time of Godin's death in 1888, the annual output of \"Godin et Cie\" was valued at over four millions of francs (4,160,000). In 1908 the employees numbered over 2000 and production was over 280,000 units annually.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Developing the Familistère.", "content": "From 1856-1859 Godin started the \"Familistère\" (Social Palace) in Guise on more carefully developed plans. His intention was to improve housing for workers, but also \"production, trade, supply, education, and recreation\", all the facets of life of a modern worker. He developed the Familistère as a self-contained community within the town, where he could encourage \"social sympathy\". The full site with the foundry was about eighteen acres, on either side of the River Oise. In addition to a large factory for cast-iron manufacture, three large buildings, each four stories high, were constructed to house all the workers and their families, with each family having apartments of two or three rooms. The main building consisted of three rectangular blocks joined at the corners. Each of these blocks had a large central court covered with a glass roof under which children could play in all weather. Galleries around the courtyard provided access to the apartments on each floor. There were also garden allotments for the workers. By 1872, when a correspondent from the American \"Harper's Magazine\" visited the complex, 900 workers (including women) and their families were housed there, for a total population of about 1200.  The project contained no churches, but there were numerous churches elsewhere in Guise. At the back of the main block was a nursery, a \"pouponnat\" (or infant school) for toddlers and children up to age four, the \"bambinat\" for children 4-6. Opposite the main block was a building containing a theater for concerts and dramatic entertainments, and a primary school for children over six.  A separate block, known as the \"économats\", contained various shops, refreshment and recreation rooms of various kinds, and grocery and stores for the purchase of every necessity. Produce and goods were purchased at wholesale prices and sold with little mark-up, with workers manning the shops. Goods were stored beneath the buildings, where there were storage areas for the families.  Godin developed the Familistère over 20 years, beginning soon after the 1848 Revolution and disruption in France. Through it all he worked for social reform. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, he helped defend the country. In 1871 Godin was elected deputy for Aisne, but retired in 1876 to devote himself to the management of the Familistère. In 1878 he founded the journal \"Le Devoir\" (Labor).  In 1880 Godin created the association documents for the Familistère, converting it as he had long intended into a co-operative society, eventually to be owned by the workers. It was called \"l'Association coopérative du Capital et du Travail\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twentieth century to present.", "content": "The building with the \"nourricerie-pouponnat\" was destroyed in 1918 during World War I and never rebuilt. Although the foundry was still owned by the workers in the 1950s, soon after it was taken over in a purchase by the manufacturer \"Le Creuset\". In 1968 the cooperative association for the Social Palace was dissolved, and the apartments were sold at moderate prices by Godin S.A. They have been gradually modified through individual owners' decisions. The same year, the cooperative \"economats\" were dissolved. In 1991 its building was classified as a \"Monument Historique\", and in 2000 restoration of the building was begun.  In the early 21st century, some of the domestic buildings were restored for private, adaptive use. Restoration of the \"economats\" building was completed in 2008, with spaces adapted as a cafe, a bookstore and gift shop, and an exhibition area.  The communal laundry rooms, baths and swimming pool, in a separate building on the opposite bank, where water was heated by the factory, had become derelict but have been restored. The communal laundry has been converted to a meeting room, and the drying room to an exhibition room.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Baptiste André Godin (26 January 1817 – 15 January 1888) was a French industrialist, writer and political theorist, and social innovator. A manufacturer of cast-iron stoves and influenced by Charles Fourier, he developed and built an industrial and residential community within Guise called the \"Familistère de Guise\" (Social Palace). He ultimately converted it to cooperative ownership and management by workers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975333}
{"src_title": "Religious vows", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Christianity.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the Western Church.", "content": "Since the 6th century, monks and nuns following the Rule of Saint Benedict have been making the Benedictine vow at their public profession of obedience (placing oneself under the direction of the abbot/abbess or prior/prioress), stability (committing oneself to a particular monastery), and \"conversion of manners\" (which includes forgoing private ownership and celibate chastity).  During the 12th and 13th centuries mendicant orders emerged, such as the Franciscans and Dominicans, whose vocation emphasizing mobility and flexibility required them to drop the concept of \"stability\". They therefore profess \"chastity, poverty and obedience\", like the members of many other orders and religious congregations founded subsequently. The public profession of these evangelical counsels (or counsels of perfection), confirmed by vow or other sacred bond, are now a requirement according to modern Church Law.  The \"clerks regular\" of the 16th century and after, such as the Jesuits and Redemptorists, followed this same general format, though some added a \"fourth vow\", indicating some special apostolate or attitude within the order. Fully professed Jesuits (known as \"the professed of the fourth vow\" within the order), take a vow of particular obedience to the Pope to undertake any mission laid out in their Formula of the Institute. The Missionaries of Charity, founded by St. Teresa of Calcutta centuries later (1940s), are another example of this, in that her sisters take a fourth vow of special service to \"the poorest of the poor\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In the Catholic Church.", "content": "In the Catholic Church, the vows of members of religious orders and congregations are regulated by canons 654-658 of the Code of Canon Law. These are public vows, meaning vows accepted by a superior in the name of the Church, and they are usually of two durations: temporary, and, after a few years, final vows (permanent or \"perpetual\"). Depending on the order, temporary vows may be renewed a number of times before permission to take final vows is given. There are exceptions: the Jesuits' first vows are perpetual, for instance, and the Sisters of Charity take only temporary but renewable vows.  Religious vows are of two varieties: simple vows and solemn vows. The highest level of commitment is exemplified by those who have taken their solemn, perpetual vows. There once were significant technical differences between them in canon law; but these differences were suppressed by the current Code of Canon Law in 1983, although the nominal distinction is maintained. Only a limited number of religious congregations may invite their members to solemn vows; most religious congregations are only authorized to take simple vows. Even in congregations with solemn vows, some members with perpetual vows may have taken them simply rather than solemnly.  A perpetual vow can be superseded by the Pope, when he decides that a man under perpetual vows should become a Bishop of the Church. In these cases, the ties to the order the new Bishop had, are dissolved as if the Bishop had never been a member; hence, such a person as Pope Francis, for example, has had no formal ties to his old order for years. However, if the Bishop was a member in good standing, he will be regarded, informally, as \"one of us\", and he will always be welcome in any of the order's houses.  There are other forms of consecrated life in the Catholic Church for men and women. They make a public profession of the evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty, and obedience, confirmed by a vow or other sacred bond, regulated by canon law but live consecrated lives in the world (i.e. not as members of a religious institute). Such are the secular institutes, the hermits and the consecrated virgins (canon 604) These make a public profession of the evangelical counsels by a vow or other sacred bond. Also similar are the societies of apostolic life.  In particular, the vow of stability has been criticized by some activists for enhancing the interpersonal power of the individual running a particular monastery and for being too restrictive to personal freedom.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "In the Eastern Orthodox Church.", "content": "Although the taking of vows was not a part of the earliest monastic foundations (the wearing of a particular monastic habit is the earliest recorded manifestation of those who had left the world), vows did come to be accepted as a normal part of the Tonsure service in the Christian East. Previously, one would simply find a spiritual father and live under his direction. Once one put on the monastic habit, it was understood that one had made a lifetime commitment to God and would remain steadfast in it to the end. Over time, however, the formal Tonsure and taking of vows was adopted to impress upon the monastic the seriousness of the commitment to the ascetic life he or she was adopting.  The vows taken by Orthodox monks are: Chastity, poverty, obedience, and stability. The vows are administered by the Abbot or Hieromonk who performs the service. Following a period of instruction and testing as a novice, a monk or nun may be tonsured with the permission of the candidate's spiritual father. There are three degrees of monasticism in the Orthodox Church: The Ryassaphore (one who wears the Ryassa – however, there are no vows at this level – the Stavrophore (one who wears the cross), and the Schema-monk (one who wears the Great Schema; i.e., the full monastic habit). The one administering the tonsure must be an ordained priest, and must be a monk of at least the rank he is tonsuring the candidate into. However a Bishop (who, in the Orthodox Church, must always be a monk) may tonsure a monk or nun into any degree regardless of his own monastic rank.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jain ethics and five vows.", "content": "Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called \"anuvratas\" (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and \"mahavratas\" (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a \"guru\" (teacher, counsellor), \"deva\" (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism:  Jainism also prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three \"guņa vratas\" (merit vows) and four \"śikşā vratas\". The \"Sallekhana\" (or \"Santhara\") vow is a \"religious death\" ritual vow observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, In Jainism this is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Religious vows are the public vows made by the members of religious communities pertaining to their conduct, practices, and views.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975334}
{"src_title": "Tommaso Traetta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Traetta was born in Bitonto, a town near Bari in the Apulia region, near the top of the heel of the boot of Italy. He eventually became a pupil of the composer, singer and teacher Nicola Porpora in Naples, and scored a first success with his opera \"Il Farnace\", in Naples, in 1751. Around this time he seems too have come into contact with Niccolò Jommelli. From here on in, Traetta seems to have had regular commissions from all around the country, running the gamut of the usual classical subjects. Then in 1759, something untoward happened that was to trigger Traetta's first operatic re-think. He accepted a post as court composer at Parma.  Parma, it has to be said, was hardly an important place in the grand scheme of things: a minor dukedom, but a dukedom with a difference, because the incumbent was Spanish and his wife was French. Parma had regularly changed owners between Austrians and Spaniards and the current Duke was the Infante Felipe. And in one of those inter-dynastic marriages which so complicate the history of Europe, he had married the eldest daughter of Louis XV. With the result that there was currently in Parma a craze for all things French, and in particular a fixation with the splendour of Versailles. Which is where the influence of the composer Jean-Philippe Rameau comes in. It was in Parma that Traetta's operas first began to move in new directions. And as a result there is no doubt that \"Antigona\", his 1772 opera for St. Petersburg, was amongst his most forward-looking, the closest he approached the famous reform ideals usually associated with Gluck, but in fact a current that was felt by several other composers of the time.  It was in Parma, at the court of the Bourbon Duke there, that Traetta ran unexpectedly headlong into some fresh air from France. In Parma in 1759, he found a number of significant collaborators, and he was fortunate in finding that the man in charge of opera there was a highly cultivated Paris-trained Frenchman, Guillaume du Tillot, who had the complete cultural portfolio among all his other responsibilities as Don Felipe's First Minister. To judge from the general stylistic influence in terms of grand scenic effects, and from some specific musical borrowings, Traetta had access in Parma to copies and reports of Rameau's operas. To their influence, Traetta added some ingredients of his own, especially a feeling for dramatic colour, in the shape of his melodies and his use of the orchestra. The result was a combination of Italian, French and German elements, which even anticipate the Sturm und Drang movement that was to flourish a few years later, further North.  The first fruit of this francophilia was the opera Traetta wrote in 1759. \"Ippolito ed Aricia\" owes a lot to Rameau's great tragédie lyrique of 1733, \"Hippolyte et Aricie\". But Traetta's is no mere translation of Rameau. Frugoni, Traetta's librettist in Parma completely reworked the original French version by abbé Pellegrin, which itself had been based on Racine, in its turn stemming ultimately from ancient Greek roots - the \"Hippolytus\" of Euripides. Frugoni retained certain key French elements: the five-act structure as against the customary three; the occasional opportunities for French-style spectacle and effects and in particular the dances and divertissements that end each of those five acts; and a more elaborate use of the chorus than for instance in Hasse and Graun and Jommelli.  Through the following decade, the 1760s, Tommaso Traetta composed music unceasingly—not just opera seria, either. There was a clutch of comedies as well, to say nothing of sacred music composed to imperial order. For Traetta served from 1768 to 1775 as music director for Catherine the Great of Russia, to which he relocated. Still, opera seria was generally what her imperial majesty commanded. Traetta's first operas for Catherine the Great seem to have been largely revivals and revisions of his earlier works. But then in 1772 came \"Antigona\"—and for whatever reason, whether it was Traetta's own inclination or the promptings of his librettist Marco Coltellini or the availability of the soprano Caterina Gabrielli, the new opera reached areas of feeling and intensity he had never explored before, even in Parma.  The Court Opera of Catherine the Great performed in a theatre inside the Winter Palace itself, created by the architect Bartolomeo Francesco Rastrelli—another Italian—who was the architect of many buildings in St. Petersburg, including the Hermitage. The theatre was quite close to the Empress' own apartments. Too close, in fact, because in 1783, that is to say some time after Traetta's departure, she ordered it to be closed and a new one built. Some years before that she had already booted out Rastrelli, who had been the favourite architect of her predecessor. Traetta too was to depart, though possibly it was the harsh climate of Peter the Great's still relatively new and very damp capital, rather than the Empress' boot, that led him to leave St Petersburg in 1775, and resume the opera composer's peripatetic life, even writing two works for London: \"Germondo\" in 1776 and \"Telemaco\" the year after. There is a story, told by the Traetta association in Bitonto, that he left St. Petersburg under threat of assassination by the empress—it seems he was enraged that she insisted on a happy ending for Antigona, and in revenge put music for Polish independence into the final chaconne. He left in time, but his librettist was poisoned.  Traetta died two years later, in April 1779, in Venice. He married shortly before he died, and had a son, Filippo Traetta, who in 1800 moved to America and became a fairly successful composer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tommaso Michele Francesco Saverio Traetta (30 March 1727 – 6 April 1779) was an Italian composer of the Neapolitan School. Along with other composers mainly in the Holy Roman Empire and France, he was responsible for certain operatic reforms including reducing ornateness of style and the primacy of star singers somewhat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975335}
{"src_title": "E. E. Evans-Pritchard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and field work.", "content": "Evans-Pritchard was educated at Winchester College and studied history at Exeter College, Oxford, where he was influenced by R. R. Marett, and then as a postgraduate at the London School of Economics (LSE). At Oxford he was part of the Hypocrites' Club. At LSE he came under the influence of Bronisław Malinowski and especially Charles Gabriel Seligman, the founding ethnographer of the Sudan. His first fieldwork began in 1926 with the Azande, a people of the upper Nile, and resulted in both a doctorate (in 1927) and his classic \"Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic Among the Azande\" (in 1937). Evans-Pritchard continued to lecture at the LSE and conduct research in Azande and Bongo land until 1930, when he began a new research project among the Nuer.  This work coincided with his appointment to the University of Cairo in 1932, where he gave a series of lectures on religion that bore Seligman's influence. After his return to Oxford, he continued his research on Nuer. It was during this period that he first met Meyer Fortes and A. R. Radcliffe-Brown. Evans-Pritchard began developing Radcliffe-Brown's program of structural-functionalism. As a result, his trilogy of works on the Nuer (\"The Nuer\", \"Nuer Religion\", and \"Kinship and Marriage Among the Nuer\") and the volume he coedited entitled \"African Political Systems\" came to be seen as classics of British social anthropology. Evans-Pritchard's \"Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic Among the Azande\" is the first major anthropological contribution to the sociology of knowledge through its neutral — some would say \"relativist\" — stance on the \"correctness\" of Zande beliefs about causation. His work focused in on a known psychological effect known as psychological attribution. Evans-Pritchard recorded the tendencies of Azandes to blame or attribute witchcraft as the cause of various mis-happenings. The most notable of these issues involved the deaths of eight Azande people due to the collapse of a termite infested door frame. Evans-Pritchard's empirical work in this vein became well-known through philosophy of science and \"rationality\" debates of the 1960s and 1970s involving Thomas Kuhn and especially Paul Feyerabend.  During the Second World War Evans-Pritchard served in Ethiopia, Libya, Sudan, and Syria. In Sudan he raised irregular troops among the Anuak to harass the Italians and engaged in guerrilla warfare. In 1942 he was posted to the British Military Administration of Cyrenaica in North Africa, and it was on the basis of his experience there that he produced \"The Sanusi of Cyrenaica\". In documenting local resistance to Italian conquest, he became one of a few English-language authors to write about the \"tariqa\".  After a brief stint in Cambridge, Evans-Pritchard became professor of social anthropology at the University of Oxford and a Fellow of All Souls College. He remained at All Souls College for the rest of his career. Among the doctoral students he advised was the late M. N. Srinivas, the doyen among India's sociologists who coined some of the key concepts in Indian sociological discourse, including \"Sanskritization\", \"dominant caste\" and \"vote bank.\" One of his students was Talal Asad, who now teaches at the City University of New York. Mary Douglas's classic \"Purity and Danger\" on pollutions and uncertainty — what we often denote as 'risk' — was fundamentally influenced by Evans-Pritchard's views on how accusations, blame and responsibility are deployed though culturally specific conceptions of misfortune and harm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later theories.", "content": "Evans-Pritchard's later work was more theoretical, drawing upon his experiences as anthropologist to philosophize on the nature of anthropology and how it should best be practiced. In 1950 he famously disavowed the commonly held view that anthropology was a natural science, arguing instead that it should be grouped amongst the humanities, especially history. He argued that the main issue facing anthropologists was one of translation—finding a way to translate one's own thoughts into the world of another culture and thus manage to come to understand it, and then to translate this understanding back so as to explain it to people of one's own culture.  In 1965, he published the highly influential work \"Theories of Primitive Religion\", arguing against the existing theories of what at the time were called \"primitive\" religious practices. Arguing along the lines of his theoretical work of the 1950s, he claimed that anthropologists rarely succeeded in entering the minds of the people they studied, and so ascribed to them motivations which more closely matched themselves and their own culture, not the one they were studying. He also argued that believers and non-believers approached the study of religion in vastly different ways, with non-believers being quicker to come up with biological, sociological, or psychological theories to explain religion as an illusion, and believers being more likely to come up with theories explaining religion as a method of conceptualizing and relating to reality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life and family.", "content": "Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard was born in Crowborough, East Sussex, England, the son of an Anglican clergyman. He converted to Roman Catholicism in 1944.  Known to his friends and family as \"EP\", Evans-Pritchard had five children with his wife Ioma. His daughter Deirdre Evans-Pritchard is Executive Director of the DC Independent Film Festival and consults in the fields of cultural heritage, tourism, media and the arts. His youngest son, Ambrose Evans-Pritchard, is a former foreign correspondent in Latin America, the US, and Europe, and became International Business Editor for the London \"Daily Telegraph\".  Evans-Pritchard died in Oxford on 11 September 1973.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "A Rivers Memorial Medal recipient (1937) and of the Huxley Memorial Medal (1963) he was President of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland from 1949-51. Evans-Pritchard was knighted in 1971. A number of Festschrifte were prepared for him:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sir Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, FBA (21 September 1902 – 11 September 1973), known as E. E. Evans-Pritchard, was an English anthropologist who was instrumental in the development of social anthropology. He was Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Oxford from 1946 to 1970.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975336}
{"src_title": "Fokker D.VIII", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In early 1918, Fokker produced several rotary-powered monoplane prototypes, submitting V.26 and V.28, small parasol-winged monoplanes with his usual steel-tube fuselages, for the second fighter trials at Adlershof in May/June 1918. V.28 was tested with the 108 kW (145 hp) Oberursel Ur.III and 119 kW (160 hp) Goebel Goe.III, though neither of these engines were ready for operational service. The V.26 used the standard Oberursel Ur.II engine, producing only 82 kW (110 hp). The engine was obsolete but the low drag of the V.26 and light weight meant that it was still quite fast. The Fokker designs were only barely beaten by the Siemens-Schuckert D.III with the complex bi-rotary Siemens-Halske Sh.III engine and the V.26 was ordered into production as the Fokker E.V. Four hundred were ordered immediately with either the Ur.III or Goe.III. Because neither engine was available in any quantity, all production examples mounted the Ur.II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first production E.V aircraft were shipped to \"Jasta\" 6 in late July. The new monoplane was also delivered to \"Jasta\" 1, \"Jasta\" 19, \"Jasta\" 24 and \"Jasta\" 36. \"Leutnant\" Emil Rolff scored the first kill in an E.V on August 17, 1918, but two days later he was killed when his aircraft's wing collapsed in flight. After another E.V of \"Jasta\" 19 crashed, \"Idflieg\" grounded all E.V aircraft. Pending the investigation of these wing failures, production ceased at the Fokker Flugzeugwerke. According to Fokker, the wing failures were caused by the army technical bureau, which had forced him to modify the original design by over-strengthening the rear main spar. This faulty design allegedly caused the wing to twist and fail. Fokker claimed that this defect was resolved by reverting to his original design.  According to most other accounts, the source of the wing failures lay not in the design, but in shoddy and rushed construction. Fokker had subcontracted construction of the E.V wings to the Gebrüder Perzina Pianoforte Fabrik factory. Due to poor quality control, inferior timber had been used and the spar caps, forming the upper and lower members of each spar assembly, had been placed too far apart during the fabrication. Because the resulting spars were vertically too large to pass through the ribs, excess material was simply planed away from the exposed upper and lower surfaces of the cap pieces, leaving the assembled spars dangerously weak. Other problems included water damage to glued parts, and pins that splintered the spars, rather than securing them.  Tests showed that, when properly constructed, the original E.V wing had a considerable margin of safety. Satisfied that the basic design was safe, \"Idflieg\" authorized continued production, after personnel changes and improved quality control measures were introduced at the Perzina factory.  Deliveries resumed in October. At the direction of the \"Kogenluft\" (\"Kommandierenden General der Luftstreitkräfte\"), \"Idflieg\" redesignated the modified aircraft D.VIII. The earlier \"E.\" and \"Dr.\" prefixes for fighter monoplanes and triplanes, respectively, were abolished and all fighters would henceforth receive the \"D.\" prefix instead. The D.VIII commenced operations on 24 October with \"Jasta\" 11. The aircraft proved to be agile and easy to fly. Allied pilots nicknamed it the \"Flying Razor\", presumably because it resembled a cocked straight razor in flight.  \"Jasta\" 5 was issued a D.VIII. The famed ace Erich Lowenhardt performed a test flight of a Fokker EV whilst paying a visit to Jasta 6 in the summer of 1918, but no evidence of him flying this aircraft on any other occasion exists to date.  A total of 381 aircraft were produced, but only some 85 aircraft reached frontline service before the Armistice. Some reached Italy, Japan, the United States, and England as trophies, but most were scrapped in accordance with the terms of the Armistice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Postwar.", "content": "The Polish Air Force captured 17 aircraft, but only seven (six E.V and one D.VIII) were in airworthy condition. All were used against Soviet forces in the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-1920. Lieutenant Stefan Stec earned the first kill for the Polish Air Force, by shooting down a Ukrainian Nieuport 11 \"Bébé\" fighter on 29 April 1919. In 1921, the remaining Fokkers were withdrawn from front-line units and transferred to the \"Szkoła Obsługi Lotniczej\" (Air Personnel School) at Poznań-Ławica airfield.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Survivors.", "content": "The fuselage of an original D.VIII is preserved at the Caproni Museum in Trento, Italy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fokker E.V was a German parasol-monoplane fighter aircraft designed by Reinhold Platz and built by Fokker-Flugzeugwerke. The E.V was the last Fokker design to become operational with the \"Luftstreitkräfte,\" entering service in the last months of World War I. After several fatal accidents due to wing failures, the aircraft was modified and redesignated Fokker D.VIII. Dubbed the \"Flying Razor\" by Allied pilots, the D.VIII had the distinction of scoring the last aerial victory of the war.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975337}
{"src_title": "Toyen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "From 1919 to 1920, Toyen attended UMPRUM (Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design) in Prague to study the decorative arts. They worked closely with fellow Surrealist poet and artist Jindřich Štyrský until Štyrský's death.  Toyen joined the Czech avant-garde Devětsil group in 1923 and exhibited with them. The group had strong international connections, especially but not only to French culture. Some of the other members of this very large group included: artist and writer Jindřich Štyrský, future Nobel prizewinning poet Jaroslav Seifert, the constructivist architectural theorist Karel Teige, and the poet František Halas. In the early 1920s Toyen traveled to Paris, and soon returned there with Štyrský to live. While living in Paris, the two founded an artistic alternative to Abstraction and Surrealism, which they dubbed Artificialism. Artificialism was defined by Toyen and Štyrský in a leaflet for an exhibition as \"The identification of the painter with the poet,\" where the artist creates poetry without using language. The two would return to Prague in 1928.  Toyen's sketches, book illustrations, and paintings were frequently erotic. He had an interest in erotic humor, combining themes of both pleasure and pain. His imagery often featured disembodied female figures as well as parts of male bodies like genitalia. His book illustrations often featured female faces.  Toyen contributed erotic sketches for Štyrský's Erotická Revue (1930–33). This journal was published on strict subscription terms based on a circulation of 150 copies. Štyrský also published books under the imprint Edice 69, some of which Toyen illustrated. For example, Toyen illustrated the Marquis de Sade's \"Justine\". Also of note, they contributed pieces in \"Die Frau als Künstlerin\", Woman as an Artist, the prestigious 1928 survey of women artists in Western civilization.  Toyen's output of over 500 illustrated books includes, for example, The Purple Land by W. H. Hudson and Charles Vildrac's L'lle rose, both from 1930.  After their associates Vítězslav Nezval and Jindřich Honzl met André Breton in Paris, in March 1934 Toyen and Štyrský joined them in founding the Czech Surrealist Group along with other artists, writers, and the composer Jaroslav Ježek.  Forced underground during the Nazi occupation and Second World War, he sheltered his second artistic partner, Jindřich Heisler, a poet of Jewish descent who had joined the Czech Surrealist Group in 1938. The two permanently relocated to Paris in 1947, before the Communist takeover of Czechoslovakia in 1948, and joined the Parisian Surrealists. In Paris, Toyen worked with André Breton, Benjamin Péret and other surrealists such as Annie Le Brun. Toyen would continue to collaborate with surrealist-affiliated poets and other writers but soon ceased working for commercial publishers in Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exploring sexuality and gender in surrealism.", "content": "Toyen's artistic identity involved significant attention to gender issues and sexual politics. It has been suggested that this would have been difficult considering the surrealist movement was male-dominated and is often regarded as sexist. However, surrealism began to attract many women in the 1930s and became much more gender-balanced as time went by. Breton in particular admired Toyen and the artist was close to both Breton and his third wife, Elisa.  Toyen was labelled as a woman at birth, but appears to have preferred a less-gendered identification. Some people compare Toyen with \"other Surrealist women\" (Claude Cahun, Leonora Carrington, and a handful of others). Cahun examined the fluidity of gender roles, which was also true of Toyen. He often dressed in masculine-style clothing and preferred masculine signifiers, choosing a non-conformist position when it came to gender and sexuality, themes heavily mined in Surrealist art. The artist often addressed gender and sexuality in humorous and fantasy-erotic illustrations. Toyen has been theorized by Malynne Sternstein as \"hypersexualized.\"  The surrealists believed that humans are sexual beings, and many surrealists linked sexuality to artistic creativity. Some surrealists deemed sexuality to be central, with genitalia as the center of vitality.  Toyen expressed interest in lesbian sexuality along with many other forms of sexual expression, but it is unknown what the artist's personal sexual activity actually included. Toyen's two major artistic partnerships were with men, but it is not known whether these included sexual contact. According to Huebner, it is best to see Toyen as queer and not attempt to categorize the artist's sexuality or gender.  Toyen has been described as presenting in an \"ambiguously gendered\" manner due to alternately wearing skirts and more masculine-styled attire. His contemporaries reported Toyen as walking in an unfeminine way and asserting himself to be attracted to women.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Toyen, born Marie Čermínová (21 September 1902, in Prague – 9 November 1980, in Paris), was a Czech painter, drafter, and illustrator and a member of the surrealist movement. Toyen left the family home at sixteen, and it has been speculated it was due to sympathy towards anarchism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975338}
{"src_title": "Story of Sinuhe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sources.", "content": "There are a number of sources telling the \"Story of Sinuhe\". A limestone ostracon (a pottery or stone fragment) in the Egyptian Museum is over a yard long, and is possibly the largest ostracon in existence. It tells the beginning of the \"Story of Sinuhe\", and is inscribed in Hieratic. The story dates from the XII dynasty, and the fragment was found in the tomb of Sennutem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Story of Sinuhe.", "content": "Sinuhe is an official who accompanies prince Senwosret I to Libya. He overhears a conversation connected with the death of King Amenemhet I and as a result flees to Upper Retjenu (Canaan), leaving Egypt behind. He becomes the son-in-law of Chief Ammunenshi and in time his sons grow to become chiefs in their own right. Sinuhe fights rebellious tribes on behalf of Ammunenshi. As an old man, in the aftermath of defeating a powerful opponent in single combat, he prays for a return to his homeland: \"\"May god pity me...may he hearken to the prayer of one far away!...may the King have mercy on me...may I be conducted to the city of eternity!\"\" He then receives an invitation from King Senwosret I of Egypt to return, which he accepts in highly moving terms. Living out the rest of his life in royal favour, he is finally laid to rest in the necropolis in a beautiful tomb.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interpretations.", "content": "The \"Story of Sinuhe\" has spawned a great deal of literature which explores the themes contained in the work from many perspectives. The scope and variety of this material has been likened to the analysis of Hamlet and other notable works of literature. Scholars debate the reason why Sinuhe flees Egypt, with the majority ascribing panic over a perceived threat. The tale is full of symbolic allusions. Sinuhe's name (=\"Son of the Sycamore\") is seen as providing an important link in understanding the story. The sycamore is an ancient Egyptian Tree of Life, associated with Hathor (the Goddess of fertility and rebirth and patroness of foreign countries), who features throughout the work.  Sinuhe comes under the protective orbit of divine powers, in the form of the King, from whom he first tries to run away, and that of the Queen, a manifestation of Hathor. On fleeing Egypt, Sinuhe crosses a waterway associated with the Goddess Maat, the ancient Egyptian principle of truth, order and justice, in the vicinity of a sycamore tree.  The ancient Egyptians believed in free will, implicit in the code of Maat, but this still allowed divine grace to work in and through the individual, and an overarching divine providence is seen in Sinuhe's flight and return to his homeland. Unable to escape the orbit of the gods' power and mercy, Sinuhe exclaims: \"Whether I am in the Residence, or whether I am in this place, it is you who cover this horizon\".  Parallels have been made between the biblical narrative of Joseph and the \"Story of Sinuhe\". In what is seen as divine providence, Sinuhe the Egyptian flees to Syro-Canaan and becomes a member of the ruling elite, acquires a wife and family, before being reunited with his Egyptian family. In what is seen as divine providence, the Syro-Canaanite Joseph is taken to Egypt where he becomes part of the ruling elite, acquires a wife and family, before being reunited with his Syro-Canaanite family. Parallels have also been drawn from other biblical texts: the Hebrew prophet Jonah's frustrated flight from the orbit of God's power is likened to Sinuhe's similar flight from the King. The battle between David and Goliath is compared to his fight with a mighty challenger, whom he slays with a single blow, and the parable of the Prodigal Son is likened to his return home.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences on modern culture.", "content": "Naguib Mahfouz, the Nobel Prize-winning Egyptian writer, published in 1941 a story entitled \"Awdat Sinuhi\" translated by Raymond Stock in 2003 as \"The Return of Sinuhe\" in the collection of Mahfouz's short stories entitled \"Voices from the Other World\". The story is based directly on the \"Story of Sinuhe\", although adding details of a lovers' triangle romance that does not appear in the original.  The story also formed part of the inspiration for the 1945 novel by Mika Waltari, and the 1954 Hollywood film epic, both titled \"The Egyptian\", which although set during the reign of 18th dynasty pharaoh Akhenaten, features a lead character named Sinuhe (played by Edmund Purdom) who flees Egypt in disgrace, to return after achieving material success and personal redemption in foreign lands.  Elizabeth Peters made reference to the tale in her novel \"The Falcon at the Portal.\"  Cuban songwriter and singer Silvio Rodriguez composed a song title \"Sinuhe\" (2003) included in his album \"A Date with the Angels\" (\"Cita con los Angeles\" original Spanish). The lyrics used the figure of Sinuhe as a metaphor of the past intellectual greatness of the Middle East and portrays a contrast with the contemporary conflicts and wars in the region.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Story of Sinuhe (also known as Sanehat) is considered one of the finest works of ancient Egyptian literature. It is a narrative set in the aftermath of the death of Pharaoh Amenemhat I, founder of the 12th dynasty of Egypt, in the early 20th century BC. It was composed around 1875 BC, although the earliest extant manuscript is from the reign of Amenemhat III, c. 1800 BC. There is an ongoing debate among Egyptologists as to whether or not the tale is based on actual events involving an individual named Sinuhe (Egyptian: z3-nht \"son of the sycamore\"), with the consensus being that it is most likely a work of fiction. Due to the universal nature of the themes explored in \"Sinuhe\", including divine providence and mercy, its anonymous author has been described as the \"Egyptian Shakespeare\" whose ideas have parallels in biblical texts. \"Sinuhe\" is considered to be a work written in verse and it may also have been performed. The great popularity of the work is witnessed by the numerous surviving fragments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975339}
{"src_title": "Battle of Badung Strait", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "A battalion of the 48th Infantry Division of the Imperial Japanese Army landed on Bali on 18 February 1942. Dutch Admiral Karel Doorman's naval forces were scattered around Indonesia, but the invasion of Bali could not be ignored – it would give the Japanese an airbase within range of the ABDA naval base at Surabaya – so he sent in all available ships. The short notice gave no time to concentrate his ships; accordingly, several Allied forces were to attack the Japanese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "The first Allied vessels to engage were the submarines and. Both attacked the Japanese convoy on 18 February, but did no damage and were driven off by depth charges from Japanese destroyers. Later that day, 20 planes of the United States Army Air Forces attacked the convoy but succeeded only in damaging the transport \"Sagami Maru\".  The Japanese were aware that their invasion convoy was likely to be attacked again, so they retreated north as soon as possible. The cruiser and the destroyers, and were well away and took no part in the action. The last ships to leave were the two modes of transport, each escorted by two destroyers. \"Sasago Maru\" was escorted by and ; the heavily damaged \"Sagami Maru\" was escorted by and.  The first Allied group—consisting of the cruisers and and the destroyers,, and —sighted the Japanese in Badung Strait at about 22:00 and opened fire at 22:25 on 19 February. No damage was done in this exchange of fire, and the two Dutch cruisers continued through the strait to the northeast, to give the destroyers a free hand to engage with torpedoes. Then \"Piet Hein\", \"Pope\" and \"John D. Ford\" came into range. At 22:40, a Long Lance torpedo from \"Asashio\" hit \"Piet Hein\", sinking the Dutch destroyer immediately. \"Asashio\" and \"Oshio\" then exchanged gunfire with \"Pope\" and \"John D. Ford\", forcing the two American destroyers to retire to the southeast instead of following the cruisers to the northeast.  In the darkness, \"Asashio\" and \"Oshio\" mistook each other for enemy ships and fired on each other for several minutes, without any damage.  About three hours later, the second group of ABDA ships—the cruiser and the destroyers,,, and —reached Badung Strait. At 01:36, \"Stewart\", \"Pillsbury\" and \"Parrott\" launched torpedoes but did no damage. Then \"Oshio\" and \"Asashio\" sortied again and there was another exchange of gunfire. \"Tromp\" was hit by eleven shells from \"Asashio\", severely damaging her and hit both Japanese destroyers, killing four men on \"Asashio\" and seven on \"Oshio\". \"Tromp\" later had to return to Australia for repairs.  \"Arashio\" and \"Michishio\" had been ordered by Admiral Kubo to turn back, and at about 02:20 they joined the battle. \"Michishio\" was hit by shells from \"Pillsbury\", \"John D. Edwards\" and \"Tromp\", killing 13 of her crew and wounding 83. She lost speed and had to be towed after the battle. During these exchanges, the USS Stewart was also damaged topside and one shell hit opened seams below the waterline aft and flooded the steering engine room. Both groups of ships turned away, and the engagement was over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The third ABDA group—seven torpedo boats—arrived in Badung Strait at about 06:00 but did not encounter any Japanese ships. The battle was a significant victory for the Japanese. Lieutenant Commander Gorō Yoshii of \"Asashio\" and Commander Kiyoshi Kikkawa of \"Oshio\" had shown great bravery and skill. They had driven off a much larger Allied force, sunk the destroyer \"Piet Hein\", damaged the destroyer \"Stewart\" and severely damaged the cruiser \"Tromp\". Meanwhile, the Japanese had sustained little damage themselves, and had protected their transport ships.  Bali's garrison of 600 Indonesian militia offered no resistance to the Japanese, and its airfield was captured intact. The Japanese continued their conquest of the Dutch East Indies with the capture of Timor from 20–23 February. The ABDA forces engaged at Badung Strait were decisively defeated in the Battle of the Java Sea on 1 March 1942, in which the Dutch cruisers \"Java\" and \"De Ruyter\" were sunk and Admiral Doorman was killed. \"Tromp\" evaded this fate, for she was withdrawn to Australia to repair damage suffered at Badung Strait. The US destroyer \"Stewart\" was sufficiently damaged that she had to be placed in dry-dock for repairs in Soerabaia, where she was scuttled to avoid capture by the rapidly advancing Japanese. She was raised, repaired and put into Japanese service a year later as the patrol vessel \"P-102\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Badung Strait was a naval battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on the night of 19/20 February 1942 in Badung Strait (not to be confused with the West Java city of Bandung) between the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDA) and the Imperial Japanese Navy. In the engagement, the four Japanese destroyers defeated an Allied force that outnumbered and outgunned them, escorting two transports to safety and sinking the Dutch destroyer. The battle demonstrated the Japanese Navy's considerable superiority over the Allies in night fighting which lasted until the Battle of Cape St. George.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975340}
{"src_title": "Berengaria of Navarre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "In 1185, Berengaria was given the fief of Monreal by her father. Eleanor of Aquitaine promoted the engagement of Berengaria to her son, Richard the Lionheart. An alliance with Navarre meant protection for the southern borders of Eleanor's Duchy of Aquitaine, and helped create better relations with neighbouring Castile whose queen was Eleanor, a sister of Richard. Also, Navarre had assimilated the troubadour culture of Aquitaine and Berengaria's reputation was unbesmirched. It seems that Berengaria and Richard did in fact meet once, years before their marriage, and writers have claimed that there was an attraction between them at that time.  In 1190, Eleanor met Sancho in Pamplona and he hosted a banquet in the Royal Palace of Olite in her honour. The betrothal could not be celebrated openly, for Richard had been betrothed for many years to Alys, half-sister of King Philip II of France. Richard terminated his betrothal to Alys in 1190 while at Messina. It has been suggested that Alys had become the mistress of Richard's own father, Henry II of England, and possibly the mother of an illegitimate child; a marriage between Richard and Alys therefore would have been technically impossible for religious reasons of affinity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Richard had Berengaria brought to him by his mother Eleanor of Aquitaine. Because Richard was already on the Third Crusade, having wasted no time in setting off after his coronation, the two women had a long and difficult journey to catch up with him. They arrived at Messina in Sicily during Lent (when the marriage could not take place) in 1191 and were joined by Richard's sister Joan, the widowed queen of Sicily. The two women became good friends and Berengaria was left in Joan's custody. En route to the Holy Land, the ship carrying Berengaria and Joan ran aground off the coast of Cyprus, and they were threatened by the island's ruler, Isaac Comnenus. Richard came to their rescue, captured the island, and overthrew Comnenus. Berengaria married Richard the Lionheart on 12 May 1191, in the Chapel of St. George at Limassol on Cyprus, and was crowned the same day by the archbishop of Bordeaux and bishops of Évreux and Bayonne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen consort.", "content": "Whether the marriage was ever even consummated is a matter for conjecture. In any case, Richard certainly took his new wife with him for the first part of the Third Crusade. This was unusual, although Richard's mother and Berengaria's predecessor, Eleanor of Aquitaine, had, when queen of France, been with her husband throughout the Second Crusade, though the stresses and disputes of the unsuccessful campaign did serious damage to their relationship. Berengaria returned well before Richard left the Holy Land; on his return to Europe he was captured and imprisoned. Berengaria remained in Europe, based at Beaufort-en-Vallée, attempting to raise money for his ransom. After his release, Richard returned to England and was not joined by his wife.  When Richard returned to England, he had to regain all the territory that had either been lost by his brother John or taken by King Philip of France. His focus was on his kingdom, not his queen. King Richard was ordered by Pope Celestine III to reunite with Queen Berengaria and to show fidelity to her in the future. Richard, now mostly spending his time in France, obeyed and took Berengaria to church every week thereafter. When he died in 1199, she was distressed, perhaps more so at deliberately being overlooked as queen of England and Cyprus. Some historians believe that Berengaria honestly loved her husband, and Richard's feelings for her were merely formal because the marriage was a political rather than a romantic union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen dowager.", "content": "Berengaria never visited England during King Richard's lifetime; during the entirety of their marriage, Richard spent less than six months in England. There is evidence, however, that she may have done so in the years following his death. The traditional description of her as \"the only English queen never to set foot in the country\" still would be true because she did not visit England during the time she was Richard's consort. She certainly sent envoys to England several times, mainly to inquire about the pension she was due as dowager queen and Richard's widow, which King John failed to pay. Although Queen Eleanor intervened and Pope Innocent III threatened him with an interdict if he did not pay Berengaria what was due, King John still owed her more than £4000 when he died. During the reign of his son Henry III of England, however, her payments were made.  Berengaria eventually settled in Le Mans, one of her dower properties. She was a benefactress of L'Épau Abbey in Le Mans, entered the conventual life, and was buried in the abbey. In 1240, Archbishop Rodrigo Jimenez de Rada of Toledo wrote of Berengaria that she lived, \"as a most praiseworthy widow and stayed for the most part in the city of Le Mans, which she held as part of her marriage dower, devoting herself to almsgiving, prayer and good works, witnessing as an example to all women of chastity and religion and in the same city she came to the end of her days with a happy death.\" A skeleton thought to be hers was rediscovered in 1960 during the restoration of the abbey. These remains are preserved beneath the stone effigy of the queen, which is now to be found in the chapter house of the abbey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical significance.", "content": "Historian Ann Trindade says about Berengaria that she \"is remembered as a benefactor of several...religious congregations and institutions and was regarded as a model of piety.\" She also states that “Berengaria’s life illustrates very clearly the constraints under which medieval women, even aristocratic ones, were obliged to live.” Berengaria's struggles are a good example of what many women faced in the thirteenth century, and “those long years of widowhood reveal, on the basis of record, a strong courageous woman, independent, solitary, battling against difficult political and economic circumstances, with little interest in the trappings of courtly existence, sustained by her faith in Christianity and her loyalty to the See of St. Peter, not afraid to assert her rights against powerful enemies, both lay and clerical.”", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Novels featuring Berengaria include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In media.", "content": "The 1935 film \"The Crusades\", starring Loretta Young and Henry Wilcoxon, tells a fictionalized story of Richard and Berengaria's marriage. The 1954 historical drama film \"King Richard and the Crusaders\", starring George Sanders and Paula Raymond, shows Richard and Berengaria as married and on the Third Crusade. The 1960s' British television series \"Richard the Lionheart\" features their marriage prominently, with Berengaria played by Sheila Whittingham. In the 1923 film \"Richard the Lion-Hearted\", Queen Berengaria is played by Kathleen Clifford. All versions were highly romanticized and are not reliable sources of information about the queen. Berengaria of Navarre was played by Zoë Wanamaker in the BBC 13-part drama \"The Devil's Crown\" (1978).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The early 20th-century Cunard passenger liner RMS \"Berengaria\" was named in her honour, the first Cunard ship to be named for a British queen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Berengaria of Navarre (,, ; 1165–1170 – 23 December 1230) was queen of England as the wife of Richard I of England. She was the eldest daughter of Sancho VI of Navarre and Sancha of Castile. As is the case with many of the medieval English queens, relatively little is known of her life.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975341}
{"src_title": "Slaughterhouse-Five", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "\"Information architecture\" has somewhat different meanings in different branches of Information systems or Information technology:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Debate.", "content": "The difficulty in establishing a common definition for \"information architecture\" arises partly from the term's existence in multiple fields. In the field of systems design, for example, information architecture is a component of enterprise architecture that deals with the information component when describing the structure of an enterprise.  While the definition of information architecture is relatively well-established in the field of systems design, it is much more debatable within the context of online information(i.e., websites). Andrew Dillon refers to the latter as the \"big IA–little IA debate\". In the little IA view, information architecture is essentially the application of information science to web design which considers, for example, issues of classification and information retrieval. In the big IA view, information architecture involves more than just the organization of a website; it also factors in user experience, thereby considering usability issues of information design.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Information architect.", "content": "Richard Saul Wurman clarified his use of the term information architect when he wrote: \"I mean architect as used in the words \"architect of foreign policy\". I mean architect as in the creating of systemic, structural, and orderly principles to make something work — the thoughtful making of either artifact, or idea, or policy that informs because it is clear.\"  In the keynote address of the first annual ACIA conference on Information Architecture in October of 2000, Peter Morville presented \"Information architecture isn't about superficial appearances. It's about mission-critical infrastructure.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Slaughterhouse-Five, or The Children's Crusade: A Duty-Dance with Death is a science fiction-infused anti-war novel by Kurt Vonnegut, first published in 1969. It follows the life and experiences of Billy Pilgrim, from his early years to his time as an American soldier and chaplain's assistant during World War II, to the postwar years, with Billy occasionally traveling through time itself. The text centers on Billy's capture by the German Army and his survival of the Allied firebombing of Dresden as a prisoner of war, an experience which Vonnegut himself lived through as an American serviceman. The work has been called an example of \"unmatched moral clarity\" and \"one of the most enduring antiwar novels of all time\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975342}
{"src_title": "William, Prince of Orange", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Prince William was the eldest son of King William III of the Netherlands and his first wife, Princess Sophie of Württemberg. His nickname was \"Wiwill\". At his birth, he held the third position in the line of succession to the Dutch throne and the seventeenth position in the line of succession to the British throne. A month afterwards on 7 October 1840, his great-grandfather, the reigning King William I of the Netherlands, abdicated the throne due to the disappointment over the recent Treaty of London, which recognized the independence of Belgium (previously provinces of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands), and the intention of marrying a Roman Catholic and Belgian noblewoman, Henrietta d'Oultremont. In 1849, after the death of his grandfather King William II of the Netherlands, he became Prince of Orange as heir apparent. His Victorian upbringing turned out to be a disaster.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Failed marriages.", "content": "After the failed plans for a marriage between Prince William and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, the second daughter of Queen Victoria, the prince fell in love with the 19-year-old Countess Mathilde von Limburg-Stirum in 1873. The relationship between the prince and his parents became very problematic, as his parents refused William's wish to accept Mathilde as his bride in 1874. By the standards of the Dutch royal family, a marriage between a member of the royal family and a member of the nobility was considered unequal and therefore unacceptable. Also a rumour circulated that Mathilda was an illegitimate daughter of king William III and so William could be marrying his half-sister. The 33-year-old William wanted to marry, if necessary, without the consent of his parents. However, Mathilda was not yet twenty and so permission was needed from her parents too. Since they denied permission, the prince's attempt to marry Mathilda failed. She finally married in 1881 Baron Reginald van Tuyll (1845–1903, who may have inspired the eponymous character in P. G. Wodehouse's book \"Indiscretions of Archie\", 1921). She died on 14 May 1932, at age 77 at Popham, Hampshire, in England, nearby her daughter Julia Sheffield, Lady Sheffield.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and aftermath.", "content": "Heavily disillusioned with his situation in the Netherlands, Prince William then went into exile in Paris, where he threw himself into a life of sex, drinking and gambling. He shared this life with Henriette Hauser (also Hausser), his Parisian mistress, a \"boulevard theatre\" actress. The Duke de Gramont-Caderousse, a French fellow hedonist, gave him the nickname \"Prince Lemon\" [\"le prince Citron\" in French]; the nickname became popular among the regulars in the recently created boulevards and the Parisian newspapers when they reported about his debauched lifestyle. Prince William died at the age of 38 in his apartment in the Rue Auber, near the Paris Opera from a combination of typhus, liver complaints and total exhaustion. On 26 June 1879 his body was entombed in the royal crypt at the New Church of Delft. On his coffin there was a wreath from French empress Eugénie de Montijo and one from the future King Edward VII, who had been his fellow debauchee.  After his death, his brother Alexander became heir-apparent and Prince of Orange. However he also died before their father, who was now without sons. The States-General adopted cognatic primogeniture in 1888.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William, Prince of Orange (Willem Nicolaas Alexander Frederik Karel Hendrik; 4 September 1840 – 11 June 1879), was heir apparent to the Dutch throne as the eldest son of King William III from 17 March 1849 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975343}
{"src_title": "Louis Chevrolet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "The second child of French-Swiss parents Joseph-Félicien and Marie-Anne Angéline (\"née\" Mahon), Louis-Joseph Chevrolet was born in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Canton of Neuchâtel, a center of watchmaking in northwestern Switzerland. In 1886, Chevrolet's family left Switzerland to live in Beaune, in the Côte-d'Or \"département\" of France. There, as a young man, Louis developed his mechanical skills and interest in bicycle racing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Chevrolet worked for the Roblin mechanics shop from 1895 to 1899. He then went to Paris, where he worked for a short time before emigrating to Montreal, Quebec, Canada in 1900 to work as a mechanic. The following year, he moved to New York City, where he worked briefly for a fellow Swiss immigrant's engineering company, then moved to the Brooklyn operations of the French car manufacturer de Dion-Bouton.  In 1905 he married Suzanne Treyvoux; the couple had two sons. In the same year, he was hired by FIAT as a racing car driver. In 1907, Chevrolet was hired by The Autocar Company in Philadelphia, probably for a secret project to develop a revolutionary front-wheel-drive racing car.  His racing career continued as he drove for Buick, becoming a friend and associate of Buick owner William C. Durant, founder of General Motors. He raced at the Giants Despair Hillclimb in 1909.  With little in the way of formal education, Chevrolet learned car design while working for Buick and started designing his own engine for a new car in 1909. He built an overhead valve six-cylinder engine in his own machine shop on Grand River Boulevard in Detroit, Michigan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chevrolet car company.", "content": "On November 3, 1911, Chevrolet co-founded the Chevrolet Motor Car Company with Durant and investment partners William Little (maker of the Little automobile) and Dr. Edwin R. Campbell, son-in-law of Durant and friend of Samuel McLaughlin of the McLaughlin Car Company of Canada Ltd. The company was established in Detroit. One story tells the choosing of the company's logo as a modified Swiss cross, to honor Chevrolet's homeland. Another story tells of the Chevrolet logo as a design taken from the wallpaper of a Paris hotel room where Louis once stayed.  Chevrolet had differences with Durant over the car's design, and in 1915 sold Durant his share in the company and started McLaughlin's Company in Canada building Chevrolets. By 1916 the trading of Chevrolet stock for GM Holding stock enabled Durant to repurchase a controlling stake in General Motors, and by 1917 the Chevrolet company that Louis had co-founded was merged as a company into General Motors after the outstanding Chevrolet stocks were purchased from McLaughlin in 1918. The McLaughlin Car Company then merged with his Chevrolet Motor Company of Canada Ltd. to become General Motors of Canada Ltd. in 1918, prior to the incorporation of the General Motors Corporation in the U.S. when General Motors Company of New Jersey dissolved.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Frontenac and American car companies.", "content": "In 1916, Louis Chevrolet and his brothers founded the Frontenac Motor Corporation to make racing parts for Ford Model Ts.  Also in 1916, American Motors Corporation (unrelated to the later American Motors created by the 1954 merger of Nash-Kelvinator Corporation and Hudson Motor Car Company) was formed in Newark, New Jersey, with Louis Chevrolet as vice president and chief engineer. By 1918 it was producing cars in a plant at Plainfield, New Jersey. In 1923 it merged with the Bessemer Motor Truck Company of Pennsylvania into Bessemer-American Motors Corporation, which lasted less than a year before merging with the Winther and Northway companies into Amalgamated Motors. The latter company apparently ceased soon after.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Auto racing.", "content": "By the mid-1910s, Louis Chevrolet had shifted into the racing car industry, partnering with Howard E. Blood of Allegan, Michigan, to create the Cornelian racing car, which he used to place 20th in the 1915 Indianapolis 500 automobile race. In 1916, he and younger brothers Gaston and Arthur Chevrolet started Frontenac Motor Corporation, designing and producing a line of racing cars. They became well known for, among other things, their Fronty-Ford racers.  Louis drove in the Indianapolis 500 four times, with a best finish of 7th in 1919. Both Louis and Gaston competed successfully with racing Sunbeams achieving a number of third places in 1916. Arthur competed twice, and Gaston won the race in 1920 in one of their Frontenacs, going on to win the 1920 AAA National Championship. He also raced for the Buick racing team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Chevrolet died on June 6, 1941, in Detroit due to a heart attack. He had been plagued with atherosclerosis which had previously led to a leg amputation. He is buried in the Holy Cross and Saint Joseph Cemetery in Indianapolis, Indiana.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Louis Chevrolet Memorial.", "content": "The Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum in Speedway, Indiana, features a memorial at the entrance to the building dedicated to the accomplishments of Louis Chevrolet. The memorial, designed by Fred Wellman and sculpted by Adolph Wolter, was created during 1968–1970 and installed in the spring of 1975. The centerpiece of the memorial is a bronze bust of Chevrolet wearing a racing cap and goggles; it rests on a marble and granite square base.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Chevrolet was inducted into the following halls of fame:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis-Joseph Chevrolet (; December 25, 1878 – June 6, 1941) was a Swiss-American race car driver, co-founder of the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in 1911, and a founder in 1916 of the Frontenac Motor Corporation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975344}
{"src_title": "Fairey Albacore", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Albacore prototypes were built to meet Specification S.41/36 for a three-seat TSR (torpedo/spotter/reconnaissance) for the FAA to replace the Swordfish. The Albacore was designated TBR (torpedo/bomber/reconnaissance) and like the Swordfish, was capable of dive bombing:  and the maximum under wing bomb load was 4 × bombs. The Albacore had a constant speed propeller, a more powerful engine than the Swordfish and was more aerodynamically refined. It offered the crew an enclosed and heated cockpit and had an automatic liferaft ejection system that triggered in the event of the aircraft ditching.  The first of two prototypes flew on 12 December 1938 and production of the first batch of 98 aircraft began in 1939. Early Albacores were fitted with the Bristol Taurus II engine and those built later received the more powerful Taurus XII. Boscombe Down testing of the Albacore and Taurus II engine, in February 1940, showed a maximum speed of 160 mph (258 km/h), at an altitude of 4,800 ft (1,463 m), at 11,570 lb (5,259 kg), which was achieved with four under-wing depth charges, while maximum speed without the depth charges was 172 mph (277 km/h). An Albacore fitted with the Taurus II engine and carrying a torpedo weighed 11,100 lb (5,045 kg).  A total of 800 Albacores were built, including two prototypes which were all built at Fairey's Hayes Factory and test flown at what is now London Heathrow Airport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "No. 826 Naval Air Squadron was specially formed to operate the first Albacores in March 1940, being used for attacks against harbours and shipping in the English Channel, operating from shore bases and for convoy escort for the rest of 1940. s 826 and 829 Squadrons were the first to operate the Albacore from a carrier, with operations starting in November 1940. Initially, the Albacore suffered from reliability problems with the Taurus engine, although these were later solved, so that the failure rate was no worse than the Pegasus equipped Swordfish. The Albacore remained less popular than the Swordfish, as it was less manoeuvrable, with the controls being too heavy for a pilot to take much evasive action after dropping a torpedo.  Eventually, there were 15 first-line FAA squadrons equipped with the Albacore which operated widely in the Mediterranean. Albacores played a prominent role in the ill-fated raid on Kirkenes and Petsamo in July 1941. Albacores participated with more success in the Battle of Cape Matapan and the fighting at El Alamein as well as supporting the landings at Sicily and Salerno. During the period September 1941 to end of June 1943, No. 828 Squadron, based at RAF Hal Far, Malta, operated a squadron of Albacores under severe blitz conditions during the siege of Malta, mainly against Italian shipping and shore targets in Sicily. On 9 March 1942, 12 Albacores from were launched to attack the German at sea near Narvik. Based on information from one of six radar equipped aircraft already airborne, Albacores from 817 and 832 Squadrons launched torpedoes and some also attacked with their machine guns. One attack came within of success at the bow but the FAA's only torpedo attack on \"Tirpitz\" at sea failed, with the loss of two aircraft and damage to many others.  In 1943, the Albacore was progressively replaced in Fleet Air Arm service by the Barracuda. The last FAA Albacore squadron, No. 841 Squadron, which had been used for shore based attacks against shipping in the Channel for the whole of its career with the Albacore, disbanded in late 1943. The Royal Air Force deployed some Albacores; No. 36 Squadron based at Singapore acquired five to supplement its Vickers Vildebeests at RAF Seletar in December 1941. The remnants of the squadron was captured by the Japanese in March 1942. In 1943, No. 415 Squadron RCAF was equipped with Albacores (presumably ex-FAA) before the Flight operating them was transferred and reformed as 119 Squadron at RAF Manston in July 1944. The squadron deployed later to Belgium and their Albacores were disposed of in early 1945, due to spares shortages, in favour of the inferior but ASV radar-equipped Swordfish Mk.IIIs that the squadron kept until the end of the war on 8 May. This was to combat German mini-submarines attacking Allied shipping entering the River Scheldt on its way to Antwerp Port. The Aden Communication Flight used 17 Albacores between the middle of 1944 and August 1946. Some of these were delivered by sea on the in December 1945 (all from Royal Navy stock).  The Royal Canadian Air Force took over the Albacores and used them during the Normandy invasion, for a similar role until July 1944. The Albacore was the last biplane to be used in combat by the RCAF.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "Only one Albacore is known to survive, on display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum, which was built using parts of Albacores N4389 and N4172 recovered from crash sites.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fairey Albacore was a British single-engine carrier-borne biplane torpedo bomber built by Fairey Aviation between 1939 and 1943 for the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm and used during the Second World War. It had a crew of three and was designed for spotting and reconnaissance as well as level, dive, and torpedo bombing. The Albacore, popularly known as the \"Applecore\", was conceived as a replacement for the Fairey Swordfish, which had entered service in 1936. However, the Albacore served alongside the Swordfish and was retired before it, being replaced from 1944 by two monoplane designs, the Fairey Barracuda and Grumman Avenger.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975345}
{"src_title": "Ixodes ricinus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "In common with other species of \"Ixodes\", \"I. ricinus\" has no eyes and is not ornate; it has no festoons (wrinkles along the posterior margin). The palpi are longer than they are wide, and an anal groove is above the anus. It has a hard dorsal shield which covers the entire opisthosoma (abdomen), but only part of it in females and nymphs. \"I. ricinus\" is the largest of the three common species of \"Ixodes\" in the British Isles (the other two being \"I. canisuga\", the British dog tick, and \"I. trianguliceps\", the vole tick). Adult males are long, and unfed nymphs are long; females are long before feeding and long when engorged.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Ixodes ricinus\" is found across Europe and into neighbouring parts of North Africa and the Middle East, extending as far north as Iceland and as far east as parts of Russia. Its northern limit seems to be determined by environmental factors, including temperature, since a series of mild winters in Scandinavia coincided with an expansion northwards in the range of \"I. ricinus\".  \"I. ricinus\" is most frequent in habitats where its hosts are plentiful, including woodlands, heaths and forests. It is most prevalent in relatively humid areas, and is absent from much of the Mediterranean Region where summers are dry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifecycle.", "content": "\"Ixodes ricinus\" has a three-host lifecycle, which usually takes 2–3 years to complete, although it can take from 1 to 6 years in extreme cases. Adults feed on large mammals such as sheep, cattle, dogs, deer, humans, and horses for 6–13 days, before dropping off. An engorged female lays several thousand eggs and subsequently dies. The larvae that hatch do not actively seek a host, and usually feed on insectivores (orders Erinaceomorpha and Soricomorpha), although they may also find rodents, rabbits, birds, reptiles, or bats. They feed for 3–5 days before dropping off and moulting. The resulting nymphs then ascend grasses or twigs to seek their next host, but must return to the moist microclimate at the soil surface if they become dehydrated. The nymphs feed on small to medium-sized mammals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disease transmission.", "content": "A number of tick-borne diseases can be transmitted by \"I. ricinus\" to a variety of mammal hosts. Dogs can be infected with Lyme disease (borreliosis), caused by the spirochaete bacteria \"Borrelia burgdorferi\", \"B. afzelii\", and \"B. garinii\". Cattle can become infected with redwater fever (from the protozoans \"Babesia divergens\", \"B. bovis\", and \"B. ovis\"), Lyme disease (from \"B. burgdorferi\"), sheep tick pyemia (\"Staphylococcus aureus\"), cattle tick-borne fever (\"Anaplasma phagocytophila\"), Q fever (\"Coxiella burnetii\"), Boutonneuse fever (\"Rickettsia conorii\"), and the bacterium \"Anaplasma marginale\". Horses may be infected with Lyme disease, \"Anaplasma phagocytophila\", and the viral infection louping ill. Humans can become infected with Lyme disease, louping ill, Q fever, and tick-borne encephalitis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Natural enemies.", "content": "The parasitic wasp \"Ixodiphagus hookeri\" lays its eggs inside castor bean tick, though the castor bean tick is not \"I. hookeri\"'s sole host.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomic history.", "content": "The scientific name of the castor bean tick dates back to the starting point of zoological nomenclature, the 1758 tenth edition of Carl Linnaeus' \"Systema Naturae\", where it appeared as \"Acarus ricinus\". Pierre André Latreille split the new genus \"Ixodes\" from Linnaeus' \"Acarus\" (which at that time contained all known ticks and mites), and \"I. ricinus\" was chosen as the type species. It has subsequently been redescribed under a number of junior synonyms and subsequent combinations into different genera; these synonyms include \"Acarus ricinoides\", \"Cynorhaestes reduvius\", \"Cynorhaestes ricinus\", \"Ixodes megathyreus\", \"Ixodes bipunctatus\", \"Cynorhaestes hermanni\", \"Crotonus ricinus\", \"Ixodes trabeatus\", \"Ixodes plumbeus\", \"Ixodes reduvius\", \"Ixodes pustularum\", \"Ixodes fodiens\", \"Ixodes rufus\", \"Ixodes sulcatus\" and \"Ixodes sciuri\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ixodes ricinus, the castor bean tick, is a chiefly European species of hard-bodied tick. It may reach a length of when engorged with a blood meal, and can transmit both bacterial and viral pathogens such as the causative agents of Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975346}
{"src_title": "Anfisa Reztsova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "In Soviet times, she trained at Dynamo in Vladimir.  She earned a total of five medals in the Winter Olympics, including three golds (1988: cross country 4 × 5 km relay, 1992: biathlon 7.5 km, 1994: biathlon 4 × 7.5 km relay), one silver (1988: cross country 20 km), and one bronze (1992: biathlon 3 × 7.5 km relay). She is notable for performing the feat of being the only person to win Olympic gold medals in both cross-country skiing and biathlon. She is one of the few sportspersons to win gold at three consecutive Olympics under three different flags, the first being the Soviet Union in 1988, the second - Unified Team in 1992, and the third being the Russian Federation in 1994.  Reztsova also found success at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships, earning three golds (4 × 5 km relay: 1985, 1987, 1999) and two silvers (1987: 5 km, 20 km). She also won one cross-country World Cup and seven biathlon World Cups in her career.  She lives in Moscow. She is the mother of biathlete Daria Virolaynen.  In the interview to the Russian ski magazine \"Ski sport\" she admitted using banned performance-enhancing drugs during 1998–99 season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cross-country skiing results.", "content": "All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Cup.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Team podiums.", "content": "Note: Until the 1999 World Championships and the 1994 Olympics, World Championship and Olympic races were included in the World Cup scoring system.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Anfisa Anatolyevna Reztsova, née Romanova, () (born 16 December 1964 in the village of Yakimets, Gus-Khrustalny District, Vladimir Oblast) is a former Soviet (until 1991) and Russian biathlete and cross-country skier who competed in both sports from 1985 to 2000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975347}
{"src_title": "Josefov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Jews are believed to have settled in Prague as early as the 10th century. The first pogrom was in 1096 (the first crusade) and eventually they were concentrated within a walled Ghetto. In 1262, Přemysl Otakar II issued a \"Statuta Judaeorum\" which granted the community a degree of self-administration. In 1389, one of the worst pogroms saw some 1,500 massacred at Easter Sunday. The ghetto was most prosperous towards the end of the 16th century when the Jewish Mayor, Mordecai Maisel, became the Minister of Finance and a very wealthy man. His money helped develop the ghetto.  In 1850, the quarter was renamed \"Josefstadt\" (Joseph's City) after Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor who emancipated Jews with the Toleration Edict in 1781. Two years before Jews were allowed to settle outside of the city, so the share of the Jewish population in Josefov decreased, while only orthodox and poor Jews remained living there.  Most of the quarter was demolished between 1893 and 1913 as part of an initiative to model the city on Paris. What was left were only six synagogues, the old cemetery, and the Old Jewish Town Hall (now all part of the Jewish Museum in Prague and described below).  Currently Josefov is overbuilt with buildings from the beginning of the 20th century, so it is difficult to appreciate exactly what the old quarter was like when it was reputed to have over 18,000 inhabitants. Medieval Josefov is depicted in the 1920 film \"\", composed of cramped, angular, squinted buildings, but this impression is used purely to convey the expressionist nature of the film.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josefov (also Jewish Quarter; ) is a town quarter and the smallest cadastral area of Prague, Czech Republic, formerly the Jewish ghetto of the town. It is completely surrounded by the Old Town. The quarter is often represented by the flag of Prague's Jewish community, a yellow Magen David (Star of David) on a red field.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975348}
{"src_title": "Carlo Bergonzi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bergonzi was born in Polesine Parmense, near Parma in Northern Italy, on 13 July 1924. He was an only child. He later claimed he saw his first opera, Verdi’s \"Il trovatore\", when he was six years old. He sang in church, and soon he began to appear in children's opera roles in Busseto, a nearby town. After he left school at age 11 he began working in a Parma cheese factory. His father worked there too, and Carlo often got into trouble for singing.  At the age of 16, he began his vocal studies as a baritone at Arrigo Boito Conservatory in Parma with Maestro Ettore Campogalliani.  During World War II, Bergonzi became involved in anti-Nazi activities and was interned in a German prisoner-of-war camp in 1943. Two years later, he was freed by the Russians and walked 106 km in order to reach an American camp. However, while on his way, he drank unboiled water and contracted typhoid fever, from which he recovered within a year. After the war he returned to the Arrigo Boito Conservatory in Parma, weighing just over 36 kilograms (80 pounds).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operatic career.", "content": "In a 1985 interview with \"Opera Fanatic\"'s Stefan Zucker, Bergonzi cited 1948 as the year of his professional debut, as a baritone. He sang the role of Figaro in Rossini's \"The Barber of Seville\", which he performed with a former prisoners' association which he joined after the war. It has been noted that the fee of 2,000 lire paid for his professional debut was insufficient to cover his meals and travel.  Other baritone roles which he undertook included those of Metifio in \"L'arlesiana\", Doctor Malatesta in \"Don Pasquale\", Belcore in \"L'elisir d'amore\", Enrico Ashton in \"Lucia di Lammermoor\", Ghirlino in \"Le astuzie di Bertoldo\", Silvio in \"Pagliacci\", David in \"L'amico Fritz\", Alfio in \"Cavalleria rusticana\", Albert in \"Werther\", Marcello in \"La bohème\", Sonora in \"La fanciulla del West\", Sharpless in \"Madama Butterfly\", Lescaut in \"Manon Lescaut\", Laerte in \"Mignon\", the title role in \"Rigoletto\", and Georgio Germont in \"La traviata\".  However, he realized that the tenor repertoire was more suited to his voice, and after retraining, he made his debut as a tenor in the title role of \"Andrea Chénier\" at the Teatro Petruzzelli in Bari in 1951. That same year, Bergonzi sang at the Coliseum in Rome in a 50th anniversary concert of Verdi's death and the Italian state radio network RAI engaged Bergonzi for a series of broadcasts of the lesser-known Verdi operas for the same purpose. These included \"I due Foscari\" as well as \"Giovanna d'Arco\" and \"Simon Boccanegra\". In 1953, Bergonzi made his La Scala debut, creating the title role in Jacopo Napoli's opera \"Mas' Aniello\" which was based on the life of Tommaso Aniello, the 17th-century Italian fisherman-turned-revolutionary. His London debut as Alvaro in \"La forza del destino\" took place at the Stoll Theatre in 1953. His American debut was at the Lyric Opera of Chicago in 1955, and his Metropolitan Opera debut as Radames in \"Aida\" came the following year when he (and Antonietta Stella) received a positive reaction from Howard Taubman in \"The New York Times\". Bergonzi continued to sing at the Met for 30 years, his last role being that of Rodolfo in Verdi's \"Luisa Miller\" in 1988.  He sang the role of Radames again for his debut with the Philadelphia Lyric Opera Company in 1961 and in 1962 he reprised the role of Alvaro for his debut with the Royal Opera, Covent Garden. He made his debut with the San Francisco Opera in 1969 as Don Alvaro in \"La forza del destino\".  Bergonzi pursued a busy international career in the opera house and recording studio during the 1960s. His chief Italian tenor rivals in this period were Franco Corelli and Mario Del Monaco. Bergonzi outlasted all three, continuing to sing through the 1970s at major opera houses. But in the 1980s, as his own vocal quality deteriorated inevitably with age, he concentrated on recital work. In 1996, Bergonzi participated in conductor James Levine's 25th anniversary gala at the Metropolitan Opera. He gave his American farewell concert at Carnegie Hall on 17 April that same year.  However, an announcement that on 3 May 2000, he was to sing the title role in a concert performance of Verdi's \"Otello\", conducted by Eve Queler and the Opera Orchestra of New York, attracted intense interest, particularly because he had never performed the demanding role on stage. Amongst others, the audience included Anna Moffo, Licia Albanese, Sherrill Milnes, José Carreras, Plácido Domingo and Luciano Pavarotti. Bergonzi was unable to finish the performance, supposedly suffering irritation from the air-conditioning in his dressing-room. He withdrew after two acts, leaving the remaining two to be sung by Antonio Barasorda, a substitute singer. This performance was by wide critical consensus seen as a disaster.  After retiring, Bergonzi is credited with mentoring tenors Roberto Aronica, Giuliano Ciannella, Berle Sanford Rosenberg, Vincenzo La Scola, Filippo Lo Giudice, Philip Webb, Giorgio Casciari, Paul Caragiulo, Lance Clinker, Fernando del Valle and Salvatore Licitra. Soprano Frances Ginsberg was also one of his pupils.  Bergonzi left a legacy of many recordings of individual arias and complete operas, including works by Verdi, Puccini, Mascagni and Leoncavallo. However, of his early baritone roles, few of his audio recordings still exist.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Summary of his vocal attributes.", "content": "In \"The New York Times\" obituary, Peter G. Davis, who reviewed a 1978 Carnegie Hall recital by Bergonzi in \"The Times\" is quoted as noting:  Alan Blyth, in his \"Gramophone\" survey of Bergonzi's greatest recordings, sums up the qualities of Bergonzi's voice:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1950 Bergonzi married Adele Aimi, with whom he had two sons, Maurizio and Marco; the former was born on the day Bergonzi made his tenor debut. Bergonzi owned homes in both Milan and Busseto, in addition to a restaurant and hotel in the latter, the \"I Due Foscari\", named after the Verdi opera about Venetian court intrigue.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Bergonzi died on 25 July 2014, twelve days after his 90th birthday, in the Auxologico Institution in Milan. He was buried in the Vidalenzo Cemetery.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carlo Bergonzi (13 July 1924 – 25 July 2014) was an Italian operatic tenor. Although he performed and recorded some bel canto and verismo roles, he was above all associated with the operas of Giuseppe Verdi, including many of the composer's lesser known works he helped revive. He sang more than forty other roles throughout his career.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975349}
{"src_title": "Thermoforming", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Thin-gauge and heavy-gauge (thick) thermoforming.", "content": "There are two general thermoforming process categories. Sheet thickness less than 1.5 mm (0.060 inches) is usually delivered to the thermoforming machine from rolls or from a sheet extruder. Thin-gauge roll-fed or inline extruded thermoforming applications are dominated by rigid or semi-rigid disposable packaging. Sheet thicknesses greater than 3 mm (0.120 inches) are usually delivered to the forming machine by hand or an auto-feed method already cut to final dimensions. Heavy, or thick-gauge, cut sheet thermoforming applications are primarily used as permanent structural components. There is a small but growing medium-gauge market that forms sheet 1.5 mm to 3 mm in thickness.  Heavy-gauge forming utilizes the same basic process as continuous thin-gauge sheet forming, typically draping the heated plastic sheet over a mold. Many heavy-gauge forming applications use vacuum only in the form process, although some use two halves of mating form tooling and include air pressure to help form. Aircraft windscreens and machine gun turret windows spurred the advance of heavy-gauge forming technology during World War II. Heavy-gauge parts are used as cosmetic surfaces on permanent structures such as kiosks, automobiles, trucks, medical equipment, material handling equipment, refrigerators, spas, and shower enclosures, and electrical and electronic equipment. Unlike most thin-gauge thermoformed parts, heavy-gauge parts are often hand-worked after forming for trimming to final shape or for additional drilling, cutting, or finishing, depending on the product. Heavy-gauge products typically are of a \"permanent\" end use nature, while thin-gauge parts are more often designed to be disposable or recyclable and are primarily used to package or contain a food item or product. Heavy-gauge thermoforming is typically used for production quantities of 250 to 3000 annually, with lower tooling costs and faster product development than competing plastic technologies like injection molding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engineering.", "content": "Thermoforming has benefited from applications of engineering technology, although the basic forming process is very similar to what was invented many years ago. Microprocessor and computer controls on more modern machinery allow for greatly increased process control and repeatability of same-job setups from one production run with the ability to save oven heater and process timing settings between jobs. The ability to place formed sheets into an inline trim station for more precise trim registration has been improved due to the common use of electric servo motors for chain indexing versus air cylinders, gear racks, and clutches on older machines. Electric servo motors are also used on some modern and more sophisticated forming machines for actuation of the machine platens where form and trim tooling are mounted, rather than air cylinders which have traditionally been the industry standard, giving more precise control over closing and opening speeds and timing of the tooling. Quartz and radiant-panel oven heaters generally provide more precise and thorough sheet heating over older cal-rod type heaters, and better allow for zoning of ovens into areas of adjustable heat..  A new technology, ToolVu, has been developed to provide real-time feedback on thermoformer machines. This stand-alone system connects directly to the thermoformer and utilizes multiple sensors to record production-run data in real time including air pressure, temperature, tool strain gauge and other specifications. The system sends out multiple warnings and alerts whenever pre-set production parameters are compromised during a run. This reduces machine down time, lowers startup time and decreases startup scrap.  An integral part of the thermoforming process is the tooling, which is specific to each part that is to be produced. Thin-gauge thermoforming as described above is almost always performed on in-line machines and typically requires molds, plug assists, pressure boxes and all mounting plates as well as the trim tooling and stacker parts that pertain to the job. Thick or heavy-gauge thermoforming also requires tooling specific to each part, but because the part size can be very large, the molds can be cast aluminum or some other composite material as well as machined aluminum as in thin gauge. Typically, thick-gauge parts must be trimmed on CNC routers or hand trimmed using saws or hand routers. Even the most sophisticated thermoforming machine is limited to the quality of the tooling. Some large thermoforming manufacturers choose to have design and tool making facilities in house while others will rely on outside tool-making shops to build the tooling.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry.", "content": "The more than US\\$10 billion North American market has traditionally been 3⁄4 thin gauge and 1⁄4 heavy gauge. In 2003 there were about 150 thin-gauge thermoformers in North America. Sixty percent formed proprietary products. Thirty percent were custom formers and 10 percent were OEMs with in-house forming capability. There were nearly a dozen thin-gauge formers having annual sales of at least US\\$100 million. The largest had annual sales in excess of US\\$1,000 million. There were about 250 heavy-gauge formers in North America. Nearly all were custom formers. Only two or three heavy-gauge formers had annual sales of more than US\\$100 million. The largest had annual sales of about US\\$140 million. Beaverton, Michigan, is known as the Plastic Thermoforming capital of the world fueled by the proximity of Dow Chemical Company of Midland, Michigan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or \"film\" when referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an oven to a high-enough temperature that permits it to be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled to a finished shape. Its simplified version is vacuum forming.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975350}
{"src_title": "Kaley Cuoco", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Cuoco was born in Camarillo, California, the elder daughter of Layne Ann (née Wingate), a homemaker, and Gary Carmine Cuoco, a realtor. Her father is of Italian descent while her mother is of English and German ancestry. Her sister, Briana, competed on the fifth season of \"The Voice\". As a child, Cuoco was a regionally ranked amateur tennis player, a sport she took up when she was 3 years old. She stopped playing at the age of 16.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Cuoco made her first feature film appearance as the young Karin Carter in the 1995 action thriller \"Virtuosity\". From 2000 to 2001, she appeared on the CBS sitcom \"Ladies Man\" and in 2000 she portrayed former \"The Brady Bunch\" star Maureen McCormick in the TV film \"Growing Up Brady\" as well as starring in the Disney Channel original film \"Alley Cats Strike\". In September 2002, she began a starring role as Bridget Hennessy on the ABC sitcom \"8 Simple Rules for Dating My Teenage Daughter\" (afterwards \"8 Simple Rules\"). Bridget was the oldest child, despite Cuoco being six years younger than Amy Davidson, who played her younger sister. Because of low ratings, ABC canceled the series on May 17, 2005.  In addition to the final season of \"8 Simple Rules\", Cuoco had starring roles on the NBC miniseries \"10.5\", the ABC Family original film \"Crimes of Fashion\", the independent film \"Debating Robert Lee\", and in the film \"The Hollow\" at the same time. She also voiced the character of Brandy Harrington, a 14-year-old anthropomorphic mixed-breed dog, on the Disney Channel animated series \"Brandy and Mr. Whiskers\". She voiced the character of Kirstee Smith in \"Bratz\" from 2004 to 2005. In the eighth season of the TV series \"Charmed\", she appeared as Billie Jenkins, a powerful young witch with the powers of telekinesis and projection. Executive producer Brad Kern stated that Cuoco's character was initially brought in as a possible spin-off.  In September 2007, Cuoco began starring in the CBS sitcom \"The Big Bang Theory\", playing Penny, a Cheesecake Factory employee and aspiring actress who lives across the hall from physicists Dr. Leonard Hofstadter and Dr. Sheldon Cooper. Prior to the 2010–2011 season, she earned US$60,000 an episode for the series, the same as her co-stars. In 2010, the cast negotiated a raise for each actor to make US$200,000 per episode. As of August 2014, Cuoco and her co-stars from \"The Big Bang Theory\" Johnny Galecki and Jim Parsons each earned an estimated US$1 million per episode.  In late October 2012, Cuoco enlisted the help of her sister Briana to organize a flash mob on the set of the show, in which she and the cast and crew surprised the studio audience by suddenly lip syncing and dancing to Carly Rae Jepsen's song \"Call Me Maybe\". A video of the event was posted on YouTube and became a viral success. A clip from the performance was also played during Cuoco's January 8, 2013 appearance on the late-night talk show \"Conan\".  Cuoco starred in the Lifetime film \"To Be Fat like Me\", which premiered on January 8, 2007. She played a minor role in the \"Prison Break\" episodes \"The Message\" and \"Chicago\", as well as starring in the comedy horror spoof \"Killer Movie\" in 2008. She also appeared in the 2010 film \"The Penthouse\". In 2011, she appeared in \"Allure\" magazine's annual \"Naked Truth\" feature. That same year, she appeared in the films \"Hop\" and \"The Last Ride\". She was also chosen to host the Teen Choice Awards in 2011, as well as the People's Choice Awards in 2012 and 2013. She is a regular on Priceline.com commercials as the daughter of William Shatner's character.  In October 2018, it was announced that Cuoco would voice Harley Quinn and executive produce the DC Universe adult animation, \"Harley Quinn\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2007, while working on \"The Big Bang Theory\", Cuoco privately dated co-star Johnny Galecki for roughly two years, until December 2009. She later told \"CBS Watch\" in September 2010 that they have remained on good terms since ending their relationship.  On September 13, 2010, Cuoco broke her leg in a horse-riding accident and missed the filming of two episodes of \"The Big Bang Theory\".  In October 2011, she became engaged to addiction specialist Josh Resnik, but ended their engagement by March 2012. She became engaged to professional tennis player Ryan Sweeting in September 2013, after three months of dating. They married on December 31, 2013, in Santa Susana, California. On September 25, 2015, it was announced that she and Sweeting had decided to divorce. The divorce was finalized on May 9, 2016.  In December 2014, Cuoco received significant media attention surrounding a remark she made in an interview with \"Redbook\" magazine while married to Ryan Sweeting. When asked if she considered herself a feminist, she responded: \"Is it bad if I say no? I was never that feminist girl demanding equality, but maybe that's because I've never really faced inequality... I cook for Ryan five nights a week: it makes me feel like a housewife. I love that. I know it sounds old-fashioned, but I like the idea of women taking care of their men\".  In an interview in March 2016, Cuoco said she felt her words were misconstrued, telling \"Cosmopolitan\" magazine, \"Of course I'm a fucking feminist. Look at me. I bleed feminism: I get equal pay to my male co stars on a big show, I have my own home, I'm as independent as you could possibly be. Maybe I didn't understand the question, but for me that's feminism. I'm killing the game, man\".  Cuoco began dating equestrian Karl Cook, son of billionaire Scott Cook, in late 2016. They became engaged on November 30, 2017, Cuoco's 32nd birthday, and were married on June 30, 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "In October 2017, Cuoco founded Yes, Norman Productions, a film and television production company which entered an exclusive multi-year first-look production deal with Warner Bros. Television. The company is named after her dog, Norman. Also in October 2017, The company optioned the rights to \"The Flight Attendant\", a book written by author Chris Bohjalian, which will be developed into a limited series, with Cuoco to star and executive produce.  In October 2018, it was announced that Cuoco would executive produce and voice Harley Quinn in the DC Universe adult animation, \"Harley Quinn\". In July 2019, Yes, Norman entered a two-year first look production deal with Warner Bros. Television, and announced that \"The Flight Attendant\" had been picked up by WarnerMedia's upcoming streaming platform, HBO Max. In August 2019, it was announced that she would executive produce the upcoming CBS comedy, \"Pretty\", which is written and also executive produced by Lindsey Kraft and Santina Muha.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kaley Christine Cuoco ( ; ; born November 30, 1985) is an American actress and producer. After a series of supporting film and television roles in the late 1990s, she landed her breakthrough role as Bridget Hennessy on the ABC sitcom \"8 Simple Rules\" (2002–2005). Thereafter, Cuoco voiced Brandy Harrington on \"Brandy & Mr. Whiskers\" (2004–2006) and appeared as Billie Jenkins on the final season of the television series \"Charmed\" (2005–2006). She later starred as Penny on the CBS sitcom \"The Big Bang Theory\" (2007–2019), and received Satellite, Critics' Choice, and People's Choice awards for the role.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975351}
{"src_title": "Artūrs Irbe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Irbe was drafted in the 10th round, 196th overall by the Minnesota North Stars in the 1989 NHL Entry Draft.  His first professional hockey team was Dinamo Riga of the Soviet Hockey League (from 1987 to 1991). After playing in only 2 games during the 1986–1987 season Irbe got a chance to become Dinamo Riga's number one goaltender during the 1987–1988 season when their starting goaltender and Olympic champion, Vitali Samoilov went down with a long term injury. In his only full professional season, Irbe was outstanding in helping Dinamo Riga make it to the finals of the Soviet Hockey League where they eventually lost to perennial Soviet champions CSKA Moscow. During this period he also played for the Soviet Union in the World Championships in 1989 and 1990. The Soviet team won those two championships and Irbe was honoured as the best goalkeeper of the 1990 tournament. He refused to play for the Soviet Union in 1991 because Latvia had proclaimed independence from the Soviet Union on 4 May 1990 and the Soviet government attempted to use military force in January 1991 to stop Latvia's independence. When the Moscow government sent tanks rolling to Riga, Irbe was among those who took to the streets and put up barriers to protect buildings, radio stations, TV towers and historical landmarks.  In the 1988–89 season, Irbe travelled to North America with his then club Dinamo Riga to play in a series of exhibition games against NHL teams. The next season (1989–90) he was temporarily added to the CSKA Moscow team during an exhibition tour of North America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NHL.", "content": "His NHL career began in 1991. His first NHL team was the San Jose Sharks, he played with them from 1991–92 to 1995–96. With Irbe between the pipes, the newly established Sharks made their first playoff appearance in the 1993–94 season and upset the top-seeded Detroit Red Wings. That season, Irbe played an NHL record 4412 minutes in goal for the Sharks. Irbe, affectionately known as Archie, was nicknamed \"The Wall\" and became a cult figure in San Jose, a status he enjoys there to this day. Following an injury (his hand being mauled by his pet dog in the offseason) and a poor 1995–96 season, Irbe was released by the Sharks.  For the next two years, he was a backup goaltender for the Dallas Stars and the Vancouver Canucks (for whom he played significant stretches with ample success) until he became the starter for the Carolina Hurricanes in the 1998–99 season. Irbe was picked to be a member of the \"World\" NHL All-Star team in 1998–1999 season, where he became the first goalie to record an assist in an NHL All-Star game. The highest point of his career with the Hurricanes was 2001–02 when Irbe was instrumental in leading the Hurricanes to the Stanley Cup finals where they fell to the Detroit Red Wings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demotion to ECHL.", "content": "After a disappointing 2002–03 season, the Hurricanes looked to demote Irbe because they could not move him because of a no-trade clause in his contract. On October 16, 2003, Irbe was assigned to the Johnstown Chiefs of the ECHL. After going 8–2–1 in 11 games with the Chiefs, Irbe was named as the starter for the Eastern Conference in the 2004 ECHL All-Star Game. However, Irbe was unable to participate due to a wrist injury. On March 19, 2003, Irbe was recalled to the Carolina Hurricanes after goalie Kevin Weekes was placed on the IR due to season-ending hand surgery.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to NHL.", "content": "In June 2004, he was traded to the Columbus Blue Jackets, but never played with the club due to that year's NHL Lockout. After the lockout that canceled the 2004–2005 season, Irbe never played in the NHL again but chose to continue his career in Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Europe.", "content": "He played for HK Riga 2000 in Latvia and EC Red Bulls Salzburg in Austria during the 2004–05 season. He signed with HK Dynamax Nitra playing in the Slovak Ice Hockey Extraliga, but he decided to leave after his unsatisfactory results.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "He is notable on the ice for his helmet and padding – he has worn them almost continuously since his NHL debut for the Sharks – which are creased and scuffed with puck marks and stains. He has earned the nickname \"Michelin Man\" as a result.  In the early 2000s, he placed an ad in the \"Ottawa Pennysaver\" seeking any local resident with the famed Jofa goaltender mask.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "In 2008, Irbe signed a three-year deal with Dinamo Riga and worked as the goaltending coach for the club. In August 2009, Irbe cut ties with Riga and decided to go back to North America to be the goaltending coach of the NHL Washington Capitals after former goaltending coach Dave Prior stepped down due to family reasons. Irbe left the team on June 11, 2011 to spend more time with his family.  In 2013, Irbe was named as Ted Nolan's assistant for Latvian national team, but resigned a year after a dispute with president of Latvian Ice Hockey Federation Kirovs Lipmans over his coaching certification. In August 2014, Nolan again hired Irbe as an assistant, this time with the Buffalo Sabres.  In August 2017, Irbe became consultant for Latvian hockey league club HK Kurbads.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal.", "content": "Irbe is also a member of board of directors of the Kids First Fund, a non-profit organization based in the United States which raises money for projects assisting abused and abandoned children in Latvia.  At the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Irbe was Latvia's flag-bearer in the opening ceremonies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Super Series statistics.", "content": "The Super Series were exhibition games between an NHL team and Soviet teams (usually a club from the Soviet Championship League). Irbe competed in two such series.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Artūrs Irbe (born 2 February 1967) is a Latvian professional ice hockey coach and former goaltender. Born during the Soviet era, Irbe played for various Soviet league teams and the Soviet Union national team before moving to North America in 1991. Irbe played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the San Jose Sharks, Dallas Stars, Vancouver Canucks and Carolina Hurricanes. In 2004 Irbe returned to Europe to play until he retired in 2007. He has served as a goaltending coach with Dinamo Riga, the Washington Capitals and the Buffalo Sabres, as well as internationally with the Latvia men's national ice hockey team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975352}
{"src_title": "Wilhelm Brasse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal history.", "content": "Wilhelm Brasse was born on 3 December 1917 to a descendant of Austrian colonists and a Polish mother in Żywiec, in the Partitioned Poland. His father was a Polish soldier in the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921. Wilhelm Brasse was \"trained as a portrait photographer in a studio owned by his aunt\" in Katowice, and \"had an eye for the telling image and an ability to put his subjects at ease.\"  After the September 1939 invasion of Poland, he was pressured by the Nazis to join them, refused, was repeatedly interrogated by the Gestapo, and tried to escape to France via Hungary, but he was captured at the Polish-Hungarian border and incarcerated for four months. After continuing to refuse to declare his loyalty to Hitler, on 31 August 1940, he was deported to Auschwitz concentration camp, soon after it opened. In February 1941, after having been called to the office of Rudolf Hoess, Auschwitz's commander, along with four others, and tested for \"photographic skills\", he was selected specifically for his \"laboratory skills\" and \"technical ability with a camera\" and for his ability to speak German, and then ordered to document the Nazi prisoners in the camp in the \"Erkennungsdienst, the photographic identification unit.\" A year and a half later, Brasse encountered Josef Mengele, the notorious Nazi doctor who liked his photographs and wanted him to photograph some of the twins and people with congenital disorders moved to his infirmary on whom Mengele was \"experimenting\". After the Soviets entered Poland, during the Vistula-Oder Offensive, from 12 January to 2 February 1945, Brasse, along with thousands of other Auschwitz prisoners, was forcibly moved to the concentration camp in Ebensee, an Austrian subcamp of the Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp complex (the last remaining in the area still controlled by the Nazis), where he remained imprisoned until the American forces liberated him in early May 1945.  After returning home to Żywiec, a few miles from KL Auschwitz-Birkenau, Brasse tried to start taking pictures again, but found himself haunted by the ghosts of the dead – the subjects of his tens of thousands of Auschwitz pictures – and was unable to resume his work as a portrait photographer. Abandoning photography, he established what became a \"moderately prosperous\" sausage casing business.  Although he later visited the State Museum at Auschwitz-Birkenau to talk with visitors about his experiences, and although he still possessed a small pre-war Kodak camera, he never took another photograph.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "He died in Żywiec at the age of 94. He was married with two children and five grandchildren, and lived with his wife until his death. His death was announced by an Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum historian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Auschwitz photographs.", "content": "Trained before the beginning of World War II as a portrait photographer at his aunt's studio, he was ordered by his SS supervisors to photograph \"prisoners' work, criminal medical experiments, [and] portraits of the prisoners for the files.\" Brasse estimated that he took about 40,000 to 50,000 \"identity pictures\" from 1940 until 1945, before being forcibly moved to another concentration camp in Austria, where he was liberated by the American forces in early May 1945.  Dr. Mengele had insisted that Brasse take the \"identity\" portraits of Auschwitz prisoners \"in three poses: from the front and from each side.\" After taking hundreds of thousands of such photographs, Brasse and others disobeyed later Nazi orders to destroy them, yet only some of his photos have survived:although it is hard to say which were Brasse's, since camp photos as a rule didn't carry the photographer's name[,]... Jarosław Mensfelt, spokesman of the Auschwitz-Birkenau museum, says some 200,000 such pictures were taken, with name, nationality and profession attached.... About 40,000 of these pictures are preserved, some with the identification cards, and 2,000 of these are on display in the museum... others are at Yad Vashem, the Israeli Holocaust memorial.  Some photographs credited to Brasse are in the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum's permanent exhibit in Block no. 6: Exhibition: The Life of the Prisoners. All visitors to the Museum are asked explicitly to respect the Site of the Death Camp and not to use cameras (both still and video) in its indoor exhibits.  Similar individual \"identification photographs\" or \"mug shots\" of prisoners of Auschwitz and other German concentration camps are accessible in the searchable online \"Photo Archives\" of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM); biographical-information cards including these photographs and each corresponding to a concentration-camp inmate are also distributed to Holocaust Memorial Museum visitors as they enter. Partially featured on the USHMM official Website is a photograph of the photo mural on a wall of its 3rd floor permanent exhibit. A photograph of an adult female Auschwitz inmate by Wilhelm Brasse is accessible from the USHMM Photo Archives. The USHMM official Website also features similar \"identification photographs\" credited to the \"National Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum\" (the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, Poland), but without identifying the photographer (who may or may not be Brasse), as illustrations in \"Persecution of Homosexuals in the Third Reich\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Documentary film: \"The Portraitist\".", "content": "A 52-minute Polish documentary film about his life and work, \"The Portraitist\" (\"Portrecista\", Poland, 2005), directed by Irek Dobrowolski and produced by Anna Dobrowolska, was first shown on Polish television station TVP1 on 1 January 2006, in the \"Proud to present\" series. It premiered at West London Synagogue in London on 19 March 2007, with a second screening by popular demand on 22 April 2007. In the film Brasse relates the \"story behind some pictures in the Auschwitz museum archives that he remembers taking.\"  As the synopsis for the film emphasizes, after taking thousands of photographs from 1940 until 1945, documenting \"cruelty which goes beyond all words... for future generations,\" Brasse could no longer continue with his profession.  Fergal Keane concurs that \"Brasse has left us with a powerful legacy in images. Because of them we can see the victims of the Holocaust as human and not statistics.... The photographs are the work of a man who fought to keep his humanity alive in a place of unimaginable evil.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wilhelm Brasse (3 December 1917 – 23 October 2012) was a Polish professional photographer and a prisoner in Auschwitz during World War II. He became known as the \"famous photographer of Auschwitz concentration camp.\" His life and work were the subject of the 2005 Polish television documentary film \"The Portraitist\" (\"Portrecista\"), which first aired in the \"Proud to Present\" series on the Polish TVP1 on 1 January 2006.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975353}
{"src_title": "Tárogató", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early use.", "content": "Mention of the tárogató in Hungarian writings dates back at least as long ago as the 15th century. It is not clear whether it was first brought into Europe by the Hungarians when they first emigrated from the east in the 9th century. It is certain, however, that instruments of this type, descended from the Middle Eastern zurna, were introduced into Eastern Europe by the Turks in the Middle Ages, as evidenced by the term töröksip—\"Turkish pipe\"—which was used as a synonym for tárogató. It is possible that instruments from both traditions were combined into one entity. The tárogató has a Turkish origin, and it appeared in Hungary during the Turkish wars. Up to about the 18th century, the tárogató was a type of shawm, with a double reed, conical bore, and no keys.  Being a very loud and raucous instrument, the tárogató was used as a signaling instrument in battle (like the bugle or the bagpipe). However, depending on the type of reed used, it can also give off a very subtle, and yet, deep, mellow sound when played at a relaxed, steady pace.  Because the tárogató was an iconic instrument of the Rákóczi's War for Independence (1703–1711), its use was suppressed in the 18th century by the Habsburg monarchy. The instrument was eventually abandoned, being considered too loud for a concert hall.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern usage.", "content": "In the 1890s a modern version was invented by Vencel József Schunda, a Budapest instrument maker. It uses a single reed, like a clarinet or saxophone, and has a conical bore, similar to the saxophone. The instrument is made of wood, usually black grenadilla wood like a clarinet. The most common size, the soprano tárogató in B♭, is about 29 inches (74 cm) in length and has a mournful sound similar to a cross between an English horn and a soprano saxophone. Other sizes exist: one maker, János Stowasser, advertised a family of seven sizes of which the largest was a contrabass tárogató in E♭. The new tárogató bears very little resemblance with the historical tárogató and the two instruments should not be confused. It has been suggested that the name \"schundaphone\" would have been more accurate, but tárogató was used because of the nationalistic image that the original instrument had.  This instrument was a symbol of Hungarian aristocracy, and the favorite woodwind instrument of Governor Miklós Horthy.  Manufacturing in Hungary ceased after World War II, though tárogatós continued to be made in Romania and other countries. In the 1990s several Hungarian makers started producing the instrument again.  A modern tárogató may occasionally be heard in Act 3 of Tristan und Isolde by Richard Wagner where it has become traditional in some opera houses (e.g. the Royal Opera House, London) to use it instead of the off-stage cor anglais for the last passage (bars 999-1149) of the Shepherd's air, but Wagner did not specify this, merely suggesting in the score \"a specially built simple natural instrument\". In the 1920s, Luţă Ioviţă, who played the instrument in the army during World War I, brought it to Banat (Romania), where it became very popular under the name \"taragot\".  In 1928, the British music journal Melody Maker reported that the Oxford-based clarinettist Frank Dyer was using \"a taragossa, a novelty Hungarian instrument which is a cross between a saxophone and a Cor Anglais\" with his Symphonic Dance Orchestra. No such instrument as a \"taragossa\" exists: the rest of the journal's description fits that of the tárogató.  Dumitru Fărcaş, who was born in Maramureş, made the instrument known all over the world and was considered to be the most famous tárogató player.  German saxophonist Peter Brötzmann has used the tárogató in free jazz and free improvisation, as has British saxophonist Evan Parker.  American reed players Charles Lloyd and Scott Robinson have occasionally used the tárogató. Joe Lovano has also displayed interest in the instrument featuring it extensively in his episode of \"\", on Steve Kuhn's \"Mostly Coltrane\", and on his own albums \"Trio Tapestry\" and \"Roma\" (with Enrico Rava) (both ECM Records).  In 2015, Irina Ross, a Romanian singer, released her single \"Taragot\" which features the instrument in a dance-pop song.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The tárogató (\"töröksíp\", \"Turkish pipe\"; plural \"tárogatók\" or, anglicized, \"tárogatós\"; or \"torogoata\") refers to two different woodwind instruments commonly used in both Hungarian and Romanian folk music. The modern tárogató was intended to be a recreation of the original tárogató, but the two instruments are thought to have little in common.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975354}
{"src_title": "Hugues Aufray", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born to Henry Auffray, an industrialist and Amyelle de Caubios d'Andiran, (1898-1992) a musician, second cousin of the French author François Mauriac (respectively by their maternal grandfather and maternal grandmother). His sister was actress Pascale Audret (1936–2000) and his niece is actress Julie Dreyfus.  Once Aufray's parents divorced, the family left Paris for Sorèze, where he was raised by his mother. During the war, he studied at Sorèze secondary school.  In 1945, Aufray joined his father in Madrid, living there for three years. He attended the Lycée Français de Madrid in Madrid, and graduated with his \"baccalauréat\". He then returned to France to start singing in Spanish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical career.", "content": "He first began writing songs for French singers. After finishing second in a singing competition, he signed a record deal in 1959 with Eddie Barclay.  From there, he went on to co-write and arrange many songs, drawing influence from folk, blues and rock. While supporting Peter, Paul and Mary in New York in 1962, he struck up a friendship with Bob Dylan, who would then visit him in Paris in 1964. Aufray translated many of Dylan's songs into French: their appearance on his 1965 album \"Aufray chante Dylan\" helped form the tastes of the new French generation.  Aufray represented Luxembourg in the 1964 Eurovision Song Contest, performing \"Dès que le printemps revient\" and finishing fourth.  In 1966, he sang Les Crayons de Couleur in support of Martin Luther King at an anti-racism benefit.  In 1984, he sang a duet with Bob Dylan at a concert in Grenoble, and performed with him in Paris as well.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hugues Jean Marie Auffray (; born 18 August 1929 in Neuilly-sur-Seine), better known as Hugues Aufray (), is a French singer-songwriter and guitarist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975355}
{"src_title": "Nutrition", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Animal nutrition.", "content": "Carnivore and herbivore diets are contrasting, with basic nitrogen and carbon proportions vary for their particular foods. Many herbivores rely on bacterial fermentation to create digestible nutrients from indigestible plant cellulose, while obligate carnivores must eat animal meats to obtain certain vitamins or nutrients their bodies cannot otherwise synthesize. Animals generally have a higher requirement of energy in comparison to plants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plant nutrition.", "content": "Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements that are necessary for plant growth. There are several principles that apply to plant nutrition. Some elements are directly involved in plant metabolism. However, this principle does not account for the so-called beneficial elements, whose presence, while not required, has clear positive effects on plant growth.  A nutrient that is able to limit plant growth according to Liebig's law of the minimum is considered an essential plant nutrient if the plant cannot complete its full life cycle without it. There are 16 essential plant soil nutrients, besides the three major elemental nutrients carbon and oxygen that are obtained by photosynthetic plants from carbon dioxide in air, and hydrogen, which is obtained from water.  Plants uptake essential elements from the soil through their roots and from the air (consisting of mainly nitrogen and oxygen) through their leaves. Green plants obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in the air by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air, while other nutrients are absorbed from the soil. Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, wherein root hairs pump hydrogen ions (H) into the soil through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged soil particles so that the cations are available for uptake by the root. In the leaves, stomata open to take in carbon dioxide and expel oxygen. The carbon dioxide molecules are used as the carbon source in photosynthesis.  Although nitrogen is plentiful in the Earth's atmosphere, very few plants can use this directly. Most plants, therefore, require nitrogen compounds to be present in the soil in which they grow. This is made possible by the fact that largely inert atmospheric nitrogen is changed in a nitrogen fixation process to biologically usable forms in the soil by bacteria.  Plant nutrition is a difficult subject to understand completely, partially because of the variation between different plants and even between different species or individuals of a given clone. Elements present at low levels may cause deficiency symptoms, and toxicity is possible at levels that are too high. Furthermore, deficiency of one element may present as symptoms of toxicity from another element, and vice versa.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nutrition is the science that interprets the nutrients and other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes ingestion, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism and excretion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975356}
{"src_title": "Violaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Though the best-known genus, \"Viola\", is herbaceous, most species are shrubs, lianas or small trees. The simple leaves are alternate or opposite, often with leafy stipules or the stipules are reduced in size. Some species have palmate or deeply dissected leaves. Many species are acaulescent. The flower are solitary in panicles. Some species have cleistogamous flowers produced after or before the production of typical flowers with petals. Flowers are bisexual or unisexual (e.g. \"Melicytus\"), actinomorphic but typically zygomorphic with a calyx of five sepals that are persistent after flowering. Corollae have five mostly unequal petals, and the anterior petal is larger and often spurred. Plants have five stamens with the abaxial stamen often spurred at the base. The gynoecium is a compound pistil of three united carpels with one locule. Styles are simple, with the ovary superior and containing many ovules. The fruits are capsules split by way of three seams. Seeds have endosperm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "That \"Viola\", previously included by Jussieu (1789) under Cisti, should have its own family was first proposed by Ventenat in 1799, and in 1803 placed the \"Viola\" species in a new genus, \"Ionidium\" which he described as \"Famille des violettes.\" However, in the meantime Batsch established the Violaceae, as a suprageneric rank under the name of Violariae (1802), and as the first formal description, bears his name as the botanical authority. Batsch included eight genera in this family. Although Violariae continued to be used by some authors, such as Don (1831) and Bentham and Hooker (1862) (as Violarieae), most authors, such as Engler (1895), adopted the alternative name Violaceae, proposed by de Lamarck and de Candolle in 1805, and later by Gingins (1823) and Saint-Hilaire (1824). With the establishment of higher suprafamiliar orders, which he called \"Alliances\", Lindley (1853) placed his Violaceae within the Violales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "Historically, Violaceae has been placed within a number of orders since Lindley's treatment, principally Violales (Hutchinson, Takhtajan, Cronquist, Thorne) and the equivalent Parietales (Bentham and Hooker, Engler and Prantl, Melchior), although such placement was considered unsatisfactory, but also Polygalinae (Hallier) and Guttiferales (Bessey). Of these, that of Melchior (1925), within the Engler and Prantl system, has been considered one of the most influential. Molecular phylogenetics resulted in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) places it as one of a large number of families within the eudicot order Malpighiales. Violaceae, as one of 42 families, is placed in a clade of 10 families within the order. Its place within the parietal clade reflects its earlier position in Parietales, those families with parietal placentation. There it forms a sister group to Goupiaceae.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subdivision.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Violaceae are a medium sized family with about 22–28 genera, and about 1,000–1,100 species. Most of the genera are monotypic or oligotypic, but the three genera \"Viola\" (about 600 species), \"Rinorea\" (about 250 species), and \"Hybanthus\" include 98% of the species with about half the species in \"Viola\", and more than three-quarters of the remainder in the other two genera.  Many attempts have been made at an intrafamilial classification, but these have largely been artificial, based on floral characteristics. Subdivisions were recognized almost immediately. Early classifications identified two major divisions, that were followed by most taxonomists;  These also had biogeographical correlation, with the latter being almost exclusively S American and African, and the former being distributed in Europe in addition to the Americas. In contrast, Bentham and Hooker (and some others) divided Alsodeieae, giving three tribes;  Melchior utilized a more complex classification with two subfamilies, tribes and subtribes to recognize the place of \"Leonia\" within the Violaceae;.  The historical subdivisions shown here are those of the system of Hekking (1988), based largely on floral symmetry, petal aestivation and petal morphology. In this system, most genera occur in the Rinoreae and Violeae tribes.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Violaceae is a family of flowering plants established in 1802, consisting of about 1000 species in about 25 genera. It takes its name from the genus \"Viola\", the violets and pansies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975357}
{"src_title": "Saint Rosalia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Rosalia was born of a Norman noble family that claimed descent from Charlemagne. Devoutly religious, she retired to live as a hermit in a cave on Mount Pellegrino, where she died alone in 1166. Tradition says that she was led to the cave by two angels. On the cave wall she wrote \"\"I, Rosalia, daughter of Sinibald, Lord of Roses, and Quisquina, have taken the resolution to live in this cave for the love of my Lord, Jesus Christ.\"\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1624 plague.", "content": "In 1624, a plague beset Palermo. During this hardship Saint Rosalia appeared first to a sick woman, then to a hunter, to whom she indicated where her remains were to be found. She ordered him to bring her bones to Palermo and have them carried in procession through the city.  The hunter climbed the mountain and found her bones in the cave as described. He did what she had asked in the apparition. After her remains were carried around the city three times, the plague ceased. After this Saint Rosalia was venerated as the patron saint of Palermo, and a sanctuary was built in the cave where her remains were discovered.  Her post-1624 iconography is dominated by the work of the Flemish painter Anthony van Dyck, who was trapped in the city during the 1624-1625 quarantine, during which time he produced five paintings of the saint, now in Madrid, Houston, London, New York and Palermo itself. In 1629 he also produced \"Saint Rosalia Interceding for the City of Palermo\" and \"Coronation of Saint Rosalia\" to assist Jesuit efforts to spread her cult beyond Sicily.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "The feast of Saint Rosalia is on September 4.  The celebration, called the \"festino\", is still held each year on July 14, and continues into the next day. It is still a major social and religious event in Palermo. In 1995, 1996, 1997 and 2001 the celebration was produced by Studio Festi.  Also on September 4 there is an event related to the festino and St. Rosalia; a tradition of walking barefoot from Palermo up to Mount Pellegrino. In Italian American communities in the United States, the July feast is generally dedicated to Our Lady of Mount Carmel while the September feast, beginning in August, brings large numbers of visitors annually to the Bensonhurst section of Brooklyn in New York City.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In biology.", "content": "Saint Rosalia was proposed as the patron saint of evolutionary studies in a paper by G.E. Hutchinson. This was due to a visit he paid to a pool of water downstream from the cave where St. Rosalia's remains were found, where he developed ideas based on observations of water boatman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Art.", "content": "Saint Rosalia was an important subject in Italian Renaissance and Baroque painting, particularly in sacre conversazioni (group pictures of saints flanking the Virgin Mary) by artists such as Riccardo Quartararo, Mario di Laurito, Vincenzo La Barbara, and possibly Antonello da Messina. But it was Flemish master Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1637), who was caught in Palermo during the 1624 plague, who produced the most paintings of her (see also above). His depictions of a young woman with flowing blonde hair wearing a Franciscan cowl and reaching down toward the city of Palermo in its peril, became the standard iconography of the saint from that time onward. Van Dyck's series of St Rosalia paintings have been studied by Gauvin Alexander Bailey and Xavier F. Salomon, both of whom curated or co-curated exhibitions devoted to the theme of Italian art and the plague. Recently the New York Times published an article about the Metropolitan Museum of Art's painting of Saint Rosalia by Van Dyck in the context of the Covid-19 virus..", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Rosalia (1130–1166), also called La Santuzza or \"\"The Little Saint\"\", and in Sicilian as \"Rusulia\", is the patron saint of Palermo in Italy, and three towns in Venezuela: El Hatillo, Zuata, and Anzoátegui. She is especially important internationally as a saint invoked in times of plague (disease). Today she is being invoked by the citizens of Palermo to protect the city from Covid-19.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975358}
{"src_title": "Aokigahara", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The forest floor mostly consists of volcanic rock which can be difficult to penetrate with hand tools. Since the forest is very dense, in recent years, hikers and tourists trekking through Aokigahara have begun to use plastic tape to mark their paths to avoid getting lost. Designated trails lead to several tourist attractions such as the Narusawa Ice Cave, Fugaku Wind Cave and Lake Sai Bat Cave which are three larger lava caves near Mount Fuji, the ice cave being frozen year-round.  Aokigahara has been falsely portrayed as a place where navigational compasses go haywire. Needles of magnetic compasses will move if placed directly on the lava, aligning with the rock's natural magnetism, which varies in iron content and strength by location. However, a compass behaves as expected when held at a normal height. The Japan Ground Self-Defense Force has conducted its ranger courses including navigation training in the forest since 1956.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "Mammals include the Asian black bear, small Japanese mole, bats, mice, deer, fox, boar, wild rabbit, Japanese mink and Japanese squirrel. Birds include great tit, willow tit, long-tailed tit, magerahigara, higera, great spotted woodpecker, pygmy woodpecker, bush warbler, Eurasian jay, Japanese white-eye, Japanese thrush, brown-headed thrush, Siberian thrush, Hodgson's hawk-cuckoo, Japanese grosbeak, lesser cuckoo, black-faced bunting, oriental turtle dove, and common cuckoo.  There are ground beetles and other insects, including many species of butterflies, even in the forest interior \"Argynnis paphia\", \"Chrysozephyrus smaragdinus\", \"Celastrina argiolus\", \"Celastrina sugitanii\", \"Curetis acuta\", \"Favonius jezoensis\", \"Neptis sappho\", \"Parantica sita\" and \"Polygonia c-album\" are found.  The forest has a variety of conifers and broadleaf trees and shrubs including: \"Chamaecyparis obtusa\", \"Cryptomeria japonica\", \"Pinus densiflora\", \"Pinus parviflora\", \"Tsuga sieboldii\", \"Acer distylum\", \"Acer micranthum\", \"Acer sieboldianum\", \"Acer tschonoskii\", \"Betula grossa\", \"Chengiopanax sciadophylloides\" (as \"Acanthopanax sciadophylloides\" a.k.a. \"Eleutherococcus sciadophylloides\"), \"Clethra barbinervis\", \"Enkianthus campanulatus\", \"Euonymus macropterus\", \"Ilex pedunculosa\", \"Ilex macropoda\", \"Pieris japonica\", \"Prunus jamasakura\", \"Quercus mongolica\" var. \"crispula\", \"Rhododendron dilatatum\", \"Skimmia japonica\" f. \"repens\", \"Sorbus commixta\" (as \"Sorbus americana\" ssp. \"japonica\") and \"Toxicodendron trichocarpum\" (as \"Rhus trichocarpa\"). The dominant tree species between 1000 and 1800 metres of altitude is \"Tsuga diversifolia\" and from 1800 to 2200 metres is \"Abies veitchii\".  Deeper in the forest there are many herbaceous flowering plants including \"Artemisia princeps\", \"Cirsium nipponicum\" var. \"incomptum\", \"Corydalis incisa\", \"Erigeron annuus\", \"Geranium nepalense\", \"Kalimeris pinnatifida\", \"Maianthemum dilatatum\", \"Oplismenus undulatifolius\" and \"Reynoutria japonica\" (syn. \"Polygonum cuspidatum\"). There are also the myco-heterotrophic \"Monotropastrum humile\", frequent liverworts, many mosses and many ferns. The forest edges have many more species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Suicides.", "content": "Aokigahara is sometimes referred to as the most popular site for suicide in Japan. In 2003, 105 bodies were found in the forest, exceeding the previous record of 78 in 2002. In 2010, the police recorded more than 200 people having attempted suicide in the forest, of whom 54 completed the act. Suicides are said to increase during March, the end of the fiscal year in Japan. As of 2011, the most common means of suicide in the forest were hanging or drug overdose. In recent years, local officials have stopped publicizing the numbers in an attempt to decrease Aokigahara's association with suicide.  The rate of suicide has led officials to place a sign at the forest's entry urging suicidal visitors to seek help and not take their own lives. Annual body searches have been conducted by police, volunteers, and journalists since 1970.  The site's popularity has been attributed to Seichō Matsumoto's 1961 novel \"Nami no Tō\" (\"Tower of Waves\"). However, the history of suicide in Aokigahara predates the novel's publication, and the place has long been associated with death; \"ubasute\" may have been practiced there into the nineteenth century, and the forest is reputedly haunted by the \"yūrei\" of those left to die.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References in media.", "content": "Aokigahara has been referred to in several media, including anime and manga, films, literature, music, and video games. For example:  It was the subject of a BBC Radio 4 production (first broadcast 10 September 2018) in which four poets traveled to Aokigahara to write and record poetry in the forest.  The poets Arai Takako, Jordan A. Y. Smith, Osaki Sayaka, and Yotsumoto Yasuhiro co-authored a bilingual (Japanese/English) anthology of the poems and short writings on Aokigahara, titled \"Sea of Trees: Poetic Gateways to Aokigahara\" (ToPoJo Excursions, 2019).  An American playwright of Japanese ancestry, Kristine Haruna Lee, wrote and staged a play, \"Suicide Forest\", in New York City in March 2019. It addressed suicide in America and Japan, referencing the Aokigahara Forest.  The 2015 film \"The Sea of Trees\" with Matthew McConaughey, Ken Watanabe and Naomi Watts also tells a story happening in this forest.  The rap collective \"Aoki Boys\" takes its name from Aokigahara.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": ", also known as the, is a forest on the northwestern flank of Japan's Mount Fuji, thriving on of hardened lava laid down by the last major eruption of Mount Fuji in 864 CE. The western edge of Aokigahara, where there are several caves that fill with ice in winter, is a popular destination for tourists and school trips. Parts of Aokigahara are very dense, and the porous lava absorbs sound, helping to provide visitors with a sense of solitude.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975359}
{"src_title": "Vilvoorde", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "The Nervii, and later the Romans, probably already settled in this strategic place near the river Zenne. The name \"Filfurdo\" was first mentioned in a 779 document whereby Pippin of Herstal ceded this territory to the Abbey of Chèvremont, near Liège. This name presumably derived from the word equivalents \"villa at the ford\" or river crossing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "In the 12th century, a small town started to grow, which quickly became a target for the ambitions of the dukes of Brabant and lords of Grimbergen. Henry I, Duke of Brabant granted the city its charter of rights as soon as 1192, mainly to ensure the support of the inhabitants against powerful neighbouring Flanders. The rights to build defensive walls and to export its products gave Vilvoorde a great economic boost, driven mostly by the cloth industry. In the 14th century, thanks to its position on the Zenne, Vilvoorde became an important military centre and could compete against Leuven and Brussels for the title of most important city in Brabant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "15th century until now.", "content": "From the 15th to the 19th century, however, Vilvoorde suffered a prolonged decline, mainly because of the competition from Brussels, a general malaise in the textile industry, and the result of epidemics and wars, both political and religious.  The translator of the Bible into English, William Tyndale, was executed here in October 1536. In 1597 Anna Utenhoven, an Anabaptist accused of heresy, was buried alive at Vilvoorde – the last of the Protestants suffering martyrdom for their faith in the history of the Habsburg Netherlands. Anthony van Stralen, Lord of Merksem and Jan van Casembroot both were executed in Vilvoorde.  The advent of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century was a godsend to Vilvoorde, which could quickly capitalize on its proximity to Brussels and its good transportation infrastructure: the deepening of the canals around 1830 and the advent of the railways in 1835. Soon, the medieval buildings gave way to newer and better constructions. The 1489 city hall was replaced by the neo-classical building we see today.  In the 1920s, the canal was broadened and deepened again, lined with new industrial zones, and an inland port was built to receive the freightliners. Following its liberation by the British in 1944, Vilvoorde was administered by a joint British and Belgian municipality, with temporary British and Belgian Mayors, Lt Col (then Major) JME Howarth Esq and (Later Prof.), before transferring back to a civilian administration. Vilvoorde became (and still is) one of the largest industrial areas around Brussels, with a population that grew to five times what it was 150 years earlier. The recent economic crises have hit the city hard, especially when Renault closed its doors in 1997. The service industry is now taking the lead in 21st century Vilvoorde.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Local government.", "content": "Mayors of Vilvoorde:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vilvoorde (,, historically known as \"Filford\" in English) is a Belgian municipality in the Flemish province of Flemish Brabant. The municipality comprises the city of Vilvoorde proper with its two outlying quarters of Koningslo and Houtem and the small town of Peutie. The nickname for inhabitants of Vilvoorde is Pjeirrefretters (horse eaters) because horse meat (specially steak) is a beloved food in Vilvoorde.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975360}
{"src_title": "Tátra-class destroyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and description.", "content": "By the last years of the first decade of the 20th century, Admiral Graf Rudolf Montecuccoli, head of the Austro-Hungarian Navy (), recognized that the latest s were already obsolete in comparison to larger and faster foreign destroyers. His 1910 expansion plan called for six new large destroyers and their construction was awarded to a Hungarian shipyard to secure Hungarian parliamentary approval of the expansion program.  The \"Tátra\"-class ships had an overall length of, a beam of, and a maximum draft of. They displaced at normal load and at deep load. The ships had a complement of 105 officers and enlisted men.  The \"Tátra\"s were powered by two AEG-Curtiss steam turbine sets, each driving a single propeller shaft using steam provided by six Yarrow boilers. Four of the boilers were oil-fired while the remaining pair used coal. The turbines, designed to produce, were intended to give the ships a speed of. The ships carried enough oil and coal to give them a range of at.  The main armament of the \"Tátra\"-class destroyers consisted of two 50-caliber Škoda Works K10 guns, one each fore and aft of the superstructure in single mounts. Their secondary armament consisted of six 45-caliber guns. Two of these were on anti-aircraft mountings. They were also equipped with four torpedo tubes in two twin rotating mountings amidships.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service history.", "content": "Six further destroyers were authorised in May 1914 to increase the number of destroyers, but construction had not started at the outbreak of the war. Four units were authorised in 1916 to replace the wartime losses. These four ships were named \"Triglav II\", \"Lika II\", \"Dukla\" and \"Uzsok\" and classified as the (Replacement) Triglav class.  After the war, three vessels—\"Triglav\", \"Lika\", and \"Uzsok\"—were ceded to Italy and one, \"Dukla\", to France. The last vessel was scrapped in 1936.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Tátra\" class was a group of six destroyers built for the Austro-Hungarian Navy shortly before the First World War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975361}
{"src_title": "HSAB theory", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Theory.", "content": "Essentially, the theory states that \"soft\" acids react faster and form stronger bonds with \"soft\" bases, whereas \"hard\" acids react faster and form stronger bonds with \"hard\" bases, all other factors being equal. The classification in the original work was mostly based on equilibrium constants for reaction of two Lewis bases competing for a Lewis acid.  Borderline cases are also identified: borderline acids are trimethylborane, sulfur dioxide and ferrous Fe, cobalt Co caesium Cs and lead Pb cations. Borderline bases are: aniline, pyridine, nitrogen N and the azide, chloride, bromide, nitrate and sulfate anions.  Generally speaking, acids and bases interact and the most stable interactions are hard-hard (ionogenic character) and soft-soft (covalent character).  An attempt to quantify the'softness' of a base consists in determining the equilibrium constant for the following equilibrium:  Where CHHg (methylmercury ion) is a very soft acid and H (proton) is a hard acid, which compete for B (the base to be classified).  Some examples illustrating the effectiveness of the theory:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical hardness.", "content": "In 1983 Pearson together with Robert Parr extended the qualitative HSAB theory with a quantitative definition of the chemical hardness (η) as being proportional to the second derivative of the total energy of a chemical system with respect to changes in the number of electrons at a fixed nuclear environment:  The factor of one-half is arbitrary and often dropped as Pearson has noted.  An operational definition for the chemical hardness is obtained by applying a three-point finite difference approximation to the second derivative:  where \"I\" is the ionization potential and \"A\" the electron affinity. This expression implies that the chemical hardness is proportional to the band gap of a chemical system, when a gap exists.  The first derivative of the energy with respect to the number of electrons is equal to the chemical potential, \"μ\", of the system,  from which an operational definition for the chemical potential is obtained from a finite difference approximation to the first order derivative as  which is equal to the negative of the electronegativity (\"χ\") definition on the Mulliken scale: \"μ\" = −\"χ\".  The hardness and Mulliken electronegativity are related as  and in this sense hardness is a measure for resistance to deformation or change. Likewise a value of zero denotes maximum softness, where softness is defined as the reciprocal of hardness.  In a compilation of hardness values only that of the hydride anion deviates. Another discrepancy noted in the original 1983 article are the apparent higher hardness of Tl compared to Tl.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modifications.", "content": "If the interaction between acid and base in solution results in an equilibrium mixture the strength of the interaction can be quantified in terms of an equilibrium constant. An alternative quantitative measure is the heat (enthalpy) of formation of the Lewis acid-base adduct in a non-coordinating solvent. The ECW model is quantitative model that describes and predicts the strength of Lewis acid base interactions, -ΔH. The model assigned E and C parameters to many Lewis acids and bases. Each acid is characterized by an E and a C. Each base is likewise characterized by its own E and C. The E and C parameters refer, respectively, to the electrostatic and covalent contributions to the strength of the bonds that the acid and base will form. The equation is  The W term represents a constant energy contribution for acid–base reaction such as the cleavage of a dimeric acid or base. The equation predicts reversal of acids and base strengths. The graphical presentations of the equation show that there is no single order of Lewis base strengths or Lewis acid strengths. The ECW model accommodates the failure of single parameter descriptions of acid-base interactions.  A related method adopting the E and C formalism of Drago and co-workers quantitatively predicts the formation constants for complexes of many metal ions plus the proton with a wide range of unidentate Lewis acids in aqueous solution, and also offered insights into factors governing HSAB behavior in solution.  Another quantitative system has been proposed, in which Lewis acid strength toward Lewis base fluoride is based on gas-phase affinity for fluoride. Additional one-parameter base strength scales have been presented. However, it has been shown that to define the order of Lewis base strength (or Lewis acid strength) at least two properties must be considered. For Pearson's qualitative HSAB theory the two properties are hardness and strength while for Drago’s quantitative ECW model the two properties are electrostatic and covalent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kornblum's rule.", "content": "An application of HSAB theory is the so-called Kornblum's rule (after Nathan Kornblum) which states that in reactions with ambident nucleophiles (nucleophiles that can attack from two or more places), the more electronegative atom reacts when the reaction mechanism is S1 and the less electronegative one in a S2 reaction. This rule (established in 1954) predates HSAB theory but in HSAB terms its explanation is that in a S1 reaction the carbocation (a hard acid) reacts with a hard base (high electronegativity) and that in a S2 reaction tetravalent carbon (a soft acid) reacts with soft bases.  According to findings, electrophilic alkylations at free CN occur preferentially at carbon, regardless of whether the S1 or S2 mechanism is involved and whether hard or soft electrophiles are employed. Preferred N attack, as postulated for hard electrophiles by the HSAB principle, could not be observed with any alkylating agent. Isocyano compounds are only formed with highly reactive electrophiles that react without an activation barrier because the diffusion limit is approached. It is claimed that the knowledge of absolute rate constants and not of the hardness of the reaction partners is needed to predict the outcome of alkylations of the cyanide ion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Reanalysis of various types of ambident organic system reveals that thermodynamic/kinetic control describes reactivity of organic compounds perfectly, whereas the HSAB principle fails and should be abandoned in the rationalization of ambident reactivity of organic compounds.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "HSAB concept is an initialism for \"hard and soft (Lewis) acids and bases\". Also known as the Pearson acid-base concept, HSAB is widely used in chemistry for explaining stability of compounds, reaction mechanisms and pathways. It assigns the terms 'hard' or'soft', and 'acid' or 'base' to chemical species. 'Hard' applies to species which are small, have high charge states (the charge criterion applies mainly to acids, to a lesser extent to bases), and are weakly polarizable. 'Soft' applies to species which are big, have low charge states and are strongly polarizable. The concept is a way of applying the notion of orbital overlap to specific chemical cases.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975362}
{"src_title": "Boswellia sacra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "This species of \"Boswellia\" is a small deciduous tree, which reaches a height of, with one or more trunks. Its bark has the texture of paper and can be removed easily. It has compound leaves and an odd number of leaflets, which grow opposite to one another along its branches. Its tiny flowers, a yellowish white, are gathered in axillary clusters composed of five petals, ten stamens and a cup with five teeth. The fruit is a capsule about long. The new leaves are covered with a fine down.  Individual trees growing on steep slopes tend to develop some buttressing that extends from the roots up into the base of the stem. This forms a sort of cushion that adheres to the rock and ensures a certain stability.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occurrence and habitat.", "content": "\"B. sacra\" tolerates the most critical situations and often grows on rocky slopes and ravines, up to an elevation of, mostly in calcareous soil. \"Boswellia sacra\" is abundant in Oman in arid woodland, on the steep, precariously eroding slopes in the mountains of Dhofar, but it is most prevalent in northern Somalia.  In Somalia, frankincense is harvested in the Sanaag and Bari regions: mountains lying at the northwest of Erigavo; El Afweyn District; Cal Madow mountain range, a westerly escarpment that runs parallel to the coast; Cal Miskeed, a middle segment of the frankincense-growing escarpment; Karkaar mountains or eastern escarpment, which lies at the eastern fringe of the frankinscence escarpment.  In Dhofar, Oman, frankincense species grow North of Salalah and were traded in the ancient coastal city of Sumhuram, now Khor Rori.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Resin.", "content": "The trees start producing resin when they are about 8 to 10 years old.  The resin is extracted by making a small, shallow incision on the trunk or branches of the tree or by removing a portion of the crust of it. The resin is drained as a milky substance that coagulates in contact with air and is collected by hand. Growing conditions vary significantly, affecting both tree development and resin produced. Trees in the narrow fog-laden zone where the desert meets Dhofar mountain range, a region known as the \"Nejd\", grow extremely slowly and produce very high quality resin in large, white clumps. Omanis and other Gulf State Arabs consider this to be superior to all other resins produced in North and Northeast Africa, India, and Asia, and it is priced accordingly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "Recent arguing about the frankincense tree populations growth of prevalence rate. There are many initiatives taken from owners of the lands, and organizations like the international banks have invested in harvesting new trees and making protection tools for the regions where the trees are mostly growing. It has helped in the increase of the production of the resin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Boswellia sacra (commonly known as frankincense or olibanum-tree) is a tree in the Burseraceae family. It is the primary tree in the genus \"Boswellia\" from which frankincense, a resinous dried sap, is harvested. It is native to the Arabian Peninsula (Oman, Yemen), and northeastern Africa (Somalia).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975363}
{"src_title": "Philip Livingston", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Philip Livingston born in Albany, New York, on January 15, 1716, the fourth surviving son of Philip Livingston (1686–1749), 2nd Lord of the Manor and Catherine Van Brugh Livingston, the daughter of Albany, New York, Mayor Pieter Van Brugh. Along with his brother, William Livingston (1723–1790), he grew up in the Albany area, dividing his time between his father’s Albany Townhouse and the Manor House in Linlithgo, at the junction of the Roeliff Jansen Kill and the Hudson River.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Philip graduated from Yale College in 1737, and returned to Albany to serve a mercantile apprenticeship with his father. Through his father's influence, he also obtained clerkships in Albany's local government. He then settled in New York City and pursued a career in the import business, trading with the British sugar islands in the West Indies. During King George's War (1744–1748), Livingston made his fortune provisioning and privateering. He also speculated heavily in real estate and the slave trade. He had a stone townhouse on Duke Street in Manhattan and also a forty-acre estate in Brooklyn Heights. He became a merchant and served as an Alderman of the East Ward from 1754 through 1762.  Livingston was a promoter of the founding of Kings College and helped to organize the New York Public Library in 1754. Livingston founded the first Chamber of Commerce in 1770, and in 1756 was president and founding member of the St. Andrew's Society, New York's first benevolent organization. He was also one of the first governors of New York Hospital.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Also in 1754, he went as a delegate to the Albany Congress. There, he joined delegates from several other colonies to negotiate with Indians and discuss common plans for dealing with the French and Indian War (1754–1763). Livingston became an active promoter of efforts to raise and fund troops for the war. According to Cynthia A. Kiemer, he owned shares in six privateers, making him one of the colony's leading investors.  He served as a member of the provincial house of representatives from 1763 to 1769 and in 1768 served as Speaker. In October 1765, he attended the Stamp Act Congress, which produced the first formal protest to the crown as a prelude to the American Revolution. He joined New York City's \"Committee of Correspondence\" to continue communication with leaders in the other colonies, and New York City's Committee of Sixty.  When New York established the New York Provincial Congress in 1775, he was the President. He was selected as one of the delegates to the Continental Congress. His brother William, a prominent lawyer in New Jersey, was also a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1774 to June 1776. In July 1775, Philip signed the Olive Branch Petition, a final attempt to achieve an understanding with the Crown. Like many of the early patriots, he initially did not advocate a complete break from the mother country but eventually aligned himself with the opposition to the measures the British were imposing on the colonists. When the British occupied New York City, Philip and his family fled to Kingston, New York where he maintained another residence.  After the Battle of Long Island, Washington and his officers met at Philip’s residence in Brooklyn Heights and decided to evacuate the island. The British subsequently used Philip’s Duke Street home as a barracks, and his Brooklyn Heights residence as a Royal Navy hospital.  After the adoption of the new New York State Constitution, he was appointed to the New York State Senate southern district in 1777, while continuing to sit in the Continental Congress. Livingston suffered from dropsy and his health deteriorated in 1778.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "On April 14, 1740, he married Christina Ten Broeck (1718–1801), daughter of Dirck Ten Broeck (1686–1751) and Margarita Cuyler (1682–1783). Christina was the sister of Albany Mayor Abraham Ten Broeck and the great-granddaughter of Albany Mayor Dirck Wesselse Ten Broeck (1638–1717), through her maternal grandfather, Wessel Ten Broeck (1664–1747). Together, Philip and Christina had nine children:  Livingston, who suffered from dropsy, died suddenly while attending the sixth session of Congress in York, Pennsylvania, and is buried in the Prospect Hill Cemetery there. Livingston was a Presbyterian, and a Mason. When Livingston died, his estate was insufficient to meet his debts, and his executors renounced the administration of the estate. On February 25, 1785, the New York Legislature passed an act, entitled \"An Act for vesting the Estate of Philip Livingston, late of the City of New-York, Esquire, deceased, in Trustees for the Payment of his Debts, and other Purposes therein mentioned\", which named his son and heir, Philip Philip Livingston, Isaac Roosevelt (1726–1794), and Robert C. Livingston (1742–1794), his nephew who was a son of Robert Livingston, 3rd Lord of the Manor. As the newly named trustees, they were responsible for administering Livingston’s \"property, pay all debts, and discharge the pecuniary legacies.\" After his son's death in 1788, Rev. John Henry Livingston, Thomas Jones, both his sons-in-law, Henry Brockholst Livingston, his nephew, and Alexander Hamilton were appointed the executors of his will.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descendants.", "content": "Through his son Philip, the only of his sons to have children, he was the grandfather of Philip Henry Livingston (1769–1831) and Edward Philip Livingston (1779–1843), the Lieutenant Governor of New York.  Through Philip Henry, he was the great-grandfather of Edward Livingston (1796–1840), Speaker of the New York State Assembly. His granddaughter, Christina Livingston, married John Navarre Macomb (1774–1810), the son of Alexander Macomb (1748–1831) and brother of Maj. Gen. Alexander Macomb (1782–1841).  Through his daughter Catherine, he was the grandfather of Stephen Van Rensselaer III (1764–1839), the patroon of Rensselaerswyck, Philip S. Van Rensselaer (1767–1824), the Mayor of Albany, Rensselaer Westerlo (1776–1851), a U.S. Representative, and Catharine Westerlo (1778–1846), who married John Woodworth, the New York State Attorney General.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Livingston Avenue and the former Philip Livingston Magnet Academy, both in Albany, New York, are named for him. A public school in Brooklyn, PS 261 in Boerum Hill, is named for him.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Philip Livingston (January 15, 1716 – June 12, 1778) was an American merchant and statesman from New York City. He represented New York at the October 1774 First Continental Congress, where he favored imposing economic sanctions upon Great Britain as a way of pressuring the British Parliament to repeal the Intolerable Acts. He was also a delegate to the Second Continental Congress from 1775 to 1778, and signed the Declaration of Independence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975364}
{"src_title": "German AB-Aktion in Poland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The mass murder of Polish leaders, politicians, artists, aristocrats, the intelligentsia, and people suspected of potential anti-Nazi activity began in the fall of 1939, and was seen by Nazi Germany as a pre-emptive measure to keep the Polish resistance scattered and to prevent the Poles from revolting during the planned German invasion of France. The anti-Polish \"AB-Aktion\" was prepared by Hans Frank, the commander of the General Government. It was also discussed with Soviet officials during a series of secretive Gestapo–NKVD Conferences.  The first killings of Polish intelligentsia took place soon after the German invasion, lasting from autumn 1939 until spring 1940. It was called Operation \"Intelligenzaktion\", a plan to eliminate Poland's intelligentsia and leadership in the western part of the country, realized by \"Einsatzgruppen\" and \"Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz\". As the result of this operation 60,000 Polish nobles, teachers, entrepreneurs, social workers, priests, judges and political activists were killed in 10 regional actions. The \"Intelligenzaktion\" was continued by the German \"AB-Aktion\" Operation in occupied territories of central Poland. Both murder operations were conducted in part according to an \"enemies of the Reich list\" prepared before the war by members of the German minority in Poland and printed ahead of time by the German Intelligence as the \"Sonderfahndungsbuch Polen\" (Special Prosecution Book-Poland).  Prior to \"AB-Aktion\", in late 1939 and early 1940, most Polish university professors, intellectuals, writers, politicians, teachers and other members of the elite of Polish society were briefly arrested by the Gestapo and had their names registered. Frank finally accepted and approved the \"Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion\" on May 16, 1940. In the following weeks, the German police, Gestapo, SD (\"Sicherheitsdienst\") and units of the \"Wehrmacht\" arrested roughly 30,000 Poles in major Polish cities, including Warsaw, Łódź, Lublin and Kraków. The interned were held in a number of prisons, including the infamous Pawiak where they were subject to brutal interrogations by Nazi officials. After time spent in the prisons of Warsaw, Kraków, Radom, Kielce, Nowy Sącz, Tarnów, Lublin or Wiśnicz, the arrested Poles were transferred to German concentration camps, most notably to the newly created camp of Auschwitz, as well as Sachsenhausen and Mauthausen. Approximately 3,500 members of the Polish intelligentsia were executed at the mass murder sites in Palmiry near Warsaw, Firlej, Wincentynów near Radom, and in the Bliżyn forest near Skarżysko-Kamienna.  Among those killed were Maciej Rataj, Stefan Bryła, Tadeusz Tański, Mieczysław Niedziałkowski, Janusz Kusociński and Stefan Kopec. Actions were started on a similar scale in other Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany. According to many historians, including Norman Davies, the action against Polish leaders was coordinated with the authorities of the Soviet Union, who at the same time perpetrated the mass murder of 22,000 Polish military officers at Katyń and other places.  The active persecution of Polish intellectuals was continued until the end of the war. The direct continuation of the AB Action was a German campaign in the east started after the German invasion of the USSR. Among the most notable mass executions of Polish professors was the massacre of Lwów professors, in which approximately 45 professors of the university in Lwów were murdered together with their families and guests. Among those killed in the massacre were Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, former Polish prime minister Kazimierz Bartel, Włodzimierz Stożek, and Stanisław Ruziewicz. Thousands more perished in the Ponary massacre, in German concentration camps, and in ghettos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The total number of victims and the specific dates of executions of members of the Polish intelligentsia can only be approximated due to their multitude. After the war, many Germans responsible for organizing the AB Action were tried before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals. However, the majority of responsible commanders vanished during and after the war, before being held legally accountable for their crimes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The AB-Aktion (, ), was a second stage of the Nazi German campaign of violence during World War II aimed to eliminate the intellectuals and the upper classes of the Second Polish Republic across the territories slated for eventual annexation. Most of the killings were arranged in a form of forced disappearances from multiple cities and towns upon the German arrival. In the spring and summer of 1940, more than 30,000 Polish citizens were arrested by the Nazi authorities in German-occupied central Poland, the so-called General Government. About 7,000 of them including community leaders, professors, teachers and priests (labeled as suspected of criminal activities) were subsequently massacred secretly at various locations including at the Palmiry forest complex near Palmiry.<ref name=\"yadvashem/pdf\">AB-Aktion, Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies. The others were sent to German concentration camps.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975365}
{"src_title": "Korat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The probable first allusion to the breed is in the Thai \"Tamra Maew\" (\"The Cat-Book Poems\"), authored between 1350 and 1767 CE and now in the National Library of Thailand. However, the illustration of the Korat in this book is not detailed enough to be definitive as to the breed portrayed. In recent years, the Korat was pictured on a postage stamp in Thailand. An example hangs in the city of Korat's post office.  Korats first appeared in Britain under the name \"Blue Siamese\" in 1889 and 1896, but these solid blue cats did not conform to the cat show judges' perception of a Siamese cat, and they disappeared by 1901. One early import, \"Dwina\", owned by Russian Blue breeder Mrs. Constance Carew-Cox and mentioned in Frances Simpson's \"The Book of the Cat\" (1903), reputedly produced a large number of \"Siamese\" kittens; the other, Mrs. B. Spearman's Blue Siamese male, \"Nam Noi\", was disqualified as a Siamese, but accepted in the Russian or Any Other Blue class in which he placed first (WR Hawkins, \"Around the Pens\", July 1896). Spearman tried unsuccessfully to import more of these \"Blue Siamese\".  Korats first appeared in the US in the 1950s. In 1959, Cedar Glen cattery was the first to import a pair of Korats to the US for breeding: a male named Nara and a female named Darra. In 1966, the Korat was accepted into championship status, through the efforts of a breeder from Maryland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Korat's unusual colour is actually a silver-tipped blue that appears to shimmer. The Thais refer to this colour as \"rain-cloud grey\", and the shimmer as \"sea foam\". This cat has a single coat that is short, with roots of a lighter silver blue. The hair shaft colour increases to deeper blue and the tips are silver, especially on the muzzle and toes. This is the only colour accepted for a Korat. The eyes are large and peridot green in an adult cat, but kittens have muddy, amber or golden-green coloured eyes which gradually change as they become adults, at two to four years.  Although it is rare, Korats occasionally have striking or faint white markings or spots or even very faint grey stripes. Sometimes these spots increase in size with age. These are seen as flaws, and the cats are disqualified from competing in cat shows. However, such markings have no effect on personality or health.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thai Lilac, Thai Blue Point and Thai Lilac Point.", "content": "The Governing Council of the Cat Fancy recognizes Korat-type cats differing from the traditional solid blue appearance of the Korat on their experimental register. Such cats are registered as Thai Lilac if they are solid lilac. A Thai Blue Point exhibits the colourpoint pattern also seen in Siamese. A Thai Lilac Point also exhibits the colourpoint pattern also seen in Siamese, but in addition exhibits the Chocolate gene. These should not be confused with the Thai cat, a new name for the original (traditional or classic) Siamese cat type, with a rounder face and thicker body than modern \"ultra-typed\" Siamese.  The policy for full registration of Korats only allows blue cats of full-registered parents or third-generation supplementary-registered parents. It also requires genetic testing for gangliosidosis to be carried out to ensure that the breed remains free of this inherited disease which once existed in some Korat and Thai breeding lines.  The genes responsible for Pointeds and Lilacs were introduced into the Korat breed when new Korat breeding stock carrying the recessive genes was imported from Thailand. The first recorded Thai Lilac kitten was born to the Jenanca line in 1989, when \"Jenanca Lilac Lillee\" was born from two Korat parents in the U.K.. In 1990, Lillee's parents were re-mated with more lilac kittens resulting. A young male lilac was then born to another pair, also in the U.K., allowing more crossings without inbreeding too closely.  The first recorded Thai Lilac Point was born to the Clairabelle line in 2014 when Clairabelle Pixie Dust was born from two Korat parents in the U.K.. A re-mating from the same parents resulted in another Thai Lilac Point, this time a boy, Clairabelle Ninja Rococoa. A third and fourth Thai Lilac Point has recently been born into the Jusarka line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "The Korat has a very different temperament from other Thailand-derived cat breeds. They are intelligent, with a good memory. If they are brought to a place they have never been before, they can return home on their own. Male cats will not cross the line but female cats will. If they are living in a big group, they will use a hierarchy system. When fed, the sergeant of the group will eat first and then the other cats follow the hierarchy, though they will let kittens eat first. Female cats will teach their litters to survive and protect themselves by taking some small animal for the kittens to play with for practicing. Korat cats can remember their owner. If they see a stranger they might scare or make a noise, but they will run to their owner and play with them.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Korat cat (, ) is a silver-tipped blue-grey, short-haired breed of domestic cat with a small to medium build and a low percentage of body fat. Its body is semi-cobby, and unusually heavy for its size. It is an intelligent and playful active cat that forms strong bonds with people. Among the Korat's distinguishing characteristics are its heart-shaped head and large green eyes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975366}
{"src_title": "Caroline Augusta of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First marriage.", "content": "On 8 June 1808, at Munich, Caroline Augusta married Crown Prince William (1781–1864) becoming Crown Princess of Württemberg. They had no children and were divorced on 31 August 1814.  Her first marriage was arranged to avoid a political marriage arranged by Napoleon. After the marriage ceremony, her spouse said to her: \"We are victims to politics.\" She spent her time writing letters to her brother Louis, and learning Italian and English. The couple never bonded with each other and the marriage was finally annulled by Pope Pius VII to enable both of them to make remarriages that were valid in the Catholic Church. At the time of the annulment, it was claimed by them that they had lived separately in the palace and that the marriage had never been consummated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "After the annulment of her marriage, Caroline Augusta was considered as a bride for both the Emperor Francis II and his younger brother, Ferdinand. Later, Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany withdrew his proposal and Caroline Augusta became the Emperor's bride.  On 29 October 1816, Caroline Augusta married Francis II, Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia. She became the fourth wife of the emperor, who was 24 years older than her and had fathered thirteen children by two of his previous wives. The English diplomat Frederick Lamb called the new empress \"ugly, clever and amiable,\" and the emperor her husband had this to say of her: \"She can stand a push, the other was nothing but air.\" The wedding, and indeed their married life, was very simple due to the strict economy favoured by the Emperor. Prior to this marriage, Caroline Augusta had always been known as Charlotte, but now she began using the name Caroline.  This marriage, which lasted until the emperor's death almost 20 years later, was harmonious but remained childless. She became popular in Austria and was active in social work; she founded several hospitals and residences for the poor. After the death of her spouse in 1835, she moved to Salzburg and lived there in quiet dignity until her own death nearly four decades later. The dowager empress died in February 1873, on the day after her 81st birthday.  Like her husband Francis II, who was devoted to his family and exhorted his heir in his last testament to \"Preserve unity in the family and regard it as one of the highest goods,\" Caroline Augusta also was close to her relatives, especially her sister and niece who were also married into the imperial family. She was good friends with her half-sister, the Archduchess Sophie, who was married in 1824 to Caroline's step-son Archduke Franz Karl of Austria and would become the mother of two emperors, Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary, and Maximilian of Mexico. She was also close to her half-niece, the Empress Elisabeth, who was Sophie's niece and daughter-in-law.  A pearl brooch formerly owned by Caroline Augusta was auctioned at Sotheby's in 2012.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Caroline Augusta of Bavaria (; Mannheim, 8 February 1792 – 9 February 1873 in Vienna) was an Empress consort of Austria by marriage to Francis I of Austria. She was a daughter of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and Princess Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt. She married Crown Prince William of Württemberg, whom she divorced, and Emperor Francis I of Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975367}
{"src_title": "Schisandra chinensis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Growing information.", "content": "\"Schisandra\" is native to northern and northeastern China (Manchuria). Cultivation requirements are thought to be similar to those of grapes. Plants require conditions of moderate humidity and light, together with a wet, humus-rich soil. In order to successfully grow fruit male and female plants must be grown together. Plants can be propagated by seed or by layering in spring or autumn, or in the summer time by using semi-ripe cuttings. Tens of tons of berries are used annually in Russia in Primorsky Krai and Khabarovsk Krai for the commercial manufacture of juices, wines, extracts, and sweets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Its Chinese name comes from the fact that its berries possess all five basic flavors: salty, sweet, sour, pungent (spicy), and bitter. Sometimes, it is more specifically called \"běi wǔ wèi zi\" (literally \"northern five-flavor berry\") to distinguish it from another traditionally medicinal schisandraceous plant \"Kadsura japonica\" that grows only in subtropical areas. Another species of schisandra berry, \"Schisandra sphenanthera\", has a similar but different biochemical profile; the Chinese Pharmacopeia distinguishes between \"S. chinensis\" (\"běi wǔ wèi zi\") and \"S. sphenanthera\" (\"nan wǔ wèi zi\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Its berries are used in traditional medicine, where it is considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs. Chemical constituents include the lignans schisandrin, deoxyschizandrin, gomisins, and pregomisin.  In Korean, the berries are known as \"omija\" (오미자 (hangul) – five flavours). The cordial drink made from the berries is called \"omija-cha\", meaning \"\"omija\" tea\"; see Korean tea. In Japanese, they are called \"gomishi\". The Ainu people used this plant, called \"repnihat\", as a remedy for colds and sea-sickness.  Interest in \"limonnik\" (\"S. chinensis\") in Russia was associated with ethnopharmacological investigations by Soviet scientists on berries and seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "In 1998, Russia released a postage stamp depicting \"S. chinensis\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Schisandra chinensis (common name: magnolia-vine, Chinese magnolia-vine, schisandra), whose fruit is called magnolia berry or five-flavor-fruit (from Chinese \"wǔ wèi zi\"), is a deciduous woody vine native to forests of Northern China and the Russian Far East. It is hardy in USDA Zone 4. The plant likes some shade with moist, well-drained soil. The species itself is dioecious, thus flowers on a female plant will only produce fruit when fertilized with pollen from a male plant. However, a hybrid selection titled 'Eastern Prince' has perfect flowers and is self-fertile. Seedlings of 'Eastern Prince' are sometimes sold under the same name, but are typically single-sex plants. The fruits are red berries borne in dense hanging clusters around 10 cm long.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975368}
{"src_title": "Aaron Taylor-Johnson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Aaron Perry Johnson was born in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, the son of Sarah and Robert Johnson, a housewife mother and civil engineer father, respectively. He has a sister, Gemma, who appeared in his film \"Tom & Thomas\" (2002) in a small role. He is Jewish. He was educated at Holmer Green Senior School and attended the Jackie Palmer Stage School in High Wycombe between 1996 and 2008, where he studied drama, tap, jazz, acrobatics, and singing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Taylor-Johnson began acting at the age of six. On stage, he appeared in a London production of Shakespeare's \"Macbeth\", playing the son of Macduff alongside Rufus Sewell, who played Macbeth, in 1999. He appeared in Arthur Miller’s \"All My Sons\" in 2000. His television roles have included Niker in the 2004 BBC adaptation of the novel \"Feather Boy\", Aaron in Danny Brocklehurst's ITV1 serial \"Talk to Me\", and Owen Stephens in \"Nearly Famous\". In 2003, Taylor-Johnson appeared as a young Charlie Chaplin in \"Shanghai Knights\", with Chaplin depicted as a member of a London gang of street thugs. In 2006, he appeared in \"The Illusionist\", appearing in the early flashback scenes as Edward Norton's character, Eduard Abramovicz, as a teenager. The scenes show the young Eduard as he first learns magic, and to do this, Johnson had to learn how to perform the ball trick displayed by his character. He learned how to perform the balancing of the egg on the stick, although that was effected mechanically. Also in 2006, he starred in the film \"The Thief Lord\", as Prosper. Taylor-Johnson appeared as John Lennon in the 2009 biographical film film \"Nowhere Boy\", directed by Sam Taylor-Wood. His performance saw him receive the Empire Award for Best Newcomer and he was also nominated for Young British Performer of the Year by the London Film Critics' Circle. In 2010, Taylor-Johnson appeared as David \"Dave\" Lizewski/Kick-Ass, the lead character in \"Kick-Ass\", based on the superhero comic book of the same name by Scottish writer Mark Millar. His performance in \"Kick-Ass\" saw him nominated for the BAFTA Rising Star Award. He has also appeared as the central character, William, in Hideo Nakata's \"Chatroom\". In December 2010, Taylor-Johnson joined the cast of \"Albert Nobbs\" as a replacement for Orlando Bloom, who dropped out of the production due to his wife's pregnancy. Taylor-Johnson starred in R.E.M.'s 2011 music video \"Überlin\", which was also directed by his then-fiancée.  In 2012, Taylor-Johnson played Count Vronsky in \"Anna Karenina\". Later that year, he starred as Ben in Oliver Stone's \"Savages\". HitFix film critic Drew McWeeny was positive of the bond between Johnson and co-star Taylor Kitsch, which \"seems not only credible but lived in and authentic throughout the film\", and noted the evolution in maturity of Johnson since \"Kick-Ass\". Taylor-Johnson starred in the \"Godzilla\" reboot, released in May 2014. Taylor-Johnson played Quicksilver in \"\" (2015), the sequel to \"The Avengers\". Taylor-Johnson first appeared as the character in a post-credits scene of the film \"\". The role reunited him with Elizabeth Olsen, who played his wife in \"Godzilla\".  In 2016, he played Ray, a menacing Texan, in Tom Ford's thriller \"Nocturnal Animals\". For the role, he won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture. Taylor-Johnson also became first Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor winner since Richard Benjamin who did not receive an Academy Award nomination. For the role he also received a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. In 2017, he played an American soldier (alongside John Cena) in Doug Liman's thriller \"The Wall\", and in 2018, he appeared in \"Outlaw King\", a British-American historical action drama about Robert the Bruce and the Wars of Scottish Independence. In May 2019, Taylor-Johnson was cast in Christopher Nolan’s \"Tenet\", set for release in July 2020.  In 2020, it was announced that Aaron Taylor Johnson will join Steve Pemberton on West End stage in The Pillowman play. directed by Matthew Dunster.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Aaron Johnson began a relationship with \"Nowhere Boy\" director Sam Taylor-Wood, after meeting on the 2009 set of the film when he was 18 and she was 42. They announced their engagement in October 2009 and married at Babington House, Somerset, England on 21 June 2012. The two changed their surnames to \"Taylor-Johnson\" and use the surname professionally. The couple have two daughters. He is also stepfather to two daughters from his wife's previous marriage.  Taylor-Johnson was named one of GQ's 50 best dressed British men in 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aaron Perry Taylor-Johnson (né Johnson; born 13 June 1990) is an English actor and screenwriter, best known for his portrayal of the title character in the \"Kick-Ass\" films and Quicksilver in \"\" (2015).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975369}
{"src_title": "Sabaton (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation and first albums (1999-2009).", "content": "Sabaton was formed in December 1999. After the first songs were recorded in Peter Tägtgren's studio, The Abyss, Sabaton was contacted by a couple of record labels. The band sang with the Italian label Underground Symphony, which then released, internationally, the promo CD \"Fist for Fight\". The disc, distilled from two demo tapes recorded between 1999 and 2000, was intended to promote forthcoming Sabaton releases. In 2002, a new album, \"Metalizer\" was recorded and was supposed to be distributed by Underground Symphony as the band's debut album. After two years of waiting, during which the band held various performances across Sweden, the album was abandoned.  The band returned for a second album titled \"Primo Victoria\". Brodén stated that album's title track \"kicked off\" the band's historical theme. Sundström stated that the band decided to focus primarily on historical themes in their lyrics after he and Brodén watched the film \"Saving Private Ryan\". Sabaton signed with Black Lodge, the metal division of the Sound Pollution record label. In early 2005, keyboardist Daniel Myhr was recruited in order to relieve Joakim Brodén of his keyboard duties. In early 2006, Sabaton toured in support of Edguy and DragonForce. The band's third album, \"Attero Dominatus\", was released in Europe on 28 July 2006. In March 2007, Sabaton released \"Metalizer\" as a double disc together with \"Fist for Fight\", along with the previously unreleased song \"Birds of War\".  As a follow-up to \"Metalizer\", in May 2008, Sabaton released its fourth album \"The Art of War\", an album inspired by the influential book by Sun Tzu. The decision to base the album upon Sun Tzu's book came from the idea that in the 2000 years since the book was written, the human race has achieved many things but, apart from weapon advancements, operational art, strategy, and war itself have remained basically the same. The album contains the singles \"Cliffs of Gallipoli\" and \"Ghost Division\". They toured Europe in 2009 as an opening act on the HammerFall Tour. After their Bloodstock performance, the band again went on tour with DragonForce, towards the end of 2009, for eighteen shows in the UK.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Coat of Arms\" (2010-2011).", "content": "The band had hoped to begin recording the next album in October but with concerts booked and the DragonForce support tour the following month, it was pushed back. On 23 December 2009, the band announced the name of their forthcoming album. \"Coat of Arms\" contains a majority of songs about World War II including the Winter War. They announced it on their official website, and posted a link to a YouTube video containing the album art and a teaser music sample. \"Coat of Arms\" was released on 21 May 2010. The first music video, for \"Uprising\", was released on 1 August 2010 and features Peter Stormare. This was accompanied by a European tour. A second music video, for \"Screaming Eagles\", was released on 25 May.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lineup change (2012-2015).", "content": "In 2012 two-thirds of Sabaton's lineup left the band. On 31 March vocalist Joakim Brodén confirmed rumors that the band would be going separate ways, with only Brodén himself and bass player Pär Sundström staying on board. Sabaton was joined by touring members Chris Rörland and Thobbe Englund on guitar, and Robban Bäck on drums. Former Sabaton guitarists Oskar Montelius and Rikard Sundén, drummer Daniel Mullback and keyboardist Daniel Mÿhr went on, together with vocalist Patrik Johansson and bassist Stefan Eriksson, to form a new band, Civil War. In November 2012, drummer Robban Bäck decided to take a break from touring due to becoming a father. Snowy Shaw replaced him as touring drummer.  In the same year, Sabaton released a new concept album \"Carolus Rex\".  In January 2014, the band announced the cover of their new album called \"Heroes\", then due to be released on 16 May 2014. The album proved to be a hit and made #1 on the official Swedish album chart. On 27 January the band was announced to play Download Festival in June. In October 2015 performed their first concert in Japan in Loud Park.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Last Stand\" (2016-2018).", "content": "In April 2016 the band announced the cover of their new album called \"The Last Stand\", then due to be released on 19 August 2016. On 10 June 2016 the first single of the album was released, called \"The Lost Battalion\" and about the eponymous military unit of World War I. On 25 July 2016, the band announced that guitarist Thobbe Englund had left the band. Thobbe Englund played his last show with Sabaton at Sabaton Open Air 2016.  Tommy Johansson of ReinXeed was announced immediately as the new member after Englund's final show with the band.  Pär Sundström stated in a 2017 interview that the group would be touring less in 2018 so they could concentrate on writing and recording their next album. Joakim Brodén confirmed a 2019 release date for the still-untitled album in a September 2018 interview on MAD TV's show \"TV War\". On the 31st of December 2018, it was further confirmed in an official announcement YouTube video.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Sabaton History\" and \"The Great War\" (2019-present).", "content": "On 8 January 2019, the band announced the creation of a YouTube channel called \"Sabaton History\", a cooperation between Indy Neidell, TimeGhost History and Sabaton. The channel documents the history of the events behind Sabaton songs and the songs themselves. The channel was created on 7 February 2019.  On 22 of April 2019 Sabaton released a standalone single called Bismarck in a collaboration with Wargaming and their game \"World of Warships\". The song is about the German Battleship Bismarck, one of the biggest ever built in Europe. Commissioned in August 1940, it sank in May 1941 after an intense hunt in the North Atlantic.  On 2 April 2019, the band announced a new concept album about the First World War entitled The Great War. It was released on 19 July 2019. The first single on the album is 'Fields of Verdun', which was released on 3 May. On 13 June the lyric video for the song, \"Red Baron\", was released. On 27 June the premiere of \"The Great War\" was released.  On 3 August 2019, the band performed their 20th anniversary show at Wacken Open Air festival 2019; during the gig former guitarist Thobbe Englund joined the band on stage for two songs and in the second half of the show Sabaton invited other former members to the festival's second stage - Rikard Sundén, Daniel Mÿhr, and Daniel Mullback, along with Englund. Sundén, Mÿhr, and Mullback are all members of Civil War, a similar band formed by the three along with Oskar Montelius, another former Sabaton member, as well as Nils Patrik Johansson and Stefan Erikkson, neither of whom are former Sabaton members.  On 30 August 2019, the band was involved in a serious car accident in Tunisia while returning from a music video shoot in the Sahara Desert. Injuries from the wreck forced them to cancel an upcoming show in Gdańsk, Poland.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sabaton is a Swedish power metal band from Falun. The band's main lyrical themes are based on war, historical battles, and acts of heroism—the name is a reference to a sabaton, knight's foot armor. The armor and battle theme is heard in the albums \"Primo Victoria\", \"Attero Dominatus\", \"The Art of War\", \"Coat of Arms\", \"Carolus Rex\", \"Heroes\", \"The Last Stand\", and \"The Great War\" in which most of the songs contain these motifs. Their latest album, \"The Great War\", was released on 19 July 2019, with the songs all being based on World War I. Lyrical content drawn from World War I, World War II and other historical conflicts is prevalent and lyrics often recite stories of heroic deeds by men, women, and armies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975370}
{"src_title": "Solovetsky Islands", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The archipelago has a total area of and consists of six islands:  The islands separate the Onega Bay from the main volume of the White Sea. The closest mainland is the Onega Peninsula.  The shores of the islands are very indented. They are formed of granites and gneiss. The relief of the islands is hilly (the highest point is 107 m). Most of the Solovetsky Islands are covered with Scots Pine and Norway Spruce forests, which are partially swampy. There are numerous lakes, which were joined by monks so as to form a network of canals.  One interesting feature of these islands is stone labyrinths and other stone settings, especially the Stone labyrinths of Bolshoi Zayatsky Island. Such labyrinths were typical for Northern Europe, but most have perished and now Solovetsky Islands have some of the best remaining examples.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monastery.", "content": "Historically the islands have been the setting of the famous Russian Orthodox Solovetsky Monastery complex. It was founded in the second quarter of the 15th century by two monks from the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery. By the end of the 16th century, the abbey had emerged as one of the wealthiest landowners and most influential religious centres in Russia.  The existing stronghold and its major churches were erected in stone during the early reign of Ivan the Terrible at the behest of St. Philip of Moscow. At the onset of the Schism of the Russian Church, the monks staunchly stuck to the faith of their fathers and expelled the tsar's representatives from the Solovki, precipitating the eight-year-long siege of the islands by the forces of Tsar Alexis.  Throughout the imperial period of Russian history, the monastery was renowned as a strong fortress which repelled foreign attacks during the Livonian War (16th century), Time of Troubles (17th century), the Crimean War (19th century), and the Russian Civil War (20th century).  In 1974, the Solovetsky Islands were designated a historical and architectural museum and a natural reserve of the Soviet Union. In 1992, they were inscribed on the World Heritage List \"as an outstanding example of a monastic settlement in the inhospitable environment of northern Europe which admirably illustrates the faith, tenacity, and enterprise of later medieval religious communities\". Today, the Solovki are seen as one of the major tourist magnets in the orbit of the Russian North.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Labor camp.", "content": "After the October Revolution, the islands attained notoriety as the site of the first Soviet prison camp (gulag). The camp was inaugurated in 1921, while Vladimir Lenin was still at the helm of Soviet Russia. It was closed in 1939, on the eve of World War II. By the beginning of the war, there was a naval cadet training camp for the Soviet Northern Fleet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "The islands are served by the Solovki Airport. There is regular air service to Arkhangelsk, as well as regular passenger sea connections (only in summer) to Arkhangelsk, Kem, and Belomorsk.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Solovetsky Islands (), or Solovki (), are an archipelago located in the Onega Bay of the White Sea, Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975371}
{"src_title": "Coconut lorikeet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "In 1758, English naturalist George Edwards described this species as the red-breasted parrakeet in his work \"Gleanings of Natural History\". He had obtained a stuffed specimen from a China warehouse in London, that had come from the East Indies. \"It is a parrakeet, equal to any I have seen for beauty; and I believe hath never been described or figured until now.\" In 1760 the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the coconut lorikeet in his \"Ornithologie\" based on a specimen collected on the island of Ambon in Indonesia. He used the French name \"La perruche variée d'Amboine\" and the Latin name \"Psittaca amboinensis varia\". Although Brisson coined Latin names, these do not conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.  Acknowledging both previous authors as having written about the same species, Carl Linnaeus formally described the coconut lorikeet in 1771 as \"Psittacus haematod.(us)\". He had abbreviated the name to avoid it spilling over onto the next line. The shortened form was followed for many years. The specific epithet is from the Ancient Greek \"haimatōdēs\" for \"blood-red\". Hence the translation of its binomial name is \"bloody hair-tongue\".  For many years, the species was broadly defined with 20 or 22 subspecies recognised, and was known as the rainbow lorikeet. This name has been reapplied to eastern Australian populations, now classified as a distinct species \"Trichoglossus moluccanus\". Also recognised as distinct species are the sunset lorikeet (\"T. forsteni\"), leaf lorikeet (\"T. weberi\"), marigold lorikeet (\"T. capistratus\"), red-collared lorikeet (\"T. rubritorquis\"), and Biak lorikeet (\"T. rosenbergii\").  Five subspecies are recognised:  \"Coconut lorikeet\" has been designated as the official common name for the species by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The coconut lorikeet measures in length and weighs around. The bill is orange-red, and the head dark blue fading to brown at the neck. It has a yellow collar and green upperparts. The breast is red with blue-black barring, and the belly is green with yellow barring. The tail is green above and barred in green and yellow below. The male's iris is bright red, while in the female it is orange-red.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Trichoglossus haematodus\" is found in eastern Indonesia, on Buru, Seram, Misool, Waigeo, Numfoor, Yapen and the Aru Islands, in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea on New Guinea, in the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia.  The species occupies a wide range of lowland and wooded hill habitats, including mangroves, rainforest, nypa forest, swamps, savanna and woodland. It also occupies human-modified areas including coconut plantations, gardens, agricultural land and disturbed forest. It is found from sea level up to as high as ; this upper altitude level varies by location.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "These lorikeets have on the tip of their specialized tongue a small brush, which is actually the tongue's extended papillae. With the help of the tongue, they are able to feed on nectar and pollen from flowers. They mainly feed on nectar and pollen, but they also eat other parts of the flowers, as well as seeds, fruits, berries, insects, and larvae. They usually make a huge noise during flight, emitting screeching calls (\"e.g.\" “peaow-peaow-peaow”), at regular intervals.  Coconut lorikeets are monogamous birds, choosing only one partner for their whole life. They are diurnal birds living in very large bands. In the evening, they join their fellows in a dormitory tree. These birds may breed throughout most of year, depending on the region. Usually they breed in the spring, from July to December. They usually raise one brood a year, sometimes two.  Nests are usually located in holes in decaying wood, such as hollows of eucalyptus trees, at a height of above the ground. Females lay two matte white, round eggs and incubate them for 23–25 days. Parents feed the chicks for 7–8 weeks, after which they leave the nest and after another 2–3 weeks they become completely independent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The coconut lorikeet (\"Trichoglossus haematodus\") also known as the green-naped lorikeet is a parrot in the family Psittaculidae. Seven species of lorikeets now recognised were once lumped together under \"Trichoglossus haematodus\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975372}
{"src_title": "Regent parrot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "A species of Psittaculidae, allied to the tribe Polytelini, a sister taxon to \"Polytelis swainsonii\", the superb parrot, and \"P. alexandrae\", the princess parrot. The epithet \"anthopeplus\" is derived from ancient Greek, a compound of \"anthos\", flower, and \"peplos\", robe.  There are two populations, morphologically similar though isolated, within the species distribution range of Southern Australia. These are described as subspecies: The regent parrot was first depicted by English author and artist Edward Lear in 1831. Lear included two images in \"Illustrations of the family of Psittacidae, or parrots\", an early folio of lithographs with brief captions. The first plate reproduced a female specimen, given the title \"Palæornis anthopeplus\" (1831), the second was a male, \"Palæornis melanura\" (pt. 12, 1832), drawn by Lear in England. The regional origin of the parrots, presented as two species, is not supplied in the work, so the type specimen or locality for each was not formally nominated and assumed to be lost. A 1912 review by G. M. Mathews stated the source of the specimens was New South Wales, and occurred in a range that excluded the Southwest of the country. When correcting this omission, Mathews proposed the taxa named \"anthopeplus\" and \"melanura\" in Lear's folio was only found in the east and that the southwest population was a new taxon, nominated \"westralis\". The arrangement and typification of the geographically separate groups was largely ignored by authors, until Richard Schodde published a conclusion that the origin of both Lear's specimens were from a Western Australian population, based on differences in colouration of the female plumage which he observed in the plates. Further evidence was provided by examining any possible collection and transport of the species to England, living or skinned, a possible holotype held at the Liverpool Museum, and comparison other collected data. Subsequently, the nominate subspecies of the West became \"P. a. anthopeplus\" and the eastern isolate was given a neotype and assigned to subspecies \"P. anthopeplus monarchoides\". The parrot is also known variously as the rock pebbler, rock peplar, Murray smoker, Marlock parakeet, yellow king-parrot and regent parakeet. Lear's illustrations are captioned with Blossom-feathered Parrakeet to \"Palæornis anthopeplus\" and Black-tailed Parrakeet to \"P. melanura\".  The indigenous names for the southwest subspecies in the Nyungar language, noted by Dom Serventy, include \"Waukanga\" and \"Wouk-un-ga\", and \"Walkinger\" recorded at Avon River. A recommended orthography and pronunciation list of the region's bird names has proposed the adoption of common names \"yalop\" [yaw’lawp] and \"wookonga\" [woo’kawng’a] for this subspecies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "A yellowish-green parrot, long and slender, with similar patterning exhibited by the sexes. They are between 141⁄2–161⁄2\" (37–42 cm) in length and weigh four ounces. The female is generally more green, the male much yellower. The tail feathers above are dark blue-green, those beneath are black. The male is generally yellow, with several shades on the head; its back is generally a collection of colorful shades of green; its beak generally red.  Immature birds, like the female, are duller in colour than males.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "A social bird, found in pairs or joining up to twenty others in flocks. The southwest subspecies, where it is common to abundant, may occur in mobs of up to one hundred birds. This produces an attractive spectacle when in flight. The movement in flight is fast and erratic, though described as graceful, with swept back wings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "Most feeding activity is on the ground, foraging for grass seed. They also seek seed and blossoms in the limbs of trees, usually acacia and eucalypt species. Their diet also includes fruit, leaf buds and nuts of native species. The western subspecies has adapted to feed on fruits and wheat, or other cereals, introduced throughout the range after European settlement of the region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Nesting is ast the base of a tree hollow of great depth, up to fifteen feet within the main stem of the plant. The site is usually a large eucapylpt, with a hollow in the trunk that may reach almost to ground level, where the female lays around four eggs.  The female broods 3-8 eggs for approximately 21 days. During this period she seldom departs from the nest, if at all, and is fed by the male. When the young have hatched, they are cared for by both the male and female. During this period, they can be fed several times their normal portion of feed, which they readily convey to their young. The young begin to fly at about 5 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at about 2 years of age.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "While the western subspecies (\"P. anthopeplus anthopeplus\") is listed as \"lower risk\" or \"least concern\", the eastern subspecies (\"P. anthopeplus monarchoides\") is listed as \"vulnerable\" under the Australian \"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999\". A recovery plan for the subspecies was published in 2011. The bird is regarded as an agricultural pest in Western Australia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Captivity.", "content": "The species is traded as an aviary bird, referred to as the rock pebbler or regents parrot, the bird should only be acquired by experienced handlers and placed is free flying aviaries. They are not suitable for the inexperienced carer or as pets. Captive regent parrots thrive on chopped mixtures for large parrots. They also like eggfood, fruit, sprouting seeds and a small assortment of insects. Unlike most birds parrots do not require grit in their diet, grit should only be given when a certified avian veterinarian prescribes it for digestion aid if the bird is ill. An occasional fresh willow or fruit tree branch to \"spruce up\" their quarters seems to please the birds. The regent parrot is naturally hardy, so being careful to protect them from drafts and the like is unnecessary. However, they should be protected from excessive cold, as such is uncommon in their natural habitat.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The regent parrot or rock pebbler (\"Polytelis anthopeplus\") is a bird found in southern Australia. It has predominantly yellow plumage with a green tail. The bird is found primarily in eucalyptus groves and other wooded areas of subtropical southwestern Australia, as well as in a smaller area of subtropical and temperate southeastern Australia. Seeds make up the bulk of its diet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975373}
{"src_title": "Baden culture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of research.", "content": "The Baden culture was named after Baden near Vienna by the Austrian prehistorian Oswald Menghin. It is also known as the Ossarn group or Pecel culture. The first monographic treatment was produced by J. Banner in 1956. Other important scholars are E. Neustupny, Ida Bognar-Kutzian and Vera Nemejcova-Pavukova.  Baden has been interpreted as part of a much larger archaeological complex encompassing cultures at the mouth of the Danube (Ezero-Cernavoda III) and the Troad. In 1963, Nándor Kalicz had proposed a connection between the Baden culture and Troy, based on the anthropomorphic urns from Ózd-Centre (Hungary). This interpretation cannot be maintained in the face of radiocarbon dates. The author himself (2004) has called this interpretation a \"cul-de-sac\", based on a misguided historical methodology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chronology.", "content": "Baden developed out of the late Lengyel culture in the western Carpathian Basin. Němejcová-Pavuková proposes a polygenetic origin, including southeastern elements transmitted by the Ezero culture of the early Bronze Age (Ezero, layers XIII-VII) and Cernavoda III/Coțofeni. Ecsedy parallelises Baden with Early Helladic II in Thessaly, Parzinger with Sitagroi IV. Baden was approximately contemporaneous with the late Funnelbeaker culture, the Globular Amphora culture and the early Corded Ware culture. The following phases are known: Balaton-Lasinya, Baden-Boleráz, Post-Boleráz (divided into early, Fonyod/Tekovský Hrádok and late, Červený Hrádok/Szeghalom-Dioér by Vera Němejcová-Pavuková) and classical Baden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Settlement.", "content": "The settlements were often located on hilltops and were normally undefended.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Burial.", "content": "Both inhumations and cremations are known. In Slovakia and Hungary, the burned remains were often placed in anthropomorphic urns (Slána, Ózd-Center). In Nitriansky Hrádok, a mass grave was uncovered. There are also burials of cattle. Up to now, the only cemetery known from the early Boleráz-phase is Pilismárot (Hungary), which also contained a few examples of stroke-ornamented pottery.  In Serbia, anthropomorphic urns were found in the towns of Dobanovci, Gomolava, Perlez and Zemun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The economy was mixed. Full-scale agriculture was present, along with the keeping of domestic stock—pigs, goats, etc. The Baden culture has some of the earliest attestation of often wheeled, wagon-shaped models in pottery, sometimes with a handle. There are burials of pairs of cattle that have been interpreted as draft animals. Though there are no finds of actual wagons, some scholars take these finds together as proof for the presence of real wagons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interpretation.", "content": "In the Kurgan hypothesis espoused by Marija Gimbutas, the Baden culture is seen as being Indo-Europeanized.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "In a 2017 genetic study published in \"Nature\", the remains of thirteen individuals ascribed to the Baden culture was analyzed. Of the ten samples of Y-DNA extracted, five belonged to various subclades of haplogroup G2a2, and five belonged to I or various subclades of it. mtDNA extracted included subclades of U, J, H, T2, HV and K.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Baden culture, 3600–2800 BC, is a Chalcolithic culture found in Central and Southeast Europe. It is known from Moravia (Czech Republic), Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, northern Serbia, western Romania and eastern Austria. Imports of Baden pottery have also been found in Germany and Switzerland (Arbon-Bleiche III), where it could be dated by dendrochronology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975374}
{"src_title": "Gallerie dell'Accademia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "The Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia was founded on 24 September 1750; the statute dates from 1756. The first director was Giovanni Battista Piazzetta; Gianbattista Tiepolo became the first president after his return from Würzburg.  It was one of the first institutions to study art restoration starting in 1777 with Pietro Edwards, and formalised by 1819 as a course.  In 1807 the academy was re-founded by Napoleonic decree. The name was changed from Veneta Academia di Pittura, Scultura e Architettura to Accademia Reale di Belle Arti, \"royal academy of fine arts\", and the academy was moved to the Palladian complex of the Scuola della Carità, where the Gallerie dell'Accademia are still housed. The collections of the Accademia were first opened to the public on 10 August 1817.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later history.", "content": "The Gallerie dell'Accademia became independent from the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia in 1879. Like other state museums in Italy, it falls under the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, the Italian ministry of culture and heritage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Building.", "content": "The Napoleonic administration had disbanded many institutions in Venice including some churches, convents and Scuole. The Scuola della Carità, the Convento dei Canonici Lateranensi and the church of Santa Maria della Carità thus became the home of the Accademia. The Scuola della Carità was the oldest of the six Scuole Grandi and the building dates back to 1343, though the scuola was formed in 1260. The Convento dei Canonici Lateranensi was started in 1561 by Andrea Palladio, though it was never fully completed. The facade of Santa Maria della Carità was completed in 1441 by Bartolomeo Bon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collection.", "content": "The Gallerie dell’Accademia contains masterpieces of Venetian painting up to the 18th century, generally arranged chronologically though some thematic displays are evident.  Artists represented include: Antonello da Messina, Lazzaro Bastiani, Gentile and Giovanni Bellini, Bernardo Bellotto, Pacino di Bonaguida, Canaletto, Vittore Carpaccio, Giulio Carpioni, Rosalba Carriera, Cima da Conegliano, Domenico Fetti, Pietro Gaspari, Michele Giambono, Luca Giordano, Francesco Guardi, Giorgione, Johann Liss, Charles Le Brun, Leonardo da Vinci, Pietro Longhi, Lorenzo Lotto, Andrea Mantegna, Rocco Marconi, Michele Marieschi, Giambattista Piazzetta, Giambattista Pittoni, Mattia Preti, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Tintoretto, Titian, Paolo Veronese Giorgio Vasari, Alvise Vivarini, and Giuseppe Zais.  The collection includes Leonardo da Vinci's drawing of the \"Vitruvian Man\", which is displayed only rarely as the work, being on paper, is fragile and sensitive to light. In 2019, the Musée du Louvre in Paris requested the loan of the drawing for its exhibition of works by Leonardo. The request was refused by a cultural heritage group. A court tribunal in Venice, however, decided that the work would suffer no ill effects if shipped with great care and displayed under controlled conditions. The work was, therefore, part of the Louvre's exhibition from 24 October 2019 to 24 February 2020.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gallerie dell'Accademia is a museum gallery of pre-19th-century art in Venice, northern Italy. It is housed in the Scuola della Carità on the south bank of the Grand Canal, within the sestiere of Dorsoduro. It was originally the gallery of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia, the art academy of Venice, from which it became independent in 1879, and for which the Ponte dell'Accademia and the Accademia boat landing station for the \"vaporetto\" water bus are named. The two institutions remained in the same building until 2004, when the art school moved to the Ospedale degli Incurabili.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975375}
{"src_title": "Académie Julian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Rodolphe Julian established the Académie Julian in 1868 at the Passage des Panoramas, as a private studio school for art students. The Académie Julian not only prepared students to the exams at the prestigious École des Beaux-Arts, but offered independent alternative education and training in arts. \"Founded at a time when art was about to undergo a long series of crucial mutations, the Academie Julian played host to painters and sculptors of every kind and persuasion and never tried to make them hew to any one particular line\".  In 1880, women who were not allowed to enroll for study to the École des Beaux-Arts were accepted by the new Académie Julian. Foreign applicants who had been deterred from entering the Ecole des Beaux Arts by a vicious French language examination were welcome at the Académie Julian. Men and women were trained separately, and women participated in the same studies as men, including drawing and painting of nude models. \"Human exchange went forward in an atmosphere that was collegial, easygoing and mutually supportive. It nurtured some of the best artists of the day\".  Académie Julian became popular as fertile ground with French as well as foreign students from diverse backgrounds from all over the world, from the United Kingdom, Canada, Hungary, and particularly the United States; French art critic Egmont Arens wrote in 1924 that American art, at least for a period of time, reflected the teachings of Académie Julian. In 1989, on the occasion of the exhibition at the Shepherd Gallery, in Manhattan, devoted to the Academie Julian in Paris as it existed between 1868 and 1939, John Russell wrote:  By my count, more than 50 nationalities were represented at the school during its glory years. To be at the Academie Julian was to be exposed to a kind of white magic that seems to have worked in almost every case. What was learned there stayed forever with alumnus and alumna, and it related as much to the conduct of life as to the uses of brush and chisel. – in \"The New York Times\", John Russell: \"An Art School That Also Taught Life\", 19 March 1989.  The early success of the Académie was also secured by the famous and respected artists whom Rodolphe Julian employed as instructors: Adolphe William Bouguereau (1825–1905), Henri Royer, Jean-Paul Laurens, Gabriel Ferrier, Tony Robert-Fleury, Jules Lefebvre and other leading artists of that time trained in Academic art. Eventually, Académie Julian students were granted the right to compete for the \"Prix de Rome\", a prize awarded to promising young artists. and participate in the major \"Salons\" or art exhibitions.  In the late 19th century the term \"L'art pompier\" had entered the scene as a derisive term for the traditional academic art espoused by the Académie's instructors. As a result, the Académie Julian embraced a more liberal regime pushing a less conservative, more sincere approach to art which corresponded to the Secessionist art movement in Germany and the Vienna Secession in Austria. It was followed and fully articulated by the Nabis, avant-garde movement, that participated in paving the way to modern art in 1888–1889.  Over time, Académie Julian opened schools in other locations. In addition to the original school at Passage des Panoramas, studios were at no. 28 Boulevard St-Jacques in the 6th arrondissement of Paris, no. 5 Rue de Berri in the 8th arrondissement, no. 31 Rue du Dragon in the 6th arrondissement, no. 51, rue Vivienne in the 2nd arrondissement for female student artists, overseen by painter Amélie Beaury-Saurel, Julian's spouse. And subsequent faculty were made up of former students, like Edgar Chahine for example. Académie Julian remained open during World War I, albeit with a lesser number of students. By contrast during World War II, after the 1941 exhibition \"Vingt jeunes peintres de tradition française\" considerations on \"degenerate art\" by the German military administration forced the school to close. In 1946 some of the studios were sold.  For his services to the arts, Rodolphe Julian, described by the Anglo-Irish novelist and critic George Moore as \"a kind of Hercules, dark-haired, strong, with broad shoulders, short legs, a soft voice and all the charm of the Midi\" was awarded the Legion of Honour.  The artist records still extant are those of the men's section, covering the 1870–1932 period, and those of the women's section, covering the 1880–1907 period.  In 1968, an important year in France's history with the May events, particularly in relation to education, the Académie Julian integrated with ESAG Penninghen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Académie Julian () was a private art school for painting and sculpture founded in Paris, France, in 1867 by French painter and teacher Rodolphe Julian (1839–1907) that was active from 1868 through 1968. It remained famous for the number and quality of artists who attended during the great period of effervescence in the arts in the early twentieth century. After 1968, it integrated with.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975376}
{"src_title": "Photoperiodism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plants.", "content": "Many flowering plants (angiosperms) use a photoreceptor protein, such as phytochrome or cryptochrome, to sense seasonal changes in night length, or photoperiod, which they take as signals to flower. In a further subdivision, \"obligate\" photoperiodic plants absolutely require a long or short enough night before flowering, whereas \"facultative\" photoperiodic plants are more likely to flower under one condition.  Phytochrome comes in two forms: P and P. Red light (which is present during the day) converts phytochrome to its active form (pfr). This then triggers the plant to grow. In turn, far-red light is present in the shade or in the dark and this converts phytochrome from pfr to pr. P is the inactive form of phytochrome and will not allow for plant growth. This system of P to P conversion allows the plant to sense when it is night and when it is day. P can also be converted back to P by a process known as dark reversion, where long periods of darkness trigger the conversion of P. This is important in regards to plant flowering. Experiments by Halliday et al. showed that manipulations of the red-to far-red ratio in Arabidopsis can alter flowering. They discovered that plants tend to flower later when exposed to more red light, proving that red light is inhibitory to flowering. Other experiments have proven this by exposing plants to extra red-light in the middle of the night. A short-day plant will not flower if light is turned on for a few minutes in the middle of the night and a long-day plant can flower if exposed to more red-light in the middle of the night.  Cryptochromes are another type of photoreceptor that is important in photoperiodism. Cryptochromes absorb blue light and UV-A. Cryptochromes entrain the circadian clock to light. It has been found that both cryptochrome and phytochrome abundance relies on light and the amount of cryptochrome can change depending on day-length. This shows how important both of the photoreceptors are in regards to determining day-length.  In 1920, W. W. Garner and H. A. Allard published their discoveries on photoperiodism and felt it was the length of daylight that was critical, but it was later discovered that the length of the night was the controlling factor. Photoperiodic flowering plants are classified as \"long-day plants\" or \"short-day plants\" even though night is the critical factor because of the initial misunderstanding about daylight being the controlling factor. Along with long-day plants and short-day plants, there are plants that fall into a \"dual-day length category\". These plants are either long-short-day plants (LSDP) or short-long-day plants (SLDP). LSDPs flower after a series of long days followed by short days whereas SLDPs flower after a series of short days followed by long days. Each plant has a different length critical photoperiod, or critical night length.  Modern biologists believe that it is the coincidence of the active forms of phytochrome or cryptochrome, created by light during the daytime, with the rhythms of the circadian clock that allows plants to measure the length of the night. Other than flowering, photoperiodism in plants includes the growth of stems or roots during certain seasons and the loss of leaves. Artificial lighting can be used to induce extra-long days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Long-day plants.", "content": "Long-day plants flower when the night length falls below their critical photoperiod. These plants typically flower during late spring or early summer as days are getting longer. In the northern hemisphere, the longest day of the year (summer solstice) is on or about 21 June. After that date, days grow shorter (i.e. nights grow longer) until 21 December (the winter solstice). This situation is reversed in the southern hemisphere (i.e., longest day is 21 December and shortest day is 21 June).  Some long-day obligate plants are:  Some long-day facultative plants are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Short-day plants.", "content": "Short-day plants flower when the night lengths exceed their critical photoperiod. They cannot flower under short nights or if a pulse of artificial light is shone on the plant for several minutes during the night; they require a continuous period of darkness before floral development can begin. Natural nighttime light, such as moonlight or lightning, is not of sufficient brightness or duration to interrupt flowering.  In general, short-day (i.e.long-night) plants flower as days grow shorter (and nights grow longer) after 21 June in the northern hemisphere, which is during summer or fall. The length of the dark period required to induce flowering differs among species and varieties of a species.  Photoperiodism affects flowering by inducing the shoot to produce floral buds instead of leaves and lateral buds.  Some short-day facultative plants are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Day-neutral plants.", "content": "Day-neutral plants, such as cucumbers, roses, tomatoes, and Ruderalis (autoflowering cannabis) do not initiate flowering based on photoperiodism. Instead, they may initiate flowering after attaining a certain overall developmental stage or age, or in response to alternative environmental stimuli, such as vernalisation (a period of low temperature).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Animal.", "content": "Daylength, and thus knowledge of the season of the year, is vital to many animals. A number of biological and behavioural changes are dependent on this knowledge. Together with temperature changes, photoperiod provokes changes in the color of fur and feathers, migration, entry into hibernation, sexual behaviour, and even the resizing of sexual organs.  The singing frequency of birds such as the canary depends on the photoperiod. In the spring, when the photoperiod increases (more daylight), the male canary's testes grow. As the testes grow, more androgens are secreted and song frequency increases. During autumn, when the photoperiod decreases (less daylight), the male canary's testes regress and androgen levels drop dramatically, resulting in decreased singing frequency. Not only is singing frequency dependent on the photoperiod but the song repertoire is also. The long photoperiod of spring results in a greater song repertoire. Autumn's shorter photoperiod results in a reduction in song repertoire. These behavioral photoperiod changes in male canaries are caused by changes in the song center of the brain. As the photoperiod increases, the high vocal center (HVC) and the robust nucleus of the archistriatum (RA) increase in size. When the photoperiod decreases, these areas of the brain regress.  In mammals, daylength is registered in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is informed by retinal light-sensitive ganglion cells, which are not involved in vision. The information travels through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT). Some mammals are highly seasonal, while humans' seasonality is largely believed to be evolutionary baggage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Photoperiodism is the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of night or a dark period. It occurs in plants and animals. Photoperiodism can also be defined as the developmental responses of plants to the relative lengths of light and dark periods. They are classified under three groups according to the photoperiods: short-day plants, long-day plants, and day-neutral plants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975377}
{"src_title": "Chad Kroeger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kroeger was born Chad Robert Turton in Hanna, Alberta, on November 15, 1974. His maternal grandfather, politician Henry Kroeger, was born in Moscow to a Mennonite family of German descent. After his father left the family when he was two, he started going by his mother's maiden name of Kroeger. He learned to play the guitar at age 13.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nickelback.", "content": "In the early 1990s, Kroeger was part of a grunge cover band, Village Idiot, with his cousin Brandon Kroeger and future Nickelback members bassist Mike Kroeger (his brother) and singer Ryan Peake. In 1995, Kroeger, Peake, Mike Kroeger, and then drummer Brandon Kroeger, formed the band Nickelback. Kroeger has continued to record and tour with this successful band for more than 20 years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Suits XL.", "content": "In 2001, Kroeger, with the help of lawyer Jonathan Simkin, founded the band The Suits XL. Band members included Sam Loubier-Demers and Yohann Gosselin on vocals and guitars, drummer Patrick Paquet, keyboardist Felix-Antoine Berube and singer Oliver Roy de Belleval. The next year, he co-founded the Vancouver, British Columbia-based 604 Records. Later, in 2006, The Suits XL released an album through this label. The next year the band was nominated for a Canadian Indie Award.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collaborations.", "content": "Kroeger produced music for the bands Default, Theory of a Deadman, and Bo Bice.  Kroeger, along with Saliva vocalist Josey Scott, Theory of a Deadman lead vocalist (serving as guitarist for this track) Tyler Connolly and Our Lady Peace drummer Jeremy Taggart, performed the theme song titled \"Hero\" for the hit movie \"Spider-Man\" in 2002. Also in 2002, Kroeger wrote and sang on \"Why Don't You & I\" for Santana's \"Shaman\". However, when Arista decided to release the song as a single in Summer 2003, Kroeger's label, Roadrunner, refused permission, citing concerns that Kroeger appearing on a \"high-profile single\" would compromise the excitement over Nickelback's fall 2003 release \"The Long Road\". Kroeger recommended The Calling's Alex Band, another Arista artist, as a replacement for re-recording the single.  In 2003, Kroeger won an International Achievement Award for the song \"Hero\" at the SOCAN Awards in Toronto.  In 2007, Chad Kroeger worked with Santana for a second time, when he co-wrote and recorded guitar and vocals parts for a new song meant to appear on the compilation album \"Ultimate Santana\". The track is called \"Into the Night\" and was released as a single on October 2, 2007. The album \"Ultimate Santana\" was released in October. Besides working with Santana, Kroeger also recorded with Travis Tritt on his album \"The Storm\", where Tritt did a cover of Nickelback's \"Should've Listened\" track from \"The Long Road\".  Kroeger also wrote and played guitar on Bo Bice's \"You're Everything\".  Chad Kroeger, Eric Dill, Rune Westberg and Chris Daughtry wrote the debut single of Daughtry's new album. The single, titled \"No Surprise\", was debuted on American Idol Wednesday, May 6, 2009. Kroeger also helped write another song from the album titled \"Life After You.\" He and Brett James co-wrote Tim McGraw's 2009 single \"It's a Business Doing Pleasure with You.\" Kroeger featured on the Timbaland album Shock Value 2 with the song \"Tomorrow in the Bottle\", which also features Sebastian. In 2010 he provided guest vocals, along with Ludacris and guest lead guitarist Zakk Wylde, on the My Darkest Days single \"Porn Star Dancing.\" In 2011, Kroeger was featured on the new Steel Panther album \"Balls Out\" with the song \"It Won't Suck Itself.\" In early 2012, it was confirmed that Kroeger was working with French-Canadian pop rock singer Avril Lavigne on her upcoming fifth studio album.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2008, Kroeger was convicted of drunk driving in a British Columbia court after he was stopped for speeding in Surrey.  Kroeger started dating fellow Canadian rocker Avril Lavigne on July 1, 2012. The relationship blossomed after they began working together in March 2012 to write and record music for Lavigne's fifth album. Kroeger and Lavigne became engaged in August 2012. The couple married in the south of France on July 1, 2013, which is Canada Day. Lavigne and Kroeger honeymooned in Portofino, Italy. In September 2014, the entertainment media began reporting that Lavigne and Kroeger were headed for separation after only one year of marriage. On September 2, 2015, Lavigne announced their separation via her official Instagram account.  In 2015, the second leg of the band's North American tour had to be canceled so Kroeger could have surgery for a cyst on his larynx. The entire leg of the European tour was cancelled as well.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chad Robert Kroeger (né Turton; born November 15, 1974) is a Canadian singer, songwriter, musician, producer, and entrepreneur. He is best known as the lead vocalist and guitarist for the rock band Nickelback. In addition to his work with Nickelback, Kroeger has been involved with a variety of collaborations, appearing as a guest musician in several songs and has contributed in both production and songwriting. He has co-written several songs for other artists and films.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975378}
{"src_title": "Alfa Romeo Giulietta (116)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First series.", "content": "The Giulietta was launched in November 1977. Two models were available: Giulietta 1.3, with an oversquare 1357 cc engine, and Giulietta 1.6, with a 1570 cc engine, both Alfa Romeo Twin Cam inline-fours fed by two twin-choke carburettors.  In April 1979, just under two years later, Giulietta 1.8 with a 1779 cc engine was added, and in May of the following year the Giulietta Super with a 2-litre engine (1962 cc, ) appeared. The Giulietta was unusual in that the tachometer rotated counter-clockwise, meeting the speedometer needle at the top, rather than the usual clockwise movement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second series.", "content": "In summer of 1981, the Giulietta received a minor facelift, externally and internally, while the engines remained the same. The car got plastic protection around the lower body, while interior modifications included a new steering wheel and new seats. The instrument panel and the centre armrest were also modified.  The Autodelta-produced Giulietta 2.0 Turbo Autodelta (175 PS) was introduced at the 1982 Paris motor show. This special version had a turbocharged 1,962 cc engine. The production Giulietta Turbodelta version had and a KKK turbocharger coupled with two double-barrel Weber carburettors. All turbo versions were black with red interior; only 361 were produced. In the same year, the petrol-engined Giulietta 2.0 Ti and the Giulietta Turbodiesel (VM) 1995 cc version with were also introduced, going on sale in early 1983.  In 1982, Alfetta and Giulietta turbodiesels achieved seven world speed records over 5/10/25/50 thousand kilometres and 5/10/25 thousand miles at Nardò (Lecce). While one of the quickest diesels in its category at the time, the Giulietta was rather costly and suffered from a very forward weight distribution (56.9 per cent over the front wheels).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third series.", "content": "In late 1983, the \"84\" Giulietta (Series 3) was presented, with minor differences in appearance, bumpers were redesigned and the dashboard was significantly re-designed, the instruments changed slightly and the rear seat in some versions changed its form. Mechanically it was basically the same, with minor modifications to the brake booster and inlet manifold on some versions.  The largest external market for the Giulietta was South Africa, where a very successful TV advertising campaign by Alfa Romeo produced good sales between 1981 and 1984. Central to this campaign was emphasis of the Giulietta's new 'aerodynamic' line, which was carried over to the 75, and then the 33. The Giulietta was the 'last hurrah' for Alfa in South Africa before the appearance of the 164 and 156 models in the 1990s  In 1985, after around 380,000 Giuliettas had been built, it was replaced by the Alfa Romeo 75, which used much of the Alfetta/Giulietta underpinnings.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Alfa Romeo Giulietta (Tipo 116, Italian for Type 116) is a small executive saloon car manufactured by Italian car maker Alfa Romeo from 1977 to 1985. The car was introduced in November 1977 and while it took its name from the original Giulietta of 1954 to 1965, it was a new design based on the Alfa Romeo Alfetta chassis (including its rear mounted transaxle). The Giulietta went through two facelifts, the first in 1981 and the second one in 1983. All Giuliettas used 5-speed manual transmissions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975379}
{"src_title": "Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Académie originated in 1663 as a council of four humanists, \"scholars who were the most versed in the knowledge of history and antiquity\": Jean Chapelain, François Charpentier, Jacques Cassagne, Amable de Bourzeys, and Charles Perrault. In another source, Perrault is not mentioned, and other original members are named as François Charpentier and a M. Douvrier. The organizer was King Louis XIV's finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert. Its first name was the \"Académie royale des Inscriptions et Médailles\", and its mission was to compose or obtain Latin inscriptions to be written on public monuments and medals issued to celebrate the events of Louis' reign. However, under Colbert's management, the Académie performed many additional roles, such as determining the art that would decorate the Palace of Versailles.  In 1683 Minister Louvois increased the membership to eight. In 1701 its membership was expanded to 40 and reorganized under the leadership of Chancellor Pontchartrain. It met twice a week at the Louvre, its members began to receive significant pensions, and was made an official state institution on the king's decree. In January 1716 it was permanently renamed to the \"Académie royale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres\" with the broader goal of elevating the prestige of the French monarchy using physical symbols uncovered or recovered through the methods of classical erudition.  The Académie produced a catalogue of medals created in honor of Louis XIV, \"Médailles sur les événements du règne de Louis le Grand, avec des explications historiques\", first published in 1702. A second edition was published in 1723, eight years after Louis' death. Each page of the catalogue featured engraved images of the obverse and reverse of a single medal, followed by a lengthy description of the event upon which it was based. The second edition added some medals for events prior to 1700 which were not included in the first volume, and in some cases the images of medals in the earlier edition were altered, resulting in an improved version. The catalogues may therefore be seen as an artistic effort to enhance the king's image, rather than as an accurate historical record.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role.", "content": "In the words of the Académie's charter, it is: primarily concerned with the study of the monuments, the documents, the languages, and the cultures of the civilizations of antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the classical period, as well as those of non-European civilizations. Today the academy is composed of fifty-five French members, forty associate foreign members, fifty French corresponding members, and fifty foreign corresponding members. The seats are distributed evenly among \"orientalists\" (scholars of Asia and the Islamic world, from ancient times), \"antiquists\" (scholars of Greece, Rome, and Gaul, including archaeologists, numismatists, philologists and historians), \"medievalists\", and a fourth miscellaneous group of linguists, law historians, historians of religion, historians of thought, and prehistorians.  The Volney Prize is awarded by the Institut de France, based on the proposal of the \"Académie\". It publishes \"Mémoires\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prizes, grants and medals awarded by the \"Académie\".", "content": "Prizes  Grants  Medals", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres () is a French learned society devoted to the humanities, founded in February 1663 as one of the five academies of the Institut de France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975380}
{"src_title": "E. J. Bellocq", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bellocq was born into a wealthy family of French créole origins in the French Quarter of New Orleans. He became known locally as an amateur photographer before setting himself up as a professional, making his living mostly by taking photographic records of landmarks and of ships and machinery for local companies. However, he also took personal photographs of the hidden side of local life, notably the opium dens in Chinatown and the prostitutes of Storyville. These were only known to a small number of his acquaintances. He had been something of a dandy in his early days, while he lived alone in the latter part of his life and acquired a reputation for eccentricity and unfriendliness. According to acquaintances from that period, he showed little interest in anything other than photography.  Bellocq died in 1949, and was buried in Saint Louis Cemetery No. 3 in New Orleans.  After his death, most of his negatives and prints were destroyed. However, the Storyville negatives were later found. After many years, they were purchased by a young photographer, Lee Friedlander. In 1970, a show of Friedlander's posthumous prints on gold tone printing out paper from Bellocq's 8\" x 10\" glass negatives were mounted by curator John Szarkowski at the Museum of Modern Art in Manhattan. A selection of the photographs were also published concurrently in the book, \"Storyville Portraits\". These photographs were immediately acclaimed for their unique poignancy and beauty. A more extensive collection of Friedlander's prints, entitled \"Bellocq: Photographs from Storyville\", was published with an introduction by Susan Sontag in 1996.  In recent times, a significant number of prints from Bellocq's own studio have come to light. They are typical professional photographs of the day, such as portraits, copy work for the Louisiana State Museum, and local views, yet few if any Storyville portraits printed by Bellocq's hand exist. A number of early posthumous prints from Bellocq's negatives by photographer Dan Leyrer have also surfaced.  The E. J. Bellocq Gallery of Photography at Louisiana Tech University is named in his honor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Storyville photographs.", "content": "All the photographs are portraits of women. Some are nude, some dressed, others posed as if acting a mysterious narrative. Many of the negatives were badly damaged, in part deliberately, which encouraged speculation. Many of the faces had been scraped out; whether this was done by Bellocq, his Jesuit priest brother who inherited them after E. J.'s death or someone else is unknown. Bellocq is the most likely candidate, since the damage was done while the emulsion was still wet. In a few photographs the women wore masks.  Some prints made by Bellocq have since surfaced. These are far more conventional than the full-negative prints made by Friedlander.  The Storyville photographs not only serve as a record of the prostitutes, but also the interiors of the businesses that housed them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bellocq in literature and film.", "content": "The mystique about Bellocq has inspired several fictional versions of his life, notably Louis Malle's 1978 film \"Pretty Baby\", in which Bellocq was played by Keith Carradine. He also appears in Michael Ondaatje's novel \"Coming Through Slaughter\" and is a protagonist in Peter Everett's novel \"Bellocq's Women\". These works take many liberties with the facts of Bellocq's life.  The photographs have inspired imaginative literature about the women in them. There are several collections of poems, notably Brooke Bergan's \"Storyville: A Hidden Mirror\" and Natasha Trethewey's \"Bellocq's Ophelia\".  The 1974 book \"Storyville, New Orleans: Being an Authentic, Illustrated Account of the Notorious Red-Light District\" by Al Rose gives an overview of the history of prostitution in New Orleans with many photographs by Bellocq.  In 1971, \"Storyville Portraits\" won a mention at the Rencontres d'Arles's Book Award, France.  The 1983 novel \"Fat Tuesday\" by R. Wright Campbell features a thinly-veiled depiction of Bellocq, a photographer named B.E. Locque.  Bellocq appears as a fictional character in David Fulmer's Storyville novels \"Chasing the Devil's Tail\" and \"Rampart Street.\" He is also a character in Madam: A Novel of New Orleans by Cari Lynn and Kellie Martin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernest Joseph Bellocq (1873–3 October 1949) was an American professional photographer who worked in New Orleans during the early 20th century. Bellocq is remembered for his haunting photographs of the prostitutes of Storyville, New Orleans' legalized red-light district. These have inspired novels, poems and films.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975381}
{"src_title": "Samarium–cobalt magnet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Attributes.", "content": "Extremely resistant to demagnetization  Good temperature stability (maximum use temperatures between and ; Curie temperatures from to  Expensive and subject to price fluctuations (cobalt is market price sensitive)  Samarium–cobalt magnets have a strong resistance to corrosion and oxidation resistance, usually do not need to be coated can be widely used in high temperature and poor working conditions.  They are brittle, and prone to cracking and chipping. Samarium–cobalt magnets have maximum energy products (BH) that range from 14 megagauss-oersteds (MG·Oe) to 33 MG·Oe, that is approx. 112 kJ/m to 264 kJ/m; their theoretical limit is 34 MG·Oe, about 272 kJ/m.  Sintered Samarium–cobalt magnets exhibit magnetic anisotropy, meaning they can only be magnetized in the axis of their magnetic orientation. This is done by aligning the crystal structure of the material during the manufacturing process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Series.", "content": "Samarium–cobalt magnets are available in two \"series\", namely SmCo magnets and SmCo magnets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Series 1:5.", "content": "These samarium–cobalt magnet alloys (generally written as SmCo, or SmCo Series 1:5) have one atom of rare earth samarium per five atoms of cobalt. By weight this magnet alloy will typically contain 36% samarium with the balance cobalt. The energy products of these samarium–cobalt alloys range from 16 MG·Oe to 25 MG·Oe, that is, approx. 128–200 kJ/m. These samarium–cobalt magnets generally have a reversible temperature coefficient of -0.05%/°C. Saturation magnetization can be achieved with a moderate magnetizing field. This series of magnet is easier to calibrate to a specific magnetic field than the SmCo 2:17 series magnets.  In the presence of a moderately strong magnetic field, unmagnetized magnets of this series will try to align their orientation axis to the magnetic field, thus becoming slightly magnetized. This can be an issue if postprocessing requires that the magnet be plated or coated. The slight field that the magnet picks up can attract debris during the plating or coating process, causing coating failure or a mechanically out-of-tolerance condition.  \"B\" drifts with temperature and it is one of the important characteristics of magnet performance. Some applications, such as inertial gyroscopes and travelling wave tubes (TWTs), need to have constant field over a wide temperature range. The reversible temperature coefficient (RTC) of \"B\" is defined as  To address these requirements, temperature compensated magnets were developed in the late 1970s. For conventional SmCo magnets, \"B\" decreases as temperature increases. Conversely, for GdCo magnets, \"B\" increases as temperature increases within certain temperature ranges. By combining samarium and gadolinium in the alloy, the temperature coefficient can be reduced to nearly zero.  SmCo magnets have a very high coercivity (coercive force); that is, they are not easily demagnetized. They are fabricated by packing wide-grain lone-domain magnetic powders. All of the magnetic domains are aligned with the easy axis direction. In this case, all of the domain walls are at 180 degrees. When there are no impurities, the reversal process of the bulk magnet is equivalent to lone-domain motes, where coherent rotation is the dominant mechanism. However, due to the imperfection of fabricating, impurities may be introduced in the magnets, which form nuclei. In this case, because the impurities may have lower anisotropy or misaligned easy axes, their directions of magnetization are easier to spin, which breaks the 180° domain wall configuration. In such materials, the coercivity is controlled by nucleation. To obtain much coercivity, impurity control is critical in the fabrication process.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Series 2:17.", "content": "These alloys (written as SmCo, or SmCo Series 2:17) are age-hardened with a composition of two atoms of rare-earth samarium per 13–17 atoms of transition metals (TM). The TM content is rich in cobalt, but contains other elements such as iron and copper. Other elements like zirconium, hafnium, and such may be added in small quantities to achieve better heat treatment response. By weight, the alloy will generally contain 25% of samarium. The maximum energy products of these alloys range from 20 to 32 MGOe, what is about 160-260 kJ/m. These alloys have the best reversible temperature coefficient of all rare-earth alloys, typically being -0.03%/°C. The \"second generation\" materials can also be used at higher temperatures.  In SmCo magnets, the coercivity mechanism is based on domain wall pinning. Impurities inside the magnets impede the domain wall motion and thereby resist the magnetization reversal process. To increase the coercivity, impurities are intentionally added during the fabrication process.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The alloys are typically machined in the unmagnetized state. Samarium–cobalt should be ground using a wet grinding process (water-based coolants) and a diamond grinding wheel. The same type of process is required if drilling holes or other features that are confined. The grinding waste produced must not be allowed to completely dry as samarium–cobalt has a low ignition point. A small spark, such as that produced with static electricity, can easily commence combustion. The resulting fire produced can be extremely hot and difficult to control.  The reduction/melt method and reduction/diffusion method are used to manufacture samarium–cobalt magnets. The reduction/melt method will be described since it is used for both SmCo and SmCo production. The raw materials are melted in an induction furnace filled with argon gas. The mixture is cast into a mold and cooled with water to form an ingot. The ingot is pulverized and the particles are further milled to further reduce the particle size. The resulting powder is pressed in a die of desired shape, in a magnetic field to orient the magnetic field of the particles. Sintering is applied at a temperature of 1100 ̊C–1250 ̊C, followed by solution treatment at 1100 ̊C–1200 ̊C and tempering is finally performed on the magnet at about 700 ̊C–900 ̊C. It then is ground and further magnetized to increase its magnetic properties. The finished product is tested, inspected and packed.  Samarium can be substituted by a portion of other rare earth elements including praseodymium, cerium and gadolinium, and cobalt by a portion of other transition metals including iron, copper and zirconium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Fender used one of designer Bill Lawrence's Samarium Cobalt Noiseless series of electric guitar pickups in Fender's Vintage Hot Rod '57 Stratocaster. These pickups were used in American Deluxe Series Guitars and Basses from 2004 until early 2010.  In the mid-1980s some expensive headphones such as the Ross RE-278 used Samarium Cobalt \"Super Magnet\" transducers.  Other uses include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A samarium–cobalt (SmCo) magnet, a type of rare earth magnet, is a strong permanent magnet made of two basic elements samarium and cobalt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975382}
{"src_title": "Melnik, Bulgaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "According to archaeological evidence, the first to settle in the area were the Thracian tribe \"Medi\" to which the famous rebel Spartacus belonged. Centuries later, the presence of the Romans left the town one of its landmarks — the Ancient Roman bridge, which is still preserved. The Slavs who later came in these parts named the settlement \"Melnik\" after the sand formations surrounding it on all sides (the Bulgarian word мел \"mel\" means \"white clay, chalk\"). Melnik became a part of the First Bulgarian Empire under the rule of Khan Presian I (836-852) and prospered greatly in the period. Melnik became the capital of an independent feudal principality ruled by Despot Alexius Slav, a descendant of the Asen dynasty, in 1209, and passed through an economic and cultural upsurge during his reign. The town continued to flourish under Tsar Ivan Asen II because of the duty-free trade with Venetian-ruled Dubrovnik.  The Ottoman conquest of the Balkans in the 14th-15th century resulted in a long period of decline, but Melnik was once again a thriving town in the 17th and 18th century, the time of the Bulgarian National Revival, due to the tobacco and wine production, with wine being exported abroad, mainly to England and Austria. In that time Melnik was also a centre of craftsmanship, particularly church decoration and woodcarving. Many Bulgarian schools and churches were built in Melnik in that period.  Melnik was taken by the Imperial Russian Army during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, but was given back to the Ottoman Empire according to the Treaty of Berlin. The town was the centre of a \"kaza\" in the Sanjak of Siroz as \"Menlik\" (or, \"Meleniko\") until 1912. During the First Balkan War, Melnik was ultimately liberated and became once again part of Bulgaria. In the late 18th century, the town had 1300 houses, seventy churches and a population of some 20,000 people, but a fire largely destroyed it. Since then it has been restored and rebuilt, and still, the current population of 400 is nowhere near the one from the beginning of the 20th century, when it primarily consisted of Greeks, but also of Bulgarians, Turks, Vlachs and Romani. Melnik is the subject of Yuri Trifonov's short story \"The Smallest Town on Earth\" (1967). According to the statistics of Vasil Kanchov (\"Macedonia, Ethnography and Statistics\"), Melnik used to have 2.650 Greek Christian, 950 Turkish, 500 Bulgarian Christian, 200 Romani and 30 Vlach inhabitants in 1900.  At the end of the Second Balkan War in 1913, the Greeks left Melnik and moved to Greece by the express orders of the Greek government; the order being given when it was known that Melnik was to remain Bulgarian. According to Bulgarian claims submitted to the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, some Bulgarian shops and houses were looted by retreating Greeks. The Greek population moved primarily to Sidirokastro and fewer settled in Serres and Thessaloniki.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Melnik has a Mediterranean climate with hot summers and cool winters.  Climate table:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sights and winemaking.", "content": "The unique architecture of Melnik and the nearby Rozhen Monastery (located 6 km northeast of Melnik) make it a popular tourist destination. In addition, the town has been famous for producing strong wine since at least 1346. The local wine from the varietal Broad Leave Melnik Vine was reportedly a favourite of Winston Churchill's. Lately, the area of Melnik is enjoying a revival of vine growing and wine making. Several new, modern wineries have been built and operate (Villa Melnik Winery, Sintica Winery, Orbelus, etc.), producing high quality wine from local and international varieties.  Interesting architectural landmarks include the Byzantine House, one of the oldest civilian buildings in the Balkans (built probably in the 12th or 13th century as a Bulgarian fortress), the Kordopulov House (named after the merchant Manolis Kordopulou to whom it once belonged), which also has one of the largest wine cellars in Melnik, the Pashov House (1815), which houses the Historical Museum of Melnik and the Pasha's House, built by Ibrahim Bey, one of the richest beys in the region, during Ottoman rule. Some of the old churches in the town worth visiting are St Nicholas (built in the 13th century), SS Peter and Paul (1840), St Nicholas the Thaumaturge (1756) and St Anthony.  The area around Melnik is strikingly eroded, particularly the enormous area of cliff that serves as a backdrop to the town. This area, covering some 17 km2 near Melnik, Kurlanovo and Rozhen, has been called the Melnik Earth Pyramids or Melnik Badlands. The hills in this area can rise up to high. The unique formations, which can resemble giant mushrooms, ancient towers, and obelisks, were formed when heavy rain eroded the sand and clay the hills are composed of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Melnik Ridge and its summit Melnik Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica are named for Melnik.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Melnik (,, \"Meleniko\") is a town in Blagoevgrad Province, Southwestern Bulgaria, in the Southwestern Pirin Mountains, about 440 m above sea level. The town is an architectural reserve and 96 of its buildings are cultural monuments. With a population of 385, it is the smallest town in Bulgaria, retaining its town status today for historical reasons. It is situated on the foothills of the Pirin mountain range and is overlooked by the Melnik Earth Pyramids.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975383}
{"src_title": "Elle (magazine)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Elle was founded in Paris as an immediate aftermath of World War II and first sold as a supplement to France-Soir, edited at the time by Pierre Lazareff. Hélène Gordon-Lazareff, \"Elle\"'s pioneering founder, returned to Paris from New York City to create a unique publication that grappled with the many forces shaping the lives of women in France in 1945. Women won the right to vote in 1944, and Elle dived immediately into long-form \"newspaper-like\" features on women's role in national politics and the growing feminist movement.  Its 100th issue, published on 14 October 1947, featured the work of Christian Dior just eight months after his debut show. Likewise, Brigitte Bardot graced her first Elle cover at age 17, on 7 January 1952, months before her screen debut in \"Manina, the Girl in the Bikini\". By the 1960s, \"Elle\" had a readership of 800,000 across France and was said to \"not so much reflect fashion as decree it.\" This dominance was reflected in the famous slogan: \"Si elle lit, elle lit Elle (If she reads, she reads Elle)\".  Lagardère Group subsidiary Hachette Filipacchi Médias began pushing \"Elle\" outside of Europe in 1969, launching its Japanese publication. In 1985, Elle launched in Britain and the United States. The Chinese version of the magazine was first published in 1988. It was the first four-color fashion magazine offered in China. The magazine was used as an informational and educational tool for opening of the Chinese textile market. By 1991, the magazine's sales were in decline in the U.S.  In 1989, Hachette Filipacchi Media U.S. launched the title \"Elle Decor\", focusing on home decor. Elle.com was launched in 2007.  In 2011, The Hearst Corporation reached a €651M deal with Lagardére to purchase the rights to publish \"Elle\" Magazine in fifteen countries including the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, Russia and Ukraine. Lagardére, which struggled in the international market in the 2000s, retained the rights to the French edition and would collect royalties from the international editions.  Elle Brazil was the first commercial magazine in the world to have a transgender model on its cover, with Lea T. in December, 2011. The Brazilian edition had also discovered transgender model Valentina Sampaio and had put her on the cover before French Vogue.\"Elle\" printed special collectors’ covers for their September 2016 issue, and one of them featured Hari Nef, which was the first time an openly transgender woman had been on the cover of a major commercial British magazine.  In 2019, Lagardère sold \"Elle\" France to Czech Media Invest, parent of Czech News Center. Lagardère continues to own the Elle brand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable editors-in-chief.", "content": "\"Elle\" editors have included Jean-Dominique Bauby, who became known for writing a book after suffering almost total paralysis and Robbie Myers. In September 2017, it was announced that Roberta Myers was stepping down from the role of editor-in-chief, position she held since 2000, stating through a memo to the staff that \"I want to spend the next seasons as available to my children as I can be, and so I take my leave of Elle now\". A day later of the announcement, it was reported that Nina Garcia, creative director of \"Marie Claire\" was appointed as the new editor-in-chief effective 18 September. Patricia Wang was the first editor of \"Elle\" China.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "\"Elle\" is the world's largest fashion magazine, with 46 international editions in over 60 countries. This includes region-specific editions such as \"Elle\" Hong Kong and \"Elle\" Quebec which are published in addition to \"Elle\" China and \"Elle\" Canada respectively. In Belgium, \"Elle\" is published as two magazines for the Flanders and Wallonia regions, while \"Elle\" Middle East is targeted at several countries in the region. Technologically speaking, the \"Elle\" brand is a global network encompassing over 33 websites. Subscriptions account for 73 percent of readers. There are 33 \"Elle\" websites globally, which collectively attract over 25 million unique visitors and 370 million page views per month. The magazine reaches over 69 million readers. The vast majority (82 percent) of \"Elle\"'s audience are women between the ages of 18 and 49. Its readers have a median age of 34.7 years. Forty percent of the readers are single, and the median household income is $69,973. \"Our readers are young enough to think about life as an adventure and old enough to have the means to live it\", said Roberta Myers, editor in chief.  The first international edition of \"Elle\" was launched in Japan in 1969. Its U.S. and UK editions were launched in 1985. Spain followed in 1986 with Italy and Hong Kong editions launching in 1987. In 1988, the magazine was launched in Germany, Brazil, China, Sweden, Greece and Portugal. The next year, the Netherlands and Quebec joined the international \"Elle\" community. Australia and Taiwan versions were launched in 1990, Argentina in 1994, and a Russian edition, published monthly, launched in 1996.  \"Elle\" as a brand is owned by the Lagardère Group of France. It is published in France by Czech Media Invest, in the U.S. and the UK by Hearst Magazines, in Canada by TVA Group, in Brazil by Grupo Editora Abril, in Mexico by Grupo Expansión, in Argentina by Grupo Clarín, in Singapore by Mediacorp, in Serbia/Croatia by Adria Media, in Turkey by Doğan Burda Magazine, in Germany by Hubert Burda Media, and in Romania by Ringier. In China, the publisher is Shanghai Translation Publishing House. In India it is published by Ogaan Publications Pvt. Ltd. As an international magazine, \"Elle\" has its headquarters in Paris as well as licensed publishers in New York City, London, Toronto, Mexico City, South Africa, Istanbul, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Brussels, Lisbon, Tokyo, Warsaw, Belgrade, Oslo, Helsinki, Bucharest, Athens, Delhi, Madrid, Milan, Munich, Jakarta, Kiev, Kuala Lumpur, and other cities.  In December 2013, \"Elle\" hired Randy Minor as design director. In November 2016, \"Elle Canada\" promoted Vanessa Craft to Editor in Chief, making her the first black woman at the helm of an \"Elle\" magazine globally.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elle (stylized ELLE) is a worldwide lifestyle magazine of French origin that focuses on fashion, beauty, health and entertainment. It was founded in 1945 by Hélène Gordon-Lazareff and her husband, the writer. The title means \"she\" or \"her\" in French.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975384}
{"src_title": "Battle of Gitschin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Events.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Austrian Deployment.", "content": "After being beaten at Münchengrätz, Iser army under Clam-Gallas redeployed at Jičín. Unaware that after the Battle of Skalitz Benedek had halted North Army's advance towards Jičín, where under the Austrian battle plan the conjunction of both armies would have taken place in order to fall upon one of the Prussian main armies to beat them in detail, Clam-Gallas was under the impression that he would be directly supported by Northern army's advance units (III Corps), and decided to give battle. Clam-Gallas' battle line consisted out of Abele's brigade at the Privysin heights on the left, supported by Ringelsheim's brigade blocking the road from Münchengrätz at Lochov, the center at Brada Hill was held by Poschacher's brigade, supported by Leiningen's, and the town of Eisenstadtl on the right was to be held by Piret's brigade and the 1st Light Cavalry Division. The position between Poschacher and Piret was to be held by the Saxon army, which after taken a longer southern route from Münchengrätz had the previous night camped some 10 kilometers south of their designated position in the battle line, leaving a vulnerable gap between the Austrian center and right. The gap was temporarily filled by a 56 gun Austrian grand battery.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prussian attack on Jičín.", "content": "On June 29, 1866 after having won at Münchengrätz, the Prussian Elbe army and 1st army each sent an infantry division towards Jičín. From the north, the Prussian 5th Division, under Wilhelm von Tümpling, advanced towards Jičín. After using his artillery batteries to soften up the Austrian position Tümpling attacked the center and right. The cannon fire startled the Saxons, whose advance brigade was still four kilometers from their designated position in the battle line. By 6:00 PM Poschacher's brigade was able to hold off attacks on their hill position by the Prussian 9th Brigade, and Abele had been able to stop the Prussian 10th Brigade's attack on the Privysin heights. At 6:00 PM advancing from the west, advance units from the Prussian 3rd Division, part of Elbe army and led by August von Werder, attacked Ringelsheim but were held off.  The next Prussian attack was directed at the center-right position at the hamlet of Zames where they encountered the Veronese 45th regiment of Piret's brigade, which they easily drove off. 9th Brigade was able to occupy the hamlet in the center of the Austrian position with two battalions. Neither Piret's brigade, nor Leiningen's reserve, were sent in to plug the hole in the Austrian center, leaving the Prussians in control of the center of the Austrian line. The feeble counterattacks by hussars from 1st Light Cavalry Division were easily held off by the Prussians. The Austrian artillery, bombarding the hamlet, then set Zames aflame, forcing the Prussians holding the hamlet to attack forward towards Dilec. The advancing Prussians were then able to beat the Saxons to Dilec and occupied the town at 7:30 PM. To plug this hole and to aid the faltering Saxons, Piret decided to attack the Prussians on his left but Piret was easily held off by the Prussians, reinforced by Tümpling's reserve battalion, and their use of the superior Dreyse needle gun to smash the Austrian storm columns, which then collapsed and fled. Simultaneously Werder's attack towards Lochov, in order to outflank Ringelsheim, caused the collapse of the Austrian left as well, and the Prussians were able to push Abele and Ringelsheim back to Jičín, which they eventually occupied at 10:30 PM.  At 8:00 PM the Austrian staff received Benedek's new orders, which had been sent by horseback, announcing North Army's about face and his order for Iser army to join him. Given these orders Prince Albert of Saxony despite pleadings of the Austrians to use his battle fresh troops to counterattack the Prussians, decided to withdraw his five brigades from the field, causing the Austrians to start a disorganized retreat as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Result.", "content": "Although occupying a strong position Iser Army was beaten by two Prussian divisions due to strategic and tactical blunders. Tardy staff work at main headquarters caused Clam-Gallas to believe he would be supported by the Austrian main army, as was originally planned, but which made him fight the battle unsupported. The Saxon army camping some ten kilometers south of their designed position in the Austrian line, made them late and caused a hole in the battle line, which the Prussians exploited to their fullest. Lastly the superior Dreyse needle gun, gave the Prussians a huge tactical advantage over the Austrian storm tactics.  After Münchengratz the Prussian commanders however neglected to concentrate their hungry and tired Elbe Army and 1st Army rapidly enough to encircle and destroy Iser Army, in effect fighting with only two divisions from two separate armies, thus enabling Clam-Gallas to retreat towards Benedek.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Gitschin or Jičín () was a battle of the Austro-Prussian War on 29 June 1866, ending with a Prussian victory over the Austrian forces. There is a memorial there today at Jičín in the Czech Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975385}
{"src_title": "Abies amabilis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a large evergreen coniferous tree growing to, exceptionally tall, and with a trunk diameter of up to, exceptionally. The bark on younger trees is light grey, thin and covered with resin blisters. On older trees, it darkens and develops scales and furrows. The leaves are needle-like, flattened, long and wide by thick, matte dark green above, and with two white bands of stomata below, and slightly notched at the tip. The leaf arrangement is spiral on the shoot, but with each leaf variably twisted at the base so they lie flat to either side of and above the shoot, with none below the shoot. The shoots are orange-red with dense velvety pubescence. The cones are long and broad, dark purple before maturity; the scale bracts are short, and hidden in the closed cone. The winged seeds are released when the cones disintegrate at maturity about 6–7 months after pollination.  Pacific silver fir is very closely related to Maries' fir \"A. mariesii\" from Japan, which is distinguished by its slightly shorter leaves——and smaller cones, which are long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The wood is soft and not very strong; it is used for paper making, packing crates and other cheap construction work. The foliage has an attractive scent and is sometimes used for Christmas decoration, including Christmas trees.  It is also planted as an ornamental tree in large parks, though its requirement for cool, humid summers limits the areas where it grows well; successful growth away from its native range is restricted to areas like western Scotland and southern New Zealand.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abies amabilis, commonly known as the Pacific silver fir, is a fir native to the Pacific Northwest of North America, occurring in the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Cascade Range from the extreme southeast of Alaska, through western British Columbia, Washington and Oregon, to the extreme northwest of California. It is also commonly referred to as the white fir, red fir, lovely fir, Amabilis fir, Cascades fir, or silver fir. It grows from sea level to in the north of the range, and in the south of the range, always in temperate rain forest with relatively high precipitation and cool, humid summers. Common associate trees are western hemlock in northern ranges, Douglas fir in central areas, and in the extreme southern area of its range, California buckeye.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975386}
{"src_title": "Agave amica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The common name derives from the Latin \"tuberosa\" through French \"tubéreuse\", meaning swollen or tuberous in reference to its root system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The tuberose is herbaceous, growing from underground tubers or tuberous roots. It produces offsets. The leaves are a dull green and about long and up to wide at the base. They are slightly succulent. The inflorescence is a spike, reaching up to high, with pure white waxy flowers. The flowers are tubular, with a tube up to long, separating into six flaring segments (tepals) at the end, and are strongly fragrant. There are six stamens, inserted into the tube of the flower, and a three-part stigma.  The double-flowered cultivar 'The Pearl' has broader and darker leaves, and shorter flower spikes, usually reaching only. Orange-flowered forms of the species have been reported.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The species was first described for science by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, as \"Polianthes tuberosa\". In 1790, Friedrich Kasimir Medikus moved the species to the genus \"Tuberosa\" as \"Tuberosa amica\". Both morphological and molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that \"Polianthes\" is embedded within the larger genus \"Agave\", and the genus is now included in a broadly circumscribed \"Agave\". Two incorrect attempts were made name the species when transferred to \"Agave\". In 1999, Joachim Thiede and Urs Eggli published the name \"\"Agave tuberosa\"\". However, Philip Miller had published this name in 1768, for the species now called \"Furcraea tuberosa\", so it cannot be used again, and Thiede and Eggli's name is illegitimate. In 2001, Thiede and Eggli published a replacement name (\"nomen novum\"), \"\"Agave polianthes\"\". However, since Medikus's \"Tuberosa amica\" is considered to be a synonym of \"Polianthes tuberosa\", its epithet is the second oldest and according to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants should be used when the older epithet is unavailable. Hence Thiede and Eggli's second name is superfluous, and the correct name for the species within \"Agave\" is \"Agave amica\", as was explained by Thiede and Rafaël Govaerts when they published this combination in 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The tuberose is believed to be native to central and southern Mexico. It is no longer found in the wild, probably as a result of being domesticated by the Aztecs. It is currently grown in many tropical and temperate countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In perfumery.", "content": "The overwhelming fragrance of the tuberose has been distilled for use in perfumery since the 17th century, when the flower was first transported to Europe. French Queen Marie Antoinette used a perfume called \"Sillage de la Reine\", also called \"Parfum de Trianon\", containing tuberose, orange blossom, sandalwood, jasmine, iris and cedar. It remains a popular floral note for perfumes, either in stand-alone Tuberose fragrances or mixed floral scents, but it generally must be used in moderation because the essence is overpowering and can become sickly to the wearer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Others.", "content": "In India and Bangladesh they are widely used in making flower garlands which are offered to the gods or used as wedding ornaments.  While once associated with funerals, it is now used in floral arrangements for other occasions.  In Indonesia, tuberose flowers are also used in cooking.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Tuberoses can be grown outdoors in hardiness zones 8-10, where they will survive in-ground if the temperatures do not drop any lower than 20° Fahrenheit, -6.7° Celsius. In colder zones, tuberoses are grown as summer annuals, in pots or mixed-flower borders where they can be enjoyed for their scent. To flower the plants require around 4 months of warm temperatures from the time the rhizome is planted. Gardeners usually start the rhizomes in pots in greenhouses beginning in late-winter or early spring, moving them outdoors in late spring once frost danger has passed. If they are started directly in the ground at this time, they may not bloom until September, greatly reducing the period in which their blooms may be enjoyed. Once the foliage begins to yellow in October, the leaves should be clipped, the rhizomes dug and stored in a cool, dry and dark place for the winter.  The most popular variety is a double-flowered cultivar known as 'The Pearl' that grows to tall and features pale pink buds opening to cream. The more common variety is called 'Mexican Single', which, although not as decorative as 'The Pearl', makes for a longer lasting cut flower.  Tuberoses were especially beloved by Louis XIV of France, who had them planted in the hundreds in the flower beds of the Grand Trianon at Versailles so that the scent was overpowering. They were grown in clay pots and planted directly in the ground; to keep the perfume consistently strong new specimens were rotated in, sometimes daily.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agave amica, formerly Polianthes tuberosa, the tuberose, is a perennial plant in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Agavoideae, extracts of which are used as a note in perfumery. Now widely grown as an ornamental plant, the species was originally native to Mexico.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975387}
{"src_title": "Boerboel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Breed history.", "content": "The word \"Boerboel\" derives from \"boer\", Afrikaans/Dutch for farmer, and \"boel\", old Afrikaans/Dutch for dog. Boerboel, therefore, translates as either \"farmer's dog\" or \"Boer's dog\" and should be pronounced somewhat like \"boo-er-bool.\" The Boerboel is the only South African dog breed created to defend the homestead.  Despite the Boerboel's long breeding history, there is great uncertainty as to how many and which breeds were used to create it. It is generally believed that the breed was created from interbreeding native African landrace dogs, such as the Africanis, with breeds brought into South Africa by Dutch, French, and British settlers.  The most likely origins date back to Jan van Riebeeck's arrival to the Cape in 1652, who brought with him a \"Bullenbijter\", which is Dutch slang for Bulldog. Other original and later European settlers brought large, strong dogs that almost certainly bred with the indigenous domestic dog breeds of South Africa.  In the early 1860s, when military posts were scattered across the South African frontier, bloodhounds, staghounds, greyhounds, bulldogs, terriers, mastiffs, pointers, and occasionally foxhounds were to be found at each post. The Boer dog was a cross between these breeds. It was generally in the vicinity of military posts where the best Boer dogs were to be found. In addition, the best dogs for hunting leopards and baboons were a cross between a mastiff and a bulldog.  Later, in 1928, the diamond mining company De Beers imported Bullmastiffs to South Africa to guard the mines. This breed was also crossbred with Boerboels in the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern Boerboels.", "content": "The Boerboel was first introduced to purebred enthusiasts throughout the world, including the United States, by the American anthropologist Dr. Carl Semencic, first in an article in Dog World Magazine and later in his book entitled \"Gladiator Dogs\" which was first published by T.F.H. Publications in 1998 and later republished by another publisher in 2013. Semencic credits his early familiarity with the breed to his own travels to South Africa, but especially to his frequent correspondence with the head of the first South African Boerboel club, one Mr. Kobus Rust. Later, the Boerboel Breeders Association was established in 1983 in the Senekal district of the Free State with the sole objective of ennobling and promoting the Boerboel as a unique South African dog breed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Boerboel is a large dog, with a strong bone structure and well developed muscles. The head appears blocky, but not overdone, with a short length between the stop and nose. It should look impressive, carrying himself with confidence and powerful movement, which should be buoyant, and unencumbered, despite its size. It should be symmetrical and balanced, following the desired proportions for the breed. Males should be markedly bigger than females, there is a distinct sexual dimorphism, with the female less prominently developed physically. There is also a divergence of standards. The Kennel Union of South Africa does not accept the black coat but SABBS does, so a buyer needs to decide what standard to follow, as a dog that has a black coat, or is the descendant of a dog with a black coat, cannot be registered with AKC, UKC or BI.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coat.", "content": "The Boerboel is a below average shedder and easy to groom. The occasional brushing and a monthly bath and nail trim is all that is needed. The breed has an outer coat that is normally coarse and straight, and an undercoat that is soft and dense.  Its coat is short and sleek with dense hair coverage. The recognised colours are brindle, fawn, brown and Black. Many dogs have a black mask around their mouth that sometimes extends to their eyes and ears.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "Boerboels are an intelligent and energetic breed. They are loyal, great with children, and tend to be protective of their family and territory.  They are quite charming when not being lazy, and will not hesitate to defend their loved ones to the death.  They are often called \"Velcro\" dogs, always wanting to be with their owners, and so, are not prone to wandering off on their own.  The Boerboel also requires training and firm handling from an early age.  The protective character of the Boerboel is still evident and is much sought after, as is the calm, stable, and confident composure of the breed. The dogs are obedient and intelligent and have strong territorial instincts. The Boerboel remains the guarding breed of choice amongst current day farmers and is very popular for the same reason in urban communities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "Boerboels are generally known for their good health. However, Boerboels can suffer from hip or elbow dysplasia, vaginal hyperplasia, ectropion, and entropion. Recently, juvenile epilepsy (with attacks brought on by metabolic changes or stress) has appeared in the boerboel breed. A boerboel's behavior and comportment may change over time. The average life expectancy is ten to twelve years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "A Boerboel requires a significant commitment in time and energy as they need to be trained and properly socialized in order to be happy, well-adjusted family members.  These dogs thrive under positive reinforcement training techniques and require human companionship and structure. If left isolated, Boerboels will digress and may become destructive. Forcefully controlling the dog is detrimental to their psychological health and could cause potential behavioral backlash in the future. These dogs benefit from an owner who respects their size and strength but is not fearful of it.  Although more suited to large yards, Boerboels are adaptable as long as they receive regular exercise and a lot of attention but can struggle with living in small environments. Whatever the amount of space available, they need to have plenty of physical and mental exercise. The Boerboel can be exercised in a large, securely enclosed yard, but at a minimum this type of dog needs to be taken on a long walk every day. According to the SABBS it is the owner's responsibility to keep the dog safe, properly controlled and supervised in public, or when around children or people it is not familiar with. It is also important to note that the boerboel was bred to tackle large animals like lions and baboons, so strict training should be incorporated to avoid aggression", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restrictions.", "content": "In 2002, Romania prohibited the import of the Boerboel, and restricted ownership to those with a court order allowing them to own the dog.  In 2010, the Boerboel was banned in Denmark.  In 2011, Russia designated the Boerboel an \"especially dangerous breed,\" subject to mandatory registration and certification.  Ukraine has classified the Boerboel as a dangerous dog, subject to mandatory microchipping, muzzle, and civil liability insurance.  The Boerboel is also banned or prohibited in:  Importation of the Boerboel is illegal/banned in:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Boerboel, is a large, mastiff-type dog breed from South Africa that is bred for the purpose of guarding the homestead and working the farm. They are one of the most powerful dog breeds in the world and have an estimated bite force around 800-850 PSI.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975388}
{"src_title": "Raúl Albiol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Valencia.", "content": "Born in Vilamarxant, Valencian Community, Albiol started playing football with two modest clubs in his native region, moving to local giants Valencia CF before celebrating his 10th birthday. He made his first-team debut on 24 September 2003 in a UEFA Cup first-round tie against AIK Fotboll, at 18 years and 20 days, but spent the first year still registered with the B-side.  In August 2004, whilst travelling to sign a deal to join Getafe CF on loan, Albiol was involved in a serious car accident, being put in intensive care. He managed to recover completely and, after reappearing in January, played a very important part in the Madrid side surviving the relegation battle: he made his La Liga debut on 15 January 2005 in a 1–1 home draw with Atlético Madrid, and scored against another club from the capital, Real Madrid, in a 2–1 home triumph two months later.  Albiol returned the following season to the Mestalla Stadium, and quickly established himself as first-choice due to his versatility. In the opening game of the 2006–07's league campaign he scored the winner (his only goal of the season) against Real Betis in a 2–1 home win. He also netted from long distance against Olympiacos F.C. on 12 September 2006, in that year's UEFA Champions League, which Valencia won 4–2 away; during his four-season spell with the first team, his smallest output consisted of 29 games, and he helped the \"Che\" to the 2007–08 edition of the Copa del Rey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Real Madrid.", "content": "On 25 June 2009, Albiol joined Real Madrid for a fee thought to be in the region of €15 million, becoming the first Spanish player signed by Florentino Pérez upon his return to the presidency. On 2 July, he was officially presented at the Santiago Bernabéu, receiving the number 18 jersey from Rubén de la Red who was absent for the season due to unresolved heart problems.  Albiol scored his first goal for the \"Merengues\" on 8 December 2009, in a 3–1 Champions League win at Olympique de Marseille. He was an undisputed starter during the league campaign, mainly due to Pepe's serious knee injury.  In 2010–11, Albiol was relegated to the bench as Real Madrid brought in another player for his position, Ricardo Carvalho (a compatriot of newly appointed manager José Mourinho), only appearing in the league through injury or suspension to teammates (Pepe again missed several matches due to physical problems). He did start, however, in the club's domestic cup campaign, helping it reach the final. On 26 January 2011, in the semi-final first leg against Sevilla FC (1–0 away win), he cleared a Luís Fabiano shot just before it crossed the goal line; on 16 April, he was sent off for fouling former Valencia teammate David Villa inside the box during \"El Clásico\", which resulted in the first goal in a 1–1 home draw, going on to miss the Spanish Cup final four days later – through suspension – a 1–0 win against the same opponent.  On 6 August 2012, Albiol renewed his contract with Real Madrid until June 2017. On 27 November, in his first game as team captain, at home against CD Alcoyano for the Spanish Cup, he had to be stretchered off after only one minute, being sidelined for approximately one month with an ankle injury.  Albiol scored his second official goal for Real Madrid on 8 May 2013, heading from a corner kick for his team's first in an eventual 6–2 home win against Málaga CF.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Napoli.", "content": "On 21 July 2013, Albiol was sold to S.S.C. Napoli in Italy for a reported €12 million, signing a four-year contract with the Rafael Benítez-led team. He made his Serie A debut on 25 August, in a 3–0 home win over Bologna FC 1909.  Albiol scored his first goal for his new team on 25 January 2014, an 88th-minute equaliser in a 1–1 home draw against A.C. ChievoVerona. On 3 May, he played the entire final of the Coppa Italia, helping to a 3–1 success over ACF Fiorentina.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Villarreal.", "content": "On 4 July 2019, the 33-year-old Albiol returned to Spain and agreed to a three-year deal at Villarreal CF. He made his debut on 17 August, in a 4–4 home draw to Granada CF.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "After having represented Spain at under-21 level, Albiol first appeared for the senior squad on 13 October 2007 in an UEFA Euro 2008 qualifier against Denmark, a 3–1 away win. In the competition's final stages, he appeared twice for the eventual continental champions, against Sweden (subbing in for the injured Carles Puyol) and Greece.  New national team coach Vicente del Bosque included Albiol in the squad for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup in South Africa. He started in Spain's first game, partnering Puyol in central defence ahead of Valencia teammate Carlos Marchena and helping defeat New Zealand 5–0.  Albiol was picked for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, but did not leave the bench for the eventual World champions after having suffered an injury in training. Again as an unused player, he was also in the squad for the Euro 2012 tournament in Poland and Ukraine, which also ended in the conquest of the trophy.  Albiol was named in Spain's 30-man provisional squad for the 2014 World Cup, and was also included in the final list for the tournament. He made his debut in a major finals in the last group match against Australia with the Spanish already eliminated, playing the whole 90 minutes alongside Sergio Ramos in central defence in a 3–0 win.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Albiol's nickname is \"\"El Chori\"\". His older brother, Miguel, was also a footballer. A midfielder, he was also groomed at Valencia, playing one league match with the first team, but mainly represented Rayo Vallecano. His father, also named Miguel, played lower league football mostly with Benidorm CF, and appeared in two Segunda División games for CE Sabadell FC in 1979–80; the youngest sibling, Brian, was named after Brian Laudrup, whom Raúl admired on account of his success with the Danish national team.  Albiol fathered two daughters with his wife Alicia. In 2008, with Guillermo Franco and Marcos Senna, he founded Evangélico FC, an organisation consisting of 140 athletes and 16 coaches which sought to promote Christian values among young athletes in Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Valencia  Real Madrid  Napoli", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Spain", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Raúl Albiol Tortajada (, ; born 4 September 1985) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays for Villarreal and the Spain national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975389}
{"src_title": "Supraventricular tachycardia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Signs and symptoms can arise suddenly and may resolve without treatment. Stress, exercise, and emotion can all result in a normal or physiological increase in heart rate, but can also, more rarely, precipitate SVT. Episodes can last from a few minutes to one or two days, sometimes persisting until treated. The rapid heart rate reduces the opportunity for the \"pump\" to fill between beats decreasing cardiac output and as a consequence blood pressure. The following symptoms are typical with a rate of 150–270 or more beats per minute:  For infants and toddlers, symptoms of heart arrhythmias such as SVT are more difficult to assess because of limited ability to communicate. Caregivers should watch for lack of interest in feeding, shallow breathing, and lethargy. These symptoms may be subtle and may be accompanied by vomiting and/or a decrease in responsiveness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pathophysiology.", "content": "The main pumping chamber, the ventricle, is protected (to a certain extent) against excessively high rates arising from the supraventricular areas by a \"gating mechanism\" at the atrioventricular node, which allows only a proportion of the fast impulses to pass through to the ventricles. In Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, a \"bypass tract\" avoids this node and its protection and the fast rate may be directly transmitted to the ventricles. This situation has characteristic findings on ECG.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Subtypes of SVT can usually be distinguished by their electrocardiogram (ECG) characteristics  Most have a narrow QRS complex, although, occasionally, electrical conduction abnormalities may produce a wide QRS complex that may mimic ventricular tachycardia (VT). In the clinical setting, the distinction between narrow and wide complex tachycardia (supraventricular vs. ventricular) is fundamental since they are treated differently. In addition, ventricular tachycardia can quickly degenerate to ventricular fibrillation and death and merits different consideration. In the less common situation in which a wide-complex tachycardia may actually be supraventricular, a number of algorithms have been devised to assist in distinguishing between them. In general, a history of structural heart disease markedly increases the likelihood that the tachycardia is ventricular in origin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The following types of supraventricular tachycardias are more precisely classified by their specific site of origin. While each belongs to the broad classification of SVT, the specific term/diagnosis is preferred when possible:  Sinoatrial origin: Atrial origin:  Atrioventricular origin (junctional tachycardia):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prevention.", "content": "Once an acute arrhythmia has been terminated, ongoing treatment may be indicated to prevent recurrence. However, those that have an isolated episode, or infrequent and minimally symptomatic episodes, usually do not warrant any treatment other than observation.  In general, patients with more frequent or disabling symptoms warrant some form of prevention. A variety of drugs including simple AV nodal blocking agents such as beta-blockers and verapamil, as well as anti-arrhythmics may be used, usually with good effect, although the risks of these therapies need to be weighed against potential benefits.  Radiofrequency ablation has revolutionized the treatment of tachycardia caused by a re-entrant pathway. This is a low-risk procedure that uses a catheter inside the heart to deliver radio frequency energy to locate and destroy the abnormal electrical pathways. Ablation has been shown to be highly effective: around 90% in the case of AVNRT. Similar high rates of success are achieved with AVRT and typical atrial flutter.  Cryoablation is a newer treatment for SVT involving the AV node directly. SVT involving the AV node is often a contraindication for using radiofrequency ablation due to the small (1%) incidence of injuring the AV node, requiring a permanent pacemaker. Cryoablation uses a catheter supercooled by nitrous oxide gas freezing the tissue to −10 °C (+14.0 °F). This provides the same result as radiofrequency ablation but does not carry the same risk. If it is found that the wrong tissue is being frozen, the freezing process can quickly be stopped and the tissue return to normal temperature and function in a short time. If after freezing the tissue to −10 °C the desired result is obtained, the tissue can be further cooled to a temperature of −73 °C (-99.4 °F) and it will be permanently ablated.  This therapy has further improved the treatment options for people with AVNRT (and other SVTs with pathways close to the AV node), widening the application of curative ablation to young patients with relatively mild but still troublesome symptoms who would not have accepted the risk of requiring a pacemaker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Most SVTs are unpleasant rather than life-threatening, although very fast heart rates can be problematic for those with underlying ischemic heart disease or the elderly. Episodes require treatment when they occur, but interval therapy may also be used to prevent or reduce recurrence. While some treatment modalities can be applied to all SVTs, there are specific therapies available to treat some sub-types. Effective treatment consequently requires knowledge of how and where the arrhythmia is initiated and its mode of spread.  SVTs can be classified by whether the AV node is involved in maintaining the rhythm. If so, slowing conduction through the AV node will terminate it. If not, AV nodal blocking maneuvers will not work, although transient AV block is still useful as it may unmask an underlying abnormal rhythm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable cases.", "content": "After being successfully diagnosed and treated, Bobby Julich went on to place third in the 1998 Tour de France and win a Bronze Medal in the 2004 Summer Olympics. Women's Olympic volleyball player Tayyiba Haneef-Park underwent an ablation for SVT just two months before competing in the 2008 Summer Olympics. Tony Blair, former PM of the UK, was also operated on for atrial flutter. Anastacia was diagnosed with the disease. Women's Olympic gold medalist swimmers, Rebecca Soni and Dana Vollmer have both had heart surgery to correct SVT. In addition, Neville Fields had corrective surgery for SVT in early 2006. Wrestling manager Paul Bearer's heart attack was attributed to SVT, resulting in his death. Nathan Cohen, New Zealand's two-time world champion and Olympic champion rower, was diagnosed with SVT in 2013 when he was 27 years old.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) is an abnormally fast heart rhythm arising from improper electrical activity in the upper part of the heart. There are four main types: atrial fibrillation, paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT), atrial flutter, and Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome. Symptoms may include palpitations, feeling faint, sweating, shortness of breath, or chest pain. They start from either the atria or atrioventricular node. They are generally due to one of two mechanisms: re-entry or increased automaticity. The other type of fast heart rhythm is ventricular arrhythmias—rapid rhythms that start within the ventricle. Diagnosis is typically by electrocardiogram (ECG), holter monitor, or event monitor. Blood tests may be done to rule out specific underlying causes such as hyperthyroidism or electrolyte abnormalities. Specific treatments depend on the type of SVT. They can include medications, medical procedures, or surgery. Vagal maneuvers or a procedure known as catheter ablation may be effective in certain types. For atrial fibrillation calcium channel blockers or beta blockers may be used. Long term some people benefit from blood thinners such as aspirin or warfarin. Atrial fibrillation affects about 25 per 1000 people, paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia 2.3 per 1000, Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome 2 per 1000, and atrial flutter 0.8 per 1000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975390}
{"src_title": "Cult of Reason", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Opposition to the Roman Catholic Church was integral among the causes of the French Revolution, and this anti-clericalism solidified into official government policy in 1792 after the First French Republic was declared. Most of the dechristianisation of France was motivated by political and economic concerns, and philosophical alternatives to the Church developed more slowly. Among the growing heterodoxy, the so-called \"Culte de la Raison\" became defined by some of the most radical revolutionaries like Jacques Hébert, Antoine-François Momoro, Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette, and Joseph Fouché.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "Considerable debate has always persisted about the religiosity of the Cult of Reason. It was a hodgepodge of ideas and activities, a \"multifarious phenomenon, marked by disorderliness\". The Cult encompassed various elements of anticlericalism, including subordination of priests to secular authority, wealth confiscation from the Church, and doctrinal heresies both petty and profound. It was atheistic, but celebrated different core principles according to locale and leadership: most famous was Reason, but others were Liberty, Nature, and the victory of the Revolution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Antoine-François Momoro.", "content": "One of the more philosophical proponents was Antoine-François Momoro in Paris. In his hands, the capital city's Cult of Reason was explicitly anthropocentric. Its goal was the perfection of mankind through the attainment of Truth and Liberty, and its guiding principle to this goal was the exercise of Reason. In the manner of conventional religion, it encouraged acts of congregational worship and devotional displays to the ideal of Reason. A careful distinction was always drawn between the rational respect of Reason and the veneration of an idol: \"There is one thing that one must not tire telling people,\" Momoro explained, \"Liberty, reason, truth are only abstract beings. They are not gods, for properly speaking, they are part of ourselves.\"  The overarching theme of the Cult was summarized by Anacharsis Clootz, who declared at the Festival of Reason that henceforward there would be \"one God only, \"Le Peuple\"\". The Cult was intended as a civic religion—inspired by the works of Rousseau, Quatremère de Quincy, and Jacques-Louis David, it presented \"an explicit religion of man\".  Adherence to the Cult of Reason became a defining attribute of the Hébertist faction. It was also pervasive among the ranks of the \"sans-culottes\". Numerous political factions, anti-clerical groups and events only loosely connected to the cult have come to be amalgamated with its name.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Joseph Fouché.", "content": "As a military commander dispatched by the Jacobins to enforce their new laws, Fouché led a particularly zealous campaign of dechristianisation. His methods were brutal but efficient, and helped spread the developing creed through many parts of France. In his jurisdictions, Fouché ordered all crosses and statues removed from graveyards, and he gave the cult one of its elemental tenets when he decreed that all cemetery gates must bear only one inscription—\"Death is an eternal sleep.\" Fouché went so far as to declare a new civic religion of his own, virtually interchangeable with what would become known as the Cult of Reason, at a ceremony he dubbed the \"Feast of Brutus\" on 22 September 1793.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Festival of Reason.", "content": "The official nationwide \"Fête de la Raison\", supervised by Hébert and Momoro on 20 Brumaire, Year II (10 November 1793) came to epitomize the new republican way of religion. In ceremonies devised and organised by Chaumette, churches across France were transformed into modern Temples of Reason. The largest ceremony of all was at the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. The Christian altar was dismantled and an altar to Liberty was installed and the inscription \"To Philosophy\" was carved in stone over the cathedral's doors. Festive girls in white Roman dress and tricolor sashes milled around a costumed Goddess of Reason who \"impersonated Liberty\". A flame burned on the altar which was symbolic of truth. To avoid statuary and idolatry, the Goddess figures were portrayed by living women, and in Paris the role was played by Momoro's wife, Sophie, who is said to have dressed \"provocatively\" and, according to Thomas Carlyle, \"made one of the best Goddesses of Reason; though her teeth were a little defective.\"  Before his retirement, Georges Danton had warned against dechristianizers and their \"rhetorical excesses\", but support for the Cult only increased in the zealous early years of the First Republic. By late 1793, it was conceivable that the Convention might accept the invitation to attend the Paris festival en masse, but the unshakeable opposition of Maximilien Robespierre and others like him prevented it from becoming an official affair. Undeterred, Chaumette and Hébert proudly led a sizable delegation of deputies to Notre Dame.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reaction.", "content": "Many contemporary accounts reported the Festival of Reason as a \"lurid\", \"licentious\" affair of scandalous \"depravities\", although some scholars have disputed their veracity. These accounts, real or embellished, galvanized anti-revolutionary forces and even caused many dedicated Jacobins like Robespierre to publicly separate themselves from the radical faction. Robespierre particularly scorned the Cult and denounced the festivals as \"ridiculous farces\".  In the spring of 1794, the Cult of Reason was faced with official repudiation when Robespierre, nearing complete dictatorial power during the Reign of Terror, announced his own establishment of a new, deistic religion for the Republic, the Cult of the Supreme Being. Robespierre denounced the Hébertistes on various philosophical and political grounds, specifically rejecting their perceived atheism. When Hébert, Momoro, Ronsin, Vincent, and others were sent to the guillotine on 4 Germinal, Year II (24 March 1794), the cult lost its most influential leadership; when Chaumette and other \"Hébertistes\" followed them four days later, the Cult of Reason effectively ceased to exist. Both cults were officially banned in 1801 by Napoleon Bonaparte with his \"Law on Cults of 18 Germinal, Year X\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cult of Reason () was France's first established state-sponsored atheistic religion, intended as a replacement for Catholicism during the French Revolution. After holding sway for barely a year, in 1794 it was officially replaced by the rival Cult of the Supreme Being, promoted by Robespierre. Both cults were officially banned in 1802 by Napoleon Bonaparte with his \"Law on Cults of 18 Germinal, Year X\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975391}
{"src_title": "Faber-Castell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Offices.", "content": "There are about 16 manufacturing plants (in 10 countries) which mainly manufacture writing instruments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Corporation.", "content": "Faber-Castell was founded in 1761 at Stein near Nuremberg by cabinet maker Kaspar Faber (1730–84) as the A.W. Faber Company, and has remained in the Faber family for eight generations. It opened branches in New York (1849), London (1851), Paris (1855), and expanded to Vienna (1872) and St. Petersburg (1874). It opened a factory in Geroldsgrün where slide rules were produced. It expanded internationally and launched new products under Kaspar Faber's ambitious great-grandson, Lothar (1817–96).  In 1900, after the marriage of Lothar's granddaughter and heiress with a count of Castell, the A.W. Faber enterprise took the name of \"Faber-Castell\" and a new logo, combining the Faber motto, \"Since 1761\", with the \"jousting knights\" of the Castells' coat-of-arms. A.W. Faber is the oldest brand-name pencil continuously sold in the US, having begun sales in 1870.  Today, the company operates 14 factories and 20 sales units, with six in Europe, four in Asia, three in North America, five in South America, and one each in Australia and New Zealand. The Faber-Castell Group employs a staff of approximately 7,000 and does business in more than 100 countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "Beginning in the 1850s Faber started to use graphite from Siberia and cedar wood from Florida to produce its pencils.  Faber-Castell is well known for its brand of PITT Artist pens. The pens, used by comic and manga artists such as Adam Hughes, emit an India ink that is both acid-free and archival, and comes in a variety of colors.  The following chart contains all the Faber-Castell product lines.  From about 1880 to 1975 Faber-Castell was also one of the world's major manufacturers of slide rules, the best known of which was the 2/83N.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "The immensely wealthy Lothar Faber was ennobled in 1861 and made Baron von Faber in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1881. The sons of his only son Wilhelm (1851–1893) (by his wife Bertha Faber {1856–1940}, daughter of Lothar's younger brother, Eberhard {1822–1879}, who had founded the New York branch of the company) having died young, a marriage for his granddaughter and heiress Ottilie was arranged with a scion of one of Germany's formerly ruling comital dynasties. Yet in the conservative German Empire of \"fin-de-siècle\" Europe, the marriage of a Faber into a family of the high nobility was regarded as too bold a leap upward socially. A morganatic marriage would have been required, and the Faber pencil works could not have remained in the hands of their descendants because trafficking in commerce was still considered an act of social among members of the \"Hochadel\".  To resolve this dilemma, the chosen groom, Count Alexander von Castell-Rüdenhausen (1866–1928) renounced his birth rank prior to the marriage. The Castell family had been Imperial counts in Franconia, known since the 11th century. When the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved under pressure from Napoleon I in 1806, the Castell lands were annexed by the Kingdom of Bavaria. Although deprived of sovereignty, in 1815 the Castells were mediatized, their rank with the reigning dynasties of Europe being formally recognized, and family would be granted the hereditary title of Prince.  Count Alexander, a younger son of the first prince, married the pencil heiress, Baroness Ottilie von Faber (1877–1944), in 1898. He was granted the new hereditary title of Count von Faber-Castell in Bavaria for the descendants of their marriage. Although Alexander and Ottilie divorced in 1918, the Faber business trust had transferred headship of the company to Alexander, who even kept the Fabers' renovated palace at Stein (which would be commandeered to billet journalists during the Nuremberg trials, including Ernest Hemingway and John Steinbeck).  In 1927 Alexander resumed his original name for himself, his second wife (born a countess, Margit Zedtwitz von Moravan und Duppau, 1886–1973), and their son, Count Radulf (1922–2004). His issue by the first marriage had never been considered dynasts of the House of Castell, but they inherited the vast Faber fortune and continue to include \"Castell\" in their name with the comital title.  Various branches of the family continued to flourish, but the Faber and Faber-Castell corporate holdings usually passed to the eldest male of the patrilineage. Alexander and Ottilie's only son, Count Roland von Faber-Castell (1905–78), inherited headship of the Faber-Castell companies from his parents. His eldest son, left the family business after a dispute with his father and was succeeded by his younger brother, (1941–2016). As the first born, Count Hubertus inherited the majority of the family's assets, yet sold most of his company shares to his successor, after leaving the company. Count Hubertus joined his maternal family business Sal Oppenheim. The company stakes made Count Hubertus von Faber-Castell a billionaire. Count Anton Wolfgang von Faber-Castell, who left a son, Charles Alexander von Faber-Castell (born in Zürich 20 June 1980) of his 1986 marriage to Carla Mathilde Lamesch. His widow, Mary Hogan (born 1951), continues as managing director of Faber-Castell's cosmetics division. His three daughters, Countess Katharina Elizabeth (born 5 May 1988), and twins Countess Sarah Angela and Countess Victoria Maria (born 1 August 1996), succeed him.  Hubertus's daughter, Countess Floria-Franziska von Faber-Castell (b. 1974), was married at Kronberg on 17 May 2003 in a much-publicised wedding attended by members of Europe's reigning families, to Donatus, Hereditary Prince of Hesse, a great-grandson of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and a grand-nephew of Princess Sophie of Greece and Denmark, sister of Britain's prince consort Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. His second daughter is German-Swiss philanthropist Caroline von Faber-Castell, who is married to Düsseldorf-based entrepreneur Michael Gotzens. Patrick von Faber-Castell publicly married German actress Mariella Ahrens in Faber-Castell Castle, near Nuremberg.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Faber-Castell is one of the world's largest and oldest manufacturers of pens, pencils, other office supplies (e.g., staplers, slide rules, erasers, rulers) and art supplies, as well as high-end writing instruments and luxury leather goods. Headquartered in Stein, Germany, it operates 14 factories and 20 sales units throughout the globe. The Faber-Castell Group employs a staff of approximately 7,000 and does business in more than 100 countries. The House of Faber-Castell is the family which founded and continues to exercise leadership within the corporation. They manufacture about 2 billion pencils in more than 120 different colors every year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975392}
{"src_title": "Silkroad Online", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "Silkroad Online is noted for its \"Triangular Conflict System\" in which characters may select one of three jobs, trader, hunter, or thief to engage each other in player versus player combat. Thieves attack traders who are protected by hunters. Hunters kill thieves getting experience to level up to a higher level of hunter. Traders complete trade runs which gives experience to increase their trader level, and thieves kill traders and hunters to level up. Thieves can also steal goods dropped by traders to take to the thieves' den in exchange for gold and thief experience.  In the Legend I update for Silkroad, the European classes and areas were introduced to the International servers, in Legend II, Fortress War was introduced. In fortress war, guilds fight to take hold of a fort which gives them the ability to raise taxes and hold some prestige over other guilds. In Legend III, Roc Mountain was added and the level cap was increased to 90. In addition, 9th Degree Armor and Weapons was added for both races. In Legend III+, the Bandit Fortress was added to iSRO, as well as Devil's Spirit silk dress.  In March 2009, Legend IV was introduced to the international version of Silkroad. Included in Legend IV are 10th degree weapons and armor for both European and Chinese characters. Also included was Ch'in Tomb, with monsters ranging from level 70 to 100. To enter the tomb, a character must be level 70 or above. The new unique monster added in Legend IV was Medusa, a level 105 snake from Greek mythology.  Players are given the option to create either a Chinese or European character. Each of the races has its own advantages, disadvantages, cities, weapons, armor and classes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reviews.", "content": "In April 2005, Silkroad Online received a score of 8.4 (\"nice\") out of 10.0 from GameSpot Korea. The reviewer praised the game's three-way player versus player system, character customization, and berserker mode, but found the quests and storyline lacking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spinoffs.", "content": "Two other games Joymax has created as branches of this game are Silkroad-R and Web Silkroad which is under development.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Silkroad Online () is a fantasy MMORPG set in the 7th century AD, along the Silk Road between China and Europe. The game requires no periodic subscription fee, but players can purchase premium items to customize or accelerate gameplay.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975393}
{"src_title": "Luca della Robbia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Vasari, Gaurico, and several other early writers give contradictory accounts of Luca della Robbia's youth, training, and early works. He was born in Florence, the son of a member of the Arte della Lana (wool-workers guild). He may have trained as a goldsmith under Leonardo di Ser Giovanni according to Vasari, before working with Ghiberti on the famous doors of the Florence Baptistry. He was heavily influenced by Donatello, and in the 1420s was used by the architect Filippo Brunelleschi for sculpture on his buildings. His important commission for the \"Cantoria\" (\"Singing Gallery\"; 1431–1438) of Florence Cathedral came before he joined the sculptor's guild Arte dei Maestri di Pietra e Legname (for workers in stone and wood) in 1432. According to Vasari, the Medici family were responsible for securing him the commission.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sculpture.", "content": "His first documented commission was the \"Cantoria\" (\"Singing Gallery\"; 1431–1438) for the organ loft of Cathedral of Florence. During the seven years it took della Robbia to carve the reliefs under the supervision of Brunelleschi, his style developed. While the earliest carved panels are fairly symmetric and lack movement, in later panels the movement of the singers becomes much more evident and dynamic. The Singing Gallery shows children singing, dancing, and making music to \"praise the Lord\" in the words of Psalm 150. Their figures are at once lively, finely observed, and gracefully combined in groups designed to fit the ten panels of the gallery. The advanced nature of the work has been seen to establish Luca della Robbia's skill in stone as well as secure his place as a major Florentine artist and student of Renaissance naturalism.  In the next two decades della Robbia executed important commissions in marble and bronze: a series of marble reliefs (1437) for the bell tower of the Cathedral of Florence; a marble and enameled terra-cotta tabernacle (1443), now in S. Maria in Peretola; bronze angels to enrich the Singing Gallery; and, in collaboration with Michelozzo, the large project of bronze doors for the Sacristy of the Cathedral. These doors were not finished until 1469; their reliance on a few figures placed in simple, orderly compositions against a flat ground, contrasts sharply with the elaborate pictorial effects of Lorenzo Ghiberti's more famous Baptistery doors.  Arguably the one of the most important existing works in marble by Luca (executed in 1454–1456) is the tomb of Benozzo Federighi, bishop of Fiesole, originally placed in the church of San Pancrazio, Florence, but removed to San Francesco di Paola on the Bellosguardo road outside the city in 1783. In 1898 it was again removed to the church of Santa Trinita in Florence. An effigy of the bishop in a restful pose lies on a sarcophagus sculptured with graceful reliefs of angels holding a wreath which contains the inscription. Above are three-quarter length figures of Christ between St John and the Virgin, of conventional type. The whole is surrounded by a rectangular frame formed of painted tiles. On each tile is painted, with enamel pigments, a bunch of flowers and fruit in brilliant realistic colors. Though the bunch of flowers on each is painted on one slab, the ground of each tile is formed of separate pieces, likely because the pigment of the ground required a different degree of heat in firing from that needed for the enamel painting of the center.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Terra-cotta.", "content": "Della Robbia's earliest surviving freestanding sculpture is the white tin-glazed terracotta \"Visitation\" in the church of San Giovanni Fuoricivitas of Pistoia, dating to 1445. Although the date of della Robbia's first work in colored glazed terra-cotta is not known, his demonstrated control of this medium secured him two major commissions for the duomo of Florence: the large reliefs of the \"Resurrection \"(also from 1445) and the \"Ascension of Christ \"(1446). The pliant medium of baked clay covered with a \"slip\" of vitrified lead and refined minerals permitted a lustrous, polished surface capable of reflecting light and color that was beautifully appropriate for architectural sculpture. Whether animating the vast, somber space of the Cathedral or in the series \"Twelve Apostles \"gracing the pristine surfaces of the small Pazzi Chapel (1443–1450) in Florence, della Robbia's reliefs in this medium achieved a high level of mastery.  Working with assistants, including members of his own family, della Robbia produced a number of decorative reliefs and altarpieces until the end of his life. One of the arguably finest examples is the enameled terra-cotta ceiling (1466) of the Chapel of the Cardinal of Portugal in San Miniato, Florence. Another relief, acquired by the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1861, shows his free use of color: an enormous medallion containing the arms of René of Anjou and other heraldic devices; it is surrounded by an intricately modeled wreath of brilliantly colored fruit and flowers, including apples, lemons, oranges and fir cones. This medallion was set up on the facade of the Pazzi Palace to commemorate René's visit to Florence in 1442.  His works were highly popular in his time, and many were sent outside Florence; the larger ones could be disassembled to facilitate transport. In 1446 he bought a large house containing a workshop, which would remain the base of the family workshop until the 1520s.  In 1471 Luca della Robbia was elected president of the Florentine Guild of Sculptors, but he refused on account of his age and infirmity. It shows, however, the very high esteem in which he was held by his contemporaries. He died in Florence during February 1482, taking most of his secrets of tin-based glaze with him.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Luca della Robbia (,, ; 1399/1400–1482) was an Italian sculptor from Florence. Della Robbia is noted for his colorful, tin-glazed terracotta statuary, a technique which he invented and passed on to his nephew Andrea della Robbia and great-nephews Giovanni della Robbia and Girolamo della Robbia. Though a leading sculptor in stone, he worked primarily in terracotta after developing his technique in the early 1440s. His large workshop produced both cheaper works cast from molds in multiple versions, and more expensive one-off individually modeled pieces.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975394}
{"src_title": "The Body (King novella)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "Vern Tessio informs his three friends that he has overheard his older brother, Billy, talking with his friend Charlie Hogan, about inadvertently discovering the corpse of Ray Brower, a boy from Chamberlain, Maine, a town 40 miles or so east of Castle Rock, who has gone missing while going out to pick blueberries. The four friends decide to find it so as to be famous.  Gordie explains how he and each of his friends come from either abusive or dysfunctional homes:  The boys walk along the railroad tracks toward the presumed location of the corpse. Along the way, they trespass at the town dump and are chased by Chopper, the dump custodian Milo Pressman's dog. Milo insults Teddy's father, which causes Teddy to unleash his anger on Milo. Gordie and Vern are nearly run over by a train while crossing a trestle. While at a resting point, Chris predicts that Gordie will grow up to become a famous writer – perhaps he will even write about his friends one day.  When the boys finally find the body, a gang of bullies arrives just after they do. The gang is composed of leader John \"Ace\" Merrill, Vern's older brother Billy, Chris's older brother Richard (nicknamed \"Eyeball\"), Charlie Hogan, Norman \"Fuzzy\" Bracowicz, Vince Desjardins, and Jack \"Jackie\" Mudgett. The older boys are upset to see the younger group of four friends, and during an argument, Chris pulls a gun belonging to his father from his bag and fires into the air. Chris then threatens Ace, and after a brief standoff, Ace realizes that Chris is serious and the teenagers leave. Having seen the body, the boys realize that there is nothing else to be done with it and return home without further incident.  The older boys ultimately decide to phone in the location of the body as an \"anonymous tip\", and it is eventually found by the authorities. Some days after the confrontation, Ace and Fuzzy break Gordie's nose and fingers, and kick him in the testicles, and are on the verge of harming him more seriously when they are run off by Gordie's neighbor, Aunt Evvie Chalmers. Eyeball breaks his brother's arm and \"leaves his face looking like a Canadian sunrise\". Teddy and Vern get less severe beatings, but the boys refuse to identify their assailants to the authorities, and there are no further repercussions.  The narration then goes into fast-forward, and Gordie describes the next year or so briefly, stating that Teddy and Vern drifted off, befriending some younger boys. In high school, just as Chris predicted, Gordie begins taking college preparation courses; unexpectedly, so does Chris. In spite of abuse from his father, taunts from his classmates, and distrust from teachers and even school counselors, he manages to be successful with help from Gordie.  The final two chapters describe the fates of Gordie's three friends, none of whom survive past young adulthood:  Gordie, the only survivor, continues to write stories through college, and publishes a number of them in small literary journals and men's magazines. His first novel becomes a best-seller and a successful film. Since writing about the events in 1960, he has written seven novels about the supernatural. Gordie has a wife and three children, and is revealed to be a veteran of the Vietnam War and the counter-culture of the 1960s, occasionally referred to in the flash-forward narratives during the main story.  The story ends with Gordie visiting Castle Rock and seeing Ace, realizing that he managed to escape the town and is finally able to make peace with the painful memories of his childhood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accusation of plagiarism.", "content": "In Lisa Rogak's unauthorized biography \"Haunted Heart: The Life and Times of Stephen King\", a friend of King's, George McLeod, claimed that King had cribbed the idea for \"The Body\" from a short story McLeod had written, but these claims are disputed by King. McLeod requested a portion of the royalties from \"The Body\" and \"Stand by Me\"; King refused. McLeod sued, which ended their friendship. Since then, King has refused his fans' requests to read their manuscripts for advice; King has claimed that he is concerned that there may be further accusations of plagiarism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "Aaron Burch, a lecturer in English at the University of Michigan, wrote \"Stephen King's The Body: Bookmarked\", which analyzes the novella and describes how it influenced Burch's life, including inspiring him to become a writer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Body is a novella by American writer Stephen King, originally published in his 1982 collection \"Different Seasons\" and adapted into the 1986 film \"Stand by Me\". Some changes were made to the plot of the film, including changing the setting year from 1960 to 1959 and the location of Castle Rock from Maine to Oregon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975395}
{"src_title": "Battle of Maloyaroslavets", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "On 19 October, Napoleon evacuated Moscow and marched south-west to Kaluga, Eugene de Beauharnais leading the advance. Unaware of this, and believing the force sighted at Fominskoye, south-west of Moscow, was a foraging party, Kutuzov sent General Dokhturov with 12,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry and 84 guns to surprise it. While on the road, Dokhturov learned this force was the Grande Armée and decided to hold out until reinforcements came at the road junction and town of Maloyaroslavets, on the Luzha River.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The battle.", "content": "Dokhturov entered the town from the south and found the French spearhead had seized a bridgehead. Fierce fighting began. General Raevski arrived with 10,000 more Russians; once more they took the town, though not the bridgehead. De Beauharnais threw in his 15th (Italian) division, under Domenico Pino (Minister of War of the Kingdom of Italy), and by evening they had again expelled the Russians. During the course of the engagament the town changed hands no fewer than eight times and it was quoted that the French and in particular the Italian Royal Guard under Eugène de Beauharnais 'fought like lions'. In fact, this battle is remembered as the \"Battle of the Italians\". Marshal Kutuzov arrived and decided against a pitched battle with the Grand Army the next day, and to retire instead to the prepared line of defense at Kaluga. The mainly French and Italian forces won a victory on the day, only to realize that \"unless with a new Borodino\" the way through Kaluga was closed. This allowed Kutuzov to fulfill his strategic plans to force Napoleon on the way of retreat in the north, through Mozhaisk and Smolensk, the route of his advance that he had wished to avoid. French casualties were about 6,000 including Delzons killed, while the Russians lost 4,412 men killed and wounded, 2,753 were missed in action. More than half of Russian infantry units who fought in the city were inexperienced recruits and militiamen, which accounted for the high casualty rate among them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "After the withdrawal of Kutuzov it became clear to Napoleon that he would be unable to force the Russian army into a decisive battle. Though a victory, Napoleon did not feel it was on a large enough scale to counter the news of Murat's earlier defeat at Vinkovo. Following the battle Napoleon turned the Grande Armée west to Borovsk where the greater part of the artillery and wagons were located. This would be the first step in a retreat away from the Russians, with hoped-for winter quarters for the army potentially at Smolensk.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Maloyaroslavets took place on 24 October 1812, between the Russians, under Marshal Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov, and part of the corps of Eugène de Beauharnais, Napoleon's stepson, under General Alexis Joseph Delzons which numbered about 20,000 strong.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975396}
{"src_title": "Demographics of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Total fertility rate from 1870 to 1899.", "content": "The total fertility rate is the number of children born per woman. It is based on fairly good data for the entire period in the present-day Hungary. Sources: Our World In Data and Gapminder Foundation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vital statistics since 1900.", "content": "Data according to Statistik Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other demographic statistics.", "content": "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review.  The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook. and Statistik Austria.  Austrians 91.1%, former Yugoslavs 4% (includes Croatians, Slovenes, Serbs, and Bosniaks), Turks 1.6%, Germans 0.9%, other or unspecified 2.4% (2001 census)  German (official nationwide) 88.6%, Turkish 2.3%, Serbian 2.2%, Croatian (official in Burgenland) 1.6%, other (includes Slovene, official in South Carinthia, and Hungarian, official in Burgenland) 5.3% (2001 est.)  Catholic 73.8% (includes Roman Catholic 73.6%, other Catholic 0.2%), Protestant 4.9%, Muslim 4.2%, Orthodox 2.2%, other 0.8% (includes other Christian), none 12%, unspecified 2% (2001 est.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnic groups.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional ethnic minorities in Austria.", "content": "Only three numerically significant traditional minority groups exist – 14,000 Carinthian Slovenes (according to the 2001 census – unofficial estimates of Slovene organisations put the number at 50,000) in Austrian Carinthia (south central Austria) and about 25,000 Croats and 20,000 Hungarians in Burgenland (on the Hungarian border). The Slovenes (also called 'Windische') form a closely knit community. Their rights as well as those of the Croats are protected by law and generally respected in practice. The present boundaries of Austria, once the center of the Habsburg Monarchy that constituted the second-largest composite monarchy in Europe, were established in accordance with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1919. Some Austrians, particularly near Vienna, still have relatives in countries that made up the Monarchy, namely Croatia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and Hungary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New ethnic minorities in Austria.", "content": "According to the Austrian Statistical Bureau, 814,800 foreigners legally lived in Austria in mid-2006, representing 9.8% of the total population, one of the highest rates in Europe.  Of these foreign residents, 305,100 came from the former Yugoslavia and 110,800 from Turkey.  Owing to a growing naturalization rate, 330,000 people have been naturalized between 1985 and the end of 2003, representing about 4% of the 7.4 million Austrian citizens living today in the country.  Of these new citizens 110,000 came from the former Yugoslavia and 90,000 from Turkey. Considering pre-1985 naturalizations, in 2005 at least 18% (in Vienna more than 30%) of the population was either foreign or of foreign origin. Native Austrians have had stagnant demographics since World War I, and have been in absolute decline since the 1970s.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Immigration.", "content": "As of 2011, Statistik Austria official estimates have shown that 81% of residents, or 6.75 million had no migration background and more than 19% or 1.6 million inhabitants had at least one parent of immigrant background. There are more than 415,000 descendants of foreign-born immigrants residing in Austria, the great majority of whom have been naturalized.  According to Eurostat, there were 1.27 million foreign-born residents in Austria in 2010, corresponding to 15.2% of the total population. Of these, 764,000 (9.1%) were born outside the EU and 512,000 (6.1%) were born in another EU member state.  350,000 ethnic Turks (including a minority of Turkish Kurds) currently live in Austria. At about 3% of the total population, they make up the biggest single ethnic minority in Austria.  In 2018, the percentage of foreign born people was around 19% of the total population which is also the second highest foreign born proportion of all EU countries after Luxemburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "In 2001, about 74% of Austria's population were registered as Roman Catholic, while about 5% considered themselves Protestants. Austrian Christians, both Catholic and Protestant, are obliged to pay a mandatory membership fee (calculated by income—about 1%) to their church; this payment is called \"Kirchenbeitrag\" (\"Ecclesiastical/Church contribution\"). Since the second half of the 20th century, the number of adherents and churchgoers has declined. Data for the end of 2016 from the Austrian Roman Catholic church lists 5,162,622 members, or 58.8% of the total Austrian population. Sunday church attendance was 605,828 or 7% of the total Austrian population in 2015. The Lutheran church also recorded a loss of 74,421 adherents between 2001 and 2016.  About 12% of the population declared that they have no religion. in 2001; this share had grown to 20% by 2015. Of the remaining people, around 340,000 were registered as members of various Muslim communities in 2001, mainly due to the influx from Turkey, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo. The number of Muslims has doubled in 15 years to 700,000 in 2016. About 680,000 are members of Orthodox Churches (mostly Serbs), about 21,000 people are active Jehovah's Witnesses and about 8,100 are Jewish.  An estimated 15,000 Jews or adherents of Judaism live in Austria, primarily in Vienna – a remnant of the post-World War II community after the Nazi Holocaust.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "This article is about the demographic features of the population of Austria, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975397}
{"src_title": "LaFee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Klein was born in Büsbach near Stolberg in the district of Aachen, North Rhine-Westphalia. Her father, Bernd Klein, is German while her mother, Keriakoulla, is Greek. She is the younger of two children. She has an older brother, Andreas.  At the age of nine, she began sending out demo tapes to television shows leading her to perform on three of them. She participated in \"Kiddy Contest\", an Austrian children's TV singing competition, in September 2004 at the age of thirteen, performing \"Handy\", a parody of Barry Manilow's \"Mandy\". It was this television appearance that led to her being discovered by German music producer Bob Arnz. Then she worked on her first album.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2005–2008: Successful debut and second album.", "content": "LaFee's first single \"Virus\" was released in 2006 from her debut album \"LaFee\". Since the start of her career LaFee was supported by the magazine \"Bravo\" and the music channel \"VIVA\". \"Virus\" reached fourteen on both the German and Austrian singles chart and her second single, \"Prinzesschen\" (\"Little princess\"), reached rank 11 in the German charts. \"Was ist das\" (\"What is that\") and \"Mitternacht\" (\"Midnight\") were charted in the German and Austrian charts, too.  She released her second album, \"Jetzt erst recht\" (\"Now more than ever\") on July 6, 2007, and the album's lead single, \"Heul doch\" (\"Keep crying\"), in 2007. Shortly afterwards \"Heul doch\" was translated into English as \"Shut Up\" for her third studio album. The song reached the German top 10. The album \"Jetzt erst recht\" charted in the Italian albums chart at No. 94 and in the French albums chart at No. 79. It went Platinum in Germany and Gold in Austria. Her acting debut was on \"Nina's Welt\" which was broadcast from November 2006 until the spring of 2007. Later she made an appearance on the German daily soap \"Gute Zeiten, schlechte Zeiten\" (\"Good times, bad times\"). Her biggest gig was on December 31, 2006 New Year's Eve at the Brandenburg Gate, with more than one million viewers. On August 25, 2007 Klein had a gig as a part of the open-air events at the Brandenburg Gate in front of 119,000 people. The second single was \"Beweg dein Arsch\" (Move your ass) which charted at No. 21 on the German charts. On November 16, 2007, she released the third single \"Wer bin ich\" (Who am I) which reached No. 25 on the German singles chart and No. 41 on the Austrian singles chart. In addition, she has received the Echo award for \"Best Female Singer\", Bravo Gold Otto for \"Best Pop Female Singer\" and the Jetix Kids' award for \"Best Solo Act\". The album was also re-released as a \"Bravo special edition\" with bonus songs on November 27, 2008.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2008–2009: First English album and \"Ring Frei\".", "content": "Her first English album, \"Shut Up\", was released in 2008. It includes songs from the album \"LaFee\" and \"Jetzt erst recht\" in English. The first single \"Shut Up\" is the English version of \"Heul Doch\". The single \"Shut Up\" reached number 93 in the German singles chart, which was the lowest chart entry by LaFee. The album, however, with more than 100,000 copies at the time was also the weakest LaFee album. The album reached No. 21 the German albums chart at No. 31 on the Austrian albums chart. The song \"Shut up\" was first performed on May 30, 2008, at the music festival \"The Dome\". LaFee's first single, \"Ring frei\" (Clear the ring), from her fourth studio album, \"Ring frei\", was released on November 21, 2008 and reached No. 22 in Germany. The album \"Ring frei\" was released in Germany on January 2, 2009 and reached No. 6 on the German albums chart, No. 21 on the Swiss albums chart and No. 5 on the Austrian albums chart. The album has also received gold status in Austria and has worldwide more than 100,000 sales. She went on a tour in Germany, Austria and Switzerland in 2009. After the promotion of the tour she took a break for the first time briefly.  Appeared without any weave LaFee's first greatest hits collection, \"Best Of – LaFee\", was released in November 2009. The album is available as day edition with one CD and as night edition with two CDs. The album was a clear failure. A re-recorded version of \"Der Regen fällt\", which originally appeared on her second studio album, \"Jetzt erst recht\", was released as the lead single of the compilation. The song only reached rank 94 in the German singles chart. In Austria and Switzerland, it wasn't listed in the charts. LaFee left her manager Bob Arnz. Her musicians left the group in December 2009 with an announcement on their websites to form a new project, due to different musical orientations. Now she's produced by Jörg Fischer.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2011–present: \"Ich Bin\" and \"Frei\".", "content": "On June 4, 2011, Christina presented the new single \"Ich bin\" (I Am) at the German show \"The Dome\". It was available on June 10, 2011, and EMI has stated on its official site that the new album \"Frei\" was released on July 1, 2011.  In an interview with the German magazine \"Bild\", the singer said that this new album was really important to her because she has changed a lot since her previous album. She also explained the reasons behind this break; she said that she was tired of always being away from her home and her friends. She was just a teenager when she began her career and had grown up so fast, without time to think whether she had missed something or not. She was always being told what to do and need to be herself, not mentioning all the gossip that had run between her and her boyfriends. She admitted she could think about nothing but sleeping for days. So she had split with her old team, her old band and her old manager and had asked her label to change her contract and she was lucky because they agreed. Finally, she stated that now she's ready to come back with new songs (she wrote three songs by herself and co-wrote another two), themes closer to her like love and growing up with a new, more mature look.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "LaFee acted in the German daily soap \"Gute Zeiten, schlechte Zeiten\" on RTL. She played a girl who has come back to her ex-boyfriend. The ex-boyfriend is also the boy in her video for \"Heul doch\" / \"Shut Up\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Christina Klein (born December 9, 1990), better known by her stage name LaFee, is a German singer-songwriter who has sold more than one million records worldwide. She is most famous in mainland Europe, particularly in German-speaking countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975398}
{"src_title": "Agomelatine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medical uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major depressive disorder.", "content": "Agomelatine is used for the treatment of major depressive episodes in adults in Europe. Ten placebo controlled trials have been performed to investigate the short term efficacy of agomelatine in major depressive disorder. At the end of treatment, significant efficacy was demonstrated in six of the ten short-term double-blind placebo-controlled studies. Two were considered \"failed\" trials, as comparators of established efficacy failed to differentiate from placebo. Efficacy was also observed in more severely depressed patients in all positive placebo-controlled studies. The maintenance of antidepressant efficacy was demonstrated in a relapse prevention study. One meta-analysis found agomelatine to be as effective as standard antidepressants.  A meta-analysis found that agomelatine is effective in treating severe depression. Its antidepressant effect is greater for more severe depression. In people with a greater baseline score (>30 on HAMD17 scale), the agomelatine-placebo difference was of 4.53 points. Controlled studies in humans have shown that agomelatine is at least as effective as the SSRI antidepressants paroxetine, sertraline, escitalopram, and fluoxetine in the treatment of major depression. A 2018 meta-study comparing 21 antidepressants found agomelatine was one of the more tolerable, yet effective antidepressants.  However, the body of research on agomelatine has been substantially affected by publication bias, prompting analyses which take into account both published and unpublished studies. These have confirmed that agomelatine is approximately as effective as more commonly used antidepressants (e.g. SSRIs), but some qualified this as \"marginally clinically relevant\", being only slightly above placebo. According to a 2013 review, agomelatine did not seem to provide an advantage in efficacy over other antidepressants for the acute-phase treatment of major depression.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use in special populations.", "content": "It is not recommended for use in children and adolescents below 18 years of age due to a lack of data on safety and efficacy. Only limited data is available on use in elderly people ≥ 75 years old with major depressive episodes.  It is not recommended during pregnancy or breastfeeding.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Contraindications.", "content": "Agomelatine is contraindicated in patients with kidney or liver impairment. According to information disclosed by Servier in 2012, guidelines for the follow-up of patients treated with Valdoxan have been modified in concert with the European Medicines Agency. As some patients may experience increased levels of liver enzymes in their blood during treatment with Valdoxan, doctors have to run laboratory tests to check that the liver is working properly at the initiation of the treatment and then periodically during treatment, and subsequently decide whether to pursue the treatment or not. No relevant modification in agomelatine pharmacokinetic parameters in patients with severe renal impairment has been observed. However, only limited clinical data on its use in depressed patients with severe or moderate renal impairment with major depressive episodes is available. Therefore, caution should be exercised when prescribing agomelatine to these patients.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adverse effects.", "content": "Agomelatine does not alter daytime vigilance and memory in healthy volunteers. In depressed patients, treatment with the drug increased slow wave sleep without modification of REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep amount or REM latency. Agomelatine also induced an advance of the time of sleep onset and of minimum heart rate. From the first week of treatment, onset of sleep and the quality of sleep were significantly improved without daytime clumsiness as assessed by patients.  Agomelatine appears to cause fewer sexual side effects and discontinuation effects than paroxetine.  \"Note: mania and hypomania are often due to an underlying disease, namely bipolar disorder.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dependence and withdrawal.", "content": "No dosage tapering is needed on treatment discontinuation. Agomelatine has no abuse potential as measured in healthy volunteer studies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Overdose.", "content": "Agomelatine is expected to be relatively safe in overdose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interactions.", "content": "Agomelatine is a substrate of CYP1A2, CYP2C9 and CYP2C19. Inhibitors of these enzymes, e.g. the SSRI antidepressant fluvoxamine, reduce its clearance and can therefore lead to an increase in agomelatine exposure. There is also the potential for agomelatine to interact with alcohol to increase the risk of hepatotoxicity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacodynamics.", "content": "Agomelatine is a melatonin receptor agonist (MT (\"K\" 0.1 nM) and MT (\"K\" = 0.12 nM)) and serotonin 5-HT (\"K\" = 631 nM) and 5-HT receptor (\"K\" = 660 nM) antagonist. Binding studies indicate that it has no effect on monoamine uptake and no affinity for adrenergic, histamine, cholinergic, dopamine, and benzodiazepine receptors, nor other serotonin receptors.  Agomelatine resynchronizes circadian rhythms in animal models of delayed sleep phase syndrome. By antagonizing 5-HT, it disinhibits/increases noradrenaline and dopamine release specifically in the frontal cortex. Therefore, it is sometimes classified as a norepinephrine–dopamine disinhibitor. It has no influence on the extracellular levels of serotonin. Agomelatine has shown an antidepressant-like effect in animal models of depression (learned helplessness test, despair test, chronic mild stress) as well as in models with circadian rhythm desynchronisation and in models related to stress and anxiety. In humans, agomelatine has positive phase shifting properties; it induces a phase advance of sleep, body temperature decline and melatonin onset.  Antagonism of 5-HT is an antidepressant property agomelatine shares with several atypical antipsychotics, such as aripiprazole, which are themselves used as atypical antidepressants. 5-HT antagonists are currently being investigated for their usefulness in reducing cardiotoxicity of drugs as well as being effective in reducing headache. Hence this particular receptor antagonism of agomelatine is useful for its antidepressant effectiveness as well as reducing the drug's adverse effects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "The chemical structure of agomelatine is very similar to that of melatonin. Where melatonin has an indole ring system, agomelatine has a naphthalene bioisostere instead.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Agomelatine was discovered and developed by the European pharmaceutical company Servier Laboratories Ltd. Servier continued to develop the drug and conduct phase III trials in the European Union.  In March 2005, Servier submitted agomelatine to the European Medicines Agency (EMA) under the trade names Valdoxan and Thymanax. On 27 July 2006, the Committee for Medical Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the EMA recommended a refusal of the marketing authorisation. The major concern was that efficacy had not been sufficiently shown, while there were no special concerns about side effects. In September 2007, Servier submitted a new marketing application to the EMA.  In March 2006, Servier announced it had sold the rights to market agomelatine in the United States to Novartis. It was undergoing several phase III clinical trials in the US, and until October 2011 Novartis listed the drug as scheduled for submission to the FDA no earlier than 2012. However, the development for the US market was discontinued in October 2011, when the results from the last of those trials became available.  It received EMA approval for marketing in the European Union in February 2009 and TGA approval for marketing in Australia in August 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Agomelatine is under development by Servier for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder and has reached phase III clinical trials for this indication, but in August 2017, Servier communicated that development for this indication is currently suspended.  Agomelatine is also studied for its effects on sleep regulation. Studies report various improvements in general quality of sleep metrics, as well as benefits in circadian rhythm disorders. It has been found more effective than placebo in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. A 2019 review suggested no recommendations of agomelatine in support of, or against, its use to treat individuals with seasonal affective disorder.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agomelatine is an atypical antidepressant used to treat major depressive disorder. One review found that it is as effective as other antidepressants with similar discontinuation rates overall but less discontinuations due to side effects. Another review also found it was similarly effective to many other antidepressants. Common side effects include weight gain, feeling tired, liver problems, nausea, headaches, and anxiety. Due to potential liver problems ongoing blood tests are recommended. Its use is not recommended in people with dementia or over the age of 75. There is tentative evidence that it may have fewer side effects than some other antidepressants. It works by stimulating melatonin receptors and blocking serotonin receptors. Agomelatine was approved for medical use in Europe in 2009 and Australia in 2010. Its use is not approved in the United States and efforts to get approval were ended in 2011. It was developed by the pharmaceutical company Servier. In the United Kingdom a month of treatment costs the NHS about 30 pounds as of 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975399}
{"src_title": "Theaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family traits.", "content": "Plants in this family are characterized by simple leaves that are alternate spiral to distichial, serrated, and usually glossy. Most of the genera have evergreen foliage, but \"Stewartia\" and \"Franklinia\" are deciduous. The toothed margins are generally associated with a characteristic Theoid leaf tooth, which is crowned by a glandular, deciduous tip. The flowers in this family are usually pink or white and large and showy, often with a strong scent. The calyx consists of five or more sepals, which are often persistent in the fruiting stage, and the corolla is five-merous, rarely numerous. Plants in Theaceae are multistaminate, usually with 20-100+ stamen either free or adnate to the base of the corolla, and are also distinctive because of the presence of pseudopollen. The pseudopollen is produced from connective cells, and has either rib-like or circular thickenings. The ovary is often hairy and narrows gradually into the style, which may be branched or cleft. The carpels are typically opposite from the petals, or the sepals in the case of \"Camellia\". The fruits are loculicidal capsules, indehiscent baccate fruits or sometimes pome-like. The seeds are few and sometimes winged, or in some generas covered by fleshy tissue or unwinged and nude.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genera.", "content": ", the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website accepts the following genera: The fossil \"Pentapetalum trifasciculandricus\", about 91 million years old, may belong to the Theaceae or the Pentaphylacaceae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Members of the family are found in Southeast Asia and Malesia, tropical South America and the Southeast United States. Three genera (\"Franklinia\", \"Gordonia\" and \"Stewartia\") have species native to the Southeast United States, with \"Franklinia\" being endemic there, and under some interpretations, also \"Gordonia\" with the Asian species formerly included in that genus being transferred to \"Polyspora\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biochemistry.", "content": "There is distinctive chemistry within the family Theaceae. Sometimes, single crystals of calcium oxalate are present in Theaceous plants. Ellagic acid and common polyphenols including flavonols, flavones and proanthocyanins are widely distributed throughout the family. Gallic acid and catechins only occur in \"Camellia\" sect. \"Thea (C. sinensis, C. taliensis\" and \"C. irrawadiensis\".) Caffeine and its precursors theobromine and theophylline are only found in sect. \"Thea\" and are not found in other species of \"Camellia\" or other Theaceae. Caffeine content in the tea bush makes up 2.5-4% of the leaf's dry weight, and this high content of catechins and caffeine in the tea bush is the result of artificial selection by humans for these characters. Triterpenes and their glycosides (saponins) are found widely throughout the family in the seeds, leaves, wood and bark. Plants in this family are also known to accumulate aluminum and fluoride.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic importance.", "content": "The best known genus is \"Camellia\", which includes the plant whose leaves are used to produce tea (\"Camellia sinensis\"). In parts of Asia, other species are used as a beverage, including \"C. taliensis, C. grandibractiata, C. kwangsiensis, C. gymnogyna, C. crassicolumna, C. tachangensis, C. ptilophylla\", and \"C. irrawadiensis\". Several species are grown widely as ornamentals for their flowers and handsome foliage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theaceae (), the tea family, is a family of flowering plants comprising shrubs and trees, including the economically important tea plant, and the ornamental camellias. It can be described as having from seven to 40 genera, depending on the source and the method of circumscription used. The family Ternstroemiaceae has been included within Theaceae; however, the APG III system of 2009 places it instead in Pentaphylacaceae. Most but not all species are native to China and East Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975400}
{"src_title": "Karl Heinrich Emil Becker", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "From 1898, Becker was a military engineer.  From 1901 to 1903, Becker studied at the Munich Artillery and Engineering School. From 1906 to 1911, he studied at the Berlin Military Engineering Academy, specializing in ballistics under Carl Julius Cranz; from 1908 to 1911, he was a teaching assistant at the Ballistics Laboratory there. From 1911 to 1914, he was a member of the Artillery Examining Board. In 1913, Becker co-authored a revision of Cranz' classic text, \"Lehrbuch der Ballistik\".  During World War I, Becker held two positions. From 1914 to 1916, he commanded a 42-cm mortar battery. From 1917 to 1919, he was an advisor on artillery ballistics at the Weapons and Equipment Inspection (\"Inspektion für Waffen und Gerät\"), which later became the \"Heereswaffenamt\" (HWA, Army Ordnance Office).  From 1919 to 1923, Becker studied chemistry and metallurgy. He was awarded a doctorate of engineering in 1922, with a thesis on cathodic change of phenol.  From 1922, Major Becker was an advisor to the HWA inspections office.  Becker was aware of the advantages of a close relationship between the military and science in the development of future weapons technology. As early as 1924, he recommended the establishment of a central laboratory of chemistry and physics. But only when he was director of the Ballistics and Ammunition Department of the Weapons and Equipment Inspection (\"Inspektion für Waffen und Gerät\") was he able to implement his recommendation. The Central Office of Army Physics and Army Chemistry (\"Zentralstelle für Heeresphysik und Heereschemie\") was formed in 1926 and recognized as an Armed Forces department in 1929. When Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, this department took on greater importance and received generous funding from the Reich. Its Research Department established top-quality facilities, one of them was the \"Heeresversuchsanstalt\" (Armed Forces testing station) in \"Gottow\"; it was under the direction Kurt Diebner and played a central role in the German nuclear energy project, also known as the \"Uranverein\" (Uranium Club).  Lt. Col. Dr. Ing. Karl Becker, head of the ballistics and munitions section of the HWA Weapons Testing Division, was a key early supporter of Germany's development of the rocket as a weapon. In 1929, Becker got permission of the \"Reichswehrministerium\" (RWM, Reich Ministry of Defense) to do so. He was interested in the development of both solid-fuel and liquid-fuel rockets. Later, one of his subordinates, Walter Dornberger became important as leader of the V-2 rocket program. Wernher von Braun was hired in 1932.  From 1932, Becker was an Honorary Professor of military sciences at the \"Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität\" (later, the \"Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin\", i.e. University of Berlin). From autumn 1933, he was an \"ordentlicher Professor\" (ordinarius professor) of technical physics at the \"Technische Hochschule Berlin\" in Berlin Charlottenburg (later, the Technical University of Berlin). From 1935, he was \"ordentlicher Professor\" of defense technology, physics, and ballistics, as well as dean of the military engineering department (\"Wehrtechnische Fakultät\"), which had been newly created in 1933, at the \"Technische Hochschule Berlin\". He was on the supervisory board of the \"Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft\", the umbrella organization for numerous technical institutes. From 1935, he was the first general officer to be a member of the \"Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften\" (PAW, Prussian Academy of Sciences). In 1937, Becker significantly expanded the \"Wehrtechnische Fakultät\".  From November 1933, General of the Artillery Becker was head of the research department and the Weapons Testing Office, and from February 4, 1938 head of the HWA, in addition to his positions at the \"Technische Hochschule Berlin\" and the University of Berlin. From 1937, he was also first president of the \"Reichsforschungsrat\" (RFR, Reich Research Council), appointed by Bernhard Rust, Minister of the \"Reichserziehungsministerium\" (REM, Reich Ministry of Education).  On 8 April 1940, just one day before the invasion of Denmark and Norway (Operation \"Weserübung\"), Becker, in the presence of the \"Gestapo\", committed suicide. Becker had been depressed for months, as he had been heavily criticized by Hitler and others for shortfalls in munitions production. Becker's suicide was covered up by a State funeral on 12 April 1940.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Heinrich Emil Becker (14 September 1879 in Speyer – 8 April 1940 in Berlin) was a German weapons engineer and artillery general. He advocated and implemented close ties of the military to science for purposes of advanced weapons development. He was the head of the Army Ordnance Office, Senator of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, first president of the Reich Research Council, the first general officer to be a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, as well as being a professor at both the University of Berlin and the Berlin Technical University. He was an early and key supporter of the development of ballistic rockets as weapons. The military-scientific infrastructure he helped implement supported the German nuclear energy program, known as the Uranium Club. Being depressed over heavy criticism from Hitler for shortfalls in munitions production, he committed suicide in 1940. He was given a State funeral.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975401}
{"src_title": "R4M", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The R4M was developed in order to deal with the increasing weight of anti-bomber weapons being deployed by Luftwaffe fighters. The primary anti-bomber weapon of the Luftwaffe for much of the war was the 20 mm MG 151/20 autocannon, which was compact enough to be mounted in an internal wing bay mounting in the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 (up to 4 cannon, or 6 with optional twin-gun underwing pods) and also fitted on the centerline of Bf 109G fighters, firing through the propeller spinner as a \"Motorkanone\". This could be supplemented by an additional pair of cannon in drag-inducing underwing gun pods, but it was found that it took an average of twenty 20 mm hits to shoot down a typical four-engined Allied bomber. The MG 151/20 was subsequently supplemented with or replaced by the 30 mm MK 108 cannon, which replaced the centerline \"Motorkanone\"-mount MG 151/20 on many Bf 109's, and could be fitted into slightly larger underwing pods, which could be used on either the Bf 109 or Fw 190. This heavier-caliber cannon could bring down a bomber with an average of one to three hits. However the MK 108 was much heavier and the larger calibre ammunition made it difficult to carry more than one or two \"passes\" worth. Worse, the low muzzle velocity of this gun meant it had a very short range and suffered a ballistic drop of over 41 metres at 1,000 metres range after firing. In approaching close enough to get hits, the fighters placed themselves within the range of the dozens of AN/M2 \"light barrel\" Browning defensive machine guns that a combat box formation of a typical USAAF heavy bomber raid possessed, from nearly any approach direction. The more powerful MK 103 cannon had higher muzzle velocity and increased range, at the cost of greatly increased weight, size (barrel length of 1.34 meters, or 52-3/4 inches) and much lower rate of fire: 380-420 RPM vs. 600-650 RPM for the MK 108.  Also, the Nebelwerfer 42-derived \"Werfer-Granate 21\" (Wfr. Gr. 21, or \"Bordrakete\" BR 21) rockets fitted to Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Bf 110, and Focke-Wulf Fw 190 fighters, used to break up the USAAF combat box bomber formations, had launch tubes that were not only drag-producing, due to their exposed five-strut under-wing mounting, but also from the fact that the launch tubes needed to be aimed upwards at some 15° from level flight, to counter the BR 21 rocket projectile's considerable ballistic drop after firing. This added to the already considerable drag the launch tube mountings created, and contributed to the Wfr. Gr 21's relatively slow projectile velocity of 1,150 km/h (715 mph), approximately 60% of the 505 m/s (1818 km/h) velocity of the MK 108 cannon's shells.  The solution was to replace the underwing gun pods, and the excessively drag-producing large-calibre underwing rocket launch tubes, with a small-diameter solid-fuel rocket-engine-propelled projectile, mounting a warhead similar to that of the cannon shell. Although each \"round\" was heavier than the corresponding gun-fired shell, the absence of a gun reduced the overall weight considerably. The weight difference was so great that even a much larger and longer-ranged rocket was still lighter than the guns it could replace, although the total number of rounds carried was also reduced from 65 rounds of 30 mm ammunition to only 24 rockets.  The anti-aircraft version of the R4M used a large warhead of 55 mm with 520 g. (17.6 ounces) of the strongly brisant Hexogen explosive charge, nearly guaranteeing a fighter kill with one hit, from the \"shattering\" force of its explosive warhead — this was the same explosive used in the shells fired by both the MK 103 (30 x 184 mm cartridge) and MK 108 (30 x 90 mm cartridge) autocannons. Each R4M weighed 3.2 kg and was provided with enough fuel to be fired from 1000 m, just outside the range of the bomber's defensive guns. The main body of the rocket consisted of a simple steel tube with eight base-hinged flip-out fins on the tail for stabilisation, deployed immediately after launch. A battery typically consisted of two groups of 12 rockets and when all 24 were salvoed in an attack, they would fill an area about 15 by 30 m at 1000 m, a density that made it almost certain that the target would be hit. The R4Ms were usually fired in four salvos of six missiles at intervals of 70 milliseconds from a range of 600 m, and would supersonically streak towards their target at a sixty percent higher velocity than the Wfr. Gr. 21's rockets would (the BR 21's projectile travelled at some 1150 km/h post-launch), as the R4M typically had a flight speed of roughly 1,890 km/h (1,175 mph). Two warheads were available for the R4M, the common PB-3 with a 0.4 kg charge for anti-aircraft use and the larger shaped charge, similar in construction to the Panzerschreck, the Panzerblitz (PB-2/3), for anti-tank use. The \"Panzerblitz III\", mounting a gigantic 210 mm hollow charge warhead (the same calibre as the BR 21), can be seen as the ultimate development of the basic \"Orkan\" rocket. It was intended to be carried (six or eight rockets per plane) by the tank-busting B model of the Henschel Hs 132 jet dive-bomber - however, neither the missile nor the warplane it was exclusively intended for got beyond the prototype stage before the end of the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "Only a small number of aircraft were fitted with the R4M, mostly Messerschmitt Me 262s and the ground attack version of the Fw 190s, which mounted them on small wooden racks under the wings. On one occasion, a Me 163A was fitted with several R4M rockets, and this setup was tested for several weeks in 1944, without incident. This was the first time a rocket propelled aircraft has had rocket propelled armament.  The Luftwaffe found the R4M missiles to have a similar trajectory to the 30 mm MK 108 cannon's rounds in flight, so the standard Revi 16\"B\" gunsight could be utilized.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The R4M () rocket, nicknamed the \"Hurricane\" () due to its distinctive smoke trail when fired, was an anti-aircraft rocket. It was developed by the German Luftwaffe during World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975402}
{"src_title": "Douglas XB-42 Mixmaster", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The XB-42 was developed initially as a private venture; an unsolicited proposal was presented to the United States Army Air Forces in May 1943. This resulted in an Air Force contract for two prototypes and one static test airframe, the USAAF seeing an intriguing possibility of finding a bomber capable of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress's range without its size or cost.  The aircraft mounted a pair of Allison V-1710-125 liquid-cooled V-12 engines behind the crew's cabin, each driving one of the twin propellers. Air intakes were in the wing leading edge. The landing gear was tricycle and a full, four surface cruciform tail was fitted, whose ventral fin/rudder unit prevented the coaxial propellers from striking the ground. The pilot and co-pilot sat under twin bubble canopies, and the bombardier sat in the extreme front behind a plexiglass nose.  Defensive armament consisted of two 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns each side in the trailing edge of the wing, which retracted into the wing when not in use. These guns were aimed by the copilot through a sighting station at the rear of his cockpit. The guns had a limited field of fire and could only cover the rear, but with the aircraft's high speed it was thought unlikely that intercepting fighters would attack from any other angle.  Two more guns were fitted to fire directly forward. Initially ordered as an attack aircraft (XA-42) in the summer of 1943, this variant would have been armed with 16 machine guns or a 75 mm (2.95 in) cannon and two machine guns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first XB-42 was delivered to the USAAF and flew at Palm Springs, California on 6 May 1944. Performance was excellent, being basically as described in the original proposal: as fast or faster than the de Havilland Mosquito but with defensive armament and twice the bombload. The twin bubble canopies proved a bad idea as communications were adversely affected and a single bubble canopy was substituted after the first flight.  Testing revealed that the XB-42 suffered from some instability as excessive yaw was encountered, as well as vibration and poor engine cooling - all problems that could probably have been dealt with. Due to the ventral vertical stabilizer and rudder surface set's tip being located underneath the fuselage, careful handling during taxiing, takeoff, and landing was required because of limited ground clearance.  The end of World War II allowed the Air Force to consider possibilities with a little more leisure and it was decided to wait for the development of better jet bombers rather than continue with the B-42 program.  In December 1945, Captain Glen Edwards and Lt. Col. Henry E. Warden set a new transcontinental speed record when they flew the XB-42 from Long Beach, California to Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, D.C. (c. 2,300 miles). In just 5 hours, 17 minutes, the XB-42 set a speed record of 433.6 mph (697.8 km/h).  The record-breaking XB-42 prototype had been destroyed in a crash at Bolling Field. The second of two prototypes of the Douglas XB-42, 43-50225, on a routine flight out of Bolling Field, Washington, D.C., suffered in short order, a landing gear extension problem, failure of the left engine, and as coolant temperatures rose, failure of the right engine. Maj. Hayduck bailed out at 1,200 feet, Lt. Col. Haney at 800 feet, and pilot Lt. Col. (later Major General) Fred J. Ascani, after crawling aft to jettison the pusher propellers, at 400 feet – all three survived. The aircraft crashed at Oxon Hill, Maryland. Classified jettisonable propeller technology caused a problem for authorities in explaining what witnesses on the ground thought was the aircraft exploding. Possible fuel management problems were speculated, but this hypothesis was never proven by subsequent investigation. The remaining prototype was used in flight test programs, including fulfilling a December 1943 proposal by Douglas to fit uprated engines and underwing Westinghouse 19XB-2A axial-flow turbojets of 1,600 lbf (7.1 kN) thrust each, making it the XB-42A.  In this configuration, it first flew at Muroc (now Edwards Air Force Base) on 27 May 1947. In testing, it reached 488 mph (785 km/h). After 22 flights, the lower vertical stabilizer and rudder were damaged in a hard landing in 1947. The XB-42A was repaired but never flew again, and was taken off the USAF inventory on 30 June 1949.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Douglas XB-42 Mixmaster was an experimental bomber aircraft, designed for a high top speed. The unconventional approach was to mount the two engines within the fuselage driving a pair of contra-rotating propellers mounted at the tail in a pusher configuration, leaving the wing and fuselage clean and free of drag-inducing protrusions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975403}
{"src_title": "Karel Koželuh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rugby, football and ice hockey years.", "content": "Koželuh was born in Prague, Austria-Hungary (today's Prague, Czech Republic), one of seven brothers (and two sisters). His sports career began with rugby and it was only at the age of 16 that he learned to play tennis. In 1914 he joined the strong soccer team of Sparta Prague. In later years Koželuh also played for DFC Prag (Prague) and Teplitzer FK (Teplice).  He played international football for both Austria and Czechoslovakia.  In 1925, he was a member of the Czechoslovakia ice hockey team that won the European Championship, scoring the winning goal in the final game.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tennis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "He became a professional tennis coach at a fairly young age and thereby made himself ineligible to play in any amateur tournaments. 1912 he beats Roman Najuch in the Germany Pro Championships in Wiesbaden. He did, however, compete in the very few professional tournaments that took place in Europe in the 1920s, contested primarily between teaching professionals. He became known in these tournaments for his speed, his endurance, and his fine groundstrokes from the baseline. He was 5 feet 8 inches tall and weighed 145 pounds. The American tennis player Vinnie Richards said he was \"seamy-faced, cadaverous-looking and, in general, resembled a cigar-store Indian.\" Koželuh used the Continental grip, in which both the forehand and backhand are hit with the same grip, and preferred to play as much as 10 feet behind the baseline, returning balls endlessly to the other court, almost never advancing to the net. Seldom hitting the ball very hard, he was content to outrun and outlast his opponents in exhausting matches of attrition. He won the most prestigious of these European tournaments, the Bristol Cup, played in Beaulieu, France, six times.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional years.", "content": "When a true professional tour was at last started, Koželuh was one of the first players to join it, being signed up for it by Vinnie Richards, who made a special trip to Europe for that sole purpose. In the years to come Koželuh would achieve much greater prominence as a pro than as an amateur. In 1928, his first year as a professional, he beat Richards 15 matches to 5, at a time when Richards was generally considered to be one of the 5 or 6 best players in the world, amateur or professional. In the following years Koželuh continued to dominate Richards, in 1929 beating him 5 times to 2 and in 1930 4 times to 2. After watching one of their lengthy matches, a tennis expert of the time, J. Parmly Paret, wrote in American Lawn Tennis, that Koželuh had \"the most perfect defense that I have seen... But defense alone does not make a champion.\" He went on to say that either Henri Cochet or Bill Tilden at their best would be able to defeat Koželuh by attacking him consistently from the net. Koželuh defended his somewhat tedious baseline style by saying: \"Why should I change my style when it is so successful?\"  \"Big\" Bill Tilden, the greatest player of the 1920s, and by far the most famous, turned professional at the end of 1930 and organized a tour with several lesser players and with himself to play the headline match against Koželuh. Their first encounter was on 18 February 1931 before 14,000 spectators in Madison Square Garden in New York. Tilden won 3 straight sets in only 65 minutes, attacking from both the baseline and the net and overwhelming Koželuh with his power. Tilden won the next 8 matches as well, all of them played indoors on a canvas surface that seldom had enough room for Koželuh to play his normal game far behind the baseline. Koželuh finally won their 10th match on an outdoor concrete court at the Los Angeles Tennis Club. In the course of the year, both in the United States and in Europe, the Czech eventually beat Tilden 17 times while losing 50 matches to him. Koželuh had firmly established himself as one of the half-dozen best players in the world.  Koželuh had already beaten Vinnie Richards to win the United States Pro Championship in 1929. He went on to win the title again in 1932, defeating the German Hans Nüsslein, and in October 1937, beating the American Bruce Barnes at The Greenbrier in West Virginia at the age of 42. With this win, he became the oldest winner of a major professional singles tournament. In the first round at the Greenbrier tournament in 1938 (not classed as the US Pro this year), Koželuh faced Greenbrier golf professional Sam Snead, beating him in three straight sets. Koželuh was the losing finalist at the US Pro in 1928, 1930, 1934 and 1935. Koželuh was a six-time winner of the Bristol Cup (Menton, France), which was the most prestigious professional title in the world in the 1920s. He also won the World Pro tournament in Deauville, France, in 1925. Another major title for Koželuh was the French Professional Championship of 1930.  He is not to be confused with another fine Czech tennis player of the same era, Jan Koželuh, who was Karel's younger brother. Jan was good enough to be ranked as high as the World No. 10 amateur in 1927.  Koželuh was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, Rhode Island, in 2006.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Koželuh was killed in a car accident outside Prague on 27 April 1950.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karel Koželuh (; ; 7 March 1895 – 27 April 1950) was a top Czech tennis, association football, and ice hockey player of the 1920s and 1930s. Koželuh never played in the major tournaments of amateur tennis but was an all-around athlete at the highest level.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975404}
{"src_title": "Van Gogh Museum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unsold works.", "content": "Upon Vincent van Gogh's death in 1890, his work not sold fell into the possession of his brother Theo. Theo died six months after Vincent, leaving the work in the possession of his widow, Johanna van Gogh-Bonger. Selling many of Vincent's paintings with the ambition of spreading knowledge of his artwork, Johanna maintained a private collection of his works. The collection was inherited by her son Vincent Willem van Gogh in 1925, eventually loaned to the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam where it was displayed for many years, and was transferred to the state-initiated Vincent van Gogh Foundation in 1962.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dedicated museum.", "content": "Design for a Van Gogh Museum was commissioned by the Dutch government in 1963 to Dutch architect and furniture designer Gerrit Rietveld. Rietveld died a year later, and the building was not completed until 1973, when the museum opened its doors. In 1998 and 1999, the building was renovated by the Dutch architect Martien van Goor, and an exhibition wing by the Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa was added. In late 2012, the museum was closed for renovations for six months. During this period, 75 works from the collection were shown in the Hermitage Amsterdam.  On 9 September 2013, the museum unveiled a long-lost Van Gogh painting that spent years in a Norwegian attic believed to be by another painter. It is the first full-size canvas by him discovered since 1928. \"Sunset at Montmajour\" depicts trees, bushes and sky, painted with Van Gogh's familiar thick brush strokes. It can be dated to the exact day it was painted because he described it in a letter to his brother, Theo, and said he painted it the previous day 4 July 1888.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Art thefts.", "content": "In 1991, twenty paintings were stolen from the museum, among them Van Gogh's early painting \"The Potato Eaters\". Although the thieves escaped from the building, 35 minutes later all stolen paintings were recovered from an abandoned car. Three paintings – \"Wheatfield with Crows\", \"Still Life with Bible\", and \"Still Life with Fruit\" – were severely torn during the theft. Four men, including two museum guards, were convicted for the theft and given six or seven-year sentences. It is considered to be the largest art theft in the Netherlands since the Second World War.  In 2002, two paintings were stolen from the museum, \"Congregation Leaving the Reformed Church in Nuenen\" and \"View of the Sea at Scheveningen\". Two Dutchmen were convicted for the theft to four-and-a-half-year sentences, but the paintings were not immediately recovered. The museum offered a reward of €100,000 for information leading to the recovery of the paintings. The FBI Art Crime Team listed the robbery on their \"Top Ten Art Crimes\" list, and estimates the combined value of the paintings at US$30million. In September 2016, both paintings were discovered by the Guardia di Finanza in Naples, Italy. The two artworks were found in a \"relatively good state\", according to the Van Gogh Museum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Buildings.", "content": "The museum is situated at the Museumplein in Amsterdam-Zuid, on the Paulus Potterstraat 7, between the Stedelijk Museum and the Rijksmuseum, and consists of two buildings, the Rietveld building, designed by Gerrit Rietveld, and the Kurokawa wing, designed by Kisho Kurokawa. Museum offices are housed on Stadhouderskade 55 in Amsterdam-Zuid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rietveld building.", "content": "The Rietveld building is the main structure and houses the permanent collection. It has a rectangular floor plan and is four stories high. On the ground floor are a shop, a café, and an introductory exhibition. The first floor shows the works of Van Gogh grouped chronologically. The second floor gives information about the restoration of paintings and has a space for minor temporary exhibitions. The third floor shows paintings of Van Gogh's contemporaries in relationship to the work of Van Gogh himself.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kurokawa wing.", "content": "The Kurokawa wing is used for major temporary exhibitions. It has an oval floor plan and is three stories high. The entrance to the Kurokawa wing is via a tunnel from the Rietveld building.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collection.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works by Vincent van Gogh.", "content": "The museum houses the largest Van Gogh collection in the world with 200 paintings, 400 drawings, and 700 letters by the artist.  The main exhibition chronicles the various phases of Van Gogh's artistic life.  The permanent collection also includes nine of the artist's self-portraits and some of his earliest paintings dating back to 1882.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Works by contemporaries.", "content": "The museum also features notable artworks by Van Gogh's contemporaries in the Impressionist and post-Impressionist movements and holds extensive exhibitions on various subjects from 19th Century art history.  The museum has sculptures by Auguste Rodin and Jules Dalou, and paintings by John Russell, Émile Bernard, Maurice Denis, Kees van Dongen, Paul Gauguin, Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Odilon Redon, Georges Seurat, Paul Signac, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Meet Vincent Van Gogh Experience\".", "content": "The Van Gogh Museum manages an official \"Meet Vincent Van Gogh Experience\", described as a travelling \"3D immersive exhibition\" using technology and computer audio-visual techniques to cover the story of Van Gogh's life through images of his works. The first \"experience\" was in 2016 in Beijing, and it has since been toured globally to Europe, Asia and North America.  The \"Meet Van Gogh Experience\" does not present original artworks, as they are too fragile to travel. The \"experience\" was designed in collaboration with the London-based museum design consultancy, Event Communications (who designed Titanic Belfast), and it won a 2017 THEA award in the category of \"Immersive Museum Exhibit: Touring\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visitors.", "content": "The Van Gogh Museum, which is a national museum (), is a foundation ().  Axel Rüger, who had been the museum director since 2006, left the museum in 2019 to become secretary and chief executive of the Royal Academy of Arts in London. The Van Gogh Museum announced that Managing Director Adriaan Dönszelmann would act as general director until a new director is appointed.  Since 2000, the museum had between 1.2 and 1.9 million visitors per year. From 2010 to 2012, it was the most visited museum in the Netherlands. In 2015, the museum had 1.9 million visitors, it was the 2nd most visited museum in the Netherlands, after the Rijksmuseum, and the 31st most visited art museum in the world.  The Van Gogh Museum is a member of the national Museumvereniging (Museum Association).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Van Gogh Museum is a Dutch art museum dedicated to the works of Vincent van Gogh and his contemporaries in Amsterdam; it is located at the Museum Square in the borough Amsterdam South, close to the Stedelijk Museum, the Rijksmuseum, and the Concertgebouw. The museum opened on 2 June 1973, and its buildings were designed by Gerrit Rietveld and Kisho Kurokawa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975405}
{"src_title": "Andrea Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Montezemolo was born in Turin, Italy of a noble family. His father Giuseppe was an Army officer, tortured and executed during the Ardeatine massacre for his role in resisting the Nazi occupation of Rome. During that year Andrea was kept hidden from the Nazis by the Ukrainian clergy in the Ukrainian Pontifical College of Saint Josaphat. Andrea and his sister Adriana have, on several occasions, been noted for their forgiveness of the perpetrators, notably Erich Priebke. He is related to Luca di Montezemolo, former president of Ferrari, former chairman of FIAT and chairman of Alitalia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Studies and priesthood.", "content": "Montezemolo studied in Turin and Rome and fought in World War II. After the war, he pursued higher studies in architecture and was a professional and academic. He later discerned his vocation to the priesthood and pursued studies in theology and philosophy at the Pontifical Gregorian University. He also studied at the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy and obtained a doctorate in canon law from the Pontifical Lateran University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomatic and curial service.", "content": "In 1976 he was appointed Secretary of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace in the Roman Curia. On 5 April 1977 he was appointed Titular Archbishop of Pandosia and Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to Papua New Guinea and Apostolic Delegate to the Solomon Islands. On 25 October 1980 he was transferred as Apostolic Nuncio to Nicaragua and Honduras, and on 1 April 1986 to Uruguay.  On 28 April 1990 he became Apostolic Delegate to Jerusalem and Palestine and, one month later, also Pro-Nuncio to Cyprus. While he held this appointment, the 1993 Fundamental Agreement between the Holy See and the State of Israel was reached. This paved the way for establishing full diplomatic relations, so that he became the first Nuncio to Israel. In 1999 Montezemolo was appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic. His final diplomatic posting was as Nuncio to Italy and San Marino, to which he was named on 17 April 2001.  In 2005 he designed the coat of arms of Pope Benedict XVI and shortly afterwards, on 31 May 2005, was named Archpriest of the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls. As Archpriest he carried out, with the assistance of the Benedictine Monks of the Abbey of Saint Paul, important architectural work and restoration for the benefit of local Catholics and the pilgrims who come to the Basilica from various parts of the world. Pope Benedict XVI made him a cardinal in the consistory of 24 March 2006, as Cardinal-Deacon of Santa Maria in Portico. Montezemolo was already over eighty years of age and ineligible to vote in a conclave.  On 3 July 2009, Montezemolo was succeeded as Archpriest of the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls by Archbishop Francesco Monterisi, former secretary of the Congregation for Bishops.  In a 2013 interview, Montezemolo said that Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI needed a new coat of arms now that he was no longer the pontiff. “The problem now is whether the Pope Emeritus can keep that same coat of arms or not”. “And as a person who has always dedicated himself to this, I say ‘no’”. He drew up a new coat of arms, which he believed could be used by the former pontiff. He moved the big keys of Saint Peter from the back of the coat of arms to the top part of the shield and made them much smaller. “But this is only a proposal, it isn’t official,” Montezemolo qualified.  Pope Francis visited him in a Rome nursing home in 2016. Montezemolo died on 19 November 2017. He was 92.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andrea Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo (27 August 1925 – 19 November 2017) was an Italian prelate of the Catholic church. He worked in the diplomatic service of the Holy See from 1977 until he retired in 2001. As Archpriest of the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls from 2005 to 2009 he helped oversee important restoration work. He was made a cardinal by Pope Benedict XVI on 24 March 2006.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975406}
{"src_title": "Reissner–Nordström metric", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The metric.", "content": "In spherical coordinates formula_1, the Reissner–Nordström metric (aka the line element) is  where formula_3 is the speed of light, formula_4 is the time coordinate (measured by a stationary clock at infinity), formula_5 is the radial coordinate, formula_6 are the spherical angles, and  formula_7 is the Schwarzschild radius of the body given by  and formula_8 is a characteristic length scale given by  Here formula_9 is Coulomb force constant formula_10.  The total mass of the central body and its irreducible mass are related by  The difference between formula_11 and formula_12 is due to the equivalence of mass and energy, which makes the electric field energy also contribute to the total mass.  In the limit that the charge formula_13 (or equivalently, the length-scale formula_8) goes to zero, one recovers the Schwarzschild metric. The classical Newtonian theory of gravity may then be recovered in the limit as the ratio formula_15 goes to zero. In the limit that both formula_16 and formula_15 go to zero, the metric becomes the Minkowski metric for special relativity.  In practice, the ratio formula_15 is often extremely small. For example, the Schwarzschild radius of the Earth is roughly 9 mm (3/8 inch), whereas a satellite in a geosynchronous orbit has a radius formula_5 that is roughly four billion times larger, at 42,164 km (26,200 miles). Even at the surface of the Earth, the corrections to Newtonian gravity are only one part in a billion. The ratio only becomes large close to black holes and other ultra-dense objects such as neutron stars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charged black holes.", "content": "Although charged black holes with \"r\" ≪ \"r\" are similar to the Schwarzschild black hole, they have two horizons: the event horizon and an internal Cauchy horizon. As with the Schwarzschild metric, the event horizons for the spacetime are located where the metric component \"g\" diverges (is not formula_20 divergent, or equivalently formula_21?); that is, where  This equation has two solutions:  These concentric event horizons become degenerate for 2\"r\" = \"r\", which corresponds to an extremal black hole. Black holes with 2\"r\" > \"r\" can not exist in nature because if the charge is greater than the mass there can be no physical event horizon (the term under the square root becomes negative). Objects with a charge greater than their mass can exist in nature, but they can not collapse down to a black hole, and if they could, they would display a naked singularity. Theories with supersymmetry usually guarantee that such \"superextremal\" black holes cannot exist.  The electromagnetic potential is  If magnetic monopoles are included in the theory, then a generalization to include magnetic charge \"P\" is obtained by replacing \"Q\" by \"Q\" + \"P\" in the metric and including the term \"P\"cos θ \"dφ\" in the electromagnetic potential.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gravitational time dilation.", "content": "The gravitational time dilation in the vicinity of the central body is given by  which relates to the local radial escape-velocity of a neutral particle", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Christoffel symbols.", "content": "The Christoffel symbols  with the indices  give the nonvanishing expressions  Given the Christoffel symbols, one can compute the geodesics of a test-particle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equations of motion.", "content": "Because of the spherical symmetry of the metric, the coordinate system can always be aligned in a way that the motion of a test-particle is confined to a plane, so for brevity and without restriction of generality we further use Ω instead of \"θ\" and \"φ\". In dimensionless natural units of \"G\" = \"M\" = \"c\" = \"K\" = 1 the motion of an electrically charged particle with the charge \"q\" is given by  which gives  The total time dilation between the test-particle and an observer at infinity is  The first derivatives formula_23 and the contravariant components of the local 3-velocity formula_24 are related by  which gives the initial conditions  The specific orbital energy  and the specific relative angular momentum  of the test-particle are conserved quantities of motion. formula_25 and formula_26 are the radial and transverse components of the local velocity-vector. The local velocity is therefore", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternative formulation of metric.", "content": "The metric can alternatively be expressed like this: Notice that k is a unit vector. Here \"M\" is the constant mass of the object, \"Q\" is the constant charge of the object, and \"η\" is the Minkowski tensor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In physics and astronomy, the Reissner–Nordström metric is a static solution to the Einstein–Maxwell field equations, which corresponds to the gravitational field of a charged, non-rotating, spherically symmetric body of mass \"M\". The analogous solution for a charged, rotating body is given by the Kerr–Newman metric.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975407}
{"src_title": "Cryptocoryne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "Some \"Cryptocoryne\" are popular commercially cultivated aquarium plants. Submerged plants reproduce vegetatively, emerse plants may flower and reproduce sexually. Many species are cultivated only by dedicated experts and are very hard to grow, or are not present in a culture at all. Some species are endangered because their natural habitats are disappearing. On the other hand, some water trumpets (e.g. \"Cryptocoryne beckettii\") are very hardy aquarium plants, easy to grow to the point that they have become an invasive species after being introduced in Florida in North America.  Cryptocoryne is either found in peat bogs or on limestone; the latter do well in most aquaria, the former must have soft water to survive and need decomposing beech leaf litter to do well. \"C. striolata,\" while found primarily in peat bogs, has also been found growing on limestone. Borneo is home to many endemic crypts previously thought to grow only in tea-colored soft acid water emulating peat bogs but exploration of habitats from 2005 to 2010 showed about half grew on limestone as well. These hardwater \"Cryptocorynes\" are generally the easier ones to keep (in fact, some species, such as \"Cryptocoryne wendtii\" are said to be among the most versatile of aquarium plants); they tolerate low or bright light but grow faster in more intense light,This water plants range of around 12 to 33 °C, and slightly alkaline to neutral pH.  Plants of the genus \"Cryptocoryne\", which range from India to New Guinea are found in very diverse conditions. Some are true acid loving plants such as \"C. pallidnerva\", found in peat bogs in Borneo, while others such as \"C. crispatula var. balansae\" and \"C. pontiderifolia\" are found in streams with limestone beds—hard alkaline water. One species, \"C. ciliata\" is even found in semi-brackish water in some areas. It is one of the few aquarium plants that tolerates salt concentrations.  \"Cryptocoryne\" plants have been in cultivation in the aquarium hobby since the late 18th century, although it was not until the 1960s that more than a handful of species was known and became more common in the hobby. New species still regularly crop up as interest in these plants widens and more collecting expeditions by private parties are carried out.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crypt melt.", "content": "A phenomenon often encountered when planting new crypts in an aquarium is commonly called \"Crypt melt\", whereby the plant loses all its leaves. There seem to be two possible causes for this.  Rapid environmental changes is thought to trigger this, as these plants do not seem to adapt well to transplantion, and may need 30 days or so to become established and for the leaves to regrow. Experienced growers report that it is better to plant crypts in aquariums that have been established for at least three months.  In the wild, crypts can grow fully submerged underwater, but in some plant nurseries they are often grown emersed and crypt melt could then be triggered by the change from emerse to submerse conditions.  There is lately a trend for such nurseries to send crypts as just a rootstock (i.e. without the leaves) to reduce shipping costs and because the leaves will be lost anyway once planted in an aquarium.  Other reports emphasise the need to change the aquarium water regularly to prevent the buildup of nitrates which are thought to trigger this condition (often referred to as a \"disease\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cryptocoryne is a genus of aquatic plants from the family Araceae. The genus is naturally distributed in tropical regions of India, Southeast Asia and New Guinea.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975408}
{"src_title": "European Library", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and concept.", "content": "The European Library of today has evolved from a number of earlier projects.  Its starting point was in 1997 when the GABRIEL (Gateway and Bridge to Europe's National Libraries) project set out to establish a joint web portal of European national libraries. At a basic level, the portal provided information about each library's collections and access to their online public access catalogues (OPACs).  GABRIEL was followed by the TEL (The European Library) project, which ran from 2001–2004 and created a framework for access to key national and deposit collections within Europe. The project was part-funded under the Fifth Framework Programme of the European Commission. The national libraries involved in the TEL project were those of Finland, Germany, Italy (Florence), Italy (Rome), Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia, Switzerland and United Kingdom.  This led to the launch of TheEuropeanLibrary.org portal on 17 March 2005.  Between 2005–2007, the TEL-ME-MOR project helped to incorporate 10 more national libraries from new European Union member states as full partners of The European Library. By the beginning of 2008, a further nine national libraries within the European Union and the European Free Trade Association had joined the service.  The European Library took a further step towards its enlargement with the EDLproject, during which national libraries continued to join The European Library. The project also focused on multilingualism, undertook the first steps towards a European Metadata Registry and created a roadmap for potential digitization efforts in the national libraries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The European Library and Europeana.", "content": "The European Library provided much of the organization and support required to launch Europeana – a European Commission initiative that makes millions of digital objects from libraries, museums and archives accessible to the public via the Europeana website.  When the European Parliament called for Europeana to be established, the Conference of European National Librarians (CENL), under the auspices of the National Library of the Netherlands and CENL's service The European Library, were asked to submit for a project under the eContentplus programme. Work began on a prototype in 2007 and Europeana was launched in November 2008.  Europeana now operates independently but The European Library continues to work closely with Europeana. The European Library is the aggregator of digital content from national libraries for Europeana and delivers digital content from national libraries on a monthly basis to Europeana.  As of July 2012, The European Library was the second biggest content provider to Europeana, with 3.45 million items added to the Europeana database.  Some human and technical resources are also shared between Europeana and The European Library.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Virtual exhibitions.", "content": "In addition to its search engine, The European Library pulls together themes from the collections of Europe's national libraries and displays them in virtual exhibitions. These exhibitions unite geographically disparate objects in a single online space, offering Pan-European sources on the topic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Financing and ownership.", "content": "The European Library is financed by its owners, the Conference of European National Librarians (CENL). The portal is maintained by The European Library Office located in the premises of the Dutch Royal Library in The Hague. Its programme director is Jill Cousins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Partner libraries.", "content": "The 48 National Libraries who participate in The European Library project are:  Research Libraries who have also contributed content to The European Library as a result of the Europeana Libraries project include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European Library is an Internet service that allows access to the resources of 49 European national libraries and an increasing number of research libraries. Searching is free and delivers metadata records as well as digital objects, mostly free of charge. The objects come from institutions located in countries which are members of the Council of Europe and range from catalogue records to full-text books, magazines, journals and audio recordings. Over 200 million records are searchable, including 24 million pages of full-text content and more than 7 million digital objects. Thirty five different languages are represented among the searchable objects.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975409}
{"src_title": "Angelo d'Arrigo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "D'Arrigo was born in Catania, Sicily but grew up from a very early age in Paris, as his parents emigrated there in search of work. He returned to Sicily after graduating from the university in Paris, and from his base on Mt. Etna gained a number of world records and world titles in the field of ultra light flying and free flying.  In 2001 he initiated a sequence of breath-taking events which saw him flying alongside various birds of prey as he attempted to learn from them their techniques for migratory flight by taking advantage of thermal air currents for long distance flight with low energy consumption.  In 2002 he crossed the Sahara and the Mediterranean with an eagle. His hang glider was launched from a microlight.  In 2003 he flew 5,500 kilometres from northern Siberia to the Caspian Sea in Iran in the company of a flock of Siberian cranes who had been born in captivity and, due to imprinting, considered him their parent. The bird is at risk of extinction, and, in order to try to save the species, Russian ornithologists hatched a plan. It called for having the eggs incubated under Angelo's hang-glider, so the chicks saw this as they hatched. Angelo would then be with the chicks as they fledge. When they were ready to fly, they would fly alongside Angelo so they would consider him their mentor. That way, he could show them the traditional migratory route for their species. They had no other way to learn it. This approach was similar to the one taken in the movie \"Fly Away Home\".  In 2004, he was aerotowed by Richard Meredith-Hardy and released over Mount Everest another world record. He reportedly made this flight over the summit of Everest with a trained Nepalese eagle. However, there were no eyewitnesses to this achievement, even though climbers saw and photographed Meredith-Hardy's microlight aircraft. No evidence in the form of videos or photography has ever been brought forward, either, despite the fact that d'Arrigo's hang-glider was equipped with three video cameras and two still cameras. The story is fully narrated in the documentary \"Flying Over Everest\" by director Fabio Toncelli.  In 2006 he followed the migratory routes of the condor over Aconcagua in the Andean Cordillera, the highest mountain in the Americas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In March 2006, he died in an accident during an airshow at Comiso, Italy, at the age of 44. A small Sky Arrow airplane, in which he was a passenger, fell 200 meters to the ground. Both d'Arrigo and the pilot, a general of the Italian Air Force and ex-test pilot, were killed on impact. At the time of his death, Angelo was engaged in planning an expedition to Peru to re-introduce two Andean condors bred in captivity and raised by d'Arrigo at his home on Mount Etna. A documentary about this was being made at the time. It was called \"Born to Fly\".  In memory of her husband, his widow Laura instituted a charity, the Fondazione Angelo d'Arrigo, with the aim of helping children in Peru. Angelo d'Arrigo was posthumously given the alternative sportsperson's award at the 2006 Laureus World Sports Awards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Angelo d'Arrigo (April 3, 1961 – March 26, 2006) was an Italian aviator who held a number of world records in the field of flight, principally with microlights and hang gliders, with and without motors. He has been referred to as the \"Human Condor\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975410}
{"src_title": "Lycium barbarum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Lycium barbarum\" is a deciduous woody shrub, growing high. The shrub has weak arching branches, and the side branches are often reduced to short leafless spines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaves and flowers.", "content": "\"L. barbarum\" leaves form on the shoot either in an alternating arrangement, or in bundles of up to three. Each leaf is green, scarcely fleshy when fresh, usually lanceolate (spearhead-shaped), sometimes with rounded tips. Clustered leaves are up to 25 mm long; the single alternate leaves are up to 55 mm long.  The flowers grow in groups of one to three in the leaf axils, with pedicels 6–15 mm long. The calyx, eventually ruptured by the growing berry, is a whitish tube crowned by five or six radial triangular sepals, shorter than the tube, 10–12 mm long and 3–4 mm wide, sometimes 2–lipped, strongly curved. The sepals are whitish on the lower side (facing towards the branch) and deep mauve on the top side. Each flower has five stamens, exserted for 3–8 mm, with stalks longer than the anthers. The pistil is 8–11.5 mm long. The anthers are longitudinally dehiscent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fruit.", "content": "The fruit of \"L. barbarum\", the main variety of goji berry, is a bright orange-red, ellipsoid berry in diameter. The fruiting calyx is split deeply once or twice. The number of seeds in each berry varies widely based on cultivar and fruit size, ranging from 10 to 60. The seeds are about 2 mm long, 1 mm wide, yellowish, compressed with a curved embryo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The plants are self-pollinating, but may be cross pollinated by insects. The species is dispersed into natural areas by birds and other animals that eat its fruit.  In the Northern Hemisphere, flowering occurs from June through September and berry maturation from August to October, depending on the latitude, altitude, and climate. Where frost does not occur fruiting is continuous and plants do not lose their leaves.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Occurrence and cultivation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "China.", "content": "\"Lycium barbarum\" has been cultivated in China, along the fertile aggradational floodplains of the Yellow River, for more than 600 years. It is still extensively cultivated in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region of north-central China, centered in Zhongning County, totaling 200,000 acres as of 2005, The region produced 13,000 tons of fruit in 2001, accounting for 42% of the nation's total production of goji berries. The plant is also cultivated in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of western China,  The berries of \"L. barbarum\" are the only therapeutic grade (\"superior-grade\") kinds of wolfberries used by practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine.  As Ningxia's borders merge with three deserts, \"L. barbarum\" is also planted to control erosion and reclaim irrigable soils from desertification.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "\"Lycium barbarum\" has been used since the 18th century in the United Kingdom for hedging, especially in coastal districts. Its red berries are attractive to a wide variety of British birds.  The plant continues to grow wild in UK hedgerows. On 15 January 2003, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs launched a project to improve the regulations protecting traditional countryside hedgerows, and specifically mentioned Duke of Argyll's Tea Tree as one of the species to be found growing in hedges located in Suffolk Sandlings, Hadleigh, Bawdsey, near Ipswich, and Walberswick.  Importation of mature \"Licium barbarum\" plants into the United Kingdom from most countries outside Europe is illegal, due to the possibility they could be vectors of diseases attacking Solanaceae crops, such as potato or tomato.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "\"Lycium barbarum\" has become a high demand plant in the United States. Nearly all major nursery catalogs now carry plants and there are many suppliers found on various web sites. There are a number of varieties available, ranging from leaf producing plants to fruit producing varieties. Most listed plants are hardy zones 5-9. One variety, Phoenix Tears is hardy zones 3-10. This variety produces fruit year round in warmer climates. Berries and leaves produced in the United States are probably more pesticide free than those produced in China.  At present only the US state of Pennsylvania requires inspection of imported \"L. barbarum\" plants. There have been cases of goji mite outbreaks in Pennsylvania and California. The mites have been found on wild plants in Utah and do have the potential to infect other family Solanaceae plants, but there is no documentation of such infections occurring in the United States.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "\"Lycium barbarum\" introduced to Australia became naturalised in south-eastern coastal and sub-coastal regions, and is regarded as an environmental weed in the provinces of Victoria and Tasmania. It is often found growing in disturbed sites, native bushland, and riverbanks, often forming dense thickets along the latter. It overlaps and is often confused with \"Lycium ferocissimum\", a similar species originating from Africa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "Because of its claimed benefits as a drug of traditional medicine, the chemicals present in the fruit, root, and other parts of the plants have been studied in some detail.  The main compounds in the fruit (23% of the dry mass) are polysaccharides and proteoglycans. Carotenoid pigments are the second major group, chiefly zeaxanthin dipalmitate. The fruits further contain vitamins, in particular riboflavin, thiamin and ascorbic acid (vitamin C), the latter in a concentration similar to that in lemons. Other detected compounds include flavonoids derived from myricetin, quercetin, and kaempferol; hexadecanoic acid, linoleic acid, β-elemene, myristic acid and ethyl hexadecanoate; and some glycerogalactolipids. The fruit further contains 1–2.7% of free aminoacids; chiefly proline, and including gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and betaine. Other compounds include β-sitosterol, scopoletin, p-coumaric acid, lyciumide A and L-monomenthyl succinate. The alkaloid atropine, common in plants of the family Solanaceae, is not detectable.  The compounds present in the roots have been less studied, but they include betaine, choline, linoleic acid, and β-sitosterol [79]. Of particular interest are cyclic oligopeptides with 8 aminoacid rings, christened lyciumins A and B.  The leaves are known to contain the flavonoids quercetin 3-O-rutinoside-7-O-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside-7-O-glucoside, rutin, nicotiflorin, isoquercitrin, quercetin, kaempferol damascenone, choline, scopoletin, vanillic acid, salicylic acid, and nicotinic acid. From the flowers, diosgenin, β-sitosterol, and lanosterol have been isolated.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lycium barbarum is a shrub native to China, with present-day range across Asia and southeast Europe. It is one of two species of boxthorn in the family Solanaceae from which the goji berry or wolfberry is harvested, the other being \"Lycium chinense\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975411}
{"src_title": "Messerschmitt Me 309", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Me 309 project began in mid-1940, just as the Bf 109 was having its first encounters with the Spitfire in the Battle of Britain, the first aircraft to match the 109 in speed and performance. Already, Messerschmitt anticipated the need for an improved design to replace the Bf 109. The Reich Air Ministry, however, did not feel the same urgency, with the project given a low priority, resulting in the design not being finalized until the end of 1941.  The new fighter had many novel features, such as tricycle landing gear (with a nosegear strut that twisted through 90° during retraction, to a \"flat\" orientation under the engine) and a pressurized cockpit, which would have given it more comfortable and effective high-altitude performance. Each of the new features was first tested on a number of Bf 109F airframes, the V23 having a ventral radiator, the V31 with a radiator and tricycle landing gear, and the V30 having a pressurized cockpit.  Low government interest in the project delayed completion of the first prototype until spring 1942, and trouble with the nosewheel pushed back the 309's first flight to July. When it did fly, the Me 309's performance was satisfactory – about 50 km/h (30 mph) faster than a standard Bf 109G – but not exemplary. In fact, the Bf 109G could out-turn its intended replacement. With the addition of armament, the aircraft's speed decreased to an unacceptable level. In light of its poor performance and the much more promising development of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190D, the Me 309 was canceled. In an attempt to revive the project, initiated in response to a 1941 Reich Air Ministry requirement for a new \"Zerstörer\" (destroyer) to replace the Bf 110, Messerschmitt's response was the Me 609. In order to meet the requirement of a new design in a minimum of time and with a minimum of new parts, the failed Me 309 project would form the basis of the new fighter. The Me 609 would have joined the two Me 309 fuselages with a new centre wing section. Only the two inner wheels of the joined Me 309's main landing gears would have been used and would retract into the centre section. This resulted in an unusual four-wheel arrangement. The Me 609 would have had its cockpit in the port fuselage, the starboard being smoothed over.  Two versions were planned: a heavy fighter with four or six 30 mm MK 108 cannon, and a \"Schnellbomber\" (light bomber) variant with two 30 mm MK 108 cannon and a bombload of 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) carried beneath the fuselages. By the time designs were being ironed out, the revolutionary Me 262 turbojet negated the need for further piston-engined fighter design.  In 1943, Messerschmitt made one last attempt at creating a replacement for the Bf 109 in the form of the Me 209-II. It was essentially a modification of the existing 109 airframe, Messerschmitt designers not wanting to invest the time and trouble in a new design like the Me 309.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes  Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Messerschmitt Me 309 was a prototype German fighter, designed in the early years of World War II to replace the Bf 109. Although it had many advanced features, the Me 309's performance left much to be desired and it had so many problems that the project was cancelled with only four prototypes built. The Me 309 was one of two failed Messerschmitt projects intended to replace the aging Bf 109, the other being the Me 209 of 1943.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975412}
{"src_title": "Ostrea edulis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "When mature, \"O. edulis\" adults range from across.  Shells are oval or pear shaped, white, yellowish or cream in colour, with a rough surface showing pale brown or bluish concentric bands on the right valve. The two valves are quite different in shape and size, as the left one is concave and fixed to the substratum, while the right one is almost flat and fits inside the left. The inner surface is smooth, whitish or bluish-grey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "\"Ostrea edulis\" are gregarious molluscs that start their lives as males. They mature sexually after eight–ten months and may change sex depending on the water temperature. Usually the lifespan can reach about six years, with a maximum of 15 years. Adult oysters feed by filtration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The species naturally ranges along the western and southern coasts of Europe from Norway to Morocco and including most of the British Isles and the Mediterranean coast. Naturally viable populations have appeared in eastern North America from Maine to Rhode Island subsequent to artificial introduction in the 1940s and 1950s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "\"Ostrea edulis\" can be found in estuarine and shallow coastal water with hard substrata of mud and rocks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human use.", "content": "\"Ostrea edulis\" has been harvested throughout Europe as an important food source since prehistory. During Roman occupation of Britain \"O. edulis\" oysters were exported in large quantities back to Italy. However, due to their robust nature and ease of cultivation the Pacific oysters, \"Crassostrea gigas\", account for more than 75 percent of Europe's oyster production.  European flat oysters are famously grown in Brittany, France. The true Belon oyster is cultivated in the Belon River, France, and has the AOC protected name. In the 1950s, Dutch scientists artificially introduced Belon oyster seed into the waters around Maine in hopes to establish a viable stock. The initial project was abandoned but ten years later natural colonies of flat oysters were found in the wild. Many North American suppliers use the name 'Belon' to species that are found in the wild throughout the United States.  \"Ostrea edulis\" is now also being maricultured in the states of California, Maine, and Washington in the United States. The species once dominated European oyster production but disease, pollution, and overfishing sharply reduced the harvest.  U.S. oyster growers farm \"O. edulis\" in small quantities on both coasts. They are prized for their unique tannic seawater flavour, sometimes described as dry and metallic, and are more expensive than other American oysters. The flavour is considered excellent for eating raw on the half shell.  The abductor muscle of the European flat in combination with the shape of the shell results in a somewhat weaker seal compared with other oyster species. It is common practice to use rubber bands to prevent oysters from spilling their liquor and dehydrating in storage before consumption.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Ostrea edulis\", commonly known as the European flat oyster, is a species of oyster native to Europe. In the British Isles, regional names include Colchester native oyster, mud oyster, or edible oyster. In France, \"Ostrea edulis\" are known as \"huîtres plates\" (flat oysters) except for those that come from the Belon River estuary in Brittany, France, which are known as Belons.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975413}
{"src_title": "Vladimir Antonov-Ovseyenko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "He was born in Chernigov the son of an infantry officer. He was of Ukrainian ethnicity.  He studied at the secondary military school of Voronej, but left the army in 1901, and joined a student Marxist circle in Warsaw. He graduated from military college in St Petersburg in 1904. In 1902 he secretly joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP), and set about organising a military section of the party among graduate officers in five cities. Early in the Russian Revolution of 1905, he led an uprising in Novo-Alexandria in Poland and was arrested for the first time, but escaped to Vienna in spring 1905. There he joined the Menshevik faction of the RSDLP. He returned to St Petersburg in May, and was made chairman of the military organisation of the RSDLP St Petersburg committee. Rearrested in April 1906, he broke jail five days later, and moved to Sevastopol, on Crimea, where he organised a military revolt. Arrested and sentenced to death, his sentence was later commuted to 20 years hard labour in Siberia. He escaped in June 1907, and hid out in Moscow, in the home of a sympathetic lawyer, Pavel Malyantovich. For three years, he worked among co-operatives and with the printers' union in Moscow, until his next arrest, after which he emigrated to Prussia, in July 1910, but was deported, and settled in Paris, where he acted as secretary of the Menshevik bureau.  Soon after the outbreak of World War I, Antonov-Ovseyenko broke with the Mensheviks, and founded the anti-war paper \"Golos\" (\"Голос\" - 'Voice'), later renamed \"Nashe Slovo\" (\"Наше слово\" - Our Word), which he co-edited with Leon Trotsky and Yuli Martov. He returned to Russia in June 1917, joined the Bolsheviks and was briefly head of the party organisation in Helsingfors, and Chairman of the Northern Congress of Soviets. He was arrested after the pro-Bolshevik riots in July, and detained, with Trotsky, in Krestny prison. He was freed on the day that the right wing military revolt led by General Kornilov collapsed, and returned to Helsingfors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Storming the Winter Palace.", "content": "Antonov-Ovseyenko returned to Petrograd in October 1917, and was appointed secretary of the Military revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet. This meant that he played a pivotal role in military preparations for the October Revolution. Trotsky, who witnessed him in action, described him as \"politically shaky, but personally courageous - impulsive and disorderly, but capable of initiative...\" He personally led the famous storming of the Winter Palace, on 7 November (25 October according to Julian Calendar still used in Russia at the time), when Red Guards broke into the building where ministers of the Russian Provisional Government (excluding Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky), had taken refuge, and arrested them. They included Kerensky's Minister for Justice, Pavel Malyantovich, who had given Antonov-Ovseyenko sanctuary ten years earlier. There were no lives lost in this incident, which took on something like mythical status in Soviet history. It formed the climax of the classic 1928 silent movie, \"October\", directed by Sergei Eisenstein, in which Antonov-Ovseyenko took a starring role, playing himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In the initial government formed by Vladimir Lenin after the Bolsheviks had seized power, Antonov-Ovseyenko was appointed to the Military Committee of Sovnarkom. He was sent to lead the Bolsheviks side in the first, relatively bloodless engagement of the civil war, at Gatchina, against Kerensky and a detachment of Cossacks, but had to replaced after he virtually collapsed from nervous exhaustion. On 21 December 1917, Antonov-Ovseyenko was put in charge of the Revolutionary forces in Ukraine and southern Russia. The army subsequently captured Kharkiv, where Soviet power in Ukraine was proclaimed. He opposed Lenin's decision to end the war with Germany, at the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and was dismissed from the Red Army in May 1918 for fermenting guerilla warfare against the advancing German army. He was reinstated as People's Commissar for War in Ukraine in September 1918, and oversaw the defeat of Ukrainian People's Republic and White Army forces in Ukraine, ensuring the creation of the Ukrainian SSR.  By the end of the Russian Civil War, Antonov-Ovseyenko was in charge of the Tambov Governorate, brutally suppressing 1920–21 Tambov Rebellion alongside Mikhail Tukhachevsky, with the use of chemical weapons. In 1921, he was in charge of famine relief in the Samara region.  In 1922, Antonov-Ovseyenko was given the highly sensitive post of head of the Political Directorate of the Red Army, despite his public opposition to Lenin's New Economic Policy, which he denounced in a speech to the April 1922 Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) as a sell-out to the peasants. During Lenin's terminal illness, he backed Trotsky in the struggle for succession. He was a signatory of The Declaration of 46 in October 1923, which called for greater party democracy. In December, after one of his subordinates had been sacked for criticising the leadership, he wrote an angry letter to the Central Committee exclaiming that \"we are not courtiers to the throne of party hierarchs!\" In January 1924, he was summoned before the Orgburo, which was controlled by Josif Stalin, and sacked.  Later in 1923, Antonov-Ovseyenko was sent on a mission to China - the start of an 11-year career as a diplomat. In 1925, he was recalled and appointed Soviet representative in Czechoslovakia. He was one of a large group of Trotsky's supporters expelled from the CPSU in December 1927, but was one of the first to recant and seek readmission to the party during 1928. Later he was envoy in Poland, but in May 1934 was recalled to Moscow to serve as a Public Prosecutor. In this capacity, he observed the first of the great Moscow show trials, in which Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev were the main defendants, and signed an article in Izvestia calling for them to be shot. He was then posted to Barcelona, as Soviet Consul General, during the Spanish Civil War, where he directed the supply of Soviet aid to the Second Spanish Republic and where he organized the repression against the POUM party. He was recalled to Moscow in August 1937 where he talked with Joseph Stalin about the events in Spain. After a month without a job he was appointed People's Commissar for Justice of the Russian SFSR in September 1937, but after just one month in post, he was arrested during the night of 11–12 October 1937, and interrogated. He was shot on 10 February 1938.  Antonov-Ovseyenko was the first former Trotskyist to be posthumously rehabilitated, and in 1956 was named in a speech by Anastas Mikoyan to the 20th party congress. Later, his son Anton, a historian, feared that he was to be 'un-rehabilitated', and fought a long rearguard battle to protect his reputation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vladimir Alexandrovich Antonov-Ovseyenko (; ; 9 March 1883 – 10 February 1938), real surname Ovseyenko, party aliases the 'Bayonet' (Штык) and 'Nikita' (Ники́та), a literary pseudonym A. Gal (А. Га́льский), was a prominent Ukrainian Bolshevik leader and diplomat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975414}
{"src_title": "Swiss Life", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foundation and growth.", "content": "Conrad Widmer established the \"Schweizerische Rentenanstalt\" (\"Swiss annuity institution\") in 1857 as the first life insurance company in Switzerland, backed by guarantees from Schweizerische Kreditanstalt. Prominent Zurich politician Alfred Escher was closely involved in the development of the cooperative, whose goal was to provide Swiss families with insurance against the uncertainties of life: the company's board included representatives of most Swiss cantons. In 1866, Widmer obtained a license in Prussia, and a year later, the Rentenanstalt had business operations in Hamburg and Bremen. Beginning in 1894, it was one of the first insurance institutions to offer occupational insurance. Between 1866 and 1987, Rentenanstalt expanded to Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Spain, Luxembourg, and Italy. In 1988 it took over La Suisse insurance company of Lausanne.  The first registered office of Rentenanstalt was in the Tiefenhoefe buildings on the Paradeplatz in Zurich. Rapid expansion saw the offices moving in quick succession from the Gruene Schloss on Zwingliplatz, to the Chamhaus on the Untere Zäune and finally to the Alpenquai, where the new head office was opened in 1898. Although this building was spacious for its time, further expansion in the interwar period necessitated yet another move. During 1937–1939 a modern building designed by the Pfister firm of architects was constructed close to the old head office. It is this building, extended during 1961–1963 and later, that houses today's company head office in Zurich.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Going corporate.", "content": "In 1997, under the management of Manfred Zobl, Rentenanstalt changed from a mutual into a publicly traded proprietary company, with Rentenstalt/Swiss Life shares debuting in the Swiss Market Index in 1998. Swiss Life then embarked on an expansionary strategy, acquiring Livit, Banca del Gottardo, the Lloyd Continental and UTO Albis in 1999, and Schweizerische Treuhandgesellschaft in 2000, and taking over the real estate properties of Oscar Weber Holding AG in 2001. In 2002, the rapid acquisitions ceased as the company looked to restructuring and going back to its core business.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Acquisitions and divestments.", "content": "In 2002, the company changed its name to Swiss Life for all its operations except in the Netherlands, where it remained under the old name Zwitser Leven (Dutch for \"Swiss Life\"); the Netherlands company was sold in 2007 to SNS Reaal together with the Belgium business. In 2004, it sold its British operations to Resolution Life Group. In November 2007, Swiss Life sold off Banca del Gottardo for 1.775 billion CHF. On 3 December 2007, Swiss Life announced that it had launched a takeover bid for AWD Holding; on 13 March 2008, it succeeded in acquiring a total of 86.2% of AWD, which became Swiss Life Select in 2013. The acquisition of Corpus Sireo, a German real estate asset management service provider, was completed in the summer of 2014, and that of Mayfair Capital, a UK real estate investment management firm, in 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Corporate structure.", "content": "The Swiss Life Group reports by country. Besides the three core markets Switzerland, France and Germany, the Group separately discloses its cross-border segments International and Asset Managers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Switzerland.", "content": "Swiss Life Switzerland is a comprehensive life and pensions and financial service provider with the brands Swiss Life and Swiss Life Select, and is one of the leading providers with over one million insured persons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France.", "content": "Swiss Life France specialises in personal insurance but also provides, through its Swiss Life Banque Privée subsidiary, asset management and insurance services combined with private banking for high net worth individuals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "The German branch of Swiss Life, founded in 1866, is based in Munich and offers private and corporate clients services in pensions saving and financial security. Core competencies are occupational disability insurance and occupational pensions. Swiss Life's financial distribution subsidiaries (Swiss Life Select, HORBACH, Tecis and Proventus) are headquartered in Hanover.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "With locations in Switzerland, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein and Singapore, Swiss Life International offers Private placement life insurance (a form of investment with an insurance wrapper) for high-net-worth individuals in Europe and Asia, and provides employee benefits for large corporate clients. The financial advisors from Swiss Life Select Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland and Chase de Vere in the UK also operate under the Swiss Life International umbrella.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Asset Managers.", "content": "Swiss Life Asset Managers offers institutional and private investors access to investment and asset management services. In Switzerland, it is one of the largest institutional asset managers and the third largest fund provider in the country. In Germany, Swiss Life Asset Managers significantly strengthened its position in the market with the acquisition of the real estate asset management service provider Corpus Sireo in 2014. The real estate management company Livit AG is also a subsidiary of the Swiss Life Asset Management entity, along with London-based Mayfair Capital Investment which was acquired in 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Corporate governance.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Board of directors.", "content": "The Board of Directors is responsible for the general direction of the Group and the supervision of the Corporate Executive Board. The Board is elected for one-year terms and is composed as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Corporate executive board.", "content": "The group CEO directs the business operations of the group and works out the long-term objectives and strategic orientation of the group, together with the corporate executive board.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Financials.", "content": "According to Swiss law, shareholders are obliged to disclose information regarding their shareholdings in Swiss-based companies when these amount to or exceed 3%. Shareholders currently holding registered shares (purchasing positions included) of Swiss Life Holding Ltd., are BlackRock Inc. (over 5%), and UBS Fund Management (Switzerland) AG (over 3%).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CSR and sponsorship.", "content": "The “Perspectives Foundation” of Swiss Life, established in 2005, promotes charitable initiatives in the Swiss home market in the areas of health, science, education, culture and sport, donating between CHF 1.3 and 1.5 million every year to social and charitable projects.  Swiss Life also jointly founded the Swiss Climate Foundation with eleven other companies in 2008. All partners donate their net gains from redistributed CO2 levies to the foundation, which in turns supports projects helping small and medium-sized enterprises to reach voluntary target agreement with the Energy Agency of the Swiss Private Sector (EnAW), develop operational energy savings and climate protection systems.  In March 2016, the Swiss Life Group presented its first Corporate Responsibility Report in accordance with the guidelines of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), as an integral part of the Annual Report 2015. The Corporate Responsibility Report focuses on business activities, society, employees and the environment and is guided by the principle of materiality. The report is published annually.  Swiss Life has been involved as a sponsor for the Swiss national football team since 2004.  In the field of culture, Swiss Life supports, among others, the Zurich Film Festival (ZFF), the Lucerne Festival, the Zurich Opera House, the Tonhalle Orchestra Zurich and the Davos Festival.  Since the 2015/16 season, Swiss Life has been supporting the ice hockey club ZSC Lions as general sponsor. The Swiss Life Arena, the hockey and sports arena for 12,000 fans of the ZCS Lions club in Altstetten, is also named after Swiss Life. The opening is scheduled for June 2022.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Swiss Life Group is the largest life insurance company of Switzerland and one of Europe’s leading comprehensive life and pensions and financial services providers, with approximately CHF 254.4 bn of assets under management. Founded in 1867 in Zurich as the \"Schweizerische Lebensversicherungs und Rentenanstalt\" cooperative, the company entered the Swiss stock market in 1997 and adopted its current name in 2002. In 2019 the group declared an adjusted profit from operations of CHF 1.69 billion, a 10% increase over the previous year. Net profit increased by 12% to CHF 1.20 billion. Swiss Life is one of the twenty companies listed under the Swiss Market Index, as SLHN.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975415}
{"src_title": "Constance of Aragon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Queen of Hungary.", "content": "Her father died in 1196 and Constance's fate was decided by the new King, her brother Peter II. Peter arranged her marriage with King Emeric of Hungary, and the nineteen-year-old Constance left Aragon for Hungary. The wedding took place in 1198. Two years later, in 1200, the Queen gave birth to a son, called Ladislaus.  When King Emeric was dying, he crowned his son Ladislaus co-ruler on 26 August 1204. The King wanted to secure his succession and had his brother Andrew promise to protect the child and help him govern the Kingdom of Hungary until reaching adulthood. Emeric died three months later, on 30 November.  Ladislaus succeeded him as King while Andrew became his Regent. Andrew soon took over all regal authority while Ladislaus and Constance were little more than his prisoners. Constance managed to escape to Vienna with Ladislaus.  The two found refuge in the court of Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, but Ladislaus would soon die (7 May 1205). The former Regent and now King Andrew II of Hungary took the body of his nephew and buried him in the Royal Crypt of Székesfehérvár. Duke Leopold sent Constance back to Aragon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Holy Roman Empress.", "content": "When Constance returned to Aragon, she took up residence with her mother, Queen Sancha, in the Abbey of Nuestra Senora, at Sijena; Sancha had founded the abbey after her husband's death, and now lived there in retirement. Constance spent the next five years in the abbey with her mother, until her fate, again, was changed by her brother.  Peter II wanted to be on good terms with Pope Innocent III, since he wanted an annulment of his marriage with Maria of Montpellier, and needed the blessing of the Pope. The Pope solicited the hand of the Dowager Queen of Hungary for his pupil, the young King Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. The Aragonese King accepted the proposal; Constance left her mother and the abbey of Nuestra Senora and began her trip to Sicily (1208). She never returned to Aragon or saw her mother again. Sancha died shortly after the departure of her daughter.  Constance and Frederick were married in the Sicilian city of Messina on 15 August 1209. In the ceremony, she was crowned Queen of Sicily. By this time, Constance was thirty years old and her new husband only fourteen. Two years later, in 1211, Constance gave birth to a son, called Henry, who later had a tragic end.  On 9 December 1212, Frederick was crowned King of Germany in opposition to Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor. During the absence of her husband, Constance stayed in Sicily as regent of the Kingdom until 1220.  At first Frederick controlled Southern Germany but Otto IV was effectively deposed on 5 July 1215. This time Constance was crowned German Queen with her husband.  Pope Honorius III crowned Frederick Holy Roman Emperor on 22 November 1220. Constance was crowned Holy Roman Empress while their son Henry became the new King of Germany. She died of malaria less than two years later in Catania and was buried in the Cathedral of Palermo, in a Roman sarcophagus with a beautiful oriental tiara.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Constance of Aragon (1179 – 23 June 1222) was an Aragonese infanta who was by marriage firstly Queen of Hungary, and secondly Queen of Germany and Sicily and Holy Roman Empress. She was regent of Sicily from 1212–1220.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975416}
{"src_title": "Finite-state transducer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "An automaton can be said to \"recognize\" a string if we view the content of its tape as input. In other words, the automaton computes a function that maps strings into the set {0,1}. Alternatively, we can say that an automaton \"generates\" strings, which means viewing its tape as an output tape. On this view, the automaton generates a formal language, which is a set of strings. The two views of automata are equivalent: the function that the automaton computes is precisely the indicator function of the set of strings it generates. The class of languages generated by finite automata is known as the class of regular languages.  The two tapes of a transducer are typically viewed as an input tape and an output tape. On this view, a transducer is said to \"transduce\" (i.e., translate) the contents of its input tape to its output tape, by accepting a string on its input tape and generating another string on its output tape. It may do so nondeterministically and it may produce more than one output for each input string. A transducer may also produce no output for a given input string, in which case it is said to \"reject\" the input. In general, a transducer computes a relation between two formal languages.  Each string-to-string finite-state transducer relates the input alphabet Σ to the output alphabet Γ. Relations \"R\" on Σ*×Γ* that can be implemented as finite-state transducers are called rational relations. Rational relations that are partial functions, i.e. that relate every input string from Σ* to at most one Γ*, are called rational functions.  Finite-state transducers are often used for phonological and morphological analysis in natural language processing research and applications. Pioneers in this field include Ronald Kaplan, Lauri Karttunen, Martin Kay and Kimmo Koskenniemi. A common way of using transducers is in a so-called \"cascade\", where transducers for various operations are combined into a single transducer by repeated application of the composition operator (defined below).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formal construction.", "content": "Formally, a finite transducer \"T\" is a 6-tuple () such that:  We can view (\"Q\", \"δ\") as a labeled directed graph, known as the \"transition graph\" of \"T\": the set of vertices is \"Q\", and formula_2 means that there is a labeled edge going from vertex \"q\" to vertex \"r\". We also say that \"a\" is the \"input label\" and \"b\" the \"output label\" of that edge.  NOTE: This definition of finite transducer is also called \"letter transducer\" (Roche and Schabes 1997); alternative definitions are possible, but can all be converted into transducers following this one.  Define the \"extended transition relation\" formula_3 as the smallest set such that:  The extended transition relation is essentially the reflexive transitive closure of the transition graph that has been augmented to take edge labels into account. The elements of formula_3 are known as \"paths\". The edge labels of a path are obtained by concatenating the edge labels of its constituent transitions in order.  The \"behavior\" of the transducer \"T\" is the rational relation [\"T\"] defined as follows: formula_11 if and only if there exists formula_12 and formula_13 such that formula_14. This is to say that \"T\" transduces a string formula_15 into a string formula_16 if there exists a path from an initial state to a final state whose input label is \"x\" and whose output label is \"y\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weighted automata.", "content": "Finite State Transducers can be weighted, where each transition is labelled with a weight in addition to the input and output labels. A Weighted Finite State Transducer (WFST) over a set \"K\" of weights can be defined similarly to an unweighted one as an 8-tuple, where: In order to make certain operations on WFSTs well-defined, it is convenient to require the set of weights to form a semiring. Two typical semirings used in practice are the log semiring and tropical semiring: unweighted automata may be regarded as having weights in the Boolean semiring.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stochastic FST.", "content": "Stochastic FSTs (also known as probabilistic FSTs or statistical FSTs) are presumably a form of weighted FST.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operations on finite-state transducers.", "content": "The following operations defined on finite automata also apply to finite transducers:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Context-sensitive rewriting rules of the form \"a\" → \"b\" / \"c\" _ \"d\", used in linguistics to model phonological rules and sound change, are computationally equivalent to finite-state transducers, provided that application is nonrecursive, i.e. the rule is not allowed to rewrite the same substring twice.  Weighted FSTs found applications in natural language processing, including machine translation, and in machine learning. An implementation for part-of-speech tagging can be found as one component of the OpenGrm library.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A finite-state transducer (FST) is a finite-state machine with two memory \"tapes\", following the terminology for Turing machines: an input tape and an output tape. This contrasts with an ordinary finite-state automaton, which has a single tape. An FST is a type of finite-state automaton that maps between two sets of symbols. An FST is more general than a finite-state automaton (FSA). An FSA defines a formal language by defining a set of accepted strings, while an FST defines relations between sets of strings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975417}
{"src_title": "The Jacket", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "After miraculously recovering from an apparently fatal bullet wound to the head, Gulf War veteran Jack Starks returns to Vermont in 1992, suffering from periods of amnesia. While walking, he sees a young girl, Jackie, and her alcoholic mother in despair beside their broken-down truck. Starks and Jackie quickly form a certain affinity; she asks him to give her his dogtags and he does so. He gets the truck started for them and continues on his way. Shortly after, a man driving along the same highway gives Jack a ride and they get pulled over by a policeman.  The scene changes: Starks is found lying on the deserted roadside near the dead policeman, with a slug from the policeman's gun in his body. The murder weapon is on the ground nearby. Although he testifies there was someone else at the scene, he is not believed because of his amnesia. Starks is found not guilty by reason of insanity and is incarcerated in a mental institution.  Starks is placed in the care of Dr. Thomas Becker, a psychiatrist, and his staff. In December 1992, Starks is forced to undergo an unauthorized treatment designed by Becker: he is injected with experimental drugs, bound in a straitjacket and then placed inside a morgue drawer as a form of sensory deprivation. While in this condition, he is somehow able to travel 15 years into the future and stay there for a short time. He meets an older version of Jackie at a roadside diner where she works. He suspects this happens because it is the only memory he can ever fully hold on to. She does not recognise him but seeing him standing forlornly, she takes pity on him and offers him shelter, just for the night. While in her apartment, Starks comes across his own dogtags and confronts her. Jackie, frightened, tells him that Jack Starks died on New Year's Day in 1993, and so he cannot possibly be who he says he is. She becomes upset and asks him to leave. Subsequently, Starks is transported back to the future on several occasions in the course of his treatment and, after earning Jackie's trust, they try to figure out how to make use of the time-travelling so as to remove Jack from the hospital and save his life.  Early on 1 January 1993, knowing that his time is quickly running out, Starks is briefly taken out of the hospital by Dr. Beth Lorenson, who he has finally convinced of his time travel experiences and his knowledge of future events. She drives Starks to the childhood home of Jackie and her mother, where he gives the mother a letter he has written, which outlines Jackie's bleak future and warns the mother that she is fated to orphan Jackie when she falls asleep with a lit cigarette in her hand and is burned to death. When he returns to the hospital, Starks experiences a flashback to the head wound he suffered in Iraq, simultaneously slipping on the ice and hits his head. Bleeding profusely, he convinces two of the more sympathetic doctors to put him into the jacket one last time.  Starks returns to 2007, where he finds that his letter to Jackie's mother has made all the difference. Jackie now has a better life than in the previous version of 2007. She is no longer a waitress, is now dressed in a nurse's uniform, and has a noticeably more cheerful outlook. They reprise their first 2007 meeting: she sees Starks standing in the snow and initially drives past him, but backs up when she notices his head wound. She stops and offers to take him to the hospital where she works. While they are in the car, Jackie receives a call from her mother — still alive and well. They drive on, the screen fades to white, and a voice-over reveals that the link to the \"previous\" future is not lost when Jackie says \"How much time do we have?\", a question she has asked him before. As the credits start to roll, the answer to the question is given by the words of the song: \"We have all the time in the world\" sung by Iggy Pop.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Basis.", "content": "\"The Jacket\" shares its title, and the idea of a person experiencing extra-corporeal time-travel while in an intolerably tight straitjacket, with a 1915 novel by Jack London. The novel was published in the United Kingdom as \"The Jacket\" and in the United States of America as \"The Star Rover\". Director Maybury has said that the film is \"loosely based on a true story that became a Jack London story\". The true story is that of Ed Morrell, who told London about San Quentin prison's inhumane use of tight straitjackets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"The Jacket\" opened on March 4, 2005, and grossed $2,723,682 on opening weekend, with a peak release of 1,331 theaters in the United States. The film went on to gross $6,303,762 domestically, for a total of $21,126,225 worldwide.  \"The Jacket\" had mixed reviews on release; the film has a 44% \"rotten\" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with the site's critical consensus being \"The Jacket is a case of creepy style over substance\", and a 73% audience approval rating. and a 44% average critic rating on the aggregate reviews site Metacritic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Jacket is a 2005 American psychological thriller/horror film directed by John Maybury and starring Adrien Brody, Keira Knightley, Kris Kristofferson and Jennifer Jason Leigh. It is partly based on the Jack London novel of the same name (published in the US as \"The Star Rover\"). Massy Tadjedin wrote the screenplay based on a story by Tom Bleecker and Marc Rocco. The original music score is composed by Brian Eno with Roger Eno and the cinematography is by Peter Deming.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975418}
{"src_title": "Martin B-10", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The B-10 began a revolution in bomber design. Its all-metal monoplane airframe, along with its features of closed cockpits, rotating gun turrets (almost simultaneously with the 1933 British Boulton & Paul Overstrand biplane bomber's own enclosed nose-turret), retractable landing gear, internal bomb bay, and full engine cowlings, would become the standard for bomber designs worldwide for decades. It made all existing bombers completely obsolete. Martin received the 1932 Collier Trophy for designing the XB-10.  The B-10 began as the Martin Model 123, a private venture by the Glenn L. Martin Company of Baltimore, Maryland. It had a crew of four: pilot, copilot, nose gunner and fuselage gunner. As in previous bombers, the four crew compartments were open, but it had a number of design innovations as well.  These innovations included a deep belly for an internal bomb bay and retractable main landing gear. Its 600 hp (447 kW) Wright SR-1820-E Cyclone engines provided sufficient power. The Model 123 first flew on 16 February 1932 and was delivered for testing to the U.S. Army on 20 March as the XB-907. After testing it was sent back to Martin for redesigning and was rebuilt as the XB-10.  The XB-10 delivered to the Army had major differences from the original aircraft. Where the Model 123 had Townend rings, the XB-10 had full NACA cowlings to decrease drag. It also sported a pair of 675 hp (503 kW) Wright R-1820-19 engines, and an increase in the wingspan, along with an enclosed nose turret. When the XB-10 flew during trials in June, it recorded a speed of 197 mph (317 km/h) at 6,000 ft (1,830 m). This was an impressive performance for 1932.  Following the success of the XB-10, a number of changes were made, including reduction to a three-man crew, addition of canopies for all crew positions, and an upgrade to 675 hp (503 kW) engines. The Army ordered 48 of these on 17 January 1933. The first 14 aircraft were designated YB-10 and delivered to Wright Field, starting in November 1933, and used in the Army Air Corps Mail Operation. The production model of the XB-10, the YB-10 was very similar to its prototype.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "In 1935, the Army ordered an additional 103 aircraft designated B-10B. These had only minor changes from the YB-10. Shipments began in July 1935. B-10Bs served with the 2d Bomb Group at Langley Field, the 9th Bomb Group at Mitchel Field, the 19th Bomb Group at March Field, the 6th Composite Group in the Panama Canal Zone, and the 4th Composite Group in the Philippines. In addition to conventional duties in the bomber role, some modified YB-10s and B-12As were operated for a time on large twin floats for coastal patrol.  In February 1936, the U.S. Army Air Corps used 13 49th Bomb Squadron B-10Bs to drop supplies to the residents of Virginia's Tangier Island and Maryland's Smith Island; with ships unable to reach the islands due to heavy ice in the Chesapeake Bay, the islanders faced starvation after a severe winter storm. The B-10B supply flights followed earlier supply flights to the islands by the Goodyear Blimp \"Enterprise\" on 2 February 1936 and by the squadron's Keystone B-6A bombers on 9 and 10 February 1936.  With an advanced performance, the Martin company fully expected that export orders for the B-10 would flood in. The U.S. Army owned the rights to the Model 139 design. Once the Army's orders had been filled in 1936, Martin received permission to export Model 139s, and delivered versions to several air forces. For example, six Model 139Ws were sold to Siam in April 1937, powered by Wright R-1820-G3 Cyclone engines; 20 Model 139Ws were sold to Turkey in September 1937, powered by R-1820-G2 engines.  On 19 May 1938, during the Sino-Japanese War, two Chinese Nationalist Air Force B-10s successfully flew to Japan. However, rather than dropping bombs, the aircraft dropped propaganda leaflets. That followed the project submitted during February 1938. Two French pilots from the 14th International Volunteer Squadron prepared a raid for dropping incendiary bombs over Kagoshima. It was refused.  Dutch Martins fought in the defense of the Dutch East Indies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "At the time of its creation, the B-10B was so advanced that General Henry H. Arnold described it as the airpower wonder of its day. It was half again as fast as any biplane bomber, and faster than any contemporary fighter. The B-10 began a revolution in bomber design; it made all existing bombers completely obsolete.  Rapid advances in bomber design in the late 1930s meant that the B-10 was eclipsed by the time the United States entered World War II. The Model 139s in combat in China and South East Asia suffered the same disadvantages as the other early war medium bombers, i.e. not enough armour and guns, while it could not outrun the latest fighters.  An abortive effort to modernize the design, the Martin Model 146, was entered into a USAAC long-distance bomber design competition 1934–1935, but lost out to the Douglas B-18 and much bigger Boeing B-17.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Martin Model 123.", "content": "Private venture of Martin company, predecessor of the XB-10, served as prototype for the series, one built.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Martin Model 139, 139A and 139B.", "content": "Army Air Corps versions, 165 built.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Model 139W and 166.", "content": "The export versions, 100 built (182 including the Model 166, see below).  Final version, a.k.a. 139WH-3 and 139WH-3A, 82 built.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Martin B-10 was the first all-metal monoplane bomber to be regularly used by the United States Army Air Corps, entering service in June 1934. It was also the first mass-produced bomber whose performance was superior to that of the Army's pursuit aircraft of the time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975419}
{"src_title": "Nicola Perscheid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Perscheid was born as Nikolaus Perscheid in near Koblenz, Germany, where he also went to school. At the age of 15, he began an apprenticeship as a photographer. Subsequently, Perscheid earned his living as an itinerant photographer; he worked, amongst other places, in Saarbrücken, Trier, and Colmar, but also in Nice, Vienna, or Budapest. In Klagenfurt in Austria he finally found a permanent position and on 1 March 1887, he became a member of the Photographic Society of Vienna (\"Wiener Photographische Gesellschaft\"). In 1889, he moved to Dresden, where he initially worked in the studio of Wilhelm Höffert (1832–1901), a well-known studio in Germany at that time, before opening his own studio in Görlitz on 6 June 1891. The next year he was appointed court photographer at the court of Albert, King of Saxony. In 1894, Perscheid moved to Leipzig.  Perscheid had his first publication of an image of his in a renowned photography magazine in 1897, and subsequently participated in many exhibitions and also had contacts with artist Max Klinger. As an established and well-known photographer, he moved in 1905 to Berlin. There, he experimented with early techniques for colour photography, without much success, and when his assistant Arthur Benda left him in 1907, Perscheid gave up these experiments altogether. His portraits, however, won him several important prizes, but apparently were not an economic success: he sold his studio on 24 June 1912.  In October 1913, he held a course at the Swedish society of professional photographers, the Svenska Fotografernas Förbund, which must have been a success as it was praised even ten years later. In 1923, he followed a call by the Danish college for photography in Kopenhagen.  Percheid had several students who would later become renowned photographers themselves. Arthur Benda studied with him from 1899 to 1902, and joined him again in 1906 as his assistant for experimenting with colour photography. Benda left Perscheid in 1907; together with Dora Kallmus he went to Vienna and worked in her studio \"Atelier d'Ora\", which he eventually took over and that continued to exist under the name d'Ora-Benda until 1965. Kallmus herself also had studied from January to May 1907 at Perscheid's. Henry B. Goodwin, who later emigrated to Sweden and in 1913 organized Perscheid's course there, studied with Perscheid in 1903. In 1924 the Swedish photographer Curt Götlin (1900–1993) studied at Perscheid's studio. Perscheid also influenced the Japanese photographer Toragorō Ariga, who studied in Berlin from 1908 to 1914 and also followed Perscheid's courses. He returned in 1915 to Japan.  The Perscheid lens was developed around 1920. It is a soft-focus lens with a wide depth of field, produced by Emil Busch AG after the specifications of Perscheid. The lens is designed especially for large format portrait photography. Ariga introduced the Perscheid lens in Japan, where it became very popular amongst Japanese portrait photographers of the 1920s.  Even after the sale of his studio, Perscheid continued to work as a photographer and even rented other studio rooms in 1917. Besides artistic photography, he also always did \"profane\" studio portraits, for instance for the \"Postkartenvertrieb\" Willi Sanke in Berlin that between 1910 and 1918 published a series of about 600 to 700 numbered aviation postcards, including a large number of portraits of flying aces, a number of which were done by Perscheid. Towards the end of the 1920s, Perscheid had severe financial problems. In autumn 1929 he had to sub-rent his apartment to be able to pay his own rent. Shortly afterwards, he suffered a stroke, and was hospitalized in spring of 1930. While he was at the hospital, his belongings, including his cameras and photographic plates, but also all his furniture were auctioned off to pay his debts. Two weeks after the auction, on 12 May 1930, Perscheid died at the Charité hospital in Berlin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicola Perscheid (3 December 1864 – 12 May 1930) was a German photographer. He is primarily known for his artistic portrait photography. He developed the \"Perscheid lens\", a soft focus lens for large format portrait photography.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975420}
{"src_title": "The Tempest (Giorgione)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description and interpretations.", "content": "On the right a woman sits, suckling a baby. The woman has been described as a \"Gypsy\" since at least 1530, and in Italy, the painting is also known as \"La Zingara e il Soldato\" (\"The Gypsy woman and the soldier\"), or as \"La Zingarella e il Soldato\" (\"The Gypsy girl and the soldier\"). Her pose is unusual – normally the baby would be held on the mother's lap; but in this case the baby is positioned at the side of the mother, so as to expose her pubic area. A man, possibly a soldier, holding a long staff or pike, stands in contrapposto on the left. He smiles and glances to the left, but does not appear to be looking at the woman. Art historians have identified the man alternatively as a soldier, a shepherd, a gypsy, or a member of a club of unmarried men. X-rays of the painting have revealed that in the place of the man, Giorgione originally painted another female nude. One may also note the stork on the rooftop on the right. Storks sometimes represent the love of parents for their children.  The painting's features seem to anticipate the storm. The colors are subdued and the lighting soft; greens and blues dominate. The landscape is a not a mere backdrop, but forms a notable contribution to early landscape painting. The painting has a'silent' atmosphere which continues to fascinate modern viewers.  There is no contemporary textual explanation for \"The Tempest\", and ultimately, no definitive reading or interpretation. To some it represents the flight into Egypt; to others, a scene from classical mythology (possibly Paris and Oenone; or Iasion and Demeter) or from an ancient Greek pastoral novel. According to the Italian scholar Salvatore Settis, the desert city would represent the Paradise, the two characters being Adam and Eve with their son Cain: the lightning, as in ancient Greek and Hebrew times, would represent God who has just ousted them from Eden. Others have proposed a moral allegorical reading, or concluded that Giorgione had no particular subject in mind.  In September, 1943, Professor Pasquale Rotondi, Central Inspector for the General Direction of the Arts, put it under his bed to hide it from German troops..", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural references and reception.", "content": "This was Lord Byron's favorite painting because the ambiguity of both its subject matter and symbolism allowed viewers to make up their own tale.  Jan Morris wrote that the picture changed the way she looked at painting. She was fascinated with the subject and \"its sense of permanently suspended enigma\", and calls it a \"haunted picture\", inhabited by the actual presence of the artist.  Czech poet Ladislav Novák wrote a poem called \"Giorgione's Tempest\" where Meister Eckhart explains its symbolism in a wealthy man's study. According to him, the man is a shepherd who represents Giorgione and the lady is a woman the painter loves, without hoping his love will be requited.  In Mark Helprin's 1991 novel \"A Soldier of the Great War\" the protagonist claims the painting as his favorite and it plays a central role in the plot. It is viewed by the main characters who visit the painting in Venice and is referred to several times throughout the novel.  In \"\" by Neil Gaiman, the painting is depicted hanging in the dining room of the Dream King.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tempest (Italian \"La Tempesta\") is a Renaissance painting by the Italian master Giorgione dated between 1506 and 1508. Originally commissioned by the Venetian noble Gabriele Vendramin, the painting is now in the Gallerie dell'Accademia of Venice, Italy. Despite considerable discussion by art historians, the meaning of the scene remains elusive.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975421}
{"src_title": "Donna Tartt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Tartt was born in Greenwood, Mississippi located in the Mississippi Delta, and raised in the nearby town of Grenada. Her father, Don Tartt, was a successful local politician, while her mother, Taylor, was a secretary. At age thirteen, Tartt was published for the first time when a sonnet was included in a Mississippi literary review.  Tartt enrolled in the University of Mississippi in 1981, where her writing caught the attention of Willie Morris while she was a freshman. Following a recommendation from Morris, Barry Hannah, then an Ole Miss writer-in-residence, admitted the eighteen-year-old Tartt into his graduate course on the short story. \"She was deeply literary,\" said Hannah. \"Just a rare genius, really. A literary star.\"  Following the suggestion of Morris and others, she transferred to Bennington College in 1982. At Bennington, Tartt studied classics with Claude Fredericks.  In 2002, Tartt was reportedly working on a retelling of the myth of Daedalus and Icarus for the Canongate Myth Series, a series of novellas in which ancient myths are reimagined and rewritten by contemporary authors. In 2006, Tartt's short story \"The Ambush\" was included in the Best American Short Stories 2006.  Tartt is a convert to Catholicism and contributed an essay, \"The spirit and writing in a secular world\", to \"The Novel, Spirituality and Modern Culture\" (2000). In her essay Tartt wrote that \"...faith is vital in the process of making my work and in the reasons I am driven to make it\". However, Tartt also warned of the danger of writers who impose their beliefs or convictions on their novels. She wrote that writers should \"shy from asserting those convictions directly in their work\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Donna Tartt (born December 23, 1963) is an American author. Tartt's novels include \"The Secret History\" (1992), \"The Little Friend\" (2002), and \"The Goldfinch\" (2013). Tartt won the WH Smith Literary Award for \"The Little Friend\" in 2003 and the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for \"The Goldfinch\" in 2014. She was included in \"Time\" magazine's 2014 \"100 Most Influential People\" list.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975422}
{"src_title": "Douglas B-18 Bolo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1934, the United States Army Air Corps put out a request for a bomber with double the bomb load and range of the Martin B-10, which was just entering service as the Army's standard bomber. In the evaluation at Wright Field the following year, Douglas showed its DB-1. It competed with the Boeing Model 299 (later developed into the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress) and Martin Model 146.  While the Boeing design was clearly superior, the crash of the B-17 prototype (caused by taking off with the controls still locked) removed it from consideration. During the depths of the Great Depression, the lower price of the DB-1 ($58,500 vs. $99,620 for the Model 299) also counted in its favor. The Douglas design was ordered into immediate production in January 1936 as the B-18.  The DB-1 design was essentially that of the DC-2, with several modifications. The wingspan was greater. The fuselage was deeper, to better accommodate bombs and the six-member crew; the wings were fixed in the middle of the cross-section rather than to the bottom due to the deeper fuselage. Added armament included nose, dorsal, and ventral gun turrets.  Preston Tucker's firm received a contract to supply a remote controlled gun turret for the aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The initial contract called for 133 B-18s (including DB-1), using Wright R-1820 radial engines. The last B-18 of the run, designated DB-2 by the company, had a power-operated nose turret. This design did not become standard. Additional contracts in 1937 (177 aircraft) and 1938 (40 aircraft) were for the B-18A, which had the bombardier's position further forward over the nose-gunner's station. The B-18A also used more powerful engines.  Deliveries of B-18s to Army units began in the first half of 1937, with the first examples being test and evaluation aircraft being turned over to the Materiel Division at Wright Field, Ohio, the Technical Training Command at Chanute Field, Illinois, the Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, and Lowry Field, Colorado. Deliveries to operational groups began in late 1937, the first being the 7th Bombardment Group at Hamilton Field, California.  Production B-18s, with full military equipment fitted, had a maximum speed of 217 mph, cruising speed of 167 mph, and combat range of 850 miles. By 1940, most USAAC bomber squadrons were equipped with B-18s or B-18As.  However, the deficiencies in the B-18/B-18A bomber were becoming readily apparent to almost everyone. In range, in speed, in bomb load, and particularly in defensive armor and armament, the design came up short, and the Air Corps conceded that the aircraft was obsolete and totally unsuited in the long-range bombing role for which it had originally been acquired. To send crews out in such a plane against a well-armed, determined foe would have been nothing short of suicidal.  However, in spite of the known shortcomings of the B-18/B-18A, the Douglas aircraft was the most numerous American bomber type deployed outside the continental United States at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor. It was hoped that the B-18 could play a stopgap role until more suitable aircraft such as the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B-24 Liberator became available in quantity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "When war came to the Pacific, most of the B-18/B-18A aircraft based overseas in the Philippines and in Hawaii were destroyed on the ground in the initial Japanese onslaught. The few Bolos that remained played no significant role in subsequent operations.  The B-18s remaining in the continental US and in the Caribbean were then deployed in a defensive role in anticipation of attacks on the US mainland. These attacks never materialized. B-17s supplanted B-18s in first-line service in 1942. Following this, 122 B-18As were modified for anti-submarine warfare. The bombardier was replaced by a search radar with a large radome. Magnetic anomaly detection (MAD) equipment was sometimes housed in a tail boom. These aircraft, designated B-18B, were used in the Caribbean on anti-submarine patrol. On 2 October 1942, a B-18A, piloted by Captain Howard Burhanna Jr. of the 99th Bomb Squadron, depth charged and sank the north of Cayenne, French Guiana.  Two aircraft were transferred to \"Força Aérea Brasileira\" in 1942 and used with a provisional conversion training unit set up under the provisions of Lend-Lease. They were later used for anti-submarine patrols. They were struck off charge at the end of the war. In 1940 the Royal Canadian Air Force acquired 20 B-18As (as the Douglas Digby Mark I), and also used them for patrol duties, being immediately issued to 10 Squadron to replace the squadron's Westland Wapitis.  Bolos and Digbys sank an additional two submarines during the course of the war. RCAF Eastern Air Command (EAC) Digbys carried out 11 attacks on U-boats. was confirmed sunk by Flying Officer F. Raymes' crew of No. 10 (BR) Squadron, on 30 October 1942. east of Newfoundland. However, the antisubmarine role was relatively short-lived, and the Bolos were superseded in this role in 1943 by Consolidated B-24 Liberators which had a much heavier payload and a substantially longer range which finally closed the mid-Atlantic gap.  Surviving USAAF B-18s ended their useful lives in training and transport roles within the continental United States, and saw no further combat action. Two B-18As were modified as unarmed cargo transports under the designation C-58. At the end of the war, those bombers that were left were sold as surplus on the commercial market. Some postwar B-18s of various models were operated as cargo or crop-spraying aircraft by commercial operators.  Some of the Douglas Digbys in Canadian service were converted to either C-58s or used for training.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aircraft on display.", "content": "Only six B-18s still exist, five of them preserved or under restoration in museums in the United States:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "[[Category:1930s United States bomber aircraft]] [[Category:Douglas aircraft|B-18 Bolo]] [[Category:1930s United States military trainer aircraft]] [[Category:1930s United States military transport aircraft]] [[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1935]] [[Category:Mid-wing aircraft]] [[Category:World War II bombers of the United States]] [[Category:Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft]]", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Douglas B-18 Bolo is an American medium bomber which served with the United States Army Air Corps and the Royal Canadian Air Force (as the Digby) during the late 1930s and early 1940s. The Bolo was built by the Douglas Aircraft Company, based on its DC-2, and was developed to replace the Martin B-10.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975423}
{"src_title": "Herb Ellis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Farmersville, Texas, and raised in the suburbs of Dallas, Ellis first heard the electric guitar performed by George Barnes on a radio program. This experience is said to have inspired him to take up the guitar. He became proficient on the instrument by the time he entered North Texas State University. Ellis majored in music, but because they did not yet have a guitar program at that time, he studied the string bass. Unfortunately, due to lack of funds, his college days were short-lived. In 1941, Ellis dropped out of college and toured for six months with a band from the University of Kansas.  In 1943, he joined Glen Gray and the Casa Loma Orchestra and it was with Gray's band that he got his first recognition in the jazz magazines. After Gray's band, Ellis joined the Jimmy Dorsey band where he played some of his first recorded solos. Ellis remained with Dorsey through 1947, traveling and recording extensively, and playing in dance halls and movie palaces. Then came a turnabout that would change Ellis's career forever. As pianist Lou Carter told journalist Robert Dupuis in a 1996 interview, \"The Dorsey band had a six-week hole in the schedule. The three of us had played together some with the big band. John Frigo, who had already left the band, knew the owner of the Peter Stuyvesant Hotel in Buffalo. We went in there and stayed six months. And that's how the group the Soft Winds were born\". Together with Frigo and Lou Carter, Ellis wrote the classic jazz standard \"Detour Ahead\".  The Soft Winds group was fashioned after the Nat King Cole Trio. They stayed together until 1952. Ellis then joined the Oscar Peterson Trio (replacing Barney Kessel) in 1953, forming what Scott Yanow would later on refer to as \"one of the most memorable of all the piano, guitar, and bass trios in jazz history\".  Ellis became prominent after performing with the Oscar Peterson Trio from 1953 to 1958 along with pianist Peterson and bassist Ray Brown. He was a somewhat controversial member of the trio, because he was the only white person in the group in a time when racism was still very much widespread.In addition to their great live and recorded work as the Oscar Peterson Trio, this unit usually with the addition of a drummer, served as the virtual \"house rhythm section\" for Norman Granz's Verve Records, supporting the likes of tenormen Ben Webster and Stan Getz, as well as trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie, Roy Eldridge, and Sweets Edison and other jazz stalwarts. Ellis was part of the rhythm section but did not solo on every track. With drummer Buddy Rich, they were also the backing band for popular \"comeback\" albums by the duet of Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong.  The trio were one of the mainstays of Granz's Jazz at the Philharmonic concerts as they swept the jazz world, almost constantly touring the United States and Europe. Ellis left the Peterson Trio in November 1958, to be replaced not by a guitarist, but by drummer Ed Thigpen. The years of 1957 through 1960 found Ellis touring with Ella Fitzgerald.  The three provided a stirring rendition of \"Tenderly\" as a jazz improvisational backdrop to John Hubley's 1958 cartoon \"The Tender Game\".  With fellow jazz guitarists Barney Kessel, Charlie Byrd and Tal Farlow, he created another ensemble, the Great Guitars.  Herb Ellis was also featured on an episode of \"Sanford and Son\" accompanying Fred Sanford's singing.  Ellis gave cartoonist and The Far Side creator Gary Larson guitar lessons in exchange for the cover illustration for the album \"Doggin' Around\" (Concord, 1988) by Ellis and bassist Red Mitchell.  In 1994 he joined the Arkansas Jazz Hall of Fame. On November 15, 1997 he received an Honorary Doctorate from the University of North Texas College of Music.  Ellis died of Alzheimer's disease at his Los Angeles home on the morning of March 28, 2010, at the age of 88.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As leader.", "content": "With Monty Alexander and Ray Brown  With Oscar Peterson", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As sideman.", "content": "With Mel Brown  With Benny Carter  With Harry Edison  With Roy Eldridge  With Victor Feldman  With Johnny Frigo  With Stan Getz  With Dizzy Gillespie  With Vince Guaraldi  With Coleman Hawkins  With Lou Rawls  With Illinois Jacquet  With Bud Shank  With Gábor Szabó  With Oscar Peterson  With Sonny Stitt  With Ben Webster  With Lester Young", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mitchell Herbert Ellis (August 4, 1921 – March 28, 2010), known professionally as Herb Ellis, was an American jazz guitarist. During the 1950s, he was in a trio with pianist Oscar Peterson.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975424}
{"src_title": "Hranice (Přerov District)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Until 1918, Hranice was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), in the district with the same name, one of the 34 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Moravia. The German name only was used before 1867 (including \"Weiskirchen\").  In 1883, Antonín Kunz (1859–1910) founded a company in Hranice for the repair and production of small farm machinery and then specialized in the production of windpumps and other pumps. The company became the largest factory for water pumps in Austria-Hungary. At the end of the 19th century, it also produced complete communal water systems (by 1912 it had done so for 1,056 towns and municipalities, as well as factories and large landowners). The Sigma Pumps company developed out of Kunz's company.  In the days of Austria-Hungary, in the interbellum Czechoslovakia, and during the communist era the city hosted a large military academy. Notable graduates include Archduke Wilhelm of Austria and Herman Potočnik.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Jews in Hranice.", "content": "The first Jews came at the beginning of the 17th century, receiving in 1637 the right for a self-governed Jewish quarter, around the present Janáčkova street (renamed from Židovská street). Besides those 17 houses, they were not allowed to purchase houses elsewhere. The community reached a high 802 people in 1857 (13% of the entire town). They had a significant role in the development of Hranice's industry: a textile plant established in 1844 (the largest factory until the mid-20th century), and distilleries (1827, 1836).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Hranice is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "Notable people that were born or lived in Hranice include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hranice (; or \"Mährisch Weißkirchen\", ) is a town in Moravia, the eastern Czech Republic. It is sometimes informally called Hranice na Moravě (literally, \"Hranice in Moravia\"), to distinguish from other places with the same name, Hranice. In fact, Hranice na Moravě (), is the name of one of the railway stations of the town, the other being \"Hranice na Moravě město\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975425}
{"src_title": "Tết", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Customs.", "content": "Vietnamese people usually return to their families during Tết. Some return to worship at the family altar or visit the graves of their ancestors in their homeland. They also clean the graves of their family as a sign of respect. Although Tết is a national holiday among all Vietnamese, each region and religion has its own customs.  Tết in the three Vietnamese regions can be divided into three periods, known as \"Tất Niên\" (penultimate New Year's Eve), \"Giao Thừa\" (New Year's Eve), and \"Tân Niên\" (the New Year), representing the preparation before Tết, the eve of Tết, and the days of and following Tết, respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The New Year.", "content": "The first day of Tết is reserved for the nuclear family. Children receive a red envelope containing money from their elders. This tradition is called \"mừng tuổi\" (happy new age) in the north and \"lì xì\" in the south. Usually, children wear their new clothes and give their elders the traditional Tết greetings before receiving the money. Since the Vietnamese believe that the first visitor a family receives in the year determines their fortune for the entire year, people never enter any house on the first day without being invited first. The act of being the first person to enter a house on Tết is called \"xông đất\", \"xông nhà\" or \"đạp đất\", which is one of the most important rituals during Tết. According to Vietnamese tradition, if good things come to the family on the first day of the lunar New Year, the entire following year will also be full of blessings. Usually, a person of good temper, morality, and success will be the lucky sign for the host family and be invited first into the house. However, just to be safe, the owner of the house will leave the house a few minutes before midnight and come back just as the clock strikes midnight to prevent anyone else entering the house first who might potentially bring any unfortunate events in the new year, to the household.  Sweeping during Tết is taboo or \"xui\" (unlucky), since it symbolizes sweeping the luck away; that is why they clean before the new year. It is also taboo for anyone who experienced a recent loss of a family member to visit anyone else during Tết.  During subsequent days, people visit relatives and friends. Traditionally but not strictly, the second day of Tết is usually reserved for friends, while the third day is for teachers, who command respect in Vietnam. Local Buddhist temples are popular spots as people like to give donations and to get their fortunes told during Tết. Children are free to spend their new money on toys or on gambling games such as \"bầu cua cá cọp\", which can be found in the streets. Prosperous families can pay for dragon dancers to perform at their house. Also, public performances are given for everyone to watch.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traditional celebrations.", "content": "These celebrations can last from a day up to the entire week, and the New Year is filled with people in the streets trying to make as much noise as possible using firecrackers, drums, bells, gongs, and anything they can think of to ward off evil spirits. This parade will also include different masks, and dancers hidden under the guise of what is known as the \"Mua Lan \"or Lion Dancing. The \"Lan\" is an animal between a lion and a dragon, and is the symbol of strength in the Vietnamese culture that is used to scare away evil spirits. After the parade, families and friends come together to have a feast of traditional Vietnamese dishes, and share the happiness and joy of the New Year with one another. This is also the time when the elders will hand out red envelopes with money to the children for good luck in exchange for Tết greetings.  It is also tradition to pay off your debts before the Lunar New Year for some Vietnamese families.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decorations.", "content": "Traditionally, each family displays \"cây nêu\", an artificial New Year tree consisting of a bamboo pole 5 to 6 m long. The top end is usually decorated with many objects, depending on the locality, including good luck charms, origami fish, cactus branches, etc.  At Tết, every house is usually decorated by Yellow Apricot blossoms (\"hoa mai\") in the central and southern parts of Vietnam; or peach blossoms (\"hoa đào\") in the northern part of Vietnam; or St. John's wort (\"hoa ban\") in the mountain areas. In the north, some people (especially the elite in the past) also decorate their house with a plum blossoms (also called \"hoa mơ\" in Vietnamese, but referring to a totally different species from mickey-mouse blossoms). In the north or central, the kumquat tree is a popular decoration for the living room during Tết. Its many fruits symbolize the fertility and fruitfulness for which the family hopes in the coming year.  Vietnamese people also decorate their homes with bonsai and flowers such as chrysanthemums (\"hoa cúc\"), marigolds (\"vạn thọ\") symbolizing longevity, cockscombs (\"mào gà\") in southern Vietnam and paperwhites (\"thủy tiên\") and pansies (\"hoa lan\") in northern Vietnam. In the past was a tradition where people tried to make their paperwhites bloom on the day of the observance.  They also hung up Dong Ho paintings and \"thư pháp\" calligraphy pictures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Greetings.", "content": "The traditional greetings are \"\"Chúc Mừng Năm Mới\"\" (Happy New Year) and \"\"Cung Chúc Tân Xuân\"\", (gracious wishes of the new spring). People also wish each other prosperity and luck. Common wishes for Tết include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "In Vietnamese language, to celebrate Tết is to \"ăn Tết\", literally meaning \"eat Tết\", showing the importance of food in its celebration. Some of the food is also eaten year-round, while other dishes are only eaten during Tết. Also, some of the food is vegetarian since it is believed to be good luck to eat vegetarian on Tết. Some traditional foods on Tết are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Games and entertainment.", "content": "People enjoy traditional games during Tết, including: \"bầu cua cá cọp\", \"cờ tướng\", \"ném còn\", \"chọi trâu\", and \"đá gà\". They also participate in some competitions presenting their knowledge, strength, and aestheticism, such as the bird competition and \"ngâm thơ\" competition.  Fireworks displays have also become an traditional part of a Tết celebration in Vietnam. During the New Year's Eve, fireworks displays at major cities, such as Hà Nội, Ho Chi Minh City, and Da Nang, are broadcast through multiple national and local TV channels, accompanied by New Year wishes of the incumbent president. In 2017 only, fireworks displays were prohibited due to political and financial reasons. In Australia, Canada & the U.S., there are fireworks displays at many of its festivals.  \"Gặp nhau cuối năm\" (\"Year-end Gathering\") is a national favourite comedy show broadcast during the night before the New Year's Eve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dates in Lunar Calendar.", "content": "From 1996 to 2067.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tết ( or ), Vietnamese New Year, Vietnamese Lunar New Year or Tet Holiday, is the most important celebration in Vietnamese culture. The word is a shortened form of Tết Nguyên Đán (節元旦), which is Sino-Vietnamese for \"Feast of the First Morning of the First Day\". Tết celebrates the arrival of spring based on the Vietnamese calendar, which usually has the date falling in January or February in the Gregorian calendar.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975426}
{"src_title": "Rosa gallica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Rosa gallica\" is a deciduous shrub forming large patches. The slender, straight prickles are various in size and frequency in this species The leaves are pinnately-compound, with three to seven bluish-green leaflets. The flowers are clustered one to four together, on glandular pedicels. Each flower has five or more petals, sometimes producing double corollas. The flowers are fragrant and deep pink. The hips are globose to ovoid, 10–13 mm diameter, orange to brownish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallica cultivar group.", "content": "Cultivars of the species \"R. gallica\" and hybrids close in appearance are considered as a cultivar group, the Gallica Group roses. Their exact ancestry is usually unknown and other species may be involved. They are easily cultivated. The Gallica Group roses share the vegetative characters of the species:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Apothecary's rose.", "content": "Plants with semidouble deep pink flowers have been treated as either a variety, under the name \"R. gallica\" var. \"officinalis\", or as a cultivar, \"R. gallica\" 'Officinalis'. It is also called the apothecary's rose, the crimson damask rose, or the red rose of Lancaster. It is the county flower of Lancashire. A cultivar \"R. gallica\" var. \"officinalis\" 'Versicolor', with striped pink blooms, is also known as \"Rosa mundi\".  The names \"Rosa gallica\" f. \"trigintipetala\" or \"Rosa\" 'Trigintipetala' are considered to be synonyms of \"Rosa damascena\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "It was cultivated by the Greek and Romans and commonly used in mediaeval gardens. In the 19th century it was the most important species of rose to be cultivated, and most modern European rose cultivars have at least a small contribution from \"R. gallica\" in their ancestry.  \"Rosa gallica\" is easily cultivated on well drained soil in full sun to semishade; it can survive temperatures down to −25 °C.  The following cultivars and hybrids have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rosa gallica, the Gallic rose, French rose, or rose of Provins, is a species of flowering plant in the rose family, native to southern and central Europe eastwards to Turkey and the Caucasus. It was one of the first species of rose to be cultivated in central Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975427}
{"src_title": "16th arrondissement of Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The land area of this arrondissement is 16.305 km ( or 4,029 acres), slightly more than half of which consists of the Bois de Boulogne park. Excluding the Bois de Boulogne, its land area is 7.846 km ( or 1,939 acres). It is the largest arrondissement in Paris in terms of land area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "The 16th arrondissement population peaked in 1962, when it had 227,418 inhabitants. At the last census (2009), the population was 169,372. The 16th arrondissement contains a great deal of business activity; in 1999 it hosted 106,971 jobs.  The 16th arrondissement is commonly thought to be one of the richest parts of Paris (see Auteuil-Neuilly-Passy), and features some of the most expensive real estate in France including the famous Auteuil \"villas\", heirs to 19th century high society country houses, they are exclusive gated communities with huge houses surrounded by gardens, which is extremely rare in Paris. It is also the only arrondissement in Paris to be divided into two separate postal codes. The southern part of the arrondissement carries a postal code of 75016, while the northern part has the code of 75116.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Four Fortune Global 500 have their head offices in this arrondissement: PSA Peugeot Citroën, Kering, Lafarge, and Veolia. In addition Lagardère and Technip have their headquarters in this arrondissement.  At one time Aérospatiale had its head office in the arrondissement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Movies filmed in the 16th arrondissement.", "content": "In one of the opening scenes of the 1965 James Bond film \"Thunderball\", character Emilio Largo is seen arriving at the headquarters of \"The International Brotherhood for the Assistance of Stateless Persons\". This scene was shot on Avenue d'Eylau in the 16th arrondissement.  The 1972 film \"Last Tango in Paris\" was filmed at various locations in the 16th arrondissement, with the apartment the characters stayed in being located in Passy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marcel Petiot.", "content": "A notorious serial murder case, which generated an international media circus, centered in the 16th arrondissement during the Nazi occupation of France during World War II. The focal point of the case was French doctor Marcel Petiot, who in 1941 bought a house at 21 Rue le Sueur in \"the heart of Paris's fashionable 16th arrondissement\". On 11 March 1944, Petiot's neighbors complained to police of a foul stench in the area and of large amounts of smoke billowing from a chimney of the house. Fearing a chimney fire, the police summoned firemen, who entered the house and found a roaring fire in a coal stove in the basement. In the fire, and scattered in the basement, were human remains. Following an investigation, during which time Petiot attempted to evade capture, \"the monster of rue Le Sueur\" was ultimately arrested and went on trial on 19 March 1946, facing 135 criminal charges. He was convicted of 26 counts of murder and sentenced to death. On 25 May, Petiot was beheaded, after a stay of several days due to a problem in the release mechanism of the guillotine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Primary and secondary schools.", "content": "Here is a list of domestic French sixth-form colleges/high schools in the arrondissement  International schools:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Undergraduate and postgraduate studies.", "content": "The Université Paris-Dauphine is in the arrondissement, as well as Paris Institute of Technology, part of Paris Descartes University, one of Paris biggest public universities.  The renowned \"classes préparatoires\" establishment have one of their campuses in the arrondissement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Supplementary schools.", "content": "The \"École de langue japonaise de Paris\" (パリ日本語補習校 \"Pari Nihongo Hoshūkō\"), a supplementary Japanese education programme, is held at the \"École Maternelle et Primaire Saint Francois d'Eylau\" in the 16th arrondissement. The school has its offices at the \"Association Amicale des Ressortissants Japonais en France\" (AARJF) in the 8th arrondissement.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 16th arrondissement of Paris (\"XVI arrondissement\") is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, this arrondissement is referred to as \"seizième\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975428}
{"src_title": "Jean François Paul de Gondi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jean-François de Gondi was born in Montmirail, in the Brie region of northern France. He was the third son in his family, and according to Tallemant des Réaux was made a knight of Malta on the very day of his birth. The death of his second brother, however, destined him for a closer connection with the Church. The Retz side of his family had much church influence, and though young Jean-François was not much attracted to the clergy, his family insisted that he join it. They said he lacked the appearance of a soldier, being short, near-sighted, ugly and awkward.  He was tutored by St. Vincent de Paul and educated at the Sorbonne. When he was eighteen, he wrote \"Conjuration de Fiesque\", a little historical essay, influenced by the Italian of Agostino Mascardi, and audaciously insinuating revolutionary principles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family background.", "content": "The district of Retz or Rais is in southern Brittany, and has been under the control of several different families. Retz always spelled the word \"Rais.\" The barony of Retz first belonged to the House of Retz, then to the Chabot family and the Laval family. Gilles de Rais, a Laval and comrade in arms of Joan of Arc, was executed without an heir, so the barony passed successively to the families of Tournemine, Annebaut and Gondi.  In 1581, it became a duchy, with Albert de Gondi its first duke. His brother Pierre de Gondi became bishop of Paris in 1570 and cardinal in 1587. Pierre was succeeded by his nephews Henri de Gondi (d. 1622) and Jean-François de Gondi (d. 1654), for whom the episcopal see of Paris was erected into an archbishopric in 1622. Finally, Jean François was then succeeded by Pierre's great-nephew Jean François Paul de Gondi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archbishop of Paris.", "content": "Retz received no preferment of importance during Cardinal Richelieu's life. Even after the minister's death, though he was presented to Louis XIII and well received, he found difficulty in attaining the co-adjutorship with reversion of the archbishopric of Paris. But almost immediately after the king's death, Anne of Austria appointed him to the coveted post on All Saints Eve, 1643. Retz, who had, according to some accounts, already plotted against Richelieu, set himself to work to make the utmost political capital out of his position. His uncle had lived in great seclusion; Retz, on the contrary, gradually acquired a very great influence with the populace of the city. This influence he gradually turned against Cardinal Mazarin, which helped lead to the outbreak of the Fronde in October 1648.  Of the two parties who joined the Fronde, Retz could only depend on the bourgeoisie of Paris. He had some speculative tendencies in favour of popular liberties, and even perhaps of republicanism, but represented no real political principle, which inevitably weakened his position. When the breakup of the Fronde came he was left in the lurch, having more than once been in no small danger from his own party. However, because of a misapprehension on the part of Pope Innocent X, he had been made cardinal.  In 1652, he was arrested and imprisoned, first at Vincennes, then at Nantes; he escaped after two years, and traveled through Europe. He went to Rome more than once, and helped elect Pope Alexander VII. In 1662, Louis XIV received him back into favor, and asked him to formally serve as envoy to Rome several times. For this reconciliation to occur, he resigned his claims to the archbishopric of Paris. He was appointed abbot of St-Denis, and restored to his other benefices with the payment of arrears.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "The last seventeen years of Retz's life were passed partly in his diplomatic duties (he was again in Rome at the papal conclaves of 1667 and 1669), partly in Paris, partly at his estate of Cornmercy, but mostly at Saint-Mihiel in Lorraine. His debts were enormous, and in 1675 he made over to his creditors all his income except twenty thousand \"livres\". He died at Paris on 24 August 1679. During these last years he corresponded with Madame de Sévigné, a relative by marriage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "During the last ten years of his life, Retz wrote his \"Memoirs,\" which go up to the year 1655. They are addressed in the form of narrative to a lady who is not known, though guesses have been made at her identity, some even suggesting Madame de Sévigné herself. In the beginning there are some gaps. They are known for their narrative skill and the verbal portraits of their characters. Alexandre Dumas, père drew heavily on the \"Memoirs\" for \"Vingt ans après\". Besides these memoirs and the youthful essay of the \"Conjuration de Fiesque\", Retz has left diplomatic papers, sermons, \"Mazarinades\" and correspondence.  Retz and François de La Rochefoucauld, the greatest of the \"Frondeurs\" in literary genius, were personal and political enemies, and each left a portrait of the other. De la Rochefoucauld wrote of Retz: \"\"Il a suscité les plus grands désordres dans l'état sans avoir un dessein formé de s'en prévaloir.\"\" (He stirred up the greatest disorder in the State, without having a clear plan of how to gain from it).  The \"Memoirs of the cardinal de Retz\" were first published in a very imperfect condition in 1717. The first satisfactory edition appeared in the twenty-fourth volume of the collection of Joseph François Michaud and Jean Joseph François Poujoulat (Paris, 1836). In 1870 a complete edition of the works of Retz was begun by Alphonse Feillet in the collection of \"Grands Ecrivains\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean François Paul de Gondi, cardinal de Retz (20 September 1613 – 24 August 1679) was a French churchman, writer of memoirs, and agitator in the Fronde.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975429}
{"src_title": "Catherine Labouré", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Labouré was born on May 2, 1806, in the Burgundy region of France to Pierre Labouré, a farmer, and Madeleine Louise Gontard, the 9th of 11 living children. Her baptismal name was Zoe, after Saint Zoe, whose feast day falls on her birthday, but her family rarely used that. Catherine was her baptismal name. Labouré's mother died on October 9, 1815, when Labouré was nine years old. It is said that after her mother's funeral, Labouré picked up a statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary and kissed it saying, \"Now you will be my mother.\" Her father's sister offered to care for her and her sister Marie Antoinette (Tonine). After he agreed, the sisters moved to their aunt's house at Saint-Rémy, a village from their home.  Labouré was observed to be extremely devout, of a somewhat romantic nature, given to visions and intuitive insights. As a young woman, she became a member of the nursing order founded by Vincent de Paul, the Daughters of Charity; she chose this order after a dream about him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vincent de Paul.", "content": "In April 1830, the remains of Vincent de Paul were translated to the Vincentian church in Paris. The solemnities included a novena. On three successive evenings, upon returning from the church to the Rue du Bac, a church, Catherine reportedly experienced in the convent chapel, a vision of what she took to be the heart of de Paul above a shrine containing a relic of bone from his right arm. Each time the heart appeared a different color: white, red, and black. She interpreted this to mean that the Vincentian communities would prosper, and that there would be a change of government. The convent chaplain advised her to forget the matter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Blessed Virgin Mary.", "content": "Labouré stated that on July 19, 1830, the eve of the feast of St. Vincent de Paul, she woke up after hearing the voice of a child calling her to the chapel, where she heard the Virgin Mary say to her, \"God wishes to charge you with a mission. You will be contradicted, but do not fear; you will have the grace to do what is necessary. Tell your spiritual director all that passes within you. Times are evil in France and in the world.\" Labouré kept walking, thinking about what she just heard.  On November 27, 1830, Labouré reported that the Blessed Mother returned to her during evening meditations. She displayed herself inside an oval frame, standing upon a globe, rays of light came out of her hands in the direction of a globe. Around the margin of the frame appeared the words \"O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee.\" As Labouré watched, the frame seemed to rotate, showing a circle of twelve stars, a large letter \"M\" surmounted by a cross, and the stylized Sacred Heart of Jesus and Immaculate Heart of Mary underneath. Asked why some of the rays of light did not reach the Earth, Mary reportedly replied \"Those are the graces for which people forget to ask.\" Labouré then heard Mary ask her to take these images to her father confessor, telling him that they should be put on medallions. \"All who wear them will receive great graces.\"  Labouré did so, and after two years of investigation and observation of her normal daily behavior, the priest took the information to his archbishop without revealing her identity. The request was approved and the design of the medallions was commissioned through French goldsmith Adrien Vachette. They proved to be exceedingly popular. The dogma of the Immaculate Conception had not yet been officially promulgated, but the medal with its \"conceived without sin\" slogan was influential in popular approval of the idea.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Labouré spent the next forty years caring for the aged and infirm. For this, she is called the patroness of seniors. She died on December 31, 1876, at the age of seventy. Her body is encased in glass beneath the side altar in the Chapel of Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal at 140 Rue du Bac, Paris.  Her cause for sainthood was declared upon discovering her body was incorrupt. She was beatified on May 28, 1933 by Pope Pius XI and canonized on July 27, 1947 by Pope Pius XII.  Labouré's feast day is observed on November 28 according to the liturgical calendar of the Congregation of the Mission, the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul and the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Paris. She is listed in the Martyrologium Romanum for December 31.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Catherine Labouré, D.C.. (May 2, 1806 – December 31, 1876) was a French nun who was a member of the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul and is a Marian visionary. She is believed to have relayed the request from the Blessed Virgin Mary to create the famous Miraculous Medal of Our Lady of Graces worn by millions of people around the world. Labouré spent forty years caring for the aged and infirm. For this, she is called the patroness of seniors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975430}
{"src_title": "Amiot 354", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The Amiot 350 series originated in the same 1934 requirement as a rival to the Lioré et Olivier LeO 451. Derived from the Amiot 341 mail plane, the Amiot 340 prototype was involved in a propaganda misinformation flight to Berlin in August 1938 to convince the Germans that the French employed modern bombers. Though 130 machines were ordered by the French government that year, production delays and ordered modifications ensured that September 1939 saw no delivered aircraft. Eventually, the ordered number of this very modern aircraft reached 830, though ultimately only 80 machines were received by the Air Ministry. The main variant was the twin-tailed 351; however, due to various delays, the single-tailed 354 was accepted into service as an interim type.  The Amiot 351 was planned to mount one 7.5 mm (.295 in) MAC 1934 machine gun in nose and ventral positions and one Hispano-Suiza HS.404 cannon in the dorsal position. Due to technical problems with the armament installation, many aircraft went to operational units with only a rifle-calibre light machine gun in the dorsal position.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "In May 1940, the Amiot 351/354 was in the process of equipping just two bomber \"groupes\": GB 1/21 and GB II/21 based at Avignon. Though 200 were in the final stages of construction, only 35 were ready for flight. This situation was exacerbated by the Amiot 351/354 being built in three factories, two of which were later bombed by the Germans. On 16 May 1940, the Amiot 351/354s carried out armed reconnaissance sorties over Maastricht in the Netherlands - the first operation conducted by planes of this type. By June, the Amiot 351/354 was also delivered for GB I/34 and GB II/34, neither flying them in combat. At that time, all Amiot 351/354s were based on the northern front. Three had been lost in combat and ten in training accidents. All aircraft were ordered to evacuate to Africa on 17 June, 37 surviving the trip. As their numbers were too few to engage the Italians, the aircraft were sent back to Metropolitan France and their \"groupes\" disbanded in August 1940. Five Amiot 351/354s continued to be used as mail planes after the Battle of France. Four Amiot 351/354s were commandeered by the \"Luftwaffe\" as transports, two found service in the 1./\"Kampfgeschwader\" 200 a special service unit. Engines taken from these aircraft were later used on Messerschmitt Me 323 cargo transports.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Amiot 354 was the last in a series of fast, twin-engine bombers which fought with the French Air Force in limited numbers during the Battle of France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975431}
{"src_title": "Triflic acid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synthesis.", "content": "Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid is produced industrially by electrochemical fluorination (ECF) of methanesulfonic acid: The resulting CFSOF is hydrolyzed, and the resulting triflate salt is preprotonated. Alternatively, trifluoromethanesulfonic acid arises by oxidation of trifluoromethylsulfenyl chloride:  Triflic acid is purified by distillation from triflic anhydride.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical.", "content": "Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid was first synthesized in 1954 by Robert Haszeldine and Kidd by the following reaction:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As an acid.", "content": "In the laboratory, triflic acid is useful in protonations because the conjugate base of triflic acid is nonnucleophilic. It is also used as an acidic titrant in nonaqueous acid-base titration because it behaves as a strong acid in many solvents (acetonitrile, acetic acid, etc.) where common mineral acids (such as HCl or HSO) are only moderately strong.  With a \"K\" = 5×10, p\"K\" −14.7±2.0, triflic acid qualifies as a superacid. It owes many of its useful properties to its great thermal and chemical stability. Both the acid and its conjugate base CFSO, known as triflate, resist oxidation/reduction reactions, whereas many strong acids are oxidizing, e.g. perchloric or nitric acid. Further recommending its use, triflic acid does not sulfonate substrates, which can be a problem with sulfuric acid, fluorosulfuric acid, and chlorosulfonic acid. Below is a prototypical sulfonation, which HOTf does \"not\" undergo:  Triflic acid fumes in moist air and forms a stable solid monohydrate, CFSOH·HO, melting point 34 °C.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Salt and complex formation.", "content": "The triflate ligand is labile, reflecting its low basicity. Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid exothermically reacts with metal carbonates, hydroxides, and oxides. Illustrative is the synthesis of Cu(OTf). Chloride ligands can be converted to the corresponding triflates: This conversion is conducted in neat HOTf at 100 °C, followed by precipitation of the salt upon the addition of ether.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organic chemistry.", "content": "Triflic acid reacts with acyl halides to give mixed triflate anhydrides, which are strong acylating agents, e.g. in Friedel–Crafts reactions. Triflic acid catalyzes the reaction of aromatic compounds with sulfonyl chlorides, probably also through the intermediacy of a mixed anhydride of the sulfonic acid.  Triflic acid promotes other Friedel–Crafts-like reactions including the cracking of alkanes and alkylation of alkenes, which are very important to the petroleum industry. These triflic acid derivative catalysts are very effective in isomerizing straight chain or slightly branched hydrocarbons that can increase the octane rating of a particular petroleum-based fuel.  Triflic acid reacts exothermically with alcohols to produce ethers and olefins.  Dehydration gives the acid anhydride, trifluoromethanesulfonic anhydride, (CFSO)O.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Triflic acid is one of the strongest acids. Contact with skin causes severe burns with delayed tissue destruction. On inhalation it causes fatal spasms, inflammation and edema.  Addition of triflic acid to polar solvents can be dangerously exothermic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Triflic acid, is the short name for trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, TFMS, TFSA, HOTf or TfOH, is a sulfonic acid with the chemical formula CFSOH. It is one of the strongest acids. Triflic acid is mainly used in research as a catalyst for esterification. It is a hygroscopic, colorless, slightly viscous liquid and is soluble in polar solvents.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975432}
{"src_title": "Spruance-class destroyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The class was originally designed for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) with point defense anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) missiles; upgrades provided anti-ship and land attack capabilities.  The ships were initially controversial, especially among members of the United States Congress who believed that their unimposing looks, with only two guns and an ASROC and Sea Sparrow missile launcher per ship implied that the vessels were weak compared to Soviet designs which carried large numbers of anti-ship missiles. The \"Spruance\"-class was also unfavorable compared to earlier U.S. designs which had more visible guns or launchers for the Standard medium range missiles. Despite the criticism they were successful in their intended ASW role due to their seaworthiness, quiet operation, and ability to operate two helicopters. The \"Spruance\"s were much larger than destroyers of that era, being comparable in size to contemporary guided-missile cruisers (CG and CGN) and U.S. Navy light cruisers (CL) in World War II. Their hull dimensions allowed them not only to accommodate a helicopter landing pad, a first for a U.S. Navy destroyer as flight decks were previously only found on frigates and cruisers, they were the first U.S. Navy destroyer/cruiser class to have an enclosed hangar (with space for up to two medium-lift helicopters) which was a considerable improvement over the basic aviation facilities of earlier cruisers. The \"Spru-cans\" were the first large U.S. Navy ships to use gas turbine propulsion; they had four General Electric LM2500 gas turbines to generate about 80,000 horsepower (60 MW). This configuration (developed in the 1960s by the Royal Canadian Navy for the s and known as COmbined Gas And Gas, or COGAG) was very successful and used on most subsequent U.S. warships. As of 2010, all U.S. Navy surface combatants (except nuclear-powered aircraft carriers and the LCS-1) use the LM2500 COGAG arrangement, usually with two such turbines per shaft.  The \"Spruance\"-class received the \"DD\" designation in the hull classification symbol system which was previously applied to gun destroyers, though their primary armament as designed was missiles. However their original complement of 8 Sea Sparrow anti-aircraft missiles was only sufficient for point defense, compared to other American destroyers designated as DDG which were designed to provide anti-aircraft warfare screening to the fleet, while some newer DDG ships further added powerful surface-to-surface capabilities. A major update from the mid-1980s added a 61-cell Vertical Launch Missile System (VLS) for the Tomahawk surface-to-surface missile which modernized 24 members of the \"Spruance\"-class to a strike destroyer standard, although they remained as DD because they continued to lack the anti-aircraft capabilities of guided-missile cruisers (CG and CGN) and destroyers (DDG).  The entire class of 30 ships was contracted on 23 June 1970 to the Litton-Ingalls shipyard in Pascagoula, Mississippi, under the Total Package Procurement concept originated by the Whiz Kids of Robert McNamara's Pentagon. The idea was to reap the benefits of mass construction, but labor and technical problems caused cost overruns and delayed construction.  One additional ship,, was ordered on 29 September 1979. \"Hayler\" was originally planned as a DDH (Destroyer, Helicopter) design, which would carry more anti-submarine helicopters than the standard design of the \"Spruance\" class. Eventually this plan to build a DDH was scrapped and a slightly modified DD-963 class hull was put in commission.  Four additional ships were built originally for the Iranian Navy with the Mark 26/Standard AAW missile system and commissioned as the \"\"s for the U.S. Navy. The \"Kidd\"-class destroyers used the same hull as the \"Spruance\"s but they were more advanced general-purpose ships with significant anti-air warfare capabilities that the \"Spruance\"-class lacked. It was once planned to build all of the \"Spruance\" class up to this standard, but it was too expensive. A slightly lengthened version of the hull was also used for the s, originally planned as DDG-47-class destroyers but redesignated as cruisers in 1980 to emphasize the additional capability provided by the ships' Aegis combat systems, and their flag facilities suitable for an admiral and his staff. An air-capable mini V/STOL aircraft carrier with fighters and ASW helicopters based on the \"Spruance\" hull was seriously considered but not produced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Upgrades.", "content": "The \"Spruance\" design is modular in nature, allowing for easy installation of entire subsystems within the ship. Although originally designed for anti-submarine warfare, 24 ships of this class were upgraded with the installation of a 61 cell Vertical Launch Missile System (VLS) capable of launching Tomahawk missiles. The remaining seven ships not upgraded were decommissioned early. \"Deyo\" was the only \"Spruance\"-class destroyer that received the armored box launchers for Tomahawk that also later received the VLS upgrade, while \"Harry W. Hill\" was the only one that never received the Tomahawk, having had its VLS upgrade cancelled.  At least ten VLS ships, including \"Cushing\", \"O'Bannon\", and \"Thorn\", had a 21 cell RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile launcher mounted on the starboard fantail. \"Spruance\"-class destroyers fired 112 land attack Tomahawks during Operation Desert Storm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decommissioning.", "content": "In order to save $28 million a year, the Navy accelerated the decommissioning of the \"Spruance\" class, though they could have served to 2019 had they been maintained and updated. Despite the recent modifications to the \"Spruance\" and \"Kidd\" classes, they were still considered expensive and manpower intensive to operate, while the succeeding \"Arleigh Burke\"-class were more capable and versatile due to their Aegis combat system while also being more cost-efficient, and by the end of the 1990s many \"Arleigh Burke\"-class destroyers had entered the fleet. While the early Flight I \"Arleigh Burke\" ships only had a flight deck, Flight IIA and subsequent vessels added the enclosed hangar which made their aviation facilities comparable to the \"Spruance\"-class.  The US Navy planned to replace its current destroyers and cruisers with the new (DDG-1000) vessels, but the 2010 U.S. Defense budget funded the construction of only three DDG-1000s and production of continued and it became the U.S. Navy's only operational class of destroyers after the was decommissioned on 21 September 2005.  Rather than being preserved in storage like some older classes or offered up for sale to foreign navies, some were broken up and the remaining majority of the class finished their lives as targets in various fleet exercises. The last \"Spruance\"-class destroyer on active service,, was decommissioned on 21 September 2005. It was unsuccessfully offered to the Pakistan Navy before being sunk as a target 29 April 2009. The four \"Kidd\"-class destroyers were decommissioned in 1998 and were sold to Taiwan in 2005 and 2006.  One notable exception to this fate is the ex– which replaced the ex- in 2005 as the Self Defense Test Ship. The SDTS is remotely-controlled to tow a barge targeted by live weapons. This avoids the safety concerns and other problems associated with manned ship exposure to live weapons.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The \"Spruance\"-class destroyer was developed by the United States to replace the many World War II–built - and s and was the primary destroyer built for the U.S. Navy during the 1970s and 1980s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975433}
{"src_title": "Edward T. Hall", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Hall was born in Webster Groves, Missouri and taught at the University of Denver, Colorado, Bennington College in Vermont, Harvard Business School, Illinois Institute of Technology, Northwestern University in Illinois and others. The foundation for his lifelong research on cultural perceptions of space was laid during World War II, when he served in the U.S. Army in Europe and the Philippines.  From 1933 through 1937, Hall lived and worked with the Navajo and the Hopi on Native American reservations in northeastern Arizona, the subject of his autobiographical \"West of the Thirties.\" He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1942 and continued with field work and direct experience throughout Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. During the 1950s he worked for the United States State Department, at the Foreign Service Institute (FSI), teaching inter-cultural communications skills to foreign service personnel, developed the concept of \"high context culture\" and \"low context culture\", and wrote several popular practical books on dealing with cross-cultural issues. He is considered a founding father of intercultural communication as an academic area of study.  Throughout his career, Hall introduced a number of new concepts, including proxemics, monochronictime, polychronic time, and high-context and low-context cultures. In his second book, \"The Hidden Dimension\", he describes the culturally specific temporal and spatial dimensions that surround each of us, such as the physical distances people maintain in different contexts.  In \"The Silent Language\" (1959), Hall coined the term \"polychronic\" to describe the ability to attend to multiple events simultaneously, as opposed to \"monochronic\" individuals and cultures who tend to handle events sequentially.  In the 1960s, Hall published his theory of proxemics, the study of the human use of space, creating a new field of research investigating the nature of personal and public space, and how it may differ between cultures.  In 1976, he released his third book, \"Beyond Culture\", which is notable for having developed the idea of extension transference; by an extension, he simply means any technological item, from clothes to laptops. He brings to our attention the fact that these 'extensions' only help us perform certain functions, but they as extensions will never quite be able to carry out these functions by themselves (for example, think about computers, airplanes, etc. We can fly with airplanes, but we can't on our own and nor can airplanes fly 'on their own'). His biggest claim is that culture itself is an extension of man. Extensions also exist in their own evolutionary realm, as well. That is, they evolve on their own and do not directly influence human evolution.  The 'transference' of 'extension transference' is a term he coined to describe when people regard a symbol to actually be its referent. The clearest example of this would be language; like when people do not realize that words are merely symbolic to their referents. For example, there is nothing inherently watery about the physical object \"water\", at least in terms of the symbolic acoustic properties that are produced when someone utters \"water\". Evidence for this would be the fact that across languages there are thousands of unique words that all refer to water. Culture, as an extension, is also a good example; extension transference of culture happens naturally when people are unaware of the extent to which culture shapes how they perceive time and space, or that culture shapes their perception of them at all. Time and space are the two prominent aspects that Hall in particular focuses on in many of his works.  He died at his home in Santa Fe, New Mexico on July 20, 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "According to Nina Brown, the work of Hall was so groundbreaking that it created a multitude of other areas for research. One of the most widely sought after topics of anthropology is an idea that was first introduced by Edward Hall: Anthropology of Space. Brown goes on to mention that the Anthropology of Space has essentially opened the door to dozens of new topics. Along with influencing the Anthropology of Space, Hall's research had a substantial influence on the development of intercultural communication as a research topic. Since at least 1990, he has been acknowledged frequently for his role in introducing nonverbal aspects of communication, specifically proxemics, the study of the social uses of space, the investigation of communication between members of different cultures. For example, Robert Shuter, a well-known intercultural communication researcher, commented: \"Edward Hall's research reflects the regimen and passion of an anthropologist: a deep regard for culture explored principally by descriptive, qualitative methods... The challenge for intercultural communication... is to develop a research direction and teaching agenda that returns culture to preeminence and reflects the roots of the field as represented in Edward Hall's early research.\"  What was particularly innovative about Hall's early work is that instead of focusing on a single culture at a time, or cross-cultural comparison, as was typical in 1950's anthropology, he responded to the needs of his students at the Foreign Service Institute of the Department of State to help them understand interactions between members of different cultures. Hall points out that the only environment in which classroom dialogue is encountered is simply in the classroom, ergo it served the students little use when actually in the foreign country of interest. At the same time, and in response to the same students, he narrowed his focus from an entire culture, as was then standard within anthropology, to smaller moments of interaction. Colleagues working with him at FSI at the time included Henry Lee Smith, George L. Trager, Charles F. Hockett, and Ray Birdwhistell. Between them, they used descriptive linguistics as a model for not only proxemics but also kinesics and paralanguage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edward Twitchell Hall, Jr. (May 16, 1914 – July 20, 2009) was an American anthropologist and cross-cultural researcher. He is remembered for developing the concept of proxemics and exploring cultural and social cohesion, and describing how people behave and react in different types of culturally defined personal space. Hall was an influential colleague of Marshall McLuhan and Buckminster Fuller.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975434}
{"src_title": "Fisher P-75 Eagle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In October 1942, the contract for two prototypes, designated \"XP-75\", was signed with the Fisher Body Division of GM. The design concept was to use the outer wing panels from the North American P-51 Mustang, the tail assembly from the Douglas A-24 (SBD), and the undercarriage from the Vought F4U Corsair in a general layout much as in the Bell P-39 Airacobra with the engine located with the contra-rotating propellers driven through extension shafts. At an early design stage, however, Curtiss P-40 Warhawk outer wing panels were substituted for the P-51 panels.  In mid-1943, the need for long-range escort fighters became more urgent than fast climbing interceptors so a decision was made to order six more XP-75 airplanes modified for the long-range role. At this time, an order for 2,500 production aircraft was also let, but with the stipulation that if the first P-75A was not satisfactory the complete order might be canceled.  At the time, General Motors was busy in several projects towards the war effort, including the mass production of several different aircraft types, among them the Grumman TBF Avenger. Some sources claim that the P-75 was the result of a scheme to get General Motors out of being forced to build Boeing B-29 Superfortresses; the P-75 project being a \"high-priority\" project to help GM avoid the added strain of Superfortress production. The \"Eagle\" was given extensive media coverage prior to its first flight, being trumpeted as a \"wonder plane\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Powered by a V-3420-19 24-cylinder engine rated at 2,600 hp driving co-axial contra-rotating propellers, the XP-75 flew for the first time on 17 November 1943. The second XP-75 flew shortly thereafter, with all six long-range XP-75s entering the test program by the spring 1944. The test program brought up numerous teething problems, including miscalculation of the fighter's center of mass, failure of the engine to produce its expected power, inadequate engine cooling, high aileron forces at high speed, and poor spin characteristics. Redesigns were introduced into the long-range XP-75s including a modified tail assembly, new \"bubble\" canopy, and a V-3420-23 engine that corrected most of the deficiencies by the time the first P-75A Eagles entered flight testing in September 1944.  By this time, the Army Air Forces had decided to limit the number of combat aircraft types in production and not enter into large-scale production of new types that might not be available before the war ended. As the twin-engine Lockheed P-38 Lightning and North American P-51 Mustang demonstrated excellent long-range capabilities, the production run of the P-75A Eagle was subsequently terminated on 6 October 1944. It was decided to use the six completed production aircraft for experimental work and development of the V-3420 engine. As a result of those events, the P-75A did not complete formal performance trials due to termination of the production contract. Ultimately, only eight XP-75s and six P-75As were built.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The General Motors/Fisher P-75 Eagle was a fighter aircraft designed by the Fisher Body Division of General Motors. Development started in September 1942 in response to United States Army Air Forces requirement for a fighter possessing an extremely high rate of climb, using the most powerful liquid-cooled engine then available, the Allison V-3420. The program was cancelled after only a small number of prototypes and production aircraft had been completed, as it was no longer required in its original role, could not be quickly deployed, and possessed no significant advantages over aircraft already in production.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975435}
{"src_title": "Vilnius Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "It is believed that in pre-Christian times, the Baltic pagan god Perkūnas was worshipped at the site of the cathedral. It has also been postulated that the Lithuanian King Mindaugas ordered the construction of the original cathedral in 1251 after his conversion to Christianity and appointment of a bishop to Lithuania. Remains of the archaic quadratic church with three naves and massive buttresses have been discovered underneath the current structure in the late 20th century. After Mindaugas's death in 1263, the first cathedral again became a place of pagan worship.  In 1387, the year in which Lithuania was officially converted to Christianity, construction began on a second Gothic Cathedral with five chapels. This second cathedral, however, burnt down in 1419. During preparations for his 1429 coronation as King of Lithuania, Vytautas built a significantly larger Gothic Cathedral in its place. Although the coronation never took place, the walls and pillars of this third Cathedral have survived to this day. The third Cathedral had three naves and four circular towers at its corners, and Flemish traveler Guillebert de Lannoy noticed its similarity to Frauenburg Cathedral. In 1522, the cathedral was renovated, and a bell tower was built on top of the Lower Castle defensive tower. After another fire in 1530, it was rebuilt again and between 1534 - 1557 more chapels and the crypts were added. The cathedral acquired architectural features associated with the Renaissance.  In 1529, the Crown Prince and future King of Poland, Sigismund II Augustus, was crowned Grand Duke of Lithuania in the cathedral. After yet another fire in 1610, the cathedral was rebuilt again, and the two front towers were added. The cathedral was damaged again in 1655 when Vilnius fell to Russian troops in the Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667. It was renovated and redecorated several more times.  Between 1623 - 1636, at the initiative of Sigismund III Vasa and later completed by his son Wladyslaw IV Vasa, the Baroque style Saint Casimir chapel by royal architect Constantino Tencalla was built of Swedish sandstone. Its interior was reconstructed in 1691-1692 and decorated with frescoes by Michelangelo Palloni, the altar and stuccowork by Pietro Perti. This chapel contains sculpted statutes of Jagiellon kings and an epitaph with Wladyslaw IV Vasa's heart. More than anything in the Cathedral this chapel symbolizes the glory of Polish-Lithuanian union and common history.  In 1769 the southern tower, built during the reconstruction of 1666 collapsed, destroying the vaults of the neighbouring chapel and killing 6 people. After the damage, Bishop of Vilnius Ignacy Jakub Massalski ordered the reconstruction of the cathedral. The works started in 1779 and were completed in 1783, and the interior was completed in 1801. The cathedral was reconstructed to its present appearance according to the design of Laurynas Gucevičius in the Neoclassical style; the church acquired a strict quadrangular shape common to local public buildings. The main facade was adorned with sculptures of the Four Evangelists by Italian sculptor Tommaso Righi. Some scholars point to the architectural resemblance of the cathedral to the works of Andrea Palladio or see the influence of Gucevičius's tutor Claude Nicolas Ledoux. The influence of Palladian architecture is evident in side facades of the building. The lack of 'purity' of the Classical architecture, due to incorporation of Baroque style sculptures and other elements, was later criticized by academical architects, notably Karol Podczaszyński.  Between 1786 and 1792 three sculptures by Kazimierz Jelski were placed on roof of the Cathedral - Saint Casimir on the south side, Saint Stanislaus on the north, and Saint Helena in the centre. These sculptures were removed in 1950 and restored in 1997. Presumably the sculpture of St. Casimir originally symbolized Lithuania, that of St. Stanislaus symbolized Poland, and that of St. Helena holding a 9 m-golden cross represents the true cross.  In 2002 work officially began to rebuild the Royal Palace of Lithuania behind the cathedral. The newly erected palace building will considerably alter the context of the cathedral.  The cathedral and the belfry were thoroughly renovated from 2006 to 2008. The facades were covered with fresh multicolor paintwork, greatly enhancing the external appearance of the buildings. It was the first renovation since the restoration of Lithuania's independence in 1990.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cathedral Basilica of St Stanislaus and St Ladislaus of Vilnius (, ) is the main Roman Catholic Cathedral of Lithuania. It is situated in Vilnius Old Town, just off Cathedral Square. Dedicated to Saints Stanislaus and Ladislaus, the church is the heart of Catholic spiritual life in Lithuania.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975436}
{"src_title": "Battle of Blore Heath", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "After the First Battle of St Albans in 1455, an uneasy peace held in England. Attempts at reconciliation between the houses of Lancaster and York enjoyed but marginal success. However, both sides became increasingly wary of each other and by 1459 were actively recruiting armed supporters. Queen Margaret of Anjou continued to raise support for King Henry VI amongst noblemen, distributing an emblem of a silver swan to knights and squires enlisted by her personally, whilst the Yorkist command under the Duke of York was finding plenty of anti-royal support despite the severe punishment for raising arms against the king.  The Yorkist force based at Middleham Castle in Yorkshire (led by the Earl of Salisbury) needed to link up with the main Yorkist army at Ludlow Castle in Shropshire. As Salisbury marched south-west through the Midlands the queen ordered Lord Audley to intercept them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The battle.", "content": "Audley chose the barren heathland of Blore Heath to set up an ambush. On the morning of 23 September 1459 (Saint Thecla's day), a force of some 10,000 men took up a defensive position behind a 'great hedge' on the south-western edge of Blore Heath facing the direction of Newcastle-under-Lyme to the north-east, the direction from which Salisbury was approaching.  Yorkist scouts spotted Lancastrian banners over the top of a hedge and immediately warned Salisbury. As they emerged from the woodland, the Yorkist force of some 5,000 men realized that a much larger enemy force was awaiting their arrival. Salisbury, instead of disbanding or withdrawing his army, immediately arranged his troops into battle order, just out of range of the Lancastrian archers. To secure his right flank, he arranged the supply wagons in a defensive laager, a circular formation to provide cover to the men. Fearing a rout, Yorkist soldiers are reported to have kissed the ground beneath them, supposing that this would be the ground on which they would meet their deaths.  The two armies were separated by about 300 metres on the barren heathland. A steep-sided, wide and fast-flowing brook ran between them. The brook made Audley's position seemingly impenetrable.  Initially, both leaders sought unsuccessfully to parley in an attempt to avoid bloodshed. In keeping with many late medieval battles, the conflict opened with an archery duel between the longbows of both armies. At Blore Heath, this proved inconclusive because of the distance between the two sides.  Salisbury, aware that any attack across the brook would be suicidal, employed a ruse to encourage the enemy to attack him. He withdrew some of his middle-order just far enough that the Lancastrians believed them to be retreating. The Lancastrians launched a cavalry charge. After they had committed themselves, Salisbury ordered his men to turn back and catch the Lancastrians as they attempted to cross the brook. It is possible that the order for this Lancastrian charge was not given by Audley but it had the effect of turning the balance in favour of Salisbury. The charge resulted in heavy casualties for the Lancastrians.  The Lancastrians withdrew, and then made a second assault, possibly attempting to rescue casualties. This second attack was more successful with many Lancastrians crossing the brook. This led to a period of intense fighting in which Audley himself was killed, possibly by Sir Roger Kynaston of Myddle and Hordley. \"The Earl of Salisbury, which knew the sleights, strategies and policies of warlike affairs, suddenly returned, and shortly encountered with the Lord Audley and his chief captains, ere the residue of his army could pass the water. The fight was sore and dreadful. The earl desiring the saving of his life, and his adversaries coveting his destruction, fought sore for the obtaining of their purpose, but in conclusion, the earl's army, as men desperate of aid and succour, so eagerly fought, that they slew the Lord Audley, and all his captains, and discomfited all the remnant of his people...\" The death of Audley meant that Lancastrian command fell to the second-in-command, Lord Dudley, who ordered an attack on foot with some 4,000 men. As this attack also failed, some 500 Lancastrians joined the enemy and began attacking their own side. At this point, all remaining Lancastrian resistance collapsed and the Yorkists had only to advance to complete the rout.  The rout continued through the night, with the Yorkists pursuing the fleeing enemy for miles across the countryside.  At least 2,000 Lancastrians were killed, with the Yorkists losing nearly 1,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Salisbury was concerned that Lancastrian reinforcements were in the vicinity and was keen to press on southwards towards Ludlow. He made his camp on a hillside by Market Drayton that later took the name Salisbury Hill. He employed a local friar to remain on Blore Heath throughout the night and to periodically discharge a cannon in order to deceive any Lancastrians nearby into believing that the fight was continuing.  Audley is buried in Darley Abbey in Derbyshire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemorations.", "content": "Audley's Cross was erected at Blore Heath after the battle to mark the spot where Audley was slain. It was replaced with a stone cross in 1765.  The battle was commemorated by a re-enactment each year in September at Blore Heath until 2009.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Blore Heath was a battle in the English Wars of the Roses. It was fought on 23 September 1459, at Blore Heath in Staffordshire. Blore Heath is a sparsely populated area of farmland, two miles east of the town of Market Drayton in Shropshire, and close to the towns of Market Drayton and Loggerheads, Staffordshire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975437}
{"src_title": "Islamization", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arabization.", "content": "Arabization describes a growing cultural influence on a non-Arab area that gradually changes into one that speaks Arabic and/or incorporates Arab culture. It was most prominently achieved during the 7th-century Arabian Muslim conquests which spread the Arabic language, culture and—having been carried out by Arabian Muslims as opposed to Arab Christians or Arabic-speaking Jews—the religion of Islam to the lands they conquered. The result: some elements of Arabian origin combined in various forms and degrees with elements taken from conquered civilizations and ultimately denominated \"Arab\", as opposed to \"Arabian\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern day (1970s–present).", "content": "Modern day Islamization appears to be a return of the individual to Muslim values, communities, and dress codes, and a strengthened community.  Another development is that of transnational Islam, elaborated upon by the French Islam researchers Gilles Kepel and Olivier Roy. It includes a feeling of a \"growing universalistic Islamic identity\" as often shared by Muslim immigrants and their children who live in non-Muslim countries:  The increased integration of world societies as a result of enhanced communications, media, travel, and migration makes meaningful the concept of a single Islam practiced everywhere in similar ways, and an Islam which transcends national and ethnic customs. This does not necessarily imply political or social organizations: Global Muslim identity does not necessarily or even usually imply organized group action. Even though Muslims recognize a global affiliation, the real heart of Muslim religious life remains outside politics—in local associations for worship, discussion, mutual aid, education, charity, and other communal activities.  A third development is the growth and elaboration of transnational military organizations. The 1980s and 90s, with several major conflicts in the Middle East, including the Arab–Israeli conflict, Afghanistan in the 1980s and 2001, and the three Gulf Wars (1980–88, 1990–91, 2003–2011) were catalysts of a growing internationalization of local conflicts. Figures such as Osama bin Laden and Abdallah Azzam have been crucial in these developments, as much as domestic and world politics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization of Pakistan.", "content": "On December 2, 1978, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq delivered a nationwide address on the occasion of the first day of the Hijra calendar. He did this in order to usher in an Islamic system to Pakistan. In the speech, he accused politicians of exploiting the name of Islam, saying that \"many a ruler did what they pleased in the name of Islam.\"  After assuming power the task that the government set to was its public commitment to enforce \"Nizam-e-Mustafa\" (Islamic System) a 180 degree turn from Pakistan's predominantly Common Law. As a preliminary measure to establish an Islamic society in Pakistan, General Zia announced the establishment of Sharia Benches. Speaking about the jurisdiction of the Sharia Benches, he remarked, \"Every citizen will have the right to present any law enforced by the government before the 'Sharia Bench' and obtain its verdict whether the law is wholly or partly Islamic or un-Islamic.\"  But General Zia did not mention that the Sharia Benches' jurisdiction was curtailed by the following overriding clause: \"(Any) law does not include the constitution, Muslim personal law, any law relating to the procedure of any court or tribunal or, until the expiration of three years, any fiscal law or any law relating to the collection of taxes and fees or insurance practice and procedure.\" It meant that all important laws which affect each and every individual directly remained outside the purview of the Sharia Benches. However, he did not have a smooth sailing even with the clipped Sharia Benches. The Federal Sharia Bench declared rajm or stoning, to be un-Islamic; Ziaul Haq reconstituted the court, which then declared rajm as Islamic.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Islamization of the Gaza Strip.", "content": "The influence of Islamic groups in the Gaza Strip has grown since the 1980s, especially as poverty has risen and fighting with Israel began in 2000. The efforts to impose Islamic law and traditions continued when Hamas forcefully seized control of the area in June 2007 and displaced security forces loyal to the secular President Mahmoud Abbas. After the civil war ended, Hamas declared the \"end of secularism and heresy in the Gaza Strip.\" For the first time since the Sudanese coup of 1989 that brought Omar al-Bashir to power, a Muslim Brotherhood group ruled a significant geographic territory. Gaza human rights groups accuse Hamas of restricting many freedoms in the course of these attempts.  While Ismael Haniyeh officially denied accusations that Hamas intended to establish an Islamic emirate, Jonathan Schanzer wrote that in the two years following the 2007 coup, the Gaza Strip has exhibited the characteristics of Talibanization, a process whereby the Islamist organization imposes strict rules on women, discourages or punishes activities commonly associated with Western or Christian culture, oppresses non-Muslim minorities, imposes their own interpretation of sharia law and deploys religious police to enforce these laws.  According to Human Rights Watch, the Hamas-controlled government of Gaza stepped up its efforts to \"Islamize\" Gaza in 2010, efforts that included the \"repression\" of civil society and \"severe violations of personal freedom.\" Arab-Israeli journalist Khaled Abu Toameh wrote in 2009 that \"Hamas is gradually turning the Gaza Strip into a Taliban-style Islamic entity.\" According to Mkhaimar Abusada, a political science professor at Gaza's al-Azhar University, \"Ruling by itself, Hamas can stamp its ideas on everyone (...) Islamizing society has always been part of Hamas strategy.\"", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Islamization (also spelled Islamisation, see spelling differences;, ), Islamicization or Islamification, is the process of a society's shift towards the religion of Islam and becoming Muslims, such as found in the Levant, North Africa, Horn of Africa, Iran, Pakistan, Malaysia or Indonesia. In contemporary usage, it may refer to the perceived imposition of an Islamist social and political system on a society with an indigenously different social and political background.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975438}
{"src_title": "Syzygium cumini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "A slow growing species, it can reach heights of up to 30 m and can live more than 100 years. Its dense foliage provides shade and is grown just for its ornamental value. At the base of the tree, the bark is rough and dark grey, becoming lighter grey and smoother higher up. The wood is water resistant. Because of this it is used in railway sleepers and to install motors in wells. It is sometimes used to make cheap furniture and village dwellings though it is relatively hard to work on.  The leaves which have an aroma similar to turpentine, are pinkish when young, changing to a leathery, glossy dark green with a yellow midrib as they mature. The leaves are used as food for livestock, as they have good nutritional value. Dried leaves are also used to make (native) cigarettes by wrapping them around a small piece of tobacco leave, for instance on the Philippine islands.  \"Syzygium cumini\" trees start flowering from March to April. The flowers are fragrant and small, about 5 mm in diameter. The fruits develop by May or June and resemble large berries; the fruit of \"Syzygium\" species is described as \"drupaceous\". The fruit is oblong, ovoid. Unripe fruit looks green. As it matures, its color changes to pink, then to shining crimson red and finally to black color. A variant of the tree produces white coloured fruit. The fruit has a combination of sweet, mildly sour and astringent flavour and tends to colour the tongue purple.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health effects.", "content": "The seed of the fruit is used in various alternative healing systems like Ayurveda, Unani and Chinese medicine.  The extract of the fruit and seeds are found be effective against hyperglycemia in diabetic rats.  Wine and vinegar are also made from the fruit. It has a high source in vitamin A and vitamin C.  The 1889 book 'The Useful Native Plants of Australia’ records that the plant was referred to as \"Durobbi\" by Indigenous Australians, and that \"The fruit is much eaten by the natives of India; in appearance it resembles a damson, has a harsh but sweetish flavour, somewhat astringent and acid. It is much eaten by birds, and is a favourite food of the large bat or flying fox. (Brandis).\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrients and phytochemicals.", "content": "Nutritional information for \"S. cumini\" leaves and fruit are detailed here.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural and religious significance in India.", "content": "Krishna is also known to have four symbols of the jambu fruit on his right foot as mentioned in the Srimad Bhagavatam commentary (verse 10.30.25), \"Sri Rupa Chintamani\" and \"Ananda Candrika\" by Srila Visvanatha Chakravarti Thakura.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Maharashtra State, India.", "content": "In Maharashtra, \"S. cumini\" leaves are used in marriage pandal decorations. A song from the film 'Jait re Jait (1977)' mentions the fruit in the song 'Jambhul Piklya Zaadakhali'. The seeds are sometimes used in herbal teas to treat diabetes.  A story from the great Indian epic, Mahabharatha is named Jambulaakhyan, that is related to this fruit.  According to Hindu mythology, Lord Rama subsisted on the fruit in the forest for 14 years during his exile from Ayodhya. Because of this, many Hindus regard \"S. cumini\" fruit as a 'Fruit of the Gods'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Andhra Pradesh State, India.", "content": "Besides the fruits, wood from Neredu tree (as it is called in the region's language, Telugu) is used in Andhra Pradesh to make bullock cartwheels and other agricultural equipment. The timber of Neredu is used to construct doors and windows. Hindus use a sizable branch of the tree to inaugurate the beginning of marriage preparations and plant it in a place a pandal will be erected. Culturally, beautiful eyes are compared to this fruit. In the great epic of India Mahabharatha, Krishnas' (Vishnu) body colour is compared to this fruit as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tamil Nadu State, India.", "content": "Legend speaks of Auvaiyar (also Auvayar), of Sangam period (Tamil literature), and Naval Pazham in Tamil Nadu. Auvaiyar, believing to have achieved everything that is to be achieved, said to have been pondering over her retirement from Tamil literary work while resting under Naval Pazham tree. But she was met with and was wittily jousted by a disguised Murugan (regarded as one of the guardian deities of Tamil language), who later revealed himself and made her realize that there is still a lot more to be done and learnt. Following this awakening, Auvaiyar is believed to have undertaken a fresh set of literary works, targeted at children.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kerala State, India.", "content": "The fruit, locally known as Njaval Pazham is particularly plentiful in Kollam.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Karnataka State, India.", "content": "This tree is commonly found across Karnataka, particularly in rural parts of the state. The name of the fruit in Kannada is Nerale Hannu (ನೇರಳೆಹಣ್ಣು).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Syzygium cumini, commonly known as Malabar plum, Java plum, or black plum, is an evergreen tropical tree in the flowering plant family Myrtaceae. It is native to the Indian Subcontinent, adjoining regions of Southeast Asia, China and Queensland. The name of the fruit is sometimes mistranslated as blackberry, which is a different fruit in an unrelated order. \"Syzygium cumini\" has been spread overseas from India by Indian emigrants and at present is common in tropical former British colonies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975439}
{"src_title": "AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The JSOW is a fire-and-forget weapon that employs a tightly coupled GPS/INS for navigation, and is capable of day/night and adverse weather operations. The JSOW-C adds an infra-red seeker for terminal guidance.  Originally the JSOW was developed by Defense Systems & Electronics division of Texas Instruments. After a first flight, funded by the company in April 1991, a joint program between the US Navy and the US Air Force was awarded. Two other teams had bid on the contract. Texas Instruments was then acquired by Raytheon in January 1997.  US Navy commenced Operational Evaluation (OPEVAL) in February 1997 and JSOW entered operational service in January 1999. The Joint Standoff Weapon is currently used by the US Navy. Foreign Military Sales have been signed with Poland and Turkey for use with their F-16 fighters. Finland, Greece and Singapore are pursuing FMS cases at this time. The JSOW family is a class weapon intended to provide a low cost, highly lethal air-to-surface glide bomb with standoff capabilities from low altitude launch and up to high altitude launch. The JSOW can be used against a variety of land targets and operates from ranges outside enemy point defenses.  The JSOW is just over in length and weighs about. The JSOW was originally to be delivered in three variants, each of which uses a common air vehicle, or truck, while substituting various payloads. The AGM-154A (JSOW-A) entered service in 1999. US Navy and Air Force developed the AGM-154B (JSOW B) up until Multi-Service Operational Test & Evaluation (MOT&E) but the Navy decided not to procure the weapon when the Air Force left the program. The AGM-154C (JSOW BROACH) entered service in February 2005. During the 1990s JSOW was considered to be one of the most successful development programs in DOD history. The system was introduced to operational use a year ahead of schedule. Unlike most guided weapons and aircraft, the system never had a weight management problem, and was deployed at its target weight. The system introduced a new type of fuze, but was able to obtain authority from an independent safety review in record time. Many observers credited these accomplishments to the management style chosen by the DOD and Texas Instruments. After a competitive selection, the program staff was organized into integrated product teams with members from the government, the prime Texas Instruments and subcontractors. In one case, the prime determined that the best-in-class supplier for a design service was the government, and gave part of its funding back. JSOW was recognized in 1996 with a Laurels Award from Aviation Week & Space Technology. It is notable for a guided weapon to receive this award, which is normally reserved for much larger systems. Because of this history, JSOW has been used as a case study for development programs, and for Integrated Product Teams, and is sometimes cited in academic research on program management.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "AGM-154A (baseline JSOW).", "content": "The warhead of the AGM-154A consists of 145 BLU-97/B Combined Effects Bomb (CEB) submunitions. These bomblets have a shaped charge for armor defeating capability, a fragmenting case for material destruction, and a zirconium ring for incendiary effects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AGM-154B (anti-armor).", "content": "The warhead for the AGM-154B is the BLU-108/B from the Air Force's Sensor Fuzed Weapon (SFW) program. The JSOW B was to carry six BLU-108/B submunitions. Each submunition releases four projectiles (total of 24 per weapon) that use infrared sensors to detect targets. When a submunition detects that it is aligned with a target, it fires, creating an explosively formed penetrator capable of defeating vehicle armor. This program concluded development but the Navy decided not to procure the weapon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AGM-154C (unitary variant).", "content": "The AGM-154C uses an Imaging Infrared (IIR) terminal seeker with autonomous guidance. The AGM-154C carries the BROACH warhead. This two stage 225 kg (500 lb) warhead is made up from a WDU-44 shaped augmenting warhead and a WDU-45 follow through bomb. The weapon is designed to attack hardened targets. It entered service with the US Navy in February 2005.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production and upgrades.", "content": "Full rate production started on December 29, 1999. In June 2000 Raytheon was contracted to develop an enhanced electronics package for the JSOW to prevent electronic spoofing of GPS signals. This ultimately resulted in the JSOW Block II weapon, incorporating multiple cost reduction initiatives in addition to the Selective Availability Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM) capability. JSOW Block II was scheduled to begin production in March 2007.  The JSOW contains a modular control and deployment interface that allows future enhancement and additional configurations since it is likely that additional variants will emerge. The basic airframe is advertised as a \"truck\" and the JSOW-as-a-truck capability is widely advertised. Raytheon has placed a tremendous investment in the JSOW program and will certainly try to extend the Department of Defense contracts for as long as possible with system upgrades and repackagings for new missions and targets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "JSOW Block III (JSOW-C1).", "content": "The AGM-154C-1 was scheduled to begin production in 2009. The first three launches were conducted in August 2011 from an F/A-18F. The JSOW-C1 completed integrated test and evaluations in January 2015, moving on to operational tests. The C1 version is slated for delivery in 2016. It achieved Initial Operating Capability on 22 June 2016. On 11 October 2017 the Department of the Navy declared the Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) C-1 ready for full operational capability.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AGM-154A-1 (JSOW-A1).", "content": "In addition, the AGM-154A-1 configuration is under development by Raytheon for FMS sales. This version replaces the submunition payload of the AGM-154A with a BLU-111 warhead to enhance blast-fragmentation effects without the unexploded ordnance (UXO) concerns with the BLU-97/B payload.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Powered JSOW (JSOW-ER).", "content": "A Pratt & Whitney TJ-150 turbojet engine for a powered JSOW is being tested. This variant is named JSOW-ER, where \"ER\" is for \"extended range\". JSOW-ER will increase range from. In February, 2019, the US Navy announced that it would issue a sole-source contract to Raytheon to build an improved JSOW-ER to be placed in service by the end of FY2023.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Combat history.", "content": "The AGM-154A was the first variant to be used in combat. The AGM-154A traditionally is used for Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses missions. Initial deployment testing occurred aboard and later aboard the USS \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\". The first combat deployment of the JSOW occurred over southern Iraq on December 17, 1998, when launched by a single F/A-18C from the \"Checkerboards\" of VMFA-312, Carrier Air Wing Three embarked aboard USS \"Enterprise\" during Operation Desert Fox. The glide range of the JSOW allowed the weapon to strike a target located in the southern suburbs of Baghdad. This weapon has enjoyed success since its early use. One adverse event occurred in February 2001, when a strike of F/A-18s from the USS \"Harry S. Truman\" battle group launched a massive attack on Iraqi air-defense sites, nearly every weapon missed the target. The cause of the miss was reported as a software problem. This problem was solved soon afterward. Since 1998, at least 400 of the JSOW weapons have been used in the following conflicts: Operation Desert Fox, Operation Southern Watch, NATO Operation Allied Force, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Operation Iraqi Freedom.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) is a glide bomb that resulted from a joint venture between the United States Navy and Air Force to deploy a standardized medium range precision guided weapon, especially for engagement of defended targets from outside the range of standard anti-aircraft defenses, thereby increasing aircraft survivability and minimizing friendly losses.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975440}
{"src_title": "Clichy, Hauts-de-Seine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name Clichy was recorded for the first time in the 6th century as \"Clippiacum\", later corrupted into \"Clichiacum\", meaning \"estate of Cleppius\", a Gallo-Roman landowner.  In the 13th century, the plain of Clichy was used as a \"garenne\" (\"warren\" in English), i.e. a hunting park and game preserve for the exclusive use of the king or a lord. Clichy became known as Clichy-la-Garenne (\"Clichy the Warren\" or preserve).  Between 1793 and 1795, during the French Revolution, Clichy-la-Garenne was renamed \"Clichy-la-Patriote\" (meaning \"Clichy the Patriot\"), perhaps because the word \"garenne\" reminded people of the feudal privileges that the new government abolished in 1789.  After the Revolution, the French administration officially recorded the name of the commune only as Clichy, dropping the \"la-Garenne\". This is the term in use in the 21st century. But, in many instances the municipality of Clichy refers to the commune traditionally as Clichy-la-Garenne, although this has not been the official name for more than 200 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Clichy was the capital of the Merovingians during the rule of Dagobert I.  Its church was built in the 17th century under the direction of St Vincent de Paul, who had previously been curé of Clichy.  In 1830, part of the territory of Clichy was detached and became the commune of Batignolles-Monceau. On 1 January 1860, the city of Paris annexed neighboring communes, taking most of Batignolles-Monceau, which now forms the major part of the 17th arrondissement of Paris. A small part of the territory of Batignolles-Monceau was returned to Clichy.  On 11 January 1867, part of the territory of Clichy was detached and merged with a part of the territory of Neuilly-sur-Seine to create the commune of Levallois-Perret.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "The canton covers a part of the commune; the other is in the northern part of Levallois-Perret.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Clichy is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "L'Oréal Group has its head office in the Centre Eugène Schueller in Clichy.  In addition, Monoprix has its head office in Clichy. Société Bic has its head office in Clichy.  At one time Fnac had its head office in Clichy. In 2008 the head office moved to Ivry-sur-Seine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Clichy is served by Mairie de Clichy station on Paris Métro Line 13.  It is also served by Clichy – Levallois station on the Transilien Paris – Saint-Lazare suburban rail line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The commune has 22 primary schools, three junior high schools, and two senior high schools. The junior highs include:  The senior high schools:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clichy (, ; sometimes unofficially Clichy-la-Garenne, ) is a commune in the northwestern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located on the Seine, from the centre of Paris. In 2017, it had a population of 61,070.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975441}
{"src_title": "Martin P6M SeaMaster", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In the immediate postwar defense climate, the United States Air Force's Strategic Air Command was the linchpin of the United States' security as the sole means of delivery of the nation's nuclear arsenal. The Navy saw its strategic role being eclipsed by the Air Force and knew both its prestige and budgets were at stake.  Its first attempt to address this came in the form of the, a large supercarrier intended to launch Navy strategic bombers. This was cancelled in 1950 shortly after her keel was laid down, a victim of budget cuts and US Air Force interference. In response, the Navy chose to create a \"Seaplane Striking Force\", useful for both nuclear and conventional warfare, including reconnaissance and minelaying. Groups of these planes supported by seaplane tenders or special submarines could be located close to the enemy, and being mobile, they would be hard to neutralize.  The requirement issued in April 1951 was for a seaplane able to carry a warload over a range of from its aquatic base. The aircraft was to be capable of a low altitude dash at Mach 0.9 (1,100 km/h). Both Convair and Martin submitted proposals, and the Martin proposal was chosen as more promising. An order for two prototypes was issued which was projected to lead to six pre-production aircraft and a projected twenty-four production aircraft.  Originally the plane was to have a Curtiss-Wright turbo-ramjet engine, but this ran into problems and a more conventional Allison J71-A-4 turbojet was employed, fitted in pairs in overwing pods to keep the spray out of the intakes. Wings swept at 40° were used; they displayed a notable anhedral and were designed with tip tanks that doubled as floats on the water. Many features of Martin's XB-51 bomber prototype were used, including an all-flying \"T\" tail and a rotating bomb bay—pneumatically sealed against seawater in the P6M.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first flight of the XP6M-1 came on 14 July 1955, but early tests showed that the engines were mounted too close to the fuselage and scorched it when afterburners were used, leading to angling the engines slightly outward in subsequent aircraft. Flight testing was initially successful, but, on 7 December 1955, a control system fault destroyed the first prototype with the loss of all aboard. The first prototype, BuNo \"138821\", c/n XP-1, disintegrated in flight at due to the horizontal tail going to full up due to a control malfunction, subjecting the airframe to 9 g stress as it began an outside loop, crashing into the Potomac River near the junction of St. Mary's River, killing four crew members.  Eleven months later, on 9 November 1956, the second prototype, BuNo \"138822\", c/n XP-2, first flown on 18 May 1956, was also destroyed, due to a change made in the horizontal stabilizer control system without adequate evaluation before test flying the design. The crash occurred at 15:36 near Odessa, Delaware due to a faulty elevator jack. As the seaplane nosed up at ~ and failed to respond to control inputs, the crew of four ejected. The airframe broke up after falling to before impact.  The first pre-production YP6M-1 was completed about a year later, with testing resuming in January 1958.  Five more were built in 1958 when the Navy announced that Harvey Point Defense Testing Activity in Hertford, North Carolina, would serve as the testing grounds for the fleet of Martin P6M SeaMasters. These aircraft were fitted with test versions of the full combat equipment suite and were used for bombing, mine laying and reconnaissance evaluations. The J71 engines were unreliable and the aircraft had spray ingestion problems at higher gross weights, which limited takeoffs to ideal conditions. The P6M-1 also had a serious control deficiency due to porpoising under some trim settings. These deficiencies resulted in the P6M-1 program being cut as it was no longer considered possible for it to be successfully developed.  The Navy and Martin felt that a new version, the P6M-2, would provide a useful aircraft. The first was rolled out in early 1959. Changes included new, more powerful Pratt & Whitney J75 engines, an aerial refueling probe, improved avionics, and a canopy with better visibility. A \"buddy refueling\" drogue kit had also been developed to fit in the bomb bay. Three had been built by summer 1959 and Navy crews were moving them through operational conversion when the program was abruptly canceled in August of that year.  The P6M-2 was an impressive aircraft; its Mach 0.9 (1,100 km/h) performance \"on the deck\" could be equaled by few aircraft of the time. The aircraft were heavily built, with the skin at the wing roots over thick. The normally docile and pleasant handling characteristics of the P6M-1 were replaced by some severe compressibility effects above Mach 0.8. These included rapid changes in directional trim, severe buffeting, and wing drop requiring high control inputs to counter. Until those problems were fixed, the P6M-2 could not be considered for use by the Fleet. The problems were identified as being caused by the larger engine nacelles required for the J75s. There were also problems on the water, including a tendency for the tip floats to dig in under certain situations, and engine surges. These problems were eventually solved, but time had run out just as the first crews were training for its operational debut. Eisenhower's administration was making major defense budget cuts that forced the Navy to make choices. In August 1959 Martin was told to halt operations and the program was about to be canceled. Seaplanes were a small community in Naval Aviation, and the P6M was significantly over budget and behind schedule and competing with aircraft carriers for funding. The Navy also had a potentially superior system for the nuclear strike role, the Ballistic Missile Submarine.  In the age of the ICBM and SLBM, the manned bomber had become an expensive and unreliable nuclear weapon delivery system. The P6M program had already cost $400 million (about $2.5 billion ) and could not be justified without the strategic mission.  All examples were scrapped although some tail sections were retained for testing, and one of these is now in the Glenn L. Martin Maryland Aviation Museum.  Martin tried unsuccessfully to market the technology in the civilian market, with a version called the SeaMistress but there were no takers, and the company soon abandoned the aircraft business entirely to focus on missiles and electronics. The P6M was the final aircraft constructed by the Glenn L. Martin Company.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Martin P6M SeaMaster, built by the Glenn L. Martin Company, was a 1950s strategic bomber flying boat for the United States Navy that almost entered service; production aircraft were built and Navy crews were undergoing operational conversion, with a service entry about six months off, when the program was cancelled on 21 August 1959. Envisioned as a way to give the Navy a strategic nuclear force, the SeaMaster was eclipsed by the Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missile. Due to the political situation at the Pentagon, the Navy promoted the P6M primarily as a high speed minelayer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975442}
{"src_title": "Terminalia catappa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The tree grows to tall, with an upright, symmetrical crown and horizontal branches. \"Terminalia catappa\" has corky, light fruit that are dispersed by water. The seed within the fruit is edible when fully ripe, tasting almost like almond. As the tree gets older, its crown becomes more flattened to form a spreading, vase shape. Its branches are distinctively arranged in tiers. The leaves are large, long and broad, ovoid, glossy dark green, and leathery. They are dry-season deciduous; before falling, they turn pinkish-reddish or yellow-brown, due to pigments such as violaxanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin. The trees are monoecious, with distinct male and female flowers on the same tree. Both are in diameter, white to greenish, inconspicuous with no petals; they are produced on axillary or terminal spikes. The fruit is a drupe long and broad, green at first, then yellow and finally red when ripe, containing a single seed. Pollens size is ~30 microns. The species' epithet is based on the Malay name \"Ketapang\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and range.", "content": "The tree has been spread widely by humans, so the native range is uncertain. It has long been naturalised in a broad belt extending from Africa to northern Australia and New Guinea through southeast Asia and Micronesia into the Indian subcontinent. More recently, the plant has been introduced to parts of the Americas. Until the mid-20th century, the tree had been used extensively in Brazilian urban landscaping, since being a rare case tropical deciduous, their fallen leaves would give a \"European\" flair to the street. This practice is currently abolished, and the \"amendoeiras\" are being replaced by native, evergreen trees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "\"T. catappa\" is widely grown in tropical regions of the world as an ornamental tree, grown for the deep shade its large leaves provide. The fruit is edible, tasting slightly acidic.  The wood is red and solid, and has high water resistance; it has been used in Polynesia for making canoes. In Tamil, almond is known as \"nattuvadumai\".  The leaves contain several flavonoids (such as kaempferol or quercetin), several tannins (such as punicalin, punicalagin or tercatin), saponines and phytosterols. Due to this chemical richness, the leaves (and the bark) are used in different herbal medicines for various purposes. For instance in Taiwan, fallen leaves are used as an herb to treat liver diseases. In Suriname, an herbal tea made from the leaves has been prescribed against dysentery and diarrhea. The leaves may contain agents for prevention of cancers (although they have no demonstrated anticarcinogenic properties) and antioxidants, as well as anticlastogenic characteristics. Extracts of have shown activity against \"Plasmodium falciparum\" chloroquine (CQ)-resistant (FcB1) and CQ-sensitive (HB3) strains.  Keeping the leaves in an aquarium may lower the pH and heavy-metal content of the water. It has been used in this way by fish breeders for many years, and is active against some parasites and bacterial pathogens. It is also believed to help prevent fungus forming on the eggs of the fish.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Terminalia catappa is a large tropical tree in the leadwood tree family, Combretaceae, that grows mainly in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and Australia. Common names in English include country almond, Indian almond, Malabar almond, sea almond, tropical almond, beach almond and false kamani.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975443}
{"src_title": "Proof (rapper)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "DeShaun Dupree Holton was born to Sharallene \"Pepper\" Holton, a single mother. His father, McKinley Jackson, was a music producer who left to pursue his career prior to Holton's birth. He was close friends with Eminem from a young age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music career.", "content": "Originally known as Maximum, under the moniker \"Proof\", Holton first rose to national prominence as a part of the rap group D12, a hip-hop group he was instrumental in forming. Early individual accomplishments include being featured in \"The Source\"'s \"Unsigned Hype\" column in 1999 and nearly winning the 1998 Blaze Battle. His first television appearance was in the video for Aaliyah's \"Age Ain't Nothing But a Number\". In 2000, Proof toured with Eminem, Dr. Dre, Ice Cube, and Snoop Dogg in the Up In Smoke Tour, performing as a hype man for Eminem. He gained further exposure in 2001 with the release of \"Devil's Night\", D12's debut album on Interscope Records. The following year, Proof collaborated with Dogmatic on \"Promatic\" and joined Eminem's \"Anger Management\" tour in support of the release. He appeared in the film \"8 Mile\" along with Eminem and Xzibit. Proof appeared as Lil' Tic, a freestyle rapper who rap battles the lead character, B-Rabbit, played by Eminem. To capitalize on the publicity from the film, Proof released a six-song EP called \"Electric CoolAid: Acid Testing\". Proof also starred in a cameo role, alongside the rest of D12 (except for Eminem), in \"The Longest Yard\", appearing as \"Basketball Convicts\" during the credits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Solo work.", "content": "Proof released a solo album featuring collaborations with 50 Cent, Method Man, Nate Dogg, B-Real of Cypress Hill, T3 of Slum Village, Obie Trice, King Gordy, Eminem and D12. Proof said that he did not produce the record with Shady Records or Aftermath because he wanted to \"build his own thing\". Called \"Searching for Jerry Garcia\", the album was released on August 9, 2005 on his own Iron Fist Records label in conjunction with Alliance Entertainment's IDN Distribution, ten years to the day following Grateful Dead frontman Jerry Garcia's death. It contained the prophetic song \"Kurt Kobain\" in which he wrote of his own death and 'passing the sign' to 1st Born as his protégé once he was gone. Proof has said that he considered Garcia to be a \"genius\" who suffered from common character flaws. Proof has stated his admiration for Garcia's eclectic style, saying that Garcia \"went against the grain\". Proof stated how he wanted to be remembered in an interview with SOHH.com shortly after his album release: \"I want people to say that I was a true artist, that I did it best and stayed true to Hip Hop roots [...] I'd want people to understand I did it for the love, not for the charts.\" The album received favorable reviews, which commented on its \"eclectic\" and \"introspective\" nature. Despite its list of guest appearances and favorable reviews, the release did not make a significant impact on the charts. Proof also recorded a track, \"How I Live,\" with Twiztid for their album \"Independents Day\" shortly before his death. Besides these, he recorded during his Gold Coast tour in 2006, which was exactly two weeks before his death, a song with \"Liquidsilva\" from Australia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shooting and death.", "content": "On April 11, 2006, Proof was shot three times by Mario Etheridge, once in the head and twice in the chest, after a dispute broke out during a game of billiards on 8 Mile Road in Detroit, Michigan. A pool game between Proof and Keith Bender turned into a heated argument and then escalated into a physical altercation. Etheridge, who was Bender's cousin, fired a warning shot into the air. There have been many conflicting reports about Proof and Keith Bender's roles in the shooting, but it was reported that Proof then shot Bender in the head during the altercation. Bender was not immediately killed by the gunshot but died a week later from his injuries. In response to Proof shooting Bender, Etheridge then shot Proof three times, once in the head and twice in the chest, killing him at the scene. At the time of his death, Proof's blood alcohol content was 0.32, four times the legal DUI limit. An autopsy revealed that he did not have any illegal drugs in his system. Proof's lawyer, David Gorosh, accused the police and the media of being \"reckless\" for suggesting that his client fired the first shots without having any hard evidence. A few weeks after both men's death, Bender's family began a wrongful death suit against Proof's estate. Authorities determined that Etheridge was acting lawfully in defense of another; however, he was found guilty of carrying an illegal firearm and discharging it inside of a building.  On April 19, 2006, a service for Proof was held in the Fellowship Chapel in Detroit to a full house of 2,660 people, including life-long friend Eminem, Royce Da 5'9, 50 Cent, and thousands more mourning outside. He was then buried in Woodlawn Cemetery.  Seven months after Proof's death, his close friend Reginald \"Mudd\" Moore, who was with him at the nightclub where he was killed, gave an exclusive interview with \"XXL\" magazine where he told a different account of what happened that night. In Mudd's version of the events, Proof is portrayed neither as the instigator nor a cold-blooded killer. According to Mudd, the night started out with him and Proof and two of their friends barhopping. They arrived at the Triple C club at around 3:55am where a fight between Keith Bender and Proof escalated over a pool game. The bouncer Mario Etheridge then pulled out his gun and fired two shots into the air to break the fight up, but instead the shots caused panic. Mudd went on to state that an intoxicated Proof pushed him out of the way, reached for his gun and fired once into the air. Keith Bender then came from behind and started attacking Proof, trying to get the weapon out of his hand. Etheridge then came over and started shooting in the direction of Proof and Bender, killing both men.  In 2008, Welsh singer/songwriter Jem dedicated the song \"You Will Make It\" to the memory of Proof (listed under his birth name DeShaun Holton) on her second album \"Down to Earth\". In the liner notes, she said \"For your families and friends and for all those who experienced the tragedy of sudden loss\". In early 2009, Jem revealed \"The track is about losing someone and I wrote it the day after his friend Proof was murdered. I was in Detroit with Eminem's friends, who I happened to be recording with, when it happened\". Eminem eulogized his friend with the unreleased track \"Difficult\", that leaked to the public in 2010. On the album \"Recovery\", Eminem made a song dedicated to Proof called \"You're Never Over\" and also references him in the song “Going Through Changes”. Eminem also references Proof on \"Elevator\" from his 2009 album \"\" as well as under his birth name (DeShaun) on the song \"Deja Vu\" from the album \"Relapse\" as well as the single \"Walk on Water\" and on the songs \"Believe\" and \"Arose\" both from his 2017 album \"Revival\". Proof was also mentioned by Eminem on the songs \"Stepping Stone\" and \"Venom\" from the 2018 album \"Kamikaze\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "DeShaun Dupree Holton (October 2, 1973 – April 11, 2006), known professionally as Proof, was an American rapper and actor from Detroit, Michigan. During his career, he was a member of the groups 5 Elementz, Funky Cowboys, Promatic, Goon Sqwad, and D12. He was a close childhood friend of rapper Eminem, who lived in the same neighborhood. Proof was often a hype man at Eminem's concerts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975444}
{"src_title": "Filip Vujanović", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Born and raised in Belgrade, Vujanović graduated from the University of Belgrade's Law School. Between 1978 and 1981 he worked in one of the city's Municipal Courts, and later also as an assistant at the Belgrade District Court. In 1981, aged 27, he moved to Titograd. Following a short stint as secretary at Titograd's District Court, he worked as a lawyer until entering politics in March 1993.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career in politics.", "content": "Vujanović joined the Democratic Party of Socialists (DPS) in 1993 upon the invitation of Montenegrin federal President Momir Bulatović following the creation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (comprising Montenegro and Serbia) in the wake of the break-up of the previous Yugoslavia.  He was Minister of Justice in Milo Đukanović's pro-Slobodan Milošević government (1993–1996), and then Interior Minister from 1996 to 1998 after Đukanović switched loyalty and turned against Milošević. During the 1997 DPSM leadership conflict, Vujanović initially declared neutrality. He eventually sided with Milo Đukanović after Đukanović won the presidential election. Đukanović then appointed Vujanović as the first Prime Minister of Montenegro; Vujanović served in that post from 5 February 1998 until 8 January 2003.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President of Montenegro.", "content": "On 5 November 2002, he became speaker of the Montenegrin parliament, a position which, from 25 November 2002, made him Acting President of Montenegro due to the resignation of Đukanović from the presidency to prepare to switch office with Vujanović. Vujanović ran in the December 2002 presidential elections and won a landslide victory, receiving 86% of the vote, but the election was ruled invalid because turnout was less than 50%. The elections were held again in February 2003, with Vujanović winning 81% of the vote, but again turnout was below 50%. The elections were held for a third time on 11 May 2003, with the minimum turnout rule abolished, and Vujanović won again with 63% of the vote.  Vujanović resigned from his positions as speaker and acting president on 19 May 2003 but became president of Montenegro again three days later when his term began. Even though he was born and raised in Serbia, he was one of the most prominent Montenegrin secessionists. As president of Montenegro, Vujanović was a supporter of the Montenegro independence referendum, though Prime Minister Đukanović was much more high-profile in his campaign for it. Vujanović's messages often focus on Montenegro's and Serbia's ability to have a peaceful separation and post-independence cooperation, and he is friends with former Serbian president Boris Tadić. On 21 May 2006, an independence referendum was held in Montenegro; it was approved by 55.5% of voters, narrowly passing the 55% threshold. On 3 June 2006, Montenegro became an independent state.  On 14 December 2006, he signed the Framework Document for the accession to the Partnership for Peace Programme, wherewith Montenegro became a member of the NATO program \"Partnership for Peace\". During the press conference that President Vujanovic and Secretary General of NATO, Jaap de Hoop Scheffer held after signing the Partnership for Peace Framework Document, Scheffer welcomed the way Montenegro decided to go towards the European integrations. In April 2007, President Vujanović declared he would protect the property of the main religious institution in Montenegro, the Serbian Orthodox Church during an attempt of the non-canonical Montenegrin Orthodox Church to forcibly seize its property. At the 2008 presidential election, Vujanović ran for the second presidential term, and secured another five years in office in the first election round, with 51.89% vote. The turnout was 68.2%.  On 20 January 2012, Vujanović adopted the Decision on Calling Elections for the MPs of the local Parliament of Tivat and local Parliament of Herceg Novi. On 28 March 2012, Vujanović, after carrying out consultations with the Bar Association of Montenegro, Association of Judges of Montenegro, Law faculties, Academy of Sciences, Extended Session of the Supreme Court of Montenegro, appointed four members of the Judicial Council, that were judges of the Constitutional Court of Montenegro. On July 31, 2012, President Vujanović passed a Decision on Calling Elections for Members of the Parliament of Montenegro. The parliamentary elections were held on October 14 and were won by the Coalition for European Montenegro, dominated by DPS. Following the elections, on December 4, 2012, Vujanović destined Đukanović as Prime Minister.  In February 2013, the Constitutional Court officially approved Vujanović's candidacy for a new term, noting that for his 2003–2008 term he was elected as President of the Republic of Montenegro as a constituent entity within its state union with Serbia and served as de facto independent head of state only in 2006–2008, meaning that his 2008–2013 term is legally his first term. At the 2013 presidential election Vujanović won the election for third presidential term, with 51.2% of the vote against the Democratic Front opposition alliance nominee, Miodrag Lekić.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign policy.", "content": "On 5 December 2012, Vujanović hosted the 4th Regional Summit of the Heads of States, held in Budva. On 13 June 2013, Vujanović was participating in the 18th Summit of the Heads of States of the Central European Countries, held in Bratislava.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Serbia.", "content": "Vujanović, as president of Montenegro, recognized the independence of Kosovo, a Serbian autonomous province. In October 2008, Serbian government expelled Anka Vojvodić, the ambassador of Montenegro to Belgrade. Almost one year later, Serbia finally accepted Igor Jovović to take on the role of the new Montenegrin ambassador.  After being elected the new Serbian president in May 2012, Tomislav Nikolić gave an interview to Televizija Crne Gore, during which he stated that he recognize Montenegro like a state, \"but not any difference between Serbs and Montenegrins, because there is none\". On 13 June 2013, Vujanović meet Nikolić in Bratislava, pointing out that he \"supported the activities of the two Governments aimed at joint projects and interests, with a special emphasis on the infrastructural projects\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Romania.", "content": "On 24 June 2013, Vujanović received Titus Corlățean, Romanian Minister of Foreign Affairs, who came to Montenegro with the occasion of the Romanian bus crash. He reiterated the deepest condolences in its own name and on behalf of the citizens of Montenegro. He also sent the telegram of condolences to the Romania's President, Traian Băsescu, over that accident in which 18 tourists from Romania lost their lives. 26 June, the day when the victims were repatriated, became a day of national mourning in solidarity with Romania.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Timeline.", "content": "The chart below shows a timeline of the offices held by Vujanović and the Montenegro status. The left bar shows president and all prime ministers terms of Vujanović, and the right bar shows the country status of Montenegro at that time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Since May 1985, he has been married to Svetlana, court judge, with whom he has three children: two daughters (Tatjana and Nina), and a son (Danilo). Vujanović stands in height making him among the tallest statesmen in the world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Filip Vujanović (Serbian Cyrillic: Филип Вујановић, ; born 1 September 1954) is a Montenegrin politician who served as the President of Montenegro from 2003 to 2018. He was the country's first president since its independence in June 2006. He claimed a landslide victory in the April 2008 presidential election, and he was narrowly re-elected in 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975445}
{"src_title": "Waterfall model", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first known presentation describing use of such phases in software engineering was held by Herbert D. Benington at the Symposium on Advanced Programming Methods for Digital Computers on 29 June 1956. This presentation was about the development of software for SAGE. In 1983 the paper was republished with a foreword by Benington explaining that the phases were on purpose organised according to the specialisation of tasks, and pointing out that the process was not in fact performed in a strict top-down fashion, but depended on a prototype.  The first formal description of the waterfall model is often cited as a 1970 article by Winston W. Royce, although Royce did not use the term \"waterfall\" in that article. Royce presented this model as an example of a flawed, non-working model; which is how the term is generally used in writing about software development—to describe a critical view of a commonly used software development practice.  The earliest use of the term \"waterfall\" may have been in a 1976 paper by Bell and Thayer.  In 1985, the United States Department of Defense captured this approach in DOD-STD-2167A, their standards for working with software development contractors, which stated that \"the contractor shall implement a software development cycle that includes the following six phases: Software Requirement Analysis, Preliminary Design, Detailed Design, Coding and Unit Testing, Integration, and Testing\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Model.", "content": "In Royce's original waterfall model, the following phases are followed in order:  Thus the waterfall model maintains that one should move to a phase only when its preceding phase is reviewed and verified.  Various modified waterfall models (including Royce's final model), however, can include slight or major variations on this process. These variations included returning to the previous cycle after flaws were found downstream, or returning all the way to the design phase if downstream phases deemed insufficient.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Supporting arguments.", "content": "Time spent early in the software production cycle can reduce costs at later stages. For example, a problem found in the early stages (such as requirements specification) is cheaper to fix than the same bug found later on in the process (by a factor of 50 to 200).  In common practice, waterfall methodologies result in a project schedule with 20–40% of the time invested for the first two phases, 30–40% of the time to coding, and the rest dedicated to testing and implementation. The actual project organisation needs to be highly structured. Most medium and large projects will include a detailed set of procedures and controls, which regulate every process on the project.  A further argument for the waterfall model is that it places emphasis on documentation (such as requirements documents and design documents) as well as source code. In less thoroughly designed and documented methodologies, knowledge is lost if team members leave before the project is completed, and it may be difficult for a project to recover from the loss. If a fully working design document is present (as is the intent of Big Design Up Front and the waterfall model), new team members or even entirely new teams should be able to familiarise themselves by reading the documents.  The waterfall model provides a structured approach; the model itself progresses linearly through discrete, easily understandable and explainable phases and thus is easy to understand; it also provides easily identifiable milestones in the development process. It is perhaps for this reason that the waterfall model is used as a beginning example of a development model in many software engineering texts and courses.  It is argued that the waterfall model can be suited to projects where requirements and scope are fixed, the product itself is firm and stable, and the technology is clearly understood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Clients may not know exactly what their requirements are before they see working software and so change their requirements, leading to redesign, redevelopment, and retesting, and increased costs.  Designers may not be aware of future difficulties when designing a new software product or feature, in which case it is better to revise the design than persist in a design that does not account for any newly discovered constraints, requirements, or problems.  Organisations may attempt to deal with a lack of concrete requirements from clients by employing systems analysts to examine existing manual systems and analyse what they do and how they might be replaced. However, in practice, it is difficult to sustain a strict separation between systems analysis and programming. This is because implementing any non-trivial system will almost inevitably expose issues and edge cases that the systems analyst did not consider.  In response to the perceived problems with the \"pure\" waterfall model, modified waterfall models were introduced, such as \"Sashimi (Waterfall with Overlapping Phases), Waterfall with Subprojects, and Waterfall with Risk Reduction\".  Some organisations, such as the United States Department of Defense, now have a stated preference against waterfall-type methodologies, starting with MIL-STD-498, which encourages \"evolutionary acquisition\" and \"Iterative and Incremental Development\".  While advocates of agile software development argue the waterfall model is an ineffective process for developing software, some sceptics suggest that the waterfall model is a false argument used purely to market \"alternative\" development methodologies.  Rational Unified Process (RUP) phases acknowledge the programmatic need for milestones, for keeping a project on track, but encourage iterations (especially within Disciplines) within the Phases. RUP Phases are often referred to as \"waterfall-like\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modified waterfall models.", "content": "In response to the perceived problems with the \"pure\" waterfall model, many modified waterfall models have been introduced. These models may address some or all of the criticisms of the \"pure\" waterfall model.  These include the Rapid Development models that Steve McConnell calls \"modified waterfalls\": Peter DeGrace's \"sashimi model\" (waterfall with overlapping phases), waterfall with subprojects, and waterfall with risk reduction. Other software development model combinations such as \"incremental waterfall model\" also exist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royce's final model.", "content": "Winston W. Royce's final model, his intended improvement upon his initial \"waterfall model\", illustrated that feedback could (should, and often would) lead from code testing to design (as testing of code uncovered flaws in the design) and from design back to requirements specification (as design problems may necessitate the removal of conflicting or otherwise unsatisfiable / undesignable requirements). In the same paper Royce also advocated large quantities of documentation, doing the job \"twice if possible\" (a sentiment similar to that of Fred Brooks, famous for writing the Mythical Man Month, an influential book in software project management, who advocated planning to \"throw one away\"), and involving the customer as much as possible (a sentiment similar to that of Extreme Programming).  Royce notes to the final model are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The waterfall model is a breakdown of project activities into linear sequential phases, where each phase depends on the deliverables of the previous one and corresponds to a specialisation of tasks. The approach is typical for certain areas of engineering design. In software development, it tends to be among the less iterative and flexible approaches, as progress flows in largely one direction (\"downwards\" like a waterfall) through the phases of conception, initiation, analysis, design, construction, testing, deployment and maintenance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975446}
{"src_title": "Château de Chantilly", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Original construction.", "content": "The estate's connection with the Montmorency family began in 1484. The first mansion (no longer in existence, now replaced by the Grand Château) was built, between 1528 and 1531, for Anne de Montmorency by Pierre Chambiges. The Petit Château was also built for him, around 1560, probably by Jean Bullant. In 1632, after the death of Henri II de Montmorency, it passed to his nephew, the Grand Condé, who inherited it through his mother, Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency.  Molière's play, \"Les Précieuses ridicules\", received its first performance here in 1659. Madame de Sévigné relates in her memoirs that when King Louis XIV of France visited there in 1671, François Vatel, the maître d'hôtel to the Grand Condé, committed suicide when he feared the fish would be served late. The collection includes important works of the cabinetmaker André-Charles Boulle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Revolution and aftermath.", "content": "The original mansion was destroyed in the French Revolution. It was repaired in a modest way by Louis Henri II, Prince of Condé, but the entire property was confiscated from the Orléans family, between 1853 and 1872, during which interval it was owned by Coutts, an English bank. Chantilly was entirely rebuilt, between 1875 and 1882, by Henri d'Orléans, duc d'Aumale (1822–1897) to the designs of Honore Daumet. The new château met with mixed reviews. Boni de Castellane summed up one line of thought: \"What is today styled a marvel is one of the saddest specimens of the architecture of our era — one enters at the second floor and descends to the salons\". In the end, the Duc d'Aumale bequeathed the property to the Institut de France upon his death in 1897.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "21st century restoration.", "content": "The World Monuments Fund included the site in the 1998 World Monuments Watch to call attention to water infiltration and high humidity in the \"Galerie des Actions de Monsieur le Prince\" and again in the 2002 World Monuments Watch due to the precarious condition of the entire estate. Funding for restoration work was provided from various sources, including American Express and the Generali Group.  Subsequently, in response to an appeal for the restoration of the château, The Aga Khan donated €40 million, accounting for more than half of a €70 million needed by the Institut de France to complete the project. In 2008 the World Monuments Fund completed the restoration of the Grande Singerie, a salon with paintings on the walls of monkeys engaged in human activities, once a fashionable salon motif, but with few examples surviving today.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Musée Condé.", "content": "Works in the art gallery (many of them are in the Tribune Room) include Sassetta's \"Mystic Marriage of St. Francis\", Botticelli's \"Autumn\", Piero di Cosimo's \"Portrait of Simonetta Vespucci\", Raphael's \"Three Graces\" and \"Madonna of Loreto\", Guercino's \"Pietà\", Pierre Mignard's \"Portrait of Molière\" as well as four of Antoine Watteau's paintings and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot's \"Le concert champêtre\". Other paintings in the collection include works by Fra Angelico, Filippino Lippi, Hans Memling, 260 paintings and drawings by François and Jean Clouet, Veronese, Barocci, Annibale Carracci, Domenichino, Salvator Rosa, Nicolas Poussin, Philippe de Champaigne, Van Dyck, Guido Reni, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, Joshua Reynolds, Eugène Delacroix, Ingres, Géricault.  The library of the Petit Château contains over 1,500 manuscripts and 17,500 printed volumes, that is part of the collection of over 700 incunabula, and some 300 medieval manuscripts, including one page of the \"Registrum Gregorii\" (c. 983), the \"Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry\", the Ingeborg Psalter and 40 miniatures from Jean Fouquet's \"Book of Hours of Etienne Chevalier\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Park and Chantilly racecourse.", "content": "The main French formal garden, featuring extensive parterres and water features, was laid out principally by André Le Nôtre for the Grand Condé. The park also contains a French landscape garden with a cascade, pavilions, and a rustic ersatz village, the Hameau de Chantilly. The latter inspired the Hameau de la reine of Marie Antoinette in the Gardens of Versailles.  The estate overlooks the Chantilly Racecourse and the \"Grandes Écuries\" (Great Stables) which contains the Living Museum of the Horse. According to legend, Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon, Prince of Condé believed that he would be reincarnated as a horse after his death. In 1719, he asked the architect Jean Aubert to build stables suitable to his rank.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern uses.", "content": "The Château has various modern uses:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Château de Chantilly () is a historic French château located in the town of Chantilly, Oise, about 50 kilometres (30 miles) north of Paris. The site comprises two attached buildings: the Petit Château built around 1560 for Anne de Montmorency and the Grand Château, which was destroyed during the French Revolution and rebuilt in the 1870s. It is owned by the Institut de France, to which it was bequeathed in the will of Henri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975447}
{"src_title": "Blanche of England", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Born at Peterborough Castle in Cambridgeshire, Blanche was the sixth of the seven children born during the marriage of Henry of Lancaster and his wife Mary de Bohun. At the time of her birth, Henry was only Earl of Derby and, thanks to his marriage, Earl of Northampton and Earl of Hereford; as the only surviving son of John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster, he was the heir of the Duchy of Lancaster. Blanche was named after her paternal grandmother.  Blanche's mother died on 4 June 1394 in Peterborough Castle after giving birth to her last child, Philippa. Five years later, on 13 October, Blanche's father deposed his cousin Richard II and usurped the throne. Three years later in 1402, her father was remarried, to Joanna, daughter of King Charles II of Navarre and widow of Duke John V of Brittany. There were no children of this marriage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "After his accession to the English throne, King Henry IV wanted to make important alliances in order to maintain and legitimise his rule. One needed ally was King Rupert of Germany, who had also ascended following his predecessor's deposition: a marriage between Rupert's eldest surviving son Louis and Henry IV's eldest daughter Blanche was soon arranged. The marriage contract was signed on 7 March 1401 in London; the bride's dowry was fixed in the amount of 40,000 \"Nobeln\". The formal marriage between Blanche and Louis took place one year later, on 6 July 1402 at Cologne Cathedral, Germany. Blanche's dowry included the oldest surviving royal crown known to have been in England. Despite its political nature, the marriage was said to be happy. Four years later, on 22 Jun 1406 in Heidelberg, Blanche gave birth to a son, called Rupert after his paternal grandfather.  In 1408 Blanche was made Lady of the Garter. One year later, pregnant with her second child, she died of fever in Haguenau, Alsace and was buried in the Church of St. Mary (today St. Aegidius) in Neustadt in the Palatinate.  Her widower became Elector Palatine as Louis III in 1410 after the death of his father King Rupert and in 1417 married Matilda, daughter of Amadeo, Prince of Achaea, member of the House of Savoy, who bore him six children. Blanche's son Rupert (nicknamed \"the English\") died aged nineteen in 1426, unmarried and without issue.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Blanche of England, LG (spring 1392 – 22 May 1409), also known as Blanche of Lancaster, was a member of the House of Lancaster, the daughter of King Henry IV of England by his first wife Mary de Bohun.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975448}
{"src_title": "Charles-François Lebrun", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Ancien Régime\".", "content": "Born in Saint-Sauveur-Lendelin (Manche), after studies of philosophy at the \"Collège de Navarre\", he started his career during the \"Ancien Régime\", making his first appearance as a lawyer in Paris in 1762. He filled the posts of \"censeur du Roi\" (1766) and then Inspector General of the Domains of the Crown (1768).  During the early 1760s, Lebrun became a disciple of Montesquieu and an admirer of the British Constitution, travelling through Southern Netherlands, the Dutch Republic, and finally to the Kingdom of Great Britain (where he witnessed the debates in the London Parliament).  He became one of Chancellor René Nicolas de Maupéou's chief advisers, taking part in his struggle against the \"parlements\" and sharing his downfall in 1774. Lebrun then devoted himself to literature, translating Torquato Tasso's \"Jerusalem Delivered\" (1774) and the \"Iliad\" (1776). He retreated from public life to his property in Grillon, attempting to live a life as envisaged by the \"philosophe\" Jean-Jacques Rousseau. During the cabinet of Jacques Necker, he was consulted on several occasions, but never appointed to high office.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Constituent Assembly and provincial politics.", "content": "At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, he foresaw its importance in his volume \"La voix du Citoyen\", published the same year, and predicted the course which events would take. In the Estates-General and (after he took the \"Tennis Court Oath\") in the National Constituent Assembly, where he sat as deputy for the Third Estate in the bailiwick of Dourdan, he professed Liberalism and proposed various financial laws, without affiliating to any particular faction. A partisan of constitutional monarchy even after King Louis XVI's flight to Varennes (June 1791), he became the target for the suspicions of the Jacobin Club.  After the voting of the 1791 Constitution, he was ineligible for the Legislative Assembly (like all former members of the Constituent Assembly), and became instead president of the directory of Seine-et-Oise \"département\".  Lebrun retired from this position on 7 August 1792, and again retired to Dourdan. Three days later, the storming of the Tuileries Palace signalled the move towards the establishment of the French Republic by the creation of the National Convention. Lebrun further aroused the indignation of republicans when he accepted to represent Dourdan in the electoral college of Seine-et-Oise which nominated deputies to the Convention.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Terror, Thermidor, and Directory.", "content": "A suspect during the Reign of Terror, he was twice arrested: the first time in September 1793, liberated after the intervention of Joseph Augustin Crassous (representative on mission to Seine-et-Oise); the second time in June 1794 (paradoxically, on orders from the same Crassous) - threatened with the guillotine, he was saved by a relative of his who stole his record of prosecution, thus causing a delay long enough for Lebrun to be saved by the Thermidorian Reaction.  In 1795, Lebrun was elected as a deputy to the French Directory's Council of Ancients and, although a supporter of the House of Bourbon, he voted against prosecutions of Jacobins, and showed himself in favour of national reconciliation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consulate, Empire, and Restoration.", "content": "Lebrun was made Third Consul following Napoleon Bonaparte's 18 Brumaire coup in the Year VIII (9–10 November 1799; \"see French Consulate\"). In this capacity, he took an active part in Napoleon's reorganization of the national finances and in the administration of France's \"départements\". He was made a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1803, and in 1804, he was appointed Arch-Treasurer of the French Empire. From 1805 to 1806, he was governor-general of Liguria, during which time he completed its annexation by France.  He opposed Napoleon's restoration of the \"noblesse\" and, in 1808, only reluctantly accepted the title of \"duc de Plaisance\" (Duke of Piacenza), a rare, nominal, but hereditary \"duché grand-fief\", extinguished in 1926. From 1811 to 1813, he served as governor-general of a part of the annexed Netherlands, reorganizing its \"départements\" - Zuyderzée and Bouches-de-la-Meuse. He was assisted by Antoine de Celles and Goswin de Stassart. Although to a certain extent opposed to the autocracy of the Emperor, he was not in favor of his deposition, although he accepted the \"fait accompli\" of the Bourbon Restoration in April 1814. Louis XVIII made him a Peer of France, but during the subsequent Hundred Days, he accepted from Napoleon the post of \"grand maître de l'Université\". As a consequence, he was suspended from the House of Peers when the Bourbons returned again in 1815, but was recalled in 1819. He died five years later in Sainte-Mesme (then in Seine-et-Oise, now in Yvelines).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Charles-François Lebrun, 1st duc de Plaisance (19 March 1739 – 16 June 1824), was a French statesman who served as Third Consul of the French Republic and was later created Arch-Treasurer and Prince of the Empire by Napoleon I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975449}
{"src_title": "Queen Paola of Belgium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family background.", "content": "She was born in Forte dei Marmi, Tuscany, Italy, the seventh and youngest child of the World War I Italian flying ace Fulco, Prince Ruffo di Calabria, 6th Duke of Guardia Lombarda (1884–1946). Her mother was Donna Luisa Gazelli dei Conti di Rossana e di Sebastiano (1896–1989), a matrilineal descendant of the Marquis de Lafayette, a hero of the American Revolution. She is of Italian and Belgian ancestry and was hailed as one of the leading beauties of Europe in her youth.  Queen Paola is fluent in Italian, French, German and English. Less fluent, and the cause of occasional criticism, is her Dutch, the mother tongue of nearly 60 percent of Belgians.  Ademarus Rufus, who died in 1049, held the title of \"Comes\" in southern Italy and Siggerio Ruffo became Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II's grand marshal of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1235. The family divided into two branches after the 14th century: the Ruffo di Calabria and the Ruffo di Scaletta, to the former of which the Queen belongs.  Queen Paola's brother, Don Fabrizio Ruffo di Calabria-Santipau (1922–2005), head of the entire family from 1975, was historical heir to the titles of Prince of Scilla, Prince of Palazzolo, Duke of Guardia Lombarda, Count of Sinopoli, Marquis of Licodia Eubea, Count of Nicotera, Baron of Calanna and of Crispano, Patrician of Naples.  Queen Paola is related to historically eminent Roman and southern Italian noble families, including the Colonna, Orsini, Pallavicini, Alliata and Rospigliosi. Among her distinguished ancestors of the French aristocracy were the American general Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette and the Dukes of Noailles.  Since the fall of the Italian monarchy in 1946, the Princes Ruffo di Calabria have become connected by marriage, in addition to the Belgian royal family, to such formerly reigning dynasties as the Orléans, the Savoys and the Bonapartes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "In 1958, the Prince of Liège went to the Vatican to witness the coronation of Pope John XXIII. At a reception at the Belgian embassy, the Prince met Italian Donna Paola Ruffo di Calabria. \"We were both shy, so we only talked a little,\" Paola said later about their first meeting. Shy but smitten, Prince Albert later proposed marriage to Paola, and she accepted. Their engagement was announced at the Chateau of Laeken in 1959. The Prince of Liège married Donna Paola Ruffo di Calabria at St. Goedele Cathedral in Brussels on 2 July 1959.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "The couple have three children:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "In 2015, the court announced Queen Paola was taking \"a period of total rest\" following doctors' orders. They also announced that she had to cancel a planned visit to the Biennale in Venice. Further communications were kept private. The Queen sent a message to Grosio, where she was expected to visit the residence of her aunt the Marchioness Margherita Pallavicini Mossi. Newspapers believed that the Queen suffered from a stroke during the holiday. The palace later announced she was being treated for a cardiac arrhythmia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "Apart from her activities in the company of King Albert II, Queen Paola devotes her time to issues that are close to her heart, mainly in the social and cultural sphere.  Queen Paola has demonstrated interest in contemporary Belgian arts, visiting the \"Venetian Biennale\" several times. She has acquired works of Jan Fabre, Michael Borremans and others for the Royal collection. She has often met with such artists as Luc Tuymans and Dirk Braeckman.  She takes a keen interest in the protection and preservation of Belgium's heritage. She makes numerous visits to cultural sites, from Beguine convents to early 19th century industrial facilities.  Queen Paola is interested in both new and traditional crafts, and takes every opportunity to encourage the exercise and teaching of craft professions.  Queen Paola keeps abreast of contemporary art and regularly supports major exhibitions and artistic performances both in Belgium and abroad. On the initiative of Queen Paola, contemporary artists have had the opportunity to design and make original works within the Palace of Brussels.  In 1992, Queen Paola set up the Queen Paola Foundation, which focus on integration and training for young people. The Queen Paola Foundation's activities are geared towards social integration, support for teachers at all levels of the education system and schools in socio-economically disadvantaged areas.  Queen Paola is Honorary Chairman of the Queen Elisabeth Music Chapel and of Missing Children Europe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Queen Paola of Belgium (\"née\" \"Donna\" Paola Ruffo di Calabria; born 11 September 1937) is the wife of King Albert II and was Queen of the Belgians from 1993 until his abdication in 2013 in favour of their son King Philippe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975450}
{"src_title": "Alex Turner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Alexander David Turner was born in Sheffield on 6 January 1986, the only child of secondary school teachers Penny (née Druce) and David Turner. He was raised in Sheffield's High Green suburb. He has said that his parents came from \"very different backgrounds\"; his mother, from Amersham, Buckinghamshire, taught German and was \"fascinated by language\". His father, a Sheffield native, taught music and physics. Turner's parents were both music fans and his earliest musical memories involve The Beatles and The Beach Boys. During car journeys, his mother played music by Led Zeppelin, David Bowie, and The Eagles. His father was a fan of jazz and swing music, particularly Frank Sinatra. He had played the saxophone, trumpet, and piano in big bands. Turner himself was taught some scales on the family keyboard by his father and took professional piano lessons until he was eight years old.  From the age of five, Turner grew up alongside neighbour Matt Helders; they attended primary school, secondary school, and college together. At their primary school graduation ceremony, Turner and Helders joined some other friends in a mimed", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2002–2004: Formation of Arctic Monkeys.", "content": "At the age of 15, Turner's weekends revolved around girls and drinking cider with his friends. Joe Carnall, a schoolfriend, has said Turner was \"always the quiet one\" in their social circle. After friends began forming bands and playing live, Turner, Helders, and Nicholson decided to start Arctic Monkeys in mid-2002. According to Nicholson, Turner already had \"instruments about the house\" and was conversant in the basics of musicianship because of his father's job as a music teacher. Helders bought a drum kit, while Turner suggested that Nicholson learn bass guitar,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2005–2007: Rise to fame.", "content": "Arctic Monkeys came to national attention in early 2005. They received their first mention in a national newspaper in April, with a \"Daily Star\" reporter describing them as \"the most exciting band to emerge this year\". They self-released an EP, featuring the single \"Fake Tales of San Francisco\", in May and commenced their first nationwide tour soon afterwards. In June, in the midst of a bidding war, Arctic Monkeys signed to the independent label Domino Recording Company. After initial sessions with James Ford and Mike Crossey, they recorded an album in rural Lincolnshire with producer Jim Abbiss. Turner began dating London-based student Johanna Bennett around this time. In October, the single \"I Bet You Look Good on the", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2008–2011: Musical experimentation.", "content": "The Last Shadow Puppets' debut album, \"The Age of the Understatement\", was released in April 2008, shortly after Turner had moved from Sheffield to east London. Co-written by Turner and Kane, the album was recorded in the Loire Valley, France and featured string arrangements by Owen Pallett. Alexa Chung, dating Turner since mid-2007, featured in the music video for \"My Mistakes Were Made For You\". Hogan of \"Pitchfork\" noted that, lyrically, Turner was \"moving from his anthropologically detailed Arctics brushstrokes to bold, cinematic gestures.\" Petridis of \"The Guardian\" detected \"the audible enthusiasm of an artist broadening his scope\" and praised \"a certain fearlessness on display\". During a tour", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012–2017: International success.", "content": "By 2012, Arctic Monkeys were based in Los Angeles, with Turner and Helders sharing a house. Arctic Monkeys toured the US as the support act for The Black Keys in early 2012. While they had previously opened for Oasis and Queens of the Stone Age at one-off shows, it was the band's first time to tour as a supporting act. They released \"R U Mine?\" as a standalone single in preparation for the tour, with Turner's new girlfriend, Arielle Vandenberg, appearing in the music video. Later that year, Arctic Monkeys performed \"I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor\" and a cover", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018 onward: \"Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino\".", "content": "\"Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino\", Arctic Monkeys' sixth album, was released in May 2018. After receiving a Steinway Vertegrand piano as a 30th birthday present from his manager, Turner wrote the space-themed album from the perspective of \"a lounge-y character\". He recorded demos at home, alone and later with Helders, and shared them with Cook in early 2017. Cook was initially taken-aback by the change in direction but was \"very, very excited by what he’d come up with.\" By mid–2017, the whole band was recording the project, produced by Turner and James Ford, in", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Artistry.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Turner was \"into hip-hop in a big way\" as a teenager. When he first started writing lyrics, Roots Manuva's \"Run Come Save Me\" was his main influence. He also listened to Rawkus Records and Lyricist Lounge compilations, and artists such as Dr Dre, Snoop Dogg, OutKast, Eminem and The Streets. He has repeatedly cited Method Man as one of his favourite lyricists, and has referenced the Wu-Tang Clan in his own lyrics.  For Turner, The Strokes were \"that one band that comes along", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Songwriting.", "content": "Kate Mossman of the \"New Statesman\" described Turner as \"one of the great lyricists of the 21st century\", writing that his songs are \"full of lovingly extended metaphors\" and \"mordant Morrissey-style observations\". Mike Laws of the \"Village Voice\" characterised him as \"a writer without peer in virtually all of rock\" and identified \"rapid-fire prosody and facility with internal rhyme\" as Turner's trademarks. Simon Armitage, writing in \"The Guardian\", said: \"Of all those writing lyrics today, Turner is among the most poetic. His use of internal rhyme exists to be admired and envied... Turner is a storyteller and", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Voice.", "content": "In the early years of his career, Turner performed in a strong Sheffield dialect. Simon Armitage remarked: \"I can't think of another singer whose regional identity has been so unapologetically and naturally intoned through his", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stage persona.", "content": "In an otherwise positive review of a 2006 show, Richard Cromelin of the \"Los Angeles Times\" noted that Turner seemed \"a little spooked by the attention\" and hoped he would learn \"to reach out more to the audience\" in time. In 2007, Kitty Empire of \"The Observer\" noted that he was a \"reserved\" presence on stage: \"He chats a bit to about 15 people in the middle of the front rows, and only looks up at the balcony, once, a little apprehensively.\" Following Arctic Monkeys' headlining appearance at Glastonbury Festival in 2007, Rosie Swash of \"The Guardian\" remarked upon Turner's \"steady, wry stage presence\": \"Arctic Monkeys don't do ad-libbing, they don't do crowd interaction, and they don't do encores.\" Simon Price of \"The Independent\" said Turner seemed \"to freeze like a rabbit in the spotlights\" during a headlining set at Reading Festival in 2009.  In late 2011, Turner began to change his stage persona and style, most notably changing his hairstyle to a \"rockabilly-inspired quiff\". Brian Hiatt", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "Solo  Arctic Monkeys  The Last Shadow Puppets  Other collaborations", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexander David Turner (born 6 January 1986) is an English musician, singer, songwriter, and record producer. He is best known as the frontman and principal songwriter of the rock band Arctic Monkeys, with whom he has released six albums. He has also recorded with his side project The Last Shadow Puppets and as a solo artist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975451}
{"src_title": "József Eötvös", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The Baron József Eötvös de Vásárosnamény was born in the Hungarian aristocratic family Eötvös de Vásárosnamény. His father was the Baron Ignác Eötvös de Vásárosnamény (1786–1851), lord of the bedchamber, vice-chancellor of the Kingdom of Hungary, and his mother was the Baroness Anne von der Lilien (1786–1858).  He received an excellent education and also spent many years in western Europe, assimilating the new ideas both literary and political, and making the acquaintance of the leaders of the Romantic school. On his return to Hungary he wrote his first political work, \"Prison Reform\"; and at the diet of 1839–1840 he made a great impression by his eloquence and learning. One of his first speeches (published, with additional matter, in 1841) warmly advocated Jewish emancipation. On 13 September 1842 he married the noble lady Ágnes Rosty de Barkóc (1825–1913), member of the illustrious noble family Rosty de Barkóc that originally hailed from the Vas county, daughter of Albert Rosty de Barkóc (1779–1847), jurist, landowner, vice-ispán of the county of Békés (\"alispán of Békés\"). Baron Eötvös' brother in law was Pál Rosty de Barkóc (1830–1874), a Hungarian nobleman, photographer, explorer, who visited Texas, New Mexico, Mexico, Cuba and Venezuela between 1857 and 1859. His other brother in law through his wife was dr. Ágoston Trefort (1817–1888) was a Hungarian politician, who served as Minister of Religion and Education, as he married the other Rosty sister, Ilona Rosty de Barkóc (1826–1870).  Eötvös disseminated his progressive ideas in the columns of the \"Pesti Hírlap\", as well as in his novels \"The Village Notary\" (1844–1846) – one of the classics of Hungarian literature – \"Hungary in 1514\", and the comedy \"Long live Equality!\". The February Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was the complete triumph of Eötvös's ideas, and he held the portfolio of public worship and instruction in the first Hungarian ministry. Eötvös, Ferenc Deák and István Széchenyi represented the pacific, moderating influence in the council of ministers, but when the premier, Lajos Batthyány, resigned, Eötvös retired for a time to Munich during the War of Independence. Yet he continued to serve the cause in his influential writings, for example \"Influence of the Ruling Ideas of the 19th century on the State\" (Pest, 1851–1854, German editions at Vienna and Leipzig the same year).  On his return home, in 1851, he abstained from all political movements. In 1859 he published \"The Guarantees of the Power and Unity of Austria\" (the German edition was published in Leipzig the same year), in which he tried to arrive at a compromise between personal union and ministerial responsibility on the one hand and centralization on the other. After the Italian war, however, such a position was regarded as inadequate by the majority of the nation. In the diets of 1861, 1865, and 1867 Eötvös was one of the most loyal followers of Deák, with whose policy he now completely associated himself. On the formation of the Andrássy cabinet in February 1867 he once more accepted the portfolio of public worship and education, being the only one of the ministers of 1848 who thus returned to office. He had now, at last, the opportunity of realizing the ideals of a lifetime. That very year the diet passed his bill for the emancipation of the Jews; though his further efforts in the direction of religious liberty were less successful, owing to the opposition of the Catholics. Perhaps his greatest achievement was the National Schools Act, the most complete system of education provided for Hungary since the days of Maria Theresa. In 1866, he was elected president of the Hungarian academy. He died at Pest on 2 February 1871. On 3 May 1879 a statue was erected to him at Pest in the square which bears his name.  Eötvös occupies a prominent place in Hungarian literature. The best of his verses are to be found in his ballads, but he is better known for his novels. When he published \"The Carthusians\", written on the occasion of the floods at Pest in 1838, the Hungarian novel was still in its infancy, being chiefly represented by the historico-epics of Jsikh. Eötvös first modernized it, giving prominence in his pages to current social problems and political aspirations. The famous \"Village Notary\" came still nearer to actual life, while \"Hungary in 1514\" is especially interesting because it attributes the great national catastrophe of the Battle of Mohács to the blind selfishness of the Hungarian nobility and the intense sufferings of the people under them. The best edition of Eötvös collected works is that of 1891, in 17 volumes. Comparatively few of his writings have been translated, but there is a good English version (London, 1850) and numerous German versions of \"The Village Notary\", while \"The Emancipation of the Jews\" has been translated into Italian and German (Pest, 1841– 1842), and a German translation of \"Hungary in 1514\", under the title of \"Der Bauernkrieg in Ungarn\" was published at Pest in 1850.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Loránd Eötvös  Actor and playwright Leo Ditrichstein was a grandson. Eotvos's name is sometimes spelled Joseph von Etooes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "József baron Eötvös de Vásárosnamény (pronunciation: ['jɔ:ʒef 'øtvøʃ dɛ 'va:ʃa:rɔʃnɒme:ɲ]; 3 September 1813 – 2 February 1871) was a Hungarian writer and statesman, the son of Ignác baron Eötvös de Vásárosnamény and Anna von Lilien, who stemmed from an Erbsälzer family of Werl in Germany. Eötvös name is sometimes anglicised as Joseph von Eotvos.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975452}
{"src_title": "Bus lane", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The world's first designated bus lane was created in Chicago in 1940.  The first bus lanes in Europe were established in 1963 in the German city of Hamburg, when the tram system was closed and the former segrated tram tracks were converted for bus travel. Other large German cities soon followed, and the implementation of bus lanes was officially sanctioned in the German highway code in 1970. Many experts from other countries (Japan among the first) studied the German example and implemented similar solutions. On 15 January 1964 the first bus lane in France was designated along the \"quai du Louvre\" in Paris and the first contraflow lane was established on the old \"pont de l’Alma\" on 15 June 1966.  On 26 February 1968 the first bus lane in London was put into service on Vauxhall Bridge. The first contraflow bus lane in the UK was introduced in King's Road, Reading as a temporary measure when the road was made one-way (eastwards to Cemetery Junction) on 16 June 1968. The initial reason was to save the expense of rerouting the trolleybus, which was due to be scrapped on 3 November of that year. However the experiment proved so successful that it was made permanent for use by motor buses.  By 1972 there were over of with-flow bus lanes in 100 cities within OECD member countries, and the network grew substantially in the following decades.  The El Monte Busway between El Monte and Downtown Los Angeles was the first dedicated busway in the US, constructed in 1974.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "Bus lanes may be located in different locations on a street, such as on the sides of a street near the curb, or down the center. They may be long, continuous networks, or short segments used to allow buses to bypass bottlenecks or reduce route complexity, such as in a contraflow bus lane.  Bus lanes may be demarcated in several ways. Descriptive text such as \"BUS LANE\" may be marked prominently on the road surface, particularly at the beginning and end. Some cities use a diamond-shaped pavement marking to indicate an exclusive bus lane. The road surface may have a distinctive color, usually red, which has been shown to reduce prohibited vehicles from entering bus lanes. Road signs may communicate when a bus lane is in effect.  Bus lanes may also be physically separated from other traffic using bollards, curbs, or other raised elements.  In some cities, such as The Hague in the Netherlands, buses are allowed to use reserved tram tracks, usually laid in the middle of the road and raised slightly above the road surface.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "Bus lanes may have separate sets of dedicated traffic signals, to allow transit signal priority at intersections.  Peak-only bus lanes are enforced only at certain times of the day, usually during rush hour, reverting to a general purpose or parking lane at other times. Peak-only bus lanes may be in effect only in the main direction of travel, such as towards a downtown during morning rush hour traffic, with the buses using general purpose lanes in the other direction.  Entire streets can be designated as bus lanes (such as Oxford Street in London, Princes Street in Edinburgh, or Fulton Street in Downtown Brooklyn), allowing buses, taxis and delivery vehicles only, or a contra-flow bus lane can allow buses to travel in the opposite direction to other vehicles.  Some locations allow bicyclists or taxis to use bus lanes, however where bus or bicycle volumes are high, mixed traffic operations may result in uncomfortable conditions or delays. Certain other vehicles may also be permitted in bus lanes, such as taxis, high occupancy vehicles, motorcycles, or bicycles. Police, ambulance services and fire brigades can also use these lanes.  In the Netherlands mixed bus/cycle lanes are uncommon. According to the Sustainable Safety guidelines they would violate the principle of homogeneity and put road users of very different masses and speed behaviour into the same lane, which is generally discouraged.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Enforcement.", "content": "Bus lanes can become ineffective if weak enforcement allows use by unauthorized vehicles or illegal parking.  Evidence from the operation of urban arterials in Brisbane, Australia shows that a properly enforced bus lane, operating as designed without interference, can increase passenger throughput. In 2009 and 2010 traffic surveys showed that in Brisbane on a number of urban arterials with Bus and Transit lanes, non-compliance rates were approaching 90%. Following enhanced enforcement of the lanes, non-compliance rates dropped and overall efficiency of the Bus and Transit lanes improved with an up to 12% increase in total passenger throughput in the lane. Average bus journey times dropped, in some cases, by up to 19%.  Some cities, including San Francisco and New York, employ automated camera enforcement, using either stationary cameras adjacent to the bus lane, or cameras on the front of buses to automatically issue citations to vehicles obstructing the bus lane.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effectiveness.", "content": "Bus lanes give priority to buses, cutting down on journey times where roads are congested with other traffic and increasing the reliability of buses. The introduction of bus lanes can significantly assist in the reduction of air pollution.  Bus lanes marked with colored pavement have been shown to reduce intrusions into bus lanes, speeding travel time and increasing bus reliability.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major networks.", "content": "Some network lengths of bus lanes in major cities, listed by buses per km of bus lane):  The busiest bus lane in the United States is the Lincoln Tunnel XBL (exclusive bus lane) along the Lincoln Tunnel Approach and Helix in Hudson County, New Jersey, which carries approximately 700 buses per hour during morning peak times an average of one bus every 5.1 seconds. In contrast, the Cross Harbour Tunnel in Hong Kong carries 14,500 buses per day, or an average of about 605 an hour all day (not just peak times), but the bus lane must give way to all the other road users resulting in long queues of buses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "The installation of bus lanes requires additional space to either be constructed (increasing the impact of the road on the surrounding area, and possibly requiring taking of private land), or space must be taken from existing lanes, reducing the space available for private vehicles.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A bus lane or bus-only lane is a lane restricted to buses, often on certain days and times, and generally used to speed up public transport that would be otherwise held up by traffic congestion. Bus lanes are a key component of a high-quality bus rapid transit (BRT) network, improving bus travel speeds and reliability by reducing delay caused by other traffic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975453}
{"src_title": "Jan Rokycana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "In his youth, Jan Rokycana entered the Augustinian monastery in Rokycany. Later, he left the monastery to study in Prague, gaining his baccalaureate in 1415. He joined the movement against Jan Želivský, after which he had to flee from Prague. He also opposed the Taborites, most notably at Konopiště in 1423. Later in Prague he opposed Jan Žižka, when he was blamed for the defeat of the Prague militia at Malešov.  In 1427 he became the vicar of Týn church. He even opposed Sigismund Korybut. In 1429 he became the \"správcem duchovenstva podobojí\", or the Vicar General of the Prague Archbishopric. In 1430 he earned his Master of Arts, and in 1435 became rector of Charles University.  On 4 October 1441 he convened an assembly of all estates at Kutná Hora, where the fundamentals of Hussite belief were laid down as the law of the land. In the year 1442 he made his peace with Jan Příbram. In 1444, the courts found in his favour against the Taborites, who still refused to comply with the unanimous policy and the Tabor doctrine was decried.  In 1449, he started to correspond regularly with Pope Nicholas V, because he needed to carry out ordinations to the priesthood. In the end, he tried to come to see the Pope in person, but was unable to pass through Germany. For this reason, in 1451 he started talks with Constantinople about the potential cooperation of the Hussite and Greek Churches, but had to give up in 1452, when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks.  King Ladislaus Posthumus (1440 - 1457) was unsure of Rokycan's agenda, so he avoided his sermons. In 1457, Jan Rokycana started corresponding again directly with the Pope (now Pope Callixtus III), though this was interrupted by Ladislaus's death.  The situation was somewhat improved by the rise of Jiří z Poděbrad, and although Jiří z Poděbrad tried to reduce the power of the church, Jan Rokycana supported his election through his lectures. From the beginning, Jan endorsed Jiří z Poděbrad's politics and had all churches ring their bells to mark the reconciliation of the Vratislavskys. In return, Jiří z Poděbrad considered him to represent the church and alternated between attending Jan Rokycana’s masses and those in Saint Vitus Cathedral.  In 1461, Jiří z Poděbrad began aspiring to the crown of the Holy Roman Emperor, which would surely have meant renouncing the chalice of Hussitism. This led Jan Rokycana to speak against Jiří z Poděbrad in his sermons. On 7 February 1465 he took part in a dispute over the king's ministry, after which the king requested greater cooperation from the church. A year later, in 1466, Jan Rokycana suffered a stroke, after which he started to have trouble speaking. He was buried in Týn church.  For his seal, he used a horseshoe with a star, probably in memory of his father, who was a blacksmith.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "He has also been credited by some sources with the composing of several songs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "This article was translated from the Czech-language version (see \"Česky\" in the navigation bar on the left side of the screen), although some facts and dates do not exactly correspond to other articles in Wikipedia (see Links above).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John of Rokycany, also known as \"Jan of Rokycany\", in Czech language \"Jan Rokycana\", and \"Jan z Rokycan\" (c. 1396 in Rokycany, Bohemia - 21 February 1471 in Prague) was a Czech Hussite theologian in the Kingdom of Bohemia and a key figure of the Bohemian Reformation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975454}
{"src_title": "New York School (art)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "People.", "content": "Frank O'Hara was at the center of the group before his death in 1966. Because of his numerous friendships and his post as a curator at the Museum of Modern Art, he provided connections between the poets and painters such as Jane Freilicher, Fairfield Porter, and Larry Rivers (who was O'Hara's lover). There were many joint works and collaborations, particularly between poets such as O'Hara, Kenneth Koch, John Ashberry, and James Schuyler: Rivers inspired a play by Koch, Koch and Ashbery together wrote the poem \"A Postcard to Popeye\", Ashbery and Schuyler wrote the novel \"A Nest of Ninnies\", and Schuyler collaborated on an ode with O'Hara, whose portrait was painted by Rivers.  Ron Padgett and Ted Berrigan both came to the group from Tulsa, Oklahoma.  Koch, O'Hara, Schuyler, and Ashbery were quite different as poets, but they admired each other and had much in common personally:  All four were inspired by French Surrealists such as Raymond Roussel, Pierre Reverdy, and Guillaume Apollinaire. David Lehman, in his book on the New York poets, wrote: \"They favored wit, humor and the advanced irony of the blague (that is, the insolent prank or jest) in ways more suggestive of Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg than of the New York School abstract expressionist painters after whom they were named.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poetry.", "content": "Concerning the New York School poets, critics argued that their work was a reaction to the Confessionalist movement in Contemporary Poetry. Their poetic subject matter was often light, violent, or observational, while their writing style was often described as cosmopolitan and world-traveled.  The poets often wrote in an immediate and spontaneous manner reminiscent of stream of consciousness writing, often using vivid imagery. They drew on inspiration from Surrealism and the contemporary avant-garde art movements, in particular the action painting of their friends in the New York City art world circle such as Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning.  Poets often associated with the New York School include John Ashbery, Frank O'Hara, Kenneth Koch, James Schuyler, Barbara Guest, Ted Berrigan, Bernadette Mayer, Alice Notley, Kenward Elmslie, Frank Lima, Ron Padgett, Lewis Warsh, Tom Savage and Joseph Ceravolo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visual art.", "content": "The New York School which represented the New York abstract expressionists of the 1950s was documented through a series of artists' committee invitational exhibitions commencing with the 9th Street Art Exhibition in 1951 and followed by consecutive exhibitions at the Stable Gallery, NYC: Second Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, 1953; Third Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, 1954; Fourth Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, 1955; Fifth Annual Exhibitions of Painting and Sculpture, 1956 and Sixth New York Artists’ Annual Exhibition, 1957.  Included in the New York School were Bradley Walker Tomlin, Rosemarie Beck, and Philip Guston.  Other New York School artists, including those of the 1960s, have included painters Richard Pousette-Dart, Cecile Gray Bazelon, William Baziotes, Nell Blaine, Seymour Boardman, Ilya Bolotowsky, Ernest Briggs, Peter Busa, Lawrence Calcagno, Nicolas Carone, Nanno de Groot, Beauford Delaney, Lynne Mapp Drexler, Edward Dugmore, Amaranth Ehrenhalt, John Ferren, Perle Fine, Karl Hagedorn, John Hultberg, Albert Kotin, Clarence Major, Knox Martin, Misha Reznikoff, William Scharf, Ethel Schwabacher, Kendall Shaw, Thomas Sills, Merton Simpson, Hedda Sterne, and Jack Stewart. In addition, painter/sculptors Karel Appel, Claire Falkenstein, Betty Parsons, and Antoni Tàpies are known as members of the New York School.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Galleries.", "content": "The Anita Shapolsky Gallery in New York City specializes in 1950s and 1960s New York School art, and exhibits expressionism, geometric abstraction, and painterly abstraction. It most frequently exhibits works in oil and acrylic, as well as sculpture. The Tibor de Nagy Gallery and Stable Gallery have also exhibited New York School art, and in 1998, the Gagosian Gallery also in New York City presented an exhibit of New York School art.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "The term also refers to a circle of composers in the 1950s which included John Cage, Morton Feldman, Earle Brown and Christian Wolff. Their music influenced the music and events of the Fluxus group, and drew its name from the Abstract Expressionist painters above.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dance.", "content": "During the 1960s the Judson Dance Theater located at the Judson Memorial Church, New York City, revolutionized Modern dance. Combining in new ways the idea of Performance art, radical and new Choreography, sound from avant-garde composers, and dancers in collaboration with several New York School Visual artists.  The group of artists that formed Judson Dance Theater are considered the founders of Postmodern dance. The theater grew out of a dance composition class taught by Robert Dunn, a musician who had studied with John Cage. The artists involved with Judson Dance Theater were avant-garde experimenatalists who rejected the confines of ballet technique, vocabulary and theory.  The first Judson concert took place on July 6, 1962, with dance works presented by Steve Paxton, Freddie Herko, David Gordon, Alex and Deborah Hay, Yvonne Rainer, Elaine Summers, William Davis, and Ruth Emerson. Seminal dance artists that were a part of the Judson Dance Theater include: David Gordon, Steve Paxton, Yvonne Rainer, Trisha Brown, Lucinda Childs, Deborah Hay, Elaine Summers, Sally Gross, Aileen Passloff, and Meredith Monk. The years 1962 to 1964 are considered the golden age of the Judson Dance Theater.  During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s New York School artists collaborated with several other choreographer / dancers including: Simone Forti, Anna Halprin, Merce Cunningham, Martha Graham, and Paul Taylor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The New York School was an informal group of American poets, painters, dancers, and musicians active in the 1950s and 1960s in New York City. They often drew inspiration from surrealism and the contemporary avant-garde art movements, in particular action painting, abstract expressionism, jazz, improvisational theater, experimental music, and the interaction of friends in the New York City art world's vanguard circle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975455}
{"src_title": "Smooth-coated otter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The smooth-coated otter is a relatively large otter, from in weight and in head-body length, with a tail long. It is distinguished from other otter species by its more rounded head and a hairless nose in the shape of a distorted diamond. Its tail is flattened, in contrast to the more rounded tails of other otters. Its legs are short and strong, with large webbed feet bearing strong claws. As its name suggests, it has unusually short and sleek fur; this is dark to reddish brown along the back, while the underside is light brown to almost grey in color. Females have two pairs of teats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Lutra perspicillata\" was the scientific name proposed by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1826 for a brown otter collected in Sumatra. \"Lutrogale\" was proposed as generic name by John Edward Gray in 1865 for otters with a convex forehead and nose, using \"perspicillata\" as type species. In the 19th and 20th centuries, several zoological specimens were described, including:  The smooth-coated otter is the only living species in the genus \"Lutrogale\". Three subspecies are recognised:  The smooth-coated otter groups with the Asian small-clawed otter and the African clawless otter into a sister clade to the genus \"Lutra\". The smooth-coated otter and the Asian small-clawed otter genetically diverged about 1.33 ± 0.78 million years ago. Hybridisation of smooth-coated otter males with Asian small-clawed otter females occurred in Singapore. The resulting offspring and their descendants bred back into the smooth-coated otter population, but maintained the genes of their small-clawed otter ancestors. Today, a population of at least 60 hybrid otters exists in Singapore.  Fossils belonging to the genus \"Lutrogale\" are known from the early Pleistocene in Java. Two fossil species, an earlier form, \"L. robusta\", and the more recent \"L. palaeoleptonyx\", are known. They probably fed primarily on shellfish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The smooth-coated otter has been recorded in Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, southwest China, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesian islands of Borneo, Sumatra and Java, and Brunei. An isolated population is also found in the marshes of Iraq.  It occurs in areas where fresh water is plentiful — wetlands and seasonal swamps, rivers, lakes, and rice paddies. Where it is the only occurring otter species, it lives in almost any suitable habitat. But where it is sympatric with other otter species, it avoids smaller streams and canals in favour of larger water bodies. Although it is often found in saltwater near the coast, especially on smaller islands, it requires a nearby source of fresh water.  The population in the Mesopotamian Marshes was feared to have perished, but otter tracks were found in 2009, suggesting the population may have survived. Skins of smooth-coated otters were found during surveys between 2005 and 2012 in the vicinity of Hammar and Hawizeh Marshes. Tracks and scat found in Erbil Province were also thought to have been left by smooth-coated otters.  In southern Bangladesh, smooth-coated otters are used for commercial fishing. They are bred in captivity, trained, and used to chase fish into fishing nets. By 2011, this fishing technique was used by about 300 fishermen, with an additional 2,000 people indirectly dependent on the technique for their livelihood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "The smooth-coated otter lives in groups of up to 11 individuals. They rest on sandy riverbanks and establish their dens under tree roots or among boulders. Observations in Peninsular Malaysia indicate that they are active foremost during the day, with a short rest during midday. They mark their playground by urinating and sprainting on rocks or vegetation.  They communicate through vocalisations such as whistles, chirps, and wails.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Smooth-coated otters were observed to forage on river banks among tree trunks. They feed mainly on fish including \"Trichogaster\", climbing gourami and catfish. During the rice planting season, they also hunt rats in rice fields. Snakes, amphibians and insects constitute a small portion of their diet. Especially in areas where they share habitat with other otter species, they prefer larger fish, typically between in length.  In Kuala Selangor Nature Park, an otter group was observed hunting. They formed an undulating, slightly V-shaped line, pointing in the direction of movement and nearly as wide as the creek. The largest individuals occupied the middle section. In this formation, they undulated wildly through the creek, causing panic‐stricken fish to jump out of the water a few metres ahead. They suddenly dived and grasped the fish with their snouts. Then they moved ashore, tossed the fish up a little on the muddy part of the bank, and swallowed it head‐first in one piece.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Smooth-coated otters form small family groups of a mated pair with up to four offspring from previous seasons. Copulation occurs in water and lasts less than one minute.  So long as the food supply is sufficient, they breed throughout the year, but where otters are dependent on monsoons for precipitation, breeding occurs between October and February. A litter of up to five pups is born after a gestation period of 60 to 63 days. The mothers give birth to and raise their young in a burrow near water. They may either construct such a burrow themselves, or they may take over an abandoned one. At birth, the pups are blind and helpless, but after 10 days, their eyes open, and they are weaned at about three to five months. They reach adult size at about a year of age, and sexual maturity at two or three years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The smooth-coated otter is threatened by poaching, loss and destruction of wetlands, as these are converted for settlements, agriculture and hydroelectric projects; water courses are being polluted by pesticides such as chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophosphates. These factors lead to a reduced prey base. Otters are indiscriminately killed especially at aquaculture sites. Trapping of otters is prevalent in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh.  Along the Chambal River in India, smooth-coated otters are most vulnerable during winter when they rear young. During this season, they are disturbed by humans harvesting crops and removing wood along rocky stretches of the river.  Six juvenile smooth-coated otters were discovered in a bag left at Bangkok airport in January 2013. This was the first case of smooth-coated otters thought to have been destined for the illegal pet trade. At least seven smooth-coated otters were offered for sale through websites by traders in Thailand and Malaysia between 2016 and 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The smooth-coated otter is a protected species in most range countries and listed globally as a vulnerable species. It had been listed on CITES Appendix II since 1977. Since August 2019, it is included in CITES Appendix I, thus strengthening its protection in regards to international trade.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The smooth-coated otter (\"Lutrogale perspicillata\") is an otter species occurring in most of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with a disjunct population in Iraq. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 1996 and is threatened by habitat loss, pollution of wetlands and poaching for the illegal wildlife trade. As its name indicates, its fur is smooth and shorter than that of other otter species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975456}
{"src_title": "Himalayan monal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a relatively large-sized pheasant. The bird is about long. The male weighs up to rams and the female. The adult male has multicoloured plumage throughout, while the female, as in other pheasants, is more subdued in colour. Notable features in the male include a long, metallic green crest, coppery feathers on the back and neck, and a prominent white rump that is most visible when the bird is in flight. The tail feathers of the male are uniformly rufous, becoming darker towards the tips, whereas the lower tail coverts of females are white, barred with black and red. The female has a prominent white patch on the throat and a white strip on the tail. The first-year male and the juvenile resemble the female, but the first-year male is larger and the juvenile is less distinctly marked.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The Himalayan monal's native range extends from Afghanistan and Pakistan through the Himalayas in India, Nepal, southern Tibet, and Bhutan. In Pakistan, it is most common in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and has also been recorded in Kaghan, Palas Valley, and Azad Kashmir. It lives in upper temperate oak-conifer forests interspersed with open grassy slopes, cliffs and alpine meadows between 2400 and 4500 meters, where it is most common between 2700 and 3700 meters. It descends to in the winter. It tolerates snow and digs through it to obtain plant roots and invertebrate prey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "The breeding season is April through August, and they generally form pairs at this time. In winter they congregate in large coveys and roost communally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "In some areas, the species is threatened due to poaching and other anthropogenic factors. In the western Himalayas, the local monal population responded negatively to human disturbance involving hydroelectric power development. The male monal was under hunting pressure in Himachal Pradesh, where the crest feather was used to decorate men's hats, until 1982, when hunting was banned in the state.  The pheasant is not considered endangered in Pakistan and can be easily located. In some areas, the population density of the species is as high as five pairs per square mile. The main threat to the species is poaching, as the crest is valuable. It is thought to bring status to its wearer and is a symbol of authority.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Himalayan monal (\"Lophophorus impejanus\"), also known as the Impeyan monal and Impeyan pheasant, is a pheasant native to Himalayan forests and shrublands at elevations of. It is part of the family Phasianidae and is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. It is the national bird of Nepal, where it is known as the danphe or danfe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975457}
{"src_title": "Jan of Jenštejn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "In 1379 he became the owner of the castle Hrádek. In 1379 he succeeded to the archbishopric of his uncle Jan Očko z Vlašimi who had stepped down. Soon he became Chancellor to Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia. The next year the capital was struck by a Plague epidemic, which struck him as well. He recovered, but this episode left deep scars on his character and he began to examine theological and philosophical problems at his castle Helfenburk u Úštěka. He had abandoned public life because of a quarrel with Wenceslav IV, which was mainly over the matter of the Popes of Avignon. Jan was still loyal to Pope Urban VI, to whom the king was not. In 1384 he left his chancellor post. The quarrel with the king removed him completely from political life, and he retired to his castle and abandoned the post of archbishop on 2 July 1396. He was succeeded as archbishop by Olbram ze Škvorce.  While on his castle, he fell from a newly built tower and miraculously managed to grab hold of something before falling to the ground. He died in Rome in 1400, and all his possessions, including his castle, passed to the Archbishops of Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artistic works.", "content": "His musical works were compiled in the book \"Die Hymnen Johanns von Jenstein, Erzbischofs von Prag\" of Q. M. Dreves. The book was published in German in 1886. His literary activity was very rich and includes not only religious and philosophical works, but also poems.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jan z Jenštejna, (1348 in Prague, Bohemia, Crown of Bohemia – 17 June 1400 in Rome) was the Archbishop of Prague from 1379 to 1396. He studied in Bologna, Padova, Montpellier and Paris. He was also a poet, writer and composer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975458}
{"src_title": "Missa solemnis (Beethoven)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "Like many masses, Beethoven's Missa solemnis is in five movements:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scoring and music.", "content": "The mass is scored for a quartet of vocal soloists, a substantial chorus, and the full orchestra, and each at times is used in virtuosic, textural, and melodic capacities. The orchestra consists 2 flutes; 2 oboes, 2 clarinets (in A, C, and B); 2 bassoons; contrabassoon; 4 horns (in D, E, B basso, E, and G); 2 trumpets (D, B, and C); alto, tenor, and bass trombone; timpani; organ continuo; strings (violins I and II, violas, cellos, and basses); soprano, alto, tenor, and bass soloists; and mixed choir.  The writing displays Beethoven's characteristic disregard for the performer, and is in several places both technically and physically exacting, with many sudden changes of dynamic, metre and tempo. This is consistent throughout, starting with the opening Kyrie where the syllables \"Ky-ri\" are delivered either \"forte\" or with sforzando, but the final \"e\" is piano. As noted above, the reprise of the \"Et vitam venturi\" fugue is particularly taxing, being both subtly different from the previous statements of the theme and counter-theme, and delivered at around twice the speed. The orchestral parts also include many demanding sections, including the violin solo in the \"Sanctus\" and some of the most demanding work in the repertoire for bassoon and contrabassoon.  A typical performance of the complete work runs 80 to 85 minutes. The difficulty of the piece combined with the requirements for a full orchestra, large chorus, and highly trained soloists, both vocal and instrumental, mean that it is not often performed by amateur or semi-professional ensembles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Some critics have been troubled that, as Theodor W. Adorno put it, \"there is something peculiar about the Missa solemnis.\" In many ways, it is an atypical work, even for Beethoven. Missing is the sustained exploration of themes through development that is one of Beethoven's hallmarks. The massive fugues at the end of the Gloria and Credo align it with the work of his late period—but his simultaneous interest in the theme and variations form is absent. Instead, the Missa presents a continuous musical narrative, almost without repetition, particularly in the Gloria and Credo, the two longest movements. The style, Adorno has noted, is close to treatment of themes in imitation that one finds in the Flemish masters such as Josquin des Prez and Johannes Ockeghem, but it is unclear whether Beethoven was consciously imitating their techniques to meet the peculiar demands of the Mass text. Donald Tovey has connected Beethoven to the earlier tradition in a different way:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Missa solemnis in D major, Op. 123, is a solemn mass composed by Ludwig van Beethoven from 1819 to 1823. It was first performed on 7 April 1824 in Saint Petersburg, Russia, under the auspices of Beethoven's patron Prince Nikolai Galitzin; an incomplete performance was given in Vienna on 7 May 1824, when the Kyrie, Credo, and Agnus Dei were conducted by the composer. It is generally considered one of the composer's supreme achievements and, along with Bach's Mass in B minor, one of the most significant mass settings of the common practice period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975459}
{"src_title": "Livonian Order", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after their defeat by Samogitians in 1236 at the Battle of Schaulen (Saule). They were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights and became known as the Livonian Order in 1237. Between 1237 and 1290, the Livonian Order conquered all of Courland, Livonia and Semigallia. In 1298, Lithuanians took Karkus Castle north of Riga, and defeated the order in the Battle of Turaida, killing Livonian Land Master Bruno and 22 knights. In 1346, the order bought the Duchy of Estonia from King Valdemar IV of Denmark. Life within the order's territory is described in the \"Chronicle of Balthasar Russow\" (\"Chronica der Provinz Lyfflandt\").  The Teutonic Order fell into decline following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 and the secularization of its Prussian territories by Albert of Brandenburg in 1525, while the Livonian Order managed to maintain an independent existence.  The Livonian Order's defeat in the Battle of Swienta (Pabaiskas) on September 1, 1435, which claimed the lives of the master and several high-ranking knights, brought the order closer to its neighbors in Livonia. The Livonian Confederation agreement (\"eiine fruntliche eyntracht\") was signed in Walk on December 4, 1435, by the Archbishop of Riga, the bishops of Courland, Dorpat, Ösel-Wiek and Reval; the representatives of the Livonian Order and vassals, and the deputies of Riga, Reval and Dorpat city municipal councils.  During the Livonian War, however, the order suffered a decisive defeat by troops of Muscovite Russia in the Battle of Ergeme in 1560. The Livonian Order then sought protection from Sigismund II Augustus, the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who had intervened in a war between Bishop William of Riga and the Brothers in 1557.  After coming to an agreement with Sigismund II, Augustus and his representatives (especially Mikołaj \"the Black\" Radziwiłł), the last Livonian Master, Gotthard Kettler, secularized the order and converted to Lutheranism. In the southern part of the Brothers' lands he created the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia for his family. Most of the remaining lands were seized by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The north of Estonia was taken back by Denmark and Sweden.  From the 14th to the 16th centuries, Middle Low German as spoken in the towns of the Hanseatic League was the established language, but was subsequently succeeded by High German as official language in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Masters of the Livonian Order.", "content": "The Livonian Master, like the grandmaster of the Teutonic Order, was elected by his fellow knights for a life term. The grandmaster exercised supervisory powers and his advice was considered equal to a command. The grandmaster of Teutonic knights did not limit local autonomy, he rarely visited Livonia or sent ambassadors for oversight.  Hermann Balk 1237–1238 Dietrich von Grüningen 1238–1242 Dietrich von Grüningen 1244–1246 Andreas von Stierland 1248–1253 Anno von Sangershausen 1253–1256 Burchard von Hornhausen 1256–1260 Werner von Breithausen 1261–1263 Konrad von Mandern 1263–1266 Otto von Lutterberg 1266–1270 Walther von Nortecken 1270–1273 Ernst von Rassburg 1273–1279 Konrad von Feuchtwangen 1279–1281 Wilken von Endorp 1281–1287 Konrad von Herzogenstein 1288–1290 Halt von Hohembach –1293 Heinrich von Dinkelaghe 1295–1296 Bruno 1296–1298 Gottfried von Rogga 1298–1307 Gerhard van Joeck 1309–1322 Johannes Ungenade 1322–1324 Reimar Hane 1324–1328 Everhard von Monheim 1328–1340 Burchard von Dreileben 1340–1345 Goswin von Hercke 1345–1359 Arnold von Vietinghof 1359–1364 Wilhelm von Vrymersheim 1364–1385 Robin von Eltz 1385–1389 Wennemar Hasenkamp von Brüggeneye 1389–1401 Konrad von Vietinghof 1401–1413 Diderick Tork 1413–1415 Siegfried Lander von Spanheim 1415–1424 Zisse von Rutenberg 1424–1433 Franco Kerskorff 1433–1435 Heinrich von Bockenvorde 1435–1437 Heinrich Vinke von Overbergen 1438–1450 Johann Osthoff von Mengede 1450–1469 Johann Wolthuss von Herse 1470–1471 Bernd von der Borch 1471–1483 Johann Freytag von Loringhoven 1483–1494 Wolter von Plettenberg 1494–1535 Hermann Hasenkamp von Brüggeneye 1535–1549 Johann von der Recke 1549–1551 Heinrich von Galen 1551–1557 Johann Wilhelm von Fürstenberg 1557–1559 Godert (Gotthard) Kettler 1559–1561", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commanderies of the Livonian Order.", "content": "Across modern territory of Estonia and Latvia", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, formed in 1237. From 1435 to 1561 it was a member of the Livonian Confederation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975460}
{"src_title": "QuickBASIC", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Microsoft released the first version of QuickBASIC on August 18, 1985 on a single 5.25\" 360kB floppy disk. QuickBASIC version 2.0 and later contained an Integrated Development Environment (IDE), allowing users to edit directly in its on-screen text editor.  Although still supported in QuickBASIC, line numbers became optional. Program jumps also worked with named labels. Later versions also added control structures, such as multiline conditional statements and loop blocks.  Microsoft's \"PC BASIC Compiler\" was included for compiling programs into DOS executables. Beginning with version 4.0, the editor included an interpreter that allowed the programmer to run the program without leaving the editor. The interpreter was used to debug a program before creating an executable file. Unfortunately, there were some subtle differences between the interpreter and the compiler, which meant that large programs that ran correctly in the interpreter might fail after compilation, or not compile at all because of differences in the memory management routines.  The last version of QuickBASIC was version 4.5 (1988), although development of the Microsoft BASIC Professional Development System (PDS) continued until its last release of version 7.1 in October 1990. At the same time, the QuickBASIC packaging was silently changed so that the disks used the same compression used for BASIC PDS 7.1. The Basic PDS 7.x version of the IDE was called QuickBASIC Extended (QBX), and it only ran on DOS, unlike the rest of Basic PDS 7.x, which also ran on OS/2. The successor to QuickBASIC and Basic PDS was Visual Basic version 1.0 for MS-DOS, shipped in Standard and Professional versions. Later versions of Visual Basic did not include DOS versions, as Microsoft concentrated on Windows applications.  A subset of QuickBASIC 4.5, named QBasic, was included with MS-DOS 5 and later versions, replacing the GW-BASIC included with previous versions of MS-DOS. Compared to QuickBASIC, QBasic is limited to an interpreter only, lacks a few functions, can only handle programs of a limited size, and lacks support for separate program modules. Since it lacks a compiler, it cannot be used to produce executable files, although its program source code can still be compiled by a QuickBASIC 4.5, PDS 7.x or VBDOS 1.0 compiler, if available.  QuickBASIC 1.00 for the Apple Macintosh operating system was launched in 1988. It was officially supported on machines running System 6 with at least 1 MB of RAM. QuickBASIC could also be run on System 7, as long as 32-bit addressing was disabled; this was not possible on Motorola 68040-based Macintosh machines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Syntax example.", "content": "Hello, World, shortest version: ?\"Hello, World\" Hello, World, extended version:  CLS PRINT \"Hello, World\" END 99 bottles of beer:  LET BOTTLES = 99: LET BOTTLES$ = \"99\": LET BOTTLE$ = \" bottles\" FOR A = 1 TO 99 PRINT BOTTLES$; BOTTLE$; \" of beer on the wall, \"; BOTTLES$; BOTTLE$; \" of beer.\" LET BOTTLES = BOTTLES - 1 IF BOTTLES > 0 THEN LET BOTTLES$ = LTRIM$(STR$(BOTTLES)): LET PRONOUN$ = \"one\" IF BOTTLES = 0 THEN LET BOTTLES$ = \"no more\": LET PRONOUN$ = \"it\" IF BOTTLES <> 1 THEN LET BOTTLE$ = \" bottles\" IF BOTTLES = 1 THEN LET BOTTLE$ = \" bottle\" PRINT \"Take \"; PRONOUN$; \" down and pass it around, \"; BOTTLES$; BOTTLE$; \" of beer on the wall.\" PRINT: NEXT A PRINT \"No more bottles of beer on the wall, no more bottles of beer.\" PRINT \"Go to the store and buy some more, 99 bottles of beer on the wall.\" Graphics example:  SCREEN 13 DIM a(3976) AS INTEGER, b(3976) AS INTEGER, c(3976) AS INTEGER DIM d(3976) AS INTEGER, e(3976) AS INTEGER col% = 16: col1% = 16: col2% = 16: col3% = 16: col4% = 16 col5% = 16: col6% = 16: col7% = 16: flag = 1: flag1 = 1 flag2 = 1: flag3 = 1:flag4 = 1: flag5 = 1: flag6 = 1: flag7 = 1 DO LOOP UNTIL LEN(INKEY$) Bubble sort: REM sample of bubble sort N = 10 DIM A(N) AS INTEGER FOR L = 1 TO N NEXT FOR X = 1 TO N NEXT FOR L = 1 TO N NEXT END", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current uses.", "content": "QuickBASIC has an unofficial community of hobby programmers who use the compiler to write video games, GUIs and utilities. The community has dedicated several Web sites, message boards and online magazines to the language.  Today, programmers sometimes use DOS emulators, such as DOSBox, to run QuickBASIC on Linux and on modern personal computer hardware that no longer supports the compiler. Alternatives to this include FreeBASIC and QB64, but they cannot yet run \"all\" QBasic/QuickBASIC programs.  Since 2008, a set of TCP/IP routines for QuickBASIC 4.x and 7.1 has revitalized some interest in the software. In particular, the vintage computer hobbyist community has been able to write software for old computers that run DOS, allowing these machines to access other computers through a LAN or the internet. This has allowed systems even as old as an 8088 to serve new functions, such as acting as a Web server or using IRC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Successors.", "content": "Microsoft's Visual Basic was the successor of QuickBASIC. Other compilers, like PowerBASIC and FreeBASIC, have varying degrees of compatibility. QB64, a multiplatform QuickBASIC to C++ translator, retains close to 100% compatibility and compiles natively for Windows, Linux and macOS.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Microsoft QuickBASIC (also QB) is an Integrated Development Environment (or IDE) and compiler for the BASIC programming language that was developed by Microsoft. QuickBASIC runs mainly on DOS, though there was also a short-lived version for the classic Mac OS. It is loosely based on GW-BASIC but adds user-defined types, improved programming structures, better graphics and disk support and a compiler in addition to the interpreter. Microsoft marketed QuickBASIC as the introductory level for their BASIC Professional Development System. Microsoft marketed two other similar IDEs for C and Pascal, viz QuickC and QuickPascal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975461}
{"src_title": "Boris Savinkov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Young years.", "content": "Savinkov was born in Kharkov (Kharkiv), the son of a judge in Warsaw. In 1897 he entered the law department of St. Petersburg University but was expelled in 1899 because of participation in students' riots. Later he studied in Berlin and Heidelberg. From 1898 he was a member of various socialist organizations. In 1901 he was arrested and sent to exile to Vologda. He served the exile with some prominent Russian intellectuals including Nikolai Berdyaev and Anatoly Lunacharsky. However he became disappointed with Marxism and shifted to terrorism. In 1903 Savinkov escaped abroad and joined the Socialist Revolutionary Party, where he soon became Deputy Head of its Combat Organization under Yevno Azef.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Socialist Revolutionary Party.", "content": "In 1906, he was arrested and sentenced to death for his assassination of Vyacheslav von Plehve, the Russian Minister of Interior, and participation in the assassination of Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia. However, he escaped from his prison cell in Odessa and exiled himself to avoid recapture. When Azef was revealed as an agent of the Okhrana in 1908, Savinkov was appointed leader of the Fighting Organization, but by now was not strong enough to conduct any serious operations. While in France Savinkov volunteered in the French Army during World War I. In April 1917, several months after the February Revolution, he returned to Russia, and in July became Deputy War Minister under Alexander Kerensky. On 30 August, however, he resigned his post and was expelled from the Socialist Revolutionary Party due to his role in the coup of General Lavr Kornilov.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Civil war.", "content": "Savinkov remained in Russia after the October revolution and organised a new counter-revolutionary organisation called the \"Society for the Defence of the Motherland and Freedom\", whose headquarters were at 4 Molochny Alley in Moscow, where his deputy Dr. Grigoriev maintained a medical establishment as a façade.  Savinkov, a leader of the \"Society for Defence of Motherland and Freedom\", managed organisation of several armed uprisings against the Bolsheviks, the most notable being in Yaroslavl, Rybinsk, and Murom in July 1918. Savinkov returned to France after these uprisings were crushed by the Red Army. There, he held various posts in the Russian emigre societies and was Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak's main representative in Paris. During the Polish-Bolshevik War of 1919–1920, he moved to Poland, where he formed a Russian political organisation responsible for the formation of several infantry and cavalry units out of former Red Army POWs. Together with Merezhkovsky, he published in Warsaw a newspaper entitled «За свободу!» ('For Freedom!). Once the Polish-Bolshevik War concluded in October 1921, Polish authorities sent Savinkov out of the country in order not to cause further friction with the Soviets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trust Operation and death.", "content": "He was an acquaintance of Sidney Reilly, the legendary renegade British agent, and was involved in a number of counter-revolutionary plots against the Bolsheviks, sometimes collaborating with the British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS). These efforts were effectively undermined by the Trust Operation implemented by the Soviet security agency OGPU. Savinkov was lured into the USSR to meet with false conspirators and consequently arrested. The USSR Supreme Court sentenced him to death but the Presidium of VTsIK converted the sentence to 10 years imprisonment. During his trial, Savinkov declared that he recognized the Bolsheviks and assumed his defeat. While imprisoned, he wrote satirical stories about white émigrés and was allowed to see them published in Moscow. According to the NKVD, he committed suicide by jumping from a window in the Lubyanka prison, in Moscow. However, according to modern publications by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and others, Savinkov was killed in prison by OGPU officers. Semyon Ignatyev wrote at the time of the Doctors' Plot that Stalin complained that the MGB was too humane in its interrogation of prisoners exclaiming, \"Do you want to be more humanistic than Lenin, who ordered Dzerzhinsky to throw Savinkov out a window?\" (Lenin had been already dead for several months by the time Savinkov returned to Russia.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Boris Savinkov wrote several books. His most famous are an autobiography, \"Memoirs of a Terrorist\", and a loosely autobiographical novel called \"The Pale Horse\". Savinkov's works raised huge controversy among SRs. Many of them disclaimed them as \"spoofs\" on terrorism.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Boris Viktorovich Savinkov (Russian: Бори́с Ви́кторович Са́винков; 19 January 1879 – 7 May 1925) was a Russian writer and revolutionary. As one of the leaders of the Fighting Organisation of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, he was responsible for the assassinations of several high-ranking imperial officials in 1904 and 1905.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975462}
{"src_title": "William Clito", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Youth.", "content": "William was the son of Duke Robert Curthose of Normandy and Sibylla of Conversano. His father was the son of King William the Conqueror of England. Robert was defeated and captured by his brother King Henry I of England at the Battle of Tinchebrai in 1106. He accompanied Henry to Falaise where Henry met his nephew William Clito for the first time. Henry placed his nephew in the custody of Helias of Saint Saens, count of Arques, who had married a natural daughter of Duke Robert, his friend and patron. The boy William stayed in his sister's and Helias's care until August 1110, when the king abruptly sent agents to demand the boy be handed over to him. Helias was at the time away from home, so his household concealed the boy and smuggled him to their master, who fled the duchy and found safety among Henry's enemies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Norman Rebellion, 1118–19.", "content": "William's first refuge was with King Henry's great enemy, Robert de Bellême, who had extensive estates south of the duchy. On Robert's capture in 1112, William and Helias fled to the court of the young Count Baldwin VII of Flanders, William's cousin. In 1118 a powerful coalition of Norman counts and barons was sufficiently disenchanted with King Henry to ally with Count Baldwin and rebel. They took up William Clito's cause and commenced a dangerous rebellion.  The Norman border counts and Count Baldwin between them were too powerful for the king and seized much of the north of the duchy. But the promising campaign abruptly ended with Baldwin's serious injury at the siege of Arques (September 1118). The next year the cause of William Clito was taken up by King Louis VI of France. He invaded the duchy down the river Seine, and on 20 August 1119 was met by the troops of King Henry at the Battle of Brémule, where the French were decisively defeated.  William had ridden as a new knight amongst the king's guard that day, and barely escaped capture. His cousin, King Henry's son, William Adelin, the next day sent him back the horse he had lost in the battle with other \"necessities\" in a courtly gesture. The rebellion collapsed, but William continued to find support at the French court. Louis brought his case to the pope's attention in October 1119 at Reims, and forced Henry I to justify his treatment of the exiled boy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second Norman Rebellion, 1123–24.", "content": "The death by drowning of William Adelin, King Henry's only legitimate son, on 25 November 1120 transformed William Clito's fortunes. He was now the obvious male heir to England and Normandy, and a significant party of Norman aristocrats adopted his cause. Henry's problems became worse, as his son William Adelin had been betrothed to Matilda of Anjou, daughter of Count Fulk V of Anjou and Fulk wanted her dowry, several castles and towns in Maine, returned, which Henry refused. Fulk in turn betrothed his daughter Sibylla to William Clito giving him the county of Maine, between Normandy and Anjou, as her dowry. King Henry astutely appealed to canon law, however, and the marriage was eventually annulled in August 1124 on the grounds that the couple were within the prohibited degrees of consanguinity.  In the meantime, a serious aristocratic rebellion broke out in Normandy in favour of William, but was defeated by Henry's intelligence network and the lack of organisation of the leaders, who were defeated at the battle of Bourgtheroulde in March 1124. Louis VI was distracted from active intervention as Henry I got his son-in-law, the Emperor Henry V, to threaten Louis from the east.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Count of Flanders.", "content": "Louis VI made great efforts to further William's cause in 1127. In January he granted him the royal estates in the French Vexin as a base to attack down the Seine into Normandy, and he was married to the queen's half-sister Joanna of Montferrat. The murder of Count Charles the Good of Flanders on 2 March 1127 gave King Louis an even better chance to further William's fortunes. He marched into Flanders at the head of an army and on 30 March got the barons of the province to accept William as their new count.  Initially, William did well, securing most of the county by the end of May. But English money and the emergence of a rival in Thierry of Alsace led to a deterioration in his position. In February 1128 Saint-Omer and Ghent declared against him, as did Bruges in March. In May 1128 Lille too welcomed Thierry, leaving William controlling little more than the southern fringe of Flanders. However, he struck back at Bruges and at the battle of Axspoele south of the town on 21 June, William, with his Norman knights and French allies, defeated Thierry.  At this point he was joined by Count Godfrey I of Louvain, and together their armies besieged Aalst on 12 July, with the probable intention of going on from there to reduce Ghent. But during the course of the siege he was wounded in the arm in a scuffle with a foot soldier. The wound became gangrenous and William died at the age of twenty-five on 28 July 1128, attended to the end by his faithful brother-in-law, Helias of Saint Saens. William's body was carried to the abbey of St Bertin in St Omer and buried there. He left no children and was survived by his imprisoned father by six years.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William Clito (25 October 110228 July 1128) reigned as Count of Flanders and claimed the Duchy of Normandy. His nickname \"Clito\" was a Medieval Latin term equivalent to the Anglo-Saxon \"\"Aetheling\"\" and its Latinized form \"\"Adelinus\"\" (used to refer to his first cousin, William Adelin). Both terms signified \"man of royal blood\" or, the modern equivalent, \"prince\". It may have been derived from the Latin \"inclitus/inclutus\", \"celebrated.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975463}
{"src_title": "Rare disease", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "There is no single, widely accepted definition for rare diseases. Some definitions rely solely on the number of people living with a disease, and other definitions include other factors, such as the existence of adequate treatments or the severity of the disease.  In the United States, the Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines \"rare disease\" strictly according to prevalence, specifically \"any disease or condition that affects fewer than 200,000 people in the United States\", or about 1 in 1,500 people. This definition is essentially the same as that of the Orphan Drug Act of 1983, a federal law that was written to encourage research into rare diseases and possible cures.  In Japan, the legal definition of a rare disease is one that affects fewer than 50,000 patients in Japan, or about 1 in 2,500 people.  However, the European Commission on Public Health defines rare diseases as \"life-threatening or chronically debilitating diseases which are of such low prevalence that special combined efforts are needed to address them\". The term \"low prevalence\" is later defined as generally meaning fewer than 1 in 2,000 people. Diseases that are statistically rare, but not also life-threatening, chronically debilitating, or inadequately treated, are excluded from their definition.  The definitions used in the medical literature and by national health plans are similarly divided, with definitions ranging from 1/1,000 to 1/200,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to orphan diseases.", "content": "Because of definitions that include reference to treatment availability, a lack of resources, and severity of the disease, the term \"orphan disease\" is used as a synonym for \"rare disease\". But in the United States and the European Union, \"orphan diseases\" have a distinct legal meaning.  The United States' Orphan Drug Act includes both rare diseases and any non-rare diseases \"for which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making available in the United States a drug for such disease or condition will [be] recovered from sales in the United States of such drug\" as \"orphan diseases\".  The European Organization for Rare Diseases (EURORDIS) also includes both rare diseases and neglected diseases into a larger category of \"orphan diseases\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prevalence.", "content": "Prevalence (number of people living with a disease at a given moment), rather than incidence (number of new diagnoses in a given year), is used to describe the impact of rare diseases. The Global Genes Project estimates some 300 million people worldwide are affected by a rare disease.  The European Organization for Rare Diseases (EURORDIS) estimates that as many as 5,000 to 7,000 distinct rare diseases exist, and as much as 6% to 8% of the population of the European Union is affected by one. Only about 400 rare diseases have therapies and about 80% have a genetic component according to Rare Genomics Institute.  Rare diseases can vary in prevalence between populations, so a disease that is rare in some populations may be common in others. This is especially true of genetic diseases and infectious diseases. An example is cystic fibrosis, a genetic disease: it is rare in most parts of Asia but relatively common in Europe and in populations of European descent. In smaller communities, the founder effect can result in a disease that is very rare worldwide being prevalent within the smaller community. Many infectious diseases are prevalent in a given geographic area but rare everywhere else. Other diseases, such as many rare forms of cancer, have no apparent pattern of distribution but are simply rare. The classification of other conditions depends in part on the population being studied: All forms of cancer in children are generally considered rare, because so few children develop cancer, but the same cancer in adults may be more common.  About 40 rare diseases have a far higher prevalence in Finland; these are known collectively as Finnish heritage disease. Similarly, there are rare genetic diseases among the Amish religious communities in the US and among ethnically Jewish people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "A rare disease is defined as one that affects fewer than 200,000 people across a broad range of possible disorders. Chronic genetic diseases are commonly classified as rare. Among numerous possibilities, rare diseases may result from bacterial or viral infections, allergies, chromosome disorders, degenerative and proliferative causes, affecting any body organ. Rare diseases may be chronic or incurable, although many short-term medical conditions are also rare diseases.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public research and government policy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "The NIH's Office of Rare Diseases Research (ORDR) was established by H.R. 4013/Public Law 107-280 in 2002. H.R. 4014, signed the same day, refers to the \"Rare Diseases Orphan Product Development Act\". Similar initiatives have been proposed in Europe. The ORDR also runs the Rare Diseases Clinical Research Network (RDCRN). The RDCRN provides support for clinical studies and facilitating collaboration, study enrollment and data sharing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "In 2013 the United Kingdom government published \"The UK Strategy for Rare Diseases\" which \"aims to ensure no one gets left behind just because they have a rare disease\", with 51 recommendations for care and treatment across the UK to be implemented by 2020. Health services in the four constituent countries agreed to adopt implementation plans by 2014 but by October 2016 the Health Service in England had not produced a plan and the all-party parliamentary group on Rare, Genetic and Undiagnosed Conditions produced a report \"Leaving No One Behind: Why England needs an implementation plan for the UK Strategy for Rare Diseases\" in February 2017. In March 2017 it was announced that NHS England would develop an implementation plan. In January 2018 NHS England published its \"Implementation Plan for the UK Strategy for Rare Diseases\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public awareness.", "content": "Rare Disease Day is held in Europe, Canada, and the United States on the last day of February to raise awareness for rare diseases.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A rare disease is any disease that affects a small percentage of the population. In some parts of the world, an orphan disease is a rare disease whose rarity means there is a lack of a market large enough to gain support and resources for discovering treatments for it, except by the government granting economically advantageous conditions to creating and selling such treatments. Orphan drugs are ones so created or sold.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975464}
{"src_title": "Karl Hugo Strunz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Strunz was born on 24 February 1910 in Weiden in der Oberpfalz (Upper Palatinate, Bavaria, Germany). He attended the 'Goethe-Oberrealschule Regensburg', a high school with a strong scientific background in Regensburg. In 1929 he began his studies in natural sciences at the University of Munich and specialized in Mineralogy. He received his doctorate degree in philosophy in 1933 from the University of Munich and two years later his doctorate degree in technical sciences from the Technical University Munich.  After he graduated he was granted a research scholarship at the Victoria University (Manchester, England) where he worked with William Lawrence Bragg. He then went on to the ETH Zurich (Switzerland), where he was an assistant to Paul Niggli.  In 1937 Strunz went on to the Mineralogical Museum of the Museum für Naturkunde (Berlin, Germany), where he was Paul Ramdohr's assistant. Two years later, in 1939, he was appointed professor to the 'Friedrich-Wilhelm University', now Humboldt University in Berlin. He held that position beyond the end of the second world war in 1946.  In 1946 he moved on to the University of Regensburg where he established a department for mineralogy and geology.  In 1951 he was appointed to the Berlin Institute of Technology as a professor, where he established a department for mineralogy. He would keep this position until emirating in 1978.  Strunz died on 19 April 2006 in Unterwössen (Bavaria, Germany).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Strunz developed a classification for minerals that is based on their chemical composition and their crystal structure, now known as Nickel-Strunz classification. It was first published in 1941. A major revision was published in 1966 together with Christel Tennyson. The 9th edition was published 2001 together with Ernest Henry Nickel.  Strunz was a founding member of the International Mineralogical Association, and was the head of the Mineral Data Commission between 1958 and 1970. He published over 200 scientific papers and multiple books, mostly about mineral classification and crystal chemistry.  He made many scientific expeditions to most of Europe's countries, Madagascar, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Tanzania.  He discovered 14 new minerals including chudobaite, fleischerite, hagendorfite, laueite, liandradite, petscheckite and stranskiite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "In 1985 Strunz received the 'Bundesverdienstkreuz 1. Klasse' (Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, 1st class). He was an honorary member of over 20 national and international scientific organizations, a member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, and holder of the Emanuel Bořický medal, which is awarded by the Charles University in Prague.  The minerals strunzite, ferristrunzite, and ferrostrunzite are named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Hugo Strunz (24 February 1910 – 19 April 2006) was a German mineralogist. He is best known for creating the Nickel-Strunz classification, the ninth edition of which was published together with Ernest Henry Nickel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975465}
{"src_title": "Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Saint-Pierre was born at the château of Saint-Pierre-Église near Cherbourg, where his father, the Marquis de Saint-Pierre, was \"grand bailli\" of Cotentin. He was educated by the Jesuits. The youngest of five children and unsuited to a military career owing to poor health, he became a priest.  He was introduced by family connections into the salons of Madame de la Fayette and the Marquise de Lambert in Paris. He was elected to the Académie française in 1695, although he had previously produced no notable work; his election was an episode in the Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns, Saint-Pierre being a clear representative of the latter. The same year he gained a footing at court as chaplain to Madame, the king's sister-in-law. From 1703 to his death, he was abbot of Tiron.  Contrary to a widely believed opinion, it is not while working as a negotiator of the Treaty of Utrecht (1712–13) that he developed his project of universal peace. Saint-Pierre worked on the idea from 1708 and published early versions from 1712.  In 1718, he published \"Discours sur la polysynodie\", where he proposed that appointed ministers be replaced by elected councils. As a consequence of his criticism of the policy of Louis XIV (d. 1715) he was expelled from the Académie later the same year.  In 1724, with Pierre-Joseph Alary he founded the Club de l'Entresol, an independent discussion group on the English model; the club was closed by Louis XV for political reasons in 1731.  He died in Paris on 29 April 1743 aged 85.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideas.", "content": "Saint-Pierre's works are centered on an acute and visionary criticism of politics, law and social institutions. He had a great influence on Rousseau, who left elaborate examinations of some of them, and was a forerunner of Kant's 1795 essay on perpetual peace. He can be seen as an early proponent of the ideas of the Enlightenment.  Saint-Pierre was one of the first to mention the possibility of a European union made by independent and autonomous states. His work on a European community directly inspired the idea of an international order based on the principle of collective self-defense, and was important to the creation of the Concert of Europe, and later the League of Nations, whose successor is the United Nations Organisation. Friederich the Great of Prussia wrote to Voltair on the 'Projet pour rendre la paix perpétuelle en Europe': \"The Abbe de Saint-Pierre has sent me a fine work on how to re-establish peace in Europe. The thing is very practicable. All it lacks to be successful, is the consent of all Europe and a few other such small details.\"  Ideas contributed by Saint-Pierre include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Correspondence.", "content": "Saint-Pierre exchanged letters with a number of luminaries of his time, including Voltaire. His letters often ended with the formula \"Paradise to those who do good\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Charles-Irénée Castel, abbé de Saint-Pierre (18 February 1658 – 29 April 1743) was a French author whose ideas were novel for his times. His proposal of an international organisation to maintain peace was perhaps the first in history, with the possible exception of George of Poděbrady's \"Tractatus\" (1462–1464). He influenced Rousseau and Kant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975466}
{"src_title": "Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Karl Philipp was born 18/19 April 1771 in Vienna, the son of Johann Nepomuk Anton of Schwarzenberg and Marie Eleonore Countess of Öttingen-Wallerstein. He was one of thirteen siblings, seven of whom did not reach adulthood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imperial service.", "content": "Karl Philipp entered the imperial cavalry in 1788, fought in 1789 under Lacy and Loudon against the Turks, distinguished himself by his bravery, and became a major in 1792. In the French campaign of 1793 he served in the advanced guard of the army commanded by Prince Josias of Coburg, and at Le Cateau-Cambrésis in 1794 his impetuous charge at the head of his regiment, vigorously supported by twelve British squadrons, broke a whole corps of the French, killed and wounded 3,000 men, and captured 32 of the enemy's guns. He was immediately decorated with the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa.  After taking part in the battles of Amberg and Würzburg in 1796 during the French Revolutionary Wars, he was raised to the rank of general-major, and, in 1799, he subsequently was promoted to Feldmarschall-Leutnant. At the Battle of Hohenlinden (3 December 1800) he led a division in the right wing. During the retreat, his promptitude and courage saved the right wing of the Austrian army from destruction, and the Archduke Charles of Austria afterwards entrusted him with the command of the rearguard. In 1804 Prince Karl Philipp was created \"Fürst zu Schwarzenberg\" in a title identical to, but separate from, that of his brother,.  In the war of 1805 he held command of a division under Mack, and when Napoleon surrounded Ulm in October, Schwarzenberg was one of the band of cavalry, under the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este, which cut its way through the hostile lines. In the same year he received the Commander's Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa and in 1809 he was awarded the Order of the Golden Fleece.  In 1806–1809 Schwarzenberg served as the Austrian ambassador to Russia. He returned to Austria in time to take part in the Battle of Wagram (July 1809), leading a cavalry division in the Reserve Corps and was soon afterwards promoted to general of cavalry. After the signing of Treaty of Schönbrunn (14 October 1809), he was sent to Paris to negotiate the 1810 marriage between Napoleon and the Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria. The prince gave a ball in honour of the bride on 1 July 1810, which ended in a fire that killed many of the guests, including his own sister-in-law, wife of his older brother, Joseph.  Napoleon held Schwarzenberg in great esteem, and at his request the prince took command of the Austrian auxiliary corps in the Russian campaign of 1812. The Austrian general won some minor victories against the Russians at Gorodetschna and Wolkowisk. Afterwards, under instructions from Napoleon, he remained for some months inactive at Pultusk.  In 1813, when Austria, after many hesitations, took the side of the allies against Napoleon, Schwarzenberg, recently promoted to Feldmarschall, was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied Grand Army of Bohemia. As such, he was the senior of the allied generals who conducted the campaign of 1813–1814. Under his command, the allied army was mauled by Napoleon at the Battle of Dresden on 26–27 August and driven back into Bohemia. However, his army defeated pursuing French forces at the Second Battle of Kulm (17 September 1813). Returning to the fray, he led the Allied army north again and played a major role in Napoleon's decisive defeat at the Battle of Leipzig on 16–18 October. During the invasion of France in 1814 he attacked through Switzerland and beat a French force at the Battle of Bar-sur-Aube on 27 February 1814. He repelled an attack by Napoleon in the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube on 20–21 March and overcame the last barrier before Paris by winning the Battle of Fère-Champenoise on 25 March. His capture of the French capital on 31 March after the Battle of Paris resulted in the overthrow of Napoleon.  The next year, during the Hundred Days when Napoleon escaped from Elba and regained the French throne, in the hostilities that followed Schwarzenberg commanded the Army of the Upper Rhine (an Austrian-allied army of about a quarter of a million men). But shortly afterwards, having lost his sister Caroline, to whom he was deeply attached, he fell ill. A stroke disabled him in 1817, and in 1820, when revisiting Leipzig, the scene of the \"Battle of the Nations\" that he had directed seven years before, he suffered a second stroke. He died there on 15 October.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and descendants.", "content": "The Prince married the Countess Maria Anna von Hohenfeld (20 May 1767–1848), who was the widow of Prince Anton Esterhazy. They had three sons:  Of Schwarzenberg's nephews, Felix Schwarzenberg, the statesman, was also notable, and Friedrich Johann Josef Coelestin (1809–1885) was a cardinal and a prominent figure in papal and Austrian history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Philipp, Fürst zu Schwarzenberg (or Charles Philip, Prince of Schwarzenberg; 18/19 April 1771 – 15 October 1820) was an Austrian field marshal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975467}
{"src_title": "Nekhen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Horus cult center.", "content": "Nekhen was the center of the cult of a hawk deity, Horus of Nekhen, which raised one of the most ancient Egyptian temples in this city. It retained its importance as the cultic center for this divine patron of the kings long after the site had otherwise declined.  The first settlement at Nekhen dates from either the predynastic Amratian culture (circa 4400 BC) or, perhaps, during the late Badari culture (circa 5000 BC). At its height from about 3400 BC, Nekhen had at least 5,000 and possibly, as many as 10,000 inhabitants.  The ruins of the city originally were excavated toward the end of the nineteenth century by the English archaeologists James Quibell and Frederick W. Green. Quibell and Green discovered the \"Main Deposit\", a foundation deposit beneath the temple, in 1894. Quibell originally was trained under Flinders Petrie, the father of modern Egyptology, however, he failed to follow Petrie's methods. The temple was a difficult site to excavate to begin with, so his excavation was poorly conducted and then poorly documented. Specifically, the situational context of the items therein is poorly recorded and often, the reports of Quibell and Green are in contradiction.  The most famous artifact commonly associated with the main deposit, the Narmer Palette, now is thought probably not to have been in the main deposit at all. Quibell's report made in 1900 put the palette in the deposit, but Green's report in 1902 put it about one to two yards away. Green's version is substantiated by earlier field notes (Quibell kept none), so it is now the accepted record of events.  The main deposit dates to the early Old Kingdom, but the artistic style of the objects in the deposit indicate that they were from Naqada III and were moved into the deposit at a later date. The other important item in the deposit clearly dates to the late prehistoric. This object, the Scorpion Macehead, depicts a king known only by the ideogram for scorpion, now called Scorpion II, participating in what seems to be a ritual irrigation ceremony. Although the Narmer Palette is more famous because it shows the first king to wear both the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, the Scorpion Macehead also indicates some early military hostility with the north by showing dead lapwings, the symbol of Lower Egypt, hung from standards.  John Garstang excavated at Hierakonpolis in 1905-06. He initially hoped to excavate the town site but encountered difficulties working there, and soon turned his attention to the ‘fort’ of second dynasty King Khasekhemwy instead. Beneath the ‘fort’, Garstang excavated a Predynastic cemetery consisting of 188 graves, which served the bulk of the city’s population during the late Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods, revealing the burial practices of the non-elite Egyptians living at Hierakonpolis.  More recently, the concession was excavated further by a multinational team of archaeologists, Egyptologists, geologists, and members of other sciences, which was coordinated by Michael Hoffman until his death in 1990, then by Barbara Adams of University College London and Dr. Renee Friedman representing the University of California, Berkeley and the British Museum until Barbara Adams's death in 2001, and by Renée Friedman thereafter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Possible ritual structures.", "content": "The structure at Nekhen known by the misnomer \"fort\" is a massive mud-brick enclosure built by Pharaoh Khasekhemwy of the Second Dynasty. It appears to be similar in structure and ritual purpose as the similarly misidentified 'forts' constructed at Abydos, all without apparent military function. The true function of these structures is unknown, but they seem to be related to the rituals of kingship and the culture. Religion was interwoven inexorably with kingship in Ancient Egypt.  The ritual structure was built on a prehistoric cemetery. The excavations there, as well as the work of later brick robbers, have seriously undermined the walls and led to the near collapse of the structure. For two years, during 2005 and 2006, the team led by Friedman was attempting to stabilize the existing structure and support the endangered areas of the structure with new mudbricks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oldest known Egyptian painted tomb.", "content": "Other discoveries at Nekhen include Tomb 100, the oldest tomb with painted decoration on its plaster walls. The sepulchre is thought to date to the Gerzeh culture (ca. 3500-3200 BC).  The decoration shows presumed religious scenes and images that include figures featured in Egyptian culture for three thousand years—a funerary procession of barques, presumably a goddess standing between two upright lionesses, a wheel of various horned quadrupeds, several examples of a staff that became associated with the deity of the earliest cattle culture and one being held up by a heavy-breasted goddess. Animals depicted include onagers or zebras, ibexes, ostriches, lionesses, impalas, gazelles and cattle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oldest known zoo.", "content": "The oldest known zoological collection was revealed during excavations at Nekhen in 2009 of a menagerie that dates to ca. 3500 BC. The animals included hippopotami, hartebeest, elephants, baboons and African wildcats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Continuous activity.", "content": "There are later tombs at Nekhen, dating to the Middle Kingdom, Second Intermediate Period, and New Kingdom. In the painted tomb of Horemkhauef a biographical inscription reporting Horemkhauef's journey to the capital was found. He lived during the Second Intermediate Period. Because it had a strong association with Egyptian religious ideas about kingship, the temple of Horus at Nekhen was used as late as the Ptolemaic Kingdom, persisting as a religious center throughout the thousands of years of Ancient Egyptian culture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artifacts.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cylinder seals.", "content": "Cylinders seals at Hierakonpolis include some of the first known scenes of the Pharaoh smiting his enemies with a mace. Cylinder seals are generally thought to have been derived from Mesopotamian examples.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cosmetic palettes from Hierakonpolis.", "content": "Several of the finest pre-Dynastic decorated palettes were discovered in Hierakonpolis. They often display Mesopotamia-inspired animals such as the Serpopards, and also incorporate some of the first hieroglyphs.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nekhen () or Hierakonpolis (; \"Hierakōn polis\" \"Hawk City\", ) was the religious and political capital of Upper Egypt at the end of prehistoric Egypt ( 3200–3100 BC) and probably also during the Early Dynastic Period ( 3100–2686 BC).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975468}
{"src_title": "Josh Duhamel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Duhamel was born in Minot, North Dakota. His mother, Bonnie L. (Bachmeier) Kemper, is a retired teacher and local businesswoman, and his father, Larry Duhamel, is an advertising salesman. He is of French-Canadian, Irish, English, Austrian, German and Norwegian ancestry. Duhamel is an active Catholic.  His parents divorced during his youth. Although he remains close to both, he grew up with his mother and his three younger half sisters, Ashlee, Kassidy and Mckenzie Kemper. Duhamel attended Minot State University and played as the quarterback for the university's football team. He planned to attend dental school, but dropped out one-and-a-half credits shy of his undergraduate degree. He later completed his credits, and he received his degree in 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Duhamel has stated, \"After college, I followed an ex-girlfriend to northern California, did a bunch of odd jobs.\" He won the title of Male Model of the Year in an International Modeling and Talent Association (IMTA) competition in 1997 (the runner-up was actor Ashton Kutcher).  Duhamel began his acting career as an extra in the music videos for Donna Summer's \"I Will Go With You (Con te partirò)\" and Christina Aguilera's \"Genie in A Bottle\" in 1999. Josh trained with Scott Sedita Acting Studios. Later that year, he won the role of Leo du Pres on the ABC soap opera \"All My Children\". His work on the show, especially his character's pairing with Greenlee Smythe (portrayed by actress Rebecca Budig), garnered critical acclaim. In 2000, he posed fully nude for Greg Gorman's \"As I See It\" photography book.  In 2003, he received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for the Special Fan Award for America's Favorite Couple in 2002, shared with Budig, and a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Leo du Pres. Duhamel left \"All My Children\" in 2002 to pursue other acting opportunities. In 2003, Duhamel landed a primetime role on the NBC show \"Las Vegas\", playing the head of security for the Montecito Casino, Danny McCoy. His character succeeded James Caan's as head of the casino after Caan departed the series at the end of the fourth season. The series ended in 2008.  Duhamel made his big-screen acting debut in 2004's \"Win a Date with Tad Hamilton!\", then starred in the thriller \"Turistas\" (2006). After watching an episode of \"Las Vegas\" in which Duhamel's character had just returned from the war in Iraq, Steven Spielberg handpicked him for the role of Captain William Lennox in 2007's summer blockbuster film \"Transformers\" (a film for which Spielberg was the executive producer). Duhamel reprised the role in three of the sequels, \"\", released in June 2009, \"\", released in June 2011, and \"\", released in June 2017.  Duhamel was the official pace car driver for the 2009 Indianapolis 500, driving the 2010 Chevrolet Camaro Pace Car. In 2010, he played the lead role in the film \"When in Rome\" as Nick Beamon. In 2014 Duhamel starred in the touching drama \"You're Not You\" (2014) playing the husband of Kate (Hilary Swank), who has the degenerative disease ALS.  On March 23, 2013, Duhamel hosted the 2013 Kids' Choice Awards, which was broadcast live from Los Angeles, California. He and his co-star from \"Safe Haven\", Julianne Hough, performed a \"Safe Haven\"-themed showcase appearance via video on \"The Price is Right\" with Drew Carey.  In 2016, he starred as Frank Dunning in the Hulu science fiction thriller miniseries \"11.22.63\".  In 2018, he was used on a Taco Bell commercial to advertise Mexican spiced fries with nacho cheese sauce called \"Web of Fries\".  In March 2018, it was announced that Josh Duhamel will be starring alongside Megan Fox, in the independent family comedy \"Think Like a Dog\". In the same year, he starred in the romantic comedy-drama film, \"Love, Simon\".  On February 11, 2019, it was announced that Duhamel was cast as Sheldon Sampson in the upcoming Netflix superhero series, \"Jupiter's Legacy\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Duhamel met and began dating singer Stacy Ann Ferguson, better known by her stage name Fergie in September 2004, after Ferguson appeared on Duhamel's show \"Las Vegas\" with her band The Black Eyed Peas. The couple wed on January 10, 2009, in a Roman Catholic ceremony at the Church Estate Vineyards in Malibu, California. They have a son born in August 2013. On September 14, 2017, the couple announced that they had separated earlier in the year. On June 1, 2019, the couple filed for divorce after two years of separation. As of late-November 2019, their divorce is finalized.  Duhamel is a practicing Catholic and attends church.  In 2005, he became the co-owner of 10 North Main, a restaurant in Minot, North Dakota.  In 2012, Duhamel was inducted into the Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame, a signature event of Norsk Høstfest.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joshua David Duhamel (; born November 14, 1972) is an American actor and former fashion model. After various modeling work, he made his acting debut as Leo du Pres on the ABC daytime soap opera \"All My Children\" and later starred as Danny McCoy on NBC's \"Las Vegas\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975469}
{"src_title": "Tower of David", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name \"Tower of David\" was first used for the citadel in the 5th century CE by the Byzantine Christians, who believed the site to be the palace of King David. They borrowed the name \"Tower of David\" from the Song of Songs, attributed to Solomon, King David's son, who wrote: \"Thy neck is like the Tower of David built with turrets, whereon there hang a thousand shields, all the armor of the mighty men\" ().  In the 19th century the name took a new signification, as it became popularly used for the 17th-century Ottoman minaret prominently visible on the wall of the citadel; ever since people use the name \"Tower of David\" either for the whole citadel or just for the minaret.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hasmonean period.", "content": "During the 2nd century BCE, the Old City of Jerusalem expanded further onto the so-called Western Hill. This 773-meter-high prominence, which comprises the modern Armenian and Jewish Quarters as well as Mount Zion, was bounded by steep valleys on all sides except for the northern one. The first settlement in this area was about 150 BCE around the time of the Hasmonean kings when what Josephus Flavius named \"the First Wall\" was constructed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Herod's towers.", "content": "Herod, who wrestled the power away from the Hasmonean dynasty, added three massive towers to the fortifications in 37–34 BCE. He built these at the vulnerable northwest corner of the Western Hill, where the Citadel is now located. His purpose was not only to defend the city, but to safeguard his own royal palace located nearby on Mount Zion. Herod named the tallest of the towers, in height, the Phasael in memory of his brother who had committed suicide while in captivity. Another tower was called the Mariamne, named for his second wife whom he had executed and buried in a cave to the west of the tower. He named the third tower the Hippicus after one of his friends. Of the three towers, only the base of one of them survives until today—either the Phasael or, as argued by archaeologist Hillel Geva who excavated the Citadel, the Hippicus Tower. Of the original tower itself (now called the \"Tower of David\"), some sixteen courses of the Herodian stone ashlars are still rising from ground level (partially hidden by a much later built glacis), upon which were added smaller stones in a later period, which added back significantly to the height of the remaining stump of the Herodian tower.  During the Jewish war with Rome, Simon bar Giora made the tower his place of residence. Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, the three towers were preserved as a testimony of the might of the fortifications overcome by the Roman legions, and the site served as barracks for the Roman troops.  When the empire adopted Christianity as its favoured religion in the 4th century, a community of monks established itself in the citadel. It was during the Byzantine period that the remaining Herodian tower, and by extension the Citadel as a whole, acquired its alternative name—the Tower of David—after the Byzantines, mistakenly identifying the hill as Mount Zion, presumed it to be David's palace mentioned in.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early Muslims, Crusaders, Ayyubids.", "content": "After the Arab conquest of Jerusalem in 638, the new Muslim rulers refurbished the citadel. This powerful structure withstood the assault of the Crusaders in 1099, and surrendered only when its defenders were guaranteed safe passage out of the city.  During the Crusader period, thousands of pilgrims undertook the pilgrimage to Jerusalem by way of the port at Jaffa. To protect pilgrims from the menace of highway robbers, the Crusaders built a tower surrounded by a moat atop the citadel, and posted lookouts to guard the road to Jaffa. The citadel also protected the newly erected palace of the Crusader kings of Jerusalem, located immediately south of the citadel.  In 1187, Sultan Saladin captured the city including the citadel. In 1239 the Ayyubid emir of Karak, An-Nasir Dawud, attacked the Crusader garrison and destroyed the citadel. In 1244 the Khwarazmians defeated and banished the Crusaders from Jerusalem for a last time, destroying the entire city in the process. The Mamluks destroyed the citadel in 1260.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mamluk and Ottoman citadel.", "content": "In 1310 the citadel was rebuilt by Mamluk sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun, who gave it much of its present shape.  The citadel was expanded between 1537 and 1541 by the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, whose architects designed a large entrance, behind which stood a cannon emplacement. For 400 years, the citadel served as a garrison for Turkish troops. The Ottomans also installed a mosque near the southwest corner of the citadel commonly known as the Mihrab el-Qal'a ed-Dawood (\"Prayer niche of David's fortress\"), erecting a minaret during the years 1635-1655. In the 19th century the conspicuous minaret, which still stands today, took over the title of \"Tower of David\", so that the name can now refer to either the whole Citadel or the minaret alone. At least two mosques are known to exist with in the Jerusalem Citadel.  During World War I, British forces under General Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem. General Allenby formally proclaimed the event standing on a platform at the outer eastern gate of the citadel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "British and Jordanian periods.", "content": "During the period of the British Mandate (1917–1948), the High Commissioner established the Pro-Jerusalem Society to protect the city's cultural heritage. This organisation cleaned and renovated the citadel and reopened it to the public as a venue for concerts, benefit events and exhibitions by local artists. In the 1930s, a museum of Palestinian folklore was opened in the citadel, displaying traditional crafts and clothing.  Following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Arab Legion captured Jerusalem and converted the citadel back to its historical role as a military position, as it commanded a dominant view across the armistice line into Jewish Jerusalem. Since the Israeli occupation after the Six-Day War in 1967, the citadel's cultural role was revived.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tower of David Museum.", "content": "The Tower of David Museum of the History of Jerusalem was opened in 1989 by the Jerusalem Foundation. Located in a series of chambers in the original citadel, the museum includes a courtyard which contains archeological ruins dating back 2,700 years.  The exhibits depict 4,000 years of Jerusalem's history, from its beginnings as a Canaanite city to modern times. Using maps, videotapes, holograms, drawings and models, the exhibit rooms each depict Jerusalem under its various rulers. Visitors may also ascend to the ramparts, which command a 360-degree view of the Old City and New City of Jerusalem.  As of 2002, the Jerusalem Foundation reported that over 3.5 million visitors had toured the museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "In 2010, a survey of the site was conducted by Yehudah Rapuano on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tower of David (, \"Migdál Davíd\",, \"Burj Dāwūd\"), also known as the Jerusalem Citadel, is an ancient citadel located near the Jaffa Gate entrance to the Old City of Jerusalem.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975470}
{"src_title": "Antonius Divitis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born in Leuven. He first appears in the historic record in 1501 in Bruges, at the church of St. Donatian, where he taught singing to the choirboys. Later in 1501 he became singing master, then he became succentor, and at the end of 1501 was ordained a priest. He took a similar musical post in Mechelen at the church of St. Rombout in 1504, but he had fallen into debt, and left his job in a hurry in 1505, evidently fleeing from bill collectors. In late 1505 he joined the singers in the chapel of Philip the Fair. Along with Pierre de la Rue, Alexander Agricola, and others in the chapel, he went to Spain in 1506 with Philip when he was summoned there to become king; although Philip died of typhoid later that year, the singers remained until 1508, maintained by Philip's insane widow, Joanna of Castile. The chapel was disbanded in 1508 and the singers scattered.  Divitis left Spain and returned to northern Europe. His next documented appointment was in 1510 when he was singing master for the chapel of Anne of Brittany; and when the singers were absorbed by the French court after her death in 1514, he went with them, and stayed in the French court chapel until at least 1525, when François I was decisively defeated and captured at the Battle of Pavia. Nothing certain is known of Divitis after this date. He may have gone to Rome, based on the similarity of his name to that of a man listed in the chapel choir in 1526. He is mentioned as being dead by 1534 by a manuscript copyist, but the implication in the reference is that he had been dead for several years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and influence.", "content": "Surviving works by Divitis include masses, motets, Magnificat settings (a genre that was to become quite popular in the middle 16th century), and a chanson. The three masses by Divitis use parody technique, and are among the first to do so; he is cited as influential in development of the genre, along with Jean Mouton and the other members of the French royal chapel. Each of his masses is for four voices, although an isolated six-voice setting of the Credo survives attributed to him. One of them, \"Missa Gaude Barbara\", is based on a motet of that name by Mouton, and may have been a tribute to his colleague.  Motets by Divitis are often for five and six voices, which was another relatively innovative feature in music around the beginning of the 16th century. They are contrapuntal in texture, and two of them (\"Ista est speciosa\" and \"Per lignum crucis\") are entirely canonic. His setting of the Marian antiphon \"Salve regina\" uses an identical tenor line, rests and all, to that which appears in Josquin's setting of the popular song \"Adieu mes amours\"; it is uncertain whether Divitis consciously based his setting on Josquin, or on the popular song, which probably came first.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antonius Divitis (also Anthonius de Rycke, and Anthoine Le Riche – \"the rich\") (c. 1470 – c. 1530) was a Flemish composer of the Renaissance, of the generation slightly younger than Josquin des Prez. He was important in the development of the parody mass.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975471}
{"src_title": "Algiers Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "During the 1970s, the promoters of the Algiers rapid transit subway project envisioned a network. The project was officially inaugurated in 1982, with technical studies completed in 1985. Authorities retained a German company and a Japanese specialist for building the network. The collapse of oil prices in the 1980s considerably affected the Algerian state's ability to continue funding the project. Authorities discussed the possibility of folding the subway development programme into other mass-transit projects but eventually decided to continue with the original Metro program, albeit slowly.  In 1988, Algeria awarded construction contracts to two national companies: COSIDER and GENISIDER. Neither was experienced in running large urban transit development projects. Construction encountered financial and political difficulties, with only four stations constructed in 15 years. Moreover, the Algiers soil is difficult to dig in, and the city's topography is irregular. Work did not advance significantly for many years.  In 1994, a first 450 m long section, called Emir-Abdelkader, was completed. Another 650 m section, connecting the Central Post Office to Khélifa-Boukhalfa, was completed soon after. In 1999, the Metro of Algiers Company (EMA) invited international companies to participate in a tender offering, resulting in two new contractors being added to the project: French Systra-Sgte for project management, and Agéro-German GAAMA for construction and completion, within 38 months, of the civil engineering tasks and earthworks.  In 2003, benefiting from the return of economic stability and improved security, the government increased funding and introduced a new organizational and operational structure.  In January 2006, further changes were introduced to the project, with integral system development handed to Siemens Transportation Systems. This included the installation of fixed material, signals and electrification. Vinci was responsible for civil engineering, and the Spanish company Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF) was to deliver a new set of rolling stock, including 14 trains of 6 cars each. The network would use the Trainguard MT CBTC technology, which had already been implemented on line 1 and 14 of the Paris Métro.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "System.", "content": "With a length of, the first section of Line 1 to open included ten stations, connecting Tafourah–Grande Poste to Haï El Badr. Nine of the ten stations are underground with two central tracks flanked by two long side platforms. Only the Haï El Badr terminus station is on the surface and it has three tracks and two island platforms. In July 2015, this was supplemented by the opening of the, four-station expansion from \"Haï el Badr\" to \"El Harrach Centre\". The system now serves 14 stations, over a total route length of approximately.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "The total cost of the first phase of line 1 rose to 77 billion DZD (900 million euros), consisting of DZD 30 billion for civil engineering and DZD 47 billion for the equipment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extensions.", "content": "Invitations to tender were launched for the construction of a 4 km section between Bachdjarrah and El Harrach composed of 4 stations and one viaduct of 250 m above the access road to the Ouchaïah Wadi motorway. It is opened for public service on 4 July 2015.  Two other extensions to Line 1 had a planned public opening in 2017:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Algiers Metro (, Berber: Adubrid en Dzayer, ), serving Algiers, the capital of Algeria, is a rapid transit system dating from the 1970s that was designed to address the need for mass transport caused by the city's growth. Formally launched in the 1980s, the project slowed due to financial difficulties and security issues in the 1990s. The project recommenced in 2003. Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika attended the Metro's 31 October 2011 ribbon-cutting opening ceremony. The Algiers Metro then opened to passengers on the following day, 1 November 2011, making Algiers only the second capital city in Africa (after Cairo) to have a metro system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975472}
{"src_title": "Mamayev Kurgan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Battle.", "content": "When forces of the German Sixth Army launched their attack against the city centre of Stalingrad on 13 September 1942, Mamayev Kurgan (appearing in military maps as \"Height 102.0\") saw particularly fierce fighting between the German attackers and the defending soldiers of the Soviet 62nd Army. Control of the hill became vitally important, as it offered control over the city. To defend it, the Soviets had built strong defensive lines on the slopes of the hill, composed of trenches, barbed-wire and minefields. The Germans pushed forward against the hill, taking heavy casualties. When they finally captured the hill, they started firing on the city centre, as well as on the city's main railway station under the hill. They captured the Volgograd railway station on 14 September 1942.  On the same day, the Soviet 13th Guards Rifle Division commanded by Alexander Rodimtsev arrived in the city from the east side of the river Volga under heavy German artillery fire. The division's 10,000 men immediately rushed into the battle. On 16 September they recaptured Mamayev Kurgan and kept fighting for the railway station, taking heavy losses. By the following day, almost all of them had died. The Soviets kept reinforcing their units in the city as fast as they could. The Germans assaulted up to twelve times a day, and the Soviets would respond with fierce counter-attacks.  The hill changed hands several times. By 27 September, the Germans again captured half of Mamayev Kurgan. The Soviets held their own positions on the slopes of the hill, as the 284th Rifle Division defended the key stronghold. The defenders held out until 26 January 1943, when the counterattacking Soviet forces relieved them. The battle of the city ended one week later with an utter German defeat.  When the battle ended, the soil on the hill had been so thoroughly churned by shellfire and mixed with metal fragments that it contained between 500 and 1,250 splinters of metal per square meter. The earth on the hill had remained black in the winter, as the snow kept melting in the many fires and explosions. In the following spring the hill would still remain black, as no grass grew on its scorched soil. The hill's formerly steep slopes had become flattened in months of intense shelling and bombardment. Even today, it is possible to find fragments of bone and metal still buried deep throughout the hill.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memorial complex.", "content": "After the war, the Soviet authorities commissioned the enormous Mamayev Kurgan memorial complex. Vasily Chuikov, who led Soviet forces at Stalingrad, lies buried at Mamayev Kurgan, the only Marshal of the Soviet Union to be buried outside Moscow. Among the other people buried there, sniper Vasily Zaytsev was also reburied there in 2006.  The monumental memorial was constructed between 1959 and 1967, and is crowned by a huge allegorical statue of the Motherland on the top of the hill. The monument, designed by Yevgeny Vuchetich, has the full name \"The Motherland Calls!\" ( \"Rodina Mat Zovyot!\"). It consists of a concrete sculpture, 52 metres tall, and 85 metres from the feet to the tip of the 27-metre sword, dominating the skyline of the city of Stalingrad (later renamed Volgograd).  The construction uses concrete, except for the stainless-steel blade of the sword, and is held on its plinth solely by its own weight. The statue is evocative of classical Greek representations of Nike, in particular the flowing drapery, similar to that of the Nike of Samothrace.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mamayev Kurgan () is a dominant height overlooking the city of Volgograd (formerly Stalingrad) in Southern Russia. The name in Russian means \"tumulus of Mamai\". The formation is dominated by a memorial complex commemorating the Battle of Stalingrad (August 1942 to February 1943). The battle, a hard-fought Soviet victory over Axis forces on the Eastern Front of World War II, turned into one of the bloodiest battles in human history. At the time of its installation in 1967 the statue, named \"The Motherland Calls\", formed the largest free-standing sculpture in the world; today it is the tallest sculpture of a woman in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975473}
{"src_title": "Lycée Henri-IV", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Buildings and history.", "content": "Lycée Henri-IV is located in the former royal Abbey of St Genevieve, in the heart of the Latin Quarter on the left bank of the river Seine, near the Panthéon, the church Saint-Étienne-du-Mont, and the rue Mouffetard. Rich in history, architecture and culture, the Latin Quarter contains France's oldest and the most prestigious educational establishments: the École Normale Supérieure, the Sorbonne, the Collège de France, the Lycée Saint-Louis and the Lycée Louis-le-Grand.  The abbey was first established in 506; it flourished as a consequence of royal patronage, becoming an integral part of the Sorbonne and housing a great library. The abbey was suppressed during the French Revolution, and in October 1796 the site became the first of many public schools in France. The lycée's name has changed several times since its inception–École Centrale du Panthéon (1794–1804); Lycée Napoléon (1804–1815); Collège Henri IV (1815–1848); Lycée Napoléon (1848–1870) and Lycée Corneille (1870–1872)–before its current name was settled on in 1873.  Today Henri-IV retains many features of the former abbey. The former abbey's library, which had the third-largest collection of books in Europe (transferred to the nearby Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève during the 19th century), is composed of four aisles forming a cross with a cupola in the intersection. It is one of the main features of the Lycée with its 18th-century \"boiseries\" and pavement as well as a cupola frescoed and carved by the painter Jean II Restout in the 1730s. Two aisles of the library are now used as libraries for \"Lycée\" and \"Classes Préparatoires\" levels and the two other aisles are used as rooms for conferences and exams. Another highlight is the \"Salle des médailles\" (Room of the medals), a long gallery once used as a cabinet of curiosities (a room used to display natural curiosities and artworks). It has richly decorated and carved baroque \"boiseries\" and mirrors dating back to the 18th century. The lycée's chapel dates back to the Middle Ages as does the cloister and the \"Clovis tower\", perhaps the lycée's most famous feature. The \"Salle des Actes\" displays medieval effigies of the abbey's monks, discovered during restoration in the 1990s. The main staircase, named the \"escalier de la Vierge\" (Virgin Mary's staircase), which has a 17th-century statue of the Virgin Mary as its centrepiece, is another striking feature.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lycée Henri-IV is a public secondary school located in Paris. Along with Louis-le-Grand, it is widely regarded as the most prestigious and demanding sixth-form colleges (\"lycées\") in France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975474}
{"src_title": "Rumex obtusifolius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name, \"Rumex obtusifolius\", was assigned by Carl Linnaeus in the 18th century, and has remained unchanged, although there are numerous subspecies. \"Rumex\" was Pliny's name for sorrel, while \"obtusifolius\" means 'obtuse-leaved' (obtuse + foliage).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Rumex obtusifolius\" is a perennial herbaceous flowering plant that grows to a height of. It is easily recognizable by its very large oval leaves with cordate bases and rounded tips, some of the lower leaves having red stems. The edges of the leaves are slightly \"crisped\" or wavy, the upper surface is hairless and the under surface may be papillose. The leaves of this plant can grow to about in length and wide. The taproot is large, with numerous branches extending to a depth of, with tough stems, often reddish, and unbranched until just below the inflorescence.  The junctions of the petioles with the stems are covered by a sheath formed by two fused stipules known as an ocrea, a thin, paper-like membrane - a characteristic of the family Polygonaceae. The stem leaves are alternate and are narrowly ovate–lanceolate. The inflorescence consists of large clusters of racemes which contain small greenish flowers that change to red as they mature. The perianth-segments are in two whorls of three. Segments in the outer whorl are small and spreading while the inner whorl forms fruit valves, which are widely ovately-triangular. The seeds produced are dry and reddish brown. This plant blooms June through September.  \"Rumex crispus\" - curly dock - is similar in appearance, but with thinner and wave-like leaves. In more detail, the calyx of curly dock has smooth margins while the calyx of broad-leaved dock has horned margins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Rumex obtusifolius\" is widely distributed throughout the world. It is a plant growing readily on arable land, meadows, waste ground, roadsides, ditches, shorelines and riverbanks, woodland margins, forest clearings, and orchards. Seedlings can be identified by the oval leaves with red stems and rolled leaves sprouting from the center of the plant. Regrowth from the rosette usually takes place in spring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Leaves of the plant can be used as salad, to prepare a vegetable broth or to be cooked like spinach. They contain oxalic acid which can be hazardous if consumed in large quantities. Dried seeds are used as a spice. In Romania, the leaves are sometimes used as an alternative to other plants in the making of sarmale. A tea prepared from the root was thought to cure boils. In the United Kingdom, the plant is often found growing near stinging nettles and the underside of the dock leaf, squeezed to extract a little juice, can be rubbed on the skin to counteract the itching caused by brushing against a nettle plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In George Eliot's \"Adam Bede\", set in the early 19th century, broad dock leaves were used to wrap farmhouse butter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Host plant.", "content": "\"Rumex obtusifolius\" is a major host plant for many different insects as well, including the \"Acronicta rumicis\" moth. For \"A. rumicis\" research, this host plant is generally targeted because it is found highly within the moth's range.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invasiveness and eradication.", "content": "\"Rumex obtusifolius\" is an aggressive invasive species on all temperate continents. Broad-leaved dock is designated an \"injurious weed\" under the UK Weeds Act 1959. It has been an invasive species of the Great Lakes region of North America where it was first sighted in 1840.  Various parasites and predators of \"R. obtusifolius\" include 32 insect species and 12 fungi species. In the UK, the invertebrate herbivore species is a leaf beetle, \"Gastrophysa viridula\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rumex obtusifolius, commonly known as bitter dock, broad-leaved dock, bluntleaf dock, dock leaf or butter dock, is a perennial plant in the family Polygonaceae. It is native to Europe, but is found on all temperate continents. It is a highly invasive species in some zones, resulting from its abundant seed dispersal, adaptability to reproduce, aggressive roots, ability to tolerate extreme climates, and hardiness.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975475}
{"src_title": "War of the Oranges", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and development.", "content": "In 1800, First Consul Bonaparte and his ally, the Spanish prime-minister and Generalissimo Manuel de Godoy, ultimately demanded Portugal, the last British ally on the continent, to break her alliance with Britain. Portugal refused to cede, and, in April 1801, French troops arrived in the country. They were bolstered by Spanish troops under the command of Manuel de Godoy. Godoy had, under his command, the Spanish Army of Extremadura, with five divisions.  The Spanish attack to Portugal started on the early morning of the 20 May, and focused on the Portuguese border region that included the main Garrison Town and Fortifications of Elvas and the smaller fortified towns of Campo Maior, Olivença (\"Olivenza\" in Spanish) and Juromenha. The main force of the Spanish Army advanced to Elvas, while two divisions advanced to Campo Maior and another division advanced to Olivença and Juromenha. Without having their fortifications complete and defended only by a few hundred soldiers, most of the militias, Olivença and nearby Juromenha quickly surrendered to the Spanish forces. The Portuguese garrison of Campo Maior - under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Dias Azevedo - resisted the assault for 17 days, forcing the Spanish to maintain two entire divisions in its siege. The main Spanish force - under the direct command of Godoy - tried to assault Elvas but was easily repelled by the strong Portuguese garrison commanded by General Francisco de Noronha. The Spanish troops then withdrew to a safe distance from the fortress, with Godoy not daring to attack it again until the end of the war. The war entered in a stalemate, with most of the Spanish forces hold in sieges of fortresses and the rest not being able to face the blockade made by the main core of the Portuguese Army, in order to advance further inside Portugal. Despite this, Godoy picked oranges from the outside of Elvas and sent them to the Queen of Spain with the message that he would proceed to Lisbon. Thus, the conflict became known as the \"War of the Oranges\".  On 6 June 1801 Portugal agreed to the tenets of the Treaty of Badajoz. Portugal agreed to close its ports to English ships, to give commercial concessions to France, to cede Olivenza to Spain and to pay an indemnity. On 29 September 1801 Portugal agreed to both maintaining the tenets of the Treaty of Badajoz and the alterations made to it, which were all embodied within the Treaty of Madrid.  In response, from July 1801 until the signing of the Peace of Amiens in 1802, a British force of 3,500 men under Colonel William Henry Clinton occupied the Portuguese island of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean. Intended to forestall any French or Spanish attack on the island, the occupation took place with the tacit consent of the Portuguese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "After the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, in which the Franco-Spanish fleet lost to Britain, the government of Portugal restored relations with its old ally. This led France to declare the Peace of Badajoz treaty cancelled, again marching on Portugal and invading it, starting the Peninsular War, that lasted from 1807 to 1810.  The French invasion forced the transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil in 1807, with Rio de Janeiro becoming the capital of the Portuguese Monarchy. From Rio de Janeiro, the Portuguese monarch denounced the Treaty of Badajoz as having been signed under coercion, declaring it \"null and ineffective\".  Later on, the Treaty of Vienna - signed by Spain in 1817 - stated clearly that the winning countries are to \"endeavour with the mightiest conciliatory effort to return Olivença to Portuguese authority\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outcome.", "content": "After the Napoleonic Wars, and the Congress of Vienna, neither Spain nor Portugal gave back the territories acquired both in America (Eastern Missions) and the Peninsula (Olivença); the latter remaining an issue with the Portuguese government (see Question of Olivença).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The War of the Oranges (; ; ) was a brief conflict in 1801 in which Spanish forces, instigated by the government of France, and ultimately supported by the French military, invaded Portugal. It was a precursor to the Peninsular Wars, resulting in the Treaty of Badajoz, the loss of Portuguese territory, in particular Olivenza, as well as ultimately setting the stage for the complete invasion of the Iberian Peninsula by French forces.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975476}
{"src_title": "Workload Manager", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Workload Manager.", "content": "On a mainframe computer many different applications execute at the same time. The expectations for executing work are consistent execution times and predictable access to databases. On z/OS the Workload Manager (WLM) component fulfills these needs by controlling work's access to system resources based on external specifications by the system administrator.  The system administrator classifies work to service classes. The classification mechanism uses work attributes like transaction names, user identifications or program names which specific applications are known to use. In addition the system administrator defines goals and importance levels for the service classes representing the application work. The goals define performance expectations for the work. Goals can be expressed as response times, a relative speed (termed velocity) or as discretionary if no specific requirement exists. The response time describes the duration for the work requests after they entered the system and until the application signals to WLM that the execution is completed. WLM is now interested to assure that the average response time of a set of work requests ends in the expected time or that a percentage of work requests fulfill the expectations of the end user.  The definition of a response time also requires that the applications communicate with WLM. If this is not possible a relative speed measure – named execution velocity - is used to describe the end user expectation to the system. This measurement is based on system states which are continuously collected. The system states describe when a work request uses a system resource and when it must wait for it because it is used by other work. The latter is named a delay state. The quotient of all using states to all productive states (using and delay states) multiplied by 100 is the execution velocity. This measurement does not require any communication of the application with the WLM component but it is also more abstract than a response time goal.  Finally the system administrator assigns an importance to each service class to tell WLM which service classes should get preferred access to system resources if the system load is too high to allow all work to execute. The service classes and goal definitions are organized in service policies together with other constructs for reporting and further controlling and saved as a service definition for access to WLM. The active service definition is saved on a couple data set which allows all z/OS systems of a Parallel Sysplex cluster to access and execute towards the same performance goals.  WLM is a closed control mechanism which continuously collects data about the work and system resources; compares the collected and aggregated measurements with the user definitions from the service definition and adjusts the access of the work to the system resources if the user expectations have not been achieved. This mechanism runs continuously in pre-defined time intervals. In order to compare the collected data with the goal definitions a performance index is calculated. The performance index for a service class is a single number which tells whether the goal definition could be met, has been overachieved or was missed. WLM modifies the access of the service classes based on the achieved performance index and importance. For this it uses the collected data to project the possibility and result of a change. The change is executed if the forecast comes to the result that it is beneficial for the work based on the defined customer expectations. WLM uses a data base ranging from 20 seconds to 20 minutes to contain a statistically relevant basis of samples for its calculations. Also in one decision interval a change is performed for the benefit of one service class to maintain a controlled and predictable system.  WLM controls the access of the work to the system processors, the I/O units, the system storage and starts and stops processes for work execution. The access to the system processors for example is controlled by a dispatch priority which defines a relative ranking between the units of work which want to execute. The same dispatch priority is assigned to all units of work which were classified to the same service class. As already stated the dispatch priority is not fixed and not simply derived from the importance of the service class. It changes based on goal achievement, system utilization and demand of the work for the system processors. Similar mechanisms exist for controlling all other system resources. This way of z/OS Workload Manager controlling the access of work to system resources is named goal oriented workload management and is in contrast to resource entitlement based workload management which defines a much more static relationship how work can access the system resources. Resource entitlement based workload management is found on larger UNIX operating systems for example.  A major difference to workload management components on other operating systems is the close cooperation between z/OS Workload Manager and the major applications; middleware and subsystems executing on z/OS. WLM offers interfaces which allow the subsystems to tell WLM when a unit of work starts and ends in the system and to pass classification attributes which can be used by the system administrator to classify the work on the system. In addition WLM offers interfaces which allow load balancing components to place work requests on the best suited system in a parallel sysplex cluster. Additional instrumentation exists which helps database and resource managers to signal contention situations to WLM so that WLM can help the delayed work by promoting the holder of resource locks and latches.  Over time z/OS Workload Manager became the central control component for all performance related aspects in a z/OS operating system. In a Parallel Sysplex cluster the z/OS Workload Manager components work together to provide a single image view for the executing applications on the cluster. On a System z with multiple virtual partitions z/OS WLM allows to interoperate with the LPAR Hypervisor to influence the weighting of the z/OS partitions and to control the amount of CPU capacity which can be consumed by the logical partitions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In IBM mainframes, Workload Manager (WLM) is a base component of MVS/ESA mainframe operating system, and its successors up to and including z/OS. It controls the access to system resources for the work executing on z/OS based on administrator-defined goals. Workload Manager components also exist for other operating systems. For example, an IBM Workload Manager is also a software product for AIX operating system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975477}
{"src_title": "Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "In the 1160s, Henry II began to alter his policy of indirect rule in Brittany and to exert more direct control. Henry had been at war with Conan IV, Duke of Brittany. Local Breton nobles rebelled against Conan, so Conan sought Henry II's help. In 1164, Henry intervened to seize lands along the border of Brittany and Normandy and, in 1166, he invaded Brittany to punish the local barons. Henry then forced Conan to abdicate as duke and to give Brittany to his five-year-old daughter, Constance, who was handed over and betrothed to Henry's son Geoffrey. This arrangement was quite unusual in terms of medieval law, as Conan might have had sons who could have legitimately inherited the duchy. Geoffrey and Constance eventually married, in July 1181.  Growing tensions between Henry and Louis VII of France finally spilled over into open war in 1167, triggered by a trivial argument over how money destined for the Crusader states of the Levant should be collected. Louis allied himself with the Welsh, Scots and Bretons and the French king attacked Normandy. Henry responded by attacking Chaumont-sur-Epte, where Louis kept his main military arsenal, burning the town to the ground and forcing Louis to abandon his allies and make a private truce. Henry was then free to move against the rebel barons in Brittany, where feelings about his seizure of the duchy were still running high.  Geoffrey was fifteen years old when he joined the first revolt against his father. He later reconciled to Henry in 1174 when he participated in the truce at Gisors. Geoffrey prominently figured in the second revolt of 1183, fighting against Richard, on behalf of Henry the Young King.  Geoffrey was a good friend of Louis VII's son Philip, and the two men were frequently in alliance against King Henry. Geoffrey spent much time at Philip's court in Paris, and Philip made him his seneschal. There is evidence to suggest that Geoffrey was planning another rebellion with Philip's help during his final period in Paris in the summer of 1186. As a participant in so many rebellions against his father, Geoffrey acquired a reputation for treachery. Gerald of Wales wrote the following of him: \"He has more aloes than honey in him; his tongue is smoother than oil; his sweet and persuasive eloquence has enabled him to dissolve the firmest alliances and by his powers of language able to corrupt two kingdoms; of tireless endeavour, a hypocrite in everything, a deceiver and a dissembler.\"  Geoffrey also was known to attack monasteries and churches in order to raise funds for his campaigns. This lack of reverence for religion earned him the displeasure of the Church and, as a consequence, of the majority of chroniclers who wrote about his life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Geoffrey and Constance had three children, one born after Geoffrey's death:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Geoffrey died on 19 August 1186, at the age of 27, in Paris. There is also evidence that supports a death date of 21 August 1186. There are two alternative accounts of his death. The more common first version holds that he was trampled to death in a jousting tournament. At his funeral, a grief-stricken Philip is said to have tried to jump into the coffin. Roger of Hoveden's chronicle is the source of this version; the detail of Philip's hysterical grief is from Gerald of Wales.  In the second version, in the chronicle of the French royal clerk Rigord, Geoffrey died of sudden acute chest pain, which reportedly struck immediately after his speech to Philip, boasting his intention to lay Normandy to waste. Possibly, this version was an invention of its chronicler, sudden illness being God's judgment of an ungrateful son plotting rebellion against his father, and for his irreligiosity. Alternatively, the tournament story may be an invention of Philip's to prevent Henry II's discovery of a plot; inventing a social reason, a tournament, for Geoffrey's being in Paris, Philip obscured their meeting's true purpose.  Marie of Champagne, with whom Geoffrey was on good terms, was present at the requiem for her half-brother and established a mass chantry for the repose of his soul.  Geoffrey was buried in the choir of Notre Dame de Paris Cathedral, but his tombstone was destroyed in the 18th century before the French revolution. His body was exhumed in 1797 and measured at 5 ft 6.5 in (1.69 m).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Succession.", "content": "After Geoffrey's death, Henry II arranged for Constance, Geoffrey's widow, to marry Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester. Ranulf would become Duke of Brittany, jure uxoris, for a short time before this marriage was annulled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Geoffrey II (;, ; 23 September 1158 – 19 August 1186) was Duke of Brittany and 3rd Earl of Richmond between 1181 and 1186, through his marriage with the heiress Constance. Geoffrey was the fourth of five sons of Henry II, King of England and Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975478}
{"src_title": "Tax Freedom Day", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Purpose.", "content": "According to Neil Veldhuis, Director of Fiscal Studies, Fraser Institute, the purpose of Tax Freedom Day is to provide citizens of tax-paying countries with a metric with which to estimate their \"total tax bill\". The premise is that by comparing the benefits received by citizens to the amount they pay in taxes, the value of paying taxes can be assessed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History and methodology.", "content": "The concept of Tax Freedom Day was developed in 1948 by Florida businessman Dallas Hostetler, who trademarked the phrase \"Tax Freedom Day\" and calculated it each year for the next two decades. In 1971, Hostetler retired and transferred the trademark to the Tax Foundation. The Tax Foundation has calculated Tax Freedom Day for the United States ever since, using it as a tool for illustrating the proportion of national income diverted to fund the annual cost of government programs. In 1990, the Tax Foundation began calculating the specific Tax Freedom Day for each individual state.  Tax Freedom Day only examines taxation and does not account for debt and inflation as a means for funding government.  Leap years have one day more, 29 February. This creates some bias in Tax Freedom Day charts. However, this bias is equal to roughly 1/366, which is about 0.27%.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "In the United States, it is annually calculated by the Tax Foundation, a Washington, D.C.-based tax research organization. In the U.S., Tax Freedom Day in 2019 is April 16, for a total average effective tax rate of 29% of the nation's income. The latest that Tax Freedom Day has occurred was May 1 in 2000. In 1900, Tax Freedom Day arrived January 22, for an effective average total tax rate of 5.9 percent of the nation's income. According to the Tax Foundation, the most important factor driving changes in Tax Freedom Day from year to year is growth in incomes, as the progressive structure of the U.S. federal tax system causes taxes as a percentage of income to rise along with inflation.  The Tax Foundation also calculates Tax Freedom day inclusive of annual federal borrowing, which came 22 days later in 2019, on May 8. The 22 days represent the federal deficit.  Tax Freedom Day varies among the 50 U.S. states, as incomes and state and local taxes differ from state to state. In 2019, Alaska had the lowest total tax burden, earning enough to pay all their tax obligations by March 25. Washington, D.C. had the heaviest tax burden – Tax Freedom Day there arrived May 3.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Around the world.", "content": "Many other organizations in countries throughout the world now produce their own \"Tax Freedom Day\" analysis. According to the Tax Foundation, Tax Freedom Day reports are currently being published in eight countries. Due to the different ways that nations collect and categorize public finance data, however, Tax Freedom Days are not comparable from one country to another.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European Union.", "content": "A 2010 study published in L'Anglophone, a Brussels newspaper, compared the tax burdens of \"Average Joes\" in each of the 27 EU member states and projected the Tax Freedom Day for workers earning a typical wage. Income taxes, social security contributions (by the employee and the employer) and projected VAT contributions were included in the calculations.  Regarding the discrepancy between their calculation of August 3 as the typical Belgian worker's Tax Freedom Day and that of PriceWaterhouseCoopers (PWC), L'Anglophone's authors wrote: \"[PWC's] figures count revenue from all taxes (including those on corporate profits, petrol, cigarettes, &c.) and thus present a more complete picture of the country’s total tax burden,\" adding that it is \"an average applied to all Belgians – not all Belgian workers; in 2008, less than half of Belgium’s population (4.99 million working out of 10.67 million citizens) was legally working. Consequently, a huge share of Belgium’s tax burden is borne by the working population.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "In the book \"\", philosopher Joseph Heath criticizes the idea that tax-paying is inherently different from consumption:  It would make just as much sense to declare an annual \"mortgage freedom day\", in order to let mortgage owners know what day they \"stop working for the bank and start working for themselves\"....But who cares? Homeowners are not really \"working for the bank\"; they're merely financing their own consumption. After all, they're the ones living in the house, not the bank manager.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematical.", "content": "For Canada, the Fraser Institute also includes a \"Personal Tax Freedom Day Calculator\" that estimates a customized Tax Freedom Day based on additional variables such as age of household head, sex of household head, marital status and number of children. However, the Fraser Institute's figures have been disputed. For example, a 2005 study by Osgoode Hall Law Professor Neil Brooks argued the Fraser Institute's Tax Freedom Day analysis includes flawed accounting, including the exclusion of several important forms of income and overstating tax figures, moving the date nearly two months later.  In America, while Tax Freedom Day presents an \"average American\" tax burden, it is not a tax burden typical for an American. That is, the tax burdens of most Americans are substantially overstated by Tax Freedom Day. The larger tax bills associated with higher incomes increases the average tax burden above that of most Americans.  The Tax Foundation defends its methodology by pointing out that Tax Freedom Day is the U.S. economy's overall average tax burden—not the tax burden of the \"average\" American, which is how it is often misinterpreted by members of the media. Tax Foundation materials do not use the phrase \"tax burden of the average American\", although members of the media often make this mistake.  Another criticism is that the calculation includes capital gains taxes but not capital gains income, thus overstating the tax burden. For example, in the late 1990s the US Tax Freedom Day moved later, reaching its latest date ever in 2000, but this was largely due to capital gains taxes on the bull market of that era rather than an increase in tax rates. In other words, variations in capital gains income and their associated taxes cause changes in the amount of taxes, but not in the income used in the calculation of Tax Freedom Day.  The Tax Foundation argues that the Tax Freedom Day calculation does not include capital gains as income because it uses income and tax data directly from the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA). BEA has never counted capital gains as income since they don't represent current production available to pay taxes, and so the Tax Foundation excludes them as well. Additionally, the Tax Foundation argues that the exclusion of capital gains income is irrelevant in most years since including capital gains would only shift Tax Freedom Day by 1 percent in either direction in most years. A 1 percent change would represent 3.65 days. From 1968 to 2009 the date has never left the 21-day range of April 13 to May 3.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Tax Freedom Day is the first day of the year in which a nation as a whole has theoretically earned enough income to pay its taxes. Every dollar that is officially considered income by the government is counted, and every payment to the government that is officially considered a tax is counted. Taxes at all levels of government – local, state and federal – are included.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975479}
{"src_title": "Ferrari 456", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "456.", "content": "Pietro Camardella designed the original 456 grand tourer at Pininfarina. It was available in GT and (from 1996) GTA models. The former has a six-speed manual, and the latter has a four-speed automatic developed in partnership with FF Developments, in Livonia, MI (which was later purchased by Ricardo Engineering in the UK.) The automatic transmission was the second and last hydraulic automatic transmission offered by Ferrari. (The transmission found its latest use in the 400/412 series.) The 5.5 L (5,473.91 cc) 65° V12 engine was derived from the Dino V6 rather than the more conventional 60° V12s used in the 412 and Daytona. It is rated at, with 4 valves per cylinder and Bosch Motronic M2.7 engine management. Ferrari claims it could push the car to a top speed of, making it the world's second fastest production four-seater automobile behind the Porsche 959. Acceleration from 0- takes 4.8 seconds, with a 13.3 second quarter-mile time. At the time of its development, it was the most powerful regular production road car ever developed by Ferrari. In 1996, the engine management system changed to Motronic M5.2 management and the engine with the updated system given the F116C code.  The name 456 is derived from the fact that each cylinder displaces 456 cubic centimeters. This was the last Ferrari to use this naming convention until the 488 GTB. Despite its exceptional performance, the 456 has a relatively unstressed engine, which has proven to be a very reliable unit. A further developed version of this engine was used in the front engined 550 Maranello grand tourer that was introduced in 1996 and which became the most powerful naturally aspirated Ferrari road car aside the 456.  The chassis is a tubular steel space-frame construction with a one-piece composite bonnet and body panels of aluminium. The body panels are welded to the chassis by using a special \"sandwich filler\" called \"feran\" that, when laid between, allows steel and aluminium to be welded. Pininfarina was responsible for the bodywork of the 456 until 1996 when production was moved to Ferrari. Total number of bodies made by Pininfarina amounts up to 1,435. All early cars have Pininfarina script and badge, whilst all \"Modificatas\" only have the \"disegno Pininfarina\" scripts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "456M.", "content": "The 456M (M standing for \"Modificata\") was unveiled in 1998, starting with chassis number 109589. Many changes were made to improve aerodynamics and cooling and the interior – still featuring Connolly Leather – was refreshed with new seats and other conveniences (fewer gauges on dash, and a new Becker stereo fitted in front of the shifter rather than behind as in the very shallow and special Sony head unit in the 456 GT). The 456 had a smaller grille with fog lights outside the grille. The undercarriage spoiler on the 456M is fixed, where the older 456 had a motorised spoiler that began its deployment above. The bonnet was the first commercial application of carbon fibre, the previous being made of a composite material. Power output remained unchanged on the Modificata using Bosch Motronic M5.2 engine management at ; the cylinder firing order was changed for smoother running and the torque remained the same for later versions of the 456 GT.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "456 Bicolore Scaglietti.", "content": "In the final year of production 2002/3, customers could specify their vehicle using the Carrozzeria Scaglietti Program. Launched at the 2002 Geneva Motor Show using Michael Schumacher's own 456M GT as an example, customers could work with Ferrari personnel to create a highly individual car. Schumacher's car had a two colour paint scheme, custom leather interior, re-worked instruments, an uprated handling pack and cross-drilled Brembo brakes. Such cars would be thus designated as a Tipo 456M GT(A) Scaglietti. The car is also known as the 456M GT \"Schumacher Edition\" as Schumacher was the first to commission the car. A total of 30 cars were produced, with only 10 being made with the 6-speed manual transmission.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The total production of the 456 amounted to 3,289 units. These consisted of the following versions:  456: 1,951  456M: 1,338", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance.", "content": "According to manufacturer estimates, the 456 GT can attain a top speed of and can accelerate from. 0-100 km/h (62 mph) in 5.2 seconds. The GTA can attain the same acceleration at 5.5 seconds. The Modificata models had the same performance statistics as their respective predecessors.  \"Car & Driver\" magazine test results for 1995 456 GT were:  \"Road & Track\" magazine test results for the 1995 456 GT were:  \"Road & Track\" magazine test results for the 1997 456 GTA were:  \"Motor Trend\" magazine's test results for the 1997 456 GTA were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other body styles.", "content": "While the 456 2+2 coupé was the only version offered to the general public, four other body styles exist made on special request of specific customers:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "The 5.5 L V12 engine used in the 456 won the \"over 4 litre\" class of the International Engine of the Year award for 2000 and 2001.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "<br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ferrari 456 and 456M (Type F116) are front-engine grand tourers which were produced by Ferrari from 1992 to 2003. The 456 was a replacement for the front-engine 412 as the company's V12-powered four seater. The updated 456M, which was the last Ferrari model to use pop-up headlamps, was replaced in 2004 by the 612 Scaglietti.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975480}
{"src_title": "Tatyana Lysenko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Lysenko's first world record was 77.06 metres, achieved on July 15, 2005 in Moscow, beating the old record of Mihaela Melinte by 0.99 metres. On June 12, 2006 she lost the record to Gulfiya Khanafeyeva, who threw 77.26 metres at the Russian athletics championships in Tula. However, Lysenko threw 77.41 metres on June 24 in Zhukovsky and 77.80 metres in Tallinn, Estonia on August 15. On July 21, 2007 it was reported that she failed a drug test, testing positive for a women's hormone blocker. In 2008, she was found guilty of using 6α-methylandrostendione and received a two-year ban (15.07.07 – 14.07.09) and disqualification of all results from 9 May 2007, including her world record of 78.61 m set on May 26, 2007.  Lysenko returned to competition in July 2009, taking the Russian title with 76.41 m. She won the gold at the 2010 IAAF Continental Cup and ranked third in the inaugural IAAF Hammer Throw Challenge at the end of the year, with a combined score of 223.96 metres for her three best throws. In 2011, she won her first world championship in the first world championships where the top three women all went over 75 m. She was awarded the hammer throw gold medal at the 2012 London Olympics with a throw of 78.18 m. She won the 2013 World Championships with a world leading throw of 78.80 m.  In May 2016 La Gazzetta dello Sport reported that a retest of Lysenko's samples from the 2012 Summer Olympics had tested positive for doping products, her third failure. If confirmed in the B sample, she stood to lose her Olympic and second World titles and faced a lifetime ban from the sport. In October, she was stripped of her Olympic gold medal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tatyana Viktorovna Lysenko (, born October 9, 1983 in Bataysk) is a Russian hammer thrower. A two-time World Champion, her career has been blighted by repeated doping infractions. In February 2019, the Court of Arbitration for Sport handed her an eight-year ban for doping, starting from 2 July 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975481}
{"src_title": "Naadam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Naadam is the most widely watched festival among Mongols and is believed to have existed for centuries in one fashion or another. It has its origin in the activities, such as military parades and sporting competitions such as archery, horse riding and wrestling, that followed the celebration of various occasions, including weddings or spiritual gatherings. It later served as a way to train soldiers for battle and was also connected to Mongols' nomadic lifestyle. Mongolians practice their unwritten holiday rules that include a long song to start the holiday, then a \"Biyelgee\" dance. Traditional cuisine, or \"Khuushuur\", is served around the Sports Stadium along with a special drink made of horse milk (\"airag\"). The three games of wrestling, horse racing, and archery are recorded in the 13th-century book \"The Secret History of the Mongols\". During the Qing dynasty's rule, Naadam became a festival officially held by sums. Now it formally commemorates the 1921 Revolution, when Mongolia declared independence from Qing dynasty and coincides with Mongolian State Flag Day. Naadam also celebrates the achievements of the new state. It was celebrated as a Buddhist/shaman holiday until secularization in the 1930s under the Communist influence of the Soviet Union. The biggest festival (National Naadam) is held in the Mongolian capital, Ulaanbaatar, during the National Holiday from July 11 to 13, in the National Sports Stadium. It begins with an elaborate introduction ceremony featuring dancers, athletes, horse riders, and musicians. After the ceremony, the competitions begin. The competitions are mainly horseback riding. Naadam is also celebrated in different regions of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in July and August. In the Tuva Republic, Naadam is on 15 August.  The three sports are called \"\"Danshig\"\" games. They became the great celebration of the new nation, where the nobility got together to dedicate to the Bogd Khan (Jabzundamba Khutugtu), the new head of state.  Genghis Khan's nine horse tails, representing the nine tribes of the Mongols, are still ceremonially transported from Sukhbaatar Square to the Stadium to open the Naadam festivities. At the opening and closing ceremonies, there are impressive parades of mounted cavalry, athletes and monks.  Another popular Naadam activity is the playing of games using \"shagai,\" sheep anklebones that serve as game pieces and tokens of both divination and friendship. In the larger Naadam festivals, tournaments may take place in a separate venue. And the festival looks amazingly colorful like red and blue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Three Games.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wrestling.", "content": "A total of 512 or 1024 wrestlers meet in a single-elimination tournament that lasts nine or ten rounds. Mongolian traditional wrestling is an untimed competition in which wrestlers lose if they touch the ground with any part of their body other than their feet or hands. When picking pairs, the wrestler with the greatest fame has the privilege to choose his opponent. Wrestlers wear two-piece costumes consisting of a tight shoulder vest (\"zodog\") and shorts (\"shuudag\"). Only men are allowed to participate.  Each wrestler has an \"encourager\" called a \"zasuul\". The zasuul sings a song of praise for the winning wrestler after rounds 3, 5, and 7. Winners of the 7th or 8th stage (depending on whether the competition features 512 or 1024 wrestlers) earn the title of \"zaan\", \"elephant\". The winner of the 9th or 10th stage is called \"arslan\", \"lion\". In the final competition, all the \"zasuuls\" drop in the wake of each wrestler as they take steps toward each other. Two-time arslans are called the titans / giants, or \"avraga\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Horse racing.", "content": "Unlike Western horse racing, which consists of short sprints generally not much longer than 2 km, Mongolian horse racing as featured in Naadam is a cross-country event, with races 15–30 km long. The length of each race is determined by age class. For example, two-year-old horses race for ten miles and seven-year-olds for seventeen miles. Up to 1000 horses from any part of Mongolia can be chosen to participate. Race horses are fed a special diet.  Children from 5 to 13 are chosen as jockeys and train in the months preceding the races. While jockeys are an important component, the main purpose of the races is to test the skill of the horses.  Before the races begin, the audience sings traditional songs and the jockeys sing a song called \"Gingo\". Prizes are awarded to horses and jockeys. The top five horses in each class earn the title of \"airgiyn tav\" and the top three are given gold, silver, and bronze medals. The winning jockey is praised with the title of \"tumny ekh\" or leader of ten thousand. The horse that finishes last in the Daaga race (two-year-old horses race) is called \"bayan khodood\" (meaning \"full stomach\"). A song is sung to the Bayan khodood wishing him luck to be next year's winner. More about horse riding in Mongolia", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Archery.", "content": "In this competition both men and women may participate. It is played by teams of ten. Each archer is given four arrows; the team must hit 33 \"\"surs\".\" Men shoot their arrows from 75 meters away while women shoot theirs from 65 meters away. Traditionally the archers wear their national clothing (\"Deel\") during the competition. All the archers wear leather bracers up to the elbow on their outstretched arm, so that the \"deel’s\" cuff does not interfere with shooting. Mongolian archery is unique for having dozens of \"surs\" as targets. Each \"sur\" is a small woven or wooden cylinder. They are placed on top of each other forming a wall three-high, which is approximately 8 inches high by 5 feet wide. Knocking a \"sur\" out of the wall with an arrow counts as a hit, though knocking a \"sur\" out of the centre will bring a competitor more points. When the archer hits the target, the judge says \"uuhai\" which means \"hooray\". After each hit, an official repairs the damaged wall and makes it ready for the next attempt. The winners of the contest are granted the titles of \"national marksman\" and \"national markswoman\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Naadam (, classical Mongolian: \"Naɣadum\",, \"literally \"games\"\") is a traditional festival in Mongolia. The festival is also locally termed \"eriin gurvan naadam\" (), \"the three games of men\". The games are Mongolian wrestling, horse racing, and archery, and are held throughout the country during midsummer. Women have started participating in the archery and girls in the horse-racing games, but not in Mongolian wrestling.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975482}
{"src_title": "Echternach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The town grew around the Abbey of Echternach, which was founded in 698 by St Willibrord, an English monk from Ripon, Northumbria (in present-day North Yorkshire, England), who became the first bishop of Utrecht and worked to Christianize the Frisians. As bishop, he was the Echternach monastery's abbot until his death in 739. It is in his honour that the notable Dancing procession of Echternach takes place annually on Whit Tuesday.  The river Sauer that flows past the town now forms the border between Luxembourg and Germany; in the later Roman Empire and under the Merovingians by contrast, the Sauer did not form a border or march in this area. The Roman villa at Echternach (traces of which were rediscovered in 1975) was reputed to be the largest North of the Alps. It was later part of the Electorate of Trier (present-day Germany) and was presented to Willibrord by Irmina (Irmine), daughter of Dagobert II, king of the Franks. Other parts of the Merovingians' Roman inheritance were presented to the Abbey by king of the Franks Pepin the Short.  Echternach continued to have royal patronage from the house of Charlemagne. Though the monks were displaced by the canons of the bishop of Trier between 859 and 971, and although Willibrord's buildings burned down in 1017, the Romanesque basilica, with its symmetrical towers, to this day houses Willibrord's tomb in its crypt. The abbey's library and scriptorium had a European reputation. As it flourished, the town of Echternach grew around the abbey's outer walls and was granted a city charter in 1236. The abbey was rebuilt in a handsome Baroque style in 1737. In 1794 the church was sacked and the abbey used as a porcelain factory. In 1797, in the wake of the French Revolution, the monks were dispersed and the abbey's contents and its famous library were auctioned off. Some of the library's early manuscripts, such as the famous Echternach Gospels, are now in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. In the 19th century, a porcelain factory was established in the abbey and the town declined, until the advent of the railroad brought renewed life and an influx of tourists.  During the concluding months of World War II in Europe, on December 16, 1944, Echternach served as the southernmost point on the battlefront for the attempt of the German Wehrmacht forces attacking the Allies to retake Antwerp, during the Battle of the Bulge. The town was badly damaged in World War II, but was thoroughly restored.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "There are two main churches in Echternach. The larger is the Abbey's Basilica of St Willibrord, which survives from the original abbey and is a fair monument of Romano-Gothic architecture. The basilica is now surrounded by the eighteenth-century abbey (today a high school) and is located in the heart of the town's historical centre. The other is the parish church of St Peter and Paul, under whose altar lie the remains of St Willibrord. The nearby Prehistory Museum traces mankind's history over the past one million years.  Close to Echternach lies the Echternach lake which hosts several activities every year, like the e-Lake music festival or the \"Mill Man Trail\" bike race. Since 1975, Echternach has been the site of an International Music Festival, held annually in May and June. The festival was discontinued in 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Echternach ( ) is a commune with town status in the canton of Echternach, which is part of the district of Grevenmacher, in eastern Luxembourg. Echternach lies near the border with Germany, and is the oldest town (current population 5,610) in Luxembourg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975483}
{"src_title": "Anne Beauchamp, 16th Countess of Warwick", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Inheritance.", "content": "Anne de Beauchamp was born at Caversham Castle in Oxfordshire (now Berkshire). She married Richard Neville 'the Kingmaker' – and her brother Henry Beauchamp married Richard's sister Cecily – in 1436. Following the death of Anne's father in 1439, and subsequently that of her brother Henry in 1446, and his infant daughter Lady Anne in 1449, Neville inherited the title and the considerable estates of the Earldom of Warwick through his wife.  However, this was contested by Anne's three older half-sisters, children of her father's first marriage to Elizabeth, heir of Berkeley. One of these, Lady Eleanor, was married to Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset (killed at the First Battle of St Albans in 1455). The litigation over the Warwick inheritance only fuelled the enmity between this branch of the Nevilles and the Beauforts who were closely related. Anne Beauchamp's husband, Richard, was the grandson of Lady Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmorland, sister of the Duke's late father. Law considered that Anne Beauchamp being a full-blooded aunt of the last countess was more eligible to inherit than her older half-sisters, who were thus not coheirs with her, including the eldest – Lady Margaret, Countess of Shrewsbury (d. 1468). Richard Neville succeeded in keeping the Warwick and Despencer estates intact.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children's marriages.", "content": "Her older daughter, Lady Isabel, married George, Duke of Clarence, the younger brother of King Edward IV of England. Her younger daughter, Lady Anne Neville, was married to Edward of Westminster, the only son of King Henry VI. When Edward of Westminster was killed in the Battle of Tewkesbury, Anne Neville was married to Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later King Richard III of England. Although their mother was still living, the husbands of the two Neville sisters fought over their inheritance, while Anne was declared legally dead by Parliament. To win his brother George's final consent to the marriage with Anne, Richard renounced most of Warwick's land and property including the earldoms of Warwick (which the Kingmaker had held in his wife's right) and Salisbury and surrendered to Clarence the office of Great Chamberlain of England. After George was executed for treason in 1478, his son Edward inherited the title of Earl of Warwick, while Richard's son was styled Earl of Salisbury.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Anne died in obscurity, having survived her husband, her daughters and the sons-in-law who had effectively disinherited her. She was in sanctuary at Beaulieu Abbey in 1486 when she petitioned Henry VII for the return of her estate. She recovered a small portion, but only on condition that she broke the entail and remit the bulk of them to Henry VII. \"The 'Warwick and Spencer lands', her own patrimony became part of the crown estate.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fictional portrayals.", "content": "Anne, Countess of Warwick appears prominently in the Philippa Gregory novels \"The White Queen\" (2009), \"The Red Queen\" (2010), and \"The Kingmaker's Daughter\" (2012), and is played by Juliet Aubrey in the 2013 television adaptation of all three novels, \"The White Queen\". She is depicted as a coldly ambitious mother to Isabel and Anne Neville, and her husband's staunchest supporter.  A more sympathetic portrayal of the Countess of Warwick is in the novel \"The Sunne in Splendour\" by Sharon Kay Penman, and a maternal view of her is observed in \"The Reluctant Queen\" by Jean Plaidy. Novelist Sandra Worth represents the Countess as her husband's conscience in her five novels about the Wars of the Roses. The Countess is depicted as being especially close to her grandson Edward of Middleham. Another sympathetic portrayal of Anne Beauchamp is \"Wife to the Kingmaker\", a 1974 title by Sandra Wilson.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anne Beauchamp, 16th Countess of Warwick (13 July 1426 – 20 September 1492) was the daughter of Richard Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, and his second wife Isabel le Despenser, a daughter of Thomas le Despenser (22 September 1373 – 13 January 1399/1400) and Constance of York. Anne Beauchamp was the mother of Anne Neville, Queen consort of England as the spouse of King Richard III.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975484}
{"src_title": "Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Darya Nikolayevna was born to the Russian nobles Nikolai Avtonomovich Ivanov and Anna Ivanovna Davydova or Tatiana Tutcheva", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova married the noble Gleb Alexeyevich Saltykov, uncle of Nikolai Saltykov. Darya Nikolayevna married young, into the famous Saltykov Family. She had two sons: Theodore (1750–1801) and Nicholas (1751-1775). Darya Saltykova was widowed in 1755 at the age of 25. With her husband's death, she inherited a substantial estate, where she lived with her two young sons and a great number of serfs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sadist and serial killer.", "content": "Many early complaints to authorities about the deaths at the Saltykova estate were ignored, or resulted in punishment for complaining. Darya Nikolayevna was well connected with those in power at the Russian royal court and with the Russian nobility. Eventually, relatives of the murdered women were able to bring a petition before Empress Catherine II. Catherine decided to try Saltykova publicly, in order to further her \"lawfulness\" initiative. Saltykova was arrested in 1762.  Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova was held for six years until 1768 while the authorities conducted a painstaking investigation. Catherine's Collegium of Justice questioned many witnesses and examined the records of the Saltykov estate. The investigating official counted as many as 138 suspicious deaths, of which the vast majority were attributed to Saltykova.  Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova was found guilty of having killed 38 female serfs by beating and torturing them to death, but the Empress Catherine was unsure how to punish her; the death penalty was abolished in Russia in 1754, and the new Empress needed the support of the nobility.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imprisonment and death.", "content": "In 1768, Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova was chained on a public platform in Moscow for one hour, with a sign around her neck with the text: \"This woman has tortured and murdered.\" Many people came to look at her while she was being scornfully ridiculed. Afterward, Saltykova was sent for life imprisonment in the cellar of Ivanovsky Convent in Moscow. Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova died on December 9, 1801 and was buried next to her relatives in the Donskoy Monastery necropolis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova (;, Ива́нова; March 22, 1730 – December 27, 1801), commonly known as Saltychikha (), was a Russian noblewoman, sadist, and serial killer from Moscow, who became notorious for torturing and killing most of her slaves, mostly females. Saltykova has been compared to the earlier Hungarian \"Blood Countess\", Elizabeth Báthory, who committed similar crimes in her home, Čachtice Castle, against servant girls and local serfs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975485}
{"src_title": "Jiří Gruša", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Gruša was born in Pardubice, then Czechoslovakia (present-day Czech Republic), and later moved to Prague. He graduated from the Philosophical Faculty of Charles University in Prague. He worked for periodicals \"Tvář\", \"Sešity\" and \"Nové knihy\".  He started coming under the scrutiny of the communist regime of then Czechoslovakia in 1969 because of his writings. He was banned from publishing and had to work in a construction cooperative. He took part in distribution of samizdat literature. He was arrested in 1974 for \"the crime of initiating disorder\" after distributing nineteen copies of his first novel, \"Dotazník\" (\"The Questionnaire\") and voicing his intention to have it published in Switzerland. After world-wide protest, he was released after two months. He later became a signatory of the human rights document, Charter 77. In 1981 his citizenship was revoked, and between 1982 and 1990 he lived in the Federal Republic of Germany.  In 1990 conditions in Czechoslovakia became more favorable and he returned to work for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From 1991–1997, he served as an ambassador to Germany. Later, he joined the minority government of Václav Klaus as a Minister of Education. The government lost support of the opposition parties and President Václav Havel orchestrated establishment of a new caretaker government. Even though Gruša was a non-party minister, he was replaced by Jan Sokol. He served as an ambassador to Austria until 2004. From 2005 to 2009 he was Director of the Diplomatic Academy of Vienna. From 2004 to 2009 he was the President of PEN International.  Gruša participated in standardisation of the term \"Tschechien\" as the official name of the Czech Republic in German language. See Name of the Czech Republic for overview.  Gruša died at the age of 72 on 28 October 2011 during a heart operation in Germany. Václav Havel wrote (before his own death a month and a half later on December 18) that Gruša was \"one of a few close people whom I deeply respected and who have left this world recently.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "English translated  Czech language  Original in German", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jiří Gruša (10 November 1938, in Pardubice – 28 October 2011, in Bad Oeynhausen) was a Czech poet, novelist, translator, diplomat and politician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975486}
{"src_title": "Return on investment", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Purpose.", "content": "In business, the purpose of the return on investment (ROI) metric is to measure, per period, rates of return on money invested in an economic entity in order to decide whether or not to undertake an investment. It is also used as an indicator to compare different investments within a portfolio. The investment with the largest ROI is usually prioritized, even though the spread of ROI over the time period of an investment should also be taken into account. Recently, the concept has also been applied to scientific funding agencies’ (e.g., National Science Foundation) investments in research of open source hardware and subsequent returns for direct digital replication.  ROI and related metrics provide a snapshot of profitability, adjusted for the size of the investment assets tied up in the enterprise. ROI is often compared to expected (or required) rates of return on money invested. ROI is not time-adjusted (unlike e.g. net present value): most textbooks describe it with a \"Year 0\" investment and two to three years’ income.  Marketing decisions have an obvious potential connection to the numerator of ROI (profits), but these same decisions often influence assets’ usage and capital requirements (for example, receivables and inventories). Marketers should understand the position of their company and the returns expected. In a survey of nearly 200 senior marketing managers, 77 percent responded that they found the \"return on investment\" metric very useful.  Return on investment may be extended to terms other than financial gain. For example, social return on investment (SROI) is a principles-based method for measuring extra-financial value (i.e., environmental and social value not currently reflected in conventional financial accounts) relative to resources invested. It can be used by any entity to evaluate the impact on stakeholders, identify ways to improve performance and enhance the performance of investments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Risk with ROI usage.", "content": "As a decision tool, it is simple to understand. The simplicity of the formula allows users to freely choose variables, e.g., length of the calculation time, whether overhead cost is included, or which factors are used to calculate income or cost components. To use ROI as an indicator for prioritizing investment projects is risky since usually the ROI figure is not accompanied by an explanation of its make-up. For long-term investments, the need for a Net Present Value adjustment is great. Similar to Discounted Cash Flow, a Discounted ROI should be used instead. One of greatest risks associated with the traditional ROI calculation is that it does not fully \"capture the short-term or long-term importance, value, or risks associated with natural and social capital\" because it does not account for the environmental, social and governance performance of an organization. Without a metric for measuring the short- and long-term environmental, social and governance performance of a firm, decision makers are planning for the future without considering the extent of the impacts associated with their decisions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Calculation.", "content": "Return on investment can be calculated in different ways depending on the goal and application. The most comprehensive formula is:  Return on investment (%) = (current value of investment if not exited yet + income from investment - initial investment and other expenses) / initial investment and other expenses x 100%.  For a single-period review, divide the return (net profit) by the resources that were committed (investment):  or  or", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Property.", "content": "Complications in calculating ROI can arise when real property is refinanced, or a second mortgage is taken out. Interest on a second, or refinanced, loan may increase, and loan fees may be charged, both of which can reduce the ROI, when the new numbers are used in the ROI equation. There may also be an increase in maintenance costs and property taxes, and an increase in utility rates if the owner of a residential rental or commercial property pays these expenses.  Complex calculations may also be required for property bought with an adjustable rate mortgage (ARM) with a variable escalating rate charged annually through the duration of the loan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marketing investment.", "content": "Marketing not only influences net profits but also can affect investment levels too. New plants and equipment, inventories, and accounts receivable are three of the main categories of investments that can be affected by marketing decisions. According to a recent study, business partnerships with \"micro-influencers\" can bring a greater ROI than collaborations with big celebrities.  RoA, RoNA, RoC, and RoIC, in particular, are similar measures with variations on how 'investment' is defined.  ROI is a popular metric for heads of marketing because of marketing budget allocation. Return on Investment helps identify marketing mix activities that should continue to be funded and which should be cut.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return on Integration (ROInt).", "content": "To address the lack of integration of the short and long term importance, value and risks associated with natural and social capital into the traditional ROI calculation, companies are valuing their environmental, social and governance (ESG) performance through an Integrated Management approach to reporting that expands ROI to Return on Integration. This allows companies to value their investments not just for their financial return but also the long term environmental and social return of their investments. By highlighting environmental, social and governance performance in reporting, decision makers have the opportunity to identify new areas for value creation that are not revealed through traditional financial reporting. The social cost of carbon is one value that can be incorporated into Return on Integration calculations to encompass the damage to society from greenhouse gas emissions that result from an investment. This is an integrated approach to reporting that supports Integrated Bottom Line (IBL) decision making, which takes triple bottom line (TBL) a step further and combines financial, environmental and social performance reporting into one balance sheet. This approach provides decision makers with the insight to identify opportunities for value creation that promote growth and change within an organization.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Return on investment (ROI) is a ratio between net profit (over a period) and cost of investment (resulting from an investment of some resources at a point in time). A high ROI means the investment's gains compare favourably to its cost. As a performance measure, ROI is used to evaluate the efficiency of an investment or to compare the efficiencies of several different investments. In economic terms, it is one way of relating profits to capital invested.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975487}
{"src_title": "X-ray pulsar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "An X-ray pulsar consists of a magnetized neutron star in orbit with a normal stellar companion and is a type of binary star system. The magnetic-field strength at the surface of the neutron star is typically about 10 Tesla, over a trillion times stronger than the strength of the magnetic field measured at the surface of the Earth (60 μT).  Gas is accreted from the stellar companion and is channeled by the neutron star's magnetic field on to the magnetic poles producing two or more localized X-ray hot spots, similar to the two auroral zones on Earth, but far hotter. At these hotspots the infalling gas can reach half the speed of light before it impacts the neutron star surface. So much gravitational potential energy is released by the infalling gas, that the hotspots, which are estimated to about one square kilometer in area, can be ten thousand times, or more, as luminous than the Sun.  Temperatures of millions of degrees are produced so the hotspots emit mostly X-rays. As the neutron star rotates, pulses of X-rays are observed as the hotspots move in and out of view if the magnetic axis is tilted with respect to the spin axis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gas supply.", "content": "The gas that supplies the X-ray pulsar can reach the neutron star by a variety of ways that depend on the size and shape of the neutron star's orbital path and the nature of the companion star.  Some companion stars of X-ray pulsars are very massive young stars, usually OB supergiants (see stellar classification), that emit a radiation driven stellar wind from their surface. The neutron star is immersed in the wind and continuously captures gas that flows nearby. Vela X-1 is an example of this kind of system.  In other systems, the neutron star orbits so closely to its companion that its strong gravitational force can pull material from the companion's atmosphere into an orbit around itself, a mass transfer process known as Roche lobe overflow. The captured material forms a gaseous accretion disc and spirals inwards to ultimately fall onto the neutron star as in the binary system Cen X-3.  For still other types of X-ray pulsars, the companion star is a Be star that rotates very rapidly and apparently sheds a disk of gas around its equator. The orbits of the neutron star with these companions are usually large and very elliptical in shape. When the neutron star passes nearby or through the Be circumstellar disk, it will capture material and temporarily become an X-ray pulsar. The circumstellar disk around the Be star expands and contracts for unknown reasons, so these are transient X-ray pulsars that are observed only intermittently, often with months to years between episodes of observable X-ray pulsation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spin behaviors.", "content": "Radio pulsars (rotation-powered pulsars) and X-ray pulsars exhibit very different spin behaviors and have different mechanisms producing their characteristic pulses although it is accepted that both kinds of pulsar are manifestations of a rotating magnetized neutron star. The rotation cycle of the neutron star in both cases is identified with the pulse period.  The major differences are that radio pulsars have periods on the order of milliseconds to seconds, and all radio pulsars are losing angular momentum and slowing down. In contrast, the X-ray pulsars exhibit a variety of spin behaviors. Some X-ray pulsars are observed to be continuously spinning faster and faster or slower and slower (with occasional reversals in these trends) while others show either little change in pulse period or display erratic spin-down and spin-up behavior.  The explanation of this difference can be found in the physical nature of the two pulsar classes. Over 99% of radio pulsars are single objects that radiate away their rotational energy in the form of relativistic particles and magnetic dipole radiation, lighting up any nearby nebulae that surround them. In contrast, X-ray pulsars are members of binary star systems and accrete matter from either stellar winds or accretion disks. The accreted matter transfers angular momentum to (or from) the neutron star causing the spin rate to increase or decrease at rates that are often hundreds of times faster than the typical spin down rate in radio pulsars. Exactly why the X-ray pulsars show such varied spin behavior is still not clearly understood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Observations.", "content": "X-ray pulsars are observed using that are satellites in low Earth orbit although some observations have been made, mostly in the early years of X-ray astronomy, using detectors carried by balloons or sounding rockets. The first X-ray pulsar to be discovered was Centaurus X-3, in 1971 with the Uhuru X-ray satellite.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "X-ray pulsars or accretion-powered pulsars are a class of astronomical objects that are X-ray sources displaying strict periodic variations in X-ray intensity. The X-ray periods range from as little as a fraction of a second to as much as several minutes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975488}
{"src_title": "Roman Turek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Drafted 113th overall by the Minnesota North Stars in the 1990 NHL Entry Draft, Turek moved with the franchise to Dallas, where he initially played as the third-string goaltender behind Andy Moog and Artūrs Irbe before serving as the backup to Ed Belfour. He won a Stanley Cup in this role in 1999. Despite his backup role, he achieved international glory with the Czech Republic national team, backstopping them to a gold medal at the 1996 World Championships. In this year, he also played in Germany for the Nürnberg Ice Tigers.  The Stars, fearing they would lose Turek to the Atlanta Thrashers in the upcoming expansion draft, traded him to the St. Louis Blues in the 1999 off-season, and finally got his chance to shine as he topped the league with seven shutouts and won the William M. Jennings Trophy in his first season. He helped the Blues to the Presidents' Trophy that year and the Blues entered the playoffs with high expectations. However, St. Louis was eliminated in seven games by the eighth-seeded San Jose Sharks, with some aggravated Blues fans pinning responsibility on Turek because of some soft goals he allowed, including one in Game 7 that was fired from centre ice by Sharks captain Owen Nolan. However, he played a second season with the Blues while being challenged for the starting position by backup Brent Johnson. He put up good numbers again, this time helping the Blues reach the playoffs as the fourth seed, where they again faced the Sharks in the first round. This time, Turek helped the Blues eliminate the Sharks in six games and then helped them sweep the Dallas Stars, his former team, in the second round. However, in the third round against the Colorado Avalanche, soft goals plagued him again (including one scored after an attempt to scoop the puck into his glove with his stick) and again in some fan circles bore the brunt of the blame for the Blues' third round 4–1 ouster. In the off-season, Turek was traded to the Calgary Flames.  In the 2003–04 season, Roman's status as the Flames' starting goaltender was altered drastically when Darryl Sutter traded a conditional draft pick for Miikka Kiprusoff, whose stellar performances relegated Turek to the bench. However, Turek was a dependable backup, as Kiprusoff led the Flames to the 2004 Stanley Cup Final against the Tampa Bay Lightning.  In 2004, Turek restructured his contract to substantially drop his salary from $5 million plus bonuses for the 2004–05 and 2005–06 seasons. The restructuring brought his salary to between $1 million and $2 million, with potential earnings relying heavily on performance bonuses. The restructuring saved the Calgary Flames organization between $3 million and $4 million in the 2004–05 season.  Turek announced his retirement from the NHL on August 9, 2005.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roman Turek (born May 21, 1970) is a Czech former professional ice hockey goaltender who played for the Dallas Stars, St. Louis Blues and Calgary Flames in a nine-year National Hockey League (NHL) career. He last played in the Czech Extraliga for HC České Budějovice.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975489}
{"src_title": "Sutlej", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sources.", "content": "The source of the Sutlej is west of catchment area of the Lake Rakshastal in Tibet, as springs in an ephemeral stream. Lake Rakshastal used to be part of the Sutlej river basin long ago and separated from the Sutlej due to tectonic activity. The nascent river flows at first west-northwest for about under the Tibetan name \"Langqên Zangbo\" (\"Elephant River\" or \"Elephant Spring\") to the Shipki La pass, entering India in Himachal Pradesh state. It then turns slightly, heading west-southwest for about to meet the Beas River near Makhu, Firozpur district, Punjab state. Ropar Wetland in Punjab state is located on the Sutlej river basin. Evidence suggests Indus Valley Civilisation also flourished here. Ungti Chu and Pare Chu rivers which drain southeastern part of Jammu and Kashmir state are tributaries of Sutlej river.  Continuing west-southwest, the Sutlej enters Pakistan about east of Bhedian Kalan, Kasur District, Punjab province, continuing southwest to water the ancient and historical former Bahawalpur princely state. Few centuries ago, Sutlej river was merging with the Ghaggar river to discharge in to the Arabian sea. In 1797 the course of the Sutlej river moved towards north to join the Beas river.  About north of Uch Sharif, the Sutlej unites with the Chenab River, forming the Panjnad River, which finally flows into the Indus river about west of the city of Bahawalpur. The area to the southeast on the Pakistani side of the Indian border is called the Cholistan Desert and, on the Indian side, the Thar Desert.  The Indus then flows through a gorge near Sukkur and the fertile plains region of Sindh, forming a large delta region between the border of Gujarat, India and Pakistan, finally terminating in the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi, Pakistan. During floods, Indus river water flows in to Indian part of Great Rann of Kutch. Thus Gujarat state of India is also a riparian state of Indus river as Rann of Kutch area lying west of Kori Creek in the state is part of the Indus River Delta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Langqên Zangbo.", "content": "\"Langqên Zangbo\" (; ) is a river in Ngari, Tibet, China. The name \"Langqên\", Tibetan for \"elephant\", is because of a valley that resembles an elephant trunk. This river is the main source of the Sutlej, a tributary of Indus River. It enters India at Shipki La pass. The source is south of Gangdise Range, in Ngari Prefecture. Its course is mainly in the Zanda County. The river drains an area of 22,760 km, and covers a length of 309 km. The drop in height is 3,256 m. Historically, the river was the centre of the Zhangzhung Kingdom until its fall in the 8th century AD.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "The Sutlej, along with all of the Punjab rivers, is thought to have drained east into the Ganges prior to 5 mya.  There is substantial geologic evidence to indicate that prior to 1700 BC, and perhaps much earlier, the Sutlej was an important tributary of the Ghaggar-Hakra River (thought to be the legendary Sarasvati River) rather than the Indus, with various authors putting the redirection from 2500 to 2000 BC, from 5000 to 3000 BC, or before 8000 BC. Geologists believe that tectonic activity created elevation changes which redirected the flow of Sutlej from the southeast to the southwest. If the diversion of the river occurred recently (about 4000 years ago), it may have been responsible for the Ghaggar-Hakra (Saraswati) drying up, causing desertification of Cholistan and the eastern part of the modern state of Sindh, and the abandonment of Harappan settlements along the Ghaggar. However, the Sutlej may have already been captured by the Indus thousands of years earlier.  There is some evidence that the high rate of erosion caused by the modern Sutlej River has influenced the local faulting and rapidly exhumed rocks above Rampur. This would be similar to, but on a much smaller scale than, the exhumation of rocks by the Indus River in Nanga Parbat, Pakistan. The Sutlej River also exposes a doubled inverted metamorphic gradient.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sutlej-Yamuna Link.", "content": "There has been a proposal to build a long heavy freight and irrigation canal, to be known as the Sutlej-Yamuna Link (SYL) to connect the Sutlej and Yamuna rivers. The project is intended to connect the Ganges, which flows to the east coast of the subcontinent, with points west, via Pakistan. When completed, the SYL would enable inland shipping from India's east coast to its west coast (on the Arabian sea) without having to round the southern tip of India by sea, vastly shortening shipping distances, alleviating pressures on seaports, avoiding sea hazards, creating business opportunities along the route, raising real estate values, raising tax revenue, and establishing important commercial links and providing jobs for north-central India's large population. However, the proposal has met with obstacles and has been referred to the Supreme Court of India. To augment nearly 100 tmcft water availability for the needs of this link canal, Tso Moriri lake/Lingdi Nadi (a tributary of Tso Moriri lake) waters can be diverted to the Sutlej basin by digging a 10 km long gravity canal to connect to the Ungti Chu river.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Upper Sutlej Valley, called Langqên Zangbo in Tibet, was once known as the Garuda Valley by the Zhangzhung, the ancient civilization of western Tibet. The Garuda Valley was the centre of their empire, which stretched many miles into the nearby Himalayas. The Zhangzhung built a towering palace in the Upper Sutlej Valley called Kyunglung, the ruins of which still exist today near the village of Moincêr, southwest of Mount Kailash (Mount Ti-se). Eventually, the Zhangzhung were conquered by the Tibetan Empire.  Today, the Sutlej Valley is inhabited by nomadic descendants of the Zhangzhung, who live in tiny villages of yak herders.  The Sutlej was the main medium of transportation for the kings of that time. In the early 18th century, it was used to transport devdar woods for Bilaspur district, Hamirpur district, and other places along the Sutlej's banks.  Of four rivers (Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra and Karnali/Ganges) mythically flowing out of holy Lake Manasarovar, the Sutlej is actually connected by channels that are dry most of the time. Earlier the river was also called as Shutudri or Zaradros river.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sutlej River (alternatively spelled as \"Satluj\" River) (Sanskrit: शतद्रु नदी \"Shatadru nadee\"; Hindi: सतलज नदी \"satalaj nadee\"; ; Satluj nadi; ; \"darya-e-sutlej\") is the longest of the five rivers that flow through the historic crossroads region of Punjab in northern India and Pakistan. The Sutlej River is also known as Satadree. It is the easternmost tributary of the Indus River.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975490}
{"src_title": "Sigrid the Haughty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Account given in the \"Heimskringla\".", "content": "\"Heimskringla\" describes Sigrid as the beautiful but vengeful daughter of Skogul-Tosti, a powerful Swedish nobleman. As widow of Eric the Victorious, she held many great estates, and was living with her son Olav the Swede, when her foster-brother Harald Grenske, a king in Vestfold, sought her hand. She had him and another royal wooer, Vissavald of Gardarik, burned to death in a great hall following a feast to discourage other suitors. This episode earned her her byname.  Her hand was next sought by Olaf Tryggvasson, the king of Norway, but he would have required that she convert to Christianity. She told him to his face, \"I will not part from the faith which my forefathers have kept before me\". In a rage, Olaf struck her with a glove, and Sigrid calmly told him, \"This may some day be thy death\". Sigrid then proceeded to create a coalition of his enemies to bring about his downfall. She allied Sweden with Denmark, marrying the widower Sweyn Forkbeard who had already been feuding with Olaf. Sweyn had sent his sister Tyri to marry the Wendish king Burislav, who had been the father of Sweyn's first wife, Gunhild. Tyri fled and married Olaf, goading him into conflict with her brother, while Sigrid inflamed Sweyn against her former suitor. This shared animosity would lead to the Battle of Swold, in which Olaf fell. Snorri also claims that Estrid Svendsdatter was a paternal sister of Cnut the Great, and as a daughter of Sigrid was maternal sister to Olav the Swede, but in another place says that Estrid was a daughter of Gunhild of Wenden.  The Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus would repeat this information, writing that Eric the Victorious' widow Syritha had married Sweyn Forkbeard after having spurned Olaf Trygvasson.  One further point that has been cited in favor of Sigrid's historical existence is that the holdings of the Danish kings in medieval Sweden were known as \"Syghridslef\" - 'the legacy of Sigrid'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contemporary chroniclers.", "content": "There is scant material in medieval chronicles to provide details regarding the marriages of Sweyn of Denmark and Erik of Sweden:  During this time, marriages between Nordic monarchs and Vendic nobles was reoccurring for political reasons. For instance, Tove of the Obotrites, daughter of the Vendic lord Mistivoj, married King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark in the 960s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern reconstructions.", "content": "These data have been used for alternative reconstructions. One would interpret the saga account of Sigrid as a confused rendering of a princess, Świętosława, daughter of first duke of the Polans Mieszko I, who married in succession Erik and Sweyn, being mother of Olaf (by Erik), Harald and Cnut (both by Sweyn). \"Sigrid\" would be either a contemporary name adopted by the Princess to conform to her new linguistic context, or else simply a name invented by saga writers who did not know or could not comprehend her Slavic name. This solution may further make her identical to Sweyn's first queen in the saga, 'Gunhild', daughter of Burislav, suggested to be a confused rendering of the same historical marriage to the sister of Boleslav of Poland. Alternatively, the attributed Polish marriages of Sweyn and Eric may have been to different women, with Gunhild being the daughter of Mieszko, while Eric's widow, a distinct princess and the model for Sigrid, married Sweyn after her. Finally, some consider \"Sigrid\" to be a fantasy created by Scandinavian saga writers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "Further confusion has been introduced by dated interpretations of an archaeological discovery. In 1835, the Haraldskær Woman was discovered in a peat bog in Jutland. This body of a woman was dated to the 11th century, and it was identified with Sigrid (or Gunhild). Radiocarbon dating later proved this dating incorrect, that the remains are much older. However, the erroneous dating became intertwined with numerous episodes of Scandinavian intrigue, as the theory was elaborated to serve a variety of agendas of kings and nobles prior to its redating.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow composed a poem with the title \"Queen Sigrid the Haughty\" of which this is the first verse:  Karen Blixen, in the short story \"The Deluge at Norderney\" in \"Seven Gothic Tales\", refers to Sigrid, claiming that she invited all her suitors to her house and burned them in order to discourage other suitors.  The story of Sigrid's life, loosely based on the Saga materials, is the focus of two novels by the Swedish writer and journalist, Johanne Hildebrandt: \"Sigrid\" (2014) and its sequel \"Estrid\" (2016).  There are three novels about the life and times of Sigrid the Haughty (treating her as identical to Świętosława):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sigrid the Haughty, also known as Sigríð Storråda (\"Sigrid Storråda\" in Swedish), is a queen appearing in Norse sagas as wife, first of Eric the Victorious of Sweden, then Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark. Sigrid appears in many sagas composed generations after the events they describe, but there is no reliable evidence as to her existence as they describe her. The figure of Sigrid appears mainly in late Icelandic sagas, while more contemporary sources such as Thietmar of Merseburg and Adam of Bremen instead claim that Sweyn was married to a Polish princess, identified as Świętosława. Snorri Sturluson gives conflicting information and in one place says that Sweyn was married to Sigrid and in another that he was married to a Gunhild of Wenden.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975491}
{"src_title": "Krzeszów Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Silesia.", "content": "On 8 May 1242, the monastery at Grüssau in Lower Silesia was founded by Anna of Bohemia, widow of the Piast Duke Henry II the Pious, who had been killed at the Battle of Legnica. It was settled with Benedictine monks descending from the abbey of Opatovice in Bohemia. In 1289 Anna's grandson Duke Bolko I of Świdnica again acquired the abbey's lands and gave them to the Cistercians at Heinrichau (Henryków), who consecrated the new Assumption of Mary Monastery Church in 1292. In 1392 the Silesian Duchy of Schweidnitz/Świdnica was incorporated into the Kingdom of Bohemia, an electorate of H.R.E. Germany.  Grüssau Abbey was destroyed during the Hussite Wars and again during the Thirty Years' War, and rebuilt on both occasions. It was particularly connected with the Silesian mystic Angelus Silesius. From 1728 on the abbey church was rebuilt in a Baroque style, including several sculptures by Ferdinand Brokoff as well as paintings by Petr Brandl and Michael Willmann. With most of Silesia, Grüssau was conquered by King Frederick II of Prussia in 1742 and finally secularised in 1810 during the Napoleonic Wars. The church became a parish church and the remaining premises were used for various governmental purposes within the Prussian Province of Silesia.  When after World War I the German monks of the Prague Emaus Abbey in Czechoslovakia were obliged to leave the city, they resettled in 1919 in the empty monastery buildings at Grüssau, then part of Weimar Germany. It was again raised to an abbey by Pope Pius XI in 1924, the monastery was however suspended by the Nazi government in 1940 and the buildings seized as a detention camp. During the bombing of Berlin from 1942 on, large parts of the Berlin State Library collection were outhoused at Grüssau Abbey. Those documents include some of the earliest known species illustrations by European naturalists including, among others, Georg Marcgrave (Marcgraf) and botanist Ferdinand Bauer. This collection was stored at the abbey during World War II, and remained missing for over 30 years.  The territory was placed under Polish administration according to the 1945 Potsdam Agreement. Although the monastery was returned to the monks after the end of World War II, as ethnic Germans they were expelled from Silesia by the Polish government shortly afterwards on 12 May 1946. In 1946 a mysterious convoy called at the monastery and loaded thousands of manuscripts — autographed scores of Mozart (1⁄4 of his known music), Beethoven, Bach and other composers — and disappeared. Several volumes were restored to East Germany in 1965, the remaining \"Berlinka\" collection at the Cracow Jagiellonian University and its status as \"looted art\" is still a matter of dispute.  In 1947 Krzeszów Abbey was resettled by Polish Benedictine nuns expelled from Lviv (Lwów).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Baden-Württemberg.", "content": "In 1947 the expelled community under Abbot Albert Schmitt purchased the former \"Ritterstift\" (collegiate foundation or canonry) around the Gothic monastery church of Saint Peter in Bad Wimpfen, that had been abandoned since its secularisation in 1803, and became known as Kloster Bad Wimpfen. The last abbot, Laurentius Hoheisel, resigned in 1997. As the membership of the community had declined too far for it to be legally independent, it has been directed since 2001 by the abbot of Neuburg Abbey near Heidelberg.  By the autumn of 2006 no monks remained, the last having moved to Neuburg, although Kloster Bad Wimpfen still remains nominally a Benedictine monastery and is still a member of the Beuron Congregation within the Benedictine Confederation. A small community (consisting at the end of 2006 of a priest and a layman) maintain the facilities as a Benedictine guest house and venue for retreats, under the management of Neuburg Abbey.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Krzeszów Abbey, formerly known as Grüssau Abbey (, ) refers to a historical Cistercian monastery in Grüssau, Lower Silesia, after 1945 Krzeszów, Poland. The name Grüssau Abbey, founded in 1947, refers to a house of the Benedictine Order in the town of Bad Wimpfen in Baden-Württemberg, where the German Grüssau (Krzeszów) community found refuge, after their \"Kloster Grüssau\" was taken over by Poland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975492}
{"src_title": "Robert III of Artois", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Robert was the son of Philip of Artois, Lord of Conches-en-Ouche, and Blanche of Brittany, daughter of Duke John II, Duke of Brittany, both descended in male line from the Capetian dynasty.  He was only eleven when his father died in September 1298 from wounds he received at the Battle of Furnes on 20 August 1297 against the Flemish people. The early death of his father was an indirect cause of the dispute over the succession to the County of Artois. After the death of his grandfather, Robert II, Count of Artois, in the Battle of Courtrai in 1302, the latter's daughter, Mahaut, inherited the County of Artois in accordance with custom. Because of his age, Robert III could not object to his aunt and assert the rights which he inherited from his father. He would do so later. The rancor and intrigues between Mahaut (sometimes called Mathilde) and Robert occurred within a period of strife between France and England, before the Hundred Years' War.  Robert played an important role in the succession of Philip VI of France (his wife's half-brother) to the throne, and was his trusted adviser for some time. From this he drew a certain influence in the royal council which he used to try to wrest from Mahaut what he considered his county. At Mahaut's death in 1329, the claim passed to her daughter Joan II, Countess of Burgundy. Building on the example of the estate of the County of Flanders, he again raised the matter of succession. Artois was put under the custody of the King of France. However, in 1331, he used a forgery created by Jeanne de Divion attesting to the will of his father. This deception was discovered, and Robert lost any hope of acquiring Artois. The forger Divion was condemned at the stake. Robert's property was confiscated by Philip in 1331, and his wife and his sons John and Charles imprisoned. Robert fled France in 1332 to escape arrest and execution, and took refuge with his nephew John II, Marquis of Namur. Philip requested that the Bishop of Liège attack Namur. Accordingly, Robert fled again to John III, Duke of Brabant, his nephew-in-law. Again, the influence of Philip stirred up a war against Brabant, and Robert was exiled again, this time to England. There he joined Edward III and urged Edward–whose wife Philippa of Hainault also descended from Charles of Valois–to start a war to reclaim the Kingdom of France. While in England, he became a member of Edward's royal council and provided extensive information on the French court to the English king. Numerous contemporary chroniclers relate how Robert's influence led directly to the start of the Hundred Years War, specifically because Philip VI cited Edward's unwillingness to expel Robert as the reason for confiscating the Duchy of Aquitaine in May 1337. A vowing poem called the \"Voeux du héron\" (\"Vow of the Heron\") circulated in France and England in the late 1340s that depicted Edward's invasion of France as the fulfilment of a chivalric oath made to Robert that he would take the French throne, as was his dynastic right.  Robert followed Edward in his campaigns thereafter, including command of the Anglo-Flemish army at the Battle of Saint-Omer in 1340. He ultimately succumbed to dysentery after being wounded while retreating from the city of Vannes in November 1342, during the War of the Breton Succession. He was originally buried in the Blackfriars church, in London, though his grave is now in St. Paul's Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Around 1320 Robert married Joan, daughter of Charles of Valois and his second wife Catherine I of Courtenay. They had six children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Robert III of Artois is a major character in \"Les Rois maudits\" (\"The Accursed Kings\"), a series of French historical novels by Maurice Druon in which many of these events are retold. He was played by Jean Piat in the 1972 French miniseries adaptation of the series, and by Philippe Torreton in the 2005 adaptation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert III of Artois (1287 – between 6 October & 20 November 1342) was Lord of Conches-en-Ouche, of Domfront, and of Mehun-sur-Yèvre, and in 1309 he received as appanage the county of Beaumont-le-Roger in restitution for the County of Artois, which he claimed. He was also briefly Earl of Richmond in 1341 after the death of John III, Duke of Brittany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975493}
{"src_title": "McDonnell F3H Demon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "Development work began in 1949, using a swept wing from the start rather than adapting a straight-winged design as was done with the Grumman F9F Panther. A competing contract was also awarded for the delta wing Douglas F4D Skyray. The Skyray, with a top speed of, would become the Navy's first fighter to fly supersonic in level flight, while the Demon would never reach that level of performance. The original design work was based at its predecessor, the F2H Banshee. However, departing from its tradition of using two engines, the Demon would result in McDonnell's only single-engined carrier-based fighter, adopting under some Navy pressure, the Westinghouse J40 engine. That engine was being promoted by the Navy for its next generation of aircraft, and was to have thrust of over 11,000 lbf (49 kN)—three times that of the engines in the F2H Banshee. It was the first swept-wing design produced by McDonnell and among the first U.S. aircraft to have missile armament.  The Navy desperately needed a high performance fighter to meet the challenge of the swept-wing MiG-15 encountered over Korea. Production of the F3H-1N was hastily ordered even before the first flight of the XF3H-1 prototype on 7 August 1951 by test pilot Robert Edholm. The first test flights of the operational design did not occur until January 1953, by which time the Korean War was winding down.  The F3H Demon was originally designed around Navy's ambitious new Westinghouse J40 which was to offer enough power to use just one engine in a number of new aircraft designs. But the engine would ultimately fail to produce the promised thrust or run reliably. The engine was a major disappointment, producing only half of the expected power. Worse, it was temperamental and unreliable. Of 35 F3H-1N aircraft flown with the J40 engine, eight were involved in major accidents. The first production Demons were grounded after the loss of six aircraft and four pilots. \"Time\" magazine called the Navy's grounding of all Westinghouse-powered F3H-1 Demons a \"fiasco\", with 21 unflyable planes that could be used only for Navy ground training at a loss of $200 million. One high point of the J40 was the 1955 setting of an unofficial time-to-climb record, in a Demon, of in 71 seconds. The proposed F3H-1P reconnaissance version was never built. The J40 program was terminated sometime in 1955.  All the aircraft it was to power were either canceled or redesigned to use other engines, notably the J57 and the J71. The F4D Skyray had been designed to accept larger engines in case the J40 did not work out, and was eventually powered by the Pratt & Whitney J57. But no other engine could simply be fitted into the old Demons, as both the wings and fuselage would have to be redesigned and enlarged. The best alternative turned out to be the Allison J71 engine which was also used in the Douglas B-66 Destroyer. Subsequent F3Hs with this powerplant were designated the F3H-2N. In service, the J71 proved problematic, providing insufficient power for an aircraft of the Demon's size. The engine also suffered from frequent flameouts and compressor stalls. The first Demon with a J71 flew in October 1954. Another significant problem was the reliability of the ejection seats: initial versions were found to be unreliable and were eventually replaced with Martin-Baker ejection seats that were becoming the standard Navy seat of choice due to their higher performance at low altitude and better reliability.  Despite the problems, the Navy ordered 239 F3H-2s, and the first were deployed in March 1956. 519 Demons were built up to the end of production in November 1959. It was not the Navy's first all-weather interceptor with radar (the AN/APG-51 air interception set was used first on the F2H-4 Banshee). The F3H-2 Demon had the AN/APG-51A, later upgraded to the 51-B version with a tunable magnetron then on to 51-C with better counter-measures in the receiver.  The F3H-2N's standard armament was four 20 mm (.79 in) Colt Mk 12 cannons. In later years, the upper two cannons were often omitted to save weight. Later models, redesignated F3H-2M, were equipped to fire the Raytheon AAM-N-2 Sparrow and later the Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. Deployed aircraft carried both types of missiles, the Sparrow on the inboard rails and the Sidewinder outboard. Cannons were not used in carrier air defense applications, but they were installed and armed when situations (such as the Cuban Missile Crisis) dictated, and where the aircraft might be deployed against surface targets.  A reconnaissance version, the F3H-2P, was proposed, but never built. It remained the Navy's front-line fighter until 1962, when it was succeeded by the F-4 Phantom II (which was a development of a proposed \"Super Demon\", a larger and much heavier version of the F3H). Developed during the Korean War to counter the MiG-15, it did not claim any aerial victories with missiles or dogfights, although it flew over Lebanon and Quemoy in 1958.  In 1962, the F3H was redesignated F-3. The F3H-2N became the F-3C, the F3H-2M became MF-3B, and the F3H-2 changed to F-3B.  The last Demon-equipped squadron, VF-161 'Chargers', traded their F-3s for F-4 Phantom IIs in September 1964.  Due to excellent visibility from the cockpit, the Demon earned the nickname \"The Chair\". Demon pilots were known colloquially as \"Demon Drivers\" and those who worked on the aircraft were known as \"Demon Doctors\". The unfavorable power-to-weight ratio gave rise to the less flattering nickname \"lead sled\", sometimes shortened to \"sled\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The McDonnell F3H Demon is a subsonic swept-wing United States Navy carrier-based jet fighter aircraft. The successor to the F2H Banshee, the Demon was originally designed to use the Westinghouse J40 engine, but had to be redesigned to accept the Allison J71 after the J40 suffered severe problems and was ultimately abandoned. Though it lacked sufficient power for supersonic performance, it complemented daylight dogfighters such as the Vought F8U Crusader and Grumman F11F Tiger as an all-weather, missile-armed interceptor until 1964.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975494}
{"src_title": "Vitry-sur-Seine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "Vitry-sur-Seine was originally called simply Vitry. The name Vitry comes from Medieval Latin \"Vitriacum\", and before that \"Victoriacum\", meaning \"estate of Victorius\", a Gallo-Roman landowner. In 1897 the name of the commune officially became Vitry-sur-Seine (meaning \"Vitry upon Seine\"), in order to distinguish it from other communes of France also called Vitry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "For some years, Vitry-sur-Seine operated a cultural policy of bringing art to all. For this reason, the commune contains over 100 contemporary sculptures, notably in establishments of public education (schools, secondary schools and High Schools).  Vitry hosts the Musée d'Art Contemporain du Val-de-Marne (Val-de-Marne's Museum of Contemporary Art). Opened on 18 November 2005, this museum offers in addition to the workshops of plastic arts, an auditorium and a cinema for art and experimental film.  Vitry is one of the cities that contributed to the development of the Hip hop movement in France. Consequentially, urban art has a very important place in the city", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Vitry-sur-Seine is served by two stations on Paris RER line C: Vitry-sur-Seine and Les Ardoines.  Orly Airport is located near Vitry-sur-Seine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "The city can be separated into three distinct parts: the center containing numerous \"cités HLM\" (Housing projects), peripheral neighborhoods belonging to the middle class, and a large industrial area along the Seine river.  The bordering towns are Ivry-sur-Seine, Villejuif, Chevilly-Larue, Thiais, Choisy-le-Roi, Alfortville.  In 2008 the population of the city was estimated at 82,500 inhabitants. The rate of unemployment is 26.5%, while national average is under 10% Vitry-sur-Seine is the fiftieth most populated city of France and the tenth of Île-de-France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Immigration.", "content": "As of circa 1998 Ivry-sur-Seine and Vitry had a combined Asian population of 3,600. That year about 250 Asians from those communes worked in the 13th arrondissement of Paris, and the overall demographics of Ivry and Vitry Asians were similar to those in the 13th arrondissement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "Vitry is divided into two cantons (districts):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "the commune has 23 preschools (\"maternelles\"), and 21 elementary schools, with a combined total of 9,000 students.  Paris 12 Val de Marne University is the area university.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – Sister cities.", "content": "Vitry-sur-Seine is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vitry-sur-Seine () is a commune in the southeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the centre of Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975495}
{"src_title": "Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The only extant near-contemporary source for BWV 565 is an undated copy by Johannes Ringk. A broad estimate is that the manuscript was written somewhere in the period from ten years before Bach's death in 1750 to ten years after it. Ringk produced his first copy of a Bach score in 1730 when he was 12. Taking into consideration the evolution of Ringk's handwriting, one can infer that his copy of BWV 565 was written soon after his first copy of a Bach composition, which would narrow the date of his BWV 565 manuscript to between 1730 and 1735, when Ringk was around 15. At the time Ringk was a student of Bach's former student Johann Peter Kellner at Gräfenroda, and probably faithfully copied what his teacher put before him. There are some errors in the score such as note values not adding up to fill a measure correctly. Such defects show a carelessness deemed typical of Kellner, who left over 60 copies of works by Bach.  The title page of Ringk's manuscript writes the title of the work in Italian as \"Toccata con Fuga\", names Johann Sebastian Bach as the composer of the piece, and indicates its tonality as \"ex. d. #.\", which is usually seen as the key signature being D minor. However, in Ringk's manuscript the staves have no accidental at the key (which would be the usual way to write down a piece in D minor). In this sense, in Ringk's manuscript, the piece is written down in D Dorian mode. Another piece listed as Bach's was also known as Toccata and Fugue in D minor, and was equally entitled to the \"Dorian\" qualification. It was that piece, BWV 538, that received the \"Dorian\" nickname, that qualifier being effectively used to distinguish it from BWV 565. Most score editions of BWV", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "BWV 565 exhibits a typical simplified north German structure with a free opening (toccata), a fugal section (fugue), and a short free closing section.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toccata.", "content": "The Toccata begins with a single-voice flourish in the upper ranges of the keyboard, doubled at the octave. It then spirals toward the bottom, where a diminished seventh chord appears (which actually implies a dominant chord with a minor 9th against a tonic pedal), built one note at a time. This resolves into a D major chord:  Three short passages follow, each reiterating a short", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fugue.", "content": "The subject of the four-voice fugue is made up entirely of sixteenth notes, with an implied pedal point set against a brief melodic subject that first falls, then rises. Such violinistic figures are frequently encountered in Baroque music and that of Bach, both as fugue subjects and as material in non-imitative pieces. Unusually, the answer is in", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coda.", "content": "A multi-sectional coda follows, marked \"Recitativo\". Although only 17 bars long, it progresses", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Performance.", "content": "The performance time of the piece is usually around nine minutes, but shorter performance times (e.g. 8:15) and execution times of over 10:30 exist. The first section of the piece, the Toccata, takes", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "In the first century of its existence the entire reception history of the Toccata and Fugue in D minor consists of being saved from oblivion by maybe not more than a single manuscript copy. Then it took about a century from its first publication as a little known organ composition by Johann Sebastian Bach to becoming one of the signature pieces of the composer. The composition's third century took it from Bach's most often recorded organ piece to a composition with an unclear origin. Despite Mendelssohn's opinion that it was \"at the same time learned and something for the people\", followed by a fairly successful piano transcription in the second half of the 19th century, it was not until the 20th century that it rose above the average notability of an organ piece by Bach. Leopold Stokowski's orchestration, featured in the 1940 Walt Disney film \"Fantasia\", appears to have been instrumental in assuring its status as an evergreen by the 1980s, around which time scholars started to seriously doubt its attribution to Bach.  The composition has been deemed as both \"particularly suited to the organ\", and as \"strikingly unorganistic\". It has been seen as united by a single ground-thought, but also as containing \"passages which have no connection whatever with the chief idea\". It has been called \"entirely a thing of virtuosity\" yet also described as being \"not so difficult as it sounds\". It has been described as some sort of program music depicting a storm, but also as abstract music, quite the opposite of program music depicting a storm. It has been presented as an emanation of the galant style, yet too dramatic to be anything near that style. Its period of origin has been assumed to have been as early as around 1704, and as late as the 1750s. Its defining characteristics have been associated with extant compositions by Bach (BWV 531, 549a, 578, 911, 914, 922 and several of the solo violin sonatas and partitas), and by others (including Nicolaus Bruhns and Johann Heinrich Buttstett), as well as with untraceable earlier versions for other instruments and/or by other composers. It has been deemed too simplistic for it to have been written down by Bach, and too much a stroke of genius to have been composed by anyone else but Bach.  What remains is \"the most famous organ work in existence\", that in its rise to fame was helped by various arrangements, including bombastic piano settings, versions for full symphonic orchestra, and alternative settings for more modest solo instruments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "References consisting of a last name and", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Sheet music  Recordings  Mixed media (sheet music and recordings)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565, is a piece of organ music written, according to its oldest extant sources, by Johann Sebastian Bach. The piece opens with a toccata section, followed by a fugue that ends in a coda. It is one of the most famous works in the organ repertoire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975496}
{"src_title": "Herbert Kappler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "SS career.", "content": "Kappler was born to a middle-class family in Stuttgart in the German Empire. Herbert Kappler joined the Nazi Party on 1 August 1931. He joined the SS in 1933. In January 1936, he was assigned to duty at the Gestapo main office of Stuttgart. In 1937, Kappler graduated from the \"Führerschule der Sicherheitspolizei\" (Leadership School of the Security Police) in Berlin as a \"Kriminalkommissar\" (criminal commissioner). In 1938, during the Anschluss, he supervised the mass deportations of Austria's Jews to concentration camps.  Kappler was posted to Rome as head of the \"Sicherheitsdienst\" (SD) and throughout the war years he cooperated closely with the Fascist police. Following the Armistice between Italy and the Allied Forces on 8 September 1943, Kappler acquired considerable power as German forces took control of the Italian capital.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chief of Police in occupied Rome.", "content": "Following the armistice between Italy and the Allies on 8 September 1943, the German military occupied Rome and Kappler was appointed as Chief of the Security Police and Security Service (\"Oberbefehlshaber des Sicherheitspolizei und SD\") for all SS and Order Police (\"Ordnungspolizei\") units deployed in Rome.  Kappler was in charge of Jewish roundups for deportations to Auschwitz; in his first action, 1,023 Italian Jews were deported with only 16 surviving, and Kappler would later arrange the deportation of a further 993 Roman Jews, nearly all of whom would eventually die in Nazi gas chambers. During this action, he demanded 50 kilograms of gold (110 lbs.) from the Jewish community in Rome, which he later claimed was an attempt to prevent the round-up and the deportations.  By early 1944, Kappler was the highest representative of the Reich Main Security Office in Rome and answered directly to both the military governorship, under Luftwaffe General Kurt Mälzer, as well as the SS chain of command under the Higher SS and Police Leader of Italy, SS-\"Obergruppenführer\" Karl Wolff.  Kappler came into direct conflict with the Vatican, as the Germans had strong suspicions that it was harbouring Allied fugitives and escaped prisoners, even though the Vatican under Pope Pius XII was technically neutral. A particular adversary of Kappler's in this respect was Monsignor Hugh O'Flaherty, whose activities helping Jewish fugitives and Allied prisoners escape from Rome led to Kappler having him targeted for assassination. Paradoxically, after the war Kappler and O'Flaherty would become friends of sorts.  Kappler organised the Ardeatine massacre where 335 Italian civilians were killed on 24 March 1944 as a reprisal for an attack by resistance fighters resulting in the deaths of 33 men of the SS Police garrison in Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criminal conviction.", "content": "Kappler was arrested by British authorities in 1945 and later turned over to the Italian government in 1947 and tried the following year. Kappler's second in command in Rome, SS-Captain Erich Priebke, managed to escape and it was not until 1996 that Priebke would face justice.  In 1948, Kappler was tried by an Italian military tribunal and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Gaeta military prison. Kappler and his first wife divorced while he was serving his sentence. He later married Anneliese Kappler, a nurse who had carried on a lengthy correspondence with him, before marrying him at a prison ceremony in 1972. By this time, Kappler had also converted to Catholicism, partly due to the influence of his war-time enemy, the Vatican diplomat Hugh O'Flaherty, who often visited him in prison, discussing literature and religion with him.  By 1975, at the age of sixty-eight, Kappler was diagnosed with terminal cancer and he was moved to a military hospital in Rome in 1976. Appeals by both his wife and the West German government to release him were denied by Italian authorities. Because of Kappler's deteriorating condition and his wife's nursing skills, Anneliese Kappler had been allowed almost unlimited access to him during his time in the Italian hospital. On a prison visit in August 1977, Kappler's wife carried him out in a large suitcase (Kappler weighed about 47 kg at the time) and escaped to West Germany, assisted by apparently unwitting carabinieri. The Italians unsuccessfully demanded that Kappler be returned, but the West Germany authorities refused to extradite him and did not prosecute Kappler for any further war crimes, reportedly owing to ill-health.  Six months after his escape, Kappler died at home in Soltau, on 9 February 1978, aged 70.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In film and drama.", "content": "In the 1973 feature film \"Massacre in Rome\", which deals with the Ardeatine massacre, Kappler was portrayed by actor Richard Burton.  Kappler was also portrayed by Christopher Plummer in the 1983 TV film \"The Scarlet and The Black\", which detailed Kappler's first meeting with Monsignor Hugh O'Flaherty.  Kappler's post-war time seeking asylum in the Vatican, and his resultant friendship with his former enemy Monsignor O'Flaherty, was dramatised in the radio play \"The Scarlet Pimpernel of the Vatican\" by Robin Glendinning. The radio play was first broadcast on 30 November 2006 on UK BBC Radio 4.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Herbert Kappler (23 September 1907 – 9 February 1978) was a key German SS functionary and war criminal during the Nazi era. He served as head of German police and security services (\"Sicherheitspolizei\" and SD) in Rome during the Second World War and was responsible for the Ardeatine massacre. Following the end of the war, Kappler stood trial in Italy and was sentenced to life imprisonment. He escaped from prison shortly before his death in West Germany in 1978.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975497}
{"src_title": "RAIL4CHEM", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 2000 the railway company RAIL4CHEM was founded as a joint venture among three German companies: BASF AG (Ludwigshafen), and (both located in Hamburg) and one Swiss firm Bertschi AG; headquartered in Dürrenäsch. Hoyer merged its rail freight subsidiary (\"Hoyer Railserv\", formed 2000 from \"RSE Cargo\".) into the company in 2002.  Initially the company was set up as a rail freight service for chemical companies, the organisation serves both national and international freight movements within Europe.  Amongst the first workings were the movement of chemicals from the works at BASF Ludwigshafen to Aachen to be moved further by the Belgian state railway SNCB / NMBS.  Later the company took on non-chemical industry freight work.  In 2004 the company gained a safety certificate to operate in the Netherlands, and in Switzerland. In 2005 the founder companies increased the capital of the company by €4 million to €5 million to enable the purchase of multi-system electric locomotives. Safety certificate for operations in Belgium was acquired (by the subsidiary Rail4chem Benelux BV) in January 2006, and for operations in France in February 2006,  On 20 February 2008 it was announced that the business was to be sold to the French company Veolia Cargo for an undisclosed sum. Veolia Cargo was acquired by SNCF (and Eurotunnel), with Rail4chem becoming part of SNCF; it was reorganised into the Captrain railfreight operation division of SNCF. The business underperformed during the difficult market conditions following the late-2000s financial crisis and was absorbed into the Captrain deutschland division in 2010.  \"RAIL4CHEM\" was a founder member of the European Bulls Rail Freight Alliance, a European consortium of European rail freight operating companies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subsidiaries.", "content": "In late 2004, \"RAIL4CHEM\" established a new subsidiary company: \"Rail4Chem Benelux NV\", after the acquiring and taking over the activities of Dutch private rail carrier.  \"Rail4Chem Benelux's\" main business was the transportation of containers from the Port of Rotterdam to Germany but also operated international tank trains to DSM in Geleen as well as intermodal trains via Amsterdam and cereal trains via Europoort.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "\"RAIL4CHEM\" was certified to operate in Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland, Belgium and France.  The trains known as'mobile pipelines' are operated between the BASF operations in Antwerp and Ludwigshafen.  Up till the opening of the Betuweroute only diesel locomotives were used in the Netherlands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "In 2005 the electric locomotive fleet of \"RAIL4CHEM\" consisted of 14 locomotives of TRAXX type, and predecessors; the Adtranz built DBAG Class 145 (for work in Germany), and the Bombardier Transportation built DBAG Class 185 (for work in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.). Other locomotives such as the Siemens EuroSprinter ES 64 U2 have been used based on requirements, as well as older locomotives have also been used in Switzerland.. The company leased Re 4/4I (Re 416 626), which had previously belonged to MThB and SBB to operate fuel trains on Swiss rails, as can be seen here:  For non-electrified lines in Germany, Netherlands and Belgium, locomotives of the diesel types EMD JT42CWR (Class 66), as well as Vossloh locomotives, primarily Vossloh G 2000 BB and MaK G 1206 types were used.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "RAIL4CHEM was a German rail freight transport company, and the parent company of a number of European subsidiary rail freight transport companies including rail4chem Benelux B.V. (Rotterdam), the rail4chem transalpin AG (Basel) and Fer Polska S.A. (Warsaw).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975498}
{"src_title": "Barcelona Pavilion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Concept.", "content": "Mies and Reich were offered the commission of this building in 1928 after his successful administration of the 1927 Werkbund exhibition in Stuttgart. The German Republic entrusted Mies with the artistic management and erection of not only the Barcelona Pavilion, but for the buildings for all the German sections at the 1929 International Exhibition. However, Mies had severe time constraints—he had to design the Barcelona Pavilion in less than a year—and was also dealing with uncertain economic conditions.  In the years following World War I, Germany started to turn around. The economy started to recover after the 1924 Dawes Plan. The pavilion for the International Exhibition was supposed to represent the new Weimar Germany: democratic, culturally progressive, prospering, and thoroughly pacifist; a self-portrait through architecture. The Commissioner, Georg von Schnitzler said it should give \"voice to the spirit of a new era\". This concept was carried out with the realization of the \"Free plan\" and the \"Floating roof\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Building.", "content": "Mies's response to the proposal by von Schnitzler was radical. After rejecting the original site for aesthetic reasons, Mies agreed to a quiet site at the narrow side of a wide, diagonal axis, where the pavilion would still offer viewpoints and a route leading to one of the exhibition's main attractions, the Poble Espanyol.  The pavilion was to be bare, with no exhibits, leaving only the structure accompanying a single sculpture and specially-designed furniture (the Barcelona Chair). This lack of accommodation enabled Mies to treat the Pavilion as a continuous space; blurring inside and outside. \"The design was predicated on an absolute distinction between structure and enclosure—a regular grid of cruciform steel columns interspersed by freely spaced planes\". However, the structure was more of a hybrid style, some of these planes also acted as supports. The floor plan is very simple. The entire building rests on a plinth of travertine. A southern U-shaped enclosure, also of travertine, helps form a service annex and a large water basin. The floor slabs of the pavilion project out and over the pool—once again connecting inside and out. Another U-shaped wall on the opposite side of the site also forms a smaller water basin. This is where the statue by Georg Kolbe sits. The roof plates, relatively small, are supported by the chrome-clad, cruciform columns. This gives the impression of a hovering roof. Robin Evans said that the reflective columns appear to be struggling to hold the \"floating\" roof plane down, not to be bearing its weight.  Mies wanted this building to become \"an ideal zone of tranquillity\" for the weary visitor, who should be invited into the pavilion on the way to the next attraction. Since the pavilion lacked a real exhibition space, the building itself was to become the exhibit. The pavilion was designed to \"block\" any passage through the site, rather, one would have to go through the building. Visitors would enter by going up a few stairs, and due to the slightly sloped site, would leave at ground level in the direction of the Poble Espanyol. The visitors were not meant to be led in a straight line through the building, but to take continuous turnabouts. The walls not only created space, but also directed visitor's movements. This was achieved by wall surfaces being displaced against each other, running past each other, and creating a space that became narrower or wider.  Another unique feature of this building is the exotic materials Mies chooses to use. Plates of high-grade stone materials like veneers of Tinos verde antico marble and golden onyx as well as tinted glass of grey, green, white, as well as translucent glass, perform exclusively as spatial dividers.  Because this was planned as an exhibition pavilion, it was intended to exist only temporarily. The building was torn down in early 1930, not even a year after it was completed. However, thanks to black-and-white photos and original plans, a group of Catalan architects reconstructed the pavilion permanently between 1983 and 1986.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sculpture.", "content": "The Pavilion was not only a pioneer for construction forms with a fresh, disciplined understanding of space, but also for modelling new opportunities for an association of free art and architecture. Mies placed Georg Kolbe's \"Alba\" (\"Dawn\") in the small water basin, leaving the larger one all the more empty. The sculpture also ties into the highly reflective materials Mies used—he chose the place where these optical effects would have the strongest impact; the building offers multiple views of \"Alba\". \"From now on, in the sense of equality for juxtaposing building and visual work, sculptures were no longer to be applied retrospectively to the building, but rather to be a part of the spatial design, to help define and interpret it. To the day, one of the most notable examples is the Barcelona Pavilion\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interventions programme.", "content": "Since the Pavilion's reconstruction in the 1980s, the Mies van der Rohe Foundation has invited leading artists and architects to temporarily alter the Pavilion. These installations and alterations, called \"interventions\", have kept the pavilion as a node of debate on architectural ideas and practices. The list of invited people includes architects Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa who added spiral acrylic interior walls, artist Ai Weiwei who refilled two pools with coffee and milk, Andrés Jaque who revealed the pavilion's so far disregarded basement and its role in hiding the daily making of the site's experience, Enric Miralles, Antoni Muntadas who brought to the pavilion the smell of the MoMA archives where its memory is preserved and Jordi Bernadó who removed the pavilion's glass doors.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Barcelona Pavilion (; ; \"German Pavilion\"), designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Lilly Reich, was the German Pavilion for the 1929 International Exposition in Barcelona, Spain. This building was used for the official opening of the German section of the exhibition. It is an important building in the history of modern architecture, known for its simple form and its spectacular use of extravagant materials, such as marble, red onyx and travertine. The same features of minimalism and spectacular can be applied to the prestigious furniture specifically designed for the building, including the iconic Barcelona chair. It has inspired many important modernist buildings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975499}
{"src_title": "Svetlana Alexievich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Born in the west Ukrainian town of Stanislav (since 1962 Ivano-Frankivsk) to a Belarusian father and a Ukrainian mother, Svetlana Alexievich grew up in Belarus. After finishing school she worked as a reporter in several local newspapers before graduating from Belarusian State University (1972) and becoming a correspondent for the literary magazine \"Nyoman\" in Minsk (1976).  During her career in journalism, Alexievich specialised in crafting narratives based on witness testimonies. In the process, she wrote oral histories of several dramatic events in Soviet history: the Second World War, the Afghan War, the fall of the Soviet Union, and the Chernobyl disaster. After political persecution by the Lukashenko administration, she left Belarus in 2000. The International Cities of Refuge Network offered her sanctuary and during the following decade she lived in Paris, Gothenburg and Berlin. In 2011, Alexievich moved back to Minsk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary work.", "content": "Alexievich's books trace the emotional history of the Soviet and post-Soviet individual through carefully constructed collages of interviews. According to Russian writer and critic Dmitry Bykov, her books owe much to the ideas of Belarusian writer Ales Adamovich, who felt that the best way to describe the horrors of the 20th century was not by creating fiction but through recording the testimonies of witnesses. Belarusian poet Uladzimir Nyaklyayew called Adamovich \"her literary godfather\". He also named the documentary novel \"I'm From Fire Village\" () by Ales Adamovich, Janka Bryl and Uladzimir Kalesnik, about the villages burned by the German troops during the occupation of Belarus, as the main single book that has influenced Alexievich's attitude to literature. Alexievich has confirmed the influence of Adamovich and Belarusian writer Vasil Bykaŭ, among others. She regards Varlam Shalamov as the best writer of the 20th century.  Her most notable works in English translation include a collection of first-hand accounts from the war in Afghanistan (\"Zinky Boys: Soviet Voices from a Forgotten War\") and an oral history of the Chernobyl disaster (\"Chernobyl Prayer / Voices from Chernobyl\"). Alexievich describes the theme of her works this way:  Her first book, \"War's Unwomanly Face\", came out in 1985. It was repeatedly reprinted and sold more than two million copies. The book was finished in 1983 and published (in short edition) in \"Oktyabr\", a Soviet monthly literary magazine, in February 1984. In 1985, the book was published by several publishers, and the number of printed copies reached 2,000,000 in the next five years. This novel is made up of monologues of women in the war speaking about the aspects of World War II that had never been related before. Another book, \"The Last Witnesses: the Book of Unchildlike Stories\", describes personal memories of children during wartime. The war seen through women's and children's eyes revealed a new world of feelings. In 1993, she published \"Enchanted with Death\", a book about attempted and completed suicides due to the downfall of the Soviet Union. Many people felt inseparable from the Communist ideology and unable to accept the new order surely and the newly interpreted history.  Her books were not published by Belarusian state-owned publishing houses after 1993, while private publishers in Belarus have only published two of her books: \"Chernobyl Prayer\" in 1999 and \"Second-hand Time\" in 2013, both translated into Belarusian. As a result, Alexievich has been better known in the rest of world than in Belarus.  She has been described as the first journalist to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature. She herself rejects the notion that she is a journalist, and, in fact, Alexievich’s chosen genre is sometimes called “documentary literature”: an artistic rendering of real events, with a degree of poetic license. In her own words:  26 October 2019 Alexievich was elected chairman of the Belarusian PEN Center.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honours.", "content": "Alexievich has received many awards, including:  Alexievich is a member of the advisory committee of the Lettre Ulysses Award. She will give the inaugeral Anna Politkovskaya Memorial Lecture at the British Library on 9 October 2019. The lecture is an international platform to amplify the voices of women journalists and human rights defenders working in war and conflict zones.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Svetlana Alexandrovna Alexievich (born 31 May 1948 in Ivano-Frankivsk) is a Belarusian investigative journalist, essayist and oral historian who writes in Russian. She was awarded the 2015 Nobel Prize in Literature \"for her polyphonic writings, a monument to suffering and courage in our time\". She is the first writer from Belarus to receive the award.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975500}
{"src_title": "Jean-Alain Boumsong", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Boumsong was born in Douala, Cameroon, and started his career with French team Le Havre before joining Auxerre. He notably scored the 89th-minute winning goal in Auxerre's 2–1 win in the 2003 French Cup Final against Paris Saint-Germain.  A long-time target for then Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier, the press speculated that it was only a matter of time before Boumsong signed for Liverpool. However, as Boumsong was a free agent, his agent, the Monaco based Scot Willie McKay negotiated the best sign-on fee to the player for Boumsong from Scottish Premier League club Rangers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rangers.", "content": "As a result, Boumsong joined Alex McLeish at Rangers in 2004 and signed a five-year contract. Boumsong quickly adapted to the Scottish game and showed his skill as a centre back, leading to rumours that his stay in Glasgow may be shorter than expected. Halfway through the 2004–05 season, Newcastle under new manager Graeme Souness, made an £8 million bid for him, which Rangers accepted in a deal that was finalized once the January 2005 transfer window opened. However, as Boumsong had played the requisite number of games for Rangers that season, he still received a Scottish Premiership Winners Medal, despite having been a Newcastle player for around five months by the time Rangers won the title.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Newcastle.", "content": "Boumsong signed a 51⁄2-year contract with the Magpies.  The £8 million transfer fee raised eyebrows, as the player, being out of contract, had joined Rangers for free just months before, at which point Newcastle showed no interest in signing him. This transfer is one of those about which the Stevens inquiry report in June 2007 expressed concerns:  \"\"There remains inconsistencies in evidence provided by Graeme Souness – a former manager of the club – and Freddy Shepherd – apparently acting in an undefined role but not as a club official – as to their respective roles in transfer negotiations.\"\"  \"\"The inquiry is still awaiting clarification from agent Willie McKay\"\".  However the Stevens enquiry later issued two clarifications. It said of Souness, \"We wish to make it clear that inconsistencies did not exist within the evidence given by Graeme Souness to Quest concerning his role in transfers covered by the Inquiry during his time as manager of Newcastle United F.C. and neither the Premier League nor do Quest have any concerns in this regard\". As regards McKay it stated: \"Further to the key findings from the final Quest report published on 15 June 2007 by the Premier League, Quest would like to emphasise that, in that report, it was clear that no evidence of irregular payments was found in the transfers in the inquiry period which involved the agent Willie McKay. Quest would also like to thank Mr McKay for his cooperation with the inquiry.\"  He had a mixed time during his stay on Tyneside in regards to his form. During his first season at Newcastle he was praised for his defensive abilities and partnership with Titus Bramble. His popularity led to fans shouting the first syllable of his name, elongating the sound in a similar way to Arsenal fans chanting Nwankwo Kanu's name.  His second season at Newcastle however was less well received. Boumsong's defensive abilities began to lapse and was often blamed for the conceding of several goals. He blamed this lapse in form on his girlfriend's illness and other personal problems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Juventus.", "content": "On 22 August 2006, Boumsong joined the recently Serie B relegated Juventus for a fee of £3.3m, with future incentives promised to Newcastle relating to Juventus' future performance. In September 2006, Boumsong scored his first Juventus goal in a game against Crotone where Juventus won 3–0. Valeri Bojinov scored the other two goals. In Boumsong's final match with Juventus, he scored a key equaliser in their Coppa Italia match against rivals Internazionale on 23 January 2008.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lyon.", "content": "On 24 January 2008, Boumsong moved to French club Olympique Lyonnais on a three-and-a-half-year contract. Boumsong has stated he made this move in order to increase his chances to make Raymond Domenech's EURO 2008 squad.  He made his debut for the club in 4–1 win over Sochaux at Stade de Gerland on 8 February 2008. In the 2008–09 season, he scored his first Lyon's goal against Le Mans on 4 April 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Panathinaikos.", "content": "On 30 July 2010, Boumsong transferred from Olympique Lyonnais to Superleague Greece champions Panathinaikos F.C. for a fee that could rise up to €750,000. He signed a three-year contract with the Greek, earning €1.9 million annually. Although he started the season roughly, he gradually improved his performance and gained the fans' trust. He scored his first goal in a 2–0 win against Panserraikos F.C..  In 2012, Boumsong signed a two-year contract with the club, extending his stay at Panathinaikos until 2014. During the summer, Boumsong was declared vice-captain of the club for the 2012–2013 season. He scored the opening goal in a 2–0 win against Motherwell F.C. in the first leg of the third qualifying round of the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Boumsong made his France debut against Japan on 20 June 2003 and went with the squad for Euro 2004, although he only made a brief appearance coming on as a substitute in one game.  He established himself as a regular starter in the national team in the 2006 World Cup qualifiers, and was called up to the squad for the 2006 World Cup, but did not see any game action during the competition because of Lillian Thuram's return to the team. Boumsong was also named in the France squad for Euro 2008.  Boumsong appeared on only one game during Euro 2008, when during the group match between France and Italy he substituted Samir Nasri. Nasri himself entered the field only 16 minutes earlier, when he replaced the injured Franck Ribéry, however when central defender Eric Abidal was sent off, French coach Raymond Domenech decided to pull off the midfielder Nasri from the field for the defender Boumsong. Four years earlier during the Euro 2004, Boumsong had been already sent to the field once as a substitute's substitute, when he replaced William Gallas during a match against Switzerland, thus he is the first player in European Championship history to achieve this feat twice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "After retiring, Boumsong started working as a consultant for the global TV station beIN Sports. On 5 September 2018 it was confirmed, that Boumsong had been appointed assistant manager of newly hired manager Clarence Seedorf for the Cameroon national football team alongside Patrick Kluivert and Joël Epalle. He was fired in September 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Boumsong's younger brother, Yannick Boumsong, is also a professional footballer. He is the older cousin of David N'Gog, who plays for Budapest Honved.  Boumsong is a convert to Islam and travelled to Mecca to perform the Islamic ritual of hajj in 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Auxerre  Rangers  Juventus  Lyon", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jean-Alain Boumsong Somkong (born 14 December 1979) is a former professional football defender, including French international. He is known for his physical strength, pace and reading of the game.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975501}
{"src_title": "Jeremy Renner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Renner was born in Modesto, California, to mother Valerie Cearley (née Tague) and father Lee Renner, who managed McHenry Bowl, a Modesto bowling alley, in the 1980s. His parents married as teenagers and divorced when he was ten. He is the oldest of seven siblings. His ancestry includes German, English, Scottish, Swedish, Irish and Panamanian.  Renner graduated from Fred C. Beyer High School in Modesto in 1989. He attended Modesto Junior College, where he studied computer science and criminology, before he took a drama class as an elective and decided to pursue acting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early work.", "content": "Renner's made his film debut as an underachieving student in the 1995 comedy \"National Lampoon's Senior Trip\". Although the film was critically panned, he went on to guest star on two television shows, \"Deadly Games\" and \"Strange Luck\", and had a minor role in the television film \"A Friend's Betrayal\" as the friend of Paul Hewitt (Brian Austin Green). Over the next few years, Renner had guest roles in \"Zoe, Duncan, Jack and Jane\" (1999), \"The Net\" (1999), \"The Time of Your Life\" (1999), and \"Angel\" (2000). Renner had a small role in an episode of \"\" in 2001. Renner worked as a makeup artist during this period to help make ends meet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early success: 2002–2008.", "content": "In 2002, Renner starred in \"Dahmer\" as the eponymous serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer. He found the non-fiction role a challenge to cope with after he had finished shooting the film, knowing that Dahmer murdered seventeen victims. His performance was well received, and he gained a nomination for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Lead Male. He also appeared in Pink's 2003 music video for her song \"Trouble\" as a Bad Boy Sheriff. Renner went on to appear in \"S.W.A.T.\" as the former police partner of Colin Farrell's character in 2003 and \"The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things\" in 2004.  In 2005, Renner starred with Julia Stiles and Forest Whitaker in \"A Little Trip to Heaven\", with roles in \"North Country\" and \"12 and Holding\". He next starred as a neo-Nazi skinhead who is admitted into a psychiatric hospital in \"Neo Ned\" with Gabrielle Union. The film won awards at multiple film festivals, including the Palm Beach International Film Festival Award for Best Actor. Renner also had a small (though uncredited) role in skateboard film \"Lords of Dogtown\" as the manager of Emile Hirsch's character. In 2006, he starred with Ginnifer Goodwin in \"Love Comes to the Executioner\".  Renner had supporting roles in 2007 in the critically acclaimed \"The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford\" as Wood Hite, the cousin of outlaw Jesse James (portrayed by Brad Pitt), and as Sergeant Doyle in \"28 Weeks Later\". He starred with Minnie Driver in \"Take\" and guest starred as a patient in an episode of \"House\" as a reckless rock musician. Renner had a role in the pilot of \"The Oaks\" but the series was not picked up.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009–present.", "content": "After starring with Dallas Roberts in the comedy-drama \"Ingenious\" and starring in the short-lived television series \"The Unusuals\", Renner went on to achieve critical success for his portrayal of bomb disposal expert, Sergeant William James in the 2009 Iraq war thriller \"The Hurt Locker\" (directed by Kathryn Bigelow). The role earned him several awards in the Best Actor category and his first Academy Award nomination for Best Actor as well a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination. In 2010, Renner's performance in Ben Affleck's \"The Town\" alongside Jon Hamm, Blake Lively, Slaine and Michael Yebba garnered him rave reviews and his second Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. He also gained his first Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actor and his second Screen Actors Guild nomination. \"The Hollywood Reporter\" named Renner as one of the young male actors who are \"pushing – or being pushed\" into taking over Hollywood as the new \"A-List\".  In 2011, Renner had an uncredited cameo appearance as Hawkeye in \"Thor\" for familiarity with his character for \"The Avengers\", which was released in May 2012. The same year, he also starred in the fourth film in the \"Bourne\" franchise, \"The Bourne Legacy\", which was written and directed by Tony Gilroy. Renner played a new lead character, Aaron Cross, in place of Jason Bourne, who was played by Matt Damon in the first three films. Renner has expressed interest in doing a \"Bourne\" film with Damon in the future, stating that \"[it] would be kick-ass. I love Matt\". Renner starred in the action horror film \"\" (released in January 2013), in which he and Gemma Arterton played Hansel and Gretel, respectively. The 3-D film was set 15 years after Hansel and Gretel killed the witch who kidnapped them. Renner was also featured in the ensemble cast of David O. Russell's dramedy \"American Hustle\" based on the controversial FBI ABSCAM operation of the late 1970s and early 1980s. The film, which was released in December 2013, also starred Christian Bale, Bradley Cooper, Amy Adams and Jennifer Lawrence in principal roles. The film earned much critical acclaim, including the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture and a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Picture. In October 2014, Renner starred as journalist Gary Webb in the Focus Features film \"Kill the Messenger\", based on Webb's book Dark Alliance. Renner also co-produced the film. In December 2014, Crackle aired \"The Throwaways\", a film for which he served as executive producer.  In 2015, Renner reprised his role as Hawkeye in \"\", the sequel to \"The Avengers\". He returned to the \"Mission: Impossible\" franchise in \"\", released in July 2015. In 2016, Renner played Hawkeye again in the summer blockbuster film \"\", and starred with Amy Adams in the sci-fi film \"Arrival\". Renner is a producer of the 2016 film \"The Founder\" starring Michael Keaton as Ray Kroc, the man who turned McDonald's into one of the world's largest restaurant chains.  In 2016, History announced their historical drama \"Knightfall\", executive produced by Renner, who is expected to guest star. In 2017, while working on the film \"Tag\" (2018), Renner fractured his right elbow and his left wrist. He also appeared in the film \"Wind River\" with his MCU co-star Elizabeth Olsen.  Renner filmed scenes as Hawkeye for \"\" and \"\". Despite this, he did not appear in \"Infinity War\". Because of resulting scheduling conflicts, he was unable to reprise the role of William Brandt in \"\" (2018). In July, Jeremy Renner was announced to play Twitch Williams in Todd McFarlane's \"Spawn\" reboot.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Renner is also a singer-songwriter, guitarist, keyboardist, and drummer. Early in his acting career, he performed in the Sons of Ben. He has performed songs on several film soundtracks: \"I Drink Alone\" for \"North Country,\" \"American Pie\" for \"Love Comes to the Executioner\", and \"Good Ole Rebel\" for \"The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford.\" He also appeared in music videos for \"Trouble\" by P!nk and \"Scenes on Sunset\" by Brother Sal. He was featured in Sam Feldt's 2018 single, \"Heaven (Don't Have a Name)\".  He released his first extended play, \"The Medicine\" in March 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Renner married Canadian model Sonni Pacheco on January 13, 2014. Renner and Pacheco have a daughter, Ava Berlin (born March 28, 2013).<ref", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jeremy Lee Renner (born January 7, 1971) is an American actor, musician and songwriter. He began his career by appearing in independent films such as \"Dahmer\" (2002) and \"Neo Ned\" (2005). Renner earned supporting roles in bigger films, such as \"S.W.A.T.\" (2003) and \"28 Weeks Later\" (2007). Renner was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in \"The Hurt Locker\" (2008) and for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in \"The Town\" (2010). His films have grossed over $3.5 billion in North America and over $9.8 billion worldwide, making him one of the highest-grossing box-office stars of all time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975502}
{"src_title": "Acetylacetone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Properties.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tautomerism.", "content": "The keto and enol tautomers of acetylacetone coexist in solution. The enol form has C symmetry, meaning the hydrogen atom is shared equally between the two oxygen atoms. In the gas phase, the equilibrium constant, \"K\", is 11.7, favoring the enol form. The two tautomeric forms can be distinguished by NMR spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy and other methods. The equilibrium constant tends to be high in nonpolar solvents; the keto form becomes more favorable in polar, hydrogen-bonding solvents, such as water. The enol form is a vinylogous analogue of a carboxylic acid.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Acid–base properties.", "content": "Acetylacetone is a weak acid: IUPAC recommended p\"K\" values for this equilibrium in aqueous solution at 25 °C are 8.99 ± 0.04 (\"I\" = 0), 8.83 ± 0.02 (\"I\" = 0.1 M NaClO) and 9.00 ± 0.03 (\"I\" = 1.0 M NaClO; \"I\" = Ionic strength). Values for mixed solvents are available. Very strong bases, such as organolithium compounds, will deprotonate acetylacetone twice. The resulting dilithio species can then be alkylated at C-1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "Acetylacetone is prepared industrially by the thermal rearrangement of isopropenyl acetate.  Laboratory routes to acetylacetone begin also with acetone. Acetone and acetic anhydride upon the addition of boron trifluoride (BF) catalyst:  A second synthesis involves the base-catalyzed condensation of acetone and ethyl acetate, followed by acidification:  Because of the ease of these syntheses, many analogues of acetylacetonates are known. Some examples include CHC(O)CHC(O)CH (dbaH) and (CH)CC(O)CHC(O)CC(CH). Hexafluoroacetylacetonate is also widely used to generate volatile metal complexes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Condensations.", "content": "Acetylacetone is a versatile bifunctional precursor to heterocycles because both keto groups undergo condensation. Hydrazine reacts to produce pyrazoles. Urea gives pyrimidines. Condensation with two aryl- and alkylamines to gives NacNacs, wherein the oxygen atoms in acetylacetone are replaced by NR (R = aryl, alkyl).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coordination chemistry.", "content": "The acetylacetonate anion, acac, forms complexes with many transition metal ions. A general method of synthesis is to treat a metal salt with acetylacetone in the presence of a base: Both oxygen atoms bind to the metal to form a six-membered chelate ring. In some cases the chelate effect is so strong that no added base is needed to form the complex.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biodegradation.", "content": "Enzymatic breakdown: The enzyme acetylacetone dioxygenase cleaves the carbon-carbon bond of acetylacetone, producing acetate and 2-oxopropanal. The enzyme is iron(II)-dependent, but it has been proven to bind to zinc as well. Acetylacetone degradation has been characterized in the bacterium \"Acinetobacter johnsonii\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Acetylacetone is an organic compound with the formula CHCOCHCOCH. It is a colorless liquid, classified as a 1,3-diketone. It exists in equilibrium with a tautomer CHC(O)CH=C(OH)CH. These tautomers interconvert so rapidly under most conditions that they are treated as a single compound in most applications. It is a colorless liquid that is a precursor to acetylacetonate anion (commonly abbreviated acac), a bidentate ligand. It is also a building block for the synthesis of heterocyclic compounds.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975503}
{"src_title": "Flogging Molly", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Prior to forming Flogging Molly, Dublin-born Dave King was the lead singer for heavy metal band Fastway featuring guitarist \"Fast\" Eddie Clarke of Motörhead and bassist Pete Way of UFO in the early to mid '80s. He later fronted a hard rock band called Katmandu (1991), featuring Mandy Meyer of Krokus on guitars. Afterwards, Dave King retained a record deal with Epic Records and began to work on a solo album, but began to reconsider his record deal when the label opposed his idea of bringing in traditional Irish instruments. King negotiated out of his record deal to go his own way musically soon after.  In 1993, King met guitarist Ted Hutt, bassist Jeff Peters, drummer Paul Crowder and violin player Bridget Regan and put together a rock band with a Celtic feel. They began to play a mix of Irish traditional and rock. Putting Dave's poetic lyrics to rocking melodies, they played at a Los Angeles pub called Molly Malone's weekly, building a small but loyal following. Together, they wrote songs such as \"Black Friday Rule\" and \"Selfish Man\", which was the beginning of Flogging Molly's sound. Ted and Jeff then left Flogging Molly because an earlier band of theirs, Reacharound, received a record deal. Dave and Bridget began to find new members and the current band was formed.  They continued a routine of playing every Monday night at Molly Malone's. They put out a live album, \"Alive Behind the Green Door\" in 1997. In an interview with \"Kerrang!\" magazine, King stated that the band's name comes from the bar (Molly Malone's) that faithfully supported the band from the very beginning, \"We used to play there every Monday night and we felt like we were flogging it to death, so we called the band Flogging Molly.\" They were signed onto SideOneDummy Records after a show when the record company's owners attended a concert and noted their intensity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Flogging Molly has released an independent (26f Records) live album titled \"Alive Behind the Green Door\", as well as six studio albums: \"Swagger\", \"Drunken Lullabies\", \"Within a Mile of Home\", \"Float\", \"Speed of Darkness\", and \"Life Is Good\"; and an acoustic/live DVD/cd combo \"Whiskey on a Sunday\", which has gone platinum. They have toured with the Warped Tour, Larry Kirwan's American Fléadh Festival and contributed to the Rock Against Bush project. They have sold in excess of a million and a half copies of recorded output as of December 6, 2006.  In March 2007, the band released an exclusive EP through iTunes entitled \"Complete Control Sessions\". The EP includes two new tracks, as well as acoustic versions of previously released songs. A year later Flogging Molly released \"Float\", an album dubbed \"one of the most important CDs of the year, if not the decade\" by Alternative Press. Flogging Molly also recognized the album as influential to their career as their first album recorded in Ireland (though mixed in California) by producer Ryan Hewitt. Fans met the release with great anticipation and enthusiasm, landing it at No. 4 on the Billboard Top 200 Chart. The album includes the band's first two chart singles, \"Requiem for a Dying Song\" (which hit No. 35 on the Billboard Modern Rock charts) and \"Float\" (which hit No. 40). Another accolade came to the band in June 2009 when their album \"Drunken Lullabies\" went gold.  While touring to support Float, Dave and Bridget were married in a private ceremony in Tokyo, Japan. Flogging Molly released a live DVD/CD set called \"Live at the Greek Theater\" in March 2010. The 3-disc set (double CD + full-length DVD) captures Flogging Molly's performance at the Greek Theatre on September 12, 2009, and includes content spanning the band's entire catalog. The band appeared in the 2011 season premiere of Austin City Limits. On March 10, 2016, the band released their first new material in 5 years, a single entitled \"The Hand of John L. Sullivan,\" honoring the Irish-American boxer of the same name. It is also the first studio recording with new drummer Mike Alonso.  Flogging Molly's new album \"Life Is Good\" is out now via Vanguard Records. Recorded in Ireland, Life is Good marks Flogging Molly's first studio album in six years since 2011's Speed of Darkness.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Salty Dog Cruises (2015–present).", "content": "From March 13 to 16, 2015, Flogging Molly began hosting a yearly Caribbean cruise. The 2015 Salty Dog Cruise Cruise featured shows by the band and many others, over three days leaving from Miami to Nassau and Great Stirrup Cay on the \"Norwegian Sky\". All bands performed two times on the stages throughout the ship or on the special stage set on Norwegian's private island of Great Stirrup Cay.  In 2016, from March 18 to 21, the second yearly cruise took the same itinerary on the same ship and hosted, among others, Rancid, Fishbone, Frank Turner, Street Dogs and The Tossers.  In 2017, the \"Enchantment of the Seas\" hosted the third annual cruise that left on March 10 to Coco Cay and Nassau, until coming back to Miami on March 13. The guests invited by the band were NOFX, DeVotchKa, Less Than Jake, The English Beat, The Skatalites, The Bouncing Souls, Dylan Walshe and many others.  On August 21, 2017, the band announced that the 2018 cruise will take place April 20–23, leaving from Miami, sailing to Key West and to Great Stirrup Cay. Originally, the cruise was supposed to take place on the \"Enchantment of the Seas\" as in 2017; however, the ship was changed and the Norwegian Sky has been announced. The line-up includes The Offspring, Buzzcocks, The Vandals, Lagwagon, and Mad Caddies, among others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Musical style.", "content": "Flogging Molly's music is influenced by various artists, such as The Dubliners, The Pogues, Horslips, Johnny Cash, The Clash. The album \"Within a Mile of Home\" is dedicated to the memories of Cash and The Clash frontman Joe Strummer.  Their music ranges from boisterous Celtic punk, like the pirate-themed \"Salty Dog\", \"Cruel Mistress\", and \"Seven Deadly Sins\" or the defiant \"What's Left of the Flag\", \"Drunken Lullabies\", and \"Rebels of the Sacred Heart\" to more somber songs like \"Far Away Boys\", \"The Son Never Shines (On Closed Doors)\", \"Life in a Tenement Square\" and \"Float.\" Lyrics typically touch on subjects such as Ireland and its history, drinking, poverty, politics, love, and death and include several references to the Catholic Church. \"What's Left of the Flag\" and \"The Likes of You Again\" were written as tributes to Dave King's father, who died when King was a child.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Flogging Molly is an Irish–American seven-piece Celtic punk band formed in Dublin in 1997. Led by Irish vocalist Dave King, formerly of the hard rock band Fastway. They are signed to their own record label, Borstal Beat Records.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975504}
{"src_title": "Nicolaus von Below", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Below was born on the estate of Jargelin near Anklam in the Province of Pomerania. He was a member of the German aristocracy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "He trained as a pilot in 1929 at the \"Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule\" (DVS—German Air Transport School). From 1929 to 1933 he served with the \"Reichsheer\" 12th Infantry Regiment. Below then joined the German Air Force and served with Jagdgeschwader 132 \"Richthofen\" and then transferred to Jagdgeschwader 26. Below became German dictator Adolf Hitler's Air Force (\"Luftwaffe\") military adjutant in 1937. Below's task was to be the link between Hitler and the air force leadership. Hitler generally disliked and was suspicious of soldiers with aristocratic backgrounds. This was particularly true as the tide of World War II turned against Germany. But Below, with the rank of colonel, was one of the few members of Hitler's entourage to continually serve in a close capacity for so many years.  During the time between the Christmas and New Year's holiday of 1944, Hitler told Below: \"I know the war is lost, the enemy's superiority is far too great.\" But Hitler, still dwelling on the 20 July Plot to kill him, placed the blame on traitors. He then told Below: \"We will never surrender, we may go down, but we will take a world with us.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Berlin 1945.", "content": "Hitler, presiding over a rapidly disintegrating Third Reich, retreated to his \"Führerbunker\" in Berlin on 16 January 1945. As his long serving Luftwaffe adjutant, Below traveled with Hitler back to Berlin. Early on, Hitler continued to utilize the undamaged wing of the Reich Chancellery, where he held afternoon military conferences in his large study. However, that practice ended and all the military briefing conferences were moved down into the \"Führerbunker\". By April, to the Nazi leadership, it was clear that the Battle for Berlin would be the final battle of the war. On 12 April 1945, Below was a guest of Albert Speer to see the last performance of the Berlin Philharmonic before the city was captured by the Red Army. He later wrote: \"The concert took us back to another world.\"  On 15 April, Eva Braun was moved into the room next to the room Hitler occupied in the \"Führerbunker\". Below wrote the following of her: \"She was charming and obliging and showed no weakness right up to the last moment.\"  By 27 April, Below was part of a very small group which were present for the military briefings. General Krebs was the only senior military officer still present and Reich propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels, who had moved into the bunker complex with his family, now also was present. On 29 April, after the wedding of Hitler and Braun, Below was a witness to the last will and testament of Adolf Hitler. He did not sign the Political Testament but added his signature to the Private Testament of the document. Thereafter, Below asked Hitler if he could leave the \"Führerbunker\" and attempt to make it out of Berlin to the west. Hitler granted him permission to leave. On 30 April, Below left Berlin carrying a letter from Hitler to Field marshal Wilhelm Keitel explaining the recent events of betrayal and extolling the sacrifices of the German people.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "He was arrested by the British in 1946 and held until 1948. After the war, Below wrote a memoir of his experiences as an adjutant to Hitler from 1937 to 1945, \"At Hitler's Side\" (2001) (). He died on 24 July 1983 in Detmold, West Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicolaus von Below (20 September 1907 – 24 July 1983) was an officer in the German \"Luftwaffe\" and an adjutant to Adolf Hitler.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975505}
{"src_title": "Captain Antifer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Publication history.", "content": "The novel was completed in 1892. It was serialized in the \"Magasin d'éducation et de récréation\", from January 1 to December 15, 1894. It was then published in book form by Verne's regular publisher Hetzel. It was translated into English in 1895.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot.", "content": "1799: The French campaign in Egypt and Syria. At Jaffa, General Napoléon Bonaparte ruthlessly orders the killing of 4,500 Turkish prisoners of war. A Breton sea captain attached to the French force notices a still living young Turkish soldier among the piled bodies, and saves his life. The Turk, who would later rise to great wealth and prominence in Cairo, will not forget his saviour.  1831: The wealthy Egyptian Kamylk-Pasha buries his treasures in the rock of an unknown islet, to save them from the greed of his family.  1862: In Saint-Malo, Pierre Antifer, an impulsive and gruff Breton sea captain, meditates on a document bequeathed by his father – a latter sent by Kamylk-Pasha, whose life the father had saved. This document mentions the latitude of the island where the treasure is hidden, with the longitude to be communicated to Antifer once upon a time. Antifer's nephew, Juhel, thinks only of his coming marriage with his beloved Enogate and fears the consequences of a possible trip.  The Egyptian notary Ben-Omar – accompanied by Saouk, the last heir of the Pasha – arrives at Saint-Malo and reveals to Master Antifer the long desired longitude. The impulsive seaman immediately embarks, drawing with him his friend Gildas Tregomain and poor Juhel, whose marriage was put off indefinitely. The islet is located in the Arabian Sea off the coast of Muscat in Oman.  Alas! Instead of the expected treasure, the travelers discover a second parchment, indicating a new longitude, and referring them to the Maltese banker Zambuco, who once helped Kamylk-Pasha and thus deserves a share of the hidden treasure. Zambuco has the latitude, and the new location turns out to be another islet – off the African coast, in the Gulf of Guinea.  There, they find a new message, including a small diamond to defray their mounting travelling costs, a new longitude and the name of a new treasure-colleague residing in Scotland. However, when arriving in Edinburgh, they find that the Reverend Tyrcomel is an advocate of the complete abolition of wealth: he has no interest in finding the treasure himself nor in helping others get it, and obstinately refuses to hand over the latitude in his possession.  Saouk, violent and unscrupulous, resorts to brute force: coming back in the night, undressing and tying up the unfortunate Tyrcomel – and discovering the required information tattooed on the Scotsman's body, put there by his late father who had once traveled to the Orient and helped Kamylk-Pasha. The brigand would not benefit from his violent deed – Saouk ends up in a British prison, but the rest of the treasure hunters know where to head to next.  Antifer, equipped with the new latitude, charters a ship for Spitzbergen, where a third islet is located. He discovers only a half-illegible document, and is unable to identify the final location of the jackpot. Sick and tired with frustration, he returns to Saint-Malo and Juhel can finally marry Enogate.  Unintentionally, it is the young woman who will provide her husband (and his uncle) with the solution of the enigma, enabling him to interpret the recalcitrant parchment: the treasure is hidden off Sicily, at the exact center of a circle described by the three divergent islets which they visited. Everybody hurries there – to find only an empty sea. Julia Island, of volcanic origin, had emerged from the depths of the sea in 1831 and was used to bury the treasure – but unfortunately, it returned to the depths shortly after its emergence. Adieu, then, to Kamylk-Pacha's gold and precious stones!  Antifer, cured permanently of his dreams of opulence, is able to laugh off his misadventures – to the great relief of his family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Julia Island.", "content": "Julia Island (also known as Graham Island) which figures in the book's dramatic conclusion, is historical and did indeed appear in 1831 and disappear in 1832, creating a considerable international stir at the time. As of 2016, there are indications that it might reappear just as predicted in the book – though far too late for Captain Antifer and his companions (also predicted).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Captain Antifer (, literally \"The Wonderful Adventures of Captain Antifer\", 1894) is an adventure novel written by Jules Verne. The novel tells of a treasure hunt, where the clues – arriving in bits and pieces – lead the seaman Pierre Antife of Saint-Malo and various others of diverse nationalities and backgrounds on a complicated route – from Tunisia to the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Guinea, and then to Edinburgh, Spitzbergen, and finally to the Mediterranean off Sicily.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975506}
{"src_title": "Vasil Bykaŭ", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Vasil Bykaŭ was born in the village Byčki, not far from Viciebsk in 1924. In 1941 he was in Ukraine when Germany attacked the USSR. At first seventeen-year-old Bykaŭ dug trenches – then he volunteered for the Red Army. He was arrested and almost shot as a German spy. For years after the war he continued to serve, returning to the USSR only in the mid-1950s. There he started to work as a journalist for the Hrodna Pravda newspaper. In that same decade his first novellas began to come out, of which the most famous are \"Sotnikaŭ\", \"The Obelisk\", \"To Go and Not Return\", and \"To Live Till Sunrise\". \"Sotnikaŭ\" (\"The Ordeal\") inspired director Larisa Shepitko's film \"The Ascent\", released in 1977 and winner of the Golden Bear award at the 27th Berlin International Film Festival. During and after the Perestroika, he participated in pro-reform movement (e.g. Popular Front of Belarus). In October 1993, he signed the Letter of Forty-Two.  Bykaŭ's literary achievement lies in his sternly realistic, albeit touched by lyricism, depictions of World War II battles, typically with a small number of characters. In the ferociousness of encounter they face moral dilemmas both vis-a-vis their enemies and within their own Soviet world burdened by ideological and political constraints. This approach brought vicious accusations of \"false humanism\" from some Red Army generals and the Communist Party press. Other reviews praised the uncompromising writing. \"Vasil Bykov is a very courageous and uncompromising writer, rather of the Solzhenitsyn stamp,\" wrote Michael Glenny in Partisan Review in 1972. Bykaŭ was one of the most admired writers in the Soviet Union. In 1980 he was awarded the honorific title of People's Writer of the Belarusian SSR.  Outside of his native country, Vasil Bykaŭ is one of the most widely read Belarusian writers. During the Soviet period, his works were translated into most major languages of the world. Several of Bykaŭ's novellas are available in English, such as \"The Dead Feel No Pain\" (1965), \"The Ordeal\" (1970), \"Wolf Pack\" (1975) and \"Sign of Misfortune\". However, most of the translations were done on the basis of Russian rendering. Bykaŭ wrote all of his works in his native Belarusian language, and translated several of them into Russian by himself. Vasil Bykaŭ's stature in the life of his country remains enormous. An opponent of Alexander Lukashenko's regime and a supporter of the Belarusian People's Front, he lived abroad for several years (first in Finland, then in Germany and the Czech Republic), but returned to his homeland just a month before his death. The memory of his turbulent life and uncompromising stance on the war have only enhanced his reputation at home and abroad ever since.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vasíl Uładzímiravič Býkaŭ (often spelled Vasil Bykov,, ) (19 June 1924 – 22 June 2003) was a prolific author of novels and novellas about World War II and a significant figure in soviet and Belarusian literature and civic thought. His work earned him endorsements for the Nobel Prize nomination from, among others, Nobel Prize laureates Joseph Brodsky and Czesław Miłosz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975507}
{"src_title": "American lion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and evolution.", "content": "The American lion was designated by American paleontologist Joseph Leidy as \"Felis atrox\" in 1853. Hemmer proposed the trinomen \"Panthera leo atrox\" in 1974, which was later supported by Kurten in 1985.  The American lion was initially considered a distinct species of Pantherinae, and designated as \"Panthera atrox\", which means \"cruel\" or \"fearsome panther\" in Latin. Some paleontologists accepted this view, but others considered it to be a type of lion closely related to the modern lion (\"Panthera\" \"leo\") and its extinct relative, the Eurasian cave lion (\"Panthera leo spelaea\" or \"P. spelaea\"). It was later assigned as a subspecies of \"P. leo\" (\"P. leo atrox\") rather than as a separate species. Most recently, both \"spelaea\" and \"atrox\" have been treated as full species.  Cladistic studies using morphological characteristics have been unable to resolve the phylogenetic position of the American lion. One study considered the American lion, along with the cave lion, to be most closely related to the tiger (\"Panthera tigris)\", citing a comparison of the skull; the braincase, in particular, appears to be especially similar to the braincase of a tiger. Another study suggested that the American lion and the Eurasian cave lion were successive offshoots of a lineage leading to a leopard-extant lion clade. A more recent study comparing the skull and jaw of the American lion with other pantherines concluded that it was not a lion but a distinct species. It was proposed that it arose from pantherines that migrated to North America during the mid-Pleistocene and gave rise to American lions and jaguars (\"Panthera onca\"). Another study grouped the American lion with \"P. leo\" and \"P. tigris\", and ascribed morphological similarities to \"P. onca\" to convergent evolution, rather than phylogenetic affinity.  However, mitochondrial DNA sequence data from fossil remains suggests that the American lion (\"P. atrox\") represents a sister lineage to the Eurasian cave lion (\"P. spelaea\"), and likely arose when an early cave lion population became isolated south of the North American continental ice sheet about 340,000 years ago. The most recent common ancestor of the \"P. atrox\" lineage is estimated to have lived about 200,000 (118,000 to 346,000) years ago. This implies that it became genetically isolated from \"P. spelaea\" before the start of the Illinoian glaciation; a \"spelaea\" population is known to have been present in eastern Beringia by that time, where it persisted until at least 11,925 ± 70 years ago. This separation was maintained during the interstadials of the Illinoian and following Wisconsin glaciations as well as during the Sangamonian interglacial between them. Boreal forests may have contributed to the separation during warmer intervals; alternatively, a reproductive barrier may have existed.  The study also indicates that the modern lion is the closest living relative of \"P. atrox\" and \"P. spelaea\". The lineages leading to extant lions and \"atrox\"/\"spelaea\" were thought to have diverged about 1.9 million years ago, before a whole genome-wide sequence of lions from Africa and Asia by Marc de Manuel et al. showed that the lineage of the cave lion diverged from that of the modern lion around 392,000 – 529,000 years ago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The American lion is estimated to have measured from the tip of the nose to the base of the tail and stood at the shoulder. Thus, it was smaller than its contemporary competitor, the giant short-faced bear, which was the largest carnivoran of North America at the time, and larger than the saber-toothed cat, \"Smilodon fatalis\", which may have weighed up to. In 2008, the American lion was estimated to weigh up to. A study in 2009 showed an average weight of for males and for the largest specimen analyzed. A study in 2012 estimated a range of for males and for females, which suggests that the lion was heavier than \"Smilodon\".  About 80 American lion individuals have been recovered from the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, so their morphology is well known. Their features strongly resemble those of modern lions, but they were considerably larger, similar to \"P. spelaea\" and the Pleistocene Natodomeri lion of eastern Africa.  Preserved skin remains found with skeletal material thought by its describers to be from the American lion in caves in the Argentine Patagonia indicate that the animal was reddish in color. Cave paintings from El Ceibo in the Santa Cruz Province of Argentina seem to confirm this, and reduce the possibility of confusion with fossil jaguars, as similar cave paintings accurately depict the jaguar as yellow in color.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The earliest lions known in the Americas south of Alaska are from the Sangamonian Stage – the last interglacial period – following which, the American lion spread from Alberta to Maryland, reaching as far south as Chiapas, Mexico. It was generally not found in the same areas as the jaguar, which favored forests over open habitats. It was absent from eastern Canada and the northeastern United States, perhaps due to the presence of dense boreal forests in the region. The American lion was formerly believed to have colonized northwestern South America as part of the Great American Interchange. However, the fossil remains found in the tar pits of Talara, Peru actually belong to an unusually large jaguar. On the other hand, fossils of a large felid from late Pleistocene localities in southern Chile and Argentina traditionally identified as an extinct subspecies of jaguar, \"Panthera onca mesembrina\", have been reported to be remains of the American lion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The American lion inhabited savannas and grasslands like the modern lion. In some areas of their range, American lions lived under cold climatic conditions. They probably used caves for shelter from the cold weather in those areas, and might have lined their dens with grass or leaves, as the modern Siberian tiger does.  The remains of American lions are not as abundant as those of other predators like \"Smilodon fatalis\" or dire wolves (\"Canis dirus\") at the La Brea Tar Pits, which suggests that they were better at evading entrapment, possibly due to greater intelligence. American lions likely preyed on deer, horses, camels, tapirs, American bison, mammoths, and other large ungulates (hoofed mammals). Evidence for predation of bison by American lions is particularly strong as a mummified carcass nicknamed \"Blue Babe\" was discovered in Alaska with clear bite and claw marks from lions. Based on the largely intact nature of the carcass, it probably froze before the lions could devour it. The American lion went extinct along with most of the Pleistocene megafauna during the Quaternary extinction event. The most recent fossil, from Edmonton, dates to 11,355 ± 55 years ago. American lion bones have been found in the trash heaps of Paleolithic Native Americans, suggesting that human predation contributed to its extinction.  A replica of the jaw of the first American lion specimen to be discovered can be seen in the hand of a statue of famous paleontologist Joseph Leidy, currently standing outside the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The American lion (\"Panthera atrox\"), also known as the \"North American lion\", or \"American cave lion\", is an extinct pantherine cat that lived in North America during the Pleistocene epoch about 340,000 to 11,000 years ago. Its fossils have been excavated from Alaska to Mexico. Genetic analysis has shown that the American lion and the Late Pleistocene Eurasian cave lion (\"Panthera spelaea\") are sister lineages. It was about 25% larger than the modern lion, making it one of the largest known felids.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975508}
{"src_title": "Tehelné pole (1939)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Football (soccer).", "content": "Most commonly, the name refers to the football stadium in this district which is the home ground of Slovan Bratislava and the regular home for the Slovakia national team. The stadium has a capacity of 30,085 spectators, and is 105 m long and 68 m wide. The stadium was built during the First Slovak Republic, when Nazi Germany occupied Petržalka in 1938 and Bratislava lost almost all of its sporting facilities. The construction lasted from 1939 to 1944 and the stadium became the home ground for Slovan Bratislava. The stadium was officially opened in September 1940 with 25,000 places, and the first international match was played on 27 October 1940, with Slovan Bratislava playing against Hertha Berlin, ending in a 2–2 tie.  The old stadium underwent reconstruction in 1961, which added a second stand, boosting its capacity to 45,000, as well as a score table, artificial lighting and revamping the field. Later, the capacity was increased to 50,000, and just before the breakup of Czechoslovakia, it was the largest stadium in use (Strahov Stadium in Prague had a capacity of 220,000 but was disused in the 1990s) and was the home ground for the Czechoslovak national team.  The stadium was reconstructed once more in the 1990s to an \"all-seater\" stadium, reducing the capacity into 30,000. After this, the Tehelné pole stadium was the second-largest in Slovakia after Všešportový areál in Košice, however, that stadium is now disused. In 2005–06, it was also used as the \"home\" ground for FC Artmedia Bratislava in that club's Champions League and UEFA Cup campaigns, as Artmedia's own ground did not meet minimum standards for UEFA competitions.  It is planned that the current stadium will be demolished and a new one with the capacity around 35,000 people will be built, costing around €80 million. The need for a new stadium stems from UEFA rules requiring international matches to be played in stadiums of certain standards from 2008, however, Slovakia lacks these stadiums.<br> In July 2009, the Slovak government decided to support the construction of new stadium. The demolition works were planned for March–April 2010 and the new stadium was planned to open in December 2017. Its capacity was planned to be 22,000 spectators with a possible enlargement to 30,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lido.", "content": "A lido (swimming pool) with the same name was built near the football stadium in 1939. It survives to the present day and currently has three swimming pools of varying size, with additional services.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other stadiums/venues nearby.", "content": "Other stadiums or venues near Tehelné pole locality include Štadión Pasienky (built 1962), home ground for FK Inter Bratislava, ice hockey Ondrej Nepela Arena (built 2011), home of the KHL team HC Slovan Bratislava and the National Tennis Centre, which is used for Fed Cup as well as Davis Cup matches, concerts and other events.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tehelné pole was a neighborhood in Bratislava, Slovakia, characterized by the presence of several sports facilities. Administratively, the neighborhood belongs to Nové Mesto borough, situated around 5 km north-east of the centre. The German and Hungarian names for this locality are \"Ziegelfeld\" and \"Téglamező\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975509}
{"src_title": "Atlantic canary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Atlantic canary can range from in length, with a wingspan of and a weight of, with an average of around. The male has a largely yellow-green head and underparts with a yellower forehead, face and supercilium. The lower belly and undertail-coverts are whitish and there are some dark streaks on the sides. The upperparts are grey-green with dark streaks and the rump is dull yellow. The female is similar to the male but duller with a greyer head and breast and less yellow underparts. Juvenile birds are largely brown with dark streaks.  It is about 10% larger, longer and less contrasted than its relative the European serin, and has more grey and brown in its plumage and relatively shorter wings.  The song is a silvery twittering similar to the songs of the European serin and citril finch.  Hybridization with the white-rumped seedeater has been noted by Antonio Arnaiz-Villena \"et al\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The Atlantic canary was classified by Linnaeus in 1758 in his \"Systema Naturae\". Linnaeus originally classified the Atlantic canary as a subspecies of the European serin and assigned them to the genus \"Fringilla\". Decades later, Cuvier reclassified them into the genus \"Serinus\" and there they have remained. The Atlantic canary's closest relative is the European serin, and the two can produce on average 25% fertile hybrids if crossed.  The phylogeny has been obtained by Antonio Arnaiz-Villena et al.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The bird is named after the Canary Islands, not the other way around. The islands' name is derived from the Latin name \"canariae insulae\" (\"islands of dogs\") used by Arnobius, referring to the large dogs kept by the inhabitants of the islands. A legend of the islands, however, states that it was the conquistadors who named the islands after a fierce tribe inhabiting the largest island of the group, known as the 'Canarii'. The colour canary yellow is in turn named after the yellow domestic canary, produced by a mutation which suppressed the melanins of the original dull greenish wild Atlantic canary colour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "It is endemic to the Canary Islands, Azores and Madeira in the region known as Macaronesia in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the Canary Islands, it is common on Tenerife, La Gomera, La Palma and El Hierro, but more local on Gran Canaria, and rare on Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, where it has only recently begun breeding. It is common in Madeira including Porto Santo and the Desertas Islands, and has been recorded on the Salvage Islands. In the Azores, it is common on all islands. The population has been estimated at 80,000-90,000 pairs in the Canary Islands, 30,000-60,000 pairs in the Azores and 4,000-5,000 pairs in Madeira.  It occurs in a wide variety of habitats from pine and laurel forests to sand dunes. It is most common in semiopen areas with small trees such as orchards and copses. It frequently occurs in man-made habitats such as parks and gardens. It is found from sea-level up to at least 760 m in Madeira, 1,100 m in the Azores and to above 1,500 m in the Canary Islands.  It has become established on Midway Atoll in the northwest Hawaiian Islands, where it was first introduced in 1911. It was also introduced to neighbouring Kure Atoll, but failed to become established there. Birds were introduced to Bermuda in 1930 and quickly started breeding, but they began to decline in the 1940s after scale insects devastated the population of Bermuda cedar, and by the 1960s they had died out. The species also occurs in Puerto Rico, but is not yet established there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "It is a gregarious bird which often nests in groups with each pair defending a small territory. The cup-shaped nest is built 1–6 m above the ground in a tree or bush, most commonly at 3–4 m. It is well-hidden amongst leaves, often at the end of a branch or in a fork. It is made of twigs, grass, moss and other plant material and lined with soft material including hair and feathers.  The eggs are laid between January and July in the Canary Islands, from March to June with a peak of April and May in Madeira and from March to July with a peak of May and June in the Azores. They are pale blue or blue-green with violet or reddish markings concentrated at the broad end. A clutch contains 3 to 4 or occasionally 5 eggs and 2-3 broods are raised each year. The eggs are incubated for 13–14 days and the young birds leave the nest after 14–21 days, most commonly after 15–17 days.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "It typically feeds in flocks, foraging on the ground or amongst low vegetation. It mainly feeds on seeds such as those of weeds, grasses and figs. It also feeds on other plant material and small insects.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Atlantic canary (\"Serinus canaria\"), known worldwide simply as the wild canary and also called the island canary, common canary, or canary, is a small passerine bird belonging to the genus \"Serinus\" in the finch family, Fringillidae. It is native to the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Madeira. Wild birds are mostly yellow-green, with brownish streaking on the back. The species is common in captivity and a number of colour varieties have been bred.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975510}
{"src_title": "Handley Page H.P.54 Harrow", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The H.P. 54 Harrow was the production version of the earlier Handley Page H.P.51 design, itself a monoplane conversion of the three-engined Handley Page H.P.43 biplane. The two monoplanes were both designed by Dr. G.V. Lachmann. Initially Handley Page intended to offer the H.P.51 to Air Ministry specification C.26/31 for a bomber-transport, then saw the H.P.54 as a more likely winner. In the end neither type was a candidate for C.26/31, since in June 1935 the Air Ministry, anxious to expand and modernise the RAF wrote specification B.29/35 around the Harrow, emphasising its bomber role though retaining its transport capability. On 14 August, months before the first Harrow flew, the Ministry put in an order for 100 aircraft. Powered by Bristol Pegasus X engines of, the first Harrow flew on 10 October 1936 from Radlett. The Harrow was designed to have powered nose and tail turrets, with a manually operated dorsal turret. The nose and dorsal turrets were armed with a single Lewis gun, while the tail turret carried two Lewis guns. (These guns were later replaced by Vickers K machine guns). A bombload of up to could be carried under the cabin floor, with the aircraft being able to carry a single bomb.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first Harrow was delivered to No. 214 Squadron RAF on 13 January 1937, with all 100 delivered by the end of the year, with five bomber squadrons of the RAF being equipped with the Harrow. The Fleet Air Arm ordered 100 Harrows but Handley Page lacked the production capacity to supply them. Despite being fitted with cabin heating by steam boilers using exhaust heat, the Harrow gained a reputation of being a cold and draughty aircraft, owing to the turret design. As the delivery of more modern bombers increased, the Harrow was phased out as a frontline bomber by the end of 1939 but continued to be used as a transport. 271 Squadron was formed on 1 May 1940 with a mixture of Harrows, Bristol Bombays and impressed civil aircraft. While the other aircraft equipping 271 Squadron were replaced by Douglas Dakotas, it retained a flight of Harrows (sometimes nicknamed \"Sparrows\" due to their new nose fairings to give a more streamlined fuselage) as transports and ambulance aircraft until the end of the Second World War in Europe.  Harrows were used occasionally to operate risky flights between England and Gibraltar, two being lost on this route. Harrows also operated in support of Allied forces in their advance into north-west Europe, evacuating wounded from the Arnhem operation in September 1944. Seven Harrows were destroyed by a low level attack by \"Luftwaffe\" fighters of JG 26 and JG 54 on Evere airfield as part of Operation \"Bodenplatte\", the German attack on Allied airfields in northwest Europe on 1 January 1945, leaving only five Harrows, which were eventually retired on 25 May 1945.  The Harrow also served in a novel operational role at the height of The Blitz against Britain in the winter of 1940–1941. Six Harrows equipped No. 420 Flight RAF (later No. 93 Squadron RAF) which used lone Harrows to tow Long Aerial Mines (LAM) into the path of enemy bombers. The LAM had an explosive charge on the end of a long cable and the unorthodox tactic was credited with the destruction of 4–6 German bombers. The experiment was judged of poor value and the planned deployment of Douglas Havocs in the LAM role was cancelled. Nine Harrows were also used by 782 Naval Air Squadron, Fleet Air Arm as transports. After flight refuelling trials, three Harrows were operated by Flight Refuelling Limited and refuelled Short Empire Flying Boats on transatlantic services, two from Gander, Newfoundland and one based in Foynes, Ireland. In 1940, the two aircraft based at Gander were pressed into service with the Royal Canadian Air Force.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Handley Page H.P.54 Harrow was a British heavy bomber of the 1930s built by Handley Page and used by the Royal Air Force, being used for most of the Second World War as a transport. It was a twin-engine, high-wing monoplane with a fixed undercarriage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975511}
{"src_title": "Poděbrady", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Points of interest.", "content": "In Poděbrady attractions include lakes for swimming, a riding school and tennis courts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flag and Emblem.", "content": "The town acquired its emblem in 1472 from the sons of King George of Poděbrady. His description reads as follows: In a gold shield, a silver block wall, culminating with nine red-covered shades. In the middle of the wall, a gate with a black hole, a gold gate, and a golden grille, topped with silver spikes. Behind the wall stands a silver round tower with two oblong windows above it, a cornice in the middle, with a battlement of four shadows on its top, and a pointed red roof with a poppy. Behind the tower, as if standing on the wall, black-and-red eagle with golden armor, red tongue and silver crescent over breasts and wings. On the wall above the gate is a silver label with three black stripes in the upper half. The label is a sign of the Lords of Kunštát, ie Jiří of Poděbrady, an eagle and his descendants, the princes of Münsterberk.  The city flag was approved by the Decree of the Ministry of the Interior No. B-8117-25 / 11-47-II / 3 dated August 20, 1948. The aspect ratio is 2:3.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Territorial inclusion.", "content": "The history of territorial integration includes the period from 1850 to the present. The chronological overview shows the territorial administrative jurisdiction of the municipality in the year when the change occurred:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Poděbrady is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Poděbrady (; ) is a historical spa town in the Central Bohemian Region, Czech Republic. It lies on the river Labe east of Prague on the D11 highway. It obtained the status of town from the king of Bohemia in 1472. A historic milestone in the life of the town was the year 1905, when it was visited by the German estate owner Prince von Bülow. This well-known water diviner found in the inner courtyard of the castle signs of a strong spring, which was later bored to a depth of. The discovery of carbonic mineral water resulted in the opening of the first spa in 1908. After World War I Poděbrady rapidly changed into a spa town which from 1926 specialized in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, rapidly gaining renown not only in the Czech Republic, but also abroad in countries including Austria, Germany, Russia and the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975512}
{"src_title": "SketchUp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "@Last Software.", "content": "SketchUp was developed by startup company @Last Software of Boulder, Colorado, co-founded in 1999 by Brad Schell and Joe Esch.  SketchUp debuted in August 2000 as a general-purpose 3D content creation tool and was envisioned as a software program \"that would allow design professionals to draw the way they want by emulating the feel and freedom of working with pen and paper in a simple and elegant interface, that would be fun to use and easy to learn and that would be used by designers to play with their designs in a way that is not possible with traditional design software. It also has user friendly buttons to make it easier to use.\"  The program won a Community Choice Award at its first tradeshow in 2000.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Google.", "content": "Google acquired @Last Software on March 14, 2006 for an undisclosed sum of money, attracted by @Last Software's work developing a plugin for Google Earth.  On January 9, 2007, Google announced Google SketchUp 6, a free downloadable version of SketchUp, without some functionality of SketchUp Pro, but including integrated tools for uploading content to Google Earth and to the Google 3D Warehouse. A toolbox enables a viewer to \"walk around\" and see things from different viewpoints and supports labels for models, a look-around tool and an \"any polygon\" shape tool. Google SketchUp Pro 6 introduced a beta version of Google SketchUp LayOut. LayOut includes 2D vector tools and page layout tools allowing presentations to be produced without the need for a separate presentation program.  On November 17, 2008, SketchUp 7 was released with changes intended to make it easier to use, integration of SketchUp's Component Browser with Google 3D Warehouse, LayOut 2 and dynamic components that respond to scaling. Windows 2000 was no longer supported.  On September 1, 2010, SketchUp 8 was released with model geolocation with Google Maps and Building Maker integration. Mac OS X Tiger was no longer supported.  Neither the free version nor the professional version was available in a native format for Linux, or Mac OS earlier than 10.5. SketchUp version 8 use under Wine has been rated \"Gold\".  Geolocation information is always stored in the KMZ file. The building designs themselves are saved in SKP.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trimble.", "content": "Trimble Navigation (now Trimble Inc.) acquired SketchUp from Google on June 1, 2012 for an undisclosed sum. In 2013 SketchUp 2013 was released. A new site was provided, Extension Warehouse, hosting plugins and extensions for SketchUp.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "SketchUp comes in multiple editions; all are proprietary software.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pro.", "content": "SketchUp Pro includes the functionality of SketchUp Make plus importers and exporters to common 2D and 3D formats, access to LayOut (2D documentation software) and Style Builder (create custom edge styles for SketchUp models). SketchUp Pro 2016 has native integration with Trimble Connect, treat 3D Warehouse models as references, a rebuilt Generate Report and now LayOut offers web-friendly reference objects as well as a new LayOut API.  SketchUp Pro licensing is cross-platform and works on both Windows and Mac machines.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shop.", "content": "SketchUp Shop is a version of SketchUp specifically for DIY designers, makers, and woodworkers. It has a feature set designed to meet their needs (e.g. interface with 3D printers, CNC routers and other shop machines). A major difference between Shop and Pro is that SketchUp Shop is a web application that you run in a browser while connected to the Internet whereas SketchUp Pro is a downloadable application that you can use offline.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Free.", "content": "In November 2017, SketchUp Free was released as a web-based application which replaces SketchUp Make. Drawings can be saved to the cloud, saved locally as a native SKP file, or exported as an STL file. Compared to Make, SketchUp Free does not support extensions, creation and editing of materials.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Make.", "content": "Sketchup Make (formerly SketchUp for Home and Personal Use), introduced in May 2013, is a free-of-charge version for home, personal and educational use. It begins with a 30-day trial of SketchUp Pro. After that time, users can agree to the Terms of Service and continue to use SketchUp Make for free. There will be no further releases of Make after November 2017; users are expected to migrate to SketchUp Free, though the installer remains available for download.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "3D Warehouse.", "content": "3D Warehouse is an open library in which SketchUp users may upload and download 3D models to share. The models can be downloaded right into the program without anything having to be saved onto your computer's storage. File sizes of the models can be up to 50 MB. Anyone can make, modify and re-upload content to and from the 3D warehouse free of charge. All the models in 3D Warehouse are free, so anyone can download files for use in SketchUp or even other software such as AutoCAD, Revit and ArchiCAD - all of which have apps allowing the retrieval of models from 3D Warehouse. Since 2014 Trimble has launched a new version of 3D Warehouse where companies may have an official page with their own 3D catalog of products. Trimble is currently investing in creating 3D developer partners in order to have more professionally modeled products available in 3D Warehouse. According to the Trimble, 3D Warehouse is the most popular 3D content site on the web. SketchUp designers may visit 3D Warehouse to discover new products or for inspiration when designing their own.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patents.", "content": "SketchUp holds U.S. Patent 6,628,279, granted in September 2003, on its \"\"Push/Pull\"\" technology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Software extensions.", "content": "SketchUp 4 and later support software extensions written in the Ruby programming language, which add specialized functionality. Many such extensions are available to others on the Trimble Extension Warehouse and many other 3rd party websites as well. SketchUp has a Ruby console, an environment which allows experimentation with Ruby.  SketchUp Free, the web-based version, does not support extensions which severely limits the functionality of the tool.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Model viewers.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "VRcollab LITE.", "content": "VRcollab LITE allows users to import and view SketchUp and other BIM model files in virtual reality for design review, requirement approvals and coordination meetings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "SketchUp Viewer.", "content": "SketchUp Viewer is a paid app released by Trimble. It is available on iOS, Android, and Microsoft HoloLens.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cubits.", "content": "Cubits for iPad and iOS is a 3D interactive model viewer/renderer. It can view.kmz files from SketchUp either as attachments through e-mail or via Dropbox.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "IrisVR Prospect.", "content": "IrisVR Prospect software allows users to view SketchUp files in virtual reality with the use of head mounted displays such as the HTC Vive or Oculus Rift.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kubity.", "content": "Kubity — the first mixed reality multiplex, is a system to instantly visualize 3D models on multiple devices: desktop computers, smartphones, tablets, augmented reality gear and virtual reality glasses. They also developed rvt2skp, a free plugin to export any Revit project to a.skp file.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Wild.", "content": "The Wild is a collaboration software that allows architecture and design teams to experience their SketchUp models together in virtual and augmented reality.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "SketchUp is a 3D modeling computer program for a wide range of drawing applications such as architectural, interior design, landscape architecture, civil and mechanical engineering, film and video game design. It is available as a web-based application, \"SketchUp Free\", a freeware version, \"SketchUp Make\", and a paid version with additional functionality, \"SketchUp Pro\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975513}
{"src_title": "Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "He was born in Edinburgh on 14 March 1771, the only son of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, and his first wife, the former Elizabeth Rannie (1751–1843). Educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh, he went in 1786 with his tutor John Bruce on a continental tour and enrolled at Göttingen University. He studied afterwards at the University of Edinburgh and at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and was admitted at Lincoln's Inn in 1788. After a successful attempt at law he became his father's private secretary from 1794, though he was brought in as MP for Hastings in 1794, and then Rye in 1796. The same year, on 29 August, he married an heiress, Anne Saunders (died 10 Sept 1841), and took her name beside his own. They had four sons and two daughters; their eldest son, Henry Dundas, later third Viscount Melville, became an army officer while their second son, Richard Saunders Dundas, became First Naval Lord.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President of the Board of Control.", "content": "Dundas was appointed Keeper of the Signet for Scotland and elected MP for Midlothian (Edinburghshire) in 1801. He remained silent in parliament until his speeches of 1805 and 1806 in defence of his father, who was then being impeached. His first real test came in negotiating to be left in charge of Scotland by a hostile ‘ministry of all the talents’. He got nowhere, but won the respect of his own side, and the problem vanished with the ministry's collapse. He was rewarded with the presidency of the Board of Control for India by the Duke of Portland in 1807.  Dundas's main task was to frustrate any possibility that Napoleon might exploit his alliance with Russia to make some attempt on British India. He sent a mission to the shah of Persia, at whose court French agents were present. He formed alliances with the princes of Lahore and Kabul. He ordered occupation of the Portuguese factories in India and China, of the Dutch colony of Java, and of the French stations on Mauritius and Réunion. He had also to deal with a sharp deterioration, through loss of trade during the war, in the finances of the East India Company. A series of reports on its development since the India Act of 1784, written by a select committee which he chaired, concluded that it should give up its inefficient trading privileges, at least in the subcontinent. Dundas drafted the legislation which ended them at the renewal of the company's charter in 1813.  Dundas's Indian administration was interrupted for six months in 1809 when he served as Chief Secretary for Ireland. Spencer Perceval, succeeding Portland, then wanted to promote him to the cabinet as secretary for war, but this did not happen due to the wishes of his father. Dundas returned to the Board of Control, still without a place in cabinet. He succeeded as Viscount Melville on 27 May 1811. The next year, under Prime Minister Lord Liverpool, he was promoted First Lord of the Admiralty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Admiralty.", "content": "While the Napoleonic wars went on, his job was to maintain the British maritime supremacy established at the battle of Trafalgar. In a state paper of February 1813 he pointed out that France, with the shipbuilding resources of the Netherlands and Italy at her disposal, would be able to construct a fleet to match Britain's if the struggle continued much longer. The point was underlined by complaints from the Duke of Wellington in Spain of inadequate protection for the convoys supplying him, especially after the outbreak of hostilities with the United States in 1812 unleashed hordes of American privateers on the Atlantic.  Drastic cuts followed the eventual peace, but Britain, now the only colonial power of any importance, found her maritime commitments increased. Melville did not think the fleet could be reduced much below 100 ships of the line. The cabinet set a limit of forty-four. The following years saw a constant struggle by Melville to find every possible economy while he avoided meeting a target he regarded as unreal. He quietly got his way, not least by improving the design and durability of ships, research on which benefited from his close personal interest. Yet he resisted the introduction of steamers, since an infant technology seemed bound to prove expensive and unreliable; moreover, if navies were to be rebuilt all round as steam driven, Britain would place herself on the same level as her rivals. By the late 1820s he was able to authorise the construction of new and larger classes of ship, matching those in France and the United States. Even out of tight budgets he never failed to squeeze something for another scientific interest, in exploration (where places are named after him, see below).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scotland.", "content": "Appointed a governor of the Bank of Scotland, he was elected chancellor of the University of St Andrews in 1814, and made a Knight of the Thistle in 1821. The crisis of the system came in 1827 on the resignation of Liverpool and the succession of George Canning, who was set on Catholic emancipation. Melville said that, while he personally supported it, he could not approve of a policy which would split the outgoing cabinet. The Whigs in Canning's coalition now persuaded him that a Scottish manager was unnecessary; the home secretary could do all the work with a native adviser or two.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Lord of the Admiralty.", "content": "The old governing interest in Scotland began to break up, a process which did not halt when Melville returned under Wellington and Sir Robert Peel as President of the Board of Control in 1828, then again at the Admiralty as First Lord of the Admiralty. The Reform Act would anyway end the arrangements under which the Dundases had ruled Scotland. Melville resigned in 1830, never to hold office again. But he made himself useful in good works, notably chairmanship of the royal commission which in 1845 proposed reform of the Scots poor law.  He died on 10 June 1851 at Melville Castle, and was buried in the family vault built for his father, in the Old Kirk, Lasswade, Edinburghshire, on 17 June.  His title passed to his eldest son Henry Dundas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Place names.", "content": "His name is perpetuated by that of Melville Sound and Melville Island, Canada because of his interest in Arctic exploration. Melville Island in the Northern Territory of Australia was also named for him, by explorer Phillip Parker King. Melville Bay in Greenland was named in his honour as well. He also gives his name to Melville Street in the New Town area of Edinburgh, Scotland, and a large statue of him by Sir John Steell stands in the central square of this street. The locality of Melville in Perth, Western Australia is also named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville, (14 March 1771 – 10 June 1851) was a British statesman, the son of Henry Dundas, the 1st Viscount. Dundas was the Member of Parliament for Hastings in 1794, Rye in 1796 and Midlothian in 1801. He was also Keeper of the Signet for Scotland from 1800. He was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1807, a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1817, a Knight of the Thistle in 1821, and was Chancellor of the University of St Andrews from 1814. Melville filled various political offices and was First Lord of the Admiralty from 1812 to 1827, and from 1828 to 1830; his eldest son inherited his title.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975514}
{"src_title": "Sexual surrogate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The modality in which surrogate partners work is called Surrogate Partner Therapy. This modality is used to address obstacles to physical and emotional intimacy that a client is unable to resolve through traditional therapy and requires the involvement of a partner. Clients’ presenting issues have commonly included sexual dysfunctions, lack of healthy intimate experiences, or traumatic history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Masters and Johnson introduced the practice in their book \"Human Sexual Inadequacy\", published in 1970. They believed that people could learn about sexual intimacy only by experiencing it. In their research, subjects that were partnered used these partners to aid in a series of exercises designed to help overcome sexual dysfunction. Unpartnered subjects were paired with \"surrogates\" who would take the place of a partner, working under the direction of a trained therapist and acted as a form of mentor for the client. In their research, all of the surrogates were women who were assigned to work with single men. Today, most surrogates are women, but a few are men. The practice of Surrogate Partner Therapy reached its peak in the early 1980s with a few hundred surrogate partners practicing in the U.S. Since then, Surrogate Partner Therapy's popularity declined but has recently reentered social consciousness after the 2012 film \"The Sessions\", which depicts one surrogate partner's work with a disabled man. Currently, those practicing Surrogate Partner Therapy are still very few in number.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Typical problems.", "content": "Patients frequently present with these specific problems:  There are people who have experienced a change in sexual lifestyle due to an acquired disability (accident, paralysis, disease, trauma), and a surrogate can help them explore and develop sexual potential. The causes of sexual concerns are numerous and the methods a surrogate might use to help improve a client's sexual life are varied.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Therapy.", "content": "Since sexual problems are often psychological rather than physical, communication plays a key role in the therapeutic process between a patient and the surrogate partner, as well as between the surrogate partner and the therapist. Surrogate partners offer therapeutic exercises to help the patient. These may include, but are not limited to relaxation techniques, sensate focusing, communication, establishing healthy body image, teaching social skills, sex education, as well as sensual and some sexual touching. Surrogate partner therapy begins with a meeting between client, therapist, and surrogate partner in which the goals of the client are discussed and the scope/duration of the therapy are established. Throughout the process, communication between surrogate partner-client, client-therapist, and surrogate partner-therapist is maintained.  Some couples attend surrogate partner therapy sessions together, while some people (either single or in a couple) attend them alone. The surrogate engages in education and often intimate physical contact and/or sexual activity with clients to achieve a therapeutic goal. Some surrogates work at counseling centers, while others have their own offices.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Articles.", "content": "The 2003 Salon.com article \"I was a middle-aged virgin\", by Michael Castleman, discusses a middle-aged American virgin (Roger Andrews) and his therapy with the sex surrogate Vena Blanchard.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sex surrogates, sometimes referred to as surrogate partners, are practitioners trained in addressing issues of intimacy and sexuality. A surrogate partner works in collaboration with a therapist to meet the goals of their client. This triadic model is used to dually support the client: the client engages in experiential exercises and builds a relationship with their surrogate partner while processing and integrating their experiences with their therapist or clinician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975515}
{"src_title": "Sopwith Pup", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1915, Sopwith produced a personal aircraft for the company's test pilot Harry Hawker, a single-seat, tractor biplane powered by a seven-cylinder 50 hp Gnome rotary engine. This became known as Hawker's Runabout; another four similar aircraft have been tentatively identified as Sopwith Sparrows. Sopwith next developed a larger fighter that was heavily influenced by this design, though more powerful and controlled laterally with ailerons rather than by wing warping.  The resulting aircraft was a single-bay, single-seat biplane with a fabric-covered wooden framework and staggered equal-span wings. The cross-axle type main landing gear was supported by V-struts attached to the lower fuselage longerons. The prototype and most production Pups were powered by the 80 hp (60 kW) Le Rhône 9C rotary engine. Armament was a single 0.303 inch (7.7 mm) Vickers machine gun synchronized with the Sopwith-Kauper synchronizer.  A prototype was completed in February 1916 and sent to Upavon for testing in late March. The Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) quickly ordered two more prototypes, then placed a production order. Sopwith was heavily engaged in production of the 11⁄2 Strutter, and produced only a small number of Pups for the RNAS. Deliveries commenced in August 1916.  The Royal Flying Corps (RFC) also placed large orders for Pups. The RFC orders were undertaken by sub-contractors Standard Motor Co. and Whitehead Aircraft. Deliveries did not commence until the beginning of 1917. A total of 1,770 Pups were built by Sopwith (96), Standard Motor Co. (850), Whitehead Aircraft (820), and William Beardmore & Co. (30).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "In May 1916, the RNAS received its first Pups for operational trials with \"A\" Naval Squadron. The first Pups reached the Western Front in October 1916 with No. 8 Squadron RNAS, and proved successful, with the squadron's Pups claiming 20 enemy machines destroyed in operations over the Somme battlefield by the end of the year. The first RFC Squadron to re-equip with the Pup was No. 54 Squadron, which arrived in France in December. The Pup quickly proved its superiority over the early Fokker, Halberstadt and Albatros biplanes. After encountering the Pup in combat, Manfred von Richthofen said, \"We saw at once that the enemy aeroplane was superior to ours.\"  The Pup's light weight and generous wing area gave it a good rate of climb. Agility was enhanced by installing ailerons on both wings. The Pup had half the horsepower and armament of the German Albatros D.III, but was much more manoeuvrable, especially over 15,000 ft (4,500 m) due to its low wing loading. Ace James McCudden stated that \"When it came to manoeuvring, the Sopwith [Pup] would turn twice to an Albatros' once... it was a remarkably fine machine for general all-round flying. It was so extremely light and well surfaced that after a little practice one could almost land it on a tennis court.\" However, the Pup was also longitudinally unstable.  At the peak of its operational deployment, the Pup equipped only four RNAS squadrons (Nos. 3, 4, 8 and 9), and three RFC squadrons (Nos. 54, 46 and 66). By the spring of 1917, the Pup had been outclassed by the newest German fighters. The RNAS replaced their Pups, first with Sopwith Triplanes, and then with Sopwith Camels. The RFC soldiered on with Pups, in spite of increasing casualties, until it was possible to replace them with Camels in December 1917.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home Defence duties.", "content": "The raids on London by Gotha bombers in mid-1917 caused far more damage and casualties than the earlier airship raids. The ineffective response by British interceptor units had serious political repercussions. In response, No. 66 Squadron was withdrawn to Calais for a short period, and No. 46 was transferred for several weeks to Sutton's Farm airfield near London. Two new Pup squadrons were formed specifically for Home Defence duties, No. 112 in July, and No. 61 in August.  The first Pups delivered to Home Defence units utilised the 80 hp Le Rhône, but subsequent Home Defence Pups standardised on the more powerful 100 hp Gnome Monosoupape, which provided improved rate of climb. These aircraft were distinguishable by the addition of vents in the cowling face.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shipboard use.", "content": "Sopwith Pups were also used in many pioneering carrier experiments. On 2 August 1917, a Pup flown by Sqn Cdr Edwin Dunning became the first aircraft to land aboard a moving ship,. Dunning was killed on his third landing when the Pup fell over the side of the ship. The Pup began operations on the carriers in early 1917; the first aircraft were fitted with skid undercarriages in place of the standard landing gear. Landings utilised a system of deck wires to \"trap\" the aircraft. Later versions reverted to the normal undercarriage. Pups were used as ship-based fighters on three carriers:, \"Furious\" and. A number of other Pups were deployed to cruisers and battleships where they were launched from platforms attached to gun turrets. A Pup flown from a platform on the cruiser shot down the German Zeppelin \"L 23\" off the Danish coast on 21 August 1917.  The U.S. Navy also employed the Sopwith Pup with famed Australian/British test pilot Edgar Percival testing the use of carrier-borne fighters. In 1926, Percival was catapulted in a Pup off the battleship at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Training duties.", "content": "The Pup saw extensive use as a trainer. Student pilots completing basic flight training in the Avro 504k often graduated to the Pup as an intermediate trainer. The Pup was also used in Fighting School units for instruction in combat techniques. Many training Pups were in fact reserved by senior officers and instructors as their personal runabouts while a few survived in France as personal or squadron 'hacks' after the type was withdrawn from combat.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nomenclature.", "content": "The Pup was officially named the Sopwith Scout. The \"Pup\" nickname arose because pilots considered it to be the \"pup\" of the larger two-seat Sopwith 11⁄2 Strutter. The name never had official status as it was felt to be \"undignified,\" but a precedent was set, and all later Sopwith types apart from the Triplane acquired animal names (Camel, Dolphin, Snipe etc.), which ended up with the Sopwith firm being said to have created a \"flying zoo\" during the First World War.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sopwith Pup was a British single-seater biplane fighter aircraft built by the Sopwith Aviation Company. It entered service with the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service in the autumn of 1916. With pleasant flying characteristics and good manoeuvrability, the aircraft proved very successful. The Pup was eventually outclassed by newer German fighters, but it was not completely replaced on the Western Front until the end of 1917. Remaining Pups were relegated to Home Defence and training units. The Pup's docile flying characteristics also made it ideal for use in aircraft carrier deck landing and takeoff experiments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975516}
{"src_title": "Our Lady of Sorrows", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Seven Sorrows of Mary.", "content": "The Seven Sorrows (or \"Dolors\") are events in the life of the Blessed Virgin Mary that are a popular devotion and are frequently depicted in art.  These Seven Sorrows should not be confused with the five Sorrowful Mysteries of the Rosary.They're often depicted as seven daggers stabbed into her. It is a traditional for Catholics to say daily one Our Father and seven Hail Marys for each mystery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Devotions to the Seven Sorrows.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Western Christianity.", "content": "Earlier, in 1232, seven youths in Tuscany founded the Servite Order (also known as the \"Servite Friars\", or the \"Order of the Servants of Mary\"). Five years later, they took up the sorrows of Mary, standing under the Cross, as the principal devotion of their order.  Over the centuries several devotions, and even orders, arose around meditation on Mary's Sorrows in particular. The Servites developed the three most common devotions to Our Lady's Sorrows, namely the Rosary of the Seven Sorrows, the Black Scapular of the Seven Dolours of Mary and the Novena to Our Sorrowful Mother. The Black Scapular is a symbol of the Confraternity of Our Lady of Sorrows, which is associated with the Servite Order. Most devotional scapulars have requirements regarding ornamentation or design. The devotion of the Black Scapular requires only that it be made of black woollen cloth. From the National Shrine of Saint Peregrine spread the Sorrowful Mother Novena, the core of which is the Via Matris.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eastern Christianity.", "content": "On February 2, the same day as the Great Feast of the Meeting of the Lord, Orthodox Christians and Eastern Catholics commemorate a wonder-working icon of the Theotokos (Mother of God) known as \"the Softening of Evil Hearts\" or \"Simeon's Prophecy\".  It depicts the Virgin Mary at the moment that Simeon the Righteous says, \"Yea, a sword shall pierce through thy own soul also...\" (). She stands with her hands upraised in prayer, and seven swords pierce her heart, indicative of the seven sorrows. This is one of the few Orthodox icons of the Theotokos which do not depict the infant Jesus. The refrain \"Rejoice, much-sorrowing Mother of God, turn our sorrows into joy and soften the hearts of evil men!\" is also used.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Liturgical feast.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Our Lady of Compassion.", "content": "The Feast of Our Lady of Sorrows grew in popularity in the 12th century, although under various titles. Some writings would place its roots in the eleventh century, especially among the Benedictine monks. The first altar to the \"Mater Dolorosa\" was set up in 1221 at the Cistercian monastery of Schönau. The formal feast of the Our Lady of Sorrows was originated by a provincial synod of Cologne in 1423. It was designated for the Friday after the third Sunday after Easter and had the title: \"Commemoratio angustiae et doloris B. Mariae V\". Its object was the sorrow of Mary during the Crucifixion and Death of Christ. Before the sixteenth century this feast was limited to the dioceses of North Germany, Scandinavia, and Scotland.  According to Fr. William Saunders, \"... in 1482, the feast was officially placed in the Roman Missal under the title of \"Our Lady of Compassion\", highlighting the great love our Blessed Mother displayed in suffering with her Son. The word compassion derives from the Latin roots cum and patior which means \"to suffer with\". After 1600 it became popular in France and was set for the Friday before Palm Sunday. By a Decree of 22 April 1727, Pope Benedict XIII extended it to the entire Latin Church, under the title \"Septem dolorum B.M.V.\". In 1954, it still held the rank of major double (slightly lower than the rank of the September feast) in the General Roman Calendar. Pope John XXIII's 1960 Code of Rubrics reduced it to the level of a commemoration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Seven Sorrows of the Blessed Virgin Mary.", "content": "In 1668, a separate feast of the Seven Sorrows of Mary, celebrated on the third Sunday in September, was granted to the Servites. Pope Pius VII introduced it into the General Roman Calendar in 1814. In 1913, Pope Pius X, in view of his reform giving precedence to Sundays over ordinary feasts, moved this feast to September 15, the day after the Feast of the Cross. It is still observed on that date.  Since there were thus two feasts with the same title, on each of which the \"Stabat Mater\" sequence was recited, the Passion Week celebration was removed from the General Roman Calendar in 1969 as a duplicate of the September feast. Each of the two celebrations had been called a feast of \"The Seven Sorrows of the Blessed Virgin Mary\" (Latin: \"Septem Dolorum Beatae Mariae Virginis\"). Recitation of the \"Stabat Mater\" was made optional. The existence of traditional manifestations of public devotion, such as processions with statues of Our Lady of Sorrows on days leading to Good Friday, has led to the maintenance on the previous Friday of the liturgical celebration of the Sorrows of Mary in some local calendars, as in Malta.  For everywhere the latest edition of the Roman Missal provides on that Friday the optional collect: <poem> O God, who in this season give your Church the grace to imitate devoutly the Blessed Virgin Mary in contemplating the Passion of Christ, grant, we pray, through her intercession, that we may cling more firmly each day to your Only Begotten Son and come at last to the fullness of his grace. </poem> Pope Benedict XVI's motu proprio \"Summorum Pontificum\" authorizes, under certain conditions, continued use of the 1962 Roman Missal, which contains the feast of the Friday of the fifth week of Lent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Patronage.", "content": "Our Lady of Sorrows is the patron saint of: Churches:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "Our Lady of Sorrows, depicted as \"\"Mater Dolorosa\"\" (Mother of Sorrows) has been the subject of some key works of Roman Catholic Marian art. \"Mater Dolorosa\" is one of the three common artistic representations of a sorrowful Virgin Mary, the other two being \"Stabat Mater\" and \"Pietà\".  In this iconography, Our Lady of Seven Sorrows is at times simply represented in a sad and anguished mode by herself, her expression being that of tears and sadness. In other representations the Virgin Mary is depicted with seven swords in her heart, a reference to the prophecy of Simeon at the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Our Lady of Sorrows (), Our Lady of Dolours, the Sorrowful Mother or Mother of Sorrows (), and Our Lady of Piety, Our Lady of the Seven Sorrows or Our Lady of the Seven Dolours are names by which the Virgin Mary is referred to in relation to sorrows in her life. As, it is also a key subject for Marian art in the Catholic Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975517}
{"src_title": "The Irony of Fate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The key subplot is the drab uniformity of Brezhnev-era public architecture. This setting is explained in a humorous animated prologue, in which architects are overruled by politicians and red tape (director and animator - Vitaliy Peskov). As a result, the identical, functional but unimaginative multistory apartment buildings found their way into every city, town, and suburb across the former Soviet Union. These buildings are completely uniform in every detail including the door key of each apartment.  Following their annual tradition, a group of friends meet at a banya (a traditional public \"sauna\" bath) in Moscow to celebrate New Year's Eve. The friends all get very drunk toasting the upcoming marriage of the central male character, Zhenya Lukashin (Andrei Myagkov) to Galya (Olga Naumenko). After the bath, one of the friends, Pavlik (Aleksandr Shirvindt), has to catch a plane to Leningrad. Zhenya, on the other hand, is supposed to go home to celebrate New Year's Eve with his fiancée. Both Zhenya and Pavlik pass out. The remaining friends cannot remember which person from their group is supposed to catch the plane -thus they mistakenly send Zhenya on the plane instead of Pavlik.  Zhenya spends the entire flight sleeping on the shoulder of his annoyed seatmate, played by the director himself (Ryazanov) in a brief comedic cameo appearance. The seatmate helps Zhenya get off the plane in Leningrad. Zhenya wakes up in the Leningrad airport, believing he is still in Moscow. He stumbles into a taxi and, still quite drunk, gives the driver his address. It turns out that in Leningrad there is a street with the same name (3rd Builders' street), with a building at his address which looks exactly like Zhenya's. The key fits in the door of the apartment with the same number (as alluded to in the introductory narration, \"...building standard apartments with standard locks\"). Inside, even the furniture is nearly identical to that of Zhenya's apartment. Zhenya is too drunk to notice any minor differences, and goes to sleep.  Later, the real tenant, Nadya Shevelyova (Barbara Brylska), arrives home to find a strange man sleeping in her bed. To make matters worse, Nadya’s fiancé, Ippolit (Yuri Yakovlev), arrives before Nadya can convince Zhenya to get up and leave. Ippolit becomes furious, refuses to believe Zhenya and Nadya's explanations, and storms out. Zhenya leaves to get back to Moscow but circumstances make him return repeatedly. Nadya wants to get rid of him as soon as possible, but there are no flights to Moscow until the next morning. Additionally, Zhenya tries repeatedly to call Moscow and explain to Galya what has happened. Eventually, he does contact her, but she is furious and hangs up on his call. Ippolit also calls Nadya's apartment and hears Zhenya answer. Although Zhenya is trying to be available to receive potential calls from Galya, Ippolit also refuses to accept the truth of the situation. It seems more and more clear that Zhenya and Nadya are the only two people who understand the night's circumstances.  Thus, Zhenya and Nadya are compelled to spend New Year's Eve together. At first, they continue to treat each other with animosity, but gradually their behaviour softens and the two fall in love. In the morning, they feel that everything that has happened to them was a delusion, and they make the difficult decision to part. With a heavy heart, Zhenya returns to Moscow. Meanwhile, Nadya reconsiders everything and, deciding that she might have let her chance at happiness slip away, takes a plane to Moscow to find Zhenya. She has no difficulty finding him as their addresses are the same.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The two consecutive episodes of \"The Irony of Fate\" were originally broadcast by the Soviet central television channel, Programme One, on 1 January 1976, at 18:00. The film was a resounding success with audiences: author Fedor Razzakov recalled that \"virtually the entire country watched the show\"; the number of viewers was estimated to have been about 100 million. In response to popular demand, the feature had a first re-run on 7 February. By 1978, after several further broadcasts of the picture, the accumulated number of viewers for all of the showings including the first was estimated at 250 million. A shortened 155 minute version was released to cinemas on August 16, 1976; which sold 7 million tickets. The readers of \"Sovetskii Ekran\", the official publication of the State Committee for Cinematography, voted \"The Irony of Fate\" as the best film of 1976, and chose Andrey Myagkov as the best actor of the year. In 1977, Ryazanov, Braginsky, cinematographer Vladimir Nakhabtsev, composer Mikael Tariverdiev and actors Barbara Brylska and Myagkov were all awarded the USSR State Prize in recognition of their participation in making the film.  George Faraday commented that while it was basically a happy ending romantic comedy, \"The Irony of Fate\" had a \"socially critical undertone.\" It could be interpreted as an \"explicit commentary... On the soulless uniformity of the Soviet urban landscape\". Simultaneously, however, critics accused the director of creating an escapist film which allowed the Soviet audience to turn away from the \"unattractive features\" of their country's reality. Ryazanov responded that \"to reassure, to encourage the viewer – it is not such a sin.\" He rejected the claims his pictures were meant to please state authorities, stating their optimistic nature was \"spontaneous\" rather than \"forced\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The film is widely regarded as a classic piece of Russian popular culture and is traditionally broadcast in Russia and almost all former Soviet republics every New Year's Eve (Andrew Horton and Michael Brashinsky likened its status to that held by Frank Capra's 1946 \"It's a Wonderful Life\" in the United States as a holiday staple). This tradition was discontinued in Ukraine in 2015 when licence holder STB decided not to broadcast the movie after the actress Valentina Talyzina was banned from entering Ukraine for \"statements contradicted the interests of our national security\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequel.", "content": "A sequel, \"The Irony of Fate 2\", was released in December 2007, becoming a box office hit and grossing over $55 million to a production budget of $5 million.  The film starred Konstantin Khabensky and Elizaveta Boyarskaya as the grown-up children of Lukashin and Sheveleva who have managed to get into the same situation as their parents did.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Irony of Fate, or Enjoy Your Bath! (; trans. \"Ironiya sudby, ili S lyogkim parom!\") is a 1976 Soviet romantic comedy television film directed by Eldar Ryazanov. The screenplay was written by Emil Braginsky and Ryazanov, loosely based on the director's 1971 play, Once on New Year's Eve (). Filmed in 1975 at the Mosfilm Studios, \"The Irony of Fate\" doubles as a screwball comedy and a love story tinged with sadness. It was one of the most successful Soviet television productions and remains a highly popular New Year's Eve classic in Russia and the post-Soviet space.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975518}
{"src_title": "Saint-Étienne-du-Mont", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Church of Apostles Peter and Paul was built during the reign of King Clovis, who was buried here with his wife Clotilde as well as Saint Genevieve. Later, it was rededicated as the abbey church of the royal Abbey of Sainte-Genevieve. The abbey church also served as the parish church for the surrounding area until it became too small to accommodate all the faithful. In 1222, Pope Honorius III authorized the establishment of an autonomous church, which was devoted this time to St Etienne, then the patron saint of the old cathedral of Paris.  Soon, the new building was overwhelmed by an increasingly dense population: the Sorbonne and many colleges were located on the territory of the parish. It was enlarged in 1328, but a complete reconstruction became necessary from the 15th century. In 1492, the nearby Génovéfain monks donated a portion of their land for the construction of the new church.  This involved several steps. Under the direction of architect Stephen Viguier, the apse and the bell tower was sketched in 1494, and the first two bells were cast in 1500. The choir of flamboyant Gothic was completed in 1537 and the following year, it was the turn of the frame to be raised. The loft was built around 1530–1535.  In 1541, Guy, Bishop of Megara, blessed the altars of the chapels of the apse. The same year, the parish awarded contracts for the windows and statues from Parisian artisans. The nave, from the Renaissance period, was not hunched before 1584. The first stone of the facade was laid in 1610 by Marguerite de Valois, who had agreed to do so in a personal donation of 3000 pounds.  The church was dedicated on 25 February 1626 by Jean-François de Gondi, first archbishop of Paris, Cardinal de Retz's uncle. Nevertheless, developments continued: in 1636, the organ was installed, the work of Pierre Pescheur. When the organ was damaged by fire in 1760, it was rebuilt by Cliquot. Further work was carried out in 1863 by Cavaillé-Coll, and the present instrument is the work of further revision by Beuchet-Debierre in 1956  In 1651, a new pulpit was installed. It was also adjusted for the local wardens and housing for the priests.  During the 17th and 18th century, the church of Saint-Etienne-du-Mont enjoyed great prestige. It was the scene of grand processions where the shrine of Sainte-Genevieve went to Notre Dame and subsequently returned to his church. It also housed the remains of Pierre Perrault, the painter Eustache Le Sueur and Blaise Pascal. Those of Racine and Isaac de Sacy Lemaistre were also transferred in 1711 from Port-Royal in Saint-Etienne.  During the French Revolution, the church was first closed and then turned into a \"Temple of Filial Piety.\" Catholic worship was restored in 1801, benefiting from the Concordat. The following year, the demolition of the abbey church of Sainte-Genevieve Abbey and the breakthrough Street Clovis made St. Stephen an independent building. Under the Second Empire, the church was restored by Victor Baltard: the front was raised and the statues destroyed by the revolutionaries, were returned. Baltard also built the chapel of catechisms.  The 19th century was marked by many events. On 10 January 1805 Pope Pius VII celebrated Mass in the church. In 1833, Frederic Ozanam, a parishioner of St. Stephen, founded with friends the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. On 3 January 1857 Bishop Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour, was assassinated with cries of \"Down with the goddesses!\" by the priest, Jean-Louis Verger, opposed to the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. A plaque at the entrance to the nave marks the grave of the prelate, who was to inaugurate the novena of St. Genevieve. The occultist Eliphas Levi was indirectly involved in this tragic event.  On 23 August 1997 Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass there during the visit to Paris on the occasion of World Youth Day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timeline.", "content": "Building works included:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "Today the church is characterized by its curved axis of the nave to the transept, the rood screen (the sole surviving example in Paris) of finely carved stone by Father Biard (1545), his chair designed by Laurent de La Hyre and sculpted by Claude Lestocart and its organ case (1631) (the oldest in the capital). The church also contains the shrine containing the relics of St. Genevieve until 1793 (when they were thrown in the sewer), the tomb of Blaise de Vigenere, of Blaise Pascal, of Racine, and Mg Sibour.  Huysmans described it in the Connecting (1895) as one of the most beautiful churches in Paris.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint-Étienne-du-Mont is a church in Paris, France, on the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève in the 5th arrondissement, near the Panthéon. It contains the shrine of St. Geneviève, the patron saint of Paris. The church also contains the tombs of Blaise Pascal and Jean Racine. Jean-Paul Marat is buried in the church's cemetery.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975519}
{"src_title": "Be Cool", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Chili Palmer, restless after years of filmmaking, enters the music industry after witnessing the Russian mob execute his friend Tommy Athens, owner of a record company. Chili offers to help Tommy's widow, Edie Athens, manage the failing business, which owes $300,000 to hip-hop producer Sin LaSalle.  Chili is impressed by singer Linda Moon and helps free her from contractual obligations to Nick Carr and Raji, who has a gay Samoan bodyguard named Elliott, an aspiring actor and the butt of Carr and Raji's homophobic jokes. Carr and Raji hire a hitman, Joe \"Loop\" Lupino to kill Chili before he can save Edie's company by arranging a live performance for Linda along with Steven Tyler and Aerosmith.  Lasalle demands payment of the $300,000, but agrees to give Chili a few days to get the money plus the vig. When the Russians attempt to kill Chili, Joe Loop mistakenly kills Ivan Argianiyev, the Russian Mob's hitman. Carr is furious about the mistake and demands that Raji talks to Loop at once. Raji then kills Loop with a metal baseball bat after Loop \"disrespects\" him.  Carr then tries to trick Chili by handing him a pawn ticket, claiming that Linda's contract is being held at a pawn shop owned by the Russians. Chili being much smarter than Carr anticipated, has Edie give the ticket to the police, who pay the Russians a visit. Raji and Elliott set up LaSalle by making him believe that Carr tricked Chili in giving him the $300,000 to get Linda's contract. LaSalle and the DubMD confront Carr in his office, as do Bulkin and his men. Insulted by Bulkin's racist remarks, LaSalle kills him.  Chili squeezes in a dance scene with Edie (a nod to the \"Twist Contest\" scene in \"Pulp Fiction\"), celebrating as Linda Moon gets to make her appearance with Aerosmith in concert. Based on Linda's success in that concert, Chili assuages LaSalle by making him her producer.  But Carr is not accepting any deal, so he makes Raji put Elliott to kill Chili. By assuring Elliott that he can help his acting career, Chili befriends him. After learning that Chili had gotten him an audition for a Nicole Kidman film, Elliott turns on Raji, who had erased the message on his answering machine. For all his smooth talking and flamboyant wardrobe, Raji finds himself in a firework conflagration which roasts him live on camera. Carr is arrested on murder charges when Chili makes sure he is caught with the bat used to kill Joe Loop, via another pawn ticket.  At the MTV Video Music Awards, Linda wins the awards for best new artist and video of the year. During her acceptance speech, she thanks Edie, Sin and Chili. Edie and Chili leave the award ceremony. And as Chili drives off, he passes a billboard revealing that Elliott is the co-star of a new movie with Nicole Kidman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The film's soundtrack was released on March 1, 2005. Songs featured in the film but not included on the soundtrack are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "On a production budget of $53 million, \"Be Cool\" grossed $56,046,979 in North American and $39,169,077 internationally, totaling up to $95,216,056 worldwide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "\"Be Cool\" received a 30% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 171 reviews, with an average rating of 4.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads: \"\"Be Cool\" is tepid, square, and lukewarm; as a parody of the music business, it has two left feet.\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 37 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating \"generally unfavorable reviews.\" Halliwell called it \"a palpable miss, a movie so lazy and laid back that it falls over; there are none of those insights... that made \"Get Shorty\" so enjoyable\".  In an August 2015 interview with \"Deadline\", director F. Gary Gray discussed the failure of the film, stating: \"With \"Be Cool\", I made some assumptions in thinking that movie was going to work. I'd just made a successful PG-13 movie [\"The Italian Job\"], and when I walked into \"Be Cool\", it was rated R and then at the last minute in preproduction I was told, 'Well, you have to make this PG-13.' I should have walked off the film. This was a movie about shylocks and gangsta rappers and if you can't make that world edgy, you probably shouldn't do it. I walked in thinking I was going to make one movie and then it changed. Maybe it was arrogant of me to think because I had success in this realm of PG-13 I could make that work\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Be Cool is a 2005 American crime-comedy film adapted from Elmore Leonard's 1999 novel of the same name and the sequel to Leonard's 1990 novel \"Get Shorty\" (itself adapted into a 1995 film of the same name) about mobster Chili Palmer's entrance into the music industry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975520}
{"src_title": "Osedax", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Anatomy and physiology.", "content": "Lacking stomach and mouth, \"Osedax\" rely on symbiotic species of bacteria that aid in the digestion of whale proteins and lipids and release nutrients that the worms can absorb. \"Osedax\" have colorful feathery plumes that act as gills and unusual root-like structures that absorb nutrients. The \"Osedax\" secrete acid (rather than rely on teeth) to bore into bone to access the nutrients. Between 50 and 100 microscopic dwarf males live inside the tube surrounding a single female and never develop past the larval stage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Female \"Osedax\" worms have been observed spawning both in the wild and in laboratory aquaria (Rouse et al., 2009). \"Osedax rubiplumus\" can spawn hundreds of oocytes at a time. They are already fertilized when they're released from the female worm. The worms' endosymbionts, species of bacteria in the order Oceanospirillales, were not observed in the spawned oocytes, which suggests that they are acquired after the worms settle on the bones. In the adult, the bacteria are localised in the root-like structures that grow into the whale bone. This worm appears to be highly fecund and reproduces continuously. This may help explain why \"Osedax\" is such a diverse genus, despite the rarity of whale falls in the ocean.  Male \"Osedax\" are microscopic dwarfs that live as \"harems\" inside the lumen of the gelatinous tube that surrounds each female. An individual female can house hundreds of these males in her tube.  Following its discovery in 2002 by researchers at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, the genus was announced in \"Science\" in 2004.  In late 2005, an experiment by Swedish marine biologists resulted in the discovery of a species of the worm in the North Sea off the west coast of Sweden. In the experiment, a minke whale carcass that had been washed ashore had been sunk to a depth of and monitored for several months. Biologists were surprised to find that, unlike the previous discoveries, the new species, colloquially known as \"bone-eating snot flower\" after its scientific name (\"Osedax mucofloris\"), lived in relatively shallow waters.  In November 2009, researchers reported finding as many as 15 species of boneworms living in Monterey Bay on the California coast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Niche.", "content": "The role of \"Osedax\" in the degradation of marine vertebrate remains controversial. Some scientists think that \"Osedax\" is a specialist on whalebones while others think that it is more of a generalist. This controversy is due to a biogeographic paradox: despite the rarity and ephemeral nature of whale falls, \"Osedax\" has a broad biogeographic range and is surprisingly diverse. One hypothesis advanced to explain this paradox is that \"Osedax\" are able to colonize a variety of vertebrate remains besides whalebones. This hypothesis is supported by an experiment involving cow bones suspended above the sea floor. A variety of \"Osedax\" species successfully colonized these bones. \"Osedax\" have also been observed colonizing terrestrial mammal bones mixed in with galley waste from a surface vessel. Other scientists have countered this hypothesis by pointing out how the cow bone experiment does not match any natural habitat and also the low probability of terrestrial mammal bones arriving at the ocean floor in significant quantities. They also point out other cases of food falls in which the remains disappeared too swiftly for \"Osedax\" colonization and the lack of any observed colonization in similar cases. The true role of \"Osedax\" in the degradation of marine vertebrate remains is important to marine vertebrate taphonomy. Burrows closely similar to those made by \"Osedax\" species have been found in the bones of ancient marine birds and plesiosaurs, suggesting that the genus may once have had a wider range of foods.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Osedax is a genus of deep-sea siboglinid polychaetes, commonly called boneworms, zombie worms, or bone-eating worms. \"Osedax\" is Latin for \"bone-eating\". The name alludes to how the worms bore into the bones of whale carcasses to reach enclosed lipids, on which they rely for sustenance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975521}
{"src_title": "Peking Plan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The plan was created in order to remove the Destroyer Division (\"Dywizjon Kontrtorpedowców\") of the Polish Navy from the Baltic Sea operation theatre. The \"Kriegsmarine\" had a significant numerical advantage over the Polish Navy, and in the event of a war the Polish High Command realized that ships which remained in the Baltic Sea were likely to be quickly sunk by the Germans. Also, the Danish straits were well within the operational range of the Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe, so there was little chance for the plan to succeed, if implemented after hostilities began.  On 24 August 1939, the British government, through Lieutenant-General Sir Adrian Carton De Wiart, head of the British Military mission, made strong representations to Marshal Edward Śmigły-Rydz, commander-in-chief of the Polish Forces, that the most modern elements of the fleet be evacuated from the Baltic Sea. Although Śmigły-Rydz resisted the idea at first, he finally agreed.  Part of Śmigły-Rydz's reason for doing so was the idea of a Romanian Bridgehead. It was hoped the Polish forces could hold out in the southeast of the country, near the common border with Romania, until relieved by a Franco-British offensive. Munitions and arms could be delivered from the west via Romanian ports and railways. The Polish Navy would then be able to escort the ships delivering the supplies to Romanian ports.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trip to Edinburgh.", "content": "As the tensions between Poland and Germany were increasing, the Commander of the Polish Fleet, Counter Admiral Józef Unrug signed the order for the operation on 26 August 1939, a day after the signing of the Polish-British Common Defence Pact. The order was delivered in sealed envelopes to the ships. On 29 August, the fleet received the signal \"Peking, Peking, Peking\" from the Polish Commander-in-Chief, Marshal Śmigły-Rydz: \"Execute Peking\". At 12:55 hours, the ships received the signal via signal flags or radio from the signal tower at Oksywie. The respective captains of the ships opened the envelopes and departed at 14:15 under the command of Komandor porucznik Roman Stankiewicz. \"Błyskawica\" was commanded by Komandor porucznik Włodzimierz Kodrębski, \"Burza\" by Komandor podporucznik Stanisław Nahorski and \"Grom\" by Komandor porucznik Aleksander Hulewicz.  The ships traveled without any problems through the Baltic, entering Øresund after midnight. In the passage they encountered the German light cruiser \"Königsberg\" and a destroyer, but as the war had not yet started there was no combat. The Polish ships then passed through the Kattegat and Skagerrak. On 31 August, the ships were spotted and followed by German reconnaissance seaplanes, and the group changed course towards Norway in order to shake off the pursuit during the night, when they returned to their original course towards the UK. The ships entered the North Sea, and at 0925 on 1 September learned about the German invasion of Poland. At 12:58, they encountered the Royal Navy destroyers and and received a liaison officer. At 17:37, they docked in Leith, the port of Edinburgh.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The Peking Plan generated controversy in Poland, but it proved to be a wise decision. The ships served alongside the Royal Navy for the remainder of the war, and ORP \"Burza\" and ORP \"Błyskawica\" survived the war. On the other hand, all the other surface ships of the Polish Navy which remained in the Baltic were engaged and sunk or captured by the German forces, starting with the Battle of the Gdańsk Bay on 1 September. The fate of the remaining two largest ships is telling: the fourth Polish destroyer, \"Wicher\", and the heavy minelayer \"Gryf\", the largest ship of the Polish navy, were both sunk by 3 September, the third day of the war.  As for the Germans, in the face of Plan Peking on 30 August, they recalled from the Baltic Sea the tactical unit which had been assigned to engage them — the three light cruisers \"Nürnberg\", \"Köln\" and \"Leipzig\", under Vice-Admiral Hermann Densch.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Peking Plan (or Operation Peking) was an operation in which three destroyers of the Polish Navy, the \"Burza\" (\"Storm\"), \"Błyskawica\" (\"Lightning\"), and \"Grom\" (\"Thunder\"), were evacuated to the United Kingdom in late August and early September 1939. They were ordered to travel to British ports and assist the British Royal Navy in the event of a war with Nazi Germany. The plan was successful and allowed the ships to avoid certain destruction or capture in the German invasion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975522}
{"src_title": "Eötvös Loránd University", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The university was founded in 1635 in Nagyszombat, Kingdom of Hungary, (today Trnava, Slovakia) by the archbishop and theologian Péter Pázmány. Leadership was given over to the Jesuits. Initially the university only had two colleges (College of Arts and College of Theology). The College of Law was added in 1667 and the College of Medicine was started in 1769. After the dissolution of the Jesuit order, the university was moved to Buda (today part of Budapest) in 1777 in accordance with the intention of the founder. The university moved to its final location in Pest (now also part of Budapest) in 1784. The language of education was Latin until 1844, when Hungarian was introduced as an exclusive official language. Women have been allowed to enroll since 1895.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campus.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lágymányosi campus.", "content": "The Lágymányosi campus is home to the Faculty of Science, the Faculty of Informatics and the Faculty of Social Sciences. The campus is located in the 11th district of Budapest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "SAVARIA Campus.", "content": "The Savaria Campus is created for producing best Mechanical Engineers. Only Mechanical Engineering courses are conducted here with modern facilities of labs and work shops. Furthermore, It has great industry collaboration with industry to make sure advanced Mechanical Engineering studies. Dual education system of mechanical engineering are available here. The principal goal of the dual education system is to synchronize the requirements of higher education and the job market. This education system is implemented by reforming a traditional Mechanical Engineering BSc program based on its professional practical background.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Academic profile.", "content": "ELTE is Hungary's largest scientific establishment with 118 PhD programs at 17 doctoral schools, and also offers 38 bachelor's programs, 96 master's programs, and over 50 degree programs in foreign languages. The course credits awarded are transferable to universities in Europe through the Bologna process. The eight faculties are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reputation and rankings.", "content": "In the 2013-14 QS World University Rankings, Eötvös Loránd University was ranked 551-600th. In the 2018, according to the Times Higher Education World University Ranking, ELTE ranked between 601-800. Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked the university among the best 301-400 between 2010 and 2014. International Colleges and Universities ranked the university as the 158th globally.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable alumni.", "content": "Nobel prize winners:  Other notable alumni:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eötvös Loránd University (, ELTE) is a Hungarian public research university based in Budapest. Founded in 1635, ELTE is one of the largest and most prestigious public higher education institutions in Hungary. The 28,000 students at ELTE are organized into eight faculties, and into research institutes located throughout Budapest and on the scenic banks of the Danube. ELTE is affiliated with 5 Nobel laureates, as well as winners of the Wolf Prize, Fulkerson Prize and Abel Prize, the latest of which was Abel Prize winner Endre Szemerédi in 2012.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975523}
{"src_title": "Dungeon (comics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sub-series.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dungeon The Early Years (\"Donjon Potron-Minet\").", "content": "With art by Christophe Blain and Christophe Gaultier, the five volumes of this series take place in an earlier era, describing events leading up to the creation of the titular dungeon. In English translation, the \"Dawn\" series is called \"Early Years\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dungeon Zenith (\"Donjon Zénith\").", "content": "DZ portrays the \"golden age\" of the world of Terra Amata. Albums 1 to 4 are drawn by Trondheim, and from 5 onwards by Boulet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dungeon Twilight (\"Donjon Crépuscule\").", "content": "In this darker series, of 8 volumes, Herbert the Duck has become the dark overlord of the Dungeon, known as The Great Khan. Marvin the dragon, old and blind, teams with Marvin the Red, a brash rabbit warrior. The first three volumes are drawn by Sfar, the others by various artists.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dungeon Parade (\"Donjon Parade\").", "content": "The five volumes of \"Dungeon Parade\" take place between volumes 1 and 2 of \"Dungeon Zenith\", starring its protagonists Marvin and Herbert. The artist is Manu Larcenet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dungeon Monstres (\"Donjon Monsters\").", "content": "\"Donjon Monstres\" features secondary characters from throughout the story. \"Monstres\" stories can be set anywhere in the timeline, and feature occasional appearances by the major characters. There is a wide variety of artists in the 12 volumes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Others.", "content": "The \"Zenith\" books begin at number 1, while \"Potron-Minet\" begins at -99 and \"Crepuscule\" at 101, implying that the authors intended to produce an unprecedented number of books. Trondheim originally stated in interviews that the authors \"weren't crazy\" and wouldn't release 300 books, trusting the reader to fill in the blanks of the missing numbers. However, in later interviews, he hinted that he had changed his mind and was seduced by the idea of creating a long-running and complex series of 300 books, which seemed possible with the collaboration of several different authors.  A third sub-series called \"Donjon Bonus\" exists of different editions (black and white or smaller format omnibuses) and work outside the comics, like the role-playing game \"Clefs en Mains\".  With the 2014 issuance of the last two volumes of Dungeon Twilight, Trondheim and Sfar emphasized in an interview that the main story was \"completely done\". Trondheim said that new stories were \"very improbable\" due to Sfar's schedule; Sfar left the door open for more stories to be told.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2020.", "content": "In 2019, Trondheim and Sfar announced on Instagram that they would return to Dungeon : https://www.instagram.com/p/BtHM0tngrN2/  Two new series (Donjon Antipodes - 10000 and (Donjon Antipodes + 10000) should see the light of day in 2020 alongside a new Zenith album.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "The following tables show all French paperback collections released so far, with information about English releases. Please note that in the Main Series table the Volume also corresponds to the level of the book.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chronology.", "content": "Since the series start, it has grown into quite a large collection of volumes. The place of each book in an orderly timeline is worked out using levels (French: Niveau). The volume number of books in the main series (Dawn, Zenith and Twilight) is also their level. The Monsters and Parade level numbers are written down in the original books on the first page below the page number.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dungeon (French title: Donjon) is a series of comic fantasy comic books created by Joann Sfar and Lewis Trondheim, with contributions from numerous other artists. It was originally published in France by Delcourt as a series of graphic albums; English translations of the first several stories have been released by NBM Publishing, first in a black-and-white periodical version and now as several color graphic novels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975524}
{"src_title": "Edward Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "He was born to Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby, who led the Conservative Party from 1846–1868 and served as Prime Minister three times, and Emma Caroline Bootle-Wilbraham, daughter of Edward Bootle-Wilbraham, 1st Baron Skelmersdale, and was the older brother of Frederick Arthur Stanley, 16th Earl of Derby. The Stanleys were one of the richest landowning families in England. Lord Stanley, as he was styled before acceding to the earldom, was educated at Eton, Rugby and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a first in classics and became a member of the society known as the Cambridge Apostles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In March 1848 he unsuccessfully contested the borough of Lancaster, and then made a long tour in the West Indies, Canada and the United States. During his absence he was elected member for King's Lynn, which he represented till October 1869, when he succeeded to the peerage. He took his place, as a matter of course, among the Conservatives, and delivered his maiden speech in May 1850 on the sugar duties. Just before, he had made a very brief tour in Jamaica and South America. In 1852 he went to India, and while travelling in that country he was appointed under-secretary for foreign affairs in his father's first administration. On 11 March 1853, he was commissioned a captain in the 3rd Royal Lancashire Militia.  From the outset of his career he was known to be more politically sympathetic to the Liberals rather than the Conservatives, and in 1855 Lord Palmerston offered him the post of Secretary of State for the Colonies. He was much tempted by the proposal, and hurried down to Knowsley to consult his father, who called out when he entered the room, \"Halo, Stanley! what brings you here?—Has Dizzy cut his throat, or are you going to be married?\" When the object of his sudden appearance had been explained, the Conservative chief received the courteous suggestion of the prime minister with anything but favour, and the offer was declined. On 13 May 1856, he was appointed to the Royal Commission on the purchase of commissions in the British army. In his father's second administration Lord Stanley held, at first, the office of Secretary of State for the Colonies (1858), but became President of the Board of Control on the resignation of Lord Ellenborough. He had the charge of the India Bill of 1858 in the House of Commons, became the first Secretary of State for India, and left behind him in the India Office an excellent reputation as a man of business.  After the revolution in Greece and the flight of King Otto, Queen Victoria's second son, Prince Alfred, was the Greek people's choice as their next king. After he declined, the idea arose of electing a great and wealthy English nobleman, in the open hope that although they might have to offer him a Civil List he would decline to receive it. Lord Stanley was favourite candidate. However, despite reports to the contrary, he was in fact never formally offered the crown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign minister 1866-68.", "content": "After the fall of the Russell government in 1866 he became Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in his father's third administration. He compared his conduct in that great post to that of a man floating down a river and fending off from his vessel, as well as he could, the various obstacles it encountered. He enunciated the policy of Splendid isolation in 1866:  He arranged the collective guarantee of the neutrality of Luxembourg in 1867, likely to be a theatre of war with conflict between France and Prussia growing ever more likely. He also negotiated a convention with the USA about the \"CSS Alabama\", which, however, was not ratified, and refused to take any part in the troubles in Crete.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Foreign Minister 1874-78.", "content": "In 1874 he again became Foreign Secretary in Disraeli's government. Disraeli usually gets the main credit for a series of achievements. In 1875 came the purchase of the controlling shares in the Suez Canal company. By negotiations, Russia gave up substantial gains in the Balkans and a foothold in the Mediterranean. Britain gained control of Cyprus from the Ottomans as a naval base covering the Eastern Mediterranean. In exchange, Britain guaranteed the Asiatic territories of the Ottoman Empire. Britain did not do well in conflicts in Afghanistan and South Africa.  Derby acquiesced in Disraeli's purchase of the Suez Canal shares, a measure then considered dangerous by many people, but ultimately most successful. He accepted the Andrassy Note, but declined to accede to the Berlin Memorandum. Derby's conduct during the Eastern Crisis was mysterious to many of his contemporaries and for some time thereafter. Derby's hope for peace with Russia led him (and his wife) to share Cabinet secrets with the Russian ambassador, Pyotr Shuvalov, in hopes of averting war with Russia. Robert Blake commented that \"Derby surely must be the only Foreign Secretary in British history to reveal the innermost secrets of the Cabinet to the ambassador of a foreign power in order to frustrate the presumed intentions of his own Prime Minister.\" Derby resigned in January 1878 when the Cabinet resolved to send the British fleet through the Dardanelles, but when that action soon proved unnecessary, Derby was allowed to withdraw his resignation. However, he resigned again and finally in the same year when the Cabinet agreed to call up the reserve.  By October 1879 it was clear enough that he had thrown in his lot with the Liberal Party, but it was not till March 1880 that he publicly announced this change of allegiance. He did not at first take office in the second Gladstone government, but became Colonial Secretary in December 1882, holding this position till the fall of that government in the summer of 1885. In 1886 the Liberal party split; Lord Derby became a Liberal Unionist, and took an active part in the general management of that party, leading it in the House of Lords till 1891, when Lord Hartington became Duke of Devonshire. In 1892 he presided over the Labour Commission.  He served as President of the first day of the 1881 Co-operative Congress.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Lord Derby married Lady Mary, daughter of George Sackville-West, 5th Earl De La Warr and widow of James Gascoyne-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury, in 1870. They had no children. Derby's health never recovered from an attack of influenza which he had in 1891, and he died at Knowsley on 21 April 1893, aged 66. He was succeeded in the earldom by his younger brother, Frederick. Lady Derby died in December 1900.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edward Henry Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby, (21 July 182621 April 1893), known as Lord Stanley from 1851 to 1869, was a British statesman. He served as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs twice, from 1866 to 1868 and from 1874 to 1878, and also twice as Colonial Secretary in 1858 and from 1882 to 1885.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975525}
{"src_title": "Adam, Count of Schwarzenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Schwarzenberg was born in Gimborn in the County of Mark. He was the son of Adolf, Count of Schwarzenberg, and a member of the House of Schwarzenberg from Franconian Seinsheim. The family was first documented in 1172 and elevated to the status of Reichsgraf in 1599. His mother was Margaretha Freiin Wolff von Metternich.  In 1600 Schwarzenberg inherited the title and lordship of his father, who died fighting the Ottoman Empire. In 1609, he supported Elector John Sigismund's claims to Jülich and Cleves.  Schwarzenberg married Margaretha Freiin Hartard von Pallant in 1613, but his wife died two years later while giving birth to his second son, Johann Adolf. Rather than remarrying, Schwarzenberg entered the \"Johanniterorden\", becoming its \"Herrenmeister\" (\"Lord of the Knights\", or Grand Master) in 1625. He retained that office until his death, sixteen years later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brandenburg Privy Council.", "content": "In the following years, Schwarzenberg became a member of Brandenburg's Privy Council, where he quickly acquired a position of prominence, especially regarding Brandenburg-Prussia's Rhenish territories. He also used his stature in the Bergisches Land to secure the elevation of his Gimborn homeland to the \"reichsunmittelbar\" Lordship of Gimborn-Neustadt. Schwarzenberg reached the height of his power during the reign of Elector George William. Although the Margraviate of Brandenburg was predominantly Lutheran and its prince was Calvinist, the Roman Catholic Schwarzenburg advocated the imperial interests of Austria's Catholic Habsburg Monarchy.  George William pursued a policy of neutrality for Brandenburg during the Thirty Years' War. Schwarzenberg's pro-imperial tendencies were opposed by the pro-Protestant faction led by the privy councilors Levin von Knesebeck and Samuel von Winterfeld but supported by his protegé Joachim Friedrich von Blumenthal. Schwarzenberg succeeded in having Winterfeld expelled in 1626 when the imperial cause loomed strong. When Sweden became involved in the war, the Calvinist chancellor Sigismund von Götzen gained control and forced Schwarzenberg to retire to Kleve in 1630. When the imperial cause regained momentum in 1634−5, Schwarzenberg returned to Berlin. He appointed von Blumenthal to raise an army of 26,000 troops to expel the Swedes and enforce George William's claim on Pomerania, but he was only able to raise 11,000 undisciplined soldiers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ruler of Brandenburg.", "content": "After George William fled to Königsberg in the Duchy of Prussia in 1638, Schwarzenberg became the virtual dictator of Brandenburg from 1638−40. To finance the war, Schwarzenberg imposed new taxes, restricted the powers of the provincial estates, and suspended the Privy Council in favor of a War Council. Although Schwarzenberg had initially been supported by the estates for his cautious neutrality at the beginning of the war, the estates resented his attacks on their rights. He was seen as a traitor and agent for Austria and Habsburg Spain, profiting from the war while Brandenburg suffered. More often than not, the mercenaries he hired did more harm to the people of Brandenburg than to the Swedish troops, whom they were unable to expel. By the time of George William's death in 1640, Brandenburg-Prussia was on the verge of dissolution.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "When Frederick William acceded to Brandenburg's throne in 1640, he began curtailing the powers of Schwarzenberg, assuming them himself or granting them to Götzen. The new elector demoted the Rhinelander to Governor of Brandenburg. Frederick William had long resented Schwarzenberg, believing that the minister had tried to poison him in 1638 when the prince was ill with measles.  Schwarzenberg died unexpectedly in 1641, allegedly from fright caused by his rioting mercenaries. Although his administration of Brandenburg's meager resources was largely unsuccessful during the Thirty Years' War, it marked the beginning of the state's curtailment of the estates, a process continued by Frederick William, the \"Great Elector\". Schwarzenberg's successor as Governor of Brandenburg, Samuel von Winterfeld, negotiated a treaty of peace with Sweden.  Cuno von Uechtritz-Steinkirch designed a bust of Schwarzenberg for Berlin's Siegesallee; along with a bust of Colonel Konrad von Burgsdorff, the statue of Schwarzenberg flanked that of Elector George William. The memorial was unveiled on 23 December 1899.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "<BR", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adam Graf von Schwar(t)zenberg (26 August 1583 – 14 March 1641) was a German official who advised George William, Elector of Brandenburg, during the Thirty Years' War and served as the Master of the \"Johanniterorden\", the Bailiwick of Brandenburg of the Order of Saint John (1625−41).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975526}
{"src_title": "Mattia Preti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in the small town of Taverna in Calabria, Preti was called \"Il Cavalier Calabrese\" (the Calabrian Knight) after appointment as a Knight of the Order of St. John (Knights of Malta) in 1660. His early apprenticeship is said to have been with the \"Caravaggist\" Giovanni Battista Caracciolo, which may account for his lifelong interest in the style of Caravaggio.  Probably before 1630, Preti joined his brother Gregorio (also a painter), in Rome, where he became familiar with the techniques of Caravaggio and his school as well as with the work of Guercino, Rubens, Guido Reni, and Giovanni Lanfranco. In Rome, he painted fresco cycles in the churches of Sant'Andrea della Valle and San Carlo ai Catinari. Between 1644 and 1646, he may have spent time in Venice, but remained based in Rome until 1653, returning later in 1660–61. He painted frescoes for the church of San Biagio at Modena (app. 1651–2) and participated in the fresco decoration of the Palazzo Pamphilj in Valmontone (documented 1660–61), where he worked along with Pier Francesco Mola, Gaspar Dughet, Francesco Cozza, Giovanni Battista Tassi (\"il Cortonese\"), and Guglielmo Cortese.  During most of 1653–1660, he worked in Naples, where he was influenced by another prominent painter of his era, Luca Giordano. Preti's major works include a series of large frescoes, ex-votos depicting the Virgin or saints delivering people from the plague, which were painted on seven city gates and are now lost. Two sketches are in the Capodimonte Museum in Naples. The \"bozzetto\" of the Virgin with the baby Jesus looming over the dying and their burial parties envisions a Last Judgement presided over by a woman. Preti also won a commission to supervise the construction, carving, and gilding for the nave and transept of San Pietro a Maiella.  Having been made a Knight of Grace in the Order of St John, he visited the order's headquarters in Malta in 1659 and spent most of the remainder of his life there. Preti transformed the interior of St. John's Co-Cathedral in Valletta with a huge series of paintings on the life and martyrdom of St. John the Baptist (1661–1666). In Malta one also can find many paintings of Preti in private collections and in parish churches. His increased reputation led to an expanded circle of patrons, and he received commissions from all over Europe.  Preti was fortunate to enjoy a long career and have a considerable artistic output. His paintings, representative of the exuberant late Baroque style, are held by many great museums, including important collections in Naples, Valletta, and in his hometown of Taverna.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mattia Preti (24 February 1613 – 3 January 1699) was an Italian Baroque artist who worked in Italy and Malta. He was appointed a Member of the Order of Saint John.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975527}
{"src_title": "Radiated tortoise", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Growing to a carapace length of up to 16 in (41 cm) and weighing up to 35 lb (16 kg), the radiated tortoise is considered to be one of the world's most beautiful tortoises.  This tortoise has the basic \"tortoise\" body shape, which consists of the high-domed carapace, a blunt head, and elephantine feet. The legs, feet, and head are yellow except for a variably sized black patch on top of the head.  The carapace of the radiated tortoise is brilliantly marked with yellow lines radiating from the center of each dark plate of the shell, hence its name. This \"star\" pattern is more finely detailed and intricate than the normal pattern of other star-patterned tortoise species, such as \"Geochelone elegans\" of India. The radiated tortoise is also larger than \"G. elegans\", and the scutes of the carapace are smooth, and not raised up into a bumpy, pyramidal shape as is commonly seen in the latter species. Sexual dimorphism is slight. Compared to females, male radiated tortoises usually have longer tails and the notches beneath their tails are more noticeable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifespan.", "content": "The species is very long-lived. The oldest radiated tortoise ever recorded with certainty was Tu'i Malila, which died at an estimated age of 188. A tortoise named Adwaita is widely believed to have been even older at his death in 2006.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Range and distribution.", "content": "Radiated tortoises occur naturally only in the extreme southern and southwestern part of the island of Madagascar. They have also been introduced to the nearby island of Reunion. They prefer dry regions of brush, thorn (Diderae) forests, and woodlands of southern Madagascar.  As the radiated tortoises are herbivores, grazing constitutes 80–90% of their diets, while they also eat fruits and succulent plants. A favorite food in the wild is the \"Opuntia\" cactus. They are known to graze regularly in the same area, thus keeping the vegetation in that area closely trimmed. They seem to prefer new growth rather than mature growth because of the high-protein, low-fiber content.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Males first mate upon attaining lengths of about 12 in (31 cm); females may need to be a few inches longer. The male begins this fairly noisy procedure by bobbing his head and smelling the female's hind legs and cloaca. In some cases, the male may lift the female up with the front edge of his shell to keep her from moving away.  The male then proceeds to mount the female from the rear while striking the anal region of his plastron against the female's carapace. Hissing and grunting by the male during mating is common. This is a very dangerous procedure and cases have been recorded where the female's shell has cracked and pierced the vaginal and anal cavities. Females lay from three to 12 eggs in a previously excavated hole 6-8 in (15–20 cm) deep, and then depart. Incubation is quite long in this species, lasting usually between 5 and 8 months. Juveniles are between 1.2 and 1.6 inches (3.2 and 4 cm) upon hatching. Unlike the yellow coloration of the adults, the juveniles are a white to an off-white shade. Juveniles attain the high-domed carapace soon after hatching.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "These tortoises are critically endangered due to habitat loss, being poached for food, and being overexploited in the pet trade. It is listed on CITES Appendix I, commercial trade in wild-caught specimens is illegal (permitted only in exceptional licensed circumstances). However, due to the poor economic conditions of Madagascar, many of the laws are largely ignored.  No estimates of wild populations are available, but their numbers are declining, and many authorities see the potential for a rapid decline to extinction in the wild. In the North American studbook, 332 specimens are listed as participating in captive-breeding programs such as the Species Survival Plan. Captive breeding has shown great promise as in the captive-breeding program for the radiated tortoise at the New York Zoological Society's Wildlife Survival Center. In 2005, the Wildlife Survival Center was closed, and the radiated tortoise captive-breeding program was continued with the inception of the Behler Chelonian Center, the Turtle Conservancy's southern California conservation breeding center.  In March 2013, smugglers were arrested after carrying a single bag containing 21 radiated tortoises and 54 angonoka tortoises (\"Astrochelys yniphora\") through Suvarnabhumi International Airport in Thailand.  On 20 March 2016, the customs officials at Mumbai airport seized 146 tortoises from the mishandled baggage of a Nepal citizen. This bag was said to belong to a transit passenger, who arrived from Madagascar and flew to Kathmandu, leaving this bag behind. Of the 146 tortoises, 139 were radiated tortoises (\"Astrochelys radiata\") and seven were Angonoka tortoises (\"Astrochelys yniphora\"), both critically endangered tortoise species of Madagascar. Two radiated tortoises were found dead with broken shells.  On 12 June 2016, it was reported that 72 radiated tortoises and six angonoka tortoises had gone missing from a breeding facility in Thailand.  On 20 April 2018, more than 10,000 radiated tortoises were found in a home in Toliara. In total, the house contained 9,888 live radiated tortoises and 180 dead ones. Rescuers transported them to Le Village Des Tortues (\"Turtle Village\"), a private wildlife rehabilitation facility in Ifaty, 18 miles north of Toliara. A week after their discovery, 574 tortoises had died from either dehydration or infection. Three suspects (two men and a woman, the owner of the house) were arrested. The men were in the process of burying dead tortoises on the property when the team arrived.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The radiated tortoise (\"Astrochelys radiata\") is a species in the family Testudinidae. Although this species is native to and most abundant in southern Madagascar, it can also be found in the rest of this island, and has been introduced to the islands of Réunion and Mauritius. It is a very long-lived species, with recorded lifespans of at least 188 years. These tortoises are classified as critically endangered by the IUCN, mainly because of the destruction of their habitat and because of poaching.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975528}
{"src_title": "Château de Vincennes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Like other more famous châteaux, it had its origins in a hunting lodge, constructed for Louis VII about 1150 in the forest of Vincennes. In the 13th century, Philip Augustus and Louis IX erected a more substantial manor: Louis IX is reputed to have departed from Vincennes on the crusade from which he did not return.  Vincennes was more than a grim fortress: Philippe III (in 1274) and Philippe IV (in 1284) were each married there and three 14th-century kings died at Vincennes: Louis X (1316), Philippe V (1322) and Charles IV (1328).  To strengthen the site, the castle was greatly enlarged replacing the earlier site in the later 14th century. A \"donjon\" tower, 52 meters high, the tallest medieval fortified structure of Europe, was added by Philip VI of France, a work that was started about 1337. The grand rectangular circuit of walls, was completed by the Valois about two generations later (ca. 1410). The donjon served as a residence for the royal family, and its buildings are known to have once held the library and personal study of Charles V. Henry V of England died in the donjon in 1422 following the siege of Meaux.  The relics of the Crown of Thorns were temporarily housed there while the \"Sainte-Chapelle\" in Paris was being readied to receive them. A fragment that remained behind received its own chapel at Vincennes, probably built by Peter of Montereau (who may have designed the \"Sainte-Chapelle\" in Paris), which survives (\"illustration, below\"). Henri IV was imprisoned at Vincennes in April 1574, during the Wars of Religion, and Charles IX died here the following month.  In the 17th century, the architect Louis Le Vau built for Louis XIV a pair of isolated ranges mirroring one another across a parterre to one side of the keep, suited for the Queen Mother and Cardinal Mazarin, but rebuilding was never pursued once Versailles occupied all attentions. Some splendid apartments show the earliest phase of Louis XIV style, before the example of Vaux-le-Vicomte presented the Sun King with a worthy model. The unlucky builder of Vaux-le-Vicomte, the minister Nicolas Fouquet, found himself transferred to Vincennes, to much less comfortable lodgings. In 1691, another unwilling lodger was John Vanbrugh, soon to become a playwright and architect, who drew some of his Baroque \"gothick\" from his experience of Vincennes, it has been argued.  Abandoned in the 18th century, the château still served, first as the site of the Vincennes porcelain manufactory, the precursor to Sèvres, then as a state prison, which housed the marquis de Sade, Diderot, Mirabeau, and the famous confidence man, Jean Henri Latude, as well as a community of nuns of the English Benedictine Congregation from Cambrai. At the end of February 1791, a mob of more than a thousand workers from the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, encouraged by members of the Cordeliers Club and led by Antoine Joseph Santerre, marched out to the château, which, rumour had it, was being readied on the part of the Crown for political prisoners, and with crowbars and pickaxes set about demolishing it, as the Bastille had recently been demolished. The work was interrupted by the marquis de Lafayette who took several ringleaders prisoners, to the jeers of the Parisian workers. It played no part during the remainder of the Revolution. From 1796, it served as an arsenal.  The execution of the duc d'Enghien took place in the moat of the château on 21 March 1804.  General Daumesnil who lost a leg, which was replaced by a wooden prosthesis, at the battle of Wagram (5–6 July 1809), was assigned to the defence of the château de Vincennes in 1812. Vincennes was then an arsenal containing 52 000 new rifles, more than 100 field guns and many tons of powder, bullets, canonballs: a tempting prize for the Sixth Coalition marching on Paris in 1814 in the aftermath of the Battle of the Nations. However, Daumesnil faced down the allies and replied with the famous words \"I shall surrender Vincennes when I get my leg back\" (\"Je rendrai Vincennes quand on me rendra ma jambe\", with a polysemic pun in French that is lost in translation). With only 300 men under his command, he resisted the Coalition until king Louis XVIII ordered him to leave the fortress.  The park was recreated in the English landscape style in the 19th century. In 1860, Napoleon III, having employed Viollet-le-Duc to restore the keep and the chapel, gave the \"Bois de Vincennes\" (9.95 km2 in extent) to Paris as a public park.  Vincennes also served as the military headquarters of the Chief of General Staff, General Maurice Gamelin during the unsuccessful defence of France against the invading German army in 1940. It is now the main base of France's Defence Historical Service, which maintains a museum in the \"donjon\".  On 20 August 1944, during the battle for the liberation of Paris, 26 policemen and members of the Resistance arrested by soldiers of the Waffen-SS were executed in the eastern moat of the fortress, and their bodies thrown in a common grave.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description of the Château.", "content": "Only traces remain of the earlier castle and the substantial remains date from the 14th century. The castle forms a rectangle whose perimeter is more than a kilometer in length (330 x 175m). It has six towers and three gates, each originally 13 meters high, and is surrounded by a deep stone lined moat. The keep, 52m high, and its enceinte occupy the western side of the fortress and are separated from the rest of the castle by the moat. The keep is one of the first known examples of rebar usage. The towers of the \"grande enceinte\" now stand only to the height of the walls, having been demolished in the 1800s, save the \"Tour du Village\" on the north side of the enclosure. The south end consists of two wings facing each other, the \"Pavillon du Roi\" and the \"Pavillon de la Reine\", built by Louis Le Vau.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Château de Vincennes is a massive 14th and 17th century French royal fortress in the town of Vincennes, to the east of Paris, now a suburb of the metropolis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975529}
{"src_title": "Cuphea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "Several \"Cuphea\" species are popular ornamental plants or honey plants. \"C. ignea\" 'David Verity' and \"C. micropetalia\" are popular plants to attract hummingbirds.  Some species of \"Cuphea\" are used to produce cuphea oil, of interest as sources of medium-chain triglycerides. For most purposes, cuphea oil is identical to coconut oil and palm oil; these are derived from strictly tropical plants however and – particularly in the latter case – the expanding production of which has caused a considerable amount of habitat destruction. \"Cuphea\" may thus produce a valuable source of income for farmers in temperate regions, and by supplementing coconut and palm oil to satisfy the growing demand (e.g. for biodiesel production) at the same time decreasing the need for wholesale logging in tropical countries. Early attempts at commercial production have focused on an interspecific hybrid population derived from \"C. lanceolata\" and Clammy Cuphea (\"C. viscosissima\").  \"Cuphea\" has also been shown to improve agricultural crops in North America when used in crop rotation. Crop rotation is commonly practiced among farmers to improve soil quality, control host-specific pests, and decrease the use of fertilizers and pesticides. When cuphea was introduced into the crop rotation of corn and wheat, scientists from the Agricultural Research Service of the USDA found that the addition of \"cuphea\" had positive effects on the following harvest, including a higher yield of crop and crops that are higher in protein. Such research reveals how \"cuphea\" can be used in agriculture to increase the profitability of crops like wheat and corn.  The seed oils of some species are very rich in one particular fatty acid. \"C. painteri\" oil, for example, is about three-quarters caprylic acid; \"C. carthagenensis\" oil consists of about 80% lauric acid. \"C. koehneana\" oil may be the richest natural source of a single fatty acid, with 95% of its content consisting of capric acid. Currently the plant is not commonly used for medicinal effects; however, chemical analysis of its fatty oils suggest the plant could possibly serve as an algicidal, fungicidal or antibiotic agent. There is also reason to believe the plant could be effective as an appetite stimulant.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cuphea is a genus containing about 260 species of annual and perennial flowering plants native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Americas. The species range from low-growing herbaceous plants to semi-woody shrubs up to tall. Commonly they are known as cupheas, or, in the case of some species, as cigar plants. The generic name is derived from the Greek word κυφος (\"kyphos\"), meaning \"bent,\" \"curved,\" or \"humped.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975530}
{"src_title": "Stourhead", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "House.", "content": "The Stourton family had lived at the Stourhead estate for 500 years until they sold it to Sir Thomas Meres in 1714. His son, John Meres, sold it in 1717 to Henry Hoare, son of wealthy banker Sir Richard Hoare. The original manor house was demolished and a new house, one of the first of its kind, was designed by Colen Campbell and built by Nathaniel Ireson between 1721 and 1725.  Over the next 200 years, the Hoare family collected many heirlooms, including a large library and art collection. In 1902, the house was gutted by fire but many of the heirlooms were saved, and the house was rebuilt in a nearly identical style.  The last Hoare family member to own the property, Sir Henry Hugh Arthur Hoare, gave the house and gardens to the National Trust in 1946, one year before his death. His son and sole heir, Captain Henry Colt Arthur \"Harry\" Hoare, of the Queen's Own Dorset Yeomanry, had died of wounds received at the Battle of Mughar Ridge on 13 November 1917 during World War I. The last Hoare family member to be born at the house was Edward Hoare on 11 October 1949.  The house was recorded as Grade I listed in 1966.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art collection.", "content": "Henry Hoare's art collection is displayed at Stourhead; his acquisitions are featured in the Palladian mansion's 'Painted Alcove' or Italian Room. Hoare’s collection includes many hand-coloured prints – in some cases, coloured with such skill that they were mistaken for oil paintings. These prints are engravings of the works of the Italian masters (for example Daniele da Volterra, and Carlo Maratta) and the hand-colouring is attributed to a \"Mr. Studio\", thought to be Giacomo Van Lint, the son of Flemish painter Hendrik van Lint (possibly in collaboration with his father).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other buildings.", "content": "Although the main design for the estate at Stourhead was created by Colen Campbell, other architects were involved in its evolution through the years. William Benson, Henry Hoare's brother-in-law, was in part responsible for the building of the estate in 1719. Francis Cartwright, a master builder and architect, who was established as a \"competent provincial designer in the Palladian manner\", worked on Stourhead between 1749 and 1755. Cartwright was a known carver, presumably of materials such as wood and stone, and it is assumed that his contribution to Stourhead was in this capacity. Nathaniel Ireson is the master builder credited for much of the work on the Estate: it is this work that established his career, in 1720.  The original estate remained intact, though changes and additions were made over time. Henry Flitcroft built three temples and a tower on the property: the Temple of Ceres was added in 1744, followed by the Temple of Hercules in 1754 and the Temple of Apollo in 1765; that same year he designed Alfred's Tower, which was not built until 1772. During the ownership of Sir Richard Colt Hoare, the mason and surveyor John Carter added an ornamental cottage to the grounds (1806) and the architect William Wilkins created a Grecian style lodge (1816).  In 1840, over a century after the initial buildings were constructed, Charles Parker was hired by Sir Hugh Hoare to make changes to the estate. A portico was added to the main house, along with other alterations. The design of the additions was in keeping with original plans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gardens and monuments.", "content": "The lake at Stourhead is artificially created. Following a path around the lake is meant to evoke a journey similar to that of Aeneas's descent in to the underworld. In addition to Greek mythology, the layout is evocative of the \"genius of the place\", a concept expounded by Alexander Pope. Buildings and monuments are erected in remembrance of family and local history. Henry Hoare was a collector of art; one of his pieces was Claude Lorrain's \"Aeneas at Delos\", which is thought to have inspired the pictorial design of the gardens. Passages telling of Aeneas's journey are quoted in the temples surrounding the lake.  Monuments are used to frame one another; for example the Pantheon designed by Flitcroft entices the visitor over, but once reached, views from the opposite shore of the lake beckon. The use of the sunken path allows the landscape to continue on into neighbouring landscapes, allowing the viewer to contemplate all the surrounding panorama. The Pantheon was thought to be the most important visual feature of the gardens. It appears in many pieces of artwork owned by Hoare, depicting Aeneas's travels. The plantings in the garden were arranged in a manner that would evoke different moods, drawing visitors through realms of thought. According to Henry Hoare, 'The greens should be ranged together in large masses as the shades are in painting: to contrast the dark masses with the light ones, and to relieve each dark mass itself with little sprinklings of lighter greens here and there.'  The gardens were designed by Henry Hoare II and laid out between 1741 and 1780 in a classical 18th-century design set around a large lake, achieved by damming a small stream. The inspiration behind their creation were the painters Claude Lorrain, Poussin, and, in particular, Gaspard Dughet, who painted Utopian-type views of Italian landscapes. An early feature, predating the lake, is the Temple of Flora (1744–46). Lakeside features include the five-arched Palladian Bridge at the eastern extremity of the lake; the Rockwork Bridge over the road to the south of the lake; and to the west the grotto and the Gothic Cottage summerhouse.  Also in the garden are a number of temples inspired by scenes of the Grand Tour of Europe. On one hill overlooking the gardens stand an obelisk of 1839 and King Alfred's Tower, a 50-metre-tall, brick folly designed by Henry Flitcroft in 1772; on another hill the temple of Apollo provides a vantage point to survey the magnificent rhododendrons, water, cascades and temples. The large medieval Bristol High Cross was moved from Bristol to the gardens. The gardens are home to a large collection of trees and shrubs from around the world.  Richard Colt Hoare, the grandson of Henry Hoare II, inherited Stourhead in 1783. He added the library wing to the mansion, and in the garden was responsible for the building of the boathouse and the removal of several features that were not in keeping with the classical and gothic styles (including a Turkish Tent). He also considerably enhanced the planting – the Temple of Apollo rises from a wooded slope that was planted in Colt Hoare's time. With the antiquarian passion of the times, he had 400 ancient burial mounds dug up to inform his pioneering \"History of Ancient Wiltshire\".  The gardens were listed Grade I on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in 1987.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In typography.", "content": "The National Trust's corporate font, designed by Paul Barnes, is based on an inscription in the grotto, created around 1748. The inscription was destroyed in error around 1960 and a replica was made from photographs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stourhead () is a 1,072-hectare (2,650-acre) estate at the source of the River Stour in the southwest of the English county of Wiltshire, extending into Somerset. The estate is about northwest of the town of Mere and includes a Grade I listed 18th-century Palladian mansion, the village of Stourton, gardens, farmland, and woodland. Stourhead has been part-owned by the National Trust since 1946.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975531}
{"src_title": "Carl Oberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nazi career.", "content": "He joined the NSDAP (Nazi Party) on 1 April 1931 and the SS on 7 April 1932. After meeting Reinhard Heydrich in May 1933, he asked Heydrich for a job and joined the \"SD\". Oberg was later promoted to an SS-\"Oberführer\" and made the police administrator for Hanover. He served in that capacity from September 1938 until January 1939. Next, Oberg served as Police President of Zwickau until late 1941. He served as \"SS-und Polizeiführer\" (SS and Police Leader - SSPF), \"Radom\" from August 1941 to May 1942. Oberg was promoted to \"SS-Brigadeführer\" on 20 April 1942.  From May 1942 to November 1944, Oberg served as Higher SS and Police Leader (\"Höherer SS-und Polizeiführer\", HSSPF) \"Frankreich\" (France) over all German police forces in France, including the SD and the Gestapo. He was the supreme authority in France for managing anti-Jewish policy and the battle against the French Resistance. He thus drove the rounding up of Jews in the Paris Vélodrome d'Hiver (Vel' d'Hiv Roundup) in 1942. By that time he had been condemned as the \"Butcher of Paris\". On Heydrich's orders, Oberg deported over 40,000 Jews from the country with the assistance of the Vichy France police force headed by René Bousquet.  By 1943, however, he was resisting some of the orders issued by Himmler and Hitler. On 18 January Himmler demanded a cleansing of Marseilles with 100,000 arrests and explosive demolition of the city's crime district. Working with the French police, Oberg supervised a \"minimalist\" response of 6,000 arrests, 20,000 people displaced, and partial destruction of the harbour area. In 1944, Oberg blocked an attempt to establish an \"Einsatzkommando of the Waffen-SS\" in France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war trial, sentence, and reprieve.", "content": "Oberg was arrested by the US military in June, 1945 and sentenced to death by a British court before receiving another death sentence from the French in October, 1954. In 1958, the sentence was commuted to life by French President René Coty, and later reduced to 20 years hard labor. Oberg was pardoned by President Charles de Gaulle and released on 28 November 1962.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carl Oberg (27 January 1897 – 3 June 1965) was a German SS functionary during the Nazi era. He served as the Higher SS and Police Leader (HSSPF) of France during the Second World War. Oberg deported over 40,000 Jews from France. After the war, he was twice sentenced to death by two different courts. However, in 1958 the death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and later reduced to 20 years hard labour. Oberg was pardoned and released on 28 November 1962.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975532}
{"src_title": "Mary Blair", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born on October 21, 1911, in McAlester, Oklahoma, Mary Browne Robinson moved to Texas while still a small child, and later to the city of Morgan Hill, California in the early 20s. After graduating from San Jose State University which she attended from 1929 to 1931, Mary won a scholarship to the Chouinard Art Institute in Los Angeles, where artists such as Pruett Carter, Morgan Russell and Lawrence Murphy were among the teachers. She graduated from Chouinard in 1933. In 1934 shortly after college, she married another artist, Lee Everett Blair (October 1, 1911 – April 19, 1993). She was the sister-in-law of animator Preston Blair (1908–1995). Along with her husband Lee, she became a member of the California School of Watercolor and quickly became known for being an imaginative colorist and designer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Blair's first professional job in the animation industry was as an animator with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. She would soon leave and join Lee Blair at the Ub Iwerks studio before moving to Disney. In the 1930s she was also a part of the innovative California Water-Color Society  Blair joined Walt Disney Animation Studios—initially with some reluctance— in 1940, and worked briefly on art for \"Dumbo\", an early version of \"Lady and the Tramp\", and a second version of \"Fantasia\" titled \"Baby Ballet\" which was not released until the late 1990s.  After leaving the studio for a short time in 1941, Blair travelled to various South American countries with Walt Disney, Lillian Disney and other artists on a research tour. as part of the Good Neighbor policy of the President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Her watercolors impressed Disney, who appointed her as an art supervisor for the animated feature films \"Saludos Amigos\" and \"The Three Caballeros\". Blair first began animation and color design on major films in 1943 and would continue to work on animated films for Disney for a full decade. Her work with animation did not end there however as after that, she worked on several package films, excluding \"Fun and Fancy Free\", and on two partially animated features—\"Song of the South\" and \"So Dear to My Heart\". The early 1950s were a busy time for the Disney studio, with an animated feature released nearly every year. Mary Blair was credited with color styling on \"Cinderella\" (1950), \"Alice in Wonderland\" (1951) and \"Peter Pan\" (1953), and the artistic influence of her concept art is strongly felt in those films, as well as in several animated shorts, including \"Susie the Little Blue Coupe\" and \"The Little House\", she designed during that period. After the completion of \"Peter Pan\", Blair resigned from Disney and worked as a freelance graphic designer and illustrator, creating advertising campaigns for companies such as Nabisco, Pepsodent, Maxwell House, Beatrice Foods and others. She also illustrated several Little Golden Books for publisher Simon & Schuster, some of which remain in print today, and she also designed Christmas and Easter sets for Radio City Music Hall. Blair not only worked in graphic design and animation but also as a designer for Bonwit Teller and created theatrical sets.  At the request of Walt Disney, who regarded highly her innate sense of color styling, Blair began work on Disney's new attraction, \"It's a Small World\". Originally a Pepsi-Cola-sponsored pavilion benefiting UNICEF at the 1964 New York World's Fair, the attraction moved to Disneyland after the Fair closed and was later replicated at the Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World Resort as well as Tokyo Disneyland, Disneyland Paris and Hong Kong Disneyland. Blair created murals that would be showcased in Disney parks, hotels and other Disney attractions from California to Florida. These murals were not only painted but some would be tile decor.  In 1966, philanthropist Dr. Jules Stein hired Walt Disney to create a ceramic mural for his newly opened Eye Institute at the University of California, Los Angeles. Mary Blair designed the mural for Dr. Stein's Pediatric Surgery waiting room. The theme Walt chose for the mural was that of \"It's a Small World\" attraction designed by Blair.  In 1967, Blair created mural art for the Tomorrowland Promenade. Two similar tile murals flanked the entrance corridor. The mural over Adventure Thru Inner Space was covered over in 1987 with the opening of Star Tours, while the other remained in place until 1998 when the Circle-Vision 360° was replaced by Rocket Rods and a new mural was designed to reflect the new theme. Her design of a mural remains a focal point of the Disney's Contemporary Resort hotel at Walt Disney World, which was completed for the resort's opening in 1971.  Mary Blair would also go on to make sets of Walt Disney note cards for Hallmark. In 1968, Blair was credited as color designer on the film version of \"How To Succeed In Business Without Really Trying\". Blair would eventually move to Washington for Lee Blair's military career and then return to her in home studio located in Long Island, New York.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "Films that Mary Blair worked on include: Blair was also a writer for:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Mary Blair moved back to California and died of a cerebral hemorrhage in Soquel, California on July 26, 1978. She died of a cerebral hemorrhage likely brought on by acute alcoholism.  In 1991 Mary was honored as a Disney Legend. Also posthumously, she received the Winsor McCay Award from ASIFA-Hollywood in 1996 along with two other Disney animators.  While the fine art she created outside of her association with Disney and her work as an illustrator is not widely known, Blair's bold and ground-breaking color design still inspires many of today's contemporary designers and animators. A Google doodle was created on Friday, October 21, 2011, to commemorate the centennial of her birth. The Doodle featured an image of an illustrator as Mary might have drawn herself, surrounded by the simple patterns and shapes that made up her familiar cartoon world. Simon & Schuster published \"Pocket Full of Colors\", a picture book biography about Mary Blair, in August 2017. The book is written by Amy Guglielmo and Jacqueline Tourville, and illustrated by Brigette Baranger, who once worked as an artist at Disney.  Mary Blair has been credited with introducing modernist art styles to Walt Disney and his studio by using primary colors to form intense contrast and colors that are unnatural to the image they are depicting.  Blair’s artwork was exhibited in \"The Colors of Mary Blair\" at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo, July 2009. From March 13 to September 7, 2014, the \"Magic, Color, Flair: The World of Mary Blair\" exhibition was on display at the Walt Disney Family Museum in San Francisco Presidio, California.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mary Blair (born Mary Browne Robinson; October 21, 1911 – July 26, 1978) was an American artist, animator, and designer. She was prominent in producing art and animation for The Walt Disney Company, drawing concept art for such films as \"Alice in Wonderland\", \"Peter Pan\", \"Song of the South\" and \"Cinderella\". Blair also created character designs for enduring attractions such as Disneyland's It's a Small World, the fiesta scene in El Rio del Tiempo in the Mexico pavilion in Epcot's World Showcase, and an enormous mosaic inside Disney's Contemporary Resort. Several of her illustrated children's books from the 1950s remain in print, such as \"I Can Fly\" by Ruth Krauss. Blair was inducted into the group of Disney Legends in 1991.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975533}
{"src_title": "Hypoxia (medical)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Generalized hypoxia.", "content": "The symptoms of generalized hypoxia depend on its severity and acceleration of onset.  In the case of altitude sickness, where hypoxia develops gradually, the symptoms include fatigue, numbness / tingling of extremities, nausea, and cerebral anoxia. These symptoms are often difficult to identify, but early detection of symptoms can be critical.  In severe hypoxia, or hypoxia of very rapid onset, ataxia, confusion / disorientation / hallucinations / behavioral change, severe headaches / reduced level of consciousness, papilloedema, breathlessness, pallor, tachycardia, and pulmonary hypertension eventually leading to the late signs cyanosis, slow heart rate / cor pulmonale, and low blood pressure followed by heart failure eventually leading to shock and death.  Because hemoglobin is a darker red when it is not bound to oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin), as opposed to the rich red color that it has when bound to oxygen (oxyhemoglobin), when seen through the skin it has an increased tendency to reflect blue light back to the eye. In cases where the oxygen is displaced by another molecule, such as carbon monoxide, the skin may appear 'cherry red' instead of cyanotic. Hypoxia can cause premature birth, and injure the liver, among other deleterious effects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local hypoxia.", "content": "If tissue is not being perfused properly, it may feel cold and appear pale; if severe, hypoxia can result in cyanosis, a blue discoloration of the skin. If hypoxia is very severe, a tissue may eventually become gangrenous. Extreme pain may also be felt at or around the site.  Tissue hypoxia from low oxygen delivery may be due to low haemoglobin concentration (anaemic hypoxia), low cardiac output (stagnant hypoxia) or low haemoglobin saturation (hypoxic hypoxia). The consequence of oxygen deprivation in tissues is a switch to anaerobic metabolism at the cellular level. As such, reduced systemic blood flow may result in increased serum lactate. Serum lactate levels have been correlated with illness severity and mortality in critically ill adults and in ventilated neonates with respiratory distress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "Oxygen passively diffuses in the lung alveoli according to a pressure gradient. Oxygen diffuses from the breathed air, mixed with water vapour, to arterial blood, where its partial pressure is around 100 mmHg (13.3 kPa). In the blood, oxygen is bound to hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells. The binding capacity of hemoglobin is influenced by the partial pressure of oxygen in the environment, as described in the oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve. A smaller amount of oxygen is transported in solution in the blood.  In peripheral tissues, oxygen again diffuses down a pressure gradient into cells and their mitochondria, where it is used to produce energy in conjunction with the breakdown of glucose, fats, and some amino acids.  Hypoxia can result from a failure at any stage in the delivery of oxygen to cells. This can include decreased partial pressures of oxygen, problems with diffusion of oxygen in the lungs, insufficient available hemoglobin, problems with blood flow to the end tissue, and problems with breathing rhythm.  Experimentally, oxygen diffusion becomes rate limiting (and lethal) when arterial oxygen partial pressure falls to 60 mmHg (5.3 kPa) or below.  Almost all the oxygen in the blood is bound to hemoglobin, so interfering with this carrier molecule limits oxygen delivery to the periphery. Hemoglobin increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood by about 40-fold, with the ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen influenced by the partial pressure of oxygen in the environment, a relationship described in the oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve. When the ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen is interfered with, a hypoxic state can result.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ischemia.", "content": "Ischemia, meaning insufficient blood flow to a tissue, can also result in hypoxia. This is called 'ischemic hypoxia'. This can include an embolic event, a heart attack that decreases overall blood flow, or trauma to a tissue that results in damage. An example of insufficient blood flow causing local hypoxia is gangrene that occurs in diabetes.  Diseases such as peripheral vascular disease can also result in local hypoxia. For this reason, symptoms are worse when a limb is used. Pain may also be felt as a result of increased hydrogen ions leading to a decrease in blood pH (acidity) created as a result of anaerobic metabolism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hypoxemic hypoxia.", "content": "This refers specifically to hypoxic states where the arterial content of oxygen is insufficient. This can be caused by alterations in respiratory drive, such as in respiratory alkalosis, physiological or pathological shunting of blood, diseases interfering in lung function resulting in a ventilation-perfusion mismatch, such as a pulmonary embolus, or alterations in the partial pressure of oxygen in the environment or lung alveoli, such as may occur at altitude or when diving.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Carbon monoxide poisoning.", "content": "Carbon monoxide competes with oxygen for binding sites on hemoglobin molecules. As carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin hundreds of times tighter than oxygen, it can prevent the carriage of oxygen. Carbon monoxide poisoning can occur acutely, as with smoke intoxication, or over a period of time, as with cigarette smoking. Due to physiological processes, carbon monoxide is maintained at a resting level of 4–6 ppm. This is increased in urban areas (7–13 ppm) and in smokers (20–40 ppm). A carbon monoxide level of 40 ppm is equivalent to a reduction in hemoglobin levels of 10 g/L.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Hypoxia is a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply at the tissue level. Hypoxia may be classified as either \"generalized\", affecting the whole body, or \"local\", affecting a region of the body. Although hypoxia is often a pathological condition, variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during hypoventilation training or strenuous physical exercise.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975534}
{"src_title": "Mahershala Ali", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Ali was born Mahershalalhashbaz Gilmore in 1974, in Hayward, California, the son of Phillip Gilmore (1956–1994) and Willicia Goines (born 1957). He was raised a Christian in Hayward, California by his mother, an ordained Baptist minister. His father was an actor who appeared on Broadway. Maher-shalal-hash-baz is the name of a prophetic child in chapter 8 of the Biblical Book of Isaiah.  He attended St. Mary's College of California (SMC) in Moraga, California, where he graduated in 1996 with a degree in mass communication. He entered SMC with a basketball scholarship and went by the name \"Hershal Gilmore\" when playing for the SMC Gaels. He became disenchanted with the idea of a sports career because of the treatment given to the team's athletes, and developed an interest in acting, particularly after taking part in a staging of \"Spunk\". This later landed him an apprenticeship at the California Shakespeare Theater following graduation. After a sabbatical year working for \"Gavin Report\", he enrolled in New York University's graduate acting program at Tisch School of the Arts, earning his master's degree in 2000.  In 2000, he converted to Islam, changed his surname from Gilmore to Ali, and joined the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. In interviews, he has recounted numerous problems he has encountered at airports, with banks and otherwise in everyday life as an American Muslim since the September 11 attacks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting.", "content": "Ali was known professionally by his full name, Mahershalalhashbaz Ali, from 2001 until 2010, when he began to be credited as Mahershala Ali. Ali had considered shortening his name for a while, saying that using his full first name was \"a crazy thing to do considering that we're in Hollywood\", although he had never been pressured by managers or agents to change it. He decided to use a shorter version of his first name after being told that his full name was too long to fit on the poster for the film \"The Place Beyond the Pines\". He did not want the alternative of \"M. Ali\" to represent himself on the poster, so he chose to adopt the shorter version of his name.  He elaborated in an interview to \"Vanity Fair\" in October 2016:  He is known for his portrayal of Remy Danton in the Netflix series \"House of Cards\", Cornell Stokes in \"Marvel's Luke Cage\", Colonel Boggs in \"\" and \"\", and Tizzy in the 2008 film \"The Curious Case of Benjamin Button\".  His first major film role was that of Tizzy Weathers in the 2008 David Fincher-directed romantic fantasy drama film \"The Curious Case of Benjamin Button\". Other notable films include \"Predators\", \"The Place Beyond the Pines\", \"Free State of Jones\", \"Hidden Figures\", and as Boggs in \"The Hunger Games series\".  For his performance as mentor and drug dealer Juan in the drama film \"Moonlight\" (2016), Ali received universal acclaim from critics and won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, the SAG Award and the Critics' Choice Award for Best Supporting Actor, and received a Golden Globe and a BAFTA Award nomination. At the 89th Academy Awards, he was the first Muslim actor to win an Oscar.  In 2017 Ali joined the video game \"Madden NFL 18\" story mode \"Longshot\", in which he played Cutter Wade, the father of protagonist Devin. He played Don Shirley in the 2018 film \"Green Book\", receiving his second Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Pictureand the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role.  Ali starred as Arkansas State Police detective Wayne Hays in the third season of the HBO series \"True Detective\", which premiered on January 13, 2019, in the United States. On Rotten Tomatoes, the site's critical consensus reads, \"Driven by Mahershala Ali's mesmerizing performance, \"True Detective\"s third season finds fresh perspective by exploring real world events – though it loses some of the series' intriguing strangeness along the way.\"  At the annual San Diego Comic-Con in July 2019, Ali was announced as being cast to play the supernatural superhero Blade in a future Marvel Cinematic Universe adaptation of the character, which was previously played by Wesley Snipes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Ali was signed to Bay Area recording label Hieroglyphics Imperium during the late 2000s and recorded rap music as Prince Ali. He released his album, \"Curb Side Service\", in 2007, but did not tour to promote the album, choosing instead to focus on his acting career.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Ali is a Muslim. He named his cat Nas, after the rapper. He is married to Amatus Sami-Karim, an actress and musician. Their first child, a daughter, named Bari Najma Ali, was born in February 2017.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mahershala Ali (; born Mahershalalhashbaz Gilmore; February 16, 1974) is an American actor and rapper. He is the recipient of several accolades, including two Academy Awards and a Golden Globe Award. \"Time\" magazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975535}
{"src_title": "Maria Anna of Neuburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in Benrath Palace in Düsseldorf, Maria Anna was the twelfth child of Philip William, then Duke of Berg and Jülich and Elisabeth Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt.  The family's reputation for fertility and connections to the Wittelsbachs made the daughters a popular choice for royal marriages. One of her sisters, Maria Sophia, married Peter II of Portugal, while Eleonore was the third wife of Emperor Leopold. This meant Maria Anna was aunt to the future emperors Joseph I and Charles VI.  When Philip William succeeded Charles of Simmern as Count of the Palatinate in May 1685, Louis XIV claimed half of it. The French invaded in September 1688 and before withdrawing in 1689, they destroyed much of Heidelberg, plus another 20 substantial towns and numerous villages. The policy was applied across the Rhineland but the Palatinate was raided again in 1693 and the devastation shocked much of Europe.  It confirmed Maria Anna's pro-Austrian, anti-French sentiments, important factors in her selection as the second wife for Charles II of Spain. His first wife, Marie Louise of Orléans died on 12 February 1689; lack of an heir and his declining health made remarriage a matter of urgency. His mother and Queen Regent, Mariana of Austria, selected Maria Anna based on her family's history of fertility and their opposition to France. She and Charles were married by proxy in August 1689; their formal wedding took place on 14 May 1690 in San Diego, near Valladolid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "Charles' death was anticipated almost from his birth in 1661; the unfortunate victim of Habsburg inbreeding, he was \"short, lame, epileptic, senile and completely bald before 35, always on the verge of death but repeatedly baffling Christendom by continuing to live.\"  His parents Philip IV of Spain and Mariana of Austria were uncle and niece, making Charles their son, first-cousin and great-nephew respectively. The impact of this inbreeding is not fully understood and his elder sister Margaret Theresa does not appear to have suffered the same issues. The authors of the most significant study state \"it has not been demonstrated (his) disabilities...were caused by...recessive alleles inherited from common ancestors.\"  Despite Charles' physical ailments, foreign observers like the Marquess of Torcy noted his mental capacities remained intact. Others claimed his mother and Maria Anna used his poor health to restrict access and retain political control.  While the Spanish Empire or 'Monarchy' was no longer the pre-eminent global power, it was still an enormous global confederation that remained largely intact. If Charles died childless, his co-heirs were Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold; acquisition of an undivided Spanish Monarchy by either would drastically alter the European balance of power.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen of Spain.", "content": "The Spanish political establishment was split into pro-Austrian and pro-French factions, the latter led by Fernández de Portocarrero, Cardinal and Archbishop of Toledo. For most of this period, the 'Austrians' controlled government, with Maria Anna assuming leadership after Marianna of Austria died in 1696. In 1690, they supported Spain's entry into the Nine Years War, which proved a disastrous decision; the state declared bankruptcy in 1692 and by 1696, France occupied most of Catalonia.  Maria Anna's power derived from her status as mother of the future monarch, which dissipated when it became clear this was unlikely to occur. By now, Charles was almost certainly impotent, his autopsy later revealing he had only one atrophied testicle.  In 1698, Charles fell seriously ill and his death seemed imminent. On 11 October, Britain, France and the Dutch Republic signed the Treaty of the Hague or First Partition Treaty, an attempt to impose a solution to the Succession issue on Spain and Austria. Six year old Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria, was made heir to the bulk of the Spanish Empire, the rest split between France and Austria. His parents were Charles' niece Maria Antonia and Maximilian of Bavaria, a Wittelsbach like Maria Anna.  The Spanish had not been consulted and in any case opposed the partition of their Empire; on 14 November 1698, Charles published his Will, naming Joseph Ferdinand heir to an undivided Spanish Monarchy. Maria Anna was appointed regent during his minority, an announcement received by his Spanish councillors in silence.  After his death from smallpox in 1699, France, Britain and the Dutch Republic agreed to the Treaty of London or Second Partition Treaty in March 1700. Joseph Ferdinand was replaced by Maria Anna's nephew, Archduke Charles, with Spanish possessions in Italy, the Netherlands and Northern Spain divided between France, Savoy and Austria. Charles was induced to modify his Will in favour of Archduke Charles but continued to insist on an undivided Monarchy and added the requirement Spain remain independent of Austria.  Many of the Castilian nobility viewed the Austrians as arrogant, and preferred a Bourbon candidate. Maria Anna continued efforts to ensure her nephew's succession; in June 1700, her ally Balthasar de Mendoza, Inquisitor General, arrested Charles's pro-French personal confessor Froilán Díaz. Charged with 'bewitching' Charles, Mendoza set up a committee to investigate; when they acquitted him, Mendoza ordered their arrest. This led to the establishment of a Council to investigate the Inquisition; it survived as an institution until 1834 but its power was broken.  In September 1700, Charles became ill again; by 28 September he was no longer able to eat and Portocarrero persuaded him to alter his Will in favour of Louis XIV's grandson, Philip of Anjou. On his death in November 1700, Philip was proclaimed King of Spain on 16 November 1700, with Portocarrero as his chief advisor, and Maria Anna exiled to Toledo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and death.", "content": "Maria Anna lived quietly in Toledo until 1706, when the forces of her nephew Archduke Charles briefly occupied the city. Her enthusiastic reception resulted in her expulsion from Spain a few years later and she settled in Bayonne, France, where she lived for the next few decades, largely forgotten, allegedly marrying a local barrel-maker.  In 1739, she was allowed to return to Spain and given lodging in the Infantado Palace in Guadalajara, where she died on 16 July 1740. She was buried in El Escorial Monastery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "Her marriage to Charles in 1690 is commemorated in the Festival book listing the elaborate celebrations held in the city of Naples to mark the occasion (\"L’ossequio tributario della fedelissima Città di Napoli, per le dimostranze giulive nei Regii Sponsali del Cattolico, ed Invittissimo Monarca Carlo Secondo colla Serenissima Principessa Maria Anna di Neoburgo Palatina del Reno\").  She appears in Victor Hugo's play \"Ruy Blas\" as the Queen who falls in love with a commoner, possibly inspired by her real life remarriage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Anna of Neuburg (; 28 October 1667 – 16 July 1740), was Queen of Spain from 1689 to 1700 as the second wife of Charles II, last Habsburg King of Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975536}
{"src_title": "Viktor Suvorov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Suvorov, born Vladimir Bogdanovich Rezun, comes from a military family of mixed Ukrainian-Russian descent. He may have been born and was definitely raised in Ukraine's Cherkasy, where his Ukrainian father served. The family subsequently settled in Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic after the father's retirement. According to Suvorov, he studied in Suvorov Military Schools in Russia: one in Voronezh (from 1958 to 1963), and later transferring to one in Kalinin (from 1963 to 1965).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "From 1965 to 1968, Suvorov completed courses at what he called the Frunze Red Banner Higher Military Command School in Kiev. This is confusing, as names have changed and the M. V. Frunze Military Academy is located in Moscow. He may have attended a regional command school in Kiev.  In 1968, he served in the 145th Motorized Rifles Regiment of the Carpathian Military District in Ukraine, participating in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. In 1970 and 1971, he served in the Volga Military District Headquarters, and later with the 808th Independent Army Reconnaissance Company (\"Spetsnaz\").  After attending the Military Diplomatic Academy from 1971 to 1974, Suvorov joined the Soviet mission to the United Nations Office at Geneva, working undercover for the Soviet military intelligence service (Glavnoye Razvedyvatel'noye Upravleniye; GRU). He was promoted to the rank of Captain. He drew from all these experiences in his later writing about the institutions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Defection.", "content": "On 10 June 1978, Suvorov defected to the United Kingdom. At the time, he was married to Tatiana Korzh. The couple had a son, Aleksandr, and a daughter, Oksana. They were smuggled out of Switzerland to England by British intelligence. There Suvorov worked as an intelligence analyst for the government and as a lecturer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Since the late 20th century, Suvorov has been an occasional columnist for the Ukrainian UNIAN news agency's web site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Suvorov soon drew from his experience and research to write non-fiction books in Russian about the Soviet Army, military intelligence, and special forces. He used the pseudonym \"Viktor Suvorov\" when he published these works.  His published books include  Suvorov also wrote several fiction books set in the pre-World War II era in the Soviet Union. The first one, \"Control\", was followed by \"Choice\", and the last and most recent title was \"Snake-eater\" (2010).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works about World War II.", "content": "Suvorov has written ten books about the outbreak of the Nazi-Soviet War in 1941 and the circumstances related to it. The first such work was \"Icebreaker\" (1980s), followed by \"M Day\", \"The Last Republic\", \"Cleansing\", \"Suicide\", \"The Shadow of Victory\", \"I Take it Back\", \"The Last Republic II\", \"The Chief Culprit\", and \"Defeat\".  According to Suvorov, Stalin planned to use Nazi Germany as a proxy (the \"Icebreaker\") against the West. Although Stalin provided significant material and political support to Adolf Hitler, he was preparing the Red Army to take over control of Europe from the Nazis and establish dominance there of the Soviet Union. As it turned out, by the end of the war, Stalin achieved only some of his initial objectives: he established Communist regimes in Eastern Europe and North Korea. According to Suvorov, Stalin was still the primary winner of World War II.  Suvorov's conclusions on this topic are disputed by numerous historians. German historians particularly disputed the assertion that Operation Barbarossa was a preemptive strike by Hitler.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vladimir Bogdanovich Rezun (; born 20 April 1947), known by his pseudonym of Viktor Suvorov (), became known as a Russian writer on Soviet military history after he defected to the United Kingdom in 1978. Of Russian-Ukrainian ancestry, Suvorov attended Russian military schools, was a veteran of the armed forces (including the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia), and had worked as a Soviet military intelligence officer in the Soviet Union.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975537}
{"src_title": "Lucien, 3rd Prince Murat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Lucien Charles Joseph Napoléon was born on 16 May 1803 in Milan. He was the second son of four children of Joachim Murat, the 1st Prince Murat, Grand Duke of Berg and King of Naples, and his Queen consort Caroline Bonaparte. His siblings included Achille, 2nd Prince Murat (who married the American widow, Catherine Daingerfield Willis, a great-grandniece of President George Washington), Princess Marie Letizia Murat (who married Guido Taddeo Pepoli, Marchese Pepoli, Conte di Castiglione), and Princess Louise Julie Murat (who married Giulio Conte Rasponi).  His maternal grandparents were Carlo Buonaparte and Letizia Ramolino and his maternal uncles included Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon I of France, Lucien Bonaparte, Louis Bonaparte and Jérôme Bonaparte. His maternal aunts included Elisa Bonaparte and Pauline Bonaparte. His paternal grandparents were Pierre Murat-Jordy, an affluent innkeeper and postmaster, and the former Jeanne Loubières.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life in exile.", "content": "Murat had to flee the Italian Peninsula after his father's execution, which had been ordered by Ferdinand IV of Naples. Between 1815 and 1822 he and his older brother Prince Achille Murat received a solid education at Castle Frohsdorf in the Austrian Empire. He later went to Venice, where he was pursued by the Austrian authorities, necessitating his departure to the United States where his elder brother Prince Achille Murat had already moved (becoming a naturalized citizen sometime after July 1828 and dropping his European titles).  En route to America, he was shipwrecked in Spain and captured by the Spanish, compelling him to remain there for many months until his brother secured assistance from the American President James Monroe for his release. He finally arrived in the United States in April 1825. He traveled to Philadelphia to meet his maternal uncle Joseph (the former King of Spain) and from there traveled extensively in the western part of the country, as well as Texas and California. While in the U.S., he married an American and had several children. After several years of financial difficulty, he opened a girls boarding school with his wife.  On his many travels to France, Murat sought in 1838 and 1844 the possibility to reclaim his family's right to the throne, which his elder brother had abandoned. In France he was always only allowed to stay 5 weeks at a time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Settlement in France.", "content": "He continued to live in the United States, staying in daily correspondence with his backers, until the fall of Louis-Philippe of France in 1848. He returned to France with his wife and son and was elected a member of the constituent assembly. In 1849, he was appointed as Minister for Turin. In 1852, he received the status of senator and the title of prince.  In 1861, he tried to regain the throne of Naples, and composed a manifesto to support his claim and was referred to by \"The New York Times\" as \"the fat pretender to the throne of Naples\". This was not well received by his maternal first cousin Napoleon III of France and Murat abandoned hopes of regaining the crown.  During the Franco-Prussian War, after the French defeat at the Siege of Metz in 1870, Murat was imprisoned with Marshal of France François Achille Bazaine. After the fall of the Second French Empire, Murat moved back to United States for a short time where he resumed his business interests, including grist mills and saw mills near Evans Mills, Jefferson County, New York.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "On 18 August 1831 Murat married Caroline Georgina Fraser (1810–1879) in Bordentown, New Jersey. Caroline, a Protestant, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, daughter of Thomas Fraser, a Scottish emigrant to the United States and major in the Loyalist militia during the American Revolution, and his wife Ann Loughton (née Smith) Fraser. Together, they lived in Bordentown for several years, and were the parents of:  Napoléon Lucien Murat died on 10 April 1878 in Paris. His wife died shortly after him on 10 February 1879 in their Paris apartment, 80 boulevard Malesherbes, 8th arrondissement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descendants.", "content": "Through his son Joachim, he was a grandfather of Joachim, 5th Prince Murat, a celebrated sportsman and race horse owner who married Marie Cécile Ney d'Elchingen, a daughter of the Prince de la Moskowa and a great-granddaughter of the Marshal Michel Ney. In 1919, Prince Murat gave his Paris house on the rue de Monceau to President Woodrow Wilson for his use while in Paris for the Paris Peace Conference. He died at the family estate, Château de Chambly in Oise.  Through his daughter Princess Anne, he is a direct ancestor of Archduke Carl Christian of Austria (b. 1954) and Michel, 14th Prince of Ligne (b. 1951).  Through his son Prince Achille Murat, he was a grandfather of \"Lucien\"-Charles-David-Napoléon Murat, Prince Murat (1870–1933), who married Marie Augustine de Rohan-Chabot, a daughter of Alain de Rohan-Chabot, Duke of Rohan. Her older sister, Marie-Joséphine de Rohan-Chabot, was the wife of Louis de Talleyrand-Périgord (grandson of Louis de Talleyrand-Périgord and nephew of Boson de Talleyrand-Périgord). After Prince Murat's death in 1933, his widow married French writer and diplomat Count Charles de Chambrun.  Through his youngest son, Prince Louis, he was a grandfather of two boys, the elder being Prince Eugéne Michel Napoléon Murat (1875–1906), who married a daughter of the Duke of Elchingen, with whom he had three children. Prince Eugéne died in an automobile accident while on his way to Karlsbad. The younger was Prince Michel Anne Charles Joachim Napoléon Murat (1887–1941), who married Helena MacDonald Stallo, heiress to the Standard Oil fortune, in 1913. Through his grandson Prince Michel, he was a great-grandfather of Princess Laure Louise Napoléone Eugénie Caroline Murat, who married Swiss-American journalist Fernand Auberjonois, parents of his great-great-grandson, actor René Auberjonois (1940–2019).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "<br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lucien Charles Joseph Napoléon, Prince Français, Prince of Naples, 2nd Prince de Pontecorvo, 3rd Prince Murat (16 May 1803 – 10 April 1878) was a French politician, and the sovereign Prince of Pontecorvo between 1812 and May 1815.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975538}
{"src_title": "Lunaria annua", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is an annual or biennial growing to tall by broad, with large, coarse, pointed oval leaves with marked serrations. The leaves are hairy, the lower ones long-stalked, the upper ones stalkless. In spring and summer it bears terminal racemes of white or violet flowers, followed by showy, light brown, translucent, disc-shaped seedpods (silicles) the skin of which falls off to release the seeds, revealing a central membrane which is white with a silvery sheen, in diameter; they persist on the plant through winter. These pods are much used in dry floral arrangements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The Latin name \"lunaria\" means \"moon-shaped\" and refers to the shape and appearance of the seedpods. The common name \"honesty\" arose in the 16th century, and may also relate to the translucence of the seedpods. In South East Asia, it is called the \"money plant\" and in the United States it is commonly known as \"silver dollars\", \"Chinese money\", or \"Chinese coins\" because its seedpods have the appearance of silvery coins. For the same reason, in French it is known as \"monnaie du pape\" (\"Pope's money\"). In Denmark it is known as \"judaspenge\" and in Dutch-speaking countries as \"judaspenning\" (both meaning \"coins of Judas\"), an allusion to the story of Judas Iscariot and the thirty pieces of silver he was paid for betraying Christ.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "This plant is easy to grow from seed and tends to naturalize. It is usually grown as a biennial, being sown one year to flower the next. It is suitable for cultivation in a shady or dappled area, or in a wildflower garden, and the flowers and dried seedpods are often seen in flower arrangements. Numerous varieties and cultivars are available, of which the white-flowered \"L. annua\" var. \"albiflora\" and the variegated white \"L. alba\" var. \"albiflora\" 'Alba Variegata' have won the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lunaria annua, called honesty or annual honesty in English, is a species of flowering plant native to the Balkans and south west Asia, and naturalized throughout the temperate world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975539}
{"src_title": "Margaret of Cortona", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Margaret was born of farming parents, in Laviano, a little town in the diocese of Chiusi. At the age of seven, Margaret's mother died and her father remarried. Stepmother and stepdaughter did not like each other. As she grew older, Margaret became more willful and reckless, and her reputation in the town suffered. At the age of 17 she met a young man, according to some accounts, the son of Gugliemo di Pecora, lord of Valiano, and she ran away with him. Soon Margaret found herself installed in the castle, not as her master's wife, for convention would never allow that, but as his mistress, which was more easily condoned. For ten years, she lived with him near Montepulciano and bore him a son.  When her lover failed to return home from a journey one day, Margaret became concerned. The unaccompanied return of his favorite hound alarmed Margaret, and the hound led her into the forest to his murdered body. That crime shocked Margaret into a life of prayer and penance. Margaret returned to his family all the gifts he had given her and left his home. With her child, she returned to her father's house, but her stepmother would not have her. Margaret and her son then went to the Franciscan friars at Cortona, where her son eventually became a friar. She fasted, avoided meat, and subsisted on bread and vegetables.  In 1277, after three years of probation, Margaret joined the Third Order of Saint Francis and chose to live in poverty. Following the example of Francis of Assisi, she begged for sustenance and bread. She pursued a life of prayer and penance at Cortona, and there established a hospital for the sick, homeless and impoverished. To secure nurses for the hospital, she instituted a congregation of Tertiary Sisters, known as \"le poverelle\" (Italian for \"the little poor ones\").  While in prayer, Margaret recounted hearing the words, \"What is your wish, poverella?\" (\"little poor one?\"), and she replied, \"I neither seek nor wish for anything but You, my Lord Jesus.\" She also established an order devoted to Our Lady of Mercy and the members bound themselves to support the hospital and to help the needy.  On several occasions, Margaret participated in public affairs. Twice, claiming divine command, she challenged the Bishop of Arezzo, Guglielmo Ubertini Pazzi, in whose diocese Cortona lay, because he lived and warred like a prince. She moved to the ruined church of Basil of Caesarea, now Santa Margherita, and spent her remaining years there; she died on 22 February 1297.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "After her death, the Church of Santa Margherita in Cortona was rebuilt in her honor. Her incorrupt body is preserved in a silver casket inside the church. Margaret was canonized by Pope Benedict XIII on 16 May 1728.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In art.", "content": "Paintings depicting Margaret have been completed by Giovanni Lanfranco (1622) and Gaspare Traversi (circa 1758).  In 1938, the Italian composer Licinio Refice wrote his second opera, \"Margherita da Cortona\" based on the life of the Margaret, with libretto by.  A 1950 biographical film \"Margaret of Cortona\" by Mario Bonnard featured Maria Frau as Margaret.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Margaret of Cortona (1247 – 22 February 1297) was an Italian penitent of the Third Order of Saint Francis. She was born in Laviano, near Perugia, and died in Cortona. She was canonized in 1728.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975540}
{"src_title": "Dwayne Roloson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Roloson was born on October 12, 1969 in Simcoe, Ontario. He graduated from the University of Massachusetts Lowell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pre-NHL.", "content": "A Hobey Baker Award nominee and National Collegiate Athletic Association All-American while tending goal for University of Massachusetts Lowell, Roloson went undrafted after graduating. He was signed as a free agent by the NHL's Calgary Flames in 1994. After splitting time between the Flames and their American Hockey League (AHL) counterpart, the Saint John Flames, he was traded to the Buffalo Sabres to back up Dominik Hašek. Following two years with the Sabres, he was picked up in the 2000 NHL Expansion Draft by the Columbus Blue Jackets. Rather than joining the Blue Jackets, Roloson signed with the AHL team of the St. Louis Blues, the Worcester IceCats.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "NHL career.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minnesota Wild.", "content": "Roloson earned a roster spot with the Minnesota Wild in 2001. In the 2002–03 season, Roloson shared goaltending duties with Manny Fernandez as the Wild made their first ever appearance in the Stanley Cup playoffs, reaching the Western Conference Final. Despite splitting goaltending duties with Fernandez, Roloson earned his first All-Star appearance at age 34, appearing in the 2004 NHL All-Star Game with the Western Conference team. He also won the Roger Crozier Saving Grace Award for having the NHL's best save percentage. During the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Roloson played for Lukko of the Finnish SM-liiga.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Edmonton Oilers.", "content": "On March 8, 2006, Roloson was traded to the Edmonton Oilers in exchange for the first round pick that later became part of a trade for Pavol Demitra and a conditional draft pick that later became a third-rounder. Initially, Oilers general manager Kevin Lowe was harshly criticized for the acquisition when Roloson struggled during the regular season. Lowe was criticized both for not acquiring a better goaltender, and also for surrendering a first-round draft pick to a divisional rival.  Criticism was muted following sensational play by Roloson, backstopping the Oilers to the final of the 2006 playoffs. He had a record of 12–5 through the first three rounds, and along with Chris Pronger, was considered a front-runner for the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP if the Oilers were victorious in the finals.  However, during Game 1 of the Stanley Cup Finals against the Carolina Hurricanes, Roloson suffered a third-degree MCL sprain of his right knee when Hurricanes forward Andrew Ladd was pushed into Roloson by a back-checking Oiler defenseman Marc-André Bergeron. Oilers head coach Craig MacTavish announced Roloson would not be able to continue in the series. It was also learned he had hyper-extended his right elbow in the collision as well. Back-up goaltender Ty Conklin replaced Roloson for the remainder of Game 1 and co-backup goalie Jussi Markkanen finished the series. The Oilers lost to the Hurricanes in seven games. Months of intense rehabilitation would follow in order to prepare Roloson for the 2006–07 season.  Roloson could have tested the unrestricted free agency market in the summer of 2006 but opted to re-sign with the Oilers on July 1, 2006, on a three-year contract.  In the 2007–08 season, Roloson started out strong before seeing his record fall to 7–12–0. By early January 2008, backup goaltender Mathieu Garon had taken the reins as starter. It was not until March 13, 2008, that Roloson saw regular play, coming in as relief for an injured Garon, starting each subsequent game.  When the 2008–09 season began, Roloson found himself vying for the starting goaltender position with Garon and upstart Jeff Deslauriers. For the beginning of the season, it appeared Garon was once again the starter but after some bad games Oiler head coach Craig MacTavish decided to rotate Garon, Deslauriers and Roloson by playing whoever had the hot hand. Eventually, the team traded Garon to the Pittsburgh Penguins and Roloson claimed the starting spot. Down the stretch, he started 36 consecutive games as the Oilers fought for a playoff spot. During this time, he became the oldest goaltender to start more than 60 games in a single season. Though the Oilers ultimately did not qualify for the playoffs, Roloson put up solid numbers, making upwards of 40 saves on a regular basis.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "New York Islanders.", "content": "On July 1, 2009, Roloson became an unrestricted free agent. After rejecting a one-year, $3 million offer from Edmonton, Roloson signed a two-year, $5 million contract with the New York Islanders. The Islanders also signed Martin Biron, who was to serve as Roloson's backup goaltender while Rick DiPietro was out on injured reserve. Roloson lost his first game as an Islander on October 3, 2009, in a shootout.  On November 23, 2009, Roloson made 58 saves on 61 shots in a 4–3 overtime win over the Toronto Maple Leafs. The 58 saves were a career high, and broke the Islander club record of 56, held by Rick DiPietro.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Tampa Bay Lightning.", "content": "On January 1, 2011, Roloson was traded to the Tampa Bay Lightning in exchange for defenceman Ty Wishart. He won his first game with Tampa Bay in a 1–0 overtime shutout against the Washington Capitals. In his first 11 games with the Lightning, he recorded four shutouts. In April 2011, Roloson recorded a shutout in a first round playoff Game 7 against the Pittsburgh Penguins, making him the oldest goaltender to do so. Roloson and the Lightning ultimately advanced to the 2011 Eastern Conference Finals, where they were eliminated by the Boston Bruins in seven games. With his contract set to expire, the Lightning signed Roloson to a one-year, $3 million contract extension on June 29, 2011. He retired at season's end after the Lightning failed to qualify for the 2012 playoffs.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Roloson was a member of the Canadian 2007 IIHF World Championship team that won gold in a 4–2 win against Finland in Moscow.  In 2009, Roloson (along with Oilers teammate Shawn Horcoff) was called upon for Canada at the 2009 IIHF World Championship. He played in the finals against Russia, which Canada lost 2–1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-playing career.", "content": "Following his retirement from ice hockey, Roloson was immediately hired as a consultant to the Anaheim Ducks' AHL affiliate, the Norfolk Admirals. On June 10, 2013, Roloson was named as the replacement for Pete Peeters as the Anaheim Ducks' goaltending consultant. On November 2, 2014, he suited-up in an emergency role after Ducks goaltender John Gibson suffered a pre-game injury and could not play the game against the Colorado Avalanche.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Roloson and his wife Melissa, who were married in 1999, have two sons. He is close friends with Rob Blake, with whom he played minor hockey in Simcoe, Ontario. He is also friends with Andrew Brunette.  The Saint Paul Police Federation swore in Dwayne Roloson as an honorary police officer for his interest and involvement with local law enforcement. He teaches his goalie school with Minnesota Wild goaltending coach Bob Mason.  While with the Tampa Bay Lightning, Roloson wore a mask that had a shamrock with the initials \"KR\" to remember Kelly Ryan, a 12-year-old player who attended several of Roloson's goalie camps. The shamrock also had the letters \"TDLO\", \"The Dream Lives On\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albert Dwayne Roloson (born October 12, 1969) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender and former goaltending coach of the Anaheim Ducks of the National Hockey League (NHL). During his NHL career, Roloson played for the Calgary Flames, Buffalo Sabres, Minnesota Wild, Edmonton Oilers, New York Islanders and Tampa Bay Lightning. He is often affectionately referred to by his fans as \"Roli\". Following Mark Recchi's retirement in 2011, Roloson became the oldest active NHL player at the time and the last active NHL player to have been born in the 1960s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975541}
{"src_title": "Rick Husband", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life, education and training.", "content": "Husband was born on July 12, 1957, in Amarillo, Texas. At the age of 17, he earned his pilot's license while flying out of Tradewind Airport. He graduated with honors from Amarillo High School in 1975. Husband earned a bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Texas Tech University in 1980, after 5 years of study. Upon graduation he was commissioned as a pilot in the United States Air Force, having been enrolled in ROTC his last two years of college. Husband underwent pilot training at Vance Air Force Base, in Enid, Oklahoma. This was followed by Land Survival School in at Fairchild Air Force Base, in Spokane, Washington, and Fighter Lead-in School in New Mexico. Evelyn and Rick were married on 27 Feb. 1982. Rick trained in the F-4 at Homestead Air Force Base next.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "U.S. Air Force career.", "content": "Husband was assigned to a squadron at Moody Air Force Base in Valdosta, Georgia flying the F-4E. Rick then transferred to George AFB, in Victorville, California in Dec. 1985, where he became an F-4 instructor. By then he had accumulated 1000 hours of flying time.  In December 1987, Husband was assigned to Edwards Air Force Base in California, where he attended the USAF Test Pilot School. Upon completion of test pilot school, Husband served as a test pilot flying the F-4 and all five models of the F-15 Eagle. In the F-15 Combined Test Force, Husband was the program manager for the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-229 increased performance engine, and also served as the F-15 Aerial Demonstration Pilot.  In June 1992, Husband was assigned to the Aircraft and Armament Evaluation Establishment at Boscombe Down, England, as an exchange test pilot with the Royal Air Force. At Boscombe Down, Husband was the Tornado GR1 and GR4 Project Pilot and served as a test pilot in the Hawk, Hunter, Buccaneer, Jet Provost, Tucano, and Harvard.  Husband logged over 3,800 hours of flight time in more than 40 different types of aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NASA career.", "content": "Husband was selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in December 1994, the same week he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. He reported to the Johnson Space Center in March 1995 to begin a year of training and evaluation. Upon completion of training, Husband was named the Astronaut Office representative for Advanced Projects at Johnson Space Center, working on Space Shuttle Upgrades, the Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) and studies to return to the Moon and travel to Mars. He eventually served as Chief of Safety for the Astronaut Office. He flew as Pilot on STS-96 in 1999, and logged 235 hours and 13 minutes in space. Husband was later assigned to command the crew of STS-107 which was launched early in 2003.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and decorations.", "content": "Two NASA Group Achievement Awards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quotes.", "content": "Husband describes how he became a shuttle commander having flown in only one other space flight:  Rick Husband before his first flight:  Husband was also well known for his faith, and in the last-request forms that astronauts fill out before every flight, he left his pastor a personal note:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Husband's wife Evelyn details her Christian life with Rick and his struggles to fulfill his lifelong dream to become an astronaut in the 2004 book \"High Calling: The Courageous Life and Faith of Space Shuttle Columbia Commander Rick Husband\" co-written with Donna VanLiere. The Husbands have two children, a daughter Laura and a son Matthew. Evelyn married Bill Thompson in January 2008 and was the keynote speaker for the memorial ceremony at the Astronaut Memorial \"Space Mirror\" at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, five years after the Space Shuttle \"Columbia\" tragedy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rick Douglas Husband (July 12, 1957 – February 1, 2003) (Colonel, USAF) was an American astronaut and fighter pilot. He traveled into space twice: as Pilot of STS-96 and Commander of STS-107. He and the rest of the crew of STS-107 were killed when \"Columbia\" disintegrated during reentry into the Earth's atmosphere. Husband is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975542}
{"src_title": "More (command)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The codice_1 command was originally written by Daniel Halbert, a graduate student at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1978. It was later expanded on by Eric Shienbrood, Geoff Peck (added underlining, single spacing) and John Foderaro (added -c, codice_1 environment variable codice_5). It was first included in 3.0 BSD, and has since become a standard program in all Unix systems. codice_6, a similar command with the extended capability of allowing both forward and backward navigation through the file, was written by Mark Nudelman between 1983 and 1985 and is now included in most Unix and Unix-like systems.  The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later. A codice_1 command is also part of ASCII's \"MSX-DOS2 Tools\" for MSX-DOS version 2. The Software Link's PC-MOS includes an implementation of codice_1. Like the rest of the operating system, it is licensed under the GPL v3. The FreeDOS version was developed by Jim Hall and is licensed under the GPL v2. The command is also available in the KolibriOS Shell.  The numerical computing environments MATLAB and GNU Octave include a codice_1 function that turns output pagination on or off.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unix-like.", "content": "The command-syntax is:  If no file name is provided, codice_1 looks for input from standard input.  Once codice_1 has obtained input, it displays as much as can fit on the current screen and waits for user input to advance, with the exception that a form feed (^L) will also cause codice_1 to wait at that line, regardless of the amount of text on the screen. In the lower-left corner of the screen is displayed the text \"--More--\" and a percentage, representing the percent of the file that codice_1 has paged through. (This percentage includes the text displayed on the current screen.) When codice_1 reaches the end of a file (100%) it exits. The most common methods of navigating through a file are Enter, which advances the output by one line, and Space, which advances the output by one screen.  There are also other commands that can be used while navigating through the document; consult codice_1's codice_16 page for more details.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Options.", "content": "Options are typically entered before the file name, but can also be entered in the environment variable codice_17. Options entered in the actual command line will override those entered in the codice_17 environment variable. Available options may vary between Unix systems, but a typical set of options is as follows:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Microsoft Windows and ReactOS.", "content": "The command-syntax is:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "To display the file named letter.txt on the screen, the user can type either of the following two commands:  The command displays the first screen of information from letter.txt, and then the following prompt appears:  It is also possible to clear the screen and remove all extra blank lines before displaying the file:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "IBM OS/2.", "content": "The command-syntax is:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "Return the content of the OS/2 system directory using the codice_24 command and display it one screen at a time using the codice_1 command: [C:\\]dir C:\\OS2 | more", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "In computing, codice_1 is a command to view (but not modify) the contents of a text file one screen at a time. It is available on Unix and Unix-like systems, DOS, Digital Research FlexOS, IBM/Toshiba 4690 OS, IBM OS/2, Microsoft Windows and ReactOS. Programs of this sort are called \"pagers\". codice_1 is a very basic pager, originally allowing only forward navigation through a file, though newer implementations do allow for limited backward movement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975543}
{"src_title": "United Buddy Bears", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Buddy Bear Berlin Show.", "content": "The first activities were presented as the \"Buddy Bear Berlin Show\". In 2001, artists painted approximately 350 bears to appear as decorative elements in the streets of Berlin. Four different bear designs (one standing on all four paws, one standing on two legs, one standing on its head, and one in a sitting position) were placed in the city centre of Berlin. Afterwards, many of the bears were sold at auctions in aid of child relief organisations. Nowadays, these Berlin Buddy Bears are exclusively presented on private premises, in front of hotels and embassies, as well as in the foyers of various office buildings. There have been exhibitions of the original \"Buddy Bears\" — designed by local artists — in the cities of Shanghai (2004), Buenos Aires (2005), and St. Gallen / Switzerland (2006).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United Buddy Bears.", "content": "\"United Buddy Bears\" is an international art exhibition with more than 140 two metre tall fiberglass bears. Under the motto: \"We have to get to know each other better, it makes us understand one another better, trust each other more, and live together more peacefully\", more than 140 countries acknowledged by the United Nations are represented, promoting \"tolerance, international understanding and the great concept of different nations and cultures living in peace and harmony\". The bears stand \"hand in hand\" in a \"peaceful circle\" (The Art of Tolerance). The bears were on display between June and November 2002, in a circle around the Brandenburg Gate. Around 1.5 million people visited this first exhibition. On 6 November 2002, the bears were moved to new locations, including their respective countries embassies in Berlin, or back to country that they were based on. Some of the bears were auctioned off to raise money for UNICEF.  After the success of the first exhibition, a new circle was created in 2003. The idea was to send the circle on a global tour. The circle changes when it reaches a new city, as the bears are always set up in alphabetic order, following the local language of the host country. Entry to the exhibitions is always free. In every metropolis, the United Buddy Bears exhibitions are supported by the government, the foreign ministries, the mayors and the UNICEF organisations. The bears have been displayed at the following locations since the beginning of the tour:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Minis.", "content": "In the autumn of 2003, the circle of \"United Buddy Bears-The Minis\" — was presented in Berlin for the first time. Since then, this circle has been shown in Frankfurt/Main, in Potsdam and at the Sony Center in Berlin, as well as destinations outside of Germany, including Bratislava in Slovakia, Calais in France, and Yekaterinburg and Kazan in Russia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aid for children in need.", "content": ", donations and proceeds from the sale of \"Buddy Bears\" at auction had generated a total of Euro 2,300,000 in support of UNICEF and local organisations helping children in need.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Involved artists.", "content": "In the early years, the Bears were designed by regional artists and Berlin celebrities for the exhibition \"Art in the City\". From 2002 onwards, thanks to support from Lufthansa, Air Berlin and the Berlin Hotel Association, artists from all five continents took part in the international project \"United Buddy Bears\". More than 240 artists from over 150 countries have taken part in this project to date, such as, for example Arik Brauer, René Cadena Ayala, Hernando León, Ibrahim Hazimeh, Carlos Páez Vilaró, Seo Soo-Kyoung, Helge Leiberg, Leda Luss Luyken, Ludmila Seefried-Matějková – this is also echoed by the artist and UNICEF Australian National Ambassador, Ken Done.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Buddy Bears are painted, life-size fiberglass bear sculptures developed by German businesspeople Klaus and Eva Herlitz, in cooperation with sculptor Roman Strobl. The raised arms of the standing Buddy Bears are intended to indicate friendliness and optimism. The first bears were displayed at an artistic event in Berlin in 2001.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975544}
{"src_title": "Vértesszőlős", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prehistory.", "content": "Vértesszőlős sits at the foot of the Gerecse Mountains, which were at one point in the sea. At the bottom of this sea, many fossils accumulated, including that of a \"Homo erectus\" individual that is now known as Samu.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent history.", "content": "For most of its history, Vértesszőlős has been constantly inhabited by different peoples, including Celts, Romans, Avars, Moravians, and Hungarians. According to legend, it was near Vértesszőlős that Svatopluk I of Moravia and Árpád fought.  At the beginning of the 18th century, the village had several Lords, who recruited Slovakian-speaking serfs to settle the land. These settlers radically transformed the landscape; they drained the marshes, cut forests to make pastures, and brought sheep into the territory. By the end of the 18th century, the Slovakian settlers decided to build a church, which was completed in 1792.  In 1809, Napoleon's armies invaded Hungary, and ramparts were built in Vértesszőlős.  In World War 1, 236 inhabitants of the village fought, of which 32 died and 7 became invalids. In 1929, the names of the fallen were recorded on the Hero Memorial which stands in front of the village's church. This was also the year that the village's school was built.  In World War 2, 23 soldiers from the village died. The front passed through the village twice, causing many buildings to be damaged. In 1944, the parish priest of the village died, and the pastor died a year later in January 1945. It wasn't until March 1945 that the Soviet forces displaced the German occupants from Vértesszőlős.  Between 1990 and 1994 the settlement grew with several newly built public institutions: a sports hall, a football field, a new school building, a health house, and a pharmacy had been built. After Hungary joined the European Union in 2004, from 2006 onwards, the EU development funds, more significant than the previous ones, provided new impetus to the development of Vértesszőlős.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vértesszőlős is a village in Komárom-Esztergom county, Hungary. It is most known for the archaeological site where a Middle Pleistocene human fossil, known as \"Samu\", was found.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975545}
{"src_title": "Convair 990 Coronado", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "American Airlines asked Convair to design an aircraft for coast-to-coast flights, able to fly nonstop from New York City to Los Angeles against the wind. They wanted a somewhat larger passenger capacity than the 880, which was the smallest of the first-generation U.S. jet airliners. The 990 began flight testing January 24, 1961.  One change from the 880 was the large anti-shock bodies on the upper trailing edge of the wings to increase the critical Mach and reduce transonic drag. The inboard shock bodies, which were larger, were also used for additional fuel tankage. Later during the design period, Convair modified the design to include fuel in the outboard pods as well, but during the initial test flights the extra weight caused the outboard engines to oscillate in certain conditions. The pods were redesigned once more, and shortened by, causing increased drag. The inner set of pods also served a secondary role as fuel dumps for the fuel tanks, and the outlet pipe is prominent.  The engines were also changed to the uprated General Electric CJ-805-23s, which were unique in that they used a fan stage at the rear of the engines, compared to the fan stage at the front of the engine found on the Pratt & Whitney JT3D that powered the 990's competitors. The engine was a simplified, non afterburning civil version of the J79, used in military fighters. Like most versions of the J79, the CJ805 and CJ805-23 were smoky, although secondary operator Spantax eventually had their 990 aircraft refitted with smokeless combustion chambers in the 1970s.  Like the 880, 990s incorporated a dorsal \"raceway\" added to the top of the fuselage to house the two ADF antennas and one VHF antenna", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The 990 did not meet the specifications promised, and American Airlines reduced their order as a result. The 990A was developed by adding fairings to the engine nacelles, among other changes. Despite the modifications from the basic 880 and those in response to drag problems in testing, the aircraft never lived up to its promise of coast-to-coast nonstop capability from JFK to LAX. American Airlines' timetables show little or no difference in scheduled time between 707 and 990A flights; AA began to dispose of their 990As in 1967.  The Convair 990A is still the fastest non-supersonic commercial transport to have ever been produced. During May 1961, one of the pre-production 990 prototype aircraft set a record of.97 Mach in level flight at an altitude of 22,500 ft. (6.9 km), equivalent to a true airspeed of 675 mph (1 086 km/h). This was before the various aerodynamic drag-reduction changes were applied to the later 990A in order to meet certain performance guarantees which Convair had made to American Airlines. These subsequent modifications made to the later 990A (consisting of the four wing-mounted anti-shock body \"speed capsules\" and substantial streamlining of the engine pylon/wing interface) increased the velocity at which onset of transonic drag would occur by 0.09 Mach. As such, the 990A would have been capable of speeds slightly in excess of 700 mph (1 130 km/h).  In 1963, the 990A was reported to burn 13,750 pounds (6.24 t) per hour of fuel at Mach 0.84 (483 knots, 895 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10.7 km) at a mass of 200,000 lb (90.7 t). In contrast, a modern Boeing 737 MAX 8 typically carries 162 passengers and burns per hour at at sub-optimal parameters.  Swissair bought eight 990As beginning in 1962, operating them on long-distance routes to South America, West Africa, the Middle and Far East, as well as on European routes with heavy traffic. Their fleet was withdrawn from service in 1975. Scandinavian Airlines also operated Coronados on their long-haul schedules to Tokyo and other destinations in the Far East.  The 990's niche was soon captured by the Boeing 720 and Boeing 720B, derivatives of the Boeing 707, and later by the Boeing 727. By the time the assembly line shut down in 1963, only 37 990s had been produced, bringing General Dynamics' entire production of commercial jet airliners to 102 airframes. The failure of airlines to broadly accept the Convair 880 and 990 led Convair's parent company, General Dynamics, to suffer what at the time was one of the largest corporate losses in history. As a result, Convair exited the jet airliner business, although they later profitably built fuselages for the McDonnell Douglas DC-10, KC-10 and MD-11.  When the major airlines retired their Convair 990s, they found a second life on charter airlines. Spantax of Spain had a large fleet until the mid-1980s and so did Denver Ports of Call. In 1967, Alaska Airlines purchased Convair 990 PP-VJE from Varig, and operated it as N987AS in scheduled airline service until 1975.  \"*Original operators.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Convair 990 Coronado is an American narrow-body four-engined jet airliner produced by the Convair division of General Dynamics, a stretched version of their earlier Convair 880 produced in response to a request from American Airlines. The 990 was lengthened by, which increased the number of passengers from between 88 and 110 in the 880 to between 96 and 121 in the 990. This was still fewer passengers than the contemporary Boeing 707 (110 to 189) or Douglas DC-8 (105 to 173), although the 990 was faster than either in cruise.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975546}
{"src_title": "RPG-7", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The launcher is reloadable and based around a steel tube, 40 millimetres in diameter, 95.3 centimetres long, and weighing 7 kilograms. The middle of the tube is wood wrapped to protect the user from heat and the end is flared to assist in blast shielding and recoil reduction. Sighting is usually optical with a back-up iron sight, and passive infra-red and night sights are also available. The launchers designated RPG-7N1 and RPG-7DN1 can thus mount the multi-purpose night vision scope 1PN51 and the launchers designated RPG-7N2 and RPG-7DN2 can mount the multi-purpose night vision scope 1PN58.  As with similar weapons, the grenade protrudes from the launch tubes. It is 40–105 millimetres in diameter and weighs between 2.0 and 4.5 kilograms. It is launched by a gunpowder booster charge, giving it an initial speed of 115 metres per second, and creating a cloud of light grey-blue smoke that can give away the position of the shooter. The rocket motor ignites after 10 metres and sustains flight out to 500 metres at a maximum velocity of 295 metres per second. The grenade is stabilized by two sets of fins that deploy in-flight: one large set on the stabilizer pipe to maintain direction and a smaller rear set to induce rotation. The grenade can fly up to 1,100 metres; the fuze sets the maximum range, usually 920 metres.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Propulsion system.", "content": "According to the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) Bulletin 3u (1977) \"Soviet RPG-7 Antitank Grenade Launcher—Capabilities and Countermeasures\", the RPG-7 munition has two sections: a \"booster\" section and a \"warhead and sustainer motor\" section. These must be assembled into the ready-to-use grenade. The booster consists of a \"small strip powder charge\" that serves to propel the grenade out of the launcher; the sustainer motor then ignites and propels the grenade for the next few seconds, giving it a top speed of. The TRADOC bulletin provides anecdotal commentary that the RPG-7 has been fired from within buildings, which agrees with the two-stage design. It is stated that only a 2-metre standoff to a rear obstruction is needed for use inside rooms or fortifications. The fins not only provide drag stabilization, but are designed to impart a slow rotation to the grenade.  Due to the configuration of the RPG-7 sustainer/warhead section, it responds counter-intuitively to crosswinds. A crosswind will tend to exert pressure on the stabilizing fins, causing the projectile to turn into the wind (\"see Weathervane effect\"). While the rocket motor is still burning, this will cause the flight path to curve into the wind. The TRADOC bulletin explains aiming difficulties for more distant moving targets in crosswinds at some length. Similar to a recoilless rifle the RPG-7 has no noticeable recoil, the only effect during firing being that of the sudden lightness of the launcher as the rocket leaves the tube.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Airtronic RPG-7.", "content": "In 2009, the American company Airtronic USA unveiled a modernized version of the weapon called the RPG-7USA. The launcher is fitted with updated features including a MIL-STD-1913 Quad Rail System for mounting combat optics, flip-up back up iron sights, aiming lasers/illuminators, tactical lights, and vertical foregips, as well as an M4 carbine-style pistol grip and telescoping stock. Compared to the RPG-7V2, the American launcher, named by the company the Precision Shoulder-fired Rocket Launcher (PSRL-1), is slightly lighter at 14 lb (6.35 kg) unloaded without optics and is made of 4140/4150 ordnance-grade steel for a longer 1,000-round lifespan that can separate into two pieces for compact carry. The PSRL-1 uses EOTech sights with a new sighting system that combines an illuminated reticule for use in low light situations, and is able to be fitted with magnifying optical sights for long-range firing enabling 90% hit probability at 800 metres, twice the distance of other RPGs; rate of fire is 3-4 rounds per minute. It is reportedly accurate at ranges from 900-1,200 m, and guided rockets could extend range to 2 000 metres. The weapon was a program of record in U.S. Special Operations Command by 2015, and the PSRL-1 was to enter production by mid-2016. Airtronic has also developed the more advanced GS-777/PSRL-2 model made of high-strength polymer that reduces weight to 7.77 lb (3.5 kg) and further improves durability and life cycle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ammunition.", "content": "The RPG-7 can fire a variety of warheads for anti-armor (HEAT, PG-Protivotankovaya Granata) or anti-personnel (HE, OG-Oskolochnaya Granata) purposes, usually fitting with an impact (PIBD) and a 4.5 second fuze. Armor penetration is warhead dependent and ranges from 30 to 60 centimetres of RHA; one warhead, the PG-7VR, is a 'tandem charge' device, used to defeat reactive armor with a single shot.  Current production ammunition for the RPG-7V2 consists of four main types:  Other warhead variants include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Specifications.", "content": "Manufacturer specifications for the RPG-7V1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Airtronic ammunition.", "content": "Airtronic Shoulder-Fired Rocket Ammunition are developed by AirTronic as a modernized RPG-7 rocket type of shoulder-fired ammunition. All ammunition is manufactured in the United States and the Intellectual Property is fully owned by AirTronic USA. AirTronic shoulder-fired rocket ammunition is recommended for use in AirTronic rocket launchers such as the PSRL and GS-777 in order to achieve the highest level of performance. The legacy external configuration of the RPG rocket has been maintained such that AirTronic ammunition is backwards compatible with existing RPG-7 type launchers.  While the external configuration of the legacy RPG rocket has been maintained, improvements have been made focusing on the fuzing, reliability, robustness, and manufacturing quality per DoD standards. The warhead fuze features a dual safe and arm arrangement for improved handling safety. Also, the rocket motor ignitor fuze has been redesigned to improve motor ignition reliability.  Inert training variants are also available which match the ballistics of the live ammunition. This allows for safe training at a reduced cost. Training variants inert warheads are filled with marking compound so that the impact of the round can be observed.  The 3 variants are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hit probabilities.", "content": "A 1976 U.S. Army evaluation of the weapon gave the hit probabilities on a wide, tall panel moving sideways at. This probability decreases when firing in a crosswind due to the unusual behaviour of the round; in an (3 m/s) wind, the gunner cannot expect to get a first-round hit more than 50% of the time beyond 180 m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of use.", "content": "Accurate firing is difficult at ranges over 200 metres. During the Soviet–Afghan War, the mujahideen tended to use the weapon at ranges of less than 80 metres.  The RPG-7 was used by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland from 1969 to 2005, most notably in Lurgan, County Armagh, where it was used against British Army observation posts and the towering military base at Kitchen Hill in the town. The IRA also used them in Catholic areas of West Belfast against British Army armoured personnel carriers and Army forward operating bases (FOB). Beechmount Avenue in Belfast became known as \"RPG Avenue\" after attacks on British troops.  In Mogadishu, Somalia, RPG-7s were used to down two U.S. Army Black Hawk helicopters in 1993.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The RPG-7 () is a portable, reusable, unguided, shoulder-launched, anti-tank rocket-propelled grenade launcher. It—along with its predecessor, the RPG-2—were designed by the Soviet Union; it is now manufactured by the Russian company Bazalt. The weapon has the GRAU index (Russian armed forces index) 6G3.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975547}
{"src_title": "11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formation.", "content": "In February 1943, Hitler ordered the creation of an SS division which would be officered by foreign volunteers. In March 1943, the \"SS-Panzergrenadier-Regiment Nordland\", a Scandinavian volunteer regiment, was separated from the SS Division Wiking to be used as the nucleus for the new division. The Nordland's two Panzergrenadier regiments were also given titles that referenced the location where the majority of the regiment's recruits were from, \"SS-Panzergrenadier-Regiment 23 Norge\" (Norway) and \"SS-Panzergrenadier-Regiment 24 Danmark\" (Denmark). Both regiments had additional men made up of conscripts from Hungary.  After its formation in Germany, the division was attached to the III (Germanic) SS Panzer Corps under the command of \"Obergruppenführer\" Felix Steiner and was moved to Croatia, where the SS Volunteer Legion Netherlands was attached to it. The division began combat operations against Yugoslav partisans in September 1943.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1944–1945.", "content": "The division, along with the rest of the III SS Panzer Corps arrived at the front near Leningrad and was put into action against the Soviet Red Army attacks aimed at breaking the German encirclement of the city. The Red Army forced Nordland to withdraw to Oranienbaum. On 14 January 1944, the Soviet Krasnoye Selo–Ropsha Offensive succeeded in collapsing the German front. The follow-on Kingisepp–Gdov Offensive pushed the German forces to the city of Narva in northeastern Estonia to a new defensive line. From 27 July 1944, Nordland fought alongside the 20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian) and elements of the Grossdeutschland Division In the Battle of Tannenberg Line. During these battles, the commanders of two regiments were killed. While visiting the front line, the division's commander, \"Gruppenführer\" Fritz von Scholz was caught in an artillery barrage and received a head wound. Scholz died on 28 July 1944. Thereafter, \"Brigadeführer\" Joachim Ziegler took over command of the division. It retreated into what was known as the Courland Pocket. From late October to December 1944, the \"Nordland\" remained in the pocket; by early December the divisional strength was down to 9,000 men. In January 1945, the division was ordered to the Baltic port of Libau, where it was evacuated by sea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle of Berlin.", "content": "On 16 April, the division was ordered to defend Berlin. Despite recent replenishment, the division was still understrength. From 17 to 20 April, the division was involved in combat all along its front and then retreated into the city. On 24 April, the main Soviet Army assault was towards the Treptow Park area, which the rest of the pioneer battalion and the remaining Tiger tanks of a Panzer battalion were defending. \"Obersturmbannführer\" Kausch led the few tanks and armoured vehicles in a counterattack and succeeded in temporarily halting the enemy advance. However, by midday, the 5th Shock Army was able to advance again. A later counter-attack by three assault guns was stopped by a Soviet soldier with three captured German \"Panzerfausts\".  In the evening of 24 April between 320 and 330 French troops from the SS Division Charlemagne arrived in Berlin after a long detour to avoid Soviet advance columns. On 25 April, \"Brigadeführer\" Gustav Krukenberg was appointed the commander of (Berlin) Defence Sector C, which included Nordland. Ziegler was relieved of his command of the division earlier the same day. The group of French Waffen-SS troops now known as \"Sturmbataillon Charlemagne\" was attached to Nordland. The arrival of the French bolstered the division whose two regiments had been decimated in the fighting against the Soviet Army forces. They each roughly equalled a battalion.  By 26 April, with Neukölln heavily penetrated by Soviet combat groups, Krukenberg prepared fallback positions for Sector C troops around Hermannplatz. He moved his headquarters into the opera house. As Nordland fell back towards Hermannplatz, Charlemagne and one-hundred Hitler Youth attached to their group destroyed 14 Soviet tanks with \"Panzerfausts\"; one machine gun position by the Halensee bridge managed to hold up any Soviet advance in that area for 48 hours. Nordland's remaining armour, eight Tiger tanks and several assault guns, were ordered to take up positions in the Tiergarten, because although the two divisions of Weidling's LVI Panzer Corps could slow the Soviet advance down, they could not stop it.  The Soviet forces advance into Berlin followed a pattern of massive shelling followed by assaults using house-clearing battle groups of about 80 men in each, with tank escorts and close artillery support. On 27 April, the remnants of Nordland were pushed back into the central government district (Zitadelle sector) in Defence sector Z. Krukenberg's headquarters was a carriage in the Stadtmitte U-Bahn station. Thereafter, the troops in the government district were pushed back into the Reichstag and the Reich Chancellery.  On 30 April, after receiving news of Hitler's suicide, orders were issued that those who could do so were to break out. Prior to that \"Brigadeführer\" Wilhelm Mohnke briefed all commanders that could be reached within the Zitadelle sector about the events as to Hitler's death and the planned breakout. The break out from the Reich Chancellery and \"Führerbunker\" started at 2300 hours on 1 May. There were ten main groups that attempted to head northwest.  Fierce fighting continued all around, especially in the Weidendammer Bridge area. In that area, what was left of the division was destroyed by Soviet artillery and anti-tank guns. Nordland's last Tiger was knocked out attempting to cross the Weidendammer Bridge. Several small groups reached the Americans at the Elbe's west bank, but most (including Mohnke's group and men from Krukenberg's group), were not successful. Most were killed in the fighting or taken prisoner after they surrendered to Soviet troops. Ziegler was gravely wounded after the break out group he was in came under heavy Soviet fire. He died on 2 May. Krukenberg made it to Dahlem, where he hid out in an apartment for a week, before surrendering to Soviet troops. On 2 May hostilities officially ended by order of General Helmuth Weidling, commander of the Defence Area Berlin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland () was a Waffen-SS division recruited from foreign volunteers and conscripts. It saw action, as part of Army Group North, in the Independent State of Croatia and on the Eastern Front during World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975548}
{"src_title": "Tibetan sand fox", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Tibetan fox is small and compact, with soft, dense coats and conspicuously narrow muzzles and bushy tails. Its muzzle, crown, neck, back and lower legs are tan to rufous coloured, while its cheeks, flanks, upper legs and rumps are grey. Its tail has white tips. The short ears are tan to greyish tan on the back, while the insides and undersides are white. Adult Tibetan foxes are, not including tail, and have tail lengths of. Weights of adults are usually.  Among the true foxes, its skull is the most specialised in the direction of carnivory (and looks nothing like the picture in the species box above); it is longer in the condylobasal length and in mandible and cheek tooth length than those of hill foxes. Its cranial region is shorter than that of hill foxes, and the zygomatic arches narrower. Its jaws are also much narrower, and the forehead concave. Its canine teeth are also much longer than those of hill foxes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The Tibetan sand fox is restricted to the Tibetan Plateau in western China and the Ladakh plateau in Northern India. It occurs across Tibet, and in parts of the Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, Xinjiang, Yunnan and Sichuan. Outside China, it occurs in northern Bhutan, and in the northernmost border regions of Nepal and India, north of the Himalayas.  The sand fox is found primarily in semi-arid to arid grasslands, well away from humans or from heavy vegetation cover. It inhabits upland plains and hills from elevation, although it is occasionally seen on lower ground, down to.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "The Tibetan fox primarily preys on Plateau pikas, followed by rodents, marmots, woolly hares and lizards. It also scavenges on the carcasses of Tibetan antelopes, musk deer, blue sheep and livestock. Tibetan foxes are mostly solitary, daytime hunters as their main prey, pikas, are diurnal. Tibetan foxes may form commensal relationships with brown bears during hunts for pikas. The bears dig out the pikas, and the foxes grab them when they escape the bears.  Mated pairs remain together and may also hunt together. After a gestation period of about 50 to 60 days, two to four young are born in a den, and stay with the parents until they are eight to ten months old. Their burrows are made at the base of boulders, at old beach lines and low slopes. Dens may have four entrances, with entrances being 25–35 cm in diameter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diseases and parasites.", "content": "Tibetan foxes in the Sêrxü County of China's Sichuan province are heavily infected with \"Echinococcus\", while foxes in western Sichuan are definitive hosts of alveolar hydatid disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "A photograph of a Himalayan marmot under attack by a Tibetan fox won the first prize in the 2019 Wildlife Photographer of the Year award.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tibetan sand fox (\"Vulpes ferrilata\") is a species of true fox endemic to the high Tibetan Plateau, Ladakh plateau, Nepal, China, Sikkim, and Bhutan, up to altitudes of about. It is listed as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List, on account of its widespread range in the Tibetan Plateau's steppes and semi-deserts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975549}
{"src_title": "Preacher (comics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "\"Preacher\" tells the story of Jesse Custer, a preacher in the small Texas town of Annville. Custer is accidentally possessed by the supernatural creature named Genesis, the infant of the unauthorized, unnatural coupling of an angel and a demon. The incident flattens Custer's church and kills his entire congregation.  Genesis has no sense of individual will, but since it is composed of both pure goodness and pure evil, its power might rival that of God Himself, making Jesse Custer, bonded to Genesis, potentially the most powerful being in the universe.  Driven by a strong sense of right and wrong, Custer journeys across the United States attempting to literally find God, who abandoned Heaven the moment Genesis was born. He also begins to discover the truth about his new powers. They allow him, when he wills it, to command the obedience of those who hear and comprehend his words. He is joined by his old girlfriend Tulip O'Hare, as well as a hard-drinking Irish vampire named Cassidy.  During the course of their journeys, the three encounter enemies and obstacles both sacred and profane, including The Saint of Killers, an invincible, quick-drawing, perfect-aiming, come-lately Angel of Death answering only to \"He who sits on the throne\"; a disfigured suicide attempt survivor turned rock-star named Arseface; a serial-killer called the 'Reaver-Cleaver'; The Grail, a secret organization controlling the governments of the world and protecting the bloodline of Jesus; Herr Starr, ostensible Allfather of the Grail, a megalomaniac with a penchant for prostitutes, who wishes to use Custer for his own ends; several fallen angels; and Jesse's own redneck 'family' — particularly his nasty Cajun grandmother, her mighty bodyguard Jody, and the Zoophilic T.C.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collected editions.", "content": "Additionally, the book \"Preacher: Dead or Alive\" () collects Fabry's covers to the series.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptation attempts.", "content": "Garth Ennis, feeling \"Preacher\" would translate perfectly as a film, sold the film rights to Electric Entertainment. Rachel Talalay was hired to direct, with Ennis writing the script. Rupert Harvey and Tom Astor were set as producers. By May 1998, Ennis completed three drafts of the script, based largely on the \"Gone to Texas\" story arc. The filmmakers found it difficult financing \"Preacher\" because investors found the idea religiously controversial. Ennis approached Kevin Smith and Scott Mosier to help finance the film under their View Askew Productions banner. Ennis, Smith and Mosier pitched \"Preacher\" to Bob Weinstein at Miramax Films.  Weinstein was confused by the characterization of Jesse Custer. Miramax also did not want to share the box office gross with Electric Entertainment, ultimately dropping the pitch. By May 2000, Smith and Mosier were still attached to produce with Talalay directing, but Smith did not know the status of \"Preacher\", feeling it would languish in development hell. By then, Storm Entertainment, a UK-based production company known for their work on independent films, joined the production with Electric Entertainment. In September 2001, the two companies announced \"Preacher\" had been greenlighted to commence pre-production, with filming to begin in November and Talalay still directing Ennis' script. The production and start dates were pushed back because of financial issues of the $25 million projected budget.  James Marsden was cast in the lead role as Jesse Custer sometime in 2002. He explained, \"It was something I never knew anything about, but once I got my hands on the comic books, I was blown away by it.\" In a March 2004 interview, Marsden said the filmmakers were hoping for filming to start the following August. With the full-length film adaptation eventually abandoned with budgetary concerns, HBO announced in November 2006 that they commissioned Mark Steven Johnson and Howard Deutch to produce a television pilot. Johnson was to write with Deutch directing. Impressed with Johnson's pilot script, HBO had him write the series bible for the first season. Johnson originally planned \"to turn each comic book issue into a single episode\" on a shot-for-shot basis. \"I gave [HBO] the comics, and I said, 'Every issue is an hour'. Garth Ennis said 'You don't have to be so beholden to the comic'. And I'm like, 'No, no, no. It's got to be like the comic'.\"  Johnson also wanted to make sure that one-shots were included as well. Johnson changed his position, citing new storylines conceived by Ennis. \"Well, there would be nothing new to add if we did that, so Garth [Ennis] and I have been creating new stories for the series,\" he said. \"I love the book so much and I was telling Garth that he has to make the stories we are coming up with as comics because I want to see them.\" By August 2008, new studio executives at HBO decided to abandon the idea, finding it too stylistically dark and religiously controversial. Columbia Pictures then purchased the film rights in October 2008 with Sam Mendes planned to direct. Neal H. Moritz and Jason Netter would have produced the film. The previous scripts written by Ennis would not have been used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "AMC adaptation.", "content": "On November 16, 2013, it was announced that AMC would be shooting a pilot for \"Preacher\". On November 18, 2013, \"BleedingCool\" confirmed that Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg had developed the series pilot with Sam Catlin, and that it would be distributed by Sony Pictures Television. On February 7, 2014 it was made public that AMC was officially developing the series to television based on the pilot written by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg. Rogen has no plans to co-star in the series. On May 9, 2014, AMC announced that \"Preacher\" was picked up to series. \"Preacher\" was slated to premiere mid to late 2015, as announced by Seth Rogen, with the script for the series complete and the pilot ordered by the studio. Comic creators Steve Dillon and Garth Ennis were to work on this project as co-executive producer. On April 17, 2015, Seth Rogen tweeted that Dominic Cooper was cast in the role of Jesse Custer, Joseph Gilgun as Cassidy, Ruth Negga as Tulip O'Hare, Ian Colletti as Arseface, and W. Earl Brown as Sheriff Hugo Root. On September 9, 2015, Seth Rogen announced via Twitter that the series ordered to a ten-episode season and was due to premiere in mid-2016. The series premiered on AMC on Sunday, May 22, 2016. In 2017 a second season, with thirteen episodes, aired. In 2018, a ten-episode third season aired. In November 2018, the series was renewed for a final fourth season, with production relocating to Australia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Stephen King has said that his comic book series \"\" was influenced by \"Preacher\".  The character Yorick from \"\", has a Zippo lighter with the words \"Fuck Communism\" engraved, identical to the one owned by Jesse Custer in \"Preacher\". When asked about it he says it's \"from this book I read once... a graphic novel. You know, like a comic book.\" The phrase originated as a 1963 satirical poster produced by \"The Realist\" magazine's Paul Krassner. This lighter appears later in the series when Yorick and Agent 355 are being held by Russian agents at gunpoint, who find the lighter and take offense to it. Also, in volume 4 \"Safeword\", Yorick says \"pardners\", which is used several times in \"Preacher\", in lieu of \"partners\".  IGN declared Preacher the third-greatest Vertigo comic, after \"Saga of the Swamp Thing\" and \"Sandman\".  Jesse Custer was ranked the 11th Greatest Comic Book Character by \"Empire\" magazine. The Saint of Killers was ranked at number 42 on the same list.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Preacher is an American comic book series published by Vertigo, an imprint of DC Comics. The series was created by writer Garth Ennis and artist Steve Dillon with painted covers by Glenn Fabry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975550}
{"src_title": "Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Julius Caesar is celebrating his victory over all of Gaul, but Lucius Detritus has kept from him that one village has managed to resist them. Detritus travels to the garrison near the village where Caius Bonus (Crismus Bonus), the garrison's commanding Centurion, explains that the Gauls have a magic potion, which makes them invincible. Detritus decides to capture the potion for himself, and hearing that the clever Asterix and permanently invincible Obelix are the backbone of the Gaulish forces, attempts and fails to eliminate them.  A false soothsayer arrives at the village and predicts the arrival of Romans and treasure; despite Asterix's protests, the village believe him, wherefore when a Roman tax collector arrives, they drive off his forces and take the gold. The \"soothsayer\" later drugs and hypnotises Asterix to create a diversion while he recaptures the tax money; but news of the theft reaches Caesar, who comes to the garrison himself, demanding the legion attack. Upon witnessing the defeat of his army, he demands Detritus subdue the village or be fed to the lions.  Detritus disguises himself and some men as Druids and kidnaps Panoramix (Getafix) at a Druid conference. Asterix disguises Obelix as a legionary, and they enter the garrison to rescue the Druid, but are separated. Asterix joins Getafix in the dungeon, where the pair resist Detritus' demands to make the magic potion, until he tortures Idefix (Dogmatix). Detritus uses the potion to throw Caesar into a cell (locked in an iron mask), and takes command with an oblivious Obelix as his bodyguard. Obelix later helps Asterix, Getafix, Dogmatix, and Caesar escape.  Caesar co-operates with the Gauls to defeat Detritus, who mounts an attack on the villagers using his own magic potion. To defeat him, Panoramix brews a special version of the potion which creates dozens of duplicates of Asterix and Obelix. Caesar is returned to power, and grants the village its freedom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "Soundtrack by Jean-Jacques Goldman and Roland Romanelli", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Video game.", "content": "An action video game based on the film, developed by Tek 5 and published by Cryo Interactive, was released for the PlayStation and the PC.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar () is a 1999 feature film directed by Claude Zidi, the first of what went on to become a series of live-action films based on Goscinny and Uderzo's Astérix comics. The film combines plots of several Astérix stories, mostly \"Asterix the Gaul\" (Getafix's abduction), \"Asterix and the Soothsayer\", \"Asterix and the Goths\" (the Druid conference), \"Asterix the Legionary\" (Obelix becoming smitten with Panacea) and \"Asterix the Gladiator\" (the characters fighting in the circus) but jokes and references from many other albums abound, including a humorous exchange between Caesar and Brutus taken from \"Asterix and Cleopatra\", and the villain Lucius Detritus is based on Tullius Detritus, the main antagonist of \"Asterix and the Roman Agent\" (known as Tortuous Convolvulus in the English translation of the comic).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975551}
{"src_title": "Alessandro Stradella", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Not much is known about his early life, but he was from a Tuscan aristocratic family, educated at Rome, and was already making a name for himself as a composer at the age of 24. In 1667 he composed a latin oratorio (lost) for the Confraternity of Crocifisso di San Marcello and in the following year the serenata \"La Circe\" for the Princess of Rossano Olimpia Aldobrandini Pamphilj. In 1671-72 he collaborated in staging some operas, two by Francesco Cavalli and two by Antonio Cesti, at the Tordinona Theater, composing prologues, intermedios and new arias. In the early 1670s he also composed some operas performed in private theaters of aristocratic families.<br> Stradella began to live a dissolute life. With Carlo Ambrogio Lonati he attempted to embezzle money from the Roman Catholic Church, but was found out: he fled the city, only returning much later when he thought it was safe. His numerous incautious affairs with women began to make him enemies among the powerful men of the city, and he had to leave Rome for good.  In 1677 he went to Venice, where he was hired by a powerful nobleman, Alvise Contarini, as the music tutor to his mistress, Agnese Van Uffele. She and Stradella began an affair and fled Venice together for Turin, where they were protected by Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours, the regent of Savoy. Contarini followed and instructed the Archbishop that Uffele and Stradella must marry or that Uffele must take the veil. She did the latter, and then the two married in October; however, as Stradella left the convent after signing the contract, he was attacked from behind on 10 October by two would-be hired assassins, who believed him dead when they left him in the street. He was not. The two assassins took asylum with the French ambassador. That Contarini had hired the attackers became known, leading to complaints from the regent of Savoy to Louis XIV; the matter became a topic of negotiation between the courts. <br> In 1678 Stradella fled to Genoa, where he met again with Lonati. He was paid to compose operas performed at Falcone Theater and music for the local nobility.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Murder.", "content": "In 1682 he was stabbed to death at the \"Piazza Banchi\". A nobleman of the Lomellini family hired the killer that put an end to Stradella's life, although the identity of the killer was never discovered. Stradella was buried in the Santa Maria delle Vigne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Stradella was an extremely influential composer at the time, though his fame was eclipsed in the next century by Corelli, Vivaldi and others. Some of his music was exploited by George Frideric Handel, for example in \"Israel in Egypt.\" Probably his greatest significance is in originating the \"concerto grosso\": while Corelli in his Op. 6 was the first to publish works under this title, Stradella clearly uses the format earlier in one of his \"Sonate di viole\". Since the two knew each other, a direct influence is likely.  Stradella wrote at least six baroque operas including a full-length comic opera \"Il Trespolo tutore\". He also wrote more than 170 cantatas, at least one of which was based on a poem by Sebastiano Baldini, and six oratorios. Stradella composed 27 separate instrumental pieces, most for strings and basso continuo, and typically in the \"sonata da chiesa\" format.  He wrote two cantatas for the regent of Savoy, \"Se del pianeta ardente\" and \"Sciogliete i dolci nodi\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "His colorful life and his bloody death ordered by the powerful Lomellini family provided the basis for biographical operas such as \"Il cantore di Venezia\" by Virginio Marchi (1835), \"Stradella\" by Louis Niedermeyer (Paris, 1837), \"Stradella\" by César Franck (1841, unfinished), \"Alessandro Stradella\" by Friedrich von Flotow (Hamburg, 1844), \"Alessandro Stradella\" by Adolf Schimon (1846), \"Stradella il trovatore\" by Vincenzo Moscuzza (1850), \"Alessandro Stradella\" by Giuseppe Sinico (1864).  American novelist F. Marion Crawford also produced a highly romanticized novel of Stradella's affair and flight from Venice, titled \"Stradella\" (Macmillan 1909).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antonio Alessandro Boncompagno Stradella (Bologna, 3 July 1643 – Genoa, 25 February 1682) was an Italian composer of the middle Baroque period. He enjoyed a dazzling career as a freelance composer, writing on commission, and collaborating with distinguished poets, producing over three hundred works in a variety of genres.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975552}
{"src_title": "David Rozehnal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Rozehnal began his career at SK Sigma Olomouc, where his performances earned him a place in the Czech Republic under-21 team. In 2003, he was signed by Belgian club Club Brugge. In 2004, Rozehnal played for the Czech Republic at the European Championship where the team made it to the semi-finals before being knocked out by Greece. He won the Belgian Cup in his first season with Brugge and the Belgian League in 2005. He signed for Paris Saint-Germain in June 2005.  Rozehnal played in all three of Czech Republic's matches at the 2006 FIFA World Cup and is the 33rd most capped player in Czech history. At Paris Saint Germain in the 2006–07 season, he was named as the club's Player of the Year. His form resulted in reported interest from Borussia Dortmund, Newcastle United and Sevilla. Sources close to the defender confirmed that he would favour a move to Newcastle. On 22 June 2007, it was confirmed by the player's agent that a \"definite agreement\" had been reached for the player to join Newcastle United. He underwent a medical check on 25 June and Newcastle confirmed the transfer had been completed on 29 June for a fee of £2.9 million.  On 11 August Rozehnal made his debut for Newcastle against Bolton Wanderers.  Rozehnal left Newcastle for Lazio, on loan until the end of the 2007–08 season, on 31 January 2008, despite having only signed in June 2007. After only playing seven times for Lazio during his loan spell, it remained unclear if they wanted to sign him on a permanent deal. On 9 June 2008, Lazio officially announced they had signed Rozehnal on a permanent basis, with Newcastle recouping the full £2.9 million which they initially paid for the defender.  After only one year in Italy, Rozehnal left S.S. Lazio, on 29 July 2009 for German top club Hamburger SV, signing a contract until 30 June 2012. After a poor season with several costly errors by Rozehnal, he was removed from the first team and asked to find a new club. On 31 August 2010, HSV confirmed that Rozehnal would leave for French side Lille OSC on a year-long, free loan, with the German club still paying part of his salary. While at Lille, his side reached the 2011 Coupe de France Final where he faced former side PSG. Lille prevailed 1–0 in the final, claiming their first Coupe de France trophy since 1955. After the 2010–11 season with Lille, Rozehnal signed for Lille on a permanent basis.  Rozehnal retired from professional football on 4 April 2018 and joined Sokol Kožušany, who play in the seventh tier of the Czech Republic league system. His brother, Marek, also plays for the same club. He made his debut for the club the following weekend.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Rozehnal has also represented his country at Euro 2004, the 2006 World Cup and Euro 2008 becoming the 33rd most capped player in Czech history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Rozehnal is married to Petra and their first child, Luka, was born on 3 October 2007.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "David Sebastian Klement Rozehnal (born 5 July 1980) is a Czech footballer who plays as a defender for amateur club Sokol Kožušany. He previously played for a host of European clubs, making over 400 appearances in a career spanning almost two decades, and retired from the professional game in April 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975553}
{"src_title": "Zdeněk Grygera", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Grygera began his career at Petra Drnovice before moving to Sparta Prague. In July 2003, he was signed by Dutch club Ajax for an undisclosed fee, estimated to be around €3.5 million. His first goal came for the club came in September 2004, a 5–0 thrashing away at Den Bosch. He soon became a fan favorite, especially after scoring against bitter rivals Feyenoord in the April \"Klassieker\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Juventus.", "content": "On 10 January 2007, it was confirmed by Ajax Technical Director Martin van Geel that Grygera would be leaving for Juventus on a Bosman transfer when his contract with Ajax expired in June 2007. He was supposed to transfer after the 2006 FIFA World Cup, but the \"Calciopoli\" scandal prevented him from doing so. He expressed his delight over the possibility of playing with one of his Czech compatriots, Pavel Nedvěd. Due to his versatility, he soon established himself in the Juventus starting lineup. In March, he scored and subsequently set up David Trezeguet's goal in a 2–0 win over Genoa, and also scored a last-gasp equalizer in the club's Derby d'Italia fixture against rivals Internazionale on 18 April 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fulham.", "content": "In summer 2011, Grygera still had one year left to run on his contract at Juventus, but it was rescinded by mutual consent on 30 August 2011. The following day, he joined English Premier League side Fulham. He received the number 26 jersey and made his Fulham debut on 15 September 2011 in the UEFA Europa League against Twente. Grygera suffered an anterior cruciate ligament rupture during a league match against Tottenham Hotspur on 6 November 2011, which kept him out for the rest of the season.  Grygera's contract with Fulham was up for renewal at the end of the 2011–12 season. Manager Martin Jol, said, \"Hopefully he can prove himself before the end of August. If he proves he's fit I would like to keep him.\"  On 6 December 2012, Martin Jol confirmed that Grygera had decided to retire from football to concentrate instead on returning to full fitness.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "A former Czech youth international, Grygera played for the Czech Republic at UEFA Euro 2004, the 2006 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2008. At the 2006 World Cup, Grygera's run and cross set up the opening goal for Jan Koller in the Czechs' first game against the United States, which they won 3–0.  At Euro 2008, Grygera was involved in a rough challenge with Swiss striker Alexander Frei during the first half of the tournament's opening game, which tore Frei's knee ligaments and forced the player out of rest of the tournament. He was a regular during 2010 World Cup qualifying, playing in six of the ten qualifiers, but was not able to help the Czechs qualify for a second consecutive World Cup. Grygera made his 65th and final national appearance in October 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Sparta Prague  Ajax", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zdeněk Grygera (; born 14 May 1980) is a retired Czech footballer. A former defender, he was known for his work-rate, competitiveness, and versatility, and usually played as a full-back, wing-back, or winger along right flank, although he was also capable of playing on the left, or as a centre-back; while being solid defensively, he was also known for his ability to get forward and for his all-round good quality of play.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975554}
{"src_title": "Burgas Airport", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "On 27 June 1937, the French company CIDNA (now part of Air France), chose the area of Burgas Airport to build a radio station and signed a contract with the Bulgarian government for its use. The contract expressly stated that the staff of Burgas Airport would be Bulgarian.  On 29 June 1947, Balkan Bulgarian Airlines began domestic flights between Burgas, Plovdiv and Sofia, using Junkers Ju 52/3m aircraft. In the 1950s and 1960s, the airport was expanded and modernized by building a concrete runway. In 1970, the airport became an international airport serving 45 destinations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Development since the 2000s.", "content": "Burgas airport has been subject to heavy traffic following the growing tourism industry in Bulgaria and was in need of major investments to expand and handle projected passenger traffic. In June 2006, the Bulgarian Government awarded \"Fraport AG Frankfurt Airport Services Worldwide\" a 35-year-long concession on both Varna and Burgas airports in return for investments exceeding €500 million.  Fraport entered into partnership with Varna-based company BM Star. The concessionaire has vowed to inject 403 million Euro in the two airports during the lifespan of the arrangement. Fraport will pay 60% of an investment of EUR 403 million over the 35-year concession. The investments will be made in new terminal facilities, vehicles and equipment and expanding apron areas at the airports over the life of the concession  On 18 July 2012, a bomb exploded on a passenger bus transporting Israeli tourists at the Burgas Airport. The explosion killed seven people and injured thirty-two (see 2012 Burgas bus bombing).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Facilities.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terminals.", "content": "In December 2011 construction work began on the new Terminal 2. The new terminal was planned to have a capacity of 2,700,000 passengers and an area of. The new terminal building was designed so that it can be easily upgraded to further increase capacity, if necessary. Construction of the new terminal was completed in 2013, and has been operational since December 2013.  Terminal 2 replaced the older Terminal 1, which was built in the 1950s and expanded in the early 1990s, and now handles all of the airport's passenger traffic. The terminal is equipped with 31 check-in counters, three boarding-card checkpoints, nine security lanes and eight departure gates. The arrivals area (divided into Schengen and non-Schengen zones) has 12 immigration stations and four baggage carousels (one long and three long carousels). Passenger amenities include of space dedicated to shopping and for food and beverage (F&B) services. There is also a outdoor courtyard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Runway.", "content": "At, Burgas Airport has the fourth longest runway in the Balkans, after Athens Airport, Sofia Airport and Belgrade Airport.  On 31 October 2016, reconstruction and rehabilitation of taxiways began at Burgas airport. The project includes a complete rehabilitation of 3,500 square meters of taxiway \"H\", complete rehabilitation of taxiway \"A\", as well as area adjacent to the runway holding point. The control and monitoring system for airfield lighting and approach light equipment will be replaced. The total investment of Fraport Twin Star Airport Management in these projects is over BGN 12 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Airlines and destinations.", "content": "The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights at Burgas Airport:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ground transportation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bus.", "content": "Line No 15 (bus-stop: located at the entrance of the airport area).Initial and final bus stops in Burgas – Burgas bus station \"South\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxi.", "content": "The Taxi Piazza is located in front of the Arrivals Terminal at Burgas Airport. A taxi ride from Burgas Airport to the city takes approximately 15 minutes, depending on the traffic intensity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Parking.", "content": "Passengers and guests arriving at Burgas Airport with their personal car can use the commercially available parking lot, located in the immediate vicinity of the main terminal building. The parking lot has 199 car spaces available and is accessible 24 hours a day.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Burgas Airport () is an international airport in southeast Bulgaria and the second largest in the country. It is near the northern neighbourhood of Sarafovo approximately 10 kilometres from the city centre. The airport principally serves Burgas and other seaside resorts of Bulgarian south coast which attract many tourists during the summer leisure season. In 2018 it handled 3,277,229 passengers, a 9.9% increase compared to 2017.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975555}
{"src_title": "Joseph Trumpeldor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Joseph Trumpeldor was born in Pyatigorsk in the North Caucasus of the Russian Empire. His father, Wulf Trumpeldor, served as a cantonist in the Caucasian War, and as a \"useful Jew\", was allowed to live outside the Pale of Settlement. Though proudly Jewish, Trumpeldor's upbringing was more Russian than traditionally Jewish. Originally in training as a dentist, Joseph Trumpeldor volunteered for the Russian army in 1902. During the Russo-Japanese War, he participated in the siege of Port Arthur, where he lost his left arm to shrapnel. He spent a hundred days in the hospital recovering, but elected to complete his service. When he was questioned about his decisions and told that he was heavily advised not to continue fighting given his handicap, he responded \"but I still have another arm to give to the motherland.\" When Port Arthur surrendered, Trumpeldor went into Japanese captivity. He spent his time printing a newspaper on Jewish affairs and organized history, geography and literature classes. He also befriended several prisoners who shared his desire of founding a communal farm in Palestine. On return from captivity, he moved to St. Petersburg. Trumpeldor subsequently received four decorations for bravery including the Cross of St. George, which made him the most decorated Jewish soldier in Russia.  Due to his handicap he began to study law. He gathered a group of young Zionists around him and in 1911 they emigrated to Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire. At first he joined a farm on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, and then worked for a time at Kibbutz Degania.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "When World War I broke out, he was, as a Russian subject in the Ottoman Empire, an enemy alien. He went to Egypt, where together with Ze'ev Jabotinsky he developed the idea of the Jewish Legion to fight with the British against common enemies and the Zion Mule Corps was formed in 1915, considered to be the first all-Jewish military unit organized in close to two thousand years, and the ideological beginning of the Israel Defense Forces. He saw action in the Battle of Gallipoli with the Zion Mule Corps, where he was wounded in the shoulder. The Zion Mule Corps remained in Gallipoli through the entire campaign and was disbanded shortly after being transferred to Britain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activist.", "content": "Upon his return to Petrograd, Russia in 1918, he organised Jews to defend themselves and established the \"HeHalutz\", a youth organization that prepared immigrants for \"aliyah\", and returned to the British Mandate of Palestine himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle of Tel Hai.", "content": "On 1 March 1920, several hundred Shiites, from the village of Jabal Amel in southern Lebanon, gathered at the gate of Tel Hai, one of four Jewish farming villages in an isolated bloc at the northern end of the Upper Galilee's Hulah Valley. Gangs \"('isabat)\" of clan-based border peasants, combining politics and banditry, were active in the area of the loosely defined border between the soon to be established British Mandate of Palestine, French Mandate of Lebanon and of Syria. The Shiites believed that some French troops had taken refuge with the Jews and demanded to search the premises. The Jews generally tried to maintain neutrality in the chaos, occasionally sheltering both Arabs and French. On this day there were no French soldiers, and the Jews assented to a search. One of the farmers fired a shot into the air, a signal for reinforcements from nearby Kfar Giladi, which brought ten men led by Trumpeldor, who had been posted by Hashomer to organize defense.  It is unclear exactly what happened once Trumpeldor assumed command, but an early report speaks of'misunderstanding on both sides'. Ultimately, a major firefight raged in which seven Jews and five Arabs were killed outright; Trumpeldor was shot in the hand and stomach, and died while being evacuated to Kfar Giladi that evening. The eight Jews were buried in two common graves in Kfar Giladi, and both locations were abandoned for a time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Last words.", "content": "The last words attributed to him, \"Never mind, it is good to die for our country\" (\"En davar, tov lamut be'ad artzenu\" ), became famous in the pre-state Zionist movement and in Israel of the 1950s and 1960s. According to Aviel Roshwald, the authenticity of Trumpeldor's final utterance is well-attested and not questioned by historians despite a widespread belief that they are apocryphal. Other historians state that these words have been under dispute for decades. In the wake of popular scepticism in the 1970s, a counter-version to the official glorified legend, perhaps starting as a joke, suggested that his last words were in fact a pungent curse in his mother-tongue Russian, reflecting frustration with his bad luck. Trumpeldor spoke only broken Hebrew; in his last hours he mumbled requests in his native Russian to have his wounds bandaged, and the American doctor, George Gerry (or Gary), who attended him, and Abraham Harzfeld were the two firsthand sources for this declaration.  These words, which quickly spread throughout the Jewish immigrant community in Palestine, are rather atypical for Jews on their deathbed. They are the equivalent in Hebrew of the Latin apophthegm \"Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori\", the famous line from the Roman lyric poet Horace's \"Odes\" (III.2.13), which can be rendered in English as \"It is sweet and honourable to die for one's country,\" or \"It is sweet and fitting to die for the fatherland\" and which inspired numerous nineteenth- and twentieth-century nationalist patriots in various countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National hero.", "content": "After his death, Trumpeldor became a symbol of Jewish self-defence, and his memorial day on the 11th day of Adar is officially noted in Israel every year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Both right-wing and left-wing Zionists regard Joseph Trumpeldor as a hero. The Revisionist Zionist movement (the precursor to Likud) named its youth movement \"Betar\", an acronym for \"Covenant of Joseph Trumpeldor\", while the left-wing movements remember Trumpeldor as the defender of the kibbutzim and have established memorials in his honour. In the same year that he died, the Joseph Trumpeldor Work and Defense Battalion (Gdud HaAvoda) was founded, which established several kibbutzim. The town of Kiryat Shmona (\"City of Eight\") is named after Trumpeldor and the seven others who died defending Tel Hai.  Israeli rap group Hadag Nahash have a song about Trumpeldor on their debut album \"Ha-mechona shel ha-groove\" (2000). The song \"Gabi ve Debi\" from the 2003 followup \"Lazuz\" also mentions Trumpeldor and quotes his famous last words.  The 2015 novel, \"Joseph's Dream\", by Elana Beth Schwab, is based on Trumpeldor's life.  The 2017 Russian-language documentary novel \"Moi drug Trumpeldor\" (\"My Friend Trumpeldor\") by the St. Petersburg-based author Aleksandr Laskin narrates Trumpeldor's story through the eyes of his friend David Belotserkovsky.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Trumpeldor Cemetery, Tel Aviv", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Vladimirovich (Volfovich) Trumpeldor (November 21, 1880 – March 1, 1920,, ) was an early Zionist activist who helped to organize the Zion Mule Corps and bring Jewish immigrants to Palestine. Trumpeldor died defending the settlement of Tel Hai in 1920 and subsequently became a Zionist national hero. According to a standard account, his last words were \"It's nothing, it is good to die for our country\", but that he ever said these words has been challenged.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975556}
{"src_title": "Rosa multiflora", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a scrambling shrub climbing over other plants to a height of, with stout stems with recurved prickles (sometimes absent). The leaves are long, compound, with 5–9 leaflets and feathered stipules. The flowers are produced in large corymbs, each flower small, diameter, white or pink, borne in early summer. The hips are reddish to purple, diameter.  Two varieties are accepted by the \"Flora of China\":", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "\"Rosa multiflora\" is grown as an ornamental plant and also used as a rootstock for grafted ornamental rose cultivars.  In eastern North America, \"Rosa multiflora\" is generally considered an invasive species, though it was originally introduced from Asia as a soil conservation measure, as a natural hedge to border grazing land, and to attract wildlife. It is readily distinguished from American native roses by its large inflorescences, which bear multiple flowers and hips, often more than a dozen, while the American species bear only one or a few on a branch.  In some regions the plant is classified as a noxious weed. In grazing areas, it is generally considered to be a serious pest, though it is considered excellent fodder for goats.  The hips of the plant are edible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management.", "content": "The targeted removal of multiflora rose often requires an aggressive technique, such as the full removal of the plant in addition to the root structure. Pruning and cutting back of the plant often leads to re-sprouting. Two natural biological controls include the rose rosette disease and the rose seed chalid (\"Megastigmus aculeastus\" var. \"nigroflavus\"). Patches of introduced multiflora rose in Pennsylvania are displaying symptoms of rose rosette disease, which can lead to decline and death.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rosa multiflora (syn. Rosa polyantha) is a species of rose known commonly as multiflora rose, baby rose, Japanese rose, many-flowered rose, seven-sisters rose, Eijitsu rose and rambler rose. It is native to eastern Asia, in China, Japan and Korea. It should not be confused with \"Rosa rugosa\", which is also known as \"Japanese rose\", or with polyantha roses which are garden cultivars derived from hybrids of \"R. multiflora\". It was introduced to North America, where it is regarded as an invasive species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975557}
{"src_title": "Siloam tunnel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery and interpretation.", "content": "The tunnel was first described in modern times by Franciscus Quaresmius in 1625. It was later explored in 1838 by the American biblical scholar Edward Robinson, and in 1865 by Charles Warren.  Neither Quaresmius nor Robinson identified the tunnel with Hezekiah, but in 1871 Warren suggested that the Pool of Siloam may have been \"dug by King Hezekiah\" and in 1884 following the discovery of the Siloam inscription wrote that: \"The inscription thus appears to belong to the later period of the Hebrew monarchy, and may very well be considered to agree with the Biblical account of Hezekiah's preparations for Sennacherib's siege.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function and origin.", "content": "The ancient city of Jerusalem, being on a mountain, is naturally defensible from almost all sides, but suffers from the drawback that its major source of fresh water, the Gihon Spring, is on the side of the cliff overlooking the Kidron Valley. This presents a major military weakness as the city walls, if high enough to be defensible, must necessarily leave the Gihon spring outside, thus leaving the city without a fresh water supply in case of siege. This weakness had been removed by the Canaanites who built a very strongly fortified tower around the spring and connected it to the city walls on the slope by an additional wall, which carried a well-protected corridor. A Canaanite tunnel already collected the spring water since ca. 1800 BC and led it southwards through the bedrock, but it released the water onto the fields in the Kidron Valley through several openings and ended in an open reservoir. While allowing for important farming, this arrangement also made water available to besieging troops outside the city walls.  The Bible says that King Hezekiah (c. 8th century BC), fearful that the Assyrians would lay siege to the city, blocked the spring's water outside the city and diverted it through a channel into the then Pool of Siloam. However, it is now known (as of 1997) that the earlier Warren's shaft system had already heavily fortified the Gihon Spring; Warren's shaft is not an aqueduct, and requires those desiring water to travel up and down it themselves—an arrangement that Hezekiah seemingly must have considered inadequate.  In 1899, an ancient channel, also leading from the Gihon Spring halfway to the Siloam Pool area, but by a more direct route, was found. This channel is now known as the \"Middle Bronze Age channel\", on account of its estimated age. Ronny Reich determined that it was constructed around 1800 BC (in the Middle Bronze Age), and thus that the spring's water had already been diverted many centuries before Hezekiah. As originally constructed, it is understood as a 20 feet deep ditch in the ground, covered over by large rock slabs (which were then hidden in the foliage). It is narrower than the tunnel, but can still be walked by a human for most of its length. In addition to the (3 ft high) exit near the Siloam pool, the channel has several small outlets that watered the gardens facing the Kidron Valley.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biblical interpretation.", "content": "The Bible verses relating to a tunnel in Hezekiah's time are these:  \"As for the other events of Hezekiah’s reign, all his achievements and how he made the pool and the tunnel by which he brought water into the city, are they not written in the book of the annals of the kings of Judah?\" ()  \"When Hezekiah saw that Sennacherib had come and that he intended to wage war against Jerusalem, he consulted with his officials and military staff about blocking off the water from the springs outside the city, and they helped him. They gathered a large group of people who blocked all the springs and the stream that flowed through the land. 'Why should the kings of Assyria come and find plenty of water?' they said.\" ()  \"It was Hezekiah who blocked the upper outlet of the Gihon spring and channeled the water down to the west side of the City of David. He succeeded in everything he undertook.\" ()  \"You also saw the City of David, that it was great; And you gathered together the waters of the lower pool. You also made a reservoir between the two walls for the water of the old pool. But you did not look to its Maker, Nor did you have respect for him who fashioned it long ago.\" ()", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Doubts over dating.", "content": "Excavation work in the tunnel by Ronny Reich of the University of Haifa and Eli Shukron of the Israel Antiquities Authority has cast doubt over the attribution of the tunnel to the reign of Hezekiah. They believe the evidence points to a date several decades earlier, in the last part of the 9th century or early part of the 8th century BC. They note that the biblical passage connecting Hezekiah to the construction of waterworks doesn't specify a place in the city, and suggest it might refer to waterworks in the Mamilla area.  The revised dating is supported by De Groot and Fadida on the basis of pottery analysis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Siloam Tunnel (, \"Nikbat HaShiloah\"), also known as Hezekiah's Tunnel, is a water channel that was carved beneath the City of David, located in the Arab neighborhood of Silwan in eastern Jerusalem, in ancient times. Its popular name is due to the most common hypothesis that it dates from the reign of Hezekiah of Judah (late 8th and early 7th century BC) and corresponds to the \"water works\" mentioned in in the Hebrew Bible. According to the Bible, King Hezekiah prepared Jerusalem for an impending siege by the Assyrians, by \"blocking the source of the waters of the upper Gihon, and leading them straight down on the west to the City of David\" ().", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975558}
{"src_title": "Warsaw Confederation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Religious tolerance in Poland had had a long tradition (e.g. Statute of Kalisz) and had been \"de facto\" policy in the reign of the recently deceased King Sigismund II. However, the articles signed by the Confederation gave official sanction to earlier custom. In that sense, they may be considered either the beginning or the peak of Polish tolerance.  Following the childless death of the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, Polish and Lithuanian nobles (szlachta) gathered at Warsaw to prevent any separatists from acting and to maintain the existing legal order. For that the citizens had to unconditionally abide the decisions made by the body; and the confederation was a potent declaration that the two former states are still closely linked.  In January the nobles signed a document in which representatives of all the major religions pledged each other mutual support and tolerance. A new political system was arising, aided by the confederation which contributed to its stability. Religious tolerance was an important factor in a multiethnic and multi-religious state, as the territories of the Commonwealth were inhabited by many generations of people from different ethnic backgrounds (Poles, Lithuanians, Ruthenian, Germans and Jews) and of different denominations (Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox, Jewish and even Muslim). \"This country became what Cardinal Hozjusz called “a place of shelter for heretics”. It was a place where the most radical religious sects, trying to escape persecution in other countries of the Christian world, sought refuge.  This act was not imposed by a government or by consequences of war, but rather resulted from the actions of members of Polish-Lithuanian society. It was also influenced by the 1572 French St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, which prompted the Polish-Lithuanian nobility to see that no monarch would ever be able to carry out such an act in Poland.  The people most involved in preparing the articles were Mikołaj Sienicki (leader of the \"execution movement\"), Jan Firlej and Jan Zborowski. Their efforts were opposed by many dignitaries of the Roman Catholic Church, Franciszek Krasiński was the only bishop who signed them (Szymon Starowolski claimed he did so under the \"threat of the sword\"), and the future legal acts containing the articles of the Confederation were signed by bishops with the stipulation: \"\"excepto articulo confoederationis.\"\" Another bishop, Wawrzyniec Goślicki, was excommunicated for signing the acts of the Sejm of 1587.  The articles of the Warsaw Confederation were later incorporated into the Henrician Articles, and thus became constitutional provisions alongside the \"Pacta conventa\" also instituted in 1573.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Importance.", "content": "Late-16th-century Poland stood between the Orthodox Muscovy in the East, the Muslim Ottoman Empire to the South, and Western Europe, torn between Reformation and Counter-Reformation, to the North and West. Its religious tolerance made it a welcome refuge for those escaping religious persecution elsewhere; in the words of Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius, it became “a place of shelter for heretics”. The confederation legalized the previously unwritten customs of religious tolerance.  There is debate as to whether religious freedom was intended only for the nobility or also for the peasants and others; most historians favor the latter interpretation.  In 2003, the text of the Warsaw Confederation was added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Warsaw Confederation, signed on 28 January 1573 by the Polish national assembly (\"sejm konwokacyjny\") in Warsaw, was one of the first European acts granting religious freedoms. It was an important development in the history of Poland and of Lithuania that extended religious tolerance to nobility and free persons within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and is considered the formal beginning of religious freedom in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Although it did not prevent all conflict based on religion, it did make the Commonwealth a much safer and more tolerant place than most of contemporaneous Europe, especially during the subsequent Thirty Years' War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975559}
{"src_title": "Jean Tirole", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "Tirole received engineering degrees from the École Polytechnique in Paris in 1976, and from the École nationale des ponts et chaussées in 1978. He graduated as a member of the elite Corps of Bridges, Waters and Forests. Tirole pursued graduate studies at the Paris Dauphine University and was awarded a DEA degree in 1976 and a Doctorat de troisième cycle in decision mathematics in 1978. In 1981, he received a Ph.D. in economics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for his thesis titled \"Essays in economic theory\", under the supervision of Eric Maskin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Tirole is chairman of the board of the Jean-Jacques Laffont Foundation at the Toulouse School of Economics, and scientific director of the Industrial Economics Institute (IDEI) at Toulouse 1 University Capitole. After receiving his doctorate from MIT in 1981, he worked as a researcher at the École nationale des ponts et chaussées until 1984. From 1984–1991, he worked as Professor of Economics at MIT. His work by 1988 helped to define modern industrial organization theory by organising and synthesising the main results of the game-theory revolution \"vis-à-vis\" understanding of non-competitive markets.  From 1994 to 1996 he was a Professor of Economics at the École Polytechnique. Tirole was involved with Jean-Jacques Laffont in the project of creating a new School of Economics in Toulouse. He is Engineer General of the Corps of Bridges, Waters and Forest, serving as Chair of the Board of the Toulouse School of Economics, Visiting Professor at MIT and Professor \"cumulant\" at the École des hautes études en sciences sociales since 1995.  He was president of the Econometric Society in 1998 and of the European Economic Association in 2001. Around this time, he was able to determine a way to calculate the optimal prices for the regulation of natural monopolies and wrote a number of articles about the regulation of capital markets—with a focus on the differential of control between decentralised lenders and the centralised control of bank management. Tirole has been a member of the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques since 2011, the Conseil d'analyse économique since 2008 and the Conseil stratégique de la recherché since 2013. In the early 2010s, he showed that banks generally tend to take short-term risks and recommended a change in quantitative easing towards a more quality-based market stimulation policy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contributions to economics.", "content": "Tirole's textbook, \"The Theory of Industrial Organization\", synthesised modern models of oligopolistic competition, analysing various cases where industries consist of a small number of firms with significant market power. He and Oliver Hart published a paper showing the conditions in which a vertical merger can result in foreclosure. Rochet and Tirole analysed the implications of 2-sided markets for competition policy. Fudenberg and Tirole also created a taxonomy of strategic effects in oligopolistic competition models.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Tirole was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2014 for his analysis of market power and the regulation of natural monopolies. Tirole received doctorates \"honoris causa\" from the Université libre de Bruxelles in 1989, the London Business School and the University of Montreal in 2007, the University of Mannheim in 2011, the Athens University of Economics and Business and the University of Rome Tor Vergata in 2012 as well as the University of Lausanne in 2013.  Tirole also received the inaugural BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the Economics, Finance and Management category in 2008, the Public Utility Research Center Distinguished Service Award (University of Florida) in 1997, and the Yrjö Jahnsson Award of the Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation and the European Economic Association in 1993. He is a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1993) and of the American Economic Association (1993). He has also been a Sloan Fellow (1985) and a Guggenheim Fellow (1988). He was a fellow of the Econometric Society in 1986 and an Economic Theory Fellow (Society for the Advancement of Economic Theory) in 2011. In 2013 Tirole was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.  In 2007 he was awarded the highest award (the Gold Medal or médaille d'or) of the French CNRS. In 2008, he received the Prix du Cercle d'Oc; in 2009, he received an Outstanding Contributions to the Profession Award (International Association for Energy Economics); in 2010, he was granted the Chicago Mercantile Exchange – Mathematical Sciences Research Institute (CME-MSRI) prize in Innovative Quantitative Innovations in Finance, the Tjalling Koopmans Asset Award (Tilburg University), and the \"Prix Claude Levi-Strauss\". He is among the most influential economists in the world according to IDEAS/RePEc. Besides his numerous academic distinctions, he was the recipient of the Gold Medal of the city of Toulouse in 2007, a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur since 2007 and an Officer in the Ordre national du Mérite since 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Tirole has published about 200 professional articles in economics and finance, as well as 10 books, including \"The Theory of Industrial Organization\", \"Game Theory\" (with Drew Fudenberg), \"A Theory of Incentives in Procurement and Regulation\" (with Jean-Jacques Laffont), \"The Prudential Regulation of Banks\" (with Mathias Dewatripont), \"Competition in Telecommunications\" (with Jean-Jacques Laffont), \"Financial Crises, Liquidity, and the International Monetary System\", and \"The Theory of Corporate Finance\". His research covers industrial organization, regulation, game theory, public economics, banking and finance, psychology and economics, international finance and macroeconomics.  |-", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean Tirole (born 9 August 1953) is a French professor of economics. He focuses on industrial organization, game theory, banking and finance, and economics and psychology. In 2014 he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his analysis of market power and regulation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975560}
{"src_title": "Henry Phipps, 1st Earl of Mulgrave", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Lord Mulgrave was a younger son of Constantine Phipps, 1st Baron Mulgrave (also Baron Mulgrave, of New Ross), by his wife the Hon. Lepell, daughter of John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey, and was educated at Eton and the Middle Temple.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Lord Mulgrave entered the army in 1775, and eventually rose to the rank of General. He saw service in the Caribbean during the American Revolutionary War. In 1793 he was made Colonel of the 31st (Huntingdonshire) Regiment of Foot. Also in 1793, because he was on a mission to the King of Sardinia in Turin, he was near at hand when British forces captured the French port of Toulon, and he briefly took command of the British land forces there, before withdrawing upon the arrival of more senior officers. In 1799 he was sent out on another special military mission, this time to the headquarters of the Austrian commander, Archduke Charles, to attempt to persuade him to retain his troops in Switzerland rather than removing them to the Middle Rhine, but he was unsuccessful.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1784 Lord Mulgrave was elected to the House of Commons for Totnes. He supported the government of Pitt, to whom he eventually became close. In 1790, he was elected for Scarborough in Yorkshire. He succeeded his brother Constantine Phipps, 2nd Baron Mulgrave as Baron Mulgrave in the Peerage of Ireland in 1792, but did not succeed to his brother's British title. In 1794 he was granted a British peerage as Baron Mulgrave, entering the House of Lords, and in 1796 he was made Governor of Scarborough Castle. Mulgrave supported Pitt when he resigned in 1801, and in return for his loyalty was rewarded with the office of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1804–1805) in Pitt's second government. Following an accident suffered by Lord Harrowby, Mulgrave took his place as Foreign Secretary, in which position he helped Pitt to form the Third Coalition against Napoleon.  The post of Foreign Secretary was generally thought to be beyond his powers. Thomas Grenville, writing to the Marquis of Buckingham, expressed an opinion that he was only \"put in ad interim until Lord Wellesley's arrival, who is expected in June\". Mulgrave, however, showed himself fairly capable in debate. On 11 February 1805 he had to announce the breach with Spain, and to defend the seizure of the treasure ships at Ferrol before the declaration of war, and on 20 June to defend the coalition of 1805. He composed an ode on the victory of Trafalgar, and it was set to music by Thomas Arne. On 23 January 1806 Pitt died. On 28 January 1806 Mulgrave laid before the House of Lords copies of the treaties recently concluded with Russia and Sweden, to which Prussia and Austria had acceded, and on 4 February he explained their object. Three days later, on 7 February, he resigned, with the bulk of those who had been Pitt's friends.  With the death of Pitt and the formation of the Ministry of All the Talents in 1806, Mulgrave, along with the other Pittites, went into opposition, but when the Pittites returned to power in 1807, Mulgrave served in various major offices, first as First Lord of the Admiralty (1807–1810), then as Master-General of the Ordnance (1810–1819), and finally as Minister without Portfolio (1819–1820). As First Lord he was heavily involved in planning both the successful expedition against Copenhagen in 1807, and the disastrous one to Walcheren in 1809. After moving to the ordnance board, Mulgrave became less active politically. In 1812, he was created Viscount Normanby and Earl of Mulgrave in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "The Earl of Mulgrave's grandfather William Phipps had married Lady Catherine Annesley, who was the daughter and heiress of James Annesley, 3rd Earl of Anglesey, and his wife, Lady Catherine Darnley (an illegitimate daughter of King James II by his mistress Catherine Sedley, Countess of Dorchester). Lady Catherine Darnley had later married John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, and hence Henry Phipps, 1st Earl of Mulgrave, was the step-great-grandson of the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby.  Lord Mulgrave married Martha Sophia, daughter of pottery manufacturer Christopher Thomson Maling, at St Michael's, Houghton-le-Spring in 1795. He died in April 1831, aged 76, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Constantine, who was later created Marquess of Normanby. His second son was the Hon. Sir Charles Beaumont Phipps and his third, Edmund Phipps, a lawyer and author. The couple's fourth son, the Hon. Augustus Frederick (b. 1809) became honorary canon of Ely. Of their five daughters, only one survived childhood.  The Countess of Mulgrave died on 17 October 1849.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "General Henry Phipps, 1st Earl of Mulgrave (14 February 17557 April 1831), styled The Honourable Henry Phipps until 1792 and known as The Lord Mulgrave from 1792 to 1812, was a British soldier and politician. He notably served as Foreign Secretary under William Pitt the Younger from 1805 to 1806.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975561}
{"src_title": "Euclid of Megara", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Euclid was born in Megara, but in Athens he became a follower of Socrates. So eager was he to hear the teaching and discourse of Socrates, that when, for a time, Athens had a ban on any citizen of Megara entering the city, Euclid would sneak into Athens after nightfall, disguised as a woman to hear him speak. He is represented in the preface of Plato's \"Theaetetus\" as being responsible for writing down the conversation between Socrates and the young Theaetetus many years earlier. Socrates is also supposed to have reproved Euclid for his fondness for eristic disputes. He was present at Socrates' death (399 BCE), after which Euclid returned to Megara, where he offered refuge to Plato and other frightened pupils of Socrates.  In Megara, Euclid founded a school of philosophy which became known as the Megarian school, and which flourished for about a century. Euclid's pupils were said to have been Ichthyas, the second leader of the Megarian school; Eubulides of Miletus; Clinomachus; and Thrasymachus of Corinth. Thrasymachus was a teacher of Stilpo, who was the teacher of Zeno of Citium, the founder of the Stoic school.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Euclid himself wrote six dialogues — the \"Lamprias\", the \"Aeschines\", the \"Phoenix\", the \"Crito\", the \"Alcibiades\", and the \"Amatory\" dialogue — but none survive. The main extant source on his views is the brief summary by Diogenes Laërtius. Euclid's philosophy was a synthesis of Eleatic and Socratic ideas. Socrates claimed that the greatest knowledge was understanding the good. The Eleatics claimed the greatest knowledge is the one universal Being of the world. Mixing these two ideas, Euclid claimed that good is the knowledge of this being. Therefore, this good is the only thing that exists and has many names but is really just one thing. He identified the Eleatic idea of \"The One\" with the Socratic \"Form of the Good,\" which he called \"Reason,\" \"God,\" \"Mind,\" \"Wisdom,\" etc. This was the true essence of being, and was eternal and unchangeable. The idea of a universal good also allowed Euclid to dismiss all that is not good because he claimed that good covered all things on Earth with its many names. Euclid adopted the Socratic idea that knowledge is virtue and that the only way to understand the never-changing world is through the study of philosophy. Euclid taught that virtues themselves, however, were simply the knowledge of the one good, or Being. As he said, \"The Good is One, but we can call it by several names, sometimes as wisdom, sometimes as God, sometimes as Reason\", and he declared, \"the opposite of Good does not exist\".  Euclid was also interested in concepts and dilemmas of logic. Euclid and his Megarian followers used dialogue and the eristic method to defend their ideas. The eristic method allowed them to prove their ideas by disproving those of the one they were arguing with and therefore indirectly proving one's own point (\"see reductio ad absurdum\"). When attacking a demonstration, it was not the premises assumed but the conclusions that he attacked, which presumably means that he tried to refute his opponents by drawing absurd consequences from their conclusions. He also rejected argument from analogy. His doctrinal heirs, the Stoic logicians, inaugurated the most important school of logic in antiquity other than Aristotle's peripatetics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Footnotes Citations", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Euclid of Megara (; also Euclides, Eucleides; ; c. 435 – c. 365 BC) was a Greek Socratic philosopher who founded the Megarian school of philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BC, and was present at his death. He held the supreme good to be one, eternal and unchangeable, and denied the existence of anything contrary to the good. Editors and translators in the Middle Ages often confused him with Euclid of Alexandria when discussing the latter's \"Elements\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975562}
{"src_title": "Rosa rugosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Rosa rugosa\" is a suckering shrub which develops new plants from the roots and forms dense thickets 1–1.50 m tall with stems densely covered in numerous short, straight prickles 3–10 mm long. The leaves are 8–15 cm long, pinnate with 5–9 leaflets, most often 7, each leaflet 3–4 cm long, with a distinctly corrugated (rugose, hence the species' name) surface. The leaf is a elliptical in shape with a rounded base or broadly cuneate with a leather feel, dark green top. The back of the leaf is composed of a green-grey colour with hair along the veins. The leaf margin is composed of teeth along the edges and is crenate-serrate. The flower has five petals that are usually 6-9 cm in width. The flower is composed of 200-250 stamens per flow and vary in style. The flowers are pleasantly scented, dark pink to white (on \"R. rugosa\" f. \"alba\" ), 6–9 cm across, with somewhat wrinkled petals; flowering occurs in spring.  The edible hips, which resemble cherry tomatoes, are large, 2–3 cm diameter, and often shorter than their diameter, not elongated; in late summer and early autumn the plants often bear fruit and flowers at the same time. The leaves typically turn bright yellow before falling in autumn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "This rose species was introduced to America from Japan in the mid-19th century; it was valued because it can tolerate salt water spray.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "\"Rosa rugosa\" is widely used as an ornamental plant. It has been introduced to numerous areas of Europe and North America. It has many common names, several of which refer to the fruit's resemblance to a tomato, including beach tomato or sea tomato; others include saltspray rose, beach rose, potato rose and Turkestan rose. In parts of the US the fruits are also occasionally called beach plums, causing confusion with the plant properly bearing that name, \"Prunus maritima\".  The sweetly scented flowers are traditionally used to make flower jam and dessert in China. They are also used to make pot-pourri in Japan and China. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat irregular menstruation and gastritis.  This species hybridises readily with many other roses, and is valued by rose breeders for its considerable resistance to the diseases rose rust and rose black spot. It is also extremely tolerant of seaside salt spray and storms, commonly being the first shrub in from the coast. It is widely used in landscaping, being relatively tough and trouble-free. Needing little maintenance due to it being very disease resistant, it is suitable for planting in large numbers; its salt-tolerance makes it useful for planting beside roads which need deicing with salt regularly.  Numerous cultivars have been selected for garden use, with flower colour varying from white to dark red-purple, and with semi-double to double flowers where some or all of the stamens are replaced by extra petals. Popular examples include 'Rubra Plena' (semi-double variant, with strong clove scented dark pink petals and dark green wrinkled leaves and large round orange-red hips), 'Hansa' (very fragrant, red-purple double), 'Fru Dagmar Hastrup' (pink, single), 'Pink Grootendorst' (pink, semi-double), 'Blanc Double de Coubert' (white, double) and the more common 'Roseraie de L'Haÿ' (pink, double), which is often used for its very successful rootstock and its ornamental rose hips.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic effects.", "content": "Varieties of this species are sold in nurseries. In cultivation it has been cross-bred with other roses. It is valued for its attractive flowers, and it is often used to create hedges and windbreakers. It can control erosion and is planted along highways in Germany and Denmark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "\"Rosa rugosa\" is naturalized in many parts of Europe, and it is considered an invasive species in some habitats, particularly in seashores of Northern Europe. To further understand the invasive process, it was first introduced into England from Japan in 1796, and then in Germany in 1845. This was the first presence of the flower within the European continent. In 1875, \"Rosa rugosa\" was found in Denmark and then in Sweden in 1918. By 2001, the flower species had become well established within 61 European countries. Although, it is native within China, it has been labeled as an endangered species due to a noticeable high decline in population rates of the flower. The species was able to spread due to birds and animals that eat the berries from the bush and people buying the rose and taking it with them overseas. It can outcompete native flora, thereby threatening biological diversity. On Sylt, an island in the north of Germany, it is sufficiently abundant to have become known as the \"Sylt rose\".  It is considered noxious in some states of the USA. \"R. rugosa\" was first introduced into North America in 1845. The first report of it being naturalized far from the location in which it was planted occurred on Nantucket in 1899 and was spreading rapidly by 1911. By 1920, the rose had been well established in Nantucket and in Connecticut. Ten years later it was said to be \"straying rapidly\" and today it is naturalized on the entire coast of New England and in scattered locations around the Northeast and Pacific Northwest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Potential allergen.", "content": "Pollen or fragrance of rose may cause an allergic reaction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vernacular names.", "content": "In Japanese, it is called \"beach aubergine\", \"beach pear\" or simply \"rose\". The Chinese call it \"méiguī huā\". In Korean, the species is called \"haedanghwa\" (, ), literally \"flowers near the seashore\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rosa rugosa (rugosa rose, beach rose, Japanese rose, Ramanas rose, or letchberry) is a species of rose native to eastern Asia, in northeastern China, Japan, Korea and southeastern Siberia, where it grows on beach coasts, often on sand dunes. It should not be confused with \"Rosa multiflora\", which is also known as \"Japanese rose\". The Latin word \"rugosa\" means \"wrinkled\", referring to the wrinkled leaves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975563}
{"src_title": "15th arrondissement of Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The \"loi du 16 juin 1859\" decreed the annexation to Paris of the area between the old \"Wall of the Ferme générale\" and the wall of Thiers. The communes of Grenelle, Vaugirard, and Javel were incorporated into Paris in 1860.  Charles Michels (b. 1903), was elected Député for the 15th arrondissement by the Popular Front; He was taken hostage and shot by the Nazis in 1941.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quarters.", "content": "As in all the Parisian \"arrondissements\", the fifteenth is made up of four administrative quarters (\"quartiers\").  The early airfield here has been encroached upon by urban development and a sports centre, but the residual area, mainly laid to grass, continues to serve Paris as a heliport. The Sécurité Civile has a detachment there close to maintenance facilities. Customs facilities are available and especially busy during the Salon d'Aeronautique airshows held at Le Bourget on the other side of the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The land area of this arrondissement is 8.502 km (3.283 sq. miles, or 2,101 acres).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demography.", "content": "The peak of population of Paris's 15th arrondissement occurred in 1962, when it had 250,551 inhabitants. Since then it has lost approximately one-tenth of its population, but it remains the most populous arrondissement of Paris, with 225,362 inhabitants at the last census in 1999. With 144,667 jobs at the same census, the 15th is also very dense in business activities. This arrondissement is home to many families and is known in Paris as one of the quietest sections in Paris. The majority of the arrondissement is relatively unfrequented by tourists, a rarity for one of the world's most visited cities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 15th arrondissement of Paris (\"XV arrondissement\") is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, this arrondissement is referred to as \"quinzième\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975564}
{"src_title": "Afghan Girl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "\"National Geographic \".", "content": "Sharbat Gula was one of the students in an informal school in the Nasir Bagh refugee camp in 1984. Sharbat Gula's photograph was taken by National Geographic Society photographer Steve McCurry on Kodachrome 64 color slide film, with a Nikon FM2 camera and Nikkor 105mm Ai-S F2.5 lens. The pre-print photo retouching was done by Graphic Art Service, based in Marietta, Georgia. McCurry did not record the name of the person he had photographed.  The picture, titled \"Afghan Girl\", appeared on the June 1985 cover of \"National Geographic\". The image of her face, with a red scarf draped loosely over her head and her eyes staring directly into the camera was named \"the most recognized photograph\" in the history of the magazine, and the cover itself is one of the most famous of the \"National Geographic\". \"American Photo\" magazine says the image has an \"unusual combination of grittiness and glamour\". Her green eyes are the subject of frequent commentary.  McCurry made several unsuccessful attempts during the 1990s to locate her. In January 2002, a \"National Geographic\" team traveled to Afghanistan to locate the subject. McCurry, upon learning that the Nasir Bagh refugee camp was soon to close, inquired of its remaining residents, one of whom knew Sharbat Gula's brother and was able to send word to her hometown. However, a number of women came forward and identified themselves erroneously as the famous Afghan Girl. In addition, after being shown the 1984 photo, a handful of young men erroneously identified Sharbat Gula as their wife.  The team located Sharbat Gula, then around the age of 30, in a remote region of Afghanistan; she had returned to her native country from the refugee camp in 1992. Her identity was confirmed by John Daugman using iris recognition. She recalled being photographed. She had been photographed on only three occasions: in 1984 and during the search for her when a \"National Geographic\" producer took the identifying pictures that led to the reunion with Steve McCurry. She had never seen the \"Afghan Girl\" image before it was shown to her in January 2002.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sharbat Gula.", "content": "Pashtun by ethnicity and from a rural background, Sharbat Gula's family fled during the Soviet Union's bombing of Afghanistan when she was around six years old in their village in eastern Nangarhar. Along with her father, brother, and three sisters, she walked across the mountains to Pakistan and ended up in the Nasir Bagh refugee camp in Pakistan in 1984.  She married Rahmat Gul between the age of 13 and 16, and returned to her village in Afghanistan in 1992. She is now a widow as her husband died from Hepatitis C virus around 2012. Sharbat Gula has three daughters. A fourth daughter died in infancy. She expressed hopes that her children will be able to get an education. A devout Muslim, Sharbat Gula normally would wear a burka and was hesitant to meet with McCurry, as he was a male from outside the family. When asked if she had ever felt safe, she responded \"No. But life under the Taliban was better. At least there was peace and order.\" Until the \"National Geographic\" team found her again, she had never seen the photo of herself as a child. When asked how she had survived, she responded that it was \"the will of God\".  In 2015, local newspapers in Pakistan reported that the National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) canceled the Computerized National Identity Card (CNIC) to Sharbat Bibi and two men listed as her sons. Reports claimed the national ID cards had been issued illegally. A NADRA source is quoted as saying \"They may not be her sons but this is a common practice among Afghan refugees whereby they list names of non-relatives as their children to obtain documents.\" A relative stated that the family lives in Pakistan, but \"We travel between Pakistan and Afghanistan depending on the security situation.\"  On 26 October 2016, Sharbat Gula was arrested in Pakistan by the Federal Investigation Agency for living in the country using forged documents. She was sentenced to fifteen days in detention, and she was deported to Afghanistan. The decision was criticised by Amnesty International. In Kabul, Sharbat Gula and her children were welcomed by President Ashraf Ghani and former President Hamid Karzai at the presidential palace. The government promised to support her financially. In December 2017, Sharbat Gula was gifted a residence in Kabul for her and her children to live in.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Interest in the photo increased after 9/11 attacks when the George W. Bush administration began promoting Afghan women's rights during the US military campaign in Afghanistan.  More recent pictures of Sharbat Gula were featured as part of a cover story on her life in the April 2002 issue of \"National Geographic\" and she was the subject of a television documentary, entitled \"Search for the Afghan Girl\", which aired in March 2002. In recognition of her, \"National Geographic\" set up the Afghan Girls Fund, a charitable organization with the goal of educating Afghan girls and young women. In 2008, the scope of the fund was broadened to include boys and the name was changed to Afghan Children's Fund. After finding Sharbat Gula, \"National Geographic\" also covered the costs of medical treatment for her family, and paid for the costs of a pilgrimage to Mecca.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "A 2019 article in the Indian magazine \"The Wire\" that described a 2002 interview with Sharbat Gula says that she was angered by the photograph being taken and that no consent was requested or given for the image to be published. The writer for \"The Wire\" suggests that this is because \"it is not welcome for a girl of traditional Pashtun culture to reveal her face, share space, make eye contact and be photographed by a man who does not belong to her family.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Afghan Girl is a 1984 photographic portrait of Sharbat Gula () (pronounced ) (born ), also known as Sharbat Bibi, taken by photojournalist Steve McCurry. It appeared on the June 1985 cover of \"National Geographic\". The image is of an adolescent girl with green eyes in a red headscarf looking intensely at the camera. The identity of the photo's subject was not initially known, but in early 2002, she was identified as Sharbat Gula. She was an Afghan child who was living in the Nasir Bagh refugee camp in Pakistan during the time of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan when she was photographed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975565}
{"src_title": "Phantom limb", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "Most (80% to 100%) of amputees experience a phantom with some non-painful sensations. The amputee may feel very strongly that the phantom limb is still part of the body.  People will sometimes feel as if they are gesturing, feel itches, twitch, or even try to pick things up. The missing limb often feels shorter and may feel as if it is in a distorted and painful position. Occasionally, the pain can be made worse by stress, anxiety and weather changes. Phantom limb pain is usually intermittent. The frequency and intensity of attacks usually declines with time.  Repressed memories in phantom limbs could potentially explain the reason for existing sensations after amputation. Specifically, there have been several reports from patients of painful clenching spasms in the phantom hand with the feeling of their nails digging into their palms. The motor output is amplified due to the missing limb; therefore, the patient may experience the overflow of information as pain. The patient contains repressed memories from previous motor commands of clenching the hand and sensory information from digging their nails into their palm. These memories remain due to previous neural connections in the brain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phantom limb syndrome.", "content": "The term \"phantom limb\" was coined by physician Silas Weir Mitchell in 1871. For many years, the dominant hypothesis for the cause of phantom limbs was irritation in the peripheral nervous system at the amputation site (neuroma). By the late 1980s, Ronald Melzack had recognized that the peripheral neuroma account could not be correct, because many people born without limbs also experienced phantom limbs. According to Melzack the experience of the body is created by a wide network of interconnecting neural structures, which he called the \"neuromatrix\".  Pons and colleagues (1991) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) showed that the primary somatosensory cortex in macaque monkeys undergoes substantial reorganization after the loss of sensory input.  Hearing about these results, Vilayanur S. Ramachandran hypothesized that phantom limb sensations in humans could be due to reorganization in the human brain's somatosensory cortex. Ramachandran and colleagues illustrated this hypothesis by showing that stroking different parts of the face led to perceptions of being touched on different parts of the missing limb. Later brain scans of amputees showed the same kind of cortical reorganization that Pons had observed in monkeys. Maladaptive changes in the cortex may account for some but not all phantom limb pain. Pain researchers such as Tamar Makin (Oxford) and Marshall Devor (Hebrew University, Jerusalem) argue that phantom limb pain is primarily the result of \"junk\" inputs from the peripheral nervous system.  Despite a great deal of research on the underlying neural mechanisms of phantom limb pain there is still no clear consensus as to its cause. Both the brain and the peripheral nervous system may be involved.  Research continues into more precise mechanisms and explanations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Neural mechanisms.", "content": "Pain, temperature, touch, and vibration are carried in the central nervous system via the anterolateral and spinothalamic tracts, carrying incoming sensory information and sending motor information. Incoming sensory information travels along the anterolateral pathway and arrives at the primary sensory cortex, located in the postcentral gyrus in the parietal lobe; also the location of the sensory homunculus.  In phantom limb syndrome, there is sensory input indicating pain from a part of the body that is no longer existent. This phenomenon is still not fully understood, but it is hypothesized that it is caused by activation of the somatosensory cortex.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Most approaches to treatment over the past two decades have not shown consistent symptom improvement. Treatment approaches have included medication such as antidepressants, spinal cord stimulation, vibration therapy, acupuncture, hypnosis, and biofeedback. Reliable evidence is lacking on whether any treatment is more effective than the others.  Most treatments are not very effective. Ketamine or morphine may be useful around the time of surgery. Morphine may be helpful for longer periods of time. Evidence for gabapentin is mixed. Perineural catheters that provide local anesthetic agents have poor evidence of success when placed after surgery in an effort to prevent phantom limb pain.  One approach that has received public interest is the use of a mirror box. The mirror box provides a reflection of the intact hand or limb that allows the patient to \"move\" the phantom limb, and to unclench it from potentially painful positions.  Although mirror therapy was introduced by VS Ramachandran in the early 1990s, little research was done on it before 2009, and much of the subsequent research has been of poor quality, according to a 2016 review. A 2018 review, which also criticized the scientific quality of many reports on mirror therapy (MT), found 15 good-quality studies conducted between 2012 and 2017 (out of a pool of 115 publications), and concluded that \"MT seems to be effective in relieving PLP, reducing the intensity and duration of daily pain episodes. It is a valid, simple, and inexpensive treatment for PLP.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other phantom sensations.", "content": "Phantom sensations may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, e.g. after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain) or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome).  Some people who have undergone gender reassignment surgery have reported the sensation of phantom genitals. The reports were less common among post-operative transgender women, but did occur in transgender men. Similarly, subjects who had undergone mastectomy reported experiencing phantom breasts; these reports were substantially less common among post-operative transgender men.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A phantom limb is the sensation that an amputated or missing limb is still attached. Approximately 80 to 100% of individuals with an amputation experience phantom sensations in their amputated limb. However, only a small percentage will experience painful phantom limb sensation. These sensations are relatively common in amputees and usually resolve within two to three years without treatment. Research continues to explore the underlying mechanisms of phantom limb pain (PLP) and effective treatment options.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975566}
{"src_title": "Rosa rubiginosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"eglantine\" is from Middle English \"eglentyn\", from Old French \"aiglantin\" (adj.), from \"aiglent\"'sweetbrier', from Vulgar Latin *\"aculentus\" (with the ending of \"spinulentus\" 'thorny, prickly'), from Latin \"aculeus\" 'prickle', from \"acus\" 'needle'. \"Sweet\" refers to the sweet, apple fragrance of the leaves, while \"briar\" ~ \"brier\" refers to it being a thorny bush.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "In addition to its pink flowers, it is valued for its scent, and the hips that form after the flowers and persist well into the winter. Graham Thomas recommends that it should be planted on the south or west side of the garden so that the fragrance will be brought into the garden on warm, moist winds. A specimen without any scent and blush or white flowers may be the closely related fieldbriar, \"Rosa agrestis\".  The tea made from the hips of this rose is very popular in Europe and elsewhere, where it is considered a healthy way for people to get their daily dose of vitamin C and other nutrients. A cup of rose hip tea will provide the minimum daily adult requirement of vitamin C. During World War II the British relied on rose hips and hops as the sources for their vitamins A and C. It was a common British wartime expression to say that: \"We are getting by on our hips and hops.\"  In Tunisia, natural flower water is produced from its flowers.  In Chile and Argentina, where it is known in Spanish language as \"Rosa Mosqueta\", it can be found in the wild around the Andes range and is also cultivated to produce marmalades and cosmetic products.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rosa rubiginosa (sweet briar, sweetbriar rose, sweet brier or eglantine; syn. \"R. eglanteria\") is a species of rose native to Europe and western Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975567}
{"src_title": "Leopold IV, Prince of Lippe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born as Count Leopold of Lippe-Biesterfeld in Oberkassel, the son of Ernest, Count of Lippe-Biesterfeld and Countess Karoline of Wartensleben. Leopold belonged to the Lippe-Biesterfeld line of the House of Lippe which was the most senior line of the princely house after the reigning Lippe-Detmold line.  He served as an officer in the German Army until 1894, when he left to study political science at the universities of Bonn and Berlin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ruler of Lippe.", "content": "Since 1895, Lippe had been ruled by a regent due to the incapacity of Prince Alexander. Leopold's father had acted as regent since 1897, and following his death on 26 September 1904, Leopold assumed the regency. This was not recognized by the German Emperor William II, who initially refused to legally recognize Leopold as regent as there was an issue over whether Leopold and his siblings were of legitimate rank, and as such eligible for the succession. As a result, the Diet of Lippe appointed a high commission to consider the matter.  The regency issue was still ongoing when Prince Alexander died on 13 January 1905. Leopold was confirmed as Prince of Lippe and Alexander's successor on 25 October 1905, following a court ruling.  On 3 June 1911, while out motoring, Leopold and his brother Prince Julius were attacked by a gang of Italian laborers who hurled a shower of missiles at the princes. Though Leopold escaped unhurt, his brother received a head wound.  During World War I, Leopold upgraded the titles of the various lines of the House of Lippe. One of the members to benefit from the granting of titles was Leopold's nephew Count Bernhard of Biesterfeld (son of Leopold's brother Bernhard), who would go on to become the Prince Consort of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands. On 24 February 1916, Bernhard and his brother were upgraded to the title Prince of Lippe-Biesterfeld with the style Serene Highness. The counts of Lippe-Weissenfeld also benefited with creations of the title Prince of Lippe-Weissenfeld, with the style serene highness, taking place on 24 February 1916 for Count Clemens and his descendants, and again on 9 November 1918 for the other members of this line.  Just three days after upgrading the titles of members of the Lippe-Weissenfeld line, and following the German Empire's defeat in World War I and the subsequent revolution, Leopold was forced to renounce the throne on 12 November 1918. Following the end of his rule, the Principality of Lippe was transformed into a Free state in the new Weimar Republic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post abdication.", "content": "After the rise of Nazism in Germany all three of his sons by his first wife became members of the party. His eldest son the Hereditary Prince Ernst is reported to have been the first German prince to join the party when he signed up in May 1928.  In addition to being pro Nazis both Hereditary Prince Ernst and Prince Chlodwig had contracted unequal marriages. So in 1947 when Leopold wrote his will, Armin, his youngest son and only child with his second wife, would succeed him as head of the House of Lippe and also become administrator of the princely family's properties such as Schloss Detmold. Thus when Leopold died in Detmold his three eldest sons were all disinherited and his youngest son Armin became head of the princely house.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and children.", "content": "Leopold was married to Princess Bertha of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (1874–1919) on 16 August 1901 in Rotenburg. They had five children.  He was married secondly to Princess Anna of Ysenburg and Büdingen (1886–1980) on 26 April 1922 at Büdingen. From this marriage he had one son.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leopold IV, Prince of Lippe (\"Leopold Julius Bernhard Adalbert Otto Karl Gustav\"; 30 May 1871 – 30 December 1949) was the final sovereign of the Principality of Lippe. Succeeding to the throne in 1905 he had been governing the state since 1904 as regent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975568}
{"src_title": "Centranthus ruber", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It grows as a perennial plant, usually as a subshrub though it can take any form from a herb to a shrub depending on conditions; the plants are usually woody at the base. The leaves are generally 5–8 cm in length. Their form changes from the bottom to the top of the plant, the lower leaves being petiolate while the upper leaves are sessile. The leaves grow in opposite pairs and are oval or lanceolate in shape. The plant flowers profusely, and though the individual flowers are small (no more than 2 cm), the inflorescences are large and showy. The flowers are small in rounded clusters each with 5 fused petals and a spur. The most typical color is a brick red or purplish red, but colors include deep crimson, pale pink, and lavender. \"Centranthus ruber\" 'Albus' (about 10% of individuals) has white blooms. Flowering takes place in early summer and, in cool summer areas, continues sporadically throughout the summer and into fall. The cultivar 'coccineus' is especially long-blooming. The blooms have a strong and somewhat rank scent. They are pollinated by both bees and butterflies and the plant is noted for attracting insects. It is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including angle shades. Seeds have tufts similar to dandelions that allow wind dispersal, and as such can self-seed freely and become invasive if not properly controlled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "A native of the Mediterranean region, \"Centranthus ruber\" has been introduced into many other parts of the world as a garden escape. It is naturalised in France, Australia, Great Britain, Ireland and the United States. In the US it can be found growing wild in such western states as Arizona, Utah, California, Hawaii, Washington, and Oregon, usually in disturbed, rocky places at elevations below 200 m. It is often seen by roadsides or in urban wasteland. It can tolerate very alkaline soil conditions. Because it can tolerate the lime in mortar, \"Centranthus ruber\" may frequently be seen growing in old walls in Italy, southern France and south-west England.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Both leaves and roots can be eaten, the leaves either fresh in salads or lightly boiled, the roots boiled in soups. Opinions differ as to whether either make very good eating, however. Although it is sometimes reported to have medicinal properties, there is no basis for this view, which is almost certainly due to confusion with true valerian, (\"Valeriana officinalis\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "It is listed as a NEMBA 1b invasive in the Western Cape, South Africa. It is an invasive species that may not be owned, imported into South Africa, grown, moved, sold, given as a gift or dumped in a waterway. It is therefore an Invasive species requiring compulsory control as part of an invasive species control programme to remove and destroy. The plants are deemed to have such a high invasive potential that infestations can qualify to be placed under a government sponsored invasive species management programme. No permits will be issued.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Centranthus ruber, also called red valerian, spur valerian, kiss-me-quick, fox's brush, devil's beard and Jupiter's beard, is a popular garden plant grown for its ornamental flowers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975569}
{"src_title": "Jussi Jokinen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dallas Stars.", "content": "Jokinen was drafted by the Dallas Stars in the sixth round, 192nd overall, at the 2001 NHL Entry Draft. He spent four seasons before his NHL debut playing for Oulun Kärpät of the SM-liiga, the top Finnish league.  In his rookie year in 2005–06, Jokinen gained a great reputation as a top shootout specialist in the NHL. Until being stopped by Vesa Toskala, he was a remarkable nine-for-nine in shootouts before his first unsuccessful attempt. He can be seen pulling some unique dekes, such as the one-handed, slide-in goal (as made famous by Peter Forsberg) — also known as \"The Paralyzer\" — in shootouts. On November 16, 2007, Jokinen scored four goals against the Colorado Avalanche in a 6–1 win.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tampa Bay Lightning and Carolina Hurricanes.", "content": "At the NHL trade deadline, on February 26, 2008, Jokinen was traded to the Tampa Bay Lightning (along with Mike Smith, Jeff Halpern and a 2009 fourth-round draft pick) in exchange for Brad Richards and Johan Holmqvist. Jokinen finished with 16 goals and 42 points.  On February 4, 2009, Jokinen was placed on waivers by the Lightning and later, on February 7, 2009, was traded to the Carolina Hurricanes in exchange for Wade Brookbank, Josef Melichar and a 2009 fourth-round draft pick. During the 2009 Stanley Cup playoffs, on April 21, he scored the latest regulation game-winning goal in NHL playoff history, with 0.2 seconds remaining in the third period, as the Hurricanes defeated the New Jersey Devils 4–3 in Game 4 of the Eastern Conference Quarter-finals.  On June 29, 2009, the Hurricanes signed Jokinen to a two-year, $3.4 million contract ($1.5 million in 2009–10 and $1.9 million in 2010–11). As of November 19, 2009, Jokinen had scored a total of 25 goals in 46 shootout attempts, with an impressive 54.3% success rate. Eight of those shootout goals were game-winners.  Jokinen re-signed with his former Finnish club Kärpät during the 2012–13 NHL lockout and committed himself to remain with the club until the resumption of the NHL season in January 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pittsburgh Penguins.", "content": "On March 26, 2013, Jokinen was placed on waivers by Hurricanes. On April 3, 2013, Jokinen was traded to the Pittsburgh Penguins in exchange for a conditional sixth- or seventh-round pick in 2013. In his first game with the Penguins, Jokinen scored Pittsburgh's lone goal in regulation and tallied the only shootout goal for the team in a 2–1 victory over the New York Rangers. During the 2013–14 season, on October 8, 2013, Jokinen scored his first hat-trick with the Penguins in a 5–2 win over his former team, the Carolina Hurricanes. Jokinen enjoyed his most productive season since 2010, totaling 21 goals and 57 points in 81 games with the Penguins, playing alongside Evgeni Malkin for most of the season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Florida Panthers.", "content": "On July 1, 2014, as an unrestricted free agent, Jokinen signed a four-year, $16 million contract with the Florida Panthers. During his second season with the club, Jokinen scored 18 goals and 60 points, the second-best offensive output of his career. During six playoff games, Jokinen contributed one goal and three assists.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Edmonton Oilers and Los Angeles Kings.", "content": "On June 30, 2017, following the 2016–17 season and with one-year remaining on his contract, Jokinen was bought-out by the Panthers. On July 7, 2017, as a free agent, Jokinen signed a one-year, $1.1 million contract with the Edmonton Oilers. In the 2017–18 season, he struggled to find his role with Edmonton, adding just 1 assist in 14 games. On November 14, 2017, he was traded to the Los Angeles Kings in exchange for Mike Cammalleri. Jokinen recorded 1 goal and 4 assists in 18 games for the club.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Columbus Blue Jackets and Vancouver Canucks.", "content": "On January 16, 2018, Jokinen was placed on waivers by the Kings, and was then claimed off waivers by the Columbus Blue Jackets on January 17. On February 26, 2018, Jokinen and Tyler Motte were traded to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for Thomas Vanek. As a result of this trade, Jokinen became the fourth player in NHL history, behind Dennis O'Brien, Dave McLlwain and Mark Arcobello, to play for four different NHL teams in a single season. He also joins the exclusive club of scoring at least a point in each of the four different hockey clubs he played for in one NHL season, along with O'Brien and Arcobello.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Jokinen has played for the Finnish national team in multiple tournaments, including the 2006 and 2014 Winter Olympics, winning a silver and bronze medal.  In 2016, Jokinen and teammate Aleksander Barkov Jr. were selected to represent Team Finland at the 2016 IIHF World Championship. They won silver after a 2–0 loss to Team Canada.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jussi Petteri Jokinen (born April 1, 1983) is a Finnish professional ice hockey forward currently playing for Oulun Kärpät of the Finnish Liiga. He was drafted by the National Hockey League (NHL)'s Dallas Stars in 2001 in the sixth round, 192nd overall, and spent his first three NHL seasons with the team. Jokinen has also played in the NHL for the Tampa Bay Lightning, Carolina Hurricanes, Pittsburgh Penguins, Florida Panthers, Edmonton Oilers, Los Angeles Kings, Columbus Blue Jackets and Vancouver Canucks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975570}
{"src_title": "Frans Post", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Post was born in Haarlem and was the son of Jan Janszoon Post, a highly regarded glass painter trained in Leiden, and Francijntje Verbraken of Haarlem. His elder brother was Pieter Post, one of the most important architects of Dutch classicism. Little is known of his life before his trip to Brazil.  He was born in Haarlem circa 1612 and he most likely received his early training from his father and his elder brother. He was a contemporary of Frans Hals, who painted his portrait, and prominent Haarlem landscape painters such as the brothers Jacob and Salomon van Ruysdael, Adriaen and Isaac van Ostade, and in particular Pieter de Molijn. It is likely that a Dutch master also taught him before he left for Brazil, though he was not registered in the guild until after his return. Although it is not universally accepted, Post scholar Erik Larsen believes De Molijn was the master under whom Post studied, because Molyn is mentioned in Houbraken as the teacher of several other landscape painters, such as Allart van Everdingen. Post won a commission at court likely through the connections of his older brother and was encouraged to travel abroad by John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen. At the time, Haarlem experienced an outbreak of the plague, so that his going to Brazil may have seemed a good option. Post lived in Brazil from 1637 to 1644. He received 800 guilders for a landscape painting in the West Indies commissioned by Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, leading Larsen to believe that Post set out for The Netherlands via Africa shortly before Nassau departed Brazil. After he returned to The Netherlands, he joined the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke in 1646, and was appointed officer in 1656–7 and 1658. In 1650, he married Jannetje Bogaert, the daughter of Professor Salomon Bogaert of the Haarlem ‘Latijnsche School’. He had two sons, who died before his death and one daughter that did survive him, but died shortly thereafter.  Post continued to paint Brazilian scenes until 1669, and the lack of dated paintings in the 1670s suggests he stopped ten years before his death. Whitehead and Boeseman claim that Post developed an alcohol problem, which may be the reason so little is known of the last decade of his life. He died in Haarlem and was buried in the St. Bavochurch on February 17, 1680.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Post produced approximately 140 paintings during his lifetime. Of these, nearly half are dated, making it possible to track the evolution of his work between 1637, the day he landed in Brazil, and 1669, the date of his last letter. The paintings Post produced while he was in Brazil drastically differ from those he painted after he left Brazil. While he was in Brazil, he produced a large number of sketches and etchings, but only completed six paintings. They are the paintings dated from 1637–1640, and later presented by Nassau to Louis XIV in 1679.  His Brazilian works strongly resemble the landscapes by his Haarlem contemporaries in terms of composition, style, and technique. Wolfgang Stechow describes Post’s landscapes as ‘the old bottle filled with new wine’. These works depict specific locations in Dutch Brazil, identifiable because of the representation of recognizable topography and buildings; most also include water. Post includes a selection of Brazilian vegetation, and occasionally features birds and other small animals in the foreground. These may have been inspired by his traveling companion, the naturalist Georg Marcgraf. The skies are a curious gray, seemingly heavy with rain, an aspect that is emphasized by the fact that they take up at least half the canvas. The subdued color scheme, especially when compared to his post-Brazilian production, lends them a somber almost reverential quality characteristic of Dutch tonal landscapes from the 1620s to the 1640s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brazilian landscapes from Haarlem.", "content": "Post continued to paint images of Brazil upon his return to The Netherlands in 1642; however, his work undergoes a radical transformation. In addition to Post’s wonderful imagination, the evolution of his work may also be consequent of a change in popular style. The further he was from Brazil, in both time and space, the more imaginary his paintings became as he incorporated bright colors and exotic elements. Those paintings executed in The Netherlands have brighter colors with dark foliage framing an idealized baroque composition. These works are in striking contrast to the stark, realistic qualities of his early work. The landscapes are open, full of resources, and most important, conquered. They evolve to show a more condensed view and desired depth with greener flora, bluer skies, and brighter horizons. However, the horizontal blues advancing towards the middle distance accentuate the difference in color. This deep blue may be a disintegration of the green pigment, which results from the disappearance of yellows, while the blues remain.  Upon Post’s return to The Netherlands, he also increased the number of figures and incorporated greater diversity into his work. Nearly every painting he completed in The Netherlands includes a large group of people interacting in some way, whether they are dancing or working in the sugar mills. Typically, these figures are slaves. Unlike his Brazilian work, the figures are no longer subjects placed in the foreground; instead, they seem to become part of the landscape. Four of the six paintings completed in Brazil only have a few figures, with the exception of Porto Calvo (1639) depicting more, and The River of São Francisco (1638), which does not have any figures. While Post was in charge of documenting the land, Albert Eckhout, another one of Nassau’s artists, was in charge of documenting the native people.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frans Janszoon Post (17 November 1612 – 17 February 1680) was a painter during the Dutch Golden Age. He was the first European artist to paint landscapes of the Americas, during and after the period of Dutch Brazil In 1636 he traveled to Dutch Brazil in northeast of South America at the invitation of the governor Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen. His works were widely collected in The Netherlands, Europe, and Brazil, with the works showing an idealized vision of Dutch colonial rule.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975571}
{"src_title": "Black Swan-class sloop", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Like corvettes, sloops of that period were specialised convoy-defence vessels. However, while corvettes were based on a mercantile design with triple expansion engines, sloops were conventional naval vessels with turbine engines. Sloops were larger and faster with a heavy armament of high angle 4-inch guns which had superior anti-aircraft fire control via the Fuze Keeping Clock, while retaining excellent anti-submarine capability. They were designed to have a longer range than a destroyer at the expense of a lower top speed, while remaining capable of outrunning surfaced Type VII and Type IX U-boats.  In World War II, \"Black Swan\"-class sloops sank 29 U-boats. The most famous sloop commander was Captain Frederic John Walker. His sloop became one of the most successful submarine hunters, taking part in the sinking of eleven U-boats.  After the war, sloops continued in service with the Royal Navy, Egyptian Navy, Indian Navy, Pakistan Navy and the West German Navy. In April 1949, was attacked on the Yangtze River by the Communist People's Liberation Army.  Also, several \"Black Swan\" sloops fought in the Korean War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Black Swan\" class.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royal Navy.", "content": "The first two ships were built under the 1937 Programme, being ordered from Yarrow and Company, Scotstoun, on 1 January 1938. The second pair was built under the 1939 Programme, being ordered from Furness Shipbuilding Company on 21 June 1939. A further ten RN ships were ordered under the 1940 War Programme on 13 April 1940; however six of these (the orders placed with White of Cowes, Thornycroft at Woolston, and Swan Hunter on Tyneside for two ships each) were subsequently replaced by orders for an equal number of escort destroyers.  There were incremental improvements as the building developed, and the \"Woodcock\" and \"Wren\" when completed were practically indistinguishable from the Modified \"Black Swan\" class.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Royal Indian Navy.", "content": "Two ships were ordered under the 1939 Programme, the order being placed with Denny on 8 September 1939. The second pair were ordered under the 1940 Programme, this order with Thornycroft being placed on 29 August 1940. The first two were used as survey ships after the War. The second pair were transferred to the Pakistan Navy in 1948. The third pair (which were of the Modified \"Black Swan\" class – see below)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modified \"Black Swan\" class.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royal Navy.", "content": "Fourteen sloops for the RN were in the 1940 Supplementary War Programme. The first two were ordered from Denny, Dunbarton, on 9 January 1941, ten more were ordered on 27 March 1941 (two each from Cammell Laird, Scotts, Thornycroft, Yarrow and John Brown), and a final pair from Fairfield, Govan, on 18 July 1941. The contract with John Brown was transferred to Devonport Dockyard on 3 March 1942, and then to Denny on 8 December 1942.  Another fourteen ships were authorised in the 1941 Programme, but the last three ships (the names \"Star\", \"Steady\" and \"Trial\" had been approved) were not ordered under this programme. The first of the eleven actually ordered was contracted with Thornycroft on 3 December 1941, with a further pair from Stephens, Linthouse, on 18 December. Eight more were ordered in 1942, two on 11 February, two on 3 March (originally from Portsmouth Dockyard), two on 12 August and two on 5 October. However the order for two sloops were ordered at Portsmouth was moved to Chatham Dockyard on 21 June 1943, and they were laid down there, but were cancelled on 15 October 1945.  Two more sloops were authorised in the 1942 Programme; the names would have been \"Waterhen\" and \"Wryneck\" but they were never ordered in that year's Programme. The 1944 Programme re-instated these two vessels, as well as the twelfth sloop authorised under the 1941 Programme, and now named as \"Partridge\". These three ships were ordered on 9 October 1944, but they were all cancelled on 15 October 1945. These had been intended to be further modified and enlarged, with a beam of. Two further ships planned under the 1944 Programme would have been named \"Woodpecker\" (ii) and \"Wild Swan\", but these were never ordered and the intention to build was dropped when the 1945 Programme was compiled.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Royal Indian Navy.", "content": "Two ships for the Indian Navy were included in the 1941 Programme, the order being placed with Yarrow on 10 September 1941.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The \"Black Swan\" class and Modified \"Black Swan\" class were two classes of sloop of the Royal Navy and Royal Indian Navy. Twelve \"Black Swan\"s were launched between 1939 and 1943, including four for the Royal Indian Navy; twenty-five Modified \"Black Swan\"s were launched between 1942 and 1945, including two for the Royal Indian Navy; several other ships were cancelled.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975572}
{"src_title": "Cam Ward", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Ward spent his junior career with the Red Deer Rebels of the Western Hockey League (WHL). After appearing in one game for the Rebels in 2000–01, Ward played three full seasons with the team from 2001–2004, leading them to the WHL finals twice. Ward was drafted 25th overall by the Carolina Hurricanes in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft. Upon graduating from the WHL, Ward signed a multi-year, entry-level contract with the Hurricanes on May 13, 2004. Due to the 2004–05 NHL lockout, he was assigned to Carolina's American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Lowell Lock Monsters, for the season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Carolina Hurricanes.", "content": "Joining the Hurricanes for the 2005–06 NHL season, Ward largely served in a backup role to Swiss goalie Martin Gerber during the regular season. He made his NHL debut on October 5, 2005, replacing Gerber after the starter injured his hamstring. He saved 10 of 11 shots in the third period, as the Hurricanes lost 5–2 to the Tampa Bay Lightning. He made his first NHL start the following game two days later in the club's home opener against the Pittsburgh Penguins. Ward turned aside Mario Lemieux, Žigmund Pálffy and Sidney Crosby in a shootout, as the Hurricanes won 3–2. Ward completed his NHL rookie season with 14 wins and 8 losses, along with a 3.68 goals against average. In the opening round of the 2006 Stanley Cup Playoffs, the Hurricanes faced a two-win deficit against the Montreal Canadiens. With Gerber struggling in the series, Hurricanes coach Peter Laviolette turned to Ward. The goaltending switch prompted Carolina to a series comeback, advancing to the second round against the New Jersey Devils, where he played opposite his personal hero, Martin Brodeur. After eliminating the Devils, the Hurricanes defeated the Buffalo Sabres in seven games. Facing the Edmonton Oilers in the 2006 Stanley Cup Finals, he helped the Hurricanes to the franchise's first Stanley Cup. In doing so, he became the first rookie goaltender to lead his team to the Stanley Cup as a starter since Patrick Roy in 1986. Against Edmonton, he also became the first rookie goaltender to both play and record a shutout in the Finals since Roy. He tied the rookie record for wins in the playoffs (15), previously held by Roy and Ron Hextall, and became the first rookie goalie to win the Conn Smythe Trophy since Hextall in 1987.  After his heroics in the 2006 Stanley Cup Playoffs, Ward became the Hurricanes starting goaltender for the 2006–07 season. He recorded season stats of 30–21–6 and 37–25–5 in the 2006–07 and 2007–08 campaigns, respectively. The Hurricanes would miss the playoffs both years. The Hurricanes, however, would reach the Eastern Conference Finals in the 2008–09 season before bowing out to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Pittsburgh Penguins. Ward went 8–10 with a 2.67 GAA during the playoffs.  Ward and the Hurricanes struggled to begin the 2009–10 season, as Ward went 2–9–3 to start the campaign. On November 8, 2009, in a game against the Columbus Blue Jackets, Ward was injured when he was cut on the leg by the skate of opposing forward Rick Nash. As Ward was helped into the dressing room, he left a trail of blood on the ice. After returning from his injury, Ward finished the season with an 18–23–5 record, a 2.69 GAA and.916 save percentage as the Hurricanes failed to qualify for the post-season.  Ward was selected to participate in the 2011 NHL All-Star Game, along with teammates Eric Staal, Jamie McBain, and Jeff Skinner. Ward was the first overall pick in the 2011 NHL All-Star Game Fantasy Draft, selected by All-Star Game captain, Eric Staal.  Ward was credited with an empty-net goal against the New Jersey Devils on December 26, 2011, when a misplaced pass from Ilya Kovalchuk found its way into the empty goal after a rebound from Ward. He is the tenth goalie in NHL history to do this.  Ward recorded his 500th game with the Carolina Hurricanes on February 27, 2015.  During the offseason, Ward re-signed with the Hurricanes to a two-year, $6.6 million contract on June 16, 2016.  On March 22, 2018, during a game against the Arizona Coyotes, the puck got stuck in his skate without his knowledge. His skates crossed the goal line when he went back into the net, ultimately resulting in an own goal. Despite this, the Hurricanes ended up winning that game 6–5.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chicago Blackhawks.", "content": "On July 1, 2018, Ward signed a one-year, $3 million contract with the Chicago Blackhawks. He went 16–12–4 in 33 appearances for the team during the 2018–19 season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "On August 28, 2019, Ward signed a one-day contract with the Hurricanes and subsequently retired from professional hockey. He retired as the Hurricanes' franchise leaders in wins (318) and shutouts (27).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Ward's performance in his NHL rookie season earned him consideration on a list of 81 candidates to play for Team Canada in the 2006 Winter Olympics. He was one of nine goalies selected; he was not, however, named to the Canadian squad. Additionally, Ward was named a part of the summer camp roster for Team Canada in preparation for the 2010 Winter Olympics, but did not make the final roster cut.  Ward was a member of the Canadian team that won gold at the 2007 IIHF World Championship in a 4–2 win against Finland in Moscow, as well as a member of the team that won silver at the 2008 IIHF World Championship in a 5–4 loss to Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Born in St. Paul's Hospital in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Ward is the second child of Ken and Laurel Ward. He grew up in the Lakeridge neighbourhood of Saskatoon and the Edmonton suburb of Sherwood Park, Alberta, spending his adolescent years in the latter. He attended junior high at F.R. Haythorne Jr. High School and high school at Salisbury Composite High School in Sherwood Park, until he graduated.  Ward is a fan of his native province's team the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League (CFL). On March 25, 2007, Ward shaved his head for the St. Baldrick's Foundation.  Ward and his wife Cody have a son and a daughter.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cameron Kenneth Ward (born February 29, 1984) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender. He played the majority of his fifteen-year professional career for the Carolina Hurricanes of the National Hockey League (NHL). He played for the Chicago Blackhawks during his final season before signing a one-day contract to officially retire as a Hurricane in 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975573}
{"src_title": "Quintus Lutatius Catulus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "As general.", "content": "During Catulus' consulship, the Romans found out the wandering Cimbri and Teutones were planning to invade Italy. Catulus, as junior consul, was sent to defend the passes through the Alps from Noricum against the Cimbri while the senior consul, Gaius Marius, campaigned against the Teutones and their allies the Ambrones in Gaul. While he was up in the Alps, Catulus pacified much of the territory's tribes with the help Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who served Catulus as a legate. Catulus found his task impractical, because there were multiple passes and he would have to divide and weaken his army; he decided to retreat to a more defensible position. During the retreat Catulus became worried the Cimbri would corner his army, therefore he decide to attempt to score a minor victory in order to extricate his troops from the region. He led his army onto a mountain, which overlooked the Cimbri camp, he then ordered his men to remain ready for battle while he had a camp raised in view of the barbarians. When night fell Catulus attacked the Cimbri then used the chaos this caused to cross a stream and continue his march southwards. Catulus marched until he reached the Atesis River; there he ordered his men to construct fortifications on both sides of the river with a bridge between them. When the Cimbri arrived, they made camp and investigated Catulus' defences. Their scouts reported, they could not cross the river anywhere in the immediate area, so they decided to dam the Atesis by throwing earth, rocks and trees into the stream creating a makeshift dam. Unnerved by the diminishing water flow the Romans started to break camp. Catulus unsuccessfully tried to get his troops back to their stations. When the Cimbri finally launched their assault they found just one cohort defending the camp on the far side of the river. These men fought with courage and somehow managed to escape. Catulus had retreated in the face of the enemy twice, but he had kept his army intact. The following year (101) his command was prolonged and he was given proconsular powers.  The Cimbri, who had advanced into the Po Valley, were eventually defeated on the Raudine plain, near Vercellae, by the combined armies of Catulus and Gaius Marius. Catulus commanded the Roman centre during the battle and redeemed himself by leading his men to victory. For his part in the victory over the Cimbri he was awarded a Triumph. Despite their joint success, the two commanders regarded each other as bitter rivals and after the war built competing temples to demonstrate divine favour.  When the chief honour for victory over the Cimbri was given to Marius, Catulus turned vehemently against his former co-commander and sided with Sulla to expel Marius, Cornelius Cinna and their supporters from Rome. When Cinna and Marius regained control of the city in 87 BC, Catulus was prosecuted by Marius's nephew, Marcus Marius Gratidianus. Rather than accept the inevitable guilty verdict, he committed suicide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As author.", "content": "Catulus was a distinguished orator, poet and prose writer, and was well versed in Greek literature. He wrote a history of his consulship (\"De consulatu et de rebus gestis suis\") in the manner of Xenophon. A non-extant epic on the Cimbrian War, sometimes attributed to him, was more likely written by Archias. Catulus's contributions to Latin poetry are considered his most significant literary achievements. He is credited with introducing the Hellenistic epigram to Rome and fostering a taste for short, personal poems that comes to fruition with the lyric oeuvre of Valerius Catullus in the 50s BC. Among his circle of literary friends, who ranged widely in social position and political sympathies, were Valerius Aedituus, Aulus Furius, and Porcius Licinius.  Pliny lists him among distinguished men who wrote short poems that were less than austere (\"versiculi parum severi\"). Only two epigrams by Catulus have been preserved, both directed at men. Cicero preserves one of Catulus's couplets on the celebrated actor Roscius, who is said to make an entrance like a sunrise: \"though he is human, he seems more beautiful than a god.\"  The other epigram, modelled directly after Callimachus, is quoted by Aulus Gellius and may be paraphrased in prose as follows:  \"The willingness of a member of the highest Roman aristocracy to toss off imitations of Hellenistic sentimental erotic poetry (homosexual at that),\" notes Edward Courtney, \"is a new phenomenon in Roman culture at this time.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As builder.", "content": "Catulus was a man of great wealth, which he spent in beautifying Rome. Two buildings were known as \"Monumenta Catuli\": the Temple of \"Fortuna Huiusce Diei\" (the \"Fortune of This Day\"), to commemorate the day of Vercellae, and the \"Porticus Catuli\", built from the sale of the Cimbrian spoils.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and descendants.", "content": "Three wives are attested for Catulus:  An approximate chronology of the marital affairs of Catulus:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Quintus Lutatius Catulus (149–87 BC) was a consul of the Roman Republic in 102 BC, and the leading public figure of the \"gens Lutatia\" of the time. His colleague in the consulship was Gaius Marius. During their consulship the Cimbri and Teutones marched south again and threatened the Republic. While Marius marched against the Teutones in Gaul, Catulus had to keep the Cimbri from invading Italy. In this he failed; the Cimbri succeeded in invading the Po Valley. In 101 BC, as proconsul, he helped Marius defeat the Cimbri at Vercellae. After Vercellae the two feuded and Catulus sided with Sulla in the civil war of 88–87 BC. When the Marians regained control of Rome in 87 BC, Catulus committed suicide rather than face prosecution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975574}
{"src_title": "Praga (company)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Praga was founded in 1907 to build motor cars as a venture between entrepreneur František Ringhoffer and the company \"1. českomoravská továrna na stroje\" (\"First Bohemian-Moravian Machine Works\", later a founding part of the ČKD factories). Ringhoffer only stayed for one year and in 1909 the trade name \"Praga\" (\"Prague\" in Latin) was adopted. One of its early models was built under licence from the Italian company of Isotta Fraschini.  Praga also diversified into building engines and gearboxes for other applications such as aircraft and tanks.  In 1929 Praga merged with ČKD, one of Czechoslovakia's largest engineering companies.  In 1929 ČKD's BD motorcycle was re-branded under the Praga marque. This was an advanced four-stroke single-cylinder unit construction double overhead camshaft model of 500cc designed in 1927 by JF Koch. The \"BD\" designation was retained as its model name.  In 1932 Praga added a second motorcycle model, the BC. This had a single overhead camshaft engine of 350cc, shaft drive and a pressed steel frame. Praga ended production of both motorcycle models in 1933.  The factory was largely destroyed by air raids in 1945. After the Second World War it was rebuilt and resumed truck and bus construction. The firm was nationalized in October 1945. Passenger cars (only the mid-sized Lady) were also manufactured in small numbers until 1947, for use by government officials.  The M53/59 Praga was a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun developed in the late 1950s. It consists of a heavily modified Praga V3S 6 wheel drive truck chassis and twin 30 mm AA autocannon.  In 2006, Praga was purchased by British International Truck Alliance with the intention to produce trucks with the name of Praga in Lublin, Poland. In 2007 it produces gearboxes and hydraulic machinery.  In June 2011 the company unveiled at Dutch Supercar Challenge in Belgium, the new car Praga R4 with eight-cylinder engine of 520 hp, which has not been so far homologated for normal road traffic. According to company owner Petr Ptáček, there will follow gradual steps, so new Praga cars will not be seen only at racetracks, but we could meet them in normal traffic.  In 2016, the company plans first deliveries of supersport road cars Praga R1R, in a limited edition of 68 cars. It will be the first road car of Praga since 1947.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Automobiles.", "content": "All Praga automobile production stopped by 1947, but was restarted in 2011 when Praga constructed the R4S. It utilizes a 3.2 liter V8 based on the Suzuki Hayabusa engine and produces 530 BHP, with a total weight of only 88 kilograms. A feature on the R4S are the markings for camber and toe, which eliminates the need of advanced tools, with a specific amount of \"clicks\" representing a certain degree of camber or toe.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Praga is a manufacturing company based in Prague, Czech Republic. The company produced automobiles, karts and planes. Praga V3S was used by the Czechoslovak Army for more than half a century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975575}
{"src_title": "Hôtel Lambert", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Architectural history.", "content": "The house, on an irregular site at the tip of the Île Saint-Louis in the heart of Paris, was designed by architect Louis Le Vau. It was built between 1640 and 1644, originally for the financier Jean-Baptiste Lambert (d. 1644) and continued by his younger brother Nicolas Lambert, later president of the Chambre des Comptes. For Nicolas Lambert, the interiors were decorated by Charles Le Brun, François Perrier, and Eustache Le Sueur, producing one of the finest, most-innovative, and iconographically coherent examples of mid-17th-century domestic architecture and decorative painting in France.  The entrance gives onto the central square courtyard, around which the \"hôtel\" was built. A wing extends to the right at the rear, embracing a walled garden. At the same time, Louis Le Vau constructed a residence for himself adjacent to the Hôtel Lambert. He lived there between 1642 and 1650. It was where all of his children were born and his mother died. After the architect's own death in 1670, his \"hôtel\" was bought by the La Haye family, who owned the other residence as well. Both buildings were then joined and their façades combined. Both painters worked on the internal decoration for almost five years, producing the gallant allegories of Le Brun's grand Galerie d'Hercule (still \"in situ\", but heavily damaged in the 2013 fire described below) and the small Cabinet des Muses, with five canvases by Le Sueur that were purchased for the royal collection (now in the Louvre) and the earlier ensemble, the Cabinet de l'Amour, which in its original configuration featured an alcove for a canopied bed upon which the lady of the house would receive visitors, according to the custom of the day. Significantly the alcove was eliminated about 1703. All the ensembles featured themes of love and marriage. However, the paintings have since been dispersed.  In the 1740s, the Marquise du Châtelet and Voltaire, her lover, used the Hôtel Lambert as their Paris residence when not at her country estate in Cirey. The marquise was famed for her \"salon\" there. Later, the Marquis du Châtelet sold the Lambert to Claude Dupin and his wife Louise-Marie Dupin, who continued the tradition of the \"salon\". The Dupins were ancestors of writer George Sand, who, because of her relationship with the Polish composer Chopin, was also a frequent guest of the 19th-century Polish owners of the property.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "A political salon.", "content": "In 1843, the hôtel particulier was bought by Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, member of the powerful family of Polish magnates. He and his brother, Konstanty Adam, were leaders of the liberal aristocratic faction of the Great Emigration from Poland, following the collapse of the November Uprising of 1830–1831. A political group formed around Adam Czartoryski, and his palatial residence in central Paris, surrounded by the natural'moat' of the river Seine, lent its name to his political faction.  The political beliefs of the \"Hôtel Lambert\" faction were derived from the 3 May Constitution, which its members had supported. The Hôtel Lambert played an important role in keeping the \"Polish question\" alive in European politics, by continually keeping the Polish cause on the agenda. It also served as a safe harbour for Polish emigés and royalists, exiled from their country after the unsuccessful uprising against Russia. Among other notable politicians who took part in the Hôtel Lambert's activities were Władysław Czartoryski, son of Adam, Józef Bem, Henryk Dembiński, Karol Kniaziewicz, Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Władysław Stanisław Zamoyski, Władysław Ostrowski and Leon Kaplinski. Initially a political think tank and a discussion club, the political faction also worked on the preservation and promotion of Polish culture. An Historical and Literary Society began in 1832 and the idea of a Polish library, which exists to this day just along the Quai d'Orleans nearby, was conceived in the Hôtel Lambert in 1838. Plans laid for two schools teaching Polish (one for girls, one for boys) and were established in Batignolles. There was support for numerous commercial enterprises, especially in the fields of publication and printing. Over time, it became one of the most important hubs of Polish culture in the world, especially after the January Uprising, when Polish language and culture became heavily persecuted during the enforced Russification in the Russian Partition of Poland itself.  The Hôtel Lambert drew some renowned politicians and artists of the epoch, including Alexandre Walewski, Charles Forbes René de Montalembert, Frédéric Chopin, Zygmunt Krasiński, Alphonse de Lamartine, George Sand, Honoré de Balzac, Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, Eugène Delacroix, and Adam Mickiewicz. In fact, Chopin's \"La Polonaise\" was composed expressly for the Polish ball held there every year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "20th and 21st centuries.", "content": "The Hôtel Lambert was discreetly split into several luxurious apartments. It was once the home of actress Michèle Morgan, Mona von Bismarck, and of Alexis von Rosenberg, Baron de Redé, who rented the ground floor from 1947 until his death. De Redé entertained his lover Arturo Lopez-Willshaw (1900–1962), who continued to maintain a formal residence with wife Patricia in Neuilly. Redé and Lopez-Willshaw's dinner parties and balls were at the center of \"le tout Paris\". In 1969 de Redé staged his most famous ball, the Bal Oriental, with guests such as Jacqueline de Ribes, Guy de Rothschild, Salvador Dalí, Brigitte Bardot, Dolores Guinness, and Margrethe II of Denmark.  In 1975, the Czartoryski heirs sold the Hôtel Lambert to Baron Guy de Rothschild, whose wife, Marie-Hélène de Rothschild, was a close friend of de Redé; they used it as their Paris residence.  In September 2007, the Hôtel Lambert was sold by the Rothschilds to Prince Abdullah bin Khalifa al-Thani, brother of the Emir of Qatar for the purported sum of 80 million euros ($111 million). A UNESCO World Heritage-listed building, it was in need of restoration, as parts of its wooden structure were rotting, staircases were sagging, and paint was cracked and discoloured.  The Prince's plan for a comprehensive overhaul of the building sparked controversy and became the subject of legal action brought by French conservationists. The scheme included plans to install air-conditioning, elevators, an underground car park with an exit through the notable curved garden wall, and a number of security measures. This involved digging under the garden and raising the 17th-century garden wall 80 cm. One heritage architect claimed the plans had \"the aesthetics of a James Bond villa\". Former tenant Michèle Morgan suggested that super-rich clients wanting a tailor-made luxury modern residence should consider a larger site on the outskirts of Paris rather than a cramped position limited on all sides by the river Seine and listed monuments. However, Alain-Charles Perrot, the architect in charge of the project, suggested that there was an element of racism in the objections.  After several years of wrangling, a truce was overseen by the Ministry of Culture and Paris City Hall, and the renovation was given the go-ahead under the supervision of Bâtiments de France, which safeguards historic monuments. Work began in 2010.  On 10 July 2013 a portion of the building was severely damaged by a fire which started in the roof during renovation work. The Cabinet des Bains with a series of ceiling frescoes by Eustache Le Sueur was completely destroyed, and another series of frescoes by Charles Le Brun in the Gallery of Hercules was heavily damaged by smoke and water. The restoration and renovation took a further three years.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hôtel Lambert () is a \"hôtel particulier,\" a grand mansion townhouse, on the Quai Anjou on the eastern tip of the Île Saint-Louis, in 4th arrondissement of Paris. In the 19th century, the name \"Hôtel Lambert\" also came to designate a political faction of Polish exiles associated with Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, who had purchased the Hôtel Lambert.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975576}
{"src_title": "Elite Ice Hockey League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "The ECW World Heavyweight Championship was introduced originally in 1992 as the NWA-ECW Heavyweight Championship with Jimmy Snuka becoming the inaugural champion on April 25. However, its origin is attributed to events that began in the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA), an organization with many members promotions. In the early 1990s, Eastern Championship Wrestling (ECW) was a member of the NWA and by 1994, the NWA World Heavyweight Championship, the world title of the NWA, was vacant. Consequently, a tournament was organized to crown a new NWA World Heavyweight Champion and on August 27, NWA-ECW Heavyweight Champion Shane Douglas defeated 2 Cold Scorpio in the finals to win the title. However, Douglas immediately relinquished the NWA World Heavyweight Championship and instead proclaimed himself the new ECW World Heavyweight Champion. ECW subsequently seceded from the NWA and became Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW). The ECW World Heavyweight Championship was thus established, spun off from the NWA title. It remained active until April 11, 2001, when ECW closed and World Wrestling Entertainment subsequently purchased its assets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recommission.", "content": "By 2005, WWE began reintroducing ECW through content from the ECW video library and a series of books, which included the release of \"The Rise and Fall of ECW\" documentary. With heightened and rejuvenated interest in the ECW franchise, WWE organized ECW One Night Stand on June 12, a reunion event that featured ECW alumni. Due to the financial and critical success of the production, WWE produced the second ECW One Night Stand on June 11, 2006, which served as the premiere event in the relaunch of the ECW franchise as a third WWE brand, complementary to Raw and SmackDown. On June 13, Paul Heyman, former ECW owner and newly appointed figurehead for the ECW brand, recommissioned the ECW World Heavyweight Championship to be the brand's world title and awarded it to Rob Van Dam as a result of winning the WWE Championship at One Night Stand 2006. Heyman had originally stated that either the WWE Championship or the World Heavyweight Championship would \"become\" the ECW World Heavyweight Championship if a competitor designated to the ECW brand became WWE Champion or World Heavyweight Champion at the event. However, Rob Van Dam later declared that he would hold both titles simultaneously instead. The title became known as the ECW World Championship in June 2006, and later simply as the ECW Championship in August 2007.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Brand designation.", "content": "Following the events of the WWE brand extension, an annual WWE draft was established, in which select members of the WWE roster are reassigned to a different brand. ECW was revived as a third brand in 2006 to rival Raw and SmackDown and continued to operate until February 16, 2010, rendering the title inactive once again.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Championship belt designs.", "content": "Soon after its recommissioning, the ECW World Heavyweight Championship belt design was updated to a design similar to the belt used prior to ECW's original closure in 2001, which featured a black leather strap with a snakeskin pattern on the rear, snaps to wrap around the waist of the wrestler who wore it, and five pieces made of gold. In the middle of the strap was a large center piece, which featured a design of a blue globe in the center, and to the left and right of the globe were a pair of baseball bats wrapped in barbed wire. At the top of the piece, a purple ECW logo and the words \"World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion\" were engraved with the words \"Heavyweight Wrestling\" in red, which gave the text a blood-like appearance. In addition, the entire piece was engraved with a pattern similar to that of a steel cage. Along the strap, on both ends, were four smaller pieces which featured a design similar to that of the center piece. The new belt as of June 20, 2006 was differentiated by a full black strap with barbed wire tooling, red ECW logos, and the innards of the steel cage pattern outlined in black.  On July 22, 2008, ECW General Manager Theodore Long introduced a new belt design for the ECW Championship belt. This design features a large black leather strap with five platinum pieces. The large center piece features a design of a phoenix over a globe in the center with its wings expanded and rays of light emitting from it. At the top of the piece, the WWE logo and the words \"World Wrestling Entertainment\" are engraved with \"ECW\" in large letters engraved prominently over the phoenix. A nameplate, which has the name of the champion etched, is located below it and at the bottom of the piece, the word \"Champion\" is engraved. Additionally, the entire piece is bordered by a jagged saw-like pattern. Along the strap, on both ends, are four small biker cross-shape pieces which feature a design similar to that of the center piece.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reigns.", "content": "Overall, there have been 49 ECW World Heavyweight Championship reigns shared among 32 individuals. The inaugural champion was Jimmy Snuka, who won the title by defeating Salvatore Bellomo in April 1992. The Sandman holds the most reigns as champion, with five. Shane Douglas, in his fourth reign, had the longest reign in the title's history which lasted 406 days, while Ezekiel Jackson, in his first (and only, due to his defeating of Christian on the television finale of \"ECW\") reign, had the shortest as the title was retired immediately. Jackson is recognized as the final ECW Champion, but holds the shortest reign at 3 minutes. Christian's second reign was the longest under WWE at 205 days.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Elite Ice Hockey League (EIHL), sometimes referred to as the British Elite League, is an ice hockey league in the United Kingdom. Formed in 2003 following the demise of the Ice Hockey Superleague, it is the highest level of ice hockey competition in the United Kingdom.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975577}
{"src_title": "Phengaris alcon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description from Seitz.", "content": "L. alcon Schiff. (= areas Esp., euphemus Godt.) (83 a). Large, the male above deep blue, but without brilliant gloss. The female black-brown, dusted with dark blue in the basal area. The dark violet-grey underside has numerous ocelli. \"L. alcon\" is easily distinguished from the following species (\"coeligena\", \"euphemus\", \"arcas\", \"arion\", \"arionides\"...) by the male bearing on the blue disc of the forewing no other black spots but the discocellular lunule. Central Europe and North Asia, from the coast of the North Sea (Hamburg, Bremen, Belgium) to the Mediterranean, and from France to the Altai, Dauria and Tibet, ab. \"nigra\" Wheel, has the males strongly darkened, the females being quite black above. In ab. \"cecinae\" Hormuz. the ocelli of the underside are absent or strongly reduced. In ab. \"pallidior\" Schultz the margin is grey instead of black. — \"marginepunctata\" Gillm. has a row of black dots before the margin, almost parallel with it; found by Hafner at Loitsch and other places in Carniolia.— In the form \"rebeli\" Hirschke the blue of the upperside is more brilliant and more extended, the dark margin being reduced, in the female only the apical area black; Styria. — \"monticola\" Stgr. (83 a) has a narrow black margin like \"rebeli\", but the blue is very deep and dark, so dull as in true \"alcon\"; from the Alps of Switzerland and the Caucasus. — Egg white, finely reticulated, laid on the flowers of the food-plant (\"Gentiana pneumonanthe\"). The larva generally does not break through the shell on the upperside, so that the holes of empty eggs are not easily noticed. At first grey, later on reddish brown with dark dorsal line and dark head. The butterflies occur on damp meadows where \"Gentiana\" grows; they are plentiful in such places, sometimes even in abundance, from the end of May into July, in the North not before the end of June.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "There are five subspecies:  There has been controversy over whether \"Phengaris rebeli\", currently regarded as an ecotype within the Alcons, should be listed as a separate species. The two types are morphologically indistinguishable and molecular analysis has revealed little genetic difference, mostly attributable to localized habitat adaptation. Still some maintain that they should be treated as distinct species, especially for conservation purposes, because they parasitise different host ant colonies and parasitise these ants at different rates, and also rely on different host plant species (\"Gentiana pneumonanthe\" in the case of \"Phengaris alcon\" and \"Gentiana cruciata\" in the case of \"Phengaris rebeli\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The species can be seen flying in mid- to late summer. It lays its eggs onto the marsh gentian (\"Gentiana pneumonanthe\"); in the region of the Alps they are sometimes also found on the related willow gentian (\"Gentiana asclepiadea\"). The caterpillars eat no other plants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parasitic relationship.", "content": "Like some other species of Lycaenidae, the larval (caterpillar) stage of \"P. alcon\" depends on support by certain ants; it is therefore known as a myrmecophile.  Alcon larvae leave the food plant when they have grown sufficiently (4th instar) and wait on the ground below to be discovered by ants. The larvae emit surface chemicals (allomones) that closely match those of ant larvae, causing the ants to carry the Alcon larvae into their nests and place them in their brood chambers. Once adopted into a nest, Alcon larvae are fed the regurgitations of nurse ants (just as other ant brood), a process called trophallaxis. This parasitic method is known as the \"cuckoo\" strategy and is an alternative to the predatory strategy employed by most other members of the genus such as \"Phengaris arion\". Though less common, the cuckoo strategy has been found to have several advantages over the predatory strategy. For one, it is more trophically efficient than preying directly on other ant grubs, and as a result, significantly more cuckoo-type larvae can be supported per nest than predatory larvae. Another advantage of cuckoo feeding is that individuals, having pursued a higher degree of social integration, have a higher chance of surviving when a nest is overcrowded or facing food shortage because ants preferentially feed the larvae; compared to the type of scramble competition that can devastate predatory larvae, this contest competition results in much lower mortality. Though the cuckoo strategy has its advantages, it also comes with important costs; with greater host ant specialization comes much more limited ecological niches.  When the Alcon larva is fully developed it pupates. Once the adult hatches it will leave the ant nest.  Over time, some ant colonies that are parasitized in this manner will slightly change their larva chemicals as a defence, leading to an evolutionary \"arms race\" between the two species.  Generally, Lycaenidae species which have a myrmecophilous relationship with the ant genus \"Myrmica\" are locked to primary host specificity. The Alcon blue is unusual in this regard in that it uses different host species in different locations throughout Europe, and often uses multiple host species even within the same location and population. Though it may be adopted into the nests of multiple \"Myrmica\" species within a given site, there is typically one \"primary\" species with which the locally adapted larvae can best socially integrate, leading to drastically higher survival rates. Across Europe, Alcons are known to use \"Myrmica scabrinodis\", \"Myrmica ruginodis\", \"Myrmica rubra\", \"Myrmica sabuleti,\" \"Myrmica scabrinodis, Myrmica schencki,\" and rarely \"Myrmica lonae,\" and \"Myrmica specioides\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Predation.", "content": "\"P. alcon\" larvae are sought underground by the \"Ichneumon eumerus\" wasp. On detecting a \"P. alcon\" larva the wasp enters the nest and sprays a pheromone that causes the ants to attack each other. In the resulting confusion the wasp locates the butterfly larva and injects it with its eggs. On pupation, the wasp eggs hatch and consume the chrysalis from the inside.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Phengaris alcon, the Alcon blue or Alcon large blue, is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae and is found in Europe and across the Palearctic to Siberia and Mongolia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975578}
{"src_title": "Pont Notre-Dame", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "It was on this spot that the first bridge of Paris, called the Grand-Pont, crossed the Seine from antiquity. In 886, during the siege of Paris and the Norman attacks, this structure was destroyed and replaced by a plank bridge, named the Pont des Planches de Milbray (Milbray plank bridge). This bridge was destroyed by the floods of 1406. On May 31, 1412, Charles VI of France ordered the construction of the first version of the bridge to be named \"Notre-Dame\". This structure was composed of solid wood and connected the Île de la Cité to the rue Saint-Martin. The bridge took seven years to build and had sixty houses atop it, thirty on each side. The houses were noted by Robert Gauguin as being \"remarkable for their height, and the uniformity of construction\" and was called the \"handsomest in France.\" King Charles' wooden bridge collapsed on October 25, 1499 near 9 a.m., likely due to structural instabilities caused by the lack of repairs.  Stone foundations were laid for a new bridge that same year, while a ferry filled the transportation void. This time, the bridge was built with stone, as an arch bridge under the direction of Italian architect, scholar and Franciscan Friar, Fra Giovanni Giocondo, who had also overseen the building of the Petit Pont. The construction was completed in 1507, still overhung with sixty stone and brick buildings all built to one tall gabled design, and would become a spot of frequent commerce and trading: here was located the tiny boutique of the \"marchand-mercier\" Edme-François Gersaint, a leading Parisian art dealer, whose shop-sign was painted by Antoine Watteau. The houses upon the bridge were the first to be given numbers. In 1660 the bridge was refurbished to honour the arrival in Paris of the daughter of the king Philip IV of Spain, Maria Theresa of Spain who became queen of France by marrying Louis XIV. Between 1746 and 1788 the houses along the bridge were demolished for sanitary purposes and because of the danger the structures caused to the bridge's stability.  In 1853, a new stone structure was completed atop the existing stone foundation, although this reincarnation was only composed of five arches. The new bridge was subsequently the cause of not fewer than thirty-five water traffic accidents between 1891 and 1910 and was given the unofficial name the \"pont du Diable\" (Devil's Bridge). Thus, in order to facilitate the passage of boats and the flow of the Seine, a decision was made to rebuild the bridge, this time in metal. The new work was directed by Jean Résal, who had also worked on the Pont Mirabeau and Pont Alexandre III; it was inaugurated in 1919 by Raymond Poincaré, President of the French Republic. The structure has remained the same since.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inscription.", "content": "Beneath one of the arches, there is a distich in Latin from Italian poet Jacopo Sannazaro, best known for his master-work \"Arcadia\", which depicted an idyllic land. The inscription reads:  This quote translates as \"Joconde (Giacondo) put up this twin bridge here for you, Sequana; you are able to speak of this priest with authority\" or \"in this you can swear that he was the bridge-builder\", punning on two possible meanings of \"pontifex\". This refers to the architect, Fra Giovanni Giocondo, and the numerous bridges that had been built earlier upon that spot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Access.", "content": "The Pont Notre-Dame is centrally located in Paris' 4th arrondissement, connecting the Île de la Cité, one of the two natural islands on the Seine within the city limits, to the Rive Droite ().", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pont Notre-Dame is a bridge that crosses the Seine in Paris, France linking the \"quai de Gesvres\" on the Rive Droite with the \"quai de la Corse\" on the Île de la Cité. The bridge is noted for being the \"most ancient\" in Paris, in the sense that, while the oldest bridge in Paris that is \"in its original state\" is undoubtedly the Pont Neuf, a bridge in some form has existed at the site of the Pont Notre-Dame since antiquity; nonetheless, it has been destroyed and reconstructed numerous times, a fact referred to in the Latin inscription on it to honor its Italian architect, Fra Giovanni Giocondo. (See below.) The bridge once was lined with approximately sixty houses, the weight of which caused a collapse in 1499.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975579}
{"src_title": "Potemkin village", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "Grigory Potemkin was a minister and lover of the Russian Empress Catherine II's. After the Russian annexation of Crimea from the Ottoman Empire and liquidation of the Cossack Zaporozhian Sich (see New Russia), Potemkin became governor of the region. Crimea had been devastated by the war, and the Muslim Tatar inhabitants of Crimea were viewed as a potential fifth column of the Ottoman Empire; Potemkin's major tasks were to pacify and rebuild by bringing in Russian settlers. In 1787, as a new war was about to break out between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, Catherine II, with her court and several ambassadors, made an unprecedented six-month trip to New Russia. One purpose of this trip was to impress Russia's allies prior to the war. Another purpose was to familiarize herself, supposedly directly, with her new possessions. To help accomplish this, Potemkin set up \"mobile villages\" on the banks of the Dnieper River. As soon as the barge carrying the Empress and ambassadors arrived, Potemkin's men, dressed as peasants, would populate the village. Once the barge left, the village was disassembled, then rebuilt downstream overnight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical accuracy.", "content": "Modern historians are divided on the degree of truth behind the Potemkin village story, and some writers argue that the story is an exaggeration. According to Simon Sebag-Montefiore, Potemkin's most comprehensive English-language biographer, the tale of elaborate, fake settlements, with glowing fires designed to comfort the monarch and her entourage as they surveyed the barren territory at night, is largely fictional. Aleksandr Panchenko, an established specialist on 19th-century Russia, used original correspondence and memoirs to conclude that the Potemkin villages are a myth. He writes: \"Based on the above said we must conclude that the myth of 'Potemkin villages' is exactly a myth, and not an established fact.\" He writes that \"Potyomkin indeed decorated existing cities and villages, but made no secret that this was a decoration\".  The close relationship between Potemkin and the empress would make it difficult for him to deceive her. Thus, if there were deception, it would have been mainly directed towards the foreign ambassadors accompanying the imperial party.  Although \"Potemkin village\" has come to mean, especially in a political context, any hollow or false construct, physical or figurative, meant to hide an undesirable or potentially damaging situation, it is possible that the phrase cannot be applied accurately to its own original historical inspiration. According to some historians, some of the buildings were real, and others were constructed to show what the region would look like in the near future, and at least Catherine and possibly also her foreign visitors knew which were which. According to these historians, the claims of deception were part of a defamation campaign against Potemkin.  According to a legend, in 1787, when Catherine passed through Tula on her way back from the trip, the local governor Mikhail Krechetnikov attempted a deception of that kind in order to hide the effects of a bad harvest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In the United States legal system.", "content": "\"Potemkin village\" is a phrase that has been used by American judges, especially members of a multiple-judge panel who dissent from the majority's opinion on a particular matter, to refer to an inaccurate or tortured interpretation and/or application of a particular legal doctrine to the specific facts at issue. Use of the phrase is meant to imply that the reasons espoused by the panel's majority in support of its decision are not based on accurate or sound law, and their restrictive application is merely a masquerade for the court's desire to avoid a difficult decision.  In \"Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey\" (1992), chief justice of the United States, William Rehnquist, wrote that \"Roe v. Wade\" \"stands as a sort of judicial Potemkin Village, which may be pointed out to passers-by as a monument to the importance of adhering to precedent\".  \"The affidavit is the Potemkin Village of today’s litigation landscape,\" wrote William G. Young of the District of Massachusetts. \"Purported adjudication by affidavit is like walking down a street between two movie sets, all lawyer-painted façade and no interior architecture.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Sometimes, instead of the full phrase, just \"Potemkin\" is used, as an adjective. For example, the use of a row of trees to screen a clearcut area from motorists has been called a \"Potemkin forest\". For example, the glossary entry for \"clearcut\" in \"We Have The Right To Exist: A Translation of Aboriginal Indigenous Thought\" states that \"Much of the extensive clearcut in northern Minnesota is insulated from scrutiny by the urbanized public by a Potemkin forest, or, as the D.N.R. terms it, an aesthetic strip – a thin illusion of forest about six trees deep, along most highways and fronting waters frequented by tourists.\" Another example is the phrase \"Potemkin court\", which implies that the court's reason to exist is being called into question; differing from the phrase \"kangaroo court\" with which the court's standard of justice is being impugned.  Many of the newly constructed base areas at ski resorts are referred to as Potemkin villages. These create the illusion of a quaint mountain town, but are actually carefully planned theme shopping centers, hotels and restaurants designed for maximum revenue. Similarly, in \"The Geography of Nowhere\", American writer James Howard Kunstler refers to contemporary suburban shopping centers as \"Potemkin village shopping plazas\".  Hardcore punk band Propagandhi released an album in 2005 called \"Potemkin City Limits\". The cover depicts children playing in a city that is drawn on the ground, a façade city. Their 2009 album \"Supporting Caste\" has a song called \"Potemkin City Limits\", about the statue of Francis the Pig in Alberta, Canada.  The United States' president Donald Trump's business councils have been described as Potemkin Villages after several high-profile CEO participants resigned in August 2017. Trump's \"\" describes a stunt in which he lured Holiday Inn executives into investing in an Atlantic City, New Jersey, casino by directing his construction manager to rent dozens of pieces of heavy equipment, in advance of a visit by the executives, to move dirt around on the proposed casino site, creating the illusion that construction was under way.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In politics and economics, a Potemkin village is any construction (literal or figurative) whose sole purpose is to provide an external façade to a country which is faring poorly, making people believe that the country is faring better. The term comes from stories of a fake portable village built solely to impress Empress Catherine II by her former lover Grigory Potemkin, during her journey to Crimea in 1787. While modern historians claim accounts of this portable village are exaggerated, the original story was that Potemkin erected phony portable settlements along the banks of the Dnieper River in order to impress the Russian Empress; the structures would be disassembled after she passed, and re-assembled farther along her route to be viewed again as if another example. The term is a translation of the (IPA: ; romanization: \"potyómkinskiye derévni\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975580}
{"src_title": "3.7 cm Pak 36", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Design of a horse-drawn, 3.7 cm anti-tank gun (designated 3.7 cm Pak L/45) by Rheinmetall commenced in 1924 and the first guns were issued in 1928. By the early 1930s, it was apparent that horse-drawn artillery was obsolescent, and the gun was modified for motorized transport by substituting magnesium-alloy wheels and pneumatic tires for the original spoked wooden wheels, allowing it to be towed at highway speeds. Re-designated the 3.7 cm Pak 35/36, it began to replace the 3.7 cm Pak L/45 in 1934 and first appeared in combat in 1936 during the Spanish Civil War. It formed the basis for many other nations' anti-tank guns during the first years of World War II. The KwK 36 L/45 was the same gun, but used as the main armament on several tanks, most notably the early models of the Panzer III. The Soviets copied the Pak 36 carriage design for their 45 mm M1937 AT gun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "During the May 1940 Western Campaign, the Pak 36, being a relatively small-calibre weapon, was found to be inadequate against heavy Allied tanks like the British Mk II Matilda and the French Char B1 and Somua S35, although it was effective against the most common light tanks of the era, such as the French R35 which represented the majority of the armoured vehicles during the Battle of France.  In June 1941, Soviet tank forces consisted of 10,661 T-26, 2,987 T-37/T-38/T-40/T-50s, 59 T-35, 442 T-28, 7,659 BT, 957 T-34, and 530 KVs for a combined total of approximately 23,295 tanks. Thus, during the initial phases of Operation Barbarossa, the Pak 36 could still penetrate the armour of the majority of Soviet AFVs at ranges up to 1000 m from the front, with the notable exception of the T-28s and T-35s, which it could penetrate only at under 100 m; the Pak 36 could not penetrate the relatively thick armour of the T-34s and KV-1s. By late 1941, the widespread introduction of the T-34 on the Eastern Front made the Pak 36 obsolete, considering its poor performance against it. This led to the Pak 36 being nicknamed \"\"Heeresanklopfgerät\"\" () by German anti-tank crews for its inability to affect the T-34 aside from notifying its presence by futilely bouncing rounds off its armour, regardless of the angle or distance.  The addition of tungsten-core shells (\"Pzgr. 40\") slightly improved the armour penetration of the Pak 36, finally enabling it to damage the T-34, but only by a direct shot to the rear or side armour from point-blank range - an unlikely and dangerous scenario. However, despite its continued impotence against the T-34, it remained the standard anti-tank weapon for many units until 1942. The advantages of the Pak 36 were its relative ease of handling and mobility (it could be brought into action very rapidly by as few as two men since it weighed only 432 kg); good quality optics/aiming devices; ease of concealment due to its small size; and high rate of fire.  The Pak 36 began to be replaced by the new 5 cm Pak 38 in mid-1941. As it was gradually replaced, many were removed from their carriages and added to Sd.Kfz. 251 halftracks for use as light anti-armour support. The guns were also passed off to the forces of Germany's allies fighting on the Eastern Front, such as the 3rd and 4th Romanian Army. This proved particularly disastrous during the Soviet encirclement (Operation Uranus) at the Battle of Stalingrad when the Romanian forces, already demoralized and understrength, bore the brunt of the main Soviet armored thrust and were unable to stop the Soviet advances due to their grossly inadequate anti-tank weaponry. The Pak 36 also served with the armies of Italy, Finland, Hungary, and Slovakia.  Although the Pak 36 quickly became ineffectual in the European and Russian theatres, in China the gun was still viable as an effective anti-tank gun. It could destroy the Japanese Type 95 Ha-Go and Type 97 Chi-Ha tanks, since their armour protection was quite weak. For example, during the Battle of Taierzhuang, Chinese Pak 36s destroyed a good number of Japanese tanks.  This was a type of tungsten-core ammunition, being lighter and with a higher muzzle velocity, produced in small quantities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "3.7 cm Pak 36 L/45 ammunition.", "content": "Penetration figures given for Pzgr 40 and an armoured plate 30 degrees from the horizontal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stielgranate 41.", "content": "In 1943, the introduction of the Stielgranate 41 shaped charge meant that the Pak 36 could now penetrate most armour, although the low velocity of the projectile limited its range. The Pak 36s, together with the new shaped charges, were issued to Fallschirmjäger units and other lightly equipped troops. The gun's low weight meant that it could be easily moved by hand, and this mobility made it ideal for their purpose.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Pak 36 (\"Panzerabwehrkanone 36\") is a 3.7 cm caliber German anti-tank gun used during the Second World War. It was the main anti-tank weapon of Wehrmacht \"Panzerjäger\" units until 1942. Developed by \"Rheinmetall\" in 1933, it was first issued to the German Army in 1936, with 9,120 being available by the beginning of the war in September 1939 and a further 5,339 produced during the war. As the predominant anti-tank gun design in the world during the late 1930s, demand was high for the Pak 36, with another 6,000 examples produced for export and the design being copied by the Soviet Union as the 45 mm anti-tank gun M1932 (19-K) and by other nations such as Japan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975581}
{"src_title": "Electrical steel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Metallurgy.", "content": "Electrical steel is an iron alloy which may have from zero to 6.5% silicon (Si:5Fe). Commercial alloys usually have silicon content up to 3.2% (higher concentrations usually provoke brittleness during cold rolling). Manganese and aluminum can be added up to 0.5%.  Silicon increases the electrical resistivity of iron by a factor of about 5; this change decreases the induced eddy currents and narrows the hysteresis loop of the material, thus lowering the core loss. However, the grain structure hardens and embrittles the metal; this change adversely affects the workability of the material, especially when rolling it. When alloying, the concentration levels of carbon, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen must be kept low, as these elements indicate the presence of carbides, sulfides, oxides and nitrides. These compounds, even in particles as small as one micrometer in diameter, increase hysteresis losses while also decreasing magnetic permeability. The presence of carbon has a more detrimental effect than sulfur or oxygen. Carbon also causes magnetic aging when it slowly leaves the solid solution and precipitates as carbides, thus resulting in an increase in power loss over time. For these reasons, the carbon level is kept to 0.005% or lower. The carbon level can be reduced by annealing the alloy in a decarburizing atmosphere, such as hydrogen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grain orientation.", "content": "Electrical steel made without special processing to control crystal orientation, non-oriented steel, usually has a silicon level of 2 to 3.5% and has similar magnetic properties in all directions, i.e., it is isotropic. Cold-rolled non-grain-oriented steel is often abbreviated to CRNGO.  Grain-oriented electrical steel usually has a silicon level of 3% (Si:11Fe). It is processed in such a way that the optimal properties are developed in the rolling direction, due to a tight control (proposed by Norman P. Goss) of the crystal orientation relative to the sheet. The magnetic flux density is increased by 30% in the coil rolling direction, although its magnetic saturation is decreased by 5%. It is used for the cores of power and distribution transformers, cold-rolled grain-oriented steel is often abbreviated to CRGO.  CRGO is usually supplied by the producing mills in coil form and has to be cut into \"laminations\", which are then used to form a transformer core, which is an integral part of any transformer. Grain-oriented steel is used in large power and distribution transformers and in certain audio output transformers.  CRNGO is less expensive than CRGO. It is used when cost is more important than efficiency and for applications where the direction of magnetic flux is not constant, as in electric motors and generators with moving parts. It can be used when there is insufficient space to orient components to take advantage of the directional properties of grain-oriented electrical steel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amorphous steel.", "content": "This material is a metallic glass prepared by pouring molten alloy onto a rotating cooled wheel, which cools the metal at a rate of about one megakelvin per second, so fast that crystals do not form. Amorphous steel is limited to foils of about 50 μm thickness. The mechanical properties of amorphous steel make stamping laminations for electric motors difficult. Since amorphous ribbon can be cast to any specific width under roughly 13 inches and can be sheared with relative ease, it is a suitable material for wound electrical transformer cores. In 2019 the price of amorphous steel outside the US is approximately $.95/pound compared to HiB grain-oriented steel which costs approximately $.86/pound. Transformers with amorphous steel cores can have core losses of one-third that of conventional electrical steels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lamination coatings.", "content": "Electrical steel is usually coated to increase electrical resistance between laminations, reducing eddy currents, to provide resistance to corrosion or rust, and to act as a lubricant during die cutting. There are various coatings, organic and inorganic, and the coating used depends on the application of the steel. The type of coating selected depends on the heat treatment of the laminations, whether the finished lamination will be immersed in oil, and the working temperature of the finished apparatus. Very early practice was to insulate each lamination with a layer of paper or a varnish coating, but this reduced the stacking factor of the core and limited the maximum temperature of the core.  ASTM A976-03 classifies different types of coating for electrical steel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Magnetic properties.", "content": "The typical relative permeability (μ) of electrical steel is 4,000 times that of vacuum.  The magnetic properties of electrical steel are dependent on heat treatment, as increasing the average crystal size decreases the hysteresis loss. Hysteresis loss is determined by a standard Epstein tester and, for common grades of electrical steel, may range from about 2 to 10 watts per kilogram (1 to 5 watts per pound) at 60 Hz and 1.5 tesla magnetic field strength.  Electrical steel can be delivered in a semi-processed state so that, after punching the final shape, a final heat treatment can be applied to form the normally required 150-micrometer grain size. Fully processed electrical steel is usually delivered with an insulating coating, full heat treatment, and defined magnetic properties, for applications where punching does not significantly degrade the electrical steel properties. Excessive bending, incorrect heat treatment, or even rough handling can adversely affect electrical steel's magnetic properties and may also increase noise due to magnetostriction.  The magnetic properties of electrical steel are tested using the internationally standard Epstein frame method.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Practical aspects.", "content": "Electrical steel is much more costly than mild steel—in 1981 it was more than twice the cost by weight.  The size of magnetic domains in sheet electrical steel can be reduced by scribing the surface of the sheet with a laser, or mechanically. This greatly reduces the hysteresis losses in the assembled core.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Electrical steel (lamination steel, silicon electrical steel, silicon steel, relay steel, transformer steel) is an iron alloy tailored to produce specific magnetic properties: small hysteresis area resulting in low power loss per cycle, low core loss, and high permeability.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975582}
{"src_title": "Niklot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Resistance.", "content": "Niklot began his open resistance when the German King (later Emperor) Lothar III granted the Obotrite realm to his Danish vassal Canute Lavard. Together with Pribislav of Wagria, son of Budivoj and nephew of Henry, Niklot fought Lothar and Canute. After the murder of Canute in 1131, Niklot and Pribislav partitioned the Obotrite territory, with Niklot receiving the eastern lands. In order to weaken Pribislav in the following years, Niklot allied with Saxon lords, especially Count Adolf II of Holstein, allowing Slavic pirates to attack the Danes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wendish Crusade.", "content": "The prince's Saxon allies turned against him during the 1147 Wendish Crusade. Although Niklot resisted the siege of his fortress at Dobin, he was forced to pay tribute to the Christian crusaders. He subsequently arranged peaceful terms with Adolf of Holstein, Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony and Henry of Ratzeburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religion.", "content": "After the death of Obotrite Prince Henry, a Christian, Niklot allegedly renounced Christianity in favor of traditional pagan beliefs. However, this is uncertain; according to Helmold's \"Chronica Slavorum\", Niklot promised to Christianize his lands as part of the peace agreement, and in the late 1150s he wrote to Henry the Lion: Let the god, who is heaven, be your God; you be our god, and it sufficeth us. You honor Him, and in turn we shall honor you.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "By 1158, King Valdemar the Great of Denmark began to pay Henry the Lion for assistance, leading Niklot to retaliate. The Danish king and the Saxon duke then allied in 1160. While the Danes harried the coast and distracted the Rani, the Saxons killed Niklot at his stronghold of Burg Werle; the Obotrite territory was largely partitioned by the Christians. Niklot's death ended Slavic control in Mecklenburg up to the Peene River. His son Pribislav recovered his inheritance as Prince of Mecklenburg in 1167 as a Saxon vassal. His other son Wertislaw was the father of Nicholas I, Lord of Mecklenburg.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Niklot or Nyklot (1090 – August 1160) was a chief or prince of the Slavic Obotrites and an ancestor of the House of Mecklenburg. He became chief of the Obotrite confederacy, including the Kissini and the Circipani, between the years 1130 and 1131. He remained in this position until his death in 1160. At the same time he was Lord of (\"Herr zu\") Schwerin, Quetzin and Malchow. For nearly 30 years he resisted Saxon princes, especially Henry the Lion during the Wendish Crusade.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975583}
{"src_title": "Katie Cassidy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Cassidy was born on November 25, 1986, in Los Angeles. She is the only daughter from the short-lived relationship of actor and singer David Cassidy and fashion model Sherry Williams. Cassidy's paternal grandparents were actors Jack Cassidy and Evelyn Ward and she is the niece of teen idol and television producer Shaun Cassidy and actor Patrick Cassidy and Ryan Cassidy. Cassidy has a younger half-brother named Beau, born in 1991, from her father's third marriage to Sue Shifrin.  After Cassidy's parents ended their relationship, she was raised by her mother and stepfather Richard Benedon. David Cassidy spoke of his absence from Katie's life, saying in February 2017: \"I've never had a relationship with her. I wasn't her father. I was her biological father but I didn't raise her. She has a completely different life. I'm proud of her. She's very talented. It's hard for me to even accept how old she is now.\" In her youth, Cassidy was on the competitive cheerleader team the California Flyers. A resident of Bell Canyon, California, she attended Calabasas High School.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "In 2003, Cassidy made her television and acting debut appearing in an episode of the Lifetime drama series \"The Division\". Cassidy has continued to guest appear in television shows such as \"Celebrity Apprentice 4\", \"Listen Up!\" and \"New Girl\". In 2005, Cassidy appeared in a recurring role on The WB's series \"7th Heaven\" over the course of four episodes. That same year, she also appeared on the UPN teen drama series \"Sex, Love & Secrets\".  In 2006, Cassidy made her film debut as Tiffany Madison in the horror film \"When a Stranger Calls\". Cassidy has gone on to have notable supporting roles in films \"Click\", \"Taken\" and \"Live!\".  In February 2006, Cassidy was cast as Kelli Presley in the Dimension Films horror-slasher film \"Black Christmas\", a remake of the 1974 film. The film centers on an escaped maniac who returns to his childhood home on Christmas Eve, which is now a sorority house, and one by one kills all of the sorority sisters. The film was released on December 15, 2006 to negative reviews from critics. The film was a moderate success, making over $50 million worldwide.  In 2007, Cassidy appeared on The CW's supernatural drama series \"Supernatural\". Cassidy played the role of Ruby, a demon. Making her debut in the show's third season, Cassidy appeared in six episodes. In 2008, though her character returned for the show's fourth season, Cassidy was replaced by actress Genevieve Cortese.  In October 2008, \"Variety\" announced Cassidy had been cast on the CBS horror mystery limited series \"Harper's Island\". Cassidy portrayed the role of Patricia \"Trish\" Wellington, a bride-to-be. The series centered on a group of family and friends who gather for a wedding on an island known for its sinister past full of gruesome murders. In each episode, at least one character is killed off. Cassidy and her fellow cast members were not told about their characters' deaths until the day they received a script. The series premiered on April 9, 2009 to 10.21 million viewers. Despite ratings failing to maintain the pilot's success, CBS aired the remainder of the series with the series finale airing on July 11, 2009.  In February 2009, The CW cast Cassidy as a lead in the drama series \"Melrose Place\", a reboot of the 1990s series of the same name. Cassidy portrayed the role of Ella Simms, a publicist who resides in a West Hollywood apartment complex and centers on its residents. The series premiered on September 8, 2009 to 2.31 million viewers. Despite mixed reviews, Cassidy's performance was praised by critics and was cited as \"the best thing about the \"Melrose\" reboot\" by \"New York\" magazine. The CW canceled the series in May 2010 due to low ratings.  In April 2010, Cassidy appeared in another remake; this time the horror classic \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\", originally released in 1984 of the same name. Cassidy portrays the false protagonist Kris Fowles; a high school student who becomes a victim to Freddy Krueger. Filming began in Chicago with the film earning over $31 million in its opening weekend. Cassidy was nominated for a Teen Choice Award in the Horror/Thriller Actress category for her role, which she lost to Megan Fox. Cassidy's work in the horror genre has led to her being labelled a Scream Queen.  Shortly after the release of \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\", \"Variety\" announced Cassidy had been cast in the adventure comedy film \"Monte Carlo\". The film, which also stars Leighton Meester and Selena Gomez, follows three friends who pose as wealthy socialites while on holiday in Monte Carlo. Production began in May 2010 with filming taking place in Monaco, Budapest, Paris, and Texas. The film was released on July 1, 2011 and received mixed to negative reviews from critics, and went on to gross $39 million worldwide. In June 2010, The CW announced Cassidy would have a major recurring arc in the fourth season of the teen drama series \"Gossip Girl\". Cassidy portrayed Juliet Sharp, who attends Columbia University and sets out to ruin the life of the show's central character Serena van der Woodsen. Cassidy made her first appearance in the season premiere and went on to appear in over 11 episodes of the season.  In May 2012, Cassidy was cast as the title character in the film adaptation of the graphic novel \"The Scribbler\", alongside Eliza Dushku, Michelle Trachtenberg and Gina Gershon. She plays Suki, a young woman with dissociative identity disorder.  In March 2011, Cassidy was cast in the ABC drama pilot \"Georgetown\" as Nikki, a smart and quick-witted junior staffer in the White House Communications Office with connections to the First Lady. The pilot was created by \"Gossip Girl\" executive producers Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage. The series was not picked up by ABC.  In February 2012, Cassidy landed the main cast role of Laurel Lance / Black Canary in The CW's series \"Arrow\", which is based on the Green Arrow comic books. The series premiered on October 10, 2012. Cassidy left the show as a series regular after her character was killed off in episode 18 of the fourth season on April 6, 2016. On May 17, 2016, she guest-starred in the Arrowverse spin-off series \"The Flash\" for the second time, but as the metahuman Black Siren, Laurel's Earth-2 doppelgänger, in the second-season episode \"Invincible\". On July 23, 2016, it was announced that Cassidy had signed a deal with Warner Bros. to appear across multiple CW Arrowverse shows. On March 27, 2017, it was announced that Cassidy would return to \"Arrow\" as a series regular for season 6; reprising the role of Black Siren. She continued in that role for the remaining duration of the show. The season 8 episode \"Leap of Faith\" marked her directorial debut.  In 2016 Cassidy portrayed the character of Sharon (a character inspired by late fashion model and actress Sharon Tate) in the direct-to-digital-HD horror film \"Wolves at the Door\", loosely based on the Manson Family's murders.  Cassidy also stars in the 2017 PS4 game \"Hidden Agenda\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Cassidy is a spokeswoman for the charity H.E.L.P. Malawi.  In 2016, Cassidy began dating Matthew Rodgers. The couple announced their engagement on June 5, 2017. Cassidy and Rodgers wed on December 8, 2018. Cassidy filed for divorce on January 8, 2020 in Los Angeles.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Katherine Evelyn Anita Cassidy (born November 25, 1986) is an American-French actress and director. Following several minor television roles, she came to attention as a scream queen after starring in the horror films \"When a Stranger Calls\" (2006), as Kelli Presley in \"Black Christmas\" (2006) and as Ruby in the third season of the horror series \"Supernatural\" (2007–08). Following a supporting role in the action film \"Taken\" (2008), Cassidy played leading roles in the mystery horror series \"Harper's Island\" (2009) and the remake of the drama series \"Melrose Place\" (2009–10). She starred as Kris Fowles in the slasher film remake \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\" (2010) and had a recurring role as Juliet Sharp during the fourth season of the teen drama \"Gossip Girl\" (2010–12).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975584}
{"src_title": "Nils-Aslak Valkeapää", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Works.", "content": "The traditional Sami singing of the joik was important in his music, as well as in his painting and in written works. He was first recognised as an artist for his joik during the 1960s, with his first recording \"Joikuja\" from 1968, which contained modernised joik. Valkeapeää wrote the music to the motion picture \"Ofelaš\", internationally known as \"The Pathfinder\" in 1987, which was directed by Nils Gaup.  As a writer, he mainly wrote in Sami with his work translated into other languages and eventually published eight collections of poems. One of his best known is \"Beaivi áhčážan\" which has been translated to English, titled \"The Sun, My Father\".  Nils-Aslak Valkeapää died in his sleep in Helsinki on 26 November 2001.  Posthumous publication of Nils-Aslak Valkeapää's work includes two poems included on his godson Niko Valkeapää's eponymous début album. An article published by the Music Information Center Norway stated, \"In his trademark, understated style, Niko composes melodies that weave their way into and out of his godfather’s words. Nils Aslak Valkeapää was one of the foremost exponents of Sami art and culture through his long and distinguished career as a poet, composer and artist. Says Niko on his godfather’s influence: 'I can’t deny that Nils Aslak was a role model for me – he was a figure that I would look up to. He has been a source of inspiration and I have included two of his poems on my album to pay homage to him.”  A recording of Nils-Aslak Valkeapää performing his joik forms the centrepiece of \"Prayer for the Earth\", a track on \"The Songs of Distant Earth\", the 1994 album by British musician Mike Oldfield.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Valkeapää was bisexual, but hid his sexuality throughout his life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Written works.", "content": "Poems", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nils-Aslak Valkeapää, known as Áillohaš in the Northern Sami language (23 March 1943 – 26 November 2001), was a Finnish Sami writer, musician and artist. He was born in Enontekiö in Lapland province, Finland. He lived most of his life in Käsivarsi, close to the border of Sweden, and also in Skibotn in Norway. Valkeapää was born to a family of traditional reindeer herders, but was trained as a school teacher. His most well-known international debut was when he performed at the opening ceremony of the 1994 Winter Olympic Games in Lillehammer, Norway. He received the Nordic Council Literature Prize for \"The Sun, My Father\" in 1991.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975585}
{"src_title": "László Rajk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Born in Székelyudvarhely, the ninth of eleven children in a family of Transylvanian Saxons, his ties to Communism began at an early age when he became a member of the Communist Party of Hungary (KMP).  Later he was expelled from his university for his political ideas and would become a building worker, until 1936 when he joined the Popular Front in the Spanish Civil War. He became commissar of the Rakosi Battalion of XIII International Brigade. After the collapse of Republican Spain, he was interned in France until 1941, when he was finally able to return to Hungary, where he became Secretary of the Communist Party Central Committee, an underground Communist movement.  In December 1944 he was arrested by a detachment of the Arrow Cross Party. He was to be executed, and was transported to the prison of Sopronkőhida, then into Germany; but the intercession of his elder brother, Endre, a fascist under-secretary, saved his life. László Rajk was released on 13 May 1945.  He went home to Hungary and took part in party politics. He became a member of all the leader corporations of the party (MKP) and the Extemporal Parliament. Rajk was a member of the High National Council from 7 December 1945 to 2 February 1946. On 20 March 1946 he was appointed minister of the Interior. In this post he organized the Hungarian Communist Party's private army and secret police (an organization analogous to the KGB, Securitate, Stasi and so on), the ÁVH (originally AVO), and he became directly responsible for this. Under the cover of \"struggle against fascism and reaction\" and \"defence of the power of proletariat\", he prohibited and liquidated several religious, nationalist, and maverick establishments and groups (the number of these was about 1,500), and set up the first show trials.  He was reassigned from the Ministry of the Interior to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs from 5 August 1948 to 30 May 1949. Rákosi, who saw Rajk as a threat to his power, decided to accuse him on false charges and had him arrested on 30 May 1949 on trumped-up charges. Rajk, who was popular among the Communists before, soon became the \"chained dog\" of Tito, Horthy and \"the imperialist\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial.", "content": "László Rajk was accused of being a \"Titoist Spy\", an agent for western imperialism and one who planned on restoring capitalism and jeopardizing Hungary's independence. During his time in prison, Rajk was tortured and was promised acquittal if he took responsibility for the charges brought against him. Stalin's NKVD emissary coordinated with Hungarian General Secretary Mátyás Rákosi and his ÁVH to orchestrate Rajk's show trial.  At his trial, held between 16 and 24 September 1949, in the large assembly hall of the headquarters of the Metal and Engineering Workers' Trade Union in Budapest, he confessed to all the charges brought against him. After his confession the prosecution decided, against the promise made, to call for the heaviest sentences to be brought down upon him and the other seven men who stood trial with him. Rajk was to be made an example for the beginning of Stalin's anti-Titoist purges. Rajk, along with Drs Tibor Szönyi and András Szalai, was sentenced to death. Rajk was executed on 15 October 1949.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-trial/reburial.", "content": "The Rajk trial marked the beginning of the anti-Titoist drive movement of Stalin. His trial also marked the beginning of the removal of all political parties in Hungary. The purges, however, left the economy in a truly disastrous state whereby a lack of capital inflow doomed the building projects that were underway. A vast number of the intelligentsia were then employed on the sort of manual labouring duties usually reserved for skilled professionals. The result left the country with an inadequate infrastructure and unsatisfactorily manufactured goods. The government was also using too many men to search for spies within the country and not enough to perform the productive work to sustain the economy.  Dissatisfaction with Rákosi's rule began to surface. On 28 March 1956, following numerous demonstrations, Rajk was rehabilitated in spite of his responsibility for the excesses of the secret police ÁVH which he had founded in 1946, including initial large purges and executions under his direction. The rehabilitation speech, even though it was not publicized, had vast consequences for Rákosi, who had used the Rajk guilt as an explanation for the other purges that followed. Now that he had to admit that he was, indeed, wrong, it would end up ruining Rákosi's rightful authority. Lászlo Rajk was then reburied, before 100,000 mourners, on 6 October 1956, along with two other men who lost their lives during the purges. (This was a precursor to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, which began on 23 October.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of defendants in the Rajk trial.", "content": "15 people were executed and 78 others were sentenced to prison in relation to the Rajk case.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Play.", "content": "László Rajk: the events of his political and family life, beginning circa 1945, his trial, execution, reburial, atonement, and ending with the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and Russia's armed invasion of Hungary, are all portrayed in Robert Ardrey's 1958 play, \"Shadow of Heroes\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "László Rajk (8 March 1909 – 15 October 1949) was a Hungarian Communist politician, who served as Minister of Interior and Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was an important organizer of the Hungarian Communists' power (for example, organizing the State Protection Authority (ÁVH)), but he eventually fell victim to Mátyás Rákosi's show trials.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975586}
{"src_title": "Benedict Joseph Labre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Labre was born in 1748 in the village of Amettes, near Arras, in the former Province of Artois in the north of France. He was the eldest of fifteen children of a prosperous shopkeeper, Jean-Baptiste Labre, and his wife, Anne Grandsire.  Labre had an uncle, a parish priest, living some distance from his family home; this uncle gladly received him, and undertook his early education for the priesthood. At the age of sixteen, he approached his uncle about becoming a Trappist monk, but his parents told him he would have to wait until he grew older. When Benedict was about eighteen, an epidemic fell upon the city, and uncle and nephew busied themselves in the service of the sick. While the uncle took care of the souls and bodies of the people, Benedict went to and fro caring for the cattle. Among the last victims of the epidemic was Labre's uncle.  Labre set off for La Trappe Abbey to apply to the Order, but did not come up to their requirements. He was under age, he was too delicate; he had no special recommendations. He later attempted to join the Carthusians and Cistercians, but each order rejected him as unsuitable for communal life. He was, for about six weeks, a postulant with the Carthusians at Neuville. In November 1769 he obtained admission to the Cistercian Abbey of Sept-Fonts. After a short stay at Sept-Fonts his health gave way, and it was decided that his vocation lay elsewhere.  Labre, according to Catholic tradition, experienced a desire, which he considered was given to him by God and inspired by the example of Alexius of Rome and that of the Franciscan tertiary pilgrim, Saint Roch, to \"abandon his country, his parents, and whatever is flattering in the world to lead a new sort of life, a life most painful, most penitential, not in a wilderness nor in a cloister, but in the midst of the world, devoutly visiting as a pilgrim the famous places of Christian devotion.\"  Labre joined the Third Order of Saint Francis and settled on a life of poverty and pilgrimage. He first traveled to Rome on foot, subsisting on what he could get by begging. He then traveled to most of the major shrines of Europe, often several times each. He visited the various shrines in Loreto, Assisi, Naples, and Bari in Italy, Einsiedeln in Switzerland, Paray-le-Monial in France, and Santiago de Compostela in Spain. During these trips he would always travel on foot, sleeping in the open or in a corner of a room, with his clothes muddy and ragged. On one occasion he stopped at the farmhouse of Matthieu and Marie Vianney, who would later become the parents of Curé d'Ars. He lived on what little he was given, and often shared the little he did receive with others. He is reported to have talked rarely, prayed often, and accepted quietly the abuse he received.  In so doing, Labre was following in the role of the mendicant, the \"Fool-for-Christ,\" found more often in the Eastern Church. He would often swoon when contemplating the crown of thorns, in particular, and, during these states, it is said he would levitate or bilocate. He was also said to have cured some of the other homeless he met and to have multiplied bread for them. In the last years of his life (his thirties), he lived in Rome, for a time living in the ruins of the Colosseum, and would leave only to make a yearly pilgrimage to the shrine of Our Lady of Loreto. He was a familiar figure in the city and known as the \"saint of the Forty Hours\" (or \"Quarant' Ore\") for his dedication to Eucharistic adoration.  The day before he died, Labre collapsed in the church of Santa Maria ai Monti, blocks from the Colosseum, and despite his protestations was charitably taken to a house behind the church at Via dei Serpenti 2. He died there of malnutrition on 16 April 1783, during Holy Week, and was buried in the Church of Santa Maria ai Monti.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Labre's confessor, Marconi, wrote his biography and attributed 136 separate cures to his intercession within three months of his death. Those miracles were instrumental in the conversion of the Reverend John Thayer, the first American Protestant clergyman to convert to Catholicism, who was resident in Rome at the time of St. Benedict's death. A cult grew up around him very soon after his death; he was declared Blessed by Blessed Pius IX in 1860, and canonized by Pope Leo XIII in 1881. Benedict is patron saint of the homeless. His feast day is observed on April 16.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Benedict Joseph Labre, () (25 March 1748 – 16 April 1783), was a French mendicant, Franciscan tertiary, and Catholic saint.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975587}
{"src_title": "Direction – Social Democracy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foundation.", "content": "Originally named Direction, the party emerged as a breakaway from the post-communist Party of the Democratic Left (SDĽ) on 8 November 1999. Under Fico, at the time one of the most popular politicians in the country, it quickly became one of the most popular parties in Slovakia, while the SDĽ, which was the successor of the original Communist Party of Slovakia and was the governing party from 1998 to 2002, was steadily decreasing in popularity. In the 2002 election, its first outing, it became the third-largest party in the National Council of the Slovak Republic, with 25 out of 150 seats. In 2003 it changed its formal name to Direction (Third Way) (). In 2005, it absorbed SDĽ, Social Democratic Alternative; a small social-democratic party that split from the SDĽ somewhat later than \"Smer\" did, and the Social Democratic Party of Slovakia; founded in 1990, the party became known under the leadership of Alexander Dubček, and adopted its current name. Following the party's victory in 2006, \"Smer\" entered into a coalition with the nationalist Slovak National Party (SNS). \"Smer\" was readmitted into the PES in 2008. It later formed another coalition with the SNS in 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Government (2006–2010).", "content": "In the parliamentary election of 17 June 2006, the party won 29.1% of the popular vote and 50 out of 150 seats. Following that election, Smer-SD formed a coalition government with the People's Party – Movement for a Democratic Slovakia (HZDS) and Slovak National Party (SNS), a nationalist party. \"Smer\" was then temporarily suspended from membership in the Party of European Socialists (PES) on 12 October 2006. The resolution to suspend \"Smer\" referred specifically to the PES Declaration \"For a modern, pluralist and tolerant Europe\", adopted by the PES Congress in 2001 in Berlin which states: \"all PES parties adhere to the following principles... to refrain from any form of political alliance or co-operation at all levels with any political party which incites or attempts to stir up racial or ethnic prejudices and racial hatred\". The PES Chairman, Poul Nyrup Rasmussen, explained in The Slovak Spectator that \"Most of our members stood solidly behind our values, according to which forming a coalition with the extreme right is unacceptable.\" \"Smer\" was readmitted on 14 February 2008 after Smer-SD chairman Robert Fico and SNS leader Jan Slota pledged in a letter to respect European values, human rights and all ethnic minorities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Opposition (2010–2012).", "content": "Although the party won the most votes in the 2010 parliamentary election, with a lead of 20% over the second-place Slovak Democratic and Christian Union – Democratic Party (SDKÚ), they had not been able to form a government because of losses sustained by their coalition partners. Their result, 34.8%, gave them 62 seats in the National Council, but the HZDS failed to cross the 5% threshold, losing all their seats, and the Slovak National Party was reduced to nine seats. As a result, the four opposition centre-right parties – SDKÚ, Freedom and Solidarity (SaS), the Christian Democratic Movement (KDH) and \"Most–Híd\" – were able to form a new government.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Government (2012–2020).", "content": "In the parliamentary election held on 10 March 2012, Smer-SD won 44.4% of the votes and became the largest party in the National Council, with an absolute majority of 83 seats (out of 150). The Smer-SD formed the first single-party government in Slovakia since 1993.  In the 2014 European Parliament elections, Smer-SD came in first place nationally, receiving 24.09% of the vote and electing 4 MEPs.  Despite suffering a significant loss in support as a result of strikes by teachers and nurses earlier in the year, Smer-SD won the 5 March 2016 parliamentary election with 28.3% of the vote and 49 out of 150 seats, and subsequently formed a coalition government with the Slovak National Party, Most-Híd, and Network.  Prime Minister Robert Fico resigned in the wake of the political crisis following the murder of Ján Kuciak and was replaced by Peter Pellegrini, with the same majority. However, Fico remained leader of Smer-SD.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Back into opposition (2020–present).", "content": "Smer-SD suffered further losses in the 2020 parliamentary election, arriving second and winning 18,29% of votes, losing to Ordinary People; furthermore, all of its allies (Slovak National Party, Most–Híd, and the Slovak Conservative Party) did not re-enter parliament, thus erasing the government's majority. Following brief consultation, Ordinary People formed a coalition with We Are Family, Freedom and Solidarity and For the People, forcing Smer-SD back into opposition after eight years in government.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Current representatives.", "content": "Smer-SD provided the following members of the government (2016–2020):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Direction – Social Democracy (, Smer – SD) is a social-democratic and left-wing populist political party in Slovakia. It is led by former Prime Minister of Slovakia Robert Fico. Smer-SD was the largest party in the National Council following the parliamentary election held on 5 March 2016, but has since dropped to being the 2nd-largest party after the parliamentary election held on 29 February 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975588}
{"src_title": "Theo van Gogh (art dealer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Theodorus \"Theo\" van Gogh was born on 1 May 1857 in the village Groot-Zundert in the province of North Brabant, Netherlands. He was the son of Theodorus van Gogh and Anna Cornelia Carbentus. His elder brother was artist Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business.", "content": "Theo worked for some years at the Dutch office of the Parisian art dealers Goupil & Cie in The Hague. Theo joined the Brussels office on 1 January 1873 as their youngest employee. After Theo was transferred to the London office, he moved to the office in The Hague, where he developed into a successful art dealer. By 1884, he was transferred to the Paris main office. Beginning in the winter of 1880–1881, he sent painting materials as well as monthly financial support to his brother and painter Vincent van Gogh, who was then living in the Netherlands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Private life.", "content": "In Paris, Theo met Andries Bonger and his sister Johanna. He married Johanna in Amsterdam on 17 April 1889 and they moved to Paris. Their son Vincent Willem was born in Paris on 31 January 1890. On 8 June, the family visited Vincent, who was living near Paris in Auvers-sur-Oise. Vincent died in July 1890 at age 37. Theo suffered from dementia paralytica, an infection of the brain, and his health declined rapidly after Vincent's death. Weak and unable to come to terms with Vincent's absence, he died six months later (25 January 1891) at age 33 in Den Dolder.  Theo's great-grandson, also named Theo van Gogh, was a controversial film director, who was murdered on the streets of Amsterdam in 2004 by an Islamic extremist after making a short film critical of Islam.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relationship with Vincent.", "content": "Theo admired his elder brother Vincent for his whole life, but communicating with him proved to be difficult, even before Vincent opted to follow his artistic vocation. The communication between both brothers suffered from diverging definitions of standards, and it was evidently Theo who kept on writing letters. Vincent is known to have not kept the letters Theo sent; on the other hand, Theo kept every scrap of correspondence from his brother (651 letters addressed to Theo in total). Therefore, mostly Vincent's answers survived and few of Theo's. (32 letters from Theo to Vincent remain) Theo was often concerned about Vincent's mental condition and he was amongst the few who understood his brother. It is known that Theo helped Vincent maintain his artist lifestyle by giving him money. He also helped Vincent pursue his life as an artist through his unwavering emotional support and love. The majority of Theo's letters and communications with Vincent are filled with praise and encouragement. Vincent would send Theo sketches and ideas for paintings, along with accounts of his day to day experiences, to the delight and eager attention of Theo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dealer and artist.", "content": "While Theo is best known for being the brother of Vincent van Gogh and one of his major roles in art was his influence on Vincent's career, Theo himself made many important contributions. Theo played a vital role in the introduction of contemporary Dutch and French art to the public: Theo was instrumental in the popularity of Impressionist artists such as Claude Monet and Edgar Degas by persuading his employers, Goupil & Cie, to exhibit and buy their works.  In 1886, Theo invited Vincent to live with him in Paris, and from March they shared an apartment in Montmartre. Theo introduced Vincent to Paul Gauguin, Paul Cézanne, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri Rousseau, Camille Pissarro and Georges Seurat, and in 1888 he persuaded Gauguin to join Vincent, who had moved to Arles. Theo not only conspired with Vincent as the liaison between Vincent and Gauguin, but was the deciding factor in his move to Arles seeing as it was Theo Van Gogh who planned and eventually committed to supporting them both financially. (Letter 616, Monday 28 or Tuesday 29 May 1888). He paid for living and professional expenses as well as for the travel expenses Gauguin accumulated to get from Pont Aven, Brittany, to Arles. Theo was equally the one with whom Gauguin communicated when his relationship with Vincent turned volatile and unmanageable, notably the severing of the ear fiasco. Theo was the source of stability and the intermediate between the two artists and allowed them to create prolifically for a couple of months (63 days) ; paintings we would otherwise have been deprived of. (Letter 852).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Correspondence.", "content": "The two brothers maintained an intensive correspondence, with Theo often encouraging his depressed brother. Theo was one of the few people who Vincent could talk to and confide in. These letters are one of the few sources of information about Vincent's life, providing detailed accounts of not only the occurrences but also the thoughts and feelings in Vincent's life. Over three-quarters of the more than 800 letters Vincent wrote during his life were to Theo, including his first and his last letters.  It is largely thanks to Theo and his wife, Johanna, who, in 1914, decided to publish the letters between Theo and Vincent, that these letters are available to us today. Hardly any of Theo's letters remain because Vincent failed to keep them. It can also be noted that the two-year period where Vincent and Theo lived together in the neighborhood of Montmartre in Paris, is also the least documented period of Vincent's artistic career, because of the lack of letters exchanged between the two brothers. These letters witness both the emotional and professional state of Vincent throughout his life as early as 1874 and serve as a diary for his everyday encounters. The letters have been collected and published in book form as \"The Letters of Vincent van Gogh\".  The relationship between the two brothers was the subject of the movie \"Vincent & Theo\" (1990), directed by Robert Altman. It also formed an important part of the film \"Lust for Life\" (1956), which was directed by Vincente Minnelli. Theo was played by the British actor James Donald and Vincent by the Hollywood star Kirk Douglas. The delivery of Vincent's final letter to Theo after Vincent's death and the circumstances surrounding his death was the subject of the 2017 film \"Loving Vincent\", which was animated by oil paintings made with Van Gogh's techniques.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Theo's health deteriorated in the months after the death of his brother. He was admitted to the Willem Arntz Hospital, a psychiatric hospital, in Den Dolder on 18 November 1890. He had been diagnosed in Paris as suffering from a progressive and general paralysis. Initial examination confirmed this diagnosis.  By 1 December his medical notes confirmed he presented all the symptoms of \"dementia paralytica\", a disease of the brain. He died on 25 January 1891. The cause of death was listed as \"dementia paralytica\" caused by \"heredity, chronic disease, overwork, sadness\". In 1914, Theo's body was exhumed from his resting place in Utrecht, Netherlands, and reburied with his brother at Auvers-sur-Oise at the wish of his widow, Johanna, so the brothers could lie together eternally.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theodorus \"Theo\" van Gogh (; 1 May 1857 – 25 January 1891) was a Dutch art dealer. He was the younger brother of Vincent van Gogh, and Theo's unfailing financial and emotional support allowed his brother to devote himself entirely to painting. Theo died at the age of 33, six months after his brother died at the age of 37.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975589}
{"src_title": "Westport, County Mayo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Brady was born in Pinehurst, North Carolina, to Ann and Charles Brady, Sr. He grew up in the small town of Robbins, where his father was a physician. Brady attended local public schools, graduating from North Moore High School in Robbins in 1969. He had become an Eagle Scout and received the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award.  Brady studied pre-med at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, graduating in 1971. He received his medical degree from Duke University in 1975. From Duke, he went to the University of Tennessee Medical Center in Knoxville for his internship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1978 Brady started as the team physician in sports medicine for Iowa State University in Ames, Iowa. He continued in sports medicine and family practice for the next seven years, working as a team physician at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and East Carolina University in Greenville, North Carolina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "He joined the U.S. Navy in 1986, receiving training as a flight surgeon at the Naval Aerospace Medical Institute at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. In June 1986 Brady reported to Carrier Air Wing Two on board the aircraft carrier USS \"Ranger\"; he was assigned to Attack Squadron 145 (VA-145) and Aviation Electronic Countermeasures Squadron 131 (VAQ-131).  In 1988 Brady was selected for the Blue Angels, the Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron, and served with them as flight surgeon through 1990. He was serving in Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 129 (VAQ-129) when he learned he had been selected for the astronaut program.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "NASA career.", "content": "Brady was selected by NASA in March 1992, and reported to the Johnson Space Center in August 1992. He was qualified for selection as a Mission Specialist on future Space Shuttle flight crews. Technical assignments included: working technical issues for the Astronaut Office Mission Development Branch; flight software testing in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL); astronaut representative to the Human Research Policy and Procedures Committee; deputy chief for Space Shuttle astronaut training; and chief for Space Station astronaut training in the Mission Operations Division. He flew on STS-78 in 1996 and logged over 405 hours, more than 16 days, in space.  As an astronaut and amateur radio enthusiast, callsign N4BQW, Brady was one of the pioneers of the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX), and a member of the American Radio Relay League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "STS-78.", "content": "STS-78 launched on June 20, 1996 and landed 16 days and 21 hours later on July 7, 1996, becoming the longest Space Shuttle mission to date. (Later that year the STS-80 mission broke that record by nineteen hours). The Life and Microgravity Spacelab mission served as a model for future studies on board the International Space Station. The mission included studies sponsored by ten nations, and five space agencies, and the international crew included a Frenchman, a Canadian, a Spaniard, and an Italian.  While with NASA, Brady held a number of jobs with the agency's astronaut office. He was chief of space station astronaut training before leaving to return to Navy duty, where he reached the rank of captain. He enjoyed canoeing, kayaking, tennis, biking, and amateur radio operating.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In 2000, Brady was assigned as flight surgeon to Whidbey Island Naval Air Station in Washington state. He retired from the Navy in March 2006, after suffering for years from a severe kind of arthritis. He had enjoyed an active outdoor life and made several expeditions with a ham radio group to small islands in the South Pacific. Brady died on July 28, 2006. He was survived by his fiancée, Susen Oseth, their son, Charles \"Charlie\" Brady III, his mother Ann Brady, and sister Jery Ann Kennedy. His father was deceased. When NASA announced his death, it said he had suffered from a lengthy illness, and this was reported by most major sources. A few days later, the \"Houston Chronicle\" reported the county sheriff's statement that Brady had died of self-inflicted wounds after suffering a long illness related to arthritis. He was buried near his father in Robbins, North Carolina.  It was not until a year later, in the context of reporting on other astronauts, that the media reported more widely that Brady had committed suicide. NASA internal emails related to Brady, which were released under the Freedom of Information Act, documented health issues and noted there was an investigation of his suicide, including interviews with family and friends.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Westport (, historically anglicised as \"Cahernamart\") is a town in County Mayo in Ireland. It is at the south-east corner of Clew Bay, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean on the west coast of Ireland. Westport is a popular tourist destination and scores highly for quality of life. It won the Irish Tidy Towns Competition three times in 2001, 2006 and 2008. In 2012 it won the Best Place to Live in Ireland competition run by \"The Irish Times\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975590}
{"src_title": "Emanuele Filiberto of Savoy, Prince of Venice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Emanuele Filiberto was born in Geneva, Switzerland, the only child of Vittorio Emanuele, a disputed head of the House of Savoy, and his wife, Marina Ricolfi Doria, a Swiss former water ski champion.  On 10 November 2002, he accompanied his father and mother to Italy, following revocation of the provision in the Italian constitution that forbade the male Savoy descendants of kings of Italy from setting foot in the country. On the three-day trip, he accompanied his parents on a visit to the Vatican for a 20-minute audience with Pope John Paul II. He also appeared in a TV commercial for a brand of olives, in which he said they made you \"feel like a king\".  On 10 July 2003, the engagement of Emanuele Filiberto to Clotilde Courau, a French actress, was announced. The couple married on 25 September of that year at the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri in Rome; the bride was about six months pregnant. There were some 1,200 guests at the wedding; among them were Pierre Cardin and Valentino Garavani, who had designed the wedding dress.  Emanuele Filiberto and Clotilde Courau have two daughters: On December 28, 2019, their grandfather announced that the line of succession was to be changed to absolute primogeniture. On the same date he created them Princess of Carignano and Marchioness of Ivrea (Vittoria) and Princess of Chieri and Countess of Salemi (Luisa).  Emanuele Filiberto received the \"America Award\" of the Italy-USA Foundation in 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "In 2015 Emanuele Filiberto engaged in a public spat on Twitter with aristocratic journalist Beatrice Borromeo who broke the story of his father's confession on video regarding the death of Dirk Hamer. Vittorio Emanuele had sued the newspaper for defamation, but in 2015 after it won the case, Borromeo tweeted <nowiki>\"</nowiki>Vincere una causa è sempre piacevole, ma contro Vittorio Emanuele di Savoia la goduria è doppia! (\"Winning a case is always nice, but against Victor Emmanuel of Savoy there is double the pleasure\"), and \"caro @efsavoia goditi questa sentenza\" (\"dear @efsavoia enjoy this judgement\") which provoked Emanuele Filiberto to defend his father. She had earlier publicly confronted him on camera with a copy of a book on the murder by Hamer's sister, whose preface she had written.  In 2018 Emanuele Filiberto revealed that he is contemplating the launch of a royalist party to advocate for restoration of monarchy in Italy. The comment was made during the prince's interview with the news daily \"Libero\", following release of polling data by the \"Istituto Piepoli\" that showed 15 percent of Italians (nearly 12 million people) favor the concept, while eight percent expressed support for Emanuele Filiberto as future king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles and honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles and styles.", "content": "Emanuele Filiberto is, by strict primogeniture in the male-line, the heir apparent of the House of Savoy, Italy's former ruling dynasty. In June 2006 his distant cousin Amedeo, 5th Duke of Aosta, declared himself to be head of the house and rightful Duke of Savoy, maintaining that Vittorio Emanuele had forfeited his dynastic rights when he married Emanuele Filiberto's mother, Marina Ricolfi Doria, in 1971 without the legally required permission of his father and sovereign-in-exile, Umberto II. Emanuele Filiberto and his father applied for judicial intervention to forbid Amedeo from using the title \"Duke of Savoy\". In February 2010, the court of Arezzo ruled that the Duke of Aosta and his son must pay damages totalling 50,000 euros to their cousins and cease using the surname \"Savoy\" instead of \"Savoy-Aosta\". The Duke of Aosta appealed the ruling and the dynastic dispute is still unresolved.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Prince Emanuele Filiberto of Savoy, Prince of Venice (Emanuele Filiberto Umberto Reza Ciro René Maria di Savoia; born 22 June 1972), usually called Emanuele Filiberto di Savoia, is a member of the House of Savoy. He is the son and heir of Vittorio Emanuele di Savoia and only male-line grandson of Umberto II, the last King of Italy. In his latter days, Umberto II created and gave the title of \"Prince of Venice\" to his grandson Emanuele Filiberto, but as heir-apparent to the disputed headship of the House of Savoy, Emanuele Filiberto also styles himself as \"Prince of Piedmont\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975591}
{"src_title": "Gutenstein Alps", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Topography.", "content": "Die Gutenstein Alps are separated in the north from the Vienna Woods by the valleys of the Gölsen and Triesting. In the east they descend to the Vienna Basin. Their boundary with the Rax-Schneeberg Group to the south is formed by the valley of the Sierningbach between Ternitz and Puchberg am Schneeberg, the saddle near the Mamauwiese and the Voisbach and Schwarza valleys. To the west, from the Seebach stream near St. Aegyd am Neuwalde, the boundary with the Türnitz Alps runs along the Unrecht Traisen and the Traisen.  The highest elevations in the Gutenstein Alps are, from west to east:  Near Ebenwald, in the municipality of Kleinzell, is the northernmost thousander in the Alps: the Sengenebenberg (1,104 m).  The eastern part of the Gutenstein Alps is split by the valley of the River Piesting. Other important rivers are the Traisen in the west, the Gölsen and the Triesting in the north and the Schwarza south of the mountain range.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "Most of the Gutenstein Alps consists of limestones of the Eastern Alpine formation (\"Decke\"), in particular, Gutenstein limestone and dolomite from the lower and middle Triassic. These relatively coarse-grained rocks almost always indicate a significant layering (\"Bankung\") and a number of coloured layers. In the southeast and northwest, conglomerate rock from the Cretaceous period is found.  Numerous caves are found in the limestone rock. Of these, the Unicorn Cave in Dreistetten and the Eisenstein Cave in Brunn an der Schneebergbahn are show caves which are accessible to the public.  Gutenstein dolomite is so named after its occurrence in this region. It may be fine and coarse-grained and contain siliceous or argillaceous components. The gray to brown, usually layered sediment was formed in the lagoons of the Triassic and is related to Bunt dolomite. Its highly variable forms are common in the west as far as the Dachstein Mountains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landscape and settlement.", "content": "With the exception of the Piesting valley (municipalities of Gutenstein, Pernitz, Markt Piesting) and the Puchberg Basin, only the valleys on the edge of the Gutenstein Alps and the plains on the eastern edge are densely populated. Important places are Traisen, Hainfeld and Berndorf in the north, Wöllersdorf, Neunkirchen and Ternitz in the east, and St. Aegyd am Neuwalde and Lilienfeld in the west.  Most of the Gutenstein Alps is heavily wooded and is used for forestry. Spruce and larch dominate the higher places. Lower down the mountains, beech is the dominant species together with pine in the drier areas. The district of Lilienfeld, which incorporates the northwestern part of the Gutenstein Alps, has the highest percentage of forest of all the districts in Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The Gutenstein Alps are an important recreational area for the population of the urban areas of Vienna, Wiener Neustadt and St. Pölten. In particular, the Hohe Wand in the east is accessible by a variety of paths, scrambles and climbs, and has numerous mountain inns and huts. Especially popular are the Myra Falls and Steinwandklamm Gorge (between Pernitz and Furth). There are ski slopes in the area of the Muckenkogel near Lilienfeld and in the south-eastern of the Unterberg.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gutenstein Alps () are a mountain range in the Eastern Alps in Central Europe, and the northeasternmost part of the Northern Limestone Alps, reaching heights over 1,000 m.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975592}
{"src_title": "Wrocław Główny railway station", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "The main gate is located north of the station, on Piłsudski street (), with two additional entrances located at either end of the main hall. The back gate is located on the far side of the tracks, in the south facing Sucha street. The station has six parallel platforms (platforms I through IV with two tracks, platform V with one track and one short one, platform VI with one track). Each has two subway exits, which lead to the main hall. Since all platforms and tracks are above the street level, the tunnels are located at the same level as outside pavements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The station was built in 1855 - 1857, as the starting point of the \"Oberschlesische Eisenbahn\" (Upper Silesian Railway), as well as the line from Breslau to Glogau via Posen. It replaced the earlier complex of the \"Oberschlesischer Bahnhof\" (Upper Silesian Railway Station, built 1841-1842). Its designer was the royal Prussian architect Wilhelm Grapow, and in the mid-19th century, it was located near the southern outskirts of the city, as the areas to the south had not yet been urbanized. The original concourse was located where the passenger hall now is, and was adjacent to the station yard. When construction finished in the mid-19th century, the station only had one platform, but the platform hall was some 200 metres long, and it was regarded as one of the biggest structures of this kind in Europe. By the entrances were luggage lockers, telephone and telegraph facilities. In the station complex was a restaurant and three waiting rooms (1st, 2nd, and 3rd class). There was also a special room and a separate hallway for VIPs.  In the late 19th century, when the government of the German Empire heavily invested in railway construction, the station was extended. Prices of real estate around the station grew, as the city began to develop southwards. In 1899, the construction of five new platforms began, four of them covered by a large roof. The number of passenger platforms within the station grew to 13 and all were elevated. The facade of the main hall was remodelled in 1899–1904.  During World War II, Polish resistance from the group Zagra-Lin successfully attacked a Nazi troop transport on the station on 23 April 1943. A commemorative plate honouring their actions was placed after Nazi Germany was defeated and Breslau, together with Silesia, was incorporated into Poland, its German population expelled. After the war, Breslau Central (\"Breslau Hauptbahnhof\") was renamed Wroclaw Central (\"Wrocław Główny\").  On 8 January 1967, the popular Polish actor Zbigniew Cybulski died on platform 3. Cybulski was trying to jump into a train that was already departing, but fell instead under its wheels. On the 30th anniversary of this event, Andrzej Wajda unveiled a plaque on the platform in memory of Cybulski.  In 2010-2012 the station was extensively refurbished for the Euro 2012 championships.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Train services.", "content": "Train services are operated by PKP Intercity, Przewozy Regionalne and Koleje Dolnośląskie.  Until mid-December 2014 the station was also served by EuroCity \"Wawel\", which used to run once daily between Berlin Hauptbahnhof and Wrocław Główny, formerly even further to Kraków Główny.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Long Distance International.", "content": "'ÖBB Nightjet\"- Berlin-Charlottenburg – Berlin Hbf – Frankfurt – Wrocław – Ostrava – Vienna - One train pair daily  LEO Praha Hlavny - Pardubice - Wrocław - Friday, Saturday, Sunday", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Wrocław Główny (Polish for \"Wrocław main station\") is the largest and most important passenger station of the southwestern Polish city of Wrocław. Built in the mid-19th century near the centre of the city, until 1945 it was known as \"Breslau Hauptbahnhof\" (\"Breslau Main station\"). It also is the largest railway station of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, located at the junction of several important routes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975593}
{"src_title": "Citrullus colocynthis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin, distribution, and ecology.", "content": "\"C. colocynthis\" is a desert viny plant that grows in sandy, arid soils. It is native to the Mediterranean Basin and Asia, and is distributed among the west coast of northern Africa, eastward through the Sahara, Egypt until India, and reaches also the north coast of the Mediterranean and the Caspian Seas. It grows also in southern European countries as in Spain and on the islands of the Grecian archipelago. On the island of Cyprus, it is cultivated on a small scale; it has been an income source since the 14th century and is still exported today. It is an annual or a perennial plant (in wild) in Indian arid zones and has a great survival rate under extreme xeric conditions. In fact, it can tolerate annual precipitation of 250 to 1500 mm and an annual temperature of 14.8 to 27.8 °C. It grows from sea level up to 1500 meters above sea level on sandy loam, subdesert soils, and sandy sea coasts with a pH range between 5.0 and 7.8.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics and morphology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roots and stems.", "content": "The roots are large, fleshy, and perennial, leading to a high survival rate due to the long tap root. The vine-like stems spread in all directions for a few meters looking for something over which to climb. If present, shrubs and herbs are preferred and climbed by means of auxiliary branching tendrils.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leaves.", "content": "Very similar to watermelon, the leaves are palmate and angular with three to seven divided lobes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "The flowers are yellow and solitary in the axes of leaves and are borne by yellow-greenish peduncles. Each has a subcampanulated five-lobed corolla and a five-parted calyx. They are monoecious, so the male (stamens) and the female reproductive parts (pistils and ovary) are borne in different flowers on the same plant. The male flowers’ calyx is shorter than the corolla. They have five stamens, four of which are coupled and one is single with monadelphous anther. The female flowers have three staminoids and a three-carpel ovary. The two sexes are distinguishable by observing the globular and hairy inferior ovary of the female flowers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fruits.", "content": "The fruit is smooth, spheric with a 5– to 10-cm-diameter and extremely bitter taste. The calyx englobe the yellow-green fruit which becomes marble (yellow stripes) at maturity. The mesocarp is filled with a soft, dry, and spongy white pulp, in which the seeds are embedded. Each of the three carpels bears six seeds. Each plant produces 15 to 30 fruits.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Seeds.", "content": "The seeds are grey and 5 mm long by 3 mm wide. They are edible but similarly bitter, nutty-flavored, and rich in fat and protein. They are eaten whole or used as an oilseed. The oil content of the seeds is 17–19% (w/w), consisting of 67–73% linoleic acid, 10–16% oleic acid, 5–8% stearic acid, and 9–12% palmitic acid. The oil yield is about 400 l/hectare. In addition, the seeds contain a high amount of arginine, tryptophan, and the sulfur-containing amino acids.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"C. colocynthis\", a perennial plant, can propagate both by generative and vegetative means. However, seed germination is poor due to the extreme xeric conditions, so vegetative propagation is more common and successful in nature. In the Indian arid zone, growth takes place between January and October, but the most favorable period for the vegetative growth is during summer, which coincides with the rainy season. Growth declines as soon as the rains and the temperature decrease and almost stops during the cold and dry months of December and January. Colocynth prefers sandy soils and is a good example of good water management which may be useful also on research to better understand how desert plants react to water stress. To enhance production, an organic fertilizer can be applied. Colocynth is also commonly cultivated together with cassava (intercropping) in Nigeria. Cultivated colocynth suffers of climatic stress and diseases such as cucumber mosaic virus, melon mosaic virus, \"Fusarium\" wilt, etc. as any other crop. To improve it, a relatively new protocol for regeneration has been developed with the aim of incorporating disease and stress resistance to increase yield potential and security avoiding interspecific hybridization barriers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "\"C. colocynthis\" can be eaten or elaborated for further uses in medicine and as energy source, e.g. oilseed and biofuel. The characteristic small seed of the colocynth have been found in several early archeological sites in northern Africa and the Near East, specifically at Neolithic Armant, Nagada in Egypt; at sites dating from 3800 BC to Roman times in Libya; and the pre-pottery Neolithic levels of the Nahal Hemar caves in Israel. Zohary and Hopf speculate, \"these finds indicate that the wild colocynth was very probably used by humans prior to its domestication.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "Colocynth has been widely used in traditional medicine for centuries. In premodern European medicine, it was an ingredient in the electuary called \"confectio hamech\", or diacatholicon, and other laxative pills.  In Arabia the colocynth had numerous uses in traditional medicine, such as a laxative, diuretic, or for insect bites. The powder of colocynth was sometimes used externally with aloes, unguents, or bandages. Troches made of colocynth were called \"troches of alhandal\" used as an emetic.  In traditional Arab veterinary medicine, colocynth sap was used to treat skin eruptions in camels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culinary uses.", "content": "The seeds of colocynth, which must be heated to make edible, have been used since antiquity as a food source in areas of the Sahara and Sahel where crops frequently fail or regular farming is impossible. The enigmatic early Egyptian ceramic Clayton rings found in the Western Desert may have been portable ovens for roasting colocynth seeds. The desert Bedouin are said to make a type of bread from the ground seeds. The closely related watermelon (\"Citrullus lanatus\" (Thunb)) was domesticated in Ancient Egypt, and may have been developed for edible seed from cultivated colocynth. In West Africa, some confusion exists between this species and watermelon, whose seeds may be used in much the same way. In particular, the name \"egusi\" may refer to either or both plants (or more generically to other cucurbits) in their capacity as seed crops, or to a popular soup made from these seeds. The seed flour is rich in micronutrients, and could therefore be used in food formulations especially in regions with endemic micronutrient deficiencies, such as West Africa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses and research.", "content": "The oil obtained from the seeds (47%) can be used for soap production. The production is not very time- and energy-consuming due to the ability of colocynth to grow on poor soils with just a little moisture and organic fertilizer. The fruits are harvested still unripe by hand, the rind is removed by peeling and the inner pulp filled with seeds is dried in the sun or in ovens. The seeds yield is about 6.7-10 t/ha, which means that for an oil profit of 31-47%, oil yields may reach up to 3 t/ha.  Oleic and linoleic acids isolated from \"C. colocynthis\" petroleum ether extracts show larvicidal activity against mosquitoes.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Citrullus colocynthis, with many common names including colocynth, bitter apple, bitter cucumber, desert gourd, egusi, vine of Sodom, or wild gourd, is a desert viny plant native to the Mediterranean Basin and Asia, especially Turkey (especially in regions such as İzmir), and Nubia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975594}
{"src_title": "Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The 16th Karmapa was born in Denkhok in the Dergé province in Eastern Tibet, Kham, near the Dri Chu or Yangtze River. The previous Karmapa Khakhyab Dorje (1871-1922) left a letter setting forth the circumstances of his next incarnation. The Karmapa's attendant, Jampal Tsultrim, possessed the letter of prediction, which matched exactly with the proceeding the 11th Tai Situpa was already undertaking to find the 16th Karmapa Rangjung Rigpe Dorje.  He was taken to the Palpung Monastery where the 11th Tai Situpa, Pema Wangchok, gave him ordination, the Bodhisattva vows and many teachings. Beru Khyentse Lodro Miza Pampa'i Gocha taught him the tantras. Bo Kangkar Rinpoche taught him the sutras. Jamgon Palden Kyentse Oser taught him Mahamudra and the Six Yogas of Naropa. He regarded the 11th Tai Situpa, Pema Wangchok, and the 2nd Jamgön Kongtrül Khyentse Öser as his root gurus. In 1931, at the age of seven, he performed his first Black Crown ceremony. He received his hair cutting ceremony at age thirteen from Thubten Gyatso, 13th Dalai Lama.  During his education he received all the Kagyu transmissions and was also taught by the Sakya Trizin for many years. In the beginning of 1940 he went into retreat, and in 1947 started a pilgrimage to India together with Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama. Rangjung continued his education with the 10th Mindrolling Trichen of the Nyingma School and it was concluded with the Kalachakra initiation of the Gelugpa School. Rangjung had therefore received all the major teachings of all the major Tibetan Buddhist schools.  The 16th Karmapa continued his predecessor's activities, travelling and teaching throughout Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal, Sikkim, India and parts of China. His activity also included locating the rebirths of high reincarnate lamas spontaneously, without meditation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Escape from Tibet.", "content": "Political circumstances altered Tibet radically with the 1950 takeover by China. Karmapa, along with the Dalai Lama, government officials, and other high lamas, attended talks in Beijing to negotiate a settlement. This succeeded for a while, but in 1959 the Chinese government insisted on land reform, and the conflict with the lamas who owned a lot of land accelerated.  In February of that year Karmapa took 160 students from Tsurphu Monastery and escaped to Bhutan, taking the lineage's most sacred treasures and relics with them.  Tashi Namgyal, the King of Sikkim, offered land to the Karmapa near the site where the 14th Karmapa had established a monastery. It was here that his new seat, Rumtek Monastery, was built in 1966. The traditional seat of the Karmapa, Tsurphu Monastery, still exists, but the number of monks is restricted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Focus on the West.", "content": "In the beginning of the 1970s the Karmapa made the prediction that Tibet would have a hard struggle gaining independence and even if it did, it would not allow the refugees to return. Rumtek would not be a good place either, and although Sikkim and Bhutan are still stable, they can deteriorate as well. However the Western world will embrace Buddhism, so he sent Lama Gendün to Europe.  In 1974, with the help of Freda Bedi, he embarked on his first world tour. On September 15, The Karmapa left Rumtek with an entourage of Tulkus and monks, including Tenga Rinpoche, Bardor Tulku Rinpoche and Lama Jigme Rinpoche. He was welcomed in London September 17, by Chime Rinpoche, Akong Rinpoche and others, including Hannah Nydahl and Lama Ole Nydahl. The Karmapa traveled to Europe, Canada and the United States, where he was welcomed by Chögyam Trungpa. He established Dhagpo Kagyu Ling in France as the central seat of activity, gave several Black Crown ceremonies, and attended an audience granted by Pope Paul VI. In 1976-77 he began a more exhaustive tour, giving extensive teachings, visiting nearly every major city in Europe.  In May of 1980, Karmapa again visited the West, stopping for lectures and ceremonies in London, New York, San Francisco, and Boulder, Colorado.  The sixteenth Karmapa helped foster the transmission of Tibetan Buddhism to the West. He established Dharma centers and monasteries in various places around the world in order to protect, preserve, and spread Buddha's teachings. As part of an initiative by the Tibetan government-in-exile to consolidate the organizations of Tibetan Buddhism, Rangjung Rigpe Dorje became the first formal head of the Kagyu School, although the earlier Karmapas had long been considered the most prestigious and authoritative lamas of that school.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In 1980-81 the Karmapa began his last world tour, giving teachings, interviews and empowerments in South East Asia, Greece, Great Britain, Canada and the United States. Rangjung Rigpei Dorjé died on November 5, 1981 in the United States in a hospital in Zion, Illinois. Doctors and nurses at the hospital remarked on his kindness and how he seemed more concerned with their welfare than his own.  According to buddhism-affiliated sources, one doctor was also struck by the Karmapa's refusal of pain medication and the absence of any signs of feeling the profound pain that most patients in his condition report. Upon his death, against hospital procedure but in keeping with Tibetan tradition and with special permission from the State of Illinois, his body was left in the hospital for three days.  He was cremated in Rumtek.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Like his predecessors, he was primarily a spiritual figure and therefore not involved in politics. He instead made efforts to keep the spiritual traditions of Tibet intact and in this way helped to preserve the identity of Tibet as a unique and individual culture.  Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, as with all other Karmapas and tulkus, is accepted by Tibetan Buddhists as a manifestation of an enlightened being.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The sixteenth Gyalwa Karmapa, Rangjung Rigpe Dorje (August 14, 1924 – November 5, 1981) (Wylie Rang 'byung rig pa'i rdo rje) was spiritual leader of the Karma Kagyu lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, and was also consulted by high lamas of other lineages. He was given many names expressing this respect, including “King of the Yogis”.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975595}
{"src_title": "Bent Pyramid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Archaeologists now believe that the Bent Pyramid represents a transitional form between step-sided and smooth-sided pyramids (see Step pyramid). It has been suggested that due to the steepness of the original angle of inclination the structure may have begun to show signs of instability during construction, forcing the builders to adopt a shallower angle to avert the structure's collapse. This theory appears to be borne out by the fact that the adjacent Red Pyramid, built immediately afterwards by the same Pharaoh, was constructed at an angle of 43 degrees from its base. This fact also contradicts the theory that at the initial angle the construction would take too long because Sneferu's death was nearing, so the builders changed the angle to complete the construction in time. In 1974 Kurt Mendelssohn suggested the change of the angle to have been made as a security precaution in reaction to a catastrophic collapse of the Meidum Pyramid while it was still under construction.  It is also unique amongst the approximately ninety pyramids to be found in Egypt, in that its original polished limestone outer casing remains largely intact. British structural engineer Peter James attributes this to larger clearances between the parts of the casing than used in later pyramids; these imperfections would work as expansion joints and prevent the successive destruction of the outer casing by thermal expansion.  The ancient formal name of the Bent Pyramid is generally translated as \"(The)-Southern-Shining-Pyramid,\" or \"Sneferu-(is)-Shining-in-the-South\". In July 2019, Egypt decided to open the Bent Pyramid for tourism for the first time since 1965. Tourists will be able to reach two 4600-year-old chambers through a 79-metre narrow tunnel built from the northern entrance of the pyramid. The 18-metre-high \"side pyramid\", which is assumed to have been built for Sneferu's wife Hetepheres will also be accessible. It is the first time this adjacent pyramid has been opened to the public since its excavation in 1956.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior passages.", "content": "The Bent Pyramid has two entrances, one fairly low down on the north side, to which a substantial wooden stairway has been built for the convenience of tourists. The second entrance is high on the west face of the pyramid. Each entrance leads to a chamber with a high, corbelled roof; the northern entrance leads to a chamber that is below ground level, the western to a chamber built in the body of the pyramid itself. A hole in the roof of the northern chamber (accessed today by a high and rickety ladder long) leads via a rough connecting passage to the passage from the western entrance.  The western entrance passage is blocked by two stone blocks which were not lowered vertically, as in other pyramids, but slid down 45° ramps to block the passage. One of these was lowered in antiquity and a hole has been cut through it, the other remains propped up by a piece of ancient cedar wood. The connecting passage referenced above enters the passage between the two portcullises.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pyramid temple.", "content": "On the east side of the pyramid there are the fragmentary remains of the pyramid temple. Like the pyramid temple of the Meidum pyramid, there are two stelae behind the temple, though of these only stumps remain. There is no trace of inscription to be seen. The temple remains are fragmentary but it is presumed to be similar to that of the Meidum temple.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Satellite pyramid.", "content": "A satellite pyramid, suggested by some Egyptologists to have been built to house the pharaoh's \"ka\", is located 55 metres south of the Bent Pyramid. The satellite pyramid originally measured 26 metres in height and 52.80 metres in length, with faces inclining 44°30'. The structure is made of limestone blocks, relatively thick, arranged in horizontal rows and covered with a layer of fine limestone from Tura. The burial chamber is accessible from a descending corridor with its entrance located 1.10 metres above the ground in the middle of the north face. The corridor, inclined at 34°, originally measured 11.60 metres in length. A short horizontal passage connects the corridor with an ascending corridor, inclined at 32° 30', leading up to the chamber.  The design of the corridors is similar to the one found in the Great Pyramid of Giza, where the Grand Gallery takes up the place of the ascending corridor. The corridor leads up to the burial chamber (called this despite that it most probably never contained any sarcophagus). The chamber, located in the center of the pyramid, has a corbel vault ceiling and contains a four metres deep shaft, probably dug by treasure hunters, in the southeast part of the chamber.  Like the main pyramid, the satellite had its own altar with two stelae located at the eastern side.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bent Pyramid is an ancient Egyptian pyramid located at the royal necropolis of Dahshur, approximately 40 kilometres south of Cairo, built under the Old Kingdom Pharaoh Sneferu (c. 2600 BC). A unique example of early pyramid development in Egypt, this was the second pyramid built by Sneferu.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975596}
{"src_title": "Stanislav Cherchesov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "The goalkeeper played 57 matches in the German top-flight for former East German powerhouse Dynamo Dresden a couple of years after reunification between East and West.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Cherchesov played for Russia at the 1994 World Cup and 1996 Euro. He made 39 appearances for the team after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Cherchesov also made one appearance for the FIFA team in the charity game against America in 1995, and for Europe vs Africa in 1997.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Managerial career.", "content": "Cherchesov was the manager of FC Kufstein from January to November 2004 and the manager of FC Wacker Tirol from November 2004 to May 2006. In June 2006 – June 2007 he was the sporting director of FC Spartak Moscow. From 19 June 2007 to 14 August 2008 he was the manager of FC Spartak Moscow. Manager of Amkar Perm since June 2013 to April 2014.  On 8 April 2014, Cherchesov left Amkar Perm.  On 9 April 2014, Cherchesov was named as manager of FC Dynamo Moscow replacing Dan Petrescu. He left Dynamo by mutual consent on 13 July 2015.  On 6 October 2015, he became the manager of Polish side Legia Warsaw. That season he won the top Polish professional league championship and Cup double for Legia Warsaw  In August 2016, Cherchesov was named as the new head coach of Russia on a two-year contract through to the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Under his management Russia would beat Saudi Arabia 5–0, Egypt 3–1, and Spain 1-1 (pen. 4-3), reaching the quarterfinals for the first time since 1970. He has become the first ever Russian manager, since the collapse of USSR, to bring Russia into the knockout stage of a major tournament for the second time (Dutchman Guus Hiddink led Russia to the UEFA Euro 2008 semi-finals), which others like Pavel Sadyrin, Oleg Romantsev, Georgi Yartsev and Leonid Slutsky have failed to do.  On 27 July 2018, he signed a new contract with the Russian national team, on a two-year term with a further two-year extension option. On 12 March 2020, he extended the contract until 30 December 2022. It will be extended to 31 July 2024 if Russia qualifies for the knockout stage at the 2022 FIFA World Cup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Cherchesov is married and has two children. His son, Stanislav, is also a goalkeeper. Having taken career in Germany and Austria, he has learnt to speak fluent German and has taken up coaching education in Germany.  He was named \"Coach of the Year\" in the nomination \"Pride of Russia\" by the Ministry of Sport of Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Player.", "content": "Spartak Moscow  FC Tirol Insbruck  Individual", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manager.", "content": "Legia Warsaw  Russia", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Stanislav Salamovich Cherchesov (, / Ĉerĉesty Salamy fyrt Stanislav; born 2 September 1963) is a Russian football manager and former international footballer of Ossetian descent who played as a goalkeeper for USSR and Russia. In August 2016 he was appointed as head coach of the Russia national team and helped his team reach the quarter-finals of the 2018 FIFA World Cup.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975597}
{"src_title": "Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born at Montaigu (Vendée), the son of J. B. de la Révellière. He adopted the name Lépeaux from a small property belonging to his family, and he was known locally as M. de Lépeaux. He studied law at Angers and Paris, being called to the bar in 1775. A deputy to the Estates-General of 1789, he returned at the close of the session to Angers, where with his school-friends J. B. Leclerc and Urbain-René Pilastre he sat on the council of Maine-et-Loire, and had to deal with the first Vendéen outbreaks. In 1792 he was returned by the \"département\" to the Convention, and on 19 November he proposed the famous decree by which France offered protection to foreign nations in their struggle for liberty.  Although La Révellière-Lépeaux voted for the death of Louis XVI, he was not in general agreement with the extremists. He was proscribed with the Girondins in 1793, and remained in hiding until the revolt of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794). After serving on the commission to prepare the initiation of the new constitution he became in July 1795 president of the Assembly, and shortly afterwards a member of the Committee of Public Safety. His name stood first on the list of directors elected, and he became president of the Directory.  Of his colleagues he was in alliance with Jean-François Rewbell and to a lesser degree with Barras, but the greatest of his fellow-directors, Lazare Carnot, was the object of his undying hatred. His policy was marked by a bitter hostility to the Christian religion, which he proposed to supplant as a civilizing agent by theophilanthropy, a new religion invented by the English deist David Williams. The credit of the \"coup d'état\" of 18 Fructidor (4 September 1797), by which the allied directors made themselves supreme, La Révellière-Lépeaux arrogated to himself in his \"Mémoires\", which in this as in other matters must be read with caution.  Compelled to resign by the Coup of 30 Prairial Year VII (18 June 1799), he lived in retirement in the country, and took no further part in public affairs even after his return to Paris ten years later.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux (24 August 1753 – 24 March 1824) was a deputy to the National Convention during the French Revolution. He later served as a prominent leader of the French Directory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975598}
{"src_title": "Norbert Hofer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Hofer was born in Vorau, Austria, the son of a local Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) councillor and electric power station director. He was raised in a middle-class family in Pinkafeld, Burgenland.  He finished secondary school at the HTBLA Eisenstadt with specialization in aeronautics. From 1990 until 1991, Hofer fulfilled his military service. From 1991 until 1994 he worked as an aeronautical engineer at Lauda Air Engineering.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Hofer worked his way up the ranks of the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) and became a close advisor to Heinz-Christian Strache, who took over the leadership of the Freedom Party from Jörg Haider in 2005.  From 1996 to 2007, Hofer was provincial party secretary of the FPÖ in Burgenland and, from 1997 to 2007, council member of the City of Eisenstadt. Since 2006 he has been deputy regional party chairman. From 2008 to 2012, Hofer served as vice president for Burgenland of the Österreichischer Zivilinvalidenverband. He was energy and environmental speaker from 2006 to 2015, as well as FPÖ spokesman for the disabled in the National Council.  Hofer became Third President of Austria's National Council on 29 October 2013. He succeeded Martin Graf in this function.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Austrian presidential election, 2016.", "content": "On 28 January 2016, the FPÖ presented him as its candidate for the 2016 presidential elections. He won the first round of the election, held on 24 April. He placed close second in a neck-and-neck race with Alexander Van der Bellen, the former Green Party spokesman.  He ran on his promise of \"putting Austria first\" and received the highest number of votes in the first round with 35.1 percent, putting him in a runoff. 24 April vote total was the best-ever result for the Freedom Party at federal level since 1956. Hofer benefited from the recent migrant crisis, where around 90,000 migrants applied for asylum in Austria, straining the country's resources and public empathy. The Freedom Party had opposed the government's original \"welcoming culture\" and during the summer of 2015 began to lead opinion polls.  Hofer campaigned to dissolve Parliament in order to call new elections. During the campaign he also stated that he would refuse to approve certain laws, such as a planned free-trade agreement between the European Union and the United States, and that he may attend, along with Austrian Chancellor Werner Faymann, EU summits.  Right-wing parties and politicians across Western Europe celebrated Hofer's first-place finish. Those parties and politicians included: Marine Le Pen of France's National Front; Frauke Petry of Alternative for Germany; Geert Wilders of the Dutch Party for Freedom; and Matteo Salvini of Italy's Lega Nord. The second round election was held on 22 May 2016, with 49.7% of votes cast for Hofer while Van der Bellen, his opponent, received 50.3%, – a margin of victory of only 30,863. Evidence was subsequently presented to the Constitutional Court of Austria that approximately 78,000 absentee ballots were improperly counted too early, which theoretically could have influenced or altered the outcome. Consequently, on 1 July, the Court annulled the second round results and thereby precluded Van der Bellen being sworn into office, and ordered the election be re-run. Incumbent president Heinz Fischer left office on 8 July, and so the three presidents of the National Council – Doris Bures (Social Democratic Party of Austria), Karlheinz Kopf (ÖVP) and Hofer – became joint acting presidents of Austria.  The Court-ordered election was held on 4 December 2016, with Van der Bellen again emerging as the victor. Despite predictions that election fatigue and cold temperatures would lead to a reduction in participation, voter turnout actually increased from 72.7% in May to 73.8%; expectations for a similarly-close result also proved wrong, with the margin of victory for Van der Bellen increasing by approximately a factor of ten as he was supported by around 53.3% of voters. Hofer conceded soon after the first exit polls were reported, posting on Facebook: \"I congratulate Alexander Van der Bellen for his success and ask all Austrians to pull together and work together\" and added that he \"would have liked to look after Austria\" and confirmed his intention to run again in 2022. His campaign manager, Herbert Kickl, who is also the secretary of the Freedom party, attributed the defeat to \"the establishment – which pitched in once again to block, to stonewall and to prevent renewal.\" Hofer remained as joint acting President until Van der Bellen was sworn into office, which is due to occur on 26 January 2017. Political scientist Farid Hafez argued that nevertheless, it was a huge success for the FPÖ and Norbert Hofer to reach 47% of the votes, while normally, the FPÖ reaches up to 30% at most at a national parliamentary election.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Federal minister.", "content": "The FPÖ performed well in the 2017 Austrian legislative election, and it formed a government coalition with the Austrian People's Party. Hofer was chosen to lead the Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Private career.", "content": "Hofer serves on the board of directors of Eurosolar Austria, has served on the boards of Mapjet AG (2010–2011) and International Sky Services AG (2011–2012) and was executive chairman of PAF private trust (2011–2012).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideology and political positions.", "content": "Most mainstream press sources describe Hofer as \"far-right\". Writer Michael Toner of the centrist online news publication \"International Business Times\" referred to Hofer as a neo-fascist. However, other media outlets and political commentators have referred to Hofer as the face of the more moderate wing of the FPÖ and less hard-line compared to former party leader Heinz-Christian Strache.  Hofer himself has stated that he is not a nationalist but a patriot, and that the FPÖ is not an extreme-right movement but \"a centre-right party with a high degree of social responsibility.” He has also cited former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher as one of his political influences.  In February 2015, Hofer proposed that South Tyrol, an autonomous German-speaking province administered by Italy and formerly part of Austria-Hungary, should be absorbed into Austria. In 2016, Hofer stated that he would want Austria to hold a referendum on its membership of the European Union if the European Parliament were to assume more powers or Turkey acceded to the bloc. Hofer has also defended the right to gun ownership.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Hofer is in his second marriage and has four children – two daughters, Anna-Sophie and Vivien and two sons, Yanik and Jeremie. He was raised as a Catholic but converted to Protestantism; his wife and children are Catholic. His main residence is in southern Burgenland.  Hofer is an honorary member of the conservative school fraternity (\"pennal-conservative Burschenschaft\") \"Marko-Germania zu Pinkafeld\" and an honorary knight of the Ancient Order of St. George.  In August 2003 Hofer crashed a paraglider in Stubenberg and received severe spinal injuries. He engaged in six months of rehabilitation, moving from a wheelchair to the use of a cane to walk.  He is a gun enthusiast and carries a Glock handgun.  In addition to his native German, Hofer also speaks English.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Norbert Gerwald Hofer (; born 2 March 1971) is an Austrian politician serving as the leader of the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) since September 2019. Prior to that, he was Third President of the National Council from 2013 to 2017, his party's candidate in the 2016 Austrian presidential election and Minister for Transport, Innovation and Technology in the first Kurz government from 2017 until 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975599}
{"src_title": "Immunoassay", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Principle.", "content": "Immunoassays rely on the ability of an antibody to recognize and bind a specific macromolecule in what might be a complex mixture of macromolecules. In immunology the particular macromolecule bound by an antibody is referred to as an antigen and the area on an antigen to which the antibody binds is called an epitope.  In some cases, an immunoassay may use an antigen to detect for the presence of antibodies, which recognize that antigen, in a solution. In other words, in some immunoassays, the analyte may be an antibody rather than an antigen.  In addition to the binding of an antibody to its antigen, the other key feature of all immunoassays is a means to produce a measurable signal in response to the binding. Most, though not all, immunoassays involve chemically linking antibodies or antigens with some kind of detectable label. A large number of labels exist in modern immunoassays, and they allow for detection through different means. Many labels are detectable because they either emit radiation, produce a color change in a solution, fluoresce under light, or can be induced to emit light.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Rosalyn Sussman Yalow and Solomon Berson are credited with the development of the first immunoassays in the 1950s. Yalow accepted the Nobel Prize for her work in immunoassays in 1977, becoming the second American woman to have won the award.  Immunoassays became considerably simpler to perform and more popular when techniques for chemically linked enzymes to antibodies were demonstrated in the late 1960s.  In 1983, Professor Anthony Campbell at Cardiff University replaced radioactive iodine used in immunoassay with an acridinium ester that makes its own light: chemiluminescence. This type of immunoassay is now used in around 100 million clinical tests every year worldwide, enabling clinicians to measure a wide range of proteins, pathogens and other molecules in blood samples.  By 2012, the commercial immunoassay industry earned and was thought to have prospects of slow annual growth in the 2 to 3 percent range.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Labels.", "content": "Immunoassays employ a variety of different labels to allow for detection of antibodies and antigens. Labels are typically chemically linked or conjugated to the desired antibody or antigen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Enzymes.", "content": "Possibly one of the most popular labels to use in immunoassays is enzymes. Immunoassays which employ enzymes are referred to as enzyme immunoassays (EIAs), of which enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT) are the most common types.  Enzymes used in ELISAs include horseradish peroxidase (HRP), alkaline phosphatase (AP) or glucose oxidase. These enzymes allow for detection often because they produce an observable color change in the presence of certain reagents. In some cases these enzymes are exposed to reagents which cause them to produce light or Chemiluminescence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Radioactive isotopes.", "content": "Radioactive isotopes can be incorporated into immunoassay reagents to produce a radioimmunoassay (RIA). Radioactivity emitted by bound antibody-antigen complexes can be easily detected using conventional methods.  RIAs were some of the earliest immunoassays developed, but have fallen out of favor largely due to the difficulty and potential dangers presented by working with radioactivity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "DNA reporters.", "content": "A newer approach to immunoassays involves combining real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT qPCR) and traditional immunoassay techniques. Called real-time immunoquantitative PCR (iqPCR) the label used in these assays is a DNA probe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fluorogenic reporters.", "content": "Fluorogenic reporters like phycoerythrin are used in a number of modern immunoassays. Protein microarrays are a type of immunoassay that often employ fluorogenic reporters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electrochemiluminescent tags.", "content": "Some labels work via electrochemiluminescence, in which the label emits detectable light in response to electric current.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Label-free immunoassays.", "content": "While some kind of label is generally employed in immunoassays, there are certain kinds of assays which do not rely on labels, but instead employ detection methods that don't require the modification or labeling the components of the assay. Surface plasmon resonance is an example of technique that can detect binding between an unlabeled antibody and antigens. Another demonstrated labeless immunoassay involves measuring the change in resistance on an electrode as antigens bind to it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classifications and formats.", "content": "Immunoassays can be run in a number of different formats. Generally, an immunoassay will fall into one of several categories depending on how it is run.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competitive, homogeneous immunoassays.", "content": "In a competitive, homogeneous immunoassay, unlabelled analyte in a sample competes with labelled analyte to bind an antibody. The amount of labelled, unbound analyte is then measured. In theory, the more analyte in the sample, the more labelled analyte gets displaced and then measured; hence, the amount of labelled, unbound analyte is proportional to the amount of analyte in the sample.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Competitive, heterogeneous immunoassays.", "content": "As in a competitive, homogeneous immunoassay, unlabelled analyte in a sample competes with labelled analyte to bind an antibody. In the heterogeneous assays, the labelled, unbound analyte is separated or washed away, and the remaining labelled, bound analyte is measured.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "One-site, noncompetitive immunoassays.", "content": "The unknown analyte in the sample binds with labelled antibodies. The unbound, labelled antibodies are washed away, and the bound, labelled antibodies are measured. The intensity of the signal is directly proportional to the amount of unknown analyte.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Two-site, noncompetitive immunoassays.", "content": "The analyte in the unknown sample is bound to the antibody site, then the labelled antibody is bound to the analyte. The amount of labelled antibody on the site is then measured. It will be directly proportional to the concentration of the analyte because the labelled antibody will not bind if the analyte is not present in the unknown sample. This type of immunoassay is also known as a sandwich assay as the analyte is \"sandwiched\" between two antibodies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical tests.", "content": "A wide range of medical tests are immunoassays, called immunodiagnostics in this context. Many home pregnancy tests are immunoassays, which detect the pregnancy marker human chorionic gonadotropin. Other clinical immunoassays include tests that measure levels of CK-MB to assess heart disease, insulin to assess hypoglycemia, prostate-specific antigen to detect prostate cancer, and some are also used for the detection and/or quantitative measurement of some pharmaceutical compounds (see Enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique for more details).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports anti-doping analysis.", "content": "Immunoassays are used in sports anti-doping laboratories to test athletes' blood samples for prohibited recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH, rGH, hGH, GH).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photoacoustic Immunoassay.", "content": "The photoacoustic immunoassay measures low-frequency acoustic signals generated by metal nanoparticle tags. Illuminated by a modulated light at a plasmon resonance wavelength, the nanoparticles generate strong acoustic signal, which can be measured using a microphone. The photoacoustic immunoassay can be applied to lateral flow tests, which use colloidal nanoparticles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "\"The Immunoassay Handbook\", 3rd Edition, David Wild, Ed., Elsevier,2008", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An immunoassay is a biochemical test that measures the presence or concentration of a macromolecule or a small molecule in a solution through the use of an antibody (usually) or an antigen (sometimes). The molecule detected by the immunoassay is often referred to as an \"analyte\" and is in many cases a protein, although it may be other kinds of molecules, of different size and types, as long as the proper antibodies that have the adequate properties for the assay are developed. Analytes in biological liquids such as serum or urine are frequently measured using immunoassays for medical and research purposes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975600}
{"src_title": "Malayan tapir", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "General appearance and characteristics.", "content": "The animal is easily identified by its markings, most notably the light-colored patch that extends from its shoulders to its rear end. The rest of its hair is black, except for the tips of its ears, which, as with other tapirs, are rimmed with white. This pattern is for camouflage; the disrupted coloration makes it more difficult to recognize it as a tapir, and other animals may mistake it for a large rock rather than prey when it is lying down to sleep.  Malayan tapirs grow to between in length, not counting a stubby tail of only in length, and stand tall. They typically weigh between, although some adults can weigh up to. The females are usually larger than the males. Like the other types of tapir, they have small, stubby tails and long, flexible proboscises. They have four toes on each front foot and three toes on each back foot. The Malayan tapir has rather poor eyesight, but excellent hearing and sense of smell. They have a large sagittal crest, a bone running along the middle of the skull that is necessary for muscle attachment. They also have unusually positioned orbits, an unusually shaped cranium with the frontal bones elevated, and a retracted nasal incision. All of these modifications to the normal mammal skull are, of course, to make room for the proboscis. This proboscis caused a retraction of bones and cartilage in the face during the evolution of the tapir, and even caused the loss of some cartilages, facial muscles, and the bony wall of the nasal chamber.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vision.", "content": "Malayan tapirs have very poor eyesight, making them rely greatly on their excellent sense of smell and hearing to go about in their everyday lives. They have small, beady eyes with brown irises on either side of their faces. Their eyes are often covered in a blue haze, which is corneal cloudiness thought to be caused by repetitive exposure to light. Corneal cloudiness is a condition in which the cornea starts to lose its transparency. The cornea is necessary for the transmitting and focusing of outside light as it enters the eye, and cloudiness can cause vision loss. This causes the Malayan tapir to have very inadequate vision, both on land and in water, where they spend the majority of their time. Also, as these tapirs are most active at night and since they have poor eyesight, it is harder for them to search for food and avoid predators in the dark.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"T. i. brevetianus\" variation.", "content": "A small number of melanistic (all-black) Malayan tapirs have been observed. In 1924, an all-black tapir was sent to Rotterdam Zoo and was classified as a subspecies called \"Tapirus indicus brevetianus\" after its discoverer, Captain K. Brevet. In 2000, two melanistic tapirs were observed during a study of tigers in the Jerangau Forest Reserve in Malaysia. The cause of this variation may be a genetic abnormality similar to that of black panthers that appear in populations of spotted leopards or spotted jaguars. However, unless, and until, more \"T. i. brevetianus\" individuals can be studied, the precise explanation for the trait will remain unknown.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lifecycle.", "content": "The gestation period of the Malayan tapir is about 390–395 days, after which a single offspring, weighing around 15 pounds (6.8 kg), is born. Malayan tapirs are the largest of the four tapir species at birth and grow more quickly than their congeners. Young tapirs of all species have brown hair with white stripes and spots, a pattern that enables them to hide effectively in the dappled light of the forest. This baby coat fades into adult coloration between four and seven months after birth. Weaning occurs between six and eight months of age, at which time the babies are nearly full-grown, and the animals reach sexual maturity around age three. Breeding typically occurs in April, May or June, and females generally produce one calf every two years. Malayan tapirs can live up to 30 years, both in the wild and in captivity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "Malayan tapirs are primarily solitary creatures, marking out large tracts of land as their territory, though these areas usually overlap with those of other individuals. Tapirs mark out their territories by spraying urine on plants, and they often follow distinct paths, which they have bulldozed through the undergrowth. Exclusively herbivorous, the animal forages for the tender shoots and leaves of more than 115 species of plants (around 30 are particularly preferred), moving slowly through the forest and pausing often to eat and note the scents left behind by other tapirs in the area. However, when threatened or frightened, the tapir can run quickly, despite its considerable bulk, and can also defend itself with its strong jaws and sharp teeth. Malayan tapirs communicate with high-pitched squeaks and whistles. They usually prefer to live near water and often bathe and swim, and they are also able to climb steep slopes. Tapirs are mainly active at night, though they are not exclusively nocturnal. They tend to eat soon after sunset or before sunrise, and they will often nap in the middle of the night. This behavior characterizes them as crepuscular animals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat, predation, and vulnerability.", "content": "The Malayan tapir was once found throughout the tropical lowland rainforests of Southeast Asia, including Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, and Vietnam. However, its numbers have decreased in recent years, and today, like all tapirs, it is in danger of extinction. Because of their size, tapirs have few natural predators, and even reports of killings by tigers are scarce. The main threat to the Malayan tapirs is human activity, including deforestation for agricultural purposes, flooding caused by the damming of rivers for hydroelectric projects, and illegal trade. In Thailand, for instance, capture and sale of a young tapir may be worth US$5500.00. In areas such as Sumatra, where the population is predominantly Muslim, tapirs are seldom hunted for food, as their physical similarity to pigs has made tapir meat a taboo, but in some regions they are hunted for sport or shot accidentally when mistaken for other animals. Protected status in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand, which seeks to curb deliberate killing of tapirs but does not address the issue of habitat loss, has had limited effect in reviving or maintaining the population.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Malayan tapir (\"Tapirus indicus\"), also called the Asian tapir, Asiatic tapir, Oriental tapir, Indian tapir, or piebald tapir, is the largest of the four widely-recognized species of tapir and the only one native to Asia. The scientific name refers to the East Indies, the species' natural habitat. In the Malay language, the tapir is commonly referred to as \"cipan\", \"tenuk\" or \"badak tampung\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975601}
{"src_title": "Edmund Crouchback", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Edmund was born in London, a son of Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence. He was a younger brother of Edward I, Margaret, and Beatrice, and an elder brother of Catherine.  He was invested ruler of the Kingdom of Sicily by the Bishop of Bologna in 1255, on behalf of Pope Alexander IV. In return, his father undertook to pay the papacy 135,541 marks and fight a war to dislodge the Hohenstaufen king Manfred. Henry's barons refused to contribute to what they called the \"Sicilian business\", and ultimately Henry was only able to pay 60,000 marks. Steven Runciman says the grant of the kingdom was revoked by Pope Alexander IV on 18 December 1258; Baines and Harland state that this occurred in 1263, under Pope Urban IV.  However, Edmund soon obtained important possessions and dignities, for soon after the forfeiture of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester on 25 October 1265, Edmund received the Earldom of Leicester and later that of Lancaster. He was granted the honour of the Stewardship of England and the lands of Nicolas de Segrave. He also acquired the estates of Robert de Ferrers, 6th Earl of Derby, that included the Honour of Hinckley Castle.  In 1267, Edmund was granted the lordship of Builth Wells, in opposition to the then holder, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (the last prince of an independent Wales). To help him conquer the land, he was also granted his elder brother's lordships of the Trilateral of Skenfrith, Grosmont and White Castle, all in Monmouthshire, together with Monmouth. After the civil war in 1267, he was appointed High Sheriff of Lancashire. Henry III created his second son Earl of Leicester in 1267, granting the honour and privileges of that city. The following year he was made Constable of Leicester Castle, a royal possession in the king's name. Crouchback by now had a reputation as a ruthless and ferocious warrior, but he was not in England fighting de Montfort.  In 1271, Edmund accompanied his elder brother Edward on the Ninth Crusade to Palestine. Some historians, including the authors of the Encyclopædia Britannica article on him, state that it was because of this that he received the nickname 'Crouchback' (which means \"cross-back\"), indicating that he was entitled to wear a cross stitched into the back of his garments.  On his return from the Crusade of 1271–2, he seems to have made Grosmont Castle his favoured home and undertook much rebuilding there. His son Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster was apparently born there in 1281.  Edmund remained loyal to his brother, Edward I; the Charter grants of 1265, 1267, and 1268–9 were confirmed by the King in a document of \"Inspeximus\" in 1284, and by Parliament in the Great Charter of Leicester. Also in 1284, on the marriage of his stepdaughter, he renounced the title of earl of Champagne, although he continued in possession of his wife's dowerlands. Edmund frequently acted as an ambassador abroad. He was sent as Governor of Ponthieu in 1291, on behalf of his second wife, Blanche of Artois.  His duty to the church included the foundation of a Nuns of Clara or Poor Clares nunnery at Minories, St Aldate's. In 1291, his estate paid for the establishment for the Chapel of Savoy, in memory of his mother, near St Clement Danes. Filial piety was part of the chivalric code of an honourable knight. Edmund was a generous benefactor to the monastery of Grace Dieu in Leicestershire, and to the nuns at Tarrant Crawford. He also helped establish a major Greyfriars monastery at Preston in the duchy of Lancaster.  In 1281, he supervised the construction of Aberystwyth Castle for King Edward I to subjugate the Welsh. The following year Edmund accompanied Roger Mortimer on campaign against Llywelyn, defeating and capturing the prince.  In 1294 the French king, Philip IV, through trickery, defrauded King Edward out of his lands in Gascony. Edward immediately began to plan an invasion, but ran into difficulties. First, some of the Welsh rebelled against him, then the Scots rebelled. Finally, by the end of 1295, he was ready to take up the conflict with Philip. He wanted to send Edmund to lead a small force ahead of the main army he was gathering, but Edmund fell ill in that autumn and was unwell until Christmas. Finally Edmund was able to go to Bordeaux for his brother. Amongst the nobles was the Earl of Lincoln and 26 banneret knights. During the siege of Bayonne the English ran out of money, so the army melted into the countryside. Broken-hearted, the warrior-prince Edmund Crouchback died on 5 June. His body was carried to England and was interred on 15 July 1296 at Westminster Abbey, London.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Edmund married firstly on 8 April 1269 Aveline de Forz, daughter of William de Forz, 4th Earl of Albemarle and Isabella de Fortibus, Countess of Devon. She died just four years after the marriage, at the age of 15, and was buried at Westminster Abbey. The couple had no children, though some sources believe she may have died in childbirth or shortly after a miscarriage.  He married secondly on 3 February 1276 Blanche of Artois, in Paris, widow of King Henry I of Navarre, and daughter of Robert I of Artois and Matilda of Brabant. With Blanche he had three children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edmund Crouchback (16 January 12455 June 1296), Earl of Lancaster, Leicester, and Derby was a member of the House of Plantagenet. He was the second surviving son of King Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence. In his childhood he had a claim on the Kingdom of Sicily; however, he never ruled there. He was granted all the lands of Simon de Montfort in 1265, and from 1267 he was titled Earl of Leicester. In that year he also began to rule Lancashire, but he did not take the title Earl of Lancaster until 1276. Between 1276 and 1284 he governed the counties of Champagne and Brie with his second wife, Blanche of Artois, in the name of her daughter Joan, and he was described in the English patent rolls as earl of Lancaster and Champagne. His nickname, \"Crouchback\" (meaning \"cross-back\"), refers to his participation in the Ninth Crusade.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975602}
{"src_title": "Static program analysis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rationale.", "content": "The sophistication of the analysis performed by tools varies from those that only consider the behaviour of individual statements and declarations, to those that include the complete source code of a program in their analysis. The uses of the information obtained from the analysis vary from highlighting possible coding errors (e.g., the lint tool) to formal methods that mathematically prove properties about a given program (e.g., its behaviour matches that of its specification).  Software metrics and reverse engineering can be described as forms of static analysis. Deriving software metrics and static analysis are increasingly deployed together, especially in creation of embedded systems, by defining so-called \"software quality objectives\".  A growing commercial use of static analysis is in the verification of properties of software used in safety-critical computer systems and locating potentially vulnerable code. For example, the following industries have identified the use of static code analysis as a means of improving the quality of increasingly sophisticated and complex software:  A study in 2012 by VDC Research reports that 28.7% of the embedded software engineers surveyed currently use static analysis tools and 39.7% expect to use them within 2 years. A study from 2010 found that 60% of the interviewed developers in European research projects made at least use of their basic IDE built-in static analyzers. However, only about 10% employed an additional other (and perhaps more advanced) analysis tool.  In the application security industry the name \"Static Application Security Testing\" (SAST) is also used. SAST is an important part of Security Development Lifecycles (SDLs) such as the SDL defined by Microsoft and a common practice in software companies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tool types.", "content": "The OMG (Object Management Group) published a study regarding the types of software analysis required for software quality measurement and assessment. This document on \"How to Deliver Resilient, Secure, Efficient, and Easily Changed IT Systems in Line with CISQ Recommendations\" describes three levels of software analysis.  A further level of software analysis can be defined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formal methods.", "content": "Formal methods is the term applied to the analysis of software (and computer hardware) whose results are obtained purely through the use of rigorous mathematical methods. The mathematical techniques used include denotational semantics, axiomatic semantics, operational semantics, and abstract interpretation.  By a straightforward reduction to the halting problem, it is possible to prove that (for any Turing complete language), finding all possible run-time errors in an arbitrary program (or more generally any kind of violation of a specification on the final result of a program) is undecidable: there is no mechanical method that can always answer truthfully whether an arbitrary program may or may not exhibit runtime errors. This result dates from the works of Church, Gödel and Turing in the 1930s (see: Halting problem and Rice's theorem). As with many undecidable questions, one can still attempt to give useful approximate solutions.  Some of the implementation techniques of formal static analysis include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Data-driven static analysis.", "content": "Data-driven static analysis uses large amounts of code to infer coding rules. For instance, one can use all Java open-source packages on GitHub to learn a good analysis strategy. The rule inference can use machine learning techniques. For instance, it has been shown that when one deviates too much in the way one uses an object-oriented API, it is likely to be a bug. It is also possible to learn from a large amount of past fixes and warnings.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Static program analysis is the analysis of computer software that is performed without actually executing programs, in contrast with dynamic analysis, which is analysis performed on programs while they are executing. In most cases the analysis is performed on some version of the source code, and in the other cases, some form of the object code.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975603}
{"src_title": "DETAIL (professional journal)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"DETAIL\" was first published in 1961. In 2008, in its 48th year, ten issues of the journal are published per annum. From 2009, the number increased to 12 a year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brief description.", "content": "\"DETAIL\" is an international professional journal for architects, construction engineers, building authorities and developers. Its title highlights a central feature of the content, which consists of the documentation and description of building developments of all kinds. Emphasis is placed on the depiction of constructional and architectural relationships. \"DETAIL\" comprises five main sections under the headings Discussion, Reports, Documentation, Technology and Products. It thus represents an important source of information for architects and planning offices. Two special \"DETAIL\" Concept issues highlight not only the ideas underlying the design of outstanding buildings, but the entire planning and construction process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Content.", "content": "The journal contains commentaries and topical articles, professional discussions and special reports, as well as documentations of specific buildings, in which spatial and urban relationships are described in the form of photos, drawings and explanatory texts, details of the technology involved, and product information relating to the construction, fitting out and furnishing of the buildings. In many cases, the product information is complemented by illustrations as well. There are also reports on various events, on building and planning law and building physics. Each issue of the journal concentrates on a specific aspect of construction, illustrating this with up-to-date examples from around the world. The selected projects show the range of the topic under discussion. Together with the Documentation section, the projects form the central part of each issue. The opening Discussion section, which contains interviews, critical statements and historical analyses, serves as an introduction to the main theme of each issue. The subsequent technical considerations with specialist contributions serve to intensify the treatment of the subject. The journal ends with a product information section.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication.", "content": "\"DETAIL\" is published ten times a year (from 2009 there will be 12 issues per annum) and is distributed to 80 different countries around the world in a bilingual (German-English) edition. In addition to this international edition, the journal appears six times a year in a purely English version. Copies sent abroad contain an inserted brochure with translations of the most important articles into French, Russian and Italian. Since 2002, an exclusively Spanish edition of the journal has been published in Spain with a full translation of the contents. Dates of publication: each issue appears in the first week of a month. Advertising planning deadline: six weeks prior to date of publication Deadline for receipt of material: five weeks prior to date of publication", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Circulation.", "content": "The print run for the German-language edition is 38,844 copies. The average circulation over the year is 33,076 copies (IVW 3/06–2/07); English edition: 12,000 copies; Spanish edition: 10,000 copies; Chinese/English edition: 6,000 copies; Japanese edition: 10,000 copies (publisher’s information 1/07).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Readership.", "content": "The readership includes architectural practices, joint architectural and engineering offices, construction-planning departments in industry, banks, etc., planning departments of public building offices, construction and housing development organizations, building firms, mechanical-service engineers and structural engineers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"DETAIL\" internationally.", "content": "The journal is read in more than 80 countries and is published in three different languages:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "DETAIL Network.", "content": "The \"DETAIL\" journal forms part of Detail Network, which includes Detail X, Detail360.de, Detail360.com, Deutscher Baukatalog (DBK), \"DETAIL\" (the journal) and Detail Online. The network functions as a community, databank, reference tool and marketplace for specialist information in the field of architecture and building construction.  DETAIL.de: Architects and building engineers can find topical everyday reports on architecture and details of current events as well as information on building law, building physics and construction materials in this \"DETAIL\" gateway to architecture. The archive contains articles published in past issues of the journal which can be downloaded. Every Monday, the job-service facility contains new offers of employment from the European building sector. These can also be obtained – sorted according to professional groups – by means of a Newsletter subscription. In addition, DETAIL Topics and DETAIL Plus provide two platforms free of charge with specialist information on matters related to planning and other professional fields.  DETAIL X : DETAIL X is a free internet gateway run by students of architecture for students of architecture. Here, access to expert knowledge is provided in a compact form for students of the various building disciplines. This facility also serves as a platform for a mutual exchange of ideas and for the presentation of students’ projects and special interests. The editorial contents are taken from the architectural journal DETAIL and are also contributed by the users themselves. In this way, an extensive databank is built up, containing lots of basic information, university papers and specialist knowledge from DETAIL. The forum, together with the integrated weblog, stimulates interactive communication and the exchange of information. University profiles and rankings provide an overview of the schools of architecture in German-speaking countries.  DETAIL 360°: DETAIL360.com provides scope for architects, specialist planners, interior designers and consultants to present their offices and projects in a visual form and to describe them in their own words. The professional community is a platform for making new contacts or deepening relationships with existing partners and clients. In May 2008, DETAIL360.com was established on an international basis. Offices can now present themselves and their projects across borders and find partners on a global scale.  Deutscher Baukatalog (German Building Catalogue): The DETAIL Deutscher Baukatalog (DBK) is a cost-free research tool for product information in the realm of architecture and building construction. Here, architects can find the products of more than 45,000 manufacturers in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. In this way, one has an overview of all building products available in these countries, as well as concise descriptions of and contact data to the relevant companies in this market. An intelligent search facility allows simple access to the relevant planning data. The products and services on offer are accessible via more than 2,000 specific keywords. Forming part of the DETAIL network, the Deutscher Baukatalog provides a databank to aid architects in choosing the most suitable products for their own projects.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "DETAIL is the international professional journal for architecture and construction details produced by Detail publishers. Each issue deals with a specific aspect of building, such as concrete construction, roof structures or refurbishment, whereby emphasis is placed on the quality of the building details. Up-to-date examples are selected from schemes around the world, and these are illustrated with plans and details drawn to a consistent scale as well as with photographs. The journal focuses on the depiction of new developments in the form of descriptive texts, constructional drawings and photos. The target group comprises above all architects, engineers and other specialists from the field of construction.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975604}
{"src_title": "Theobald II, Count of Champagne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Theobald was the son of Count Stephen II of Blois and Adela of Normandy, and the elder brother of King Stephen of England. Although he was the second son, Theobald was appointed above his older brother William. Several historians have painted William as mentally deficient, but this has never been substantiated. However, we know that his mother found him stubbornly resistant to control and unfit for wide-ranging comital duties. Theobald had no such problems. Theobald accompanied his mother throughout their domain on hundreds of occasions and, after her retirement to Marcigney in 1125, he administered the family properties with great skill. Adela died in her beloved convent in 1136, the year after her son Stephen was crowned king of England.  King Louis VII of France became involved in a war with Theobald by permitting Count Raoul I of Vermandois and seneschal of France, to repudiate his wife Eleanor, Theobald's sister, and to marry Petronilla of Aquitaine, sister of Louis VII's wife, Eleanor. The war, which lasted two years (1142–1144), was marked by the occupation of Champagne by the royal army and the capture of Vitry-le-François, where many persons perished in the deliberate burning of the church by Louis. The scholastic Pierre Abélard, famous for his love affair with and subsequent marriage to his student Héloïse d'Argenteuil, sought asylum in Champagne during Theobald II's reign. Abelard died at Cluny Abbey in Burgundy, a monastery supported by the Thebaudians for many centuries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In 1123 he married Matilda of Carinthia, daughter of Duke Engelbert of Carinthia.  Their children were:  Thibaut had an illegitimate son,", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theobald the Great (French: Thibaut de Blois) (1090–1152) was Count of Blois and of Chartres as Theobald IV from 1102 and was Count of Champagne and of Brie as Theobald II from 1125. Theobald held Auxerre, Maligny, Ervy, Troyes, and Châteauvillain as fiefs from Duke Odo II of Burgundy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975605}
{"src_title": "Beaufort Castle, Lebanon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The castle was named \"bel fort\" or \"beau fort\" (French for \"beautiful fortress\") by the Crusaders who occupied the castle in the 12th century. Its Arabic name \"Qala'at al-Shaqif\" means \"Castle of the High Rock\" (\"shqif\" is the Aramaic word for \"high rock\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medieval era.", "content": "The outcrop Beaufort occupied overlooks the Litani River. The river flows past the east side of the castle, which stands atop a cliff which declines steeply to the river. Little is known of the site prior to its capture by Crusader forces in 1139, as no contemporary documents mention the site before then. However, historians assume that the castle's commanding hilltop site made it a strategic position that was fortified before its capture by the Crusaders. Fulk, King of Jerusalem, captured the fortification of Qal'at al-Shaqif in 1139 and gave the site to the lords of Sidon. Medieval historian Hugh Kennedy speculates that construction of the Crusader castle began soon after Fulk gave the site to the lords of Sidon. The Battle of Hattin in 1187 saw the Crusaders suffer a crushing defeat at the hands of Saladin. In the aftermath, many castles and cities fell to Saladin's forces so that only a handful of cities remained under the Crusaders' control. Beaufort was one of the last castles to resist Saladin. In April 1189, Saladin was preparing to besiege the castle and Arab sources describe the event in detail. At the time Beaufort was under the control of Reynald of Sidon who had survived the Battle of Hattin, While Saladin was camped at nearby Marjayoun, preparing for the siege, Reynald met him and claimed to have Muslim sympathies. He said that while he would like to hand over control of Beaufort, his family were in the Christian city of Tyre and he could not surrender until they were safely out of the city. In the hope of a taking the castle without any bloodshed, Reynald was given three months to extract his family from Tyre; instead he used this time to repair the castle and stock up on supplies.  After three months Reynald met Saladin again, protesting he needed more time. Saladin insisted he hand over the castle immediately, so Reynald ordered the garrison to surrender. When they refused Reynald was taken prisoner and the siege began. Hostilities lasted until August that year when Saladin was forced to lift the siege to defend Acre. In April 1190 an agreement was reached where the castle's garrison would hand over control to Saladin in return for Reynald's release. The castle came under Crusader control in 1240 as part of a treaty negotiated by Theobald I of Navarre. It was sold to the Knights Templar by Reginald's grandson, Julian of Sidon, in 1260. In 1268, the Mamluke Sultan Baibars captured the castle, and there was relative calm through the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern era.", "content": "In the 17th century Fakhr-al-Din II took the castle as a part of his network of fortifications. Fakhr-al-Din II was defeated by the Ottomans, who destroyed the upper portions of the castle. The area was ruled by feudal families until 1769. In 1782 the Governor of Acre, Jazzar Pasha, besieged the castle, captured it and destroyed many of its remaining fortifications. The Galilee earthquake of 1837 caused further damage to the structure and from then on the ruins were used as a quarry and a shelter for sheep. The late 19th century saw the start of study of Beaufort Castle, with surveys by Victor Guérin in 1880 and Claude Reignier Conder and Herbert Kitchener in 1881 as part of the Survey of Western Palestine.  T E Lawrence visited the castle in 1909 during his walk across modern-day Lebanon and Syria, conducting research for his thesis. He was particularly struck by the view of the coast and along the Litani River.  In 1921 the French Mandate was established and French historians and archaeologists investigated the region's history and structures. The medieval historian Paul Deschamps began studying Crusader castles in the 1927 and his work influenced subsequent generations of historians of the Crusades. In 1936, seven years after he first visited Beaufort, Deschamps and architect Pierre Coupel organised 65 soldiers to clear Beaufort's inner enclosure and the keep. Kennedy highlights Deschamps' \"La Défense du Royaume de Jerusalem\" (1939) as a particularly important source in the study of Beaufort as \"his descriptions and plans record a building which has probably been mutilated beyond recognition by recent military activity\". The French Mandate ended in 1943 when Lebanon became independent.  The castle's strategic location, which affords a view of much of southern Lebanon and northern Israel, has caused it to be a focus for recent conflicts. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) held the castle from 1976 onwards, during the Lebanese Civil War and consequentially it was attacked dozens of times by Israeli forces in the space of five years. On 6 June 1982, at the start of Operation Peace for Galilee (the 1982 Lebanon War), the PLO position on Beaufort Castle was heavily shelled by the Israelis before it was captured by the Israeli forces two days later in the Battle of the Beaufort. The fighting caused damage to the castle, and in the aftermath the Israeli army adapted the site for their own use by building a large forward operations base adjacent to the fort's western wall - as a result of prior presence of PLO and the fear of IEDs, Israeli soldiers manning the base were allowed to tour the upper floors of the fortress but prevented from accessing the lower parts. In 2000 the Israeli army left Beaufort, altogether demolishing the base. The IDF occupation of Beaufort provides the basis of the Israeli film \"Beaufort\", although the film itself was shot on the Golan Heights. After the Israeli withdrawal attempts by local tourism services to restore the fort began, albeit in very slow progress and lack of funding.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Several of the great Crusader castles were built on spurs, using natural defences and fortifying the one access point. The setting of Beaufort plays a role in the defence of the site, but the terrain is only impassable on the north side. The Kurds extended the castle to include a slightly lower shelf of rock immediately to the east of the castle, thereby removing one of the routes of attack. Divided into two wards, one occupying the lower ground to the east, the castle is roughly triangular in shape and measures about. A keep or great tower was built against the west wall of the upper ward; the tower has a square plan and measures about. While it was common for keeps in Europe to be entered through the first floor, in Syria the convention was for a ground floor entrance as can be seen at Beaufort.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Beaufort or Belfort Castle ( \"Qala'at al-Shaqif\" ) is a Crusader fortress in Nabatieh Governorate, Southern Lebanon, about to the south-south-east of the village of Arnoun. There was a fortification on the site before it was captured by Fulk, King of Jerusalem, in 1139 and construction of the Crusader castle probably began soon after. Saladin captured Beaufort in 1190, but 60 years later Crusaders re-took it. In 1268 Sultan Baibars finally captured the castle for the Islamic forces.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975606}
{"src_title": "Macrolide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first macrolide discovered was erythromycin, which was first used in 1952. Erythromycin was widely used as a substitute to penicillin in cases where patients were allergic to penicillin or had penicillin-resistant illnesses. Later macrolides developed, including azithromycin and clarithromycin, stemmed from chemically modifying erythromycin; these compounds were designed to be more easily absorbed and have fewer side-effects (erythromycin caused gastrointestinal side-effects in a significant proportion of users).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Antibiotic macrolides are used to treat infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria (e.g., \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\") and limited Gram-negative bacteria (e.g., \"Bordetella pertussis\", \"Haemophilus influenzae\"), and some respiratory tract and soft-tissue infections. The antimicrobial spectrum of macrolides is slightly wider than that of penicillin, and, therefore, macrolides are a common substitute for patients with a penicillin allergy. Beta-hemolytic streptococci, pneumococci, staphylococci, and enterococci are usually susceptible to macrolides. Unlike penicillin, macrolides have been shown to be effective against Legionella pneumophila, mycoplasma, mycobacteria, some rickettsia, and chlamydia.  Macrolides are \"not\" to be used on non-ruminant herbivores, such as horses and rabbits. They rapidly produce a reaction causing fatal digestive disturbance. It can be used in horses less than one year old, but care must be taken that other horses (such as a foal's mother) do not come in contact with the macrolide treatment.  Macrolides can be administered in a variety of ways that include tablets, capsules, suspensions, injectings and topically.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanism of action.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Antibacterial.", "content": "Macrolides are protein synthesis inhibitors. The mechanism of action of macrolides is inhibition of bacterial protein biosynthesis, and they are thought to do this by preventing peptidyltransferase from adding the growing peptide attached to tRNA to the next amino acid (similarly to chloramphenicol) as well as inhibiting ribosomal translation. Another potential mechanism is premature dissociation of the peptidyl-tRNA from the ribosome.  Macrolide antibiotics do so by binding reversibly to the P site on the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome. This action is considered to be bacteriostatic. Macrolides are actively concentrated within leukocytes, and thus are transported into the site of infection.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Immunomodulation.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diffuse panbronchiolitis.", "content": "The macrolide antibiotics erythromycin, clarithromycin, and roxithromycin have proven to be an effective long-term treatment for the idiopathic, Asian-prevalent lung disease diffuse panbronchiolitis (DPB). The successful results of macrolides in DPB stems from controlling symptoms through immunomodulation (adjusting the immune response), with the added benefit of low-dose requirements.  With macrolide therapy in DPB, great reduction in bronchiolar inflammation and damage is achieved through suppression of not only neutrophil granulocyte proliferation but also lymphocyte activity and obstructive secretions in airways. The antimicrobial and antibiotic effects of macrolides, however, are not believed to be involved in their beneficial effects toward treating DPB. This is evident, as the treatment dosage is much too low to fight infection, and in DPB cases with the occurrence of the macrolide-resistant bacterium \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\", macrolide therapy still produces substantial anti-inflammatory results.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Antibiotic macrolides.", "content": "US FDA-approved :  Non-US FDA-approved:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ketolides.", "content": "Ketolides are a class of antibiotics that are structurally related to the macrolides. They are used to treat respiratory tract infections caused by macrolide-resistant bacteria. Ketolides are especially effective, as they have two ribosomal binding sites.  Ketolides include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fluoroketolides.", "content": "Fluoroketolides are a class of antibiotics that are structurally related to the ketolides. The fluoroketolides have three ribosomal interaction sites.  Fluoroketolides include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Non-antibiotic macrolides.", "content": "The drugs tacrolimus, pimecrolimus, and sirolimus, which are used as immunosuppressants or immunomodulators, are also macrolides. They have similar activity to ciclosporin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Antifungal drugs.", "content": "Polyene antimycotics, such as amphotericin B, nystatin etc., are a subgroup of macrolides. Cruentaren is another example of an antifungal macrolide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxic macrolides.", "content": "A variety of toxic macrolides produced by bacteria have been isolated and characterized, such as the mycolactones.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resistance.", "content": "The primary means of bacterial resistance to macrolides occurs by post-transcriptional methylation of the 23S bacterial ribosomal RNA. This acquired resistance can be either plasmid-mediated or chromosomal, i.e., through mutation, and results in cross-resistance to macrolides, lincosamides, and streptogramins (an MLS-resistant phenotype).  Two other types of acquired resistance rarely seen include the production of drug-inactivating enzymes (esterases or kinases), as well as the production of active ATP-dependent efflux proteins that transport the drug outside of the cell.  Azithromycin has been used to treat strep throat (Group A streptococcal (GAS) infection caused by \"Streptococcus pyogenes\") in penicillin-sensitive patients, however macrolide-resistant strains of GAS are not uncommon. Cephalosporin is another option for these patients.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Side-effects.", "content": "A 2008 \"British Medical Journal\" article highlights that the combination of some macrolides and statins (used for lowering cholesterol) is not advisable and can lead to debilitating myopathy. This is because some macrolides (clarithromycin and erythromycin, not azithromycin) are potent inhibitors of the cytochrome P450 system, particularly of CYP3A4. Macrolides, mainly erythromycin and clarithromycin, also have a class effect of QT prolongation, which can lead to torsades de pointes. Macrolides exhibit enterohepatic recycling; that is, the drug is absorbed in the gut and sent to the liver, only to be excreted into the duodenum in bile from the liver. This can lead to a buildup of the product in the system, thereby causing nausea. In infants the use of erythromycin has been associated with pyloric stenosis.  Some macrolides are also known to cause cholestasis, a condition where bile cannot flow from the liver to the duodenum. A new study found an association between erythromycin use during infancy and developing IHPS (Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis) in infants. However, no significant association was found between macrolides use during pregnancy or breastfeeding.  A Cochrane review showed gastrointestinal symptoms to be the most frequent adverse event reported in literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interactions.", "content": "Macrolides should not be taken with colchicine as it may lead to colchicine toxicity. Symptoms of colchicine toxicity include gastrointestinal upset, fever, myalgia, pancytopenia, and organ failure.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The macrolides are a class of natural products that consist of a large macrocyclic lactone ring to which one or more deoxy sugars, usually cladinose and desosamine, may be attached. The lactone rings are usually 14-, 15-, or 16-membered. Macrolides belong to the polyketide class of natural products. Some macrolides have antibiotic or antifungal activity and are used as pharmaceutical drugs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975607}
{"src_title": "Joseph Vacher", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "The son of an illiterate farmer, young Joseph was sent to a very strict Catholic school where he was taught to obey and to fear God. Seeking escape from the intense poverty of his childhood as the 15th child of a peasant family, he joined the army in 1892. Frustrated by slow promotion and no recognition, and infused with the grandiose belief that he was not receiving the attention he deserved, Vacher attempted to kill himself by slicing his throat. This was the first of two unsuccessful suicide attempts.  While Vacher had been in the army, he fell in love with a young maidservant, Louise, who was not attracted to him and spurned his advances. After his attempted suicide led to his dismissal from the military, he again tried to court her, even going so far as to propose marriage. Bored by him and uninterested in his offer, she mocked him and his proposal. This second slight also motivated violence: in a rage, Vacher shot Louise four times and then tried to commit suicide. Both attempts were unsuccessful—Louise was badly injured but survived the shooting, and Vacher severely maimed himself. Shooting himself twice in the head, Vacher succeeded in paralyzing one side of his face, deforming him severely. One of the bullets remained lodged in his ear for the remainder of his life, and the damage to his brain likely exacerbated his existing mental illness. He felt that the shooting damaged him more than physically: he later claimed, after his arrest, that the reactions of strangers to this self-inflicted deformity drove him to hatred of society at large. This second suicide attempt put him in a mental institution in Dole, Jura. Despite a one-year stay and a pronouncement from his doctors that he was \"completely cured,\" Vacher began murdering his victims shortly after his release at the age of 25.  During a three-year period beginning in 1894, Vacher murdered and mutilated at least 11 people (one woman, five teenage girls, and five teenage boys). Many of them were shepherds watching their flocks in isolated fields. The victims were stabbed repeatedly, often disemboweled, raped, and sodomized. Vacher became a drifter, travelling from town to town, from Normandy to Provence, staying mainly in the southeast of France and surviving by begging or working on farms as a day laborer. By most accounts, he was unkempt and frightening, wandering from town to town as a vagrant in filthy clothes, begging in the streets and surviving on the scraps he received from anyone who spared him a kindness.  In 1897 Vacher tried to assault a woman gathering wood in a field in Ardèche. She fought back and her screams soon alerted her husband and son, both of whom came rushing to her aid. The men overpowered Vacher and took him to the police. Despite their belief that they had apprehended the man responsible, the authorities had little evidence that Vacher was responsible for the series of murders. However, and with little apparent prompting, Vacher confessed to committing all eleven murders, saying, \"I committed them all in moments of frenzy.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Insanity plea.", "content": "After his arrest, Vacher claimed he was insane and attempted to prove it in a variety of ways. He claimed that a rabid dog's bite had poisoned his blood, causing madness, but later blamed the quack cure he received for the bite. He also claimed he was sent by God, comparing himself to Joan of Arc. Despite his protestations, he was pronounced sane after lengthy investigations by a team of doctors that included the eminent professor Alexandre Lacassagne. He was tried and convicted by the Cour d'Assises of Ain, the county where he had murdered two of his victims, and was sentenced to death on October 28, 1898. Vacher was executed by guillotine at dawn two months later, on December 31, 1898. He refused to walk to the scaffold under his own power and was dragged to the guillotine by the executioners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Vacher's place in French social history is similar to Jack the Ripper's place in British social history.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Vacher (November 16, 1869 – December 31, 1898) was a French serial killer, sometimes known as \"The French Ripper\" or \"L'éventreur du Sud-Est\" (\"The South-East Ripper\") owing to comparisons to the more famous Jack the Ripper murderer of London, England, in 1888. His scarred face and plain, white, handmade rabbit-fur hat composed his trademark appearance. He killed 11 to 27 people, many of whom were adolescent farm workers, between 1894 and 1897.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975608}
{"src_title": "Tomás Luis de Victoria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Victoria was born in Sanchidrián in the province of Ávila, Castile around 1548 and died in 1611. Victoria's family can be traced back for generations. Not only are the names of the members in his immediate family known, but even the occupation of his grandfather. Victoria was the seventh of nine children born to Francisco Luis de Victoria and Francisca Suárez de la Concha. His mother was of converso descent. After his father's death in 1557, his uncle, Juan Luis, became his guardian. He was a choirboy in Ávila Cathedral. Cathedral records state that his uncle, Juan Luis, presented Victoria's Liber Primus to the Church while reminding them that Victoria had been brought up in the Ávila Cathedral. Because he was such an accomplished organist, many believe that he began studying the keyboard at an early age from a teacher in Ávila. Victoria most likely began studying \"the classics\" at St. Giles's, a boys' school in Ávila. This school was praised by St.Teresa of Avila and other highly regarded people of music.  After receiving a grant from Philip II in 1565, Victoria went to Rome and became cantor at the German College founded by St. Ignatius Loyola. He may have studied with Palestrina around this time, though the evidence is circumstantial; certainly he was influenced by the Italian's style. For some time, beginning in 1573, Victoria held two positions, one being at the German College and the other being at the Pontifical Roman Seminary. He held the positions of chapelmaster and instructor of plainsong. In 1571, he was hired at the German College as a teacher and began earning his first steady income. After Palestrina left the Seminary, Victoria took over the position of maestro. Victoria was ordained a priest in 1574 by bishop Thomas Goldwell. Before this he was made a deacon, but did not serve long in that capacity as typically deacons became priests soon after. In 1575, Victoria was appointed Maestro di Capella at S. Apollinare. Church officials would often ask Victoria for his opinion on appointments to cathedral positions because of his fame and knowledge. He was faithful to his position as convent organist even after his professional debut as an organist. He did not stay in Italy, however.  In 1587 Philip II honoured Victoria's desire to return to his native Spain, naming him chaplain to his sister, the Dowager Empress María, daughter of Charles V, who had been living in retirement with her daughter Princess Margarita at the Monasterio de las Descalzas de St. Clara at Madrid from 1581. In 1591, Victoria became a godfather to his brother Juan Luis's daughter, Isabel de Victoria. Victoria worked for 24 years at Descalzas Reales, serving for 17 years as chaplain to the Empress until her death, and then as convent organist. Victoria was also being paid much more at the Descalzas Reales than he would have earned as a cathedral chapelmaster, receiving an annual income from absentee benefices from 1587–1611. When the Empress Maria died in 1603, she willed three chaplaincies in the convent, with one going to Victoria. According to Victoria, he never accepted any extra pay for being a chapelmaster, and became the organist rather than the chapelmaster. Such was the esteem in which he was held that his contract allowed him frequent travel away from the convent. He was able to visit Rome in 1593 for two years, attending Palestrina's funeral in 1594. He died in 1611 in the chaplain's residence and was buried at the convent, although his tomb has yet to be identified.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Victoria is the most significant composer of the Counter-Reformation in Spain, and one of the best-regarded composers of sacred music in the late Renaissance, a genre to which he devoted himself exclusively. Victoria's music reflected his intricate personality, and expressed the passion of Spanish mysticism and religion. Victoria was praised by Padre Martini for his melodic phrases and his joyful inventions. His works have undergone a revival in the 20th century, with numerous recent recordings. Many commentators hear in his music a mystical intensity and direct emotional appeal, qualities considered by some to be lacking in the arguably more rhythmically and harmonically placid music of Palestrina. There are quite a few differences in their compositional styles, such as treatment of melody and quarter-note dissonances.  Victoria was a master at overlapping and dividing choirs with multiple parts with a gradual decreasing of rhythmic distance throughout. Not only does Victoria incorporate intricate parts for the voices, but the organ is almost treated like a soloist in many of his choral pieces. Victoria did not begin the development of psalm settings or antiphons for two choirs, but he continued and increased the popularity of such repertoire. Victoria reissued works that had been published previously, and included new revisions in each new issue.  Victoria published his first book of motets in 1572. In 1585 he wrote his \"Officium Hebdomadae Sanctae\", a collection which included 37 pieces that are part of the Holy Week celebrations in the Catholic liturgy, including the eighteen motets of the \"Tenebrae Responsories\".  Two influences in Victoria's life were Giovanni Maria Nanino and Luca Marenzio, whom Victoria admired for their work in madrigals rather than church music. It has been speculated that Victoria took lessons from Escobedo at an early age before moving to Rome.  Victoria claimed that he composed his most creative works under his patron Otto, Cardinal von Truchsess. However, Stevenson does not believe that he learned everything about music under Cardinal Truchsess's patronage; Victoria would like people to believe such a fact. During the years that Victoria was devoted to Philip II of Spain, he expressed exhaustion from his compositional work. Most of the compositions that Victoria wrote that were dedicated to Cardinal Michele Bonelli, Philip II of Spain, or Pope Gregory XIII were not compensated properly.  Stylistically, his music shuns the elaborate counterpoint of many of his contemporaries, preferring simple line and homophonic textures, yet seeking rhythmic variety and sometimes including intense and surprising contrasts. His melodic writing and use of dissonance is more free than that of Palestrina; occasionally he uses intervals which are prohibited in the strict application of 16th century counterpoint, such as ascending major sixths, or even occasional diminished fourths (for example, a melodic diminished fourth occurs in a passage representing grief in his motet \"Sancta Maria, occurred\"). Victoria sometimes uses dramatic word-painting, of a kind usually found only in madrigals. Some of his sacred music uses instruments (a practice which is not uncommon in Spanish sacred music of the 16th century), and he also wrote polychoral works for more than one spatially separated group of singers, in the style of the composers of the Venetian school who were working at St. Mark's in Venice.  His most famous work, and his masterpiece, \"Officium Defunctorum\", is a Requiem Mass for the Empress Maria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "The following are recordings of music by Tomás Luis de Victoria. As in all of his music, the texts are in Latin and drawn from the Roman Catholic Liturgy.  Select recordings of music by Victoria are discussed in an article published in March 2011 by \"Gramophone\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tomás Luis de Victoria (sometimes Italianised as \"da Vittoria\"; c. 1548 – 27 August 1611) was the most famous composer in 16th-century Spain, and was one of the most important composers of the Counter-Reformation, along with Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina and Orlando di Lasso. Victoria was not only a composer but also an accomplished organist and singer as well as a Catholic priest. However, he preferred the life of a composer to that of a performer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975609}
{"src_title": "Ramiro II of Aragon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ramiro was the youngest son of Sancho Ramírez, king of Aragon and Navarre, and Felicia of Roucy. Sancho placed Ramiro as a child into the Benedictine monastery of Saint Pons de Thomières in the Viscounty of Béziers. As a respected monk, Ramiro was elected abbot of the Castillian royal monastery of Santos Fecundo y Primitivo in Sahagún and later was abbot of the monastery of San Pedro el Viejo at Huesca. Wanting to limit Ramiro's power within the Kingdom of Navarre-Aragon, his brother Alfonso the Battler had blocked his elections as bishop of Burgos and as bishop of Pamplona.  In 1134 Ramiro had been elected bishop of Barbastro-Roda when the death of his childless brother made him one of the candidates for succession to the crown. Others put forward included Alfonso VII of Castile, who as a foreign king found little support, and the choice of the Navarrese nobility, Pedro de Atarés, grandson of Sancho Ramírez, Count of Ribagorza, the illegitimate son of Ramiro I of Aragon. At an assembly at Borja intended to resolve the succession, a misunderstanding alienated Pedro from his supporters, yet they were unwilling to accept the Aragonese-favored Ramiro, and in the end the kingdoms were divided. In Navarre, García Ramírez, a scion of the pre-union royal family of Navarre and protégé of Alfonso VII was chosen king, while in Aragon the choice fell on Ramiro, who suspended his monastic vows to take the crown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King of Aragon.", "content": "The reign of Ramiro the Monk, as he is known, was tumultuous. At the beginning of his reign he had problems with his nobles, who thought he would be docile and easily steered to their wishes, but discovered him to be inflexible. In order to produce an heir, he married Agnes, daughter of Duke William IX of Aquitaine. He and Agnes had a daughter, Petronilla, who was betrothed to Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona at the age of one. The marriage contract, signed at Barbastro on 11 August 1137, made Petronilla the heir to the crown of Aragon, which in event of her childless death would pass to Ramon Berenguer and any children he might have by other wives. Ramon accepted Ramiro as \"King, Lord and Father\", and the County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon were united into the Crown of Aragon. The previously-landlocked Aragonese state thus returned to the position of peninsular power it had held prior to the loss of Navarre, and received a window to the Western Mediterranean it would come to dominate.  In the time between his accession and the betrothal of his daughter, Ramiro II had already had to put down a rebellion of the nobles, and knowing himself not to be a war king, he passed royal authority to his son-in-law Ramon Berenguer on 13 November 1137. Ramon became the \"Prince of the Aragonese people\" (\"Princeps Aragonensis\") and effective chief of the kingdom's armies. Ramiro never formally resigned his royal rights, continuing to use the royal title, and keeping aware of the business of the kingdom, he withdrew from public life, returning to the Abbey of San Pedro in Huesca. He later became known for the famous and passionate legend of the Bell of Huesca. He died there on 16 August 1157, the crown then formally passing to his daughter Petronilla.  <br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ramiro II (24 April 1086 – 16 August 1157), called the Monk, was the ruler of the Kingdom of Aragon from 1134 until withdrawing from public life in 1137. Although a monk, he was elected king by the Aragonese nobility upon the death of his childless brother, Alfonso the Battler. He then had a daughter, Petronilla, whom he had marry Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona, unifying Aragon and Barcelona into the Crown of Aragon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975610}
{"src_title": "Morena Baccarin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Baccarin was born in Rio de Janeiro, the daughter of actress Vera Setta and Fernando Baccarin, a journalist. She is of Italian descent. When she was seven, she moved with her family to Greenwich Village, New York, as her father was transferred to work as an editor at Globo TV's headquarters. Baccarin attended Public School 41 and New York City Lab School for Collaborative Studies, where she and her future \"Homeland\" co-star Claire Danes were classmates. She later attended the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts before she entered the theater program at the Juilliard School, where she was in the Drama Division's \"Group 29\" (1996–2000).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Baccarin landed her first film role in the improvised fashion-world comedy \"Perfume\" (2001). This was followed by a lead role in \"Way Off Broadway\" (2001). She served as Natalie Portman's understudy in the Central Park production of \"The Seagull\". The science-fiction drama \"Firefly\" (2002) as Inara Serra was Baccarin's first television series, and she reprised her role in the 2005 film \"Serenity\".  In February 2005, Baccarin provided the voice for Black Canary in multiple episodes of the animated series \"Justice League Unlimited\". She also guest starred in three episodes of the television series \"The O.C.\" in 2006. Baccarin also appeared in the unaired pilot episode of \"It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia\", playing a transgender woman Carmen. It was announced in April 2006 that Baccarin would be playing the adult version of recurring villain Adria in the tenth season of \"Stargate SG-1\". She first appeared in season 10 episode \"Counterstrike\" as adult Adria (the younger versions of Adria were previously played by other actresses). Baccarin reprised her role in the movie \"\".  In May 2009, Baccarin made her Off-Broadway debut in Theresa Rebeck's television satire \"Our House\" at Playwrights Horizons in New York City. She landed the lead role of Anna, the leader of the alien Visitors, in ABC's 2009–2011 series \"V\", a remake of the 1984 series. In May 2011, shortly following the airing of the show's second-season finale, it was announced that the show would not return for a third season. That same month, Baccarin joined the cast of the Showtime television drama \"Homeland\", for which she received praise for her role as the conflicted wife of a former prisoner of war. On July 18, 2013, she was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series at the 2013 Primetime Emmy awards for her performance.  Baccarin appeared alongside Melissa McCarthy in the 2015 action-comedy \"Spy\" as agent Karen Walker. In 2016, Baccarin appeared alongside Ryan Reynolds in the hit movie \"Deadpool\" as Vanessa Carlysle. She reprised her role in the 2018 sequel \"Deadpool 2\".  In 2015, Baccarin began a leading role as Dr. Leslie Thompkins in the Fox show \"Gotham\". She portrayed the character in all five seasons of the show. In 2019, she played a psychologist on Brazilian TV series Sessão de Terapia (Therapy Session), her first role on a production in her homeland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social engagement.", "content": "Baccarin works with the International Rescue Committee on behalf of refugees. In January 2019, she wrote an article in the Newsweek magazine describing her experiences. She was interviewing refugees from Venezuela during a trip to Colombia. Back then she warned of an evolving situation, which could lead to an increase of refugees asking for asylum in the US.  In 2019, she, together with other artists, lawyers, advocates and refugees, took part in the \"Flores Exhibits\" project. She read a protocol of a statement by a migrant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Baccarin married American film producer and director Austin Chick in November 2011. Their son was born in October 2013. Chick filed for divorce in July 2015, citing irreconcilable differences. On March 18, 2016, Baccarin and Chick's divorce became official.  In September 2015, Baccarin said that after her divorce was finalized, she planned to marry her \"Gotham\" co-star Ben McKenzie, adding that she was pregnant with their child. The couple have a daughter, born in March 2016. Baccarin and McKenzie announced their engagement in November 2016. They were married in Brooklyn, New York, on June 2, 2017, Baccarin's 38th birthday.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Morena Baccarin (born June 2, 1979) is a Brazilian-American actress known for portraying Inara Serra in the sci-fi series \"Firefly\" and the follow-up film \"Serenity\", Vanessa in the superhero comedy film \"Deadpool\" and its sequel \"Deadpool 2\"; Jessica Brody in the Showtime series \"Homeland\", for which she received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2013; and Leslie Thompkins in the Fox series \"Gotham\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975611}
{"src_title": "Il Canzoniere", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Central ideas.", "content": "The most evident purpose of the Canzoniere is to praise Laura, yet questions concerning the virtue of love in relation to the Christian religion and desire are always present. Antithesis are also key to the sequence and in one sense represent Petrarch's search for balance; these would later be exploited by Petrarchists in Europe but represent only one aspect of the Rimes. This leads on to the essential paradox of Petrarchan love, where love is desired yet painful: fluctuation between states is a means of expressing this instability. The changing mind of man and the passing of time are also central themes, as is the consideration of the art of poetic creation itself. Some other themes are desire, isolation, unrequited love, and vanity of youth.  The central theme in the Canzoniere is the love for Laura, with whom Petrarch fell in love at first sight. Laura was already married and turned down all of Petrarch's advances. It is unknown if the two ever spoke. They met on Good Friday and Laura allegedly died on Good Friday.  In any case, it would be improper to see \"Canzoniere\" as uniquely inspired by love for Laura. Other themes are important: religion, poetry, politics, time, glory. The love theme itself should be considered as the nucleus around which Petrarca develops his deep psychological analysis: thanks to his poems inspired by Laura (laurus is the symbol for poetry) the poet aspires to reach glory, which in turn can fight the all-destroying power of time. Even glory, however, cannot guarantee real eternity, because in Christianity, only faith in Jesus Christ can guarantee it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences on the \"Canzoniere\".", "content": "Petrarch uses Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\" to convey themes of instability, and also sources Virgil's \"Aeneid\". Petrarch inherited aspects of artifice and rhetorical skill from Sicilian courtly poetry, including that of the inventor of the sonnet form, Giacomo da Lentini. In addition, the troubadours who wrote love poems concerned with chivalry in Provençal (in the canso or canzone form) are likely to have had an influence, primarily because of the position of adoration in which they placed the female figure. Dante, and the school of the \"dolce stil nuovo\", or new sweet style, developed this placement of the female and proposed that the pursuit of love was a noble virtue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence of the Rime.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In England.", "content": "In 1380, Chaucer adopted part of the Canzoniere to form three stanzas of rhyme royal in Troilus and Criseyde, Book I. Over 150 years would pass until Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, would translate several Rimes in the court environment of Henry VIII. Their translations are largely credited with making the ten-syllable line normative in English, and in George Puttenham's 1589 \"Art of English Poesie\" are credited with reforming the English language: As novices newly crept out of the schooles of Dante, Arioste and Petrarch, they greatly polished our rude and homely manner of vulgar poesie, from that it had bene before, and for that cause may justly be sayd the first reformers of our English meetre and stile. Thus, their translations of Rimes from the Canzoniere paved the way for the sonnet sequences of Sidney and Shakespeare.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In France.", "content": "Early French sonneteers included Clément Marot and Mellin Saint Gelais. The latter spent nine years in Italy before returning to France to spread knowledge of Petrarch and Serafino. The first sonnet sequence to be published in France came in 1549 in the form of Joachim du Bellay's \"L'Olive\". When first published it contained 50 sonnets but the next year Bellay added more poems and raised the total number to 115 - references to Petrarch are made in fourteen of these sonnets. Pierre de Ronsard also took up Petrarch's influence and his sonnets are credited for their originality.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Il Canzoniere (; ), also known as the \"Rime Sparse\" (), but originally titled (, that is \"Fragments composed in vernacular\"), is a collection of poems by the Italian humanist, poet, and writer Petrarch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975612}
{"src_title": "Handley Page V/1500", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development and design.", "content": "The V/1500 was produced to meet a 1917 British Air Board requirement for a large night bomber capable of reaching deeper into Germany than the Handley Page O/100 which had recently entered service, carrying a 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) bombload. It was thus capable of bombing Berlin from bases in East Anglia.  While the V/1500 had a similar fuselage to that of the O/400, it had longer-span, four-bay biplane wings and was powered by four 375 hp (280 kW) Rolls-Royce Eagle VIII engines mounted in two nacelles, with two engines pulling in the conventional manner and two pushing, rather than the two Eagle engines of the smaller bomber. Construction was of wood and fabric materials. A relatively novel design feature was the gunner's position at the extreme rear of the fuselage, between the four fins.  Owing to pressure of work at Handley Page's Cricklewood factory and to ensure security, the first prototype was constructed by Harland and Wolff at Belfast, Northern Ireland, being assembled at Cricklewood and first flying on 22 May 1918. Orders were placed with a number of companies (including Harland and Wolff, Beardmore, Handley Page, Grahame-White and Alliance Aircraft for a total of 210 V/1500s at £12,500 apiece, although only 40 aircraft were completed, with a further 22 produced as spares. The Beardmore order was for fifty machines in two batches, the first batch was for 20 and the second batch for 30. The company accounts state production continuing into 1921.The test pilot for Beardmore was Clifford Prodger and the aircraft were delivered from Inchinnan Aerodrome (Ref Company accounts UGD 100/8/1921 University of Glasgow and Mac Kay)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "Three aircraft were delivered to No. 166 Squadron at RAF Bircham Newton (Norfolk) during October 1918. The squadron commander did not receive clear orders for his mission until 8 November, due to debate at high level. A mission was scheduled for that night (to bomb Berlin, fly on to Prague as the Austro-Hungarian forces had surrendered by then, refuel, re-arm, and bomb Düsseldorf on the way back). No mission was flown - a technical expert insisted that all the engines on one aircraft be changed. The same happened the following day (but with a different aircraft). The three aircraft were about to taxi out after the second set of engine changes when an excited ground crew member ran out to stop them — the armistice had just been declared.  One of the original batch of aircraft (J1936, \"Old Carthusian\") went on to record two significant 'firsts'. On 13 December 1918, the bomber, flown by Major A.C.S. Maclaren and Captain Robert Halley, accompanied by Brigadier General N.D.K. MacEwen, made the first ever 'through-flight' from England to India. Taking off from Britain the aircraft flew via Rome, Malta, Cairo, and Baghdad, finally reaching Karachi on 15 January 1919.  The same aircraft played a pivotal role in ending the Third Anglo-Afghan War. On 25 May 1919, flying from Risalpur piloted by Captain Halley and with Lt E. Villiers as observer, the V/1500 reached Kabul in three hours. Of its payload of four 112 lb (51 kg) bombs on improvised bomb racks removed from B.E.2cs and 16 20 lb (10 kg) bombs carried in the fuselage and dropped by hand, four bombs hit the royal palace. Although the bombing did little physical damage, it had a great psychological impact on the citizens - the ladies of the royal harem rushed onto the streets in terror, causing great scandal. A few days later King Amanullah sued for peace, bringing an end to the war after less than one month of hostilities. J1936 ended its life being consumed by termites.  The Handley Page V/1500 aircraft \"Atlantic\" was shipped to Newfoundland in early 1919 to attempt the first non-stop Transatlantic flight. However, the prize was won by Alcock and Brown in a Vickers Vimy in June 1919. The crew departed for New York City but was forced to land in Parrsboro, Nova Scotia on 5 July 1919 where it was repaired over the course of the summer. The \"Atlantic\" continued to New York on 9 October 1919 carrying with it the first airmail from Canada to the United States.  They were eventually replaced in service by the Vickers Vimy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Survivors.", "content": "No complete example of the V/1500 remains; however, the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford holds several relics in store, including three propellers, four sections of tailplane and a compass", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Handley Page V/1500 was a British night-flying heavy bomber built by Handley Page towards the end of the First World War. It was a large four-engined biplane, which resembled a larger version of Handley Page's earlier O/100 and O/400 bombers, intended to bomb Berlin from East Anglian airfields. The end of the war stopped the V/1500 being used against Germany, but a single aircraft was used to carry out the first flight from England to India, and later carried out a bombing raid on Kabul during the Third Anglo-Afghan War. It was colloquially known within the fledgling Royal Air Force as the \"Super Handley\". The V/1500 which was shipped to Canada to attempt a transatlantic flight was flown in the US, and in 1919 crash-landed in a field at Mount Jewett, Pennsylvania. Photos appeared in the 20 February 1969 issue of the \"Bradford Journal\" newspaper.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975613}
{"src_title": "Jáchymov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History, mining and coinage.", "content": "At the beginning of the 16th century, silver was found in the area of Joachimsthal. The village of Joachimsthal was founded in 1516 in place of the former abandoned village of Konradsgrun in order to facilitate the exploitation of this valuable resource. The silver caused the population to grow rapidly, and made the Counts von Schlick, whose possessions included the town, one of the richest noble families in Bohemia. The Schlicks had coins minted, which were called \"Joachimsthalers\". They gave their name to the Thaler and the dollar. The fame of Joachimsthal for its ore mining and smelting works attracted the scientific attention of the doctor Georg Bauer (better known by the Latin form of his name, Georgius Agricola) in the late 1520s, who based his pioneering metallurgical studies on his observations made here.  In 1523, the Protestant Reformation began. In the Schmalkaldic War (1546–47) Joachimsthal was occupied for a time by Saxon troops. When in 1621 the Counter-reformation and re-Catholicisation took effect in the town, many Protestant citizens and people from the mountains migrated to nearby Saxony.  Until 1918, the town (named Joachimsthal before 1898) was in the Austrian part of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary, head of the district with the same name, one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Bohemia.  In the 19th century the town was also the location of a Court, and of an administrative office responsible for mines and iron production. Mining was still significant in this period. It was run partly by state-owned and partly by privately owned firms. In addition to silver ore (of which in 1885 227 zentners (11.35 tonnes) were produced), nickel, bismuth and uranium ore were also extracted. There were also other industries: an enormous tobacco factory employed 1,000 women. In addition, there was the manufacture of gloves and corks and of bobbin lace.  On 31 March 1873 the town almost entirely burnt down.  At the end of the 19th century, Marie Curie discovered, in tons of pitchblende ore containing uraninite from Joachimsthal, the element radium, for which she won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Until the First World War this was the foremost source of radium in the world.  The first radon spa in the world was founded in Joachimsthal in 1906, joining the famous spas of the region, including Karlsbad, Franzensbad, and Marienbad.  In 1929, Dr Löwy of Prague established that \"mysterious emanations\" in the mine led to a form of cancer. Ventilation and watering measures were introduced, miners were given higher pay and longer vacations, but death rates remained high.  Following the Munich Agreement in 1938, it was annexed by Nazi Germany as part of the so-called Sudetenland. Most of the German-speaking population was expelled in 1945–1946 (see the Potsdam Agreement) and replaced by mostly non-German-speaking settlers from other parts of the country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern town.", "content": "After the Communist party took control of Czechoslovakia in 1948, large prison camps were established in the town and around it. Opponents of the new regime were forced to mine uranium ore under very harsh conditions: the average life expectancy in Jáchymov at this period was 42 years.  Uranium mining ceased in 1964. The radioactive thermal springs which arise in the former uranium mine are used under the supervision of doctors for the treatment of patients with nervous and rheumatic disorders. They make use of the constantly produced radioactive gas radon (Rn) dissolved in the water, see Radon therapy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nearby attractions.", "content": "Not far from here, at the foot of the Plešivec, there once stood the Capuchin monastery \"Mariasorg\" (\"Mariánská\"); it was razed to the ground in the 1950s.  From the valley of the Veseřice a chairlift goes to the highest peak in the Ore Mountains, the 1244-metre-high (4081′) Klínovec.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jáchymov (), until 1945 known also by its German name of \"Sankt Joachimsthal\" or \"Joachimsthal\" (meaning \"Saint Joachim's Valley\";, or \"\" in modern orthography) is a spa town in the Karlovy Vary Region of Bohemia, Czech Republic. It is situated at an altitude of above sea level in the eponymous St. Joachim's valley in the Ore Mountains, close to the Czech border with Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975614}
{"src_title": "František Plánička", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Born in Prague, Plánička played most of his footballing career and lived most of his life in the Czech capital. In the beginning of his career, Plánička played for the clubs \"Slovan Praha VII\", \"Union VII\", \"Staroměstský SK Olympia\", and \"SK Bubeneč\". He played for Slavia Prague from 1923 to 1938, in what has been one of the most successful eras in the club's history. During thirteen seasons with the club between 1925 and 1938, Slavia won seven league titles and Plánička played 196 league matches. He appeared in a total of 969 matches, of which Slavia won 742. Despite being of below-average height for a goalkeeper, at 1.72m (5 ft 8 in), he was an effective shot stopper, and his acrobatic style earned him the nickname The Cat of Prague.  In 1932, Slavia reached the semifinals of the Mitropa Cup. In the first leg, they beat Juventus 4–0; in the second leg, Juventus had a 2–0 lead after which, according to RSSSF, Slavia resorted to obstruction and time wasting, which extended to the stands to the point that spectators started throwing stones on the pitch; one of the projectiles hit Plánička, causing him a serious injury. Slavia abandoned the pitch and the game stopped, and this led to their disqualification from the tournament.  Plánička also won six \"Bohemia cups\" (a domestic tournament) with Slavia, in 1926, 1927, 1928, 1930, 1932, and 1935. His only international title came in 1938, when his club finally won the Mitropa Cup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Between 1926 and 1938, Plánička played 73 times in goal for Czechoslovakia, a world record at the time and a national record that stood until 1966 when Ladislav Novák earned his 74th cap. Plánička was the national team captain 37 times. His international debut was on 17 January 1926 in a 1–3 loss against Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1934 World Cup.", "content": "Plánička helped Czechoslovakia qualify to the 1934 World Cup, and was the team's captain in the tournament. After beating Romania in the first round and Switzerland in quarterfinals, the Czech played a semifinal against Germany. The Czech took the lead early in the match, but Germany equalized in the second half when Plánička could not react to a long shot by Rudolf Noack. Czechoslovakia regained the lead and scored a third goal late in the game to win 3–1 and advance to the final.  On 10 June 1934 Czechoslovakia played the final against hosts Italy, who also had one of the great goalkeepers of the time, Giampiero Combi, as its captain. The Czechs took the lead in the 71st minute with a goal by Antonín Puč, but ten minutes later a shot by Raimundo Orsi beat Plánička for the equalizer, sending the match to extra time, where goal by Angelo Schiavio gave the Italians the victory. Plánička finished the tournament with six goals against in four matches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1938 World Cup.", "content": "As Nazi Germany occupied Czechoslovakia, Plánička captained the Czechs again to the 1938 World Cup. In the first round, they beat the Netherlands 3–0 with all three goals coming in extra time. In the second round, they faced Brazil on 12 July, in what was one of the most violent matches in World Cup history, known as the \"Battle of Bordeaux.\" One Czech and two Brazilian players were sent off, and players from both teams suffered serious injuries. With the game tied 1–1, Plánička's teammate Oldřich Nejedlý had to abandon the pitch with a broken leg, and then Plánička himself suffered a broken arm, after colliding with Brazil's striker Perácio's kick, as the Brazilian attempted to shoot. Plánička did not leave the pitch, however, and instead played through the pain until the end of regulation and through the subsequent extra time, which had no change in the score. The game was replayed two days later, and Czechoslovakia, without Plánička or forwards Nejedlý and Antonín Puč, lost 2–1 and was eliminated.  Plánička only conceded one goal in 240 minutes played, having the lowest goals against average with 0.38 goals per 90 minutes (better than Aldo Olivieri of champions Italy). He was selected to the Best XI of the tournament by a group of journalists. The match against Brazil in Bordeaux was the last one of Plánička's international career.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After retirement.", "content": "Plánička continued to play football after his retirement, maintaining a healthy lifestyle and physical condition. On 4 July 1970 Plánička last played in goal in a senior team of former internationals. In 1985, UNESCO presented him with an Honorary Fair Play Award in recognition to his footballing career.  In 1994, after receiving a sports merit award, Plánička stated that he would like to see Slavia win the league while he was still alive. In the 1995/96 season, after a 48-year wait, Slavia won the league title, and Plánička was able to celebrate it. Two months later, he died at the age of 92. At the time of his death, he was the last living member of the Czech squad at the 1934 World Cup and the last surviving player from either team to play in the final. Czech national team midfielder Karel Poborský attended his burial, postponing his contract signing with Manchester United, which was scheduled to happen the same day.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "František Plánička (; 2 June 1904 – 20 July 1996) was a Czech football goalkeeper and one of the most honoured players in the history of Czechoslovak football. He played all his career for Slavia Prague, during which time the club won the Czech league eight times and the Mitropa Cup once. He also became a member of the Czechoslovakia national team and later its captain during the World Cup finals of 1934 (where the Czech team finished second) and 1938.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975615}
{"src_title": "Catherine of Valois–Courtenay", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "She was born in 1303, sometime before 15 April, the eldest daughter of Charles, count of Valois, and Catherine I.  Her mother was recognized as Empress of the Latin Empire of Constantinople by the Latin states in Greece, despite the city having been captured by the Empire of Nicaea in 1261. Catherine inherited her claims as the titular Empress on 11 October 1307. She was still a child and remained in the custody of her father, who managed her claims to the empire until his death in 1325.  An early betrothal to Hugh of Burgundy, made on 15 April 1303 when she was an infant, was renounced in 1312.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naples.", "content": "In July 1313, Catherine married Philip I of Taranto, King of Albania and Prince of Achaea, who was the younger brother of Robert, King of Naples. She associated her husband as titular Emperor (Philip II), and retained the claim to the empire after his death on 23 December 1332. Robert, his eldest surviving son, succeeded him as Prince of Taranto in 1331. Catherine became influential at the court of Naples.  Her court was more worldly than the pious court of King Robert and his pious wife, Sancha of Majorca. During the reign of her niece, Joanna I of Naples, she opposed the marriage of Joan's younger sister, Maria of Calabria, to Charles, Duke of Durazzo. This was because Maria was heir presumptive to the throne of Naples, and the Durazzos were rivals to her own family. She and her family were compensated with a cash settlement from the royal treasury.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Achaea.", "content": "In 1333, her son Robert received the Principality of Achaea through an agreement with his uncle, John of Gravina. However, the thirteen-year-old boy was deemed too young to reign alone, and his mother became his co-ruler for the rest of her life. Initially ruling through appointed \"baillis\", in summer 1338 Catherine mustered a fleet and took her whole household to Achaea, where she took an active part in its government. She gave refuge to Nikephoros II Orsini of Epirus, and supported him in his attempt to assert himself in his land against the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final Years.", "content": "Her presence in Achaea was no longer needed by the time Robert reached adulthood in 1341. She became Governor of Cephalonia and spent the last five years of her life in this responsibility. After the murder of Joan's husband, Andrew of Hungary, Joan sought a new husband amongst her Taranto cousins. Catherine supported her younger son, Louis of Taranto, against her older son, Robert. She sheltered Charles of Artois, a bastard son of Robert the Wise, and his son Bertrand, who were both suspected of complicity. When asked to give them up, she refused and stated she would punish them herself if they were guilty.  She died in Naples in October 1346. Queen Joan organized her funeral at the church of San Domenico.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "By Philip I of Taranto, Catherine II had four children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Catherine II, also Catherine of Valois or Catherine of Taranto (before 15 April 1303 – October 1346), was the recognised Latin Empress of Constantinople from 1307–1346, although she lived in exile and only had authority over Crusader States in Greece. She was Princess consort of Achaea and Taranto, and also regent of Achaea from 1332–1341, and Governor of Cephalonia from 1341–1346.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975616}
{"src_title": "Erik Johnson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Junior.", "content": "Johnson played hockey for the Academy of Holy Angels in Richfield, Minnesota, where he starred in his two seasons as a freshman and sophomore at the prep school. In the 2003–04 season he led all defenseman in scoring with 13 goals and 34 points to be selected to the Missota All-Conference Team. As a 16-year old Johnson transferred to Ann Arbor, Michigan, to play for the National Team Development Program (NTDP).  In the 2004–05 season, he split time between the U.S. National under-17 and under-18 squads, compiling 26 points in 57 games, tops amongst defenseman. Having been scouted as being tailored to suit the professional ranks with his hybrid two-way style and physicality, Johnson continued his rise in development the following season with a team-leading 49 points in 47 games with the under-18's. While also having a major impact at the junior international stage, Johnson was selected first overall in the 2006 NHL Entry draft by the St. Louis Blues. He became the first American-born defenseman to be selected first overall without having played Canadian major junior or collegiate hockey. He joined a select group of five (now eight following Patrick Kane, Auston Matthews, and Jack Hughes) Americans to have been chosen first overall in an NHL Entry Draft, along with Rick DiPietro (2000), Bryan Berard (1995), Mike Modano (1988), and Brian Lawton (1983).  Having committed to the University of Minnesota, Johnson also became the first Golden Gopher and Minnesotan to be taken first overall. Despite the willingness to turn professional, Johnson was not signed to a professional contract with the Blues, becoming the first player in 44 years to play college hockey after being selected No.1 overall. In his freshman campaign with the Golden Gophers during the 2006–07 season, Johnson quickly established a top defensive role and accumulated 4 goals and 24 points in 41 contests to lead all WCHA rookie defenseman and earn a selection to the WCHA All-Rookie Team. Johnson concluded his collegiate career after his freshman year when he was signed by the St. Louis Blues to a three-year, entry-level contract on April 20, 2007.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "St. Louis Blues.", "content": "Johnson scored his first career NHL goal against Los Angeles Kings goaltender Jonathan Bernier on October 6, 2007. It was also the game-winning goal. He finished his rookie season averaging over 18 minutes of ice-time per game to go with 5 goals and 28 assists in 69 games.  After missing the 2008-09 season with a knee injury, Johnson returned for the 2009-10 season, setting new career-highs with 10 goals, 29 assists, and 39 points, as well as 79 penalty minutes. He also represented Team USA in the 2010 Winter Olympics where he earned a silver medal,  On August 2, 2010, as a restricted free agent, Johnson re-signed with the Blues with a two-year, $5.2 million contract.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Colorado Avalanche.", "content": "During the 2010–11 season, on February 19, 2011, he was traded to the Colorado Avalanche, along with Jay McClement and a conditional first-round pick (that Colorado used to select Duncan Siemens), in exchange for Chris Stewart, Kevin Shattenkirk and a conditional second-round pick, which St. Louis used to select Ty Rattie. Later that day, Johnson made his Avalanche debut at the HP Pavilion at San Jose in a 4–0 defeat to the San Jose Sharks. In his second game, Johnson faced his former team and posted his first goal as a member of the Avalanche in a 4–3 victory over the Blues on February 22, 2011.  On July 3, 2012, Johnson signed a four-year, $15 million extension with the Avalanche. He was selected to the 2015 NHL All-Star Game on January 10, 2015. At the time of his selection, he was leading all defensemen in goal-scoring.  On September 22, 2015, Johnson signed a seven-year, $42 million extension with the Avalanche, making him the highest paid player on the Avalanche roster and one of the highest paid defensemen in the NHL.  During the 2017–18 NHL season Johnson played in his 600th NHL game on December 3, 2017, in a 7–2 loss to the Dallas Stars. At the time, Johnson led the team, and was the fifth highest in the league, in average ice time at 26:24 minutes. Johnson was suspended for two games on December 17, 2017, for boarding Tampa Bay Lightning forward Vladislav Namestnikov.  On February 29, 2020, Johnson became the 1st defenseman from the 2006 draft to reach 300 points. He is the 37th US-born defenseman in NHL history to hit the 300-mark.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "As a product of the US NTDP, Johnson first made his international debut for the United States at the 2005 World U17 Hockey Challenge. In the same year, he captured a gold medal as a 17-year-old at the 2005 World Under-18 Championships. Johnson scored ten points in six games the 2006 World Under-18 championships to help the U.S. retain the gold medal, and was selected as the Bob Johnson Award winner as the Best American player in international competition.  Johnson was a member of the U.S. junior team that won a bronze medal in the 2007 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. He was named to the tournament's All-Star Team and was named the tournament's Best Defenseman. Johnson finished the tournament with four goals and six assists for ten points, becoming the first defenseman to lead the tournament in scoring.  Representing the senior U.S. team at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Johnson received a silver medal after losing in overtime to Canada in the final.  Johnson was chosen to participate in the 2016 World Cup of Hockey for Team USA.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Racehorse Ownership.", "content": "In addition to his accomplished career as an NHL defenseman, Erik Johnson is a proprietor and commercial racehorse breeder for ERJ Racing, LLC. He refers to his hobby as \"my outlet away from hockey and my passion.\"  One of his racehorses, Landeskog, is named after his teammate Gabriel Landeskog.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erik Robert Johnson (born March 21, 1988) is an American ice hockey defenseman and alternate captain for the Colorado Avalanche in the National Hockey League (NHL). Nicknamed the \"Condor\", Johnson formerly played for the St. Louis Blues, with whom he began his NHL career. Additionally, he has represented the United States in numerous tournaments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975617}
{"src_title": "The Mad Adventures of Rabbi Jacob", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Rabbi Jacob (Marcel Dalio) is one of the most loved rabbis of New York. One day, the French side of his family, the Schmolls, invite him to celebrate the bar mitzvah of the young David. Rabbi Jacob boards a plane to leave America for his birthland of France after more than 30 years of American life. His young friend Rabbi Samuel comes with him.  In Normandy, the rich businessman Victor Pivert (Louis de Funès) is also on his way; his daughter (Miou-Miou) will be married the next day. Pivert is a dreadful man: bad-tempered, rude and a bigot, with a well-honed racism against blacks, Jews, and pretty much all foreigners. He and his driver, Salomon (Henri Guybet), have a car accident in which Pivert's car (carrying a speed boat) flips upside-down into a lake. When Salomon, who is Jewish, refuses to help because Shabbat has just begun, Pivert fires him, much to Salomon's content.  Arab revolutionist leader Mohamed Larbi Slimane (Claude Giraud) is kidnapped by killers who are working for his country's government. The team, led by Colonel Farès, takes him by night to an empty bubble gum factory... the same place where Victor Pivert goes to find assistance. Pivert involuntarily helps Slimane to flee, leaving two killers' corpses behind them. The police, alerted by Salomon, find the bodies and accuse Pivert of the crime.  The next day, Slimane forces Pivert to go to Orly airport to catch a plane to Slimane's country (if the revolution succeeds, he will become President). However, they are followed by a number of people: the jealous Germaine, Pivert's wife, who thinks her husband is going to leave her for another woman; Farès and the killers; and the police commissioner Andréani (Claude Piéplu), a zealous and overly suspicious cop who imagines that Pivert is the new Al Capone. Farès and his cohorts manage to kidnap Germaine, and they use her own dentist equipment to interrogate her.  Trying to conceal his and Pivert's identities, Slimane attacks two rabbis in the toilets, stealing their clothes and shaving their beards and their payot. The disguises are perfect, and they are mistaken for Rabbi Jacob and Rabbi Samuel by the Schmoll family. The only one who recognizes Pivert (and Slimane) behind the disguise is Salomon, his former driver, who just happens to be a Schmoll nephew. But Pivert and Slimane are able to keep their identity secret and even manage to hold a sermon in Hebrew, thanks to the polylingual Slimane (who is deeply gutted, of course).  After a few misunderstandings, Commissioner Andréani and his two inspectors are mistaken by the Jews for terrorists, attempting to kill Rabbi Jacob. The real Rabbi Jacob arrives at Orly, where no one is waiting for him any more. He is mistaken for Victor Pivert by the police, then by Farès and his killers (both times in a painful way for his long beard).  There is a chaotic, but sweeping happy ending:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mad Adventures of Rabbi Jacob (, ) is a 1973 French-Italian comedy film directed by Gérard Oury, starring Louis de Funès and Claude Giraud. The plot involves a bigoted businessman and a kidnapper who disguise themselves as rabbis to escape from a group of assassins. One of De Funès' most popular and iconic movies, it has become a cult classic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975618}
{"src_title": "John Perkins (author)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Perkins graduated from the Tilton School in 1963. He subsequently attended Middlebury College for two years before dropping out. He later earned a Bachelor of Science degree in business administration from Boston University in 1968. He was a Peace Corps Volunteer in Ecuador from 1968 to 1970. He spent the 1970s working for the Boston strategic-consulting firm Chas. T. Main; he claims to have been screened for this job by the National Security Agency (NSA) and subsequently hired by Einar Greve, a member of the firm (alleged by Perkins to have been acting as an NSA liaison, a claim which Greve has denied).  As Chief Economist at Chas. T. Main, Perkins and his staff advised the World Bank, United Nations, IMF, U.S. Treasury Department, Fortune 500 corporations, and countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East. He worked directly with heads of state and CEOs of major companies. Perkins's time at Chas T. Main provides the basis for his subsequent published claims that, as an \"economic hit man\", he was charged with inducing developing countries to borrow large amounts of money, designated to pay for questionable infrastructure investments, but ultimately with a view to making the debt-laden countries more dependent, economically and politically, upon the West.  In the 1980s Perkins left Main and founded and directed an independent energy company. In the book \"Confessions of an Economic Hit Man\", Perkins claims that his company was successful due to 'coincidences' orchestrated by those appreciative of his silence about the work he says he did as an economic hit man.  Perkins is a founder and board member of Dream Change and The Pachamama Alliance, nonprofit organizations devoted to promoting environmentally sustainable and socially just societies. He has lectured at Harvard, Oxford, and more than 50 universities around the world, and is the author of eight books on global economics and indigenous cultures. He has been featured on ABC, NBC, CNN, CNBC, NPR, A&E, the History Channel, \"Time, The New York Times, The Washington Post, Cosmopolitan, Elle, Der Spiegel,\" and many other publications, as well as in numerous documentaries. He was awarded the Lennon Ono Grant for Peace 2012, and Rainforest Action Network Challenging Business As Usual Award, 2006.  Perkins's story is the main theme in part II of the movie \"\", released in October 2008. In that same year, he appeared in the film, \"The End of Poverty?\". His life as an economic hit man is detailed in the full-length movie, \"Apology of an Economic Hit Man\". He also appears in the films \"The Weight of Chains\" by Boris Malagurski, released in December 2010, \"Let's Make Money\" (in German) by the Austrian director Erwin Wagenhofer, released October 2008, and \"Four Horsemen\" by Ross Ashcroft, released in 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "Sebastian Mallaby, economics columnist of the \"Washington Post\", reacted sharply to Perkins' book: describing him as \"a conspiracy theorist, a vainglorious peddler of nonsense, and yet his book, \"Confessions of an Economic Hit Man\", is a runaway bestseller.\" Mallaby, a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, holds that Perkins' conception of international finance is \"largely a dream\" and that his \"basic contentions are flat wrong.\" As an example, Mallaby states that Indonesia reduced its infant mortality and illiteracy rates by two-thirds after economists persuaded its leaders to borrow money in 1970. Perkins points out that the gap between rich and poor and the number of impoverished people in Indonesia and many other countries has increased greatly as a result of the loans, that the rich benefited and the middle class and poor suffered.  Articles in the \"New York Times\" and \"Boston\" magazine, as well as a press release issued by the United States Department of State, have referred to a lack of documentary or testimonial evidence to corroborate the claim that the NSA was involved in his hiring by Chas T. Main. After an extensive investigation, the \"New York Times\" concluded that \"the arc of Mr. Perkins's career seems to be described accurately,\" although they did not find evidence to support \"some of his fancier claims,\" including those involving the NSA.  In a 2006 statement, a State Department release claims that much of the book \"appears to be a total fabrication... the National Security Agency is a cryptological (codemaking and codebreaking) organization, not an economic organization... Neither of [its] missions anything remotely resembling placing economists at private companies in order to increase the debt of foreign countries.\" Perkins responds that Wikileaks and Edward Snowden documents clearly demonstrated that the NSA is involved in a wide range of activities that have nothing to do with codemaking and codebreaking and that often serve to undermine other countries and their leaders.  The State Department also claims that Perkins has alleged U.S. Government complicity in \"the assassinations of President John F. Kennedy, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King Jr., former Beatle John Lennon, and several unnamed U.S. senators who had died in plane crashes.\" Questioned in a recorded interview about the State Department claims on the assassinations, Perkins replied, \"No, I've never alleged that. I probably opened a question as to whether it might have been that way.\" There is no mention in any of his books about U.S. Government complicity in these assassinations. Perkins, however, does allege that two of his clients, President Jaime Roldós Aguilera of Ecuador and Omar Torrijos of Panama, had been assassinated and the US government had been involved, adding \"I know. I was there.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Perkins's books on mystical aspects of indigenous cultures, including shamanism, include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "John Perkins also appeared in \"Dangerous Edge: A Life of Graham Greene.\" See link https://www.imdb.com/name/nm5562900/reference", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Perkins (born January 28, 1945) is an American author. His best known book is \"Confessions of an Economic Hit Man\" (2004), in which Perkins claims to have played a role in an alleged process of economic colonization of Third World countries on behalf of what he portrays as a cabal of corporations, banks, and the United States government. This book spent more than 70 weeks on the \"New York Times\" bestseller list, has been published in at least 32 languages, and is used in many college and university programs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975619}
{"src_title": "Big Bayou Canot rail accident", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Events.", "content": "Immediately prior to the accident, a barge being pushed by the towboat \"Mauvilla\" (owned and operated by Warrior and Gulf Navigation of Chickasaw, Alabama) had made a wrong turn on the Mobile River and entered the Big Bayou Canot, an un-navigable channel of water crossed by a CSX Transportation rail bridge.  The towboat's pilot, Willie Odom, was not properly trained on how to read his radar and so, due to very poor visibility in heavy fog and his lack of experience, did not realize he was off course. The boat also lacked a compass and a chart of the waters. Odom believed that he was still on the Mobile River and had identified the bridge in the radar as another tug boat. After the investigation, he was not found to be criminally liable for the accident.  The bridge was struck by the \"Mauvilla\" at about 2:45 am. The span had been designed to rotate so it could be converted to a swing bridge by adding suitable equipment. No such conversion had ever been performed but the span had not been adequately secured against unintended movement. The collision forced the unsecured end of the bridge span approximately three feet out of alignment and severely kinked the track.  At 2:53 a.m., Amtrak's \"Sunset Limited\" train, powered by three locomotives (one GE Genesis P40DC number 819 in the front and two EMD F40PHs, numbers 262 and 312) en route from Los Angeles, California to Miami, Florida with 220 passengers and crew aboard, crossed the bridge at around and derailed at the kink. The first of its three locomotives slammed into the displaced span, causing that part of the bridge to collapse into the water beneath. The lead locomotive embedded itself nose-first into the canal bank and the other two locomotives, together with the baggage car, sleeping car and two of the six passenger cars, plunged into the water. The locomotives' fuel tanks, each of which held several thousand gallons of diesel fuel, ruptured upon impact, resulting in a massive fuel spill and a fire. Forty-seven people, 42 of whom were passengers, were killed many by drowning, others by fire/smoke inhalation. Another 103 were injured. The towboat's four crew members were not injured. Odom helped save seventeen people after the crash using the same towboat that had been pushing the barge that hit the bridge. At the time of the derailment, the lead locomotive, number 819, had been in service with Amtrak for only twenty days.  Despite the displacement of the bridge, the continuously welded rails did not break. As a result, the track circuit controlling the bridge approach block signals remained closed (intact) and the nearest signal continued to display a clear (green) aspect. Had one of the rails been severed by the bridge's displacement, the track circuit would have opened, causing the approach signal to display a stop (red) aspect and the preceding signal an amber (caution) approach indication. This might have given the Amtrak engineer sufficient time to stop his train or at least reduce its speed in an effort to minimize the accident's severity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fatal delay.", "content": "An episode of the National Geographic Channel documentary series \"Seconds From Disaster\" examined the accident. In addition to corroborating findings of the official accident report, the program revealed that the train had been delayed in New Orleans by repairs to an air conditioner unit and a toilet. This had put it a half-hour behind schedule. If not for this delay, the \"Sunset Limited\" would have passed over the Big Bayou Canot bridge twenty minutes before the bridge was hit by the barge.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "As a result of its investigation of this accident, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) made a comprehensive series of recommendations, on September 19, 1994, to the U.S. Department of Transportation, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Amtrak, the American Waterways Operators, Inc., the Warrior & Gulf Navigation Company, the Association of American Railroads, and the American Short Line Railroad Association. Following a recommendation to maintain a record of onboard passenger numbers, Amtrak now records passenger lists electronically.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Big Bayou Canot rail accident was the derailing of an Amtrak train on the CSX Transportation Big Bayou Canot Bridge in southwestern Alabama, United States, on September 22, 1993. It was caused by displacement of a span and deformation of the rails when a tow of heavy barges collided with the rail bridge eight minutes earlier. 47 people were killed and 103 more were injured. To date, it is both the deadliest train wreck in Amtrak's history and the worst rail disaster in the United States since the 1958 Newark Bay, New Jersey rail accident in which 48 lives were lost.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975620}
{"src_title": "Solanaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Preparation.", "content": "The dish is a famous soup, and often consumed by tourists and locals. An important ingredient in Fisherman's Soup is in the court-bouillon, which adds significant flavor. To prepare the soup base, fish trimmings are used, fresh carp heads, bones, skin and fins. These are boiled with water, salt and vegetables (red onions, green peppers and tomatoes) for two hours. When ready, the court bouillon is strained. Hot ground paprika and two finger-thick carp fillets, the roe and coral is added, ten minutes before serving, to the boiling soup.  Fisherman's Soup variations  Traditionally, the soup is prepared in small kettles on open fire on the river banks by fishermen. Fisherman's soup in kettle is prepared with fresh fish on the place. When prepared in kettles, first, chopped onion is fried in the kettle with some oil until it is caramelized. Then, ground \"paprika\" is added and the kettle is filled with water. When the water comes to a boil, other spices (such as black pepper, white wine, tomato juice) are added, and finally the fish, chopped into large pieces. Entire fish, including heads and tails, are often added to the soup. The soup is usually prepared with mixed fish, the most common species are common carp, catfish, perch and pike. Depending on the amount of added hot paprika the soup is mildly to very hot. The Hungarian soup is famous for being very hot and spicy.  The soup is served directly from the kettle and eaten with bread (the spicier the soup, the more bread is required).  Many people, especially fishermen, regard the preparation of fish soup as somewhat secretive. Although the recipe is basically simple, the \"right\" ratio of spices, onion, fish (its quality and variety) and water, as well as timing, affect the soup taste significantly. Many dedicated fishermen regarded their recipe as a highly-kept secret.  Competitions in preparing the soup are popular and are usually held at fairs along river coast. Visitors are offered to taste the soup for money or for free; the quality is determined by public or committee and (un)success of competitors is often subject of mutual teasing.  The soup is best accompanied by dry white wine (such as Riesling), which may be diluted with soda water. The combination of wine and soda water (a wine spritzer) is called \"fröccs\" in Hungarian.  The Fisherman's soup or halászlé is a traditional dish for Christmas Eve dinner in Hungary.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Solanaceae, or nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, and includes a number of agricultural crops, medicinal plants, spices, weeds, and ornamentals. Many members of the family contain potent alkaloids, and some are highly toxic, but many—including tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, bell and chili peppers—are used as food. The family belongs to the order Solanales, in the asterid group and class Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons). The Solanaceae consists of about 98 genera and some 2,700 species, with a great diversity of habitats, morphology and ecology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975621}
{"src_title": "Pisonian conspiracy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a leading Roman statesman, benefactor of literature, and orator, intended to have Nero assassinated, and replace him as Emperor through acclamation by the Praetorian Guard. He enlisted the aid of several prominent senators, equestrians, and soldiers with a loosely conceived plan in which Faenius Rufus—joint prefect of the Praetorian Guard with Ofonius Tigellinus—would conduct Piso to the Praetorian Camp, where the Guard would acclaim him as emperor. The conspirators were said to have varying motives. Some wished to replace Nero with a better emperor; others wished to be free of emperors altogether, and to restore a purely Republican form of government. According to the Roman historian Tacitus, the ringleaders included a Praetorian tribune named Subrius Flavus, and a centurion named Sulpicius Asper, who helped Piso devise the plot.  The conspiracy was put in jeopardy by a woman named Epicharis, who divulged parts of the plan to Volusius Proculus, a fleet captain in Campania. Epicharis was involved with the conspiracy and was attempting to move it along faster. When Proculus complained to Epicharis that Nero did not favor him, she informed him of the conspiracy. Proculus informed Nero of the conspiracy and Epicharis was arrested. Though she denied the accusations, the conspiracy collapsed and Epicharis was tortured brutally. While on transport to be tortured a second time, she committed suicide by strangling herself with her own girdle.  On the morning that the conspirators' plot was to be carried out (19 April) a freedman named Milichus and his wife discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditos. The plot collapsed as Flavius Scaevinus, the man Milichus served, and Natalis, a conspirator whom Milichus also accused, quickly gave up everything they knew.  Nero ordered Piso, the philosopher Seneca, Seneca's nephew Lucan, and the satirist Petronius to commit suicide. Many others were also killed. In Plutarch's version, one of the conspirators remarked to a condemned prisoner that all would change soon (because Nero would be dead). The prisoner reported the conversation to Nero, who had the conspirator tortured until he confessed the plot.  The ancient Roman historian, Tacitus, writes in Annals that \"It was rumoured that Subrius Flavus and the centurions had decided in private conference, though not without Seneca's knowledge, that, once Nero had been struck down by the agency of Piso, Piso should be disposed of in his turn, and the empire made over to Seneca; who would thus appear to have been chosen for the supreme power by innocent men, as a consequence of his distinguished virtues.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Named conspirators.", "content": "At least 41 individuals were accused of being part of the conspiracy. Of the known 41, there were 19 Senators, 7 Equites, 11 soldiers, and 4 women.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Executed or forced to commit suicide.", "content": "Piso, Plautius Lateranus, Lucan, Afranius Quintianus, Flavius Scaevinus, Claudius Senecio, Vulcatius Araricus, Julius Augurinus, Munatius Gratus, Marcius Festus, Faenius Rufus, Subrius Flavus, Sulpicius Asper, Maximus Scaurus, Venetus Paulus, Epicharis, Seneca the Younger, Antonia, Marcus Julius Vestinus Atticus.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exiled or denigrated.", "content": "Novius Priscus, Annius Pollio, Publius Glitius Gallus, Rufrius Crispinus, Verginius Flavus, Musonius Rufus, Cluvidienus Quietus, Julius Agrippa, Blitius Catulinus, Petronius Pricus, Julius Altinus, Caesennius Maximus, Caedicia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pardoned or acquitted.", "content": "Antonius Natalis, Cervarius Proculus, Statius Proximus (but afterwards committed suicide), Gavius Silvanus (also afterwards committed suicide), Acilia Lucana.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern fiction.", "content": "The novel by Naomi Mitchison, \"The Blood of the Martyrs\" (1939), is set in the months leading up to the failure of the conspiracy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso in AD 65 was a major turning point in the reign of the Roman emperor Nero (reign 54–68). The plot reflected the growing discontent among the ruling class of the Roman state with Nero's increasingly despotic leadership, and as a result is a significant event on the road toward his eventual suicide and the chaos of the Year of the Four Emperors which followed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975622}
{"src_title": "Maria Josepha of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "A member of the House of Wittelsbach, she was born in Munich, Bavaria. Maria Josepha was the seventh and youngest child of Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria, and Holy Roman Emperor. Her mother, Maria Amalia, was an Archduchess of Austria by birth. Her maternal grandparents were Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Wilhelmina Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Her paternal grandparents were Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, and Theresa Kunegunda Sobieska, the daughter of the King of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, John III Sobieski. Josepha's mother, Archduchess Maria Amalia, was also a first cousin to her future mother-in-law, Empress Maria Theresa, and therefore Josepha was a second cousin to her future husband, Joseph, King of the Romans.  Josepha's mother, Archduchess Maria Amalia, gave birth to seven children, only four of whom lived through to adulthood. Maria Josepha's siblings included her brother Maximilian III, Elector of Bavaria, and two sisters Maria Antonia, Electress of Saxony, and Maria Anna Josepha, Margravine of Baden-Baden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Maria Josepha was first married by proxy on 13 January 1765, to her second cousin, the widowed Joseph, King of the Romans, and heir of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria in Munich, Germany. Upon her arrival to Vienna from Munich, her husband did not seem to be dissatisfied with his new wife and neither did the entourage who greeted the princess. She and Joseph formally married on 25 January 1765, at the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, amidst suitable festivities. The marriage, however, was never happy; it had taken place only under pressure from Joseph's mother, Maria Theresa, who wanted her son to provide an heir to the throne. Joseph, however, had never wanted to remarry after the death of his beloved first wife, Isabella of Parma, although he had made some overtures toward Isabella's younger sister, Maria Luisa of Parma. Maria Luisa, however, was already promised to the Crown Prince of Spain and, in any case, was not interested.  Joseph did not find Maria Josepha physically attractive either—he described her in a letter when he first saw her as, \"She is twenty five. She has never had smallpox, and the very thought of the disease makes me shudder. Her figure is short, thickset, and without a vestige of charm. Her face is covered with spots and pimples. Her teeth are horrible.\" However, Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, had wanted Joseph to marry Maria Josepha because of the Bavarian connection, so she was ultimately selected to be Joseph's bride.  A month after his wedding, Joseph sent off a long, self-pitying letter to his first wife's father. He did not have anything in common with his new wife, he admitted; however, as far as her character was concerned, Maria Josepha was an \"irreproachable woman\" who loved him, and he valued her for her positive traits but suffered because he could not love her. Even her enemies admitted that Josepha was amiable, obliging, friendly to all, and disposed to every kind or benevolent sentiment; but her understanding was narrow as well as deficient in cultivation. Joseph further added, \"I will keep the path of honour, and if I cannot be an affectionate husband, at least she will have in me a friend, who appreciates her good qualities and treats her with every imaginable consideration.\" Despite this, Joseph never kept his word.  As time went on he did more than treat Josepha with perfect frigidity. Maria Josepha's sister-in-law, Archduchess Marie Christine, once wrote: \"I believe if I were his [Joseph's] wife and so maltreated I would run away and hang myself on a tree in Schonbrunn.\" Despite Joseph's cold behaviour towards her, Maria Josepha had loved her husband with much ardour and was deeply affected by his unkindness towards her. Being of a meek and timid disposition, and conscious of her own inferiority, she trembled and turned pale whenever she came in her husband's presence. The only member of the imperial family who took the poor young queen under his wing was her father-in-law, Emperor Francis I; and when Francis died shortly after her marriage, she had no real support in the court. Upon Francis I's death on 18 August 1765, Maria Josepha became Empress of the Holy Roman Empire following her husband's accession to the throne. Her mother-in-law, however, remained the most powerful and important Power figure in the Empire and at court in Vienna and Holy Roman Empire.  Maria Josepha and Joseph's short-lived marriage did not produce any children, but for much of the two years of her marriage, Josepha's state of health led her and others to suppose that she was pregnant. In October 1765, in sentences delicately omitted by Arneth from a published version of a letter to his younger brother Leopold, Joseph wrote: 'As for my empress, there is no change. She has no illness but considerable disturbance. She [Josepha] maybe pregnant though without the slightest swelling. I just don't understand it, and I console myself with the happy life I lead as a bachelor husband.'  Next month, he wrote: 'I live almost as a bachelor, getting up at 6 o'clock in the morning, going to bed at 11, seeing my wife only at table and touching her only in bed.' In the same month, Josepha's mistress of the household retired, because she could no longer bear to contemplate the \"tableau de ce mauvais menage\". Apparently, the young empress had made matters worse for herself by telling her troubles to her servants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 28 May 1767, after only two years of marriage, Maria Josepha died of smallpox as had her predecessor Isabella. Upon the young empress' death, the Court immediately plunged into mourning. Her husband did not visit her during her illness, although her mother-in-law, Maria Theresa, did. In doing so, Maria Theresa also caught the disease, but survived.  In Joseph's first reaction to receiving the news of his wife's death, he had told some of his intimates some remarks which imply regrets for the coldness he had shown to her. He further brought himself to tell his sister-in-law, Duchess Maria Antonia, that his wife had been \"for so many reasons worthy of respect\". Maria Josepha was buried in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna, but Joseph did not attend her burial.  The unloved young empress played a role in her husband's life once more after her death, when he laid claim to a large part of Bavaria in 1778–1779. He based his claim on, among other grounds, his marriage to his Bavarian second wife. This conflict eventually grew into the War of the Bavarian Succession. In the end, the Habsburg dynasty gained only the Innviertel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Josepha of Bavaria (Maria Josepha Antonia Walburga Felicitas Regula, 20 March 173928 May 1767) was Holy Roman Empress, Queen of the Romans, Archduchess of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, etc. by her marriage to Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor. By birth, she was a Princess and Duchess of Bavaria as the daughter of Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor, Elector of Bavaria, and Archduchess Maria Amalia of Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975623}
{"src_title": "Go/no go gauge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plug gauge.", "content": "These gauges are referred to as plug gauges; they are used in the manner of a plug. They are generally assembled from standard parts, where the gauge portion is interchangeable with other gauge pieces (obtained from a set of pin type and a body that uses the collet principle to hold the gauges firmly. To use this style of gauge, one end is inserted into the part first, and depending on the result of that test, the other end is tried.  In the right image, the top gauge is a thread gauge that is screwed into the part to be tested, the \"GO\" end should fully enter the part; the \"NOT GO\" end should not. The lower image is a plain plug gauge used to check the size of a hole; the green end is the \"go\", and the red end is the \"no-go\". The tolerance of the part that this gauge checks is 0.30 mm, where the lower size of the hole is 12.60 mm and the upper size is 12.90 mm, every size outside this range is \"out of tolerance\". This may be initially expressed on the parts drawing in a number of styles; three possibilities may be", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pin gauge.", "content": "The image on the right is a set of pin gauges used to measure holes only a few millimeters in diameter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Snap gauge.", "content": "Snap gauges are often used when a large quantity of work pieces must be inspected. The snap gauge has four \"anvils\" or \"jaws\", the first one or pair (outermost) are set using the upper limit (tolerance) of the part and the inner set adjusted to the lower limit of the part. A correctly machined part will pass the first set of jaws and stop at the second—end of test. In this manner, a part may be checked in one action, unlike the plug gauge that needs to be used twice and flipped to access the second gauge. The first go/no-go snap gage for checking thread rolls was invented in 1943 to speed production of parts during WWII.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other styles.", "content": "Once the concept is understood, the principle of operation can lead to all manner of designs where internal grooves, keyways, splines, etc. may be measured in a simple yet effective manner. These will often be made to order by the toolmakers, or a related skilled tradesman.  Go/no-go gauges play an integral part in setting the correct headspace during gunsmithing. In order for the chamber to be in-spec, the bolt must close without resistance on the go gauge, but it must not close completely on the no-go gauge. In addition, there is usually a third gauge called FIELD that is slightly larger than the no-go gauge. Since bolt and chamber lugs eventually stretch with use, the bolt may start to close on the no-go gauge. If the bolt also closes fully on the field gauge, such a gun is considered unsafe due to high risk of shell case rupture if the cartridges length happens to be on the shorter end of the spec.  A special match-grade go gauge can also be employed to verify a particularly tight, or shorter-than-SAAMI spec. chamber length. Such gauges are usually specially ordered from chamber-reamer manufacturers. This minimizes case stretch or end-play in order to best control the positioning of an unfired round prior to its firing in a match-grade chamber. Such chambers are also usually cut to tighter dimensions in the case-neck area. Thus, a standard go gauge may not actually chamber as easily due to these reduced dimensions, even if they are cut properly.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A go/no-go gauge refers to an inspection tool used to check a workpiece against its allowed tolerances via a go/no-go test. Its name is derived from two tests: the check involves the workpiece having to pass one test (\"go\") and fail the other (\"no-go\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975624}
{"src_title": "International trade", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics of global trade.", "content": "A product that is transferred or sold from a party in one country to a party in another country is an export from the originating country, and an import to the country receiving that product. Imports and exports are accounted for in a country's current account in the balance of payments.  Trading globally may give consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to new markets and products. Almost every kind of product can be found in the international market, for example: food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewellery, wine, stocks, currencies, and water. Services are also traded, such as in tourism, banking, consulting, and transportation.  Advanced technology (including transportation), globalisation, industrialisation, outsourcing and multinational corporations have major impacts on the international trade system.  Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalisation. Countries would be limited to the goods and services produced within their own borders without international trade. International trade benefits many countries in various aspects. In the case of Vizio’s flat-panel TVs, the manufacturing leadership has been shifting from one country to another due to global economic growth. At first, Japan could assemble the components of this TV and sell it out to the other countries such as US. However, recession affected Japan and South Korea took the lead in assembling the parts of this TV. Samsung played a critical role in the selling and manufacturing of the flat TV. Taiwan also took advantage of the recession that affected South Korea and the investors assembled electronic components of Vizio’s flat-panel TVs. At first the US suffered from this cycle because despite inventing this business idea, other countries implemented it in the international market. Chinese eventually started manufacturing flat TVs at a lower cost compared to the previous investors. It is important to note that US benefited from the cycle because many investors could manufacture the TV at lower cost (Kandel, Kosenko, Morck & Yafeh, 2013). China is also another country that benefited from this business because it started manufacturing the product late at a lower price. South Korea and Japan suffered from the global recession because it was expensive to manufacture Vizio’s flat-panel TVs at the beginning.  Despite the benefits that many countries enjoyed from selling Vizio’s flat-panel TVs, many nations suffered due to changes in international economy. Some countries experienced recessions that could not favor the manufacture of this product. For example, Japan became the first country to sell the flat-panel screens in 1990s but decade-long recession affected the business operations and surrendered to South Korea. It is also important to note that South Korea suffered the same fate from the Asian crisis in 1997 (Lazarev, 2007). Mexico is one lucky country that never suffered the consequences of crisis. The country could assemble flat-panel TVs after sourcing the electronic parts from other countries (Hill & Hult, 2019). In this regard, it is clear that countries that took part in the manufacture of these TVs were affected in different ways.  The US played a critical role in the invention and manufacture of the flat-panel TVs. In this regard, the decision made by the US may affect the entrepreneurs at the local and international level. If the US government demands that flat-panel displays be sold in the country only, the investors will have to sell the products at lower prices. It is clear that the prices of these flat-panel displays are cheap in the US compared to the countries. In addition, the local investors will not have the opportunity to compete at international level (Kandel, Kosenko, Morck & Yafeh, 2013). The quality of the screens can be compromised because the local manufacturers do not encounter foreign competitors.  The future production of these TVs will change. Technology is changing the mode of production from one year to another. For instance, the manufacture of these TVs began from assembling electronic parts from different countries. However, things have changed and currently, every country is aiming at using the local resources to manufacture the screens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differences from domestic trade.", "content": "International trade is, in principle, not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade do not change fundamentally regardless of whether trade is across a border or not.  However, in practical terms, carrying out trade at an international level is typically a more complex process than domestic trade. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. This is due to the fact that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs due to border delays, and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system, or culture (non-tariff barriers).  Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of production such as capital and labor are often more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus, international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labour, or other factors of production. Trade in goods and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production. Instead of importing a factor of production, a country can import goods that make intensive use of that factor of production and thus embody it. An example of this is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor, the United States imports goods that were produced with Chinese labor. One report in 2010 suggested that international trade was increased when a country hosted a network of immigrants, but the trade effect was weakened when the immigrants became assimilated into their new country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The history of international trade chronicles notable events that have affected trading among various economies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theories and models.", "content": "There are several models which seek to explain the factors behind international trade, the welfare consequences of trade and the pattern of trade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Largest countries by total international trade.", "content": "The following table is a list of the 21 largest trading nations according to the World Trade Organization.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Top traded commodities by value (exports).", "content": "Source: International Trade Centre", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Observances.", "content": "President George W. Bush observed World Trade Week on May 18, 2001, and May 17, 2002. On May 13, 2016, President Barack Obama proclaimed May 15 through May 21, 2016, World Trade Week, 2016. On May 19, 2017, President Donald Trump proclaimed May 21 through May 27, 2017, World Trade Week, 2017. World Trade Week is the third week of May. Every year the President declares that week to be World Trade Week.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Data.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Official statistics.", "content": "Data on the value of exports and imports and their quantities often broken down by detailed lists of products are available in statistical collections on international trade published by the statistical services of intergovernmental and supranational organisations and national statistical institutes. The definitions and methodological concepts applied for the various statistical collections on international trade often differ in terms of definition (e.g. special trade vs. general trade) and coverage (reporting thresholds, inclusion of trade in services, estimates for smuggled goods and cross-border provision of illegal services). Metadata providing information on definitions and methods are often published along with the data.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "In most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP). While international trade has existed throughout history (for example Uttarapatha, Silk Road, Amber Road, scramble for Africa, Atlantic slave trade, salt roads), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975625}
{"src_title": "Edible frog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Pelophylax esculentus\" is endemic to Europe. It naturally occurs from the northern half of France to western Russia, and from Estonia and Denmark to Bulgaria and northern Italy. The edible frog is introduced in Spain and the United Kingdom. The natural range is nearly identical to that of \"P. lessonae\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hybridogenesis.", "content": "\"Pelophylax\" kl. \"esculentus\" is the fertile hybrid of the pool frog (\"Pelophylax lessonae\") and the marsh frog (\"Pelophylax ridibundus\"). It reproduces by hybridogenesis (hemiclonally).  Hybridogenesis implies that during gametogenesis hybrids (of RL genotype) exclude one parental genome (L or R) and produce gametes with an unrecombined genome of the other parental species (R or L, respectively), instead of containing mixed recombined parental genomes. The hybrid populations are usually propagated by mating (backcrosses) with a sympatric parental species - \"P. lessonae\" (LL) or \"P. ridibundus\" (RR), providing the second, discarded parental genome (L or R respectively). Hybridogenesis is thus a hemiclonal mode of reproduction; half of the genome is transmitted to the next generation clonally, unrecombined (intact); the other half sexually, recombined.  For example, in the most widespread so called L–E system, edible frogs \"Pelophylax\" kl. \"esculentus\" (RE) produce gametes of the marsh frog \"P. ridibundus\" (R) and mate with coexisting pool frogs \"Pelophylax lessonae\" (L gametes) – see below in the middle. Because this hybrid requires another taxon as a sexual host to reproduce, usually one of the parental species, it is a klepton. Hence the addition of the \"kl.\" (for \"klepton\") in the species name.  There are also known all-hybrid populations, where diploid hybrids (LR) coexist with triploid (LLR or LRR) hybrids, providing L or R genomes respectively. In this situation, diploid hybrids (LR) generate not only haploid R or L gametes, but also the diploid gametes (RL) needed to recreate triploids.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The edible frog (\"Pelophylax\" kl. \"esculentus\") is a name for a common European frog, also known as the common water frog or green frog (however, this latter term is also used for the North American species \"Rana clamitans\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975626}
{"src_title": "Multi-level cell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Single-level cell.", "content": "Flash memory stores data in individual memory cells, which are made of floating-gate MOSFET transistors. Traditionally, each cell had two possible states (each with one voltage level), so one bit of data was stored in each cell in so-called \"single-level cells\", or SLC flash memory. SLC memory has the advantage of higher write speeds, lower power consumption and higher cell endurance. However, because SLC memory stores less data per cell than MLC memory, it costs more per megabyte of storage to manufacture. Due to higher transfer speeds and expected longer life, SLC flash technology is used in high-performance memory cards. In February 2016, a study was published that showed little difference in practice between the reliability of SLC and MLC.  A single-level cell (SLC) Flash memory may have a lifetime of about 50,000 to 100,000 program/erase cycles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Multi-level cell.", "content": "The primary benefit of MLC flash memory is its lower cost per unit of storage due to the higher data density, and memory-reading software can compensate for a larger bit error rate. The higher error rate necessitates an error correcting code (ECC) that can correct multiple bit errors; for example, the SandForce SF-2500 Flash Controller can correct up to 55 bits per 512-byte sector with an unrecoverable read error rate of less than one sector per 10 bits read. The most commonly used algorithm is Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH code). Other drawbacks of MLC NAND are lower write speeds, lower number of program-erase cycles and higher power consumption compared to SLC flash memory.  Read speeds can also be lower for MLC NAND than SLC due to the need to read the same data at a second threshold voltage to help resolve errors. TLC and QLC devices may need to read the same data up to 4 and 8 times respectively to obtain values that are correctable by ECC.  MLC flash may have a lifetime of about 1,000 to 10,000 program/erase cycles. This typically necessitates the use of a flash file system which is designed around the limitations of flash memory, such as using wear leveling to extend the useful lifetime of the flash device.  The Intel 8087 used two-bits-per-cell technology, and in 1980 was one of the first devices on the market to use multi-level ROM cells. Intel later demonstrated 2-bit multi-level cell (MLC) NOR flash in 1997. NEC demonstrated quad-level cells in 1996, with a 64Mb flash memory chip storing 2-bit per cell. In 1997, NEC demonstrated a dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) chip with quad-level cells, holding a capacity of 4Gb. STMicroelectronics also demonstrated quad-level cells in 2000, with a 64Mb NOR flash memory chip. , some solid-state drives use part of an MLC NAND die as if it were single-bit SLC NAND, giving higher write speeds. , nearly all commercial MLCs are planar-based (i.e. cells are built on silicon surface) and so subject to scaling limitations. To address this potential problem, the industry is already looking at technologies that can guarantee storage density increases beyond today’s limitations. One of the most promising is 3D Flash, where cells are stacked vertically, thereby avoiding the limitations of planar scaling.  In the past, a few memory devices went the other direction and used two cells per bit to give even lower bit error rates.  Enterprise MLC (eMLC) is a more expensive variant of MLC that is optimized for commercial use. It claims to last longer and be more reliable than normal MLCs while providing cost savings over traditional SLC drives. Although many SSD manufacturers have produced MLC drives slated for enterprise use, only Micron sells raw NAND Flash chips under this designation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Triple-level cell.", "content": "A Triple Level Cell (TLC) is a type of NAND flash memory that stores three bits of information per cell. Toshiba introduced memory with triple-level cells in 2009.  Samsung announced a type of NAND flash that stores three bits of information per cell, with eight total voltage states, coining the term \"Triple Level Cell\" (\"TLC\"). Samsung Electronics began mass-producing it in 2010, and it was first seen in Samsung's 840 Series SSDs. Samsung refers to this technology as 3-bit MLC. The negative aspects of MLC are amplified with TLC, but TLC benefits from still higher storage density and lower cost.  In 2013, Samsung introduced V-NAND (Vertical NAND, also known as 3D NAND) with triple-level cells, which had a memory capacity of 128Gb. They expanded their TLC V-NAND technology to 256Gb memory in 2015, and 512Gb in 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quad-level cell.", "content": "Memory that stores four bits per cell are commonly referred to as Quad Level Cell (QLC), following the convention set by TLC. Prior to its invention, QLC referred to cells that can have sixteen voltage states, i.e. ones that store four bits per cell.  In 2009, Toshiba and SanDisk introduced NAND flash memory chips with quad-level cells, storing 4-bit per cell and holding a capacity of 64Gb.  SanDisk X4 flash memory cards, introduced in 2009, was one of the first products based on NAND-memory that stores four bits per cell, commonly referred to as Quad Level Cell (QLC), using 16 discrete charge levels (states) in each individual transistor. The QLC chips used in these memory cards were manufactured by Toshiba, SanDisk and SK Hynix.  In 2017, Toshiba introduced V-NAND memory chips with quad-level cells, which have a storage capacity of up to 768Gb. In 2018, ADATA, Intel, Micron and Samsung have launched some SSD products using QLC NAND memory.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In electronics, a multi-level cell (MLC) is a memory cell/element capable of storing more than a single bit of information, compared to a single-level cell (SLC) which can store only one bit per memory cell/element. A memory cell typically consists of a single MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), thus multi-level cells reduce the number of MOSFETs required to store the same amount of data as single-level cells.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975627}
{"src_title": "Sinapis arvensis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Sinapis arvensis\" reaches on average of height, but under optimal conditions can exceed one metre. The stems are erect, branched and striated, with coarse spreading hairs especially near the base. The leaves are petiolate (stalked) with a length of. The basal leaves are oblong, oval, lanceolate, lyrate, pinnatifid to dentate, long, wide. The cauline leaves are much reduced and are short petiolate to sessile but not auriculate-clasping. It blooms from May to September, or May to August, in the UK. The inflorescence is a raceme made up of yellow flowers having four petals. The fruit is a silique 3–5 cm long with a beak 1–2 cm long that is flattened-quadrangular. The valves of the silique are glabrous or rarely bristly, three to five nerved. The seeds are dark red or brown, smooth 1-1.5 mm in diameter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phytochemistry.", "content": "It contains chemicals of the class glucosinolates, including sinalbin. The seeds contain a plant hormone, Gibberellic acid, which effects the dormancy of the seeds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "It was formerly described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in his seminal publication 'Species Plantarum' on page 668 in 1753.  It is commonly known as charlock mustard, field mustard, wild mustard, or charlock.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The genus name \"Sinapis\" derives from the Greek word \"sinapi\" meaning'mustard'. The species name \"arvensis\" is a Latin adjective meaning 'from/of the field'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "A native of the Mediterranean basin, from temperate regions of North Africa, Europe and parts of Asia. It has also become naturalised throughout much of North America, South America, Australia, Japan and South Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "It is found in North Africa, within Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia. Within Asia, it is found in Arabian Peninsula (in Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates), Armenia, Azerbaijan, the Caucasus, China, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Siberia, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. It is also found in tropical Pakistan. In eastern Europe, it is found within Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova and Ukraine. In middle Europe, it is in Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland. In northern Europe, in Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. In southeastern Europe, within Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia. Also in southwestern Europe, it is found in France, Portugal and Spain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "It grows in the plains and mountains, in pastures, fields, roadsides, waste places (such as railways, tips, and waste ground), and ruins, but mainly in cultivated places. It prefers calcareous soils in sunny places, at an altitude of above sea level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The flowers are pollinated by various bees like \"Andrena agilissima\" and flies (entomophily). \"Sinapis arvensis\" is the host plant of the caterpillars of some Lepidoptera, such as the small white, \"Pieris rapae\". The seeds are toxic to most animals, except birds, and can cause gastrointestinal problems, especially if consumed in large quantities.  It is a highly invasive species in states such as California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The leaves of wild mustard are edible at the juvenile stage of the plant; they are usually boiled, such as in 18th century, in Dublin, where it was sold in the streets. During the Irish Potato Famine, wild mustard was a common famine food, even though it often caused stomach upset. Once the seeds are ground, they produce a kind of mustard.  A type of oil can be extracted from the seed which has been used for lubricating machinery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "It has a known accepted variety - \"Sinapis arvensis\" var. \"orientalis\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sinapis arvensis, the charlock mustard, field mustard, wild mustard or charlock, is an annual or winter annual plant of the genus \"Sinapis\" in the family Brassicaceae. It is found in the fields of North Africa, Asia and Europe. \"Pieris rapae\", the small white butterfly, and \"Pieris napi\", the green veined white butterfly are significant consumers of charlock during their larval stages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975628}
{"src_title": "God Emperor of Dune", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Leto II Atreides, the God Emperor, has ruled the universe as a tyrant for 3,500 years after becoming a hybrid of human and giant sandworm in \"Children of Dune\". The death of all other sandworms, and his control of the remaining supply of the all-important drug melange, has allowed him to keep civilization under his complete command. Leto has been physically transformed into a worm, retaining only his human face and arms, and though he is now seemingly immortal and invulnerable to harm, he is prone to instinct-driven bouts of violence when provoked to anger. As a result, his rule is one of religious awe and despotic fear. Leto has disbanded the Landsraad to all but a few Great Houses; the remaining powers defer to his authority, although they individually conspire against him in secret. The Fremen have long since lost their identity and military power, and have been replaced as the Imperial army by the Fish Speakers, an all-female army who obey Leto without question. He has rendered the human population into a state of trans-galactic stagnation; space travel is non-existent to most people in his Empire, which he has deliberately kept to a near-medieval level of technological sophistication. All of this he has done in accordance with a prophecy divined through precognition that will establish an enforced peace preventing humanity from destroying itself through aggressive behavior.  The desert planet Arrakis has been terraformed into a lush forested biosphere, except for a single section of desert retained by Leto for his Citadel. A string of Duncan Idaho gholas have served Leto over the millennia, and Leto has also fostered the bloodline of his twin sister Ghanima. Her descendant Moneo is Leto's majordomo and closest confidante, while Moneo's daughter Siona has become the leader of an Arrakis-based rebellion against Leto. She steals a set of secret records from his archives, not realizing that he has allowed it. Leto intends to breed Siona with the latest Duncan ghola, but is aware that the ghola, moved by his own morality, may try to assassinate him before this can occur. The Ixians send a new ambassador named Hwi Noree to serve Leto, and though he realizes that she has been specifically designed and trained to ensnare him, he cannot resist falling in love with her. She agrees to marry him. Leto tests Siona by taking her out to the middle of the desert. After improperly using her stillsuit to preserve moisture, dehydration forces her to accept Leto's offer of spice essence from his body to replenish her. Awakened to Leto's prophecy, known as the Golden Path, the experience convinces Siona of the importance of the Golden Path. She remains dedicated to Leto's destruction, and an errant rainstorm demonstrates for her his mortal vulnerability to water.  Siona and Idaho overcome a searing mutual hatred of each other to plan an assassination. As Leto's wedding procession moves across a high bridge over a river, Siona's associate Nayla destroys the support beams with a lasgun. The bridge collapses and Leto's entourage, including Hwi, plunge to their deaths into the river below. Leto's body rends apart in the water; the sandtrout which are part of his body encyst the water and scurry off, while the worm portion burns and disintegrates on the shore. A dying Leto reveals his secret breeding program among the Atreides to produce a human who is invisible to prescient vision. Siona is the finished result, and she and her descendants will retain this ability. He explains that humanity is now free to scatter throughout the universe, never again to face complete destruction. After revealing the location of his secret spice hoard, Leto dies, leaving Duncan and Siona to face the task of managing the empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concept and themes.", "content": "In \"God Emperor of Dune\", Frank Herbert analyzes the cyclical patterns of human society, as well as humanity's evolutionary drives. Using his ancestral memories, Leto II has knowledge of the entirety of human history and is able to recall the effects and patterns of tyrannical institutions, from the Babylonian Empire through the Jesuits on ancient Earth, and thus builds an empire existing as a complete nexus encompassing all these methods. This galactic empire differs from the historical tyrants in that it is deliberately designed to end in destruction, and is only instituted in the first place as part of a plan to rescue humanity from an absolute destruction which Leto II has foreseen through his oracular visions. Leto II personally explores the emergent effects of civilization, noting that most hierarchical structures are remnants of evolutionary urges toward safety. Thus, by forming a perfectly safe and stable empire, Leto II delivers a message to be felt throughout history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "Stylistically, the novel is permeated by quotations from, and speeches by its main character, Leto, to a degree unseen in any of the other \"Dune\" novels. In part, this stylistic shift is an artifact of how Herbert wrote it: the first draft was written almost entirely in the first-person narrative voice, only being revised in later drafts to insert more third-person narration of events.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "\"God Emperor of Dune\" was ranked as the No. 11 hardcover fiction best seller of 1981 by \"Publishers Weekly\". The \"Los Angeles Times\" wrote that the novel was \"Rich fare... heavy stuff\", and \"Time\" called it \"a fourth visit to distant Arrakis that is every bit as fascinating as the other three—every bit as timely.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "God Emperor of Dune is a science fiction novel by Frank Herbert published in 1981, the fourth in his \"Dune\" series of six novels. It was ranked as the No. 11 hardcover fiction best seller of 1981 by \"Publishers Weekly\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975629}
{"src_title": "Thermochemistry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Thermochemistry rests on two generalizations. Stated in modern terms, they are as follows:  These statements preceded the first law of thermodynamics (1845) and helped in its formulation.  Lavoisier, Laplace and Hess also investigated specific heat and latent heat, although it was Joseph Black who made the most important contributions to the development of latent energy changes.  Gustav Kirchhoff showed in 1858 that the variation of the heat of reaction is given by the difference in heat capacity between products and reactants: dΔH / dT = ΔC. Integration of this equation permits the evaluation of the heat of reaction at one temperature from measurements at another temperature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calorimetry.", "content": "The measurement of heat changes is performed using calorimetry, usually an enclosed chamber within which the change to be examined occurs. The temperature of the chamber is monitored either using a thermometer or thermocouple, and the temperature plotted against time to give a graph from which fundamental quantities can be calculated. Modern calorimeters are frequently supplied with automatic devices to provide a quick read-out of information, one example being the differential scanning calorimeter (DSC).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Systems.", "content": "Several thermodynamic definitions are very useful in thermochemistry. A system is the specific portion of the universe that is being studied. Everything outside the system is considered the surroundings or environment. A system may be:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Processes.", "content": "A system undergoes a process when one or more of its properties changes. A process relates to the change of state. An isothermal (same-temperature) process occurs when temperature of the system remains constant. An isobaric (same-pressure) process occurs when the pressure of the system remains constant. A process is adiabatic when no heat exchange occurs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thermochemistry is the study of the heat energy which is associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. A reaction may release or absorb energy, and a phase change may do the same, such as in melting and boiling. Thermochemistry focuses on these energy changes, particularly on the system's energy exchange with its a surroundings. Thermochemistry is useful in predicting reactant and product quantities throughout the course of a given reaction. In combination with entropy determinations, it is also used to predict whether a reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous, favorable or unfavorable.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975630}
{"src_title": "Ear mite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Contagion.", "content": "Ear mites spread rapidly, and can be transmitted from even brief physical contact with other animals. In pets, ear mites most commonly affect cats, ferrets, and to a lesser extent dogs. Humans can rarely be infected with ear mites. Infected animals have a large amount of crumbly dark brown material in their ears. On close inspection, tiny white mites can barely be seen in the debris, as they are microscopic. Ear mites do not burrow as some mites do, but live within the ear canal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "The life cycle of an individual mite is about 4 weeks, with eggs hatching on the 3rd or 4th day after laying. Female mites are able to reproduce after about 3 weeks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences of infection.", "content": "The ear mite is the most common cause of ear infections in cats, quickly spreading from one cat to another through direct contact. Ear mites cause inflammatory symptoms, similar to bacterial and yeast infections. Symptoms include itching and redness of the ears. Other, more serious problems can result from untreated infections, such as skin disease in areas other than the ear like the neck and tail, and deafness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ear mites in rabbits.", "content": "The rabbit ear mite, \"Psoroptes cuniculi\", is larger than \"Otodectes cynotis\". It causes thick firm debris to form in the ear canal, and can eventually migrate to the skin of the outer ear and face. Symptoms include scratching and shaking of the head. Treatment includes topical selamectin, or injections of ivermectin and frequent cleanings of the rabbit's environment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Ear mites of dogs and cats can be treated with any of the spot-on preparations available from veterinary surgeons as well as over the counter at many pet stores and online. If the chosen solution does not destroy mite eggs, treatment should be repeated after one month, to catch the next generation of mites that will have hatched by then. Relief, in terms of the cat or dog no longer scratching at his or her ears, will be noticeable within a few hours. However, since mite irritation is partly allergic (see scabies), symptoms may also outlive mites by weeks. Moreover, it may take topical antibiotics and several weeks to clear infected external wounds caused by scratching on the exterior surfaces of cat and dog ears.  Common home remedy treatment options include household ingredients such as isopropyl alcohol, acetic acid (vinegar), boric acid, tea tree oil, coconut oil, and many other plant based extracts, in varying proportions.  Option for treating ear mites in rabbits are the related antiparasitics ivermectin and selamectin. Both of these antiparasitics have also been used with good effect in cats and dogs. A topical preparation of 0.01% ivermectin (Acarexx) can be used directly as an oil in cat ears, and the related new generation drug selamectin (brand name \"Revolution\") is available as a once-per-month skin treatment for both dogs and cats, which will prevent new mite infestation as well as a number of other parasitic diseases. As with ivermectin, selamectin must be used with caution in collies and herder breeds with the possibility for homozygous MDR1 mutations. A single treatment with a topical formulation containing fipronil, (S)-methoprene, eprinomectin and praziquantel was shown to be efficient for the prevention of \"Otodectes cynotis\" infestation in cats.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ear mites are mites that live in the ears of animals and humans. The most commonly seen species in veterinary medicine is \"Otodectes cynotis\" (Gk. \"oto\"=ear, \"dectes\"=biter, \"cynotis\"=of the dog). This species, despite its name, is also responsible for 90% of ear mite infections in cats.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975631}
{"src_title": "Nubian pyramids", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Pyramids.", "content": "So far, more than 35 pyramids grouped in five sites were discovered in Sudan. They were constructed in Nubia over a period of a few hundred years to serve as tombs for the kings and queens and wealthy citizens of Napata and Meroë.  The first three sites are located around Napata in Lower Nubia, near the modern town of Karima.  The first of these was built at the site of el-Kurru, including the tombs of King Kashta and his son Piye, together with Piye's successors Shabaka, Shabataka, and Tanwetamani. Fourteen pyramids were constructed for their queens, several of whom were renowned warrior queens. This can be compared to approximately 120 much larger pyramids that were constructed in Ancient Egypt over a period of 3000 years.  Later Napatan pyramids were sited at Nuri, 10 km north on the opposite bank of the Nile. This necropolis was the burial place of 21 kings and 52 queens and princes including Anlami and Aspelta. The bodies of these kings were placed in huge granite sarcophagi. Aspelta's weighed 15.5 tons, and its lid weighed four tons. The oldest and largest pyramid at Nuri is that of the Napatan king and Twenty-fifth Dynasty pharaoh Taharqa.  Another small group of 9 pyramids is located next to Jebel Barkal itself.  The most extensive Nubian pyramid site is at Meroë, which is located between the fifth and sixth cataracts of the Nile, approximately north of Khartoum. During the Meroitic period, over forty queens and kings were buried there.  Between 2009 and 2012 the new group of pyramids was discovered near the village Sedeinga.  The physical proportions of Nubian pyramids differ markedly from the Egyptian edifices: they are built of stepped courses of horizontally positioned stone blocks and range approximately in height, but rise from fairly small foundation footprints that rarely exceed in width, resulting in tall, narrow structures inclined at approximately 70°. Most also have offering temple structures abutting their base with unique Kushite characteristics. By comparison, Egyptian pyramids of similar height generally had foundation footprints that were at least five times larger and were inclined at angles between 40–50°.  The tombs inside the pyramids of Nubia were plundered in ancient times. Wall reliefs preserved in the tomb chapels reveal that their royal occupants were mummified, covered with jewellery and laid to rest in wooden mummy cases. At the time of their exploration by archaeologists in the 19th and 20th centuries, some pyramids were found to contain the remains of bows, quivers of arrows, archers' thumb rings, horse harnesses, wooden boxes, furniture, pottery, colored glass, metal vessels, and many other artefacts attesting to extensive Meroitic trade with Egypt and the Hellenistic world.  A pyramid excavated at Meroë included hundreds of heavy items such as large blocks decorated with rock art and 390 stones that comprised the pyramid. A cow buried complete with eye ointment was also unearthed in the area to be flooded by the Meroë Dam, as were ringing rocks that were tapped to create a melodic sound.  In the 1830s Giuseppe Ferlini came to Meroe seeking treasure and raided and demolished a number of pyramids which had been found “in good conditions” by Frédéric Cailliaud just a few years earlier. At Wad ban Naqa, he leveled the pyramid N6 of the \"kandake\" Amanishakheto starting from the top, and finally found her treasure composed of dozens of gold and silver jewelry pieces. Overall, he is considered responsible for the destruction of over 40 pyramids.<br>  Having found the treasure he was looking for, in 1836 Ferlini returned home. A year later he wrote a report of his expedition containing a catalog of his findings, which was translated in French and republished in 1838. He tried to sell the treasure, but at this time nobody believed that such high quality jewellery could be made in Black Africa. His finds were finally sold in Germany: part of these were purchased by king Ludwig I of Bavaria and are now in the State Museum of Egyptian Art of Munich, while the remaining – under suggestions of Karl Richard Lepsius and of Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen – was bought by the Egyptian Museum of Berlin where it still is.  George Reisner, a Harvard archaeologist, investigated the pyramids at Nuri and mapped more than 80 royal Kushite burials in 1916-1919. Reisner started to explore burial chambers but he found they were flooded caused by rising water table. He abandoned further excavation because he thought it was too dangerous, probably because a collapse of a staircase had killed five of his workers. Some of his findings were published in 1955.  National Geographic funded explorations from 2015-2019 using underwater scuba diving equipment and remote controlled robots.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nubian pyramids are pyramids that were built by the rulers of the ancient Kushite kingdoms. The area of the Nile valley known as Nubia, which lies within the north of present day Sudan, was home to three Kushite kingdoms during antiquity. The first had its capital at Kerma (2500–1500 BC). The second was centered on Napata (1000–300 BC). Finally, the last kingdom was centered on Meroë (300 BC–AD 300). They are built of granite and sandstone. The pyramids were partially demolished by Italian treasure hunter Giuseppe Ferlini in the 1830s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975632}
{"src_title": "Farman F.60 Goliath", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The \"Goliath\" was initially designed in 1918 as a heavy bomber capable of carrying of bombs with a range of. It was a fixed-undercarriage three-bay biplane of fabric-covered wood construction, powered by two Salmson 9Z engines. It had a simple and robust, yet light structure. The wings were rectangular with a constant profile with aerodynamically balanced ailerons fitted to both upper and lower wings.  It was undergoing initial testing when World War I came to an end and Farman realized there would be no orders for his design. Nonetheless he was quick to understand that the big, box-like fuselage of the Goliath could be easily modified to convert the aircraft into an airliner. Commercial aviation was beginning to be developed and was in need of purpose-built aircraft. With the new passenger cabin arrangement, the Goliath could carry up to 12 or 14 passengers. It had large windows to give the passengers a view of the surroundings. The Salmson engines could be replaced by other types (Renault, Lorraine) if a customer desired it. Approximately 60 F.60 Goliaths were built. Between 1927 and 1929, eight Goliaths with various engines were built under licence in Czechoslovakia, four by Avia and four by Letov.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Farman was quick to press the Goliath into service and made several publicity flights. On 8 February 1919, the Goliath flew 12 passengers from Toussus-le-Noble to RAF Kenley, near Croydon. Since non-military flying was not permitted at that date, Lucien Bossoutrot and his passengers were all ex-military pilots who wore uniforms and carried mission orders for the circumstances. The flight went well, taking 2 hours and 30 minutes. The pilot and passengers were well received in England. The return flight was made the following day and took 2 hours and 10 minutes.  Other flights were made to publicize the Goliath. On 3 April 1919, 14 passengers were flown to an altitude of 6,200 m (20,341 ft). Later, on 11 August 1919, an F.60 flew eight passengers and a ton of supplies from Paris via Casablanca and Mogador to Koufa, north of Saint-Louis, Senegal, flying more than.  Airlines, which were appearing very quickly all over Europe, were quick to acquire the F.60. In 1920, the Compagnie des Grands Express Aériens (CGEA) began scheduling regular flights between Le Bourget and Croydon. The Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes (CMA) soon followed suit. The Société Générale de Transports Aérien (SGTA) opened a Paris-Brussels route in July 1920, flown by the Goliath. In May 1921, this route was extended to Amsterdam. The Belgian airline Société Nationale pour l'Etude des Transports Aériens (SNETA) also opened a Brussels-London route in April 1921.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Survivors.", "content": "No complete airframe survives. The forward fuselage of F-HMFU is exhibited at the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, Le Bourget, France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Farman F.60 Goliath was a French airliner and bomber produced by the Farman Aviation Works from 1919. It was instrumental in the creation of early airlines and commercial routes in Europe after World War I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975633}
{"src_title": "James Redfield", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Redfield grew up in a rural area near Birmingham, Alabama. He studied Eastern philosophies, including Taoism and Zen, while majoring in sociology at Auburn University. He later received a Master's degree in counseling and spent more than 15 years as a therapist to abused adolescents. During this time, he was drawn into the human potential movement and turned to it for theories about intuitions and psychic phenomena that would help his clients.  In 1989, he quit his job as a therapist to write full-time, synthesizing his interest in interactive psychology, Eastern and Western philosophies, science, futurism, ecology, history, and mysticism.  When Redfield self-published his first novel in 1992 (Satori Publishing), the immediate interest from booksellers and readers made \"The Celestine Prophecy\" one of the most successful self-published books of all time. Warner Books bought the rights and published the hard cover edition in March 1994. The book quickly climbed to the No. 1 position on the New York Times Best Seller List. According to \"Publishing Trends,\" \"The Celestine Prophecy\" was the No. 1 international bestseller of 1996 (#2 in 1995). The novel spent over 3 years on the New York Times Best Seller List. As of May 2005, \"The Celestine Prophecy\" had sold over 20 million copies worldwide and had been translated into 34 languages. In 1996, the sequel, \"\" (Warner Books), also became a bestseller. The two books spent a combined 74 weeks on the New York Times Best Seller List, making their author the best-selling hard cover author in the world in 1996, as cited in BP Report (January 1997).  In his non-fiction title, \"The Celestine Vision: Living the New Spiritual Awareness\" (Warner Books, 1997), Redfield explored the historical and scientific background of the \"emerging spirituality\" discussed in his novels. The Celestine series of adventure parables continued in 1999 with the publication of \"\" (Warner Books). In 2002, Redfield joined author Michael Murphy and filmmaker Sylvia Timbers in a collaborative non-fiction work entitled \"God and the Evolving Universe\" (J.P. Tarcher).  The novel was filmed as \"The Celestine Prophecy\", which made its U.S. theatrical (Celestine Films) and DVD (Sony Pictures) release in 2006. Redfield produced and co-wrote the screenplay (with Barnet Bain & Dan Gordon).  James and Salle Redfield are the founders of the Global Prayer Project, a bi-weekly telewebcast which offers guided prayer and meditation.  Redfield's newest offering, \"The Twelfth Insight: The Hour of Decision\", was published by Grand Central Publishing in February 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "In October 1997, Redfield was awarded the Medal of the Presidency of the Italian Senate at the XXIII Pio Manzu International Conference in Rimini, Italy. In the spring of 2000, Redfield joined Millard Fuller, founder of Habitat For Humanity, as the only two recipients of Humanitarian of the Year honors from their alma mater, Auburn University. Two months later, he received another Humanitarian of the Year award from the International New Thought Alliance. In March 2004, Redfield received the World View Award from the Wisdom Media Group for engaging the discussion on the nature of human existence and for his ongoing efforts and contributions to the bettering of humanity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "James Redfield is an American author, lecturer, screenwriter and film producer. He is notable for his novel \"The Celestine Prophecy\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975634}
{"src_title": "Theodorus the Atheist", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Theodorus was a disciple of Aristippus the Younger, grandson of the elder and more celebrated Aristippus. He heard the lectures of a number of philosophers beside Aristippus; such as Anniceris, and Dionysius the dialectician, Zeno of Citium, and Pyrrho.  He was banished from Cyrene, but for what reason is not stated; and it is from the saying recorded of him on this occasion, \"Men of Cyrene, you do ill in banishing me from Libya to Greece\", as well as from his being a disciple of Aristippus, that it is inferred that he was a native of Cyrene. Of his subsequent history there is no connected account; but the anecdotes of him show that he was at Athens, where he narrowly escaped a trial, perhaps for impiety. The influence, however, of Demetrius Phalereus reportedly shielded him; and this incident may therefore probably be placed during Demetrius' ten years of administration at Athens, 317–307 BC. As Theodorus was banished from Athens, and was afterwards in the service of Ptolemy in Egypt, it is not unlikely that he shared the overthrow and exile of Demetrius. The account of Amphicrates of Athens cited by Diogenes Laërtius, that he was condemned to drink hemlock and so died, is doubtless an error. While in the service of Ptolemy, Theodorus was sent on an embassy to Lysimachus, whom he offended by the freedom of his remarks. One answer which he made to a threat of crucifixion which Lysimachus had used, was celebrated by many ancient writers (Cicero, Seneca, etc.): \"Employ such threats to those courtiers of yours; for it matters not to Theodorus whether he rots on the ground or in the air.\" From the court or camp of Lysimachus he returned apparently to that of Ptolemy. We read also of his going to Corinth with a number of his disciples: but this was perhaps only a transient visit during his residence at Athens. He returned at length to Cyrene, and lived there, says Diogenes Laërtius, with Magas, the stepson of Ptolemy, who ruled Cyrene for fifty years (c. 300–250 BC) as viceroy and then as king. Theodorus probably ended his days at Cyrene. Various characteristic anecdotes of Theodorus are preserved (Laërtius. Plutarch, Valerius Maximus, Philo, etc.), from which he appears to have been a man of keen and ready wit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Theodorus was the founder of a sect which was called after him \"Theodoreioi\" (), \"Theodoreans\". The opinions of Theodorus, as can be gathered from the perplexed statement of Diogenes Laërtius, were of the Cyrenaic school. He taught that the great end of human life is to obtain joy and avoid grief, and that the former resulted from knowledge, and the latter from ignorance. He defined the good as prudence and justice, and the bad as the opposite. Pleasure and pain, however, were indifferent. He made light of friendship and patriotism, and asserted that the world was his country. He taught that there was nothing naturally disgraceful in theft, adultery, or sacrilege if one ignored public opinion, which had been formed by the consent of fools.  Theodorus was attacked for atheism. \"He did away with all opinions respecting the Gods,\" says Laërtius, but some critics doubt whether he was absolutely an atheist, or simply denied the existence of the deities of popular belief. The charge of atheism is sustained by the popular designation of \"Atheus\", by the authority of Cicero, Laërtius, Pseudo-Plutarch, Sextus Empiricus, and some Christian writers; while some others (e.g. Clement of Alexandria) speak of him as only rejecting the popular theology.  Theodorus wrote a book called \"On the gods\" (). Laërtius had seen it, and said that it was not to be dismissed, adding that it was said to have been the source of many of the statements or arguments of Epicurus. According to the \"Suda\", he wrote many works both on the doctrines of his sect and on other subjects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contra Hipparchia.", "content": "According to the \"Suda\", Hipparchia of Maroneia wrote many letters addressed to Theodorus. Although none of them survive, there are anecdotes of her encounters with Theodorus:  Hipparchia was neither offended nor ashamed by this \"as most women would have been\". We are also told that when Theodorus, quoting a line from \"The Bacchae\" of Euripides, said to her: \"Who is the woman who has left behind the shuttles of the loom?\" she replied", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "\"Attribution:\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theodorus the Atheist (; c. 340 – c. 250 BC), of Cyrene, was a philosopher of the Cyrenaic school. He lived in both Greece and Alexandria, before ending his days in his native city of Cyrene. As a Cyrenaic philosopher, he taught that the goal of life was to obtain joy and avoid grief, and that the former resulted from knowledge, and the latter from ignorance. However, his principal claim to fame was his alleged atheism. He was usually designated by ancient writers \"ho atheos\" (), \"the atheist.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975635}
{"src_title": "Limbourg brothers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uncle Malouel.", "content": "Around 1398, after their father's death, the brothers were sent for by their uncle Jean Malouel (or Johan Maelwael, \"Jehan Maleuel\" in original French sources), the most important painter for the French and Burgundian courts of the time. Herman and Johan learned the craft of goldsmithing in Paris. At the end of 1399 they were travelling to visit Nijmegen but, owing to a war, they were captured in Brussels. Since their mother could not pay the ransom of 55 gold \"escuz\", the local goldsmiths' guild started to collect the money. Eventually Philip the Bold paid the ransom for the sake of their uncle Malouel, his painter. The two boys were released in May 1400.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work on the Bible.", "content": "From surviving documents it is known that in February 1402 Paul and Johan were contracted by Philip to work for four years exclusively on illuminating a bible. This may or may not have been the \"Bible Moralisée\" ( 166 in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris), which is indisputably an early work by the Limbourg brothers. Philip II died in 1404 before the brothers had completed their work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jean de Berry.", "content": "After Philip's death, Herman, Paul, and Johan later in 1405 came to work for his brother John, Duke of Berry, who was an extravagant collector of arts and especially books. Their first assignment was to illuminate a Book of Hours, now known as the Belles Heures du Duc de Berry; held in The Cloisters of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.  This work was finished in 1409 much to the satisfaction of the duke, and he assigned them to an even more ambitious project for a book of hours. This became the \"Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry\", which is widely regarded as the peak of late medieval book illumination, and possibly the most valuable book in the world. It is kept as 65 in the Musée Condé in Chantilly, France.  Paul especially was on good terms with the duke, and received a court position as \"valet de chambre\", or personal attendant (his uncle had had the same position with the duke of Burgundy). The duke gave him jewelry and a large house in Bourges. Paul was attracted to a young girl, Gillette la Mercière, but her parents disapproved. The duke had the girl confined, and released her only on the king's command. In 1411 Paul and Gillette married anyway, but the marriage remained childless (the girl was 12, her husband 24 at the time).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In the first half of 1416, Jean de Berry and the three Limbourg brothers – all less than 30 years old – died, possibly of the plague, leaving the \"Très Riches Heures\" unfinished. An unidentified artist (possibly Barthélemy van Eyck) worked on the famous calendar miniatures in the 1440s when the book apparently was in the possession of René d'Anjou, and in 1485 Jean Colombe finished the work for the House of Savoy.  The work of the Limbourg brothers, being mostly inaccessible, became forgotten until the 19th century. Nevertheless, they set an example for the next generations of painters, which extended beyond miniature painting. They worked in a Northern European tradition, but display influences from Italian models.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Limbourg brothers (; fl. 1385 – 1416) were famous Dutch miniature painters (Herman, Paul, and Johan) from the city of Nijmegen. They were active in the early 15th century in France and Burgundy, working in the style known as International Gothic. They created what is certainly the best-known late medieval illuminated manuscript, the \"Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975636}
{"src_title": "Carin Göring", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "She was born in Stockholm in 1888. Her father, Baron Carl Alexander Fock, was a Swedish Army colonel, from a family which had emigrated to Sweden from Westphalia. Her mother, whose maiden name was Huldine Beamish, was born in 1860 into an Irish family famous for brewing Beamish and Crawford stout in Cork. Her great-great grandfather, William Beamish, was one of the founders of Beamish and Crawford, and her grandfather had served in Britain's Coldstream Guards. Carin's maternal grandmother had founded a private religious sisterhood, the Edelweiss Society. She was the fourth of five daughters; her sisters were Fanny von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (1882–1956), Mary von Rosen (1886–1967), Elsa, and Lily. Mary was married to Count Eric von Rosen (1879–1948), one of the founding members of the \"Nationalsocialistiska Blocket\" (\"National Socialist Bloc\"), a Swedish National Socialist political party.  In 1910, she married a Swedish army officer, Nils von Kantzow. Their only child, Thomas von Kantzow, was born in 1913.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with Göring.", "content": "In 1920, while she was estranged from her first husband, Carin met Hermann Göring at Rockelstad Castle while she was visiting her sister Mary. Four years younger than she, he was working in Sweden as a commercial pilot for the short-lived airline \"Svensk Lufttrafik\" and was at the castle because he had flown Count Eric von Rosen, her sister Mary's husband, there. Göring fell in love with Carin and soon started meeting her in Stockholm, even though, scandalous at the time, she was a separated married woman with a young child. She was divorced from von Kantzow in December 1922 and married Göring on 3 January 1923.  After their marriage, the Görings first lived in a house in the suburbs of Munich. Carin followed her husband and became a member of the Nazi Party. When Göring was badly injured in the groin while marching alongside Hitler in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923, Carin took him to Austria, then on to Italy, and nursed him back to health, Carin and Göring's romantic love-story was used by the propaganda machine of Goebbels and the couple toured around the nation to boost the popularity of the Nazi Party.  Carin suffered from tuberculosis by her early forties. When her mother, Huldine Fock, died unexpectedly on 25 September 1931, it came as a great shock to the 42-year-old Carin. Although her health was still fragile, she went to Sweden for her mother's funeral. The next day, she suffered a heart attack in Stockholm. On the news reaching Göring, he joined her there and stayed with her until she died of heart failure on 17 October 1931, four days before her 43rd birthday.  After her death, Carin's older sister Fanny wrote a biography of her which quickly became a bestseller in Germany. By 1943, it had sold 900,000 copies.  Carin's death came as a great blow to Göring. In 1933 he began to build a hunting lodge, which became his main home, and named it Carinhall in her honour. It was there that he had her body re-interred from her original grave in Sweden, in a funeral attended by Adolf Hitler. Göring filled Carinhall with images of Carin, as he did his flat in Berlin, where he created an altar in memory of her which remained even after he remarried in 1935. Carinhall was demolished on Göring's orders as Soviet troops advanced in 1945.  After World War II, remains believed to be those of Carin were recovered by the Fock family, cremated, and re-buried in Sweden. In 1991, remains were found that could also be Carin Göring's and were sent to Sweden for identification. Evidence suggested that these new remains were hers, and were reburied.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carin Axelina Hulda Göring (née Fock; later Countess von Kantzow; 21 October 1888 – 17 October 1931) was the Swedish first wife of Hermann Göring.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975637}
{"src_title": "Coenzyme Q – cytochrome c reductase", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nomenclature.", "content": "The systematic name of this enzyme class is ubiquinol:ferricytochrome-c oxidoreductase. Other names in common use include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Compared to the other major proton-pumping subunits of the electron transport chain, the number of subunits found can be small, as small as three polypeptide chains. This number does increase, and eleven subunits are found in higher animals. Three subunits have prosthetic groups. The cytochrome \"b\" subunit has two \"b\"-type hemes (\"b\" and \"b\"), the cytochrome \"c\" subunit has one \"c\"-type heme (\"c\"), and the Rieske Iron Sulfur Protein subunit (ISP) has a two iron, two sulfur iron-sulfur cluster (2Fe•2S).  Structures of complex III:,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition of complex.", "content": "In vertebrates the bc complex, or Complex III, contains 11 subunits: 3 respiratory subunits, 2 core proteins and 6 low-molecular weight proteins. Proteobacterial complexes may contain as few as three subunits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reaction.", "content": "It catalyzes the reduction of cytochrome \"c\" by oxidation of coenzyme Q (CoQ) and the concomitant pumping of 4 protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space:  In the process called Q cycle, two protons are consumed from the matrix (M), four protons are released into the inter membrane space (IM) and two electrons are passed to cytochrome \"c\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reaction mechanism.", "content": "The reaction mechanism for complex III (cytochrome bc1, coenzyme Q: cytochrome C oxidoreductase) is known as the ubiquinone (\"Q\") cycle. In this cycle four protons get released into the positive \"P\" side (inter membrane space), but only two protons get taken up from the negative \"N\" side (matrix). As a result, a proton gradient is formed across the membrane. In the overall reaction, two ubiquinols are oxidized to ubiquinones and one ubiquinone is reduced to ubiquinol. In the complete mechanism, two electrons are transferred from ubiquinol to ubiquinone, via two cytochrome c intermediates.  Overall:  The reaction proceeds according to the following steps:  Round 1: Round 2:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inhibitors of complex III.", "content": "There are three distinct groups of Complex III inhibitors.  Some have been commercialized as fungicides (the strobilurin derivatives, best known of which is azoxystrobin; QoI inhibitors) and as anti-malaria agents (atovaquone).  Also propylhexedrine inhibits cytochrome c reductase.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oxygen free radicals.", "content": "A small fraction of electrons leave the electron transport chain before reaching complex IV. Premature electron leakage to oxygen results in the formation of superoxide. The relevance of this otherwise minor side reaction is that superoxide and other reactive oxygen species are highly toxic and are thought to play a role in several pathologies, as well as aging (the free radical theory of aging). Electron leakage occurs mainly at the Q site and is stimulated by antimycin A. Antimycin A locks the \"b\" hemes in the reduced state by preventing their re-oxidation at the Q site, which, in turn, causes the steady-state concentrations of the Q semiquinone to rise, the latter species reacting with oxygen to form superoxide. The effect of high membrane potential is thought to have a similar effect. Superoxide produced at the Qo site can be released both into the mitochondrial matrix and into the intermembrane space, where it can then reach the cytosol. This could be explained by the fact that Complex III might produce superoxide as membrane permeable HOO rather than as membrane impermeable O.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human gene names.", "content": "MT-CYB: mtDNA encoded cytochrome b; mutations associated with exercise intolerance  CYC1:cytochrome c1  CYCS: cytochrome c  UQCRFS1: Rieske iron sulfur protein  UQCRB: Ubiquinone binding protein, mutation linked with mitochondrial complex III deficiency nuclear type 3  UQCRH: hinge protein  UQCRC2: Core 2, mutations linked to mitochondrial complex III deficiency, nuclear type 5  UQCRC1: Core 1  UQCR: 6.4KD subunit  UQCR10: 7.2KD subunit  TTC19: Newly identified subunit, mutations linked to complex III deficiency nuclear type 2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mutations in complex III genes in human disease.", "content": "Mutations in complex III-related genes typically manifest as exercise intolerance. Other mutations have been reported to cause septo-optic dysplasia and multisystem disorders. However, mutations in BCS1L, a gene responsible for proper maturation of complex III, can result in Björnstad syndrome and the GRACILE syndrome, which in neonates are lethal conditions that have multisystem and neurologic manifestations typifying severe mitochondrial disorders. The pathogenicity of several mutations has been verified in model systems such as yeast.  The extent to which these various pathologies are due to bioenergetic deficits or overproduction of superoxide is presently unknown.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The coenzyme Q : cytochrome \"c\" – oxidoreductase, sometimes called the cytochrome \"bc\" complex, and at other times complex III, is the third complex in the electron transport chain (), playing a critical role in biochemical generation of ATP (oxidative phosphorylation). Complex III is a multisubunit transmembrane protein encoded by both the mitochondrial (cytochrome b) and the nuclear genomes (all other subunits). Complex III is present in the mitochondria of all animals and all aerobic eukaryotes and the inner membranes of most eubacteria. Mutations in Complex III cause exercise intolerance as well as multisystem disorders. The bc1 complex contains 11 subunits, 3 respiratory subunits (cytochrome B, cytochrome C1, Rieske protein), 2 core proteins and 6 low-molecular weight proteins.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975638}
{"src_title": "Indochinese tiger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Panthera tigris corbetti\" was the scientific name proposed by Vratislav Mazák in 1968 based on skin colouration, marking pattern and skull dimensions. It was named in honor of Jim Corbett.  In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy, and now recognizes the tiger populations of mainland South and Southeast Asia as belonging to the nominate subspecies \"P. tigris tigris\". Results of a genetic study published in 2018 supported six monophyletic clades based on whole-genome sequencing analysis of 32 tiger specimens. The specimens from Malaysia and Indochina appeared to be distinct from other mainland Asian populations, thus supporting the concept of six living subspecies.  The tiger population in Peninsular Malaysia is known as the Malayan tiger.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Indochinese tiger's skull is smaller than that of the Bengal tiger; the ground colouration is darker with more rather short and narrow single stripes. In body size, it is smaller than Bengal and Siberian tigers. Males range in size from and in weight from. Females range in size from and in weight from.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The Indochinese tiger is distributed in Myanmar, Thailand and Laos. It has not been recorded in Vietnam since 1997. Available data suggest that there are no more breeding tigers left in Cambodia and China.  In Myanmar, the presence of tigers was confirmed in the Hukawng Valley, Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary, and in two small areas in the Tanintharyi Region. The Tenasserim Hills is an important area, but forests are harvested there. In 2015, tigers were recorded by camera-traps for the first time in the hill forests of Karen State.  More than half of the total population survives in the Western Forest Complex in Thailand, especially in the area of the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary. This habitat consists of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests. Camera trap surveys from 2008 to 2017 in eastern Thailand detected about 17 adult tigers in an area of in Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex. Several individuals had cubs. The population density in Thap Lan National Park and Pang Sida National Park has been estimated at 0.32–1.21 individuals per.  In Laos, 14 tigers were documented in Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area during surveys from 2013 to 2017 covering four blocks of about semi-evergreen and evergreen forest that are interspersed with some patches of grassland.  In China, it occurred historically in Yunnan province and Mêdog County, where it probably does not survive any more today. In Yunnan's Shangyong Nature Reserve, three individuals were detected during surveys from 2004 to 2009.  Results of a phylogeographic study using 134 samples from tigers across the global range suggest that the historical northwestern distribution limit of the Indochinese tiger is the region in the Chittagong Hills and Brahmaputra River basin, bordering the range of the Bengal tiger. Manas-Namdapha, Orang-Laokhowa and Kaziranga-Meghalaya are \"Tiger Conservation Units\" in northeastern India, stretching over at least across several protected areas. Tigers are also present in Pakke Tiger Reserve. In the Mishmi Hills, tigers were recorded in 2017 up to an elevation of in snow.  In southeastern Tibet, tigers were photographed in Medog County during a camera trapping survey in 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behaviour.", "content": "In Thailand's Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, seven female and four male tigers were equipped with GPS radio collars between June 2005 and August 2011. Females had a mean home range of and males of. Between 2013 and 2015, 11 prey species were identified at 150 kill sites. Prey species ranged in weight from, with adult Sambar deer, banteng, gaur and wild boar being the most frequently killed species. Remains of Asiatic elephant calves, hog badger, porcupine, muntjac, serow, pangolin and langur species were also found.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The primary threat to the tiger is poaching for the illegal wildlife trade. Tiger bone has been an ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine since more than 1500 years and is either added to medicinal wine, used in the form of powder or boiled to a glue-like consistency. More than 40 different formulae containing tiger bone were produced by at least 226 Chinese companies in 1993. Tiger bone glue is a popular medicine among urban Vietnamese consumers.  Between 1970 and 1993, South Korea imported of tiger bones from Thailand and from China between 1991 and 1993. Between 2001 and 2010, wildlife markets were surveyed in Myanmar, Thailand and Laos. During 13 surveys, 157 body parts of tigers were found, representing at least 91 individuals. Whole skins were the most commonly traded parts. Bones, paws and penises were offered as aphrodisiacs in places with a large sex industry. Tiger bone wine was offered foremost in shops catering to Chinese customers. Traditional medicine accounted for a large portion of products sold and exported to China, Laos and Vietnam.  Between January 2000 and December 2011, 641 tigers, both live and dead, were seized in 196 incidents in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia and China; 275 tigers were suspected to have leaked into trade from captive facilities. China was the most common destination of the seized tigers.  In Myanmar's Hukaung Valley, the Yuzana Corporation alongside local authorities has expropriated more than of land from more than 600 households since 2006. Much of the trees have been logged and the land has been transformed into plantations. Some of the land taken by the Yazana Corporation had been deemed tiger transit corridors. These are areas of land that were supposed to be left untouched by development in order to allow the region's Indochinese tigers to travel between protected pockets of reservation land.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "Since 1993, the Indochinese tiger is listed on CITES Appendix I, making international trade illegal. China, South Korea, Vietnam, Singapore and Taiwan banned trade in tigers and sale of medicinal derivatives. Manufacture of tiger-based medicine was banned in China, and the open sale of tiger-based medicine reduced significantly since 1995.  Patrolling in Thailand's Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary has been intensified since 2006 so that poaching appears to have reduced, resulting in a marginal improvement of tiger survival and recruitment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In captivity.", "content": "The Indochinese tiger is the least represented in captivity and is not part of a coordinated breeding program. As of 2007, 14 individuals were recognized as Indochinese tigers based on genetic analysis of 105 captive tigers in 14 countries.  National Geographic Society News Watch contributor Jordan Schaul wrote in 2010:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Tiger populations: Bengal tiger Siberian tiger Sumatran tiger South Chinese tiger Caspian tiger Bali tiger Javan tiger", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Indochinese tiger (\"Panthera tigris tigris\") is a tiger population native to Southeast Asia. This population occurs in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia and southwestern China. It has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2008, as the population seriously declined and approaches the threshold for Critically Endangered. As per 2011, the population was thought to comprise 342 individuals, including 85 in Myanmar, and 20 in Vietnam, with the largest population unit surviving in Thailand estimated at 189 to 252 individuals during 2009 to 2014. It is considered extinct in Cambodia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975639}
{"src_title": "Kostas Karyotakis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Karyotakis gave existential depth as well as a tragic dimension to the emotional nuances and melancholic tones of the neo-Symbolist and new-Romantic poetry of the time. With a rare clarity of spirit and penetrating vision, he captures and conveys with poetic daring the climate of dissolution and the impasses of his generation, as well as the traumas of his own inner spiritual world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Karyotakis was born in Tripoli, Greece, his father's occupation as a county engineer resulted in his early childhood and teenage years being spent in various places, following his family’s successive moves around the Greek cities, including Argostoli, Lefkada, Larisa, Kalamata, Athens and Chania. He started publishing poetry in various magazines for children in 1912. It is solely rife speculation that he had felt deeply betrayed that a girl he had cared for in Hania in 1913 had married and sent him into melancholy.  After receiving his degree from the Athens School of Law and Political Sciences, in 1917, he did not pursue a career as a lawyer. Karyotakis became a clerk in the Prefecture of Thessaloniki. However, he greatly disliked his work and could not tolerate the bureaucracy of the state, which he wrote about often in his poems. His prose piece \"Catharsis\" ('purification') is characteristic of this. For this reason he would often be removed from his posts and transferred to other locations in Greece. During these removals he became familiar with the boredom and misery of the country during World War I.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adulthood and career.", "content": "In February 1919 he published his first collection of poetry: \"The Pain of People and of Things\" (), which was largely ignored or badly reviewed by the critics. In the same year he published, with his friend Agis Levendis, a satirical review, called \"The Leg\", which, despite its success, was banned by the police after the sixth issue. In 1921 he published his second collection called \"Nepenthe\" () and also wrote a musical revue, \"Pell-Mell\" (). In 1922 he began having an affair with the poet Maria Polydouri who was a colleague of his at the Prefecture of Attica. In 1923 he wrote a poem called \"\"Treponema pallidum\"\" (), which was published under the title \"Song of Madness\" and gave rise to speculation that he may have been suffering from syphilis, which before 1945 was considered a chronic illness with no proven cure for it.  George Skouras, a physician of the poet, wrote: \"He was sick, he was syphilitic\" and George Savidis (1929–1999), professor of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, who possessed the largest archive about Greek poets, revealed that Karyotakis was syphilitic, and that his brother, Thanasis Karyotakis, thought the disease to be a disgrace to the family. In 1924 he traveled abroad, visiting Italy and Germany. In December 1927 he published his last collection of poetry: \"Elegy and Satires\" (). In February 1928, Karyotakis was transferred to Patras although soon afterwards he spent a month on leave in Paris and in June 1928 he was sent yet again to Preveza by ship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Suicide.", "content": "Karyotakis lived in Preveza only for 33 days, until his suicide on 21 July 1928 at age 31. His work was in Prefecture of Preveza, in the Palios mansion, 10 Speliadou street, as a lawyer for control for land donations from State to refugees from Asia Minor War of 1922. From Preveza he sent desperate letters to friends and relatives describing the misery he felt in the town. His family offered to support him for an indefinite stay in Paris, but he refused knowing what a monetary sacrifice like this would entail for them. His angst is felt in the poem \"\"Preveza\"\" () which he wrote shortly before his suicide. The poem displays an insistent, lilting anaphora on the word Death, which stands at the beginning of several lines and sentences.  It is shot through with a pungent awareness of the gallows, in the tiny mediocrity of life as Karyotakis felt it, mortality is measured against insignificant, black, pecking birds, or the town policeman checking a disputed weight, or identified with futile street names (boasting the date of battles), or the brass band on Sunday, a trifling sum of cash in a bank book, the flowers on a balcony, a teacher reading his newspaper, the prefect coming in by ferry: \"If only,\" mutters the last of these six symmetrical quatrains, \"one of those men would fall dead out of disgust\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kostas Karyotakis (, 11 November [OS October 30], 1896 – 20 July 1928) is considered one of the most representative Greek poets of the 1920s and one of the first poets to use iconoclastic themes in Greece. His poetry conveys a great deal of nature, imagery and traces of expressionism and surrealism. He also belongs to the Greek Lost Generation movement. The majority of Karyotakis' contemporaries viewed him in a dim light throughout his lifetime without a pragmatic accountability for their contemptuous views; for after his suicide, the majority began to revert to the view that he was indeed a great poet. He had a significant, almost disproportionately progressive influence on later Greek poets.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975640}
{"src_title": "Guercino", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Giovanni Francesco Barbieri was born into a family of peasant farmers in Cento, a town in the Po Valley mid-way between Bologna and Ferrara. Being cross-eyed, at an early age he acquired the nickname by which he is universally known, Guercino (a diminutive of the Italian noun \"guercio\", meaning'squinter'). Mainly self-taught, at the age of 16, he worked as apprentice in the shop of Benedetto Gennari, a painter of the Bolognese School. An early commission was for the decoration with frescos (1615–1616) of Casa Pannini in Cento, where the naturalism of his landscapes already reveals considerable artistic independence. In Bologna, he was winning the praise of Ludovico Carracci. He always acknowledged that his early style had been influenced by study of a Madonna painted by Ludovico Carracci for the Capuchin church in Cento, affectionately known as \"La Carraccina\".  His painting \"Et in Arcadia ego\" from around 1618–1622 contains the first known usage anywhere of the Latin motto, later taken up by Poussin and others, signifying that death lurks even in the most idyllic setting. The dramatic composition of this canvas (related to his \"Flaying of Marsyas by Apollo\" (1617–1618) created for The Grand Duke of Tuscany, which shares the same pair of shepherds) is typical of Guercino's early works, which are often tumultuous in conception. He painted two large canvases, \"Samson Seized by Philistines\" (1619) and \"Elijah Fed by Ravens\" (1620), for Cardinal Serra, a Papal Legate to Ferrara. Painted at a time when it is unlikely that Guercino could have seen Caravaggio's work in Rome, these works nevertheless display a starkly naturalistic Caravaggesque style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rome.", "content": "Guercino was recommended by Marchese Enzo Bentivoglio to the newly elected Bolognese Ludovisi Pope, Pope Gregory XV in 1621. The years he spent in Rome, 1621–23, were very productive. From this period are his frescoes \"Aurora\" at the casino of the Villa Ludovisi, the ceiling in San Crisogono (1622) of \"San Chrysogonus in Glory\", the portrait of Pope Gregory XV (now in the Getty Museum), and the \"St. Petronilla Altarpiece\" for St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican (now in the Museo Capitolini).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Return to Bologna.", "content": "Following the death of Gregory XV in 1623, Guercino returned to his hometown of Cento. In 1626, he began his frescoes in the Duomo of Piacenza. The details of his career after 1629 are well documented in the account book, the \"Libro dei Conti di Casa Barbieri\", that Guercino and his brother Paolo Antonio Barbieri, a notable painter of still lifes, kept updated, and which has been preserved. Between 1618 and 1631, Giovanni Battista Pasqualini produced 67 engravings that document the early production of Guercino, which is not included in the \"Libro dei Conti\". In 1642, following the death of his commercial rival Guido Reni, Guercino moved his busy workshop to Bologna, where he was now able to take over Reni's role as the city's leading painter of sacred subjects. Some of his later works are closer to the style of Reni, and are painted with much greater luminosity and clarity than his early works with their prominent use of chiaroscuro. In 1655, the Franciscan Order of Reggio paid him 300 ducats for the altarpiece of \"Saint Luke Displaying a Painting of the Madonna and Child\" (now in Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City). The Corsini also paid him 300 ducats for the \"Flagellation of Christ\" painted in 1657.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works and pupils.", "content": "Guercino was remarkable for the extreme rapidity of his executions: he completed no fewer than 106 large altarpieces for churches, and his other paintings amount to about 144. He was also a prolific draftsman. His production includes many drawings, usually in ink, washed ink, or red chalk. Most of them were made as preparatory studies for his paintings, but he also drew landscapes, genre subjects, and caricatures for his own enjoyment. Guercino's drawings are known for their fluent style in which \"rapid, calligraphic pen strokes combined with dots, dashes, and parallel hatching lines describe the forms\". Guercino continued to paint and teach until his death in 1666, amassing a notable fortune. As he never married, his estate passed to his nephews and pupils, Benedetto Gennari II and Cesare Gennari.  Other pupils include Giulio Coralli, Giuseppe Bonati of Ferrara, Cristoforo Serra of Cesena, Father Cesare Pronti of Ferrara, Sebastiano Ghezzi, Sebastiano Bombelli, Lorenzo Bergonzoni of Bologna, Francesco Paglia of Brescia., Benedetto Zallone of Cento, Bartolomeo Caravoglia, and Matteo Loves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibitions.", "content": "A groundbreaking exhibition held at the Archiginnasio of Bologna in 1968 provided the most complete panorama of Guercino's work to date, including paintings from the later parts of his career after the death of Pope Gregory XV, which had previously attracted relatively little attention. For the fourth centenary of the artist's birth in 1991, an expanded exhibition was organized by the Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna in conjunction with the Schirn Kunsthalle Frankfurt and the National Gallery of Art, Washington. Both these exhibitions were curated by Guercino's biggest modern champion, Denis Mahon, who was responsible for their catalogues. In 2011–2012, a large exhibition was displayed at Palazzo Barberini in Rome, dedicated to the memory of Mahon, who had recently died. An exhibition displayed at the National Museum in Warsaw in 2013–2014 offered another extensive presentation of the artist's work.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giovanni Francesco Barbieri (February 8, 1591 – December 22, 1666), better known as Guercino, or il Guercino, was an Italian Baroque painter and draftsman from Cento in the Emilia region, who was active in Rome and Bologna. The vigorous naturalism of his early manner contrasts with the classical equilibrium of his later works. His many drawings are noted for their luminosity and lively style.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975641}
{"src_title": "Kanha Tiger Reserve", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Flora.", "content": "Kanha Tiger Reserve is home to over 1000 species of flowering plants. The lowland forest is a mixture of sal (\"Shorea robusta\") and other mixed-forest trees, interspersed with meadows. The highland forests are tropical moist, dry deciduous type and of a completely different nature from bamboo (\"Dendrocalamus strictus\") on slopes. A notable Indian ghost tree (\"Davidia involucrata\") can also be seen in the dense forest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fauna.", "content": "Kanha Tiger Reserve has species of tigers, leopards, wild dogs, wild cats, foxes and jackals. Among the deer species, swamp deer (\"Cervus duavcelli branderi\") or hard-ground barasingha is the pride of the place, as it is the only subspecies of swamp deer in India, except the great swamp deer of Sundarbans. The animal is adapted to hard ground unlike swamp deer of the north, which live in marshy swamps. The reserve has been instrumental in rescuing the swamp deer from extinction. Indian gaur (\"Bos guarus\"), belonging to the ox genus, are found in Kanha, but seen mostly as winter ends. In summer, gaur inhabit meadows and waterholes in the park.  Other commonly seen animals in the park include the spotted deer, sambar, barking deer, and the four-horned antelope. The latter can be seen at Bamni Dadar climb. Recently, mouse deer have also been discovered in the tiger reserve.  Blackbuck have inexplicably become very rare. They vanished completely, but have been reintroduced recently inside a fenced area in the park. Nilgai can still be seen near the Sarahi Gate, while the Indian wolf once commonly seen at Mocha is a rare sight now. Striped hyena and sloth bear are seen occasionally. Langurs and wild boars are common, but the pugnacious rhesus macaque is seen less often.  Nocturnal animals like fox, hyena, jungle cat, civets, porcupine, ratel or honey badger, and hares can be seen outside the park confines.  The reserve brings around 300 species of birds and the most commonly seen birds are the black ibis, bee-eaters, cattle egret, blossom-headed parakeets, pond herons, drongos, common teal, crested serpent eagle, grey hornbill, Indian roller, lesser adjutant, little grebes, lesser whistling teal, minivets, Malabar pied hornbill, woodpeckers, pigeon, paradise flycatchers, mynas, Indian peafowl, red junglefowl, red-wattled lapwing, steppe eagle, Tickell's blue flycatcher, white-eyed buzzard, white-breasted kingfisher, white-browed fantail, wood shrikes, and warblers, vultures among many more.  Reptiles such as Indian pythons, Indian cobras, krait, rat snakes, vipers, keelbacks, and grass snakes are nocturnal animals, so rarely are seen. Many species of turtles and amphibians are found in or near the water bodies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reintroduction of barasingha.", "content": "An exciting conservation effort in this national park is the reintroduction of barasingha. The gaur will be relocated to Bandhavgarh and some barasingha will be relocated to Satpura Tiger Reserve The objective of this project is to introduce about 500 barasingha in this national park to eight or nine different locations. There is also a project to capture about twenty tigers and relocate them to Satpura Tiger Reserve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tiger conservation and the Baiga tribe.", "content": "Members of the Baiga tribe, a semi-nomadic tribe of central India that is reliant on the forest, lived in 28 villages that had been within the Kanha National Park until 1968, when they were relocated. The relocation was part of an effort to maintain a critical tiger habitat. The land to which they were relocated is barren and they now suffer from alcoholism and malnourishment, and beg to support themselves. The last of the villages to be relocated for the tiger habitat is in the core zone of the Kanha Tiger Reserve. The area is the ancestral home of the Gond and Baiga tribes. In January 2010, Baiga tribe were illegally evicted from the park without proper compensation from the government, according to Survival International.  In its efforts to maintain and restore tiger habitats, WWF-India has worked to create corridors that support the tigers and their prey, thereby stabilizing the tiger population. This includes efforts to prevent loss of life or property of humans, reduce human dependency on the forest, and reduce retaliatory killings of tigers when people have experienced losses.  However, Kanha's frontline staff continue to receive support, training and equipment from WWF, even as they carry out the eviction of the 22,000 residents who are to be forcibly resettled from tiger reserves in the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General information.", "content": "Kanha Tiger Reserve is:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation and access.", "content": "The Jabalpur Airport / 04:30hrs) has direct flights to and from Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Pune, Belgaum and Bhopal, with AirIndia, SpiceJet and Indigo operating daily flights. Nagpur (Mukki and Raipur (Mukki ) have other airports.  Jabalpur is major railway stations with train connectivity across India. From Jabalpur, the best way to travel is via Mandla, which has a tourist taxi service to the park, and one can reach up to Chiraidongri the newly added Broad Gauge station via jabalpur, Nainpur railway route to enter national park through Kanha gate. In pre-planned journey one of shortest road route is Jabalpur-Bargi Dam-Ganhsor-Thanwar Dam-Chiraidongri-Kanha National Park. Other route Jabalpur to Mandla (via NH-30)-Chiraidongri- Kanha route is preferred when arrival permission is to be taken from National Park authority at Mandla. This National Park can also be approached from Raipur - Gandai - Malanjkhand - Baihar highway route via Mukki Gate to National Park. M.P. Tourism and Private owners has hotels, resorts near to Mukki Gate. Similar stay facilities is also available at Khatia and Kanha Gate.  There are three gates for entrance into the park. The Kanha/Kisli gate is best accessed from Jabalpur and stops at the village Khatia, inside the buffer area. The second gate is at Mukki and the third, most recently opened, gate is at Sarhi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecosystem valuation.", "content": "An economic assessment study of Kanha Tiger Reserve estimated that the tiger reserve provides flow benefits worth 16.5 billion rupees (0.80 lakh / hectare) annually. Important ecosystem services from the tiger reserve include gene-pool protection (12.41 billion year), provisioning of water to downstream regions (558 million) and provisioning of fodder in buffer areas (546 million). Other services included recreation value (384 million), provision of habitat and refugia for wildlife (319 million) and sequestration of carbon (219 million).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kanha Tiger Reserve, also known as Kanha–Kisli National Park, is one of the tiger reserves of India and the largest national park of the state of Madhya Pradesh. The present-day Kanha area is divided into two sanctuaries, Hallon and Banjar, of, respectively. Kanha National Park was created on 1 June 1955 and was designated a tiger reserve in 1973. Today, it encompasses an area of in the two districts Mandla and Balaghat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975642}
{"src_title": "Equine infectious anemia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Stages.", "content": "Acute: The acute form is a sudden onset of the disease at full-force. Symptoms include high fever, anemia (due to the breakdown of red blood cells), weakness, swelling of the lower abdomen and legs, weak pulse, and irregular heartbeat. The horse may die suddenly.  Subacute: A slower, less severe progression of the disease. Symptoms include recurrent fever, weight loss, an enlarged spleen (felt during a rectal examination), anemia, and swelling of the lower chest, abdominal wall, penile sheath, scrotum, and legs.  Chronic: The horse tires easily and is unsuitable for work. The horse may have a recurrent fever and anemia, and may relapse to the subacute or acute form even several years after the original attack.  A horse may also not appear to have any symptoms, yet still tests positive for EIA antibodies. Such a horse can still pass on the disease. According to most veterinarians, horses diagnosed EIA positive usually do not show any sign of sickness or disease.  EIA may cause abortion in pregnant mares. This may occur at any time during the pregnancy if there is a relapse when the virus enters the blood. Most infected mares will abort, however some give birth to healthy foals. Foals are not necessarily infected.  Studies indicate that there are breeds with a tolerance to EIA.  Recent studies in Brazil on living wild horses have shown that in the Pantanal, about 30% of domesticated and about 5.5% of the wild horses are chronically infected with EIA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prevention and treatment.", "content": "A vaccine is available, called \"Chinese Live Attenuated EIA vaccine\", developed in China and widely used there since 1983. Another attenuated live virus vaccine is in development in the United States.  Reuse of syringes and needles is a risk factor for transfer of the disease. Currently in the United States, all horses that test positive must be reported to federal authorities by the testing laboratory. EIA-positive horses are infected for life. Options for the horse include sending the horse to a recognized research facility, branding the horse and quarantining it at least 200 yards from other horses for the rest of its life, and euthanizing the horse. Very few quarantine facilities exist, which usually leads to the option of euthanizing the horse. The Florida Research Institute for Equine Nurturing, Development and Safety (a.k.a. F.R.I.E.N.D.S.) is one of the largest such quarantine facilities and is located in south Florida. The horse industry and the veterinary industry strongly suggest that the risks posed by infected horses, even if they are not showing any clinical signs, are enough of a reason to impose such stringent rules. The precise impacts of the disease on the horse industry are unknown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "The Coggins test (agar immunodiffusion) is a sensitive diagnostic test for equine infectious anemia developed by Dr. Leroy Coggins in the 1970s.  Currently, the US does not have an eradication program due to the low rate of incidence. However, many states require a negative Coggins test for interstate travel. In addition, most horse shows and events require a negative Coggins test. Most countries require a negative test result before allowing an imported horse into the country.  Horse owners should verify that all the horses at a breeding farm and or boarding facility have a negative Coggins test before using the services of the facility. A Coggins test should be done on an annual basis. Tests every 6 months are recommended if there is increased traveling.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Equine infectious anemia or equine infectious anaemia (EIA), also known by horsemen as swamp fever, is a horse disease caused by a retrovirus (Equine infectious anemia virus) and transmitted by bloodsucking insects. The virus (\"EIAV\") is endemic in the Americas, parts of Europe, the Middle and Far East, Russia, and South Africa. The virus is a lentivirus, like human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Like HIV, EIA can be transmitted through blood, milk, and body secretions. Transmission is primarily through biting flies, such as the horse-fly and deer-fly. The virus survives up to 4 hours in the vector. Contaminated surgical equipment and recycled needles and syringes, and bits can transmit the disease. Mares can transmit the disease to their foals via the placenta. The risk of transmitting the disease is greatest when an infected horse is ill, as the blood levels of the virus are then highest.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975643}
{"src_title": "Jean-Baptiste de Nompère de Champagny", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "A political career seems to have attracted him little; he remained in private life from 1791 to 1799, when Napoleon named him member of the council of state. From July 1801 to August 1804 he was ambassador of France at Vienna, and directed with great intelligence the incessant negotiations between the two courts.  In August 1804 Napoleon made him minister of the interior, and in this position, which he held for three years, he proved an administrator of the first order. In addition to the ordinary charges of his office, he had to direct the recruitment of the army, organize the Exposition des produits de l'industrie française of 1806, and to complete the public works undertaken in Paris and throughout France.  He was devoted to Napoleon, on whom he lavished adulation in his speeches. In August 1807 the Emperor chose him to succeed Talleyrand as minister for foreign affairs. He directed the annexation of the Papal States in April 1808, worked to secure the abdication of Charles IV of Spain in May 1808, negotiated the Peace of Vienna (1809) and the marriage of Napoleon.  The Emperor rewarded him with the rare hereditary of a duché grand-fief, Cadore (extinguished in 1893) in Friuli, in Napoleon's own kingdom of Italy.  In April 1811 a quarrel with the Emperor led to his retirement, and he obtained the sinecure office of intendant general of the crown. In 1814, after the abdication, the Empress sent him on a fruitless mission to the Emperor of Austria. Then he went over to the Bourbons.  During the Hundred Days he again joined Napoleon. This led to his exclusion by Louis XVIII, but in 1819 he recovered his dignity of Peer of France. He died in Paris in 1834.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "By his marriage at Saint-Vincent-de-Boisset on 22 January 1787 to Victoire Blandine Hue de Grosbois, as him born at Roanne, on 4 January 1770 and died in Paris on 4 February 1821, he had at least four sons who became men of distinction:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Baptiste de Nompère de Champagny, 1st Duc de Cadore (4 August 1756 – 3 July 1834) was a French admiral and politician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975644}
{"src_title": "Maria of Austria, Holy Roman Empress", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Maria was born in Madrid, Spain to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, and Isabella of Portugal. She grew up mostly between Toledo and Valladolid with her siblings, Philip and Joanna. They built a strong family bond despite their father's regular absences. Maria and her brother, Philip, shared similar strong personal views and policies which they retained during the rest of their lives.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regent of Spain.", "content": "On 15 September 1548, aged twenty, she married her first cousin Archduke Maximilian. The couple had sixteen children during the course of a twenty-eight-year marriage.  While her father was occupied with German affairs, Maria and Maximilian acted as regents of Spain from 1548 to 1551 during the absence of Prince Philip. Maria stayed at the Spanish court until August 1551, and in 1552, the couple moved to live at the court of Maximilian's father in Vienna.  In 1558, Maria returned to Madrid and acted as regent of Spain during the absence of her brother, now King Philip II, from 1558 to 1561.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Empress.", "content": "After her return to Germany, her husband eventually succeeded his father Ferdinand I, at his death, as ruler of Germany, Bohemia and Hungary, which he ruled from 1564 to his death in 1576.  Maria was a devout Catholic and frequently disagreed with her religiously ambiguous husband.  During her life in Austria, Maria was reportedly ill at ease in a country which was not entirely Catholic, and she surrounded herself with a circle of strictly Catholic courtiers, many of whom she had brought with her from Spain. Her court was organized by her Spanish chief lady-in-waiting Maria de Requenes in a Spanish manner, and among her favorite companions was her Spanish lady-in-waiting Margarita de Cardona.  In 1576, Maximilian died. Maria remained at the Imperial Court for six years after his death. She had great influence over her sons, the future emperors Rudolf and Matthias.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Spain.", "content": "Maria returned to Spain in 1582, taking her youngest surviving child Archduchess Margaret with her, promised to marry Philip II of Spain, who had lost his fourth wife, her oldest daughter, Archduchess Anna in 1580. Margaret finally refused and took the veil as a Poor Clare. Commenting that she was very happy to live in \"a country without heretics\", Maria settled in the Convent of Las Descalzas Reales in Madrid, where she lived until her death in 1603.  She was the patron of the noted Spanish composer Tomás Luis de Victoria, and the great Requiem Mass he wrote in 1603 for her funeral is considered among the best and most refined of his works.  Maria exerted some influence together with Queen Margaret, the wife of her grandson, Philip III of Spain. Margaret, the sister of the future Emperor Ferdinand II, would be one of three women at Philip's court who would apply considerable influence over the king. Margaret was considered by contemporaries to be extremely pious – in some cases, excessively pious, and too influenced by the Church, and 'astute and very skillful' in her political dealings, although'melancholic' and unhappy over the influence of the Duke of Lerma over her husband at court. Margaret continued to fight an ongoing battle with Lerma for influence until her death in 1611. Philip had an 'affectionate, close relationship' with Margaret, and paid her additional attention after she bore him a son, also named Philip, in 1605.  Maria, the Austrian representative to the Spanish court – and Margaret of the Cross, Maria's daughter – along with queen Margaret, were a powerful Catholic and pro-Austrian faction in the court of Philip III of Spain. They were successful, for example, in convincing Philip to provide financial support to Ferdinand from 1600 onwards. Philip steadily acquired other religious advisors. Father Juan de Santa Maria, the confessor to Philip's daughter, Maria Anna, was felt by contemporaries to have an excessive influence over Philip at the end of his life, and both he and Luis de Aliaga, Philip's own confessor, were credited with the overthrow of Lerma in 1618. Similarly Mariana de San Jose, a favoured nun of Queen Margaret's, was also criticised for her later influence over the King's actions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Maria and Maximilian had sixteen children of which only five were still alive at the time of her death:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduchess Maria of Austria (21 June 1528 – 26 February 1603) was Holy Roman Empress and queen consort of Bohemia and Hungary as the spouse of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia and Hungary. She served as regent of Spain in the absence of her father Emperor Charles V from 1548 until 1551, and in the absence of her brother Philip II, from 1558 to 1561.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975645}
{"src_title": "Ashur-uballit I", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Amarna letters.", "content": "From the Amarna letters, a series of diplomatic letters from various Middle Eastern monarchs to Amenhotep III and Akhenaten of Egypt, we find two letters from Ashur-uballit I, the second being a follow-up letter to the first. In the letters, Ashur-uballit refers to his second predecessor Ashur-nadin-ahhe II as his \"father\" or \"ancestor,\" rather than his actual father, Eriba-Adad I, which has led some critics of conventional Egyptian chronology, such as David Rohl, to claim that the Ashur-uballit of the Amarna letters was not the same as Ashur-uballit I. This, however, ignores the fact that monarchs in the Amarna letters frequently refer to predecessors as their \"father,\" even if they were not their biological sons. In this case, Ashur-uballit presumably referred to Ashur-nadin-ahhe because the latter, unlike Eriba-Adad I, had previously corresponded with the Egyptian court.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Babylonian wars.", "content": "With Assyrian power firmly established, Ashur-uballit started to make contacts with other great nations. His messages to the Egyptians angered his Babylonian neighbour Burnaburiash II, who himself wrote to the Pharaoh: “with regard to my Assyrian vassals, it was not I who sent them to you. Why did they go to your country without proper authority? If you are loyal to me they will not negotiate any business. Send them to me empty-handed!”  Yet the new Assyrian power could not be denied, and Burnaburiash even married the daughter of the Assyrian king. He was succeeded by his son from the Assyrian wife, prince Kara-hardash, but a revolt soon broke out that showed the unpopularity of the Assyrians. Asshur-uballit would not allow his grandson to be cast aside, and duly invaded Babylon. Because Kara-Hardash was killed in the rebellion, the Assyrians placed on the Babylonian throne a certain Kurigalzu, who may have been Burnaburiash's son or grandson. But this new puppet king did not remain loyal to his master, and soon invaded Assyria. Ashur-uballit stopped the Babylonian army at Sugagu, not far south from the capital Assur.  However, Ashur-uballit I then counterattacked, and invaded Babylonia, appropriating hitherto Babylonian territory in central Mesopotamia, and forcing a treaty in Assyria's favour upon Karigalzu.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ashur-uballit I \"(Aššur-uballiṭ I)\", who reigned between 1365 and 1330 BC, was the first king of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC). After his father Eriba-Adad I (1392-1366 BC) had broken Mitanni influence over Assyria, Ashur-uballit I's defeat of the Mitanni king Shuttarna II marks Assyria's ascendancy over the Hurri-Mitanni Empire, and the beginning of its emergence as a powerful empire. Later on, due to disorder in Babylonia following the death of the Kassite king Burnaburiash II, Ashur-uballit established Kurigalzu II on the Babylonian throne, in the first of what would become a series of Assyrian interventions in Babylonian affairs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975646}
{"src_title": "Vasile Alecsandri", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins and childhood.", "content": "Alecsandri was born in the Moldavian town of Bacău, to a family of landowners. His parents were Vasile Alecsandri and Elena Cozoni, and his mother was the daughter of a Greek Romanian merchant. His parents had seven children, of which three survived: one daughter, Catinca, and two sons, Iancu — a future army colonel – and Vasile.  The family prospered in the lucrative business of salt and cereals trade. In 1828, they purchased a large estate in Mircești, a village near Siret River. The young Vasile spent time there studying with a devout monk from Maramureș, Gherman Vida, and playing with Vasile Porojan, a Gypsy boy who became a dear friend. Both characters would later appear in his work.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adolescence and youth.", "content": "Between 1828 and 1834, he studied at the Victor Cuenim 'pensionnat', an elite boarding school for boys in Iași. He moved to Paris in 1834, where he dabbled in chemistry, medicine, and law, but soon abandoned all in favor of what he called his \"lifelong passion\", literature. He penned his first literary essays in 1838 in French, which he had mastered to perfection during his stay in Paris. After a brief return home, he left for Western Europe again, visiting Italy, Spain, and southern France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Romantic interest.", "content": "A year later, Alecsandri attended a party celebrating the name day of Costache Negri, a family friend. He there fell in love with Negri's sister. The 21-year-old and not long divorced Elena Negri responded enthusiastically to the 24-year-old youngster's love declarations. Alecsandri began writing love poems until a sudden illness forced Elena to head abroad to Venice. He met her there, where they shared two torrid months.  They cruised to Austria, Germany, and to Alecsandri's former romping grounds, France. Elena's chest illness aggravated in Paris, and after a brief stint in Italy, they both boarded a French ship to return home 25 April 1847. Tragedy struck on the ship, when Elena died in her lover's arms. Alecsandri channeled his mourning into a poem, \"Steluța\" (\"Little Star\"). Later, he dedicated his \"Lăcrimioare\" (\"Little Tears\") collection of poems to her.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Midlife.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political involvement.", "content": "In 1848, he became one of the leaders of the revolutionary movement based in Iași. He wrote a widely read poem urging the public to join the cause, \"Către Români\" (\"To Romanians\"), later renamed \"Deșteptarea României\" (\"Romania's Awakening\"). Together with Mihail Kogălniceanu and Costache Negri, he wrote a manifesto of the revolutionary movement in Moldavia, \"Dorințele partidei naționale din Moldova\" (\"Wishes of the National Party of Moldavia\").  However, as revolution failed, he fled Moldavia through Transylvania and Austria, moving on to Paris, where he continued to write political poems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literary achievements.", "content": "After two years, he returned to a triumphant staging of his new comedy, \"Chiriţa în Iaşi\". He toured the Moldavian countryside, collecting, reworking, and arranging a vast array of Romanian folklore, which he published in two installments, in 1852 and 1853. The poems included in these two enormously popular collections became the cornerstone of the emerging Romanian identity, especially the ballads \"Miorița\", \"Toma Alimoș\", \"Mânăstirea Argeșului\", and \"Novac și Corbul.\" His volume of original poetry, \"Doine și Lăcrămioare\", further cemented his reputation. Broadly revered in Romanian cultural circles, he oversaw the establishment of \"România Literară\", to which writers from both Moldavia and Wallachia contributed. He was one of the most vocal unionists, supporting the union the two Romanian provinces, Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1856, he published in Mihail Kogălniceanu's newspaper, Steaua Dunării, the poem \"Hora Unirii\", which became the anthem of the unification movement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New romantic interest.", "content": "The end of 1855 saw Alecsandri pursuing a new romantic interest, in spite of promises made to Elena Negri on her deathbed. At age 35, the now renowned poet and public figure fell in love with the young Paulina Lucasievici, the daughter of an innkeeper. The romance moved at a lightning pace: they moved in together to Alecsandri's estate at Mirceşti and, in 1857, their daughter Maria was born.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political fulfilment.", "content": "Alecsandri found satisfaction in the advancement of those political causes he had long championed. The two Romanian provinces united and he was appointed minister of External Affairs by Alexandru Ioan Cuza. He toured the West, pleading to some of his friends and acquaintances in Paris to acknowledge the newly formed nation and support its emergence in the turbulent Balkan area.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retreat at Mirceşti.", "content": "The diplomatic tours tired him. In 1860, he settled in Mirceşti for what would be the rest of his life. He married Paulina more than a decade and a half later, in 1876.  Between 1862 and 1875, Alecsandri wrote 40 lyrical poems, including \"Miezul Iernii, \"Serile la Mircești, \"Iarna,\" \"La Gura Sobei\", \"Oaspeții Primăverii\", and \"Malul Siretului.\" He also dabbled in epic poems, collected in the volume \"Legende\", and he dedicated a series of poems to the soldiers who participated in the Romanian War of Independence. He also wrote the lyrics of Ștefan Nosievici's march Drum bun.  In 1879, his \"Despot-Vodă\" drama received the award of the Romanian Academy. He continued to be a prolific writer, finishing a fantastic comedy, \"Sânziana și Pepelea,\" (1881) and two dramas, \"Fântâna Blanduziei\" (1883) and \"Ovidiu\" (1884).  In 1881, he wrote Trăiască Regele (\"Long Live the King\"), which became the national anthem of the Kingdom of Romania until the abolition of monarchy in 1947.  Long suffering from cancer, Alecsandri died in 1890 at his estate in Mirceşti.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Alecsandri had an important political career. He was one of the supporters of slave emancipation. He was Antisemitic even though his father was partly of Jewish descent, claiming that to refuse citizenship to the Jews \"means to refuse suicide by our people\". The appearance of the literary stereotype of the \"Polish Jew,\" or Ostjude, in Romanian literature was largely due tu Vasile Alecsandri, the most important and most popular writer of the time. The Jew was depicted with sidecurls, and caftan, he used characteristic jargon and was portrayed as having \"typical\" personality traits — he was an unscrupulous cheat, a profit–hungry usurer, an exploiter and \"poisoner\" of the peasant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vasile Alecsandri (; July 21, 1821August 22, 1890) was a Moldavian poet, playwright, politician, and diplomat. He collected Romanian folk songs and was one of the principal animators of the 19th-century movement for Romanian cultural identity and union of Moldavia and Wallachia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975647}
{"src_title": "Stelarc", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performances.", "content": "Stelarc's idiosyncratic performances often involve robotics or other relatively modern technology integrated with his body. In 26 different performances he has suspended himself in flesh hook suspension, often with one of his robotic inventions integrated. His last suspension performance was held in Melbourne in March 2012.  In another performance he allowed his body to be controlled remotely by electronic muscle stimulators connected to the internet. He has also performed with a robotic third arm, and a pneumatic spider-like six-legged walking machine which sits the user in the center of the legs and allows them to control the machine through arm gestures.  In 2020, a work by Stelarc entitled \"Reclining Stickman\", a robot sculpture operated by the artist, featured in the Adelaide Biennial of Australian Art at the Art Gallery of South Australia (AGSA). However, AGSA had to temporarily close from 25 March 2020 owing to the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia, so some of the exhibits are being shown online, along with virtual tours of the exhibition. Stelarc performed with his sculpture in real time, as well as making the videorecording available.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Third ear.", "content": "In 2007, Stelarc had a cell-cultivated ear surgically attached to his left arm. His longtime collaborator, fellow Australian artist Nina Sellars, photographed this body modification for her piece \"Oblique: Images from Stelarc's Extra Ear Surgery\". Pieces by both artists were included in a group exhibition that received an exhibition review in scientific journal BMJ.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "In 2005, MIT Press published \"Stelarc: The Monograph\" which is the first extensive study of Stelarc's prolific work. It includes images of performances and interviews with several writers including William Gibson, who recount their meetings with Stelarc. In 2016 book on Robots and Art", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stelarc (born Στέλιος Αρκαδίου \"Stelios Arcadiou\" in Limassol in 1946, but legally changed his name in 1972) is a Cyprus-born performance artist raised in the Melbourne suburb of Sunshine, whose works focus heavily on extending the capabilities of the human body. As such, most of his pieces are centered on his concept that \"the human body is obsolete\". Until 2007 he held the position of Principal Research Fellow in the Performance Arts Digital Research Unit at Nottingham Trent University in Nottingham, England. He is currently furthering his research at Curtin University in Western Australia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975648}
{"src_title": "René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "René-Louis de Voyer de Paulmy was born 18 October 1694, eldest son of Marc-René de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson (1652-1721) and Marguerite Le Fèvre de Caumartin (1672-1719). He had a younger brother, Marc-Pierre, Comte d'Argenson (1696-1764), who served as Minister of War from 1743 to 1747.  His father was Lieutenant General of Police and Controller-General of Finances, one of the most important positions in the Ancien Régime. He was a member of the \"Noblesse de robe\" or Nobles of the robe, a class that formed the Second Estate whose rank derived from holding judicial or administrative posts. They were usually hard-working professionals, unlike the aristocratic \"Noblesse d'épée\" or Nobles of the Sword. His grandfather and great-grandfather both served as French ambassador to the Republic of Venice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "D'Argneson qualified as a lawyer, and held successively the posts of councillor at the Parlement (1716), \"maître des requêtes\" (1718), councillor of state (1719), and Intendant of justice, police and finance in Hainaut. During his five years’ tenure of the last office he was mainly employed in provisioning the troops, who were suffering from the economic confusion resulting from John Law's system and the aftermath of the Mississippi Bubble.  D'Argenson returned to court in 1724 to exercise his functions as councillor of state. At that time he had the reputation of being a conscientious man, but ill-adapted to intrigue, and was nicknamed \"la bête\". He entered into relations with the philosophers, and was won over to the ideas of reform. He was the friend of Voltaire, who had been a fellow-student of his at the Jesuit college Louis-le-Grand, and frequented the Club de l'Entresol, the history of which he wrote in his memoirs. It was then that he prepared his \"Considérations sur le gouvernement de la France\", which was published posthumously by his son.  D'Argenson was also the friend and counsellor of the minister Germain Louis Chauvelin. In May 1744 he was appointed member of the council of finance, and in November of the same year King Louis XV chose him as secretary of state for foreign affairs, his brother, Marc-Pierre, Comte d'Argenson, being at the same time secretary of state for war. France was at that time engaged in the War of the Austrian Succession, and the government had been placed by Louis XV virtually in the hands of the two brothers. The marquis d’Argenson endeavoured to reform the system of international relations. He dreamed of a \"European Republic\", and wished to establish arbitration between nations in pursuance of the ideas of his friend the abbé de Saint-Pierre. But he failed to realize any part of his projects. The generals negotiated in opposition to his instructions; his colleagues laid the blame on him; the intrigues of the courtiers passed unnoticed by him; whilst the secret diplomacy of the king neutralized his initiative. He concluded the marriage of the Louis, the Dauphin to Maria, a daughter of King Augustus III of Poland, but was unable to prevent the election of the Francis, Grand-Duke of Tuscany as Holy Roman Emperor in 1745.  On 10 January 1747 Louis XV thanked d'Argenson for his services. He then retired into private life, eschewed the court, associated with Voltaire, Condillac and d’Alembert, and spent his declining years in working at the Académie des Inscriptions, of which he was appointed president by the king in 1747, and revising his \"Mémoires\". Voltaire, in one of his letters, declared him to be \"the best citizen that had ever tasted the ministry\". He died on 26 January 1757.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "D'Argenson left a large number of manuscript works, of which his son, Marc Antoine René, Marquis de Paulmy, published the \"Considérations sur le gouvernement de France\" (Amsterdam, 1764) and \"Essais dans le goût de ceux de Montaigne\" (Amsterdam, 1785). The latter, which contains many useful biographical notes and portraits of his contemporaries, was republished in 1787 as \"Loisirs d’un ministre d’état\". D'Argenson's most important work, however, is his \"Mémoires\", covering in great detail the years 1725 to 1756, with an introductory part giving his recollections since the year 1696. They are, as they were intended to be, valuable \"materials for the history of his time\". There are two important editions, the first, with some letters, not elsewhere published, by the marquis d’Argenson, his great-grand-nephew (5 vols., Paris, 1857 et seq.); the second, more correct, but less complete, published by J. B. Rathery, for the Société de l’Histoire de France (9 vols., Paris, 1859 et seq.). The other works of the marquis d’Argenson, in MS., were destroyed in the fire at the Louvre library in 1871.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "D'Argenson married and had a son:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "René-Louis de Voyer de Paulmy, Marquis d'Argenson (18 October 169426 January 1757) was a politician and friend of Voltaire, who served as Minister for Foreign Affairs from November 1744 to January 1747. His younger brother, Marc-Pierre, Comte d'Argenson (1696-1764), was Minister of War from 1743 to 1747.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975649}
{"src_title": "Petrich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Petrich was included in the territory of the Bulgarian State during the reign of Knyaz Boris I (852-889). During the Middle Ages it was a Bulgarian fortress of importance during Tsar Samuil's wars (997-1014) with Byzantium. During Ottoman rule, it formed part of the Rumeli Eyalet, and in the 19th century became a \"kaza\" of the Sanjak of Serres in the Salonica Vilayet. From 19 January 1892, Petrich and its district were included in the Bulgarian Exarchate, before being included in Bulgaria following the Balkan Wars in 1912-13.  In October 1925 it was the site of a brief conflict between Greece and Bulgaria sometimes called the War of the Stray Dog.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The climate of Petrich is mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification \"Csa\") with an average annual temperature of 15.6 °C (60 °F). The town experiences some continental influence, especially in winter, which is cool, but warm for Bulgarian standards.  Petrich is the sunniest city in Bulgaria slightly ahead of Sandanski with yearly sunshine hours exceeding 2,700 on average.  Summer is hot and sunny and it is the longest season in Petrich, lasting from May through September, even as late as October. The average summer temperature is around 25 °C. In July, the sunniest month, Petrich receives 373 hours of sunshine, making it one of the sunniest places in Continental Europe. Winter season, around two months, starts in late December and lasts until early February. Average winter temperature is one of the highest in the country with average around 5 °C. In December, the darkest month, there are 103 hours of sunshine, on average.  Climate table:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The town is an agricultural centre for fruit, vegetables and tobacco. It has three factories, making water level detectors, details for cranes and a furniture factory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcasting station.", "content": "There is a 500 kW mediumwave broadcasting station working on 747 kHz. It uses as antenna a 205 metre tall guyed mast insulated with an additional cage antenna. This mast was built in 1977.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Petrich () is a town in Blagoevgrad Province in southwestern Bulgaria, located at the foot of the Belasica Mountains in the Strumeshnitsa Valley., the town has 31,140 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975650}
{"src_title": "The Gypsy Baron", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "Strauss's music for \"The Gypsy Baron\" is regularly performed today. The orchestral pieces that he furnished from the work were also well-recognised, among them, the sparkling Schatz-Walzer (Treasure Waltz), Op. 418, as well as the polkas \"Brautschau\" (\"Looking for a Wife\"), Op. 417, and \"Kriegsabenteuer\" (\"War Adventures\"), Op. 419.  The US premiere took place on 15 February 1886. In the UK it was first performed on 12 February 1935 in an amateur production. The UK professional premiere took place on 10 March 1938 at the Theatre Royal, Nottingham, as part of the Carl Rosa Opera Company's spring season there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "\"Overview: The story, of the marriage of a landowner (returned from exile) and a gypsy girl who is revealed as the daughter of a Turkish pasha, and the rightful owner of a hidden treasure, involves a fortune-telling Romany queen, a self-important mayor, a rascally commissioner, a military governor, a band of gypsies and a troop of hussars.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act 1.", "content": "\"A swampy riverside region near the town of Timișoara\"  The distant scene is dominated by a derelict castle. In the foreground is a partly deserted village with only one reasonably prosperous-looking house. In a particularly disreputable hut there lives an old gypsy woman named Czipra. The boatmen can be heard singing at their work. Ottokár, son of Mirabella who is governess to Arsena (daughter of a miserly old farmer Zsupán) is digging for treasure which he fondly believes to be buried somewhere around. This is his daily routine, and the more he looks without success, the worse his temper becomes. Czipra looks out of her window and makes fun of his efforts. She has been watching him for weeks and has a low opinion of his wasting time on this activity while the other Gypsies are out doing an \"honest\" day's work. She tells him that if he continues with this fruitless quest, he will end up penniless and never marry, as he hopes, Arsena.  Sándor Barinkay, son of the late owner of the castle, arrives accompanied by Conte Carnero, Commissioner for Oaths, who is here to sort things out for him. The Commissioner suggests they get on with the job and call on Czipra as a witness. They send for Zsupán. In the meantime he tells Barinkay of the beautiful Arsena. To pass time Czipra tells their fortunes and reveals to Sándor Barinkay that there is happiness and fortune in store for him. He will marry a faithful wife who will, in a dream, discover where the treasure is hidden. Carnero is also told that he will recover a treasure that he has lost, which leaves him slightly puzzled as he cannot remember having had one.  Zsupán arrives and tells everyone that he is a highly successful pig-breeder adding that he lives for sausages and wine and has little time for art. He agrees to witness Barinkay's claims but warns him that he can be a contentious neighbour. Barinkay suggests that he might marry Zsupán's daughter and Arsena is sent for. But it is Mirabella, the governess, who first appears. It seems that she is Carnero's long-lost wife, so part of Czipra's prediction is immediately realised. Carnero shows little sign of delight and a rather joyless reunion takes place. Mirabella says that she had believed her husband to have been killed at the Battle of Belgrade.  Arsena arrives, heavily veiled, but though the chorus hail the bride-elect she is not so co-operative. She is in love with Ottokár. Barinkay makes a formal proposal but Arsena tells him that she is descended from the aristocracy and can only marry someone of noble birth. Zsupán and the others tell Barinkay that he must do something about this. He is left brooding but hears a gypsy girl singing a song which praises the loyalty of the Gypsies to their friends. It is Saffi, daughter of Czipra, and Barinkay is immediately attracted by her dark beauty and accepts an invitation to dine with her and Czipra. Unaware of the others watching, Ottokár meets Arsena and they vow their eternal love for each other. He gives her a locket at which point Barinkay pretends to be most indignant. The Gypsies return from their work and Czipra introduces Barinkay as their new local squire. They elect him chief of the Gypsies. Now affirmed as a gypsy baron he calls on Zsupán and asserts his noble right of the hand of Arsena. Zsupán is not all that impressed. Saffi welcomes Barinkay back to his inheritance. Ever the opportunist, Barinkay now says that he would like to marry Saffi who is as delighted as her gypsy friends. Zsupán and Arsena are now rather indignant at this turn of events and threaten reprisals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 2.", "content": "\"The castle at dawn the following day'  Czipra reveals to Barinkay that Saffi has dreamed of the location of the treasure. They start to search and find it hidden, as she has dreamed, under a nearby rock. As they depart the Gypsies arise to start their day's work. Zsupán appears and tells them that his cart has stuck in the mud. He orders the Gypsies to come and help him. They resent his order and steal his watch and money. His cries for help bring Carnero, Mirabella, Ottokár and Arsena on the scene, followed by Barinkay, now dressed as a gypsy baron, and Saffi. Barinkay introduces Saffi as his wife but Carnero is not satisfied that all the legal requirements have been met. They tell him the stars have guided them and the birds have witnessed their vows. This is not quite what the law demands and Mirabella and Zsupán adopt a highly moral tone about the whole affair. At this point Ottokár discovers a few of the gold coins that Barinkay has left behind and is highly excited. Barinkay soon disillusions him by telling him that the treasure has already been found. At this moment, a recruiting party arrives under the command of Barinkay's old friend, Count Peter Homonay. He is looking for recruits to fight in the war against Spain. Zsupán and Ottokár are press-ganged into the army. Carnero calls on Homonay to give his official support to the view that Barinkay and Saffi's marriage is illegal but Homonay supports Barinkay. Further complications, however, are revealed. Czipra tells them that Saffi is not really her daughter but the child of the last Pasha of Hungary, a real princess. Barinkay is once more deflated, realising that he cannot marry anyone of such exalted rank, though Saffi says that she will always love him. Barinkay decides that he too will join the Hussars and the men march away leaving behind three broken hearted ladies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 3.", "content": "\"Vienna\"  Everyone is celebrating after a victorious battle. Zsupán appears and tells of his own, somewhat inglorious, exploits in Spain. Homonay, Barinkay and Ottokár reveal that they are heroes of battle and have been made into genuine noblemen. There is now no objection to the marriage of Saffi and Barinkay or Ottokár and Arsena. It is a truly happy ending.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes  Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gypsy Baron () is an operetta in three acts by Johann Strauss II which premiered at the Theater an der Wien on 24 October 1885. Its libretto was by the author Ignaz Schnitzer and in turn was based on \"Sáffi\" by Mór Jókai. During the composer's lifetime, the operetta enjoyed great success, second only to the popularity of \"Die Fledermaus\". The scoring and the nature of Strauss's music have also led many music critics to consider this work a comic opera or a lyric opera.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975651}
{"src_title": "Dimethyl sulfide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Natural occurrence.", "content": "DMS originates primarily from DMSP, a major secondary metabolite in some marine algae. DMS is the most abundant biological sulfur compound emitted to the atmosphere. Emission occurs over the oceans by phytoplankton. DMS is also produced naturally by bacterial transformation of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) waste that is disposed of into sewers, where it can cause environmental odor problems.  DMS is oxidized in the marine atmosphere to various sulfur-containing compounds, such as sulfur dioxide, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), dimethyl sulfone, methanesulfonic acid and sulfuric acid. Among these compounds, sulfuric acid has the potential to create new aerosols which act as cloud condensation nuclei. Through this interaction with cloud formation, the massive production of atmospheric DMS over the oceans may have a significant impact on the Earth's climate. The CLAW hypothesis suggests that in this manner DMS may play a role in planetary homeostasis.  Marine phytoplankton also produce dimethyl sulfide, and DMS is also produced by bacterial cleavage of extracellular DMSP. DMS has been characterized as the \"smell of the sea\", though it would be more accurate to say that DMS is a component of the smell of the sea, others being chemical derivatives of DMS, such as oxides, and yet others being algal pheromones such as dictyopterenes.  Dimethyl sulfide also is an odorant emitted by kraft pulping mills, and it is a byproduct of Swern oxidation.  Dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, and dimethyl trisulfide have been found among the volatiles given off by the fly-attracting plant known as dead-horse arum (\"Helicodiceros muscivorus\"). Those compounds are components of an odor like rotting meat, which attracts various pollinators that feed on carrion, such as many species of flies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physiology of dimethyl sulfide.", "content": "Dimethyl sulfide is normally present at very low levels in healthy people, namely <7nM in blood, <3 nM in urine and 0.13 – 0.65 nM on expired breath.  At pathologically dangerous concentrations, this is known as dimethylsulfidemia. This condition is associated with blood borne halitosis and dimethylsulfiduria.  In people with chronic liver disease (cirrhosis), high levels of dimethyl sulfide may be present the breath, leading to an unpleasant smell (fetor hepaticus).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Smell.", "content": "Dimethyl sulfide has a characteristic smell commonly described as cabbage-like. It becomes highly disagreeable at even quite low concentrations. Some reports claim that DMS has a low olfactory threshold that varies from 0.02 to 0.1 ppm between different persons, but it has been suggested that the odor attributed to dimethyl sulfide may in fact be due to di- and polysulfides and thiol impurities, since the odor of dimethyl sulfide is much less disagreeable after it is freshly washed with saturated aqueous mercuric chloride. Dimethyl sulfide is also available as a food additive to impart a savory flavor; in such use, its concentration is low. Beetroot, asparagus, cabbage, corn and seafoods produce dimethyl sulfide when cooked.  Dimethyl sulfide is also produced by marine planktonic micro-organisms such as the coccolithophores and so is one of the main components responsible for the characteristic odor of sea water aerosols, which make up a part of sea air. In the Victorian era, before DMS was discovered, the origin of sea air's 'bracing' aroma was attributed to ozone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "In industry dimethyl sulfide is produced by treating hydrogen sulfide with excess methanol over an aluminium oxide catalyst.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industrial uses.", "content": "Dimethyl sulfide has been used in petroleum refining to pre-sulfide hydrodesulfurization catalysts, although other disulfides or polysulfides are preferred and easier to handle. It is used as a presulfiding agent to control the formation of coke and carbon monoxide in ethylene production. DMS is also used in a range of organic syntheses, including as a reducing agent in ozonolysis reactions. It also has a use as a food flavoring component. It can also be oxidized to dimethyl sulfoxide, (DMSO), which is an important industrial solvent.  The largest single commercial producer of DMS in the world is Gaylord Chemical Corporation. The Chevron Phillips Chemical company is also a major manufacturer of DMS. CP Chem produces this material at their facilities in Borger, Texas, USA and Tessenderlo, Belgium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Dimethyl sulfide finds a niche use as a displaceable ligand in chloro(dimethyl sulfide)gold(I) and other coordination compounds. Dimethyl sulfide is also used in the ozonolysis of alkenes, reducing the intermediate trioxolane and oxidizing to DMSO, an important polar aprotic solvent that dissolves both polar and nonpolar compounds and is miscible in a wide range of organic solvents as well as water..  The process: alkene + ozone + DMS → aldehyde(1) + aldehyde(2) + DMSO", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Dimethyl sulfide is highly flammable and an eye and skin irritant. It is harmful if swallowed. It has an unpleasant odor at even extremely low concentrations. Its ignition temperature is 205 °C.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) or methylthiomethane is an organosulfur compound with the formula (CH)S. Dimethyl sulfide is a flammable liquid that boils at and has a characteristic disagreeable odor. It is a component of the smell produced from cooking of certain vegetables, notably maize, cabbage, beetroot, and seafoods. It is also an indication of bacterial contamination in malt production and brewing. It is a breakdown product of dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP), and is also produced by the bacterial metabolism of methanethiol.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975652}
{"src_title": "Personal Jesus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and composition.", "content": "In mid-1989, the band began recording in Milan with record producer Flood. The result of this session was the single \"Personal Jesus\", which featured a catchy bluesy riff and drum-based sound, radically different from anything the band had released thus far. Although not the first Depeche Mode song to feature guitar parts (\"Behind the Wheel\" and their cover of \"Route 66\" featured a guitar; \"Love, in Itself\" and \"And Then...\" from \"Construction Time Again\" and \"Here is the House\" from \"Black Celebration\" featured an acoustic guitar), it was the first time a guitar was used as a dominant instrument in a Depeche Mode song. The song was inspired by the book \"Elvis and Me\" by Priscilla Presley. According to songwriter Martin Gore:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Promotion and release.", "content": "Prior to its release, advertisements were placed in the personal columns of regional newspapers in the UK with the words \"Your own personal Jesus.\" Later, the ads included a phone number one could dial to hear the song. The ensuing controversy helped propel the single to No. 13 on the UK charts, becoming one of Depeche Mode's biggest sellers. The single was particularly successful commercially thanks to the fact that it was released six months prior to the album it would later appear on. Up to that point, it was the best selling 12\" single in Warner Bros. history.  \"Personal Jesus\" had a plethora of remixes, almost unprecedented for Depeche Mode at the time. While most other Depeche Mode singles prior to \"Personal Jesus\" usually had band-made extended mixes, Depeche Mode started to invite more DJs and mixers to the fold, which would become the mainstay for all future Depeche Mode singles. François Kevorkian (who did the mixing for the \"Violator\" album, in general) mixed the single version, the \"Holier Than Thou Approach\", the \"Pump Mix\", and the lesser-known \"Kazan Cathedral Mix\" (which was not available on any of the singles), while producer Flood mixed the \"Acoustic\" version and the \"Telephone Stomp Mix\" as well as the single version and \"Sensual Mix\" of the single's B-side \"Dangerous\". The \"Hazchemix\" and \"Hazchemix Edit\" of \"Dangerous\" were mixed by Daniel Miller.  The back-cover of \"Personal Jesus\" features one of the band members and the back-side of a naked woman. The band member she is with depends on whether it is the 7\" vinyl (Martin Gore), the 12\" vinyl (Dave Gahan), the cassette (Andy Fletcher), or the original CD (Alan Wilder). On some copies she does not appear at all, such as the 2004 CD re-release, and on promo copies. On some limited releases, like the \"GBong17\", all four photos are available plus one photo of the full group with Martin hugging the woman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music video.", "content": "The Anton Corbijn directed the music video for \"Personal Jesus\" is his first Depeche Mode video in colour, and features the band in a ranch (suggested to appear as a brothel), placed in the Tabernas Desert of Almería, in Spain. MTV edited out some suggestive mouth movements of Martin Gore during the bridge and replaced it with some other footage from the video.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Track listings.", "content": "All songs written by Martin Gore.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mixes.", "content": "Francois Kevorkian  Flood  Daniel Miller", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Personal Jesus 2011\".", "content": "\"Personal Jesus 2011\" is the preceding single to the remix compilation album \"\". The digital single was released in the UK on 18 April 2011 and a day later in the US. It was released on CD and vinyl on 30 May 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Track listings.", "content": "CD (Bong43)  12\" vinyl  Digital Download  Beatport Exclusive Digital Download  Promo CD (PCDBong43)  iTunes Store", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Johnny Cash cover.", "content": "In 2002, American country singer Johnny Cash covered \"Personal Jesus\" for his album \"\". The idea to cover the song was suggested by record producer Rick Rubin. Cash called it \"probably the most evangelical gospel song I ever recorded\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marilyn Manson cover.", "content": "Marilyn Manson released their cover version of the track as the only previously unreleased recording included on their 2004 greatest hits album \"\". The band's eponymous vocalist explained to MTV that he decided to cover \"Personal Jesus\" as: \"I thought if I had to write a song, [the lyrics of 'Personal Jesus' are] exactly what I would say.... I think it takes a little more of an ironic tone when you put it in context with what's going on today.\" He additionally described the original song and Depeche Mode's music in general as hypnotic, sexy and inspirational. Its music video was directed by Manson and Nathan Cox. The song won an award in the 'pop' category of the 2005 BMI Awards, while its music video received two nominations at the 2005 Music Video Production Awards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Personal Jesus\" is a song by English electronic music band Depeche Mode. It was released as the lead single from their seventh studio album, \"Violator\" (1990) in 1989. It reached No. 13 on the UK Singles Chart and No. 28 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. The single was their first to make the US Top 40 since 1984's \"People Are People\", and was their first gold-certified single in the US (quickly followed by its successor, \"Enjoy the Silence\"). In Germany, \"Personal Jesus\" is one of the band's longest-charting songs, staying on the singles chart for 23 weeks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975653}
{"src_title": "Barbara Sophie of Brandenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "On 5 November 1609 she married Duke John Frederick of Württemberg (1582–1628), eldest son of Frederick I and Sibylla of Anhalt. On the occasion of this marriage he had the Urach Palace in Bad Urach renovated: the Golden Hall was constructed, which is today one of the most beautiful Renaissance ballrooms in Germany. They reportedly had a very happy marriage.  Her husband died in 1628. In 1630, she began an extensive renovation of Brackenheim Castle, which was promised to her as her wittum. The castle contained an art room with 155 paintings, at the time the second largest collection in Württemberg. The art room was well preserved until her death, despite the Thirty Years' War ravaging the country around it. During the renovation of her castle, she lived at Schloss Kirchheim Castle in Kirchheim unter Teck and in Stuttgart. She never lived in Brackenheim, despite the Castle, the city and the district forming her wittum. Nevertheless, she was considered a benefactor of the city, due to her dedication to the city during the Thirty Years' War and to the foundations she founded.  When her husband died, her 14-year-old son Eberhard III was still a minor and his uncle Louis Frederick, Duke of Württemberg-Montbéliard acted as regent. After Frederick Louis died on 26 January 1631, the regency was taken up by Sophie Barbara and Julius Frederick, Duke of Württemberg-Weiltingen, with Sophie Barbara being \"high regent\". She therefore moved back to Stuttgart in 1632 and became politically active. After the Battle of Lutzen in late 1632, Julius Frederick joined the war on the Swedish side. His goal was to drive enemy troops out of the country, as well as the Catholic former owners of secularized church properties. Despite his successes, he was accused of acting selfishly. The councillors and the Estates managed to drive him out of the regency.  After Emperor Ferdinand II declared Eberhard III to be an adult, he took up government on 8 May 1633. He joined the Protestant Heilbronn League which on suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Nördlingen of 6 September 1634. Württemberg was then looted and pillaged. Duke Eberhard and his entire court hastily fled into exile in Strasbourg.  Barbara Sophia died in Strasbourg in 1636 and was buried in the Stiftskirche, Stuttgart.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "From their marriage Barbara Sophia had the following children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Barbara Sophia of Brandenburg (16 November 1584 – 13 February 1636) was duchess of Württemberg by marriage to Duke John Frederick of Württemberg and acted as regent of the Duchy of Württemberg for their minor son, Duke Eberhard III of Württemberg, in 1631-1633. She was the daughter of the Catherine of Küstrin (1549–1602) and Elector of Joachim Frederick of Brandenburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975654}
{"src_title": "Marie de Bourbon, Duchess of Montpensier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Marie de Bourbon was born in the château de Gaillon, in Gaillon (Eure department of France), in the former province of Normandy.  Known as \"Mademoiselle de Montpensier\" before her marriage, she was the Duke and Duchess of Montpensier's only child. At the age of two, she had been engaged to the second son of Henry IV of France, Nicolas Henri de France, Duke of Orléans, but he died at the age of four in 1611. She was then betrothed to his brother, Gaston de France, Duke of Orléans, the younger brother of king Louis XIII, and the heir presumptive to the throne of France.  At the death of her father, in 1608, Marie became the Duchess of Montpensier in her own right; the Duchy was one of the oldest in France having been elevated from a County in 1539. Marie was a descendant of John II of France, of the House of Valois and of Saint Louis.  Because of the Montpensier's fortune, of which Marie was the only heiress, and despite the aversion shown by Gaston toward this arranged marriage, Louis XIII and Richelieu were determined the marriage would take place.  The wedding ceremony was celebrated in Nantes, on 6 August 1626, in the presence of Louis XIII, his wife, Queen Anne of Austria, and Marie de' Medici, the Queen Mother. According to her daughter's biographer, Vita Sackville-West, quoting a member of her husband's household, \"A sadder wedding was never seen.\".  From this union, the new ducal couple had one child:  Marie died on 4 June 1627 at the Palais du Louvre in Paris, at the age of twenty-one, shortly after the birth of her daughter who, as her only child, inherited her fortune and titles. She was buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis, north of Paris.  In a will intended to disinherit her niece, Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, Marie's half-sister Marie de Lorraine,) chose Charles François de Stainville as beneficiary in 1688; but on the urging of her heirs, the will was broken by the Parlement of Paris in 1689.  After the death of her daughter, \"La Grande Mademoiselle\", in 1693, Marie's fortune was handed over to Philippe de France, Louis XIV's younger and only brother.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marie de Bourbon (15 October 1605 – 4 June 1627), Duchess of Montpensier, and Duchess of Orléans by marriage, was a French noblewoman and one of the last members of the House of Bourbon-Montpensier. Her parents were Henri de Bourbon, \"Duke of Montpensier\" and Henriette Catherine de Joyeuse, Duchess of Joyeuse in her own right.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975655}
{"src_title": "Jacques Soustelle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Jacques Soustelle was born in Montpellier, into a Protestant working-class family. A brilliant high school student, he was admitted to the École Normale Supérieure de la rue d'Ulm, which is still a major college within the French educational system (many Nobel Prize winners and Fields Medalists are among its alumni). At the age of 20, he was admitted at the first place at the competitive exam of \"agrégation de philosophie\" (high-level grade for teaching). An anti-fascist, he was general-secretary in 1935 of the French Union of Intellectuals against Fascism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anthropology of Mesoamerica.", "content": "Soustelle developed an interest in Ethnology while working at the Musée de l'Homme under Paul Rivet. Rivet sent him to Mexico, after Soustelle became an Agrégé, to study the Otomi people. Soustelle wrote his first major book \"Mexique, Terre Indienne\" (Mexico is Indian) about his time with the Otomi.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France Libre.", "content": "After the Armistice of 22 June 1940, he left Mexico to join the Free French Forces (FFL) in London. Charles de Gaulle charged him of a diplomatic mission in Latin America (1941), to set up support committees to free France, to cut short the diplomatic efforts of Petainists throughout the continent. He headed the intelligence service \"Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action\" (BCRA). He joined the \"Comité national français\", (Government of the Free France, fighting Vichy France, and the Axis powers ) in London, then ran the \"commissariat national à l’Information\" (1942).  Appointed to head the Special Services Branch (DGHS) in Algiers in (1943–1944) by the French Committee of National Liberation), He was Commissioner of the Republic (prefect) in Bordeaux then in the Liberation deputy of Mayenne.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reconstruction of France.", "content": "In 1945, he served first as Minister of Information, then as Minister of the Colonies. From 1947 to 1951, he served as Secretary General of the Gaullist party \"Rassemblement du Peuple Français\" (RPF) and was one De Gaulle's closest counsellors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Algeria.", "content": "He was nominated Governor General of Algeria by Pierre Mendès France in 1955–56, favouring the integration of the Muslim community in the French Departments along the Mediterranean coast. Thanks to Soustelle's support during the May 1958 Algiers revolt, De Gaulle returned to power.  Though he believed he would become Algeria Secretary, Soustelle was only named Information Minister in June 1958. In 1959, he was appointed Minister of State in charge of Overseas Departments by De Gaulle. He was unharmed after three \"Front de Libération Nationale\" (FLN) terrorists attempted to assassinate him by shooting his car on the Place de l'Étoile in Paris. He asked De Gaulle for a presidential pardon for the only attacker who had been arrested and sentenced to death. Soustelle disagreed with De Gaulle's sudden turn for Algerian independence. He analyzed this turnaround in his book \"L'Espérance Trahie\" (Broken Hope). Soustelle was dismissed from the cabinet and the Gaullist party \"Union pour la nouvelle République\" (UNR) in 1960 and joined the terrorist \"Organisation armée secrète\" (OAS) in the fight against the independence of Algeria. When the OAS was replaced by the \"Conseil National de la Résistance\" (CNR), he joined this new organization with Georges Bidault, former President of the World War II National Council of the Resistance. His activities led him to being sued for attempting to undermine the authority of the French state. He lived in exile between 1961 and his 1968 amnesty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National Assembly.", "content": "Soustelle was elected to France's National Assembly (France's lower House) three times, first representing Mayenne in 1945–46, then the Rhône (1951–58) as a Gaullist, and from 1973 to 1978 as a member of the centrist Mouvement Réformateur. In 1974, he supported the bill legalizing abortion presented by Simone Veil. He died, aged 78, in Neuilly-sur-Seine.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jacques Soustelle (3 February 1912 – 6 August 1990) was an important and early figure of the Free French Forces, an anthropologist specializing in Pre-Columbian civilizations, and vice-director of the Musée de l'Homme in Paris in 1939. Governor General of Algeria, he helped the rise of De Gaulle to the presidency of the Fifth Republic, but broke with De Gaulle over Algerian independence, joined the OAS is their efforts to overthrow De Gaulle and lived in exile between 1961 and 1968. On returning to France he resumed political and academic activity and was elected to the Académie française in 1983.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975656}
{"src_title": "The Painter's Studio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The painting was produced during Courbet's involvement with Realism in art in the mid-1800s. Due to the short amount of time Courbet had to paint it, many original plans for the work had to be discarded. The most noticeable example of this is in the background of the painting. On the back wall of the studio in the painting, Courbet planned to paint replications of other works of his. He ran out of time to paint these in their entirety, so he then covered them up with a reddish-brown preparation color, leaving the partially-finished paintings still relatively visible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Left side.", "content": "The left side of the painting depicts people of everyday life in France. The Jewish man and the Irishwoman were seen on a trip Courbet took to London in 1848, according to a letter Courbet wrote to Champfleury detailing what the painting would look like. There is also a \"lay figure\"/\"crucified figure\" directly to the left of Courbet's easel. This figure appears contorted and potentially mangled. Art historians Benedict Nicolson and Georges Riat both interpret this figure as a symbol of the \"death\" of the art of the Royal Academy of Art in France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Center.", "content": "The center of the painting depicts Courbet painting a landscape, a nude female figure, a young boy, and a white cat. On his canvas, Courbet paints the Loue River valley. This valley in the Franche-Comté region of France is a tribute to Courbet's homeland of Ornans, France. The female figure is based on an 1854 photograph by J. V. de Villeneuve and has been interpreted as a representation of the art of the Academy or as Courbet's Muse for Realism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Right side.", "content": "The right side of the painting depicts a large number of Paris elites, including friends of the artist. These are figures who played a role in the development of Courbet's career as an artist, or who inspired him in some way. Portrayals included on this side of the painting include Alfred Bruyas (a patron of Courbet), Champfleury, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Charles Baudelaire, and a wealthy pair of art collectors, among other prominent society figures. A majority of these portraits were copied from previous portraits or from photographs, since the painting was entirely made in Ornans but the subjects on this side of the painting resided in Paris. For example, the portrait of Charles Baudelaire was directly copied from Courbet's 1847 portrait of the writer. Courbet was in written correspondence with Champfleury in regards to this painting (from which much of the interpretation of \"The Painter's Studio\" is derived) and requested a photograph of Proudhon, the philosopher and anarchist, so that he could be included in the painting. It is the photograph Courbet received from Champfleury on which Proudhon's portrait is based.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Painter's Studio: A real allegory summing up seven years of my artistic and moral life (\"L'Atelier du peintre\") is an 1855 oil on canvas painting by Gustave Courbet. It is located in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris, France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975657}
{"src_title": "24th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Karstjäger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "In mid-1942, the \"Waffen\"-SS formed a company intended for anti-partisan operations in the rugged and high-altitude border region between Italy, Austria and Yugoslavia known as the \"Karst\". SS-\"Standartenführer\" (Colonel) Hans Brand, a geologist and speleologist, suggested the creation of the unit. The company was formed at the SS training centre in Dachau on 10 July 1942 from soldiers of the supply services training and replacement battalion of the 23rd \"Waffen\" Mountain Division of the SS \"Kama\" (2nd Croatian).  It was expanded to battalion strength of around 500 troops in November 1942, and as the SS-\"Freiwilligen-Karstwehr\" Battalion, it spent the first six months of 1943 training in Austria. The unit drew its recruits mainly from among the Germans of Yugoslavia (\"Volksdeutsche\") and South Tyrolians, with the officer cadre being drawn from SS geological detachments. The battalion-strength \"Waffen\"-SS Geological Corps (), from which such detachments were drawn, was formed in April 1941 and consisted mainly of engineers with a few geologists. They examined caves and natural obstacles, and determined whether off-road terrain was suitable for tanks. They were also responsible for locating sources of fresh water. Following the Armistice of Cassibile in September 1943, the battalion was tasked with disarming Italian troops around Tarvisio on the border between the three countries. It then moved on to protective duties for nearby \"Volksdeutsche\" communities. From October 1943 until June 1944, the battalion was based at Gradisca d'Isonzo in Italy, and participated in anti-partisan operations in the areas of Trieste, Udine and the Istrian peninsula. On 10 October, a column of the battalion was ambushed at the Predil Pass, suffering three killed and eight wounded. The following day the battalion burned down the village of Strmec and killed 16 local men in retaliation. Up to 19 October 1943, the battalion suffered a total of 18 killed and 45 wounded in a series of engagements near the village of Bovec (Flitsch). During the same period, the battalion captured two Italian 75 mm mountain guns, which significantly increased its firepower.  During late October and November 1943, the battalion was engaged in anti-partisan operations around Žaga (Saga) and Kobarid (Karfreit), including Operation \"Traufe\" (Eaves). In late November, it was placed under the command of the Supreme SS and Police Leader, Italy, \"SS-Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen-SS\" (Lieutenant General) Karl Wolff for an operation. In February 1944, the battalion conducted Operation \"Ratte\" (Rat), during which it burned down the villages of Komen and Branik (Rihenberg), and interned the population of both villages in labour camps. Early in 1944, Brandt suggested that Slovene nationalists be recruited into the battalion, but the idea was rejected by SS headquarters who feared that such a policy would allow the infiltration of the unit by Yugoslav Partisans. At this stage, it was estimated that there were about 20,000 communist partisans operating in the Gorizia region. During March 1944, the battalion was involved in a rapid series of operations, including \"Zypresse\" (Cypress), \"Märzveilchen\" (Violet), \"Maulwurf\" (Mole) and \"Hellblau\" (Light Blue), resulting in significant guerrilla casualties, as well as executions of captured partisans. In March and April, Operation \"Osterglocke\" (Daffodil) was conducted over 12 days, followed by Operation \"Liane\" in late May, and the long-running Operation \"Annemarie\" which covered the period 7 May to 16 July 1944. In June 1944, a patrol from the battalion failed to return from a task in the vicinity of Cividale del Friuli. Two days later, they were found naked with their severed heads impaled on bayonets. The unit became known for shooting suspected partisans. While engaged in anti-partisan work, the battalion grew to a strength of around 1,000.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Expansion.", "content": "On 18 July 1944, \"Reichsführer\"-SS Heinrich Himmler ordered that the battalion be expanded to divisional size, although the authorised strength was only 6,600 troops. The 24th \"Waffen\" Mountain Division of the SS \"Karstjäger\" was to be established by the Higher SS and Police Leader () for the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral, SS-\"Gruppenführer\" (Major General) Odilo Globocnik. The name \"Karstjäger\" was derived from a combination of \"Karst\", denoting the region of operations, and \"Jäger\", the German military term for light infantry. The division was to consist of two \"Gebirgsjäger\" (mountain infantry) regiments, with an artillery regiment, reconnaissance, \"Panzerjäger\" (anti-tank) and pioneer battalions, as well as replacement and supply troops. The division was supplied with 14 captured Italian Carro Armato P 40 tanks, but these proved unreliable, with only half being serviceable at any one time. In August 1944, the under-strength division participated in Operation \"Dachstein\" under the command of the 188th Mountain Division. Between August and November 1944, the division continued performing anti-partisan duties in the same region, but its strength had only reached 3,000, less than half of its authorised establishment. It proved impossible to recruit sufficient troops for the division, and in December 1944 the division was downgraded to a brigade.  During late 1944 and early 1945, the \"Waffen\" Mountain (\"Karstjäger\") Brigade of the SS fought first against British-supported partisans in the Julian Alps, and was then deployed to the coastal area around Trieste and the Marano-Grado Lagoon. In danger of being cut off by Allied forces, the brigade soon returned to the Julian Alps, having to fight its way through the Tagliamento river valley between Osoppo and Gemona. Toward the end of April 1945, the brigade fought British and New Zealand forces on the southern fringe of the Julian Alps. The brigade replacement company, which had been sent to Cividale from its training centre at Pottenstein, Bavaria, managed to destroy a number of British tanks with panzerfausts and the assistance of a tank company. In the final weeks of the war the brigade was part of a \"Kampfgruppe\" (battlegroup) commanded by SS-\"Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen\"-SS (Brigadier) Heinz Harmel, which was ordered to keep the Karawanks passes open between Yugoslavia and Austria. This task was critical in allowing German forces to withdraw from Yugoslavia in order to surrender to British rather than Yugoslav forces. The \"Kampfgruppe\" succeeded in its final task, and was one of the last German units to surrender, when it encountered the British 6th Armoured Division on 9 May 1945.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War crimes.", "content": "A joint Italian-German study implicated members of the division in 23 different crimes involving the killing of 277 people in Italy between the Armistice of Cassibile and the end of World War II. The largest of these killings were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Order of battle.", "content": "On paper, the division's final order of battle was to consist of:  The division establishment also included supply units. However, only the 59th \"Waffen Gebirgsjäger\" Regiment, one battalion of the 24th SS Mountain Artillery Regiment, one company of the 24th SS Pioneer Battalion and a half-company of the divisional panzer company were ever established.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commanders.", "content": "According to historian Gordon Williamson, three \"Waffen\"-SS officers commanded the division and subsequently the brigade:  In contrast, Roland Kaltenegger only lists Hahn as commanding the unit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uniform.", "content": "The unit insignia was a stylised Týr rune with arrows pointing to the left and right. A collar insignia was manufactured, but it is believed that these were never issued or worn, and the members of the division wore the standard SS Sig runes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 24th \"Waffen\" Mountain Division of the SS \"Karstjäger\" was a German mountain infantry division of the \"Waffen\"-SS, the armed wing of the German Nazi Party that served alongside, but was never formally part of, the Wehrmacht during World War II. Named \"Karstjäger\" (\"Karst Hunter\"), it was one of the 38 divisions fielded by the \"Waffen\"-SS. Formed on 18 July 1944 from the SS Volunteer \"Karstwehr\" Battalion, its nominal strength was never more than theoretical and the division was soon reduced to the \"Waffen\" Mountain (\"Karstjäger\") Brigade of the SS. Throughout its existence as a battalion, division and brigade, it was primarily involved in fighting partisans in the Karst Plateau on the frontiers of Yugoslavia, Italy, and Austria; the mountainous terrain required specialised mountain troops and equipment.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975658}
{"src_title": "Martin PBM Mariner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1937 the Glenn L. Martin Company designed a new twin-engined flying boat, the Model 162, to succeed its earlier Martin P3M and complement the PBY Catalina and PB2Y Coronado. It received an order for a single prototype XPBM-1 on 30 June 1937. This was followed by an initial production order for 21 PBM-1 aircraft on 28 December 1937.  To test the PBM's layout, Martin built a 3⁄8 scale flying model, the Martin 162A \"Tadpole Clipper\" with a crew of one and powered by a single Chevrolet engine; this was flown in December 1937. The first genuine PBM, the XPBM-1, flew on 18 February 1939.  The aircraft had multiple gun positions including single mounts at each midship beam and stern above the tail cone. Additional guns were positioned in the nose and dorsal turrets, each fitted with two-gun turrets. The bomb bays were in the engine nacelles. The gull wing was of cantilever design, and featured clean aerodynamics with an unbraced twin tail. The PBM-1 was equipped with retractable wing landing floats that were hinged outboard, with single-strut supported floats that retracted inwards to rest beneath the wing, with the floats' keels just outboard of each of the engine nacelles. The PBM-3 had fixed floats, and the fuselage was three feet longer than that of the PBM-1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first PBM-1s entered service with Patrol Squadron Fifty-Five (VP-55) of the United States Navy on 1 September 1940. Prior to the USA's entry into World War II, PBMs were used (together with PBYs) to carry out Neutrality Patrols in the Atlantic, including operations from Iceland. Following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, PBMs were used on anti-submarine patrols, sinking their first German U-boat, \"U-158\", on 30 June 1942. PBMs were responsible, wholly or in part, for sinking a total of ten U-boats during World War II. PBMs were also heavily used in the Pacific War, operating from bases at Saipan, Okinawa, Iwo Jima, and the South West Pacific.  The United States Coast Guard acquired 27 Martin PBM-3 aircraft during the first half of 1943. In late 1944, the service acquired 41 PBM-5 models and more were delivered in the latter half of 1945. Ten were still in service in 1955, although all were gone from the active Coast Guard inventory by 1958 (when the last example was released from CGAS San Diego and returned to the U.S. Navy). These flying boats became the backbone of the long-range aerial search and rescue efforts of the Coast Guard in the early post-war years until supplanted by the P5M Marlin and the HU-16 Albatross in the mid-1950s.  PBMs continued in service with the U.S. Navy following the end of World War II, flying long patrol missions during the Korean War. It continued in front line use until replaced by its successor, the P5M Marlin, with the last USN squadron equipped with the PBM, Patrol Squadron Fifty (VP-50), retiring them in July 1956.  The British Royal Air Force acquired 32 Mariners, but they were not used operationally, with some returned to the United States Navy. A further 12 PBM-3Rs were transferred to the Royal Australian Air Force for transporting troops and cargo.  The Royal Netherlands Navy acquired 17 PBM-5A Mariners at the end of 1955 for service in Netherlands New Guinea. The PBM-5A was an amphibian with retractable landing gear. The engines were Pratt & Whitney R-2800-34. After a series of crashes, the Dutch withdrew their remaining aircraft from use in December 1959.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Martin PBM Mariner was an American patrol bomber flying boat of World War II and the early Cold War era. It was designed to complement the Consolidated PBY Catalina and PB2Y Coronado in service. A total of 1,366 were built, with the first example flying on 18 February 1939 and the type entering service in September 1940.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975659}
{"src_title": "Sa'ar 5-class corvette", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Combat history.", "content": "During the 2006 Lebanon War, INS \"Hanit\" was attacked by a Hezbollah missile as it was enforcing a naval blockade off Beirut. The resulting explosion caused the landing pad to cave in and be engulfed in flames that threatened the aviation fuel storage below, and the flames were not fully extinguished until several hours later. Four sailors were killed and the ship suffered some damage, but she stayed afloat, got out of the line of fire, and returned unassisted to Ashdod for repairs. The ship was repaired and resumed its combat role three weeks later.  An investigation into the attack by the Israeli Navy concluded that the missile was an Iranian version of the Chinese C-802, which hit a crane in the rear of the ship. The ship's radar system was not fully functional at the time, and both the ECM and the Barak anti-missile systems were in a two-minute stand-by mode. An officer ordered that the anti-missile defenses be switched off about an hour prior to the attack without notifying the captain. The decision took into account intelligence assessments that Hezbollah did not have the capability to hit Israeli warships. The partial sensor shutdowns were known by the officer responsible, but the captain was not informed.  In August 2009 INS \"Eilat\" and INS \"Hanit\" passed through the Suez Canal into the Red Sea, along with a. The move was seen as a possible warning to Iran.  On 31 May 2010 INS \"Lahav\" and INS \"Hanit\" participated in the Gaza flotilla raid, meant to stop a convoy of ships from breaching the blockade of the Gaza Strip, along with the missile boat INS \"Nitzachon\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ships.", "content": "Three ships of the Sa'ar 5 class have been built: The ship's missiles systems is a set of: (i) anti-air capability with 2x32-cell vertical launch systems, with Barak-1 and/or Barak-8 missiles of IAI and Rafael, and (ii) two four-cell Boeing Harpoon missile launchers.  Ship's guns are a Raytheon / General Dynamics MK15 Phalanx 20mm close-in weapon system (CIWS). An Oto Melara 76mm gun was projected but until now not provided.  Sensors are composed of an Advanced Lightweight Phased Array (ALPHA) ELM-2258, AESA S-band radar, with automatic track initiation at +120 km (for fighters) and +25 km (for missiles), and a 796 hull-mounted search-and-attack sonar. Electronic warfare includes an AN/SLQ-25 Nixie towed torpedo decoy system, a radar warning receiver Elisra NS-9003/9005, and three Elbit Deseaver chaff decoys.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sa'ar 5 () is a class of Israeli Navy small corvettes. They were Israeli designed using lessons learned from the s. Three Sa'ar 5 ships were built by Huntington Ingalls Industries (formerly Litton-Ingalls Shipbuilding Corporation of Pascagoula, Mississippi) for the Israeli Navy, based on Israeli designs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975660}
{"src_title": "Theobald II of Navarre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Theobald was the eldest son of Theobald I of Navarre and his third wife, Margaret of Bourbon. He succeeded to his father's titles on his death at only fourteen years of age. His mother acted as regent with James I of Aragon until 1256, when Theobald came of age. On 27 November, he affirmed the Fueros of Navarre, which limited his power by putting him under the counsel of a tutor from among the aristocracy. He could not make judgements without a council of twelve (a jury) of noblemen. Theobald was not content, however, to be so restricted in royal prerogative before his twenty-first birthday. He received the rites of unction and coronation from Pope Alexander IV in 1257 and 1259 respectively and tried to justify his divine right to rule, a concept foreign until that point in Navarrese politics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Domestic policy.", "content": "In order to counter the tendency to decentralisation, diminish the power of the nobility, and evade the control of the fueros on him, Theobald turned to the bourgeoisie. He exacted extraordinary taxes and imposts from them, but they supported him nevertheless because he granted them rights, prestige, and political clout. He extended the \"fueros\" of Pamplona to Lantz and Estella to Tiebas—nowadays in ruins and depopulated—and Torralba Del Río. He founded Espinal (Aurizberri, near Roncesvalles) in 1269.  Theobald continued the power struggle with the bishop of Pamplona started during his father's reign. The former stood by his native Basque parishioners of the Navarreria borough, while Theobald championed the Saint Nicolas borough of Pamplona, made up of Occitans hailing from southern France. Eventually he tried to put an end to the fights between boroughs in 1266, pushing an agreement among the councils of the three Pamplonese boroughs—not that it avoided ultimately the destructive war of the Navarreria in 1276. In other affairs, Theobald continued the policies of his father. He improved the royal administration, of incomes and expenditures, and administered the first census. The count of 1266 indicated a population of 150,000 inhabitants in Navarre. Approximately 6.75% of royal revenues were spent on a bureaucracy, 33.84% on the military, and 59.6% to the maintenance of the monarch and his household and duties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "French alliance.", "content": "Theobald found support in Louis IX of France, who supported his fellow kings against their vassals with consistency. Theobald married Isabella, Louis's daughter, on 6 April 1255. Theobald acted as an advisor of Louis and Louis as an arbiter in Navarre's internal problems. When Alfonso X of Castile's daughter Berengaria was betrothed to Louis IX of France's son Louis, Castile ceded the use of the ports of Fuenterrabía and San Sebastián to Navarre on 1 January 1256.  In July 1270, Theobald embarked with his father-in-law on the Eighth Crusade to Tunis. Louis died of dysentery at the siege. Theobald died childless at Trapani in Sicily while returning that same year. He was succeeded by his younger brother, Henry I. His widow Isabella returned home to France, where she died a few months later.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Theobald II (6/7 December 1239 – 4/5 December 1270) was King of Navarre and also, as Theobald V, Count of Champagne and Brie, from 1253 until his death. He was the son and successor of Theobald I and the second Navarrese monarch of the House of Blois. After he died childless, the throne of Navarre passed to his younger brother, Henry I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975661}
{"src_title": "TOS-1", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The idea of a heavy short-range MLRS to launch rockets equipped with incendiary and thermobaric warheads arose in the late 1970s. The combat system consisting of the combat vehicle, rockets, and loading vehicle was developed in early 1980s at KBTM in Omsk and was named TOS-1, remaining a secret development for a long time.  The TOS-1 is intended to engage military personnel, equipment, and buildings, including fortified constructions. The combat vehicle acts within the combat order of infantry and tanks. The large mass of the launcher and the need for a high-level of protection (due to the relatively short range of ) helped determine the use of the chassis of the T-72 main battle tank. The TZM reloading vehicle was built on the chassis of a KrAZ-255B cross-country truck and equipped with a crane for loading/unloading of the launcher.  In 2003, the improved TOS-1A system entered service. The improved system's range has been extended to 6 kilometers and its ballistic computer has been upgraded.  The nickname \"Buratino\" originates with the name of the hero of a Russian retelling of the Pinocchio tale (by Alexey Tolstoy), given the perception of the big \"nose\" of the launcher.  In March 2020, Russia introduced a new rocket for the TOS-1A with a range of 10 km, achieved in part by weight and size reductions of a new fuel air explosive mixture in the warhead, while also increasing the power of the warhead. However, minimum range is extended from 400 m to 1.6 km, so the shorter-range M0.1.01.04M rocket will be retained for close combat environments.  In 2018, Russian NBC Protection Troops received 30 TOS-1A Solntsepyok (Sunburn) 220 mm multiple rocket launchers.  Saudi Arabian Military Industries signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Rosoboronexport for the local production of the TOS-1A.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Combat history.", "content": "TOS-1s were first used in combat in Afghanistan's Panjshir valley by the Soviet Union during the Soviet–Afghan War. Later, they were used during the Second Chechen War, prominently by the Russian Army during the Battle of Grozny in 1999.  TOS-1As were first used in combat in Iraq by the Iraqi Army in the recapture of Jurf Al Sakhar on October 24, 2014 from ISIL forces. The Iraqi Army launched at least three TOS-1 rockets on 18 June 2017 during the first day of an offensive to recapture the Old City of Mosul, Iraq, from the Islamic State, targeting school buildings held by Islamic State forces and known to be devoid of civilians.  The OSCE reported in September 2015 that the TOS-1 was sighted in a rebel training area in eastern Ukraine.  The TOS-1 was used in Syria on October 10, 2015 by Syrian Army forces against rebel forces in Hama. In 2016 it was used against rebel forces in the Latakia mountains. It was used again by the Syrian Army in April 2017 in the area of Palmyra, and later in the same month to destroy an ISIS camp. In November 2018, the system was deployed by the SAA against ISIS in Al-Safa region.  Azerbaijan used the TOS-1A against the Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army on April 4, 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "System description.", "content": "The TOS-1A Solntsepyok ( (Blazing Sun)) system consists of the following items:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "TOS-1 (, Heavy Flamethrower System) is a Soviet 220mm 30-barrel (original system, Ob.634 or TOS-1M) or 24-barrel (Ob.634B or TOS-1A) multiple rocket launcher and thermobaric weapon mounted on a T-72 tank chassis. TOS-1 was designed for defeating enemy personnel in fortifications, in open country, and in lightly armoured vehicles and transport. First combat tests took place in 1988–1989 in the Panjshir Valley during the Soviet–Afghan War. The TOS-1 was shown for the first time in public in 1999 in Omsk.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975662}
{"src_title": "Richard of Saint Victor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Very little is known about the origins and upbringing of Richard of Saint Victor. John of Toulouse wrote a short \"Vita\" of Richard in the seventeenth century. He said that Richard came from Scotland. John added that Richard was received into the Abbey of St Victor by Abbot Gilduin (1114–1155) and was a student under Hugh of St Victor, the most influential of all Victorine teachers (implying that Richard entered the community before Hugh's death in 1141). This account of Richard's early life is not accepted by all modern scholars, however, and some have suggested that Richard entered the abbey after Hugh's death in 1141.  All scholarship agrees, however, that Richard was a magister during the 1150s, and was then promoted to subprior in 1159 (as stated by a document found at the abbey). He served under Achard of St. Victor's elected successor Ernisius, who was unworthy of the position. Richard's life was then burdened by the frustrations of working under a man who was ill-suited for his responsibilities. Ernisius wasted the abbey's resources on overly ambitious building projects and persecuted those who attempted to resist him. Richard was allowed to keep his office but his influence was restricted. Things became so unbearable that an appeal was made to the Pope, who then visited Saint Victor in 1162. Through a multitude of transactions, Ernisius was eventually removed from his position and the Pope commended Richard for his continued involvement in the matter. Letters from England written to Richard show that he was in constant touch with English affairs and give evidence of the international character of intellectual life at this time.  He was then promoted to prior in 1162, a position he held until his death on 10 March 1173.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "Richard wrote extensively (Migne's \"Patrologia Latina\" contains 34 works attributed to him, and this is not Richard's full corpus). There are some problems with establishing the chronology of Richard's works. The earliest ones come before 1153, and the latest were written one or two years before his death. His earlier works are similar to the general teaching and writing of the period. His writing develops from basic exegesis, theology and philosophy to more of a study of purely spiritual questions. In his early writings he relies on the moral interpretations of previous theologians such as Augustine of Hippo, Bede, Pope Gregory I and Hugh. He later became more independent and strayed from Hugh's influence. There is some debate between historians about which of Richard's texts are the most influential and important. Because Richard's work covers many spheres of thought it is somewhat difficult to categorise his work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Book of the Twelve Patriarchs\", or \"Benjamin Minor\".", "content": "\"The Book of the Twelve Patriarchs\", sometimes titled \"Benjamin Minor\", is one of Richard of Saint Victor's great works on contemplation. It is not exactly known when it was written, but it would seem to date before 1162. Richard specifies that this work is not a treatise on contemplation but rather prepares the mind for contemplation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Mystical Ark\", or \"Benjamin Major\".", "content": "\"The Mystical Ark\", sometimes called \"Benjamin Major\" or \"The Grace of Contemplation\" completes this with the study of the mind in relation to prayer. However, in the last chapters of \"Benjamin Major\", written later than the Minor, Richard almost abandons his topic and the discussion of the teaching of mystical theology takes up a good portion of every remaining chapter. He is still attempting to instruct his followers on a text but he has also engaged himself in creating a system of mystical theology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"De Trinitate\".", "content": "One of Richard's greatest works was the \"De Trinitate\" which was probably written while Richard was prior, between 1162 and 1173. This is known because it incorporates pieces of theological text which editors are now finding in earlier works. \"De Trinitate\" is Richard's most independent and original study on dogmatic theology. It stems from the desire to show that dogmatic truths of Christian revelation are ultimately not against reason. Richard's theological approach stems from a profoundly mystical life of prayer, which in the Spirit seeks to involve the mind, in continuation with the Augustinian and Anselmian tradition.  Owing to the fact that until recently this masterpiece has not been available in any English translation, its diffusion has been limited and its influence has seldom gone beyond 'Book III', condemning serious enquiry to an understanding of Richard's argument that is only partial. Finally, in 2011, through the efforts of Ruben Angelici's scholarship, the first, full translation of Richard's 'De Trinitate' has been released for publication in English and now this scholastic masterpiece is readily available to a wider audience to be appreciated in its entirety.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other Treatises and Works.", "content": "Richard wrote a massive handbook of biblical education entitled \"Liber Exceptionum\" (\"Book of Selections/Book of Notes\"), important scriptural commentaries, and many treatises.  \"The Four Degrees of Violent Charity\", composed about 1170, with its description of how vehement love leads to union with God and more perfect service of neighbour, has been of interest to writers interested in Christian mysticism.  Richard's other treatises are a number of short works which mainly deal with textual difficulties and theological issues. Many of them can be grouped together with larger works. Some of them are correspondence between Richard and his students while others seem to have been written at the request of friends. Although short, they are often interesting because they allow the modern reader to see the mentality of the students and the discussions and issues of the time.  Richard of Saint Victor's \"Commentary on Ezekiel\" is of special interest in the field of art history because the explanations laid out by the author are accompanied by illustrations. A number of copies have come down to us, none of which are dated, but they are written in a style attributable to the second half of the twelfth century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historiographical contributions.", "content": "What makes Richard of Saint-Victor stand out from other theologians of his time is that he approaches theological problems as more of a psychologist, contributing to 'a careful analysis of contemplative experiences.'", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard of Saint Victor (died 1173) was a Medieval Scottish philosopher and theologian and one of the most influential religious thinkers of his time. A canon regular, he was a prominent mystical theologian, and was prior of the famous Augustinian Abbey of Saint Victor in Paris from 1162 until his death in 1173.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975663}
{"src_title": "32nd G8 summit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The Group of Seven (G7) was an unofficial forum which brought together the heads of the richest industrialized countries: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada starting in 1976. The G8, meeting for the first time in 1997, was formed with the addition of Russia. In addition, the President of the European Commission has been formally included in summits since 1981. The summits were not meant to be linked formally with wider international institutions; and in fact, a mild rebellion against the stiff formality of other international meetings was a part of the genesis of cooperation between France's President Giscard d'Estaing and West Germany's Chancellor Helmut Schmidt as they conceived the initial summit of the Group of Six (G6) in 1975.  The G8 summits during the 21st century have inspired widespread debates, protests and demonstrations; and the two- or three-day event becomes more than the sum of its parts, elevating the participants, the issues and the venue as focal points for activist pressure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition of summit leaders.", "content": "The G8 is an unofficial annual forum for the leaders of Canada, the European Commission, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States.  The 32nd G8 summit was the first summit for Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper and German Chancellor Angela Merkel. It was also the last summit for French President Jacques Chirac and Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Participants.", "content": "These summit participants are the current \"core members\" of the international forum:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Priorities.", "content": "Traditionally, the host country of the G8 summit sets the agenda for negotiations, which take place primarily amongst multi-national civil servants in the weeks before the summit itself, leading to a joint declaration which all countries can agree to sign. Energy security, education, and the fight against infectious diseases were the main issues, with the conflict between Israel and Lebanon also attracting the attention of world leaders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issues.", "content": "The summit was intended as a venue for resolving differences among its members. As a practical matter, the summit was also conceived as an opportunity for its members to give each other mutual encouragement in the face of difficult economic decisions. This summit was primarily an economic forum for the global economic powerhouses; and the focus of this G8 Summit was discussion of economic issues. Some of the pressing items on the agenda:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Israel–Lebanon crisis.", "content": "The agenda set up by Russian President Vladimir Putin was largely overshadowed by the continuing violence in Israel and Lebanon. On 16 July, the leaders of the G8 nations agreed on a statement calling for an end to the fighting and the release of the Israeli soldiers. The leaders did not, however, go as far as calling for a ceasefire.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Citizens' responses and authorities' counter-responses.", "content": "During the week leading up to the summit (7–11 July), police in Moscow, St Petersburg and elsewhere around Russia detained somewhere between a few dozen to possibly two hundred human rights and political activists. Many of them were sentenced to ten days' imprisonment, preventing them from participating in protests surrounding the official summit. The Russian Deputy Internal Minister Alexander Chekalin said that the allegations of harassment were \"from the realms of supposition\" and that the police's actions were \"commensurate with the situation at hand\".  Cherie Blair, wife of the British Prime Minister and a human rights lawyer, slipped out of the summit in order to meet with local human rights groups and offer them free legal advice. Her leaving the summit was officially endorsed by Downing Street, and has reportedly furthered a rift between Britain and Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accomplishments.", "content": "The G8 summit is an international event which is observed and reported by news media, but the G8's continuing relevance after more than 30 years is somewhat unclear. More than one analyst suggests that a G-8 summit is not the place to flesh out the details of any difficult or controversial policy issue in the context of a three-day event. Rather, the meeting offers an opportunity to bring a range of complex and sometimes inter-related issues. The G8 summit brings leaders together \"not so they can dream up quick fixes, but to talk and think about them together.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infrastructure Consortium for Africa.", "content": "The Infrastructure Consortium for Africa (ICA) was established at the 31st G8 summit at Gleneagles, Scotland in the United Kingdom in 2005. Since that time, the ICA’s annual meeting is traditionally hosted by the country holding the Presidency of the G8—in Germany in 2006.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recorded conversations.", "content": "During the summit, a conversation between President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Tony Blair was inadvertently recorded by a U.S. TV crew preparing for a live broadcast.  The UK's \"Independent\" newspaper put a transcript of the conversation on its front page on 18 July, alongside some notes explaining the context of some of the comments; and the news story was widely disseminated by the international media. The paper singled out Bush's apparent snub of an offer by Blair to mediate in the 2006 Israel–Lebanon conflict, in favour of sending Condoleezza Rice. While Britons were upset with the perception that Blair was subordinate to Bush, in the US the fact that Bush used an expletive (claiming the 2006 Israel–Lebanon conflict would not have escalated if Syria would have pressured the Hezbollah to \"stop doing this shit\") was of greater concern.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business opportunity.", "content": "For some, the G8 summit became a profit-generating event; as for example, the official \"G8 Summit\" magazines which have been published under the auspices of the host nations for distribution to all attendees since 1998.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversial Massage.", "content": "During one meeting at the summit on July 17, with all of the heads of state seated at a roundtable, President George W. Bush walked around the table to the position behind German Chancellor Angela Merkel's chair, reached out his hands to Merkel's shoulders and started to give her a massage. Merkel quickly raised her hands in protest and Bush immediately withdrew his hands and resumed walking around the table. A video of the massage became a hit on YouTube, where many commentators likened it to sexual harassment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Press and media  Activism", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 32nd G8 summit was held on 15–17 July 2006 in Saint Petersburg, Russia. The venue was the Constantine Palace, which is located in Strelna on the Gulf of Finland. This was the first time Russia served as host nation for a G8 summit; and the nation's status as a full member of the G8 was confirmed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975664}
{"src_title": "ZiL", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The factory was founded on 2 August 1916 as the Moscow Automotive Society or AMO (). The factory was completed in 1917, just before the Revolution, and was built south of Moscow near Moscow River in Tjufeleva grove. It was a modern building with the latest in American equipment and was designed to employ 6,000 workers. The plans were to produce Fiat F-15 1.5-ton trucks under license. Because of the October Revolution and the subsequent Russian Civil War it took until 1 November 1924 to produce the first vehicle which was shown at a parade in 7 November, the AMO-F15. Nevertheless the factory still managed to assemble trucks bought from Italy in 1917-1919. In April 30 1923 the factory was named after an Italian coummunist Pietro Ferrero, but in 1925 was renamed to First National Automobile Factory (Russian: 1-й Государственный автомобильный завод). 2 years later in 1927 Ivan Likhachov was appointed as a head of the factory, a person whose name the factory bears from 1956. In April 1929, it was agreed on to expand the plant to build Autocar 2.5-ton truck models.  In 1931 the factory was re-equipped and expanded with the help of the American A.J. Brandt Co., and changed its name to Automotive Factory No. 2 Zavod Imeni Stalina (ZIS or ZiS). After Nikita Khrushchev denounced the cult of personality of Joseph Stalin in 1956, the name was changed again to Zavod imeni Likhachyova, after its former director Ivan Alekseevich Likhachov.  ZiL lanes—road lanes dedicated to vehicles carrying top Soviet officials—were named after the car. The ZiL limousines were the official car that carried the Soviet heads of state, and many Soviet Union allied leaders, to summits or in parades. The limousines were flown to international summits as for example in 1990 to Washington DC for President Mikhail Gorbachev's official state visit.  Zil has a history of exporting trucks to Cuba, a trade resumed in the early 21st century. The ZiL factory is portrayed in a 2014 documentary, \"The Last Limousine\".  After the final ZIL limousine was built in 2012, the Moscow factory administration stopped truck production and the company was declared bankrupt in 2013. ZiL still exists as a legal entity, but produces no vehicles. In 2014 it was announced that the factory site will be turned into a residential development. Most factory buildings were dismantled in 2015.  The factory's equipment and other automotive assets were auctioned off to a new company, \"MSTs6 AMO ZIL\". It employs 47 staff, mostly former ZiL workers. The company took part in the Moscow International Automobile Salon 2016.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "OJSC AMO ZiL, known fully as the Public Joint-Stock Company – Likhachov Plant () and more commonly called ZiL (, was a major Russian automobile, truck, military vehicle, and heavy equipment manufacturer that was based in Moscow, Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975665}
{"src_title": "Darwin's fox", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and evolution.", "content": "\"Pseudalopex\" is a South American genus of canine distantly related to wolves and is technically not a fox. When Charles Darwin collected a specimen from San Pedro Island in Chiloé Archipelago in December 1834 during the \"Beagle\" survey expedition, he observed that this \"fox (of Chiloe, a rare animal) sat on the point & was so absorbed in watching [survey work], that he allowed me to walk behind him & actually kill him with my geological hammer\". In the 1839 publication of his \"Journal and Remarks\", Darwin said \"This fox, more curious or more scientific, but less wise, than the generality of his brethren, is now mounted in the museum of the Zoological Society.\" He said it was \"an undescribed species\", indicating that it was distinct from the species (\"L. culpaeus\" and \"L. griseus\") that occur on the mainland. Later, Darwin's fox was classified as a subspecies (\"Lycalopex griseus fulvipes\") of the latter.  Darwin's fox does not interbreed with the other \"Lycalopex\" species, only lives in forests, and is smaller and darker-colored than the other species. In 1990 a small population of Darwin's fox was found on the mainland in the forested Nahuelbuta National Park, indicating that the fox was not endemic to the island. According to Yahnke et al., in their 1996 article published in the Journal of the Society for Conservation Biology, analysis of mitochondrial DNA of Darwin's fox and the gray fox showed two patterns, indicating Darwin's fox was a new species, closely related to the Sechuran fox. Also according to Yahnke (1995; et al.1996) the present restricted range is a relic of a much wider former range. Zoologists noted the distinctiveness in the ecological niche, appearance, and behavior of this species. Darwin's fox is differentiated from the gray fox in being darker; having shorter legs; a broader, shorter skull; smaller auditory bullae; a more robust dentition; and a different jaw shape and style of premolar occlusion.  In the late Pleistocene, Chiloé Island was connected to mainland Chile by a land bridge. The land bridge was severed about 15,000 years ago when the sea level rose following the last glaciation. This created two isolated populations of Darwin's fox.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Darwin's fox has a vast diet. In dense forests, where it exists, the foxes hunt for mammals, reptiles, beetles, and invertebrates. Sometimes it selects fruits and berries. Birds and amphibians to a lesser degree are also consumed. It sometimes eats carrion, but it mostly eats live animals and fruit. This makes it mostly an omnivore, sometimes a scavenger.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Darwin's fox is generally believed to be a forest obligate species found only in southern temperate rainforests. They only occur in areas of primary forest on Chiloé and on the mainland. They are most active at twilight and before sunrise. In contrast to other \"Lycalopex\" species, Darwin's fox prefers open spaces. The population of Chiloé has about 200 individuals, and Nahuelbuta on the mainland contains about 50 individuals. The total population size is about 250 mature individuals with at least 90% of the population occurring in one subspopulation (Chiloé Island). Although the species is protected in Nahuelbuta National Park, substantial mortality sources exist when foxes move to lower, unprotected private areas in search of milder conditions during the winter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "The species was previously cIassified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN, but in 2016 was downlisted to Endangered, as its area occurrences is apparently substantially larger than originally believed. Current estimates of the total population are still low, with an estimated minimum 227 individuals on the mainland and 412 on Chiloé Island. Fragmentation of forest adjacent to the national park and on the island is a concern for their conservation, and feral dogs may pose the greatest threat to their survival by spreading disease or directly attacking. Persecution by people who think that the foxes attack domestic fowls, though they pose little threat, is also a potential problem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "]", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Darwin's fox or Darwin's zorro (\"Lycalopex fulvipes\") is an endangered canid from the genus \"Lycalopex\". It is also known as the zorro chilote or zorro de Darwin in Spanish and lives on Nahuelbuta National Park (Araucanía Region), the Valdivian Coastal Range (Los Ríos Region) in mainland Chile and Chiloé Island. This small, dark canine weighs, has a head-and-body length of and a tail that is.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975666}
{"src_title": "Atrium (architecture)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ancient atria.", "content": "In a \"domus\", a large house in ancient Roman architecture, the \"atrium\" was the open central court with enclosed rooms on all sides. In the middle of the atrium was the \"impluvium\", a shallow pool sunken into the floor to catch rainwater from the roof. Some surviving examples are beautifully decorated. The opening in the ceiling above the pool (\"compluvium\") called for some means of support for the roof, and it is here where one differentiates between five different styles of atrium. As the centrepiece of the house, the atrium was the most lavishly-furnished room. Wealthier houses often included a marble \"cartibulum\", an oblong marble table supported by \"trapezophoros\" pedestals depicting mythological creatures like winged griffins. Also, it contained the little chapel to the ancestral spirits (\"lararium\"), the household safe (\"arca\") and sometimes a bust of the master of the house.  The term was also used for a variety of spaces in public and religious buildings, mostly forms of arcaded courtyards, larger versions of the domestic spaces. Byzantine churches were often entered through such a space (as are many mosques, though the term atrium is not usually used to describe Islamic architecture).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "19th century: Glazed atrium.", "content": "The 19th century brought the industrial revolution with great advances in iron and glass manufacturing techniques. Courtyards could then have horizontal glazing overhead, eliminating some of the weather elements from the space and giving birth to the modern atrium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern-day atria.", "content": "Fire control is an important aspect of contemporary atrium design due to criticism that poorly designed atria could allow fire to spread to a building's upper stories more quickly. Another downside to incorporating an atrium is that it typically creates unused vertical space which could otherwise be occupied by additional floors.  One of the main public spaces at Federation Square, in Melbourne, Australia, is called The Atrium and is a street-like space, five stories high with glazed walls and roof. The structure and glazing pattern follow the system of fractals used to arrange the panels on the rest of the facades at Federation Square.  In Nashville, Tennessee, U.S., the Opryland Hotel hosts 4 different large atria, spanning of glass ceiling in total, in the hotel above the gardens of: Delta, Cascades, Garden-Conservatories, and Magnolia.  As of 2016, the Burj Al Arab hotel in Dubai, has the world's tallest atrium at. The Luxor Hotel, in Las Vegas, Nevada, has the largest atrium in the world (by volume) at.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In architecture, an atrium (plural: atria or atriums) is a large open air or skylight covered space surrounded by a building. Atria were a common feature in Ancient Roman dwellings, providing light and ventilation to the interior. Modern atria, as developed in the late 19th and 20th centuries, are often several stories high and having a glazed roof or large windows, and often located immediately beyond the main entrance doors (in the lobby).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975667}
{"src_title": "Tommy Salo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Salo began his career playing three seasons in the Elitserien with Västerås IK. He was chosen 118th overall, in the fifth round, by the New York Islanders in 1993. He debuted with the Islanders in 1994–95, but would play the majority of his first two seasons in North America with New York's International Hockey League (IHL) affiliate, the Utah Grizzlies. Playing in the IHL, Salo won back-to-back Turner Cups with the Grizzlies as league champions and earned the N.R. \"Bud\" Poile Trophy as playoff MVP in 1996. In his first year, he was named both league MVP and rookie of the year in 1995, in addition to First Team All-Star honours and a James Norris Memorial Trophy for allowing the fewest goals against.  In 1996–97, Salo emerged as the Islanders' starting goaltender and played in that capacity for the club until March 20, 1999, when he was traded to the Edmonton Oilers in exchange for Mats Lindgren and an eighth-round pick in the 1999 NHL Entry Draft (used to select Radek Martínek). Salo found his stride in Edmonton and was chosen to two All-Star Games in 2000 and 2002. In 2001–02, Salo recorded a career-best 2.22 goals against average (GAA).  On March 9, 2004, after six seasons with Edmonton, Salo was traded to the Colorado Avalanche (along with a sixth-round pick in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft) in exchange for Tom Gilbert. As NHL play was suspended the following season due to the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Salo returned to Sweden in signing a one-year contract with Modo Hockey of the Elitserien.  After Modo was eliminated in the playoffs by Färjestad BK, Salo announced his retirement from professional hockey on March 17, 2005, citing chronic hip pain. However, on August 4, he returned to the Elitserien to sign with Frölunda HC. This led to a conflict with Modo since they had agreed to terminate his contract on account of his retirement. In light of this, the club appealed for Frölunda to pay Salo's salary. On August 11, the issue was settled after Modo withdrew their claim. By signing with Frölunda, Salo replaced the departing Henrik Lundqvist, who incidentally, had taken over Salo's starting position on the Swedish national team.  On December 9, 2006, in an interview with Swedish newspaper \"Expressen\", Salo announced that he would retire from playing professional hockey after the 2006–07 season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Salo first competed for Sweden in the 1991 World Junior Championships. He played in six games and posted a 3.32 GAA.  Several years later, he played an integral role in Sweden's gold medal victory at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway. Salo made critical saves in the gold medal game, as they defeated Canada in a shootout to secure Sweden's first Olympic gold medal in ice hockey.  In 1998, Salo once again competed in the Winter Olympics, as NHL players were allowed to compete for the first time. He played in four games as Sweden failed to medal.  At the 2002 Winter Olympics, Salo started for Sweden once more and were favourites to win the gold medal, placing first in the round robin. However, in the quarter-final game against Belarus, with the game tied late in the third period, Salo surrendered a 20-metre goal from defenceman Vladimir Kopat. The long slap shot puck bounced off Salo's mask after he had hopped, went up in the air, and bounced off of his back and into the net. Sweden would not recover and Salo was made the scapegoat in one of the biggest upsets in international hockey history. Sweden captain Mats Sundin berated fans and media for singling-out Salo, saying that \"the entire team played subpar, a single fluke goal shouldn't cost us the game\". Some would claim that Salo was never the same after the incident.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching and executive career.", "content": "Shortly after completing his playing career, on March 5, 2007, Kungälvs IK of the Swedish tier III league announced that Salo would be their head coach for the next two seasons. Following his tenure with the club, he signed with IK Oskarshamn on March 12, 2009.  On December 1, 2010, Salo left his post at IK Oskarshamn to become general manager of Leksands IF.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "International IHL NHL Elitserien", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tommy Mikael Salo (born February 1, 1971) is a Swedish former professional ice hockey goaltender and the current general manager of Leksands IF of the Swedish Hockey League (SHL). He previously played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the New York Islanders, Edmonton Oilers and Colorado Avalanche, and previously served as head coach of IK Oskarshamn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975668}
{"src_title": "Greater Israel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Promised Land.", "content": "Greater Israel occasionally refers to the Promised Land (defined in ) or to the Land of Israel, also called Complete Land of Israel or Entire Land of Israel (, \"Eretz Yisrael Hashlemah\"). This is a more accurate translation than \"Greater Israel\", which is used in English but has no real counterpart in Hebrew.  The Bible contains three geographical definitions of the Land of Israel. The first, found in, seems to define the land that was given to all of the children of Abraham, including Ishmael, Zimran, Jokshan, Midian, etc. It describes a large territory, \"from the brook of Egypt to the Euphrates\", comprising all of modern-day Israel, the Palestinian Territories, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq, as well as Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, U.A.E, Oman, Yemen, most of Turkey, and land east of the Nile river.  The other definitions are found in,,, and. They describe smaller territories (see the map included in this article). The definition in Numbers and Ezekiel refers to the land that was divided between the original twelve tribes of Israel after they were delivered from Egypt, and finally, the borders defined in the book of Deuteronomy are those that will be given to the children of Israel slowly throughout the years (see & ).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "During British Mandate of Palestine.", "content": "Early Revisionist Zionist groups such as Betar and Irgun Zvai-Leumi regarded as Greater Israel the territory of the Mandate of Palestine including Transjordan.  In 1937, the Peel Commission recommended partition of Mandatory Palestine. In a letter to his son later that year, David Ben-Gurion stated that partition would be acceptable but as a first step. Ben-Gurion wrote that \"This is because this increase in possession is of consequence not only in itself, but because through it we increase our strength, and every increase in strength helps in the possession of the land as a whole. The establishment of a state, even if only on a portion of the land, is the maximal reinforcement of our strength at the present time and a powerful boost to our historical endeavors to liberate the entire country.\" The same sentiment was recorded by Ben-Gurion on other occasions, such as at a meeting of the Jewish Agency executive in June 1938, as well as by Chaim Weizmann. Ben Gurion said: \"We shall smash these frontiers which are being forced upon us, and not necessarily by war. I believe an agreement between us and the Arab State could be reached in a not too distant future.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "During early period of the State of Israel.", "content": "Joel Greenberg writing in \"The New York Times\" notes: \"At Israel's founding in 1948, the Labor Zionist leadership, which went on to govern Israel in its first three decades of independence, accepted a pragmatic partition of what had been British Palestine into independent Jewish and Arab states. The opposition Revisionist Zionists, who evolved into today's Likud party, sought \"Eretz Yisrael Ha-Shlema\"—Greater Israel, or literally, the Whole Land of Israel (shalem, meaning complete).\" The capture of the West Bank and Gaza Strip from Jordan and Egypt during the Six-Day War in 1967 led to the growth of the non-parliamentary Movement for Greater Israel and the construction of Israeli settlements. The 1977 elections, which brought Likud to power also had considerable impact on acceptance and rejection of the term. Greenberg notes: THE seed was sown in 1977, when Menachem Begin of Likud brought his party to power for the first time in a stunning election victory over Labor. A decade before, in the 1967 war, Israeli troops had in effect undone the partition accepted in 1948 by overrunning the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Ever since, Mr. Begin had preached undying loyalty to what he called Judea and Samaria (the West Bank) and promoted Jewish settlement there. But he did not annex the West Bank and Gaza to Israel after he took office, reflecting a recognition that absorbing the Palestinians could turn Israel into a bi-national state instead of a Jewish one.  Yitzhak Shamir was a dedicated proponent of Greater Israel and as Israeli Prime Minister gave the settler movement funding and Israeli governmental legitimisation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "In a May 1998 interview with ABC's John Miller, Osama bin Laden noted what he saw as \"Zionist plans for expansion of what is called the Great Israel... to achieve full control over the Arab Peninsula which they intend to make an important part of the so called Greater Israel.\" While not his main reason, Bin Laden included what he saw as American and Western support for such a scheme as an additional motivation for his call to wage war against America and its allies.  Annexation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip was part of the platform of the Israeli Likud party, and of some other Israeli political parties. On September 14, 2008 Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert remarked that \"Greater Israel is over. There is no such thing. Anyone who talks that way is deluding themselves\".  Meir Kahane, an ultra-nationalist Knesset member, who founded the American Jewish Defense League and the banned Israeli Kach party, worked towards Greater Israel and other Religious Zionist goals.  Currently in Israel, in the debate relating to the borders of Israel, \"Greater Israel\" is generally used to refer to the territory of the State of Israel and the Palestinian territories, the combined territory of the former Mandatory Palestine. However, because of the controversial nature of the term, the term Land of Israel is often used instead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "10 Agorot coin controversy.", "content": "Zionists, and the State of Israel, have been accused of plotting to expand Israel from the Nile to the Euphrates. This so-called 10 agorot controversy is named after the Israeli coin brandished by PLO chairman Yasser Arafat in 1988 as evidence for this accusation. The Bank of Israel denies this conspiracy theory since the coin is a replica of a historical coin dating from 37-40 BCE and the alleged \"map\" is actually the irregular shape of the ancient coin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Israeli flag controversy.", "content": "Critics of Israel have stated the blue strips of the Israeli flag represent the Nile and Euphrates as the boundaries of Eretz Isra'el as promised to the Jews by God according to religious scripture. This claim was at a time made by Yasser Arafat, Iran and Hamas. However, both Zionists and Anti-Zionists have debunked this. Danny Rubinstein points out that \"Arafat... added, in interviews that he gave in the past, that the two blue stripes on the Israeli flag represent the Nile and the Euphrates.... No Israeli, even those who demonstrate understanding for Palestinian distress, will accept the... nonsense about the blue stripes on the flag, which was designed according to the colours of the traditional tallit (prayer shawl)...\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In academia.", "content": "Hillel Weiss, a professor at Bar-Ilan University, preaches the \"necessity\" of rebuilding the Temple and of Jewish rule over Greater Israel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In politics.", "content": "The Knesset Land of Israel Caucus, one of the largest lobby groups in the Knesset, has its main goal to strengthen Israel's hold on the West Bank.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Greater Israel (; \"Eretz Yisrael Hashlema\") is an expression, with several different Biblical and political meanings over time. It is often used, in an irredentist fashion, to refer to the historic or desired borders of Israel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975669}
{"src_title": "Merab Kostava", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Kostava was born in 1939 in Tbilisi, of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, USSR (the current capital of Georgia). In 1954, Kostava and Zviad Gamsakhurdia founded the Georgian youth underground organization \"Gorgasliani,\" a tribute to Vakhtang Gorgasali, the medieval Georgian king who supposedly founded the capital, Tbilisi. Between 1956 and 1958 Kostava, together with Gamsakhurdia and several other members of this organization were jailed by the KGB for \"anti-Soviet activity.\" The charges against Kostava and Gamsakhurdia included the dissemination of anti-communist literature and proclamations.  Kostava graduated from the Tbilisi State Conservatoire in 1962. From 1962–1977 he was a teacher at a local music school in Tbilisi.  In 1973, Kostava and Gamsakhurdia established the Initiative Group for defence of Human Rights. In 1976 Kostava co-founded the Georgian Helsinki Group (later renamed the Georgian Helsinki Union in 1989). From 1976–1977 and 1987–1989 Kostava was a member of the Governing Board of the abovementioned human rights organization. After 1975 Kostava was a member of Amnesty International.  In 1977, Kostava and Gamsakhurdia were arrested and jailed, charged with spreading anti-Soviet propaganda, the result of bringing note to the pillaging of church artifacts and the deportation of subsequent treatment of the Meskhetian Turks. Kostava was sent to Siberia to serve his sentence. While Gamsakhurdia publicly renounced his views in hopes of a lesser sentence, Kostava refused to do so. He was released from prison in August, 1987. In 1978, the two men were nominated to the Nobel Peace Prize by the Congress of the USA. In 1988 Kostava co-founded the Society of Saint Ilia the Righteous and was one of the leaders of this political pro-independence organization. From 1988–1989 he was one of the organizers and active participants of most (if not all) peaceful pro-independence political actions within the Georgian SSR. On April 9, 1989 Kostava was jailed again but was released after 45 days.  Merab Kostava was active in the underground network of Samizdat publishers, co-publisher of the Georgian underground periodical \"Okros Satsmisi\" (\"The Golden Fleece\"). He was the author of many important literary and scientific works.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On October 13, 1989, Merab Kostava died in a car accident near Boriti under suspicious circumstances. In 2013, he was posthumously awarded the title and Order of National Hero of Georgia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remembrance.", "content": "There are streets named after Merab Kostava in Tbilisi, Batumi, and Shindisi.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Merab Kostava () (May 26, 1939 – October 13, 1989) was a Georgian dissident, musician and poet; one of the leaders of the National-Liberation movement in Georgia. Along with Zviad Gamsakhurdia, he led the dissident movement in Georgia against the Soviet Union, until his death in a car accident in 1989.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975670}
{"src_title": "Charles de Batz de Castelmore d'Artagnan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "D'Artagnan was born at the castle of Castelmore near Lupiac in south-western France. His father, Bertrand de Batz lord of Castelmore, was the son of a newly ennobled merchant, Arnaud de Batz, who purchased the castle of Castelmore. Charles de Batz went to Paris in the 1630s, using the name of his mother Françoise de Montesquiou d'Artagnan. D'Artagnan found a way to enter into the Musketeers in 1632 through the support of his uncle, Henri de Montesquiou d'Artagnan or perhaps thanks to the influence of Henri's friend, Monsieur de Tréville (Jean-Armand du Peyrer, Comte de Troisville). D’Artagnan joined the guards in the mid-1630s and served under Captain des Essarts. The regiment saw much action in the early 1640s, taking part in sieges at Arras, Aire-sur-la-Lys, la Bassée and Bapaume in 1640–41 and Collioure and Perpignan in 1642. Whether or not d’Artagnan was personally involved is unclear, but it is likely he took part in some, if not all, of these sieges. While in the Musketeers, d'Artagnan sought the protection of the influential Cardinal Mazarin, France's principal minister since 1643. In 1646, the Musketeers company was dissolved, but d'Artagnan continued to serve his protector Mazarin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "D'Artagnan had a career in espionage for Cardinal Mazarin, in the years after the first Fronde. Due to d'Artagnan's faithful service during this period, Louis XIV entrusted him with many secret and delicate situations that required complete discretion. He followed Mazarin during his exile in 1651 in the face of the hostility of the aristocracy. In 1652 d'Artagnan was promoted to lieutenant in the Gardes Françaises, and fought at the Battle of Stenay in 1654, as well as in sieges at Landrecies and Saint-Ghislaine, then to captain in 1655. In 1658, he became a second lieutenant in the newly reformed Musketeers. This was a promotion, as the Musketeers were far more prestigious than the Gardes-Françaises.  D'Artagnan was famous for his connection with the arrest of Nicolas Fouquet. Fouquet was Louis XIV's finance commissioner and aspired to take the place of Mazarin as the king's advisor. Fouquet was also a lover of grand architecture and employed the greatest architects and artisans in the building of his Chateau Vaux-le-Vicomte. He celebrated the completion with a most extravagant feast, at which every guest was given a horse. The king however felt upstaged by the grandeur of the home and event and, suspecting that such magnificence could only be explained through Fouquet's pilfering the royal treasury, three weeks later had d'Artagnan arrest Fouquet. To prevent his escape by bribery, d'Artagnan was assigned to guard him for four years until Fouquet was sentenced to life imprisonment.  In 1667, d'Artagnan was promoted to captain-lieutenant of the Musketeers, the effective commander as the nominal captain was the king. As befitted his rank and position, he could be identified by his striking burgundy, white, and black livery—the colours of the commanding officer of the Musketeers. Another of d'Artagnan's assignments was the governorship of Lille, which was won in battle by France in 1667. D'Artagnan was an unpopular governor and longed to return to battle. He found his chance when Louis XIV went to war with the Dutch Republic in the Franco-Dutch War. After being recalled to service, d'Artagnan was subsequently killed in battle on 25 June 1673, when a musket ball tore into his throat at the Siege of Maastricht.  The French historian Odile Bordaz believes that he was buried in Saint Peter and Paul Church in Wolder, the Netherlands. In contrast, the archaeologist Wim Dijkman, curator of Maastricht, of which Wolder is a district, says that there is no historical or archeological evidence of the claim.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and descent.", "content": "D'Artagnan married on March 5, 1659, Anne-Charlotte Boyer de Chanlecy lady of Sainte-Croix, born in 1624 (daughter of Charles Boyer, lord of Chanlecy and Sainte-Croix and of Claude de Rymon, lady of la Rochette) widow of Jean-Elenor de Damas.  But quickly the couple did not live together anymore. D'Artagnan preferred the battlefields and his wife left Paris and lived on his land of Sainte-Croix where she died on December 31, 1683.  They had two children: Louis (the elder) born in 1660 and Louis (the younger) born on July 4, 1661, in Chalon-sur -Saône. They both became military.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portrayals in fiction.", "content": "The real d'Artagnan's life was used as the basis for Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras' novel \"Les mémoires de M. d'Artagnan\". Alexandre Dumas in turn used Sandras' novel as the main source for his d'Artagnan Romances (\"The Three Musketeers\", \"Twenty Years After\" and \"The Vicomte de Bragelonne\"), which cover d'Artagnan's career from his humble beginnings in Gascony to his death at Maastricht. Although Dumas knew that Sandras's version was heavily fictionalised, in the preface to \"The Three Musketeers\" he affected to believe that the memoirs were real, in order to make his novel more believable.  D'Artagnan is initially portrayed by Dumas as a hotheaded youth, who tries to engage the Comte de Rochefort and the three musketeers, Athos, Porthos, and Aramis in single combat. He quickly becomes friends with the musketeers, and has a series of adventures which put him at odds with Cardinal Richelieu, then First Minister of France. In the end, Richelieu is impressed by d'Artagnan, and makes him a lieutenant of the musketeers. This begins his long career of military service, as detailed in the sequels.  D'Artagnan's role among the musketeers is one of leadership (his skills and brains impress the musketeers greatly), but he is also regarded as a sort of protégé given his youth and inexperience. Athos sees him not only as a best friend and fellow musketeer but nearly as a son. At the end of the series, his death at the siege of Maastricht is given an extra tragic twist – he is mortally wounded while reading the notice of his promotion to the highest military rank.  Some scholars believe aspects of D'Artagnan are drawn from the life and character of Dumas's mixed-race father, General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas. The incident when D'Artagnan challenges Porthos, Athos, and Aramis to duels on the same afternoon might be based on an incident in General Dumas's youth when he was insulted; and their subsequent friendship on General Dumas's youthful companionship with fellow soldiers in the Queen's Dragoons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film and television.", "content": "Actors who have played d'Artagnan on screen include:  Note: Cornel Wilde, in addition to his role listed above, played the same-named son of d'Artagnan as the main hero in \"At Sword's Point\" (1952); Tobias Mehler was similarly cast in the \"Young Blades\" series, while the indicated performance there by Shaughnessy was a single guest appearance as his famous father. Andrew Rannells voiced d'Artagnan in the Japanese manga series Dinosaur King.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Charles de Batz de Castelmore (), also known as d'Artagnan and later count d'Artagnan ( 1611 – 25 June 1673), was a French Musketeer who served Louis XIV as captain of the Musketeers of the Guard. He died at the Siege of Maastricht in the Franco-Dutch War. A fictionalized account of his life by Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras formed the basis for the d'Artagnan Romances of Alexandre Dumas, \"père\", most famously including \"The Three Musketeers\" (1844). The heavily fictionalized version of d'Artagnan featured in Dumas' works and their subsequent screen adaptations is now far more widely known than the real historical figure.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975671}
{"src_title": "Operation Wooden Leg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "After being driven out of Lebanon in the 1982 Lebanon War, the PLO moved its headquarters to Tunisia. On September 25, 1985, during the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur, three Palestinian gunmen hijacked an Israeli yacht off the coast of Larnaca, Cyprus, and killed three Israeli tourists on board, one of them a paraplegic who was thrown overboard. In Jerusalem, an anonymous caller told the western agency that the attack was carried out by the PLO's elite Force 17 unit. However, PLO officials denied that. The Israelis were allowed to write down their final thoughts before being shot. The nature of the killings provoked widespread shock in Israel. The PLO claimed that the victims were Mossad agents monitoring Palestinian naval traffic out of Cyprus. The attack was a response for the capture and imprisonment of senior Force 17 commander Faisal Abu Sharah by the Israeli Navy two weeks earlier. Sharah had been sailing on the \"Opportunity\", a small ship that regularly shuttled between Beirut and Larnaca, when it was stopped by an Israeli naval patrol boat with Mossad agents on board. Sharah was arrested, taken to Israel and interrogated. He was then tried and given a heavy prison sentence. Since then, the Israeli Navy and the Mossad had intercepted several other vessels and arrested passengers suspected of terrorist activity.  The Israeli cabinet and the Israeli Air Force desired immediate retaliation, and chose the Tunis headquarters of the PLO as their target. Intelligence supplied to Israel by Jonathan Pollard on the Tunisian and Libyan air defense systems greatly facilitated the raid. Gordon Thomas claimed in his controversial book \"Gideon's Spies\" that many of the subsequent stories in the Arab press warning of Israeli retaliation were planted by, the Mossad's department of psychological warfare.  On the eve of the attack, Tunisia expressed concern to the United States that it may be attacked by Israel. However, the United States, according to a high-ranking Tunisian official, assured Tunisia there was no reason to worry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "The strike was carried out by eight F-15 Eagles. At 07:00 on October 1, the aircraft took off from Tel Nof Airbase. A Boeing 707 heavily modified for refueling operations refueled the F-15s in mid-flight over the Mediterranean Sea in order to allow the operation to be executed over such a distance. The Israeli Navy stationed a helicopter-carrying vessel near Malta to recover downed pilots, but these were never needed. The route was designed to avoid detection by Egyptian and Libyan radars, and United States Navy vessels patrolling the Mediterranean. IAF commander Amos Lapidot saw little chance of resistance from the Tunisian Air Force or from Tunisian air defenses, but believed that on such a long flight, technical problems could arise.  The F-15s flew low over the shore, and fired precision-guided munitions on the PLO headquarters, a cluster of sand-colored buildings along the seaside. The planes attacked the southern location first, so that the northern wind would not pull smoke over the northern targets. The attack lasted for six minutes, after which the F-15s flew back to Israel, refueled again by the Boeing 707.  The PLO headquarters were completely destroyed, although Yasser Arafat, the head of the organization, was not there at the time and escaped unharmed. Israel claimed that some 60 PLO members were killed, including several leaders of Force 17, and several of Arafat's bodyguards. In addition, the operation resulted in casualties among civilian bystanders. According to other sources, 56 Palestinians and 15 Tunisians were killed and about 100 wounded. Hospital sources put the final count at 47 dead and 65 wounded.  Because the attack was conducted so far from Israel, Tunisian sources believed that attack must have been known by the United States, if not actually involving American collaboration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The attack provoked a strong outcry, even in the United States, Israel's strongest ally. Though initially labeling the strike a \"legitimate response to terror\", the Reagan administration later said the attack \"cannot be condoned\". The attack also harmed relations between the US administration and the Tunisian president, Habib Bourguiba. Believing the US knew about the attack, and was possibly involved, Tunisia considered breaking diplomatic ties with the US.  Egypt suspended negotiations with Israel over the disputed border town of Taba. Israeli Prime Minister Shimon Peres was quoted as saying \"It was an act of self-defense. Period.\"  In the United Nations Security Council Resolution 573 (1985), the Security Council voted (with the United States abstaining) to condemn the attack on Tunisian territory as a flagrant violation of the United Nations Charter and considered that Tunisia had the right to appropriate reparations.  Within Tunisia, there was public outrage. For a week after the attack, the country's small Jewish community found itself the target of individual acts of antisemitism, such as insults and stone-throwing against Jewish shops. On October 8, 1985, on the island of Djerba, a Tunisian police officer who had lost a brother in the attack fired into a synagogue during Simchat Torah services, killing three people.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Operation \"Wooden Leg\" (, \"Mivtza Regel Etz\") was an attack by Israel on the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) headquarters in Hammam Chott, near Tunis, Tunisia, on October 1, 1985. With a target 1,280 miles (2,060 km) from the operation's starting point, this was the most distant publicly known action undertaken by the Israel Defense Forces since Operation \"Entebbe\" in 1976. It has been condemned by the United Nations Security Council.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975672}
{"src_title": "Vítězslav Nezval", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "His father was a school teacher in the village of Biskoupky in Southern Moravia who often traveled to see art exhibitions and was also a musician who studied under the composer Leoš Janáček. At age eleven, Nezval was sent to the gymnasium in Třebíč, where he learned piano and to compose music. He began writing in his teenage years while he was still interested in music. He was said to have played an accordion while studying the stars. In 1918, he was drafted into the Austrian army, but quickly sent home when he became ill. After the first World War, Nezval moved to Prague and began studying philosophy at the Charles University, but he did not receive his degree because he failed to finish his thesis. During this time, he was enchanted by the bustling literary scene that was thriving in the cafés and on the streets of Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary work.", "content": "Vítězslav Nezval was a member of the avant-garde group of artists \"Devětsil\" (literally \"nine forces\", the Czech name of the Butterbur plant but to a Czech-speaker an obvious reference to the nine founding members of the group). Devětsil members were the most prolific Czech artists of their generation. In 1922, the Devetsil group included, but was not limited to, Vítězslav Nezval, Jindřich Štyrský, Jaroslav Seifert, Karel Teige, and Toyen (Marie Cerminová). Also associated with the group was the later founder of the Prague Linguistic School, Roman Jakobson. Like the proletarian group before it, Devětsil looked to France for inspiration for their avant-garde literature and their Marxist political ideology originating from Russia. Though the Czechoslovakian state was newly formed after World War I, the younger generation felt there was still room for improvement and that a radical solution was necessary to gain true liberation. Most of these intellectuals had a zest for revolution and professed their allegiance to Lenin. Though their philosopher-president, Thomas Masaryk, gave them the first real socially-minded democracy, Nezval and others in his group did not accept this regime as representative of their beliefs and goals. In their writings they expressed their preference for the Marxist-internationalist consciousness of class solidarity.  The first manifesto of Devětsil urged young, progressive artists to look deeper into ordinary objects for poetic quality. Skyscrapers, airplanes, mime and poster lettering were the new arts.  Nezval was also a founding figure of Poetism, a direction within Devětsil primarily theorized by Karel Teige. His output consists of a number of poetry collections, experimental plays and novels, memoirs, essays, and translations. Along with Karel Teige, Jindřich Štyrský, and Toyen, Nezval frequently traveled to Paris where he rubbed shoulders with the French surrealists. His close friendship with André Breton and Paul Éluard was instrumental in founding \"The Surrealist Group\" of Czechoslovakia in 1934. It was one of the first surrealist groups outside France, and Nezval served as the editor of its journal \"Surrealismus\".  In collaboration with Nezval on his book \"Abeceda\" (\"alphabet\"), the Devětsil dancer Milča Mayerová adopted particular poses to represent each of the letters. Nezval wrote this poem focusing on the forms, sounds, and functions of the alphabet. Teige used typography and photomontage to create lasting images of the moves which are now printed in many editions of the book.  Nezval's poem \"Sbohem a šáteček\" (Waving farewell; 1934) was set to music by the Czech composer Vítězslava Kaprálová in 1937, and was premiered in its orchestral version in 1940 by Rafael Kubelik.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vítězslav Nezval (; 26 May 1900 – 6 April 1958) was one of the most prolific avant-garde Czech writers in the first half of the twentieth century and a co-founder of the Surrealist movement in Czechoslovakia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975673}
{"src_title": "Grand Duchess Alexandra Nikolaevna of Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "She was the namesake of her paternal aunt, Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna, who died in childbirth along with her stillborn daughter in 1801, but in the family she was known by her affectionate nickname, \"Adini\". According to her sister Olga's memoirs, Alexandra had inherited her mother's \"Prussian look\". It was also said that she resembled her late maternal grandmother, Queen Louise of Prussia. Nicholas affectionately spoke of Adini as \"... a little moppet, but very sweet\". Alexandra was famous in Saint Petersburg society for both her wit and her lively personality. She was also the musician in the family. A serious student of vocal music, she was talented enough to qualify for lessons from the famous soprano Henriette Sontag.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 28 January 1844, Alexandra married Prince Frederick William of Hesse (1820–1884) in St. Petersburg. Her husband was the only son of Prince William of Hesse and Princess Louise Charlotte of Denmark. \"Fritz\", as he was called, had come to St. Petersburg as a prospective bridegroom for Olga, but fell in love with Adini instead on the first evening he spent with the family. Although Olga was the elder daughter and also found Fritz to be an engaging young man, she graciously stepped aside in favour of her sister, and even chaperoned the couple when they wanted to spend time together away from the prying eyes of the court. The emperor and empress then gave their permission for Alexandra and Fritz to be married.  Alexandra became acutely ill with tuberculosis shortly before her wedding, and this complicated the pregnancy which soon followed. She was never well enough to travel to Hesse and take up her new position with her husband. They stayed in St. Petersburg, where her health rapidly declined.  She went into labor prematurely, three months before the child was due, and gave birth to a son, Wilhelm. The infant died shortly after he was born, and Alexandra died later the same day. She was the first of her parents' children to die. Her parents were devastated and their grief would last until the end of their lives. She was buried at the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg. Her son was buried in Rumpenheim (Germany).  Nine years later, Fritz married Adini's first cousin, Princess Anna of Prussia (1836–1918), as his second wife. Eventually he became head of the House of Hesse-Kassel. Although they had six children together, Fritz and Anna were never emotionally close, and it is speculated that one reason was because Fritz was unable to overcome his grief for his first wife.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In the gardens of the Petergof palace near Saint Petersburg there is a memorial bench with a small sculpture bust of the Grand Duchess. Her rooms there have been preserved just as they were at the time of her death.  Six sheaves of wheat made of diamonds, which came to Hesse on one of the dresses in Alexandra's trousseau, were transformed into a tiara by Anna around 1900. This tiara is now the traditional wedding tiara of the Hessian princely family, and was last worn by Floria of Faber-Castell when in 2003, she married Donatus, Hereditary Prince of Hesse, Adini's husband's great-great grandson by his second marriage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Grand Duchess Alexandra Nikolaevna of Russia (24 June 1825 – 10 August 1844) was the youngest daughter and fourth child of Tsar Nicholas I, Emperor of Russia, and his wife, Princess Charlotte of Prussia. She was a younger sister of Tsar Alexander II of Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975674}
{"src_title": "Scalloped hammerhead", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The scalloped hammerhead was first named \"Zygaena lewini\" and then renamed \"Sphyrna lewini\" by Edward Griffith and Hamilton Smith in 1834. It has also been named \"Cestracion leeuwenii\" by Day in 1865, \"Zygaena erythraea\" by Klunzinger in 1871, \"Cestracion oceanica\" by Garman in 1913, and \"Sphyrna diplana\" by Springer in 1941. \"Sphyrna\" comes from the Greek and translates into hammer.  It is a sister species to \"Sphyrna gilberti\", differing by the number of vertebrae. Though once considered a distinct species, McEachran and Serret synonymized \"Sphyrna couardi\" with \"Sphyrna lewini\" in 1986.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "On average, males measure and weigh about when they attain sexual maturity, whereas the larger females measure and weigh on average at sexual maturity. The maximum length of the scalloped hammerhead is and the maximum weight, per FishBase. A female caught off of Miami was found to have measured and reportedly weighed, though was in a gravid state at that point.  These sharks have a very high metabolic rate, governing behavior in acquiring food. These sharks occupy tertiary trophic levels. The scalloped hammerhead shark, like many other species, uses the shore as a breeding ground. Due to high metabolic rates, young scalloped hammerhead sharks need a lot of food, or they will starve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The scalloped hammerhead is a coastal pelagic species; it occurs over continental and insular shelves and in nearby deeper water. It is found in warm temperate and tropical waters, worldwide from 46°N to 36°S. It can be found down to depths over, but is most often found above. During the day, they are more often found close to shore, and at night, they hunt further offshore. Adults are found alone, in pairs, or in small schools, while young sharks occur in larger schools.  Juveniles and pups thrive in shallow coastal waters, such as bays and mangroves, which provide shelter from predators and waters high in nutrients from deposited sediments. Research carried out by the non-government organisation Misión Tiburón, using conventional and acoustic shark tagging methods, found that adult scalloped hammerheads migrate from the pelagic waters surrounding Cocos Island to the mangroves in the tropical fjord of Golfo Dulce - a tropical fjord on the pacific coast of Costa Rica. Here, female sharks give birth to live young: juveniles remain in the shallow root system of the mangroves for around three years. After this time they leave Golfo Dulce and migrate back to Cocos Island, to feed in pelagic waters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Schooling.", "content": "These sharks are often seen during the night, day, and morning in big schools, sometimes numbering hundreds, most likely because large groups can obtain food easier than singles or small groups, especially larger and trickier prey, as commonly seen. The younger the sharks, the closer to the surface they tend to be, while the adults are found much deeper in the ocean. They are not considered dangerous and are normally not aggressive towards humans.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sexual dimorphism.", "content": "The female scalloped hammerheads undergo migration offshore at a smaller size than males because the larger classes of the hammerhead, such as those from 100 to 140 cm long, travel deeper down. Males and females differ in that males are observed to stay deeper than female sharks in general.  Sexual maturity generally occurs once the scalloped hammerhead attains 240 cm in total or longer. Physically, the mature females have considerably wider uteri than their maturing counterparts. A lack of mating scars has been found on mature females. Unlike females, males reach sexual maturity at a much smaller size.  The male-to-female ratio of the scalloped hammerhead is 1:1.29. Females probably are capable of giving birth annually. usually in the summer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Navigating behavior.", "content": "Scalloped hammerhead sharks have a homing behavior to navigate in the ocean. They move in the night and use the environment as a map, similar to a human reading a topographical map. By experimentation in tagging these sharks, one could test for any guidance in a shark's movement. These sharks use a point-to-point type of school swimming, and do not favor going too deep, where temperature changes hitchhike with current speed and directional change.  The scalloped hammerhead uses deep water to survive as safety and feeding. Although they have high metabolic rates, they have a tendency to be sedentary and allow currents to carry them as they swim. As a result, this causes the scalloped hammerhead to be selective where they swim and the depth at which they tend to stay. They also make use of earths magnetic field.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Predation.", "content": "The scalloped hammerhead has a lot of advantages to capture its prey. The shape of its head allows it to bury into the seafloor and pin stingrays down. The wide head and special sensory cells allows the scalloped hammerhead to successfully detect fishes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The gestation period is reported to be around 12 months. Compared to other species, the scalloped hammerhead produces large litters, and this is most likely due to high infant mortality. Like most sharks, parental care is not seen. Nursery grounds for this species are predictable and repeated over the years, and they are faithful to their natal sites. Their natal sites still cause high infant mortality; a lack of resources prevents all the young from surviving. As a result, only the fittest grow to maturity. Also, should a population get depleted, it recovers through reproduction and not immigration. This species does not seem to attack each other even in periods of starvation. In addition, scalloped hammerheads have migratory behaviors. As a result, deprivation results from migration and young growth. While the Taiwan scalloped hammerhead seems to have an earlier maturity rate, it is still reported to be slow to mature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "This shark feeds primarily on fish such as sardines, mackerel, and herring, and occasionally they feed on cephalopods such as squid and octopus. Larger specimens may also feed on smaller species of shark such as the blacktip reef shark, \"Carcharhinus melanopterus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human interaction.", "content": "As of 2008, the scalloped hammerhead is on the \"globally endangered\" species list. In parts of the Atlantic Ocean, their populations have declined by over 95% in the past 30 years. Among the reasons for this drop off are overfishing and the rise in demand for shark fins. Researchers attribute this growth in demand to the increase in shark fins as an expensive delicacy (such as in shark fin soup) and are calling for a ban on shark finning, a practice in which the shark's fins are cut off and the rest of the animal is thrown back in the water to die. Hammerheads are among the most commonly caught sharks for finning. \"This species tendency to aggregate in large groups making capture in large numbers on long lines, bottom nets and trawls even easier\". They aren't considered to be dangerous to humans and if they do harm a human it is because they live in estuaries and attack out of surprise.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trade.", "content": "Hammerhead sharks are over fished all around the world for their fins and liver oil. It is estimated that 1.3 to 2.7 million fins are collected each year from smooth and scalloped hammerhead sharks for the shark fin trade.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The scalloped hammerhead (\"Sphyrna lewini\") is a species of hammerhead shark, and part of the family Sphyrnidae. Originally known as \"Zygaena lewini\", its genus name was later changed to its current name. The Greek word \"sphyrna\" translates into \"hammer\" in English, referring to the shape of this shark's head. The most distinguishing characteristic of this shark, as in all hammerheads, is the 'hammer' on its head. The shark's eyes and nostrils are at the tips of the extensions. It is a fairly large hammerhead, but is still smaller than both the great and smooth hammerheads.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975675}
{"src_title": "Marie Mancini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Mancini was born on 28 August 1639 and grew up in Rome. Her father was Baron Lorenzo Mancini, an Italian aristocrat who was also a necromancer and astrologer. After his death in 1650, her mother, Geronima Mazzarini, brought her daughters from Rome to Paris in the hope of using the influence of her brother, Cardinal Mazarin, to gain them advantageous marriages.  The other Mancini sisters were:  The Mancinis were not the only female family members that Cardinal Mazarin brought to the French court. The others were Marie's first cousins, daughters of Mazarin's eldest sister. The elder, Laura Martinozzi, married Alfonso IV d'Este, duke of Modena and was the mother of Mary of Modena, second wife of James II of England. The younger, Anne Marie Martinozzi, married Armand, Prince de Conti.  The Mancini also had three brothers: Paul, Philippe, and Alphonse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth.", "content": "In France, Anna Maria's name was gallicized to Marie. \"Dark, vivacious and beautiful,\" Marie captured the biggest prize of the French court: the romantic love of Louis XIV. According to Antonia Fraser's biography \"Love and Louis XIV\", Marie's mother, Geronima, was told by a horoscope that Marie would cause trouble and demanded on her deathbed that Cardinal Mazarin should, \"shut Marie up in a convent and keep her there.\"  Marie did not consummate her relationship with the Sun King. His love for her was a somewhat idealistic one, but he was so besotted that he wanted to marry her. Eventually, Cardinal Mazarin and the young king's mother, Anne of Austria, separated the couple, banishing Marie into exile and arranging for Louis' marriage to his cousin, Maria Theresa of Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile and marriage.", "content": "In 1661, Marie was sent away to marry an Italian prince, Lorenzo Onofrio Colonna, who remarked after their wedding night that he was surprised to find her still a virgin. The bridegroom had not expected to find \"innocence among the loves of kings\" (from Antonia Fraser's book \"Love and Louis XIV\").  They had three children, all sons:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Escape and death.", "content": "After the birth of her third child, relations between Marie and her husband deteriorated. On 29 May 1672, fearing that her husband would kill her, Marie left Rome accompanied by her sister Hortense. In 1677, in order to support herself, she wrote her memoirs. She did not return to Italy until her husband's death in 1689.  She died in Pisa in May 1715 aged 75, little over 3 months before the death of Louis XIV in September that year, and is buried in the church of the Holy Sepulchre there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction and literature.", "content": "The character of Marie Mancini appears in the French musical \"Le Roi Soleil\", where she was played by Anne-Laure Girbal. Her character appears also in the 2008 Italian novel \"Secretum\" by Rita Monaldi and Francesco Sorti and is the main character of the 2015 novel \"The Enchantress of Paris\" by Marci Jefferson.  Marie and her sister Hortense Mancini are the subjects of a dual biography, \"The King's Mistresses: The Liberated Lives of Marie Mancini, Princess Colonna, and Her Sister Hortense, Duchess Mazarin\", by Elizabeth C. Goldsmith (2012, PublicAffairs).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna Maria (Marie) Mancini (28 August 1639 – 8 May 1715) was the third of the five Mancini sisters; nieces to Cardinal Mazarin who were brought to France to marry advantageously. Along with two of their female Martinozzi cousins, the Mancini sisters were known at the court of King Louis XIV of France as the \"Mazarinettes\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975676}
{"src_title": "Dreamcatcher (novel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "Set near the fictional town of Derry, Maine, \"Dreamcatcher\" is the story of four lifelong friends: Gary \"Jonesy\" Jones, Pete Moore, Joe \"Beaver\" Clarendon and Henry Devlin. As young teenagers, the four saved Douglas \"Duddits\" Cavell, an older boy with Down syndrome, from a group of sadistic bullies. From their new friendship with Duddits, Jonesy, Beaver, Henry and Pete began to share the boy's unusual powers, including telepathy, shared dreaming, and seeing \"the line\", a psychic trace left by the movement of human beings.  Jonesy, Beaver, Henry and Pete reunite for their annual hunting trip at the Hole-in-the-Wall, an isolated lodge in the Jefferson Tract. There, they become caught between an alien invasion and an insane US Army Colonel, Abraham Kurtz. Jonesy and Beaver, who remain at the cabin while Henry and Pete go out for supplies, encounter Richard McCarthy, a disoriented and delirious stranger wandering near the lodge during a blizzard talking about lights in the sky. The victim of an alien abduction, McCarthy grows sicker and dies while sitting on the toilet. An extraterrestrial parasite eats its way out of his body and attacks the two men, killing Beaver. Jonesy inhales the spores of the strange reddish fungus that the stranger and his parasite have spread around the cabin, and an alien entity (\"Mr. Gray\") takes over his mind. On the return trip from their supply run, Henry and Pete encounter a woman from the same hunting party as the strange man at the cabin. She is also delirious and infected with a parasite. After crashing their car, Henry leaves Pete with the woman and attempts to regain the cabin by foot. From there, his telepathic senses let him know that Pete is in trouble, Beaver is dead, and Jonesy is no longer Jonesy. Mr. Gray, manipulating Jonesy's body, is attempting to leave the area. The aliens have attempted to infect Earth multiple times, beginning with the Roswell crash in the 1940s, but environmental factors have always stopped them, and the US government has covered up the failed invasion attempts every time. With the infection of Jonesy, who can contain the alien within his mind and also spread the infection, Mr. Gray has become the perfect Typhoid Mary—and he knows it.  It becomes up to Henry—by now a quarantined prisoner of the Army—to convince the military to go after Jonesy/Mr. Gray before it is too late. Jonesy himself, now a prisoner in his own mind, tries to help. Both of them are convinced that their old friend Duddits may be the key to saving the world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dreamcatcher (2001) is a novel by American writer Stephen King, featuring elements of body horror, suspense and alien invasion. The book, written in cursive, helped the author recuperate from a 1999 car accident, and was completed in half a year. According to the author in his afterword, the working title was \"Cancer\". His wife, Tabitha King, persuaded him to change the title. A film adaptation was released in 2003.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975677}
{"src_title": "Assicurazioni Generali", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Operations.", "content": "Today Generali operates primarily in Europe, Middle East and East Asia, with large market shares in Italy, Poland, Hungary, Germany (under the name of Generali Deutschland), France, Austria, Slovenia, The Netherlands, Croatia, Serbia (Generali Osiguranje), Spain, Switzerland, Romania, Israel, Japan, China and Bosnia and Herzegovina, with secondary operations in Latin America. Generali's United States operations are concentrated in financial products management, a result of the group's acquisition of Business Men's Assurance Company of America (BMA) in 1990 and travel insurance products as part of the Europ Assistance Group. In 2002, Generali sold BMA's life insurance arm to the Royal Bank of Canada. In 2013, Generali sold its US reinsurance arm to Scor.  On Jerusalem's Jaffa Road, the Generali Building (בניין ג'נרלי), built by the company in 1935, is still known by that name although the company operated its Jerusalem branch in the building only from 1935 to 1946. The Generali Building is still owned by the Italian insurance firm through its local representative, the Migdal Insurance Company. The building currently houses various government offices, including the Jerusalem District Administration, the Ministry of Interior, the Department of Immigration and Population Registry, and the Internal Auditing Office. It is a famous Jerusalem landmark, due to the large and well-preserved stone statue of a winged lion on its roof; this is the Lion of Saint Mark, patron saint of Venice, and the symbol of the Generali insurance company which appears on all of its branches worldwide since 1848.  In India the company is represented by Future Generali, a joint venture of Future group and Assicurazioni Generali. It provides both life and property/casualty insurance. The Life business is known as Future Generali India Life Insurance Company Limited.  Main Subsidiaries of the group includes, in Italy: Genertellife, Alleanza Assicurazioni, Generali Italia and Banca Generali.  In France: Europ Assistance", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eastern Europe subsidiaries.", "content": "In 2006, Generali bought the controlling stake of Delta Osiguranje, a Serbian insurer, from Delta Holding. In 2014, the group bought the remaining stake from the minority shareholders. The subsidiary was renamed to Generali Osiguranje Srbija.  Generali Group also had subsidiaries in Croatia and Montenegro, also known as Generali Osiguranje.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bank ownership.", "content": "Assicurazioni Generali was an active owner of Italian banks, such as Banca Intesa (7.54% direct and indirect ownership) and Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (8.71980% in 2004) as minority owner. Both banks are no longer held by Generali Group.  Banca Generali is the subsidiary of Assicurazioni Generali.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shareholder structure.", "content": "As of June 2016, Assicurazioni Generali's largest shareholders were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sponsor.", "content": "Generali is the sponsor of France National Volleyball Team. Generali sponsor of the French Federation of Volleyball for 19 years, launched the Responsible Sports Charter in 2010, coherently with the Group guidelines, to actively promote the culture of sustainability in the sporting arena.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "After nearly 10 years of struggling to get a big Italian insurance company to pay claims on life insurance policies sold to victims of the Holocaust, the lawyers for most of the victims are giving up the fight. Sidney Zabludoff, a Holocaust insurance expert, estimates that Generali had coverage on about 110,000 Jews at the time, and he estimates this be worth $4.5 billion today. In court papers, Generali says it has paid $135 million on about 5,200 claims.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular media.", "content": "Blood Money - Law & Order Episode is based on Generali subsidiaries selling life insurance to poor Jews in WW2 Europe and then not paying out in case of death. The motive in the murder of a retired insurance salesman appears to be a series of policies he sold to Jews in Poland during the Holocaust.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Assicurazioni Generali S.p.A. or simply Generali is an Italian insurance company, the largest in Italy and third in the world. It has its headquarters in Trieste. In 2010, Assicurazioni Generali Group was the second largest insurance group in the world by revenue after AXA.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975678}
{"src_title": "The Watchtower", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The magazine was started by Charles Taze Russell in July 1879 under the title Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence. According to its first issue, the magazine's purpose was to draw attention to Russell's belief that people of the time were \"living 'in the last days' 'the day of the Lord'—'the end' of the Gospel age,\" and that \"the dawn of the 'new' age, are facts not only discernible by the close student of the Word, led by the spirit, but the outward signs recognizable by the world bear the same testimony.\"  In 1909 the name was changed to \"The Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence\". In 1920, the Watch Tower Society reprinted all issues from 1879–1919 in seven volumes, known as the \"Watchtower Reprints\", which have since been reprinted by various Bible Student groups. On 15 October 1931, the magazine was renamed \"The Watchtower and Herald of Christ's Presence\"; in January 1939, \"The Watchtower and Herald of Christ's Kingdom\"; from March 1939 until the present, its full name has been \"The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Purpose.", "content": "The stated purpose of \"The Watchtower\" is to draw attention to the kingdom of God, which Jehovah's Witnesses believe is a real government that will soon replace all earthly governments. According to the magazine's mission statement: THIS MAGAZINE, The Watchtower, honors Jehovah God, the Ruler of the universe. It comforts people with the good news that God's heavenly Kingdom will soon end all wickedness and transform the earth into a paradise. It promotes faith in Jesus Christ, who died so that we might gain everlasting life and who is now ruling as King of God's Kingdom. This magazine has been published continuously since 1879 and is nonpolitical. It adheres to the Bible as its authority.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Content.", "content": "\"The Watchtower\" is the primary means of disseminating Jehovah's Witness beliefs, and includes articles relating to biblical prophecies, Christian conduct and morals, and the history of religion and the Bible.  Previously, each issue of the \"Watchtower\" contained study articles and other regular features and was distributed to the general public. In 2008, content was divided into a \"Public Edition\" distributed to non-Witnesses and a \"Study Edition\", which contains \"pointed information prepared especially for Jehovah's Witnesses\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Public Edition\".", "content": "The \"Public Edition\" of \"The Watchtower\" contains biblical articles relating to a theme shown on the cover. In January 2013, \"The Watchtower—Public Edition\" was reduced from 32 to 16 pages, with greater focus on the official Jehovah's Witnesses website. Initially issued monthly, as of January 2016 the \"Public Edition\" was published every two months, and was further reduced to three issues per year as of January 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Study Edition\".", "content": "The \"Study Edition\" contains study articles written for the \"Watchtower\" Study, as well as other intra-organizational information directed to current and prospective members.  Congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide discuss the same article each week at the \"Watchtower\" Study. At this meeting, each paragraph is read aloud by a designated reader; the study conductor then asks questions printed at the bottom of the page for each paragraph and calls on members of the congregation to answer the questions based on the printed information. They are encouraged to put the information in their own words and to \"draw attention to scripture application, supporting arguments, or practical application of the material.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Authorship.", "content": "The Writing Committee of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses oversees the research, editing, and development of the articles. The articles are mostly submitted by writing committees from worldwide branch offices, which are then checked by editors and translated into the languages of publication; all involved are volunteers. Women are permitted to write articles that are not of a doctrinal nature. The names of the authors (except in first-person life stories), and other publishing staff are not provided. Articles are produced under the authority and supervision of the Governing Body, and are considered the official teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The magazine is printed in nineteen countries; about 25% of the total is printed at one of the organization's printeries in Georgetown, Ontario, Canada.  The \"Public Edition\" is distributed by Jehovah's Witnesses from house-to-house and by approaching people in public places, given informally to acquaintances and professionals, or left as reading material in places such as bus terminals and laundromats. The \"Study Edition\" is generally distributed only to members but is made available to members of the public attending the study of \"The Watchtower\" at congregation meetings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accessibility.", "content": "In addition to printed editions, \"The Watchtower\" has been published in other forms. Since 1997, Jehovah's Witnesses' official web sites have carried articles formatted for the Internet, and began hosting digital downloads in 2008. Specific accessibility efforts include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cost.", "content": "Until March 1990, \"The Watchtower\" was available for a small charge that varied over time and in different countries. For example, in the United States, the suggested donation per issue was $0.05 in 1950, gradually increasing to $0.25 in 1989. On January 17, 1990, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled against Jimmy Swaggart that sales of religious literature were subject to taxation, which introduced ambiguity into the formerly tax-free practice of suggesting a specific amount in exchange for the magazines. The Watch Tower Society supported Swaggart in the case, arguing that the perceived sale of religious literature should be exempt from taxation.  From March 1, 1990, the journals were made available at no cost, on a freewill donation basis in the United States, with the stated purpose of simplifying their Bible educational work and distinguishing themselves from those who commercialize religion. An article in the May 1990 issue of \"Our Kingdom Ministry\"—a newsletter provided to members—stated that \"there are growing pressures against all religious elements\" and went on to say that their main concern was to move ahead in the worldwide preaching work, \"without hindrance.\"  The sale of Jehovah's Witnesses' literature was gradually phased out in other countries, and \"The Watchtower\" has been distributed free of charge worldwide since January 2000, its printing being funded by voluntary donations from Jehovah's Witnesses and members of the public.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom is an illustrated religious magazine, published monthly by Jehovah's Witnesses via the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Jehovah's Witnesses distribute \"The Watchtower—Public Edition\", along with its companion magazine, \"Awake!\", in their door-to-door ministry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975679}
{"src_title": "Marie Adélaïde of Savoy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and background.", "content": "Born at the Royal Palace of Turin in December 1685, Marie Adélaïde was the eldest daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy since 1675, and his French wife Anne Marie d'Orléans, a niece of Louis XIV, and the daughter of Philippe of France, Duke of Orléans and of Henrietta of England. Her birth nearly cost her sixteen-year-old mother her life. As a female, she was not eligible to inherit the duchy of Savoy due to salic law. Her grandmother Marie Jeanne of Savoy and the Prince of Carignan acted as godparents. Marie Adélaïde enjoyed a particularly close relationship with her grandmother as well as her mother who, despite protocol, was raising her children herself, which was quite unusual among royalty during the era. As children, she and her sister Maria Luisa frequented the \"Vigno di Madama\" outside Turin, and paid weekly visits to their grandmother at the \"Palazzo Madama\" in Turin.  Marie Adelaide was tiny, even described as \"doll-sized.\" Her hair was chestnut in her youth, and darkened as she grew up. Her eyes were large and black, surrounded by long eyelashes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Betrothal and marriage.", "content": "The marriage of Marie Adélaïde came as a result of the Treaty of Turin signed on 29 August 1696. This treaty between her father and Louis XIV agreed that her father would support France in the Nine Years' War. Her father's dominions had been ravaged during the war.  Victor Amadeus had first proposed Marie Adélaïde as a candidate for marriage with the Archduke Joseph, but Emperor Leopold I had declined because of their young age. The Treaty of Turin was negotiated under the influence of the Maréchal de Tessé, who suggested that Marie Adelaïde be sent to France to perfect her education before marrying the French prince.  Upon her arrival in France, Louis XIV, who had come to greet her, met her in Montargis on 4 November 1696, and was quite pleased with \"the Princess\". As she was still a girl of 11 years, the marriage did not take place immediately. Instead, three days a week, she was a pupil at the Maison royale de Saint-Louis, the girls' school Madame de Maintenon had founded in 1684 in Saint-Cyr, in the vicinity of Versailles.  On 6 December 1697, on her twelfth birthday, Marie Adelaïde was formally married to the Duke of Burgundy in the Palace of Versailles. The event took place after the signing of the Treaty of Ryswick which ended the Nine Years' War. Her husband was the eldest son of Le Grand Dauphin and Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duchess of Burgundy.", "content": "The new Duchess of Burgundy had a close relationship with the king and with Madame de Maintenon. Her arrival in Versailles was described \"like a breath of fresh air,\" reviving the dull court. She also maintained an ongoing correspondence with her parents and grandmother back in Savoy.  She used her influence over the aging king to prevent her political enemies from furthering their causes. This group, known as the \"cabale de Meudon\", devoted themselves to her father-in-law, hoping to secure themselves in his expected reign upon the death of Louis XIV. Her great enemy was the Duchess of Bourbon, a legitimated daughter of Louis XIV and his mistress, Madame de Montespan. The Duchess of Bourbon wanted her daughter \"Mademoiselle de Bourbon\" to wed Charles, Duke of Berry, youngest son of the \"Grand Dauphin\". To maintain her influence over her grandfather-in-law, the Duchess of Burgundy organized Berry's marriage to \"Marie Louise Élisabeth d'Orléans\", the eldest daughter of Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans and of his wife Françoise Marie de Bourbon. The influential Marie Adélaïde also brought about the disgrace of Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme, the great military man of the era.  The Duchess of Burgundy gave birth to her first child in 1704. The child, a short-lived boy, was given the title Duke of Brittany before his death in 1705. Marie Adélaïde bore two more children in 1707 and 1710. Her youngest son, the only child to survive beyond childhood, later became King Louis XV of France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dauphine of France.", "content": "In early April 1711, her father-in-law \"Le Grand Dauphin\" caught smallpox and died on 14 April at the Château de Meudon. Upon the death of \"Le Grand Dauphin\", Marie Adélaïde's husband became Dauphin of France and she Dauphine of France.  The mourning court traveled to Fontainebleau in February 1712. At Fontainebleau, Marie Adélaïde caught a fever which escalated in measles. Having been bled and given emetics, she died in Versailles at the age of 26. Louis XIV and Madame de Maintenon were plunged into sadness. \"Madame\" later said that Marie Adélaïde was one of the only two persons Louis XIV had ever truly loved in his life, the other being Anne of Austria, the king's mother. After the Dauphine's death, the royal family moved to Marly to avoid the spread of infection. It was at Marly that the Dauphin himself died six days later, having caught the measles from his wife.  The couple was buried together at the Basilica of Saint Denis on 23 February 1712. Their son, the Duke of Brittany succeeded as Dauphin, but he died the following March from the measles. The only child to survive the epidemic was the future Louis XV who was locked inside his apartments with his governess Madame de Ventadour to avoid being bled to death by doctors like his elder brother had been. Madame de Ventadour was renowned for having saved the infant Louis XV's life. Louis XV subsequently named his fourth daughter \"Marie Adélaïde\" in his mother's honour.  The Dauphine was the subject of a statue held at the Louvre in which she posed as the Roman goddess Diana which was crafted by Antoine Coysevox in 1710.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, Princess of Savoy (6 December 1685 – 12 February 1712) was the wife of Louis, Dauphin of France, Duke of Burgundy. She was the eldest daughter of Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy and of Anne Marie d'Orléans. Her betrothal to the Duke of Burgundy in June 1696 was part of the Treaty of Turin, signed on 29 August 1696. She was the mother of the future King Louis XV of France. Styled as Duchess of Burgundy after her marriage, she became Dauphine of France upon the death of her father-in-law, Le Grand Dauphin, in 1711. She died of measles in 1712, followed by her husband a week later.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975680}
{"src_title": "Sukkah", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Associated activities.", "content": "The halakha requires eating and traditionally sleeping in the sukkah. However, Jews are not expected to remain in the sukkah if they would be very uncomfortable there. For this reason, Jews living at northern latitudes will generally not sleep in the sukkah due to the low temperatures of autumn nights. Some Jews in these locales will spend some time in the sukkah eating and relaxing but go indoors to sleep.  When rain falls on the sukkah, one is not required to stay inside. The Mishna in Sukkah 28b compares rain falling on a sukkah to a master who receives a drink from his servant and then throws it back in the servant's face. The analogy is that through the rainfall, God is showing displeasure with the performance of the mitzvah by not allowing the Jews to fulfill their obligation of sitting in the sukkah.  In Israel and other temperate climates (such as Florida, Australia, Texas, and Southern California), observant Jews will often conduct all their eating, studying, and sleeping activities in the sukkah. Many Jews will not eat or drink anything outside the sukkah. Others will drink or eat fruit outside the sukkah.  In Israel, it is common practice for hotels, restaurants, snack shops, and outdoor tourist attractions (such as zoos) to provide a Kosher sukkah for customers to dine in.  All Lubavitcher Hasidim and some Belzer Hasidim (especially outside Israel) do not sleep in the sukkah due to its intrinsic holiness. Though the halakha doesn't obligate one to eat or sleep in the \"sukkah\" if it is raining, Lubavitcher Hasidim will still eat there.  A popular social activity which involves people visiting each other's Sukkot has become known as \"Sukkah hopping\". Food is laid out so that participants will be able to recite the various required blessings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "According to \"halakha\", a sukkah is a structure consisting of a roof made of organic material which has been disconnected from the ground for the purpose of the commandment (the s'chach). A sukkah must have three walls. It should be at least three feet tall, and be positioned so that all or part of its roof is open to the sky. (Only the part which is under the sky is kosher.) Most authorities require its floor area to be at least 16 square cubits.  In practice, the walls of a sukkah can be constructed from any material that will withstand a normally anticipated terrestrial wind. If the material is not rigid and therefore will sway in the wind, the sukkah is not kosher (Talmud, Sukkah 24b). Accordingly, there is a discussion among contemporary halakhic authorities whether canvas may be used for walls: Some, such as R. Ovadiah Yosef (Shu\"t Yechaveh Da'at 3:46) hold that even the slightest degree of swaying in the wind will disqualify the sukkah walls, and thus canvas cannot realistically be employed. Others, such as the Chazon Ish, permit motion to and fro of less than three handbreadths, thereby facilitating the usage of canvas walls which are anchored at all sides. The specific details of what constitutes a wall, the minimum and maximum wall heights, whether there can be spaces between the walls and the roof, and the exact material required for the \"s'chach\" (roofing) can be found in various exegetical texts.  A sukkah can be built on the ground or on an open porch or balcony. Indeed, many observant Jews who design their home's porch or deck will do so in a fashion that aligns with their sukkah-building needs. Portable sukkot made of a collapsible metal frame and cloth walls have recently become available for those who have little space, or for those who are traveling (in order to have a place to eat one's meals).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roof covering.", "content": "The roof covering, known as \"s'chach\" in Hebrew, must consist of something that grew from the earth but is currently disconnected from it. Palm leaves, bamboo sticks, pine branches, wood and the like can all be used for \"s'chach\", unless they were processed previously for a different use.  There must be enough \"s'chach\" that inside the sukkah there should be more shade than sun. However, there must be sufficient gaps between the pieces of \"s'chach\" so that one can see the sun or stars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decorations.", "content": "Many people hang decorations such as streamers, shiny ornaments, and pictures from the interior walls and ceiling beams of a sukkah. Fresh, dried or plastic fruit—including etrogs and the seven species for which Israel is praised (wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives and dates; see Deuteronomy 8:8)—are popular decorations.  Some families also line the interior walls with white sheeting, in order to recall the \"Clouds of Glory\" that surrounded the Jewish nation during their wanderings in the desert. The Chabad custom is not to decorate the sukkah, as the sukkah itself is considered to be an object of beauty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Associated prayers.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blessing.", "content": "According to Jewish law, one must recite the following blessing when using the sukkah. The blessing is normally recited after the blessing made on food, such as on bread or cake: ! Hebrew! Transliteration! English", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A or succah (; ; plural, \"\" or \"sukkos\" or \"sukkoth\", often translated as \"booth\") is a temporary hut constructed for use during the week-long Jewish festival of Sukkot. It is topped with branches and often well decorated with autumnal, harvest or Judaic themes. The Book of Vayikra (Leviticus) describes it as a symbolic wilderness shelter, commemorating the time God provided for the Israelites in the wilderness they inhabited after they were freed from slavery in Egypt. It is common for Jews to eat, sleep and otherwise spend time in the \"sukkah\". In Judaism, Sukkot is considered a joyous occasion and is referred to in Hebrew as \"Yom Simchateinu\" (the day of our rejoicing) or \"Z'man Simchateinu\" (the time of our rejoicing), and the sukkah itself symbolizes the frailty and transience of life and its dependence on God.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975681}
{"src_title": "Archduke Joseph Ferdinand of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Joseph Ferdinand was born in Salzburg to Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany, the last Grand Duke of Tuscany, and his wife, Alice of Bourbon-Parma. As the fourth child and second son, he assumed the mantle of heir after his elder brother gave up the claim following numerous scandals. He succeeded his father as head of the House of Tuscany on 17 January 1908.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education and career.", "content": "Joseph Ferdinand attended the military Oberrealschule at Hranice (in that time also known as Mährisch Weissenkirchen) and later the Maria Theresa Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt. Upon graduating from the academy, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Tirol Jäger regiment on 18 August 1892. Following various assignments with Infantrie Regiment (IR) No's. 93, 17, 59 and the Tirol Jäger Regiment No. 4, he was attached to IR No. 27 as an Oberstleutnant in 1903. From 1895 until 1897, he attended the Kriegsschule in Vienna. From 1905 until 1908, the Archduke commanded IR No. 93 as an Oberst, then the Infantry Brigade No. 5.  The Archduke Joseph Ferdinand concerned himself with aviation, which was not taken seriously in military circles at the time. He was fascinated by balloons from an early age; in 1909, he arranged a balloon flight from his manor in Linz to Dieppe in France, which lasted 16 hours. In January 1911, the Archduke received command of the 3rd infantry division in Linz, followed afterwards by his promotion to Feldmarschalleutnant on 1 May 1911.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "In August 1914, he took the command of the XIV Corps, succeeding General der Kavallerie Viktor Dankl von Krasnik, who had taken command of the First Army. His Corps was part of the Third Army of General Brudermann. In early September 1914, the devastating battles at the Zlota and Gnila Lipas practically destroyed the Third Army, and the Fourth Army under General Auffenberg was also decimated following Rawa Russka. The Archduke was chosen to replace Auffenberg on October 1. Meanwhile, the XIV Corps was taken over by Feldmarschalleutnant Josef Roth on 30 September.  Joseph Ferdinand was to remain in command of the Fourth Army until early June 1916. At this time, General Aleksei Brusilov launched the Brusilov Offensive at the juncture of the Fourth and First Armies. The result was that Joseph Ferdinand's trenches were obliterated by the Russian bombardment and his troops surrendered en masse to the advancing Russians. In light of this massive set-back, the German High Command insisted on his removal from command. The Archduke went into retirement and was replaced by General Tersztyanszky.  Following the accession of Kaiser Karl in November 1916, Archduke Joseph Ferdinand was offered the post of Inspector General of the Imperial Air Force. The Archduke brought his interest in ballooning to the post, although the Army HQ immediately objected to the appointment. In spite of their reservations, the Archduke was appointed on 8 July 1917 and he remained there until 3 September 1918.  Theodore von Kármán, then an Oberleutnant in the Austro-Hungarian Luftarsenal, found Joseph Ferdinand to be an \"ignorant and pompous fellow.\" As Inspector General Joseph Ferdinand visited the Austro-Daimler Company where he was shown the company's first six-cylinder airplane engine by Ferdinand Porsche. In his autobiography von Kármán relates an exchange between Joseph Ferdinand and Porsche:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and issue.", "content": "He was married at Maria Plain on 2 May 1921 to Rosa Kaltenbrunner (Linz, 27 February 1878 – Salzburg, 9 December 1929), who was not a noble; the marriage lasted until their divorce in 1928, without issue. After this first marriage he resigned as head of the House of Tuscany. <br>  In Vienna on 27 January 1929, Joseph Ferdinand married again, this time to Gertrude Tomanek, Edle von Beyerfels-Mondsee (Brünn, 13 April 1902 – Salzburg, 15 February 1997). He had two children from this marriage;", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End of the Monarchy.", "content": "When the Germans occupied Austria in 1938, Joseph Ferdinand was arrested along with more than 70,000 other Viennese. He was interrogated by the Gestapo and sent to Dachau concentration camp, where he was imprisoned for three months. The conditions in the camp ruined his health permanently. Joseph Ferdinand was released and lived an isolated existence thereafter, under continual observation by the Gestapo. After his release, he settled in Vienna as a commoner. He died on 28 August 1942 in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduke Joseph Ferdinand of Austria (24 May 1872 – 28 August 1942) was an Austro-Hungarian Archduke and the titular Grand Duke of Tuscany from 17 January 1908 to 2 May 1921, military commander, from 1916 Generaloberst, and early advocate of air power. He later retired to life as a common citizen of Austria, and was briefly imprisoned in Dachau during the Nazi era.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975682}
{"src_title": "Peter Zoller", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Peter Zoller studied physics at the University of Innsbruck, obtained his doctorate there in February 1977, and became a lecturer at their Institute of Theoretical Physics. For 1978/79, he was granted a Max Kade stipend to research with Peter Lambropoulos at the University of Southern California. In 1980, he stayed at the University of Waikato in Hamilton, New Zealand, as a researcher with the group around Dan Walls. In 1981, Peter Zoller handed in his book \"Über die lichtstatistische Abhängigkeit resonanter Multiphoton-Prozesse\" at the University of Innsbruck to qualify as a professor by receiving the \"venia docendi\". He spent 1981/82 and 1988 as Visiting Fellow at the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA) of the University of Colorado, Boulder, and 1986 as guest professor at the Université de Paris-Sud 11, Orsay. In 1991, Peter Zoller was appointed Professor of Physics and JILA Fellow at JILA and at the Physics Department of the University of Colorado, Boulder. At the end of 1994, he accepted a chair at the University of Innsbruck, where he has worked ever since. From 1995 to 1999, he headed the Institute of Theoretical Physics, from 2001 to 2004, he was vice-dean of studies. Peter Zoller continues to keep in close touch with JILA as Adjoint Fellow. Numerous guest professorships have taken him to all major centers of physics throughout the world. He was Loeb lecturer in Harvard, Boston, MA (2004) and Yan Jici chair professor at the University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, chair professor at Tsinghua University, Beijing (2004), Lorentz professor at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands (2005), Distinguished Lecturer at the Technion in Haifa (2007), Moore Distinguished Scholar at Caltech (2008/2010) and Arnold Sommerfeld Lecturer at LMU München (2010). In 2012/13 he was \"Distinguished Fellow\" at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics in Garching, Munich. In 2014 he has been elected as an \"External Scientific Member\" at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics. In 2015 he held the International Jacques Solvay Chair in Physics at the University of Brussels. Since 2003, Peter Zoller has also held the position of Scientific Director at the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information (IQOQI) of the Austrian Academy of Sciences.  In 2018, Peter Zoller co-founded Alpine Quantum Technologies, a quantum computing hardware company.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "As a theoretician, Peter Zoller has written major works on the interaction of laser light and atoms. In addition to fundamental developments in quantum optics he has succeeded in bridging quantum information and solid state physics. The model of a quantum computer, suggested by him and Ignacio Cirac in 1995, is based on the interaction of lasers with cold ions confined in an electromagnetic trap. The principles of this idea have been implemented in experiments over recent years and it is considered one of the most promising concepts for the development of a scalable quantum computer. Zoller and his researcher colleagues have also managed to link quantum physics with solid state physics. One of his suggestions has been to build a quantum simulator with cold atoms and use it to research hitherto unexplained phenomena in high temperature superconductors. Zoller's ideas and concepts attract widespread interest within the scientific community and his works are highly cited.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "Peter Zoller and Crispin Gardiner have jointly written the books", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Peter Zoller has received numerous awards for his achievements in the field of quantum optics and quantum information and especially for his pioneering work on quantum computers and quantum communication. These include the Micius Quantum Prize (2018), the Willis E. Lamb Award for Laser Science and Quantum Optics (2018), the Herbert Walther Award from the OSA (2016), the Wolf Prize in Physics (with Juan Ignacio Cirac) (2013), the \"Hamburger Preis für theoretische Physik\" (2011), the Blaise Pascal Medal in Physics (2011), The Franklin Institute's 2010 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Physics (with Juan Ignacio Cirac and David Wineland), the 2008 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award, in the Basic Sciences category (\"ex aequo\" with Ignacio Cirac), the Dirac Medal (2006), the 6th International Quantum Communication Award (2006), the Niels Bohr/UNESCO Gold Medal (2005), the Max Planck Medal (2005) of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, the Humboldt Research Award (2000), the Schrödinger Prize (1998) of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the Max Born Award (1998) of the Optical Society of America, as well as the Wittgenstein Award (1998), Austria's highest scientific accolade, the Ludwig Boltzmann Prize (1983) of the Austrian Physical Society. In 2001, Peter Zoller became full member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, in 2008 he was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences and the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, in 2009 to the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences, in 2010 to the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, in 2012 to the European Academy of Sciences, and in 2013 to the Academia Europaea. In 2019 he has received the honorary doctorate of the University of Colorado Boulder and in 2012 one of the University of Amsterdam.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Zoller (born 16 September 1952) is a theoretical physicist from Austria. He is Professor at the University of Innsbruck and works on quantum optics and quantum information and is best known for his pioneering research on quantum computing and quantum communication and for bridging quantum optics and solid state physics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975683}
{"src_title": "Richard Chase", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Chase was a native of Sacramento, California. By the age of 10, he exhibited evidence of all three parts of the Macdonald triad, an archaic theory suggesting the development of psychopathy. In his adolescence, he was said to be a heavy drug user.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early adulthood.", "content": "Chase developed hypochondria as he matured. He often complained that his heart would occasionally \"stop beating\", or that \"someone had stolen his pulmonary artery\". He would hold oranges on his head, believing Vitamin C would be absorbed by his brain via diffusion. Chase also believed that his cranial bones had become separated and were moving around, so he shaved his head to be able to watch this activity.  After leaving his mother's house (believing she was attempting to poison him), Chase rented an apartment with friends. Chase's roommates complained that he was constantly under the influence of alcohol, marijuana, and LSD. Chase would also walk around the apartment nude, even in front of company. Chase's roommates demanded that he move out. When he refused, the roommates moved out instead.  Once alone in the apartment, Chase began to capture, kill, and disembowel various animals, which he would then devour raw, sometimes mixing the raw organs with Coca-Cola in a blender and drinking the concoction. Chase believed that by ingesting the creatures he was preventing his heart from shrinking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Institutionalization.", "content": "Chase spent a brief time in a psychiatric ward in 1973. In 1976, he was involuntarily committed to a mental institution upon being taken to a hospital after injecting rabbit's blood into his veins. The staff nicknamed him \"Dracula\" because of his blood fixation. He broke the necks of two birds he caught through the institution window and drank their blood. He also extracted blood from therapy dogs with stolen syringes.  Chase was promptly diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia. After undergoing a battery of treatments involving psychotropic drugs, Chase was deemed no longer a danger to society; and, later in 1976, he was released to his mother's custody.  Chase's mother weaned him off his medication and got him his own apartment. He initially shared the apartment with roommates before all of them moved out, thus leaving Chase on his own.  Later investigation uncovered that, in mid-1977, Chase was stopped and arrested on a reservation in the Pyramid Lake (Nevada), area. His body was smeared with blood and a bucket of blood was found in his truck. The blood was determined to be cow's blood, and no charges were filed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Murder spree.", "content": "On December 29, 1977, Chase killed his first known victim in a drive-by shooting. The victim, Ambrose Griffin, was a 51-year-old engineer and father of two.  He attempted to enter the home of a woman two weeks later, but because her doors were locked, he walked away. Chase later told detectives that he took locked doors as a sign that he was not welcome, but unlocked doors were an invitation to come inside. He was once caught and chased off by a couple returning home as he pilfered their belongings; he had also urinated and defecated on their infant child's bed and clothing.  On January 23, 1978, Chase broke into a house and shot Teresa Wallin (three months pregnant at the time) three times. He then had sexual intercourse with her corpse while stabbing her with a butcher knife. He then removed multiple organs, cut off one of her nipples and drank her blood. He stuffed dog feces from Wallin's yard down her throat before leaving.  On January 27, Chase entered the home of 38-year-old Evelyn Miroth. He encountered her friend, Danny Meredith, whom he shot with his.22 handgun, then took Meredith's wallet and car keys. He then fatally shot Miroth, her six-year-old son Jason, and her 22-month-old nephew David Ferreira, before mutilating Miroth and engaging in necrophilia and cannibalism with her corpse.  A visitor's knock on the door startled Chase, who fled in Meredith's car, taking Ferreira's body with him. The visitor alerted a neighbor, who called police. They discovered that Chase had left perfect handprints and shoe imprints in Miroth's blood. Chase was arrested shortly afterwards - police who searched Chase's apartment found that the walls, floor, ceiling, refrigerator, and all of Chase's eating and drinking utensils were soaked in blood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "In 1979, Chase stood trial on six counts of murder. In order to avoid the death penalty, the defense tried to have him found guilty of second degree murder, which would result in a life sentence. Their case hinged on Chase's history of mental illness and the suggestion that his crimes were not premeditated.  On May 8, 1979, the jury found Chase guilty of six counts of first degree murder and, rejecting the argument that he was not guilty by reason of insanity, sentenced him to die in the gas chamber. His fellow inmates, aware of the extremely violent nature of Chase's crimes, feared him, and according to prison officials, often tried to persuade Chase to commit suicide.  Chase granted a series of interviews with Robert Ressler, during which he spoke of his fears of Nazis and UFOs, claiming that although he had killed, it was not his fault; he had been forced to kill to keep himself alive, which he believed any person would do. He asked Ressler to give him access to a radar gun, with which he could apprehend the Nazi UFOs, so that the Nazis could stand trial for the murders. He also handed Ressler a large amount of macaroni and cheese, which he had been hoarding in his pants pockets, believing that the prison officials were in league with the Nazis and attempting to kill him with poisoned food.  On December 26, 1980, Chase was found in his cell, dead. An autopsy found that he committed suicide with an overdose of prescribed antidepressants that he had saved over several weeks.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Trenton Chase (May 23, 1950 – December 26, 1980) was an American serial killer who killed six people in the span of a month in Sacramento, California. He was nicknamed \"The Vampire of Sacramento\" because he drank his victims' blood and cannibalized their remains.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975684}
{"src_title": "United Team of Germany at the Olympics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "As East Germany had introduced its own national anthem in 1949, Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 melody to Schiller's \"Ode an die Freude\" (\"Ode to Joy\") was played for winning German athletes as a compromise. In 1959, East Germany also introduced an altered black-red-gold tricolour flag of Germany as the flag of East Germany. Thus, a compromise had to be made also for the flag of the unified sports team. It was agreed upon to superimpose the plain flag with additional white Olympic rings. This flag was used from 1960 to 1968.  At the Games of 1956, 1960, and 1964 the team was simply known as \"Germany\" and the usual country code of GER was used, except at Innsbruck in 1964, when the Austrian hosts used the German language \"D\" for Deutschland. Yet, the IOC code EUA (from the official French International Olympic Committee (IOC) designation \"Équipe Unifiée d'Allemagne\") is currently applied retrospectively in the IOC medal database, without further explanation given. Only in 1976 did the IOC start to assign standardized codes. Before that time, the local Organizing Committees of each Olympic Games had chosen codes, often in the local language, resulting in a multitude of codes.  In the 1968 Winter Olympics, East and West German athletes competed as separate teams while still using the compromise Olympic flag and Beethoven anthem. While today listed under the IOC codes of FRG (West) and GDR (East), respectively, in 1968 they were asymmetrically called in French \"Allemagne\" (Germany) and \"Allemagne de l'Est\" (East Germany), and in Spanish \"Alemania\" and \"Alemania del Este\". The codes for Germany (West) were ALL (in Grenoble) and ALE (in Mexico City), and ADE for East Germany.  The separation was completed at the 1972 Summer Olympics with the use of separate flags and anthems. Because of the boycotts of the 1980 and 1984 summer games, only in 1972, 1976, and 1988 did two different German teams with different symbols compete against each other at Summer Olympics (not counting the Saar team of 1952). The German Democratic Republic ceased to exist in 1990, when it joined the Federal Republic of Germany in German reunification.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The United Team of Germany () competed in the 1956, 1960, and 1964 Winter and Summer Olympic Games as a united team of athletes from West Germany and East Germany. In 1956 the team also included athletes from a third Olympic body, the Saarland Olympic Committee, which had sent a separate team in 1952, but in 1956 was in the process of joining the German National Olympic Committee. This process was completed in February 1957 after the admission of Saarland into the Federal Republic of Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975685}
{"src_title": "Princess Lalla Salma of Morocco", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "She was born Salma Bennani in Fes.  Her parents were Hadj Abdelhamid Bennani, a schoolteacher, and Naïma Bensouda, who died in 1981, when Salma was three years old; from then on she and her sister Meryem were raised by her maternal grandmother, Hajja Fatma Abdellaoui Maâne. She lived in Rabat, with her half cousin Saira, and the two are commonly seen together in public.  She was educated in Rabat, where she attended a private school, Lycée Hassan II, Lycée Moulay Youssef, and l'École Nationale Supérieure d'Informatique et d'Analyse de Systèmes. She met her husband during a private party in 1999. After completing her engineering studies, she worked for a few months as an information services engineer at ONA Group, the country's largest private holding company (which is also controlled by the Moroccan Royal Family).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Salma married King Mohammed VI on 12 October 2001 (the sadaq or proclamation of marriage) and on 21 March 2002 (the zafaf or celebration of marriage), at the Rabat Royal Palace, Rabat, and was granted the title of \"Princess Lalla\", with the style of \"Royal Highness\" on her marriage.  The royal couple has two children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royal role.", "content": "Lalla Salma has kept quite a low profile as Princess of Morocco, although a more public one than her predecessors. She supports cancer associations and the Fez Sacred Music Festival.  Salma has represented the King and Morocco in meetings and gatherings in Saudi Arabia, Japan, Thailand, Israel, Tunisia and France. On 29 April 2011, she attended the wedding of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Catherine Middleton. She also attended the wedding of Guillaume, Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and Countess Stéphanie de Lannoy in 2012 and 2013 inauguration of King Willem-Alexander.  Princess Lalla Salma founded a cancer prevention association in Morocco. She also create Lalla Salma Foundation – Prevention and Treatment of Cancer and also has been involved in HIV/AIDS prevention in Africa. In 2006, Princess Lalla Salma was named a Goodwill Ambassador of the World Health Organization for the Cancer Care, Promotion and Prevention. Beside involved in cancer and HIV/AIDS prevention, she also supports and encourages women's empowerment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles, and honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles and styles.", "content": "Lalla Salma is styled as Her Royal Highness Princess Lalla Salma.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Princess Lalla Salma (born Salma Bennani (, Amazigh: ⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⵍⵎⴰ); 10 May 1978) is the princess consort of Morocco. She is married to King Mohammed VI, and the first wife of a Moroccan ruler to have been publicly acknowledged and given a royal title. After not being spotted by the media between December 2017 and April 2018, it was speculated that she had divorced and had gone into hiding.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975686}
{"src_title": "Fanny and Alexander", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Long Sword dance is related to the rapper sword dance of Northumbria, but the character is fundamentally different as it uses rigid metal or wooden swords, rather than the flexible spring steel rappers used by its northern relation.  Although Long Sword dances are found scattered all over Yorkshire, there are particular concentrations of dances in East Cleveland, the northern part of the North York Moors and around Sheffield. Cecil Sharp and other 20th Century folklorists formed that opinion that the dances originated from a religious or magical ceremony that was performed around Plough Monday to promote fertile soil: later researchers have cast doubt on such findings. They were banned under Oliver Cromwell, but revived when the monarchy was restored under Charles II.  Long Sword dances vary in the way they are performed, with some being slow and militaristic, such as the Grenoside or performed with pace and speed like Handsworth dances from near Sheffield. Others have different features including variations of numbers of dancers and distinctive movements.  Unlike many traditional dances in England, which are mainly performed by revival teams, Long Sword dances are often still performed by their own village teams, such as Grenoside Sword Dancers, the Goathland Plough Stots and Flamborough Sword Dancers. These teams generally maintain the traditions of their dances, such as traditional performances on Boxing Day or Plough Monday.  The International Sword Spectacular took place in Whitby, England in May 2004 and was held again in York in May 2008.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fanny and Alexander () is a 1982 historical drama film written and directed by Ingmar Bergman. The plot focuses on two siblings and their large family in Uppsala, Sweden during the first decade of the twentieth century. Following the death of the eponymous children's father (Allan Edwall), their mother (Ewa Fröling) remarries a prominent bishop (Jan Malmsjö) who becomes abusive towards Alexander for his vivid imagination.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975687}
{"src_title": "Kobayashi Issa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Issa was born and registered as Kobayashi Nobuyuki (小林 信之), with a childhood name of Kobayashi Yatarō (小林 弥太郎), the first son of a farmer family of Kashiwabara, now part of Shinano-machi, Shinano Province (present-day Nagano Prefecture). Issa endured the loss of his mother, who died when he was three. Her death was the first of numerous difficulties young Issa suffered.  He was cared for by his grandmother, who doted on him, but his life changed again when his father remarried five years later. Issa's half-brother was born two years later. When his grandmother died when he was 14, Issa felt estranged in his own house, a lonely, moody child who preferred to wander the fields. His attitude did not please his stepmother, who, according to Lewis Mackenzie, was a \"tough-fibred'managing' woman of hard-working peasant stock.\"  He was sent to Edo (present-day Tokyo) by his father one year later to eke out a living. Nothing of the next ten years of his life is known for certain. His name was associated with Kobayashi Chikua (小林 竹阿) of the Nirokuan (二六庵) haiku school, but their relationship is not clear. During the following years, he wandered through Japan and fought over his inheritance with his stepmother (his father died in 1801). He wrote a diary, now called Last Days of Issa's Father.  After years of legal wrangles, Issa managed to secure rights to half of the property his father left. He returned to his native village at the age of 49 and soon took a wife, Kiku. After a brief period of bliss, tragedy returned. The couple's first-born child died shortly after his birth. A daughter died less than two-and-a-half years later, inspiring Issa to write this haiku (translated by Lewis Mackenzie):  Issa married twice more late in his life, and through it all he produced a huge body of work.  A third child died in 1820. Then Kiku fell ill and died in 1823. \"Ikinokori ikinokoritaru samusa kana\" (生き残り生き残りたる寒さかな) [Outliving them,/Outliving them all,/Ah, the cold!] was written when Issa's wife died, when he was 61.  He died on January 5, 1828, in his native village. According to the old Japanese calendar, he died on the 19th day of Eleventh Month, Tenth Year of the Bunsei era. Since the Tenth Year of Bunsei roughly corresponds with 1827, many sources list this as his year of death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings and drawings.", "content": "Issa wrote over 20,000 haiku, which have won him readers up to the present day. Though his works were popular, he suffered great monetary instability. His poetry makes liberal use of local dialects and conversational phrases, and 'including many verses on plants and the lower creatures. Issa wrote 54 haiku on the snail, 15 on the toad, nearly 200 on frogs, about 230 on the firefly, more than 150 on the mosquito, 90 on flies, over 100 on fleas and nearly 90 on the cicada, making a total of about one thousand verses on such creatures'. By contrast, Bashō's verses are comparatively few in number, about 2,000 in all. Issa's haiku were sometimes tender, but stand out most for their irreverence and wry humor, as illustrated in these verses translated by Robert Hass:  No doubt about it,  the mountain cuckoo  is a crybaby. New Year's Day—  everything is in blossom!  I feel about average.  Issa, 'with his intense personality and vital language [and] shockingly impassioned verse...is usually considered a most conspicuous heretic to the orthodox Basho tradition'. Nevertheless, 'in that poetry and life were one in him...[&] poetry was a diary of his heart', it is at least arguable that 'Issa could more truly be said to be Basho's heir than most of the haikai poets of the nineteenth century'.  Issa's works include \"haibun\" (passages of prose with integrated haiku) such as \"Oraga Haru\" (おらが春 \"My Spring\") and \"Shichiban Nikki\" (七番日記 \"Number Seven Journal\"), and he collaborated on more than 250 renku (collaborative linked verse).  Issa was also known for his drawings, generally accompanying haiku: \"the Buddhism of the haiku contrasts with the Zen of the sketch\". His approach has been described as \"similar to that of Sengai...Issa's sketches are valued for the extremity of their abbreviation, in keeping with the idea of haiku as a simplification of certain types of experience.\"  One of Issa's haiku, as translated by R.H. Blyth, appears in J. D. Salinger's 1961 novel, \"Franny and Zooey\":  The same poem, in Russian translation, served as an epigraph for a novel \"Snail on the Slope\" by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky (published 1966–68), also providing the novel's title.  Another, translated by D.T. Suzuki, was written during a period of Issa's life when he was penniless and deep in debt. It reads:  Another, translated by Peter Beilenson with Harry Behn, reads:  Issa's most popular and commonly known tome, titled \"The Spring of My Life\", is autobiographical, and its structure combines prose and haiku.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kobayashi Issa former residence.", "content": "After a big fire swept through the post station of Kashiwabara on July 24, 1827, Issa lost his house and was forced to live in his \"kura\" (storehouse). \"The fleas have fled from the burning house and have taken refuge with me here\", says Issa. Of this same fire, he wrote: \"Hotarubi mo amaseba iya haya kore wa haya\" (蛍火もあませばいやはやこれははや) If you leave so much/As a firefly's glimmer, -/Good Lord! Good Heavens!'  This building, a windowless clay-walled structure, has survived, and was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1933.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Reflecting the popularity and interest in Issa as man and poet, Japanese books on Issa outnumber those on Buson and almost equal in number those on Bashō.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975688}
{"src_title": "Order of Liberation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The \"Order of Liberation\" was established by General de Gaulle in order n° 7, signed in Brazzaville on November 16, 1940. The object of the Order was to \"reward people, of the military or civilian communities, who will have distinguished themselves in the task of liberating France and her Empire\".  There were no restrictions as to age, sex, rank, origin or nationality; nor any regarding the nature of the deeds, other than their exceptional quality.  The Order has a single rank, the title of \"Compagnon de la Libération\" (\"Companion of the Liberation\"). General de Gaulle, founder of the Order, was the only \"Grand Maître\" (\"Grand Master\") of the Order.  The Order was usually bestowed by the traditional French military ceremony of \"prise d'armes\". The recipient was summoned forward by rank and name, and given the insignia while being commended thus: \"Nous vous reconnaissons comme notre Compagnon pour la libération de la France dans l’honneur et par la Victoire\" (“We acknowledge you as our companion for the Liberation of France, in honour and by Victory”).  The last awards to French citizens, units and communes were made on 23 January 1946. Awards to foreign nationals were made until 1960.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Award description.", "content": "The medal of the Order is called the \"Croix de la Libération\" (\"Cross of Liberation\"). It is a 31 mm wide by 33 mm high rectangular bronze shield bearing a 60 mm high vertical gladius on its obverse. On the blade of the gladius: a black enamelled Cross of Lorraine (symbol of the Free French Forces). On the reverse, in Latin: a relief inscription in bold letters on four rows, \"PATRIAM SERVANDO VICTORIAM TULIT\" (\"By serving the Fatherland, he/she achieved Victory\").  The award is suspended by a rectangular loop through the hilt of the gladius to a 36 mm wide silk moiré green ribbon with 4 mm wide black edge stripes and 1 mm wide black longitudinal stripes, 11 mm from the edges. Green represents hope, black represents mourning, symbolizing the state of France in 1940. The ribbon at first had diagonal black stripes, but the Order was only awarded in that form during August–September 1942.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recipients.", "content": "The individuals, units and communities listed below were awarded the Order of Liberation  A total of 1061 Crosses of Liberation were awarded:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Individual recipients.", "content": "Amongst the 1036 Companions of the Order, 65 were killed before the end of the war (8 May 1945) and another 260 received the distinction posthumously. Members of the French resistance, especially the more famous ones, often received the Order under their \"nom de guerre\".  Six women were awarded the title:  Nearly 10% of the recipients of the Order were younger than 20 at the beginning of the war. The youngest, Mathurin Henrio, was 14 when he was shot dead by Nazi officers for refusing to answer questions on the whereabouts of Maquisards.  The Order was re-opened twice to honour foreign personalities who helped liberate France:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military units.", "content": "Military units as a whole have been awarded the title of \"Compagnon de la Libération\".  On June 18, 1996, at Mont Valérien, the 18 military units which had been awarded the Cross of Liberation were given a green and black fourragère by President Jacques Chirac.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cities.", "content": "Heroic city which, since the crime of capitulation, has opposed a fierce resistance to any sort of collaboration with the enemy. Occupied by German troops and subjected to the harshest of repression, has given to the French, by numerous individual and collective actions, a magnificent example of courage and fidelity. By the blood of her martyred children, showed to the whole World the French will for national liberation.  Heroic city at the vanguard of the French Resistance and of the fight for liberation. Draped in her pride, despite the arrest and the massacre of her best sons, put up a fierce fight to the Germans at every instant. Despising the interdictions given by the invaders and their accomplices, demonstrated on November 11, 1943 her certainty of Victory and her will to take part in it. On November 14, and on December 2, 1943, responded to the reprisals and the execution of the chiefs of the Resistance movements by the destruction of the ammunition depot, barracks, power plants and factories used by the enemy. Has served the Motherland well.  Capital faithful to herself and to France, demonstrated, under the enemy occupation and oppression, and in spite of the voices of abandonment and treason, her unshakable resolution to fight on and to win. By her courage in the presence of the invader and by the indomitable energy with which she sustained the harshest of trials, deserved to remain as an example for the entire Nation. On August 19, in cooperation with the Allied and French armies, stood up to drive away the enemy through a series of glorious fights which began in the \"Cité\" and swiftly spread to all points of the city. In spite of heavy losses sustained by the French Forces of the Interior fighting within her, liberated itself through her own efforts and, united with the vanguard of the French Army that came to her rescue, has, on August 25, reduced the German to his last stands and made him capitulate.  Village of the Vercors which, thanks to the patriotism of her inhabitants, totally sacrificed herself for the cause of the French Resistance in 1944. Main parachuting centre for the Allied air force on the plateau, always helped by all means possible the military of the Maquis in the gathering of arms. Violently bombed on July 14, attacked by 24 German gliders on July 21 and 22, had 72 of her inhabitants massacred and the entirety of her houses burned down by a merciless enemy. Martyr of her faith in the resurrection of the Motherland.  Confronted by the enemy invasion, refused to abandon the battlefield which is hers: the Sea. Sent all of her children to fight under the flag of Free France, becoming the example and symbol of all Brittany.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Order of Liberation () is a French Order which was awarded to heroes of the Liberation of France during World War II. It is a very high honour, second only after the \"Légion d’Honneur\" (Legion of Honour). Very few people, military units and communes were ever awarded it; and only for their deeds during World War II. A different order, the \"Médaille de la Résistance\" (\"Resistance Medal\"), was created and awarded for lesser but still distinguished deeds by members of the Resistance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975689}
{"src_title": "Knight Rider 2000", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "In the year 2000, conventional handguns have been banned, with law enforcement carrying non-lethal \"ultrasound\" pistols. Nationwide budget changes have resulted in the adoption of cryonic suspension over standard incarceration for convicted criminals. Following the assassination of a mayor in San Antonio, his replacement demands a solution, which is found in the form of the \"Knight 4000\", a car that will become the next generation of the Knight Industries' supercar KITT.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot.", "content": "Thomas J. Watts is released from prison and assassinates the mayor. Police officer Shawn McCormick confronts the masked Watts holding the next mayor at gunpoint. She shoots Watts, who flees. The city's new mayor demands the gunman be found, while his councilmen reprimand him for disarming the police and setting up the cryo-prison where the inmates \"sleep away\" their sentences and emerge the same people as before.  The Knight Foundation, created from a combination of Knight Industries and the Foundation for Law and Government, offers a possible solution – the \"Knight 4000\". Devon Miles and his partner, Russel Maddock, are green-lit on the idea, but the city wants to see a working prototype. Devon brings in Michael Knight as the test driver. The Knight 4000 has most of KITT's original features, but adds an amphibious mode that allows the car to drive on water, a heads-up display, and a stun device that can remotely incapacitate a human.  Watts shoots Shawn after she discovers that some of her colleagues are working with the assassin to rearm criminals so the city will give the police their guns back. Doctors save Shawn by installing a microchip implant into her brain. She recovers, but cannot remember the details of the attack.  Michael is furious that KITT has been dismantled and rebuilds KITT's AI unit, which is difficult since Maddock has sold most of KITT's technology to medical research. He reactivates KITT's logic module and installs him in the dashboard of his 1957 Chevrolet Bel Air.  Shawn quits the police force after she learns her chief, Daniels, did not want to authorize her brain chip implant nor get involved in her case. She seeks employment with the Foundation, and Michael learns one of KITT's cybernetic chips is in her head. KITT links up with the chip and extracts her missing memories. Shawn remembers that Watts shot her and that her fellow officers were with him, including her partner.  Watts learns Shawn is alive and sends the corrupt cops to eliminate her and Michael, who are chased down when they try fleeing in KITT. KITT helps them evade capture by driving off a pier where he quickly sinks. Michael and Shawn are safe, but KITT is damaged when water enters his circuitry. With Watts believing Michael and Shawn dead, he captures Devon and uses mind scanning technology to discover what Devon knows, killing him afterward.  Michael and Shawn swim to safety and return to the Foundation, learning of Devon's death. After Devon's funeral, the mayor terminates FLAG's contract. Michael quits, but after Shawn confronts him, he returns and retrofits the Knight 4000 with KITT's AI.  Michael and Shawn follow her former partner to a warehouse where guns are stored. Shawn arranges a gun transaction with her former partner. Before he can cooperate with FLAG's investigation, Watts shoots him. Michael saves Shawn from being killed.  Maddock sends KITT a copy of the prison release papers for Watts, signed by the murdered mayor. Michael has KITT print more copies, sending one with a fake signature to Daniels using her name, and a similar one to the mayor, this time with his name. Following the mayor's limo, they record a conversation between the mayor and Watts discussing the papers.  After ambushing a caravan of corrupt cops, they find no guns. KITT informs Michael there is another group of police cars headed for the local mall. Maddock convinces Daniels to allow KITT to pursue them.  Watts has begun a transaction with a gun buyer. When one of the corrupt cops guarding Watts sights Shawn moving in, he shoots her, and the buyer and Watts flee. Michael catches up to Watts and disarms him. A fight ensues between Michael and Watts, Michael only stopping when Watts picks up his handgun. Shawn, only slightly wounded, arrives with the other handgun, instructing Watts to drop his. Michael talks Shawn down from shooting Watts. Watts then draws another gun hidden under his coat but Michael draws out an ultrasound gun and shoots Watts, who falls to his death.  After Watts' defeat, the mayor is incarcerated, Michael returns to retirement, and KITT remains at the Knight Foundation with Shawn and Maddock. The trio continue their police work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cast.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cameo.", "content": "Actor James Doohan makes a cameo appearance as an innocent bystander that KITT mistakes for a criminal stealing money from an ATM. KITT stuns the suspect and the man collapses. When Michael and Maddock pick up the man to arrest him, they find Mr. Doohan, delirious (from being stunned), and mumbling various lines from his role of Scotty on \"\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "The theme song, \"Knight Rider 2000\", by Jan Hammer was released on his 1994 album \"Drive\".  The studio was unable to use the real Pontiac Banshee IV concept car for the movie, so instead it hired Jay Ohrberg Star Cars Inc. to customize a 1991 Dodge Stealth for the Knight 4000. The custom car can also be seen, albeit briefly, as a stolen supercar in \"CHiPs '99\", and as a future police vehicle in \"Power Rangers Time Force\", and in an episode of the television series \"Black Scorpion\" in 2001.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "As well as being available as a single DVD, it is included in the Region 1, Region 2 and Region 4 versions of the \"Knight Rider\" Season One box set.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Knight Rider 2000 is a 1991 American made-for-television science fiction action film based on the 1982–1986 television series \"Knight Rider\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975690}
{"src_title": "Osvobozené divadlo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beginnings.", "content": "The first performance took place on February 8, 1926, with the play Georges Dandin by Molière (it was renamed \"Cirkus Dandin\"), the performance was not very successful. In 1927 the theatre moved to \"Umělecká beseda\" and in that time Jiří Voskovec and Jan Werich first appeared on the stage with their own play \"Vest Pocket Revue\", a montage of Dadaist gags, intellectual humour and jazz songs. The performance achieved great acclaim and Werich, together with Voskovec, became part of the ensemble. In the same year the young pianist and composer Jaroslav Ježek joined them, and together with Werich and Voskovec represented the core of the theatre group during its whole existence. They used masks inspired by the Fratellini clowns; Voskovec's mask was inspired by François Fratellini and Werich's by Albert Fratellini. Jiří Frejka together with another important exponent and founder, E. F. Burian, left the theatre due to disputes with the director Jindřich Honzl, an avant-garde theatre theorist who directed all the plays of the Osvobozené divadlo. The foursome (Voskovec, Werich, Ježek, and Honzl), but mainly Voskovec and Werich, gradually became the most important part of the group and their cooperation and contribution is still considered as very distinctive and legendary.  The performances of Osvobozené divadlo up to 1932 were predominantly of an entertaining character. The programme was rehearsed very loosely; it was based mainly on improvisation and was also dependent on reactions of the audience. V+W in their plays worked chiefly with historical themes and exotic places (plays \"Sever proti jihu, Golem, Nebe na zemi, Fata morgana, Ostrov Dynamit, Smoking Revue\"); the performances were richly accompanied by Ježek's jazz-influenced music and songs. In 1931 Ježek also established a partnership with Karel Ančerl, later chief of the Czech Philharmonic. Ančerl worked in the theatre as a conductor till 1933, and markedly improved the theatre orchestra.  Osvobozené divadlo also introduced so-called \"\"forbíny\"\" (from the German \"Vorbühne\" - forestage, front piece) - improvised dialogues on the forestage, often presenting topical reactions to political and cultural events and subjects.  In 1932 V+W came up with the first explicitly political play, \"Caesar\". In that very successful play (191 reprises), the authors for the first time warned against the danger of Nazism, and the theatre began to be regarded as political. Another strongly anti-fascist play, \"Osel a stín\" (The Ass and the Shadow; 1933), was also very leftist-oriented. In 1934 Osvobozené divadlo began to present another play, \"Kat a blázen\", whose criticism of Nazism was very sharp, straight and consistent. The play had problems with censorship, and the German embassy lodged strong protests with the \"Umělecká beseda\" management. After continuing complaints from German officials Osvobozené divadlo was expelled from the \"Umělecká beseda\" building \"U Nováků Palace\" in 1935.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spoutané divadlo (\"The Tied Theatre\").", "content": "The theatre was renamed after the expulsion to \"Spoutané divadlo\" and settled in the \"Rokoko Theatre\" in Wenceslas Square. In a one-year period the plays \"Balada z hadrů\" (play about F. Villon), \"Těžká Barbora\" etc. were created.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Osvobozené divadlo again.", "content": "In 1936, after the triumph of the play \"Balada z hadrů\", Osvobozené divadlo came back to \"U Nováků Palace\", but other anti-Nazi plays - \"Svět za mřížemi, Pěst na oko\" and above all \"Kat a blázen\", whose performance led to demonstrations by the fascist element in the audience, led to a prohibition of all activities. The theatre was officially closed on November 10, 1938, and in January 1939 Voskovec, Werich and Ježek were forced to emigrate to the United States.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1946-1948.", "content": "After World War II. Werich and Voskovec (Ježek died in 1942 in New York City) came back from exile and attempted to restore Osvobozené divadlo, but the social atmosphere in post-war Czechoslovakia was different and not very friendly towards their kind of satire. After the communist putch in 1948 occurred, Voskovec emigrated again and the activity of the theatre completely ceased.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Significance.", "content": "Osvobozené divadlo represented an important part of the Czechoslovakia First Republic cultural scene. It was the place where many theatre experiments occurred. Archive recordings of plays and particularly of Ježek's music and songs are popular and reissued till now.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Osvobozené divadlo (1926–1938) (\"Liberated Theatre\" or \"Prague Free Theatre\") was a Prague avant-garde theatre scene founded as the theatre section of an association of Czech avant-garde artists Devětsil (\"Butterbur\") in 1926. The theatre's beginnings were strongly influenced by Dadaism and Futurism, later by Poetism (a specific Czech art movement). The theatre was very leftist oriented, but it could also be critical of the Communists. One of the founders, Jiří Frejka, came up with the name in 1926. In the theatre both authorial plays and works by well-established modern authors; such as G. Apollinaire, A. Jarry, J. Cocteau, A. Breton, F. T. Marinetti, and V. Nezval were performed. The modern conception of the scene also laid more emphasis on lighting and the theatrical conception adjured more cooperation and contacts between actors and audience.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975691}
{"src_title": "Thomas Nelson Jr.", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Nelson was the grandson of Thomas \"Scotch Tom\" Nelson, an immigrant from Cumberland, England, who was an early pioneer at Yorktown. His parents were Elizabeth (Burwell) and William Nelson, who was also a leader of the colony and briefly served as governor. Thomas was born at Yorktown, and like many Virginians of his time, was educated in England. He attended Newcome's School before entering Christ's College at Cambridge University in 1758. He graduated in 1760 and returned home the following year. He helped his father with his farm at this time.  Thomas was first elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1761. The following year he married Lucy Grymes (her maternal uncle was Peyton Randolph, a brother-in-law of Congressman Benjamin Harrison V; her paternal aunt was the mother of \"Light Horse Harry\" Lee III). The couple would have eleven children altogether. Their son Hugh Nelson (1768–1836) would later serve in the U.S. Congress.  Nelson's first term in the Congress continued until 1776 when a bout of illness forced his resignation. While a member of Congress, Nelson still found time to return home and play a key role in Virginia's Constitutional Convention in the spring of 1776. He returned to Congress in time to sign the Declaration of Independence.  Thomas Nelson was one of the thirteen committee members appointed in the Continental Congress on June 12, 1776, to \"prepare and digest the form of confederation\" which led to the Articles of Confederation.  He was commanding General of the Lower Virginia Militia, and succeeded Thomas Jefferson as governor of Virginia (after William Fleming's nine days as acting governor). Nelson himself was engaged in the final Siege of Yorktown. According to legend, he urged General Washington (or, in some versions, the Marquis de Lafayette) to fire on his own home, the Nelson House, where Cornwallis had his headquarters, offering five guineas to the first man to hit his house.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and remembrance.", "content": "He died at his son's home in Hanover County, Virginia and is buried in the Grace Churchyard at Yorktown. Nelson was a member of Grace Church. This tribute was paid by Colonel Innes:  The illustrious General Thomas Nelson is no more! He paid the last great debt to nature, on Sunday, the fourth of the present month, at his estate in Hanover. He who undertakes barely to recite the exalted virtues which adorned the life of this great and good man, will unavoidably pronounce a panegyric on human nature. As a man, a citizen, a legislator, and a patriot, he exhibited a conduct untarnished and undebased by sordid or selfish interest, and strongly marked with the genuine characteristics of true religion, sound benevolence, and liberal policy. Entertaining the most ardent love for civil and religious liberty, he was among the first of that glorious band of patriots whose exertions dashed and defeated the machinations of British tyranny, and gave United America freedom and independent empire. At a most important crisis, during the late struggle for American liberty, when this state appeared to be designated as the theatre of action for the contending armies, he was selected by the unanimous suffrage of the legislature to command the virtuous yeomanry of his country; in this honourable employment he remained until the end of the war; as a soldier, he was indefatigably active and coolly intrepid; resolute and undejected in misfortunes, he towered above distress, and struggled with the manifold difficulties to which his situation exposed him, with constancy and courage. In the memorable year 1781, when the whole force of the southern British army was directed to the immediate subjugation of this state, he was called to the helm of government; this was a juncture which indeed 'tried men's souls.' He did not avail himself of this opportunity to retire in the rear of danger; but on the contrary, took the field at the head of his countrymen; and at the hazard of his life, his fame, and individual fortune, by his decision and magnanimity, he saved not only his country, but all America, from disgrace, if not from total ruin. Of this truly patriotic and heroic conduct, the renowned commander in chief, with all the gallant officers of the combined armies employed at the siege of York, will bear ample testimony; this part of his conduct even contemporary jealousy, envy, and malignity were forced to approve, and this, more impartial posterity, if it can believe, will almost adore. If, after contemplating the splendid and heroic parts of his character, we shall inquire for the milder virtues of humanity, and seek for the man, we shall find the refined, beneficent, and social qualities of private life, through all its forms and combinations, so happily modified and united in him, that in the words of the darling poet of nature, it may be said: His life was gentle: and the elements so mixed in him, that nature might stand up And say to all the world—this was a man.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heritage.", "content": "Nelson County, Virginia and Nelson County, Kentucky were named in his honor. The Virginia State Council for Higher Education named Thomas Nelson Community College in Thomas Nelson's honor in 1967. The Nelson County School District, which operates most of the public schools in the Kentucky county, opened the new Thomas Nelson High School in 2012.  An uncle Thomas Nelson (1716–1782) aka \"Secretary Nelson\" was the father of Captain Thomas Nelson who married Sally Cary (1762–1779) who was a first cousin once removed of Sally Fairfax. Thomas Nelson Jr., the subject of this article, was an ancestor of Thomas Nelson Page and William Nelson Page.  The circa 1730 Nelson House built by \"Scotch Tom\" Nelson in Yorktown, Virginia, and occupied by Thomas Nelson Jr. during the Revolutionary War is a National Historical Landmark maintained by the Colonial National Historical Park of the U.S. National Park Service.  Archival Records", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas Nelson Jr. (December 26, 1738 – January 4, 1789) was an American planter, soldier, and statesman from Yorktown, Virginia. He represented Virginia in the Continental Congress and was its Governor in 1781. He is regarded as one of the U.S. Founding Fathers. He signed the Declaration of Independence as a member of the Virginia delegation and fought in the militia during the Siege of Yorktown.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975692}
{"src_title": "Anne of Bohemia and Hungary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "She was the elder child and only daughter of King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary (1456–1516) and his third wife Anne of Foix-Candale. She was an older sister of Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia. Her paternal grandparents were King Casimir IV of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, of the Jagiellon dynasty, and Elisabeth of Austria, one of the heiresses of Bohemia, Duchy of Luxembourg and Duchy of Kujavia. Her maternal grandparents were Gaston de Foix, Count of Candale and Catherine de Foix, Infanta of the Kingdom of Navarre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "Anne was born in Buda (now Budapest). The death of Vladislaus II on 13 March 1516 left both siblings in the care of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. It was arranged that Anna marry his grandson, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, second son of Queen Regnant Joanna of Castile and her late husband and co-ruler, Philip I of Castile. Anna married Ferdinand on 26 May 1521 in Linz, Austria. At the time Ferdinand was governing the Habsburg hereditary lands on behalf of his older brother Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. It was stipulated that Ferdinand should succeed Anne's brother in case he died without male heirs.  Her brother Louis was killed in the Battle of Mohács against Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire on 29 August 1526. This left the thrones of both Bohemia and Hungary vacant. Ferdinand claimed both kingdoms and was elected King of Bohemia on 24 October of the same year, making Anna Queen of Bohemia.  Hungary was a more difficult case. Suleiman had annexed much of its lands. Ferdinand was proclaimed King of Hungary by a group of nobles, but another faction of Hungarian nobles refused to allow a foreign ruler to hold that title and elected John Zápolya as an alternative king. The resulting conflict between the two rivals and their successors lasted until 1571. In 1531, Ferdinand's older brother Charles V recognised Ferdinand as his successor as Holy Roman Emperor, and Ferdinand was elevated to the title King of the Romans.  Anna and Ferdinand had fifteen children, all of whom were born in Bohemia or Hungary. Both of these kingdoms had suffered for centuries from premature deaths among heirs and a shortage of succession prospects. Meanwhile, Anna served as queen consort of Bohemia and as one of three living queens of Hungary until her death. She died in Prague, days after giving birth to her last daughter Joanna. In 1556, Charles V abdicated and Ferdinand succeeded as emperor, nine years after Anna's death.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna of Bohemia and Hungary (23 July 1503 – 27 January 1547), sometimes known as Anna Jagellonica, was Queen of the Romans, Bohemia and Hungary as the wife of King Ferdinand I, later Holy Roman Emperor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975693}
{"src_title": "Philibert II, Duke of Savoy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Pont-d'Ain, Philibert was the son of Philip (Filippo) the Landless, who until 1496 was a junior member of the ducal family, and his first wife Marguerite of Bourbon. In 1496, Philibert's father surprisingly succeeded as Duke, when his underaged grandnephew Duke Charles II of Savoy died, being the male heir of the line of Savoy.  The same year, the 16-year-old Philibert married the 9-year-old Yolande Louise of Savoy, his cousin and the only sister of the deceased young duke. She was daughter of Duke Charles I of Savoy, the Warrior, and Blanche of Montferrat, as well as granddaughter of Philibert's late uncle, Duke Amadeus IX of Savoy. She was the heir-general of her brother, father, grandfather, and her grandmother Yolande of France, the eldest surviving daughter of king Charles VII of France. Her birthright, after the death of her brother, was the succession of the kingdoms of Cyprus, Jerusalem, and Armenia although Philibert's father took those titles. After a brief reign, Philip II died in 1497 and Philibert succeeded as Duke of Savoy. The young couple then at last advanced their claims, and took the titles Queen and King of Cyprus, Jerusalem and Armenia.  In 1499, the 12-year-old first wife of Philibert died, childless. Her heir was her first cousin, Princess Charlotte of Naples, later Countess of Laval. Philibert continued to use the titles of Cyprus etc., despite the death of his first wife.  His next marriage tied him into the web of alliances around the Habsburgs, who ruled the Netherlands, Alsace, Franche-Comté, Tyrol, Austria, etc. In 1501, he married Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy, the only daughter of Maximilian I and his first wife Mary of Burgundy, the duchess of Burgundy. She had previously been married to John, Prince of Asturias, heir to the thrones of Aragon and Castile.  Early in Philibert's reign, his first cousin Charles VIII of France died in 1498. The next king, Louis XII, would invade Italy the following year and conquer most of Naples. Louis would also conquer Milan, which neighboured Savoy to the east, thus putting the Savoyards between French possessions.  Philibert died in 1504 at the age of 24. Because he had no children, he was succeeded by his young half-brother Charles III.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Philibert married:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philibert II (10 April 1480 – 10 September 1504), nicknamed the Handsome or the Good, was the Duke of Savoy from 1497 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975694}
{"src_title": "Hermann Balck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Balck was born in Danzig - Langfuhr, present-day Wrzeszcz in Poland. He was the son of William Balck and his wife Mathilde, née Jensen. His family had a long military tradition, and his father was a senior officer in the Imperial German Army.  On 10 April 1913 Balck entered the Hanoverian Rifle Battalion 10 in Goslar as a cadet. From 12 February 1914 he attended the Hanoverian Military College, where he remained until called up with the outbreak of the First World War in August.  Balck served as a mountain infantry officer, and his unit played a key role in the Schlieffen Plan, leading the crossing at Sedan. He fought on the western, eastern, Italian and Balkan fronts. He served three years as a company commander, ending the war in command of a machine-gun company. At one point he led an extended patrol that operated independently behind Russian lines for several weeks. Over the course of the war he was wounded seven times and awarded the Iron Cross First Class. Balck was nominated for Prussia's highest honor, the Pour le Mérite, in October 1918, but the war ended before his citation completed processing.  During the interwar period Balck was selected as one of the 4,000 officers to continue on in the military serving in the \"Reichswehr\". He transferred to the 18th Cavalry Regiment in 1922, and remained with that unit for 12 years. Balck twice turned down a post in the German General Staff, the normal path for advancing to high rank in the German army, preferring instead to remain a line officer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Balck was serving in the \"Oberkommando des Heeres\" (OKH) as a staff officer in the Inspectorate of Motorized Troops, which was in charge of refitting and reorganizing the growing panzer forces. In October he was placed in command of one of the mechanised regiments of the 1st Panzer Division, with which he served during the Battle of France. The 1st Panzer Division made up a part of Guderian's panzer corps. Balck's regiment spearheaded a crossing over the Meuse, and established a bridgehead on the far side.  During the winter of 1940 through the spring of 1941 he commanded a panzer regiment, and led this unit during the Battle of Greece. He later commanded a panzer brigade in the same division. He returned to staff duties with the OKH in the Inspectorate of Armoured Forces in July 1941. In May 1942, Balck went to the Eastern Front in command of the 11th Panzer Division in Ukraine and southern Russia. Following the encirclement of the 6th Army at Stalingrad in the Soviet Operation Uranus, the German southern front faced a generalized collapse. Balck's division took part in the efforts to stop the Soviet advance. In battles along the Chir River his division destroyed an entire Soviet Tank Corps and much of the Soviet 5th Tank Army. For this and other achievements Balck was made one of only twenty-seven officers in the entire war who received the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds.  Balck was then given command of the Heer's elite unit, Großdeutschland Division which he led at Zhitomir in 1943. After a brief posting to Italy in which he commanded the XIV Panzer Corps, he returned to command the XLVIII Panzer Corps on the Eastern Front in December 1943, as well as the operations against the Soviet winter/spring offensive in western Ukraine in 1944. In July 1944 Balck commanded the Corps during the initial phase of the Soviet Lvov-Sandomierz Offensive. He was closely involved in the failed relief attempt of the encircled XIII Army Corps in the Brody pocket, where it was destroyed. In August 1944 he assumed command of the 4th Panzer Army.  In September 1944 Balck was transferred from 4th Panzer Army in Poland to the Western Front to command Army Group G in relief of General Johannes Blaskowitz in the Alsace region of France. Balck was unable to stop the Allied advance under General George S. Patton, and in late December he was relieved of command of Army Group G and placed in the officer reserve pool. By the intervention of General Heinz Guderian he was transferred to command the reconstituted 6th Army in Hungary, which also had operational control of two Hungarian armies. Balck's unit surrendered to the U.S. XX Corps in Austria on 8 May 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Postwar life.", "content": "Balck was a POW and remained in captivity until 1947. He declined to participate in the US Army Historical Division's study on the war. After the war Balck found employment as a depot worker. In 1948 he was arrested for murder for the execution of artillery commander Lieutenant-Colonel Johann Schottke. The incident in question occurred while Balck served as commander of Army Group G on the western front. On 28 November 1944 near Saarbrücken, Schottke's unit had failed to provide its supportive artillery fire upon its target area. When searched for he was found drunk on duty. Balck held a summary judgment, and Schottke was executed by firing squad. The sentence and execution were conducted without the ordained military tribunal. Balck was found guilty and sentenced to three years. He served half of this sentence before being granted early release.  Hermann Balck was sentenced by a French military court in Colmar to 20 years of hard labour for his role in the scorched earth Operation Waldfest but never extradited.  In the late 1970s and early 1980s Balck and Friedrich von Mellenthin participated in seminars and panel discussions with senior NATO leaders at the US Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career assessment.", "content": "According to the historian David T. Zabecki, Balck was considered a gifted commander of armored troops, exemplified by his handling of 11th Panzer Division and XLVIII Panzer Corps during 1942–43. In reviewing Balck's command of the division during the Chir River crisis of December 1942, U.S. General William DePuy estimated Balck to have been \"perhaps the best division commander in the German Army.\" Some battles Balck directed are described in \"Panzer Battles\", the memoir of the former general Friedrich von Mellenthin, whom he met when Balck's 11th Panzer Division came under the command of the XLVIII Panzer Corps. At the time Mellenthin was serving as Chief of Staff of the XLVIII Panzer Corps.  Balck started the war as an \"Oberstleutnant\" (lieutenant-colonel) in 1939 and ended it as a \"General der Panzertruppe\" (general of armored troops). Balck was one of only twenty-seven officers in the Wehrmacht to receive the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds. His career was detailed in contrast to that of Alfred Jodl in \"Weapons and Hope\" by Freeman Dyson. Balck's own autobiography is entitled \"Ordnung im Chaos: Erinnerungen, 1893-1948\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georg Otto Hermann Balck (7 December 1893 – 29 November 1982) was a highly decorated officer of the German Army who served in both World War I and World War II, rising to the rank of General der Panzertruppe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975695}
{"src_title": "Crataegus monogyna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "Other common names include may, mayblossom, maythorn, quickthorn, whitethorn, motherdie, and haw.  This species is one of several that have been referred to as \"Crataegus oxyacantha\", a name that has been rejected by the botanical community as too ambiguous. In 1793, Medikus published the name \"C. apiifolia\" for a European hawthorn now included in \"C. monogyna,\" but that name is illegitimate under the rules of botanical nomenclature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The common hawthorn is a shrub or small tree 5–14 metres (15 to 45 feet) tall, with a dense crown. The bark is dull brown with vertical orange cracks. The younger stems bear sharp thorns, approximately 12.5 mm (half an inch) long. The leaves are 20 to 40 mm (1 to 11⁄2 inches) long, obovate and deeply lobed, sometimes almost to the midrib, with the lobes spreading at a wide angle. The upper surface is dark green above and paler underneath.  The hermaphrodite flowers are produced in late spring (May to early June in its native area) in corymbs of 5–25 together; each flower is about 10 mm diameter, and has five white petals, numerous red stamens, and a single style; they are moderately fragrant. The flowers are pollinated by midges, bees and other insects and later in the year bear numerous \"haws\". The haw is a small, oval dark red fruit about 10 mm long, berry-like, but structurally a pome containing a single seed. Haws are important for wildlife in winter, particularly thrushes and waxwings; these birds eat the haws and disperse the seeds in their droppings.  The common hawthorn is distinguished from the related but less widespread Midland hawthorn (\"C. laevigata\") by its more upright growth, the leaves being deeply lobed, with spreading lobes, and in the flowers having just one style, not two or three. However they are inter-fertile and hybrids occur frequently; they are only entirely distinct in their more typical forms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medicinal use.", "content": "\"Crataegus monogyna\" is one of the most common species used as the \"hawthorn\" of traditional herbalism. The plant parts used are usually sprigs with both leaves and flowers, or alternatively the fruit (\"berries\"). Hawthorn has been investigated by evidence-based medicine for treating cardiac insufficiency.  \"Crataegus monogyna\" is a source of antioxidant phytochemicals, especially extracts of hawthorn leaves with flowers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In gardening and agriculture.", "content": "Common hawthorn is extensively planted as a hedge plant, especially for agricultural use. Its spines and close branching habit render it effectively stock- and human-proof, with some basic maintenance. The traditional practice of hedge laying is most commonly practised with this species. It is a good fire wood which burns with a good heat and little smoke.  Numerous hybrids exist, some of which are used as garden shrubs. The most widely used hybrid is \"C. × media\" (\"C. monogyna\" × \"C. laevigata\"), of which several cultivars are known, including the very popular 'Paul's Scarlet' with dark pink double flowers. Other garden shrubs that have sometimes been suggested as possible hybrids involving the common hawthorn, include the various-leaved hawthorn of the Caucasus, which is only very occasionally found in parks and gardens.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Edible \"berries\", petals, and leaves.", "content": "The fruit of hawthorn, called haws, are edible raw but are commonly made into jellies, jams, and syrups, used to make wine, or to add flavour to brandy. Botanically they are pomes, but they look similar to berries. A haw is small and oblong, similar in size and shape to a small olive or grape, and red when ripe. Haws develop in groups of two or three along smaller branches. They are pulpy and delicate in taste. In this species (\"C. monogyna\") they have only one seed, but in other species of hawthorn there may be up to five seeds.  Petals are also edible, as are the leaves, which if picked in spring when still young are tender enough to be used in salads. Hawthorn petals are used in the medieval English recipe for spinee, an almond-milk based pottage recorded in 'The Forme of Cury' by the Chief Master-Cook of King Richard II, c. 1390.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable trees.", "content": "An ancient specimen, and reputedly the oldest tree of any species in France, is to be found alongside the church at Saint Mars sur la Futaie, Mayenne. The tree has a height of 9 m (30 feet), and a girth of 265 cm (8'8\") (2009). The inscription on the plaque beneath reads: \"This hawthorn is probably the oldest tree in France. Its origin goes back to St Julien (3rd century)\", but such claims are impossible to verify.  A famous specimen in England was the Glastonbury or Holy Thorn which, according to legend, sprouted from the staff of Joseph of Arimathea after he thrust it into the ground while visiting Glastonbury in the 1st century AD. The tree was noteworthy because it flowered twice in a year, once in the late spring which is normal, but also once after the harshness of midwinter had passed. The original tree at Glastonbury Abbey, felled in the 1640s during the English Civil War, has been propagated as the cultivar 'Biflora'. A replacement was planted by the local council in 1951, but was cut down by vandals in 2010.  The oldest known living specimen in East Anglia, and possibly in the United Kingdom, is known as The Hethel Old Thorn, and is located in the churchyard in the small village of Hethel, south of Norwich, in Norfolk. It is reputed to be more than 700 years old, having been planted in the 13th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "The hawthorn is associated with Faerie in Ireland, and as such is not disturbed by those who believe in the danger fairies traditionally represent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Crataegus monogyna, known as common hawthorn, oneseed hawthorn, or single-seeded hawthorn, is a species of hawthorn native to Europe, northwest Africa and West Asia. It has been introduced in many other parts of the world. It can be an invasive weed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975696}
{"src_title": "George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and military career.", "content": "Born the first son of Richard Bingham, 2nd Earl of Lucan, an Anglo-Irish peer, and Elizabeth Bingham (née Belasyse), Lord Bingham (as he was styled up until late June 1839) attended Westminster School but left formal education to be commissioned as an ensign in the 6th Regiment of Foot on 29 August 1816. He transferred to the 11th Light Dragoons on 24 December 1818.  Lord Bingham became a lieutenant in the 8th Regiment of Foot on 20 January 1820, a captain in the 74th Regiment of Foot on 16 May 1822 and was promoted to major, unattached, on 23 June 1825. He transferred to the 17th Lancers on 1 December 1825 and became commanding officer of the regiment with the rank of lieutenant colonel on 9 November 1826; he lavished such expense on his officers' uniforms and horses that the officers became known as \"Bingham's Dandies\". He was also elected as MP for County Mayo in 1826 and held that seat until 1830. During the Russo-Turkish War, which began in 1828, he acted observer with the Imperial Russian Army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "'The Exterminator'.", "content": "Lord Bingham succeeded his father as 3rd Earl of Lucan in the Peerage of Ireland on 30 June 1839 and, having become an Irish Representative Peer in June 1840 and having been promoted to colonel on 23 November 1841, he became Lord Lieutenant of Mayo in 1845. During the Great Famine in the late 1840s, he was ruthless and introduced mass evictions from villages such as Ballinrobe. Famously stating that he \"would not breed paupers to pay priests,\" he demolished over 300 homes and evicted 2,000 people in Ballinrobe between 1846 and 1849. He even insisted on closing the workhouse in Castlebar at the height of the Famine. For this, Lord Bingham earned the hatred of many Irishmen and became known as \"The Exterminator.\" He was promoted to major general on 11 November 1851.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Crimean War.", "content": "At the outbreak of the Crimean War, Lord Lucan applied for a post and was made commander of the Cavalry Division. His brother-in-law, the 7th Earl of Cardigan, was one of his subordinates, commanding the Light Brigade – an unfortunate choice as the two men heartily detested each other. Promoted to brevet lieutenant general on 18 August 1854, he was present at the Battle of Alma in September 1854 but, on the orders of the Army commander, Lord Raglan, he held his division in reserve. At the Battle of Balaclava in October 1854, Lucan received an order from Raglan and in turn ordered Cardigan to lead the Charge of the Light Brigade, resulting in heavy British casualties without significant gains. As Lucan brought the Heavy Brigade forward in support, he was lightly wounded in the leg. Raglan blamed Lucan for the loss (\"You have lost the light brigade\"), and censured him in despatches. Although Lucan complained against this censure, as the relationship between the army commander and the cavalry commander had clearly broken down, he was recalled to England, where he returned at the beginning of March 1855.  On his arrival, Lucan's demand for a court-martial was declined and instead he defended himself with a speech to the House of Lords on 19 March 1855, blaming Raglan and his deceased aide-de-camp, Captain Louis Nolan. This tactic appears to have been successful as he was subsequently appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 5 July 1855, and Colonel of the 8th Light Dragoons, who had charged with the Light Brigade, on 17 November 1855.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "A significant contribution was made by Lucan to Parliament when he produced a solution to the problem of admitting Jews to Parliament. Prior to this, distinguished Jews had declined to take the oath \"on the true faith of a Christian\" and having not been sworn in as required by statute, were refused voting rights although having been elected an MP. Lucan proposed, by way of a compromise, that each House could decide and modify its own oath. The House of Lords, who had long opposed the admission of Jews, agreed to this. A prominent Jew, Lionel Nathan Rothschild, was thus allowed to enter the House of Commons and was sworn in on 26 July 1858.  Although Lucan never again saw active duty, he was promoted to lieutenant general on 24 December 1858, and, having become colonel of the 1st Regiment of Life Guards on 27 February 1865, he was to promoted to general on 28 August 1865 and advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1869. He formally retired in October 1877, but after some lobbying he was promoted to field marshal on 21 June 1887. He died at 13 South Street, Park Lane, London, on 10 November 1888 and was buried at Laleham in Middlesex.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1829, Bingham married Lady Anne Brudenell, seventh daughter of Robert Brudenell, 6th Earl of Cardigan; they had six children, two daughters being still born or dying soon after birth:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Field Marshal George Charles Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan, (16 April 1800 – 10 November 1888), styled Lord Bingham before 1839, was an Anglo-Irish aristocrat and British Army officer. He was a ruthless landlord during the Great Famine in Ireland, evicting thousands of his Irish tenants and renting his land to wealthy ranchers. He was one of three men, along with Captain Nolan and Lord Raglan, responsible for the fateful order during the Battle of Balaclava in October 1854 that led to the Light Brigade commander, The Earl of Cardigan, leading the Charge of the Light Brigade. Lord Lucan also came up with a solution that allowed Jews to sit in Parliament. He was subsequently promoted to field marshal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975697}
{"src_title": "Hexavalent vaccine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formulations.", "content": "The generic vaccine is known as diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis adsorbed, inactivated poliovirus, haemophilus b conjugate [meningococcal protein conjugate] and hepatitis b [recombinant] vaccine. The liquid vaccine is also known in abbreviated form as DTaP-HepB-IPV-Hib or DTPa-HepB-IPV-Hib. Branded formulations include Hexavac, Hexaxim, Hexyon, and Vaxelis manufactured by Sanofi Pasteur.  There is a two-part formulation known in abbreviated form as DTaP-IPV-HepB/Hib or DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib. It consists of a suspension of diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis, hepatitis B, and inactivated poliomyelitis (DTaP-IPV-HepB or DTPa-HBV-IPV) vaccine that is used to reconstitute a lyophilised (freeze-dried) Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) powder. A branded formulation with a 3-antigen pertussis component, Infanrix hexa, is manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "EU approval.", "content": "On 23 October 2000, the European Commission issued marketing approval for Hexavac and for Infanrix hexa.  Marketing approval for Hexavac was suspended in November 2005, on the advice of the agency's Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) in view of the variability of its long-term protection against hepatitis B. In April 2012, the manufacturer Sanofi Pasteur voluntarily withdrew the product from the market. The European Commission formally withdrew marketing permission on 28 June 2012.  On 21 June 2012, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) issued a positive scientific opinion on Hexaxim for use outside the EU, in cooperation with the World Health Organization (WHO).  On 17 April 2013, marketing approval in the EU was granted to Hexyon.  On 15 February 2016, marketing approval in the EU was granted to Vaxelis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "USA approval.", "content": "On 21 December 2018 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) licensed a hexavalent combined diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis (DTaP) adsorbed, inactivated poliovirus (IPV), Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) conjugate (meningococcal protein conjugate) and hepatitis B (HepB) (recombinant) vaccine, DTaP-IPV-Hib-HepB (Vaxelis), for use as a 3-dose series in infants at ages two, four, and six months. On 26 June 2019, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) voted to include DTaP-IPV-Hib-HepB in the federal Vaccines for Children Program (VFC).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A hexavalent vaccine, or 6-in-1 vaccine, is a combination vaccine with six individual vaccines conjugated into one, intended to protect people from multiple diseases. The principal example is a pediatric vaccine, used in more than 90 countries around the world including in Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand that protects against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, poliomyelitis, haemophilus B, and hepatitis B.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975698}
{"src_title": "Jean Stablinski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Jean Stablinski was the son of Polish immigrants in the mining area of the Nord department of France. His father died in a work accident in 1946 and Jean, at 14, started working in the mine to provide income for his family. It was at this time that he won a bicycle in an accordion competition. Legend says that his mother was so displeased by her son's new hobby that she damaged his bike.  Jean, still known as Stablewski, became naturalised as French at 16 and rode his first races. It was while riding the Peace Race that a journalist's error in writing his name 'Stablinski' created the surname by which he became known.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional career.", "content": "Stablinski turned professional at 21. From 1958 until 1967 he rode in the same teams as Jacques Anquetil, always as a support rider, or domestique. Stablinski won the national road championship four times and came second twice, all within six years, an achievement no rider has matched.  Stablinski stayed with Anquetil until his team-mate wrote a series of newspaper articles, one of which Stablinski believed criticised him even though he had devoted his career to Anquetil. The two rarely spoke after that and Stablinski joined the team headed by Anquetil's biggest rival, Raymond Poulidor.  Stablinski was recognised as a rider who made up for physical limitations by his tactical sense and his chance to profit from the moment. His knack, riders recognised, was to recognise which breakaway attempt would count and not to waste effort on the others.  Stablinski was twice suspended for doping.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "Stablinski retired from racing and was for six years manager of the Sonolor-Lejeune, signing Lucien Van Impe and Bernard Hinault as young unknowns. His son, Jacques Stablinski, born 1956, also became a professional cyclist and rode for Gitane-Campagnolo. He became known as \"Petit Stab\" but never had his father's talent.  Jean Stablinski never stopped riding a bike until the illness that led to his death. He said he never put a drinks bottle on his bike when he rode for pleasure. He had spent too many years racing as a professional with no chance to stop and look around or to meet people, he told the historian Jean-Paul Ollivier on French television. If he had no water on his bike but a few euros in his pocket, he could stop and buy a drink at any bar he fancied and get into conversation with whomever he met.  He became a member of Les Amis de Paris–Roubaix, enthusiasts and workers for the spring classic. It was Stablinski who suggested the cobbled path through the Arenberg forest. His qualifications were impeccable: as a miner he had worked beneath the road and as a cyclist he had ridden along it.  He died after a long illness. On 7 April 2008 he was remembered by a memorial beside the Wallers-Arenberg road he had introduced to Paris–Roubaix. The memorial was made in blue limestone from Soignies by the sculptor Michel Karpovitch.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean Stablewski (21 May 1932, Thun-Saint-Amand – 22 July 2007), known as Jean Stablinski, was a French professional cyclist from a family of Polish immigrants. He rode from 1952 to 1968, winning 105 races as a professional. He won the national road championship four times - 1960, 1962, 1963 and 1964. He was also world road champion in 1962, and won the Vuelta a España in 1958.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975699}
{"src_title": "Bayreuth Festspielhaus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "Wagner adapted the design of the \"Festspielhaus\" from an unrealised project by Gottfried Semper for an opera house in Munich, without the architect's permission, and supervised its construction. Ludwig II of Bavaria provided the primary funding for the construction. The foundation stone was laid on 22 May 1872, Wagner's 59th birthday. The building was first opened for the premiere of the complete four-opera cycle of (\"The Ring of the Nibelung\"), from 13 to 17 August 1876.  Only the entry façade exhibits the typical late-19th-century ornamentation, while the remainder of the exterior is modest and shows mostly undecorated bricks. The interior is mainly wood and has a reverberation time of 1.55 seconds. The Festspielhaus is one of the largest free-standing timber structures ever erected. Unlike the traditional opera house design with several tiers of seating in a horseshoe shaped auditorium, the Festspielhaus's seats are arranged in a single steeply-shaped wedge, with galleries or boxes along the back wall only. This is also known as continental seating. Many contemporary movie theaters have adopted this style of seating, which gives every seat an equal and uninterrupted view of the stage. The capacity of the Festspielhaus is 1,925 and has a volume of 10,000 cubic metres.  The Festspielhaus features a double proscenium, which gives the audience the illusion that the stage is further away than it actually is. The double proscenium and the recessed orchestra pit create – in Wagner's term – a \"mystic gulf\" between the audience and the stage. This gives a dreamlike character to performances, and provides a physical reinforcement of the mythic content of most of Wagner's operas. The architecture of Festpielhaus accomplished many of Wagner's goals and ideals for the performances of his operas including an improvement on the sound, feel, and overall look of the production.  The Festpielhaus was originally planned to open in 1873, but by that time Wagner had barely raised enough money to put up the walls of his theatre. He began to raise money by traveling and putting on concerts in various cities and countries throughout Europe. There are, however, some documents concerning the donation and aid (900 thaler) to Wagner for that matter by the Sultan Abdülaziz of the Ottoman Empire. Even after Ludwig began funding the project, Wagner had to continue putting on concerts to keep the building project financially afloat. The tours were very taxing on Wagner's health and would eventually be a key element to his death later on in 1883.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orchestra pit.", "content": "A significant feature of the Festspielhaus is its unusual orchestra pit. It is recessed under the stage and covered by a hood, so that the orchestra is completely invisible to the audience. This feature was a central preoccupation for Wagner, since it made the audience concentrate on the drama onstage, rather than the distracting motion of the conductor and musicians. The design also corrected the balance of volume between singers and orchestra, creating ideal acoustics for Wagner's operas, which are the only operas performed at the Festspielhaus. However, this arrangement has also made it the most challenging to conduct in, even for the world's best conductors. Not only is the crowded pit enveloped in darkness, but the acoustic reverberation makes it difficult to synchronise the orchestra with the singers. Conductors must therefore retrain themselves to ignore cues from singers.  The orchestra layout deployed at Bayreuth is unusual in three ways:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bayreuth Festival.", "content": "The Festspielhaus remains the venue of the annual Bayreuth Festival, during which Wagner's later operas, such as the \"Ring\" cycle and \"Parsifal\", are given on a repertory basis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent history.", "content": "In early 2012, Katharina Wagner mentioned the need for repairs to the building, with mention specifically of roof leaks and crumbling of the red brick facade. In 2014, funding for restoration was announced at a level of approximately €30 million, primarily from public funding shared between Germany and the state of Bavaria, with the German national government and the Bavarian state government holding majority shares.  Repairs were completed on 26 July 2015 and the building is fully restored.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bayreuth Festspielhaus or Bayreuth Festival Theatre (, ) is an opera house north of Bayreuth, Germany, built by the 19th-century German composer Richard Wagner and dedicated solely to the performance of his stage works. It is the venue for the annual Bayreuth Festival, for which it was specifically conceived and built. Its official name is.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975700}
{"src_title": "Chen Boda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Chen Boda was born Chen Jianxiang () in 1904 to peasant parents. His courtesy name was Shangyou (). During his childhood, his family moved to Jimei, in modern-day Xiamen, likely to facilitate young Chen's enrollment at the Jimei Normal School, from which Chen graduated as a schoolteacher (he taught at various elementary schools until 1927).  In 1925, Chen enrolled at Shanghai Labor University, studying literature, and in 1927 he joined the Communist Party of China. After returning to Fujian, he was hired as the personal secretary of General Zhang Zhen, helping to prepare for the 1926–1927 Northern Expedition from the CPC side of the First United Front. When the Front collapsed, Chen fled and was eventually arrested in Nanjing. He was released after a month on General Zhang's recommendation. Shortly thereafter, Chen was sent by the Party to Moscow Sun Yat-sen University, where he studied politics and Marxist philosophy for four years.  In 1931, Chen Boda returned to China, and married Sichuan native Zhu Yuren, who had also studied in Moscow. Chen became a professor of politics and ancient Chinese history at China College in Beijing while writing articles under the pen names Chen Zhimei and Chen Boda. Most of these articles focused on the dispute between advocates of \"national defense literature\" such as Lu Xun, and more nationalist authors. Chen also did underground work for the Party in Tianjin.  From 1937 on, he taught politics and Marxist philosophy at the Central Party School of the Communist Party of China in Yan'an, where he became a leader in the Yan'an Rectification Movement. He soon became personal research assistant and chief political aide to Mao Zedong. Chen published the first collection of Mao's writings in 1937, and an official history of the Party in 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in the post-1949 government.", "content": "After the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War and the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Mao entrusted Chen with many important tasks. Chen Boda became:  In 1951, Chen wrote an article with the title \"Mao Zedong's theory of the Chinese Revolution is the combination of Marxism-Leninism with the Chinese Revolution\" and a book entitled \"Mao Zedong on the Chinese Revolution\". These works made him one of the most important interpreters of Mao Zedong Thought, and in the 1950s he became one of Mao's closest associates, compiling many of the quotations eventually published in the Red Book.  In 1950 Chen accompanied Mao to Moscow to participate in the negotiations with Joseph Stalin that led to the signing of the 30-year treaty of alliance (February 1950) between China and the Soviet Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural Revolution.", "content": "From 1966 until 1969, Chen Boda was to play an important role in the Cultural Revolution. In May 1966, he was placed at the head of the newly formed Cultural Revolution Group (CRG), a body established to oversee and direct the course of the Cultural Revolution. In time, this group would rise to become the most important political body in China, surpassing even the influence of the Politburo. Furthermore, Chen Boda was also placed as head of the Communist government's propaganda apparatus alongside Jiang Qing when the previous leader, Lu Dingyi (with whom he had often quarrelled), was deposed in 1966. He also became a member of the Standing Committee of the Politburo.  According to the Central Committee leadership, the Cultural Revolution Group began to show signs of ultra-leftism during the late 1960s. Boda's reputation began to wane after the 9th Party Congress in 1969 due to his ties with Lin Biao (with whom he had closely collaborated in the publication of the Little Red Book) and his opposition to Zhou Enlai's attempt to deescalate the Cultural Revolution and refocus on consolidating the Party. This marked the end of Chen Boda's involvement in the Cultural Revolution. As the leadership became more moderate in its outlook and the initial aims of the Cultural Revolution were sidelined, Chen's radicalism caused concern, and he was denounced at the 10th Party Congress in 1973 as a'revisionist secret agent' for his associations with Lin Biao.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After the Cultural Revolution, he was tried by the post-Mao government for collaboration with the Gang of Four. He was sentenced to eighteen years in prison, but was released shortly afterwards due to his ill health. He died on 20 September 1989, at the age of 85.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chen Boda (; 29 July 1904 – 20 September 1989), was a Chinese Communist journalist, professor and political theorist who rose to power as the chief interpreter of Maoism (or \"Mao Zedong Thought\") in the first 20 years of the People's Republic of China. Chen became a close associate of Mao Zedong in Yan'an, during the late 1930s, drafting speeches and theoretical essays and directing propaganda.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975701}
{"src_title": "Grumman F-11 Tiger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The F11F (F-11) Tiger origins can be traced back to a privately funded 1952 Grumman concept to modernize the F9F-6/7 Cougar by implementing the area rule and other advances. This Grumman company project was named \"G-98\", and when it was concluded it was a complete design departure from the Cougar.  The design's potential for supersonic performance and reduced transonic drag stirred interest in the U.S. Navy. By 1953, redesigns led to a completely new aircraft bearing no more than a familial resemblance to the Cougar. The new wing had full-span leading edge slats and trailing edge flaps with roll control achieved using spoilers rather than traditional ailerons. For storage on aircraft carriers, the F-11 Tiger's wings manually folded downwards. Anticipating supersonic performance, the tailplane was all-moving. The aircraft was designed for the Wright J65 turbojet, a license-built version of the Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire.  The U.S. Navy Bureau of Aeronautics was sufficiently impressed to order two prototypes, designated \"XF9F-8\" even though the new fighter was clearly a new design. To add to the confusion, the prototypes were then redesignated \"XF9F-9\" with the XF9F-8 designation going to another more straightforward Cougar derivative. Since the afterburning version of the J65 was not ready, the first prototype flew on 30 July 1954 with a non-afterburning engine. In spite of this, the aircraft nearly reached Mach 1 in its maiden flight. The second prototype, equipped with the afterburning engine, became the second supersonic U.S. Navy aircraft, the first being the Douglas F4D Skyray. In April 1955, the aircraft received the new designation F11F-1 (F-11A after adoption of the unified Tri-Service naming system in 1962). Carrier trials started on 4 April 1956 when an F11F-1 Tiger landed on and launched from.  The F-11 Tiger is noted for being the first jet aircraft to shoot itself down. On 21 September 1956, during a test-firing of its 20 mm (0.79 in) cannons, pilot Tom Attridge fired two bursts midway through a shallow dive. As the trajectory of the cannon rounds decayed, they ultimately crossed paths with the Tiger as it continued its descent, disabling it and forcing Attridge to crash-land the aircraft; he survived.  In addition to the F-11A (F11F-1) fighter, Grumman also proposed a more advanced version of the airframe known as the F11F-1F Super Tiger. This was the result of a 1955 study to fit the new General Electric J79 engine into the F11F-1 airframe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Seven U.S. Navy squadrons flew the F11F-1: VF-21 and VF-33 in the Atlantic Fleet and VA-156 (redesignated VF-111 in January 1959), VF-24 (redesignated VF-211 in March 1959), VF-51, VF-121, and VF-191 in the Pacific Fleet.  In service, the Tiger operated from the carriers,,,,,, and. The F11F's career lasted only four years because its performance was inferior to the Vought F-8 Crusader and the J65 engine proved unreliable. Also, the range and endurance of the \"Tiger\" was found to be inadequate. Thus, the Navy cancelled all orders for the \"F11F-1P\" reconnaissance version and only 199 F11F-1 (F-11A) fighters were built.  The aircraft was withdrawn from carrier operations by 1961. It continued in service, however, in the Naval Air Training Command in south Texas at NAS Chase Field and NAS Kingsville, until the late 1960s. Students performed advanced jet training in the TF-9J Cougar, and upon completing that syllabus, were given a brief taste of supersonic capability with the F-11 before transitioning to fleet fighters.  While the F-11's fighter career was short, the Blue Angels performed in the aircraft from 1957–1968, when the Tiger was replaced by the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II.  Prior to the 1962 code unification, the fighter was known as the F11F; after unification, it was redesignated F-11.  In 1973, two former Blue Angels F-11As were taken from storage at Davis-Monthan AFB and modified by Grumman as testbeds to evaluate in-flight thrust control systems. BuNo 141853 was fitted with a Rohr Industries thrust reverser and BuNo 141824 was kept in standard configuration as a chase plane. Tests of the inflight thrust reversal were carried out by Grumman at Calverton beginning in March 1974 and continued at NATC Patuxent River, Maryland until 1975. Following the completion of these tests, both planes were returned to storage at Davis Monthan AFB. These were the last Tigers to fly.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Grumman F11F/F-11 Tiger is a supersonic, single-seat carrier-based United States Navy fighter aircraft in operation during the 1950s and 1960s. Originally designated the F11F Tiger in April 1955 under the pre-1962 Navy designation system, it was redesignated as F-11 Tiger under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975702}
{"src_title": "Charlotte of Schaumburg-Lippe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Charlotte was born in Schloss Ratiborschitz, Bohemia (now Ratibořice, Česká Skalice, Czech Republic), and grew up on the princely estate at Náchod. Besides general cultural interests such as music and art she was also very keen on sporting pursuits such as swimming, tennis, cycling and - unusual for a woman of the time - skiing. She also had an extraordinary passion for hunting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 8 April 1886 she married the heir to the throne of the Kingdom of Württemberg, Crown Prince Wilhelm, who succeeded in 1891 as King William II of Württemberg (Wilhelm II. von Württemberg). She was his second wife, and like her predecessor Princess Marie of Waldeck and Pyrmont was held to be of no political consequence. If the marriage had taken place for reasons of state - Wilhelm had no male heir - it was a miscalculation, as Charlotte produced no children.  As a princess of Württemberg she lived initially in Ludwigsburg and Stuttgart, but as queen in the \"Wilhelmspalais\" in Stuttgart. From June to October the royal couple moved to their residence at Friedrichshafen. Finally in November/December Wilhelm and Charlotte regularly took a two-week hunting holiday in Schloss Bebenhausen (the former Bebenhausen Abbey) at Bebenhausen near Tübingen, which after the revolution of 1918 became Charlotte's permanent home.  In 1890, William brought his new wife to England, where the Princess May of Teck commented, \"We liked Charlotte very much, she is a good honest soul tho' rather too brusque, she seems to get on well with all the members of the Württemberg family which denotes great tact\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen of Württemberg.", "content": "King Wilhelm II enjoyed great popularity among his contemporaries, but Queen Charlotte's relationship with the people of Württemberg was by contrast very reserved, as appears from publications of the time in which a distinct enthusiasm towards the king is matched by an equally apparent coolness towards the queen. Her childlessness doubtless contributed to this, but by itself is not a sufficient explanation.  The principal reason appears to lie in Charlotte's perceived reluctance to carry out her public and ceremonial duties as it was felt she should have done. For example, she preferred to celebrate her birthdays in the privacy of Friedrichshafen rather than in visible togetherness with her subjects. She left the king mostly on his own to oversee military parades, and after a few years no longer accompanied him in the public celebration of the Kaiser's birthday. She was also not thought regal enough for her new position; the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz commented in 1892, \"I heard...that she is too jolly & off-hand for a Queen, and so ugly besides\". The Grand Duchess' sister the Duchess of Teck liked Charlotte, but believed she took no trouble with her clothes or appearance. This contrasted sharply with her husband, who was known as a cultivated and distinguished man of aesthetic tastes.  Charlotte nevertheless displayed an interest in and openness towards some social causes, mostly to do with the benefit of women. As convention demanded, she took over from her predecessor the patronage of a large number of social and charitable organisations, among them the body of deaconesses (\"Diakonissenwesen\"), the Swabian Women's Union (\"Schwäbische Frauenverein\"), the Württemberg Savings Bank (\"Württembergische Sparkasse\") and the Red Cross. Among these her interest was most noticeably engaged by those to do in some way with women's causes. She was not of course personally involved in the women's movement as such, but did demonstrate a willingness to further institutions that in various ways improved the lot and social position of women, lending her royal authority above all to support establishments that provided education and training to enable girls to be independent and to provide for themselves through their work. She showed a particular involvement as patron of the Württemberg Union of Women Painters (\"Württembergische Malerinnenverein\") and the first humanistic \"Gymnasium\" for girls in Württemberg, the Charlottengymnasium in Stuttgart (today the Hölderlingymnasium).  Her support of the \"Malerinnenverein\" connects to her interest in art and culture. Together with her husband she was active in the country's cultural life and often went to the theatre and the opera.  After the November Revolution of 1918 and the abolition of the monarchy, Wilhelm II agreed with the State of Württemberg for himself and his wife an annual income and right of residence for life in Schloss Bebenhausen, where after Wilhelm's death in 1921, Charlotte led a secluded life, under the title of Duchess of Württemberg (\"Herzogin zu Württemberg\"), for another quarter of a century. In 1944 she suffered a stroke which forced her for the last years of her life to use a wheelchair.  Queen Charlotte died at Bebenhausen on 16 July 1946 aged 82. She was not only the last Queen of Württemberg but the last surviving queen of any German state: the Queen of Bavaria had died in 1919, and the Queen of Prussia in 1921. She was buried, almost unnoticed, on 23 July 1946, in the \"Alter Friedhof\" in Ludwigsburg next to her husband.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Princess Charlotte of Schaumburg-Lippe (10 October 1864 – 16 July 1946) was the daughter of Prince Wilhelm Karl August of Schaumburg-Lippe, and his wife, Princess Bathildis of Anhalt-Dessau. As the second wife of King William II of Württemberg she became Queen consort of Württemberg. She was not only the last queen of Württemberg, but the last surviving queen of any German state.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975703}
{"src_title": "Cathedral of Syracuse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The origins of a temple on this site date to prehistory. The great Greek Temple of Athena was built in the 5th century BC. The temple was a Doric edifice with six columns on the short sides and 14 on the long sides. Plato and Athenaeus mention the temple, and the looting of its ornament is mentioned by Cicero, in 70 BC, as one of the crimes of the governor Verres.  Archeological site excavations by Paolo Orsi in 1907-1910 show the Greek temple to have been built on even older foundations, and uncovered a wealth of archaic and pre-Hellenic artefacts. Many are held by the Museo archeologico regionale Paolo Orsi in Syracuse.  The present cathedral was constructed by Saint Bishop Zosimo of Syracuse in the 7th century. The battered Doric columns of the original temple were incorporated in the walls of the current church. They can be seen inside and out. The building was converted into a mosque in 878, then converted back when Norman Roger I of Sicily retook the city in 1085. The roof of the nave is of Norman origin, as well as the mosaics in the apses.  As part of the increased building activity after the 1693 Sicily earthquake, the cathedral was rebuilt and the façade redesigned by architect Andrea Palma in 1725–1753. The style is classified as High Sicilian Baroque, a relatively late example. The double order of Corinthian columns on the facade provide a classic example of carved Acanthus leaves in the capitals. Sculptor Ignazio Marabitti contributed the full-length statues on the facade.  The interior of the church, a nave and two aisles, combine rustic walls and Baroque details. Features include a font with marble basin dating from the 12th or 13th century, a \"ciborium\" (an altar canopy) designed by architect Luigi Vanvitelli, and a statue of the \"Madonna della Neve\" (\"Madonna of the Snow\", 1512) by Antonello Gagini.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "St. Lucy.", "content": "As of 2015 the cathedral holds a number of relics of St. Lucy, the patroness of the city: a number of bone fragments, a robe, a veil, and a pair of shoes. Twice a year on the first Sunday in May and on December 13, her feast day, a statue of Saint Lucy by sculptor Pietro Rizzo (1599) is brought out of the cathedral and paraded through the streets. The silver statue incorporates three fragments of her ribs within its chest.  The cathedral shares the Piazza Duomo with the Church of Santa Lucia Alla Badia, a short walk to the south. That church owns and displays the Caravaggio painting Burial of St. Lucy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Heritage Site.", "content": "The cathedral stands as an major element of the historic core of Syracuse. Since 2005, the entire city of Syracuse, along with the Necropolis of Pantalica, was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. This programme aims to catalogue, name and conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity.  The deciding committee which evaluates potential candidates described their reasons for choosing Syracuse because \"monuments and archeological sites situated in Syracuse are the finest example of outstanding architectural creation spanning several cultural aspects; Greek, Roman and Baroque\", following on that Ancient Syracuse was \"directly linked to events, ideas and literary works of outstanding universal significance\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cathedral of Syracuse (\"Duomo di Siracusa\"), formally the \"Cattedrale metropolitana della Natività di Maria Santissima\", is an ancient Catholic church in Syracuse, Sicily, the seat of the Catholic Archdiocese of Siracusa. Its structure is originally a Greek doric temple, and for this reason it is included in a UNESCO World Heritage Site designated in 2005.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975704}
{"src_title": "Haim Ramon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Jaffa in 1950, Ramon served in the Israeli Air Force, rising to the rank of Captain, before studying law at Tel Aviv University, earning a BA. He joined the Labor Party (then part of the Alignment alliance) as soon as he left the military, and was secretary of its youth wing from 1978 until 1989. He entered the Knesset in May 1983, replacing Daniel Rosolio, and, except for a period between January 2006 and the March 2006 elections, remained a member until 2009. He has been a member of various committees, and chaired the finance committee from 1988 to 1992.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minister of Health and resignation.", "content": "Ramon was appointed Minister of Health in the government of Yitzhak Rabin in 1992 where his major achievement was the promotion of the new National Health Insurance Law (see also: \"Universal health care in Israel\"). In February 1994, he resigned from office, over the failure of the Labor Party to support the proposed health law, which also required breaking the linkage between the Labor Party-affiliated Histadrut Labor Federation and the Clalit Health Service Fund. In a dramatic speech at a party gathering he compared the party members to beached whales and resigned his position. However, Ramon kept advocating for the law even after his resignation and it was finally passed by the Knesset in the summer of 1994.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Histadrut chairmanship.", "content": "In 1994, Ramon split from the Labor Party to form a list called \"New Life in the Histadrut\" together with Amir Peretz. In the subsequent Histadrut elections he beat the Labor faction which had controlled the Histadrut since its founding. He proceeded to privatize most of the Histadrut-owned companies. As a result, the National Health Insurance Law was approved during his term of office. Based on recommendations of the Shoshana Netanyahu Commission from 1990 which undertook an exhaustive review of the health care system in Israel in the late 1980s, the law went into effect on 1 January 1995.  Before the law was passed, health insurance was optional. Even so, 96% of the population was insured. Nevertheless, the law revolutionized the healthcare sector in Israel by streamlining the management, delivery and public financing of medical services in the country and guaranteeing minimum coverage levels to all citizens.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to government.", "content": "Ramon returned to government after Rabin's assassination, serving as Minister of Internal Affairs under Shimon Peres from 1995 to 1996, when Labor lost power.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Failed Labor leadership bid.", "content": "When Labor returned to power in 1999 under Ehud Barak, Ramon was appointed Minister in the Prime Minister's Office, overseeing government reform and relations between the government and Knesset. He became Minister of Internal Affairs for a second time in 2000, serving until Barak's government fell in 2001. He opposed Barak's proposals to enter a coalition under Ariel Sharon, and did not participate in the coalition formed in March 2002 by Sharon and Binyamin Ben-Eliezer, Barak's successor as Labor leader. He ran for the leadership of the Labor Party in November 2002, losing to Amram Mitzna. In January 2005, the Labor Party entered the government of Ariel Sharon and Ramon became Minister without Portfolio responsible for Jerusalem Affairs, departing in November 2005 with the other Labor ministers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Joining Kadima.", "content": "Following Sharon's break from Likud, and the formation of the centrist Kadima party with which he was deeply involved, and after the resignation of Labor ministers, Ramon broke from Labor and joined Kadima. He was the first Labor politician to join Kadima, paving the way to the current President of Israel, Shimon Peres and Dalia Itzik, who joined him after several days. In the present government, formed in 2006 and headed by Ehud Olmert, Ramon was appointed Justice Minister. During the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict, Ramon emerged as one of the most hawkish members of cabinet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Indecent conduct and resignation.", "content": "On 27 July 2006, following a seven-hour police interrogation of Ramon, Attorney General Menachem Mazuz instructed the Justice Minister, in response to Ramon's question, to refrain from making executive decisions relating to law enforcement, including the appointment of judges and the granting of amnesty, while under a sexual assault investigation. On the same day Ramon also stated, \"Everyone in southern Lebanon is a terrorist and is connected to Hezbollah.\" On 17 August, Israel's Attorney General Menachem Mazuz decided to indict Ramon for indecent assault. Ramon responded by saying: \"I am certain of my innocence. The court will prove it.\" As promised before, Ramon announced his resignation on 18 August. He was convicted on 31 January 2007, and sentenced to 100 hours of community service, which he served in a therapeutic riding center in Tel Mond assisting children with disabilities. The court did not find moral turpitude in his actions.  He returned to prime minister Ehud Olmert's government in July 2007, as vice premier and minister in the Prime Minister's Office with responsibility for state policy and special missions in the name of prime minister Olmert. In a hearing in the High Court of Justice regarding his return to the government, Judge Edna Arbel ruled that Ramon is \"not to be seen as a sex offender\".  On 30 June 2009, Ramon announced his resignation from the Knesset. He declared that he intends to become a private businessman, but will remain the chairman of the Kadima Council, the party's most important body.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal Details.", "content": "Ramon is married to Vered Ramon Rivlin, editor-in-chief of the monthly \"Lady Globes\". He has two children from his previous marriage. He is the chairman and co-owner of the soccer club Hapoel Tel Aviv.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Haim Ramon (, born 10 April 1950) is an Israeli politician who served as a member of the Knesset between 1983 and 2009, and as both Vice Prime Minister and Minister in the Prime Minister's Office with responsibility for state policy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975705}
{"src_title": "Leopold Müller (painter)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Dresden to Austrian parents, he was a pupil of Karl von Blaas and of Christian Ruben at the Academy in Vienna. Obliged to support his family after his father's death, he worked eight years as an illustrator for the Vienna \"Figaro\". Continuing his studies subsequently, he visited repeatedly Italy and Egypt, and made his name favorably known through a series of scenes from popular life in Italy and Hungary.  In the late 1860s, he visited Paris, where he was inspired by the work of Eugene Fromentin and subsequently turned his attention to the Orientalist genre. In 1877 Müller took a position as professor at the Vienna Academy and later as a rector during 1890-91. Among his pupils were several orientalists such as Ludwig Deutsch, Paul Joanowitch, Jean Discart and Charles Wilda.  His sisters were the painters Marie Müller (1847-1935) and Berta Müller (1848–1925), both well known in Austria for their portrait paintings. The third sister, Josefine, married the Austrian portrait painter Eduard Swoboda (1814-1902), he was the father of the painter Rudolf Swoboda and the portrait painter Josefine Swoboda.  He travelled to Egypt many times throughout his life, often staying there for six months at a time. In 1879, on his fifth visit, he travelled with his nephew and student, Rudolf Swoboda.  He died, aged 57, in Weidlingau, now part of Vienna and is buried at \"The Zentralfriedhof\" (\"Central Cemetery\") in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "He displayed his coloristic talent to greater advantage in oriental subjects, such as \"Arabian Money-Changers,\" \"Pilgrims to Mecca Resting,\" \"Bedouins in Camp,\" \"Camel Mart,\" \"Young Copt Woman\" (New Pinakothek, Munich). Other works include \"The Inundation in Vienna,\" (1862) \"Old Little Matron\" and \"Last Task of the Day\" (both in the Vienna Museum); and \"Soldiers in the Thirty Years' War\" (Prague Gallery). He most well-known work is the \"Market in Cairo,\" (1878) which is currently held in the Österreichische Galerie Belvedere in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leopold Carl Müller (9 December 1834 – 4 August 1892) was an Austrian genre painter noted for his Orientalist works.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975706}
{"src_title": "Jan van Bijlert", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Jan van Bijlert was born in Utrecht, the son of the stained glass worker Herman Beernts van Bijlert. He may have had some training by his father. Subsequently, he became a student of Abraham Bloemaert. Like other painters from Utrecht, he travelled in France and Italy. In 1621 he was, along with Cornelis van Poelenburch and Willem Molijn, a founding member of the circle of Dutch and Flemish artists in Rome known as the Bentvueghels. It was the custom among the Bentvueghels to adopt a nickname. Van Bijlert's nickname was \"Aeneas\".  In 1625 he was back in Utrecht, where he married and joined the schutterij. In 1630 he became a member of the Utrecht Guild of St. Luke and the Reformed church. During the years 1632-1637 he was active as deacon of the guild, and in 1634 he was appointed regent of the Sint-Jobsgasthuis. In 1639 he helped form a painter's school, the \"Schilders-College\", where he served as regent. He died in Utrecht.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Jan van Bijlert was a very prolific painter who left some 200 pictures. Upon his return from Rome he, like other Utrecht artists who had come under the influence of Caravaggio's work, painted in a style derived from that of Caravaggio. These Utrecht artists are referred to as the Utrecht Caravaggisti. The Caravaggesque style of van Bijlert's early paintings shows itself in the use of strong chiaroscuro, the cutting off of the picture plane to create a close-up image and the realism of the representation. Van Bijlert continued to paint in this style throughout the 1620s.  Around 1630 van Bijlert turned to a more classicising style, possibly under the influence of Cornelis van Poelenburch. His colours became lighter and his subject matter became more elevated such as religious scenes. In the 1630s he also painted compositions with small figures, usually representing genre scenes of brothels or musical gatherings. These works were similar to those of the Utrecht painter Jacob Duck.  Van Bijlert also painted the portraits of eminent citizens of Utrecht such as burgomasters and nobles.  His pupils included Bartram de Fouchier, Ludolf Leendertsz de Jongh, Johannes de Veer, Mattheus Wijtmans and Abraham Willaerts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jan Hermansz van Bijlert (1597 or 1598 – November 1671) was a Dutch painter whose style was influenced initially by Caravaggio.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975707}
{"src_title": "Titus Brandsma", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Brandsma was born Anno Sjoerd Brandsma to Titus Brandsma (died 1920) and his wife Tjitsje Postma (died 1933) at Oegeklooster, near Hartwerd, in the Province of Friesland, in 1881. His parents, who ran a small dairy farm, were devout and committed Catholics, a minority in a predominantly-Calvinist region. With the exception of one daughter, all of their children (three daughters and two sons) entered religious orders.  From the age of 11, Brandsma pursued his secondary studies in the town of Megen, at a Franciscan-run minor seminary for boys considering a priestly or religious vocation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Carmelite friar.", "content": "Brandsma entered the novitiate of the Carmelite friars in Boxmeer on 17 September 1898, where he took the religious name Titus (in honor of his father) by which he is now known. He professed his first vows in October 1899.  Ordained a priest in 1905, Brandsma was knowledgeable in Carmelite mysticism and was awarded a doctorate of philosophy at Rome in 1909. From 1909 to 1923 he lived in Oss and worked as a writer and teacher. From 1916 on, he initiated and led a project to translate the works of Teresa of Ávila into Dutch. In 1919 he founded and for two years acted as head of a secondary school in Oss—the present day Titus Brandsma Lyceum.  In 1921 Brandsma worked to resolve a controversy concerning Belgian artist Albert Servaes' depiction of the Stations of the Cross. From this came his series of meditations on each of the 14 stations.  One of the founders of the Catholic University of Nijmegen (now Radboud University), Brandsma became a professor of philosophy and the history of mysticism at the school in 1923. He later served as \"Rector Magnificus\" (1932-33). He was noted for his constant availability to everyone, rather than for his scholarly work as a professor. Brandsma also worked as a journalist and was the ecclesiastical adviser to Catholic journalists by 1935. That same year he traveled for a lecture tour of the United States and Canada, speaking at various institutions of his Order. On the occasion of his visit to a Carmelite seminary in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Brandsma wrote of the falls, \"I not only see the riches of the nature of the water, its immeasurable potentiality; I see God working in the work of his hands and the manifestation of his love.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imprisonment and death.", "content": "After the invasion of the Netherlands by the Third Reich in May 1940, Brandsma's long-term fight against the spread of Nazi ideology and for educational and press freedom brought him to the attention of the Nazis.  In January 1942 he undertook to deliver by hand a letter from the Conference of Dutch Bishops to the editors of Catholic newspapers in which the bishops ordered them not to print official Nazi documents, as was required under a new law by the German occupiers. He had visited fourteen editors before being arrested on 19 January at the Boxmeer monastery.  After being held prisoner in Scheveningen, Amersfoort, and Cleves, Brandsma was transferred to the Dachau concentration camp, arriving there on 19 June. His health quickly gave way, and he was transferred to the camp hospital. He died on 26 July 1942, from a lethal injection administered by a nurse of the Allgemeine SS, as part of their program of medical experimentation on the prisoners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Brandsma is honored as a martyr within the Roman Catholic Church. He was beatified in November 1985 by Pope John Paul II. His feast day is observed within the Carmelite Order on 27 July.  In 2005 Brandsma was chosen by the inhabitants of Nijmegen as the greatest citizen to have lived there. A memorial church now stands in the city dedicated to him.  Brandsma's studies on mysticism was the basis for the establishment in 1968 of the Titus Brandsma Institute in Nijmegen, dedicated to the study of spirituality. It is a collaboration between the Dutch Carmelite friars and Radboud University Nijmegen.  In his biography of Brandsma, \"The Man behind the Myth\", Dutch journalist Ton Crijnen claims that Brandsma's character consisted of some vanity, a short temper, extreme energy, political innocence, true charity, unpretentious piety, thorough decisiveness, and great personal courage. His ideas were very much those of his own age and modern as well. He offset contemporary Catholicism's negative theological opinion about Judaism with a strong disaffection for any kind of Antisemitism in Hitler's Germany. Brandsma was honoured by the city of Dachau with a street adjoining the former camp, albeit one of the narrowest streets in the town.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Titus Brandsma (23 February 1881 – 26 July 1942), was a Dutch Carmelite friar, Catholic priest and professor of philosophy. Brandsma was vehemently opposed to Nazi ideology and spoke out against it many times before the Second World War. He was imprisoned in the infamous Dachau concentration camp, where he was murdered. He has been beatified by the Roman Catholic Church as a martyr of the faith.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975708}
{"src_title": "Metasploit Project", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Metasploit was created by H. D. Moore in 2003 as a portable network tool using Perl. By 2007, the Metasploit Framework had been completely rewritten in Ruby. On October 21, 2009, the Metasploit Project announced that it had been acquired by Rapid7, a security company that provides unified vulnerability management solutions.  Like comparable commercial products such as Immunity's Canvas or Core Security Technologies' Core Impact, Metasploit can be used to test the vulnerability of computer systems or to break into remote systems. Like many information security tools, Metasploit can be used for both legitimate and unauthorized activities. Since the acquisition of the Metasploit Framework, Rapid7 has added two open core proprietary editions called Metasploit Express and Metasploit Pro.  Metasploit's emerging position as the de facto exploit development framework led to the release of software vulnerability advisories often accompanied by a third party Metasploit exploit module that highlights the exploitability, risk and remediation of that particular bug. Metasploit 3.0 began to include fuzzing tools, used to discover software vulnerabilities, rather than just exploits for known bugs. This avenue can be seen with the integration of the lorcon wireless (802.11) toolset into Metasploit 3.0 in November 2006. Metasploit 4.0 was released in August 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metasploit Framework.", "content": "The basic steps for exploiting a system using the Framework include:  This modular approach – allowing the combination of any exploit with any payload – is the major advantage of the Framework. It facilitates the tasks of attackers, exploit writers and payload writers.  Metasploit runs on Unix (including Linux and Mac OS X) and on Windows. The Metasploit Framework can be extended to use add-ons in multiple languages.  To choose an exploit and payload, some information about the target system is needed, such as operating system version and installed network services. This information can be gleaned with port scanning and OS fingerprinting tools such as Nmap. Vulnerability scanners such as Nexpose, Nessus, and OpenVAS can detect target system vulnerabilities. Metasploit can import vulnerability scanner data and compare the identified vulnerabilities to existing exploit modules for accurate exploitation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metasploit interfaces.", "content": "There are several interfaces for Metasploit available. The most popular are maintained by Rapid7 and Strategic Cyber LLC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metasploit Framework Edition.", "content": "The free version. It contains a command line interface, third-party import, manual exploitation and manual brute forcing. This free version of the Metasploit project also includes Zenmap, a well known ports-scanner and a compiler for Ruby, the language in which this version of Metasploit was written.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metasploit Community Edition.", "content": "In October 2011, Rapid7 released Metasploit Community Edition, a free, web-based user interface for Metasploit. Metasploit Community is based on the commercial functionality of the paid-for editions with a reduced set of features, including network discovery, module browsing and manual exploitation. Metasploit Community is included in the main installer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metasploit Express.", "content": "In April 2010, Rapid7 released Metasploit Express, an open-core commercial edition for security teams who need to verify vulnerabilities. It offers a graphical user interface, integrates nmap for discovery, and adds smart bruteforcing as well as automated evidence collection.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Metasploit Pro.", "content": "In October 2010, Rapid7 added Metasploit Pro, an open-core commercial Metasploit edition for penetration testers. Metasploit Pro adds onto Metasploit Express with features such as Quick Start Wizards/MetaModules, building and managing social engineering campaigns, web application testing, an advanced Pro Console, dynamic payloads for anti-virus evasion, integration with Nexpose for ad-hoc vulnerability scans, and VPN pivoting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armitage.", "content": "Armitage is a graphical cyber attack management tool for the Metasploit Project that visualizes targets and recommends exploits. It is a free and open source network security tool notable for its contributions to red team collaboration allowing for shared sessions, data, and communication through a single Metasploit instance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cobalt Strike.", "content": "Cobalt Strike is a collection of threat emulation tools provided by Strategic Cyber LLC to work with the Metasploit Framework. Cobalt Strike includes all features of Armitage and adds post-exploitation tools, in addition to report generation features.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exploits.", "content": "Metasploit currently has over 1894 exploits, organized under the following platforms: AIX, Android, BSD, BSDi, Cisco, Firefox, FreeBSD, HPUX, Irix, Java, JavaScript, Linux, mainframe, multi (applicable to multiple platforms), NetBSD, NetWare, nodejs, OpenBSD, OSX, PHP, Python, R, Ruby, Solaris, Unix, and Windows.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Payloads.", "content": "Metasploit currently has over 547 payloads. Some of them are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contributors.", "content": "Metasploit Framework operates as an open-source project and accepts contributions from the community through GitHub.com pull requests. Submissions are reviewed by a team consisting of both Rapid7 employees and senior external contributors. The majority of contributions add new modules, such as exploits or scanners.  List of original developers:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Metasploit Project is a computer security project that provides information about security vulnerabilities and aids in penetration testing and IDS signature development. It is owned by Boston, Massachusetts-based security company Rapid7.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975709}
{"src_title": "The Death of Marat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The murder.", "content": "Marat (24 May 1743 – 13 July 1793) was one of the leaders of the Montagnards, the radical faction ascendant in French politics during the Reign of Terror until the Thermidorian Reaction. Charlotte Corday was a Girondin from a minor aristocratic family and a political enemy of Marat who blamed him for the September Massacre. She gained entrance to Marat's rooms with a note promising details of a counter-revolutionary ring in Caen.  Marat suffered from a skin condition that caused him to spend much of his time in his bathtub; he would often work there. Corday fatally stabbed Marat, but she did not attempt to flee. She was later tried and executed for the murder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "David's politics.", "content": "As well as being the leading French painter of his generation, David was a prominent Montagnard, and a Jacobin, aligned with Marat and Maximilian Robespierre. A deputy of the Museum section at the Convention, he voted for the death of the King, and served on the Committee of General Security, where he actively participated in the sentencing and imprisonment of many and eventually presided over the \"section des interrogatoires\". He was also on the Committee of Public Instruction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "Marat's figure is idealized. For example, the painting contains no sign of his skin problems, his skin appears clean and unblemished. David, however, drew other details from his visit to Marat's residence the day before the assassination: the green rug, the papers, and the pen. David promised his peers in the National Convention that he would later depict their murdered friend invocatively as \"\"écrivant pour le bonheur du peuple\"\" (writing for the good of the people). \"The Death of Marat\" is designed to commemorate a personable hero. Although the name Charlotte Corday can be seen on the paper held in Marat's left hand, she herself is not visible. Close inspection of this painting shows Marat at his last breath, when Corday and many others were still nearby (Corday did not try to escape). Therefore, David intended to record more than just the horror of martyrdom. In this sense, for realistic as it is in its details, the painting, as a whole, from its start, is a methodical construction focusing on the victim, a striking set up regarded today by several critics as an \"awful beautiful lie\"— certainly not a photograph in the forensic scientific sense and barely the simple image it may seem (for instance, in the painting, the knife is not to be seen where Corday had left it impaled in Marat's chest, but on the ground, beside the bathtub).  \"The Death of Marat\" has often been compared to \"Michelangelo's Pietà\". Note the elongated arm hanging down in both works. David admired Caravaggio's works, especially \"Entombment of Christ\", which mirrors \"The Death of Marat\"'s drama and light.  David sought to transfer the sacred qualities long associated with the monarchy and the Catholic Church to the new French Republic. He painted Marat, martyr of the Revolution, in a style reminiscent of a Christian martyr, with the face and body bathed in a soft, glowing light. As Christian art had done from its beginning, David also played with multileveled references to classical art. Suggestions that Paris could compete with Rome as capital and mother city of the Arts and the idea of forming a kind of new Roman Republic appealed to French Revolutionaries, who often formed David's audience.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later history.", "content": "Widely admired during the Terror whose leaders ordered several copies of the original work (copies made in 1793–1794 by David's pupils to serve propaganda), \"The Death of Marat\" slowly ceased to be 'frontpage history' after Robespierre's overthrow and execution. At his request, it was returned to David in 1795, himself being prosecuted for his involvement in the Terror as a member of the Committee of General Security (he would have to wait for Napoleon's rise to become prominent in the arts once more). From 1795 to David's death, the painting languished in obscurity. During David's exile in Belgium, it was hidden, somewhere in France, by Antoine Gros, David's dearest pupil. In 1826 (and later on), the family tried to sell it, with no success at all. It was rediscovered by the critics in the mid-nineteenth century, especially by Charles Baudelaire whose famous comment in 1846 became the starting point of an increased interest among artists and scholars. In the 20th century, the painting inspired several painters (among them Picasso and Munch who delivered their own versions), poets (Alessandro Mozzambani) and writers (the most famous being Peter Weiss with his play \"Marat/Sade\").  The original painting is currently displayed at the Royal Museum of Fine Arts in Brussels, being there as a result of a decision taken by the family to offer it, in 1886, to the city where the painter had lived quietly and died in exile after the fall of Napoleon. Some of the copies (the exact number of those completed remains uncertain) made by David's pupils (among them, Gioacchino Giuseppe Serangeli and Gérard) survived, notably visible in the museums of Dijon, Reims, and Versailles. The original letter, with bloodstains and bath water marks still visible, has survived and is currently intact in the ownership of Robert Lindsay, 29th Earl of Crawford.  Other artists have also depicted the death of Marat, sometimes long after the facts, whose works refer or not to David's masterpiece. Among these later works, the \"Charlotte Corday\" by Paul Jacques Aimé Baudry, painted in 1860, during the Second Empire, when Marat's \"dark legend\" (the angry monster insatiably hungry for blood) was widely spread among educated people, depicts Charlotte Corday as a true heroine of France, a model of virtue for the younger generations. The versions of Picasso and Munch are less trying to refer to the original context in itself than to confront modern issues with those of David, in terms of style. Brazilian artist Vik Muniz created a version composed of contents from a city landfill as part of his \"Pictures of Garbage\" series.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Death of Marat ( or \"Marat Assassiné\") is a 1793 painting by Jacques-Louis David of the murdered French revolutionary leader Jean-Paul Marat. It is one of the most famous images of the French Revolution. David was the leading French painter, as well as a Montagnard and a member of the revolutionary Committee of General Security. The painting shows the radical journalist lying dead in his bath on 13 July 1793, after his murder by Charlotte Corday. Painted in the months after Marat's murder, it has been described by T. J. Clark as the first modernist painting, for \"the way it took the stuff of politics as its material, and did not transmute it\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975710}
{"src_title": "Lolita (1997 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 1947, Humbert Humbert (Jeremy Irons), a middle-aged European professor of English literature, travels to the United States to take a teaching position in New Hampshire. He rents a room in the home of widow Charlotte Haze (Melanie Griffith), largely because he is romantically attracted to her 14-year-old daughter Dolores (Dominique Swain), also called \"Lo\", who he sees while touring the house. Obsessed from boyhood with girls of approximately her age (whom he calls \"nymphets\"), Humbert is immediately smitten with Lo and marries Charlotte only to be near her daughter.  Charlotte finds Humbert's secret diary and discovers his preference for her daughter. Furious, Charlotte runs out of the house, when she is struck by a car and killed. Her death frees Humbert to pursue a romantic and sexual relationship with Lo, whom he nicknames \"Lolita\". Humbert and Lo then travel the country, staying in various motels before eventually settling in the college town of Beardsley, where Humbert takes a teaching job and Lo begins attending Beardsley Prep School an all-girls Catholic school. Humbert and Lo must conceal the nature of their relationship from everyone- strangers they encounter when traveling as well as the administration at Beardsley. They present themselves to the world as a father and daughter. Over time, Lo's increasing boredom with Humbert, combined with her growing desire for independence, fuels a constant tension that leads to a fight between them. Humbert's affection for Lo is also rivaled by another man, playwright Clare Quilty (Frank Langella), who has been pursuing Lo since the beginning of the pair's travels. Lo eventually escapes with Quilty, and Humbert's search for them is unsuccessful, especially as he doesn't know Quilty's name.  Three years later, Humbert receives a letter from Lo asking for money. Humbert visits Lo, who is now married and pregnant. Her husband, Richard, knows nothing about her past. Humbert asks her to run away with him, but she refuses. He relents and gives her a substantial amount of money. Lo also reveals to Humbert how Quilty actually tracked young girls and took them to Pavor Manor, his home in Parkington, to exploit them for child pornography. Quilty abandoned her after she refused to be in one of his films.  After his visit with Lo, Humbert tracks down Quilty and murders him. After being chased by the police, Humbert is arrested and sent to prison. He dies in prison in November of 1950 due to a coronary thrombosis, and Lo dies the next month on Christmas Day from childbirth complications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The first screen adaptation of the book, 1962's \"Lolita\", was credited solely to Nabokov, although it was heavily revised by Stanley Kubrick and James Harris and was directed by Kubrick.  The screenplay for the 1997 version, more faithful to the text of the novel than the earlier motion picture, is credited to Stephen Schiff, a writer for \"The New Yorker\", \"Vanity Fair\", and other magazines. Schiff was hired to write it as his first movie script, after the film's producers had rejected commissioned screenplays from the more experienced screenwriters and directors James Dearden (\"Fatal Attraction\"), Harold Pinter, and David Mamet. According to Schiff: Schiff added that Kubrick's film might better have been titled \"Quilty\", since the director had allowed the character of Quilty to \"take over the movie\".  Lyne states in the DVD commentary that he prefers location shooting even though it is more difficult in some respects; and that the home of Charlotte Haze was filmed in Wilmington, North Carolina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "\"Lolita\" premiered in the United States on Showtime on August 2, 1998. Due to the difficulty in securing a distributor, the film received a limited theatrical run in the US on September 25, 1998, in order to qualify for awards. Accordingly, the film took in a gross income of $19,492 in its opening weekend. \"Lolita\" grossed $1,147,784 domestically, against an estimated $62 million budget.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 68% based on 25 reviews. Metacritic reports an average score of 46 out of 100 based on 17 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".  James Berardinelli praised the performances of the two leads, Irons and Swain, but he considered Griffith's performance weak, \"stiff and unconvincing\"; he considered the film better when she no longer appeared in it and concluded: \"\"Lolita\" is not a sex film; it's about characters, relationships, and the consequences of imprudent actions. And those who seek to brand the picture as immoral have missed the point. Both Humbert and Lolita are eventually destroyed—what could be more moral? The only real controversy I can see surrounding this film is why there was ever a controversy in the first place.\"  The film was \"The New York Times\" \"Critics Pick\" on July 31, 1998, with its critic Caryn James saying, \"Rich beyond what anyone could have expected, the film repays repeated viewings...it turns Humbert's madness into art.\" Writer/director James Toback lists it in his picks for the 10 finest films ever made, but he rates the original film higher.  Commenting on differences between the novel and the film, Charles Taylor, in \"Salon\", observes that \"[f]or all of their vaunted (and, it turns out, false) fidelity to Nabokov, Lyne and Schiff have made a pretty, gauzy \"Lolita\" that replaces the book's cruelty and comedy with manufactured lyricism and mopey romanticism\". Extending Taylor's observation, Keith Phipps concludes: \"Lyne doesn't seem to get the novel, failing to incorporate any of Nabokov's black comedy—which is to say, \"Lolita\"'s heart and soul\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The film's soundtrack was composed by Ennio Morricone and released on the Music Box Records label. As the composer himself described the project: \"With my music, I only had to follow on a high level the director's intentions to make \"Lolita\" a story of sincere and reciprocal love, even within the limits of the purity and malicious naiveté of its young subject.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lolita is a 1997 drama film directed by Adrian Lyne and written by Stephen Schiff. It is the second screen adaptation of Vladimir Nabokov's 1955 novel of the same name and stars Jeremy Irons as Humbert Humbert and Dominique Swain as Dolores \"Lolita\" Haze, with supporting roles by Melanie Griffith as Charlotte Haze, and Frank Langella as Clare Quilty. The film is about a middle-aged male professor, Humbert, who rents a room in the house of the widow Charlotte Haze and becomes sexually attracted to her adolescent daughter Dolores, also called \"Lo\" or \"Lolita\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975711}
{"src_title": "Academic conference", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Conferences usually encompass various presentations. They tend to be short and concise, with a time span of about 10 to 30 minutes; presentations are usually followed by a discussion. The work may be bundled in written form as academic papers and published as the conference proceedings.  Usually a conference will include keynote speakers (often, scholars of some standing, but sometimes individuals from outside academia). The keynote lecture is often longer, lasting sometimes up to an hour and a half, particularly if there are several keynote speakers on a panel. In addition to presentations, conferences also feature panel discussions, round tables on various issues, poster sessions and workshops. Some conferences take more interactive formats, such as the participant driven \"unconference\" or various conversational formats.  Some academic conferences include the Artificial Intelligence International Conference, TED, Festival of Marketing, and AliensFest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presentations.", "content": "Prospective presenters are usually asked to submit a short abstract of their presentation, which will be reviewed before the presentation is accepted for the meeting. Some disciplines require presenters to submit a paper of about 6–15 pages, which is peer reviewed by members of the program committee or referees chosen by them.  In some disciplines, such as English and other languages, it is common for presenters to read from a prepared script. In other disciplines such as the sciences, presenters usually base their talk around a visual presentation that displays key figures and research results.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "A large meeting will usually be called a conference, while a smaller is termed a workshop. They might be \"single track\" or \"multiple track\", where the former has only one session at a time, while a multiple track meeting has several parallel sessions with speakers in separate rooms speaking at the same time.  The larger the conference, the more likely it is that academic publishing houses may set up displays. Large conferences also may have a career and job search and interview activities.  At some conferences, social or entertainment activities such as tours and receptions can be part of the program. Business meetings for learned societies or interest groups can also be part of the conference activities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "Academic conferences typically fall into three categories:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Infrastructure.", "content": "Increasing numbers of amplified conferences are being provided which exploit the potential of WiFi networks and mobile devices in order to enable remote participants to contribute to discussions and listen to ideas.  Advanced technology for meeting with any yet unknown person in a conference is performed by active RFID that may indicate wilfully identified and relatively located upon approach via electronic tags.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "Conferences are usually organized either by a scientific society or by a group of researchers with a common interest. Larger meetings may be handled on behalf of the scientific society by a Professional Conference Organiser or PCO.  The meeting is announced by way of a Call For Papers (CFP) or a Call For Abstracts, which is sent to prospective presenters and explains how to submit their abstracts or papers. It describes the broad theme and lists the meeting's topics and formalities such as what kind of abstract (summary) or paper has to be submitted, to whom, and by what deadline. A CFP is usually distributed using a mailing list or on specialized online services. Contributions are usually submitted using an online abstract or paper management service.  Increasingly, there has been a call for more sustainable academic conferencing, as flying to and consumption at conferences is one of the largest components of an academics environmental footprint. However, few conferences have enacted practices to reduce their environmental impact, despite guidelines being widely available. An analysis of academic conferences taking place in 2016, showed that only 4% of 116 conferences sampled offered carbon offset options and only 9% of these conferences implemented any form of action to their reduce environmental impact.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fraud.", "content": "There have been accusations for fake, scam, or fraudulent conferences; see also BIT Life Sciences and SCIgen § In conferences.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An academic conference or scientific conference (also: symposium, workshop, meeting, etc.) is an event for researchers (not necessarily academics) to present and discuss their work. Together with academic or scientific journals and Eprint archives such as arXiv, conferences provide an important channel for exchange of information between researchers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975712}
{"src_title": "Crozet Islands", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery and early history.", "content": "The Crozet Islands were discovered on 24 January 1772 by the expedition of French explorer Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne, aboard \"Le Mascarin\". His second-in-command Jules (Julien-Marie) Crozet landed on Île de la Possession, claiming the archipelago for France. The expedition continued east and landed in New Zealand, where Captain Marion and much of his crew were killed and cannibalized by Maori. Crozet survived the disaster, and successfully led the survivors back to their base in Mauritius. In 1776 Crozet met James Cook at Cape Town, at the start of Cook's third voyage. Crozet shared the charts of his ill-fated expedition, and as Cook sailed eastward he stopped at the islands, naming the western group \"Marion\" and the eastern group \"Crozet\". In the following years, sealers visiting the islands referred to both the eastern and western groups as the Crozet Islands, and Marion Island became the name of the larger of the two Prince Edward Islands, which had been discovered by Captain Marion on the same expedition.  In the early 19th century, the islands were often visited by sealers, and the seals had been nearly exterminated by 1835. Between 1804 and 1911, 153 vessels visited the island for seals, seven of which wrecked on the coast. Subsequently, whaling was the main activity around the islands, especially by the whalers from Massachusetts. In 1841 there were a dozen whaleships around the islands. Within a couple of years this had increased to twenty from the United States alone. Such exploitation was short-lived, and the islands were rarely visited for the rest of the century.  There were many shipwrecks on the Crozet Islands. The British sealer, \"Princess of Wales\", sank in 1821, and the survivors spent two years on the islands. The \"Strathmore\" was wrecked in 1875. In 1887, the French \"Tamaris\" was wrecked and her crew stranded on Île des Cochons. They tied a note to the leg of an albatross, which was found seven months later in Fremantle, but the crew was never recovered. For some time the Royal Navy dispatched a ship every few years to look for stranded survivors. The steamship \"Australasian\" also checked for survivors en route to Australia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recent history.", "content": "Between 1924 and 1955, France administered the islands as a dependency of Madagascar. Crozet Islands became part of the French Southern Territories in 1955. In 1938, the Crozet Islands were declared a nature reserve. In 1961, a first research station was set up, but it was not until 1963 that the permanent station Alfred Faure opened at Port Alfred on Île de la Possession (both named after the first leader of the station). The station is staffed by 18 to 30 people (varying by season). They perform meteorological, biological, and geological research, and maintain a seismograph and a geomagnetic observatory (IAGA code: CZT). The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organization has listening equipment on the island and it was disclosed that two of its stations, the other being on Ascension Island, detected what is believed to be an underwater, non-nuclear explosion off the coast of Argentina and believed to be the fatal accident of the submarine in 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "The islands lie on the Antarctic Plate roughly between the Kerguelen hotspot and Madagascar and southern Africa. The oldest East Island formed roughly 9 million years ago from a hotspot which has continued forming islands to the west until, ostensibly, the present. Despite this apparently young age, no volcanic activity has been observed to date on any of the islands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Not including minor islets or rock reefs etc., the Crozet group consists of six islands. From west to east:  The Eastern and Western Groups are apart (from Île des Pingouins to Île de la Possession)  The Crozet Islands are uninhabited, except for the research station Alfred Faure (Port Alfred) on the east side of Île de la Possession, which has been continuously manned since 1963. Previous scientific stations included La Grande Manchotière and La Petite Manchotière.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "The Crozet Islands have a maritime-influenced tundra climate (Köppen climate classification, ET). Monthly temperatures average around and in winter and summer respectively. Precipitation is high, with over per year. It rains on average 300 days a year, and winds exceeding occur on 100 days a year. The temperatures may rise to in summer and rarely go below, even in winter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "The islands are part of the Southern Indian Ocean Islands tundra ecoregion that includes several subantarctic islands. In this cold climate plant life is mainly limited to grasses, mosses and lichens, while the main animals are insects along with large populations of seabirds, seals and penguins.  The Crozet Islands are home to four species of penguins. Most abundant are the macaroni penguin, of which some 2 million pairs breed on the islands, and the king penguin, home to 700,000 breeding pairs; half the world's population. The eastern rockhopper penguin also can be found, and there is a small colony of gentoo penguins. There is also an endemic subspecies of the duck Eaton's pintail. Other birds include black-faced sheathbills, petrels, and albatross, including the wandering albatross.  Mammals living on the Crozet Islands include fur seals, and southern elephant seals. Killer whales have been observed preying upon the seals. The transient killer whales of the Crozet Islands are famous for intentionally beaching (and later un-stranding) themselves while actively hunting the islands' breeding seal population. This is a very rare behaviour, most often seen in the Patagonia region of Argentina, and is thought to be a learned skill passed down through generations of individual orca families. These killer whales also seem to stay around the Crozet Islands year-round, feeding on mostly seals during the summer, and then feeding on penguins for the winter.  The Crozet Islands have been a nature reserve since 1938. Introduction of foreign species (mice, rats, and subsequently cats for pest control) has caused severe damage to the original ecosystem. The pigs that had been introduced on Île des Cochons and the goats brought to Île de la Possession—both as a food resource—have been exterminated.  Another on-going concern is overfishing of the Patagonian toothfish, as well as the albatross population, which is being monitored. The waters of the Crozet Islands are patrolled by the French government.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "A 2012 French film, \"Les Saveurs du Palais\", begins and ends with scenes in the Crozet Islands. The film's protagonist, a grandmotherly chef from the Périgord region of France who signed on as cook for the research station, had once been the personal chef to President François Mitterrand.  In the 1978 novel \"Desolation Island\", the fifth book in Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey–Maturin series, the fictional naval vessel HMS \"Leopard\" is severely damaged by a collision with an iceberg in the southwestern Indian Ocean. The crew attempts to make landfall for repairs on one of the Crozet Islands, but they miss the island and continue to drift towards the east, unable to reverse direction.  In Herman Melville’s Moby Dick, the Pequod sails near the ‘distant Crozetts’, ’a good cruising ground for Right Whalemen’ in Chapter 52, ‘The Albatross’. See also chapter 58, ’Brit’.  \"Biggles Cuts it Fine\" by Capt. W E Johns is set mainly in the Crozet Islands, where a fictional Russian base is discovered on, what is called in the book, “Hog Island”.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Crozet Islands (; or, officially, \"Archipel Crozet\") are a subantarctic archipelago of small islands in the southern Indian Ocean. They form one of the five administrative districts of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975713}
{"src_title": "Gyula Gömbös", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Gömbös was born in Murga, Tolna County, Kingdom of Hungary, which had a mixed Hungarian and ethnic German population. He was the son of Gyula Gömbös de Jákfa (1858-1921), member of untitled Hungarian nobility and Maria Weitzel (b.1867). His father was the village schoolmaster. The family belonged to the Hungarian Evangelical (i. e. Lutheran) Church.  Gömbös entered the Austro-Hungarian Army as a cadet in Pécs and quickly became a member of the officer corps, serving as a captain during World War I. While in the army, Gömbös became a staunch advocate of Hungary's gaining independence from Austria and a bitter critic of the Habsburgs.  After World War I ended and Hungary split from Austria, Gömbös joined Conservative Hungarian forces in Szeged that were unwilling to support Communist Béla Kun, who had seized control of Hungary in 1919, forming his own paramilitary group, the Hungarian National Defence Association (\"Magyar Országos Véderő Egylet\", or MOVE). Gömbös became a close ally of Miklós Horthy, the leader of the anti-Communist government in Szeged, and played a leading role in organizing Horthy’s army. For his services, Gömbös was made minister of defense in the Szeged government.  After Kun’s government was ousted in August 1919, Gömbös helped direct the purge of Communists from Hungarian society. Gömbös supported certain political actions against Hungary's Jews.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rightward.", "content": "Gömbös had been a Smallholder before the war, but veered sharply to the right in the upheaval following the breakup of Austria-Hungary. After Miklós Horthy was made regent of Hungary in 1920, Gömbös became the primary leader of Hungary’s emerging nationalist movement, which was gaining some support from the people in response to the brief period of Communist rule and the signing of the Treaty of Trianon, which resulted in Hungary losing two-thirds of its territory to neighboring nations.  Despite some disagreements with Horthy, Gömbös was active in the widespread purge of Hungarian Communists and later organized mass military opposition to the Habsburg pretender Charles IV's plan to regain his throne in 1921, a move which kept Horthy firmly in control of Hungary. Later that year, Gömbös became one of the primary leaders of the opposition to Prime Minister István Bethlen. In 1929, Gömbös was made a major general and appointed Minister of Defense in the Bethlen government by Horthy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime minister.", "content": "In 1932, Horthy appointed Gömbös prime minister; Gömbös, in turn, acceded to Horthy's urging not to seek new elections. Upon taking office, Gömbös publicly recanted his previous antipathy to Jews. The country's Jewish political leadership under Bela Szanto supported the appointment of Gömbös and his programs in exchange for Gömbös promising not to enact any racially motivated laws, and not to cause economic harm to the Jews through his general policies. These promises Gömbös kept.  As prime minister, Gömbös was very active in international affairs, seeking support for revising the Treaty of Trianon and pursuing trade deals aimed at reviving the Depression-afflicted economy. One of his major goals was to align Hungary into an Axis with Italy and Austria. In 1933, Gömbös flew to Italy and visited Benito Mussolini. Mussolini conveyed to Gömbös his approval regarding the revision of the Treaty of Trianon. Also, Mussolini promised Gömbös Italy’s aid if Hungary went to war with Yugoslavia and Romania in an attempt to regain Hungary’s former territory from those nations.  Gömbös also formed, with rather greater reluctance, an alliance with Germany. When Hitler became Chancellor, Gömbös was the first foreign head of government to visit the Nazi leader. Shortly after, Gömbös signed a major trade agreement with Germany, doing so in the hope of reducing Hungary's unemployment rate as the 1930s progressed.  This amity, though, failed to endure. Not only did Hitler consider Gömbös to be far too pro-Jewish, but he made it clear to Gömbös that his support of Hungary had a price. While the German dictator voiced willingness to take Hungary's side in any effort that Hungary carried out to regain land from Czechoslovakia, he would not support Hungary against the territorial ambitions of either Romania or Yugoslavia. Unlike Mussolini, Hitler also resented Gömbös’ plans to expand the size and power of the Hungarian military.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death in office.", "content": "However, Gömbös never lived to see his ambitious plans come to fruition. Gömbös, after a long illness, died of testicular cancer in Munich on 6 October 1936.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Burial.", "content": "Gömbös was buried at Kerepesi Cemetery among exceptional circumstances; his funeral procession was attended by hundreds of thousands of Hungarians, and his catafalque was visited by many dignitaries because he was the head of the government.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gyula Gömbös de Jákfa (26 December 1886 – 6 October 1936) was a Hungarian military officer and politician, and served as Prime Minister of Hungary from 1 October 1932 until his death on 6 October 1936.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975714}
{"src_title": "THEMIS", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Launch.", "content": "THEMIS was originally scheduled to launch on October 19, 2006. Owing to delays caused by workmanship problems with Delta II second stages—an issue that also affected the previous mission, STEREO—the THEMIS launch was delayed to Thursday, February 15, 2007. Due to weather conditions occurring on Tuesday, February 13, fueling of the second stage was delayed, and the launch pushed back 24 hours. On February 16, the launch was scrubbed in a hold at the T-4 minute point in the countdown due to the final weather balloon reporting a red, or no-go condition for upper level winds. A 24-hour turnaround procedure was initiated, targeting a new launch window between 23:01 and 23:17 UTC on February 17.  Favorable weather conditions were observed on February 17, and the countdown proceeded smoothly. THEMIS successfully launched at 6:01 p.m. EST. The spacecraft separated from the launch vehicle approximately 73 minutes after liftoff. By 8:07 p.m. EST, mission operators at the Space Sciences Laboratory (SSL) of the University of California, Berkeley, commanded and received signals from all five spacecraft, confirming nominal separation status.  The launch service was provided by the United Launch Alliance through the NASA Launch Services Program (LSP).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission status.", "content": "From February 15, 2007 until September 15, 2007 the five THEMIS satellites coasted in a string-of-pearls orbital configuration. From September 15, 2007 until December 4, 2007 the satellites were moved to more distant orbits in preparation for data collection in the magnetotail. This phase of the mission was called the \"Dawn Phase\" because the satellites' orbits were in apogee on the dawn side of the magnetosphere. On December 4, 2007 the first tail science phase of the mission began. In this segment of the mission scientists will collect data from the magnetotail of the Earth's magnetosphere. During this phase the satellites' orbits are in apogee inside the magnetotail. The scientists hope to observe substorms and magnetic reconnection events. During these events charged particles stored in the Earth's magnetosphere are discharged to form the aurora borealis. Tail science is performed in the winter of the northern hemisphere because the ground magnetometers that Themis scientists correlate the satellite data with have relatively longer periods of night. During the night, observations are not interrupted by charged particles from the Sun.  In 2007, THEMIS \"found evidence of magnetic ropes connecting Earth's upper atmosphere directly to the Sun,\" reconfirming the theory of solar-terrestrial electrical interaction (via \"Birkeland currents\" or \"field-aligned currents\") proposed by Kristian Birkeland circa 1908. NASA also likened the interaction to a \"30 kiloVolt battery in space,\" noting the \"flux rope pumps 650,000 Amp current into the Arctic!\"  On February 26, 2008, THEMIS probes were able to determine, for the first time, the triggering event for the onset of magnetospheric substorms. Two of the five probes, positioned approximately one third the distance to the Moon, measured events suggesting a magnetic reconnection event 96 seconds prior to Auroral intensification. Dr. Vassilis Angelopoulos of the University of California, Los Angeles, who is the principal investigator for the THEMIS mission, claimed, \"Our data show clearly and for the first time that magnetic reconnection is the trigger.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extended mission.", "content": "On May 19, 2008 the Space Sciences Laboratory (SSL) at Berkeley announced NASA had extended the THEMIS mission to the year 2012. NASA officially approved the movement of THEMIS B and THEMIS C into lunar orbit under the mission name \"ARTEMIS\" (Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon's Interaction with the Sun), which was revised to \"THEMIS-ARTEMIS\" in 2019. In February 2017, THEMIS celebrated ten years of science operations. As of August 2017, the three THEMIS inner probes continue to collect valuable data on the Sun's interaction with the Earth's magnetosphere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "ARTEMIS.", "content": "In early 2010, ARTEMIS P1 (THEMIS B) performed two lunar flybys and one Earth flyby, and approached insertion into a Lissajous orbit around a lunar Lagrange point. Lunar orbit insertion was targeted for April 2011. ARTEMIS P2 (THEMIS C) completed a lunar flyby and was on the inbound leg of the first of three deep space excursions on its way to a Lissajous orbit and was targeted for lunar orbit in April 2011.  On June 22, 2011, ARTEMIS P1 began firing its thrusters to move out of its kidney-shaped libration orbit on one side of the Moon, where it had been since January. On July 2, 2011 12:30 p.m. EDT, ARTEMIS P1 entered lunar orbit. The second spacecraft, ARTEMIS P2, moved into lunar orbit on July 17, 2011. Along the way, the two spacecraft were the first to ever achieve orbit around the Moon's Lagrangian points.  As of October 2019, both lunar probes are in stable orbits, and will remain operational for a long time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Instruments.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ground based.", "content": "As the satellites monitor the magnetosphere from orbit, twenty ground stations in North America simultaneously monitor auroras. Ground station mission and science operations are being managed by the University of California Space Sciences Laboratory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Swales Aerospace.", "content": "Swales Aerospace, now part of Orbital ATK which is now part of Northrop Grumman, (Beltsville, Maryland) manufactured all five probes for this mission. Each was built-up and tested at the Beltsville facility, before being delivered to University of California, Berkeley for instrument integration. Swales was responsible for integrating the BAU, IRU, Solar Arrays, Antenna, Battery, and other components necessary for functionality. This was the second major satellite built by Swales, the first being the EO-1 spacecraft, which continues to orbit Earth. Swales was also responsible for designing and building the Electrical Ground Support Equipment (EGSE) used for monitoring the probes during all phases of pre-launch activities, including use at the launch site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "JPL.", "content": "After the installation of instruments at SSL, Berkeley, pre-launch testing including thermal-vac, vibration and acoustic tests, was conducted at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "FAST.", "content": "The Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer (FAST) mission supported THEMIS in 2008 and 2009 before being retired. FAST was a Small Explorer program (SMEX) mission launched in 1996.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms (THEMIS) mission began in February 2007 as a constellation of five NASA satellites (THEMIS A through THEMIS E) to study energy releases from Earth's magnetosphere known as substorms, magnetic phenomena that intensify auroras near Earth's poles. The name of the mission is an acronym alluding to the Titan Themis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975715}
{"src_title": "Tia Hellebaut", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Hellebaut started as a professional athlete with Atletiek Vlaanderen in the period from 2001 to October 2005. From 1 November 2006 she again became a professional athlete, this time at Bloso. During her most successful period, Hellebaut was trained by her partner, Wim Vandeven, at her club, Atletica 84.  At the 2006 European Championships and 2007 Indoor European Championships Hellebaut won the gold medal in high jump. The 2006 victory became especially notable, when just a couple of minutes later her close friend and compatriot Kim Gevaert completed a historical sprint double. The images of both athletes celebrating their victory together, wrapped in a national flag, became part of Belgian sports history.  In 2007 Hellebaut set the fourth best pentathlon score of all time, but chose not to contest the European Indoor Championships because of illness, choosing instead to compete only in the high jump, which she later won. Most of the remainder of her 2007 high jump season was hampered by an ankle injury. A shoulder injury, which made it difficult for her to throw the javelin, ended her career in heptathlon around this time.  For the 2008 indoor season, Hellebaut returned her focus to multi-events and became world champion of pentathlon at the World Indoor Championships in Valencia, where she set a secord for the best high jump result in a women's multi-event competition, clearing 1.99 m.  At the 2008 Summer Olympics, held in Beijing, Hellebaut reached her pinnacle thus far by winning the gold medal in the high jump, ahead of the favorite, Blanka Vlašić of Croatia, with a new outdoor personal best of 2.05 m. Her achievement represented the first-ever athletics gold medal in the Olympics for a Belgian woman, and only the second of any color, one day after Belgium won their first (silver) medal in the 4 × 100 m relay (which later was upgraded to gold after the Russian team was disqualified because of a doping rules infraction by one of their athletes).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement and comebacks.", "content": "On 5 December 2008 Hellebaut announced her pregnancy and retirement from professional athletics and that she would start working for a sports marketing company. The following year, on 9 June, her daughter Lotte was born.  Inspired by fellow Belgian Kim Clijsters' comeback to the WTA as a young mother, she unexpectedly announced her return to athletics on 16 February 2010, her 32nd birthday. Hellebaut also announced that she would be concentrating exclusively on the high jump and aimed to participate in the 2012 Summer Olympics.  Shortly after placing fifth at the 2010 European Athletic Championships in Barcelona by clearing 1.97 metres, her first major championships after her comeback, it was reported that Hellebaut was pregnant again. During a press conference on 17 August she confirmed that she had been pregnant for three months already, and that this had been a conscious choice. Although Hellebaut did not participate in any further 2010 events, she never officially announced that the new pregnancy would definitively end her career.  On 16 June 2011, 4 months after the birth of her second daughter Saartje, Hellebaut announced her second return, confirming that she aimed to defend her title at the London Games. She was the flag bearer of Belgium during the 2012 Summer Olympics Parade of Nations. She ended fifth in the high jump competition.  On 6 March 2013, after the European Indoor Championships in Gothenburg, she announced her second retirement, saying that she could no longer challenge herself mentally in competition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sport consultancy.", "content": "In March 2019, Belgian football club Beerschot Wilrijk announced the take-over of amateur side Rupel Boom and lifetime Beerschot supporter Hellebaut was appointed advisor at Rupel Boom's football academy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tia Hellebaut (; born 16 February 1978 in Antwerp) is a retired Belgian track and field athlete, as well as a chemist, who started out in her sports career in the heptathlon, and afterwards specialized in the high jump event. She has cleared 2.05 metres both indoors and outdoors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975716}
{"src_title": "Le Petit Nicolas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Concept.", "content": "The work started out as a comic strip, which initially ran in \"Le Moustique\" between 1956 and 1958, drawn by Sempé and written by Goscinny.  The books are told from the point of view of Nicolas himself, which gives the book a distinct and personal sense of humor. The narration is a pastiche of childish storytelling, with run-on sentences and schoolyard slang used in abundance, and much of the humor derives from Nicolas' misunderstanding of adults' behavior. At the same time, adults are as much a target of the book's satire as children, as the straightforward and uncomplicated worldview of the child narrator exposes the flaws of adult perception. This subversive element in \"Le Petit Nicolas\" made it an early example of modern children's literature that is centered on the experience of the child's interpretation of the world, rather than an adult's.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characters.", "content": "The characters from the French edition include (with names from Anthea Bell's English translation in square brackets):  Other characters include Nicolas's parents, as well as teachers and administrators in the school. The teacher is hard-working and loves the children, although they usually exasperate her. The superintendent, Mr. Dubon (Mr Goodman), is known as \"le Bouillon\" (\"Old Spuds\").  The two main characters of another comic series by Goscinny, \"Iznogoud\", begin to take shape in the episode when Nicolas is in summer camp. He and the other children are forced to take a nap, so the conselor tells them a story about \"\"a caliph who was a very good man but who had a very evil vizier...\"\", then tells how the caliph dresses as a common man to find out what people think of him, and the evil vizier takes his place.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English edition.", "content": "An English edition with the title \"Young Nicolas\" was completed by Stella Rodway for Hutchinson & Co. in 1961. It was published in the USA by Bobbs-Merrill in 1962. The characters' names retain the French form. The title page lists the authors simply as \"Sempé and Goscinny\".  An English edition of the series with anglicized character names was released in 1978, translated by Anthea Bell. This contained five volumes: \"Nicholas and the Gang at School\", \"Nicholas and the Gang Again\", \"Nicholas on Holiday\", \"Nicholas and the Gang\", and \"Nicholas at Large\". The first volume was republished with more complete illustrations in 2005 by Phaidon Press as \"Nicholas\". Four further volumes followed from Phaidon, as \"Nicholas Again\", \"Nicholas on Holiday\" (\"Nicholas on Vacation\" in North America), \"Nicholas and the Gang\", and finally \"Nicholas in Trouble\" in 2008.  In this version, M. Dubon (nicknamed \"le Bouillon\") becomes Mr. Goodman (nicknamed \"Old Spuds\"). He derives his nickname from his habit of repeating constantly: \"Look me in the eye.\" In French broth (bouillon) has eyes (blobs of fat on the surface), in the English version they become potato eyes. In the story 'Djodjo', the English exchange student becomes Flemish, and his nickname is changed from \"Djodjo\" to \"Djocky\".  Another English translation of \"Le petit Nicolas\", with the title \"The Chronicles of Little Nicholas\", was published in New York by Farrar, Straus Giroux in 1993. The translator is not named in this edition; the copyright page attributes copyright for the translation to Farrar, Straus & Giroux.  \"Nicholas\" was the subject of a Mildred L. Batchelder \"Honour\" for translated children's books in 2006 given by the Association for Library Services to Children (ALSC), a division of the American Library Association, and \"Nicholas and the Gang\" received the same honour in 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spanish edition.", "content": "For Latin America, the books were published by Alfaguara. Names for this edition were: Nicolas, Clotario, Alcestes, Eudes, Godofredo, Agnan, Joaquín, Majencio, Rufo, Eduviges, Luisa, Rex. \"Le Bouillon\" becomes \"el Caldo\", even though this expression is not commonly used in Latin America.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Le Petit Nicolas (Little Nicholas) is a series of French children's books. It was created by René Goscinny and illustrated by Jean-Jacques Sempé and it was first published on March 30, 1959. The books depict an idealized version of childhood in 1950s France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975717}
{"src_title": "Olga Boznańska", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Boznańska was born in Kraków during foreign partitions of Poland. She was the daughter of a railway engineer, Adam Nowina Boznański, and Eugénie \"née\" Mondan originally from Valence, France. In Boznańska learned drawing first with Józef Siedlecki, Kazimierz Pochwalski and Antoni Piotrowski, then studied at the Adrian Baraniecki School for Women. She débuted in 1886 at the Kraków Association of Friends of Fine Arts exhibition.  From 1886–1890 she studied art in the private schools of Karl Kricheldorf and Wilhelm Dürr in Munich - as women were not yet permitted at the Munich Academy. From then on she devoted herself mostly to portraits, still lifes and occasionally landscapes. She became well connected within the Polish artistic community of Munich, notably Józef Brandt who became her mentor. Her 1893 \"Portrait of Paul Nauen\" obtained her first public success - being awarded the gold medal at the International Exhibition in Vienna the following year.  In 1898, she joined the Society of Polish Artists \"Sztuka\" and in the same year moved to Paris, where she became a member of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts and started teaching at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière and joined the Polish Society of Literature and Art (Polskie Towarzystwo Literacko-Artystyczne).  Her most famous 1894 portrait of an unknown child \"Girl with Chrysanthemums\" fascinated her contemporaries by its symbolist atmosphere and psychological insight. Boznańska received the French Legion of Honour in 1912, the Golden Laurel of the Polish Academy of Literature in 1936, the Grand Prix at the Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques la Vie Moderne in 1937, and the Order of Polonia Restituta in 1938. The same year, at the Venice Biennale, one of her portraits was purchased by King of Italy Victor Emmanuel III. Her paintings can be found in the National Museums in Wrocław, Kraków, Poznań and Warsaw as well as Musée d'Orsay in Paris and Ca' Pesaro – International Gallery of Modern Art in Venice. She died in Paris at the age of 75.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Olga Boznańska (15 April 1865 – 26 October 1940) was a Polish painter of the turn of the 20th century. She was a notable female painter in Poland and Europe, and was stylistically associated with the French impressionism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975718}
{"src_title": "Cable tray", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "Several types of tray are used in different applications. A solid-bottom tray provides the maximum protection to cables, but requires cutting the tray or using fittings to enter or exit cables. A deep, solid enclosure for cables is called a cable channel or cable trough.  A ventilated tray has openings in the bottom of the tray, allowing some air circulation around the cables, water drainage, and allowing some dust to fall through the tray. Small cables may exit the tray through the ventilation openings, which may be either slots or holes punched in the bottom. A ladder tray has the cables supported by a traverse bar, similarly to the rungs of a ladder, at regular intervals on the order of 4 to 12 inches (100 to 300 mm).  Ladder and ventilated trays may have solid covers to protect cables from falling objects, dust, and water. Tray covers for use outdoors or in dusty locations may have a peaked shape to shed debris including dust, ice or snow. Lighter cable trays are more appropriate in situations where a great number of small cables are used, such as for telephone or computer network cables. These trays may be made of wire mesh, called \"cable basket\", or be designed in the form of a single central spine (rail) with ribs to support the cable on either side.  Channel Tray provides an economical support for cable drops and branch cable runs from the backbone cable tray system. Channel cable tray is used for installations with limited numbers of tray cable when conduit is undesirable.  Large power cables laid in the tray may require support blocks to maintain spacing between conductors, to prevent overheating of the wires. Smaller cables may be laid unsecured in horizontal trays, or secured with cable ties to the bottom of vertically mounted trays. To maintain support of cables at changes of elevation or direction of a tray, a large number of specialized cable tray fittings are made compatible with each style and manufacturer. Horizontal elbows change direction of a tray in the same plane as the bottom of the tray and are made in 30, 45 and 90 degree forms; inside and outside elbows are for changes perpendicular to the tray bottom. These can be in various shapes including tees and crosses. Some manufacturers and types provide adjustable elbows, useful for field-fitting a tray around obstacles or around irregular shapes.  Various clamping, supporting and splicing accessories are used with the cable tray to provide a complete functional tray system. For example, different sizes of cable tray used within one run can be connected with reducers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Materials used.", "content": "Common cable trays are made of galvanized steel, stainless steel, aluminum, or glass-fiber reinforced plastic. The material for a given application is chosen based on where it will be used. Galvanized tray may be made of pre-galvanized steel sheet fabricated into tray, or may be hot-dip galvanized after fabrication. When galvanized tray is cut to length in the field, usually the cut surface will be painted with a zinc-rich compound to protect the metal from corrosion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fire safety concerns and solutions.", "content": "Combustible cable jackets may catch on fire and cable fires can thus spread along a cable tray within a structure. This is easily prevented through the use of fire-retardant cable jackets, or fireproofing coatings applied to installed cables. Heavy coatings or long fire-stops may require adjustment of the cable current ratings, since such fireproofing measures may reduce the heat dissipation of installed cables.  Regular housecleaning is important for safety, as cable trays are often installed in hard to reach places. Combustible dust and clutter may accumulate if the trays are not routinely checked and kept clean.  Plastic and fibreglass reinforced plastic cable trays are combustible; the effect is mitigated through the use of fire retardants or fireproofing.  Ferrous cable trays expand with the increasing heat from accidental fire. This has been proven by the German Otto-Graf-Institut Test Report III.1-80999/Tei/tei \"Supplementary Test On The Topic Of Mechanical Force Acting On Cable Penetration Firestop Systems During The Fire Test\", dated 23 October 1984, to dislodge \"soft\" firestops, such as those made of fibrous insulations with rubber coatings. This also applies to any silicone foam seals, but is easily remedied through the use of firestop mortars of sufficient compression strength and thickness, as shown above. Also, some building codes mandate that penetrants such as cable trays are installed in such ways so as to avoid their contribution to the collapse of a firewall.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the electrical wiring of buildings, a cable tray system is used to support insulated electrical cables used for power distribution, control, and communication. Cable trays are used as an alternative to open wiring or electrical conduit systems, and are commonly used for cable management in commercial and industrial construction. They are especially useful in situations where changes to a wiring system are anticipated, since new cables can be installed by laying them in the tray, instead of pulling them through a pipe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975719}
{"src_title": "Nicola Romeo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Romeo graduated with a degree in engineering from the Politecnico di Napoli (nowadays Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II) in 1899. After that, he worked for a couple of years abroad and completed a second bachelor's degree in electrical engineering in Liège, Belgium. In 1911 he returned to Italy and created \"Ing. Nicola Romeo e Co.\". The company manufactured machines and equipment for the mining industry. As the company became successful he wished to expand and acquired a majority of Milan-based car manufacturing company A.L.F.A. (Anonima Lombarda Fabbrica Automobili) in 1915. Only three years later, in 1918, Romeo owned the whole company. A.L.F.A. was renamed to \"Anonima Lombarda Fabbrica Automobili Romeo\". The first car carrying the Alfa Romeo badge was the 1921 Torpedo 20/30 HP. The company gained a good reputation for building elegant and safe cars as well as aircraft parts, but in 1927 it came very close to liquidation due to a series of bad investments. During a tense board meeting Romeo was asked to leave the company, although the new CEO Pasquale Gallo persuaded him to stay as president. Romeo officially departed from Alfa Romeo in 1928.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engineering companies.", "content": "Nicola Romeo owned a number of engineering companies, not all at the same time. These included:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1905 he married Angelina Valadin, a Portuguese opera singer and pianist. Together they had seven children; Maurizio, Edoardo, Nicholas, Elena, Giulietta, Piera and Irene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Nicola Romeo died on 15 August 1938 in his home at Lake Como at the age of 62. Almost seventy years after his death and on the occasion of the 130th anniversary of his birth, Naples dedicated a street to the memory of Nicola Romeo, called Via Nicola Romeo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicola Romeo (; Sant'Antimo, 28 April 1876 – Magreglio, 15 August 1938) was an Italian engineer and entrepreneur. He served as a senator in the 18th Legislature of the Kingdom of Italy (XXVIII legislatura del Regno d'Italia).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975720}
{"src_title": "Atlit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Neolithic.", "content": "Atlit Yam is an ancient submerged Neolithic village off the coast of Atlit, Israel. Atlit-Yam provides the earliest known evidence for an agro-pastoral-marine subsistence system on the Levantine coast.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bronze Age.", "content": "Atlit shows evidence of human habitation since the early Bronze Age.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roman period.", "content": "In the \"Bordeaux Itinerary\", the town is known in Latin as Certa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Crusader period.", "content": "The Crusaders built Château Pèlerin, one of the largest citadels in the Holy Land, and one of the last remaining Crusader outposts to withstand the assaults of Baibars (see also: Fall of Ruad). Atlit remained in Crusader's hands until 1291. The ruins of the citadel are still visible in modern times.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mamluk period.", "content": "In 1296, during Mamluk rule, Atlit and its surrounding area was settled by members of the Tatar 'Uwayrat tribe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ottoman era.", "content": "In 1596, during Ottoman rule which began in 1517, Atlit was recorded as a farm that paid taxes to the government.  During the rule of Acre governor Sulayman Pasha al-Adil, Atlit was the headquarters of local strongman Mas'ud al-Madi, who was appointed the \"mutasallim\" (tax collector/enforcer) of the Atlit coast, which consisted of the territory that stretched from Umm Khalid to Haifa.  In 1799, it appeared as the village \"Atlit\" on the map that Pierre Jacotin compiled that year.  In 1859, the population was stated to be \"180 souls\", and their tillage 13 feddans, according to the English consul Rogers.  An Ottoman village list of about 1870 showed that Atlit had 9 houses and a population of 33, though the population count included men only. In 1881, the PEF's \"Survey of Western Palestine\" noted the existence of a small Arab village. A population list from about 1887 showed that \"Athlit\" had about 180 inhabitants; all Muslims.  In 1903, Jewish settlers built a nearby village which they also called Atlit; The village was established by Edmond James de Rothschild, with most of the land bought from Arab fishermen. A hundred families settled there but much of it was swampland, and many residents succumbed to malaria. Aaron Aaronsohn established an agricultural station in Atlit in 1911, and during World War I the village was used as a base by the Nili organisation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "British Mandate era.", "content": "In the 1922 census of Palestine, during the British Mandate of Palestine period, \"Athlit\" had a population of 81; all Muslims, while \"Athlit Colony\" had a population of 78 Jews and 3 Muslims. \"Athlit Salt works\" had a population of 196 Jews, 1 Muslim and 1 Christian. This had increased in the 1931 census to 413 Muslim, 496 Jews and 39 Christians; in a total of 193 houses.  In 1938 there were 508 Arabs and 224 Jews. The Arab presence underwent a sharp decline in the 1940s due to land sales, so that by the 1945 statistics there were only 150 Arabs still living there (90 Muslims and 60 Christians) alongside 510 Jews.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "State of Israel.", "content": "The circumstances under which the remaining Arabs left in 1948 are unknown. Atlit detainee camp was used by the British authorities to detain Jewish immigrants to Palestine. It is now a museum of the Ha'apala (illegal Jewish immigration 1934-48). The headquarters of Shayetet 13 marine commandos is located at Atlit naval base on the Atlit promontory, placing the Crusader ruins there off-limits for regular visitors.  Atlit was declared a local council in 1950, but in 2004 was incorporated in the Hof HaCarmel Regional Council as one of a handful of Regional Committees. The late Knesset member Pesah Grupper lived in Atlit. He was head of its local council in the years 1959–1962 and 1969–1971.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Neighborhoods.", "content": "Neighborhoods in Atlit are Neve Moshe, Yamit, Giv'at HaPrahim, Giv'at HaBrekhot, Giv'at Sharon, Shoshanat HaYam, HaGoren, Yafe Nof, Argaman, Hofit, Savyonei Atlit and Allon. Atlit is in immediate vicinity of the villages Neve Yam and Ein Carmel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Atlit () is a coastal town located south of Haifa, Israel. The community is in the Hof HaCarmel Regional Council in the Haifa District of Israel. An adjacent Jewish village was founded in 1903 under the auspices of Baron Edmond de Rothschild, which merged into the medieval Palestinian town. In the past, from 1950 until the unification of the municipalities in 2003, Atlit was a local council whose jurisdiction was 14,000 dunams. In the population was.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975721}
{"src_title": "Heinz Harmel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in 1906, Harmel volunteered for the \"SS-Verfügungstruppe\" (later known as the Waffen-SS) in 1935 and served as a company commander in the SS-Regiment \"Der Führer\", with which he took part in the Battle of France in 1940. In 1941, Harmel took part in the Balkans Campaign and Operation Barbarossa. In December 1941, Harmel took command of SS-Infanterie-Regiment \"Deutschland\". Harmel participated in the capture of Kharkov on 15 March 1943. Harmel received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 31 March 1943. On 7 September 1943, he received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves. In early 1944 after completing a divisional commanders' training course, Harmel took command of the SS Division Frundsberg.  During the summer 1944, the division moved to the Western Front, in Normandy. Harmel had been ordered to break the enemy's lines, to free the German units encircled in Falaise pocket numbering approximately 125,000 troops of the 7th Army. The operation ended with heavy losses and serious damage. Harmel was then sent to the Netherlands. He fought against the Allied offensive (Operation Market Garden). After the battles around Nijmegen, Harmel received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords on 15 December 1944. His division was then transferred to Alsace, where Harmel was ordered to establish a bridgehead to join the Colmar Pocket. After the failure of the December 1944/January 1945 offensive in Alsace, Harmel's division was transferred to the Eastern Front, initially fighting in Pomerania and Brandenburg to hold the Oder Front. The division was subsequently transferred to Heeresgruppe Mitte where in late April it was ordered to counterattack the forces of Marshal Ivan Konev. Harmel refused and was dismissed from command by Field Marshal Schoerner. Harmel subsequently commanded an ad hoc battle group formed around the 24th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS, the SS Officer's School at Graz and other smaller units. Harmel surrendered to the Allied forces in Austria and ended up in British captivity. Harmel died in 2000.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heinz Harmel (29 June 1906 – 2 September 2000) was a German SS commander during the Nazi era. He commanded the 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg during World War II. Harmel was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords of Nazi Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975722}
{"src_title": "Django (web framework)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Django was created in the fall of 2003, when the web programmers at the \"Lawrence Journal-World\" newspaper, Adrian Holovaty and Simon Willison, began using Python to build applications. Jacob Kaplan-Moss was hired early in Django's development shortly before Simon Willison's internship ended. It was released publicly under a BSD license in July 2005. The framework was named after guitarist Django Reinhardt.  In June 2008, it was announced that a newly formed Django Software Foundation (DSF) would maintain Django in the future.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Components.", "content": "Despite having its own nomenclature, such as naming the callable objects generating the HTTP responses \"views\", the core Django framework can be seen as an MVC architecture. It consists of an object-relational mapper (ORM) that mediates between data models (defined as Python classes) and a relational database (\"Model\"), a system for processing HTTP requests with a web templating system (\"View\"), and a regular-expression-based URL dispatcher (\"Controller\").  Also included in the core framework are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bundled applications.", "content": "The main Django distribution also bundles a number of applications in its \"contrib\" package, including:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Extensibility.", "content": "Django's configuration system allows third party code to be plugged into a regular project, provided that it follows the reusable app conventions. More than 2500 packages are available to extend the framework's original behavior, providing solutions to issues the original tool didn't tackle: registration, search, API provision and consumption, CMS, etc.  This extensibility is, however, mitigated by internal components' dependencies. While the Django philosophy implies loose coupling, the template filters and tags assume one engine implementation, and both the auth and admin bundled applications require the use of the internal ORM. None of these filters or bundled apps are mandatory to run a Django project, but reusable apps tend to depend on them, encouraging developers to keep using the official stack in order to benefit fully from the apps ecosystem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Server arrangements.", "content": "Django can be run in conjunction with Apache, Nginx using WSGI, Gunicorn, or Cherokee using flup (a Python module). Django also includes the ability to launch a FastCGI server, enabling use behind any web server which supports FastCGI, such as Lighttpd or Hiawatha. It is also possible to use other WSGI-compliant web servers. Django officially supports four database backends: PostgreSQL, MySQL, SQLite, and Oracle. Microsoft SQL Server can be used with django-mssql on Microsoft operating systems, while similarly external backends exist for IBM Db2, SQL Anywhere and Firebird. There is a fork named django-nonrel, which supports NoSQL databases, such as MongoDB and Google App Engine's Datastore.  Django may also be run in conjunction with Jython on any Java EE application server such as GlassFish or JBoss. In this case django-jython must be installed in order to provide JDBC drivers for database connectivity, which also can provide functionality to compile Django in to a.war suitable for deployment.  Google App Engine includes support for Django version 1.x.x as one of the bundled frameworks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Version history.", "content": "The Django team will occasionally designate certain releases to be “long-term support” (LTS) releases. LTS releases will get security and data loss fixes applied for a guaranteed period of time, typically 3+ years, regardless of the pace of releases afterwards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development tools with Django support.", "content": "For developing a Django project, no special tools are necessary, since the source code can be edited with any conventional text editor. Nevertheless, editors specialized on computer programming can help increase the productivity of development, e.g., with features such as syntax highlighting. Since Django is written in Python, text editors which are aware of Python syntax are beneficial in this regard.  Integrated development environments (IDE) add further functionality, such as debugging, refactoring, and unit testing. As with plain editors, IDEs with support for Python can be beneficial. Some IDEs that are specialized on Python additionally have integrated support for Django projects, so that using such an IDE when developing a Django project can help further increase productivity. For comparison of such Python IDEs, see the main article:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Community.", "content": "There is a semiannual conference for Django developers and users, named \"DjangoCon\", that has been held since September 2008. DjangoCon is held annually in Europe, in May or June; while another is held in the United States in August or September, in various cities. The 2012 DjangoCon took place in Washington, D.C., from 3 to 8 September. 2013 DjangoCon was held in Chicago at the Hyatt Regency Hotel and the post-conference Sprints were hosted at Digital Bootcamp, computer training center. The 2014 DjangoCon US returned to Portland, OR from 30 August to 6 September. The 2015 DjangoCon US was held in Austin, TX from 6 to 11 September at the AT&T Executive Center. The 2016 DjangoCon US was held in Philadelphia, PA at The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania from 17 to 22 July.The 2017 DjangoCon US was held in Spokane, WA; in 2018 DjangoCon US was held in San Diego, CA. DjangoCon US 2019 was held again in San Diego, CA from Sept 22–27.  Django mini-conferences are usually held every year as part of the Australian Python Conference 'PyCon AU'. Previously, these mini-conferences have been held in:  Django has spawned user groups and meetups around the world, the most notable group is the Django Girls organization, which began in Poland but now has had events in 91 countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ports to other languages.", "content": "Programmers have ported Django's template design from Python to other languages, providing decent cross-platform support. Some of these options are more direct ports; others, though inspired by Django and retaining its concepts, take the liberty to deviate from Django's design:  This list is an extraction from Current Django Books", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Django ( ; stylised as django) is a Python-based free and open-source web framework that follows the model-template-view (MVC) architectural pattern. It is maintained by the Django Software Foundation (DSF), an American independent organization established as a 501(c)(3) non-profit.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975723}
{"src_title": "Brunswick Manifesto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "On 20 April 1792, Revolutionary France declared war on Austria.  On 28 April, France invaded the Austrian Netherlands (present-day Belgium). Prussia joined the war against France  On 30 July, Austria and Prussia began an invasion of France, hoping to occupy Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brunswick Manifesto.", "content": "On 25 July, the Duke of Brunswick issued the Brunswick Manifesto. The manifesto promised that if the French Royal family was not harmed, then the Allies would not harm French civilians or loot. However, if acts of violence or acts to humiliate the French Royal family were committed, the Allies threatened to burn Paris to the ground. The manifesto was written primarily by Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, the leader of a large corps of French émigrés in Brunswick's army, and intended to intimidate Paris into submission. Brunswick maintained a secret correspondence with Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, and two days before making the Manifesto public, he sent a copy to the Tuileries Palace, and both the king and the queen approved it.  On August 1, news of the manifesto began sweeping through Paris. Many believed the Brunswick Manifesto was final proof that Louis XVI was collaborating with the Allies.  Also on 1 August, Prussian forces crossed the Rhine near Coblenz; consequently, the French National Assembly ordered that citizens prepare for war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impact.", "content": "The prevailing historiographical tradition suggests that the Brunswick Manifesto, rather than intimidate the populace into submission, sent it into furious action and created fear and anger towards the Allies. It also spurred revolutionaries to take further action, organizing an uprising – on 10 August, the Tuileries Palace was stormed in a bloody battle with Swiss Guards protecting it, the survivors of which were massacred by the mob. In late August and early September, the French were defeated in skirmishes with the Allied army, but on 20 September, the French triumphed in the Battle of Valmy. Following its defeat, the Prussian army withdrew from France.  Recent research, however, argues that the Brunswick Manifesto did not have nearly the impact upon the revolutionaries suggested in earlier source material. Firstly, the opinion of what amounted to an external foe among the French radical left was altogether trivial, both before and after the issuance of the manifesto; their attention remained firmly focused on the internal threat: the French monarchy. Secondly, the literary and artistic record from the summer of 1792 suggests that Brunswick created not fear or anger, but rather humor; French cartoonists in particular took to satirizing Brunswick and his manifesto with great vigor. Lastly, the French refused to take the Brunswick Manifesto seriously in any respect, believing it to be unauthentic. This determination stemmed from what they believed to be its illegality, disrespect for the law of war, and denial of national sovereignty.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Brunswick Manifesto was a proclamation issued by Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Allied Army (principally Austrian and Prussian), on 25 July 1792 to the population of Paris, France during the War of the First Coalition. The Brunswick Manifesto threatened that if the French royal family were harmed, then French civilians would be harmed. It was said to have been a measure intended to intimidate Paris, but rather helped further spur the increasingly radical French Revolution and finally led to the war between revolutionary France and counter-revolutionary monarchies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975724}
{"src_title": "9M14 Malyutka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "Development began in July 1961 with the government assigning the project to two design teams: Tula and Kolomna. The requirements were:  The designs were based on the Western ATGMs of the 1950s, such as the French ENTAC and the Swiss Cobra. In the end, the prototype developed by the Kolomna Machine Design Bureau, who were also responsible for the AT-1 Snapper, was chosen. Initial tests were completed by 20 December 1962, and the missile was accepted for service on 16 September 1963.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The missile can be fired from a portable suitcase launcher (9P111), ground vehicles (BMP-1, BRDM-2) and helicopters (Mi-2, Mi-8, Mi-24, Soko Gazelle). The missile takes about five minutes to deploy from its 9P111 fibreglass suitcase, which also serves as the launching platform.  The missile is guided to the target by means of a small joystick (9S415), which requires intensive training of the operator. The operator's adjustments are transmitted to the missile via a thin three-strand wire that trails behind the missile. The missile climbs into the air immediately after launch, which prevents it from hitting obstacles or the ground. In flight, the missile spins at 8.5 revolutions per second—it is initially spun by its booster, and the spin is maintained by the slight angle of the wings. The missile uses a small gyroscope to orient itself relative to the ground; as a result, the missile can take some time to bring back in line with the target, which gives it a minimum range of between 500 and 800 m. For targets under 1,000 m, the operator can guide the missile by eye; for targets beyond this range the operator uses the 8x power, 22.5-degree field of view 9Sh16 periscope sight.  The engagement envelope is a 3 km, 45-degree arc centered on the missile's launch axis. At ranges under 1.5 km, this arc reduces until, at the 500 m range, the missile can only hit targets 50 m either side of the center line. Accuracy falls off away from the launch axis—falling to approximately half its optimal accuracy at the extremes.  While early estimates of the missile hitting the target ranged from 60 to 90%, experience has shown that it can drop to an efficiency between 2 and 25% in case of less than optimal conditions and lack of skill from the operator. In fact, MCLOS requires considerable skill on the part of the operator, nevertheless, the weapon has always been quite popular with its operators and has enjoyed a constant updating effort both in the Soviet Union/Russia and in other countries.  The two most serious defects of the original weapon system are its minimum range of between 500 and 800 m (targets that are closer cannot be effectively engaged) and the amount of time it takes the slow moving missile to reach maximum range—around 30 seconds—giving the intended target time to take appropriate action, either by retreating behind an obstacle, laying down a smoke-screen, or by returning fire on the operator.  Later versions of the missile addressed these problems by implementing the much easier to use guidance system (though only available for ground vehicle and helicopter mounts), as well as upgrading the propulsion system to increase the average flight speed. The latest updates sport tandem warheads or probes in order to counteract explosive reactive armor, as well as thermal imaging systems. Even in these latest version, the Malyutka is probably the most inexpensive ATGM in service, with unitary price caps in the order of hundreds of dollars instead of the tens of thousands of the latest third generation models.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In Soviet service, the man-portable version was deployed as part of the anti-tank platoon of motor rifle battalions. Each platoon had two \"Malyutka\" sections, each with two teams. Each team had two launcher stations. One assistant gunner in each team served as an RPG-7 gunner. The RPG-7 was needed to cover the 500 meter deadzone created by the minimum range of the missile.  It is also an integrated part of the BMP-1, BMD-1, and BRDM-2 vehicles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vietnam War.", "content": "On 23 April 1972, the recently organized Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) 20th Tank Regiment was attacked by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) employing the 9M14M Malyutka anti-tank guided missile for the first time. The 20th was the only South Vietnamese armor unit equipped with the M48 Patton tank. This first employment of the Malyutka destroyed one M48A3 and one M113 armored cavalry assault vehicle (ACAV), and a second ACAV was damaged.  During this engagement with the weapon, the ARVN tankers appeared fascinated by the missile's slow and erratic flight, but through experience, they soon deployed counter measures against the weapon system. Upon launching by the enemy, ARVN crewmen would fire all their weapons towards the Sagger's firing position, which would make the gunner flinch and lose control of his missile. Although the gunner could take cover away from the launch site, the joystick control wire only allowed 15 meters of clearance. During the engagement, the ARVN eventually lost eight tanks to the 9M14M missile, but had developed tactics to defend themselves against it.  During the Battle of Cửa Việt, the PAVN put up fierce resistance to the attack, destroying 26 M-48s and M-113s with AT-3 missiles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Yom Kippur War.", "content": "The missile was employed by Arab armies during the initial phases of the Yom Kippur War. Later in the war, the Israelis adopted new tactics and learned to neutralize the Sagger threat by employing large concentrations of artillery fire to either distract or kill the Sagger operators. Other improvised methods used by the Israelis to defeat the Saggers involved firing in front of the tank to create dust, moving back and forth and firing at the source of Sagger fire. These Israeli tactics were later adopted by NATO forces to counter the threat posed by Warsaw Pact ATGMs. In total, Saggers knocked out more than 800 Israeli tanks and other combat vehicles during the war.  Some experts and Israeli eyewitnesses have debated the effect of the Sagger during the Yom Kippur War. Several photos of Israeli tanks draped with guidance wires from Saggers while still operating successfully exist. In addition numerous veterans of the war describe being shot at by up to eight Sagger gunners at once without a single hit on their tanks. Veteran Israeli tankers reported that the RPG 7 was a much more destructive and feared weapon in the conflict than the Sagger, largely due to its single man portability and its greater accuracy within in its effective envelope compared to that of the Sagger.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Libyan Civil War.", "content": "Rebels of the Free Libyan Army have been filmed using Saggers during the Libyan Civil War.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Syrian Civil War.", "content": "Syrian rebels have also uploaded videos of their Sagger firings against government forces since late 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Models.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The Malyutka and modern derivatives are still produced in several versions in following countries:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 9M14 Malyutka (; \"Little one\", NATO reporting name: AT-3 Sagger) is a manual command to line of sight (MCLOS) wire-guided anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) system developed in the Soviet Union. It was the first man-portable anti-tank guided missile of the Soviet Union and is probably the most widely produced ATGM of all time—with Soviet production peaking at 25,000 missiles a year during the 1960s and 1970s. In addition, copies of the missile have been manufactured under various names by at least five countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975725}
{"src_title": "Vignette (road tax)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Vignette obligation by country.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European Union.", "content": "The Eurovignette Directive introduced in the European Union in 1993 governs road tolls for trucks of minimum 12 metric tonnes. An international agreement, based on Article 8 of the Eurovignette Directive, signed in 1994 by Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands established a common system of vignettes within the Eurovignette framework. Sweden signed a protocol to acceded to the agreement in 1997, while Germany denounced the agreement in 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Austria.", "content": "Since 1997, vignettes are required for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on motorways and expressways (prefixed with letters A and S) under federal administration. Vignettes are overseen by the police and toll-sheriff employees of the federal motorway administration. A €240 fine with an additional obligatory payment of a substitute toll are charged to travelers without a valid vignette, and unpaid fines lead to penalties between €300 and €3,000. Furthermore, the vehicle may be confiscated from foreigners to guarantee payment of the penalty.  Additional tolls are charged for certain motorway sections where tollgates and video tolling systems are installed. Several sections require drivers to buy electronic toll cards. Vignettes for vehicles of over 3.5 tonnes were replaced with electronic distance-based highway-toll GO-Boxes on 1 January 2004.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bulgaria.", "content": "Vignettes are required for all (except motorcycles) vehicles driving on all public roads, with the exception of streets in cities, towns and villages. Vignettes are usually valid from the time they are purchased, while some types can be marked to start from a future date. They can be obtained in Bulgaria at most gas stations, at border crossings, or online using a credit card. Cash fines from €150 to €1,500 are charged to drivers without a valid vignette. The vignette sticker was replaced by e-vignette on 1 January 2019, and an e-toll system is to be introduced in August 2019 for vehicles heavier than 3.5 tonnes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Czech Republic.", "content": "Vignettes are required for the use of motorways and expressways by all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes. Cash fines for not displaying a valid vignette affixed on a car's windshield range from €80 to €200. Vignettes for heavier vehicles were replaced with electronic toll collection in 2007.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "Motorways and expressways are a toll-free road network for all lighter vehicles. The Eurovignette system for trucks was abolished in August 2003. A distance-based toll charge was introduced from 1 January 2005 for vehicles of over 12 tonnes, operated by the Toll Collect company.  As of 1 March 2007, all drivers are required to purchase an emission sticker when passing through \"environment zones\" in several cities and municipalities. Certain \"green zones\" have completely disallowed entrance to vehicles with higher particle emissions (\"yellow\" and \"red\" groups). Travellers passing through these areas without the sticker are charged with a €80 fine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hungary.", "content": "Vignettes are required for all travelers using motorways and expressways. Physical toll stickers were replaced with electronic vignettes and video tolling on 1 January 2008, the only physical item the purchaser receives is a control coupon. Motorway usage entitlement is verified by roadside cameras based on license plate numbers, and drivers of vehicles up to 3.5 tonnes without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €50 and €200.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Moldova.", "content": "Vignettes are obligatory for personal motor vehicles registered abroad, driving on public roads, and are available for purchase at border customs posts and offices. Foreign drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €125 and €375. Heavier vehicles use existing tax rates, with commercial vehicle drivers paying a single-entry tax and a distance-based charge.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Montenegro.", "content": "Ecological-tax vignettes were abolished on 31 December 2011. Driving on public roads is generally toll-free, with the exception of passing through certain tunnels and bridges.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Romania.", "content": "With the exception of motorcycles, vignettes are required for all vehicles driving on all national roads and motorways. Physical vignettes have been replaced with electronic ones since 1 October 2010. They can be obtained at most gas stations, border crossings, or online using a credit card. Drivers without a valid vignette are fined with €100 or more. The fines are dispensed by automatic systems that scan the numberplate of the car when it exits a city.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Slovakia.", "content": "Vignettes are obligatory for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on Slovak motorways. Drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €100 and €500. Vignettes for heavier vehicles were replaced with distance-based electronic toll collection using the remote-operated toll-box in force since 2010. Special arrangements are to be sought by the motorbike riders.  From 1 January 2016 Slovak vignettes are purchased and checked electronically via eZnamka.sk without a sticker.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Slovenia.", "content": "Vignettes are required for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on Slovenian motorways as of 1 July 2008. Drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €300 and €800. On 1.4.2018, the Republic of Slovenia has implemented an electronic tolling of vehicles whose maximum permissible weight exceeds 3.5 tonnes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Switzerland.", "content": "All travelers using motorways and expressways are required to purchase an annual vignette. Vignettes can be obtained in and outside of Switzerland in bordering countries at gas stations and labeled points. Use of motorway networks without a valid vignette is an offense against the Public Highways Act, and is punishable with cash fines of CHF 200, in addition to the obligatory purchase of an annual vignette. Heavier vehicles use a distance-based tax rate on all types of roads, called the.  Switzerland only offers a vignette valid for a year at CHF 40 (€35.75). Because of this, its vignette is the most expensive in Europe for transiting and visiting passenger cars. Other countries offer short-term vignettes that make a transit or visit less expensive than in Switzerland.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vignette is a form of road pricing imposed on vehicles, usually in addition to the compulsory road tax, based on a period of time the vehicle may use the road, instead of road tolls that are based on distance travelled. Vignettes are currently used in several European countries. The term originated in France in the 1950s, although vignettes there were not linked to motorway use and no longer exist; it is now used throughout Central Europe, as well as in Italy (\"vignetta\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975726}
{"src_title": "Břevnov Monastery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The monastery was founded in the early 990s by Adalbert of Prague. Adalbert of Prague left Bohemia in 994 for having disputes with ruler. The new impuls came with the Czech Duke Bretislav I who started construction on stone church and who managed for the monastery remains of Gunther of Bohemia, the monk from Niederaltaich Abbey in Bavaria. Filial monasteries were established at Broumov and Police in northern Bohemia.  During the Hussite Wars in the 1420s, abbot and convent fled to Broumov and the entire monastery including brewery were nearly destroyed. After the Thirty Years' War, the construction of a Baroque monastery complex has been realized under Abbot Othmar Daniel Zinke in 1708–1740 according to plans designed by Christoph Dientzenhofer. The interior of the buildings, including St Margaret's church, the conventual buildings and prelate's house was designed by his son Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer, with altarpieces by Petr Brandl, a ceiling fresco by Cosmas Damian Asam and stucco works by his brother Egid Quirin Asam. At the same time the annual production of beer reached up to 5,000 hl.  After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938, the monastery was seized by Wehrmacht forces during World War II and finally expropriated by the Communist Czechoslovak government in 1950. Abbot Anastáz Opasek (1913–1999) was condemned for high treason and espionage in a show trial, the monastery was dissolved and the remaining monks were deported, if they had not fled to Bavarian Braunau in Rohr Abbey re-established by their Broumov brothers in 1946.  The complex was used until 1990 by the StB, after the Velvet Revolution, was thoroughly repaired from 1991 until its 1000-years-jubilee in 1993. In 1997 it was visited by Pope John Paul II and was elevated to the rank of an Archabbey.  The monastery served as the basis for the Red Rose Mansion (2005) in Naoki Urasawa's noted anime/manga series \"Monster\".  The brewery at Břenov Monastery re-opened after brewing hiatus of about 120 years in 2011. Břevnov Monastery Brewery (Břevnovský klášterní pivovar) brews its beer under the name \"Břevnovský Benedict\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Břevnov Monastery (, ) is a Benedictine archabbey in the Břevnov district of Prague, Czech Republic. It was founded by Saint Adalbert, the second Bishop of Prague, in 993 AD with the support of Duke Boleslav II of Bohemia. The first Benedictine male monastery in Bohemia, it also has the oldest tradition of beer brewing in the Czech Republic. Brewing was interrupted several times in the history, but up to today, the Břevnov Monastery Brewery brew its beer here.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975727}
{"src_title": "Chang Hsüeh-liang", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Haicheng, Liaoning province in 1901, Chang was educated by private tutors and, unlike his father, felt at ease in the company of westerners. He graduated from Fengtian Military Academy, was made a colonel in the Fengtian Army, and appointed the commander of his father's bodyguards in 1919. In 1921 he was sent to Japan to observe military maneuvers, where he developed a special interest in aircraft. Later, he developed an air corps for the Fengtian Army, which was widely used in the battles that took place within the Great Wall during the 1920s. In 1922, he was promoted to Major General and commanded an army-sized force. Two years later, he was also made commander of the air units. Upon the death of his father in 1928, he succeeded him as the leader of the Northeast Peace Preservation Forces (popularly \"Northeast Army\", \"Dōngběi Jūn\"), which controlled China's northeastern provinces of Heilongjiang, Fengtian, and Jilin (Kirin). In December of the same year he proclaimed his allegiance to the Kuomintang (KMT; Chinese Nationalist Party).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Warlord to republican general.", "content": "The Japanese believed that Chang Hsueh-liang, who was known as a womanizer and an opium addict, would be much more subject to Japanese influence than was his father. On this premise, an officer of the Japanese Kwantung Army therefore killed his father, Chang Tso-lin (the \"Old Marshal\"), by exploding a bomb above his train while it crossed under a railroad bridge. Surprisingly, the younger Chang proved to be more independent and skilled than anyone had expected. With the assistance of Australian journalist William Henry Donald, he overcame his opium addiction and declared his support for Chiang Kai-shek, leading to the reunification of China in 1928.  He was given the nickname of by PRC historians because of his desire to reunite China and rid it of Japanese invaders; and was willing to pay the price and become \"vice\" leader of China (not because it was good that he was supporting the Kuomintang). In order to rid his command of Japanese influence, he had two prominent pro-Tokyo officials executed in front of the assembled guests at a dinner party in January 1929. It was a hard decision for him to make. The two had powers over the heads of others. Chang was a fierce critic of many of the Soviet Union's policies, which served to undermine Chinese sovereignty, including its interference in Outer Mongolia. When he attempted to wrest control over a part of the Chinese Eastern Railway in Heilongjiang from the Soviets, he was beaten back by the Red Army. At the same time, he developed closer relations with the United States.  In 1930, when warlords Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan attempted to overthrow Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang government, Chang stepped in to support the Nanjing-based government against the Northern warlords in exchange for control of the key railroads in Hebei Province and the customs revenues from the port city of Tianjin. A year later, in the September 18 Mukden Incident, Japanese troops attacked Chang's forces in Shenyang (Mukden) in order to provoke a full-on war with China, which Chiang did not want until his forces were stronger. In accordance with this strategy, Chang's armies withdrew from the front lines without significant engagements, leading to the effective Japanese occupation of Chang's former northeastern domain. There has been speculation that Chiang Kai-Shek wrote a letter to Chang asking him to pull his forces back, but Chang later stated that he himself issued the orders. Apparently, Chang was aware of how weak his forces were compared to the Japanese and wished to preserve his position by retaining a sizeable army. Nonetheless, this would still be in line with Chiang's overall strategic standings. Chang later traveled in Europe before returning to China to take command of the Encirclement Campaigns, first in Hebei-Henan-Anhui and later in the Northwest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Xi'an incident.", "content": "On 6 April 1936, Chang met with CPC delegate Zhou Enlai to plan the end of the Chinese Civil War. KMT leader Chiang Kai-shek at the time took a non-aggressive position against Japan and considered the communists to be a greater danger to the Republic of China than the Japanese, and his overall strategy was to annihilate the communists before focusing his efforts on the Japanese. He believed that \"communism was a cancer while the Japanese represented a superficial wound.\" Growing nationalist anger against Japan made this position very unpopular, and lead to Chang's action against Chiang known as the Xi'an incident.  On 12 December 1936, Chang and Gen. Yang Hucheng kidnapped Chiang and imprisoned him until he agreed to form a united front with the communists against the Japanese invasion. After the negotiations, Chiang agreed to unite with the communists and drive the Japanese out of China. When Chiang was released, Zhang chose to return to the capital with him. Once they were away from Chang's loyal troops, Chiang had him put under house arrest. From there, he was under constant watch and lived near the Nationalist capital, wherever it moved to.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life from 1949.", "content": "In 1949, Chang was transferred to Taiwan, where he remained under loose house arrest for the next 40 years in a villa in Taipei's northern suburbs, where he received the occasional guests. Much of his time was spent studying Ming dynasty literature, the Manchu language, collecting Chinese fan paintings, calligraphy and other works of art by illustrious artists (a collection of more than 200 works, using his studio's name \"Dingyuanzhai\" (), was auctioned with tremendous success by Sotheby's on 10 April 1994). Chang studied the New Testament Bible. In 1964, he formally married Edith Zhao, daughter of a senior official, who left her family in her teens to become his companion and later followed him into exile. His first wife, Ms. Yu said she was so moved by Ms. Zhao's devotion that she released her husband from his vows. Chang and his wife, Edith, became devout Christians who also regularly attended Sunday services at the Methodist chapel in Shilin, a Taipei suburb with Chiang Kai-Shek's family. After Chiang's death in 1975, his freedom was officially restored.  He immigrated to Honolulu, Hawaii, in 1993. There were numerous pleas for him to visit mainland China, but Chang, claiming his political closeness with the KMT, declined. He died of pneumonia at the age of 100 at Straub Hospital in Honolulu, and was buried in Hawaii.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Chang Hsüeh-liang (, 3 June 1901 – 15 October 2001), nicknamed the \"Young Marshal\" (少帥) and known in his later life as Peter H. L. Chang, was the effective ruler of Northeast China and much of northern China after the assassination of his father, Chang Tso-lin (the \"Old Marshal\"), by the Japanese on 4 June 1928. He was an instigator of the 1936 Xi'an Incident, in which Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of China's ruling party, was arrested in order to force him to enter into a truce with the insurgent Chinese Communist Party and form a united front against Japan, which had occupied Manchuria. As a result, he spent over 50 years under house arrest, first in mainland China and then in Taiwan. He is regarded by the Chinese Communist Party as a patriotic hero for his role in the Xi'an Incident. He is also known for having an affair with Edda Mussolini.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975728}
{"src_title": "John Paul Getty III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Getty was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota. He spent most of his childhood in Rome while his father headed the Italian division of the Getty family oil business. His parents divorced in 1964 when he was eight years old, and his father married model and actress Talitha Pol in 1966. The family adopted a hippie lifestyle, spending much time in Britain and Morocco during the 1960s. Getty remained in Italy with his mother Gail and attended St. George's British International School in Rome.  In early 1972, Getty was expelled from St. George's after painting offensive six-feet high wording in a hallway of the school, aimed at the school's headmaster. In July 1971 his stepmother had died of a heroin overdose in Rome, and his father had moved back to the United Kingdom, partly to escape charges of drug possession which he was facing in Italy. Paul remained in Italy where he lived a bohemian lifestyle, living in a squat, frequenting nightclubs and taking part in left-wing demonstrations. He had considerable artistic talent and reportedly earned a living making jewelry, selling his paintings and cartoons, and appearing in movies as an extra. The Italian adult magazine \"Playmen\" paid him $1,000 to appear naked in a spread and on the cover of its August 1973 issue, released a month after he was kidnapped.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kidnapping.", "content": "Getty was kidnapped in the Piazza Farnese in Rome at 3 a.m. on July 10, 1973, when he was 16. According to his girlfriend Martine Schmidt, he had toyed with the idea of getting himself kidnapped by petty criminals when the couple was struggling to make ends meet, but he had changed his mind because both of them started getting work modelling for photographers. She stated that \"Paul didn't want to be kidnapped anymore, but [the kidnappers] were following him.\" He was blindfolded, transported, and imprisoned in a cave in Calabria. The kidnappers issued a ransom note demanding $17 million (equivalent to $ in ) in exchange for his safe return, however, the family suspected a plot by the rebellious teenager to extract money from his miserly grandfather.  John Paul Getty Jr. asked his father J. Paul Getty for the money, but his father refused, arguing that his 13 other grandchildren could also become kidnap targets if he paid. The kidnappers sent a second demand, but its arrival was delayed by an Italian postal strike. As time wore on, Paul's treatment by his captors grew worse; they took away his radio, killed a bird that he had taken as a pet, and began playing Russian roulette against his head.  In November 1973, a daily newspaper received an envelope containing a lock of hair, a human ear, and a threat from the kidnappers to mutilate Paul further unless they were paid $3.2 million (equivalent to $ in ). The letter read, \"This is Paul's first ear. If within ten days the family still believes that this is a joke mounted by him, then the other ear will arrive. In other words, he will arrive in little bits.\" Paul's health began to decline rapidly as his wound became infected, combined with pneumonia caused by the cold winter temperatures which were descending. His captors were alarmed at this sudden decline and gave him large doses of penicillin to treat the infection, which caused him to develop an allergy to the antibiotic and further affected his health. Getty's biographer John Pearson attributed his later alcoholism to the large amounts of brandy that he was plied with in the last few months of his captivity to keep him warm and numb his pain. After Paul's ear was sent, his grandfather agreed to pay no more than $2.2 million (equivalent to $ in )—the maximum amount that was tax deductible—and lent the remainder to his son, who was responsible for repaying the sum at four percent interest. Paul was found alive on December 15, 1973, in a petrol station of Lauria in the province of Potenza shortly after the ransom was paid. At his mother's suggestion, he called his grandfather to thank him for paying the ransom, but J. Paul Getty refused to come to the phone.  Nine of the kidnappers were apprehended, including Girolamo Piromalli and Saverio Mammoliti, high-ranking members of the 'Ndrangheta, a Mafia organization in Calabria. Two of the kidnappers were convicted and sent to prison; the others were acquitted for lack of evidence, including the 'Ndrangheta bosses. Most of the ransom money was never recovered. In 1977, Getty had an operation to rebuild the ear that his kidnappers had cut off.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and death.", "content": "In 1974, Getty married German Gisela Martine Zacher (née Schmidt) who was five months pregnant. He had known her and her twin sister Jutta since before his kidnapping, and he was 18 years old when his son Balthazar was born in 1975. The couple divorced in 1993.  Getty acted in some European films, playing supporting parts in Raúl Ruiz's \"The Territory\" and in Wim Wenders's \"The State of Things\". He and his wife lived for a time in New York City where they consorted with Andy Warhol's art crowd.  Getty was permanently affected by his kidnapping and suffered from drug and alcohol addiction during the years that followed. In 1981, he drank a Valium, methadone, and alcohol cocktail which caused liver failure and a stroke, leaving him quadriplegic, partially blind, and unable to speak. Afterwards, his mother cared for him, and she sued his father for $28,000 a month to cover his medical needs. He never fully recovered and remained severely handicapped for the rest of his life. By 1987, however, he was able to regain some degree of autonomy, and he was able to ski when strapped to a metal frame.  In 1999, Getty and several other members of his family became citizens of the Republic of Ireland in return for investments of approximately £1 million each, under a law which has since been repealed.  Getty died at his father's estate at Wormsley Park, Buckinghamshire, on February 5, 2011, aged 54, following a long illness. He had been in poor health since his 1981 drug overdose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "A. J. Quinnell used Getty's kidnapping as one piece of inspiration for his book \"Man on Fire\". The 1995 book \"Painfully Rich: the Outrageous Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Heirs of J. Paul Getty\" by John Pearson includes significant content on Getty's kidnapping ordeal. The book was adapted to the 2017 film \"All the Money in the World\", directed by Sir Ridley Scott. In the film, J. Paul Getty is played by Christopher Plummer and John Paul Getty III is played by Charlie Plummer (as an adult) and Charlie Shotwell (at age 7). The story of the kidnapping was also adapted into the 2018 television series \"Trust\", produced by Simon Beaufoy and Danny Boyle, with Harris Dickinson as John Paul Getty III.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Paul Getty III (; November 4, 1956 – February 5, 2011), was the grandson of American oil tycoon J. Paul Getty, who was once the richest man in the world. While living in Rome in 1973, he was kidnapped by the 'Ndrangheta, and held for a $17 million ransom. His grandfather was reluctant to pay, but after his severed ear was received by a newspaper, he negotiated payment to $2.2 million, and Getty was released—five months after being kidnapped. Getty soon after developed drug and alcohol addiction, eventually leading to a stroke that left him severely disabled for the rest of his life.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975729}
{"src_title": "ParaWorld", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "The game-concept is similar to \"Age of Empires\", which is a real-time strategy game. \"ParaWorld\" features food, wood, and stone as resources. Food can be picked from bushes, hunted from animals, fished from the sea, or farmed. Stone is located in limited deposits, and wood, cut from trees, is generally scattered throughout a map. Battles can occur on both land and sea.  The story takes place in a parallel dimension, where prehistoric life thrives alongside diverse human civilizations that are not technologically advanced. As a result, dinosaurs take the place of traditional wildlife and livestock, though some of the dinosaurs in-game are highly stylized and not necessarily scientifically accurate. Wild-living dinosaurs can be hunted for food, though some are of dangerous and aggressive species and will attack any player unit that wanders too close. Other prehistoric creatures make an appearance as well, for example woolly mammoths are used where other games might feature elephants.  Players advance through epochs in order to unlock new technologies and upgrades.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "\"ParaWorld\" (\"parallel world\") is an alternate universe where dinosaurs and ice age creatures never became extinct. A group of 19th-century scientists, the SEAS (the Society of Exact Alternative Science) led by scientific genius Jarvis Babbit, discovered the parallel world where dinosaurs and primitive human tribes coexist. When they subsequently learned that people don't age in this dimension and that the concept of electricity is inexistant, they decided to remain there to rule. Later, three young scientists are led to Jarvis Babbit: the American geologist Anthony Cole, Swedish biologist Stina Holmlund, and Hungarian physics genius Béla András Benedek, all of whom having discovered elements in the \"real\" world that point toward the existence of a parallel world. Jarvis Babbit decides to send the three scientists into \"Paraworld\", seemingly for an expedition. However, when the three heroes discover the true intentions of the SEAS, they have to rally all the parallel world's warring inhabitants in order to defeat the SEAS.  The three scientists serve as the game's core \"hero\" units. Their main goal is to return to their home world, but to do this they will need to enlist the aid of enlightened natives and battle against the hostile creatures, tribes, and ultimately the masterminds trying to stop them. Along the way they'll meet several characters who are seemingly based on classical scientists such as Nicola Tesla or Charles Darwin (\"Nikolaj Taslow\" and \"James Warden\" in the game). They eventually discover that a man named David Leighton, who is one of Babbit's men, is orchestrating events on the parallel world, and pursue him. They also learn of a plot to permanently seal the world away by moving the planet out of orbit, which will also trigger a cataclysm.  In order to save the planet and secure their own escape from ParaWorld, they are forced to assault Babbit's fortifications. They manage to stop the countdown and Cole kills Leighton in battle. Babbit makes a last-ditch effort to stop the heroes by using a giant robot. Having failed, Babbit falls into lava and presumably dies. The heroes finally go back home. However, Cole is awakened in the middle of the night by a phone call of Béla telling him that the dinosaurs have come through as well. The chaos of ParaWorld now ensues on planet Earth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Upon release the game was met with fair reviews with an average critic score of 72% at GameRankings. The developing company SEK shut down due to insufficient sales, and Sunflowers ended their partnership with it. The previously announced expansion pack was cancelled. A German-only Booster Pack for the game was released with Gold GOTY Editions of Paraworld, containing new maps, heroes, and missions, and was only compatible with German copies of the game. However, members of the ParaWorld gaming community \"Para-Welt\" have created an unofficial downloadable version of the Booster Pack for all regions that incorporates updated community content (such as modifications enabling players to utilise the previously NPC 'SEAS' factions) alongside the official SEK Booster Pack content. According to German newspaper \"Die Welt\", \"ParaWorld\" was commercially unsuccessful, with sales of around 100,000 units.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "ParaWorld is a real-time strategy PC game released on September 25, 2006. It was developed by the German company SEK (Spieleentwicklungskombinat), based in Berlin. The game features more than 50 prehistoric animals, especially dinosaurs and Pleistocene mammals. The game uses TAGES, and therefore installs a driver on the system for copy protection.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975730}
{"src_title": "Bollandist", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "\"Acta Sanctorum\".", "content": "The idea of the \"Acta Sanctorum\" was first conceived by the Dutch Jesuit Heribert Rosweyde (1569–1629), who was a lecturer at the Jesuit college of Douai. Rosweyde used his leisure time to collect information about the lives of the saints. His principal work, the 1615 \"Vitae Patrum\", became the foundation of the \"Acta Sanctorum\". Rosweyde contracted a contagious disease while ministering to a dying man, and died himself on October 5, 1629, at the age of sixty.  Father Jean Bolland was prefect of studies in the Jesuit college of Mechelen. Upon the death of Rosweyde, Bolland was asked to review Rosweyde's papers. Bolland then continued the work from Antwerp.  The task was to search out and classify materials, to print what seemed to be the most reliable sources of information concerning the saints venerated by the Church and to illustrate points of difficulty. Underestimating the magnitude of the undertaking, Bolland initially thought he could finish the work on his own, but after a few years he had to admit that the undertaking was beyond his individual strength. He was then assigned an assistant, Godfrey Henschen or Henschenius (1601–81). The first two volumes of the \"Acta\", by Bolland and Henschen, were published in Antwerp in 1643.  Unlike Rosweyde and Bolland, Henschen was allowed to devote himself exclusively to the writing of the \"Acta\". He solved many problems relating to chronology, geography and the philological interpretation of the sources. February, March, and April (that is, the collected hagiographies of saints whose feast days occur in each month) took up three volumes each, May covered eight, and June seven volumes. By the time of his death, 24 volumes had appeared; moreover, Henschen left many notes and commentaries for the following volumes. It can therefore be said that the \"Acta\" owe their final form to Henschen.  In 1659, Bolland and Henschen were joined by Daniel van Papenbroeck or Papebrochius (1628–1714), who devoted fifty-five years of his life to the \"Acta\". From July 1660 until December 1662, Henschen and van Papenbroeck travelled through Germany, Italy and France in order to collect copies of hagiographic manuscripts. Another Bollandist of this period was Jean Gamans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Carmelite controversy.", "content": "With publication of the first volume of April, the Bollandists became embroiled in a lengthy controversy with the Carmelites. In writing of St. Albert, Patriarch of Jerusalem and author of the Carmelite rule, Papebroch had stated in his preliminary commentary that the tradition universally received by the Carmelites that the origin of the order dated back to the prophet Elijah, who was regarded as its founder, was insufficiently grounded. But learning that the attacks could jeopardize the work of the group, he and his companions decided that the time for silence had passed. From 1681 to 1698 a series of letters, pamphlets and other documents was issued by each side. The Carmelites were supported by a Spanish tribunal, while the Bollandists had the support of Jean de Launoy and the Sorbonne. In November 1698, Pope Innocent XII ordered an end to the controversy.  By the time of the death of Father Papenbroek in 1714, the first six months of the year were practically completed. Work continued in the following years, led by Conrad Janninck among others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Suppression and relocation (18th century).", "content": "By the time the Society of Jesus was suppressed by Pope Clement XIV in 1773, the Bollandists had produced 50 volumes in 130 years. They had also moved from Antwerp to Brussels, where they continued their work in the monastery of the Coudenberg until 1788, when the Bollandist Society was suppressed by the Austrian government of the Low Countries. Their library was acquired by the Premonstratensians of Tongerlo Abbey, who endeavored to carry on the work. The fifty-third volume was published by the abbot of Tongerloo in 1794. The 53 volumes of the first series covered the saints from January 1 to October 14. Four former Bollandists supervised the work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Refoundation.", "content": "After the re-establishment of the Society of Jesus in Belgium, a new Society of Bollandists was formed in the second quarter of the nineteenth century under the patronage of the Belgian government. The first volume of the new series appeared in 1845. A collection of 61 volumes was published in Paris between 1863 and 1867. By the end of the 19th century the work was re-oriented, bringing it more in line with the new philological methods. In 1882, a quarterly review on critical hagiography was established under the title of \"Analecta Bollandiana\", which still exists today and publishes supplements to the \"Acta\".  The Bollandists' studies led to the texts of the \"Missale Romanum\", the \"Liturgia Horarum\" and the \"Martyrologium\" referring to Mary of Magdala. These studies were positively cited in Pope Francis' elevation of the saint's feast day to the status of a liturgical Feast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "The Bollandist Society has an important role in \"The Deptford Trilogy\" by Canadian novelist Robertson Davies. The series' protagonist, though not a Catholic, takes a deep interest in Saints and their lives and his scholarly efforts are welcomed by the Bollandists.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bollandists or Bollandist Society () are an association of scholars, philologists, and historians (originally all Jesuits, but now including non-Jesuits) who since the early seventeenth century have studied hagiography and the cult of the saints in Christianity. Their most important publication has been the \"Acta Sanctorum\" (The Lives of the Saints). They are named after the Flemish Jesuit Jean Bolland or Bollandus (1596–1665).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975731}
{"src_title": "Ronald Evans (astronaut)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Evans was born on November 10, 1933, in St. Francis, Kansas, to parents Clarence Ellwin Evans (1911–1985) and Marie A. Evans (; 1913–1992). He had two siblings, Larry Joe Evans (1935–1951) and Jay Evans. He was active in the Boy Scouts of America where he achieved its second highest rank, Life Scout. He graduated from Highland Park High School in Topeka, Kansas, in 1951, received a Bachelor of Science degree in Electrical Engineering from the University of Kansas in 1956, and a Master of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School in 1964. He was a member of Tau Beta Pi, Society of Sigma Xi, and Sigma Nu.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military service.", "content": "In June 1957 he completed flight training after receiving his commission as an Ensign through the Navy ROTC Program at the University of Kansas. Upon receiving his aviator wings in 1962, he was a fighter pilot with Fighter Squadron 142 (VF-142), serving on two aircraft carrier cruises in the Pacific Ocean, then a combat flight instructor for the F-8 aircraft with Fighter Squadron 124 (VF-124).  From 1964 to 1966 Evans was on sea duty in the Pacific, assigned to Fighter Squadron 51 (VF-51), flying F-8 Crusader from the carrier. During this assignment, he completed a seven-month tour of duty flying combat missions in Vietnam War. He was with VF-51 when he was selected as an astronaut in April 1966.  Evans logged 5,100 hours of flight time, including 4,600 hours in jet aircraft.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "NASA career.", "content": "Evans was one of the 19 astronauts selected by NASA in April 1966. He served as a member of the astronaut support crews for the Apollo 7 and Apollo 11 flights, and as backup Command Module Pilot for Apollo 14.  Evans' only space flight was as Command Module Pilot of Apollo 17, the last scheduled U.S. crewed mission to the Moon. He was accompanied by Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt. While Cernan and Schmitt landed and worked on the Moon in the Taurus–Littrow valley, Evans remained in lunar orbit on board the Command Module \"America\", completing assigned work tasks which required visual geological observations, hand-held photography of specific targets, and the control of cameras and other highly sophisticated scientific equipment carried in the service module's SIM bay.  On the way back to Earth, Evans completed a one-hour, six-minute extravehicular activity, successfully retrieving three camera cassettes and completing a personal inspection of the equipment bay area. He logged 301 hours and 51 minutes in space, 1 hour and 6 minutes of which were spent in extravehicular activity. He holds the record of most time spent in lunar orbit: six days and four hours (148 hours).  Evans was later backup Command Module Pilot for the 1975 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission.  Evans retired from the U.S. Navy as Captain on April 30, 1976, with 21 years of service, and remained active as a NASA astronaut involved in the development of NASA's Space Shuttle program. He served as a member of the operations and training group within the Astronaut Office, responsible for launch and ascent phases of the Space Shuttle flight program.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Evans retired from NASA in March 1977 to pursue a career in the coal industry. Later he worked with Western American Energy Corporation in Scottsdale, Arizona, and was Director of Space Systems Marketing for Sperry Flight Systems.  He died in his sleep of a heart attack in Scottsdale, Arizona, on April 7, 1990, and was survived by his widow Jan; his daughter, Jaime D. Evans (born August 21, 1959); and his son, Jon P. Evans (born October 9, 1961).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "Evans was presented with the NASA Distinguished Service Medal in 1973, the Johnson Space Center Superior Achievement Award in 1970, the Navy Distinguished Service Medal in 1973, Navy Astronaut Wings, eight Air Medals, the Vietnam Service Medal, and the Navy Commendation Medal with combat distinguishing service in 1966. He received a University of Kansas Distinguished Service Citation in 1973, and was named Kansan of the Year in 1972. He was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1983, and the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame on October 4, 1997.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ronald Ellwin \"Ron\" Evans Jr. (November 10, 1933 – April 7, 1990), (Capt, USN), was an American naval officer and aviator, electrical engineer, aeronautical engineer, NASA astronaut and, one of the 24 astronauts to have flown to the Moon, one of 12 people to have flown to the Moon without landing on it.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975732}
{"src_title": "Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Programme.", "content": "The programme of the \"Fronta\" was outlined by the following fundamental points:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Internal political situation.", "content": "Although the Front originally consisted of multiple political groups of left-wing orientation, including some Christian Socialists, a dissident group of Slovene Sokols (also known as \"National Democrats\"), and a group of intellectuals around the journals \"Sodobnost\" and \"Ljubljanski zvon\", during the course of the war, the influence of the Communist Party of Slovenia started to grow, until the founding groups signed the so-called Dolomite Declaration (), giving the exclusive right to organize themselves as a political party only to the communists, on 1 March 1943.  On 3 October 1943, on the session, known as Assembly of the Delegates of the Slovene Nation, which was held in Kočevje by the 572 directly elected and 78 indirectly elected members, the 120-member plenum was constituted as the highest civil governing organ of anti-fascist movement in Slovenia during the World War II.  After the war, the Liberation Front was transformed into the Socialist Alliance of the Working People of Slovenia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External political activity.", "content": "On 19 February 1944, the 120-member Črnomelj plenum of Liberation Front of the Slovenian People changed its name to SNOS and proclaim itself as the temporary Slovenian parliament. One of its most important decisions was that after the end of the war Slovenia would become a state within the Yugoslav federation.  Just before the end of the war, on May 5, 1945, the SNOS met for the last time in the town of Ajdovščina in the Julian March (then formally still part of the Kingdom of Italy) and established the Slovenian government with the Communist leader Boris Kidrič as its president.  The Liberation Front led an intensive and specific propaganda system. It printed flyers, bulletins and other material to persuade people about its cause and slander the occupying forces. The Front's radio, called \"Kričač\" (Screamer), was the only one of its kind in the occupied Europe. It emitted from various locations and occupying forces confiscated the receivers' antennas from the local population in order to prevent listening to it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Slovene Partisans.", "content": "The Slovene Partisans were the armed wing of the Liberation Front, which fought in the beginning as a guerilla and later as an army. It was mostly ethnically homogenous and primarily communicated in Slovene. These two features have been considered vital for its success. It was the first Slovene military force. Its most characteristic symbol was the Triglav cap. Contrary to elsewhere in Yugoslavia, where on the freed territories the political life was organized by the military itself, the Slovene Partisans were subordinated to the civil political authority of the Front. The partisan activities in Slovenia were initially independent of Tito's Partisans in the south. The merger of the Slovene Partisans with Tito's forces happened in 1944.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Front's name.", "content": "It has been traditionally claimed by Slovene historians that the term \"Anti-Imperialist Front\" was the first to occur. This may be read for example in a work by Peter Vodopivec from 2006. In 2008, the historian Bojan Godeša published a peer-reviewed discussion about the name. He mentions a leaflet from the end of April 1941 with \"liberation front\" (non-capitalised) written on it, two months before the first known mention of the \"anti-imperialist front\" (non-capitalised) on 22 June 1941. He also mentions that Josip Rus, who represented the Slovene Sokol Society in the founding meeting of the OF, always claimed they had only discussed the organisation as the \"Liberation Front\". That's contrary to the opinion by Josip Vidmar, also a founding member, who stated that the organisation was renamed as \"Liberation Front\" only on 30 June 1941. The claims by Godeša have been cited in a seminar by Božo Repe, another eminent historian, who added that the name \"Anti-Imperialist Front\", written with capital letters, was used particularly in the communication with the Communists of the Soviet Union. He attributed this to the desire of the Slovene Communists to demonstrate that their work corresponded to the aims of the Comintern.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation (), or simply Liberation Front (\"Osvobodilna fronta\", OF), originally called the Anti-Imperialist Front (\"Protiimperialistična fronta\", PIF), was the main anti-fascist Slovene civil resistance and political organization. It was active in the Slovene Lands during World War II. Its military arm were the Slovene Partisans. The organisation was established in the Province of Ljubljana on 26 April 1941 in the house of the literary critic Josip Vidmar. Its leaders were Boris Kidrič and Edvard Kardelj.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975733}
{"src_title": "Arabidopsis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Status.", "content": "Currently, the genus \"Arabidopsis\" has nine species and a further eight subspecies recognised. This delimitation is quite recent and is based on morphological and molecular phylogenies by O'Kane and Al-Shehbaz and others.  Their findings confirm the species formerly included in \"Arabidopsis\" made it polyphyletic. The most recent reclassification moves two species previously placed in \"Cardaminopsis\" and \"Hylandra\" and three species of \"Arabis\" into \"Arabidopsis\", but excludes 50 that have been moved into the new genera \"Beringia, Crucihimalaya, Ianhedgea, Olimarabidopsis\", and \"Pseudoarabidopsis\".  All of the species in \"Arabidopsis\" are indigenous to Europe, while two of the species have broad ranges also extending into North America and Asia.  In the last two decades, \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" has gained much interest from the scientific community as a model organism for research on numerous aspects of plant biology. The Arabidopsis Information Resource (TAIR) is a curated online information source for \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" genetic and molecular biology research, and The Arabidopsis Book is an online compilation of invited chapters on \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" biology. In Europe, the model organism resource centre for \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" germplasm, bioinformatics and molecular biology resources (including GeneChips) is the Nottingham Arabidopsis Stock Centre – NASC whilst in North America germplasm services are provided by the Arabidopsis Biological Resource Center, (ABRC) based at the Ohio State University. The ordering system for ABRC was incorporated into The Arabidopsis Information Resource (TAIR) database in June 2001 whilst NASC has always (since 1991) hosted its own ordering system and genome browser.  In 1982, the crew of the Soviet Salyut 7 space station grew some Arabidopsis, thus becoming the first plants to flower and produce seeds in space. They had a life span of 40 days. \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" seeds were taken to the Moon on the Chang'e 4 lander in 2019, as part of a student experiment.  \"Arabidopsis\" is quite similar to the \"Boechera\" genus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cytogenetics.", "content": "Cytogenetic analysis has shown the haploid chromosome number (n) is variable and varies across species in the genus:  \"A. thaliana\" is n=5 and the DNA sequencing of this species was completed in 2001. \"A. lyrata\" has n=8 but some subspecies or populations are tetraploid. Various subspecies \"A. arenosa\" have n=8 but can be either 2n (diploid) or 4n (tetraploid). \"A. suecica\" is n=13 (5+8) and is an amphidiploid species originated through hybridization between \"A. thaliana\" and diploid \"A. arenosa\".  \"A. neglecta\" is n=8, as are the various subspecies of \"A. halleri\".  As of 2005, \"A. cebennensis\", \"A. croatica\" and \"A. pedemontana\" have not been investigated cytologically.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reclassified species.", "content": "The following species previously placed in \"Arabidopsis\" are not currently considered part of the genus.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arabidopsis (rockcress) is a genus in the family Brassicaceae. They are small flowering plants related to cabbage and mustard. This genus is of great interest since it contains thale cress (\"Arabidopsis thaliana\"), one of the model organisms used for studying plant biology and the first plant to have its entire genome sequenced. Changes in thale cress are easily observed, making it a very useful model.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975734}
{"src_title": "International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The day, as a concept, was conceived in 2004. A year-long campaign culminated in the first International Day Against Homophobia on May 17, 2005. 24,000 individuals as well as organizations such as the International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA), the International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission (IGLHRC), the World Congress of LGBT Jews, and the Coalition of African Lesbians signed an appeal to support the \"IDAHO initiative\". Activities for the day took place in many countries, including the first LGBT events ever to take place in the Congo, China, and Bulgaria. The date of May 17th was specifically chosen to commemorate the World Health Organization’s decision in 1990 to declassify homosexuality as a mental disorder.  In 2009, transphobia was added to the name of the campaign, and activities that year focused primarily on transphobia (violence and discrimination against transgender people). A new petition was launched in cooperation with LGBT organizations in 2009, and it was supported by more than 300 NGOs from 75 countries, as well as three Nobel Prize winners (Elfriede Jelinek, Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, and Luc Montagnier). On the eve of May 17, 2009, France became the first country in the world to officially remove transgender issues from its list of mental illnesses.  Frenchman was founder of the day, and acted as its Committee Chairperson until his resignation in September 2013. He was succeeded by internationally renowned Venezuelan trans rights activist, lawyer and law professor Tamara Adrián, who became one of the first trans legislators in Latin America in 2015.  Louis-Georges Tin and two other Committee members started a hunger-strike on June 2012 to urge the French president Hollande to introduce a UN resolution decriminalising homosexuality.  In France, same-sex marriage has been legal since 18 May 2013; a decision announced on May 17.  Biphobia was added to the name of the campaign in 2015.  The Enforcement Act of Judicial Yuan Interpretation No. 748 that legalised same-sex marriage in Taiwan was passed on International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia in 2019, with the law coming into effect on 24 May 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Goals and activities.", "content": "The main purpose of the May 17 mobilisations is to raise awareness of violence, discrimination, and repression of LGBT communities worldwide, which in turn provides an opportunity to take action and engage in dialogue with the media, policymakers, public opinion, and wider civil society.  One of the stated goals of May 17 is to create an event that can be visible at a global level without needing to conform to a specific type of action. This decentralized approach is needed due to the diversity of social, religious, cultural, and political contexts in which rights violations occur.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "May 17 around the world.", "content": "The day is particularly strong in Europe and Latin America, where it is commemorated with public events in almost all countries. May 17 is also marked in multiple countries in all world regions including, in 2013, 32 of the 76 countries in the world where same-sex relationships are criminalised.  Common actions include large-scale street marches, parades and festivals. In Cuba, for example, Mariela Castro has led out a huge street parade in honor of May 17 for the past 3 years. In Chile in 2013, 50,000 people took to the streets to mark May 17, and the VIII Santiago Equality march.  Arts and culture-based events are also common. For example, Bangladeshi activists organised the music festival \"Love Music Hate Homophobia\" in 2013. Albanian LGBT activists have, in 2012 and 2013 been organising an annual Bike (P) Ride for May 17 through the streets of the capital Tirana. In 2013, the day's Committee called for international actions for a Global Rainbow Flashmob to mark May 17. Activists in 100 cities, in 50 countries participated with diverse public events spanning coloured balloon releases, dance flashmobs, musical events, and performance and street art.  On Friday, May 17, 2019, Taiwan became the first country in Asia to legally recognize same-sex marriage.  In Nepal, this day is celebrated as International Day Against Queer / MOGAI -phobia' as well as IDAHOT.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Official recognition.", "content": "In 2003 the Canadian organization Fondation Émergence instituted a similar event, the National Day Against Homophobia, which was held on June 1. In 2006, they changed the date to May 17, in order to join the international movement.  In 2006, The Declaration of Montreal was created and adopted by the 2006 World Outgames. The Declaration demanded that the United Nations and all states recognize May 17 as the International Day Against Homophobia.  In 2007, in Aosta Valley (Italy), the government approved the support for the IDAHOT  In 2010, Lula, then president of Brazil, signed an act that instituted May 17 as the National Day Against Homophobia in his country.  The day is also officially recognized by the EU Parliament, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, the UK, Mexico, Costa Rica, Croatia, the Netherlands, France, Luxembourg and Venezuela. It is also recognized by numerous local authorities, such as the province of Quebec or the city of Buenos Aires.  In 2012, the city of Liverpool, England created a pioneering programme of events in association with the organisation Homotopia, called IDAHO 50. The event was supported by 50 leading organisations based in Liverpool.  On March 21, 2014, Mexico declared, by Presidential Decree, May 17 as the National Day Against Homophobia. See LGBT rights in Mexico.  Venezuela's National Assembly (AN) officially recognized May 17 as the Day against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia on May 12, 2016. AN Deputy Tamara Adrian, also international Chairwoman of the IDAHO Committee, hailed the legislative act as a \"sign of change\" in a Venezuela where \"everyone has equal rights and opportunities\".  In several other countries (e.g. Argentina, Bolivia, Australia, and Croatia), national civil society coalitions have called upon their authorities to have May 17 officially recognized.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impact.", "content": ", 69 countries still criminalize same-sex relationships, which means that millions of gays, lesbians and bisexuals are unable to live their lives openly. Also, in 26 countries, transgender individuals are subjected to punishments, and they're disproportionely at risk of violence across the globe. IDAHOBIT is frequently used as a platform for organizing initiatives to advance the fight for the rights of LGBT+ groups in many countries, even in those (like Uganda) in which homosexuality is criminalized.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The International Day Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia is observed on May 17 and aims to coordinate international events that raise awareness of LGBT rights violations and stimulate interest in LGBT rights work worldwide. By 2016, the commemorations had taken place in 132 countries across the globe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975735}
{"src_title": "Varenicline", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medical uses.", "content": "Varenicline is used to help people stop smoking tobacco (smoking cessation). A meta-analysis found that less than 20% of people treated with varenicline remain abstinent from smoking at one year. In a 2009 meta-analysis varenicline was found to be more effective than bupropion (odds ratio 1.40) and nicotine replacement therapies (NRT) (odds ratio 1.56).  A 2013 Cochrane overview and network meta-analysis concluded that varenicline is the most effective medication for tobacco cessation and that smokers were nearly three times more likely to quit on varenicline than with placebo treatment. Varenicline was more efficacious than bupropion or NRT and as effective as combination NRT for tobacco smoking cessation.  The United States' Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) has approved the use of varenicline for up to twelve weeks. If smoking cessation has been achieved it may be continued for another twelve weeks.  Varenicline has not been tested in those under 18 years old or pregnant women and therefore is not recommended for use by these groups. Varenicline is considered a class C pregnancy drug, as animal studies have shown no increased risk of congenital anomalies; however, no data from human studies is available. An observational study is currently being conducted assessing for malformations related to varenicline exposure, but has no results yet. An alternate drug is preferred for smoking cessation during breastfeeding due to lack of information and based on the animal studies on nicotine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Side effects.", "content": "Mild nausea is the most common side effect and is seen in approximately 30% of people taking varenicline though this rarely (<3%) results in discontinuation of the medication. Other less common side effects include headache, difficulty sleeping, and nightmares. Rare side effects reported by people taking varenicline compared to placebo include change in taste, vomiting, abdominal pain, flatulence, and constipation. It has been estimated that for every five subjects taking varenicline at maintenance doses, there will be an event of nausea, and for every 24 and 35 treated subjects, there will be an event of constipation and flatulence, respectively. Gastrointestinal side-effects lead to discontinuation of the drug in 2% to 8% of people using varenicline. Incidence of nausea is dose-dependent: incidence of nausea was higher in people taking a larger dose (30%) versus placebo (10%) as compared to people taking a smaller dose (16%) versus placebo (11%).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Depression and suicide.", "content": "In 2007, the US FDA had announced it had received post-marketing reports of thoughts of suicide and occasional suicidal behavior, erratic behavior, and drowsiness among people using varenicline for smoking cessation. In 2009, the US FDA required varenicline to carry a boxed warning that the drug should be stopped if any of these symptoms are experienced.  A 2014 systematic review did not find evidence of an increased suicide risk. Other analyses have reached the same conclusion and found no increased risk of neuropsychiatric side effects with varenicline. No evidence for increased risks of cardiovascular events, depression, or self-harm with varenicline versus nicotine replacement therapy was found in one post-marketing surveillance study.  In 2016 the FDA removed the black box warning. People are still advised to stop the medication if they \"notice any side effects on mood, behavior, or thinking.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cardiovascular disease.", "content": "In June 2011, the US FDA issued a safety announcement that varenicline may be associated with \"a small, increased risk of certain cardiovascular adverse events in people who have cardiovascular disease.\"  A prior 2011 review had found increased risk of cardiovascular events compared with placebo. Expert commentary in the same journal raised doubts about the methodology of the review, concerns which were echoed by the European Medicines Agency and subsequent reviews. Of specific concern were \"the low number of events seen, the types of events counted, the higher drop-out rate in people receiving placebo, the lack of information on the timing of events, and the exclusion of studies in which no-one had an event.\"  In contrast, multiple recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses have found no increase in overall or serious adverse cardiovascular events (including for individuals at risk of developing cardiovascular disease) associated with varenicline use.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alcohol.", "content": "It is recommended that people reduce the amount of alcohol they drink when on varenicline.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mechanism of action.", "content": "Varenicline displays full agonism on αnicotinic acetylcholine receptors and is a partial agonist on the αβ, αβ, and αβ subtypes. In addition, it is a weak agonist on the αβ containing receptors.  Varenicline's partial agonism on the αβ receptors rather than nicotine's full agonism produces less effect of dopamine release than nicotine's. This αβ competitive binding reduces the ability of nicotine to bind and stimulate the mesolimbic dopamine system - similar to the method of action of buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid addiction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacokinetics.", "content": "Most of the active compound is excreted by the kidneys (92–93%). A small proportion is glucuronidated, oxidised, \"N\"-formylated or conjugated to a hexose. The elimination half-life is about 24 hours.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Use of Cytisus plant as a smoking substitute during World War II led to use as a cessation aid in eastern Europe and extraction of cytisine. Cytisine analogs led to varenicline at Pfizer.  Varenicline received a \"priority review\" by the US FDA in February 2006, shortening the usual 10-month review period to 6 months because of its demonstrated effectiveness in clinical trials and perceived lack of safety issues. The agency's approval of the drug came on May 11, 2006. On August 1, 2006, varenicline was made available for sale in the United States and on September 29, 2006, was approved for sale in the European Union.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Varenicline (trade name Chantix and Champix) is a prescription medication used to treat nicotine addiction. It both reduces craving for and decreases the pleasurable effects of cigarettes and other tobacco products.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975736}
{"src_title": "Manga (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Manga was formed in the year 2001, being named after the word for 'cool man', 'Manga'. Initially, they were mostly underground, playing covers of other rock and metal bands. The band made the music for Aşık Veysel's poem \"Kara Toprak\", and later used a completely different poem by Göksel for the song which became known as \"Dursun Zaman\" (by the title of Göksel's poem \"Dursun Zaman\"). They came into the public spotlight after finishing runner-up at the \"Sing your song\"' music contest. This caught the attention of artist manager Hadi Elazzi (GRGDN), who immediately promoted the band to Sony Music, which resulted in their first, self-titled album being published in 2004, becoming a mass hit. Following this, they performed at various music festivals and have worked with such famous Turkish singers as Koray Candemir (of Kargo fame), Vega and Göksel. On 13 August 2006, maNga became the first Turkish rock band to take stage at the Sziget Festival, Budapest, Hungary. In 2006 they also had concerts in the Netherlands and Germany. Most of their songs are written by the group members. The genre of their music was described by Yağmur, the author of most of the songs, as having a touch on nu metal, hip hop and mixing these all in a \"pot\" with melodies of Anatolia. Manga's duet with Göksel is included in one of the most successful (with almost a million viewers) Turkish films, \"Sınav\" (featuring Jean-Claude Van Damme). Their song \"Bir kadın çizeceksin\" was featured among the music of the FIFA 06 game. The band is considered a headliner for several Turkish music festivals, including \"Saklıfest\", \"Patlıcan\", \"Rokofest\" and Rock'n Coke. The band was to take stage in the Wembley Stadium in London, together with Tarkan, but Manga did not perform due to technical difficulties on 13 April 2008. They also played in London's O2 Academy Islington on 4 December 2009. On 12 January 2010 the Turkish broadcaster TRT announced that maNga would be the Turkish representative at the Eurovision Song Contest 2010. They came second with 170 points, behind Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Manga (also stylized as maNga) is a Turkish rock band whose music is mainly a fusion of Anatolian melodies with electronic elements. In 2009, they won both the Best Turkish Act award from MTV Turkey and consequently the Best European Act award from MTV Networks Europe in MTV Europe Music Awards 2009. They represented Turkey at the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 with the song \"We Could Be the Same\" and took second place.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975737}
{"src_title": "Plaza Mayor, Madrid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and Architecture.", "content": "The Plaza Mayor dates back to the 15th century where it was originally called the \"Plaza del Arrabal\" and was used as the main market of the town. In 1561, the plaza was transferred to the city of Madrid. King Philip II commissioned Classical architect Juan de Herrera to remodel the area. Construction did not begin until Philip III's reign in 1617. Juan Gómez de Mora continued on the architectural renovation, and was finished two years later in 1619. The Plaza Mayor has suffered 3 major fires in its history. The first was in 1631. Juan Gómez de Mora took on the reconstructions of the plaza following this fire. The second of the fires occurred in 1670, with the architect Tomás Román in charge of the reconstruction. The last fire consumed a third of the square and took place in 1790. Today, the Plaza Mayor's architecture is credited to Juan de Villanueva. He handled the reconstruction following the massive fire in 1790. Prior to this, the buildings that enclosed the square were five stories. Juan de Villanueva lowered the square's surrounding buildings to three stories, closed the corners and created large entrances into the squares. Construction after Juan de Villanueva's death by Antonio López Aguado and Custodio Moreno and was finished in 1854.  Today, the Plaza Mayor is rectangular in shape and highlights the uniformity of the architecture. The Plaza measures 129 m x 94 m (423 ft x 308 ft). 237 balconies are present on the three-story residential buildings that face inward towards the Plaza. To enter or exit The Plaza Mayor, there are ten entrances to choose from, however, there are nine gates. The entrances are named: 7 de Julio, Arco de Triunfo and Felipe III to the North; Sal, Zaragoza and Gerona to the East; Botoneras, Toledo and Cuchilleros to the South; Ciudad Rodrigo to the West. In the center of the square stands the statue of Philip III on a horse, which was placed in 1848. The Plaza Mayor has been the scene of multitudinous events. It has hosted executions in history. Today, it is the location of the annual Christmas market. It has also hosted bullfights and soccer games. Every Sunday and holidays it hosts stamp collecting and coin collecting market in the mornings.  In 1880, the \"Casa de la Panadería\" was restored by Joaquín María de la Vega. the \"Casa de la Panadería\" is the piece of the façade framed by two two-angled towers. It has been used for many different purposes in history. Its name originates from its original use of the main city bakery.  In 1921 the farmhouse was reformed, and then again in 1935 by Fernando García de Mercadal. In 1960s, the plaza closed itself to road traffic and added underground parking below the plaza. The last of the performances in the Plaza Mayor, held in 1992, consisted of mural decoration, the work of Carlos Franco, of the Casa de la Panadería, which represents mythological figures such as the goddess Cibeles. Today, the Plaza Mayor is a major tourist spot, but is also celebrated by the citizens of Madrid and has become a piece of Spanish culture. Next to the Plaza Mayor at Arco de Cuchilleros Street is the Restaurante Botin, the oldest restaurant of the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The name of the plaza has changed over time. It has been known as \"Plaza del Arrabal\", \"Plaza de la Constitución\", \"Plaza Real\", \"Plaza de la República\" and now \"Plaza Mayor\". These names reflect events, history and reign in Spanish history.  \"Plaza del Arrabal\" was the original name of the present day \"Plaza Mayor\". The \"Plaza del Arrabal\" was once the site of the most popular marketplace until the end of 15th century. Following the Constitution of 1812, all major plazas in Spain were renamed \"Plaza de la Constitución\". It also held this name 1820 to 1823, 1833 to 1835, 1840 to 1843, and 1876 to 1922. When the Borbón king was restored in 1814, it became known as the \"Plaza Real\". In 1873, the name changed to \"Plaza de la República\". At the end of the Spanish Civil War the plaza received its present name of \"Plaza Mayor\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statue.", "content": "There is a bronze statue of King Philip III at the center of the square, created in 1616 by Jean Boulogne and Pietro Tacca. Giambologna's equestrian statue of Philip III dates to 1616, but it was not placed in the center of the square until 1848. The statue was a gift from the Duke of Florence at that time. It was Queen Isabel II ordered to move it from Casa de Campo to become the centerpiece of the Plaza Mayor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Plaza Mayor (English: \"Main Square\") is a major public space in the heart of Madrid, the capital of Spain. It was once the centre of Old Madrid. It was first built (1580–1619) during the reign of Philip III. Only a few blocks away is another famous plaza, the Puerta del Sol. The Plaza Mayor is for the people of Madrid and tourists to shop, walk around, eat, and enjoy the outdoors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975738}
{"src_title": "Oasis of the Seas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The vessel was ordered in February 2006 and designed under the name \"Project Genesis\". Her keel was laid down on 12 November 2007 by STX Europe Turku Shipyard, Finland. The company announced that full funding for \"Oasis of the Seas\" was secured on 15 April 2009.  The name \"Oasis of the Seas\" resulted from a competition held in May 2008.  During the first float-out of the vessel the tugboats that were pulling the ship from its dock failed to control the ship, resulting in the port side of the ship hitting the dock. This resulted in some cosmetic damage and minor damage to the hull, which was repaired and did not affect the final delivery date of the vessel.  The ship was completed and turned over to Royal Caribbean on 28 October 2009. Two days later, she departed Finland for the United States. While exiting the Baltic Sea, the vessel passed underneath the Great Belt Fixed Link in Denmark on 31 October 2009 at 23:18 UTC. The bridge has a clearance of above the water; \"Oasis\" normally has an air draft of. The passage under the bridge was possible due to retraction of the telescoping funnels, and an additional was gained by the squat effect whereby vessels traveling at speed in a shallow channel will be drawn deeper into the water. Approaching the bridge at, the ship passed under it with less than of clearance.  Proceeding through the English Channel, \"Oasis\" stopped briefly in the Solent so that 300 shipyard workers who were on board doing finishing work could disembark, then left on the way to her intended home port of Port Everglades in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The ship arrived there on 13 November 2009, where tropical plants were installed prior to some introductory trips and her maiden voyage on 5 December 2009.  \"Oasis\" had a minor refit in winter 2011. She underwent a second drydock refit in October 2014. During drydock the ship was modified by dividing the main dining room into three separate restaurants.  On 1 April 2019, \"Oasis of the Seas\" was undergoing work at a dry dock in The Bahamas when two cranes collapsed onto the ship. Eight people suffered non-life-threatening injuries, and extensive damage to the ship required it to relocate to Cádiz for repairs. The ship returned to service on 5 May, but three sailings were cancelled during its downtime.  On 20 December 2019, \"Oasis\" was almost struck by the \"Carnival Legend\" while in port in Cozumel, Mexico. The Legend was on the receiving end of a collision with the \"Carnival Glory\" earlier that day.  \"Oasis\" is scheduled to cruise the Mediterranean out of Barcelona in summer 2019 before undergoing a major drydock at the end of the season. \"Oasis\" will then reposition to her new homeport of Miami for the fall and winter 2019 seasons. She will then move to Cape Liberty Cruise Port in May 2020.  During the COVID-19 pandemic on cruise ships, the \"Miami Herald\" reported that 14 crew members had tested positive for COVID-19. At that time, the vessel had been at anchor near Port Miami since mid-March. The passengers had disembarked for flights to their home countries but the ship remained in the area. By 10 April 2020, seven crew members had been taken to nearby hospitals within a week. As of 4 May 2020, three crew members had died in various hospitals in South Florida.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical details.", "content": "The gross tonnage of \"Oasis of the Seas\" at launch was 225,282, but it was expanded to 226,838 GT when additional cabins were added to Deck 14 in 2019. Her displacement—the actual mass of the vessel—is estimated at approximately, slightly less than that of an American.  To keep the ship stable without increasing the draft excessively, the designers created a wide hull; of the ship sits beneath the water, a small percentage of the ship's overall height. Wide, shallow ships such as this tend to be \"snappy\", meaning that they can snap back upright after a wave has passed, which can be uncomfortable. This effect, however, is mitigated by the vessel's large size. The cruise ship's officers were pleased with the ship's stability and performance during the transatlantic crossing, when the vessel, in order to allow finishing work to go on, slowed and changed course in the face of winds \"almost up to hurricane force\" and seas in excess of.  The ship's power comes from six medium-speed, marine-diesel generating sets: three 16-cylinder Wärtsilä 16V46D common rail engines producing each and three similar 12-cylinder Wärtsilä 12V46D engines producing each. The fuel consumption of the main engines at full power is of fuel oil per engine per hour for the 16-cylinder engines and per engine per hour for the 12-cylinder engines. The total output of these prime movers, some, is converted to electricity, used in hotel power for operation of the lights, elevators, electronics, galleys, water treatment plant, and all of the other systems used on the operation of the vessel, as well as propulsion. Propulsion is provided by three Azipods, ABB's brand of electric azimuth thrusters. These pods, suspended under the stern, contain electric motors driving propellers. Because they are rotatable, no rudders are needed to steer the ship. Docking is assisted by four transverse bow thrusters. Additional power comes from solar panels fitted by BAM Energy Group, which provide energy for lighting in the promenade and central park areas. The installation cost and covers on deck 19.  The ship carries 18 lifeboats that hold 370 people each, for a total of 6,660 people. Inflatable life rafts provide for additional passengers and crew.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Facilities.", "content": "The ship features a zip-line, an ice-skating rink, a surf simulator, an aquatic amphitheater, a moving bar, a casino, a miniature golf course, multiple night clubs, several bars and lounges, a karaoke club, comedy club, five swimming pools, volleyball and basketball courts, youth zones, and nurseries for children. Many of the ship's interiors were extensively decorated by muralist Clarissa Parish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naming ceremony and launch party.", "content": "The ship was formally named on 30 November 2009 during a charity sailing for Make-A-Wish Foundation. At this ceremony the ship was sponsored by seven \"godmothers\", each representing one of the seven neighbourhoods on board. Her godmothers are Gloria Estefan, Michelle Kwan, Dara Torres, Keshia Knight Pulliam, Shawn Johnson, Jane Seymour and Daisy Fuentes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Oasis of the Seas is an owned and operated by Royal Caribbean International., she is the third largest passenger ship in the world behind her sisters, \"Harmony of the Seas\", and \"Symphony of the Seas.\" Her hull was laid down in November 2007 and she was completed and delivered to Royal Caribbean in October 2009. At the time of construction, \"Oasis of the Seas\" set a new capacity record of carrying over 6,000 passengers. The first of her class, she was joined by sister ships \"Allure of the Seas\" in December 2010, \"Harmony of the Seas\" in May 2016, and \"Symphony of the Seas\" in April 2018. \"Oasis of the Seas\" conducts cruises of the Caribbean from her home port of PortMiami in Miami, Florida.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975739}
{"src_title": "Raised-bed gardening", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Raised beds lend themselves to the development of complex agriculture systems that utilize many of the principles and methods of permaculture. They can be used effectively to control erosion and recycle and conserve water and nutrients by building them along contour lines on slopes. This also makes more space available for intensive crop production. They can be created over large areas with the use of several commonly available tractor-drawn implements and efficiently maintained, planted and harvested using hand tools.  This form of gardening is compatible with square foot gardening and companion planting.  Circular raised beds with a path to the center (a slice of the circle cut out) are called keyhole gardens. Often the center has a chimney of sorts built with sticks and then lined with feedbags or grasses that allows water placed at the center to flow out into the soil and reach the plants' roots.  A self watering raised bed known as a wicking bed is particularly beneficial in dry climates and are often made by converting Intermediate bulk container (IBC's).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Materials and construction.", "content": "Vegetable garden bed construction materials should be chosen carefully. Some concerns exist regarding the use of pressure-treated timber. Pine that was treated using chromated copper arsenate or CCA, a toxic chemical mix for preserving timber that may leach chemicals into the soil which in turn can be drawn up into the plants, is a concern for vegetable growers, where part or all of the plant is eaten. If using timber to raise the garden bed, ensure that it is an untreated hardwood to prevent the risk of chemicals leaching into the soil. A common approach is to use timber sleepers joined with steel rods to hold them together. Another approach is to use concrete blocks, although less aesthetically pleasing, they are inexpensive to source and easy to use.  On the market are also prefab raised garden bed solutions which are made from long lasting polyethylene that is UV stabilized and food grade so it will not leach undesirable chemicals into the soil or deteriorate in the elements. A double skinned wall provides an air pocket of insulation that minimizes the temperature fluctuations and drying out of the soil in the garden bed. Sometimes raised bed gardens are covered with clear plastic to protect the crops from wind and strong rains. Pre-manufactured raised bed gardening boxes also exist. There are variants of wood, metal, stone and plastic. Each material type has advantages and disadvantages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Benefits.", "content": "Raised beds produce a variety of benefits: they extend the planting season, they can reduce weeds if designed and planted properly, and they reduce the need to use poor native soil. Since the gardener does not walk on the raised beds, the soil is not compacted and the roots have an easier time growing. Waist-high raised beds enable the elderly and physically disabled to grow vegetables without having to bend over to tend them.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Raised-bed gardening is a form of gardening in which the soil is enclosed in three-to-four-foot-wide (1.0–1.2 m) containment units (\"beds\"), which are usually made of wood, rock, or concrete and which can be of any length or shape. The soil is raised above the surrounding soil (approximately six inches to waist-high) and may be enriched with compost.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975740}
{"src_title": "Grand Palais", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "One of its pediments calls it a \"monument dedicated by the Republic to the glory of French art\", reflecting its original purpose, that of housing the great artistic events of the city of Paris. The competition to choose the architect was fierce and controversial, and ultimately resulted in the contract being awarded to a group of four architects, Henri Deglane, Albert Louvet, Albert Thomas and Charles Girault, each with a separate area of responsibility.  The main space, almost 240 metres long, was constructed with an iron, steel and glass barrel-vaulted roof, making it the last of the large transparent structures inspired by London’s Crystal Palace that were necessary for large gatherings of people before the age of electricity. The main space was originally connected to the other parts of the palace along an east-west axis by a grand staircase in a style combining Classical and Art Nouveau, but the interior layout has since been somewhat modified.  The exterior of this massive palace combines an imposing Classical stone façade with a riot of Art Nouveau ironwork, and a number of allegorical statue groups including work by sculptors Paul Gasq, Camille Lefèvre, Alfred Boucher, Alphonse-Amédée Cordonnier and Raoul Verlet. A monumental bronze quadriga by Georges Récipon tops each wing of the main façade. The one on the Champs-Élysées side depicts Immortality prevailing over Time, the one on the Seine side Harmony triumphing over Discord.  The grand inauguration took place 1 May 1900, and from the very beginning the palace was the site of different kinds of shows in addition to the intended art exhibitions. These included a riding competition that took place annually from 1901 to 1957, but were mainly dedicated to innovation and modernity: the automobile, aviation, household appliances, and so on. The golden age of the art exhibitions as such lasted for some thirty years, while the last took place in 1947. The first major Henri Matisse retrospective after his death was held at the Grand Palais. The structure had problems that started even before it was completed, mainly as a result of subsidence caused by a drop in the water table. The builders attempted to compensate for this subsidence, and for a tendency of the ground to shift, by sinking supporting posts down to firmer soil, since construction could not be delayed. These measures were only partially successful. Further damage occurred once the building was in use. Excessive force applied to structural members during the installation of certain exhibitions such as the Exposition Internationale de la Locomotion Aérienne caused damage, as did acid runoff from the horse shows. Additional problems due to the construction of the building itself revealed themselves over the course of time. Differential rates of expansion and contraction between cast iron and steel members, for example, allowed for water to enter, leading to corrosion and further weakening. When finally one of the glass ceiling panels fell in 1993, the main space had to be closed for restoration work, and was not fully reopened to the public until 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wartime and the Palais.", "content": "The Palais served as a military hospital during World War I, employing local artists who had not been deployed to the front to decorate hospital rooms or to make moulds for prosthetic limbs.  The Nazis put the Palais to use during the Occupation of France in World War II. First used as a truck depot, the Palais then housed two Nazi propaganda exhibitions.  The Parisian resistance used the Grand Palais as a headquarters during the Liberation of Paris. On 23 August 1944 an advancing German column was fired upon from a window on the Avenue de Sèlves, and the Germans responded with a tank attack upon the Palais. The attack ignited hay that was set up for a circus show, and over the next 48 hours, thick black smoke from the fire caused serious damage to the building. By 26 August, American jeeps were parked in the nave, followed by tanks from the French 2nd Armored Division, completing the liberation of the building.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Grand Palais today.", "content": "The Grand Palais has a major police station in the basement whose officers help protect the exhibits on show in the Galeries nationales du Grand Palais, particularly the picture exhibition \"salons\": the Salon de la Société Nationale des Beaux Arts, Salon d'Automne, and Salon Comparaisons. The building's west wing also contains a science museum, the Palais de la Découverte.  It was the host venue of the 2010 World Fencing Championships.  For the 2011 Monumenta exhibition (11 May to 23 June), sculptor Anish Kapoor was commissioned to create the temporary indoor site-specific installation, \"Leviathan\", an enormous (ca. 775,000 square feet) structure that filled half of the main exhibition hall of the Grand Palais.  It was used during the final stage of the Tour de France in 2017, as part of the promotion for Paris' 2024 Summer Olympics bid. The riders rode through the Palais en route to the Champs Élysées. With Paris having been unanimously awarded the 2024 Games, the Palais will be used for the fencing and taekwondo events.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes.", "content": "This article contains material abridged and translated from the French and Spanish \"Wikipedia\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Grand Palais des Champs-Élysées, commonly known as the Grand Palais (English: Great Palace), is a large historic site, exhibition hall and museum complex located at the Champs-Élysées in the 8th arrondissement of Paris, France. Construction of the Grand Palais began in 1897 following the demolition of the Palais de l'Industrie (Palace of Industry) as part of the preparation works for the Universal Exposition of 1900, which also included the creation of the adjacent Petit Palais and Pont Alexandre III. It has been listed since 2000 as a \"monument historique\" by the French Ministry of Culture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975741}
{"src_title": "Scarce fritillary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The scarce fritillary's wingspan ranges from 35 to 42 mm. The upper sides of the wings are orange, with a distinguished pattern of white spots. The veins and margins are black and brown.  The pigmentation on the wing underside is orange and the details are blurred. The forewings exhibit a wide range of different shades of light and dark orange, the hindwings are orange with white spots.  The caterpillar larvae reach up to 30 mm in length when fully grown. They are dark colored with strikingly bright, yellow spots. They have a large amount of dark tubercules and hairs across its length.  The pupae tend to be white with dark spots and yellow warts on the abdomen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food sources.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Larva.", "content": "Scarce fritillary larvae only feed on the leaves of ash trees (Fraxinus excelsior) at first. Caterpillars that hibernated once already start feeding on honeysuckle (Lonicera xylosteum), goat willow (Salix caprea) and common aspen (Populus tremula), as well as a diverse variety of forb.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The butterfly scarce fritillary can be found in moist, light terrain which is overgrown by ash trees and ash bushes. Its population has decreased rapidly in Central Europe and in some areas they are no longer to be found.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occurrence.", "content": "Scarce fritillary can be found in East- and Central Europe, in the Caucasus, Ural Mountains, in the East of Kazakhstan, in South- and Western Siberia, in the Zabaykalsky Krai and in Mongolia. They appear very limited in locally restricted areas while their population is widely spread. Scarce fritillary inhabit regions varying in altitudes of 200 to 1,000 metres. In Germany for example they only appear in the Swabian Alb, in the southern area of the Steigerwald, in the area of Leipzig and in the Marzoller Au near Bad Reichenhall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lifestyle.", "content": "The butterflies keep themselves rather hidden and are usually inconspicuous in its behavior. Those that are encountered by humans are mostly the males. They like to sit on forest trails drinking water from puddles. Scarce fritillary are rarely found on flowers; instead they prefer the blossoms of bushes; for example, common privet (Ligustrum vulgare) and wayfaring tree (Viburnum lantana).  The butterfly's population fluctuates extremely every year. Groups that accrete well over the years are usually depleted by increasing overpopulation of parasitic flies and wasps. The scarce fritillary butterflies only slowly recover after such invasion, often needing years to replenish their population.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life Cycle.", "content": "The females lay their striking red eggs on the undersides of ash leaves for which they often choose seedlings that are approximately 2 meters (6.5 feet) high. The entire hoard is laid in a layered cluster with a diameter of only 1 cm (0.39 inch). The choice of the right place for the eggs is very important as it has to fit certain criteria. Temperature, humidity and light conditions all have to be met exactly. This is why, occasionally, if it has been a strong year for the population of the scarce fritillary butterfly, several females can be seen laying their eggs on the same leaf. After hatching, the young caterpillars weave a cocoon around the entire leaf which they then all inhabit together. They eat only certain parts of the leaves, leaving a very distinct damage pattern of curled up leaves and their cocoons behind which makes the species easy to identify. From the end of June onwards the caterpillars, which until then have grown to an approximate size of 1 cm (0.39 inch) in length, leave their plant by letting themselves drop to the ground or by falling off with the dry leaves. Small groups then hide in piles of leaves to hibernate. They develop to lead a solitary life and are also starting to broaden their diet by including other plants only in the subsequent spring. It has been theorized that their one-sided diet of only ash leaves occurs at their early life stage because Scarce Fritillary butterfly eggs are solely being laid onto ash tree leaves. Afterwards the caterpillars have a broad diet that includes various plants. In May – which gives them their German name “Maivogel” (Lit. May bird) – the fully grown caterpillars pupate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Endangerment and Protection.", "content": "The Fritillary butterfly is threatened by extinction and is one of Germany's most endangered species of butterflies. On the IUCN Red List they are marked as “critically endangered” whereas in Austria they are marked one rank below as “endangered”. They are also marked in sections II and IV of the FHH guidelines (Habitats Directive; Lit. Fauna-Flora-Habitat-Guideline). The decline of the species is accounted to the loss of their habitats because of forestry, the draining of wetlands and the agricultural use of former biotopes. Another reason for their diminishing numbers are insecticides which were initially used against pine procession moths but which interfered with the shedding process of not only the moths but also scarce fritillary and many other kinds of butterflies as well.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The scarce fritillary (\"Euphydryas maturna\") is a species of butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found in Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, and Sweden.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975742}
{"src_title": "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 1939, a woman dies while giving birth prematurely in a slaughterhouse in Texas, and the manager disposes of the baby by leaving him in a dumpster outside. When young Luda Mae Hewitt finds the child, she takes him back to the Hewitt residence, names him Thomas and raises him as her own son.  Thirty years later, Thomas (Andrew Bryniarski) works in the slaughterhouse under the same manager who left him in the dumpster. When the plant is shut down by the health department, he refuses to leave until the manager makes him. Thomas later returns to murder his manager and finds a chainsaw, which he takes with him. When Sheriff Hoyt attempts to arrest him, Luda Mae's son, Charlie Hewitt (R. Lee Ermey) kills him and assumes his identity.  Meanwhile, brothers Eric (Matt Bomer) and Dean (Taylor Handley), are driving across the country with their girlfriends, Chrissie (Jordana Brewster) and Bailey (Diora Baird), to enlist in the Vietnam War. At a diner, they run into a biker gang, one of whom follows them on her motorcycle. She draws a shotgun and orders the group to pull over. In the ensuing chaos, the car crashes, and Chrissie is thrown into a field out of sight. When Hoyt arrives, he kills the biker and makes them put her body in his car. Hoyt then forces the group in as well, and calls for Uncle Monty to tow the jeep, which Chrissie is hiding in.  Hoyt drives them to the Hewitt house where he has Thomas butcher the biker's body. He then holds Eric, Dean, and Bailey captive. When Monty brings the wrecked car to the house, Chrissie runs back to the highway and flags down Holden, the biker's boyfriend, and they return to the house together. At the house, Hoyt tortures Dean after finding out that he was going to forgo the Vietnam War draft. When Hoyt leaves, Eric breaks free from his restraints and gets Dean to safety before sneaking into the house to free Bailey. Bailey escapes in Monty's truck but Thomas stabs her with a meat hook and drags her back to the house. When Dean attempts to run, he is caught in a bear trap, and Hoyt knocks Eric unconscious.  Holden and Chrissie arrive at the house but part ways to search for their friends. While Chrissie finds Dean, Holden takes Hoyt hostage, and orders him to take him to his girlfriend. Hoyt calls out to Thomas for help, and he kills Holden with the chainsaw. Chrissie finds Eric in the basement but is unable to free him, and hides when Thomas returns. Thomas inspects Eric's face before killing him with the chainsaw. He then skins his face and wears it as a mask. Chrissie is about to flee when she hears Bailey's screams, and decides to go back and save her. She finds her upstairs, but Hoyt catches her and brings her downstairs for dinner, along with Bailey and an unconscious Dean. Leatherface slits Bailey's throat and tries to take Chrissie to the basement, but she stabs him in the back with a screwdriver, and jumps out of a window.  Dean regains consciousness and beats Hoyt before heading off to find Chrissie. Chrissie enters the slaughterhouse, and after noticing that Leatherface has followed her, she grabs a knife and cuts his face, but he overpowers her. Dean intervenes but Leatherface kills him with the chainsaw. Chrissie escapes, hijacks an abandoned car, and drives off. She sees a state trooper in the distance, but as Chrissie pulls over, Leatherface appears in the backseat and impales her with the chainsaw, causing her to lose control and crash. Leatherface exits the car and walks along the road back towards the Hewitt house.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "\"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning\" was released on October 6, 2006, in 2,820 theaters, debuting at number 2 at the box office, grossing $18,508,228 on its first weekend. Its second week saw a 59.6% drop in attendance, grossing only $7,485,290 and coming in at number 5 at the box office. During its third week it grossed $3,779,829 and came in at number 10 at the box office. The film dropped out of the top ten and into eighteenth place with $1,269,942. \"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning\" would fail to regain a top ten spot at the box office for the remainder of its theatrical run, ending with $51,764,406 in total gross.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "\"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning\" was released on DVD by New Line Home Video on January 16, 2007. This release included both theatrical and unrated versions of the film, as well as a double feature with the first film. EIV would release the film in the UK on February 19 that same year as both a two-disk uncut edition, a single-disk theatrical version, and as a part of the \"Texas Chainsaw Massacre\" collection. New Line would re-release the film in 2008 and 2009 before releasing the film on Blu-ray on October 15, 2013. The film had previously been released for the first time on Blu-ray by Ais on July 6, 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 13% approval rating based on 85 reviews and an average rating of 3.45/10. The site's consensus states: \"\"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning\" is full of blood and gore, but not enough scares or a coherent story to make for a successful horror film.\" Metacritic reports a 30 out of 100 rating, based on 18 critics, indicating \"generally unfavorable reviews\". Peter Travers from \"Rolling Stone\" awarded the film zero stars, calling the film \"putridly written, directed and acted\", also criticizing the film's obvious plot turns. Nathan Lee from \"The New York Times\" panned the film calling it \"an invitation to hard-core sadism\". At the 27th Golden Raspberry Awards (2006), the film was nominated for a Worst Prequel or Sequel, but lost to \"Basic Instinct 2\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cancelled sequel.", "content": "In January 2007, Platinum Dunes executives Bradley Fuller and Andrew Form stated that the company would not be producing the third film in the \"Texas Chainsaw Massacre\" reboot franchise.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning is a 2006 American slasher film and a prequel to the 2003 film. The sixth installment in \"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre\" franchise, it was written by Sheldon Turner and David J. Schow, directed by Jonathan Liebesman and co-produced by Kim Henkel and Tobe Hooper (co-creators of the original 1974 film). The film's story takes place four years before its predecessor. It stars Jordana Brewster, Diora Baird, Taylor Handley, Matt Bomer and R. Lee Ermey.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975743}
{"src_title": "Victorine Meurent", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Paris to a family of artisans (her father was a patinator of bronzes, while her mother was a milliner), Meurent started modeling at the age of sixteen in the studio of Thomas Couture and may also have studied art at his women's atelier. Meurent first modeled for Manet in 1862, for his painting \"The Street Singer\". Manet was first drawn to Meurent when he saw her in the street, carrying her guitar. She was particularly noticeable for her petite stature, which earned her the nickname \"La Crevette (The Shrimp)\", and for her red hair, which is depicted as very bright in Manet's watercolor copy of \"Olympia\". As well as playing the guitar, Meurent also played the violin, gave lessons in the two instruments, and sang in café-concerts.  Meurent's name remains forever associated with Manet's masterpieces of 1863, \"The Luncheon on the Grass\" and \"Olympia\", which include nude portrayals of her. At that time she also modeled for Edgar Degas and the Belgian painter Alfred Stevens, both close friends of Manet. Her relationship with Stevens is said to have been particularly close.  Manet continued to use Meurent as a model until the early 1870s, when she began taking art classes and they became estranged, as she was drawn to the more academic style of painting that Manet opposed. The last Manet painting in which Meurent appears is \"Gare Saint-Lazare\" (not to be confused with Monet's painting of the same name), painted in 1873, which is often referred to as \"The Railway\". The painting is considered the best example of Manet's use of contemporary subject matter. In 1875, Meurent began studying with the portraitist. The following year, Meurent first submitted work of her own at the Salon and was accepted. Manet's own submissions were rejected by the jury that year. \"Bourgeoise de Nuremberg au XVIe siècle\", Meurent's entry at the Académie des Beaux-Arts in 1879, was hung in the same room as the entry by Manet. Work by Meurent also was included in the 1885 and 1904 exhibitions. In all, Meurent exhibited in the Salon six times. She also continued to support herself by modelling through the 1880s for Norbert Goeneutte, an artist best known for his etchings, and for Toulouse-Lautrec, who took to introducing her as \"Olympia\".  Meurent was inducted into the Société des Artistes Français in 1903, with the support of Charles Hermann-Leon and Tony Robert-Fleury, the Société's founder. By 1906 Meurent had left Paris for the suburb of Colombes, where she lived with a woman named Marie Dufour for the remainder of her life. The two appear to have shared ownership of their house. In her eighties she continued to refer to herself as an artist, as recorded in a census from that time.  Meurent died on March 17, 1927.  After the death of Dufour in 1930, the contents of the house were liquidated; in the late twentieth century, elderly neighbours recalled the last contents of the house, including a violin and its case, being burnt on a bonfire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paintings.", "content": "A painting by Meurent, \"Le Jour des Rameaux\" or \"Palm Sunday\" was recovered in 2004 and now hangs in the Colombes History Museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Victorine Meurent's life has inspired two historical novels, and she appears as a character in several others.  The Irish writer George Moore included Meurent as a character in his semi-fictional autobiography, \"Memoirs of My Dead Life\" (1906). She appears as a middle-aged woman, living in a lesbian relationship with a famous courtesan.  Meurent is the protagonist of both \"Mademoiselle Victorine: a Novel\" (2007) by Debra Finerman and \"A Woman With No Clothes On\" (2008) by V R Main and is a character in Christopher Moore's novel \"Sacré Bleu\" (2012).  She is also a character in the film \"Intimate Lives: The Women of Manet\", aka \"Manet in Love\" (1998) and is played by Shelley Phillips.  Another novel depicting Meurent and her relationship with Manet is \"Paris Red\" by Maureen Gibbon (2015).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Victorine-Louise Meurent (also Meurant) (February 18, 1844 – March 17, 1927) was a French painter and a famous model for painters. Although she is best known as the favourite model of Édouard Manet, she was also an artist in her own right who regularly exhibited at the prestigious Paris Salon. In 1876 her paintings were selected for inclusion at the Salon's juried exhibition, when Manet's work was not.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975744}
{"src_title": "Pražský Krysařík", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "Also known as the Pražský Krysařík, and often confused with the Chihuahua and the Miniature Pinscher, the dog's coat consists of short, glossy hair and the most common color is black and tan, which is also the original color. Lately, other colors have been approved: brown and tan, blue and tan, lilac and tan, yellow, pink, red and merle. It is 2 cm shorter in maximum height than the minimum height of the Miniature Pinscher. Ideal height is 20 cm to 23 cm. Adult weight is mostly between 1.5 kg to 3.5 kg. Generally the best weight is 2.6 kg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "Best known for its active and lively nature, the Prague Ratter is a spunky breed that is full of original character. These tiny dogs thrive on strong and dependable relationships with humans, love to receive affection and play the role of lap dog during down time. This breed is highly intelligent and generally responds well to basic training and commands. As a pet, the Prague Ratter is obedient, loyal, loving, and very affectionate. The Prague Ratter adapts well to full-time indoor and apartment living, yet still enjoys spending time outdoors, playing games such as fetch, and taking long and leisurely walks. They are also known to be a very quiet dog, unlike many other small dogs who tend to be very \"yappy\". Like any small dog, one should be wary of allowing them to develop Small Dog Syndrome, as they can become aggressive if they are not well-socialized from an early age.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Train-ability.", "content": "Due to its need for human attention and eagerness to please and impress its owner, the Prague Ratter generally responds well to basic training and commands. This bright breed has the ability to learn to perform many impressive tricks and tasks. Many owners claim that these dogs can easily be taught to use a litter box, thus eliminating the need for constant trips outdoors.  Establishing immediate trust and respect is key to successfully training the Prague Ratter. These dogs can be somewhat sensitive to criticism and respond best to positive reinforcement and reward-based training.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Areas of use.", "content": "Prazsky Krysarik might be small, but is nevertheless an easy dog to train as long as it is treated consistently. It can be trained for agility, freestyle, obedience, tracking etc.  The sense of smell and hearing is highly developed, and Prazsky Krysarik is still a great rat hunter, just as its original purpose was. They have a high prey drive and will readily go after squirrels, rats, and mice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The breed was popular in central European royal palaces in the Middle Ages. It was already an established breed by the time of the rule of the Polish king Bolesław II the Generous (1058–1081). He became fond of the Ratter and had two of them imported from Bohemia. As their name suggests they were also commonly used as rat catchers in rural and urban households.  The popularity of the Prague Ratter started to decline in the 19th century when the Miniature Pinscher became more fashionable. The breed went through a renaissance in the 1980s as Czechs and Slovaks started to breed them again.  In 2019, it became an FCI acknowledged breed. There are only about 6,000 Prague Ratters registered in the world and they usually only have 1-3 puppies per year. They are nevertheless presented at shows in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Scandinavia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "Subject to bone injuries due to their small size. Also subject to patellar luxation, an ailment common to small breeds. Krysariks can also have retained baby teeth, which may need to be pulled to prevent further problems with dentition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life expectancy.", "content": "The Prazsky Krysarik has a life span of 12 to 14 years.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Pražský Krysařík (Prague Ratter) is a small breed of dog from the Czech Republic that is rarely seen outside its country of origin. It is the smallest breed in the world by breed standard, because of the maximum height of the dogs, unlike Chihuahuas who are measured by weight.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975745}
{"src_title": "Nina Berberova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in 1901 to an Armenian father and a Russian mother, Nina Berberova was brought up in Saint Petersburg. She left Russia in 1922 with poet Vladislav Khodasevich (who died in 1939). The couple lived in Berlin until 1924 and then settled in Paris. There, Berberova became a permanent contributor to the Russian émigré publication \"Posledniye Novosti\" (\"The Latest News\"), where she published short stories, poems, film reviews,/ and chronicles of Soviet literature. She also collaborated with other Russian émigré publications in Paris, Berlin and Prague. The stories collected in \"Oblegchenie Uchasti\" (\"The Easing of Fate\") and \"Biiankurskie Prazdniki\" (\"Billancourt Fiestas\") were written during this period. She also wrote the first book-length biography of composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky in 1936, which was controversial for its openness about his homosexuality. In Paris, she was part of a circle of poor but distinguished visiting literary Russian exiles that included Anna Akhmatova, Vladimir Nabokov, Boris Pasternak, Marina Tsvetaeva and Vladimir Mayakovsky. From its inception in 1940, she became a permanent contributor to the weekly \"Russkaia Mysl’\" (\"Russian Thought\").  After living in Paris for 25 years, Berberova emigrated to the United States in 1950 and became an American citizen in 1959. In 1954, she married to George Kochevitsky, Russian pianist and teacher. She began her academic career in 1958 when she was hired to teach Russian at Yale. She continued to write while she was teaching and published several \"povesti\" (long short stories), critical articles and some poetry. She left Yale in 1963 for Princeton, where she taught until her retirement in 1971. Berberova moved from Princeton, New Jersey, to Philadelphia in 1991.  Berberova’s autobiography, which details her early life and years in France, was written in Russian but published first in English as \"The Italics are Mine\" (Harcourt, Brace & World, 1969). The Russian edition, \"Kursiv Moi\", was not published until 1983.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary archives.", "content": "Much of Berberova’s early literary archive (1922–1950) is located in the Boris I. Nicolaevsky Collection at Stanford University. Her later literary archive (after 1950) is in the Nina Berberova Papers and Nina Berberova Collection at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nina Nikolayevna Berberova () (St Petersburg, 26 July 1901 – Philadelphia, 26 September 1993) was a Russian Empire-born writer who chronicled the lives of Russian exiles in Paris in her short stories and novels. She visited post-Soviet Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975746}
{"src_title": "Anna Vyrubova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "She was born in Oranienbaum as the daughter of Aleksandr Taneyev, Chief Steward to His Majesty's Chancellery and a noted composer. Her mother, Countess Nadezhda Tolstoy, was descended from Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov. Due to these connections, she was attached to the imperial court at an early age. She had two younger siblings: Sergei and Alexandra.  She was a childhood playmate of Felix Yussupov, who later spearheaded the murder of Rasputin. Yussupov found her unattractive:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life at court.", "content": "The Tsarina valued Anna's devotion to her and befriended her, ignoring women of more distinction at the court. In 1905, at the age of twenty, she was given a position at court for the first time. She went on holidays with the Romanovs in three succeeding years. In 1907, Anna married Alexander Vasilievich Vyrubov, an officer appointed in the Imperial chancellery. A few days before, she was warned by Rasputin that the marriage would be an unhappy one. According to Vyrubova, her husband was mad and went for treatment to Switzerland. The couple divorced within a year and a half. It is said that her husband was upset after he found out she had contacted Rasputin. Lili Dehn has another view. Vyrubova's mother reportedly told interrogators following the February Revolution that her son-in-law \"proved to be completely impotent, with an extremely perverse sexual psychology that manifested itself in various sadistic episodes in which he inflicted moral suffering on her and evoked a feeling of utter disgust.\"  Vyrubova became one of Rasputin's adherents and on order of the Tsarina, she went on a trip to his home village of Pokrovskoye to investigate the rumours about Rasputin. She visited some monasteries in the area. Vyrubova's importance grew at the court, as the friendship with Milica of Montenegro and her sister Anastasia deteriorated. \"With the death of Father John of Kronstadt, \"Father\" Grigori became, in her eyes, the only mediator with God, the only man with effective prayers. He was called to replace Father John.\" In 1909 she received to hieromonk Iliodor in her house for a meeting with the Tsar. Around Easter 1912 Vyrubova stashed Rasputin on a train to Yalta, so he could visit the Imperial family in the Livadia Palace on the Crimea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rasputin.", "content": "In early October 1912, during a grave crisis in Spała, in Russian Poland, the Tsarevich Alexei received the last sacrament. The desperate Tsarina turned to Vyrubova to secure the help of the peasant healer, who at that time was out of favor. (The basis for the denunciation of Rasputin as a Khlyst was his participation in mixed bathing, a perfectly usual custom among the peasants of many parts of Siberia.)  For a long time she served as a go-between for the Tsarina and Rasputin. In the Summer of 1914 Vyrubova received a cable from Rasputin, recovering from the attack by Khioniya Guseva in a Tyumen hospital. She had to show it directly to the Tsar Nicholas II. Rasputin was fearful of the consequences of war with Germany. Nicholas had been furious, but Anna arranged a reunion. While seldom meeting with Alexandra personally after the debate in the Imperial Duma, Rasputin had become her personal adviser after the Tsar took supreme command of the Russian armies in the field on 23 August 1915 (O.S.), hoping this would lift morale. All contacts between the Tsarina and Rasputin went through Vyrubova; every morning at ten she phoned Rasputin and he came to visit her lemon-yellow house in Tsarskoye Selo to meet Alexandra. The Tsar's biggest concern was that Alexandra might share information with others.  During World War I she trained as a Red Cross nurse and nursed soldiers along with the Tsarina and the Tsarina's two older daughters, The Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatiana. Vyrubova was severely injured in a train accident between the capital and Tsarskoye Selo in January 1915; the convalescent Vyrubova found herself a paraplegic, but credited Rasputin with saving her life with his prayers. In September 1916 she, Lili Dehn and Rasputin went to Tobolsk to pay tribute to John of Tobolsk, who had been glorified.  Vyrubova started a hospital with the money she received from the train company as compensation. Protopopov came to visit the hospital almost every day. She also planned to build a church dedicated to Seraphim of Sarov on her property. (Rasputin would be buried on the spot.) On Friday evening 16 December 1916 Rasputin told Vyrubova, who presented him a small icon, signed and dated at the back by the Tsarina and her daughters, of a proposed midnight visit to Prince Yusupov in his Moika Palace to meet his wife. The next morning Rasputin's disappearance was reported by his daughter to Vyrubova. When Vyrubova spoke of it to the Empress, Alexandra pointed out that Irina Aleksandrovna Romanova was absent from Petrograd. An investigation followed and Prince Yusupov and Grand Duke Dmitri were placed under house arrest in the Sergei Palace. The Tsarina had refused to meet the two, but told by Anna they could explain what had happened in a letter. Two days later Rasputin's body was found near Bolshoy Petrovsky Bridge. His body was taken to the Chesmensky Almshouse for autopsy. In the middle of the night Vyrubova and the Tsarina brought some clothes to the almshouse. On 21 December Rasputin's body was taken in a zinc coffin from the Chesme Church to be buried on a secret location in a corner on the property of Vyrubova adjacent to the palace. The burial was attended by the Imperial couple with their daughters – the tsesarevich was too ill, Vyrubova, her maid, and a few of Rasputin's friends, as Colonel Loman and Lili Dehn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Sick with measles, Anna Vyrubova was arrested on 21 March 1917 and underwent five months of prison in the Peter and Paul Fortress, which included a medical examination to prove her virginity. The interrogation on her political role started on 6 May. Vyrubova admitted she saw Rasputin once or twice a week but feigned a childish innocence. The investigator concluded that she was too naïve and unintelligent to have had any influence over the Tsarina.  In Anna's own memoirs, she describes her perils in prison and her narrow escape from execution when, miraculously, she met several old friends of her father on a St. Petersburg street who helped her escape. She endured much hardship avoiding the Bolsheviks, and she was able to escape to Finland only in December 1920. Before leaving the Soviet Union, she became friends with the revolutionary writer Maxim Gorky, who urged her to write her memoirs; she followed his advice. She met with Zinaida Gippius, Alexander Blok and Valery Bryusov. Her memories of life at court provided rare descriptions of the home life of the Tsar and his family. No one understood Rasputin and Alexandra better than Anna did. She tells a good story but does not seem to tell the truth.  Vyrubova spent the rest of her life first in Viipuri and later in Helsinki. She took vows as a Russian Orthodox nun but was permitted to live in a private home because of her physical disabilities. She died at 80, in Helsinki, where her grave is located in the Orthodox section of Hietaniemi cemetery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna Alexandrovna Vyrubova (\"née\" Taneyeva; ); 16 July 1884 – 20 July 1964) was a Russian lady-in-waiting, the best friend and confidante of Tsarina Alexandra Fyodorovna.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975747}
{"src_title": "Child's Play 2", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Two years after the death of Chucky, the remains of the doll are recovered and reassembled by the Play Pals Corporation, the producer of the Good Guy dolls, to reassure its stockholders after the negative publicity from the murders. During the process a power surge occurs and one of the assembly line workers is killed by electrocution. Mr. Sullivan, the executive of the company, orders his assistant Mattson to cover up the accident and dispose of Chucky, unaware that the doll has been brought back to life by the accident.  Meanwhile, Andy, who is now eight years old, has been in foster care ever since the murders; his mother is in a mental institution, having been pronounced mentally unstable for supporting his story about Chucky. Andy goes to live with foster parents, Phil and Joanne Simpson, who are also fostering Kyle, a cynical, street smart, teenage girl who becomes Andy’s foster sister. Chucky soon discovers Andy's whereabouts by using Mattson's car phone to call Grace Poole, the manager of Andy's foster center, before hijacking his car at gunpoint and suffocating him with a plastic bag after he reaches the Simpson house. Chucky infiltrates the home by destroying another Good Guy doll called \"Tommy\" and replacing it with himself.  After Chucky destroys an heirloom which Joanne forbade the kids to touch, Phil punishes both Andy and Kyle for smashing Joanne's ornament. Andy spends the rest of the day bonding with Kyle, initially believing Chucky to be an ordinary Good Guy doll. That night, Chucky ties Andy to his bed and reveals himself, but Kyle enters the room before he can complete the ritual to possess him. Kyle disbelieves Andy's assertions about Chucky while Phil and Joanne believe Kyle to be responsible and throw Chucky in the basement, where he realizes that he is becoming human after suffering a nosebleed.  The next day, Chucky secretly follows Andy to school. Andy's teacher, Miss Kettlewell, forces him to stay after school for detention after Chucky defaces his homework with vulgarity. Chucky beats Miss Kettlewell to death with a yardstick, but Andy manages to escape. Later, Andy tries to tell his foster parents about Chucky, but Phil refused to believe him and considers returning him to the foster center.  That night, Andy sneaks into the basement to destroy Chucky with an electric knife, but Chucky overpowers him. When Phil arrives to investigate the commotion, Chucky trips him, causing Phil to fall to his death. After finding Phil, Joanne immediately assumes Andy to be responsible and promptly sends him back to the foster center. Kyle discovers \"Tommy\" buried in the garden and realizes Andy was telling the truth. She rushes to warn Joanne, whom Chucky has already killed. Chucky ambushes Kyle and forces her to drive him to the foster center where Andy has been sent.  At the foster center, Chucky clears the building by pulling the fire alarm. He stabs Grace to death and forces Andy to take him to the Play Pals toy factory for the transfer. Kyle pursues them to the factory, where Chucky knocks Andy unconscious and completes the ritual; unfortunately he suffers another nosebleed, realizing it's too late to transfer his soul into Andy and is now permanently trapped inside the doll, much to his despair. Enraged, he goes after both Andy and Kyle, intending to kill them. As Andy and Kyle search for an exit and Chucky chases them over the machinery, Kyle slams a gate shut on Chucky's hand, which Chucky tears off and replaces with a makeshift blade.  After Chucky murders a factory technician, Kyle and Andy knock the doll into some machinery that mutilates him by attaching numerous arms and legs to his torso. Chucky escapes from the machinery by cutting off his own mixed waist, but his knife-hand gets stuck in a radiator when he attempts to stab Andy, who pours molten plastic all over the evil doll. The half-melted Chucky suddenly attacks them again; in the struggle, Kyle shoves a high-pressure air hose into Chucky's mouth, blowing off his head. Andy and Kyle exit the factory unsure of where to go, and walk off together.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "United Artists released the original \"Child's Play\" in 1988 and greenlit the second film. The sequel was in pre-production when a UA executive told producer David Kirschner that the film was put on hold as the studio was about to be acquired by the Australian group Qintex, which decided it was not in their best interest to make horror films. Paramount Pictures, Warner Bros., Columbia Pictures, 20th Century Fox, The Price Company, Carolco, New Line Cinema, Walt Disney Studios, and Universal Pictures expressed interest in picking up the film rights to the series and sequel, with Universal winning the rights bid, after Steven Spielberg assisted Kirschner in convincing Universal's Sid Sheinberg to accept it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Novelization.", "content": "A tie-in novelization to the film was later written by Matthew J. Costello. The author added in some of his own plot scenes exclusive to the novel, such as going deeper into Andy Barclay and Chucky's past. Chucky is characterized to have an absent father and his abusive mother being a dwarf. Chucky got teased a lot because of this and later strangled his mother to death. Also, Chucky was put in special classes when he was younger.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "The film opened at number one in the US with an opening weekend gross of $10,718,520 from 1,996 screens in the US. The film grossed a total of $28,501,605 in the US and an additional $7.3 million internationally for a worldwide gross of $35.8 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 44% based on 16 reviews. Evan Dickson of Bloody Disgusting, in describing how it surpasses the original film, wrote, \"\"Child's Play 2\" manages to strip away all artifice and still manage to be an effective slasher.\" Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A-\" on an A+ to F scale.  \"Variety\" wrote, \"\"Child's Play 2\" is another case of rehashing the few novel elements of an original to the point of utter numbness.\" Gene Siskel gave the film zero stars out of four, calling it \"A vicious, ugly little thriller.\" Kevin Thomas of the \"Los Angeles Times\" thought the original was \"a terrific one-of-a-kind thriller,\" but \"Not so the sequel. It's an all-out horror film—handsomely produced but morbid and not in the least amusing to watch.\" Richard Harrington of \"The Washington Post\" called it \"an inevitable sequel that's not as good as its progenitor, but better than most movies with the numbers 2 through 8 in their titles.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "\"Child's Play 2\" was first released on VHS by MCA/Universal Home Video in North America on April 11, 1991. The film was later released on DVD in 1999 and bundled with the fourth film \"Bride of Chucky\". It was released in multiple collections, such as:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sequels.", "content": "The film was followed by \"Child's Play 3\" in 1991, \"Bride of Chucky\" in 1998, \"Seed of Chucky\" in 2004, \"Curse of Chucky\" in 2013 and \"Cult of Chucky\" in 2017.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Child's Play 2 is a 1990 American slasher film and the direct sequel to \"Child's Play\", written by Don Mancini and directed by John Lafia, one of the co-writers of the first film. It is the second installment in the \"Child's Play\" franchise and set two years after the first film; the plot follows Charles Lee Ray (better known as Chucky) continuing his pursuit for Andy Barclay, who was placed in foster care, and transferring his soul into him after being resurrected. The film stars Alex Vincent, who returns as Andy Barclay; Gerrit Graham and Jenny Agutter as Andy's foster parents; Christine Elise as Kyle; and Brad Dourif as the voice of Chucky. It is the debut appearance of Adam Wylie.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975748}
{"src_title": "Windsor Park", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Named after the district in south Belfast in which it is located, Windsor Park was first opened in 1905, with a match between Linfield and Glentoran. The first major development of the stadium took place in the 1930s, to a design made by the Scottish architect Archibald Leitch. It had one main seated stand - the Grandstand, later known as the South Stand - with \"reserved\" terracing in front, and a large open terrace behind the goal to the west called the Spion Kop. To the north, there was a long covered terrace – the \"unreserved\" terracing – and behind the eastern goal at the Railway End another covered terrace. Windsor Park's peak capacity in this format was 60,000. In the early 1960s, the seated Railway Stand was built at the Railway End, and in the early 1970s a social club and viewing lounge was constructed in the corner between the Railway Stand and the Grandstand. In the 1980s, the 'unreserved terrace' was demolished and replaced by a two-tier, 7000-seat North Stand. In the late 1990s, the Kop terrace was demolished and replaced with a 5000-seater Kop Stand. The Kop Stand was known as the Alex Russell Stand from 2004–2008 in honour of Linfield's former goalkeeper and coach and one-time Northern Ireland international, but reverted to being named 'The Kop Stand' following this.  In the 2016–17 league season, Linfield FC drew an average home attendance of 2,538, the highest in the league. Their highest home attendance was 7,504 in that league season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Redevelopment.", "content": "Owing to the increasingly poor condition of Windsor Park, various proposals for its replacement were mooted, including the idea of a multi-purpose stadium hosting football, rugby union and Gaelic games on the site of the former Maze prison, or a national stadium built as part of a major leisure development at Sydenham in east Belfast. The plans for the multi-purpose stadium at the Maze site was strongly protested by essentially all the Northern Ireland match-going supporters. Various petitions in opposition to the suggestion, as well as organised displays of opposition at matches and the presentation counter-proposals, were arranged by Supporters Clubs in a bid to block any move to the Maze.  In September 2009, the Irish Football Association (IFA) announced that its preferred option was to remain at a redeveloped Windsor Park. In 2011, the Northern Ireland Executive allocated £138m for a major programme of stadium redevelopment throughout Northern Ireland, with £28m allocated to the redevelopment of Windsor Park into a 20,000-capacity all-seater stadium.  In 2012, details of the stadium's redevelopment were released. The plan would see Windsor Park become an 18,000 all-seater stadium with a series of phased works originally intended to begin in the summer of 2013. Plans included the demolition of both the Railway and South Stand structures to be replaced by new stands that would partially enclose the stadium, the complete renovation of the existing North and West Stands, and construction of both new conferencing facilities and a new headquarters facility for the IFA.  In February 2013, planning permission for the redevelopment was granted, with the estimated cost of the project around £29.2 million, of which £25.2 million would come from government funding. It was planned for the work to begin in September 2013. Two months later however, an application for leave for judicial review of the government funding was lodged by Crusaders, who claimed that it was against European Union competition laws and also a form of state aid to Linfield. In a hearing that took place on 22 May 2013, Crusaders' request was granted, after the judge ruled that they had presented an arguable case that the redevelopment could be classified as state aid towards Linfield. The aspect of the challenge concerning competition law however, was thrown out.  In July 2013, Crusaders agreed to a possible settlement brought forward by the judicial review. The details of the settlement were not forthcoming, but Crusaders said that it had the \"\"potential to benefit the entirety of the football family\"\". In September 2013, sports minister Carál Ní Chuilín said that she was still committed to making sure the redevelopment went ahead as scheduled, after previously stating that she would not sign off on the funding until the IFA sorted out the \"governance issues\" surrounding David Martin's return to the role of deputy president. In December 2013, three months after the work was originally scheduled to begin, the redevelopment was finally given the green light, with the sports minister signing off on £31 million of funding to complete the project. In May 2014, work finally got under way on the stadium redevelopment.  In March 2015, following a Euro 2016 qualifying game against Finland, large cracks were found in the West Stand; this part of the stadium was scheduled for renovation rather than replacement as part of the redevelopment project. As a consequence, the area around the stand had to be sealed off, and led to the 2015 Irish Cup Final being moved to The Oval. The preliminary structural report delivered to the IFA recommended that the damaged stand be demolished. Having accepted this report, the IFA confirmed that the West Stand would be demolished in time to ensure the safety of the stadium for Northern Ireland's qualifier against Romania on 10 June, as well as stating that work on the redevelopment project would be accelerated so that the stadium could meet its 10,000 planned capacity for the game. Plans for a new West Stand were approved in November 2015, funded by the insurance on the old facility. The new structure was intended to be ready in time for Northern Ireland's World Cup qualifier against San Marino in October 2016.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Windsor Park is a football stadium in Belfast, Northern Ireland. It is the home ground of Linfield FC and tenants Northern Ireland national football team, and is also where the Irish Cup final is played.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975749}
{"src_title": "Trimethylsilyl chloride", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Preparation.", "content": "TMSCl is prepared on a large scale by the Direct process, the reaction of methyl chloride with a silicon-copper alloy. The principal target of this process is dimethyldichlorosilane, but substantial amounts of the trimethyl and monomethyl products are also obtained. The relevant reactions are (Me = CH): Typically about 2-4% of the product stream is the monochloride, which forms an azeotrope with MeSiCl.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions and uses.", "content": "TMSCl is reactive toward nucleophiles, resulting in the replacement of the chloride. In a characteristic reaction of TMSCl, the nucleophile is water, resulting in hydrolysis to give the hexamethyldisiloxane: The related reaction of trimethylsilyl chloride with alcohols can be exploited to produce anhydrous solutions of hydrochloric acid in alcohols, which find use in the mild synthesis of esters from carboxylic acids and nitriles as well as, acetals from ketones. Similarly, trimethylsilyl chloride is also used to silanize laboratory glassware, making the surfaces more lipophilic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Silylation in organic synthesis.", "content": "By the process of silylation, polar functional groups such as alcohols and amines readily undergo reaction with trimethylsilyl chloride, giving trimethylsilyl ethers and trimethylsilyl amines. These new groups \"protect\" the original functional group by removing the labile protons and decreasing the basicity of the heteroatom. The lability of the MeSi-O and MeSi-N groups can later be removed (\"deprotected\"). Trimethylsilylation can also be used to increase the volatility of a compound, enabling gas chromatography of normally nonvolatile substances such as glucose. Trimethylsilyl chloride also reacts with metal acetylides to give trimethylsilyl alkynes such as bis(trimethylsilyl)acetylene. Such derivatives are useful protected forms of alkynes.  In the presence of triethylamine and lithium diisopropylamide, enolisable aldehydes, ketones and esters are converted to trimethylsilyl enol ethers. Despite their hydrolytic instability, these compounds have found wide application in organic chemistry; oxidation of the double bond by epoxidation or dihydroxylation can be used to return the original carbonyl group with an alcohol group at the alpha carbon. The trimethylsilyl enol ethers can also be used as masked enolate equivalents in the Mukaiyama aldol addition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other reactions.", "content": "Trimethylsilyl chloride is used to prepare other trimethylsilyl halides and pseudohalides, including trimethylsilyl fluoride, trimethylsilyl bromide, trimethylsilyl iodide, trimethylsilyl cyanide, trimethylsilyl azide, and trimethylsilyl trifluoromethanesulfonate (TMSOTf). These compounds are produced by a salt metathesis reaction between trimethylsilyl chloride and a salt of the (pseudo)halide (MX): TMSCl, lithium, and nitrogen molecule react to give tris(trimethylsilyl)amine, under catalysis by nichrome wire or chromium trichloride: Using this approach, atmospheric nitrogen can be introduced into organic substrate. For example, tris(trimethylsilyl)amine reacts with α,δ,ω-triketones to give tricyclic pyrroles.  Reduction of trimethylsilyl chloride give hexamethyldisilane:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Trimethylsilyl chloride, also known as chlorotrimethylsilane is an organosilicon compound (silyl halide), with the formula (CH)SiCl, often abbreviated MeSiCl or TMSCl. It is a colourless volatile liquid that is stable in the absence of water. It is widely used in organic chemistry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975750}
{"src_title": "Colias alfacariensis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The wings of the male have a yellow ground colour, the females have a greenish-white ground colour, only the underside of the hind wings is yellowish. The upper wing side of both sexes has a dusted dark brown to black marginal band, which is only narrow on the hind wings. In the cell of the forewings there is a black spot on the upper and lower sides. The males have on the upperside of the hind wings in the cell an orange spot with a red border, on the underside this spot is bright and clearly outlined in red. This spot may be divided into two by the red border, so that it resembles an eight similar to \"Colias hyale\" and other yellow members of the genus Colias. In the females, the orange spot on the top of the hind wings is not bordered. The caterpillars, on the other hand, clearly differ from the caterpillars of \"Colias hyale\" after the second moult. Both caterpillars are green, however, the caterpillar of \"Colias alfacariensis\" has four eye-catching yellow lines with black dots while the caterpillar of the \"Colias hyale\" has only two thin side lines.  Similar species", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "The larval food plants are horseshoe vetch (\"Hippocrepis comosa\") and crown vetch (\"Coronilla varia\") on which the female lays the eggs. The butterfly is found on calcareous marshy and dry grasslands and in dry shrubbery or lightly forested areas. They avoid cool and rainy areas.They fly in two generations in May, June and August, September or in three generations from May to October feeding at flowers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Migration.", "content": "This species is a rare vagrant to south England, the North German plain and Denmark.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Colias alfacariensis, Berger's clouded yellow, is a butterfly of the family Pieridae. It was separated from the pale clouded yellow, \"C. hyale\", in 1905. Berger's clouded yellow is a Palearctic species (South and Central Europe, South Russia, Russian Far East, Siberia Central Asia and temperate China also Asia Minor, Caucasus and Transcaucasia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975751}
{"src_title": "Junkers Jumo 213", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "When the Jumo 211 entered production in the late 1930s it used an unpressurized liquid cooling system based on an \"open cycle\". Water was pumped through the engine to keep it cool, but the system operated at atmospheric pressure, or only slightly higher. Since the boiling point of water decreases with altitude (pressure) this meant that the temperature of the cooling water had to be kept quite low to avoid boiling at high altitudes, which in turn meant that the water removed less heat from the engine before flowing into the radiator to cool it.  By contrast, the 1940 Daimler-Benz DB 601E used a pressurized coolant system that ran at the same pressure regardless of altitude, raising the boiling point to about 110 °C. This allowed it to use considerably less water for the same cooling effect, which remained the same at all altitudes. Although otherwise similar to the Jumo 210 in most respects, the 601 was smaller and lighter than the 211, and could be run at higher power settings at higher altitudes, making it popular in fighter designs. The 211 was relegated to \"secondary\" roles in bombers and transports.  The \"Junkers Motorenwerke\" firm was not happy with this state of affairs, and started its own efforts to produce a pressurized cooling system as early as 1938. Experiments on the 211 proved so successful that it became clear that not only could the engine be built smaller and lighter (by reducing the water requirement), but could be run at higher power settings without overheating. Additional changes to strengthen the crankshaft and add a fully shrouded supercharger for increased boost resulted in the Jumo 211F model, which delivered 1,340 PS (1,322 hp, 986 kW) at 2,600 RPM, up from 1000 PS at 2,200 RPM in the first version 211A.  But this was only the beginning. After redesigning the engine block to a smaller external size to suit the increased cooling power – while keeping the same 150 mm x 165 mm bore/stroke figures, maintaining the 35 litre displacement of the Jumo 211 series – and then further increasing boost settings on the supercharger, the resulting 213A model was able to deliver 1,750 PS (metric hp) at 3,250 RPM. This made it considerably more powerful than the corresponding DB 601E which provided 1,350 PS, and about the same power as the much larger DB 603 of 44.52 litre displacement. Junkers decided to go after the 603's market, and placed the 213's mounting points and fluid connections in the same locations as the 603, allowing it to be \"dropped in\" as a replacement, with the exception of the Jumo's standard starboard-side supercharger intake (Daimler-Benz inverted V12 engines always had the supercharger intakes on the port side).  The 213A (the main production series, with single-stage two-speed supercharging) first ran in 1940, but experienced lengthy delays before finally being declared \"production quality\" in 1943. Production was extremely slow to ramp up, in order to avoid delays in the existing Jumo 211 production. By the time the engines were available in any sort of number in 1944, Allied bombing repeatedly destroyed the production lines. Production of the A model was limited to about 400–500 a month for most of 1944/45.  A range of advanced versions were also developed during the lengthy teething period. The 213B was designed to run on 100 octane \"C3\" fuel, allowing the boost pressure to be increased and the take-off power improved to 2,000 PS. The 213C was essentially an A model with re-arranged secondary equipment (supercharger, oil pump, etc.) to allow a \"Motorkanone\" cannon to fire through the propeller shaft. The 213D added a new three-speed supercharger for smoother power curves and improved altitude performance, but it was not produced.  The next major production versions were the 213E and the similar 213F. These engines were equipped with a new two-speed, two-stage supercharger that dramatically improved altitude performance. The only difference between the two models was that the E included an intercooler for additional high-altitude performance, while the F model lacked this and was optimized for slightly lower altitudes. The E and F models were in high demand for many late-war aircraft, including the Junkers Ju 188, Junkers Ju 388, the \"Langnasen-Dora\" models of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190D and the Focke-Wulf Ta 152H. All of these aircraft used annular radiators characteristic of the earlier Jumo 211 engine installations on twin-engined aircraft, often standardized as \"Kraftei\" (power-egg), completely unitized power plant \"modules\" for any twin or multi-engined aircraft, much as the Jumo 211 had evolved for earlier aircraft designs – but with the annular radiators noticeably reconfigured for better cooling of the more powerful Jumo 213 engine.  A further substantial upgrade was projected as the 213J, which replaced the earlier model's three valves with a new four-valve-per-cylinder design for increased volumetric efficiency. It was also to have had a two-stage three-speed supercharger, producing at 3700 rpm for take-off. It would have weighed. There was no time to work this change into the production line before the war ended. Other experimental models included the 213S for low-altitude use, and the turbocharged 213T.  Further development of the Jumo 213 was carried out at Arsenal de l'Aéronautique in France after the Second World War.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Junkers Jumo 213 was a World War II-era V-12 liquid-cooled aircraft engine, a development of Junkers Motoren's earlier design, the Jumo 211. The design added two features, a pressurized cooling system that required considerably less cooling fluid that allowed the engine to be built smaller and lighter, and a number of improvements that allowed it to run at higher RPM. These changes boosted power by over 500 hp and made the 213 one of the most sought-after Axis engine designs in the late-war era.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975752}
{"src_title": "Yoshiwara", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The \"Yoshiwara Yūkaku\" was created in the city of Edo, near what is today known as Nihonbashi, near the start of the busy Tōkaidō that leads to western Kyoto in western Japan. In 1656, due to the need for space as the city grew, the government decided to relocate Yoshiwara and plans were made to move the district to its present location north of Asakusa on the outskirts of the city.  The old Yoshiwara district burned down (along with much of the city) in the Great fire of Meireki of 1657; it was rebuilt in the new location, when it was renamed \"Shin Yoshiwara\" (New Yoshiwara), the old location being called \"Moto Yoshiwara\" (Original Yoshiwara); eventually the \"Shin\" was dropped, and the new district became known simply as Yoshiwara.  Yoshiwara was home to some 1,750 women in the 18th century, with records of some 3,000 women from all over Japan at one time. The area had over 9,000 women in 1893, many of whom suffered from syphilis. These girls were often indentured to the brothels by their parents between the ages of about seven to twelve. If she was lucky, she would become an apprentice to a high-ranking courtesan. When the girl was old enough and had completed her training, she would become a courtesan herself and work her way up the ranks. The young women often had a contract to the brothel for only about five to ten years, but massive debt sometimes kept them in the brothels their entire lives.  One way a woman could get out of Yoshiwara was for a rich man to buy her contract from the brothel and keep her as his wife or concubine. Another would be if she managed to be successful enough that she was able to buy her own freedom. This did not occur very often, though. Many women died of sexually transmitted diseases or from failed abortions before completing their contracts. A significant number served out their contracts and married a client, went into other employment (including other forms of prostitution), or returned to their family homes. In these cases, the advanced payments their parents received could be used to fund her dowry. (There was no stigma against marrying a former prostitute.)  Social classes were not strictly divided in Yoshiwara. A commoner with enough money would be served as an equal to a samurai. Though samurai were discouraged from entering the Yoshiwara area, they often did so. The only requirement on them was that all their weapons had to be left at the town's entrance gate. By law, brothel patrons were only allowed to stay for a night and a day at a time. Like all official policies for Yoshiwara, this was rarely enforced.  Yoshiwara became a strong commercial area. The fashions in the town changed frequently, creating a great demand for merchants and artisans. Traditionally the prostitutes were supposed to wear only simple blue robes, but this was rarely enforced. The high-ranking ladies often dressed in the highest fashion of the time, with bright colorful silk kimonos and expensive and elaborate hair decorations. Fashion was so important in Yoshiwara that it frequently dictated the fashion trends for the rest of Japan.  Most prostitutes were, however, girls from poor families and were completely exploited. Most of them were so poor that when they died their bodies were brought anonymously to Jōkan-ji temple and left at the back entrance since a proper burial would have been too expensive. The temple therefore also became known as \"Nage-komi dera\" (Throw-away temple). A memorial to thousands of anonymous prostitutes of the Yoshiwara was consecrated in the Meiji era.  The area was damaged by an extensive fire in 1913, then nearly wiped out by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake in 1923. It remained in business, however, until prostitution was outlawed by the Japanese government in 1958 after World War II. Prostitution is technically illegal, although this supposed illegality has been accomplished by applying a rather strained definition of the term (for example, the definition of \"prostitution\" does not extend to a \"private agreement\" reached between a woman and a man in a brothel).  The area known as Yoshiwara, near Minowa station on the Hibiya Line, is now known as Senzoku Yon-chōme and retains a large number of soaplands and other façades for sexual services.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "People and services.", "content": "People involved in (\"the water trade\") would include hōkan (comedians), kabuki (popular theatre of the time), dancers, dandies, rakes, tea-shop girls, Kanō (painters of the official school of painting), courtesans who resided in seirō (green houses) and geisha in their okiya houses.  The courtesans would consist of yūjo (women of pleasure/prostitutes), kamuro (young female students), shinzō (senior female students), hashi-jōro (lower-ranking courtesans), kōshi-jōro (high-ranking courtesans just below tayū), tayū (high-ranking courtesans), oiran, yarite (older chaperones for an oiran), and the yobidashi who replaced the tayū when they were priced out of the market.  In addition to courtesans, there were also geisha/geiko, maiko (apprentice geishas), otoko geisha (male geishas), danna (patrons of a geisha), and okaasan (geisha teahouse managers). The lines between geisha and courtesans were sharply drawn, however - a geisha was never to be sexually involved with a customer, though there were exceptions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Yoshiwara today.", "content": "Today, Yoshiwara roughly corresponds to. At first glance, Yoshiwara today looks very similar to many other. Still, it does retain legacies to its past as it contains commercial establishments engaged in the sex trade, although police cracked down on the soaplands in 2007. The street grid pattern and the temples and shrines from times past still exist.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yoshiwara () was a famous \"yūkaku\" (red-light district) in Edo, present-day Tōkyō, Japan. In the early 17th century, there was widespread male and female prostitution throughout the cities of Kyoto, Edo, and Osaka. To counter this, an order of Tokugawa Hidetada of the Tokugawa shogunate restricted prostitution to designated city districts: Shimabara for Kyōto (1640), Shinmachi for Ōsaka (1624–1644), and Yoshiwara for Edo (1617). A leading motive for establishing these districts was the Tokugawa shogunate trying to prevent the nouveau riche \"chōnin\" (townspeople) from engaging in political intrigue.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975753}
{"src_title": "Musée Marmottan Monet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally a hunting lodge for the Duke of Valmy, the house at the edge of the Bois de Boulogne was purchased by Jules Marmottan in 1882 who later left it to his son Paul Marmottan. Marmottan moved into the lodge and, with an interest in the Napoleonic era, he expanded his father's collection of paintings, furniture and bronzes. Marmottan bequeathed his home and collection to the Académie des Beaux-Arts. The Académie opened up the house and collection as the Museum Marmottan in 1934.  Though originally a showcase for pieces from the First Empire, the nature of the museum's collection began to change with two major donations. In 1957, Victorine Donop de Monchy gave the museum an important collection of Impressionist works that had belonged to her father, Doctor Georges de Bellio, physician to Manet, Monet, Pissarro, Sisley and Renoir, and an early supporter of the Impressionist movement. In 1966, Claude Monet's second son, Michel Monet, left the museum his own collection of his father's work, thus creating the world's largest collection of Monet paintings. In 1985, Nelly Duhem, adopted daughter of the painter Henri Duhem, donated his large collection of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist works (which included several Monets) to the museum.  Jacque Carlu, then curator of the museum, built a special exhibition space for the Monet collection in a lower level of the museum. Inspired by the hall designed for Monet's \"Water Lilies\" murals in the Musée de l'Orangerie, the large, open room allows visitors to see a progression of Monet's work, as well as to view his canvases both up close and from afar. One of the most notable pieces in the museum is Monet's \"Impression, Sunrise\" \"(Impression, Soleil Levant)\", the painting from which the Impressionist movement took its name. The painting was stolen from the Musée Marmottan in 1985 but recovered five years later and returned to the permanent exhibit in 1991.  Since 1975 the museum has organized two exhibitions annually dedicated to an individual or collections, including Toulouse-Lautrec in 1976, Boilly in 1984, Daumier in 1989, Goya in 1990, Boldini in 1991 and Pissarro in 2017. The museum's paintings from late in the career Claude Monet were exhibited at the New Orleans Museum of Art and Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco in 1995. The works later traveled to the Walters Art Museum, San Diego Museum of Art and Portland Museum of Art in 1998-1999.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1985 theft.", "content": "On 27 October 1985, during daylight hours, five masked gunmen with pistols threatening security and visitors entered the museum and stole nine paintings from the collection. Among them were \"Impression, Sunrise (Impression, soleil levant)\" by Claude Monet, the painting from which the Impressionism movement took its name. Aside from that also stolen were \"Camille Monet and Cousin on the Beach at Trouville\", \"Portrait of Jean Monet,\" \"Portrait of Poly, Fisherman of Belle-Isle\" and \"Field of Tulips in Holland\" also by Monet, \"Bather Sitting on a Rock\" and \"Portrait of Monet\" by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, \"Young Woman at the Ball\" by Berthe Morisot, and \"Portrait of Monet\" by Seiichi Naruse. The stolen paintings were valued at $12 million.  A tip-off led to the arrest in Japan of a yakuza gangster named Shuinichi Fujikuma who had spent time in French prison for trafficking heroin and was sentenced for five years. There he met Philippe Jamin and Youssef Khimoun who were part of an art syndicate. Fujikuma, Jamin and Khimoun planned the Marmottan theft. In Fujikuma's house, police found a catalog with all the stolen paintings from the museum circled. Also found were two paintings by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot stolen in 1984 from a museum in France. This led to the recovery of the stolen paintings in a small villa in Corsica in December 1990.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Musée Marmottan Monet is located at 2, rue Louis Boilly in the 16th arrondissement of Paris and features over three hundred Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings by Claude Monet, including his 1872 \"Impression, Sunrise\". It is the largest collection of his works.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975754}
{"src_title": "Robert Treat Paine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and ancestors.", "content": "Robert Treat Paine was born in Boston, Massachusetts, British America on March 11, 1731. He was one of five children of the Rev. Thomas Paine and Eunice (Treat) Paine. His father was pastor of Franklin Road Baptist Church in Weymouth but moved his family to Boston in 1730 and subsequently became a merchant there. His mother was the daughter of Rev. Samuel Treat, whose father Maj. Robert Treat (later a Governor of Connecticut) was one of the principal founders of Newark, New Jersey. Robert Treat Paine's Treat family had a long history in the British colonies and his Paine family, in particular, can trace a lineage back to the \"Mayflower\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Paine attended the Boston Latin School and at the age of fourteen entered Harvard College, from which institution he graduated in 1749 at age 18. He then was engaged in teaching school for several years back at the Boston Latin and at Lunenburg, Massachusetts. He also attempted a merchant career with journeys to the Carolinas, the Azores, and to Spain, as well as a whaling voyage to Greenland. He began the study of law in 1755 with his mother's cousin in Lancaster, Massachusetts. Paine was unsuccessful in gaining an officer's commission in that regiment and so volunteered to serve as chaplain. When he returned from a brief military campaign to Lake George (the Crown Point Expedition), he did some occasional preaching and returned to his legal studies. In 1756 he returned to Boston to continue his legal preparations with Samuel Prat, and he was admitted to the bar in 1757. He first considered establishing his law practice at Portland (then part of Massachusetts but now in Maine), but instead in 1761 moved to Taunton, Massachusetts, then back to Boston in 1780.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal career.", "content": "In 1768 he was a delegate to the provincial convention which was called to meet in Boston. Paine, along with Samuel Quincy, conducted the prosecution of Captain Thomas Preston and his British soldiers following the Boston Massacre of March 5, 1770. John Adams was opposing counsel, and Adams' arguments won the jury's sway, and most of the troops were let off.  Paine served in the Massachusetts General Court from 1773 to 1774, in the Provincial Congress from 1774 to 1775, and represented Massachusetts at the Continental Congress from 1774 through 1776. In Congress, he signed the final appeal to the king (the Olive Branch Petition of 1775), and helped frame the rules of debate and acquire gunpowder for the coming war, and in 1776 was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence.  He returned to Massachusetts at the end of December 1776 and was speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1777, a member of the executive council in 1779, a member of the committee that drafted the state constitution in 1780. He was Massachusetts Attorney General from 1777 to 1790 and prosecuted the treason trials following Shays' Rebellion. (From 1777-1785, his acting Attorney General was Benjamin Kent.) In 1780, he was a charter member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He later served as a justice of the state supreme court from 1790 to 1804 when he retired. When he died at the age of 83 in 1814 he was buried in Boston's Granary Burying Ground. Many of his papers, including correspondence and legal notes, are now held by the Massachusetts Historical Society.  Robert Treat Paine was a Congregationalist and a devout Christian. When his church, the First Church of Boston, moved into Unitarianism, Paine followed that path.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and legacy.", "content": "Paine married Sally Cobb, the daughter of Thomas and Lydia (née Leonard) Cobb and a sister of General David Cobb, on March 15, 1770. She was born May 15, 1744, and died June 6, 1816.  They were the parents of eight children:  Some of his notable descendants include;", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "A statue of Paine by Richard E. Brooks was erected at Taunton's Church Green in 1904.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Treat Paine (March 11, 1731 – May 11, 1814) was an American lawyer and politician, best known as a signer of the Declaration of Independence as a representative of Massachusetts. He served as the state's first attorney general, and served as an associate justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, the state's highest court.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975755}
{"src_title": "Chris Spedding", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Chris Spedding was born in Staveley, Derbyshire, but was raised in Sheffield and Birmingham by adoptive parents Muriel and Jack Spedding, and renamed Christopher John Spedding.  Whilst still with the Battered Ornaments, which without the departing Pete Brown left Spedding as their frontman, he joined the Frank Ricotti Quartet, and played guitar on the album \"Our Point of View\", released in July 1969. He was also invited to play on Jack Bruce's first and third solo albums, \"Songs for a Tailor\" (1969) and \"Harmony Row\" (1971).  Spedding then recorded his own instrumental album, \"Songs Without Words\" (1970) for Harvest Records, which was only released in Japan.  During this time he was also playing jazz with Nucleus and recorded and toured with Mike Gibbs. He played guitar on the Pete Atkin / Clive James album \"Driving Through Mythical America\". He was a session player on Harry Nilsson's breakthrough album, \"Nilsson Schmilsson\", recorded in London. In 1970 he played on the original recording of Jesus Christ Superstar, and in 1971 he also played on \"Pieces of me\" by Linda Hoyle and \"Coming from Reality\" by Sixto Rodriguez, who was later the subject of the 2012 documentary \"Searching for Sugar Man\". During 1972–74 Spedding played a central role in Sharks, initially with ex-Free bassist Andy Fraser. They recorded two albums and toured with Roxy Music. After that, he toured and recorded with John Cale. He also played with Roy Harper's occasional backing band Trigger, notably on 1975's \"HQ\" album. In 1972–76 he played in Mike Batt's novelty band \"The Wombles\", and confirmed on the Marc Riley show on BBC 6 Music that he performed on television in a Womble suit.  In 1975, Spedding had a Top 20 solo hit in the UK with \"Motor Bikin'\", which he promoted with popular television appearances on \"Top of the Pops\" and \"Supersonic\", dressed in leather motorcycling gear, with greased hair. On his 1976 single \"Pogo Dancing\" he was backed by UK punk band The Vibrators. When further hits failed to materialise, he subsequently became better known as a session guitarist, appearing and recording with Bryan Ferry, Roxy Music, Elton John, Brian Eno, Jack Bruce, Nick Mason, Art Garfunkel, Typically Tropical, Katie Melua, and Ginger Baker, amongst others. During the mid-1970s, he even took part in the Wombles' UK tour in full furry costume, whilst wielding his trademark Gibson Flying V. His own album \"Chris Spedding\" (1975) was produced by Mickie Most. Spedding recorded a version of the American singer-songwriter Garland Jeffreys' song, \"Wild in the Streets\", on his own \"Hurt\" album. The song has since been covered by the Circle Jerks and is featured on \"Tony Hawk's American Wasteland\".  He also was the producer of the Sex Pistols' first demos, which were recorded on 15 May 1976. The three tracks recorded were \"Problems\", \"No Feelings\" and \"Pretty Vacant\"; there are persistent rumours that he played guitar and bass on their debut album, \"Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols\", however guitarist Steve Jones denies this entirely. The following year, Spedding featured extensively on the concept album \"Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of The War of the Worlds\", issued in 1978.  Spedding moved to New York City, joined the Necessaries as a guitarist and songwriter, collaborated with drummer/percussionist David Van Tieghem, and worked extensively with Robert Gordon. Before long he was back in the UK and recorded another album of his own, \"I'm Not Like Everybody Else\" (1980). The same year he appeared on Joan Armatrading's album \"Me Myself I\", playing lead guitar on a number of tracks, including the chart-hit title track. His live album, \"Friday the 13th\" was released in 1981. In 1982 he played on Nina Hagen's seminal recording \"NunSexMonkRock\", and over the next few years he continued his session work on such albums as Tom Waits' \"Rain Dogs\", while periodically releasing solo material (\"Mean and Moody\" (1985), \"Enemy Within\" (1986) and \"Cafe Days\" (1990). He worked on several solo releases by Jerry Harrison (of Talking Heads) including the critically acclaimed album Casual Gods released in 1988 spawning the #7 hit on US Mainstream Charts Rev It Up (song).  He made an appearance in Paul McCartney's \"Give My Regards to Broad Street\" in 1984, playing guitar in a session with McCartney and his wife, Linda. In the same year he played on Roger Daltrey's solo album \"Parting Should Be Painless\". Spedding was producer of the first two albums by the Canadian rockabilly band, The Razorbacks, entitled \"Go to Town\" (1988) and \"Live a Little\" (1989). In 1995, he played on Willy DeVille's \"Big Easy Fantasy\", and later that year, on his album \"Loup Garou\". Accepting an invitation, Spedding toured with a reformed Roxy Music in 2001. By now in his late fifties, Spedding's own blues rock offerings \"One Step Ahead of the Blues\" (2002) and \"Click Clack\" (2005) were released, followed by \"It's Now Or Never\" in 2007. He was one of only two musicians from the 1976 album \"Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of The War of the Worlds\" to return for Jeff Wayne's Black Smoke Band's 2006–2012 tour of Europe. He then featured on the 2012 album \"Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of The War of the Worlds – The New Generation\", touring with the show in 2012 and 2014.  On 31 October 2011 the 11 track CD King Mob album was released featuring Spedding on guitar, Glen Matlock on bass, Martin Chambers on drums, Sixteen on guitar and fronted by Stephen W. Parsons, aka Snips a former member of Sharks. Although both the album and live shows received positive reviews King Mob announced that they were disbanding in September 2012.  In June 2014, Spedding appeared as a special guest playing guitar with Bryan Ferry at the 2014 Glastonbury Festival held in Pilton, Somerset, United Kingdom. In 2016, and again in 2019, he toured the US with Ferry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collaborations.", "content": "With Bryan Ferry  With Paul McCartney  With Katie Melua  With Elton John  With Nina Hagen  With Harry Nilsson  With Joan Armatrading  With Tom Waits  With Art Garfunkel  With Donovan", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christopher John Spedding (born Peter Robinson, 17 June 1944) is an English musician, singer, guitarist, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, composer, and record producer. In a career spanning more than 50 years, Spedding is best known for his studio session work. By the early 1970s, he had become one of the most sought-after session guitarists in England. Spedding has played on and produced many albums and singles. He has also been a member of eleven rock bands: the Battered Ornaments, Frank Ricotti Quartet, King Mob, Mike Batt and Friends, Necessaries, Nucleus, Ricky Norton, Sharks, Trigger, and The Wombles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975756}
{"src_title": "Sicilian Defence, Scheveningen Variation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The variation first came to international attention during the 1923 chess tournament in the village Scheveningen at the North Sea coast near The Hague. During the tournament the variation was played several times by several players, including Euwe playing it against Maróczy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Keres Attack: 6.g4.", "content": "White has several different attacking schemes available, but the one considered most dangerous is the Keres Attack, named after GM Paul Keres, which continues 6. g4. This move takes advantage of the fact that 5...e6 cuts off the black bishop's control of g4, and plans to force the knight on f6, Black's only developed piece, to retreat and force Black into passivity. This also launches White into a attack. Black usually continues with 6... h6 to stop White's expansion. Previously moves like 6...Nc6 or 6...a6 were also recommended for Black but practical tests have shown that White's offensive is too dangerous to be ignored. 7. h4 is strongest and the most popular. 7.g5 hxg5 8.Bxg5 Nc6 9.Qd2 Qb6 10.Nb3 a6 11.0-0-0 Bd7 12.h4 gives White an equal game at best. 7... Nc6 8. Rg1 (diagram) and here Black has two main lines to choose from: both of which may give White a slight edge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classical Variation: 6.Be2.", "content": "Another very popular variation is the Classical (also known as \"Maroczy Variation\") which is initiated by 6. Be2. Used to great effect by Anatoly Karpov, among other distinguished grandmasters, this methodical approach has gained many followers. The main line continues 6... a6 7. Be7 8. Be3 9. f4 Qc7 10. a4 Nc6 11. Kh1 Re8 12. Bf3 (diagram) reaching one of the main tabiyas of the Classical Scheveningen. White's plans here are to build up a kingside attack, typically by means of g2–g4–g5, Qd1–e1–h4, Bg2, Qh5, Rf3–h3, etc. Black will aim for a diversion on the via the semi-open c-file, or strike in the centre. Positional pawn sacrifices abound for both sides and the theory is very highly developed, thanks to decades of research by the most elite players such as Garry Kasparov, Vasily Smyslov, Anatoly Karpov, Viswanathan Anand, Veselin Topalov, Boris Gelfand and many others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English Attack: 6.Be3.", "content": "The combative \"English Attack\" is modeled after the Yugoslav (Rauzer) Attack in the Sicilian Dragon. White starts an aggressive pawn storm on the kingside with f2–f3, g2–g4, h2–h4, and often g4–g5. White castles long and a very sharp game is often the result. Black, however, does not have to acquiesce to passive defence and has at least as many attacking threats. The main line continues 6. Be3 a6 7. f3 b5 8. g4 h6 9. Qd2 Nbd7 10. 0-0-0 Bb7 (diagram). White's plans are to force g4–g5 and open the kingside files to his advantage. The first player may also exert considerable pressure on the d-file. Black will often consider an exchange sacrifice or at least a pawn sacrifice to open the queenside files for the heavy pieces. Time is of the essence and new ideas are discovered each year. Many elite players including Alexander Morozevich, Peter Leko, and Alexei Shirov have poured many hours of study into this critical variation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other variations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fischer–Sozin Attack: 6.Bc4.", "content": "With the Fischer–Sozin Attack 6. Bc4, White tries to pressure the d5-square directly. Viable Black responses in the centre include variations of Nb8–c6–a5 or Nb8–d7–c5, supplemented by a7–a6 and b7–b5–b4 on the queenside. A possible line is 6...Be7 7.Bb3 0-0 8.Be3 Na6 (aiming for the c5-square; note that in case 8...Nbd7, then 9.Bxe6!? fxe6 10.Nxe6 Qa5 11.Nxf8 Bxf8, and White sacrifices two pieces for a rook) 9.Qe2 Nc5 10.f3. The ensuing position is balanced, with Black ready to counter White's g2–g4–g5 with a7–a6 and b7–b5–b4 on the other flank.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tal Variation: 6.f4.", "content": "After 6. f4, in one of the main lines, 6... Nc6 7. Be3 Be7 8. Qf3, White seeks to castle queenside placing his rook on the half-open d-file, and support the g-pawn's advance with the queen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minor lines.", "content": "6. g3; 6. Bb5, etc. These moves are less difficult to meet and are not theoretically challenging to Black.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Question of move orders and the Najdorf Variation.", "content": "The Keres Attack puts Black into a rather defensive and potentially dangerous position. For this reason, many advocates of this defense tend to play the Najdorf Variation move order and then play 6...e6, transposing into the Scheveningen. The most prominent example of such a preference for the Najdorf move order was seen in World Chess Championship 1984, where after game one when Kasparov had difficulties in the opening, he never allowed the Keres Attack and finally switched to the Najdorf move order. The Najdorf move order, while eliminating 6.g4, allows white additional options such as 6. Bg5, and g4 is still a possible move after. Basically the Najdorf move order delays g4 by one move making the attack vastly less powerful, meanwhile the Scheveningen move order speeds up kingside development making 6. Bg5 much less powerful. As the Keres' attack is feared more than 6. Bg5 the Najdorf move order is seen more at the highest level today. Because Najdorf's original intention was to play e5 all in one go and the history of the move order,openings beginning with 5....a6 are often put in the Scheveningen category if e6 is played immediately after.  Much modern analysis of the Scheveningen is under the rubric of the Najdorf. In fact, many books exploring the Scheveningen today have Najdorf in the title. This, continuing the line of thinking in the English section above, is technically the Najdorf Variation of the Sicilian defense with the very popular English Attack. Note that the \"Modern\" Scheveningen only covers lines without an early...a6 from Black. The \"Classical\" Scheveningen includes the early...a6. This distinction is important in choosing books to study, as titles covering recent games will often leave out the...a6 early line, which can still become quite interesting and complex, and still advantageous for Black, even with the powerful English Attack. Many modern chess software programs, such as HIARCS, still play...a6 early on, despite the fact that \"modern\" often precludes the line in definitive analysis, depending on the book. Vlastimil Jansa has advocated this variation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In chess, the Scheveningen Variation of the Sicilian Defence is an opening that is a line of the Open Sicilian characterised by Black setting up a \"small centre\" with pawns on d6 and e6. There are numerous move orders that reach the Scheveningen; a common one is:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975757}
{"src_title": "2009 World Aquatics Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "FINA Congress 2009.", "content": "As is customary with the World Championships, FINA held its biennial General Congress in Rome during the event, on July 24, 2009 beginning at 9:00 a.m. At this meeting, the 22-member FINA Bureau (the executive board of the IF) was for its 2009-2013 term. Per FINA rules, the Bureau then elected the Executive officers from its members (i.e. President, Treasurer and Secretary).  In addition to the General Congress, Technical Congresses (TCs), or discipline-specific meetings, will be in each present discipline, as well as an Extraordinary Congress on Masters Rules. Dates for these meetings are:  Note: The Technical Congresses were scheduled to be held prior to both the start of competition within the given disciple and before the General Congress. Also note: only swimming does not have competition on the date of the General Congress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Swimsuit controversy.", "content": "In March 2009, based on urgings from its membership, FINA had begun an attempt to implement limits to high-tech swimsuit construction that were seen by members of the swimming community as adding buoyancy, stability, speed and endurance. These efforts began after suit introductions in early 2008, and led to a May 2009 declaration by FINA on limitations to suits and a list of approved suits for competition. Following this, suit manufactures were given time to adjust their various products which had not been initially approved. In June 2009, FINA ruled on these, and subsequently was forced into backing off the suit restrictions it had named in March presumably on fear of suit (although FINA still was sued by some manufacturers, such as TYR). The net effect was that leading into the 2009 World Championships, most restrictions on suit make-up were not in force. This situation also led to rule changes being passed by both FINA's Technical Swimming Committee (on July 23) and the General Congress (July 24) placing restrictions on suits. However, these rule changes were not to go into effect until 2010, and there had been some attempts to delay this implementation (the impression from the General Congress was that the rules would be in effect on January 1, 2010; however, the FINA Executive Director was quoted a few days later as say the date within 2010 was unclear and may mean April or May). Subsequently on July 31, 2009, the FINA Bureau (the Board of the organization), solidified the implementation date as January 1, 2010.  As a result, due to the believed benefit from the suits, some called these Worlds the \"Plastic Games\". These materials, which include polyurethane, have been claimed by some quarters to be performance enhancing. This claim can be seen to be supported by the 43 World Records set in this meet and by the fact that meet records were lowered in 38 of 40 events, with the 2 events not with new meet records occurring on the last day (in the previous 2 Worlds, \"Championships Records\" were bettered in 24 (2007) and 19 (2003) events). In particular, the Arena X-Glide swimsuit, worn by German Paul Biedermann, has been largely pointed to as providing Biedermann a significant advantage and allowing him to break Ian Thorpe's 400m world record as well as in defeating Michael Phelps in the 200m freestyle. Michael Phelps' coach, Bob Bowman, pointed out, \"It took me five years to get Michael from 1:46 to 1:42 and this guy has done it in 11 months. That's an amazing training performance. I'd like to know how to do that.\" In the previous year, Biederman was only ranked 9th in the world in the 200 m freestyle and 21st in the world in the 400 m freestyle.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2009 World Aquatics Championships () or the XIII FINA World Championships were held in Rome, Italy from 18 July to 2 August 2009. The 2009 Championships featured competition in all 5 aquatics disciplines: diving, swimming, open water swimming, synchronised swimming and water polo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975758}
{"src_title": "Long Thanh International Airport", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Urgent necessity for a new airport.", "content": "Tan Son Nhat International Airport is the only international airport in the planned Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area (covering, with an estimated population of 20-22 million inhabitants by 2020, of which there will be 16 - 17 million urban inhabitants, accounting for 77 - 80% of total population). Tan Son Nhat airport was built during the Vietnam War to support war transportation, hence its location inside the crowded Saigon where growth is limited. Due to location and safety issues, it is difficult to expand to meet the increasing annual growth of passengers. The maximum capacity of Tan Son Nhat is 25 million passengers per annum but in 2016 it handled 32.5 million.  The flow of international tourists to the South of Vietnam is increasing dramatically, by 15 to 20 percent annually. Promoting the domestic market (current population of 87 million, forecast of 100 million by 2020) by building a new airport that can adapt to future needs is necessary. Tan Son Nhat airport will serve the international and domestic flights until the completion of the new Long Thanh International Airport. The airport will be able to handle the world's biggest commercial aircraft, Airbus A380.  Under current plans by the Vietnamese government, the Airports Corporation of Vietnam will be the main investor and operator of the airport.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Master Plan.", "content": "The Master Plan for Long Thanh International Airport was approved by the Prime Minister Phan Văn Khải in 2006 and several adjustments have been made through time. The project faced mixed public reaction for its expensive cost and far distance from the center of Ho Chi Minh City.  Based on the demand of transportation, the investment will be divided in phases. The Southern Airports Corporation (a company under the Ministry of Transport (Vietnam)) is in charge of development of this project.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phase 1 (2019 – 2025).", "content": "The first phase is estimated to cost US$7.8billion and will be divided into 3 sub-phases.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phase 1A (2019 – 2023).", "content": "According to the original plan, the airport would handle 25 million passengers per year after this phase is completed; however, the proposed capacity was later lowered to 17 million passengers per year to reduce construction cost. US$5.6billion will be allocated to this phase. One terminal will be built along with a single runway.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Phase 1B (2023 – 2025).", "content": "Another runway will be built and increase the total capacity to 25 million passengers per annum.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Phase 1C (2025).", "content": "The rest of necessary facilities will be built and land-clearance for future phases will be made. The airport will begin operating in 2025.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Phase 2 (2025 – 2035).", "content": "The capacity will be doubled to 50 million passengers per annum and the third runway will be added when the phase is finished, which is scheduled to be in 2035.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phase 3 (After 2035).", "content": "The airport will reach its maximum designed capacity at 80-100 million passengers and 5 million tonnes of cargo per year. Four runways will be operational after the third phase.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ground transportation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Road.", "content": "The airport will be accessible via the National Highway 51, Bien Hoa-Vung Tau Expressway and Ho Chi Minh City–Long Thanh–Dau Giay Expressway, construction is expected be completed before the airport opens in 2025. A third road is planned east of the airport and will connect with the Dau Giay–Phan Thiet Expressway as part of the second phase of the airport plan from 2025. The airport will also be accessible via the future Bien Hoa–Vung Tau Expressway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rail.", "content": "A new high-speed railway service is proposed to be connected to the new airport as part of the Ho Chi Minh City–Nha Trang section of the North-South high-speed railway line. Airport planners propose a high-speed railway line be built to the airport as it will give passengers a more direct and efficient transit option to Ho Chi Minh City than by road which is already congested closer to the city centre. There are also future plans for a light metro line connecting the airport to Thu Thiem.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Long Thanh International Airport () is an international airport currently under construction in Long Thanh, Dong Nai, Vietnam. Located approximately east of Ho Chi Minh City, it has been approved to start construction by the Vietnamese government on April 1, 2021. However, the Vietnamese government has decided to begin 2 years earlier in 2019 and it will be finished by 2025. It will serve over 100 million passengers annually when built to the maximum designed capacity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975759}
{"src_title": "2007 World Aquatics Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medals table.", "content": "At the end of the competition, the medals table contained an entry for Tunisia, with one gold and one silver medal, both won by Oussama Mellouli. However, on 11 September 2007, the Court of Arbitration for Sport in Lausanne, Switzerland vacated these results imposing an 18-month competition ban on Mellouli, effective retroactively to 30 October 2006 for doping with amphetamine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competition.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Swimming.", "content": "The Swimming competition comprised various events using all four strokes (Freestyle, Butterfly, Breaststroke and Backstroke) for men and women ranging in distance from 50 m up to 1500 m.  A total of 40 gold medals were available for the Championships. The swimming schedule took place over eight days during the second week of the Championships.  The Swimming events were held at the 15,000-seat Rod Laver Arena using a temporary pool.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Open water swimming.", "content": "The open water swimming competition saw men and women competing in events over 5 km, 10 km and 25 km distances. Events were held at St Kilda Beach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Synchronised swimming.", "content": "The synchronised swimming competition featured a solo, a duet, and a team competition. There was also a combination routine, consisting of a mixture of the solo, duet and team routine. Events were held at the 15,000-seat Rod Laver Arena using a temporary pool.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diving.", "content": "The diving competition saw athletes competing for 10 gold medals. Athletes contested the 1 m and 3 m Springboard events, as well as the 10 m Platform as individuals. There were 3 m and 10 m synchronised events for men and women competing as a team. Events were held at the indoor diving pool at the Melbourne Sports and Aquatic Centre.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Water polo.", "content": "The water polo competition featured 16 men's teams and 16 women's teams. For each of the two tournaments, a round robin competition took place in four divisions, each with four teams, with the two highest placed teams moving through the medal rounds.  The water polo tournaments were held at the 9,000-seat outdoor pool at the Melbourne Sports and Aquatic Centre, which was constructed for the 2006 Commonwealth Games swimming competition.  The water polo competition also served as the qualifying tournament for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bidding process.", "content": "Melbourne was awarded the right to host the 12th FINA World Swimming Championships by the FINA Bureau in Barcelona, Spain on 12 July 2003. Melbourne's bid defeated the bid by Dubai, UAE by a vote of 15 to 6.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "<br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2007 World Aquatics Championships, or the XII FINA World Championships, were held in Melbourne, Australia from 17 March to 1 April 2007. The competition took place at three locations in central Melbourne: the Melbourne Sports and Aquatic Centre (diving and water polo), St Kilda Beach (open water), and Rod Laver Arena in a temporary pool christened the Susie O'Neill Pool (synchro and swimming).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975760}
{"src_title": "Patrik Štefan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Prior to being drafted by the Thrashers, Štefan played for Sparta Praha in the Czech Republic, and the Long Beach Ice Dogs of the IHL.  Štefan played six seasons for the Atlanta Thrashers scoring 177 points. During the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Štefan played for Ilves Tampere in the SM-liiga. In 37 games, Štefan collected a total of 41 points including 28 assists. In the playoffs, Štefan had six assists and a goal in seven games.  On 24 June 2006, Štefan was traded to the Dallas Stars along with Jaroslav Modrý for Niko Kapanen and a 7th round draft pick in 2006.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Empty net blunder.", "content": "Štefan earned significant notoriety on 4 January 2007 for a blunder during a game against the Edmonton Oilers. With seconds left in the game, and Dallas already ahead by a goal, Štefan gained possession of the puck and found himself on a breakaway towards an empty net. Štefan continued skating towards the crease rather than immediately shooting, then attempted a casual backhand into the net from close quarters. The puck hit bad ice and bounced up and over his stick, causing him to miss the goal, trip, and fall against the ice. To compound the error, he then cleared the puck in the direction of the Oilers. This allowed a play to develop where fellow Czech Aleš Hemský scored with two seconds remaining to send the game to overtime. The Edmonton goal tied the game 5–5, but Dallas then won 6–5 in a shootout.  After Štefan's contract expired in 2007, the Dallas Stars chose not to re-sign him. Štefan signed with SC Bern of the Nationalliga A, but he only played three games for them before retiring in October 2007, largely due to a serious hip injury, the latest of several chronic injuries that plagued his career. He is currently a player agent in the Detroit area, and a youth coach with 15U Little Caesars Hockey.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Patrik Štefan (born 16 September 1980) is a Czech former professional ice hockey player who was drafted 1st overall by the Atlanta Thrashers in the 1999 NHL Entry Draft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975761}
{"src_title": "Carmen (novella)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sources.", "content": "According to a letter Mérimée wrote to the Countess of Montijo, \"Carmen\" was inspired by a story she told him on his visit to Spain in 1830. He said, \"It was about that ruffian from Málaga who had killed his mistress, who consecrated herself exclusively to the public.... As I have been studying the Gypsies for some time, I have made my heroine a Gypsy.\"  An important source for the material on the Romani people (Gypsies) was George Borrow's book \"The Zincali\" (1841). Another source may have been the narrative poem \"The Gypsies\" (1824) by Alexander Pushkin, which Mérimée would later translate into French prose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The novella comprises four parts. Only the first three appeared in the original publication in the October 1, 1845, issue of the \"Revue des deux Mondes\" (Review of the Two Worlds ; the fourth first appeared in the book publication in 1846. Mérimée tells the story as if it had really happened to him on his trip to Spain in 1830.  Part I. While searching for the site of the Battle of Munda in a lonely spot in Andalusia, the author meets a man who his guide hints is a dangerous robber. Instead of fleeing, the author befriends the man by sharing cigars and food. They stay in the same primitive inn that night. The guide tells the author that the man is the robber known as Don José Navarro and leaves to turn him in, but the author warns Don José, who escapes.  Part II. Later, in Córdoba, the author meets Carmen, a beautiful Romani woman who is fascinated by his repeating watch. He goes to her home so she can tell his fortune, and she impresses him with her occult knowledge. They are interrupted by Don José, and although Carmen makes throat-cutting gestures, José escorts the author out. The author finds his watch is missing.  Some months later, again in Córdoba, a friend of the author's tells him that Don José Navarro is to be garrotted the next day. The author visits the prisoner and hears the story of his life.  Part III. The robber's real name is José Lizarrabengoa, and he is a Basque \"hidalgo\" from Navarre. He killed a man in a fight resulting from a game of \"paume\" (presumably some form of Basque pelota) and had to flee. In Seville he joined a unit of dragoons, soldiers with police functions.  One day he met Carmen, then working in the cigar factory he was guarding. As he alone in his unit ignored her, she teased him. A few hours later, he arrested her for cutting x's in a co-worker's face in a quarrel. She convinced him by speaking Basque that she was half Basque, and he let her go, for which he was imprisoned for a month and demoted.  After his release, he encountered her again and she repaid him with a day of bliss, followed by another when he allowed her fellow smugglers to pass his post. He looked for her at the house of one of her Romani friends, but she entered with his lieutenant. In the ensuing fight, José killed the lieutenant. He fled to Carmen's outlaw band.  With the outlaws, he progressed from smuggling to robbery, and was sometimes with Carmen but suffered from jealousy as she used her attractions to further the band's enterprises; he also learned that she was married. After her husband joined the band, José provoked a knife fight with him and killed him. Carmen became José's wife.  However, she told him she loved him less than before, and she became attracted to a successful young picador named Lucas. José, mad with jealousy, begged her to forsake other men and live with him; they could start an honest life in America. She said that she knew from omens that he was fated to kill her, but \"Carmen will always be free,\" and as she now hated herself for having loved him, she would never give in to him. He stabbed her to death and then turned himself in. Don José ends his tale by saying that the Romani are to blame for the way they raised Carmen.  Part IV. This part consists of scholarly remarks on the Romani: their appearance, their customs, their conjectured history, and their language. According to Henri Martineau, editor of a collection of Mérimée's fiction, the etymologies at the end are \"extremely suspect\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differences from the opera.", "content": "The opera is based on Part III of the story and omits many elements, such as Carmen's husband. It greatly increases the role of other characters, such as the Dancaïre, who is only a minor character in the story; the Remendado, who one page after he is introduced is wounded by soldiers and then shot by Carmen's husband to keep him from slowing the gang down; and Lucas (renamed Escamillo and promoted to matador), who is seen only in the bull ring in the story. The opera's female singing roles other than Carmen—Micaëla, Frasquita, and Mercédès—have no counterparts in the novella. Carmen knows her fate not from reading cards but from interpreting such omens as a hare running between José's horse's legs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Other adaptations of the novella include the following:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carmen is a novella by Prosper Mérimée, written and first published in 1845. It has been adapted into a number of dramatic works, including the famous opera of the same name by Georges Bizet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975762}
{"src_title": "Rolls-Royce Kestrel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "The Kestrel came about as a result of the excellent Curtiss D-12, one of the first truly successful cast-block engines. Earlier designs had used individually machined steel cylinders that were screwed onto a crankcase, whereas the cast-block design used a single block of aluminium that was machined to form cylinders. The result was both simpler to build as well as lighter and much stronger, requiring only an investment in new machining equipment.  The D-12 was one of the most powerful engines of its era, and continued to exchange records with other contemporary high-power engines. No British company could offer anything like it, and when Fairey imported 50 of the type (renaming them as the \"Fairey Felix\") the Air Ministry had enough and ordered Napier and Rolls-Royce to start work on cast-block engines of their own.  Arthur Rowledge, one of Napier's chief engineers and the designer of the Napier Lion engine, became fed up with management and left for Rolls. In this one move any Napier design effort ended while Rolls' received a boost. Applying every known advance since the D-12 was introduced, Rowledge designed the new engine to use supercharging at all altitudes, allowing it to outperform naturally aspirated engines by as much as they were willing to increase the boost pressure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cooling system.", "content": "One key advance in the Kestrel was the use of a pressurised cooling system. Water boils at 100 °C at standard atmospheric pressure, but this temperature decreases with altitude. Since the amount of heat carried out of the engine is a function of coolant temperature and volume, the coolant has to be kept below boiling point and an increasing amount of fluid has to be used, along with an increasingly large radiator to cool it. The solution was to pressurise the entire cooling system, thereby not only preventing the decrease in cooling performance with altitude, but in fact increasing the boiling point even on the ground. The Kestrel was built to maintain enough pressure to keep the boiling point at about 150 °C.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Improvements.", "content": "The engine was first produced in 1927 at 450 hp (340 kW), which soon improved in the IB version to 525 hp (390 kW). This variant saw widespread use in the Hawker Hart family that was the mainstay of British air power during the early 1930s. However, it was not long before power output was increased dramatically; the V model provided 695 hp (520 kW) at 3,000 rpm with no basic change to the design, while the XVI used in the Miles Master delivered 670 hp (500 kW).  Messerschmitt also tested its first Messerschmitt Bf 109 V1 prototype, bearing German civilian registration \"D-IABI\", with a Kestrel engine in 1935 as the German-designed intended engines were not yet ready. Junkers also used a Kestrel for the first prototype of the Ju 87 \"Stuka\" dive bomber. The Reich Air Ministry (RLM) acquired four Kestrel VI engines by trading Rolls-Royce a Heinkel He 70 \"Blitz\" as an engine testbed.  Increased availability of higher octane aviation fuels in the late 1930s allowed the engine to be boosted to higher power levels without suffering from detonation, and the Kestrel eventually attained a power output of 720 hp (537 kW) in the XXX variant of 1940.  Further developments of the Kestrel were the Goshawk and the Peregrine (and therefore the Vulture). In practice, development of the Peregrine and Vulture was troubled, and they were both cancelled with comparatively few built.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "The Kestrel was produced in 40 distinct variants which can be divided into three main groups: normally aspirated, medium supercharged, and fully supercharged. One variant, the Kestrel VIII, was configured as a 'pusher engine' for the Short Singapore flying boat. Apart from supercharging, the variant differences centred on varying compression ratios and propeller reduction gearing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "\"From Lumsden, the Kestrel may not be the main powerplant for these types.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Survivors.", "content": "Several Rolls-Royce Kestrel engines remain in service, powering restored Hawker biplane types:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engines on display.", "content": "Preserved examples of the Rolls-Royce Kestrel engine are on public display at the:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kestrel or type F is a 22-litre (1,342 cu in) 700-horsepower (520 kW) class V-12 aircraft engine from Rolls-Royce, their first cast-block engine and the pattern for most of their future piston-engine designs. Used during the interwar period, it provided excellent service on a number of British fighters and bombers of the era, such as the Hawker Fury and Hawker Hart family, and the Handley Page Heyford. The engine also sold to international air forces, and it was even used to power prototypes of German military aircraft types that were later used during the Battle of Britain. Several Kestrel engines remain airworthy today.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975763}
{"src_title": "Owen Nolan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minor Hockey.", "content": "Nolan grew up in Thorold, Ontario playing minor hockey for Thorold in the OMHA. After playing A hockey for the Thorold bantam A's Nolan was selected in the second round of the 1988 OHL Priority Selection by the Cornwall Royals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quebec Nordiques – San Jose Sharks.", "content": "Nolan was drafted first overall by the Quebec Nordiques in the 1990 NHL Entry Draft, and played with them until nine games into the 1995–1996 season (this was the first season the team played in Denver as the Colorado Avalanche), when he was traded to the San Jose Sharks for defenceman Sandis Ozolinsh. During his tenure with the Sharks he was named captain, and registered his best career year in 1999–2000, finishing with 84 points, and tied for second in the NHL with 44 goals. That same year, the eighth seeded Sharks took out the first-seeded Blues in seven games with Nolan leading the way with six goals. In game seven, Nolan scored with 10 seconds left in the first period from just past centre ice, beating goaltender Roman Turek to give the Sharks a 2-0 lead. The goal propelled them to a 3-1, game seven victory and first round upset of the Blues.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toronto Maple Leafs.", "content": "Nolan was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs just before the NHL trade deadline in 2003, for players Alyn McCauley and Brad Boyes, and Toronto's first-round pick in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft. However his performance in Toronto was disappointing, he suffered from a series of injuries and never played at the same level as he had in San Jose.  Nolan broke new ground in contract negotiations, having a clause put in that stated if the 2004–05 NHL season was cancelled, then he would gain a player option for an additional year in 2005–06. However, with the NHL CBA in place, this option became a topic of debate. With the new NHL salary cap, the Maple Leafs deemed Nolan's salary too high, and refuse to recognize Nolan as under contract. Nolan argued that the option was valid, that he would play, and be paid, for the Toronto Maple Leafs, and that he deserved to be paid during the 2004–2005 NHL lock-out due to injury. The Maple Leafs, who deemed Nolan as healthy just after the lock-out, claimed that the injury was incurred off the ice and refused to pay Nolan's desired US$12 million. The case went to an arbitrator. This case was settled in late 2006, however, the terms of the agreement by Leafs management and Nolan were not disclosed. In 2005–2006, Nolan took time off for his injured knees to heal, training in San Jose at Sharks Ice. Before the playoff push, Nolan indicated that several teams (including San Jose) wanted to sign him, but he decided not to play because he wanted to be at 100%, both because he did not want to become re-injured and because he felt he owed his team that.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2006–2011.", "content": "In the summer of 2006, during free agency, Nolan contemplated joining many teams before signing a one-year, US $1 million contract with the Phoenix Coyotes. He scored 16 goals to go with 24 assists during his only year in Phoenix before becoming a free agent once again. On 2 July 2007, Nolan signed with the Calgary Flames. On 22 October 2007, Nolan played his 1000th game.  On 30 January 2008, Nolan had his 11th career hat trick and first hat trick since 1999 in a 5-4 victory over former team the San Jose Sharks. He was honoured as the game's first star as his hat trick included a short-handed goal and the game winner, and Nolan also had a decisive victory in a second-period fight with Mike Grier. On 13 April 2008, Nolan scored the game-winning goal in game three of the first round of the 2008 NHL Playoffs against his former team San Jose Sharks. It was his first playoff goal since 2002, when he was a member of the Sharks and the 19th playoff goal of his 18-year career.  On 6 July 2008, Nolan signed a two-year, $5.5 million contract with the Minnesota Wild. On 10 March 2009, Nolan scored his 400th (and 401st) goal of his NHL career with the Minnesota Wild against the San Jose Sharks.  A free agent prior to the 2010–11 season, and with the intention of continuing his NHL career, Nolan was unable to secure an NHL contract. With the beginning of the season underway, in order to garner interest and keep in game condition, Nolan signed a one-month contract with Swiss team, ZSC Lions of the National League A, on 20 October 2010. On 4 August 2011, Nolan signed a tryout contract with the Vancouver Canucks, returning to the NHL after a year in Switzerland. He was then released by the Vancouver Canucks on 25 September 2011, admittedly due to issues with his family.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "On 7 February 2012, Nolan announced his retirement from professional hockey, at a press conference in San Jose five days before his 40th birthday. He was then immediately chosen for a ceremonial puck drop in a game against the Calgary Flames.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "All-Star appearances.", "content": "Nolan has been chosen as an NHL all-star in 1991–92, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1999–2000, 2001–02. He was the runner-up to Mark Recchi for the All-Star game MVP in 1997, during which he performed a memorable 'called shot', pointing to the top corner of the net on a breakaway and promptly scoring there against Dominik Hašek to complete a hat trick.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Nolan is one of six players in NHL history to be born in Ireland or Northern Ireland (Sid Finney, Bobby Kirk, Jim McFadden, Sammy McManus and Jack Riley are the others). He moved to Thorold, Ontario when he was seven months old and grew up playing baseball and soccer; it was not until he was nine that he began skating. He attended Denis Morris Catholic High School in St. Catharines, Ontario.  Nolan owns two restaurants called Britannia Arms in San Jose, California He and his wife Diana have one daughter, Jordan, and one son, Dylan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Owen Liam Nolan (born 12 February 1972) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player born in Northern Ireland. During his 18-year NHL career, he played for the Quebec Nordiques, Colorado Avalanche, San Jose Sharks, Toronto Maple Leafs, Phoenix Coyotes, Calgary Flames, Minnesota Wild,as well as playing a season with the ZSC Lions of National League A. Born in Northern Ireland, he was raised in Thorold, Ontario and played for Canada internationally. A five-time NHL All-Star, Nolan is widely known as a power forward.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975764}
{"src_title": "Princess Cecilie of Greece and Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Birth and ancestry.", "content": "Cecilie was the third child and daughter of Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark and Princess Alice of Battenberg. She was born on 22 June 1911 at the summer estate of the Greek Royal Family at Tatoi, fifteen kilometres north of Athens. Although her given name was Cecilie, she was known to her family as Cécile.  Cecilie was baptised at Tatoi on 2 July 1911. Her godparents were King George V of the United Kingdom, Grand Duke Ernst Louis of Hesse, Prince Nicholas of Greece and Duchess Vera of Württemberg.  Through her father, Cecilie was a grandchild of King George I of Greece and his wife Grand Duchess Olga Konstantinovna of Russia (a granddaughter of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia); through her mother, she was a great-great granddaughter of Queen Victoria. Cecilie had three sisters: Margarita (wife of Prince Gottfried of Hohenlohe-Langenburg), Theodora (wife of Berthold, Margrave of Baden) and Sophie (wife firstly of Prince Christoph of Hesse and secondly of Prince Georg Wilhelm of Hanover). Her brother Philip, later Duke of Edinburgh, is the husband of Queen Elizabeth II.  In 1922 Cecilie and her sisters were bridesmaids at the wedding of their maternal uncle Lord Louis Mountbatten (later Earl Mountbatten of Burma) to Edwina Ashley.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "On 2 February 1931 at Darmstadt, Cecilie married Georg Donatus, Hereditary Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine, her maternal first cousin once removed. They had four children:  On 1 May 1937 Cecilie and her husband both joined the Nazi Party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In October 1937, Cecilie's uncle Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig of Hesse died. A few weeks after the funeral, her brother-in-law Prince Ludwig was due to be married to Margaret Campbell Geddes in London.  On 16 November 1937, Georg Donatus, Cecilie, their two young sons and Georg's mother Grand Duchess Eleonore left Darmstadt for London, where they planned to attend the wedding. The aircraft in which they were travelling crashed in flames after hitting a factory chimney near Ostend, Belgium, killing all on board. At the time, Cecilie was eight months pregnant with her fourth child, and the remains of the baby were found in the wreckage. A Belgian enquiry concluded she had given birth mid-flight and the landing attempt was made in bad weather because of this.  Cecilie was buried with her husband and three of her children in Darmstadt at the Rosenhöhe, the traditional burial place of the Hesse family. Cecilie's daughter Johanna was adopted by Prince Ludwig and Princess Margaret. However, Johanna died two years later from meningitis and is buried with her parents and siblings. Cecilie was the first of Prince Andrew and Princess Alice's children to die.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The crash figures in the plot of \"A Matter of Honour\" by Jeffrey Archer, in which Grand Duke Georg has in his possession the jewels of his aunt, the last Tsaritsa of Russia, which the KGB are looking for. There is no evidence in reality that this was the case.  She is depicted in the Netflix series \"The Crown\" as Prince Philip's favourite sister. She appears in flashbacks in the second episode and the ninth episode of the second season portrayed by German actress Leonie Benesch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Cecilie of Greece and Denmark () (22 June 1911 – 16 November 1937) was the wife of Hereditary Grand Duke Georg Donatus of Hesse and third-eldest sister to Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975765}
{"src_title": "Library of Ashurbanipal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery.", "content": "The library is an archaeological discovery credited to Austen Henry Layard; most tablets were taken to England and can now be found in the British Museum, but a first discovery was made in late 1849 in the so-called South-West Palace, which was the Royal Palace of king Sennacherib (705–681 BC).  Three years later, Hormuzd Rassam, Layard's assistant, discovered a similar \"library\" in the palace of King Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC), on the opposite side of the mound. Unfortunately, no record was made of the findings, and soon after reaching Europe, the tablets appeared to have been irreparably mixed with each other and with tablets originating from other sites. Thus, it is almost impossible today to reconstruct the original contents of each of the two main \"libraries\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contents.", "content": "Ashurbanipal was known as a tenacious martial commander; however, he was also a recognized intellectual who was literate, and a passionate collector of texts and tablets. As an apprentice scribe he mastered both the Akkadian and the Sumerian languages He sent scribes into every region of the Neo-Assyrian Empire to collect ancient texts. He hired scholars and scribes to copy texts, mainly from Babylonian sources.  Ashurbanipal used war loot as a means of stocking his library. Because he was known for being cruel to his enemies, Ashurbanipal was able to use threats to gain materials from Babylonia and surrounding areas. Ashurbanipal's intense interest in collecting divination texts was one of his driving motivations in collecting works for his library. His original motive may have been to \"gain possession of rituals and incantations that were vital to maintain his royal power.\"  The royal library consists of approximately 30,000 tablets and writing boards with the majority of them being severely fragmented. It can be gleaned from the conservation of the fragments that the number of tablets that existed in the library at the time of destruction was close to two thousand and the number of writing boards within the library can be placed at a total of three hundred. The majority of the tablet corpus (about 6,000) included colloquial compositions in the form of legislation, foreign correspondences and engagements, aristocratic declarations, and financial matters. The remaining texts contained divinations, omens, incantations and hymns to various gods, while others were concerned with medicine, astronomy, and literature. For all these texts in the library only ten contain expressive rhythmic literary works such as epics and myths.  The Babylonian texts of the Ashurbanipal libraries can be separated into two different groups: the literary compositions such as divination, religious, lexical, medical, mathematical and historical texts as well as epics and myths, on the one hand, and the legal documents on the other hand. The group of the legal documents covers letters, contracts and administrative texts and consists of 1128 Babylonian tablets and fragments. Within the group of the literary compositions, of which 1331 tablets and fragments are classified so far, the divination texts can further be differentiated between 759 so-called library texts, such as tablets of the various omen series and their commentaries, and 636 so-called archival texts such as omen reports, oracle enquiries and the like.  The \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", a masterpiece of ancient Babylonian poetry, was found in the library, as was the \"Enûma Eliš\" creation story, the myth of Adapa, the first man, and stories such as the Poor Man of Nippur.  Another group of literary texts is the lexical texts and sign lists. There are twenty fragments of different tablets with archaic cuneiform signs arranged according to the syllabary A, whereas one is arranged according to the syllabary B. The Assyrian scribes of the Ashurbanipal Libraries needed sign lists to be able to read the old inscriptions and most of these lists were written by Babylonian scribes. The other groups of Babylonian written texts in Nineveh are the epics and myths and the historical texts with 1.4% each. There is only one mathematical text that is said to be excavated at Nineveh.  The texts were principally written in Akkadian in the cuneiform script; however many of the tablets do not have an exact derivation and it is often difficult to ascertain their original homeland. Many of the tablets are indeed composed in the Neo-Babylonian script, but many were also known to be written in Assyrian as well.  The tablets were often organized according to shape: four-sided tablets were for financial transactions, while round tablets recorded agricultural information.(In this era, some written documents were also on wood and others on wax tablets.) Tablets were separated according to their contents and placed in different rooms: government, history, law, astronomy, geography, and so on. The contents were identified by colored marks or brief written descriptions, and sometimes by the \"incipit,\" or the first few words that began the text.  Nineveh was destroyed in 612 BC by a coalition of Babylonians, Scythians and Medes, an ancient Iranian people. It is believed that during the burning of the palace, a great fire must have ravaged the library, causing the clay cuneiform tablets to become partially baked. This potentially destructive event helped preserve the tablets. As well as texts on clay tablets, some of the texts may have been inscribed onto wax boards which, because of their organic nature, have been lost.  The British Museum’s collections database counts 30,943 \"tablets\" in the entire Nineveh library collection, and the Trustees of the Museum propose to issue an updated catalogue as part of the Ashurbanipal Library Project. If all smaller fragments that actually belong to the same text are deducted, it is likely that the \"library\" originally included some 10,000 texts in all. The original library documents however, which would have included leather scrolls, wax boards, and possibly papyri, contained perhaps a much broader spectrum of knowledge than that known from the surviving clay tablet cuneiform texts. A large share of Ashurbanipal's libraries consisted of writing-boards and not clay tablets.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Royal Library of Ashurbanipal, named after Ashurbanipal, the last great king of the Assyrian Empire, is a collection of thousands of clay tablets and fragments containing texts of all kinds from the 7th century BC. Among its holdings was the famous \"Epic of Gilgamesh\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975766}
{"src_title": "Josef Bican", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bican was born in Vienna to František and Ludmila Bican. He was the second of three children. František was from Sedlice in Southern Bohemia, and Ludmila was Viennese Czech. Josef's father František was a footballer who played for Hertha Vienna. He fought in World War I and returned uninjured. However, František was to die at the age of just 30 during 1921 because he refused an operation to treat a kidney injury sustained in a football match. His mother worked in a restaurant kitchen. The family's poverty meant that Bican had to play football without shoes, which helped him improve his ball control skills. Bican attended the Jan Amos Komenský school, a Czech school in Vienna. Four years after his father's death in 1925, twelve-year-old Bican started to play for the Hertha Vienna junior team, Hertha Vienna II. When he was 18, Bican was spotted by Rapid Vienna, who were a big club in the city at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club career.", "content": "When Bican first joined Rapid, he received 150 schillings, but, by the age of 20, Rapid wanted to keep him so much that they paid him 600 schillings.  During 1937, Bican left Vienna to join Czech club Slavia Prague. He played for Slavia throughout World War II, while many of his football rivals were at war. During eight league seasons he would score 328 goals, including 57 in 26 matches one particular season. Three times in his career, Bican scored seven goals in a game. In a 1939–40 league match against Zlín, Bican found the net seven times as Slavia ran out 10–1 winners. During the 1940–41 season, Bican matched his feat of the previous season, again against Zlín, scoring seven times, as Slavia won by a 12–1 scoreline. It was 1947–48 before Bican managed his third seven-goal match, as Slavia defeated České Budějovice in a game which finished 15–1.  He was, in the leagues that he played, the top-scorer 12 times during his 27-year career and Europe's top scorer in five consecutive seasons, from 1939–40 to 1943–44 while the most of players and the physically fit young men were in the war.  In the devastated Europe after the war, several of Europe's biggest clubs should have wanted Bican. Juventus offered him handsome terms to join them, but he refused, supposedly after he was advised that Communists might control Italy. He stayed in Prague, but the Communists came to power there during 1948. Bican refused to join the Communist Party, just as he had refused to join the Nazi Party in Austria.  Bican tried to improve his standing with the Communists by joining steel works Železárny Vítkovice. During 1951, he joined FC Hradec Králové, but, on 1 May 1953, the Communist Party forced him to leave the city and, therefore, the club. After being forced to leave, he returned to Slavia Prague, or, as it was known then, Dynamo Prague. He finally retired from playing, still at Slavia, at the age of 42 during 1955. He was the oldest player in the league at that time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "On 29 November 1933, aged 20 years and 64 days, Bican made his debut for Austria in a 2–2 draw against Scotland. He later played for them at the 1934 World Cup, when the Austrian \"Wunderteam\" reached the semifinals. His solitary goal in the tournament came in extra-time in the Austrians' 3–2 win over France.  At the time Bican was playing for Slavia Prague, he applied for Czechoslovak citizenship. However, when he eventually became a Czechoslovak citizen, he discovered that a clerical error meant he couldn't play at the World Cup during 1938. In total, he scored 34 goals in 45 international matches for 3 teams (Austria, Czechoslovakia and Bohemia & Moravia). His final national team appearance was for Czechoslovakia in a 3–1 defeat against Bulgaria on 4 September 1949.  However, his success did have a disadvantage. Other members of the team became jealous of the tall, handsome Bican's success, and he was sometimes called abusive names, such as \"Austrian bastard\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life after retirement.", "content": "During the spring of 1968, Bican was told that he would be allowed to have a coaching job abroad. He impressed the Belgian team Tongeren and they hired him as a coach, where he had some success taking them from Division 4 to Division 2.  Around this time, Pelé was getting ready for his 1000th goal and many journalists were searching for another player who had scored a thousand goals. Former Austrian player Franz \"Bimbo\" Binder suggested Bican, who he claimed had scored 5000 goals. When reporters asked Bican why he hadn't made more of a fuss about his goalscoring feats, he simply said, \"who'd have believed me if I said I'd scored five times as many goals as Pelé?\" However, to score this 5000 goals he should have kept an average of 185 goals/year along all his 27 years of career, but only counting goals in official matches, Bican scored 805. Bican's goal-scoring feats are often forgotten because he did not make a big fuss about it in the media. His record is often overshadowed by Pele 1283 goal record. People often don't take into account that 526 of Pele's goals were from friendlies and unofficial matches, these goals are not tallied for players, meaning that even Pele's 1283 goal record may have been surpassed but not recorded.  Josef \"Pepi\" Bican spent the last few months of his life in hospital with heart problems. He had hoped to be home for Christmas, but died less than 2 weeks before that, at the age of 88.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josef \"Pepi\" Bican (25 September 1913 – 12 December 2001) was a Czech-Austrian professional footballer who played as a striker. He is the most prolific goalscorer of all time in league matches, first level championships matches, official matches and total matches (considering only players who mostly played at the highest level and taking into account goals scored in official matches played with national teams at all age levels and clubs in all divisions) according to Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation (RSSSF). RSSSF estimates that he scored more than 600 league goals, 537 first level championships goals, more than 805 goals in official matches and more than 1468 goals in total matches (data is missing regarding the 1952 Czech Second Division). The International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS) awarded Bican a Medal as one of the most prolific goalscorers of the last century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975767}
{"src_title": "Princess Thyra of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Birth and family.", "content": "Princess Thyra was born on 29 September 1853 at the Yellow Palace in Copenhagen as the third daughter and fifth child of Prince Christian and Princess Louise of Denmark. As a child, she shared a bedroom with her elder sisters, Alexandra and Dagmar, and was taught how to sew and knit her own clothes and socks. Her family had been relatively obscure but happy until her father, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, was chosen with the consent of the great powers to succeed his childless distant cousin, Frederick VII, to the Danish throne. Just two months before Thyra's birth, the new Act of Succession had been passed and Prince Christian given the title of Prince of Denmark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "In 1863, when Thyra was 10 years old, King Frederick VII died, and her father succeeded to the throne of Denmark as King Christian IX. Earlier the same year, her brother Vilhelm had been elected King of Greece, and her sister Alexandra had married Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. In 1866, her other sister Dagmar married the Tsarevich of Russia, Alexander.  Thyra was an attractive and gentle young woman, with dark hair and dark blue eyes, and Queen Louise wanted her youngest daughter to make a good marriage as her elder daughters had. Thyra's first suitor was King Willem III of the Netherlands, but as he was thirty-six years older than she was, she rejected him.  In her youth, Thyra had fallen in love with Vilhelm Frimann Marcher, a lieutenant in the cavalry, which resulted in a pregnancy. Her brother George I of Greece suggested that she have the baby in Athens to avoid scandal; the Danish press was told Thyra had been taken ill with jaundice. She gave birth to a girl, Maria, on 8 November 1871 at Schloss Glücksburg, who was adopted by Rasmus and Anne Marie Jørgensen of Odense shortly after birth and renamed Kate; she married in 1902 Frode Pløyen-Holstein and died in 1964. Marcher killed himself on 4 January 1872 after a confrontation with the King.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 21 December/22 December 1878, she married Crown Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover, 3rd Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale, at the chapel of Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen. Ernst Augustus was the eldest child and only son of King George V of Hanover and his wife, Princess Marie of Saxe-Altenburg.  Ernest Augustus had been born as a Crown Prince of Hanover, but in 1866 his father had been deprived of his throne, when the Kingdom of Hanover was annexed by Prussia after siding with Austria in the Austro-Prussian War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Her husband died on 14 November 1923. Thyra survived him by nine years and died in Gmunden, Upper Austria, on 26 February 1933.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "The Duke and Duchess of Cumberland had six children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Thyra of Denmark,, (29 September 1853 – 26 February 1933, in Gmunden) was the youngest daughter and fifth child of Christian IX of Denmark and Louise of Hesse-Kassel. In 1878, she married Ernest Augustus, the exiled heir to the Kingdom of Hanover. As the Kingdom of Hanover had been annexed by Prussia in 1866, she spent most of her life in exile with her husband in Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975768}
{"src_title": "Ernst Schäfer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Schäfer was born in Cologne, and even as a young boy, he spent time in the outdoors shooting with an air gun and rearing birds, insects and reptiles. After high school (Abitur 1928 from Mannheim), he worked at Vogelwarten in Denmark and Heligoland. He then joined the University of Göttingen and studied zoology, botany and geology. He was a fan of the Swedish geographer Sven Hedin. He met Hugo Weigold on a study trip to Helgoland, which led him to join Weigold and American Brooke Dolan II from the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences to China in 1930–31. He published \"Berge, Buddhas und Bären\" (\"Mountains, Buddhas and Bears\") in 1933, based on the trip and gained wide recognition. In 1934, Dolan invited Schäfer for a second trip into Tibet in 1934, which affected his studies in the University of Göttingen under Professor Alfred Kühn. He then transferred to the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin. He determined the yeti to be a Tibetan bear (\"Ursus arctos pruinosus\").  Schäfer married in 1937, but his wife died in a hunting accident in November, which affected him for months. He completed his Ph.D. in 1938, based on his studies of the birds of Tibet. Schäfer joined the \"Schutzstaffel\" in 1933 but, after World War II, he claimed to have been an unwilling recruit who joined only to advance his career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expedition.", "content": "In 1936, he was appointed \"Untersturmführer\" in the personal staff, and in 1942 he was promoted to \"SS-Sturmbannführer\". He led the third expedition to Tibet in 1938-39 under the patronage of Heinrich Himmler, the SS, and various sponsors. As many as 3,300 bird specimens were collected in these expeditions. A film was produced on the expedition titled \"Geheimnis Tibet\" (\"Secret Tibet\"). Himmler was personally interested in the project due to various pet pseudo-scientific theories that he subscribed to including ideas such as human origins, and Hanns Hörbiger's Welteislehre (\"World Ice Theory\").  In July 1934, during his second expedition in Asia, he met the then exiled Panchen Lama, Thubten Chökyi Nyima, at a mountain temple near Hangzhou, China. He describes the Lama as a kindly, sympathetic man who enquired about how far Germany was and whether he had been waylaid by any robbers on the way.  The SS Ahnenerbe Expedition to Tibet during the 1930s was also successful for the German naturalists \"Meanwhile, Ernst Schäfer and Bruno Beger, Edmund Geer and Krause carefully packed up the voluminous natural history collection- animal and bird skins; butterflies, bees, ants, wasps and other insect specimens; fragile dried plants for the herbarium; packets of seeds containing one thousand, six hundred varieties of barley, seven hundred varieties of wheat, and seven hundred varieties of oats; not to mention hundreds of seeds from other potentially useful plants.\" These seeds collected during the Tibetan expeditions were important, as Heinrich Himmler planned to develop hardy new varieties of crops in order to boost the agricultural yields of colonies across the Eastern territories of the Ukraine and Crimea. Himmler ordered the Ahnenerbe to found a teaching and research institute in plant genetics, assigning the task to Dr. Ernst Schäfer, who he found to be an ideal young German zoologist who could also lead the Tibet Expedition. Schäfer set to work with characteristic vigor. He obtained a staff of seven research scientists, including a British prisoner of war, and set up an experimental research station in Lannach, near the city of Graz in Austria. There the new institute went to work, experimenting with samples of grains that Schäfer had acquired from the granaries of the Tibetan nobility.  A statue in a German private collection which has come to be called the \"Iron Man\" is speculated to have been obtained by Ernst Schafer during the Tibet expedition in 1938 as part of the Tibet mission that was supported by Himmler. There is no proof that this was indeed obtained during the expedition but it has been a subject of considerable speculation. Analysis showed that it was made from iron of meteoric origin, specifically of an ataxite class, an extremely rare type, of meteorite and possibly carved from a piece of the Chinga meteorite. The statue is believed to portray the god Vaisravana. Speculation that it belongs to the pre-Buddhist Bon culture that existed in Asia about 1,000 years ago has been brought into question due to certain incoherent features of clothing and style.  In 1945, Schäfer was awarded the War Merit Cross, 2nd class with Swords. He was made an honorary member of the German ornithologists federation (DO-G) on 7 December 1939, his wedding day, a gift from Erwin Stresemann.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Postwar career.", "content": "After the 1939 expedition he returned to Germany and he married Ursula in December. In 1945 Schäfer was interned by Allied Military Government but was exonerated for war crimes in June 1949 and released. In 1950 he moved with his wife and daughter to Venezuela and conducted studies there while also teaching in Maracay and Caracas. From 1949 to 1954 he was a professor in Venezuela, when he returned to Europe to become an adviser to the Belgian King Leopold III. With film-maker Heinz Sielmann, he produced \"Herrscher des Urwalds\" (\"Rulers of the Wild\") (1958) in the Congo forests. Schäfer served as the curator of the Department of Natural History at the Lower Saxony State Museum from 1960 until 1970.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernst Schäfer (14 March 1910 – 21 July 1992) was a German explorer, hunter and zoologist in the 1930s, specializing in ornithology. His zoological explorations in Tibet served as a cover for his role in the German secret service. He was also a scientific member in the Ahnenerbe and held the rank of an SS-Sturmbannführer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975769}
{"src_title": "Calocedrus decurrens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Calocedrus decurrens\" is a large tree, typically reaching heights of and a trunk diameter of up to. The largest known tree, located in Klamath National Forest, Siskiyou County, California, is tall with a circumference trunk and a spread. It has a broad conic crown of spreading branches. The bark is orange-brown weathering grayish, smooth at first, becoming fissured and exfoliating in long strips on the lower trunk on old trees.  The foliage is produced in flattened sprays with scale-like leaves long; they are arranged in opposite decussate pairs, with the successive pairs closely then distantly spaced, so forming apparent whorls of four; the facial pairs are flat, with the lateral pairs folded over their bases. The leaves are bright green on both sides of the shoots with only inconspicuous stomata. The foliage, when crushed, gives off an aroma somewhat akin to shoe-polish.  The seed cones are long, pale green to yellow, with four (rarely six) scales arranged in opposite decussate pairs; the outer pair of scales each bears two winged seeds, the inner pair(s) usually being sterile and fused together in a flat plate. The cones turn orange to yellow-brown when mature about 8 months after pollination. The pollen cones are long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "This tree is the preferred host of a wood wasp, \"Syntexis libocedrii\" a species which lays its eggs in the smoldering wood immediately after a forest fire. The tree is also host to incense-cedar mistletoe (\"Phoradendron libocedri\"), a parasitic plant which can often be found hanging from its branches.  The incense cedar is one of the most fire and drought tolerant plants in California. Although the tree is killed by hot, stand-replacing crown fire, it spreads rapidly after lower intensity burns. This has given the incense cedar a competitive advantage over other species such as the bigcone Douglas-fir in recent years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The wood is the primary material for wooden pencils, because it is soft and tends to sharpen easily without forming splinters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Native Americans.", "content": "The Native Americans of California used the plant in traditional medicine, basket making, hunting bows, building materials, and to produce fire by friction.  The Maidu Concow tribe name for the plant is hö'-tä (Konkow language).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Calocedrus decurrens\" is cultivated by plant nurseries as an ornamental tree, for planting in gardens and parks. It is used in traditional, xeriscapic, native plant, and wildlife gardens; and used in designed natural landscaping and habitat restoration projects in California. It is valued for its columnar form and evergreen foliage textures.  The tree is also grown in gardens and parks in cool summer climates, including the Pacific Northwest in the Northwestern United States and British Columbia, eastern Great Britain and continental Northern Europe. In these areas it can develop an especially narrow columnar crown, an unexplained consequence of the cooler climatic conditions that is rare in trees within its warm summer natural range in the California Floristic Province. Other cultivated species from the family Cupressaceae can have similar crown forms. This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit, as has the cultivar 'Berrima Gold'.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Calocedrus decurrens, with the common names incense cedar and California incense-cedar (syn. \"Libocedrus decurrens\" Torr.), is a species of conifer native to western North America, with the bulk of the range in the United States, from central western Oregon through most of California and the extreme west of Nevada, and also a short distance into northwest Mexico in northern Baja California. It grows at altitudes of. It is the most widely known species in the genus, and is often simply called 'incense cedar' without the regional qualifier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975770}
{"src_title": "Jérémy Toulalan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Nantes, Toulalan is a product of the local Nantes youth academy making his first-team debut during the 2001–02 season against Rennes in the annual \"Derby Breton\", coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 victory. He later made an appearance with the senior team in a UEFA Cup match before being relegated back to the reserves. Over the next two seasons, Toulalan's participation with the first-team was heavily limited. It wasn't until the 2004–05 season where he established himself as a strong midfielder. During this season, Toulalan also scored his only goal for Nantes in a 2–0 win over Strasbourg. Due to his performances, he was named the UNFP Young Player of the Year and also elected to the league's Team of the Year. However, despite Toulalan's impressive performances, Nantes finished one spot short of relegation, in 17th. He proceeded to have another solid season in 2005–06 before opting to move elsewhere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Olympique Lyonnais.", "content": "Following the 2004–05 season, then three-time Ligue 1 champions Lyon were highly interested in Toulalan, offering as much as €10 million for the player's services, though they were rebuffed by Nantes. After the 2005–06 season, the departures of Mahamadou Diarra to Real Madrid and Jérémy Clément to Rangers saw Lyon increase their efforts to sign Toulalan, who they considered a perfect replacement for Diarra. After a week of negotiations, on 17 May 2006 Nantes agreed to a fee of €7 million, while Toulalan agreed to a four-year deal making him Lyon's first summer signing that season. Due to the number 17, which he wore at Nantes, being retired by Lyon out of respect to the late Marc-Vivien Foé, Toulalan was given the number 28 shirt.  Toulalan made his competitive debut for Lyon against his former club Nantes, playing the full 90 minutes in a 3–1 win. He was a key component during the season, helping Lyon capture their six-straight league title. Toulalan formed midfield partnerships with the Brazilian Juninho, the Swede Kim Källström, and the Portuguese midfielder Tiago that allowed the team to win the league by a large 17-point gap.  For his performances during the 2007–08 season, Toulalan was among four nominated for the UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Year award, despite playing in the defensive midfielder role. The award went to his teammate Karim Benzema.  His performances did not go unnoticed by other clubs. Following the season, Toulalan was heavily linked with English clubs Arsenal and Chelsea, who both believed the player would be a perfect replacement for the departed Patrick Vieira and Claude Makelele, respectively. Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger has sent fellow Frenchman and Arsenal scout Gilles Grimandi to France on numerous occasions to scout the player. However, Toulalan played down the interest, stating he was happy at Lyon. On 7 March 2008, the midfielder verified his statement by signing a contract extension, which would keep him at the club until 2013. On 13 January 2010, Toulalan scored his first career goal for Lyon, and the second of his career, in a Coupe de la Ligue match against Metz.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Málaga.", "content": "On 11 June 2011, La Liga club Málaga and Lyon confirmed the transfer of Toulalan for €10 million on a four-year deal. On 28 November 2011, he opened the scoring with a header in a 2−1 home win over Villarreal and was later sent off during the game. His suspension, however, was later removed by the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF). On 12 February 2012, he scored from a volley in a 3−1 home victory over Mallorca, then scored his third league goal of the season on 3 March in a 3−1 away win over Getafe. On 21 March 2012, however, it was announced that Toulalan had been injured during training session, and that he would miss the rest of the season as his injury would require an operation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AS Monaco.", "content": "On 6 July 2013, AS Monaco announced the signing of Toulalan from Málaga; he signed a two-year contract.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Toulalan has been a France international since 2000, when he was first called up to the France under-17 squad. He has also played for the under-18 squad. Toulalan was later a member of the French squad that participated in the 2006 UEFA U-21 Championship, helping France reach the semi-finals before losing to the Netherlands. He was named in the Team of the Tournament as a left winger in order to accommodate central midfielders Ismaïl Aissati and France teammate Rio Mavuba, who were also in the selection.  Toulalan received his first call-up to the senior side in 2006 for a Euro 2008 qualification match against the Faroe Islands. He started the match and played the full 90 minutes in France's 5–0 win. Due to his performances with Lyon and with the national team, he was named to the 23-man squad that participated in UEFA Euro 2008. Despite France not living up to expectations, Toulalan was one of a few French players who started all three group stage matches.  Toulalan has since become a regular selection for the national team, supplanting Rio Mavuba, Alou Diarra, and Lassana Diarra as the eventual successor to Claude Makelele. Then manager Raymond Domenech has said on many occasions that he believes Toulalan is the ideal replacement for Patrick Vieira when he was to retire from the national side. Toulalan was called up by Domenech as part of his 23-man squad for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. However, France again failed to live up to its expectations and were again eliminated in the group stage after scoring just one goal and claiming only a single point. On 6 August 2010, Toulalan was one of five players summoned to attend a hearing held by the French Football Federation Disciplinary Committee in response to the strike which the team held at the World Cup. On 17 August, he received a one-match international ban for his part in the incident. Toulalan's suspension resulted from the player admitting that his press officer helped the players write the letter explaining their strike.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jérémy Toulalan (; born 10 September 1983) is a French professional footballer who most recently played for Bordeaux in Ligue 1. His usual position is as a defensive midfielder, but he can also be utilized as a central defender. He is best known for his humble demeanor, simple distribution, good technique and effective tackling.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975771}
{"src_title": "University of Naples Federico II", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The University of Naples Federico II was founded by emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Frederick II on 5 June 1224. It is the world's oldest state-supported institution of higher education and research. One of the most famous students was Roman Catholic theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political project of Fredrick II.", "content": "Fredrick II had specific objectives when he founded the university in Naples: first, to train administrative and skilled bureaucratic professionals for the \"curia regis\" (the kingdom's ministries and governing apparatus), as well as preparing lawyers and judges who would help the sovereign to draft laws and administer justice. Second, he wanted to facilitate the cultural development of promising young students and scholars, avoiding any unnecessary and expensive trips abroad: by creating a State University, Emperor Frederick avoided having young students during his reign complete their training at the University of Bologna, which was in a city that was hostile to the imperial power.  The University of Naples was arguably the first to be formed from scratch by a higher authority, not based upon an already-existing private school. Although its claim to be the first state-sponsored university can be challenged by Palencia (which was founded by the Castilian monarch c.1212), Naples certainly was the first chartered one.  The artificiality of its creation posed great difficulties in attracting students; Thomas Aquinas was one of the few who came in these early years. Those years were further complicated by the long existence, in nearby Salerno, of Europe's most prestigious medical faculty, the Schola Medica Salernitana. The fledgling faculty of medicine at Naples had little hope of competing with it, and in 1231 the right of examination was surrendered to Salerno. The establishment of new faculties of theology and law under papal sponsorship in Rome in 1245 further drained Naples of students, as Rome was a more attractive location. In an effort to revitalize the dwindling university, in 1253, all the remaining schools of the university of Naples moved to Salerno, in the hope of creating a single viable university for the south. But that experiment failed and the university (minus medicine) moved back to Naples in 1258 (in some readings, Naples was \"refounded\" in 1258 by Manfred Hohenstaufen, as by this time there were hardly any students left). The Angevin reforms after 1266 and the subsequent decline of Salerno gave the University of Naples a new lease on life and put it on a stable, sustainable track.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Academics.", "content": "The university has 13 faculties:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Noted people.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable alumni.", "content": "Among those who have attended the University of Naples Federico II are Italian presidents Enrico De Nicola, Giovanni Leone and Giorgio Napolitano; Italian political leader Luigi de Magistris; business executive Fabrizio Freda; and philosophers Benedetto Croce and Nicola Abbagnano.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rankings.", "content": "Several professors from various disciplines are among the top Italian Scientists by H-index. According to the 2016 QS World University Rankings by subject the University of Federico II ranks in the following ranges respectively: 51–100 for civil engineering, 101–150 for mechanical engineering, pharmacy and pharmacology, agriculture and forestry and physics and astronomy, 151–200 for law and legal studies, medicine and chemical engineering, 201–250 for electrical and electronic engineering, mathematics, economics and econometrics, 251–300 for biological sciences, computer science and chemistry. In November 2018 Expertscape recognized it as No. 10 in the world for expertise in Celiac Disease.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The University of Naples Federico II () is a university in Naples, Italy. Founded in 1224, it is the oldest public non-sectarian university in the world, and is now organized into 26 departments. It was Europe's first university dedicated to training secular administrative staff, and one of the oldest academic institutions in continuous operation. Federico II is the third University in Italy by number of students enrolled, but despite its huge size it is still one of the best universities in Italy, being particularly notable for research; in 2015 it was ranked among the top 100 universities in the world by citations per paper. As of 2016 it is the only generalist Italian university in the Times higher education reputation, which considers the 200 best universities in the world. The university is named after its founder Frederick II. In October 2016 the University hosted the first ever Apple IOS Developer Academy and in 2018 the Cisco Digital Transformation Lab.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975772}
{"src_title": "Dryopithecus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The genus name \"Dryopithecus\" comes from Ancient Greek \"drus\" \"oak tree\" and \"pithekos\" \"ape\" because the authority believed it inhabited an oak or pine forest in an environment similar to modern day Europe. The species \"D. fontani\" was named in honour of its discoverer, local collector M. Fontan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The first \"Dryopithecus\" fossils were described from the French Pyrenees by French paleontologist Édouard Lartet in 1856, three years before Charles Darwin published his \"On the Origin of Species\". Subsequent authors noted similarities to modern African great apes. In his \"The Descent of Man\", Darwin briefly noted that \"Dryopithecus\" casts doubt on the African origin of apes: \"Dryopithecus\" taxonomy has been the subject of much turmoil, with new specimens being the basis of a new species or genus based on minute differences, resulting in several now-defunct species. By the 1960s, all non-human apes were classified into the now-obsolete family Pongidae, and extinct apes into Dryopithecidae. In 1965, English palaeoanthropologist David Pilbeam and American palaeontologist Elwyn L. Simons separated the genus–which included specimens from across the Old World at the time–into three subgenera: \"Dryopithecus\" in Europe, \"Sivapithecus\" in Asia, and \"Proconsul\" in Africa. Afterwards, there was discussion over whether each of these subgenera should be elevated to genus. In 1979, \"Sivapithecus\" was elevated to genus, and \"Dryopithecus\" was subdivided again into the subgenera \"Dryopithecus\" in Europe, and \"Proconsul\", \"Limnopithecus\", and \"Rangwapithecus\" in Africa. Since that time, several more species were assigned and moved, and by the 21st century, the genus included \"D. fontani\", \"D. brancoi\", \"D. laietanus\", and \"D. crusafonti\". However, the 2009 discovery of a partial skull of \"D. fontani\" caused many of them to be split off into different genera, such as the newly erected \"Hispanopithecus\", because part of the confusion was caused by the fragmentary nature of the \"Dryopithecus\" holotype with vague and incomplete diagnostic characteristics. Currently, there is only one uncontested species, \"D. fontani\". Specimens are:  \"Dryopithecus\" is classified into the namesake great ape tribe Dryopithecini, along with \"Hispanopithecus\", \"Rudapithecus\", \"Ouranopithecus\", \"Anoiapithecus\", and \"Pierolapithecus\", though the latter two may belong to \"Dryopithecus\", the former two may be synonymous, and the former three can also be placed into their own tribes. Dryopithecini is either regarded as an offshoot of orangutans (Ponginae), an ancestor to African apes and humans (Homininae), or its own separate branch (Dryopithecinae).  \"Dryopithecus\" was a part of an adaptive radiation of great apes in the expanding forests of Europe in the warm climates of the Miocene Climatic Optimum, possibly descending from early or middle Miocene African apes which diversified in the proceeding Middle Miocene disruption (a cooling event). It is possible great apes first evolved in Europe or Asia, and then migrated down into Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Based on measurements of the femoral head of the Spanish IPS41724, the living weight for a male \"Dryopithecus\" was estimated to be.  \"Dryopithecus\" teeth are most similar to those of modern chimps. The teeth are small and have a thin enamel layer. \"Dryopithecus\" has a slender jaw, indicating it was not well-suited for eating abrasive or hard food. Like modern apes, the males have pronounced canine teeth. The molars are wide, and the premolars wider. It has a wide roof of the mouth, a long muzzle (prognathism), and a large nose which is oriented nearly vertically to the face. In total, the face shows many similarities to the gorilla; since early to middle Miocene African apes do not share such similarities, gorilla-like features likely evolved independently in \"Dryopithecus\" rather than as a result of close affinities.  The humerus, measuring an approximate, is similar in size and form to the bonobo. Like in bonobos, the shaft bows outward, and the insertion for the triceps and deltoids was poorly developed, suggesting \"Dryopithecus\" was not as adept to suspensory behaviour as orangutans. The femoral neck, which connects the femoral head to the femoral shaft, is not very long nor steep; the femoral head is positioned low to the greater trochanter; and the lesser trochanter is positioned more towards the backside. All these characteristics are important in the mobility of the hip joint, and indicate a quadrupedal mode of locomotion rather than suspensory. However, fruit trees in the time and area of the Austrian \"Dryopithecus\" were typically high and bore fruit on thinner terminal branches, suggesting suspensory behaviour to reach them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paleobiology.", "content": "\"Dryopithecus\" likely predominantly ate fruit (frugivory), and evidence of cavities on the teeth of the Austrian \"Dryopithecus\" indicates a high-sugar diet, likely deriving from ripe fruits and honey. Dental wearing indicates \"Dryopithecus\" ate both soft and hard food, which could either indicate they consumed a wide array of different foods, or they ate harder foods as a fallback. Nonetheless, its unspecialized teeth indicate it had a flexible diet, and large body size would have permitted a large gut to aid in the processing of less-digestible food, perhaps stretching to include foods such as leaves (folivory) in times of famine like in modern apes. Unlike modern apes, \"Dryopithecus\" likely had a high carbohydrate, low fibre diet.  A high-fructose diet is associated with elevated levels of uric acid, which is neutralized by uricase in most animals except great apes. It is thought they stopped producing it by 15 mya, resulting in increased blood pressure, which in turn led to increased activity, and a greater ability to build up fat reserves. The palaeoenvironment of late Miocene Austria indicates an abundance of fruiting trees and honey for nine or ten months out of the year, and \"Dryopithecus\" may have relied on these fat reserves during the late winter. High uric acid levels in the blood are also associated with increased intelligence.  \"Dryopithecus\" males had larger canines than females, which is associated with high levels of aggression in modern primates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paleoecology.", "content": "The remains of \"Dryopithecus\" are often associated with several large mammals, such as elephants (e. g., though not limited to, \"Gomphotherium\"), rhinos (e. g., \"Lartetotherium\"), pigs (e. g., \"Listriodon\"), antelope (e. g., \"Miotragocerus\"), horses (e. g., \"Hippotherium\"), hyaenas (e. g., \"Protictitherium\"), and big cats (e. g., \"Pseudaelurus\"). Other associated primates are the great apes \"Hispanopithecus\", \"Anoiapithecus\", and \"Pierolapithecus\"; and the monkey \"Pliopithecus\". These fauna are consistent with a warm, forested, paratropical wetland environment, and it may have lived in a seasonal climate. For the Austrian \"Dryopithecus\", plants such as \"Prunus\", grapevines, black mulberry, strawberry trees, hickory, and chestnuts may have been important fruit sources; and the latter two, oak, beech, elm, and pine honey sources.  The late Miocene was the beginning of a drying trend in Europe. Increasing seasonality and dry spells in the Mediterranean region and the emergence of a Mediterranean climate likely caused the replacement of forestland and woodland by open shrubland; and the uplift of the Alps caused tropical and warm-climate vegetation in Central Europe to retreat in favor of mid-latitude and alpine flora. This likely led to the extinction of great apes in Europe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dryopithecus is a genus of extinct great apes from the middle–late Miocene boundary of Europe 12.5 to 11.1 million years ago (mya). Since its discovery in 1856, the genus has been subject to taxonomic turmoil, with numerous new species being described from single remains based on minute differences amongst each other, and the fragmentary nature of the holotype specimen makes differentiating remains difficult. There is currently only one uncontested species, the type species \"D. fontani\", though there may be more. The genus is placed into the tribe Dryopithecini, which is either an offshoot of orangutans, African apes, or is its own separate branch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975773}
{"src_title": "Kvant-1", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Kvant spacecraft represented the first use of a new kind of Soviet space station module, designated 37K. An order authorising the beginning of development was issued on 17 September 1979. The basic 37K design consisted of a 4.2 m diameter pressurised cylinder with a docking port at the forward end. It was not equipped with its own propulsion system. The original authorisation was for a total of eight 37K's of various configurations:  The 37KE was designated Kvant and was equipped with an astrophysics payload. It also used the Salyut-5B digital flight control computer and Gyrodyne flywheel orientation system developed for Almaz. As the module neared completion Salyut 7 experienced numerous technical problems and Kvant was retargeted for a docking with Mir. But at that time Mir was planned to be in a 65 degree orbit, and Kvant was 800 kg too heavy for the Proton launch vehicle to place in such an orbit. In January 1985 Mir was changed to a 51.6 degree orbit, which solved one problem. But now it was planned that Kvant would dock with the rear port of Mir, requiring the addition of lines to conduct rocket propellant from Progress tanker spacecraft to Mir's storage tanks. This increased weight again, forcing the FGB to have its propellant load reduced to 60% in the high pressure tanks and empty low pressure tanks. With a reported total launch weight varying between, Kvant-1 was supposedly at that time the heaviest payload lifted by Proton, requiring special custom modifications to its launch vehicle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Kvant-1 consisted of two pressurized working compartments, one unpressurized experiment compartment and one small airlock for access to the telescopes and film change and retrieval. It also carried additional life support systems including an Elektron oxygen generator and equipment for removing carbon dioxide from the air.  Scientific equipment onboard Kvant-1 included:  To allow astronomical observations, Kvant-1 carried – in addition to two Earth horizon sensors, two star sensors, and three star trackers – six gyrodines which permitted extremely accurate pointing of the entire Mir complex. As the gyrodines were powered by electricity, they also reduced significantly the amount of attitude control propellant needed by the Mir base block's control thrusters – saving 15 tons of propellant in the first two years. They did, however, use a great deal of electricity – the average consumption of the Kvant-1 module was estimated to have been 6.90 kW.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Launch and docking.", "content": "Kvant-1 was originally intended to be launched and docked to Salyut 7, but delays forced it to be launched to Mir instead. Kvant-1 did not have any propulsion systems of its own and to reach Mir, Kvant-1 was mated with a Functional Service Module (FSM) – carrying propulsion and electrical systems – to act as a space tug. The FSM was derived from the TKS spacecraft, which would later form the basis for the Functional Cargo Block of the Kvant-2, Kristall, Spektr, and Priroda modules.  Kvant-1 and its FSM were launched on March 30, 1987 – at the time of the launch the Mir station was manned by the EO-2 crew, which had already docked on the front port with the Soyuz TM-2 spacecraft. On April 9, Kvant-1 achieved a soft dock with the aft port on Mir. However, the Kvant-1 was not able to achieve a hard dock which meant that the two spacecraft were only loosely connected – in this configuration, Mir could not orient itself or else damage would occur.  The EO-2 crew conducted an emergency EVA on April 11 to investigate the problem. The crew found a piece of debris, probably a trash bag, that was left by Progress 28. After removing it, Kvant-1 was finally able to achieve a hard dock with the station on the same day. The Kvant-FSM, which contained the now unneeded propulsion of the Kvant-1 module, was finally jettisoned on April 12, revealing Kvant-1's rear docking port.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Initial operation.", "content": "After finally achieving hard-dock and jettisoning of the Kvant-FSM, tests of the onboard systems of Kvant-1 were conducted until the end of April. May was spent in preparation of the extension of the electrical power with activities which required little electricity, like medical experiments and Earth resources photography – much needed additional electrical power would enable experiments like the Korund 1-M kiln, which was used to conduct melts lasting several days and power Kvant-1's gyrodines, needed for astronomical observations. For this, Kvant had carried stowed solar arrays, which were attached to the Mir base block during an EVA on June 12.  With the testing of Kvant-1 concluded, additional solar panels installed and Kvant's gyrodines available, a major step in the construction of the Mir space station was achieved. The X-ray telescope onboard Kvant-1 could start with a bang: it was uniquely placed to study Supernova SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud, the peak of its light reaching Earth in May 1987. The cosmonauts onboard Mir could examine the exploding star during 115 sessions between June and September 1987.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later modifications.", "content": "In January 1991, support structures that were designed to hold solar arrays were installed on Kvant-1. In July 1991, the crew constructed the Sofora girder during four EVAs. The Sofora girder was designed to test new construction techniques, mount a propulsion unit, and act as a place to hold experiments outside the station. In September, 1992, the crew installed the VDU propulsion unit on the end of the Sofora girder. It was delivered earlier by Progress M-14. The VDU was designed to increase the station's attitude control capability. The then six-year-old VDU propulsion unit was finally replaced in April 1998 by a new one that was delivered by Progress M-38.  In September 1993, the Rapana girder was constructed on Kvant-1 during two EVAs. The Rapana girder was designed to test girder assembly experiments for a possible Mir 2 space station. External experiments were also later held on the Rapana girder. In June, 1996, the Rapana girder was extended during an EVA.  On May 22, 1995, one of Kristall's solar panels was re-deployed on Kvant-1. During May 1996, the Mir Cooperative Solar Array, which was delivered with the Mir Docking Module, was deployed on Kvant-1. In November 1997, Kristall's old solar panel that was attached to Kvant-1 was disposed of and the all-Russian solar array, which was also delivered with the Docking Module, was attached in its place.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kvant-1 (; English: Quantum-I/1) (37KE) was the first module to be attached in 1987 to the Mir Core Module, which formed the core of the Soviet space station \"Mir\". It remained attached to \"Mir\" until the entire space station was deorbited in 2001.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975774}
{"src_title": "Roman Catechism", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "During the Protestant Reformation, the popular tracts and catechisms of Martin Luther, John Calvin and other Reformers were sold in areas controlled by Protestant monarchs, who determined the faith in their region (see: \"Cuius regio, eius religio\"). Catholic Catechisms, published by individuals existed as well. The Jesuit Petrus Canisius had published such a Catechism in 1555 in both German and Latin language. The Council of Trent commissioned the first Church-wide Roman Catholic catechism. This catechism was directed to clergy. It included large parts of the Canisius catechisms including his addition to the Hail Mary: \"Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners\".  The Fathers of the council said they wished \"to apply a salutary remedy to this great and pernicious evil, and thinking that the definition of the principal Catholic doctrines was not enough for the purpose, resolved also to publish a formulary and method for teaching the rudiments of the faith, to be used by all legitimate pastors and teachers\" (Cat. praef., vii). This resolution was taken in the eighteenth session (26 February 1562) on the suggestion of Charles Borromeo; who was then giving full scope to his zeal for the reformation of the clergy. Pius IV entrusted the composition of the Catechism to four distinguished theologians:  Three cardinals were appointed to supervise the work. Charles Borromeo superintended the redaction of the original Italian text, which was finished in 1564. Cardinal William Sirletus then gave it the final touches, and the famous Humanists, Julius Pogianus and Paulus Manutius, translated it into classical Latin. It was then published in Latin and Italian as \"Catechismus ex decreto Concilii Tridentini ad parochos Pii V jussu editus, Romae, 1566\" (in-folio). Translations into the vernacular of every nation were ordered by the Council (Sess. XXIV, \"De Ref.\", c. vii).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Content and authority.", "content": "The Council intended the projected Catechism to be the Church's official manual of popular instruction. The seventh canon, \"De Reformatione\", of Sess. XXIV, runs: \"That the faithful may approach the Sacraments with greater reverence and devotion, the Holy Synod charges all the bishops about to administer them to explain their operation and use in a way adapted to the understanding of the people; to see, moreover, that their parish priests observe the same rule piously and prudently, making use for their explanations, where necessary and convenient, of the vernacular tongue; and conforming to the form to be prescribed by the Holy Synod in its instructions (catechesis) for the several Sacraments: the bishops shall have these instructions carefully translated into the vulgar tongue and explained by all parish priests to their flocks...\". In the mind of the Church the Catechism, though primarily written for the parish priests, was also intended to give a fixed and stable scheme of instruction to the faithful, especially with regard to the means of grace, so much neglected at the time. To attain this object the work closely follows the dogmatic definitions of the Council. It is divided in four parts:  It deals with the papal primacy, a point which was not defined at Trent; on the other hand, it is silent on the doctrine of indulgences, which is set forth in the \"Decretum de indulgentiis\", Sess. XXV. It states the common doctrine about servitude, allowed in some cases (prisoners of war, self-selling in extreme necessity, civil punishment): \"To enslave a freeman, or appropriate the slave of another is called man-stealing\"  The bishops urged in every way the use of the new Catechism; they enjoined its frequent reading, so that all its contents would be committed to memory; they exhorted the priests to discuss parts of it at their meetings, and insisted upon its being used for instructing the people.  To some editions of the Roman Catechism was prefixed a \"Praxis Catechismi\", i.e. a division of its contents into sermons for every Sunday of the year adapted to the Gospel of the day.  The Catechism has not of course the authority of conciliary definitions or other primary symbols of faith; for, although decreed by the Council, it was only published a year after the Fathers had dispersed, and it consequently lacks a formal conciliary approbation. During the heated controversies de auxiliis gratiae between the Thomists and Molinists, the Jesuits refused to accept the authority of the Catechism as decisive. Yet it possesses high authority as an exposition of Catholic doctrine. It was composed by order of a council, issued and approved by the Pope; its use has been prescribed by numerous synods throughout the whole Church; Pope Leo XIII, in a letter to the French bishops of 8 September 1899, recommended the study of the Roman Catechism to all seminarians, and Pope Pius X signified his desire that preachers should expound it to the faithful.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early editions.", "content": "The earliest editions of the Roman Catechism are \"Romae apud Paulum Manutium\", 1566; \"Venetiis, apud Dominicum de Farrisö, 1567; \"Coloniae\", 1567 (by Henricus Aquensis); \"Parisuis, in aedibus. Jac. Kerver\", 1568; \"Venetiis, apud Aldum\", 1575; and Ingolstadt, 1577 (Sartorius). In 1596 appeared at Antwerp the \"Cat. Romanus... quaestionibus distinctus, brevibusque exhortatiunculis studio Andreae Fabricii, Leodiensis\". This editor, A. Le Fevre, died in 1581. He probably made this division of the Roman Catechism into questions and answers in 1570.  George Eder, in 1569, arranged the Catechism for the use of schools. He distributed the main doctrines into sections and subsections and added perspicuous tables of contents. This work bears the title: \"Methodus Catechismi Catholici\".  The first known English translation was commissioned by James II of England, the last Catholic king of England, and is entitled “The Catechism for the Curats, compos’d by the Decree of the Council of Trent, And Published by Command of Pope Pius the Fifth.” Translated by John Bromley, Printed by Henry Hills, Printer to the King’s Most Excellent Majesty for His Houshold and Chappel, for him and Matthew Turner, London, M. DC. LXXXVII. (1687)  The next English translation is by Jeremy Donovan, a professor at Maynooth, published by Richard Coyne, Capel Street, Dublin, and by Keating & Brown, London, and printed for the translator by W. Folds & Son, Great Shand Street, 1829. An American edition appeared in the same year. Donovan's translation was reprinted at Rome by the Propaganda Press, in two volumes in 1839; it is dedicated to Cardinal Fransoni and signed \"Jeremias Donovan, sacerdos hibernus, cubicularius Gregorii XVI, P. M.\" There is another English translation by T. A. Buckley (London, 1852), which is more elegant than Donovan's and claims to be more correct, but is spoiled by the doctrinal notes of the Anglican translator. The first German translation, by Paul Hoffaeus, is dated Dillingen, 1568. The translation into the Celtic Breton language of the \"catechisme de Canisius,\" as it was known in France, was accomplished in 1568 by Gilles de Keranpuil, canon of the college of Carhaix and recteur of Motreff; he introduced his work in his transmittal letter to his superior as the effort '[de tradui en nostre langue brette [Breton].\" This effort at translation set a precedent for the later successful efforts of Pere Julien Maunoir, S.J. of Plevin, Brittany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Roman Catechism (or Catechism of the Council of Trent, published 1566) was commissioned during the Catholic Counter-Reformation by the Council of Trent, to expound doctrine and to improve the theological understanding of the clergy. It differs from other summaries of Christian doctrine for the instruction of the people in two points: it is primarily intended for priests having care of souls (\"ad parochos\"), and it enjoyed an authority within the Catholic Church equalled by no other catechism until the \"Catechism of the Catholic Church\" (1992). The need of a popular authoritative manual arose from a lack of systematic knowledge among pre-Reformation clergy and the concomitant neglect of religious instruction among the faithful.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975775}
{"src_title": "Le Bourgeois gentilhomme", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "The play takes place at Mr. Jourdain's house in Paris. Jourdain is a middle-aged \"bourgeois\" whose father grew rich as a cloth merchant. The foolish Jourdain now has one aim in life, which is to rise above this middle-class background and be accepted as an aristocrat. To this end, he orders splendid new clothes and is very happy when the tailor's boy mockingly addresses him as \"my Lord\". He applies himself to learning the gentlemanly arts of fencing, dancing, music and philosophy, despite his age; in doing so he continually manages to make a fool of himself, to the disgust of his hired teachers. His philosophy lesson becomes a basic lesson on language in which he is surprised and delighted to learn that he has been speaking prose all his life without knowing it.  « »\"My faith! For more than forty years I have been speaking prose while knowing nothing of it, and I am the most obliged person in the world to you for telling me so.\"  Madame Jourdain, his intelligent wife, sees that he is making a fool of himself and urges him to return to his previous middle-class life, and to forget all he has learned. A cash-strapped nobleman called Dorante has attached himself to M. Jourdain. He secretly despises Jourdain but flatters his aristocratic dreams. For example, by telling Jourdain that he mentioned his name to the King at Versailles, he can get Jourdain to pay his debts. Jourdain's dreams of being upper-class go higher and higher. He dreams of marrying a Marchioness, Dorimène, and having his daughter Lucille marry a nobleman. But Lucille is in love with the middle-class Cléonte. Of course, M. Jourdain refuses his permission for Lucille to marry Cléonte.  Then Cléonte, with the assistance of his valet Covielle and Mme Jourdain, disguises himself and presents himself to Jourdain as the son of the Sultan of Turkey. Jourdain is taken in and is very pleased to have his daughter marry foreign royalty. He is even more delighted when the \"Turkish prince\" informs him that, as father of the bride, he too will be officially ennobled at a special ceremony. The play ends with this ridiculous ceremony, including Sabir standing in for Turkish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performances.", "content": "The original production brought together the finest actors and musicians of the time. Molière played the role of Monsieur Jourdain, clothed in bright colors trimmed with silver lace and multicolored feathers; André Hubert played Madame Jourdain (travesti); Mlle de Brie played Dorimène; Armande Béjart played Lucile; and the composer Jean-Baptiste Lully danced the mufti in the last act \"cérémonie des Turcs\".  \"Le Bourgeois gentilhomme\" reflected the then-current trend for \"les turqueries,\" all things related to the Ottoman Empire. The work stemmed from the scandal caused by the Turkish ambassador Suleiman Aga who, upon visiting the court of Louis XIV in 1669, affirmed the superiority of the Ottoman court over that of the Sun King.  The first performance of \"Der Bürger als Edelmann\", a German version of the play, took place on 25 October 1912, adapted by Hugo von Hofmannsthal with incidental music by Richard Strauss. The \"turquerie\" was replaced by an appended operatic entertainment \"Ariadne auf Naxos\", composed by Strauss to a libretto by Hofmannsthal, in which Jourdain's eccentric requirements have led to Ariadne being marooned on a desert island where there just happens to be a \"commedia dell'arte\" troupe. The whole was directed by Max Reinhardt. The combination of play and opera proved problematic. Hofmannsthal created a revised version of the play, reinstating the \"turquerie\" and removing the opera. Strauss provided further incidental music including some arrangements of Lully. Meanwhile, the entertainment was provided with a separate operatic prologue and this is the form in which \"Ariadne\" is now usually given.  George Balanchine choreographed a number of modern versions, from the 1930s to the 1970s, using Strauss's score. The first version was performed in 1932 by Wassily de Basil & René Blum's Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, featuring David Lichine and Tamara Toumanova, with sets by Alexandre Benois. In 1944, a new version of the ballet was performed by the second iteration of the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, with Nicholas Magallanes (taking over for an injured Frederic Franklin), Maria Tallchief, and Nathalie Krassovska. The most well-known version, from 1979 for the New York City Opera, featured input from Jerome Robbins, who stepped in during a period of Balanchine's illness. Peter Martins also choreographed one scene near the end of the ballet. The production starred Jean-Pierre Bonnefoux, Patricia McBride, Rudolf Nureyev, Darla Hoover, Michael Puleo and students of the School of American Ballet.  In 2005 Le Poème Harmonique in collaboration with Benjamin Lazar (stage director) and Cecile Roussat (choreographer) presented \"Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme\" at the Utrecht Baroque Festival. Informed by the musical and theatrical traditions of 17th century France, the production revived the musical and dance interludes originally scored by Jean-Baptiste Lully and the work was presented in its entirety. The wardrobe was notably bourgeois and ridiculous, evidently the intent of the directors to present Monsieur Jordain as a naive, stunned and yet vulnerable man new to the world of money and privilege \"victim and architect of the action\". The use of candlelight as the only lighting source on stage and a frontal performance style even during conversations between characters gave the production a distinctly baroque air and was well received. The 2005 production was the first ever since the play's first performance to render it in its entirety, as faithful as possible to the original score and script by Molière and Lully.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roles.", "content": "Many male and female musicians, instrumentalists, dancers, cooks, tailor's apprentices, and others are needed for the interludes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Audio adaptations.", "content": "An hour-long version adapted by Harry McFadden was broadcast on the NBC radio series \"Great Plays\" on December 18, 1938.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (, \"The Bourgeois Gentleman\" or \"The Middle-Class Aristocrat\" or \"The Would-Be Noble\") is a five-act \"comédie-ballet\" — a play intermingled with music, dance and singing — written by Molière, first presented on 14 October 1670 before the court of Louis XIV at the Château of Chambord by Molière's troupe of actors. Subsequent public performances were given at the theatre of the Palais-Royal beginning on 23 November 1670. The music was composed by Jean-Baptiste Lully, the choreography was by Pierre Beauchamp, the sets were by Carlo Vigarani and the costumes were done by the chevalier d’Arvieux.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975776}
{"src_title": "Endurance (crater)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Exploration by \"Opportunity\".", "content": "After arriving at the crater, \"Opportunity\" performed a survey of the crater to plan the further steps in exploring the local geology. A site dubbed \"Karatepe\" was chosen to enter the crater and investigate the layering of the bedrock.  The picture to the right shows changes in the color of the bedrock layers. The layer \"A\" is closer to the rover and higher than the layers \"B\" to \"E\". Texture and rock chemistry also differed with depth. Thus scientists infer that the age of these layers is following a similar pattern, with the higher layers being younger than the lower layers.  \"Opportunity\" then went farther down into the crater to investigate the sand dunes. Various rock outcrops were investigated while the rover descended. It was decided not to drive into the dunes, for fear the rover might get stuck permanently. Instead, \"Opportunity\" did some work on some rocks surrounding the dunes before heading back up to the rim of the crater. On the way, it encountered a boulder, nicknamed 'Wopmay', that provided inconclusive evidence that rocks near the bottom of the crater were affected by water before and after the crater formed. The rover then headed off to Burns Cliff. Burns Cliff, named for the late mineralogist Roger Burns of MIT, was studied closely by \"Opportunity\". High amounts of slippage prevented the rover from using its robotic arm, however high resolution imaging was conducted with the Pancam. It shows layers of sediment that might indicate deposition by a liquid. The layers in the cliff would later be followed south of the crater to identify it as a geologic formation, in this case the \"Burns Formation\". These names are not official until made so by the International Astronomical Union.  Burns Cliff was the final science stop inside Endurance. The rover had some trouble making it out, noticing slippage, but prevailed. Leaving Endurance it headed for its heat shield where it would find the Meridiani Planum meteorite, which happened to be the first meteorite discovered on another planet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wet history.", "content": "\"Opportunity\" spent about half a year exploring Endurance. During that time, data collected by the rover supplanted and greatly expanded on the history of water at Meridiani Planum, in addition to the confirmation that there had been liquid water here in ancient times. Endurance provided mission scientists with a cross-section of the bedrock on this part of Mars, showing that liquid water hadn't flowed across the surface just once, but was of an episodic nature, and wasn't permanently present, with floods periodically washing over the landscape, and then drying up again. Interpretation of the materials (such as sulfates) in Endurance's evaporite outcrops led mission scientists to believe that this shallow sea was probably rather acidic in nature, but can't rule out that life couldn't have been present at some point.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Endurance is an impact crater lying situated within the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle (MC-19) region of the planet Mars. This crater was visited by the \"Opportunity\" rover from May until December 2004. Mission scientists named the crater after the ship \"Endurance\" that sailed to the Antarctic through the Weddell Sea during the ill-fated 1914-1917 Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, considered to be the last expedition of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration organized by Ernest Shackleton.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975777}
{"src_title": "José Rondeau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and Politics.", "content": "He was born in Buenos Aires but soon after his birth, the family moved to Montevideo, where he grew up and went to school. At the age of twenty, he joined the armed forces in Buenos Aires, but later transferred to a regiment in Montevideo. During the British invasion of 1806, he was captured and sent to England. After the defeat of the British troops, he was released and went to Spain, where he fought in the Napoleonic Wars. When he returned to Montevideo in August 1810, he joined the independentist forces and was nominated military leader of the independentist armies of the \"Banda Oriental\", later Uruguay. His military successes in the various battles for Montevideo (including the Siege of Montevideo (1812–14)) won him the post of the military leader of the campaign in Peru, replacing José de San Martín, who had to resign due to health reasons.  In 1815, the Constituting General Assembly of the provinces of La Plata elected Rondeau their Supreme Director, but due to his absence, he never served as director. Ignacio Álvarez Thomas was named acting Supreme Director in his place. After two defeats against the Spanish royalist troops in Peru at Venta y Media and Sipe-Sipe, he was relieved from his command in 1816. He returned to Buenos Aires, where he became governor for a brief stint from June 5 to July 30, 1818. In 1819 he became Pueyrredón's successor as Supreme Director (serving this time), but had to resign the following year after the Battle of Cepeda.  Subsequently, Rondeau retreated to Montevideo and tried to keep out of the internal wars between competing generals of the independentists. Nevertheless, he led several military campaigns against the Indians and in the independence wars against Brazil. In 1828, after the Treaty of Montevideo, he was elected as the governor of the newly founded Eastern Republic of Uruguay. Rondeau occupied this post from December 22, 1828 until April 17, 1830, when he was forced to abdicate by his opponent Juan Antonio Lavalleja, who held the majority in the still young parliament. Lavalleja was named governor \"ad interim\".  Rondeau still served as general in the army, though. In the civil war of Uruguay from 1836 between the \"Blancos\" (\"White\") and the \"Colorados\" (\"Red\"), he fought on the side of the latter and served as their war minister. He was killed in 1844 during the Great Siege of Montevideo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "José Casimiro Rondeau Pereyra (March 4, 1773 – November 18, 1844) was a general and politician in Argentina and Uruguay in the early 19th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975778}
{"src_title": "Mother goddess", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Çatalhöyük.", "content": "Between 1961 and 1965 James Mellaart led a series of excavations at Çatalhöyük, north of the Taurus Mountains in a fertile agricultural region of South-Anatolia. Striking were the many statues found here, which Mellaart suggested represented a Great goddess, who headed the pantheon of an essentially matriarchal culture. A seated female figure, flanked by what Mellaart describes as lionesses, was found in a grain-bin; she may have intended to protect the harvest and grain. He considered the sites as shrines, with especially the Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük capturing the imagination. There was also a large number of sexless figurines, which Mellaart regarded as typical for a society dominated by women: \"emphasis on sex in art is invariably connected with male impulse and desire\". The idea that there could have been a matriarchy and a cult of the mother goddess was supported by archaeologist Marija Gimbutas. This gave rise to a modern cult of the Mother Goddess with annual pilgrimages being organized at Çatalhöyük.  Since 1993, excavations were resumed, now headed by Ian Hodder with Lynn Meskell as head of the \"Stanford Figurines Project\" that examined the figurines of Çatalhöyük. This team came to different conclusions than Gimbutas and Mellaart. Only a few of the figurines were identified as female and these figurines were found not so much in sacred spaces, but seemed to have been discarded randomly, sometimes in garbage heaps. This rendered a cult of the mother goddess in this location as unlikely.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contemporary religion.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hinduism.", "content": "In Hinduism, Durga (Parvati) represents both the feminine aspect and the \"shakti\" (energy/power) of the One God (The \"Brahman\") as well as the empowering and protective nature of motherhood. From her forehead sprang Kali, a goddess whose name translates to the feminine form of MahaKala, meaning time; a more literal translation of her name being \"the creator or doer of time.\" Kali is representational of, among other things, the primordial energy of time — her first manifestation. Following this, she manifests \"space\" as Tara, after which point further creation of the material universe progresses. The divine Mother, Devi Adi parashakti, manifests herself in various forms, representing the universal creative force. She becomes Mother Nature (Mula Prakriti Parvati), who gives birth to all life forms as plants, animals, and such from Herself, and she sustains and nourishes them through her body, that is the earth with its animal life, vegetation, and minerals. Ultimately she re-absorbs all life forms back into herself, or \"devours\" them to sustain herself as the power of death feeding on life to produce new life. She also gives rise to Maya (the illusory world) and to prakriti, the force that galvanizes the divine ground of existence into self-projection as the cosmos. The Earth itself is manifested by Adi parashakti. Hindu worship of the divine Mother can be traced back to pre-vedic, prehistoric India.  The form of Hinduism known as Shaktism is strongly associated with Samkhya, and Tantra Hindu philosophies and ultimately, is monist. The primordial feminine creative-preservative-destructive energy, Shakti, is considered to be the motive force behind all action and existence in the phenomenal cosmos. The cosmos itself is purusha, the unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality that is the Divine Ground of all being, the \"world soul\". This masculine potential is actualized by feminine dynamism, embodied in multitudinous goddesses who are ultimately all manifestations of the One Great Mother. Mother Maya or Shakti, herself, can free the individual from demons of ego, ignorance, and desire that bind the soul in maya (illusion). Practitioners of the Tantric tradition focus on Shakti to free themselves from the cycle of karma.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New religious movements.", "content": "Some members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) believe in, but do not worship, a Heavenly Mother, the wife and female counterpart of the Heavenly Father. This belief is not emphasized, however, and typically, adherents pray to the \"Father in Heaven\".  Jang Gil-ja is a South Korean woman believed to be \"God the Mother\" (어머니 하나님) in the World Mission Society Church of God. Church members may call her \"God the Mother\", \"Mother Jerusalem\", \"New Jerusalem Mother\", or \"Heavenly Mother\".  In Theosophy, the Earth goddess is called the \"Planetary Logos of Earth\".  The Mother Goddess, or Great Goddess, is a composite of various feminine deities from past and present world cultures, worshiped by modern Wicca and others broadly known as Neopagans. She is considered sometimes identified as a Triple Goddess, who takes the form of Maiden, Mother, and Crone archetypes. She is described as Mother Earth, Mother Nature, or the Creatress of all life. She is associated with the full moon and stars, the Earth, and the sea. In Wicca, the Earth Goddess is sometimes called Gaia. The name of the mother goddess varies depending on the Wiccan tradition.  Carl Gustav Jung suggested that the archetypal mother was a part of the collective unconscious of all humans; various adherents of Jung, most notably Erich Neumann and Ernst Whitmont, have argued that such an archetype underpins many of its own mythologies and may even precede the image of the paternal \"father.\" Such speculations help explain the universality of such mother goddess imagery around the world.  The Upper Paleolithic Venus figurines have been sometimes explained as depictions of an Earth Goddess similar to Gaia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A mother goddess is a goddess who represents or is a personification of motherhood. When equated with the Earth or the natural world, such goddesses are sometimes referred to as Mother Earth or as the Earth Mother. The concept is complementary to a \"Sky Father\" or \"Father Sky\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975779}
{"src_title": "Royal Palace of Caserta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The construction of the palace was begun in 1752 for Charles VII of Naples (Charles III of Spain), who worked closely with his architect, Luigi Vanvitelli. When Charles saw Vanvitelli's grandly scaled model for Caserta, it filled him with emotion \"fit to tear his heart from his breast\". In the end, he never slept a night at the Reggia, as he abdicated in 1759 to become King of Spain, and the project was carried to only partial completion for his third son and successor, Ferdinand IV of Naples.  The political and social model for Vanvitelli's palace was Versailles, which, though strikingly different in its variety and disposition, solves similar problems of assembling and providing for king, court and government in a massive building with the social structure of a small city, confronting a baroque view of a highly subordinated nature, \"la nature forcée\". This was part of the entire concept of the palace when it was first proposed by Mario Gioffredo sometime in 1750. According to Hersey, the proposal envisaged a palace \"that was a virtual city, housing not just the court and king but all the main political and cultural elites of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies - university, museum, library, cabinet bureaus, military high commands, and so on.\"  The population of Caserta Vecchia was moved 10 kilometers to provide a work force closer to the palace. A silk manufactory at San Leucio resort was disguised as a pavilion in the immense parkland.  Another of the king's primary objects was to have a magnificent new royal court and administrative center for the kingdom in a location protected from sea attack, and distant from the revolt-prone and congested city of Naples. To provide the king with suitable protection, troop barracks were housed within the palace.  The Royal Palace of Madrid, where Charles had grown up, which had been devised by Filippo Juvarra for Charles' father, Philip V of Spain, and Charlottenburg Palace provided models. A spacious octagonal vestibule seems to have been inspired by Basilica di Santa Maria della Salute in Venice, while the palatine chapel is most often compared to the Royal Chapel at Versailles. Vanvitelli died in 1773: the construction was continued by his son Carlo and then by other architects; but the elder Vanvitelli's original project, which included a vast pair of frontal wings similar to Bernini's wings at St. Peter's, was never finished.  From 1923 to 1943 the palace was the location of the Accademia Aeronautica, the Italian Air Force Academy. From 1943, during the allied invasion the royal palace served as Allied Force Headquarters for the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean area; Sir Maitland Wilson and later Sir Harold Alexander. In April 1945 the palace was the site of the signing of terms of the unconditional German surrender of forces in Italy. The agreement covered between 600,000 and 900,000 soldiers along the Italian Front including troops in sections of Austria. The first Allied war crimes trial took place in the palace in 1945; German general Anton Dostler was sentenced to death and executed nearby, in Aversa. In the left hand arc behind the façade, a set of barracks were built. During World War II the soldiers of the US Fifth Army recovered here in a \"rest centre\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Layout of the Palace.", "content": "The palace has 5 floors, 1,200 rooms, including two dozen state apartments, a large library, and a theatre modelled after the Teatro San Carlo of Naples. A monumental avenue that would run 20 kilometers between the palace and Naples was planned but never realized.  The palace has a rectangular plan, measuring 247 × 184 m, and the four sides are connected by two orthogonal arms, forming four inner courts. Each floor measures approximately, but considering the five floors, the whole palace measures.  Caserta is by far the largest royal palace in the world in terms of volume, with more than 2 million m3 (70 million cu ft). Behind the façades of its matching segmental ranges of outbuildings that flank the giant forecourt, a jumble of buildings arose to facilitate daily business. The palace encloses four courts that feature what scholars describe as well-proportioned interior that evoke a monotonous dignity, unique in its time.  Of all the royal residences inspired by the Palace of Versailles, the Reggia of Caserta is the one that bears the greatest resemblance to the original model: the unbroken balustraded skyline and the slight break provided by pavilions within the long, somewhat monotonous façade. As at Versailles, a large aqueduct was required to bring water for the prodigious water displays. Like its French predecessor, the palace was intended to display the power and grandeur of an absolute Bourbon monarchy. A solecism at Caserta is that above the \"piano reale\", the King's floor, is another floor of equal magnificence. The enfilades of Late Baroque \"saloni\" were the heart and seat of government, as well as displays of national wealth. Caserta provided a royal refuge from the dust and factions of the capital, just as Versailles had freed Louis XIV from Paris. The royal palace has more than 40 monumental rooms completely decorated with frescoes when, in comparison, Versailles counts only 22 monumental rooms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The park.", "content": "The garden, a typical example of the baroque extension of formal vistas, stretches for 120 ha, partly on hilly terrain. It is also inspired by the park of Versailles. The park starts from the back façade of the palace, flanking a long alley with artificial fountains and cascades. There is a botanical garden, called \"The English Garden\", in the upper part designed in the 1780s by Carlo Vanvitelli and the German-born botanist, nurseryman, plantsman-designer, John Graefer, trained in London and recommended to Sir William Hamilton by Sir Joseph Banks. It is an early Continental example of an \"English garden\" in the svelte naturalistic taste of Capability Brown.  The fountains and cascades, each filling a \"vasca\" (basin), with architecture and hydraulics by Luigi Vanvitelli at intervals along a wide straight canal that runs to the horizon, rivalled those at Peterhof outside St. Petersburg. These include:  A large number of figures from classical Antiquity were modelled by Gaetano Salomone for the gardens of the Reggia, and executed by large workshops.  Contemporary observers noted that the Caserta surpassed all other royal palaces in Europe, including its models, on one particular aspect: the combination of completeness and stateliness. This is attributed to the spacious oval piazza in front of the edifice's south side", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "UNESCO World Heritage site.", "content": "The palace was listed as a world heritage site in 1997. According to the rationale, the palace, \"whilst cast in the same mould as other 18th century royal establishments, is exceptional for the broad sweep of its design, incorporating not only an imposing palace and park, but also much of the surrounding natural landscape and an ambitious new town laid out according to the urban planning precepts of its time.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Royal Palace of Caserta ( ) is a former royal residence in Caserta, southern Italy, constructed by the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies as their main residence as kings of Naples. It is the largest palace erected in Europe during the 18th century. In 1997, the palace was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site; its nomination described it as \"the swan song of the spectacular art of the Baroque, from which it adopted all the features needed to create the illusions of multidirectional space\". In terms of volume, the Royal Palace of Caserta is the largest royal residence in the world with over 1 million m3 and covering an area of 47,000 m2.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975780}
{"src_title": "Europa 1400: The Guild", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "Throughout the game, the player may indulge in intrigues, rise to a position in government, and obtain titles. Each title allows the player to upgrade their house by one level, which starts as a hovel and culminates in a palace. Each successively higher title increases the player's influence, allowing such things as sabotage, spying, blackmail, or taking opponents to court.  One of the main features of the title is the good and bad duality present in the various aspects throughout the character's life. The player may bribe people to get them on their side, or they may genuinely like them. The player may kidnap members from rival dynasties or forge alliances with them. This gives the game added replayability, since the scenarios are never the same.  Another prominent quality of \"The Guild\" is the nonlinear gameplay, or, the ability to extend the same game for a very long time if the player is careful and dedicated enough. Every time the player's current character dies, the heir takes his/her place as long as a certain age requirement is met.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Businesses.", "content": "In \"The Guild\", the player may follow whichever career path they choose. These range from Blacksmith to Innkeeper, going through Thief and Money Lender as well as a few others. As the character ages and gets richer, the option to acquire new professions will emerge. In this way, the fourth generation of the player's dynasty might have access to more than four professions, while the first one will have only one. Each profession within a family has its own business establishment.  To run a certain business, it's necessary to possess the respective title given by an \"association\" (a guild of sorts). Titles enable the player to have an establishment but it also determines what type it will be. Titles also come with levels and the higher the player goes on the ladder, the better the businesses available become. The player may only apply for the next level (or first, in case they're not specialized in that job) of the profession when a given criteria is met.  Managing the player's business can be approached in different ways. The player is able to micromanage their businesses, such as by purchasing raw goods, choosing what to manufacture, and setting prices of goods. However, it is not necessary to do this in order to become wealthy. Players are also given the option to hire a manager and have their business run for them by this manager. This usually results in lower profits in the long run. Lastly, the player may assign certain tasks to their manager while retaining other tasks for themself.  In an attempt to keep the realism in the game, cities have limited space to build structures, be they residential houses or businesses. However, should the player choose to, it is possible to buy a property, tear the structure down, and erect a different type of structure. This feature greatly extends the possibilities of the game.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "No matter what city the player chooses, the political structure is always the same. There's a Town Council that contains several different offices in different branches which are in a fixed hierarchy. Every time an office in the immediate upper level to the player's has an opening, the player is given the choice to run for it. When the character has no participation in the Town Council, they may submit their candidacy for the lowest level of office. The people occupying the offices above the one in question vote at the end of the year, and the candidate with the most votes gets elected.  Occupying a certain seat within the Town Council grants the player a set of privileges which are more beneficial as the office goes higher up in the hierarchy. For instance, while a Night Watchman might have the ability to arrest a citizen, a Judge is completely immune to any sort of lawsuit filed against them by their rivals.  Given the benefits that come with being in office, getting voted by their fellow citizens is often a hard feat to accomplish and there's always more than a few candidates to go up against. To get their way, players may opt for several different methods to secure their place, such as bribes, or by running for office where they know a member of their family is going to vote for them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"The Guild\" shipped 100,000 copies in its first week, although it was first erroneously reported as having sold-through this number of units to costumers.  \"Europa 1400\" was a nominee for \"The Electric Playground\"s 2002 \"Best Simulation for PC\" award, but lost to \"\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Europa 1400: The Guild is a simulation game set in Europe from the year 1400 up to 1815. In it, the player tries to guide a family dynasty to power and wealth, starting from one character of limited means. Players can choose from a variety of initial businesses (including iron smith, tavern, church and thieves' guild) and historic cities (including Berlin and London). As the family business and social standing grows, more options become available, even high political rank.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975781}
{"src_title": "Nosy Be", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first human inhabitants of Nosy Be were small bands of Antankarana and Zafinofotsy, before the Sakalava migrated there and became the most numerous ethnic group on the island. These people were joined later by some Comorians, Indians or Antandroy.  Nosy Be made first major appearance in Madagascar's history when King Radama I announced that he intended to conquer the whole west of the red island up to the sea. That plan was eventually achieved when the Sakalava Kingdom of Boina came into his possession in 1837 when Queen Tsiomeko's army was defeated. The French colonized the island from 1840, founding an outpost named Hell-Ville (from French Admiral de Hell). In 1849, slavery was abolished by the French, though the slaves were owned by Malagasies. It caused a Malagasy revolt against the French. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the island was governed by the French as an internal protectorate within the colony of Madagascar. The French used both military force and diplomacy to maintain their position in the island, appointing the former ruler of Nosy Be Binao as the \"gouverneur principal\" of the island. Though it was difficult for the French to control the littoral, they founded a plantation colony in Nosy Be, mainly producing sugar and cash crops. During the Russo-Japanese War Nosy Be became a supply station for Russia's Second Pacific Squadron. The main fleet led by Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky reached Nosy Be on January 9, 1905, where it met a smaller detachment led by Admiral Dmitry von Fölkersam that had arrived already on December 28, 1904. The fleet stayed for two months for refurbishing and coaling, leaving on March 17 to meet its fate ten weeks later at the Battle of Tsushima.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lynching of tourists, 2013.", "content": "The island, like most of Madagascar, suffers from an extreme level of uncertainty linked to crime and violence. Rumours quickly turn into accusations in Madagascar, and lynchings are common, even for allegations related to traffic accidents or theft. On October 3, 2013, the body of an 8-year-old boy was discovered at the beach of Ambatoloaka on the island. The condition of the body was poor after one week in the water, and a rumour was spread that the child had been murdered by Western organ-trafficking tourists. The uncle of the boy, a local named Zaidou, was detained by the local police for questioning, but a violent mob gathered to storm the local jail to punish the supposed murderer.  As the uncle was not found, the anger of the mob turned to the Westerners having been in contact with the person, French tourists Sébastien Judalet and Roberto Gianfalla. Judalet was found and dragged from his hotel to the beach of Ambatoloaka, where the large mob repeatedly hit him with sticks and stones. The police received at least five calls from bystanders or expatriates but did not respond. Two police officers actually joined the mob, one of which who was filming the lynching on his smartphone. After three hours of torture and humiliation, the naked and bleeding tourists were put into car tires and thrown alive into a bonfire on the beach. On the afternoon of October 3, 2013, the uncle Zaidou was found driving on the island. A mob of several hundred quickly lynched him by burning him alive on a public street next to a mosque.  Both events were filmed by the bystanders, publishing the murders on the internet. In spite of this mass of evidence, the local justice took two years of investigation to finally convict 4 members of the mob to lifetime imprisonment and 6 others to shorter sentences; 26 suspects in custody were released without charge as well as the two police officers. A local politician, Joseph Yoland, was accused of inciting the killings on his radio station at the island, but the charges were dropped when the court allegedly was unable to retrieve any recordings of the aired shows that evening. Following the events, the French authorities warned travellers for \"high risk of assaults, that could be extremely violent\", U.S. travellers are also advised \"[to] be aware of the potential for mob violence and ‘popular justice’ that is sometimes directed towards foreign nationals.\". The lynching in Nosy Be is a rare public murder of expatriates in Madagascar; most lynchings concern locals. However, expatriates are frequently subject to kidnapping and extortion, such as the January 2015 kidnapping of a 12-year old French child outside of his school, and two separate kidnappings of French citizens of Indo-Pakistani origin in April 2016 that triggered the intervention of the French police tactical unit GIGN in Madagascar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Nosy Be is located about eight kilometers () from the coast of Madagascar in the Mozambique Channel; several smaller islands are located nearby, including Nosy Komba, Nosy Mitsio, Nosy Sakatia, and Nosy Tanikely. The island's main town is Andoany.  The volcanic island has an area of about, and its highest peak is Mont Lokobe at ; the volcano is of Holocene origin but has not erupted in recorded history. There are eleven volcanic crater lakes on the island.  The island is known for having one of the world's smallest frogs (\"Stumpffia pygmaea\") and chameleon (\"Brookesia minima\"). The Lokobe Reserve is one of Madagascar's five Strict Nature Reserves (\"Réserves Naturelles Intégrales\"). Nosy Be is also home to a specific color of panther chameleon (\"Furcifer pardalis\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Omura's whale.", "content": "Recent studies indicate that adjacent waters around the channel between Nosy Be and Madagascar host a habitat for notable number of Omura's whale, and this has allowed researchers to conduct field studies targeting this rare species for the first time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Nosy Be has a tropical monsoon climate. It is most humid in summer (December, January, February). The Tsaratanana massif partially protects the island from the strong north-east winds affecting the region in August or during tropical depressions. The wet season lasts from October until the beginning of May, followed by a relatively short dry season that lasts through September. As characteristic of its climate however, it still sees moderate amounts of precipitation even during this time. Daytime temperatures remain fairly steady throughout the year, hovering around 30°C (86 °F), while the nights are slightly cooler during the dry season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "The island constitutes a department within Diana Region and is organized as the City of Nosy Be (Commune Urbaine de Nosy Be). Its mayor is Mr. Ali Aboudou.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Once a major location of plantation of sugar cane and production of its derived products (sugar, rum), the island's main activities are now the plantation of ylang-ylang (for the production of essential oils) and tourism. Nosy Be is the most developed tourism destination in Madagascar. This is the only place in Madagascar where all-inclusive large resorts can be found.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "The island is served by Fascene Airport. The airport is serviced by commercial flights with Air Madagascar, Air Austral, Ewa, Ethiopian Airlines, and has direct flights from Europe on Neos. Its main city and harbour, Hell-Ville, can be reached by boat from Ankify.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "French international schools:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns—sister cities.", "content": "Nosy Be is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nosy Be (formerly Nossi-bé and Nosse Be) is an island off the northwest coast of Madagascar. Nosy Be is Madagascar's largest and busiest tourist resort. It has an area of, and its population was officially estimated at 73,010 in 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975782}
{"src_title": "Zostera marina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "This species is the most wide-ranging marine flowering plant in the Northern Hemisphere. It lives in cooler ocean waters in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, and in the warmer southern parts of its range it dies off during warmer seasons. It grows in the Arctic region and endures several months of ice cover per year. It is the only seagrass known from Iceland. It can be found in bays, lagoons, estuaries, on beaches, and in other coastal habitat. The several ecotypes each have specific habitat requirements. It occurs in calmer waters in the sublittoral zone, where it is rarely exposed to air. It anchors via rhizomes in sandy or muddy substrates and its leaves catch particulate debris in the water which then collects around the bases of the plants, building up the top layer of the seabed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description and reproduction.", "content": "This flowering plant is a rhizomatous herb which produces a long stem with hairlike green leaves that measure up to 1.2 cm wide and may reach over 1.0 m long. It is a perennial plant, but it may grow as an annual. The rhizome grows horizontally through the substrate, anchoring via clusters of roots at nodes. The plant is monoecious, with an individual bearing both male and female flowers in separate alternating clusters. The inflorescence is about 10 cm long. The fruit is a nutlet with a transparent coat containing the seed. The plant can also undergo vegetative reproduction, sprouting repeatedly from its rhizome and spreading into a meadow-like colony on the seabed known as a genet. One meadow of cloned eelgrass was determined to be 3000 years old, genetically. When undergoing sexual reproduction, the plant produces large quantities of seeds, at times numbering several thousand seeds per square meter of plants. The plant disperses large distances when its stems break away and carry the fertile seeds to new areas, eventually dropping to the seabed. The seagrass is a favorite food of several species of waterfowl, which may also distribute the seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "This Zostera grows in muddy and sandy shores only at and below spring tides. This plant is an important member of the coastal ecosystem in many areas because it helps to physically form the habitat and it plays a crucial role for many other species. For example, it provides a sheltered spawning ground for the Pacific herring (\"Clupea pallasii\"). Juvenile Atlantic cod (\"Gadus morhua\") hide in eelgrass beds as they grow. The blue mussel (\"Mytilus edulis\") attaches to its leaves. The green alga \"Entocladia perforans\", an endophyte, depends on this eelgrass. A great many animals use the plant for food, including the isopod \"Idotea chelipes\" and the purple sea urchin \"Paracentrotus lividus\". The Atlantic brant (\"Branta bernicula hrota\") subsists almost entirely on the plant. When the eelgrass dies, detaches, and washes up on the beach, a whole new ecosystem is founded; many species of insects and other invertebrates begin to inhabit the dead plant, including the amphipod \"Talitrus saltator\", the fly \"Fucellia tergina\", and the beetles \"Stenus biguttatus\", \"Paederus littoralis\", and \"Coccinella septempunctata\".  The bacterial species \"Granulosicoccus coccoides\" was first isolated from the leaves of the plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "Populations of the plant have been damaged by a number of processes, especially increased turbidity in the water; like most other plants, eelgrass requires sunlight to grow. One plant may adapt to light level by growing longer leaves to reach the sun in low-light areas; individuals in clear or shallow water may have leaves a few centimeters long, while individuals in deeper spots may have leaves over a meter long. Human activities such as dredging and trawling damage eelgrass meadows; practices used in scallop and mussel harvesting in the Wadden Sea have cleared much eelgrass from the sea bottom there. Aquaculture operations and coastal development destroy colonies. Pollution from many sources, including riverside farms, sewage lines, fish processing plants, and oil spills, damage eelgrass meadows. Conservation and restoration efforts of \"Zostera marina\" habitats have been plenty since their rapid decline started several decades ago.  Invasive species have been shown to have a negative effect on eelgrass and associated ecosystems. In Nova Scotia, the invasive exotic green crab (\"Carcinus maenas\") destroys eelgrass when it digs in the substrate for prey items, or by directly eating eelgrass seeds. The decline of eelgrass in Antigonish Harbour has resulted in fewer Canada geese, which feed on the rhizome, and fewer common goldeneye, which eat invertebrates that live in eelgrass meadows.  The slime mold \"Labyrinthula zosterae\" caused a \"wasting disease\" of eelgrass resulting in large-scale losses in the 1930s; localized populations are still affected by the slime mold today. During this time, populations of the eelgrass-eating Atlantic brant dropped. Remaining geese ate less-preferred food plants and algae, and hunters subsequently noticed that brant meat began to taste different. Even today, brants no longer migrate over the Nova Scotia area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genomics and evolutionary adaptations.", "content": "The \"Zostera marina\" genome has been sequenced and analyzed by Olsen \"et al.\" in 2016 and the resulting article has been published in Nature. The approximate genome sequence of \"Z. marina\" is 202.3 Mb and encodes approximately 20450 protein-coding genes (of which 86,6% are supported by trancriptome data). The assembled genome was found to consist of large numbers of repeat elements accounting for 63% of the assembled genome. The researchers revealed key adaptations at the molecular biological level that have occurred during evolution of \"Z. marina\", an angiosperm that has adopted a marine lifestyle. Genome analysis revealed that \"Z. marina\" lost the entire repertoire of stomatal genes, genes involved in volatile compound biosynthesis and signaling (such as ethylene and terpenoids) as well as genes for ultraviolet protection and phytochromes used for far-red sensing. Besides these gene losses, also gene gain events have been described, mostly involving the adjustment to full salinity and ion homeostasis. Also macro-algae like cell wall components (low-methylated polyanionic pectins and sulfated galatans) have been described, unique for \"Z. marina\" compared to other angiosperms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human uses.", "content": "People have long used this plant species as roof thatching in some areas. It has been used as fertilizer and cattle fodder in Norway for centuries. It has also been dried and used as stuffing for mattresses and furniture.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zostera marina is a species of seagrass known by the common names common eelgrass and seawrack. It is an aquatic plant native to marine environments on the coastlines of mostly northern sections of North America and Eurasia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975783}
{"src_title": "Nguyễn Văn Thuận", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Thuận was born in Huế in 1928, the son of Nguyễn Văn Ấm and Elizabeth Ngô Đình Thị Hiệp, daughter of Ngô Đình Khả. He joined the seminary at An Ninh as a teenager, and was ordained a priest on 11 June 1953, by Monsignor Jean-Baptiste Urrutia. After six years of further studies in Rome, he was appointed in 1959–1967 as a faculty member and rector of the Seminary of Hoan Thiện, Huế.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Episcopal career.", "content": "He was appointed Bishop of Nha Trang on 13 April 1967 and received episcopal consecration on 4 June 1967 at Huế from Angelo Palmas, Apostolic Delegate to Viêt Nam (and later Nuncio to Colombia and to Canada), assisted by Bishops Philippe Nguyễn Kim Dien, Apostolic Administrator, \"sede plena\", of Huế, and Jean-Baptiste Urrutia, titular archbishop of Carpato. On 24 April 1975, he was appointed Coadjutor Archbishop of Saigon. Six days later, Saigon fell to the North Vietnamese Army, and Thuận, targeted for his faith as well as his family connections to Ngô Đình Diệm, was detained by the communist government of Vietnam in a re-education camp for 13 years, nine in solitary confinement.  In prison, he smuggled out messages to his people on scraps of paper. The brief reflections, copied by hand and circulated within the Vietnamese community, have been printed in the book, \"The Road of Hope\". Through a network of influential Overseas Vietnamese, including dignitaries, like his former classmate Monsignor Trần Văn Hoài, \"The Road of Hope\" was distributed worldwide. Another book, \"Prayers of Hope\", contains his prayers written in prison. The bishop fashioned a tiny Bible out of scraps of paper. Sympathetic guards smuggled in a piece of wood and some wire from which he crafted a small crucifix.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In exile.", "content": "On 21 November 1988, Thuận was released by the communist government but kept under house arrest in the archbishop's house in Hanoi, impeded from returning to his see, Hồ Chí Minh City. He was allowed to visit Rome in 1991 but not to return. The following year, he was given a post at the International Catholic Commission for Migration in Geneva, Switzerland. On 24 November 1994, he was appointed President of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, and at the same time resigned from his post of Coadjutor Archbishop of Sai Gon. As President of the Pontifical Council, he handled issues such as Third World debt. In 1995, he was appointed Postulator of the Cause of Beatification of Brother Nguyễn Tan Văn, also known as Marcel Van. On 21 February 2001, Thuận was created a Cardinal Deacon of \"Santa Maria della Scala\". He died of cancer in a clinic in Rome, Italy, on 16 September 2002, at the age of 74.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "On 16 September 2007, the fifth anniversary of the cardinal's death, the Roman Catholic Church began the beatification process for Thuận.  Pope Benedict XVI expressed \"profound joy\" at news of the official opening of the beatification cause. Roman Catholics in Vietnam also positively received the news on beatification process opening for the cardinal. In the words of a catechist from the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Hồ Chí Minh City, \"Nguyễn Văn Thuận is an example of holiness for Vietnamese Catholics and for the entire world.\"  In his 2007 encyclical, \"Spe Salvi\", Benedict XVI referred to Thuận's \"Prayers of Hope\", saying:  During thirteen years in jail, in a situation of seemingly utter hopelessness, the fact that he could listen and speak to God became for him an increasing power of hope, which enabled him, after his release, to become for people all over the world a witness to hope—to that great hope which does not wane even in the nights of solitude.  Dr. Waldery Hilgeman is Postulator of the Cause for Thuận's canonization.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phanxicô Xaviê Nguyễn Văn Thuận or Francis-Xavier Nguyễn Văn Thuận (; 17 April 1928 – 16 September 2002), was a Cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church. He was a nephew of South Vietnam's first president, Ngô Đình Diệm, and of Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975784}
{"src_title": "Germaine of Foix", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Queenship.", "content": "Following the death of his wife, Isabella I, in 1504, Ferdinand had to yield the government of Castile to his son-in-law Philip of Burgundy (1478–1506), who assumed power in the name of his wife Joanna (1479–1555), Isabella's heiress. Ferdinand objected to Philip's policies and to prevent Philip from gaining Aragon through Joanna, he sought to have a male heir with a new wife. A new male heir would displace Joanna (and by extension her husband) from the line of succession. He negotiated with King Louis XII of France for a marriage, hoping to gain accession to the throne of Navarre. At the Treaty of Blois, Louis agreed to have his niece Germaine of Foix marry Ferdinand; Germaine was Louis' niece (daughter of his sister) and Ferdinand's grandniece (granddaughter of his half-sister). Louis XII also ceded in the treaty his weak claim to the Kingdom of Naples (already controlled by Aragon) and Kingdom of Jerusalem (controlled by neither) to his niece, conditional on a male child being produced. The marriage, between Ferdinand (aged 54) and Germaine (aged 18), took place in March 1506. A short truce and brief alliance between the two kings resulted, despite several wars before and after the Treaty.  In 1506 Philip of Burgundy died and Ferdinand became regent of Castile for his mentally unstable daughter Joanna. Ferdinand and Germaine did have a son, John, Prince of Girona on 3 May 1509, but he died shortly after birth. Despite the use of love potions, they did not have another. If John had lived, then the Crown of Aragon would have split from the Crown of Castile once again (after being semi-unified by Ferdinand and Isabella's marriage). This included Aragon, Valencia, Majorca, and Catalonia in Spain, and the Kingdom of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia in the Italian peninsula and the Tyrrhenian Sea. With Juan's death, both Castile and Aragon would eventually go to Ferdinand and Isabella's daughter Joanna.  Ferdinand's diplomatic deviousness and off-and-on alliances with France infuriated Henry VIII of England (born 1491, reigned 1509–1547), married to Ferdinand and Isabella's youngest daughter, Catherine of Aragon (1485–1536). Seeing this match devalued, Henry in 1514 forced his sister Mary (1496–1533) into a loveless marriage with Louis XII to spite Ferdinand. Louis XII died the next year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death of Ferdinand and Succession of Charles V.", "content": "Ferdinand died after two years of health problems in 1516, leaving Germaine a widow. Ferdinand's successors were Joanna and her son Charles V. Ferdinand did, however, leave Germaine a yearly income of 50,000 gold florins, and exhorted his grandson Charles V in his last letter not to abandon her.  In 1517, Charles V moved from the Netherlands to Castile as the new King of Castile and Aragon. Germaine moved from Aragon to Castile to join his court as well, where the 17-year-old king took well to his 29-year-old stepgrandmother. He organized several tournaments and banquets in her honor. On 20 August 1518, Germaine gave birth in Valencia to a daughter, Isabel. It is widely speculated among historians that Charles V was Isabel's father; Germaine refers to her in her will as the \"Infanta Isabel\", a title that would usually only be given to the daughter of a King.  Charles V, Germaine, and Charles V's sister Eleanor moved from Castile to Aragon in 1519, where he would be formally sworn in as King of Aragon. He would spend a year in Aragon, negotiating with its parliament and managing affairs. While in Barcelona, Charles V arranged for Germaine to marry the margrave Johann of Brandenburg-Ansbach, a landless cadet and cousin of Joachim I, Elector of Brandenburg. Germaine left Spain to travel with Charles V to Germany, where she was married.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vicereine of Valencia.", "content": "In 1523 Charles V appointed the couple jointly viceroys of Valencia. There Germaine, recently returned to Spain, dealt with the fallout of the Revolt of the Brotherhoods by the Valencian guilds (\"Germanies\"). Germaine favored harsh treatment of the \"agermanats\"; she is thought to have signed the death warrants of 100 former rebels personally, and sources indicate that as many as 800 executions may have occurred in total. This undid the more lenient policy of Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, who had favored reconciliation with the rebels. In December 1524, Germaine signed a pardon that officially ended the persecution of all former participants in the rebellion. However, fines imposed on the guilds and guild-aligned cities as punishment would take many years to be repaid.  It is maintained by Valencian historians that the fact that Germaine moved her court to Valencia was the first step in the degradation of social prestige of the Valencian language in the Kingdom of Valencia, as the higher classes started favouring Castilian/Spanish over their native language to please her.  Next year after Johann's death in 1525, Germaine married Ferdinand, Duke of Calabria, a son of King Frederick IV of Naples (1496–1501) by his second wife Isabella del Balzo. The two continued as viceroys of Valencia and were patrons of the arts and music. Germaine also encouraged the slow integration of Valencia with Castilian-dominated Spain as a whole.  Germaine died on 15 October 1536 in Liria, probably due to obesity related edema, and was interred in the Monastery of San Miguel de los Reyes. The Duke of Calabria continued in office until his death in 1550.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Germaine of Foix (; ; 1488 – 15 October 1536) was queen consort of Aragon as the second wife of Ferdinand II of Aragon, whom she married in 1506 after the death of his first wife, Isabella I of Castile in 1504.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975785}
{"src_title": "Agaléga", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "There are three different explanations for the name Agaléga. One hypothesis is that the Portuguese explorer, Dom Pedro Mascarenhas, named Agaléga and the island of Sainte Marie (off the east coast of Madagascar) in honor of his two sailboats, the \"Galega\" and the \"Santa Maria\" in 1512, when he discovered Mauritius and Réunion Island.  Another, more probable explanation relates to the Galician explorer João da Nova, who discovered the islands in 1501 while working for the Portuguese. João was popularly known by his sailors as \"João Galego\", according to Jean-Baptiste Benoît Eyriès' \"Les Nouvelles Annales de Voyage\" (Volume 38, page 88). \"Galego\" is the Galician/Portuguese word for someone from Galicia, North West Spain, and \"Agalega\", is derived from the feminine version of this (\"a\" is the feminine article in Galician/Portuguese, and Galician \"illa\" for \"island\" is feminine, so \"a [illa] galega\" would mean \"the Galician [Island]\").  A further idea comes from a story in Sir Robert Scott's book \"Limuria: The Lesser Dependencies of Mauritius\", where he describes the 1509 discovery of the Islands by the Portuguese mariner Diogo Lopes de Sequeira. According to this version, Diogo named the Islands Baixas da Gale, with the \"da Gale\" referring to putative gale-force winds hypothetically modelling the coasts of both islands. Scott suggests that maps of the region represented the islands initially as Gale, metamorphosing into Galera, Galega and finally Agalega.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "As with the Mascarene islands, they may have been known to Arab and Malay sailors, although no written records have been found to confirm this. Agalega, or Galega, was examined by Captain Briggs of HMS Clorinde, on the 12th of January, 1811, who seems to have fixed its situation correctly, which was previously not well ascertained. The landing was found difficult on account of the heavy surf, the island being surrounded by a reef. A person who formerly had commanded a French privateer, was at this time settled on the island, having under him a colony of negroes (sic), who cultivated part of the ground with maize and wheat.  The first settlement on the islands was founded by M. de Rosemond. Upon his arrival in August 1808, he discovered the bodies of two castaways and a bottle containing notes written by one of them, the privateer Robert Dufour. The only mountain on the islands, Montagne d'Emmerez (in reality no more than a hill), derives its name from the second wrecked sailor, Adelaide d'Emmerez, a Mauritian.  Economic, infrastructural and political development of the islands didn't begin until the arrival of Auguste Le Duc in 1827, a French administrator sent by M. Barbé to organise production of coconut oil and copra. There still exists a number of historical monuments dating from the period 1827 to 1846, made by slaves: the village Vingt-Cinq (named after the 25 lashes that were given to rebellious slaves), the Slave Dungeons, an Oil Mill, a cemetery for Blacks and a cemetery for Whites, among others. Auguste Le Duc also began construction of a bridge between the two islands, although it was swept away by severe weather.  Father Victor Malaval brought the Catholic Church to the islands in 1897 as the first missionary. An improvised chapel was built on the South Island.  The origin of inhabitants has been highly influenced by the political situation in the world in the nineteenth century (Mauritius, which passed to the English in 1810, the abolition of the slave trade, abolition of slavery in 1835, and the arrival of unskilled Asian labourers. The slaves themselves were of Malagasy origin, or from Madras in India, while some were freed from slaving ships while others were from the trading ports of the Comoros Islands.  Legends such as \"Calèche Blanc\" and \"Princesse Malgache\" are part of the folklore of the islands, as well as the coded language of \"Madam langaz Seret\" which has come down from the time of slaves. This language is a mixture of French and Mauritian Creole where every syllable is doubled with the first consonants replaced by the \"g\" (e.g. \"Français\" becomes \"frangrançaisgais\"). The origin and purpose of this language remains unclear.  Today, the population consists of around 300 people, known locally as Agaléens, who speak Creole. Catholicism is the dominant religion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "North Island is long and wide while South Island is long and wide. The total area of both islands is. The soil is likely coral. The culmination is at the top of the hill Emmer on the island in the north. The climate is hot and humid and the average annual temperature is, ranging from a minimum of and a maximum of. April is the hottest month of the year. The tropical climate is conducive to the development of mangrove and coconut trees that cover the two islets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Agaléga is managed by a company of the State of Mauritius, the Outer Island Development Company (OIDC), a company which develops remote islands. The company delegates a Resident Manager, a kind of steward, who is the supreme authority on the two islets. The economy of the archipelago is based primarily on the exportation of coconut oil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infrastructure.", "content": "Most homes are in the main villages of Vingt-Cinq and Les Fourchettes on the North Island, and St. Rita on the South Island. The road connecting the different localities is sandy and coral. The North Island is home to an airstrip, a government primary school \"Jacques Le Chartier\", the police station, the weather station, the central telecommunications office (Mauritius Telecom) and the health service. There is no running water on the island. Drinking water comes from rainwater collected by gutters. Water for other uses is sourced from wells. Electricity is supplied by generators running on diesel, with supply limited to certain hours. The company that manages the remote islands, such as Agaléga and St Brandon, is working on a project to ensure power supply to these islands, via submarine connection.  Agaléga is connected to Mauritius by air and sea. The airstrip on the island in the north allows takeoff and landing of small aircraft. There is no functional port on the islands, only a pier at St James Anchorage on the island's north. Vessels of the Mauritius Shipping Corporation (the Pride Mauritius and the Mauritius Trochetia) cast anchor about from this place, in the deep sea, during refueling.  The health service is provided by a health officer and a midwife. Doctors from Mauritius make short tours throughout the year. The Agaléens also receive a visit from a magistrate during the year.  For education, there is a primary school for the young, but pupils then continue their education in secondary schools in Mauritius.  India plans to develop strategic assets in this island. India signed an MoU with Mauritius for setting up and upgrading infrastructure for improving sea and air connectivity for Agalega which will go a long way in ameliorating the condition of the inhabitants of this remote island. These facilities are also expected to enhance the capabilities of the Mauritian defense forces in safeguarding their interests in the island.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agaléga () are two outer islands of Mauritius located in the Indian Ocean, about north of Mauritius island. The population of the islands as at July 2011 was estimated at 300. The islands have a total area of. The North island is long and wide, while the South island is long and wide. The North Island is home to the islands' airstrip and the capital Vingt Cinq. The islands are known for their coconuts, the production of which is their main industry, and for the Agalega day gecko.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975786}
{"src_title": "Maria Josepha of Saxony, Dauphine of France", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Maria Josepha was born on 4 November 1731 in Dresden Castle to Augustus III, Prince-Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, and Maria Josepha of Austria. Maria Josepha was the ninth of sixteen children and the fifth daughter.  Dauphin Louis, eldest son of King Louis XV of France, was widowed on 22 July 1746 when his wife, Maria Teresa Rafaela, died giving birth to their only child, a daughter named after herself. King Ferdinand VI of Spain, Maria Teresa Rafaela's half-brother, had offered the Dauphin another Spanish princess, Maria Antonietta. Instead, the King of France and his all-powerful mistress Madame de Pompadour wanted to open up diplomatic channels.  The marriage between Maria Josepha and the Dauphin had first been suggested by her uncle Maurice de Saxe. Louis XV and his mistress were convinced that the marriage would be advantageous to French foreign affairs. France and Saxony had been on opposing sides in the recent War of the Austrian Succession and thus the marriage between the Saxon princess and the Dauphin would form a new alliance between the two nations. There was one problem with the suggested bride: Maria Josepha's grandfather Augustus II of Poland had deposed Stanisław I Leszczyński from the Polish throne. Leszczyński was the father of Maria Leszczyńska, Louis XV's wife and mother of the Dauphin. The marriage was said to have humiliated the simple-living Queen, even though she and Maria Josepha would later get on well.  Other proposals came from Savoy in the form of Princess Eleonora of Savoy or her sister Maria Luisa of Savoy. Both were refused. Despite the disapproval of the Queen, Maria Josepha married the Dauphin on 9 February 1747.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dauphine.", "content": "Prior to the marriage, tradition demanded that the bride wear a bracelet which had a picture of her father on it; the Queen seeing the Dauphine asked to see the bracelet. The witty Maria Josepha then revealing the bracelet to the Queen showed a portrait of the Queen's father. The Dauphine said that the portrait represented the fact that the Duke of Lorraine was Maria Josepha's grandfather by marriage. The Queen and the court were strongly impressed by the tact of this girl of 15 years. The Dauphine was also very close to her father-in-law Louis XV.  At the time of the marriage, the Dauphin was still grieving for his Spanish wife. This grief was very public on the part of the Dauphin but Maria Josepha was praised greatly for her conquering the heart of the Dauphin \"bit by bit\". Despite Maria Josepha being the patient wife, the Dauphin's grief worsened in April 1748 when his only child with the Infanta died at the age of two. The Dauphin was deeply affected by the child's death. Maria Josepha later commissioned a painting (now lost) of her stepdaughter to be left over her cradle.  The new Dauphine was very grateful to Madame de Pompadour for helping arrange her marriage, and always maintained a good relationship with the royal mistress.  Like her husband, Maria Josepha was very devout. Together with her mother-in-law, she formed a counterbalance to the libertine behaviour of her father-in-law and his court. The couple were not fond of the various entertainments held at Versailles every week, preferring to stay in their apartments which can still be seen on the ground floor of Versailles overlooking the \"Orangerie\".  The couple's first child was a daughter, born in 1750 on the feast day of Saint Zephyrinus and named Marie Zéphyrine. The birth was greeted with much joy by her parents even though Louis XV had been disappointed the child was not a male. She died in 1755. Their second child, Louis, was born on 15 September 1751. The royal couple concentrated so much time and energy on their eldest son that their other children suffered from neglect. He died on 22 March 1761 after having fallen from a toy horse. He started limping and a tumour began to grow on his hip. This was operated on, but he never recovered the use of his legs. The couple's second son, Xavier, was born in 1753, and died a year later. As a result, their third son, Louis Auguste, born on 23 August 1754, became second in line to the French throne after his father.  Thanks to Maria Josepha's close relationship with the King and the Dauphin, the relationship between father and son was soon repaired. The Dauphin was at the center of the \"Dévots\", a group of religious-minded men who hoped to gain power when he succeeded to the throne. They were against the way Louis XV openly had affairs at court in blatant view of the Queen. Naturally they were not popular with Louis XV.  Her father-in-law named his loving daughter-in-law \"la triste Pepa\"; in 1756, Frederick II of Prussia invaded her native Saxony and that started the Seven Years' War, which France later joined. Politically reserved, she exerted herself only once, in 1762, in vain, for the preservation of the Society of Jesus in France. The Society had been dissolved by order of the Parlement of Paris, inspired by Jansenist magistrates, against the will of the King.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "The death of her husband, on 20 December 1765, dealt Maria Josepha a devastating blow from which she never recovered, sinking into a deep depression which lasted till her own death 15 months later. To save her the torment of remaining with memories of her dead husband, Louis XV re-arranged the allocation of apartments within Versailles, so that Maria Josepha moved out of the apartments that she had shared with her husband and into the apartments of Madame de Pompadour, who had died in 1764. There, the king visited her more than he had in the past, paid her many kind attentions, and discussed with her the possible wedding of her son, the new dauphin. Maria Josepha was not pleased with the idea of her eldest son marrying a daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, in whose favour Maria Josepha's own mother (a cousin of Maria Theresa) had been disinherited.  Soon, Maria Josepha's health declined. She died on 13 March 1767 of tuberculosis, and was buried in the Cathedral of Saint-Étienne in Sens. The marriage of her son, the future Louis XVl, with Maria Theresa's daughter Marie Antoinette was celebrated three years later.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Josepha of Saxony (Maria Josepha Karolina Eleonore Franziska Xaveria; 4 November 1731 – 13 March 1767) was a Dauphine of France from the age of fifteen through her marriage to Louis de France, the son and heir of Louis XV. Marie Josèphe was the mother of three kings of France, including Louis XVI, as well as Madame Élisabeth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975787}
{"src_title": "Onobrychis viciifolia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biological, ecological and biochemical properties.", "content": "The genus \"Onobrychis\" comprises 54 different species of which \"O. viciifolia\" is of greatest agronomic importance. Two different agricultural types of \"O. viciifolia\" are known. The single-cut type is characterized by a vegetative regrowth after cutting and its origin is in Europe. A generative regrowth after cutting is typical for the second or the double-cut type. Originated in the Middle East the double-cut type grows larger than the single-cut type. Compared to other forage legumes both types are weak in competition and their regrowth after mowing is considered to be low. Also the yields of common sainfoin are significantly lower than those of alfalfa and clover.  In terms of symbiotic nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere, common sainfoin is not as specific as other legumes. A relatively broad range of rhizobia genera is able to colonize the roots of \"O. viciifolia\". The common sainfoin is an open pollinating plant, mainly pollinated by nectar feeding insects. Therefore, \"O. viciifolia\" is a promising crop to enhance biodiversity within agro-ecosystems. This pollination biology leads to certain difficulties in breeding programs resulting in a low number of registered cultivars. The leaves of common sainfoin contain high levels of condensed tannins. This content can be more than five times higher than in clover species or alfalfa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beneficial aspects in animal production.", "content": "An animal diet containing common sainfoin is able to reduce nematode (e.g. \"Haemonchus contortus\") parasitism in ruminant’s guts. Due to the high levels of condensed tannins, the fecundity of nematodes and the number of their eggs in the ruminant’s digestive system are reduced. Especially in goat and sheep production systems feeding of \"O. viciifolia\" is a promising alternative or complement to synthetic drugs. Besides these anthelmintic properties diets containing common sainfoin can lead to increasing daily weight gains of small ruminants. Also milk quantity and quality of these animals are not negatively affected by \"O. viciifolia\" intake. Furthermore, various studies showed that the voluntary intake of sainfoin was comparable or even higher than the intake of alfalfa or clover species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation of \"O. viciifolia\".", "content": "To reach high levels of condensed tannins common sainfoin should be sown in pure culture. Due to its low competitiveness, weed infestation has to be controlled, especially in the first year. Normally fertilizer applications are not needed to reach satisfying yields. Nevertheless, slurry or phosphate applications can promote initial growth. Pests and diseases are almost never a serious problem. Frost and drought tolerance of common sainfoin is higher than in other forage legumes such as alfalfa or different clover species. In contrast \"O. viciifolia\" is much more intolerant to water logging than other forage legumes. Therefore, clayey soils with a bad drainage should be avoided. Also acidic soils are not appropriate for the cultivation of common sainfoin.  Seedbed preparation and sowing procedure are done in a similar manner and with the same machinery as for cereal cultivation. Around 800 seeds per square meter should be sown on a weed free seedbed between spring and late summer. In the year of establishment common sainfoin can be cut twice a year. Afterwards up to four cuts per growing season are possible. Careful moving is important to minimize disintegration losses. Common sainfoin can be stored and fed to animals in the form of hay, pellets or silage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Onobrychis viciifolia, also known as O. sativa or common sainfoin has been an important forage legume in temperate regions until the 1950s. During the Green Revolution it was replaced by high yielding alfalfa and clover species. Due to its anthelmintic properties the common sainfoin is a natural alternative to drugs to control nematode parasitism in the guts of small ruminants. This is the main reason why \"O. viciifolia\" came back to the scientific agenda during the last years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975788}
{"src_title": "Jason LaBarbera", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amateur.", "content": "As a youth, LaBarbera played in the 1993 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with a minor ice hockey team from Langley, British Columbia.  LaBarbera played major junior ice hockey in the Western Hockey League (WHL) primarily with the Portland Winter Hawks for four seasons and briefly with the Tri-City Americans and Spokane Chiefs. He was drafted by the New York Rangers in the 1998 NHL Entry Draft in the third round, 66th overall.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New York Rangers (2000-2005).", "content": "LaBarbera saw his first NHL action with the New York Rangers in his first season out of junior in relief of Kirk McLean, his childhood hero, on October 14, 2000. He recorded two saves in ten minutes of play in an 8–6 loss to the Pittsburgh Penguins. He spent his first four seasons with the Rangers' organization, however, in the minor leagues with the Charlotte Checkers of the ECHL and the Hartford Wolf Pack of the American Hockey League (AHL). The 2003–04 season brought an increase in playing time for LaBarbera with the Rangers. In the midst of a spectacular season with the Wolf Pack, which culminated in a Les Cunningham Award as AHL MVP and an Aldege \"Baz\" Bastien Memorial Award as top goaltender, he was called up to the Rangers and played in four games that season. LaBarbera recorded a 1–2–0 record, 4.85 goals against average (GAA) and a.824 save percentage during his brief stint. His lone NHL victory that season, the first of his career, was a 3–2 win over the Washington Capitals on March 5, 2004.  Continuing to play with the Wolf Pack during the 2004–05 NHL lockout, LaBarbera earned the Harry \"Hap\" Holmes Memorial Award for allowing the fewest goals in the League.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Los Angeles Kings (2005-2008).", "content": "Despite another successful season in the AHL, the Rangers did not re-sign LaBarbera, presumably due to the Rangers' deep depth in goal, with standout draft picks Henrik Lundqvist and Al Montoya in the team's pipeline. Instead, he signed as a free agent with the Los Angeles Kings in the off-season.  LaBarbera's first full season in the NHL was spent backing-up Kings starting goaltender Mathieu Garon. He got off to a quick start with the Kings, going undefeated in his first seven starts. LaBarbera earned his first career NHL shutout on April 17, 2006, blanking the San Jose Sharks in a 4–0 victory. In 2006–07, LaBarbera played for the Kings' minor league affiliate, the Manchester Monarchs, in the AHL. Despite injuries to Kings goaltenders Mathieu Garon and Dan Cloutier during the season, the Kings were hesitant to recall LaBarbera because he was waiver eligible, which required him to clear waivers in order to be recalled and demoted, making it likely that he would be claimed by another team. LaBarbara completed the season with the Monarchs and earned the second Harry Holmes Memorial Award and Aldege Bastien Memorial Award of his AHL career. In the off-season, LaBarbera re-signed with the Kings to a two-year contract on July 3, 2007. LaBarbera earned more playing time in 2007–08, appearing in a career-high 45 games with a 3.00 GAA and a.910 save percentage.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Vancouver Canucks (2008-2009).", "content": "The following season, on December 30, 2008, LaBarbera was traded to his hometown team, the Vancouver Canucks, in exchange for a seventh-round draft pick in 2009, a trade resulting in the emergence of rookie goaltender Jonathan Quick. The Canucks dealt for LaBarbera in light of injuries to Roberto Luongo and backup Curtis Sanford. LaBarbara earned his first win with the Canucks in his club debut, making 31 saves in a 2–1 victory over the Nashville Predators on January 1, 2009.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Phoenix Coyotes (2009-2013).", "content": "LaBarbera was signed to a two-year, $2 million contract by the Phoenix Coyotes to back-up Coyotes starter Ilya Bryzgalov on July 1, 2009. LaBarbara compiled a total record of 15–11–4 in his first two seasons in Phoenix. On June 6, 2011, he was re-signed by the Coyotes to another two-year contract.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Edmonton Oilers (2013).", "content": "On July 5, 2013, during the free agency period of 2013, LaBarbera signed a one-year, $1 million deal with the Edmonton Oilers. He competed with Richard Bachman to be the backup to starter Devan Dubnyk. After Bachman was injured, then sent down to Edmonton's AHL affiliate, LaBarbera won the backup job in Edmonton.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Chicago Blackhawks (2013-2014).", "content": "On December 14, 2013, LaBarbera was traded to the Chicago Blackhawks in exchange for future considerations. LaBarbera never appeared in a game for the Blackhawks. Instead, he went (15-15-2) with the Rockford Icehogs, the team's AHL affiliate.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Anaheim Ducks (2014-2015).", "content": "On July 1, 2014, the Anaheim Ducks signed LaBarbera as a free agent to a one-year, $750,000 contract. He attended the Ducks' training camp before ultimately being assigned to their AHL affiliate, the Norfolk Admirals, after clearing waivers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Philadelphia Flyers (2015-2016).", "content": "On July 2, 2015, LaBarbera signed a one-year, two-way contract with the Philadelphia Flyers. He never appeared for the Flyers, but rather spent the entire season in the AHL with the Lehigh Valley Phantoms.  On July 19, 2016, LaBarbera announced his retirement from professional hockey after 16 seasons, in accepting a role in the Western Hockey League as the goaltending coach of the Calgary Hitmen.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "LaBarbera and his wife Kodette are the parents of two sons, Ryder and Easton. Ryder was diagnosed with autism. Kodette starred in the Canadian W Network TV show \"Hockey Wives\" and talked about her son's autism treatment program in Calgary, Alberta.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Antonio Jason LaBarbera (born January 18, 1980) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey goaltender who played parts of 11 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975789}
{"src_title": "Stateful firewall", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Stateful firewall technology was introduced by Check Point Software with the FireWall-1 product in 1994.  Before the development of stateful firewalls, firewalls were \"stateless\". A stateless firewall treats each network frame or packet individually. Such packet filters operate at the OSI Network Layer (layer 3) and function more efficiently because they only look at the header part of a packet. They do not keep track of the packet context such as the nature of the traffic. Such a firewall has no way of knowing if any given packet is part of an existing connection, is trying to establish a new connection or is just a rogue packet. Modern firewalls are connection-aware (or state-aware), offering network administrators finer-grained control of network traffic.  The classic example of a network operation that may fail with a stateless firewall is the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). By design, such protocols need to be able to open connections to arbitrary high ports to function properly. Since a stateless firewall has no way of knowing that the packet destined to the protected network (to some host's destination port 4970, for example) is part of a legitimate FTP session, it will drop the packet. Stateful firewalls with application inspection solve this problem by maintaining a table of open connections, inspecting the payload of some packets and intelligently associating new connection requests with existing legitimate connections.  Early attempts at producing firewalls operated at the application layer, which is the very top of the seven-layer OSI model. This method required exorbitant amounts of computing power and is not commonly used in modern implementations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "A stateful firewall keeps track of the state of network connections (such as TCP streams or UDP communication) and is able to hold significant attributes of each connection in memory. These attributes are collectively known as the state of the connection and may include such details as the IP addresses and ports involved in the connection and the sequence numbers of the packets traversing the connection. Stateful inspection monitors incoming and outgoing packets over time, as well as the state of the connection, and stores the data in dynamic state tables. This cumulative data is evaluated so that filtering decisions would not only be based on administrator-defined rules, but also on context that has been built by previous connections as well as previous packets belonging to the same connection.  The most CPU intensive checking is performed at the time of setup of the connection. Entries are created only for TCP connections or UDP streams that satisfy a defined security policy. After that, all packets (for that session) are processed rapidly because it is simple and fast to determine whether it belongs to an existing, pre-screened session. Packets associated with these sessions are permitted to pass through the firewall. Sessions that do not match any policy are denied, as packets that do not match an existing table entry.  In order to prevent the state table from filling up, sessions will time out if no traffic has passed for a certain period. These stale connections are removed from the state table. Many applications, therefore, send keepalive messages periodically in order to stop a firewall from dropping the connection during periods of no user-activity, though some firewalls can be instructed to send these messages for applications.  Depending on the connection protocol, maintaining a connection's state is more or less complex for the firewall. For example, TCP is inherently a stateful protocol as connections are established with a three-way handshake (\"SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK\") and ended with a \"FIN, FIN-ACK, ACK\" exchange. This means that all packets with \"SYN\" in their header received by the firewall are interpreted to open new connections. If the service requested by the client is available on the server, it will respond with a \"SYN-ACK\" packet which the firewall will also track. Once the firewall receives the client's \"ACK\" response, it transfers the connection to the \"ESTABLISHED\" state as the connection has been authenticated bidirectionally. This allows tracking of future packets through the established connection. Simultaneously, the firewall drops all packets which are not associated with an existing connection recorded in its state table (or \"SYN\" packets), preventing unsolicited connections with the protected machine by black hat hacking.  Other connection protocols, namely UDP and ICMP, are not based on bidirectional connections like TCP, making a stateful firewall somewhat less secure. In order to track a connection state in these cases, a firewall must transfer sessions to the ESTABLISHED state after seeing the first valid packet. It can then only track the connection through addresses and ports of the following packets' source and destination. Unlike TCP connections, which can be closed by a \"FIN, ACK\" exchange, these connectionless protocols allow a session to end only by time-out. This, for example, enables UDP hole punching.  By keeping track of the connection state, stateful firewalls provide added efficiency in terms of packet inspection. This is because for existing connections the firewall need only check the state table, instead of checking the packet against the firewall's rule set, which can be extensive. Additionally, in the case of a match with the state table, the firewall does not need to perform deep packet inspection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application-level filters.", "content": "Packet filtering alone is not regarded as providing enough protection. In order to effectively block peer-to-peer-related network traffic, what is needed is a firewall that does \"application filtering\", which can be regarded as an extension to stateful packet inspection. Stateful packet inspection can determine what type of protocol is being sent over each port, but application-level filters look at what a protocol is being used for. For example, an application-level filter might be able to tell the difference between HTTP traffic used to access a Web page and HTTP traffic used for file sharing, whereas a firewall that is only performing packet filtering would treat all HTTP traffic equally.  Application layer firewalls are generally slower than stateful inspection. Application-layer firewalls are sometimes implemented using application proxies. Two TCP connections are established: one between the packet source and the firewall, another between the firewall and the packet destination. Application proxies intercept arriving packets on behalf of the destination, examine application payload, and then relay permitted packets to the destination. Suspicious data is dropped and the client and server never communicate directly with each other. Proxies necessarily involve more protocol stack overhead than inspecting packets at the network layer. Furthermore, because a unique proxy is required for each application, proxy firewalls can be less flexible and slower to upgrade than stateful inspection firewalls. Nevertheless, because application-level proxies are application-aware, the proxies can more easily handle complex protocols like H.323 or SIP, which are used for videoconferencing and VoIP (Voice over IP).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pitfalls.", "content": "There is a risk that vulnerabilities in individual protocol decoders could allow an attacker to gain control over the firewall. This concern highlights the need to keep firewall software updated.  Some stateful firewalls also raise the possibility that individual hosts can be tricked into soliciting outside connections. This possibility can only be completely eliminated by auditing the host software. Some firewalls can be defeated in this way by simply viewing a web page (either with JavaScript enabled or after clicking on a button).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computing, a stateful firewall is a network firewall that tracks the operating state and characteristics of network connections traversing it. The firewall is configured to distinguish legitimate network packets for different types of connections. Only packets matching a known active connection are allowed to pass the firewall. In contrast, a stateless firewall does not take context into account when determining whether to allow or block packets.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975790}
{"src_title": "Nordahl Grieg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Nordahl Grieg was born in Bergen, Norway. He was the son of Peter Lexau Grieg (1864–1924) and Helga Vollan (1869–1946). He was the brother of Norwegian publisher Harald Grieg (1894–1972) and was distantly related to composer Edvard Grieg. In 1940, he married actress Gerd Egede-Nissen (1895–1988).  He studied at the Royal Frederick University (now the University of Oslo) and spent time travelling abroad, sometimes as a tourist and sometimes as a sailor. Receiving the 1924 Norway Scholarship, Grieg spent a year at Wadham College at Oxford, England, studying history and literature. At least one of Grieg's poems, \"Kapellet i Wadham College\" was inspired by his stay there, where he was a contemporary of Cecil Day-Lewis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poet, playwright and journalist.", "content": "Grieg debuted in 1922 with his first book of poetry \"Omkring Kap det gode Haab\", based on his seagoing experiences - as was \"Skibet gaar videre\" (1924). The latter book aroused controversy for its exposure of sailors' harsh living and working conditions.  Grieg spent 1927 as a newspaper correspondent in China, where he witnessed firsthand the civil war between the Kuomintang and the Communists. The same year Grieg's plays \"En ung manns Kjaerlighet\" and \"Barabbas\" were produced. The latter was a modern revolutionary interpretation of New Testament character Barabbas. The 1929 poetry collection \"Norge i våre hjerter\" expressed deep love for his country and his people in their poverty and misery and attracted critical acclaim.  His 1935 play \"Vår ære og vår makt\" depicted the lives of Norwegian sailors during World War I in which Norway remained neutral and traded with both sides. The work was an attack on the shipping industry's exploitation of seafarers. From 1936 to 1937, Grieg published the magazine \"Veien Frem\", which initially succeeded in attracting prominent writers, but as the magazine adopted an increasingly Stalinist position relating to the Moscow Trials, most of them severed ties with it and it ceased publication.  His 1937 dramatic play \"Nederlaget\" was about the Paris Commune. The Spanish Civil War was the subject of \"Spansk sommer\" (1937) and partly also of \"Ung må verden ennu være\", whose plot shifts between Spain and the Soviet Union. The war also inspired the 1936 poem \"Til ungdommen\", one of his most well-known works, which was set to music in 1952 by Danish composer Otto Mortensen and was performed on numerous occasions (see Til ungdommen).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Communism.", "content": "Compassion for the poor and exploited led Grieg to join the Norwegian Communist Party. From 1933 to 1935, he lived in the Soviet Union, where he was officially invited to study the techniques of Soviet stage and film. On returning to Norway, he became an ardent supporter of Joseph Stalin's policies, and became the chairman of the Friends of the Soviet Union (1935–1940). In 1937, he famously wrote a defence of the Moscow Trials, attacking Norwegian authors who had criticized them. His novel \"Ung må verden ennu være\" was also a defence of Stalin and the Moscow Trials. In many articles, he criticized the supporters of Leon Trotsky, who lived in Norway from 1937 to 1939.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "The outbreak of World War II, and especially the German invasion and occupation of Norway, led Grieg to oppose Stalin's policies. In 1939, the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany and, until the 1941 Nazi invasion, instructed Communists worldwide to regard the ongoing war as an \"Imperialist\" war in which they should not take part. Grieg was a staunch anti-Nazi and Norwegian patriot and committed himself in 1940 to the struggle against the Nazi occupation. In the winter of 1939-40, Grieg served in the Norwegian Army in Finnmark on neutrality guard during the Russo-Finnish Winter War. In 1940, after serving during the Norwegian Campaign against German forces, he escaped to the United Kingdom aboard the same vessel that carried the Norwegian Royal family and the National Gold reserves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War correspondent.", "content": "Once in Britain, Grieg served the Norwegian government in exile, and participated in making patriotic radio programs. He was commissioned in the Norwegian Armed Forces and served as a war correspondent. His work involved visiting and reporting on Norwegian units around Britain. He met Norwegian servicemen on duty in Iceland and other remote outposts. In the summer of 1942 Grieg spent several weeks on the Norwegian island of Jan Mayen in the North Atlantic during which time he wrote the poem \"Øya i Ishavet\". As with other war correspondents, he joined operational missions over occupied Europe. In the course of one of these he lost his life, carrying the rank of captain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final mission.", "content": "On the night of 2–3 December 1943, Grieg was one of several observers for an Allied air raid on Berlin. He was attached to 460 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), which was based at RAF Binbrook. Grieg joined the crew of a Lancaster Mk.III (serial number \"LM316\", squadron code \"AR-H2\") captained by Flying Officer A. R. Mitchell, RAAF. Berlin was well-defended. It lay in the east of the country, requiring crews to test the limits of their fuel supply and of their own endurance.  The long journey took them over the ranges of many night fighters. 460 Sqn lost five aircraft that night—one of them was \"LM316.\" 37 airmen had been on board these aircraft, but only eight survived. They spent the rest of the war in a POW camp. None of the eight survivors came from \"LM316\". In addition to Grieg, the seven crew members (four Australians and three Britons) were killed in the crash. Grieg was neither the only correspondent shot down that night, nor the only Norwegian.  Grieg's burial place went unrecorded after the crash. In the early 2000s, the grave was believed to be located under a highway between Potsdam and Berlin. A new theory emerged in 2013, when journalist Asbjørn Svarstad stated that he believed that Grieg had been first buried in Berlin in 1944, and then exhumed and reburied at the Berlin Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery at Heerstraße in 1949. In response to the new information, the leader of the Norwegian Socialist Left Party, Audun Lysbakken, declared that Grieg should be exhumed and reburied in Bergen, Norway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Grieg became a hero in Norway because of his resistance to the Nazi Occupation. Grieg is still popular in Norway, especially for his anti-fascist poetry. The pre-war controversies in which he was involved were overshadowed by his war record.  Grieg was a friend of English novelist Graham Greene, who wrote about various aspects of Grieg's life and wartime career in his 1980 biographical work \"Ways of Escape\". The two met when Grieg turned up unannounced at Greene's cottage at Chipping Campden in 1931.  In 1945, a collection of his war poems, \"Friheten\" was published and remained a best-selling Norwegian poetry collection.  In 1957, a statue of Grieg by Roar Bjorg (1912-1984) was unveiled at Den Nationale Scene in Bergen.  In 1990, the musical \"Nordahl Grieg i våre hjerter\" written by Erling Gjelsvik with music by Knut Skodvin, debuted in Bergen.  In 2003, a memorial stone was unveiled at the site () where Nordahl Grieg died in Kleinmachnow.  In 2010, Nordahl Grieg videregående skole in Rådal was opened in the Rådal neighborhood of Bergen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johan Nordahl Brun Grieg (1 November 1902 – 2 December 1943) was a Norwegian poet, novelist, dramatist, journalist and political activist. He was a popular author and a controversial public figure. He served in World War II as a war correspondent and was killed while on a bombing mission to Berlin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975791}
{"src_title": "Leonid Kogan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Kogan was born to a Ukrainian Jewish family in Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine, the son of a photographer who was an amateur violinist. After showing an early interest and ability for violin playing, his family moved to Moscow, where he was able to further his studies. From age ten he studied there with the noted violin pedagogue Abram Yampolsky. In 1934, Jascha Heifetz played concerts in Moscow. \"I attended every one,\" Kogan later said, \"and can remember until now every note he played. He was the ideal artist for me.\" When Kogan was 12, Jacques Thibaud was in Moscow and heard him play. The French virtuoso predicted a great future for Kogan.  Kogan studied at the Central Music School in Moscow (1934–43), then at the Moscow Conservatory (1943–48), where he studied as a postgraduate (1948–51).  At the age of 17, and while still a student, he performed throughout the USSR. He was co-winner of the first prize at the World Youth Festival in Prague. In 1951, Kogan won first prize at the Queen Elizabeth Competition in Brussels with a dazzling performance of Paganini's first concerto that included an outstanding interpretation of Sauret's cadenza.  His official debut was in 1941, playing the Brahms Concerto with the Moscow Philharmonic Orchestra in the Great Hall of the Moscow Conservatory.  His international solo tours took him to Paris and London in 1955, and then South America and the United States in the following years. Kogan had a repertoire of over 18 concerti and a number of concerti by modern composers were dedicated to him.  In 1952, Kogan began teaching at the Moscow Conservatory, and in 1980 he was invited to teach at the Accademia Musicale Chigiana in Siena, Italy.  Kogan, a brilliant and compelling violinist excelled in both the concerto repertoire and in chamber music, shunned publicity. His career was always overshadowed by that of David Oistrakh, who was strongly promoted by the Soviet authorities. Like Oistrakh, Kogan made a few studio recordings in the West, mostly for EMI. The bulk of his recordings were made in the Soviet Union, however, and their availability outside that country was very rare until the release of the Brilliant box set \"Historic Russian Archives Leonid Kogan Edition\"  Kogan was made an Honoured Artist in 1955 and a People's Artist of the USSR in 1964. He received the Lenin Prize in 1965.  Kogan married Elizabeth Gilels (sister of pianist Emil Gilels), also a concert violinist. His son, Pavel Kogan (b. 1952) became a famous violinist and conductor. His daughter, Nina Kogan (b. 1954), is a concert pianist and became the accompanist and sonata partner of her father at an early age.  Kogan was Jewish.  Kogan died of a heart attack in the city of Mytishchi, while travelling by train between Moscow and Yaroslavl to a concert he was to perform with his son. Two days before, he had played the Beethoven Violin Concerto in Vienna. He was buried in Novodevichy Cemetery.  Many speculate that Kogan played on all steel strings, though there is not an outright confirmation. While his close associates indicate he played on gut strings with a steel 'e', it is most likely that he used different combinations over the course of his career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Instruments.", "content": "Kogan used two Guarneri del Gesù violins: the 1726 ex-Colin and the 1733 ex-Burmester. He used French bows by Dominique Peccatte. Kogan never actually owned these instruments; they were provided on loan from the Soviet government. Today they are worth more than US$4 million.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "Kogan formed a Trio with pianist Gilels and cellist Rostropovich. Their recordings include Beethoven's \"Archduke Trio\", the Schumann D minor, the Tchaikovsky, the Saint-Saëns, the Brahms Horn Trio with Yakov Shapiro (horn), and the Fauré C minor Quartet with Rudolf Barshai (viola). Kogan later formed another Trio with the conductor Svetlanov on piano and cellist Luzanov. Kogan was the first Soviet violinist to play and record Berg's Violin concerto. He also made a famous recording of Khachaturian's violin concerto with Pierre Monteux and the Boston Symphony Orchestra for RCA Victor (his America debut recording), a version still considered the most exciting reading of the work. Kogan recorded violin concerti by other Soviet composers, including the two by Tikhon Khrennikov. With Karl Richter Kogan recorded J.S Bach's 6 Violin Sonatas in 1972.  There are more than 30 albums of his performances on the Arlecchino label. In 2006, EMI France issued a 4-CD box set (\"Les Introuvables de Leonid Kogan\") containing his concerto recordings for that label, all digitally remastered the same year.  The EMI Kogan recordings from 1950s and 1960s used to belong to Columbia, who released about five stereo recordings of Kogan in the vinyl record period: Beethoven \"Violin Concerto\" (SAX 2386), Brahms \"Violin Concerto\" (SAX 2307), Tchaikovsky \"Violin Concerto\" (SAX 2323), Lalo \"Symphonie espagnole\" (SAX 2329) and Leclar/Telemann/Ysaye \"Sonatas for duo Violins\" (SAX 2531). Nowadays, these Kogan records are among the most sought-after records for classical vinyl collectors. For example, the price of the Beethoven \"Violin Concerto\" (SAX2386) record soars up to 10,000 dollars in eBay auctions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leonid Borisovich Kogan (; ; 14 November 1924 – 17 December 1982) was a preeminent Soviet violinist during the 20th century. Many consider him to be among the greatest violinists of the 20th century. In particular, he is considered to have been one of the greatest representatives of the Soviet School of violin playing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975792}
{"src_title": "Lil Scrappy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2006–2008: \"Bred 2 Die Born 2 Live\".", "content": "Lil Scrappy released his debut album \"Bred 2 Die Born 2 Live\" on May 5, 2006 on BME Recordings/Reprise Records/G-Unit Records South now Cashville Records. The album features appearances by Yung Joc, Three 6 Mafia, Lil Jon, Lloyd, Young Buck, 50 Cent, E-40, Olivia, Young Dro, and Bohagon. It was produced by Lil Jon and 50 Cent. The first single \"Money in the Bank\" features Young Buck and became Lil Scrappy's second Top 30 single. \"Money in the Bank\" peaked at number 28 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart trajectory, becoming his biggest solo hit and most commercially successful single to date in the U.S. as it surpassed the peak position of \"No Problem\" by one position. The second single from the album is called \"Gangsta Gangsta\" and features Lil Jon. \"Oh Yeah (Work)\" is the third single from \"Bred 2 Die Born 2 Live\" and features E-40 and Sean P (formerly Sean Paul) of YoungbloodZ.  J-Bo, Lil Jon, and Too Short made cameo appearances in the video, which premiered January 25, 2007, on BET's 106 & Park as a New Joint. The song also received significant airplay on various urban stations.  In late 2008 Lil Scrappy announced that his second studio album would not be released under G-Unit Records or another former label BME Records. Lil Scrappy's second album, \"Prince of the South\", was released on May 13, 2008 through Real Talk Entertainment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009–2012: \"Tha GruStle\".", "content": "In early 2009 Lil Scrappy announced that he had signed with Ludacris label DTP for his second studio album, \"Tha Grustle,\" and that the album would be distributed through Def Jam. Also in 2009 Lil Scrappy appeared in the motion picture \"Just Another Day\" the tale of the brutal realities of rap music, Scrappy plays a character named Jay. Lil Scrappy's second independent album, \"Prince of the South 2\", was released on October 19, 2010, through Real Talk Entertainment just like his first independent album. On On September 8, 2009, Lil Scrappy released the first single from the album entitled \"Addicted To Money\" but it failed to reach the Billboard charts so it was dubbed as a promo single. Then on September 28, 2010, Lil Scrappy released the first album from the single\"Bad (That's Her)\" which featured Stuey Rock but it also failed to reach the Billboard charts so it was dubbed as a promo single.  On November 2, 2011, after the album never saw an official release, Lil Scrappy announced that the album would be released in early 2012. Lil Scrappy also announced that he and DTP had parted ways and that his G's Up imprint has partnered with S-Line, a company owned by Lil Scrappy's manager Kevin Clark. G's Up/S-Line has embarked in a joint venture with Bonzi Records, a label owned by producer J. Wells and will be distributed by Fontana/Universal. The official first single from the album will be \"Helicopter\" that features 2 Chainz and Twista. The music video premiered on MTV Jams, and was directed by Edgar Esteves. Lil Scrappy appears on VH1 \"\". After a long-awaited release \"Tha Grustle\" was finally released on June 26, 2012. The second single from the album is entitled \"No Love\" featuring upcoming singer Toccara the official music video for it has already gained 100,000 views on YouTube of its first week.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012–present: \"\".", "content": "Since 2012, Lil Scrappy has appeared on seven seasons of \"Love & Hip Hop Atlanta\" and \"\". His earnings have been reported at $200k per season. In 2015 Lil Scrappy began touring with his indie label Grustle Gang.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Lil Scrappy married Adizia \"Bambi\" Benson on September 8, 2017. Their son Breland was born September 21, 2018. Lil Scrappy also has a daughter named Emani, from a past relationship with Erica Dixon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Darryl Kevin Richardson (born January 19, 1984), better known by his stage name Lil Scrappy, is an American rapper and record producer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975793}
{"src_title": "Thun und Hohenstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A feudal family originally from Ton, Trentino, formerly an Italian speaking part of Tyrol, today part of the Trentino province of Italy, the male line traces back to Manfreinus of Tunno in 1187. In 1469 they became hereditary Cup-bearers of the Prince-bishopric of Trento and in 1558 of the Prince-bishopric of Brixen.  All males of the family were granted the title of Baron in 1604, and Counts of the Holy Roman Empire (\"Reichsgraf\") in 1629. The title of Prince was conferred upon the head of the family, along with the style of Durchlaucht \"(Serene Highness)\", in the Austrian Empire in 1911. They were hereditary members of the Austrian House of Lords, in right of possession of the entailed lordship of Tetschen since 1879.  In 1621 the family acquired The Chateau at Klášterec nad Ohří, Bohemia, in 1629, expropriated in 1946, in the second half of the 17th century (German: Tetschen), then the family's main seat until it was sold in 1932. Later they also acquired Choltice Castle and Benátky nad Jizerou Castle, and several palaces in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable family members.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Friedrich von Thun und Hohenstein.", "content": "Of the three sons of Count Franz Anton (1786–1873) and his wife Countess Theresia Anna Maria (née von Brühl), the eldest, (1810–1881), entered the diplomatic service. After holding other posts he was in 1850 appointed president of the restored German Diet at Frankfurt, where he represented the anti-Prussian policy of Prince Felix Schwarzenberg, and often came into conflict with Prince Bismarck, who was the Prussian envoy. He was afterwards ambassador at Berlin and St. Petersburg. After his retirement in 1863 from the public service in the Bohemian \"Landtag\" and the Austrian \"Reichsrat\" he supported the federal policy of his brother Leo. In 1879 he was made a hereditary member of the Upper House. In this position he was, on his death 24 September 1881, succeeded by his eldest son Franz (born 1847).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Maria Wilhelmine von Thun und Hohenstein.", "content": "Countess Maria Wilhelmine von Thun und Hohenstein, née Countess von Ulfeldt was a Viennese aristocrat of the 18th century. She was the hostess of a musically and intellectually outstanding salon, and a patroness of music, notably that of Mozart and Beethoven.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leopold von Thun und Hohenstein.", "content": "Count Leopold von Thun und Hohenstein (1811–1888) was a leading Austrian statesman who was later a minister in the cabinets of Schwarzenberg and Bach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Franz Anton von Thun und Hohenstein.", "content": "Count Franz Anton von Thun und Hohenstein, (1847–1916) was an Austro-Hungarian nobleman and statesman. He was Governor of his native Bohemia from 1889 to 1896 and again from 1911 to 1915. He was elevated to princely rank by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria on 19 July 1911. Leaving no sons, he was succeeded in the princely title by his brother Jaroslav (1864-1929).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Galeazzo von Thun und Hohenstein.", "content": "Fra' Galeazzo von Thun und Hohenstein (1850–1931) was the 75th Prince and Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta from 1905 to 1931.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Róża Maria von Thun und Hohenstein.", "content": "Róża Maria Gräfin von Thun und Hohenstein (\"née\" Woźniakowska, born 13 April 1954), usually shortened to \"Róża Thun\", married Franz Graf von Thun und Hohenstein in 1981. She is a European Parliament Member (MEP) from Poland since 2009.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Thun und Hohenstein family, also known as \"Thun-Hohenstein\", belonged to the historical Austrian and Bohemian nobility. One branch of the family lived at Děčín (Tetschen), Bohemia, for more than 200 years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975794}
{"src_title": "Electronic nose", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Other techniques to analyze odors.", "content": "In all industries, odor assessment is usually performed by human sensory analysis, by chemosensors, or by gas chromatography. The latter technique gives information about volatile organic compounds but the correlation between analytical results and mean odor perception is not direct due to potential interactions between several odorous components.  In the Wasp Hound odor detector, the mechanical element is a video camera and the biological element is five parasitic wasps who have been conditioned to swarm in response to the presence of a specific chemical.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Scientist Alexander Graham Bell popularized the notion that it was difficult to measure a smell, and in 1914 said the following:  In the decades since Bell made this observation, no such science of odor materialised, and it was not until the 1950s and beyond that any real progress was made.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Working principle.", "content": "The electronic nose was developed in order to mimic human olfaction that functions as a non-separative mechanism: i.e. an odor / flavor is perceived as a global fingerprint. Essentially the instrument consists of head space sampling, sensor array, and pattern recognition modules, to generate signal pattern that are used for characterizing odors.  Electronic noses include three major parts: a sample delivery system, a detection system, a computing system.  The sample delivery system enables the generation of the headspace (volatile compounds) of a sample, which is the fraction analyzed. The system then injects this headspace into the detection system of the electronic nose. The sample delivery system is essential to guarantee constant operating conditions.  The detection system, which consists of a sensor set, is the \"reactive\" part of the instrument. When in contact with volatile compounds, the sensors react, which means they experience a change of electrical properties.  In most electronic noses, each sensor is sensitive to all volatile molecules but each in their specific way. However, in bio-electronic noses, receptor proteins which respond to specific odor molecules are used. Most electronic noses use sensor arrays that react to volatile compounds on contact: the adsorption of volatile compounds on the sensor surface causes a physical change of the sensor. A specific response is recorded by the electronic interface transforming the signal into a digital value. Recorded data are then computed based on statistical models.  Bio-electronic noses use olfactory receptors - proteins cloned from biological organisms, e.g. humans, that bind to specific odor molecules. One group has developed a bio-electronic nose that mimics the signaling systems used by the human nose to perceive odors at a very high sensitivity: femtomolar concentrations.  The more commonly used sensors for electronic noses include  Some devices combine multiple sensor types in a single device, for example polymer coated QCMs. The independent information leads to vastly more sensitive and efficient devices.  In recent years, other types of electronic noses have been developed that utilize mass spectrometry or ultra-fast gas chromatography as a detection system.  The computing system works to combine the responses of all of the sensors, which represents the input for the data treatment. This part of the instrument performs global fingerprint analysis and provides results and representations that can be easily interpreted. Moreover, the electronic nose results can be correlated to those obtained from other techniques (sensory panel, GC, GC/MS). Many of the data interpretation systems are used for the analysis of results. These systems include artificial neural network (ANN), fuzzy logic, pattern recognition modules, etc. Artificial intelligence, included artificial neural network (ANN), is a key technique for the environmental odour management.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performing an analysis.", "content": "As a first step, an electronic nose needs to be trained with qualified samples so as to build a database of reference. Then the instrument can recognize new samples by comparing a volatile compound's fingerprint to those contained in its database. Thus they can perform qualitative or quantitative analysis. This however may also provide a problem as many odors are made up of multiple different molecules, which may be wrongly interpreted by the device as it will register them as different compounds, resulting in incorrect or inaccurate results depending on the primary function of a nose. The example of e-nose dataset is also available. This dataset can be used as a reference for e-nose signal processing, notably for meat quality studies. The two main objectives of this dataset are multiclass beef classification and microbial population prediction by regression.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "Electronic nose instruments are used by research and development laboratories, quality control laboratories and process & production departments for various purposes:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In environmental monitoring.", "content": "Various application notes describe analysis in areas such as flavor and fragrance, food and beverage, packaging, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and perfumes, and chemical companies. More recently they can also address public concerns in terms of olfactive nuisance monitoring with networks of on-field devices. Since emission rates on a site can be extremely variable for some sources, the electronic nose can provide a tool to track fluctuations and trends and assess the situation in real time. It improves understanding of critical sources, leading to pro-active odor management. Real time modeling will present the current situation, allowing the operator to understand which periods and conditions are putting the facility at risk. Also, existing commercial systems can be programmed to have active alerts based on set points (odor concentration modeled at receptors/alert points or odor concentration at a nose/source) to initiate appropriate actions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "BreathBase Solution  Breathomix B.V. is an innovative Dutch medtech startup focusing on improving healthcare and reducing costs. Their BreathBase Solution comprises an eNose, a platform that transfers high-quality breath measurements to the generation and validation of diagnostic models, and a clinically validated breath database that serves as a reference for new patients. Their solution is able to discriminate between COPD patients that develop lung cancer within a year and those who don't. These results show that eNose assessment may detect early stages of lung cancer and may therefore be of value in the screening of patients with COPD.  They also used their solution to phenotype asthma and COPD patients. Phenotyping a combined sample of asthma and COPD patients using the eNose provided validated clusters that were not determined by diagnosis, but rather by clinical/inflammatory characteristics. The eNose identified systemic neutrophilia and/or eosinophilia in a dose-dependent manner. Cyranose  The Cyranose 320 is a handheld \"electronic nose\" developed by Cyrano Sciences of Pasadena, California in 2000. Cyrano Sciences was founded in 1997, 9 years after the concept of an \"electronic nose\" based on using multiple semi-selective sensors combined with electronic computation was first proposed by Gardner and Bartlett. The Cyranose 320 is based on sensor research performed by Professor Nathan Lewis of the California Institute of Technology. Applications researched using the Cyranose 320 include the detection of COPD, and other medical conditions as well as industrial applications generally related to quality control or contamination detection. The Cyranose 320 is still being manufactured in the USA by Sensigent LLC, the successor company to Cyrano Sciences.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An electronic nose is a device intended to detect odors or flavors. Over the last decades, \"electronic sensing\" or \"e-sensing\" technologies have undergone important developments from a technical and commercial point of view. The expression \"electronic sensing\" refers to the capability of reproducing human senses using sensor arrays and pattern recognition systems. Since 1982, research has been conducted to develop technologies, commonly referred to as electronic noses, that could detect and recognize odors and flavors. The stages of the recognition process are similar to human olfaction and are performed for identification, comparison, quantification and other applications, including data storage and retrieval. However, hedonic evaluation is a specificity of the human nose given that it is related to subjective opinions. These devices have undergone much development and are now used to fulfill industrial needs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975795}
{"src_title": "Diogenes syndrome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Presentation.", "content": "Diogenes syndrome is a disorder that involves hoarding of rubbish and severe self-neglect. In addition, the syndrome is characterized by domestic squalor, syllogomania, social alienation, and refusal of help. It has been shown that the syndrome is caused as a reaction to stress that was experienced by the patient. The time span in which the syndrome develops is undefined, though it is most accurately distinguished as a reaction to stress that occurs late in life.  In most instances, patients were observed to have an abnormal possessiveness and patterns of compilation in a disordered manner. These symptoms suggest damage to the prefrontal areas of the brain, due to its relation to decision making. In contrast, there have also been cases where the hoarded objects were arranged in a methodical manner, which may suggest a cause other than brain damage.  Although most patients have been observed to come from homes with poor conditions, and many had been faced with poverty for a long period of time, these similarities are not considered a definite cause to the syndrome. Research showed that some of the participants with the condition had solid family backgrounds as well as successful professional lives. Half of the patients were of higher intelligence level. This indicates the \"Diogenes syndrome\" does not exclusively affect those experiencing poverty or those who had traumatic childhood experiences.  The severe neglect that they bring on themselves usually results in physical collapse or mental breakdown. Most individuals who suffer from the syndrome do not get identified until they face this stage of collapse, due to their predilection to refuse help from others.  The patients are generally highly intelligent, and the personality traits that can be seen frequently in patients diagnosed with Diogenes syndrome are aggressiveness, stubbornness, suspicion of others, unpredictable mood swings, emotional instability and deformed perception of reality. Secondary DS is related to mental disorders. The direct relation of the patients' personalities to the syndrome is unclear, though the similarities in character suggest potential avenues for investigation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Individuals suffering from Diogenes syndrome generally display signs of collectionism, hoarding, or compulsive disorder. Individuals who have suffered damage to the brain, particularly the frontal lobe, may be at more risk to developing the syndrome. The frontal lobes are of particular interest, because they are known to be involved in higher order cognitive processes, such as reasoning, decision-making and conflict monitoring. Diogenes Syndrome tends to occur among the elderly. The behavioural patterns that is usually reflected by those living with this disorder are suffering from significant functional problem that is correlated with morbidity and mortality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management.", "content": "It is ethically difficult when it comes to dealing with diagnosed patients, for many of them deny their poor conditions and refuse to accept treatment. The main objectives of the doctors are to help improve the patient’s lifestyle and wellbeing, so health care professionals must decide whether or not to force treatment onto their patient.  In some cases, especially those including the inability to move, patients have to consent to help, since they cannot manage to look after themselves. Hospitals or nursing homes are often considered the best treatment under those conditions.  When under care, patients must be treated in a way in which they can learn to trust the health care professionals. In order to do this, the patients should be restricted in the number of visitors they are allowed, and be limited to 1 nurse or social worker. Some patients respond better to psychotherapy, while others to behavioral treatment or terminal care.  Results after hospitalization tend to be poor. Research on the mortality rate during hospitalization has shown that approximately half the patients die while in the hospital. A quarter of the patients are sent back home, while the other quarter are placed in long-term residential care. Patients under care in hospitals and nursing homes often slide back into relapse or face death.  There are other approaches to improve the patient’s condition. Day care facilities have often been successful with maturing the patient’s physical and emotional state, as well as helping them with socialization. Other methods include services inside the patient’s home, such as the delivery of food.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The origin of the syndrome is unknown, although the term “Diogenes” was coined by A. N. G. Clarke et al. in the mid‐1970s and has been commonly used since then. Diogenes syndrome was acknowledged more prominently as a media phenomenon in popular media rather than medical literature. The primary description of this syndrome has only been mentioned recently by geriatricians and psychiatrists.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Diogenes syndrome, also known as senile squalor syndrome, is a disorder characterized by extreme self-neglect, domestic squalor, social withdrawal, apathy, compulsive hoarding of garbage or animals, plus lack of shame. Sufferers may also display symptoms of catatonia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975796}
{"src_title": "Josef Smrkovský", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Josef Smrkovský was born into a farmer's family in Velenka, in the Kingdom of Bohemia (present-day Czech Republic). As an adult, he began working as a baker and soon became a secretary of the Red Trade Union (1930–32) and was involved in the communist movement. He joined the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ) in 1933 and went to study at a political school in the Soviet Union. When he returned, Smrkovský began to work as a secretary of the KSČ in Brno (1937–38).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "During the Second World War, Smrkovský worked for the illegal communist resistance to Nazi occupation and eventually became a member of the central committee. In May 1945, as a member of the Czech National Council, he negotiated an agreement for the Nazi units in Prague to surrender. He is notorious (and often quoted) for preventing the US Army from liberating Prague via Plzeň – a claim he himself made publicly in the 1960s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Victorious February and political imprisonment.", "content": "Although the Czech National Council was dissolved and its members unpopular with Soviet authorities, Smrkovský was co-opted into the presidium of the Central Committee of the KSČ. He worked as a chairman of the Land Property Fund, and in 1946 was elected as a member of the National Assembly. During the government crisis in February 1948, he served as a commander of the Lidové milice (People's Militias) and helped support the successful communist coup d'état. He then found work in the Ministry of Agriculture.  In 1951, Smrkovský was suddenly arrested and condemned to life imprisonment for cooperation with a \"conspiring centre\" around Rudolf Slánský. He was released in 1955 and considered fully rehabilitated in 1963.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prague Spring.", "content": "After his release from prison, Smrkovský worked as a head of an agricultural cooperative (JZD Pavlovice). In 1963, he was assigned to work in various lower ministries, finally becoming Minister of Forestry and the Water System.  Smrkovský contributed to the reform movement of 1968 in a peculiar way. Not only did he support the removal of Antonín Novotný from his post as Communist Party leader, but Smrkovský's public announcement (\"What Lies Ahead\") at the end of January 1968 demonstrated the real impact of Alexander Dubček's election as First Secretary. Smrkovský was designated chairman of the National Assembly in April 1968, and as a talented speaker became (together with Dubček) one of the most popular politicians of the era. He was in favour of democratic reforms but maintained communist ideology, and continued to support the leading role of the KSČ in the state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet occupation.", "content": "\"If someone thinks we are manoeuvred by the Soviets they are badly off base,\" said Smrkovský in the summer of 1968. His assessment proved incorrect. The Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia took only one day. Smrkovský and the other leading exponents of reform were deported to Moscow where they were instructed to sign the so-called Moscow Protocol (only František Kriegel refused). Upon his return, Smrkovský tried unsuccessfully to keep the Stalinist wing from taking control. He was demoted at the request of Gustáv Husák, suspended from KSČ, and widely denounced. In 1971 he took part in the birthday celebration of Bohumil Hrabal. He died in 1974, and was buried under police control. The obituary letter sent by Dubček to Smrkovský's relatives was published in Italian daily \"Giorni - Vie Nuove\" and reprinted in \"Le Monde\" or \"New York Herald Tribune\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josef Smrkovský (26 February 1911 – 15 January 1974) was a Czechoslovak politician and a member of the Communist Party reform wing during the 1968 Prague Spring.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975797}
{"src_title": "Alexander Grin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Aleksandr Grin was born Aleksandr Stepanovich Grinevsky () in a suburb of Vyatka in 1880, the son of the Pole Stefan Hryniewski (russianized as Stefan Grinevsky), deported after the January Uprising of 1863, and a Russian nurse Anna Lyapkova. In 1896, after graduating from a school in Vyatka, Grinevsky went to Odessa and lived the life of a vagabond. He worked as a sailor, gold miner, construction worker, but often found himself without a job and sustained himself by begging and thanks to money sent to him by his father.  After joining the Russian army, he became a member of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, was arrested, and spent time in jail for \"revolutionary propaganda\". His first short story was published in a newspaper in 1906. In the same year he was arrested in Saint Petersburg and sentenced to four years of exile in a remote area of Tobolsk Governorate. However, very soon after arriving to Tobolsk, Grin escaped and returned to Petersburg to live illegally. He was again arrested in 1910 and sent to live in Arkhangelsk Governorate. In a small village called Kegostrov, Grin and his first wife Vera Pavlovna Abramova (whom he married in 1910) lived from 1910 to 1912.  In 1912, he returned to Saint Petersburg and divorced his wife. At that time, Grin published mostly short stories; most of his larger works were written after the October revolution and enjoyed significant popularity in the first half of the 1920s. In 1921, he married. In 1924, they moved to Feodosiya to live near the sea. In his late days, Grin's romantic visions were in stark conflict with the mainstream Soviet literature; publishers in Moscow and Leningrad refused to consider his romantic writings, and Grin and his wife lived in extreme poverty. Grin suffered from alcoholism and tuberculosis which eventually ruined his health. He died of stomach cancer in 1932 in Stary Krym.  In his book \"Sculpting in Time\", filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky describes how Grin, when dying of hunger, \"went off into the mountains with a home-made bow and arrow to shoot some sort of game.\" He offers Grin as an example of a poet in the deepest sense: one with \"an awareness of the world, a particular way of relating to reality... a philosophy to guide a man throughout his life.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Most of Alexander Grin's writings bear no direct relation to the reality of Imperial and Soviet Russia that he lived in. The setting of most of his novels and short stories is an unnamed land by the sea, apparently far from Europe but with all characters being Western European in name and appearance. Even his literary pseudonym (Grin) is a de-Russified form of his real last name (Grinevsky).  Described by some critics as \"adolescent fiction\", Grin's works have many things in common with the reality of the early 20th century (such as automobiles and banks). Populated by sea captains, sailors, scientists, travelers, criminals, extravagant aristocrats, childlike girls, elegant villains, and strong-spirited heroes who always stay true to their dreams, Grin's world is often referred to as Grinlandia by fans. Some of his novels contain an element of magic – not as an established part of his world, but always as a miracle that changes the lives of those who encounter it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "The most notable of his novels include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aleksandr Stepanovich Grinevsky (better known by his pen name, Aleksandr Grin,, 23 August 1880 – 8 July 1932) was a Russian writer, notable for his romantic novels and short stories, mostly set in an unnamed fantasy land with a European or Latin American flavor (Grin's fans often refer to this land as Grinlandia). Most of his writings deal with sea, adventures, and love.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975798}
{"src_title": "Mango (retailer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Mango was founded by Spanish-Jewish immigrants, Isak Andic and his brother Nahman Andic, in 1984.  Mango has Women's, Men's and Kids' collection.  Mango's first website was created in 1995 and in year 2000, it opened its first online store. H. E. by Mango is a men's line created in 2008, and renamed Mango Man in 2014. Football legend Zinedine Zidane has become the new face of the Mango Man campaign.  Mango has over 16,000 employees, 1,850 of whom work at the Hangar Design Centre and at its Headquarters in Palau Solità i Plegamans (Barcelona). Mango's biggest market is Spain but Istanbul, Turkey, has the largest number of Mango stores.  From Fall 2011, Kate Moss was Mango's muse. She first appeared in a video featuring Terry Richardson who shot the whole campaign and directed the commercial. Moss was replaced by Australian model Miranda Kerr.  In April 2011, Letizia, Princess of Asturias visited the company headquarters wearing a Mango outfit.  In 2015 Mango had revenue of 2.327 billion euros with EBITDA of 170 million euros.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bangladesh building collapse.", "content": "On 24 April 2013, the eight-story \"Rana Plaza\" commercial building collapsed in Savar, a sub-district near Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh. At least 1,127 people died and over 2,438 were injured. The factory housed a number of separate garment factories employing around 5,000 people, several shops, and a bank and manufactured apparel for brands including the Benetton Group, Joe Fresh, The Children's Place, Primark, Monsoon, and DressBarn. Of the 29 brands identified as having sourced products from the Rana Plaza factories, only 9 attended meetings held in November 2013 to agree a proposal on compensation to the victims. Several companies refused to sign including Walmart, Carrefour, Bonmarché, Mango, Auchan and Kik. The agreement was signed by Primark, Loblaw, Bonmarche and El Corte Ingles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Velvetine handbag lawsuit.", "content": "In 2010, the French division of Mango got sued by Anne-Cécile Couétil, creator of the brand Velvetine, who argued that \"Mango\" copied two models of her handbags. Despite an attempt of protection via the INPI and similarities between her products and the ones of Mango, the creator lost the lawsuit. She was ordered to pay €6,000 to Mango. On her blog, Couétil claimed she wanted to lodge an appeal. Several bloggers were surprised by the judicial decision saying it's unfair. The brand Mango reacted on Facebook via its official fanpage and answered also on the creator's blog.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Punto Fa, S.L., trading as Mango, is a Spanish clothing design and manufacturing company, founded in Barcelona, (Spain) by brothers Isak Andic and Nahman Andic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975799}
{"src_title": "Packard Bell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1986, Beny Alagem, Larry Metz and a group of other Israeli investors bought the American former radio and television set brand from Teledyne and resurrected it as a manufacturer of low-cost personal computers. Their computers were among the first IBM PC compatibles sold in retail chains such as Sears.  According to \"Fortune\" magazine, Packard Bell sometimes benefited from misplaced name recognition, with consumers (especially first-time computer buyers) and even some salespeople erroneously associating the company with others of a similar name, such as Hewlett-Packard, Pacific Bell, and Bell Laboratories. The confusion was further facilitated by Packard Bell's then-current slogan, \"America grew up listening to us. It still does.\" The company also sold nearly identical systems under different names, making comparison difficult. Aside from low price and brand confusion, Packard Bell's success in number of units sold may have come from two areas of innovation: 1) branding and industrial design, provided by the San Francisco offices of frog design; and 2) its boot-up shell Packard Bell Navigator, created by The Pixel Company in Seattle. They targeted a huge section of consumers who were inexperienced using computers. Frog design gave the look of quality and utilized innovations such as color-coding cable connectors, while Navigator provided the ability for users to launch installed programs by clicking on-screen buttons, and then later a house metaphor. During this phase, returns dropped from 19% to 10%, and sales grew exponentially.  In late 1995 to early 1996 Microsoft forced boot-up shells off OEM computers by updating its Microsoft Windows distribution agreement (OPK 2) and Packard Bell, without a clear on-shelf differentiator, saw sales begin to decrease. Also in 1995, Compaq sued Packard Bell for not disclosing that Packard Bell computers incorporated used parts. This practice was, in fact, widespread in the computer industry, including Compaq itself. However, unlike its rival companies, Packard Bell was judged not to have advertised the practice sufficiently in its warranties (Compaq, for instance, disclosed it in the warranty statement).  In 1995, Packard Bell acquired Zenith Data Systems from Groupe Bull in a deal which saw Groupe Bull and NEC taking a larger stake in Packard Bell to create a $4.5 billion company. The company then became integrated with NEC Computers. Its 15% market share made it the largest PC manufacturer, in terms of units shipped, in the United States. However, Compaq overtook it in retail sales in mid-1996, and cemented its lead the next year with the release of a $999 PC in March 1997.  Packard Bell posted losses totaling more than $1 billion in 1997 and 1998. In the U.S., price pressure from Compaq and, later, eMachines, along with continued poor showings in consumer satisfaction surveys made it difficult for the company to remain profitable and led to Alagem's departure in 1998. In 1999, NEC began withdrawing the Packard Bell name from the U.S. market, while keeping it in Europe, where the brand was untainted by allegations of sub-standard quality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sponsorship.", "content": "From 1996 until 2000, when Strongbow took over the contract, Packard Bell sponsored English football club Leeds United.  From 2009 to 2010, the name Packard Bell has been seen on the FIAT Yamaha MotoGP racebike of World Champion Valentino Rossi of Italy. Packard Bell also dropped their sponsorship from the 4Kings professional electronic sports team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "US Relaunch.", "content": "In August 2015, JMM Lee Properties purchased the North American trademark for Packard Bell from Acer with plans to reintroduce the brand. Later in January 2008, Southern Telecom purchased the trademark from JMM Lee Properties to relaunch the brand.  On October 14, 2016, PBX Holdings acquired the United States Packard Bell trademark and began manufacturing Packard Bell products in 2017. In June 2017, JCPenney revealed that they would begin selling a line of Packard Bell laptops as part of their expansion into the dormitory market. PBX is set to expand the brand into home automation and gaming accessories with product launches set for the holiday 2018 season.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Packard Bell is a Dutch-based computer manufacturing company and subsidiary of Acer. The brand name originally belonged to an American radio set manufacturer, Packard Bell Corporation, founded by Herbert \"Herb\" A. Bell and Leon S. Packard in 1933. In 1986, Israeli investors bought the brand from Teledyne, in order to name their newly formed personal computer manufacturing company producing discount computers in the United States and Canada. In the late 1990s, Packard Bell became a subsidiary of NEC. In 2000, Packard Bell stopped its North American operations and became a leading brand in the European PC markets. In 2008 it was acquired by the Taiwanese consumer electronic firm Acer in the aftermath of its takeover of Gateway, Inc. Gateway products are now sold in the Americas and Asia, while Packard Bell products are sold in Africa, Europe and the Middle East.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975800}
{"src_title": "Louis Friant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and French Revolutionary Wars.", "content": "The son of a wax-maker, Louis enlisted in the Gardes Françaises in February 1781, at age 22. He rose to the rank of Corporal before leaving the service in 1787. With the outbreak of the French Revolution, Louis volunteered for the Garde Nationale of Paris in September 1789. He was elected lieutenant-colonel of the 9e Battalion de Paris in September 1792, leading that battalion on the German frontier under the Army of the Moselle until wounded in the left leg on 16 December 1793.  Returning to action as colonel of the 181e Demi-Brigade in March 1794, Friant took part in the great victory of Fleurus (a stone's throw from the future battlefield of Ligny/St-Amand) on 26 June 1794. He was briefly acting-commander of a brigade (July 1794) and a division (August 1794). He served at the sieges of Maastricht (October 1794) and Luxemburg (April 1795). He was promoted to Général de Brigade on 13 June 1795.  After a period as Military Governor of Luxemburg, Friant served with the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse in 1796 along the Rhine. In January 1797 he joined Bernadotte's Division of the Army of Italy. He served at the Battle of the Tagliamento (16 March 1797), and assumed command of the 5th Brigade, 3rd Division (30e and 55e Ligne) from June 1797.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Egypt.", "content": "Friant commanded the 2nd Brigade (61e and 88e Ligne) of General Desaix's division in Egypt, taking part in the Battle of the Pyramids (21 July 1798), and in Desaix's brilliant campaign in Upper Egypt. He was provisionally promoted to Général de Division on 4 September 1799, and succeeded Desaix as commander in Upper Egypt after Desaix departed to play his decisive but fatal part in the Marengo campaign. Friant took a lead role in the suppression of the great revolt in Cairo in March–April 1800. Confirmed in the rank of Général de Division and named Governor of Alexandria in September 1800, he fought the British at the Second Battle of Aboukir (8 March 1801), and defended Alexandria through August 1801.  Repatriated with the remnants of the Army of the Orient, Friant served as an inspector-general of infantry in 1801–03 before joining the Corps of his brother-in-law Davout at the Camp of Bruges. There, he molded the 2ème Division, III Corps into \"what arguably became the finest line division on the face of the earth\" (Bowden, Napoleon and Austerlitz).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "High days of the Empire.", "content": "In the Ulm-Austerlitz campaign of 1805, Friant's Division earned a reputation for rapid and effective marching. This quality was put to excellent use when the Division was summoned from Vienna to reinforce the Grande Armée at Austerlitz, marching 70 miles in 46 hours and arriving just in time to counterattack the Allies at Telnice and Sokolnice on the morning of 2 December 1805. In the ferocious fighting along the Goldbach stream, Friant had three horses killed under him.  Friant was awarded the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honor on 27 December 1805. In the 1806 campaign, at the Battle of Auerstädt (14 October 1806) in which Davout's III Corps of 26,000 men faced and defeated the Prussian main body of 63,000, Friant's Division advanced on the right, turning the Prussian left flank. The infantry of Friant and Gudin, standing in square, withstood and shattered a massive cavalry attack led by Blücher himself.  In the Polish campaign, Friant's Division fought successfully at the forcing of the Ukra River on 24 December 1806. At the Battle of Eylau, Friant's Division arrived to reinforce the French right on the morning of 8 February 1807, helping to turn a near-defeat into a stalemate. Friant suffered a gunshot wound to his right side at Eylau.  Friant was named Comte de l'Empire on 5 October 1808.  In the 1809 campaign, Friant's Division fought with distinction at Teugen-Hausen (19 April), Abensberg (21 April), Eckmühl (22 April), and Ratisbon (23 April). At the Battle of Wagram on 6 July 1809, Friant was wounded in the shoulder by a shell fragment during the successful storming of the Square Tower at Markgrafneusiedl.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Russia, Germany, France.", "content": "In the Russian campaign of 1812, Friant commanded the 2e Division of Davout's I Corps. In August 1812, after General Dorsenne's death, he was nominated as commander of the Grenadiers à Pied de la Vieille Garde. Friant remained at the head of his Division. He was wounded at the Battle of Smolensk (17 August) and severely wounded during the capture of Semenovskaya village at the Battle of Borodino (7 September 1812). Incapacitated and left behind at Gzhatsk, he was still there with his wounds unhealed when the retreating army returned to Gzhatsk at the end of October.  Friant returned to France to recover from his wounds in January 1813. He returned to the front in June 1813, commanding the Old Guard Division at the Battles of Dresden (26 August), Leipzig (16–19 October), and Hanau (30 October 1813).  In the 1814 campaign in France, Friant and his 1st Division of the Old Guard fought a successful defensive action against Gyulai's Austrians at Bar-sur-Aube on 24 January. Friant took part in Napoleon's surprise counter-offensive against Blücher's Army of Silesia, gaining victories at Montmirail (11 February), Château-Thierry (12 February), and Vauchamps (14 February 1814). Friant's Old Guard was the core and reserve of the Emperor's masse de manoeuvre. They were committed to battle in the bloody and indecisive clash at Craonne (7 March 1814), the reverse at Laon (9–10 March), the recapture of Reims (13 March), and the defeat at Arcis-sur-Aube, (20 March).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Waterloo and final years.", "content": "During Napoleon's exile, Friant was retained as commander of the grenadiers à pied de France. In the campaign of the Hundred Days, he was Colonel-in-Chief of the Grenadiers à Pied de la Vieille Garde. His men made the final assault on Ligny as darkness fell on 16 June 1815. On 18 June, at Waterloo Friant led his Old Guard Grenadiers in the final, fateful attack on the Allied center, where he was wounded yet again.  Friant retired in September 1815. He died on 24 June 1829, aged 70.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Louis Friant (18 September 1758 – 24 June 1829) was born in the village of Morlancourt, 8 km south of Albert near the river Somme.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975801}
{"src_title": "Duchess Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Marie Alexandrine Elisabeth Eleonore was born a duchess of the Grand Ducal House of Mecklenburg to Frederick Francis II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin - the then Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and his first wife, Princess Augusta Reuss of Köstritz (1822–1862) - in the Schloss Ludwigslust. She was eight years old when her mother died in 1862. Her father married twice more.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "She married the third son of Alexander II of Russia, Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia (22 April 1847 – 17 February 1909), her second cousin, on 28 August 1874, being one of the very few Royals with Slavic patriline to ever marry a male dynast of the House of Romanov. She had been engaged to George Albert I, Prince of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, but broke it off as soon as she met Vladimir. It took three more years before they were permitted to marry as she had been raised a Lutheran and refused to convert to the Russian Orthodox Church.  Emperor Alexander II finally agreed to let Vladimir marry her without insisting on her conversion to Orthodoxy. Upon her marriage she took the Russian name of \"Maria Pavlovna\" - the name she is best known by. Maria remained Lutheran throughout most of her marriage, but converted to Orthodoxy later in her marriage, some said to give her son Kirill a better chance at the throne. As a result of marrying the son of a Russian Emperor, she took on a new style \"Her Imperial Highness\"; the couple had four sons and one daughter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life in Russia.", "content": "In Russia, she lived at the Vladimir Palace situated on the Palace Embankment on the Neva River. Socially ambitious, it was there that she established her reputation as being one of the best hostesses in the capital. An addiction to gambling, which saw her defy a prohibition by Nicholas II on the playing on roulette and baccarat in private homes, resulted in her temporarily being banned from Court.  In 1909, her husband died and she succeeded him as president of the Academy of Fine Arts.  Her Grand Ducal court, was in the later years of the reign of her nephew, Emperor Nicholas II the most cosmopolitan and popular in the capital. The Grand Duchess was personally at odds with the Emperor and Empress Consort. She wasn't the only Romanov who feared the Empress would \"be the sole ruler of Russia\" after Nicholas took supreme command of the Russian armies on 23 August 1915 (O.S.), hoping this would lift morale. It was widely speculated that along with her sons, she contemplated a coup against the Emperor in the winter of 1916–17, that would force the Tsar's abdication and replacement by his son Tsesarevich Alexei, and her son, Grand Duke Kirill or Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich, as regent. There is no documentary evidence to support this, though the Duma president Mikhail Rodzianko famously reported that she said that the Empress must be \"annihilated\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Escape from Russia.", "content": "The Grand Duchess held the distinction to be the last of the Romanovs to escape Revolutionary Russia, as well as the first to die in exile. She remained in the war-torn Caucasus with her two younger sons throughout 1917 and 1918, still hoping to make her eldest son Kirill Vladimirovich the Tsar. As the Bolsheviks approached, the group finally escaped aboard a fishing boat to Anapa in 1918. Maria spent fourteen months in Anapa, refusing to join her son Boris in leaving Russia. When opportunities for escape via Constantinople presented themselves she refused to leave for fear she would be subjected to the indignity of delousing. She finally agreed to leave when the general of the White Army warned her that his side was losing the civil war. Maria, her son Andrei, Andrei's mistress Mathilde Kschessinska, and Andrei and Mathilde's son Vladimir, boarded an Italian ship headed to Venice on 13 February 1920.  Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia encountered Maria at the port of Novorossiysk in early 1920: \"Disregarding peril and hardship, she stubbornly kept to all the trimmings of bygone splendour and glory. And somehow she carried it off... When even generals found themselves lucky to find a horse cart and an old nag to bring them to safety, Aunt Miechen made a long journey in her own train. It was battered all right--but it was hers. For the first time in my life I found it a pleasure to kiss her...\"  She made her way from Venice to Switzerland and then to France, where her health failed. Staying at her villa (now the Hotel La Souveraine), she died on 6 September 1920, aged 66, surrounded by her family at Contrexéville.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jewels.", "content": "The Grand Duchess had a passion for jewels, and her collection was renowned. It included a 100 carat emerald once owned by her great-great-great-grandmother, Empress Catherine the Great and the 5 carat ruby of Josephine de Beauharnais. Following the Revolution, a family friend Albert Stopford, rescued the jewels from her Palace safe and smuggled them out of Russia. After the Duchess's death, they were sold by her children to support their lives in exile. Queen Mary, Queen Consort of the United Kingdom purchased a Bolin tiara of diamond loops with pearl drops, now worn by Queen Elizabeth II, although the original gold frame has been replaced by Garrad with one of platinum; Her niece by marriage, Queen Marie, Queen Consort of Romania purchased a sapphire kokoshnik-style tiara by Cartier and Nancy Leeds (later Princess Christopher of Greece), the ruby parure. Some of her emeralds were purchased by Barbara Hutton, and later by actress Elizabeth Taylor, who had them recut.  In 2008 a collection of cufflinks, cigarette cases and other small jewellery items belonging to the Vladimir family were discovered in the archives of the Swedish foreign ministry, having presumably been deposited at the Swedish Embassy in St Petersburg following the Revolution. They were sold on behalf of the Vladimir heirs; some of the proceeds were used to restore the Grand Duchess's tomb in Contrexéville.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Her eldest surviving son, Grand Duke Cyril Vladimirovich, of Russia married, in 1905, his first cousin Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, daughter of Vladimir's sister the Duchess of Edinburgh and of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Other than the fact that first cousin marriages were not allowed, she was also the former wife of Ernst Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, the brother of the Empress. This marriage was not approved by Nicholas II and Cyril was stripped of his imperial titles. The treatment of her son created a strife between her husband and the Emperor. However, after several deaths in the family put Cyril third in the line of succession to the Imperial Throne, Nicholas agreed to reinstate Cyril's Imperial titles, and the latter's wife was acknowledged as HIH Grand Duchess Viktoria Fedorovna.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna \"Miechen\" of Russia (Russian; Мари́я Па́вловна; born Duchess Marie Alexandrine Elisabeth Eleonore of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; 14 May [O.S. 2 May] 1854 — 6 September 1920), better known as Maria Pavlovna the Elder, was the eldest daughter of Grand Duke Frederick Francis II of Mecklenburg-Schwerin by his first wife, Princess Augusta Reuss of Köstritz. A prominent hostess in St Petersburg following her marriage to the Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia, she was known as the \"grandest of the grand duchesses\" and had an open rivalry with her sister-in-law the Empress Maria Feodorovna.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975802}
{"src_title": "Violet Jessop", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born on 2 October 1887, near Bahía Blanca, Argentina, Violet Constance Jessop was the oldest daughter of Irish immigrants William and Katherine Jessop. She was the first of nine children, six of whom survived. Jessop spent much of her childhood caring for her younger siblings. She became very ill as a child with what is presumed to have been tuberculosis, which she survived despite doctors' predictions that her illness would be fatal. When Jessop was 16 years old, her father died due to complications from surgery and her family moved to England, where she attended a convent school and cared for her youngest sister while her mother was at sea working as a stewardess. When her mother became ill, Jessop left school and, following in her mother's footsteps, applied to be a stewardess. Jessop had to dress down to make herself less attractive in order to be hired. At age 21, her first stewardess position was with the Royal Mail Line aboard the \"Orinoco\" in 1908.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "RMS \"Olympic\".", "content": "In 1911, Jessop began working as a stewardess for the White Star vessel. \"Olympic\" was a luxury ship that was the largest civilian liner at that time. Jessop was on board on 20 September 1911, when \"Olympic\" left from Southampton and collided with the British warship. There were no fatalities and despite damage, the ship was able to make it back to port without sinking. Jessop chose not to discuss this collision in her memoirs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "RMS \"Titanic\".", "content": "Jessop boarded as a stewardess on 10 April 1912, at age 24. Four days later, on 14 April, it struck an iceberg in the North Atlantic, where \"Titanic\" sank about two hours and forty minutes after the collision. Jessop described in her memoirs how she was ordered up on deck, because she was to function as an example of how to behave for the non-English speakers who could not follow the instructions given to them. She watched as the crew loaded the lifeboats. She was later ordered into lifeboat 16; and as the boat was being lowered, one of \"Titanic\"s officers gave her a baby to look after. The next morning, Jessop and the rest of the survivors were rescued by the. According to Jessop, while on board \"Carpathia\", a woman, presumably the baby's mother, grabbed the baby she was holding and ran off with it without saying a word.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "HMHS \"Britannic\".", "content": "During the First World War, Jessop served as a stewardess for the British Red Cross. On the morning of 21 November 1916, she was on board, a White Star liner that had been converted into a hospital ship, when it sank in the Aegean Sea due to an unexplained explosion. During a major diving expedition on the wreck in 2016, it was determined that the ship had struck a deep sea mine. This was shown in the documentary film of that dive, \"The Mystery of the Britannic\".  \"Britannic\" sank within 55 minutes, killing 30 of the 1,066 people on board. British authorities hypothesized that the ship was either struck by a torpedo or hit a mine planted by German forces. Conspiracy theories have even circulated that suggest the British were responsible for sinking their own ship.  While \"Britannic\" was sinking, Jessop and other passengers were nearly killed by the boat's propellers that were sucking lifeboats under the stern. Jessop had to jump out of her lifeboat, resulting in a traumatic head injury which she survived. In her memoirs, she described the scene she witnessed as \"Britannic\" went under: \"The white pride of the ocean's medical world... dipped her head a little, then a little lower and still lower. All the deck machinery fell into the sea like a child's toys. Then she took a fearful plunge, her stern rearing hundreds of feet into the air until with a final roar, she disappeared into the depths.\"  Jessop returned to work for the White Star Line in 1920.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After the war, Jessop continued to work for the White Star Line, before joining the Red Star Line and then the Royal Mail Line again. During her tenure with Red Star, Jessop went on two around the world cruises on the company's largest ship,. In her late thirties, Jessop had a brief marriage, and in 1950 she retired to Great Ashfield, Suffolk. Years after her retirement, Jessop claimed to have received a telephone call, on a stormy night, from a woman who asked Jessop if she saved a baby on the night that \"Titanic\" sank. \"Yes,\" Jessop replied. The voice then said \"I was that baby,\" laughed, and hung up. Her friend and biographer John Maxtone-Graham said it was most likely some children in the village playing a joke on her. She replied, \"No, John, I had never told that story to anyone before I told you now.\" Records indicate that the only baby on lifeboat 16 was Assad Thomas, who was handed to Edwina Troutt, and later reunited with his mother on \"Carpathia\".  Jessop, often winkingly called \"Miss Unsinkable\", died of congestive heart failure in 1971 at the age of 83.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In the 1958 film \"A Night To Remember\", a scene depicts naval architect Thomas Andrews (Michael Goodliffe) instructing a stewardess to be seen wearing her lifebelt as an example to the other passengers. Many scenes from this film inspired similar and in some cases, almost dialogue-identical scenes in James Cameron's later 1997 blockbuster \"Titanic\", including a similar scene between Andrews and a stewardess named Lucy.  In \"Britannic\", a TV movie made in the year 2000, the main character is Vera Campbell, played by Amanda Ryan, a woman apprehensive about travelling on \"Britannic\" due to surviving the sinking of \"Titanic\" four years earlier. This character background is almost certainly lifted from the real-life Jessop, who survived both sinkings.  In 2006, \"Shadow Divers\" John Chatterton and Richie Kohler led an expedition to dive HMHS \"Britannic.\" The dive team needed to accomplish a number of tasks including reviewing the expansion joints. The team was looking for evidence that would change the thinking on RMS \"Titanic\"s sinking. During the expedition, Rosemary E. Lunn played the role of Violet Jessop, re-enacting her jumping into the water, from her lifeboat which was being drawn into \"Britannic\"s still turning propellers.  The character of Jessop is also featured in the stage play \"Iceberg – Right Ahead!\" by Chris Burgess, staged for the first time Upstairs at the Gatehouse in Highgate, March 2012, to commemorate the centenary of the sinking of \"Titanic\". It was billed as \"A dramatic account of the last twelve hours in the life of an 'unsinkable ship'. From the calm afternoon of 14 April 1912 to the rescue by RMS \"Carpathia\" on the morning of 15 April\". Jessop's role was played by Amy-Joyce Hastings.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Violet Constance Jessop (2 October 1887 – 5 May 1971) was an Irish Argentine ocean liner stewardess, memoirist and nurse who is known for surviving the disastrous sinkings of in 1912 and her sister ship in 1916. In addition, she had been onboard, the eldest of the three sister ships, when it collided with a British warship,, in 1911.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975803}
{"src_title": "Galega officinalis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The English name \"goat's-rue\" is a translation of the Latin \"Ruta capraria\", used for the plant in 1554 when it was considered to be related to \"Ruta graveolens\", or common rue. \"Galega bicolor\" is a synonym.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Widely distributed throughout temperate regions of the world, predominantly in Europe, the plant is a hardy perennial that blooms in the summer months on grasslands, wetlands, and riverbanks, and is classified as an invasive weed in many parts of North America. It has also been found in South America, North Africa, Pakistan, Turkey, and New Zealand.  In 1891 in the United States, \"G. officinalis\" was introduced experimentally at Utah State University for potential use as a forage crop, but escaped cultivation and is now an agricultural pest. As a result, it has been placed on the Federal Noxious Weed List in the United States. It was collected in Colorado, Connecticut and New York prior to the 1930s, and in Maine and Pennsylvania in the 1960s, but the populations appear to have died out.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry and herbalism.", "content": "Although not thoroughly studied with 21st century methods, \"G. officinalis\" has been analyzed for its constituents, which include galegine, hydroxygalegine, several guanidine derivatives, such as 4-hydroxygalegine flavones, flavone glycosides, kaempferol, and quercetin. In addition to its purported effect to lower blood glucose levels and induce diuresis, goat's rue was used as an herbal tonic in folk medicine practices of medieval Europe to treat bubonic plague, worms, and snake bites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relation to metformin.", "content": "Once used in traditional medicine over centuries, \"G. officinalis\" is at the foundation of the biguanide class of antidiabetic drugs, which also included phenformin and buformin (both discontinued).  \"G. officinalis\" contains the phytochemicals, galegine and guanidine, both of which decrease blood sugar, but were discovered to cause adverse effects in human studies. The study of galegine and related molecules in the first half of the 20th century led to development of oral antidiabetic drugs. Research on other compounds related to guanidine, including biguanide, led ultimately to the discovery of metformin (trade name, Glucophage), used in the 21st century for management of diabetes by decreasing liver glucose production and increasing insulin sensitivity of body tissues.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adverse effects.", "content": "Goat's rue may interfere with prescribed diabetes drugs, iron absorption, and anticoagulants. It may cause headache or muscular weakness, and its safety during pregnancy or breastfeeding is unknown.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Galega officinalis, commonly known as galega, goat's-rue, French lilac, Italian fitch, or professor-weed, is an herbaceous plant in the Faboideae subfamily. It is native to the Middle East, but has been naturalized in Europe and western Asia. The plant has been extensively cultivated as a forage crop, an ornamental, a bee plant, and as green manure.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975804}
{"src_title": "Johannes Aavik", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and career.", "content": "Aavik studied history at the University of Tartu and the University of Nezin in 1905. He was a member of the Young Estonia movement and obtained a Doctorate in Romance languages at the University of Helsinki in 1910. Aavik taught Estonian and French at Tartu University between 1926 and 1933. In 1934 he was appointed by the Estonian Ministry of Education as Chief Inspector of Secondary Schools, a position he held until 1940. He fled Soviet occupation in 1944 and lived in Stockholm for the remainder of his life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Estonian language development.", "content": "Johannes Aavik found that Estonian, which had for centuries been the language of peasants, needed innovation, as its sphere of usage widened rapidly with the emergence of a modern nation. There was a need for standardization of grammar and orthography as well as new technical terminology. Aavik added that the language also needed to be versatile and euphonic. In 1912 he started writing articles to literary journals, making propositions how to develop Estonian language. He suggested intensive borrowing from Finnish; many of his suggestions were quickly widely accepted and have become part of standard Estonian vocabulary. From 1914 he started to artificially create well sounding new word stems to replace awkward compound words. Thus, he proposed \"relv\" (\"weapon\") instead of \"sõjariist\" (literally, \"war tool\"), \"roim\" (\"crime\") instead of \"kuritöö\" (\"evil deed\") and \"veenma\" (\"convince\") instead of \"uskuma panema\" (\"put into believing\"). He generally tried to avoid the sounds \"t\" and \"s\" and preferred shorter words to longer ones. He also favoured \"o\" in successive syllables to \"u\", as is common in the South Estonian dialects. Aavik considered many of his neologisms as created out of nothing (see ex nihilo lexical enrichment). However, according to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, many of Aavik's neologisms were influenced by foreign lexical items, for example words from Russian, German, French, Finnish, English and Swedish (Aavik had a broad classical education and knew Ancient Greek, Latin and French). For example, \"roim\" (\"crime\") might have been influenced by the English word \"crime\"; \"relv\" (\"weapon\") might have been influenced by the English word \"revolver\"; and \"taunima\" (\"to condemn, disapprove\") might have been influenced by the Finnish word \"tuomita\" (\"to condemn, to judge\").  Aavik tried to modernize even the grammar. He advocated the usage of i-plural instead of t(d)-plural (\"keelis\" pro \"keeltes\") and the i-superlative instead of the ordinary superlative (\"suurim\" pro \"kõige suurem\"), as well as –nd instead of –nud in active past participle. He proposed inflectional affixes to the ma-infinitive, but only some of them entered into popular usage. He also tried to introduce a future form of verbs and a female personal pronoun, but these got little positive response.  Aavik published numerous essays and translations to propagate his ideas; he had vocal supporters as well as opponents. In 1919, he published a dictionary of 2000 novelty words. His principles (utility, aesthetics and native quality) were summarized in \"Keeleuuenduse äärmised võimalused\" (Extreme Perspectives of Language Innovation; Tartu, 1924).  Language innovation slowly died away after the 1927 act that made it compulsory for schools to teach standard Estonian as put down in Estonian Orthographic Dictionary (1925, chief editor J. V. Veski) and Estonian Grammar (by Elmar Muuk, 1927). However, some words proposed by Aavik and fallen into oblivion have been picked up and re-introduced by more recent literati.  An essay on linguistic innovation in Estonian by Paul Saagpakk can be found in his Estonian-English Dictionary.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johannes Aavik ( in Randvere, Saaremaa, Estonia (then Russian Empire) – 18 March 1973 in Stockholm, Sweden) was an Estonian philologist and Fennophile who played a significant role in the modernization and development of the Estonian language.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975805}
{"src_title": "Hyundai Tiburon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "When Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot first described the yellow-headed caracara in 1816, he gave it the scientific name \"Polyborus chimachima\", putting it in the same genus as the crested caracaras. In 1824, German naturalist Johann Baptist von Spix created the genus \"Milvago\" for this species and the closely related chimango caracara.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The yellow-headed caracara is in length and weighs on average. Like many other birds of prey, the female is larger than the male, weighing against the male's. Apart from the difference in size, there is no significant sexual dimorphism in this species. It is broad-winged and long-tailed, somewhat resembling a small \"Buteo\". The adult has a buff head, with a black streak behind the eye, and buff underparts. The upper plumage is brown with distinctive pale patches on the flight feathers of the wings, and the tail is barred cream and brown. The head and underparts of immature birds have dense brown mottling.  The voice is a characteristic screamed \"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "This is a bird of savanna, swamps and forest edges. Resident from Costa Rica south through Trinidad and Tobago to northern Argentina (the provinces of Misiones, Chaco, Formosa, Corrientes and Santa Fe), it is typically found from sea level to, and occasionally to above mean sea level. In southern South America, it is replaced by a close relative, the chimango caracara, whose range overlaps with that of the yellow-headed caracara in southern Brazil, northern Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. A larger and stouter paleosubspecies, \"Milvago chimachima readei\", occurred in Florida and possibly elsewhere some tens of thousand years ago, during the Late Pleistocene. According to the Peregrine Fund database, the yellow-headed caracara is expanding its range into Nicaragua.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior and ecology.", "content": "The yellow-headed caracara is omnivorous, and will eat reptiles, amphibians and other small animals as well as carrion. Birds are rarely if ever taken, and this species will not elicit warning calls from mixed-species feeding flocks that cross its path even in open cerrado habitat. It will also remove and eat ticks from cattle and Baird's tapir (\"Tapirus bairdii\"), and is sometimes called the \"tickbird\". It has been observed also to forage for small invertebrates in the fur of brown-throated three-toed sloths and capybaras. In addition, at least younger birds are fond of certain fruits, such as those of the oil palm (\"Elaeis guineensis\") and pequi (\"Caryocar brasiliense\"). It lays from five to seven brown-marked buff eggs in a stick nest in a tree.  The yellow-headed caracara has benefited from forest clearing for cattle ranching. Its status in Trinidad has changed from rare to fairly common, and it was first seen on Tobago in 1987. It adapts readily to urban areas and, together with species such as the American black vulture (\"Coragyps atratus\"), it is among the most commonly seen bird of prey in Latin American cities. Consequently, this wide-ranging species has been assigned a risk level of Least Concern category on the IUCN Red List. In Panama City for example, as a result of the increased urban sprawl, yellow-headed caracara pairs are frequently seen along the rooftops in suburban neighborhoods.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hyundai Tiburon () known as the Hyundai Coupé (현대 쿠페) in the European Market is a sports coupe that was produced by the South Korean manufacturer Hyundai from 1996 to 2008.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975806}
{"src_title": "Michal Rozsíval", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Rozsíval was drafted in the fourth round, 105th overall, by the Pittsburgh Penguins in the 1996 NHL Entry Draft. To adjust to North American play, he moved to Canada to play junior hockey with the Swift Current Broncos of the Western Hockey League (WHL). Before making his debut with the Penguins, he played for the Syracuse Crunch in the American Hockey League (AHL). He made his NHL debut in the 1999–2000 season.  Rozsíval joined the New York Rangers after the 2004–05 NHL lockout as a free agent. On 29 April 2007, Rozsíval ended the Rangers' longest home playoff game since 1971 by scoring on Buffalo Sabres goaltender Ryan Miller at 16:43 of the second overtime period. In the 2007–08 season, Rozsíval led all defensemen in shorthanded goals, with two.  On 1 July 2008, Rozsíval signed a four-year contract extension with the Rangers worth a total of $20 million. On 22 February 2009, Rozsíval switched his jersey number to 33 when former Rangers' player Harry Howell had his number 3 retired.  On 10 January 2011, Rozsíval was traded to the Phoenix Coyotes for Wojtek Wolski. He did not record any points during the Coyotes' run to the 2012 Western Conference Finals against the Los Angeles Kings. He was injured on a play just seconds before Dustin Penner's overtime series winner after a hit from Dustin Brown, and had to be assisted off the ice. On 11 September 2012, Rozsíval was signed as a free agent by the Chicago Blackhawks on a one-year contract. The Blackhawks would win the Stanley Cup during the lockout-shortened 2012–13 season, defeating the Boston Bruins 3–2 in Game 6. In Game 1 of that series, Rozsíval shot a puck that deflected off Dave Bolland and Andrew Shaw into the net for the game-winning triple-overtime goal. Rozsíval was credited with an assist. On 5 July 2013, Rozsíval signed a two-year contract extension to remain with the Blackhawks.  Rozsíval recorded one goal and twelve assists over 65 games during the 2014–15 NHL season. He appeared in ten games during the 2015 Stanley Cup Playoffs, but sustained a critical ankle injury during the Blackhawks’ second round series against the Minnesota Wild. The injury required surgery and between 12 and 16 weeks of rehabilitation. The Blackhawks won the Stanley Cup that year and Rozsíval’s name was engraved on the cup for a second time.  On 22 September 2015, Rozsíval signed a one-year contract extension with the Blackhawks. He made his 2015–16 debut for the Blackhawks on 14 November. In March 2016, the Professional Hockey Writers Association nominated Rozsival for the NHL's Masterton Trophy, which is awarded annually to the player who 'best exemplifies the qualities of perseverance, sportsmanship and dedication to ice hockey.'  At the end of the 2015–16 season, Rozsival signed another one-year contract extension with the Blackhawks. On 28 February 2017, Chicago agreed to extend Rozsival's contract through the 2017–2018 season. In the Blackhawks’ penultimate 2016–17 regular season game, Nick Ritchie of the Anaheim Ducks punched Rozsíval in the face as retaliation for a cross-check he delivered to Corey Perry. Rozsíval suffered a facial fracture that required surgical repairs. The NHL suspended Ritchie for two games (one regular season and one playoff game) on the basis that Ritchie's punch was unexpected and Rozsíval was not prepared to fight or defend himself. Rozsíval missed the Blackhawks 2016–17 finale and the entire 2017 playoffs due to the injury. He was later diagnosed with post-concussion symptoms and was placed on the Blackhawks long-term disabled list before the 2017–18 NHL season. He was subsequently ruled out for the entirety of the season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Rozsival and his wife Jana have two sons: Daniel (who currently plays for the Chicago Mission u16 team) and Dominick.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michal Rozsíval (; born 3 September 1978) is a Czech former professional ice hockey defenceman. He last played for the Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL). He joined the team in 2012, previously playing for the Pittsburgh Penguins from 1999 until 2004, the New York Rangers from 2005 to 2011, and the Phoenix Coyotes in 2011–12. He is a two time Stanley Cup winner with the Blackhawks in 2013 and 2015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975807}
{"src_title": "HNLMS De Ruyter (1935)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "\"De Ruyter\" was designed during the Great Depression, which, in addition to being a period of economic depression, was also a period in which pacifism was widespread in the Netherlands. For these reasons, the design was officially called a \"flottieljeleider\" (flotilla leader) instead of a cruiser, and every effort was made to cut costs.  Its function was to aid the two existing cruisers of the in the defence of the Dutch East Indies; the idea was that with three cruisers, there would always be two cruisers available, even if one cruiser had to be repaired.  However, due to the cost-cutting policy that went into her design, \"De Ruyter\" was not quite up to her task. Her main battery (7 × 150 mm guns) was underpowered in comparison to other light cruisers of the time (for example the British ), and the class had inadequate armour as well and lacked long range anti-aircraft guns. However, her fire control system was excellent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service history.", "content": "During World War II, \"De Ruyter\" saw repeated action in the Dutch East Indies in fruitless attempts to ward off the Japanese invasion. She was damaged by air attack in the Battle of Bali Sea on 4 February 1942, but not seriously. She fought in the Battle of Badung Strait on 18 February. In the Battle of the Java Sea on 27 February, \"De Ruyter\" was the flagship of the Dutch Rear-Admiral Karel Doorman, with his flag captain Eugène Lacomblé (who had previously served on board the ship as a lieutenant). Off the north coast off Java on the evening of the 27th the remains of the ABDA fleet was surprised by the Japanese heavy cruisers and. Several minutes after the Dutch cruiser \"Java\" had been torpedoed and sunk, \"De Ruyter\" was hit by a single Type 93 torpedo fired by \"Haguro\" at about 23:40 and was set on fire; the torpedo also disabled the ship's electrical systems and left the crew unable to combat the fire or the flooding. The \"De Ruyter\" sank at about 02:30 the next morning with the loss of 367 men, including Admiral Doorman and Captain Lacomblé.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wreck.", "content": "The wreck of \"De Ruyter\" was discovered by specialist wreck divers on 1 December 2002 and declared a war grave, with the ship's two bells—one now in the Kloosterkerk in the Hague—being recovered. The wreck of, was also found the same day by the same divers. The same dive group then found on 12 August 2004.  In 2016 it was discovered that the wrecks of \"De Ruyter\" and \"Java\", and much of \"Kortenaer\" had disappeared from the seabed, although their imprints on the ocean floor remained. Over 100 ships and submarines of various countries sank during the war in the seas around Indonesia, Singapore and Malaysia; many are designated as war graves. There is known to be illegal scavenging of these wrecks, often using explosives; the Netherlands Defence Ministry suggested that \"De Ruyter\", \"Java\", and \"Kortenaer\" may have been illegally salvaged. In February 2017 a report was issued confirming the salvaging of the three wrecks.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "HNLMS\" De Ruyter\" () was a unique light cruiser of the Royal Netherlands Navy. She was originally designed as a ship with a lighter armament due to financial problems and the pacifist movement. Later in the design stage, an extra gun turret was added and the armor was improved. She was the seventh ship of the Dutch Navy to be named after Admiral Michiel Adriaenszoon de Ruyter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975808}
{"src_title": "Nieuport 11", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Nieuport 11 was a smaller, simplified version of the Nieuport 10, designed specifically as a single-seat fighter. Like the \"10\" the \"11\" was a sesquiplane, a biplane with a full-sized top wing with two spars, and a lower wing of much narrower chord and a single spar. Interplane struts in the form of a \"Vee\" joined the upper and lower wings. The sesquiplane layout reduced drag and improved the rate of climb, as well as offering a better view from the cockpit than either biplane or monoplane, while being substantially stronger than contemporary monoplanes. Unfortunately, the narrow lower wing was sometimes subject to aeroelastic flutter at high air speeds, a problem that manifested itself on the later \"vee-strut\" Nieuport fighters, as well as the German Albatros D.III. Nieuport 11s were supplied to the French \"Aéronautique Militaire\", the British Royal Naval Air Service, the Imperial Russian Air Service, Belgium, and Italy. 646 Nieuport 11s were produced by the Italian Macchi company under licence, When Romania suffered military setbacks and needed aircraft, several RNAS Nieuport 11s, along with Nieuport 12s were provided.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nieuport 16.", "content": "In 1916 an improved version appeared as the Nieuport 16, which was a strengthened Nieuport 11 airframe powered by a Le Rhône 9J rotary engine. Visible differences included a larger aperture in front of the \"horse shoe\" cowling and a headrest for the pilot. The Nieuport 16 was an interim type pending the delivery of the slightly larger Nieuport 17 C.1 whose design was begun in parallel with the 16, and remedied the 16's balance problems, as well as improving performance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Nieuport 11 reached the French front in January 1916, and 90 were in service within the month.  This small sesquiplane outclassed the Fokker \"Eindecker\" in every respect, including speed, climb rate and maneuverability. It featured ailerons for lateral control rather than the Fokker's wing warping, giving lighter, quicker roll response, and its elevator was attached to a conventional tail plane which provided better pitch control as opposed to the all-moving, balanced \"Morane type\" elevators of the Fokker.  The Fokker's sole remaining advantage was its synchronized machine gun, which fired forward through the arc of its propeller. At the time, the Allies lacked a similar system, and the Nieuport 11's Lewis machine gun was mounted to fire over the propeller, allowing uninterrupted forward fire. The Lewis was not synchronizable, due to its open bolt firing cycle design which resulted in an unpredictable rate of fire. Clearing gun jams and replacing ammunition drums in flight were challenging though, and the drums limited ammunition supply.  During the course of the Battle of Verdun in February 1916, the combination of the Nieuport 11s technical advantages and its concentration in dedicated fighter units allowed the French to establish air superiority, forcing radical changes in German tactics. The impact of the Nieuport was so dramatic that in mid to late 1916 several captured examples were repaired, rearmed with a synchronised \"Spandau\" gun, and flown at the front. One of these was N1324, briefly flown by Kurt Student in August 1916. Others were supplied by Idflieg to a number of manufacturers, requesting copies be built which had considerable direct and indirect influence on German fighter design.  Some Nieuport 11s and 16s were fitted to fire Le Prieur rockets from the struts for attacks on observation balloons and airships.  By March 1916 the \"Bébé\" was being replaced by both the Nieuport 16 and the much improved Nieuport 17, although Italian-built examples remained in first line service longer, as did Russian examples. Thereafter the Nieuport 11s continued to be used as trainers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nieuport 11 (or Nieuport XI C.1 in contemporary sources), nicknamed the \"Bébé\", was a French World War I single seat sesquiplane fighter aircraft, designed by Gustave Delage. It was the primary aircraft that ended the Fokker Scourge in 1916. The type saw service with several of France's allies, and gave rise to the series of \"vee-strut\" Nieuport fighters that remained in service (latterly as trainers) into the 1920s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975809}
{"src_title": "Isle of the Dead (painting)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description and meaning.", "content": "All versions of \"Isle of the Dead\" depict a desolate and rocky islet seen across an expanse of dark water. A small rowing boat is just arriving at a water gate and seawall on shore. An oarsman maneuvers the boat from the stern. In the bow, facing the gate, is a standing figure clad entirely in white. Just behind the figure is a white, festooned object commonly interpreted as a coffin. The tiny islet is dominated by a dense grove of tall, dark cypress trees—associated by long-standing tradition with cemeteries and mourning—which is closely hemmed in by precipitous cliffs. Furthering the funerary theme are what appear to be sepulchral portals and windows on the rock faces.  Böcklin himself provided no public explanation as to the meaning of the painting, though he did describe it as “a dream picture: it must produce such a stillness that one would be awed by a knock on the door”. The title, which was conferred upon it by the art dealer Fritz Gurlitt in 1883, was not specified by Böcklin, though it does derive from a phrase in an 1880 letter he sent to the painting's original commissioner. Not knowing the history of the early versions of the painting (see below), many observers have interpreted the oarsman as representing the boatman Charon, who ferried souls to the underworld in Greek mythology. The water would then be either the River Styx or the River Acheron, and his white-clad passenger a recently deceased soul transiting to the afterlife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins and inspiration.", "content": "\"Isle of the Dead\" evokes, in part, the English Cemetery in Florence, Italy, where the first three versions were painted. The cemetery was close to Böcklin's studio and was also where his infant daughter Maria was buried. (In all, Böcklin lost 8 of his 14 children.)  The model for the rocky islet was perhaps Pontikonisi, a small, lush island near Corfu, which is adorned with a small chapel amid a cypress grove, perhaps in combination with the mysterious rocky island of Strombolicchio near the famous volcano Stromboli, Sicily. (Another less likely candidate is the island of Ponza in the Tyrrhenian Sea.)  Michael Webber says it was painted in the Bay of Kotor in Montenegro, and that it inspired the composer Rachmaninoff. This claim is supported by the similarity between the painting and the island of St. George near Perast, which is lined by cypress groves and houses a church dedicated to Saint George.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Versions.", "content": "Böcklin completed the first version of the painting in May 1880 for his patron Alexander Günther, but kept it himself. In April 1880, while the painting was in progress, Böcklin's Florence studio had been visited by Marie Berna, née Christ (widow of financier Dr. Georg von Berna [1836–1865] and soon-to-be wife of the German politician Waldemar, Count of Oriola [1854–1910]). She was struck by the first version of this \"dream image\" (now in the Kunstmuseum Basel), which sat half completed on the easel, so Böcklin painted a smaller version on wood for her (now in the Metropolitan Museum in New York City). At Berna's request, he added the coffin and female figure, in allusion to her husband's death from diphtheria years earlier. Subsequently, he added these elements to the earlier painting. He called these works (\"Tomb Island\"). (Sometimes the \"Basel\" version is credited as the first one, sometimes the \"New York\".) It was acquired by the Gottfried Keller-Stiftung in 1920.  The third version was painted in 1883 for Böcklin's dealer Fritz Gurlitt. Beginning with this version, one of the burial chambers in the rocks on the right bears Böcklin's own initials: \"A.B.\". (In 1933, this version was put up for sale, and a noted Böcklin admirer Adolf Hitler acquired it. He hung it first at the Berghof in Obersalzberg and then, after 1940, in the New Reich Chancellery in Berlin. It is now at the Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin.)  Financial imperatives resulted in a fourth version in 1884, which was ultimately acquired by the entrepreneur and art collector Baron Heinrich Thyssen and hung at his Berliner Bank subsidiary. It was burned after a bomb attack during World War II and survives only as a black-and-white photograph.  A fifth version was commissioned in 1886 by the Museum of Fine Arts, Leipzig, where it still hangs. In 1888, Böcklin created a painting called (\"Isle of Life\"). Probably intended as an antipole to the \"Isle of the Dead\", it also shows a small island, but with all signs of joy and life. Together with the first version of the \"Isle of the Dead\", this painting is part of the collection of the Kunstmuseum Basel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works inspired by \"Isle of the Dead\".", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Drama.", "content": "Theatre  Film  Television", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Isle of the Dead () is the best-known painting of Swiss Symbolist artist Arnold Böcklin (1827–1901). Prints were very popular in central Europe in the early 20th century—Vladimir Nabokov observed in his 1936 novel \"Despair\" that they could be \"found in every Berlin home\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975810}
{"src_title": "Bièvre (river)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Course.", "content": "The source of the Bièvre is in Guyancourt, département Yvelines. From there, it flows through the following départements and towns:  The river enters Paris near Stade Charléty (close to the border between the 13th and 14th arrondissements), and reaches the Seine River in the Latin Quarter (5th arrondissement) close to Île de la Cité.  The Bièvre was diverted from its original course in 1148 by the monks of the abbey of Saint-Victor. This diversion is reflected in maps of Paris dating from the 13th century. Historically the river was heavily industrialized with mills, which led to the straightening of the river. Tanneries, butcher shops and dye-makers were built along its banks, leading to serious pollution concerns.  Starting in the 18th century, the river was gradually culverted. Eleven km are canalised under slabs and 5 km have disappeared under rubble and urbanisation in Paris. In modern times the Bièvre forms a rainwater system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restoration project.", "content": "In 2003, 200m of the Bièvre was re-opened in the Parc des Près in Fresnes. At the same time, over twenty direct wastewater connections to the Bièvre were eliminated. When the river is completely disconnected from the wastewater system, the stormwater from the river will no longer flow into a wastewater treatment plant but will instead flow directly into the River Seine, which is expected to lead to significant savings in wastewater treatment costs.  Another section of the Bièvre between Massy and Verrières was re-opened in 2006.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bièvre is a long river of the Île-de-France région that flows into the Seine (left bank) in Paris. The name translates to \"Beaver River\" in English.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975811}
{"src_title": "Aeroflot Flight 593", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aircraft.", "content": "The aircraft involved in the accident was a leased Airbus A310-304, registration, serial number 596, that was delivered new to Aeroflot on 11 December 1992. Powered with two General Electric CF6-80C2A2 engines, the airframe had its maiden flight as on 11 September 1991, and was one of five operating for Russian Airlines, an autonomous division of Aeroflot – Russian International Airlines that was set up for serving routes to the Russian Far East and Southeast Asia. On average, the crew of three operating the aircraft had logged 900 hours on the type.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Passengers and Crew.", "content": "Of the 63 passengers on board, 40 were Russian nationals, including about 30 airline employees and family members. The remaining 23 foreigners were mostly businessmen from Hong Kong and Taiwan who were looking for economic opportunities in Russia.  The captain of Flight 593 was Andrey Viktorovich Danilov, 40, who was hired by Aeroflot in November 1992. He had accrued over 9,675 hours of flight time, including 950 hours in the A310, of which 895 hours were as captain. The first officer was Igor Vasilyevich Piskaryov, 33, hired by Aeroflot in October 1993, who had 5,885 hours of flight time, including 440 hours in the A310. The relief pilot was Yaroslav Vladimirovich Kudrinsky, 39, who was hired by Aeroflot in November 1992; he had over 8,940 flying hours, including 907 hours in the A310. Kudrinsky also had experience in the Yakovlev Yak-40, Antonov An-12, and Ilyushin Il-76. There were nine flight attendants on board the plane.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Accident.", "content": "On 23 March 1994, the jet aircraft was en route from Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow to Kai Tak Airport in Hong Kong with 75 occupants aboard, of whom 63 were passengers.  Relief pilot Kudrinsky was taking his two children on their first international flight, and they were brought to the cockpit while he was on duty. Five people were thus on the flight deck: Kudrinsky, co-pilot Piskaryov, Kudrinsky's children Eldar and Yana, and another pilot, Vladimir Makarov, who was flying as a passenger.  With the autopilot active, Kudrinsky, against regulations, let the children sit at the controls. First, his daughter Yana took the pilot's left front seat. Kudrinsky adjusted the autopilot's heading to give her the impression that she was turning the plane, though she actually had no control of the aircraft. Shortly thereafter, Kudrinsky's son Eldar occupied the pilot's seat. Unlike his sister, Eldar applied enough force to the control column to contradict the autopilot for 30 seconds. This caused the flight computer to switch the plane's ailerons to manual control while maintaining control over the other flight systems. A silent indicator light came on to alert the pilots to this partial disengagement. The pilots, who had previously flown Soviet-designed planes that had audible warning signals, apparently failed to notice it.  Eldar was the first to notice a problem, when he observed that the plane was banking right. Shortly after, the flight path indicator changed to show the new flight path of the aircraft as it turned. Since the turn was continuous, the resulting predicted flight path drawn on screen was a 180-degree turn. This indication is similar to those shown when in a holding pattern, where a 180-degree turn is required to remain in a stable position. This confused the pilots for nine seconds, during which time the plane banked past a 45-degree angle to almost 90 degrees, steeper than the design allowed. The A310 cannot turn this steeply while maintaining altitude, and the plane started to descend quickly. The increased g-forces on the pilots and crew made it extremely difficult for them to regain control. The autopilot, which no longer controlled the ailerons, used its other controls in order to compensate, pitching the nose up and increasing thrust. As a result, the plane began to stall; the autopilot, unable to cope, disengaged completely. A second, larger indicator light came on to alert the pilots of the complete disengagement, and this time they did notice it. At the same time, the autopilot's display screen went blank. To recover from the stall, an automatic system lowered the nose and put the plane into a nosedive. The reduced g-forces enabled Kudrinsky to re-take his seat. Piskaryov then managed to pull out of the dive, but over-corrected, putting the plane in an almost vertical ascent, again stalling the plane, which fell out of the sky into a corkscrew dive. Although Kudrinsky and Piskaryov regained control and leveled out the wings, they did not know how far they had descended during the crisis and their altitude by then was too low to recover. The plane crashed at high vertical speed, estimated at. All 75 occupants died on impact.  The aircraft crashed with its landing gear up, and all passengers had been prepared for an emergency, as they were strapped into their seats. No distress calls were made prior to the crash. Despite the struggles of both pilots to save the aircraft, it was later concluded that if they had just let go of the control column, the autopilot would have automatically taken action to prevent stalling, thus avoiding the accident.  The wreckage was located on a remote hillside in the Kuznetsk Alatau mountain chain, approximately east of Mezhdurechensk, Kemerovo Oblast, Russia; the flight data recorders were found on the second day of searching. Families of western victims placed flowers on the crash site, while families of Chinese victims scattered pieces of paper with messages written on them around the crash site.  The airline originally denied that the children were in the cockpit, but accepted the fact when the Moscow-based magazine \"Obozrevatel\" (, ) published the transcript on the week of 28 September 1994. The Associated Press said that, according to the transcript, \"the Russian crew almost succeeded in saving the plane\". \"The New York Times\" said that \"A transcript of the tape printed in the magazine Obozrevatel shows that the Russian crew nearly managed to save the Airbus plane and the 75 people on board, but that it was hampered by the presence of children and its unfamiliarity with the foreign-made plane.\" \"The New York Times\" also stated that an analysis by an aviation expert published in \"Rossiiskiye Vesti\" (, ) supported that analysis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The events of Flight 593 were featured in \"Kid in the Cockpit\", a Season 3 (2005) episode of the Canadian TV series \"Mayday\" (called \"Air Emergency\" and \"Air Disasters\" in the U.S. and \"Air Crash Investigation\" in the UK and elsewhere around the world). The flight was also included in a \"Mayday\" Season 6 (2007) \"Science of Disaster\" special titled \"Who's Flying the Plane?\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flight number.", "content": "The airline has modified its schedules and reassigned flight numbers;, the only flight servicing Hong Kong is numbered SU212 and is operated daily.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aeroflot Flight 593 was a regular passenger flight from Sheremetyevo International Airport, Moscow, to Kai Tak Airport in Hong Kong. On 23 March 1994, the aircraft operating the route, an Airbus A310-304 flown by Aeroflot – Russian International Airlines, crashed into a mountain range in Kemerovo Oblast, Russia, killing all 63 passengers and 12 crew members on board.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975812}
{"src_title": "Marietta Robusti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The only known primary source for details of Marietta Robusti's life is Carlo Ridolfi's \"Life of Tintoretto\", first published in 1642, although she is mentioned briefly in Raffaelo Borghini's \"Il Riposo della Pitura e della Scultura\" of 1584. These two sources disagree on the year of her birth: according to Borghini, she was born in 1555, but Carlo Ridolfi indicates that she was born in 1560.  Marietta Robusti was probably born in 1560 and died when she was thirty during child birth. She lived in Venice all her life. She was the eldest daughter of the painter Jacopo Robusti, from whom she inherited her nickname, la Tintoretta (translated as \"little dyer girl\", after Jacopo's father's occupation as a \"tintore\", or dyer). She is thus variously known as Marietta Robusti, Marietta Tintoretto, and la Tintoretta. She was followed by three brothers and four sisters.  Since conventions of the time dictated that women remained in the privacy of the domestic sphere and were not welcome in the public world of art production and sale, Robusti and her female contemporaries gained access to the art world through their artist fathers or brothers. Robusti's artistic training consisted of serving an apprenticeship in the collaborative environment of her father's workshop, where she probably contributed to her father's paintings with backgrounds and figure blocking, as was the usual distribution of labor in painting workshops of the time. Though Robusti's social and economic autonomy was no greater than other artisan women she had quite a following, changing the ideals of femininity within the arts. After her death, Carlo Ridolfi stated she was one of the most illustrious women of her time, having the same manner of skill as her father while displaying \"sentimental femininity, a womanly grace that is strained and resolute.\" While Robusti worked in her father's studio it was also said she worked on altarpieces as an assistant but her achievements were buried under the name of her father. After her death the decline in work produced by Tintoretto was ascribed to grief for his daughter, rather than the loss of a skillful assistant.  After Marietta Robusti's death she became a muse for Romantic painters such as Léon Cogniet who produced \"Tintoretto Painting His Dead Daughter\" in 1846 and Eleuterio Pagliano who painted \"Tintoretto and His Daughter\" in 1861. The trope of women artists being transformed from creators to subjects for male counterparts made her a motif for male creativity, displaying a dying muse of quietly suffering femininity.  Evidence suggests that Robusti received no commissions for major religious works such as altarpieces or other church decorations, and that she was mainly a portraitist.  Ridolfi describes Robusti's close relationship with her father at great length. Not only did she learn at his knee, as a child she also liked to dress like a boy so that she could go everywhere with Jacopo. Emperor Maximilian and King Philip II of Spain both expressed interest in hosting her as a court painter, but her father refused their invitations on her behalf because he couldn't bear to part with her. In 1578 he arranged for her to marry a Venetian jeweler and silversmith, Jacopo Augusta, to ensure she would always stay near him. Jacopo also had Marietta instructed in singing and playing the harpsichord, clavichord, and lute.  She died of unrecorded causes in 1590, and was buried in Santa Maria del’Orto in Venice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attributions and assessment.", "content": "The only painting that can be conclusively attributed to Marietta Robusti is her \"Self Portrait\" (c. 1580; Uffizi Gallery, Florence). This portrait depicts Marietta posed before a harpsichord, holding a musical text that has been identified as a madrigal by Philippe Verdelot, \"Madonna per voi ardo\". It has been postulated that the inclusion of this text, whose opening lines are \"My Lady, I burn with love for you and you do not believe it\", suggests that the painting was created for a male viewer, possibly Marietta's husband.  Other attributions include: \"Old Man and a Boy\" (c. 1585; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna), which was long considered one of Tintoretto's finest portraits and was not revealed to be Robusti's until 1920; \"Portrait of Ottavio Strada\" (c. 1567-68; Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam); and two small paintings of the \"Virgin and Child\" (dates unknown, Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio). \"Portrait of Two Men\" (Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden), signed \"MR\", is thought to be Marietta Robusti's only surviving signed work.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marietta Robusti (1560? – 1590) was a Venetian painter of the Renaissance period. She was the daughter of Tintoretto and is sometimes referred to as \"Tintoretta\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975813}
{"src_title": "Otto Strasser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Born at Windsheim in Bavaria, Otto Strasser took an active part in World War I. On 2 August 1914, he joined the Bavarian Army as a volunteer. He rose through the ranks to lieutenant and was twice wounded. He returned to Germany in 1919 where he served in the Freikorps that put down the Bavarian Soviet Republic which was organized on the principles of workers' councils. At the same time, he also joined the Social Democratic Party. In 1920 he participated in the opposition to the Kapp Putsch. However, he grew increasingly alienated with his party's reformist stance, particularly when it put down a workers' uprising in the Ruhr, and he left the party later that year. In 1925, he joined the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party), in which his brother, Gregor had been a member for several years, and worked for its newspaper as a journalist, ultimately taking it over with his brother. He was focused particularly on the socialist elements of the party's programme and led the party's left faction in northern Germany together with his brother and Joseph Goebbels. His faction advocated support for strikes, nationalisation of banks and industry, and – despite acknowledged differences – closer ties with the Soviet Union. Some of these policies were opposed by Hitler, who thought they were too radical and too alienating from parts of the German people (middle class and Nazi-supporting nationalist industrialists in particular), and the Strasser faction was defeated at the Bamberg Conference (1926), with Joseph Goebbels joining Hitler. Humiliated, he nonetheless, along with his brother Gregor, continued as a leading Left Nazi within the Party, until expelled from the NSDAP by Hitler in 1930.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After expulsion.", "content": "Following his expulsion, he set up his own party, the Black Front, composed of like-minded former NSDAP members, in an attempt to split the Nazi Party. His party proved unable to counter Hitler's rise to power in 1933, and Strasser spent the years of the Nazi era in exile. The Nazi Left itself was annihilated during the Night of the Long Knives in 1934 – in which his brother was killed – leaving Hitler as undisputed party leader and able to pacify both industrialists and the military into accepting his new National Socialist regime. In addition to the \"Black Front\", Strasser at this time headed the Free German Movement outside Germany which sought to enlist the aid of Germans throughout the world in bringing about the downfall of Hitler and his vision of Nazism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exile.", "content": "Strasser fled first to Austria, then to Prague, Switzerland and France. In 1940, he went to Bermuda by way of Portugal, leaving a wife and two children behind in Switzerland. In 1941, he emigrated to Canada, where he was the famed \"Prisoner of Ottawa\". During this time, Goebbels denounced Strasser as the Nazis' \"Public Enemy Number One\" and a price of $500,000 was set on his head. He settled for a time in Montreal. In 1942, he lived for a time in Clarence, Nova Scotia on a farm owned by a German-speaking Czech, Adolph Schmidt, then moved to nearby Paradise where he lived for more than a decade in a rented apartment above a general store. As an influential and uncondemned former Nazi Party member still faithful to many doctrines of National Socialism, he was initially prevented from returning to West Germany after the war, first by the Allied powers and then by the West German government.  During his exile, he wrote articles on Nazi Germany and its leadership for a number of British, American and Canadian newspapers, including the \"New Statesman\", and a series for the \"Montreal Gazette\", which was ghostwritten by then \"Gazette\" reporter and later politician Donald C. MacDonald.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Germany.", "content": "Strasser claimed to have been invited by East Germany in 1950 to become a member of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, but declined in hopes that he would be permitted to return to Bavaria, which was then under US occupation. In his view, West Germany constituted an American colony and East Germany a Russian colony. He eventually regained his citizenship and settled in Munich.  He attempted to create a new \"nationalist and socialist\"-oriented party in 1956, the German Social Union (often called a successor to the 1949–1952, eventually forbidden Socialist Reich Party of Germany), but his organisation was unable to attract any support. For the rest of his life, Strasser continued to advocate for Strasserite Neo-Nazism until his death in Munich in 1974.  Otto Strasser claimed he was a dissenting Nazi regarding racial policies. During his later life, he claimed to have actively opposed such policies within the national socialist movement; for example, by organizing the removal of Julius Streicher from the German Völkisch Freedom Party.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Otto Johann Maximilian Strasser (also, see ß; 10 September 1897 – 27 August 1974) was a German politician and an early member of the Nazi Party. Otto Strasser, together with his brother Gregor Strasser, was a leading member of the party's left-wing faction, and broke from the party due to disputes with the dominant \"Hitlerite\" faction. He formed the Black Front, a group intended to split the Nazi Party and take it from the grasp of Hitler. This group also functioned during his exile and World War II as a secret opposition group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975814}
{"src_title": "Milan Munclinger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Munclinger was the son of Josef Munclinger, an operatic bass and opera-stage manager at the National Theater Prague. His mother was an actress at the Slovak National Theatre in Bratislava.  After graduation at the Prague Conservatory in 1948, Munclinger studied conducting (he was a pupil of Václav Talich) and composition at Academy of Performing Arts in Prague. In 1952 he also graduated in musical science, aesthetic, philosophy and oriental studies at Charles University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editor and translator.", "content": "Since 1946 he devoted himself to Baroque music. For the first time ever he translated Arnold Dolmetsch's \"The Interpretation of the Music of the 17th and 18th Centuries Revealed by Contemporary Evidence\" and several other major HIP works into Czech.  He discovered and edited a large number of archive compositions (he collaborated e.g. with Supraphon Music Publishing, IMC, New York and Bärenreiter-Verlag). He also participated in \"Musica Antiqua Bohemica\" series – his František Benda and Franz Xaver Richter flute concerti recording from 1955 was awarded Grand Prix du Disque (Jean-Pierre Rampal - flute, Milan Munclinger – conductor, Prague Chamber Orchestra/Ars Rediviva, Supraphon SUA 190 37, in part reedited in 2002. - See External links: \"Benda, Stamitz, Rosetti Flute Concertos\").  In 1951 he founded the ensemble Ars Rediviva whose performances and recordings played an important role in the revival of Baroque music in Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other activities.", "content": "He also occupied himself by jazz improvisation and premiered compositions of modern composers (André Jolivet, Ilja Hurník), a number of new works were written for him. He conducted orchestras (e.g. Czech Philharmonic, Prague Radio Orchestra) as well as ensembles focused on early music (Ars Rediviva Orchestra, Prague Chamber Orchestra, Musici de Praga).  He was a co-founder of the Czechoslovak Musical Youth and of the Czech Society for Early Music. Since the 1970s he taught the performance and study of old music at the Conservatoire in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collaboration with Jean-Pierre Rampal.", "content": "With his teacher and friend Jean-Pierre Rampal he collaborated from 1951 till his death in 1986. He was a juror at music performers' competitions (Concours de flûte Jean-Pierre Rampal, 1980 and 1983) and lecturer at performance courses in Bayreuth and Nice (Académie Internationale d'Été Jean-Pierre Rampal). He dedicated to Rampal e.g. his reconstructions of Bach's concerts BWV 1055, 1056 and 1059.  Rampal wrote about Munclinger in his book \"Musique, ma vie\" (English: \"Music, My Love\", Random House, 1989) and dedicated to him his C. P. Bach performances.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Milan Munclinger (3 July 1923 Košice, Slovakia, Czechoslovakia – 30 March 1986 Prague, Czechoslovakia) was a significant Czech flautist, conductor, composer and musical scientist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975815}
{"src_title": "Ars Rediviva", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ars Rediviva chamber ensemble.", "content": "The group was founded in 1951 in Prague by flautist and musicologist Milan Munclinger and his wife, pianist and harpsichordist Viktorie Švihlíková (she was later succeeded by Josef Hála). The original lineup also consisted of two prominent members of the Czech Philharmonic, cellist František Sláma and oboist Stanislav Duchoň (later succeeded by violinists Václav Snítil and Antonín Novák). From 1951 to 1956 Václav Talich collaborated with Ars Rediviva.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ars Rediviva orchestra, soloists.", "content": "The band's repertoire consisted largely of chamber music, the works of J. S. Bach ranking high on the list. Depending on score requirements, the ensemble's size expanded regularly up to the chamber orchestra having mainly Czech Philharmonic instrumentalists as members (a complete string group with its section leaders, prominent wind-players, for example solo flautists Géza Novák and František Čech, solo oboist Jiří Mihule, solo bassoonists Karel Bidlo and František Herman, solo horn-players Miroslav Štefek and Zdeněk Tylšar, solo double-bass player František Pošta, etc.). Ars Rediviva collaborated with the Czech Philharmonic Choir, Czech singers (Karel Berman, Ladislav Mráz, Jana Jonášová, Virginia Walterová, Ludmila Vernerová, etc.), and foreign artists, specializing in performances of Baroque and Classical music (e.g. András Adorján, Theo Altmeyer, Maurice André, Nedda Casei, Otto Peter, Jean-Pierre Rampal).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ars Rediviva season performances (1954-1994).", "content": "In 1954, the ensemble started giving season performances in Wallenstein Pallace, and later in Rudolfinum) in Prague (6 concerts, later 12 concerts per year). In four decades, several hundreds of compositions were introduced here, including scores of premiered archive pieces. Live recordings of Ars Rediviva performances in Rudolfinum are deposited in the Czech Museum of Music.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Repertoire, recordings.", "content": "Ars Rediviva was the first ensemble in Czechoslovakia to record a large number of works of Johann Sebastian Bach (LPs of the complete Brandenburg concertos, The Art of Fugue, The Musical Offering, trio sonatas, flute sonatas, cantatas, concerto reconstructions, etc.), Bach's sons (Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach: sonatas, sinfonie symphonies, concerts; Wilhelm Friedemann Bach: sinfonies symphonies, sonatas; Johann Christian Bach: chamber music, symphonies), Antonio Vivaldi (concertos, sonatas, \"Stabat Mater\"), Jean-Philippe Rameau (e.g. \"Pièces en Concerts\"), François Couperin (\"Les Apothéoses\", \"Les Goûts réunis\"), Georg Philipp Telemann (concertos, orchestral suites, \"Nouveaux Quatuors\", \"Tafelmusik\", \"Essercizii musici\", \"Der harmonische Gottesdienst\", cantatas), Jan Dismas Zelenka (trio sonatas ZWV 181, orchestral works, \"Lamentationes Jeremiae Prophetae\"), František Benda (sonatas, flute concertos), Jiří Antonín Benda (\"Ariadne auf Naxos\", \"Bendas Klage\", sonatas, concertos), etc. (for more see External links: Ars Rediviva Discography). The ensemble recorded for Supraphon, Panton, Columbia, Ariola, CBS, Orfeo, Nippon, Deutsche Grammophon, Sony, as well as for broadcasting and television companies and film industry (awards: Grand Prix du Disque, Supraphon Golden Lion, etc.).  Jan Tausinger, Ivan Jirko, Ilja Hurník, and other Czech composers dedicated their neoclassical compositions to Ars Rediviva (e.g. Hurník's \"Sonata da Camera\", \"Concerto for Flute and Chamber Orchestra\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ars Rediviva was a Czech classical instrumental music group, whose historically-informed performances played a key role in the revival of Baroque music in Czechoslovakia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975816}
{"src_title": "Agaricus bisporus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "When immature and \"white\", this mushroom may be known as common mushroom, white mushroom, button mushroom, cultivated mushroom, table mushroom, and champignon mushroom. When immature and \"brown\", it may be known variously as Swiss brown mushroom, Roman brown mushroom, Italian brown mushroom, cremini/crimini mushroom, chestnut mushroom, and baby bella.  When marketed in its mature state, the mushroom is brown with a cap measuring. This form is commonly sold under the names portobello mushroom, portabella mushroom, and portobella mushroom, but the etymology is disputed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The common mushroom has a complicated taxonomic history. It was first described by English botanist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke in his 1871 \"Handbook of British Fungi\", as a variety (var. \"hortensis\") of \"Agaricus campestris\". Danish mycologist Jakob Emanuel Lange later reviewed a cultivar specimen, and dubbed it \"Psalliota hortensis\" var. \"bispora\" in 1926. In 1938, it was promoted to species status and renamed \"Psalliota bispora\". Emil Imbach (1897–1970) imparted the current scientific name of the species, \"Agaricus bisporus\", after the genus \"Psalliota\" was renamed to \"Agaricus\" in 1946. The specific epithet \"bispora\" distinguishes the two-spored basidia from four-spored varieties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The pileus or cap of the original wild species is a pale grey-brown in color, with broad, flat scales on a paler background and fading toward the margins. It is first hemispherical in shape before flattening out with maturity, and in diameter. The narrow, crowded gills are free and initially, pink, then red-brown and finally a dark brown with a whitish edge from the cheilocystidia. The cylindrical stipe is up to tall by 1–2 cm wide and bears a thick and narrow ring, which may be streaked on the upper side. The firm flesh is white, although stains a pale pinkish-red on bruising. The spore print is dark brown. The spores are oval to round and measure approximately 4.5–5.5 μm × 5–7.5 μm, and the basidia usually two-spored, although two-tetrasporic varieties have been described from the Mojave Desert and the Mediterranean, with predominantly heterothallic and homothallic lifestyles, respectively.  This mushroom is commonly found worldwide in fields and grassy areas following rain, from late spring through to autumn, especially in association with manure. In many parts of the world it is widely collected and eaten; however, resemblance to deadly or poisonous lookalikes (see below) should be noted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lookalike species.", "content": "The common mushroom could be confused with young specimens of the deadly poisonous destroying angel (\"Amanita\" sp.), but the latter may be distinguished by their volva or cup at the base of the mushroom and pure white gills (as opposed to pinkish or brown of \"A. bisporus\"). Thus it is always important to clear away debris and examine the base of such similar mushrooms, as well as cutting open young specimens to check the gills. Furthermore, the destroying angel grows in mossy woods and lives symbiotically with spruce.  A more common and less dangerous mistake is to confuse \"A. bisporus\" with \"Agaricus xanthodermus\", an inedible mushroom found worldwide in grassy areas. \"A. xanthodermus\" has an odor reminiscent of phenol; its flesh turns yellow when bruised. This fungus causes nausea and vomiting in some people.  The poisonous European species \"Entoloma sinuatum\" has a passing resemblance as well, but has yellowish gills, turning pink, and it lacks a ring.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation history.", "content": "The earliest scientific description of the commercial cultivation of \"A. bisporus\" was made by French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort in 1707. French agriculturist Olivier de Serres noted that transplanting mushroom mycelia would lead to the propagation of more mushrooms.  Originally, cultivation was unreliable as mushroom growers would watch for good flushes of mushrooms in fields before digging up the mycelium and replanting them in beds of composted manure or inoculating 'bricks' of compressed litter, loam, and manure. Spawn collected this way contained pathogens and crops commonly would be infected or not grow at all. In 1893, sterilized, or pure culture, spawn was discovered and produced by the Pasteur Institute in Paris, for cultivation on composted horse manure.  Today's commercial variety of the common mushroom originally was a light brown color. The white mushroom was discovered one morning in 1925 growing among a bed of brown mushrooms at the Keystone Mushroom Farm in Coatesville, Pennsylvania. Louis Ferdinand Lambert, the farm's owner and a mycologist by training, brought the white mushroom back to his laboratory. As with the reception of white bread, it was seen as a more attractive food item and became very popular. Similar to the commercial development history of the navel orange and Red Delicious apple, cultures were grown from the mutant individuals, and most of the cream-colored store mushrooms marketed today are products of this 1925 chance natural mutation.  \"A. bisporus\" is now cultivated in at least seventy countries throughout the world. Global production in the early 1990s was reported to be more than, worth more than US$2 billion. In the U.S., the white button form of \"A. bisporus\" alone accounts for about 90% of mushrooms sold.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutritional profile.", "content": "In a 100-gram serving, raw white mushrooms provide of food energy and are an excellent source (> 19% of the Daily Value, DV) of the B vitamins, riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid (table). Fresh mushrooms are also a good source (10–19% DV) of the dietary mineral phosphorus (table).  While fresh \"A. bisporus\" only contains 0.2 micrograms (8 IU) of vitamin D as ergocalciferol (vitamin D2), the ergocalciferol content increases substantially after exposure to UV light.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Some mushrooms contain hydrazine derivatives, including agaritine and gyromitrin, that have been evaluated for carcinogenic activity. Agaritine, a hydrazine, poses no toxicological risk to humans when mushrooms are consumed in typical amounts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agaricus bisporus is an edible basidiomycete mushroom native to grasslands in Europe and North America. It has two color states while immature – white and brown – both of which have various names, with additional names for the mature state.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975817}
{"src_title": "Peruvian Navy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "19th century.", "content": "The \"Marina de Guerra del Perú\" was established on 8 October 1821 by the government of general José de San Martín. Its first actions were undertaken during the War of Independence (1821–1824) using captured Spanish warships. The Peruvian Naval Infantry was also formed during the war with Spain, performing successfully in their first battle where they seized Arica from the Spanish.  Shortly afterwards it was engaged in the war against the Gran Colombia (1828–1829) during which it conducted a blockade against the seaport of Guayaquil and then assisted in the subsequent Peruvian occupation. The Navy saw further action during the war of the Peru-Bolivian Confederacy (1836–1839) and during the Chincha Islands War with Spain (1866).  The breakout of the War of the Pacific (1879–1883) caught the Peruvian Navy unprepared and with inferior forces in comparison to the Chilean Navy. Even so, hit-and-run tactics carried out by Peruvian Admiral Miguel Grau, commander of the ironclad, famously delayed the Chilean advance by six months until his death and defeat at the Battle of Angamos.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th century.", "content": "Following the War of the Pacific, the Peruvian Navy had to be completely rebuilt. In 1900 the force consisted of only one cruiser of 1,700 tons displacement, a screw-driven steamer, and ten smaller ships – the latter described by a contemporary British publication as \"of no real value\". The lengthy process of expansion and rebuilding started in 1907 with the acquisition from the United Kingdom of the scout cruisers and \"Coronel Bolognesi\", followed by the arrival of two submarines, \"Ferré\" and \"Palacios\", from France in 1911. During the Presidency of Augusto B. Leguía (1919–1930) a Navy Ministry was established as well as a Navy Aviation Corps, both in 1920.  Border conflicts with Colombia in 1911 and 1932 and a war with Ecuador in 1941 saw Peruvian warships involved in some skirmishes in support of the Army. The attack on Pearl Harbor brought World War II to the Pacific and even though Peru did not declare war on the Axis until 1945, its Navy was involved in patrol missions against possible threats by the Imperial Japanese Navy from early 1942 up to mid-1945.  During the 1970s and the first half of the 1980s the Peruvian Navy carried out a major buildup programme which allowed it to take advantage over its traditional rival, the Chilean Navy. The navy purchased one cruiser the BAP \"Almirante Grau\" (CLM-81) from the Netherlands, eight \"Carvajal\"-class frigates from Italy – four newly purchased and four ex-\"Lupo\"-class frigates – as well as six PR-72P-class corvettes from France. The buildup proved to be temporary due to the economic crisis of the second half of the 1980s, forcing the decommissioning of several warships and resulting in a general lack of funds for maintenance.  The economic upturn of the 1990s and into the 2000s would later permit some improvement, although at a reduced force level compared to the early 1980s.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "21st century.", "content": "Into the 21st century, the Peruvian Navy began to modernize their ships. In 2008, the Type 209/1100 submarines were modernized while the \"Carvajal\"-class frigates began to be modernized in 2011. The Type 209/1200 submarines began to be modernized in late-2017 beginning with the BAP \"Chipana\" (SS-34).  SIMA has continued to construct ships for the Navy. In 2013, SIMA partnered with Posco Daewoo Corporation and Daesun Shipbuilding of South Korea to construct two \"Makassar\"-class landing platform docks. The, recently launched on 25 April 2017, as well as the BAP Paita which is currently under construction will provide Peru with increased expeditionary warfare capabilities, with the ability to accommodate multiple Landing Craft Vehicle Personnel, newly purchased LAV IIs and helicopters.  In 2018, a modernization program was initiated to upgrade Peru's Type 209/1200 submarines, the BAP \"Chipana\"\",\" BAP \"Angamos\", BAP \"Antofagasta\" and BAP \"Pisagua\", with a contract with ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems being made for further assistance with SIMA\".\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "The current Commander-in-Chief of the Peruvian Navy is Admiral Nicolas Rios Polastri. Naval Forces are subordinated to the Ministry of Defense and ultimately to the President as Commander-in-Chief of the Peruvian Armed Forces. They are organized as follows:  Operational units are divided between three commands:  Pacific Operations General Command, it comprises the following units:  Amazon Operations General Command, tasked with river patrolling in the Peruvian portion of the Amazon Basin.  Directive General of Captains and Coast Guard, oversees Coast Guard operations", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coast Guard.", "content": "Coast Guard, tasked with law enforcement on Peruvian territorial waters, rivers and lakes. The Peruvian Coast Guard often performs anti-drug trafficking operations within the nation's waters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Naval Aviation.", "content": "The Naval Aviation Force : (Fuerza de Aviación Naval, AVINAV) is the air branch of the Peruvian Navy, its roles include anti-submarine warfare, anti-surface warfare, maritime surveillance, reconnaissance and transport of marine personnel. It is also responsible for airborne operations of the Peruvian Marines.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bases.", "content": "Although most of the fleet is based at Callao, this has not been considered an ideal location since it is also the main outlet for Peruvian trade, causing space and security problems. In the 1980s the building of a new naval base at Chimbote was considered though high costs and a poor economic situation made the project unfeasible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Peacekeeping operations.", "content": "The Peruvian Navy has been actively involved in several United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. As of June 2006 Naval Infantry and Special Operations troops have been deployed to United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) (embedded in the Argentine forces ) and United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Peruvian naval officers have also been deployed to United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC), United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI), United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) as United Nations Militar Observers (UNMOs). By 2012 the Peruvian Navy sent its first officer to serve in United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Peruvian Navy (, abbreviated MGP, literally \"Peruvian War Navy\") is the branch of the Peruvian Armed Forces tasked with surveillance, patrol and defense on lakes, rivers and the Pacific Ocean up to from the Peruvian littoral. Additional missions include assistance in safeguarding internal security, conducting disaster relief operations and participating in international peacekeeping operations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975818}
{"src_title": "Jean Victor Audouin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Audouin was born in Paris and was educated in the field of medicine. In 1824 he was appointed assistant to Pierre André Latreille, professor of entomology at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, where in 1833 he became Latreille's successor. In 1838 he became a member of the French Academy of Sciences.  His principal work, \"Histoire des insectes nuisibles à la vigne\" (1842), was completed after his death by Henri Milne-Edwards and Émile Blanchard. Many of his papers appeared in the \"Annales des sciences naturelles\", which, with Adolphe Theodore Brongniart and Jean-Baptiste Dumas, he founded in 1824, as well as in the proceedings of the Société entomologique de France, of which he was one of the founders in 1832. In 1833, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.  Audouin also contributed to other branches of natural history. With Brongniart and Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent, he was co-author of the \"Dictionnaire Classique d'Histoire Naturelle\", and with Henri Milne-Edwards, he collaborated on a study of marine animals found in French coastal waters. He also completed Marie Jules César Savigny's ornithological section of \"Description de l'Egypte\" (1826). Audouin also studied amphibians and reptiles, and from 1827 to 1829 he described four new species of lizards and one new species of frog.  In 1843, mycologist David Gruby named the fungal species \"Microsporum audouinii\" after him. Audouin's gull (\"Larus audouinii\") is an ornithological species named in his honor, as is the red alga \"Audouinella\", and in the French language, the term \"poche copulatrice d'Audouin\" (the copulatory pouch of Audouin) is another name for the spermatheca.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean Victor Audouin (27 April 1797 – 9 November 1841), sometimes Victor Audouin, was a French naturalist, an entomologist, herpetologist, ornithologist, and malacologist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975819}
{"src_title": "Hostage (2005 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Former L.A. SWAT officer Jeff Talley is a hostage negotiator in Los Angeles. One day, Talley negotiates with a man who has taken his wife and son hostage after learning his wife was cheating on him. Shortly after Talley denies a SWAT commander's request to give snipers the order to open fire, the despondent man kills his wife, son, and himself. Traumatized, Talley moves with his family and becomes police chief in Bristo Camino, a fictional suburban hamlet in nearby Ventura County.  A year later, Talley finds himself in another hostage situation. Two troubled teenaged brothers, Dennis and Kevin Kelly, and a sociopathic accomplice, Marshall \"Mars\" Krupcheck, all very well-armed, take Walter Smith and his two children, Jennifer and Tommy, hostage in the Smith home after a failed robbery attempt. Dennis had told his younger brother to wait in the car, not anticipating the siege to come, but Kevin refused.  A female police officer, Carol Flores, responds after Tommy turns on the silent alarm. She is shot twice by Mars after being informed by dispatch that the red truck (parked by the hostage takers in front of the house) is a stolen vehicle just before Talley arrives. She dies in front of him. Traumatized and unwilling to put himself through another tragedy, Talley hands authority over to the county sheriff and leaves.  Smith had been laundering money for a mysterious right-wing militia and mafia syndicate through offshore shell corporations. He was preparing to turn over a batch of important encrypted files recorded on a DVD when he was taken hostage. To prevent the incriminating evidence from being discovered, the syndicate orders a ruthless operative, known as \"the Watchman\", to kidnap Talley's wife and daughter. Talley is instructed by \"the Watchman\", to return to the hostage scene, regain authority, and stall for time until the organization can launch its own attack against Smith's house. Otherwise, Talley's wife and daughter will be murdered.  Dennis forces Kevin and Mars to tie up the children, while he knocks out Smith and finds a small fortune in cash, money which the syndicate had paid Smith. In an attempt to end the standoff and secure the DVDs himself, Talley meets with Dennis and agrees to provide a helicopter in exchange for half of the money.  When the helicopter arrives, Dennis and Kevin bring the money to Talley and prepare to leave, but Mars refuses to leave without Jennifer, with whom he has become infatuated. Talley says the helicopter will only carry three passengers and insists Jennifer stay behind, but the deal breaks down and the boys and Jennifer return to the house. Talley learns that Mars is a sociopath who could turn on the hostages and his own accomplices at any moment. Mars does, in fact, kill Kevin, just as Kevin is about to release the children. Mars then kills Dennis.  The syndicate dispatches fake FBI agents to recover the DVD and they storm the house; Talley is instructed to not go near the house. Jennifer manages to stab Mars, but not fatally, and locks herself and Tommy in the panic room.  Hearing their screams, Talley breaches the house and is attacked by Mars, who then kills most of the fake agents using his pistol and multiple homemade Molotov cocktails. Mars is then shot in the side by the only surviving agent. The agent tracks down Talley and the children, and demands the encrypted DVD. When Talley asks that the children be allowed to leave, the fake agent shoots Talley, but it is not a fatal wound. After Talley gives him the DVD, Mars reappears, carrying two homemade Molotov cocktails, distracting the agent long enough to be killed by Talley. Mars then prepares to throw his last Molotov, but collapses to his knees, weakened by his injuries. He makes eye contact with Jennifer, then drops the Molotov and immolates himself.  Talley escapes with the children by shooting the indoor glass waterfall, which extinguishes the fire caused by Mars' first Molotov. He and a recovered Smith then go to a rundown inn where Talley's wife and daughter are being held captive by the Watchman and his crew.  Smith, feigning hatred for Talley, is freed in exchange for the family. While demanding that the Watchman kill Talley, Smith shoots the Watchman in the head. This allows Talley to kill the other gunmen in similar fashion and rescue his own family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The film's plot is roughly the same as Crais's novel. The main difference is that the novel's complicated subplot involving powerful West Coast Mafia crime lord Sonny Benza was removed, with the film giving little explanation of Walter Smith's criminal associates. The film also makes the first group of hostage-takers somewhat younger in age than depicted in the novel. In addition, the criminal syndicate in the film were portrayed as domestic right-wing extremists rather than a Mafia.  Filming took place in the Malibu area (in western Los Angeles County). The exterior views of Smith's lavishly appointed house were filmed at a real house in the unincorporated Topanga Canyon area, between Malibu and Los Angeles; the interior scenes were done on sound stages in Hollywood.  The character Mars, played by Ben Foster, was modeled after Bay Area rap artist Mars by Robert Crais after a friend Dennis Bsharah urged him to look into the horrorcore genre. In the movie adaptation, Foster strongly resembles the rapper. Jonathan Tucker's name was later changed to Dennis.  The movie's opening scenes were filmed in the Boyle Heights neighborhood of East Los Angeles, just east of downtown.  The fictional city of Bristo Camino was possibly intended to be a representation of Ojai or Moorpark. Bristo Bay is the name of Bristo Camino in the 2001 Robert Crais \"novel\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "The film received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 35% based on 155 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B+\" on an A+ to F scale.  Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of four.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "The film earned $34,639,939 at the United States box office and a total worldwide gross of $77,944,725.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "\"Hostage\" was released on DVD & VHS June 21, 2005.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hostage is a 2005 American action thriller film produced by and starring Bruce Willis and directed by Florent Emilio Siri. The film was based on the 2001 novel of the same name by Robert Crais, and was adapted for the screen by Doug Richardson.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975820}
{"src_title": "John LeClair", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "LeClair was born on July 5, 1969 in St. Albans, Vermont, a town close to the Canada–US border. He is the son of Robert \"Butch\" LeClair, a manager of a paint store, and Beverly (Clark), a surgical nurse. LeClair has three older sisters, Mary Kay, Nancy and Susan, and a younger brother, Joseph.  While familiar with the game of hockey, LeClair's father Butch had never actually played the sport himself. Until the 1960s, there was no organized hockey in the Saint Albans area. Despite this, LeClair took notice and asked his father for a pair of hockey skates at the age of six. Butch recalls how the kids in the area first played:  At first, they played in an old railroad shed. Then they got a bunch of people who signed a note and built Coote Field Arena. It was just a metal shack with a lunch bar and an old tractor to scrape the ice. It was kind of primitive, but it worked very well. It produced some good hockey.  Richard Benoit, the father of John's friend Jeremy, created a homemade rink for the kids in his backyard by flooding his volleyball court. Benoit added boards around the edge and installed lights so they could play at night. There was also a shack complete with a heater for the kids to go to warm up if needed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "High school and college years.", "content": "When LeClair was a freshman at Bellows Free Academy, he didn't make the very competitive high school team. So, he continued to play in community leagues. In his sophomore year, LeClair made the team and earned attention. \"We'd be dumping the puck in (during a line change), and there would be John, in the corner on his knees and hands, five against one, somehow getting the puck out of the corner,\" recalls Luke Cioffi, a teammate and childhood friend of LeClair's.  Soon, the young LeClair was attracting attention. College scouts began to take notice when he participated as a junior in \"Hockey Night in Boston\", a showcase for young talent. LeClair decided to pursue college, and he was accepted at the University of Vermont (UVM). At UVM, LeClair's college career was hampered by injuries. Over the course of his sophomore and junior years, he appeared in only 28 games. After missing the first month of his senior season due to meningitis, he finished the season strong with 25 goals and 20 assists in only 33 games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Montreal Canadiens.", "content": "LeClair was drafted by the Montreal Canadiens with the 33rd pick in the 1987 NHL Entry Draft after graduating from Bellows Free Academy (B.F.A.) High School in St. Albans, Vermont. One of the most highly recruited hockey players in New England, LeClair put his NHL aspirations on hold to attend the University of Vermont on a full scholarship. His fans didn't have to wait long to see him score in his first collegiate game. After the final game of his senior year he signed with the Canadiens and, less than a week later, played and scored in his first NHL game. As a member of the Canadiens, LeClair was on the Stanley Cup-winning team in 1993, where he scored two overtime game-winning goals during the 1993 Stanley Cup Finals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philadelphia Flyers and the Legion of Doom.", "content": "On February 9, 1995, a Montreal team desperate to salvage a difficult season traded LeClair, along with Éric Desjardins and Gilbert Dionne to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for Mark Recchi and Philadelphia's 3rd round choice in the 1995 NHL Entry Draft (Martin Hohenberger). LeClair gelled immediately with new line-mate Eric Lindros and quickly became one of the NHL's most feared goal scorers.  With the Flyers he played left-wing on the famed \"Legion of Doom\" line, centered by Lindros and Mikael Renberg on right-wing. The trio was not only effective at scoring but they were also a dominant physical presence on the ice. In 1998, LeClair became the first American-born NHL player to record three consecutive 50-goal seasons and the second Flyer to do so, behind Tim Kerr. Following the 1997–98 NHL season, LeClair had two consecutive 40 goal seasons.  LeClair played for the Flyers for 10 seasons and was one of the most productive players in franchise history, scoring 333 goals and an additional 35 in the playoffs, statistics good enough to place him in the top 10 Flyers' career goal scorers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pittsburgh Penguins.", "content": "On July 23, 2005, as a result of a new Collective Bargaining Agreement which finally introduced a salary cap to the NHL, the Flyers were forced to part ways with their longtime alternate captain, and they bought out LeClair's contract to create cap space. Rumors had LeClair going to the Boston Bruins or perhaps the Toronto Maple Leafs. Instead, LeClair signed a two-year deal with the Pittsburgh Penguins on August 15, 2005. LeClair had a successful season in Pittsburgh during the 2005–06 NHL season, finishing fourth on the team in scoring as he passed the 400-goal mark and had his ninth 50+ point season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other information.", "content": "LeClair is president of the \"John LeClair Foundation\" which awards grants to non-profit Vermont organizations that sponsor programs for children. He currently divides his time between Haverford Township, Pennsylvania and his hometown of St. Albans, Vermont. LeClair was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 2009, the Vermont Sports Hall of Fame in 2012, and the Philadelphia Flyers Hall of Fame in 2014.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Clark LeClair (born July 5, 1969) is an American former professional ice hockey player who played 16 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) with the Montreal Canadiens, Philadelphia Flyers, and Pittsburgh Penguins. With the Flyers, LeClair became the first American-born player to score 50 goals in three consecutive NHL seasons while playing on the Legion of Doom line with Eric Lindros and Mikael Renberg. LeClair was a member of the Montreal Canadiens' Stanley Cup winning team in 1993.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975821}
{"src_title": "Wallenstein Palace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The original Palace was built in years 1623-1630 by Albrecht von Wallenstein, Duke of Mecklenburg (1583-1634), who made his name and fortune as the Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial forces in the Thirty Years War. Emperor Ferdinand II feared Albrecht von Wallenstein's calculating mind and had him assassinated in 1634 in the town of Eger (now Cheb). He lived in the palace for only a year before his death. His widow sold it to his nephew and it remained in the Wallenstein family until 1945. After the Second World War, the palace became Czechoslovak state property and was renovated to house government offices. Today, the Senate of the Czech Republic operates out of the main palace buildings. The Riding School is used as a branch of the National Gallery in Prague. The challenging restoration of the main building began in mid-1999. The most valuable parts of this building in historical and artistic terms are the Main Hall, the Knights' Hall, the Antechamber, the Audience Hall and the Mythological and Astronomical Corridors.  Albrecht of Wallenstein had traveled in Italy, and when the palace was built between 1623 and 1630, Italian architects and artisans were used including Andrea Spezza (likely the main architect), succeeded in 1628 by Niccolo Sebregondi. The interiors were decorated by the Florentine Baccio del Bianco (1604-1656), who completed the ceiling fresco in the Main Hall, figure paintings in St Wenceslas Chapel, and most important parts of the decoration of the Mythological Corridor during the first year of construction. The Florentine Giovanni de Galliano Pieroni (1586-1654), engineer and army colonel, played an important role in the construction. Pieroni's father Alessandro (1550-1607) had been an architect for the Medici. Pieroni studied the design of the new part to Wallenstein's Castle in Jičín and the church of St. Jacob there, and the garden, Sala Terrena, and Riding School are attributed to him. Pieroni also influences the astrological and astronomical decoration of the Mythological Corridor and other interiors. The total value of interior furnishings after his death was 70 000 gold pieces, while another 134 000 gold pieces was invested in jewels and tableware made from precious metals.  To make space for this palace, Wallenstein razed 26 houses, six gardens, and two brickworks at the site. Wallenstein Palace was built to rival Prague Castle. Four courtyards are created by the palace layout. Its complex includes period gardens, the Avenue of Sculptures, stables and the large Riding School. The monumental conception of the loggia with three arcades on doubled columns recalls the Baroque style. The Italian style garden includes an aviary, a grotto, and a fountain by Adrian de Vries (c.1545-1626). After years of neglect after the war, the gardens have been reconstructed. Wallenstein would have dined in the huge \"sala terrena\" (garden pavilion) that looks out over fountain and rows of bronze statues. The sala terrena and its rich stucco decoration were modeled after the portico of a Livornese church. Today, these are copies of the Netherlander sculptor Adriaen de Vries’ works. The originals were looted by the Swedish army in 1648, and they can be seen today at Drottningholm Palace. Immortal Beloved (film), a 1994 film about the life of Beethoven was filmed in the gardens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main wing.", "content": "The main wing of Wallenstein palace was largely a reconstruction of the Trcka residence that runs 60 meters along \"Valdstejnske namesti\". The façade has three rows of identical windows which stream light into the Main Hall. It incorporates both late renaissance and Nordic mannerism which is expressed in the portals and Netherlandish dormer-windows. Initially, in keeping with the architectural style, the Main Hall was decorated with tapestries and furniture ordered from Italy and the Netherlands. Much of the original furnishings were looted either in 1648 by the Swedes or 1742 by the French. The west wing of the complex hosts the Main Hall, that rises to the height of two stories. The Duke is depicted, in the middle ceiling fresco as the god of war, Mars, riding in a war chariot drawn by a team of horses. In the painting, the Duke is holding the reins of four horses while Mars is usually seen only holding three horses. This is another example of Albrecht von Wallenstein's vanity. The stucco work depicting weapons, war trophies and musical instruments were probably made by Santino Galli and Domenico Canevalle. These are references to The Duke's career in the military. When it was built, it was the second largest hall after the Spanish hall of Prague Castle with an area of 288 meters squared and a height of 10.5 meters. This is original façade was altered in the mid nineteenth century to include marble portals from the Cerninsky palace and the entire hall was rebuilt as a barracks.  A key feature of the palace is the system of corridors that connects all parts of the palace. In many palaces of the period it was necessary to go from room to room to move around, but it was possible for the Duke of Wallenstein to walk from the main Audience hall to his private study and then around the gardens to the stables at the north end of the palace complex via the corridors. Originally tile stoves placed in each room heated the palace. The tile in the Antechamber was used later to line the fireplace. Guests waited in the antechamber to be granted audience with the Duke. Due to an adaptation in the 19th century, it is a kind of Mirror Hall with two Venetian mirrors made in the 18th century on the Italian island of Murano. The only objects original to the room are a set of four chests used by the Duke to hold his wardrobe. They are Italian chests made around the turn of the 17th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Audience Chamber.", "content": "The Audience Chamber is a small circular room adjoining the Antechamber and the Mythological Corridor. A door leading from the Audience Chamber to a staircase was preserved from the Trèkovský dùm, one of the original properties on the site. Several other salvaged architectural pieces were incorporated into the palace. Stuccowork and paintings depict Ovid's \"Four ages\" and portraits of the \"Four Periods of the Day\". The Baroque stuccowork of the dome in the Audience Chamber is mirrored in the Mythological corridor. The mythological corridor also has murals depicting planet motifs and legends such as \"Mercury & Argus\", \"Diana and Acteon\", \"Perseus killing Medusa\", \"Callisto metamorphosed into a bear\", and the \"Rape of Europa\". Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\" inspired Baccio del Bianco's frescoes in this corridor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chapel.", "content": "The palace chapel is two stories high and richly decorated with scenes from the legend of St Wenceslas. Cabinet-maker and woodcarver constructed the chapel altar in 1630. Its construction marked the first Baroque monument of its kind in Prague and the beginning of the Baroque age in the Czech lands. Three oratories open on the western wall of the chapel. The Duke used the first floor for services while his wife sat on the second floor and servants were restricted to the third floor. Baccio del Bianco is responsible for the paintings in this chapel. St Eusebius's like a death is depicted in the first oratory. Following that, the Duchess's oratory was decorated with usual Marian iconography. Frescos of the Chapel were inspired by St Vitus cathedral in Prague Castle. Ernest Heidelberger is assumed to have created the sculpture work for the Chapel.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Wallenstein Palace () is a Baroque palace in Malá Strana, Prague, that served as a residence for Imperial Generalissimo Albrecht von Wallenstein and now houses the Senate of the Czech Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975822}
{"src_title": "Drainage system (geomorphology)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Drainage patterns.", "content": "According to the configuration of the channels, drainage systems can fall into one of several categories known as drainage patterns. Drainage patterns depend on the topography and geology of the land.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accordant drainage patterns.", "content": "A drainage system is described as accordant if its pattern correlates to the structure and relief of the landscape over which it flows.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dendritic drainage pattern.", "content": "Dendritic drainage systems (from Greek, \"dendrites\", \"of or parallel to a tree\") are not straight and are the most common form of drainage system. In a dendritic system, there are many contributing streams (analogous to the twigs of a tree), which are then joined together into the tributaries of the main river (the branches and the trunk of the tree, respectively). They develop where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain. Dendritic systems form in V-shaped valleys; as a result, the rock types must be impervious and non-porous.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Parallel drainage pattern.", "content": "A parallel drainage system is a pattern of rivers caused by steep slopes with some relief. Because of the steep slopes, the streams are swift and straight, with very few tributaries, and all flow in the same direction. This system forms on uniformly sloping surfaces, for example, rivers flowing southeast from the Aberdare Mountains in Kenya.  Parallel drainage patterns form where there is a pronounced slope to the surface. A parallel pattern also develops in regions of parallel, elongate landforms like outcropping resistant rock bands. Tributary streams tend to stretch out in a parallel-like fashion following the slope of the surface. A parallel pattern sometimes indicates the presence of a major fault that cuts across an area of steeply folded bedrock. All forms of transitions can occur between parallel, dendritic, and trellis patterns.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Trellis drainage pattern.", "content": "The geometry of a trellis drainage system is similar to that of a common garden trellis along a strike valley, smaller tributaries feed into from the steep slopes on the sides of mountains. These tributaries enter the main river at approximately 90 degree angle, causing a trellis-like appearance of the drainage system. They form where hard and soft rocks exist parallel to each other. Trellis drainage is characteristic of folded mountains, such as the Appalachian Mountains in North America and in the north part of Trinidad.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Rectangular drainage pattern.", "content": "Rectangular drainage develops on rocks that are of approximately uniform resistance to erosion, but which have two directions of jointing at approximately right angles or 90 degrees. The joints are usually less resistant to erosion than the bulk rock so erosion tends to preferentially open the joints and streams eventually develop along the joints. The result is a stream system in which streams consist mainly of straight line segments with right angle bends and tributaries join larger streams at right angles. This pattern can be found with the Arun River in Nepal.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Radial drainage pattern.", "content": "In a radial drainage system, the streams radiate outwards from a central high point. Volcanos usually display excellent radial drainage. They can sometimes also be found on tops of mountains. Other geological features on which radial drainage commonly develops are domes and laccoliths. On these features the drainage may exhibit a combination of radial patterns. The radical pattern develops when streams flow in different directions from a central peak or dome like structure. In India the Amarkantak range and Ramgarh crater show the best example of radial drainage pattern. Dogu'a Tembien is an example from Ethiopia.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Centripetal drainage pattern.", "content": "The centripetal drainage system is similar to the radial drainage system, with the only exception is that they have streams ending into a lowland rather originating from it.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Deranged drainage pattern.", "content": "A deranged drainage system is a drainage system in drainage basins where there is no coherent pattern to the rivers and lakes. It happens in areas where there has been much geological disruption. The classic example is the Canadian Shield. During the last ice age, the topsoil was scraped off, leaving mostly bare rock. The melting of the glaciers left land with many irregularities of elevation and a great deal of water to collect in the low points, explaining the large number of lakes which are found in Canada. The drainage basins are young and are still sorting themselves out. Eventually the system will stabilize.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Annular drainage pattern.", "content": "In an annular drainage pattern streams follow a roughly circular or concentric path along a belt of weak rock, resembling in plan a ringlike pattern. It is best displayed by streams draining a maturely dissected structural dome or basin where erosion has exposed rimming sedimentary strata of greatly varying degrees of hardness, as in the Red Valley, which nearly encircles the domal structure of the Black Hills of South Dakota.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Angular drainage pattern.", "content": "Angular drainage patterns form where bedrock joints and faults intersect at more acute angles than rectangular drainage patterns. Angles are both more and less than 90 degrees.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Discordant drainage patterns.", "content": "A drainage pattern is described as discordant if it does not correlate to the topography and geology of the area. Discordant drainage patterns are classified into two main types: \"antecedent\" and \"superimposed\", while \"anteposition\" drainage patterns combine the two. In \"antecedent\" drainage, a river's vertical incision ability matches that of land uplift due to tectonic forces. \"Superimposed\" drainage develops differently: initially, a drainage system develops on a surface composed of 'younger' rocks, but due to denudative activities this surface of younger rocks is removed and the river continues to flow over a seemingly new surface, but one in fact made up of rocks of old geological formation.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In geomorphology, drainage systems, also known as river systems, are the patterns formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular drainage basin. They are governed by the topography of the land, whether a particular region is dominated by hard or soft rocks, and the gradient of the land. Geomorphologists and hydrologists often view streams as being part of drainage basins. A drainage basin is the topographic region from which a stream receives runoff, throughflow, and groundwater flow. The number, size, and shape of the drainage basins found in an area vary and the larger the topographic map, the more information on the drainage basin is available.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975823}
{"src_title": "Sukhumi massacre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Events.", "content": "On September 27, 1993, separatist forces violated the ceasefire initiated by the United Nations and guaranteed by the Russian Federation, which barred both sides from performing military operations. As part of the ceasefire, Georgian forces had withdrawn their heavy artillery and tanks from Sukhumi. Abkhaz, Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus, Cossack and Russian militants stormed Sukhumi early in the morning. Confronted by large numbers of combatants, the Georgian army units that remained in the city were unable to prevent the separatist advance into the city. By noon, separatist militants and their allies had taken over television buildings and bridges. Georgian forces retreated to the Government building of the Abkhazian Autonomous Republic, where they intended to provide security for members of Abkhazian Autonomous Republic Government. By late afternoon, the city was overrun by separatists and their allies.  Placing their hopes on the ceasefire, a large number of civilians remained in the city. The separatists and their allies started to sweep through the streets of Sukhumi rounding up all civilians that they found. Men, women and children were executed in the streets, on the roads and inside their own apartments, houses and back yards. According to the witnesses, many people became objects of torture, and some were forced to watch as their own family members were killed—children in front of their parents, and parents in front of their children.  Women became targets of sadistic rape. Refugees recall people being burned to death, disembowelled and dismembered while still alive The massacres occurred in the city park, in front of the governmental building, in schools and hospitals. Almost all members of the Abkhaz government (those who refused to leave the city), Zhiuli Shartava, Guram Gabiskiria, Alexander Berulava, Mamia Alasania, and Raul Eshba were captured and executed.  The 1994 U.S. State Department Country Reports also describes scenes of massive human rights abuse:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Eduard Shevardnadze fled the city only just before the arrival of separatist forces, having earlier committed to try to remain there as long as possible. Soon the forces overran the whole territory of Abkhazia, except a small region of the Kodori Gorge (which remained under the control of the Georgian warlord Emzar Kvitsiani until July 2006 and later the Tbilisi government until August 2008). The total defeat of the Georgian government forces was followed by the ethnic cleansing of the Georgian population. 200,000 - 250,000 refugees (mainly Georgians) were forced out of Abkhazia. Violence continued in 1994 despite an agreement between the Georgian and Abkhazian governments for the deployment of a peacekeeping force from the Commonwealth of Independent States. Chechen militants who had fought on the side of Abkhazia later took part in the First Chechen War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Perpetrators.", "content": "There are a number of conflicting claims as to whether the massacre was conducted by Abkhaz militias or those of their Russian and North Caucasian allies. Allegedly, the commander of the separatist forces, partly responsible for the massacre was the deputy defence minister and \"hero\" of Abkhazia Shamil Basaev. According to witness testimonies, the militants spoke North Caucasian languages and Russian. However, some refugees who survived the massacre have claimed that they recognized their Abkhaz and Armenian neighbours collaborating with the militants during the massacres in various neighbourhoods. Many people recall the commands given by Russian officers: \"Do not take prisoners alive!\"  Houses and land owned by Georgians were ransacked and taken over by the Abkhaz, Russians, Cossacks and other newcomers. These allegations are currently being investigated by the International Criminal Court in the Hague. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) has recently given its recognition to and condemned the ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia. Although many separatist militants have been accused of committing massacres none of them have yet been tried.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sukhumi massacre took place on September 27, 1993, during and after the fall of Sukhumi into separatist hands in the course of the War in Abkhazia. It was perpetrated against Georgian civilians of Sukhumi, mainly by militia forces of Abkhaz separatists, their North Caucasian and Russian allies. It became part of a violent ethnic cleansing campaign carried out by the separatists.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975824}
{"src_title": "Abraham Sutzkever", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Abraham (Avrom) Sutzkever was born on July 15, 1913, in Smorgon, Vilna Governorate, Russian Empire, now Smarhon’, Belarus. During World War I, his family moved to Omsk, Siberia, where his father, Hertz Sutzkever, died. In 1921, his mother, Rayne (née Fainberg), moved the family to Vilnius, where Sutzkever attended cheder.  Sutzkever attended the Polish Jewish high school Herzliah, audited university classes in Polish literature, and was introduced by a friend to Russian poetry. His earliest poems were written in Hebrew.  In 1930 Sutzkever joined the Jewish scouting organization, Bin (\"Bee\"), in whose magazine he published his first piece. There he also met with wife Freydke. In 1933, he became part of the writers’ and artists’ group Yung-Vilne, along with fellow poets Shmerke Kaczerginski, Chaim Grade, and Leyzer Volf.  He married Freydke in 1939, a day before the start of World War II.  In 1941, following the Nazi occupation of Vilnius, Sutzkever and his wife were sent to the Vilna Ghetto. Sutzkever and his friends hid a diary by Theodor Herzl, drawings by Marc Chagall and Alexander Bogen, and other treasured works behind plaster and brick walls in the ghetto. His mother and newborn son were murdered by the Nazis. On September 12, 1943, he and his wife escaped to the forests, and together with fellow Yiddish poet Shmerke Kaczerginski, he fought the occupying forces as a partisan. Sutzkever joined a Jewish unit and was smuggled into the Soviet Union.  Sutzkever's 1943 narrative poem, Kol Nidre, reached the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee in Moscow, whose members included Ilya Ehrenburg and Solomon Mikhoels, as well as the exiled future president of Soviet Lithuania, Justas Paleckis. They implored the Kremlin to rescue him. So an aircraft located Sutzkever and Freydke in March 1944, and flew them to Moscow, where their daughter, Rina, was born.  In February 1946, he was called up as a witness at the Nuremberg trials, testifying against Franz Murer, the murderer of his mother and son. After a brief sojourn in Poland and Paris, he emigrated to Mandatory Palestine, arriving in Tel Aviv in 1947.  In 1947, his family arrived in Tel Aviv. Within two years Sutzkever founded Di Goldene Keyt (The Golden Chain)\"  Sutzkever was a keen traveller, touring South American jungles and African savannahs, where the sight of elephants and the song of a Basotho chief inspired more Yiddish verse.  Belatedly, in 1985 Sutzkever became the first Yiddish writer to win the prestigious Israel Prize for his literature. An English compendium appeared in 1991.  Freydke died in 2003. Rina and another daughter, Mira, survive him, along with two grandchildren.  Abraham Sutzkever died on January 20, 2010, in Tel Aviv at the age of 96.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "Sutzkever wrote poetry from an early age, initially in Hebrew. He published his first poem in \"Bin\", the Jewish scouts magazine. Sutzkever was among the Modernist writers and artists of the \"Yung Vilne\" (\"Young Vilna\") group in the early 1930s. In 1937, his first volume of Yiddish poetry, \"Lider\" (Songs), was published by the Yiddish PEN International Club; a second, \"Valdiks\" (Of the Forest; 1940), appeared after he moved from Warsaw, during the interval of Lithuanian autonomy.  In Moscow, he wrote a chronicle of his experiences in the Vilna ghetto (\"Fun vilner geto\",1946), a poetry collection \"Lider fun geto\" (1946; “Songs from the Ghetto”) and began \"Geheymshtot\" (\"Secret City\",1948), an epic poem about Jews hiding in the sewers of Vilna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "In 1949, Sutzkever founded the yiddish literary quarterly \"Di goldene keyt\" (The Golden Chain), Israel's only Yiddish literary quarterly, which he edited until its demise in 1995. Sutzkever resuscitated the careers of Yiddish writers from Europe, the Americas, the Soviet Union and Israel. Official Zionism, however, dismissed Yiddish as a defeatist diaspora argot. \"They will not uproot my tongue,\" he retorted. \"I shall wake all generations with my roar.\"  Sutzkever's poetry was translated into Hebrew by Nathan Alterman, Avraham Shlonsky and Leah Goldberg. In the 1930s, his work was translated into Russian by Boris Pasternak.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abraham Sutzkever (Yiddish: אַבֿרהם סוצקעווער — \"Avrom Sutskever\"; ; July 15, 1913 – January 20, 2010) was an acclaimed Yiddish poet. \"The New York Times\" wrote that Sutzkever was \"the greatest poet of the Holocaust.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975825}
{"src_title": "Robert Crippen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Robert Crippen was born September 11, 1937, in Beaumont, Texas. After graduating from New Caney High School in New Caney, Texas in 1955, Crippen received a Bachelor of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin in 1960. He was selected as a member of the Texas Alpha chapter of Tau Beta Pi and Sigma Gamma Tau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Crippen was commissioned through the United States Navy's Aviation Officer Candidate School (AOCS) Program at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. He continued his flight training at Naval Air Station Whiting Field, Florida, and went from there to Naval Air Station Chase Field in Beeville, Texas, where he received his wings. As a Naval Aviator from June 1962 to November 1964, he made two deployments aboard the aircraft carrier USS \"Independence\", flying the A-4 Skyhawk in Attack Squadron 72 (VA-72). He later attended the U.S. Air Force Aerospace Research Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Upon graduation he remained at Edwards as an instructor until he was picked for the USAF Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) spaceflight program in October 1966.  He has logged more than 6,500 hours flying time, which includes more than 5,500 hours in jet aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NASA career.", "content": "After the MOL program was cancelled, Crippen became a NASA astronaut in September 1969. He served on the astronaut support crew for the Skylab 2, Skylab 3, and Skylab 4 missions, and for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "STS-1.", "content": "Crippen was the pilot on STS-1, the first orbital test flight of the Space Shuttle. It was also the first manned vehicle to be flown into orbit without previous unmanned orbital testing and the first winged manned vehicle to launch with solid rocket boosters. It was also the first winged reentry vehicle to return to a conventional runway landing. The mission lasted 54 hours, 20 minutes, 53 seconds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "STS-7.", "content": "Crippen served as the commander of STS-7, which was the second flight for the Orbiter \"Challenger\". This was also the first mission with a five-person crew. During the six-day flight, the crew deployed satellites for Canada (ANIK C-2) and Indonesia (PALAPA B-1); operated the Canadian-built Remote Manipulator System (RMS) to perform the first deployment and retrieval exercise with the Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS-01); conducted the first formation flying of the orbiter with a free-flying satellite (SPAS-02); carried and operated the first U.S./German cooperative materials science payload (OSTA-2); and operated the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System (CFES) and the Monodisperse Latex Reactor (MLR) experiments, in addition to activating seven Getaway Specials. The mission duration was 146 hours, 23 minutes, 59 seconds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "STS-41-C.", "content": "Crippen was the commander on STS-41-C, which was a seven-day mission during which the crew deployed the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF); retrieved the ailing Solar Maximum Satellite, repaired it aboard the orbiting \"Challenger\", and replaced it in orbit using the robot arm called the Remote Manipulator System (RMS); flight tested the Manned Maneuvering Units (MMU's) in two extravehicular activities (EVA); as well as operating the Cinema 360 and IMAX Camera Systems, and running a Bee Hive Honeycomb Structures student experiment. Mission duration was 167 hours, 40 minutes, 07 seconds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "STS-41-G.", "content": "On his final spaceflight, Crippen served as the commander of STS-41-G. During the eight-day flight, the crew deployed the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite, conducted scientific observations of the Earth with the OSTA-3 pallet and Large Format Camera, and demonstrated potential satellite refueling with an EVA and associated hydrazine transfer. Mission duration was 8 days, 5 hours, 23 minutes, 33 seconds and concluded with a landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-spaceflight career.", "content": "After STS-41-G, Crippen was named Commander of the STS-62-A mission which would have launched from the new SLC-6 facility at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. That mission was cancelled after the Space Shuttle \"Challenger\" disaster and SLC-6 was closed when the Air Force went back to launching satellites on the Titan III and Titan IV rockets.  Crippen was stationed at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, from July 1987 to December 1989, as Deputy Director, Shuttle Operations for NASA Headquarters. He was responsible for final Shuttle preparation, mission execution and return of the orbiter to KSC after landings at Edwards Air Force Base. From January 1990 to January 1992, he served as Director, Space Shuttle, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C. As such, he was responsible for the overall Shuttle program requirements, performance, and total program control, including budget, schedule and program content. He subsequently served as the Director of the Kennedy Space Center from January 1992 to January 1995.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-NASA career.", "content": "After leaving NASA, Crippen served as a Vice President with Lockheed Martin Information Systems in Orlando, Florida, from April 1995 to November 1996. From December 1996 to April 2001, Crippen was President of Thiokol Propulsion, which produced the Space Shuttle Reusable Solid Rocket Motors and other defense and commercial solid rocket motors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organizations.", "content": "He is a fellow in the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, American Astronautical Society, and Society of Experimental Test Pilots. He served as President of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics in 1999. He was selected to be a member of Naval Aviators Golden Eagles in 2009. He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "Crippen's accomplishments have earned him many notable awards, including the 1981 SETP Iven C. Kincheloe Award and the NASA Exceptional Service Medal in 1972. In 1981 after the inaugural Space Shuttle flight, he received the Department of Defense Distinguished Service Award, the American Astronautical Society's Flight Achievement Award, the National Geographic Society's Gardiner Greene Hubbard Medal, and the American Legion's Distinguished Service Medal. In 1982 he won the Federal Aviation Administration's Award for Distinguished Service, the Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy and the Harmon Trophy. In 1984 he received the Navy Distinguished Flying Cross and the Defense Meritorious Service Medal. In 1986, Crippen received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.  He also received NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal in 1988, four NASA Space Flight Medals in 1981, 1983 and twice in 1984, and three NASA Distinguished Service Medals in 1985, 1988, and 1993. In 1996, Crippen became the tenth individual to receive the Rotary National Award for Space Achievement's National Space Trophy. He was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1991 and the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 2001. On April 6, 2006, he received the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, the highest award for spaceflight achievement.  On November 18, 2015 at the National Business Aviation Association convention in Las Vegas, Crippen was announced as a 2016 Inductee into the National Aviation Hall of Fame.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Crippen's first marriage to Virginia Hill produced three daughters: Ellen Marie (born June 1962), Susan Lynn (born December 1964), and Linda Ruth (born May 1967). His second marriage is to Pandora Lee Puckett of Miami, Florida, NASA's first female lead Orbiter Project Engineer on the and at the Kennedy Space Center.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Laurel Crippen (born September 11, 1937) is an American retired naval officer and aviator, test pilot, aerospace engineer, and retired astronaut. He traveled into space four times: as Pilot of STS-1 in April 1981, the first Space Shuttle mission; and as Commander of STS-7 in June 1983, STS-41-C in April 1984, and STS-41-G in October 1984. Crippen received the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975826}
{"src_title": "Ext4", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Adoption.", "content": "ext4 is the default file system for many Linux distributions including Debian and Ubuntu.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Limitations.", "content": "In 2008, the principal developer of the ext3 and ext4 file systems, Theodore Ts'o, stated that although ext4 has improved features, it is not a major advance, it uses old technology, and is a stop-gap. Ts'o believes that Btrfs is the better direction because \"it offers improvements in scalability, reliability, and ease of management\". Btrfs also has \"a number of the same design ideas that reiser3/4 had\". However, ext4 has continued to gain new features such as file encryption and metadata checksums.  The ext4 file system does not honor the \"secure deletion\" file attribute, which is supposed to cause overwriting of files upon deletion. A patch to implement secure deletion was proposed in 2011, but did not solve the problem of sensitive data ending up in the file-system journal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Delayed allocation and potential data loss.", "content": "Because delayed allocation changes the behavior that programmers have been relying on with ext3, the feature poses some additional risk of data loss in cases where the system crashes or loses power before all of the data has been written to disk. Due to this, ext4 in kernel versions 2.6.30 and later automatically handles these cases as ext3 does.  The typical scenario in which this might occur is a program replacing the contents of a file without forcing a write to the disk with fsync. There are two common ways of replacing the contents of a file on Unix systems:  Using codice_14 more often to reduce the risk for ext4 could lead to performance penalties on ext3 filesystems mounted with the codice_15 flag (the default on most Linux distributions). Given that both file systems will be in use for some time, this complicates matters for end-user application developers. In response, ext4 in Linux kernels 2.6.30 and newer detect the occurrence of these common cases and force the files to be allocated immediately. For a small cost in performance, this provides semantics similar to ext3 ordered mode and increases the chance that either version of the file will survive the crash. This new behavior is enabled by default, but can be disabled with the \"noauto_da_alloc\" mount option.  The new patches have become part of the mainline kernel 2.6.30, but various distributions chose to backport them to 2.6.28 or 2.6.29.  These patches don't completely prevent potential data loss or help at all with new files. The only way to be safe is to write and use software that does codice_14 when it needs to. Performance problems can be minimized by limiting crucial disk writes that need codice_14 to occur less frequently.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "Linux kernel Virtual File System is a subsystem or layer inside of the Linux kernel. It is the result of the very serious attempt to integrate multiple file systems into an orderly single structure. The key idea, which dates back to the pioneering work done by Sun Microsystems employees in 1986, is to abstract out that part of the file system that is common to all file systems and put that code in a separate layer that calls the underlying concrete file systems to actually manage the data.  All system calls related to files (or pseudo files) are directed to the Linux kernel Virtual File System for initial processing. These calls, coming from user processes, are the standard POSIX calls, such as codice_18, codice_19, codice_20, codice_21, etc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compatibility with Windows and Macintosh.", "content": "ext4 does not,, have as much support as ext2 and ext3 on non-Linux operating systems. ext2 and ext3 have stable drivers such as Ext2IFS, which are not yet available for ext4. It is possible to create compatible ext4 filesystems by disabling the extents feature, and sometimes specifying an inode size. Another option for using ext4 in Windows is to use Ext2Fsd, an open-source driver that supports writing in ext4 partitions with limited journaling. Viewing and copying files from ext4 to Windows, even with extents enabled, is also possible with the Ext2Read software. More recently Paragon released its commercial product ExtFS for Windows which allows read/write capabilities for ext2/3/4.  macOS has full ext2/3/4 read–write capability through the Paragon ExtFS software, which is a commercial product. Free software such as ext4fuse has read-only support with limited functionality.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The ext4 journaling file system or fourth extended filesystem is a journaling file system for Linux, developed as the successor to ext3.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975827}
{"src_title": "Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The basilica is dedicated to the Christian martyrs, known and unknown. By a brief dated 27 July 1561, Pius IV ordered the church \"built\", to be dedicated to the \"Beatissimae Virgini et omnium Angelorum et Martyrum\" (\"the Most Blessed Virgin and all the Angels and Martyrs\"). Impetus for this dedication had been generated by the account of a vision of the Archangel Uriel experienced in the ruins of the Baths in 1541 by a Sicilian monk, Antonio del Duca, who had been lobbying for decades for papal authorization of a more formal veneration of the Angelic Princes. A story that these Martyrs were Christian slave labourers who had been set to constructing the Baths is modern. It was also a personal monument of Pope Pius IV, whose tomb is in the apsidal tribune.  The \"thermae\" of Diocletian dominated the Viminal Hill with their ruined mass. Michelangelo Buonarroti worked from 1563 to 1564 to adapt a section of the remaining structure of the baths to enclose a church. Some later construction was directed by Luigi Vanvitelli in 1749.  At Santa Maria degli Angeli, Michelangelo achieved a sequence of shaped architectural spaces, developed from a Greek cross, with a dominant transept, with cubical chapels at each end, and the effect of a transverse nave. There is no true facade; the simple entrance is set within one of the coved apses of a main space of the \"thermae\". The vestibule with canted corners and identical side chapels—one chapel has the tomb of Salvator Rosa, the other of Carlo Maratta—leads to a second vestibule, repeated on the far side of the transept, dominated by the over lifesize \"Saint Bruno of Cologne\" by Jean Antoine Houdon (1766). Of the \"Saint Bruno\", Pope Clement XIV said that he would speak, were it not for the vow of silence of the order he founded. The great vaulted transept emphasized the scale of the Roman constructions, 90.8 meters long, and with the floor that Michelangelo raised to bring it up to the 16th century street level, 28 meters high. Raising the floor truncated the red granite Roman columns that articulate the transept and its flanking spaces. Michelangelo made the transept 27 meters wide, thus providing vast cubical spaces at each end of the transept.  In 2006, Polish-born sculptor Igor Mitoraj created new bronze doors as well as a statue of John the Baptist for the basilica. In April 2010, a five-metre-high () bronze statue of Galileo Galilei Divine Man (designed by 1957 Nobel laureate Tsung-Dao Lee) was unveiled in a courtyard within the complex. The statue (a dedication to the 17th-century scientist and philosopher) was a donation from CCAST (China Center of Advanced Science and Technology) and WFS (World Federation of Scientists).  Santa Maria degli Angeli was the official state church of the Kingdom of Italy (1870–1946). More recently, national burials have been held in the church. The church hosts the tombs of General Armando Diaz and Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel, who were successful commanders during World War I on the Italian front. Also today the Basilica is used for many ceremonies, including the funeral of soldiers killed abroad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The meridian line.", "content": "At the beginning of the 18th century, Pope Clement XI commissioned the astronomer, mathematician, archaeologist, historian and philosopher Francesco Bianchini to build a meridian line, a sort of sundial, within the basilica. Completed in 1702, the object had a threefold purpose: the pope wanted to check the accuracy of the Gregorian reformation of the calendar, to produce a tool to predict Easter exactly, and, not least, to give Rome a meridian line as important as the one Giovanni Domenico Cassini had recently built in Bologna's cathedral, San Petronio. Alan Cook remarked, \"The disposition, the stability and the precision are much better than those of the famous meridian... in Bologna\".  This church was chosen for several reasons: (1) Like other baths in Rome, the building was already naturally southerly oriented, so as to receive unobstructed exposure to the sun; (2) the height of the walls allowed for a long line to measure the sun's progress through the year more precisely; (3) the ancient walls had long since stopped settling into the ground, ensuring that carefully calibrated observational instruments set in them would not move out of place; and (4) because it was set in the former baths of Diocletian, it would symbolically represent a victory of the Christian calendar over the earlier pagan calendar.  Bianchini's sundial was built along the meridian that crosses Rome, at longitude 12° 30' E. At solar noon, which varies according to the equation of time from around 10:54 a.m. UTC in late October to 11.24 a.m. UTC in February (11:54 to 12:24 CET), the sun shines through a small hole in the wall to cast its light on this line each day. At the summer solstice, the sun appears highest, and its ray hits the meridian line at the point closest to the wall. At the winter solstice, the ray crosses the line at the point furthest from the wall. At either equinox, the sun touches the line between these two extremes. The longer the meridian line, the more accurately the observer can calculate the length of the year. The meridian line built here is 45 meters long and is composed of bronze, enclosed in yellow-white marble.  In addition to using the line to measure the sun's meridian crossing, Bianchini also used the window behind the pope's coat of arms and a movable telescope to observe the passage of several stars such as Arcturus and Sirius to determine their right ascensions and declinations. The meridian line was restored in 2002 for the tricentenary of its construction, and it is still operational today.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cardinal Protectors since 1687.", "content": "The Church of S. Maria degli Angeli was designated a titular church for a Cardinal Priest on 15 May 1565 by Pope Pius IV. Since 1687, the following prelates have served as cardinal protector of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Basilica of St. Mary of the Angels and the Martyrs (, ) is a basilica and titular church in Rome, Italy, built inside the ruined \"frigidarium\" of the Roman Baths of Diocletian in the Piazza della Repubblica.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975828}
{"src_title": "Slovak Democratic and Christian Union – Democratic Party", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foundation.", "content": "In 1998, SDK was created as coalition of five small centre-right and centre-left parties intending to contest the Slovak parliamentary elections that year. The initial agreement was to form a party with 150 members and dissolve it after elections in 1998. After successful 1998 elections, SDK formed government with KDH, SDĽ and SMK-MKP. This initial agreement was not successful, and Prime Minister Mikuláš Dzurinda (KDH) announced formation of new party - Slovak Democratic and Christian Union (SDKÚ). Some SDK members joined the new party while others returned to their original parties. The new party was registered on 18 February 2000. On 17 November Constitution congress elected Mikuláš Dzurinda as chairman, vice chairmen being Edvard Kukan, Zuzana Martináková, Milan Kňažko and Ľubomír Harach. Gabriel Palacka became responsible for finances.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First time in government: 1998-2006.", "content": "After its creation, majority of ministers of Slovak government were members of SDKÚ. SDKÚ was considered to be most reform oriented party. Its coalition partners were Party of the Hungarian Coalition, Party of Civic Understanding and Party of the Democratic Left.  In the parliamentary election of 17 June 2006, the party won 18.4% of the popular vote and 31 out of 150 seats in the National Council. Despite losing a large number of votes, the party was still able to form coalition government with former partners such as the Christian Democratic Movement, Party of the Hungarian Coalition and new party Alliance of the New Citizen. However, the opposition centre-left populist Smer-SD could able to form coalition with Slovak National Party and", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second time in government: 2010-2012.", "content": "For the 2010 parliamentary election, Dzurinda yielded the number-one slot on the party's list to Iveta Radičová, though he remained party chairman. In this election, the party won 15.42% of popular vote corresponding to 28 seats in the National Council. Iveta Radičová become the first female prime minister in history of Slovakia, by forming a new centre-right coalition government consisted of SDKÚ-DS, SaS, MOST-HÍD and KDH. By custom, president Ivan Gašparovič first gave charge to form a new government to winning party SMER-SD and its leader Robert Fico, who was unable to do so due to Smer-SD and SNS only having 71 seats. The centre-right coalition Government collapsed on 11 October 2011 after lost confidence in parliament. Radičová subsequently decided not take candidacy in next elections and served as prime minister until a social democratic government took office on 4 April 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012 election.", "content": "Mikuláš Dzurinda led party to 2012 parliamentary election. The party was defeated badly, receiving just 6.09% of the votes and losing more than half of its seats. Dzurinda chose to resign from his position as the chairman of SKDU, and a party congress was held on 19 May 2012 so that a new leader could be chosen. Pavol Frešo, Lucia Žitňanská and Viliam Novotný were the candidates, Frešo finally won with 242 out of 404 votes. Lucia Žitňanská received 142 votes and announced she will not be a candidate for the position of vice-chairperson.  In the 2014 European elections, SDKÚ-DS came third place nationally, receiving 7.75% of the vote and electing 2 MEPs.  Out of 11 PMs elected in 2012 only 1 remained in the party as of 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016 election.", "content": "The party was led by Pavol Frešo. However, during the previous term SDKÚ-DS practically fell apart from inside, when its own members of parliament chose to leave the party. As a result, Frešo has a tough position and even if his campaign was led alongside with Slovak right-wing consensus against the SMER-SD party, it failed. While gaining only 0,27% of votes and losing 95% of its previous voters in the election of 5.3.2016, the party has received its worst result in history. SDKÚ-DS has won only in one village, Pavlovce in Rimavská Sobota District. Frešo has commented that SDKÚ-DS as the only party has defended openly pro-European ideas, opposing the building of fences against the immigrants in European migrant crisis. The chairman said that the situation was a big challenge for the presidium.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decline and dissolution.", "content": "A party congress was held on 2 July 2016. Pavol Frešo stepped down from leadership of the party. New Vice-Chairmans were elected. The leader was expected to be elected later in 2016. It was reported in April 2018 that party de facto ceased to exist as it lacks membership and structure. The party was expelled from European People's Party as a result. Igor Rattaj btook over party's property and became owner of Party's trademark during September 2018. Rattaj stated that party is now only the Trademark and he will sell it if anyone expresses interest. Leader of the Party Milan Roman at the time ran for the position of Mayor in Skalice as an independent candidate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ideology.", "content": "SDKÚ-DS were a centre-right liberal conservative party, presenting itself as an alternative to the social-democratic and populist ideology of the Direction – Social Democracy (Smer-SD) party. After the general elections in 2010, SDKÚ-DS reached an agreement with other centre-right parties and formed the government of Slovakia. The party criticised the policies of Robert Fico's Smer-SD party, calling them irresponsible, unsustainable and populist. SDKÚ-DS was the fifth largest party in the National Council during years 2012–2016. Its policy included continuing in reforms that took place before 2006, including tax reform, welfare benefits cuts, pensions reform, healthcare reform etc. SDKÚ-DS was then organised into four sections:  The main partners of SDKÚ-DS were politically similar parties: Christian Democratic Movement, Freedom and Solidarity, and Most-Híd. Until 2012, these parties were in a coalition government with SDKÚ-DS.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Slovak Democratic and Christian Union – Democratic Party (, SDKÚ-DS) was a liberal-conservative, Christian-democratic political party in Slovakia. The SDKÚ-DS was a member of the Centrist Democrat International and was a member of the European People's Party until 2018, when it was expelled.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975829}
{"src_title": "Bréguet 693", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The 690 had begun life in 1934 as Bréguet's response to the same strategic fighter aircraft specification as the eventual winner, the Potez 630. Both were twin-engine monoplanes with twin tailplanes, powered by Hispano-Suiza 14AB radial engines of contemporary design and performance. Bréguet considered the weight limits of the specification – requiring a twin-engine, three-man aircraft to be lighter than 3,000 kg/6,600 lb (later 3,500 kg/7,700 lb) – to be overly restrictive and ignored them. Instead, the design was advertised as particularly versatile, with reconnaissance, ground attack and level bombing derivatives proposed that required no structural changes. Unsurprisingly, Bréguet lost out in the competition to Potez, but confident in the 690's potential, nevertheless began building a prototype on its own funds.  Although it had kept informed about foreign developments with dive bombers in the early 1930s, the French Air Force did not decide to acquire modern ground-attack aircraft before 1937. Engineless for nearly a year, the 690-01 prototype finally flew on 23 March 1938, and displayed such promise that 100 two-seat attack bomber versions known as the Bréguet 691 AB2 were ordered in June 1938, an order which was eventually doubled. For ground-attack, the 691's equipment included a 20 mm cannon and a pair of 7.5 mm (.295 in) machine guns firing forward, as well as an internal bomb rack that could be used in a shallow dive attack and was typically loaded with eight 50 kg (110 lb) bombs. Rear defense was provided by one flexible 7.5 mm (.295 in) machine gun, while a fixed, rearward-firing weapon of the same type was fitted under the fuselage to discourage low-flying fighters or ground fire from behind. A set of armour plates protected the crew, and the fuel tanks had rudimentary self-sealing capacity, but this protection proved insufficient in combat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Bréguet established an assembly line with remarkable speed: the first production aircraft flew less than a year after being ordered and was in service before the end of 1939. As with the Potez 630, the Bre 691 was beset with engine difficulties. Hispano-Suiza had decided to concentrate on its V12 liquid-cooled engines and the 14AB engine was unreliable. The French authorities decided to order a new version, the Bre 693 powered by Gnome-Rhône 14M radials. Apart from the changed engines, which were of slightly smaller diameter, the two types were virtually identical. Orders for the Bre 691 were switched to the new type and more than 200 of the latter had been completed by the time of France's defeat. Late production versions of the Bre 693 introduced propulsive exhaust pipes that improved top speed by a small margin as well as, according to some sources, a pair of additional machine guns in the rear of each engine nacelle. Belgium ordered 32 licence-built copies but none were completed before the Belgian collapse. French engine makers had even greater difficulties than airframe manufacturers in keeping up with the frantic demands from 1938, and in 1939 the French government decided that all combat aircraft had to be adapted for British and US engines. Fewer than 250 Bréguet 690 series aircraft were completed. The \"Armée de l'air\" received only 211 examples: 75 Bre.691s, 128 Bre.693s and eight Bre.695s but the Germans captured a few dozen complete or near-complete aircraft at the factories.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "A small experimental unit had been experimenting with ground-attack tactics since 1937, initially in outdated biplanes such as the Potez 25, then in ANF Les Mureaux 115 monoplanes. Eventually, the \"Armée de l’Air\" concluded that low-altitude level-bombing was more suitable than dive-bombing for engaging enemy vehicles and artillery over the battlefield. The chosen tactic consisted in a nap-of-the-earth approach at maximum speed, followed by a strafing run or the delivery of time-delayed bombs directly over the target. French commanders widely considered this tactic as safe for the attackers, as anti-aircraft weapons then in service would be inefficient. The French Army was not using anti-aircraft autocannons at the time (the 25 mm Hotchkiss and 20 mm Oerlikon cannons were issued only later), relying instead on rifle-calibre machine guns and slow-firing 75 mm (2.95 in) guns.  In late 1939, two squadrons staffed with volunteers from level bomber units were gathered in the small airfield near Vinon-sur-Verdon, where they began their operational training. As Bréguet 691s were not available yet, the crews flew the Potez 633 light bomber. When they were eventually delivered, the little Bréguet were popular with their crews, although the unreliable engines in the Bre 691 affected aircraft availability rates, and undercarriage failures proved especially troublesome. Only in March 1940 were the first combat-worthy Bre. 693s delivered, and there were now five squadrons to equip: GBA I/51, GBA II/51, GBA I/54, GBA II/54, and GBA II/35 (GBA stood for \"Groupe de bombardement d'assaut\" – assault bomber squadron), with a theoretical complement of 13 aircraft each.  Because of this late delivery, crews were still working up their new machines and developing tactics when the Germans attacked. On 12 May, GBAs I/54 and II/54 performed the Bréguet's first operational sorties, against German motorized columns in the Maastricht-Tongeren-Bilsen area. German anti-aircraft fire was so devastating that only eight of the eighteen Bre.693s returned.  The disastrous results of this first engagement forced the French commanders to reconsider their tactics. Until 15 May, GBA crews performed shallow dive attacks from higher altitude, which resulted in reduced losses, but the attacks had clearly been inaccurate, as the Bréguet lacked a bombsight, and they increased vulnerability to German fighters. On subsequent missions, the GBAs re-introduced low-level attacks, but with smaller formations. As the position of the French and Allied armies grew steadily more desperate, the assault groups were engaged daily, still enduring losses to anti-aircraft fire, but also increasingly to German fighters.  In late June, the \"Armée de l'Air\" tried to evacuate its modern aircraft to North Africa, out of German reach, from where many hoped to continue the fight. However, the short-ranged Bréguets were not able to cross the Mediterranean. Unlike other modern French types, the Bréguet 690 family saw its combat career end with the Armistice.  By this time, 119 aircraft had been lost, including 68 to direct enemy action, and a further 14 were written off as too heavily damaged. The five GBAs had therefore endured a matériel loss rate of 63%, while crew casualties were nearly 50%.  After the Armistice, the Vichy authorities were allowed to maintain a small air force in mainland France, and its assault bomber pilots flew rare training flights in the Bre.693 and Bre.695. After the Germans occupied all of France in late 1942, some of the survivors were transferred to Italy for use as operational trainers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bréguet 690 and its derivatives were a series of light twin-engine ground-attack aircraft that were used by the French Air Force in World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975830}
{"src_title": "Škoda Favorit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "This latest Favorit eventually succeeded the ageing rear-engined, rear-wheel drive Škoda 105/120 \"Estelle\", and was a considerable move towards the modern mainstream in design terms thanks to its Bertone-designed hatchback body and front-wheel drive. However, the Favorit initially took a long time to get to market - Škoda's then owner, the communist government of Czechoslovakia approved the development of this new front-wheel drive car back in 1982, with actual development not starting until 1983. Disputes between the government’s brief, and Nuccio Bertone, the designer, meant that the car was not designed until mid-1985, and full production wouldn't commence until 1987. Probably the worst aspects of this dispute is that a four-door saloon was fully designed, but was never allowed to go into production.  The Favorit proved itself as one of Central Europe's most popular cars, and was also exported to a number of countries including Argentina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Israel, Poland, Russia, Turkey and other countries.  The Favorit was replaced in 1994 by the Škoda Felicia, which was developed in conjunction with Volkswagen Group, who were by then the owners of Škoda Auto.  It is perhaps comparable to the Volkswagen Polo (fuel injected versions share the Bosch Mono-Motronic 1.2.3 engine management system with the Volkswagen Polo Mk2 and Volkswagen Golf Mk3) due to its large engine compartment, contributing to the possibility of easy repair. Parts are very universal with other Eastern European cars. Its general design and mechanical functionality is very practical, especially in comparison to a Western car which requires expensive parts, or maintenance for simple knobs, buttons or other simple mechanical and rudimentary apparatus.  Some 50,000 examples of the Favorit were sold in the UK from 1989 to 1995, although just 232 were still on the road by December 2016, and they were disappearing fast. A 1993-reg blue Favorit became famous after it drove from Anfield, Liverpool to the Wanda Metropolitano stadium in Madrid for the 2019 UEFA Champions League Final, before making the return journey to Anfield. The outbound journey was filmed by British YouTuber and Liverpool fan Simon Wilson. The car cost a total of £40, although recent MOT tests on 15 April 2019 showed that the car had a total of 85 faults.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Body styles.", "content": "The car body style of the Škoda Favorit was a five-door five-seater hatchback.  A five-door estate version named the Škoda Forman (\"Type\" 785) appeared in 1990. This was known as the Favorit Estate in the UK from its launch in June 1991, two years after British buyers were first able to buy the hatchback. The name originates from the Czech word \"forman\", which in English is \"wagoneer\", or someone who transports goods by wagon. It is a common misconception that the name is somehow related to famous Czech filmmaker Miloš Forman.  A two-door two-seat pick-up truck, called the Škoda Pick-up (\"Type\" 787), was introduced the following year.  Following the takeover of Škoda Auto in 1991 by the Volkswagen Group, new developments and upgrades were rapidly implemented on the Favorit. This included new fuel injected catalytic converter versions, marketed as the Li, GLi and the GLXi models were introduced. At the same time many cosmetic improvements were made to the Favorit, such as improved door hinges, Volkswagen seats and interiors, dashboards and instrumentation. Quality control improvements were also implemented, along with safety features such as strengthened beams in the doors, and a redesigned front.  During 1993, another range of modernisations took place, which included mechanical and electrical upgrades to the engine, a facelift of the bodywork, and bigger bumpers.  Luggage capacity in the hatchback was 251 litres with the rear seats in the upright position, and this increased to 1,038 litres with the rear seats folded. For more luggage, the back seat could be removed completely.  Special versions were made in limited numbers. \"Black Line\" was sold with a pop-up sunroof, Hella clear rear lighs, tinted windows all-around, power door locks, tachometer, digital clock in the centre overhead console, smart intermittent wipers, leather-wrapped steering wheel and gearchange knob, Hella headlight washer, and a Blaupunkt stereo with 4 speakers. The car is recognisable from the all-black paint, and the factory 13\" Ronal F-Series alloy wheels. \"Silver Line\" was similar, only in metallic silver colour with a black fascia around the back window and the B pillars. These packages were available with both hatchback and estate body styles. \"Solitaire\" was very rare, including all of the above plus spoiler on the rear door, factory alarm system, power front windows and fuel injection. The other special versions came with either carburetted or fuel-injected engines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Powertrain.", "content": "For all body styles, the powertrain of the Favorit used one internal combustion petrol engine,, inline-four-cylinder, four-stroke, liquid-cooled, overhead valve. This initially produced a rated motive power output of at 5,000 rpm. It originally used either a Pierburg 2E-E Ecotronic single-barrel carburettor, or a Pierburg Ecotronic dual-barrel carburettor. This engine had its combustion chambers redesigned by Ricardo Consulting Engineers in the UK, while German car maker Porsche helped engineer the engine mountings. Throughout its timescale in the Favorit, the engine was progressively upgraded with various iterations of emissions control systems, including two different types of catalytic converter, and also utilised improved fuelling and engine control by way of Bosch Mono-Motronic single-point fuel injection. These changes had minor effects on the rated power (50kW) and torque outputs. The engine requires the cam chain changed every 60,000 km, but it can last over 200,000 km (cases of engines working 400,000 km without the change of cam chain are known, although with serious degradation of performance, respectively). The chain is relatively short, but has no tensioner.  This engine was also used in Škoda Felicia with BMM and MPI injection, and until 2003 as a 1.4 MPI unit in the Škoda Fabia, and a 1.0 version in the Škoda Fabia, Seat Arosa and Volkswagen Lupo.  The only transmission available was a five-speed manual gearbox, which was of a transaxle design, and contained the differential and final drive units. Drive was through the front wheels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motorsport.", "content": "Two Favorits finished first and second in the under-1300 cc class in the 1993 Monte Carlo Rally, coming in 18th and 23rd overall respectively.  The Škoda Motorsport-entered Favorit proceeded to win outright in the 2-litre Manufacturers Championship category of the 1994 FIA World Rally Championship with a total of 43 points, despite having only a 1.3-litre engine. It defeated rival cars from manufacturers such as Ford, Citroën (AX Sport), Peugeot (205 Rallye and 205 GTI), Fiat (Cinquecento), Renault, Rover (Mini Cooper), Suzuki (Swift GTI), Daihatsu (Charade 1.3i), Lada (Riva), and even Trabant P 601. It also competed against cars from other marques from its future parent Volkswagen Group, namely Volkswagen and SEAT (Marbella GL). Works driver Pavel Sibera managed to pilot the Favorit into the overall top ten classification on two occasions, which included the main World Rally Championship category, and his team-mate Emil Triner achieved the same feat, with a highest placing of 9th overall in the Acropolis Rally, and 8th in the Rallye de España.  There were also prototypes with Škoda's 1.6 OHC engine", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Škoda Favorit is a model name that the Czechoslovak (and now Czech) car maker Škoda Auto has used for two series of car models.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975831}
{"src_title": "Laburnum anagyroides", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The plant is a small deciduous tree or large shrub up to tall. It has smooth bark, dark green spreading branches and pendulous and pubescent twigs. The leaves are generally trifoliate and oval with long petioles, smooth on the upperside and hairy on the underside. It flowers during May and June.  \"Laburnum anagyroides\" blooms in late spring with pea-like, yellow flowers densely packed in pendulous racemes 10–25 cm (4–10 in) long. The flowers are golden yellow, sweet scented, and typically bloom in May.  The seeds are legumes with large numbers of black seeds that contain cytisine, an alkaloid somewhat poisonous to humans as well as goats and horses, especially when not ripe. However, some wild animals such as hares and deer can feed on them without any problems, and because of this the plant is believed to have magic properties in some regions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The wood is hard and heavy, of a yellow/brown colour, ideal for making posts, for woodturning and as fuel. In the past (and today on historic re-enactments) it was used for making bows.  The tree is also known as \"false ebony\" since the wood from very old specimens could be used in place of ebony.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Laburnum anagyroides\" is cultivated as an ornamental tree. The most common ornamental plant in the genus is a hybrid between this species and \"Laburnum alpinum\" — \"Laburnum × watereri\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "The English poet Francis Thompson described the \"laburnum\" in one of his poems:  The writer J. R. R. Tolkien was inspired by the \"laburnum\" for his creation of Laurelin, one of the two mythological trees in \"The Silmarillion\", and Tolkien's description of it is strongly influenced by Thompson's verses.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Laburnum anagyroides, the common laburnum, golden chain or golden rain, is a species in the subfamily Faboideae, and genus \"Laburnum\". \"Laburnum alpinum\" is closely related. It is native to Central and Southern Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975832}
{"src_title": "Château de Marly", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The works at Marly were begun in the spring of 1679, on 22 May, before Louis had moved his court permanently to Versailles. The king was looking for a retreat on well-wooded royal lands between Versailles and Saint-Germain-en-Laye that were well-watered and provided a grand view. Marly was chosen.  Robert Berger has demonstrated that the design of Marly was a full collaboration between Jules Hardouin-Mansart and the \"premier peintre\" Charles Le Brun, who were concurrently working on the \"Galerie des Glaces\" at Versailles. Mansart's elevations for the pavilions were to be frescoed to designs adapted from a suite that Le Brun had recently drawn. The frescoed exteriors of the otherwise somewhat severe buildings created a richly Baroque ensemble of feigned sculptures against draperies and hangings, with vases on feigned sculptural therms against the piers— all in the somewhat eclectic Olympian symbolism that Le Brun and the King favoured everywhere at Versailles.  The decor of the pavillon du Roi featured Apollo, the Sun King's iconographic persona, and Thetis. Other pavilions were dedicated to other Olympians, but also to Hercules, and to Victory, Fame and Abundance. Construction was completed by 1684, though the overcharged painted programmes were simplified and restrained in the execution. The Sun King attended the opening of the completed hydraulic works in June 1684 and by 1686 development was sufficiently advanced for the King to stay there for the first time, with a selected entourage. The theme of Marly was that it was a simple hunting lodge, just enough to accommodate the Royal Hunt. In 1688 the \"Grand Abreuvoir à chevaux\" was installed on the terrace, a mere \"horse trough.\"  Throughout the rest of his life, Louis continued to embellish the wooded park, with wide straight rides, in which ladies or the infirm might follow the hunt, at some distance, in a carriage, and with more profligate waterworks than waterless Versailles could provide: the \"Rivière\" or \"Grande Cascade\" dates to 1697–1698. Versailles was provided with water from Marly. The famous description of Marly in the memoirs of Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon were written in retrospect and, for the initiation of Marly, at second hand; when Saint-Simon wrote, in 1715, Marly's heyday was ending, with the death of Louis XIV that year. Louis' heirs found the north-facing slope made Marly damp and dreary, and rarely visited.  The \"river\" was filled in and grassed in 1728. During the Revolution the marble horses by Guillaume Coustou the Elder, the \"Chevaux de Marly\", were transported to Paris (1794), to flank the opening of the \"Champs-Élysées\" in the soon-to-be-renamed \"Place de la Concorde\". (They are now in the \"Musée du Louvre\", along with many other Marly sculptures.)  In 1799/1800, Marly was sold to an industrialist, M. Sagniel, who installed machinery to spin cotton thread. When the factory failed in 1806, the château was demolished and its building materials sold, including the lead from its roof. Napoleon bought back the estate the following year; the empty gardens and the surrounding woodland park still belong to the State.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remains.", "content": "At the end of the 19th century several connoisseurs purchased leases on the individual \"garçonnières\", cleaned up the overgrowth, recovered some bruised and broken statuary and recreated small gardens among the ruins: Alexandre Dumas, fils and the playwright and collector of 18th-century furnishings Victorien Sardou.  The \"Cour Marly\" of the Louvre museum was inaugurated in 1993. It contains mostly works of art from Marly, displayed on three levels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Marly \"machine\".", "content": "Providing a sufficient water supply for the fountains at Versailles had been a problem from the outset. The construction of the Marly hydraulic \"machine\", actually located in Bougival (where its inventor Rennequin Sualem died in 1708), driven by the current of the Seine moving fourteen vast paddlewheels, was a miracle of modern hydraulic engineering, perhaps the largest integrated machine of the 17th century.  It pumped water to a head of 100 meters into reservoirs at Louveciennes (where Madame du Barry had her chateau in the 1760s). The water then flowed either to fill the cascade at Marly or drive the fountains at Versailles — the latter, after passing through an elaborate underground network of reservoirs and aqueducts. The machine could only deliver sufficient pressure to satisfy either Marly or Versailles, and invariably the King's demands received priority.  In the nineteenth century, various other pumps replaced the originals, and the last was taken out of service in 1967.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Château de Marly was a French royal residence located in what is now Marly-le-Roi, the commune on the northern edge of the royal park. This was situated west of the palace and garden complex at Versailles. Marly-le-Roi is the town that developed to serve the château, which was demolished in 1806 after passing into private ownership and being used as a factory. The town is now a bedroom community for Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975833}
{"src_title": "Ben Ferencz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life, education, and army service.", "content": "Ferencz was born in Transylvania, which was part of Hungary at that time. A few months later, it was ceded to Romania under the Treaty of Trianon (1920), the result of World War I. When Ferencz was ten months old, his family emigrated to the United States which, according to his own account, was to avoid the persecution of Hungarian Jews by the Romanians after they had gained formal control of Transylvania. The family settled in New York City, where they lived on the Lower East Side in Manhattan.  Ferencz studied crime prevention at the City College of New York, and his criminal law exam result won him a scholarship to Harvard Law School. At Harvard, he studied under Roscoe Pound and also did research for Sheldon Glueck who, at that time, was writing a book on war crimes. Ferencz graduated from Harvard in 1943. After his studies, he joined the U.S. Army, where he served in the 115th AAA Gun Battalion, an anti-aircraft artillery unit. In 1945, he was transferred to the headquarters of General Patton's Third Army, where he was assigned to a team tasked with setting up a war crimes branch and collecting evidence for such crimes. In that role, he was sent to the concentration camps that had been liberated by the U.S. army.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nuremberg trial prosecutor.", "content": "On Christmas 1945, Ferencz was honorably discharged from the Army with the rank of sergeant. He returned to New York, but was recruited only a few weeks later to participate as a prosecutor in the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials in the legal team of Telford Taylor. Taylor appointed him chief prosecutor in the Einsatzgruppen Case—Ferencz's first case. All of the 22 men on trial were convicted; 13 of them received death sentences, of which four were eventually carried out.  In a 2005 interview for \"The Washington Post\" he revealed some of his activities during his period in Germany by way of showing how different military legal norms were at the time:  Ferencz stayed in Germany after the Nuremberg Trials, together with his wife Gertrude, whom he had married in New York on March 31, 1946. Together with Kurt May and others, he participated in the setup of reparation and rehabilitation programs for the victims of persecutions by the Nazis, and also had a part in the negotiations that led to the Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany signed on September 10, 1952 and the first German Restitution Law in 1953. In 1956, the family—they had four children by then—returned to the U.S., where Ferencz entered private law practice as a partner of Telford Taylor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Role in forming the International Criminal Court.", "content": "Experiences just after World War II left a defining impression on Ferencz. After 13 years, and under the impression of the events of the Vietnam War, Ferencz left the private law practice and henceforth worked for the institution of an International Criminal Court that would serve as a worldwide highest instance for issues of crimes against humanity and war crimes. He also published several books on this subject. Already in his first book published in 1975, entitled \"Defining International Aggression-The Search for World Peace\", he argued for the establishment of such an international court. From 1985 to 1996, Ferencz also worked as an adjunct professor of international law at Pace University at White Plains, New York.  An International Criminal Court was indeed established on July 1, 2002, when the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court came into force. Under the Bush administration, the U.S. signed the treaty, but didn't ratify it. The administration of George W. Bush concluded a large number of bilateral agreements with other states that would exclude U.S. citizens from being brought before the ICC.  Ferencz has repeatedly argued against this procedure and suggested that the U.S. join the ICC without reservations, as it was a long-established rule of law that \"law must apply equally to everyone\", also in an international context. In this vein, he has suggested in an interview given on August 25, 2006, that not only Saddam Hussein should be tried, but also George W. Bush because the Iraq War had been begun by the U.S. without permission by the UN Security Council. In 2013, Ferencz stated once more that the \"use of armed force to obtain a political goal should be condemned as an international and a national crime.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "In 2009, Ferencz was awarded the Erasmus Prize, together with Antonio Cassese; the award is given to individuals or institutions that have made notable contributions to European culture, society, or social science.  On May 3, 2011, two days after the death of Osama bin Laden was reported, \"The New York Times\" published a Ferencz letter which argued that \"illegal and unwarranted execution – even of suspected mass murderers – undermines democracy.\" Also that year he presented a closing statement in the trial of Thomas Lubanga Dyilo in Uganda.  On March 16, 2012, Ferencz, in another letter to the editor of the \"New York Times\", hailed the International Criminal Court's conviction of Thomas Lubanga as \"a milestone in the evolution of international criminal law.\"  On May 7, 2017, Ferencz was interviewed on CBS's \"60 Minutes\".  In 2018, Ferencz was the subject of a documentary on his life, \"Prosecuting Evil\", by director Barry Avrich, which was made available on Netflix.  On January 16, 2020, the \"New York Times\" printed Ferencz's letter denouncing the assassination of the Iranian general Qassem Soleimani, unnamed in the letter, as an \"immoral action [and] a clear violation of national and international law.\"  He turned 100 in March 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Naming of street in The Hague.", "content": "In April 2017, the municipality of The Hague announced that the city will honor Benjamin Ferencz by naming the footpath next to the Peace Palace after him as \"\"one of the figureheads of international justice\"\": the \"Benjamin Ferenczpad\" (Benjamin Ferenczpath). The city's Deputy Mayor Saskia Bruines (International Affairs) travelled to Washington to symbolically present the street sign to Ferencz.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Benjamin Berell Ferencz (born March 11, 1920) is a Hungarian-born American lawyer. He was an investigator of Nazi war crimes after World War II and the chief prosecutor for the United States Army at the Einsatzgruppen Trial, one of the 12 military trials held by the U.S. authorities at Nuremberg, Germany. Later, he became an advocate of the establishment of an international rule of law and of an International Criminal Court. From 1985 to 1996, he was adjunct professor of international law at Pace University.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975834}
{"src_title": "Elizabeth of Vermandois, Countess of Leicester", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Countess of Leicester.", "content": "In 1096, Robert de Beaumont, Count of Meulan reputed to be \"the wisest man in his time between London and Jerusalem\" insisted, in defiance of the laws of the church, on marrying a very young Elizabeth, he being over fifty at the time. In early 1096 Bishop Ivo, on hearing of the proposed marriage, wrote a letter banning the marriage and preventing its celebration on the grounds the two were related within prohibited degrees.  In April of the same year, Elizabeth's father count Hugh left on Crusade, his last act being to see his daughter married to count Robert. The crusader was able to convince Pope Urban to issue a dispensation for the marriage which then went forward.  Her husband was a nobleman of some significance in France, having inherited lands from his maternal uncle Henry, Count of Meulan. He gained renown fighting in his first battle, in command of the right wing, at the Battle of Hastings as a companion of William the Conqueror. He was rewarded with ninety manors in the counties of Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire and Wiltshire. The count of Meulan was one of Henry I's \"four wise counsellors and was one of the king's commanders at the Battle of Tinchebray\" 28 September 1106. In 1107 Robert became Earl of Leicester.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Countess of Surrey.", "content": "Elizabeth, Countess of Meulan is reputed to have had an affair and left her husband when he was near death. The historian James Planché claimed (1874) that the Countess was seduced by or fell in love with a younger nobleman, William de Warenne.  There is no evidence that her second husband, William II de Warenne, second earl of Surrey, was that lover and only later rumors that she had a lover at all during her first marriage. William had sought a royal bride in 1093, but failed in his attempt to wed Matilda of Scotland also known as Edith, who later married Henry I. He obtained a bride of royal blood when he married Elizabeth in 1118, very soon after the death of Earl Robert. Elizabeth survived her second husband William to later die in 1131.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "By her first husband, Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester, (d 5 June 1118), Elizabeth had three sons (including twin elder sons) and five or six daughters:  By her second husband, William de Warenne, 2nd Earl of Surrey, Elizabeth had three sons and two daughters:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elizabeth of Vermandois, or Elisabeth or Isabel de Vermandois (c. 1085 – 1131), was the third daughter of Hugh Magnus and Adelaide of Vermandois, and as such represented both the Capetian line of her paternal grandfather Henry I of France, and the Carolingian ancestry of her maternal grandfather Herbert IV of Vermandois.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975835}
{"src_title": "Čestmír Vycpálek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "A good right winger, Vycpálek moved in 1946 to Juventus from Slavia Prague, and in 1947 to Palermo, in Serie B at the time, leading the team to an immediate promotion to the top division, and playing 143 times, with 23 goals, in five seasons for the \"rosanero\". In the season 1952–1953, Vycpálek then signed for Parma, where he played at Serie B and Serie C level. Vycpálek abandoned his playing career in 1958, at the age of 37.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "Before to enjoy some relevant success at the managing level, Vycpálek had several minor experiences, often not particularly lucky. He started his coaching career for Palermo, where he relocated with his family after Czechoslovakia was occupied by the Soviet Red Army after the Prague Spring. He then coached minor league teams such as Siracusa, Valdagno and Juve Bagheria.  In the early 1970s, however, after having been fired by Sicilian Serie D team Mazara, Vycpálek went back to Juventus, thanks also to his old friend Giampiero Boniperti, who was a board member in that times, and became coach for the youth team. But, in 1971, after the sudden death of Armando Picchi, Vycpálek was named new head coach of Juventus. It was the beginning of a successful period which led the team to two consecutive \"scudetti\", in 1972 and 1973, and to the final of European Cup lost against Ajax. The team was also runner-up in the intercontinental cup taking Ajax's place, due to a 1–0 defeat against sudamerican champions Independiente.After those results, Vycpálek left the club and finished his coaching career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Vycpálek died on 5 May 2002 in Palermo, the same day of the Juventus' triumph in the 2001–02 Serie A, and exactly thirty years after the death of his son Cestino in the Alitalia Flight 112 crash that happened in 1972.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Čestmír Vycpálek (Prague, 15 May 1921 – Palermo, 5 May 2002) was a Czech football player and manager who played as a midfielder. He was an uncle of noted football manager Zdeněk Zeman.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975836}
{"src_title": "Alice Herz-Sommer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Aliza Herz was born in Prague, in the Kingdom of Bohemia (a part of Austria-Hungary), to Friedrich and Sofie \"Gigi\" Herz. Herz's family was part of the small German-speaking minority of assimilated Jews in Prague, although Herz stated that she also spoke Czech. Her father was a merchant and her mother was highly educated and moved in circles of well-known writers. She had two sisters, including a twin sister, Mariana, and two brothers. Her parents ran a cultural salon where Herz, as a child, met writers including Franz Kafka and Franz Werfel, composers including Gustav Mahler, philosophers, and intellectuals such as Sigmund Freud. Herz once noted that \"Kafka was a slightly strange man. He used to come to our house, sit and talk with my mother, mainly about his writing. He did not talk a lot, but rather loved quiet and nature. We frequently went on trips together. I remember that Kafka took us to a very nice place outside Prague. We sat on a bench and he told us stories.\" Herz's sister Irma was married to Felix Weltsch, who was a prominent German-language Jewish philosopher, journalist, librarian, and Zionist who later worked as a librarian in Jerusalem after his emigration from Austria.  Herz's older sister Irma taught her how to play the piano, which she studied diligently, and the Austrian-Jewish pianist Artur Schnabel, a friend of the family, encouraged her to pursue a career as a classical musician, a choice she decided to make. She went on to study under the Czech pianist Václav Štěpán (1889-1944) and at the Prague German Conservatory of Music, where she was the youngest pupil. Herz married the businessman and amateur musician Leopold Sommer in 1931; the couple had a son, Stephan (later known as Raphael, 1937–2001). She began giving concerts and making a name for herself across Europe until the Nazis took over Prague, as they did not allow Jews to perform in public, join music competitions or teach non-Jewish pupils.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second World War.", "content": "After the invasion of Czechoslovakia, most of Herz-Sommer's family and friends emigrated to Palestine via Romania, including Max Brod and brother-in-law Felix Weltsch, but Herz-Sommer stayed in Prague to care for her ill mother, Sofie, aged 72; both women were arrested and Sofie Herz was murdered in a concentration camp. In July 1943 Herz was sent to Theresienstadt, where she played in more than 100 concerts along with other musicians, for prisoners and guards. She commented of her performances in the camp:We had to play because the Red Cross came three times a year. The Germans wanted to show its representatives that the situation of the Jews in Theresienstadt was good. Whenever I knew that I had a concert, I was happy. Music is magic. We performed in the council hall before an audience of 150 old, hopeless, sick and hungry people. They lived for the music. It was like food to them. If they hadn't come [to hear us], they would have died long before. As we would have.  Herz-Sommer was billeted with her son during their time at the camp; he was one of only a few children to survive Theresienstadt. Her husband died of typhus in Dachau, six weeks before the camp was liberated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After the Soviet liberation of Theresienstadt in 1945, she and Raphael returned to Prague, and in March 1949 emigrated to Israel, to be reunited with some of her surviving family, including her twin sister, Mariana. Herz lived in Israel for almost 40 years, working as a music teacher at the Jerusalem Academy of Music, until emigrating to London in 1986.  In London Herz-Sommer lived close to her family in a one-room flat in Belsize Park, visited almost daily by her closest friends, her grandson Ariel Sommer, and daughter-in-law Genevieve Sommer. She practised playing the piano three hours a day until the end of her life. She stated that optimism was the key to her life:I look at the good. When you are relaxed, your body is always relaxed. When you are pessimistic, your body behaves in an unnatural way. It is up to us whether we look at the good or the bad. When you are nice to others, they are nice to you. When you give, you receive.She also declared a firm belief in the power of music: \"Music saved my life and music saves me still... I am Jewish, but Beethoven is my religion.\"  Her son Raphael, an accomplished cellist and conductor, died in 2001, aged 64, of an aneurysm in Israel at the end of a concert tour. He was survived by his wife and two sons.  Alice Herz-Sommer died in hospital in London on 23 February 2014, aged 110, after being admitted two days previously. Her death was confirmed by her grandson, Ariel Sommer. She is buried at the St Pancras and Islington Cemetery in East Finchley, north London.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "\"A Century of Wisdom: Lessons From the Life of Alice Herz-Sommer the World's Oldest Living Holocaust Survivor\" (2012), with an introduction by President Václav Havel, was written about her life and translated in 26 countries. Herz-Sommer was the subject of \"A Garden of Eden in Hell\", first published in German in 2005 (reprinted in English as \"Alice's Piano\").  The BBC TV documentary \"Alice Sommer Herz at 106: Everything Is a Present\", written and produced by Christopher Nupen, was first broadcast on BBC Four. She was featured on BBC Radio 4's \"Woman's Hour\" in 2004 and in \"The Times\", and \"The Guardian\". She was one of two subjects featured in the film \"Refuge in Music\".  \"The Lady in Number 6\", filmed when Herz was 109, documents her life and won an Academy Award for Best Short Documentary.  The song \"Dancing Under the Gallows\", by Chris While and Julie Matthews, from their 2014 album \"Who We Are\", celebrates the life of Alice Herz-Sommer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alice Herz-Sommer, also known as Alice Herz (26 November 1903 – 23 February 2014), was a Prague-born Jewish pianist, music teacher, and supercentenarian who survived Theresienstadt concentration camp. She lived for 40 years in Israel, before migrating to London in 1986, where she resided until her death, and at the age of 110 was the world's oldest known Holocaust survivor until Yisrael Kristal was recognized as such.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975837}
{"src_title": "May Coup (Poland)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Buildup.", "content": "In November 1925 the government of Prime Minister Władysław Grabski was replaced by the government of Prime Minister Aleksander Skrzyński, which had received support from the National Democrats and the Polish Socialist Party (PPS). General Lucjan Żeligowski became the new government's minister of military affairs. However, after the PPS withdrew its support, this government also fell and was replaced by that of Prime Minister Wincenty Witos, formed by Polish People's Party \"Piast\" and Christian Union of National Unity (\"Chjeno-Piast\"). However, the new government had even less popular support than the previous ones, and pronouncements from Józef Piłsudski, who viewed the constant power shifts in the \"Sejm\" (Polish parliament) as chaotic and damaging, set the stage for a \"coup d'état\".  Apart from domestic turmoil, Polish politics had been shaken by a trade war with Germany, begun in June 1925, and by the signing of the Treaty of Locarno on October 16. Under the terms of the treaty, the World War I western European Allied powers and the new states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure a postwar territorial settlement in return for normalized relations with defeated Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coup d'état.", "content": "On 10 May 1926 a coalition government of Christian Democrats and Agrarians was formed, and that same day Józef Piłsudski, in an interview with \"Kurier Poranny\" (the Morning Courier), said that he was \"ready to fight the evil\" of \"sejmocracy\" and promised a \"sanation\" (restoration to health) of political life. The newspaper edition was confiscated by the authorities.  The night of 11 May to 12 May a state of alert was declared in the Warsaw military garrison, and some units marched to Rembertów, where they pledged their support to Piłsudski. On 12 May they marched on Warsaw and captured bridges over the Wisła River. Meanwhile, Wincenty Witos' government declared a state of emergency. At about 17:00 hours, Marshal Piłsudski met President Stanisław Wojciechowski on the Poniatowski Bridge. Piłsudski demanded the resignation of Witos' cabinet, while the President demanded Piłsudski's capitulation. With no result in this round of negotiations, fighting erupted about 19:00 hours.  Next day a new round of negotiations was begun, mediated by Archbishop Aleksander Kakowski and Marshal of the Sejm Maciej Rataj. These negotiations, however, brought no change to the stalemate. On 14 May the Polish Socialist Party declared its support for the rebels and called for a general strike, supported by the Railwaymen's Union (\"Związek Zawodowy Kolejarzy\"). The strike by socialist railwaymen paralyzed communications and prevented pro-government military reinforcements from reaching Warsaw.  Eventually, to prevent the Warsaw fighting from turning into a country-wide civil war, Wojciechowski and Witos resigned their offices.  During these events, 215 soldiers and 164 civilians were killed, and some 900 people were wounded.  A new government was formed under Prime Minister Kazimierz Bartel, with Piłsudski as minister of military affairs. On 31 May the National Assembly (\"Zgromadzenie Narodowe\") nominated Piłsudski to be president, but he declined. Eventually Ignacy Mościcki became the new president; Piłsudski, however, wielded much greater \"de facto\" power than his military ministry nominally gave him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences.", "content": "Piłsudski initiated a Sanation government (1926–39), directed at restoring moral \"health\" to public life. Although until his death in 1935 Piłsudski played a preponderant role in Poland's government, his formal offices – apart from two stints as prime minister, in 1926–28 and 1930 – were for the most part limited to those of minister of defense and inspector-general of the armed forces.  The adoption of a new Polish constitution in April 1935 (the April Constitution), tailored by Piłsudski's supporters to his specifications — providing for a strong presidency — came too late for Piłsudski to seek that office. But the April Constitution would serve Poland until the outbreak of World War II and would carry its Government in Exile through the war and beyond.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The May Coup ( or ) was a coup d'état carried out in Poland by Marshal Józef Piłsudski between 12 and 14 May 1926. The coup overthrew the democratically elected government of President Stanisław Wojciechowski and Prime Minister Wincenty Witos. A new government was installed, headed by Lwów Polytechnic Professor Kazimierz Bartel. The events were partly inspired by the need for extraordinary measures in the face of newly emerging threats to the stability of Poland's independence by Piłsudski's own assessment of the foreign treaties signed by Weimar Germany with France in 1925 (fundamentally abandoning Poland) and with the Soviet Union in April 1926, to which Poland's representatives had not been invited.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975838}
{"src_title": "Battle of Sunda Strait", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In late February 1942, Japanese amphibious forces were preparing to invade Java, in the Dutch East Indies. On 27 February, the main American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM) naval force, under Admiral Karel Doorman–a Dutch officer–steamed northeast from Surabaya to intercept an Imperial Japanese navy invasion fleet. This part of the ABDA force consisted of two heavy cruisers, including under the command of Captain Albert H. Rooks, three light cruisers, including under Captain Hector Waller, and nine destroyers. Only six out of nine of USS \"Houston\"s 8-inch (203-millimeter) heavy guns were operational because her aft gun turret had been knocked out in an earlier Japanese air raid. The ABDA force engaged the Japanese force in the Battle of the Java Sea. The Allied ships were all sunk or dispersed. \"Houston\" and \"Perth\" both retreated to Tanjung Priok, Java, the main port of Batavia, Dutch East Indies, where they arrived at 13:30 on 28 February.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prelude.", "content": "In the early evening on 28 February, \"Houston\", \"Perth\" and the Dutch destroyer received orders to depart Tanjung Priok and head through Sunda Strait to Tjilatjap, on the south coast of Java. Waller, who had seniority, was \"de facto\" commander of this force. The only ships they expected to encounter were Australian corvettes on patrol, in and around the strait itself. While \"Houston\" and \"Perth\" left at 19:00, \"Evertsen\" was not ready and followed the cruisers two hours later.  By chance, just after 22:00, a Japanese invasion convoy bound for West Java — including the entire Sixteenth Army, under Lieutenant General Hitoshi Imamura, in over 50 transport ships — was entering Bantam Bay, near the north-west tip of Java. The Japanese troop transports were escorted by the 5th Destroyer Flotilla, led by Rear Admiral Kenzaburo Hara, and the 7th Cruiser Division, under Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita. Light cruiser (with Admiral Hara aboard), with the destroyers,,,,,,, and were closest to the convoy. Flanking the bay to the north were the heavy cruisers and, accompanied by the destroyer.  Slightly further north, though not involved in the action, was the aircraft carrier, with the heavy cruisers and (with Admiral Kurita aboard), along with the seaplane tender, and the destroyers and.  Some time around 23:15, the Allied ships were sighted by the patrolling \"Fubuki\", which followed them surreptitiously. At 23:06, when they were about halfway across the mouth of Bantam Bay, \"Perth\" sighted a ship about ahead, near Saint Nicolaas Point. It was thought at first that the ship was an Australian corvette, but when challenged, she made an unintelligible reply, with a lamp which was the wrong color, fired her nine Long Lance (Type 93) torpedoes from about and then turned away, making smoke. The ship was soon identified as a Japanese destroyer (probably \"Harukaze\"). Waller reported the contact and ordered his forward turrets to open fire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main action.", "content": "During a ferocious night action, the Allied cruisers were surrounded. Following severe damage from torpedo and shell impacts, \"Perth\" and \"Houston\" were abandoned after midnight and sank.  About four Japanese transports and a minesweeper were sunk by friendly torpedoes that had missed their target. (Two of these transports were later refloated.) One of the Japanese transports sunk was \"Ryujo Maru\", carrying Lt. Gen. Imamura, who had to jump overboard. He was later rescued by the crew of a small boat and taken ashore.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Destroyer action.", "content": "Meanwhile, as \"Evertsen\" was trying to catch up with \"Houston\" and \"Perth\", her crew spotted the tracers and intense shellfire of the main action. Her captain ordered a course northwest towards Pulau Mundu island, off the west coast of Sumatra, then hugged the Sumatran coast as \"Evertsen\" turned south to head through Sunda Strait.  However, \"Evertsen\" was spotted by \"Murakumo\" and \"Shirakumo\", looking for more escaping Allied ships. Both immediately illuminated \"Evertsen\" with their searchlights and took her under fire. \"Evertsen\" attempted to evade by turning west, but after turning southward again, the Dutch destroyer again encountered the Japanese destroyers. \"Evertsen\" was hit repeatedly, but temporarily disengaged under a smokescreen. By then, however, \"Evertsen\"'s stern was on fire. Still taking Japanese fire, the captain ordered his crew to ground \"Evertsen\" on a coastal reef. Firing all her torpedoes, the remaining crew escaped ashore before the fire reached the aft magazine, causing an explosion which blew off most of the stern.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Officially the Allied personnel killed during the battle included 696 members of the crew of \"Houston\" and 375 from \"Perth\", including the captains of both vessels, Rooks and Waller. The survivors were picked up by Japanese vessels and taken prisoner, included 368 from \"Houston\" and 307 from \"Perth\". Rooks was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions. The majority of \"Evertsen\"s crew was taken prisoner on 9–10 March 1942 and were held by the Japanese for three and a half years.  The crew of the Japanese cruiser \"Mikuma\" suffered six killed and 11 wounded, as a result of damage caused by \"Houston\". A direct shell hit to the bridge of the destroyer \"Shirayuki\" killed one crew member and wounded 11; \"Harukaze\" suffered hits to her bridge, engine room and rudder, killing three and wounding more than 15 others.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Sunda Strait was a naval battle which occurred during World War II in the Sunda Strait between the islands of Java, and Sumatra. On the night of 28 February – 1 March 1942, the Australian light cruiser and the American heavy cruiser faced a major Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) task force. After a fierce battle of several hours' duration, both Allied ships were sunk. Five Japanese ships were sunk, three of them by friendly fire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975839}
{"src_title": "Haworthia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description and characteristics.", "content": "Haworthias are small succulent plants, forming rosettes of leaves from to exceptionally in diameter, depending on the species. These rosettes are usually stemless but in some species stems reach up to. The inflorescences of some species may exceed in height. The plants can grow solitary or can be clump-forming. Many species have firm, tough, fleshy leaves, usually dark green in colour, whereas others are softer and contain leaf windows with translucent panels through which sunlight can reach internal photosynthetic tissues. Their flowers are small, and generally white. Though they are very similar between species, flowers from the species in hexangulares generally have green striations and those from other species often have brown lines in the flowers. However, their leaves show wide variations even within one species. Additionally, when the plants are stressed (e.g. deprived of water), their colours can change to reds and purples. Depriving them of nitrogen generally results in paler leaves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Most species are endemic to South Africa, with the greatest species diversity occurring in the south-western Cape. Some species do however extend into neighbouring territories, in Swaziland, southern Namibia and southern Mozambique (Maputaland).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naming and taxonomy.", "content": "Haworthia is a genus within the family Asphodelaceae, subfamily Asphodeloideae. The genus is named after the botanist Adrian Hardy Haworth. B. Bayer recognised approximately 60 species in a review of the genus in 2012, whereas other taxonomists are very much less conservative. Related genera are \"Aloe\", \"Gasteria\" and \"Astroloba\" and intergeneric hybrids are known.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "The classification of the flowering plant subfamily Asphodeloideae is weak, and concepts of the genera are not well substantiated. \"Haworthia\" has been a similarly a weakly contrived genus. Because of their horticultural interest, its taxonomy has been dominated by amateur collectors, and the literature is rife with misunderstanding of what the taxa actually are or should be. Recent phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that the traditional divisions of the genus are actually relatively unrelated (\"Hexangulares\" was shown to be a sister-group of genus \"Gasteria\", \"Robustipedunculares\" more closely related to genus \"Astroloba\", and \"Haworthia\" as an out-group related to \"Aloe\"). In recognition of the polyphyletic nature of the genus, \"Haworthiopsis\" and \"Tulista\" have been split off.  Botanists had long noticed differences in the flowers the three subgenera, but had previously considered those differences to be inconsequential, although the differences between species in the same subgenus definitely are. The roots, leaves and rosettes do demonstrate some generic differences while wide variations occur even within one species.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "Many species of \"Haworthia\" have been moved to \"Haworthiopsis\" and \"Tulista\", in particular since the last update of The Plant List (2013), which contains about 150 accepted species of \"Haworthia\". The actual number and identification of the species is not well established; many species are listed as \"unresolved\" for lack of sufficient information, and the full list reflects the difficulties of \"Haworthia\" taxonomy, including many varieties and synonyms. The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families has been updated to exclude the species now in \"Haworthiopsis\" and \"Tulista\". The species it accepts are listed below, excluding \"Haworthia kingiana\" and \"Haworthia minor\", placed in \"Tulista\" by other sources.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "There is widespread special collector interest, and some species such as \"Haworthia cymbiformis\" are fairly common house and garden plants.  Almost all \"Haworthia\" species are naturally adapted for semi-shade conditions (in habitat they tend to grow under bushes or rock overhangs) and they are therefore healthiest in shade or semi-shade. Some species like \"Haworthia pumila\" and \"Haworthia truncata\" can be adapted to tolerate full-sun however.  All \"Haworthia\" species favour extremely well-drained soil (in habitat they tend to grow in poor sands, in rocky areas). Watering depends on the species (winter or summer rainfall) but most of the common species are tolerant of a variety of watering routines. Over-watering can cause the roots to rot. Rarer species may have more specific requirements.  \"Haworthia\" species reproduce both through seed and through budding, or offsets. Certain species or clones may be more successful or rapid in offset production, and these pups are easily removed to yield new plants once a substantial root system has developed on the offshoot. Less reliably, the plants may also be propagated through leaf cuttings, and in some instances, through tissue culture.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Haworthia is a large genus of small succulent plants endemic to Southern Africa (Mozambique, Namibia, Lesotho, Swaziland and South Africa).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975840}
{"src_title": "McDonnell Douglas YC-15", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1968, the USAF started work on a series of prototype proposals, which would lead to both the AMST project and the Light Weight Fighter. The official Request for proposal (RFP) was issued in January 1972, asking for operations into a semi-prepared field with a payload and a mission radius. For comparison, the C-130 of that era required about for this load. Proposals were submitted by Bell, Boeing, Fairchild, McDonnell Douglas and the Lockheed/North American Rockwell team at this stage of the competition. On 10 November 1972, the two top bids (from Boeing and McDonnell Douglas) were selected. The companies were awarded development contracts for two prototypes each. McDonnell Douglas' prototype was designated YC-15.  McDonnell Douglas's design incorporated a supercritical wing, the result of NASA research carried out by the already famous Richard Whitcomb. This wing design dramatically lowers transonic wave drag by as much as 30% compared to more conventional profiles, while at the same time offering excellent low-speed lift. Most contemporary aircraft used swept wings to lower wave drag, but this led to poor low-speed handling, which made them unsuitable for STOL operations.  The design team also chose to use externally blown flaps to increase lift. This system uses double-slotted flaps to direct part of the jet exhaust downwards, while the rest of the exhaust passed through the flap and then followed the downward curve due to the Coandă effect. Although the effects had been studied for some time at NASA, along with similar concepts, until the introduction of the turbofan the hot and concentrated exhaust of existing engines made the system difficult to use. By the time of the AMST project, engines had changed dramatically and now provided larger volumes of less-concentrated and much cooler air. For the YC-15, four engines were used, versions of the Pratt & Whitney JT8D-17 widely used on the Boeing 727 and Douglas DC-9. The YC-15 borrowed components from other McDonnell Douglas aircraft, with its nose gear coming from the Douglas DC-8 and the nose section and cockpit being derived from the Douglas DC-10. Parts borrowed from other aircraft included the Universal Aerial Refueling Receptacle Slipway Installation (UARRSI), taken from a Fairchild A-10, anti-tipover stabilizer struts from the Lockheed C-141 Starlifter, pumps taken from the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, DC-9 and C-141 and actuators taken from the C-5 Galaxy and DC-10. In addition, the environmental cooling system was composed of components taken from the DC-9, C-141 and Boeing KC-135.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Two YC-15s were built, one with a wingspan of (#72-1876) and one of (#72-1875). Both were long and powered by four Pratt & Whitney JT8D-17 engines, each with of thrust.  The first flight was on 26 August 1975. The second prototype followed in December. They were tested for some time at McDonnell Douglas as the Boeing entry was not ready until almost a year later. In November 1976, both designs were transferred to Edwards Air Force Base for head-to-head testing, including lifting heavy loads like tanks and artillery from dirt airfields at Graham Ranch, off the end of Runway 22.  In Phase II of the flight test program, a \"refanned\" Pratt & Whitney JT8D-209 was tested in No. 1 nacelle of 72–1876 and a CFM International CFM56 was tested in the No. 1 nacelle of 72–1875. In addition, a new wing with increased chord and span was flown on 72–1875.  The YC-15s completed a 600-hour flight test program in 1977. By this point, the seeds of the AMST program's demise had already been sown. In March 1976, the Air Force Chief of Staff, Gen. David C. Jones, asked the Air Force Systems Command to see if it was possible to use a single model of the AMST for both strategic and tactical airlift roles, or alternatively, if it was possible to develop non-STOL derivatives of the AMST for the strategic airlift role. This led to a series of studies that basically stated that such a modification was not easy, and would require major changes to either design to produce a much larger aircraft.  Both the YC-14 and YC-15 met or exceeded the AMST specifications under most conditions. However, the increasing importance of the strategic vs. tactical mission eventually led to the end of the AMST program in December 1979. Then, in November 1979, the C-X Task Force formed to develop the required strategic aircraft with tactical capability. The C-X program selected a proposal for an enlarged and upgraded YC-15 that was later developed into the C-17 Globemaster III. The Lockheed C-130 Hercules would be further improved into the C-130J and remains in service.  After the flight test program, the two aircraft were stored at the AMARC, located at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base. One aircraft (72-1875) was subsequently moved to the nearby Pima Air & Space Museum in 1981, but was returned to flying status by McDonnell Douglas in 1996; and was first reflown on 11 April 1997. On 16 April 1997, the aircraft was ferried to Long Beach, California to support the C-17 program. On 11 July 1998, the aircraft suffered a massive failure of the No. 1 engine during flight and made an emergency landing at Palmdale, California. On inspection, the aircraft was deemed too expensive to repair and was stored at Palmdale. In 2008, the aircraft was moved by road to Edwards AFB, where it is now on display at the Air Force Flight Test Center Museum's \"Century Circle\" display area, just outside the base's west gate. The other airframe (72–1876), which had remained on Celebrity Row at the AMARC for many years, was destroyed in place in April 2012.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The McDonnell Douglas YC-15 is a prototype four-engine short take-off and landing (STOL) tactical transport. It was McDonnell Douglas' entrant into the United States Air Force's Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST) competition to replace the Lockheed C-130 Hercules as the USAF's standard STOL tactical transport. In the end, neither the YC-15 nor the Boeing YC-14 was ordered into production, although the YC-15's basic design would be used to form the successful McDonnell Douglas (later Boeing) C-17 Globemaster III.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975841}
{"src_title": "Battle of Gergovia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "As with much of the conflict between Rome and Gaul in the first century BCE, information about this battle comes principally from Julius Caesar's \"Commentaries on the Gallic War\". There are no surviving Gallic accounts.  Vercingetorix had earlier been expelled from Gergovia, the capital of the Arverni, by its government. In winter 53 BC, while Caesar was gathering his forces for a strike against the Gauls, Vercingetorix came back to Gergovia but was now supported by the Arverni, his people. Caesar states that he was left with a difficult decision. He could have kept his forces safe over the winter, but would have showed Roman weakness in defending its allies the Aedui and thus losing their support. However, he chose to bring Vercingetorix to open battle but risked running out of supplies.  Leaving two legions and all of his baggage train behind in Agedincum, Caesar led the remaining legions to Gergovia. His sieges of Vellaunodunum, Genabum, and Noviodunum en route caused Vercingetorix to march to meet Caesar in open battle at Noviodunum, which Caesar won. Caesar then besieged and captured Avaricum and resupplied there. After resting his forces at Avaricum, he sent his top legate, Titus Labienus, with four legions north; this to keep the northern Gauls from interfering with his campaign against the Arverni.  Caesar then set out in the direction of Gergovia, which Vercingetorix was probably able to guess easily once he had remarked his direction. The heights of Gergovia stand twelve hundred feet above the plain that they overlook. It is a plateau that is a mile and a half long by a third of a mile wide. It was an advantageous place to hold, as there was only one way in, and a small body of troops could hold the entrance to the place.  Vercingetorix therefore crossed the powerful river Elave (now Allier, a tributary to the Loire at Nevers), and started marching up and down the bank, mirroring Caesar's movements and destroying all the bridges to keep him from crossing, the purpose presumably being to destroy part of his force as he attempted to cross. Realizing Vercingetorix's plan, Caesar resolved to trick him and cross under his very nose.  Caesar one night camped near the town of Varennes-sur-Allier, where there had previously been a bridge before Vercingetorix had destroyed it. That night, he divided his force into two parts, one part being two thirds of the force, the other being one third of the force. He ordered the larger force to march in six corps as if it were really the full army of six legions. He then ordered it to continue its march south. Vercingetorix, duped, took the bait and followed this part of the force.  Caesar, with the two legions still at Varennes, speedily rebuilt the bridge that had been present there. He then sent for the other force, which the next day stole a march on Vercingetorix and completed a junction with the original force, and crossed the rebuilt bridge. Realizing that he had been duped, Vercingetorix set out south to beat Caesar to Gergovia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "Five days later Caesar reached Gergovia, the first march being short because most of the troops were tired after marching up the river and back and the last march because the legions arrived at the town. Realizing that its mountainous location made a frontal assault risky, he decided to rely on his superior siege tactics. Upon arriving, Caesar discovered that there was a small hill that the Gauls held that was essential to their holding Gergovia itself. From there, they were able to provide water, grain, and forage.  Caesar took this in a night raid and swiftly stationed two legions there. He then linked it to his main camp by digging a double trench, twelve feet wide, with a parapet. The result was a barrier that kept the Gauls from their supplies, which they needed desperately. They were forced to subsist on the meager stream that supplied water to Gergovia itself.  The Aedui leaders during the course of the siege had been corrupted with both gold and misinformation by emissaries of Vercingetorix. Caesar had agreed with the Aedui that 10,000 men would protect his line of supplies. Vercingetorix convinced the chief, Convictolitavis, who had been made chief of the tribe by Caesar, to order the same men to join him upon their arrival at the oppidum. They attacked the Romans who were accompanying their supply train, leaving Caesar in an embarrassing position.  His rations threatened, Caesar took four legions from the siege, surrounded the Aedui army, and defeated it. The pro-Roman faction retook control of the Aedui leadership, and Caesar returned to Gergovia with 10,000 pro-Roman Aedui horsemen. The two legions that he had left to continue the siege had been hard-pressed to keep Vercingetorix's much larger force at bay.  Caesar realized that his siege would fail unless he could get Vercingetorix off the high ground. He used one legion as a decoy while the rest moved onto better ground, capturing three Gallic camps in the process. He then ordered a general retreat to lure Vercingetorix off the high ground. However, the order was not heard by most of Caesar's force. Instead, spurred on by the ease with which they captured the camps, they pressed on toward the town and mounted a direct assault on it. The Aedui arrived at that moment, but the Romans mistook them for enemies at first, and Caesar had to make order in his lines.  The noise of the assault alerted Vercingetorix, who arrived and saw the Roman and Aedui just beneath the walls of Gergovia. Vercingetorix then led a cavalry charge that crushed the Roman lines. Then the warriors left their horses and joined the infantry in their fight against the Romans, who soon had suffered heavy casualties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Given his losses, Caesar ordered a retreat. In the wake of the battle, Caesar lifted his siege and fled the Arverni lands northeastwards in the direction of Aedui territory. Vercingetorix pursued Caesar's army, intent on destroying it. Meanwhile, Labienus had finished his campaign in the north and marched south. After linking up with Labienus' corps, Caesar marched his united army south and the war continued.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Gergovia took place in 52 BC in Gaul at Gergovia, the chief oppidum (fortified town) of the Arverni. The battle was fought between a Roman Republican army, led by proconsul Julius Caesar, and Gallic forces led by Vercingetorix, who was also the Arverni chieftain. The Gauls won the battle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975842}
{"src_title": "Auguste Herbin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Quiévy, Nord. His father was a craftsman. He studied drawing at the École des Beaux-Arts de Lille, from 1899 to 1901, when he settled in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "The initial influence of Impressionism and Post-Impressionism visible in paintings that he sent to the Salon des Indépendants in 1906 gradually gave way to an involvement with Fauvism, and he exhibited at the Salon d'Automne in 1907. He started to experiment with Cubism after his move in 1909 to the Bateau-Lavoir studios, where he met Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Otto Freundlich and Juan Gris; he was also encouraged by his friendship with the art collector and critic Wilhelm Uhde. His work was exhibited in the same room as that of Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes and Fernand Léger in the Salon des Indépendants of 1910. In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, he was exempted from military service because of his short stature and was committed to work in an airplane factory near Paris.  After producing his first abstract paintings in 1917, Herbin came to the attention of Léonce Rosenberg who, after World War I, made him part of the group centred on his \"\" and exhibited his work there on several occasions in March 1918 and 1921. Herbin's radical reliefs of simple geometric forms in painted wood, such as \"Colored Wood Relief\" (1921; Paris, Musée National d'Art Moderne), challenged not only the status of the easel painting but also traditional figure–ground relationships. The incomprehension that greeted these reliefs and related furniture designs, even from those critics most favorably disposed towards Cubism, was such that until 1926 or 1927 he followed Rosenberg's advice to return to a representational style and produced paintings in the New Objectivity style. Herbin himself later disowned his landscapes, still lifes and genre scenes of this period, such as \"Bowls Players\" (1923; Paris, Musée National d'Art Moderne), in which the objects were depicted as schematized volumes. Under the influence of surrealism, he became increasingly critical of the rational forms employed by De Stijl. After 1927 Herbin becomes interested by microphotographs of crystals and plants and completely abandons figurative painting.  In the 1930s, he co-founded the group Abstraction-Création in Paris and served as publisher and author for the journal \"Abstraction-Création. Art non figurativ\". In the second issue of the journal he wrote against the rising Fascism and oppression of all kinds. As a member of the Communist Association des Écrivains et Artistes Révolutionnaires he signed a statement against the political indifference of artists. Critical of Stalinism, he left the Communist party in the 1940s.  Beginning in 1942, Herbin developed a language of form and color, his \"alphabet plastique\". Increasingly, his paintings consist only of colorful arrangements of triangles, circles and rectangles. In 1946 he was one of the founders of the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles, a successor of Abstraction-Création. He later served as the group's vice-president.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Late life and death.", "content": "After 1953 Herbin was paralyzed on the right side, forcing him to paint with the left hand. He died in Paris on 31 January 1960. One painting remained unfinished—the motif of the painting was constructed on the word \"Fin\".  During the 2000s an important series of original Herbin's signed rugs have been realised by Didier Marien from the Boccara Gallery with the agreement of the rights holders. Those rugs exhibited in France, but also in Moscow, London and New York played a key role in the worldwide rediscovery of Auguste Herbin's artistic creations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public collections.", "content": "Among the public collections holding works by Auguste Herbin are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Auguste Herbin (29 April 1882 – 31 January 1960) was a French painter of modern art. He is best known for his Cubist and abstract paintings consisting of colorful geometric figures. He co-founded the groups Abstraction-Création and Salon des Réalités Nouvelles which promoted non-figurative abstract art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975843}
{"src_title": "Dura-Europos synagogue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The synagogue contains a forecourt and house of assembly with painted walls depicting people and animals, and a Torah shrine in the western wall facing Jerusalem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wall-paintings.", "content": "The paintings cover the walls of the main \"Assembly Room\", using three levels of pictures over a dado frieze of symbols in most places, reaching a height of about 7 metres.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style and technique.", "content": "Stylistically they are provincial versions of contemporary Graeco-Roman style and technique; several different artists seem to have worked on them. Technically they are not fresco (paint fused into wet plaster) but tempera over plaster. Earlier parts of the building have decorative painting with no figures. Some of the paintings have figures whose eyes have been scratched out, especially those in Persian costume.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Iconography.", "content": "Scholars cannot agree on the subjects of some scenes, because of damage, or the lack of comparative examples.  The scenes depicted are drawn from the Hebrew Bible and include many narrative scenes, and some single figure \"portraits\"—58 scenes in total, probably representing about 60% of the original number. They include the \"Sacrifice of Isaac\" and other Genesis stories, Moses receiving the Tablets of the Law, Moses leading the Hebrews out of Egypt, the visions of Ezekiel, and many others. The Hand of God motif is used to represent divine intervention or approval in several paintings.  There have been scholarly debates questioning the wall paintings' influence over later Judeo-Christian iconography, which have been held due to the relevance of such early depictions of the biblical narrative.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Herod's Temple mural.", "content": "Located on the western wall of the synagogue, just left of the Torah niche, is a mural depicting the courtyard of Herod's Temple. In this particular work, Aaron is depicted standing just to the right of the temple door in the inner court of the temple surrounded by fellow priests (Jewish priests). He is denoted by the inscription (ΑΡΩΝ), which translates to Aaron in the English alphabet. Aaron's anachronistic appearance symbolises the Cohanim (Jewish priests) being passed down by his descendants.  To the bottom left, there is a young priest leading a heifer, a special sacrificial red cow. Based upon the trajectory of the priest and the geography of the city of Jerusalem, where Herod's temple was located, it is presumed that he is leading the heifer up the Mount of Olives in order to sacrifice it for the atonement of the sins of the people. The low masonry wall depicted in the mural allowed the priest in charge of the sacrifice to look into the temple itself, which was much taller, while performing the sacrifice itself.  Just above the temple door, we see what appears to be a star but is actually in fact the lamp of Queen Helene of Adiabene. The lamp caught and reflected the rays of the sun by way of its superior polish. The lamp shone so much that in Bar-Kokhba coins, which depicted the courtyard of the same temple, the lamp is depicted as a star. The rays reflected off of the lantern are depicted as lines radiating from the lamp on the three borders of the temple's pediment.  The two animals just to the left of Aaron, a bull and a ram, are atonement sacrifices for Aaron to be made on Yom Kippur.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Cultural context and purpose of the murals.", "content": "Because of the paintings adorning the walls, the synagogue was at first mistaken for a Greek temple, though this was quickly corrected by the vice-director of excavations Robert du Mesnil du Buisson in \"Les peintures de la synagogue de Doura-Europos\" (Rome, 1939). Mesnil also made detailed comparisons of the friezes from the Dura synagogue with those of the mithraeum, the Christian baptistery, and the temple of the Palmyrene gods.  Scholars think the paintings were used as an instructional display to educate and teach the history and laws of the religion. Some think that this synagogue was painted in order to compete with the many other religions practiced in Dura Europos; the new (and considerably smaller) Christian Dura-Europos church appears to have opened shortly before the surviving paintings were begun in the synagogue. The large-scale pictorial art in the synagogue came as a surprise to scholars, although they already suspected that there was a tradition of Jewish narrative religious art at this period, which at the time of the discovery were thought to have all been lost, leaving only traces in later Christian art. The discovery of the synagogue helps to dispel narrow interpretations of Judaism's historical prohibition of visual images.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relationship to early Christian art and late Jewish art.", "content": "The synagogue of Dura-Europos offers negligible influence on later Christian and Jewish artwork. The time that the Dura-Europos synagogue was active was not long as it was buried as part of the Roman defense against Sasanian troops in 256 A.D. The Dura-Europos Synagogue remains the earliest example of Judeo-Christian artwork available for study. It contains not only Hellenistic and Roman influences, but Sasanian as well.  The layout of the paintings suggest that they were inspired by a copybook with examples and formulae. While there are similarities to other works of antiquity, the differences between each work bear too much difference in order for one to be considered influential. There have been attempts to link these works, but they have proven largely unsuccessful.  The Leon Bible, as an example, which was written ca. 960, had in common with Dura-Europos the scene of the sacrifice of Isaac. However, the León Bible showed key differences. Their position in the León Bible shows them facing the viewer, whereas Dura Europos they are not. In the León Bible, the Hand of God bestows the \"benedictio latina\", whereas in Dura-Europos it makes an appearance with no such manuscript. The Dura painting shows Abraham's hand free of Isaac's hair, whereas in the León miniature, it is grasping it. Finally, in the Dura painting Abraham is using a knife as opposed to the sword he uses in the León Bible.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dura-Europos synagogue (or \"Dura Europas\", \"Dura Europos\" etc.) was an ancient synagogue uncovered at Dura-Europos, Syria, in 1932. The last phase of construction was dated by an Aramaic inscription to 244 CE, making it one of the oldest synagogues in the world. It was unique among the many ancient synagogues that have emerged from archaeological digs as the structure was preserved virtually intact, and it had extensive figurative wall-paintings, which came as a considerable surprise to scholars. These paintings are now displayed in the National Museum of Damascus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975844}
{"src_title": "County of Tyrol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Establishment.", "content": "At least since German king Otto I had conquered the former Lombard kingdom of Italy in 961 and had himself crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome, the principal passes of the Eastern Alps had become an important transit area. The German monarchs regularly travelled across Brenner or Reschen Pass on their Italian expeditions aiming at papal coronation or the consolidation of Imperial rule.  In 1004 King Henry II of Germany separated the estates of Trent from the North Italian March of Verona and vested the Bishops of Trent with comital rights. In 1027 Henry's Salian successor, Emperor Conrad II, granted the Trent bishops further estates around Bozen and in the Vinschgau region; at the same time, he vested the Bishop of Brixen with the suzerainty in the Etschtal and Inntal, part of the German stem duchy of Bavaria under the rule of Conrad's son Henry III. Especially the Brixen bishops remained loyal supporters of the Salian rulers in the Investiture Controversy and in 1091 also received the Puster Valley from the hands of Emperor Henry IV.  Documented from about 1140 onwards, the comital dynasty residing in Tyrol Castle near Meran held the office of \"Vogts\" (bailiffs) in the Trent diocese. They extended their territory over much of the region and came to surpass the power of the bishops, who were nominally their feudal lords. After the deposition of the Welf duke Henry X of Bavaria in 1138, the Counts of Tyrol strengthened their independence. When Henry the Lion was again enfeoffed with the Bavarian duchy by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the 1154 Imperial Diet in Goslar, his possessions no longer comprised the Tyrolean lands. The Counts maintained that independence under the rising Bavarian Wittelsbach dynasty. In 1210, Count Albert IV of Tyrol also took over the \"Vogt\" office in the Bishopric of Brixen, prevailing against the rivalling Counts of Andechs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gorizia-Tyrol.", "content": "In 1253 Count Meinhard of Gorizia \"(Görz)\" inherited the Tyrolean lands by his marriage to Adelheid, daughter of the last Count Albert IV of Tyrol. When their sons divided their estate in 1271, the elder Meinhard II took Tyrol, for which he was recognized as an immediate lordship. He supported the German king Rudolph of Habsburg against his rival King Ottokar II of Bohemia. In reward, he received the Duchy of Carinthia with the Carniolan march in 1286.  In 1307 Meinhard's son Henry was elected King of Bohemia, After his death, he had one surviving daughter, Margaret Maultasch, who could gain the rule only over Tyrol. In 1342 she married Louis V of Wittelsbach, then Margrave of Brandenburg. The red eagle in Tyrol's coat of arms may derive from the Brandenburg eagle at the time when she and her husband ruled Tyrol and Brandenburg in personal union, though the Tyrolean eagle had already appeared in the 13th century.  Louis V died in 1361, followed by Margaret's son Meinhard III two years later. Lacking any descendants to succeed her, she bequeathed the county to Rudolph IV of Habsburg, Duke of Austria in 1363. He was recognized by the House of Wittelsbach in 1369. From that time onward, Tyrol was ruled by various lines of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, who held the title of Count.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Austria.", "content": "After the Habsburg hereditary lands had been divided by the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, Tyrol was ruled by the descendants of Duke Leopold III of Austria. After a second division within the Leopoldinian line in 1406, Duke Frederick IV of the Empty Pockets ruled them. In 1420 he made Innsbruck the Tyrolean residence. In 1490 his son and heir Sigismund renounced Tyrol and Further Austria in favour of his cousin German king Maximilian I of Habsburg. By then Maximilian I had re-united all Habsburg lands under his rule. In 1500 he also acquired the remaining Gorizia (\"Görz\") territories around Lienz and the Puster Valley.  When Emperor Ferdinand I of Habsburg died in 1564, he bequeathed the rule over Tyrol and Further Austria to his second son Archduke Ferdinand II. Both territories thereafter fell to the younger sons of the Habsburg Emperors: Archduke Matthias in 1608 and Maximilian III in 1612. After the death of Archduke Sigismund Francis in 1665, all Habsburg lands were again under the united rule of the Emperor Leopold I.  From the time of Maria Theresa of Austria (1740−1780) onward, Tyrol was governed by the central government of the Habsburg Monarchy at Vienna in all matters of major importance. In 1803 the lands of the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen were secularised and incorporated into the county.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "Following defeat by Napoleon in 1805, Austria was forced to cede Tyrol to the Kingdom of Bavaria in the Peace of Pressburg. Tyrol as a part of Bavaria became a member of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806. The Tyroleans rose up against the Bavarian authority and succeeded three times in defeating Bavarian and French troops trying to retake the country.  Austria lost the war of the Fifth Coalition against France, and got harsh terms in the Treaty of Schönbrunn in 1809. Glorified as Tyrol's national hero, Andreas Hofer, the leader of the uprising, was executed in 1810 in Mantua. His forces had lost a third and final battle against the French and Bavarian forces. Tyrol remained under Bavaria and the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy for another four years.  In 1814, by decisions of the Congress of Vienna, Tyrol was reunified and returned to Austria. It was integrated into the Austrian Empire. From 1867 onwards, it was a \"Kronland\" (Crown Land) of Cisleithania.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "End of the County.", "content": "After World War I, the victors settled border changes. The Treaty of Saint-Germain of 1919 ruled according to the 1915 London Pact, that the southern part of the Austrian crown land of Tyrol had to be ceded to the Kingdom of Italy, including the territory of the former Trent bishopric, roughly corresponding to the modern-day Trentino, as well as the south of the medieval Tyrol county, the present-day province of South Tyrol. Italy thus took control of the strategically important Alpine water divide at the Brenner Pass and over the south of Tyrol proper with its large German-speaking majority. Since 1949 both parts form the autonomous Italian Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region. The northern part of Tyrol retained by the First Austrian Republic today forms the Austrian State of Tyrol with its East Tyrol exclave.  In 1945 following World War II, Austrian attempts and South Tyrolean petitions to reunite South Tyrol with Austria were not successful. Italy kept control. From 1972 onwards, the Italian Republic has granted further autonomy to the Trentino - Alto Adige/Südtirol province.  Male line extinct.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Counts of Tyrol.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "House of Meinhardin.", "content": "County bequeathed to Albert's son-in-law: Male line extinct, Countess Margaret, daughter of Henry II, married to: divorced, secondly to: Line extinct.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "House of Habsburg.", "content": "County bequeathed to Line extinct, Habsburg lands re-unified under  Habsburg regents of Tyrol and Further Austria: Line extinct, Habsburg lands re-unified under", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The (Princely) County of Tyrol was an estate of the Holy Roman Empire established about 1140. Originally a jurisdiction under the sovereignty of the Counts of Tyrol, it was inherited by the Counts of Gorizia in 1253 and finally fell to the Austrian House of Habsburg in 1363. In 1804 the Princely County of Tyrol, unified with the secularised prince-bishoprics of Trent and Brixen, became a crown land of the Austrian Empire in 1804 and from 1867 a Cisleithanian crown land of Austria-Hungary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975845}
{"src_title": "Margraviate of Moravia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Margraviate lay east of Bohemia proper, with an area about half that region's size. In the north, the Sudeten Mountains, which extend to the Moravian Gate, formed the border with the Polish Duchy of Silesia, incorporated as a Bohemian crown land upon the 1335 Treaty of Trentschin. In the east and southeast, the western Carpathian Mountains separated it from present-day Slovakia. In the south, the winding Thaya River marked the border with the Duchy of Austria.  Moravians, usually considered a Czech people that speak Moravian dialects, made up the main part of the population. According to a 1910 Cisleithanian census, 27.6% identified themselves as German Moravians. These ethnic Germans would later be expelled after the Second World War. Other ethnic minority groups included Poles, Roma and Slovaks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "After the early medieval Great Moravian realm had been finally defeated by the Árpád princes of Hungary in 907, what is now Slovakia was incorporated as \"Upper Hungary\" (\"Felső-Magyarország\"), while adjacent Moravia passed under the authority of the Duchy of Bohemia. King Otto I of Germany officially granted it to Duke Boleslaus I in turn for his support against the Hungarian forces in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld. Temporarily ruled by King Bolesław I Chrobry of Poland from 999 until 1019, Moravia was re-conquered by Duke Oldřich of Bohemia and ultimately became a land of the Crown of Saint Wenceslas held by the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1182, the Margraviate was created at the behest of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa by merger of the three Přemyslid appanage principalities of Brno, Olomouc and Znojmo, and given to Conrad II, the son of Prince Conrad of Znojmo. As heir apparent, the future King Ottokar II of Bohemia was appointed Moravian margave by his father Wenceslaus I in 1247. Along with Bohemia, Moravia was ruled by the House of Luxembourg from the extinction of the Přemyslid dynasty until 1437. Jobst, nephew of Emperor Charles IV inherited the Margraviate in 1375, ruled autonomously and was even elected King of the Romans in 1410. Shaken by the Hussite Wars, the Moravian nobles remained loyal supporters of the Luxembourg emperor Sigismund.  In 1469, Moravia was occupied by the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus, who had allied with the Catholic nobility against the rule of George of Poděbrady and had himself elected rival king of Bohemia at Olomouc. The rivalry with King Vladislaus II was settled in the 1479 Peace of Olomouc, whereby Matthias renounced the royal title but retained the rule over the Moravian lands.  With the other \"lands of the Bohemian Crown\", the Margraviate was incorporated into the Habsburg Monarchy upon the death of King Louis II in the 1526 Battle of Mohács. Moravia was ruled as a crown land within the Austrian Empire from 1804 and within Cisleithanian Austria from 1867.  During the foundation of Czechoslovakia after World War I, the Margraviate was transformed into “Moravia Land”, later “Moravia-Silesia Land” in 1918. This autonomy was eliminated in 1949 by the communist government and has not been re-established since.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "The margrave held ultimate authority in Moravia, throughout the history of the margraviate. This meant that as its margraves became more foreign, so too did governance of the margraviate.  Moravia possessed a legislature, known as the Moravian Diet. The assembly has its origins in 1288, with the \"Colloquium generale\", or \"curia generalis\". This was a meeting of the upper nobility, knights, the Bishop of Olomouc, abbots and ambassadors from royal cities. These meetings gradually evolved into the diet.  The power of this diet waxed and waned throughout history. By the end of the margraviate, the diet was almost powerless. The diet consisted of three estates of the realm: the estate of upper nobility, the estate of the lower nobility, and the estate of prelates and burghers. With the February Patent of 1861, the diet was reformed into a more egalitarian body. It still retained the same structure, but the members changed. It consisted of assembly seats for landowners, city-dwellers, and rural farmers. This was retained until the diet was abolished after the fall of the Dual Monarchy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Moravian eagle.", "content": "The coat of arms of Moravia is charged with a crowned silver-red chequered eagle with golden claws and tongue. It first appeared in the seal of Margrave Přemysl (1209-1239), a younger son of King Ottokar I of Bohemia. After 1462 is Moravian eagle gold-red chequered, but never accepted by moravian assembly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Until 1848.", "content": "In the mid 14th century Emperor Charles IV, also King of Bohemia and Margrave of Moravia, established administrative divisions called \"kraje\". These subdivisions were named for their capitals, some of which were:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After 1848.", "content": "After the 1848 revolutions, the \"kraje\" were replaced by political districts (\"\"), which were largely retained by the Czechoslovak administration after 1918:  united with Bohemia 1189-1197 directly held by King Rudolph I of Germany 1278-1283  Under the united rule of the Bohemian kings from 1611 (see List of rulers of Bohemia).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Margraviate of Moravia (; ) was one of the lands of the Bohemian Crown existing from 1182 to 1918. It was officially administrated by a margrave in cooperation with a provincial diet. It was variously a \"de facto\" independent state, and also subject to the Duchy, later the Kingdom of Bohemia. It comprised the region called Moravia within the modern Czech Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975846}
{"src_title": "Władysław Grabski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Władysław Grabski was born in 1874, in a family manor in Borów (a part of Gmina Bielawy) near Łowicz, Congress Poland, Russian Empire. He studied politics at the School of Political Science in Paris and history at the University of Sorbonne. While in Paris, Grabski's political views changed. He abandoned the socialist ideas and turned more towards the right. The years Władysław Grabski had spent in Paris became an impetus behind Grabski's desire for his involvement in the Polish government. Soon after Grabski's return from Paris, in 1905, he founded the Agricultural Society in Łowicz, in central Poland. The Society quickly won the support of many peasants, which in turn led to the creation of the National Labor Union. Due to the growing autonomy and strength of Grabski's Agricultural Society and the Union, in 1905, Władyslaw Grabski was arrested by the Russian authorities and imprisoned in Warsaw. Grabski's imprisonment, however, lasted less than a year. In 1905, Grabski was elected on behalf of National Democracy as a member of three successive sessions of the Duma, the legislative assembly of the Russian Empire. He was a deputy in Duma until 1912. It was at that time that he became involved in the work of the budgetary commission with the Russian Ministry of Agriculture. Grabski's involvement in the budgetary Commission became a reason for his later desire to become the finance minister in the Polish parliament. When World War I broke out, he organized the Central Citizens' Committee, which was responsible for restoring order into the life of a society devastated by the Polish partitions, and to represent the interests of Polish people before the Russian authorities. He also became a member of the Polish National Committee. In 1919 he entered the government of the newly restored Poland as Minister of Agriculture.  Grabski's influence on the Polish affairs increased when he became Treasury Minister and Prime Minister in 1920. However, his first cabinet lasted for only one month. In December 1923 he was again appointed Prime Minister and served as Treasury Minister in a specialist cabinet (appointed by but not necessarily composed of elected parliamentary representatives). Grabski managed to implement reforms which alleviated Poland's economic situation and managed to preserve his cabinet for twenty-three months, a relatively long period for a Polish cabinet in interwar Poland. Until the end of 1924, Grabski's government enjoyed great popularity.  Yet Grabski remained a controversial figure for the twenty-three months he remained in office. Stanisław Głąbiński, for example, argued that in the sphere of foreign relations, Grabski did not show the desired assertiveness. At the League of Nations conference, Grabski did not mention the League's unresponsiveness to the Polish-Soviet War of 1919–1921. According to the tenth article of the treaty of Versailles, “The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members of the League.” However, the League of Nations remained aloof and impassive in 1920. Grabski's decision not to raise the issue of the League's lack of action resulted in severe criticism from the Polish parliament. Głąbiński was not the only critic of Grabski's cabinet. Wincenty Witos criticized Grabski for his excessively optimistic attitude regarding the financial reforms and so did others; nevertheless, the reform stopped the hyperinflation in its tracks.  On 13 November 1925 Grabski was forced to resign following a disagreement with the President of the Bank of Poland, who refused to help him with the backing of the industrialist 'Lewiatan' organization.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Currency reform.", "content": "Grabski's (and the ministerial cabinet's) great achievement in those years was the foundation of the Bank of Poland and the creation of the new Polish currency – the gold-based złoty which replaced the Polish mark. The Act of 11 January 1924 on the improvement of the state's treasury and currency reform introduced a new monetary system and established the issuing bank. The Bank of Poland was founded as a joint stock company, which guaranteed its independence from the government and the state treasury. The Act also abolished the Polish National Savings Union which had acted as an issuing bank. Its functions were taken over by the Bank of Poland. Stanisław Karpiński became the first president of the Bank of Poland. On 14 January the organizing committee of the Bank of Poland was established, and on 26 January the sale of the bank's shares began. Payments could only be made in foreign currencies and in gold. On 15 April, during the first shareholders' meeting, the Bank of Poland Joint Stock Company was established.  Grabski went further than just establishing the Bank of Poland and the currency. He built a network of state banks and founded the Bank for National Economy. He also initiated far-going changes in the structure of Polish exports and industrial output. He also established the Border Defence Corps.  Nevertheless, criticism continued over aspects of Grabski's reforms. In 1925, Grabski himself commented that he was too optimistic about his economic reforms and that he should have realized that given the circumstances of depression and the recuperation from World War I), a complete recovery of Polish economy was virtually impossible. There were enormous price discrepancies between agricultural and manufactured goods. The Bank of Poland was faced with both a commercial deficit and an increasing national debt. The government made numerous unfavorable investments and in 1925, the Sejm approved a proposal for an excessively high budget, despite frequent warnings from Grabski's cabinet. On 29 July 1925, the value of the Polish złoty declined significantly. A tariff war broke out between Poland and Germany. Grabski resigned his post and from active politics in November of that year. He subsequently devoted himself to pedagogic and academic work at the Warsaw Agricultural University (SGGW). In 1926, he became its rector. In 1936 on his motion the Rural Sociology Institute was established, of which he remained the head until his death in 1938.  Władysław Grabski died from cancer on 1 March 1938 in Warsaw. The Holy Mass was led by Cardinal Aleksander Kakowski in the Saint John's Cathedral. His body was interred in the family grave at the Powązki Cemetery.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 2004, Poland celebrated the 130th anniversary of Władyslaw Grabski's birthday and the 80th anniversary of the public finance reforms he introduced. In September 2003, the Sejm of the Republic of Poland passed a resolution proclaiming 2004 as Władyslaw Grabski's Year. In 2004 a statue was unveiled in his birthplace village of Borów. The Warsaw Agricultural University labelled him as a \"\"great Pole, great statesman, social activist and a man of great heart and mind, one of the brightest Poles of the interwar period\"\". In July 2006 the newly opened Main Library of the Warsaw Agricultural University was named after Grabski, and in front of the library, the statue of Grabski was placed. His grandson, Andrzej Feliks Grabski (1934–2000), became a historian.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Władysław Dominik Grabski (; 7 July 1874 – 1 March 1938) was a Polish National Democratic politician, economist and historian. He was the main author of the currency reform in the Second Polish Republic and served as Prime Minister of Poland in 1920 and from 1923 to 1925. He was the brother of Stanisław Grabski and Zofia Kirkor-Kiedroniowa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975847}
{"src_title": "Speleothem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin and composition.", "content": "319 variations of cave mineral deposits have been identified. The vast majority of speleothems are calcareous, composed of calcium carbonate in the form of calcite or aragonite, or calcium sulfate in the form of gypsum. Calcareous speleothems form via carbonate dissolution reactions. Rainwater in the soil zone reacts with soil CO to create weakly acidic water via the reaction:  As the lower pH water travels through the calcium carbonate bedrock from the surface to the cave ceiling, it dissolves the bedrock via the reaction:  When the solution reaches a cave, degassing due to lower cave pCO drives precipitation of CaCO:  Over time the accumulation of these precipitates form stalagmites, stalactites, and flowstones, which compose the major categories of speleothems.  Calthemites which occur on concrete structures, are created by completely different chemistry to speleothems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types and categories.", "content": "Speleothems take various forms, depending on whether the water drips, seeps, condenses, flows, or ponds. Many speleothems are named for their resemblance to man-made or natural objects. Types of speleothems include:  Speleothems made of sulfates, carbonates, mirabilite or opal occur in some lava tubes. Although sometimes similar in appearance to speleothems in caves formed by dissolution, lava stalactites are formed by the cooling of residual lava within the lava tube.  Speleothems formed from salt, sulfur and other minerals are also known.  Speleothems made of pure calcium carbonate are a translucent white color, but often speleothems are colored by chemicals such as iron oxide, copper or manganese oxide, or may be brown because of mud and silt particulate inclusions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "Many factors impact the shape and color of speleothem formations including the rate and direction of water seepage, the amount of acid in the water, the temperature and humidity content of a cave, air currents, the above ground climate, the amount of annual rainfall and the density of the plant cover. Most cave chemistry revolves around calcium carbonate (CaCO), the primary mineral in limestone and dolomite. It is a slightly soluble mineral whose solubility increases with the introduction of carbon dioxide (CO). It is paradoxical in that its solubility decreases as the temperature increases, unlike the vast majority of dissolved solids. This decrease is due to interactions with the carbon dioxide, whose solubility is diminished by elevated temperatures; as the carbon dioxide is released, the calcium carbonate is precipitated.  Most other solution caves that are not composed of limestone or dolomite are composed of gypsum (calcium sulfate), the solubility of which is positively correlated with temperature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As climate proxies.", "content": "Speleothems are studied as climate proxies because their location within cave environments and patterns of growth allow them to be used as archives for several climate variables. The principal proxies measured are oxygen and carbon isotopes and trace cations. These indicators, alone and in conjunction with other climate proxy records, can provide clues to past precipitation, temperature, and vegetation changes over the last ~ 500,000 years.  A particular strength of speleothems in this regard is their unique ability to be accurately dated over much of the late Quaternary period using the uranium-thorium dating technique. Stable isotopes of oxygen (δO) and carbon (δC) are recorded well in speleothems, giving high-resolution data that can show annual variation in temperature (oxygen isotopes primarily reflect rainfall temperature) and precipitation (carbon isotopes primarily reflect C3/C4 plant composition and plant productivity, but the interpretation is often complicated). By sampling along a dated transect of a speleothem, these isotope values and speleothem growth rates provide a paleoclimate records similar to those from ice cores. Variations in precipitation alter the width of new ring formation, where close ring formation shows little rainfall, and wider spacing for heavier rainfall.  The geometrical way in which stalagmites grow is also used in paleoclimate applications, which varies based on the height the water is falling from, and the rate of flow. Weaker flows and short travel distances form more narrow stalagmites, while heavier flow and a greater fall distance tends to form more broad ones. Additionally, drip rate counting and trace element analysis on the water drops themselves have been shown to record shorter-term variations in the climate at high resolution, such as drought conditions attributed to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) climate events.  A recent technique is the use of CT-scanning on intact specimens to analyze density, where more dense speleothem development indicates higher moisture availability.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Absolute dating.", "content": "Another dating method using electron spin resonance (ESR) – also known as electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) – is based on the measurement of electron-hole centers accumulated with time in the crystal lattice of CaCO exposed to natural radiations. In principle, in the more favorable cases, and assuming some simplifying hypotheses, the age of a speleothem could be derived from the total radiation dose cumulated by the sample and the annual dose rate to which it was exposed. Unfortunately, not all the samples are suited for ESR dating: indeed, the presence of cationic impurities such as Mn, Fe, or Fe, humic acids (organic matter), can mask the signal of interest, or interfere with it. Moreover, the radiation centers must be stable on geologic time, i.e., to have a very large lifetime, to make dating possible. Many other artifacts, such as, e.g., surface defects induced by the grinding of the sample can also preclude a correct dating. Only a few percents of the samples tested are in fact suitable for dating. This makes the technique often disappointing for the experimentalists. One of the main challenge of the technique is the correct identification of the radiation-induced centers and their great variety related to the nature and the variable concentration of the impurities present in the crystal lattice of the sample. ESR dating can be tricky and must be applied with discernment. It can never be used alone: \"\"One date only is No date\"\", or in other words, \"\"multiple lines of evidence and multiple lines of reasoning are necessary in absolute dating\"\". However, \"\"good samples\"\" might be found if all the selection criteria are met.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calthemites: secondary deposits not formed in caves.", "content": "Secondary deposits derived from concrete, lime, mortar or calcareous material as found on man-made structures \"outside the cave environment\" or in artificial caves (e.g. mines and tunnels), can mimic the shapes and forms of speleothems, but are classed as calthemites. The occurrence of calthemites is often associated with concrete degradation, but could also be linked to leaching of lime, mortar or other calcareous material (e.g. limestone and dolomite). Despite similar appearances, \"calthemites\" (created outside the cave environment) are not considered to be \"speleothems\" (created inside the cave environment), and vice versa, as per their definitions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Speleothems (; Ancient Greek: \"cave deposit\"), commonly known as cave formations, are secondary mineral deposits formed in a cave. Speleothems typically form in limestone or dolomite solutional caves. The term \"speleothem,\" as first introduced by Moore (1952), is derived from the Greek words \"spēlaion\" \"cave\" + \"théma\" \"deposit\". The definition of \"speleothem,\" in most publications, specifically excludes secondary mineral deposits in mines, tunnels, and other man-made structures. Hill and Forti more concisely defined \"secondary minerals\" which create speleothems in caves: A \"secondary\" mineral is one which is derived by a physicochemical reaction from a primary mineral in bedrock or detritus, and/or deposited because of a unique set of conditions in a cave; i.e., the cave environment has influenced the mineral's deposition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975848}
{"src_title": "Foča", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early history.", "content": "The town was known as Hotča during medieval times. It was then known as a trading centre on route between Ragusa (now Dubrovnik) and Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey). Alongside the rest of Gornje Podrinje, Foča was part of the Serbian Empire until 1376, when it was attached to the Kingdom of Bosnia under King Tvrtko. After Tvrtko's death, the town was ruled by the dukes of Hum, most notably was Herzog Stjepan. Foča was the seat of the Ottoman Sanjak of Herzegovina established in 1470, and served as such until 1572, when the seat was moved to Pljevlja.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "In 1941, the Ustaše killed the leading Serbs in Foča. Between December 1941 and January 1942 over two thousand Bosnian Muslims were killed in Foča by the Chetniks as act of vengeance for repression over Serbs by Muslims in ranks of Ustaše. Additionally Chetniks attacked Ustaše and in Foča in August 1942.  On 13 February 1943, Pavle Đurišić reported to Draža Mihailović the actions undertaken by the Chetniks in the Foča, Pljevlja, and Čajniče districts: \"All Muslim villages in the three mentioned districts were totally burned so that not a single home remained in one piece. All property was destroyed except cattle, corn, and senna.\"  In the operation Chetnik losses \"were 22 dead, of which 2 through accidents, and 32 wounded. Among the Muslims, around 1,200 fighters and up to couple of thousands of civilian victims of both nationalitys.\" Đurišić said what remained of the Muslim population fled and that actions were taken to prevent their return. The municipality is also the site of the legendary Battle of Sutjeska between the Tito's Yugoslav Partisans and the German army. A monument to the Partisans killed in the battle was erected in the village of Tjentište.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bosnian War.", "content": "In 1992, at the onset of the Bosnian War, the city fell under the control of the Army of Republika Srpska. From 7 April 1992 to January 1994, Serb military, police and paramilitary forces enacted a campaign of ethnic cleansing in the area of Foča against Bosniak civilians. By one estimate, around 21,000 non-Serbs left Foča after July 1992. Most of them settled in the town of Rožaje in Montenegro until the war ended. Only about 10 Muslims remained at the end of the conflict. Thirteen mosques including the Aladža Mosque were destroyed and the 22,500 Muslims who made up the majority of inhabitants fled. The Tribunal Judges determined beyond a reasonable doubt that the purpose of the Serb campaign in Foča was, among others, \"to cleanse the Foča area of Muslims\" and concluded that \"to that end the campaign was successful.  In numerous verdicts, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) ruled that the ethnic cleansing, killings, mass rapes, and the deliberate destruction of Bosniak property and cultural sites constituted crimes against humanity. According to the Research and Documentation Center (IDC), 2,707 people were killed or went missing in the Foča municipality during the war. Among them were 1,513 Bosniak civilians and 155 Serb civilians. Additionally, Bosnian Serb authorities set up rape camps in which hundreds of women were raped. Numerous Serb officers, soldiers and other participants in the Foča massacres were accused and convicted of war crimes by the ICTY.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war period.", "content": "In 1995 the Dayton Agreement created a territorial corridor linking the once-besieged city of Goražde to the Federation entity; as a consequence, the northern part of Foča was separated to create the municipality of Foča-Ustikolina. The ethnically-cleansed town was renamed \"Srbinje\" (), \"place of the Serbs\". In 2004, the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared the name change unconstitutional, and reverted it back to Foča.  Since the war around 4,000 Bosniaks have returned to their homes in Foča, and several mosques have been re-built. This has taken place largely due to the administration of Zdravko Krsmanović, who was mayor from 2004 to 2012. In the 2012 elections, however, Krsmanović was defeated and a new mayor, Radisav Mašić, was elected with support of parties SDS and SNSD.  The Aladža Mosque was rebuilt from 2014 and reopened in May 2019.  In October 2004, members of the Association of Women Victims of War (\"Udruzenje Žene-Žrtve Rata\") attempted to lay a plaque in front of the \"Partizan\" sports hall (used in 1992 also as a rape camp) to commemorate the terrible crimes that occurred there. Around 300 Bosnian Serbs, including members of the RS Association of the Prisoners of War, prevented the plaque from being affixed.  The \"Partizan\" sport hall was reconstructed by UNDP, with EU funding, following a selection by the Foča municipal council, also with the participation of elected representatives of local returnees.  In 2018 and 2019, the association of war victims have been commemorating rape as a weapon of war by congregating in front of Karama's House in Miljevina and of the \"Partizan\" sport hall in Foca on the International Day for the Elimination of Sexual Violence in Conflict (19 June).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Settlements.", "content": "Aside from the town of Foča, the municipality includes the following settlements:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns - sister cities.", "content": "Foča is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Foča (, ) is a town and a municipality located in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina, on the banks of Drina river. As of 2013, the town has a population of 12,234 inhabitants, while the municipality has 18,288 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975849}
{"src_title": "Ion I. C. Brătianu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born at \"Florica\", his father's estate in Ștefănești, Argeș County, he completed his secondary education at the Saint Sava National College in Bucharest (1882). He then volunteered for the Romanian Army's artillery, serving for six months before becoming a Second lieutenant. During his military service, Brătianu studied engineering. He left for Paris in 1883, and attended the Collège Sainte-Barbe, then took classes (without being a registered student) at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (1884–1889). Brătianu received an engineer's diploma, but not a licence to practice.  In 1889, he returned to the country and was assigned orders by the Army, being promoted to Lieutenant. Later in that year, he joined the Romanian Railways as an engineer, working under the leadership of Anghel Saligny.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early politics.", "content": "He became a member of the PNL in 1895, the same year he ran in elections and was elected to the Parliament of Romania by the Ist College (of the landed gentry) in Gorj County. In early 1899, he was in the majority that voted in favor of the entry of former members of the Romanian Social-Democratic Workers' Party into the PNL. He served as Minister of Public Works (March 31, 1897-March 30, 1899; February 14, 1901-July 18, 1902) and Minister of the Interior (March 12, 1907-December 27, 1908) - the latter assignment was prompted by the effects of the 1907 Peasants' Revolt. In 1909, he was elected head of the National Liberals, a position he was to hold until his death; he first became Prime Minister in January 1909, and kept the office until December 28, 1910.  Brătianu's policies moved the PNL towards an acceptance of land reform, but deliberations over the project continued until after World War I, with Brătianu himself showing reserves over projects that aimed to replace the 1866 Constitution of Romania with a fully democratic one. In 1913, he convinced his party to accept a moderate version of land reform, as well as the creation of a single electoral college - a measure which would have given more accurate representation to the peasant majority. Over the following months, these policies were approved on principle by King Carol I, and even by the Conservative Party.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "The outbreak of the world conflict in 1914 brought a major polemic in Romanian society. The Conservatives oscillated between a neutral stance and participation alongside the Central Powers (to which Romania had committed itself); instead, the PNL called for an alignment with the Entente Forces. Despite the fact that Brătianu was again Prime Minister from January 16, 1914 to February 9, 1918, his policies in this respect were procrastinated. Initially, a decision on the matter was blocked by King Carol, until his death in September 1914. Afterwards, with the ascension of Ferdinand I (who was to remain a political ally of Brătianu for the rest of his life), the government started secret negotiations with the Entente, meant to condition Romania's participation with the granting of Austro-Hungarian lands with a majority Romanian population. In August 1916, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.  Minor advances into Transylvania were met with a Central Powers counter-offensive that swept through Oltenia and Wallachia, occupied Bucharest, and forced all governmental structures to take refuge in Iaşi. While Moldavia remained the only region under Romanian administration and the country increased its reliance on Imperial Russia - and then on the Russian Provisional Government, the Romanian Army was able to block further Central Powers' offensives in the battles of Mărășești, Mărăști, and Oituz. This situation was ended by the October Revolution in Russia and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between the Bolshevik government and the Central Powers: Romania saw itself without reinforcements, agreed to an armistice, and then signed the Treaty of Bucharest in May 1918.  In the meantime, Brătianu's had been replaced with the crisis government of General Alexandru Averescu, and this was soon followed by Alexandru Marghiloman's (chosen to negotiate the peace, as the German Empire was thought to be friendly towards Marghiloman). Nonetheless, Romania never did ratify the signed treaty, and denounced it in October 1918, immediately re-entering the conflict on the Entente's side. In November, the Compiègne armistice with Germany removed all legal value of the Bucharest Treaty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third cabinet and support for Averescu.", "content": "The spectre of socialist agitation, which had led to incidents such as a major strike action in Bucharest in December 1918, brought about the fall of the Constantin Coandă cabinet, and Brătianu again occupied the position. He led the Romanian delegation to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, where he was a vocal supporter of the union with Transylvania and Bukovina. Although ultimately Romania received most territories it claimed, he resigned in 1919 since he would not accept a compromise on the disputed territories in Banat that had become part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. However, Romania had registered other successes - notably, Russia's exit from the war had led to the union with Bessarabia (the Moldavian Democratic Republic).  Soon, the PNL found itself threatened by the political realities of a Greater Romania. The policy of alliances of the Romanian National Party (a mainly Transylvanian group) had brought the rapid formation of the cabinet of Alexandru Vaida-Voevod in December 1919; this cabinet, and especially its Peasants' Party group, supported a radical version of the land reform, leading to endless debates in parliament. At the same time, the People's Party, a new and strong populist movement under General Averescu, had begun a campaign for both an urgent land reform and for bringing about the prosecution of PNL politicians as agents of the economic hardships. Faced with a choice, Brătianu approached Averescu and offered PNL support for a People's Party cabinet in return for moderation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fourth and fifth cabinet.", "content": "The PNL retreated its backing after finding a more convenient option in a Take Ionescu-led cabinet, and Brătianu became Prime Minister again from January 17, 1922 to March 30, 1926. The fourth Brătianu cabinet adopted the Constitution of 1923, a document which confirmed universal male suffrage and minority rights as first defined by the laws of 1918; because of the highly centralised model it favored, it drew suspicion from the Transylvanian politicians that it served the goal of a National Liberal-dominated Old Kingdom (especially after the constitution was approved of through a simple vote in Parliament). At the same time, the PNL cabinet began carrying out a national-level land reform.  As the elections of 1926 confirmed the rise of the National Peasants' Party (created as the union of the Romanian National and Peasants' parties), King Ferdinand again called on Averescu to form the government. By that moment, the general was thought by the PNL to be a convenient agent of its own policies, but Averescu's negotiations for a return of the disinherited Prince Carol after his father's imminent death made Brătianu switch his support to a broad coalition government under Barbu Ştirbey.  On June 21, 1927, Brătianu returned with his fifth and final cabinet. He died in Bucharest, from complications of laryngitis, and was replaced as Prime Minister by his brother Vintilă Brătianu until the calling of elections.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ion I. C. Brătianu (, also known as Ionel Brătianu; 20 August 1864 – 24 November 1927) was a Romanian politician, leader of the National Liberal Party (PNL), Prime Minister of Romania for five terms, and Foreign Minister on several occasions; he was the eldest son of statesman and PNL leader Ion Brătianu, the brother of Vintilă and Dinu Brătianu, and the father of Gheorghe I. Brătianu. Ion I. C. Brătianu's political activities after World War I, including part of his third and fourth term, saw the unification of the Old Romanian Kingdom with Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia (\"see: Greater Romania\"). In 1923, he was elected an honorary member of the Romanian Academy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975850}
{"src_title": "Ethiopian Catholic Church", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "The term \"Ethiopic Catholic Church\", which was synonymous with \"Ethiopian Catholic Church\" until January 2015, when the Eritrean Catholic Church was established, can be applied to either church or to both jointly, since their liturgy is celebrated in the Ethiopic or Ge'ez language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Portuguese voyages of discovery opened the way for direct contacts between the Catholic Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. In the 14th century, Catholic missionaries arrived in Ethiopia. On August 28, 1439, Pope Eugene IV sent a message of unity with the Catholic Church to Ethiopian Emperor Constantine I but this effort was unsuccessful.  With Islamic attacks up to 1531 threatening Christian Ethiopia, an appeal from the Emperor to the Portuguese brought support to defeat the Adal Sultanate in the Ethiopian–Adal War. Jesuit missionaries came with the Portuguese to Ethiopia. These missionaries focused their conversion activities with the country's governing class including the Emperor to have the Ethiopian Orthodox Church unite with the Catholic Church. The Emperor Susenyos was converted primarily by Father Pedro Páez. In 1622, Susenyos made Catholicism the state religion. The next year, Pope Gregory XV named Afonso Mendes, a Portuguese Jesuit, Patriarch of the Ethiopian Church. A formal union in 1626 was declared when Patriarch Mendes came to the country. With Mendes trying to Latinize the Ethiopian church, Susenyos used force to impose the latinization. Public backlash resulted. In 1632, Susenyos died. His successor Fasilides in 1636 removed Mendes from the country, ended the union with Rome and removed or killed the remaining missionaries. For the next 200 years, Ethiopia was closed to Catholic Missions.  In 1839, Italian Lazarists and Capuchins resumed, albeit within certain limitations imposed due to strong public opposition. That same year, Justin de Jacobis was appointed first Prefect Apostolic of Abyssinia and entrusted with the foundation of Catholic missions in that country. After laboring with great success in Abyssinia for eight years, he was appointed titular Bishop of Nilopolis in 1847, and shortly afterwards Vicar Apostolic of Abyssinia, but he refused the episcopal dignity until it was finally forced upon him in 1849.  In 1919, the Pontifical Ethiopian College was founded within the Vatican walls by Pope Benedict XV with St. Stephen's Church, behind St. Peter's Basilica, as the designated church for the College.  The Latin Church had become established in the south of Ethiopia in areas that had not been Christian and that were incorporated into the modern country only at the end of the 19th century. The Italian occupation of Ethiopia in 1936 gave rise to an increase in the number of Latin-Church jurisdictions, but the expulsion of foreign missionaries at the end of the Second World War meant that the Ethiopic Rite clergy had to take responsibility for areas thus denuded of Catholic clergy. Accordingly, in 1951, the Ethiopic Rite Apostolic Exarchate of Addis Ababa was established, and the ordinariate for Eritrea was elevated to the rank of exarchate. Ten years later, on February 20, 1961, an Ethiopic ecclesiastical province was established, with Addis Ababa as the Metropolitan See and Asmara (in Eritrea) and Adigrat (in Ethiopia) as suffragan eparchies. In 1995, two new eparchies, Barentu and Keren, were established in Eritrea, and the Latin-Church apostolic vicariate was abolished. Eritrea thus became the only country where all Catholics, whatever Church of their canonical ascription, belong to an Eastern Catholic jurisdiction. In 2003, one more eparchy was created in Endibir in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Region of Ethiopia.  In January 2015 Pope Francis established the Eritrean Catholic Church as a \"sui iuris\" Eastern Catholic Church, thus granting it autonomy from the Ethiopian Catholic Church.  There are also Latin Church jurisdictions in the south of Ethiopia, none of them raised to the rank of diocese. Eight are apostolic vicariates and one is an apostolic prefecture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eparchies.", "content": "There are four eparchies (bishoprics) in the country:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differences between the Catholic and Orthodox Ethiopian Churches.", "content": "Doctrinal distinctions between the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Catholic Ethiopian Churches include recognition of the fifth-century Council of Chalcedon. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has a broader canon of Scripture than the Catholic Church. The order of the diaconate is reserved for adult men in the Catholic Church, but boys are commonly ordained as deacons in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Ethiopian Catholic clergy also tend to dress in the Roman cassock and collar, distinct from the Ethiopian Orthodox custom.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ethiopian Catholic Church is a Metropolitan \"sui iuris\" Eastern particular church within the Catholic Church, established in 1930 in Ethiopia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975851}
{"src_title": "Yitzhak Sadeh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Sadeh was born as Izaak Landoberg to a Polish Jewish family in Lublin, in the Russian Partition of the Russian Empire (now in Poland). His mother, Rebecca, was the daughter of rabbi Shneur Zalman Fradkin. In his youth, he studied with rabbi Hillel Zeitlin. Sadeh was married three times. His third wife, Margot Meier-Sadeh, died of cancer a year before him. He had two daughters, Daphne and Rivka, and a son, Yoram.  Sadeh died in Tel Aviv in August 1952. By then, he had become a charismatic and colorful figure, whose nickname in the Palmach was \"HaZaken\" (The Old Man). He is buried at Kibbutz Givat Brenner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "When World War I broke out, he joined the Imperial Russian Army. He saw action and was decorated for bravery. In 1917, he met Joseph Trumpeldor, and between 1917 and 1919, assisted him in the founding of HeHalutz (\"The Pioneer\") movement. In 1920, Sadeh made \"aliyah\" to Eretz Israel, where he became one of founders and leaders of Gdud HaAvoda (\"The Work Battalion\").  In 1921, Sadeh was a Haganah (Defense) commander in Jerusalem. During the 1929 riots he took part in the battle defending Haifa. When the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine began, Sadeh established the Nodedet (\"Wandering Troop\" or \"Patrol Unit\") in Jerusalem, that confronted the Arabs in their villages and bases. He demanded that his troops \"leave the defences\" and initiate military operations.  In the summer of 1937, as commander of the Jewish Settlement Police, he founded the FOSH (Hebrew abbreviation, FO'SH, for \"Plugot Sadeh\", lit. Field Companies), the commando arm of the Haganah. It was an elite Jewish strike force, whose members were hand-picked by Sadeh.  Sadeh commanded the establishment of Kibbutz Hanita on an isolated hill on the southern border of Lebanon. In 1941, he was instrumental in the founding of the Palmach (acronym for \"Plugot Mahatz\", lit. Striking Companies), the Haganah's enlisted military forces of volunteers). The purpose of this clandestine elite unit was to prepare to undertake a guerilla war in the event of the Axis forces entering Palestine. During the 200 days of dread, Sadeh worked on the Carmel Plan, which was a detailed strategy to withdraw the entire Jewish community in Palestine to Mount Carmel, forming a large enclave to withstand the invaders.  He was Commander of the Palmach until 1945, when he was appointed as the Haganah's Chief of the General Staff and, among other activities, was in charge of the movement's operations against the British Forces during the British Mandate of Palestine and in operations that brought clandestine Jewish immigrants to Israel. He was also instrumental in founding the Gadna in 1941, and became the program's first unofficial commander.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War of Independence.", "content": "At the beginning of 1948, Yitzhak Sadeh was in commanded of Haganah training camp at Mishmar HaEmek. In early April he successfully defended the kibbutz against a full-scale attack by the Arab Liberation Army. In the counter-attack that followed his troops conquered a large section of the Jezreel Valley. At the end of April he commanded two Brigades in a series of attacks on strategic areas in and around Jerusalem, Operation Yevusi.  During the truce in June he was responsible for the establishing the first armored brigade of the IDF. In July this Brigade played an important part in Operation Danny, capturing Lod airport, and in October, Operation Yoav, the taking of the Iraq Suwaydan fortress blocking the road to the Negev. In December 1948 he participated in Operation Horev in the Negev, when the forces under his command crossed the Egyptian border and threatened El-Arish as well as the Egyptian army in the Gaza Strip.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "When the War of Independence ended and the Palmach was dismantled in 1949, Sadeh left military service. He wrote essays, stories and plays. The book \"Misaviv Lamedura\" (Around the Bonfire) includes a collection of articles he wrote under the pen name Y. Noded (Y. Wanderer).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports activism.", "content": "Sadeh was a promoter and educator in the field of Jewish sport. When in Russia, he participated in wrestling meets and became the wrestling champion of St. Petersburg. As an active sportsperson, he recognized physical education as having important cultural and educational values. As a member of the Hapoel (The Worker) board, he set policies and established guidelines and created the Hapoel motto, \"Alafim lo Alufim\" (Thousands not Champions). Today, thousands of sports people and soldiers take part in the Mount Tavor Race, devoted to the Sadeh's ideals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yitzhak Sadeh (, born Izaak Landoberg, August 10, 1890 – August 20, 1952), was the commander of the Palmach and one of the founders of the Israel Defense Forces at the time of the establishment of the State of Israel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975852}
{"src_title": "21st World Scout Jamboree", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Participation.", "content": "The event was open to all members of the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM) who were between the ages of 14 and 17 at the start of the Jamboree on July 27, 2007. Members of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS) may have participated if the respective national WOSM member organization agreed. People who wished to attend must have been selected by their respective Scouting associations.  Adults were able to participate in support roles as members of the International Service Team, National Contingent Support Teams, Troop Leaders, National Representatives, Off-Site Program Workers, or members of the Build Team.  Day visitors of all ages were also welcomed to the event. However, the dates and the areas on which day visitors were able to visit were restricted to maintain park capacity limits.  The event was the second largest ever Jamboree held with 38,074 participants and IST attending, but with more countries than ever before., and more than 42,000 day visitors. The 3rd 'Coming of Age' Jamboree in 1929 was the largest held, with 50,000 participants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theme.", "content": "Each Jamboree has a theme, and the 2007 Jamboree's is \"\"One World, One Promise\"\". This motto is incorporated on the Centenary badge and is available in the local language of all Scouting organisations who are members of the World Organization of the Scout Movement. This motto is also included in the lyrics of the Jambo Song", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attractions.", "content": "Key attractions, events and facilitions included:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subcamps.", "content": "Each hub contained four subcamps each consisting of 2,000 Scouts with its own programme of activities. Within the subcamps each troop had 36 participants. The four hubs were:  The adult-only hub for IST members and other adults not affiliated with a Sub-camp or participant unit and has own programme of activities at first time:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparations.", "content": "Preparations for the event have included a smaller scale Jamboree, EuroJam 2005, where 12,000 Scouts, from across Europe, camped in the same location. This dry run allowed the planners of the Jamboree to test a number of aspects of the event, including the control of the massive influx of the contingents into the area. The food and supplies for the EuroJam event also set a world record for the largest single internet order to a supermarket, with deliveries being made in large articulated trucks.  Scouts Shops Ltd, responsible for sourcing much of the equipment for the 21st World Jamboree, reported that the cost of steel on the world market increased as a result of the Jamboree placing its order.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International Service Team.", "content": "The International Service Team (IST) were Scouts aged 18 and above who help to build large-scale Scouting events, the most notable being World Scout Jamborees. They arrived one week before the beginning of the actual event for preparation.  There were over 8,600 members of the IST at the 21st World Scout Jamboree, and they helped to build, run, take down and maintain the events, activities and services on the Jamboree site. The IST were split into two main sections, with four sub-sections, depending on their interests and qualifications:  Including water, gas and electricity, the IST built and maintained the fifth largest city in Essex from a park in under a month.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "UK Contingent Pre-Event Party.", "content": "The entire UK contingent arrived one day before the rest of the world, and had a party on the Tropical Hub stage with performances from Liberty X and Lemar, along with Radio 1 DJ Jason King and CBBC TV presenter Anne Foy. Peter Duncan, UK Chief Scout, was also on the stage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "After the Jamboree closed, it was revealed that thirteen Scouts had been reported missing to the British Police. All the organisations involved maintain there has been no crime committed, as all the Scouts had visas, and were only concerned for the Scouts' safety.  Concerns were raised by local people in Chelmsford after Hylands Park hosted the Jamboree and V Festival 2007 just a week apart, causing disruption to local roads and exacerbating the negative effects on the park found after hosting the annual music festival.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 21st World Scout Jamboree was held in July and August 2007, and formed a part of the Scouting 2007 Centenary celebrations of the world Scout Movement. The event was hosted by the United Kingdom, as 2007 marked the 100th anniversary of the founding of Scouting on Brownsea Island.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975853}
{"src_title": "Cleveland-class cruiser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The \"Cleveland\"-class was a development of the preceding. The ships were designed with the goal of increased cruising range, anti-aircraft armament, torpedo protection, etc., compared with earlier U.S. cruisers.  After the London Naval Treaty of 1930 passed, the US Navy took up a renewed interest in the 6\" gun armed light cruiser, partially due to the fleet complaining bitterly about the 8\" gun's slow rate of fire, at 3 rounds per minute compared to the 10 rounds per minute achieved by 6\" guns. At this time, the US Navy began to deploy drones to use as targets for anti-aircraft targets, which could simulate both dive and torpedo bombers. The results were dismaying to the fleet, as the simulations showed that without fire control directors and computers, the ships of the fleet would be almost helpless against the density of aircraft attack they envisioned the future war bringing. The mechanical computers alone could weigh up to 10 tons and had to be housed below decks for both weight and protection measures. As World War II was to prove, the assumptions made pre-war were optimistic. Eventually, every anti-aircraft gun platform above 20mm would end up moving to remote power and aiming with associated fire control and radar. As designed the \"Cleveland\" class was already a tight design but requests to widen the ship were turned down because it would affect production rates. In order to fit the new heavier fire control and radar systems within the allotted tonnage for a cruiser, the No. 3 gun turret was omitted. This also gave room for the enlargement of the bridge spaces to accommodate the new combat information center and the necessary radars, along with enough tonnage to fit an additional pair of 5\"/38 twin mounts, which were located fore and aft of the superstructure, granting wider arcs of fire. Despite the loss of three 6-inch guns compared to the proceeding \"Brooklyn\" and \"St. Louis\"-class cruisers, the new, more advanced fire control gave the \"Cleveland\"-class ships a firepower advantage in practical use. However, the increase of light anti-aircraft artillery made the class top-heavy towards the end of World War II. To compensate for the weight increase, some ships had one catapult removed, along with the rangefinders from the No. 1 turret. The top weight issues would plague the class with every addition of equipment having to be carefully weighed against what would have to be removed. Fighter control radar installation required the removal of 20mm clipping rooms for instance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subclasses.", "content": "Fifty-two ships of this class were originally planned, but nine of them were completed as the light aircraft carriers of the, and two of them were completed to a somewhat different design, with more compact superstructures and just a single stack. These two were called the. Of the 27 \"Cleveland\"-class cruisers that were commissioned, one () was completed as a guided missile cruiser and five were later modified as and guided missile cruisers. Two of each of the guided missile cruiser-classes had enlarged superstructures to serve as flagships. Following the naming convention at the time, all the ships completed as cruisers were named for US cities and towns.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "The \"Cleveland\"-class cruisers served mainly in the Pacific Fleet during World War II, especially in the Fast Carrier Task Force, but some of them served off the coasts of Europe and Africa in the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. All of these warships, though worked heavily and damaged in some cases, survived the war. All of this class were initially decommissioned by 1950, except for, which remained in service until 1956, but six were later finished or converted to guided missile cruisers, and these served into the 1970s. The \"Cleveland\"s suffered from increasing stability problems as anti-aircraft armament and additional radar was added during the war. None were recommissioned for the Korean War, as they required a crew almost as large as the ships, and those ships were reactivated instead. All non-converted ships were sold off from the reserve fleet for scrapping beginning in 1959. The six that were completed as or converted into guided missile cruisers were reactivated during the 1950s and then served into the 1970s. All, particularly the Talos-armed ships, suffered from greater stability problems than the original design due to the extra radar equipment and top weight. This problem was particularly severe in \"Galveston\", leading to its premature decommissioning in 1970. and had to have a large amount of ballast and internal rearrangement to allow continued service into the 1970s. The last of these missile ships in service, \"Oklahoma City\", was decommissioned in December 1979.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preserved ships.", "content": "Only one \"Cleveland\"-class ship remains. The, refit in 1960 and re-designated as \"Galveston\"-class guided missile light cruiser CLG-4 (later CG-4), is now a museum ship at the Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park in Buffalo, New York, alongside the, and the,.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The \"Cleveland\" class was a group of light cruisers built for the U.S. Navy during World War II, and were the most numerous class of light cruisers ever built.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975854}
{"src_title": "Butterfly knife", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"balisong\" is derived from barangay (village) Balisong, part of the municipality of Taal, Batangas province, which along with the neighboring barangay Pandayan, were the original manufacturing centers of the knives in the Philippines. The two barangays were home to a blacksmith industry that also produced other bladed implements such as bolo knives. It is also claimed that the meaning of the term \"balisong\" is derived from the Tagalog words \"baling sungay\" (literally, \"broken/folding horn\") as the hilt of the blade were traditionally made from carved carabao and deer horn, as well as bones. The traditional balisong is also known as \"veinte y nueve,\" or \"twenty-nine,\" in the Philippines, because they are long when opened. Other names for the knives in English include \"fan knives\" and \"butterfly knives\" from the motion, and \"click clacks\" from the sound they make when they are opened and closed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The origin of the knives is unclear. Oral histories claim that the knives were first created in the Philippines in 800 AD. However, there is no documentation or archeological evidence to back this. Balisong mass production in the Philippines can only be attested to the early 1900s. Another claim is that balisong were originally an adaptation of a French measuring tool called the \"pied du roi\" (\"foot of the king\"), invented between the 1500s to the late 1700s. However, how it was introduced to the Philippines is unknown. There are theories that it may have been introduced by sailors in the Spanish Empire, which was then allied to France.  Regardless of the origin, the modern balisong was perfected in the Philippines, where it became much larger and were predominantly used as a weapon and not just a tool. The quick opening techniques (\"flipping\") were also developed in the Philippines. In contrast, the French \"pied du roi\" was primarily a folding ruler, with the knife only included in some specimens as a novelty. They were cumbersome to open and unlikely to be used for self-defense, especially since they also commonly included a metal tang at a right angle from the end of the handle to aid in measuring. There were also very similar designs to the balisong produced in England in the late 19th century, presumably also derived from the \"pied du roi\". But like the latter they were primarily utilitarian tools.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "There are two main types of balisong construction: \"sandwich construction\" and \"channel construction\".  Sandwich constructed balisong knives are assembled in layers that are generally pinned or screwed together though may sometimes use a ball-bearing system. They allow the pivot pins to be adjusted more tightly without binding. When the knife is closed, the blade rests between the layers.  For a channel constructed balisong, the main part of each handle is formed from one piece of material. In this handle, a groove is created (either by folding, milling, or being integrally cast) in which the blade rests when the knife is closed. This style is regarded as being stronger than sandwich construction.  Some of the blades of traditional butterfly knives in the Philippines were made from steel taken from railroad tracks thus giving them a decent amount of durability and hardness, while others are made from the recycled leaf springs of vehicles.  Some balisongs, such as the Benchmade 51, do not use Tang Pins. Instead, it uses \"Zen Pins\", which are two small pins embedded in the handles of the balisong which make contact with the bottom of the blade. A balisong with zen pins negates the problem of having the tang pin fall out (as with some cheaper models).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal status.", "content": "The balisong has been outlawed in several countries.  Balisong trainers feature a special blunt and unsharpened \"blade\" and are legal in some areas where balisongs are not.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A balisong, also known as a fan knife, butterfly knife or Batangas knife, is a folding pocketknife from the Philippines. Its distinct features are two handles counter-rotating around the tang such that, when closed, the blade is concealed within grooves in the handles. A balisong typically has the latch on the handle facing the cutting edge, and is commonly called the \"bite handle\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975855}
{"src_title": "Kalpana Chawla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Chawla was born on March 17, 1962, in Karnal, Haryana, India, but her official date of birth was altered to July 1, 1961, to allow her to become eligible for the matriculation exam. As a child, Kalpana was fascinated by aeroplanes and flying. She went to local flying clubs and watched planes with her father. Chawla said \"Every once in a while we'd ask my dad if we could get a ride in one of these planes. And, he did take us to the flying club and we had a joyride in the Pushpak and a glider that the flying club had.\"  In 1976, Chawla graduated from the Tagore School, where she was a high-performing student. After getting a Bachelor of Engineering degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Punjab Engineering College, India, she moved to the United States in 1982 and obtained a Master of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Texas at Arlington in 1984. Chawla went on to earn a second Masters in 1986 and a PhD in aerospace engineering in 1988 from the University of Colorado Boulder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1988, she began working at NASA Ames Research Center, where she did computational fluid dynamics (CFD) research on vertical and/or short take-off and landing (V/STOL) concepts. Much of Chawla's research is included in technical journals and conference papers. In 1993, she joined Overset Methods, Inc. as Vice President and Research Scientist specializing in simulation of moving multiple body problems. Chawla held a Certificated Flight Instructor rating for airplanes, gliders and Commercial Pilot licenses for single and multi-engine airplanes, seaplanes and gliders. After becoming a naturalized U.S. citizen in April 1991, Chawla applied for the NASA Astronaut Corps. She joined the corps in March 1995 and was selected for her first flight in 1996.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First space mission.", "content": "Her first space mission began on November 19, 1997, as part of the six-astronaut crew that flew the Space Shuttle \"Columbia\" flight STS-87. Chawla was the first Indian woman to fly in space. She spoke the following words while traveling in the weightlessness of space, \"You are just your intelligence.\" On her first mission, Chawla traveled over 10.4 million miles (16737177.6 km) in 252 orbits of the earth, logging more than 372 hours (15 days and 12 hours) in space. During STS-87, she was responsible for deploying the Spartan satellite which malfunctioned, necessitating a spacewalk by Winston Scott and Takao Doi to capture the satellite. A five-month NASA investigation fully exonerated Chawla by identifying errors in software interfaces and the defined procedures of flight crew and ground control. After the completion of STS-87 post-flight activities, Chawla was assigned to technical positions in the astronaut office to work on the space station.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second space mission.", "content": "In 2001, Chawla was selected for her second flight as part of the crew of STS-107. This mission was repeatedly delayed due to scheduling conflicts and technical problems such as the July 2002 discovery of cracks in the shuttle engine flow liners. On January 16, 2003, Chawla finally returned to space aboard Space Shuttle \"Columbia\" on the ill-fated STS-107 mission. The crew performed nearly 80 experiments studying Earth and space science, advanced technology development, and astronaut health and safety. During the launch of STS-107, \"Columbia\"s 28th mission, a piece of foam insulation broke off from the Space Shuttle external tank and struck the left wing of the orbiter. Previous shuttle launches had seen minor damage from foam shedding, but some engineers suspected that the damage to \"Columbia\" was more serious. NASA managers limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed. When \"Columbia\" re-entered the atmosphere of Earth, the damage allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate and destroy the internal wing structure, which caused the spacecraft to become unstable and break apart. After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, similar to the aftermath of the \"Challenger\" disaster. Construction of the International Space Station (ISS) was put on hold; the station relied entirely on the Russian Roscosmos State Corporation for resupply for 29 months until Shuttle flights resumed with STS-114 and 41 months for crew rotation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Chawla died on February 1, 2003, in the Space Shuttle \"Columbia\" disaster, along with the other six crew members, when the \"Columbia\" disintegrated over Texas during re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, shortly before it was scheduled to conclude its 28th mission, STS-107. Chawla's remains were identified along with those of the rest of the crew members and were cremated and scattered at Zion National Park in Utah in accordance with her wishes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Chawla is survived by her husband.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kalpana Chawla (March 17, 1962 – February 1, 2003) was an American astronaut, engineer, and the first woman of Indian origin to go to space. She first flew on Space Shuttle \"Columbia\" in 1997 as a mission specialist and primary robotic arm operator. In 2003, Chawla was one of the seven crew members who died in the Space Shuttle \"Columbia\" disaster when the spacecraft disintegrated during its re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. Chawla was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, and several streets, universities and institutions have been named in her honor. She is regarded as a national hero in India.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975856}
{"src_title": "Equine viral arteritis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "The signs shown depend on the horse's age, the strain of the infecting virus, the condition of the horse and the route by which it was infected. Most horses with EVA infection do not show any signs; if a horse does show symptoms, these can vary greatly in severity. Following infection, the first sign is fever, peaking at, followed by various signs such as Lethargy, nasal discharge, \"pink eye\" (conjunctivitis), swelling over the eye (supraorbital edema), urticaria, and swelling of the limbs and under the belly (the ventral abdomen) which may extend to the udder in mares or the scrotum of male horses. More unusual signs include spontaneous abortion in pregnant mares, and, most likely in foals, severe respiratory distress and death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "EVA is caused by an arterivirus called equine arteritis virus (EAV). Arteriviruses are small, enveloped, animal viruses with an icosahedral core containing a positive-sense RNA genome. As well as equine arteritis virus the Arterivirus family includes porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), lactate dehydrogenase elevating virus (LDV) of mice and simian haemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV).  There are a number of routes of transmission of the virus. The most frequent is the respiratory route. Virions can also be shed into the semen, and the disease has been spread by artificial insemination. Stallions may become carriers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Because of the variability of symptoms, diagnosis is by laboratory testing. Blood samples, nasal swabs and semen can be used for isolation of the virus, detection of the viral RNA by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and detection of antibodies by ELISA tests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prevention.", "content": "A vaccine is available in the UK and Europe, however in laboratory tests it is not possible to distinguish between antibodies produced as a result of vaccination and those produced in response to infection with the virus. Management also plays an important part in the prevention of EVA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Zinc ionophores show antiviral activity against Equine viral arteritis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The virus causing EVA was first identified following an outbreak of respiratory disease and spotaneious abortion on a horse farm in Ohio in 1953. The first outbreak of EVA in the UK was in 1993. The outbreak affected six premises and around 100 horses were infected. Further spread of the virus was prevented by movement restrictions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Equine viral arteritis (EVA) is a disease of horses caused by Alphaarterivirus equid, an RNA virus. It is the only species in the genus Alphaarterivirus, and that is the only genus in the Equarterivirinae subfamily. The virus which causes EVA was first isolated in 1953, but the disease has afflicted equine animals worldwide for centuries. It has been more common in some breeds of horses in the United States, but there is no breed \"immunity\". In the UK, it is a notifiable disease. There is no known human hazard.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975857}
{"src_title": "Anglo-Spanish War (1727–1729)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "During the War of the Spanish Succession, Spain lost Gibraltar to an Anglo-Dutch fleet and when the war finished in 1714, Spain was forced to accept the loss of Gibraltar in the Treaty of Utrecht. Despite this it was a long-term goal of Spain to recover both Gibraltar and the island of Menorca from the British.  After the Treaty of Vienna in 1725, Spain had the support of Austria, and thought the time was right to try to recapture Gibraltar. As a reaction Britain signed the Treaty of Hanover with France and Prussia.  Some historians put the beginning of the war in 1726, because in that year the Anglo-Spanish relation was already very tense. A British fleet was sent to the Spanish West Indies to disturb Spanish shipping, without actually starting a war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Action.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Porto Bello.", "content": "Britain had tried to use its naval power early in the dispute, by blockading Porto Bello in Panama but the attempt proved a disaster, in which 4,000 men were lost to disease. The main objective of the blockade had been to prevent Spanish galleons leaving and sailing for Spain, but the blockaders failed to do this - and eventually withdrew.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Siege of Gibraltar.", "content": "On 11 February 1727 Spain, under command of the Marquis de las Torres and supervision of Chief Engineer of the Spanish Royal Engineer Corps Marquis of Verboom, laid siege to the city (\"Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar\"). Depending on the sources, Spanish troops were between 12,000 and 25,000. British defenders were 1,500 at the beginning of the siege, increasing up to about 5,000 by troops brought from overseas by a fleet commanded by Charles Wager.  After a four-month siege, with several unsuccessful and costly attempts, Spanish troops gave up and retired on 12 June. Spain had lost over 1,400 men while the British had suffered around 300 casualties.  The Spanish had expected material help from the Austrians promised under the Treaty of Vienna, but they received little. They had been outmanoeuvred by British diplomats, who had concluded a secret deal with the Austrians to prevent them intervening.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Peace.", "content": "No more hostilities took place and a truce was declared in February 1728, with a preliminary agreement of issues at the March Convention of El Pardo and the Congress of Soissons. The final peace, that confirmed the status-quo, was concluded in the 1729 Treaty of Seville. Many of the outstanding issues between the two states had not been resolved, and a decade later the War of Jenkins' Ear broke out between them. Britain emerged from the conflict by forming a very strong alliance with Austria, that lasted until 1756.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Anglo-Spanish War of 1727–1729 was a limited war that took place between Great Britain and Spain during the late 1720s, and consisted of a failed Spanish attempt to capture Gibraltar and a unsuccessful blockade of Porto Bello. It eventually ended with a return to the previous status quo ante bellum following the Treaty of Seville.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975858}
{"src_title": "Battle of Kollaa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description and outcome.", "content": "Despite having far fewer troops than the Soviets, the Finnish forces (12th Division) repelled the Red Army because the Soviets were only prepared to proceed along roads. The Kollaa area had very few roads, all of them guarded by Finnish troops; and the Soviets were not able to proceed cross-country without skis. Kollaa is often considered to have been one of the most difficult places to defend during the Winter War. It has been estimated that the Red Army fired almost 40,000 artillery rounds at the defence line during a single day, whereas the Finnish artillery could fire only 1,000 rounds per day at the very most.  Although the Finnish 12th Division stopped the Red Army, with both sides suffering heavy losses, the Battle of Kollaa continued until the end of the Winter War. The Red Army managed to penetrate the Finnish defence line in Kollaa several times, thus pushing the Finns out of their positions, but the Finns systematically counter-attacked to restore the integrity of their defence line. The Finnish defence came close to collapse at the very end of the war; in fact, the Soviets managed to form a 0.5–1.5 kilometre deep fracture point in the Finnish defence line on March 12. As a result, the commander of the 12th Division of the Finnish Army considered abandoning the main defence line at Kollaa. However, as the news from the sector was that the situation was \"not yet that alarming\", the commander ordered a counter-attack for the defence line to be retaken the following day. As the news of the concluded peace treaty then reached the front, those orders were cancelled and the men were told to hold their current positions until the end of hostilities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "New expression of Finnish resolve.", "content": "A famous quote from the Battle of Kollaa is Major General Hägglund's question, \"Will Kollaa hold? (\"Kestääkö Kollaa?\")\", to which Lieutenant Aarne Juutilainen replied, \"Kollaa will hold (\"Kollaa kestää\"), unless the orders are to run away.\" The simple question and reply have entered Finnish lexicon as an expression of perseverance and resolve in the face of impending difficulty or crisis. The Finnish punk band uses the name.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The \"White Death\".", "content": "The legendary Finnish sniper Simo Häyhä, nicknamed the \"White Death\", served on the Kollaa front. He is credited with only 200 confirmed kills according to Finnish military records. The true number may amount to 800 kills in total.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Kollaa was fought from December 7, 1939, to March 13, 1940, in Ladoga's Karelia, Finland, as a part of the Soviet-Finnish Winter War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975859}
{"src_title": "Bulgarian National Revival", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The period is remarkable for its characteristic architecture which can still be observed in old Bulgarian towns such as Tryavna, Koprivshtitsa and Veliko Tarnovo, the rich literary heritage of authors like Ivan Vazov and Hristo Botev that inspired the Bulgarian struggle for independence and an autonomous church, and the April Uprising, a significant event of armed opposition to Ottoman rule, which ultimately led to the Russo-Turkish Liberation War of 1877-78. The significant changes in the Bulgarian society, the freedom of economic initiative and religious choice led to the formation of the Bulgarian nation in its ethnic borders and common territory embracing the lands of Moesia (including Dobruja), Thrace and Macedonia.  The Bulgarian National Revival is traditionally divided into three periods, the first from the 18th until the beginning of the 19th century, the second from the Ottoman reforms of the 1820s to the 1850s until the Crimean War, and the third from the Crimean War until the Liberation of Bulgaria in 1878.  The beginning of the Bulgarian National Revival has been a topic of intensified discussion in the past. According to contemporaries of the period, it began in the 1820s. Later Marin Drinov suggested the actual beginning was marked by the writing of \"Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya\" by Paisius of Hilendar. According to an even later assumption by Hristo Gandev, the period began in the beginning of the 17th century after the end of the Köprülü era and the beginning of the Tulip period and the rule of the Phanarites. The prevailing opinion in contemporary historiography is that the Bulgarian National Revival's beginning is marked by the first clear processes of decomposition in the Ottoman Empire. The April Uprising led to the liberation and the end of the Revival.  It is universally accepted that the Bulgarian National Revival ended with the Liberation of Bulgaria. This is meant only to include the Principality of Bulgaria, as revival processes continued until later in Eastern Rumelia and Macedonia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "National awakening of Bulgaria", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bulgarian National Revival (, \"Balgarsko natsionalno vazrazhdane\" or simply: Възраждане, \"Vazrazhdane\"), sometimes called the Bulgarian Renaissance, was a period of socio-economic development and national integration among Bulgarian people under Ottoman rule. It is commonly accepted to have started with the historical book, \"Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya\", written in 1762 by Paisius, a Bulgarian monk of the Hilandar monastery at Mount Athos, and lasted until the Liberation of Bulgaria in 1878 as a result of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975860}
{"src_title": "Sergei Zubov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Zubov is considered one of the best offensive defensemen in NHL history. He played in the NHL All-Star Game in 1998, 1999, and 2000. He has also won two Stanley Cups, one with the New York Rangers in 1994, and the other with Dallas in 1999. In 1992, Zubov won a gold medal at the Olympic Games, playing for the Unified Team. He is also the NHL's all-time leading scorer among Russian defensemen, and the all-time leading scorer among defensemen in the history of the Stars franchise.  Zubov was drafted in the fifth round of the 1990 NHL Entry Draft by the New York Rangers. Prior to this, he played for the Red Army's hockey team, HC CSKA Moscow, in Russia. He continued to play for the Red Army until 1992, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Although Sergei spent some of his rookie season with New York's AHL affiliate, the Binghamton Rangers, he played forty-nine games as a rookie for the Rangers, scoring 31 points, considered then to be above-average for a defenseman. Zubov's high-scoring ways continued, as he scored 12 goals and earned 77 assists during the 1993–94 season, which led the team in regular season scoring. He contributed 19 points to the Rangers' playoff campaign, as he, along with Alexander Karpovtsev, Sergei Nemchinov, and Alexei Kovalev became the first Russians to have their names engraved on the Stanley Cup.  Zubov continued to play well for the Rangers, but on 31 August 1995, he was traded to the Pittsburgh Penguins with Petr Nedvěd for Ulf Samuelsson and Luc Robitaille. Zubov only spent one season in Pittsburgh, it was rumored because he and team captain Mario Lemieux didn't get along, especially on the powerplay where both men wanted to be in control. Ultimately, he was traded to the Dallas Stars on 22 June 1996 for Kevin Hatcher.  Although Zubov never again reached the scoring height of his 1993–94 season with the Rangers, due to a combination of Dallas's more defensive system and decreased scoring in general, he has earned all three of his trips to the All-Star game with the Stars. He never again reached an 80+ point total, but had 11 consecutive years of 40+ point seasons and 30+ assists.  He was also excellent defensively and while he had a well-sized body, he was known more for his positioning and puck-dislodging abilities out of corners rather than his checking abilities. He had been a mainstay on the penalty killing squad for several years and had only recorded a negative plus/minus four times in his career, with two of them within his first three years in the league.  Zubov always played a solid game, but for years went under the radar and did not garner any nominations for the NHL awards or the NHL First/Second All-Star teams. However, in the 2005–06 season, Zubov posted 71 points for his highest outing in over a decade – and also received his first Norris Trophy nomination.  Zubov and his wife, Irina, have two kids, Paul and Anya Zubov. His son graduated from Northeastern University in Boston and his daughter studied at the Parsons School of Design in New York City.  Zubov missed nearly half of the 2007–08 NHL season with a sports hernia injury and most of the 2008–09 NHL season with a hip injury.  On 30 July 2009, he decided to leave the NHL as he signed a contract with SKA Saint Petersburg of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL). He was also selected as a reserve by Team Russia for the 2010 Winter Olympics should an injury occur during the tournament.  On 18 April 2011, it was reported that Zubov would officially retire due to hip-related injury problems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "On 20 July 2015, Zubov was named to the coaching staff of the Russian national team as a defensive assistant.  Zubov served as the head coach of HC Sochi starting from the 2017–18 season. He was dismissed as head coach 16 games into the 2019–20 season following an 11-5 start.  He currently serves as Senior Consultant to Hockey Operations for the Dallas Stars.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sergei Alexandrovich Zubov (Russian: Сергей Зубов; born 22 July 1970) is a former professional ice hockey defenceman and former head coach of HC Sochi of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL). Zubov played for the Dallas Stars, New York Rangers and Pittsburgh Penguins of the National Hockey League as well as SKA Saint Petersburg of the KHL. Zubov won the Stanley Cup twice: with the Rangers in 1994 and the Stars in 1999. Zubov was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame as part of the class of 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975861}
{"src_title": "Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt (1757–1830)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "The princess belonged to the House of Darmstadt, which held the Hessian landgraviate. She was born on 30 January 1757 in Frederick II's Prussian capital, Berlin, where her parents were due to the Seven Years' War. Her father Louis IX succeeded to the landgraviate in 1768 and was at the time of her birth fighting as a general for the Prussian forces. He was thus often away from his children and so the princess's education was in her mother Caroline's hands. Caroline educated Louise in the evangelical Protestant tradition, and she became interested in literature and music.  As the youngest daughter, with eight siblings, Louise's education was important to improve her marriage prospects. Since Louis IX showed little interest in his children, it was vital to get Louise married off and a matter also in the hands of her mother, becoming known as the \"great Landgräfin\" and von Zweibrücken due to her expert international dynastic politics in ancien regime Europe. In 1773 Louise travelled with her mother and sisters Amalie and Wilhelmine to Beschau then to the Russian court in St Petersburg. Tsarina Catharine II decided Louise was unsuitable as a wife for the grand-prince and future Tsar Paul, preferring her sister Wilhemine. This rebuff and her relationship with her future brother-in-law Paul formed Louise, leading to her being a persistent influence in the Russian state.  Nevertheless, this journey was not without influence on Louise, since on the way to Russia Caroline had learned of another female regent of a small German state - Anna Amalia. Anna and Louise probably found favour together.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "At the end of this acquaintance, under the influence of the governor in Erfurt from the Archbishopric of Mainz, Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg, the 18-year-old Louise was betrothed to the young knight Carl August of Sachsen-Weimar. The marriage occurred on 3 October 1775 at the Karlsruher court, where (as a new princess-consort) Louise became caught up in the Ernestine Weimar court.  The marriage was wholly dynastic in purpose (her sisters were married off to heir to Prussia and the Tsarevitch), consolidating the duchy of Saxe-Weimar's place at the heart of the Holy Roman Empire. Primary and secondary sources agree that it was as unhappy, with Louise (noted for her delicacy and timidity) had difficulty fitting in at court and remained in the shadow of her mother-in-law, the dowager duchess Anna Amalia. Louise especially attended the convents in her new country. A Romantic \"avant la lettre\", she did not have a taste for the Romantic lifestyle. Goethe was court poet and minister to her husband (and his companion in his extra-marital affairs), but was moved by her charm, noble-heartedness and her eyes \"the colour of cornflowers\". Taking her under his wing, Goethe dedicated the following words to her: After four years of marriage, in 1779 Louise finally gave birth her first child; sadly, wasn't the hoped male heir but a daughter, named after her and lived only five years; her next pregnancy, in 1781, produced a second daughter who died immediately after birth. At this time the Weimar ducal court also went through its sturm und drang phase, drawing not only Goethe but also the Ernestines from Miseleien and Eseleien. The resulting emotional coldness did not help their marriage, with her husband publicly humiliating the marriage by a long-term affair with the actress Karoline Jagemann. Louise only gave him the heir in 1783, with the birth of Charles Frederick; after him, followed four more children, of whom two survive infancy: Caroline Louise in 1786 and Bernhard in 1792. With the birth of Bernhard the marriage had finally served its purpose of guaranteeing the succession to the throne and the continuation of the dynasty. Charles Frederick later married Maria (sister of Alexander I of Russia, and their daughter Augusta of Saxe-Weimar married prince Wilhelm of Prussia, thus becoming the first empress of Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "Louise had her great moment in October 1806. Despite her childhood and her early experiences in Weimar, she was a great influence in literary circles. The battle of Jena-Auerstedt (14 October), led to the defeat of the Prussian-Saxon forces and the total submission of all the German states to France and precipitated the fall of the Holy Roman Empire. Soon after the battle, the victorious French troops advanced on Weimar. The other family members either fled or were away fighting in the Prussian forces, and so Louise remained in Weimar as mother and protector of the nation.  Two days after the battle she ended up opposing Napoleon himself. He insisted that her husband withdraw from Prussian military service but she quite undiplomatically made it clear to Napoleon that he could not do so. Nevertheless, at her husband's request and inspired by the example of the German patriot queen Louise of Prussia, she managed to arrange the French plundering of the area so that Weimar got off lightly compared to the university-city of Jena. Whether Napoleon let himself soften towards Louise, or whether he acted this way due to his own calculations in power-politics remains open to discussion. The Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach duchy remained with the alliance upon the Treaty of Poznań and survived the Napoleonic era via further politicking. Since Louise was now considered as the country's leader, and her subjects and contemporaries maintained this image of her - along with her part in the Weimar myth.  In 1815 her politicking during the war ensured that at the Congress of Vienna her husband's small duchy not only retained all its territory but rose to become a grand duchy (her Thuringian cousins the house of Saxony, in contrast, merely preserved their title of duke). She then became devoted to ambassadorial duties. The Russian alliance ended with her successor Maria Pawlowna. The jubilee of her rule and her golden wedding, both in 1825, passed with little celebration and - already very withdrawn - she died aged 73 on 14 February 1830.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "She and Charles Augustus had 7 children, of whom only three survive adulthood:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess and Landgravine Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt (30 January 1757 – 14 February 1830) was a German princess. She was the daughter of Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. On 3 October 1775 she married duke (later grand-duke) Charles Augustus of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and as such a member of the court sphere of Weimar Classicism. She was held to be serious and introverted but also compassionate and sympathetic, in the aftermath of the Battle of Jena which guaranteed her part in the later \"myth of Weimar\" (\"Weimarmythos\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975862}
{"src_title": "Mark Granovetter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "Granovetter earned an A.B. in History at Princeton University (1965) and a Ph.D in Sociology at Harvard University (1970). At Harvard he studied under the supervision of Harrison White. He is currently the Joan Butler Ford Professor in the School of Humanities and Sciences at Stanford and is the chair of the Department of Sociology. He worked at Northwestern University, the State University of New York at Stony Brook, and Johns Hopkins University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major ideas.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The strength of weak ties.", "content": "Granovetter's paper \"The Strength of Weak Ties\" is a highly influential research paper, with about 50,000 citations according to Google Scholar (as of November 2018). In 1969 Granovetter submitted it to \"American Sociological Review\", but it was rejected. Eventually this pioneering research was published in 1973 in American Journal of Sociology and became the most cited work in the Social Sciences. In marketing, information science, or politics, weak ties enable reaching populations and audiences that are not accessible via strong ties. The concepts and findings of this work were later published in the monograph \"Getting A Job\", an adaptation of Granovetter's doctoral dissertation at Harvard University's Department of Social Relations, with the title: \"Changing Jobs: Channels of Mobility Information in a Suburban Population\" (313 pages).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economic sociology: Embeddedness.", "content": "In the field of economic sociology, Granovetter has been a leader since the publication in 1985 of an article that launched \"new economic sociology\", \"Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness\". This article caused Granovetter to be identified with the concept of \"embeddedness\", the idea that economic relations between individuals or firms are embedded in actual social networks and do not exist in an abstract idealized market. The concept of embeddedness originated with Karl Polanyi in his book \"The Great Transformation\", where Polanyi posited that all economies are embedded in social relations and institutions. Granovetter also published a book called \"Society and Economy\" (2017).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Tipping points\" / threshold models.", "content": "Granovetter has done research on a model of how fads are created. Consider a hypothetical mob assuming that each person's decision whether to riot or not is dependent on what everyone else is doing. Instigators will begin rioting even if no one else is, while others need to see a critical number of trouble makers before they riot, too. This threshold is assumed to be distributed to some probability distribution. The outcomes may diverge largely although the initial condition of threshold may only differ very slightly. This threshold model of social behavior was proposed previously by Thomas Schelling and later popularized by Malcolm Gladwell's book \"The Tipping Point\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Security influence.", "content": "Granovetter's work has influenced researchers in capability-based security. Interactions in these systems can be described using \"Granovetter diagrams\", which illustrate changes in the ties between objects.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mark Sanford Granovetter (; born October 20, 1943) is an American sociologist and professor at Stanford University. Granovetter was recently recognized as a Citation Laureate by Thomson Reuters and added to that organization’s list of predicted Nobel Prize winners in economics for the year 2014. Data from the Web of Science show that Granovetter has written both the first and third most cited sociology articles. He is best known for his work in social network theory and in economic sociology, particularly his theory on the spread of information in social networks known as \"The Strength of Weak Ties\" (1973).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975863}
{"src_title": "Pelle Lindbergh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Having gained fame while playing for Hammarby in his youth, and while making his debut in the highest Swedish hockey league with AIK (Stockholm) leading him to the Swedish national team in the 1980 Winter Olympics, Lindbergh set his sights on the North American game. Lindbergh owns the distinction of being the goaltender on the only team that did not lose to the gold-medal-winning Team USA at the 1980 Olympics, as Team Sweden and Team USA played to a 2–2 tie in the first game of the tournament. Team Sweden would go on to win the bronze medal. After being drafted by the Philadelphia Flyers in the 1979 NHL Entry Draft (second round, 35th overall), he started his North American career during the 1980–81 season by playing one and a half seasons for the Maine Mariners of the American Hockey League (AHL) before playing his first games for the Flyers in 1982. In 1983, he was named goaltender of the NHL All-Rookie Team. He led the National Hockey League (NHL) with 40 wins, and games played with 65, he was second in both shutouts (2) and save percentage (.899), and was third in goals against average (3.02) during the 1984–85 season and won the Vezina Trophy, becoming the first European goaltender to do so in NHL history. That same year, he was also named a First Team All-Star. In his final game on November 7, 1985 he made 18 saves in leading the Philadelphia Flyers to 6-2 win over the Chicago Blackhawks. As irony would have it that would also be Lindbergh's final season record 6-2. Lindbergh was the first goalie to bring a water bottle on ice with him during NHL games. Lindbergh did this to combat severe dehydration he commonly suffered from. This practice first drew criticism from opponents and coaches alike, but is now the norm for NHL goaltenders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In the early morning hours of Sunday, November 10, 1985, Lindbergh lost control of his customized Porsche 930 Turbo and struck a wall in front of a Somerdale, New Jersey elementary school, critically injuring himself and severely injuring his two passengers. Although declared brain dead a few hours later, he was kept on life support until his father arrived from Sweden late the next day and his parents gave their permission to terminate treatment. He died on Monday, November 11 after a five-hour operation to harvest his heart and other organs for transplant. At the time of the accident he had just left the Coliseum, the former practice center for the Flyers located in Voorhees Township, New Jersey, where he was attending a team party. He was intoxicated at the time of the accident, with a blood alcohol level of 0.24, well above New Jersey's legal limit (0.10) at that time. Lindbergh topped the fan voting for the 1986 NHL All-Star Game. It would mark the first time that a player was chosen posthumously for an all-star team in a major North American team sport. Sean Taylor's selection to the 2008 Pro Bowl was the only other time this has happened. Although his number 31 was never officially retired by the Flyers, no Flyer has worn the number 31 since Lindbergh's death. Lindbergh is buried in Skogskyrkogården, a cemetery in southern Stockholm.  Pelle Circle, a residential street in Far Northeast Philadelphia, was named in his honor when it was constructed in 1986.  In 2006, a Swedish biography entitled \"Pelle Lindbergh: Behind the White Mask\" was written by Swedish author Thomas Tynander. An English version was published in fall 2009. The English version was translated by Bill Meltzer and published by Middle Atlantic Press.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and achievements.", "content": "The Philadelphia Flyers named a team award, the Pelle Lindbergh Memorial Trophy, in his honor. Since the 1993–94 season it has been annually awarded to the most improved player on the team.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Göran Per-Eric \"Pelle\" Lindbergh (; May 24, 1959 – November 11, 1985) was a Swedish professional ice hockey goaltender who played parts of five seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Philadelphia Flyers. Lindbergh died at age 26 in a single-car accident five months after leading the Flyers to the 1985 Stanley Cup Finals and winning the Vezina Trophy as the NHL's top goaltender.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975864}
{"src_title": "The World According to Garp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot synopsis.", "content": "The novel is about the life of T. S. Garp. His mother, Jenny Fields, is a strong-willed nurse who wants a child but not a husband. She encounters a dying ball turret gunner known only as Technical Sergeant Garp, who was severely brain damaged in combat. Jenny nurses Garp, observing his infantile state and almost perpetual autonomic sexual arousal. As a matter of practicality and kindness in making his death as comfortable as possible and reducing his agitation, she masturbates him several times. Unconstrained by convention and driven by her desire for a child, Jenny has sex with the brain-damaged Garp, impregnates herself and names the resulting son \"T. S.\" (a name derived from \"Technical Sergeant\", but consisting of just initials). Jenny raises young Garp alone, taking a position at the all-boys Steering School in New England.  Garp grows up, becoming interested in sex, wrestling, and writing fiction—three topics in which his mother has little interest. After his graduation in 1961, his mother takes him to Vienna, where he writes his first novella. At the same time, his mother begins writing her autobiography, \"A Sexual Suspect\". After Jenny and Garp return to Steering, Garp marries Helen, the wrestling coach's daughter, and begins his family—he a struggling writer, she a teacher of English. The publication of \"A Sexual Suspect\" makes his mother famous. She becomes a feminist icon, because feminists view her book as a manifesto of a woman who does not care to bind herself to a man, and who chooses to raise a child on her own. She nurtures and supports women traumatized by men, among them the Ellen Jamesians, a group of women named after an eleven-year-old girl whose tongue was cut off by her rapists to silence her. The members of the group cut off their own tongues in solidarity with the girl (the girl herself opposes this tongue cutting).  Garp becomes a devoted parent, wrestling with anxiety for the safety of his children and a desire to keep them safe from the dangers of the world. He and his family inevitably experience dark and violent events through which the characters change and grow. Garp learns (often painfully) from the women in his life (including transgender ex-football player Roberta Muldoon), who are struggling to become more tolerant in the face of intolerance. The story contains a great deal of (in the words of Garp's fictional teacher) \"lunacy and sorrow\".  The novel contains several framed narratives: Garp's first piece of fiction, a short story entitled \"The Pension Grillparzer\"; \"Vigilance\", an essay; and the first chapter of his third novel, \"The World According to Bensenhaver\". The book also contains some motifs that appear in some, but not all, John Irving novels: bears, New England, Vienna, hotels, wrestling, and a person who prefers abstinence over sex. And, like nearly all of Irving's novels, it features a complex Dickensian plot which spans the protagonist's whole life. Adultery (another common Irving motif) also plays a large part, culminating in one of the novel's most harrowing and memorable scenes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "John Irving's mother, Frances Winslow, had not been married at the time of his conception, and Irving never met his biological father. As a child, he was not told anything about his father, and he baited his mother that unless she gave him some information about his biological father, in his writing he would invent the father and the circumstances of how she got pregnant. Winslow would reply, \"Go ahead, dear.\"  In 1981, \"Time\" magazine quoted the novelist's mother as saying, \"There are parts of \"Garp\" that are too explicit for me.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The World According to Garp is John Irving's fourth novel, about a man, born out of wedlock to a feminist leader, who grows up to be a writer. Published in 1978, the book was a bestseller for several years. It was a finalist for the National Book Award for Fiction in 1979, and its first paperback edition won the Award the following year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975865}
{"src_title": "Clarithromycin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medical uses.", "content": "Clarithromycin is primarily used to treat a number of bacterial infections including pneumonia, \"Helicobacter pylori\", and as an alternative to penicillin in strep throat. Other uses include cat scratch disease and other infections due to bartonella, cryptosporidiosis, as a second line agent in Lyme disease and toxoplasmosis. It may also be used to prevent bacterial endocarditis in those who cannot take penicillin. It is effective against upper and lower respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections and helicobacter pylori infections associated with duodenal ulcers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spectrum of bacterial susceptibility.", "content": "Aerobic Gram-positive bacteria Aerobic Gram-negative bacteria Helicobacter Mycobacteria  Mycobacterium avium complex consisting of: Other bacteria  Safety and effectiveness of clarithromycin in treating clinical infections due to the following bacteria have not been established in adequate and well-controlled clinical trials:  Aerobic Gram-positive bacteria Aerobic Gram-negative bacteria Anaerobic Gram-positive bacteria Anaerobic Gram-negative bacteria", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Side effects.", "content": "The most common side effects are gastrointestinal: diarrhea (3%), nausea (3%), abdominal pain (3%), and vomiting (6%). It also can cause headaches, insomnia, and abnormal liver function tests. Allergic reactions include rashes and anaphylaxis. Less common side effects (<1%) include extreme irritability, hallucinations (auditory and visual), dizziness/motion sickness, and alteration in senses of smell and taste, including a metallic taste. Dry mouth, panic attacks, and nightmares have also been reported, albeit less frequently.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cardiac.", "content": "In February 2018, the FDA issued a Safety Communication warning with respect to an increased risk for heart problems or death with the use of clarithromycin, and has recommended that alternative antibiotics be considered in those with heart disease.  Clarithromycin can lead to a prolonged QT interval. In patients with long QT syndrome, cardiac disease, or patients taking other QT-prolonging medications, this can increase risk for life-threatening arrhythmias.  In one trial, the use of short-term clarithromycin treatment was correlated with an increased incidence of deaths classified as sudden cardiac deaths in stable coronary heart disease patients not using statins. Some case reports suspect it of causing liver disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Liver and kidney.", "content": "Clarithromycin has been known to cause jaundice, cirrhosis, and kidney problems, including kidney failure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Central nervous system.", "content": "Common adverse effects of clarithromycin in the central nervous system include dizziness, headaches. Rarely, it can cause ototoxicity, delirium and mania.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Infection.", "content": "A risk of oral candidiasis and vaginal candidiasis, due to the elimination of the yeast's natural bacterial competitors by the antibiotic, has also been noted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pregnancy and breastfeeding.", "content": "Clarithromycin should not be used in pregnant women except in situations where no alternative therapy is appropriate. Clarithromycin can cause potential hazard to the fetus hence should be used during pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus. For lactating mothers it is not known whether clarithromycin is excreted in human milk.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interactions.", "content": "Clarithromycin inhibits a liver enzyme, CYP3A4, involved in the metabolism of many other commonly prescribed drugs. Taking clarithromycin with other medications that are metabolized by CYP3A4 may lead to unexpected increases or decreases in drug levels.  A few of the common interactions are listed below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Colchicine.", "content": "Clarithromycin has been observed to have a dangerous interaction with colchicine as the result of inhibition of CYP3A4 metabolism and P-glycoprotein transport. Combining these two drugs may lead to fatal colchicine toxicity, particularly in people with chronic kidney disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statins.", "content": "Taking clarithromycin concurrently with certain statins (a class of drugs used to reduce blood serum cholesterol levels) increases the risk of side effects, such as muscle aches and muscle break down (rhabdomyolysis).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Calcium channel blockers.", "content": "Concurrent therapy with calcium channel blocker may increase risk of low blood pressure, kidney failure, and death, compared to pairing calcium channel blockers with azithromycin, a drug similar to clarithromycin but without CYP3A4 inhibition. Administration of clarithromycin in combination with verapamil have been observed to cause low blood pressure, low heart rate, and lactic acidosis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Carbamazepine.", "content": "Clarithromycin may double the level of carbamazepine in the body by reducing its clearance, which may lead to toxic symptoms of carbamazepine, such as double vision, loss of voluntary body movement, nausea, as well as hyponatremia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "HIV medications.", "content": "Depending on the combination of medications, clarithromycin therapy could be contraindicated, require changing doses of some medications, or be acceptable without dose adjustments. For example, clarithromycin may lead to decreased zidovudine concentrations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mechanism of action.", "content": "Clarithromycin prevents bacteria from multiplying by acting as a protein synthesis inhibitor. It binds to 23S rRNA, a component of the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, thus inhibiting the translation of peptides.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacokinetics.", "content": "Unlike erythromycin, clarithromycin is acid-stable, so can be taken orally without having to be protected from gastric acids. It is readily absorbed, and diffuses into most tissues and phagocytes. Due to the high concentration in phagocytes, clarithromycin is actively transported to the site of infection. During active phagocytosis, large concentrations of clarithromycin are released; its concentration in the tissues can be over 10 times higher than in plasma. Highest concentrations are found in liver, lung tissue, and stool.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metabolism.", "content": "Clarithromycin has a fairly rapid first-pass metabolism in the liver. Its major metabolites include an inactive metabolite, N-desmethylclarithromycin, and an active metabolite, 14-(\"R\")-hydroxyclarithromycin. Compared to clarithromycin, 14-(\"R\")-hydroxyclarithromycin is less potent against mycobacterial tuberculosis and the \"Mycobacterium avium\" complex. Clarithromycin (20%-40%) and its active metabolite (10%-15%) are excreted in urine. Of all the drugs in its class, clarithromycin has the best bioavailability at 50%, which makes it amenable to oral administration. Its elimination half-life is about 3 to 4 hours with 250 mg administered every 12 h, but increased to 5 to 7 h with 500 mg administered every 8 to 12 h. With any of these dosing regimens, the steady-state concentration of this metabolite is generally attained within 3 to 4 days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Clarithromycin was invented by researchers at the Japanese drug company Taisho Pharmaceutical in 1980. The product emerged through efforts to develop a version of the antibiotic erythromycin that did not experience acid instability in the digestive tract, causing side effects, such as nausea and stomachache. Taisho filed for patent protection for the drug around 1980 and subsequently introduced a branded version of its drug, called Clarith, to the Japanese market in 1991. In 1985, Taisho partnered with the American company Abbott Laboratories for the international rights, and Abbott also gained FDA approval for Biaxin in October 1991. The drug went generic in Europe in 2004 and in the US in mid-2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Society and culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cost.", "content": "Clarithromycin is available as a generic medication. The wholesale cost is between US$0.13 and $0.79 per dose. In the United States it is moderately expensive at $50–100 for a course of treatment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Available forms.", "content": "In the United States, clarithromycin is available as immediate release tablets, extended release tablets, and granules for oral suspension.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Brand names.", "content": "Clarithromycin is available under several brand names in many different countries, for example Biaxin, Crixan, Claritron, Clarihexal, Clacid, Claritt, Clacee, Clarac, Clariwin, Claripen, Clarem, Claridar, Cloff, Fromilid, Infex, Kalixocin, Karicin, Klaricid, Klaridex, Klacid, Klaram, Klabax, MegaKlar, Monoclar, Resclar, Rithmo, Truclar, Vikrol and Zeclar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manufacturers.", "content": "In the UK the drug product is manufactured in generic form by a number of manufacturers including Somex Pharma, Ranbaxy, Aptil and Sandoz.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Clarithromycin, sold under the brand name Biaxin among others, is an antibiotic used to treat various bacterial infections. This includes strep throat, pneumonia, skin infections, \"H. pylori\" infection, and Lyme disease, among others. Clarithromycin can be taken by mouth as a pill or liquid. Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, headaches, and diarrhea. Severe allergic reactions are rare. Liver problems have been reported. It may cause harm if taken during pregnancy. It is in the macrolide class and works by decreasing protein production of some bacteria. Clarithromycin was developed in 1980 and approved for medical use in 1990. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system. Clarithromycin is available as a generic medication. The wholesale cost in the developing world is between US$0.13 and $0.79 per dose. In the United States it is moderately expensive at $50–100 for a course of treatment. It is made from erythromycin and is chemically known as 6-O-methylerythromycin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975866}
{"src_title": "Blaster (computer worm)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Creation and effects.", "content": "According to court papers, the original Blaster was created after security researchers from the Chinese group Xfocus reverse engineered the original Microsoft patch that allowed for execution of the attack.  The worm spreads by exploiting a buffer overflow discovered by the Polish security research group Last Stage of Delirium in the DCOM RPC service on the affected operating systems, for which a patch had been released one month earlier in MS03-026 and later in MS03-039. This allowed the worm to spread without users opening attachments simply by spamming itself to large numbers of random IP addresses. Four versions have been detected in the wild. These are the most well-known exploits of the original flaw in RPC, but there were in fact another 12 different vulnerabilities that did not see as much media attention.  The worm was programmed to start a SYN flood against port 80 of windowsupdate.com if the system date is after August 15 and before December 31 and after the 15th day of other months, thereby creating a distributed denial of service attack (DDoS) against the site. The damage to Microsoft was minimal as the site targeted was windowsupdate.com, rather than windowsupdate.microsoft.com, to which the former was redirected. Microsoft temporarily shut down the targeted site to minimize potential effects from the worm.  The worm's executable, MSBlast.exe, contains two messages. The first reads: I just want to say LOVE YOU SAN!! This message gave the worm the alternative name of Lovesan. The second reads: billy gates why do you make this possible? Stop making money and fix your software!! This is a message to Bill Gates, the co-founder of Microsoft and the target of the worm.  The worm also creates the following registry entry so that it is launched every time Windows starts: HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\\SOFTWARE\\Microsoft\\Windows\\CurrentVersion\\Run\\ windows auto update=msblast.exe", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Side effects.", "content": "Although the worm can only spread on systems running Windows 2000 or Windows XP, it can cause instability in the RPC service on systems running other versions of Windows NT, including Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition. In particular, the worm does not spread in Windows Server 2003 because Windows Server 2003 was compiled with the /GS switch, which detected the buffer overflow and shut the RPCSS process down. When infection occurs, the buffer overflow causes the RPC service to crash, leading Windows to display the following message and then automatically reboot, usually after 60 seconds.  This was the first indication many users had an infection; it often occurred a few minutes after every startup on compromised machines. A simple resolution to stop countdown is to run the \"shutdown /a\" command, causing some side effects such as an empty (without users) Welcome Screen. The Welchia worm had a similar effect. Months later, the Sasser worm surfaced, which caused a similar message to appear.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Blaster Worm (also known as Lovsan, Lovesan, or MSBlast) was a computer worm that spread on computers running operating systems Windows XP and Windows 2000 during August 2003.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975867}
{"src_title": "Julio González (sculptor)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth.", "content": "Julio González Pellicer was born in Barcelona, on September 21, 1876. He came from a line of metalsmith workers; his grandfather was a goldsmith in Galicia. González's father, Concordio González, owned a workshop and as a young boy, González learned from him the techniques of gold, silver, and iron metalwork. He and his older brother, Joan González, both studied these techniques. Further, all three González children studied at Circol Artist Sant Luc, a Catholic school that remodeled its education on the medieval art guilds, influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement in England. In 1896, González's father, died. The family workshop was passed onto the older son, Joan. With Joan directly involved with the family workshop, Joan and Julio focused on their metalwork techniques and artistic aspirations. By the end of the century, both brothers began to frequent visiting Els Quatre Gats, a café which was the meeting point of many artists, especially those related with modernisme. It was there where they met artists like Joan Miró and Pablo Picasso.  By the turn of the 20th century, Pablo Picasso and Julio González became great friends. González moved to Paris in 1902, but traveled to Barcelona several times in the early 20th century. At the Picasso Museum in Barcelona, their close friendship is verified by a drawn portrait, entitled \"Julio González and the Robust Man Seen from Behind\". They remained close friends until 1908; scholars do not know why their friendship ended at this time, but based on González archival materials, it appears to be related to previous dispute with Julio's brother, Joan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Paris.", "content": "In Paris he associated with the Spanish circle of artists of Montmartre, including Pablo Gargallo, Juan Gris and Max Jacob. In 1918, he developed an interest in the artistic possibilities of welding, after learning the technique whilst working in the Renault factory at Boulogne-Billancourt. This technique would subsequently become his principal contribution to sculpture, though during this period he also painted and —especially— created jewellery pieces. In 1920 he renewed his acquaintance with Picasso, for whom he later provided technical assistance in executing sculptures in iron, participating to Picasso's researches on analytic cubism. He also forged the infrastructures of Constantin Brâncuși's plasters. In the winter of 1927–28, he showed Picasso how to use oxy-fuel welding and cutting. When their friendship re-established itself, Picasso and González collaborated on a piece called \"Woman in the Garden\" between 1928–1930. From October 1928 till 1932, both men worked together—and in 1932, González was the only artist with whom Picasso shared his own personal art carnet. Influenced by Picasso, the fifty-year-old González deeply changed his style, exchanging bronze for iron, and volumes for lines. González began to formalize a new visual language in sculpture that would change the course of his career.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ironwork 1932–1937.", "content": "González created ironwork at this time that would establish him as \"the father of all iron sculpture of this century\". During the early 1930s, few artists utilized forged or welded metal as a potential medium for their art. This is because, at the time, many artists did not directly work with the medium. Rather, artists worked with a foundry and expert technicians to execute the works of art. González was unique in this instance because his work demanded an active interaction- something that required the skills shaped by a long and specialized apprenticeship. In 1937 he contributed to the Spanish Pavilion at the World Fair in Paris (\"La Montserrat\", standing near \"Guernica\"), and to \"Cubism and Abstract Art\" at the Museum of Modern Art in New York.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1938–1942: later years.", "content": "As González aged between 1938 and 1940, he drew more. These later works, as scholar, Joseph Withers states, “touch on larger problems and personal concerns which necessitated our discussion of these works in the context of González's evidently pessimistic reaction to the Spanish Civil War and the Second World War. Julio González was directly effected by the Second World War; his daughter Roberta González married German painter—and Julio's assistant—Hans Hartung in 1938. When the German invasion occurred in France, the couple had to separate from the rest of the family since Hans Hartung was an anti-Nazi and was wanted by the German secret police. While separated from his daughter and son-in-law, Julio Gonzalez drew figurative drawings and worked on plaster casts. The drawings and castings produced during the last two years of his life are testimonies to the suffering and despair Gonzalez felt towards tyranny and war. Julio Gonzalez died in Arcueil on March 27, 1942.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public collections.", "content": "The Art Institute of Chicago, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden (Washington D.C.), the Honolulu Museum of Art, the Kröller-Müller Museum (Otterlo, Netherlands), the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Luís Ángel Arango Library (Bogotá, Colombia), the Mary and Leigh Block Museum of Art (Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois), Musée des Beaux-Arts de Rennes (France), Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (Madrid) Museo Patio Herreriano de Valladolid (Spain), Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya (Barcelona, Spain), the Museum of Modern Art (New York City), the Nasher Sculpture Center (Dallas, Texas), the National Gallery of Scotland (Edinburgh), the Peggy Guggenheim Collection (Venice), the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Pompidou Center (Paris), the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (New York City), and the Tate Gallery (London) are among the public collections holding work by Julio González. The biggest collection of this artist's work is held by the IVAM (Valencia's Institute of Modern Art), in the city of Valencia, Spain, with close to 400 pieces.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Julio González i Pellicer (21 September 1876 - 27 March 1942) was a Spanish sculptor and painter who developed the expressive use of iron as a medium for modern sculpture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975868}
{"src_title": "Lothar Wolleh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Lothar Wolleh was the first of four sons of the single worker Else Martha Wolleh born in Berlin-Wedding. He spent the war years in Berlin. The bombing of the Allies, especially the death of the uncle's family as well as his participation \"in the last squad\" in the final battle for Berlin in April and May 1945 have left deep psychological traces throughout his life. In the years from 1946 to 1947 he studied \"concrete painting\" in the elementary school class at the \"Hochschule für angewandte Kunst\" in Berlin-Weißensee.  From December 1947 to October 1949, he lived in “Boys Town” in Bad Vilbel, a camp run by the US Army for uprooted young Germans, based on the approach of Father Edward J. Flanagan. A few months after his return to Berlin in July 1950, he was arrested by the Soviet occupying forces and sentenced by a special court \"OSO\" (remote judgement from Moscow) to 15 years in a forced labor camp for alleged espionage and diversion under Articles 58.6 and 58.9 of the USSR. Until 1956 Wolleh was in the GULAG labor camp Vorkutlag in the USSR, where he did forced labor in a coal mine. Wolleh was able to return to Berlin in 1956, due to Konrad Adenauer's successful negotiations on the return of German prisoners of war. The torture after the arrest and the hard detention and working conditions in coal mining left behind physical damage and post-traumatic disorders. At the same time, the GULAG labor camp Vorkutlag established his first contact with photography and a mythical worship of light.  After his return from prison, from 1956 to 1957 Wolleh obtained an education in the Lette-Verein, a continuation school for photography, design and fashion in Berlin. He took part in a regular monthly recovery program of the World Council of Churches for war-disabled youth. This program made it possible for him to visit the Swedish island of Gotland in 1958, which was a motivation for his lifelong strong affinity towards Sweden, its culture, landscape and people.  From 1962 until his death he lived and worked in Düsseldorf as a freelance photographer. Initially, he worked primarily in advertising and later turned to his artistic work. In 1964 he married his wife Karin. His son Oliver was born in 1965, his daughter Anouchka in 1966. In 1979 Lothar Wolleh died after an asthma attack in London, after he had portrayed Henry Moore. His grave is on Gotland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "As a freelancer for the advertising agency TEAM, which also included Helmut Newton, Wolleh became one of the most famous and expensive fashion, advertising and portrait photographers in the Federal Republic of Germany. His clients included well-known companies such as the Deutsche Bundesbahn, Tchibo or Volkswagen. In 1965 he portrayed Chancellor Ludwig Erhard for the campaign for the general election.  In the years 1962 to 1965 Wolleh photographed the Second Vatican Council in Rome. With the help of Father Emil Schmitz SJ, Wolleh's first photo book \"Das Konzil, II Vatikanisches Konzil\" published in 1965 by the publisher Belser. In 1975 he photographed the Jubilee celebration, and published the photographic folios \"Apostolorum Limina\" (1975). This work, with its blurring, represents a radical evolution of Wolleh ́s color photography, as suggested by the first book \"Das Konzil, II Vatikanisches Konzil\".  In 1969, Wolleh traveled for several months through the Soviet Union. The photographs taken on this journey found their way into the 1970 illustrated book USSR - The Soviet State and its People, which he published together with Heinrich Böll and Valentin Katajew with Belser publisher.  In the late 1960s, at the request of his friend the German painter Günther Uecker, Wolleh began to systematically portray more than one hundred international well known painters, sculptors, and Actionists. From the 1970s Wolleh hardly worked as a commercial photographer and devoted himself almost exclusively to his series of artist portraits, in which he first photographed the well-known artists of the Düsseldorf scene, including Heinz Mack, Otto Piene, Joseph Beuys and Gerhard Richter. Soon, however, his project expanded beyond the borders of the Rhineland to the whole of Europe, focusing on the Zero (art) group or the Nouveau Réalisme with its members like Niki de Saint Phalle and Jean Tinguely.  Out of this project several comprehensive photobook-projects evolved:  Several book and art portfolio projects remained unfinished, so a volume to Lucio Fontana, Jan Schoonhoven, The illustrated book \"Men of Management\", in which company founders and managers of the leading German companies were portrayed not to be released because of feared attacks by the Red Army faction. Further projects were the underwater book, which Beuys and Wolleh had planned together and created the 51 format-filling pictures for the book. The photographs were taken during the construction of the Beuys exhibition at the Moderna Museet in Stockholm in 1971.  Between 1977 and 1979 there were several stays in Poland. in the Wolleh until his death at the unfinished photo volumes The black Madonna of Czestochowa and Wawel Castle worked. During this time, numerous portraits of the Polish avant-garde emerged.[1]  Wolleh's photograph of René Magritte and his wife is said to have inspired Paul Simon to compose the ballad \"Rene And Georgette Magritte With Their Dog After The War\".  In his work, Lothar Wolleh pursued idiosyncratic creative principles that give his portraits an unmistakable signature. His works are precisely designed and staged through a clear, often strictly symmetrical image structure. The portrayed persons are usually placed as a whole figure on the vertical central axis in the upper half of the picture. Often the camera is on the ground or near the ground, so that it occupies almost the entire lower half of the picture, receives a base function and a clear horizon line divides the image area. Another characteristic is the black and white photography, in the context of a basically square format. In total, Lothar Wolleh portrayed 109 artists.  In 2007, the comprehensive retrospective \"Lothar Wolleh – Eine Wiederentdeckung: Fotografien 1959 bis 1979 (Lothar Wolleh - A Rediscovery: Photographs 1959 to 1979)\" was shown in Germany at Kunsthalle Bremen, Stadtmuseum Hofheim, Kunstmuseum Ahlen and the Deutschherrenhaus Koblenz.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lothar Wolleh (January 20, 1930 – September 28, 1979) was a well-known German photographer. Until the end of the sixties, Lothar Wolleh worked as a commercial photographer. He took portraits of international contemporary painters, sculptors and performance artists. Altogether, he photographed about 109 artists, including known personalities such as Georg Baselitz, Joseph Beuys, Dieter Roth, Jean Tinguely, René Magritte, Günther Uecker, Gerhard Richter, Edward Kienholz, Otto Piene, Niki de Saint Phalle, and Christo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975869}
{"src_title": "Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Godolphin, the only child of Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, was born in Whitehall, London, on 3 September 1678, and baptised the same day. His mother, Margaret Godolphin, died six days later on 9 September. John Evelyn, who had been her most intimate acquaintance, transferred his friendship to her infant son, took general charge of his education, and continued to further his welfare as he grew. Godolphin was educated at Eton College, and at King's College, Cambridge, where he took an M.A. degree in 1705.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Godolphin was returned as Member of Parliament for Helston at the 1695 English general election. He voted against the attainder of Sir John Fenwick on 25 November 1696. His first public appointment was that of joint registrar of the court of chancery on 29 June 1698, which he held to 20 January 1727. He did not stand at the 1698 English general election. He also held the place of one of the tellers of the Exchequer from 1699 to 1704. He was returned as MP for East Looe at the first general election of 1701, and at the second general election of that year he was returned for both Helston and East Looe, and chose to sit for Helston. He was classed as a Tory, and on 26 February 1702, supported the motion vindicating the Commons’ proceedings against the Whig ministers. He was returned again for Helston at the 1702 English general election but with the Administration headed by his father, he began to switch his loyalty to the Court. Early in 1704, his father and the Duchess of Marlborough obtained for him the post of Cofferer of the Household which he held until 1711. Godolphin was seen as an opponent of the Tack, and did not vote for it on 28 November 1704. He was appointed Lord Warden of the Stannaries, high steward of the Duchy of Cornwall, and rider and master forester of Dartmoor at the beginning of 1705. At the 1705 English general election he tried to unseat two Tackers when he stood for the Cambridge University constituency, but was defeated. He also stood again at Helston and was returned as MP there. He voted for the Court candidate for Speaker on 25 October 1705.  Godolphin was known by the courtesy title of \"Viscount Rialton\" from 29 December 1706 until 1712. Early in 1708, he gave up the office of Warden of the Stannaries, and the other posts which had become too burdensome for him. At the 1708 British general election, he was returned as MP for both Helston and Oxfordshire, and chose to sit at Oxfordshire. In 1710 he voted for the impeachment of Dr Sacheverell. At the 1710 British general election he chose not to stand at Oxfordshire, was defeated at Penryn, but was returned as MP for Tregony on the Boscawen interest. He was classed as a Whig and lost his post in the Household on the change of Administration. He voted for the ‘No Peace without Spain’ motion on 7 December 1711. On his father's death on 15 September 1712, he succeeded to the peerage as Earl of Godolphin. He vacated his seat in the House of Commons, and joined the House of Lords.  Lord Rialton was again Cofferer of the Household from 1714 to 1723, as well as Lord Lieutenant of Oxfordshire from 1715 to 1735, lord of the bedchamber to George I in 1716, High Steward of Banbury in 1718, and a privy councillor from 26 May 1723. To George II he was groom of the stole, and first lord of the bedchamber from 1727 to 1735. He was named high steward of Woodstock on 18 March 1728 and appointed Governor of the Scilly Islands on 18 April 1733.  On 23 January 1735, Lord Rialton was created \"Baron Godolphin of Helston in Cornwall\", with special remainder, in default of his own issue, to the heirs male of his deceased uncle, Dr Henry Godolphin, dean of St. Paul's. During the king's absence from Britain in 1723, 1725 and 1727, Godolphin acted as one of the lords justices of the United Kingdom. Finally, as Lord Privy Seal, he was in office from 14 May 1735 to 25 April 1740. The pocket borough of Helston, not far from his ancestral home, Godolphin House, was under his patronage for many years, and sent his nominees to Parliament. In return for this compliance, he rebuilt Helston Church in 1763 at a cost of £6,000. It was also his custom to pay the rates and taxes for all electors in the borough. It is said that he read only two works: Burnet's \"History of my own Time\" and Colley Cibber's \"Apology\". When he had perused them throughout, he began them again.  Godolphin was married in March 1698 to Lady Henrietta Churchill, eldest daughter of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough and Sarah Jennings. She was born on 20 July 1681 and baptised at St. Martin-in-the-Fields, London. on 29 July 1681. On the death of her father, 16 June 1722, she became Duchess of Marlborough in her own right. She died on 24 October 1733 and was buried in Westminster Abbey on 9 November. She had meanwhile acquired notoriety by an attachment to William Congreve, the dramatist.  Godolphin was one of the founding governors of the Foundling Hospital, a London charity created in 1739. It aimed to tackle the problem of child abandonment by providing an orphanage where parents could leave babies they considered themselves incapable of raising. He also had the distinction of owning one of the founding thoroughbred sires, the Godolphin Arabian. Among his protégés was the physician and humorist Messenger Monsey, for whom he obtained the position of physician to Royal Chelsea Hospital.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Lord Godolphin died at his house in the Stable Yard, St James's, on 17 January 1766 and was buried in Kensington Church on 25 January. He and his wife had two sons and four daughters, of whom two sons and a daughter predeceased him.  Without living male heirs, the earldom of Godolphin, viscountcy of Rialton and barony of Godolphin of Rialton became extinct. The last devolved on his cousin Francis Godolphin, 2nd Baron Godolphin of Helston.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin, (3 September 1678 – 17 January 1766), styled Viscount Rialton from 1706 to 1712, was an English courtier and politician who sat in the English and British House of Commons between 1695 and 1712, when he succeeded to the peerage as Earl of Godolphin. Initially a Tory, he modified his views when his father headed the Administration in 1702, and was eventually a Whig. He was a philanthropist and one of the founding governors of the Foundling Hospital in 1739.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975870}
{"src_title": "George Stubbs", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Stubbs was born in Liverpool, the son of a currier, or leather-dresser, John Stubbs, and his wife Mary. Information on his life until the age of 35 or so is sparse, relying almost entirely on notes made by Ozias Humphry, a fellow artist and friend; Humphry's informal memoir, which was not intended for publication, was based on a series of private conversations he had with Stubbs around 1794, when Stubbs was 70 years old, and Humphry 52.  Stubbs worked at his father's trade until the age of 15 or 16, at which point he told his father that he wished to become a painter. While initially resistant, Stubbs's father (who died not long after in 1741), eventually acquiesced in his son's choice of a career path, on the condition that he could find an appropriate mentor. Stubbs subsequently approached the Lancashire painter and engraver Hamlet Winstanley, and was briefly engaged by him in a sort of apprenticeship relationship, probably not more than several weeks in duration. Having initially demonstrated his abilities and agreed to do some copying work, Stubbs had access to and opportunity to study the collection at Knowsley Hall near Liverpool, the estate where Winstanley was then residing; however, he soon left when he came into conflict with the older artist over exactly which pictures he could work on copying. Thereafter as an artist he was self-taught. He had had a passion for anatomy from his childhood, and in or around 1744, he moved to York, in the North of England, to pursue his ambition to study the subject under experts. In York, from 1745 to 1753, he worked as a portrait painter, and studied human anatomy under the surgeon Charles Atkinson, at York County Hospital, One of his earliest surviving works is a set of illustrations for a textbook on midwifery by John Burton, \"Essay towards a Complete New System of Midwifery\", published in 1751.  In 1754 Stubbs visited Italy. Forty years later he told Ozias Humphry that his motive for going to Italy was, \"to convince himself that nature was and is always superior to art whether Greek or Roman, and having renewed this conviction he immediately resolved upon returning home\". In 1756 he rented a farmhouse in the village of Horkstow, Lincolnshire, and spent 18 months dissecting horses, assisted by his common-law wife, Mary Spencer. He moved to London in about 1759 and in 1766 published \"The anatomy of the Horse\". The original drawings are now in the collection of the Royal Academy.  Even before his book was published, Stubbs's drawings were seen by leading aristocratic patrons, who recognised that his work was more accurate than that of earlier horse painters such as James Seymour, Peter Tillemans and John Wootton. In 1759 the 3rd Duke of Richmond commissioned three large pictures from him, and his career was soon secure. By 1763 he had produced works for several more dukes and other lords and was able to buy a house in Marylebone, a fashionable part of London, where he lived for the rest of his life.  His most famous work is probably \"Whistlejacket\", a painting of the thoroughbred race horse rising on his hind legs, commissioned by the 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, which is now in the National Gallery in London. This and two other paintings carried out for Rockingham break with convention in having plain backgrounds. Throughout the 1760s he produced a wide range of individual and group portraits of horses, sometimes accompanied by hounds. He often painted horses with their grooms, whom he always painted as individuals. Meanwhile, he also continued to accept commissions for portraits of people, including some group portraits. From 1761 to 1776 he exhibited at the Society of Artists of Great Britain, but in 1775 he switched his allegiance to the recently founded but already more prestigious Royal Academy of Arts. Stubbs also painted more exotic animals including lions, tigers, giraffes, monkeys, and rhinoceroses, which he was able to observe in private menageries. His painting of a kangaroo was the first glimpse of this animal for many 18th-century Britons. He became preoccupied with the theme of a wild horse threatened by a lion and produced several variations on this theme. These and other works became well known at the time through engravings of Stubbs's work, which appeared in increasing numbers in the 1770s and 1780s.  Stubbs also painted historical pictures, but these are much less well regarded. From the late 1760s he produced some work on enamel. In the 1770s Josiah Wedgwood developed a new and larger type of enamel panel at Stubbs's request. Stubbs hoped to achieve commercial success with his paintings in enamel, but the venture left him in debt. Also in the 1770s he painted single portraits of dogs for the first time, while also receiving an increasing number of commissions to paint hunts with their packs of hounds. He remained active into his old age. In the 1780s he produced a pastoral series called \"Haymakers and Reapers\", and in the early 1790s he enjoyed the patronage of the Prince of Wales, whom he painted on horseback in 1791. His last project, begun in 1795, was \"A comparative anatomical exposition of the structure of the human body with that of a tiger and a common fowl\", fifteen engravings from which appeared between 1804 and 1806. The project was left unfinished upon Stubbs's death at the age of 81 on 10 July 1806, in London. He was buried in the graveyard of Marylebone Church, now a public garden.  Stubbs's son George Townly Stubbs was an engraver and printmaker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Stubbs remained a secondary figure in British art until the mid-twentieth century. The art historian Basil Taylor and art collector Paul Mellon both championed Stubbs's work. Stubbs's \"Pumpkin with a Stable-lad\" was the first painting that Mellon bought in 1936. Basil Taylor was commissioned in 1955 by Pelican Press to write the book \"Animal Painting in England – From Barlow to Landseer\", which included a large segment on Stubbs. In 1959 Mellon and Taylor first met and bonded over their appreciation of Stubbs. This led Mellon to create the Paul Mellon Foundation for British Art (The predecessor of the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art) with Taylor as the director. Mellon eventually amassed the largest collection of Stubbs paintings in the world which would become a part of his larger collection of British art that would become the Yale Center for British Art. In 1971, Taylor published the seminal catalogue, \"Stubbs\". The record price for a Stubbs painting was set by the sale at auction of \"Gimcrack on Newmarket Heath, with a Trainer, a Stable-Lad, and a Jockey\" (1765) at Christie's in London in July 2011 for £22.4 million. It was sold by the British Woolavington Collection of sporting art; the buyer was unidentified. The British Royal Collection holds 16 paintings by Stubbs.  Two paintings by Stubbs were bought by the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, London after a public appeal to raise the £1.5 million required. The two paintings, \"The Kongouro from New Holland\" and \"Portrait of a Large Dog\" were both painted in 1772. Depicting a kangaroo and a dingo respectively, they are the first depictions of Australian animals in Western art.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George Stubbs (25 August 1724 – 10 July 1806) was an English painter, best known for his paintings of horses. Self-trained, Stubbs learnt his skills independently from other great artists of the eighteenth century such as Reynolds or Gainsborough. Stubbs' output includes history paintings, but his greatest skill was in painting animals, perhaps influenced by his love and study of anatomy. His most famous painting, \"Whistlejacket\", hangs in the National Gallery, London.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975871}
{"src_title": "Aloe arborescens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Aloe arborescens\" is a large, multi-headed, sprawling succulent, and its specific name indicates that it sometimes reaches tree size. A typical height for this species is high. Its leaves are succulent and are green with a slight blue tint. Its leaves have small spikes along its edges and are arranged in rosettes situated at the end of branches. Flowers are arranged in a type of inflorescence called a raceme. The racemes are not branched but two to several can sprout from each rosette. Flowers are cylindrical in shape and are a vibrant red-orange color.  Taxonomically, it forms part of the \"Arborescentes\" series of very closely related \"Aloe\" species, together with \"Aloe pluridens\" and \"Aloe mutabilis\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Aloe arborescens\" is endemic to the south eastern part of Southern Africa. Specifically, this range includes the countries of South Africa, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe. It has the third largest distribution amongst the aloe genus. Although \"Aloe arborescens\" has adapted to many different habitats, its natural habitat usually consists of mountainous areas, including rocky outcrops and exposed ridges. Its common name \"krantz aloe\" refers to the Afrikaans word \"\"krantz\"\", which means a rocky cliff. Its habitat can vary, and it is one of only a few species of aloe that is found growing from sea level up to the tops of mountains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Aloe arborescens\" is valued by gardeners for its succulent green leaves, large vibrantly-colored flowers, and winter blooming. The sweet nectar attracts birds, butterflies, and bees. With a minimum temperature of, in temperate regions it is grown under glass. The cultivar \"A. arborescens\" 'Variegata' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. In Southern Africa, \"Aloe arborescens\" is traditionally planted around kraals (domestic stock enclosures) as a living fence or security hedge. It often happens that the position of old kraals can still be seen many years after they have been abandoned, because the aloes persist. It is easily propagated by cuttings.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aloe arborescens, the krantz aloe or candelabra aloe, is a species of flowering succulent perennial plant that belongs to the genus \"Aloe\", which it shares with the well known and studied \"Aloe vera\". The specific epithet \"arborescens\" means \"tree-like\". \"Aloe arborescens\" is valued by gardeners for its succulent green leaves, large vibrantly-colored flowers, winter blooming, and attraction for birds, bees, and butterflies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975872}
{"src_title": "Astacus astacus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ecology.", "content": "European crayfish feed on worms, aquatic insects, molluscs, and plants.  They are nocturnal, spending the day resting in a burrow.  \"A. astacus\" become sexually mature after three to four years and a series of moults, and breed in October and November. Fertilised eggs are carried by the female, attached to her pleopods, until the following May, when they hatch and disperse.  The main predators of \"A. astacus\", both as juveniles and adults, are mink, eels, perch, pike, otters, and muskrats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consumption.", "content": "This species was once abundant in Europe, although it was expensive to buy, and is considered to be the finest edible crayfish. It is, however, susceptible to the crayfish plague carried by the invasive North American species signal crayfish (\"Pacifastacus leniusculus\"), so is listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List.  Documentation of the consumption of \"A. astacus\" dates back to the Middle Ages, when it was popular among the Swedish nobility, spreading to all social classes by the 17th and 18th centuries due to its ready availability. The crayfish are collected from the wild in traps, a practice which is being replaced by more intensive aquaculture of the signal crayfish in man-made ponds. The consumption of crayfish is an important part of traditional Nordic culture, including the crayfish party (; ), a feast to mark the end of summer.  Hundreds of smaller or larger lakes were once found in the northern Moldavia, used for growing \"A. astacus\" meant for consumption during the extended fasting periods of the Orthodox Christian calendar. The area of the former Dorohoi County was one such area, and this legacy was visible in the county's historical coat of arms, featuring an \"A. astacus\" (Rmn. \"rac\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Astacin.", "content": "Astacins are a family of digestive enzymes, discovered in the 1990s, which were first isolated from \"A. astacus\". More than 20 enzymes of this group have since been discovered in animals from \"Hydra\" to humans.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Astacus astacus, the European crayfish, noble crayfish, or broad-fingered crayfish, is the most common species of crayfish in Europe, and a traditional food source. Like other true crayfish, \"A. astacus\" is restricted to fresh water, living only in unpolluted streams, rivers, and lakes. It is found from France throughout Central Europe, to the Balkan Peninsula, and north as far as parts of the British Isles, Scandinavia and Finland, and Eastern Europe. Males may grow up to 16 cm long, and females up to 12 cm.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975873}
{"src_title": "Adam Foote", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minor/Junior.", "content": "Foote grew up playing hockey for the Brooklin-Whitby Minor Hockey Association (OMHA). He was a teammate of future NHLer Keith Primeau for several years, leading their teams to several OMHA \"AA\" Championships in the early 1980s. After a successful midget season with Brooklin-Whitby's AA team, Foote was a second-round underage choice, 21st overall, of the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds in the 1988 OHL Priority Selection. Foote went on to play three OHL seasons with the Greyhounds, winning a J. Ross Robertson Cup and appearing in the Memorial Cup in his final season under future NHL head coach Ted Nolan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "Foote was selected 22nd overall by the Quebec Nordiques in the 1989 NHL Entry Draft. He played for Quebec for four seasons until the franchise moved to Colorado to become the Avalanche in 1995–96. Foote won his first of two Stanley Cups with the Avalanche that year, sweeping the Florida Panthers in the Finals. Five years later, Foote helped the Avalanche to a second Stanley Cup championship in 2001, defeating the New Jersey Devils in seven games.  The following season, in 2001–02, Foote recorded a career-high 22 assists in the regular season before missing out on his second straight Stanley Cup Finals appearance with the Avalanche, losing in seven games to the Detroit Red Wings in the Western Conference Finals. In 2002–03, Foote had another career-year offensively, scoring personal bests of 11 goals and 31 points. After a 30-point campaign in 2003–04, he remained inactive in 2004–05 due to the NHL lockout. When NHL play was set to resume in 2005–06, Foote parted ways with the Avalanche franchise after 13 seasons, signing a three-year contract worth $13.5 million with the Columbus Blue Jackets on August 1, 2005. He was immediately named an alternate captain for the upcoming season, but was assigned the Blue Jackets' captaincy in December 2005 when defenceman Luke Richardson stepped down from the position. He became the fourth captain in franchise history.  Three seasons later, with his contract set to expire, Foote was traded from the Blue Jackets back to the Colorado Avalanche in exchange for two conditional draft picks on February 26, 2008. The trade occurred amid speculation that the Blue Jackets were trying to re-sign Foote to keep him in Columbus, but could not meet Foote's asking price. Later that night, he arrived in Calgary during the first period to play against the Flames. Foote managed one goal and 15 assists for a total of 16 points in 75 games with the Avs and Blue Jackets combined.  On June 30, 2008, Foote agreed to re-sign with the Avalanche with a two-year $6 million deal at $3 million per season. His first full season back in Colorado was cut short by injury and he managed just 42 games. Further major injuries to key players in the lineup resulted in the Avalanche finishing in last place in the Western Conference. The following off-season, long-time Avalanche captain Joe Sakic announced his retirement. As training camp was set to begin for the 2009–10 season, Foote was named Sakic's successor on September 11, 2009, becoming the eighth captain in franchise history (including the Nordiques) and just the second in Avalanche history.  On May 25, 2010, the Avalanche re-signed Foote to a one-year contract extension for the 2010–11 season worth approximately $1 million.  On April 10, 2011, Foote played his last game with the Avalanche, winning 4–3 in overtime against the Edmonton Oilers during the season finale. He was awarded first star of the game. Foote was the last former Nordique to be active in the NHL. On November 2, 2013, Foote had his number 52 jersey retired by the Avalanche, joining elite company in Ray Bourque, Patrick Roy, Joe Sakic and Peter Forsberg in sharing the honour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Foote played minor hockey in Whitby, Ontario, and lived in Newcastle, Ontario, on the north shore of Lake Ontario. He lived there during the late 1990s before relocating to Whitby. Foote and his wife Jennifer have two sons — Callan, who was born prematurely on December 13, 1998, and Nolan, born November 29, 2000. Both played for the Western Hockey League's Kelowna Rockets, where he eventually became the head coach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Foote debuted for Team Canada at the inaugural World Cup in 1996, scoring one goal as Canada finished as runner-up to the United States. Two years later, Foote was named to Team Canada for the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan. The tournament marked the first time NHL players were allowed to participate in the Olympics. Foote managed an assist in six games as Canada finished in fourth place, losing to the Czech Republic in the semi-finals, then Finland in the bronze medal game. At the next Winter Olympics in 2002, Foote helped Canada end a 50-year gold medal drought in the ice hockey tournament by defeating the United States in the final. He won another championship two years later and was even selected to the Tournament All-Star Team in his second World Cup in 2004, defeating Finland in the final. Selected to play in his third Olympics at the 2006 Games in Turin, Italy, Canada finished a disappointing seventh place while attempting to defend their gold medal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adam David Vernon Foote (born July 10, 1971) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman, is the former head coach of the Kelowna Rockets of the Western Hockey League. He was fired from that position on February 19, 2020. He was best known for his physical presence and gritty play as a stay-at-home defenceman.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975874}
{"src_title": "Pressurized Mating Adapter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "All the PMAs on the ISS are identical but used slightly differently, and all three perform the same basic function of connecting a Common Berthing Mechanism port of an ISS module to an APAS-95 docking port of another module or visiting spacecraft. For this the PMAs carry a passive CBM port and a passive APAS port. They are pressurized and heated from the inside, and through docking rings as well as external connections allow for power and data communications transfer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "PMA-1.", "content": "This was one of the first components of the International Space Station and joins the Russian side of the station with the US side. On STS-88 the crew used the shuttle's robotic arm to attach the Zarya control module to PMA-1, which was already connected to the aft berthing port of \"Unity\". PMA-1 now permanently connects these first two station components.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PMA-2.", "content": "PMA-2 is mounted on the forward port of the \"Harmony\" connecting node and was used when Space Shuttle orbiters docked at the station. It is the only PMA that has been outfitted with Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS) hardware, which allowed shuttles to stay docked longer to the space station. Due to space station assembly PMA-2 has been moved several times. It was originally connected to the forward hatch of \"Unity\", but when STS-98 delivered the \"Destiny\" in February 2001, \"Destiny\" was berthed to that hatch while PMA-2 was moved to the berthing ring of the Z1 truss. It was finally moved to the forward hatch of \"Destiny\". (The removal of PMA-2 from \"Unity\" was the first time the Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) was used to disconnect two ISS components.) After STS-120 had delivered \"Harmony\" at the station in October 2007, Canadarm2 relocated PMA-2 to its final location at the forward hatch of \"Harmony\" on November 12, 2007. Two days later, the combined package of \"Harmony\" and PMA-2 was moved to its final location, the forward hatch of \"Destiny\". As of 2020, PMA-2 is staying berthed at the forward port of \"Harmony\" for the remaining duration of the ISS. When a shuttle docked with the station, its \"final approach [was] at a relative velocity of one-tenth of a foot per second. [As it made] contact with Pressurized Mating Adapter 2 [latches] automatically attached the two spacecraft together. Once relative motion between the spacecraft stopped, [a Shuttle astronaut retracted] the docking ring on [the Shuttle's] mechanism, closing latches to firmly secure the shuttle to the station.\" International Docking Adapter-2 was launched on SpaceX CRS-9 on 18 July 2016. It was attached and connected to PMA-2 during a spacewalk on 19 August 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PMA-3.", "content": "In October 2000 STS-92 brought PMA-3, mounted on a Spacelab pallet, to the station. It was initially attached to the nadir (bottom, or Earth-facing) hatch of \"Unity\". One and a half months later, when STS-97 delivered the P6 solar array truss structure, \"Endeavour\" docked at PMA-3. Also, when STS-98 moved PMA-2 from \"Unity\" to \"Destiny\" via Z1, \"Atlantis\" was docked at PMA-3. PMA-3 was not used for Shuttle dockings for the rest of the shuttle's operation. PMA-3 was moved in March 2001 to \"Unity\"'s port hatch by the crew of STS-102 to make room for the docking of a Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM). On August 30, 2007, PMA-3 was moved to the nadir port of \"Unity\" to make room for the temporary docking of the new \"Harmony\" module that was delivered by STS-120. \"Harmony\" was transferred to the forward port of \"Destiny\", while PMA-3 was moved back to the port berthing mechanism of \"Unity\" on August 7, 2009, to accommodate reconfiguration of the \"Unity\" port bulkhead by crew members in a pressurized environment. On January 25, 2010, PMA-3 was moved from the port berthing mechanism of \"Unity\" to the zenith (space facing) port of \"Harmony\" to make room for the new \"Tranquility (Node 3)\" module which was added to the station during STS-130. After activation of \"Tranquility\", PMA-3 was moved again on February 16, 2010 to the port location on \"Tranquility\" where the Cupola had been docked for launch. PMA-3 was robotically removed March 26, 2017 from the Tranquility module and attached to the Harmony module after being prepared during a successful spacewalk on March 24, 2017. A second spacewalk was conducted on March 30, 2017 to finalize the PMA-3 cable connections on Harmony. PMA-3 received the International Docking Adapter-3 adapter in August 2019.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Pressurized Mating Adapter (PMA) is a spacecraft adapter that converts the Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) used on the US Orbital Segment to APAS-95 docking ports. There are three PMAs located on the International Space Station (ISS). The first two PMAs were launched with the \"Unity\" module in 1998 aboard STS-88. The third was launched in 2000 aboard STS-92.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975875}
{"src_title": "Kofola", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Kofola originated in the Czechoslovak Research Institute of Medicinal Plants in Prague now Czech Republic in 1959, during research targeted at finding a possible use for surplus caffeine produced in the process of coffee roasting. The resulting dark-coloured, sweet-and-sour syrup \"Kofo\" became the main ingredient of a new soft drink named \"Kofola\" introduced in 1960. During the 1960s and 1970s Kofola became exceedingly popular in communist Czechoslovakia because it substituted for Western cola drinks like Coca-Cola or Pepsi, which were not generally available. Even today, Kofola is a popular option in restaurants as can be draught from kegs right into glass.  Since 1998 Kofola has been bottled (in addition to classical 0.33-litre glass bottles) in 0.5-litre and 2-litre plastic bottles. 0.25-litre cans were introduced in 2003, 1-litre plastic-bottles in December 2004. Kofola draught from 50-litre kegs, traditionally sold in many bars and restaurants across the two countries, is very popular as well.  Since 2002 the producer has launched a successful media campaign aimed at a young and hip audience based on the slogan \"\"Když ji miluješ, není co řešit / Keď ju miluješ, nie je čo riešiť\"\" (\"\"If you love it, there is nothing to question\"\"). Until 2000, the Kofola logo featured a coffee bean. It now resembles a coffee flower.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Company.", "content": "After the fall of the Communist regime in 1989, Kofola had to compete with many foreign brands that entered the attractive newly opened market. After a period of decline and trademark lawsuits (many companies produced their own similarly tasting \"kofola\" because the term became a genericized trademark), in 2000 the \"Santa nápoje\" company, owned by the Greek-immigrant Samaras family, became the only producer and distributor of Kofola in Czech Republic and Slovakia. Other producers of similar drinks had to rename their products (most notable Slovakian Hejkola and Šofocola).  The company \"Santa nápoje\" originally produced Kofola drink only in the parent factory in Krnov. In 2002, the company built a new factory in Rajecká Lesná, Slovakia, to satisfy the demand of the Slovak market. In 2003, \"Santa nápoje\" changed its name to \"Kofola, a.s.\" and later to \"Kofola ČeskoSlovensko a.s\". Apart from Kofola it also produces other soft drinks, the spring water Rajec, the fresh fruit juices UGO, the syrups Jupí and children's drink Jupík, RC Cola under license and from 2008 the grape drink Vinea, that are exported to Poland, Hungary, Slovakia and Croatia.  In 2008 Kofola announced a merger with the Polish lemonade producer Hoop. In autumn 2008, the Polish Private Equity fund Enterprise Investors acquired in a Public Tender Offer 42.46% of Kofola-Hoop for approximately €140 million. In 2009, the Polish company Kofola-Hoop S.A. was renamed into Kofola S.A.  In April 2009, Kofola acquired Pinelli and since then has produced the energy drink Semtex. In 2010, Kofola opened a new factory in Mnichovo Hradiště. In December 2014, Kofola bought Slovenian factory for mineral water Radenska.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ingredients.", "content": "Kofo syrup, the main ingredient of Kofola, consists of 14 herbal and fruit ingredients (such as extracts from apple, cherry, currant, or herbal aroma), sugar and/or high fructose corn syrup (2014), and caramel. In comparison with Pepsi or Coca-Cola it contains 30% less sugar, ~56% more caffeine (15 mg/100ml, Coca-Cola 9.6 mg/100ml) and it does not contain phosphoric acid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "A Christmas limited edition with a hint of cinnamon was introduced at the end of 2007, and was only available around the Christmas period. In 2011-2016 was sold another variant of the drink called \"Kofola Extra Herbal\", it was extended with dandelion, gentian and peppermint. Other flavours introduced in limited editions include: cherry, pomegranate, almond, gingerbread, chocolate, coconut, walnut, plum, pear and mandarin. A 2019 Christmas edition is with a hint of apple and a bit of cinnamon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cocktails.", "content": "The most popular cocktail with kofola is a highball made of kofola, Czech Tuzemák (domestic rum) and lemon juice called \"Kofrum\", \"Handlová Libre\", \"Student lemonade\", \"Rebel\" or \"Chequia Libre\". Kofola with pilsner lager beer is called \"Kofola 'n' Beer\" or \"Diesel\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kofola () is a carbonated soft drink produced by Czech company Kofola, headquartered in Krnov, Czech Republic. It is the principal rival of Coca-Cola and Pepsi in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The company is one of the leading soft drinks producers and distributors in Central and Eastern Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975876}
{"src_title": "L'Assommoir", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The novel is principally the story of Gervaise Macquart, who is featured briefly in the first novel in the series, \"La Fortune des Rougon\", running away to Paris with her shiftless lover Lantier to work as a washerwoman in a hot, busy laundry in one of the seedier areas of the city.  \"L'Assommoir\" begins with Gervaise and her two young sons being abandoned by Lantier, who takes off for parts unknown with another woman. Though at first she swears off men altogether, eventually she gives in to the advances of Coupeau, a teetotal roofer, and they are married. The marriage sequence is one of the most famous set-pieces of Zola's work; the account of the wedding party's impromptu and chaotic trip to the Louvre is one of the novelist's most famous passages. Through a combination of happy circumstances, Gervaise is able to realise her dream and raise enough money to open her own laundry. The couple's happiness appears to be complete with the birth of a daughter, Anna, nicknamed Nana (the protagonist of Zola's later novel of the same title).  However, later in the story, we witness the downward trajectory of Gervaise's life from this happy high point. Coupeau is injured in a fall from the roof of a new hospital he is working on, and during his lengthy convalescence he takes first to idleness, then to gluttony and eventually to drink. In only a few months, Coupeau becomes a vindictive, wife-beating alcoholic, with no intention of trying to find more work. Gervaise struggles to keep her home together, but her excessive pride leads her to a number of embarrassing failures and before long everything is going downhill. Gervaise becomes infected by her husband’s newfound laziness and, in an effort to impress others, spends her money on lavish feasts; leading to uncontrolled debt.  The home is further disrupted by the return of Lantier, who is warmly welcomed by Coupeau - by this point losing interest in both Gervaise and life itself, and becoming seriously ill. The ensuing chaos and financial strain is too much for Gervaise, who loses her laundry-shop and is sucked into a spiral of debt and despair. Eventually, she too finds solace in drink and, like Coupeau, slides into heavy alcoholism. All this prompts Nana - already suffering from the chaotic life at home and getting into trouble on a daily basis - to run away from her parents' home and become a casual prostitute.  Gervaise’s story is told against a backdrop of a rich array of other well drawn characters with their own vices and idiosyncrasies. Notable amongst these being Goujet, a young blacksmith, who spends his life in unconsummated love for the hapless laundress.  Eventually, sunk by debt, hunger and alcohol Coupeau and Gervaise both die. The latter’s corpse lies for two days in her unkempt hovel before it is even noticed by her disdaining neighbours.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes and criticism.", "content": "Zola spent an immense amount of time researching Parisian street argot for his most realistic novel to that date, using a large number of obscure contemporary slang words and curses to capture an authentic atmosphere. His shocking descriptions of conditions in working-class 19th-century Paris drew widespread admiration for his realism, as it still does. L'Assommoir was taken up by temperance workers across the world as a tract against the dangers of alcoholism, though Zola always insisted there was considerably more to his novel than that. The novelist also drew criticism from some quarters for the depth of his reporting, either for being too coarse and vulgar or for portraying working-class people as shiftless drunkards. Zola rejected both these criticisms out of hand; his response was simply that he had presented a true picture of real life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The title.", "content": "The title \"L'Assommoir\" cannot be properly translated into English. It is adapted from the French verb \"assommer\" meaning to stun or knock out. The noun is a colloquial term popular in late nineteenth-century Paris, referring to a shop selling cheap liquor distilled on the premises \"where the working classes could drown their sorrows cheaply and drink themselves senseless\". Perhaps the closest equivalent terms in English are the slang adjectives \"\" and \"\". In the absence of a corresponding noun, English translators have rendered it as \"The Dram Shop\", \"The Gin Palace\", \"The Drunkard\", and \"The Drinking Den\". Most translators choose to retain the original French title.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translations.", "content": "\"L'Assommoir\" has often been translated, and there are several unexpurgated modern editions available. In the 1880s, Ernest Alfred Vizetelly produced an English language translation of the novel with some edits designed not to offend the sensibilities of British audiences. Along with his father, Vizetelly had translated a number of Zola's books. However, the salacious nature of Zola's work (even in edited form) would see the Vizetellys vilified in parliament and later prosecuted for obscenity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The French film \"L'Assommoir\" (1909), directed by Albert Capellani.  The French film \"L'Assommoir\" (1921), directed by Maurice de Marsan and Charles Maudru.  The American film \"The Struggle\" (1931), directed by D. W. Griffith, is a loose adaptation of the novel.  The French film \"L'Assommoir\" (1933), directed by Gaston Roudès. The French film \"Gervaise\" (1956), directed by René Clément, is an adaptation of the novel.  The Soviet film \"Zapadnia\" (Западня, 1972).  (English, HTML and plain text)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "(French, HTML and plain text)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "L'Assommoir (1877) is the seventh novel in Émile Zola's twenty-volume series \"Les Rougon-Macquart\". Usually considered one of Zola's masterpieces, the novel—a study of alcoholism and poverty in the working-class districts of Paris—was a huge commercial success and helped establish Zola's fame and reputation throughout France and the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975877}
{"src_title": "Great Mass in C minor, K. 427", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition and first performance.", "content": "The work was composed during 1782/83. In a letter to his father Leopold dated 4 January 1783, Mozart mentioned a vow he had made to write a mass when he would bring his then fiancée Constanze as his wife to Salzburg to meet his family for the first time after his father's earlier opposition. Constanze then sang the \"Et incarnatus est\" at its premiere.  The first performance took place in Salzburg on Sunday 26 October 1783 (the twentieth Sunday after Pentecost). Mozart had moved to Vienna in 1781, but was paying a visit to his home town in the company of Constanze, who had not yet met his father or his sister (Nannerl).  The performance consisted of just the Kyrie, Gloria, Sanctus and Benedictus, as surviving parts and a score copy form ca. 1800 show. It took place in the Church of St. Peter's Abbey in the context of a Roman Catholic mass. Mozart's sister's diary mentions that the performers were the entire, that is the musicians employed at the court of Salzburg's ruler, Prince-Archbishop Count Hieronymus von Colloredo and thus Mozart's former colleagues. There was a rehearsal in the nearby Kapellhaus on 23 October 1783.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fragmentary status.", "content": "The work is incomplete, missing the Credo movements following the aria Et incarnatus est (the orchestration of the only two surviving \"Credo\" movements being incomplete) and all of the Agnus Dei. The Sanctus is partially lost and requires editorial reconstruction. The Benedictus only survives in the above-mentioned score copy. There is a good deal of speculation concerning why the work was left unfinished. For purposes of modern performances, the editions and completions available are those by Alois Schmitt (1901, Breitkopf & Härtel), H. C. Robbins Landon (1956, Eulenburg), Helmut Eder (1985, Bärenreiter), Franz Beyer (1989, Amadeus/Edition Peters), Richard Maunder (1990, Oxford University Press/Carus Verlag), Philip Wilby (2004, Novello), Robert Levin (2005, Carus-Verlag), Clemens Kemme (2018, Breitkopf & Härtel), and Ulrich Leisinger (2019, Bärenreiter).  The editions by Landon, Eder, Beyer, Maunder and Kemme aim to simply fill out the missing orchestrations and choral parts in the Credo and Sanctus, whereas the editions by Schmitt, Wilby and Levin aim to complete the work by either using movements from other masses or composing new music for the Credo and Agnus Dei through the use of parody or elaboration of period sketches by Mozart. Benjamin-Gunnar Cohrs (Musikproduktion Höflich) just offers a complete Credo and an Agnus Dei. For the Credo this means a completions of the ‘Credo in unum Deum’ and the ‘Et incarnatus est’ and additional music for the rest of the Credo. This edition, therefore, is intended to be used in combination with any other version of the Mass. Robert Xavier Rodriguez has also completed the Agnus Dei.  Mozart later reused the music from the \"Kyrie\" and \"Gloria\", almost without changes except for the text, in the cantata \"Davide penitente\", K. 469.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "The work embodies pomp and solemnity associated with the Salzburg traditions of the time, but it also anticipates the symphonic masses of Joseph Haydn in its solo-choral sharing. The mass shows the influence of Bach and Handel, whose music Mozart was studying at this time (see Gottfried van Swieten).  On 20 August 2016 the version reconstructed by Helmut Eder was performed at the Royal Albert Hall, for the first time as part of The Proms series, by the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra and BBC Symphony Chorus, with Ilan Volkov conducting and featuring Louise Alder, Carolyn Sampson, Benjamin Hulett and Matthew Rose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Great Mass in C minor (), K. 427/417a, is the common name of the musical setting of the mass by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and considered one of his greatest works. He composed it in Vienna in 1782 and 1783 after his marriage when he moved to Vienna from Salzburg. This large-scale work, a missa solemnis, is scored for two soprano soloists, a tenor and a bass, double chorus and large orchestra. It remained unfinished, missing large portions of the Credo and the complete Agnus Dei.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975878}
{"src_title": "Spanish imperial eagle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "This is a large raptor and fairly large eagle, broadly similar in size to its cousin, the eastern imperial eagle, which is found in a considerably different distributional range. Compared to sympatric largish booted eagles, it is somewhat smaller than the golden eagle and somewhat larger than the Bonelli's eagle. Spanish imperial eagle can weigh from, with average weights ranging from. This species has a total length of and a wingspan of. The adult resembles the eastern imperial eagle and can superficially suggest the golden eagle (especially when distantly seen), but is overall a darker color than either, a rich blackish-brown which extends all the way to the throat.  Like the eastern imperial, the adult has a broad distinctive white band on the shoulder and leading edge of the wing and a much paler tawny color on the nape and crown, unlike the golden-yellow color on a similar area in the golden eagle. The juvenile Spanish imperial eagle is very different from adults and other large raptors in this range, being overall a uniform pale straw-sandy colour, contrasting with broad black bands on both the upper and lower sides of the wings. Smaller than the relatively small race of golden eagle found in the Iberian peninsula, it is somewhat slighter and slenderer in appearance compared to the more powerful golden species, with a relatively longer neck, and generally much flatter wing profile in flight than the upturned dihedral typical of a golden eagle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "The species occurs in central and south-west Spain and adjacent areas of Portugal, in the Iberian peninsula. Its stronghold is in the dehesa woodlands of central and south-west Spain, such as in Extremadura, Ciudad Real and areas in the north of Huelva and Seville's Sierra Norte. The Spanish imperial eagle is a resident species, unlike the partially migratory eastern imperial eagle. Stable occurrence in Morocco is disputed but immature birds during the dispersion period regularly visit Morocco.  Rising numbers of vagrant birds born in Spain and then electrocuted in Morocco have been noted; some areas used by the species in Morocco could be becoming sort of a \"drain\" in terms of the species recovery and this is due to the fact that the country stands in a similar situation as Spain was in the early 1980s when it comes to insulation of transmission towers. Vagrant birds have even reached Mauritania and Senegal. North of its natural range, vagrants have reached as far as the Netherlands in one rare occasion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Nesting habitat is usually dry, mature woodlands, which they utilize for nesting and seclusion, but nests are most often fairly close to shrubby openings and wetland areas where prey is more likely to be concentrated. A shy species toward man, they normally nest only where human disturbance is quite low. Like most raptors, they are highly territorial and tend to maintain a stable home range. Spanish imperial eagles nest from February to April. The nesting pair will construct a nest of as much as across at first build, which will increase in time, especially in mature \"Quercus suber\" or pine trees. Clutch size is usually two to three eggs, with an incubation period of about 43 days, but on average about 1.23-1.4 fledglings are produced per nest. Nestling mortality is usually due to human disturbance and destruction and nest collapses, secondarily due to predation and siblicide. Fledging is reached at 63-77 days of age but juveniles can linger for an extremely long period, to at least 160 days after fledging. It feeds mainly on European rabbits, which comprised about 58% of this species' diet before myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease greatly reduced the rabbit's native Iberian population. As rabbit population crashed they've been recorded feeding on a wide range of vertebrates with varied success depending upon prey populations and may become semi-specialized hunters of water birds especially Eurasian coots, ducks and geese, also taking some numbers of partridges, pigeons and crows and any other bird they happen to encounter that is vulnerable to ambush. More than 60 bird species are known in be included in their prey spectrum. Several mammals may too be taken occasionally including various rodents, hares, mustelids, hedgehogs and even other large predators such as red foxes or—rarely, since they are not typically present in the eagle's habitat—domestic cats and small dogs. Rarely, reptiles or even fish may also be preyed upon. The largest prey taken by this species may easily exceed, such as foxes, greylag geese or white storks, but mean prey mass is relatively low, especially in areas with fewer rabbits. One study reported mean prey mass as locally, though average prey size has also been reported more highly.  The Spanish imperial eagle is one of several rabbit-favoring birds of prey in Spain along with the similarly specialized Iberian lynx. This species is largely segregated by habitat from other eagles that specialize on rabbits here to lessen direct competition, as the imperial eagle favors woods, whereas the golden and Bonelli's eagles tend to dwell in much rockier areas. However, Spanish imperial eagles frequently quarrel over food with various raptors, even much larger vultures, and the raptors may at times try to kill the young of one another. In one case, in protection their own nest, an adult Spanish imperial eagle even killed a cinereous vulture, the largest accipitrid in the world. Healthy, free-flying Spanish imperial eagles are apex predators, being mostly free of natural predators themselves but they do sometimes kill each other in conflicts and rarely interspecies conflicts may too be fatal. When protected from human persecution and far from threats such as powerlines, adult mortality can be as low as 3–5.4% annually.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The species is classified as Vulnerable by IUCN. Threats include loss of habitat, human encroachment, collisions with pylons (at some point in the early 1980s, powerlines were responsible for 80% of deaths among birds in their first year of life) and illegal poisoning. There has also been a decline in the species' main prey: rabbits have been kept at bay or even declined in some of the areas where the eagle is or could be present as a result of myxomatosis and, most recently, rabbit haemorrhagic disease.  By the 1960s it had become a critically endangered species, with only 30 pairs remaining, all located in Spain. Following conservation efforts, recovery began in the 1980s at a rate of five new breeding pairs per year up to 1994. Imperial eagles were nearly wiped out. In 2011, the species's global population had increased to 324 pairs, with 318 pairs in Spain. The species recolonised Portugal in 2003, after an absence of breeding activity for over 20 years, and has been slowly increasing since, with six breeding pairs located in 2011 and nine located in 2012. The population in Spain showed an average annual increase of c. 7% between 1990 and 2011. These positive trends are largely attributed to mitigation measures to reduce mortality associated with powerlines, supplementary feeding, reparation of nests, reintroductions and decreases in the disturbance of breeding birds, although some of the observed increases may be due to more thorough searches within its range.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Spanish imperial eagle (\"Aquila adalberti\"), also known as the Iberian imperial eagle, Spanish eagle, or Adalbert's eagle, is a threatened species of eagle native to the Iberian Peninsula. The binomial commemorates Prince Adalbert of Bavaria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975879}
{"src_title": "Robert Gates", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Gates was born in Wichita, Kansas, the son of Isabel V. (née Goss) and Melville A. \"Mel\" Gates. Gates attained the rank of Eagle Scout in the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) and received the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award and Silver Buffalo Award from the BSA as an adult. He graduated from Wichita High School East in 1961. Gates is also a Vigil Honor member within the Order of the Arrow, BSA's National Honor Society. He was selected as the 2017 BSA National Alumnus of the Year.  Gates then received a scholarship to attend the College of William and Mary, graduating in 1965 with a B.A. in history. At William & Mary, Gates was an active member and president of the Alpha Phi Omega (national service fraternity) chapter and the Young Republicans; he was also the business manager for the \"William and Mary Review\", a literary and art magazine. At his William & Mary graduation ceremony, Gates received the Algernon Sydney Sullivan Award naming him the graduate who \"has made the greatest contribution to his fellow man.  Gates then received an M.A. in history from Indiana University Bloomington in 1966. He completed his Ph.D. in Russian and Soviet history at Georgetown University in 1974. The title of his Georgetown doctoral dissertation is \"Soviet Sinology: An Untapped Source for Kremlin Views and Disputes Relating to Contemporary Events in China\" and is available from University Microfilms International as document number 7421652. He received an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from William & Mary (1998), the University of Oklahoma (2011), Georgetown University (2014) and an honorary doctorate award from Kansas State University (2012).  He married his wife Becky on January 7, 1967 and they have two children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Intelligence career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Positions.", "content": "While at Indiana University, Gates was recruited by the Central Intelligence Agency and joined in 1966. On January 4, 1967, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Air Force after attending Officer Training School under CIA sponsorship. From 1967 to 1969, he was assigned to the Strategic Air Command as an intelligence officer, which included a year at Whiteman Air Force Base in Missouri, where he delivered intelligence briefings to Intercontinental Ballistic Missile crews. After fulfilling his military obligation, he rejoined the CIA as an intelligence analyst.  Gates left the CIA in 1974 to serve on the staff of the National Security Council. He returned to the CIA in late 1979, serving briefly as the director of the Strategic Evaluation Center, Office of Strategic Research. He was named the Director of the DCI/DDCI Executive Staff in 1981, Deputy Director for Intelligence in 1982, and Deputy Director of Central Intelligence from April 18, 1986, to March 20, 1989.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Director of Central Intelligence.", "content": "Gates was Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs from March until August 1989, and was Assistant to the President and Deputy National Security Adviser from August 1989 until November 1991.  Gates was nominated to become the Director of Central Intelligence (head of the CIA) in early 1987. He withdrew his name after it became clear the Senate would reject the nomination due to controversy about his role in the Iran-Contra affair.  Gates was nominated, for the second time, for the position of Director of Central Intelligence by President George H. W. Bush on May 14, 1991, confirmed by the Senate on November 5, and sworn in on November 6.  During a Senate committee hearing on his nomination, former division chief Melvin Goodman testified that the agency was the most corrupt and slanted during the tenure of William Casey with Gates serving as Deputy. According to Goodman, Gates was part of an agency leadership that proliferated false information and ignored'reality'. National Intelligence Council chairman Harold P. Ford testified that during his tenure, Gates had transgressed professional boundaries.  Deputy Directors during his tenure were Richard J. Kerr (from November 6, 1991 until March 2, 1992) and Adm. William O. Studeman (from April 9, 1992, through the remainder of Gates' tenure). He served until 1993.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Level of involvement in the Iran–Contra scandal.", "content": "Because of his senior status in the CIA, Gates was close to many figures who played significant roles in the Iran–Contra Affair and was in a position to have known of their activities. In 1984, as deputy director of CIA, Gates advocated that the U.S. initiate a bombing campaign against Nicaragua and that the U.S. do everything in its power short of direct military invasion of the country to remove the Sandinista government.  Gates was an early subject of Independent Counsel's investigation, but the investigation of Gates intensified in the spring of 1991 as part of a larger inquiry into the Iran–Contra activities of CIA officials. This investigation received an additional impetus in May 1991, when President George H. W. Bush nominated Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence (DCI). The chairman and vice chairman of the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (SSCI) requested, in a letter to the Independent Counsel on May 15, 1991, any information that would \"significantly bear on the fitness\" of Gates for the CIA post.  Gates consistently testified that he first heard on October 1, 1986, from Charles E. Allen, the national intelligence officer who was closest to the Iran initiative, that proceeds from the Iran arms sales may have been diverted to support the Contras. Other evidence proves, however, that Gates received a report on the diversion during the summer of 1986 from DDI Richard Kerr. The issue was whether the Independent Counsel could prove beyond a reasonable doubt that Gates was deliberately not telling the truth when he later claimed not to have remembered any reference to the diversion before meeting with Allen in October. Grand jury secrecy rules hampered Independent Counsel's response. Nevertheless, in order to answer questions about Gates' prior testimony, Independent Counsel accelerated his investigation of Gates in the summer of 1991. This investigation was substantially completed by September 3, 1991, at which time Independent Counsel determined that Gates' Iran–Contra activities and testimony did not warrant prosecution.  Independent Counsel made this decision subject to developments that could have warranted reopening his inquiry, including testimony by Clair E. George, the CIA's former deputy director for operations. At the time Independent Counsel reached this decision, the possibility remained that George could have provided information warranting reconsideration of Gates' status in the investigation. George refused to cooperate with Independent Counsel and was indicted on September 19, 1991. George subpoenaed Gates to testify as a defense witness at George's first trial in the summer of 1994, but Gates was never called.  The final report of the Independent Counsel for Iran–Contra Scandal, issued on August 4, 1993, said that Gates \"was close to many figures who played significant roles in the Iran/contra affair and was in a position to have known of their activities. The evidence developed by Independent Counsel did not warrant indictment...\"<ref", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Robert Michael Gates (born September 25, 1943) is an American statesman, scholar, intelligence analyst, and university president who served as the 22nd United States Secretary of Defense from 2006 to 2011. He was originally appointed by President George W. Bush but was retained for service by President Barack Obama. Gates began his career serving as an officer in the United States Air Force but was quickly recruited by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Gates served for 26 years in the CIA and the National Security Council, and was Director of Central Intelligence under President George H. W. Bush. After leaving the CIA, Gates became president of Texas A&M University and was a member of several corporate boards. Gates served as a member of the Iraq Study Group, the bipartisan commission co-chaired by James A. Baker III and Lee H. Hamilton, that studied the lessons of the Iraq War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975880}
{"src_title": "Heinz-Christian Strache", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rise to national party leader.", "content": "Strache, who is by profession a dental technician, has been active in the politics of Vienna since 1991. He was elected to the Vienna Parliament in 2001. In 2004, he replaced Hilmar Kabas as the leader of the FPÖ in Vienna. He had been considered a disciple of long-time national party leader Jörg Haider, but began to oppose him as the result of increased strife within the party in January 2005.  After a series of losses in state elections, rumours spread that Strache would run for the office of national party leader against Haider's sister, Ursula Haubner. The high risk of Haubner's defeat was probably one of the events that induced Haider to set up a new party, the Alliance for the Future of Austria (BZÖ). After the split, Strache was elected national party leader of the FPÖ on 23 April 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "State elections and campaign in Vienna.", "content": "Since the split, Strache has led the party further to the right. The FPÖ's results in state elections in the last decade have been mixed. While it dropped out of the Styria \"Landtag\" and was reduced to 5.7% in Burgenland, it surpassed expectations in the Vienna elections of October 2005. Strache himself was the leading candidate in Vienna, and the party received 14.9% of votes. Strache's campaign, included slogans such as:  In January 2007, stills taken from a video shot in the late 1980s were published showing a uniformed Strache allegedly participating in paramilitary training activities. Other people on the pictures were claimed to be known neo-Nazis. Strache has denied the allegations, stating the pictures are of him playing paintball as an 18-year old. In his initial reaction, Chancellor Alfred Gusenbauer referred to the incident as a \"folly of youth\" (\"Jugendtorheit\"). At the end of January, further pictures were published, allegedly showing Strache performing a Nazi salute (the Kühnen salute). Strache denied the allegations prior to publication of the pictures. After publication, Strache argued that the picture showed him ordering three beers and was not a Nazi salute. Austrian Jewish community leaders criticized the government for its lack of response.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2010 Vienna elections.", "content": "In the 2010 Vienna elections for Mayor of Vienna, Vienna City Council, and district councils, Strache's party received 26% of the vote and increased their number of seats in the city council to 27. His support was strongest among young people under 30.  The campaign included slogans such as:  Strache was once again accused of xenophobia during his campaign and responded formally in the press to the allegations. In August 2012, Strache caused condemnation and outrage when posting a picture on Facebook that was a caricature depicting a banker with a hooked nose and Star of David cufflinks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2019 European parliament elections.", "content": "Strache campaigned for the FPÖ in the lead up to 2019 European Parliament election in Austria. In what \"The Guardian\" described as \"doubling down\" on rhetoric ahead of the election, Strache endorsed the far-right conspiracy of the great replacement. He claimed that \"population replacement\" was real, adding: \"We don’t want to become a minority in our own country\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ibiza affair.", "content": "On 17 May 2019 a video was released from a July 2017 meeting in Ibiza, Spain, appearing to show Strache and Johann Gudenus discussing underhanded political practices. In the video, both politicians appeared receptive to proposals by a mysterious woman posing as the niece of a Russian oligarch Igor Makarov, discussing providing the FPÖ positive news coverage in return for business contracts. Strache and Gudenus also hinted at corrupt political practices involving other wealthy donors to the FPÖ in Europe and elsewhere. The scandal caused the collapse of the Austrian governing coalition and the announcement of a snap election. Strache is currently under investigation for misuse of party funds.  Strache was expelled from the FPÖ in December 2019 for his role in the scandal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with Trump administration.", "content": "Strache flew to New York shortly after the election of Donald Trump in December 2016 to meet with Michael Flynn at the Trump Tower. Flynn had just helped lead the effort to elect Trump and served as his National Security Advisor for 24 days in January through February 2017. Also in November, Austrian far-right politicians Norbert Hofer and Strache went to Russia in order to become go-betweens to facilitate cooperation between Putin and Trump. While in Moscow, the Freedom Party concluded a \"working agreement\" with Putin's United Russia Party. Flynn later resigned after information surfaced that he had misled the FBI and Vice President Mike Pence about the nature and content of his communications with Russian Ambassador to the U.S. Sergey Kislyak.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heinz-Christian Strache (born 12 June 1969) is an Austrian politician and dental technician who served as Vice-Chancellor of Austria from 2017 to 2019 before resigning for treasonous behavior. He was also Minister of Civil Service and Sports from January 2018 to May 2019 and chairman of the Freedom Party (FPÖ) from April 2005 to May 2019. He previously served as a member of the National Council from October 2006 until December 2017 and as a member of the municipal council and state legislature of Vienna (2001–2006).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975881}
{"src_title": "Francisco de Vitoria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Vitoria was born in Burgos or Vitoria-Gasteiz and was raised in Burgos, the son of Pedro de Vitoria, of Alava, and Catalina de Compludo, both of noble families. As per modern scholarship, he had Jewish ancestry on his maternal side (the Compludos), being related to famous converts like Paul of Burgos and Alfonso de Cartagena. He became a Dominican in 1504, and was educated at the College Saint-Jacques in Paris, where he was influenced by the work of Desiderius Erasmus. He went on to teach theology from 1516 (under the influences of Pierre Crockaert and Thomas Cajetan). In 1522 he returned to Spain to teach theology at the college of Saint Gregory at Valladolid, where many young Dominicans were being trained for missionary work in the New World. In 1524, he was elected to the Chair of theology at the University of Salamanca, where he was instrumental in promoting Thomism (the philosophy and theology of St. Thomas Aquinas). Francisco de Vitoria died on 12 August 1546 in Salamanca.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Positions on the status of Amerindians.", "content": "A noted scholar, he was publicly consulted by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. He worked to limit the type of power the Spanish Empire imposed on the Native Peoples. He said, \"The upshot of all the preceding is this, then, that the aborigines undoubtedly had true dominion in both public and private matters, just like Christians, and that neither their princes nor private persons could be despoiled of their property on the ground of their not being true owners.\" Vitoria denied that the native peoples could be understood as slaves by nature in Aristotelian terms. He adopted from Aquinas the Roman law concept of \"ius gentium\" (\"the law of nations\"). His defense of American Indians was based on a Scholastic understanding of the intrinsic dignity of man, a dignity he found being violated by Spain's policies in the New World.  In three lectures (relectiones) held between 1537 and 1539 Vitoria concluded that the Indians were rightful owners of their property and that their chiefs validly exercised jurisdiction over their tribes. This had already been the position of Palacios Rubios. Neither the pope nor Charles V had a rightful claim over Indian lives or property. No violent action could be taken against them, nor could their lands or property be seized, unless the Indians had caused harm or injury to the Spanish by violating the latter's lawful rights.  A supporter of the just war theory, in \"De iure belli\" Francisco pointed out that the underlying predicate conditions for a \"just war\" were \"wholly lacking in the Indies\". The only area where he saw justification for Spanish intervention in native affairs was to protect victims seized for human sacrifice, and because of the inherent human dignity of the victims themselves—whose rights were being violated and thus in need of defense.  Thomas E. Woods goes on to describe how some wished to argue that the natives lacked reason, but the evidence was against this because the natives had obvious customs, laws, and a form of government.  The Spaniards were in the practice of invoking in their American conquests the so-called \"Requerimiento\", a document read to the Indians before the commencement of any hostilities. The \"Requerimiento\", declared the universal authority of the Pope, and the authority the Spanish monarchs had received from the Pope over this part of the New World for the purpose of colonizing and evangelizing it. The Indians had to accept the sovereignty of the Spanish monarchs or be compelled to submit by force. Vitoria denied the legitimacy of this document.  Vitoria follows the arguments against Spanish rule of South-American territories by arguments that justify the Spanish practices, which are grounded in natural law. He asserts the right of the Spaniards to travel freely, and to trade, which includes searching for, mining, and exporting the abundant natural resources they find in South America. Unlawful resistance infringing upon the Spaniard's rights of travel, trade and exploitation, or infringing upon the Pope's right to spread Christianity, can be used to justify a \"just war\" of the Spaniards against the indigenous inhabitants, ending in Spanish rule over the territories in question.  Vitoria's works are known only from his lecture notes, as he has published nothing in his lifetime. Nevertheless, his influence such as that on the Dutch legal philosopher Hugo Grotius was significant. \"Relectiones XII Theologicae in duo libros distinctae\" was published posthumously (Antwerp, 1604).  Francisco de Vitoria's writings have been interpreted by various scholars to support contrary policies. Antony Anghie and others argue that Vitoria's humanitarianism legitimized conquest.  Francisco de Vitoria presented strict interpretation of baptism of desire:When we postulate invincible ignorance on the subject of baptism or of the Christian faith, it does not follow that a person can be saved without baptism or the Christian faith. For the aborigines to whom no preaching of the faith or Christian religion has come will be damned for mortal sins or for idolatry, but not for the sin of unbelief. As St. Thomas says, however, if they do what in them lies, accompanied by a good life according to the law of nature, it is consistent with God’s providence that he will illuminate them regarding the name of Christ.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Notes of his lectures from 1527 to 1540 were copied by students and published under the following titles:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francisco de Vitoria ( – 12 August 1546; also known as Francisco de Victoria) was a Spanish Roman Catholic philosopher, theologian, and jurist of Renaissance Spain. He is the founder of the tradition in philosophy known as the School of Salamanca, noted especially for his contributions to the theory of just war and international law. He has in the past been described by some scholars as one of the \"fathers of international law\", along with Alberico Gentili and Hugo Grotius, though contemporary academics have suggested that such a description is anachronistic, since the concept of international law did not truly develop until much later. American jurist Arthur Nussbaum noted that Vitoria was \"the first to set forth the notions (though not the terms) of freedom of commerce and freedom of the seas.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975882}
{"src_title": "Baba O'Riley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and composition.", "content": "Townshend originally wrote \"Baba O'Riley\" for his \"Lifehouse\" project, a rock opera intended as the follow-up to the Who's 1969 opera, \"Tommy\". In \"Lifehouse\" a Scottish farmer named Ray would have sung the song at the beginning as he gathered his wife Sally and his two children to begin their exodus to London. When \"Lifehouse\" was scrapped, eight of the songs were salvaged and recorded for the Who's 1971 album \"Who's Next\", with \"Baba O'Riley\" as the lead-off track.  According to Townshend, at the end of the band’s gig at the 1969 Isle of Wight Festival the field was covered in rubbish left by fans, which inspired the line \"teenage wasteland\". In another interview Townshend stated the song was also inspired by \"the absolute desolation of teenagers at Woodstock, where audience members were strung out on acid and 20 people had brain damage. The irony was that some listeners took the song to be a teenage celebration: 'Teenage Wasteland, yes! We're all wasted!'\"  The song's title combines the names of Meher Baba (1894-1969) and Terry Riley (1935- ), two of Townshend's philosophical and musical mentors. The song is often incorrectly called \"Teenage Wasteland\", after the phrase repeated in the song. \"Teenage Wasteland\" was in fact a working title for the song in its early incarnations as part of the \"Lifehouse\" project, but eventually became the title for a different but related song by Townshend, which is slower and features different lyrics. A demo of \"Teenage Wasteland\" features in \"Lifehouse Chronicles\", a six-disc set of music related to the \"Lifehouse\" project, and in several Townshend compilations and videos.  The song uses a I-V-IV chord progression in the key of F major.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recording and release.", "content": "\"Baba O'Riley\"'s backing track was derived from the \"Lifehouse\" concept, where Townshend wanted to input the vital signs and personality of Meher Baba into a synthesiser, which would then generate music based on that data. When this idea fell through, Townshend instead recorded a Lowrey Berkshire Deluxe TBO-1 organ using its marimba repeat feature as the backing track. This modal approach was inspired by the work of minimalist composer Terry Riley.  The song was derived from a nine-minute demo, which the band reconstructed. \"Baba O'Riley\" was initially 30 minutes in length, but was edited down to the \"high points\" of the track for \"Who's Next\". The other parts of the song appeared on the third disc of Townshend's \"Lifehouse Chronicles\" as \"Baba M1 (O'Riley 1st Movement 1971)\" and \"Baba M2 (2nd Movement Part 1 1971)\". Dave Arbus, whose band \"East of Eden\" was recording in the same studio, was invited by Keith Moon to play on the coda of track.  \"Baba O'Riley\" was released in November 1971, as a single in several European countries. However, in the United Kingdom and the United States, it was released only as part of the album \"Who's Next\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception and legacy.", "content": "\"Baba O'Riley\" appears at No. 340 on \"Rolling Stone\"s list of \"The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time\". The song is in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as one of the 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll. The band Pearl Jam regularly plays a cover of the song during concerts, and a readers' poll in \"Rolling Stone\" awarded this cover as #8 in their \"Greatest Live Cover Songs\".  \"Baba O'Riley\" was used as the theme song for the popular television series \"\" (2004–13); with each \"CSI\" series using a Who song as its theme. The song was also used in the \"One Tree Hill\" episode \"Pictures of You\" (season 4, episode 13). The live version of the song from the album \"Who's Last\" plays in the opening segment of the \"Miami Vice\" episode \"Out Where the Buses Don't Run\" (season two, 1985). One of the working titles of \"That '70s Show\" (1998–2006) was \"Teenage Wasteland,\" a reference to the repeated lyric in the song. The song was also used in the trailers for the films \"A Bug's Life\" (1998), \"American Beauty\" (1999), \"\" (2012), \"Jobs\" (2013), \"The Peanuts Movie\" (2015), and Season 3 of \"Stranger Things\". Baba O'Riley was included in the soundtrack for the 1997 film \"Prefontaine\" and the 1999 film \"The Summer of Sam\". The song was used in the 10th episode of the 2010 FOX show \"The Good Guys\". The song was featured heavily in the 2004 romantic comedy film \"The Girl Next Door\", and was also used in the beginning of, and the end credits of the 2012 movie \"Premium Rush\". The song has also been used in episode 14 of season one in the TV series \"House\" and in episode 10 of season one in the TV series \"The Newsroom\". It was also used in Episode One of the UK version of \"Life on Mars\". A remixed version of this song, re-done by Alan Wilkis, appears in the of \"Need for Speed: Most Wanted\", as well as the \"Family Guy\" season 13 episode \"Quagmire's Mom\", the third \"\" special and episode 11 of season one of \"Superstore\". The song is featured in an episode of \"Joe Pera Talks With You\", \"Joe Pera Reads You the Church Announcements\", in which Pera is unable to contain his excitement after hearing the song for the first time in his life. The song is also sung in episode 7 season 1 of \"Sense8\" by Riley's dad at the airport.  In October 2001, The Who gave a much lauded performance of the song at the Concert for New York City. Since 2003, \"Baba O'Riley\" has been played during player introductions for the Los Angeles Lakers during home games at the Staples Center. The song is played prior to live UFC events during a highlight package showing some of the most famous fights in the mixed martial arts company's history. It is also the official theme song of competitive eater Joey Chestnut.  At both the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2012 London Olympics, the track \"The Road Goes On Forever\" by High Contrast is used during a countdown to the start of the proceedings, this song samples \"Baba O'Riley\" with a higher tempo as a 120bpm dance track. \"Baba O'Riley\" was then performed by the Who as their first number during the last musical segment at the closing ceremony, with Daltrey singing a changed lyric of \"Don't cry/Just raise your eye/There's more than teenage wasteland\". \"Baba O'Riley\" is also used as the pregame music at Sanford Stadium and is played right before kickoff at every University of Georgia home football game. It is also played at halftime of most New England Patriots home games, leading up to the second-half kickoff. It is also the entrance music for the New York Rangers at Madison Square Garden.  It appears in a 2019 TV commercial for T-Mobile that features Major League Baseball players.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Baba O'Riley\", sometimes erroneously referred to as its chorus refrain \"Teenage Wasteland\", is a song by the English rock band the Who and the opening track to their studio album \"Who's Next\". It was issued in Europe as a single on 23 October 1971, coupled with \"My Wife\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975883}
{"src_title": "Computer worm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The actual term \"worm\" was first used in John Brunner's 1975 novel, \"The Shockwave Rider\". In that novel, Nichlas Haflinger designs and sets off a data-gathering worm in an act of revenge against the powerful men who run a national electronic information web that induces mass conformity. \"You have the biggest-ever worm loose in the net, and it automatically sabotages any attempt to monitor it. There's never been a worm with that tough a head or that long a tail!\"  On November 2, 1988, Robert Tappan Morris, a Cornell University computer science graduate student, unleashed what became known as the Morris worm, disrupting many computers then on the Internet, guessed at the time to be one tenth of all those connected. During the Morris appeal process, the U.S. Court of Appeals estimated the cost of removing the worm from each installation at between $200 and $53,000; this work prompted the formation of the CERT Coordination Center and Phage mailing list. Morris himself became the first person tried and convicted under the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "Independence  Computer viruses generally require a host program. The virus writes its own code into the host program. When the program runs, the written virus program is executed first, causing infection and damage. A worm does not need a host program, as it is an independent program or code chunk. Therefore, it is not restricted by the host program, but can run independently and actively carry out attacks.  Exploit attacks  Because a worm is not limited by the host program, worms can take advantage of various operating system vulnerabilities to carry out active attacks. For example, the \"Nimda\" virus exploits vulnerabilities to attack.  Complexity  Some worms are combined with web page scripts, and are hidden in HTML pages using VBScript, ActiveX and other technologies. When a user accesses a webpage containing a virus, the virus automatically resides in memory and waits to be triggered. There are also some worms that are combined with backdoor programs or Trojan horses, such as \"Code Red\".  Contagiousness  Worms are more infectious than traditional viruses. They not only infect local computers, but also all servers and clients on the network based on the local computer. Worms can easily spread through shared folders, e-mails, malicious web pages, and servers with a large number of vulnerabilities in the network.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Harm.", "content": "Any code designed to do more than spread the worm is typically referred to as the \"payload\". Typical malicious payloads might delete files on a host system (e.g., the ExploreZip worm), encrypt files in a ransomware attack, or exfiltrate data such as confidential documents or passwords.  Probably the most common payload for worms is to install a backdoor. This allows the computer to be remotely controlled by the worm author as a \"zombie\". Networks of such machines are often referred to as botnets and are very commonly used for a range of malicious purposes, including sending spam or performing DoS attacks.  Some special worms attack industrial systems in a targeted manner. Stuxnet does not need to be transmitted through a network connection. This virus can destroy the core production control computer software used by chemical, power generation and power transmission companies in various countries around the world, and instead \"issue orders\" to other computers in the factory. They can also use multiple vulnerabilities in Windows systems and Siemens SIMATICWinCC systems to attack. Although these systems operate independently from the network, if the operator inserts a virus-infected U disk into the system's USB interface, the virus will be able to gain control of the system without any other operational requirements or prompts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Countermeasures.", "content": "Worms spread by exploiting vulnerabilities in operating systems. Vendors with security problems supply regular security updates (see \"Patch Tuesday\"), and if these are installed to a machine, then the majority of worms are unable to spread to it. If a vulnerability is disclosed before the security patch released by the vendor, a zero-day attack is possible.  Users need to be wary of opening unexpected email, and should not run attached files or programs, or visit web sites that are linked to such emails. However, as with the ILOVEYOU worm, and with the increased growth and efficiency of phishing attacks, it remains possible to trick the end-user into running malicious code.  Anti-virus and anti-spyware software are helpful, but must be kept up-to-date with new pattern files at least every few days. The use of a firewall is also recommended.  Mitigation techniques include:  Infections can sometimes be detected by their behavior - typically scanning the Internet randomly, looking for vulnerable hosts to infect. In addition, machine learning techniques can be used to detect new worms, by analyzing the behavior of the suspected computer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Worms with good intent.", "content": "A helpful worm or anti-worm is a worm designed to do something that its author feels is helpful, though not necessarily with the permission of the executing computer's owner. Beginning with the very first research into worms at Xerox PARC, there have been attempts to create useful worms. Those worms allowed John Shoch and Jon Hupp to test the Ethernet principles on their network of Xerox Alto computers. Similarly, the Nachi family of worms tried to download and install patches from Microsoft's website to fix vulnerabilities in the host system by exploiting those same vulnerabilities. In practice, although this may have made these systems more secure, it generated considerable network traffic, rebooted the machine in the course of patching it, and did its work without the consent of the computer's owner or user. Regardless of their payload or their writers' intentions, most security experts regard all worms as malware.  Several worms, including some XSS worms, have been written to research how worms spread, such as the effects of changes in social activity or user behavior. One study proposed what seems to be the first computer worm that operates on the second layer of the OSI model (Data link Layer), utilizing topology information such as Content-addressable memory (CAM) tables and Spanning Tree information stored in switches to propagate and probe for vulnerable nodes until the enterprise network is covered.  Anti-worms have been used to combat the effects of the Code Red, Blaster, and Santy worms. Welchia is an example of a helpful worm. Utilizing the same deficiencies exploited by the Blaster worm, Welchia infected computers and automatically began downloading Microsoft security updates for Windows without the users' consent. Welchia automatically reboots the computers it infects after installing the updates. One of these updates was the patch that fixed the exploit.  Other examples of helpful worms are \"Den_Zuko\", \"Cheeze\", \"CodeGreen\", and \"Millenium\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A computer worm is a standalone malware computer program that replicates itself in order to spread to other computers. It often uses a computer network to spread itself, relying on security failures on the target computer to access it. It will use this machine as a host to scan and infect other computers. When these new worm-invaded computers are controlled, the worm will continue to scan and infect other computers using these computers as hosts, and this behavior will continue. Computer worms use recursive method to copy themselves without host program and distribute themselves based on the law of exponential growth, and then controlling and infecting more and more computers in a short time. Worms almost always cause at least some harm to the network, even if only by consuming bandwidth, whereas viruses almost always corrupt or modify files on a targeted computer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975884}
{"src_title": "Simonetta Vespucci", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and marriage.", "content": "Simonetta Vespucci was born Simonetta Cattaneo 1453 in a part of the Republic of Genoa that is now in the Italian region of Liguria. A more precise location for her birthplace is unknown: possibly the city of Genoa, or perhaps either Portovenere or Fezzano. The Florentine poet Politian wrote that her home was \"in that stern Ligurian district up above the seacoast, where angry Neptune beats against the rocks... There, like Venus, she was born among the waves.\" Her father was a Genoese nobleman named Gaspare Cattaneo della Volta (a much-older relative of a sixteenth-century Doge of Genoa named Leonardo Cattaneo della Volta) and her mother was Gaspare's wife, Cattocchia Spinola (another source names her parents slightly differently, as Gaspare Cattaneo and Chateroccia di Marco Spinola.  At age sixteen she married Marco Vespucci, son of Piero, who was a distant cousin of the explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci. They met in April 1469, when she was with her parents at the church of San Torpete in Genoa; the doge Piero il Fregoso and much of the Genoese nobility were present. Marco had been sent to Genoa by his father, Piero, to study at the Banco di San Giorgio. Smitten with Simonetta, Marco was accepted by her parents as their daughter's prospective bridegroom; they likely felt that the marriage would be advantageous because Marco's family was well connected in Florence, especially to the Medici family.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Florence.", "content": "Simonetta and Marco were married in Florence that same year. According to legend, Simonetta quickly became popular at the Florentine court, and attracted the interest of the Medici brothers, Lorenzo and Giuliano. Lorenzo permitted the Vespucci wedding to be held at the palazzo in Via Larga, and held the wedding reception at their lavish Villa di Careggi. At La Giostra (a jousting tournament) in 1475, held at the Piazza Santa Croce, Giuliano entered the lists bearing a banner upon which was a picture of Simonetta as a helmeted Pallas Athene, painted by Botticelli, beneath which was the French inscription \"La Sans Pareille\", meaning \"The Unparalleled One.\" Giuliano won the tournament, and nominated Simonetta as \"The Queen of Beauty\" at that event. It is clear that Simonetta had a reputation as an exceptional beauty in Florence, but Giuliano's display should be considered within the conventions of courtly love. Simonetta was a married woman and a member of a powerful family allied to his. It is unknown and unlikely that they became lovers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Simonetta Vespucci died just one year later, most likely from tuberculosis, on the night of 26–27 April 1476. She was twenty-two at the time of her death. She was carried through the city in an open coffin for all to admire, and there may have existed a posthumous cult about her in Florence. Her husband remarried soon afterward. Giuliano de Medici was assassinated in the Pazzi conspiracy in 1478, two years to the day after Simonetta's death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Representations.", "content": "Among other subjects, Sandro Botticelli painted portraits of noblewomen, several of which are attributed as portraits of Simonetta, but proof is difficult to establish. It has been postulated that some of his later works also contain representations of her. He finished one of his most famous paintings, \"The Birth of Venus\", around 1486, 10 years after Simonetta's death; some have claimed that Venus, in this painting, closely resembles her. This claim, however, is dismissed as a \"romantic myth\" by Ernst Gombrich, and \"romantic nonsense\" by historian Felipe Fernández-Armesto:  Some art historians, including John Ruskin, suggest that Botticelli had fallen in love with Simonetta, a view supported by Botticelli's request to be buried in the Church of Ognissanti – the parish church of the Vespucci – in Florence. His wish was carried out when he died 34 years later, in 1510. However, this had been Botticelli's parish church since he was baptized there, the church contained works by him, and he was buried with his family.  Botticelli painted the standard carried by Giuliano at the joust in 1475, which carried an image of Pallas Athene that was very probably modeled on her; so he does seem to have painted her once at least, though that particular image is now lost. Botticelli's principal Medici patron, Giuliano's younger cousin Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, married Simonetta's niece Semiramide in 1482, and it is likely that Botticelli's famed allegory \"Primavera\" was painted as a wedding gift for this occasion. Again, this is a work that some have claimed contains a representation of Simonetta.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Possible depictions.", "content": "Regarding each \"Portrait of a Woman\" pictured above, credited to the workshop of Sandro Botticelli, Ronald Lightbown claims they were creations of Botticelli's workshop that were likely neither drawn nor painted exclusively by Botticelli himself. Regarding these two paintings he also notes that \"[Botticell's work]shop...executed portraits of \"ninfe\", or fair ladies...all probably fancy portraits of ideal beauties, rather than real ladies.\"  Simonetta Vespucci may also be depicted in the painting by Piero di Cosimo titled \"Portrait of a woman, said to be of Simonetta Vespucci\", which portrays a woman as Cleopatra, with an asp around her neck. Yet how closely this resembles Simonetta is uncertain, not least because it is a posthumous portrait created about 14 years after her death. (Worth noting as well is the fact that Piero di Cosimo was only 14 years old the year of Simonetta's death.) The museum that currently houses this painting, the Musée Condé, questions the identity of its alleged subject and titles it \"Portrait of a woman, said to be of Simonetta Vespucci\", noting that the inscription of her name at the bottom of the painting may have been added at a later date.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Simonetta Vespucci (née Cattaneo; 1453 – 26 April 1476), nicknamed \"la bella Simonetta\", was an Italian noblewoman from Genoa, the wife of Marco Vespucci of Florence and the cousin-in-law of Amerigo Vespucci. She was known as the greatest beauty of her age in Italy, and was allegedly the model for many paintings by Sandro Botticelli, Piero di Cosimo, and other Florentine painters. Some art historians have taken issue with these attributions, which the Victorian critic John Ruskin has been blamed for promulgating.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975885}
{"src_title": "Šárka Kašpárková", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "At 1.86 metres tall, Kašpárková started her professional athletics career as a high jumper and finished sixth at the 1988 World Junior Championships in Athletics. She won the bronze medal in the 1989 European Athletics Junior Championships, and she went on to participate in the women's high jump at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics for Czechoslovakia. Her last period as a high jumper also brought her best performance – she jumped a personal best of 1.95 m in Banská Bystrica in early 1993.  When the female triple jump was introduced to the IAAF competitions, she moved to this discipline as one of the first competitors. She represented Europe in the triple jump at the 1992 IAAF World Cup, finishing in fifth place. She took part in the very first world championship event at the 1993 World Championships in Athletics and finished in seventh with a personal best jump of 14.16 m. She failed to break 14 metres the following year at the 1994 European Championships and had to settle for sixth place. She came close to the medals the following season with a fourth-place performance at the 1995 IAAF World Indoor Championships. She reverted to being out of medal contention at the 1995 World Championships in Athletics and 1995 IAAF Grand Prix Final.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Olympic and world medals.", "content": "She became the triple jump champion at the 1995 Summer Universiade. She won her first major medals soon after, taking the silver at the 1996 European Indoor Athletics Championships and winning her first Olympic medal for the Czech Republic with a bronze in the triple jump at the 1996 Summer Olympics. She confirmed her ability in the 1997 season, first winning a bronze at the 1997 IAAF World Indoor Championships, and then winning the World Championships with a national record jump of 15.20 m – this was the best jump that season and it made her the second best athlete in the event after Inessa Kravets at the time. A silver medal at the 1997 IAAF Grand Prix Final brought an end to a successful season.  She won a second European indoor silver at the 1998 Championships, finishing behind Ashia Hansen who jumped 15.16 m, and went on to take another silver later that season at the European Championships outdoors. She retained her indoor bronze at the 1999 IAAF World Indoor Championships with a personal best indoor jump of 14.87 m in Maebashi. She failed to retain her world title, however, at the 1999 World Championships in Athletics and could only manage 14.54 m for sixth place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decline.", "content": "Kašpárková suffered a marked decline after 1999 and she never jumped beyond 14.40 m after that point. Her mark of 14.34 m was enough to qualify for 2000 Olympic triple jump final, but she faulted three times and finished last. She took part in the 2003 World Championships in Athletics, 2004 IAAF World Indoor Championships and 2004 Summer Olympics, but each time she did not manage to jump more than 14 metres and was eliminated in the qualifiers.  She had a reversal of fortunes at the 2005 European Indoor Athletics Championships and took fourth place with a season's best of 14.34 m. She did not continue this form outdoors, however, and did not make the final at either the 2005 World Championships in Athletics or 2006 European Athletics Championships.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Kašpárková is in a relationship with her former coach Michal Pogány. Together they have a daughter, Tereza.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal bests.", "content": "She also competed in the 100 metres hurdles and long jump on limited occasions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Šárka Kašpárková (, born 20 May 1971 in Karviná, Czechoslovakia) is a former Czech track and field athlete who specialised in the triple jump.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975886}
{"src_title": "Orlan space suit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first spacewalk using an Orlan suit took place on December 20, 1977, on the Soviet space station Salyut 6, during the Soyuz 26 mission. Yuri Romanenko and Georgi Grechko tested the Orlan-D space suit. The Orlan-DM was used for the first time on August 2, 1985, by the cosmonauts Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Viktor Savinykh of Salyut 7.  The Orlan space suits were used for spacewalks on the Salyut stations, but for Mir they were replaced by the Orlan-DMA and Orlan-M suits: The Orlan-DMA was used for the first time in November 1988, by the cosmonaut Musa Manarov from the Mir space station. The Orlan-M continued in use on Mir from 1997 until the end of the station's operational life and is now used on the International Space Station. Orlan space suits have been used by Russian, American, European, Canadian and Chinese astronauts.  On February 3, 2006, a retired Orlan fitted with a radio transmitter, dubbed SuitSat-1, was launched into orbit from the International Space Station.  In April 2004, China imported 12 Orlan spacesuits from Russia: Three for EVA, two for airlock training, four for neutral buoyancy tank training, four for testing the EVA support system on the Shenzhou spacecraft. Various components on the EVA suits and airlock training suits, including electrical and communication equipments, were designed and manufactured by China. In Chinese, Orlan spacesuits are refereed by the literal translation of, Haiying. () On 27 September 2008, Liu Boming wore one of the Orlan suits in order to assist Zhai Zhigang during the space walk portion of Shenzhou 7 mission.  In June 2009, the latest computerized Orlan-MK version was tested during a five-hour spacewalk to install new equipment on the International Space Station. The new suit's main improvement is the replacement of the radio-telemetry equipment in the Portable Life Support System backpack which contains a mini-computer. This computer processes data from the spacesuit's various systems and provides a malfunction warning. It then outlines a contingency plan which is displayed on an LCD screen on the right chest part of the spacesuit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The Orlan space suit has gone through several models. Space-rated designations include the Orlan-D, Orlan-DM, Orlan-DMA, and Orlan-M models; the Orlan-GN, Orlan-T, and Orlan-V are used in training and are used underwater. The latest model, called Orlan-MKS, has been used on the ISS since 2017. The original Orlan suit, with a two and a half hour operation time, was designed as an orbital suit for use on the Soviet Lunar programme, although it was abandoned in favour of a model with a greater operating capacity. The Orlan-D expanded the operation time to three hours; the Orlan-M to nine hours.  The Orlan space suit is semi-rigid, with a solid torso and flexible arms. It includes a rear hatch entry through the backpack that allows it to be donned relatively quickly (approximately five minutes). The first Orlan suits were attached to the spacecraft by an umbilical tether that supplied power and communications links. The Orlan-DM and later models are self-sustaining.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Training.", "content": "Orlan suits are used in the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonauts Training Center in Star City, Moscow: the Orlan-GN for water immersion training, the Orlan-T for airlock procedure training, and the Orlan-V for low gravity flight training.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Orlan space suit ( meaning sea eagle) is a series of semi-rigid one-piece space suit models designed and built by NPP Zvezda. They have been used for spacewalks (EVAs) in the Russian space program, the successor to the Soviet space program, and by space programs of other countries, including NASA.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975887}
{"src_title": "Type 99 tank", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The development of China's domestic third generation MBT was started in 1989, under China's eighth five-year plan. In the early 1990s China produced one of its second generation prototypes, the Type 90-II series. The Type 90-II was designed by studying the T-72 tank. The chassis was to be based on the T-72's hull but with Chinese subsystems. The Type 90-II had a 125mm smoothbore cannon with an autoloader, modular composite armor and a centered driver position. While the Type 90-II series ultimately did not enter PLA service, it saw success as an export tank and was built under license in Pakistan as the Al-Khalid.  The Type 98 or WZ-123 was China's domestic Type 90-II derivative. It was first seen in rehearsals for the 1999 National Day parade and was officially revealed on 1 October 1999.  An improved version was shortly produced and was named the Type 98G or Type 99.  An updated Type 99 model was officially introduced at the 2015 Victory Day Parade as the Type 99A. This variant had previously been used by PLA troops during the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) military exercises in 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deployment.", "content": "By 2008, 200 Type 98 and Type 99 tanks may have been deployed to the Beijing and Shenyang Military Regions. The Type 99 has seen less deployment than other tanks in PLA service due to cost factors. The Type 96 is instead the primary main battle tank of the PLA and has been built in far higher numbers than the Type 99. This is similar to the relationship between the Soviet T-64 and T-72, with the former only being supplied to elite tank units while the latter was the frontline MBT of the Soviet Army.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "The main armament is a 2-plane stabilized 125 mm smoothbore gun with a carousel-style autoloader. The gun may be fired under computerized or manual control. The tank can carry 42 rounds including 22 in the autoloader. The rate of fire is 8 rounds per minute using the autoloader, and 2 rounds per minute with manual loading. The Type 99A mounts an improved 125 mm gun.  The 125 mm gun of the Type 99 is capable of firing APFSDS-T, HEAT, Frag-HE-T, and gun-launched anti-tank missiles (ATGM). The gun may fire a range of Chinese, Russian, and ex-Warsaw Pact ammunition. The Type 99 can fire tandem shaped charged ATGMs similar to the Russian Invar with a range of up to 5 kilometres. In 1998 the 9M119 ATGMs were approved for domestic licensed production by Russia.  The APFSDS ammunition is estimated to be able to penetrate 700 mm of RHA (Rolled Homogeneous Armor) at 1000 meters and at least 600~500 mm of RHA at 2000 meters. The HEAT ammunition is estimated to penetrate 500 mm of armor. The missile has a range of 5000 meters during daylight and a range of 4000 meters during night operation.  Secondary armament consists of a 12.7 mm machine gun on the commander's cupola and a coaxial 7.62 mm MG. The 12.7 mm machine gun has an elevation of -4 to 75 degrees.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fire control.", "content": "The Type 99 has hunter-killer capabilities, operating an ISFCS-212 fire control system with an IR automatic target tracker. It is capable of firing on the move with a stabilized gunner's thermal sight and laser range finder. The gunner has a maximum target acquisition range of 5 kilometres. The gunner's thermal sight has optical magnification at 5x and 11.4x.  The Type 99A MBT is equipped with the improved 1A45T Fire Control System (which includes a new thermal imaging scope, ballistic computer and weather measurement sensors) thus improving ballistic trajectory under adverse conditions. The commander also has an independent panoramic sight with laser range-finding function that can rotate 360 degrees. Both the gunner and commander sight is fully stabilized and capable of day/night operations.  The tank is fitted with data-link, global positioning system and other form of communication devices along with an inertial navigation system as well as a battle management system used in conjunction with the data-link and communication systems to coordinate combat with other forces such as aircraft and infantry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Protection.", "content": "The tank's welded turret is of an angular design with spaced modular armor and composite panels. The frontal protection is comparable to the M1 Abrams. Applique armor consists of modular armor mentioned above and track skirts. The Type 99A may mount 3rd generation (Relikt-type) ERA that provides protection against tandem-charge warheads. It has a nuclear-biological-chemical protection system as well as fire detection and suppression system. The storage baskets on the turret sides and rear are buffer spaces, and are protected by ERA. The tank is also equipped with an active protection system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mobility.", "content": "The driver sits in the center front of the hull. The latest Type 99A shows the driver's hatch in the center left of the hull. The suspension system consists six rubber tired road wheels on each side with power sprocket at the rear. The first, second and sixth road wheels are fitted with special hydraulic shock-buffer. The Type 99A tank is powered by a 1500 hp diesel engine giving it a power-to-weight ratio of about 27.78 hp/ton. The original Type 99 had a manual transmission but later Type 99 variants have a semi-automatic transmission with six forward gears and one reverse gear. The maximum road and off-road speeds are 80 km/h and 60 km/h respectively. The cruising range is 500 km.  The tank can be equipped with a snorkel for deep fording. With the deep fording kit, the Type 99A can cross waters up to 4.5 meters in depth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Counter Measures.", "content": "The tank is equipped with a laser dazzler countermeasure with a range of five kilometres, a laser warning receiver, and twelve 81-mm smoke grenade launchers.  The Type 99A is equipped with the JD-3 infra-red jammer that is located at the base of the barrel. The jammer is able to interfere anti-tank guided missiles (ATGM) utilizing SACLOS such as the MILAN.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Type 98 prototype.", "content": "Also known as the WZ-123. The early pre-production (small batch production) prototype was called Project 9910. Features included composite armor panels and a 1200 hp diesel engine. 1st generation ERA may have been an option. The armor layout of the early pre-production prototype may have been similar to the T-80U and T-80UK.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Type 99.", "content": "Also known as the Type 99G and Type 99A1. Upgradable from small batch production prototype. The wedged shaped turret and applique armor panels on turret front and sides. Upgraded to third generation ERA and second generation thermal sight. Has a semi-automatic transmission.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Type 99A.", "content": "Improved Type 99. In 2003, the 99A model was developed. Prototype testing was underway by August 2007 and believed to be the standard deployed Type 99 variant in 2011. The position of the driver's hatch was moved from the centre left to the centre right of the hull. The improved main gun carries Invar-type ATGM. It mounts 3rd generation ERA, and an active protection system. The tank has a new turret with \"arrow shaped\" applique armor. The larger turret has improved armour and a commander's periscope, and the tank has an integrated propulsion system. 1200 hp engine replaced by 1500 hp engine. The tank also features laser warning receiver.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Type 99 MBT () or ZTZ-99 is a Chinese third generation main battle tank (MBT). The vehicle was a replacement for the aging Type 88 introduced in the late 1980s. The Type 99 MBT was China's first mass-produced third generation main battle tank. Combining modular composite armour and tandem-charge defeating ERA, 125 mm smoothbore gun with ATGM-capability, high mobility, digital systems and optics, the Type 99 represents a shift towards rapid modernisation by the PLA.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975888}
{"src_title": "Joint", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "Joints are mainly classified structurally and functionally. Structural classification is determined by how the bones connect to each other, while functional classification is determined by the degree of movement between the articulating bones. In practice, there is significant overlap between the two types of classifications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structural classification (binding tissue).", "content": "Structural classification names and divides joints according to the type of binding tissue that connects the bones to each other. There are four structural classifications of joints:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Functional classification (movement).", "content": "Joints can also be classified functionally according to the type and degree of movement they allow: Joint movements are described with reference to the basic anatomical planes.  Joints can also be classified, according to the number of axes of movement they allow, into nonaxial (gliding, as between the proximal ends of the ulna and radius), monoaxial (uniaxial), biaxial and multiaxial. Another classification is according to the degrees of freedom allowed, and distinguished between joints with one, two or three degrees of freedom. A further classification is according to the number and shapes of the articular surfaces: flat, concave and convex surfaces. Types of articular surfaces include trochlear surfaces.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biomechanical classification.", "content": "Joints can also be classified based on their anatomy or on their biomechanical properties. According to the anatomic classification, joints are subdivided into \"simple\" and \"compound\", depending on the number of bones involved, and into \"complex\" and \"combination\" joints:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anatomical.", "content": "The joints may be classified anatomically into the following groups:  Unmyelinated nerve fibers are abundant in joint capsules and ligaments as well as in the outer part of intraarticular menisci. These nerve fibers are responsible for pain perception when a joint is strained.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clinical significance.", "content": "Damaging the cartilage of joints (articular cartilage) or the bones and muscles that stabilize the joints can lead to joint dislocations and osteoarthritis. Swimming is a great way to exercise the joints with minimal damage.  A joint disorder is termed arthropathy, and when involving inflammation of one or more joints the disorder is called arthritis. Most joint disorders involve arthritis, but joint damage by external physical trauma is typically not termed arthritis.  Arthropathies are called \"polyarticular\" (multiarticular) when involving many joints and \"monoarticular\" when involving only a single joint.  Arthritis is the leading cause of disability in people over the age of 55. There are many different forms of arthritis, each of which has a different cause. The most common form of arthritis, osteoarthritis (also known as degenerative joint disease), occurs following trauma to the joint, following an infection of the joint or simply as a result of aging and the deterioration of articular cartilage. Furthermore, there is emerging evidence that abnormal anatomy may contribute to early development of osteoarthritis. Other forms of arthritis are rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis, which are autoimmune diseases in which the body is attacking itself. Septic arthritis is caused by joint infection. Gouty arthritis is caused by deposition of uric acid crystals in the joint that results in subsequent inflammation. Additionally, there is a less common form of gout that is caused by the formation of rhomboidal-shaped crystals of calcium pyrophosphate. This form of gout is known as pseudogout.  Temporomandibular joint syndrome (TMJ) involves the jaw joints and can cause facial pain, clicking sounds in the jaw, or limitation of jaw movement, to name a few symptoms. It is caused by psychological tension and misalignment of the jaw (malocclusion), and may be affecting as many as 75 million Americans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The English word \"joint\" is a past participle of the verb \"join\", and can be read as \"joined\". Joint is derived from Latin \"iunctus\", past participle of the Latin verb \"iungere\", join together, unite, connect, attach.  The English term \"articulation\" is derived from Latin \"articulatio\".  Humans have also developed lighter, more fragile joint bones over time due to the decrease in physical activity compared to thousands of years ago.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "</references", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones in the body which link the skeletal system into a functional whole. They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements. Other joints such as sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the sense organs. The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a gomphosis. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975889}
{"src_title": "Costa v ENEL", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Facts.", "content": "Mr. Costa was an Italian citizen who had owned shares in an electricity company, Edisonvolta, and opposed the nationalisation of the electricity sector in Italy. He asked to two lower courts in Milan (two different \"Giudice Conciliatore\") to ascertain that the real creditor of his electricity bill (a relatively small amount of money, 1,925 lire) was the nationalised company, Edisonvolta, and not the newly established state company, Enel. He argued that the nationalisation of the electricity industry violated the Treaty of Rome and the Italian Constitution. The first \"Giudice Conciliatore\" of Milan referred the case to the Italian Constitutional Court and the second \"Giudice Conciliatore\" referred it to the European Court of Justice.  The Italian Constitution Court gave judgement in March 1964, ruling that while the Italian Constitution allowed for the limitation of sovereignty for international organisation like the European Economic Community, it did not upset that normal rule of statutory interpretation that where two statutes conflict the subsequent one prevails (\"lex posterior derogat legi anteriori/priori\"). As a result the Treaty of Rome which was incorporated into Italian law in 1958 could not prevail over the electricity nationalisation law which was enacted in 1962.  In light of the decision of the constitutional court, the Italian government submitted to the ECJ that the Italian court's request for a preliminary ruling from the ECJ was inadmissible on the grounds that as the Italian court was not empowered to set aside the national law in question, a preliminary ruling would not serve any valid purpose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Judgment.", "content": "The ECJ held the Treaty of Rome rule on an undistorted market was one on which the Commission alone could challenge the Italian government. As an individual, Costa had no standing to challenge the decision because that Treaty provision had no direct effect. However, Costa could raise a point of EC law against a national government in legal proceeding before the courts in that member state since EC law would not be effective if Costa could not challenge national law on the basis of its alleged incompatibility with EC law.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Significance.", "content": "This groundbreaking case established the principle of supremacy in EU law, which is an independent source of law that cannot be overridden by domestic law.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Flaminio Costa v ENEL (1964) Case 6/64 was a landmark decision of the European Court of Justice which established the primacy of European Union law (then Community law) over the laws of its member states.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975890}
{"src_title": "Food (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breakfast.", "content": "A man enters a room, sits down, and brushes the previous diner's leftovers onto the floor. Across from him sits another man with a placard attached to a chain hanging around his neck. The diner stands up and reads the placard one line at a time and follows the instructions. He puts money down the man's throat and pokes him in the eye. The man's shirt unbuttons itself, and a dumbwaiter rises up into where the man's chest should be. The diner takes his food, and punches the man in the chin with his third knuckle for his utensils. When he is done eating, he kicks the man's shin for a napkin. After wiping off his mouth, the diner convulses, and then goes limp. The man now comes to life, stretches, and places the placard on the former diner. He stands and puts another tally mark on the wall. Another diner comes in and the scenario is repeated with him. At the end, we see a line stretching down the hall and around the corner.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lunch.", "content": "Two diners, a business man and a vagabond, are unable to get the waiter's attention. They proceed to eat everything in sight: the flowers, their shoes, pants, shirt, underwear, plates, table cloth, table, and chairs. The vagabond watches the business man and then eats what he eats. All the while they are eating whatever is on or around them, they try to get the waiter's attention whenever he passes by, but to no avail. In the end with everything else eaten, the business man eats his utensils. The vagabond also eats his. The business man then smiles, pulls his utensils from his mouth, and advances on the vagabond, who recoils in horror.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dinner.", "content": "In a luxurious restaurant, a wealthy gourmet sits at a table adding many sauces and spices to his dish, which is hidden by the sheer number of condiments. This continues for a long time, and then he hammers a fork to his wooden left hand. He then starts to eat his own hand. In a series of short and violent scenes, we are then shown an athlete eating his lower leg, a woman eating her breasts, and the last eater, who is about to eat his genitals. As he realises the presence of the camera, the man covers his genitals and shoos the camera away with his hand.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "A New York Times review called the film \"caustically witty but slight.\" It goes on to say that \"Švankmajer conceived the film in the 1970s, when it seemed too risky a political allegory to be made [...] it now seems too simple a statement about how people are devoured by mechanistic states and each other.\"  Michael Nottingham pointed out that \"the humour is particularly black in [the last] segment, mocking how delicate social ritual and conditioning are effective masks for brutal self-destruction.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Food () is a 1992 Czech animated short film directed by Jan Švankmajer that uses claymation and pixilation. It examines the human relationship with food by showing breakfast, lunch, and dinner.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975891}
{"src_title": "Roadable aircraft", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Glenn Curtiss, the chief rival of the Wright brothers, was the first to design a roadable aircraft. His large, three-wing Curtiss Autoplane was able to hop, but not fly.  In 1935, inventor Constantinos Vlachos built a prototype of a 'tri-phibian' vehicle that caught fire after the engine exploded, while Vlachos was demonstrating it in Washington, D.C. Vlachos' prototype is most notable for a newsreel that captured the incident, which left him in hospital for several months.  The Autogiro Company of America AC-35 was an early attempt at a roadable aircraft. On March 26, 1936 the AC-35 was flown by test pilot James G. Ray with counter-rotating propellers. These were later replaced with a single conventional propeller arrangement. On October 2, 1936, Ray landed the AC-35 in a downtown park in Washington, D.C. where it was displayed. On October 26, 1936, the aircraft was converted to roadable configuration. Ray drove it to the main entrance of the Commerce Building, where it was accepted by John H. Geisse, chief of the Aeronautics Branch. Although it was successfully tested, it did not enter production.  The first roadable fixedwing aircraft actually to fly was built by Waldo Waterman. Waterman was associated with Curtiss while Curtiss was pioneering amphibious aircraft at North Island on San Diego Bay in the 1910s. On March 21, 1937, Waterman's Arrowbile first took to the air. The Arrowbile was a development of Waterman's tailless aircraft, the Whatsit. It had a wingspan of and a length of. On the ground and in the air it was powered by a Studebaker engine. It could fly at and drive at.  In 1942, the British army built the Hafner Rotabuggy, an experimental roadable autogyro that was developed with the intention of producing a way of air-dropping off-road vehicles. Although initial tests showed that the Rotabuggy was prone to severe vibration at speeds greater than, with improvements the Rotabuggy achieved a flight speed of.  However, the introduction of gliders that could carry vehicles (such as the Waco Hadrian and Airspeed Horsa) made the Rotabuggy superfluous and further development was cancelled.  Although several designs (such as the ConVairCar) have flown, none have enjoyed commercial success, and those that have flown are not widely known about by the general public. The most successful example, in that several were made and one is still flying, is the 1949 Taylor Aerocar.  One notable design was Henry Smolinski's Mizar, made by mating the rear end of a Cessna Skymaster with a Ford Pinto, but it disintegrated during test flights killing Smolinski and the pilot.  At the 2014 Pioneers Festival at Wien (Austria) AeroMobil presented their version 3.0 of their flying car. The prototype was conceived as a vehicle that can be converted from an automobile to an aircraft. The version 2.5 proof-of-concept took 20 years to develop, and first flew in 2013. CEO Juraj Vaculik said that the company planned to move flying cars to market: \"the plan is that in 2017 we’ll be able to announce... the first flying roadster.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of roadable aircraft.", "content": "Most roadable aircraft fall into one of two styles:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current development examples.", "content": "A number of companies are developing vehicles, although few have demonstrated a full-sized vehicle capable of free flight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry groups.", "content": "In April 2012, the International Flying Car Association was established to be the \"central resource center for information and communication between the flying car industry, news networks, governments, and those seeking further information worldwide\". Because flying cars need practical regulations that are mostly dealt with on a regional level, several regional associations were established as well, with the European Flying Car Association (EFCA) representing these national member associations on a pan-European level (51 independent countries, including the European Union Member States, the Accession Candidates and Russia, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine). The associations are also organizing racing competitions for roadable aircraft in Europe, the European Roadable Aircraft Prix (ERAP), mainly to increase awareness about this type of aircraft among a broader audience.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A roadable aircraft is a type of flying car. It is a hybrid vehicle that combines the flying capability of an aircraft with the option of being driven as an automobile on the ground. The roadable aircraft is typically recognized as a small plane with retractable wings that can fly in the open sky and to drive along roads. Most roadable aircraft have either integrated or modular components.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975892}
{"src_title": "Boys anti-tank rifle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The eponymous creator of this firearm was Captain Henry C. Boys (the Assistant Superintendent of Design--1885-1937) who was a member of the British Small Arms Committee and a designer at the Royal Small Arms Factory, Enfield. It was initially called \"Stanchion\" but was renamed after Captain Boys as a mark of respect when he died a few days before the rifle was approved for service in November 1937.  A bolt action rifle fed from a five-shot magazine, the weapon was large and heavy with a bipod at the front and a separate grip below the padded butt. In order to combat the recoil caused by the large 0.55 inch (13.9 mm) round, a muzzle brake was fitted on the barrel while the receiver was allowed to slide along the frame with a shock absorber attached to the rear of the rifle. The Boys had been designed with numerous small narrow-slotted screws of soft steel set very tight into the body of the weapon and its repair and maintenance proved difficult.  The cartridge was an adaptation of the.50 BMG, with a belt added firing a 47.6 gram bullet. At its introduction, the weapon was effective on light armour (23.2 mm thick) at 100 yards (91 m).  There were two main service loads used during the Second World War: The W Mark 1 (60 g AP at 747 m/s) and the W Mark 2 ammunition (47.6 g AP projectile at 884 m/s). The W Mark 1 could penetrate 23.2 mm of armour at 100 yards, about the thickness used on the frontal armour of a half-track or armoured car, or the side or rear armour of a light tank. Later in the conflict, a more effective round was developed, the W Mark 2, which fired a tungsten-cored projectile at 945 m/s. The Boys' effective range against unarmoured targets (for example, infantry), was much greater.  Despite its recoil slide and rubber-cushioned buttpad, the recoil of the weapon (along with noise and muzzle blast) was said to be painful, frequently causing neck strains and bruised shoulders. Consequently, the Boys was almost never fired as a free weapon (that is, not affixed to a support) except in emergencies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational use.", "content": "The Boys rifle was used in the early stages of the Second World War against lightly armoured German tanks and combat vehicles. Britain also supplied a large number of Boys anti-tank rifles to Finland in 1939 and 1940 during the Winter War with the Soviet Union. The weapon was popular with the Finns because it could deal with Soviet T-26 tanks, which the Finnish Army encountered in many engagements.  Although useful against early German and Italian tanks in France and North Africa, as well as in the Norwegian campaign, such as the Panzer I, Panzer II and early models of Panzer III, increases in vehicle armour during the Second World War left the Boys largely ineffectual as an anti-tank weapon. A shortened version was deployed in 1942 for issue to airborne forces and saw use in Tunisia, where it proved completely ineffective because of the reduced velocity caused by the shortened barrel. Another limitation was that the Boys rifle was relatively heavy and unwieldy to carry and set up.  The Boys' reputation after the Battle of France was such that the Canadian government, through the Directorate of Military Training, The Department of National Defence and National Film Board of Canada (NFB) commissioned a training film, \"Stop That Tank!\" (1942), from Walt Disney Studios to counter the rifle's \"jinx\" reputation.  Nonetheless, in the European theatre, it was soon replaced by the PIAT (Projector, Infantry, Anti-Tank) in 1943, which first saw service during the Allied invasion of Sicily. In other roles, the Boys saw some use against bunkers, machine gun nests and light-skinned vehicles but was rapidly replaced in British and Commonwealth service, as quantities of the latter weapon became available, by the U.S..50 BMG calibre M2 Browning machine gun.  Using armour-piercing (AP), armour-piercing incendiary (API), and armour-piercing incendiary tracer (APIT) ammunition, the.50 Browning was just as capable in armour penetration and more devastating when igniting thin-skinned vehicles using incendiary rounds than the Boys, and could also serve as an effective anti-aircraft weapon. The heavier Browning, however, was not \"man-portable\" at without tripod and with tripod. Even the British Special Air Service, which made much use of captured or cast-off weapons for their jeeps and reconnaissance vehicles, quickly got rid of their Boys rifles in favour of M2 Brownings or the Italian 20mm Breda cannon.  The weapon was standard issue to British and Commonwealth forces which attempted to stem the Japanese onslaught through the Pacific theatre. At Milne Bay, the weapon proved completely ineffective. It also failed to stop Japanese tanks in Malaya. Some accounts claim that the 1/14th Punjabi Regiment knocked out two light Japanese tanks at a roadblock. During the Battle of Singapore, the 1st Bn Cambridgeshire Regiment claims the Boys was very useful in knocking holes through walls during street fighting. After the war in the Pacific, the gun was used by Royal Malay Regiment to fought against communist insurgents during Malayan Emergency.  The U.S. Marine Corps purchased Canadian Boys rifles prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor. They saw limited use by the Marine Raider Battalions against enemy bunkers and aided in shooting down two seaplanes off Makin Island. The U.S. Army's 1st Ranger Battalion was also equipped with Boys, but they were not used in combat. The other five Ranger battalions were authorized Boys, but were not equipped with them.  The Boys rifles were also used by the Chinese Nationalist Army during the late Second Sino-Japanese War in both China and Burma.  The Boys rifle was also equipped and used by the Philippine Army and Philippine Constabulary during the Second World War against the Japanese occupation and to aid the Allied liberation. Following the Post-Second World War era, it was operated during the Hukbalahap Rebellion against the Hukbalahap Communist fighters in Central Luzon and by the Philippine Expeditionary Forces to Korea (PEFTOK) against the North Korean and Chinese Communist forces.  In September 1965, members of the IRA hit the British fast-attack patrol boat HMS \"Brave Borderer\" with a Boys rifle, crippling one of her turbines while she was paying a visit to Waterford, Republic of Ireland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Users.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vehicle mounting.", "content": "The Boys Rifle was sometimes mounted on vehicles such as the Universal Carrier (\"Bren Gun Carrier\"), Humber Light Reconnaissance Car and the Morris CS9, Standard Beaverette and Rolls Royce armoured cars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Citations.", "content": "Boys Anti-Tank Rifle and Training adaptations, Manuals and matters apropos", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Rifle, Anti-Tank,.55in, Boys, commonly known as the \"Boys Anti-tank Rifle\" (or incorrectly \"Boyes\"), was a British anti-tank rifle in use during the Second World War. It was often nicknamed the \"elephant gun\" by its users due to its size and large bore.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975893}
{"src_title": "Chronostratigraphy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Methodology.", "content": "Chronostratigraphy relies heavily upon isotope geology and geochronology to derive hard dating of known and well defined rock units which contain the specific fossil assemblages defined by the stratigraphic system. As it is practically very difficult to isotopically date most fossils and sedimentary rocks directly, inferences must be made in order to arrive at an age date which reflects the beginning of the interval.  The methodology used is derived from the law of superposition and the principles of cross-cutting relationships.  Because igneous rocks occur at specific intervals in time and are essentially instantaneous on a geologic time scale, and because they contain mineral assemblages which may be dated more accurately and precisely by isotopic methods, the construction of a chronostratigraphic column relies heavily upon intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.  Metamorphism, often associated with faulting, may also be used to bracket depositional intervals in a chronostratigraphic column. Metamorphic rocks can occasionally be dated, and this may give some limits to the age at which a bed could have been laid down. For example, if a bed containing graptolites overlies crystalline basement at some point, dating the crystalline basement will give a maximum age of that fossil assemblage.  This process requires a considerable degree of effort and checking of field relationships and age dates. For instance, there may be many millions of years between a bed being laid down and an intrusive rock cutting it; the estimate of age must necessarily be between the oldest cross-cutting intrusive rock in the fossil assemblage and the youngest rock upon which the fossil assemblage rests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Units.", "content": "Chronostratigraphic units, with examples:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Differences from geochronology.", "content": "It is important not to confuse geochronologic and chronostratigraphic units. Chronostratigraphic units are geological material, so it is correct to say that fossils of the species \"Tyrannosaurus rex\" have been found in the Upper Cretaceous Series. Geochronological units are periods of time and take the same name as standard stratigraphic units but replacing the terms upper/lower with late/early. Thus it is also correct to say that \"Tyrannosaurus rex\" lived during the Late Cretaceous Epoch.  Chronostratigraphy is an important branch of stratigraphy because the age correlations derived are crucial to drawing accurate cross sections of the spatial organization of rocks and to preparing accurate paleogeographic reconstructions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the age of rock strata in relation to time. The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to arrange the sequence of deposition and the time of deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and eventually, the entire geologic record of the Earth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975894}
{"src_title": "Almaty Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Construction of the Almaty Metro began on 7 September 1988 when Kazakhstan was part of the Soviet Union. However, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, funds from Moscow dried up and the new Kazakhstani government was unable to continue construction. Efforts to preserve the already-completed work were made, but the high cost led to the accumulation of large debts to construction workers.  In 2003, the government of Kazakhstan laid out a new development initiative which included government funds for continued construction on the metro. During the Metro's construction the Almaty tram network was wound down and most its routes closed by 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "By 2005, the construction programme, now under the control of President Nursultan Nazarbayev, received commitments for 72 million tenge for 2006–2008.  In 2007, the tunnel between the Almaly and Abai stations was completed on the night of 24/25 May. The tunnel is in length. At the connection point, it is situated at a depth of. The tunnel from Abai towards Baikonur ( in length) was finished at the end of 2007. Another tunnel on this span was finished in the middle of 2008.  The construction cost on the first line is estimated at 101 billion tenge (US$1 billion).  The first section of the Metro opened 1 December 2011, operating on of route and serving seven stations (four deep-level stations and three sub-surface stations). When opened it was the second metro system in Central Asia, and the sixteenth metro in the former Soviet Union region.  Construction on the expansion to Sairan and Moskva stations started in 2011, and opened for service on 18 April 2015, adding another of route and two stations to the Metro.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": ", the Almaty Metro has a route length of and serves nine stations.  The Almaty Metro owns seven four-car trainsets made by Hyundai.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passenger numbers.", "content": "12.4 million passengers used the metro in 2016, an increase on the 10.6 million who used it in 2015. Daily passenger numbers varied from 17,000 per day on Saturdays, Sundays and public holidays to up to 45,000 people who used it on working days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future plans.", "content": "The Metro is expanding. Phase 2 of the Metro is the 3.1 km extension to Sary-Arka and Dostyk and is predicted to be completed in 2021. The 5.52 km extension to Kalkaman and Western Bus Station is predicted for completion in 2025. Phase 3 will start after the completion of Phase 2 and will consist of a northern extension of 8.76 km, predicted for completion before 2035.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Almaty Metro (, \"Almaty Metropolıteni\"; ) is a rapid transit/metro system in Almaty, Kazakhstan. The first line of the system was opened on 1 December 2011, after more than 23 years of construction. A, two-station extension of the Metro to Moskva station opened on 18 April 2015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975895}
{"src_title": "Text file", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Data storage.", "content": "Because of their simplicity, text files are commonly used for storage of information. They avoid some of the problems encountered with other file formats, such as endianness, padding bytes, or differences in the number of bytes in a machine word. Further, when data corruption occurs in a text file, it is often easier to recover and continue processing the remaining contents. A disadvantage of text files is that they usually have a low entropy, meaning that the information occupies more storage than is strictly necessary.  A simple text file may need no additional metadata (other than knowledge of its character set) to assist the reader in interpretation. A text file may contain no data at all, which is a case of zero-byte file.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Encoding.", "content": "The ASCII character set is the most common compatible subset of character sets for English-language text files, and is generally assumed to be the default file format in many situations. It covers American English, but for the British Pound sign, the Euro sign, or characters used outside English, a richer character set must be used. In many systems, this is chosen based on the default locale setting on the computer it is read on. Prior to UTF-8, this was traditionally single-byte encodings (such as ISO-8859-1 through ISO-8859-16) for European languages and wide character encodings for Asian languages.  Because encodings necessarily have only a limited repertoire of characters, often very small, many are only usable to represent text in a limited subset of human languages. Unicode is an attempt to create a common standard for representing all known languages, and most known character sets are subsets of the very large Unicode character set. Although there are multiple character encodings available for Unicode, the most common is UTF-8, which has the advantage of being backwards-compatible with ASCII; that is, every ASCII text file is also a UTF-8 text file with identical meaning. UTF-8 also has the advantage that it is easily auto-detectable. Thus, a common operating mode of UTF-8 capable software, when opening files of unknown encoding, is to try UTF-8 first and fall back to a locale dependent legacy encoding when it definitely isn't UTF-8.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formats.", "content": "On most operating systems the name \"text file\" refers to file format that allows only plain text content with very little formatting (e.g., no bold or \"italic\" types). Such files can be viewed and edited on text terminals or in simple text editors. Text files usually have the MIME type codice_1, usually with additional information indicating an encoding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Microsoft Windows text files.", "content": "MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows use a common text file format, with each line of text separated by a two-character combination: carriage return (CR) and line feed (LF). It is common for the last line of text \"not\" to be terminated with a CR-LF marker, and many text editors (including Notepad) do not automatically insert one on the last line.  On Microsoft Windows operating systems, a file is regarded as a text file if the suffix of the name of the file (the \"filename extension\") is codice_2. However, many other suffixes are used for text files with specific purposes. For example, source code for computer programs is usually kept in text files that have file name suffixes indicating the programming language in which the source is written.  Most Microsoft Windows text files use \"ANSI\", \"OEM\", \"Unicode\" or \"UTF-8\" encoding. What Microsoft Windows terminology calls \"ANSI encodings\" are usually single-byte ISO/IEC 8859 encodings (i.e. ANSI in the Microsoft Notepad menus is really \"System Code Page\", non-Unicode, legacy encoding), except for in locales such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean that require double-byte character sets. ANSI encodings were traditionally used as default system locales within Microsoft Windows, before the transition to Unicode. By contrast, OEM encodings, also known as DOS code pages, were defined by IBM for use in the original IBM PC text mode display system. They typically include graphical and line-drawing characters common in DOS applications. \"Unicode\"-encoded Microsoft Windows text files contain text in UTF-16 Unicode Transformation Format. Such files normally begin with Byte Order Mark (\"BOM\"), which communicates the endianness of the file content. Although UTF-8 does not suffer from endianness problems, many Microsoft Windows programs (i.e. Notepad) prepend the contents of UTF-8-encoded files with BOM, to differentiate UTF-8 encoding from other 8-bit encodings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Unix text files.", "content": "On Unix-like operating systems text files format is precisely described: POSIX defines a text file as a file that contains characters organized into zero or more lines, where lines are sequences of zero or more non-newline characters plus a terminating newline character, normally LF.  Additionally, POSIX defines a as a text file whose characters are printable or space or backspace according to regional rules. This excludes most control characters, which are not printable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Apple Macintosh text files.", "content": "Prior to the advent of Mac OS X (now called macOS), the classic Mac OS system regarded the content of a file (the data fork) to be a text file when its resource fork indicated that the type of the file was \"TEXT\". Lines of Macintosh text files are terminated with CR characters.  Being certified Unix, macOS uses POSIX format for text files. Uniform Type Identifier (UTI) used for text files in macOS is \"public.plain-text\"; additional, more specific UTIs are: \"public.utf8-plain-text\" for utf-8-encoded text, \"public.utf16-external-plain-text\" and \"public.utf16-plain-text\" for utf-16-encoded text and \"com.apple.traditional-mac-plain-text\" for classic Mac OS text files.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rendering.", "content": "When opened by a text editor, human-readable content is presented to the user. This often consists of the file's plain text visible to the user. Depending on the application, control codes may be rendered either as literal instructions acted upon by the editor, or as visible escape characters that can be edited as plain text. Though there may be plain text in a text file, control characters within the file (especially the end-of-file character) can render the plain text unseen by a particular method.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A text file (sometimes spelled textfile; an old alternative name is flatfile) is a kind of computer file that is structured as a sequence of lines of electronic text. A text file exists stored as data within a computer file system. In operating systems such as CP/M and MS-DOS, where the operating system does not keep track of the file size in bytes, the end of a text file is denoted by placing one or more special characters, known as an end-of-file marker, as padding after the last line in a text file. On modern operating systems such as Microsoft Windows and Unix-like systems, text files do not contain any special EOF character, because file systems on those operating systems keep track of the file size in bytes. There are for most text files a need to have end-of-line delimiters, which are done in a few different ways depending on operating system. Some operating systems with record-orientated file systems may not use new line delimiters and will primarily store text files with lines separated as fixed or variable length records.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975896}
{"src_title": "Tarot (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation and Early years (1982-1984).", "content": "Tarot was originally formed by the Hietala brothers in the early 80's. Back then the band was called “Purgatory”. As Purgatory reached the point when they got the record deal, the label wanted them to change their name. Since then the band has been known as Tarot. The line-up settled into the form of Marco Hietala (bass/vocals), Zachary Hietala (guitars), Mako H (guitars) and Pecu Cinnari (drums).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The beginning (1986-1988).", "content": "The \"Wings of Darkness\" single saw the daylight in April 1986 and in December that same year Tarot released their first full-length album \"Spell of Iron\". In April 1988, following the release of a single \"Rose on the Grave\", their second album \"Follow Me into Madness\" was released.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"To Live Forever\" and \"Stigmata\" (1989-1996).", "content": "After the second album, there was a hiatus in the band. During this 'vacation' the line-up changed a little bit and a keyboardist was added to the band as Janne Tolsa joined Tarot and replaced the second guitarist Mako H. After long preparation, the third album \"To Live Forever\" came out in February 1993. Tarot received good publicity in Japan, making their first live album \"To Live Again\" to be released as a Japanese special edition in November 1994. The live album was recorded at Tavastia Club, Helsinki in August 1994. Some of the songs from the live album were released the following year on a limited edition bonus CD with the next studio album, \"Stigmata\". \"To Live Forever\" was remixed and re-released in 2006 together with all the previous albums.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"For the Glory of Nothing\" and hiatus (1997-2002).", "content": "Much anticipated \"For the Glory of Nothing\" came out in 1998. \"Shining Black\", a Tarot compilation album, came out in Japan in December 1998. While Tarot was inactive, Marco also played in the bands Conquest and Sinergy. Together with other members of Conquest, Marco played cover songs under the name Metal Gods. Marco became a member of Nightwish in 2001. Tolsa played the keyboards for Virtuocity's \"Secret Visions\" album as Marco sang a few songs on it. In summer 2002 Tarot played a special 80s' gig in Kuopio, playing material only from the first two albums.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Suffer Our Pleasures\" (2003).", "content": "In March 2003, the compilation \"Shining Black\" was released again in the rest of the world. Tarot signed a new record deal with Spinefarm Records and the new studio album \"Suffer Our Pleasures\" was released. While the album did well in Finland, it was barely noticed elsewhere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hiatus, remixes and comeback (2004–2008).", "content": "During these years Marco was busy with his other band Nightwish by recording and touring around the world. Tolsa worked on an album with Eternal Tears of Sorrow and toured with the industrial metal band Turmion Kätilöt.  Early spring 2006, Tarot's earlier label Bluelight Records released a collection of the band's first six albums remastered with a large amount of bonus material, unreleased demos, live and special versions of the songs and some covers. Some of the albums were also remixed.  The fans had been expecting the re-releases for years and the collection was so successful that in May 2006, when Tarot released the new single \"You\", it made number one on the Finnish charts for the first time in the history of the band. During that time, the band formalized their long-time roadie/backing vocalist Tommi 'Tuple' Salmela as a band member after being with the band for more than a decade.  Early 2006, Tarot was signed to KingFoo Entertainment in Finland, with Nuclear Blast covering the rest of Europe. During summer of 2006, the band not only toured various clubs and festivals but also composed, demoed and recorded new material. The album \"Crows Fly Black\" was released in October 2006.  On June 11, 2008, Tarot released their first live DVD, \"Undead Indeed\". The DVD also had a live album counterpart. They followed the release with a short tour in support of \"Undead Indeed\", which began January 30, 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gravity of Light (2009-2010).", "content": "Their new album, entitled \"Gravity of Light\" was released in Finland on March 10, 2010, in Europe on April 23, 2010, the UK on April 26, 2010, and in the US on June 8, 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spell of Iron MMXI (2011-2015).", "content": "Re-recorded first album, some updated lyrics and updated sound. Released in conjunction with the 25th Anniversary of their No. 1 single \"Wings of Darkness\" back in 1986.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death of Pecu Cinnari (2016-present).", "content": "On September 11, 2016, it was announced on Facebook that drummer Pecu Cinnari had died due to a long-term illness. It is unknown whether the band will continue without him or split up.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Tarot is a heavy metal band from Finland. They are most famous for the song “Wings of Darkness” from the 1986 album \"Spell of Iron\". While having enjoyed a broad underground popularity in Finland, the band has never been notable elsewhere until gaining new success in recent years, when their singer and bassist Marco Hietala joined Nightwish in 2002.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975897}
{"src_title": "Rory Byrne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Byrne became interested in motor racing at Witwatersrand University in Johannesburg, South Africa, firstly as a competitor and later the technical aspects of the sport. After graduating in 1964 Byrne began working as a chemist but retained his fascination for racing until by the late 1960s he, with three friends Dave Collier, Ronny and Dougie Bennett, set up a company importing performance car parts called Auto Drag and Speed Den situated in Jules Street, Malvern, Johannesburg and later Voortrekker Road in Alberton. It was in this period that he first began to design racing cars, putting to use his mathematical knowledge even though he lacked formal engineering training. His first car, a Formula Ford racer, was competitive and finished well in the 1972 championship.  Following his success in 1972 Byrne relocated to England to pursue a career in racing car design. Purchasing an ageing Royale Formula Ford car he began putting together the skills required to improve the design and received a lucky break in 1973 when Royale founder Bob King decided to sell the team. The new owner needed an engineer to replace King, who had also been the cars' designer, and offered the job to Rory Byrne, who spent the next four years designing a variety of cars for Royale and its customers.  An introduction to Ted Toleman in 1977 offered the next opportunity for the thirty-three-year-old who was by now an established figure in British motor racing. Toleman was owner of a Formula 2 team and hired the South African as its designer. Several seasons of increasingly respectable results culminated in first and second place in the 1980 European Formula 2 championship. The team with Rory Byrne as its chief designer was now ready to make the jump into Formula One.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formula One.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toleman/Benetton.", "content": "The first Byrne-designed car to appear at a grand prix was the Hart-powered TG181. Lacking the finances to reach the first three long-haul races Toleman entered Formula One at the San Marino Grand Prix. Two seasons passed before the fledgling team began to score points, but by the conclusion of the 1983 season Derek Warwick and Bruno Giacomelli had collected a very respectable 10 points – enough for the team to finish ninth in the constructors' championship, and enough to earn Byrne credibility in the pit-lane. It was in the off-season of 1983/84 that Toleman signed Ayrton Senna – a move that almost made Byrne, Senna and the team first time winners at that year's Monaco Grand Prix.  The team's steady progress towards the front of the grid was given a boost in 1985 when the Benetton family announced plans to purchase Toleman. With more money, more resources and the most powerful engine available in the form of the inline-four turbocharged BMW, it took only until October 1986 for Gerhard Berger to secure the first win for himself, for the team and for a Byrne-designed car at the Mexican Grand Prix.  Over the following five seasons Rory Byrne–designed cars took four more race wins but the Benetton team was never in a position to truly challenge the likes of Ferrari, Williams and McLaren, with most victories being taken on days when the competition faltered.  After a brief spell with the abortive Reynard F1 project in 1991 Byrne returned to Benetton that fall. What he found was a changed team now firmly under the control of Flavio Briatore and with hotshot Michael Schumacher installed as number one driver. Byrne's B193 car was a substantial technical advancement on the previous season's car, incorporating a semi-automatic gearbox, four-wheel steering, active suspension and traction control. The car took a single win in the hands of Schumacher, but everything was now in place for a title challenge in 1994.  It was immediately obvious at the first race of 1994 that Byrne's B194 chassis would be the car to beat. Critics suggested that the team's domination was more a result of an uncharacteristic slump by Williams star designer Adrian Newey and accusations of cheating dogged the team for the entire season. A late-season charge by Williams robbed Byrne of his first constructors' title, but with his motto of \"\"Evolution Not Revolution\"\", everything seemed set for more success in 1995.  With the accusations of cheating behind them, the Benetton team secured both titles before the season was finished – finally Byrne had what he wanted most. His car had won the Formula One constructors' crown. With the hugely influential Schumacher leaving Benetton for Ferrari at the end of the season, the team began to fragment. Byrne announced that he would retire in 1996.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ferrari.", "content": "By the conclusion of the 1996 season Michael Schumacher was being given free rein at Ferrari to build a team of engineers capable of returning the team to the top of the sport after years of underperforming. Benetton technical director Ross Brawn was hired and Ferrari approached Rory Byrne to replace the team's existing chief designer John Barnard who refused to re-locate to Italy. After long negotiations Byrne was lured from his retirement in Thailand back to Europe where he began building a design office at Ferrari's Maranello headquarters. Ferrari were immediately competitive once again, taking the title fight to the final race of the season in both 1997 and 1998. Continuing to build momentum in the following seasons, Ferrari won the constructors' championship in 1999, their first in 17 years. By the end of the 2004 season, Byrne-designed Ferraris had secured 71 race victories, six consecutive constructors' titles and five consecutive drivers' titles for Michael Schumacher with a sustained level of dominance never before seen in the sport.  In 2004 Rory Byrne announced that he would be retiring from Formula One at the end of the 2006 season, handing over the role of chief designer to Aldo Costa, his assistant since 1998. On 19 September 2006, it was announced that Rory had extended his stay, as a consultant, at Ferrari for another two years which led him until early 2009.  In 2012, Byrne was called in to look at the Ferrari F2012 F1 car after it had a troubled start to its life. He was also involved in the design of LaFerrari.  In February 2013, at the launch of F138 – in interview to the German Auto Motor und Sport Rory Byrne said that he is \"working full steam\" on Ferrari's 2014 F1 car, in an advisory role.  Maurizio Arrivabene revealed that Byrne is working as mentor in Ferrari helping the chief designer Simone Resta.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discovery Insure.", "content": "Byrne is a Special Engineering Advisor to Discovery Insure in South Africa in which he assists the company in improving the driving behaviour of South Africans and making the roads safer for all to use.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "F1 championships.", "content": "Constructors' Championships:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rory Byrne (born 10 January 1944) is a South African semi-retired engineer and car designer, most famous for being the chief designer at the Benetton and Scuderia Ferrari Formula One teams.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975898}
{"src_title": "Wenceslaus II of Legnica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Duke Wenceslaus I didn't want to divide the already small Duchy of Legnica between his sons; therefore, he destined Wenceslaus II and his younger brothers Boleslaw IV and Henry VIII to the Church, leaving his oldest son Rupert I as the only and true ruler over Duchy of Legnica. By 1363, Wenceslaus II was appointed as a Canon of the cathedral chapter in Breslau (although he only took formal possession of this post in 1368).  After his father's death in 1364, Wenceslaus II and his brothers were placed under the guardianship of their uncle Ludwik I the Fair and later by his older brother Rupert I. Louis I took a special interest in the spiritual career of his nephew and since 1371, prepared him for the future post of Bishop of Breslau.  Since 1363, Wenceslaus II began his studies in the University of Prague, and in the decade of 1370 he travelled to Montpellier, France, where he obtained a degree in canon law. In 1373, he was chosen as canon of Olomouc.  On 3 December 1375, Wenceslaus II was appointed by Pope Gregory XI as Bishop of Lebus, although by canon law, the legal minimum age for this type of post was thirty years. From the rule of Wenceslaus II in Lebus was known little; only some information was found on Wenceslaus as bishop as to the Synod in Kalisz in 1378, convening the bishops of the suffragans with Lebus' then metropolitan Archdiocese of Gniezno.  The diocese of Lebus produced few incomes. In addition, its location on the border between Brandenburg and Bohemia left Lebus considerably damaged during the war between Wittelsbachs the Luxemburgs. For this, Wenceslaus decided to move the diocesan capital to Fürstenwalde.  In 1378 appeared before Wenceslaus II the chance to obtain the Diocese of Breslau, because the Bishop Elect Theodore of Klatow didn't receive papal approval. Initially it appeared that the election of Wenceslaus II would not cause any problems, but the death of Emperor Charles IV and the Western Schism in the Church left the post vacant during almost six years, until 19 April 1382, when Wenceslaus II finally received confirmation of the Pope as the new Bishop. Facilitated the nomination that during 1379-1382 Wenceslaus II's brother Henry VIII acted as Administrator of the Diocese.  Wenceslaus II quickly became known by his forceful politics, standing invariably at the side of the Roman Papacy; at a reward for his loyalty in 1385, Pope Urban VI wanted to give him the title of Cardinal. For unknown reasons, the Duke-Bishop refused.  The first years of his rule in the Breslau Diocese, Wenceslaus II was merged in a bitter dispute with the local nobility, who tried to eliminate the law immunities of the Church. Shortly afterwards he was requested to make a settlement of the dispute to King Wenceslaus IV, which Breslau, whose bishops resisted to allow the King to grant them the church property, including churches, as a fiefs. The case was even more serious for Wenceslaus II, because he didn't have yet the king's approval for his episcopal dignity.  The settlement was finally made in 1382: Breslau obtained the right to import goods from outside the clergy district (permitted only on the acquisition of their own needs, without the possibility of sales). In addition, King Wenceslaus IV approved for young Liegnitz Duke the Episcopal dignity and then Wenceslaus II officially received the Duchy of Neisse-Ottmachau as a fief belonging to the Diocese of Breslau.  As Bishop of Wroclaw, Wenceslaus II was an efficient administrator. In 1415 he ordered the imposition and modification in the episcopal diocese of a secular law court, which most of his items in the next few centuries become in patterns for the rest of Silesian courts. Wenceslaus II's activities were expressed in Synods organized by him (in 1401, 1405, 1406 and 1410).  The Duke-Bishop was also known for giving large sums to the Church foundations. During this time were founded: the Canon College in Ottmachau, and collegiate churches in both Głogów) and Falkenberg (Niemodlin). In the disputes between the Silesian Duchies and the Church, he didn't hesitate to use the excommunication to his relatives (for example, the ban was applied by him to Duke Bolko IV of Opole).  This attitude caused several problems to Wenceslaus II, in particular the attacks of estates whose leaders were banned by him (like Duke Henry IX of Lüben). In order to raise funds for the defense, Wenceslaus didn't hesitate to pledge Church property.  On 12 January 1409, after the death of his last surviving brother Rupert I without male issue, Wenceslaus II became the sole heir of the Duchy of Legnica; two months later, on 19 March, he designated as his heirs the brothers Henry IX and Louis II of Brieg, grandsons of Louis I the Fair. In 1413, Wenceslaus managed to unite the Diocese of Breslau and the Duchy of Liegnitz in one state, trying in that way to save the title of Bishop to his successors.  On 16 March 1413, Wenceslaus II resigned from the government of the duchy and gave it to Louis II. That decision triggered in several war between Henry IX and Louis II, because the older brother Henry IX resented that the whole principality was given to Louis II. Henry protested to Wenceslaus II and tried to convince him to revert his decision, but the Duke-Bishop maintain the inheritance over Louis.  In 1417, the tired and old Wenceslaus II sent to Pope Martin V his resignation from the bishopric. Soon, Rome decided to approve it and on 17 December 1417 was chosen the new Bishop of Breslau: Duke Conrad the Elder.  Wenceslaus II then retired to the Episcopal seat of Ottmachau, where he spent his last years. He died on 30 December 1419, and was buried in the local collegiate church of St. Nicholas. After the transfer of the Chapter all the Bishop's remains with their tombstones were moved to Neisse. Since 1682 Wenceslaus II's remains and tombstone were placed in the Church of St. Jakob.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wenceslaus II, Duke of Legnica (1348 – 30 December 1419) was a Duke of Legnica from 1364 (only nominal; from 1409 he reigned alone and personally) until 1413, Bishop of Lebus (1375–82) and Breslau (Wroclaw) (1382–1417; also Duke of Nysa-Otmuchów.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975899}
{"src_title": "Superuser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Unix and Unix-like.", "content": "In Unix-like computer OSes (such as Linux), \"root\" is the conventional name of the user who has all rights or permissions (to all files and programs) in all modes (single- or multi-user). Alternative names include \"baron\" in BeOS and \"avatar\" on some Unix variants. BSD often provides a \"toor\" (\"root\" written backward) account in addition to a root account. Regardless of the name, the superuser always has a user ID of 0. The root user can do many things an ordinary user cannot, such as changing the ownership of files and binding to network ports numbered below 1024.  The name \"root\" may have originated because \"root\" is the only user account with permission to modify the root directory of a Unix system. This directory was originally considered to be root's home directory, but the UNIX Filesystem Hierarchy Standard now recommends that root's home be at /root.\"\" The first process bootstrapped in a Unix-like system, usually called init, runs with root privileges. It spawns all other processes directly or indirectly, which inherit their parents' privileges. Only a process running as root is allowed to change its user ID to that of another user; once it's done so, there is no way back. Doing so is sometimes called \"dropping root privileges\" and is often done as a security measure to limit the damage from possible contamination of the process. Another case is login and other programs that ask users for credentials and in case of successful authentication allow them to run programs with privileges of their accounts.  It is often recommended that no-one use \"root\" as their normal user account, since simple typographical errors in entering commands can cause major damage to the system. Instead, a normal user account should be used, and then either the su (substitute user) or sudo (substitute user do) command is used. The \"su\" approach requires the user to know the root password, while the \"sudo\" method requires that the user has been set up with the power to run \"as root\" within the \"/etc/sudoers\" file, typically indirectly by being made a member of the \"wheel\", \"adm\", \"admin\", or \"sudo\" group.  For a number of reasons, the \"sudo\" approach is now generally preferred – for example it leaves an audit trail of who has used the command and what administrative operations they performed.  Some OSes, such as macOS and some Linux distributions (most notably Ubuntu), automatically give the initial user created the ability to run as root via \"sudo\" – but configure this to ask them for their password before doing administrative actions. In some cases the actual root account is disabled by default, so it can't be directly used. In mobile platform-oriented OSs such as Apple iOS and Android, superuser access is inaccessible by design, but generally the security system can be exploited in order to obtain it. In a few systems, such as Plan 9, there is no superuser at all.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Microsoft Windows.", "content": "In Windows NT and later systems derived from it (such as Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, and Windows Vista/7/8/10), there must be at least one administrator account (Windows XP and earlier) or one able to elevate privileges to superuser (Windows Vista/7/8/10 via User Account Control). In Windows XP and earlier systems, there is a built-in administrator account that remains hidden when a user administrator-equivalent account exists. This built-in administrator account is created with a blank password. This poses security risks as local users would be able to access the computer via the built-in administrator account if the password is left blank, so the account is disabled by default in Windows Vista and later systems due to the introduction of User Account Control (UAC). Remote users are unable to access the built-in administrator account.  A Windows administrator account is not an exact analogue of the Unix root account – Administrator, the built-in administrator account, and a user administrator account have the same level of privileges. The default user account created in Windows systems is an administrator account. Unlike macOS, Linux, and Windows Vista/7/8/10 administrator accounts, administrator accounts in Windows systems without UAC do not insulate the system from most of the pitfalls of full root access. One of these pitfalls includes decreased resilience to malware infections. To avoid this and maintain optimal system security on pre-UAC Windows systems, it is recommended to simply authenticate when necessary from a standard user account, either via a password set to the built-in administrator account, or another administrator account.  In Windows Vista/7/8/10 administrator accounts, a prompt will appear to authenticate running a process with elevated privileges. Usually, no user credentials are required to authenticate the UAC prompt in administrator accounts but authenticating the UAC prompt requires entering the username and password of an administrator in standard user accounts. In Windows XP (and earlier systems) administrator accounts, authentication is not required to run a process with elevated privileges and this poses another security risk that led to the development of UAC. Users can set a process to run with elevated privileges from standard accounts by setting the process to \"run as administrator\" or using the \"runas\" command and authenticating the prompt with credentials (username and password) of an administrator account. Much of the benefit of authenticating from a standard account is negated if the administrator account's credentials being used has a blank password (as in the built-in administrator account in Windows XP and earlier systems), hence why it is recommended to set a password for the built-in administrator account.  In Windows NT, 2000 and higher, the root user is the Administrator account.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Novell NetWare.", "content": "In Novell NetWare, the superuser was called \"supervisor\", later \"admin\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "OpenVMS.", "content": "In OpenVMS, \"SYSTEM\" is the superuser account for the OS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Older personal systems.", "content": "On many older OSes on computers intended for personal and home use, anyone using the system had full privileges. Many such systems, such as DOS, did not have the concept of multiple accounts, and although others such as Windows 95 did allow multiple accounts, this was only so that each could have its own preferences profile – all users still had full administrative control over the machine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In computing, the superuser is a special user account used for system administration. Depending on the operating system (OS), the actual name of this account might be root, administrator, admin or supervisor. In some cases, the actual name of the account is not the determining factor; on Unix-like systems, for example, the user with a user identifier (UID) of zero is the superuser, regardless of the name of that account; and in systems which implement a role based security model, any user with the role of superuser (or its synonyms) can carry out all actions of the superuser account. The principle of least privilege recommends that most users and applications run under an ordinary account to perform their work, as a superuser account is capable of making unrestricted, potentially adverse, system-wide changes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975900}
{"src_title": "Joseph Delmont", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Delmont was born in 1873 as one of 16 children of Moses (later Maximilian) Pollak and Resi (or Rösi, later Theresia) née Fuchs, in Loywein, Lower Austria (Austria). He grew up as a performer, latterly a trapeze artist, in a travelling circus. After training as a metal worker, he re-joined the circus as an animal trainer and lion tamer, in which capacity he traveled the world. In 1901 he visited the United States, and stayed there in order to work as a manager of an animal business.  After visiting several shows of the new medium of film and becoming interested in it, Delmont started to make his own films in 1903 for the film production company Vitagraph. These were short Westerns, one-act movies or one-reelers lasting only a few minutes. In 1905 he made his first two-act movie.  During 1910 he returned to Vienna where among other things he worked for the Österreichisch-Ungarische Kinoindustrie (later Wiener-Kunstfilm) as a cameraman, and was thus cameraman, and also technical director and director of scenery, on the oldest Austrian drama film to survive in its entirety: \"Der Müller und sein Kind\" of 1911. Soon afterwards, he went to Germany. In Berlin, he directed in several studios, among them the Rex-Ateliers, sometimes working as co-director with Harry Piel, and sometimes acting with Fred Sauer, Curt Bois and Ilse Bois on a series of adventurous, action-packed, dramatic fantasy films. The sensational part of these films was that, for the first time, extraordinary film footage of beasts of prey was shown and for which his films were well-known.  Later on, Delmont collaborated with film producer Max Nivelli in the making of several films of social and political nature, which made headlines in major newspapers of the Weimar Republic era. In 1919 he directed the film \"Der Ritualmord\" (Production: Nivo-Film) which was aimed at educating the public on the dangers of anti-Semitism. The movie tried to address the growing concern by the German public of the flood of Jewish immigrants arriving from Eastern Europe.  Another socially important film directed by Delmont, for which he also wrote the screenplay, was \"Die Entfesselte Menschheit\" in 1920 (Production: Nivo-Film). The film was based on the novel by the same name written by Max Glass. The film was considered as one of the anti-Bolshevik films of that era. The story, although fictional, described an event very similar to the \"Spartacist uprising\" which occurred only the year before. Most of this film was reused in \"Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit\" (1926).  For the making of his movies Delmont traveled to Panama, Portugal, England, France, Spain and the Netherlands.  His last project as a director was in the film \"Der Millionenraub im Rivieraexpreß\" (1927). From then on, he devoted himself to writing, something he had dabbled in since 1892. By the time of his death in 1935 he had written several novels and short stories, and many newspaper articles. Besides detective stories and non-fiction work about his experiences with animals, he also wrote adventure and crime novels. With \"\"Der Ritt auf dem Funken\"\" (1928) he published a futuristic science fiction novel about the possibility of travelling with vehicles on electric currents in the near future.  Delmont died in 1935 in Bad Pystian, now Píšťany, Slovakia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "The following is a selected list of films, both short and long, directed by Delmont. In many he also wrote the screenplay or appeared as an actor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary works.", "content": "The German National Library knows of 15 novels and 11 other works by Joseph Delmont, of which the following are a selection:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Delmont (8 May 1873 as Josef Pollak in Loiwein, Austria – 12 March 1935 in Píšťany, Slovakia) was an Austrian film director of some 200 films, largely shorts, in which he was noted for his innovative use of beasts of prey. He was also a cameraman, actor and screenplay writer. During later life he was active as an author.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975901}
{"src_title": "Picpus Cemetery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The entrance to the cemetery is at 35 rue de Picpus in the 12th arrondissement. It can be visited in the afternoon every day except Sunday and holidays, with hours usually from 2 pm to 4 pm (Admission: €2). The is located at the entrance of the cemetery. The nearest Paris metro stations are Nation and Picpus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign of Terror.", "content": "During the French Revolution, the guillotine was set up in the Place de la Nation, then called the Place du Trône Renversé. Between 13 June and 28 July, during the time known as the Reign of Terror, as many as 55 people per day were executed.  The Revolutionary Tribunal needed a quick but anonymous way to dispose of the bodies. The cemetery is only five minutes from the Place de la Nation.  A pit was dug at the end of the garden where the decapitated bodies were thrown in together, noblemen and nuns, grocers and soldiers, laborers and innkeepers. A second pit was dug when the first filled up.  The names of those buried in the two common pits, 1,306 men and women, are inscribed on the walls of the chapel. Of the 1,109 men, there were 108 nobles, 108 churchmen, 136 monastics (\"gens de robe\"), 178 military, and 579 commoners. There are 197 women buried there, with 51 from the nobility, 23 nuns and 123 commoners. The bloodshed stopped when Robespierre himself was beheaded, and the garden was closed off.  Among the women, 16 Carmelite nuns ranging in age from 29 to 78, were brought to the guillotine together, singing hymns as they were led to the scaffold, an incident commemorated in Poulenc's opera, \"Dialogues of the Carmelites\". They were beatified in 1906 as the Martyrs of Compiègne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-Revolution.", "content": "In 1797, under the Directory, the land was secretly acquired by Princess Amalie Zephyrine of Salm-Kyrburg, whose brother, Frederick III, Prince of Salm-Kyrburg, was buried in one of the common graves. In 1803, when Napoleon was First Consul, a group of family members of aristocrats bought up the rest of the land, and built a second cemetery next to the common graves.  In a meeting held in 1802, underwriters designated 11 of them to form a committee:  Many of these noble families still use the cemetery as a place of burial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Marquis de Lafayette.", "content": "Arguably Picpus Cemetery's most famous tomb is that of the Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, the French aristocrat and general who was a close friend of many American Founding Fathers including George Washington, Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson and fought in the Continental Army even before France officially entered the American Revolutionary War. He died in 1834 from natural causes at the age of 76, and an American flag always flies over his grave, courtesy of the local chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR). He is buried next to his wife, Adrienne de La Fayette, whose sister, mother and grandmother were among those beheaded and thrown into the common pit. The soil that covers the grave is soil that Lafayette brought home to France from Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Boston – site of the Battle of Bunker Hill, one of the most prominent early battles of the American Revolutionary War; in 1825, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the battle, Lafayette had laid the cornerstone of the Bunker Hill Monument.  On 4 July 1917, three months after the United States entered World War I on the side of France and her Allies, U.S. Army Colonel Charles E. Stanton visited the General's tomb. Col. Stanton placed an American flag, uttering the famous phrase: \"Lafayette, we are here.\"  Every Fourth of July, members of the DAR, the Society of the Cincinnati and U.S. embassy officials gather at Lafayette's tomb for a celebration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jewish burials.", "content": "In 1852, financier James Mayer de Rothschild built a hospital and hospice next door to the cemetery, at 76 rue de Picpus. Initially intended to treat Jewish patients, Rothschild Hospital was transformed into a general hospital open to all during World War I.  During the Nazi occupation of Paris during World War II, French, Polish, and German Jews were rounded up and sent to the Drancy internment camp north of Paris. Pregnant women, the seriously ill and children were sent to the Rothschild Hospital, which became an extension of the Drancy camp, under full guard and surrounded by barbed wire.  Under the collusion of Vichy France with Nazi Germany, its patients who survived their illnesses were all deported to concentration camps. Of the 61,000 from Drancy sent to the camps, only 1,542 remained alive when the Allied forces liberated the camps in 1944. There is a special plaque dedicated to their memory at Picpus Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Picpus Cemetery () is the largest private cemetery in Paris, France, located in the 12th arrondissement. It was created from land seized from the convent of the Chanoinesses de St-Augustin, during the French Revolution. Just minutes away from where the guillotine was set up, it contains 1,306 victims executed between 14 June and 27 July 1794, during the height of the Reign of Terror. Today only descendants of those 1,306 victims are eligible to be buried at Picpus Cemetery.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975902}
{"src_title": "Robert I, Duke of Parma", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Florence, Robert was the elder son of Charles III, Duke of Parma and Louise Marie Thérèse d'Artois, daughter of Charles Ferdinand, duc de Berry and granddaughter of King Charles X of France. He succeeded his father to the ducal throne in 1854 upon the latter's assassination, when he was only six, while his mother stood as regent.  When Robert was eleven years old, he was deposed, as Piedmontese troops annexed other Italian states, ultimately to form the Kingdom of Italy. Despite losing his throne, Robert and his family enjoyed considerable wealth, traveling in a private train of more than a dozen cars from his castles at Schwarzau am Steinfeld near Vienna, to Villa Pianore in northwest Italy, and the magnificent château de Chambord in France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and issue.", "content": "On 5 April 1869, while in exile in Rome, he married Princess Maria Pia of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1849–1882), daughter of King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies. She was his half first cousin once removed, as her father (Ferdinand II) and Robert's maternal grandmother (Princess Caroline Ferdinande of Bourbon-Two Sicilies) were half-siblings, both being children of Francis I of the Two Sicilies.  Maria Pia belonged to the deposed Royal Family of the Two Sicilies and was thus a Bourbon, like her husband. She bore him 12 children, before dying in childbirth:  After his first wife's death in childbirth, he remarried on 15 October 1884 to Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal, daughter of the deposed King Miguel I of Portugal and his wife, Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. Maria Antonia was his second cousin once removed, as her paternal grandmother (Charlotte of Spain) and Robert's paternal great-grandmother (Maria Luisa of Spain) were siblings, both being children of Charles IV of Spain and Maria Luisa of Parma. She bore him another 12 children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Less than four months after Robert's death in November 1907, the Grand Marshal of the Austrian court declared six of the children of his first marriage legally incompetent (they had severe mental retardation), at the behest of his widow, Maria Antonia. Nonetheless, Robert's primary heir was his son Elias, the youngest son of his first marriage and the only one of his sons by that marriage to beget children of his own. Elias also became the legal guardian of his six elder siblings.  Although the eldest half-brothers, Sixte and Xavier, eventually sued their half-brother Elias for trying to obtain a greater share of the ducal fortune, they lost in the French courts, leaving the issue of Robert's second marriage with modest prospects. Some of his younger sons served in the Austrian armed forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancestry.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patrilineal descent.", "content": "Robert's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son.  Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations - which means that if Duke Robert were to choose an historically accurate house name it would be Robert, as all his male-line ancestors have been of that house.  Robert is a member of the House of Bourbon-Parma, a sub-branch of the House of Bourbon-Spain, itself originally a branch of the House of Bourbon, and thus of the Capetian dynasty and of the Robertians.  Robert's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. It follows the Dukes of Parma as well as the Kings of Spain, France, and Navarre. The line can be traced back more than 1,200 years from Robert of Hesbaye to the present day, through Kings of France & Navarre, Spain and Two-Sicilies, Dukes of Parma and Grand-Dukes of Luxembourg, Princes of Orléans and Emperors of Brazil. It is one of the oldest in Europe.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Robert I (Italian: \"Roberto I Carlo Luigi Maria di Borbone, Duca di Parma e Piacenza\"; 9 July 1848 – 16 November 1907) was the last sovereign Duke of Parma and Piacenza from 1854 until 1859, when the duchy was annexed to Sardinia-Piedmont during the \"Risorgimento\". He was a member of the House of Bourbon-Parma and descended from Philip, Duke of Parma, the third son of King Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975903}
{"src_title": "Stanislas Dehaene", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Training.", "content": "Dehaene began his training as a mathematician, studying mathematics at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris from 1984 to 1989. He obtained his master's degree in Applied mathematics and computer science in 1985 from the University of Paris VI. He turned to neuroscience and psychology after reading Jean-Pierre Changeux's book, \"L'Homme neuronal\" (\"Neuronal Man: The Biology of The Mind\").  Inspired by his reading of Changeux's work, Dehaene began to collaborate with him on computational neuronal models of human cognition, including working memory and task control, collaborations which continue to the present day. Dehaene then completed his PhD in Experimental Psychology in 1989 with Jacques Mehler at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS), Paris.  After receiving his doctorate, Dehaene became a research scientist at INSERM in the Cognitive Sciences and Psycholinguistics Laboratory (\"Laboratoire de Sciences Cognitives et Psycholinguistique\") directed by Mehler. He also spent two years, from 1992 to 1994, as a post-doctoral fellow at the Institute of Cognitive and Decision Sciences, with Michael Posner at the University of Oregon.  Dehaene then returned to France, where he began his own research group, which today numbers nearly 30 graduate students, post-doctoral fellows and researchers. In 2005, he was elected to the newly created Chair of Experimental Psychology at the Collège de France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expertise.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Numerical cognition.", "content": "Dehaene is best known for his work on numerical cognition, a discipline which he popularized and synthesized with the publication of his 1997 book, \"The Number Sense\" (\"La Bosse des maths\") which won the for best French language general-audience scientific book. He began his studies of numerical cognition with Jacques Mehler, examining the cross-linguistic frequency of number words, whether numbers were understood in an analog or compositional manner, and the connection between numbers and space (the \"SNARC effect\"). With Changeux, he then developed a computational model of numerical abilities, which predicted log-gaussian tuning functions for number neurons, a finding which has now been elegantly confirmed with single-unit physiology  With long-time collaborator Laurent Cohen, a neurologist at the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris, Dehaene also identified patients with lesions in different regions of the parietal lobe with impaired multiplication, but preserved subtraction (associated with lesions of the inferior parietal lobule) and others with impaired subtraction, but preserved multiplication (associated with lesions to the intraparietal sulcus). This double dissociation suggested that different neural substrates for overlearned, linguistically mediated calculations, like multiplication, are mediated by inferior parietal regions, while on-line computations, like subtraction are mediated by the intraparietal sulcus. Shortly thereafter, Dehaene began EEG and functional neuroimaging studies of these capacities, showing that parietal and frontal regions were specifically involved in mathematical cognition, including the dissociation between subtraction and multiplication observed in his previous patient studies.  Together with Pierre Pica, and Elizabeth Spelke, Stanislas Dehaene has studied the numeracy and numeral expressions of the mundurucu (an indigenous tribe living in Para, Brazil).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consciousness.", "content": "Dehaene subsequently turned his attention to work on the neural correlates of consciousness, leading to numerous scientific articles, an edited book, \"The Cognitive Neuroscience of Consciousness\" and is the Past President of the Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness. Dehaene has developed computational models of consciousness, based on Bernard Baars's Global Workspace Theory, which suggest that only one piece of information can gain access to a \"global neuronal workspace\". To explore the neural basis of this global neuronal workspace, he has conducted functional neuroimaging experiments of masking and the attentional blink, which show that information that reaches conscious awareness leads to increased activation in a network of parietal and frontal regions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Neural basis of reading.", "content": "In addition, Dehaene has used brain imaging to study language processing in monolingual and bilingual subjects, and in collaboration with Laurent Cohen, the neural basis of reading. Dehaene and Cohen initially focused on the role of ventral stream regions in visual word recognition, and in particular the role of the left inferior temporal cortex for reading written words. They identified a region they called the \"visual word form area\" (VWFA) that was consistently activated during reading, and also found that when this region was surgically removed to treat patients with intractable epilepsy, reading abilities were severely impaired.  Dehaene, Cohen and colleagues have subsequently demonstrated that, rather than being a single area, the VWFA is the highest stage in a hierarchy of visual feature extraction for letter and word recognition.  More recently, they have turned their attention to how learning to read may depend on a process of \"neuronal recycling\" that causes brain circuits originally evolved for object recognition to become tuned to recognize frequent letters, pairs of letters and words, and have tested these ideas examining brain responses in a group of adults who did not learn to read due to social and cultural constraints.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Stanislas Dehaene (born May 12, 1965) is a French author and cognitive neuroscientist whose research centers on a number of topics, including numerical cognition, the neural basis of reading and the neural correlates of consciousness. As of 2017, he is a professor at the Collège de France and, since 1989, the director of INSERM Unit 562, \"Cognitive Neuroimaging\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975904}
{"src_title": "Lars Bender", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Lars Bender played from 1993 to 1999 in the youth of the TSV Brannenburg, from 1999 to 2002 he was part of SpVgg Unterhaching youth teams. In summer 2002, he moved to the 1860 München youth team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1860 Munich.", "content": "In August 2006, he played his first game for 1860 Munich II in the Regionalliga Süd. In October, he was an unused substitute in the 1860 Munich senior team, and on 27 November 2006, when he was 17 years old, he made his professional debut at the home game against the TuS Koblenz in the 2. Bundesliga. In his first professional season, he played 13 matches, nine of them in the starting lineup. In this season, Bender won the Fritz-Walter trophy, ahead of then Mönchengladbach's Marko Marin and his twin brother, Sven Bender. In his second season, he was a regular player in the defensive midfield. On the first day of the new season, he scored his first goal. Bender started 2008–09 season again as a regular player. In the second league game against FSV Frankfurt on 3 October 2008, he took over the captaincy and was at 19 the youngest captain in the history of the 1860 Munich, but on 20 October he was seriously injured and after a number of injuries, he finished that season with only 15 matches played. In his three professional seasons played for 1860 München in the 2. Bundesliga, he played 58 games and scored four goals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bayer 04 Leverkusen.", "content": "On 18 August 2009, Bender signed a three-year contract with Bayer Leverkusen. He played his first match in the Bundesliga coming off the bench on Matchday 6 and was used as a substitute in most of 20 games he played during his first season in Bayer Leverkusen. He scored his first goal in the Bundesliga against Eintracht Frankfurt on 16 September, an eventual 4–0 win. In the following season, his position in the defensive midfield remained competitive and he was often second choice, but he played 27 matches and scored three goals. In the 2011–12 season, he was a regular player and played most of the games over the full season, only interrupted by a forced break for a muscle bundle crack injury in the spring of 2012. On 21 March 2012, Bender signed a new contract with Leverkusen to 2018. In the 2012–13 Bundesliga season, he played 33 games, scored 3 goals and made 6 assists. On 31 October 2013, he extended his contract with Leverkusen until 2019.  In the 2013–14 season, he played 29 games and scored three goals in the Bundesliga, despite being injured for the most of September and October and again in the spring of 2014. In the 2014–2015 season, he's comeback to field and played 26 games in Bundesliga, he's made only one goal in this season against SC Paderborn 07. In UEFA Champions League he helped Leverkusen to finished runner-up in Phase Group behind AS Monaco but later lost by Atlético Madrid on Round of 16. For season 2015/16 coach Roger Schmidt appointed him as the new team captain in place of Simon Rolfes, who had ended his career after the end of the preseason. This season is a struggle for him, after had long time injury in October 2015 until March 2016, and he's only got 10 appearances in Bundesliga and made a pair appearances in Champions League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "He was part of the German under-19 side that won the 2008 UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship. He and his twin Sven were named jointly as players of the tournament.  Bender was chosen as part of Germany's 23-man squad for Euro 2012. He scored an 80th-minute winner in the final group game against Denmark.  On 29 May 2013 Bender scored twice in a 4–2 win over Ecuador.  He was named in Germany's provisional 30-man squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, but withdrew on 23 May following a thigh injury in training. Manager Joachim Löw said, \"I feel personally very sorry for Lars because I know how much he wanted to be in Brazil, when a player is ruled out so close before a tournament then it is very disappointing for everyone\". Lars was part of the Germany Olympic football team for Rio along with his twin and Nils Petersen who were the three selected over 23 years old players, winning the silver medal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing style.", "content": "Lars Bender normally plays as a central midfielder. He is known for his all-action style and possesses good tackling, passing and ball interception.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lars Bender (; born 27 April 1989) is a German footballer who plays as a right back and central midfielder and captains Bayer Leverkusen. He is also a member of Germany national team. He was raised in Brannenburg, city in the district of Rosenheim. He is the twin brother of Sven Bender, who also plays for Bayer 04 Leverkusen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975905}
{"src_title": "Three Sisters (play)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characters.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unseen characters.", "content": "The play has several important characters who are talked about frequently, but never seen onstage. These include Protopopov, head of the local Council and Natasha's lover; Vershinin's suicidal wife and two daughters; Kulygin's beloved superior the headmaster of the high school and Andrey and Natasha's children Bobik and Sofia. JL Styan contends in his \"The Elements of Drama\" that in the last act Chekhov revised the text to show that Protopopov is the real father of Sofia: \"The children are to be tended by their respective fathers\"—Andrey pushes Bobik in his pram, and Protopopov sits with Sofia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "Act one begins with Olga (the eldest sister) working as a teacher in a school, but at the end of the play she is made headmistress, a promotion in which she had little interest. Masha, the middle sister and the artist of the family (she was trained as a concert pianist), is married to Feodor Ilyich Kulygin, a schoolteacher. At the time of their marriage, Masha, younger than he, was enchanted by what she took to be wisdom, but seven years later, she sees through his pedantry and his clownish attempts to compensate for the emptiness between them. Irina, the youngest sister, is still full of expectation. She speaks of her dream of going to Moscow and meeting her true love. It was in Moscow that the sisters grew up, and they all long to return to the sophistication and happiness of that time. Andrei is the only boy in the family and the sisters idolize him. He is in love with Natalia Ivanovna (Natasha), who is somewhat common in relation to the sisters and suffers under their glance. The play begins on the first anniversary of their father's death, but it is also Irina's name-day, and everyone, including the soldiers (led by the gallant Vershinin) bringing with them a sense of noble idealism, comes together to celebrate it. At the very close of the act, Andrei exultantly confesses his feelings to Natasha in private and fatefully asks her to marry him.  Act two begins almost a year later with Andrei and Natasha married with their first child (offstage), a baby boy named Bobik. Natasha is having an affair with Protopopov, Andrei's superior, a character who is mentioned but never seen onstage. Masha comes home flushed from a night out, and it is clear that she and her companion, Lieutenant-Colonel Vershinin, are giddy with the secret of their mutual love for one another. Little seems to happen but that Natasha manipulatively quashes the plans for a party in the home, but the resultant quiet suggests that all gaiety is being quashed as well. Tuzenbach and Solyony both declare their love for Irina.  Act three takes place about a year later in Olga and Irina's room (a clear sign that Natasha is taking over the household as she asked them to share rooms so that her child could have a different room). There has been a fire in the town, and, in the crisis, people are passing in and out of the room, carrying blankets and clothes to give aid. Olga, Masha and Irina are angry with their brother, Andrei, for mortgaging their home, keeping the money to pay off his gambling debts and conceding all his power to his wife. However, when faced with Natasha's cruelty to their aged family retainer, Anfisa, Olga's own best efforts to stand up to Natasha come to naught. Masha, alone with her sisters, confides in them her romance with Vershinin (\"I love, love, love that man\"). At one point, Kulygin (her husband) blunders into the room, doting ever more foolishly on her, and she stalks out. Irina despairs at the common turn her life has taken, the life of a municipal worker, even as she rails at the folly of her aspirations and her education (\"I can't remember the Italian for 'window'\"). Out of her resignation, supported in this by Olga's realistic outlook, Irina decides to accept Tuzenbach's offer of marriage even though she does not love him. Chebutykin drunkenly stumbles and smashes a clock which had belonged to the Prozorov siblings' late mother, whom he loved. Andrei then vents his self-hatred, acknowledges his own awareness of life's folly and his disappointment in Natasha, and begs his sisters' forgiveness for everything.  In the fourth and final act, outdoors behind the home, the soldiers, who by now are friends of the family, are preparing to leave the area. A flash-photograph is taken. There is an undercurrent of tension because Solyony has challenged the Baron (Tuzenbach) to a duel, but Tuzenbach is intent on hiding it from Irina. He and Irina share a heartbreaking delicate scene in which she confesses that she cannot love him, likening her heart to a piano whose key has been lost. Just as the soldiers are leaving, a shot is heard, and Tuzenbach's death in the duel is announced shortly before the end of the play. Masha has to be pulled, sobbing, from Vershinin's arms, but her husband willingly, compassionately and all too generously accepts her back, no questions asked. Olga has reluctantly accepted the position of permanent headmistress of the school where she teaches and is moving out. She is taking Anfisa with her, thus rescuing the elderly woman from Natasha.  Irina's fate is uncertain but, even in her grief at Tuzenbach's death, she wants to persevere in her work as a teacher. Natasha remains as the chatelaine, in charge and in control of everything. Andrei is stuck in his marriage with two children, the only people that Natasha cares about, besides herself. As the play closes, the three sisters stand in a desperate embrace, gazing off as the soldiers depart to the sound of a band's gay march. As Chebutykin sings \"Ta-ra-ra-boom-di-ay\" to himself, Olga's final lines call out for an end to the confusion all three feel at life's sufferings and joy: \"If we only knew... If we only knew\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Premiere.", "content": "The play was written for the Moscow Art Theatre and it opened on 31 January 1901, under the direction of Konstantin Stanislavski and Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko. Stanislavski played Vershinin and the sisters were Olga Knipper (for whom Chekhov wrote the part of Masha), Margarita Savitskaya as Olga and Maria Andreyeva as Irina. Maria Lilina (Stanislavski's wife) was Natasha, Vsevolod Meyerhold appeared as Tusenbach, Mikhail Gromov as Solyony, Alexander Artyom as Artem Chebutykin, Ioasaf Tikhomirov as Fedotik, Ivan Moskvin as Rode, Vladimir Gribunin as Ferapont, and Maria Samarova as Anfisa.  Reception was mixed. Chekhov felt that Stanislavski's \"exuberant\" direction had masked the subtleties of the work and that only Knipper had shown her character developing in the manner the playwright had intended. In the directors' view, the point was to show the hopes, aspirations and dreams of the characters, but audiences were affected by the pathos of the sisters' loneliness and desperation and by their eventual, uncomplaining acceptance of their situation. Nonetheless the piece proved popular and soon it became established in the company's repertoire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Three Sisters () is a play by the Russian author and playwright Anton Chekhov. It was written in 1900 and first performed in 1901 at the Moscow Art Theatre. The play is sometimes included on the short list of Chekhov's outstanding plays, along with \"The Cherry Orchard\", \"The Seagull\" and \"Uncle Vanya\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975906}
{"src_title": "Philosophy of law", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Analytical jurisprudence.", "content": "Analytical jurisprudence seeks to provide a general account of the nature of law through the tools of conceptual analysis. The account is general in the sense of targeting universal features of law that hold at all times and places. Whereas lawyers are interested in what the law is on a specific issue in a specific jurisdiction, philosophers of law are interested in identifying the features of law shared across cultures, times, and places. Taken together, these foundational features of law offer the kind of universal definition philosophers are after. The general approach allows philosophers to ask questions about, for example, what separates law from morality, politics, or practical reason. Often, scholars in the field presume that law has a unique set of features that separate it from other phenomena, though not all share the presumption.  While the field has traditionally focused on giving an account of law's nature, some scholars have begun to examine the nature of domains within law, e.g. tort law, contract law, or criminal law. These scholars focus on what makes certain domains of law distinctive and how one domain differs from another. A particularly fecund area of research has been the distinction between tort law and criminal law, which more generally bears on the difference between civil and criminal law.  Several schools of thought have developed around the nature of law, the most influential of which are:  In recent years, debates about the nature of law have become increasingly fine-grained. One important debate exists within legal positivism about the separability of law and morality. Exclusive legal positivists claim that the legal validity of a norm never depends on its moral correctness. Inclusive legal positivists claim that moral considerations \"may\" determine the legal validity of a norm, but that it is not necessary that this is the case. Positivism began as an inclusivist theory; but influential exclusive legal positivists, including Joseph Raz, John Gardner, and Leslie Green, later rejected the idea.  A second important debate, often called the \"Hart-Dworkin Debate,\" concerns the battle between the two most dominant schools in the late 20th and early 21st century, legal interpretivism and legal positivism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Normative jurisprudence.", "content": "In addition to analytic jurisprudence, legal philosophy is also concerned with normative theories of law. \"Normative jurisprudence involves normative, evaluative, and otherwise prescriptive questions about the law.\" For example, What is the goal or purpose of law? What moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law? Three approaches have been influential in contemporary moral and political philosophy, and these approaches are reflected in normative theories of law: There are many other normative approaches to the philosophy of law, including critical legal studies and libertarian theories of law.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophical approaches to legal problems.", "content": "Philosophers of law are also concerned with a variety of philosophical problems that arise in particular legal subjects, such as constitutional law, Contract law, Criminal law, and Tort law. Thus, philosophy of law addresses such diverse topics as theories of contract law, theories of criminal punishment, theories of tort liability, and the question of whether judicial review is justified.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philosophy of law is a branch of philosophy that examines the nature of law and law's relationship to other systems of norms, especially ethics and political philosophy. It asks questions like \"What is law?\", \"What are the criteria for legal validity?\", and \"What is the relationship between law and morality?\" Philosophy of law and jurisprudence are often used interchangeably, though jurisprudence sometimes encompasses forms of reasoning that fit into economics or sociology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975907}
{"src_title": "Théâtre du Marais", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First incarnation (1634–1673).", "content": "The Théâtre du Marais was founded in 1634, at which time there had been only one theatre company in Paris, the \"comédiens du Roi\" (\"comedians of the King\"), at the Hôtel de Bourgogne. The actors Charles Lenoir and Montdory decided to create their own troupe, and situated it in the fashionable Le Marais district of Paris, where they converted the Jeu de Paume des \"Maretz\", an unused tennis court on the Vieille Rue du Temple opposite the Capuchins, into a theatre.  The new theatre's repertory was made up mainly of farces by Jodelet and works by Pierre Corneille; Corneille debuted \"Le Cid\" there in 1637. The actor Floridor entered the troupe in 1640, and quickly became a major star.  In 1643, the theatre was heavily damaged by a fire, and closed until its restoration was completed in October 1644. Upon its reopening, due to its technical innovations as a new theatre and being the first theatre to add a proscenium arch, it increasingly developed spectacular sets, with machinery helping to depict shipwrecks and cataclysms. Marie Champmeslé and her husband entered the troupe in 1669. Competition with the \"comédiens du Roi\" lasted until 1673, when the Théâtre du Marais was dissolved to join with Molière's troupe, forming the \"troupe du Roi\" at the Théâtre Guénégaud, and eventually part of the Comédie-Française.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second incarnation (1791–1807).", "content": "A new Théâtre du Marais was founded in 1791. It was built using materials recovered from the storming of the Bastille, and presented revolutionary spectacles. The house playwright was Pierre Beaumarchais. This theatre was forced to close in 1807 by Napoleon, and it was destroyed in 1812 to make room for the construction of public baths.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Third incarnation (1976–present).", "content": "The current Théâtre du Marais was founded by Jacques Mauclair in 1976. It temporarily closed in 1999, but was reopened as part of the Cours Florent in May 2000.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Théâtre du Marais has been the name of several theatres and theatrical troupes in Paris, France. The original and most famous theatre of the name operated in the 17th century. The name was briefly revived for a revolutionary theatre in 1791, and revived again in 1976. The present-day Théâtre du Marais operates at 37, rue Volta in the 3rd arrondissement of Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975908}
{"src_title": "Corixidae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Morphology and ecology.", "content": "Corixidae generally have a long flattened body ranging from long. Many have extremely fine dark brown or black striations marking the wings. They tend to have four long rear legs and two short front ones. The hind legs are covered with hairs and shaped like oars, hence the name \"water boatman\". Their four hindmost legs have scoop- or oar-shaped tarsi to aid swimming. They also have a triangular head with short, triangular mouthparts. Corixidae dwell in slow rivers and ponds, as well as some household pools.  Unlike their relatives the backswimmers (Notonectidae), who swim upside down, Corixidae swim right side up. It is easy to tell the two types of insects apart simply by looking at the swimming position.  Corixidae are unusual among the aquatic Hemiptera in that they are mostly non-predatory, feeding on aquatic plants and algae instead of insects and other small animals. They use their straw-like mouthparts to inject enzymes into plants. The enzymes digest the plant material, letting the insect suck the liquified food back through its mouthparts and into its digestive tract. A few species will eat small invertebrates such as larvae of Nematocera, but the family is primarily herbivorous.  Some species within this family are preyed upon by a number of amphibians including the rough-skinned newt, \"Taricha granulosa\".  The reproductive cycle of Corixidae is annual. Eggs are typically oviposited (deposited) on submerged plants, sticks, or rocks. In substrate limited waters (waters without many submerged oviposition sites), every bit of available substrate will be covered in eggs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genera.", "content": "These 55 genera belong to the family Corixidae:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Corixidae is a family of aquatic insects in the order Hemiptera. They are found worldwide in virtually any freshwater habitat and a few species live in saline water. There are about 500 known species worldwide, in 33 genera, including the genus \"Sigara\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975909}
{"src_title": "Palazzo Schifanoia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The palace had its origins in a single-storey structure without wings built for Alberto V d'Este (1385), a small retreat intended solely for suppers and diversions (\"delizie\"), as a sort of banqueting house, with an urban front and a garden front. As the equivalent of a Roman \"villa suburbana\", the Palazzo Schifanoia long predated the first such pleasure villa built in Renaissance Rome, the Belvedere built for Nicholas V.  In 1452 Borso d'Este received the title of Duke for the imperial fiefs of Modena and Reggio Emilia that he held from Emperor Frederick III. The occasion for the cycle of frescoes was the expected investiture of Borso d'Este as Duke of Ferrara in 1471 by Pope Paul II. The subtext of the festivities embodied in the fresco cycle is the right ordering of mankind and nature under the good government of the Duke, the guarantor of peace and prosperity in the Este dominions. Under the commissions of Borso d'Este, the architect Pietro Benvenuto degli Ordini was called upon to develop a ducal apartment on an upper level, providing the building with a \"salone\" suitable for presentations of ambassadors and delegations, a counterpart of the governing structure of Ferrara housed in the former Palazzo della Ragione, destroyed in World War II. The palace was often used by Marfisa d'Este, a great patron of the arts.  There, in the \"Salone dei Mesi\" (\"Hall of the Months\"), Cosimo Tura's purely pagan cycle of the months presents the cycle of the year as an allegorical pageant with the appropriate Olympian gods presiding on their fanciful cars drawn by the beasts proper to each deity, with appropriate personifications of the constellations of the zodiac. The frescoes were realized circa 1469–70 by artisans of the d'Este household, the larger figures based on cartoons by Cosmé Tura, and the vignettes of the labors of the year and the activities of the Ferrarese court under the benevolent eye of Borso d'Este, flanked by astrological figures to designs by Francesco del Cossa and Ercole de' Roberti. The learned and elaborate scheme of the allegorical presentations must have come from the immediate circle of Borso d'Este, perhaps from the court astrologer, Pellegrino Prisciani, with some details drawn from Boccaccio's \"Genealogia deorum\".  In the \"Sala delle Virtù\" (\"Hall of Virtues\") nearby, the sculptor Domenico di Paris painted the stucco reliefs in a frieze of putti and symbols of the Cardinal and Theological Virtues, under a painted compartmented ceiling.  The façade was originally decorated with a cornice of feigned battlements, its surface smoothly stuccoed and decorated with geometric designs of highly colorful imitation marbles, which have been lost, lending a somewhat dour public face to Palazzo Schifanoia that was not what Borso d'Este intended. The rich white marble entrance door survives, though its tinted colors have weathered away and art historians disagree whether it is to be attributed to the painter-designer Francesco del Cossa or to Biagio Rossetti. Above the arched door, flanked by pilasters, the Este arms are displayed and the unicorn, a symbol of ducal benevolence and the source of patronage. In 1493 the terracotta cornice was added to designs by Biagio Rossetti, who was also commissioned by Ercole I d'Este to extend the palace.  From the Salone dei Mesi the visitor once passed directly into the gardens reached by a monumental stair from the summer loggia, structures that were demolished in the 18th century. After the Este left Ferrara in 1598, the palazzo was inherited through successive heirs, eventually by the Tassoni family, its frescoes whitewashed over. Eventually, during administration of the duchy as part of the Papal States, with a Habsburg garrison, it became a tobacco warehouse and manufactory. When Palazzo Schifanoia came into the possession of the comune of Ferrara in the aftermath of World War I, only seven of the months in the \"Salone\" remained legible.  Palazzo Schifanoia forms part of the heritage of Ferrara conserved under the umbrella of the Musei Civici d'Arte Antica di Ferrara. The 14th and 15th century rooms contain collections of antiquities, a numismatic collection and medals cast by Pisanello and other Quattrocento artists to commemorate members of the Este family.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Palazzo Schifanoia is a Renaissance palace in Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna (Italy) built for the Este family. The name \"Schifanoia\" is thought to originate from \"schivar la noia\" meaning literally to \"escape from boredom\" which describes accurately the original intention of the palazzo and the other villas in close proximity where the Este court relaxed. The highlights of its decorations are the allegorical frescoes with details in tempera by or after Francesco del Cossa and Cosmè Tura, executed ca 1469–70, a unique survival of their time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975910}
{"src_title": "Rulin waishi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Analysis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Content, meaning and ideology.", "content": "\"The Scholars\" is a satirical novel that describes the life activities of various Chinese Confucian scholars, mostly under the early Jiajing period of the Ming dynasty. Many of them are portrayed as hypocritical individuals, however. Some of them are overly obsessed by the fame and glory of civil service to the point of losing all sanity and became mentally unstable. Some of them are theoretically dogmatic, rigidly follow the old ways and denied all flexibility and innovation. Some of them are hypocrites, spending days talking about morality and ethics but actually live a despicable and useless life. Some of them are corrupted by fame and glory, they are eager to sacrifice friends, relatives and family for more fame and more glory. Via these scholars, Wu Jingzi indirectly criticized the civil service examination and education system under the Qing dynasty. The author could not directly attack the ruling Qing dynasty which could lead to capital punishment, therefore he chose to portray his story in the previous Ming period, which was depicted as increasingly dogmatic and meaningless. The novel further criticized the backward feudal \"moral codes\" which confined people in an ideological prison.  Wu Jingzi did create several \"good\" characters as model for an ideal Confucian scholar; they cannot be corrupted by fame or money and they despise the contemporary civil service under Chinese feudal government. One of them, the scholar Du, bears strong similarity to the author: descended from a well-to-do family, spent all of the family assets and later became poverty-stricken, hated the civil officials, expressed progressive ideas and was strongly critical of the popular Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism dogma. Via the character Du, Wu Jingzi portrayed women sympathetically as Du treated his wife kindly and equally in the time when women were considered inferior to men.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Chinese commentators have traditionally seen \"The Scholars\" as having a loose structure. The famous author Lu Xun wrote that \"the novel has no central linking element\" and is more like \"a group of short stories\". Hu Shih echoed this view, writing that the novel \"lacks a general structural basis\". The same opinion has been put forth by Western scholars. James R. Hightower described the work as \"amorphous and plotless\".  However, more recent scholarship by Zbigniew Slupski detects organization in \"The Scholars\" on three levels. The first is the anecdotal level, in which the work can be divided into various \"units\" centered around a comical fact or occurrence. The second level is that of biography, in which the author constructs a multifaceted view of main characters in the work. An example is the portrayal of Zhou Jin, the elderly examination candidate. The final level is that of autobiography, the author's attitude toward the events of the story. This is revealed in chapter titles, poems, and occasional narrative interludes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chapter 37.", "content": "Chapter 37 of the novel depicts in great detail a Confucian ceremony honoring a Confucian sage of antiquity, Wu Taibo. Both modern and Qing dynasty commentators have noted that this chapter constitutes the \"high point\" and \"structural apex\" of the novel. Shang Wei believes that the chapter points to Wu Jingzi's simultaneous desire to follow Confucian ritual and his need to critique it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "The earliest extant edition of \"The Scholars\" is the 1803 Wo Xian Caotang edition, commonly referred to as the \"Wo\" edition. This was followed in 1816 by the Qingjiang Pu Zhu Li Ge (\"Qing\") and Yi Gu Tang (\"Yi\") editions, which are both essentially copies of the Wo edition. The Suzhou Fan Shi Chao (\"Chao\") edition was the personal reading edition of a Qing Dynasty official. While this edition was quite rare, the following Suzhou Qun Yu Ji (\"Su\") edition was quite popular, and there are many extant versions of it in circulation. The first Shen Bao Guan (\"Shen One\") edition corrected the mistakes of previous editions, and the second Shen Bao Guan edition (\"Shen Two\") carried these corrections further.  In addition to further corrections, the Ji edition greatly shortened the text, by for example deleting characters' titles. The Zeng Bu Ji Sheng Tang (\"Zeng Bu Ji\") edition added four additional chapters of text to the novel. The Commercial Press edition of the novel was arranged according to the Shen Two edition, and made further corrections to the text. The Yadong edition was first published in 1920, and reissued a number of times in subsequent years. The 16th edition was released in 1948. This version of the text has greatly influenced modern printings of the novel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rulin waishi, or Unofficial History of the Scholars () or The Scholars, is a Chinese novel authored by Wu Jingzi and completed in 1750 during the Qing dynasty. It is considered one of the six classics of Chinese novels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975911}
{"src_title": "Black bullhead", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Habitat.", "content": "Black bullheads are found throughout the central United States, often in stagnant or slow-moving waters with soft bottoms. They have been known to congregate in confined spaces, such as lake outlets or under dams. They are very tolerant fish, and are able to live in muddy water, with warmer temperatures and in water with lower levels of oxygen, which reduce competition from other fish. Black bullheads also occur as an invasive species in large parts of Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "They are omnivorous, so eat almost anything, from grains and other plant matter to insects, dead or living fish, and crustaceans. They have short, pointed, conical teeth, formed in multiple rows called cardiform teeth. Black bullheads have no scales; instead, they have about 100,000 taste receptors placed all over their bodies. Many of these are located on the barbels near their mouths. The receptors help the fish to identify food in their dark habitats. During the winter, black bullheads decrease food intake, and may stop eating altogether. Instead, they bury themselves around the shore line of the lake in debris, with only their gills exposed. This \"hibernation\" allows them to survive conditions of low oxygen and low temperature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Black bullheads start to spawn in April and continue through June. The females scoop out a small hole or depression in the lake floor and lay 2000 to 6000 eggs. The males fertilize the eggs, then care for them. When the eggs hatch a week later, both parents watch over the fry for a short while.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Angling.", "content": "Considered rough fish, black bullheads are not as popular for sport fishing as their larger relatives, channel catfish, blue catfish, and flat head catfish. However, they have pale flesh and make excellent table fare when water quality is good despite their small size. As with channel catfish, the flesh around the bellies and gills of larger individuals can be strong tasting due to yellow fat, but these flavors can be avoided by removing the fatty portions of a large specimen when cleaning. They are the largest of the bullheads and are one of several catfish informally referred to as mud catfish.  They have been introduced in many areas of the US because of their ability to survive (and even thrive) in less than ideal conditions, but they are seldom used in active stocking programs due to their relatively low desirability. Fisheries experts tend to not recommend them because they compete with bluegill and channel catfish for food and do not grow as fast or get as big as channel catfish. For that reason, finding them commercially for pond stocking is difficult. That said, in clean water, meat quality is very good, and unlike channel catfish, black bullheads reproduce and indefinitely maintain healthy populations without restocking in ponds populated with bass and crappie. In fact, as with bluegill, a pond with black bullhead in it needs a predator species such as bass to keep the bullhead population under control. Due to their ability to reproduce in a pond with bass, bullheads are the best catfish for mixed-species ponds that are not fished out and restocked regularly.  Black bullheads can be caught using similar techniques as for channel or blue catfish, although their small size may require smaller bait and hooks. They respond well to earthworms and tend to feed higher up in the water column than channel catfish. Like most catfish, they are most active at night, and tend to be less active during the day, bedding under piers or in shady shore areas.  In some areas of little to no fishing pressure, black bullheads have been found to be more aggressive and have been caught while casting and retrieving metal spoon lures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Defense.", "content": "At the base of their pectoral and dorsal fins are spines, which they can use as spurs to cut predators.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The black bullhead or black bullhead catfish (\"Ameiurus melas\") is a species of bullhead catfish. Like other bullhead catfish, it has the ability to thrive in waters that are low in oxygen, brackish, turbid and/or very warm. It also has barbels located near its mouth, a broad head, spiny fins, and no scales. It can be identified from other bullheads as the barbels are black, and it has a tan crescent around the tail. Its caudal fin is truncated (squared off at the corners). Like virtually all catfish, it is nocturnal, preferring to feed at night, although young feed during the day. It generally does not get as large as the channel or blue catfish, with average adult weights are in the 1- to 2-lb range, and almost never as large as 4 lb. It has a typical length of 8-14 in, with the largest specimen being 24 in, making it the largest of the bullheads. It is typically black or dark brown on the dorsal side of its body and yellow or white on the ventral side.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975912}
{"src_title": "Lim (river)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Montenegro and Serbia.", "content": "The Lim rises below Maglić peak in the Kuči area of eastern Montenegro, very close to the Albanian border, under the name of \"Vrmoša\". Its source is only few kilometers away from the source of the Tara river, but the two rivers go in opposite directions: the Tara to the north-west and the Vrmoša to the east, and after only few kilometers it crosses over to Albania (). Passing through Prokletije mountains and the village of Vermosh, it re-enters Montenegro under the name of \"Grnčar\". Receiving the Vruje stream from Ali Pasha's Wellsprings from the right at Gusinje, it continues as \"Ljuča\" for a few more kilometers where it empties into the Lake Plav, creating small delta. It flows out of the lake to the north, next to the high mountain Visitor, under the name Lim for the remaining.  It passes through Murino, continuing generally to the north through areas of Vasojevići, Gornji Kolašin, Donji Kolašin and Komarani, the Tivran gorge and the cities of Andrijevica, Berane, Bijelo Polje, Resnik and Nedakusi, entering Serbia between villages of Dobrakovo and Gostun. It receives the right tributaries of Lješnica (between the villages of Poda and Skakavac) and Bistrica (near the border) and left tributary of Ljuboviđa, near Bijelo Polje.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "content": "In the border area, the Lim carved a long gorge \"Kumanička klisura\", between the mountains of Lisa (in Montenegro) and Ozren (in Serbia). Lim continues between the mountains of Jadovnik, Pobijenik and Zlatar, and runs through the northern part of the Sandžak area (or Raška oblast). Upstream of Priboj, the river is dammed by the hydro power plant \"Potpeć\", creating Potpeć Reservoir. The villages of Garčanica and Lučice and the towns of Brodarevo, Prijepolje, Pribojska Banja and Priboj. After Priboj it turns north-west and enters Bosnia and Herzegovina, but only for a few kilometers when it flows back to Serbia and then again to Bosnia at Rudo. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Lim flows between the mountains of Bić, Javorje and Vučevica from the south, and the Varda mountain from the north, before it empties into the Drina near the village of Međeđa. The lowest section of the river is flooded by the Višegrad Reservoir, created by the Višegrad hydroelectrical power plant on the Drina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Lim belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin through Drina, Sava and Danube. Its drainage basin covers and the river is not navigable.  It receives many smaller streams in Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina, however, the two most important are its major right tributaries in Serbia, the Uvac and the Mileševa river.  Two hypotheses exist about the origin of its name:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Polimlje.", "content": "The fertile valley of the river is called Polimlje (Полимље), meaning \"Lim valley\". It represents area around composite river valley, made of several gorges and depressions. The valley is divided in three large parts, Montenegrin, Stari Vlah and Bosnian.  It is important agricultural region, especially for cultivating fruits and stockbreeding. It is also important route for the both road and railways from Serbia to Montenegro and Adriatic coast, most notably, Belgrade-Bar railway. Industry is not much developed (smaller industrial centers are Berane, Bijelo Polje and Prijepolje), except for heavily industrialized Priboj. Most use of the river has Serbian electricity production, with power station Potpeć being constructed and several more stations on the Lim's major tributary, the Uvac.  Despite the potentials, the entire area the Lim flows through is undeveloped and for decades highly depopulating.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Border dispute.", "content": "After breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991-1992, on the part of Lim's course entering and re-entering Serbia and Bosnia, several villages of Serbia remained physically cut off from the rest of the republic's territory. The governments in Belgrade and Sarajevo proposed an exchange of territories but no agreement was reached.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lim River tragedy.", "content": "On 4 April 2004, around 10 PM, a bus carrying Bulgarian tourists (34 students and 16 adults) back to their native Svishtov from a trip to Dubrovnik in Croatia fell and sank in the river near the Serbian village of Gostun close to the border with Montenegro as the driver lost control over it during a turn on a mountain road. Twelve children died, the other 38 people being saved with the aid of the locals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lim (Bosnian, Montenegrin and Serbian: Лим / \"Lim\", ) is a river flowing through Montenegro, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. long, it is the right and the longest tributary of the Drina.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975913}
{"src_title": "James Scott (composer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "He was born in Neosho, Missouri to James Scott, Sr. and Molly Thomas Scott, both former slaves. In 1901 his family moved to Carthage, Missouri, where he attended Lincoln High School. In 1902 he began working at the music store of Charles L. Dumars, first washing windows, then demonstrating music at the piano as a song plugger, including his own pieces. Demand for his music convinced Dumars to print the first of Scott's published compositions, \"A Summer Breeze - March and Two Step\", in 1903. By 1904, two more compositions by Scott, \"Fascinator March\" and \"On the Pike March\" were published and sold well, but not enough to keep Dumars in business and soon the company ceased publishing.  Ragtime Historians Rudi Blesh and Harriet Janis recount that Scott went to St. Louis, Missouri in search of his idol Scott Joplin in 1905. He located Joplin and asked if he would listen to one of his ragtime compositions. Upon hearing the rag, Joplin introduced him to his own publisher, John Stillwell Stark, and recommended he publish the work. Stark published the rag a year later as \"Frog Legs Rag\". It quickly became a hit and was second in sales in the Stark catalogue only to that of Joplin's own \"Maple Leaf Rag\". Scott became a regular contributor to the Stark catalogue until 1922.  In 1914 Scott moved to Kansas City, Missouri, where he married Nora Johnson, taught music, and accompanied silent movies as an organist and arranger at the Panama Theater. Those that knew him recall that theater work was a large part of his activity. His cousin Patsy Thomas remembers, \"Everybody called him 'Little Professor' He always walked rapidly, looking at the ground - would pass you on the street and never see you - seemed always deep in thought.\"  In the last years of his life, Scott busied himself with teaching, composing and leading an eight-piece band that played for various beer parks and movie theaters in the area. With the arrival of sound movies, however, his fortunes declined. He lost his theater work, his wife died without child, and his health deteriorated. He moved in with his cousin Ruth Callahan in Kansas City, Kansas, and even though was suffering from chronic dropsy, he continued to compose and play piano. Scott died at Douglas Hospital on August 30, 1938 at age 52 and was laid beside his wife in Westlawn Cemetery.  Scott's best-known compositions include \"Climax Rag\", \"Frog Legs Rag\", \"Grace and Beauty\", \"Ophelia Rag\" and \"The Ragtime Oriole\".  Scott was a cousin of blues singer Ada Brown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "In the Third Season of the HBO series Boardwalk Empire, Scott is portrayed by an uncredited actor in the episode \"Spaghetti and Coffee\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Published works.", "content": "\"See list of compositions by James Scott\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "James Sylvester Scott (February 12, 1885 – August 30, 1938) was an American ragtime composer and pianist, regarded as one of the three most important composers of classic ragtime, along with Scott Joplin and Joseph Lamb.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975914}
{"src_title": "Juraj Jánošík", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Jánošík was born shortly before his baptism on January 25, 1688. His parents were Martin Jánošík and Anna Čišníková from Terchová. His godparents were Jakub Merjad and Barbara Krištofíková.  He grew up in the village of Terchová in the Habsburg monarchy's Kingdom of Hungary area (present-day Žilina District in northwestern Slovakia). He fought with the Kuruc insurgents when he was fifteen. After the lost Battle of Trenčín, Jánošík was recruited by the Habsburg army. In autumn 1710, as a young prison guard in Bytča, he helped the imprisoned Tomáš Uhorčík escape. They formed a highwayman group and Jánošík became its leader at the age of 23, after Uhorčík left to settle in Klenovec. The group was active mostly in northwestern Kingdom of Hungary (today's Slovakia), around the Váh river between Važec and Východná, but the territory of their activity extended also to other parts of today's Slovakia, as well as to Poland and Moravia. Most of their victims were rich merchants. Under Jánošík's leadership, the group was exceptionally chivalrous: They did not kill any of the robbed victims and even helped an accidentally injured priest. They are also said to share their loot with the poor and this part of the legend may be based on the facts too.  Jánošík was captured in autumn 1712 and detained at the Mansion of Hrachov, but was released soon afterwards. He was captured again in spring of 1713, in the Uhorčík's residence in Klenovec (Klenóc). Uhorčík lived there under the false name Martin Mravec at that time. According to a widespread legend, he was caught in a pub run by Tomáš Uhorčík, after slipping on spilled peas, thrown in his way by a treacherous old lady. Jánošík was imprisoned and tried in Liptovský Svätý Mikuláš, present Liptovský Mikuláš).  His trial took place on March 16 and March 17, 1713 when he was sentenced to death. The date of his execution was not recorded, but it was customary to carry it out as soon as the trial was over. The manner of his execution, not in public awareness until the early 19th century, became part of his modern legend. A hook was pierced through his left side and he was left dangling on the gallows to die. This brutal way of execution was reserved for leaders of robber bands. However, sources diverge about how he was executed, and it is also possible that Jánošík was hanged. A legend says that he refused the grace offered in exchange for enlisting soldiers of his abilities with the words: \"If you have baked me so you should also eat me!\" and jumped on the hook.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Juraj Jánošík (first name also \"Juro\" or \" Jurko\", ; baptised January 25, 1688, died March 17, 1713) was a Slovak highwayman. Jánošík has been the main character of many Slovak novels, poems and films. According to the legend, he robbed nobles and gave the loot to the poor, a deed often attributed to the famous Robin Hood. The legend is known in neighboring Poland (under the name Jerzy Janoszik or Janiczek / Janicek) and the Czech Republic. The actual robber had little to do with the modern legend, whose content partly reflects the ubiquitous folk myths of a hero taking from the rich and giving to the poor. However, the legend was also shaped in important ways by the activists and writers in the 19th century when Jánošík became the key highwayman character in stories that spread in the north counties of the Kingdom of Hungary (much in present Slovakia) and among the local Gorals tourists in the Podhale region north of the Tatras. The image of Jánošík as a symbol of resistance to oppression was reinforced when poems about him became part of the Slovak and Czech middle and high school literature curriculum, and then again with the numerous films that propagated his modern legend in the 20th century. During the anti-Nazi Slovak National Uprising, one of the partisan groups bore his name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975915}
{"src_title": "Echinococcus granulosus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Transmission.", "content": "\"E. granulosus\" requires two host types, a definitive host and an intermediate host. The definitive host of this parasite are dogs and the intermediate host are most commonly sheep, however, cattle, horses, pigs, goats, and camels are also potential intermediate hosts. Humans can also be an intermediate host for \"E. granulosus\", however this is uncommon and therefore humans are considered an aberrant intermediate host.  \"E. granulosus\" is ingested and attaches to the mucosa of the intestines in the definitive host and there the parasite will grow into the adult stages. Adult \"E. granulosus\" release eggs within the intestine which will be transported out of the body via feces. When contaminated waste is excreted into the environment, intermediate host has the potential to contract the parasite by grazing in contaminated pasture, perpetuating the cycle.  \"E. granulosus\" is transmitted from the intermediate host (sheep) to the definitive host (dogs) by frequent feeding of offal, also referred to as “variety meat” or “organ meat”. Consuming offal containing \"E. granulosus\" can lead to infection; however, infection is dependent on many factors.  While adult \"E. granulosus\" is harmless in dogs, it can be a huge problem in humans. Although rare, the parasite can form a cyst causing cystic echinococcus also known as hydatid disease. Humans can be infected through intimate behavior with dogs causing a person to accidentally ingest eggs. The cyst can cause pressure on surrounding tissue which may lead to abnormal organ function, spontaneous fracture of bones, and other neurological effects.  The frequency of offal feedings, the prevalence of the parasites within the offal, and the age of the intermediate host are factors that affect infection pressure within the definitive host. The immunity of both the definitive and intermediate host plays a large role in the transmission of the parasite, as well as the contact rate between the intermediate and the definitive host (such as herding dogs and pasture animals being kept in close proximity where dogs can contaminate grazing areas with fecal matter). The life expectancy of the parasite, coupled with the frequency of anthelminthic treatments, will also play a role in the rate of infection within a host. The temperature and humidity of the environment can affect the survival of \"E. granulosus\".  Once sheep are infected, the infection typically remains within the sheep for life. However, in other hosts, such as dogs, treatment for annihilating the parasite is possible. However, the intermediate host is assumed to retain a greater life expectancy than the definitive host.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Diagnosis in the definitive host, the dog, may be done by \"post mortem\" examination of the small intestine, or with some difficulty \"ante mortem\" by purging with arecoline hydrobromate. Detection of antigens in feces by ELISA is currently the best available technique. The prevalence of \"Echinococcus granulosus\" was found to be 4.35% in a 2008 study in Bangalore, India employing this coproantigen detection technique. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is also used to identify the parasite from DNA isolated from eggs or feces. However, it is difficult to determine the eggs in feces because it is indistinguishable from other taeniid eggs.  Diagnosis in humans can be done by x-rays, CAT scans, and ultrasounds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "If a human becomes infected there are a variety of methods for treatment. The most common treatment in the past years has been surgical removal of the hydatid cysts. The fluid in the cysts contain antigens that can immunologically sensitize the host, so cyst manipulation should be performed with caution, as spilling of cyst contents can cause anaphylactic shock. However, in recent years, less invasive treatments have been developed such as cyst puncture, aspiration of the liquids, the injection of chemicals, and then re-aspiration. Benzimidazole-based chemotherapy is also a new treatment option for humans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prevention.", "content": "In order to prevent transmission to dogs from intermediate hosts, dogs can be given anthelminthic vaccinations. In the case of intermediate hosts, especially sheep, these anthelminthic vaccinations do cause an antigenic response—meaning the body produces specific antibody—however it does not prevent infection in the host. Clean slaughter and high surveillance of potential intermediate host during slaughter is key in preventing the spread this cestode to its definitive host. It is vital to keep dogs and potential intermediate host as separated as possible to avoid perpetuating infection. According to mathematical modeling, vaccination of intermediate hosts, coupled with dosing definitive hosts with anthelminths is the most effect method for intervening with infection rates.  Proper disposal of carcasses and offal after home slaughter is difficult in poor and remote communities and therefore dogs readily have access to offal from livestock, thus completing the parasite cycle of \"Echinococcus granulosus\" and putting communities at risk of cystic echinococcosis. Boiling livers and lungs which contain hydatid cysts for 30 minutes has been proposed as a simple, efficient and energy- and time-saving way to kill the infectious larvae.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Echinococcus granulosus, also called the hydatid worm, hyper tape-worm or dog tapeworm, is a cyclophyllid cestode that dwells in the small intestine of canids as an adult, but which has important intermediate hosts such as livestock and humans, where it causes cystic echinococcosis, also known as hydatid disease. The adult tapeworm ranges in length from 3 mm to 6 mm and has three proglottids (\"segments\") when intact—an immature proglottid, mature proglottid and a gravid proglottid. The average number of eggs per gravid proglottid is 823. Like all cyclophyllideans, \"E. granulosus\" has four suckers on its scolex (\"head\"), and \"E. granulosus\" also has a rostellum with hooks. Several strains of \"E. granulosus\" have been identified, and all but two are noted to be infective in humans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975916}
{"src_title": "Hana Brady", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Hana Brady was born on May 16 1931 in Prague, the daughter of Markéta (née Dubsky) and Karel Brady. Her family lived in Nové Město na Moravě in the Moravian-Silesian Region of Czechoslovakia. After the occupation of the whole of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany and the creation of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia on 15 March 1939, the discriminatory Nuremberg laws began to be applied in this territory. Eight-year-old Hana and her older brother George (born Jiří Brady) watched their parents being arrested and taken away by the Nazis, and never saw them again. Hana and George were sent to the Theresienstadt concentration camp. In 1944, Hana was deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp. While her brother survived by working as a labourer, Hana was sent to the gas chambers a few hours after her arrival on 23 October 1944.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Hana's Suitcase\".", "content": "The story of Hana Brady first became public when Fumiko Ishioka (石岡史子, \"Ishioka Fumiko\"), a Japanese educator and director of the Japanese non-profit Tokyo Holocaust Education Resource Center, exhibited Hana's suitcase in 2000 as a relic of the concentration camp. Visiting Auschwitz in 1999, Ishioka requested a loan of children's items, things that would convey the story of the Holocaust to other children.  The suitcase turned out to be a very capable means of telling the story of the Holocaust, reaching out to children at their level.  The suitcase has large writing on it, a name and birthdate and the German word, \"Waisenkind\" (orphan). Ishioka began painstakingly researching Hana's life and eventually found her surviving brother in Canada. The story of Hana Brady and how her suitcase led Ishioka to Toronto became the subject of a CBC documentary. Karen M. Levine (born 1955), the producer of that documentary, was urged to turn the story into a book by a friend who was a publisher and whose parents were Holocaust survivors. Said Levine: In February 2004, Lara Brady, Hana's niece, discovered inconsistencies between the suitcase on display and the suitcase pictured with Hana's friend after the war in the 1960s. Not only did the physical suitcase appear newer than in the photographs, but the location of the handle was also reversed. In March, Fumiko and George Brady inquired about the suitcase with the director of the Auschwitz museum, who explained that a replica had been created based on the pictures after the original suitcase was destroyed in a fire in 1984, while on loan to an English exhibit in Birmingham. This fire was likely caused by arson (according to the director and police at the time.).  As the museum personnel had omitted this fact when they loaned it to the Tokyo Holocaust Education Resource Center, the fact that the suitcase was a replica had gone unnoticed for several years. The family and the Center assert that even as such, the replica's contribution to the cause of human rights and peace education is not lessened by its lack of authenticity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "The 2002 book became a bestseller and received the Bank Street College of Education Flora Stieglitz Straus Award for non-fiction, the National Jewish Book Award, and several other Canadian awards for children's literature. The book received a nomination for the Governor General's Award and was selected as a final award candidate for the Norma Fleck award. It has been translated into over 20 languages and published around the world. In October 2006, the book won the Yad Vashem award, presented to George Brady at a ceremony in Jerusalem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "A play based on the book was written by Emil Sher. A film, \"Inside Hana's Suitcase\", appeared in 2009. The suitcase featured in the CBC documentary was not the original, but a replica. The real suitcase, on loan, was destroyed by neo-Nazi arsonists, who set fire to a warehouse in Birmingham, England, in 1984. The audiobook is available on certain websites. In 2011, a Hebrew version of the play was staged by the Nephesh Theater in Holon, Israel.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Hanička \"Hana\" Brady (born Hana Bradyová; 16 May 1931 – 23 October 1944) was a Czechoslovakian Jewish girl murdered in the gas chambers at German concentration camp at Auschwitz, located in the occupied territory of Poland, during the Holocaust. She is the subject of the 2002 non-fiction children's book \"Hana's Suitcase\", written by Karen Levine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975917}
{"src_title": "Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition.", "content": "The painting depicts a young Dutch blonde girl standing at an open window, in profile, reading a letter. A red drapery hangs over the top of the window glass, which has opened inward and which, in its lower right quadrant, reflects her. A tasseled ochre drapery in the foreground right, partially closed, masks a quarter of the room in which she stands. The color of the drape reflects the green of the woman's gown and the shades of the fruit tilted in a bowl on the red-draped table. On the table beside the bowl, a peach is cut in half, revealing its pit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolism and technique.", "content": "In \"Vermeer, 1632–1675\" (2000), Norbert Schneider indicates that the open window is on one level intended to represent \"the woman's longing to extend her domestic sphere\" beyond the constraints of her home and society, while the fruit \"is a symbol of extramarital relations.\" He concludes that the letter is a love letter either planning or continuing her illicit relationship. This conclusion, he says, is supported by the fact that x-rays of the canvas have shown that at one point Vermeer had featured a Cupid in the painting. This putto once hung in the upper right of the piece before, for whatever reason, somebody closed the wall over it. This overpainting, which is now being reversed by restorators, seems to have taken place in the 18th century.  The draperies, hanging in the right foreground, are not an uncommon element for Vermeer, appearing in seven of his paintings. Even more common, the repoussoir appears in 25, with \"Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window\", one of three which feature a rug-covered table or balustrade between the figure and the viewer. It was the last painting in which Vermeer featured this device.  This painting and \"Officer and Laughing Girl\" represent the earliest known examples of the pointillé (not to be confused with pointillism) for which Vermeer became known. John Michael Montias in \"Vermeer and His Milieu\" (1991) points out the \"tiny white globules\" that can be seen in the brighter parts of both paintings, including the still life elements of both and the blond hair specifically in this work. This use of light may support speculation among art historians that Vermeer used a mechanical optical device, such as a double concave lens mounted in a camera obscura, to help him achieve realistic light patterns in his paintings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Vermeer completed the painting in approximately 1657–59. In 1742, Augustus III of Poland, Elector of Saxony, purchased the painting under the mistaken belief that it had been painted by Rembrandt. In 1826, it was mis-attributed again, to Pieter de Hooch. It was so labeled when French art critic Théophile Thoré-Bürger came upon it, recognizing it as one of the rare works of the Dutch painter and restoring its proper attribution in 1860.  \"Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window\" was among the paintings rescued from destruction during the bombing of Dresden in World War II. The painting was stored, with other works of art, in a tunnel in Saxony; when the Red Army encountered them, they took them. The Soviets portrayed this as an act of rescue; some others as an act of plunder. Either way, after the death of Joseph Stalin, the Soviets decided in 1955 to return the art to Germany, \"for the purpose of strengthening and furthering the progress of friendship between the Soviet and German peoples.\" Aggrieved at the thought of losing hundreds of paintings, art historians and museum curators in the Soviet Union suggested that \"in acknowledgment for saving and returning the world-famous treasures of the Dresden Gallery\" the Germans should perhaps donate to them \"Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window\" and \"Sleeping Venus\" by Giorgione. The Germans did not take to the idea, and the painting was returned. Well-preserved, it is on display at the Gemäldegalerie in Dresden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Painting materials.", "content": "The painting was investigated by Hermann Kühn together with several other works of Vermeer in 1968. The pigment analysis has shown that Vermeer's choice of painting materials did not reveal any peculiarities as he used the usual pigments of the baroque period. The green drapery in the foreground is painted mainly in a mixture of blue azurite and lead-tin-yellow, while the lower part contains green earth. For the red drapery in the window and the red parts of the table covering Vermeer used a mixture of vermilion, madder lake and lead white.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "This painting has been an inspiration to other artists, such as Tom Hunter, whose artistic photo interpretation of the somber tone of emotion and the bowl of fruit shows a young mother and her child reading \"an eviction notice\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window (Dutch: \"Brieflezend meisje bij het venster\") is an oil painting by Dutch Golden Age painter Johannes Vermeer. Completed in approximately 1657–59, the painting is on display at the Gemäldegalerie in Dresden. For many years, the attribution of the painting—which features a young Dutch woman reading a letter before an open window—was lost, with first Rembrandt and then Pieter de Hooch being credited for the work before it was properly identified in 1880. After World War II, the painting was briefly in possession of the Soviet Union. Apparently well-preserved, the painting may have been altered after the painter's death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975918}
{"src_title": "Krems an der Donau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Krems is located at the confluence of the Krems and Danube Rivers at the eastern end of Wachau valley, in the southern Waldviertel.  Krems borders the following municipalities: Stratzing, Langenlois, Rohrendorf bei Krems, Gedersdorf, Traismauer, Nußdorf ob der Traisen, Paudorf, Furth bei Göttweig, Mautern an der Donau, Dürnstein, and Senftenberg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Krems was first mentioned in 995 in a certificate of Otto III, but settlement was apparent even before then. For example, a child's grave, over 27,000 years old, was found here. This is the oldest grave found in Austria.  During the 11th and 12th centuries, Chremis, as it was then called, was almost as large as Vienna.  Krems is the primary producer of Marillenschnaps, an apricot brandy.  Krems is the hometown of Martin Johann Schmidt, called \"Kremserschmidt\", the leading painter, draughtsman and etcher of the Austrian late Baroque.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population development.", "content": "The population (with principal residence status) in the agglomeration was about 50,000 at the end of 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The city's main railway station is a junction of the Franz-Josefs Railway to Vienna, the Kremser Railway to St. Pölten, the Donauufer Railway to Spitz and the regional railway to Horn. It is at the intersection of the Stockerauer Speedway S5 and the Kremser Speedway S33, and is traversed by the Danube Road B3, the Retzer Road B35, the Kremser Road B37 and the Langenloiser Road B218. Krems is a junction of the \"Wieselbus\" bus lines, which provides radial connections between Sankt Pölten and the different regions of Lower Austria.  Main Roads  Railroad  Air traffic", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In the city.", "content": "A network of four bus lines operates at regular intervals within the city. Every summer, a tourist train connects the ancient parts of the city with museums, the central railway station and the passenger ship terminal of Krems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Municipal council.", "content": "The municipal council consists of 40 members and since the municipal elections in 2017 it consists of the following parties:  Municipal elections in Krems were held, as the same time as the Austrian legislative election, 2017 on 15 October 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "City's senate.", "content": "The city's senate consists of 10 members:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public facilities.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leisure and sports sites.", "content": "Swimming is available at Kremser Strandbad (indoor swimming pool) and outdoor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twin towns.", "content": "Krems is twinned with the following cities:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Krems an der Donau (; ) is a town of 23,992 inhabitants in Austria, in the federal state of Lower Austria. It is the fifth-largest city of Lower Austria and is approximately west of Vienna. Krems is a city with its own statute (or \"Statutarstadt\"), and therefore it is both a municipality and a district.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975919}
{"src_title": "Soursop", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "\"Annona muricata\".", "content": "\"Annona muricata\" is a species of the genus \"Annona\" of the custard apple tree family, Annonaceae, which has edible fruit. The fruit is usually called soursop due to its slightly acidic taste when ripe. \"Annona muricata\" is native to the Caribbean and Central America but is now widely cultivated – and in some areas, becoming invasive – in tropical and subtropical climates throughout the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Annona muricata\" is a small, upright, evergreen tree that can grow to about tall.  Its young branches are hairy. Leaves are oblong to oval, to long and to wide. They are a glossy dark green with no hairs above, and paler and minutely hairy to no hairs below. The leaf stalks are to long and without hairs.  Flower stalks (peduncles) are to long and woody. They appear opposite from the leaves or as an extra from near the leaf stalk, each with one or two flowers, occasionally a third. Stalks for the individual flowers (pedicels) are stout and woody, minutely hairy to hairless and to with small bractlets nearer to the base which are densely hairy.  The petals are thick and yellowish. Outer petals meet at the edges without overlapping and are broadly ovate, to by to, tapering to a point with a heart shaped base. They are evenly thick, and are covered with long, slender, soft hairs externally and matted finely with soft hairs within. Inner petals are oval shaped and overlap. They measure roughly to by, and are sharply angled and tapering at the base. Margins are comparatively thin, with fine matted soft hairs on both sides. The receptacle is conical and hairy. The stamens are long and narrowly wedge-shaped. The connective-tip terminate abruptly and anther hollows are unequal. Sepals are quite thick and do not overlap. Carpels are linear and basally growing from one base. The ovaries are covered with dense reddish brown hairs, 1-ovuled, style short and stigma truncate. Its pollen is shed as permanent tetrads.  The fruits are dark green and prickly. They are ovoid and can be up to long, with a moderately firm texture. Their flesh is juicy, acid, whitish and aromatic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Annona muricata\" is tolerant of poor soil and prefers lowland areas between the altitudes of 0 to. It cannot stand frost. The exact origin is unknown; it is native to the tropical regions of the Americas and is widely propagated. It is an introduced species on all temperate continents, especially in subtropical regions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "The plant is grown for its long, prickly, green fruit, which can have a mass of up to, making it probably the second biggest annona after the junglesop. Away from its native area, some limited production occurs as far north as southern Florida within USDA Zone 10; however, these are mostly garden plantings for local consumption. It is also grown in parts of Southeast Asia and is abundant on the Island of Mauritius. The main suppliers of the fruit are Mexico followed by Peru, Brazil, Ecuador, Guatemala, and Haiti.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The flesh of the fruit consists of an edible, white pulp, some fiber, and a core of indigestible black seeds. The pulp is also used to make fruit nectar, smoothies, fruit juice drinks, as well as candies, sorbets, and ice cream flavorings. Due to the fruit's widespread cultivation, its derivative products are consumed in many countries like Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia and Fiji. The seeds are normally left in the preparation, and removed while consuming, unless a blender is used for processing.  In Indonesia, \"dodol sirsak\", a sweetmeat, is made by boiling soursop pulp in water and adding sugar until the mixture hardens. Soursop is also a common ingredient for making fresh fruit juices that are sold by street food vendors. In the Philippines, it is called \"guyabano\", derived from the Spanish \"guanábana\", and is eaten ripe, or used to make juices, smoothies, or ice cream. Sometimes, they use the leaf in tenderizing meat. In Vietnam, this fruit is called \"mãng cầu Xiêm\" (Siamese Soursop) in the south, or \"mãng cầu\" (Soursop) in the north, and is used to make smoothies, or eaten as is. In Cambodia, this fruit is called \"tearb barung\", literally \"western custard-apple fruit.\" In Malaysia, it is known in Malay as \"durian belanda\" (\"Dutch durian\") and in East Malaysia, specifically among the Dusun people of Sabah, it is locally known as \"lampun\". Popularly, it is eaten raw when it ripens, or used as one of the ingredients in \"Ais Kacang\" or \"Ais Batu Campur\". Usually the fruits are taken from the tree when they mature and left to ripen in a dark corner, whereafter they will be eaten when they are fully ripe. It has a white flower with a very pleasing scent, especially in the morning. While for people in Brunei Darussalam this fruit is popularly known as \"Durian Salat\", widely available and easily planted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "Raw soursop is 81% water, 17% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and has negligible fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, the raw fruit supplies 66 calories, and contains only vitamin C as a significant amount (25%) of the Daily Value, with no other micronutrients in appreciable amounts (table).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phytochemicals.", "content": "The compound annonacin is contained in the fruit, seeds, and leaves of soursop. The leaves of \"Annona muricata\" contain annonamine, which is an aporphine-class alkaloid containing a quaternary ammonium group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Potential neurotoxicity.", "content": "The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center cautions, \"alkaloids extracted from graviola may cause neuronal dysfunction\". Annonacin has been shown in laboratory research to be neurotoxic. In 2010, the French food safety agency, Agence française de sécurité sanitaire des produits de santé, concluded that \"it is not possible to confirm that the observed cases of atypical Parkinson syndrome... are linked to the consumption of \"Annona muricata\"\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bogus cancer treatment.", "content": "In 2008, the Federal Trade Commission in the United States stated that use of soursop to treat cancer was \"bogus\", and there was \"no credible scientific evidence\" that the extract of soursop sold by Bioque Technologies \"can prevent, cure, or treat cancer of any kind.\" Also in 2008, a UK court case relating to the sale of Triamazon, a soursop product, resulted in the criminal conviction of a man under the terms of the UK Cancer Act for offering to treat people for cancer. A spokesman for the council that instigated the action stated, \"it is as important now as it ever was that people are protected from those peddling unproven products with spurious claims as to their effects.\"  The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Cancer Research UK state that cancer treatment using soursop is not supported by reliable clinical evidence. According to Cancer Research UK, \"Many sites on the internet advertise and promote graviola capsules as a cancer cure, but none of them are supported by any reputable scientific cancer organisations\" and \"there is no evidence to show that graviola works as a cure for cancer\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Soursop (also graviola, guyabano, and in Latin America, guanábana) is the fruit of Annona muricata, a broadleaf, flowering, evergreen tree. The exact origin is unknown; it is native to the tropical regions of the Americas and the Caribbean and is widely propagated. It is in the same genus, \"Annona\", as cherimoya and is in the Annonaceae family.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975920}
{"src_title": "FC BATE Borisov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "BATE is an acronym of Borisov Automobile and Tractor Electronics. The team was founded in 1973 and managed to win Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic league three times (1974, 1976 and 1979) before being disbanded in 1984. The club was re-established in 1996. Since then, BATE have won the Belarusian Premier League 15 times and competed in UEFA competitions. In 2001, BATE reached the first round of the UEFA Cup, their first appearance in the competition beyond the qualifying rounds. 2008 saw BATE becoming the first Belarusian team to qualify for the group stages of the UEFA Champions League. As of 2015, BATE have played five times in the Champions League group stage, as well as twice in UEFA Europa League group stage, also reaching the knockout phase of the latter competition in 2010–11 and 2012–13.  Notable former players of BATE include Alexander Hleb (VfB Stuttgart, Arsenal, Barcelona and Birmingham City); Vitali Kutuzov (Milan, Sporting CP, Avellino, Sampdoria, Parma, Pisa and Bari) and Yuri Zhevnov (FC Moscow, and Zenit Saint Petersburg). Having started their professional careers with BATE, all are also former or present members of the Belarus national team.  BATE won their tenth consecutive league title in 2015, with four matches to spare. In the 2017 season, BATE drew an average home league attendance of 5,633, the second-highest in the league.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Supporters.", "content": "BATE Borisov is one of the most popular football teams in Belarus. BATE fans have developed a rivalry with the fans of Dinamo Minsk and a friendship with fans of Polish club Piast Gliwice since 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European record.", "content": "\"As of August 15, 2019\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "FC BATE Borisov (, ;, \"FK BATE Borisov\" ) is a professional Belarusian football team from the city of Barysaw. The club competes in the Belarusian Premier League, of which they are the league's most successful club with 15 titles, including 13 won consecutively. The club has also won four Belarusian Cups and four Belarusian Super Cups.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975921}
{"src_title": "Bombing of Dresden in World War II", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally a minor league known as the Western League which existed 1885 to 1899, with teams in mostly Great Lakes states, the newly organized Western League later developed into a rival major league after the previous American Association (1882–1891) disbanded after ten seasons as a competitor to the older National League of Professional Baseball Clubs (usually known as the National League) which was founded in 1876. In its early history of the late 1880s, the minor Western League struggled until 1894, when Ban Johnson (1864–1931) became the president of the league. Johnson led the Western League into elevation as claiming major league status and soon became the president of the newly renamed American League of Professional Baseball Clubs (also simply called the American League) in 1901. The American League was founded in Milwaukee, Wisconsin at the former Republican Hotel by five Irishmen. A historical marker is at the intersection of North Old World 3rd Street and West Kilbourn Avenue where the hotel once stood.  George Herman (\"Babe\") Ruth (1895–1948), noted as one of the most prolific hitters in Major League Baseball history, spent the majority of his career in the American League with the Boston Red Sox and the New York Yankees (plus his first year with his hometown team, the Baltimore Orioles of the minor level International League). The American League has one notable difference versus the rival National League, in that in modern times since 1973 it has had the designated hitter rule. Under the rule, a team may use a batter in its lineup who is not in the field defensively, replacing the pitcher in the batting order, compared to the old rule that made it mandatory for the pitcher to bat. In the last two decades, the season schedule has allowed occasional interleague play. In 1969, the AL (and NL) were divided into East and West divisions, with a postseason playoff series for the pennant and the right to play in the World Series.  Until the late 1970s, league umpires working behind home plate wore large, balloon-style chest protectors worn outside the shirt or coat, while their brethren in the National League wore chest protectors inside the shirt or coat. In 1977, new umpires (including Steve Palermo) had to wear the inside chest protector, although those on staff wearing the outside protector could continue to do so. Most umpires made the switch to the inside protector, led by Don Denkinger in 1975 and Jim Evans the next year, although several did not, including Bill Haller, Lou DiMuro, Russ Goetz, George Maloney, Bill Kunkel and Jerry Neudecker, who became the last full-time MLB umpire to use the outside protector in 1985.  In 1994, the league, along with the National League, reorganized again, into three divisions (East, West, and Central) and added a third round to the playoffs in the form of the American League Division Series, with the best second-place team advancing to the playoffs as a wild-card team, in addition to the three divisional champions. In 1998, the newly franchised Tampa Bay Devil Rays joined the league, and the Arizona Diamondbacks joined the National League: i.e., each league each added a fifteenth team. An odd number of teams per league meant that at least one team in each league would have to be idle on any given day, or alternatively that odd team out would have had to play an interleague game against its counterpart in the other league. The initial plan was to have three five-team divisions per league with inter league play year-round—possibly as many as 30 interleague games per team each year.  For various reasons, it soon seemed more practical to have an even number of teams in both leagues. The Milwaukee Brewers agreed to change leagues, moving from the AL Central to the NL Central. At the same time, the Detroit Tigers were moved from the AL East to the AL Central, making room for the Devil Rays in the East. Following the move of the Houston Astros, which had been in the NL for 51 years since beginning as an expansion team in 1962, to the American League in 2013, both leagues now consist of 15 teams, a far cry from their original 8 for the first half-century of the 20th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Permanent Interleague play.", "content": "For the first 96 years, American League teams faced their National League counterparts only in exhibition games or in the World Series. Beginning in 1997, interleague games have been played during the regular season and count in the standings. As part of the agreement instituting interleague play, the designated-hitter rule is used only in games where the American League team is the home team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charter franchises.", "content": "There were eight charter teams in 1901, the league's first year as a major league, and the next year the original Milwaukee Brewers moved to St. Louis to become the St. Louis Browns. These franchises constituted the league for 52 seasons, until the Browns moved to Baltimore and took up the name Baltimore Orioles. All eight original franchises remain in the American League, although only four remain in the original cities (Detroit, Chicago, Boston, and Cleveland). The eight original teams and their counterparts in the \"Classic Eight\" were:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "American League presidents.", "content": "Following the 1999 season, the American and National Leagues were merged with Major League Baseball, and the leagues ceased to exist as business entities. The position of the American League President and National League President became honorary.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The bombing of Dresden was a British-American aerial bombing attack on the city of Dresden, the capital of the German state of Saxony, during World War II. In four raids between 13 and 15 February 1945, 722 heavy bombers of the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and 527 of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) dropped more than 3,900 tons of high-explosive bombs and incendiary devices on the city. The bombing and the resulting firestorm destroyed more than of the city centre. An estimated 22,700 to 25,000 people were killed. Three more USAAF air raids followed, two occurring on 2 March aimed at the city's railway marshalling yard and one smaller raid on 17 April aimed at industrial areas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975922}
{"src_title": "Darya Domracheva", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Domracheva started her sports career with cross-country skiing in 1992 but switched to biathlon in 1999. She originally represented Russia at the junior level but received an offer to transfer to Belarus in 2004. She joined Belarus’ national biathlon team in 2006 (having made her junior team debut in 2005). Domracheva won sprint and pursuit at the 2005 IBU Youth and Junior World Championships in Kontiolahti (Finland). She finished 40th in the individual race (the diopter fell off, and she missed 5 targets at the third shooting stage.)  Domracheva took 3rd place in the pursuit and 4th place in the individual events at the 2006 Junior World Championships in Presque Isle, Maine. In 2007, she picked up two silver medals in sprint and pursuit at the Junior World Championships in Martell, Italy.  Her breakthrough came during the 2008/2009 season when she earned two third places and one second place.  At the 2010 Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver, she won the bronze medal in the Women's 15-kilometer individual race at the Whistler Olympic Park venue. Later in the same season, on 13 March, she won her first World Cup race in the sprint in Kontiolahti, Finland. The next day she also won the pursuit.  Domracheva was named Belarus' Female Athlete of the Year in 2010, and was also given the title of Honoured Master of Sport that year.  She continued to improve after the Vancouver Olympics, winning 10 world cup races between the 2011-2013 seasons, as well as becoming the world champion in the pursuit in 2012, and the mass start in 2013.  In 2014 Domracheva was given the Hero of Belarus medal, after winning three gold medals at the 2014 Winter Olympics.  In August 2015, Domracheva decided to skip the 2015–16 World Cup season due to mononucleosis which was diagnosed in July.  Domracheva confirmed her pregnancy in April 2016, and said that she plans to return to compete in 2017. Domracheva returned to the World Cup in January 2017 for the 2016–17 season. Her comeback ended up being successful, winning a silver medal at the 2017 world championships in the individual pursuit in preparation for the 2018 Winter Olympic Games. At the 2018 Winter Olympics, she was unable to defend her Olympic titles from Sochi; however she was still able to pick up a silver medal in the mass start individually, and helped the Belarusian team win the historic first Olympic gold medal in the relay. She finished the 2018 season ranked 3rd overall in the Biathlon World Cup, and announced her retirement in June, citing difficulties in combining both elite sport and parenting. She finished her career as Belarus’ most decorated winter Olympian, and most decorated Olympian of either the winter or summer games to compete for Belarus as an independent nation; gymnasts Olga Korbut and Vitaly Scherbo both have more medals, but Korbut competed for the Soviet Union and Scherbo only received 4 of his medals competing for Belarus; his remaining medals were won as part of the Unified Team. She was coached by former World Champion and Olympic medalist Klaus Siebert.  In September 2019, she along with her husband Ole Einar Björndalen were appointed as biathlon coaches for the Chinese team, preparing the team for the 2022 Olympic Winter Games in Beijing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Cup.", "content": "Domracheva won the Pursuit World Cup 2011–2012 and won the Mass Start World Cup 2011–2012. In the Total World Cup 2011–2012 she ended the season second with 1188 points behind Magdalena Neuner's 1216 points.  In the 2010–2011 season Domracheva won the Mass Start World Cup.  Her biggest achievement was in the 2014–2015 when was Domracheva won the Overall World Cup title with 1092 points, 48 points more than second and twice winner Kaisa Mäkäräinen. She also won the Sprint World Cup title in that season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Record.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Olympic Games.", "content": "\"6 medals (4 gold, 1 silver, 1 bronze)\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World Championships.", "content": "\"7 medals (2 gold, 4 silver, 1 bronze)\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Individual victories.", "content": "\"34 victories (9 Sp, 11 Pu, 4 In, 10 MS)\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Domracheva was born in Minsk. When she was four, her parents, who are architects, moved to the small town of Nyagan in Siberia. Domracheva started skiing when she was six. In cross-country ski races she was competing with boys, as she had no rivals among girls. A biathlon school was opened in Nyagan in 1999, which Domracheva attended.  Domracheva attended university in Tyumen, and studied sports management from 2002 until 2003.  Domracheva's family moved back to Minsk in 2003. There was no faculty of Sports Management in Minsk, so Domracheva changed to studying Tourism Management at the Belarusian State Economic University. In 2009, she was writing her diploma thesis on the subject: Advertising in the tourism industry.. Until 2014, Domracheva was an employee of the Belarusian branch of security agency KGB, one of the few to have retained its name from the Soviet Union era..  Domracheva presented the voting result of Belarus in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 final on 18 May.  On 5 April 2016, Norwegian biathlete Ole Einar Bjørndalen confirmed that he and Domracheva are in a relationship and that Domracheva would give birth to their first child in October 2016. They were married 16 July 2016. Domracheva gave birth to a daughter, Xenia, on 1 October 2016. She retired from competitions in June 2018 to focus on raising her daughter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "Domracheva used a video camera to document herself, her teammates and athletes from other countries from 2008 until after the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. The 500 hours of material was edited into a 50-minute movie. The movie gives a unique insight into the life of world class athletes during the whole year, from the few weeks of relaxation and rest in the spring, through the hard training during the summer and the fall, to the competition season between December and March. The movie shows athletes from many countries, living together, traveling together and competing together.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dárya Vladímirovna Dómracheva (, ; born 3 August 1986) is a retired Belarusian biathlete and coach who competed in the Biathlon World Cup from 2006 to 2018. She won a gold medal in the 4×6 km relay and a silver medal in the mass start competition at the 2018 Winter Olympics, three gold medals in the pursuit, individual, and mass start competitions at the 2014 Winter Olympics, and a bronze medal in the individual competition at the 2010 Winter Olympics. She was a Biathlon World Cup overall winner for the 2014–15 season.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975923}
{"src_title": "Common waxbill", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a small bird, 4 to 5 inches in length with a wingspan of 4 1/2 inches and a weight of 3/5 to 3/4 ounce. It has a slender body with short rounded wings and a long graduated tail. The bright red bill of the adult is the colour of sealing wax giving the bird its name. The plumage is mostly grey-brown, finely barred with dark brown. There is a red stripe through the eye and the cheeks and throat are whitish. There is often a pinkish flush to the underparts and a reddish stripe along the centre of the belly depending on the subspecies. The rump is brown and the tail and vent are dark. Females are similar to the males but are paler with less red on the belly. Juveniles are duller with little or no red on the belly, fainter dark barring and a black bill.  Similar species include the black-rumped, crimson-rumped and black-lored waxbills. The black-rumped waxbill is black rather than brown on the rump and has a pale vent (area underneath the tail). The crimson-rumped waxbill has a dark bill, red rump and some red on the wings and tail. The black-lored waxbill (found only in the Democratic Republic of Congo) has a black rather than red stripe through the eye.  The common waxbill has a variety of twittering and buzzing calls and a distinctive high-pitched flight-call. The simple song is harsh and nasal and descends on the last note.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Native range.", "content": "There are about 17 subspecies distributed widely across much of Africa south of the Sahara. They are present in most parts of East, Central and Southern Africa except for regions of desert or dense forest. In West Africa they are more local with the main population centred on Sierra Leone, Liberia and the Ivory Coast. Common waxbills inhabit open country with long grass and rank vegetation. They are often found near water in marshes and among reeds. They can be tame and will enter gardens, parks and farmland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Introduced range.", "content": "Birds have often escaped from captivity or been deliberately released. Breeding populations have become established in many places where the climate is sufficiently warm and where there is a sufficient supply of grass seeds. They are now found on many islands around Africa: Saint Helena, Ascension Island, the Cape Verde Islands, São Tomé and Príncipe, Mauritius, Réunion, Rodrigues, the Seychelles and Ile Amsterdam. They may possibly be native on some of these islands. In Europe the common waxbill has become widespread in Portugal and is spreading through Spain. There are small populations on Madeira and Gran Canaria and it has recently appeared on Tenerife and the Azores. In the Americas waxbills are found in Trinidad, several parts of Brazil and there are a few on Bermuda. In the Pacific there are populations on New Caledonia, Efate Island in Vanuatu, Tahiti and the Hawaiian Islands. In Spain it has been introduced in the largest cities in the last ten years and is now quite commonly seen in Madrid, Barcelona and Valencia, as well as along the Spanish-Portuguese border.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "The nest is a large ball of criss-crossed grass stems with a long downward-pointing entrance tube on one side. It is built in a cavity, usually low down amongst dense vegetation. A rudimentary second nest (\"cock's nest\") may be built on top where the male sleeps. Four to seven white eggs are laid. They are incubated for 11 to 13 days and the young birds fledge 17 to 21 days after hatching. Both parents take part in incubating the eggs and feeding the chicks. The timing of the breeding season varies in different parts of the world. Nests may be parasitized by the pin-tailed whydah which lays its eggs in the nests of estrildid finches. In captivity they will breed in an aviary and can raise four broods in a year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "The diet consists mainly of grass seeds but insects are also eaten on occasions, especially during the breeding season when more protein is needed. The waxbills typically forage in flocks which may contain hundreds or even thousands of birds. They usually feed by clinging to the stems with their long, spindly claws and picking from the flower heads but they will also search for fallen seeds on the ground. They need to drink regularly as the seeds contain little water.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The common waxbill (\"Estrilda astrild\"), also known as the St Helena waxbill, is a small passerine bird belonging to the estrildid finch family. It is native to sub-Saharan Africa but has been introduced to many other regions of the world and now has an estimated global extent of occurrence of 10,000,000 km. It is popular and easy to keep in captivity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975924}
{"src_title": "Freya radar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "First tests of what would become the \"\"Freya\"\" were conducted in early 1937, with initial delivery of an operational radar to the \"Kriegsmarine\" in 1938 by the GEMA company. Freya supported an early version of Identification friend or foe (IFF). Aircraft equipped with the FuG 25a \"\"Erstling\"\" IFF system could be successfully queried across ranges of over 100 km.  The \"AN\" version gained a switchable phasing line for the antenna. Switching in the phasing line led to a phase displacement of the antenna's radiation pattern and with that, a squinting to the left or right. This enabled the system in effect to switch from the rather broad \"scanning for maxima\" to narrow lobe switching. In that mode, a skilled operator could achieve an angular resolution of 0.1°.  The \"Freya\" radar was more advanced than its British counterpart, Chain Home. \"Freya\" operated on a wavelength (250 MHz) while Chain Home used 12 m. This allowed \"Freya\" to use a much smaller antenna system, one that was easier to rotate, move and position. It also offered higher resolution, allowing it to detect smaller targets. Because of its complex design, only eight \"Freya\" stations were operational when the war started, resulting in large gaps between the covered areas. The British Chain Home radar, although less advanced and more prone to errors, was simpler, which meant that the complete Chain Home network was in place in time for the Battle of Britain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deployment and operation.", "content": "\"Freya\" was often used in concert with the primary German gun laying radar, \"Würzburg Riese\" (\"Würzburg Giant\"); the \"Freya\" finding targets at long distances and then \"handing them off\" to the shorter-ranged Würzburgs for tracking.  Later in the war, \"Freya\" operated in the band from (120 to 130 MHz), with a pulse width of three microseconds, a peak power output of 15 to 20 kW, and a pulse repetition frequency of 500 Hz. It had a maximum range of only, making it inferior to Chain Home. Furthermore, it could not accurately determine altitude, but it was a fully steerable and semi-mobile system. Freya was first successfully used on December 18, 1939 when two stations detected an approaching daytime raid on Wilhelmshaven by 22 RAF Vickers Wellington bombers at a range of 113 km and guided fighter planes toward them via radio. Only half of the Wellingtons returned to Britain undamaged, but the German fighters only reached the bomber after they had made their bombing run on ships in harbor. The performance of Freya left the \"Luftwaffe\" so impressed that by the Spring of 1940, eleven \"Freya\" stations were installed to guard Germany's western border. After the invasion of France in 1940, additional \"Freya\" stations were built along the Atlantic coast. When Britain started its bombing raids, Hermann Göring ordered colonel (later General) Josef Kammhuber to install an efficient air defense. This led to the so-called Kammhuber Line into which more \"Freya\" stations were incorporated. In the later course of the war, \"Freya\" devices turned out to be vulnerable to chaff, along with other countermeasures, which meant they could still be used for early warning but no longer for guiding fighter planes. British bombing raids could also be organized such that the Kammhuber Line could be overwhelmed in massed raids.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "British intelligence.", "content": "One of the first to give British intelligence any details about the \"Freya\" Radar was a young Danish Flight Lieutenant, Thomas Sneum, who, at great risk to his life, photographed radar installations on the Danish island of Fanø in 1941. He brought the negatives to Britain in a dramatic flight which is fictionalized in Ken Follett's novel \"Hornet Flight\". Sneum's deed is also mentioned in R. V. Jones's \"Most Secret War\" as a'most gallant exploit' and is one of the featured stories in Courage & Defiance by Deborah Hopkinson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Countermeasures.", "content": "To counter \"Freya\", the British used equipment called 'Moonshine'. Carried by Boulton Paul Defiant aircraft of the Special Duties Flight (later No. 515 Squadron RAF), a single set retransmitted a portion of the \"Freya\" signal amplifying the apparent return. Eight planes with 'Moonshine' could mimic a force of 100 bombers. A second countermeasures system, \"Mandrel\" was a noise jammer carried by aircraft of No. 100 Group RAF which overwhelmed the signals from \"Freya\". Individual aircraft were sent to orbit fixed positions off the enemy coast. By using nine aeroplanes, a gap could be knocked into the German's radar coverage, while further jammers were carried in the bomber stream to counter the inland \"Freya\" network.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war use.", "content": "One FuMG 80 Freya radar, after modification, was installed in 1957/8 at the Ondřejov Observatory in Czechoslovakia and served as meteorite tracking radar until 2006. Before then it was used at the Pardubice Airport, under name RZ III.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Freya was an early warning radar deployed by Germany during World War II; it was named after the Norse Goddess \"Freyja\". During the war, over a thousand stations were built. A naval version operating on a slightly different wavelength was also developed as the \"Seetakt\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975925}
{"src_title": "Beryllium oxide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Preparation and chemical properties.", "content": "Beryllium oxide can be prepared by calcining (roasting) beryllium carbonate, dehydrating beryllium hydroxide, or igniting metallic beryllium: Igniting beryllium in air gives a mixture of BeO and the nitride BeN. Unlike the oxides formed by the other Group 2 elements (alkaline earth metals), beryllium oxide is amphoteric rather than basic.  Beryllium oxide formed at high temperatures (>800 °C) is inert, but dissolves easily in hot aqueous ammonium bifluoride (NHHF) or a solution of hot concentrated sulfuric acid (HSO) and ammonium sulfate ((NH)SO).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "BeO crystallizes in the hexagonal wurtzite structure, featuring tetrahedral Be and O centres, like lonsdaleite and w-BN (with both of which it is isoelectronic). In contrast, the oxides of the larger group-2 metals, i.e., MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, crystallize in the cubic rock salt motif with octahedral geometry about the dications and dianions. At high temperature the structure transforms to a tetragonal form.  In the vapour phase, beryllium oxide is present as discrete diatomic molecules. In the language of valence bond theory, these molecules can be described as adopting \"sp\" orbital hybridisation on both atoms, featuring one σ (between one \"sp\" orbital on each atom) and one π bond (between aligned \"p\" orbitals on each atom oriented perpendicular to the molecular axis). Molecular orbital theory provides a slightly different picture with no \"net\" sigma bonding (because the 2\"s\" orbitals of the two atoms combine to form a filled sigma bonding orbital and a filled sigma* anti-bonding orbital) and two pi bonds formed between both pairs of \"p\" orbitals oriented perpendicular to the molecular axis. The sigma orbital formed by the \"p\" orbitals aligned along the molecular axis is unfilled. The corresponding ground state is...(2sσ)(2sσ*)(2pπ) (as in the isoelectronic C molecule), where both bonds can be considered as dative bonds from oxygen towards beryllium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "High-quality crystals may be grown hydrothermally, or otherwise by the Verneuil method. For the most part, beryllium oxide is produced as a white amorphous powder, sintered into larger shapes. Impurities, like carbon, can give a variety of colours to the otherwise colourless host crystals.  Sintered beryllium oxide is a very stable ceramic. Beryllium oxide is used in rocket engines and as a transparent protective over-coating on aluminised telescope mirrors.  Beryllium oxide is used in many high-performance semiconductor parts for applications such as radio equipment because it has good thermal conductivity while also being a good electrical insulator. It is used as a filler in some thermal interface materials such as thermal grease. Some power semiconductor devices have used beryllium oxide ceramic between the silicon chip and the metal mounting base of the package to achieve a lower value of thermal resistance than a similar construction of aluminium oxide. It is also used as a structural ceramic for high-performance microwave devices, vacuum tubes, magnetrons, and gas lasers. BeO has been proposed as a neutron moderator for naval marine high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (MGCR), as well as NASA's Kilopower nuclear reactor for space applications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "BeO is carcinogenic in powdered form and may cause chronic beryllium disease. Once fired into solid form, it is safe to handle if not subjected to machining that generates dust. Beryllium oxide ceramic is not a hazardous waste under federal law in the USA.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Beryllium oxide (BeO), also known as beryllia, is an inorganic compound with the formula BeO. This colourless solid is a notable electrical insulator with a higher thermal conductivity than any other non-metal except diamond, and exceeds that of most metals. As an amorphous solid, beryllium oxide is white. Its high melting point leads to its use as a refractory material. It occurs in nature as the mineral bromellite. Historically and in materials science, beryllium oxide was called glucina or glucinium oxide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975926}
{"src_title": "Phil Housley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Housley is the second leading scorer amongst American-born players, with 1,232 points (338–894). He held the record for most points by an American-born NHL player until Mike Modano surpassed it on November 7, 2007.  Housley never won the Stanley Cup, coming closest with the Capitals in 1998, where they were swept in the Stanley Cup Finals by the Detroit Red Wings. At the time of retirement, Housley had played more NHL games without winning the Stanley Cup than any other player in NHL history until the retirement of Shane Doan in 2017.  On January 21, 2000, Housley played in his 1,257th NHL game, the most ever at the time by an American, breaking the record held by Craig Ludwig. Housley went on to play in 1,495 NHL games. He held the record for games played by an American-born player for nearly seven years, until it was broken, on November 24, 2006, by Chris Chelios.  Housley was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 2004, and was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame on November 9, 2015. On February 7, 2007, he was inducted into the Buffalo Sabres Hall of Fame, commemorated in a pre-game ceremony with former head coach Scotty Bowman on hand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "From 2004 to 2013, Housley coached high school hockey at Stillwater Area High School in Stillwater, Minnesota, helping to rebuild the program to respectability. From 2013 to 2017, Housley was an assistant coach for the Nashville Predators, working primarily with defensemen.  On January 5, 2013, Housley coached Team USA to the gold medal at the 2013 IIHF World U20 Championship in Ufa, Russia. He had served as an assistant coach on Team USA's 2007 and 2011 appearances in the World Juniors.  On June 15, 2017, it was announced that Housley was hired by the Buffalo Sabres as their new head coach. He led the Sabres to a 31st-place finish in his first season and saw the Sabres attain a 10-game winning streak early in his second season before the team collapsed down the stretch. Housley was fired by the Sabres after the 2018–19 season on April 7, 2019.  On June 26, 2019, it was announced that Housley signed a multi-year contract as assistant coach for the Arizona Coyotes. For the Coyotes, Housley serves as defensive coordinator and power play coach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Housley grew up in South St. Paul, Minnesota. He is married to his high school sweetheart, Karin Housley, a Minnesota state senator and Republican nominee for the 2018 special election for United States Senate in Minnesota. The Housleys have four grown children and reside in St. Marys Point, Minnesota.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phillip Francis Housley (born March 9, 1964) is an American professional ice hockey coach and former player. He is currently an assistant coach for the Arizona Coyotes of the National Hockey League (NHL). Housley was the head coach of the NHL's Buffalo Sabres from 2017 until 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975927}
{"src_title": "Sex position", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Sex manuals usually present a guide to sex positions. Sex manuals have a long history. In the Graeco-Roman era, a sex manual was written by Philaenis of Samos, possibly a hetaira (courtesan) of the Hellenistic period (3rd–1st century BC). The \"Kama Sutra\" of Vatsyayana, believed to have been written in the 1st to 6th centuries, has a notorious reputation as a sex manual. Different sex positions result in differences in the depth of sexual penetration and the angle of penetration. Many attempts have been made to categorize sex positions. Alfred Kinsey categorized six primary positions, The earliest known European medieval text dedicated to sexual positions is the \"Speculum al foderi\", sometimes known as \"The Mirror of Coitus\" (or literally \"a mirror for fuckers\"), a 15th-century Catalan text discovered in the 1970s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exclusively penetrative.", "content": "These positions involve the insertion of a phallic object(s) (such as a penis, strap-on dildo, plug, or other nonporous object(s)) into a vagina, anus or mouth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Penetrating partner on top with front entry.", "content": "The most used sex position is the missionary position. In this position, the participants face each other. The receiving partner lies on their back with legs apart, while the penetrating partner lies on top. This position and the following variations may be used for vaginal or anal intercourse.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Penetrating from behind.", "content": "Most of these positions can be used for either vaginal or anal penetration. Variants of the \"doggy style\" or \"doggy position\" include:  In the \"spoons position\" both partners lie on their side, facing the same direction. Variants of this technique include the following:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Receiving partner on top.", "content": "Most of these positions can be used for either vaginal or anal penetration. When the receiving partner is a woman, these positions are sometimes called the \"woman on top\", \"cowboy\" or \"cowgirl\" positions.  A feature of these positions is that the penetrating partner lies on their back with the receiving partner on top:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sitting and kneeling.", "content": "Most of these positions can be used for either vaginal or anal penetration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Standing.", "content": "Most of these positions can be used for either vaginal or anal penetration. In the basic standing position, both partners stand facing each other. The following variations are possible:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anal sex positions.", "content": "These positions involve anal penetration:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Less common positions.", "content": "These positions are more innovative, and perhaps not as widely known or practiced as the ones listed above.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Using furniture or special apparatus.", "content": "Most sex acts are typically performed on a bed or other simple platform. As the range of supports available increases, so does the range of positions that are possible. Ordinary furniture can be used for this purpose. Also, various forms of erotic furniture and other apparatus such as fisting slings and trapezes have been used to facilitate even more exotic sexual positions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Positions to promote or prevent conception.", "content": "Pregnancy is a potential result of any form of sexual activity where sperm comes in contact with the vagina; this is typically during vaginal sex, but pregnancy can result from anal sex, digital sex (fingering), oral sex, or by another body part, if sperm is transferred from one area to the vagina between a fertile female and a fertile male. Men and women are typically fertile during puberty. Though certain sexual positions are believed to produce more favorable results than others, none of these are effective means of contraception.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Positions during pregnancy.", "content": "The goal is to prevent excessive pressure on the belly and to restrict penetration as required by the particular partners. Some of the positions below are popular positions for sex during pregnancy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Non-exclusively penetrative.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oral sex positions.", "content": "Oral sex is genital stimulation by the mouth. It may be penetrative or non-penetrative, and may take place before, during, as, or following intercourse. It may also be performed simultaneously (for example, when one partner performs cunnilingus, while the other partner performs fellatio), or only one partner may perform upon the other; this creates a multitude of variations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fellatio.", "content": "\"Fellatio\" is oral sex performed on a penis. Possible positions include:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Cunnilingus.", "content": "\"Cunnilingus\" is oral sex performed on the vulva and vagina. Possible positions include:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Sixty-nine.", "content": "Simultaneous oral sex between two people is called \"69\". Partners may be female or male. They can lie side-by-side, lie one on top of the other, or stand with one partner holding the other upside down.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Anilingus.", "content": "Positions for \"anilingus\", also known as \"butt licking\", \"rimming\", \"anal-oral sex\", \"rimjob\", or \"tossing the salad\", are often variants on those for genital-oral sex. Anilingus can be performed in a number of sex positions including:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Non-penetrative.", "content": "\"Non-penetrative sex\" or \"frottage\" is generally sexual activity that excludes penetration, and often includes rubbing one's genitals on one's sexual partner. This may include the partner's genitals or buttocks, and can involve different sex positions. As part of foreplay or to avoid penetrative sex, people engage in a variety of non-penetrative sexual behavior, which may or may not lead to orgasm.  The slang term \"humping\" may refer to masturbation—thrusting one's genitals against the surface of non-sexual objects, clothed or unclothed; or it may refer to penetrative sex.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Genital-genital rubbing.", "content": "\"Genital-genital rubbing\" (often termed \"GG rubbing\" by primatologists to describe the behavior among female bonobos) is the sexual act of mutually rubbing genitals; it is sometimes grouped with \"frottage\", but other terms, such as \"non-penetrative sex\" or \"outercourse\", are also used:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group sex.", "content": "Various people of gender and orientation may participate in group sex. While group sex does not imply that all participants must be in sexual contact with all others simultaneously, some positions are only possible with three or more people.  As with the positions listed above, more group sex positions become practical if erotic furniture is used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threesomes.", "content": "When three people have sex with each other, it is called a \"threesome\". Possible ways of having all partners in sexual contact with each include some of the following:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "With many participants.", "content": "These positions can be expanded to accommodate any number of participants:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Multiple penetration.", "content": "A person may be sexually penetrated multiple times simultaneously. Penetration may involve use of fingers, toes, sex toys, or penises. Scenes of multiple penetration are common in pornography.  If one person is penetrated by two objects, it is generically called \"double penetration\" (\"DP\"). Double penetration of the vagina, anus, or mouth can involve:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Number of positions, and effects on physical abilities.", "content": "In 1974, Alex Comfort categorized more than 600 and Gershon Legman categorized 3,780. However, the suggestion that the number of positions that can be used for sex is essentially limitless also exists.  Some people are limited by physical disabilities in the sex positions which they may use without pain or other discomfort. Other physical limitations of one or both participants also limit the sex positions which they may adopt. For example, the spoons position is recommended when either partner has back problems; the \"starfish position\" is recommended to achieve orgasms more easily and the missionary position may be uncomfortable for the receiving partner if the weight of the inserting partner, relative to the receiving partner's, is a problem. Also, the standing positions may be unsuitable if there is a significant height difference between the participants, unless the female is being carried.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A sex position is a position of the body that people use for sexual intercourse or other sexual activities. Sexual acts are generally described by the positions the participants adopt in order to perform those acts. Though sexual intercourse generally involves penetration of the body of one person by another, sex positions commonly involve penetrative or non-penetrative sexual activities.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975928}
{"src_title": "Self-reference", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In logic, mathematics and computing.", "content": "In classical philosophy, paradoxes were created by self-referential concepts such as the omnipotence paradox of asking if it was possible for a being to exist so powerful that it could create a stone that it could not lift. The Epimenides paradox, 'All Cretans are liars' when uttered by an ancient Greek Cretan was one of the first recorded versions. Contemporary philosophy sometimes employs the same technique to demonstrate that a supposed concept is meaningless or ill-defined.  In mathematics and computability theory, self-reference (also known as Impredicativity) is the key concept in proving limitations of many systems. Gödel's theorem uses it to show that no formal consistent system of mathematics can ever contain all possible mathematical truths, because it cannot prove some truths about its own structure. The halting problem equivalent, in computation theory, shows that there is always some task that a computer cannot perform, namely reasoning about itself. These proofs relate to a long tradition of mathematical paradoxes such as Russell's paradox and Berry's paradox, and ultimately to classical philosophical paradoxes.  In game theory, undefined behaviors can occur where two players must model each other's mental states and behaviors, leading to infinite regress.  In computer programming, self-reference occurs in reflection, where a program can read or modify its own instructions like any other data. Numerous programming languages support reflection to some extent with varying degrees of expressiveness. Additionally, self-reference is seen in recursion (related to the mathematical recurrence relation) in functional programming, where a code structure refers back to itself during computation. 'Taming' self-reference from potentially paradoxical concepts into well-behaved recursions has been one of the great successes of computer science, and is now used routinely in, for example, writing compilers using the'meta-language' ML. Using a compiler to compile itself is known as bootstrapping. Self-modifying code is possible to write (programs which operate on themselves), both with assembler and with functional languages such as Lisp, but is generally discouraged in real-world programming. Computing hardware makes fundamental use of self-reference in flip-flops, the basic units of digital memory, which convert potentially paradoxical logical self-relations into memory by expanding their terms over time. Thinking in terms of self-reference is a pervasive part of programmer culture, with many programs and acronyms named self-referentially as a form of humor, such as GNU ('Gnu's not Unix') and PINE ('Pine is not Elm'). The GNU Hurd is named for a pair of mutually self-referential acronyms.  Tupper's self-referential formula is a mathematical curiosity which plots an image of its own formula.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In biology.", "content": "The biology of self-replication is self-referential, as embodied by DNA and RNA replication mechanisms. Models of self-replication are found in Conway's Game of Life and have inspired engineering systems such as the self-replicating 3D printer RepRap.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In art.", "content": "Self-reference occurs in literature and film when an author refers to his or her own work in the context of the work itself. Examples include Cervantes's \"Don Quixote\", Shakespeare's \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", \"The Tempest\" and \"Twelfth Night\", Denis Diderot's \"Jacques le fataliste et son maître\", Italo Calvino's \"If on a winter's night a traveler\", many stories by Nikolai Gogol, \"Lost in the Funhouse\" by John Barth, Luigi Pirandello's \"Six Characters in Search of an Author\", Federico Fellini's \"81⁄2\" and Bryan Forbes's \"The L-Shaped Room\". Speculative fiction writer Samuel R. Delany makes use of this in his novels Nova and Dhalgren. In the former, Katin (a space-faring novelist) is wary of a long-standing curse wherein a novelist dies before completing any given work. Nova ends mid-sentence, thus lending credence to the curse and the realization that the novelist is the author of the story; likewise, throughout Dhalgren, Delany has a protagonist simply named The Kid (or Kidd, in some sections), whose life and work are mirror images of themselves and of the novel itself. In the sci-fi spoof film Spaceballs, Director Mel Brooks includes a scene wherein the evil characters are viewing a VHS copy of their own story, which shows them watching themselves “watching themselves”, ad infinitum. Perhaps the earliest example is in Homer's \"Iliad\", where Helen of Troy laments: \"for generations still unborn/we will live in song\" (appearing in the song itself).  Self-reference in art is closely related to the concepts of breaking the fourth wall and meta-reference, which often involve self-reference. The short stories of Jorge Luis Borges play with self-reference and related paradoxes in many ways. Samuel Beckett's \"Krapp's Last Tape\" consists entirely of the protagonist listening to and making recordings of himself, mostly about other recordings. During the 1990s and 2000s filmic self-reference was a popular part of the rubber reality movement, notably in Charlie Kaufman's films \"Being John Malkovich\" and \"Adaptation\", the latter pushing the concept arguably to its breaking point as it attempts to portray its own creation, in a dramatized version of the Droste effect.  Various creation myths invoke self-reference to solve the problem of what created the creator. For example, the Egyptian creation myth has a god swallowing his own semen to create himself. The Ouroboros is a mythical dragon which eats itself.  The Quran includes numerous instances of self-referentiality.  The surrealist painter René Magritte is famous for his self-referential works. His painting \"The Treachery of Images\", includes the words \"this is not a pipe\", the truth of which depends entirely on whether the word \"ceci\" (in English, \"this\") refers to the pipe depicted—or to the painting or the word or sentence itself. M.C. Escher's art also contains many self-referential concepts such as hands drawing themselves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In language.", "content": "A word that describes itself is called an \"autological word\" (or \"autonym\"). This generally applies to adjectives, for example sesquipedalian (i.e. \"sesquipedalian\" is a sesquipedalian word), but can also apply to other parts of speech, such as TLA, as a three-letter abbreviation for \"three-letter abbreviation\".  A sentence which inventories its own letters and punctuation marks is called an autogram.  There is a special case of meta-sentence in which the content of the sentence in the metalanguage and the content of the sentence in the object language are the same. Such a sentence is referring to itself. However some meta-sentences of this type can lead to paradoxes. \"This is a sentence.\" can be considered to be a self-referential meta-sentence which is obviously true. However \"This sentence is false\" is a meta-sentence which leads to a self-referential paradox. Such sentences can lead to problems, for example, in law, where statements bringing laws into existence can contradict one another or themselves. Kurt Gödel claimed to have found such a paradox in the US constitution at his citizenship ceremony.  Self-reference occasionally occurs in the media when it is required to write about itself, for example the BBC reporting on job cuts at the BBC. Notable encyclopedias may be required to feature articles about themselves, such as Wikipedia's article on Wikipedia.  Fumblerules are a list of rules of good grammar and writing, demonstrated through sentences that violate those very rules, such as \"Avoid cliches like the plague\" and \"Don't use no double negatives\". The term was coined in a published list of such rules by William Safire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Self-reference occurs in natural or formal languages when a sentence, idea or formula refers to itself. The reference may be expressed either directly—through some intermediate sentence or formula—or by means of some encoding. In philosophy, it also refers to the ability of a subject to speak of or refer to itself, that is, to have the kind of thought expressed by the first person nominative singular pronoun \"I\" in English.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975929}
{"src_title": "Ken Daneyko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Daneyko was born in Windsor, Ontario and grew up in Edmonton, Alberta, where he knew Mark Messier from a young age. He is of Ukrainian origin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Daneyko was drafted in the first round (18th overall) in the 1982 NHL Entry Draft, the second pick of the New Jersey Devils after the franchise relocated from Colorado; when he was drafted the organization had not yet chosen a new team name. He spent several seasons in junior before getting drafted, and played for the Yorkton Terriers of the Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League, as well as the Great Falls Americans, Spokane Flyers and Seattle Breakers of the Western Hockey League. He was called up to the Devils for the start of the 1983–84 season, but cracked his fibula during a game against the Hartford Whalers and missed over 40 games. After his injury healed, he was assigned to the Kamloops Junior Oilers of the WHL for the remainder of the season.  Upon his arrival in the NHL, Daneyko established himself as a stay-at-home defenceman, and soon won fans over with his gritty and self-sacrificing play. Daneyko was also known for his missing front teeth, lost after he was hit in the mouth by a puck. His gap-toothed smile was well known not only by Devils supporters, but by hockey fans around the world. As a player who had spent all of his NHL career with New Jersey, Daneyko was nicknamed \"Mr. Devil\". He is also referred to by the nickname \"Dano\".  Daneyko acquired over 2,200 penalty minutes in his career, finishing a season with over 200 penalty minutes five times. Daneyko was never a high-scoring defenceman, and set a record by playing in 255 consecutive regular-season games without scoring a goal. In his highest-scoring season, 1989–90, he scored six goals and 15 assists en route to a 21-point season. In five seasons he scored no goals at all. He also has the lowest point per game average among all NHL players who played at least 1,000 games with 0.138. However, Daneyko's effectiveness was not measured by how many pucks he put in the net, but by how many pucks he kept out. Daneyko was used primarily as a shadow defenceman, and often got physical in front of the net if a forward parked himself in the crease looking for a rebound.  In the late 1990s, Daneyko struggled with alcoholism while general manager Lou Lamoriello and Devils owner John McMullen stood by him and checked him into rehab. Daneyko recovered and played every game of New Jersey's successful 2000 playoffs, winning the Bill Masterton Trophy in 2000.  Along with Scott Stevens, he was part of a tough Devils defensive core that won the Stanley Cup three times, in 1994–95, 1999–2000 and 2002–03. From the team's first playoff game while in New Jersey, in 1988, Daneyko played in every playoff game until game four of the 2003 quarterfinals. He also was scratched in the first six games of the 2003 finals, but, looking for a spark, coach Pat Burns inserted Daneyko into the lineup for game seven, replacing Oleg Tverdovsky. As a reward to his devotion of the team, and a hint of his impending retirement, Daneyko took the ice for the final shift of the Devils' game seven victory over the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, which clinched their third Stanley Cup victory, in 2003.  The Devils retired his uniform number, 3, on March 24, 2006. He was the second Devil to receive the honour after Scott Stevens had his No. 4 retired on February 3, 2006.  Daneyko currently provides his colour commentary on Devils' broadcasts on MSG Plus. Prior to this, he shared commentary and analysis between periods of Devils' broadcasts and was a regular starring analyst on MSG's \"Hockey Night Live!\" with host Al Trautwig and fellow commentators Ron Duguay, Dave Maloney, Mike Keenan, and Butch Goring, as well as \"The Hockey Maven\" Stan Fischler.  In October 2009, Daneyko began competing as a pairs figure skater on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reality show \"Battle of the Blades\".  In 2010, Daneyko portrayed himself in the short film \"Ice Hockey\", written and directed by Larry Cohen. The film also featured Randy Velischek.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Daneyko was a resident of North Caldwell, New Jersey. He currently lives with his second wife Margaret. Daneyko has a daughter and a son from a previous marriage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kenneth Stephen Daneyko (born April 17, 1964) is a Canadian-American former professional ice hockey defenceman who played his entire career (1983–2003) with the New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League, winning three Stanley Cup championships with the team. He has been nicknamed \"Mr. Devil\" by Devils fans, as he currently holds the franchise record for games played as a Devil with 1,283 games. Daneyko now provides colour analysis alongside Steve Cangialosi during broadcasts of Devils games on MSG Plus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975930}
{"src_title": "Galina Vishnevskaya", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Vishnevskaya was born in Leningrad. She made her professional stage debut in 1944 singing operetta. After a year studying with Vera Nikolayevna Garina, she won a competition held by the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow (with Rachmaninoff's song \"O, Do Not Grieve\" and Verdi's aria \"O patria mia\" from \"Aida\") in 1952. The next year, she became a member of the Bolshoi Theatre.  On 24 March 1957, she made her debut in Finnish National Opera as Tatyana in Eugene Onegin. On 9 May 1960, she made her first appearance in Sarajevo at the National Theatre, as Aida. In 1961, she made her Metropolitan Opera debut as Aida; the following year she made her debut at the Royal Opera House with the same role. For her La Scala debut in 1964, she sang Liù in \"Turandot\", opposite Birgit Nilsson and Franco Corelli.  In addition to the roles in the Russian operatic repertoire, Vishnevskaya also sang roles such as Violetta, Tosca, Cio-cio-san, Leonore, and Cherubino.  Benjamin Britten wrote the soprano role in his War Requiem (completed 1962) specially for her, though the USSR prevented her from traveling to Coventry Cathedral for the premiere performance. The USSR eventually allowed her to leave in order to make the first recording of the Requiem.  Vishnevskaya was married to the cellist Mstislav Rostropovich from 1955 until his death in 2007; they performed together regularly (he on piano or on the podium). Both she and Rostropovich were friends of Dmitri Shostakovich, and they made an electrifying recording of his opera \"Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk\" for EMI. According to Robert Conquest, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn stayed at their dacha from 1968 while writing much of \"The Gulag Archipelago\". In 1974, the couple asked the Soviet government for an extended leave and left the Soviet Union. Eventually they settled in the United States and Paris. In 1982, the soprano bade farewell to the opera stage, in Paris, as Tatyana in Tchaikovsky's \"Eugene Onegin\". In 1987, she stage directed Rimsky-Korsakov's \"The Tsar's Bride\" in Washington, D.C. In 1984, Vishnevskaya published a memoir, \"Galina: A Russian Story\" (), and in 2002, she opened her own opera theatre in Moscow, the \"Galina Vishnevskaya Opera Centre\".  In 2006, she was featured in Alexander Sokurov's documentary \"Elegy of a life: Rostropovich, Vishnevskaya\". In 2007, she starred in his film \"Alexandra\", playing the role of a grandmother coming to see her grandson in the Second Chechen War. The film premiered at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival. In the last week of her life, Russian President Vladimir Putin honoured her with the First Class Order of Merit for the Fatherland.  On 11 December 2012, Vishnevskaya died at the age of 86 in Moscow. She was married three times. Her first marriage was to Georgy Vishnevsky, a sailor. She retained his family name after their divorce. Her second marriage was to the violinist and director of the Leningrad Light Opera company, Mark Rubin, who also served as her manager. This second marriage produced a son, who died at age 2 months, and lasted 10 years before ending in divorce. Her daughters survive her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "Vishnevskaya made many recordings, including \"Eugene Onegin\" (1956 and 1970), Mussorgsky's \"Songs and Dances of Death\" (1961 and 1976), Britten's \"War Requiem\" (with Sir Peter Pears and Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, conducted by the composer; 1963), \"The Poet's Echo\" (1968), Mussorgsky's \"Boris Godunov\" (1970 and 1987), Puccini's \"Tosca\" (1976), Tchaikovsky's \"The Queen of Spades\" (with Regina Resnik, 1976), \"Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk\" (1978), Tchaikovsky's \"Iolanta\" (with Nicolai Gedda, 1984), and Prokofiev's \"War and Peace\" (1986).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Galina Pavlovna Vishnevskaya (née Ivanova, ; 25 October 192611 December 2012) was a Russian soprano opera singer and recitalist who was named a People's Artist of the USSR in 1966. She was the wife of cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, and mother to their two daughters, Olga and Elena Rostropovich.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975931}
{"src_title": "OpenGL ES", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Versions.", "content": "Several versions of the OpenGL ES specification now exist. OpenGL ES 1.0 is drawn up against the OpenGL 1.3 specification, OpenGL ES 1.1 is defined relative to the OpenGL 1.5 specification and OpenGL ES 2.0 is defined relative to the OpenGL 2.0 specification. This means that, for example, an application written for OpenGL ES 1.0 should be easily portable to the desktop OpenGL 1.3; as the OpenGL ES is a stripped-down version of the API, the reverse may or may not be true, depending on the particular features used.  OpenGL ES comes with its own version of shading language (OpenGL ES SL), which is different from OpenGL SL.  Version 1.0 and 1.1 both have \"common\" (CM) and \"common lite\" (CL) profiles, the difference being that the \"common lite\" profile only supports fixed-point instead of floating point data type support, whereas \"common\" supports both.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 1.0.", "content": "OpenGL ES 1.0 was released publicly July 28, 2003. OpenGL ES 1.0 is based on the original OpenGL 1.3 API, with much functionality removed and a little bit added. One significant difference between OpenGL and OpenGL ES is that OpenGL ES removed the need to bracket OpenGL library calls with codice_1 and codice_2. Other significant differences are that the calling semantics for primitive rendering functions were changed in favor of vertex arrays, and fixed-point data types were introduced for vertex coordinates. Attributes were also added to better support the computational abilities of embedded processors, which often lack a floating point unit (FPU). Many other functions and rendering primitives were removed in version 1.0 to produce a lightweight interface, including:  Actual version is 1.0.0.2.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 1.1.", "content": "OpenGL ES 1.1 added features such as mandatory support for multitexture, better multitexture support (including combiners and dot product texture operations), automatic mipmap generation, vertex buffer objects, state queries, user clip planes, and greater control over point rendering. Actual Version is 1.1.12.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 2.0.", "content": "OpenGL ES 2.0 was publicly released in March 2007. It is roughly based on OpenGL 2.0, but it eliminates most of the fixed-function rendering pipeline in favor of a programmable one in a move similar to the transition from OpenGL 3.0 to 3.1. Control flow in shaders is generally limited to forward branching and to loops where the maximum number of iterations can easily be determined at compile time. Almost all rendering features of the transform and lighting stage, such as the specification of materials and light parameters formerly specified by the fixed-function API, are replaced by shaders written by the graphics programmer. As a result, OpenGL ES 2.0 is not backward compatible with OpenGL ES 1.1. Some incompatibilities between the desktop version of OpenGL and OpenGL ES 2.0 persisted until OpenGL 4.1, which added the codice_4 extension. Actual version is 2.0.25.  The Khronos Group has written a document describing the differences between OpenGL ES 2.0 and ordinary OpenGL 2.0.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 3.0.", "content": "The OpenGL ES 3.0 specification was publicly released in August 2012. OpenGL ES 3.0 is backwards compatible with OpenGL ES 2.0, enabling applications to incrementally add new visual features to applications. OpenGL 4.3 provides full compatibility with OpenGL ES 3.0. Version 3.0 is also the basis for WebGL 2.0. Actual is version 3.0.6.  New functionality in the OpenGL ES 3.0 specification includes:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 3.1.", "content": "The OpenGL ES 3.1 specification was publicly released in March 2014. New functionality in OpenGL ES 3.1 includes:  OpenGL ES 3.1 is backward compatible with OpenGL ES 2.0 and 3.0, thus enabling applications to incrementally incorporate new features. Actual Version is 3.1-(November 2016).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 3.2.", "content": "The OpenGL ES 3.2 specification was publicly released in August 2015. New capabilities in OpenGL ES 3.2 include:  Actual State is 3.2.6 July 2019.  Some more extensions are developed or in Development in Mesa for next OpenGL ES Version (see Mesamatrix).  Next generation API is Vulkan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Platform usage.", "content": "For complete list of companies and their conformant products, view here", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 1.0.", "content": "OpenGL ES 1.0 added an official 3D graphics API to the Android and Symbian operating systems, as well as by QNX It is also supported by the PlayStation 3 as one of its official graphics APIs (the other one being low level \"libgcm\" library) with Nvidia's Cg in lieu of GLSL. The PlayStation 3 also includes several features of the 2.0 version of OpenGL ES.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 1.1.", "content": "The 1.1 version of OpenGL ES is supported by:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 2.0.", "content": "Supported by:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 3.0.", "content": "Supported by:  Supported by some recent versions of these GPUs:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 3.1.", "content": "Supported by Windows, Linux, Android (since version 5.0) on devices with appropriate hardware and drivers, including:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Android Extension Pack.", "content": "Android Extension Pack (AEP) is a set of OpenGL ES 3.1 extensions, all bundled into a single extension introduced by Google in 2014. This allows applications to use all of the features of the set of extensions, while only testing for the presence of a single one. The AEP was officially added to Android Lollipop to provide extra features like tessellation over what was officially in the GLES 3.1 revision. OpenGL ES 3.2 update is largely made up of the AEP additions, which are already present in desktop OpenGL.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "OpenGL ES 3.2.", "content": "OpenGL ES 3.2, incorporating the Android Extension Pack (AEP), \"boasts a small number of improvements over last year’s OpenGL ES 3.1. Both make use of similar features from the AEP. From the AEP, OpenGL ES 3.2 compliant hardware will support Tessellation for additional geometry detail, new geometry shaders, ASTC texture compression for a smaller memory bandwidth footprint, floating point render targets for high accuracy compute processes, and new debugging features for developers. These high-end features are already found in the group’s full OpenGL 4 specification.\"  Supported by Windows, Linux, Android (since version 6.0 possible, 7.0+ Vulkan 1.0 and OpenGL ES 3.2 needed) on devices with appropriate hardware and drivers, including:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deprecation in Apple devices.", "content": "OpenGL ES (and OpenGL) is deprecated in Apple's operating systems, but still works in up to at least iOS 12.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Future.", "content": "No plan for new core version, because Vulkan's momentum is displacing it", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "OpenGL compatibility.", "content": "A few libraries have been created to emulate OpenGL calls using GL ES:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "OpenGL for Embedded Systems (OpenGL ES or GLES) is a subset of the OpenGL computer graphics rendering application programming interface (API) for rendering 2D and 3D computer graphics such as those used by video games, typically hardware-accelerated using a graphics processing unit (GPU). It is designed for embedded systems like smartphones, tablet computers, video game consoles and PDAs. OpenGL ES is the \"most widely deployed 3D graphics API in history\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975932}
{"src_title": "Avia BH-33", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Initial tests of the first prototype were disappointing, displaying performance only marginally better than the BH-21, even when fitted with a more powerful version of the Jupiter. Two further prototypes followed, both designated BH-33-1, each with an increasingly powerful Jupiter variant – one a Jupiter VI, the other a Jupiter VII. The performance of the latter example was finally acceptable for the Czechoslovakian defence ministry to order a small production run of only five aircraft.  Three examples were sold to Belgium, where there were plans to build the type under licence, but this did not occur. Licence production was undertaken, however, in Poland, where a single example was sold, along with a licence to build 50 aircraft. These were designated PWS-A and put into service with the Polish Air Force in 1930.  Development continued with an almost total redesign of the fuselage, replacing the wooden, slab-sided structure with one of oval cross-section, built up from welded steel tubes. Designated BH-33E, this was a world-class fighter for its time. Nevertheless, the response from the Czechoslovakian military was lukewarm (although two were bought for the national aerobatics team), and Avia again looked abroad for customers, this time selling 20 aircraft to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, along with a licence to produce another 24. Two or three examples were also bought by Soviet Union for evaluation.  In late 1929, a further development was flown as the BH-33L, featuring longer-span wings, and a Škoda L W-block engine. This version finally brought the company the domestic sales that it had been hoping for, with 80 aircraft ordered by the Czechoslovak Air Force. These became standard equipment with some air regiments up to the outbreak of World War II.  A single, final variant with a BMW-built Pratt & Whitney Hornet engine was built as the BH-33H (later redesignation BH-133) in 1930, but this did not lead to production.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Czechoslovakian BH-33s never saw combat, and Poland's examples had long been replaced in service by the time of the German invasion. Two Yugoslavian machines did, however see combat against \"Luftwaffe\" Messerschmitt Bf 109s, but were both destroyed and their pilots killed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Avia BH-33 was a biplane fighter aircraft built in Czechoslovakia in 1927. It was based on the BH-21J which demonstrated promising results by combining the original BH-21 airframe with a licence-built Bristol Jupiter radial engine. Other than the peculiar Avia hallmark of having an upper wing with a shorter span than the lower, it was utterly conventional, even featuring a tail fin for the first time in a Pavel Beneš and Miroslav Hajn design (previous aircraft had a rudder but no fin).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975933}
{"src_title": "Place Charles de Gaulle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The original name of the area was the \"Butte Chaillot\" (\"Chaillot mound\", named after the locality). At the time it was the point of convergence of several hunting trails. The Marquis de Marigny constructed monumental roadworks, completed in 1777, on the mound when he was establishing the plantations along the Champs-Élysées. This work included paving of the road in the form of a star, as it still exists today. The junction became known as the Place de l'Étoile. Pedestrian access to the Arc de Triomphe itself is via pedestrian underpass, to avoid the confluence of vehicular traffic from the juncture of twelve radiating avenues.  In 1787, during the construction of the Farmers-General Wall (\"Mur des Fermiers généraux\"), la \"Barrière de l'Étoile\" (also known as the \"Barrière de Neuilly\") was built to the design of Claude Nicolas Ledoux for the collection of the octroi tax at the entrance to Paris. The wall and the two buildings built on either side of the Place de l'Étoile were demolished in the nineteenth century. The modern Place Charles de Gaulle and the avenues radiating from it were created during the Second French Empire of Napoleon III as part of Haussmann's renovation of Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Avenues.", "content": "The twelve avenues, clockwise from the north, are the following:  The square is surrounded by two streets forming a circle around it: the Rue de Presbourg and Rue de Tilsitt, which have been so named since 1864, after diplomatic successes of Napoleon which led to the signing of the Treaty of Presbourg in 1805 and the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Axes.", "content": "The Place Charles de Gaulle is symmetrical and thus has six axes:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arrondissements.", "content": "The Place Charles de Gaulle (as well as the Arc de Triomphe) is split between the 8th, 16th and 17th arrondissements of Paris. The 8th arrondissement encompasses the area between Avenue de Wagram and Avenue Marceau. The 16th arrondissement encompasses the area between Avenue Marceau and Avenue de la Grande-Armée. The 17th arrondissement encompasses the area between Avenue de la Grande Armée and Avenue de Wagram.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "\"La Place de l'étoile\" is the title of a novel by French writer Patrick Modiano.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "The square is served by Métro and RER services. Line 1, as well as RER A, run under the Avenue de la Grande-Armée and Champs-Élysées and stop at the station; it also serves as western terminus for Line 2 and Line 6.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Place Charles de Gaulle (), historically known as the Place de l'Étoile (), is a large road junction in Paris, France, the meeting point of twelve straight avenues (hence its historic name, which translates as \"Square of the Star\") including the Champs-Élysées. It was renamed in 1970 following the death of President Charles de Gaulle. It is still often referred to by its original name; the nearby Métro and RER station retains the designation Charles de Gaulle–Étoile. Paris's \"Axe historique\" (\"historical axis\") cuts through the Arc de Triomphe, which stands at the centre of the Place Charles de Gaulle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975934}
{"src_title": "Stanislav Kosior", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Stanisław Kosior was born in 1889 in Węgrów in the Siedlce Governorate of the Russian Empire, in the region of Podlachia, to a Polish family of humble factory workers. Because of poverty, he emigrated to Yuzovka (modern Donetsk), where he worked at a steel mill. In 1907 he joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party and quickly became the head of the local branch of the party. He was arrested and sacked from his job in the party later that year, and the following year felt obliged to leave the area due to police activity. He used connections to get re-appointed at the Sulin factory in 1909, but was soon arrested again and deported to the Pavlovsk mine. In 1913 he was transferred to Moscow and then to Kiev and Kharkiv, where he organized local Communist cells. In 1915 he was arrested by the Okhrana (the Russian secret police) and exiled to Siberia.  After the February Revolution Kosior moved to Petrograd, where he headed the local branch of the Bolsheviks and the Narva municipal committee. After the October Revolution Kosior moved to the German-controlled areas of the Ober-Ost and Ukraine, where he worked for the Bolshevik cause. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, he moved back to Russia, where in 1920 he became Secretary of the CPSU. In 1922 he became head of the Siberian branch of the CPSU. From 1925 to 1928 he was Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU.  From 1919, Kosior was for some time a member of Ukraine's Politburo. In 1928 he became General Secretary of the Ukrainian SSR Communist Party. Among his tasks was the collectivization of agriculture in Ukraine.  In 1930 Kosior was admitted to the Politburo of the CPSU. In 1935 he was awarded the Order of Lenin \"for remarkable success in the field of agriculture\". In January 1938 he also became head of the Soviet Control Office and deputy prime minister of the USSR. This was the peak of his political success.  On 3 May 1938, during the Great Purge, Kosior was stripped of all Party posts and arrested by the NKVD. \"Stanislav Kosior withstood brutal tortures [at the hands of the NKVD] but cracked when his sixteen-year-old daughter was brought into the room and raped in front of him.\" On 26 February 1939 he was sentenced to death by shooting and executed the same day by General Vasili Blokhin. Other Politburo members purged in this period were Jānis Rudzutaks, Robert Eikhe, Vlas Chubar and Pavel Postyshev.  After Stalin's death, Kosior was rehabilitated by the Soviet government on 14 March 1956. On 13 January 2010, Kosior was condemned by the Court of Appeals of Ukraine as a political criminal for organizing mass famine in Ukraine in 1932–1933; the court quashed criminal proceedings due to his death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stanisław Vikentyevich Kosior (, 18 November 1889 – 26 February 1939), sometimes spelled Kossior, was one of three Kosior brothers, ethnically Polish Soviet politicians. He was First Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party, deputy prime minister of the USSR and member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). He was executed during the Great Purge.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975935}
{"src_title": "Christian de Chergé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Colmar, Haut-Rhin, in an aristocratic military family (whose moto is \"Recte Semper\"), and he spent part of his childhood in Algiers, French Algeria, where his father was commander of the 67th Artillery Regiment of Africa. De Chergé family returned afterwards to France, settling in Paris, where he studied at the Sainte-Marie de Manceau School, from 1947 to 1954, directed by the Society of Mary, and was a Boy Scout. He was a brilliant student at Sainte-Marie, winning at the year of his graduation the first Prize of Excellency. He felt the calling to the religious life since he was 8 years old.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religious life.", "content": "He entered Carmes Seminary, in Paris, in 1956. He returned to Algeria in 1959, during the Algerian War, as a young officer. He would always remember that he had his life saved by an Algerian Muslim named Mohamed, a father of ten children, during an ambush. De Chergé told him that he would pray for him but Mohamed answered him back: \"I know that you will pray for me. But look, Christians don't know how to pray!\" The next morning, he was found murdered. He never forgot this event, and later said: \"In the blood of this friend, I knew that my calling to follow Christ meant to live, sooner or later, in the country where it was given to me the greatest gift of love\".  He returned to France, where he was ordained a priest at the Church of Saint-Sulpice, in Paris, in 1964. He was chaplain at the Basilica of Montmartre, from 1964 to 1969. He decided to enter the Atlas Abbey, in Tibhirine, Algeria, where he arrived, after a novitiate at Aiguebelle Abbey, in 1971. He studied Arab language and culture with the White Fathers at the Pontifical Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies in Rome from 1972 to 1974. In 1984, Atlas Abbey became a simple priory. He was elected the same year the prior.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Study of Islam and the Quran.", "content": "De Chergé during his time at the Atlas Abbey always encouraged the Islamic-Christian dialogue. He had a deep knowledge and a great respect for Islam and the Arab and Islamic culture. He spoke several languages, including Arabic, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. De Chérgé had a mystical night, during Ramadan, on 21 September 1975, when it took place at the monastery chapel a common prayer between a Christian and a Muslim. He never ceased to deepen that faith in the unity of the two religions during his lifetime. He studied and meditated the suras of the Quran concerning \"Jesus, son of Mary\", the \"people of the Book\", and the Christians, comparing the words and concepts of both religions, like \"Mercy\" and \"the Merciful\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Group \"Ribât-al-Salam\".", "content": "He founded, with Claude Rault, a White Father who became bishop of Sahara, the group \"Ribât-al-Salam\" (\"The Place of Peace\"), who discussed the Muslim tradition and spirituality, in the Spring of 1979. In 1980, the group was joined by Sufi Muslims from the fraternity \"Alawya\", founded by sheikh Ahmad al-Alawi. The group had regular meetings at the monastery, representing a place for dialogue and prayer between Christians and Muslims, in mutual respect.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Last years, kidnapping and death.", "content": "In the early 1990s, Islamic fundamentalism threatened Algeria. In 1993, a group of armed men irrupted into the monastery shortly after the murder of twelve Croatians, three kilometers nearby. Dom De Chérgé had a bad feeling and decided to write his now famous testament, for two times, on 1 December 1993 and 1 January 1994. It would be published in the newspaper \"La Croix\", shortly after his death, on 29 May 1996, and it became known as the \"Spiritual Testament of Christian de Chérgé\".  In the night of 26 to 27 March 1996, a group of 20 armed men from the GIA entered the monastery at 1:45 AM. They took seven monks captive, including one, Brother Bruno, who was a visitor from Fès, Morocco. Two monks escaped the kidnappers. A message signed by the GIA announced that the seven monks had been beheaded on 21 May 1996. It is still uncertain who killed them, because some sources claim that they died during an airstrike from the Algerian Air Force.  Father de Chergé and the other monks were buried in the Abbey of Our Lady of Atlas cemetery.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beatification process.", "content": "The Diocese of Algiers started the process for the beatification of Christian de Chergé and the monks of Tibhirine in 1996. On 7 October 2013, the Order of the Cistercians of the Strict Observance announced that the Archbishop of Algiers, with the agreement of the Abbot General and his council, had nominated Father Thomas Georgeon, his Secretary General, as the postulator of the process of beatification of Archbishop Pierre Lucien Claverie and 18 companions, including the 7 Tibhirine monks. The Congregation for the Causes of Saints approved the appointment on 11 October 2013. The beatification took place in Oran, Algeria, on 8 December 2018. He was one of the 19 people beatified as the Martyrs of Algeria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles-Marie Christian de Chergé, O.C.S.O (Colmar, 18 January 1937 - 21 May 1996), was a French Roman Catholic Cistercian monk. He was one of the seven monks from the Abbey of Our Lady of Atlas in Tibhirine, Algeria, kidnapped and believed to have been later killed by Islamists. He was beatified with the eighteen others Martyrs of Algeria on December 9, 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975936}
{"src_title": "Chrysocolla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The name comes from the ancient Greek χρυσός (\"chrysos\") and κολλα (\"kolla\"), \"gold\" and \"glue\", in allusion to the name of the material used to solder gold, and was first used by Theophrastus in 315 BC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "Chrysocolla has a cyan (blue-green) color and is a minor ore of copper, having a hardness of 2.5 to 7.0. It is of secondary origin and forms in the oxidation zones of copper ore bodies. Associated minerals are quartz, limonite, azurite, malachite, cuprite, and other secondary copper minerals. It is typically found as botryoidal or rounded masses and crusts, or vein fillings. Because of its light color, it is sometimes confused with turquoise.  Notable occurrences include Bacan Islands, Indonesia, Israel, Democratic Republic of Congo, Chile, Cornwall in England, and Arizona, Utah, Idaho, Colorado, New Mexico, Michigan, and Pennsylvania in the United States.  A 2006 study has produced evidence that chrysocolla may be a microscopic mixture of the copper hydroxide mineral spertiniite, amorphous silica and water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jewelry.", "content": "Due to being somewhat more common than turquoise, its wide availability, and vivid, beautiful blue and blue-green colors, chrysocolla has been popular for use as a gemstone for carvings and ornamental use since antiquity. It is often used in silversmithing and goldsmithing in place of turquoise and is relatively easy to work and shape. Chrysocolla exhibits a wide range of Mohs hardness ranging from 2 through 7, which is dependent on the amount of silica incorporated into the stone when it is forming. Generally, dark navy blue chrysocolla is too soft to be used in jewelry, while cyan, green, and blue green chrysocolla can have a hardness approaching 6, which is similar to turquoise. Chrysocolla Chalcedony is a heavily silicified form of chrysocolla that forms in quartz deposits and can be very hard and approach a hardness of 7.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chrysocolla is a hydrated copper phyllosilicate mineral with formula: CuAl(HSiO)(OH)·HO (<1) or (Cu,Al)HSiO(OH)·HO. The structure of the mineral has been questioned, as spectrographic studies suggest material identified as chrysocolla may be a mixture of the copper hydroxide spertiniite and chalcedony.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975937}
{"src_title": "Jan Magnussen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lower series racing.", "content": "Born in Roskilde, Magnussen dominated the 1994 British Formula 3 championship with Paul Stewart Racing, winning 14 of the 18 events and breaking Ayrton Senna's F3 record. Magnussen scored his first British F3 win that April at Donington Park, also taking pole for the race. He also won at Brands Hatch, twice at Silverstone, and at Thruxton. He won six of the first eight races. He then won again at Donington Park, and both season-ending rounds at Silverstone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Major series racing.", "content": "He made his Formula One debut at the 1995 Pacific Grand Prix in Aida, sitting in for Mika Häkkinen, who was unwell. In 1996 Magnussen drove in the CART series and International Touring Car Championship.  For 1997–1998 he had a seat in Formula One with the newly founded Stewart Grand Prix team, owned in part by his old F3 boss Paul Stewart. Team founder Jackie Stewart once described him as \"the most talented young driver to emerge since Ayrton Senna\", but his performance was underwhelming. He scored his only championship point in his last race in F1, the 1998 Canadian Grand Prix; for the rest of the season he was replaced by Jos Verstappen. Magnussen started 24 GPs, one less than he entered, because his car was damaged in an accident during the start of the 1997 Brazilian Grand Prix causing him to retire before the restart.  In 1999 he participated in 7 CART races. In 1999 and 2000 he raced in the American Le Mans Series with Panoz. 2001 he drove a Peugeot in Danish Touring Car series (DTC) and raced in 8 ALMS races. 2002 he also raced for Peugeot in DTC and in 10 ALMS races. Jan Magnussen won the 2008 GT1 and 2013 GT drivers' championships, both with Corvette Racing.  Magnussen has participated in various classes in the 24 hours of Le Mans every year since 1999. His best results so far are the victories in the GTS class in 2004 and GT1 class in 2005, 2006, and 2009, each time in a Chevrolet Corvette with Oliver Gavin and Olivier Beretta as teammates in 2005 and 2006, and Johnny O'Connell and Antonio García in 2009.  Also, Magnussen has participated in the 12 Hours of Sebring every year since 1999, winning the GT1 class in 2006, 2008, and 2009.  In 2005, Magnussen drove a Toyota Corolla in the Danish Touring Car Championship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Present day.", "content": "Magnussen was still an active driver, competing in the Danish Touring Car Championship (DTC) until 2010 and in a Chevrolet Corvette C7.R in the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship with Antonio Garcia as teammate until 2019 – and in the 24 hours of Le Mans. In the Danish Touring Car series he drove a Chevrolet Lacetti for Perfection Racing. He won the DTC in 2003 and 2008.  On 11 June 2010, it was announced that Magnussen would make his NASCAR Sprint Cup Series debut driving the No. 09 HendrickCars.com Chevrolet for Phoenix Racing at Infineon Raceway. After starting 32nd on the grid, he finished in 12th position.  On 14 June 2010 it was announced that Magnussen and Perfection Racing would not be participating in the DTC, leaving Magnussen and the team to focus on the Scandinavian Touring Car Cup's remaining two rounds.  Magnussen drove the No. 57 Stevenson Motorsports Chevrolet Camaro with Robin Liddell and Andrew Davis in the 2010 GRAND-AM Rolex Sports Car Series season opener, the Rolex 24 at Daytona. Following the Rolex 24, he moved to the team's No. 97 car and competed in the majority of the races with Gunter Schaldach. Magnussen finished 24th in GT points and his best finish was second (Miller) with four top-10s.  On 7 November 2019, Magnussen was confirmed to drive in the inaugural TCR Denmark Touring Car Series for LM Racing in a VW Golf GTI TCR.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Magnussen's eldest son Kevin is also a racing driver, having raced in Formula 1 for McLaren, Renault and Haas F1. Kevin mentioned that his father was his first hero when he was a child.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motorsports career results.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formula One.", "content": "Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he had completed over 90% of the race distance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International Touring Car Championship.", "content": "† – Did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Supercars Championship.", "content": "† Withdrew due to licence problems", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complete WeatherTech SportsCar Championship results.", "content": "Magnussen did not complete sufficient laps in order to score full points.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jan Ellegaard Magnussen (born 4 July 1973) is a Danish professional racing driver and a factory driver for General Motors. He has competed in Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART), NASCAR, the FIA Formula One World Championship and the 24 Hours of Le Mans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975938}
{"src_title": "Certina Kurth Frères", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Certina was founded in 1888 when Adolf and Alfred Kurth opened in Grenchen their first movement and supplies factory for the watchmaking industry. At the start Certina's staff consisted of three employees working in a workshop that was connected to the family home. Certina did not begin producing complete watches and timepieces for a few years which they then did alongside their work producing movements for other companies. By 1938 the company had expanded and 250 employees celebrated the 50th anniversary of the company..  Certina continued to expand and by 1955 the company had 500 employees working between the factory and offices, producing 1,000 timepieces every day. Certina worked up a new business plan that expanded its operations..  By 1972 Certina employed 900 people and produced 600,000 watches every year.  1983 Certina became a member of the SMH Group (Swatch).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Affiliation to General Watch Co, Allgemeine Gesellschaft der schweizerischen Uhrenindustrie AG (ASUAG).", "content": "In 1971, the owning family opted to join General Watch Co, the newly created sub-holding of ASUAG, in order to consolidate their efforts with others. The introduction of cheap and reliable automatics and Quartz watches from Japan (under the rules of their strategic management: see Strategic management ) stopped Certina's expansion. The restructuring involved the abandonment of their own manufacture of Certina calibres, and by the end of the 1970s, Certina operations were moved to Biel/Bienne and the entity Edox & Technos. Under the new management, Certina managed to hold on to some of their properties, especially in the Scandinavian countries. Upon the merger of SSIH and ASUAG companies, Certina became a member of a new managerial entity, together with Mido and Tissot, which became known as Le Locle, (the newly elected Unesco World Heritage Site in Switzerland ).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Watch series.", "content": "Sport Collection  Aqua Collection  Urban Collection  Heritage Collection", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Advanced Systems and Materials.", "content": "Recent collection of Certina include Titanium, 316L high grade stainless steel, sapphire glass, its own DS feature (such as the current \"DS Podium\", \"DS First\" or \"DS Action\") and ETA Swiss made movements are standard features. It currently offers collections, classified under the names \"Automatic\", \"SPORT Classic\", \"SPORT Elegant\" and \"SPORT Xtreme\", including some models claimed to perform up to 300 m underwater.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motoring Sponsoring & Partnerships.", "content": "The 2000s (decade) saw many new partnerships with motoring companies including Colin McRae, Sete Gibernau, Sauber Formula One team.  Certina was timekeeper of the Motorcycling Grand Prix in the 1990s.  Certina sponsors the 2014 World Rally Championship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Certina brand.", "content": "In 1906 the Certina brand name was used for the first time, with Adolf and Alfred choosing to call their watches \"Grana\", the short form of \"Granatus\", the Latin name for Grenchen.  In 1938 the company adopted the name \"Certina\", taken from the Latin \"certus\", meaning \"assured\", \"certain\", as their trademark for the export and marketing of their watches.  In 2014 Certina changed their red logo with a new logo. The new logo uses a turtle symbol, to symbolize protection against water and shocks. The change in logo and brand colours was because Certina wanted to move to a more expensive and higher quality segment. Differentiating it from Tissot, another brand in the Swatch Group family. The impact of the changes in the brand has been the integration of better and more accurate movements like the PreciDrive in new releases.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Certina S.A. is an entry level Swiss luxury Watch brand founded in Grenchen, 1888, by Adolf and Alfred Kurth, and currently owned by the Swatch Group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975939}
{"src_title": "Ebalus, Duke of Aquitaine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ebles was an illegitimate son of Ranulf II of Aquitaine. \"Manzer\" or \"Mamzer\" is a Hebrew word that means bastard, son of a forbidden relationship, although in the case of Ebles it may have been applied to bastardy in general.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Count of Poitou.", "content": "Upon the death of his father (who was poisoned), Ebles assumed his father’s mantle and acquired the role of Count of Poitou. But Ebles could not hold on to the title for long. Aymar, a descendant of one of Ramnulf II’s predecessors, challenged Ebles right to rule, as Ebles was merely a bastard son. In 892, Aymar, who was supported by Eudes of France, overthrew Ebles, and Ebles fled to the safety of his father’s allies, Count Gerald of Aurillac and William the Pious, count of Auvergne and Duke of Aquitaine. William the Pious had taken Ebles under his care and assured the boy’s education after the death of Ebles’ father.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poitiers.", "content": "In 902, Ebles, with the assistance of William the Pious, a distant relative, conquered Poitiers while Aymar was away, and reestablished himself in his former position. Charles III, who knew Ebles as a childhood companion, then formally invested Ebles with the title, Count of Poitou. Ebles would hold this title until his death.  The comital title was the only one to which he ever had legitimate investiture. Ebles allotted the abbey of Saint-Maixent to Savary, Viscount of Thouars, who had been his constant supporter. He restructured Poitou by creating new viscounties in Aulnay and Melle and dissolved the title and position of Viscount of Poitou upon the death of its holder, Maingaud, in 925.  In 904, he conquered the Limousin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French commanders.", "content": "In 911 he, with two other French commanders were aligned in opposition to Rollo, a Norwegian invader who had plundered the countryside. Ebles and the other two commanders intended to lead their armies in defense of the city of Chartres. Part of Rollo’s army camped on a hill (Mont-Levis) north of the city, while the rest were stationed on the plains outside Chartres", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "On Saturday, July 20, 911, the battle between the French and Danish armies commenced. \"Rollo and his forces were shamefully routed, smitten, as the legend tells, with corporeal blindness. A panic assuredly fell upon the heroic commander, a species of mental infirmity discernible in his descendants: the contagious terror unnerved the host. Unpursued, they dispersed and fled without resistance.\" At the end of the day, 6,800 Danes lay dead on the field of battle.  Ebles was somewhat slow in arriving at Chartres, so he was unable to \"take his due share in the conflict.\" His victorious partners proudly boasted of their success, and mocked Ebles and his tardy army. To redeem his honor and quiet the ridicule, Ebles accepted a challenge to confront the remnant of the Danish army that remained camped on the Mont-Levis. But instead of driving the Danes away, Ebles’ army was defeated soundly. \"In the dark of the night, the Northmen, sounding their horns and making a terrible clamour, rushed down the mount and stormed\" Ebles camp. Ebles fled and hid in a drum in a fuller’s workshop. His cowardice and dishonor was derided in a popular French ballad of the Plantagenet age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duke of Aquitaine.", "content": "When Ebles’ benefactor, William the Pious, died, William was succeeded as Duke of Aquitaine by William the Younger. In 927, William the Younger died, and he left his title to his brother Acfred; but Acfred did not live even a year. Acfred made Ebles his heir, and in 928 Ebles assumed the titles Duke of Aquitaine, Count of Berry, Count of Auvergne, and Velay  In 929, King Rudolph started trying to reduce the power of Ebles. He withdrew from him access to Berry, then in 932 he transferred the titles of Duke of Aquitaine and Count of Auvergne to the Count of Toulouse, Raymond Pons. Moreover, the territory of La Marche, which was under the control of the lord of Charroux, vassal of Ebles, was transformed into an independent county.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Ebles' first wife was Aremburga, whom he married before 10 Oct 892. His second wife was Emilienne, whom he married in 911. Following Emilienne's death in 913/915, Ebles remarried to an Adele. Some 19th century English historians identified Adele with Ælfgifu, daughter of Edward the Elder, known to have married \"a prince near the Alps\", but there is nothing to support this identification. She has also been called Adela, Alaine, or Aliana.  Ebalus had one child by Emilienne, and another one by Adele :", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ebalus or Ebles Manzer or Manser (c. 870 – 935) was Count of Poitou and Duke of Aquitaine on two occasions: from 890 to 892; and then from 902 until his death in 935 (Poitou) and from 928 until 932 (Aquitaine).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975940}
{"src_title": "Wood veneer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Veneer is obtained either by \"peeling\" the trunk of a tree or by slicing large rectangular blocks of wood known as flitches. The appearance of the grain and figure in wood comes from slicing through the growth rings of a tree and depends upon the angle at which the wood is sliced. There are three main types of veneer-making equipment used commercially:  Each slicing processes gives a very distinctive type of grain, depending upon the tree species. In any of the veneer-slicing methods, when the veneer is sliced, a distortion of the grain occurs. As it hits the wood, the knife blade creates a \"loose\" side where the cells have been opened up by the blade, and a \"tight\" side.  Historically veneers were also sawn, but this is more wasteful of wood. Veneering is an ancient art, dating back to at least the ancient Egyptians who used expensive and rare wood veneers over cheaper timbers to produce their furniture and sarcophagi. During the Roman Empire, Romans also used veneered work in mass quantities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Producing wood veneers.", "content": "The finest and rarest logs are sent to companies that produce veneer. The advantage to this practice is twofold. First, it provides the most financial gain to the owner of the log. Secondly, and of more importance to the woodworker, it greatly expands the amount of usable wood. While a log used for solid lumber is cut into thick pieces, usually no thinner than 1/8 of an inch (3 mm), veneers are cut as thin as 1/40 of an inch (0.6 mm). Depending on the cutting process used by the veneer manufacturer, very little wood is wasted by the saw blade thickness, known as the saw kerf. Accordingly, the yield of a rare grain pattern or wood type is greatly increased, in turn placing less stress on the resource. Some manufacturers even use a very wide knife to \"slice off\" the thin veneer pieces. In this way, none of the wood is wasted. The slices of veneer are always kept in the order in which they are cut from the log and are often sold this way.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of veneers.", "content": "There are a few types of veneers available, each serving a particular purpose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Advantages of using veneers.", "content": "Compared to wood, one of the primary advantages of using veneer is stability. While solid wood can be prone to warping and splitting, because veneer is made of thin layers of wood glued together, the chances of splitting or cracking are reduced.  Some projects built using wood veneer would not be possible to construct using solid lumber, owing to expansion and contraction caused by fluctuation of temperature and humidity. Another advantage of veneer is sustainability—furniture made with wood veneer uses less wood than the same piece of furniture made with solid wood. Further, veneer may also be more readily available than solid wood as exotic hardwood lumber can be scarce and very expensive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buying veneers.", "content": "Wood veneers are typically sold by the square foot. With the ability to join veneers, even small pieces are usable, resulting in very little waste. Many sources sell small packets of veneers that are sequence matched and are ideal for small projects. These make experimenting and practicing much more economical. It is also possible to buy plywood and other substrates with veneered faces for larger projects consisting of casework.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In woodworking, veneer refers to thin slices of wood and sometimes bark, usually thinner than 3 mm (1/8 inch), that typically are glued onto core panels (typically, wood, particle board or medium-density fiberboard) to produce flat panels such as doors, tops and panels for cabinets, parquet floors and parts of furniture. They are also used in marquetry. Plywood consists of three or more layers of veneer. Normally, each is glued with its grain at right angles to adjacent layers for strength. Veneer beading is a thin layer of decorative edging placed around objects, such as jewelry boxes. Veneer is also used to replace decorative papers in Wood Veneer HPL. Veneer is also a type of manufactured board.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975941}
{"src_title": "O Come, All Ye Faithful", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Text.", "content": "The original text of the hymn has been from time to time attributed to various groups and individuals, including St. Bonaventure in the 13th century or King John IV of Portugal in the 17th, though it was more commonly believed that the text was written by Cistercian monks – the German, Portuguese or Spanish provinces of that order having at various times been credited.  In modern English hymnals, the text is usually credited to John Francis Wade, whose name appears on the earliest printed versions. However, this is most likely an error of attribution. Wade, an English Catholic, lived in exile in France and made a living as a copyist of musical manuscripts which he found in libraries. He often signed his copies, possibly because his calligraphy was so beautiful that his clients requested this. In 1751 he published a printed compilation of his manuscript copies, \"Cantus Diversi pro Dominicis et Festis per annum\". This is the first printed source for \"Adeste Fideles\".  The version published by Wade consisted of four Latin verses. Later in the 18th century, the French Catholic priest Jean-François-Étienne Borderies () wrote an additional three verses in Latin. Another anonymous Latin verse is rarely printed.  The text has been translated innumerable times into English. The most common version today is a combination of one of Frederick Oakeley's translations of the original four verses, and William Thomas Brooke's translation of the three additional verses. It was first published in \"Murray's Hymnal\" in 1852. Oakeley originally titled the song \"Ye Faithful, approach ye\" when it was sung at his Margaret Chapel in Marylebone (London), before it was altered to its current form.  The song was sometimes referred to as the \"Portuguese Hymn\" after the Duke of Leeds, in 1795, heard a version of it sung at the Portuguese embassy in London. The most commonly named Portuguese author is King John IV of Portugal, \"The Musician King\" (reigned 1640–1656). John was a patron of music and the arts, and a considerably sophisticated writer on music; and he was also a composer. During his reign he collected one of the largest musical libraries in the world, which was destroyed in the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. He also founded a Music School in Vila Viçosa that \"exported\" musicians to Spain and Italy.  It was at John's Vila Viçosa palace that two manuscripts of the \"Portuguese Hymn\" have been found and dated to 1640. These manuscripts predate Wade's eighteenth-century versions, whether printed or manuscript. (However, McKim and Randell nonetheless argue for Wade's authorship of the version people are now familiar with.)  Among King John's writings is a \"Defense of Modern Music\" (Lisbon, 1649). In the same year (1649) he had a huge struggle to get instrumental music approved by the Vatican for use in the Catholic Church. Another famous composition of his is a setting of the Crux fidelis, a work that remains highly popular during Lent among church choirs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tune.", "content": "Besides John Francis Wade, the tune has been attributed to several musicians, from John Reading and his son, to Handel, and even the German composer Gluck. The Portuguese composer Marcos Portugal or King John IV of Portugal have also been credited. Thomas Arne, whom Wade knew, is another possible composer. There are several similar musical themes written around that time, though it can be hard to determine whether these were written in imitation of the hymn, whether the hymn was based on them, or whether they are totally unconnected.  <score vorbis=\"1\"> \\new Staff { \\clef treble \\time 4/4 \\partial 4 \\key g \\major \\set Staff.midiInstrument = \"church organ\" \\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \\override Staff.Rest.style = #'classical \\override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t \\new Staff { \\clef bass \\key g \\major \\set Staff.midiInstrument = \"church organ\" \\override Staff.Rest.style = #'classical » » </score>", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Published versions.", "content": "The hymn was first published by John Francis Wade in his collection \"Cantus Diversi\" (1751), with four Latin verses, and music set in the traditional square notation used for medieval liturgical music. It was published again in the 1760 edition of \"Evening Offices of the Church\". It also appeared in Samuel Webbe's \"An Essay on the Church Plain Chant\" (1782). The hymn tune also made its way to the Sacred Harp tradition, appearing as \"Hither Ye Faithful, Haste with Songs of Triumph\" in an 1860 collection. \"Herbei, o ihr Gläub’gen\", a German version was published in 1823 by Friedrich Heinrich Ranke; it is a translation of the Latin text by J. F. Wade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lyrics.", "content": "These are the original four Latin verses as published by Wade, along with their English translation by Frederick Oakeley.  These are the additional Latin verses composed in the 18th century, with English prose translations, not from Oakeley:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jacobite connection.", "content": "The words of the hymn have been interpreted as a Jacobite birth ode to Bonnie Prince Charlie. Professor Bennett Zon, head of music at Durham University, has interpreted it this way, claiming that the secret political code was decipherable by the \"faithful\" (the Jacobites), with \"Bethlehem\" a common Jacobite cipher for England and \"Regem Angelorum\" a pun on \"Angelorum\" (Angels) and \"Anglorum\" (English). Wade had fled to France after the Jacobite rising of 1745 was crushed. From the 1740s to 1770s the earliest forms of the carol commonly appeared in English Roman Catholic liturgical books close to prayers for the exiled Old Pretender. In the books by Wade it was often decorated with Jacobite floral imagery, as were other liturgical texts with coded Jacobite meanings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Performance.", "content": "In performance, verses are often omitted – either because the hymn is too long in its entirety or because the words are unsuitable for the day on which they are sung. For example, the eighth anonymous verse is only sung on Epiphany, if at all; while the last verse of the original is normally reserved for Christmas Midnight Mass, Mass at Dawn or Mass during the Day.  In the United Kingdom and United States it is often sung today in an arrangement by Sir David Willcocks, which was originally published in 1961 by Oxford University Press in the first book in the Carols for Choirs series. This arrangement makes use of the basic harmonisation from \"The English Hymnal\" but adds a soprano descant in verse six (verse three in the original) with its reharmonised organ accompaniment, and a last verse harmonisation in verse seven (verse four in the original), which is sung in unison.  This carol has served as the penultimate hymn sung at the Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols by the Choir of King's College, Cambridge, after the last lesson from Chapter 1 of the Gospel of John.  Adeste Fideles is traditionally the final anthem during Midnight Mass at St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"O Come, All Ye Faithful\" (originally written in Latin as ) is a Christmas carol that has been attributed to various authors, including John Francis Wade (1711–1786), John Reading (1645–1692), King John IV of Portugal (1604–1656), and anonymous Cistercian monks. The earliest printed version is in a book published by Wade, but the earliest manuscript bears the name of King John IV, and is located in the library of the Ducal Palace of Vila Viçosa. A manuscript by Wade, dating to 1751, is held by Stonyhurst College in Lancashire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975942}
{"src_title": "Agosta-class submarine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ships.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French Navy.", "content": "built by Arsenal de Cherbourg  Now the submarine was present at Submarine Museum at Klebang, Malacca since 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spanish Navy.", "content": "built by Cartagena dockyard", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pakistan Navy.", "content": "On 10 September 1974, South Africa announced to expand its submarine arm by entering in defence talks with France to acquire the \"Agosta-70\"-class submarines. South African Prime Minister P. W. Botha engaged in discussion with acquiring two \"Agosta-70\"-class submarines with French President Valéry d'Estaing, and had Capt. L. J. Woodburne as the project-manager of acquisition of \"Agosta-70\" program in South African Navy. Dubigeon-Normandie, the French contractor, built two Agosta-70 class submarine. However, France denied to order of delivery to South African Navy following the implementation of Resolution 418 (an arms embargo) by the United Nations.  In 1983–1985, the class of submarines were deployed in Arabian Sea during and prevented the Indian actions in seaborne theatre. As part of the Cold War operation, they were deployed in the Arabian Sea and later embarked on being deployed on long-range mission to test depth and submerged endurance in Indian Ocean.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "The Agosta-90B-class submarines is an improved version with modern systems, better battery with longer endurance, deeper diving capability, lower acoustic cavitation and better automatic control (reducing crew from 54 to 36). It can be equipped with the MESMA air-independent propulsion (AIP) system. It is capable of carrying a combined load up to 16 torpedoes, SM39 Exocet, and seaborne nuclear cruise missiles.  The submarines were built through the technology transfer by France to Pakistan that resulted in complicated and lengthy negotiations between the Benazir Bhutto government and the in 1992, and signed with the Chirac administration in 1992. The \"Agosta–90B\"s were chosen over the British \"Upholder\"/\"Victoria\" class and the project was initially aimed at $520 million but the programme of technology transfer costed $950 million, for which France first provided loans that were paid in five to six years. In 2000, France gave Pakistan the licence to offer commercial production of the submarines to potential customers.  The SM39 was test-fired from a \"Khalid\"-class submarine in 2001.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Agosta\"-class submarine is a class of diesel-electric fast-attack submarine developed and constructed by the French DCNS in 1970s to succeed the submarines. The submarines have served in the French Navy as well as exported to the navies of Spain and Pakistan. It also used by Royal Malaysian Navy for the training purpose. They were replaced in French service by the nuclear attack submarines but are still in active service with the navies of Spain and Pakistan. The French Navy grouped this model of submarine in their most capable class as an \"océanique\", meaning \"ocean-going.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975943}
{"src_title": "Clary und Aldringen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The \"Clario de Riva\" family were lords of Riva del Garda. One brother moved to the neighboring County of Tyrol around 1500, in the service of Emperor Maximilian I, the other brother sided with the emperor's enemy, the Republic of Venice, and remained in the Friuli province where his descendants later extinguished.  Franz von Clary moved from Tyrol to the Kingdom of Bohemia and acquired the Dobříčany estates at Liběšice in 1622/23, a property confiscated from protestants that were banned from Bohemia. Some Tyrolian possessions also remained in the family. His son Hieronymus von Clary married Countess Anna Maria von Aldringen, sister and heiress of the Thirty Years War's Austrian general count Johann von Aldringen, in 1622. Their descendants were allowed by imperial decree to adopt the name and arms of both families. Ever since, the family has been known as \"Clary und Aldringen\" (or \"Clary-Aldringen\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The princes of Clary und Aldringen have been one of the most prominent families of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Bohemia. The rise of the family started when Franz von Clary left his ancestral lands in Tyrol to settle in the Kingdom of Bohemia. In 1623, Clary bought properties in the Ústí nad Labem region. However, it was the inheritance of Johann von Aldringen's estates through Franz's son's wife, Anna Maria von Aldringen, that made the Clary-Aldringens one of the most influential and wealthy Bohemian noble families. The Aldringens were a catholic noble family from the Spanish Netherlands. In 1634, Johann von Aldringen had received from Emperor Ferdinand II the ownership of lands in and around the wealthy city of Teplitz (Teplice), shortly before confiscated from the protestant count Vilém Kinský who had been assassinated together with Wallenstein, with Aldringen being one of the plotters of this murder. However, Aldringen died in a battle the same year, without issue. After some inheritance quarrels among his siblings, Emperor Ferdinand II recognized his sister Anna Maria as heiress of the Teplice estates. Since then, the Clary-Aldringens were the most powerful nobles of the Sudetes, the German speaking northern parts of Bohemia. Consequently, the rise of the family sped up and, in 1666, the Clary-Aldringens were raised to the rank of Count of the Holy Roman Empire by Emperor Joseph I.  In 1767, \"Reichsgraf\" Wenzel von Clary und Aldringen, the Imperial Treasurer (and Emperor Joseph II's private council member), was raised to princely rank. Members of the family became hereditary members of the Austrian \"Reichsrat\" (Imperial Council). From that date, the princely title of \"Fürst\" (Prince) von Clary und Aldringen was borne by the head of the family, who was styled as \"Durchlaucht\" (Serene Highness). Junior members bore the title of \"Graf\" (Count) or \"Gräfin\" (Countess) von Clary und Aldringen and were styled as \"Erlaucht\" (Illustrious Highness).  During the Napoleonic Wars, the family's Teplitz castle was the headquarters of the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon, uniting the monarchs of Austria, Prussia and Russia. There was first signed the triple alliance against Napoleon I that led to the coalition victory at the nearby Battle of Kulm and eventually instated the Holy Alliance, officially signed in Paris on September 26, 1815.  In 1832, two sisters of Prince Edmund (1813–1894) married into the Radziwiłł family, Leontine married prince Bogusław Fryderyk Radziwiłł, a son of Louise of Prussia, and Mathilde (1806–1896) married his nephew Prince Wilhelm Radziwiłł. During the 19th century, the family hosted royalty several times at their Teplitz castle: in 1835, they received King Frederick William III of Prussia, Emperor Nicholas I of Russia and Emperor Franz I of Austria, hosting a ceremony in memory of the treaty of the Sixth Coalition; in 1849, they received Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria and Kings Frederick William IV of Prussia and Frederick-August II of Saxony; in 1860, they received Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria and the Prince-Regent William of Prussia.  During the late 19th century, the princely family maintained great influence within the Austrian nobility. It thus played an important role in politics and diplomacy, as illustrated by the two younger brothers of Prince Carlos (1844–1920), Austro-Hungarian diplomat Prince Siegfried (1848–1929) and his brother, the Minister-President of Austria Count Manfred (1852–1928).  Siegfried's son Alfons (1887–1978) became the seventh prince, and took over the management of the family estate in 1920, after the Kingdom of Bohemia had become part of the First Czechoslovak Republic. He lost several thousand hectares in a land-reform, but redeveloped the family enterprises, including a brewery, spa resorts, restaurants, a coal mine, two sawmills, brickworks, lime works and a woodworking factory. However he lost his Bohemian ancestral estates through communist confiscation in 1945. Following the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia, the family has since lived in Frankfurt, Germany, and in Venice, Italy. Since March 2007, the head of the family is Hieronymus, 9th Prince of Clary und Aldringen (born 1944).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Residences.", "content": "The Clary-Aldringens were great landowners, therefore they possessed enormous estates in Bohemia, Tyrol and Lower Austria.  The most important of all of their estates was that of Tepliz, which comprised the eponymous city as well as more than 70 towns and villages. It was one of the largest noble estates of the Sudetes and one of the largest private properties of Bohemia before its confiscation according to the Beneš decrees.  In consequence, the Clary-Aldringens had many residences, the grandest being:  Dubí's St-Mary's Church was built on the order of the Clary-Aldringens between 1898 and 1906 as a copy of the Venice church Santa Maria dell'Orto, to become their new family church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages.", "content": "The Clary und Aldringen family is related by marriage to many other prominent families, including the following: Radziwill, Glam Gallas, Mensdorff-Pouilly, Ficquelmont, Pejácsevich, de Baillet-Latour, Kinský, Eltz, Donnersmarck, and Hohenzollern[-Hechingen].", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clary und Aldringen, also known as Clary-Aldringen, is one of the most prominent Austro-Hungarian princely families. Originally from Friuli, Northern Italy, one branch of the family moved to the County of Tyrol around 1500 and to the Kingdom of Bohemia around 1600, where it became one of the leading families of the Bohemian nobility. It produced several notable Austro-Hungarian statesmen, military officers and diplomats.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975944}
{"src_title": "Ceanothus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and etymology.", "content": "There are two subgenera within this genus: \"Ceanothus\" and \"Cerastes\". The former clade is less drought-resistant, having bigger leaves. The evolution of these two clades likely started with a divergence in the niches filled in local communities, rather than a divergence on the basis of geography.  The Californian species of \"Ceanothus\" are commonly known collectively as California lilacs, with individual species having more descriptive common names. Species native elsewhere have other common names such as New Jersey tea for \"C. americanus\", as its leaves were used as a black tea substitute during the American Revolution. In garden use, most are simply called by their scientific names or an adaptation of the scientific name, such as 'Maritime ceanothus' for \"C. maritimus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Growth pattern.", "content": "The majority of the species are evergreen, but the handful of species adapted to cold winters are deciduous. The leaves are opposite or alternate (depending on species), small (typically 1–5 cm long), simple, and mostly with serrated margins.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leaves and stems.", "content": "Ceanothus leaves may be arranged opposite to each other on the stem, or alternate. Alternate leaves may have either one or three main veins rising from the base of the leaf.  The leaves have a shiny upper surface that feels \"gummy\" when pinched between the thumb and forefinger, and the roots of most species have red inner root bark.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers and fruit.", "content": "The flowers are white, greenish–white, blue, dark purple-blue, pale purple or pink, maturing into a dry, three-lobed seed capsule.  The flowers are tiny and produced in large, dense clusters. A few species are reported to be intensely fragrant almost to the point of being nauseating, and are said to resemble the odor of \"boiling honey in an enclosed area\". The seeds of this plant can lie dormant for hundreds of years, and \"Ceanothus\" species are typically dependent on forest fires to trigger germination of their seeds.  Fruits are hard, nutlike capsules.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Plants in this genus are widely distributed and can be found on dry, sunny hillsides from coastal scrub lands to open forest clearings, from near sea level to in elevation. These plants are profusely distributed throughout the Rocky Mountains from British Columbia south through Colorado, the Cascades of Oregon and California, and the Coastal Ranges of California.  \"Ceanothus velutinus\" is the most common member of this genus and is widespread through much of western North America. The plants in this genus often co-occur with one another, especially when they are more distantly related.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": ", accepted species are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wildlife.", "content": "Ceanothus is a good source of nutrition for deer, specifically mule deer along the West Coast of the United States. However, the leaves are not as nutritious from late spring to early fall as they are in early spring. Porcupines and quail have also been seen eating stems and seeds of these shrubs. The leaves are a good source of protein and the stems and leaves have been found to contain a high amount of calcium.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Many \"Ceanothus\" species are popular ornamental plants for gardens. Dozens of hybrids and cultivars have been selected, such as flexible ceanothus, \"Ceanothus × flexilis\" (\"C. cuneatus\" × \"C. prostratus\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AGM cultivars.", "content": "The following cultivars and hybrids have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit ():  Other cultivars available include:- There are also more cultivars and hybrids of \"Ceanothus arboreus\", \"Ceanothus griseus horizontalis\" (groundcovers), and \"Ceanothus thyrsiflorus\" in the nursery trade.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Propagation.", "content": "Propagation of ceanothus is by seed, following scarification and stratification. Seeds are soaked in water for 12 hours followed by chilling at 1 °C for one to three months. It can also sprout from roots and/or stems. Seeds are stored in plant litter in large quantities. It is estimated that there are about two million seeds per acre in forest habitats. Seeds are dispersed propulsively from capsules and, it has been estimated, can remain viable for hundreds of years. In habitat, the seeds of plants in this genus germinate only in response to range fires and forest fires.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Native Americans used the dried leaves of this plant as an herbal tea, and early pioneers used the plant as a substitute for black tea. Miwok Indians of California made baskets from Ceanothus branches. \"Ceanothus integerrimus\" has been used by North American tribes to ease childbirth.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ceanothus is a genus of about 50–60 species of nitrogen-fixing shrubs and small trees in the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae). Common names for members of this genus are buckbrush, California lilac, soap bush, or just ceanothus. \"\"Ceonothus\"\" comes from a Greek word meaning \"spiny plant\", (\"keanōthos\"), which was applied by Theophrastus (371–287 BC) to an Old World plant believed to be \"Cirsium arvense\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975945}
{"src_title": "RATP Bus Network", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Network.", "content": "RATP operates:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Routes.", "content": "RATP buslines operating mainly in the city proper of Paris, are named with a two-digit code number. Bus lines operated mainly in the suburbs are named with a three-digit number code.  RATP uses the numbers 20 to 96 for lines operated mainly in the city proper (1 to 19 are unused to avoid confusion with Metro lines). Moreover, the (line 100) runs along the \"Boulevard des Maréchaux\" section that is not yet covered by Tramway line 3. All this according to an organized scheme used since public transportation reorganization post-WWII.  The first number represents the sector in Paris where the line's starting point is located:  The second number represents the outermost arrondissement the line finishes (or crosses Paris' borders) in:  0 and 1 are used as \"wildcards\" for lines whose rightful number is already taken, or for lines ending inside of Paris (40 or 91 for example).  A deep reorganization of the Paris bus network took place on April 20, 2019. Although it didn't change the overall scheme mentioned above, it brought several irregularities, such as lines 21 & 24 no longer starting from Saint Lazare train station, line 40 that doesn't even approach the Gare du Nord, or lines 71 & 77 that do not start from the center of Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bus services.", "content": "RATP operates 68 bus lines within the city of Paris proper, and a little over 200 bus lines in Paris suburbs.  In 2017, 1.15 billion journeys were made on RATP bus lines, including 382 million journeys on Paris lines and 768 million journeys on suburbs lines.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The RATP Bus Network covers the entire territory of the city of Paris and the vast majority of its near suburbs. Operated by the RATP, this constitutes a dense bus network complementary to other public transport networks, all organized and financed by Île-de-France Mobilités.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975946}
{"src_title": "Patrick Henry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Bullock County was established on December 5, 1866. The boundaries were changed in February 1867.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.4%) is water. The county is in the southeastern section of the state, in the prairie region. The Chunnennuggee Ridge runs through the center of the county.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 10,914 people living in the county. 70.2% were Black or African American, 23.0% White, 0.4% Pacific Islander, 0.2% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 5.2% of some other race and 0.8% of two or more races. 7.1% were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).  As of the census of 2000, there were 11,714 people, 3,986 households, and 2,730 families living in the county. The population density was 19 people per square mile (7/km). There were 4,727 housing units at an average density of 8 per square mile (3/km). The racial makeup of the county was 73.11% Black or African American, 25.25% White, 0.38% Native American, 0.18% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.37% from other races, and 0.70% from two or more races. 2.75% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 3,986 households out of which 33.50% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.50% were married couples living together, 28.20% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.50% were non-families. 28.90% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.13.  In the county, the population was spread out with 26.10% under the age of 18, 10.30% from 18 to 24, 29.30% from 25 to 44, 21.20% from 45 to 64, and 13.20% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 110.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 113.40 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $20,605, and the median income for a family was $23,990. Males had a median income of $22,560 versus $19,069 for females. The per capita income for the county was $10,163. About 29.80% of families and 33.50% of the population were below the poverty line, including 44.70% of those under age 18 and 29.10% of those age 65 or over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government and infrastructure.", "content": "Bullock County is powerfully Democratic. The only Republican to carry the county since 1900 has been Barry Goldwater in 1964 – when essentially none of the county's black majority had voted for over seven decades and opposition by the voting white minority to Civil Rights meant that national Democrat Lyndon Johnson was not allowed on the ballot. Even after the Voting Rights Act of 1965, black registration was so slow that segregationist Governor George Wallace carried the county by five percentage points in 1968, but since then the Democratic presidential candidate has carried Bullock in every election. It was one of only six Wallace counties to vote for George McGovern against Richard Nixon’s 3,000-plus-county landslide of 1972.  Alabama Department of Corrections operates the Bullock Correctional Facility in an unincorporated area in the county.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Airport.", "content": "Franklin Field is a county-owned public-use airport located five nautical miles (9 km) west of the central business district of Union Springs, Alabama.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Places of interest.", "content": "Bullock County is home to several historic homes including the McCaslan-Garner House and Bonus-Foster-Chapman House.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Patrick Henry (May 29, 1736June 6, 1799) was an American attorney, planter, politician, and orator best known for his declaration to the Second Virginia Convention (1775): \"Give me liberty, or give me death!\" A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia, from 1776 to 1779 and from 1784 to 1786.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975947}
{"src_title": "Employment agency", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Public employment agencies.", "content": "One of the oldest references to a public employment agency was in 1650, when Henry Robinson proposed an \"Office of Addresses and Encounters\" that would link employers to workers. The British Parliament rejected the proposal, but he himself opened such a business, which was short-lived.  The idea to create public employment agencies as a way to fight unemployment was eventually adopted in every developed country by the beginning of the twentieth century.  In the United Kingdom, the first labour exchange was established by social reformer and employment campaigner Alsager Hay Hill in London in 1871. This was later augmented by officially sanctioned exchanges created by the Labour Bureau (London) Act 1902, which subsequently went nationwide, a movement prompted by the Liberal government through the Labour Exchanges Act 1909. The present public provider of job search help is called Jobcentre Plus.  In the United States, a federal programme of employment services was rolled out in the New Deal. The initial legislation was called the Wagner-Peyser Act of 1933 and more recently job services happen through one-stop centers established by the Workforce Investment Act of 1998.  In Australia, the first public employment service was set up in 1946, called the Commonwealth Employment Service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private employment agency.", "content": "The first known private employment agency, Gabbitas & Thring, was founded in 1873 by John Gabbitas who recruited schoolmasters for public schools in England. In the United States, the first private employment agency was opened by Fred Winslow who started an Engineering Agency in 1893. It later became part of General Employment Enterprises who also owned Businessmen's Clearing House (est. 1902). Another of the oldest agencies was developed by Katharine Felton as a response to the problems brought on by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire.  Many temporary agencies specialize in a particular profession or field of business, such as accounting, health care, technical, or secretarial.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status from the International Labour Organization.", "content": "The International Labour Organization's first ever Recommendation was targeted at fee charging agencies. The Unemployment Recommendation, 1919 (No.1), Art. 1 called for each member to, \"take measures to prohibit the establishment of employment agencies which charge fees or which carry on their business for profit. Where such agencies already exist, it is further recommended that they be permitted to operate only under government licenses, and that all practicable measures be taken to abolish such agencies as soon as possible.\"  The Unemployment Convention, 1919, Art. 2 instead required the alternative of, \"a system of free public employment agencies under the control of a central authority. Committees, which shall include representatives of employers and workers, shall be appointed to advise on matters concerning the carrying on of these agencies.\"  In 1933 the Fee-Charging Employment Agencies Convention (No.34) formally called for abolition. The exception was if the agencies were licensed and a fee scale was agreed in advance. In 1949 a new revised Convention (No.96) was produced. This kept the same scheme, but secured an ‘opt out’ (Art.2) for members that did not wish to sign up. Agencies were an increasingly entrenched part of the labor market. The United States did not sign up to the Conventions. The latest Convention, the Private Employment Agencies Convention, 1997 (No.181) takes a much softer stance and calls merely for regulation.  In most countries, agencies are regulated, for instance in the UK under the Employment Agencies Act 1973, or in Germany under the (Employee Hiring Law of 1972).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Executive recruitment.", "content": "An executive-search firm specializes in recruiting executive personnel for companies in various industries. This term may apply to job-search-consulting firms who charge job candidates a fee and who specialize in mid-to-upper-level executives. In the United States, some states require job-search-consulting firms to be licensed as employment agencies.  Some third-party recruiters work on their own, while others operate through an agency, acting as direct contacts between client companies and the job candidates they recruit. They can specialize in client relationships only (sales or business development), in finding candidates (recruiting or sourcing), or in both areas. Most recruiters tend to specialize in either permanent, full-time, direct-hire positions or in contract positions, but occasionally in more than one. In an executive-search assignment, the employee-gaining client company – not the person being hired – pays the search firm its fee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Executive agent.", "content": "An executive agent is a type of agency that represents executives seeking senior executive positions which are often unadvertised. In the United Kingdom, almost all positions up to £ ($) a year are advertised and 50% of vacancies paying £ – £ are advertised. However, only 5% of positions which pay more than £ (with the exception of the public sector) are advertised and are often in the domain of around 4,000 executive recruiters in the United Kingdom. Often such roles are unadvertised to maintain stakeholder confidence and to overcome internal uncertainties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Staffing types.", "content": "Contract, Contract-to-hire, Temporary, Part-time, Full-time, GAP Staffing (Graphic Arts Professional)", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "An employment agency is an organization which matches employers to employees. In all developed countries, there is a publicly funded employment agency and multiple private businesses which act as employment agencies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975948}
{"src_title": "Jacques Lemaire", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Lemaire is one of only six NHL players to have scored two Stanley Cup winning goals, achieving the feat in both 1977 and 1979 (The five other players are Mike Bossy in 1982 and 1983, Bobby Orr in 1970 and 1972, Henri Richard in 1966 and 1971, Jean Béliveau in 1960 and 1965 and Toe Blake in 1944 and 1946). One of the two Cup-winners scored by Lemaire came at the 4:32 mark of the first overtime of Game Four in the 1977 Stanley Cup Finals. A model of consistency, Lemaire scored at least 20 goals in each of his 12 seasons. He retired from the NHL after the 1978–79 season to become a playing coach in Switzerland. In 853 career NHL games, he recorded 366 goals and 469 assists for a total of 835 points. Lemaire learned to execute his slapshot when he was young using a heavy steel puck, making his shot second only to that of Bobby Hull for speed and accuracy. In his bestselling book \"The Game\" former Montreal goalie Ken Dryden described a magical relationship on ice that was developing between Lemaire and Guy Lafleur, who complemented each other's speed and shotsmanship.  Lemaire's NHL playing career ended following the 1978–79 season when he surprisingly rejected the Canadiens' contract extension offer of $225,000 for each of five years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "Instead, Lemaire signed a three-year contract as player, coach and general manager of HC Sierre on June 15, 1979. He was paid $75,000 tax-free annually and had absolute control over his contract. \"I always wanted to do something reckless, have an adventure, see how other people live, discover something new. Well, that time is now. I've always been interested in coaching, and when this opportunity presented itself, it seemed like the perfect thing,\" he explained.  He made his American coaching debut in 1981, serving as an assistant coach at SUNY Plattsburgh to future NHL scout Herb Hammond at the NCAA Division III level. Lemaire was head coach of the Canadiens from 1983–1985 and the New Jersey Devils from 1993 to 1998, winning the Stanley Cup in 1995 for the 11th time, and the Jack Adams Award in 1994 and 2003. Lemaire was head coach of the Minnesota Wild from June 19, 2000 until April 11, 2009, the first head coach of the organization. He also won two more Stanley Cups as assistant general manager with Montreal in 1986 and 1993.  Lemaire is known for his unorthodox coaching style for several reasons: first, he prefers a defensive-minded system, often using a strategy called the \"neutral zone trap\". Second, Lemaire rarely uses permanent lines preferring to use mixed line combinations during games. Third, Lemaire never employed a permanent team captain during his tenure with the Wild, opting to rotate it on a monthly basis amongst the players. Lemaire is also regarded as one of the best teaching coaches – developing young players while working well with veterans. However his emphasis on \"defense first\" has often been controversial, both inside and outside the dressing room. This perhaps, has led to some conflict with star players like Marian Gaborik (formerly with the Wild) and media criticism. An example was provided by Terry Frei of ESPN.com in an article posted on August 4, 2008:  He [Lemaire] helped drag down the entertainment quotient in this league, and despite all the talk about the Wild being a skating team that uses speed and pounces on turnovers, not all the elements of the trap have disappeared from Minnesota's game. You'd think the State of Hockey is going to tire of that at some point, especially if the Wild slide this season and it drives Marian Gaborik away next summer.  On one occasion, Lemaire's team was among the top two scoring teams in the NHL. In 1993–1994, the New Jersey Devils team scored the second most goals in the league (306).  In June 2009, Lemaire was named assistant coach of Team Canada for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia. He joined Lindy Ruff and Ken Hitchcock as assistants to head coach Mike Babcock and helped Team Canada to the gold medal.  On July 13, 2009, exactly two years after Brent Sutter had been introduced as coach of the Devils, Lemaire returned to the head coaching position for the Devils.  On October 8, 2009, Lemaire got his 200th win with the New Jersey Devils and first of the 2009–10 NHL season.  Lemaire announced his retirement as a head coach in the NHL on April 26, 2010. However, on December 23, 2010, after Devils head coach John MacLean was fired after 33 games, Lemaire came out of retirement to coach once again for the Devils and led a charge that took the team from the bottom of league standings into contention for a playoff position before fading in the final few weeks.  On February 10, 2011, Lemaire achieved his 600th regular season win after Ilya Kovalchuk scored in overtime to win the game for New Jersey against Toronto 2 – 1. Lemaire became only the eighth coach in NHL history to achieve this feat.  On April 10, 2011 Lemaire announced his permanent retirement from the Devils.  On August 14, 2015, the Toronto Maple Leafs announced they had hired Lemaire as a special assignment coach.  On September 14, 2018, Lemaire would follow Lou Lamoriello to the New York Islanders, assuming the role of Special Assignment Coach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trivia.", "content": "Lemaire is the uncle of former Stars, Wild, and Bruins goaltender Manny Fernandez.  There is a hockey arena in LaSalle, Quebec named after Lemaire.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jacques Gerard Lemaire (born September 7, 1945) is a retired Canadian ice hockey forward and head coach who was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1984. He spent his entire twelve-year National Hockey League (NHL) playing career with the Montreal Canadiens (1967–1979) and was a part of eight Stanley Cup Championship teams in 1968, 1969, 1971, 1973, 1976, 1977, 1978 and 1979. In 2017 Lemaire was named one of the '100 Greatest NHL Players' in history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975949}
{"src_title": "Battle of Saalfeld", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French Movements.", "content": "Napoleon had arranged the Grand Armée into three columns to cross the Thuringian Forest to attack the Prussian-Saxon army. The westernmost column was headed by V Corps commanded by Jean Lannes, with Pierre Augereau’s VII Corps following behind. They had orders to march from Coburg via Gräfenthal due at Saalfeld on the 11 October. V Corps set out on 8 October, and by the end of 9 October was at Gräfenthal with light cavalry on the road to Saalfeld. At 5am on 10 October, Lannes with Louis-Gabriel Suchet’s division and Anne-François-Charles Trelliard brigade of light cavalry of V corps began advancing down the road to Saalfeld, aware that a Prussian-Saxon force was in front of them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prussian-Saxon movements.", "content": "Prince Louis Ferdinand commanded the Advanced Guard of Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen’s army and on the 9 October the Prince his headquarters at Rudolstadt, with detachments at Saalfeld,, and Bad Blankenburg. The Prince had received a message from Hohenlohe that the Prussian-Saxon army would be advancing across the River Saale to support Bogislav Friedrich Emanuel von Tauentzien's force after the Battle of Schleiz, and that Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel’s main army would be advancing to Rudolstadt. In the evening of the 9 October Oberst Leopold Ludwig Maximilian Nordeck zu Rabenau (who commanded a detachment at Saalfeld) reported to Prince Louis that a French column of between 16,000 to 20,000 men had left Coburg heading for Saalfeld and that a post of 30 hussars stationed at Gräfenthal and the Jäger Company \"\"Valentini\"\" stationed at had both retreated to Arnsgereuth after clashing with the French. Knowing that the main body of the army under Hohenlohe was due to advance across the River Saale on the 10 October, Prince Louis therefore decided that his forces needed to stop the French column from either crossing the Saale at Saalfeld and interfering with Hohenlohe’s movements or from moving up the western side of the Saale to Rudolstadt, which they would reach before Brunswick’s army. During the 9 October a fusilier company commanded by August von Gneisenau was sent to Arnsgereuth to support the troops there, and having confirmed that the French were advancing on Saalfeld and in strength, the Prussian troops withdrew from Arnsgereuth to, just outside Saalfeld, with advance posts in.  At 7am Prince Louis began concentrating his troops at Saalfeld, and by 9am he had arranged his forces for battle. The troops were arranged in a line stretching from in front of Saalfeld to behind and facing the woods the covered the hills above Saalfeld and the Saale valley. The Prince left Generalmajor Karl Gerhard von Pelet's detachment at Blankenburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "At around 9.45AM, the advanced guard of V Corps, consisting of the corps' \"Bataillon d’\"é\"lite\" (formed of the elite companies of battalions left at depots), the 17th Légère Regiment, and two cannons, made its way towards Saalfeld and occupied the heights overlooking the town. The French light cavalry brigade and the advanced guard began to engage the Prussian-Saxon army. The \"Bataillon d’\"é\"lite\" supported by French skirmishers pushed out the Prussian troops from Garnsdorf and occupied it. As the French troops advanced and the Prussian-Saxon army prepared to fight them, Marshal Lannes noticed that the right flank of the Prussian-Saxon army was completely uncovered, and while the cavalry and French advanced guard engaged the Prussians around Garnsdorf and Saalfeld, he ordered rest of Suchet's division to march northwards through the woods to outflank the Prussian and Saxon line. To cover these moves, the 17th Légère Regiment formed a skirmish line that extended from Saalfeld to Beulwitz.  Prince Louis was aware that he was engaged with a larger force, and then at 11AM, Saxon Souslieutnant Heinrich August von Egidy brought a verbal order from Prince Hohenlohe to remain at Rudolstadt and that the offensive across the Saale had been abandoned. Prince Louis decided to try and disengage with the French and retreat to Rudolstadt. He ordered second battalion of the \"\"Müffling\"\" Regiment to Schwarza to hold the bridges, and sent troops under the Saxon Generalmajor to extend the right of his line to the hills either side of (known as the Oberhayn and Sandberg). He also ordered the \"\"Prince Xaver\"\" and \"\"Kurfürst\"\" regiments to take the offensive by attacking the plain between Siechentbal and the Kesselthal streams. The skirmishers of the 17th Légère Regiment supported with the 34th Ligne Regiment (which had moved out of the woods into Beulwitz) repelled the Saxon regiments, who then fell back in disorder. Prince Louis rallied these troops, and fearing that he would lose communication with General Bevilaqua and his troops, he ordered another attack, and by midday the \"\"Kurfürst\"\" regiment had captured Crösten. Thinking that his centre was secure, Prince Louis gave further orders for a withdrawal. The French had entered Saalfeld and were pushing the Prussian troops back to, where Prince Louis headed to rally these troops. At just before 1PM, Marshal Lannes gave the signal for the offensive. The 34th, 40th, and 64th Ligne headed towards the Saxon troops around Aue am Berg, whilst the French cavalry, with the 88th Ligne behind them, moved forward between Crösten and Saalfeld. Prince Louis decided this was a moment to engage the French cavalry with the Prussian and Saxon cavalry, attacking an exposed flank of the 21st Chasseurs à Cheval. However, the second line of French cavalry then enveloped the Prince's outnumbered cavalry line. Order in the Prussian and Saxon cavalry began to break down, and they fled joining the troops retreating from Saalfeld. In the confused mass around Wöhlsdorf, many were cut down by the French hussars and some drowned trying to escape across the Saale. Prince Louis tried to cut his way out towards Schwarza, during which he was attacked by Quartermaster Guindet of the 10th Hussars. Although wounded, Prince Louis refused to surrender and was killed.  Meanwhile, on the Prussian-Saxon right, General Bevilaqua tried to reinforce the Sandberg with the \"\"Prinz Clemens\"\" regiment, but then seeing the rout at Wöhlsdorf, Bevilaqua ordered a retreat to Scwharza. As the first battalion of the \"\"Prince Clemens\"\" Regiment moved down the slope it was attacked repeatedly by the 21st Chasseurs à Cheval, and the Saxons broke under the onslaught. the 21st Chasseurs à Cheval then assaulted and successively broke the second battalion \"\"Prinz Clemens\"\" Regiment and first battalion \"\"Müffling\"\" Regiment. As these troops dispersed, General Bevilaqua was captured.  There was a final conflict at Schwarza and Pelet's force engaged the French around Unter-Wirbach. Pelet's force was largely intact but had to retreat to Stadt-Ilm, which it reached at 10PM. The French cavalry pursued the remains of the Prussian and Saxon units to Rudolstadt, but the French infantry halted at Schwarza. Some of the Prussian and Saxon troops that had escaped onto the east side of the Saale withdrew towards Rudolstadt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Prince Louis’ force had been completely dispersed as a fighting force. Only Pelet's detachment was intact, and they were forced to take a long route to rejoin Hohenlohe.  Despite this battle and the battle of Schliez, Napoleon was still not fully aware of location of the Prussian army. After four days of further marches, the French engaged the Prussians and Saxons at the twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt on the plateau west of the river Saale.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Saalfeld took place on the 10 October 1806, at which a French force of 12,800 men commanded by Marshal Jean Lannes defeated a Prussian-Saxon force of 8,300 men under Prince Louis Ferdinand. The battle took place in Thuringia in what was the Ernestine duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. The battle was the second clash in the Prussian Campaign of the War of the Fourth Coalition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975950}
{"src_title": "Geography of Europe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Some geographical texts refer to a Eurasian continent given that Europe is not surrounded by sea and its southeastern border has always been variously defined for centuries.  In terms of shape, Europe is a collection of connected peninsulas and nearby islands. The two largest peninsulas are mainland Europe and Scandinavia to the north, divided from each other by the Baltic Sea. Three smaller peninsulas—Iberia, Italy, and the Balkans—emerge from the southern margin of the mainland. The Balkan peninsula is separated from Asia by the Black and Aegean Seas. Italy is separated from the Balkans by the Adriatic Sea, and from Iberia by the Mediterranean Sea, which also separates Europe from Africa. Eastward, mainland Europe widens much like the mouth of a funnel, until the boundary with Asia is reached at the Ural Mountains and Ural River, the Caspian Sea, and the Caucasus Mountains.  Land relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions are mountainous while moving north the terrain descends from the high Alps, Pyrenees, and Carpathians, through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east. An arc of uplands also exists along the northwestern seaboard, beginning in southwestern Ireland, continuing across through western and northern Great Britain, and up along the mountainous, fjord-cut spine of Norway.  This description is simplified. Sub-regions such as Iberia and Italy contain their own complex features, as does mainland Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys, and basins that complicate the general trend. Iceland and the British Isles are special cases. The former is of North Atlantic volcanic formation, while the latter consist of upland areas once joined to the mainland until cut off by rising sea levels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Peninsula of peninsulas.", "content": "Europe is sometimes called a \"peninsula of peninsulas\", to draw attention to the fact that Europe is a relatively small, elongated appendage to Asia, and that a large part of Europe is made up of peninsulas. A prehistoric perspective would include Britain and Ireland as the core of a further very significant European peninsula prior to the post-glacial rise in sea-levels.  Partial list of European peninsulas", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "Europe's most significant geological feature is the dichotomy between the highlands and mountains of Southern Europe and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging from Great Britain in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east. These two halves are separated by the mountain chains of the Pyrenees and the Alps/Carpathians. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the Scandinavian mountains and the mountainous parts of the British Isles. The major shallow water bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are the Celtic Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea complex, and the Barents Sea.  The northern plain contains the old geological continent of Baltica, and so may be regarded as the \"main continent\", while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in south and west constitute fragments from various other geological continents.  The geology of Europe is hugely varied and complex, and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across the continent, from the Scottish Highlands to the rolling plains of Hungary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population.", "content": "Figures for the population of Europe vary according to which definition of European boundaries is used. The population within the standard physical geographical boundaries was 701 million in 2005 according to the United Nations. In 2000 the population was 857 million, using a definition which includes the whole of the transcontinental countries of Russia and Turkey. Population growth is comparatively slow, and median age comparatively high in relation to the world's other continents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rivers.", "content": "The most important rivers in Europe are Danube, Volga, Rhine, Elbe, Oder and Dnieper, among others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European rivers by length.", "content": "The longest rivers in Europe, directly flowing into the World Ocean or Endorheic basins, with their approximate lengths:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "European rivers by discharge.", "content": "The 15 rivers of Europe by average discharge, including only rivers directly flowing into the World Ocean or Endorheic basins:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Major islands.", "content": "Iceland, Faroe Islands, Great Britain, Ireland, Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Cyprus (adjecent to Asia), Ionian Islands, Crete, Aegean Islands, Åland Islands, Gotland, Saaremaa, Svalbard, Hinnøya, Senja, Zealand, Fyn and North Jutlandic Island.  See also List of European islands by area and List of European islands by population", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mountain ranges.", "content": "Some of Europe's major mountain ranges are:  Land area in different classes of European mountainous terrain (classification from UNEP-WCMC):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Temperature and precipitation.", "content": "The high mountainous areas of Europe are colder and have higher precipitation than lower areas, as is true of mountainous areas in general. Europe has less precipitation in the east than in central and western Europe. The temperature difference between summer and winter gradually increases from coastal northwest Europe to southeast inland Europe, ranging from Ireland, with a temperature difference of only 10 °C from the warmest to the coldest month, to the area north of the Caspian Sea, with a temperature difference of 40 °C. January average range from 13 °C in southern Spain and southern Greek islands to -20 °C in the northeastern part of European Russia. Desert climates are found in the European portion of Kazakhstan and South Eastern Spain.  Western Europe and parts of Central Europe generally fall into the temperate maritime climate (Cfb), the southern part is mostly a Mediterranean climate (mostly Csa, smaller area with Csb), the north-central part and east into central Russia is mostly a humid continental climate (Dfb) and the northern part of the continent is a subarctic climate (Dfc). In the extreme northern part (northernmost Russia; Svalbard), bordering the Arctic Ocean, is tundra climate (Et). Mountain ranges, such as the Alps and the Carpathian mountains, have a highland climate with large variations according to altitude and latitude.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landlocked countries.", "content": "The landlocked countries in Europe are: Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Belarus, Czech Republic, Hungary, Kosovo, Liechtenstein (which is doubly landlocked), Luxembourg, North Macedonia, Moldova, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Switzerland, Vatican City  Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Serbia, and North Macedonia constitute a contiguous landlocked agglomeration of eight countries in Central Europe and the Balkans, stretching from Geneva all the way to Skopje. The other landlocked countries are \"standalone\" landlocked, not bordering any other such \"European\" one (the emphasis is necessary, since Kazakhstan borders Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan, thus forming a vast landlocked expanse in Central Asia)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Countries whose capital is not the most populous.", "content": "\"Note\": Italy's capital, Rome, is the country's largest city if only the municipality (\"comune\") is considered. Greater Milan is the largest Metropolitan Area in Italy.  Brussels is considered to be the largest city of Belgium, according to the population of the Brussels-Capital Region. The population of the City of Brussels is ~175,000. Antwerp is the biggest city of the country.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Europe is traditionally defined as one of seven continents. Physiographically, it is the northwestern peninsula of the larger landmass known as Eurasia (or the larger Afro-Eurasia); Asia occupies the eastern bulk of this continuous landmass and all share a common continental shelf. Europe's eastern frontier is delineated by the Ural Mountains in Russia. The southeast boundary with Asia is not universally defined, but the modern definition is generally the Ural River or, less commonly, the Emba River. The boundary continues to the Caspian Sea, the crest of the Caucasus Mountains (or, less commonly, the river Kura in the Caucasus), and on to the Black Sea. The Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles conclude the Asian boundary. The Mediterranean Sea to the south separates Europe from Africa. The western boundary is the Atlantic Ocean. Iceland, though on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and nearer to Greenland (North America) than Mainland Europe, is generally included in Europe for cultural reasons and because it is over twice as close to mainland Europe as mainland North America. There is ongoing debate on where the geographical centre of Europe falls.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975951}
{"src_title": "Andrei Sinyavsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Andrei Donatovich Sinyavsky was born on 8 October 1925 in Moscow, Soviet Union, the son of Donat Evgenievich Sinyavsky, a Russian nobleman from Syzran who became a member of the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, and a mother of a Russian peasant background. Donat was arrested several times by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution as an \"enemy of the people\", and during his last stay in jail the medical authorities took his electroencephalographic reading. Sinyavsky described his father's experiences in the autobiographical novel \"Goodnight!\". Sinyavsky's family was evacuated to Syzran following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, where he graduated from school in 1943. Sinyavsky was drafted into the Red Army after graduation and served as a radio engineer at an airport. In 1945, Sinyavsky became a philology student at Moscow State University, becoming a full-time student following his demobilization from the Red Army the next year, and studied the works of Vladimir Mayakovsky. Sinyavsky graduated in 1949 and attended a graduate school where he successfully defended his thesis in 1952. Sinyavsky worked at the Gorky Institute of World Literature in Moscow and taught at Moscow State University's Faculty of Journalism and the Moscow Art Theatre School. By the end of 1960, Sinyavsky was admitted into the Union of Soviet Writers.  Sinyavsky became one of the leading literary critics of the \"Novy Mir\" magazine, at the time headed by Aleksandr Tvardovsky. In the early 1960s, \"Novy Mir\" was considered the most liberal legal publications in the Soviet Union and began leaning towards a dissident position. In November 1962, \"Novy Mir\" became famous for publishing Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's groundbreaking \"One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich\", a novella about a prisoner of the Gulag. Sinyavsky, a protégé of Boris Pasternak, described the realities of Soviet life in short fiction stories which were often critical in nature. Sinyavsky published his novels in the West under the pseudonym Abram Tertz, derived from the name of a historical Russian Jewish gangster although Sinyavsky himself was not Jewish. Sinyavsky's works were naturally rejected for publication by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) during a time of extreme censorship in the Soviet Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sinyavsky–Daniel trial.", "content": "On 4 September 1965, Sinyavsky was arrested along with fellow-writer and friend Yuli Daniel, and tried in the first Soviet show trial during which writers were openly convicted solely for their literary work. Sinyavsky and Daniel were arrested as part of widespread political repression in the Soviet Union due to their works critical of Soviet life being published abroad. Legally, Sinyavsky and Daniel could not be charged for their publications outside the Soviet Union, and instead were charged under Article 70 of the RSFSR Criminal Code for producing materials for Anti-Soviet agitation. This was the first time Anti-Soviet laws were applied to works of fiction. Dozens of Soviet writers and intellectuals came to the defence of Sinyavsky and Daniel, and on 5 December 1965 held the Glasnost meeting in Moscow, the first spontaneous public political demonstration in the Soviet Union after the Second World War. The Sinyavsky–Daniel trial was accompanied by harsh propaganda campaigns in the Soviet media, perceived as a sign of demise of the Khrushchev Thaw which had allowed greater freedoms of expression during the late 1950s and early 1960s.  On 14 February 1966, Sinyavsky was sentenced to seven years on charges of \"anti-Soviet activity\" for the opinions of his fictional characters. After the trial, 63 supporters of Sinyavsky and Daniel signed a petition requesting their release. In response to the petition, members of the Secretariat of the Union of Soviet Writers spoke out against Sinyavsky and Daniel. As historian Fred Coleman writes, \"Historians now have no difficulty pinpointing the birth of the modern Soviet dissident movement. It began in February 1966 with the trial of Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel, two Russian writers who ridiculed the Communist regime in satires smuggled abroad and published under pen names... Little did they realize at the time that they were starting a movement that would help end Communist rule.\"  Sinyavsky was forced to work as a stevedore at the Dubravlag, a labor camp (katorga) of the Gulag system located near Yavas, Mordovian ASSR. Sinyavsky was released early in 1971 as part of an initiative by Yuri Andropov, the Chairman of the KGB and the future General Secretary of the CPSU.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years and death.", "content": "In 1973, Sinyavsky was allowed to emigrate to France at the invitation of Claude Frioux, a professor at the University of Paris 8 Vincennes-Saint-Denis specializing in Russia. Sinyavsky became a professor of Russian literature at Sorbonne University, co-founded the Russian-language almanac \"Sintaksis\" with his wife Maria Rozanova, and actively contributed to Radio Liberty. Sinyavsky and Rozanova's son, Iegor Gran, graduated from École Centrale Paris and became a novelist.  On 17 October 1991, Sinyavsky was featured in a report received by \"Izvestia\" on the review of convictions for several prominent Soviet individuals due to lack of \"corpus delicti\" in their actions. Sinyavsky, Yuli Daniel, Kārlis Ulmanis, Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky were considered for \"rehabilitation\" only two months before the dissolution of the Soviet Union.  In early 1996, Sinyavsky suffered a heart attack, and later that year was diagnosed with lung cancer with metastases in the brain. Sinyavsky underwent unsuccessful operations and radiotherapy at the Curie Institute. Sinyavsky died in 1997 in Fontenay-aux-Roses, near Paris, and was buried there by the Russian Orthodox priest and writer Vladimir Vigilyansky with Andrei Voznesensky in attendance. Sinyavsky was the catalyst for the formation of the Russian-English translation team of Larissa Volokhonsky and Richard Pevear, who have translated a number of works by Mikhail Bulgakov, Anton Chekhov, Fyodor Dostoyevski, Nikolai Gogol, and Leo Tolstoy. Volokhonsky, who was born and raised in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), first visited the United States in the early 1970s and happened across Pevear's \"Hudson Review\" article about Sinyavsky. At the time, Pevear believed Sinyavsky was still in a Russian prison; Volokhonsky had just helped him immigrate to Paris. Pevear was surprised and pleased to be mistaken: \"Larissa had just helped Sinyavsky leave Russia,\" Pevear recalled. \"And she let me know that, while I'd said he was still in prison, he was actually in Paris. I was glad to know it.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andrei Donatovich Sinyavsky (; 8 October 1925 – 25 February 1997) was a Russian writer and Soviet dissident known as a defendant in the Sinyavsky–Daniel trial in 1965.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975952}
{"src_title": "Kakheti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Beyond the modern-day administrative subdivision into the districts, Kakheti has traditionally been subdivided into four parts: Inner Kakheti (შიდა კახეთი, \"Shida Kakheti\") to the east of Tsiv-Gombori mountain range, along the right bank of the Alazani River; Outer Kakheti (გარე კახეთი, \"Gare Kakheti\") along the middle Iori River basin; Kiziq'i (ქიზიყი) between the Alazani and the Iori; Thither Area (გაღმა მხარი, \"Gaghma Mkhari\") on the left bank of the Alazani. It also includes the medieval region of Hereti whose name has fallen into gradual oblivion since the 15th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivision.", "content": "The Kakheti region is divided into eight municipalities:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Kakheti was an independent principality from the end of the eighth century. It was incorporated into the united Georgian Kingdom at the beginning of the eleventh century, but for less than a decade. Only in the beginning of the twelfth century did Georgian King David the Builder (1089–1125) incorporate Kakheti into his Kingdom successfully. After the disintegration of the Georgian Kingdom, Kakheti became an independent Kingdom in the 1460s. From the early 16th century till the early 19th century, Kakheti and its neighboring Kartli came under intermittent Iranian rule. In 1616, Shah Abbas deported hundreds of thousands of the ethnic Kakheti Georgian population to Iran and destroyed the region during his punitive campaign against Teimuraz I, his formerly most loyal subject. During all these centuries the region was an integral part of Iran and it supplied many notable generals, administrators, women and many hundred of thousands of peasants for the Iranian overlords. In 1762, the Kakhetian Kingdom was united with the neighboring Georgian Kingdom of Kartli into the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti under King Heraclius II. Following the Treaty of Georgievsk and the sack of Tbilisi by Agha Mohammad Khan, in 1801 the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti was annexed to the Russian Empire. Russian suzerainty over Kakheti and the rest of Georgia was recognized by Qajar Iran in the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan.  In 1918–1921 Kakheti was part of the independent Democratic Republic of Georgia, in 1922–1936 part of the Transcaucasian SFSR and in 1936–1991 part of the Georgian SSR. Since the Georgian independence in 1991, Kakheti has been a region of the republic of Georgia. Telavi is still its capital.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Travel information.", "content": "The travel infrastructure in Kakheti is fast developing, since it is the most visited region of Georgia. One can choose to stay in a guest house, in a small and comfortable hotel, or a beautiful boutique-style hotel while traveling in this region. Telavi and Signagi are the most visited towns. Signagi was renovated three years ago. Until recently there were only some family hotels (simple rooms in a family-owned house with a shared bathroom), but now Signagi features several hotels.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kakheti ( \"K’akheti\"; ) is a region (mkhare) formed in the 1990s in eastern Georgia from the historical province of Kakheti and the small, mountainous province of Tusheti. Telavi is its capital. The region comprises eight administrative districts: Telavi, Gurjaani, Qvareli, Sagarejo, Dedoplistsqaro, Signagi, Lagodekhi and Akhmeta. Kakheti is bordered by the Russian Federation (Dagestan and Chechnya) to the northeast, Azerbaijan to the southeast, and Mtskheta-Mtianeti and Kvemo Kartli to the west. Kakheti has a strong linguistic and cultural identity, since its ethnographic subgroup of Kakhetians speak Kakhetian dialect.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975953}
{"src_title": "Louise Élisabeth d'Orléans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mademoiselle de Montpensier.", "content": "Louise Élisabeth d'Orléans was one of the seven daughters of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, and his wife, Françoise Marie de Bourbon. Her mother was a legitimised daughter of Louis XIV of France and his mistress, Madame de Montespan. She was known as Élisabeth. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, Élisabeth was a \"princesse du sang\".  She was born at the Palace of Versailles, and was her parents' fourth surviving daughter (the first, \"Mademoiselle de Valois\" died a year after birth). Prior to her marriage, she was known as \"Mademoiselle de Montpensier\". She grew up among one brother and five sisters. Because no one was much interested in her as a child, Louise Élisabeth received a poor education and seemed destined for marriage to some obscure German or Italian prince. Like her younger sister, Louise, she had a convent education. She was very close to her brother, Louis, Duke of Chartres at birth, who, upon the death of their father in 1723, would inherit the title of Duke of Orléans.  Since 1715, her father was \"de facto\" ruler of France as the Regent for the child, King Louis XV. In 1718, the War of the Quadruple Alliance broke out between France and Spain. In 1720, King Philip V of Spain wanted to make peace and proposed a double marriage: his three-year-old daughter, Infanta Mariana Victoria, would marry the eleven-year-old Louis XV, and his son and heir, Louis, would marry one of the Regent's daughters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Princess of Asturias.", "content": "In November 1721, at the age of eleven, Élisabeth was married by proxy, in Paris, Louise Élisabeth and her younger sister Philippine Élisabeth left for Madrid. Despite a cold reception from the Spanish royal family, especially by Elisabeth Farnese, the stepmother of her future husband, she married Louis of Spain on 20 January 1722 at Lerma. Her dowry was of 4 million Livres.  Her sister Philippine Élisabeth was later engaged to Infante Charles of Spain, another heir to the throne of Spain; but the marriage came to nothing and her sister was later sent back to France where she died at the age of nineteen in Paris.  As wife of the heir to the Spanish throne, Élisabeth assumed the title of Princess of Asturias.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen of Spain.", "content": "On 15 January 1724, the emotionally unstable Philip V abdicated in favour of his eldest son, who became King Louis. Élisabeth became Queen of Spain, but after only seven months of reign, Louis died of smallpox. Because he died without an heir, his father ascended the throne once again. Élisabeth stayed in Madrid for some time after the death of her husband, but her behaviour prior to her husband's untimely death had made her extremely unpopular in the Spanish court.  Since her arrival at the Spanish Court, Louise Élisabeth became increasingly known for the numerous incidents she involved herself in. Some would be social faux pas, but her behaviour was usually erratic and extremely impulsive. She would walk around naked, belch and fart in public, run around the palace corridors, or jump off her horse to climb on trees. Modern diagnosis deem many of her behavioural traits compatible with an out-of-hand borderline personality disorder.  She would appear in public dirty and smelly, refusing to use underwear, and would try to provoke courtiers by showing her intimate parts in public. She would refuse to touch the food on her table, but would then hide away and compulsively gobble down anything that she could put her hands on, whether it was edible or not. Her behaviour seemingly got worse over time. At some point, she developed the custom of cleaning the windows and tiles of the palace using her own clothes: she would leave her courtiers astonished by suddenly undressing in public to clean the windows in the room with her dress. Her husband, king Luis, eventually wrote to his father that:  He did make good on his promise and had her confined to a convent. Louise cried and sent her husband letters asking for forgiveness. He later felt sorry for her and released her. When her husband got sick with his final illness, however, she went out of her way to care for him, putting herself at risk of contagion. Still, her unpopularity and odd behaviour meant that, upon Luis' death, her father-in-law king Felipe V sought to have her marriage to Luis annulled. As a result, she lost a valuable pension as a former Queen of Spain, and was forced to move back to France, where her cousin Louis XV refused to allow her to reside in Versailles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Widow.", "content": "After the death of her husband, she returned to France at the request of her mother, the Dowager Duchess of Orléans. She was obliged to live peacefully in Paris, away from the Court of her young cousin Louis XV. As the widow of the King of Spain, she was to receive an annual pension of 600,000 Livres from the state; however, Spain would not pay because her marriage had been annulled. When she moved back to France, Louise Élisabeth was formally known as queen dowager of Spain. This led to a dispute with her (older) sister, the Duchess of Modena and Reggio. The Duchess's coach had to let that of the younger Louise Élisabeth pass first, a queen having a higher rank than a duchess.  She discreetly travelled to Paris and resided in the Château de Vincennes and the Luxembourg Palace, which had been given to her sister by her father, and where she died on 16 June 1742, forgotten by everyone. She was buried at the church of Saint-Sulpice in Paris, close to the Luxembourg Palace, where her half-brother Louis Charles de Saint-Albin was a bishop.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louise Élisabeth d'Orléans (; 9 December 1709 – 16 June 1742) was Queen of Spain from January to August 1724 as the wife of King Louis I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975954}
{"src_title": "Lutetia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Lutetia derives from Latin meaning, \"place near a swamp\".  The name may contain the Celtic root, which means \"mouse\" and \"-ek(t)ia\", meaning \"the mice\" and which is contained in the Breton word \"logod\", the Welsh \"llygod\", and the Irish \"luch\".  Alternatively, it may derive from another Celtic root, \"luto-\" or \"luteuo-\", which means \"marsh\" or \"swamp\" and which survives today in the Gaelic \"loth\" (\"marsh\") and the Breton \"loudour\" (\"dirty\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallic origins.", "content": "Archaeological excavations between 1994 and 2005 show that the location of Gallic Lutetia lay in Nanterre, a large area of proto-urbanisation of several main streets and hundreds of houses over 15 hectares in the suburbs of Paris, not far from the future location of Lutetia.  In 52 BC, a year or so before the end of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars, the Battle of Lutetia was fought with the local Parisii tribe. However the garrison led by Vercingetorix's lieutenant Camulogenus, whose army camped on \"Mons Lutetius\", fell to the Roman military forces led by Titus Labienus, one of Caesar's generals who captured and burned the stronghold. The Romans also crushed the Gauls at nearby Melun and took control of Lutetia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roman Lutetia.", "content": "The Roman city was centred on the hill on the south bank of the river (the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève), as the low-lying plain near the river was easily flooded though still initially suitable for farming.  The regular Roman street plan of Lutetia was established with the north–south axis, possibly dictated by the need to cross the marshy riverbanks in the shortest possible distance, but also aligning with the standard Roman orientation for a \"cardo maximus\". Two main routes converged at the bridgehead over the Seine: one road coming from Spain (today's Rue Saint-Jacques) via Orléans was used as the main axis (\"cardo maximus\"), and the other road from Rome (today's rue Galande and further on rue Mouffetard) via Lyon. Dendrochronological study of wooden pilings beneath the lowest stratum of the Roman north–south axis date the road's construction after 4 AD, more than fifty years after the Roman pacification of the region. On the north bank the Rue St-Martin continues the Roman main axis (\"cardo maximus\").  The street plan and the boundaries of the main monuments—the forum at the top of the hill, theatre, baths—show that the Roman city was laid out with blocks or \"insulae\" of 300 Roman feet.  The development of the city began under Augustus and was well advanced in the early 1st century AD when the elaborate \"Pilier des Nautes\" (pillar of the boatmen) was erected by a corporation of local river merchants and sailors (nautes) and dedicated to Tiberius and to several gods, showing that there was an important port on the river.  Major public works and monuments were constructed in the 2nd century AD. Lutetia expanded with a population estimated at around 8,000 but did not have a great deal of political importance—the capital of its province, \"Lugdunensis Senona\", was \"Agedincum\" (modern Sens, Yonne).  An aqueduct 26 km in length, with a flow rate estimated at 2,000 cubic metres a day, provided the city with spring water collected from several points. To bridge the Bièvre valley at Arcueil-Cachan, a bridge was required, whose piers and ruined arches, still discernible, gave rise to the toponym \"Arcueil\".  In the 3rd century St Denis became the city's first bishop and in about 250 AD he and two companions were arrested and decapitated on the hill of \"Mons Mercurius\" thereafter known as \"Mons Martyrum\" (Martyrs' Hill, or Montmartre) where Roman foundations have been found.  After a barbarian attack in 275 by the Franks and Alemanni that destroyed much of the south bank portions of the city, the population moved to the island and a surrounding wall was built on the Île de la Cité from large stones taken from damaged structures. The city on the south bank along with the main public buildings including baths, the theatres and the amphitheatre were gradually abandoned.  In 357–358 Julian II, as Caesar of the Western empire and general of the Gallic legions, moved the Roman capital of Gaul from Trier to Paris which, after defeating the Franks in a major battle at Strasbourg in 357, he defended against Germanic invaders coming from the north. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 360 in Lutetia.  Later Valentinian I resided in Lutetia for a brief period (365–366).  Lutetia was gradually renamed Paris, taking its name from the Parisii. The name had already been used for centuries as an adjective (\"Parisiacus\"). The legend of the Breton city of Ys suggests a different, if less likely, origin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remains.", "content": "Remains of the ancient city are mainly buried below ground although many of these are gradually being discovered. Those visible include:  Many artifacts from Lutetia have been recovered and are on display at the Musée Carnavalet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "May 2006 findings.", "content": "In May 2006, a Roman road was found during expansion of the University of Pierre and Marie Curie campus. Remains of private houses dating from the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) and containing heated floors were found. Everyday items like flowerpots, bronze chains, ceramics, and drawer handles were found. The owners were wealthy enough to own baths found in one of the homes, a status symbol among Roman citizens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Several scientific discoveries have been named after Lutetia. The element lutetium was named in honor of its discovery in a Paris laboratory, and the characteristic building material of the city of Paris—Lutetian Limestone—derives from the ancient name. The \"Lutetian\" is, in the geologic timescale, a stage or age in the Eocene Epoch. The asteroid 21 Lutetia, discovered in 1852 by Hermann Goldschmidt, is named after the city.  Lutetia is featured in the French comic series \"The Adventures of Asterix\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Roman city of Lutetia (also \"Lutetia Parisiorum\" in Latin, in French \"Lutèce\") was the predecessor of present-day Paris. Impressive monumental remains of the ancient city are visible \"in situ\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975955}
{"src_title": "Scorpène-class submarine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Scorpène characteristics.", "content": "The Scorpène class of submarines has four subtypes: the CM-2000 conventional diesel-electric version, the AM-2000 air-independent propulsion (AIP) derivative, the downsized CA-2000 coastal submarine, and the enlarged S-BR for the Brazilian Navy, without AIP.  The Chilean and Malaysian boats are fitted with the TSM 2233 Mk 2 sonar. The class can also be fitted with an 'S-Cube' sonar suite from Thales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Air-independent propulsion.", "content": "The French Module d'Energie Sous-Marine Autonome (MESMA) system is being offered by the French shipyard Direction des Constructions Navales (DCNS) for the Scorpène-class submarines. It is essentially a modified version of their nuclear propulsion system with heat being generated by ethanol and oxygen. The combustion of the ethanol and stored oxygen, at a pressure of, generates steam which powers a conventional turbine power plant. This pressure-firing allows exhaust carbon dioxide to be expelled overboard at any depth without an exhaust compressor.  Each MESMA system costs around US$50–60 million. As installed on the Scorpènes, it requires adding a new, 305-tonne hull section to the submarines, and enables a submarine to operate for more than 21 days under water, depending on variables such as speed.  DCNS is also developing second-generation hydrogen fuel cell AIP modules for future Scorpène models.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scorpène information leak.", "content": "In mid-August 2016, \"The Australian\" newspaper reported that design details of the Scorpène-class submarine and other ships had been leaked. The leaked information spreads over 22,400 pages and includes detailed information about the submarine's combat and stealth capabilities. The leak also included information about noise levels, submarine frequencies and more. Despite all the information leaks, Indian Navy chief Admiral Sunil Lanba was quoted as saying that the leaks were being viewed \"very seriously\", but were \"not a matter of much worry\". The report also suggested that an ex-French Navy officer working as a sub-contractor for DCNS may have been the source of the leak, and that the leaked data may have been written in France in 2011. However, on 30 August 2016, a court in New South Wales temporarily banned \"The Australian\" from releasing any more confidential data on the Indian Scorpène-class submarines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operators.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chile.", "content": "The Chilean Navy ordered two Scorpène-class boats, which replaced two s retired by the Chilean Navy. The Chilean \"Scorpène\"-class \"O'Higgins\" and \"Carrera\" were completed in 2005 and 2006, respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Malaysia.", "content": "In 2002, Malaysia ordered two Scorpène-class boats worth US$1.2 billion. Both boats and \"Tun Abdul Razak\" commissioned by Royal Malaysian Navy in 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "India.", "content": "In 2005, India chose the Scorpène design; purchasing six submarines for US$3 billion (US$500 million per boat). Under a technology transfer agreement, the state-owned Mazagon Docks in Mumbai was to manufacture the submarines, and deliver them between 2012 and 2016, however the project is running six years behind schedule. Construction started on 23 May 2009. The first Scorpène submarine, named INS \"Kalvari\", was undocked for the purpose of starting sea trials in April 2015 and will be delivered in September 2016. In August 2016, over 20,000 confidential pages of the submarine's manual were leaked by Australian media, stirring up a controversy about the impact to India's ambitions of fielding a blue-water navy.  DCNS answered that those documents were not crucial. After extensive sea trials, \"Kalvari\" was commissioned into the Indian Navy on 14 December 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Brazil.", "content": "In 2009, Brazil purchased four enlarged Scorpènes for US$9.9 billion with a technology transfer agreement and a second agreement to develop a French/Brazilian nuclear-powered submarine. The Brazilian submarine class was given the designation \"Riachuelo\" class. The hull of the first S-BR (\"S40\") was laid down at Cherbourg on 27 May 2010 and is to be jumboized at the Brazilian Navy Shipyard in Sepetiba in late 2012. The latter three submarines will be built there entirely, and are planned to be commissioned in 2020, 2021, and 2022. The nuclear-powered submarine is under construction since 2018, with scheduled launch for 2027.  \"Riachuelo\" was launched on 14 December 2018, and began sea trials in September 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Potential operators.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spain.", "content": "In 2003, the Spanish government ordered four Scorpène AIP submarines worth €1,756 million. However, the Spanish navy canceled the order, and ordered four submarines, instead. This has caused conflicts and controversies between DCNS and Navantia, as the latter is still involved in the construction of the submarines sold to India, Malaysia, and Chile, while the S-80 is offered on the export market. As an answer to the competition from the S-80, DCNS designed its own enhanced version of the Scorpène called the, but little is known about this design and the Scorpène is still offered by France on the export market. The dispute was settled when Navantia gave up export rights on the Scorpène class, leaving DCNS with sole responsibility for the project.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Poland.", "content": "On 1 March 2011, the Naval Shipyard Gdynia of Poland and DCNS offered a license to build a yet undisclosed number of modified Scorpène-class boats. The Scorpène design is competing with that of the German Type 214 submarine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Norway.", "content": "In December 2016, the Norwegian Ministry of Defence announced that Norway would sign a contract for four new submarines before the end of 2019. These would either be Scorpène vessels from DCNS or German U-boats from ThyssenKrupp. Norway would also be looking into possible cooperation on maintenance and construction with other potential buyers of the same submarines, such as Poland or the Netherlands. In February 2017, the Norwegian Government announced that it intended to procure its new submarines from the German manufacturer, ThyssenKrupp. Norway and Germany will buy submarines together to mutualize expenses. In practice the tender was cancelled and exclusive government to government negotiations were initiated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philippines.", "content": "In December 2019, Secretary of National Defense of the Philippines Delfin Lorenzana announced that the \"Scorpène-\"class submarine of France fits the requirements of the Philippine Navy. Lorenzana saw a \"Scorpène-\"class submarine when he visited France. In December 18, 2019, Delfin Lorenzana said that the Philippines is one step closer to acquire the French Submarine after signing an agreement with France sought to enhance both country's martime defense. In January 2020, the Philippine and French Navy conduct expert change on submarine to enhance members in the Submarine's information about the submarine proper.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Scorpène-class submarines are a class of diesel-electric attack submarines jointly developed by the French Direction des Constructions Navales (DCNS) and the Spanish company Navantia, and now by Naval Group. It features diesel propulsion and an additional air-independent propulsion (AIP).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975956}
{"src_title": "Conrad of Vechta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Before episcopate.", "content": "It is not certain whether Conrad was a member of the patrician family named von Vechta, living as successful merchants in Bremen, where family members also held positions in the city government, or if Conrad was born in Vechta and therefore epithetised von Vechta in German. However, his brother Konstantin von Vechta held a canonicate at Bremen Cathedral as cathedral provost (Dompropst), presiding the cathedral chapter. This rather substantiates a patrician background, because Bremian canonicates were usually provided for members of patrician families of Bremen or of noble families of the Bremian knightage. Conrad was definitely no member of the comital family of Vechta, which used to be called after its castle Counts of Ravensberg.  Conrad strove for a clerical career. He sided already early with Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, ruling the Holy Roman Empire since 1376, on whose instigation Conrad was provided with a number of prebends. As many North Germans used to study in Prague, Conrad's siding with Wenceslaus, who was simultaneously ruling as King of Bohemia since 1378, may indicate that Conrad had done so too. In 1395 Wenceslaus failed to get Conrad invested as bishop of Verden, whereas Dietrich of Nieheim prevailed. Conrad had earlier been provost of Lüne Nunnery and was then promoted to canon of the Collegiate Church of St. Blaise in Brunswick.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Provided bishop of Verden.", "content": "In 1400 Pope Boniface IX, on Wenceslaus' instigation, deposed Conrad's provided predecessor Conrad of Soltau, who had so far only been provided bishop of Verden in 1399, but not invested, and provided instead Conrad of Vechta not before 1 May, however, also lacking investiture. Conrad titled himself bishop elect of Verden until 1407. Lacking the elective mandate of the cathedral chapter in Verden upon Aller, it did not recognise his episcopate. However, the pope soon changed his mind again, when the other prince-electors had deposed Wenceslaus as ruler of the Empire in 1400 and replaced him by King Rupert, who in May 1401 had accepted the deposed Conrad of Soltau, a native of the Prince-Bishopric of Verden, as legitimate and invested him with the princely regalia as prince-bishop. Boniface IX thus also confirmed Conrad of Soltau as canonical bishop of Verden in autumn 1402.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later offices.", "content": "In 1410 Konstantin von Vechta followed Conrad to Prague, succeeding him as provost of Mělník's Ss. Peter and Paul Church, which was combined with a canonicate at St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague.  On 28 July 1419 Conrad crowned Sigismund of Luxembourg as King of Bohemia. Conrad took the side of the Hussites during the Hussite Wars, despite remaining a Catholic prelate, and was deposed as archbishop by the Roman Curia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art patronage.", "content": "Conrad was the probable original owner of a richly illuminated manuscript Bible, now known as the Antwerp Bible from its survival in the Museum Plantin-Moretus, Antwerp.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Conrad of Vechta (Czech \"Konrád z Vechty\"; German \"Konrad von Vechta\") (born ca. 1370, possibly in Bremen; died 24 December 1431 in Roudnice nad Labem) was Bishop of Verden (1400–1402/1407), Bishop of Olomouc (1408–1413), Archbishop of Prague (1413–1421), and Master of the Mint (1401–1403) and Chancellor (1405–1412) of the Kingdom of Bohemia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975957}
{"src_title": "De Zeven Provinciën-class frigate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Antiaircraft warfare.", "content": "These ships were optimized for antiaircraft warfare. For this role the ships are equipped with an advanced sensor and weapons suite. The primary sensors for this role are the long range surveillance radar SMART-L and the multifunction radar APAR. The SMART-L and APAR are highly complementary, in the sense that SMART-L is a D band radar providing very long range surveillance while APAR is an I band radar providing precise target tracking, a highly capable horizon search capability, and missile guidance using the Interrupted Continuous Wave Illumination (ICWI) technique, thus allowing guidance of 32 semi-active radar homing missiles in flight simultaneously, including 16 in the terminal guidance phase. The primary antiaircraft weapons are the point defence Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile and the area defence RIM-66 Standard Missile (SM-2) Block IIIA. The Mk 41 Vertical Launch System is used to house and launch these missiles. 32 Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile and 32 Standard Missile SM-2 Block IIIA are carried.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ballistic missile defence.", "content": "The Navy is investigating the use of these ships for the role of Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD). During tests carried out by in the Pacific Ocean near Hawaii, experimental modifications to the SMART-L to allow even longer range were proven. A study by the \"Koninklijke Marine\", the Netherlands Defence Material Organization, Thales Nederland, Raytheon Missile Systems, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, and Lockheed Martin has been conducted to establish the feasibility of modifying the \"De Zeven Provinciën\" class to provide it the capability to intercept ballistic missiles. In particular, the study examined the feasibility of integrating the SM-3 Block IB missile with the SMART-L and APAR radars. The study concluded that – with certain modifications to the SMART-L and APAR, as well as to the ship's Combat Management System and the missile itself – BMD with the \"De Zeven Provinciën\" class could be achieved. During a 2015 very large NATO exercise the BMD capabilities were proven, the sensor suite discovered ballistic targets, and the ship destroyed them using both its own SAM missiles, as well as using a U.S. Navy destroyer's missiles, by providing target data and missile guidance.  A contract was awarded for the radar modification in June 2012, operational tests & life firing show the performance to exceed expectations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modernization.", "content": "The \"De Zeven Provinciën\"-class ships will get the new SMART-L Mk2 radar that can detect ballistic missiles at a range of. The Dutch minister promised also that the APAR radar will have a bigger range than as the Netherlands is the first country to participate as an active missile shield for NATO.  In late 2011, the Ministry of Defence announced a modernization program to upgrade the SMART-L early-warning radar so that \"De Zeven Provinciën\"-class frigates can detect and track ballistic missiles at extended range. In 2018 plans were announced to acquire the BMD-capable SM-3 surface-to-air missiles as the ships are provisioned for an extra 8-cell vertical launch module, \"De Zeven Provinciën\"-class frigates can pass on the tracking and detection data to other sea-based or land-defense BMD assets, including U.S. Navy's warships, that can deal with a ballistic missile threat. This modernization program is scheduled for completion by late 2017 for the entire \"De Zeven Provinciën\" class.  On 3 May 2018 the Dutch Secretary of Defence, Barbara Visser, informed the Dutch national parliament that the evolved sea sparrow missile (ESSM) aboard the \"De Zeven Provinciën\"-class frigates will be upgraded from block 1 to block 2. This upgrade will be completed by 2024 and will allow the frigates to deal with the growing threat of modern anti-ship missiles. ESSM Block 2 allows the four frigates to defend against missiles that have greater speed, agility and perform unexpected movements. The current Harpoon surface-to-surface missile (SSM) will also be replaced with a new SSM by 2024. Furthermore, the 127mm-cannon will be replaced with a new similar cannon. The current cannons are over 50 years old and originate from Canadian ships. The new cannon must be able to fire multiple types of ammunition, including in the future precision-guided ammunition. The project costs between € 100 million and € 250 million, and will be take place between 2018 and 2023. Lastly, the Goalkeepers will be upgraded to a new version and all ships will have two installed as originally designed, they will eventually be replaced after 2025 by a new system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surface and subsurface warfare.", "content": "As noted above, these ships were optimized for antiaircraft warfare, but they also have weapons on-board capable of attacking surface and submarine targets, for example: the RGM-84F Harpoon missile and Mk. 46 torpedoes. In a new defense Study published by the Dutch government in March 2018, it was stated the frigates will receive a new surface-to-surface missile to succeed the Harpoon Block 1D.  Proposals to equip some of the Zeven Provinciën-class frigates with a total of 32 BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missiles have existed, but these were shelved in May 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Live missile firings.", "content": "In November 2003, some from the Azores, the missile guidance capabilities were tested with live firings for the first time. The firings involved the firing of a single ESSM and a single SM-2ER Block IIIA. These firings were the first ever live firings involving a full-size ship-borne active electronically scanned array (i.e., APAR) guiding missiles using the ICWI technique in an operational environment. As related by Jane's Navy International: During the tracking and missile-firing tests, target profiles were provided by Greek-built EADS/3Sigma Iris PVK medium-range subsonic target drones. [...] According to the RNLN,... APAR immediately acquired the missile and maintained track until destruction\". [...] These ground-breaking tests represented the world's first live verification of the ICWI technique. Further live firings were performed in March 2005, again in the Atlantic Ocean some west of the Azores. The tests involved three live-firing events including firing a single SM-2 Block IIIA at an Iris target drone at long range, a single ESSM at an Iris target drone, and a two-salvo launch (with one salvo comprising two SM-2 Block IIIAs and the other comprising two ESSMs) against two incoming Iris target drones. The long-range SM-2 engagement apparently resulted in an intercept at a range of greater than from the ship, with a missile-target miss distance of (the warhead's proximity fuse having been disabled for the purposes of the test).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Counterpiracy operations.", "content": "Ships of the \"De Zeven Provinciën\" class have been involved in counter-piracy operations off the Horn of Africa. The untraditional target set (i.e., small slow-moving or even static surface targets) can apparently be challenging for doppler radars designed to take on \"high end\" threats. However, according to Jane's International Defence Review: [The RNLN has] reported great success using tailored surface-search software for the APAR sets fitted to the \"De Zeven Provinciën\"-class frigates deployed on antipiracy roles. By sacrificing some of APAR's high-end antiaircraft warfare capabilities, which were deemed unnecessary for the antipiracy role, its performance and resolution were improved in the surface-search role.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Export.", "content": "On November 30, 2017 Alion Canada submitted a proposal based on the \"De Zeven Provinciën class\" for the Canadian Single Class Surface Combatant Project. Damen Group, as builder of the \"De Zeven Provincien class\" frigates, was part of Alion's team in this proposal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of ships.", "content": "All ships were built at the Damen Schelde Naval Shipbuilding shipyard in Vlissingen, Netherlands.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"De Zeven Provinciën\"-class frigates are highly advanced air-defence and command frigates in service with the Royal Navy of the Netherlands (\"Koninklijke Marine\"). This class of ships is also known as \"LCF\" (\"Luchtverdedigings- en commandofregat\", air defense and command frigate). The ships are similar to the German \"Sachsen\"-class frigates in role and mission.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975958}
{"src_title": "Champ de Mars", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally, the Champ de Mars was part of a large flat open area called Grenelle, which was reserved for market gardening. Citizens would claim small plots and exploit them by growing fruits, vegetables, and flowers for the local market. However, the plain of Grenelle was not an especially fertile place for farming.  The construction, in 1765, of the \"École Militaire\" designed by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, was the first step toward the Champ de Mars in its present form. Grounds for military drills were originally planned for an area south of the school, the current location of the \"place de Fontenoy\". The choice to build an esplanade to the north of the school led to the erection of the noble facade which today encloses the Champ de Mars. The planners leveled the ground, surrounded it with a large ditch and a long avenue of elms, and, as a final touch, the esplanade was enclosed by a fine grille-work fence.  The Isle of Swans, formerly a riverine islet at the location of the northeastern foot of the Eiffel Tower, was, for the sake of symmetry and pleasing perspectives, attached to the shore. (Note that the Isle of Swans discussed here should not be confused with the Isle of Swans that sits in the middle of the Seine downstream and around the next bend in the river, between the fifteenth and sixteenth arrondissements.)  Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers launched the world's first hydrogen-filled balloon from the Champ-de-Mars on 27 August 1783.  This place witnessed the spectacle and pageantry of some of the best-remembered festivals of the French Revolution. On 14 July 1790 the first \"Federation Day\" celebration (\"fête de la Fédération\"), now known as Bastille Day, was held on the Champ de Mars, exactly one year after the storming of the prison. The following year, on 17 July 1791, the massacre on the Champ de Mars took place. Jean Sylvain Bailly, the first mayor of Paris, became a victim of his own revolution and was guillotined there on 12 November 1793.  The Champ de Mars was also the site of the Festival of the Supreme Being on 8 June 1794. With a design by the painter Jacques-Louis David, a massive \"Altar of the Nation\" was built atop an artificial mountain and surmounted by a tree of liberty. The festival is regarded as the most successful of its type in the Revolution.  The Champ de Mars was the site of Expositions Universelles in 1867, 1878, 1889, 1900, and 1937.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In art, culture, film and sport.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art and culture.", "content": "In 2012, the United Buddy Bears exhibit was held on the Champ de Mars, an international art exhibition with more than 140 two-meter-tall bears representing individual countries. They promote peace, love, tolerance and international understanding and are displayed across the planet. They stand at Champ de Mars in Paris, fronting the Eiffel Tower.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use in film and television.", "content": "Champ de Mars was used as a filming location in the 1985 James Bond film \"A View to a Kill\", in which Bond (played for the last time by Roger Moore) drove a Renault 11 taxi which he had hijacked at the Eiffel Tower in pursuit of a mysterious assassin, later revealed to be May Day (Grace Jones).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "The Champ de Mars will be the site of Beach Volleyball at the 2024 Summer Olympics and of five-a-side football at the 2024 Summer Paralympics.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Champ de Mars ( ; ) is a large public greenspace in Paris, France, located in the seventh \"arrondissement\", between the Eiffel Tower to the northwest and the École Militaire to the southeast. The park is named after the Campus Martius (\"Mars Field\") in Rome, a tribute to the Latin name of the Roman God of war. The name alludes to the fact that the lawns here were formerly used as drilling and marching grounds by the French military.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975959}
{"src_title": "Sarcoptes scabiei", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Clinical significance.", "content": "The action of the mites moving within the skin and on the skin itself produces an intense itch that may resemble an allergic reaction in appearance. A delayed Type IV hypersensitivity reaction to the mites, their eggs, or scybala (packets of feces) occurs approximately 30 days after infestation. The presence of the eggs produces a massive allergic response that, in turn, produces more itching. Individuals who already are sensitized from a prior infestation can develop symptoms within hours.  \"Sarcoptes\" is a genus of skin parasites, and part of the larger family of mites collectively known as \"scab mites\". They are also related to the scab mite \"Psoroptes\", also a mite that infests the skin of domestic animals. Sarcoptic mange affects domestic animals and similar infestations in domestic fowls causes the disease known as \"scaly leg\". The effects of \"S. scabiei\" are the most well-known, causing \"scabies\", or \"the itch\". The adult female mite, having been fertilized, burrows into the skin (usually at the hands or wrists, but other parts of the body may also be affected), and lays its eggs.  The burrowing is carried out using the mouth parts and special cutting surfaces on the front legs. While these are being used, the mite anchors itself with suckers on its feet. Eggs are laid in small numbers as the mite burrows, and, as these hatch, six-legged larvae climb out on to the skin and search for hair follicles, where they feed and moult (discard old cuticles to grow). In the hair follicles, the larvae show the first nymphal stages, with eight legs.  In the nymphal stages, the creature feeds and moults, and if male, gives rise to the adult. In the case of females, another moult occurs before adulthood. The female has more moults than a male, so takes longer—17 days compared to 9 to 11 days for a male—to reach adulthood. The female is about twice the size of the male.  Although the life-cycle is only about two weeks, individual patients are seldom found to have more than about a dozen mites on them. Even so, this number can cause agonising itching, especially at night, and severe damage to the skin often comes as a result of scratching, in particular by the introduction of infective bacteria, which may lead to impetigo or eczema.  The eggs are laid by the female at a rate of about two to three eggs a day for about two months. About 2% of the British population is thought to be infected with these mites, which take about 25 minutes to an hour to burrow into the skin.  The best conditions in which to harbor \"S. scabiei\" is in areas with frequent skin-to-skin contact, such as the hands and wrists, as the mites are transmitted by skin contact with carriers, and they very easily spread. Infestations of \"S. scabiei\" are commonly found in pigs. They significantly depress growth and feeding rate, but usually die out in around five days in typical farm conditions. However, once in a herd, the mites are very difficult to eliminate without great measures taken.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "Adult scabies mites are spherical, eyeless mites with four pairs of legs (two pairs in front and two pairs behind). They are recognizable by their oval, ventrally flattened and dorsally convex tortoise-like bodies and multiple cuticular spines. No demarcation into cephalothorax or abdomen occurs, and the mite's surface has folds covered with short bristles. The front legs end in long, tubular processes known as suckers, and the hind legs end in long bristles. The male has suckers on all legs except the third pair, which distinguishes it from the female. Females are long and wide, and males are just over half that size.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "The scabies mite \"Sarcoptes scabiei\" var. \"hominis\" goes through four stages in its lifecycle: egg, larva, nymph, and adult.  Upon infesting a human host, the adult female burrows into the \"stratum corneum\" (outermost layer of skin), where she deposits two or three eggs per day. These oval eggs are long and hatch as larvae in three to four days. A female can lay up to 30 eggs, then dies at the end of a burrow. Upon hatching, the six-legged larvae migrate to the skin surface and then burrow into molting pouches, usually into hair follicles, where vesicles form (these are shorter and smaller than the adult burrows). After three to four days, the larvae molt, turning into eight-legged nymphs. This form molts a second time into slightly larger nymphs, before a final molt into adult mites. Adult mites then mate when the male penetrates the molting pouch of the female. Mating occurs only once, as that one event leaves the female fertile for the rest of her life (one to two months). The impregnated female then leaves the molting pouch in search of a suitable location for a permanent burrow. Once a site is found, the female creates her characteristic S-shaped burrow, laying eggs in the process. The female will continue lengthening her burrow and laying eggs for the duration of her life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sarcoptes scabiei or the itch mite is a parasitic mite (an arthropod) that burrows into skin and causes scabies. The mite is found in all parts of the world. Humans are not the only mammals that can become infected. Other mammals, such as wild and domesticated dogs and cats (in which it is one cause of mange) as well as ungulates, wild boars, bovids, wombats, koalas, and great apes are affected. The Italian biologists Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo and Diacinto Cestoni showed in the 17th century that scabies is caused by \"Sarcoptes scabiei\"; this discovery of the itch mite in 1687 marked scabies as the first disease of humans with a known microscopic causative agent. The disease produces intense, itchy skin rashes when the impregnated female tunnels into the stratum corneum of the skin and deposits eggs in the burrow. The larvae, which hatch in three to 10 days, move about on the skin, moult into a nymphal stage, and then mature into adult mites. The adult mites live three to four weeks in the host's skin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975960}
{"src_title": "The Cabbage Soup", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Claude Ratinier (Louis de Funès), known as Le Glaude, is an old man who lives on a small farm across the road from his long-time friend Francis Chérasse (Jean Carmet), known as Le Bombé. The two are described as the last surviving members of their breed, still living in a rural fashion while the rest of the world has modernized. They spend their days getting drunk and eating cabbage soup, while they spend their nights getting drunk and farting.  One night, their farting summons an alien (Jacques Villeret) from the planet Oxo while Le Bombé is asleep. Le Glaude is awake to welcome the alien, who can only communicate in a squealing-siren sound at first. Surprised, Le Glaude communicates with the alien through rough sign language and then sends him off with a canister full of cabbage soup. The next day, we find out that Le Bombé had seen the flying saucer and Le Glaude tells him that there was no such thing. He goes to the police but he is dismissed by them as a loony. When Le Bombé realizes that no one believes him, he becomes very sad. Worried about his friend, Le Glaude tricks him into hanging himself while he secretly cuts the rope so that he falls when he puts his weight on it in order to show Le Bombé that he doesn't want to die.  The alien returns several times because of the cabbage soup that he was given. On his planet, they eat minerals and to them cabbage soup is the most amazing thing ever. On the second meeting, the alien has learned French and we are told that on his planet they live to 200, no more, no less. But trouble brews when the alien arranges to have Le Glaude's late wife resurrected at the age of 20. She runs away to Paris with a young man within a day of her resurrection. He also duplicates Le Glaude's gold coin hundreds of times, making Glaude rich. Finally, because of the effect of the delicious cabbage soup on Oxo, the alien offers Le Glaude, Le Bombé and their cat residence on Oxo so that they could grow their cabbage and make cabbage soup. This would allow them all to live to the age of 200. Glaude initially rejects the proposition outright.  Meanwhile, the mayor of the rural town decides to modernize. He plans a new housing project directly on the old men's land. Although he threatens to put them in a cage like monkeys, he cannot convince them to give up their land. He decides to simply build around their houses and fence them off from the rest of the neighborhood. They become a thing of curiosity, with people jeering at them and throwing popcorn at them whenever they step outside of their doors. This sad destruction of their peaceful home convinces Le Glaude to accept the alien's offer.  He tells Le Bombé about their option, who is utterly unconvinced, but opens up to the idea when he sees the communicator left by the alien. Before leaving, Le Glaude makes a last stop at the post office to send his wife a package containing the gold they were given by the alien. The film ends with Le Glaude, Le Bombé, their cat and the alien flying off into space inside the flying saucer, joyous and drinking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theme song.", "content": "The theme song became popular in France, and has been remixed many times. Artist Fat Dog created a mix with Mr. Cosmic dubbed \"I'm not scoobidoobidoo\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "La Soupe aux Choux (translation: \"Cabbage Soup\") is a 1981 French film directed by Jean Girault, based on a novel by René Fallet. It was the second to last movie made by French comedian Louis de Funès.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975961}
{"src_title": "Typhoon Cobra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Meteorological history.", "content": "On December 17, the typhoon was first observed, surprising a fleet of ships in the open western Pacific Ocean. Barometric pressures as low as 26.8 inHg (907 mbar) and wind speeds up to in gusts were reported by some ships. The storm was last seen on December 18.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Task Force 38.", "content": "TF 38 consisted of seven fleet carriers, six light carriers, eight battleships, 15 cruisers, and about 50 destroyers. The carriers had been conducting raids against Japanese airfields in the Philippines and ships were being refueled, especially many destroyers, which were running low on fuel. When the storm hit, the procedure had to be aborted.  Damage to the fleet was severe. Some ships rolled more than 70 degrees. Three destroyers,,, and, had nearly empty fuel stores (10–15% of capacity) and therefore lacked the stabilizing effect of the extra weight and thus were relatively unstable. Additionally, several other destroyers, including and, were of the older \"Farragut\"-class and had been refitted with over of extra equipment and armament which made them top-heavy.  \"Spence\", \"Hull\", and \"Monaghan\" either capsized or were sunk after water flooded down their smokestacks and disabled their engines. Without power, they were unable to control their heading and were at the mercy of the wind and seas. \"Hickox\" and \"Maddox\" pumped seawater into their empty fuel tanks, adding enough stability to ride out the storm with relatively minor damage.  Many other ships of TF 38 suffered various degrees of damage, especially to radar and radio equipment which crippled communications within the fleet. Several carriers suffered fires on their hangars and 146 aircraft were wrecked or blown overboard. Nine ships – including one light cruiser, three light carriers, and two escort carriers – suffered enough damage to be sent for repairs.  The carrier was nearly taken down in flames by its own airplanes as they crashed into bulkheads and exploded during violent rolls. One of those fighting the fires aboard \"Monterey\" was then Lt. Gerald Ford, later President of the United States. Ford later recalled nearly going overboard when 20° and greater rolling caused aircraft below decks to careen into each other, igniting a fire. Ford, serving as General Quarters Officer of the Deck, was ordered to go below to assess the raging fire. He did so safely, and reported his findings back to the ship's commanding officer, Captain Stuart Ingersoll. The ship's crew was able to contain the fire, and the ship got underway again.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rescue efforts.", "content": "The fleet was scattered by the storm. One ship, the destroyer escort, encountered and rescued a survivor from \"Hull\" while itself desperately fighting the typhoon. This was the first survivor from any of the capsized destroyers to be picked up. Shortly thereafter, many more survivors were picked up, in groups or in isolation. \"Tabberer\"s skipper – Lieutenant Commander Henry Lee Plage – directed that the ship, despite its own dire condition, begin boxed searches to look for more survivors.  \"Tabberer\" eventually rescued 55 survivors in a 51-hour search, despite repeated orders from Admiral Halsey to return all ships to port in Ulithi. She picked up 41 men from \"Hull\" and 14 from \"Spence\" before finally returning to Ulithi after being directly relieved from the search by two destroyer escorts.  After the fleet had regrouped (without \"Tabberer\"), ships and aircraft conducted search and rescue missions. The destroyer rescued the only survivors from \"Monaghan\", six in total. She additionally rescued 13 sailors from \"Hull\". Eighteen other survivors from \"Hull\" and \"Spence\" were rescued over the three days following Typhoon Cobra by other ships of the 3rd Fleet. The destroyer emerged from the storm undamaged and began looking for survivors before returning to Ulithi on Christmas Eve. In all, 93 men were rescued of the over 800 men presumed missing in the three ships, and two others who had been swept overboard from the escort carrier.  Despite disobeying fleet orders, Plage was awarded the Legion of Merit by Admiral Halsey, and \"Tabberer\"'s crew each were awarded Navy Unit Commendation ribbons (the first ever awarded).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Investigation.", "content": "While conducting refuelling operations off the Philippines, the Third Fleet remained on station rather than breaking up and seeking shelter from the storm. This led to a severe loss of men, ships, and aircraft. A Court of Inquiry was convened on board the \"USS Cascade\" at the Naval base at Ulithi, in the Caroline Islands, with Admiral Nimitz, CINCPAC, in attendance at the court. Forty-three-year-old Captain Herbert K. Gates was the Judge Advocate for the court. The Court found that though Halsey had committed an \"error of judgement\" in sailing the Third Fleet into the heart of the typhoon, it stopped short of unambiguously recommending sanction. In January 1945, Halsey passed command of the Third Fleet to Admiral Raymond A. Spruance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "A typhoon plays an important role in the novel \"The Caine Mutiny\", which is thought to be based on the author's own experience surviving Typhoon Cobra.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Typhoon Cobra, also known as the Typhoon of 1944 or Halsey's Typhoon (named after Admiral William 'Bull' Halsey), was the United States Navy designation for a powerful tropical cyclone that struck the United States Pacific Fleet in December 1944, during World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975962}
{"src_title": "Catholic Church in the Czech Republic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "According to the 2011 census, there were 1.08 million Catholics in the country representing about 1/10 of the total population. There are eight dioceses including two archdiocese. In addition, there is a separate jurisdiction for those of the Byzantine Rite called the Ruthenian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Czech Republic. Although the Catholic Church is the largest Christian religious grouping in the country, Czechs have historically resented the church for various reasons, especially the strong Hussite ethos and the staunch Catholicism of the oppressive Habsburg rule.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Protestant Bohemia vs. the Habsburgs.", "content": "After the death of Jan Hus in 1415, the Czechs were mostly Hussite, a diverse sect which was considered heretical by the Catholic Church. The Hussite wars were fought over religious freedom in Bohemia as five consecutive crusades ordered by the Pope failed miserably. The majority of Hussites (the Utraquists) eventually made peace with Rome in the Religious peace of Kutna Hora of 1485. However, the Unity of the Brethren, founded in 1457, maintained a radical course and eventually played an important role in the Protestant Reformation and widely disseminating its principles. By the end of the 16th century, less than 20% of the population remained Catholic. After their defeat in the 1620 Battle of the White Mountain, Bohemia and Moravia were subjugated and forcefully re-converted to Catholicism by the imperial authorities, with Protestantism all but vanquished. The Czechs were made once again majority Catholic until after World War I (although many openly resented the church and were forced to hold a membership to avoid persecution, especially under the Habsburgs), when anti-Catholicism fed by nationalist anti-German sentiment and national revival perceiving the Church as historical enemy caused mass defections from the Church.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Following World War II.", "content": "The reconstituted Protestant Hussite Church and the Czech Brethren were major beneficiaries of this defection from Catholicism until after World War II, when the overall belief in organized religion started to fall steeply. In addition, the Sudeten Germans, who were those Austrians who ended up within Czech borders after World War I, were mostly Catholics, and their expulsion after World War II also reduced the Church's presence. Over 90% Catholic in 1910, the Czech Republic is now reduced to some 10%.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Communist regime.", "content": "The Communist regime, which seized power in 1948 in what was then Czechoslovakia, confiscated all the property owned by churches and persecuted many priests. Churches were then allowed to function only under the state's strict control and supervision and priests' salaries paid by the state. Churches were seized, priests jailed or executed and those allowed to celebrate liturgies did so under the supervision of the secret police. After the Velvet Revolution, some churches and monasteries were returned, but the churches have since sought to get back other assets such as farms, woodlands and buildings.  During the Communist regime, various underground Catholic movements existed. Among these is the Koinotes group, centered on Bishop Felix Davidek, whose vicar general was Ludmila Javorová, ordained by him to the presbyterate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012 Agreement.", "content": "In January 2012 the Czech government agreed to pay billions of dollars in compensation for property seized by the former totalitarian regime from the Church. The compensation plan was to be spread over 30 years  Under the plan, the country's 17 churches, including Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox, would get 56 percent of their former property now held by the state – estimated at 75 billion koruna ($3.7 billion) – and 59 billion koruna ($2.9 billion) in financial compensation paid to them over the next 30 years. Eighty percent of funds and property will go the Catholic Church, by far the biggest recipient. The state will also gradually stop covering their expenses over the next 17. In 2008, a similar bill was approved by the government but Parliament rejected it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "About 200 of the Czech Republic's 1,370 priests are from neighbouring Poland.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Catholic Church in the Czech Republic is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope, curia in Rome, and the Conference of Czech Bishops.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975963}
{"src_title": "Sedlec Ossuary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1278, Henry, the abbot of the Cistercian monastery in Sedlec, was sent to the Holy Land by King Otakar II of Bohemia. He returned with a small amount of earth he had removed from Golgotha and sprinkled it over the abbey cemetery. The word of this pious act soon spread and the cemetery in Sedlec became a desirable burial site throughout Central Europe.  In the mid 14th century, during the Black Death, and after the Hussite Wars in the early 15th century, many thousands were buried in the abbey cemetery, so it had to be greatly enlarged.  Around 1400, a Gothic church was built in the center of the cemetery with a vaulted upper level and a lower chapel to be used as an ossuary for the mass graves unearthed during construction, or simply slated for demolition to make room for new burials.  After 1511, the task of exhuming skeletons and stacking their bones in the chapel was given to a half-blind monk of the order.  Between 1703 and 1710, a new entrance was constructed to support the front wall, which was leaning outward, and the upper chapel was rebuilt. This work, in the Czech Baroque style, was designed by Jan Santini Aichel.  In 1870, František Rint, a woodcarver, was employed by the Schwarzenberg family to put the bone heaps into order, yielding a macabre result. The signature of Rint, also executed in bone, appears on the wall near the entrance to the chapel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In media.", "content": "In 1970, the centenary of Rint's contributions, Czech filmmaker Jan Švankmajer was commissioned to document the ossuary. The result was a 10-minute-long frantic-cut film of skeletal images overdubbed with an actual tour-guide's neutral voice narration. This version was initially banned by the Czech Communist authorities for alleged subversion, and the soundtrack was replaced by a brief spoken introduction and a jazz arrangement by Zdeněk Liška of the poem \"Comment dessiner le portrait d'un oiseau\" (\"How to Draw the Portrait of a Bird\") by Jacques Prévert. Since the Velvet Revolution, the original tour guide soundtrack has been made available.  In the documentary \"Long Way Round\", Ewan McGregor and Charley Boorman stop to see this church. Dan Cruickshank also views the church in his \"Adventures in Architecture\".  The ossuary is a major plot device in the John Connolly novel \"The Black Angel\".  The ossuary is used as a location for the \"Dungeons & Dragons\" movie and the movie \"Blood & Chocolate\".  The ossuary was also featured in \"Ripley's Believe it or Not\" and is described by Cara Seymour in the final scene of the film \"Adaptation.\"  The ossuary was also the influence for Dr. Satan's lair in the Rob Zombie film \"House of 1000 Corpses\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sedlec Ossuary (; ) is a small Roman Catholic chapel, located beneath the Cemetery Church of All Saints (Czech: \"Hřbitovní kostel Všech Svatých\"), part of the former Sedlec Abbey in Sedlec, a suburb of Kutná Hora in the Czech Republic. The ossuary is estimated to contain the skeletons of between 40,000 and 70,000 people, whose bones have, in many cases, been artistically arranged to form decorations and furnishings for the chapel. The ossuary is among the most visited tourist attractions of the Czech Republic - attracting over 200,000 visitors annually. Four enormous bell-shaped mounds occupy the corners of the chapel. An enormous chandelier of bones, which contains at least one of every bone in the human body, hangs from the center of the nave with garlands of skulls draping the vault. Other works include piers and monstrances flanking the altar, a coat of arms of the House of Schwarzenberg, and the signature of František Rint, also executed in bone, on the wall near the entrance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975964}
{"src_title": "Opinion leadership", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "Merton distinguishes two types of opinion leadership: monomorphic and polymorphic. Typically, opinion leadership is viewed as a monomorphic, domain-specific measure of individual differences, that is, a person that is an opinion leader in one field may be a follower in another field. An example of a monomorphic opinion leader in the field of computer technology, might be a neighborhood computer service technician. The technician has access to far more information on this topic than the average consumer and has the requisite background to understand the information, though the same person might be a follower at another field (for example sports) and ask others for advice. In contrast, polymorphic opinion leaders are able to influence others in a broad range of domains. Variants of polymorphic opinion leadership include market mavenism, personality strength and generalized opinion leadership. So far, there is little consensus as to the degree these concepts operationalize the same or simply related constructs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "In his article \"The Two Step Flow of Communication\", Elihu Katz, found opinion leaders to have more influence on people's opinions, actions, and behaviors than the media. Opinion leaders are seen to have more influence than the media for a number of reasons. Opinion leaders are seen as trustworthy and non-purposive. People do not feel they are being tricked into thinking a certain way about something if they get information from someone they know. However, the media can be seen as forcing a concept on the public and therefore will be less influential. While the media can act as a reinforcing agent, opinion leaders have a more changing or determining role in an individual's opinion or action.  This does not mean that opinion leaders can be always easily used by external agents to promote what they want to promote. Influential individuals might not be willing to change their behavior and may even lose their opinion leader status, if they do.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Factors for leadership.", "content": "In his article, Elihu Katz answers the question, \"Who is an opinion leader?\" One or more of these factors make noteworthy opinion leaders:  There are personal characteristics that make up an opinion leader. Opinion leaders are individuals who obtain more media coverage than others and are especially educated on a certain issue. Opinion leaders that utilize social media are more likely to be introverted. Introverts don't receive as much interpersonal interaction offline. They can compensate by creating a controllable network of followers to interact with and gain recognition from in a social context. Opinion leaders seek the acceptance of others and are especially motivated to enhance their social status. Public individualism is the idea that an individual will act different from other because they are different. Kenny K. Chan and Shekhar Misra found opinion leaders possess this trait. “The individuation process and this personal-influence process both involve a reciprocal interchange which involve a willingness to stand out in a group situation.\" An opinion leader’s willingness to stand out is what sets them apart from their followers. In the jargon of public relations, they are called thought leaders. Research has also found that opinion leaders tend to be boundary spanners.  In relation to their followers, opinion leaders maintain a particular degree of separation in terms of socio-economic status. According to Gershon Feder and Sara Savastano, it is not effective for leaders to be a part of the same socio-economic status as followers. “opinion leaders who are superior to followers, but not excessively so, are more effective in transmitting knowledge.” Meanwhile the leader must be close enough in standing to relate to the followers they want to influence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "In a strategic attempt to engage the public in environmental issues and his nonprofit, The Climate Project, Al Gore used the concept of opinion leaders. Gore found opinion leaders by recruiting individuals who were educated on environmental issues and saw themselves as influential in their community and amongst their friends and family. From there, he trained the opinion leaders on the information he wanted them to spread and enabled them to influence their communities. By using opinion leaders, Gore was able to educate and influence many Americans to take notice of climate change and change their actions.  Matthew Nisbet describes the use of opinion leaders as intermediaries between scientists and the public as a way to reach the public via trained individuals who are more closely engaged with their communities, such as \"teachers, business leaders, attorneys, policymakers, neighborhood leaders, students, and media professionals.\" Examples of initiatives that take this approach include Science & Engineering Ambassadors, sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences, and Science Booster Clubs, coordinated by the National Center for Science Education.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Opinion leadership is leadership by an active media user who interprets the meaning of media messages or content for lower-end media users. Typically the opinion leader is held in high esteem by those who accept their opinions. Opinion leadership comes from the theory of two-step flow of communication propounded by Paul Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz. Significant developers of the theory have been Robert K. Merton, C. Wright Mills and Bernard Berelson. This theory is one of several models that try to explain the diffusion of innovations, ideas, or commercial products.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975965}
{"src_title": "Truck racing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The sport started in the United States at the Atlanta Motor Speedway on June 17, 1979 and was the opening scene in the movie \"Smokey and the Bandit II\".  Maximum race speed is restricted to 160 km/h (100 mph) for safety reasons, and a minimum weight limit is 5500 kg. Races start from a rolling start, and commonly races last from 8 to 12 laps. Although a non contact sport, due to the physical size, and closeness of trucks to one another during races, minor collisions can often occur. However, injuries to drivers are very rare.  Unlike other forms of motor sport aside from touring car racing, race trucks look like their road-going counterparts and conform to regulations to ensure that major components used are the same.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "North America.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "As a sanctioned sport it began as ATRA (American Truck Racing Association) in 1979 then was sold to N. Linn Henndershott in 1982 and it became the Great American Truck Racing circuit. The races were run on dirt and paved ovals mostly in the Eastern United States. The trucks used in the beginning were actually working trucks with tandem rear axles and used street tires yet still attained speeds of 150 mph (241 km/h) on the front straight at Pocono Raceway and set the closed course record of 132 mph (212 km/h) in qualifying at Texas World Speedway by Charlie Baker on March 21, 1982.  After 1986 when the series was bought by Glenn Donnelly of DIRT (Drivers Independent Race Tracks) the GATR trucks became highly modified with the bodies being cut and lowered, losing the tag axle and shedding more than 2,000 pounds in weight. The last sanctioned GATR race in the US was in July 1993 at Rolling Wheels NY.  The Bandit Big Rig Series debuted in the United States in 2017, giving America its first truck race series since GATR in 1993. The Minimizer Bandit Big Rig Series had 13 races in his first (2017) season, with historic tracks Hickory Motor Speedway and Greenville-Pickens Speedway included on the schedule.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mexico.", "content": "Mexico also started its own truck racing version called Tractocamiones, which ran from 1992 to 2000 and was revived in 2015 as Campeonato Tractocamiones Freightliner. Notable international drivers that have raced in the series include former Champ Car race winner Michel Jourdain Jr., former F1 driver Allen Berg, Indy 500 Rookie of the year Bernard Jourdain, the late Carlos Pardo, Rubén Pardo, Jorge Goeters, Carlos Contreras, Abraham Calderón and Jimmy Morales among others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "The FIA European Truck Racing Championship was created in 1985.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Britain.", "content": "In Britain, in the last few years the profile of truck racing has increased, and currently over 30 teams regularly compete. The sporting regulations came under the control of the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) later, to ensure that the vehicles conform to the layout and original style of the truck, whilst defining the safety standards required to race.  The makes of truck currently represented in truck racing cover most of the common marques over the last 20 years.  The regulations allow for trucks to compete in two classes, so trucks with less sophisticated engine management systems, suspension, and braking systems can compete effectively.  The organising body for truck racing in the United Kingdom is the British Truck Racing Association founded in 1984. The British Championships and race events are organised by the British Automobile Racing Club.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "South America.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brazil.", "content": "In Brazil, the Fórmula Truck had been held between 1996 and 2017 when the series was folded in May of 2017 (after only 3 races that year). It featured several factory teams. Starting in 2017, it was created the Copa Truck replacing the former Formula Truck, almost every driver and factory teams of the former series entered in Copa Truck.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Asia.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "India.", "content": "T1 Prima Truck Racing Championship is a truck racing championship in India by Tata Motors. This was also on the calendar of Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) and Federation of Motor Sports Clubs of India (FMSCI). This event was held 23 March 2014 at Buddh International Circuit, Greater Noida.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other formats.", "content": "Trucks also are very popular in rally raid as a separate category (Group T4) for example in Dakar Rally and others rally raids.  In France, trucks are very common in different types of off-road racing, like the \"camion cross\" (trucks cross in English), similar to rallycross but with trucks instead.  Also in Europe, it is popular the (truck trials), like Motorcycle trials but with trucks. They have an european championship called Europe Truck Trial.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Truck racing is a form of motorsport road racing which involves modified versions of heavy tractor units on road racing or oval track circuits.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975966}
{"src_title": "Deep-submergence rescue vehicle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "List of deep submergence rescue vehicles.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Australian models.", "content": "ASRV \"Remora\" (\"Really Excellent Method Of Rescuing Aussies\") was the Australian navy's DSRV. It is based on a diving bell design.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chinese models.", "content": "The People's Republic of China has three Type 925 Dajiang class and three Type 926 class. Each ship is equipped with either two Type 7103 DSRV or one LR7 manned submersible undersea rescue vehicle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "European models.", "content": "France, Norway and the UK share the NATO Submarine Rescue System programme.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italian models.", "content": "Italy operates, equipped with the SRV-300 submersible in a submarine rescue role", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Swedish models.", "content": "The Swedish Navy operates the submarine rescue ship which can carry the Swedish submarine rescue vessel URF (Swedish: \"Ubåtsräddningsfarkost\") as well as the British LR5.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "United Kingdom models.", "content": "The United Kingdom operates the LR5 submersible in a submarine rescue role. It previously operated the Slingsby Engineering built LR3.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Indian models.", "content": "The Indian Navy inducted its first DSRV in November 2018. A second DSRV is scheduled to be inducted in 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Japanese models.", "content": "The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force operate two DSRVs with dedicated mother ships.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Korean model.", "content": "The Korean navy operates a submarine rescue ship called \"Cheong Haejin\". It has a dedicated mother ship. The model is based on a modified British design.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Russian models.", "content": "Russia is believed to have one vessel of the \"Bester\" class and five of the \"Priz\" class, which was involved in the failed attempt to rescue the crew of \"Kursk\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Singapore model.", "content": ", launched 29 November 2008, is Singapore's first and only submarine recovery vessel. It is equipped with a deep submergence rescue vehicle.  The vessel consisted of a Submarine Support and Rescue Vessel (SSRV) SSRV mother vessel proper and an integrated Submarine Rescue Vehicle (SRV), built by ST Marine at its Benoi Shipbuilding Yard in Singapore with its UK joint venture partner JFD based on its proprietary Deep Search and Rescue (DSAR) 500 Class submarine rescue vehicle platform, It also has an underwater drone ROV and a helipad.  The Republic Of Singapore Navy has signed submarine rescue agreement with Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, United States to assist in submarine rescue efforts for their respective submarine fleets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States models.", "content": "The mode of deployment for these United States submersibles is: fly the vehicle to the port closest to the incident; attach the vehicle to a host submarine; the host submarine travels to the incident site; rescue. The DSRVs were originally designed to work with and, but those two vessels have since been decommissioned and replaced by the Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "The Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV) is designed to rescue 24 people at a time at depths of up to. Their maximum operating depth is. Power is provided by two large batteries, one fore, and one aft that power the electrical, hydraulic and life support systems. The DSRV uses mercury in a completely sealed system to allow themselves to match any angle (up to 45°) in both pitch and roll so as to \"mate\" (attach) to a downed submarine that may be at an angle on the sea floor. The DSRV is capable of being transported by Air Force C-5 to anywhere in the world within 24 hours.  It is then loaded onto a \"Mother Submarine\" (MOSUB). The MOSUB then carries the DSRV to the rescue site where several trips are made to rescue all personnel. Rescue is usually accomplished by ferrying rescuees from the stranded sub to the MOSUB, however, they can also be taken to a properly equipped surface support ship.  In addition to a number of U.S. Navy submarines being outfitted for MOSUB capabilities, several NATO countries also have submarines outfitted to carry the U.S. Navy DSRV for rescue capability as needed. Both the UK and French Navies have such submarines.  The interior of the DSRV is composed of three spheres. The forward sphere is the \"Control Sphere\" where the DSRV's pilot and copilot operate the vehicle. The two aft spheres (known as Mid Sphere and Aft Sphere) are used to seat the rescuees or to install equipment for additional operations. Maneuvering is accomplished using four thrusters and one main propeller.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "A deep-submergence rescue vehicle (DSRV) is a type of deep-submergence vehicle used for rescue of downed submarines and clandestine missions. While DSRV is the term most often used by the United States Navy, other nations have different designations for their vehicles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975967}
{"src_title": "Škoda 1000 MB", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "New layout introduction.", "content": "In 1955, the same year in which the Škoda 440/445 made its first appearance, Škoda started making plans for a new car for the 1960s. The initial plans for the car were to make the car as light and fuel-efficient as possible: it was to weigh no more than 700 kg, and the overall fuel consumption was not to exceed 6-7 litres per 100 kilometres (33-38mpg).  The next step was to produce the car as a four-door saloon, which would be built using monocoque construction. Like most leading car manufacturers dating from before the Second World War, Škoda always built their cars using the traditional and well-proven front-engine and rear-wheel drive layout.  The \"front-engined-with-front-wheel-drive\" option was unsuccessful due higher cost and design complexity, and therefore Škoda opted for the rear-engined-with-rear-wheel-drive format. Even by the early 1960s, the idea of rear-engined small family saloons was still considered to be reasonably popular. In France, there were the Renault Dauphine, Renault 8 and Simca 1000, while in Germany there were the Volkswagen Beetle and NSU Prinz, in Italy there were the Fiats 500 and 600, and in Britain there was the Hillman Imp, all of which employed the rear-engined concept.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "A new era for Škoda.", "content": "The Škoda 1000 MB (the letters ‘MB’ coming from the initials of Mladá Boleslav) made its debut in April 1964, as the successor for the Škoda Octavia. This was just the beginning of what was to eventually evolve into a long line of rear-engined Škodas. The engine that powered the 1000 MB was a 988cc (1-litre), 4-cylinder, overhead valve (OHV) unit that produced. It was water-cooled, with an aluminum cylinder block and cast iron cylinder head. The 1000 MB had a four-speed manual all-synchromesh gearbox, all-round independent suspension, swing axle rear suspension, and drum brakes at the front and rear.  The 1000 MB was a stylish four-door saloon (measuring 13 feet 8 inches in length and 5 feet 4 inches in width, with a wheelbase of 7 feet 10 inches), which featured a steeply sloping nose that was flanked by rounded front wings (not unlike the Ford Anglia 105E of the time). Being a rear-engined car, the 1000 MB's radiator and (engine-driven) cooling fan were situated in the rear engine compartment, so therefore a series of slats were cut into each rear wing and the rear panel to increase the flow rate of air in order to assist in keeping the engine cool. Apart from the use of cooling vents in the rear wings and rear panel, everything else about the 1000 MB's styling was normal, which was undoubtedly in an attempt to appeal to all the conservative-minded buyers in export countries like the UK. This car was highly successful both for Škoda and the Czech economy.  By early 1965, the British were starting to receive the 1000 MB, which was being priced at a reasonable £579, which worked out cheaper than similarly-sized four-door saloons like the Ford Cortina 1200 (at £592) and the Hillman Minx Deluxe (at £636). Despite being affordably priced, the 1000 MB was well equipped, with reclining front seats, a heater and demister, full tool kit, and a generously sized boot up front as well as a useful storage area behind the split/folding rear seat. Many salesman rightly stated over the years that the 1000 MB was “a lot of car for the money.”  The 1000 MB's overall performance was acceptable, especially when you remember how small an engine it had for a car of its size (as mentioned, a 1-litre engine in a car 13 feet 8 inches long by 5 feet 3 inches wide). The top speed was 120 km/h (75 mph), reaching 100 km/h (62 mph) from standstill in 27 seconds. Overall fuel economy was around 36 miles per gallon (6.5 litres per 100 km).  By the late 1960s, Škoda felt it was time for an update of the ‘MB series, which they did with the introduction of the Škoda 100 and Škoda 110 in August 1969. By the time it was updated, a total of 443,141 ‘MBs were built. The ‘MBX series was produced in very limited numbers (2,517 in total) and is therefore an extreme rarity these days.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Škoda 1000 MB and Škoda 1100 MB are two rear-engined, rear-wheel drive small family cars that were produced by Czechoslovak manufacturer AZNP in Mladá Boleslav between 1964 and 1969. The 2-door coupé versions of the 1000 MB and 1100 MB were called the 1000 MBX and 1100 MBX.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975968}
{"src_title": "Xenoturbella", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Xenoturbella\" has a very simple body plan. It consists of dorsoventrally flattened acoelomate animals, with an anterior circumferential furrow. It shows two ciliated epithelial layers: an external epidermis and an internal gastrodermis lining the simple sac-like gut. The multiciliated epiderm displays unique interconnected ciliary rootlets and mode of withdrawal and resorption of worn epidermal cells. The mouth is a mid-ventral pore leading to a gastral cavity, and there is no anus: waste is dispelled through the same opening as food is taken in.  The nervous system is composed by a net of interconnected neurons beneath the epidermis, without any concentration of neurons forming ganglia or nerve cords.  Species of \"Xenoturbella\" also lack a respiratory, circulatory and excretory system. In fact, there are no defined organs, except for an anterior statocyst containing flagellated cells and a frontal pore organ. There are no organized gonads, but gametes are produced. Adults producing sperm are very rarely observed, but eggs and embryos are known to occur in follicles.  Eggs of \"Xenoturbella\" are wide, pale orange and opaque. Newly hatched embryos are free-swimming (tending to stay close to water surface) and ciliated. They feature no mouth and they do not apparently feed. They are similar to the juveniles of acoelomate \"Neochildia fusca\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Systematics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The term \"Xenoturbella\" derives from the Ancient Greek word (), meaning \"strange, unusual\", and from the Latin word \"turbella\" meaning \"stir, bustle\". This refers to the enigmatic, unusual taxonomic status of the animal, initially considered as related to turbellarians, a group of flatworms whose aquatic species stir microscopic particles close to their ciliated epidermis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Currently the genus \"Xenoturbella\" contains 6 recognized species:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Among species.", "content": "To date, the genus \"Xenoturbella\" is composed of six species distributed into a shallow-water clade — three species up to — and a deep-water clade — three species deeper than.  The two smaller species, \"X. bocki\" and \"X. hollandorum\", which are up to long, are found in shallower waters less than deep. They form a clade together with a third species, \"X. japonica\", which is slightly over long and was found in waters less than deep. Three larger species, \"X. monstrosa\", \"X. churro\", and \"X. profunda\", which were or greater long and lived in deeper waters, form another clade.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Among animals.", "content": "The systematic and phylogenetic position of \"Xenoturbella\" among animals has been considered enigmatic since its discovery. An early DNA analysis suggested a close relationship to molluscs, but it was probably a result from contamination with DNA of molluscs that \"Xenoturbella\" consumes.  A subsequent study suggested a placement of the genus in its own phylum, Xenoturbellida, as a deuterostome clade and sister group to the Ambulacraria. The deuterostome affiliations were then recovered by studies that indicate a basal position of this phylum within the deuterostomes or in a sister group relationship with the Ambulacraria.  However, morphological characters, such as the structure of epidermal cilia, suggested a close relationship with Acoelomorpha, another problematic group. The study of the embryonic stages of \"Xenoturbella\" also showed that it is a direct developer without a feeding larval stage, and this developmental mode is similar to that of acoelomorphs. Molecular studies based on the concatenation of hundreds of proteins revealed indeed a monophyletic group composed by \"Xenoturbella\" and Acoelomorpha. This clade was named Xenacoelomorpha.  The monophyly of Xenacoelomorpha soon became established, but its position as either a basal bilaterian clade or a deuterostome remained unresolved until 2016 when two new studies, with increased gene and taxon sampling, again placed \"Xenoturbella\" as the sister group of Acoelomorpha within Xenacoelomorpha, and placed Xenacoelomorpha as sister to Nephrozoa (Protostomia plus Deuterostomia), and therefore the basalmost bilaterian phylum.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Xenoturbella is a genus of very simple bilaterians up to a few centimeters long. It contains a small number of marine benthic worm-like species.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975969}
{"src_title": "Werner Faymann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Werner Faymann was born in Vienna and also attended grammar school there. After graduating from grammar school he enrolled at the University of Vienna (jurisprudence, political science, and history of art).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1981, Faymann became provincial chairman of the Socialist Youth Vienna (Sozialistische Jugend Wien). From 1985 to 1988 Faymann was a consultant to the bank Zentralsparkasse der Gemeinde Wien (now UniCredit Bank Austria AG). The bank at the time was closely linked to the municipal government dominated by the Social Democrats. He left the bank to become director and provincial chairman of the Viennese Tenants' counselling.  Subsequently, Faymann became a member of the Viennese state parliament and municipal council, where he held various positions concerning housing construction and urban renewal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minister of Transport, 2007–08.", "content": "Faymann was Minister for Transport, Innovation and Technology in the Cabinet of Chancellor Alfred Gusenbauer. Moreover, Gusenbauer appointed him as coalition co-ordinator.  Soon Faymann was seen as the likely successor of Gusenbauer. He never challenged Gusenbauer openly, but the chancellor faced an internal party rebellion in June 2008 and voluntarily relinquished the party leadership. On 16 June 2008 Faymann succeeded Gusenbauer as chairman of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) and led the party in the snap legislative elections, held on 28 September 2008.  The election was famously preceded by Faymann and Gusenbauer announcing a shift in the party's position towards the signing of new EU treaties, which they did by writing an open letter to Hans Dichand, the editor of the yellow press medium Kronen Zeitung. At the time, the Kronen Zeitung was the largest newspaper in the country. The letter caused a scandal within the party, as no party committee had been involved in deciding the shift.  The pro-EU Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) cancelled the existing coalition, thus causing new elections. Faymann was known for his good relationship to Dichand, who would also support him in the following election campaign. Although the SPÖ lost 11 seats, and had a 6% swing against it (in fact, their worst result since World War II), they came out ahead of their main rivals Austrian People's Party in regard to seats (57 to 51) as well as to share of the vote (29.26% to 25.98%). Afterwards, Faymann renewed the coalition with the Austrian People's Party, as he had announced before the election.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chancellor of Austria, 2008–2016.", "content": "As head of the largest party in the National Council of Austria, Faymann was asked by Federal President Heinz Fischer on 8 October 2008 to form a new government.  A coalition between the SPÖ and the ÖVP was agreed upon on 23 November 2008 and was sworn in on 2 December 2008.  In 2012, Austria's government curbed the remit of a parliamentary investigation into high-level corruption and ensured Faymann was not called to testify.  In 2013, public prosecutors were looking into whether Faymann and a top aide, Josef Ostermayer, had swayed the ÖBB state railways and ASFiNAG motorway agency to place advertisements promoting him in newspapers during his tenure as infrastructure minister. Both had repeatedly denied any wrongdoing in the breach of trust case, which the opposition Freedom Party (FPÖ) had asked prosecutors to investigate. By November 2013, Austrian authorities dropped their investigation.  On 9 May 2016, Faymann resigned as chancellor and party leader, after losing confidence from a considerable number of party members, despite retaining confidence from a majority of them. His party's candidate and the candidate from its coalition partner, the People's Party, were both historically eliminated in the first round of the presidential elections held on 24 April 2016, resulting in a run-off between Norbert Hofer of the right-wing populist Freedom Party of Austria and Alexander Van der Bellen, an independent endorsed by The Greens. Hofer announced that as president he could dissolve the National Council in order to hold elections, which would at the time probably have led to a win of the populists and thereby forced Faymann to resign.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political positions.", "content": "During his tenure, Faymann is said to have moved his once solidly pro-European party toward a more eurosceptic course, but he kept his distance from the far-right parties. In domestic affairs, Faymann's administration was notable in enacting a wide range of reforms in areas such as education and social security.  Initially, Faymann sided with German Chancellor Angela Merkel in supporting the thousands of refugees fleeing wars in countries such as Syria and seeking asylum in Europe. Austria took in around 90,000 asylum-seekers in 2015, then more than 1 percent of its population. However, support for his policies fell, and the country's institutions struggled to cope with hundreds of thousands of arrivals in Austria, and he later criticized what he called Merkel's \"wait-and-see\" approach to tackling Europe's economic problems and demanded a more aggressive push to combat unemployment in Europe. Measures to halt immigration inflows along the so-called \"Balkan route\" subsequently strained relations between the two countries. The reversal angered parts of the Social Democrats but failed to stop Norbert Hofer, a right-wing politician, from taking more than 35 per cent of the vote in the first round of the 2016 presidential election, then the highest vote that the party had ever secured in a national poll.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life after politics.", "content": "In August 2016, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon appointed Faymann as the United Nations' Special Envoy on Youth Unemployment. In this capacity, he works closely with Ahmad Alhendawi, the Secretary-General's Envoy on Youth.  In September 2016, Faymann and his former spokesperson Matthias Euler-Rolle founded their own communications consultancy in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "In a media interview published amid the European migrant crisis in September 2015, Faymann said Hungary's decision to tell refugees that a train they were boarding was bound for the capital Budapest when in fact it was heading to a refugee camp was reminiscent \"of the darkest chapter of our continent's history\". In response to this comparison with Nazi deportations, Hungary summoned the Austrian ambassador.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Faymann is Roman Catholic. He is in his second marriage and has two children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Werner Faymann (; born 4 May 1960) is a former Austrian politician who was Chancellor of Austria and chairman of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) from 2008 to 2016. On 9 May 2016, Faymann resigned from both positions amid widening criticism within his party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975970}
{"src_title": "George Washington-class submarine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "In 1957, the US Navy began using submarines in the nuclear deterrent role, when a pair of World War II vintage diesel-electric boats, and, converted to be able to carry a pair of Regulus cruise missiles, began operating deterrent patrols. These two were soon joined by a pair of purpose built diesel boats, and a nuclear powered boat,. However, the use of Regulus in the deterrent role showed a number of limitations; as a cruise missile, it was vulnerable to interception by fighter aircraft, it was limited to subsonic speed, and had a range of less than 1000 km, while the largest of the Regulus armed boats could carry a maximum of five missiles. Additionally, the submarine had to surface to launch a missile, and the missile was guided by a radio signal transmitted from either ship, aircraft or ground station. To over come these limitations, the Navy turned to ballistic missiles.  The commissioning of \"George Washington\" on 30 December 1959, the first submarine Polaris launch on 20 July 1960, and her first deterrent patrol November 1960-January 1961 were the culmination of four years of intense effort. The Navy initially worked on a sea-based variant of the US Army Jupiter intermediate-range ballistic missile, projecting four of the large, liquid-fueled missiles per submarine. Rear Admiral W. F. \"Red\" Raborn was appointed by Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke to head a Special Project Office to develop Jupiter for the Navy, beginning in late 1955. However, at the Project Nobska submarine warfare conference in 1956, physicist Edward Teller stated that a compact one-megaton warhead could be produced for the relatively small, solid-fueled Polaris missile, and this prompted the Navy to leave the Jupiter program in December of that year. Soon Admiral Burke concentrated all Navy strategic research on Polaris, still under Admiral Raborn's Special Project Office. The problems of submerged launch, designing a submarine for 16 missiles, precise navigation for accurate missile targeting, and numerous others were all solved quickly. By comparison, the contemporary Soviet Golf- and Hotel-class ballistic missile submarines only carried three missiles each; the Soviets did not commission an SSBN comparable to the George Washington class until 1967 with the introduction of the Yankee-class submarines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The Navy ordered a class of nuclear-powered submarines armed with long-range strategic missiles on 31 December 1957, and tasked Electric Boat with converting two existing attack submarine hulls to ballistic missile-carrying boats to quickly create the deterrent force. To accomplish this conversion, Electric Boat persuaded the Navy in January 1958 to slip the launch dates for two fast attack submarines, the just-begun and the not-yet-started. On 12 February 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized funding for three ballistic missile submarines.  The \"George Washington\"s were essentially \"Skipjack\"s with a missile compartment, inserted between the ship's control/navigation areas and the nuclear reactor compartment. In the case of the lead ship,, that was literally the case: the keel already laid by Electric Boat at Groton, Connecticut for \"Scorpion\" was cut apart and extended to become the keel for \"George Washington\". Then Electric Boat and Mare Island Naval Shipyard began construction of one other boat each from extended plans. President Eisenhower authorized construction of two more submarines on 29 July 1958. Newport News Shipbuilding and Portsmouth Naval Shipyard began work immediately.  The \"George Washington\"s carried the Polaris A1 missile on their patrols until 2 June 1964, when she changed out her A1 missiles for Polaris A3s. The last member of this class, swapped out her A1s for A3s on 14 October 1965.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Withdrawal from strategic role.", "content": "By the end of 1979, to make room within the limitations imposed by SALT II for the ballistic missile submarines, and performing shortened patrols of six weeks due to reduced reactor fuel, \"Theodore Roosevelt\" and \"Abraham Lincoln\" offloaded their missiles at the newly-established Explosives Handling Wharf at Bangor, Washington. Eventually their missile compartments were completely removed and they were decommissioned by the end of 1982. For the same reason, by 1983 \"George Washington\",, and had their missiles removed and were reclassified as attack submarines nicknamed, \"slow attacks\", a role in which they served briefly in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii prior to being decommissioned by early 1985.  \"George Washington\"'s sail is preserved at the Submarine Force Library and Museum at Groton, Connecticut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Boats in class.", "content": "Submarines of the \"George Washington\" class:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"George Washington\" class was a class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines deployed by the United States Navy. The \"George Washington\", along with the later,,, and classes, comprised the \"41 for Freedom\" group of submarines that represented the Navy's main contribution to the nuclear deterrent force through the late 1980s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975971}
{"src_title": "Johannes Cuspinian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "In 1490 he matriculated at the University of Leipzig, went to the University of Vienna (1493) to continue his humanistic studies, and in 1494 entered there on a course of medicine. At this early age he edited the \"\"Liber Hymnorum\"\" of Prudentius, and made a reputation by his lectures on Virgil, Horace, Sallust, and Cicero.  He was acquainted with Emperor Frederick III. In 1493, in reward for a panegyric on the life of St. Leopold of Austria, he was crowned as poet laureate and received the title of Master of Arts from Maximilian. Soon after this he was made a doctor of medicine, and in 1500 rector of the university.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Maximilian made him his confidential councillor and appointed him curator of the university for life. Cuspinian also received the position of chief librarian of the Imperial Library, and superintendent of the archives of the imperial family. As curator of the university he exercised great influence on its development, although he was not able to prevent the decline caused by the political and religious disturbances of the second decade of the sixteenth century. He was on terms of friendship with the most noted humanists and scholars; the calling of his friend Conrad Celtes to Vienna is especially due to him. Celtes and he were the heading spirits of the literary association called the \"\"Sodalitas Litterarum Danubiana\"\".  In 1515 Cuspinian was prefect of the city of Vienna. Emperor Maximilian, also Charles V at a later date, sent him on numerous diplomatic missions to Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland. He brought about a settlement of the disputed succession between the Habsburg line and the King of Hungary and Bohemia; another of his missions was to accompany Bona Sforza, the bride of King Sigismund of Poland, to Cracow.  As a diplomat, he served as an envoy to Poland and Hungary and orchestrated the Habsburg and Jagellonian marriage alliance of 1515. In 1515 Sigismund I of Poland entered an alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. In return for Maximilian lending weight to the provisions of the 2nd Peace of Thorn, Sigismund consented to the marriage of the children of Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary, his brother, to the grandchildren of Maximilian. Through this double marriage contract, Bohemia and Hungary passed to the House of Habsburg in 1526, on the death of Sigismund's nephew, Louis II - a result of enormous importance for later central and eastern European history for centuries to come.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "His literary activity covered the most varied domains. Although his poetical writings are of little importance, and his manuscript \"\"Collectanea medicinalia\"\" of no great value, nevertheless he attained a high reputation as a collector and, to some degree, as an editor of ancient and medieval manuscripts.  Among other publications, he edited in 1511 L. Florus, in 1515 the \"\"Libellus de lapidibus\"\" of Marbod, and the medieval chronicler Otto of Freising. Important as a contribution to the study of ancient history is the publication which first appeared, after his death in 1553, namely, the \"\"Fasti consulares\"\", with which were united the \"\"Chronicle\"\" of Cassiodorus and the \"\"Breviarium\"\" of Faenius Rufus. Another valuable work of Cuspinian is the \"\"History of the Roman Emperors\"\", prepared during the years 1512-22 (in Latin, 1540, and in German, 1541).  For a long time, especially after the Battle of Mohács, he busied himself with the Turkish question and printed both political and historical writings on the subject, the most important of which is his \"\"De Turcarum origine, religione et tyrannide\"\". It was at that time that some of Cuspinian's earlier writings were irrevocably lost because the only copies of them had been kept in the famed Bibliotheca Corviniana at Buda, destroyed during the Ottoman conquest.  Cuspinian's best work is \"\"Austria, sive Commentarius de rebus Austriæ\"\", edited by Kaspar Brusch in 1553 with critical notes. A kind of diary (1502–27), which throws much light on his political activity, was published in \"\"Fontes rerum austriacarum\"\" (1885), I, 1ff. A life of Cuspinian, not always reliable, is found in the complete edition of his works by Gerbelius (Commentationes Cusp., Strasburg, 1540); a more complete edition of his works appeared at Frankfurt am Main in 1601.  In 1528 he published the manuscript map of Hungary he had found after 1526, presumably in Buda. The map was edited by Georg Tannstetter from the manuscript of Lazarus Secretarius and was published by Petrus Apianus the printer of Ingolstadt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grave.", "content": "Cuspinianus is buried in Vienna's Stephansdom.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johannes Cuspinianus (December 1473 – 19 April 1529), born Johan Spießhaymer (or Speißheimer), was an Austrian humanist, scientist, diplomat, and historian. Born in Spießheim near Schweinfurt in Franconia, of which \"Cuspinianus\" is a Latinization, he studied in Leipzig and Würzburg. He went to Vienna in 1492 and became a professor of medicine at the University of Vienna. He became Rector of the university in 1500 and also served as Royal Superintendent until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975972}
{"src_title": "Ferdinand Peroutka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Peroutka was born to a Czech-German family in Prague in 1895. In 1913 he began his career as a journalist. After World War I, he became an editor-in-chief of a new newspaper \"Tribuna\" (\"Tribune\"). Some articles published in \"Tribuna\" were later incorporated into books \"Z deníku žurnalistova\" (\"Of the Journalist's Diary\") and above all \"Jací jsme\" (\"What we are like\") —in this book Peroutka mapped some myths about the Czech nation.  In 1924 Peroutka passed from \"Tribuna\" to \"Lidové noviny\" and founded—thanks to Tomáš Masaryk's donation—the review \"Přítomnost\" (\"The Presence\"). As a commentator he became very influential, standing on the position of the \"Castle\" (group of President Masaryk) and criticizing both communists and the Right represented by the national-democratic party of the first Czechoslovak prime minister Karel Kramář. Peroutka expressed his political and other opinions also in several books: \"Boje o dnešek\" (\"Fights for Today\"), \"Ano a ne\" (\"Yes and No\"), \"Budování státu\" (\"Building of the State\") and \"Osobnost, chaos a zlozvyky\" (\"Personality, Chaos and Bad Habits\"). As a representative of the Czech democratic tradition, Peroutka was arrested after the outbreak of World War II in 1939 and held in the Buchenwald concentration camp until 1945. He was offered freedom on the condition that he would serve as editor of a collaborationist \"Přítomnost\"; he refused and spent the whole of the war in Buchenwald.  After liberation, Peroutka became an editor-in-chief of the newspaper \"Svobodné noviny\" and refounded his famous review, \"Přítomnost\", under the name \"Dnešek\" (\"Today\"). The journal became prominent through its critical stance on postwar violence committed on the German minority and hundreds of alleged collaborators. Nonetheless it also fit the general pattern of the time by hosting illusory views of the Communist party underestimating its totalitarian pretensions. Peroutka wrote two dramas: \"Oblak a valčík\" (\"The Cloud and the Waltz\") and \"Štastlivec Sula\" (\"Sula the Happy Man\"). Political articles Peroutka issued in the book \"Tak nebo tak\" (\"One Way Or Another\"). The 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état caused Peroutka to decide to emigrate. In 1951 he became a director of the Czech division of the Radio Free Europe. The summa of his democratic life views was issued in 1959 as \"Democratic Manifesto\".  Peroutka also became a novelist in exile. He re-wrote his drama to the novel of the same name. The second novel, \"Pozdější život Panny\" (\"The Later Life of the Virgin\"), deals with the idea of the rescue of Joan of Arc. Peroutka's last drama was named \"Kdybych se ještě jednou narodil\" (\"If I Was Born One More Time\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferdinand Peroutka (6 February 1895 – 20 April 1978) was a Czech journalist and writer. A prominent political thinker and journalist during the First Czechoslovak Republic, Peroutka was persecuted by the Nazi regime for his democratic convictions and imprisoned at Buchenwald concentration camp. Following the 1948 coup by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, he emigrated to both the United Kingdom and, later, the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975973}
{"src_title": "Eleutherococcus senticosus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The scientific name, \"Eleutherococcus\" (from Greek) means \"free-berried,\" and \"senticosus\", (from Latin) means \"sentis\" (thorn-bush, briar), an adjective meaning \"thorny\" or \"full of briers or thorns.\" It is not the same plant as American ginseng (\"Panax quinquefolius\") or Asian ginseng (\"Panax ginseng\"). It has a diversity of common names across its range of distribution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The herb grows in mixed and coniferous mountain forests, forming low undergrowth or is found in groups in thickets and edges. \"Eleutherococcus senticosus\" is sometimes found in oak groves at the foot of cliffs, rarely in high forest riparian woodland. Its native habitat is East Asia, China, Japan, and Russia. \"E. senticosus\" is broadly tolerant of soils, growing in sandy, loamy, and heavy clay soils with acid, neutral, or alkaline chemistry and including soils of low nutritional value. It can tolerate sun or dappled shade and some degree of pollution. \"E. senticosus\" is a deciduous shrub growing to at a slow rate. It is hardy to zone 3. It flowers in July in most habitats. The flowers are hermaphroditic and are pollinated by insects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extract and chemical constituents.", "content": "Roots of \"E. senticosus\" are cylindrical, up to in diameter, straight or branched, dark brown, and have a smooth surface with bark fixed closely to the xylem. The derived extract from the roots has been characterized for its major constituents, including lignans, sesamin (eleutheroside B4), syringaresinol, phenylpropanes, coumarins, beta-sitosterol and daucosterol.  Berries from \"E. senticosus\" contain diverse polyphenols, including caffeic acid, vanillic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, and benzoic acid, with significant content of calcium, magnesium, and potassium.  Major constituents of essential oil from leaves of \"Eleutherococcus senticosus\" include α-bisabolol (26%), β-caryophyllene (7%), germacrene D (7%), β-bisabolene (5%), and α-humulene (4%).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional medicine and adverse effects.", "content": "Extracts from the root of \"Eleutherococcus senticosus\" are promoted in alternative and traditional medicine for providing a range of health effects, but such claims are not supported by medical evidence. The plant has been assessed in preliminary research for its potential use as an antimicrobial or antistress agent, but these studies were of poor quality and there is no scientific confirmation that such effects exist.  People with high blood pressure, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, heart disease, mental illness, a compromised immune system, women during pregnancy and lactation, and people taking digoxin or hexobarbital may have adverse reactions to \"E. senticosus\". High doses may cause irritability, confusion, insomnia, or anxiety.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eleutherococcus senticosus is a species of small, woody shrub in the family Araliaceae native to Northeastern Asia. It may be colloquially called devil's bush, Siberian ginseng, eleuthero, \"ciwujia\", \"Devil's shrub\", \"shigoka\", \"touch-me-not\", \"wild pepper\", or \"kan jang\". \"E. senticosus\" has a history of use in folklore and traditional Chinese medicine. Root extracts of \"E. senticosus\" are sold as a dietary supplement or cosmetic, usually under the name \"Siberian ginseng\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975974}
{"src_title": "Signe Hasso", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Hasso was born in the Kungsholmen parish of Stockholm, Sweden in 1915. Her father and grandfather died when she was four, and she, her mother, grandmother and two siblings shared a single room. Her mother, a former aspiring actress herself, worked as a waffle cook.  Her acting career began by accident. When a young actress fell ill, her mother was asked if she knew of any little girl who could act. Signe Hasso later recalled, \"I was 12 then and didn't want to go and neither did my sister, so my mother flipped a coin. I lost.\" Her audition for a Molière play was successful, and she started earning money as an actress. She performed in Royal Dramatic Theatre productions, beginning in 1927 at the age of 12, and enrolled as the youngest acting student in its history at the age of 16.  She performed on stage and in film in Sweden. In 1933, she made her first film, \"Tystnadens hus\", with German film director/cameraman Harry Hasso, whom she married the same year. They had a son by the time she was 19. They divorced in 1941.  In 1940, she moved to the United States, where she signed a contract with RKO Pictures, who promoted her as \"the next Garbo\". With few RKO roles forthcoming, she turned to the stage to make a living. According to the Internet Broadway Database, she appeared in five Broadway productions, beginning with \"Golden Wings\" (1941). In the mid-1940s, she signed with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Her first role of note was in \"Heaven Can Wait\" (1943). During the 1940s, she appeared in \"The Seventh Cross\" (1944), \"Johnny Angel\" (1945), \"The House on 92nd Street\" (1945), \"A Scandal in Paris\" (1946), and \"A Double Life\" (1947). Her favorite role was as the ex-wife of an actor driven mad, played by Ronald Colman, in \"A Double Life\". By the 1950s, her Hollywood career had stalled.  In 1957, her son and only child was killed in a car accident. From then on, she divided her time between making films in Sweden and acting on stage in New York until she returned to Hollywood in the 1960s. She also acted on television, making guest appearances in several popular TV series, including \"Route 66\", \"Bonanza\", \"The Outer Limits\", \"The Green Hornet\", \"Cannon\", \"Starsky and Hutch\", \"The Streets of San Francisco\", \"Quincy, M.E.\", \"Magnum, P.I.\", \"Trapper John, M.D.\" and \"Hart to Hart\".  In her later years, Hasso worked as a songwriter and writer and translated Swedish folk songs into English. Her debut novel, \"Momo\" (1977), depicts her childhood in interwar Stockholm. Hasso's second album, \"Where the Sun Meets the Moon\" (1979), consists of her own versions of Swedish folk tunes. In a 1995 interview, she stated she wanted to be remembered for her writing, not her acting.  She continued to act until late in her life, her last film being \"One Hell of a Guy\" (2000).  Hasso received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her contributions to the motion picture industry. Her star ceremony was held on February 1, 1994 with the star located at 7080 Hollywood Blvd.  She died in Los Angeles at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in 2002, aged 86 of pneumonia, although some sources said she was 91. Hasso adhered to Lutheranism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "In 1935, she received the Theatre League's De Wahl-stipendium and in 1939 the first Nordic nordiska Gösta Ekmanpriset. In 1972, King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden named her Member 1st Class of the Royal Order of Vasa. In 1989, the Vasa Order of America named her Swedish-American of the Year. Hasso has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her contribution to motion pictures, at 7080 Hollywood Boulevard.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Signe Hasso (born Signe Eleonora Cecilia Larsson, 15 August 1915 – 7 June 2002) was a Swedish actress, writer, and composer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975975}
{"src_title": "Pat Falloon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Falloon was named Memorial Cup Tournament MVP in 1991 with the Spokane Chiefs of the WHL.  Falloon was drafted 2nd overall by the San Jose Sharks in the 1991 NHL Entry Draft. He was the first-ever draft pick in the history of the San Jose Sharks organization. Ray Whitney, his teammate with the WHL's Spokane Chiefs, was the Sharks' second pick. The Sharks had thought the pair would be a natural scoring combination, but that didn't pan out. After playing in San Jose for four years, Falloon was traded November 16, 1995 to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for LW Martin Spanhel, a first-round draft choice in the 1996 Entry Draft and a third-round draft choice (these picks were later transferred to the Phoenix Coyotes and Buffalo Sabres and used to acquire Danny Briere and Mike Martone, respectively).  He was traded January 17, 1998 to the Ottawa Senators along with Václav Prospal and a second-round draft choice, in exchange for Alexandre Daigle, the first overall draft pick in 1993. He later played for both the Edmonton Oilers and Pittsburgh Penguins.  After 2000, he was no longer an active NHL player. After playing for Davos in Switzerland for the 2000–2001 season, Falloon returned home to play in his hometown, for the Foxwarren Falcons – a team from the tiny North Central Hockey League in western Manitoba. Not surprisingly, he has been a top scorer in the league. With the Falcons, he helped them win six straight league championships from 2001–02 to 2006–07 (the Falcons also won without Falloon in 2000–01). This string of championships was broken in 2007–08 by the Roblin Northstars.  As the second overall pick, Falloon will probably always be remembered as the 'consolation prize' in the 1991 draft, since No. 1 pick Eric Lindros was easily the most coveted player available that year. Still, Falloon was considered a talented prospect in his own right, and the Sharks expected him to be one of the building blocks of their young franchise in the coming decade. Falloon delivered decent returns as a rookie, notching 59 points in 1991–92, but never topped that production for the remainder of his career, and is widely regarded as a draft bust. Future Hockey Hall-of-Famers Scott Niedermayer and Peter Forsberg were selected with the third and sixth picks respectively after Falloon went second in the 1991 draft. Later in his career Falloon became known more for his lack of conditioning.  He played 575 career NHL games, scoring 143 goals and 179 assists for 322 points.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After hockey.", "content": "Falloon became a grain farmer near Linden, Manitoba after he retired from hockey. On January 23, 2020, he was convicted of impaired driving.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Patrick J. Falloon (born ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey right winger who played nine seasons in the National Hockey League between 1991 and 2000. He played with the San Jose Sharks, Philadelphia Flyers, Ottawa Senators, Edmonton Oilers, and Pittsburgh Penguins. He would also play a season in the Swiss National League. The first player drafted by the Sharks, Falloon had a standout junior career with the Spokane Chiefs of the Western Hockey League, with consecutive 60 goal seasons before being drafted.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975976}
{"src_title": "Billy Meier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Born in the town of Bülach in the Zürcher Unterland, Meier joined the French Foreign Legion in his teens, but says he soon left and returned home. In 1965, he lost his left arm in a bus accident in Turkey. Some time later, he met and married a Greek woman, Kalliope Zafiriou, with whom he had three children. The nickname \"Billy\" came by way of an American friend who thought Meier's cowboy style of dress reminded her of \"Billy the Kid.\" This anecdote was told by Meier in an interview with Bob Zanotti of Swiss Radio International in June, 1982.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alleged extraterrestrial contacts.", "content": "Meier claims his extraterrestrial encounters began in 1942, at the age of five, when he met an elderly Plejaren man named \"Sfath\". After Sfath's death in 1953, Meier said, he began communicating with an extraterrestrial woman (though not a Plejaren) called \"Asket\". All contacts ceased in 1964, he said, then resumed on January 28, 1975, when he met \"Semjase\", the granddaughter of Sfath, and shortly thereafter another Plejaren man called \"Ptaah\". Other Plejarens, including a woman named \"Nera\", have since allegedly joined the dialog as well. Photographs of these two women were later proved to have been faked.  Meier founded a non-profit, tax-paying organization based on his alleged contacts with Semjase, called the \"Freie Interessengemeinschaft für Grenz- und Geisteswissenschaften und Ufologiestudien\" (Free Community of Interests for the Border and Spiritual Sciences and Ufological Studies) in the late 1970s and established his \"Semjase Silver Star Center\". The organization's headquarters is in Switzerland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photographs, films.", "content": "Meier's photographs and films are claimed by him to show alien spacecraft floating above the Swiss countryside. He calls the alleged spaceships \"beamships\" from Plejaren. According to Meier, the Plejaren gave him permission to photograph and film their beamships so that he could produce evidence of their extraterrestrial visitations. Some of Meier's photos are claimed by him to show prehistoric Earth scenes, extraterrestrials, and celestial objects from an alleged non-Earthly vantage point. Meier's claims are widely characterized as fraudulent by scientists, skeptics, and most ufologists, who say that his photographs and films are hoaxes.  In 1997, Meier's ex-wife, Kalliope, told interviewers that his photos were of spaceship models he crafted with items like trash can lids, carpet tacks and other household objects, and that the stories he told of his adventures with the aliens were similarly fictitious. She also said that photos of purported extraterrestrial women \"Asket\" and \"Nera\" were really photos of Michelle DellaFave and Susan Lund, members of the singing and dancing troupe The Golddiggers. It was later confirmed that the women in the photographs were members of The Golddiggers performing on \"The Dean Martin Show\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eduard Albert Meier (born February 3, 1937), commonly nicknamed \"Billy\" is the founder of a UFO religion called the \"Freie Interessengemeinschaft für Grenz- und Geisteswissenschaften und Ufologiestudien\" (Free Community of Interests for the Border and Spiritual Sciences and Ufological Studies) and alleged contactee whose UFO photographs are claimed to show alien spacecraft. Meier claims to be in regular contact with extraterrestrial beings he calls the Plejaren. He also presented other material during the 1970s such as metal samples, sound recordings and film footage. Meier claims to be the seventh reincarnation after six prophets common to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: Enoch, Elijah, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Immanuel (Jesus), and Mohammed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975977}
{"src_title": "Contemporary dance", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Contemporary dance draws on both classical ballet and modern dance, whereas postmodern dance was a direct and opposite response to modern dance. Merce Cunningham is considered to be the first choreographer to \"develop an independent attitude towards modern dance\" and defy the ideas that were established by it. In 1944 Cunningham accompanied his dance with music by John Cage, who observed that Cunningham's dance \"no longer relies on linear elements (...) nor does it rely on a movement towards and away from climax. As in abstract painting, it is assumed that an element (a movement, a sound, a change of light) is in and of itself expressive; what it communicates is in large part determined by the observer themselves.\" Cunningham formed the Merce Cunningham Dance Company in 1953 and went on to create more than one hundred and fifty works for the company, many of which have been performed internationally by ballet and modern dance companies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cunningham's key ideas.", "content": "Cunningham's key ideas include-  Other pioneers of contemporary dance (the offspring of modern and postmodern) include Ruth St. Denis, Doris Humphrey, Mary Wigman, Pina Bausch, Francois Delsarte, Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, Paul Taylor, Rudolph von Laban, Loie Fuller, José Limón and Marie Rambert.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Choreographer's role.", "content": "There is usually a choreographer who makes the creative decisions and decides whether the piece is an abstract or a narrative one. Dancers are selected based on their skill and training. The choreography is determined based on its relation to the music or sounds that is danced to. The role of music in contemporary dance is different from in other genres because it can serve as a backdrop to the piece. The choreographer has control over the costumes and their aesthetic value for the overall composition of the performance and also in regards to how they influence dancers’ movements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dance technique.", "content": "Dance techniques and movement philosophies employed in contemporary dance may include Contemporary ballet, Dance improvisation, Interpretive dance, Lyrical dance, Modern dance styles from United States such as Graham technique, Humphrey-Weidman technique and Horton technique, Modern dance of Europe Bartenieff Fundamentals and the dance technique of Isadora Duncan (also see Free dance).  Contemporary dancers train using contemporary dance techniques as well as non-dance related practices such as Pilates, Yoga, the acting practice of Corporeal mime - Étienne Decroux technique and somatic practices such as Alexander technique, Feldenkrais Method, Sullivan Technique and Franklin-Methode, American contemporary techniques such as José Limón technique and Hawkins technique and Postmodern dance techniques such as Contact improvisation and Cunningham technique, and Release technique.  Some well-known choreographers and creators of contemporary dance created schools and techniques of their own. Paul Taylor developed a dance technique called Taylor technique, which is now taught at modern dance schools like The Ailey School in New York City.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dance and Technology.", "content": "Reflecting the situation in society at large, contemporary dance is increasingly incorporating overtly technological elements, and, in particular, robots. Robotics engineer/dancer Amy LaViers, for example, has incorporated cell phones in a contemporary dance piece calling attention to the issues surrounding our ever-increasing dependence on technology.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Contemporary dance is a genre of dance performance that developed during the mid-twentieth century and has since grown to become one of the dominant genres for formally trained dancers throughout the world, with particularly strong popularity in the U.S. and Europe. Although originally informed by and borrowing from classical, modern, and jazz styles, it has come to incorporate elements from many styles of dance. Due to its technical similarities, it is often perceived to be closely related to modern dance, ballet, and other classical concert dance styles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975978}
{"src_title": "Kieft's War", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Dutch West India Company appointed Kieft as director without obvious experience or qualifications for the job; he might have been appointed through family political connections. He arrived in New Netherland in April 1638. The Massachusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth Colony, Saybrook Colony, Mohegan Indians, and Narragansett Indians had defeated the Dutch-allied Pequot tribe during the Pequot War (1636-1638), which eased the way for the English to take over the northern reaches of New Netherland along the Connecticut River. Peter Minuit had been a director-general of New Netherland, but he left two weeks before Kieft's arrival to establish New Sweden in the poorly developed southern reaches of the colony along the Delaware Valley.  New Netherland had begun to flourish along the Hudson River. The Dutch West India Company ran the settlement chiefly for trading, with the director-general exercising unchecked corporate authority backed by soldiers. New Amsterdam and the other settlements of the Hudson Valley had developed beyond company towns into a growing colony. In 1640, the Company surrendered its trade monopoly on the colony and declared New Netherlands a free-trade zone, and Kieft was suddenly governor of a booming economy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Skirmishing.", "content": "Kieft's first plan to reduce costs was to solicit tribute payments from the tribes living in the region. Long-time colonists warned him against this course, but he pursued it, nonetheless. Tribal chiefs rejected the idea. Pigs were stolen from the farm of David Pietersz. de Vries, so Kieft sent soldiers to raid a Raritan village on Staten Island, killing several people. The Raritan band retaliated by burning down de Vries' farmhouse and killing four of his employees, so Kieft offered bounty payments to rival tribes for the heads of Raritans. Colonists later determined that de Vries' pigs had been stolen by other colonists. In August 1641, a Weckquaesgeek Indian killed Claes Swits, an elderly Swiss immigrant who ran a public house frequented by settlers and Indians alike in Turtle Bay, Manhattan. Another incident occurred at Achter Kol along the banks of the Hackensack River. Settlers and some Hackensacks had been drinking alcohol at a trading post when a conflict arose over a missing coat which ended in the death of the post's foreman.  The colonists resisted Kieft's Indian initiatives, so he tried to use the Swits incident to build popular support for war. He created the Council of Twelve Men to advise him, and it was the first popularly elected body in the New Netherlands colony. The Council was alarmed about the consequences of Kieft's proposed crusade, as they had lived in peace with the Indians for nearly two decades, and they rejected his proposal to massacre the Weckquaesgeek village if the villagers refused to produce the Swits murderer.  The Indians were far more numerous than the colonists and could easily take reprisals against their lives and property. They also supplied the furs and pelts that were the economic lifeblood of the colony. The council sought to dissuade Kieft from war, and they began to advise him on other matters, using the new Council to carry the interests of colonists to the corporate rulers. They called for establishing a permanent representative body to manage local affairs, and Kieft responded by dissolving the Council and issuing a decree forbidding them to meet or assemble.  Kieft sent a punitive expedition to attack the village of the Indian who had murdered Swits, but the militia got lost. He then accepted the peace offerings of Weckquaesgeek elders. He then launched an attack on camps of refugee Weckquaesgeek and Tappan on February 23, 1643, two weeks after dissolving the Council. Mahican and Mohawk Indians in the north had driven them south the year before, armed with guns traded by French and English colonists, and the Tappans sought protection from the Dutch. Kieft refused aid despite the company's previous guarantees to the tribes to provide it. The refugees made camp at Communipaw in Jersey City and lower Manhattan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pavonia Massacre.", "content": "Colonists from New Netherland descended on the camps on February 25, 1643 and killed 120 Indians, including women and children. de Vries described the events in his journal:  Infants were torn from their mother's breasts, and hacked to pieces in the presence of their parents, and pieces thrown into the fire and in the water, and other sucklings, being bound to small boards, were cut, stuck, and pierced, and miserably massacred in a manner to move a heart of stone. Some were thrown into the river, and when the fathers and mothers endeavored to save them, the soldiers would not let them come on land but made both parents and children drown.  Historians differ on whether Kieft had planned such a massacre or a more contained raid, but all sources agree that he rewarded the soldiers for their deeds. The attacks united the Algonquian peoples in the surrounding areas against the Dutch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Three years of war.", "content": "In the fall of 1643, a force of 1,500 Indians invaded New Netherland and killed many, including Anne Hutchinson, a chief figure in the Antinomian Controversy which ruptured the Massachusetts Bay Colony years earlier. The Indians destroyed villages and farms, the work of two decades of settlement, and Dutch forces killed 500 Weckquaesgeek Indians that winter in retaliation. New Amsterdam became crowded with destitute refugees, and the colonists increasingly resisted Kieft's rule. They flouted paying new taxes that he ordered, and many people began to leave by ship. Kieft hired Captain John Underhill, who recruited militia on Long Island to go against the Indians there and in Connecticut. His forces killed more than 1,000 Indians, including 500 to 700 in the Pound Ridge Massacre.  The colonists wrote letters to the directors of the Dutch West India Company and the Dutch Republic requesting intervention, but they produced no result. Many then banded together to formally petition for the removal of Kieft, writing: \"We sit here among thousands of wild and barbarian people, in whom neither consolation nor mercy can be found; we left our dear fatherland, and if God the Lord were not our comfort we would perish in our misery.\" For the next two years, the united tribes harassed settlers throughout New Netherland. The sparse colonial forces were helpless to stop the attacks, but the Indians were too spread out to mount more effective strikes. The two sides finally agreed to a truce when the last of the 69 united tribes joined in August 1645.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outcome.", "content": "The Indian attacks caused many settlers to return to Europe, and the Dutch West India Company lost confidence in its ability to control its territory in the New World. They recalled Kieft to the Netherlands in 1647 to answer for his conduct, but he died in a shipwreck near Swansea, Wales. The company named Peter Stuyvesant as his successor, and he managed New Netherland until it was ceded to the English.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kieft's War (1643–1645), also known as the Wappinger War, was a conflict between the colony of New Netherland and the Lenape Indians in New York. It is named for Director-General of New Netherland Willem Kieft who had ordered an attack without approval of his advisory council and against the wishes of the colonists. Dutch colonists attacked Lenape camps and massacred the inhabitants, which encouraged unification among the regional Algonquian tribes against the Dutch and precipitated waves of attacks on both sides. This was one of the earliest conflicts between settlers and Indians in the region. The Dutch West India Company was displeased with Kieft and recalled him, but he died in a shipwreck while returning to the Netherlands; Peter Stuyvesant succeeded him in New Netherland. Numerous Dutch settlers returned to the Netherlands because of the continuing threat from the Algonquians, and growth slowed in the colony.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975979}
{"src_title": "Princess Lilian, Duchess of Halland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life in Britain.", "content": "Lillian May Davies was born on 30 August 1915, in Swansea, South Wales, the daughter of William John Davies and his wife Gladys Mary (née Curran). She dropped one 'l' from her first name when she became a fashion model. She was photographed for fashion magazines such as \"Vogue\". Her parents separated in the 1920s, but they were not divorced until 1939.  In 1940 Lilian married the Scottish actor Ivan Craig (1912–1995) in Horsham, West Sussex. Shortly after their wedding, Craig joined the British Army and left for Africa, where he saw active service during the Second World War. In his absence, Lilian worked in a factory that made radios for the Royal Navy and at a hospital for wounded soldiers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage to Prince Bertil of Sweden.", "content": "In 1943, she met the Swedish Prince Bertil, Duke of Halland, in London, reportedly at a cocktail party for her 28th birthday. Soon after their meeting, they became lovers although she was still married to Craig. When she and her husband were reunited after the war, Craig expressed his wish to marry another woman, and they were amicably divorced on 7 November 1947.  Bertil's older brother, Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten, was second-in-line to the Swedish throne; but he died in 1947. As Gustaf Adolf's son, Carl Gustaf, was less than one year old, it seemed likely that, when the king died, Bertil would have to serve as regent (other heirs having given up their places in the line of succession because of marriages not acceptable to the king). For this reason, Bertil chose not to marry Lilian, so the couple simply lived together discreetly for more than thirty years. In 1946, Prince Bertil acquired a house in Sainte-Maxime, France, that became their private retreat.  Bertil never had to become regent, since his father, the king (who ascended the throne in 1950), lived long enough to see his grandson, Carl Gustaf, come of age. Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden ascended the throne in 1973, and, having married a commoner himself, he approved Bertil's and Lilian's marriage, meaning that Bertil would be able to keep his titles and place in the line of succession, and that Lillian would become a princess. They were married on 7 December 1976 at the church of Drottningholm Palace in the presence of the king and the queen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Widowhood.", "content": "Prince Bertil died on 5 January 1997 in their home. From 1997 until 2010 Lilian continued to represent the royal family at various engagements and other occasions. She was the patron of many organizations. In 2000, Lilian released a biography of her life with Bertil.  In August 2008, Lilian fell and broke her femur in her apartment; and, in February 2009, she again suffered a fall in her home. It was announced on 3 June 2010, that Lilian was afflicted with Alzheimer's disease and was no longer able to appear in public. She lived out her final years at Villa Solbacken, her longtime home in the Djurgården area of Stockholm, attended by three nurses.  Lilian died in Stockholm on 10 March 2013 at age 97, sixteen years after her husband. The Royal Palace did not give a cause of death, but Lilian had been in poor health for several years. Her death came as the royal family was preparing for Princess Madeleine's wedding, and the family interrupted what they were doing to spend her last moments with her.  Her 16 March funeral was broadcast live on SVT. It was attended by her nephew and niece-in-law the King and the Queen of Sweden; her nieces the Queen of Denmark, Princess Margaretha, Princess Birgitta, Princess Désirée, and Princess Christina; her grandnieces Crown Princess Victoria and Princess Madeleine; and her grandnephew and grandnephew-in-law Prince Carl Philip and Prince Daniel. Princess Astrid of Norway was also in attendance, as were her friends Roger Moore and his Swedish wife Kiki Tholstrup.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Princess Lilian of Sweden, Duchess of Halland (born Lillian May Davies, later Craig; 30 August 1915 – 10 March 2013), was a British fashion model who became a member of the Swedish royal family through her 1976 marriage to Prince Bertil, Duke of Halland (1912–1997). As such, she was a paternal aunt of King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden and a maternal aunt of Queen Margrethe II of Denmark and Queen Anne-Marie of Greece.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975980}
{"src_title": "John Nettles", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Nettles was born in St Austell, Cornwall, in 1943. His birth mother was an Irish nurse who came to work in Great Britain during the Second World War. He was adopted at birth by carpenter Eric Nettles and his wife Elsie. As a youth he attended St Austell Grammar School. In 1962, he studied history and philosophy at the University of Southampton. There he first performed as an actor, and after graduation he joined the Royal Court Theatre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "Nettles played Laertes to Tom Courtenay's Hamlet in 1969 at the University Theatre for 69 Theatre Company in Manchester. From 1969 to 1970, he was in repertory at the Northcott Theatre in Exeter, and in the latter year had his first screen role in the film \"One More Time\". The following year he played Dr. Ian Mackenzie in the period drama \"A Family at War\", a role he continued until 1972. Following that he had small parts in many TV programmes including \"The Liver Birds\", \"Dickens of London\", \"Robin of Sherwood\" and an episode of \"Enemy at the Door\" called \"Officers of the Law\", first broadcast in March 1978. The latter was set in Guernsey during the Second World War German occupation and Nettles played a police detective ordered to work for the Germans and anguished over the conflict between his duty and collaborating with the enemy. He played fraudster Giles Sutton in ITV's \"Heartbeat\".  In 1981, Nettles won the role that made him a household name in the UK, that of Jim Bergerac in the Jersey-set crime drama \"Bergerac\". This ran for 87 episodes until 1991. Following the end of \"Bergerac\" Nettles did five seasons with the Royal Shakespeare Company, appearing in \"The Winter's Tale\", \"The Merry Wives of Windsor\", \"Julius Caesar\", \"Richard III\" and \"The Devil is an Ass\". In 1992, he appeared in an episode of \"Boon\", and in 1993 appeared as Jim Bergerac in the spoof police comedy \"The Detectives\".  In 1995, Nettles was approached by Brian True-May to play Tom Barnaby in a new murder mystery series he was to produce called \"Midsomer Murders\". This was to be the second major role of his career, again playing a policeman. \"Midsomer Murders\" made him a household name across the world. In 2003, he played Barnaby in the Boxing Day episode of \"French & Saunders\". Nettles appeared in a 2001 episode of \"Heartbeat\". In 2007, he appeared in the BBC Radio 4 comedy series \"Will Smith Presents the Tao of Bergerac\" alongside comedian Will Smith about an obsessive fan of the series.  In February 2009, it was announced that Nettles had decided to leave \"Midsomer Murders\" after two further series were made. His final appearance on-screen was on 2 February 2011, by which time he had appeared in 81 episodes. About his departure, he commented, \"It’s always wise to leave people wanting more, rather than be booed off the stage because you bored them.\"  In 2016 and 2017, Nettles had a recurring role as Ray Penvenen in the second and third seasons of the popular historical drama \"Poldark\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other television work.", "content": "Nettles narrated the BBC documentary series \"Airport\" from 1996 to 2005.  In 1987, Nettles was Raoul (the 4th man) in the \"Agatha Christie Hour\" story \"The Fourth Man\".  In the 90's, Nettle narrated the BBC documentary \"X Cars\" following Greater Manchester Police's stolen car squad during the height of the UK wide joy riding crime wave.  In early 2010, Nettles wrote, presented and produced a three-part documentary, \"Channel Islands at War\", to mark the 70th anniversary of the German invasion and subsequent occupation of the Channel Islands. He received threatening letters from some residents of Jersey, accusing him of implying that islanders were collaborators. He defended the documentary saying: \"There is no possible way you could have avoided collaboration with the occupying power who had power over the civilian population. If you had not toed the line you would have been shot.\" This view was supported by local historians and members of the Channel Islands Occupation Society.  In 2020, Nettles took over as the narrator on the Channel 4 television show \"Devon and Cornwall\", a sister show to the network's \"The Yorkshire Dales and the Lakes\" programme.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "During the filming of \"Bergerac\", filmed on the island of Jersey, he wrote \"Bergerac's Jersey\" (BBC Books, 1988; ), a travel guide to filming locations in the series. He followed up with \"John Nettles' Jersey: A Personal View of the People and Places\" (BBC Books, 1992; ) about the island's landscape, personalities and history.  In 1991 he wrote the semi-autobiographical \"Nudity in a Public Place: Confessions of a Mini Celebrity\" (Robson Books; ) about becoming a \"reluctant heartthrob\" to female viewers of \"Bergerac\". This was re-released as a Kindle version on Amazon in 2014 following the reruns of Bergerac on BBC2 as part of their afternoon nostalgia collection.  In 2012 Nettles wrote \"Jewels and Jackboots\" (Hardback ) about the German occupation of the Channel Islands. It sold out in a matter of weeks, and was republished in 2013 as a paperback and on Kindle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1966, Nettles married his first wife, Joyce. Their daughter, Emma Martins, was born in 1970 and later moved to Jersey together with her father. After they divorced in 1979, Joyce Nettles later became a casting director on 23 episodes of \"Midsomer Murders\". He married his second wife, Cathryn Sealey, in July 1995 in Evesham, Worcestershire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Nettles was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2010 Birthday Honours. On 21 September 2012 he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Plymouth. He also agreed to be patron of Devon charity The Mare and Foal Sanctuary in July 2014.  He received an honorary degree from the University of Southampton, where he once studied.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Vivian Drummond Nettles, OBE (born 11 October 1943) is a British actor and writer. He is best known for playing the lead roles in the long-running television series \"Bergerac\" and \"Midsomer Murders\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975981}
{"src_title": "Ilya Ivanovich Ivanov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ilya Ivanovich Ivanov was born in the town of Shchigry, Kursk gubernia, Russia. He graduated from the Kharkov University in 1896 and became a full professor in 1907. He worked as a researcher in the Askania-Nova natural reserve, also for the State Experimental Veterinary Institute (1917–1921, 1924–1930), for the Central Experimental Station for Researching Reproduction of Domestic Animals (1921-1924), and for the Moscow Higher Zootechnic Institute (1928–1930).  Around the start of the 20th century, Ilya Ivanov perfected artificial insemination and its practical usage for horse breeding. He proved that this technology allows one stallion to fertilize up to 500 mares (instead of 20–30 by natural fertilization). The results were sensational for their time, and Ivanov's station was frequented by horse breeders from many parts of the world.  In the course of a general political shakeup in the Soviet scientific world, Ivanov and a number of scientists involved in primate research and experiments lost their positions. In the spring of 1930, Ivanov came under political criticism at his veterinary institute. Finally, on December 13, 1930, Ivanov was arrested. He was sentenced to five years of exile to Alma Ata, where he worked for the Kazakh Veterinary-Zoologist Institute until his death from a stroke on 20 March 1932. The renowned physiologist and psychologist Ivan Pavlov wrote an obituary for him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human-ape hybridization experiments.", "content": "The most controversial of Ivanov's studies was his attempt to create a human-ape hybrid. As early as 1910, he had given a presentation to the World Congress of Zoologists in Graz in which he described the possibility of obtaining such a hybrid through artificial insemination.  In the 1920s, Ivanov carried out a series of experiments to create a human/nonhuman ape hybrid. Three female chimpanzees were inseminated with human sperm, he failed to create a pregnancy. In 1929 he organized a set of experiments involving nonhuman ape sperm and human volunteers, but was delayed by the death of his last orangutan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orango opera.", "content": "His work was one of the sources of inspiration for the unfinished satirical opera, \"Orango\" whose \"Prologue\" was sketched in 1932 by Dmitri Shostakovich with a libretto by Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy and Alexander Osipovich Starchakov but the whole was later abandoned and discarded. The manuscript was found by Olga Digonskaya, a Russian musicologist, in the Glinka Museum, Moscow in 2004 and orchestrated by Gerard McBurney; this work was premiered on 2 December 2011 in Los Angeles, California by the Los Angeles Philharmonic under Esa-Pekka Salonen (conductor) and staged by Peter Sellars (director).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The first season, episode one, of the 2011 sci-fi and horror dramatized documentary television series, \"\", features a segment, titled \"Ape-Man Army\", in which the theories of Ivanov on human-ape hybridization are dramatized.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ilya Ivanovich Ivanov (, – March 20, 1932) was a Russian and Soviet biologist who specialized in the field of artificial insemination and the interspecific hybridization of animals. He is famous for his controversial attempts to create a human-ape hybrid by inseminating three female chimpanzees with human sperm (with no result).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975982}
{"src_title": "Joanna of Rožmitál", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "She was a daughter of John of Rožmitál and his wife Ludmilla of Strakonicz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Joanna married George of Poděbrady in 1450 (the marriage was probably arranged by Joanna's brother, Jaroslav Lev Rosenthal because her father had died in her childhood), a year after the death of his first wife Kunigunde, by whom he had six children.  Shortly after the marriage, in 1452, George became adept with the provincial administrator of Ladislaus the Posthumous. When Ladislaus died in 1457 of leukemia, people questioned who would succeed the childless King in Bohemia and Hungary; the main candidates to succeed were Matthias Corvinus of Hungary and George. George was eventually selected and they were crowned in 1458.  Both of Joanna's surviving children went on to have their own children.  Joanna actively supported her husband in politics; she was not only a mentor, but she was personally involved in state affairs, being part of her husband's political agenda. Joanna, however gained recognition as an esteemed wife and mother. George later brought his children with Joanna and her stepchildren to court. Joanna's stepdaughter Catherine was even married off to George's old rival Matthias Corvinus. Joanna's brother lent her passport to travel to Western Europe in the years 1465–1467. She left her husband for making the prayer book of King George. When the Pope cursed George, this applied even to his wife and all their children. In August, 1470 she led the Czech armies fighting Matthias Corvinus for Bohemia, when all peace was broken after the premature death of Catherine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Widowhood.", "content": "George died in 1471, and was succeeded by Vladislas II of Hungary. In 1473 Joanna and Vladislas launched a land assembly in Benešov, where they sought to remind those present of the political legacy of Joanna's husband and his attempt to compromise between Catholicism and Utraquism.  After 1473 Joanna moved to the traditional place of Bohemian widowed queens, Mělník. The local Royal Chapter St. Peter and Paul referred six thousand talents of silver to Joanna.  Joanna died on November 12, 1475, at Mělník. According to her last will she wished to rest in the church beneath the town, but other sources indicate that she was buried in St. Vitus alongside George. Her funeral was also attended by Vladislas II.  Of her four children, only Henry and Ludmila lived to adulthood.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Joanna and George had the following children, only two of them lived to adulthood:  Joanna zu Rozmital had collateral descendants, through her brother of the house of Lev, among Catholic Germans named Loewe who became the Catholic Lolwings of Wisconsin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joanna of Rožmitál (c. 1430 – 12 November 1475) was the Queen consort of Bohemia as the second wife of George of Poděbrady.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975983}
{"src_title": "Anal hygiene", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Toilet paper.", "content": "The use of toilet paper for post-defecation cleansing first started in China. It became widespread in Western culture.  In some parts of the world, especially before toilet paper was available or affordable, the use of newspaper, telephone directory pages, or other paper products was common. The widely distributed Sears Roebuck catalog was also a popular choice until it began to be printed on glossy paper (at which point some people wrote to the company to complain). With flush toilets, using newspaper as toilet paper is likely to cause blockages.  This practice continues today in parts of Africa; while rolls of toilet paper are readily available, they can be fairly expensive, prompting poorer members of the community to use newspapers.  People suffering from hemorrhoids may find it more difficult to keep the anal area clean using only toilet paper and may prefer washing with water as well.  Although wiping from front to back minimizes the risk of contaminating the urethra, the directionality of wiping varies based on sex, personal preference, and culture.  Some people wipe their anal region standing, others wipe theirs sitting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Water.", "content": "Water with soap cleansing is a reliable and hygienic way of removing fecal remnants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Muslim societies.", "content": "The use of water in Muslim countries is due in part to Islamic toilet etiquette which encourages washing after all instances of defecation. There are flexible provisions for when water is scarce: stones or papers can be used for cleansing after defecation instead.  In Turkey, all Western-style toilets have a small nozzle on the centre rear of the toilet rim aiming at the anus. This nozzle is called \"taharet musluğu\" and it is controlled by a small tap placed within hand's reach near the toilet. It is used to wash the anus after wiping and drying with toilet paper. Squat toilets in Turkey do not have this kind of nozzle (a small bucket of water from a hand's reach tap or a bidet shower is used instead).  Another alternative resembles a miniature shower and is known as a \"health faucet\", bidet shower, or \"bum gun\". It is commonly found to the right of the toilet where it is easy to reach. These are commonly used in the Muslim world. In the Indian subcontinent, a lota vessel is often used to cleanse with water, though the shower or nozzle is common among new toilets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Indian subcontinent.", "content": "In India and the Indian subcontinent, over 95% of the population use water for cleansing the anal area after defecating. Use of toilet paper is rare in this region and is seen only in some urban settings. Toilets commonly also have bidet sprayers. Even when toilet paper is used water-based cleansing is considered essential. The cleaning of hands with soap/ liquid soap after this cleansing process is very important. In places where soap is not available, soil, ash or sand is used to clean the hands. Simpler toilet rooms may not have running water for anal cleansing and hand washing, but buckets, bails, and mugs are used for storage of water and for the purpose of cleaning.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Southeast Asia.", "content": "In Southeast Asian countries such as Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, house bathrooms usually have a medium size wide plastic dipper (called \"gayung\" in Indonesia, \"tabo\" in the Philippines, \"ขัน\" (khan) in Thai) or large cup, which is also used in bathing. In Thailand, the \"bum gun\" is ubiquitous. Some health faucets are metal sets attached to the bowl of the water closet, with the opening pointed at the anus. Toilets in public establishments mainly provide toilet paper for free or dispensed, though the dipper (often a cut up plastic bottle or small jug) is occasionally encountered in some establishments. Owing to its ethnic diversity, restrooms in Malaysia often feature a combination of anal cleansing methods where most public restrooms in cities offer toilet paper as well as a built in bidet or a small hand-held bidet shower (health faucets) connected to the plumbing in the absence of a built-in bidet.  In Vietnam, people often use a bidet shower. It is usually available both at general households and public places.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "East Asia.", "content": "The first \"paperless\" toilet seat was invented in Japan in 1980. A spray toilet seat, commonly known by Toto's trademark Washlet, is typically a combination of seat warmer, bidet and drier, controlled by an electronic panel or remote control next to the toilet seat. A nozzle placed at rear of the toilet bowl aims a water jet to the anus and serves the purpose of cleaning. Many models have a separate \"bidet\" function aimed towards the front for feminine cleansing. The spray toilet seat is common only in Western-style toilets, and is not incorporated in traditional style squat toilets. Some modern Japanese bidet toilets, especially in hotels and public areas, are labeled with pictograms to avoid language problems, and most newer models have a sensor that will refuse to activate the bidet unless someone is sitting on the toilet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Europe and the Americas.", "content": "The bidet is common in predominantly Catholic countries where water is considered essential for anal cleansing, Some people in Europe and the Americas use bidets for anal cleansing with water. Bidets are common bathroom fixtures in many Western and Southern European countries and many South American countries, while bidet showers are more common in Finland. The availability of bidets varies widely within this group of countries. Furthermore, even where bidets exist, they may have other uses than for anal washing. In Italy, the installation of bidets in every household and hotel became mandatory by law in 1975.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other materials.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wet wipes and gel wipes.", "content": "When cleaning babies' buttocks during diaper changes wet wipes are often used, in combination with water if available. As wet wipes are produced from plastic textiles made of polyester or polypropylene, they are notoriously bad for sewage systems as they do not decompose, although the wet wipe industry maintains they are biodegradable but not \"flushable\".  A product of the 21st century, special foams, sprays and gels can be combined with dry toilet paper as an alternatives to wet wipes. A moisturizing gel can be applied to toilet paper for personal hygiene or to reduce skin irritation from diarrhea. This product is called gel wipe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cloths and paper.", "content": "Rags or washcloths are sometimes used. They are then washed similarly to cloth diapers and used again. Newspaper may be used instead of toilet paper.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Natural materials.", "content": "In rural areas of developing countries or during camping trips, stones, leaves, corn cobs and similar are also used for anal cleansing. This can be due to the unavailability of toilet paper or water.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Ancient Greeks were known to use fragments of ceramic known as \"pessoi\" to perform anal cleansing.  Roman anal cleansing was done with a sponge on a stick called a \"tersorium\" (). The stick would be soaked in a water channel in front of a toilet, and then stuck through the hole in front of the toilet for anal cleaning. The \"tersorium\" was shared by people using public latrines. To clean the sponge, they washed it in a bucket with water and salt or vinegar. This became a breeding ground for bacteria, causing the spread of disease in the latrine.  In ancient Japan, a wooden skewer known as \"chuugi\" was used for cleaning after defecation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anal hygiene or anal cleansing refers to hygienic practices that are performed on a person's anus, usually shortly after defecation. The anus and inner buttocks may be wiped (typically with toilet paper, wet wipes, or gel wipes) or washed in order to remove remnants of fecal matter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975984}
{"src_title": "Pontifical Academy of Sciences", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Cesi wanted his academicians to adhere to a research methodology based upon observation, experimentation, and the inductive method. He thus called his academy \"dei lincei\" because its members had \"eyes as sharp as lynxes,\" scrutinizing nature at both microscopic and macroscopic levels. The leader of the first academy was the famous scientist Galileo Galilei.  Academy of Lynxes was dissolved after the death of its founder, but was re-created by Pope Pius IX in 1847 and given the name Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei (\"Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes\"). It was later re-founded in 1936 by Pope Pius XI and given its current name. Pope Paul VI in 1976 and Pope John Paul II in 1986 subsequently updated its statutes.  Since 1936, the Pontifical Academy of Sciences has been concerned both with investigating specific scientific subjects belonging to individual disciplines and with the promotion of interdisciplinary co-operation. It has progressively increased the number of its academicians and the international character of its membership. The Academy is an independent body within the Holy See and enjoys freedom of research. The statutes of 1976 express its goal: \"The Pontifical Academy of Sciences has as its goal the promotion of the progress of the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences, and the study of related epistemological questions and issues.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "Since the Academy and its membership is not influenced by factors of a national, political, or religious character it represents a valuable source of objective scientific information which is made available to the Holy See and to the international scientific community. Today the work of the Academy covers six main areas:  The disciplines involved are sub-divided into eight fields: the disciplines of physics and related disciplines; astronomy; chemistry; the earth and environmental sciences; the life sciences (botany, agronomy, zoology, genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, the neurosciences, surgery); mathematics; the applied sciences; and the philosophy and history of sciences.  Principal among the many publications produced by the Academy are:  With the goal of promoting scientific research, the Pius XI Medal is awarded by the Academy every two years to a young scientist who is under the age of 45 and shows exceptional promise. A few of the winners have also become members of the Academy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Goals and hopes of the Academy.", "content": "The goals and hopes of the Academy were expressed by Pope Pius XI in the \"motu proprio \"In multis solaciis\"\" which brought about its re-foundation in 1936:  Forty years later (10 November 1979), John Paul II once again emphasized the role and goals of the Academy, on the 100th anniversary (centenary) of the birth of Albert Einstein:  On 8 November 2012 Pope Benedict XVI told members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Members.", "content": "The new members of the Academy are elected by the body of Academicians and chosen from men and women of every race and religion based on the high scientific value of their activities and their high moral profile. They are then officially appointed by the Roman Pontiff. The Academy is governed by a President, appointed from its members by the Pope, who is helped by a scientific Council and by the Chancellor. Initially made up of 80 Academicians, 70 who were appointed for life. In 1986 John Paul II raised the number of members for life to 80, side by side with a limited number of Honorary Academicians chosen because they are highly qualified figures, and others who are Academicians because of the posts they hold, including: the Chancellor of the Academy, the Director of the Vatican Observatory, the Prefect of the Vatican Apostolic Library, and the Prefect of the Vatican Secret Archives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President.", "content": "The president of the Academy is appointed from its members by the Pope. The current president is Joachim Von Braun, as of 21 June 2017. who takes over from Nobel laureate Werner Arber, who is a Nobel Prize Laureate and was the first Protestant to hold the position.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nobel Prize-winning members.", "content": "During its various decades of activity, the Academy has had a number of Nobel Prize winners amongst its members, many of whom were appointed Academicians before they received this prestigious international award.  Other eminent Academicians include Padre Agostino Gemelli (1878–1959), founder of the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart and President of the Academy after its re-foundation until 1959, Mons. Georges Lemaître (1894–1966), one of the fathers of contemporary cosmology who held the office of President from 1960 to 1966, and Brazilian neuroscientist Carlos Chagas Filho.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pontifical Academy of Sciences (, ) is a scientific academy of the Vatican City, established in 1936 by Pope Pius XI, and thriving with the blessing of the Papacy ever since. Its aim is to promote the progress of the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences and the study of related epistemological problems. The Academy has its origins in the Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei (\"Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes\"), founded in 1847 as a more closely supervised successor to the Accademia dei Lincei (\"Academy of Lynxes\") established in Rome in 1603 by the learned Roman Prince, Federico Cesi (1585–1630), who was a young botanist and naturalist, and which claimed Galileo Galilei as its president. The Accademia dei Lincei survives as a wholly separate institution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975985}
{"src_title": "Louis Wirth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Louis Wirth was born in the small village of Gemünden in the Hunsrück, Germany. He was one of seven children born to Rosalie Lorig (1868–1948, from Butzweiler/Eifel) and Joseph Wirth. Gemünden was a pastoral community, and Joseph Wirth earned a living as a cattle dealer. The family was Jewish and both of his parents were religiously active. Louis left Gemünden to live with his older sister at his uncle's home in Omaha, Nebraska in 1911. Soon after arriving in the United States, Louis met and married Mary Bolton. The couple had two daughters, Elizabeth (Marvick) and Alice (Gray).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Wirth studied in the United States and became a leading figure in Chicago School Sociology. His interests included city life, minority group behaviour and mass media and he is recognised as one of the leading urban sociologists. Wirth's major contribution to social theory of urban space was a classic essay \"Urbanism as a Way of Life\", published in the \"American Journal of Sociology\" in 1938. In this essay Wirth used Weber’s notion of the ideal type, seeing the urban and the rural as constituting two distinct types of community at opposite ends of a continuum.  His research was mostly concerned with how Jewish immigrants adjusted to life in urban America, as well as the distinct social processes of city life. Wirth was a supporter of applied sociology, and believed in taking the knowledge offered by his discipline and using it to solve real social problems.  Wirth writes that urbanism is a form of social organisation that is harmful to culture, and describes the city as a \"“Substitution of secondary for primary contacts, the weakening of bonds of kinship, the declining social significance of the family, the disappearance of neighbourhood and the undermining of traditional basis of social solidarity”\". Wirth was concerned with the effects of the city upon family unity, and he believed urbanization leads to a ‘low and declining urban reproduction rates... families are smaller and more frequently without children than in the country’. According to Wirth, marriage tends to be postponed, and the proportion of single people is growing, leading to isolation and less interaction.  But Wirth also stressed the positive effects of city life: \"the beginning of what is distinctively modern in our civilization is best signalized by the growth of great cities“; \"metropolitan civilization is without question the best civilization that human beings have ever devised“; \"the city everywhere has been the center of freedom and toleration, the home of progress, of invention, of science, of rationality“ or: \"the history of civilization can be written in terms of the history of cities“.  The profound social understanding of minority groups that Wirth obtained first-hand as a Jewish immigrant in America, can equally be applied to understanding the problems of other minority groups in society, such as ethnic minorities, the disabled, homosexuals, women and the elderly, all of whom have also suffered, and/or continue to suffer prejudice, discrimination and disenfranchisement from the more numerically dominant members of a host society. It is in this respect that Wirth's path-breaking and insightful work still amply rewards detailed study even today, some seventy years after his original investigations.  A good example of Wirth's work, which includes a comprehensive bibliography, is \"On Cities and Social Life\", published in 1964.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis Wirth (August 28, 1897 – May 3, 1952) was an American sociologist and member of the Chicago school of sociology. His interests included city life, minority group behavior, and mass media, and he is recognised as one of the leading urban sociologists.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975986}
{"src_title": "Pierre Charron", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Pierre Charron was born in Paris, one of the twenty-five children of a bookseller. After studying law at Orléans and Bourges he practiced as an advocate, for a few years. He then entered the church and soon became a popular priest, rising to become a canon.  He moved to the southwest of France, invited by Arnaud de Pontac, Bishop of Bazas. He was appointed priest in ordinary to Marguerite de Valois, wife of Henry IV of Navarre. In about 1588, Charron decided to become a monk, but being rejected by both the Carthusians and the Celestines, he returned to his old profession. He delivered a course of sermons at Angers, and in the next year moved to Bordeaux, where he formed a famous friendship with Michel de Montaigne. On Montaigne's death, in 1592, Charron was requested in the will to bear the Montaigne arms.  From 1594, he used his own name; he spent from 1594 to 1600 under the protection of Antoine Hérbrard de Saint-Sulpice, Bishop of Cahors, who appointed him grand vicar and theological canon. His first book led to his being chosen deputy to the general assembly of the clergy, for which he became chief secretary.  Charron retired to Condom in 1600; he died suddenly of a stroke; his works were then receiving attention.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Charron first published his works anonymously. Later he wrote under the name of \"Benoit Vaillant, Advocate of the Holy Faith.\" While Charron's reading of Montaigne is now considered dogmatic and indeed something of a distortion, it was important in its time and during the 17th century as a whole.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Les Trois Vérités\".", "content": "In 1594, he published a long work, \"Les Trois Vérités,\" in which Charron sought to prove that there is a God and a true religion, that the true religion is Christianity, and that the true church is Roman Catholicism. It was a response to the Protestant work \"Le Traité de l'Eglise,\" by Philippe de Mornay. In the second edition (1595), there is an elaborate reply to criticisms of the third \"Vérité\" by a Protestant writer. \"Les Trois Vérités\" ran through several editions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Discours chretiens\".", "content": "Then followed, in 1600, \"Discours chretiens,\" a book of sermons with a similar tone, half of which is about the Eucharist.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"De la sagesse\".", "content": "In 1601, Charron published in Bordeaux his third work, \"De la sagesse,\" a system of moral philosophy that develops ideas of Montaigne. Charron also connected Montaigne's scepticism with the anti-rational strand in Christianity. It received the support of Henry IV and of magistrate Pierre Jeannin. A second revised edition appeared in 1603, supported by Claude Dormy, the second Bishop of Boulogne.  \"De la sagesse\" also was attacked, in particular by the Jesuit François Garasse (1585–1631), who described Charron as an atheist.  A summary and defence of the book, written shortly before his death, appeared in 1606. In 1604, Charron's friend Michel de la Roche prefixed a \"Life\" to an edition of \"De la sagesse,\" which depicts Charron as an amiable man of good character. His complete works, with this contribution by de la Roche, were published in 1635. An abridgment of the \"Sagesse\" is given in Wilhelm Gottlieb Tennemann's \"Philosophie\", vol. ix. An edition with notes by A. Duval appeared in 1820. It was translated into English as \"Of Wisdome\" (1612) by Samson Lennard; and again by George Stanhope (1697).  Apart from the major influence of Montaigne, Charron took from Raymond of Sabunde (Sibiuda). Another influence was neostoicism, as handled by Justus Lipsius.  According to Charron, the soul, located in the ventricles of the brain, is affected by the temperament of the individual; the dry temperament produces acute intelligence; the moist, memory; the hot, imagination. Dividing the intelligent soul into these three faculties, he writes the branches of science corresponding with each. On the nature of the soul, he quotes opinions. The belief in its immortality, he says, is the most universal of beliefs, but the most feebly supported by reason. As to a human's power of attaining truth, he declares that none of our faculties enable us to distinguish truth from error. In comparing humans with animals, Charron insists that there are no breaks in nature. Though inferior in some respects, in others, animals are superior. Namely, humanity's essential qualities are vanity, weakness, inconstancy, and presumption.  Charron writes that all religions teach that God is to be appeased by prayers, presents, vows, but especially, and, most irrationally, by human suffering. Each religion is said by its devotees to have commenced by divine inspiration. A human is a Christian, Jew, or Muslim, before he or she knows that they are persons. Furthermore, he writes that one religion is built upon another.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Views.", "content": "While Charron declares religion to be \"strange to common sense,\" the practical result at which he arrives is that one is not to sit in judgment on his or her faith, but to be \"simple and obedient,\" and to submit to public authority. He writes that this is one rule of wisdom with regard to religion. Another equally important is to avoid superstition, which he defines as the belief that God is like a hard judge who, eager to find fault, narrowly examines our slightest act, that he is vengeful and hard to appease, and that, therefore, he must be flattered and won over by pain and sacrifice.  Charron states that true piety, which is the first of duties, is the knowledge of God and of one's self; the latter knowledge being necessary to the former. The belief that what God sends is all good, and that all the bad is from ourselves is the abasing of humanity and the exalting of God. It leads to spiritual worship, for external ceremony is merely for our advantage, not for his glory.  Charron is a founder of modern secularism. He declares the sovereign to be the source of law, and asserts that popular freedom is dangerous.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Charron (; 1541 – 16 November 1603) was a French 16th-century Catholic theologian and philosopher, and a disciple and contemporary of Michel de Montaigne.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975987}
{"src_title": "Anton Giulio Bragaglia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bragaglia was born in Frosinone, Lazio. In 1906 Bragaglia went to work as an assistant director of a Roman movie studio managed by his father Francesco. He gained a great deal of technical and artistic experience there, learning from directors Mario Caserini and Enrico Guazzoni. His younger siblings Arturo (actor) and Carlo Ludovico (film director) were both involved in Italian cinema from the 1930s to mid-1960s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Futurism.", "content": "In 1911 he published the treatise \"Fotodinamismo\" and began lecturing on the concept. In the same year he became the chief editor of the art and theater newspaper \"L'Artista\". He published two Futurist manifestos, \"Fotodinamica Futurista\" (1912) and \"Manifesto of Futurist Cinema\" (1916). In 1916 he founded the \"avant garde\" magazine \"Cronache di Attualità\", which examined politics, music, theater and art from a Futurist standpoint. In the same year he founded the film studio \"Novissima-Film\", and produced some visionary Futurist films including \"Thais\", \"Perfido incanto\", and \"Il mio cadavere\".  In 1918 he opened an art gallery, the \"Casa d'Arte Bragaglia\", which became a nexus of \"avant garde\" artists and exhibitions. It displayed the work of such modernists as Balla, Depero, De Chirico, Boccioni, Klimt and Kandinsky. In 1919 he directed plays by Rosso di San Secondo and Pirandello.  From 1921 to 1924 Bragaglia published the satirical pamphlet \"Index Rerum Virorumque Prohibitorum\" (\"Index of Forbidden Things and Men\"). In 1922 he opened the \"Teatro Sperimentale degli Indipendenti\" which he directed till 1936. The same year he founded his own theater company (\"Company Bragaglia Shows\"), which also became a focal point for the Italian \"avant garde\". In 1932, he was named advisor to the \"Corporazione dello Spettacolo\" (Enteratainment Guild). The \"Teatro\" closed in 1936, and from 1937 to 1943 he was director of the foundation \"Teatro delle Arti\".  Bragaglia described his theories on the theater in \"Maschera mobile\" (1926), \"Del teatro teatrale ossia del teatro\" (1927), and \"Il segreto di Tabarrino\" (1933). He directed more than fifty productions. From 1926 until 1960, he also wrote a number of articles and books about art, the theater and motion pictures.  Bragaglia died in Rome on 15 July 1960.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anton Giulio Bragaglia (11 February 1890 – 15 July 1960) was a pioneer in Italian Futurist photography and Futurist cinema. A versatile and intellectual artist with wide interests, he wrote about film, theatre, and dance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975988}
{"src_title": "Nikolay Bobrikov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Nikolay Ivanovich Bobrikov was born on January 15, 1839, and attended the 1st Cadet Corps. Upon graduation, he became a lieutenant and served in the Imperial Guards. After which he served in the Kazan military district and as divisional chief-of-staff in Novgorod. He became a colonel in 1869. A year later he was transferred to Saint Petersburg for special duties in the Imperial guard. This gave Bobrikov access to the Imperial court. In 1878 he became a major general.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Governor-General of Finland.", "content": "In 1898, Tsar Nicholas II appointed Bobrikov as the Governor-General of Finland as well as the Finnish Military District.  Upon appointment, he introduced a Russification programme into the Grand Duchy, the 11 main points were:  Bobrikov quickly became very unpopular and hated in Finland as he was an adamant supporter of the curtailing of the grand principality's extensive autonomy, which had in the late 1800s come into conflict with Russian ambitions of a unified and indivisible Russian state. In 1899, Nicholas II signed the \"February Manifesto\" which marks the beginning of the first \"Years of Oppression\" () from the traditional Finnish perspective. In this manifesto the Tsar decreed that the Diet of the Estates of Finland could be overruled in legislation if it was in Russian imperial interests. Half a million Finns, considering the decree a coup against the Finnish constitution, signed a petition to Nicholas II requesting to revoke the manifesto. The Tsar didn't even receive the delegation bringing the petition.  In 1900, Bobrikov issued orders that all correspondence between government offices was to be conducted in Russian and that education in the Russian language was to be increased in schools. The Finnish army was abolished in 1901, and Finnish conscripts could now be forced to serve with Russian troops anywhere in the Russian empire. To the first call-up in 1902, only 42% of the conscripts showed up. In 1905, conscription in Finland was abolished since Finns were seen as unreliable. In 1903, Bobrikov was given dictatorial powers by the Tsar so that he could dismiss government officials and close newspapers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Assassination.", "content": "On June 16, 1904, Bobrikov was assassinated by Eugen Schauman in Helsinki. Schauman shot Bobrikov three times and then himself twice. Schauman died instantly and Bobrikov was mortally wounded, he died at the hospital in the early hours of the following morning. It was described as the following:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nikolay Ivanovich Bobrikov (; in St. Petersburg – June 17, 1904 in Helsinki, Grand Duchy of Finland) was a Russian general and politician. He was the Governor-General of Finland and the Finnish Military District from to during the early reign of Emperor Nicholas II, and was responsible for the Russification of Finland. After appointment as the governor-general, he quickly became very unpopular and was assassinated by Eugen Schauman, a Finnish nationalist from Kharkov.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975989}
{"src_title": "Deodoro da Fonseca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Fonseca was born the third child of a large military family on 5 August 1827 in Vila Madalena, Alagoas, a town that now bears his name as Marechal Deodoro, in Northeast Brazil. He was the son of Manuel Mendes da Fonseca Galvão (1785–1859) and his wife, Rosa Maria Paulina de Barros Cavalcanti (1802–1873). During the Brazilian Empire, his older brother, Severino Martins da Fonseca, was nominated the first Baron of Alagoas. Another notable relative was the Portuguese humanist Francisco de Holanda (d. 1585), his remote uncle. Fonseca pursued a military career that was notable for his suppression of the Praieira revolt in Pernambuco in 1848, Brazil's response to the European year of failed liberal revolutions. He also saw action during the Paraguayan War (1864–1870), attaining the rank of captain. In 1884 he was promoted to the rank of field marshal, and he later achieved the rank of full marshal. His personal courage, military competence, and manly personal style made him a national figure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "As Governor of Rio Grande do Sul, Fonseca was courted by republican intellectuals such as Benjamin Constant and Rui Barbosa in the café society of São Paulo. In 1886, alerted that the imperial government was ordering the arrest of prominent republicans, Fonseca went to Rio de Janeiro and assumed leadership of the army faction that supported the abolition of slavery in Brazil.  Emperor Pedro II had advocated the abolition of slavery for decades, freeing his own slaves in 1840, but he believed slavery should be done away with slowly to avoid damaging the Brazilian economy. The government, nominally headed by his daughter, Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil, abolished slavery entirely in 1888, during her third regency while her father was away from the country. Enraged oligarchs played a role in the subsequent coup d'état. Fonseca's prestige placed him at the head of the military coup that deposed the emperor on 15 November 1889, and he was briefly the head of the provisional government that called a Constituent Congress to draft a new constitution for a United States of Brazil. Soon, however, he was in conflict with the civilian republican leaders. His election as president on 25 February 1891, by a narrow plurality, was backed with military pressure on Congress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "The Fonseca administration, divided by political and personal animosity between Fonsenca and Vice President Floriano Peixoto and encountered strong opposition within the Congress, which chose a policy of obstruction. During the first months of his presidency, he permitted his ministers almost unrestricted control of their ministries. Arbitrary presidential decrees, such as the concession of the port of Torres to a private company and Decree 528, which that opened the country to further immigration except by Africans, as well as the disastrous conduct of economic policy during the bubble of the Encilhamento strengthened the resistance in Congress, which coalesced around Peixoto and soured public opinion. That also caused republicans in the South to withdraw their support from the marshal and provisional government. The situation reached a crisis stage when Fonseca dissolved the National Congress and declared a \"state of emergency\" on 3 November 1891. A group of deputies opposed the decision and found support among the high-ranking officers of the Navy, including Admiral Custódio José de Melo. The marshal found himself on the brink of a civil war. On 23 November 1891, he signed a resignation to no one in particular and turned over the presidency to Peixoto.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "He died in Rio de Janeiro on 23 August 1892. He was stricken with perilous bouts of dyspnea, popularly referred to as \"shortness of breath,\" and was buried in a family grave in the Caju Cemetery. However, in 1937, his remains were unearthed and transferred to a monument in Praça Paris, Rio de Janeiro.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Fonseca has been portrayed twice by Brazilian actor and voice actor Castro Gonzaga in the miniseries \"Abolição\" (1988) and \"República\" (1989) respectively.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca (; 5 August 1827 – 23 August 1892) was a Brazilian politician and military officer who served as the first President of Brazil. He took office after heading a military coup that deposed Emperor Pedro II and proclaimed the Republic in 1889, disestablishing the Empire, and stepped down little more than two years later, in 1891, under great political pressure. He is therefore the first Brazilian President to have resigned from office.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975990}
{"src_title": "Philosopher", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient Greece and Rome.", "content": "The separation of philosophy and science from theology began in Greece during the 6th century BC. Thales, an astronomer and mathematician, was considered by Aristotle to be the first philosopher of the Greek tradition.  While Pythagoras coined the word, the first known elaboration on the topic was conducted by Plato. In his \"Symposium\", he concludes that Love is that which lacks the object it seeks. Therefore, the philosopher is one who seeks wisdom; if he attains wisdom, he would be a sage. Therefore, the philosopher in antiquity was one who lives in the constant pursuit of wisdom, and living in accordance to that wisdom. Disagreements arose as to what living philosophically entailed. These disagreements gave rise to different Hellenistic schools of philosophy. In consequence, the ancient philosopher thought in a tradition. As the ancient world became schism by philosophical debate, the competition lay in living in a manner that would transform his whole way of living in the world.  Among the last of these philosophers was Marcus Aurelius, who is widely regarded as a philosopher in the modern sense, but personally refused to call himself by such a title, since he had a duty to live as an emperor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transition.", "content": "According to the Classicist Pierre Hadot, the modern conception of a philosopher and philosophy developed predominately through three changes:  The first is the natural inclination of the philosophical mind. Philosophy is a tempting discipline which can easily carry away the individual in analyzing the universe and abstract theory.  The second is the historical change through the Medieval era. With the rise of Christianity, the philosophical way of life was adopted by its theology. Thus, philosophy was divided between a way of life and the conceptual, logical, physical and metaphysical materials to justify that way of life. Philosophy was then the servant to theology.  The third is the sociological need with the development of the university. The modern university requires professionals to teach. Maintaining itself requires teaching future professionals to replace the current faculty. Therefore, the discipline degrades into a technical language reserved for specialists, completely eschewing its original conception as a way of life.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Medieval era.", "content": "In the fourth century, the word philosopher began to designate a man or woman who led a monastic life. Gregory of Nyssa, for example, describes how his sister Macrina persuaded their mother to forsake \"the distractions of material life\" for a life of philosophy.  Later during the Middle Ages, persons who engaged with alchemy was called a philosopher – thus, the Philosopher's Stone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early modern era.", "content": "Many philosophers still emerged from the Classical tradition, as saw their philosophy as a way of life. Among the most notable are René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Nicolas Malebranche, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. With the rise of the university, the modern conception of philosophy became more prominent. Many of the esteemed philosophers of the eighteenth century and onward have attended, taught, and developed their works in university. Early examples include: Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.  After these individuals, the Classical conception had all but died with the exceptions of Arthur Schopenhauer, Søren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzsche. The last considerable figure in philosophy to not have followed a strict and orthodox academic regime was Ludwig Wittgenstein.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern academia.", "content": "In the modern era, those attaining advanced degrees in philosophy often choose to stay in careers within the educational system as part of the wider professionalisation process of the discipline in the 20th century. According to a 1993 study by the National Research Council (as reported by the American Philosophical Association), 77.1% of the 7,900 holders of a PhD in philosophy who responded were employed in educational institutions (academia). Outside academia, philosophers may employ their writing and reasoning skills in other careers, such as medicine, bioethics, business, publishing, free-lance writing, media, and law.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Key thinkers.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "French social thought.", "content": "Some known French social thinkers are Claude Henri Saint-Simon, Auguste Comte, and Émile Durkheim.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "British social thought.", "content": "British social thought, with thinkers such as Herbert Spencer, addressed questions and ideas relating to political economy and social evolution. The political ideals of John Ruskin were a precursor of social economy (\"Unto This Last\" had a very important impact on Gandhi's philosophy).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "German social thought.", "content": "Important German philosophers and social thinkers included Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Marx, Max Weber, Georg Simmel, and Martin Heidegger.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Chinese social thought.", "content": "Important Chinese philosophers and social thinkers included Shang Yang, Lao Zi, Confucius, Mencius, Wang Chong, Wang Yangming, Li Zhi, Zhu Xi, Gu Yanwu, Gong Zizhen, Wei Yuan, Kang Youwei, Lu Xun, Mao Zedong, Xi Jinping.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Italian sociology.", "content": "Important Italian social scientists include Antonio Gramsci, Gaetano Mosca, Vilfredo Pareto, Franco Ferrarotti, Elena Cornaro Piscopia.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Indian philosophers.", "content": "Adi Shankaracharya, Ramanuja, Chanakya, Buddha, Mahavira, Śāntarakṣita, Dharmakirti, Nagarjuna.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Women philosophers.", "content": "Women have engaged in philosophy throughout the field's history. While there have been women philosophers since ancient times, and a relatively small number were accepted as philosophers during the ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary eras, particularly during the 20th and 21st century, almost no woman philosophers have entered the philosophical Western canon. One notable woman philosopher was Hypatia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prizes in philosophy.", "content": "Various prizes in philosophy exist. Among the most prominent are:  Certain esteemed philosophers, such as Henri Bergson, Bertrand Russell, Rudolf Christoph Eucken, Albert Camus, and Jean-Paul Sartre, have also won the Nobel Prize in Literature.  The John W. Kluge Prize for the Study of Humanity, created by the Library of Congress to recognize work not covered by the Nobel Prizes, was given to philosophers Leszek Kołakowski in 2003, Paul Ricoeur in 2004, and Jürgen Habermas and Charles Taylor in 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A philosopher is someone who practices philosophy. The term \"philosopher\" comes from the Ancient Greek, (\"philosophos\"), meaning \"lover of wisdom\". The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras (6th century BC).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975991}
{"src_title": "Esopus Wars", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Before European exploration, the Kingston area was inhabited by the Esopus people, a Lenape tribe which was estimated to number around 10,000 people living in small village communities by 1600.  In 1609, Henry Hudson explored the river which was named after him, leading to the first contact between the Esopus people and Europeans. Dutch settlers built a factorij (trading post) in Kingston, New York in 1614. The Esopus tribe used the land for farming, and they destroyed the post and drove the settlers back to the south. Colonists established a new settlement in 1652 at Kingston, but the Esopus drove them out again. The settlers returned once again in 1658, as they believed the land to be good for farming. They built a stockade (at ) to defend the village and named the colony \"Wiltwijck\". Skirmishes continued, but the Esopus were not able to repel the settlers, and they eventually granted the land to them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Esopus War.", "content": "The First Esopus War was a short-lived conflict between Dutch settlers and the Esopus Indians from September 20, 1659 and July 15, 1660. An incident occurred where a group of Dutch settlers opened fire on a group of Esopus around a campfire, who had been celebrating with brandy given as payment for farm work. Esopus reinforcements raided Dutch settlements outside the stockade, destroying crops, killing livestock, and burning buildings. The war party later besieged the walled settlement of Wiltwijck.  The colonists were outnumbered and had little hope of winning through force, but they managed to hold out and make some small attacks, including burning the Indians' fields to starve them out. They received reinforcements from New Amsterdam. The war concluded July 15, 1660, when the Indians agreed to trade land for food. Tensions remained between the Esopus and the settlers, however, eventually leading to the second war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second Esopus War.", "content": "Emissaries from the colony contacted the tribe on June 5, 1663 and requested a meeting in hopes of making a treaty. The Indians replied that it was their custom to conduct peace talks unarmed and in the open, so the settlers kept the gates open into \"Wiltwijck\". The Indians arrived on June 7 in great numbers, many claiming to be selling produce, thereby infiltrating deep into the town as scouts. Meanwhile, Esopus warriors completely destroyed the neighboring village of \"Nieu Dorp\" (Hurley, New York) unbeknownst to the colonists in Wiltwijck. The Indian scouts had spread themselves around the town and suddenly began their own attack. They took the settlers completely by surprise and soon controlled much of the town, setting fire to houses and kidnapping women before being driven out by the settlers. The attackers escaped, and the settlers repaired their fortifications. On June 16, Dutch soldiers transporting ammunition to the town were attacked on their way from Rondout Creek, but they repelled the Indians.  Throughout July, colonial forces reconnoitered the Esopus Kill. They were unable to distinguish one tribe from another, and they captured some traders from the \"Wappinger\" tribe, one of whom agreed to help them. He gave them information about various Indian forces and served as a guide in the field. In spite of his help, the colonists were unable to make solid contact with the Esopus, who used guerilla tactics and could disappear easily into the woods. After several unproductive skirmishes, the colonists managed to gain the help of the Mohawk, who served as guides, interpreters, and warriors. By the end of July, the colonists had received sufficient reinforcements to march for the Esopus stronghold in the mountains to the north. However, their ponderous equipment made progress slow, and the terrain was difficult. They recognized their disadvantage and burned the surrounding fields in the hope of starving them out, rather than making a direct attack on the Indian force.  For the next month, scouting parties went out to set fire to the Esopus fields but found little other combat. In early September, another colonial force tried to engage the Esopus on their territory, this time successfully. The battle ended with the death of Chief Papequanaehen and several others. The Indians fled, and the colonists led by Captain Martin Cregier pillaged their fort before retreating, taking supplies and prisoners. This effectively ended the war, although the peace was uneasy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outcome.", "content": "The Dutch settlers remained suspicious of all Indians with whom they came into contact and expressed misgivings about the intentions of the Wappingers and even the Mohawks, who had helped them defeat the Esopus. Colonial prisoners taken captive by the Indians in the Second Esopus War were transported through regions that they had not yet explored, and they described the land to the colonial authorities who set out to survey it. Some of this land was later sold to French Huguenot refugees who established the village of New Paltz.  In September 1664, the Dutch ceded New Netherland to the English. The English colonies redrew the boundaries of Indian territory, paid for land that they planned to settle, and forbad any further settlement on the established Indian lands without full payment and mutual agreement. The new treaty established safe passage for both settler and Indians for purposes of trading. It further declared \"that all past Injuryes are buryed and forgotten on both sides,\" promised equal punishment for settlers and Indians found guilty of murder, and paid traditional respects to the \"sachems\" and their people. Over the course of the next two decades, Esopus lands were bought up and the Indians moved out peacefully, eventually taking refuge with the Mohawks north of the Shawangunk mountains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "The definitive and most detailed history of the Esopus Indian Wars (First Esopus War and Second Esopus War, as they're known) can be found in chapters 3-6 of The Early History of Kingston & Ulster County, N.Y. by Marc B. Fried (published 1975). This book is still in print.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Esopus Wars were two conflicts between the Esopus tribe of Lenape Indians (Delaware) and New Netherlander colonists during the latter half of the 17th century in Ulster County, New York. The first battle was instigated by settlers; the second war was the continuation of a grudge on the part of the Esopus tribe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975992}
{"src_title": "Free State of Fiume", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Historian Johannes Lucius added to the \"Dalmatia Pale\" (somewhat similar to the \"English Pale\" in Ireland, as boundary of Roman local laws) of the Dalmatian City-States the city of \"Fiume\", after the year 1000 when Venice started to take control of the region. Indeed Fiume was the former Roman \"Tarsatica\": the city of that medieval period was a small fortified town under the Italian Aquileia (and Pola) bishops, enclosed within the town walls which had several defense towers. The town, called Flumen, was granted autonomy in the 11th century by the bishop and was divided into two parts: in the upper part, there was a medieval castle/formerly Roman fort and the church of St. Vitus (thus the name 'Flumen Sancti Viti'), while in the lower part - the popular- there was a neolatin commercial and trading center where around the year 1000 many Italian merchants settled.  Fiume gained autonomy for the first time in 1719 when it was proclaimed a free port of the Holy Roman Empire in a decree issued by the Emperor Charles VI. In 1776, during the reign of the Empress Maria Theresa, the city was transferred to the Kingdom of Hungary and in 1779 gained the status of \"corpus separatum\" within that Kingdom. The city briefly lost its autonomy in 1848 after being occupied by the Croatian \"ban\" (viceroy) Josip Jelačić, but regained it in 1868 when it rejoined the Kingdom of Hungary, again as a \"corpus separatum\". Fiume's status as an exclave of Hungary meant that, despite being landlocked, the Kingdom had a port. Until 1924, Fiume existed for practical purposes as an autonomous entity with elements of statehood.  In the 19th century, the city was populated mostly by Italians, and as minorities by Croats and Hungarians, and other ethnicities. National affiliations changed from census to census, as at that time \"nationality\" was defined mostly by the language a person spoke. The special status of the city, being placed between different states, created a local identity among the majority of the population. The official languages in use were Italian, Hungarian, and German; most of the business correspondence was carried out in Italian, while most families spoke a local dialect, a blend of Venetian with a few words of Croatian. In the countryside outside the city, a particular kind of Croatian Chakavian dialect with many Italian and Venetian words was spoken.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "After the First World War and the demise of Austria-Hungary, the question of the status of Fiume became a major international problem. At the height of the dispute between the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later called Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and the Kingdom of Italy, the Great Powers advocated the establishment of an independent buffer state. President Woodrow Wilson of the U.S. became the arbiter in the Yugoslav-Italian dispute over the city. He suggested that Fiume be set up as an independent state, and indeed as the potential home for the League of Nations organisation.  The dispute led to lawlessness, and the city changed hands between a South-Slav National Committee and an Italian National Council, leading finally to the landing of British and French troops who took over the city. The National Council over-stamped Austro-Hungarian notes – the Fiume Kronen – which were used as official currency. This confusing situation was exploited by the Italian poet Gabriele d'Annunzio, who entered the city on 12 September 1919 and began a 15-month period of occupation. A year later after failure of negotiations with the Italian government, d'Annunzio proclaimed the Italian Regency of Carnaro. On 12 November 1920, the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes signed the Treaty of Rapallo by which both parties agreed to acknowledge \"the complete freedom and independence of the State of Fiume and oblige to respect it in perpetuity\". With this act the eternal \"Free State of Fiume\" was created, which, it turned out, would exist as an independent state for about one year \"de facto\", and four years \"de jure\". The newly created state was immediately recognized by the United States, France and the United Kingdom. D'Annunzio refused to acknowledge the Agreement and was expelled from the city by the regular forces of the Italian Army, in the \"Bloody Christmas\" actions from 24 to 30 December 1920.  In April 1921, the electorate approved the plan for a free state and for a consortium to run the port. The first parliamentary elections were held, contested between the autonomists and the pro-Italian National Bloc. The Autonomist Party, which was supported by votes from the majority of the Croats, gained 6,558 votes, while the National Bloc, composed of Fascist, Liberal and Democratic parties, received 3,443 votes. The leader of the Autonomist Party, Riccardo Zanella, became the President.  Control over the Free State was in an almost constant state of flux. Following the departure of d'Annunzio's troops in December 1920, the Italian National Council of Fiume re-assumed control and appointed a provisional government. A pact with the local Italian commander handed control to the military on 18 January 1921, but this lasted just three days before a nationalist rebellion. They appointed an extraordinary government, which fell two days later. In June 1921 an Italian Royal Commissioner was appointed, whose control lasted two weeks.  A group of d'Annunzio loyalists seized part of the town until they were in turn pushed out in September. In October the autonomist Riccardo Zanella was appointed provisional president; his rule lasted until 3 March 1922, when Italian Fascists carried out a \"coup d'état\" and the legal government escaped to Kraljevica. On 6 March, the Italian government was asked to restore order and Italian troops entered the city on 17 March. They returned control to the minority of the constituent assembly, who were loyal to the Italian annexationists.  After the proclamation of the Rapallo Treaty, the Communist Party of Fiume (Partito Comunista di Fiume – Sezione della III.a Internazionale) was instituted in November 1921. The Communist Party of Fiume was the smallest Communist Party in the world. It was founded following the principles of the Third International, according to which each sovereign state had to have its own Communist Party organization.  In January 1924, the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes signed the Treaty of Rome (27 January 1924), agreeing to the annexation of Fiume by Italy and the absorption of Sušak by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes; this took effect on 16 March. The government-in-exile of the Free State considered this act invalid and non-binding under international law and continued its activities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "With the surrender of Italy in the Second World War, the \"Fiume-Rijeka\" issue resurfaced. In 1944 a group of citizens issued the Liburnia Memorandum, in which it was recommended that a confederate state be formed from the three cantons of Fiume, Sušak and Ilirska Bistrica. The islands of Krk (Veglia), Cres (Cherso) and Lošinj (Lussino) would enter the common condominium as well. President Zanella of the government-in-exile still sought the re-establishment of the Free State.  The Yugoslavian partisan authorities, who took possession of the city from German occupation on 3 May 1945, objected to these plans, and took concrete steps to settle the dispute. The leaders of the autonomists – Nevio Skull, Mario Blasich and Sergio Sincich – were murdered. President Zanella went into hiding. With the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947, Fiume (now called Rijeka) and Istria officially became part of Yugoslavia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Free State of Fiume () was an independent free state that existed between 1920 and 1924. Its territory of comprised the city of Fiume (today Rijeka, Croatia) and rural areas to its north, with a corridor to its west connecting it to the Kingdom of Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975993}
{"src_title": "Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Elena and her three surviving older brothers, Kirill, Boris, and Andrei, had an English nanny and spoke English as their first language. The young Elena had a temper and was sometimes out of control. When she posed for an artist at age four, she grabbed a paper knife and threatened her nurse, who hid behind the artist. \"The little lady then transferred her attentions to me, her black eyes ablaze with fury,\" recalled the artist. Elena, raised by a mother who was highly conscious of her social status, was also considered snobbish by some. \"Poor little thing, I feel sorry for her,\" wrote her mother's social rival, Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna, \"for she is really quite sweet, but vain and pretty grandiose.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "She was initially engaged to Prince Max of Baden, but Max backed out of the engagement. Elena's mother was furious and society gossiped about Elena's difficulty in finding a husband. At one point in 1899, the seventeen-year-old Elena was reputedly engaged to Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, however this came to nothing as he fell in love with Countess Sophie Chotek.  Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark, the third son of George I of Greece, first proposed in 1900, but Elena's mother was reluctant to allow her daughter to marry a younger son with no real fortune or prospects of inheriting a throne. She finally agreed to let Elena marry Nicholas, who was Elena's second cousin through his mother Olga Constantinovna of Russia and her father Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia, in 1902 after it became clear that no other offers were on the horizon.  The couple were married on 29 August 1902 in Tsarskoye Selo, Russia. Like many imperial weddings, it was a grand affair, and was attended by the Emperor and Empress of Russia, the King and Queen of the Hellenes, among other royals and nobility of Russia.  The Dowager Empress wrote that Elena \"has a very brusque and arrogant tone that can shock people\" and expected trouble in the marriage. Elena's \"grand manner\" did irritate some people at the court, but her marriage was a happy one.  Prince and Princess Nicholas had three daughters:  Grand Duchess Elena suffered from ill health after the birth of Princess Marina, which caused her husband anguish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life in exile.", "content": "The family was later affected by the turmoil of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent turmoil in Greece, which became a republic and resulted in the family living in France for a time.  While living in France Grand Duchess Elena became deeply involved in charity work for Russian exiles, particularly children. Short of money due to their exile from Greece and the loss of their Russian income, Prince Nicholas and his family lived in reduced, but elegant, circumstances. Grand Duchess Elena's fabulous jewel collection, as well as Prince Nicholas' own artwork, were their sources of income.  Princess Olga of Greece married Prince Paul of Yugoslavia; Princess Elizabeth of Greece married Count Karl Theodor zu Toerring-Jettenbach, son of Duchess Sophie in Bavaria and scion of an old and rich Bavarian mediatized family; and Princess Marina of Greece married the Prince George, Duke of Kent in November 1934.  Grand Duchess Elena became a widow early in 1938, as Prince Nicholas suffered a heart attack and died suddenly. She remained in Greece throughout the Second World War, dying there in 1957. She bequeathed her personal library to the Anavryta School.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia (17 January 1882 – 13 March 1957), sometimes known as Helen, Helena, Helene, Ellen, Yelena, Hélène, or Eleni, was a Russian grand duchess as the only daughter and youngest child of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia and Duchess Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Her husband was Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark and they were both first cousins of Emperor Nicholas II of Russia. She was also first cousins with Juliana of the Netherlands and Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Queen Consort of Denmark.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975994}
{"src_title": "Brad Park", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "As a youth, Park played in the 1960 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Scarboro Lions and 1965-1966 with the Toronto Westclairs and Toronto Marlboros (until 1968). He was drafted by the New York Rangers in the first round (second overall) in the 1966 NHL Amateur Draft and, after a brief stint with the minor-league Buffalo Bisons of the AHL, began playing for the Rangers in 1968.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "New York Rangers.", "content": "Park quickly became the Rangers' best defenceman and drew comparisons with the great Bobby Orr, as both were credited with revolutionizing the \"offensive\" defenceman. Park's offensive skill, stickhandling and pugnacity attracted much attention from fans. Park and Orr occasionally fought each other on ice, and fans and sportswriters fueled the rivalry by making frequent comparisons, not least as the Rangers and Boston Bruins were bitter opponents. Years afterward, Park remarked \"I saw no reason to be upset because I was rated second to Bobby Orr. After all, Orr not only was the top defenceman in the game but he was considered the best player ever to put on a pair of skates. There was nothing insulting about being rated number two to such a super superstar.\"  Park was made the alternate captain of the Rangers and briefly served as their captain. In 1972, despite the loss of leading team scorer Jean Ratelle with a broken ankle, Park led his team to defeat the defending champions Montreal Canadiens in the first round of the playoffs. The Rangers advanced to the Stanley Cup finals where they lost to Orr and the Boston Bruins, and Park finished runner-up for the Norris Trophy. When the upstart World Hockey Association tried to lure Park away, the Rangers re-signed him to a $200,000-a-year contract that made him, briefly, the highest-paid player in the NHL.  In the 1972 Summit Series, with Orr unable to play due to injury, Park emerged as a key contributor to Team Canada's series over the Soviets, being named the MVP of the deciding Game Eight and named Best Defenceman of the series.  After opening the 1975–76 season with its worst start in ten years, the Rangers began unloading its high-priced veterans. Park, along with Jean Ratelle and Joe Zanussi, was traded to the Boston Bruins in a November 7, 1975 blockbuster deal that also sent Phil Esposito and Carol Vadnais to the Rangers. The New York press and public had felt that Park, 27 at the time, was overweight, overpaid and over the hill, as he was facing unfavourable comparisons to Denis Potvin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Boston Bruins.", "content": "While Esposito and Vadnais remained effective players for the Rangers, the team remained mired at the bottom of the division after \"\"the\" trade\", and Rangers general manager Emile Francis was eventually fired. Contrary to expectations that the Rangers had gotten the better end of the trade, the struggling Bruins were instantly rejuvenated and soon again became one of the NHL's best teams, despite the departures of Phil Esposito and Bobby Orr.  Taking over the mantle of leadership from Orr, whose career was threatened by injury and who would soon leave the team, Park continued his great success under coach Don Cherry. Park had previously been an end-to-end rushing player attempting to imitate Orr, but with the Bruins he was told by Cherry to concentrate on defence. Getting over his unpopularity in Boston when he was a member of the arch-rival Rangers, Park settled in well with the Bruins, even hitch-hiking a ride from two teenagers at 1 am after his car ran out of gas, and Park later rewarded them with free tickets to the next Boston home game.  From 1977-79, Cherry's \"Lunch Pail A.C.\" captured three division titles for the Bruins. Park earned two First All-Star Team selections, while coming in second in the Norris Trophy race twice in a Bruins' uniform, with 1977-78 being considered one of his finest seasons. In 1977 and 1978, Park was a key contributor to Boston's back-to-back appearances in the Stanley Cup Finals where they lost to the Montreal Canadiens both times. His last highlight with Boston came in Game 7 of the Adams Division finals against the Buffalo Sabres in the 1983 playoffs, when Park scored the game-winning goal in overtime and help Boston advance in to the conference finals — Park's career overlapped with the first four years of the emerging superstar defenceman of the Bruins, Raymond Bourque, from 1979 to 1983.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Detroit Red Wings.", "content": "The following season Park signed with the Detroit Red Wings as a free agent and won the Bill Masterton Trophy for perseverance that same year, having set a record for assists by a Red Wings' defenceman. After the 1985 season, still an effective player but hobbled by repeated knee injuries, he announced his retirement. The next year, he briefly served as Detroit's coach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement and personal life.", "content": "In 1988, Park was elected in his first year of eligibility to the Hockey Hall of Fame in his hometown of Toronto.  Park has resided on the North Shore of Massachusetts and on Sebago Lake in Maine for almost 40 years, with his wife Gerry. He has five children and six grandchildren. His autobiography, \"Straight Shooter: The Brad Park Story\", was published in August, 2012.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Douglas Bradford \"Brad\" Park (born July 6, 1948) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey player. A defenceman, Park played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the New York Rangers, Boston Bruins and Detroit Red Wings. Considered one of the best defencemen of his generation, and named to the all-star team several times, the best years of his career were overshadowed by superstar Bobby Orr, who was briefly his teammate. He was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1988. In 2017 Park was named one of the '100 Greatest NHL Players' in history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975995}
{"src_title": "The Thirteenth Floor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 1999 Los Angeles, Hannon Fuller (Mueller-Stahl) owns a multibillion-dollar computer enterprise and is the inventor of a newly completed virtual reality (VR) simulation of 1937 Los Angeles, filled with simulated humans unaware they are computer programs. When Fuller is murdered just as he begins premature testing of the VR system, his friend and protégé, Douglas Hall (Bierko), who is also the heir to the company, becomes the primary suspect. The evidence against him is so strong that Hall begins to doubt his own innocence.  Between interrogations by LAPD Detective Larry McBain (Haysbert), Hall meets Jane Fuller (Gretchen Mol), the estranged daughter of Hannon Fuller, who is busy with the shutdown of the new VR system. Hall then romances her. When a local bartender is murdered after he claims to have witnessed a meeting between Hall and Fuller on the night Fuller was murdered, Hall is arrested. He is released when Jane gives him an alibi.  With the assistance of his associate Whitney (D'Onofrio), Hall attempts to find a message that Fuller left for him inside the simulation. Entering the virtual reality, Hall becomes a bank clerk named John Ferguson. Fuller left the message with a bartender named Jerry Ashton (D'Onofrio), who read the message and discovered he is an artificial creation. Earlier, Ashton notices that Ferguson switched places with Hall in the men's restroom of the hotel where Ashton works, and began to realize that something was wrong. Frightened and angry, Ashton tries to kill Hall. Hall barely survives to escape the VR.  McBain informs Hall that Jane does not exist, as Fuller never had a daughter. Hall tracks her down only to discover her double, Natasha Molinaro, working as a grocery store clerk, but Molinaro does not recognize Hall. This leads Hall to perform an experiment outside the VR system, something that Fuller's letter instructed him to try: drive to a place where he never would have considered going otherwise. He does so, and discovers a point beyond which the world becomes a crude wireframe model. Hall grasps the revelation behind Fuller's message: 1999 Los Angeles is itself a simulation.  Jane Fuller explains the truth to Hall: his world is one of dozens of virtual worlds, but it is the only one in which one of the occupants have developed a virtual world of their own. Jane Fuller lives in the real world outside the 90s simulation. After Fuller's death, she entered the virtual version to assume the guise of Fuller's daughter, gain control of the company, and shut down the simulated 1937 reality, a plan foiled by Hall being made the company heir. The virtual Hall is modeled after David, Jane's real-world husband, though Jane has since fallen in love with Hall. David committed the murders via Hall's body, being driven to increasingly jealous and psychopathic behavior from prolonged use of VR to live out his dark fantasies.  Whitney enters the 1937 simulation, assuming the body of bartender Jerry Ashton, who has kidnapped Ferguson (Hall's 1937 identity) and bound him in the trunk of his car. When Whitney is killed in a car crash inside the 1937 simulation, Ashton's consciousness takes control of Whitney's body in the 90s simulation and takes Hall hostage. Hall tells Ashton that he is not in the real world, and that they are both products of a VR simulation. Hall takes Ashton to the place where he was 'born': a computer lab. David assumes control of Hall again to kill Ashton and then attempts to rape and murder Jane. Jane is rescued by Detective McBain, who shoots and kills David. McBain at this point has realized the nature of his own reality, and jokingly asks Jane, \"So, is somebody going to unplug me now?\" She answers \"no\", so McBain follows with the request \"Look, do me a favor, when you get back to wherever it is you come from, just leave us the hell alone down here, okay?\"  David's death as Hall in the 90s simulation allows Hall's artificial consciousness to take control of David's body in the real world. He wakes in 2024, connected to a VR system. He disconnects the system and finds Jane and her father, the real Hannon Fuller. Jane wants to tell Hall more about the simulation, but as she begins the film ends, the screen image collapsing to a thin line of light before going dark like a computer monitor being turned off.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "\"The Thirteenth Floor\" was a co-production of Columbia Pictures and Centropolis Entertainment. Most of the film was shot in Los Angeles, California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "\"The Thirteenth Floor\" was first released on April 16, 1999, in Denmark, then released in North America on May 28, 1999. It grossed $11.9 million in North America, and $18.5 million worldwide. \"The Thirteenth Floor\" was released on DVD on October 5, 1999, and on Blu-ray on April 14, 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"The Thirteenth Floor\" received mostly negative reviews. Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reported that 29% of critics gave the film positive reviews, with an average score of 4.5/10, based upon a sample of 63 reviews, and the critical consensus \"Bad script and confusing plot undermine the movie's impressive visuals.\" At Metacritic, the film received an average score of 36/100, based on 22 reviews.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Thirteenth Floor is a 1999 neo-noir science fiction crime thriller film written and directed by Josef Rusnak, and produced by Roland Emmerich. It is loosely based upon \"Simulacron-3\" (1964), a novel by Daniel F. Galouye, and a remake of the German film \"World on a Wire\" (1973). The film stars Craig Bierko, Gretchen Mol, Armin Mueller-Stahl, Vincent D'Onofrio, and Dennis Haysbert. In 2000, \"The Thirteenth Floor\" was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film, but lost to \"The Matrix.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975996}
{"src_title": "University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The University.", "content": "With a student body of more than 3000, the Universität für Musik und Darstellende Kunst Wien (MDW) is one of the largest arts universities in the world. The University consists of 24 departments including the Max Reinhardt Seminar, Vienna Film Academy and the Wiener Klangstil.  MDW facilities include the Schönbrunn Palace Theater, Antonio Vivaldi Room, Salesian Convent, St. Ursula Church, Lothringerstrasse (Franz Liszt Room) and the Anton Von Webern Platz (university main campus). Modern film studios were completed on the university campus in 2004, offering the Vienna Film Academy modern equipment.  The University organizes around 10 competitions, including the International Beethoven Piano Competition. It also presents an acclaimed students’ film festival every two years.  The MDW may be considered a \"feeder\" institution to all major orchestras in Austria, with a particular association with the Vienna Philharmonic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Calls for a music conservatory in Vienna started in 1808. In 1811 an \"outline for a music education institution\" for Vienna was published. A year later the Society for the Friends of Music was formed, with the foremost aim of establishing a conservatory. The Vienna Conservatory was founded in 1817. It was meant to be modeled on the Paris Conservatory, but, due to a lack of funds, it began solely as a singing school. Antonio Salieri was the Conservatory's first director. In 1819, it hired violinist Joseph Böhm, and by 1827 offered courses in most orchestral instruments.  The Conservatory's finances were very unstable. Tuition fees were introduced in 1829, but by 1837 the institution was bankrupt. The state eventually funded the Conservatory from 1841 to 1844 and from 1846 to 1848. In 1848 political unrest caused the state to discontinue funding, and the Conservatory did not offer courses again until 1851. With support from the state and the city, finances again stabilized after 1851. Despite growing state subsidy, The Society for the Friends of Music, which founded the Conservatory, remained in control of the institution. However, by a January 1, 1909 imperial resolution the school was nationalized and became the \"Imperial Academy of Music and the Performing Arts\" (\"k.k. Akademie für Musik und darstellende Kunst\"). (Until then its name was the \"Konservatorium der Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde\".)  Until 1844, when Gottfried Preyer, professor of harmony and composition became director, the director of the Conservatory was not a member of faculty, but a member of the Society for the Friends of Music. Joseph Hellmesberger Sr. was director from 1851 to 1893.  From 1907 Wilhelm Bopp had been the director of Conservatory. The Conservatory was still dominated by the aging Robert Fuchs and Hermann Grädener, both of whom, but especially Fuchs, Bopp considered to be anachronistic and out of touch. In 1912, attempting to rejuvenate the Conservatory Bopp offered teaching positions to Franz Schreker and Arnold Schoenberg. Schoenberg declined the offer, but Schreker accepted it. His teaching duties were carried through with great success and by January 1913 he was awarded a full professorship.  Bopp was also instrumental in the 1909 nationalization of the Conservatory. The administration of the Academy was now assigned to a state-appointed president, an artistic director and a board of trustees.  After the end of World War I, the State Academy was again reorganized. President Karl Ritter von Wiener resigned and conductor Ferdinand Löwe was elected director by the teachers. In 1922, Joseph Marx took over. He wanted the Academy to be granted University status.  After the Anschluss, many teachers and students were dismissed on racial grounds. In 1941, the Academy became a Reich University (Reichshochschule). After World War II, the institution became a State Academy again. In the process of Denazification, fifty-nine teachers were dismissed; by November 1945, sixteen were reinstated. Only five of the teachers dismissed in 1938 were reinstated.  By laws introduced in 1948 and 1949 the institution was granted the status of \"Art Academy\". In 1970, the \"Law on the Organization of Art Colleges\" effectively gave all Art Academies University status, and in 1998 the title of \"Art Academy\" was changed to \"Art University\".  Institut für Komposition, Elektroakustik und TonmeisterInnen-Ausbildung aka ELAK is part of MDW and focuses on electroacoustic music, improvisation, composing of contemporary music, sound art.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna (, abbreviated \"MDW\") is an Austrian university located in Vienna, established in 1817.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975997}
{"src_title": "Vertu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Concept.", "content": "According to \"The Economist\", the concept was to market phones explicitly as fashion accessories, with the idea \"if you can spend $20,000 on a watch, why not on a mobile phone?\" Vertu is the brainchild of the Italian Frank Nuovo, former chief designer at Nokia. He proposed and presented the luxury concept to Nokia's board, who eventually accepted it in late 1998. At the time Nokia released their first luxury phone, the 8850. The resulting products called \"Vertu\" were finally announced in Paris in 2002, and part of a separate subsidiary called Vertu owned by Nokia.  Vertu phones, or \"'mobile communications instruments\" were made in its factories in Church Crookham, Hampshire, England. Handsets were sold through an emphasis on craftsmanship, style and service, rather than mobile phone functions. The business was based in the United Kingdom with offices in New York City, Dubai, Moscow, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Paris and Singapore. In November 2015, Massimiliano Pogliani was replaced by Billy Crotty as Vertu's CEO, who in turn was replaced by Gordon Watson three months later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collection.", "content": "Vertu was launched on 21 January 2002 and the first collection available later that year. The flagship model \"Signature\" was launched in 2003. Its key pad contains nearly 5 carats of ruby bearings. Other models include Ascent (2004), Constellation Classic (2006), Constellation Ayxta (2009), among others. Ascent phones are designed to be lightweight and durable, made of aluminium or titanium with vulcanised rubber and leather. The Classics are simple and small handsets. Ayxtas are flip phones that come in numerous variants and colours. In 2006, Vertu produced and released the Aerius Bluetooth Headset designed by Jacob Jensen Design. The Constellation Quest is the first smartphone by Vertu, equipped with a full QWERTY keyboard made from sapphire sculpted keys. Announced in October 2010, it is similarly styled to the Nokia E72 and runs the Symbian S60 operating system. It was priced from £5,000 (stainless steel and leather) to £17,300 (yellow gold). This was followed by Constellation in October 2011, the company's first touchscreen model. In February 2013, the Vertu Ti was the first Vertu handset after Nokia's sale, and uses the Android mobile operating system instead of Symbian. This was followed in June 2014, by Signature Touch. The Signature Touch's price ranged from $10,300/€7,900 for the base model to over $50,000/€44,000 for the Pure Jet Red Gold.  Vertu also made limited edition handsets in collaboration with Ferrari, and Bentley.  Previously the 2017 version of the Vertu constellation was the last Vertu handset before the company collapsed in 2017. Vertu has since emerged from bankruptcy and introduced the Aster P smartphone in October 2018 at an event in Beijing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Vertu phones have been described as \"tasteless trash\" by \"Wired\" magazine, and \"technologically modest\" by the \"Financial Times\". They are often described as bling.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vertu was a British-based manufacturer and retailer of luxury handmade mobile phones, established by Finnish mobile-phone manufacturer Nokia in 1998. In October 2012, Nokia sold Vertu to private equity group EQT VI for an unspecified amount, but retained a 10% share. By the end of 2013, the company had around 350,000 customers, and phones were on sale in 500 retail outlets, including 70 run by the company. In 2015, it was announced that EQT had sold its share of Vertu to Godin Holdings, a Hong Kong-based holding company.. In March of 2017 Godin Holdings sold to Baferton Ltd. a Cyprus-based Turkish company. In July of 2017, the new shareholders applied to the Court of England for bankruptcy protection, the company went into voluntary liquidation after plans to save it failed and Vertu Corporation Ltd. was put into liquidation, leaving its residual staff of 200 unpaid and unemployed.. Vertu AK France, is the parent company of Vertu Corporation, through which the Vertu Brand and company continues its business today. In May 2020 the factory and office complex in Church Crookham England, that has been empty since July 2017 was demolished to make way for a retail park.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975998}
{"src_title": "Gump Worsley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "At the outset of his career, Worsley played four years in the minor leagues, most notably for the New York Rovers of the Eastern Hockey League (EHL), the St. Paul Saints of the United States Hockey League (USHL), and the Saskatoon Quakers of the Western Hockey League (WHL). For three straight seasons between 1950 and 1952, he achieved success with all three teams, garnering First Team All-Star and leading goaltender recognition.  In the fall of 1952 he was signed by the New York Rangers of the NHL; though playing for a last place team, won the Calder Memorial Trophy as rookie of the year. However, after asking for a $500 a year pay increase, he was promptly returned to the minor leagues the following season. In 1954, playing for the Vancouver Canucks of the WHL, he won the league most valuable player award.  In 1954, Worsley resumed as the Rangers starting goaltender, beating out future NHL star Johnny Bower. Wearing the traditional number 1 for goaltenders, he toiled for the Rangers for the next nine seasons, generally playing well for poor performing teams. Worsley made 43 saves in the 1955–56 New York Rangers season opener against the Chicago Blackhawks, setting a franchise record.  In the summer of 1963, he became involved in a proposed players' union, and was promptly traded to the Montreal Canadiens. While he was relegated to the minor-league Quebec Aces for parts of two seasons—and characteristically winning First Team All-Star honors in the AHL in 1964—Worsley played his best years for the Canadiens as a member of four Stanley Cup-winning teams: 1965, 1966, 1968 and 1969. His best season was 1968, where he followed up a Vezina-winning performance and a career-low 1.98 goals against average by going undefeated in the playoffs with eleven straight wins. In dispute with Sam Pollock, Montreal general manager, over refusal to be demoted to the minors, and coach Claude Ruel's consistent playing of Rogatien Vachon, he quit in the midst of the 1969–70 season. Suspended for not reporting to the Canadiens' Montreal Voyageurs farm team, he was replaced by Phil Myre.  Worsley was lured from retirement by the Minnesota North Stars to play in tandem with Cesare Maniago; he starred for parts of five more years, retiring at the age of 44 after the 1973–74 season. His best season with the North Stars was 1972, where he was second in the league with a 2.12 goals against average. Named to play in the 25th National Hockey League All-Star Game, Worsley was the second goaltender to have won 300 games and lost 300 games, after Harry Lumley. This feat was later accomplished by Terry Sawchuk, Glenn Hall, Tony Esposito, Curtis Joseph, to name a few of at least 13 other goaltenders.  Worsley was known for his wry sense of humour and various eccentricities. Early in his career with the Rangers, regularly facing 40–50 shots a night, he was asked: \"Which team gives you the most trouble?\" His reply – \"The New York Rangers.\" Accused by Rangers' coach Phil Watson of having a beer belly, he replied, \"Just goes to show you what he knows. I only drink Johnnie Walker Red.\"  Worsley was vehemently opposed to wearing a mask. He was the second-to-last professional hockey goaltender to play without a mask. Andy Brown of the Indianapolis Racers was the last, the following season—wearing a mask in the last six games of his career. Asked about why he chose to go without, Worsley told reporters: \"My face \"is\" my mask.\"  Worsley was also well known for his fear of flying. On November 25, 1968, en route to Los Angeles, he suffered a nervous breakdown after a rough flight from Montreal's Dorval Airport to Chicago. Subsequently, he received psychiatric treatment and missed action. It is said upon emerging from retirement to play for the North Stars he was assured, as Minnesota was in the central part of the continent, the team traveled less than any other in the league.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soccer career.", "content": "Worsley was an excellent soccer player, beginning his career as a junior with Westmount. In 1948 he was a member of the Montreal youth all-star team. As a promising young player, he soon attracted attention; the following year he moved up to McMasterville in the Montreal League. There he was selected to play in a trial game from which the Montreal all-stars were chosen to play the touring English club Fulham in 1951.  In the summer of 1952, while playing hockey for the Saskatoon Quakers, he played centre forward for the Saskatoon All-stars against the touring Tottenham Hotspur from England. In 1953, he joined Montréal Hakoah FC and helped his new club to the Canadian final, but they lost the three-game series to the Westminster Royals. In 1954, continued his soccer career with Montreal Vickers. His father was also an outstanding soccer player and won a Canadian championship medal with Montreal Grand Trunk in 1919.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Injuries.", "content": "Worsley suffered many injuries during his career, including: a near career-ending back injury while with Vancouver of the WHL, when Gus Kyle hit him from behind; a knee problem in the 1956 playoffs that required surgery; a severed tendon in 1960; in 1961, a blistering shot from Bobby Hull that hit him in the forehead; a pulled hamstring that same year; a pulled hamstring in 1963–64; knee surgery in 1966, followed by a sprained knee then a concussion from a hard-boiled egg thrown by a New York fan; a broken finger in the 1969 playoffs; a pulled hamstring in 1972–73 that reduced his effectiveness to the point he temporarily retired from hockey. The blast to the forehead from Bobby Hull landed him, unconscious, in Montreal's Royal Victoria Hospital. Upon awakening, asked how he was feeling, Gump replied: \"Good thing the puck hit me flat!\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement and death.", "content": "At the time of his retirement, Worsley had played more games than any goalie except for Terry Sawchuk and Glenn Hall. He retired with a record of 335 wins, 352 losses and 150 ties, with 43 shutouts, and a goals against average of 2.91.  Worsley suffered a heart attack on January 22, 2007, and died at his home in Beloeil, Quebec on January 26, 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Two Canadian indie rock bands, Huevos Rancheros (\"Gump Worsley's Lament\") and The Weakerthans (\"Elegy for Gump Worsley\"), have recorded tribute songs to Worsley. Canadian band Sons of Freedom also named their second album \"Gump\" after Worsley.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lorne John \"Gump\" Worsley (May 14, 1929 – January 26, 2007) was a professional ice hockey goaltender. Born and raised in Montreal, Quebec, 'Gump' was given his nickname because friends thought he looked like comic-strip character Andy Gump.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4975999}
{"src_title": "Paul Kray", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Kray was born in Késmárk, Upper Hungary (today: Kežmarok, Slovakia). He was educated in mathematical and other military sciences in Schemnitz and Vienna.  Entering the Austrian army at the age of nineteen in 1754 in the Infantry Regiment 31 \"Hallerstein\" and fought in the Seven Years' War. In 1778, he was promoted from grenadier captain to major and transferred to Infantry Regiment \"Preysach\" 39. After the War of Bavarian Succession, he transferred to the 2nd Szeckler Grenz (border) Infantry Regiment as lieutenant colonel. In 1784 he suppressed a Romanian peasants' uprising in Transylvania. Kray served in the Turkish wars of 1787-91. On 10 May 1788, he defeated a superior Turkish force of 5,000 men commanded by Osman Pazvantoğlu and Kara Mustapha Pasha on the borders of Transylvania. He later led the capture of the Krajova fortress; for this, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa on 21 December 1789, in May of the following year, Kray was promoted Generalmajor and subsequently ennobled by Emperor Joseph II with the title of Freiherr \"von Krajow und Topolya\". In the Austro-Turkish War of 1787 to 1791 he saw active service at Porczeny and the Vulcan Pass.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War of the First Coalition.", "content": "Promoted Major General in 1790, three years later Kray commanded the advance guard of the Allies under Prince Coburg, operating in Flanders and the Austrian Netherlands. He distinguished himself at Famars, Menin, Wissembourg, Charleroi, Fleurus, and, indeed, at almost every encounter in the Flanders Campaign with the armies of the French Republic. Promoted to Feldmarschalleutnant on 5 March 1796 Kray served in Archduke Charles's Army of the Lower Rhine. On 19 June, after the Battle of Wetzlar, he forced General Jean-Baptiste Kléber to withdraw from Uckerath. He also defeated French General of Division Jourdan in the clash at Limburg on 16 September. He then fought in various actions, including the victory at Amberg on 24 August, and at the Battle of Würzburg as a divisional commander, when he was largely responsible for the victory of Archduke Charles of Austria. On 19 September, he captured the mortally wounded General of Division François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers, one of the ablest and bravest French commanders of the day; he returned the corpse to French lines with a guard of honor of the Bethlen Hussars N.35. On 4 March 1796 he received promotion to Lieutenant General (\"Feldmarschal-Leutnant\"). In the celebrated campaign of 1796, on the Rhine and Danube, he performed conspicuous service as a corps commander. In the following year, he was less successful, being defeated on the Lahn, and at Mainz. Worse, his command was surprised and defeated by the French General Louis-Lazarre Hoche in the Battle of Neuwied of 1797. Kray was accused of negligence; a courts-martial found him guilty and sentenced him to two weeks arrest. He requested to resign in protest but this was denied.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War of the Second Coalition.", "content": "Kray commanded in Italy in 1799, and reconquered the plain of Lombardy from the French. He won a sharp action at Legnago on 26 March. For his victory over the French at the Battle of Magnano on 5 April, he was promoted Feldzeugmeister (artillery lieutenant general). This victory caused the French army to withdraw to the Adda River. Nevertheless, Kray was replaced when Michael von Melas arrived to take command of the Austrian forces. While the field army won two more major battles, Kray conducted the successful sieges of Peschiera del Garda and Mantua. At the Battle of Novi, he commanded the divisions of Peter Ott and Heinrich Bellegarde. On 6 November, he was defeated by the French in a second clash at Novi Ligure.  The following year he commanded on the Rhine against Jean Moreau. As a consequence of his defeats at the battles of Stockach, Messkirch, Biberach, Iller River, and Höchstädt, Kray was driven into Ulm. However, by a skillful march round Moreau's flank he succeeded in escaping to Bohemia. After a 15 July truce became effective he was relieved of his command by Emperor Francis II and dismissed from the service. Kray's successor, Archduke John of Austria was disastrously defeated at the Battle of Hohenlinden in December.  Kray died in Pest, Hungary on 19 January 1804.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Commentary.", "content": "Kray was one of the best representatives of the old Austrian army. Tied to an obsolete system, and unable, from habit, to realize the changed conditions of warfare, he failed, but his enemies held him in the highest respect as a brave, skillful, and chivalrous opponent. It was he who, at Altenkirchen, cared for the dying Marceau (1796), and the white uniforms of Kray and his staff mingled with the blue of the French in the funeral procession of the young general of the Republic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baron Paul Kray of Krajova and Topolya (; ; 5 February 1735 – 19 January 1804), was a soldier, and general in Habsburg service during the Seven Years' War, the War of Bavarian Succession, the Austro–Turkish War (1787–1791), and the French Revolutionary Wars. He was born in Késmárk, Upper Hungary (today: Kežmarok, Slovakia).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976000}
{"src_title": "Bryan Murray (ice hockey)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Murray played hockey in his hometown of Shawville growing up, joining the Shawville Pontiacs intermediate club at age 14. He later joined the Rockland Nationals of the Central Junior Hockey League. He attended Macdonald College, a suburban campus of McGill University, which is located in Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec. He returned to Shawville and worked as a gym teacher. He then went into business buying a local motel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early coaching career.", "content": "Murray began his coaching career as coach with the Rockland Nationals in 1976 when the team went all the way and won the Centennial Cup of the Canadian Junior Hockey League (CJHL). He earned a good reputation as a coach and was offered a position with the Pembroke Lumber Kings, and then with the Regina Pats of the Western Hockey League (WHL). He left his business interests in the hands of family members, and moved west. He took Regina to the Memorial Cup in 1980. Murray then became the head coach of the American Hockey League's Hershey Bears in 1980–81, and served in that role until he was promoted to head coach of the Washington Capitals, Hershey Bears' parent NHL team, partway through the next season in 1981–82.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NHL coach and general manager.", "content": "In seven full seasons with the Capitals, Murray brought the team to the playoffs each year, and these playoff appearances were the first in franchise history. In his second year, the Capitals won their first playoff series. However, his teams did not advance beyond the second round. He won the Jack Adams Award as coach of the year in 1984. Murray was fired partway through the 1989–90 season, with the team struggling, and was replaced by his brother Terry Murray.  In 1990, Murray became coach and general manager of the Detroit Red Wings. The team had good results in his three seasons, making the playoffs each year, but not getting beyond the second round. Murray remained as general manager in 1993–94 season, after the team named Scotty Bowman as head coach. Murray departed the Red Wings following the season.  Murray was next appointed general manager of the expansion Florida Panthers in 1994. In 1996, the young Panthers made it to the Stanley Cup Finals, and Murray was selected as NHL Executive of the Year. He also coached the Panthers for part of the 1997–98 season.  He next joined the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim as head coach for the 2001–02 season. From 2002 to 2004 Murray was general manager of the Mighty Ducks, and again saw his team quickly make a mark in the playoffs, reaching the Stanley Cup Finals. After a disappointing 2003–04 season with the Mighty Ducks, he surprised many by deciding to resign from the general manager post, and became the head coach of the Ottawa Senators.  On February 20, 2007, he became the fifth NHL coach to achieve 600 victories, in a shootout win against the Edmonton Oilers. Despite this impressive number of victories (at the time the most among active NHL coaches), Murray never won a Stanley Cup. In his most recent trip to the Finals as head coach in 2007, the Senators team that he coached lost in five games to his former club, the Anaheim Ducks. That was the only season in Murray's 17 years as an NHL head coach that his team advanced beyond the second playoff round.  With the firing of John Muckler on June 18, 2007, Murray was promoted to general manager of the Senators, while assistant coach John Paddock took over the club's head coaching duties. However, on February 27, 2008, following a 15–2 start, which had briefly put the Senators in first place in the Eastern Conference, Murray fired Paddock after the team struggled through a disastrous January and February. Murray stepped in as interim head coach for the remainder of the 2007–08 season, finishing with a 7–9–2 record, with the team ultimately finishing in seventh place in the Eastern Conference. The Senators were swept in the first round of the playoffs by the Pittsburgh Penguins.  Craig Hartsburg was hired as the new coach of the team in June 2008. After the Senators struggled for most of the 2008–09 season, Murray fired Hartsburg after a 7–4 loss against the Capitals. In 48 games as head coach of the Senators, Hartsburg posted a 17–24–7 record. Cory Clouston, head coach of the AHL's Binghamton Senators, the team's top farm club, was hired as interim head coach, and Clouston was appointed as head coach on a two-year contract following the end of that season.  Murray signed a three-year contract extension as general manager on April 8, 2011. He fired Clouston and two assistant coaches on April 9, 2011, following the Senators' last game of the season. The team had been beset by injuries to key players such as captain Daniel Alfredsson and star forward Jason Spezza, leading to a mid-season collapse. Murray made a flurry of trades in 2011, after the Senators had fallen out of contention, and promoted many younger players from the team's Binghamton farm club.  In 2015, he was inducted into the Ottawa Sports Hall of Fame.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Murray, one of ten children born to Clarence and Rhoda Murray, was born and raised in the small Ottawa Valley town of Shawville, Quebec, near Ottawa. He had two daughters with his wife Geri, Heide and Brittany.  His younger brother, Terry Murray, was head coach for the Washington Capitals, Philadelphia Flyers, Florida Panthers, and Los Angeles Kings. His nephew, Tim Murray, previously served under him as assistant general manager of the Senators, and later served as the general manager of the Buffalo Sabres.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health and death.", "content": "In July 2014, the Senators website announced Murray was diagnosed with cancer and was undergoing treatment. On November 13, 2014, Murray announced he had stage 4 colon cancer, which had spread to his liver and lungs. He said \"there is no cure for me at this point\" and that he may have had cancer for up to ten years before its detection.  On August 12, 2017, Murray died of colon cancer at the age of 74, three years after he was diagnosed. The Senators wore a decal on the side of their helmets in his memory for the 2017–18 season, a red circle, inside of which are his initials, years of birth and death, and a brief description of him as a \"family man, friend, coach, and mentor.\" Senators' goaltender Craig Anderson unveiled a new mask for the 2018-19 season which featured Murray's likeness on the left side with the caption \"1942-2017\". Designed by Sylvie Marsolais, the mask design was Anderson's way of thanking the man who brought him to Ottawa in 2011. \"My career took a turn for the better once I met Bryan,\" said Anderson.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bryan Clarence Murray (December 5, 1942 – August 12, 2017) was a Canadian professional ice hockey executive and coach. He served as general manager of the Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League (NHL) from 2007 to 2016. He had previously been general manager of the NHL's Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, Florida Panthers, and Detroit Red Wings. He was also the head coach for the Washington Capitals, Detroit Red Wings, Florida Panthers, Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, and Ottawa Senators, for a total of 17 full or partial seasons.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976001}
{"src_title": "Hongan-ji", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early history.", "content": "The Hongan-ji was established as a temple in 1321, on the site of the Otani Mausoleum, where Shinran, the founder of the Jōdo Shinshū (\"True Pure Land\") was buried. The mausoleum was attended by Shinran's grandson (through daughter Kakushinni), Kakue. Kakue's own son, Kakunyo, became the first chief priest of the Hongan-ji and third monshu (spiritual leader), and dedicated it to the worship of Amitābha (\"Amida\"). The Hongan-ji first gained power and importance in the 15th century, when Rennyo became its eighth monshu. However, the Tendai based on Mount Hiei saw this expansion as a threat and attacked the Hongan-ji three times with their army of sōhei. Rennyo fled to Yoshizaki-gobō, where he established a new temple compound.  During the Sengoku period, fearing the power of the monks of the Hongan-ji, Oda Nobunaga tried to destroy it. For ten years, he laid siege to the Ishiyama Hongan-ji in Osaka, one of the two primary temple fortresses of the sect. In 1580, the abbot of the Ishiyama Hongan-ji, Kennyo, surrendered, while his son Kyōnyo refused to surrender, for which he was publicly disowned.  After the death of Nobunaga in 1582 and the ascent of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Kennyo was rewarded for his opposition to Nobunaga by being granted land in Kyoto, at the site of modern-day Nishi Hongan-ji (西本願寺, \"Western Hongan-ji\"; sometimes called the \"Honpa Hongan-ji\" 本派本願寺). He was succeeded by his legitimate son, Junnyo, as abbot in 1592. While his brother Kyōnyo re-established the Osaka Hongan-ji in 1596 with local support, owing to his refusal to surrender to Nobunaga earlier. After the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, Kyōnyo openly supported Tokugawa Ieyasu, who became \"shōgun\" in 1602. In reward for his loyalty, Kyōnyo was rewarded with land for a temple in Kyoto to the east of Nishi Honganji, which then became known in 1603 as Higashi Honganji (東本願寺 \"Eastern Hongan-ji\"). In 1619 the government recognized the two entities as separate congregations. It is popularly believed, however mistakenly, that the institution was split in two in order to maintain control of the order.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern divisions of the Hongan-ji.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nishi Hongan-ji.", "content": "Formally known as the Jodo-Shinshu Honganji-ha, it is the largest of all the Jodo Shinshu branches. Compared with the Higashi Hongan-ji, it has a history of institutional stability that accounts for high membership figures, and a larger geographical reach, but fewer well-known modern thinkers. The Nishi Hongan-ji has a sizable number of overseas temples in the United States, South America, Hawai'i, Canada, and Europe which are organized into several kyodan (\"districts\"). The largest of these is the Buddhist Churches of America.  The Hongwanji International Center, to the east of Nishi Hongan-ji, coordinates dialogue with Jōdo Shinshū organizations around the world and produces translation work.  The Nishi Hongan-ji operates the Hongwanji Publishing Company which produces books, music, films, and anime about Jōdo Shinshū Buddhism. They also publish a bimonthly newspaper, the Hongwanji Journal and their website includes, among other things, a TV channel devoted to explaining Buddhism and Hongan-ji's everyday operations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Higashi Hongan-ji.", "content": "Higashi Hongan-ji is one of the two dominant subsects of Jōdo Shinshū, the other being the Nishi Honganji.  During the Meiji Restoration in the 1860s, the government set down new guidelines for the management of religious organizations. An organization called Ōtani-ha was put in control of Higashi Hongan-ji. In 1987, this temple was renamed \"Shinshū Honbyō\" \"Shinshū Mausoleum\", although the earlier name is still used. The buildings have not been changed or moved, and of course the historical cultural and religious significance of the place has not changed.  Due to opposition to the creation of the Ōtani-ha, and a number of other controversies and disputes such as the Ohigashi schism, several new Higashi Hongan-ji branches came into existence such as the Higashiyama Hongan-ji, founded in Kyoto in 1996 by Otani Korin, and the Tokyo Higashi Hongan-ji, whose current leader is Otani Koken. Despite, or perhaps even because of, this climate of instability, the Higashi Hongan-ji movement has also produced a significant number of controversial but influential thinkers, such as Soga Ryōjin, Kiyozawa Manshi, Kaneko Daiei and Akegarasu Haya, amongst others.  The largest Higashi Hongan-ji grouping, the Ōtani-ha has approximately 5.5 million members, according to statistics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Joint activities.", "content": "In recent years some members of the Honganji sects have been involved in high-profile protests against the visits of Japanese politicians to the controversial Yasukuni Shrine.  Along with the other non-Honganji Jōdo Shinshū subsects, the Honganji issued a statement opposing the 2003 invasion of Iraq.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Important Hongan-ji buildings.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Higashi Hongan-ji.", "content": "The Shinshū Honbyō, the mausoleum of Shinran, is now owned by the Ōtani-ha but is still commonly called Higashi Honganji (東本願寺) by Kyoto visitors and locals. The massive Goei-dō (also known as \"Mie-dō\"), or Founder's Hall Gate, is often one of the first things one sees walking north from JR Kyōto Station. Nearly identical to the Nishi Hongan-ji head temple in layout, it too features an Amida-dō, and a larger Mie-dō. The Mie-dō at Higashi Hongan-ji dates from 1895 and vies with a number of other structures for the claim of largest wooden building in the world.  A few blocks from the main grounds of the Higashi Hongan-ji is the Shosei-en garden, owned by the temple. Poet-scholar Ishikawa Jozan and landscape architect Kobori Masakazu are said to have contributed to its design in the 17th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nishi Hongan-ji.", "content": "The Nishi Honganji, like the Higashi Honganji, features a huge Goeidō (御影堂), Kaisando and a smaller Amida-dō (阿弥陀堂) or Amitābha hall housing an image of Amitābha. Nishi Hongan-ji's \"Kura\" (倉), or storehouse, houses many National Treasures, most of which are not on view for the public. The \"shoin\" (書院), or study hall, is also quite famous; it is split into two sections, the \"shiro-shoin\"(白書院), or white study hall, and the \"kuro-shoin\"(黒書院), or black study hall.  Nishi Hongan-ji also contains a large \"shōgun\" complex from the medieval period, which was largely moved into the temple from elsewhere in Kyoto in the 16th century. This includes Hiunkaku (飛雲閣), a large tea pavilion, four Noh stages, one of which is thought to be the oldest in existence and the other being the largest outdoor Noh stage, and the Kokei no Niwa (虎渓の庭) garden.  Some medieval parts of Nishi Hongan-ji are now independent organizations: Ryukoku University and Kōshō-ji.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": ", also archaically romanized as Hongwanji, is the collective name of the largest school of Jōdo Shinshū Buddhism (which further sub-divides into the Nishi and Higashi branches). 'Hongan-ji' may also refer to any one of several actual temple buildings associated with the sect.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976002}
{"src_title": "Phalsbourg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The area of the city of Phalsbourg, originally Pfalzburg, was originally part of the principality of Lützelstein, under the overlordship of Luxembourg, then the bishops of Metz and of Strasbourg, before coming under the Dukes of Pfalz-Veldenz, all within the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. In 1570, Duke Georg Johann I of Pfalz-Veldenz founded the town of Pfalzburg as a refuge for Reformed Protestants kicked out of the Duchy of Lorraine, and as an administrative center of his holdings. But the cost forced him to sell the city and the surrounding district of Einarzhausen between 1583 and 1590 to Lorraine, whose territory surrounded most of the area. In 1608, his successor Georg Gustav of Pfalz-Veldenz founded nearby Lixheim for Reformed refugees, but was also forced to sell the new town in 1623 to Lorraine.  From 1629 to 1660, Pfalzburg and Lixheim were combined as the Principality of Pfalzburg, for duchess Henriette of Lorraine (1605-1660) and her three successive husbands. The principality was acknowledged by Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II in 1629. After the death of Henriette, the principality returned to Lorraine. But the next year, Lorraine had to cede it to France in the Treaty of Vincennes in 1661, at a time when most of Lorraine was occupied by French troops since 1634.  The famous French military engineer Vauban reconstructed the town's fortifications in 1680. The town was of military importance as commanding one of the passes of the Vosges. The fortifications of Phalsbourg resisted the Allies in 1814 and 1815, and the Germans for four months under the commander Taillant in 1870, but they were taken on 12 December of that year, and have since been razed. The town was German again from 1871 to 1918, under its old name of Pfalzburg.  The United States Air Forces in Europe built an air base near the city in 1953. The base was returned in 1967 to the French government, which redesignated it as Camp de la Horie. The base is currently used by the French military's 1er Régiment d'Hélicoptères de Combat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Events.", "content": "The town is home to the annual Erckmann-Chatrian summer festival. It is also the birthplace of Georges Mouton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is \"\" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phalsbourg (, Lorraine Franconian: \"Phalsburch\") is a commune in the Moselle department in Grand Est in north-eastern France, with a population of about 5,000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976003}
{"src_title": "Dalbergia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "A fossil †\"Dalbergia phleboptera\" seed pod has been found in a Chattian deposit, in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence in France. Fossils of †\"Dalbergia nostratum\" have been found in rhyodacite tuff of Lower Miocene age in Southern Slovakia near the town of Lučenec. Fossil seed pods of †\"Dalbergia mecsekense\" have been found in a Sarmatian deposit in Hungary. †\"Dalbergia lucida\" fossils have been described from the Xiaolongtan Formation of late Miocene age in Kaiyuan County, Yunnan Province, China.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Many species of \"Dalbergia\" are important timber trees, valued for their decorative and often fragrant wood, rich in aromatic oils. The most famous of these are the rosewoods, so-named because of the smell of the timber when cut, but several other valuable woods are yielded by the genus.  Species such as \"Dalbergia nigra\" known as Rio, Bahia, Brazilian rosewood, palisander de Rio Grande, or jacaranda and \"Dalbergia latifolia\" known as (East) Indian Rosewood or Sonokeling have been heavily used in furniture given their colour and grain. Several East Asian species are important materials in traditional Chinese furniture.  The (Brazilian) tulipwood (\"D. decipularis\") is cream coloured with red or salmon stripes. It is most often used in crossbanding and other veneers; it should not be confused with the \"tulipwood\" of the American tulip tree \"Liriodendron tulipifera\", used in inexpensive cabinetwork.  The similarly used (but purple with darker stripes), and also Brazilian, kingwood is yielded by \"D. cearensis\". Both are smallish to medium-sized trees, to 10 m. Another notable timber is cocobolo, mainly from \"D. retusa\", a Central American timber with spectacular decorative orange red figure on freshly cut surfaces which quickly fades in air to more subdued tones and hues.  \"Dalbergia sissoo\" (Indian rosewood) is primarily used for furniture in northern India. Its export is highly regulated due to recent high rates of tree death due to unknown causes. \"Dalbergia sissoo\" has historically been the primary rosewood species of northern India. This wood is strong and tough, with color golden to dark brown. It is extremely durable and handsome, and it maintains its shape well. It can be easily seasoned. It is difficult to work, but it takes a fine polish. It is used for high quality furniture, plywoods, bridge piles, sporting goods, and railway sleepers. It is a very good material for decorative work and carvings. Its density is 770 kg/m3.  African blackwood (\"D. melanoxylon\") is an intensely black wood in demand for making woodwind musical instruments.  \"Dalbergia\" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including \"Bucculatrix mendax\" which feeds exclusively on \"Dalbergia sissoo\".  The \"Dalbergia\" species are notorious for causing allergic reactions due the presence of sensitizing quinones in the wood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "All \"Dalbergia\" species are protected under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). All but \"Dalbergia nigra\" are listed in Appendix II, with \"D.nigra\" listed in Appendix I.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "\"Dalbergia\" comprises the following species:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dalbergia is a large genus of small to medium-size trees, shrubs and lianas in the pea family, Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. It was recently assigned to the informal monophyletic \"Dalbergia\" clade (or tribe): the Dalbergieae. The genus has a wide distribution, native to the tropical regions of Central and South America, Africa, Madagascar and southern Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976004}
{"src_title": "André Lhote", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Lhote was born 5 July 1885 in Bordeaux, France, and learned wood carving and sculpture from the age of 12, when his father apprenticed him to a local furniture maker to be trained as a sculptor in wood. He enrolled at the École des Beaux-Arts in Bordeaux in 1898 and studied decorative sculpture until 1904.  Whilst there, he began to paint in his spare time and he left home in 1905, moving into his own studio to devote himself to painting. He was influenced by Gauguin and Cézanne and held his first one-man exhibition at the Galerie Druet in 1910, four years after he had moved to Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After initially working in a Fauvist style, Lhote shifted towards Cubism and joined the Section d'Or group in 1912, exhibiting at the Salon de la Section d'Or. He was alongside some of the fathers of modern art, including Gleizes, Villon, Duchamp, Metzinger, Picabia and La Fresnaye.  The outbreak of the First World War interrupted his work and, after discharge from the army in 1917, he became one of the group of Cubists supported by Léonce Rosenberg. In 1918, he co-founded \"Nouvelle Revue Française\", the art journal to which he contributed articles on art theory until 1940.  Lhote taught at the Académie Notre-Dame des Champs from 1918 to 1920, and later taught at other Paris art schools—including the Académie de la Grande Chaumière and his own school, Academy André Lhote which he founded in Montparnasse in 1922. His students included Henri Cartier-Bresson, Conrad O'Brien-ffrench, Elena Mumm Thornton Wilson, Adamson-Eric, Simon Elwes, Kuno Veeber, Charlotte van Pallandt, Wesley E. Johnson, Sava Šumanović, Margaret Lefranc, Shirley Russell, Gwyneth Johnstone, Paul Kane, Julie van der Veen, Michael Wishart, Lino Spilimbergo, Tamara de Lempicka, Sarah Marindah Baker, Genevieve Pezet, and Helen Stewart.  Lhote lectured extensively in France and other countries, including Belgium, England, Italy and, from the 1950s, also in Egypt and Brazil. In Egypt, Lhote worked with Effat Nagy using Egyptian archaeology as subject matter for their work.  His work was rewarded with the Grand Prix National de Peinture for 1955, and the UNESCO commission for sculpture appointed Lhote president of the International Association of Painters, Engravers and Sculptors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Lhote died in Paris in 1962.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "André Lhote (5 July 1885 – 24 January 1962) was a French Cubist painter of figure subjects, portraits, landscapes and still life. He was also very active and influential as a teacher and writer on art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976005}
{"src_title": "Les Invalides", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Louis XIV initiated the project by an order dated 24 November 1670, as a home and hospital for aged and unwell soldiers: the name is a shortened form of hôpital des invalides. The architect of Les Invalides was Libéral Bruant. The selected site was in the then suburban plain of Grenelle (\"plaine de Grenelle\"). By the time the enlarged project was completed in 1676, the river front measured and the complex had fifteen courtyards, the largest being the cour d'honneur (\"court of honour\") for military parades. It was then felt that the veterans required a chapel. Jules Hardouin-Mansart assisted the aged Bruant, and the chapel was finished in 1679 to Bruant's designs after the elder architect's death. This chapel was known as Église Saint-Louis des Invalides, and daily attendance of the veterans in the church services was required.  Shortly after the veterans' chapel was completed, Louis XIV commissioned Mansart to construct a separate private royal chapel referred to as the Église du Dôme from its most striking feature (see below). The domed chapel was finished in 1793", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later history.", "content": "Because of its location and significance, the Invalides served as the scene for several key events in French history. On 14 July 1789 it was stormed by Parisian rioters who seized the cannons and muskets stored in its cellars to use against the Bastille later the same day. Napoleon was entombed under the dome of the Invalides with great ceremony in 1840. In December 1894 the degradation of Captain Alfred Dreyfus was held before the main building, while his subsequent rehabilitation ceremony took place in a courtyard of the complex in 1906.  The building retained its primary function of a retirement home and hospital for military veterans (\"invalides\") until the early twentieth century. In 1872 the musée d'artillerie (Artillery Museum) was located within the building to be joined by the musée historique des armées (Historical Museum of the Armies) in 1896. The two institutions were merged to form the present musée de l'armée in 1905. At the same time the veterans in residence were dispersed to smaller centres outside Paris. The reason was that the adoption of a mainly conscript army, after 1872, meant a substantial reduction in the numbers of veterans having the twenty or more years of military service formerly required to enter the Hôpital des Invalides. The building accordingly became too large for its original purpose. The modern complex does however still include the facilities detailed below for about a hundred elderly or incapacitated former soldiers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "On the north front of Les Invalides, Hardouin-Mansart's chapel dome is large enough to dominate the long façade, yet harmonizes with Bruant's door under an arched pediment. To the north, the courtyard (cour d'honneur) is extended by a wide public esplanade (\"Esplanade des Invalides\") where the embassies of Austria and Finland are neighbors of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, all forming one of the grand open spaces in the heart of Paris. At its far end, the Pont Alexandre III links this grand urbanistic axis with the Petit Palais and the Grand Palais. The Pont des Invalides is next, downstream the Seine river.  The buildings still comprise the Institution Nationale des Invalides, a national institution for disabled war veterans. The institution comprises:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Churches at Les Invalides.", "content": "In 1676, Jules Hardouin-Mansart was commissioned to construct a place of worship on the site. He designed a building which combined a royal chapel (now Dôme des Invalides) with a veterans' chapel (now Cathedral of Saint-Louis des Invalides). In this way, the King and his soldiers could attend mass simultaneously, while entering the place of worship through different entrances, as prescribed by court etiquette. This separation was reinforced in the 19th century with the erection of the tomb of Napoleon I, the creation of the two separate altars and then with the construction of a glass wall between the two chapels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Cathedral of Saint-Louis des Invalides.", "content": "When the Army Museum at Les Invalides was founded in 1905, the veterans' chapel was placed under its administrative control. It is now the cathedral of the Diocese of the French Armed Forces, officially known as Cathédrale Saint-Louis-des-Invalides.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dôme des Invalides.", "content": "The Dôme des Invalides (originally Chapelle royale des Invalides) is a large former church in the centre of the Les Invalides complex, high.  The dôme was designated to become Napoleon's funeral place by a law dated 10 June 1840. Ousted in 1815 by the allied armies, Napoleon had stayed so popular in France that Louis-Philippe, the King of France from 1830 to 1848, returned his \"ashes\" in 1840. (His \"ashes\" mean his \"mortal remains\"; Napoleon was not cremated). The excavation and erection of the crypt, which heavily modified the interior of the domed church, took twenty years to complete and was finished in 1861.  Inspired by St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, the original for all baroque domes, the Dôme des Invalides is one of the triumphs of French Baroque architecture. Mansart raised its drum with an attic storey over its main cornice, and employed the paired columns motif in his more complicated rhythmic theme. The general programme is sculptural but tightly integrated, rich but balanced, consistently carried through, capping its vertical thrust firmly with a ribbed and hemispherical dome. The domed chapel is centrally placed to dominate the court of honour.  The interior of the dome was painted by Le Brun's disciple Charles de La Fosse with a Baroque illusion of space (\"sotto in su\") seen from below. The painting was completed in 1705.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tombs and vaults.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tombs.", "content": "The most notable tomb at Les Invalides is that of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821). Napoleon was initially interred on Saint Helena, but King Louis Philippe arranged for his remains to be brought to France in 1840, an event known as \"le retour des cendres\". Napoléon's remains were first buried in the Chapelle Saint-Jérôme in the Invalides until his final resting place, a tomb made of red quartzite and resting on a green granite base, was finished in 1861.  Some members of Napoleon's family, several military officers who served under him, and other French military heroes are also buried at Les Invalides:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vaults.", "content": "The bodies of the following are interred in the vaults of the Cathedral of Saint-Louis des Invalides (see images: 1, 2, 3, 4):  The hearts of the following are interred in the vaults of Les Invalides while the rest of their bodies are interred elsewhere:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Les Invalides (), formally the Hôtel national des Invalides (The National Residence of the Invalids), or also as Hôtel des Invalides, is a complex of buildings in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, France, containing museums and monuments, all relating to the military history of France, as well as a hospital and a retirement home for war veterans, the building's original purpose. The buildings house the Musée de l'Armée, the military museum of the Army of France, the Musée des Plans-Reliefs, and the Musée d'Histoire Contemporaine, as well as the Dôme des Invalides, a large church, the tallest in Paris at a height of 107 meters, with the tombs of some of France's war heroes, most notably Napoleon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976006}
{"src_title": "Lucca Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Of the original structure, the great apse with its tall columnar arcades and the fine campanile remain. The nave and transepts of the cathedral were rebuilt in the Gothic style in the 14th century, while the west front was begun in 1204 by Guido Bigarelli of Como, and consists of a vast portico of three magnificent arches, and above them three ranges of open galleries adorned with sculptures.  In the nave a small octagonal temple or chapel shrine contains the most precious relic in Lucca, the Holy Face of Lucca () or Sacred Countenance. This cedar-wood crucifix and image of Christ, according to the legend, was carved by his contemporary Nicodemus, and miraculously conveyed to Lucca in 782. Christ is clothed in the \"colobium\", a long sleeveless garment. The chapel was built in 1484 by Matteo Civitali, the most famous Luccan sculptor of the early Renaissance.  The tomb of Ilaria del Carretto by Jacopo della Quercia of Siena, the earliest of his extant works was commissioned by her husband, the lord of Lucca, Paolo Guinigi, in 1406.  Additionally the cathedral contains Domenico Ghirlandaio's \"Madonna and Child with Saints Peter, Clement, Paul and Sebastian\"; Federico Zuccari's \"Adoration of the Magi\", Jacopo Tintoretto's \"Last Supper\", and finally Fra Bartolomeo's \"Madonna and Child\" (1509).  There is a legend to explain why all the columns of the façade are different. According to the tale, when they were going to decorate it, the inhabitants of Lucca announced a contest for the best column. Every artist made a column, but then the inhabitants of Lucca decided to take them all, without paying the artists and used all the columns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Labyrinth.", "content": "The labyrinth or maze is embedded in the right pier of the portico and is believed to date from the 12th or 13th century. Its importance is that it may well pre-date the famous Chartres maze, yet is of the Chartres pattern that became a standard for mazes. The rustic incised Latin inscription refers to ancient pagan mythology: \"This is the labyrinth built by Dedalus of Crete; all who entered therein were lost, save Theseus, thanks to Ariadne's thread\" (HIC QUEM CRETICUS EDIT. DAEDALUS EST LABERINTHUS. DE QUO NULLUS VADERE. QUIVIT QUI FUIT INTUS. NI THESEUS GRATIS ADRIANE. STAMINE JUTUS\").  <br", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lucca Cathedral () is a Roman Catholic cathedral dedicated to Saint Martin of Tours in Lucca, Italy. It is the seat of the Archbishop of Lucca. Construction was begun in 1063 by Bishop Anselm (later Pope Alexander II).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976007}
{"src_title": "Paris, je t'aime", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Arrondissements.", "content": "Initially, 20 short films representing the 20 arrondissements of Paris were planned, but two of them (the 15th arrondissement, directed by Christoffer Boe, and the 11th arrondissement, by Raphaël Nadjari) were not included in the final film because they could not be properly integrated into it. Each arrondissement is followed by a few images of Paris; these transition sequences were written by Emmanuel Benbihy and directed by Benbihy with Frédéric Auburtin. Including Benbihy, there were 22 directors involved in the finished film.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Julio Medem was attached to the project for a long time. He was supposed to direct one of the segments, but this finally fell through because of scheduling conflicts with the filming of \"Caótica Ana\" (2007).  \"Paris, je t'aime\" is the first feature film to be fully scanned in 6K and mastered in 4K in Europe (as opposed to the normal 2K). Encoding the image took about 24 hours per reel (at Laboratoires Éclair).  Both Emmanuel Benbihy and Gilles Caussade served as executive producers on the project. As the film is a collection of shorter segments, there were also producers attached to each episode of the project.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "Following the success of \"Paris, je t'aime\", a similarly structured film, \"New York, I Love You\", focusing on life in that city, premiered at the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival and was released in a limited number of theatres in 2009.  The \"Cities of Love\" website states that there are several more films in the series to be released. They include \"Rio, Eu Te Amo\", \"Shanghai, 我爱你\" and \"Jerusalem, I Love You\". All the films will follow the same style with no fewer than 10 short films using their respective city as the main unifying character.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "The film premiered at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival on 18 May, opening the \"Un Certain Regard\" selection. It had its Canadian premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 10 September and its US premiere in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on 9 April 2007. First Look Pictures acquired the North American rights, and the film opened in the United States on 4 May 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Paris, je t'aime\" received generally positive reviews. It currently holds an 87% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 112 reviews, with an average score of 7.07/10. The site's consensus states: \"\"Paris je t'aime\" is uneven, but there are more than enough delightful moments in this omnibus tribute to the City of Lights to tip the scale in its favor.\" Metacritic gives the film a 66/100 rating based on 27 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paris, je t'aime (; \"Paris, I love you\") is a 2006 anthology film starring an ensemble cast of actors of various nationalities. The two-hour film consists of eighteen short films set in different arrondissements. The 22 directors include Gurinder Chadha, Sylvain Chomet, Joel and Ethan Coen, Gérard Depardieu, Wes Craven, Alfonso Cuarón, Nobuhiro Suwa, Alexander Payne, Tom Tykwer, Walter Salles, Yolande Moreau, and Gus Van Sant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976008}
{"src_title": "Spektr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The Spektr module was originally developed as part of a top-secret military program code-named \"Oktant\". It was planned to carry experiments with space-borne surveillance and test antimissile defense. The surveillance instruments were mounted on the exterior of the module opposite the docking port. Also in this location were two launchers for artificial targets. The heart of the Spektr payload was an experimental optical telescope code-named \"Pion” (Peony).  Instrument list:  These experiments would have been a continuation of the research a top-secret TKS-M module, which docked to Salyut 7 in 1985. However, with the end of the Cold War and the shrinking of Russia's space budget, the module was stuck on the ground.  In the mid-1990s with the return of US-Russian cooperation in space, NASA agreed to provide funds to complete the Spektr and Priroda modules in exchange for having 600 to 700 kg of US experiments installed. The Oktava military component was replaced with a conical mounting area for two additional solar arrays. The airlock for the Oktava targets to be used instead to expose experiments to the vacuum of space.  Once in orbit, Spektr served as the living quarters for American astronauts until the collision in late June 1997.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collision.", "content": "On June 25, 1997, the Progress M-34 spacecraft crashed into Spektr while doing an experimental docking maneuver with the Kvant-1 module. The collision damaged one of Spektr's solar arrays and punctured the hull, causing a relatively slow leak. The crew had enough time to install a hatch cover and seal the module off to prevent depressurization of the entire Mir station. To seal the module, the crew had to remove the cables that were routed through the (open) hatchway, including the power cables from Spektr's solar panels.  An internal spacewalk in the Spektr module in August 1997 by cosmonauts Anatoly Solovyov and Pavel Vinogradov, from Soyuz TM-26, succeeded in restoring these power connections by installing a modified hatch cover to allow the power cables to pass through the hatch when it was in the closed position. In a second internal spacewalk in October they connected two of the panels to a computer system to allow the panels to be controlled remotely and align with the Sun. These modifications allowed power generation to return to approximately 70% of the pre-collision generation capability.  Spektr was left depressurized and isolated from the remainder of the Mir complex.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Spektr (; ) (TKM-O, 77KSO, 11F77O) was the fifth module of the Mir Space Station. The module was designed for remote observation of Earth's environment containing atmospheric and surface research equipment. Spektr also had four solar arrays which generated about half of the station's electrical power.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976009}
{"src_title": "Monstera deliciosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "The specific epithet \"deliciosa\" means \"delicious\", referring to the edible fruit, while \"monstera\" means \"monstrous\", in reference to the size that this plant can grow to, over in many cases.  Its popular name as a houseplant of \"Swiss cheese plant\", or just \"cheese plant\", refers to the holes which develop in the leaves, being humorously compared to some Swiss cheeses like Emmental cheese, which also have holes. Monstera adansonii which also has holes in the leaves, is also called \"Swiss cheese plant\", or Swiss cheese vine.  Other common names include fruit salad plant, fruit salad tree (in reference to its edible fruit, which tastes similar to a fruit salad), ceriman, monster fruit, monsterio delicio, monstereo, Mexican breadfruit, windowleaf, balazo, Penglai banana and (inaccurately) split leaf philodendron. The names in Spanish (), Portuguese (), and French () refer to the change of the leaves from entire to fenestrated (comparing it in the first two cases with the ribs of Adam and in the third with the hole-filled gruyère cheese). In Mexico, the plant is sometimes referred to as. In coastal regions of Sicily, especially Palermo, it is called \"zampa di leone\" (lion's paw).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "This member of the arum family Araceae is an epiphyte with aerial roots, able to grow up to high in the wild, with large, leathery, glossy, heart-shaped leaves long by broad. The leaves on young plants are smaller and entire with no lobes or holes, but soon produce lobed and fenestrate leaves as they grow. Although it can grow very tall in nature, it only measures between when grown indoors. The leaves are large (up to long), heart-shaped and pinnate. The older the plant, the more the leaves are covered with its familiar large perforations.  Wild seedlings grow towards the darkest area they can grow until they find a tree trunk, then start to grow up towards the light, creeping up the tree.  The inflorescence is adorned with a cream-white spathe of uniform, velvety appearance, covering, like a hood, a yellowish white spadix high and about in diameter. Flowers are self pollinating, containing both androecium and gynoecium. Since they contain both structures, this plant is able to self-pollinate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fruit.", "content": "The fruit of \"Monstera deliciosa\" is up to long and diameter, and it looks like a green ear of maize covered with hexagonal scales. As the fruit ripens, these scales or platelets fall off the fruit, releasing a strong and sweet scent. The smell has been compared to a combination of pineapples and bananas. The fruit is edible and safe for humans.  Fruits of plants of the Araceae (Arum family) often contain raphides and trichosclereids – needle-like structures of calcium oxalate. In \"M. deliciosa,\" unripe fruit containing these needle-like crystalline structures can cause irritation of the mouth.  It takes longer than a year for fruits to reach maturity. The fruit first shows signs of ripening by the yellowing of its lowest scales. As it ripens, the starch that was stored in the green fruit is converted to sugar, giving it its sweet flavor. This mechanism is comparable to how banana fruits ripen. The strong odor the fruit produces becomes noticeable when it is half-ripe. As time passes and the fruit continues to ripen, the odor becomes stronger. After it becomes fully ripe, however, the scent deteriorates quickly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and growth.", "content": "This plant lives in the humid tropical forests, in the lowlands and middle mountains, in the extreme south of Mexico and also in Belize, Honduras, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Panama. The seeds fall to the ground, then the seedlings crawl (negative phototropism) until they meet a tree on which to attach. The many adjacent roots thus allow the plant to anchor against its new support and reach the canopy light (although it rarely grows in full sun and prefers a light dimmed by the foliage). Wild plants can also be found in other parts of North America (Florida), Asia (Malaysia, India), Australia and the western Mediterranean (Portugal, Morocco, Madeira).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Monstera deliciosa\" is commonly grown outdoors as an ornamental plant in the tropics and subtropics. The plant requires a lot of space and a rich and loose soil (ideally garden soil and compost in equal parts). If it grows in the ground it is better to plant it near a tree, where it can climb, if not against a trellis. It is moderately greedy and needs to be watered just to keep the soil slightly moist. Its hardiness is 11 (that is to say the coldest at ). It cannot withstand these temperatures for more than a few hours, but it can live outside in certain regions (Mediterranean coast, Brittany). A steady minimum temperature of at least is preferable, allowing continuous growth. Growth ceases below and it is killed by frost. It needs very bright exposure, but not full sun.  Forcing a \"M. deliciosa\" to flower outside of its typical tropical habitat proves to be difficult. Specific conditions need to be met for the plant to flower. However, in its tropical and subtropical habitat, the plant flowers easily. In ideal conditions it flowers about three years after planting. The plant can be propagated by taking cuttings of a mature plant or by air layering.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Harvesting the fruit.", "content": "In those areas where it grows naturally, \"M. deliciosa\" is considered a delicacy due to its sweet and exotic flavor. The fruit may be ripened by cutting it when the first scales begin to lift up and it begins to exude a pungent odor. It is wrapped in a paper bag and set aside until the scales begin popping off. The scales are then brushed off or fall away to reveal the edible flesh underneath. The flesh, which is similar to pineapple in texture, can be cut away from the core and eaten. It has a fruity taste similar to jackfruit and pineapple. The unripe green fruits can irritate the throat and the latex of the leaves and vines can create rashes in the skin, because both contain potassium oxalate: that is the reason why the fruits have to be consumed when the scales lift up. The black irritant fibres can be swept off with the application of a little citrus juice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Indoor cultivation.", "content": "Its architectural qualities, ease of cultivation, and tolerance of a wide range of conditions make it an ideal plant for indoor cultivation as well. For this reason it is a popular plant for the home or office throughout the temperate northern hemisphere. It prefers bright indirect light and temperatures of. Flowering is rare when grown indoors.  In the UK \"Monstera deliciosa\" and the cultivar 'Variegata' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "The aerial roots have been used as ropes in Peru, and to make baskets in Mexico. In Mexico, a leaf or root infusion is drunk daily to relieve arthritis. In Martinique the root is used to make a remedy for snakebite.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Monstera deliciosa, also known as the Swiss Cheese plant, is a species of flowering plant native to tropical forests of southern Mexico, south to Panama. It has been introduced to many tropical areas, and has become a mildly invasive species in Hawaii, Seychelles, Ascension Island and the Society Islands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976010}
{"src_title": "Tatra 87", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The Tatra 87 has unique bodywork. Its streamlined shape was designed by Hans Ledwinka and Erich Übelacker and was based on the Tatra 77, the first car designed with aerodynamics in mind. The body design was based on proposals submitted by Paul Jaray of Hungarian descent, who designed the famous German Graf Zeppelin dirigibles. A fin in the sloping rear of the Tatra helps to divide the air pressure on both sides of the car, a technique used in later aircraft. Tatra 87 had a drag coefficient of 0.36 as tested in the VW tunnel in 1979 as well as reading of 0.244 for a 1:5 model tested in 1941. Small sets of windows in the dividers between the passenger, luggage space and engine compartments, plus louvres providing air for the air-cooled engine, allowed limited rear visibility. Its entire rear segment could be opened, to service the engine. The front doors are rear-hinged coach doors, sometimes termed \"suicide doors\", and the rear doors are front-hinged. Many design elements of the Tatra 87, V570 and the later T97, were copied by later car manufacturers. Ferdinand Porsche was heavily influenced by the Tatra 87 and T97 and the flat-four-cylinder engine in his design of the Volkswagen Beetle, and was subsequently sued by Tatra.  The price new (in the 1940s) was 25,000 SFr. Its value today is around $125,000. A 1941 Tatra 87, owned and restored by Paul Greenstein and Dydia DeLyser of Los Angeles California, won a New York Times reader's poll of collector's cars in 2010, beating strong competition from 651 cars.  The Tatra 87 was praised by German officers in World War II for the superior speed and handling it offered for use on the Autobahn. The Nazi armaments and munitions minister Fritz Todt declared: \"This 87 is the Autobahn car...\" It was known, however, as the 'Czech secret weapon' because it killed so many Nazi officers during World War II that the German Army eventually forbade its officers from driving the Tatra.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tatra 87 (T87) was a car built by Czechoslovak manufacturer Tatra. It was powered by a rear-mounted 2.9-litre air-cooled 90-degree overhead cam V8 engine that produced 85 horsepower and could drive the car at nearly. It is ranked among the fastest production cars of its time. Competing cars in this class, however, used engines with almost twice the volume, and with fuel consumption of 20 liters per 100 km (11.8 mpg). Thanks to its aerodynamic shape, the Tatra 87 had a consumption of just 12.5 litres per 100 km (18.8 mpg). After the war between 1950 and 1953, T87s were fitted with more modern 2.5-litre V8 T603 engines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976011}
{"src_title": "Sandra Magnus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Magnus was born and raised in Belleville, Illinois. She earned degrees in physics and electrical engineering from the University of Missouri–Rolla (now known as the Missouri University of Science and Technology) before earning a PhD in materials science and engineering from the Georgia Institute of Technology in 1996. Research for her dissertation, entitled \"An Investigation of the relationship between the thermochemistry and emission behavior of thermionic cathodes based on the BaO-ScO-WO ternary system,\" was supported by a fellowship from the NASA Lewis Research Center.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Engineering career.", "content": "During the 1980s, Magnus worked on stealth aircraft design as an engineer for McDonnell Douglas. She worked on the propulsion system for the A-12 Avenger II until the project was canceled by the Navy in 1991.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "NASA career.", "content": "Magnus was selected as an astronaut candidate in 1996. Following training for two years from January 1997 until May 1998, Magnus was assigned to the Payloads/Habitability branch in the Astronaut office. Her work included coordinating with the European Space agency and the Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) and Brazil. In May 1998 she was assigned to work in Russia supporting payload hardware development and testing. In 2000 she was CAPCOM for the International Space Station.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "STS-112.", "content": "She flew her first space mission, STS-112, in October 2002 as a mission specialist. The main objective of Space Shuttle \"Atlantis\"' mission was the installation of the S1 truss section on the International Space Station (ISS) and consumables delivery. Magnus operated the space station's robotic arm during the three spacewalks required to install and activate the S1 truss. The flight duration was 10 days 19 hours 58 minutes and 44 seconds.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Survival training.", "content": "From January 29–31, 2006, together with Oleg Artemiev and Michael Barratt, Magnus took part in a two-day examination for the ability to survive in an uninhabited area in case of the Soyuz descent module making an emergency landing. She passed this examination in the forest near Moscow.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "NEEMO 11.", "content": "From September 16–22, 2006, Magnus served as the commander of NASA's mission, an undersea expedition at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Aquarius laboratory located off the coast of Florida. With fellow astronaut/aquanauts Timothy Kopra, Robert Behnken and Timothy Creamer, all of whom were training for possible assignment to missions to the International Space Station, Magnus imitated moonwalks, tested concepts for mobility using various spacesuit configurations and weights to simulate lunar gravity. Techniques for communication, navigation, geological sample retrieval, construction and using remote-controlled robots on the moon's surface also were tested. National Undersea Research Center support crew members Larry Ward and Roger Garcia provided engineering support inside the habitat.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Expedition 18.", "content": "Magnus served as Flight Engineer on board the International Space Station as part of Expedition 18. Magnus was a Mission Specialist on STS-126 for the trip to the station, which launched on November 14, 2008. She served as Mission Specialist on STS-119 when it returned on March 28, 2009. She logged 133 days in orbit and received warm greetings from NASA on her return. Her replacement, JAXA astronaut Koichi Wakata, was launched aboard \"Discovery\" on March 15, 2009.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "STS-135.", "content": "On September 14, 2010, NASA announced Magnus to be one of four astronauts assigned to the STS-135 \"launch on need\" crew that was, if needed, to fly a rescue mission for STS-134, which was originally the last scheduled shuttle flight. Other members assigned to that crew were commander Christopher Ferguson, pilot Douglas G. Hurley, and fellow mission specialist Rex J. Walheim. In January 2011, NASA added STS-135 to the manifest as the final space shuttle mission, scheduled to launch in July 2011; STS-134 was conducted successfully in May 2011, requiring no rescue flight. The mission launched successfully on 8 July 2011 and landed on July 21.  In September 2012, Magnus became deputy Chief of the Astronaut Office.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "After NASA.", "content": "On October 2012, Dr. Magnus left NASA Astronaut corps to become the Executive Director of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). She was the Executive Director until January 2018.  From 2018-2019 Magnus was a principal at AstroPlanetView. In 2019 she became the Deputy Director for Engineering within the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering, serving under former NASA Administrator Michael Griffin.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sandra Hall Magnus (born October 30, 1964) is an American engineer and a former NASA astronaut. She returned to Earth with the crew of STS-119 \"Discovery\" on March 28, 2009, after having spent 134 days in orbit. She was assigned to the crew of STS-135, the final mission of the Space Shuttle. She is also a licensed amateur radio operator with the call sign KE5FYE. From 2012 until 2018 Magnus was the executive director of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976012}
{"src_title": "Serge Moscovici", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Brăila to Jewish parents who were grain merchants, Moscovici frequently relocated, together with his father, spending time in Cahul, Galaţi, and Bucharest. (Later he would indicate that his stay in Basarabia had contributed to his image of a homeland.) From an early age Moscovici suffered the effects of anti-semitic discrimination: in 1938, he was expelled from a Bucharest high school on the basis of newly-issued anti-semitic legislation. In later years he commented on the impact of the Iron Guard, and expressed criticism for intellectuals associated with it (Emil Cioran and Mircea Eliade).  Moscovici trained as a mechanic at the Bucharest vocational school \"Ciocanul\". Faced with an ideological choice between Zionism and communism, he opted for the latter, and, in 1939, joined the then-illegal Romanian Communist Party, being introduced by a clandestine activist whom he knew by the pseudonym \"Kappa\". During World War II Moscovici witnessed the Iron Guard-instigated Bucharest Pogrom in January 1941. Later the Ion Antonescu régime interned him in a forced-labor camp, where, together with other persons of his age, he worked on construction teams until freed by the Soviet Red Army in 1944. During those years he taught himself French and educated himself by reading philosophical works (including those of Baruch Spinoza and René Descartes).  Subsequently, Moscovici travelled extensively, notably visiting Palestine, Germany and Austria. During the late stages of World War II he met Isidore Isou, the founder of lettrism, with whom he founded the artistic and literary review \"Da\" towards the end of 1944 (\"Da\" was quickly censored). Refusing promotion on the basis of political affiliation at a time when the Communist Party participated in Romania's governments, he became instead a welder in the large Bucharest factory owned by Nicolae Malaxa.  Initially welcoming Soviet occupation, Moscovici grew increasingly disillusioned with communist politics, and noted the incidence of anti-Semitism among Red Army soldiers. As the communist regime was taking over and the Cold War started, he helped Zionist dissidents cross the border illegally. For this, he was involved in a 1947 trial held in Timișoara, and decided to leave Romania definitively. Choosing clandestine immigration, he arrived in France a year later, having passed through Hungary and Austria, and having spent time in a refugee camp in Italy.  In Paris, helped by a refugee fund, he studied psychology at the Sorbonne while employed by an industrial enterprise. At the time, Moscovici became close to Paris-based writers, including the Romanian-born Jewish Paul Celan and. In reference to himself, Celan, and Moscovici, Chiva later recalled: \"For us, people on the Left, but who had fled communism, the first period in Paris, in a capital where the intellectual environments were developing under full-scale Stalinist enthusiasm, was very harsh. We were caught between a rock and a hard place: on one side, the French university environment who saw us as «fascists». [...] On the other, the Romanian exiles, most of all the nationalist students, when not outright on the far right, who did not shy away from denouncing us as communist «moles» in the pay of Bucharest or Moscow.\"  Moscovici's 1961 thesis (\"La psychanalyse, son image, son public\"), directed by the psychoanalyst Daniel Lagache, explored the social representations of psychoanalysis in France. Moscovici also studied epistemology and history of sciences with philosopher Alexandre Koyré. During the 1960s Princeton University's Institute for Advanced Study invited him to the United States; he worked at Stanford University and at Yale before returning to Paris to teach at the \"École pratique des hautes études\". Serge Moscovici served as a visiting professor at the New School in New York City, at the Rousseau Institute in Geneva, as well as at the \"Université catholique de Louvain\" and at the University of Cambridge.  By 1968, together with Brice Lalonde and others, he became involved in green politics, and ran in elections for the office of Mayor of Paris for what later became \"Les Verts\". A doctor \"honoris causa\" of several universities, Moscovici received the Balzan Prize in 2003 for social psychology.  In 1997, Serge Moscovici authored an autobiographical essay titled \"Chronique des années égarées\" (\"Chronicle of the Mislaid Years\"). It was translated into Romanian as \"Cronica anilor risipiţi\" (published by Polirom in 1999).  In commemoration of his elaborate and significant contribution to the world of psychology and society in general, several awards, medals, lectures have been established. Notable among these are:  1.Serge Moscovici Medal awarded by the European Association of Social Psychology (EASP)  2.\"Serge Moscovici\" Values-Based Leadership Award by the Aspen Institute Romania.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "His research focus was on group psychology and he began his career by investigating the way knowledge is reformulated as groups take hold of it, distorting it from its original form. His theory of \"social representations\" is now widespread in understanding this process of cultural \"Chinese whispers\". Influenced by Gabriel Tarde, he later criticized American research into majority influence (conformity) and instead investigated the effects of minority influence, where the opinions of a small group influence those of a larger one. He also researched the dynamics of group decisions and consensus-forming.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minority influence.", "content": "Moscovici claimed that majority influence in many ways was misleading – if the majority was indeed all-powerful, we would all end up thinking the same. Drawing attention to the works of Gabriel Tarde, he pointed to the fact that most major social movements have been started by individuals and small groups (e.g. Christianity, Buddhism, the Suffragette movement, Nazism, etc.) and that without an outspoken minority, we would have no innovation or social change.  The study he is most famous for, \"Influences of a consistent minority on the responses of a majority in a colour perception task\", is now seen as one of the defining investigations into the effects of minority influence:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Serge Moscovici (June 14, 1925 in Brăila, Romania as \"Srul Herş Moscovici\" – November 15, 2014 in Paris) was a Romanian-born French social psychologist, director of the \"Laboratoire Européen de Psychologie Sociale\" (\"European Laboratory of Social Psychology\"), which he co-founded in 1974 at the \"Maison des sciences de l'homme\" in Paris. He was a member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts and Officer of the \"Légion d'honneur\", as well as a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences and honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Moscovici's son, Pierre Moscovici, was European Commissioner for Economic and Financial Affairs, Taxation and Customs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976013}
{"src_title": "Erik Werenskiold", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Erik Theodor Werenskiold was born in Eidskog, at Granli gaard, southeast of Kongsvinger in Hedmark county, Norway. He lived his first four years there with his family, until they moved to Kongsvinger. Werenskiold grew up in Kongsvinger Fortress as the fourth son of the commander. He attended the Kongsvinger national school and then in the three years 1869-72 was at the privately owned Latin school operated by Harald Aars and Peter Voss (\"Aars og Voss' skole\") in Christiania.  Based on advice from the painter Adolph Tidemand, he attended a college for painters. During 1873, he was a pupil of Norwegian sculptor, Julius Middelthun (1820–1886), at the Drawing School in Christiania (\"Tegneskolen i Kristiania\"). He studied for a short time at the studio of artist, Axel Ender in the autumn of 1875.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "He went to Munich where he stayed for four years. His meeting with the French air painting, particularly Charles-François Daubigny, at a French art show in Munich in 1879, convinced Werenskiold of its superiority over the German studio painting. In the spring of 1880, Werenskiold was paralyzed in the right arm. After half a year of hospitalization and recreation in Switzerland at Oberbayern and Tyrol, he finally regained his health. From 1881-83 he lived in Paris. In 1883, Werenskiold returned to Norway where he spent the summers in Telemark. He returned to France in 1884–1885 and studied with Léon Bonnat (1888–89). In the spring of 1895 he made a study trip to Rome and Florence.  He made several paintings of peasants in landscapes. Illustrations for Norwegian fairy tales had interested him since his time in Munich, and he now got the opportunity to illustrate Norwegian fairy tales together with Theodor Kittelsen. He illustrated \"Norwegian folktales\" (\"Norske Folkeeventyr\") in 1879 and continued with \"Adventure Tales for Children\" (\"Eventyrbog for Børn. Norske Folkeeventyr\") by Asbjørnsen and Moe in three volumes during the period 1882–1887. Werenskiold illustrated a new edition of \"King's Sagas\" (\"kongesagae\") from Snorre Sturlason and \"The Family at Gilje\" (\"Familjen paa Gilje\") (1903) by Jonas Lie.  His wide range of characterized portraits make up an entire pantheon of famous Norwegians from his lifetime. Werenskiold received the Norwegian national artist's salary from 1908. He was appointed Knight of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav in 1890, Commander 1905, Commander of the 1st class of 1930 and the Grand Cross 1935. He was also Commander of the Order of the Dannebrog. He died at Bærum, in Akershus county, Norway. He was buried at Vår Frelsers gravlund in Oslo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He was married to the painter Sophie Marie Stoltenberg Thomesen (1849–1926). He was the brother-in-law of journalist Fernanda Nissen and the son–in-law of Norwegian merchant and politician Thomes Thomesen. He was the father of geologist Werner Werenskiold (1883–1961) and sculptor Dagfin Werenskiold (1892–1977).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erik Theodor Werenskiold (11 February 1855 – 23 November 1938) was a Norwegian painter and illustrator. He is especially known for his drawings for the Asbjørnsen and Moe collection of \"Norske Folkeeventyr\", and his illustrations for the Norwegian edition of the Snorri Sturlason \"Heimskringla\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976014}
{"src_title": "Order of the Sacred Treasure", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classes.", "content": "The Order can be awarded in any of six classes. Conventionally, a diploma is prepared to accompany the insignia of the order, and in some rare instances, the personal signature of the emperor will have been added. As an illustration of the wording of the text, a translation of a representative 1929 diploma says: \"By the grace of Heaven, Emperor of Japan, seated on the throne occupied by the same dynasty from time immemorial,  We confer the \"Second Class of the Imperial Order of Meiji\" upon Henry Waters Taft, a citizen of the United States of America and a director of the Japan Society of New York, and invest him with the insignia of the same class of the \"Order of the Double Rays of the Rising Sun,\" in expression of the good will which we entertain towards him.  \"In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hand and caused the Grand Seal of State to be affixed at the Imperial Palace, Tokyo, this thirteenth day of the fifth month of the fourth year of Shōwa, corresponding to the 2,589th year from the accession to the throne of Emperor Jimmu.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Insignia.", "content": "The insignia of the order incorporates symbols for the three imperial treasures: the \"Yata Mirror\", so sacred that not even the Emperor is allowed to look at it; the \"Yasakani Jewel\", which is made of the finest jade; and the \"Emperor's personal sword\".  The \"star\" for the \"Grand Cordon\" and \"Second Class\" is similar to the badge as described above, but effectively with \"two\" sets of Maltese crosses, one in gilt and one placed diagonally in silver. It is worn on the left chest by the Grand Cordon, on the right chest (without any other insignia) by the 2nd class.  The \"badge\" for the first through sixth classes is a Maltese cross, in gilt (1st–4th classes), gilt and silver (5th class) and silver (6th class), with white enameled rays (representing the sword). The central disc is blue, bearing an eight-pointed silver star (representing the mirror), surrounded by a wreath with red-enameled dots (representing the jewel). The badge is suspended on a ribbon, worn as a sash on the right shoulder by the Grand Cordon, as a necklet by males of the 2nd and 3rd classes, on the left chest (the ribbon folded into a triangle) by the 4th to 6th classes (with a rosette for the 4th class). For females of the 2nd to 6th classes, the ribbon is a bow worn on the left shoulder (with a rosette for the 4th class).  Until 2003, when it was abolished, the \"badge\" of the \"seventh and eighth classes\" was an eight-pointed silver medal, partially gilded for the 7th class, with representations of just the mirror and the jewel. The badge is suspended on a ribbon, worn by men on the left chest (the ribbon folded into a triangle). For women, the ribbon is a bow worn on the left shoulder.  Until 2003, the \"ribbon\" of the order was very pale blue with a gold stripe near the borders; since then the ribbon has been light blue, but retains the gold stripe near the borders. When the ribbon is worn alone, the ribbon for the Fourth Class and above incorporates a blue-and-gold rosette (very pale blue until 2003), with a solid gold bar for the Grand Cordon, a gold and silver bar for the Second Class, a solid silver bar for the Third Class and only the rosette for the Fourth Class. The ribbon for the Fifth and Sixth Classes has a centered blue disc (very pale blue until 2003) with gold rays radiating from its center, eight rays for the Fifth Class and six rays for the Sixth Class. Formerly, the ribbon for the Seventh and Eighth Classes had a centered very pale blue disc with gold rays radiating from its center, four rays for the Seventh Class and three rays for the Eighth Class.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After the 2003 reform.", "content": "In 2003 the lowest two classes of the Order were abolished. Moreover, the badges of the Order will from now on be suspended from three white-enamelled paulownia leaves (not chrysanthemum leaves as the Decoration Bureau page claims).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected recipients.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1st class, Grand Cordon.", "content": "Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Altham Altham, KCB, CMG. awarded 1918 Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Thomas Clayton, KCB, KCMG. awarded 1918 Lieutenant-General Sir John Steven Cowans, GCMG, KCB, MV. awarded 1918 Lieutenant-General Sir David Henderson, KCB, DSO. awarded 1918 Lieutenant-General Sir Lancelot Edward Kiggell, KCB, KCMG. awarded 1918 Lieutenant-General Sir Cecil Frederick Nevil Macready, GCMG, KCB. awarded 1918 Lieutenant-General Sir Archibald James Murray, GCMG, KCB, CVO, DSO. awarded 1918 Lieutenant-General Sir James Wolfe Murray, KCB. awarded 1918 Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Crichton SCLATER, GCB. awarded 1918", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "7th class: abolished.", "content": "While established with the original induction of the First 6 classes, Class 7 has never been issued or given an official designation or design.  Officially the Medal and its designation were abolished in 2003; there are no known recipients or issuances of this Medal in its original design from 1887.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "8th class: abolished.", "content": "While established with the original induction of the First 6 classes, Class 8 has never been issued or designated a design, like Class 7 Before it.  Officially the Medal and its designation were abolished in 2003; there are no known recipients or issuances of this Medal in its original design from 1887.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The is a Japanese order, established on 4 January 1888 by Emperor Meiji as the Order of Meiji. Originally awarded in eight classes (from 8th to 1st, in ascending order of importance), since 2003 it has been awarded in six classes, the lowest two medals being abolished that year. The most widely conferred Japanese order, it is awarded to those who have made distinguished achievements in research fields, business industries, healthcare, social work, state/local government fields or the improvement of life for handicapped/impaired persons.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976015}
{"src_title": "Hannibal Rising (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 1941, eight-year-old Hannibal Lecter lives in Lecter Castle in Lithuania. The German invasion of the Soviet Union turns the Baltic region into part of the bloodiest front line of World War II. Lecter, his younger sister Mischa, and their parents travel to the family's hunting lodge in the woods to elude the advancing German troops. After three years, the Nazis are finally driven out of the countries soon to be re-occupied by the Soviet Union. During their retreat, however, they destroy a Soviet tank that had stopped at the Lecter family's lodge looking for water. The explosion kills everyone but Lecter and Mischa. They survive in the cottage until five former Lithuanian militiamen, led by a Nazi collaborator named Vladis Grutas, storm and loot it. Finding no other food in the bitterly cold Baltic winter, the men look menacingly at Lecter and Mischa. Then, the soldiers kill and eat her.  By 1949, Lithuania is under Soviet rule and Lecter Castle has been converted into an orphanage, which also houses Hannibal. After dealing violently with a bully, Lecter escapes from the orphanage to Paris to live with his widowed aunt, Lady Murasaki. While in France, Lecter flourishes as a student. He commits his first murder as a teenager, killing a local butcher who insults his aunt. He is suspected of the murder by Inspector Pascal Popil, a French detective who also lost his family in the war. Thanks in part to his aunt's intervention, as she leaves the butcher's head on the gates in front of the station during Lecter's interview, Lecter accepts responsibility for the crime.  Eventually, Lecter becomes the youngest person ever admitted to medical school in France. He works in Paris, where he is given a job preparing cadavers. One day, Lecter witnesses a condemned war criminal receiving a sodium thiopental injection, allowing him to recall details about his war crimes. Consequently, in an attempt to recall the names of those responsible for his sister's death, Lecter injects himself with the solution. His subsequent flashback reveals the men who had killed Mischa had cannibalized her as well. Lecter returns to Lithuania in search of his sister's remains. He excavates the ruins of the lodge where his family died, and upon finding Mischa's remains, he gives her a proper burial. He also unearths the dog-tags of the deserters who killed his sister. One of them, Enrikas Dortlich, sees him arrive in the country and attempts to kill him but is incapacitated by Lecter. After he buries Mischa's remains, Lecter forces Dortlich to reveal the whereabouts of the rest of his gang, then decapitates Dortlich with a horse-drawn pulley. Dortlich's blood splashes on Lecter's face, and he licks it off.  Lecter then visits Kolnas's restaurant in Fontainebleau. He finds his young daughter and notices Mischa's bracelet on her. He gives her Kolnas's dogtag. Dortlich's murder puts the rest of the group on alert and, because of the similarity to the first murder, places Lecter under renewed suspicion from Popil. Grutas, now a sex trafficker, dispatches a second member of the group, Zigmas Milko, to kill him. Lecter kills Milko instead, drowning him in formaldehyde inside his laboratory. Popil then tries to dissuade him from hunting the gang. During a confrontation with Lady Murasaki, she begs him not to get revenge. He refuses, claiming that he made a promise to Mischa. He then attacks Grutas in his home but Grutas is rescued by his bodyguards.  Grutas kidnaps Lady Murasaki and calls Lecter, using her as bait. Lecter recognizes the sounds of Kolnas's birds from his restaurant in the background. Lecter goes there and plays on Kolnas's emotions by threatening his children. Kolnas gives up the location of Grutas's boat, but Lecter kills him when Kolnas goes for Lecter's gun. Lecter goes to the houseboat and finds Grutas assaulting Lady Murasaki. In a final confrontation, Grutas claims that Lecter had also consumed his sister in broth fed to him by the soldiers, and he was killing them to keep this fact secret. Enraged by the revelation, Lecter eviscerates Grutas by repeatedly carving his sister's initial into his body. Lady Murasaki, finally disturbed by his behavior, flees from him even after he tells her that he loves her. The houseboat is incinerated, but Lecter, assumed to be dead, emerges from the woods. He then hunts down the last member of the group, Grentz, in Melville, Canada, before leaving for the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "\"Hannibal Rising\" received generally negative reviews from film critics, though Ulliel's performance as Lecter was generally praised. The film garnered a 16% approval rating from 143 critics—an average rating of 3.9 out of 10—on the review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, which said, \"\"Hannibal Rising\" reduces the horror icon to a collection of dime-store psychological traits.\" Metacritic provides a score of 35% based on reviews from 30 critics, which indicates \"generally unfavorable\" reviews. The film was nominated for, but did not win, two Golden Raspberry Awards. They were for Worst Prequel or Sequel (lost to \"Daddy Day Camp\") and Worst Excuse for a Horror Movie (lost to \"I Know Who Killed Me\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "The film opened at #2 in the United States with $13.4 million, less than half of the $33.7 million opening of \"Norbit\", which was released during the same week as \"Hannibal Rising\". In its second week of release, \"Hannibal Rising\" dropped to #7 at the U.S. box office, making $5.5 million, a 59% drop from the previous week. It dropped out of the top 10 U.S. grossing films in its third week of release at #13 with $1,706,165 in revenue, a 69% drop from the previous week. After a theatrical release of 91 days, the final total North American domestic gross of the film was $27,669,725, less than the opening weekend gross of both \"Hannibal\" and \"Red Dragon\" ($58,003,121 and $36,540,945, respectively).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "The DVD was released on 29 May 2007 and sold 480,861 units in the opening weekend, generating revenue of $10,574,133. As of August 2009, the film has grossed $23,242,853 from DVD sales alone. Blu-ray sales or DVD rentals are not included.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hannibal Rising is a 2007 horror film and the fifth film of the \"Hannibal Lecter\" franchise. It is a prequel to \"The Silence of the Lambs\", \"Hannibal\", and \"Red Dragon\". The film is an adaptation of Thomas Harris' 2006 novel of the same name and tells the story of Lecter's evolution into a cannibalistic serial killer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976016}
{"src_title": "Vasily Aksyonov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Vasily Aksyonov was born to Pavel Aksyonov and Yevgenia Ginzburg in Kazan, USSR on August 20, 1932. His mother, Yevgenia Ginzburg, was a successful journalist and educator and his father, Pavel Aksyonov, had a high position in the administration of Kazan. Both parents \"were prominent communists.\" In 1937, however, both were arrested and tried for her alleged connection to Trotskyists. They were both sent to Gulag and then to exile, and \"each served 18 years, but remarkably survived.\" \"Later, Yevgenia came to prominence as the author of a famous memoir, \"Into the Whirlwind\", documenting the brutality of Stalinist repression.\"  Aksyonov remained in Kazan with his nanny and grandmother until the NKVD arrested him as a son of \"enemies of the people\", and sent him to an orphanage without providing his family any information on his whereabouts. Aksyonov \"remained [there] until rescued in 1938 by his uncle, with whose family he stayed until his mother was released into exile, having served 10 years of forced labour.\" \"In 1947, Vasily joined her in exile in the notorious Magadan, Kolyma prison area, where he graduated from high school.\" Vasily's half-brother Alexei (from Ginzburg's first marriage to Dmitriy Fedorov) died from starvation in besieged Leningrad in 1941.  His parents, seeing that doctors had the best chance to survive in the camps, decided that Aksyonov should go into the medical profession. \"He therefore entered the Kazan University and graduated in 1956 from the First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Peterburg\" and worked as a doctor for the next 3 years. During his time as a medical student he came under surveillance by the KGB, who began to prepare a file against him. It is likely that he would have been arrested had the liberalisation that followed Stalin's death in 1953 not intervened.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Reportedly, \"during the liberalisation that followed Stalin's death in 1953, Aksyonov came into contact with the first Soviet countercultural movement of zoot-suited hipsters called \"stilyagi\" (the ones 'with style').\" As a result, He fell in love with their slang, fashions, libertine lifestyles, dancing and especially their music. From this point on began his lifelong romance with jazz. Interest in his new milieu, western music, fashion and literature turned out to be life-changing for Aksyonov, who decided to dedicate himself to chronicling his times through literature. He remained a keen observer of youth, with its ever-changing styles, movements and trends. Like no other Soviet writer, he was attuned to the developments and changes in popular culture. In 1956, he was \"discovered\" and heralded by the Soviet writer Valentin Kataev for his first publication, in the liberal magazine Youth. \"His first novel, \"Colleagues\" (1961), was based on his experiences as a doctor.\" \"His second, \"Ticket to the Stars\" (1961), depicting the life of Soviet youthful hipsters, made him an overnight celebrity.\"  In the 1960s Aksyonov was a frequent contributor to the popular \"Yunost\" (\"Youth\") magazine and eventually became a staff writer. Aksyonov thus reportedly became \"a leading figure in the so-called \"youth prose\" movement and a darling of the Soviet liberal intelligentsia and their western supporters: his writings stood in marked contrast to the dreary, socialist-realist prose of the time.\" \"Aksyonov's characters spoke in a natural way, using hip lingo, they went to bars and dance halls, had premarital sex, listened to jazz and rock'n'roll and hustled to score a pair of cool American shoes.\" \"There was a feeling of freshness and freedom about his writings, similar to the one emanating from black-market recordings of American jazz and pop.\" \"He soon became one of the informal leaders of the Shestidesyatniki – which translates roughly as \"the '60s generation\" – a group of young Soviets who resisted the Communist Party's cultural and ideological restrictions.\" \"'It was amazing: We were being brought up robots, but we began to listen to jazz,' Aksyonov said in a 2007 documentary about him.\"  For all his hardship, Aksyonov,  as a prose stylist, was at the opposite pole from Mr. Solzhenitsyn, becoming a symbol of youthful promise and embracing fashion and jazz rather than dwelling on the miseries of the gulag. Ultimately, however, he shared Mr. Solzhenitsyn's fate of exile from the Soviet Union.  \"Solzhenitsyn is all about the imprisonment and trying to get out, and Aksyonov is the young person whose mother got out and he actually can live his life now,\" said Nina L. Khrushcheva, who is a granddaughter of Nikita Khrushchev and a friend of the Aksyonov family and who teaches international affairs at the New School in New York. \"It was important to have the Aksyonov light, that light of personal freedom and personal self-expression.\" However, as Mark Yoffe notes in Aksyonov's obituary, his \"open pro-Americanism and liberal values eventually led to problems with the KGB.\" \"And his involvement in 1979 with an independent magazine, \"Metropol\", led to an open confrontation with the authorities.\" His next two celebrated dissident novels, \"The Burn\" and \"The Island of Crimea\", could not be published in the USSR. \"The former explored the plight of intellectuals under communism and the latter was an imagining of what life might have been like had the white army staved off the Bolsheviks in 1917.\"  \"When \"The Burn\" was published in Italy in 1980, Aksyonov accepted an invitation for him and his wife Maya to leave Russia for the US.\" \"Soon afterwards, he was stripped of his Soviet citizenship, regaining it only 10 years later during Gorbachev's perestroika.\"  \"Aksyonov spent the next 24 years in Washington, D.C. and Virginia, where he taught Russian Literature at George Mason University.\" \"He [also] taught literature at a number of [other] American universities, including USC and Goucher College in Maryland... [and] worked as a journalist for Radio Liberty.\"  \"He continued to write novels, among which was the ambitious \"Generations of Winter\" (1994), a multi-generational saga of Soviet life that became a successful Russian TV mini-series.\" The so-called \"\"The Moscow Saga,\" [this 1994] epic trilogy... described the lives of three generations of a Soviet family between the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution and Stalin's death in 1953.\" The TV mini-series consisted of 24 episodes and was broadcast on Russian television in 2004. \"[In 1994], he also won the Russian Booker Prize, Russia's top literary award, for his historical novel \"Voltairian Men and Women,\" about a meeting between the famous philosopher Voltaire and Empress Catherine II.\" \"In 2004, he settled in Biarritz, France, and returned to the US less frequently, dividing his time between France and Moscow.\" His novel \"Moskva-kva-kva\" (2006) was published in the Moscow-based magazine \"Oktyabr\".  \"Aksyonov was translated into numerous languages, and in Russia remained influential\". In addition to writing novels, he is also known as author of poems, occasionally performed as songs. He was reportedly \"forever a hipster [and] was used to being in the avant garde, be it in fashion or literary innovation.\" He was described as \"a colourful man, with his trademark moustache, elegant suits, expensive cars, and a love for grand cities, fine wine and good food.\"  On July 6, 2009, he died in Moscow at the age of 76.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political views.", "content": "Vasily Aksyonov was a convinced anti-totalitarian. On the presentation of one of his last novels, he stated: \"If in this country one starts erecting Stalin statues again, I have to reject my native land. Nothing else remains.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Novels.", "content": "His other novels include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vasily Pavlovich Aksyonov (; August 20, 1932 – July 6, 2009) was a Soviet and Russian novelist. He became known in the West as the author of \"The Burn\" (\"Ожог\", \"Ozhog\", from 1975) and of \"Generations of Winter\" (\"Московская сага\", \"Moskovskaya Saga\", from 1992), a family saga following three generations of the Gradov family between 1925 and 1953.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976017}
{"src_title": "Salix arctica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The Arctic willow grows in tundra and rocky moorland, and is the northernmost woody plant in the world, occurring far above the tree line to the northern limit of land on the north coast of Greenland.  It also occurs further south in North America on high-altitude alpine tundra, south to the Sierra Nevada in California and the Rocky Mountains in New Mexico, to Xinjiang in China in Asia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"S. arctica\" is typically a low shrub growing to only in height (rarely to high), but in the Pacific Northwest, it may reach in height, and has round, shiny green leaves long and broad; they are pubescent, with long, silky, silvery hairs. Like the rest of the willows, Arctic willow is dioecious, with male and female catkins on separate plants. As a result, the plant's appearance varies; the female catkins are red-coloured, while the male catkins are yellow-coloured.  Despite its small size, it is a long-lived plant, growing extremely slowly in the severe arctic climate; one in eastern Greenland was found to be 236 years old.  Hybrids with \"Salix arcticola\" and \"Salix glauca\" are known.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The Arctic willow is a food source for several Arctic animals. Muskoxen, caribou, Arctic hares, and lemmings all feed on the bark and twigs, while the buds are the main food source of the rock ptarmigan.  It is the primary host plant and food source for the Arctic woolly bear moth, \"Gynaephora groenlandica\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Both the Inuit and the Gwich’in make use of this willow. Twigs are used as fuel, while the decayed flowers (\"suputiit\") are mixed with moss and used as wicking in the \"kudlik\". The plant was used for several medicinal purposes, such as relieving toothache, helping to stop bleeding, curing diarrhoea and indigestion, and as a poultice on wounds. Both the Gwich’in and Inuit in the Bathurst Inlet area were known to eat parts of the Arctic willow, which is high in vitamin C and tastes sweet.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salix arctica, the Arctic willow, is a tiny creeping willow (family Salicaceae). It is adapted to survive in Arctic conditions, specifically tundras.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976018}
{"src_title": "The Last Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "On his way to start rehearsals at the Théâtre Montmartre, where he has been hired as male lead for a new production, young Bernard Granger tries to talk to an attractive woman, who repeatedly rebuffs him. When he arrives, she turns out to be the costume designer Arlette, a lesbian. He is taken to see the icily beautiful Marion, who is both owner of the theatre and leading lady. Her Jewish husband, Lucas, is believed to have left Paris but is in fact living in the cellar, where Marion visits him each evening to bring books and food and to talk about the new production. However, Marion is quite struck by Bernard, whom Lucas can just hear through a heating vent but never see. Unknown to anybody at the theatre, Bernard is a member of a Resistance group and delivers the bomb that kills a German admiral.  The first night is loved by a full house but one of the newspaper reviews next morning is viciously hostile, damning the show as Jewish. The writer, Daxiat, an anti-semite, hopes to oust Marion and take over her theatre. While cast and crew are celebrating their success in a nightclub, Daxiat is also there with another party. Bernard, furious that the man has insulted the gentile Marion, hustles him out to the street and pushes him around. Furious that Bernard has jeopardised her theatre, Marion refuses all contact with him offstage. One night, pretending to be air raid wardens, two Gestapo men start searching the theatre and it is Bernard to whom Marion turns in desperation for urgent help in concealing Lucas and his effects. When the Gestapo arrest Bernard's Resistance contact just before they have planned to meet in a church, he decides to devote his life to the cause and give up acting. As he is clearing out his little dressing room, Marion comes in to say goodbye and the two make love on the floor.  After the war, Bernard returns to be male lead in a new play that the freed Lucas wrote while hiding. In it, the female lead played by Marion offers to share her life but he claims he never really loved her. At the end of the opening night, Bernard, Marion and Lucas stand hand in hand to receive the applause.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Truffaut had wanted to create a film set during the French occupation period for a long time, as his uncle and grandfather were both part of the French Resistance, and were once caught while passing messages. This event was eventually recreated in \"The Last Metro\". Truffaut was inspired by the actor Jean Marais’s autobiography, basing the film on this and other documents by theatre people from during the occupation.  This film was one installment—dealing with theatre—of a trilogy on the entertainment world envisaged by Truffaut. The installment that dealt with the film world was 1973's \"La Nuit Américaine\" (\"Day for Night\"), which had won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Truffaut completed the screenplay for the third installment, \"L'Agence Magique\", which would have dealt with the world of music hall. In the late 1970s he was close to beginning filming, but the failure of his film \"The Green Room\" forced him to look to a more commercial project, and he filmed \"Love on the Run\" instead.  Truffaut began casting in September 1979, and he wrote the role of Marion especially with Catherine Deneuve in mind for her energy. Gérard Depardieu initially did not want to be involved in the film, as he did not like Truffaut’s directing style, but he was subsequently convinced.  Most of the filming took place in an abandoned chocolate factory on in Clichy, which was converted into a studio. During shooting Deneuve suffered an ankle sprain from a fall, resulting in having to shoot scenes at short notice. Scriptwriter Suzanne Schiffman was also hospitalised with a serious intestinal obstruction. The film shoot lasted fifty-nine days and ended on 21 April 1980.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "A recurring theme in Truffaut’s films has been linking film making and film watching. \"The Last Metro\" is self-conscious in this respect. In the opening the film mixes documentary footage with period re-creations alongside shots of contemporary film posters.  Truffaut commented “this film is not concerned merely with anti-semitism but intolerance in general” and a tolerance is shown through the characters of Jean Poiret playing a homosexual director and Andrea Ferreol plays a lesbian designer.  As in Truffaut's earlier films \"Jules et Jim\" and \"Two English Girls\", there is a love triangle between the three principal characters: Marion Steiner (Deneuve), her husband Lucas (Heinz Bennent) and Bernard Granger (Depardieu), an actor in the theatre's latest production.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The film recorded admissions in France of 3,384,045.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Last Metro () is a 1980 historical drama film, written and directed by François Truffaut, that stars Catherine Deneuve and Gérard Depardieu.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976019}
{"src_title": "Bohemian Revolt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Rebellion.", "content": "Without heirs, Emperor Matthias sought to assure an orderly transition during his lifetime by having his dynastic heir (the fiercely Catholic Ferdinand of Styria, later Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor) elected to the separate royal thrones of Bohemia and Hungary. Some of the Protestant leaders of Bohemia feared they would be losing the religious rights granted to them by Emperor Rudolf II in his Letter of Majesty (1609). They preferred the Protestant Frederick V, elector of the Palatinate (successor of Frederick IV, the creator of the Protestant Union). However, other Protestants supported the stance taken by the Catholics, and in 1617, Ferdinand was duly elected by the Bohemian Estates to become the Crown Prince, and automatically upon the death of Matthias, the next King of Bohemia.  The king-elect then sent two Catholic councillors (Vilem Slavata of Chlum and Jaroslav Bořita of Martinice) as his representatives to Prague Castle in May 1618. Ferdinand had wanted them to administer the government in his absence. On 23 May 1618, an assembly of Protestants seized them and threw them (and also secretary Philip Fabricius) out of the palace window, which was some off the ground. Remarkably, although injured, they survived. This event, known as the (Second) Defenestration of Prague, started the Bohemian Revolt. Soon afterward, the Bohemian conflict spread through all of the Bohemian Crown, including Bohemia, Silesia, Upper and Lower Lusatia, and Moravia. Moravia was already embroiled in a conflict between Catholics and Protestants. The religious conflict eventually spread across the whole continent of Europe, involving France, Sweden, and a number of other countries.  Had the Bohemian rebellion remained a local conflict, the war could have been over in fewer than thirty months. However, the death of Emperor Matthias emboldened the rebellious Protestant leaders, who had been on the verge of a settlement. The weaknesses of both Ferdinand (now officially on the throne after the death of Emperor Matthias) and of the Bohemians themselves led to the spread of the war to western Germany. Ferdinand was compelled to call on his cousin, King Philip III of Spain, for assistance. The Spanish Crown had interests in maintaining the Holy Roman Empire as a stable ally; a critical trade route, the \"Spanish Road\", extended from the Mediterranean to Brussels. To this end they invested an enormous sum of treasure in the hiring of free companies and mercenaries.  The Bohemians, desperate for allies against the Emperor, applied to be admitted into the Protestant Union, which was led by their original candidate for the Bohemian throne, the Calvinist Frederick V, Elector Palatine. The Bohemians hinted Frederick would become King of Bohemia if he allowed them to join the Union and come under its protection. However, similar offers were made by other members of the Bohemian Estates to the Duke of Savoy, the Elector of Saxony, and the Prince of Transylvania. The Austrians, who seemed to have intercepted every letter leaving Prague, made these duplicities public. This unraveled much of the support for the Bohemians, particularly in the court of Saxony. Even James I of England refused to support Frederick, despite his wife being James' daughter. Overall, England was criticized for its inaction in the Thirty Years' War. In spite of these issues surrounding their support, the rebellion initially favoured the Bohemians. They were joined in the revolt by much of Upper Austria, whose nobility was then chiefly Lutheran and Calvinist. Lower Austria revolted soon after, and in 1619, Count Thurn led an army to the walls of Vienna itself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Defeat of the revolt.", "content": "The Spanish sent an army from Brussels under Ambrosio Spinola to support the Emperor. In addition, the Spanish ambassador to Vienna, Don Íñigo Vélez de Oñate, persuaded Protestant Saxony to intervene against Bohemia in exchange for control over Lusatia, in addition they would invest nearly two million ducats in the supply and payment of both the army and its free company contingents. The Saxons invaded, and the Spanish army in the west prevented the Protestant Union's forces from assisting. Oñate conspired to transfer the electoral title from the Palatinate to the Duke of Bavaria in exchange for his support and that of the Catholic League.  The Catholic League's army (which included René Descartes in its ranks as an observer) pacified Upper Austria, while Imperial forces under Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly, pacified Lower Austria. The two armies united and moved north into Bohemia. Ferdinand II decisively defeated Frederick V at the Battle of White Mountain, near Prague, on 8 November 1620. In addition to becoming almost entirely Catholic, Bohemia would remain in Habsburg hands for nearly three hundred years.  This defeat led to the dissolution of the League of Evangelical Union and the loss of Frederick V's holdings. Frederick was outlawed from the Holy Roman Empire, and his territories, the Rhenish Palatinate, were given to Catholic nobles. His title of elector of the Palatinate was given to his distant cousin, Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. Frederick, now landless, made himself a prominent exile abroad and tried to curry support for his cause in Sweden, the Netherlands and Denmark.  This was a serious blow to Protestant ambitions in the region. As the rebellion collapsed, the widespread confiscation of property and suppression of the Bohemian nobility ensured the country would return to the Catholic side after more than two centuries of Hussite and other religious dissent. However while Bohemia was effectively annexed by the Crown, other regions would continue their revolt for several years. This would have the effect of bringing in elements of the Protestant Union which had suffered a severe blow to their credibility via their refusal to support the Bohemian revolutionaries. In addition, the changes in territory meant that previously unaligned powers would find a resurgent Empire on their own borders, a circumstance that Kingdoms like Denmark found untenable.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bohemian Revolt (; ; 1618–1620) was an uprising of the Bohemian estates against the rule of the Habsburg dynasty that began the Thirty Years' War. It was caused by both religious and power disputes. The estates were almost entirely Protestant, mostly Utraquist Hussite but there was also a substantial German population that endorsed Lutheranism. The dispute culminated after several battles in the final Battle of White Mountain, where the estates suffered a decisive defeat. This started re-Catholisation of the Czech lands, but also expanded the scope of the Thirty Years' War by drawing Denmark and Sweden into it. The conflict spread to the rest of Europe and devastated vast areas of central Europe, including the Czech lands, which were particularly stricken by its violent atrocities.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976020}
{"src_title": "Low-emission zone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Europe.", "content": "there are about 250 low-emission zones (LEZ), which help meet EU health-based air quality limit values. This means that vehicles may be banned from a LEZ, or in some cases charged if they enter a LEZ when their emissions are over a set level.  Different vehicles may be regulated, depending on local conditions. All LEZs apply to heavy vehicles, some to diesel vans, others also to diesel and petrol cars; in Italy, motor cycles and three-wheelers are also liable to control.  A publicly funded website run by a network of cities and ministries operating or preparing LEZs gives up-to-date information on LEZs, such as which cities have LEZs, the vehicle types affected, the required emissions standards and their application dates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Denmark.", "content": "Denmark has LEZ's that are applicable to vehicles over 3.5T. In Denmark, LEZ's exist in Aalborg, Århus, Copenhagen, Frederiksberg and Odense.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Finland.", "content": "An LEZ is present in Helsinki.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France.", "content": "France has LEZ's in Greater Paris, Grenoble, Lyon, Paris and Strasbourg", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "In Germany, an LEZ is called an environmental zone (\"Umweltzone\"). There are currently 47 LEZs in operation or in planning in Germany. The cities of Berlin, Cologne, Hanover Mannheim and Stuttgart started LEZs in their respective central city areas in 2008 and more cities followed in the years after.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italy.", "content": "Italy has LEZ's that are applicable to all vehicles. There are combined LEZ's and urban road tolling schemes in Milan and Palermo as well as low emission zones with differing standards and timeperiods. The latter are mainly found in north Italy, but also in mid Italy and Sicily.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Netherlands.", "content": "Rotterdam and Utrecht have LEZs. In Rotterdam this applies to trucks with a diesel engine that fall under stages Euro-I, Euro-II and Euro-III of the EU emission standards; delivery vans and passenger cars with a diesel engine registered before 2001; and delivery vans and passenger cars running on petrol/LPG registered before July 1992. In Utrecht this applies only to diesel vehicles registered before 2001.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Norway.", "content": "Norway has LEZ's in Bergen and Oslo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Portugal.", "content": "Portugal has an LEZ in Lisbon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spain.", "content": "Spain has LEZ's in Barcelona and Madrid.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sweden.", "content": "The cities of Gothenburg, Lund, Malmö, Helsingborg, Mölndal, Uppsala, Umeå and Stockholm have low-emission zones. Heavy trucks and buses with compression ignited engines (mainly diesel engines) may not be allowed inside the environmental zones depending on their age and on their emission class.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "The London low emission zone came into effect in 2008 covering almost all of Greater London - the largest such zone in the world. London currently has levels of air pollution among the worst in Europe and road transport related emissions account for around half of total emissions of PM10 and NOx in the capital. The Low Emission Zone targets emissions of these pollutants from older diesel-engined lorries, buses, coaches, vans, minibuses and other heavy vehicles that are derived from lorries and vans such as motor caravans and motorised horse boxes. There was a phased introduction of the scheme from 2008 through to 2012. Different vehicles were affected over time and increasingly tougher emissions standards applied.  The London Ultra Low Emission Zone started on 8 April 2019. In the context of the coronavirus pandemic, Mayor Sadiq Khan asked TfL to suspend enforcement of the next phase of LEZ standards which had been due to come into force on 26 October, so that these would apply instead from the end of February 2021.  Glasgow introduced a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) at the end of 2018. Initially, only local buses in the centre of the city are affected. The city council plans to extend restrictions to all vehicles, including older petrol and diesel cars, from December 2022. Norwich, Leeds, and York also introduced a LEZ.  Since 2015, more than 60 local authorities have been ordered to tackle illegal levels of air pollution, which is why many of these planning to introduce clean air zones. The following cities have plans to introduce LEZs: Aberdeen (2020), Bath (2021), Birmingham (2019), Derby, Dundee (2020), Edinburgh (2020), Manchester (2021), Newcastle (2021), and Sheffield (2021). , Oxford is slated to become the first city to implement a Zero Emission Zone (ZEZ) scheme, beginning with a small area to go into effect by mid 2021. It was postponed from a 2020 start due to the economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. The plan is to expand the ZEZ gradually into a much larger zone, until the ZEZ encompasses the majority of the city centre by 2035.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Elsewhere.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Japan.", "content": "In Tokyo, the municipal government decided to tackle controlling diesel vehicle emissions (particulate matter emissions,...) far ahead of the national government.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "People's Republic of China.", "content": "An LEZ is present in Beijing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hong Kong.", "content": "Since the end of 2015, the Hong Kong Government has designated three major junctions in Central, Causeway Bay and Mong Kok as low emission zone for franchised buses. For bus routes entering the three zones, franchised bus operators are required to use only buses meeting emission standards of Euro IV or above except when necessary. The LEZ scheme does not cover vehicles other than franchised buses. As of December 31, 2019, the standard for entry into the LEZ has been increased to Euro V.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Workings.", "content": "In many LEZ's, vehicles that do not meet the emission standards set by the LEZ are not barred from entry into the LEZ (i.e. using automated boom barriers), but rather simply fined if they enter the zone. A fine is not issued if entering the LEZ with a vehicle that does not meet the emission standards, when a fee (LEZ daily charge,...) has been paid. In some LEZ's, such as the one in London, this is done by ANPR cameras which read the vehicle registration number plate as they enter the LEZ and then compare it against a database of vehicles which: This fee/fine works as a deterrent for those having a vehicle that does not meet the LEZ emission standard for entering the city, and those having such vehicles will hence try to avoid paying this fee/fine (using various means, see \"intent and actual impact\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Intent and actual impact.", "content": "The intent of LEZ's is generally to improve air quality within cities. This intent is indeed achieved, with diesel particulates (PM10) dropping in most LEZ's.  Often, this is achieved as people with polluting vehicles replace them with vehicles that attain a higher emission standard, which may mean buying a new vehicle. Some people (such as workers on night shift or carrying heavy tools or cargo) however can't do without a car, but might not be able to afford to purchase unsubsidized cleaner vehicles. Therefore in some places the LEZ is only enforced when public transport is available, or electric taxis or cargobikes are subsidized.  Transport & Environment is of the opinion that LEZ's should be gradually turned into zero-emission mobility zones and complement policies promoting a switch to clean alternatives, including walking and cycling, amongst others.  Most LEZ's which are not also congestion charge zones do not change the number of vehicles entering the zone: but some LEZ's (such as the one in Milan) double as congestion charge zones and thus have the potential to reduce the numbers travelling into the city.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A low-emission zone (LEZ) is a defined area where access by some polluting vehicles is restricted or deterred with the aim of improving the air quality. This may favour vehicles such as (certain) alternative fuel vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids, and zero-emission vehicles such as all-electric vehicles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976021}
{"src_title": "CUDA", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The graphics processing unit (GPU), as a specialized computer processor, addresses the demands of real-time high-resolution 3D graphics compute-intensive tasks. By 2012, GPUs had evolved into highly parallel multi-core systems allowing very efficient manipulation of large blocks of data. This design is more effective than general-purpose central processing unit (CPUs) for algorithms in situations where processing large blocks of data is done in parallel, such as:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Programming abilities.", "content": "The CUDA platform is accessible to software developers through CUDA-accelerated libraries, compiler directives such as OpenACC, and extensions to industry-standard programming languages including C, C++ and Fortran. C/C++ programmers can use 'CUDA C/C++', compiled with \"nvcc\", Nvidia's LLVM-based C/C++ compiler. Fortran programmers can use 'CUDA Fortran', compiled with the PGI CUDA Fortran compiler from The Portland Group.  In addition to libraries, compiler directives, CUDA C/C++ and CUDA Fortran, the CUDA platform supports other computational interfaces, including the Khronos Group's OpenCL, Microsoft's DirectCompute, OpenGL Compute Shaders and C++ AMP. Third party wrappers are also available for Python, Perl, Fortran, Java, Ruby, Lua, Common Lisp, Haskell, R, MATLAB, IDL, Julia, and native support in Mathematica.  In the computer game industry, GPUs are used for graphics rendering, and for game physics calculations (physical effects such as debris, smoke, fire, fluids); examples include PhysX and Bullet. CUDA has also been used to accelerate non-graphical applications in computational biology, cryptography and other fields by an order of magnitude or more.  CUDA provides both a low level API (CUDA Driver API, non single-source) and a higher level API (CUDA Runtime API, single-source). The initial CUDA SDK was made public on 15 February 2007, for Microsoft Windows and Linux. Mac OS X support was later added in version 2.0, which supersedes the beta released February 14, 2008. CUDA works with all Nvidia GPUs from the G8x series onwards, including GeForce, Quadro and the Tesla line. CUDA is compatible with most standard operating systems. Nvidia states that programs developed for the G8x series will also work without modification on all future Nvidia video cards, due to binary compatibility.  CUDA 8.0 comes with the following libraries (for compilation & runtime, in alphabetical order):  CUDA 8.0 comes with these other software components:  CUDA 9.0-9.2 comes with these other components:  CUDA 10 comes with these other components:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Advantages.", "content": "CUDA has several advantages over traditional general-purpose computation on GPUs (GPGPU) using graphics APIs:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "GPUs supported.", "content": "Supported CUDA level of GPU and card. See also at Nvidia:  '*' – OEM-only products", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Version features and specifications.", "content": "Note: Any missing lines or empty entries do reflect some lack of information on that exact item.<br>  For more information see the article: and read Nvidia CUDA programming guide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "This example code in C++ loads a texture from an image into an array on the GPU:  texture<float, 2, cudaReadModeElementType> tex;  void foo()  } //end foo()  __global__ void kernel(float* odata, int height, int width) Below is an example given in Python that computes the product of two arrays on the GPU. The unofficial Python language bindings can be obtained from \"PyCUDA\".  import pycuda.compiler as comp import pycuda.driver as drv import numpy import pycuda.autoinit  mod = comp.SourceModule(\"\"\" __global__ void multiply_them(float *dest, float *a, float *b) \"\"\")  multiply_them = mod.get_function(\"multiply_them\")  a = numpy.random.randn(400).astype(numpy.float32) b = numpy.random.randn(400).astype(numpy.float32)  dest = numpy.zeros_like(a) multiply_them(  print dest-a*b  Additional Python bindings to simplify matrix multiplication operations can be found in the program \"pycublas\". import numpy from pycublas import CUBLASMatrix A = CUBLASMatrix( numpy.mat(1,2,3],[4,5,6,numpy.float32) ) B = CUBLASMatrix( numpy.mat(2,3],[4,5],[6,7,numpy.float32) ) C = A*B print C.np_mat() while CuPy directly replaces NumPy: import cupy  a = cupy.random.randn(400) b = cupy.random.randn(400)  dest = cupy.zeros_like(a)  print(dest-a*b)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Benchmarks.", "content": "There are some open-source benchmarks containing CUDA codes", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "CUDA (Compute Unified Device Architecture) is a parallel computing platform and application programming interface (API) model created by Nvidia. It allows software developers and software engineers to use a CUDA-enabled graphics processing unit (GPU) for general purpose processing an approach termed GPGPU (General-Purpose computing on Graphics Processing Units). The CUDA platform is a software layer that gives direct access to the GPU's virtual instruction set and parallel computational elements, for the execution of compute kernels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976022}
{"src_title": "Comacine masters", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Comacini.", "content": "Their masons' marks have suggested arcane meanings for some enthusiasts. The name \"comacini\" Romantic historians of the nineteenth century traced to the location where they supposedly had their headquarters, the minute Isola Comacina in Lake Como, alleged to have been a safe haven during the Lombard invasion; a more inventive etymology derives from a supposed Latin expression \"cum machinis\", referring to their tools.  The first mention of Comacine masters was in an edict of 643 of the Lombard king Rothari, which concerned itself in Lombard fashion mainly with the indemnity that would be due should a house collapse which had been built by a \"magister comacinus\" for a patron \"ad opera dictandi\" (\"commissioning the works\"). The reference has been interpreted as granting certain privileges to \"magistri comacini\", but the context shows that modern readers are correct in interpreting the key word \"comacini\" simply as \"masons\". \"Comacini\" are also mentioned in a passage in the \"Memoratorium\" of Liutprand the Lombard.  The survival of brotherhoods of the \"comacini\" are based on the hypothesis that the Roman secrets of masonry construction were never utterly lost in Italy but were passed on by the mason brotherhoods, which were supposed to be among the numerous documented \"collegii\" in which workingmen joined together for mutual protection, fraternal banqueting and eventual support of their widows throughout the Roman Empire, sometimes associated together as masters of the \"arcana\" or \"mysteries\" of their craft. Each such confraternity was composed of men (never women) located in a single town, and was made up of men of a single craft or those worshipping a single deity, free, freedmen and slaves together, forming a bond very like the image of a city, always under the uneasy surveillance of officialdom. Such, it supposed, were the \"comacini\" whose geographical center in the Early Middle Ages originated in Lombardy, in Como and Pavia.  If mason's marks were the sign of the \"comacini\", then evidence of their work has been found in several parts of Europe, as far as the capitals of the crypt in the cathedral of Lund. The \"Como-Pavian\" architectural sculpture is recognized in the cathedral of Modena and its Torre della Ghirlandina, in central and southern Italy, west across Languedoc to Iberian Peninsula, across southern Germany as far as Hungary, and even in England.  In the Middle Ages, artists did not customarily sign their work, so to detect the work of this corporation, historians look to masons' marks inscribed in the stonework; in this way historians have traced comacine master's influence as far as Sweden and Syria. Freemasons claimed descent from the guilds of \"comacini\".  The efflorescence of a \"Como-Pavian\" school of sculptural decoration on pulpits and portals that surfaced in the area of Como in the late eleventh century and developed luxuriously to enrich facades in Pavia in the 1130s, then were disseminated more widely in the twelfth and thirteenth century, doubtless by travelling groups of artisans, is traditionally ascribed to a surfacing of a long-buried tradition of \"comacini\" sculptors, who were influenced by the animal interlaces of Lombard metalwork. In this \"corrente comasca\" that spread on the periphery of Romanesque and Early Gothic art, geometric interlaces are peopled with sleek monsters and figures that seem to synthesize some very disparate and distant influences: barbaric Longobard metalwork, Ottonian illuminations, Byzantine silk patterns, Islamic patterning, Coptic reliefs, have all been compared to the \"Como-Pavian\" current of sculpture. Another notable group of medieval stoneworkers were maestri Campionesi from Campione, not far from Como.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Comacine masters (\"magistri comacini\") were early medieval Lombard stonemasons working in a region of excellent building stone who gave to Lombardy its preeminence in the stone architecture that preceded Romanesque style.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976023}
{"src_title": "Jason Kreis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kreis played for the Gladiator Soccer Club in his hometown of Omaha, Nebraska, where his parents were among the pioneers who established this first premier/select club within the state. As a freshman at Burke High School in Omaha, Kreis was selected First Team All-State. He remains the only freshman selected to the first team. Following his freshman year, Kreis and his family moved to Mandeville, Louisiana, where he led Mandeville High School to several Class 5A state soccer tournaments, but never won a state title, losing to Lafayette High in the quarterfinals his senior year. While at Mandeville, he was also a standout performer for the Baton Rouge United Jags, a U-19 Select team that finished as national runner-up in 1991 and won the prestigious Capital Cup tournament in Washington, D.C. He played collegiately at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minor leagues.", "content": "In 1993, Kreis played during the summer for the Raleigh Flyers of the USISL. In the summer of 1994, he returned to Louisiana to play for the New Orleans Riverboat Gamblers, also of the USISL. After finishing his collegiate eligibility in 1994, Kreis signed his first professional contract with the Raleigh Flyers in the spring of 1995.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dallas Burn.", "content": "On August 1, 1995, Kreis signed a contract with Major League Soccer as the league prepared for its inaugural season. Kreis was drafted forty-third overall by the Dallas Burn in the fifth round of the MLS Inaugural Draft. He scored the first goal in Burn history. In 1999, Kreis was the first American-born player to be named league MVP after he led the league in points and goals, and also registered the first 15-goal, 15-assist season in league history. The five-time all-star led his team in goals five times and in points four times.  On June 26, 2004, Kreis scored his eighty-ninth league goal against D.C. United, moving past Roy Lassiter to the top of the league's all-time goal-scoring chart. Kreis remained the MLS all time goalscoring leader for more than three years until Jaime Moreno surpassed his record on August 22, 2007. He ended his ninth MLS season with career totals of 91 goals and 65 assists for 247 points, plus added four goals and two assists in the playoffs. He remains Dallas' all-time leader in games played (247), goals (91), assists (65), and points (247).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Real Salt Lake.", "content": "On November 17, 2004, Kreis was traded to expansion team Real Salt Lake, becoming the first player in the club's history. Kreis scored the first goal in Salt Lake's history in its second match, a 3–1 loss to the Los Angeles Galaxy. In doing so, he became the first player in league history to do so for two different teams, as he scored the inaugural goal for Dallas in 1996 as well.  On August 13, 2005, he became the first player in MLS history to score 100 career league goals, during a 4–2 loss to the Kansas City Wizards. The achievement was unexpected from observers, especially out of a 1996 class that included other candidates like Eric Wynalda, Brian McBride, or Joe-Max Moore; Kreis had never been considered a particularly dangerous goalscorer and had only lead the league in scoring once, in 1999.  Kreis was left unprotected in the 2006 MLS Expansion Draft by Real Salt Lake and subsequently chosen by Toronto FC. He was reacquired by Salt Lake on November 17, 2006, with the club sending partial allocation money to Toronto in exchange.  He retired as a player on May 3, 2007, to take over as head coach, finishing with 108 career goals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "With only 14 international appearances, Kreis was never able to translate his club success into one with the U.S. national team. He received his first cap on August 30, 1996, against El Salvador at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Kreis scored his only international goal on September 8, 1999 in a 2–2 draw against Jamaica in Kingston.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Real Salt Lake.", "content": "On May 3, 2007 Kreis retired from professional competition and was announced as the new head coach of Real Salt Lake, retiring as a player and taking over the coaching reins from John Ellinger. At the time of his hire, Kreis became the youngest active head coach in MLS at 34 years and 127 days. He led Real Salt Lake to its first-post season playoff appearance in 2008 and in 2009 he coached the team to its first MLS Cup championship. Kreis is the youngest coach in MLS history to win the MLS Cup. Following the 2009 MLS Cup win, Kreis would lead Real Salt Lake to playoff appearances in every subsequent season through 2013, including an appearance in the 2013 MLS Cup, which RSL lost to Sporting Kansas City in dramatic fashion on penalty kicks. Kreis also guided Real Salt Lake to a very good CONCACAF Champions League campaign in 2011. Real Salt Lake won Group A and made it all the way to the final, only to lose to 3-2 on aggregate to C.F. Monterrey.  Real Salt Lake signed Kreis to a contract extension on March 24, 2011 that kept him at the RSL helm through the 2013 season, after which he left RSL to become head coach of New York City FC. Real Salt Lake has retired Kreis' number 9 jersey from his playing days.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New York City FC.", "content": "On December 11, 2013, Kreis was announced as the first head coach of New York City FC, having reached the end of his contract at Real Salt Lake and declining an extension offer from RSL so he could take the New York City FC position. The move came just four days after he missed out on lifting his second MLS Cup with the Utah team, losing on penalty kicks to Sporting Kansas City. It was revealed in the announcement that his contract, starting on January 1, 2014, would see him begin by traveling to Manchester in England to familiarize himself with the set-up of franchise-owners Manchester City.  Kreis' inaugural season with NYCFC ended in disappointment. The club finished with a 10–17–7 record in the regular season placing 8th in the Eastern Conference, failing to make the 2015 MLS Cup Playoffs. He and the club parted ways on November 2, 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Orlando City SC.", "content": "On July 19, 2016, Kreis was hired by Orlando City SC to replace outgoing inaugural coach Adrian Heath. At Orlando City, he reunited with two of his assistant coaches, Miles Joseph and C. J. Brown, and led the club to its first win in two months during his first game in charge.  On June 15, 2018, Kreis was released by Orlando City.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inter Miami.", "content": "On 30 January 2019, Kreis was hired by Inter Miami to the team's Technical Department.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States U-23.", "content": "On March 19, 2019, Kreis was named head coach of the United States men's national under-23 team.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jason Clarence Kreis (born December 29, 1972) is an American soccer manager and former player who currently serves as head coach of USL League One club Fort Lauderdale CF and the United States U-23 team. He coached Orlando City SC in Major League Soccer and was previously an assistant coach under Jürgen Klinsmann for the United States men's national soccer team. Prior to that he was the head coach of New York City FC and Real Salt Lake.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976024}
{"src_title": "Gabriela von Habsburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Gabriela von Habsburg was born in Luxembourg, the fourth child of the German politician Otto von Habsburg, head of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine and erstwhile heir apparent to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and Regina (née Prinzessin von Sachsen-Meiningen). She was baptised with the names Gabriela Maria Charlotte Felicitas Elisabeth Antonia. The name in her birth certificate is Gabriela von Österreich-Ungarn.  Gabriela von Habsburg was raised at her parents' home in exile, Villa Austria, in Pöcking, Bavaria. As a result of the Habsburgs' banishment from Austria, she feels that she grew up devoid of any sense of pride of country and thus identifies as European. She believes that her dynasty's role in history shaped her upbringing, noting that her family \"never spoke about anything at mealtimes except politics\". A granddaughter of the last Austrian emperor, Charles I, she does not use the traditional Habsburg-Lorraine titles (\"Princess Imperial and Archduchess of Austria, Princess Royal of Hungary and Bohemia\", with the style of Imperial and Royal Highness).  After graduating in 1976, Gabriela von Habsburg studied philosophy for two years at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. From 1978 to 1982, she studied art at the Munich Academy of Arts with Robert Jacobsen and Eduardo Paolozzi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Since 2001, she has been an art professor at the Academy of Arts of Tbilisi, Georgia while also teaching at the Summer Academy of Arts in Neuburg an der Donau, Germany until 2005. She found the creativity and cheerfulness of her students in the face of the adversity then prevalent in Georgia inspiring. During her tenure there she was granted Georgian citizenship. Her five hectare vineyard in Georgia produces wine.  In November 2009, Georgia appointed Gabriela von Habsburg as its ambassador to Germany, and since March 2011 she has maintained a flat in Berlin. Believing that Georgian history served as a crucible for European culture, she has maintained that the liberalizing reforms of President Mikheil Saakashvili have been welcome and invigorating for Georgia's people and economy, which has prompted her to work for Georgia's membership in the European Market. She was dismissed from her position in January 2013, after the change of government in Georgia in October 2012.  Since March 2010 Gabriela von Habsburg has represented Georgia at the International Council of the Austrian Service Abroad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "On 30 August 1978, in Pöcking, Bavaria, Gabriela was married civilly and on 5 September 1978 religiously at Mont Sainte-Odile to Christian Meister (born 1 September 1954 in Starnberg), a German attorney, son of Karl Meister and Johanna Sponheim. They divorced in 1997 and the marriage was annulled canonically. Gabriela was the only one of her parents' seven children to marry a spouse who had neither a title nor an aristocratic name. They had three children and four grandchildren:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dynastic honours.", "content": "Gabriela von Habsburg-Lothringen is sometimes referred to as \"Archduchess of Austria\", a reference to the defunct familial title of her grandfather, but says that \"I do not like my family titles. Whatever you inherit, you haven’t done anything for\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "Gabriela von Habsburg. Sculpture (English version) By Prof. Mathias Frehner and Prof. Carla Schulz-Hofmann Bucher GmbH & Co. Druck Verlag Netzwerk; (22. Oktober 2007) Gabriela von Habsburg.Skulpturen (German version)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gabriela von Habsburg (born 14 October 1956) is an abstract sculptor, working mainly in stainless steel as well as stone-printed lithography. She was the ambassador of Georgia to Germany from 2009 to 2013. She is the granddaughter of Charles I, the last emperor of Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976025}
{"src_title": "Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Army career.", "content": "Born the son of the Reverend Henry Hardinge, Rector of Stanhope, and Frances Hardinge (née Best) and educated at Durham School and Sevenoaks School, Hardinge entered the British Army on 23 July 1799 as an ensign in the Queen's Rangers, a corps then stationed in Upper Canada. He was promoted to lieutenant by purchase in the 4th Regiment of Foot on 27 March 1802 and transferred to the 1st Regiment of Foot on 11 July 1803 before becoming a captain of a company by purchase in the 57th Regiment of Foot on 21 April 1804. In February 1806 he was sent to the newly formed Staff College at High Wycombe.  He saw action at the Battle of Roliça on 17 August 1808, at the Battle of Vimeiro on 21 August 1808, where he was wounded, and at Corunna on 16 January 1809 where he was by the side of Sir John Moore when the latter was killed. He was promoted to major on 13 April 1809 and appointed deputy-quartermaster-general in the Portuguese army and was present at many of the battles of the Peninsular War. Promoted to lieutenant-colonel in 1811, he saved the day for the British at Battle of Albuera on 16 May 1811 by taking responsibility at a critical moment and strongly urging General Cole's division to advance. He took part in the Battle of Vitoria on 21 June 1813, where he was wounded again, and was also present at the Battle of the Pyrenees in July 1813 and the Battle of Nivelle on 10 November 1813. He commanded the Portuguese brigade at the Battle of Orthez on 27 February 1814 and the Battle of Toulouse on 10 April 1814. He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in January 1815.  When war broke out again in 1815 after Napoleon's escape from Elba, Hardinge returned to active service as a brigadier. Attached to the staff of the allied Prussian Army under Marshal Blucher, he was present at the Battle of Ligny on 16 June 1815, where he lost his left hand by a shot, and thus was not present at Waterloo two days later. Wellington presented him with a sword that had belonged to Napoleon. Hardinge remained attached to the Prussian army of occupation in France until 1818.  He was promoted to brevet colonel on 19 July 1821 and to major-general on 22 July 1830.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political service.", "content": "In 1820 Hardinge was returned to parliament as member for Durham. On 4 April 1823 he was appointed Clerk of the Ordnance and on 9 June 1828 he accepted the office of Secretary at War in Wellington's ministry. Returned as Member of Parliament for St Germans in 1830, for Newport in 1831 and for Launceston in 1832, he served as Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1830 and 1834 to 1835. He was Secretary at War once again in Sir Robert Peel's cabinet from 1841 to 1844. He was promoted to lieutenant-general in 1841.  In May 1844 he succeeded Lord Ellenborough as Governor-General of India. He was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 1 July 1844. Following the death of Maharajah Ranjit Singh tribal war broke out and the first Sikh War ensued in 1845. Hardinge, waiving his right to the supreme command, offered to serve as second in command under Sir Hugh Gough. At the Battle of Mudki on 18 December 1845 Gough commanded the right flank and Hardinge commanded the left flank. After further British successes at the Battle of Sobraon on 10 February 1846, the Battle of Ferozeshah on 21 December 1845 and the Battle of Aliwal on 28 January 1846, Hardinge concluded the campaign with the Treaty of Lahore with Maharajah Duleep Singh on 9 March 1846 and the Treaty of Amritsar with Maharajah Gulab Singh on 16 March 1846. He was created Viscount Hardinge of Lahore and of King's Newton in Derbyshire on 7 April 1846.  Recognising an annuity of £5000 being paid by the East India Company, Parliament provided that Viscount Hardinge should continue to receive his full salary as Governor General. Under a subsequent Act, in recognition of his \"great and brilliant services\", Parliament settled an annuity of £3000 on Lord Hardinge and the next two heirs male of his body, although this was not to be paid if the East India Company paid an annuity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commander-in-Chief.", "content": "Hardinge returned to England in 1848, and became Master-General of the Ordnance on 5 March 1852; he succeeded the Duke of Wellington as commander-in-chief of the British Army on 28 September 1852. While in this position he had responsibility for the direction of the Crimean War, which he endeavoured to conduct on Wellington's principles — a system not altogether suited to the changed mode of warfare. He was promoted to brevet general on 20 June 1854 and field marshal on 2 October 1855. A commission was set up to investigate the failings of the British military during the Crimean campaign. As Hardinge was delivering the report of the commission to Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, he collapsed with a stroke. Albert helped him to a sofa, where despite being paralysed on one side, he continued to deliver his report, apologizing for the interruption.  He was also colonel of the 97th Regiment of Foot from 4 March 1833 and of the 57th Regiment of Foot from 31 May 1843.  Hardinge resigned his office of commander-in-chief in July 1856, owing to failing health, and died on 24 September 1856 at South Park near Tunbridge Wells. There is a memorial to him at St John the Baptist, Penshurst. He is buried in the churchyard at St. Peter, Fordcombe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1821 he married Lady Emily Jane, seventh daughter of Robert Stewart, 1st Marquess of Londonderry. His elder son, Charles Stewart (1822–1894), who had been his private secretary in India, was the 2nd Viscount Hardinge. The younger son of the 2nd Viscount, Charles Hardinge (b. 1858), became a prominent diplomat, and was appointed Viceroy of India in 1910, being created Baron Hardinge of Penshurst.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge, (30 March 1785 – 24 September 1856) was a British Army officer and politician. After serving in the Peninsula War and the Waterloo Campaign he became Secretary at War in Wellington's ministry. After a tour as Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1830 he became Secretary at War again in Sir Robert Peel's cabinet. He went on to be Governor-General of India at the time of the First Anglo-Sikh War and then Commander-in-Chief of the Forces during the Crimean War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976026}
{"src_title": "Manufacturing execution system", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Benefits.", "content": "\"Manufacturing Execution Systems [help] create flawless manufacturing processes and provide real-time feedback of requirement changes\", and provide information at a single source. Other benefits from successful MES implementation might include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "MES.", "content": "A wide variety of systems arose using collected data for a dedicated purpose. Further development of these systems during the 1990s introduced overlap in functionality. Then the Manufacturing Enterprise Solutions Association (MESA) introduced some structure by defining 11 functions that set the scope of MES. In 2000, the ANSI/ISA-95 standard merged this model with the Purdue Reference Model (PRM).  A functional hierarchy was defined in which MES were situated at Level 3 between ERP at Level 4 and process control at Levels 0, 1, 2. With the publication of the third part of the standard in 2005, activities in Level 3 were divided over four main operations: production, quality, logistics and maintenance.  Between 2005 and 2013, additional or revised parts of the ANSI/ISA-95 standard defined the architecture of an MES into more detail, covering how to internally distribute functionality and what information to exchange internally as well as externally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Functional areas.", "content": "Over the years, international standards and models have refined the scope of such systems in terms of activities. These typically include:.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with other systems.", "content": "MES integrates with ISA-95 (previous Purdue Reference Model, “95”) with multiple relationships.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with other Level 3 systems.", "content": "The collection of systems acting on the ISA-95 Level 3 can be called manufacturing operations management systems (MOMS). Apart from an MES, there are typically laboratory information management system (LIMS), warehouse management system (WMS) and computerized maintenance management system (CMMS). From the MES point of view possible information flows are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relationship with Level 4 systems.", "content": "Examples of systems acting on ISA-95 Level 4 are product lifecycle management (PLM), enterprise resource planning (ERP), customer relationship management (CRM), human resource management (HRM), process development execution system (PDES). From the MES point of view possible information flows are:  In many cases, middleware enterprise application integration (EAI) systems are being used to exchange transaction messages between MES and Level 4 systems. A common data definition, B2MML, has been defined within the ISA-95 standard to link MES systems to these Level 4 systems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relationship with Level 0, 1, 2 systems.", "content": "Systems acting on ISA-95 Level 2 are supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), programmable logic controllers (PLC), distributed control systems (DCS) and batch automation systems (BAS). Information flows between MES and these process control systems are roughly similar:  Most MES systems include connectivity as part of their product offering. Direct communication of plant floor equipment data is established by connecting to the PLC. Often, plant floor data is first collected and diagnosed for real-time control in a DCS or SCADA system. In this case, the MES systems connect to these Level 2 systems for exchanging plant floor data.  Until recently, the industry standard for plant floor connectivity has been OLE for Process Control (OPC), but it is now moving to OPC Unified Architecture (OPC-UA); meaning that OPC-UA compatible systems will not necessarily run only on Microsoft Windows environment, but will also be able to run on GNU/Linux or other embedded systems, decreasing the cost of SCADA systems, and rendering them more open with robust security.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Manufacturing execution systems (MES) are computerized systems used in manufacturing to track and document the transformation of raw materials to finished goods. MES provides information that helps manufacturing decision makers understand how current conditions on the plant floor can be optimized to improve production output. MES works in real time to enable the control of multiple elements of the production process (e.g. inputs, personnel, machines and support services).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976027}
{"src_title": "Guria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Guria is bordered by Samegrelo to the north-west, Imereti to the north, Samtskhe-Javakheti to the east, Ajaria to the south, and the Black Sea to the west. The province has an area of 2,033 km2.  Guria is traversed by the northeasterly line of equal latitude and longitude.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "Guria is divided into 4 entities (3 municipalities and 1 city), including :", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The toponym \"Guria\" is first attested in the c. 800 Georgian chronicle of Pseudo-Juansher.  Guria first appears c. 1352 as a fief of the house of Vardanidze-Dadiani; and after 1463 it became a sovereign principality independent of the Kingdom of Georgia under a branch of that house, known thereafter by the name of Gurieli. The principality, comprising modern Guria and much of Adjara with the city of Batumi, was subsequently reduced in size and devastated in a series of conflicts with the Ottoman Empire. A Russian protectorate was established by the treaty concluded on June 19, 1810 between Mamia V Gurieli and the empire, and in 1829, during the regency for the last prince, the Gurieli David, the principality was annexed by Russia.  There were uprisings against Russian rule in 1819 and again in 1841. In 1840, Guria was made a county (\"uyezd\") and renamed Ozurgeti, after one of its main towns. In 1846, it was transferred to the new Kutais Governorate. By 1904, the population was just under 100,000, occupying an area of approximately of mountains and swampy valleys, covered by corn fields, vineyards, and some tea plantations. It was the most ethnically homogenous of Georgian areas, with the peasantry and lesser rural nobility making up almost the entire population, with a high level of literacy and relatively high degree of economic self-satisfaction. The peasant protest movement, which originated in 1902 and culminated in an open insurrection against the government during the Russian Revolution of 1905, was the most effective and organized peasant movement in the empire. The peasants’ self-government, the so-called Gurian Republic, survived into 1906, when it was crashed and Guria devastated by the Cossack punitive expedition. The region was a native powerbase of the Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party which dominated the Democratic Republic of Georgia from 1918 to 1921. Guria was a scene of guerrilla resistance to the militarily imposed Soviet rule early in the 1920s. Under the Soviet government, Guria was an agrarian area divided into three administrative districts. In 1995, the Georgian government decreed the creation of the region (\"mkhare\") of Guria, restoring the province's historical name to official usage.  The Orthodox churches of Likhauri and Shemokmedi are the main historical buildings in the province.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin of the name \"Guria\".", "content": "As for the etymology of the name of Guria, some say that the root of the word refers to restlessness and the word should mean “the land of the restless” and may be associated with events during the eighth and ninth centuries when “Leon became the King of Abkhazeti, Guruls refused to obey the ruler of Odzrakho, ceased their vassal relations with Adarnase and Ashot Bagrationi and united with Leon” as it was described in Vakhushti Bagrationi’s historical works of the eighteenth century.  According to a later explanation, in the times of Georgia’s prosperity, when its borders stretched from \"Nikopsia to Daruband\", Guria was situated in the heart of the Georgian territory. The linguistic evidence for the above hypothesis is the Megrelian for “heart” – “guri”.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Subtropic farming and tourism are a mainstay of the region's economy. Water is one of Guria's main assets. The province is famous for the mineral water of Nabeglavi, which is similar to Borjomi in its chemical composition, and the Black Sea health resort of Ureki, which is rich in magnetic sand. Guria is also one of the largest tea growing regions in Georgia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnic and religious groups.", "content": "According to the 2014 census, Guria has a population of 113.000 inhabitants, which accounts for 3.1% of the total population of Georgia. 98% of the population is ethnic Georgian (mostly native \"Gurians\"), 1% is ethnic Armenian and the remaining 1% is composed of Ossetians and Russians and the majority of the population is Orthodox Christians (86%), followed by Islam.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gurians.", "content": "The Gurians or Gurulebi (Georgian: გურულები) is one of the ethnographical groups of Georgians, inhabiting Guria. Gurians are Orthodox Christian and speak the Gurian dialect of the Georgian language.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "The administration centre is Ozurgeti. There are 189 populated areas, including :", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Governors.", "content": "To date, the following politicians have held the office of Governor of Guria:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Guria () is a region (\"mkhare\") in Georgia, in the western part of the country, bordered by the eastern end of the Black Sea. The region has a population of 113,000 (2016), with Ozurgeti as the regional capital.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976028}
{"src_title": "Bibliothèque Mazarine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The founder of the library, Cardinal Jules Raymond Mazarin (1602-1661), was born Giulio Ramondo Mazzarino in Pescina in the Kingdom of Naples, into a noble but poor family. He went into the church, studied at the Jesuit College in Rome, though he declined to join their order. He went into the Papal service, where he became known for his diplomatic, political and military skills, and was assigned as a nuncio to the French Court from 1634 to 1636. His talents brought him to the elder Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister of Louis XIII, who made him a member of the council of State of the King. When he came from Rome to Paris, he brought with him an impressive library of five thousand books which he had kept in his palace on mont Quirinal in Rome.  With the death of Louis XIII in 1643, he became the new Prime Minister, with the support of the Queen, Anne of Austria. He immediately began constructing a palace for himself on rue de Richelieu in Paris, with an enormous chamber fifty-eight meters long designed especially to house his library. Visitors, including Frederick III, the King of Denmark, came from around Europe to see his library, and to model their own royal libraries after his. Between 1642 and 1653, Mazarin's librarian, Gabriel Naudé, traveled to Italy, Switzerland, Germany, England and Holand, buying entire libraries for Mazarin's collection, making it the largest library in Europe at the time, with forty thousand volumes.  The library nearly came to an end in January and February 1652 with the outbreak of the \"Fronde\", an uprising by several powerful nobles against the authority of Mazarin. Mazarin and the young King were forced to flee Paris. The palace was looted and thousands of books were burned, lost or sold. Fortunately Naudé succeeded in hiding the most valuable volumes in his apartment in the Abbey of Saint-Genevieve. When Mazarin was finally able to return to Paris and to power in 1653, Naudé was able to get back many of the books which had been sold or stolen.  He then began a second library with what was left of the first, assisted by the successor to Naudé, François de La Poterie. Since 1643, Mazarin had opened his library to scholars. It was open on Thursdays, and each week some eighty to one hundred came to do research. By the 1660s, the library held 25,000 volumes. The collection was matched by only three other libraries in Europe; the Bodleian Library of Oxford; the Ambrosian Library in Milan and the Angelique Library in Rome.  After his experience with the Fronde, Mazarin wanted to assure that his library remained intact after his death. In his will written March 6, 1661, three days before his death, he bequeathed his library to the Collège des Quatre-Nations a new college of the University of Paris that he founded for the sons of noble families from four provinces recently added to France. The new library building was constructed on the exact site of the medieval Tour de Nesle, or Nesle Tower, on the banks of the Seine. On the fronton is the inscription in Latin: \"Bibliotheca a fundatore mazarinea\" (Library founded by Mazarin). The original bookcases of his library, decorated with carved Corinthian columns and with the coat of arms of the Cardinal, were moved to the new location in the east wing of the College, along rue de Richelieu. The new library opened for Easter in 1689.  The library continued to grow during the 18th century, from 36,000 volumes in 1730 to 50,000 in 1771. The French Revolution did no harm to the collection, and in fact greatly increased its size; the librarian, Gaspard Michel, bought books which had been confiscated from monasteries and from nobles who had gone into exile, and increased the collection to more than 60,000 volumes. He also collected works of art, mostly from the 17th and 18th centuries, gilded bronze chandeliers, Louis XVI commodes, a globe of the heavens by Gastellier from 1694, and other objects which decorate the reading room today.  In 1805, under Napoleon I, The Collège des Quatre-Nations became the Palace of the Institut de France, the headquarters of the French scholarly and scientific academies. Since that time the Library has received donations of numerous large collections, and since 1926 has also been the depository of publications relating to the history of the regions of France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Collections.", "content": "The library today contains about 600,000 volumes. The oldest part of the collection, brought together by Mazarin, contains about 200,000 volumes on all subjects. The more modern collections specialize in French history, particularly religious and literary history of the Middle Ages (12th-15th centuries) and the 16th and 17th centuries. Other specialities are the history of the book and the local and regional history of France.  Among the library's collection of 2,370 incunabula is a Gutenberg Bible known as the \"Bible Mazarine\". The original is kept in a vault, while a facsimile copy is on display in the reading room.  The manuscript collection of Mazarin comes from an exchange made in 1668 with the Royal Library of France (now the National Library of France. The collection now contains 4 600 manuscripts, including 1,500 medieval manuscripts, many of which are illuminated, which were largely confiscated from French nobles after the French Revolution. It also has the most important collection of the Mazarinade, a type of political tract from the period of the Fronde.  In the 19th and 20th centuries the library received donations of important collections, including the archives of Pierre-Antoine Lebrun, Joseph Tastu, Arsène Thiébaut de Berneaud; and the library and archives of the scientists Albert Demangeon and of Aimé Perpillou (geography); the library of Marcel Chatillon (History of the Antilles) and a part of the archives of the Chevalier de Paravey (voyages); of Jean-Jacques Ampère (Nordic civilizations) and of Prosper Faugère (Pascal and Jansenism).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Access.", "content": "The Library is located at 23 quai de Conti. It is open to the public every day except Saturdays, Sundays and holidays from 10:00 until 18:00. it is closed each summer from August 1 until August 15.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bibliothèque Mazarine, or Mazarin Library, is located within the Palais de l'institut de France, or the Palace of the Institute of France (previously the Collège des Quatre-Nations of the University of Paris), at 23 quai de Conti in the 6th arrondissement, on the Left Bank of the Seine facing the Pont des Arts and the Louvre. Originally created by Cardinal Mazarin as his personal library in the 17th century, it today has one of the richest collections of rare books and manuscripts in France, and is the oldest public library in the country.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976029}
{"src_title": "Saint-Séverin, Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Séverin of Paris, a devout hermit, lived on the banks of the River Seine during the first half of the fifth century. The oratory which was built over his tomb became the site of a small Romanesque church which was built around the eleventh century. As a result of the rapidly expanding community on the Left Bank, it was decided a larger church was required. The new structure, built at the beginning of the thirteenth century in the Gothic style, had a nave with lateral aisles. An additional aisle on the south side was built in the early 14th century to accommodate the growing congregations from the nearby university. After the church was seriously damaged by fire in 1448 during the Hundred Years' War, the archpriest Guillaume d'Estouteville rebuilt the church in the Late-Gothic style, adding a new aisle to the north. In 1489, a semi-circular apse was added at the eastern end with an ambulatory complete with columns including the strangely coiled central pillar. Additional space was provided by constructing chapels along the outer aisles. After their completion in 1520, the church took on the general appearance it still has today. In 1643, a second sacristy was added and in 1673, the royal architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart built the Communion chapel on the church's southeast corner. In 1684, the decorator Charles le Brun modified the design of the choir, removing the rood screen and providing the apse columns with marble facing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The church's external features include some fine gargoyles and flying buttresses. Its bells include the oldest one remaining in Paris, cast in 1412; their ringing is recalled in a well known poem in praise of Paris by Alan Seeger.  There is a flamboyant rose window above the west entrance. The large Gothic portal under the bell tower was transferred from the church of St-Pierre-aux-boeufs which was demolished to create a new street. Its relief depicts St. Martin dividing his cloak.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "Internal features of the church include both ancient stained glass and a set of seven modern windows by Jean René Bazaine (1970), inspired by the seven sacraments of the Catholic church, around the ambulatory. The deambulatory also includes an unusual pillar in the form of the trunks of a palm tree, that brings to mind the Apprentice Pillar at Rosslyn Chapel. The construction of the marble choir was made possible by donations from Anne, Duchess of Montpensier, a cousin of Louis XIV. The organ is signed Jean Ferrand.  Until 1790 Saint-Severin was the seat of the southern archdeaconry of the pre-revolutionary diocese of Paris. In the late nineteenth century the writer Joris-Karl Huysmans frequented and popularised the church. At Michaelmas 1956 it was the scene of a demonstration by Christian conscripts against the war in Algeria. In the years leading up to the Second Vatican Council Saint-Severin was known for the style of its worship arising from the Liturgical Movement.  Recent curés have included  The address of the church is 3, rue des Prêtres Saint-Séverin, 75005 Paris, France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Church of Saint-Séverin (French: \"Église Saint-Séverin\") is a Roman Catholic church in the Latin Quarter of Paris, located on the lively tourist street Rue Saint-Séverin. It is one of the oldest churches that remains standing on the Left Bank, and it continues in use as a place of worship. It was on this burial ground that the first recorded surgery for gallstones was performed in 1451 by Germanus Collot.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976030}
{"src_title": "Princess Beatrice of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Beatrice was born on 20 April 1884 at Eastwell Park, Kent. Her father was Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, the second son of Queen Victoria and Albert, Prince Consort. Her mother was Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, the only surviving daughter of Alexander II of Russia and Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine. She was called \"Baby Bee\" by her family.  She was baptised at Eastwell House on 17 May 1884 by the Revd William Lloyd (her father's chaplain); her godparents were Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom (her paternal aunt), the Duchess of Albany (her paternal uncle's wife, represented by her mother), and William I, German Emperor (represented by her father).  Beatrice spent much of her early years in Malta, where her father was serving in the Royal Navy. Along with her elder sister Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, she was a bridesmaid at the wedding of their paternal cousins the Duke and Duchess of York (the future King George V and Queen Mary) on 6 July 1893.  On the death of Prince Alfred's uncle, Ernst II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, on 22 August 1893, the duchy was inherited by the Duke of Edinburgh, since the Prince of Wales, the Duke's elder brother and future King Edward VII, had renounced his right to the succession. The Duke and Duchess, with their five surviving children, travelled shortly afterwards to Coburg to take up residence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage prospects.", "content": "In 1902, Princess Beatrice had a romance with Russian Grand Duke Michael, the younger brother of Tsar Nicholas II, and at that time the heir presumptive to the Imperial Throne. She began receiving letters from him in September 1902 and, although he was a Russian Grand Duke and she now a German Princess, they corresponded in English, and he nicknamed her \"Sima\". However she was prevented from marrying the Grand Duke as the Russian Orthodox Church forbade the marriage of first cousins. Although such marriages had been allowed previously in the House of Romanov (Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna, whose hand was denied to Napoleon I, was twice allowed to wed first cousins; her descendants became the Russian branch of the Dukes of Oldenburg), the devout Nicholas II, official head of Russia's church, refused to relax the rules for the sake of his brother.  In November 1903, Michael wrote to Beatrice telling her that he could not marry her. The situation was aggravated by a letter Beatrice then received from her elder sister Victoria Melita (\"Ducky\"), in which Michael was blamed for having callously initiated the doomed romance (when, a couple of years later Ducky, having divorced her first cousin Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, was told that remarriage to another first cousin, Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich, would likewise be forbidden by the Tsar, she refused to take no for an answer; the couple eloped into exile). The humiliated Beatrice was sent to Egypt to recover from heartbreak, but pined and wrote reproachful letters to Michael until 1905.  Beatrice was then rumoured to be intending to marry Alfonso XIII of Spain, but this proved to be a false rumour also as he married her cousin Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg in 1906. It was at their wedding that Beatrice met a cousin of King Alfonso, Alfonso de Orleans y Borbón (12 November 1886 Madrid, Spain – 10 August 1975), Infante of Spain, 5th Duke of Galliera. The Spanish government objected to an \"infante\"s proposed match with a British Princess who, unlike Queen Victoria Eugenie, had not agreed to convert to Roman Catholicism: the King was obliged to make clear that, should the wedding take place, the couple would have to live in exile.  Nonetheless, Beatrice and Alfonso married in a Roman Catholic and Lutheran ceremony at Coburg on 15 July 1909. The couple settled in Coburg until, in 1912, Alfonso and Beatrice were allowed to return to Spain and his rank of \"Infante\" was restored.  In August 1913, Beatrice was received into the Roman Catholic Church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scandal and exile.", "content": "During King Alfonso XIII's unhappy marriage, he had numerous affairs and dalliances, some of which produced illegitimate children. He allegedly also made advances toward Princess Beatrice, which she rebuffed. The King expelled her and her husband from Spain, under the pretext of sending Infante Alfonso on a mission to Switzerland. At the same time, the King's circle of friends, who despised both Beatrice and Queen Ena, started to spread malicious rumours, saying that Beatrice had been expelled because of her bad behaviour, which was not true.  The couple had three sons:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Civil War.", "content": "The family moved to England, where their three sons were educated at Winchester College. The Spanish royal family eventually relented, and Beatrice and her family were allowed to return to Spain where they established their home at an estate in Sanlúcar de Barrameda.  The 1930s were an unhappy time for the family, as the collapse of the Spanish monarchy and the subsequent civil war led to the loss of much of the family's wealth. After the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic in 1931, King Alfonso and his family fled into exile in Italy. In the years that followed, the political situation in Spain worsened as various groups wrestled for power. By the late-1930s, the conflicts had erupted into all-out civil war. Beatrice and Alfonso lost their estate during the war and the couple's middle son, Alonso, was killed fighting for the fascist forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Beatrice died at her estate of El Botánico in Sanlúcar de Barrameda on 13 July 1966. Her husband survived her by nine years. Their son Ataulfo died, unmarried, in 1974. Their only grandchildren are the children of Prince Alvaro.  At the time of her death, Beatrice was the last surviving child of Prince Alfred and Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "Beatrice's arms in Britain were the royal arms, with an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony, differenced with a label argent of five points, the central bearing a cross gules, the four others anchors azure. In 1917, the inescutcheon was dropped by royal warrant from King George V. This did not affect her Saxon arms.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Beatrice of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Beatrice Leopoldine Victoria; 20 April 1884 – 13 July 1966) was a member of the British royal family, a male-line granddaughter of Queen Victoria. She later married into the Spanish royal family, and was the wife of Prince Alfonso de Orleans y Borbón, Infante of Spain, a first cousin of Alfonso XIII of Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976031}
{"src_title": "Anarchists Against the Wall", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "On 26 December 2003, during an AATW demonstration near the village of Mas'ha, the Israeli Defense Forces shot and wounded Gil Na'amati, an anarchist and former paratrooper. Shots were fired after demonstrators started to shake the locked gate in the fence. Video clips of that incident were shown on all Israeli TV channels.  On 12 March 2004, during a demonstration against the Wall at the village of Kharbatha, Itay Levinsky was shot in the eye with a rubber bullet.  On April 3 Jonathan Pollak was shot in the head with a tear gas canister from an M16, at a distance of approximately thirty meters, at a protest against the Wall in the West Bank village of Bil'in, leaving him with internal brain hemorrhaging and a wound requiring 23 stitches.  In February 2006, Matan Cohen, a 17-year-old member of Anarchists Against The Wall, was shot with rubber bullets by Israeli soldiers during a demonstration in Beit Sira village. Cohen, whose left eye was injured, later told reporters, \"My feeling is that the blood of left-wing activists and the Palestinians is cheap.\" Three soldiers and Border Police officers were injured by rocks thrown at them, and one police officer was taken to hospital.  On August 11, in the midst of the 2006 war in Lebanon, marked the most severe injury to an Israeli activist yet. During a demonstration against the wall in Bil'in, an Israeli border police officer shot Limor Goldstein in the head with a rubber coated steel bullet from a distance of 10 to 20 meters. Shooting rubber bullets from such a short distance is prohibited and video evidence indicates that the shot was unprovoked. With border police officers at the scene initially refusing to provide medical treatment to his injury, or let others treat him properly, it took two hours to complete the evacuation.  Goldstein, who suffered brain damage, later told a \"Haaretz\" reporter: \"I'm not depressed, but I feel an ongoing helplessness and disorientation. I have nightmares in which I relive what happened.”  AAtW issued a call for support in July 2007, owing more than $40,000 in expense for over 60 indictments.  A collection of writings by activists in the group appeared in 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political position.", "content": "Anarchists Against the Wall, along with Ta'ayush, main political support comes from Arab parties and the extreme left. It openly opposes the state and activists routinely break the law as they consider the government's decision to be illegal according to international law and therefore illegitimate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anarchists Against the Wall (AAtW), () sometimes called \"Anarchists Against Fences\" or \"Jews Against Ghettos\", is a direct action group composed of Israeli anarchists and anti-authoritarians who oppose the construction of the Israeli Gaza Strip barrier and Israeli West Bank barrier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976032}
{"src_title": "Javi García", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Real Madrid.", "content": "A product of Real Madrid's youth system, García was born in Mula, Region of Murcia, and played three La Liga matches for the first team while still a junior, making his debut at age 17 in a 5–0 home win against Levante UD on 28 November 2004. After that, he would spend the entire 2005–06 season with the reserves in Segunda División.  The summer of 2006 was a very busy one for García: first, he won the UEFA European Championship with the under-19s, impressing first-team head coach Fabio Capello who recalled him to training sessions. He played in most of Real's pre-season games, including a starting line-up spot in both Ramón de Carranza Trophy fixtures, playing in central midfield alongside new purchase Emerson; however, he failed to appear for the main squad in official matches.  In August 2007, in the campaign of García's supposed definitive promotion to the first team, head coach Bernd Schuster would eventually prevent that golden opportunity – as fellow \"cantera\" players Rubén de la Red and Esteban Granero also left the club – and offers began to appear from clubs in the Premier League, including Liverpool, and domestic teams such as Atlético Madrid and Deportivo de La Coruña. García would finally settle for CA Osasuna on 31 August, signing for four seasons for a €2.5 million transfer fee as the Navarre side was keen to replace injury-struck midfielder Javad Nekounam (out of action for several months); having first appeared in a 1–1 home draw with Sevilla FC, where he played one minute, he scored twice in his first six matches, in wins against Levante (4–1) and Villarreal CF (3–2).  García's contract included a buy-back clause that could see him return to Real Madrid for €4 million. On 29 April 2008, Osasuna officially reported that the former had exercised their purchase option, and the player returned to the Santiago Bernabéu for 2008–09; he made his first league appearance for Real in his second spell during the 7–1 thrashing of Sporting de Gijón on 24 September, coming on as a second-half substitute for Mahamadou Diarra.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Benfica.", "content": "Deemed surplus to requirements at Real Madrid, García signed for S.L. Benfica in Portugal on 21 July 2009 on a five-year contract for a €7 million transfer fee. An undisputed starter throughout his first season, he also scored three goals, most notably through a header in the last minute for the game's only goal against Associação Naval 1o de Maio at home, as the club clung onto the top position on 9 November and eventually won the Primeira Liga.  García made 43 competitive appearances in 2011–12. His only two goals of the season came against Sporting CP in the Lisbon derby 1–0 home win, and at Chelsea in the quarter-finals of the UEFA Champions League – in the latter, he netted off a corner kick in the 85th minute to make it 1–1, but ten-men Benfica eventually lost 1–2 and 1–3 on aggregate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manchester City.", "content": "On 31 August 2012, García joined Manchester City for £15.8 million. He made his Premier League debut on 15 September in a 1–1 away draw against Stoke City, scoring with a header from a Carlos Tevez free-kick.  After picking up a thigh injury in the early minutes of the Champions League group stage clash against Borussia Dortmund, García missed several weeks of action. He made his return against West Ham United, replacing Tevez in the 84th minute of a 0–0 draw at Upton Park; on 15 December, he started in a 3–1 success at Newcastle United and scored his side's second goal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zenit Saint Petersburg.", "content": "On 13 August 2014, FC Zenit Saint Petersburg announced the £13 million signing of García after he passed the medical and agreed to personal terms with the Russian Premier League club. He scored his first goal for his new team 18 days later, the only goal in an away win over FC Lokomotiv Moscow.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Betis.", "content": "On 14 August 2017, 30-year-old García returned to Spain after eight years to join Real Betis. On 5 July 2019, he signed a new two-year contract with the Andalusians.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "García represented the Spain national under-21 team at the 2009 UEFA European Championship, appearing against England (0–2 loss) in an eventual group stage exit. He earned his first cap for the full side on 26 May 2012, playing 22 minutes in a 2–0 friendly win with Serbia in St. Gallen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Real Madrid B  Real Madrid  Benfica  Manchester City  Zenit Saint Petersburg", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Spain U19", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Francisco Javier \"Javi\" García Fernández (; born 8 February 1987) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays for Real Betis. A defensive midfielder by nature, he can also appear as a central defender.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976033}
{"src_title": "Assistance dog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "'Assistance dog' is the internationally established term for a dog that provides assistance to a disabled person, and is task-trained to help mitigate the handler's disability. Assistance Dogs International, an international network of assistance dog providers across the globe, note that there is some variability of terminology in different states, particularly within the USA. They are working to establish consistent global terminology, and note that 'assistance dog' is the term adopted by organisations who train and provide assistance dogs, and the disabled people who partner with assistance dogs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distinctive features.", "content": "For a dog to be considered an assistance dog, they must meet the following criteria:  Individual countries and regions will have specific laws and regulations, with these international criteria having broad recognition across the globe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assistance dog training.", "content": "Assistance dogs have traditionally been trained by charities and other organisations who then partner a disabled person with a trained dog when the dog has completed its training programme at about the age of 2. Increasingly, more disabled people are self-training their own assistance dogs, whereby the disabled person selects their own dog (often referred to as a 'prospect') and the dog is trained by the disabled person who also becomes their eventual handler. There is great variability in the length and type of training that any future assistance dog receives, however all assistance dog candidates will go through certain stages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selection.", "content": "Assistance dog candidates are generally selected with care for appropriate health, temperament and characteristics. Large established organisations such as The Guide Dogs for the Blind select and maintain their own breeding stock to ensure healthy pups with desirable traits. Someone may carefully select prospect puppies from reputable breeders, or they may choose to commence training with a dog who was already part of the family. The reality TV show Rescue Dog to Super Dog featured the process of carefully selecting rescue dogs from shelters to train as assistance dogs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Socialization.", "content": "The first period of a puppy prospect's life is normally spent in socialization rather than formal training. Large formal organisations often use puppy foster parents during the pups first year and the pup grows up in a normal family environment surrounded by the sights, sounds and smells of the type of environment they will later work in, learning to be clean and toilet trained, confident and happy. Owner Trainers raise their pups themselves, so the dog lives with the same person who will later be their handler, but will also focus on giving the puppy confidence, play experiences and socialisation in the environments they will later work in.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Task Training.", "content": "Once a puppy is old enough they will commence their specialist training which will include the task training. It is these tasks which will make them distinct and specialised assistance dogs. In the EU to be categorised as an assistance dog, a dog is expected to have at least three specialized tasks which mitigate the owners disability, while in the USA an assistance dog handler may be asked if they have a disability, and what tasks the dog does to mitigate that disability as the only 2 legal questions to ascertain that a dog is indeed an assistance dog. The tasks that an assistance dog prospect will learn depend on the disabilities that their current or future handler has and there is therefore almost no limit on the types of tasks a dog can be trained to. These may vary from picking up dropped items and taking laundry out of a washing machine to interrupting self-harming behaviors to providing deep pressure therapy for an autistic person.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Obedience and Public Access.", "content": "At the same time as learning their unique tasks to support their handler, an assistance dog candidate also learns how to be well behaved, polite and to present acceptably in public. Large organisations who train assistance dogs will use their own in house training processes. Owner trainers may also approach this in a variety of ways. Many owner-trainer support groups recommend following established dog obedience schemes such as the Kennel Club Bronze, Silver and Gold obedience training programme to gain a high and dependable recognized standard of obedience and behavior followed by the Public Access Test. Public Access tests evaluate a dogs ability to behave appropriately in public, and in places not normally deemed pet friendly where a person may enter with an assistance dog, such as a supermarket or restaurant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Common examples of assistance dogs include:  Common examples of facility dogs include:  In the United States, assistance dogs fall into two broad categories: service dogs and facility dogs. Service dogs are defined by the Americans with Disabilities Act as dogs that are individually trained to do work or perform tasks for people with disabilities. State and local governments, businesses, and nonprofit organizations that serve the public generally must allow service animals to accompany people with disabilities in all areas of the facility where the public is normally allowed to go. Facility dogs are used by working professionals to aid multiple people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similarities and differences between facility dogs and therapy dogs.", "content": "Because both may aid people in similar settings such as healthcare environments, facility dogs are often mistakenly called therapy dogs; however, there are several important distinctions between them. Facility dogs are trained by accredited assistance dog organizations and therapy dogs are trained by their owners. Facility dogs may be handled by a wide variety of working professionals, while therapy dogs must be handled by their owners.  Facility dogs are trained by canine professionals or by their owner for a period of 18 to 24 months, and must pass very rigorous tests before graduating from an assistance dog organization. In contrast, registration for therapy dogs by a therapy dog organization does not require enrollment in obedience classes or therapy dog classes, meaning that therapy dogs often undergo a much less rigorous training process. Furthermore, the tests that therapy dogs must pass are less complicated and challenging than those taken by facility dogs.  A person with either a therapy dog or a facility dog must have permission from the facilities they visit before they can enter with their animal. They do not have the right to demand access to places where pets are not generally permitted, or to have fees associated with their pets waived.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In general, an assistance dog, known as a service dog in the United States, is a dog trained to aid or assist an individual with a disability. Many are trained by an assistance dog organization, or by their handler, often with the help of a professional trainer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976034}
{"src_title": "Samtskhe–Javakheti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "Samtskhe–Javakheti is bordered by the regions of Adjara to the west, Guria and Imereti to the north, Shida Kartli and Kvemo Kartli to the north-east and to the east, and by Armenia and Turkey to the south and southwest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General Information.", "content": "The area of the region is 6413 square kilometers and it has a population of 160,262 inhabitants. The administrative center of the region is Akhaltsikhe. There are 353 populated areas, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The current division of Georgia into \"regions\" (\"Mkhare\") was introduced by the Shevardnadze government in the mid-1990s, partly as a response to the secession of Abkhazia and the South Ossetia conflict. Samtskhe–Javakheti was basically formed by combining the two traditional provinces of Meskheti (Samtskhe) and Javakheti.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Meskheti.", "content": "The ancient tribes of Meskhi (or Moschi) and Mosiniks are the first known inhabitants of the area. Some scholars credit the Mosiniks (or \"Mossynoeci\") with the invention of iron metallurgy. From the 2nd millennium to the 4th century BC, Meskheti was believed to be part of the Kingdom of Diauehi, in the 4th century BC to the 6th century AD part of the Kingdom of Iberia. From the 10th to the 15th century it was part of the united Georgian Kingdom. In the 16th century Meskheti was integrated into the Safavid Empire, followed by the Ottoman Empire. After the conclusion of the Russo-Persian War of 1826-28, it was a part of Russian Tiflis Governorate from 1817 till 1829, from 1918 to 1921 part of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, and from 1921 to 1990 part of the Georgian SSR. After independence from the USSR Meskheti was reinstalled as a province of Georgia, and later cast into the new Samtskhe–Javakheti region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Javakheti.", "content": "In ancient sources, the region was recorded as \"Zabakha\" in 785 BC, by the king Argishti I of Urartu. According to Cyril Toumanoff, Javakheti was part of the Iberian duchy of Tsunda from the 4th or 3rd century BC. Saint Nino entered Iberia from Javakheti, and, following the course of the River Kura, she arrived in Mtskheta, the capital of the kingdom, once there, she eventually began to preach Christianity, which culminated by Christianization of Iberia.  In struggle against the Arab occupation, Bagrationi dynasty came to rule over Tao-Klarjeti and established the Kouropalatate of Iberia. rulers of Tao-Klarjeti fought the Arabs from there, gradually incorporating the surrounding lands of Samtskhe and Javakheti, along with a few other lesser lands, from the Arab dominance. For a long time the region became a cultural safe-house and one of the most important religious centers of Georgia.  In the mid-10th century, Javakheti was incorporated into Kingdom of Abkhazia. In 964 Leon III of Abkhazia extended his influence to Javakheti, during his reign was built Kumurdo Cathedral. In subsequent centuries, Javakheti was integral part of unified Georgian monarchy and had a period of significant development: lot of bridges, churches, monasteries, and royal residences (Lgivi, Ghrtila, Bozhano, Vardzia) were built. From the 11th century, the center of upper Javakheti became Akhalkalaki. From the 10th century, the center of lowland Javakheti was Tmogvi. From the 12th century, the domain was ruled by representatives of the feudal family of Toreli.  In the 15th century, Javakheti was incorporated to principality of Samtskhe-Saatabago. In the 16th century, the region, as well as the adjacent territories of western Georgia, was occupied by the Ottoman Empire. The Georgian population of Javakheti was displaced to inner regions of Georgia such as Imereti and Kartli. Those who remained gradually became Muslim.  As a result of the struggles of the Russian Empire with the Ottomans, Russian authorities settled Christian Armenians and Caucasus Greeks in the area after 1828. Armenian refugees from the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire came in the early 20th century. Also a large number of Russian Doukhobor sect members settled the region.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soviet era.", "content": "Georgia came fully under Soviet control in 1921, after the Red Army invasion of Georgia. The remaining Muslim minority in Meskheti, also known as \"Meskhetian Turks\", were deported in cattle-trucks to Central Asia by order of Stalin and settled within an area that overlaps the boundaries of the modern nations of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan. Today, many are still dispersed across those countries. Of the 100,000 forcibly deported, a total of 10,000 perished.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "The region comprises six municipalities:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "In 2017, Samtskhe–Javakheti province of Georgia had the following ethnic makeup of 160,504 total population:  The most densely populated districts are the Akhaltsikhe and Akhalkalaki municipalities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourist attractions.", "content": "The major tourist attractions are the cave monasteries of Vardzia (which was founded by Queen Tamar in 1185), Vanis Kvabebi (which dates from the 8th century), Rabati Castle and Khertvisi fortress. Also, among national visitors is very popular 10th century Sapara Monastery, Tmogvi fortress, and 8th century Zarzma monastery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Samtskhe–Javakheti (, ), is a region (mkhare) in southern Georgia which includes the historical Georgian provinces of Meskheti, Javakheti and Tori. Akhaltsikhe is its capital.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976035}
{"src_title": "Orto botanico di Padova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Garden of Padua was founded upon deliberation of the Senate of the Venetian Republic. It was devoted to the growth of medicinal plants, the so-called \"simple plants\" (\"Orto dei semplici\" - simples were herbs that were used as they are rather than in admixtures) which produced natural remedies, and also to help students distinguish genuine medicinal plants from false ones.  A circular wall enclosure was built to protect the garden from the frequent night thefts which occurred in spite of severe penalties (fines, prison, exile). The Botanical Garden was steadily enriched with plants from all over the world, particularly from the countries that participated in trade with Venice. Consequently, Padua had a leading role in the introduction and study of many exotic plants, and a herbarium, a library and many laboratories were gradually added to its Botanical Garden.  At present, the Botanical Garden allows for intensive didactic activity as well as important research to be conducted on its grounds. It also cares for the preservation of many rare species. In 1997, it was listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site on the following grounds:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The design of the Botanical Garden is commonly attributed to, who created some of the most important public monuments in Padua, such as the Basilica of Santa Giustina in Prato della Valle, the town hall and the university in the first half of the 16th century. However, the real architect was Daniele Barbaro, a Venetian nobleman who was a man of vast learning and translator of Vitruvius' \"De Architectura\". He followed the example of the medieval \"Horti Conclusi\", (enclosed gardens), marking the architecture by a perfect pattern of a square within a circle, divided into four parts by two paths oriented according to the cardinal points. The Botanical Garden was inaugurated in 1545, and used as a teaching facility by the University of Padua in the following year.  The current appearance of the principal palace dates back to the 17th and 18th centuries. By the end of the 16th century, the garden was enriched with many fountains fed by a gigantic wheel hydrophore, to ensure proper irrigation. In 1704, four gates and gateways were built with huge embellished acroterions (ornaments) in red stone, decorated with plants made of wrought iron. During the first half of the 18th century, the wall was refined along the external perimeter by a balustrade made of Istria Stone on which vases and half-length portraits of important persons were placed. A statue of Theophrastus was built beside the south door, as well as a statue of Solomon, (signed by Antonio Bonazza), local point for the east door and the four seasons fountain, which was enriched with 18th-century portraits made of Carrara marble. In the first half of the 19th century, greenhouses and a botanic theatre were built and half-length portraits of eminent botanists such as Carl Linnaeus were placed on the cornice. One of the greenhouses still maintains these historic arches and small cast-iron columns.  In the garden there are also three sundials: a cubic one, a circular one and a cylindrical one. On the inside, four \"glacises\" are divided into collections of flower-beds. At the center, a pool of water for the aquatic plants is fed by a continuous jet of hot water which comes from a water-bearing stratum of earth located three-hundred meters below the level of the garden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trees.", "content": "Until 1984, the Botanical Garden boasted a \"Vitex agnus-castus\" (chaste tree) that dated from at least 1550. At present, the oldest plant is a palm planted in 1585 called the \"Goethe palm\", because the poet referred to it in his essay \"Geschichte meines botanisches Studiums\"; this tree is situated in a greenhouse inside the \"Ortus Sphearicus\", where there is also a ginkgo and a magnolia dating back to the mid-18th century, which are regarded as the oldest specimens in Europe. A gigantic plane tree in the outside Arboretum dates from 1680; it has a hollow trunk, owing to a lightning strike. In the Arboretum there is also a sectioned trunk of an elm tree, which died in 1991, with marked year rings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "Owing to a shortage of hothouses, the plants are mainly located outdoors. Six thousand types of plants are currently being cultivated and arranged according to taxonomic, utilitarian, ecological-environmental and historical standards. The systematic collection is concentrated in the four biggest central flowerbeds. Among the utilitarian collections, the medicinal plants are the most important. These are classified according to the Engler system, based on evolutionary relationships among the families. Each plant is labelled with its scientific name and its principal therapeutical properties. A poisonous plants collection has recently been set up with didactic aims: many of these poisonous plants are found also in the medicinal plants sector because in suitable quantities they can be used to treat illness and diseases.  Collections of the garden include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Orto Botanico di Padova is a botanical garden in Padua, in the northeastern part of Italy. Founded in 1545 by the Venetian Republic, it is the world's oldest academic botanical garden that is still in its original location. The garden, affiliated with the University of Padua, currently covers roughly 22,000 square meters, and is known for its special collections and historical design.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976036}
{"src_title": "Sergei Shtemenko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sergei Shtemenko was born to a peasant family in the village of Uryupinsk. His original surname was Shtemenkov with the suffix \"-ov\" like other local people, but after the death of his father, his mother changed the surname to Ukrainian style: Shtemenko. Shtemenko volunteered for the Red Army at 1926. In 1930 he joined the Communist Party, and he graduated from the Anti-Aircraft School in Sevastopol at the same year. After several years in the Artillery, he moved to the Armored Corps, completing his studies in the Mechanization and Motorization Academy in 1937. He commanded a tank regiment until September 1938, when he was summoned to the General Staff Academy. In late August 1939, with other cadets, Shtemenko was assigned as a staff officer to the Soviet forces preparing for the Invasion of Poland, and took part in the operation. During the Soviet-Finnish War he served as an assistant in the General Staff. After matriculating from the Academy at autumn 1940, Shtemenko's request to be transferred to the new Tank Corps was rejected and he was posted as an aide to General Mikhail Sharokhin, a department chief in the Operations Directorate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "In August 1941, soon after the German invasion, Shtemenko was appointed as Sharokhin's deputy, an office he held until after the Battle of Moscow, when he was assigned as chief of the Near East department. As such, Shtemenko monitored the conditions of the Soviet troops stationed in the recently occupied Iran. In June 1942, he replaced Sharokhin as the department chief. Shtemenko took part in the operational planning of the Battles for Crimea, the Caucasus and Stalingrad. In May 1943, he was promoted to be the chief of the Operations Directorate, serving directly under Marshal Alexander Vasilevsky. In November of that year he escorted Stalin to the Tehran Conference.  During February and March 1944, Shtemenko served as the Stavka representative in the 2nd Baltic Front during the campaign to relieve the Siege of Leningrad. During the Spring of 1944, he toured between the different fronts fighting in Belarus and coordinated their operations.  After the German surrender, Shtemenko was among the organizers of the Victory Parade. In August 1945, he took part in the planning of the Soviet–Japanese War.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war career.", "content": "In April 1946 Shtemenko was promoted to the position of Deputy Chief of the General Staff. In November 1948, the 41-year-old Shtemenko was made a Chief of the General Staff and the Deputy Minister of Defence. However, in June 1952 he was replaced as Chief of the General Staff by Vasily Sokolovsky. Shtemenko was then transferred to command the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany. In 1953 Shtemenko was listed as an intended victim of the Doctors' Plot. He continued to serve in the General Staff as deputy chief, and was made a candidate member of the Central Committee, an office he held until 1956.  In June 1953 he was dismissed from the General Staff and demoted to Lieutenant General, after being accused of being an associate of Beria. In 1956 Zhukov appointed him Chief of the Military Intelligence and promoted him to Colonel General. However, Shtemenko again fell out of grace after Zhukov was removed as Defense Minister, and was demoted again to Lieutenant General in 1957. He was sent to occupy the position of deputy commander of the Volga Military District.  Shtemenko slowly regained his status. In June 1962 he was appointed Chief of Staff of the Ground Forces, and in April 1964 he became Chief of the Main Organizational-Mobilization Department of the General Staff. In August 1968 he was promoted to be the Chief of Combined Staff of the Warsaw Pact under the Pact's forces Supreme Commander Marshal Ivan Yakubovsky, and granted the rank of Army General once more.  Shtemenko died in Moscow in 1976. On 10 February 1977, on the 70th anniversary of his birth and 10 months after his death, the Krasnodar Red Banner Military Academy was renamed after him.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sergei Matveevich Shtemenko (; – 23 April 1976) was a Soviet general who served as the Chief of the Soviet Armed Forces' General Staff from 1948 to 1952.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976037}
{"src_title": "Matvei Zakharov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Zakharov was born in Voylovo, a village in Kalininsky District, Tver Oblast to peasant parents. Zakharov joined the Red Guards (precursor to the Red Army) in 1917. He served under Kliment Voroshilov during the Russian Civil War. Zakharov graduated from the Frunze Military Academy in 1928, and from Soviet General Staff Academy in 1937 (his graduation was actually a year ahead of schedule, due to the lack of officers in the Red Army because of the explosive growth of the army, as well as Stalin's purges.) Zakharov held a number of high-ranking positions before World War II even began. In 1937 he was made the Chief of Staff of the Leningrad Military District, then in 1938–1940 he was the Deputy Chief of the General Staff, and then the Chief of Staff of the Odessa Military District.  By the end of 1941, after the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, he was moved north, where he was made the Chief of Staff of the Northwestern Theatre. Soon thereafter, he was made the Chief of Staff of the Kalinin Front, a role he held for most of 1942. In 1943, he was made the Chief of Staff of the Steppe Front, which was renamed the 2nd Ukrainian Front around mid-year. It was in this capacity that Zakharov proved himself as one of the Soviet Union’s top military commanders. He helped plan a number of brilliant operations against German forces, first as a subordinate to Marshal Ivan Konev, and then under Marshal Rodion Malinovsky. After the cessation of hostilities with Germany, Zakharov was transferred east, where he was made the Chief of Staff of the Transbaikal Front, and helped plan the subsequent Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation.  After the war, Zakharov held a number of key positions in the army. In 1945–1960, Zakharov was the Commandant of the General Staff Academy, Deputy Chief of the General Staff, Chief Inspector of the Army, Commanding General of the Leningrad Military District and Commander in Chief of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany. On May 8, 1959, Zakharov was made a Marshal of the Soviet Union. After attaining that rank, Zakharov was simultaneously made Chief of the General Staff and Deputy Minister of Defence in 1960–1963. He then briefly went back to the General Staff Academy where he was once again the commandant until 1964, when he was made the Deputy Minister of Defense and again Chief of the General Staff, a post he held until his retirement in 1971.  Marshal M. V. Zakharov died on January 31, 1972. The urn containing his ashes is buried by the Kremlin Wall Necropolis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Matvei Vasilevich Zakharov (, August 17, 1898 – January 31, 1972) was Marshal of the Soviet Union, Chief of the General Staff, Deputy Defense Minister.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976038}
{"src_title": "Arcadi Gaydamak", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Arcadi Gaydamak was born in 1952 in Moscow, the capital of the USSR. At the age of 20, Gaydamak was one of the first Jews to emigrate to Israel from Leonid Brezhnev's Soviet Union and receive Israeli citizenship. He lived on Kibbutz Beit HaShita, and studied Hebrew at an ulpan. He said he originally intended to serve in the Israeli Army, but ended up moving to France, where he opened a translation bureau.  In 1982, Gaydamak Translations opened a branch in Canada. During that period he commenced international business, in import and export. After the collapse of the USSR, he built up ties in Russia and Kazakhstan and formed various business organizations across Europe.  Gaydamak won two citations from the French government: \"Chevalier de l'Ordre national du Mérite\" and the \"Ordre du Mérite agricole\" for helping to rescue two captured French pilots in the War in Bosnia in the 1990s, as well as two French intelligence officers captured by rebel factions in the Caucasus. Because these operations were secret, the citations referred to his contribution to agriculture. Former French interior minister Charles Pasqua confirmed this, saying that President Jacques Chirac had personally authorized the citations.  Gaydamak owns a home in Caesarea. He is married to Irene Tzirolnicova, with whom he has three children. He speaks Russian, French, and English. He also speaks Portuguese and Hebrew on a basic level.  In December 2008 Gaydamak was reported to have left Israel and returned to Russia, settling in Moscow. In February 2009 it was reported that he was seeking to regain his Russian citizenship, lost when he emigrated to Israel decades before.  Gaydamak was granted honorary Angolan citizenship. He holds French, Canadian, and Israeli passports.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Angola affair.", "content": "In October 2009, Gaydamak and French magnate Pierre Falcone were convicted by a French court of organizing arms trafficking in Angola during the civil war in 1993–1998, to the value of US$790 million, in violation of the Lusaka Protocol. He was sentenced \"in absentia\" to six years in prison. His conviction on the arms dealing charges was overturned by the Court of Appeal in Paris on 29 April 2011. The only conviction remaining was for his incomplete 1994 tax declaration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "In February 2007, seeing the social issues in Israel, Gaydamak founded a party devoted to socio-economic issues, which he named Social Justice. Although the organization was established as a social movement, he said it could become a political party if the circumstances warranted it. In late 2007, the party contemplated taking part in the 2008 municipal elections.  Gaydamak ran for mayor of Jerusalem in November 2008, but his party won no seats on the city council. During the campaign, Gaydamak courted the East Jerusalem Palestinian vote. Gaydamak approached the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Muhammad Ahmad Hussein, Palestinian political figures and media, and came away with a near endorsement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sport clubs and media ownership.", "content": "In July 2005, Gaydamak became sponsor of the Hapoel Jerusalem basketball team. The following month he donated $400,000 to the Israeli Arab Bnei Sakhnin football club. On the same day, Gaydamak announced the purchase of 55% of the ownership of Beitar Jerusalem, and two days later he announced the acquisition of full ownership. Gaydamak is the patron of several Jewish charities and president of the Congress of Jewish Religious Communities and Organizations of Russia (KEROOR), Russia's oldest Jewish umbrella group. In the summer of 2008, Gaydamak claimed his son Alexandre was owner of Portsmouth F.C., and it was confirmed by the Premier League.  In March 2006 he announced having bought the French newspaper \"France Soir\" via his company \"Moscow News\". He had purchased the Russian \"Moskovskie Novosti\" newspaper in 2004, fired some senior journalists, and changed the paper's mandate to a firmly pro-government one, appointing a pro-Putin journalist as editor-in-chief.  In January 2006, Portsmouth F.C. were sold to his son, Alexandre Gaydamak by Milan Mandarić. Gaydamak later sold the club to Ali al-Faraj in 2009.  In June 2007, Gaydamak negotiated a deal to buy the non-kosher supermarket chain Tiv Taam. It was reported that he was planning to make the stores comply with Jewish religious practice: close them on Shabbat and halt the sale of pork products. A few days later the deal fell through, resulting in a lawsuit.  In July 2009, Gaydamak announced his decision to give up the ownership of Beitar Jerusalem in favor of Itzik Kornfein and Guma Aguiar. Kornfein would handle buying and selling players, while Aguair would engage in financing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philanthropy and community service.", "content": "Gaydamak has donated to many Israeli organizations, including Magen David Adom and Hatzalah. He also donated $10 million to the Jewish Agency for Israel  During the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict, Gaydamak constructed a tent-village on the beach of Nitzanim, hosting thousands of families who fled the rocket-ridden North and had no place to go. Gaydamak's contributions totaled $15 million (about $500,000 a day). In November 2006, he funded a one-week-long vacation in Eilat for hundreds of Sderot residents who have suffered rocket attacks from Gaza.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Arcadi Aleksandrovich Gaydamak (; ; born 8 April 1952 in Moscow, USSR) is a Russian-born French-Israeli businessman, philanthropist, and President of the Congress of Jewish Religious Communities and Organizations of Russia (KEROOR). He emigrated to Israel at the age of 20 and lived on a kibbutz, then moved to France and opened a translation bureau.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976039}
{"src_title": "Fazil Iskander", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Fazil Abdulovich Iskander was born in 1929 in the cosmopolitan port city of Sukhumi, the capital of Abkhazia (then part of the USSR) to an Iranian father (Abdul Ibragimovich Iskander) and an Abkhazian mother (Leili Khasanovna Iskander). His father was deported to Iran in 1938 and sent to a penal camp where he died in 1957. His father was the victim of Joseph Stalin's deportation policies of the national minorities of the Caucasus. As a result, Fazil and his brother Feredun and his sister Giuli were raised by his mother's Abkhazian family. Fazil was only nine years old at that time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "The most famous intellectual of Abkhazia, he first became well known in the mid-1960s along with other representatives of the \"young prose\" movement like Yury Kazakov and Vasily Aksyonov, especially for what is perhaps his best story, \"Sozvezdie kozlotura\" (1966), variously translated as \"The Goatibex Constellation,\" \"The Constellation of the Goat-Buffalo,\" and \"Constellation of Capritaurus.\" It is written from the point of view of a young newspaperman who returns to his native Abkhazia, joins the staff of a local newspaper, and is caught up in the publicity campaign for a newly produced farm animal, a cross between a goat and a West Caucasian tur (\"Capra caucasica\"); a \"remarkable satire of Lysenko's genetics and Khrushchev's agricultural campaigns, it was harshly criticized for showing the Soviet Union in a bad light.\"  He is probably best known in the English speaking world for \"Sandro of Chegem\", a picaresque novel that recounts life in a fictional Abkhaz village from the early years of the 20th century until the 1970s, which evoked praise for the author as \"an Abkhazian Mark Twain.\" Mr. Iskander's humor, like Mark Twain's, has a tendency to sneak up on you instead of hitting you over the head. This rambling, amusing and ironic work has been considered as an example of magic realism, although Iskander himself said he \"did not care for Latin American magic realism in general\". Five films were made based upon parts of the novel.  Iskander distanced himself from the Abkhaz secessionist strivings in the late 1980s and criticised both Georgian and Abkhaz communities of Abkhazia for their ethnic prejudices. He warned that Abkhazia could become a new Nagorno-Karabakh. Later Iskander resided in Moscow and was a writer for the newspaper \"Kultura\".  On 3 September 2011, a statue of Iskander's literary character \"Chik\" was unveiled on Sukhumi's Muhajir Quay.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Iskander had been married to a Russian poet Antonina Mikhailovna Khlebnikova since 1960. In 2011 the couple published a book of poems entitled \"Snow and Grapes\" to celebrate their golden wedding anniversary. They had one son and one daughter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Iskander died in his home on 31 July 2016 in Peredelkino, aged 87.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quotes.", "content": "\"Perhaps the most touching and profound characteristic of childhood is an unquestioning belief in the rule of common sense. The child believes that the world is rational and hence regards everything irrational as some sort of obstacle to be pushed aside.... The best people, I think, are those who over the years have managed to retain this childhood faith in the world's rationality. For it is this faith which provides man with passion and zeal in his struggle against the twin follies of cruelty and stupidity.\" (The Goatibex Constellation)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and prizes.", "content": "In 2009, Bank of Abkhazia issued a commemorative silver coin from the series \"Outstanding Personalities of Abkhazia\", dedicated to Fazil Iskander denomination of 10 apsaras.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fazil Abdulovich Iskander (; ; 6 March 1929 – 31 July 2016) was a Soviet and Russian writer and poet known in the former Soviet Union for his descriptions of Caucasian life. He authored various stories, most famously \"Zashita Chika\", which features a crafty and likable young boy named \"Chik\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976040}
{"src_title": "Alice Prin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Alice Prin was born in Châtillon-sur-Seine, Côte d'Or. An illegitimate child, she was raised in abject poverty by her grandmother. At age twelve, she was sent to live with her mother in Paris in order to find work. She first worked in shops and bakeries, but by the age of fourteen, she was posing nude for sculptors, which created discord with her mother.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notoriety begins.", "content": "Adopting a single name, \"\"Kiki\"\", she became a fixture in the Montparnasse social scene and a popular artist's model, posing for dozens of artists, including Sanyu, Chaim Soutine, Julian Mandel, Tsuguharu Foujita, Constant Detré, Francis Picabia, Jean Cocteau, Arno Breker, Alexander Calder, Per Krohg, Hermine David, Pablo Gargallo, Mayo, and Tono Salazar. Moïse Kisling painted a portrait of Kiki titled \"Nu assis\", one of his best known.  Her companion for most of the 1920s was Man Ray, who made hundreds of portraits of her. She can be considered his muse at this time, she is the subject of some of his best-known images, including the notable surrealist image \"Le violon d'Ingres\" and \"Noire et blanche\".  She appeared in nine short and often experimental films, including Fernand Léger's \"Ballet mécanique\" without any credit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artwork and autobiography.", "content": "A painter in her own right, in 1927 Prin had a sold-out exhibition of her paintings at the Galerie au Sacre du Printemps in Paris. Signing her work with her chosen single name, \"Kiki\", she usually noted the year. Her drawings and paintings comprise portraits, self-portraits, social activities, fanciful animals, and dreamy landscapes composed in a light, slightly uneven, expressionist style that is a reflection of her easy-going manner and boundless optimism. Her autobiography was published in 1929 as \"Kiki's Memoirs\", with Ernest Hemingway and Tsuguharu Foujita providing introductions. In 1930 the book was translated by Samuel Putnam and published in Manhattan by Black Manikin Press, but it was immediately banned by the United States government. A copy of the first US edition was held in the section for banned books in the New York Public Library through the 1970s. However, the book had been reprinted under the title \"The Education of a Young Model\" throughout the 1950s and 1960s (e.g., a 1954 edition by Bridgehead has the Hemingway Introduction and photos and illustrations by Mahlon Blaine). These editions were mainly put out by Samuel Roth. Taking advantage that the banning of the book meant it did not receive copyright protection in the U.S., Roth put out a series of supposedly copyrighted editions (which were never registered with the Library of Congress) which altered the text and added illustrations – line drawings and photographs – which were not by Prin. Editions published in and after 1955 include an extra 10 chapters supposedly written by Prin 23 years after the original book, including a visit to New York where she meets with Samuel Roth and Ernest Hemingway; none of this was true. The original autobiography finally saw a new translation and publication in 1996.  Her music hall performances in black hose and garters included crowd-pleasing risqué songs, which were uninhibited, yet inoffensive. For a few years during the 1930s, she owned the Montparnasse cabaret L'Oasis, which was later renamed \"Chez Kiki.\"  A symbol of bohemian and creative Paris and of the possibility of being a woman and finding an artistic place, at the age of twenty-eight she was declared the \"Queen of Montparnasse\". Even during difficult times, she maintained her positive attitude, saying \"all I need is an onion, a bit of bread, and a bottle of red [wine]; and I will always find somebody to offer me that.\"  She left Paris to avoid the occupying German army during World War II, which entered the city in June 1940. She did not return to live in the city immediately after the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Prin died in 1953 after collapsing outside her flat in Montparnasse, at the age of fifty-one, apparently of complications of alcoholism or drug dependence. A large crowd of artists and fans attended her Paris funeral and followed the procession to her interment in the \"Cimetière parisien de Thiais\". Her tomb identifies her as \"\"Kiki, 1901–1953, singer, actress, painter, Queen of Montparnasse.\"\" Tsuguharu Foujita has said that, with Kiki, the glorious days of Montparnasse were buried forever.  Long after her death, Prin remains the embodiment of the outspokenness, audacity, and creativity that marked that period of life in Montparnasse. She represents a strong artistic force in her own right as a woman. In 1989, biographers Billy Klüver and Julie Martin called her \"one of the century's first truly independent women.\" In her honor, a daylily has been named \"Kiki de Montparnasse\".  Kiki was featured in a three-page obituary in \"Life\" magazine in the 29 June 1953 edition.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alice Ernestine Prin (2 October 1901 – 29 April 1953), nicknamed the Queen of Montparnasse, and often known as Kiki de Montparnasse, was a French artist's model, literary muse, nightclub singer, actress, memoirist and painter. She flourished in, and helped define, the liberated culture of Paris in the 1920s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976041}
{"src_title": "Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Krafft von Dellmensingen was born into a lower ranking Bavarian noble family in Laufen, Upper Bavaria. His father was a royal notary. Konrad entered the Royal Bavarian Army as an officer candidate in August 1881 and was commissioned a second lieutenant in December 1883. After attending the Bavarian War Academy, he served as a general staff officer in various units. In 1902 he married Helene Zöhrer in Vienna, Austria-Hungary. They would have two sons and one daughter.  Through the pre-war years, Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen proceeded up the ranks, generally alternating command and general staff assignments, until October 1, 1912 when he became Chief of the General Staff of the Royal Bavarian Army, a position he would hold until the mobilization for war in August 1914.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "On mobilization in 1914, Generalmajor Krafft von Dellmensingen became chief of the general staff of the German 6th Army, and served with that command in the Battle of the Frontiers and the Race to the Sea. On May 27, 1915, shortly after his promotion to Generalleutnant, he took command of the newly formed Alpenkorps, a provisional mountain division. He would lead the division until the end of February 1917, through fighting on the Italian Front, at Verdun, and in the invasions of Serbia and Romania (see Battle of Sălătrucu). He received the Pour le Mérite, Prussia's highest military honor, on September 13, 1916, and oak leaves to the Pour le Mérite on December 11, 1916, as well as honors from Bavaria, other German states, and their Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman allies.  On March 1, 1917, Krafft von Dellmensingen became chief of staff of Army Group Duke Albrecht of Württemberg, where he served until September 9, 1917. On September 11, 1917, he received the Commander's Cross of the Württemberg Military Merit Order, Württemberg's highest military decoration. He then became chief of staff of the 14th Army under Otto von Below, and helped plan the operation that would become the successful Battle of Caporetto. On October 24, 1917, he received the Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph, Bavaria's highest military decoration.  On February 2, 1918, the 14th Army in Italy was dissolved and the army's staff under Otto von Below took command of the 17th Army, newly formed for the Spring Offensive in France. After helping prepare the army for the offensive, Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen was promoted to General der Artillerie and given command of the II Bavarian Army Corps, which he led from April 18, 1918 through the Spring Offensive and the defensive battles that followed to the war's end.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen retired from the army in December 1918. He was active in monarchist circles after the war seeking a return of the Bavarian monarchy. He also participated in the 1920s in the preparation of the official history of the Bavarian Army in the war: in 1926 and 1928, he edited a 2-volume account of the Battle of Caporetto, \"Der Durchbruch am Isonzo\" (The Breakthrough on the Isonzo).  In 1937, a barracks complex in Garmisch-Partenkirchen was named the \"Krafft-von-Dellmensingen-Kaserne\". In 1945, the Kaserne was taken over by the United States Army. The program of denazification was launched after the end of the Second World War; the name “Krafft-von-Dellmensingen-Kaserne” was deleted. On 9 July 1975 this decision was reversed; the barracks were named after Dellmensingen again. Today this building houses part of the George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies. The name \"Krafft-von-Dellmensingen-Kaserne\" was removed from the outside of the barracks on 29 June 2011. Krafft von Dellmensingen had died in Seeshaupt, Upper Bavaria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen (24 November 1862 – 21 February 1953) was a Bavarian Army general in World War I. He served as Chief of the General Staff of the Royal Bavarian Army before World War I and commanded the elite Alpenkorps, the Imperial German Army's mountain division formed in 1915.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976042}
{"src_title": "Hymenaea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses and properties.", "content": "The pulpy center of the fruits are edible and contain starch. The fruit is sold in local markets in the Americas. The leaves may be used to make a tea. The trees produce a dense wood used for timber in making ships and furniture. The thick bark of some species is used by indigenous peoples of the Amazon to make canoes. Seeds contain large amounts (40% of dry weight) of a highly viscous polysaccharide (xyloglucan) which can be used in several industrial sectors such as food, paper, cosmetic and pharmaceutical.  The trees also make hard resins that are used to manufacture varnish, especially the resin from \"Hymenaea courbaril\" (jatobá) in Brazil. The resin that is produced in Brazil is known as South American copal, and \"Hymenaea verrucosa\" is the source of the valuable Zanzibar copal. Resin may be collected from living trees, or from the soil near the place where a tree once stood. Throughout its American range, indigenous peoples use the resin for incense and as a cement. Resin from the extinct species \"Hymenaea protera\" is the source of Dominican amber, while the extinct \"Hymenaea mexicana\" produced the resin which is the source of Mexican amber.  \"Hymenaea courbaril\" has been used as a model organism to study the effect of increased concentration on the rate of photosynthesis in neotropical regions.  When the concentration of was increased from an ambient reference level of 360ppm to 720ppm, the photosynthetic assimilation in the seedlings doubled. This suggests the species could play an important role in greenhouse gas sequestration, as atmospheric is expected to reach ca. 700 ppm by the year 2075 if current levels of fossil fuel consumption are maintained.  \"Hymenaea courbaril\" is a very important species in programmes of recuperation of degraded rain forests in the Neotropics. It appears late in the natural regeneration process being classified as a 'late successional' or climax species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hymenaea L. is a genus in the flowering plant family Fabaceae (legume family). Of fourteen living species in the genus, all but one are native to the tropics of the Americas, with one additional species (\"Hymenaea verrucosa\") on the east coast of Africa. Some authors place the African species in a separate monotypic genus, \"Trachylobium\". In the neotropics, \"Hymenaea\" is distributed through the Caribbean islands, and from southern Mexico to Brazil. Linnaeus named the genus in 1753 in Species Plantarum for Hymenaios, the Greek god of marriage ceremonies. The name is a reference to the paired leaflets.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976043}
{"src_title": "Alexander Dale Oen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Competitions.", "content": "At the 2006 FINA Short Course World Championships in Shanghai, Dale Oen won a bronze medal in the 100-m breaststroke, behind Oleg Lisogor and Brenton Rickard. Oen became the first Norwegian male to win a World Championships medal in swimming. Four months later, Oen followed that up with success at the 2006 European Swimming Championships, winning the silver medal in the 100-m breaststroke and setting a new Nordic record (long course), with 1:00.63.  Dale Oen won his first short-course medal at the 2006 Short Course European Championships in Helsinki, taking bronze behind two Ukrainians in the 100-m breaststroke in a new personal best of 58.70. In the 2007 World Championships, Dale Oen was second fastest in the heats (in another Nordic record, 1:00.34) and third fastest in the semifinal, but failed in the final, clocking well above 1:01.  Dale Oen repeated the feat of doing better in the semifinal than the final at the 2007 European Short Course Championships. After 58.60, a new personal best and the second-fastest time, in the semifinals, Dale Oen finished in 58.81, fifth place and 0.24 seconds behind the gold medal. However, Dale Oen dominated the 2008 European Championships. Setting a record time of 1:00.11 in the heats, and being fastest in both the heats and the semifinal, Dale Oen swam the final in a European record time of 59.76, and won the gold by 0.02 seconds ahead of Hugues Duboscq, who also swam a personal best.  At the 2008 Summer Olympics, Dale Oen earned Norway's first ever Olympic medal in swimming, placing second in the 100-m breaststroke final.  During the 2011 World Championships in Shanghai, Dale Oen won the gold medal in the 100-m breaststroke with the time 58.71, 0.71 seconds ahead of Fabio Scozzoli. This was Norway's first gold medal at a World Championship in swimming. Dale Oen's win was highly publicized because of his emotional response at the award ceremony because of the Oslo attacks a few days earlier.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 30 April 2012, Dale Oen collapsed in the shower at his training camp in Flagstaff, Arizona. When his teammates thought he was spending a long time showering, they knocked on the door and flicked the light on and off, to which there was no response. They then broke in the door and began administering CPR until the ambulance arrived. Dale Oen was transferred to hospital, but was pronounced dead on arrival, aged 26. An initial autopsy was inconclusive, but a second revealed that Dale Oen suffered from severe atherosclerotic coronary artery disease, with the three main coronary arteries feeding his myocardium up to 90 percent occluded by atherosclerotic plaque, as well as an enlarged heart, and that he died of a myocardial infarction. The autopsy also revealed that he had suffered a series of small heart attacks in the months prior to his death, which apparently went unrecognised. He had experienced pain that radiated down his arm, and into his shoulder, face and chest, but this was attributed to a shoulder injury and a pinched nerve. The only conventional risk factors Dale Oen had for heart disease were a \"slightly elevated cholesterol level\" and the fact that his grandfather died suddenly at 42, of an unknown cause. His death reminded many of the death of fellow athlete Sergei Grinkov, who also died of coronary artery disease seventeen years earlier at age 28. His funeral was held on 11 May 2012, in Oygarden, Norway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tribute.", "content": "On 2 August 2012, Hungarian swimmer Dániel Gyurta, who won the men's 200m breaststroke at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, offered a copy of his gold medal to Dale Oen's family in order to honor their friendship. Cameron van der Burgh of South Africa, who won the men's 100 m breaststroke and broke the World Record dedicated the swim to Dale Oen because Dale Oen was one of his close friends and greatest rival. The new public swimming pool in Bergen is named Alexander Dale Oen Arena (ADO Arena) in his honour. Among others, the Norwegian prime minister Erna Solberg held a speech at the opening of ADO Arena in 2014, naming Dale Oen as perhaps the greatest athlete of the country.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexander Dale Oen (; 21 May 198530 April 2012) was a Norwegian swimmer. He represented the clubs Vestkantsvømmerne (1995–2010) and Bærumsvømmerne (2011–2012). Dale Oen's gold at the 2008 European Championships made him the first Norwegian male to win a medal at a major international long course championship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976044}
{"src_title": "AGM-62 Walleye", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Walleye was the first of a family of precision-guided munitions designed to hit targets with minimal collateral damage. This \"smart bomb\" had no propulsion system, but it could be maneuvered via a television assisted guidance system during its glide from an aircraft to the target. As a pilot dived towards a target, a television camera in the nose of the bomb transmitted images to a monitor in the cockpit. Once the pilot acquired a sharp image of the target on his screen, he designated an aim point and released the bomb, which would continue flying toward the designated target on its own. The bomb was a true fire-and-forget system because once launched, the plane could immediately turn away from the aim point. The Walleye maneuvered itself using four large fins. Later versions employed an extended range data link that let pilots keep flying the weapon after its release, and even change aim points during flight (command guidance).  The idea of a TV guided bomb came out of discussions between an eclectic group of civilian engineers at the Naval Ordnance Test Center (later the Naval Weapons Center) at China Lake, California. One of the engineers, Norman Kay, built televisions in his home as a hobby. Kay built an iconoscope camera in 1958 that could do a \"funny thing\", recalled fellow project engineer William H. Woodworth. \"It occurred to him that he could build a little circuit into there that would put a little blip in the picture, and he could make the little blip track things that would move in the picture\". The two engineers, soon joined by Dave Livingston, Jack Crawford, George Lewis, Larry Brown, Steve Brugler, Bob (Sam) Cunningham and several others, decided to research the idea further and quickly secured some seed money from the Navy to advance the concept. Adopting some technology from the AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile project and developing other components from scratch, the group developed the bomb in just four years. Among other revolutionary breakthroughs, the group developed the world's first solid-state television camera with no vacuum tubes and the first zero-input-impedance amplifier.  The team worked at nights and on weekends to keep the project on track and convince the Navy of its worth. Woodworth was the electronics expert and went so far as to take a year off from work and attend graduate school at his own expense to gain some additional theoretical knowledge needed for the project. Woodworth and Steve Brugler breadboarded the original tracking circuitry. Brugler then did the detailed analysis and design of the tracker for initial production. Larry Brown worked tirelessly to analyze the bomb's flight traits, using an analog-computing instrument. Jack Crawford had an amazing \"intuitive feel for physical phenomena\", and could envision many of the flying traits of the bomb before it had even been built.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First test and production contract.", "content": "On 29 January 1963, a YA-4B Skyhawk flown by Cdr. J. A. Sickel, dropped the first Walleye at China Lake. The bomb scored a direct hit. Martin received the first production contract for the Walleye in 1966 and the bomb entered service with both the Navy and the U.S. Air Force the following year. The original Walleye I carried a 1,100-pound shaped charge and had a range of.  In 1966, the AGM-62 designation was cancelled, the decision having been made not to designate guided bombs in the missile sequence; the AGM-62A was given the new designation Guided Weapon Mk 1 Mod 0, while its training version was Mk 2. Mk 3 was the Walleye ER, featuring extended wings to increase range, while the Mk 4 was also a training round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use during Vietnam War.", "content": "By May 1967, Navy pilots had dropped several bombs in Vietnam with great success. On 19 May 1967, Ho Chi Minh's 77th birthday, a Navy aircraft from the scored a direct hit against the Hanoi power plant with a Walleye. The Navy hit the plant again with the bomb two days later, knocking out Hanoi's major source of power.  While softer targets such as power plants proved quite vulnerable to the Walleye, sturdier ones such as North Vietnam's well-constructed railroad bridges could not be downed even with a 1,100-pound weapon. Direct hits by the Walleye against the Thanh Hoa Bridge south of Hanoi in 1967 failed to take down even a single span of this notoriously strong structure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Walleye II, \"Fat Albert\".", "content": "To correct this major deficiency, China Lake developed a 2,000-pound version of the bomb, and deployed it to Vietnam in time for President Richard Nixon's Linebacker raids against Hanoi and Haiphong. The new Walleye II, or \"Fat Albert\" as it was nicknamed after the cartoon character, officially designated Guided Weapon Mk 5, had an extended range data link and could hit targets up to from its launch point. On 27 April 1972, a flight of eight Air Force fighters, two carrying 2000-pound laser-guided bombs and two carrying Walleye IIs, attacked the Thanh Hoa Bridge. Cloud cover prevented the LGBs from being used, but five of the Walleyes locked on, causing heavy damage to the bridge, even though failing to bring down a span. On 13 May, the Air Force finally brought down the bridge with 3,000 and 2,000-pound LGBs. The Vietnamese, however, soon repaired the bridge, compelling the Navy and Air Force to fly 13 more missions against the target. On one such mission on 23 October, four VA-82 and VA-86 A-7C Corsair II pilots from the carrier USS \"America\" took down the bridge with a combination of Walleye IIs and conventional 2000-pound bombs.  Guided Weapon Mk 6 was a planned nuclear armed variant of the Walleye II. Designed to employ a modified W72 warhead with an estimated yield of around 600 tons of TNT, no known nuclear armed Guided Weapon Mk 6 Walleye IIs are thought to have been completed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overall performance.", "content": "While Walleyes accounted for less than six percent of the precision-guided munitions employed by the U.S. Armed Services during the Vietnam War, the weapons system could achieve excellent results under the right circumstances. The Navy often used the Walleye against the most important, hardest to kill targets. After the war, the Navy continued to employ upgraded versions of the Walleye through Operation Desert Storm; shortly after the war the Walleye was retired, along with its main carrier aircraft, the Vought A-7 Corsair II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The AGM-62 Walleye is a television-guided glide bomb which was produced by Martin Marietta and used by the United States Armed Forces during the 1960s. Most had a 250 lb (113 kg) high-explosive warhead; some had a nuclear warhead. The designation of the \"Walleye\" as an \"air-to-ground missile\" is a misnomer, as it is an unpowered bomb with guidance avionics, similar to the more modern GBU-15. The Walleye was superseded by the AGM-65 Maverick.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976045}
{"src_title": "European Border Breakers Award", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Organization.", "content": "The EBBA Awards were launched by the European Commission and are a European Union award. Since 2009, the awards are organised by Eurosonic Noorderslag and the award is presented at the Eurosonic Noorderslag festival.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selection of the winners.", "content": "The artists or groups nominated for the European Border Breakers Awards are selected on the basis of the following criteria:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public Choice Award.", "content": "Since 2010, an online vote takes place to choose which EBBA Award winner will receive the Public Choice Award, on top of the \"regular\" award. The first winner was Belgian singer-songwriter Milow. The German rock & roll band The Baseballs won in 2011. Selah Sue from Belgium won the prize in 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The show.", "content": "Since 2009 the award ceremony takes place every year in January, during the Eurosonic Noorderslag festival, in the Dutch city of Groningen, presented by BBC host and musician Jools Holland. EBBA Award winners perform live during the show, as well as during the festival itself. Winners from previous years are invited to perform as special guests. The ceremony is recorded by the Dutch public broadcasting channel NOS/NTR and broadcast through NED3. The show is annually broadcast on several European television channels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "The EBBA Awards were initiated by the European Commission in 2004. With the awards, the European Commission aims to stimulate the cross-border circulation of popular music repertoire and to highlight Europe's great musical diversity. The European Border Breakers Awards are supported through the Culture Programme of the European Union, which seeks to promote cross-border mobility of artists and culture professionals; to encourage the transnational circulation of cultural and artistic output; and to foster intercultural dialogue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winners EBBA Awards 2010.", "content": "Winner Public Choice Award: Milow", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winners EBBA Awards 2011.", "content": "Winner Public Choice Award: The Baseballs", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winners EBBA Awards 2012.", "content": "Winner Public Choice Award: Selah Sue", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winners EBBA Awards 2015.", "content": "Winner Public Choice Award: The Common Linnets  Best festival act award (awarded for the first time at this edition): Jungle", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winners EBBA Awards 2016.", "content": "Winner Public Choice Award: Carnival Youth", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winners EBBA Awards 2017.", "content": "Winner of the Public Choice Award: Dua Lipa", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winners EBBA Awards 2018.", "content": "Winner of the Public Choice Award: Kristian Kostov", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European Border Breakers Award (EBBA) was an annual prize awarded to recognise the success of ten emerging artists or groups who reached audiences outside their own countries with their first internationally released album in the past year. Winners of a European Border Breakers Award include Adele, Dolores O'Riordan, MØ, Tiziano Ferro, Lykke Li, Katie Melua, Damien Rice, Mumford and Sons and Dua Lipa. In 2019 the prize was renamed as Music Moves Europe Talent Awards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976046}
{"src_title": "Niklas Hagman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Finland.", "content": "Hagman grew up playing with HIFK, appearing with their under-18 and junior teams between 1995 and 1999. He played his first professional games in 1997–98 with HIFK. He appeared in eight games in the SM-liiga, Finland's top league, and scored his first goal. He split the majority of the 1998–99 season between HIFK's senior and junior teams before he was sent to the Espoo Blues to complete the season.  While the Florida Panthers selected Hagman in the third round, 70th overall, at the 1999 NHL Entry Draft, he remained in Finland. He played with Kärpät of the Mestis, the Finnish second division, in 1999–00, and remained with the team for 2000–01 after they gained promotion to the SM-liiga. He led Kärpät with 28 goals that season and finished second on the team in points.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "National Hockey League.", "content": "Hagman left Finland to join the Panthers for the start of the 2001–02 season. He appeared in 78 games for Florida, scoring 10 goals and 28 points on the season. He was named the NHL's Rookie of the Month for March 2002, and though he fell to 23 points in 2002–03, played in the YoungStars game at the 2003 NHL All-Star Game.  Following another 23-point campaign in 2003–04, Hagman signed with HC Davos of the Swiss National League A as the 2004–05 season was wiped out by a labour dispute. He scored 40 points in 44 games, as Davos won the Swiss championship. He returned to the Panthers to begin the 2005–06 season, but after 30 games, he was traded to the Dallas Stars in exchange for a seventh-round selection at the 2007 NHL Entry Draft.  Hagman recorded his 100th career NHL point in a 2–1 victory over the Vancouver Canucks on October 23, 2006. He enjoyed his career best season in 2007–08, scoring 27 goals and 41 points. He led the Stars with eight game-winning goals and scored his first hat-trick on February 28, 2008, against the Chicago Blackhawks. An unrestricted free agent following the season, Hagman signed a four-year, US$12 million contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs.  Hagman reached numerous milestones en route to his second 20-goal campaign in 2008–09. He played his 500th NHL game on November 17, 2008, against the Boston Bruins, scored his 200th point on February 22, 2009, against the New York Rangers and his 100th goal on March 28, also against Boston. He spent the majority of the 2009–10 season with the Leafs, and was their leading scorer with 20 goals when he was included in a major trade on January 31, 2010.  The Calgary Flames acquired Hagman, along with Jamal Mayers, Matt Stajan and Ian White, in exchange for Dion Phaneuf, Fredrik Sjöström and Keith Aulie. Hagman finished the season with 25 goals and 44 points split between Toronto and Calgary.  Hagman started the 2011–12 season with the Flames, but was a healthy scratch in six of the first 14 games, and scored only one goal and three assists in the eight games he played. The Flames placed Hagman on waivers and, when he cleared waivers on November 11, assigned him to the American Hockey League's Abbotsford Heat, the Flames' top minor league affiliate. The Flames then placed the winger on re-entry waivers to allow another team to pick him up for only half his salary. He was subsequently claimed by the Anaheim Ducks on November 14, 2011, with the Flames remaining responsible to pay the other half of his salary for the duration of his contract.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "Following the 2011–12 season, Hagman returned to Europe, signing a deal with Lokomotiv Yaroslavl of the KHL. In the 2012–13 season for Yaroslavl, he played 49 games in the regular season, scoring 12 goals and providing eight assists. This was then followed by a six-game playoff run in which Hagman went scoreless.  In July 2013, the Finnish SM-liiga club Ässät announced that Hagman had signed for a one-year contract.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Hagman first represented his country internationally as a member of the Finnish junior team at the 1998 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. The tournament was held in Helsinki, and though the Finns were not expected to be contenders, they ultimately won the gold medal. Hagman scored the championship winning goal in overtime to defeat the Russians. He described winning the championship in his home country as being one of the greatest achievements of his career. He again played with the Finnish junior team at the 1999 tournament, but the Finns were unable to duplicate their success, finishing fifth.  An injury to Ville Peltonen shortly before the 2002 Winter Olympics opened up a chance for Hagman to represent the Finnish senior team for the first time. He appeared in four games for the Finns, scoring one goal. Later that spring, he played his first of four consecutive World Championships. He played in the 2004 World Cup of Hockey, scoring one goal in five games for Finland, who finished as the tournament runners-up to Canada.  Hagman made his second Olympic appearance at the 2006 Winter Games in Turin. He scored only one assist in eight games, but was part of a strong team defence that allowed only five goals in seven games as Finland found itself in the gold medal final against Sweden. The Finns lost the game, 3–2, and settled for the silver medal. It was a result Hagman found disappointing, especially in losing to Finland's arch-rivals in hockey. Hagman played his third Olympics at the 2010 Vancouver Games. Following a devastating 6–1 loss to the United States in the semi-final, Finland found itself trailing Slovakia by a 3–1 score entering the third period of the bronze medal game. Hagman sparked a four-goal outburst in the final period, scoring on the powerplay five minutes into the frame to bring the Finns within one goal before teammate Olli Jokinen scored both tying and winning goals. For Hagman, the bronze represented his second Olympic medal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Hagman's father Matti was the first Finnish player to play in the NHL, and they are the first Finnish father and son to have played in the League. His uncle is Kai Haaskivi, a retired professional football (soccer) player and former member of the Finnish national team and his cousin is the actor Olli Haaskivi. Hagman announced his engagement to Finnish model and first runner-up of Miss Finland 2003, Piritta Hannula, in Spring 2005. They were married on July 8, 2006, in Helsinki. They have a son named Lukas, born in February 2007. Their daughter Lila was born in September 2009.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Niklas Hagman (born December 5, 1979) is a Finnish former professional ice hockey forward. He was a third round pick of the Florida Panthers, 70th overall, at the 1999 NHL Entry Draft and made his National Hockey League (NHL) debut with Florida in 2001. He has also played for the Dallas Stars, Toronto Maple Leafs, Calgary Flames and Anaheim Ducks in the NHL, Lokomotiv Yaroslavl in the KHL, HIFK, Espoo Blues and Kärpät in the SM-liiga and HC Davos in the Swiss National League A.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976047}
{"src_title": "Helix pomatia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Distribution of \"Helix pomatia\" includes:  Southeastern and central Europe:  Western Europe:  Northern Europe:  Eastern Europe:  Southern Europe:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The shell is creamy white to light brownish, often with indistinct brown colour bands. The shell has five to six whorls. The aperture is large. The apertural margin is white and slightly reflected in adult snails. The umbilicus is narrow and partly covered by the reflected columellar margin.  The width of the shell is 30–50 mm. The height of the shell is 30–45 mm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "In southeastern Europe, \"H. pomatia\" lives in forests, open habitats, gardens, vineyards, especially along rivers, confined to calcareous substrate. In central Europe, it occurs in open forests and shrubland on calcareous substrate. It prefers high humidity and lower temperatures, and needs loose soil for burrowing to hibernate and lay its eggs. It lives up to 2100 m above sea level in the Alps, but usually below 2000 m. In the south of England, it is restricted to undisturbed grassy or bushy wastelands, usually not in gardens; it has a low reproduction rate and low powers of dispersal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "Average distance of migration reaches 3.5–6.0 m.  This snail is hermaphroditic. Reproduction in central Europe begins at the end of May.  Eggs are laid in June and July, in clutches of 40–65 eggs. The size of the egg is 5.5–6.5 mm or 8.6 × 7.2 mm. Juveniles hatch after three to four weeks, and may consume their siblings under unfavourable climate conditions. Maturity is reached after two to five years. The life span is up to 20 years, but snails die faster often because of drying in summer and freezing in winter. Ten-year-old individuals are probably not uncommon in natural populations. The maximum lifespan is 35 years.  During estivation or hibernation, this species creates a calcareous epiphragm to seal the opening of the shell.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "This species is listed in IUCN Red List, and in European Red List of Non-marine Molluscs as Least Concern. \"Helix pomatia\" is threatened by continuous habitat destructions and drainage, usually less threatened by commercial collections. Many unsuccessful attempts have been made to establish the species in various parts of England, Scotland and Ireland; it only survived in natural habitats in southern England, and is threatened by intensive farming and habitat destruction. It is of lower concern in Switzerland and Austria, but many regions restrict commercial collecting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The intestinal juice of Helix Pomatia contains large amounts of aryl, steroid and glucosinolate sulfatase activities. The sulfatases from the intestinal juice which have a broad specificity are commonly used as a hydrolyzing agent in analytical procedures like chromatography to prepare the sample for analysis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "This article incorporates public domain text from the reference.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Helix pomatia, common names the Roman snail, Burgundy snail, edible snail or escargot, is a species of large, edible, air-breathing land snail, a pulmonate gastropod terrestrial mollusc in the family Helicidae. It is a European species. In the English language it is called by the French name \"escargot\" when used in cooking (\"escargot\" simply means'snail'). Although this species is highly prized as a food, it is difficult to cultivate and rarely farmed commercially.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976048}
{"src_title": "Ponary massacre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Following the Żeligowski's Mutiny and the creation of the short-lived Central Lithuania, in accordance with international agreements ratified in 1923 by the League of Nations, the town of Ponary became part of the Wilno Voivodship (Kresy region) of the Second Polish Republic. The predominant languages in the area were Polish and Yiddish. After the Nazi-Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939, the region was annexed by the Soviets and after about a month, on October 10, transferred to Lithuania according to the Soviet–Lithuanian Treaty.  Following the Soviet annexation of Lithuania and the Baltic states in June 1940, the construction of an oil storage facility began near Ponary in conjunction with the future Soviet military airfield. That project was never completed, and in June 1941 the area was overrun by the Wehrmacht in Operation Barbarossa. The Nazi killing squads decided to use the six large pits excavated for the oil storage tanks to abduct, murder, and to hide the bodies of condemned locals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Massacres.", "content": "The massacres began in July 1941, as soon as SS \"Einsatzkommando 9\" arrived in Vilna on 2 July 1941. Most of the actual killings were carried out by the Special Platoons of Ypatingasis burys (Lithuanian volunteers) 80 men strong. On 9 August 1941, EK 9 was replaced by EK 3. In September, the Vilna Ghetto was established. In the same month 3,700 Jews were shot in one operation, and 6,000 in another, rounded up in the city and walked to Paneriai. Most victims were stripped before being shot. Further mass killings, aided by Ypatingasis burys, took place throughout the summer and fall.  By the end of the year, about 50,000–60,000 Vilna Jews; men, women, and children, had been killed according to the Holocaust Encyclopedia. According to Snyder 21,700 of them were shot at Ponary, but there are serious discrepancies in the death toll for this period. Yitzhak Arad (\"Ghetto In Flames\") supplied information based on original Jewish documentation augmented by the Einsatzgruppen reports, ration cards and work permits.  According to his estimates, until the end of December, 33,500 Jews of Vilna were murdered in Ponary, 3,500 fled east, and 20,000 remained in the Ghetto. The reason for such a wide range of estimated deaths was the presence of war refugees arriving from German-occupied western Poland, whose residence rights were denied by the new Lithuanian administration. On the eve of the Soviet annexation of Lithuania in June 1940, Vilna was home to around 100,000 newcomers, including 85,000 Poles, and 10,000 Jews according to Lithuanian Red Cross.  The pace of killings slowed in 1942, as ghettoised Jewish slave-workers were appropriated by the Wehrmacht. As Soviet troops advanced in 1943, the Nazi units tried to cover up the crime under the Aktion 1005 directive. Eighty inmates from the Stutthof concentration camp were formed into \"Leichenkommando\" (\"corpse units\"). The workers were forced to dig up bodies, pile them on wood and burn them. The ashes were then ground up, mixed with sand and buried. After months of this gruesome work, the brigade managed to escape through a tunnel dug with spoons on 19 April 1944. Eleven of the 80 who escaped survived the war; their testimony contributed to revealing the massacre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Victims.", "content": "The total number of victims by the end of 1944 was between 70,000 and 100,000. According to post-war exhumation by the forces of Soviet 2nd Belorussian Front the majority (50,000–70,000) of the victims were Polish and Lithuanian Jews from nearby Polish and Lithuanian cities, while the rest were primarily Poles (about 20,000) and Russians (about 8,000). According to Monika Tomkiewicz, author of a 2008 book on the Ponary massacre, 80,000 people were killed, including 72,000 Jews, 5,000 Soviet prisoners, between 1,500 and 2,000 Poles, 1,000 people described as Communists or Soviet activists, and 40 Romani people.  The Polish victims were mostly members of Polish intelligentsia – academics, educators (such as Kazimierz Pelczar, a professor of Stefan Batory University), priests (such as Father Romuald Świrkowski), and members of the Armia Krajowa resistance movement. Among the first victims were approximately 7,500 Soviet POWs shot in 1941 soon after Operation Barbarossa begun. At later stages there were also smaller numbers of victims of other nationalities, including local Russians, Romani and Lithuanians, particularly Communist sympathizers (Liudas Adomauskas, Valerijonas Knyva, Andrius ir Aleksandra Bulotos) and over 80 soldiers of General Povilas Plechavičius' Local Lithuanian Detachment who refused to follow German orders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemoration.", "content": "Information about the massacre began to spread as early as 1943, due to the activities and works of Helena Pasierbska, Józef Mackiewicz, Kazimierz Sakowicz and others. Nonetheless the Soviet regime, which supported the resettlement of Poles from the Kresy, found it convenient to deny that Poles or Jews were singled out for massacre in Paneriai; the official line was that Paneriai was a site of massacre of Soviet citizens only. This led some — including Polish Prime Minister Jerzy Buzek — to compare this to the Katyn massacre.  On 22 October 2000, a decade after the fall of communism, in independent Lithuania, an effort by several Polish organizations resulted in raising a monument (a cross) to fallen Polish citizens, during an official ceremony in which representatives of both Polish and Lithuanian governments (Bronisław Komorowski, Polish Minister of Defence, and his Lithuanian counterpart), as well as several NGOs, took place.  The site of the massacre is commemorated by a monument to the victims of the Holocaust (erected in 1991), a memorial to the Polish victims (erected in 1990, reconstructed in 2000), monument to soldiers of Lithuanian Local Squad killed by Nazis in May, 1944 (erected in 2004), memorial stone to Soviet war prisoners, starved to death and shot here in 1941 (erected in 1996) and a small museum (currently Paneriai memorial information center). The first monument in the former mass murder site was built by Vilnius Jews in 1948 but was soon replaced by Soviet regime with conventional obelisk dedicated to \"Victims of Fascism\".  The murders at Paneriai are currently being investigated by the Gdańsk branch of the Polish Institute of National Remembrance and by the Genocide and Resistance Research Center of Lithuania. The basic facts about memorial signs in the Paneriai memorial and the objects of the former mass murder site (killing pits, tranches, gates, paths, etc.) are now presented in the webpage created by the Vilna Gaon State Jewish Museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ponary massacre or Paneriai massacre () was the mass murder of up to 100,000 people, mostly Jews, Poles, and Russians by German \"SD\" and \"SS\" and their Lithuanian collaborators, including \"Ypatingasis būrys\" killing squads, during World War II and the Holocaust in \"Reichskommissariat Ostland\". The murders took place between July 1941 and August 1944 near the railway station at Ponary (now Paneriai), a suburb of today's Vilnius, Lithuania. Some 70,000 Jews were murdered at Ponary, along with up to 20,000 Poles, and 8,000 Russian POWs, most of them from nearby Vilna (Vilnius), and its newly-formed Vilna Ghetto.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976049}
{"src_title": "Guy, Count of Flanders", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Guy was the second son of William II of Dampierre and Margaret II of Flanders. The death of his elder brother William in a tournament made him joint Count of Flanders with his mother. (She had made William co-ruler of Flanders 1246 to ensure that it would go to the Dampierre children of her second marriage, rather than the Avesnes children of her first.) Guy and his mother struggled against the Avesnes (led by John I, Count of Hainaut) in the War of the Succession of Flanders and Hainault, but were defeated in 1253 at the Battle of Walcheren, and Guy was taken prisoner. By the mediation of Louis IX of France, he was ransomed in 1256. Some respite was obtained by the death of John of Hainaut in 1257.  In 1270, Margaret confiscated the wares of English merchants in Flanders for non-payment of customs. This led to a devastating trade war with England, which supplied most of the wool for the Flemish weavers. The dispute was ended by a treaty agreed at Montreuil-sur-Mer on 28 July 1274, effectively abolishing customs charged on English merchants in Flanders. Even after her abdication in 1278, Guy often found himself in difficulties with the fractious commoners.  In 1288, complaints over taxes led Philip IV of France to tighten his control over Flanders. Tension built between Guy and the king; in 1294, Guy arranged a marriage between his daughter Philippa and Edward, Prince of Wales. However, Philip imprisoned Guy and two of his sons, forced him to call off the marriage, and imprisoned Philippa in Paris until her death in 1306. Guy was summoned before the king again in 1296, and the principal cities of Flanders were taken under royal protection until Guy paid an indemnity and surrendered his territories, to hold them at the grace of the king.  After these indignities, Guy attempted to revenge himself on Philip by an alliance with Edward I of England in 1297, to which Philip responded by declaring Flanders annexed to the royal domain. The French under Robert II of Artois defeated the Flemings at the Battle of Furnes, and Edward's expedition into Flanders was abortive. He made peace with Philip in 1298 and left Guy to his fate. The French invaded again in 1299 and captured both Guy and his son Robert in January 1300.  The Flemish burghers, however, found direct French rule to be more oppressive than that of the count. After smashing a French army at the Battle of the Golden Spurs in 1302, Guy was briefly released by the French who were negotiating terms to end the Siege of Tournai. His subjects, however, refused to compromise; and a new French offensive in 1304 destroyed a Flemish fleet at the Battle of Zierikzee and fought the Flemings to a draw at the Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle. Guy was returned to prison, where he died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In June 1246 he married Matilda of Béthune (d. 8 November 1264), daughter of Robert VII, Lord of Bethune, and had the following children:  In March 1265 he married Isabelle of Luxembourg (d. September 1298), daughter of Henry V of Luxembourg, and had the following children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Guy of Dampierre (French: \"Gui de Dampierre\", ) ( – 7 March 1305, Compiègne) was the Count of Flanders (1251–1305) and Marquis of Namur (1268–1297). He was a prisoner of the French when his Flemings defeated the latter at the Battle of the Golden Spurs in 1302.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976050}
{"src_title": "The Oval Portrait", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The tale begins with an injured narrator (the story offers no further explanation of their impairment) seeking refuge in an abandoned mansion in the Apennines. The narrator spends his time admiring the paintings that decorate the strangely shaped room and perusing a volume, found upon a pillow, that describes them.  Upon moving the candle closer to the book, the narrator immediately discovers a before-unnoticed painting depicting the head and shoulders of a young girl. The picture inexplicably enthralls the narrator \"for an hour perhaps\". After steady reflection, he realize that the painting's \"absolute life-likeliness' of expression is the captivating feature. The narrator eagerly consults the book for an explanation of the picture. The remainder of the story henceforth is a quote from this book – a story within a story.  The book describes a tragic story involving a young maiden of \"the rarest beauty\". She loved and wedded an eccentric painter who cared more about his work than anything else in the world, including his wife. The painter eventually asked his wife to sit for him, and she obediently consented, sitting \"meekly for many weeks\" in his turret chamber. The painter worked so diligently at his task that he did not recognize his wife's fading health, as she, being a loving wife, continually \"smiled on and still on, uncomplainingly\". As the painter neared the end of his work, he let no one enter the turret chamber and rarely took his eyes off the canvas, even to watch his wife. After many weeks had passed, he finally finished his work. As he looked on the completed image, however, he felt appalled, as he exclaimed, \"This is indeed itself!\" Thereafter, he turned suddenly to regard his bride and discovered that she had died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "The central idea of the story resides in the confusing relationship between art and life. In \"The Oval Portrait\", art and the addiction to it are ultimately depicted as killers, responsible for the young bride's death. In this context, one can synonymously equate art with death, whereas the relationship between art and life is consequently considered as a rivalry. It takes Poe's theory that poetry as art is the rhythmical creation of beauty, and that the most poetical topic in the world is the death of a beautiful woman (see \"The Philosophy of Composition\"). \"The Oval Portrait\" suggests that the woman's beauty condemns her to death. Poe suggests in the tale that art can reveal the artist's guilt or evil and that the artist feeds on and may even destroy the life he has modeled into art.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication history.", "content": "\"The Oval Portrait\" was first published as a longer version titled \"Life in Death\" in \"Graham's Magazine\" in 1842. \"Life in Death\" included a few introductory paragraphs explaining how the narrator had been wounded, and that he had eaten opium to relieve the pain. Poe probably excised this introduction because it was not particularly relevant, and it also gave the impression that the story was nothing more than a hallucination. The shorter version, renamed \"The Oval Portrait\" was published in the April 26, 1845 edition of the \"Broadway Journal\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception and impact.", "content": "The story inspired elements in the 1891 novel \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" by Oscar Wilde. Five years before the novel's publication, Wilde had praised Poe's rhythmical expression. In Wilde's novel, the portrait gradually reveals the evil of its subject rather than that of its artist.  A similar plot is also used in Nathaniel Hawthorne's 1843 tale \"The Birth-Mark\".  There are similar elements in \"The Fall of the House of Usher\", such as a painter, his lover/model in a remote setting and especially their obsessions about inanimate objects that are living (the house in Usher, the painting in Portrait). In 1928 a French film-maker, Jean Epstein, filmed \"La Chute de la Maison Usher\" which combined both stories. Artist Richard Corben combined them in his 2012 adaptation after adapting each on their own.  Lance Tait's 2002 play \"The Oval Portrait\" is based on Poe's tale. Laura Grace Pattillo wrote in \"The Edgar Allan Poe Review\" (2006),", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"The Oval Portrait\" is a horror short story by American writer Edgar Allan Poe, involving the disturbing circumstances surrounding a portrait in a chateau. It is one of his shortest stories, filling only two pages in its initial publication in 1842.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976051}
{"src_title": "Nicolaes Tulp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born Claes Pieterszoon, he was the son of a prosperous merchant active in civic affairs in Amsterdam. From 1611 to 1614 he studied medicine in Leiden. When he returned to Amsterdam he became a respected doctor and in 1617 he married Aagfe Van der Voegh. An ambitious young man, he adopted the tulip as his heraldric emblem and changed his name to Nicolaes (a more proper version of the name \"Claes\") Tulp. He began working in local politics as city treasurer, and in 1622, he became magistrate in Amsterdam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career as a physician.", "content": "The career of Dr Tulp matched the success of Amsterdam. As the population of Amsterdam grew from 30,000 in 1580 to 210,000 in 1650, Dr Tulp's career as a doctor and politician made him a man of influence. He drove a small carriage to visit all the patients. Thanks to his connections on the city council, in 1628 Tulp was appointed \"Praelector Anatomiae\" at the Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons. His wife died in the same year, leaving him with five young children. In 1630 he married his second wife, the daughter of the mayor of Outshoorn and she bore him three children. It was Dr Tulp who examined and signed the fitness reports for the first Dutch settlers on the island of Manhattan, and his signature was found on these in the long-lost archives of the Dutch settlement uncovered in the 1980s in the basement of the New York public library.  In his job, Tulp was responsible for inspections of apothecary shops. Chemists in Amsterdam had access to an enormous amount of herbs and spices from the East, thanks to the new shipping routes. It became a successful trade and in 1636 there were 66 apothecaries in Amsterdam. Shocked at the exorbitant prices asked for useless anti-plague medicines (Amsterdam was severely hit by the plague in 1635), Dr Tulp decided to do something about it. He gathered his doctor and chemist friends together and they wrote the first pharmacopoeia of Amsterdam in 1636 the \"Pharmacopoea Amstelredamensis\". The Apothecary guild would require an exam based on Dr Tulp's book for new chemists to set up shop in Amsterdam. This pharmacopoeia became a standard work and set an example for all the other cities of Holland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rembrandt's painting.", "content": "The praelector would give yearly anatomy lessons each winter, performing them on victims of public hanging. At that time the dissection of bodies was only legal if the subject was a male criminal and considered outside of the Church. The dissections were performed with the consent of the city council, and were a means to collect funds for city council meetings and dinners. All council and guild members were required to attend and pay an admission fee. Throughout Europe, these dissections were attended by prominent learned men, who exchanged ideas about anatomy and the chemical processes of the human body.  As befits a new praelector, the Guild commissioned a new group portrait of the prominent councilmen and guildmasters. Rembrandt, himself a young man of 26 and new to the city, won this commission and made a famous painting of him: \"The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp\". This painting, which now hangs in the Mauritshuis museum of the Hague, depicts Tulp dissecting such a criminal's forearm. There has been much speculation as to why the dissection began on the forearm.  Rembrandt's event depicted in the painting can be dated to 16 January 1632; the Amsterdam Guild of Surgeons, of which Tulp was official City Anatomist, permitted only one public dissection a year and the body would have to be that of an executed criminal. The criminal is identified as the robber Aris Kindt. Rembrandt would later make a painting of Tulp's successor in 1656 \"The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Jan Deijman\". Since the painting of Tulp's predecessor in 1619, \"The Osteology Lesson of Dr Sebastiaen Egbertsz\" was a group portrait around a skeleton, it is clear that the subject of a dead body had set a precedent. It would be another 100 years before the surgeons were allowed to dissect a female cadaver.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Book of Monsters\".", "content": "His most impressive work on medicine was his \"Observationes Medicae\", published in 1641 and again in 1652 by Lodewijk Elzevir. He wrote the first version for his son who had just graduated from Leiden and dedicated the second edition to him after his death. The book comprises minute descriptions of his work, including 231 cases of disease and death. Some called it the \"book of monsters\", because Tulp dissected animals brought back from the Dutch East India Company's ships, but also because of the fantastic stories that he relates. An example; Jan de Doot, a blacksmith in Amsterdam, was in such pain from a bladder stone, that he sharpened a knife and removed it himself, because he refused to be the victim of the'stone cutters'. These were the barber-surgeons who performed such procedures but had a high death rate. To everyone's surprise, Jan de Doot survived this operation which was said to produce a stone the size of an egg. A painting illustrating this story is in the collection of the Anatomy Museum of Leiden.  Tulp minutely described the condition we know as migraine, the devastating effects of tobacco smoking on the lungs, and reveals an understanding of human psychology in a description of the placebo effect. Tulp also discovered the ileocecal valve at the junction of the large and small intestines, still known as Tulp's valve.  While Tulp made observations of various diseases, treatment often continued in the age-old way. His description of the symptoms of Beriberi in a Dutch seaman, for example, went unnoticed until the cause (vitamin B1 deficiency) was recognized two hundred years later by Christiaan Eijkman.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public office.", "content": "Partially as a result of the success of his books, Tulp became Mayor of Amsterdam in 1654, a position he held for four terms. His son Dirck married Anna Burgh, the daughter of Albert Burgh, another Mayor of Amsterdam who had, like Tulp, studied medicine in Leiden in 1614. In 1655 Tulp's daughter Margaretha married Jan Six, whom he helped become a Magistrate of family affairs in Amsterdam. Years later, Six would also become Mayor of Amsterdam. Tulp, impressed by his behaviour, invited Paulus Potter to come to Amsterdam, after a quarrel in the Hague.  In 1673 Tulp was admitted to the Governing Committee of the Republic in The Hague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and death.", "content": "Tulp is buried in the New Church of Amsterdam. Joost van den Vondel, a period poet, wrote several verses about Tulp. Besides the famous painting by Rembrandt there are more paintings and marble and bronze statues of him. The Holstein painter Jurriaen Ovens painted him twice, as his son and daughter. Also Artus Quellijn made a portrait.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicolaes Tulp (9 October 1593 – 12 September 1674) was a Dutch surgeon and mayor of Amsterdam. Tulp was well known for his upstanding moral character and as the subject of Rembrandt's famous painting \"The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976052}
{"src_title": "Dominik Duka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Duka was born in 1943 in Hradec Králové in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (now in the Czech Republic). His father was an army officer who fought for the allied forces in World War II, based at RAF Cosford, who was later imprisoned in Czechoslovakia in the 1950s. Duka graduated from Tyl Grammar School in Hradec Králové in 1960 and worked in a factory and as an apprentice locksmith before entering military service from 1962 to 1964.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Priestly ministry.", "content": "On 6 January 1969 he made temporary profession in the Dominican Order and on 22 June 1970 he was ordained a priest by Cardinal Štěpán Trochta, Bishop of Litoměřice. For five years he worked in parishes of the Archdiocese of Prague and, on 7 January 1972, he made his solemn profession in the Dominican Order.  In 1975, the Communist government of Czechoslovakia revoked Duka's authorization to work as a priest. From then until the regime collapsed in 1989, Duka worked as a designer at the Škoda factory in Plzeň. In the meantime, he worked in secret in the Order and was elected the province's Vicar Provincial and served from 1975 until 1987. From 1976 to 1981, he taught theology to seminarians at the Theological Faculty of Litoměřice. In 1979, he obtained a licentiate in theology at the Theological Faculty of St. John the Baptist in Warsaw, Poland.  As a result of his activities with the Dominican Order and involvement in the publication of unauthorised samizdat literature, he was imprisoned in Bory Prison in Plzeň from 1981-82, where his fellow prisoners included future Czech President Vaclav Havel. While in prison, Duka conducted a clandestine mass for other prisoners disguised as a chess club. From 1986 to 1998 he was Prior Provincial of the Dominicans in Bohemia and Moravia. From 1990–98, he was a lecturer in the Faculty of Theology at Palacký University in Olomouc, teaching Introduction to Sacred Scripture and biblical anthropology.  Duka was elected president of the Conference of Major Superiors of the Czech Republic and served from 1989 to 1992. In 1992, he became the vice president of the Union of European Conferences of Major Superiors, serving until 1996.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Episcopacy.", "content": "On 6 June 1998 Duka was appointed bishop of Hradec Králové and received episcopal consecration on 26 September 1998. On 13 February 2010, Pope Benedict XVI appointed him Archbishop of Prague. Duka was formally installed in Prague's St. Vitus Cathedral. On his appointment, Duka said that:\"\"The Church must engage in a dialogue with society and must seek reconciliation with it. Twenty years ago, we were euphoric about freedom; today we live in an economic and financial crisis, and also to a certain extent in a crisis of values. So the tasks are going to be a little more difficult. But thanks to everything that’s been done, it will not be a journey into the unknown.\"\"  One of Duka's chief concerns was the long-standing issue of the restitution of church property, which had been confiscated by the communist regime, and which was either never fully returned or for which the church was never compensated. The Czech Republic is one of the last countries in Europe not to have ratified a treaty with the Holy See. After previous attempts at an agreement had failed – most notably in 2008 under Cardinal Vlk – the Czech government in mid-January 2012 agreed to a compensation plan, under which the country's seventeen churches, including Catholic and Protestant, would get 56% of their former property now held by the state – estimated at 75 billion koruna ($3.7 billion) — and 59 billion koruna ($2.9 billion) in financial compensation paid to them over the next thirty years. The state will also gradually stop covering their expenses over the next seventeen years.  On 23 December 2011, Duka delivered the liturgy at the funeral of Vaclav Havel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cardinalate.", "content": "On 18 February 2012, Duka was made Cardinal-Priest of \"Santi Marcellino e Pietro\". On 21 April 2012, he was appointed to the Congregation for the Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life and Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace.  Duka was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2013 papal conclave that selected Pope Francis.  Duka contributed to a book \"Eleven Cardinals Speak on Marriage and the Family\" which urged fellow church leaders to maintain the church's rules regarding marriage and strengthen Catholic education about marriage and family life. The book was released before the world Synod of Bishops on the family in October 2015.  In May 2016, Duka claimed that the pope could not fully understand the refugee crisis because he is not from Europe. Duka has frequently spoken against Muslim immigration into Europe, and has said that Muslims can only be considered a \"safe presence\" if they make up less than five percent of the population.  Duka has had several clashes with a Templeton winner, Tomáš Halík. In August 2015, Duka banned a conference by Jeannine Gramick, an American nun specialising in pastoral care for LGBT people, as well as the screening of a Polish film about a homosexual priest. In a statement setting out his objections, Duka said: \"Most participants are not believers and have no intention of addressing their relationship with the Church. Since I do not think people with this sexual orientation are discriminated against in our country, it is not right for us to advocate things which are in direct conflict with the Catholic Church’s teachings.\"  In 2016, Halík criticized Duka for allegedly dissociating himself from the pope and for being too close to the Czech president Miloš Zeman. They disagree on Islam and its \"violent tendencies\". Halík also criticized Cardinal Duka in October 2016, for accepting the highest state award from President Milos Zeman, telling \"Právo\": \"On the October 28 national holiday, when Milos Zeman was bestowing a medal on Dominik Duka for his support for Miloš Zeman, I remembered the words a former Pope, who commented on the death of Cardinal Richelieu — He said if God exists, the cardinal will probably have a lot to explain to him; if God does not exist, the cardinal did his job perfectly. I would be ashamed to accept an award from Milos Zeman. However, Cardinal Duka seems to have got on a train he will never have the courage to leave. This makes me sorry.\"  In February 2018, a group of Czech Catholic laymen wrote a letter to Pope Francis, expressing concern about Duka's closeness to Czech politicians including Vaclav Klaus, Milos Zeman and Tomio Okamura, and urging him not to extend Duka's mandate for the Archbishopric when Duka turned 75 in April 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dominik Jaroslav Duka (born 26 April 1943) is a Czech cardinal, who is the 36th Archbishop of Prague and a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He previously served as Bishop of Hradec Králové.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976053}
{"src_title": "Princess Augusta of Prussia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "On 13 February 1797 in Berlin, Augusta married Prince William of Hesse-Kassel, eldest surviving son of William IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel. In 1803, the Landgrave was raised to Elector of Hesse, and Prince William succeeded on his father's death in 1821.  The marriage of Augusta was politically arranged and unhappy. Augusta and William often came into conflict with one another, which led to aggressive confrontations.  In 1806, Hesse was occupied by France. Augusta was in Berlin with her children at the time, having remained in the Prussian capital due to her pregnancy when Napoleon's army took it for France. Napoleon put guards around her house and gave orders that she should not be disturbed. With Hesse and Prussia occupied and her family in exile, Augusta lacked money, and after her child's birth she asked for a meeting with Napoleon. She appeared before him with her newborn baby on her arm and one of her children by the hand and asked him for an allowance, which he granted her.  After the birth of her last child in 1806, the relationship between Augusta and William was unofficially terminated. In 1815, they agreed to keep separate households. Augusta lived in Schoenfeld Palace, where she became a celebrated salonist and the centre of the romantic \"Schoenfelder-circle\", which included Ludwig Hassenpflug, Joseph von Radowitz and the Grimm brothers, while William lived in a different residence with his mistress, Emilie Ortlöpp.  Auguste closed her salon in 1823, and between 1826 and 1831 she lived in The Hague, Koblenz, Bonn and Fulda. She returned to Kassel in 1831. Augusta was regarded as a skillful painter, whose works included self-portraits.  Several months after Augusta's death, William morganatically remarried his longtime mistress Emilie Ortlöpp, ennobled as Countess von Reichenbach-Lessonitz, by whom he had an additional eight children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Augusta of Prussia (Christine Friederike Auguste; 1 May 1780 – 19 February 1841) was a German salonist, painter, and Electress consort of Hesse by marriage to William II, Elector of Hesse. She was the third daughter and fifth child of Frederick William II of Prussia and Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976054}
{"src_title": "Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Wilhelmina was brought up by her grandmother. On 4 October 1767 in Berlin, she was married to William V of Orange, the last Dutch Stadtholder. Duke Louis Ernest was instrumental in arranging the marriage of Prince William V with his niece. He immediately observed that the princess craved joint rule, and so was starting to undermine Louis Ernest's dominant position. In long letters she complained about him to her other uncle, King Frederick II of Prussia. As a person, she was proud and politically ambitious; as a princess consort, she dominated her spouse and exerted both overt and covert influence on the politics of state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The revolution.", "content": "She was deeply involved in the revolutionary political conflict in the Netherlands from 1781 onwards – not only a supporter and partner, but as a main driving power behind the party of her spouse. She disliked her uncle Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Captain-General of the Netherlands. From 1782 she was recognized openly as the true leader of the dynastic Stadtholder party, a role its followers actively encouraged her to take. She was in heavy correspondence with foreign powers and used foreign supporters to influence Dutch internal policy. In 1785, her spouse was forced to leave Den Haag and put under a demand to abdicate. Wilhelmina persuaded William not to give in, and subsequently went to Friesland – officially to visit a jubilee, but in reality she aimed to gain support in the ongoing political conflict. In 1786, the family moved from the capital at the Hague to Nijmegen. After the revolution proper broke out in 1787 and William had moved his court to Guelders, she attempted to return to the Hague; on 28 June 1787, she was stopped at Goejanverwellesluis, waiting for permission to continue to her destination; she was went back to William after two days as permission was denied.  Both Wilhelmina and her brother, King Frederick William II of Prussia perceived the occurrences as an insult. A request to the States to apologize led to two ultimatums, the first on 6 August and the second starting on 10 September. Then Wilhelmina asked her brother for a military intervention. Frederick, despite having been in power for only a year, attacked the Dutch Republic on 13 September 1787. William was restored to power two weeks later and many rebels fled to Pas de Calais (France), and Brussels in early October. At the end of the year, the princess demanded the replacement of a large number of regents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile and later life.", "content": "However, the Dutch patriots returned in 1795 with support from the French, and William fled to his ally, his cousin George III of England. During their exile, the couple lived in Kew until 1802, and subsequently went to Germany, where they lived in Nassau and Braunschweig (where William died in 1806). Thereafter, Wilhelmina and her daughter – both having been widowed in 1806 – lived together at various places in the Confederation of the Rhine, Weimar, Oranienburg and Berlin.  William, the son of William V and Wilhelmina, went with them into exile, but returned to the Netherlands in 1813 to become King William I of the Netherlands, the founder of the present Dutch monarchy. Wilhelmina and her daughter returned to the Netherlands in 1814 and settled in Villa Welgelegen. She received Tsar Alexander I of Russia in Haarlem in 1815.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Wilhelmina and William V of Orange were parents to five children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia (\"Frederika Sophia Wilhelmina\"; 7 August 1751 in Berlin – 9 June 1820 in Het Loo) was the consort of William V of Orange and the de facto leader of the dynastic party and counter-revolution in the Netherlands. She was the daughter of Prince Augustus William of Prussia and Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Wilhelmina was the longest-serving Princess consort of Orange.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976055}
{"src_title": "RER D", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conception.", "content": "Initially, the \"métro régional\", the ancestor to the RER, was conceived of three lines, one going from east to west (the future RER A), a new line built from existing lines (the future RER C), the extension of the Ligne de Sceaux and with its interconnection with an SNCF line, along with a supplementary interconnected north–south (the future RER D). The operation of renovating \"les Halles\" gave the occasion to build Châtelet-Les Halles with a cut-and-cover method, in order to reduce costs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inauguration.", "content": "On 27 September 1987, the RER D was officially created, by extending existing suburban trains from Villiers-le-Bel to Gare du Nord, towards Châtelet-Les Halles. Initially long, it was equipped with bi-current Z 8800 stock trains, while newer Z 20500 stock trains were still being built. At Châtelet-Les Halles, the RER D terminated on the three central tracks, already built from the conception of Châtelet-Les Halles station.  In 1988, existing suburban trains terminating at Goussainville now integrate with the RER D. On the same year, the first bi-mode Z 20500 trains are in service. They were initially composed of 4 cars until the north–south interconnection was inaugurated in 1995, when they became 5-car trains (where they're coupled to make 10-car trains).  In September 1990, the RER D again extended north to Orry-la-Ville. At the same time, one-man operation started on the RER D.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Central tunnel opening.", "content": "On 11 September 1995, the north–south interconnection of the RER D was put into service by building a dedicated long tunnel between Châtelet-Les Halles and the Gare de Lyon.  In 1996, the RER D was extended south from La Ferté-Alais to Malesherbes. On 15 January 1998 for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, Stade de France – Saint-Denis station opened, in order to serve the Stade de France.  A high number of incidents, from a social and service point of view, have brought the term \"RER poubelle\" (\"RER trash\" in French), often used by its users, and even its staff. Assaults are frequent and unpunctuality is the highest in the Transilien network, with the number of late trains going from 9.9% to 14.1% between 1994 and 1995.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Enhancements.", "content": "On 22 November 2006, the STIF has approved a master plan for the RER D, in order to establish short, mid and long-term goals for the reliability of the RER D.  On 29 January 2007, the first renovated Z 20500 train was presented, the first out of 137 trains. Renovated trains feature a new blue livery, uniform 2+3 seats, new lighting and new floor covering. The renovation programme costs over €100,000,000.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Delays.", "content": "The RER D is often seen in Paris as the most unpunctual railway line in the RER network. This unpunctuality is partially due to the tunnel the RER B and RER D lines share between Châtelet–Les Halles and Gare du Nord, where even a small delay of a few seconds on either lines can cause catastrophic delays and trains to be cancelled. The effects of this mean regular commuters of the RER D are used to trains being cancelled or late daily.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Incidents.", "content": "On 20 September 2003, an unusual incident occurred near Villeneuve-Triage station. A southbound train stopped at 18:50 on the central track near the station due to an incident. Passengers aboard were invited to step off the train by the left, as track 2M has been neutralised by the regulators. However, due to a misuse of the alarm signal by nervous passengers, some doors opened on the right. Ignoring the driver's orders, numerous passengers stepped off on the right, and were confronted with a northbound train, travelling at around.  The driver of the train had the time to activate his emergency brakes and slowed the train to around, which permitted to passengers to brace against the stopped train or jump into the ditch. Thankfully, no one was injured. This near miss, filmed by a passenger with a mobile phone, was broadcast the night of the incident, and created a large controversy.  On 9 July 2004, an alleged anti-semitic assault provoked a public and political reaction, with immediate declarations from the Ministry of the Interior Dominique de Villepin and the President of France Jacques Chirac. However, the allegations were proven false after the investigation, as the person behind the assault suffered from pathological lying. The event provoked a controversy on the treatment of information by the media.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The RER D is one of five RER lines serving Paris, France. It connects Orry-la-Ville and Creil in the north to Melun, Corbeil-Essonnes and Malesherbes in the south, passing through the heart of Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976056}
{"src_title": "Ivan Kalyayev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kalyayev was born in Warsaw into the family of a Russian police inspector father and a Polish mother. He attended Saint Petersburg University from (1897), but soon became involved in student protests, was briefly imprisoned, and then expelled from the University and sent into exile in Ekaterinoslav. Thereafter he tried to return to University, but was denied entrance due to his political activities. When Kalyayev was 24 he joined the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party but soon broke with them, dissatisfied with what he considered \"just talk\", i.e. propaganda that did not lead to direct action. After serving his term he went to Lemberg (then in Austria-Hungary) to continue his education at Lemberg University, and became involved with the Russian emigrant revolutionaries there. He was soon arrested in Berlin with revolutionary literature intended for Russia. The German government transferred Kalyayev to Russia. After a short imprisonment in Warsaw, Kalyayev was exiled to Yaroslavl.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bomber.", "content": "In Yaroslavl, Kalyayev befriended the Socialist-Revolutionaries and writers Boris Savinkov and Aleksey Remizov, and decided to completely devote his life to revolutionary actions. At that time Kalyayev became convinced that political terror was the only way to realize his political ideas. He met Evno Azef, the commander of the SR Combat Organization and volunteered to perform political assassinations.  Kalyayev served as backup in the assassination of Interior Minister Vyacheslav Pleve. However, Pleve was killed by another member of the team, Yegor Sazonov, and Kalyaev did not ultimately need to use his bomb. The next to be killed was the General-Governor of Moscow and uncle of Tsar Nicholas II, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assassination of Grand Duke Sergei.", "content": "The assassination was planned for 15 February 1905. On that day, the Duke was to visit a Bolshoi Theatre show that was a fundraiser for the Red Cross. Kalyayev was supposed to attack the carriage as it approached the theatre. Everything went as expected. Kalyaev was about to throw his bomb at the carriage of the Grand Duke, but he noticed that Sergei Alexandrovich's wife (Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna) and young nephews (children of the Grand Duke Pavel Alexandrovich) were also in the carriage, and he aborted the assassination.  He carried out the assassination two days later, killing the Grand Duke and his coachman as the Grand Duke was approaching his official residence in the Moscow Kremlin. Kalyayev was arrested immediately.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "According to Edvard Radzinsky, \"Elizabeth spent all the days before the burial in ceaseless prayer. On her husband's tombstone she wrote: 'Father, release them, they know not what they do.' She understood the words of the Gospels heart and soul, and on the eve of the funeral she demanded to be taken to the prison where Kalyayev was being held. Brought into his cell, she asked, 'Why did you kill my husband?' 'I killed Sergei Alexandrovich because he was a weapon of tyranny. I was taking revenge for the people.' 'Do not listen to your pride. Repent... and I will beg the Sovereign to give you your life. I will ask him for you. I myself have already forgiven you.' On the eve of revolution, she had already found a way out; forgiveness! Forgive through the impossible pain and blood -- and thereby stop it then, at the beginning, this bloody wheel. By her example, poor Ella appealed to society, calling upon the people to live in Christian faith. 'No!\" replied Kalyayev. 'I do not repent. I must die for my deed and I will... My death will be more useful to my cause than Sergei Alexandrovich's death.' Kalyayev was sentenced to death. 'I am pleased with your sentence,' he told the judges. 'I hope that you will carry it out just as openly and publicly as I carried out the sentence of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. Learn to look the advancing revolution right in the face.'\" Kalyayev was hanged on 23 May 1905. This incident formed the basis for Albert Camus' 1949 play \"Les Justes\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poetry.", "content": "Ivan Kalyayev was known to his friends by the nickname \"Poet\" and wrote several verses and prose. During his exile to Yaroslavl in 1902, Kalyayev, together with Aleksey Remizov, translated poems in prose by the Polish author Stanisław Przybyszewski. After his execution, the Socialist-Revolutionary Party published Kalyayev's book of poetry. His poetry was even included (without naming the author) in a popular reader. Today his works have been almost completely forgotten. A sample of Kalyayev's poetry is his \"Prayer\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ivan Kalyayev (; 6 July 1877 – 23 May 1905) was a Russian poet, a member of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. He is best known for his role in the assassination of Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, which was an operation of the SR Combat Organization. Arrested at the scene, Kalyayev was convicted of murder and hanged.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976057}
{"src_title": "The Spirit of the Laws", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and ordination.", "content": "Quinn was born in Riverside, California, and ordained to the priesthood for the Diocese of San Diego on July 19, 1953. Pope Paul VI named him auxiliary bishop of San Diego with the titular see of Thisiduo on October 21, 1967. He was consecrated on December 12.  He became a regular contributor to \"America\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arch/Bishop of Oklahoma City.", "content": "On November 17, 1971, he was appointed Bishop of Oklahoma City-Tulsa. When the diocese was split to form the Archdiocese of Oklahoma City and the Diocese of Tulsa on December 13, 1972, Quinn became the first Archbishop of Oklahoma City.  The website of that Archdiocese reports that \"he revealed his priorities by his actions: emphasis on priestly vocations, desire for better pastoral care of Spanish-speaking Catholics, re-establishment of a Catholic newspaper, appointment of a full-time youth director, and a reorganization of Catholic charities.\"  Pope Paul VI named Quinn to participate in the 1974 World Synod of Bishops.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archbishop of San Francisco.", "content": "Quinn's was a popular appointment by Pope Paul VI in 1977 and for almost his entire episcopate in San Francisco he enjoyed the support of priests and the lay faithful. In the early years of his time as Archbishop he was simultaneously president of the USCC NCCB, which often kept him away from the archdiocese.  Quinn recognized that the Archdiocese was too large for effective pastoral governance and helped devise plans for the creation of the Diocese of San Jose, which was erected by Pope John Paul II on January 27, 1981.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Views.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Irenicism and liberalism.", "content": "Quinn was an irenic and liberal presence in San Francisco who, in the 1970s and 1980s, offering national leadership to Catholics in the United States on issues as diverse as U.S. women religious, the moral permissibility of nuclear weapons, sanctuary for Central American refugees, and working to overturn Roe vs Wade and restore legal protection to unborn children.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Óscar Romero.", "content": "After the assassination of Archbishop Óscar Romero in March 1980, Quinn issued a statement lauding the murdered prelate as \"a voice for the poor and the oppressed.\" Quinn later attended Archbishop Romero's funeral in San Salvador.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AIDS.", "content": "In 1985, Archbishop Quinn initiated the Catholic Church's first institutional response to the AIDS epidemic and when John Paul II visited San Francisco in 1987, Archbishop Quinn arranged that he met with several AIDS patients, including a young boy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "LGBT.", "content": "Quinn reached out to gay Catholic as early as 83. He issued a document that asked priests to take concerns of gay people seriously. In it, he said he wanted gay Catholics to find \"a church where he or she will find acceptance, understanding, and love.\" Priests were reminded in the letter that many gay Catholics saw their orientation as a positive.  He supported the efforts of Most Holy Redeemer Church in The Castro in their efforts to reach out to the LGBT population of the neighborhood. Quinn regularly visited this parish, especially during the annual 40 Hours Vigil held throughout the 1980s in support of those who were HIV-positive and their caregivers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loma Prieta earthquake.", "content": "In the 1990s, Quinn turned his attention to the needs of the archdiocese after the Loma Prieta earthquake, which damaged many churches. The Archdiocese of San Francisco drew up a plan which would see the closure of a dozen parishes whose churches had been damaged in the earthquake. This plan drew the wrath of many priests, 41 of whom signed a petition to Quinn dissenting from his plan. Quinn sold the former archiepiscopal residence and in the summer of 1992 moved into the Cathedral rectory where he lived with his fellow clergy until his retirement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Reform of the Papacy\".", "content": "Throughout his episcopate he maintained strong links with the Catholic Church in England visiting it regularly and maintaining strong personal links with the country. After his retirement from the full-time ministry he spent time at Campion Hall, Oxford where in 1996 he gave a celebrated paper on \"The Claims of the Primacy and the Costly Call to Unity\", a paper which was a first draft of his 1999 book \"The Reform of the Papacy\".  This call for the reform of the Roman Curia and a concomitant reduction in the power of that Curia has been interpreted by some conservative voices in the Church as an 'attack' on the papacy. Quinn repeatedly made it clear that he was not opposing the Vatican and in many ways his writings prefigured the views of Pope Francis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Raphael Quinn (March 28, 1929 – June 22, 2017) was an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He was Archbishop of San Francisco from 1977 to 1995 and Archbishop of Oklahoma City from 1971 to 1977. He served as the president of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops from 1977 to 1980.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976058}
{"src_title": "Pfalz D.III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Prior to World War I, Pfalz Flugzeugwerke produced Morane-Saulnier monoplane designs under license. These aircraft entered military service as the Pfalz A- and E-series. In September 1916, Pfalz began producing the first of 20 Roland D.I and 200 Roland D.II fighters under license.  In November 1916, Pfalz hired Rudolph Gehringer from Flugzeugbau Friedrichshafen GmbH. As Pfalz's new chief engineer, Gehringer immediately commenced work on an original fighter design. The resulting D.III emerged in April 1917. Like the Rolands, the D.III used a plywood monocoque fuselage. Two layers of thin plywood strips were placed over a mold to form one half of a fuselage shell. The fuselage halves were then glued together, covered with a layer of fabric, and doped. This \"Wickelrumpf\" (wrapped body) method was a patented invention of the LFG firm. It gave the fuselage great strength, light weight, and smooth contours compared to conventional construction techniques. However, it also proved to be more labor-intensive and expensive. Furthermore, fuselages of the \"Wickelrumpf\" type proved to be liable to twisting or warping in service, affecting performance as well as causing control problems. This has been attributed to moisture absorption in damp front-line conditions or to the use of insufficiently seasoned wood.  The wings were of conventional construction, with a flush Teves und Braun radiator offset to the right side of the upper wing. The ailerons were wooden, rather than the more usual steel tube construction. The horizontal stabilizer had an inverted airfoil section, which facilitated dive recovery and permitted the use of an unbalanced elevator.  \"Idflieg\" found the prototype promising. It directed Pfalz to halt production of the Roland D.III and to complete the balance of the contract, 70 aircraft, to the new design. After a \"Typenprüfung\" (type test) at Adlershof in May, the \"Idflieg\" ordered various modifications, including an enlarged rudder and horn-balanced ailerons. In June 1917, Pfalz received a second order for 300 aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Deliveries to operational units began in August 1917. \"Jasta\" 10 was the first recipient of the new aircraft, followed by \"Jasta\" 4. While markedly better than the earlier Roland designs, the D.III was generally considered inferior to the Albatros D.III and D.V. German pilots variously criticized the Pfalz's heavy controls, low speed, lack of power, or low rate of climb compared to the Albatros. The D.III slipped in turns, leading to crashes when unwary pilots turned at very low altitudes. Moreover, the Pfalz stalled sharply and spun readily. Recovery from the resulting flat spin was difficult, though some pilots took advantage of this trait to descend quickly or evade enemy aircraft.  The Pfalz's primary advantage was its strength and sturdiness. The Albatros scouts were plagued by failure of their single-spar lower wings. The Pfalz, however, could safely dive at high speeds due to its twin-spar lower wing. For this reason, the Pfalz was well-suited to diving attacks on observation balloons, which were usually heavily defended by anti-aircraft guns trained to the balloon's altitude.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "D.IIIa.", "content": "The most pressing complaint about the new Pfalz was that the guns were buried in the fuselage, preventing pilots from clearing gun jams in flight. This feature had been carried over from the earlier Roland designs. In November 1917, Pfalz responded by producing the slightly modified D.IIIa, which relocated the guns to the upper fuselage decking. The D.IIIa was distinguishable by its enlarged semicircular horizontal stabilizer and cropped lower wingtips. It also featured a more powerful version of the Mercedes D.III engine.  Pfalz built approximately 260 D.III and 750 D.IIIa aircraft. Most were delivered to Bavarian \"Jastas\". Once Pfalz completed the final batch in May 1918, production shifted to the D.IIIa's successor, the D.XII. Some aircraft from the final D.IIIa batch were delivered to Turkey.  As of 30 April 1918, 433 D.IIIa scouts were still in frontline use. By 31 August, that number had declined to 166. Many serviceable aircraft were sent to advanced training schools, but approximately 100 aircraft remained in frontline use at the time of the Armistice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Replica aircraft.", "content": "Today, there are no known surviving D.III airframes. However, two flying replicas were built for the 1966 film \"The Blue Max\". One replica was built from scratch, while a second was converted from a de Havilland Tiger Moth airframe. Both replicas are currently based in New Zealand.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pfalz D.III was a fighter aircraft used by the \"Luftstreitkräfte\" (Imperial German Air Service) during the First World War. The D.III was the first major original design from Pfalz Flugzeugwerke. Though generally considered inferior to contemporary Albatros and Fokker fighters, the D.III was widely used by the \"Jagdstaffeln\" from late 1917 to mid-1918. It continued to serve as a training aircraft until the end of the war.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976059}
{"src_title": "Outlander (novel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "In 1946, after working apart during the Second World War, former British Army nurse Claire Randall and her husband Frank Randall, a history professor, go on a second honeymoon to Inverness, Scotland. Frank conducts research into his family history and Claire goes plant-gathering near standing stones on the hill of Craigh na Dun. Investigating a buzzing noise near the stones, she touches one and faints; upon waking, she encounters Frank's ancestor, Captain Jack Randall. Before Captain Randall can attack her, he is knocked unconscious by a highlander who takes Claire to his clansmen. As the Scots inexpertly attend their injured comrade Jamie, Claire uses her medical skill to set Jamie's dislocated shoulder. The men identify themselves as members of Clan MacKenzie, and Claire eventually concludes that she has traveled into the past. She represents herself as an English widow who is traveling to France to see her family. The Scots do not believe her and take her to Castle Leoch, where Claire searches for a way to return to her own time.  The highlanders of 1743 see Claire as a \"Sassenach\", or \"Outlander\", ignorant of Gaelic culture. Her medical skills eventually earn their respect; but the clan chieftain, Colum MacKenzie, suspects her of being an English spy. Colum sends her with his brother, Dougal, to collect rents; on the way he also solicits donations for the Jacobites, overseen by Ned Gowan, a lawyer from Edinburgh who is working for the Clan.  When chance again brings her to his attention, Captain Randall tells Dougal to bring Claire to him for questioning. There is suspicion that she is perhaps an English spy. To keep Claire from Randall, Dougal has her wed Jamie, which makes her a Scottish citizen. Torn between her attachment to Jamie and the thought of Frank, Claire tries to return to Craigh na Dun. However, she is captured by Randall's men, requiring Jamie to rescue her. Upon returning to Castle Leoch, Claire continues acting as the official healer, and befriends Geillis Duncan, the wife of a local official, who shares a knowledge of medicine. Eventually Claire and Geillis are charged with witchcraft while Jamie is away, but Jamie returns in time to save Claire. While imprisoned with Geillis, Claire learns that Geillis is part of the plot to restore King James to the Scottish throne along with Dougal and that she is also pregnant with his child. Just before their escape, Claire realizes that Geillis is, like herself, from the future, when she sees a smallpox vaccine scar on her arm. Geillis also sees Claire's scar.  Claire tells Jamie her real story, and he takes her to Craigh na Dun. When he offers her the chance to stay or go, she decides to stay. Jamie takes her to his home of Lallybroch, where they meet Jamie's sister Jenny and her husband, Ian. Though Jamie is still a fugitive from the British, he reclaims his position as Laird of Lallybroch, until one of his tenants betrays him and he is taken to Wentworth Prison. Claire and the MacKenzie clansmen attempt to rescue him, but they fail, and Claire is captured by Randall, who threatens to have her raped. Jamie offers himself in Claire's place, and Randall frees Claire into the woods. Claire tells Randall that she is a witch and tells him the exact day of his death, which she knows from Frank's family history. Thereafter Claire is befriended by Sir Marcus MacRannoch, a former suitor of Jamie's mother. While MacRannoch's men distract Wentworth's guards, the clansmen drive a herd of cattle through the underground halls, trampling a man. They rescue Jamie, who has been assaulted physically and sexually by Randall, and take him to MacRannoch's stronghold, where Claire tends Jamie's wounds. As soon as Jamie is able, they and Jamie's godfather, Murtagh, escape to Saint Anne de Beaupre's monastery in France, where another of Jamie's uncles is abbot. As she and Jamie emerge from a sacred hot spring under the Abbey, Claire reveals that she is pregnant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development and inspiration.", "content": "Diana Gabaldon planned to write a historical novel \"for practice\", but did not have a specific setting in mind until she happened to watch \"The War Games\", a classic \"Doctor Who\" serial, on PBS. Her eye was caught by the character Jamie McCrimmon, a young Scot from 1745 played by actor Frazer Hines. The image of the young man in the kilt stayed with her, and she decided to set her novel in 18th century Scotland. She named her male protagonist \"Jamie\" after the \"Doctor Who\" character (however, the surname \"Fraser\" was not taken from actor Frazer Hines, since the PBS station cut off the programme's credits).  Gabaldon's initial plan was to write a \"straight historical novel\", but as she began to write the character of Claire, she says the character \"promptly took over the story and began telling it herself, making smart-ass modern remarks about everything.\" Gabaldon decided to make the character a modern woman and determine how she came to be in 18th century Scotland later.  Gabaldon acknowledged a date discrepancy between the American version of the novel, the plot of which begins in 1945, and the British version, which begins in 1946. She explained, \"Reay Tannahill, a Scot who kindly proofread the novel before it was published in the UK, said that 1946 would have been a more accurate representation of conditions as I described them in Scotland.\" Gabaldon was able to rework all of the dates for the UK edition, but the American version was too far along in production to change.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception and awards.", "content": "\"Publishers Weekly\" said of \"Outlander\", \"Absorbing and heartwarming, this first novel lavishly evokes the land and lore of Scotland, quickening both with realistic characters and a feisty, likable heroine.\" With 25 million copies sold,\"Outlander\" is one of the best-selling book series of all time. The novel won the Romance Writers of America's RITA Award for Best Romance of 1991.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Television series.", "content": "In June 2013, Starz ordered 16 episodes of a television adaptation, and production began in October 2013 in Scotland. The series premiered in the US on August 9, 2014. It was picked up for a second season on August 15, 2014, and for a third and fourth season on June 1, 2016. On May 9, 2018, Starz renewed the series for a fifth and sixth season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other adaptations.", "content": "In 2010 Gabaldon adapted the first third of \"Outlander\" into \"\", illustrated by Hoang Nguyen. The same year, a 14-song cycle based on \"Outlander\" was released under the title \"\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Outlander (published in the United Kingdom as Cross Stitch) is the first in a series of eight historical multi-genre novels by Diana Gabaldon. Published in 1991, it focuses on the Second World War-era nurse Claire Randall, who travels through time to 18th century Scotland and finds adventure and romance with the dashing Jamie Fraser. A mix of several genres, the \"Outlander\" series has elements of historical fiction, romance, adventure and fantasy. With 25 million copies sold, \"Outlander\" is one of the best-selling book series of all time. \"Outlander\" won the Romance Writers of America's RITA Award for Best Romance of 1991. A television adaptation of the \"Outlander\" series premiered on Starz in the US on August 9, 2014.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976060}
{"src_title": "Aqua Marcia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Route.", "content": "The ancient source for the aqueduct was near the modern towns of Arsoli and Agosta, over away in the Anio valley. This general locale, in hills to the east of the city, was also used for other aqueducts including the Anio Vetus, Anio Novus, and Aqua Claudia. The same source is used today to supply the modern aqueduct.  The Aqua Marcia supplied water to the Viminal Hill in the north of Rome, and from there to the Caelian, Aventine, Palatine, and Capitoline regions of the city. Its extension to the Capitoline Hill caused a controversy at the time, because traditionalists were concerned about a passage in the \"Sibylline Books\" warning against bringing water there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Aqua Marcia was constructed from 144 to 140 BC by the praetor Quintus Marcius Rex (an ancestor of Julius Caesar), for whom it is named.  The aqueduct was largely paid for by spoils from the recent Roman conquests of Corinth in 146 BC and the destruction of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War, in the same year.  The aqueduct followed the via Tiburtina into Rome, and entered the city in its eastern boundary at the Porta Tiburtina of the Aurelian Wall. It was well known for its cold and pure waters.  The aqueduct was repaired by Marcus Agrippa in 33 BC, and then later again by Augustus, according to the inscription in the arch that was later made into the Porta Tiburtina. Augustus also augmented the supply by linking it to an additional source, the Aqua Augusta, doubling the throughput. Much of its supply was siphoned off by private citizens for their own use, making it effectively only a trickle in the city by the time of Nero. The supply was increased again by later emperors. Frontinus measured the flow of the Aqua Marcia at its source around AD 97 as 4690 quinariae, making it the second-greatest source of the city's water. Modern estimates of size of one quinaria vary over a wide range, from to of water a day, giving the Aqua Marcia a flow rate of to of water a day.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Aqua Marcia () is one of the longest of the eleven aqueducts that supplied the city of Rome. The aqueduct was built between 144–140 BC, during the Roman Republic. The still-functioning Acqua Felice from 1586 runs on long stretches along the route of the Aqua Marcia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976061}
{"src_title": "James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "The eldest son of William Douglas, 1st Earl of Selkirk (who was created Duke of Hamilton for his lifetime and changed his surname to Hamilton in 1660 and his wife Anne, 3rd Duchess of Hamilton in her own right, Hamilton was born at Hamilton Palace, in Lanarkshire. He was a descendant through his mother of the Scottish House of Stewart and therefore had a significant claim to the thrones of both Scotland and England. He was educated by a series of tutors, until he was of age to attend the University of Glasgow. Following this he travelled to the continent on the Grand Tour, fashionable amongst young noblemen of the time. He was styled until 1698 as the Earl of Arran.  In 1679, Arran was appointed a Gentleman of the Bedchamber by Charles II. Later in 1683, he was accredited ambassador to the Court of Louis XIV of France. Arran remained in France for over a year, taking part in two campaigns in French service. On his return to Great Britain following the accession of James VII, he brought letters of personal recommendation from Louis to the new King. King James reaffirmed Arran in his offices. Arran was in the first cohort of James VII's royal Order of the Thistle in 1687, and following the deposition of James, Arran refused to join the party of the Prince of Orange, indeed he was imprisoned twice in the Tower of London, suspected of intrigues, but was released without charge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duke of Hamilton.", "content": "Arran's father died in 1694, and in July 1698 his mother resigned all her titles into the hand of King William, who regranted them to Arran a month later in a charter signed at Het Loo, Netherlands. He was confirmed in the titles of Duke of Hamilton, Marquess of Clydesdale, Earl of Arran, Lanark and Cambridge and Lord Aven, Polmont, Machansyre, and Innerdale. This regrant of title was presumably because of the loyalty of Arran's parents to the king, as his own affection to the House of Orange was questionable due to his suspected Jacobitism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Darien scheme and the Act of Union.", "content": "Hamilton formed a Political grouping in support of the Darien Scheme, in the Parliament of Scotland. He and his mother had heavily invested in the expedition, doomed by the intrigues and sabotage perpetrated by England.  Following the failure of Darien, and in light of the longer history of trade friction with England, serious machinations began proposing a union between the two realms of Scotland and England. Hamilton was assumed to be the head of the anti-union Cavalier Party, perhaps due to his serious claim to the throne of Scotland. Hamilton, being a descendant through his mother of the Scottish House of Stewart (prior to their accession to the English throne) was the senior-most claimant to the throne of Scotland in the event of that Scotland chose not to accept Sophia of the Palatinate as the Stuart heiress (see Act of Security 1704). Sophia was the most junior descendant of the most junior branch of the English Stuarts and Scotland, also being Protestant, would only accept a Protestant heir to Scotland. This meant that Hamilton and his heirs were next in the Scottish line of succession after the House of Hanover. To the detriment of his royal future, Hamilton's political conduct proved ineffective and he wavered between both the Court and the National parties. On the day of the final vote regarding the Anglo-Scottish union, Hamilton abstained and remained in his chambers at Holyrood Palace claiming to be indisposed by toothache. The highly unpopular Acts of Union were passed, and riots followed in the streets of Edinburgh. Hamilton had missed his chance to secure the Scottish succession for his family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post Union.", "content": "Hamilton was chosen as one of 16 Scottish Representative Peers in 1708. He was created Duke of Brandon, Suffolk in the Peerage of Great Britain in 1711, this drew criticism as to legality of his position and ability to sit in the House of Lords, the situation was not resolved until 1782 for the 6th Duke of Hamilton. In addition to the Dukedom, Hamilton was created Baron Dutton in Cheshire. In October 1712 he was created a Knight of the Garter, making him the only Non-Royal to be a knight of both Thistle and Garter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Macclesfield inheritance and death.", "content": "On 15 November 1712, Hamilton fought a celebrated duel with Charles, Lord Mohun, in Hyde Park, Westminster, in an episode narrated in Thackeray's \"The History of Henry Esmond\". Following the death without an heir of Fitton Gerard, third Earl of Macclesfield, in 1702, a disagreement had arisen over who should succeed to his extensive estates, based at Gawsworth Hall, Cheshire. Hamilton claimed the estates through his wife Elizabeth Gerard, a granddaughter of Charles Gerard, 1st Earl of Macclesfield. Mohun claimed them as the named heir of Charles Gerard, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield, to whom he had been a companion-in-arms. The years of litigation that followed culminated in Mohun calling Hamilton out.  The duel took place on the morning of the 15th. The older Hamilton mortally wounded Mohun, and was mortally wounded in turn. Hamilton's second thereafter claimed that Mohun's second George Macartney had dealt the final stroke to Hamilton whilst pretending to attend to Mohun, but the evidence was wholly inconclusive. Questions about why John Hamilton didn't stay to attempt to arrest Macartney if he'd thought that such a crime had been committed brought suspicion on his testimony. A cry for justice went up amongst the Duke's friends, including Jonathan Swift, and Macartney escaped to the continent. After attempts to repatriate him, he was tried \"in absentia\" for murder, and stripped of his regiment, but was later pardoned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In 1686 Hamilton married Lady Anne Spencer, a daughter of Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland. They had two daughters, although neither survived childhood:  Anne died shortly after the birth of the second daughter in 1690.  Hamilton married secondly Elizabeth Gerard, daughter of Digby Gerard, 5th Baron Gerard in 1698, and had seven children:  In addition, Hamilton had four illegitimate children. These were Lt. Col. Sir James Abercrombie, 1st Baronet, born prior to 1680, who died at Dunkirk in 1724; two further illegitimate sons, Charles and William Hamilton, born to Barbara FitzRoy, and two daughters named Ruthven.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lieutenant General James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton and 1st Duke of Brandon (11 April 1658 – 15 November 1712) was a Scottish nobleman, the Premier Peer of Scotland, and Keeper of the Palace of Holyroodhouse. He was a Master of the Great Wardrobe, Master-General of the Ordnance, Ambassador, and Colonel-in-Chief of his regiment. Hamilton was a major investor in the failed Darien Scheme, which cost many of Scotland's ruling class their fortunes, and he played a leading role in the events leading up to the Act of Union in 1707. He died on 15 November 1712 as the result of a celebrated duel in Hyde Park, Westminster, with Charles Mohun, 4th Baron Mohun, over a disputed inheritance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976062}
{"src_title": "Saint-Martin-des-Champs Priory", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foundations.", "content": "The oldest known structure on the site was a chapel dedicated to St. Martin of Tours, founded during the Merovingian dynasty, which appears in a text of 710. At a date which remains unknown, a community of monks became established there around the chapel. The abbey they founded was pillaged and destroyed by Norman invaders during the late 10th century.  In 1060, King Henry I of France chose to rebuild the complex of the former abbey, intending it then to be a priory of canons regular. At that era, it still remained outside the walls of the city, thus its designation as \"des champs\" (in the fields). In 1079 the priory was given to St. Hugh of Cluny and became a Benedictine community, which developed into one of the major houses of the Congregation of Cluny, The priory soon gained major landholdings throughout the region, becoming second in importance only to the Royal Abbey of St-Denis.  The priory church was completed in 1135, having a choir section with a double ambulatory, topped by a simple ribbed arch. The nave was completed during the 13th century, as was the refectory of the priory. The later two are attributed to Pierre de Montreuil. These are the only surviving portions of the monastic complex today.  The priory maintained a major presence in the religious and social life of Paris. It became the site of the last officially sanctioned trial by combat in France in 1386, when both the king and the Parliament of Paris authorized such a contest between the knights Jean de Carrouges and Jacques Le Gris, when the former charged the latter with raping his wife.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Decline.", "content": "Over time, the priory fell subject to the system of commendatory abbots and became the property of a number of titular priors. The famous Cardinal Richelieu can be counted among their number.  The priory was suppressed in 1790 under the new laws of the French Revolution, and the buildings were used as a prison. The monastic walls and dormitories were soon torn down.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The surviving structures of the priory became the home of the Museum of Arts and Crafts, which opened there in 1802. The original Foucault Pendulum was housed there from 1855 until it was irreparably damaged in 2010.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs was an influential monastery established in what is now the city of Paris, France. Its surviving buildings are considered treasures of Medieval architecture in the city.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976063}
{"src_title": "Abbey of Saint-Victor, Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formation.", "content": "It was around 1108 that William of Champeaux retired from teaching with a few disciples in a hermitage (or cella) abandoned near a chapel dedicated to St. Victor, at the foot of the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève (the abbey remained outside the walls of the enclosure built by Philip Augustus at the end of the twelfth century).  In 1113, when William was elected Bishop of Chalons-sur-Marne, Louis VI transformed the small retreat into an abbey that was richly endowed the following year. The Pope dedicated the foundation.  The successor of William was the prior Gilduin, dearest disciple of William and confessor of the king. Born in Paris, he is the abbot of 1113–1155. It is most probably during his abbacy, that the customs of St. Victor were composed in the Liber Ordinis Sancti Victoris, following a rigorous asceticism, where silence and manual labor prevailed.  In 1148, the abbey acquired the college of Sainte-Geneviève.  The abbey later fell on hard times, being identified in the 17th and early 18th centuries with the Jansenist movement. It was dissolved and destroyed during the French Revolution.  The site of the former abbey is now largely occupied by Paris VI and VII Universities and by the Muséum and Jardin des Plantes. The name survives in a neighbouring street.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Makeup of the Congregation.", "content": "The Victorines are one of the most illustrious of the twelfth-century congregations in terms of cosmopolitan and intellectual pursuits. Thanks to Hugh and his comprehensive teachings, the school took on a universalist dimension that Victorines defended against those who wanted to \"rip and shred the whole body and who, by a perverse judgment, arbitrarily choose whatever pleases them.\"  Saint-Victor became a popular retreat of Bernard of Clairvaux and Thomas Becket (1118-1170), and the bishops of Paris had an apartment there. The cloister became a public school of theology and liberal arts, a kind of monastery-university attended by the philosopher Abelard and Peter Lombard, author of the famous Sentences (Libri Quattuor Sententiarum).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Library.", "content": "The abbey had a rich library open to the public. In the consulting room the manuscripts were chained. But there were other properties: liturgical manuscripts were kept for the choir, some others near the refectory, for reading aloud in the infirmary to the sick and dying, and others consisting of double reserves by the librarian (armarius). Part of the library consisted of a group of books (minores) the canons or students could borrow over long periods (concessi).  The teaching of the abbey activity favoured the development of library funds. Richly endowed, the abbey would be filled by purchases or copies from elsewhere: the scriptorium seems not to have been well developed. Endowments also enriched the collection. In addition, the documents found upon the death of a Victorin (sermons, for example) were compiled and stored in the library.  In Gargantua and Pantagruel by Rabelais, there are satirical references to the library of St Victor (Chapter VII.6).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scriptorium.", "content": "The scriptorium of Saint-Victor has certainly been the cause of experience glosses texts of Scripture by formatting columns, \"formal provision entirely unique\"; the biblical text in the center, and commentaries on the outside. This seems to be influence of Italian origin as regards their decoration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Masters of Saint-Victor.", "content": "The main and iconic masters of this scholarly abbey remain Hugh and Richard of St. Victor. The first being recognized as the true founder of the school, abbot of 1125-1140, the complete scholar, philosopher, mystic and teacher, whose book \"De sacramentis christianae fidei\" (1136-1141) is the most important theological synthesis before scholastic Saint Thomas Aquinas. The second, Richard of St. Victor is considered the founder of the medieval mysticism.  Philosophies developed by these Victorines were to give a rational support for the mystical, aided by divine grace, enlightenment or innate principles of truth to the soul. One of the goals of all the Victorines was to promote the spiritual life.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Abbey of Saint Victor, Paris, also known as Royal Abbey and School of Saint Victor, was an abbey near Paris, France. Its origins are connected to the decision of William of Champeaux, the Archdeacon of Paris, to retire to a small hermitage near Paris in 1108. He took on the life, vocation and observances of the Canons Regular, and his new community followed the Augustinian Rule.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976064}
{"src_title": "Operation Achilles", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "On March 16, U.S. General Dan McNeill reported that NATO forces were battling insurgents in various places in Southern Afghanistan but that most of the rebel fighters were steering clear of Western troops. He also said that NATO would launch new operations against the Taliban during the spring and summer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "Operation Volcano, part of Operation Achilles, saw British Royal Marines clear a Taliban base, consisting of 25 compounds, near the Kajaki hydroelectric dam. The Royal Marines received heavy fire from Taliban assault rifles, machine guns and rocket-propelled grenades. The Royal Marines systematically cleared the compounds and buildings, backed up by mortars and air support.  On April 3, United States and Afghan forces raided a compound in the Helmand province, after getting a tip-off that a junior Taliban commander was hiding there. Indeed, Taliban forces were present. Heavy fighting broke out, which left at least 10 Taliban dead and two captured. The coalition had no casualties. The fate of the junior commander remains unknown.  On April 30, 1,000 ISAF troops, alongside Afghan National Army ground forces, pushed northwards through the Sangin Valley driving the Taliban from Gereshk and the surrounding villages. It was reported that coalition troops killed more than 130 Taliban fighters, but thousands of Afghans staged a protest saying the victims were civilians. Backed by air support, the Taliban fighters were killed in two separate battles in the western province of Herat, according to a US military statement. As part of the operation, British Royal Engineers built company sized patrol bases for the Afghan National Security Forces.  The deaths triggered an angry protest - the second in the country in two days - over what local villagers claimed was the killing of civilians. Herat, bordering Iran, had been relatively safe until recently compared with the south and east where the Taliban are most active. Both battles were in the Zerkoh valley, south of Shindand district, where Western troops have a large base, and running into Farah province further south.  A total of 87 Taliban fighters were killed during a 14-hour battle with US-led troops and Afghan forces on Sunday. Another 49 Taliban, including two of their leaders, were killed two days earlier after a group of Taliban fired at a joint coalition and Afghan patrol in another part of the valley. However, local officials said that up to 51 civilians, including women and children, were among the dead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "February-May timeline.", "content": "February: Operation Volcano, a British operation to clear a Taliban base near the Kajaki hydroelectric dam.  May 1: southern Afghanistan NATO Commander Major-General Ton van Loon of the Netherlands was succeeded by Major-General Jacko Page of the United Kingdom.  May 13: Mullah Dadullah Lang, 2nd in command of the Taliban was killed in a clash with US, Afghan and NATO forces in Helmand Province. He was killed after coalition forces and Afghan forces found him leaving his hideout. Mullah Dadullah was the most experienced Commander the Taliban had at the time of his death.  May 18: Airstrikes targeted a convoy of suspected Taliban militants who had left a meeting in western Afghanistan, killing 14 and wounding 10, a provincial governor reported.  May 21: Taliban militants ambushed a joint U.S.coalition and Afghan patrol in a southern town near Helmand, sparking a battle and airstrikes that killed 25 suspected insurgents, U.S.officials said.  May 30: Operation Achilles ended and the new Operation Lastay Kulang began.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Operation Achilles was a NATO operation, part of the war in Afghanistan. Its objective was to clear Helmand province of the Taliban. The operation began on March 6, 2007. The offensive is the largest NATO-based operation in Afghanistan to date. NATO officials reported that, contrary to previous operations, Taliban fighters were avoiding direct confrontation in favor of guerilla tactics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976065}
{"src_title": "Sarov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The history of the town can be divided into two different periods. In the earlier history of Russia it was known as one of the holy places of the Russian Orthodox Church, because of its monastery, that gave Russia one of its greatest saints, St. Seraphim. Since the 1940s, it has gradually become the center for research and production of Soviet and later Russian nuclear weapons.  The history of human settlement in the area around Sarov goes back at least to the 12th–13th centuries, when a large Mordvin settlement was founded on its spot. In 1298, the town was taken over by Tatars.  The modern town took its name from being the site of the Sarov Monastery next to the Sarov River. In 1664, an Orthodox monk Theodosius first settled on the Sarov hill. The first Church of Sarov tenement was founded in 1706. Saint Seraphim was living in Sarov from 1778 to 1833. In 1903, the monastery was visited by Tsar Nicholas II and other members of the royal family. At that time the monastery had nine churches, including one underground. Around 320 monks lived in the monastery.  In 1923 the monastery was closed, the monks faced Bolshevik repressions, and many were executed. During World War II, the monastery buildings were used as factories for producing rockets for BM-13 \"Katyusha\" rocket launchers.  In 1946, the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Physics—a nuclear weapons design facility that would become known in the West under the acronym \"VNIIEF\"—was built. Sarov became a closed city. It was removed from all unclassified maps. Initial provisional names included Base 112, Site 550, Yasnogorsk, Kremlyev and Arzamas-75. Sarov was known as Arzamas-16 until 1995. In 1954, Arzamas-16 was granted town status.  The town is home to the Russian Federation Nuclear Center and \"Atomic Bomb\" museum which has a number of casings of Soviet-era nuclear weapons and photographs of those involved in their production. The main access is by train, which, after a security stop and inspection, is allowed into the town to disembark passengers. The small Sarov Airport is generally for government aircraft only, and visitors usually fly to Nizhny Novgorod airport and then drive.  The town is surrounded by fences patrolled by the military. Foreigners, and even Russians who do not live in Sarov, are not allowed to enter the town without permission. Foreigners who visit on business must surrender their passports, phones, and cameras to security while they are in the facility, though some documentary filmmakers have shot footage inside the town walls.  A large portion of the town is located on the grounds of the P.G.S. State Park in adjacent Temnikovsky District of the Republic of Mordovia.  In 1993, the town became a sister city to Los Alamos, New Mexico, the home of the U.S. nuclear weapons design laboratory (Los Alamos National Laboratory, or LANL). Scientists from LANL and VNIIEF have cooperated on various arms control and nuclear safeguards programs, under which the Los Alamos scientists learned, to their amusement, that their Russian colleagues paid homage to their American rivals by irreverently calling their own laboratory \"Los Arzamas.\"  Boris Yeltsin changed the town's name back to Sarov at the request of the residents in August 1995.  On June 17, 1997, a Russian Federal Nuclear Center senior researcher Alexandr Zakharov received a fatal dose of 4850 rem in a criticality accident.  During the 2010 Russian wildfires the Russian Army took preventive forest fire measures and radioactive material was reported to have been secured elsewhere.  Today the Russian federal nuclear center is responsible for important decisions concerning the development, production, storage, and utilization of nuclear weapons; the recycling of radioactive and other materials; and research in fundamental and applied physics. International foundations have helped to fund some research scientists in Sarov following the downsizing and transitions after the Soviet era. The city's fences and the electrified fences around fissile stores are maintained. In 1998 a resident stated that the perimeter fences also kept the city free from organized crime.  On Monday August 12, 2019, flags in Sarov were lowered to half-staff during the viewing of five coffins in Sarov's main square. These were the bodies of five Rosatom workers who were killed during the August 8, 2019, Nyonoksa radiation accident near Severodvinsk at “The State Central Navy Testing Range” () which is the main rocket launching site of the Russian Navy. Later on August 12, 2019, the bodies of the Rosatom workers, who were involved in the development and testing of the 9M730 Burevestnik (Petrel) also known as by the NATO reporting name SSC-X-9 \"Skyfall\", were buried in Sarov's main cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and municipal status.", "content": "Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the town of oblast significance of Sarov—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the town of oblast significance of Sarov is incorporated as Sarov Urban Okrug.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns and sister cities.", "content": "Sarov is twinned with:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sarov () is a closed town in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It was known as Gorkiy-130 (Горький-130) and Arzamas-16 () from 1946 to 1991. Until 1995, it was known as Kremlyov (). The town is closed as it is the Russian center for nuclear research. Population: 92,047 (2010 Census); 87,652 (2002 Census)", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976066}
{"src_title": "Venus of Urbino", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Venus stares straight at the viewer, unconcerned with her nudity. In her right hand she holds a posy of roses whilst she holds her other hand over her genitals. In the near background is a dog, often a symbol of fidelity. In a different space in the background two maids are shown rummaging through a \"cassone\" chest, where clothes were kept.  The detailed depiction of the interior setting is unusual, perhaps unique, in Titian. Titian contracted for the 21 year old Ippolito de' Medici, reluctantly made a cardinal (though not a priest), by his uncle, Pope Clement VII. He was trying to pursue a military career, and was a papal diplomat. On 20 October 1532 he spent the night in Venice with Angela del Moro, or Angela Zaffetta, a leading courtesan in Venice and sometimes a dining companion of Titian and Aretino, the latter a friend of the cardinal. Titian painted Ippolito's portrait, and it seems likely that he was asked to add a nude portrait of Angela Zaffetta, or that Titian decided to paint one in the hope he would like it. On 20 December 1534 Titian wrote to Ippolito's chamberlain in Rome saying that he had been working on a painting of a woman for the cardinal. Ippolito died in August 1535, and apparently never saw the painting, which was still in Titian's studio when Guidobaldo II della Rovere, the 24-year-old son of the Duke of Urbino came in January 1538 to sit for a portrait. As letters from him and his mother show, he was extremely keen to buy it, and did so some months later; he refers to it simply as \"the nude woman\", and was worried Titian would sell it to someone else. Later that year he inherited the Duchy of Urbino on the death of his father, hence the painting acquired the name by which it is usually known, although it seems it was mostly kept in Pesaro from early on.  Alternatively, the painting may have been commissioned by Guidobaldo, possibly to celebrate his marriage in 1534 to the 10 year-old Giulia Varano, which made him Duke of Camerino, or its consummation, which was probably a few years later. Some critics have seen references to marriage in details such as the maids at the \"cassone\", where the \"corredo\" or trousseau of clothes generally given to the bride by her husband's family were stored. Rona Goffen sees Venus's hand \"caressing\" her genitals as such a reference, as it was believed at the time that a female \"emission\" or orgasm was necessary for conception to take place, and female masturbation was therefore allowed only in cases where the male had ejaculated and withdrawn. The production of heirs was of great concern in elite marriages. Even the little dog on the bed has been brought into the argument; an identical dog is shown in Titian's portrait of the duke's mother Eleonora Gonzaga, the reasoning being that the dog identifies the house as a della Rovere home, and that it remains quiet indicates that the viewer is the husband of the woman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later history.", "content": "In 1624, as the Papacy moved to fully annex the duchy to the Papal States, the della Rovere court moved to Pesaro, where the painting hung in the Villa Imperiale. It joined the Medici family collections in 1633 when the last della Rovere, Vittoria della Rovere, married Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. It was moved to the Uffizi in 1736, and has remained there ever since, apart from visits to exhibitions which in the 21st century have included Madrid, Brussels, Tokyo, Venice and Urbino. It has long been famous, as is shown by its prominent placing at the front of the gallery group portrait by Johan Zoffany of the \"Tribuna of the Uffizi\" of the 1770s.  In his 1880 travelogue \"A Tramp Abroad\", Mark Twain called the \"Venus of Urbino\" \"the foulest, the vilest, the obscenest picture the world possesses\". He proposed that \"it was painted for a bagnio [brothel], and it was probably refused because it was a trifle too strong\", adding humorously that \"in truth, it is a trifle too strong for any place but a public art gallery\". Twain does this to juxtapose the artistic license (for nudity, for example) allowed in painting, as opposed to the restrictions and Victorian morality imposed on literature in the \"last eighty or ninety years\". In the same passage, Twain also mocks the fig leaves placed in the 19th century on nude statues in Rome, which had \"stood in innocent nakedness for ages.\" The \"Venus of Urbino\" was one of the inspirations for Édouard Manet's 1863 \"Olympia\", in which the figure of Venus is replaced with the model Victorine Meurent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sculptures.", "content": "Lorenzo Bartolini developed the same theme in sculpture with his Venus (about 1830), based on the painting that his friend J.A.D. Ingres copied for him from the Titian version. The original sculpture can be seen at the Musée Fabre in Montpellier; a copy is at the Lady Lever Art Gallery near Liverpool.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Venus of Urbino (also known as Reclining Venus) is an oil painting by the Italian painter Titian, which seems to have been begun in 1532 or 1534, and was perhaps completed in 1534, but not sold until 1538. It depicts a nude young woman, traditionally identified with the goddess Venus, reclining on a couch or bed in the sumptuous surroundings of a Renaissance palace. It is now in the Galleria degli Uffizi in Florence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976067}
{"src_title": "Oscar Zariski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "Zariski was born Oscher (also transliterated as Ascher or Osher) Zaritsky to a Jewish family (his parents were Bezalel Zaritsky and Hanna Tennenbaum) and in 1918 studied at the University of Kiev. He left Kiev in 1920 to study at the University of Rome where he became a disciple of the Italian school of algebraic geometry, studying with Guido Castelnuovo, Federigo Enriques and Francesco Severi.  Zariski wrote a doctoral dissertation in 1924 on a topic in Galois theory, which was proposed to him by Castelnuovo. At the time of his dissertation publication, he changed his name to Oscar Zariski.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Johns Hopkins University years.", "content": "Zariski emigrated to the United States in 1927 supported by Solomon Lefschetz. He had a position at Johns Hopkins University where he became professor in 1937. During this period, he wrote \"Algebraic Surfaces\" as a summation of the work of the Italian school. The book was published in 1935 and reissued 36 years later, with detailed notes by Zariski's students that illustrated how the field of algebraic geometry had changed. It is still an important reference.  It seems to have been this work that set the seal of Zariski's discontent with the approach of the Italians to birational geometry. He addressed the question of rigour by recourse to commutative algebra. The Zariski topology, as it was later known, is adequate for \"biregular geometry\", where varieties are mapped by polynomial functions. That theory is too limited for algebraic surfaces, and even for curves with singular points. A rational map is to a regular map as a rational function is to a polynomial: it may be indeterminate at some points. In geometric terms, one has to work with functions defined on some open, dense set of a given variety. The description of the behaviour on the complement may require infinitely near points to be introduced to account for limiting behaviour \"along different directions\". This introduces a need, in the surface case, to use also valuation theory to describe the phenomena such as blowing up (balloon-style, rather than explosively).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Harvard University years.", "content": "After spending a year 1946–1947 at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Zariski became professor at Harvard University in 1947 where he remained until his retirement in 1969. In 1945, he fruitfully discussed foundational matters for algebraic geometry with André Weil. Weil's interest was in putting an abstract variety theory in place, to support the use of the Jacobian variety in his proof of the Riemann hypothesis for curves over finite fields, a direction rather oblique to Zariski's interests. The two sets of foundations weren't reconciled at that point.  At Harvard, Zariski's students included Shreeram Abhyankar, Heisuke Hironaka, David Mumford, Michael Artin and Steven Kleiman—thus spanning the main areas of advance in singularity theory, moduli theory and cohomology in the next generation. Zariski himself worked on equisingularity theory. Some of his major results, Zariski's main theorem and the Zariski theorem on holomorphic functions, were amongst the results generalized and included in the programme of Alexander Grothendieck that ultimately unified algebraic geometry.  Zariski proposed the first example of a Zariski surface in 1958.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Views.", "content": "Zariski was a Jewish atheist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "Zariski was awarded the Steele Prize in 1981, and in the same year the Wolf Prize in Mathematics with Lars Ahlfors. He wrote also \"Commutative Algebra\" in two volumes, with Pierre Samuel. His papers have been published by MIT Press, in four volumes. In 1997 a conference was held in his honor in Obergurgl, Austria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Oscar Zariski (April 24, 1899 – July 4, 1986) was a Russian-born American mathematician and one of the most influential algebraic geometers of the 20th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976068}
{"src_title": "Ludovic Halévy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ludovic Halévy was born in Paris. His father, Léon Halévy (1802–1883), was a civil servant and a clever and versatile writer, who tried almost every branch of literature—prose and verse, vaudeville, drama, history—without, however, achieving decisive success in any. His uncle, Fromental Halévy, was a noted composer of opera; hence the double and early connection of Ludovic Halévy with the Parisian stage. His father had converted from Judaism to Christianity prior to his marriage with Alexandrine Lebas, daughter of a Christian architect.  At the age of six, Halévy might have been seen playing in that \"Foyer de la danse\" with which he was to make his readers so familiar, and, when a boy of twelve, he would often, on a Sunday night, on his way back to the Collège Louis le Grand, look in at the Odéon, where he had free admittance, and see the first act of the new play. At eighteen he joined the ranks of the French administration and occupied various posts, the last being that of \"secrétaire-rédacteur\" to the Corps Législatif. In that capacity, he enjoyed the special favour and friendship of the famous duke of Morny, then president of that assembly. In 1865, Ludovic Halévy's increasing popularity as an author enabled him to retire from the public service. Ten years earlier, he had become acquainted with the musician Offenbach, who was about to start a small theatre of his own in the Champs-Élysées, and he wrote a sort of prologue, \"Entrez, messieurs, mesdames\", for the opening night. Other little productions followed, \"Ba-ta-clan\" being the most noticeable among them. They were produced under the pseudonym of Jules Servières. The name of Ludovic Halévy appeared for the first time on the bills on 1 January 1856. Soon afterwards, the unprecedented run of \"Orphée aux enfers\", a musical parody, written in collaboration with Hector Crémieux, made his name famous. In the spring of 1860, he was commissioned to write a play for the manager of the Variétés in conjunction with another vaudevillist, Lambert-Thiboust.  The latter having abruptly retired from the collaboration, Halévy was at a loss how to carry out the contract, when on the steps of the theatre he met Henri Meilhac (1831–1897), then comparatively a stranger to him. He proposed to Meilhac the task rejected by Lambert Thiboust, and the proposal was immediately accepted. Thus began a connection which was to last over twenty years, and which proved most fruitful both for the reputation of the two authors and the prosperity of the minor Paris theatres. Their joint works may be divided into three classes: the operettas, the farces, the comedies. The \"opérettes\" afforded excellent opportunities to a gifted musician for the display of his peculiar humour. They were broad and lively libels against the society of the time, but savoured strongly of the vices and follies they were supposed to satirize. Amongst the most celebrated works of the joint authors were \"La belle Hélène\" (1864), \"Barbe-bleue\" (1866), \"La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein\" (1867), \"La Périchole\" (1868), and \"Le Réveillon\", which became one of the sources of Johann Strauss's operetta Die Fledermaus.  After 1870, the vogue of parody rapidly declined. The decadence became still more apparent when Offenbach was no longer at hand to assist the two authors with his quaint musical irony, and when they had to deal with interpreters almost destitute of singing powers. They wrote farces of the old type, consisting of complicated intrigues, with which they cleverly interwove the representation of contemporary whims and social oddities. They generally failed when they attempted comedies of a more serious character and tried to introduce a higher sort of emotion. A solitary exception must be made in the case of \"Froufrou\" (1869), which, owing perhaps to the admirable talent of Aimée Desclée, remains their unique \"Succès de larmes\". During this period, they wrote the libretto to \"Carmen\" but it was a sideshow to their other work. Meilhac and Halévy will be found at their best in light sketches of Parisian life, \"Les Sonnettes\", \"Madame attend Monsieur\", \"Toto chez Tata\" and \"Le Roi Candaule\" (the title of the last is derived from the Classical Greek account of the semi-legendary King Candaules). In that intimate association between the two men who had met so opportunely on the \"perron des variétés\", it was often asked who was the leading partner. The question was not answered until the connection was finally severed and they stood before the public, each to answer for his own work. It was then apparent that they had many gifts in common. Both had wit, humour, observation of character. Meilhac had a ready imagination, a rich and whimsical fancy; Halévy had taste, refinement and pathos of a certain kind. Not less clever than his brilliant comrade, he was more human.  Of this he gave evidence in two delightful books, \"Monsieur et Madame Cardinal\" (1873) and \"Les Petites Cardinal\", in which the lowest orders of the Parisian middle class are faithfully described. The pompous, pedantic, venomous \"Monsieur Cardinal\" will long survive as the true image of sententious and self-glorifying immorality. M. Halévy's peculiar qualities are even more visible in the simple and striking scenes of the Invasion, published soon after the conclusion of the Franco-German War, in \"Criquette\" (1883) and \"The Abbot Constantine\" (1882), two novels, the latter of which went through innumerable editions. Émile Zola had presented to the public an almost exclusive combination of bad men and women; in \"L'Abbé Constantin\" all are kind and good, and the change was eagerly welcomed by the public. Some enthusiasts robustly maintain that the Abbé will rank permanently in literature by the side of the equally chimerical \"Vicar of Wakefield\". At any rate, it opened for M. Ludovic Halévy the doors of the Académie française, to which he was elected in 1884.  Halévy remained an assiduous frequenter of the Academy, the Conservatoire, the Comédie Française, and the Society of Dramatic Authors, but, when he died in Paris on 7 May 1908, he had produced practically nothing new for many years.  His last romance, \"Kari Kari\", appeared in 1892. His diary was published in book form in 1935 as well as serially in the pages of the \"Revue des Deux Mondes\" in 1937–38.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ludovic Halévy (1 January 1834 – 7 May 1908) was a French author and playwright, best known for his collaborations with Henri Meilhac on Georges Bizet's \"Carmen\" and on the works of Jacques Offenbach.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976069}
{"src_title": "Spondias dulcis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "This fast-growing tree can reach up to in its native range of Melanesia and Polynesia; however, it usually averages in other areas. \"Spondias dulcis\" has deciduous, pinnate leaves, in length, composed of 9 to 25 glossy, elliptic or obovate-oblong leaflets long, which are finely toothed toward the apex. The tree produces small, inconspicuous white flowers in terminal panicles. Its oval fruits, long, are borne in bunches of 12 or more on a long stalk. Over several weeks, the fruit fall to the ground while still green and hard, then turn golden-yellow as they ripen. According to Morton (1987), \"some fruits in the South Sea Islands weigh over each.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "\"Spondias dulcis\" has been introduced into tropical areas across the world. It was brought to Jamaica in 1782, and it is cultivated in Panama, Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago, and eastern Sucre in Venezuela. The United States Department of Agriculture received seeds from Liberia in 1909, but it did not become a popular crop in the US. Nevertheless, it is grown in South Florida as far north as Palm Beach County. The fruit is also widely grown in Somalia's agriculture belt, probably introduced during the colonial times preceding 1960.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As food.", "content": "\"Spondias dulcis\" is most commonly used as a food source. In West Java, its young leaves are used as seasoning for \"pepes\". In Costa Rica, the more mature leaves are also eaten as a salad green though they are tart. However, it is most commonly used for its fruit.  The fruit may be eaten raw; the flesh is crunchy and a little sour. According to Boning (2006): \"The fruit is best when fully colored, but still somewhat crunchy. At this stage, it has a pineapple-mango flavor. The flesh is golden in color, very juicy, vaguely sweet, but with a hint of tart acidity.\" In Indonesia and Malaysia, it is eaten with shrimp paste, a thick, black, salty-sweet sauce called \"hayko\" in the Southern Min dialect of Chinese. It is an ingredient in \"rujak\" in Indonesia and \"rojak\" in Malaysia. The juice is called \"kedondong\" in Indonesia, \"amra\" in Malaysia, and \"balonglong\" in Singapore.  The fruit is made into preserves and flavorings for sauces, soups, braised and stews. In Fiji it is made into jam. In Samoa and Tonga it is used to make \"otai\". In Sri Lanka the fruit is soaked in vinegar with chili and other spices to make the snack food \"acharu\". In Vietnam the unripe fruit is eaten with salt, sugar, and chili, or with shrimp paste. Children eat the fruit macerated in artificially sweetened licorice extract. In Jamaica, it is mostly considered a novelty, especially by children. It can be eaten with salt or made into a drink sweetened with sugar and spiced with ginger. It is also used to make juice in Grenada. In Trinidad and Tobago, it is curried, sweetened, salted, or flavored with pepper sauce and spices. In Cambodia it is made into a salad called \"nhoam mkak\" (/ɲŏam məkaʔ/ ញាំម្កាក់). In Suriname, the fruit is dried and made into a spicy chutney, mixed with garlic and peppers. In Thai cuisine both the fruits and the tender leaves are eaten.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Spondias dulcis (syn. \"Spondias cytherea\"), known commonly as'() in Sri Lanka or June plum, is an equatorial or tropical tree, with edible fruit containing a fibrous pit. It is known by many other names in various regions, including kedondong in Indonesia and in Malaysia, ambra in Malaysia, buah long long among the Chinese population in Singapore, Isbaandheys' in Somalia, Embe Ng'ong'o' in Tanzania, prune de cythère, pommecythere, or golden apple in Trinidad and Tobago, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Suriname, Saint Lucia and Martinique, June plum in Bermuda and Jamaica, mangotín in Panama, yuplón in Costa Rica, golden apple in Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados and Guyana, golden plum in Belize, jobo indio in Venezuela, cajá-manga and cajarana in Brazil and São Tomé and Príncipe, quả cóc in Vietnam, /məkaʔ/ (ម្កាក់) in Cambodia, amra in Bangladesh, manzana de oro in Dominican Republic, cas mango in Cameroon, Maldives, vi in Samoa, Tonga, and Hawaii. In Seychelles frisiter\" and มะกอกบก or มะกอกฝรั่ง\"' (magog bog or magog farang) in Thailand.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976070}
{"src_title": "Mykolas Romeris University", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure.", "content": "The founder of the university is Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania.  The management bodies of the university are University Council, the University Senate and the University Rector.  Mykolas Romeris University consists of: 2 faculties and 4 Institutes, Mykolas Romeris Law School and Public Security Academy. It offers more than 90 programmes at the Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral levels in Lithuanian and English languages. Studies are carried out in compliance to the major principles of Bologna process. The major fields of study are Business, Communication, Economics, Educology, Finance, History, Management, Informatics, Law, Management, Philology, Philosophy, Political Sciences, Psychology, Public Administration, Public Security, Social Work, and Sociology.  Asian Centre MRU was established in April 2013 and it focuses on cooperation with Japan, South Korea, China and India. It also offers Korean, Chinese and Japanese language courses free of charge. Vilnius King Sejong Institute (KSI) at MRU promotes cultural understanding Lithuania - S. Korea through Korean language, culture, economics and politics courses. KSI teaches Korean language and culture to foreigners who want to learn Korean as a second language or a foreign language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Studies.", "content": "For International Students Mykolas Romeris University offers 9 Bachelor, 18 Master and 6 Doctoral degree programmes in English language.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Mykolas Romeris University engages in fundamental and applied research, takes part in national, regional and international research programmes and projects, and practically applies research results and disseminates them to the public. The research results, carried out in the University's faculties, departments, in laboratories, institutes, and centres, make up the basis of integration between research and studies. Traditionally the University has engaged in research in the area of social sciences and more recently, has initiated research in biomedicine, technology and the humanities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Internationalization.", "content": "International cooperation at MRU is oriented to strengthen internationalization in studies and research. In partnership with other institutions, joint study programmes are created. Students, academics and administrative personnel participate in exchange programmes, international conferences and other events. The University's international ties span all the regions of the globe. It has affiliations with more than 400 foreign academic and state institutions. From 2006, the University offers joint master's degree study programmes and encourages its students to attain double or triple diplomas. One of the goals of University's internationalization is student diversification, thus the number of international students is continually growing. This enables both Lithuanian and international students to share experiences and ideas as well as to work together on joint international projects, expanding their world views and cultural awareness.  Currently MRU has over 500 of international students with majority of students coming from Ukraine, Turkey, France, Germany, Italy, Spain. Every semester number of International degree seeking students and exchange students (under Erasmus+ and bilateral agreements) is growing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campus.", "content": "The University is known for having modern – and some of the best – infrastructure in the country MRU's Central Campus is located in the Northern part of Vilnius, surrounded by the park:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Mykolas Romeris University is a perfect place to train or work out. Students are encouraged to engage in an active lifestyle on campus through organized activities and individual health promotion. New athletic halls for gymnastics, games and table tennis have been set up.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mykolas Romeris University () is one of Lithuania's largest universities, bearing the name of the Lithuanian legal scholar, judge and father of Lithuania's Constitutional Law Mykolas Römeris. Established after restoration of independence of the Republic of Lithuania in 1990, it became a state university.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976071}
{"src_title": "Hôtel Saint-Pol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1360 Charles V began constructing Hôtel Saint-Pol from the Hôtel du Petit-Musc, purchased in 1318 by Louis of Bourbon, a grandson of Louis IX. From then until 1364, Charles continued to improve and develop it by acquiring additional property, including the newer Hôtel d'Étampes in 1361, and ordering the construction of new buildings. The king, who could not stand the pestilential odours of Paris and the problems they caused his health, appreciated its location outside the medieval city. He valued the residence for its calm and its cleaner environment, which he claimed had helped him avoid illnesses, and more importantly recover good health.  On 28 January 1393, the Bal des Ardents took place at the Hôtel Saint-Pol. Four noble dancers caught fire and were burned to death, while Charles VI and another dancer barely escaped the flames.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansion of the park of the Hôtel Saint-Pol.", "content": "The Hôtel Saint-Pol was not a single building, but consisted of three important dwellings making up the royal residence: one dwelling for the king, one for the queen (the former Hôtel d'Étampes), one for their children (the former Hôtel des Abbés de Saint-Maur). All had rooms for banquets and entertainments given by the king, and rooms for guests. Charles V had the residence luxuriously decorated according to his personal tastes, with precious woods, paintings, and goldwork. Walls were decorated with hangings embroidered with pearls, and books were displayed on the furniture, along with golden ornaments. Two chapels were built in the residence, one for the king, the other for his consort, Joanna of Bourbon. The \"hôtel\" included a remarkable collection of precious books that the king enjoyed assembling, including those of his father, John II, who had also been a great lover of books. This collection allowed Charles V to create the Royal Library, which would later become the Bibliothèque nationale de France, France's national library in Paris. Within his own residence, Charles V included a room for the Conseil du Roi where affairs of state were conducted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etiquette.", "content": "The Hôtel Saint-Pol and other palaces were the sites where the first versions of a royal etiquette at the French court were developed. Charles V, for instance, had his servants dressed in liveries appropriate to the stature of a king of France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Hôtel Saint-Pol in the 15th and 16th centuries.", "content": "After Charles VII fled to Bourges in 1418, the Hôtel Saint-Pol was abandoned by Charles and his successors. Louis XI preferred the Château de Plessis-lez-Tours, and when visiting Paris stayed at the Château de Vincennes. Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I lived in the Loire Valley or at the Château de Fontainebleau, and the Hôtel Saint-Pol fell into ruin. In 1519, part of it was sold by order of Francis I, and several years later, it was completely demolished. A wall of the church of Saint-Paul, which formed part of the \"hôtel\", survives to this day.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hôtel Saint-Pol was a royal residence begun in 1360 by Charles V of France on the ruins of a building constructed by Louis IX. It was used by Charles V and Charles VI. Located on the Right Bank, to the northwest of the Quartier de l'Arsenal in the 4th arrondissement of Paris, the residence's grounds stretched from the Quai des Célestins to the Rue Saint-Antoine, and from the Rue Saint-Paul to the Rue du Petit-Musc. It fell into disuse and ruin after the death of Isabeau de Bavière in 1435 and was demolished after François I of France sold it in parts at auction in 1543.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976072}
{"src_title": "In Case of Emergency", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Following research carried out by Vodafone that showed that fewer than 25% of people carry any details of who they would like telephoned following a serious accident, a campaign encouraging people to do this was started in May 2005 by Bob Brotchie of the East of England Ambulance Service in the UK. The idea has taken off since 7 July 2005 London bombings.  When interviewed on the BBC Radio 4 \"Today\" programme on 12 July 2005, Brotchie said: \"I was reflecting on some difficult calls I've attended, where people were unable to speak to me through injury or illness and we were unable to find out who they were. I discovered that many people, obviously, carry mobile phones and we were using them to discover who they were. It occurred to me that if we had a uniform approach to searching inside a mobile phone for an emergency contact then that would make it easier for everyone.\"  Brotchie also urged mobile phone manufacturers to support the campaign by adding an ICE heading to phone number lists of all new mobile phones.  With this additional information and medical information, first responders can access this information from the victim's phone in the event of an emergency. In the event of a major trauma, it is critical to have this information within the golden hour, which can increase the chances of survival.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "While some emergency responders lauded the suggestion others have criticized it.  In Germany, the \"In Case of Emergency\" concept has been criticised for many reasons: It is recommended that one carries contact information and relevant medical information in writing inside one's wallet, and not rely on ICE contacts as a primary means of identification.  Other problems include language-dependent text (ICE in English, ECU in French, etc. etc.), the difficulty of accessing locked, discharged or broken phones, differences among mobile models requiring training of emergency responders.  Many smartphone models have dedicated ICE contact information functionality either built into the OS or available as apps. Saving duplicate phone numbers on a phone without dedicated ICE functionality may cause the ICE and regular contacts to be combined, or cause the caller ID to fail for incoming calls from a close friend or relative. (To avoid this, some use the \"tel:\" URI scheme to put the phone number in the ICE contact's \"home page\" field.)  A \"competing proposal\" exists called E.123 which is also an official ITU-T standard.  The hoaxbuster site classified the claims of the program as \"partly true, partly false\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Locked phones.", "content": "For security purposes, many mobile phone owners now lock their mobiles, requiring a passcode to be entered in order to access the device. This hinders the ability of first responders to access the ICE phone list entry. In response to this problem, many device manufacturers have provided a mechanism to specify some text to be displayed while the mobile is in the locked state. The owner of the phone can specify their \"In Case of Emergency\" contact and also a \"Lost and Found\" contact. For example, BlackBerry mobiles permit the \"Owner\" information to be set in the Settings → Options → Owner menu item. Android users running Android Nougat (Android 7.0) or higher also have the ability to program emergency information and contact details accessible by others through the emergency call screen when the device is locked. Emergency contacts can be added to iPhone lock screens with the iOS Health application, and accessed by tapping or swiping to the Emergency dialer, where calls to 911 or another pre-specified number can be made, and the Medical ID button is displayed as well. When accessing this Medical ID, the user's name, health information, allergies and medications can be listed, along with the ability to directly contact listed emergency contacts.  Alternatively, some handsets provide access to a list of ICE contacts directly from the \"locked\" screen. There are also smartphone \"apps\" (applications) that allow custom ICE and emergency information to be displayed on the \"locked\" screen. For instance, the Medical ID Android app enables quick access to medical information and emergency contacts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popularity.", "content": "The popularity of the program is difficult to assess. A CNN article mentioned that the program might be spreading into North America, but gave different instructions to its readers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Case of Emergency (ICE) is a program that enables first responders, such as paramedics, firefighters, and police officers, as well as hospital personnel, to contact the next of kin of the owner of a mobile phone to obtain important medical or support information (the phone must be unlocked and working). The phone entry (or entries) should supplement or complement written (such as wallet, bracelet, or necklace) information or indicators. The programme was conceived in the mid-2000s and promoted by British paramedic Bob Brotchie in May 2005. It encourages people to enter emergency contacts in their mobile phone address book under the name \"ICE\". Alternatively, a person can list multiple emergency contacts as \"ICE1\", \"ICE2\", etc.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976073}
{"src_title": "Murakumo-class destroyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In the First Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese navy came to understand the combat effectiveness of small, fast torpedo equipped warships over larger, slower ships equipped with slow-loading and often inaccurate naval artillery. The \"Murakumo\"-class vessels were the first class of destroyers to be procured by the Imperial Japanese Navy, but were purchased almost simultaneously with the. Four ships were ordered under the 1896 fiscal year budget (\"Murakumo\" and \"Shinonome\" on 15 January 1897, and \"Yūgiri\" and \"Shiranui\" on 7 May 1797), and an additional two under the 1897 budget (\"Kagerō\" and \"Usugumo\" on 6 May 1898). All were ordered from John I. Thornycroft & Company in Chiswick, England. The last two were slightly (71⁄2 tons) heavier than the first four, and thus had 11⁄2 inches greater draught.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The design of the \"Murakumo\"-class destroyers was based on Thorneycroft's two-stack destroyers for the Royal Navy (from 1913 known as the ) also known as the \"Thirty Knotters\". Although slightly smaller than the \"Ikazuchi\" class, they had the same armaments.  All \"Murakumo\"-class vessels had a flush deck design with a distinctive \"turtleback\" forecastle that was intended to clear water from the bow during high speed navigation, but was poorly designed for high waves or bad weather. The bridge and forward gun platform were barely raised above the bow, resulting in a wet conning position. More than half of the small hull was occupied by the boilers and the engine room. With fuel and weaponry, there was little space left for crew quarters.  All were powered by triple expansion steam engines for and had coal-fired water-tube boilers. Armament was one QF 12-pounder gun on a bandstand on the forecastle, five QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss guns (two sited abreast the conning tower, two sited between the funnels and one on the quarterdeck) and 2 single tubes for torpedoes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "All six \"Murakumo\"-class destroyers arrived in Japan in time to be used during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. All were present at the Battle of the Yellow Sea and the final crucial Battle of Tsushima.  The \"Murakumo\"-class vessels reclassified as third-class destroyers on 28 August 1912, and were removed from front-line combat service. \"Usugumo\" was wrecked in a typhoon in July 1913, but was salved and restored to service; \"Shinonome\" was lost when she broke in two during a typhoon off Taiwan on 23 July 1913 and not recovered.  The five surviving vessels were again used in combat with the start of World War I, during the Battle of Tsingtao and in the operations to seize German colonial possessions in the South Pacific.  After the war, \"Murakumo\" and \"Yūgiri\" were demilitarized, and used as depot ships in 1919–20, and then as auxiliary minesweepers in 1920. \"Shiranui\" and \"Kagerō\" served as tenders to the torpedo school in 1918, and were for disposal at Kure in April 1922 (broken up in 1923). \"Usugumo\" was similarly struck from the Navy List in 1922, and was broken up in 1927.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The (\"Gathering Clouds\") were a class of six torpedo boat destroyers (TBDs) of the Imperial Japanese Navy, built in Britain in 1897-99. The class is also sometimes referred to as the (\"Daybreak\"). All were named after celestial phenomena.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976074}
{"src_title": "The Love for Three Oranges", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition history.", "content": "The opera was the result of a commission during Prokofiev's successful first visit to the United States in 1918. After well-received concerts of his works in Chicago (including his First Symphony), Prokofiev was approached by the director of the Chicago Opera Association, Cleofonte Campanini, to write an opera. Conveniently, Prokofiev had drafted a libretto during his trip to the US; he had based it on Carlo Gozzi's play in the \"Commedia dell'arte\" tradition, (which was itself based on Giambattista Basile's fairy tale \"The Love for Three Oranges\"). The eventual libretto was adapted by Prokofiev from Vsevolod Meyerhold's translation of Gozzi's play. The adaptation modernized some of the \"Commedia dell'arte\" influences and also introduced a dose of Surrealism. Due to Prokofiev's own scanty knowledge of English, and as Russian would have been unacceptable to American audiences, the initial version was set in French, with the possible assistance of the soprano Vera Janacopoulos, as \"L'Amour des trois oranges\".  The opera received its premiere performance on 30 December 1921 at the Auditorium Theatre in Chicago, conducted by Prokofiev. It received its first Russian production in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) in 1926 and has since entered the standard repertoire of many opera companies.  Probably the best-known piece in the opera is the \"March\", which was used by CBS in the radio-drama series \"The FBI in Peace and War\" that was broadcast from 1944 to 1958. Prokofiev also quotes the march in act 2 of his ballet \"Cinderella\" (Op. 87).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance history.", "content": "The initial criticisms of the Chicago production were generally harsh, e.g., \"it left many of our best people dazed and wondering\", \"Russian jazz with Bolshevik trimmings\" and \"The work is intended, one learns, to poke fun. As far as I am able to discern, it pokes fun chiefly at those who paid money for it\". The newspaperman and author Ben Hecht, however, gave it an enthusiastic review: \"There is nothing difficult about this music – unless you are unfortunate enough to be a music critic. But to the untutored ear there is a charming capriciousness about the sounds from the orchestra\".  The opera was not performed again in the United States until 1949 when the New York City Opera resurrected it. As staged by Vladimir Rosing and conducted by Laszlo Halasz, the production was successful. \"Life\" magazine featured it in a color photo spread. The New York City Opera mounted a touring company of the production, and the opera was again staged in New York for three successive seasons.  The opera is now widely performed around the world. A 1988 production by Richard Jones for Opera North, later seen at English National Opera, New York City Opera and elsewhere, used \"scratch'n'sniff\" cards handed out to the audience, suggesting various scents matching events in the staging (gunshots, Truffaldino's \"wind\", the aroma of oranges).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prologue.", "content": "Advocates of Tragedy, Comedy, Lyric Drama and Farce argue for their favourite form before the curtain goes up for a play. The \"Ridicules\" (Cranks) round them up and tell them they are to witness \"The Love for Three Oranges\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 1.", "content": "The King of Clubs and his adviser Pantalone lament the sickness of the Prince, brought on by an indulgence in tragic poetry. Doctors inform the King that his son's hypochondria can only be cured with laughter, so Pantalone summons the jester Truffaldino to arrange a grand entertainment, together with the (secretly inimical) prime minister, Leandro.  The magician Tchelio, who supports the King, and the witch Fata Morgana, who supports Leandro and Clarice (niece of the King, lover of Leandro), play cards to see who will be successful. Tchelio loses three times in succession to Fata Morgana, who brandishes the King of Spades, alias of Leandro.  Leandro and Clarice plot to kill the Prince so that Clarice can succeed to the throne. The supporters of Tragedy are delighted at this turn of events. The servant Smeraldina reveals that she is also in the service of Fata Morgana, who will support Leandro.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 2.", "content": "All efforts to make the Prince laugh fail, despite the urgings of the supporters of Comedy, until Fata Morgana is knocked over by Truffaldino and falls down, revealing her underclothes—the Prince laughs, as do all the others except for Leandro and Clarice. Fata Morgana curses him: henceforth, he will be obsessed by a \"love for three oranges\". At once, the Prince and Truffaldino march off to seek them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 3.", "content": "Tchelio tells the Prince and Truffaldino where the three oranges are, but warns them that they must have water available when the oranges are opened. He also gives Truffaldino a magic ribbon with which to seduce the giant (female) Cook (a bass voice) who guards the oranges in the palace of the witch Creonte.  They are blown to the palace with the aid of winds created by the demon Farfarello, who has been summoned by Tchelio. Using the ribbon to distract the Cook, they grab the oranges and carry them into the surrounding desert.  While the Prince sleeps, Truffaldino opens two of the oranges. Fairy princesses emerge but quickly die of thirst. The \"Ridicules\" give the Prince water to save the third princess, Ninette. The Prince and Ninette fall in love. Several soldiers conveniently appear, and the Prince orders them to bury the two dead princesses. He leaves to seek clothing for Ninette so he can take her home to marry her, but, while he is gone, Fata Morgana transforms Ninette into a giant rat and substitutes Smeraldina in disguise.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 4.", "content": "Everyone returns to the King's palace, where the Prince is now forced to prepare to marry Smeraldina. Tchelio and Fata Morgana meet, each accusing the other of cheating, but the \"Ridicules\" intervene and spirit the witch away, leaving the field clear for Tchelio. While Leandro and the Master of Ceremonies see that the palace is prepared for the wedding, Tchelio restores Ninette to her natural form. The plotters are sentenced to die but Fata Morgana helps them escape through a trapdoor, and the opera ends with everyone praising the Prince and his bride.  Prokofiev compiled a 15–20 minute orchestral suite from the opera for concert use. The suite is in 6 movements:  The composer made the above transcription for piano solo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Videos.", "content": "In French  In Russian Vladimir Vasov  In English", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Love for Three Oranges, Op. 33, also known by its French language title (, \"Lyubov' k tryom apel'sinam\"), is a satirical opera by Sergei Prokofiev. Its French libretto was based on the Italian play \"L'amore delle tre melarance\" by Carlo Gozzi. The opera premiered at the Auditorium Theatre in Chicago, Illinois, on 30 December 1921. The original Italian and French titles actually mean \"The love of the Three Oranges\", which makes the word \"for\" in the English version of the title a slight corruption or mistranslation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976075}
{"src_title": "Nicotiana tabacum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The plant is native to the Caribbean, where the Arawak/Taino people were the first to use it and cultivate it. In 1560, Jean Nicot de Villemain, then French ambassador to Portugal, brought tobacco seeds and leaves as a \"wonder drug\" to the French court. In 1586 the botanist Jaques Dalechamps gave the plant the name of \"Herba nicotiana\", which was also adopted by Linné. It was considered a decorative plant at first, then a panacea, before it became a common snuff and tobacco plant. Tobacco arrived in Africa at the beginning of the 17th century. The leaf extract was a popular pest control method up to the beginning of the 20th century. In 1851, the Belgian chemist Jean Stas documented the use of tobacco extract as a murder poison. The Belgian count Hippolyte Visart de Bocarmé had poisoned his brother-in-law with tobacco leaf extract in order to acquire some urgently needed money. This was the first exact proof of alkaloids in forensic medicine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and ecology.", "content": "\"N. tabacum\" is a native of tropical and subtropical America but it is now commercially cultivated worldwide. Other varieties are cultivated as ornamental plants or appear as a weed.  \"N. tabacum\" is sensitive to temperature, air, ground humidity and the type of land. Temperatures of are best for adequate growth; an atmospheric humidity of 80 to 85% and soil without a high level of nitrogen are also optimal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parasites.", "content": "The potato tuber moth (\"Phthorimaea operculella\") is an oligophagous insect that prefers to feed on plants of the family Solanaceae such as tobacco plants. Female \"P. operculella\" use the leaves to lay their eggs and the hatched larvae will eat away at the mesophyll of the leaf.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Botanical description.", "content": "\"Nicotiana tabacum Linné\" is a robust annual branched herb up to tall, with large green leaves and long, trumpet-shaped, white-pinkish flowers. All parts of the plant are sticky, being covered with short viscid-glandular hairs which exude a yellow secretion containing nicotine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaves.", "content": "Varied in size, the lower leaves are the largest at up to long, short-stalked or unstalked, oblonged-elliptic, shortly acuminate at the apex, decurrent at the base, the following leaves decrease in size, the upper one sessile and smallest, oblong- lanceolate or elliptic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "In terminal, many flowered inflorescences, the tube long, in diameter, expanded in the lower third (calyx) and upper third (throat), lobes broadly triangular, white-pinkish with pale violet or carmine colored tips tube yellowish white; calyx with five narrowly triangular lobes which are long. A capsular ovoid or ellipsoid, surrounded by the persistent calyx and with a short apical beak, about long. Seeds are very numerous, very small, ovoid or kidney shaped, brown.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Part used.", "content": "Almost every part of the plant except the seed contains nicotine, but the concentration is related to different factors such as species, type of land, culture and weather conditions. The concentration of nicotine increases with the age of the plant. Tobacco leaves contain 2 to 8% nicotine combined as malate or citrate. The distribution of the nicotine in the mature plant is widely variable: 64% of the total nicotine exists in the leaves, 18% in the stem, 13% in the root, and 5% in the flowers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phytochemicals.", "content": "Natural tobacco polysaccharides, including cellulose, have been shown to be the primary precursors of acetaldehyde in tobacco smoke. The main polyphenols contained in the tobacco leaf are rutin and chlorogenic acid. Amino acids contained include glutamic acids, asparagine, glutamine, and γ-Aminobutyric acid  Pyridine alkaloids are present in tobacco as free bases and salts. Nicotine accounts for 90-95% of the plant's pyridines with Nornicotine and anatabine accounting for roughly 2.5% each. Pyridyl functional groups present in minute amounts include anabasine, myosmine, cotinine and 2, 3′-bipyridyl.  The tobacco plant readily absorbs heavy metals from the surrounding soil and accumulates them in its leaves. These are readily absorbed into the user's body following smoke inhalation.  Tobacco also contains the following phytochemicals: glucosides (tabacinine, tabacine), 2,3,6-trimethyl-1,4-naphthoquinone, 2-methylquinone, 2-napthylamine, propionic acid, anthalin, anethole, acrolein, cembrene, choline, nicotelline, nicotianine, and pyrene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnomedicinal uses.", "content": "The regions that have histories of use of the plant include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "A protein of the White–Brown complex subfamily can be extracted from the leaves. It is an odourless, tasteless white powder and can be added to cereal grains, vegetables, soft drinks and other foods. It can be whipped like egg whites, liquefied or gelled and can take on the flavour and texture of a variety of foods. It is 99.5% protein, contains no salt, fat or cholesterol.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main use.", "content": "All parts of the plant contain nicotine, which can be extracted and used as an insecticide. The dried leaves can also be used; they remain effective for 6 months after drying. The juice of the leaves can be rubbed on the body as an insect repellent. The leaves can be dried and chewed as an intoxicant. The dried leaves are also used as snuff or are smoked. This is the main species that is used to make cigarettes, cigars, and other products for smokers. A drying oil is obtained from the seed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Curing and aging.", "content": "After tobacco is harvested, it is cured (dried), and then aged to improve its flavor. There are four common methods of curing tobacco: air curing, fire curing, flue curing, and sun curing. The curing method used depends on the type of tobacco and its intended use. Air-cured tobacco is sheltered from wind and sun in a well-ventilated barn, where it air dries for six to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the tobacco smoke a light, sweet flavour, and high in nicotine. Cigar and burley tobaccos are air cured.  In fire curing, smoke from a low-burning fire on the barn floor permeates the leaves. This gives the leaves a distinctive smoky aroma and flavor. Fire curing takes three to ten weeks and produces a tobacco low in sugar and high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are fire cured.  Flue-cured tobacco is kept in an enclosed barn heated by flues (pipes) of hot air, but the tobacco is not directly exposed to smoke. This method produces cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high levels of nicotine. It is the fastest method of curing, requiring about a week. Virginia tobacco that has been flue cured is also called bright tobacco, because flue curing turns its leaves gold, orange, or yellow.  Sun-cured tobacco dries uncovered in the sun. This method is used in Greece, Turkey, and other Mediterranean countries to produce oriental tobacco. Sun-cured tobacco is low in sugar and nicotine and is used in cigarettes.  Once the tobacco is cured, workers tie it into small bundles of about 20 leaves, called hands, or use a machine to make large blocks, called bales. The hands or bales are aged for one to three years to improve flavor and reduce bitterness.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicotiana tabacum, or cultivated tobacco, is an annually-grown herbaceous plant. It is found in cultivation, where it is the most commonly grown of all plants in the genus \"Nicotiana\", and its leaves are commercially grown in many countries to be processed into tobacco. It grows to heights between 1 and 2 meters. Research is ongoing into its ancestry among wild \"Nicotiana\" species, but it is believed to be a hybrid of \"Nicotiana sylvestris\", \"Nicotiana tomentosiformis\", and possibly \"Nicotiana otophora\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976076}
{"src_title": "RER E", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "RER E opened on 14 July 1999 between Haussmann – Saint-Lazare and Chelles–Gournay. The construction included a tunnel between Haussmann – St-Lazare and Magenta (which serves Gare de l'Est and Gare du Nord).  The line was first extended with a new branch from Noisy-le-Sec to Villiers-sur-Marne on 30 August 1999. This branch was extended to Tournan on 14 December 2003.  On 13 December 2015, Rosa-Parks station opened in the 19th arrondissement of Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extension.", "content": "RER E is to be extended from Haussmann – Saint-Lazare to La Défense, from where it will take over the branch of RER A to Nanterre, Sartrouville and Poissy. It would then take over a section of SNCF tracks (currently carrying Transilien J) to reach Mantes-la-Jolie. Partial revenue service is expected to begin in 2022, full service in 2024.  An eight kilometre tunnel will be dug between Haussmann–St-Lazare and La Défense. An intermediate station at Porte Maillot will offer a transfer to RER C. The extension is expected to reduce the load on central sections of RER B (between Gare du Nord and Châtelet) and RER A (between La Défense and Auber) by 10-15%. Additionally, transfers will be shifted away from current transfer hub Châtelet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Names of services.", "content": "Like all the other RER lines, each train is named after the route it takes. The first letter designates the destination, the second indicates whether the train will call at every station or not.  Regular names of services of trains departing from Paris are, among others, \"TAVA\" (stops at Magenta, Rosa Parks, Pantin, Noisy-le-Sec, Val de Fontenay, and all stations from Villiers-sur-Marne to Tournan), \"VOHE\" (stops at every station, all the way to Villiers-sur-Marne), \"COHI\" (stops at every station all the way to Chelles–Gournay).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "RER E is one of the five lines in the Réseau Express Régional (English: Regional Express Network), a hybrid suburban commuter/rapid transit system serving Paris, France and its suburbs. The RER E line travels between Paris and eastern suburbs, with all trains serving the stations in central Paris, before branching out towards the ends of the line. The line runs from the western terminus Haussmann–Saint-Lazare (E1) to the eastern termini Chelles–Gournay (E2) and Tournan (E4). It is operated by SNCF.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976077}
{"src_title": "Erik Mongrain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Erik Mongrain taught himself guitar from the age of 14. As a boy, he was mostly interested in sports but picked up an interest in the guitar and began to teach himself to play by ear. Erik started out playing the electric guitar, but developed an interest in classical and acoustic guitar after hearing the work of Johann Sebastian Bach. He taught himself to read music and began composing.  Mongrain was inspired early on by the work of Metallica, Jimi Hendrix, and Kurt Cobain. When he was 18, he heard the work of guitarist Don Ross and he thought: \"This was a new revelation to me. I finally found my niche.\" After that, he was heavily influenced by the work of Michael Hedges, and also began to experiment with a technique known as lap tapping.  Mongrain plays live shows in the United States, Japan, Germany, Canada, and England. He started out busking in the streets, before he was discovered in Spain; His music is featured in a documentary produced by Lance Trumbull for the Everest Peace Project. He was featured on the cover of Guild Guitar Company Magazine. Erik was featured in Le Journal de Montréal and many other acoustic guitar magazines. His first full-length album, \"Fates\", was released in December 2006 on his website as a series of individually buyable/downloadable songs. The physical CD was released in June 2007 (May for Japan).  In 2007, Mongrain went on a tour around the world, particularly in Europe, Asia and America. He performed also at the famous Montreal International Jazz Festival and at the \"Studio-théâtre\" of the Place des Arts of Montreal where the live performance was recorded. Mongrain was invited for the premiere of the « World Music Heritage », a drive by Gontiti on the national Japanese network (NHK).  The iVideosongs company have filmed four clips including \"Equilibrium\". The clips are tutorials of Mongrain's lap tapping style, downloadable on the company's Web site.  His \"AirTap!\" video has been viewed over 6 million times on YouTube.  On October 21, 2008, Mongrain launched his second album \"Equilibrium\" which contained nine new compositions.. The album was recorded in July 2008 in \"The Dragon Crossing studios\" owned by Paul Reed Smith (PRS Guitars) and located in Annapolis, Maryland. Musicians such as Michael Manring on fretless bass and Bill Plummer on synthesizers contributed to the album.  The album was launched live on Mongrain's official website (streamed broadcast) on 21 October 2008.  In August 2012, he released a 10-track album called Forward.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erik Mongrain (born April 12, 1980 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada) is a Canadian composer and guitarist. He has a unique and dark acoustic style, with a wide array of different techniques, approaches and textures reminiscent of Michael Hedges.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976078}
{"src_title": "2011 World Championships in Athletics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Bidding process.", "content": "On 4 April 2006, the IAAF announced that nine countries (United States, South Korea, Australia, Sweden, Spain, Russia, the United Arab Emirates, Croatia and Morocco) had submitted expressions of interest for hosting the 2011 World Championships.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Candidates.", "content": "When the seeking deadline passed on 1 December 2006, four candidate cities (Brisbane, Daegu, Moscow and Gothenburg) had confirmed their candidatures. Gothenburg backed out later that month, citing lack of financial support from the Swedish government.  Brisbane was announced as the Australian candidate with the Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre (formally ANZ Stadium) as the proposed venue for a championships to be held in July or August. The stadium previously hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games and 2001 Goodwill Games. Brisbane also had an unsuccessful bid for the 2009 World Championships in Athletics.  Daegu was the city chosen for the Korean bid, following on from an initial application to host the 2009 edition. Daegu had previously hosted the 2003 Summer Universiade and three matches of the 2002 FIFA World Cup. The World Championships in Athletics had never been staged in mainland Asia, although it has taken place twice in Japan.  The Russian bid had Moscow's Luzhniki Stadium as the proposed venue. The city hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics and the 2006 IAAF World Indoor Championships.  Among the intent candidates were Casablanca (Morocco) and Split (Croatia), both of which were failed bidders for the 2009 World Championships in Athletics. The Spanish candidate was rumored to be either Madrid or Valencia, but Spain eventually settled for Barcelona as a candidate for the 2013 World Championships in Athletics. The United States intent candidate city matched those bidding for the 2016 Summer Olympics: Chicago, Los Angeles or San Francisco.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Selection.", "content": "The IAAF announced Daegu as the winning candidate at the IAAF Council Meeting in Mombasa on 27 March 2007. Its victory was based on \"the quality of the stadiums and [meeting] the need for good crowds.\" IAAF's officials also praised Daegu's \"ambition and challenging spirit\" as key to its winning bid. Both Moscow and Brisbane later confirmed their candidacy to host the 2013 World Championships in Athletics – a selection process won by the Russian capital.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Men.", "content": "The events in the men's section ended with a world record in 4 x 100 metres relay set by Jamaica and several world's leading results. Jamaica dominated the sprinting events, while Kenya and Ethiopia dominated the longer track events. In the field events, the United States and Germany were most successful, winning four and three gold medals respectively. Yohan Blake and Usain Bolt, both from Jamaica, won two gold medals, being the most successful athletes in the men's events.  In the 100 m final the largely favored Usain Bolt was disqualified for a false start, enabling Yohan Blake to win the crown with a time of 9.92 s. In the 200 m Bolt won with a time of 19.40 s, which was the fastest time ever not to be a world record at that point. Blake and Bolt, along with countrymen Nesta Carter and Michael Frater, ran in the 4 x 100 metres relay, setting a new world record with a time of 37.04 s. In the 10,000 metres event, World Champion Kenenisa Bekele did not finish the race. The world record holder in 800 m, David Rudisha, won the event with his first gold medal at the World Championships. On the last day, Kenyan Abel Kirui became the first marathon winner to retain the title at the next World Championships.  Most of the field events ended with new winners, but Dwight Phillips retained the long jump title, becoming only the second man after Ivan Pedroso to win four golds at the World Championships in this event.  Ethiopia's Imane Merga was originally awarded the bronze medal in the Men's 5000 metres, but he was later disqualified for having run inside the curb of the running track for some 10 to 15 metres. His teammate Dejen Gebremeskel was elevated to the bronze medal as a result.  Cuba's Dayron Robles finished first in the race of the Men's 110 metres hurdles, but was disqualified for interfering with Liu Xiang twice before and over the last barrier. Jason Richardson was awarded the Gold, Liu the Silver, and Andy Turner promoted to the Bronze medal position.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Women.", "content": "During the championships, Russia was the most successful country in the women's events, winning seven gold medals, followed by the United States with six. Most successful female athlete was Allyson Felix having won two relay golds and silver and bronze in her individual events. On the first day of the Championships, the athletes of Kenya made an astonishing performance, winning all six medals available in the two events. Kenya also dominated the long-distance events, while Jamaica and the United States the sprinting. In the field events, Russia was dominant, winning four gold medals.  Following a series of retests of stored samples and biological passports, a number of athletes were stripped of medals because of doping.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Field.", "content": "Original gold medalist Tatyana Chernova of Russia was stripped of her gold medal on 29 November 2016 by the Court of Arbitration for Sport, with Ennis and Oeser promoted to gold and silver respectively and the bronze awarded to Karolina Tymińska of Poland.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Anti-doping programme.", "content": "On 4 November 2011 the IAAF reported that 2 of the 468 urine samples had produced adverse analytical findings. The samples of Portuguese runner Sara Moreira, a finalist in the women's steeplechase, and Korean relay runner Hee-Nam Lim had both tested positive for methylhexaneamine. Analysis of blood samples is still ongoing.  In March 2012 the Trinidad and Tobago track and field authorities announced that Semoy Hackett had tested positive for methylhexaneamine at the Trinidad and Tobago national championships prior to the World Championships. Her results in the women's 100 metres were annulled and the Trinidadian 4 x 100-metre relay team were also disqualified from fourth place.  An anonymous poll conducted by the World Anti-Doping Agency at the event showed that an estimated 29% of the athletes present at the World Championships had used a banned substance within the last 12 months.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medal table.", "content": "Initially, host nation South Korea failed to win any medals at these championships, a fate shared with Sweden in 1995 and Canada in 2001. This was changed in 2015, South Korean athlete Kim Hyun-sub was promoted from sixth place to bronze medalist in the 20 km walk after the disqualification of three Russian race walkers for doping offences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Participating nations.", "content": "On the entry lists prior to the competition, a total of 1943 athletes from 202 national teams were set to participate in the 2011 World Championships in Athletics. The number of accredited athletes that actually participated at the event was 1848, while the total of countries represented was 204.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 13th IAAF World Championships in Athletics () was an international athletics competition that was held in Daegu, South Korea. It started on 27 August 2011 and finished on 4 September 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976079}
{"src_title": "Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born in the royal court of Madrid, Joanna was the daughter of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (who was the first king of united Spain, officially King of Aragon and King of Castile) and his wife Isabella of Portugal. Therefore, her paternal grandparents were Philip of Castile and Joanna of Castile, and her maternal grandparents were Manuel I of Portugal and Maria of Aragon. She was the sister of King Philip II of Spain and Maria of Austria.  Among others, Joanna held the titles of Archduchess of Austria, Infanta of Castile and of Aragon, and princess of Burgundy.  Named for the saint's day of her birth (June 24 is the Nativity of St. John the Baptist) and in honor of her paternal grandmother, Juana of Castile, Joanna of Austria was motherless at the age of four and was entrusted to Doña Leonor de Mascareñas. By age eight she could understand Latin and could play several musical instruments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Princess of Portugal.", "content": "On January 11, 1552, at the age of seventeen, she married her double first cousin, the fifteen-year-old crown prince of Portugal, John Manuel of Portugal, by proxy in Toro. She arrived at the Portuguese court in November 1552.  The marriage was cut short when John Manuel died of tuberculosis at age sixteen on January 2, 1554. However, Joanna was pregnant by that time, and the future Portuguese king Sebastián I was born on January 20, 1554.  Joanna returned to Spain in May 1554 at the request of her father, leaving her newborn son with her mother-in-law, the Portuguese Queen Catherine of Austria, who was Charles' youngest sister.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regent of Spain.", "content": "Shortly after Sebastian's birth, Joanna was called back to Madrid by her brother Philip to act as regent during his absence in England from 1554. She filled this role with intelligence and efficiency. Joanna never remarried and never returned to Portugal. She never saw her son Sebastian again, although she sent him letters and had portraits of him painted at various ages so she could see what he looked like.  In 1557, Joanna founded the Convent of Our Lady of Consolation (\"Nuestra Señora de la Consolación\") for the nuns of the order of Poor Clares, also known as \"Discalced Clarisses\" (in Spanish, clarisas descalzas) because they did not wear covered shoes, and only walked either barefoot or in sandals, now known as the Convent of Las Descalzas Reales, or convent of the \"barefoot royals\", partly due to her affiliation and that the convent continued to attract aristocratic women as nuns. This convent is now a national monument and holds an art collection. It was founded in the royal palace where Joanna was born and where Charles V had lived when in Madrid.  Joanna repeatedly intervened in favor of the new order of the Jesuits, founded by Ignatius of Loyola. In 1555, she is reputed to have been admitted surreptitiously to the male-only Jesuit order under the name of a pseudonym, Mateo Sánchez.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Joanna of Austria (in Castilian, \"doña Juana de Austria\"; in Portuguese, \"Dona Joana de Áustria\", 24 June 1535 – 7 September 1573) was Princess of Portugal by marriage to John Manuel, Prince of Portugal. She served as regent of Spain to her brother Philip II of Spain during his trip to England to marry Mary I in 1554-1556, and from 1556 to 1559. She was the mother of King Sebastian of Portugal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976080}
{"src_title": "Jiří Šlégr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Šlégr was drafted 23rd overall by the Vancouver Canucks in the 1990 NHL Entry Draft. Šlégr played parts of three seasons with the Canucks, before being traded to the Edmonton Oilers for Roman Oksiuta, where he played for parts of two seasons. He spent the 1996–97 season playing in Södertälje SK in Sweden. He then returned to the NHL, where he had been traded to the Pittsburgh Penguins for a 3rd round draft pick, and played three and a half seasons there. In January 2001, he was traded to the Atlanta Thrashers for a 3rd round draft pick. Atlanta traded Šlégr to the Detroit Red Wings for Yuri Butsayev and a 3rd round draft pick in March 2002 and won the Stanley Cup with the Red Wings that season.  He signed as a free agent with Vancouver in September 2003, but was traded to the Boston Bruins in January 2004 for a conditional pick after falling out of favor with Vancouver Canucks coach Marc Crawford. Šlégr spent the 2004–05 NHL lockout season with HC Litvínov in the Czech Republic before returning to the Boston Bruins for the 2005–06 season. After leaving the NHL, Šlégr returned to the Czech Republic to play for HC Litvínov, and for EHC Biel of the NLA during the 2007 playoffs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Šlégr won a gold medal in the 2005 World Championships and 1998 Olympics for the Czech Republic, and a bronze medal in the 1992 Olympics for Czechoslovakia. Along with the Stanley Cup he won with the Detroit Red Wings in 2002, Šlégr won all three major trophies in ice-hockey, gaining entry to the prestigious Triple Gold Club.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In the 2010 elections, Šlégr was elected into the Chamber of Deputies as a candidate of the Czech Social Democratic Party in the Ústecký kraj, a region in northern Bohemia. Although the Social Democrats won the elections, they found themselves isolated and a right-wing government led by Petr Nečas was formed instead, forcing the Social Democratic Chairman, Jiří Paroubek, to resign. Šlégr, loyal to Paroubek, followed the former chairman in 2011 when he left the Social Democrats and founded a new party, the National Socialists – 21st Century Left. Since he had refused to resign, Šlégr remained in the Parliament as an unaffiliated MP.  Šlégr announced on June 14, 2013 that he was \"going back to the clean environment among athletes\" and stepped down from his position.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He is the estranged son of former Vancouver Canucks defenceman Jiří Bubla. He legally changed his surname from Bubla to his stepfather's surname of Šlégr as a child.  Šlégr was married 15 years with Kateřina Šlégrová. The couple split in November 2010 and divorced in February 2013. Šlégr married Lucie Králová in May, 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jiří Šlégr (; born 30 May 1971) is a Czech former professional ice hockey defenceman, and was a member of the 2001–02 Detroit Red Wings Stanley Cup championship team after being acquired in a late-season trade. Šlégr was inducted into the Czech Ice Hockey Hall of Fame on December 12, 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976081}
{"src_title": "Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Walter Rothschild was born in London as the eldest son and heir of Emma Louise von Rothschild and Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild, an immensely wealthy financier of the international Rothschild financial dynasty and the first Jewish peer in England.  The eldest of three children, Walter was deemed to have delicate health and was educated at home. As a young man, he traveled in Europe, attending the University of Bonn for a year before entering Magdalene College, Cambridge. In 1889, leaving Cambridge after two years, he was required to go into the family banking business to study finance.  At the age of seven, he declared that he would run a zoological museum and, as a child, he collected insects, butterflies and other animals. Among his pets at the family home in Tring Park were kangaroos and exotic birds. As a boy, Rothschild was once dragged off his horse and assaulted by workmen while on a hunting ride near Tring, an experience that he personally attributed to antisemitism.  At 21, he reluctantly went to work at the family bank, N M Rothschild & Sons in London. He worked there from 1889 to 1908. He evidently lacked any interest or ability in the financial profession, but it was not until 1908, at the age of 40, that he was finally allowed to give it up. However, his parents established a zoological museum as a compensation and footed the bill for expeditions all over the world to seek out animals.  Rothschild was tall, suffered from a speech impediment and was very shy, but he had his photograph taken riding on a giant tortoise and drove a carriage harnessed to four zebras to Buckingham Palace to prove that zebras could be tamed.  Though he never married, Rothschild had two mistresses, one of whom bore him a daughter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zoological career.", "content": "Rothschild studied zoology at Magdalene College, Cambridge. Meeting Albert Günther sparked his interest in the taxonomy of birds and butterflies.  Although Rothschild himself travelled and collected in Europe and North Africa for many years, his work and health concerns limited his range and beginning while at Cambridge he employed others (explorers, professional collectors and residents) to collect for him in remote and little-known parts of the world. He also hired taxidermists, a librarian and, most importantly, professional scientists to work with him to curate and write up the resulting collections: Ernst Hartert, for birds, from 1892 until his retirement at the age of 70 in 1930 and Karl Jordan for entomology, from 1893 until Rothschild's death in 1937.  At its largest, Rothschild's collection included 300,000 bird skins, 200,000 birds' eggs, 2,250,000 butterflies and 30,000 beetles as well as thousands of specimens of mammals, reptiles and fishes. They formed the largest zoological collection ever amassed by a private individual.  The Rothschild giraffe (\"Giraffa camelopardis rothschildi\"), a subspecies with five ossicones instead of two, was named after him. Another 153 insects, 58 birds, 17 mammals, three fish, three spiders, two reptiles, one millipede and one worm also carry his name.  Rothschild opened his private museum in 1892. It housed one of the largest natural history collections in the world and was open to the public. In 1932, he was forced to sell the vast majority of his bird collection to the American Museum of Natural History after he had been blackmailed by a former mistress. On his death in 1937, the museum and all of its contents were given in his will to the British Museum (of which the Natural History Museum, London was then a part), the greatest accession that the institution has ever received. The Walter Rothschild Zoological Museum at Tring is now a division of the Natural History Museum.  Following a visit to Hungary in 1902, Rothschild brought six live edible dormice (\"Glis glis\") back to Tring. Some of them escaped and started breeding successfully in the wild. They have now become a localised pest over an area of approximately 200 square miles in a triangle between Luton, Aylesbury and Beaconsfield, and there are estimated to be at least 10,000 of them. Even though considered an invasive species, they are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981.  Rothschild was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Giessen in 1898, was elected a Trustee of the British Museum in 1899 and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1911.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Walter Rothschild was a Conservative Member of Parliament for Aylesbury from 1899 until he retired from politics at the January 1910 general election.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military activities.", "content": "Despite his health, Rothschild served part-time as an officer in a Territorial Army unit, the Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry, where he was a captain from July 1902, promoted to major in 1903 and retiring in 1909.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zionism and Balfour Declaration.", "content": "As an active Zionist and a close friend of Chaim Weizmann, he worked to formulate the draft declaration for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. On 2 November 1917, he received a letter from the British foreign secretary, Arthur Balfour, addressed to his London home at 148 Piccadilly. In the letter, the British government declared its support for the establishment in Palestine of \"a national home for the Jewish people\". The letter became known as the Balfour Declaration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Peerage.", "content": "Walter inherited the British peerage title \"Baron Rothschild\" from his father Nathan Mayer Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild in 1915. He died in 1937 at Tring Park, Hertfordshire, aged 69, and was buried in Willesden Jewish Cemetery, London. He had no legitimate children and his younger brother Charles Rothschild had predeceased him, so the title was inherited by his nephew (Nathaniel Mayer) Victor Rothschild.  He also inherited the title \"Baron de Rothschild\" (\"Freiherr von Rothschild\") of the Austrian nobility, which was an authorized title in the United Kingdom by Warrant of 27 April 1932.  In 1838, Queen Victoria had authorized the use of this Austrian title in the United Kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Rothschild is the author of around 765 publications. Of these 27 were co-authored with Ernst Hartert and 16 with Karl Jordan. He published 278 articles in the \"Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club\" and 318 articles in the \"Novitates Zoologicae\", a journal which he established in 1894 with himself, Hartert and Jordan as editors.  His publication include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "<br>of the Austrian Empire", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lionel Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild, Baron de Rothschild (8 February 1868 – 27 August 1937), was a British banker, politician, zoologist and scion of the Rothschild family. As a prominent Zionist leader, he was presented with the famous Balfour Declaration which pledged to a Jewish national home in Palestine. Rothschild was the president of the Board of Deputies of British Jews from 1925 to 1926.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976082}
{"src_title": "County of Kladsko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beginnings.", "content": "The area has been populated at least since the 1st century BC. The earliest mention of the town itself is in the 12th century \"Chronica Boëmorum\" by Cosmas of Prague. He mentions the town of \"Cladzco\" as belonging to the Bohemian nobleman Slavník in 981, father of Bishop Adalbert of Prague and progenitor of the Slavník dynasty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bohemian-Polish Borderland.", "content": "Held by the Přemyslid dukes of Bohemia, the town was also claimed by the Polish kings, which led to a series of armed conflicts: King Bolesław I Chrobry campaigned Kladsko in 1003, but soon after was expelled by Emperor Henry II. In 1080 the Polish duke Władysław I Herman married Judith Přemyslid, daughter of the Bohemian duke Bretislav I and their son, the warlike Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth claimed Kladsko as the dowry of his mother. In turn the Bohemian prince (duke from 1125) Soběslav I campaigned Kladsko and burnt the town to the ground, but rebuilt it shortly afterwards. He also rebuilt and strengthened the castle located on a high rock overlooking the town.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "A region of Bohemia.", "content": "In 1137 by the agency of Emperor Lothair III of Supplinburg the rivals finally concluded a peace treaty by which Bolesław ceded all claims to the land of Kladsko to Soběslav. The area thereafter remained an integral part of Bohemia, though the fief was at times held by Silesian dukes: About 1280 German king Rudolph I of Habsburg, having defeated King Ottokar II of Bohemia, gave Kladsko to his ally Duke Henry IV Probus of the Silesian Piasts, it nevertheless returned to Bohemia after Henry's death in 1290. In 1310 Count John the Blind from the House of Luxembourg by marriage inherited Bohemia and again granted Kladsko for life to the Piast dukes Henry VI the Good from 1327 to 1335 and Bolko II of Ziębice from 1336 to 1341.  In 1348 the \"Provincia Glacensis\" became – still as a region within the Bohemia proper – part of the Crown of Bohemia. The town developed rapidly until the start of the Hussite Wars in the 15th century, which left Kladsko depopulated by plagues, partially burnt, and demolished by several consecutive floods. It was not until the 16th century that the local economy began to recover from the previous wars.  In 1458 King George of Poděbrady with the consent of Emperor Frederick III of Habsburg elevated Kladsko to a county (\"hrabství Kladské\"), held by his second son Viktorin, who thereby received the status of an Imperial count \"(Reichsgraf)\". Under his Poděbrad successors it still remained an integral part of Bohemia as an \"outer region\" (\"vnější kraj\") south of the adjacent Silesian province.  When in 1526 Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria from the House of Habsburg was enthroned as King of Bohemia, the County too became part of the Habsburg Monarchy; however the local counts retained their powers and the Bohemian kings ruled this land as suzerains. Since 1549 the County of Kladsko was under administration of the Wittelsbach until Albert V, Duke of Bavaria released it in 1567 for Emperor Maximilian II.  In 1617 the first census was organised in the County. The city itself had approximately 1,300 houses and over 7,000 inhabitants. However, two years after the census took place the Thirty Years' War started. Kladsko had joined the Protestant Bohemian Estates and even after the defeat at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620 refused to submit to Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg. Between 1619 and 1649 the town was besieged by Imperial troops several times and although the fortress was never captured, over 900 out of 1,300 buildings were destroyed by fire and artillery and the population dropped by more than a half. After the war the Habsburg rulers put an end to all local self-government, and the County existed in name only.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conquest by Prussia.", "content": "When in 1740 King Frederick II of Prussia started the First Silesian War he occupied most of Silesia and also the County of Kladsko, which the king considered to be a vital forward post at the border with the Austrian lands under Empress Maria Theresa. It was therefore occupied by Prussian troops and by the 1742 Treaty of Breslau annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, again confirmed after the Seven Years' War by the 1763 Treaty of Hubertusburg. It was not until 1818, when King Frederick William III finally incorporated the County into the Prussian Province of Silesia, although Czech and Austrian influence is still evident in the architecture and culture of the region. The title of a \"Count of Glatz\" was part of the full title of the Prussian kings and German Emperors, but autonomy of the County was irretrievably lost.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Claim by Czechoslovakia and incorporation into Poland.", "content": "After World War I the Czechoslovak state laid claims to the region of Kladsko, particularly because of the Czech Corner where Czech language and culture were still prevalent. These territorial demands were flatly rejected however by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. With the implementation of the Oder-Neisse line at the Potsdam Conference in 1945, most of the territory of Prussian Silesia – including Kladsko – became part of the Republic of Poland. Its native German and Czech population was expelled. According to canon law however, the area was part of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague until 1972.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The County of Kladsko (,, ) was a historical administrative unit within Bohemia as a part of the Kingdom of Bohemia and later in the Kingdom of Prussia with its capital at Kłodzko (Kladsko) on the Nysa river. The territory comprises the Kłodzko Land with the Kłodzko Valley in center within the Sudetes mountain range and roughly corresponds with the present-day Kłodzko County in the Polish Lower Silesian Voivodeship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976083}
{"src_title": "Battle of Chlumec", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Since Duke Bretislaus I of Bohemia had implemented the inheritance principle of agnatic seniority in the 11th century, the order of succession in Bohemia, many rivalling scions of the ramified Přemyslid dynasty waged war against each other. The claimants to the Prague throne sought for formal recognition by the Holy Roman Emperor, actually, the accession required the active support by the Bohemian nobility.  The Přemyslid duke Vladislaus I of Bohemia, ruling since 1109, likewise had to struggle to consolidate his authority, defying the claims raised by his brother Bořivoj II who had reached his enfeoffment by Emperor Henry IV in 1101. When Vladislaus died in 1125 his succession was disputed among his surviving brother Soběslav I and his Moravian cousin Otto II, duke in Olomouc and Brno. Otto could appeal to the agnatic seniority principle, he also reached the support of Vladislaus' widow Richeza of Berg and King Lothair III.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "In November 1125 King Lothair met with Bavarian nobles in Regensburg. They settled for a campaign into Bohemia in favour of Otto the Black who, according to the chronicler Otto of Freising, had offered a considerable sum of money. The Bohemian nobles received an ultimatum either to expel Soběslav or to face a punitive expedition.  Duke Soběslav I, represented by negotiators in Regensburg, prepared for war. He made the Bohemian aristocracy rally to his support, strongly referring to the legacy of Saint Adalbert of Prague and Duke Wenceslas. In the winter of 1125–26 he had defensive works and encampments erected along the Kulmer Steig route, the presumed gateway of Lothair's troops. As the thaw set in, Lothair on February 18 crossed the Bohemian border at the Nakléřov Pass with his army and met Sobeslav's troops either near Chlumec or in the vicinity of the \"Lotarův vrch\" (\"Lothair Mountain\") near Jílové. The exact location of the battle is not known.  A vanguard of about 200 heavy armoured knights commanded by Otto the Black was immediately attacked by Bohemian forces in a narrow valley, while the main army under King Lothair found itself entrapped with no option to withdraw back to the mountain pass. The battle ended in a crushing defeat of the Imperial troops. Otto fell in action, and Lothair was captured with many of his liensmen like Margrave Albert the Bear and Landgrave Louis I of Thuringia. Soběslav won a convincing victory, and released his captives on the condition of his investiture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Soběslav enfeoffment by King Lothair ended the state of war. Though formally the victor paid homage to the defeated, the duke strengthened his position and was able to affront all threats to his rule in Bohemia until his death in 1140. To commemorate his victory, he had a rotunda built on top of the Říp Mountain and consecrated by the Olomuc bishop Jindřich Zdík, one of the oldest Czech national monuments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sources.", "content": "\"This page is a translation from the German Wikipedia article of the same name.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Chlumec was the culmination of a 12th-century war of succession in the Duchy of Bohemia. It occurred on 18 February 1126 in the vicinity of the village of Chlumec () near Chabařovice on the southern slopes of the Eastern Ore Mountains. The Bohemian forces led by Duke Soběslav I defeated an Imperial contingent of troops under King Lothair III of Germany and his Moravian ally Duke Otto II the Black.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976084}
{"src_title": "Asclepias syriaca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Common milkweed is a clonal perennial herb growing up to tall. Its ramets grow from rhizomes. All parts of common milkweed plants produce white latex when broken. The simple leaves are opposite or sometimes whorled; broad ovate-lanceolate; up to long and broad, usually with entire, undulate margins and reddish main veins. They have very short petioles and velvety undersides.  The highly fragrant, nectariferous flowers vary from white (rarely) through pinkish and purplish and occur in umbellate cymes. Individual flowers are about in diameter, each with five cornate hoods and five pollinia. The seeds, each with long, white flossy hairs, occur in large follicles. Fruit production from selfing is rare. In three study plots, outcrossed flowers had an average of about 11% fruit set.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Many kinds of insects visit \"A. syriaca\" flowers, and some kinds pollinate them, including \"Apis mellifera\" (Western honey bees) and \"Bombus\" spp. (bumble bees). In the U.S. Mid-Atlantic Region, the introduced \"A. mellifera\" was the most effective and most important diurnal pollinator with regard to both pollen removal and pollen deposition. However, when considering the self-incompatibility of \"A. syriaca\", \"A. mellifera\" was not the most important pollinator because of its high self-pollination rate compared to \"Bombus\" spp. Additionally, the rate of self-pollination increased more rapidly with the number of flowers per inflorescence in \"A. mellifera\" than in native \"Bombus\" spp.  Many insect species feed on common milkweed, including the red milkweed beetle (\"Tetraopes tetrophtalmus\"), large milkweed bug (\"Oncopeltus fasciatus\"), small milkweed bug (\"Lygaeus kalmii\"), milkweed aphid (\"Aphis nerii\"), milkweed leaf beetle (\"Labidomera clivicollis\"), milkweed stem weevil (\"Rhyssomatus lineaticollis\"), milkweed tiger moth (\"Euchaetes egle\") and monarch butterfly (\"Danaus plexippus\"). Monarch larvae consume only milkweeds, and monarch populations may decline when milkweeds are eliminated with herbicides.  Efforts to increase monarch butterfly populations by establishing butterfly gardens require particular attention to the butterfly's food preferences and population cycles, as well to the conditions needed to propagate milkweed. For example, in the Washington, D.C. area and in the northeastern United States, monarchs prefer to reproduce on \"A. syriaca\", especially on young, soft leaves. As monarch reproduction in that area peaks in late summer when \"A. syriaca\" leaves are old and tough, the plant needs to be cut back to assure that it will be regrowing rapidly and producing young leaves when monarch reproduction reaches its peak. In the Washington, D.C. area one can have such leaves in July, August, and early September during the main oviposition period in three ways. First, one can grow seedlings. Second, one can cut large shoots to about half their height in June and July before or after they bloom. Third, one can cut large shoots to the ground in June and July. Cut plants often produce new shoots from their rhizomes. It is advisable to let some large, mature shoots remain in summer and fall because large monarch larvae, milkweed tiger moth larvae, and other native species feed on mature leaves. Milkweed bugs commonly feed on follicles. Monarch larvae can consume small seedlings to the ground. To save seedlings, one can transfer larvae from seedlings to larger shoots.  Deforestation due to European settlement may have expanded the range and density of common milkweed. This plant can become invasive; it is naturalized in several areas outside of its native range, including Oregon and parts of Europe. However, in the last three decades mostly in the United States, milkweed populations have diminished dramatically due to factors such as increased habitat loss due to development, roadside median mowing, and herbicide use. Subsequently, this has played a significant part in the monarch butterfly's 90% population decline since the 1990 peak of 1B migrators as the milkweed can no longer survive among the corn and soybean rows.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Growing \"A. syriaca\" in a garden.", "content": "Monarch Watch provides information on rearing monarchs and their host plants. \"Asclepias syriaca\" seeds require a period of cold treatment (cold stratification) before they will germinate.  Plant \"A. syriaca\" or its seeds in a sunny location with good drainage and moist soil. The species spreads by both cloning from rhizomes and by sprouting from seeds. Plants start to spread by both methods within a few years.  Female monarchs frequently lay their eggs on small, tender shoots, and larvae favor such shoots as food. As monarch reproduction peaks in late summer when \"A. syriaca\" leaves are usually old and tough, cut back the plants in June - August to assure that they will produce new shoots at that time. Retain some mature plants that will later distribute their seeds and whose leaves will feed rhizomes that will produce next year's shoots.  The nonnative \"Aphis nerii\" (oleander aphid) can become abundant on milkweed shoots and stunt them. One can control this aphid by spraying soapy water on aphid groups, then immediately rinsing the groups with plain water. It might take more than one application to the same shoot on different days to control the aphids. The soapy water also kills aphid predators and parasites. However, the aphid outbreaks can be so large, that they can markedly harm milkweeds before their natural enemies control them. To make the soapy water, use one teaspoon of a dish detergent, used for hand-washing dishes, per quart of water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human uses.", "content": "The plant's latex contains large quantities of glycosides, making the leaves and follicles (often called \"seed pods\", although they are not botanical pods) toxic to sheep and other large mammals, and potentially humans (though large quantities of the foul-tasting parts would need to be eaten). The young shoots, young leaves, flower buds and immature fruits are all edible raw.  Concerns about milkweed bitterness and toxicity can be traced back to Euell Gibbons, author of \"Stalking the Wild Asparagus\" (1962). It is theorized that Gibbons inadvertently prepared common dogbane (\"Apocynum cannabinum\"), a poisonous somewhat similar-looking plant instead. He devised a method to remove the bitterness and toxicity by plunging the young shoots into boiling water (not cold) and cooking for one minute, repeating the procedure at least three times to make the plant safe to eat. Gibbons' method was copied from book to book, dominating edible plants literature for forty years. Most modern foragers consider the bitterness and toxicity issue a myth. The plants have no bitterness when tasted raw, and can be cooked like asparagus, with no special processing.  Failed attempts have been made to exploit rubber (from the latex) and fiber (from seeds' \"floss\") production from the plant industrially. The fluffy seed hairs have been used as the traditional background for mounted butterflies and other insects. The compressed floss has a beautiful silk-like sheen. The plant has also been explored for commercial use of its bast (inner bark) fiber which is both strong and soft. U. S. Department of Agriculture studies in the 1890s and 1940s found that common milkweed has more potential for commercial processing than any other indigenous bast fiber plant, with estimated yields as high as hemp and quality as good as flax. Both the bast fiber and the floss were used historically by Native Americans for cordage and textiles. Milkweed has also been cultivated commercially to be used as insulation in winter coats.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Asclepias syriaca, commonly called common milkweed, butterfly flower, silkweed, silky swallow-wort, and Virginia silkweed, is a species of flowering plant. It is in the genus \"Asclepias\", the milkweeds. This species is native to southern Canada and of much of the conterminous eastern U.S., east of the Rocky Mountains, excluding the drier parts of the prairies. It grows in sandy soils and other kinds of soils in sunny areas. It was one of the earliest North American species described in Jacques-Philippe Cornut's 1635 work \"Canadensium Plantarum Historia\". The specific name was reused by Linnaeus due to Cornut's confusion with a species from Asia Minor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976085}
{"src_title": "Asclepias", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Milkweed flowers.", "content": "Members of the genus \"Asclepias\" produce some of the most complex flowers in the plant kingdom, comparable to orchids in complexity. Five petals reflex backwards revealing a gynostegium (fused stamen filaments and styles) surrounded by a five-membrane corona. The corona is composed of a five paired hood and horn structure with the hood acting as a sheath for the inner horn. Glands holding pollinia are found between the hoods. The size, shape and color of the horns and hoods are often important identifying characteristics for species in the genus \"Asclepias\".  Pollination in this genus is accomplished in an unusual manner. Pollen is grouped into complex structures called pollinia (or \"pollen sacs\"), rather than being individual grains or tetrads, as is typical for most plants. The feet or mouthparts of flower-visiting insects such as bees, wasps and butterflies, slip into one of the five slits in each flower formed by adjacent anthers. The bases of the pollinia then mechanically attach to the insect, so that a pair of pollen sacs can be pulled free when the pollinator flies off, assuming the insect is large enough to produce the necessary pulling force (if not, the insect may become trapped and die). Pollination is effected by the reverse procedure, in which one of the pollinia becomes trapped within the anther slit. Large-bodied hymenopterans are the most common and best pollinators, whereas monarch butterflies are not good pollinators of milkweed.  \"Asclepias\" species produce their seeds in pods termed follicles. The seeds, which are arranged in overlapping rows, bear a cluster of white, silky, filament-like hairs known as the coma (often referred to by other names such as pappus, \"floss\", \"plume\", or \"silk\"). The follicles ripen and split open, and the seeds, each carried by its coma, are blown by the wind. Some, but not all, milkweeds also reproduced by clonal (or vegetative) reproduction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "American milkweeds are an important nectar source for native bees, wasps, and other nectar-seeking insects, though non-native honey bees commonly get trapped in the stigmatic slits and die. Milkweeds are also the larval food source for monarch butterflies and their relatives, as well as a variety of other herbivorous insects (including numerous beetles, moths, and true bugs) specialized to feed on the plants despite their chemical defenses.  Milkweeds use three primary defenses to limit damage caused by caterpillars: hairs on the leaves, cardenolide toxins, and latex fluids. Data from a DNA study indicate that, generally, more recently-evolved milkweed species (\"derived\" in botany parlance) use these preventative strategies less but grow faster than older species, potentially regrowing faster than caterpillars can consume them.  Research indicates that the very high cardenolide content of \"Asclepias linaria\" reduces the impact of the OE parasite, \"Ophryocystis elektroscirrha\", on the monarch butterfly, \"Danaus plexippus\". By contrast, some species of \"Asclepias\" are extremely poor sources of cardenolides, such as \"Asclepias fascicularis\", \"Asclepias tuberosa\", and \"Asclepias angustifolia\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Milkweed is not grown commercially in large scale, but the plant has had many uses throughout human history. Milkweed has a long history of both medicinal, every day and, military use that most people aren’t even aware of. The Omaha Indian’s, from Nebraska, the Menomin which was from Wisconsin and upper Michigan, Dakota’s from Minnesota and, the Ponca Indians from Nebraska used it for a medicinal and everyday usage ages ago. They used it for everything from a diarrheic, relief from sore throats, it was chewed for swelling and rashes, new mothers that could not produce milk would drink it, it was used to treat colic, it was used to expel tapeworms, it was used to cure snakebite and for a contraceptive. Heart-leaf milkweed was used by the Miwok tribes of California for its stems, which they dried and used for cords such as strings and ropes. The milkweed filaments from the coma (the \"floss\") are hollow and coated with wax, and have good insulation qualities. During World War II, more than of milkweed floss was collected in the United States as a substitute for kapok. Milkweed is grown commercially as a hypoallergenic filling for pillows and as insulation for winter coats.  A study of the insulative properties of various materials found that milkweed floss was outperformed by other materials in terms of insulation, loft, and lumpiness, but it scored well when mixed with down feathers. Milkweed fibers are also used to clean up oil spills. The bast fibers of some species can be used for rope. Milkweed latex contains about two percent latex and was attempted as a source of natural rubber by both Nazi Germany and the United States during World War II. No record has been found of large-scale success.  \"Asclepias\" is also known as \"Silk of America\" which is a strand of common milkweed (\"Asclepias syriaca\") gathered mainly in the valley of the Saint Lawrence River in Canada. The silk is used in thermal insulation, acoustic insulation, and oil absorbents.  Milkweed also contains cardiac glycoside poisons that inhibit animal cells from maintaining a proper K, Ca concentration gradient. As a result, many natives of South America and Africa used arrows poisoned with these glycosides to fight and hunt more effectively. Milkweed is toxic and may cause death when animals consume large quantities of the plant. Milkweed also causes mild dermatitis in some who come in contact with it. Nonetheless, it can be made edible if properly processed.  The leaves of \"Asclepias\" species are a food source for monarch butterfly larvae and some other milkweed butterflies. These plants are often used in butterfly gardening and monarch waystations.  However, some milkweed species are not suitable for butterfly gardens and monarch waystations. For example, \"Asclepias curassavica\", or tropical milkweed, is often planted as an ornamental in butterfly gardens. Year-round plantings in the USA are controversial and criticised, as they may be the cause of new overwintering sites along the U.S. Gulf Coast, leading to year-round breeding of monarchs. This is thought to adversely affect migration patterns, and to cause a dramatic buildup of the dangerous parasite, \"Ophryocystis elektroscirrha\". New research also has shown that monarch larvae reared on tropical milkweed show reduced migratory development (reproductive diapause), and when migratory adults are exposed to tropical milkweed, it stimulates reproductive tissue growth.  Monarch caterpillars do not favor butterfly weed (\"Asclepias tuberosa\") because the leaves of that milkweed species contain little toxin (cardiac glycosides). Some other milkweeds may have similar characteristics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "Some Asclepias species:  There are also 12 species of \"Asclepias\" in South America, among them: \"A. barjoniifolia\", \"A. boliviensis\", \"A. curassavica\", \"A. mellodora\", \"A. candida\", \"A. flava\", and \"A. pilgeriana\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formerly classified species.", "content": "Species formerly classified under the genus \"Asclepias\" include:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Asclepias is a genus of herbaceous, perennial, flowering plants known as milkweeds, named for their latex, a milky substance containing cardiac glycosides termed cardenolides, exuded where cells are damaged. Most species are toxic to humans and many other species, primarily due to the presence of cardenolides, although, as with many such plants, there are species that feed upon them (i.e. leaves) and from them (i.e. nectar). The genus contains over 200 species distributed broadly across Africa, North America, and South America. It previously belonged to the family Asclepiadaceae, which is now classified as the subfamily Asclepiadoideae of the dogbane family, Apocynaceae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976086}
{"src_title": "Lavinia Fontana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Lavinia Fontana was born in Bologna in 1552 to Prospero Fontana and Antonia de' Bonardis. She was baptized on August 24, 1552 at the cathedral of San Pietro. Her elder sister Emilia died in 1568 when Lavinia was sixteen. Prospero was a prominent painter of the School of Bologna at the time and served as her teacher. Caroline P. Murphy suspects that financial issues may have prompted Prospero to train Lavinia as a painter. Her earliest known work, \"Child of the Monkey\", was painted in 1575 at the age of 23. Though this work is now lost, another early painting, \"Christ with the Symbols of the Passion\", painted in 1576, is now in the El Paso Museum of Art. Bolognese society at large was supportive of Fontana's artistic career, providing opportunities and connections that were not available to women in other locales. She began her commercial practice by painting small devotional paintings on copper, which had popular appeal as papal and diplomatic gifts, given the value and lustre of the metal. In the 1580s, she was known as a portraitist of Bolognese noblewomen who competed for her services. The high demand for portraits painted by Fontana was reflected in the large sums of money she earned during this period. Her relationships with female clients were often unusually warm; multiple women who sat for portraits, such as the Duchess of Sora Constanza Sforza Boncompagni, later served as namesakes or godmothers for Fontana's children. In addition to portraits, she later created large scale paintings with religious and mythological themes which sometimes included female nudes.  Fontana married Gian Paolo Zappi (alternate spellings include Giovan and Fappi) in June 1577. The couple moved into Prospero's house in Bologna and Lavinia painted professionally, adding Zappi to her signature. She gave birth to 11 children, though only 3 outlived her: Flaminio, Orazio, and Prospero. Zappi took care of the household and served as an agent and painting assistant to his wife, including painting minor elements of paintings such as draperies. Fontana attended classes at the University of Bologna, and was listed as one of the city's 'Donne addtrinatte' (women with doctorates) in 1580.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roman period (1603-14).", "content": "Fontana and her family moved to Rome in 1603 at the invitation of Pope Clement VIII. She gained the patronage of the Buoncompagni, of which Pope Gregory XIII was a member. She was subsequently appointed as Portraitist in Ordinary at the Vatican. Lavinia thrived in Rome as she had in Bologna and Pope Paul V himself was among her sitters. She was the recipient of numerous honors, including a bronze portrait medallion cast in 1611 by sculptor and architect Felice Antonio Casoni. According to Jean Owens Schaefer, the reverse side of the medal depicts Pittura, an allegorical figure representing painting. He also posits that this is the first visual rendition of Cesare Ripa's 1603 description of Pittura.  She was elected into the Accademia di San Luca of Rome. She died in the city on August 11, 1614 and was subsequently buried at Santa Maria sopra Minerva.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The \"Self-Portrait at the Clavichord with a Servant\" is considered to be her masterpiece. It was painted as a betrothal gift to the Zappi family as evidenced by Fontana describing herself as a virgin in the signature and stating that she painted while looking at herself in a mirror as a testament to the accuracy of the depiction. There are over 100 works that are documented, but only 32 signed and dated works are known today. There are 25 more that can be attributed to her, making hers the largest oeuvre for any female artist prior to 1700. Some of her portraits, often lavishly paid for, have been wrongly attributed to her contemporary Guido Reni. Chief among these are \"Venus;\" \"The Virgin lifting a veil from th sleeping infant Christ\"; and the \"Queen of Sheba visiting Solomon\".  Lavinia is immortalized as the subject of \"Portrait of a Woman\" (1595) by Paolo Veronese. She was the only woman artist featured in Giulio Mancini's \"Considerazioni sulla pittura\" (Considerations on Painting). The naturalism of her paintings is highly praised and the beauty of her paintings is linked to her own physical attractiveness.  Fontana influenced Alberto de' Rossi and Alessandro Tiarini. Aurelio Bonelli may have studied under her.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Artistry.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artistic influences.", "content": "Lavinia's youthful style resembled that of her father, Prospero. As a student of Ludovico Carracci, she gradually adopted the Carracciesque style, with strong quasi-Venetian coloring.  Sofonisba Anguissola, Caterina Vigri, and Properzia de' Rossi may have influenced Fontana's artistic career.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Counter-Reformation.", "content": "The Counter-Reformation and the Council of Trent's recommendations for religious art defined Fontana's treatment of subjects and themes in her paintings. Excellent status as a daughter, wife, and mother was a prerequisite to her career due to the moral standards of the day. Demand for portraits of family and children rose due to the Roman Catholic Church's emphasis on family values.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Style.", "content": "The influence of Mannerism is noticeable in Fontana's close attention to detail in her paintings and the significance of the materials surrounding the subject. Fontana's self-portraiture strikes a balance between presenting the artist as a distinguished lady and as a professional artist. This depiction of two coexisting roles was common for sixteenth-century women artists.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nudity.", "content": "Among art historians, there is a controversy over Fontana's depiction of the nude female form in her paintings. Liana De Girolami Cheney argues that the naturalism of the figures may indicate that Fontana used live nude models. Caroline P. Murphy argues that while body parts are well rendered, the figures as a whole are disproportionate, similar to Prospero's rendering of human anatomy. Additionally, Murphy points out that during Lavinia's lifetime, it was socially unacceptable for women to be exposed to nudity; if it was discovered that she used live nude models, her reputation would be tarnished. She instead suggests that like Sofonisba Anguissola, Fontana had family members model for her. Further, Linda Nochlin explains that the art academy barred women from viewing any nude body, despite this being a crucial part of training.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lavinia Fontana (August 24, 1552 – August 11, 1614) was a Bolognese Mannerist painter best known for her portraiture. She was trained by her father Prospero Fontana and was active in Bologna and Rome. She is regarded as the first female career artist in Western Europe as she relied on commissions for her income. Her family relied on her career as a painter, and her husband served as her agent and raised their eleven children. She was perhaps the first woman artist to paint female nudes, but this is a topic of controversy among art historians.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976087}
{"src_title": "Night Witches", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and tactics.", "content": "The regiment flew harassment and precision bombing missions against the German military from 1942 until the end of the war. At its largest, it had 40 two-person crews. The regiment flew over 23,000 sorties, dropping over 3,000 tons of bombs and 26,000 incendiary shells. It was the most highly decorated female unit in the Soviet Air Force, with many pilots having flown over 800 missions by the end of the war, and twenty-three having been awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union title. Thirty-two of its members died in the war.  The regiment flew in wood-and-canvas Polikarpov U-2 biplanes, a 1928 design intended for use as training aircraft (hence its original designation prefix of \"U-\") and for crop dusting, which also had a special U-2LNB version for the sort of night harassment attack missions flown by the 588th, and to this day remains the most-produced wood-airframed biplane in aviation history. The plane could carry only two bombs at a time, so eight or more missions per night were often necessary. Although the aircraft was obsolete and slow, the pilots took advantage of its exceptional maneuverability; it also had a maximum speed that was lower than the stall speed of both the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, which made it very difficult for German pilots to shoot down, with the exception of fighter ace Josef Kociok, who grounded the regiment for an entire night by shooting down four of their planes on the night of 31 July 1 August 1943.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cold welcoming.", "content": "This all-female flying squadron was not welcomed into the military with open arms. Many of their male counterparts saw them as inferior and treated them with lack of respect. The women of the regiment were also given hand-me-downs of uniforms and over-sized shoes by the men, as well as rudimentary tools (such as rulers, flashlights, pencils, etc) that lacked the \"luxury\" that the male soldiers received with their tools (e.g.- radar, guns, radios, etc.).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timeline and operations.", "content": "Members of the regiment were deployed from the Engels Military Aviation School to the Southern Front as part of the 218th Division of the 4th Air Army on 23 May 1942, where they arrived on 27 May.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sorties.", "content": "Throughout the course of the war the regiment accumulated approximately 23,672 sorties in combat, including in the following battles: In total the regiment collectively accumulated 28,676 flight hours, dropped over 3,000 tons of bombs and over 26,000 incendiary shells, damaging or completely destroying 17 river crossings, nine railways, two railway stations, 26 warehouses, 12 fuel depots, 176 armored cars, 86 firing points, and 11 searchlights. In addition to bombings, the unit performed 155 supply drops of food and ammunition to Soviet forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personnel.", "content": "In total, 261 people served in the regiment, of whom 32 died of various causes including plane crashes, combat deaths and tuberculosis. 28 aircraft were written off.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Repressed personnel.", "content": "Senior Engineer Sofiya Ozerkova was sentenced to death by a military tribunal in 1942, but she was later acquitted after her sentence was suspended and she was reinstated to her position. Mechanics Raisa Kharitonova and Tamara Frolova were sentenced to ten years of imprisonment for dismantling a flare (used by navigators to illuminate bombing targets) and using the small silk parachute to sew undergarments. Both of them were retrained as navigators, but Frolova was killed in action in 1943.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honored personnel.", "content": "Twenty-three personnel from the regiment were awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union, two were awarded Hero of the Russian Federation, and one was awarded Hero of Kazakhstan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other women's regiments.", "content": "On 8 October 1941, Order number 0099 specified the creation of three women's regiments—all personnel from technicians to pilots would be entirely composed of women. The other two regiments were the 586th Fighter Aviation Regiment, which used Yak-1 fighters, and the 587th Bomber Aviation Regiment, which used twin engine Pe-2 dive bombers. Later the unit received the Guards designation and reorganized as the 125th Guards Dive Bomber Regiment. Although all three regiments had been planned to have women exclusively, none remained all-female. The 586th and 588th Regiments employed male mechanics, the 586th because no women had received training to work on the Yakovlev fighter planes before the war. The 586th's woman commander, Major Tamara Aleksandrovna Kazarinova, was replaced by a man, Major Aleksandr Vasilievich Gridnev, in October 1942. The 587th Regiment was originally under the command of Marina Raskova, but after her death in 1943, a male commanding officer, Major Valentin Vasilievich Markov, replaced her. The 587th's Petlyakov Pe-2 dive bombers also required a tall person to operate the top rear machine gun, but not enough women recruited were tall enough, requiring some men to join the aircrews as radio operator and tail gunner. The 588th Regiment's staff driver and searchlight operatives were also male.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Night Witches\" (;, ) was a World War II German nickname for the all female military aviators of the 588th Night Bomber Regiment, known later as the 46th \"Taman\" Guards Night Bomber Aviation Regiment, of the Soviet Air Forces. Though women were initially barred from combat, Major Marina Raskova used her position and personal contacts with the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, Joseph Stalin, to obtain permission to form female combat units. On October 8, 1941, an order was issued to deploy three women's air-force units, including the 588th Regiment. The regiment, formed by Major Marina Raskova and led by Major Yevdokiya Bershanskaya, comprised primarily female volunteers in their late teens and early twenties.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976088}
{"src_title": "National Technical Museum (Prague)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The collections originate from the professional engineering school (founded in 1717 in Prague), continued by the Prague Polytechnical Institute (founded in 1806) and finally the opening of the Czech industrial museum, founded by Vojtěch Náprstek in 1874. Further parts of his collections were transferred to the museum later in the 20th century. The modern origin is the Technical Museum of Bohemia, opened to the public in 1910 in the Schwarzenberg Palace, renamed the Czechoslovakian Technical Museum in 1918 (with the founding of the state of Czechoslovakia) and moved to its present building in 1942. It was designed by Milan Babuška, the winner of an architectural competition in Functionalist style. The collection moved out during Nazi occupation, then was gradually returned, only fully occupying the main building in the 1990s.  In 1995 three new galleries were opened: Industrial Design, Single Building, and Fine Arts. Industrial design particularly featured early Czech motorcycles and light fittings, and their processes of manufacture. The Single Building Gallery is used for quarterly exhibitions of models and designs of buildings which have some topical relevance such as an anniversary. The Fine Arts gallery features paintings and sculptures from the 17th to 20th century of subjects related to industry, science and technology.  In 2001 the museum opened a Railroad Museum that contains about 100 railway vehicles.  The 2002 European floods caused damage to some 200 cubic metres of documents at the museum - in a location separate to the main building. Work involved in drying and restoring the materials continued until 2013.  The National Technical Museum was closed from September 2006 to February 2011 for extensive renovations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Significant exhibits.", "content": "Aviation pioneer Jan Kašpar donated the aircraft, with which he had flown his first flight from Pardubice to Velká Chuchle in 1911, to the National Technical Museum in Prague, where it is still on display among many other historic aircraft. Mercedes-Benz W154 (1939), Rudolf Caracciola's car is the most valuable exhibit of the muzeum. Tatra 80 (1935), President Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk's car is the most precious Czech car.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The National Technical Museum () (NTM) in Prague is the largest institution dedicated to preserving information and artifacts related to the history of technology in the Czech Republic. The museum has large exhibits representing approximately 15% of its total collection. The museum also manages substantial archives consisting of approximately 3,500 linear shelf meters of archival material and about 250,000 books. The museum was founded in 1908 and has been in its current location (adjacent to Letná Park) since 1941.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976089}
{"src_title": "Symfony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Goal.", "content": "Symfony aims to speed up the creation and maintenance of web applications and to replace repetitive coding tasks. It's also aimed at building robust applications in an enterprise context, and aims to give developers full control over the configuration: from the directory structure to the foreign libraries, almost everything can be customized. To match enterprise development guidelines, Symfony is bundled with additional tools to help developers test, debug and document projects.  Symfony has a low performance overhead used with a bytecode cache.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical.", "content": "Symfony was heavily inspired by the Spring Framework.  It makes heavy use of existing PHP open-source projects as part of the framework, including:  Symfony also makes use of its own components, which are freely available on the Symfony Components site for various other projects:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sponsors.", "content": "Symfony is sponsored by SensioLabs, a French software developer and professional services provider. The first name was Sensio Framework, and all classes were therefore prefixed with sf. Later on when it was decided to launch it as open-source framework, the brainstorming resulted in the name symfony (being renamed to Symfony from version 2 and on), which matches the existing theme and class name prefixes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Real-world usage.", "content": "Symfony's own website has a comprehensive list of projects using Symfony and a showcase of websites built with Symfony.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Releases.", "content": "Symfony manages its releases through a time-based model; a new Symfony release comes out every six months: one in May and one in November. This release process has been adopted as of Symfony 2.2, and all the \"rules\" explained in this document must be strictly followed as of Symfony 2.4.  The standard version of Symfony is maintained for eight months, whereas long-term support (LTS) versions are supported for three years. A new LTS release is published biennially.  The current LTS release is version 4.4 as per https://symfony.com/releases/4.4", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Symfony is a PHP web application framework and a set of reusable PHP components/libraries. It was published as free software on October 18, 2005 and released under the MIT license.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976090}
{"src_title": "José López Portillo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "López Portillo was born in Mexico City, to his father José López Portillo y Weber (1888–1974), an engineer, historian, researcher, and academic, and to Refugio Pacheco y Villa-Gordoa. He was the grandson of José López Portillo y Rojas, a lawyer, politician, and man of letters. He was the great-great-great grandson of José María Narváez (1768–1840), a Spanish explorer who was the first to enter Strait of Georgia, in present-day British Columbia, and the first to view the site now occupied by Vancouver. He studied law at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) before beginning his political career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "After graduating, he began his political career with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in 1959. He held several positions in the administrations of his two predecessors before being appointed to serve as finance minister under Luis Echeverría, a close friend from childhood, between 1973 and 1975.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Domestic policy.", "content": "López Portillo was elected unopposed in 1976, though in any event the PRI was so entrenched that he was effectively assured of victory when Echeverría chose him as the PRI's candidate. To date, he is the last Mexican president to run unopposed.  When he entered office, Mexico was in the midst of an economic crisis. He undertook an ambitious program to promote Mexico's economic development with revenues stemming from the discovery of new petroleum reserves in the states of Veracruz and Tabasco by Petróleos Mexicanos (Pemex), the country's publicly owned oil company. In 1980, Mexico joined Venezuela in the Pact of San José, a foreign aid project to sell oil at preferential rates to countries in Central America and the Caribbean. The economic confidence that he fostered led to a short-term boost in economic growth, but by the time he left office, the economy had deteriorated and gave way to a severe debt crisis and a sovereign default.  One of his last acts as president, announced during his annual State of the Nation address on September 1, 1982, was to order the nationalization of the country's banking system.  During his presidential term, his critics accused him of corruption and nepotism.  An electoral reform conducted during his presidential term increased the number of members of the Chamber of Deputies to 400: 300 being elected single-seat constituencies by plurality vote (\"uninominals\") and 100 being elected according to proportional representation (\"plurinominals\"). The reform furthermore opened the electoral process for small opposition parties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Foreign policy.", "content": "In 1981, the Cancun Summit, a North-South dialogue, took place. The summit was attended by 22 heads of state and government from industrialized countries (North) and developing nations (South). During López Portillo's presidential term, Mexico supported the Sandinista National Liberation Front in Nicaragua. In 1977, after the death of dictator Francisco Franco, Mexico resumed diplomatic relations with Spain. Also, Pope John Paul II visited Mexico for the first time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidential succession.", "content": "In the year leading to the end of his term as president on December 1, 1982, López Portillo personally chose two candidates as possibilities to replace himself, following the succession ritual established by his party. One, Javier García Paniagua, would have been appointed if a man of greater political skill were needed. The other, ultimately his successor, was Miguel de la Madrid, who was chosen for his financial and administrative skills, which were deemed much more necessary after the devaluation of the peso in February 1982 and the subsequent economic crisis.  On September 1, 1982, at his final annual Address to the Congress (\"Informe de Gobierno\"), López Portillo gave a famous speech where he condemned businessmen and bankers responsible for the capital flight, claimed that the crisis was not his fault (\"I'm responsible for the helm, but the storm is not my fault\"), announced the nationalization of the banks (\"They have looted us, but Mexico is not finished, they won't loot us again!\"), and asked for forgiveness over his mistakes as President and the economic crisis. He famously broke in tears during his speech after asking for the forgiveness of Mexico's poor. This passionate speech, however, did little to repair his image, and he remains one of the most unpopular Mexican presidents in recent history.  López Portillo was the last economic nationalist president to emerge from the ranks of the Institutional Revolutionary Party. Subsequent presidents have all been for free trade (\"librecambismo\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and death.", "content": "López Portillo's first wife was Carmen Romano. However, López Portillo after his presidency divorced Carmen and married in 1995 his longtime partner, the Yugoslavian-born actress Sasha Montenegro. They had two children (Nabila and Alejandro) but later separated.  He was the brother of late Mexican novelist Margarita López Portillo, who died on May 8, 2006, of natural causes.  He died in Mexico City when he was 83 years old. He was the victim of a cardiac complication generated by a pneumonia. He was buried at the Pantheon Federal District military.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public image and opinion.", "content": "In a national survey conducted in 2012, 25% of the respondents considered that the López Portillo administration was \"very good\" or \"good\", 17% responded that it was an \"average\" administration, and 44% responded that it was a \"very bad\" or \"bad\" administration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "José Guillermo Abel López Portillo y Pacheco, (; 16 June 1920 – 17 February 2004) was a Mexican lawyer and politician affiliated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) who served as the 51st President of Mexico from 1976 to 1982. López Portillo was the only official candidate in the 1976 Presidential election, being the only President in recent Mexican history to win an election unopposed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976091}
{"src_title": "Nicholas, Crown Prince of Montenegro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family background.", "content": "The house of Petrović came originally from Herzegovina and settled in Njeguši around 1400. Niegosch was born around 1425 and became the Voivode of Njegoš.  Crown Prince Nicholas descends from Danilo Petrović-Njegoš who obtained the hereditary Dignity of Vladika (Prince-Bishop) of Montenegro in 1711 when it became a theocracy. Danilo I Petrović-Njegoš was recognized as Sovereign Prince of Montenegro by Russia on 21 March 1852, and established succession by male primogeniture. His successor, Prince Nikola I assumed the style of \"Royal Highness\" on 19 December 1900, and the title of King 28 August 1910.  Nikola is also related to the former royal House of Obrenović through Jevrem, younger full brother of Miloš Obrenović I, Prince of Serbia.  During World War I the Petrović Njegoš family were forced to flee the country in 1915 after the Army of Montenegro was overwhelmed by the troops of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. At the end of the war, territories of Montenegro joined the Kingdom of Serbia, while the Podgorica People's Assembly abolished the Kingdom of Montenegro and deposing the Petrović Njegoš dynasty.  The family gained the French citizenship as they made their home in France where Nikola I of Montenegro died in exile in 1921. The same year, King Nikola's maternal grandson, Alexandar Karađorđević (Prince Nikola I's cousin) became king of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, of which Montenegro had become a part. Though the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was proclaimed on 13 November 1918, it was never recognized by Nikola I, who maintained a government-in-exile, which was headed by the ex-king's former aide-de-camp and ambassador to Washington, General Anto Gvozdenović, until the Conference of Ambassadors at Paris gave international recognition to the union 13 July 1922.  Nikola I's heir at death was his eldest son, Crown Prince Danilo (titular King Danilo II), who \"abdicated\" after one week, recognising his cousin's reign over Serbia (including the territories of Montenegro) and Yugoslavia. Family's dynastic claim was taken up by his grandson, Michael, Prince of Montenegro, the titular King Mihajlo I, who was the father of Prince Nikola II and died in exile in 1986.  Though Prince Nikola II is \"de jure\" King of Montenegro he uses the style of \"His Royal Highness Crown Prince\" or \"His Royal Highness Prince Nikola II of Montenegro.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "Prince Nikola II was born in an internment camp in Occupied Czechoslovakia on July 7, 1944. He is the only son and heir of the late Prince Michael of Montenegro, Grand-Duke of Grahovo and Zeta, who lived in exile until his death in 1986, and Geneviève Prigent (1919–1991), a French citizen. Prince Michael was regarded by Montenegro's monarchists as king from 7 March 1921. His parents married on 27 January 1941 and divorced in Paris, France, on 11 August 1949, exactly 5 weeks after his 5th birthday. Genevieve received custody of young Nikola and raised him largely as a single mother. Growing up in France, Prince Nikola barely saw his father, knew very little about Montenegro and was raised and educated as a Frenchman.  Nikola was an active participant in the campaign for the restoration of Montenegro's independence, preceding the referendum on the separation of the former kingdom from the provisional State Union of Serbia and Montenegro.  Prince Nikola made public pronouncements of his willingness to return to the Montenegrin throne if that were the wish of the people. In July 2010 the government of Montenegro made a formal offer to provide Nikola with a €3,000 monthly stipend (equal to that of the President), granting his family with an annual €300,000 civil list, a formal residence in Cetinje and the return of the Petrović Njegoš historic family home in Njeguši. This offer was rejected because Nikola believed that the proposal did not deal adequately with the issue of property compensation, as more than thirty properties were alleged to have been confiscated from the dynasty after the monarchy was overthrown. Furthermore, he believed that the bill would prevent the dynasty from participating in political life and restrict the ability of members of the dynasty to speak freely about certain subjects. He also said that the civil list amount that was announced in the press was not actually contained in the proposed version of the bill that he was shown.  Owing to his stance on this bill, Nikola chose not to attend the celebrations of the centenary of the Kingdom of Montenegro that were held on 28 August 2010. Instead he celebrated in private.  Legislation passed later in 2011 revised the conditions offered to the prince, and was accepted by Prince Nikola on behalf of his family, who said he was now \"entirely satisfied\". In addition to aspects of the previous offer, Nikola was given use of the first floor of the former royal palace and named as a special representative for the government of Montenegro.  The Montenegrin state promised to pay €4.3 million in compensation for lost assets to a family fund, and pay Crown Prince Nikola a monthly salary equal to that of the president.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Nikola was educated in France. In 1964 he was admitted to the Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris, and between 1965 and 1967 he attended training courses in several architectural practices. Between 1967 and 1971 he worked on several architectural projects, including a winter sports resort in Avoriaz, France, and with Shamaï Haber on several university science faculties.  In 1971, he was awarded a diploma in Architecture and admitted to the Société Française des Architectes. Nikola has stated that he wishes to construct the first eco-built residence in Montenegro when designing his family's new home in Cetinje.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "In 1976 he married Francine Navarro in Trebeurden, Côtes-du-Nord on 27 November. She died in Paris on 6 August 2008. Together they raised a family at Les Lilas, France;", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours, awards and arms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat of arms.", "content": "He bears the Montenegrin Coat of Arms, which can be seen at the centre of the Flag of Montenegro. The Royal Coat of Arms is borne by the head of the Petrović Njegoš Dynasty, and differs from the family Coat of Arms.  The Constitution of 2007 maintained \"the tradition\" of King Nikola I: the adopted Coat of Arms was a crowned silver eagle with the sara in one and the scepter in the other claw, and charged on its breast was a red shield with the lion passant.  The 2011 Law on the Status of the Descendants of the Petrović Njegoš Dynasty states that Prince Nikola II \"may use the heraldic symbols of the Petrović Njegoš dynasty\" (Article 6).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Royal Standard.", "content": "In Petrović Njegoš's standard there is a red background bordered by white, with the double-headed eagle and the initials in Cyrillic N.II (Nikola II) on its breast, with the lion passant underneath. This standard is flown over the Prince’s palace at Cetinje. It is also used as a distinguishing insignia on vehicles, ships, aircraft and in the Military. The other version is a tricolor with initials NII and a crown on top.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Crown Prince Nicholas of Montenegro (; born 7 July 1944) is the Head of the House of Petrović-Njegoš, which reigned over Montenegro from 1696 to 1766 and again from 1782 to 1918.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976092}
{"src_title": "Yves Rossy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Rossy was born in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel in 1959. He served as a fighter pilot in the Swiss Air Force, where he flew Dassault Mirage IIIs, Northrop F-5 Tiger IIs, and Hawker Hunters. He piloted Boeing 747s for Swissair, and later for Swiss International Air Lines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jet wingpack.", "content": "Rossy developed and built a wingsuit system comprising a backpack equipped with semi-rigid aeroplane-type carbon-fiber wings—with a span of about —powered by four Jetcat P400 jet engines, modified from large kerosene-fueled model aircraft engines. This has led to him being referred to in the press by various monikers, such as \"The Airman\", \"Rocketman\", \"Fusionman\", and—most commonly—\"Jetman\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Developmental flights.", "content": "In December 2006 (in Bex, Switzerland) Rossy became the first to successfully fly horizontally for six minutes using four jet engines and wings strapped on his back. He was quoted as saying: \"The idea is to have fun, not to kill yourself\".  Since 2007 Rossy has conducted some of his flight tests from a private airfield, Skydive Empuriabrava, in Empuriabrava (Girona, Costa Brava), Spain.  In May 2008 Rossy made a flight over the Alps Mountain Range, reaching a top speed of, and an average speed of.  On 26 September 2008, Jumping from a Pilatus Porter at an altitude of 8,200 feet (2,500 meters) over Calais, France, Rossy crossed the English Channel with a single jet-powered wing strapped on his back, wearing only a helmet and a flight suit for protection. Reaching speeds of up to, he made the 22-mile (35-km) flight to England in 13 minutes, where he deployed his parachute and landed in Dover, UK becoming the first person to cross the Channel in this manner.  In November 2009 Rossy attempted a crossing of the Strait of Gibraltar, hoping to be the first person to fly between two continents using a \"Jet pack\". He leapt from a small plane about 1,950 m (6,500 ft) above Tangier in Morocco and headed in the direction of Atlanterra, Spain. The flight was expected to take about a quarter of an hour. Strong winds and cloud banks forced Rossy to ditch into the sea just three miles from the Spanish coast, where his support helicopter picked him up ten minutes later, unhurt. The Spanish Coast Guard retrieved the jetpack, which was equipped with a parachute and float.  In 5 November 2010 Rossy flew a new version of his jet-powered flight system and successfully performed two aerial loops before landing via parachute. He had launched from a hot air balloon piloted by Brian Jones at 2,400 meters (7,900 feet).  In 7 May 2011 Rossy flew above the Grand Canyon in Arizona. The United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) had classified his flight system as an aircraft. When it finally granted him a license, the FAA waived the normal 25 to 40 hours of flight testing time, and Rossy acted quickly to complete his flight.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Latest media and event appearances.", "content": "Rossy was featured on an episode of \"Stan Lee's Superhumans\". He has appeared on the BBC's \"Top Gear\", where he raced Richard Hammond and Toni Gardemeister.  Rossy was a main attraction at the 2013 Experimental Aircraft Association AirVenture Fly-In, America's largest fly-in.  Rossy was also a feature of the South Australian Primary School's Music Festival in 2014, when the theme of the Festival was flight. A song was written, 'Jetman' about Yves Rossy by Paul Jarman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "October 2015 sustained flight.", "content": "In 13 October 2015, Rossy and Vince Reffet, wearing jetpacks, deployed from a helicopter flying at 5,500 feet (1,676 meters) and flew in a choreographed demonstration with an Emirates Airbus A380 cruising at an altitude of 4,000 feet (1,219 meters) over Dubai. The flights were documented by the use of helmet-mounted cameras and third-party videos released in early November 2015. The videos show the pair soaring and diving around the airliner, flying in formation with it for about ten minutes. A television program \"City in the Sky, part 2\" about how airliner flights are run, showed at its start Yves Rossy and Vince Reffet flying with Rossy-type jetpacks, to show some principles of how airliners fly. It said that before being allowed to jetpack-fly in Britain, he had to get himself registered as an aeroplane, because parts of his body, rather than parts of his jetpack, acted as control surfaces; but he was exempted from the seat-belt rule. It showed him being lifted to flying height on the outside of a helicopter. He had to fall a distance to build up enough air speed for his airfoils to work.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Yves Rossy (born 27 August 1959) is a Swiss military-trained pilot and an aviation enthusiast. He is known as the inventor of a series of experimental individual jet packs, the latest using carbon-fiber wings for flight. Often referred to as \"Jetman,\" Rossy has sometimes tested and presented new versions of his jet packs in high-profile events staged around the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976093}
{"src_title": "CDGVAL", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The CDGVAL project replaced the SK6000 project, which was abandoned after unsuccessful test runs in 1999. CDGVAL was launched in 2000, with construction work beginning in 2003. Total cost is estimated at €145 million.  Charles de Gaulle is Europe's largest airport with an area of 3500 hectares. The airport terminals are relatively far apart. Terminal 2 opened in 1982. At that time links between terminals, including the rail link at Roissypole and the long-stay car parks, were achieved by a shuttle system of buses which progressively became an increasing percentage of airport road congestion. It was not uncommon for the journey between terminals to take nearly half an hour during peak periods. This problem revealed the requirement for a rapid and modern transport solution for airport users. Aéroports de Paris (ADP) planned to overhaul the transport system within the airport perimeter by introducing an internal train link.  The VAL metro system project was launched and project specific infrastructure work commenced shortly afterwards. After the project was under way in 1992, use of the SK6000 train system built by French company Soulé was imposed on ADP by the French government. Infrastructure had to be adapted and Line 1 was now due to open to the public on May 1, 1996. However, during testing the automated rail transit system did not perform as hoped revealing several flaws in the system. Deemed unreliable and incapable of meeting availability targets, ADP were forced to consider alternatives despite the amount already invested which had attained nearly 150 million Euros of state funds. In June 1999 the project was abandoned so ADP had to invest urgently in order to renew its fleet of ageing coaches and maintain road service. SK Line 2, which was due to open during the summer of 1997, was still nowhere near completion after almost one billion Francs invested. A new project codenamed CDGVAL was undertaken in 2000. Building on the original project, CDGVAL largely followed the SK path while adapting existing infrastructure to allow transit of automatic metro-type equipment. Work began in 2003.  Developed by Siemens Mobility France (previously Matra Transport then Siemens Transportation Systems), this train system has already equipped the French cities of Lille, Toulouse and Rennes, Italian city Turin and Chicago O'Hare International Airport. The company has supplied and installed seven trains with two VAL 208 cars each, automation, the command centre, track-side facilities, electrical installations and cabling, station floors and landings and workshop equipment.  The launch was initially forecast for autumn 2006, ten years after the scheduled opening for the SK6000 line, but the launch still underwent 6 further months delay. The first CDGVAL line opened to the public on April 4, 2007 after a full test run on March 19, 2007. The bus routes ran alongside the new tramway for the first ten days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passenger services.", "content": "A travelator provides access to CDGVAL platform.  Caution: CDGVAL Shuttle has pickpockets active as it's open to anyone free of charge & passes through airport Parking PR and Parking PX stations. Pickpockets are adept at taking valuables that are often not secured properly.  CDGVAL serves also as transport for hotels situated within the boundaries of the airport. Do not to confuse CDGVAL & Hotel Shuttle Buses (Navette Bus): black line, pink line..) at Terminal 2 above CDG TGV rail station.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Detail of Connections to RER-B.", "content": "The RER-B commuter line is a heavy-rail service to the Parisian region which is quite cheap.  Passengers for T1 or T2 connect to the RER-B via CDGVAL as follows: Terminal T2 has an RER-B platform in the train station directly underneath it; this station also handles the high-speed TGV, Eurostar, etc. Terminal T1 has no direct connection to the RER-B; instead, it connects at T3. There is then a short hop on the CDGVal to/from T1. The T3-to-T1 (i.e. CDGVAL) connection is uncomplicated, very user-friendly, modern, fast, and free.  Riders TO CDG should be aware that the RER-B trains become extremely crowded during the morning rush hour. Standing room only is the norm, and this is exacerbated by luggage. The evening rush hour is of no concern to North Atlantic passengers, since these Paris departure flights are universally scheduled for morning or early afternoon departure.  Travelers FROM CDG will have their choice of seats, since this is the terminus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "LISA.", "content": "A second CDGVAL line, called LISA (\"Liaison Interne Satellite Aérogare\"), links Terminal 2E and the Terminal S3 and opened on 27 June 2007. With two stations and a length of it is located within the security controlled area of the airport and therefore accessible only to flight passengers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "CDGVAL \"(Charles de Gaulle Véhicule Automatique Léger)\" is a free automatic shuttle rail service at Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport consisting of two lines: a first line which opened on 4 April 2007 and a second on 27 June 2007. Based on the VAL system and using Siemens Transportation Systems VAL 208 coaches, the first five-station line links the three airport terminals, RER and TGV stations and remote car parks within 8 minutes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976094}
{"src_title": "Rudolf Mildner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Johannestal, Austrian Silesia, Mildner served as a volunteer in the Austro-Hungarian Navy during World War I. After the war, Mildner served in the Freikorps Sudetenland. Mildner trained to become a police officer in Salzburg. In 1925, he entered the Austrian police service. During that time Mildner furthered his education by attending night school.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nazi career.", "content": "He became a member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in 1931 with number 614,080. He achieved a doctorate of law at the University of Innsbruck in 1934. In 1935 he was forced to leave Austria and move to Germany. There he became a German citizen and entered the SS (number 275,741). Milder obtained a position in the political police department in Munich.  After the 1938 \"Anschluss\", Mildner became chief of the Gestapo in Linz and in 1939 in Salzburg, Austria. From December 1939 to early 1941 he led the Gestapo at Chemnitz. In March 1941 he was named as the head of the Gestapo in Katowice. It was through this office that Mildner became connected with the Auschwitz concentration camp and served as head of a \"kangaroo court\", which sentenced some 2,000 Poles to death. In 1942, he received the War Merit Cross, 2nd class for fighting the enemies of the Reich.  In September 1943, Mildner was transferred to occupied Denmark as Gestapo chief to fight the Danish resistance movement and organize the deportation of the Danish Jews. Mildner oversaw security in Denmark in 1943 when the deportation of the Jews failed. 95% of them succeeded in sailing safely to neutral Sweden. This failure was held against Mildner and he was transferred out of Denmark in January 1944. He then served as Inspector of the SiPo and SD in Kassel.  From March 1944 to June 1944 he was Deputy Chief of sub-offices IVA and IVB (Enemies of the Regime & Activities of the Sects and Churches) in the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA). In December 1944, he was appointed the successor of Franz Josef Huber as chief of the SiPo, Gestapo and SD in Vienna. In this capacity, he was responsible for the court-martial and subsequent execution of resistance fighters Major Karl Biedermann, Captain (Hauptmann) Alfred Huth und First Lieutenant (Oberleutnant) Rudolf Raschke, who had tried to save Vienna from destruction by handing the city over to the Allies. After Vienna was captured by the Soviets, Mildner returned to Linz where he was the deputy of Franz Josef Huber. In May 1945, he escaped to the west and was arrested by the American army and testified at the Nuremberg Trials. The U.S. Army detained Mildner and \"saved him from landing in the hands of war crimes investigators, because his knowledge of communist subversion was considered useful.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nuremberg trials.", "content": "At Nuremberg he testified with regards to RSHA chief Ernst Kaltenbrunner. Mildner declared that while he was Gestapo leader at Katowice he frequently sent prisoners to Auschwitz for imprisonment or execution. He visited Auschwitz on several occasions and was shown the extermination installations. Mildner stated that he had tried to prevent the Jewish persecution in Denmark, but was overruled by Himmler. He was released in 1949 and disappeared to escape prosecution. His place and date of death are unknown; Adolf Eichmann claimed to have met Mildner in Argentina in 1958, but this claim has not been verified.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rudolf Mildner (July 7, 1902 – 1953?) was an Austrian-German SS-\"Standartenführer\" who served as the chief of the Gestapo at Katowice and who was the head of the political department at Auschwitz concentration camp, conducting \"third degree\" methods of interrogation from March 1941 until September 1943. As such, he frequently sent prisoners to Auschwitz for incarceration or execution. He visited Auschwitz on several occasions. In December 1944, he was appointed chief of the SiPo, Gestapo and SD in Vienna. After the war, Mildner testified at the Nuremberg Trials and remained in custody until 1949.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976095}
{"src_title": "Lord George Hamilton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The river was first mentioned by the Roman historian Tacitus. In his Annals, he describes the Roman campaign against the Chatti under the command of Germanicus in 15 AD. Forty-five thousand soldiers of the Roman army destroyed the major centre of the Chatti, Mattium, directly after they crossed the \"Adrana\" (Eder).  In the Middle Ages, the river was known by the names; Aderna, Adarna, Adrina.  On the banks of the Eder, in the town of Schwarzenau, near Bad Berleburg, a religious group was founded in August 1708; the Schwarzenau Brethren. Eight adults were completely baptised thrice in the Eder. This group emigrated to America where they are still to be found.  As late as up to the end of the 19th Century, the river was also known in local dialect as \"Edder\". For instance, in Felsberg-Gensungen, the pharmacy is known as the \"Edder-Apotheke\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gold in the Eder.", "content": "Sediments of the Eder contain a proportion of gold. The majority of this gold is said to originate from Eisenberg (Korbach), which contains one of the largest reserves of gold in Middle Europe. Gold is eroded out of the Eisenberg, for example, by the Itter stream, which, since the Edersee dam was built, flows into the Edersee lake.  Gold panning in the Eder has been known since 1308. The main historical area for panning the gold is between Affoldern and Fritzlar. In the 14th Century, the Teutonic Order panned gold out of the Eder sediments near Obermöllrich. In the 18th Century, even ducats were minted from Eder gold; they are collector's items today.  Up to the 1970s, school children from Duisburg, who stayed at a nearby holiday camp, together with a teacher from Marienhagen, part of the town of Vöhl, went panning for gold in the sediments of the River Itter. Panning for gold along the Eder is still popular.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Course.", "content": "The river rises from the Ederkopf mountain in the Rothaar mountain range in eastern North Rhine-Westphalia, near the springs of the Lahn and Sieg rivers. However, unlike the Lahn and Sieg, which are both tributaries of the Rhine, the Eder flows east and north, into the river Fulda at Edermünde, south of Kassel. The Fulda then confluences with the Werra River at Hann. Münden to form the Weser River, which flows in to the North Sea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Edersee Dam.", "content": "The Edersee Dam is situated below the town of Waldeck. It is constructed of rock and concrete, and is high and long. It was completed in 1914; in 2014 its 100th birthday was celebrated. It forms the Edersee lake, which is long and contains 200 million cubic metres of water. This is used to generate hydroelectricity and to regulate water levels for shipping on the Weser river.  At low water in late summer, and during dry years, the remnants of three villages (Asel, Bringhausen, and Berich) and a bridge across the original river bed, which was submerged when the lake was filled in 1914, can be seen. Descendants of those buried there go to visit the graves of their ancestors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Destruction of the Eder dam.", "content": "On the night of the 17 May 1943, Avro Lancaster bombers of the RAF 617 Squadron used specially-developed bouncing bombs (codename: Upkeep) that were engineered by Barnes Wallis. They were used to destroy the Möhne and Eder dams, as part of Operation Chastise. The dam was repaired and in use again before the end of the year. The story of the raid was documented by the 1955 film called \"The Dam Busters\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries of the Eder.", "content": "The most important tributaries of the Eder are (listed first in Eder-kilometres from source to the Fulda):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Eder is a -long major river in Germany that begins in eastern North Rhine-Westphalia and passes in to Hesse, where it confluences with the River Fulda.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976096}
{"src_title": "Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark was born on at Mon Repos, the summer residence of the Greek royal family on the island of Corfu. She was the third child and eldest daughter of King George I of Greece and his wife, Grand Duchess Olga Constantinovna of Russia. Alexandra's father was not a native Greek, but he had been born a Danish prince named Christian Wilhelm of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, a son of Christian IX, King of Denmark, and he had been elected to the Greek throne at the age of seventeen. Five of his sons (Constantine, George, Nicholas, Andrew and Christopher), and two daughters (Alexandra and Maria), attained adulthood.  The Greek royal family was not wealthy by royal standards and they lived with simplicity. King George was a taciturn man, but contrary to the general approach of the time, he believed in happy rambunctious children. The long corridors of the royal place in Athens were used by Alexandra and her siblings for all types of play and sometimes a \"bike ride\" would be led by the King himself. Raised by British nannies, English was the children's first language, but they spoke Greek between themselves. They also learned German and French.  Alexandra, nickname \"Aline\" within her family, or Greek Alix, to distinguish her from her aunt and godmother, Alexandra, Princess of Wales, had a sunny disposition and was much loved by her family. \"She had one of those sweet and lovable natures that endeared her to everybody who came in touch with her,\" recalled her brother, Nicholas. \"She looked young and beautiful, and ever since she was a child, life looked as it had nothing but joy and happiness in store for her.\"  Alexandra's playmates were her brother Nicholas and her sister Maria, who followed her in age. Alexandra spent many holidays in Denmark visiting her paternal grandparents. In Denmark, Alexandra and her siblings met their Russian and British cousins in large family gatherings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "When she was eighteen years old, she was married to Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia, her maternal first cousin once removed and the youngest child and sixth son of Emperor Alexander II and his first wife, Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine. They had become close when Grand Duke Paul spent winters in Greece due to his frequent respiratory illnesses. The Greek royal family also frequently spent holidays with the Romanov family on visits to Russia or Denmark. Their engagement was announced on 10 November 1888. The wedding took place on in St. Petersburg, at the chapel of the Winter Palace.  They had two children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Seven months into her second pregnancy, Alexandra took a walk with her friends on the bank of the Moskva River and jumped directly into a boat that was permanently moored there, but fell as she got in. The next day, she collapsed in the middle of a ball from violent labour pains. She gave birth to her son, Dimitri, lapsed into a fatal coma, and she died six days later in the Romanovs' estate Ilyinskoe near Moscow. The Grand Duchess was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral, St. Petersburg. Her grieving husband had to be restrained from throwing himself into the grave with her.  Her husband later morganatically remarried Olga Karnovich, and her son would be involved in the murder of Grigori Rasputin, a favorite of Tsarina Alexandra Feodorvna, in 1916.  In 1939 when Alexandra's nephew George II of Greece was reigning, the Greek government obtained permission from the Soviet government under Joseph Stalin to rebury Princess Alexandra in Greece. Her body was removed from the vault in Leningrad and transferred by a Greek ship to Athens. It was finally laid to rest near the Tatoi Palace. Alexandra's marble tombstone over an empty tomb is still in its place in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.  The \"\"Alexandra Maternity Hospital\"\" (now \"\"Alexandra General Hospital\"\") in Athens was later named in her memory by another nephew, King Paul; it was affiliated with the University of Athens with a special remit to research and combat postpartum maternal mortality. Alexandras Avenue in Athens was also named after her.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Grand Duchess Alexandra Georgievna of Russia (; \"née\" Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark (); 30 August [O.S. 18 August] 1870 – 24 September 1891) was the third child and firstborn daughter of King George I and Queen Olga of Greece, who herself was a Russian grand duchess and was also a grandchild of Denmark's King Christian IX and Queen Louise. She was a sister to Constantine I of Greece, and thus aunt of three kings and two queens, Constantine's three sons, who all became kings of Greece, and two of his daughters, who were queens, of Romania and (titularly) Croatia, respectively. She was also first cousin of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, King George V of the United Kingdom, King Christian X of Denmark, and both King Haakon VII and Queen Maud of Norway, as well as a paternal aunt of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976097}
{"src_title": "Unix-like", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "The Open Group owns the UNIX trademark and administers the Single UNIX Specification, with the \"UNIX\" name being used as a certification mark. They do not approve of the construction \"Unix-like\", and consider it a misuse of their trademark. Their guidelines require \"UNIX\" to be presented in uppercase or otherwise distinguished from the surrounding text, strongly encourage using it as a branding adjective for a generic word such as \"system\", and discourage its use in hyphenated phrases.  Other parties frequently treat \"Unix\" as a genericized trademark. Some add a wildcard character to the name to make an abbreviation like \"Un*x\" or \"*nix\", since Unix-like systems often have Unix-like names such as AIX, A/UX, HP-UX, IRIX, Linux, Minix, Ultrix, Xenix, Xinu, and XNU. These patterns do not literally match many system names, but are still generally recognized to refer to any UNIX system, descendant, or work-alike, even those with completely dissimilar names such as Darwin/macOS, illumos/Solaris or FreeBSD.  In 2007, Wayne R. Gray sued to dispute the status of UNIX as a trademark, but lost his case, and lost again on appeal, with the court upholding the trademark and its ownership.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "\"Unix-like\" systems started to appear in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Many proprietary versions, such as Idris (1978), UNOS (1982), Coherent (1983), and UniFlex (1985), aimed to provide businesses with the functionality available to academic users of UNIX.  When AT&T allowed relatively inexpensive commercial binary sub-licensing of UNIX in 1979, a variety of proprietary systems were developed based on it, including AIX, HP-UX, IRIX, SunOS, Tru64, Ultrix, and Xenix. These largely displaced the proprietary clones. Growing incompatibility among these systems led to the creation of interoperability standards, including POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification.  Various free, low-cost, and unrestricted substitutes for UNIX emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, including 4.4BSD, Linux, and Minix. Some of these have in turn been the basis for commercial \"Unix-like\" systems, such as BSD/OS and macOS. Several versions of (Mac) OS X/macOS running on Intel-based Mac computers have been certified under the Single UNIX Specification. The BSD variants are descendants of UNIX developed by the University of California at Berkeley with UNIX source code from Bell Labs. However, the BSD code base has evolved since then, replacing all of the AT&T code. Since the BSD variants are not certified as compliant with the Single UNIX Specification, they are referred to as \"UNIX-like\" rather than \"UNIX\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Categories.", "content": "Dennis Ritchie, one of the original creators of Unix, expressed his opinion that Unix-like systems such as Linux are \"de facto\" Unix systems. Eric S. Raymond and Rob Landley have suggested that there are three kinds of Unix-like systems:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetic UNIX.", "content": "Those systems with a historical connection to the AT&T codebase. Most commercial UNIX systems fall into this category. So do the BSD systems, which are descendants of work done at the University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Some of these systems have no original AT&T code but can still trace their ancestry to AT&T designs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trademark or branded UNIX.", "content": "These systemslargely commercial in naturehave been determined by the Open Group to meet the Single UNIX Specification and are allowed to carry the UNIX name. Most such systems are commercial derivatives of the System V code base in one form or another, although Apple macOS 10.5 and later is a BSD variant that has been certified, EulerOS and Inspur K-UX are Linux distributions that have been certified, and a few other systems (such as IBM z/OS) earned the trademark through a POSIX compatibility layer and are not otherwise inherently Unix systems. Many ancient UNIX systems no longer meet this definition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Functional UNIX.", "content": "Broadly, any Unix-like system that behaves in a manner roughly consistent with the UNIX specification, including having a \"program which manages your login and command line sessions\"; more specifically, this can refer to systems such as Linux or Minix that behave similarly to a UNIX system but have no genetic or trademark connection to the AT&T code base. Most free/open-source implementations of the UNIX design, whether genetic UNIX or not, fall into the restricted definition of this third category due to the expense of obtaining Open Group certification, which costs thousands of dollars for commercial closed source systems.  Around 2001, Linux was given the opportunity to get a certification including free help from the POSIX chair Andrew Josey for the symbolic price of one dollar. There have been some activities to make Linux POSIX-compliant, with Josey having prepared a list of differences between the POSIX standard and the Linux Standard Base specification, but in August 2005, this project was shut down because of missing interest at the LSB work group.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Compatibility layers.", "content": "Some non-Unix-like operating systems provide a Unix-like compatibility layer, with varying degrees of Unix-like functionality.  Other means of Windows-Unix interoperability include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Unix-like (sometimes referred to as UN*X or *nix) operating system is one that behaves in a manner similar to a Unix system, while not necessarily conforming to or being certified to any version of the Single UNIX Specification. A Unix-like application is one that behaves like the corresponding Unix command or shell. There is no standard for defining the term, and some difference of opinion is possible as to the degree to which a given operating system or application is \"Unix-like\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976098}
{"src_title": "Ray Dolby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Dolby was born in Portland, Oregon, the son of Esther Eufemia (née Strand) and Earl Milton Dolby, an inventor. He attended Sequoia High School (class of 1951) in Redwood City, California. As a teenager in the decade following World War II, he held part-time and summer jobs at Ampex in Redwood City, working with their first audio tape recorder in 1949. While at San Jose State College and later at Stanford University (interrupted by two years of Army service), he worked on early prototypes of video tape recorder technologies for Alexander M. Poniatoff and Charlie Ginsburg. As a non degree-holding \"consultant\", Dolby played a key role in the effort that led Ampex to unveil their prototype Quadruplex videotape recorder in April 1956 which soon entered production.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1957, Dolby received his B.S. in electrical engineering from Stanford. He subsequently won a Marshall Scholarship for a Ph.D (1961) in physics from the University of Cambridge, where he was a Research Fellow at Pembroke College.  After Cambridge, Dolby acted as a technical advisor to the United Nations in India until 1965,when he returned to England, where he founded Dolby Laboratories in London with a staff of four. In that same year, 1965, he officially invented the Dolby noise-reduction system, a form of audio signal processing for analog tape recorders. His first U.S. patent was not filed until 1969, four years later. The system was first used by Decca Records in the UK.  The Dolby B consumer noise-reduction system works by compressing and increasing the volume of low-level high-frequency sounds during recording and correspondingly reversing the process during playback. This high-frequency round turn reduces the audible level of tape hiss. The professional Type A system operates on four different frequency bands, and the final SR system on ten.  After his pioneering work with noise reduction Dolby sought to improve film sound. As the As Dolby Laboratories' corporate history explains:  The first film with Dolby sound was \"A Clockwork Orange\" (1971), which used Dolby noise reduction on all pre-mixes and masters, but a conventional optical sound track on release prints. \"Callan\" (1974) was the first film with a Dolby-encoded optical soundtrack. The first true LCRS (Left-Center-Right-Surround) soundtrack was encoded on the movie \"A Star Is Born\" in 1976. In fewer than ten years, 6,000 cinemas worldwide were equipped to use Dolby Stereo sound.  Dolby then developed a digital surround sound compression scheme for the cinema. Dolby Stereo Digital (now simply called Dolby Digital) was first featured on the 1992 film \"Batman Returns\". Dolby Digital is now found in the HDTV (ATSC) standard of the United States, DVD players, and many satellite-TV and cable-TV receivers.  Dolby was a Fellow and past president of the Audio Engineering Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Dolby died of leukemia on September 12, 2013, at his home in San Francisco at the age of 80. Dolby was survived by his wife Dagmar, two sons, Tom and David, and four grandchildren. Kevin Yeaman, president and chief executive of Dolby Laboratories, said \"Today we lost a friend, mentor and true visionary.\" Neil Portnow, president of the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, said Dolby had \"changed the way we listen to music and movies for nearly 50 years\" and that Dolby's \"technologies have become an essential part of the creative process for recording artists and filmmakers, ensuring his remarkable legacy for generations to come.\"  In his will, Dolby bequeathed £35 million to Pembroke College, Cambridge, the largest single donation received by the University's current fundraising campaign. In December 2017 it was announced that his family has donated a further £85m from his estate to Cambridge University's Cavendish Laboratory and a new Ray Dolby Center will be established in 2022.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ray Milton Dolby (; January 18, 1933 – September 12, 2013) was an American engineer and inventor of the noise reduction system known as Dolby NR. He helped develop the video tape recorder while at Ampex and was the founder of Dolby Laboratories.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976099}
{"src_title": "Khanate of Kokand", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Khanate of Kokand was established in 1709 when the Shaybanid emir Shahrukh, of the Ming Tribe of Uzbeks, declared independence from the Khanate of Bukhara, establishing a state in the eastern part of the Fergana Valley. He built a citadel as his capital in the small town of Kokand, thus starting the Khanate of Kokand. His son, Abdul Kahrim Bey, and grandson, Narbuta Bey, enlarged the citadel, but both were forced to submit as a protectorate, and pay tribute to, the Qing dynasty in China between 1774 and 1798.  Narbuta Bey’s son Alim was both ruthless and efficient. He hired a mercenary army of Tajik highlanders, and conquered the western half of the Fergana Valley, including Khujand and Tashkent. He was assassinated by his brother Umar in 1811. Umar’s son, Mohammed Ali (Madali Khan), ascended to the throne in 1822 at the age of 12. During his reign, the Khanate of Kokand reached its greatest territorial extent. The Kokand Khanate also housed the Khojas of Kashgar like Jahangir Khoja. In 1841, the British officer Captain Arthur Conolly failed to persuade the various khanates to put aside their differences, in an attempt to counter the growing penetration of the Russian Empire into the area. In November 1841, Captain Conolly left Kokand for Bukhara in an ill-fated attempt to rescue fellow officer Colonel Charles Stoddart, and both were executed on 24 June 1842 by the order of Emir Nasrullah Khan of Bukhara.  Following this, Madali Khan, who had received Conolly in Kokand, and who had also sought an alliance with Russia, lost the trust of Nasrullah. The Emir, encouraged by the conspiratorial efforts of several influential figures in Kokand (including the commander in chief of its army), invaded the Khanate in 1842. Shortly thereafter he executed Madali Khan, his brother, and Omar Khan's widow, the famed poet Nodira. Madali Khan’s cousin, Shir Ali, was installed as the Khan of Kokand in June 1842. Over the next two decades, the khanate was weakened by a bitter civil war, which was further exacerbated by Bukharan and Russian incursions. Shir Ali’s son, Khudayar Khan, ruled from 1844 to 1858, from 1862 to 1863, and from 1865 to 1875. In the meantime, Russia was continuing its advance; on 29 June 1865 Tashkent was taken by the Russian troops of General Chernyayev; the loss of Khujand followed in 1867.  Shortly before the fall of Tashkent, Kokand’s best-known son, Yakub Beg, former lord of Tashkent, was sent by the then Khan of Kokand, Alimqul, to Kashgar, where the Hui Muslims were in revolt against the Chinese. When Alimqul was killed in 1865 during the battle with Russia for Tashkent, many Kokandian soldiers fled to join Yaqub Beg, helping him establish his dominion throughout the Tarim Basin, which lasted until 1877, when Qing reconquered the region.  In 1868, a treaty turned Kokand into a Russian vassal state. The now powerless Khudayar Khan spent his energies improving his lavish palace. Western visitors were impressed by the city of 80,000 people, which contained some 600 mosques and 15 madrasahs. Insurrections against Russian rule and Khudayar’s oppressive taxes forced him into exile in 1875. He was succeeded by his son, Nasruddin Khan, whose anti-Russian stance provoked the annexation of Kokand (after six months of fierce fighting) by Generals Konstantin von Kaufman and Mikhail Skobelev. In January 1876, Tsar Alexander II stated that he had been forced to \"... yield to the wishes of the Kokandi people to become Russian subjects.\" The Khanate of Kokand was declared abolished, and incorporated into the Fergana Oblast of Russian Turkestan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rulers of Kokand (1709-1876).", "content": "Sources:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Khanate of Kokand (; Қўқон Хонлиги, قۇقان خانلىگى; ) was an Uzbek state in Fergana Valley, Central Asia that existed from 1709–1876 within the territory of eastern Uzbekistan, modern Kyrgyzstan, eastern Tajikistan and southeastern Kazakhstan. The name of the city and the khanate may also be spelled as Khoqand in modern scholarly literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976100}
{"src_title": "Bamberg State Library", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The Bamberg State Library supplies the town of Bamberg and the region Upper Franconia with literature for research and higher education purposes, professional work and advanced training. The historically grown holdings of more than 500,000 volumes are continuously supplemented and enlarged by acquisitions in all general fields, and in specialized areas such as the history and geography of (Upper) Franconia, art history and appreciation, manuscripts and the printed book.  It cooperates in all areas of librarianship with the University Library of Bamberg.  One of its regional tasks is to acquire documentary material on and of persons who are connected with the region.  More over it gets the legal deposit for the region of Upper Franconia; that means the Bamberg State Library receives a copy of every book published in Upper Franconia and continues to compile a complete bibliography of the region.  It also provides space for book collections belonging to Bamberg institutions such as the Bamberg Historical Society (), the Bamberg Society of Naturalists (), the Bamberg Art Association () the E.-T.-A.-Hoffmann-Gesellschaft and the Bamberg group of the Frankenbund.  Its high esteem to be a research library of international rank is based on its rich manuscripts holdings. This collection may be traced back to the emperor Henry II, who founded the bishopric of Bamberg on November 1, 1007. Three of these manuscripts became part of UNESCO's Memory of the World:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The nucleus of the collection may be traced back to the emperor Henry II, who founded the bishopric of Bamberg in 1007. Among his gifts to the cathedral were many precious manuscripts, which he and his predecessors had collected or commissioned. Manuscripts from various spiritual centres of the Western world were brought to Bamberg as a result. In the ensuing period many books were written and illuminated in the town, notably in the 12th century by the Benedictine monks of the Michaelsberg Abbey.  Bamberg was the first place where printed books in the German language were illustrated with woodcuts. Although only fragments of the very first period of printing in Bamberg can be found in the library, the collection of 3,500 incunabula documents the wide range of book production in the 15th century.  All that remained of these manuscripts and books in the monasteries of the town and bishopric up to 1802/1803 was incorporated into one library (now the Bamberg State Library) during the period of German Mediatisation and merged with the library of the old University of Bamberg, which had been founded in 1648 as a Jesuit academy and was closed at that time. Bamberg became part of the Electorate of Bavaria. In the course of the 19th century the library was enriched by gifts such as the art historian Joseph Heller's collection, which today comprises 80,000 prints and drawings. The E. T. A. Hoffmann material became a special collection in our times, as did, more recently, autograph books from the 18th and 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Building.", "content": "The Bamberg State Library nowadays is housed in the east wing of the New Residence of Bamberg which was built in 1697–1703 by Johann Leonhard Dientzenhofer on behalf of Prince-Bishop Lothar Franz von Schönborn. Originally, the administration of the bishopric was placed in that wing of the building.  The so-called Dominikanerräume are part of the library's showrooms which are not open to public. They are so called because of the bookshelves from Bamberg's Dominican monastery that were brought to the library during the secularisation when the monastery was closed down.  The Vierzehnheiligenpavillion on the third floor also belongs to the internal showrooms. It was the prince-bishop's library room. Since 1978, the former wine cellar serves as closed access stacks. The library presents in the entrance hall precious stained glass dating from the 16th and 17th centuries. Joseph Heller, an art historian and collector, left them as legacy to the library. The reading room can be reached from the entrance hall. In former times, it served the prince-bishop as audience room and summer room. The reading room provides a view over the rose garden which also was built on behalf of Prince-Bishop Lothar Franz von Schönborn. During the exhibitions taking place several times a year the Sternengewölbe and the former Gartensaal – or Scagliolasaal – can be visited.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bamberg State Library () is a combined universal, regional and research library with priority given to the humanities. Today it is housed in the New Residence, the former prince-bishop's new palace. The Free State of Bavaria is responsible for the library.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976101}
{"src_title": "Princess Elisabeth of Saxe-Altenburg (1865–1927)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "Princess Elisabeth, as she was usually known, was the second child of Prince Moritz of Saxe-Altenburg (1829–1907) and his wife, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Meiningen (1843–1919). During her youth she made several trips around Europe visiting her relatives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In 1882, when she was sixteen, she met her second cousin, Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich of Russia in Altenburg. His mother and her father were first cousins; in addition to that, they shared Emperor Pavel I as a common ancestor. There was immediately some talk of marriage. However, although she said she was ready to marry Konstantin, he hesitated, even though he was by then 24 years old. When she left, he promised to write often, but he never did, as he was tremendously shy. Nevertheless, he did write several poems about her. In 1884, she visited Russia and the wedding was announced, although she manifested her wish to keep her Lutheran faith, which was a serious blow for her future husband, since he believed firmly in the Russian Orthodox Church. Even worse was the fact that she refused to kiss the cross held in Orthodox services.  On the wedding day, which took place on 27 April 1884, she wrote to him a reassuring letter, saying that \"I promise you that I will never do anything to anger nor hurt you through our divided religions... I can only tell you again, \"how very much\" I love you.  The marriage was a success, although Grand Duke Konstantin secretly kept male lovers. Konstantin and Elizaveta had nine children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Grand Duchess Elizaveta Mavrikievna, or \"Mavra\" as she was known within the Romanov family, was a popular figure, and got on quite well with her nephew, Tsar Nicholas II.  She outlived most of her children. In 1905 her daughter Natalia died aged exactly two months. When World War I broke out, she found herself fighting on the opposite side of her native Germany. However, several of her sons, who were trained soldiers, joined the army and fought bravely. One of them, Oleg, was killed in 1914 in Lithuania, where Elizaveta quickly went to see her dying son.  The untimely death of their son led her husband to an early grave in 1915. That same year her son-in-law (Princess Tatiana's husband) was also killed in action. After the revolution, she managed to escape Russia, but several of her sons were caught by the Soviet forces. In fact, three (Ioann, Konstantin and Igor) were shot together by Bolsheviks in Alapaievsk, Siberia, in July 1918 along with several other members of the family. Her brother-in-law, Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich was shot in Petrograd the following year.  K.R.'s wife, two youngest children, Prince George and Princess Vera, and two grandchildren (Ioann's children: Vsevolod and Catherine) remained at Pavlovsk throughout the war, the chaotic rule of the Provisional Government, and after the October Revolution. In the fall of 1918, they were permitted by the Bolsheviks to move by boat called Ångermanland to Sweden (via Tallinn to Helsinki and via Mariehamn to Stockholm), at the invitation of the Swedish queen. In Stockholm harbor they met prince Gustaf Adolf who took them to the royal palace. Later, Vsevolod and Catherine were able to reunite with their mother.  Elizaveta Mavrikievna and Vera and Georgi lived for the next two years in Sweden first in Stockholm then in Saltsjöbaden, but Sweden was too expensive a place to live so they moved to Belgium by invitation of Albert I of Belgium. Later they moved to Germany, settling in Altenburg where they lived for 30 years except for a couple of years in England. Elizaveta died of cancer on 24 March 1927 in Leipzig. Prince Georgi died in New York City in 1938. Princess Vera lived in Germany until Soviet forces occupied the east part of the country, when she fled to Hamburg and in 1951 she moved to the United States and died there in 2001, in New York City.  A scarab brooch given to the Princess by her husband in 1891 was auctioned by Sotheby's in 2012.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elizabeth Mavrikievna (, \"née\" Princess Elisabeth Auguste Marie Agnes of Saxe-Altenburg; 25 January 1865 – 24 March 1927) was a Russian Grand Duchess by marriage. She was the wife of Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich of Russia (1858–1915), whom she married in 1884 in Saint Petersburg, Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976102}
{"src_title": "Ilona Štěpánová-Kurzová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ilona Štěpánová-Kurzová belongs to notable representatives of the Czech piano school. To the public she is known as appreciated and popular teacher who prepared many marvellous interpreters during her life. Her amazing concert career is omitted nowadays even though Ilona Štěpánová ranked herself among the best European artists of her time.  She was born as the only daughter in a family of excellent piano teachers Vilém Kurz and his wife Růžena. She was taught to play piano by her parents from a very young age. Her concert career started in Lviv, Ukraine at the age of ten with Mozart's \"Coronation concert in D major\" conducted by Oskar Nedbal and accompanied by the Viennese Tonkünstlerverein orchestra. This concert was repeated in Vienna and Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concert activity.", "content": "Beginning in 1911 she developed extensive concert activity which lasted until the second half of the 1930s. Ilona Štěpánová inherited profession mastery to which she added her own personal contribution - deep inner experience and poetry. Summary of these qualities made her one of the most popular piano players of her time. She performed innumerable solo concerts, accompanied by notable orchestras and chamber ensembles (e. g. Czech, Ševčík's, Prague quartet etc.) in her country and abroad (performances in Poland, Germany, Austria, Holland). She included eleven piano concertos with orchestra and her general and extensive repertoire included principal works of world literature of all style periods (she was especially famous for her interpretation of Chopin's compositions).  Of Czech piano literature she played mostly Josef Suk, Vítězslav Novák, Bedřich Smetana, Antonín Dvořák, but also compositions of contemporary Czech authors (K. B. Jirák, B. Vomáčka). She presented premieres of many compositions: e.g. in 1919 she played the first performance of Dvořák's Piano Concerto in G minor adapted by her father Vilém Kurz, conducted by Václav Talich; at Frankfurt am Main modern music festival in 1926 she performed the world premiere of Janáček's Concertino (Czech premiere - 16 February 1926); of the Russian literature she played Prokofiev's 3rd Piano Concerto in C major in Prague in 1926.  Marriage to outstanding Czech pianist, composer, teacher and musicologist Václav štěpán (1924) meant another extension of public activities for the pianist. There is movement to contemporary music and many individual concerts from the two pianos literature.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pedagogy.", "content": "Ilona Štěpánová's teaching abilities were shown since her young age and it seemed to be just natural to turn her attention to this activity. As in her concert career she achieved outstanding success in this field. After her husband's death (1944) she took the lead of the master school of Prague Conservatory students. When Vilém Kurz died she took lead of his students as well.  She was professor at Academy of Music and Drama in Prague since 1946 (Ivan Moravec, Mirka Pokorná, Ilja Hurník, Anna Machová, Zdeněk Hnát, Dagmar Baloghová, Zorka Lochmanová-Zichová, Jaroslav Jiránek etc. were among her graduates). She fully concentrated on teaching for the rest of her life. Her son Pavel Štěpán became successor of family tradition. The pianist brought regard to composer's intention from Kurz school. This is shown in precise interpretation of the part and respecting composer's style, beautiful fine-sounding cantilena and brilliancy of technical performance. She enriched the Czech piano school by deep inner experience, colourfulness and plasticity of touch nuances. It enabled her complete loosening of entire playing apparatus combined with conscious fixing of some of its parts where certain kind of touch - according to character of the expected sound - demands this.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Technical studies anthology by Ilona Štěpánová \"Piano technique\" [Klavírní technika] (Prague 1979; new publications are being prepared) completed with methodical explanation which extends Kurz's \"Technical fundamentals of piano play\" [Technické základy klavírní hry] (Prague 1924) which it quotes in some parts. It analyses the smallest details of separate piano technique components. Each of eighteen series concentrates on one technical problem in progressively structured exercises. The development of piano play trend confirmed correctness of her opinion and comprehensive handbook was established, which professionals appreciate.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ilona Štěpánová-Kurzová (19 November 1899 in Lviv – 25 September 1975 in Prague) was a Czech concert pianist and piano teacher, a professor at the Prague Academy of Arts. Her students included Ivan Moravec. Ilona Štěpánová-Kurzová was the mother of pianist Pavel Štěpán.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976103}
{"src_title": "Nea Moni of Chios", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The monastery was built in the mid-11th century, by Byzantine emperor Constantine IX Monomachos and his wife, Empress Zoe. According to tradition, it is built on the location where three monks, Nikitas, Ioannes and Iosif, miraculously found an icon of the Virgin Mary, hanging from a branch of myrtle. At that time, Constantine was exiled in nearby Lesbos, and the monks visited him and told of a vision according to which he would eventually become emperor. Constantine promised to build a church if this should come to pass. Indeed, in 1042, Constantine became emperor, and in gratitude began constructing the monastery, dedicated to the Theotokos. The main church (the \"katholikon\") was inaugurated in 1049, and the complex finished in 1055, after Constantine's death.  The monastery was early on endowed with privileges: in a chrysobull of July 1049, Constantine Monomachos granted the monastery the head tax of all Jews of the island of Chios, and set the monastery apart from any superior ecclesiastic or secular hierarchy. As a result of land grants, tax exemptions and other privileges granted by successive emperors, the monastery prospered during the Byzantine period. Over the centuries, the monastery amassed substantial riches and became one of the wealthiest monasteries in the Aegean. At its peak, around 1300, its estates covered one third of Chios and it is estimated that up to 800 monks belonged to it. The subsequent Genoese domination reduced its wealth, but the monastery prospered again during the Ottoman era, when it was subject directly to the Patriarch of Constantinople, and enjoyed considerable autonomy. The late 16th-century traveler Samuel Purchas recounts that it had 200 monks, and that \"alone in all Greece they had the right to use bells.\" During the 17th century the number of monks decreased further, but recovered in the next century. The Patriarch of Jerusalem, Chrysanthos Notaras, and the French priest Fourmont, who visited the monastery in 1725 and 1729 respectively, commented on the large numbers of monks, the quantity of relics preserved, and the beauty of the church and its decoration.  The monastery's decline began only after the destruction of Chios by the Ottomans in April 1822, during the Greek War of Independence. 2,000 people had sought refuge in the monastery, but the Ottomans stormed it, slaughtered many, and set fire to the templon and other wooden furnishings of the church, including the roof, leaving the rest of the refugees to burn there. The monastery never recovered its former glory.  In 1881, an earthquake added further damage to the main church, leading to the collapse of its dome, while several other buildings, like the 1512 bell-tower, were destroyed. In 1952, due to the shortage of monks, Nea Moni was converted to a convent. According to the 2001 census, it is inhabited by only three nuns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structures and architecture.", "content": "The monastery complex covers an area of approximately 17,000 m and consists of the katholikon, two smaller churches (dedicated to the Holy Cross and to St Panteleimon) the dining hall (\"trapeza\"), the monks' cells (\"kelia\"), the reception hall or \"triklinon\" and underground water cistern (\"kinsterna\"). The complex is surrounded by a wall (the original Byzantine wall was destroyed in 1822), and in the northeastern corner stands a defensive tower, in earlier times used as a library. In addition, outside the walls, near the monks' cemetery, there is a small chapel to St Luke.  The katholikon is the monastery's central structure, dedicated to the Dormition of the Virgin Mary. It is composed of the main church, the esonarthex and the exonarthex. The main church is of an octagonal shape, the so-called \"insular\" type, found in Chios and Cyprus. Although all three sections date to the 11th century, the main church suffered significant damage in 1822 and 1881, with the result that its current, rebuilt, form is different from the original. The bell tower was constructed in 1900, replacing an older one built in 1512. Originally, the remains of the three founders were kept in the exonarthex, but most of these were destroyed during the sack of 1822.  Along with the katholikon, the only remaining 11th century buildings are the partially ruined tower, the chapel of St Luke, the cistern and parts of the trapeza. The cells, most of which are in a ruined state, date to the Venetian and Genovese periods. A small museum, opened in 1992, exists to the NW of the katholikon, housed in a renovated cell. The displayed artifacts date mostly from the latter 19th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nea Moni (, lit. \"New Monastery\") is an 11th-century monastery on the island of Chios that has been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is located on the Provateio Oros Mt. in the island's interior, about 15 km from Chios town. It is well known for its mosaics, which, together with those at Daphni and Hosios Loukas, are among the finest examples of \"Macedonian Renaissance\" art in Greece.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976104}
{"src_title": "Dresden Armoury", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The oldest weapons collection in Dresden, the City Armoury (\"Städtische Harnischkammer\") was founded in 1409, containing the weapons used by the citizens to defend the city. It existed until the 17th century when it became obsolete. Besides this, two further armouries were established shortly after. One was the Ducal Armoury (\"Herzogliche Harnischkammer\"), founded after Duke Albert was granted an independent dukedom in 1485. Housed in Dresden Castle, it contained the personal weapons of the ruling House of Wettin. Furthermore, Prince Elector Augustus founded the Arsenal of the Saxon State (\"Kurfürstliches Landeszeughaus\") containing Saxony's weapons of war, such as cannons.  The Ducal Armoury (\"Herzogliche Harnischkammer\") is the direct predecessor of today’s \"Rüstkammer\". It was founded after Albert III, Duke of Saxony, (\"Albert the Bold\") established Meissen as the centre of Albertine Saxony and named himself Margrave of Meissen in 1485. A continuous growth in the collection of parade weapons occurred during the reign of his son, George, Duke of Saxony (\"George the Bearded\"), who named Dresden the capital of his realm. After George's grandson, Duke Maurice, gained the title of Saxon prince elector in 1547, the Ducal Armory was renamed Electoral Armory (\"Kurfürstliche Rüstkammer\") and thus gained electoral status. It was located on the ground floor of the \"Hausmannsturm\", the tower of Dresden Castle.  Prince Elector Augustus initiated the museum era of the armoury by taking an inventory of the electoral holdings. The inventory of 1567 mentions several buildings with holdings of the armoury, listing more than 1,500 weapons. Much of the armoury was displayed on carved wooden horses. The amory moved into the newly established Stable Building (\"Stallgebäude\", today’s Johanneum) in 1591, where it remained until 1722.  When Prince Elector Frederick Augustus I was made King of Poland in 1697, the armoury acquired royal status. Now named Augustus II (\"Augustus II the Strong\"), he faced increased needs for representation, leading to the establishment of his treasure chamber, the Green Vault. As a result, richly adorned weapons were moved into the new museums, spoiling the integrity of the armoury’s holdings. Furthermore, the armoury had to be moved again, this time into the Secret War Chancellery (\"Geheime Kriegskanzlei\") where it was housed from 1722 until 1832. Nevertheless, the armoury remained a favorite among visitors at this time. The son of Augustus II the Strong, Augustus III, established the Firearms Gallery in the Long Corridor of the \"Stallhof\" (Stall Courtyard), which links the castle complex with the adjacent Johanneum. At the time, the Firearms Gallery was the most valuable of its kind in Germany; today, its more than 3,000 firearms are an important part of the \"Rüstkammer\".  After the armoury was acquired by the state in 1831, it was renamed the Royal Historic Museum (\"Königliches Historisches Museum\") and moved into the Zwinger building in 1832. It remained there until 1877, when it was moved again into the Johanneum. In 1913/14, the parade weapons which had been placed in the Green Vault, were reintegrated into the armory collection.  The artefacts from the Firearms Gallery and the Historic Museum were taken to Königstein Fortress during World War II. At the end of the war in 1945, the collections were confiscated by the Red Army and transported to Leningrad. Since their return to Dresden in 1958, part of the collection, now again named the Dresden Armoury (\"Rüstkammer\"), had been on display in the Semper Gallery of the Zwinger until September 2012. After completion of the \"Riesensaal\" in Dresden Castle in February 2013, the armoury's collection has been exhibited there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibition.", "content": "Today’s exhibition comprises around 1,300 artefacts, representing less than 10 percent of the entire holdings. They are arranged in 121 showcases and six pedestals. The exhibition is centered around knighthood. It includes parade and tournament weapons, firearms from the Firearms Gallery, racing and jousting equipment, and paintings of tournaments. The displayed items span three centuries, from the 15th to the 18th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Turkish Chamber.", "content": "The holdings of the Dresden Armoury include objects belonging to the Turkish Chamber (German: \"Türckische Cammer\") which formed a separate collection within the armoury from at least 1591. Over the course of several centuries, diplomatic gifts, purchased objects, and booty gained in various battles against the Ottomans were assembled, creating one of the oldest and most significant collections of Ottoman art outside Turkey.  The roots of the oriental collection in Dresden can be traced back as far as 1591. At that time, the Turkish Chamber was still called \"Ungerische Cammer\" (Hungarian Chamber), probably because Saxony at that time had primarily come into contact with the Ottoman Empire in Hungary. The first recorded use of the name Turkish Chamber dates from 1614.  The first inventory of the oriental holdings of the \"Rüstkammer\" was compiled on request of Elector Johann Georg II of Saxony. The inventory was completed in July 1674 and revised in August 1677. It listed 385 items, divided into four groups: defensive weapons, reflex bows, pole weapons and flags, and finally saddles, bridles and caparisons.  After the dramatic years of the Great Northern War, August the Strong decided to reorganize his troops and renew their equipment. A military review of the 27,000-men-strong army was scheduled for June 1730, requiring an encampment near Zeithain north-west of Dresden with large tents. The biggest tent in the current exhibition was brought to Dresden specifically for this event in 1729. Originally, it consisted of a large roof section, two side walls and parts of an awning. One of the sidewalls and parts of the awning have been missing since the end of World War II. Nevertheless, it is one of the most magnificent surviving Ottoman tents in the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today's collection.", "content": "Today's exhibition presents more than 600 individual pieces of art. The largest object in the Turkish Chamber is the three-mast tent brought to Dresden for the Zeithain encampment in 1730. This long, wide and high tent gives the viewer a sense of being under a second sky of gold and silk. The tent is made of satin, cotton and gilt leather; its restoration lasted 14 years. In addition, there are eight life-sized, carved wooden horses and a group of reflex bows with original strings, the oldest of which dates from 1586. Also shown are weapons, suits of chain mail, helmets, flags and costumes.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Dresden Armoury or Dresden Armory (German: Rüstkammer), also known as the Dresden Historical Museum (German: \"Historisches Museum Dresden\"), is one of the world's largest collections of ceremonial weapons, armour and historical textiles. It is part of the Dresden State Art Collections and is located in Dresden Castle in Dresden.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976105}
{"src_title": "Princess Anastasia of Montenegro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Princess Anastasia was born in Cetinje, Montenegro on 4 January 1868, the third child and third daughter of her parents. At birth, her name was \"Princess Stana Petrovich Njegosh of Montenegro\"; as of the date of her father's assumption of the title and style of \"Royal Highness\" in 1900, she became known as \"Her Royal Highness\" Princess Stana Petrovich Njegosh of Montenegro. She retained her childhood name of \"Stana\" to close relations.  Anastasia was educated at the Smolny Institute with her older sister, Princess Milica.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First marriage.", "content": "On 28 August n.s., 1889, at the Imperial Russian Palace of Peterhof, Stana married Prince George Maximilianovich of Leuchtenberg (later the Duke of Leuchtenberg.) The Duke had previously been married and widowed, with one son, Alexander Georgievich, from his prior marriage to Princess Therese of Oldenburg. The couple had two children before divorcing in St. Petersburg on 15 November 1906.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "On 29 April 1907, at the age of 39, Anastasia was married to Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1856–1929). The marriage was childless. Both her husbands were descendants of Emperor Nicholas I of Russia (1796–1855): the first one was his grandson through a maternal line, and the second one was his grandson through a direct male line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imperial Russia.", "content": "Both Anastasia and her second husband Nicholas were religious Eastern Orthodox Christians, with a tendency to and interest in Persian mysticism. Since the Montenegrins were a fiercely Slavic, anti-Turkish people from the Balkans, Anastasia reinforced the Pan Slav tendencies of Nicholas. Her sister, Princess Milica (Cetinje, Montenegro, 26 July 1866 – Alexandria, Egypt, 5 September 1951) was married to Grand Duke Peter Nicolaievich Romanov of Russia, brother of Grand Duke Nicholas Nicolaevich. The two Montenegrin princesses were thus also sisters-in-law, as their husbands were brothers.  Anastasia and her sister were intrigued by the more mystical side of the Eastern Orthodox religion; they were early supporters of the French seer \"Dr.\" Philippe Vachot and of the \"starets\" Rasputin, and introduced both in turn to the Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, the last Tsarina of Russia. According to popular Russian belief, the influence of Rasputin was instrumental in the downfall of the Romanov family.  Anastasia's husband, Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1856–1929), was Commander in Chief of the Russian Army during the first year of World War I, carrying out campaigns on the Austro-German front and in the Caucasus. His Supreme Commandership was terminated by Tsar Nicholas on 21 August 1915.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post Revolution.", "content": "In March 1917, the last Tsar was overthrown and the ruling Romanov family removed from power by the Bolsheviks. Anastasia and her husband lived from 1917–1919 first in the Caucasus, then in the Crimea. From Yalta in the Crimea, Anastasia and her husband escaped Russia in 1919 aboard a British battleship, HMS \"Marlborough\". They settled briefly in Italy, living with her sister Elena, Queen of Italy and later in France, spending winters on the Riviera. She died in Cap d'Antibes on 15 November 1935, having outlived her husband by six years. Grand Duchess Anastasia and her husband died in exile and were originally buried in the church of St. Archangel Michael in Cannes, France. Requests to transfer their remains came from Nicholas Romanov, Prince of Russia, who died in 2014 and Prince Dimitri Romanov (who died in 2016), and were made in 2014. Their remains were re-buried in Moscow, at the Bratsky military cemetery in May 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Anastasia Petrović-Njegoš of Montenegro (4 January [O.S. 23 December] 1867 – 25 November 1935) was the daughter of King Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš of Montenegro (1841–1921) and his wife, Milena Vukotić (1847–1923). Through her second marriage, she became Grand Duchess Anastasia Nicholaievna Romanova of Russia. She and her sister \"Militza\" (Princess Milica), having married Russian royal brothers, were known colloquially as the \"Montenegrin princesses\" during the last days of Imperial Russia, and may have contributed to its downfall by the introduction of Grigori Rasputin to the Empress Alexandra.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976106}
{"src_title": "Order of the Rising Sun", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classes.", "content": "The Order was awarded in nine classes until 2003, when the Grand Cordon with Paulownia Flowers was made a separate order, and the lowest two classes were abolished. Since then, it has been awarded in six classes. Conventionally, a diploma is prepared to accompany the insignia of the order, and in some rare instances, the personal signature of the Emperor will have been added. As an illustration of the wording of the text, a translation of a representative 1929 diploma says:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Insignia.", "content": "The \"star\" for the \"Grand Cordon\" and \"Second Class\" is a silver star of eight points, each point having three alternating silver rays; the central emblem is identical to the badge. It is worn on the left chest for the Grand Cordon, on the right chest for the 2nd Class.  The \"badge\" for the \"Grand Cordon to Sixth Classes\" is an eight-pointed badge bearing a central red enamelled sun disc, with gilt points (1st–4th Classes), with four gilt and four silver points (5th Class), or with silver points (6th Class); each point comprises three white enamelled rays. It is suspended from three enamelled paulownia leaves (not chrysanthemum leaves as the Decoration Bureau page claims) on a ribbon in white with red border stripes, worn as a sash from the right shoulder for the Grand Cordon, as a necklet for the 2nd and 3rd Classes and on the left chest for the 4th to 6th Classes (with a rosette for the 4th Class).  The \"badge\" for the \"Seventh and Eighth Classes\" consisted of a silver medal in the shape of three paulownia leaves, enamelled for the 7th Class and plain for the 8th Class. Both were suspended on a ribbon, again in white with red border stripes, and worn on the left chest. Both classes were abolished in 2003 and replaced by the Order of the Paulownia Flowers, a single-class order that now ranks above the Order of the Rising Sun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable recipients.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "7th Class, Green Paulownia Leaves Medal.", "content": "In 2003, the 7th and 8th levels – named for leaves of the Paulownia tree, long used as a mon (emblem) for the highest levels of Japanese society – were moved to a new and distinct order, the single-class \"Order of the Paulownia Flowers\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "8th Class, White Paulownia Leaves Medal.", "content": "In 2003, the 7th and 8th levels – named for leaves of the Paulownia tree, long used as a mon (emblem) for the highest levels of Japanese society – were moved to a new and distinct order, the single-class \"Order of the Paulownia Flowers\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The is a Japanese order, established in 1875 by Emperor Meiji. The Order was the first national decoration awarded by the Japanese government, created on 10 April 1875 by decree of the Council of State. The badge features rays of sunlight from the rising sun. The design of the Rising Sun symbolizes energy as powerful as the rising sun in parallel with the \"rising sun\" concept of Japan (\"Land of the Rising Sun\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976107}
{"src_title": "Kathmandu Valley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Kathmandu\" is not the native name used by the indigenous Nepa people of the valley. The term \"Nepa-al\" means \"land of the Nepa people\" and was traditionally used to refer this valley.  The Pahari name \"Kathmandu\" comes from a structure in the Durbar Square called by the Sanskrit name \"Kāsṣtha mandapa\" \"Wooden shelter\". This unique temple, also known as the \"Maru Sattal\", was built in 1596 by King Lakshmi Narasimha Malla. The entire structure contained no iron nails or supports and was made entirely from wood. Legend has it that the timber used for this two-story pagoda was obtained from a single tree.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Area of Kavre.", "content": "City of Banepa, Panauti and Dhulikhel is also considered part of Kathmandu valley as it has a similar culture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Kathmandu Valley may have been inhabited as early as 300 BCE, since the oldest known objects in the valley date to a few hundred years BCE. The earliest known inscription is dated 185 CE. The oldest firmly dated building in the earthquake-prone valley is over 2,000 years old. Four stupas around the city of Patan that are said to have been erected by a Charumati, a purported daughter of the Maurya emperor Ashoka, in the third century BCE, attest to the ancient history present within the valley. As with the tales of the Buddha's visit, there is no evidence supporting Ashok's visit, but the stupas probably date to that century. The Licchavis, whose earliest inscriptions date to 464, were the next rulers of the valley and had close ties with the Gupta Empire of India. The Mallas ruled the Kathmandu Valley and the surrounding area from the 12th until the 18th century CE, when the Shah dynasty of the Gorkha Kingdom under Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered the valley as he created present-day Nepal. His victory in the Battle of Kirtipur was the beginning of his conquest of the valley.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Newars.", "content": "The Newars are the indigenous inhabitants and the creators of the historic civilization of the valley. Their language is today known as Nepal Bhasa. They are understood to be the descendants of the various ethnic and racial groups that have inhabited and ruled the valley in the two-millennium history of the place. Scholars have also described the Newars as a nation. They have developed a division of labour and a sophisticated urban civilization not seen elsewhere in the Himalayan foothills. They are known for their contributions to art, sculpture, architecture, culture, literature, music, industry, trade, agriculture and cuisine, and left their mark on the art of Central Asia.  Newa architecture consists of the pagoda, stupa, shikhara, chaitya and other styles. The valley's trademark is the multiple-roofed pagoda which may have originated in this area and spread to India, China, Indochina and Japan. The most famous artisan who influenced stylistic developments in China and Tibet was Araniko, a Newar who traveled to the court of Kublai Khan in the 13th century AD. He is known for building the white stupa at the Miaoying Temple in Beijing. At present, people from other parts of Nepal tend to migrate to the valley for a better life due to its high level of cultural and economic development. Even with urbanization taking place, the Newars have sustained their culture in Kathmandu Valley.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mythology.", "content": "According to Swayambhu Puran, the Kathmandu Valley was once a lake, deemed by scientists as Paleo Kathmandu Lake. The hill where the Swayambu Stupa rests had lotus plants with flowers in bloom. One story says that the God Manjusri cut a gorge at a valley called Kashapaal (later called Chobhar) with a sword called Chandrahrasha and drained away the waters in order to establish a habitable land.  According to Gopal Banshawali, Krishna cut the gorge with his Sudarshana Chakra to let the water out. He then handed the drained valley to the Gopal Vansi people, who were nomadic cow herders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Kathmandu valley is bowl-shaped. Its central lower part stands at above sea level. Kathmandu valley is surrounded by four mountain ranges: Shivapuri hills (at an elevation of ), Phulchowki (), Nagarjun () and Chandragiri (). The major river flowing through the Kathmandu Valley is the Bagmati.  The valley is made up of the Kathmandu District, Lalitpur District and Bhaktapur District covering an area of. The valley consists of the municipal areas of Kathmandu, Patan, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur and Madhyapur Thimi; the remaining area is made up of a number of municipalities and rural municipalities (in Lalitpur district). The valley is a cultural and political hub of Nepal. The Kathmandu valley was accorded the status of a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in the year 1979.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Places to see.", "content": "This is an incomplete alphabetical list of notable temples and monuments in Kathmandu Valley. Seven of these are designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Present.", "content": "This valley hosts a UNESCO World Heritage Site with seven preserved locations: the centers of the three primary cities, Kathmandu Hanuman Dhoka, Patan Durbar Square and Bhaktapur Durbar Square, the two most important Buddhist stupas, Swayambhunath and Boudhanath and two famous Hindu shrines, Pashupatinath temple and Changu Narayan. In 2003, UNESCO listed the sites as being \"endangered\" out of concern for the ongoing loss of authenticity and the outstanding universal value of the cultural property. The endangered status was lifted in 2007.  In the past, Tibetan Buddhist Masters including Marpa, Milarepa, Rwa Lotsava, Ras Chungpa, Dharma Swami, XIII Karmapa, XVI Karmapa and several others visited and travelled in the Kathmandu Valley. However, the largest group of Tibetans came in the 1960s. Many settled around the Swayambhunath and Boudhanath Stupas. Many other famous Lamas known throughout the world have their Buddhist monasteries and centers in the Kathmandu Valley.  The 1500-year history of funerary architecture in the valley provides some of the finest examples of stone architecture found in the subcontinent. A \"caitya\" is placed in almost all courtyards in cities like Patan. Stone inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley are important sources for the history of Nepal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kathmandu (National Capital Area).", "content": "It is proposed to Government of Nepal to develop Kathmandu valley as a separate national capital territory and not a part of Bagmati Pradesh. Kathmandu Valley consists 3 Districts of Bagmati Pradesh of Which total population is 2472071 and total area is", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kathmandu Valley (, Nepal Bhasa: स्वनिगः, नेपाः गाः), historically known as Nepal Valley or Nepa Valley, lies at the crossroads of ancient civilizations of the Indian subcontinent and the broader Asian continent, and has at least 130 important monuments, including several pilgrimage sites for Hindus and Buddhists. There are seven World Heritage Sites within the valley.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976108}
{"src_title": "Lebanese Communist Party", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Creation.", "content": "The Lebanese Communist Party was officially founded on 24 October 1924, in the Lebanese town of Hadath, south of Beirut. The first meeting was made up of union workers, who formed independent unions for the first time in Lebanon (Previously, labor unions were controlled by the French). The meeting was also attended by scholars, academics, writers and journalists who were active in promoting the ideas of the French Revolution, and who were familiar with the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The party was founded to cover the area held under the French mandate, which is now Syria and Lebanon. Initially, the party's name was \"Lebanese People Party\", in an attempt to evade the French ban on \"Bolshevik\" activities.  The party was declared illegal at first, but the ban was relaxed during World War II. For about twenty years, the LCP organized communist political activities in both Lebanon and Syria, but in 1944 the party was split into the Lebanese Communist Party and the Syrian Communist Party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-independence activities.", "content": "During the first two decades of Lebanon's independence, the LCP enjoyed little success. In 1943, the party participated in the legislative elections, but failed to win any seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The LCP ran for election again in 1947, but all of its candidates were defeated and the party was outlawed in 1948. During the 1950s, the party's inconsistent policies on Pan-Arabism and the Nasserite movement cost it support and eventually isolated it. The party was active against the government during the 1958 uprising. In 1965, the LCP decided to end its isolation and became a member of the Front for Progressive Parties and National Forces, which later evolved into the Lebanese National Movement (LNM) under Druze leftist leader Kamal Jumblatt. In the mid-1960s, the U.S. State Department estimated the party membership to be approximately 3000.  The 1970s witnessed something of a resurgence of the LCP. In 1970, Kamal Jumblatt, as Minister of the Interior, legalized the party. This allowed many LCP leaders, including Secretary General Nicolas Shawi, to run for election in 1972. Although they polled several thousand votes, none of them succeeded in gaining a seat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The LCP during the Civil War.", "content": "During the early 1970s, the LCP established a well-trained militia, the Popular Guard, which participated actively in the fighting at the start of the Lebanese Civil War. The LCP was aligned with the mostly Muslim LNM-Palestinian coalition, even though its membership was mainly Christian (particularly Greek Orthodox and Armenian).  Throughout the 1980s, the LCP generally declined in influence. In 1983, the Tripoli-based Sunni Islamic movement, Islamic Unification Movement (Tawhid), reportedly executed fifty Communists. In 1987, together with the Druze Progressive Socialist Party, the LCP fought a week-long battle against the Shi'a militants of the Amal in West Beirut, a conflict that was stopped by Syrian troops.  Also in 1987, the LCP held its Fifth Party Congress and was about to oust George Hawi, its Greek Orthodox leader, in favor of Karim Mroue, a Shi'a, as Secretary General. However, Hawi remained in his post. Hawi, who had been a rising opponent of the party's complete dependence on the Soviet Union, was reportedly unpopular for his idealism and unwillingness to compromise his ideology. Mroue was probably the most powerful member of the LCP and was on good terms with Shi'a groups in West Beirut. Nevertheless, between 1984 and 1987 many party leaders and members were assassinated, reportedly by Islamic fundamentalists.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After the Lebanese Civil war.", "content": "The end of the Lebanese civil war was in sync with the collapse of the Soviet Union. Two back-to-back congresses saw the exit of Hawi, Mroue and other prominent leaders of the party, which left it in a major crisis. The congresses witnessed the election of Farouq Dahrouj as the new secretary general of the party. Hawi returned to the party as head of its national council (formerly the central committee), but later abdicated in the 1998 8th congress, which saw the second election of Dahrouj as secretary general. The party was then led by Dr. Khaled Hadadi, who was elected in the 9th Congress in December 2003. Saadallah Mazraani, who was Vice General Secretary under Dahrouj, remained in the same position under Hadadi.  The party is led now by Hanna Gharib.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Electoral results.", "content": "The party participated in the 2005 parliamentary elections in several regions but did not win any seats. In South Lebanon, vice general secretary Saadallah Mazraani won 8,886 votes in the second district, and Anwar Yassin, a former detainee in Israel, received 18,244 votes in the first district. Former general secretary Farouq Dahrouj obtained 10,688 votes in the Bekaa third district.  In the 2009 legislative elections, the LCP ran independently with candidates in five districts but failed to win any seats. In a formal statement, the LCP commented that \"the 2009 elections widened the gap already existing because of the sectarian system,\" and, while expressing dismay at its electoral showing, analyzed and attempted to justify the party's performance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hawi assassination.", "content": "On 21 June 2005, George Hawi, a former secretary general of the LCP, was killed in a car bombing in Beirut. Hawi, a recent critic of Syria, claimed a few days before his death that Rifaat al-Assad, uncle of Bashar al-Assad, Syria's current president, masterminded the 1977 assassination of Lebanese opposition leader Kamal Jumblatt. Allies of Hawi accused pro-Syrian forces in the Lebanese-security apparatus for the assassination. Emile Lahoud, then president of Lebanon, and the Syrian government denied this allegation. Foreign governments, including the White House, strongly condemned the killing.  The bombing occurred two days after Lebanon's 2005 elections ushered in an anti-Syrian majority in parliament and less than one month after Samir Kassir, a left-wing Lebanese journalist and political figure, was assassinated in a bombing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political organization.", "content": "The Lebanese Communist Party is one of the few Lebanese parties that have affiliations throughout different sects and regions. It is present in most Lebanese districts, but its strength is greatest in South Lebanon. This structure gives the party a national presence, but at the same time weakens its representation in the local and central governmental bodies including municipalities and parliament. The party, as other traditional communist parties, operates through several popular organizations to recruit and spread its political message. These organizations include the Union of Lebanese Democratic Youth (youth organization), The Committee of Woman's Rights (Women's organization), The Popular Aid (Health organization) and The General Union of Workers and Employees in Lebanon (labor union).  The smallest organizational structure is a branch, usually found in a town or village. Several branches belong to a Regional Committee (usually made up of 5-10 branches), then every few regional committees belong to a Governorate (\"Mohafaza\"). The party has now an estimated membership of around 5000 members.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lebanese Communist Party – LCP (, transliterated: ') or Parti communiste libanais (PCL) in French, is a communist party in Lebanon. It was founded in 1924 by the Lebanese intellectual, writer and reporter Youssef Ibrahim Yazbek and Fou'ad al-Shmeli, a tobacco worker from Bikfaya.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976109}
{"src_title": "Operation Magic Carpet (Yemen)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The operation.", "content": "The operation's official name originated from two biblical passages:  The Operation Magic Carpet was the first in a series of operations. Israel sees the rescue operation as a successful rescue of Yemen's community from oppression towards redemption. 49,000 Jews were brought to Israel under the program.  A street in Jerusalem, one in Herzliya, one in Ramat Gan, and another in Kerem HaTeimanim, Tel Aviv, were named \"Kanfei Nesharim\" (\"Wings of Eagles\") in honor of this operation.  In 1948, there were 55,000 Jews living in Yemen, and another 8,000 in the British Colony of Aden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anti-Jewish violence.", "content": "Following the 1947 UN Partition Plan, Muslim rioters attacked the Jewish community in Aden and killed at least 82 Jews (1947 Aden riots) and destroyed a number of Jewish homes. Early in 1948, accusations of the murder of two Muslim Yemeni girls led to looting of Jewish property.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reasons for the exodus.", "content": "Jewish Agency's emissary, Rabbi Yaakov Shraibom was sent in 1949 to Yemen and discovered that there were ~50,000 Jews living in Yemen, which was unknown at the time to the Jewish state. He sent multiple letters to convey the community's strong religious and messianic desire to come to Israel. David Ben-Gurion was reluctant at first, but he came through eventually.  Esther Meir-Glitzenstein showed evidence how the community's sentiment for Aliyah played a part in the exodus, the extent of which surprised even the Jewish state and the agency in charge of the operation, who were not prepared for the mass of Jews who were fleeing Yemen. Once he realized that, Shraibom tried to prevent the coming crisis and urged the community to stay in Yemen, but the sentiment of the community for Aliyah was stronger and they came nonetheless.  Meir-Glitzenstein also claims that collusion between Israel and the Imam of Yemen who \"profited hugely from confiscatory taxes levied on the Jewish community\" led to a botched operation in which the Jewish community suffered terribly. Reuven Ahroni and Tudor Parfitt argue that economic motivations also had a role in the massive emigration of Yemeni Jews, which began prior to 1948.  Tudor Parfitt described the reasons for the exodus as multi-faceted, some aspects due to Zionism and others more historically based:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critiques.", "content": "Esther Meir-Glitzenstein also criticized the execution of the operation. She especially criticized the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Israel, which, according to her, abandoned thousands of Jews in the deserts on the border between North Yemen and Aden. Mismanagement or corruption by the imam of Yemen, the British authorities, and the Jewish Agency also played a role. Some 850 Yemenite Jews died en route to their departure points, and in the community which reached Israel, infant mortality rates were high, but still lower than in Yemen. According to Ben-Gurion's diary, the Yemeni children in the Israeli \"ma'abarot\" or tent transit camps were dying like flies. Children were often separated from their parents for hygienic reasons, or taken away to hospitals for treatment, but often, parents only received notification, often by loudspeaker, they had died. According to some testimony, there was a suspicion that the state kidnapped healthy Yemeni children, for adoption, and then informed the parents they had died. As a result, some decades later, the Yemenite Children Affair exploded, in which it was rumoured that something of the order of 1,000 children had gone missing.  DNA paternity testing has been able to confirm that, in some cases, adopted children trying to track down their biological parents were born to Yemenite families who had been informed that their children had died.  Israeli Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, described the issue as ‘an open wound that continues to bleed’ for the many families not knowing what happened to the children who disappeared.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Jewish community in Yemen after the operation.", "content": "In 1959, another 3,000 Jews from Aden fled to Israel, while many more left as refugees to the United States and the United Kingdom. The emigration of Yemeni Jews continued as a trickle, but stopped in 1962, when a civil war broke out in North Yemen, which put an abrupt halt to further emigration. In 2013, a total of some 250 Jews still lived in Yemen. The Jewish communities in Raydah were shocked by the killing of Moshe Ya'ish al-Nahari in 2008. His wife and nine children emigrated to Israel. Other members of the Jewish community received hate letters and threats by phone. Amnesty International wrote to the Yemeni government, urging the country to protect its Jewish citizens. The human rights organization stated that it is \"deeply concerned for the safety of members of the Jewish community in northwestern Yemen following the killing of one member of the community and anonymous serious threats to others to leave Yemen or face death\". During the Gaza War, the Jewish communities in Raydah were attacked several times.  It was forbidden for native-born Yemeni Jews who had left the country to re-enter, rendering communication with these communities difficult. Muslims were therefore hired as \"shelihim\" (emissaries) to locate the remaining Jews, pay their debts, and transport them to Aden. Little came of this.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Operation Magic Carpet is a widely known nickname for Operation On Wings of Eagles (, \"Kanfei Nesharim\"), an operation between June 1949 and September 1950 that brought 49,000 Yemenite Jews to the new state of Israel. During its course, the overwhelming majority of Yemenite Jews – some 47,000 from Yemen, 1,500 from Aden, as well as 500 from Djibouti and Eritrea and some 2,000 Jews from Saudi Arabia– were airlifted to Israel. British and American transport planes made some 380 flights from Aden, in a secret operation that was not made public until several months after it was over. At some point, the operation was also called Operation Messiah's Coming.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976110}
{"src_title": "Elena of Montenegro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "She was born in Cetinje as daughter of Montenegrin Prince and future King Nicholas I and his wife Milena. At the age of 10, she went to the Institute for young ladies in Saint Petersburg, Russia. She was talented at painting and architecture, and she designed the monument for Prince Danilo I.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "As the result of Elena's marriage to King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy on 24 October 1896, she converted to Catholicism from Orthodoxy and became Queen of Italy when her husband acceded to the throne in 1900. Her mother was so distressed with the fact that Elena had changed her religion that she refused to come to the wedding ceremony in Rome.  Due to the Fascist conquest of Ethiopia in 1936 and Albania in 1939, Queen Elena briefly used the claimed titles of Empress of Ethiopia and Queen of Albania; both titles were dropped when her husband formally renounced them in 1943.  She influenced her husband to lobby Benito Mussolini, Prime Minister of Italy, for creation of the independent Kingdom of Montenegro in 1941. In 1943 she subsequently obtained the release from a German prison of her nephew, Prince Michael of Montenegro, and his wife, Geneviève. Prince Michael had been imprisoned after refusing to become King of Montenegro under the protection of Italy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Queen and the wars.", "content": "On 29 July 1900, following his father's assassination, Victor Emmanuel ascended the Italian throne. Officially, Elena assumed her husband's whole titles: she became \"Queen of Italy\", and with the birth of the Italian Colonial Empire she became \"Queen of Albania\" and \"Empress of Ethiopia\".  On 28 December 1908 Messina was hit by a disastrous earthquake. Queen Elena helped with the rescuers, as some photographs show. This helped to increase her popularity within the country. During the First World War Elena worked as a nurse and, with the help of the Queen Mother, she turned Quirinal Palace and Villa Margherita into hospitals. To raise funds, she invented the \"signed photograph\", which was sold at the charity desks. At the end of the war, she proposed to sell the crown treasures in order to pay the war debts.  Elena was the first \"Inspector of the Voluntary Nurses\" for the Italian Red Cross from 1911 until 1921. She studied medicine and was able to obtain a laurea honoris causa. She financed charitable institutions for people with encephalitis, tuberculosis, former soldiers and poor mothers.  She was deeply involved in her fight against disease, and she promoted many efforts for the training of doctors, and for research against poliomyelitis, Parkinson's disease and cancer.  On 15 April 1937 Pope Pius XI gave her the Golden Rose of Christianity, the most important honour for a Catholic lady at the time. Pope Pius XII, in a condolence telegram sent to her son Umberto II for the queen's death, defined her a \"Lady of charitable work\".  In 1939, three months after the German invasion of Poland and the declaration of war by the United Kingdom and France, Elena wrote a letter to the six European queens still neutral (Queen Alexandrine of Denmark, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, Grand Duchess Charlotte of Luxembourg, Queen Elisabeth of Belgium, Queen Ioanna of Bulgaria and Queen Mother Maria of Yugoslavia) in order to avoid the great tragedy World War II would become.  On 25 July 1943 Victor Emmanuel III had Benito Mussolini arrested. The king left Rome on 9 September to flee to Brindisi with the help of the Allies and Elena followed her husband in his escape. In contrast, on 23 September their daughter Mafalda was arrested by the Nazis and sent to Buchenwald concentration camp, where she died in 1944.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exile and death.", "content": "Following the war, on 9 May 1946, Victor Emmanuel III abdicated in favour of their son Umberto, and the former king assumed the title of Count of Pollenzo. On 2 June 1946 a referendum resulted in 52 percent of voters favouring an Italian republic over the monarchy. The republic was formally proclaimed four days later, and the House of Savoy's reign over Italy formally ended on 12 June 1946. Elena and Victor Emmanuel III went to Egypt, where they were welcomed with great honor by King Faruk, but forced to live the rest of their lives in exile. Vittorio Emmanuel III died a year later of pulmonary congestion in Alexandria. Elena stayed in Egypt a short time before moving to France. There, in Montpellier, she was diagnosed with a severe form of cancer, and died in November 1952 while having surgery to treat it.  65 years after her death, on 15 December 2017, the remains of Elena were repatriated from Montpellier, to the sanctuary of Vicoforte, near Turin. The remains of Victor Emmanuel III were transferred two days later from Alexandria, and interred alongside hers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and Queen Elena had 5 children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Elena of Montenegro, or more commonly known as Queen Elena of Italy (; 8 January 1873 – 28 November 1952) was the daughter of King Nicholas I of Montenegro and his wife, Milena Vukotić. As wife of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, she was Queen of Italy from 1900 until 1946, Empress consort of Ethiopia from 1936 until 1941 and Queen consort of the Albanians from 1939 until 1943.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976111}
{"src_title": "Mondelez International", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Before Mondelez International.", "content": "Mondelez International is rooted in the National Dairy Products Corporation (National Dairy), which was founded on December 10, 1923, by Thomas H. McInnerney and Edward E. Rieck. The firm was initially set up to execute on a rollup strategy in the fragmented United States ice cream industry.  In 1924, Kraft Cheese Company was founded and was listed on the Chicago Stock Exchange. Two years later, it was listed on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1928, it acquired Phenix Cheese Company, the maker of a cream cheese branded as Philadelphia cream cheese, founded by Jason F. Whitney, Sr. and the company changed its name to Kraft-Phenix Cheese Company.  In 1930, National Dairy acquired Kraft Phenix. After the acquisition, the combined company retained the National Dairy name and management, though the Kraft Phenix side of the company continued to operate largely independently.  On September 7, 2009, Kraft made a hostile £10.2 billion takeover bid for the British confectionery group Cadbury, makers of Dairy Milk and Bournville chocolate. On November 9 the company's bid (then £9.8 billion) was rejected by Cadbury, which called it a \"derisory\" offer. Kraft renewed the offer on December 4. It had significant political and public opposition in the United Kingdom and abroad, leading to a call for the government to implement economic protectionism in large-company takeovers. On January 19, 2010, Cadbury approved a revised offer from Kraft which valued the company at £11.5 billion ($19.5 billion). Some funds for the takeover were provided by the Royal Bank of Scotland, the British partially state-owned bank.  Cadbury sales were flat after Kraft's acquisition. Despite the Cadbury takeover's helping to boost sales by 30 percent, Kraft's net profit for the fourth quarter fell 24 percent (to $540 million) due to costs associated with integrating the UK business after the acquisition. Kraft spent $1.3 billion on integration to achieve an estimated $675 million in annual savings by the end of 2012. Kraft increased prices to offset rising commodity costs (for corn, sugar, and cocoa) in North America and Europe. According to Rosenfeld, \"We expect it will remain weak for the foreseeable future.\" Taking into account integration costs, the acquisition reduced Kraft's earnings per share by about 33% immediately after the Cadbury purchase.  In August 2011 Kraft Foods announced plans to split into two publicly traded companies, an international snack-food company and a North American grocery company.  The snack-food company, Mondelez International, would be the legal successor of the old Kraft Foods, while the grocery company would be a new company, Kraft Foods Group. The split was completed in October 2012. It was structured so that Kraft Foods changed its name to Mondelez International and spun off Kraft Foods Group as a new publicly traded company. Kraft Foods Group later merged with Heinz to become Kraft Heinz.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mondelez International.", "content": "In 2014, the company announced a merger of its coffee business with the Dutch firm Douwe Egberts; the company would be named Jacobs Douwe Egberts. The merger was confirmed on May 6, 2014, and completed on July 2, 2015.  On June 30, 2016, Mondelez made a $23 billion offer to buy its smaller rival, Hershey. The half-cash, half-stock deal valued Hershey stock at $107 a share. Hershey's board, however, unanimously rejected the offer.  In August 2017, it was announced that Dirk Van de Put, Belgian CEO of McCain Foods, would succeed Irene Rosenfeld as CEO in November 2017.  On May 6, 2018, Mondelez agreed to buy cookie maker Tate's Bake Shop for approximately $500 million. The acquisition was completed on June 7, 2018.  On June 19, 2019, Mondelez agreed to acquire a majority interest in Perfect Snacks, owner of refrigerated protein bar Perfect Bar. The acquisition was completed on July 16.  On February 25, 2020, Mondelez announced that it was acquiring a majority stake in Toronto-based Give & Go, a maker of two-bite brownies. The acquisition was completed on April 3, 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Finances.", "content": "For the fiscal year 2017, Mondelēz International reported earnings of US$2.922 billion, with an annual revenue of US$25.896 billion, a decline of 0.1% over the previous fiscal cycle. Mondelēz International's shares traded at over $42 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$58.8 billion in October 2018. In the first quarter of 2020, due to Covid-19 lockdowns and people stocking up with sweets, the company's sales grew by 15% in North America, increasing its overall revenue by almost 3%.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deforestation.", "content": "In September 2017, an investigation conducted by NGO Mighty Earth found that a large amount of the cocoa used in chocolate produced by Mondelez and other major chocolate companies was grown illegally in national parks and other protected areas in Ivory Coast and Ghana. The countries are the world's two largest cocoa producers.  The report documents how in several national parks and other protected areas, 90% or more of the land mass has been converted to cocoa. Less than four percent of Ivory Coast remains densely forested, and the chocolate companies' laissez-faire approach to sourcing has driven extensive deforestation in Ghana as well. In Ivory Coast, deforestation has pushed chimpanzees into just a few small pockets, and reduced the country's elephant population from several hundred thousand to about 200–400.  In November 2018, an investigation by Greenpeace International found that 22 palm oil suppliers to Mondelez International cleared over 70,000 hectares of rainforest from 2015 to 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wheat futures price-fixing allegation.", "content": "In April 2015, the US Commodity and Futures Commission (CTFC) alleged that Mondelez International and its former subsidiary, Mondelez Global, bought $90 million (£61 million) of wheat futures with no intention of taking delivery. According to the CTFC, the purchase raised the price of the commodity and earned the company $5.4 million.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mondelez International, Inc. (), often stylized as Mondelēz, is an American multinational confectionery, food, holding and beverage company based in Chicago, Illinois, which employs approximately 80,000 individuals around the world. It consists of the global snack and food brands of Kraft Foods Inc. after the October 2012 spin-off of its North American grocery-foods products. The Mondelez name is a coined word adopted in 2012 that was suggested by Kraft Foods employees, and is derived from the Latin word \"mundus\" (\"world\") and \"delez\", a fanciful modification of the word \"delicious.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976112}
{"src_title": "Château Pèlerin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Demographics.", "content": "Isiolo county has a total population of 268,002 persons as 2019 census and of this 139,510 are males,128,483 are females, and 9 intersex persons. There is an average size of 4.6 persons per household and a population density of 11 persons per square Km.  Source", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infrastructure and Transport.", "content": "Isiolo covered by 1,185.49km of earth, 263.7km of murram and 35km of bitumen as at 2014. There are 1,149 installed letter boxes, 851 rented letter boxes and vacant letter boxes.  Isiolo airport is one of the key airport in the county.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative and Political Units.", "content": "As of 2018, the County has two constituencies (Isiolo North Constituency and Isiolo South Constituency), three sub-counties and ten wards.  There are a total of 10 county assembly wards, 71 locations and 144 sub-locations", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political Leadership.", "content": "Mohamed Kuti is the second governor for Isiolo and took office in 2017 and he deputised by Ibrahim Abdi Issa. Adan Dullo Fatuma is the senator and also the first woman to be elected as a senator in Kenya. Rehema Dida Jaldesa is the seating women representative for isiolo and second to hold the office.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "There are 213 ECD centres with enrolment of 5148 pupils, 124 primary schools of which 107 are public and 17 are private schools. 23 secondary schools are spread across the county of which 16 are public and 7 are private schools.  Furthermore there are two youth polytechnics, three tertiary institutions and two vocational training centres in the county.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "There are three hospitals of which two is government owned an other one faith based organisation, five health centres, thirty three dispensaries, and three clinics.  Isiolo county has a total of 214 medical personnel of different cadre ranging from doctors to biochemists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "In agriculture the four main crops planted in Isiolo are maize, beans, sorghum and green grams. Livestock also is an economy earner and the four animals kept are cattle (Indigenous), cattle (dairy), camels, sheep, and goats.  A total of 178 ponds were in various places in the county in 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "and Urbanisation.", "content": "Source: USAid Kenya", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Isiolo County is a county in the former Eastern Province of Kenya. Its population is 268,002 (2019 census) and its capital is Isiolo. Isiolo County is to be the first county to be developed as part of the Kenya Vision 2030 program. Its capital and largest town is Isiolo. Other upcoming urban centres are: Garbatulla, Modogashe, Kinna, Merti and Oldonyiro.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976113}
{"src_title": "Drang nach Osten", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin of the term.", "content": "The first known use of was by the Polish journalist Julian Klaczko in 1849, yet it is debatable whether he invented the term as he used it in form of a citation. Because the term is used almost exclusively in its German form in English, Polish, Russian, Czech and other languages, it has been concluded that the term is of German origin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "is connected with the medieval German. This \"east colonization\" referred to the expansion of German culture, language, states, and settlement into eastern and Northern European regions inhabited by Slavs and Balts.  Population growth during the High Middle Ages stimulated movement of peoples from the Rhenish, Flemish, and Saxon territories of the Holy Roman Empire eastwards into the less-populated Baltic region and Poland. These movements were supported by the German nobility, the Slavic kings and dukes, and the medieval Church. The majority of this settlement took place at the expense of Polabian Slavs and pagan Balts (see Northern Crusades).  The future state of Prussia, named for the conquered Old Prussians, had its roots largely in these movements. As the Middle Ages came to a close, the Teutonic Knights, who had been invited to northern Poland by Konrad of Masovia, had assimilated and forcibly converted much of the southern Baltic coastlands.  After the Partitions of Poland by the Kingdom of Prussia, Austria, and the Russian Empire in the late 18th century, Prussia gained much of western Poland. The Prussians, and later the Germans, engaged in a policy of Germanization in Polish territories. Russia and Sweden eventually conquered the lands taken by the Teutonic Knights in Estonia and Livonia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "in German discourse.", "content": "The term became a centerpiece of the program of the German nationalist movement in 1891, with the founding of the, in the words: (\"The old must be revived\"). Nazi Germany employed the slogan in calling the Czechs a \"Slav bulwark against the \" in the 1938.  Despite policies, population movement took place in the opposite direction also, as people from rural low-developed areas in the East were attracted by the prospering industrial areas of Western Germany. This phenomenon became known by the German term, literally the \"flight from the East\". A new was called for by German nationalists to oppose a Polish (\"thrust toward the West\"). World War I had ended with the Treaty of Versailles, by which most or parts of the Imperial German provinces of Posen, West Prussia, and Upper Silesia were given to reconstituted Poland; the West Prussian city of Danzig became the Free City of Danzig. The Polish paper used both and in August 2002 to title stories about German RWE company taking over Polish STOEN and Polish migration into eastern Germany, respectively.  With the development of romantic nationalism in the 19th century, Polish and Russian intellectuals began referring to the German as. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary attempted to expand their power eastward; Germany by gaining influence in the declining Ottoman Empire (the Eastern Question) and Austria-Hungary through the acquisition of territory in the Balkans (such as Bosnia and Herzegovina).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lebensraum concept of Nazi Germany.", "content": "Adolf Hitler, dictator of Nazi Germany from 1933–1945, called for a to acquire territory for German colonists at the expense of central and eastern European nations (). The term by then had gained enough currency to appear in foreign newspapers without explanation. His eastern campaigns during World War II were initially successful with the conquests of Poland, the Baltic countries, Belarus, Ukraine and much of European Russia by the ; was designed to eliminate the native Slavic peoples from these lands and replace them with Germans. The, or soldier-peasants, would settle in a fortified line to prevent civilization arising beyond and threatening Germany.  This was greatly hindered by the lack of German people who actually desired to settle in the east, let alone act as Teutonic Knights there. Settlements actually established during the war did not receive colonists from the, but in the main part East European Germans resettled from Soviet \"spheres of interest\" according to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, and such Poles as deemed Germanizable by Nazis. However, the Soviet Union began to reverse the German conquests by 1943, and Nazi Germany was defeated by the Allies in 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expulsion of Germans from the East after World War II.", "content": "Most of the demographic and cultural outcome of the was terminated after World War II. The expulsion of Germans after World War II east of the line in 1945–48 on the basis of decisions of the Potsdam Conference were later justified by their beneficiaries as a rollback of the. \"Historical Eastern Germany\"— historically the land of the Baltic people called Old Prussians who had been colonised and assimilated by German —was split between Poland, Russia, and Lithuania (a Baltic country) and repopulated with settlers of the respective ethnicities. The line has been accepted to be the eastern German boundary by all post-war German states (East and West Germany, as well as reunited Germany), reneging on all plans to (re-)expand into or (re-)settle territories beyond this line. The Old Prussians were conquered by the Teutonic Knights in the 13th century, and gradually assimilated over the following centuries; the Old Prussian language was extinct by the 17th or early 18th century. Henry Cord Meyer, in his book \": Fortunes of a Slogan-Concept in German–Slavic Relations, 1849–1990\" claims that the slogan originated in the Slavic world, and it also was more widely used than in Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In Poland the term was used in describing programs of Germanizing Poland, while in Germany the slogan was part of a wider nationalist approbation of medieval German settlement in the east and of the idea of the \"superiority of German culture\". The slogan (\"Drive to the West\"), derived from, was used to depict an alleged Polish drive westward.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976114}
{"src_title": "Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers was a group of 28 that was formed in 1844. Around half were weavers in Rochdale, Lancashire, England. As the mechanisation of the Industrial Revolution was forcing more and more skilled workers into poverty, these tradesmen decided to band together to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford. With lessons from prior failed attempts at co-operation in mind, they designed the now famous Rochdale Principles, and over a period of four months they struggled to pool £1 per person for a total of 28 pounds of capital. On 21 December 1844, they opened their store with a very meagre selection of butter, sugar, flour, oatmeal and a few candles. Within three months, they expanded their selection to include tea and tobacco, and they were soon known for providing high quality, unadulterated goods. By 1900, the British co-operative movement had grown to 1,439 co-operatives covering virtually every area of the UK.  The archive for the co-operative movement in Rochdale is held by Local Studies, Rochdale Boroughwide Cultural Trust. Rochdale Pioneers traded independently until 1991, with name changes inspired by mergers with neighbouring co-operatives, as Pioneers from 1976, and Norwest Pioneers from 1982, based in Wythenshawe, Manchester by 1991. In 1991, then Norwest Co-operative Society transferred its engagements to United Co-operatives, that was run from Rochdale when it in turn transferred to the Manchester-based national hybrid society, The Co-operative Group, in 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Objectives.", "content": "At the outset, the Pioneers had a clear set of what we now would call objectives – in 1844 they called them 'Objects'.  The objects of the Society were stated in \"Law the First\" of their rules and were:  Many aspects of these objects can be seen directly in the modern-day co-operative movement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museum.", "content": "The Pioneers rented their first store at 31 Toad Lane and moved out in 1867 but the co-operative movement later purchased it, and opened it as a museum in 1931. The museum resurrected the legal name Rochdale Equitable Pioneers Society in 1989, the name having been abandoned by the original co-operative in 1976 on merger with the Oldham Co-operative.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, founded in 1844, was an early consumer co-operative, and one of the first to pay a patronage dividend, forming the basis for the modern co-operative movement. Although other co-operatives preceded them, the Rochdale Pioneers' co-operative became the prototype for societies in Great Britain. The Rochdale Pioneers are most famous for designing the Rochdale Principles, a set of principles of co-operation that provide the foundation for the principles on which co-ops around the world operate to this day. The model the Rochdale Pioneers used is a focus of study within co-operative economics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976115}
{"src_title": "The Road", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "A father and his young son journey across post-apocalyptic America some years after an extinction event. The land is covered with ash and devoid of life. The boy's mother, pregnant with him at the time of the disaster, committed suicide some time before.  Realizing they cannot survive the winter, the father takes the boy south along empty roads towards the sea, carrying their meager possessions in their knapsacks and a supermarket cart. The father is suffering from a cough and knows he is dying. He assures his son that they are \"good guys\" who are \"carrying the fire\". The pair have a revolver, but only two rounds. The father has taught the boy to use the gun on himself if necessary, to avoid falling into the hands of cannibals.  The father and son evade a traveling group of marauders. The father uses one of the rounds to kill a marauder who discovers them, disturbing the boy. They flee the marauder's companions, abandoning most of their possessions. When they search a house for supplies, they discover a locked cellar containing captives whom cannibal gangs have been eating limb by limb, and flee into the woods.  As they near starvation, the pair discovers a concealed bunker filled with food, clothes, and other supplies. They stay there for several days, regaining their strength, and then move on, taking supplies with them in a cart. They encounter an elderly man with whom the boy insists they share food. Further along the road, they evade a group whose members include a pregnant woman, and soon after they discover an abandoned campsite with a newborn infant roasted on a spit. They soon run out of supplies and begin to starve before finding a house containing more food to carry in their cart, but the man's condition worsens.  The pair reaches the sea, where they discover a boat that has drifted ashore. The man swims to it and recovers supplies, including a flare gun, which he demonstrates to the boy. The boy becomes ill, and after spending some time on the beach recovering, their cart is stolen. Eventually they find a man traveling down the road with the cart. The father threatens him with the revolver and forces him to strip naked. This distresses the boy, causing the father to return and leave the man's clothes and shoes on the road, but the man has disappeared.  While walking through a town inland, the father is shot in the leg with an arrow by a man in a window, whom he shoots with the flare gun. The pair move further south along the beach. The father's condition worsens, and after several days he realizes he will soon die. He tells the boy he can talk to him in prayer after he is gone, and that he must continue without him. After he dies, the boy stays with his body for three days. He is finally approached by a man carrying a shotgun, who has a wife and two children, a boy and a girl. He convinces the boy he is one of the \"good guys\" and takes him under his protection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development history.", "content": "In an interview with Oprah Winfrey, McCarthy said that the inspiration for the book came during a 2003 visit to El Paso, Texas, with his young son. Imagining what the city might look like fifty to a hundred years into the future, he pictured \"fires on the hill\" and thought about his son. He took some initial notes but did not return to the idea until a few years later, while in Ireland. Then, the novel came to him quickly, and he dedicated it to his son, John Francis McCarthy.  In an interview with John Jurgensen of \"The Wall Street Journal\", McCarthy described conversations he and his brother had about different scenarios for an apocalypse. One of the scenarios involved survivors turning to cannibalism: \"when everything's gone, the only thing left to eat is each other.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary significance and reception.", "content": "\"The Road\" has received numerous positive reviews and honors since its publication. The review aggregator Metacritic reported the book had an average score of 90 out of 100, based on thirty-one reviews. Critics have deemed it \"heartbreaking\", \"haunting\", and \"emotionally shattering\". \"The Village Voice\" referred to it as \"McCarthy's purest fable yet.\" In a \"New York Review of Books\" article, author Michael Chabon heralded the novel. Discussing the novel's relation to established genres, Chabon insists \"The Road\" is not science fiction; although \"the adventure story in both its modern and epic forms... structures the narrative\", Chabon says, \"ultimately it is as a lyrical epic of horror that \"The Road\" is best understood.\" \"Entertainment Weekly\" in June 2008 named \"The Road\" the best book, fiction or non-fiction, of the past 25 years and put it on its end-of-the-decade, \"best-of\" list, saying, \"With its spare prose, McCarthy's post-apocalyptic odyssey from 2006 managed to be both harrowing and heartbreaking.\" In 2019, the novel was ranked 17th on \"The Guardian\"'s list of the 100 best books of the 21st century.  On March 28, 2007, the selection of \"The Road\" as the next novel in Oprah Winfrey's Book Club was announced. A televised interview on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" was conducted on June 5, 2007, and it was McCarthy's first, though he had been interviewed for the print media before. The announcement of McCarthy's television appearance surprised his followers. \"Wait a minute until I can pick my jaw up off the floor,\" said John Wegner, an English professor at Angelo State University in San Angelo, Texas, and editor of the \"Cormac McCarthy Journal\", when told of the interview. During Winfrey's interview, McCarthy insisted his son, John Francis, was a co-author to the novel, revealing that some of the conversations between the father and son in the novel were based upon actual conversations between McCarthy and his son. The novel was also dedicated to his son; in a way, it is a love story for his son, but McCarthy felt embarrassed to admit it on television.  On November 5, 2019, the \"BBC News\" listed \"The Road\" on its list of the 100 most influential novels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and nominations.", "content": "In 2006, McCarthy was awarded the James Tait Black Memorial Prize in fiction and the Believer Book Award and was a finalist for the National Book Critics Circle Award for fiction. On April 16, 2007, the novel was awarded the 2007 Pulitzer Prize for fiction. In 2012, it was shortlisted for the Best of the James Tait Black.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "A film adaptation of the novel, directed by John Hillcoat and written by Joe Penhall, opened in theatres on November 25, 2009. The film stars Viggo Mortensen as the man and Kodi Smit-McPhee as the boy. Production took place in Louisiana, Oregon, and several locations in Pennsylvania. The film, like the novel, received generally positive reviews from critics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Road is a 2006 post-apocalyptic novel by American writer Cormac McCarthy. The book details the journey of a father and his young son over a period of several months, across a landscape blasted by an unspecified cataclysm that has destroyed most of civilization and, in the intervening years, almost all life on Earth. The novel was awarded the 2007 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for Fiction in 2006. The book was adapted to a film of the same name in 2009, directed by John Hillcoat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976116}
{"src_title": "Galerie Neue Meister", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The collection began as part of the Dresden Painting Gallery. The purchase of contemporary works, creating the \"Modern Department\", was stepped up in 1843 under Bernhard von Lindenau, director of the Royal Museums, who personally donated 700 talers each year for this purpose. The Academic Council, responsible for the gallery and the Academy of Fine Arts, also contributed 50 percent of the proceeds from its exhibitions towards new purchases. However, these funds were only enough for limited acquisitions, mostly restricted to German works.  Until 1882 the collection contained only four major German Romanticism works; two paintings by Caspar David Friedrich and two works by Ludwig Richter. It was subsequently expanded under director Karl Woermann. The gallery first started to buy foreign contemporary works following an international art exhibition in Dresden in 1897.  Under Hans Posse, director from 1910, the gallery enlarged its collections of German Romanticism, Impressionism, and late 19th century \"Civic Realism\" (\"Bürgerlicher Realismus\"), which are still important today. The gallery was financially strengthened by the founding of the Dresden Museums Association in 1911 and the Patrons Association in 1917.  In 1931, the Modern Department of the gallery with paintings from the 19th and 20th centuries moved into a separate building on Brühl's Terrace, laying the foundations for what is now known as the New Masters Gallery. The Nazi campaign against \"degenerate art\" resulted in the confiscation and sale of 56 paintings, including works by Edvard Munch, Max Beckmann and Emil Nolde. In the 1945 bombing of Dresden, 196 paintings were destroyed by fire while on a truck.  The present-day New Masters Gallery was founded in 1959, and has been housed in the upper rooms of the Albertinum since 1965. Subsequently, the gallery was able to retrieve a number of works that had been lost during and after World War II.  The floods of 2002 made it necessary to renovate the Albertinum and build a new flood-proof depot. The Albertinum reopened in June 2010 with an enlargement to the \"Salzgasse Wing\". Its rooms were once occupied by the Green Vault that was moved to the renovated Dresden Castle at that time. Special exhibitions of contemporary art are now held there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collection.", "content": "Some 300 paintings out of a collection of about 3,000 works are exhibited in the gallery. They date from the 19th century until today. Also shown are works from the Sculpture Collection belonging to the same period.  On display are paintings by numerous major artists, including those of the German Romantics Friedrich, and Richter; the Impressionists Corinth and Slevogt; and the Expressionist Nolde, including his \"Brücke\" works, and Dix from the New Objectivity movement. There are also works by Beckmann, Gauguin, Kirchner, Klee, Modersohn-Becker, Monet, Munch, and one painting by Van Gogh. Rooms are devoted to Georg Baselitz, A.R. Penck and Gerhard Richter. Contemporary artists include Neo Rauch and Luc Tuymans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "The Society of Modern Art in Dresden (\"Gesellschaft für moderne Kunst in Dresden\"), founded in 1994, raises funds for the purchase of new works and organises permanent loans to the museum. Through its support, more than 30 works have been acquired and several exhibitions funded.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Galerie Neue Meister (, \"New Masters Gallery\") in Dresden, Germany, displays around 300 paintings from the 19th century until today, including works from Otto Dix, Edgar Degas, Vincent van Gogh and Claude Monet. The gallery also exhibits a number of sculptures from the Dresden Sculpture Collection from the same period. The museum's collection grew out of the Old Masters Gallery, for which contemporary works were increasingly purchased after 1843.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976117}
{"src_title": "Wikiversity", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Wikiversity's data phase officially began on August 15, 2006, with the.  The idea of Wikiversity began with the initial development of the Wikiversity community within the Wikibooks project, however when it was nominated for deletion from Wikibooks, soon there was a proposal to make Wikiversity an independent Wikimedia project, with the fundamental goal to broaden the scope of activities within the Wikimedia community to include additional types of learning resources in addition to textbooks.  Two proposals were made. The first project proposal was not approved (2005) and the second, modified proposal, was approved (2006).  The launch of Wikiversity was announced at Wikimania 2006 as an idea to:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Project details.", "content": "Wikiversity is a center for the creation of and use of free learning materials, and the provision of. Wikiversity is one of many wikis used in educational contexts, as well as many initiatives that are creating free and open educational resources.  The primary priorities and goals for Wikiversity are to:  The Wikiversity e-Learning model places emphasis on \"learning groups\" and \"learning by doing\". Wikiversity's motto and slogan is \"set learning free\", indicating that groups/communities of Wikiversity participants will engage in learning projects. Learning is facilitated through collaboration on projects that are detailed, outlined, summarized or results reported by editing Wikiversity pages. Wikiversity learning projects include collections of wiki webpages concerned with the exploration of a particular topic. Wikiversity participants are encouraged to express their learning goals, and the Wikiversity community collaborates to develop learning activities and projects to accommodate those goals. The Wikiversity e-Learning activities give learners the opportunity to build knowledge. Students have to be language-aware in order to be able to correct their classmates. By doing this, students develop their reflection skills. Secondly, they enable students to be autonomous deciding what to write or edit, also when and how to do it. Students are able to free resort to any mean of support. At the same time, it fosters cognitive development, engaging students to collaborate.  Learning resources are developed by an individual or groups, either on their own initiative, or as part of a learning project. Wikiversity resources include teaching aids, lesson plans, curricula, links to off-site resources, course notes, example and problem sets, computer simulations, reading lists, and other as devised by participants – but do not include final polished textbooks. Texts useful to others are hosted at Wikibooks for update and maintenance. Learning groups with interests in each subject area create a web of resources that form the basis of discussions and activities at Wikiversity. Learning resources can be used by educators outside of Wikiversity for their own purposes, under the terms of the GFDL and a Creative Commons license (like Wikipedia).  Wikiversity also allows original research (in contrast to Wikipedia which does not). Such research content may lack any peer review.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "WikiJournals.", "content": "Several \"\"s operate with an academic journal format on the Wikiversity website (under the WikiJournal User Group). Submitted articles are subjected to peer review by external experts before publication of an indexed, citable, stable version in the journal, and an editable version in Wikipedia. They are wholly free, offering open access to readers and charging no publication fee to authors (diamond open access). Some articles are written from scratch, and others are adapted from Wikipedia articles. They therefore aim to encourage experts to contribute content creation and improvement (as authors and peer reviewers), and provide an additional quality control mechanism for existing Wikipedia content. This activity started with \"WikiJournal of Medicine\" in 2014. The sister journals \"WikiJournal of Science\" and \"WikiJournal of Humanities\" both began publishing in 2018. The WikiJournal User Group received an open publishing award in November 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Languages.", "content": "There are currently seventeen different Wikiversities: Arabic, Chinese, Czech, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hindi, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Russian, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish; Wikiversity projects in other languages are being developed at the \"beta\" multilingual hub.  For newly established specific language Wikiversities to move out of the initial exploratory \"beta\" phase, the new Wikiversity community must establish policies governing research activities. Wikiversity may act as a repository of research carried out by the, or others who are involved in wiki-based, or other research. Wikiversity hosts original research in addition to secondary research, unless a specific language group decides upon no research. It is expected that researchers will respect and update guidelines for appropriate research through a community consensus process. Currently the English Wikiversity hosts more than 376 research pages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "PCWorld reported the Wikiversity project in 2007, when the most popular course was on film-making. It compared the project to Massachusetts Institute of Technology's \"MIT OpenCourseWare\", noting however that while free, MIT's offering was \"not free enough for Wikiversity\".  In their 2008 book on \"Empowering Online Learning\", Curtis Bonk and Ke Zhang noted that if \"the Wikimedia Foundation can nurture credible resources and communities within Wikiversity, it will send serious shock waves throughout higher education.\" Steven Hoffman, in his 2010 book on teaching humanities, wrote that Wikiversity could do for higher education what Wikipedia had done \"for the traditional encyclopedia\". Hoffman noted that Wikiversity courses could look much like traditional online university courses, except that they were open in every sense. He did not expect Wikiversity to replace traditional universities, but could supplement them for \"retiring baby boomers\" spending time and energy on \"education as leisure\".  The Association for Psychological Science noted in 2018 that Wikipedia, often \"Internet users' first source of information\", is constantly changing in search of accuracy, accompanied in this by Wikiversity, its \"lesser-known sister site\".  J. Rapp et al., writing in 2019, commented that Wikiversity allowed readers to become active contributors; writing materials \"can be regarded as a learning task for advanced Wikiversity authors in general.\" They noted that the Wikijournals differed from conventional journals in being transparent about reviewers' backgrounds, possibly facilitating interdisciplinary discussion, and in revealing the stages in the development of an article (by versioning).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wikiversity is a Wikimedia Foundation project that supports learning communities, their learning materials, and resulting activities. It differs from Wikipedia in that it offers tutorials and other materials for the fostering of learning, rather than an encyclopedia; like Wikipedia it is available in many languages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976118}
{"src_title": "Gabriele Veneziano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Gabriele Veneziano was born in Florence. In 1965, he earned his Laurea in Theoretical Physics from the University of Florence under the direction of. He pursued his doctoral studies at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel and obtained his PhD in 1967 under the supervision of Hector Rubinstein. During his stay in Israel and his early years at MIT, he collaborated with Marco Ademollo (a professor in Florence), Miguel Virasoro. and Sergio Fubini.  Between 1968 and 1972 he worked at MIT and CERN. In 1972 he became Amos de Shalit Professor of Physics at the Weizmann Institute of Science and in 1976 he accepted a position in the Theory Division at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland where he worked for more than 30 years and directed the Theory Division (between 1994 and 1997). He currently holds the chair of Elementary Particles, Gravitation and Cosmology at the College of France in Paris, France. In fall 2012, he spent a semester at New York University as Global Distinguished Professor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Gabriele Veneziano first formulated the foundations of string theory in 1968 when he discovered a string picture could describe the interaction of strongly interacting particles. Veneziano discovered that the Euler Beta function, interpreted as a scattering amplitude, has many of the features needed to explain the physical properties of strongly interacting particles. This amplitude, known as the Veneziano amplitude, is interpreted as the scattering amplitude for four open string tachyons. In retrospect this work is now considered the founding of string theory although at the time it was not apparent the string picture would lead to a new theory of quantum gravity.  Veneziano's work led to intense research to try to explain the strong force by a field theory of strings about one fermi in length. The rise of quantum chromodynamics, a rival explanation of the strong force, led to a temporary loss of interest in string theories until the 1980s when interest was revived.  In 1991, he published a paper that shows how an inflationary cosmological model can be obtained from string theory, thus opening the door to a description of string cosmological pre-big bang scenarios.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gabriele Veneziano (; ; born 7 September 1942) is an Italian theoretical physicist and one of the pioneers of string theory. He has conducted most of his scientific activities at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland, and held the Chair of Elementary Particles, Gravitation and Cosmology at the Collège de France in Paris from 2004 to 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976119}
{"src_title": "The Bald Soprano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The idea for the play came to Ionesco while he was trying to learn English with the Assimil method. Impressed by the contents of the dialogues, often very sober and strange, he decided to write an absurd play named \"L'anglais sans peine\" (\"English without toil\"). Other possible titles which were considered included \"Il pleut des chiens et des chats,\" (\"It's raining cats and dogs\", translated in French literally); \"L'heure anglaise\" and \"Big Ben Follies\".  Its actual title was the result of an error in rehearsal by actor : the fire chief's monologue initially included a mention of \"l'institutrice blonde\" (\"the blonde schoolteacher\"), but Huet said \"la cantatrice chauve\", and Ionesco, who was present, decided to re-use the phrase.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "The Smiths are a traditional couple from London who have invited another couple, the Martins, over for a visit. They are joined later by the Smiths' maid, Mary, and the local fire chief, who is also Mary's lover. The two families engage in meaningless banter, telling stories and relating nonsensical poems. At one point, Mrs. Martin converses with her husband as if he were a stranger she just met. As the fire chief turns to leave, he mentions \"the bald soprano\" in passing, which has a very unsettling effect on the others. Mrs. Smith replies that \"she always styles her hair the same way.\" After the Fire Chief's exit, the play devolves into a series of complete non-sequiturs with no resemblance to normal conversation. It ends with the two couples shouting in unison \"It's not that way. It's over here!\" (\"\"C’est pas par là, c’est par ici!\"\" ) right before a blackout occurs. When the lights come back on, the scene starts from the beginning with the Martins reciting the Smiths' lines from the beginning of the play for a while before the curtain closes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Story.", "content": "The play opens on Mrs. Smith reciting the events of the night with Mr. Smith. They discuss the death of someone they knew, Bobby Watson. The play then shifts back to reality and they realize that Bobby has been dead for four years. Suddenly they flash back to when he was alive and engaged to a woman who was also called Bobby Watson. Then they shift back to reality where they realize that he has left behind two children and they are gossiping about who his wife will remarry. Allegedly she is going to name another relative by the same name, but being that they all have the same name and work in the same industry the Smiths have a difficult time figuring out who is who.  Their maid, Mary enters, announcing that the Martins have arrived. The Smiths leave.  The Martins enter, and Mary chides them for being late; then she exits.  After entering the room, the Martins realize that they have met each other before. They are surprised to find that they are both from the city of Manchester, that they both took the same train to London, that they both traveled third class, that they both reside at No. 19 Bromfield Street, that they sleep in the same bed, and that they both have a two-year-old daughter named Alice with one red eye and one white eye. They come to the conclusion that they are husband and wife. They recognize each other and embrace.  Mary is on stage with the Martins, who are asleep. She tells the audience that the two are mistaken, that they are not husband and wife, but that, never mind, things should be left just as they are.  The Martins, alone, agree that now that they've found each other, they should just live as they had before.  When the Smiths return they talk about and with their guests. The doorbell rings and Mr. Smith goes to open the door.  The Fire Chief enters. He's disappointed to find no fire at the Smiths', but they promise that they'll call him if one occurs. While they wait for something to happen they tell telling stories, none of which make sense.  Mary enters and tells her own story, in which she reveals that she is the lover of the Fire Chief. The Smiths then push her out of the room  The Fire Chief leaves.  The Martins and the Smiths recite nonsensical truisms. Then all sense of language dissipates as the two couples quarrel, but no one is able to communicate and none of their issues are resolved. As they argue the lights fade; when they rise again, the Martins are in the Smiths' living room, repeating the same lines with which the Smiths opened the play.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Meaning.", "content": "Like many plays in the theatre of the absurd genre, the underlying theme of \"The Bald Soprano\" is not immediately apparent. Many suggest that it expresses the futility of meaningful communication in modern society. The script is charged with non sequiturs that give the impression that the characters are not even listening to each other in their frantic efforts to make their own voices heard. There was speculation that it was parody around the time of its first performance, but Ionesco states in an essay written to his critics that he had no intention of parody, but if he were parodying anything, it would be everything.  \"The Bald Soprano\" appears to have been written as a continuous loop. The final scene contains stage instructions to start the performance over from the very beginning, with the Martin couple substituted for the Smith couple and vice versa. However, this decision was only added in after the show's hundredth performance, and it was originally the Smiths who restarted the show, in exactly the same manner as before.  According to Ionesco, he had several possible endings in mind, including a climax in which the \"author\" or \"manager\" antagonizes the audience, and even a version in which the audience is shot with machine guns. However, he ultimately settled for a cheaper solution, the cycle. Ionesco told Claude Bonnefoy in an interview, \"I wanted to give a meaning to the play by having it begin all over again with two characters. In this way the end becomes a new beginning but, since there are two couples in the play, it begins the first time with the Smiths and the second time with the Martins, to suggest the interchangeable nature of the characters: the Smiths are the Martins and the Martins are the Smiths\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "La Cantatrice chauve – translated from French as The Bald Soprano or The Bald Prima Donna – is the first play written by Romanian-French playwright Eugène Ionesco.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976120}
{"src_title": "Saab 91 Safir", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Development of the Safir began in 1944 as part of a plan to compensate for reductions in orders for military aircraft when the Second World War finally ended. Three major civil programmes were planned, the Type 90 Scandia airliner, the Type 91 Safir light aircraft and the Saab 92 motor car. The Safir was designed by Anders J. Andersson, who had previously worked for Bücker, where he had designed the all-wood Bücker Bü 181 \"Bestmann\". The Safir thus shared many conceptual design features with the Bestmann. It was primarily of metal construction, although it did have fabric-covered control surfaces. Development was slowed by the need to concentrate on more urgent military work, and by industrial action in suppliers. The Safir's first flight took place on 20 November 1945.  While the prototype was first powered by a four cylinder de Havilland Gipsy Major IC piston engine, the Saab 91A initial production model used a Gipsy Major 10. The Gipsy-engine Safir was considered underpowered by military customers, and as a result, the Gipsy was replaced by a six-cylinder Lycoming O-435A rated at, with the re-engined type becoming the Saab 91B, flying on 18 January 1949. The Saab 91C, first flying in September 1953, retained the O-435 engine, but has a revised four-seat cabin. The 91D replaced the O-435 with a lighter four-cylinder Lycoming O-360-A1A engine rated at.  As well as its primary role as a trainer/touring aircraft, the Safir was also used as an aerodynamic testbed. The first prototype was used as a platform for low speed testing of the swept wing for Saab 29 jet fighter, and was later further modified to test the wing for the Saab 32 Lansen fighter. In addition, one ex-Swedish aircraft was sold to Japan, going through a variety of modifications to test high-lift devices for the Shin Meiwa PS-1 flying boat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Production of the Saab 91A began in 1946, but sales were slow owing to the large numbers of cheap ex-military trainers for sale after the end of the Second World War. Major users of the 91A were the Swedish and Ethiopian Air Forces. In 1951, Sweden ordered 74 91B trainers to replace its remaining Bestmanns, but Saab was busy building J29 Tunnan fighters, so production of the Saab 91B was moved to the Dutch company De Schelde at their Dordrecht factory. De Schedle continued building the Safir until 1955, completing a total of 120 Saab 91B and 91Cs.  Saab restarted production of the Safir at its Linköping in 1954, building 25 Saab 91B-2s for Norway, 30 Saab 91Cs, all for military customers, and 99 Saab 91Ds. Production continued until 1966, when the last Safir, a Saab 91C for Ethiopia, was completed. Total production was 323 aircraft including the prototype. The Safir was used by the Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish, Austrian, Tunisian and Ethiopean air forces as a trainer aircraft, and a single aircraft was used by the Japan Defense Agency as an STOL test platform. The type remained in Norwegian and Finnish service until the late 1980s, and in Austria until 1992. While it was replaced as a trainer by the Scottish Aviation Bulldog in Sweden in 1971, it remained in use as a liaison aircraft, still being in service in 1994.  Major civilian users were Air France, Lufthansa and the Dutch \"Rijksluchtvaartschool\" (RLS) on the Groningen Airport Eelde, near Groningen.  During development of the Saab 29, the initial Saab 91 prototype was modified with a scaled-down version of the Saab 29's swept wings; this aircraft was designated Saab 201 Experimental Aircraft. This same airframe was later fitted with wings designed for the Saab 32 Lansen; this was designated Saab 202.  A single Saab 91 Safir was modified as the Saab X1G for research in Japan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Saab 91 Safir (Swedish: \"sapphire\") is a three (91A, B, B-2) or four (91C, D) seater, single engine trainer aircraft. The Safir was built by Saab AB in Linköping, Sweden, (203 aircraft) and by \"De Schelde\" in Dordrecht, Netherlands (120 aircraft).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976121}
{"src_title": "Asian hornet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Appearance.", "content": "\"Vespa velutina\" is slightly smaller than the European hornet. Typically, queens are 30 mm (1.2 in) in length, and males about 24 mm (0.95 in). Workers measure about 20 mm (0.80 in) in length. The species has distinctive yellow tarsi (legs). The thorax is a velvety brown or black with a brown abdomen. Each abdominal segment has a narrow posterior yellow border, except for the fourth segment, which is orange. The head is black and the face yellow. Regional forms vary sufficiently in colour to cause difficulties in classification, and several subspecies have been variously identified and ultimately rejected; while a history of recognizing subspecies within many of the hornets exists, including \"V. velutina\", the most recent taxonomic revision of the genus treats all subspecific names in the genus \"Vespa\" as synonyms, effectively relegating them to no more than informal names for regional color forms. The color form causing concern about its invasiveness in Europe has been referred to as \"V. v. nigrithorax\", though this name no longer has any taxonomic standing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "Like other hornets, \"V. velutina\" builds nests that may house colonies of several thousand individuals. Females in the colony are armed with formidable stingers with which they defend their nests and kill their prey. The nest is of paper, roughly in the shape of a huge egg, usually at least half a metre long. Unlike the nest of the European hornet, \"V. crabro\", its exit is usually lateral rather than at the bottom. The nesting season is long, and a colony commonly begins by building a nest in a low shrub, then abandoning it after some months and rapidly building a new one high in a tree, possibly as an antiparasitic measure. The next generation of young queens disperses in the late autumn to hibernate over winter. \"V. velutina\" opportunistically hunts a very wide range of insects, including flies, dragonflies, and Orthoptera, typically capturing them by pursuit. The major concern about their invasiveness, however, is that when they find a bee colony or an apiary, they tend to settle down and specialise in honeybees as their prey, as do the larger Japanese giant hornets. A hornet occupies a position above a beehive as its hunting territory. It flies about within an area of about half a square metre, scanning the direction from which foraging bees return to the hive. Each hornet vigorously defends its hunting territory, chasing off any rivals. However, as soon as it catches a bee, it flies off and another hornet replaces it, usually within a few seconds. The circadian activities of the two species of honeybees are similar, and the hunting hornets match them; their most intense activity is in the morning and afternoon, not near dusk or noon.  In its native range \"V. velutina\" mainly hunts \"Apis cerana\", the eastern honey bee, which has evolved a strategy of avoiding hovering hornets by rapid entry and exit from the hive when hornets are about. The guard bees also ball hornets to death. However, where the western honey bee has been imported, \"V. velutina\" finds them easier prey than \"A. cerana\", because \"A. mellifera\" has not been subjected to selection for countering concentrated hawking by hornets. For example, \"A. mellifera\" approach their hives more indirectly and slowly when they detect hawking hornets, instead of darting in as fast as possible in the way that \"A. cerana\" does. They also ball hornets, but less effectively, and they do not achieve as high a temperature in the ball. Furthermore, when they detect that hornets are hawking, \"A. cerana\" tend to withdraw into the nest, but \"A. mellifera\" do not.  \"A. cerana\" guard bees also use wing shimmering in response to the presence of \"V. velutina\". This is a very generalised response to disturbance and has variously been suggested to be an aposematic signal or a strategy for disruption of visual patterns, similar to the behaviour of \"Apis cerana nuluensis\" and \"Apis dorsata\". \"Apis mellifera\" exhibit no such behaviour. In any event, when \"A. mellifera\" occurs together with \"A. cerana\", \"V. velutina\" preferentially hawks \"A. mellifera\" foragers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"V. velutina\" originates from Southeast Asia, particularly the tropical regions, from northern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, Taiwan, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Indo-Chinese peninsula, and surrounding archipelagoes.  As an invader, the hornet has appeared in France, Spain, Portugal, South Korea, and Japan. Further invasions are expected in various countries, including much of Europe. A nest was reported on the Channel Island of Alderney in 2016. The first sighting on the UK mainland was announced on 20 September 2016 and occurred near Tetbury in Gloucestershire; the nest was found and destroyed and no breeding adults were found within.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pest status and invasiveness.", "content": "\"V. velutina\" has become an invasive species in France, where it is believed to have arrived in boxes of pottery from China in 2004. Humans have been attacked after disturbing hornets; although the species is not aggressive, it \"charges in a group as soon as it feels its nest is threatened\". People have been hospitalised in France after suffering anaphylactic shock as a result of multiple stings. Because of hornets' larger size, their stings are more serious than those of bees. By 2009, several thousand nests were in the area of Bordeaux and surrounding departments, and by the end of 2015, they were reported over most of France.  The hornet spread to northern Spain, as confirmed in 2010 by the Beekeepers' Association of the Basque Country (\"Gipuzkoako Erlezainen Elkartea\") and the Neiker entomology institute in Irún, after breeding colonies were found. It reached Portugal in 2011.  \"El País\" newspaper carried an article in its October 6, 2013, edition that the hornet had been spotted in Vall d'en Bas, Garrotxa, Catalonia, in the foothills of the Pyrenees. Efforts were made to locate the nests before the insects hibernated in November. After foot patrols failed to track the hornets down, a helicopter equipped with a thermal camera was making sweeps over the area. The flights during the morning chill attempted to find the nest's 'heat signature' against the colder background. In September 2013, a beekeeper from Rasines, Cantabria, documented the hornets' presence in two specimens. In June 2015, firemen pulled a nest of the hornet above a building entrance in Santander. In November 2017, a man was killed in Galicia after being stung over 20 times while pruning an apple tree.  It was reported in Liguria, Italy, since 2012. According to Italian Beekepers' Association in 2017, the hornet was well established in northwestern regions of Italy, and colonization is steadily advancing.  As of October 2017, the species was reported in Belgium.  The hornet has been reported as naturalised on the Japanese island of Tsushima since about 2010.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Asian hornet, also known as the yellow-legged hornet (\"Vespa velutina\"), is a species of hornet indigenous to Southeast Asia. It is of concern as an invasive species in some other countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976122}
{"src_title": "Type 212 submarine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "At the beginning of the 1990s the German Navy was seeking a replacement for the Type 206 submarines. Initial study started on a Type 209 improved design, with AIP capability, called Type 212.  The final programme started in 1994 as the two navies of Germany and Italy began working together to design a new conventional submarine, respectively to operate in the shallow and confined waters of the Baltic Sea and in the deeper waters of the Mediterranean Sea. The two different requirements were mixed into a common one and, because of significant updates to the design, the designation has been changed to Type 212A since then.  On 22 April 1996 a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) gave the start to the cooperation for building four vessels for German Navy and four vessels for Italian Navy. Its main aim was the construction of identical boats and the start of a collaboration in logistic and life-cycle support for the two navies.  The German government placed an initial order of four \"Type 212A\" submarines in 1998. The German Submarine Consortium built them at the shipyards of HDW and Thyssen Nordseewerke GmbH (TNSW) of Emden. Different sections of the submarines were constructed at both sites at the same time and then half of them were shipped to the respective other yard so that both HDW and Thyssen Nordseewerke assembled two complete submarines each.  In the same year the Italian government placed an order of two \"U212A\" submarines built by Fincantieri for the Italian Navy (\"Marina Militare\") at Muggiano shipyard, designated as the Todaro class.  The German Navy ordered two additional, improved submarines in 2006, to be delivered from 2012 on. They will be 1.2 meters longer to give additional space for a new reconnaissance mast.  On 21 April 2008 the Italian Navy ordered the optional second batch of submarine, in the same configuration of the original ones. Some upgrading should involve materials and components of commercial derivation, as well as the software package of the CMS. The intention is to keep the same configuration of the first series and reduce maintenance costs.  The export-oriented Type 214 submarine succeeds the Type 209 submarine and shares certain features with the Type 212A, such as the AIP fuel cell propulsion.  Poland announced in December 2013 they will not buy, but only lease, two U212-A's, on account of not meeting \"requirements of tactical and technical equipment developed by the military, including in particular the propulsion system, missile weapons and rescue system\".  On 22 December 2015 Admiral Giuseppe De Giorgi, Commander in Chief of the Italian Navy, announced plans to build another two U212A submarines.  In October 2016, during the celebration of the commissioning of \"U36\", the German Navy announced the intent to procure another batch of two U212A within the next decade.  In February 2017, it was announced that the Royal Norwegian Navy will procure four submarines based on Type 212 to enter service between 2025 and 2028. The batch will consist of six submarines, with the German Navy ordering two new boats of the Type 212.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "Partly owing to the \"X\" arrangement of the stern planes, the \"Type 212\" is capable of operating in as little as 17 metres of water, allowing it to come much closer to shore than most contemporary submarines. This gives it an advantage in covert operations, as SCUBA-equipped commandos operating from the boat can surface close to the beach and execute their mission more quickly and with less effort.  A notable design feature is the prismatic hull cross-section and smoothly faired transitions from the hull to the sail, improving the boat's stealth characteristics. The ship and internal fixtures are constructed of nonmagnetic materials, significantly reducing the chances of it being detected by magnetometers or setting off magnetic naval mines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Air-independent propulsion.", "content": "Although hydrogen–oxygen propulsion had been considered for submarines as early as World War I, the concept was not very successful until recently due to fire and explosion concerns. In the \"Type 212\" this has been countered by storing the fuel and oxidizer in tanks outside the crew space, between the pressure hull and outer light hull. The gases are piped through the pressure hull to the fuel cells as needed to generate electricity, but at any given time there is only a very small amount of gas present in the crew space.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weapons.", "content": "Currently, the \"Type 212A\" is capable of launching the fiber optic-guided DM2A4 Seehecht (\"Seahake\") heavyweight torpedoes, the WASS BlackShark torpedoes and short-range missiles from its six torpedo tubes, which use a water ram expulsion system. Future capability may include tube-launched cruise missiles.  The short-range IDAS missile (based on the IRIS-T missile), primarily intended for use against air threats as well as small or medium-sized sea- or near land targets, is currently being developed by Diehl BGT Defence to be fired from Type 212's torpedo tubes. IDAS is fiber-optic guided and has a range of approx. 20 km. Four missiles fit in one torpedo tube, stored in a magazine. First deliveries of IDAS for the German Navy were scheduled from 2014 on.  A 30 mm auto-cannon called Muräne (moray) to support diver operations or to give warning shots is being considered, too. The cannon, probably a version of the RMK30 built by Rheinmetall, will be stored in a retractable mast and can be fired without the boat emerging. The mast will also be designed to contain three Aladin UAVs for reconnaissance missions. This mast is likely to be mounted on the second batch of Type 212 submarines for the German Navy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "In April 2006, the German Navy's \"U-32\" sailed from the Baltic Sea to Rota, Spain in a journey lasting two weeks, covering without surfacing or snorkelling.  The Italian Navy's S 526 \"Todaro\" was deployed, for over six months in 2008, to the United States for CONUS 2008 exercise with United States Navy.  The Italian Navy's S 527 \"Scirè\" was deployed, for over five months in 2009, to the U.S. for CONUS 2009 exercise with United States Navy.  The Italian Navy's S 526 \"Todaro\", between 1 September 2012 and 13 February 2013, for the first time was deployed to the Aden Gulf, Arabic Sea, Oman Gulf and Indian Ocean.  In 2013, while on the way to participate in naval exercises in U.S. waters, the German Navy's \"U-32\" established a new record for non-nuclear submarines with 18 days in submerged transit without snorkelling.  On 15 October 2017, the German Navy's \"U-35\" suffered damage to its rudder fins while conducting dives off the Norwegian coast.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The German Type 212 class, also Italian Todaro class, is a non-nuclear submarine developed by Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft AG (HDW) for the German and Italian navies. It features diesel propulsion and an additional air-independent propulsion (AIP) system using Siemens proton exchange membrane (PEM) compressed hydrogen fuel cells. The submarines can operate at high speed on diesel power or switch to the AIP system for silent slow cruising, staying submerged for up to three weeks with little exhaust heat. The system is also said to be vibration-free, extremely quiet and virtually undetectable.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976123}
{"src_title": "Jason Allison", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Allison attended Daystrom Elementary Public School,Humber Summit Middle School and Emery Collegiate Secondary School in the Weston Road and Finch Avenue Area of Toronto.Westview Centennial Secondary School in Toronto, Ontario. His brother Todd attended the same schools. As a youth, he played in the 1989 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Toronto Red Wings minor ice hockey team. Allison also won an OFSAA (Ontario Secondary School) Championship playing for the Emery Eagles and finished 2nd in scoring to his linemate Khalid Abdul-Haqq.  Allison was drafted 17th overall in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft by the Washington Capitals, amidst a stellar junior career for the London Knights of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL).  Allison played parts of two seasons with the Los Angeles Kings where, for a brief time, he teamed with former stars Žigmund Pálffy and Adam Deadmarsh. He has also played for the Boston Bruins and Washington Capitals. His best season was 2000–01 when he had 95 points. Allison has played 552 games in his career, racking up 154 goals and 331 assists for 485 points. He also has 25 points in 25 career playoff games. Allison missed most of the 2002–03 season and all of the following season because of a neck injury and concussion.  Prior to the 2005–06 season, Allison signed a one-year contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs worth $1.5 million, with bonus incentives for good performance. Allison suffered a hand injury in a game against the Montreal Canadiens, and had to have surgery on his hand, which sidelined him for the remainder of the season. In the 66 games he played in before the injury, he scored 17 goals and had 60 points for the Maple Leafs.  After the 2005–06 season, Allison became an unrestricted free agent. Toronto chose not to re-sign Allison because new head coach Paul Maurice and GM John Ferguson, Jr. did not feel he would be a proper fit for their new, young, fast-paced team.  Allison subsequently did not sign with a team for the 2006–07 NHL season, despite rumours of multiple contract offers. In retirement Allison operated a horse farm north of Toronto.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2009 Attempted comeback.", "content": "On August 28, 2009, Allison received an invitation to the Toronto Maple Leafs September 2009 Training Camp and trained with them through the beginning of the preseason. Allison had not played professionally since 2005–06; in explaining the invitation, Brian Burke, the general manager of the Maple Leafs, said: \"He had some personal issues and some major physical issues at that time. He has solved all of those. In my mind, he is a guy who might give us a lift and he deserves that opportunity,\"  In an interview after his first exhibition game back, Allison was as confident as ever. \"I didn't contribute much, but that's to be expected, I'm just shaking the cobwebs off. I fully anticipate regaining my previous form as a point per game player.\"  Allison's bid to make the team on a tryout ended up falling short. The training invite yielded a memorable moment, when Allison fought with the Philadelphia Flyers' Darroll Powe during an exhibition game and ripped his helmet in half with his bare hands. It was not enough, however, and by September 28, Maple Leafs head coach Ron Wilson confessed that Allison was \"out of the plans.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-hockey career.", "content": "\"Variety\" and \"Deadline\" in 2018 reported that Allison and his company Don Kee Productions were one of fourteen executive producers on the film Arkansas.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jason Paul Allison (born May 29, 1975) is a former professional ice hockey centre who played 552 games in the National Hockey League. His most productive seasons were with the Boston Bruins, where he briefly served as team captain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976124}
{"src_title": "Otrokovice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Transport.", "content": "In addition to the conventional modes of transport, Otrokovice is also equipped with private domestic airport and a wharf at Baťa navigable canal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rail.", "content": "Otrokovice is the primary stop on the main train line from Prague, with fast trains taking around 3 hours. It is also a hub station with trains going East through Zlin and South, through Staré Město.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Road.", "content": "Highway 55 now links the town into the main Czech highway network. Driving time to Prague is around 2:40 and to Brno is 50 minutes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bus.", "content": "The town has a regular bus service, linking main areas of the town. Trolleybus line connects Otrokovice with Zlín.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Paths.", "content": "A new path (suitable for Inline Skating) was built in 2014, following the course of Dřevnice river to Zlín.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shopping.", "content": "The town lacks a clear center, instead having a scattering of shops and other businesses across several areas. In 2014, a large Kaufland store opened towards the South of the town. This area has turned into a commercial center including a pet shop, toy shop and a large electrical retailer. A larger commercial, half way to Zlín, contains a much greater range of stores including a Tesco Superstore.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry.", "content": "Barum (Continental AG) has a manufacturing facility in Otrokovice which is a major employer for the town. Another important manufacturing site is Toma where various companies of various industries are located, and Zlin Aviation that operates from the airfield next to the Barum factory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns — sister cities.", "content": "Otrokovice is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otrokovice (; ) is the second largest town in the Zlín District of the Czech Republic. It is located in a hilly part of the historical region of Moravia, 10 km west of the city of Zlín, at the confluence of the rivers Morava, Dřevnice and the Mojena Brook.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976125}
{"src_title": "Dollar auction", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Play.", "content": "The setup involves an auctioneer who volunteers to auction off a dollar bill with the following rule: the bill goes to the winner; however, the second-highest bidder also loses the amount that they bid, making them the biggest loser in the auction. The winner can get a dollar for a mere 5 cents (the minimum bid), but only if no one else enters into the bidding war.  The game begins with one of the players bidding 5 cents, hoping to make a 95-cent profit. They can be outbid by another player bidding 10 cents, as a 90-cent profit is still desirable. Similarly, another bidder may bid 15 cents, making an 85-cent profit. Meanwhile, the second bidder may attempt to convert their loss of 10 cents into a gain of 80 cents by bidding 20 cents, and so on. Every player has a choice of either paying for nothing or bidding 5 cents more on the dollar. Any bid beyond the value of a dollar is a loss for all bidders alike.  A series of rational bids will reach and ultimately surpass one dollar as the bidders seek to minimize their losses. If the first bidder bids 95 cents, and the second bidder bids one dollar (for no net gain or loss), the first bidder stands to lose 95 cents unless they bid $1.05, in which case they rationally bid more than the value of the item for sale (the dollar) in order to reduce their losses to only 5 cents.  Bidding continues with the second highest bidder always losing more than the highest bidder and therefore always trying to become the high bidder. Only the auctioneer gets to profit in the end.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "The game is analogous to the war of attrition and penny auction and has a symmetric mixed strategy equilibrium (there are also asymmetric pure equilibria). Suppose we start with two players; player 1 moves in odd periods, while player 2 moves in even periods. When a player is behind, they are indifferent between raising and dropping out. If the opponent drops out with probability formula_1, raising gives the player an expected payoff of formula_2 On the other hand, dropping out yields zero, so indifference requires that the opponent drops out with 5% probability each period. Notice that this probability is independent of how high the bids currently are; this follows from the fact that past bids are a sunk cost. The maximum bid follows a binomial distribution with mean 0.5 (recall the bidders make zero profits each, on average).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The dollar auction is a non-zero sum sequential game designed by economist Martin Shubik to illustrate a paradox brought about by traditional rational choice theory in which players are compelled to make an ultimately irrational decision based completely on a sequence of apparently rational choices made throughout the game.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976126}
{"src_title": "Łukasz Piszczek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gwarek Zabrze.", "content": "Piszczek began his career as a striker. In 2001, he joined Gwarek Zabrze, coached by Vincent Soshinski, where he broke many goalscoring records at junior level and in 2003 won the Polish youth championship. In 2004, he became the top scorer at the 2004 UEFA European Under-19 Championship, along with the Turk Ali Öztürk.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zagłębie Lubin.", "content": "Hertha BSC was attracted by his performances and promptly signed Piszczek in 2004, but then immediately loaned him out to Zagłębie Lubin. He made his debut on 16 October 2004, in a 7–0 win against GKS Katowice, scoring and assisting a goal for Wojciech Łobodziński in the process. With Zagłębie, he won the 2006–07 Ekstraklasa playing mainly as a left winger in 4–3–3 formation, with Łobodziński on the right wing and Michał Chałbiński in the centre, although he was also utilized as a centre forward. He scored 11 goals in 2006–07 season, becoming the league's third best scorer after Chałbiński, who scored 12, and Piotr Reiss, who scored 15.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hertha.", "content": "In the fall of 2007, after three years with Zagłębie Lubin, Hertha recalled Piszczek back to the club. He scored his first goal in the Bundesliga on 26 April 2008, to earn one point against Hannover 96.  Piszczek missed most of the first half of the 2008–09 season as the result of a hip problem that eventually required surgery. He began training again in February 2009 but in March suffered a setback due to a minor knee injury. He returned to Bundesliga action in April. At Hertha, Piszczek initially played as an offensive midfielder or on left wing, but in his second season, he started to appear at right-back after an injury to Arne Friedrich. After Friedrich recovered, Piszczek lost his place in the starting line-up, but reclaimed it in 2009–10, when Friedrich moved to centre-back.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Borussia Dortmund.", "content": "On 19 May 2010, Piszczek moved to Borussia Dortmund on a free transfer, signing a contract until June 2013. On 26 July 2011, he signed a contract extension to keep him at the club until June 2016. On 24 September 2011, he scored his first goal for his new German club, a last-minute volley to win the match away to Mainz 05 2–1. In the 2012–13 season for Dortmund, Piszczek appeared in 11 out of 12 matches of Dortmund's road to the UEFA Champions League Final in 2013. He also started the final at right-back against Bayern Munich, but Dortmund lost by one goal after Arjen Robben scored an 89th-minute winner for Bayern. On 27 January 2016, Piszczek signed a contract extension to keep him at the club until 2018. On 6 April 2017, he extended his contract with Dortmund until 30 June 2019.  On 13 March 2018, Borussia Dortmund announced that the club had reached an agreement with Piszczek for a contract extension which will keep him at the club until 30 June 2020. Piszczek also announced that he would retire from professional football at the end of his contract, a claim he later clarified saying he's still \"not certain\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Piszczek made his debut for the Poland national team in a friendly match against Estonia on 3 February 2007.  On 6 June 2008, he was selected for the final 23-man squad for UEFA Euro 2008, replacing Jakub Błaszczykowski, who was left out through injury. He made one appearance at the tournament, coming on a substitute against Germany, but after receiving a training injury, did not play in the next match and had no further role in the tournament.  On 29 July 2011, the Polish Football Association gave a six-month suspension on Piszczek for participation in the fixing of a 2006 match against KS Cracovia match, in which he did not play. In September 2011, the suspension was cancelled.  Piszczek was selected for the final 23-man squad for UEFA Euro 2012. He played in all three group games for Poland. On 22 March 2013, Piszczek scored his first goal for the national team in a 1–3 defeat to Ukraine. Four days later, he scored in a 5–0 win over San Marino.  He was also selected for the final 23-man squad for UEFA Euro 2016. Piszczek made his 50th appearance for the national team in the quarter-final match against Portugal, which Poland lost. Piszczek was selected for the final 23-man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. However, following a disappointing tournament performance with Poland, Piszczek confirmed his retirement from international football.  On November 2019, he was named to the national team for Euro 2020 qualifying matches with Israel and Slovenia. He started the Slovenia match in what was dubbed his farewell game, and received a standing ovation from supporters and a guard of honour from his fellow players when he was subbed off just before half time. Poland went on to win the match 3-2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Piszczek was born in Czechowice-Dziedzice, Bielsko, and raised in Goczałkowice-Zdrój. His father, the coach of the local football club, decided to bring him to one of the training sessions at the age of about 7–8. His brothers, Marek and Adam were also involved in football.  Piszczek married his fiancée Ewa Kryjom in June 2009. The couple's daughters, Sara and Nel, were born on 3 March 2011 and 15 February 2016 respectively.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Łukasz Piotr Piszczek (; born 3 June 1985) is a Polish professional footballer who plays for Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund. He is primarily positioned as a right back, but is capable of playing as a central defender.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976127}
{"src_title": "Nougat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Many legends exist around nougat’s origins. Early recipes of white nougat, probably borrowed from Central Asia, were found in a Middle Eastern book in Baghdad the 10th century. That nougat was called '. One of these recipes indicates that the'comes from Harran, a city located between Urfa (now in southeast Turkey) and Aleppo, Syria. Mention of'was found in a triangle between Urfa, Aleppo, and Baghdad. At the end of the 10th century, the traveler and geographer Ibn Hawqal wrote that he ate some'in Manbij (in modern Syria) and Bukhara (in modern Uzbekistan).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and popularity.", "content": "In southern Europe, nougat is a prominent component of Christmas meals. 'is produced in Spain, \"Nougat\" in southern France, ','or even'and \"cubbaita\" – from Latin'in Cremona, Taurianova and Sicily in Italy, in Greece where it is known as'or ', Malta (where it is known as'and sold in village festivals), Romania (where it is known as \"\" sold in local festivals and fairgrounds, mainly on the Sunday of Forgiveness preceding the Easter Lent), and in local variant form in Tabriz, Iran where it is known as \"Luka\".  The nougat that appears in many candy bars in the United States and United Kingdom differs from traditional recipes, consisting of sucrose and corn syrup aerated with a whipping agent such as egg white, hydrolyzed soya protein or gelatine and may include vegetable fats and milk powder. Typically it is combined with nuts, caramel, or chocolate. Some American confections feature this type of nougat as the primary component, rather than combined with other elements. Varieties of nougat are found in Milky Way, Reese's Fast Break, Snickers, Double Decker, ZERO bars, and Baby Ruth bars. Whipped nougat is the featured ingredient in the 3 Musketeers bar.  In Britain, nougat is traditionally made in the style of the southern European varieties, and is commonly found at fairgrounds and seaside resorts. The most common industrially produced type is coloured pink and white, the pink often fruit flavoured, and sometimes wrapped in edible rice paper with almonds and cherries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "Spanish \"\" follows the traditional recipes with toasted nuts (commonly almonds), sugar, honey, and egg whites. 'from Italy includes these same basic ingredients as well as vanilla or citrus flavoring, and is often sandwiched between two very thin sheets of rice paper. The Venetian town of Cologna Veneta is well known for its nougat production, especially the type called ', always based on honey, sugar, egg whites, and almonds (also known as'in Italian) but with a different taste and harder to bite than '.  \"Wiener (Viennese) Nougat\" is a variant which contains only sugar, cocoa butter, nuts, and cocoa mass, and has a mellow consistency. The nuts used for Viennese nougat are usually hazelnuts. In Germany and the Nordic countries, Viennese nougat is what has traditionally been associated with and labelled as nougat, while in Sweden and Denmark the original nougat is referred to as \"French nougat\". In Germany, gianduja is traditionally called nougat.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nougat (, ; ; ; ) is a family of confections made with sugar or honey, roasted nuts (almonds, walnuts, pistachios, hazelnuts, and macadamia nuts are common), whipped egg whites, and sometimes chopped candied fruit. The consistency of nougat is chewy, and it is used in a variety of candy bars and chocolates. The word \"nougat\" comes from Occitan (), seemingly from Latin 'nut bread' (the late colloquial Latin adjective means 'nutted' or 'nutty').", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976128}
{"src_title": "Theodor Fontane", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth.", "content": "Fontane was born in Neuruppin, a town 30 miles northwest of Berlin, into a Huguenot family. At the age of sixteen he was apprenticed to an apothecary, his father's profession. He became an apothecary himself and in 1839, at the age of 20, wrote his first work (\"Heinrichs IV. erste Liebe\", now lost). His further education was in Leipzig, where he became acquainted with the progressives of the Vormärz.  Fontane's first published work, the novella \"Geschwisterliebe\" (Sibling Love), was published in the \"Berlin Figaro\" in December 1839. His biographer Gordon A. Craig claims that this gave few indications of being a gifted writer: \"Although the theme of incest, which was to occupy Fontane on later occasions, is touched upon here, the mawkishness of the tale... is equalled by the lameness of its plot and the inertness of the style in which it is told, and [the characters] Clärchen and her brother are both so colourless that no one could have guessed that their creator had a future as a writer.\"  Fontane's first job as apothecary was in Dresden, after which he worked in his father's shop in the town of Letschin in the Oderbruch region. Fleeing its provincialism, Fontane published articles in the Leipzig newspaper \"Die Eisenbahn\" and translated Shakespeare. In 1843 he joined a literary club in Berlin named Tunnel über der Spree (Tunnel over the River Spree) where he became acquainted with many of the most renowned German writers, including Theodor Storm, Joseph von Eichendorff and Gottfried Keller.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Newspaper writer and critic.", "content": "In 1844 Fontane enlisted in the Prussian army and began the first of numerous journeys to England, which fostered his interest in Old English ballads, which he – a lifelong anglophile – began to imitate. In 1845 became engaged to his future wife, Emilie Rouanet-Kummer, whom he had met when still at school.  Fontane played a brief part in the revolutionary events of 1848. In 1849 he left his job as an apothecary and became a full-time journalist and writer. In order to provide for his family he accepted a job as a writer with the Prussian intelligence agency \"Zentralstelle für Presseangelegenheiten\", which was intended to influence the press towards the German nationalist cause. There he specialized in British affairs, and the agency made him for several years its correspondent in London, where he was later joined by Emilie, whom he had married in 1850, and their first two sons. While still in London he left his government job and on his return to Berlin became editor of the conservative newspaper \"Neue Preussische Zeitung\". As a man of liberal sympathies for free press and a united Germany Fontane ruefully wrote to a friend about his job with the \"Zeitung\": \"I sold myself to the reaction for thirty pieces of silver a month... These days one cannot survive as an honest man.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "London.", "content": "Fontane's travel books about Britain include \"Ein Sommer in London\" (A Summer in London, 1854), \"Aus England, Studien und Briefe\" (From England: Studies and Letters, 1860) and \"Jenseit des Tweed, Bilder und Briefe aus Schottland\" (Beyond the Tweed, Pictures and Letters from Scotland, 1860). In the books Fontane reflects both nature and the mood in Britain at that time. The success of the historical novels of Walter Scott had helped to make British themes much in vogue on the Continent. Fontane's \"Gedichte\" (Poems, 1851) and ballads \"Männer und Helden\" (Men and Heroes, 1860) tell of Britain's former glories. Back in Germany Fontane became particularly interested in his home province, the March of Brandenburg. He enjoyed rambling through its rural landscapes and small towns and delighted in the growth of its capital city, Berlin. His fascination with the countryside surrounding Berlin may be seen in his picturesque \"Wanderungen durch die Mark Brandenburg\" (Walks through the Province of Brandenburg, 1862–82, 5 vols), in which he extended his earlier fascination with British history to his native land.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wars of German Unification.", "content": "In 1870 Fontane quit his job at the \"Kreuzzeitung\" and became drama critic for the liberal \"Vossische Zeitung\", a job he held until his retirement. He had already written about Prussia's war against Denmark in \"Der schleswig-holsteinische Krieg im Jahre 1864\" (1866) and the Austro-Prussian War in \"Der deutsche Krieg von 1866\" (1869). He went to the front to observe the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 and after being taken prisoner at Vaucouleurs remained in French captivity for three months. He memorialized his experiences in \"Kriegsgefangen Erlebtes 1870\" (Experiences as a Prisoner of War, 1871) and published his observations concerning the campaign in the book \"Der Krieg gegen Frankreich 1870–71\" (The War against France, 1870–71, published 1874–76). In his observations he strongly criticized Prussian militarism: \"A mere glorification of the military without moral content or elevated aim is nauseating.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "At the age of 57 Fontane finally began work on his novels, for which he is remembered best today. Fontane's lifelong wish to be able to live from his literary works was finally fulfilled. A fine historical romance, \"Vor dem Sturm\" (\"Before the Storm\", 1878), was followed by a series exploring modern life, notably \"L'Adultera\" (\"Woman Taken In Adultery\", 1882), which was the first of his society novels and deemed risky for its theme of adultery.  His novels \"Irrungen, Wirrungen\" (\"Trials and Tribulations\", 1888), \"Frau Jenny Treibel\" (1892) and \"Effi Briest\" (1894–95) yielded insights into the lives of the nobility and the commoners. His achievement in this regard was later described as poetic realism. In \"Der Stechlin\" (written 1895–97), his last completed novel, Fontane adapted the realistic methods and social criticism of contemporary French fiction to the conditions of Prussian life.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Fontane was plagued by health problems during his last years but continued to work until a few hours before his death. He died in the evening of 20 September 1898 in Berlin. As a member of the French Protestant Church of Berlin he was buried in the congregation's cemetery on the Liesenstraße. His wife, Emilie, was buried beside him four years later. Their graves were damaged during World War II but later restored.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Theodor Fontane (; 30 December 1819 – 20 September 1898) was a German novelist and poet, regarded by many as the most important 19th-century German-language realist author. He published the first of his novels, for which he is best known today, only at age 58 after a career as a journalist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976129}
{"src_title": "Grandee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Spain.", "content": "Most Spanish noble titles are granted as (\"Peer of the realm\"), many of which predate the modern Spanish monarchy. The Kings of Spain re-established in 1520 the ancient dignity of to confer as an additional rank of honour. The Post-nominals of Grandees of Spain is.  The dignity of Grandee () began to be assumed by Spain's leading noblemen in the Middle Ages to distinguish them as a ('Lord of the realm'), from lesser (), whose rank evolved into that of. It was, as John Selden the 17th-century English jurist pointed out, not a general term denoting a class, but \"an additional individual dignity not only to all Dukes but to some Marquesses and Counts also\". Noble titles, including and above the rank of Count, were seldom created in heredity by the Kings of Castile and Aragon until the late Middle Ages—in contrast to France and elsewhere in Europe (where feudalism evolved more quickly)—being largely associated with royal officers until the 14th century. The conferral of grandeeships initially conveyed only ceremonial privileges, such as remaining covered or seated in the presence of royalty. Over time grandees received more substantial rights: for example freedom from taxation and immunity from arrest, save at the King's command; they were usually the senior judicial officers of their region. These rights later became open to abuse with some Grandees renouncing their allegiance to the monarchy to wage war on the King.  In the late 1470s, King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella I were the first to clamp down on grandee powers assumed by the medieval territorial nobles. In the 16th century, limitations on the number of grandees were introduced by King Charles I (who later became Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V), who decreed that the Spanish Crown had the sole right to confer the dignity of a grandee.  Subsequently, the (Grandees of Spain) were subdivided into three grades:  All grandees traditionally have been addressed by the king as \" mi Primo\" (my cousin), whereas ordinary nobles are formally styled as \" mi Pariente\" (my kinsman). \"Grandezas\" could also be bestowed upon foreigners, such as the memorialist Louis de Rouvroy, Duc de Saint-Simon who took great pride in becoming a grandee after his successful posting as French Ambassador to Madrid, representing King Louis XIV.  The dignity of grandee was abolished by the Napoleonic King Joseph Bonaparte, before being revived in 1834 by when grandees were given precedence in the Chamber of Peers of Spain.  Nowadays, all grandees are deemed to be \"of the first class\", and is an honorific dignity conferring neither power or legal privilege. A (grandeeship) is separate legal entity from a title of nobility, although are normally but not exclusively granted in conjunction with a title. Since the 20th century invariably the King of Spain has conferred a upon any newly created duke.  A grandee of any noble rank is higher in precedence than a non-grandee (apart from members of the Spanish Royal Family), even if that non-grandee holds a hereditary title () of a higher grade than that of the said grandee. Thus, a baron-grandee would outrank a non-grandee marquess, thus rendering the dignity of an hereditary rank of precedence rather than a title of nobility. Since 1987, children of an of Spain are recognised as members of the Spanish royal family and are accorded the rank and style of a grandee by courtesy: they do not formally hold this dignity until such time as a title with is granted to them by the sovereign.  Some of the best known Spanish grandees are the Dukes of Arcos, Dukes of Alba, of Medinaceli, of Villahermosa, of Osuna,, of Alburquerque, of Moctezuma, of Nájera, of Frías and of Medina-Sidonia; well-known Marquesses include those of Aguilar de Campoo, of Astorga, of Santillana, and of ; the Counts of Benavente, Lerín, Olivares, Oñate, and Lemos also hold grandeeships.  Grandees and their consorts are entitled to the honorific prefix of 'the Most Excellent Lord/Lady' or 'His/Her Most Excellency', and they are addressed as (cousin) by the King.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Portugal and Brazil.", "content": "Both Portuguese and Brazilian nobility formerly used the term (\"grandee\"), to designate a higher rank of noblemen. The Brazilian system, for instance, automatically deemed dukes, marquises and counts (as well as archbishops and bishops) (\"Grandees of the Empire\", or literally translated as \"Great Ones of the Empire\"). Viscounts and barons could also be ennobled with or without (\"grandeeship\", alternatively \"greatness\").  Viscounts ennobled with grandeeship displayed a Count's coronet on their coat of arms, and Barons ennobled with grandeeship bore a coat of arms surmounted by a Viscount's coronet.  The order of precedence in Brazilian nobility was as follows: after the members of the Imperial Family, dukes, marquises, counts, viscounts with grandeeship, viscounts without grandeeship, barons with grandeeship, barons without grandeeship. Brazilian grandeeships, like its nobility, were not hereditary titles.  Grandees were allowed to keep their heads covered in the presence of the king or emperor until such time as the monarch may command otherwise; as elsewhere throughout Europe, these noble families displayed their coats of arms on their properties, carriages (or vehicles), and over their graves (see hatchment). The abolition of the monarchies in Portugal and Brazil extinguished the formal use of such titles, although their use continues among some of the Portuguese aristocracies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grandee (New Model Army).", "content": "During the English Civil War, senior military officers from the landed gentry serving in the New Model Army, opposing the Levellers, came to be informally termed \"Grandees\".  After the defeat of King Charles I in the civil war, there was a series of debates and confrontations between the radical elected representatives of the New Model Army soldiers, known as \"Agitators\", and the Army \"Grandees\" such as Sir Thomas Fairfax, Oliver Cromwell, and Henry Ireton, who opposed the Agitators' more radical proposals. The disagreements were aired publicly at the Putney Debates, which started in late October 1647 and lasted for several weeks.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Grandee (;, ;, ) is an official aristocratic title conferred on some Spanish nobility and to a lesser extent, Portuguese nobility. Holders of this dignity enjoyed similar privileges to those of the peerage of France during the, though in neither country did they have the significant constitutional political role the House of Lords gave to the Peerage of England and later Peerage of the United Kingdom. In Spanish eyes, \"Grandee of Spain\" is the highest dignity of nobility in all of Europe, due to its privileges having been greater than those of other similar European dignities, such as the peers of France or the peers of Great Britain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976130}
{"src_title": "Antoine-Augustin Parmentier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "While serving as an army pharmacist for France in the Seven Years' War, he was captured by the Prussians, and in prison in Prussia was faced with eating potatoes, known to the French only as hog feed. The potato had been introduced from South America to Europe by the Spaniards at the beginning of the 16th century. It was introduced to the rest of Europe by 1640, but (outside Spain and Ireland) was usually used only for animal feed. King Frederick II of Prussia had required peasants to cultivate the plants under severe penalties and had provided them cuttings. In 1748 the French Parliament had actually forbidden the cultivation of the potato (on the grounds that it was thought to cause leprosy among other things), and this law remained on the books in Parmentier's time, until 1772.  From his return to Paris in 1763 he pursued his pioneering studies in nutritional chemistry. His prison experience came to mind in 1772 when he proposed (in a contest sponsored by the Academy of Besançon) use of the potato as a source of nourishment for dysenteric patients. He won the prize on behalf of the potato in 1773.  Due largely to Parmentier's efforts, the Paris Faculty of Medicine declared potatoes edible in 1772. Still, resistance continued, and Parmentier was prevented from using his test garden at the Invalides hospital, where he was pharmacist, by the religious community that owned the land, whose complaints resulted in the suppression of Parmentier's post at the Invalides.  In 1779, Parmentier was appointed to teach at the Free School of Bakery to help stabilize Paris' food supply by making bread in a more cost-efficient fashion. In that same year, he published \"Manière de faire le pain de pommes de terre, sans mélange de farine\", in which he described how one can make potato bread that still has all the characteristics of wheat bread.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Potato publicity stunts.", "content": "Parmentier then began a series of publicity stunts for which he remains notable today, hosting dinners at which potato dishes featured prominently and guests included luminaries such as Benjamin Franklin and Antoine Lavoisier, giving bouquets of potato blossoms to the king and queen, and surrounding his potato patch at Sablons with armed guards during the day to suggest valuable goods and withdrawing them at night so people could steal the potatoes. These 54 \"arpents\" of impoverished ground near Neuilly, west of Paris, had been allotted him by order of Louis XVI in 1787.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Acceptance of the potato.", "content": "In 1771, Parmentier won an essay contest in which all the judges voted the potato as the best substitute for regular flour. This was before a time France needed a replacement for wheat, so Parmentier continued to face criticism and lack of acknowledgment for his work. The first step in the acceptance of the potato in French society was a year of bad harvests, 1785, when the scorned potatoes staved off famine in the north of France. In 1789, Parmentier published \"Treatise on the Culture and Use of the Potato, Sweet Potato, and Jerusalem Artichoke\" (\"Traité sur la culture et les usages des Pommes de terre, de la Patate, et du Topinambour\"), \"printed by order of the king\", giving royal backing to potato eating, albeit on the eve of the French Revolution, leaving it up to the Republicans to accept it. In 1794, Madame Mérigot published \"La Cuisinière Républicaine\" (\"The [Female] Republican Cook\"), the first potato cookbook, promoting potatoes as food for the common people. Parmentier's agronomic interests covered a wide range of opportunities to ameliorate the human lot through technical improvements; he published his observations touching on bread-baking, cheese-making, grain storage, the use of cornmeal (maize) and chestnut flour, mushroom culture, mineral waters, wine-making, improved sea biscuits, and a host of other topics of interest to the Physiocrats.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dishes named after Parmentier.", "content": "Starting in the 1870s, many dishes including potatoes were named in honor of Parmentier: \"potage, velouté,\" or \"crème Parmentier\", a potato and leek soup; \"hachis Parmentier\", a cottage or shepherd's pie; \"brandade de morue parmentier\", salt cod mashed with olive oil and potatoes; \"pommes\" or \"garniture Parmentier\", cubed potatoes fried in butter; \"purée Parmentier\", mashed potatoes; \"salade Parmentier\", potato salad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Parmentier died on 13 December 1813, aged 76. He is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, in a plot ringed by potato plants, and his name is given to a long avenue in the 10th and 11th arrondissements (and a station on line 3 of the Paris Métro). At Montdidier, his bronze statue surveys \"Place Parmentier\" from its high socle, while below in full marble relief, seed potatoes are distributed to a grateful peasant. Another monumental statue of Parmentier, by French sculptor Adrien Étienne Gaudez, is erected in the square of the town hall of Neuilly-sur-Seine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antoine-Augustin Parmentier (,, ; Montdidier 12 August 1737 – 13 December 1813) was a French pharmacist and agronomist, best remembered as a vocal promoter of the potato as a food source for humans in France and throughout Europe. His many other contributions to nutrition and health included establishing the first mandatory smallpox vaccination campaign (under Napoleon beginning in 1805, when he was Inspector-General of the Health Service) and pioneering the extraction of sugar from sugar beets. Parmentier also founded a school of breadmaking, and studied methods of conserving food, including refrigeration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976131}
{"src_title": "Intelligence", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the term.", "content": "The word \"\"Intelligence\"\" derives from the Latin nouns \"intelligentia\" or \"intellēctus\", which in turn stem from the verb \"intelligere\", to comprehend or perceive. In the Middle Ages, the word \"intellectus\" became the scholarly technical term for understanding, and a translation for the Greek philosophical term \"nous\". This term, however, was strongly linked to the metaphysical and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism, including theories of the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the Active Intellect (also known as the Active Intelligence). This entire approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by the early modern philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and David Hume, all of whom preferred the word \"understanding\" (in place of \"\"intellectus\"\" or \"intelligence\") in their English philosophical works. Hobbes for example, in his Latin \"De Corpore\", used \"\"intellectus intelligit\"\", translated in the English version as \"the understanding understandeth\", as a typical example of a logical absurdity. The term \"intelligence\" has therefore become less common in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories which it now implies) in more contemporary psychology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definitions.", "content": "The definition of intelligence is controversial. Some groups of psychologists have suggested the following definitions:  From \"Mainstream Science on Intelligence\" (1994), an op-ed statement in the Wall Street Journal signed by fifty-two researchers (out of 131 total invited to sign): From \"\" (1995), a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association: Besides those definitions, psychology and learning researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as the following:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human intelligence.", "content": "Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans, which is marked by complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self-awareness. Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It is a cognitive process. It gives humans the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, innovate, plan, solve problems, and employ language to communicate. Intelligence enables humans to experience and think.  Much of the above definition applies also to the intelligence of non-human animals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nonhuman animal intelligence.", "content": "Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges in this area are defining intelligence so that it has the same meaning across species (e.g. comparing intelligence between literate humans and illiterate animals), and also operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across different species and contexts.  Wolfgang Köhler's research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area. Stanley Coren's book, \"The Intelligence of Dogs\" is a notable book on the topic of dog intelligence. (See also: Dog intelligence.) Non-human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include chimpanzees, bonobos (notably the language-using Kanzi) and other great apes, dolphins, elephants and to some extent parrots, rats and ravens.  Cephalopod intelligence also provides important comparative study. Cephalopods appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their nervous systems differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as mammals, birds, reptiles and fish have shown a fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with arthropods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"g\" factor in non-humans.", "content": "Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. The general factor of intelligence, or \"g\" factor, is a psychometric construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a wide range of cognitive abilities. First described in humans, the \"g\" factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species.  Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on innovation, habit reversal, social learning, and responses to novelty. Studies have shown that \"g\" is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in primates and between 55% and 60% of the variance in mice (Locurto, Locurto). These values are similar to the accepted variance in IQ explained by \"g\" in humans (40–50%).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Plant intelligence.", "content": "It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their morphology, physiology and phenotype accordingly to ensure self-preservation and reproduction.  A counter argument is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories as opposed to computation that does not involve learning. If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence, then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of \"machine learning\", but excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that can be observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of \"learning\" (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are also capable of communication, accurately computing their circumstances, using sophisticated cost–benefit analysis and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control the diverse environmental stressors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artificial intelligence.", "content": "Artificial intelligence (or AI) is both the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aims to create it, through \"the study and design of intelligent agents\" or \"rational agents\", where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success. Kaplan and Haenlein define artificial intelligence as “a system’s ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation”. Achievements in artificial intelligence include constrained and well-defined problems such as games, crossword-solving and optical character recognition and a few more general problems such as autonomous cars. General intelligence or strong AI has not yet been achieved and is a long-term goal of AI research.  Among the traits that researchers hope machines will exhibit are reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception, and the ability to move and to manipulate objects. In the field of artificial intelligence there is no consensus on how closely the brain should be simulated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Scholarly journals and societies", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. More generally, it can be described as the ability to perceive or infer information, and to retain it as knowledge to be applied towards adaptive behaviors within an environment or context.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976132}
{"src_title": "Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medical uses.", "content": "TIPS is a life-saving procedure in bleeding from esophageal or gastric varices. A randomized study showed that the survival is better if the procedure is done within 72 hours after bleeding. TIPS has shown some promise for people with hepatorenal syndrome. It may also help with ascites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complications.", "content": "Severe procedural complications during a TIPS procedure, including catastrophic bleeding or direct liver injury, are relatively uncommon. In the hands of an experienced physician, operative mortality is less than 1%. On the other hand, up to 25% of patients who undergo TIPS will experience transient post-operative hepatic encephalopathy caused by increased porto-systemic passage of nitrogen from the gut. In general, this can be managed with a reduction in dietary protein and medication that reduces the absorption of nitrogen.  A less common, but more serious complication, is hepatic ischemia causing acute liver failure. While healthy livers are predominantly oxygenated by portal blood supply, long-standing portal hypertension results in compensatory hypertrophy of and increased reliance on the hepatic artery for oxygenation. Thus, in people with advanced liver disease the shunting of portal blood away from hepatocytes is usually well tolerated. However, in some cases suddenly shunting portal blood flow away from the liver may result in acute liver failure secondary to hepatic ischemia. Acute hepatic dysfunction after TIPS may require emergent closure of the shunt.  A rare but serious complication is persistent TIPS infection, also known as endotipsitis.  Lastly, the TIPS may become blocked by a blood clot or in-growth of endothelial cells and no longer function. This has been significantly reduced with the use of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)–covered stents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanism of action.", "content": "Portal hypertension, an important consequence of liver disease, results in the development of significant collateral circulation between the portal system and systemic venous drainage (porto-caval circulation). Portal venous congestion causes venous blood leaving the stomach and intestines to be diverted along auxiliary routes of lesser resistance in order to drain to systemic circulation. With time, the small vessels that comprise a collateral path for porto-caval circulation become engorged and dilated. These vessels are fragile and often hemorrhage into the GI tract. (\"See esophageal, gastric, rectal varices\").  A TIPS procedure decreases the effective vascular resistance of the liver through the creation of an alternative pathway for portal venous circulation. By creating a shunt from the portal vein to the hepatic vein, this intervention allows portal blood an alternative avenue for draining into systemic circulation. In bypassing the flow-resistant liver, the net result is a reduced pressure drop across the liver and a decreased portal venous pressure. Decreased portal venous pressure in turn lessens congestive pressures along veins in the intestine so that future bleeding is less likely to occur. The reduced pressure also makes less fluid develop, although this benefit may take weeks or months to occur.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implantation.", "content": "Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts are typically placed by an interventional radiologist under fluoroscopic guidance. Access to the liver is gained, as the name 'transjugular' suggests, via the internal jugular vein in the neck. Once access to the jugular vein is confirmed, a guidewire and introducer sheath are typically placed to facilitate the shunt's placement. This enables the interventional radiologist to gain access to the patient's hepatic vein by traveling from the superior vena cava into the inferior vena cava and finally the hepatic vein. Once the catheter is in the hepatic vein, a wedge pressure is obtained to calculate the pressure gradient in the liver. Following this, carbon dioxide is injected to locate the portal vein. Then, a special needle known as a Colapinto is advanced through the liver parenchyma to connect the hepatic vein to the large portal vein, near the center of the liver. The channel for the shunt is next created by inflating an angioplasty balloon within the liver along the tract created by the needle. The shunt is completed by placing a special mesh tube known as a stent or endograft to maintain the tract between the higher-pressure portal vein and the lower-pressure hepatic vein. After the procedure, fluoroscopic images are made to show placement. Pressure in the portal vein and inferior vena cava are often measured.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS or TIPSS) is an artificial channel within the liver that establishes communication between the inflow portal vein and the outflow hepatic vein. It is used to treat portal hypertension (which is often due to liver cirrhosis) which frequently leads to intestinal bleeding, life-threatening esophageal bleeding (esophageal varices) and the buildup of fluid within the abdomen (ascites).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976133}
{"src_title": "Battle of Hexham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "After the Battle of Hedgeley Moor, the Lancastrians failed to prevent the Yorkists from concluding peace negotiations with Scotland in 1463, and soon found that their northern base of operations was now threatened. It was decided to mount a campaign in the north of England to gather Lancastrian support before a huge force under Edward IV could muster in Leicester and move north to crush the rebellion.  The Lancastrian army moved through Northumberland in late April 1464 under the Duke of Somerset, and gathered support from Lancastrian garrisons until it camped near to Hexham in early May. A Yorkist force under John Neville raced north as vanguard of Edward's larger force, and the two sides met outside Hexham on 14 May 1464.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The battle.", "content": "Details of the site of the battle, the composition and number of combatants and the events are sketchy but it is thought that the battle was relatively bloodless.  The Lancastrian camp was near Linnels Bridge over the Devil's Water found slightly to the south of Hexham. The Yorkists crossed onto the south bank of the Tyne on the night of 12–13 May and were, by the morning of the 14th, in a position to attack Hexham. Presumably the Yorkist advance was at speed, as despite warnings by their own scouts the Lancastrians had little time to prepare for battle.  It is thought that Somerset rushed his forces to a site near Linnels Bridge and deployed his troops in three detachments in a meadow near the Devil's Water, there he hoped he could engage the Yorkist army before it moved past him into Hexham. No sooner had the Lancastrians taken their positions than the Yorkists charged down from their positions on higher ground. Upon seeing the Yorkist advance the right detachment of the Lancastrian army, commanded by Lord Roos, turned and fled across the Devil's Water and into Hexham, before a single blow had been struck. The remnants of Somerset's force were in a hopeless situation, hemmed in and unable to manoeuvre; the Yorkist troops charged through the one opening at the east end of Linnel's Meadow and engaged the bewildered Lancastrian soldiers.  Lancastrian morale collapsed, and after some token resistance the remains of Somerset's army was pushed into the Devil's Water by the Yorkist infantry. A chaotic rout followed, men either drowned in the river or were crushed as they tried to climb the steep banks of the Devil's Water in the retreat towards Hexham. Most, however, were trapped in West Dipton Wood on the north bank of the river and were forced to surrender when the Yorkists approached.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The aftermath.", "content": "Neville showed little of Edward's conciliatory spirit, and had thirty leading Lancastrians executed in Hexham on the evening following the battle, including Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset, and Lord Roos. Sir William Tailboys was captured and executed shortly after he tried to flee north with £2,000 of Henry's war chest. Upon the loss of its leadership and bankroll, the Lancastrian resistance in the North of England collapsed.  Following his defeat in the Battle of Hexham on 15 May 1464, Henry found refuge, sheltered by Lancastrian supporters, at houses across the north of England. Following stays at Muncaster Castle on the Cumbrian coast and at nearby Bolton Hall, he was in hiding at Waddington Hall, in Waddington, Lancashire, the home of Sir Richard Tempest. Here, he was betrayed by \"a black monk of Addington\" and on 13 July 1465, a group of Yorkist men, including Sir Richard's brother John, entered the home to arrest him. Henry fled into nearby woods but was soon captured. This meant that the rebellion was effectively over. There followed a relative period of peace until the Earl of Warwick's defection to the Lancastrian cause in 1469 and the wars started anew.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Hexham (15 May 1464) marked the end of significant Lancastrian resistance in the north of England during the early part of the reign of Edward IV.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976134}
{"src_title": "Battle of Edgecote Moor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Close allies in deposing Henry VI in 1461, by 1469 Warwick and Edward IV had fallen out. After marrying Elizabeth Woodville in 1464, Edward increasingly relied on her family, who competed with the Nevilles for lands and positions. Concerned by his close connection with Warwick, Edward blocked a proposed marriage between Clarence, his younger brother and heir, and Warwick's eldest daughter Isabel. For various reasons, Clarence greatly resented this.  In April 1469, a revolt broke out in Yorkshire, under a leader called Robin of Redesdale. His true identity is unknown, but is thought to have been either Sir John Conyers, steward of Warwick's Middleham Castle, his brother Sir William Conyers of Marske (d. 1469), or both. In May, a second rebellion began, led by a figure known as Robin of Holderness, demanding the restoration of Henry Percy, traditional Earl of Northumberland.  John Neville, the current Earl, quickly suppressed this and executed its leader, although he made little attempt to intercept Robin of Redesdale. Confident the rebellion was well in hand and accompanied only by his personal household troops, Edward moved slowly north through Lincolnshire, reaching Crowland in early July. On 9 July, he discovered the rebel army was considerably larger than previously advised, followed by even more disturbing news from London.  Warwick and Clarence spent the summer assembling troops, allegedly to help suppress the revolt; in early July, they traveled to Calais, where Clarence married Isabel in a ceremony conducted by Warwick's brother George, Archbishop of York. The three men then issued a'remonstrance', listing alleged abuses by the Woodvilles, William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke and Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Devon among others. They entered London on 12 July, and on 18th, marched north with to link up with the Yorkshire rebels.  Edward withdrew to Nottingham and sent urgent instructions to Pembroke in Raglan Castle and Devon in Dorchester, ordering them to meet him there with as many men as they could muster. The northern rebels headed for Northampton, intending to link up with Warwick and Clarence and late in the afternoon of 24 July, fought a brief skirmish north of Banbury with the Royal army. Pembroke and Devon withdrew to Banbury, where Sir Henry Neville, captured in the skirmish, was executed that same evening; however, after a quarrel over accommodation, Devon took his troops to Deddington Castle, ten miles away.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The battle.", "content": "Estimates suggest Pembroke had some 5,000 to 6,000 Welsh knights and spearmen, with 5,000 to 7,000 under Devon, including most of the archers. Aware of the need to destroy the northern army before they were reinforced, Pembroke left Banbury on 25 July and camped overnight on high ground to the north-east. This overlooked the site of the 914 CE Battle of Danes Moor, with the two armies separated by a tributary of the River Cherwell.  The rebel army contained a large contingent of archers, putting Pembroke at a disadvantage; he ordered his troops forward and the two sides fought at close quarters for the rest of the morning. By early afternoon, the Royal army had gained control of the river crossing, but at this point, Warwick's advance guard arrived upon the field, led by Sir Geoffrey Gate and Sir William Parr.  While accounts vary, it appears Devon assumed this was Warwick's entire army and withdrew; under severe pressure, Pembroke's men broke. Casualties were reported as 168 knights and gentry, plus 2,000 rank and file, losses significant enough to be remembered and referenced by Welsh poets a century later. Pembroke and his brother Sir Richard Herbert were captured and executed at Northampton the following day; their half brother Sir Richard Vaughan died during the battle and Devon was beheaded at Bridgwater on 17 August.  There are few details on rebel casualties but they would have been considerably less than those suffered by Pembroke since most deaths occurred during a pursuit. Apart from Henry Neville, executed on 24 July, these included Sir William Conyers, and Sir Oliver Dudley, youngest son of John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Edward was taken into custody and held in Middleham Castle. On 12 August, his father-in-law Earl Rivers and younger son John Woodville were executed at Kenilworth, following a summary trial. However, it soon became clear there was little support for Warwick or Clarence; Edward was released in September and resumed the throne.  Richard Herbert was buried in the Herbert chapel at Abergavenny Priory, which survived the damage caused during the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536 to 1541. It also includes the tomb of William Herbert's illegitimate son, Richard Herbert of Ewyas, who was brought up with Henry Tudor, later Henry VII and fought on his side at Bosworth in 1485.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemoration and re-enactments.", "content": "On 12 and 13 September 2009 there was a re-creation of the battle on the actual battlefield, staged by the Medieval Siege Society and the English Tournament Society to commemorate the 540th anniversary.  Following the success of the 2009 commemoration and re-enactment, a second recreation was staged on 11 and 12 September 2010 for the 541st anniversary.  Since 2009, an annual walk of the battlefield and the key sites has taken place on the Sunday closest to the anniversary. The walk pauses at the Trafford Bridge site to lay a wreath remembering all those that lost their lives from both sides. This is also organised by the Medieval Siege Society.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Edgecote Moor took place on 26 July 1469, during the Wars of the Roses. It was fought between a Royal army, commanded by the earls of Pembroke and Devon, and a rebel force led by supporters of the Earl of Warwick.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976135}
{"src_title": "Distilled water", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Drinking water has been distilled from sea water since at least about AD 200, when the process was clearly described by Alexander of Aphrodisias. Its history predates this, as a passage in Aristotle's \"Meteorologica\" (II.3, 358b16) refers to the distillation of water. Captain Israel Williams of the \"Friendship\" (1797) improvised a way to distill water, which he described in his journal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "In chemical and biological laboratories, as well as in industry, cheaper alternatives such as deionised water are preferred to distilled water. But if these alternatives are not pure enough, distilled water is used. If exceptionally high-purity water is required, double distilled water is used.  In general, non-purified water could cause or interfere with chemical reactions as well as leave mineral deposits after boiling away. One method of removing impurities from water and other fluids is distillation.  For example, ions commonly found in tap water would drastically reduce lifespans of lead–acid batteries used in cars and trucks. These ions are not acceptable in automotive cooling systems because they corrode internal engine components and deplete typical antifreeze anti-corrosion additives.  Any non-volatile or mineral components in water are left behind when the water evaporates or boils away. Water escaping as steam, for example from a boiler of heating system or steam engine, leaves behind any dissolved materials leading to mineral deposits known as boiler scale.  Certain biological applications require controlled impurities, especially in experiments. For example, distilling water to be added to an aquarium would remove known and unknown non-volatile contaminants. Living things require specific minerals; adding distilled water to an ecosystem, such as an aquarium, would reduce the concentration of these minerals. Fish and other living things that have evolved to survive in lakes and oceans should be expected to thrive at mineral ranges found in their original habitat.  Controlled impurities as well as equipment reliability are critically important in medical applications where, for example, distilled water is used in Constant Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) machines to humidify air for breathing. Distilled water will not leave contaminants behind when the humidifier in the CPAP machine evaporates the water. Even though advances in technology mean that not all CPAP equipment require distilled water. This enables some users to free themselves from the burden of having to use distilled water.  It is also possible for brewers to blend distilled water with hard water to mimic the soft waters of Pilsen.  Another application was to increase the density of the air to assist early airplane jet engines during takeoff in \"hot and high\" atmospheric conditions, as was used on the early Boeing 707.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in steam irons.", "content": "Although possibly once the recommended procedure, using distilled water in steam irons for pressing clothes (once thought to help reduce mineral build-up and increase iron life), is often no longer necessary. Most manufacturers now say that distilled water is unnecessary in their irons, and can also cause malfunction, including spitting and leaking during use.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equipment to distill water.", "content": "Until World War II, distilling sea water to produce fresh water was time-consuming and expensive in fuel. The saying was: \"It takes one gallon of fuel to make one gallon of fresh water.\" Shortly before the war, Dr. R. V. Kleinschmidt developed a compression still, which became known as the Kleinschmidt still, for extracting fresh water from sea water or contaminated water. By compressing the steam produced by boiling water, of fresh water could be extracted from sea water for every gallon () of fuel used. During World War II this equipment became standard on Allied ships and on trailer mounts for armies. This method was in widespread use in ships and portable water distilling units during the latter half of the century. Modern vessels now use flash-type evaporators to boil sea water, heating the water to between and evaporating the water in a vacuum; this is then collected as condensation before being stored.  Solar stills can be relatively simple to design and build, with very cheap materials.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Drinking distilled water.", "content": "Bottled distilled water can usually be found in supermarkets or pharmacies, and home water distillers are available as well. Water purification, such as distillation, is especially important in regions where water resources or tap water is not suitable for ingesting without boiling or chemical treatment.  Municipal water supplies almost always contain trace components at levels which are regulated to be safe for consumption. Some other components such as trace levels of aluminium may result from the treatment process (see water purification). Fluoride and other ions are not removed through conventional water filter treatments. However, distillation eliminates most impurities.  Distilled water is also used for drinking water in arid seaside areas lacking sufficient freshwater, via desalination of seawater.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health effects.", "content": "Distillation removes all minerals from water, and the membrane methods of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration remove most, or virtually all, minerals. This results in demineralised water, which has not been proven to be healthier than drinking water. The World Health Organization investigated the health effects of demineralised water in 1982, and its experiments in humans found that demineralised water increased diuresis and the elimination of electrolytes, with decreased serum potassium concentration. Magnesium, calcium, and other nutrients in water can help to protect against nutritional deficiency. Recommendations for magnesium have been put at a minimum of 10 mg/L with 20–30 mg/L optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a 40–80 mg/L optimum, and a total water hardness (adding magnesium and calcium) of 2–4 mmol/L. At water hardness above 5 mmol/L, higher incidence of gallstones, kidney stones, urinary stones, arthrosis, and arthropathies have been observed. For fluoride the concentration recommended for dental health is 0.5–1.0 mg/L, with a maximum guideline value of 1.5 mg/L to avoid dental fluorosis.  Water filtration and distillation devices are becoming increasingly common in households. Municipal water supplies often have minerals added or have trace impurities at levels which are regulated to be safe for consumption. Much of these additional impurities, such as volatile organic compounds, fluoride, and an estimated >75,000 other chemical compounds are not removed through conventional filtration; however, distillation and reverse osmosis eliminate nearly all of these impurities.  The drinking of distilled water as a replacement for drinking water has been both advocated and discouraged for health reasons. Distilled water lacks minerals and ions such as calcium that play key roles in biological functions such as in nervous system homeostasis, and are normally found in potable water. The lack of naturally occurring minerals in distilled water has raised some concerns. The \"Journal of General Internal Medicine\" published a study on the mineral contents of different waters available in the US. The study found that \"drinking water sources available to North Americans may contain high levels of calcium, magnesium, and sodium and may provide clinically important portions of the recommended dietary intake of these minerals\". It encouraged people to \"check the mineral content of their drinking water, whether tap or bottled, and choose water most appropriate for their needs\". Since distilled water is devoid of minerals, mineral intake through diet is needed to maintain good health.  The consumption of \"hard\" water (water with minerals) is associated with beneficial cardiovascular effects. As noted in the \"American Journal of Epidemiology\", consumption of hard drinking water is negatively correlated with atherosclerotic heart disease.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Distilled water is water that has been boiled into vapor and condensed back into liquid in a separate container. Impurities in the original water that do not boil below or near the boiling point of water remain in the original container. Thus, distilled water is one type of purified water.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976136}
{"src_title": "Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Predecessor.", "content": "The Old Jewish Cemetery is not the first Jewish cemetery in Prague – its predecessor was so-called \"Jewish Garden“ located in the area of present New Town of Prague. This cemetery was closed by order of King Vladislaus II in 1478 because of complaints of Prague citizens. Later it disappeared under the streets of New Town.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "We know that the history of the Old Cemetery started before the old one being closed, but the exact date when it was founded is unknown. The only clue is the oldest gravestone in the cemetery from 1439 which belongs to rabbi and poet Avigdor Kara.  Starting at the middle of the 15th century, the gravestones record is a continual time line of burials. The final gravestone is dated 1787; three years earlier, the enlightened sovereign Emperor Josef II had banned burials inside the city walls for hygienic reasons. Later Prague Jews used a cemetery in Žižkov, founded in the 17th century because of plague epidemic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Space and burial in layers.", "content": "During the more than three centuries in which it was in active use, the cemetery continually struggled with the lack of space. Piety and respect for the deceased ancestors does not allow the Jews to abolish old graves. Only occasionally the Jewish Community was allowed to purchase grounds to expand the cemetery and so many times it had to gain space in other ways; if necessary, a new layer of soil was heaped up on the available area. For this reason, there are places where as many as twelve layers now exist. Thanks to this solution the older graves themselves remained intact. However, as new levels were added it was necessary either to lay over the gravestones associated with the older (and lower) graves to protect them, or else to elevate the stones to the new, higher surface. This explains the dense forest of gravestones that one sees today; many of them commemorate an individual who is buried several layers further down. This also explains why the surface of the cemetery is raised several meters higher than the surrounding streets; retaining walls are necessary to hold the soil and the graves in place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gravestones.", "content": "There are two kinds of Jewish burial monuments (in Hebrew \"matzevot)\" – the older is a slab of wood or stone, basically rectangular, but with various endings at the top. \"Tumba\" (in Hebrew \"ohel\" – tent) appears later, in baroque times. It is generally more representative than the first mentioned kind and resembles a little house. Such \"tumbas\" commemorate on the cemetery for example Maharal or Mordecai Maisel. \"Tumbas\" do not contain the remains; they are buried underneath in ground.  The oldest gravestones on Old Jewish cemetery are plain, yet very soon the number of ornaments (pilasters, volutes, false portals, etc.) began to increase. Most decorated gravestones come from 17th century. However, on every gravestone there are Hebrew letters that inform about the name of the deceased person and the date of his or her death or burial. Copious praise of deceased' virtues appears beside brief eulogy (\"of blessed memory\") in Renaissance time. From 16th century the gravestones characterize the deceased also through various symbols, hinting at the life, character, name or profession of the people (see the tables below for details).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable people.", "content": "This list follows the numbering of the plan on the right.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Old Jewish Cemetery is a Jewish cemetery in Prague, Czech Republic, which is one of the largest of its kind in Europe and one of the most important Jewish historical monuments in Prague. It served its purpose from the first half of 15th century till 1786. Renowned personalities of the local Jewish community were buried here; among them rabbi Jehuda Liva ben Becalel – Maharal (ca. 1526–1609), businessman Mordecai Meisel (1528–1601), historian David Gans (ca. 1541–1613) and rabbi David Oppenheim (1664–1736). Today the cemetery is administered by the Jewish Museum in Prague.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976137}
{"src_title": "Ford Mondeo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Versions.", "content": "As of 2018, Ford has produced five versions of the Ford Mondeo across four generations. In 1996, the first-generation Mondeo underwent an extensive redesign, becoming the Mk II.  In North America, the Mk I and Mk II Mondeo were produced and marketed as the Ford Contour and Mercury Mystique from 1995 to 2000. The 1999-2002 Mercury Cougar is a rebodied three-door hatchback variant of the Mk II, sold as the Ford Cougar in export markets.  The Mk V Ford Mondeo is the second Mondeo designed as a \"world car\", as it adopts the Ford Fusion nameplate in the Americas, Middle East, and South Korea. In January 2016, Ford showcased a facelift in USA for model year 2017. As of June 2018, it was unknown whether this facelift would be brought to Europe and the Mondeo branded version. The current Mondeo is still the pre-facelift of the Ford Fusion. Ford Fusions have a conventional trunk lid, distinguished from the world market Mondeo which has a large hatchback, including the \"trunk lid\" and rear glass; the cars are virtually identical in side view.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motorsport.", "content": "The Mondeo competed in the British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) between 1993 and 2000. The cars, prepared by former series champion Andy Rouse, did not enter the 1993 season until the eighth round, at Pembrey, in Wales. Rouse and Paul Radisich were the drivers in the Mondeo's first season. Radisich went on to win the FIA World Touring Car Cup in both 1993 and 1994 driving a Mondeo.  Ford ran a factory-sponsored team, called Ford Team Mondeo, for eight seasons. Andy Rouse Engineering ran the cars from 1993 to 1995, when West Surrey Racing ran the works team from 1996 to 1998, with Prodrive taking over beginning 1999.  In 2000, the team expanded from two cars to three when drivers Alain Menu and Anthony Reid were joined by 1998 series champion Rickard Rydell, recruited from the disbanded Volvo team. The team dominated the season of 2000, finishing 1–2–3 (Menu–Reid–Rydell) in the drivers' standings and winning the manufacturers' championship by 104 points.  A complete overhaul of the BTCC following the season of 2000 had the supertouring regulations scrapped as the series moved towards less expensive, but slower race cars. Ford withdrew from BTCC competition prior to 2001.  The touring cars, after their withdrawal, went on sale to the public and are now in the hands of other drivers. Two of the 2000 series Mondeos have been spotted in the BRSCC series of LMA Euro saloons; drivers known to own them at present are Bernard Hogarth and Alvin Powell.  The Mk I and Mk II Mondeo have followed many other previous Ford models into the world of banger racing in the United Kingdom, and with plenty of older cars being available for very little money, the Mondeo is now a popular and relatively easy car to race. The Zetec engines are converted to run off a carb set up and the Mondeo bodyshell is fairly tough, but they are proving rather rigid, with many drivers getting injured in high-speed impacts. Mondeos are proving more popular than the Sierra and Mk III Granada.  In Argentina, the Mondeo is one of several cars to compete in the local Top Race racing category; its body is handcrafted in reinforced fiberglass. The Mondeo is so far the most successful car in the category, with three championship titles in the TRV6 class and two championship titles in the Top Race series (formerly Top Race Junior).  The winning drivers in the TRV6 class were Omar Martínez (2006), José María López (2009), and Guido Falaschi (Copa América 2010) with the Mondeo II (based on the MkIII Mondeo), and in the TR Junior category, the championship was won by Gonzalo Perlo in 2008 and Humberto Krujoski in 2010. In 2009, the Mondeo III (based on the MkIV Mondeo) bodystyle was approved and presented as an option within the category; however, the Mondeo II bodywork is still being used.  Similarly, in the United States, the Fusion/Mondeo Mk 5 bodywork began use for the sixth-generation body in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series starting in 2013, replacing the current Mazda6-based Fusion.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ford Mondeo is a large family car manufactured by Ford since 1993. The first Ford declared a \"world car\", the Mondeo was intended to consolidate several Ford model lines worldwide (the European Ford Sierra, the Ford Telstar in Asia and Australia, and the Ford Tempo/Mercury Topaz of North America). The Mondeo nameplate is derived from Latin \"mundus\", meaning \"world\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976138}
{"src_title": "Ziehl-Abegg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1897, Emil Ziehl developed the first external rotor motor. In early 1910, the \"Ziehl-Abegg Electricity Company\" was founded in Berlin. Emil Ziehl and the Swiss engineer Eduard Abegg set up the company in Weißensee, a borough now part of the Pankow District.  Emil Ziehl had big expectations for Abegg, who was to develop wind turbines. After the company’s logo (with Abegg’s name on it) was already made public, Abegg failed to bring the promised funds. The introduced patent for the wind motors also turned out to be unsuitable. Abegg left the company that same year.  The plant in Berlin was dismantled and taken to the Soviet Union after the German Surrender in 1945, following orders of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany. In 1947, the brothers Günther and Heinz Ziehl re-established the company in the Künzelsau castle mill, this time in West Germany. In 1960 began the production of an external rotor motor as a fan drive. The internalisation of the company started in 1973 and, in 2001, it became a family owned, joint-stock company.  Sales subsidiaries can be found in Poland, China, Russia, USA, Czech Republic, Sweden, United Kingdom, Finland, France, Italy, Australia, Singapore, Switzerland, Austria, Ukraine, Spain, Benelux, South Africa, Japan, Turkey, India and Brazil.  The founders of various competitors (Gebhardt, ebm-papst and Rosenberg) were employees of Ziehl-Abegg before starting their own respective companies. Wilhelm Gebhardt worked in the Development department, and Karl Rosenberg used to work in the Sales department until 1981, when he left to set up his own firm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "The biggest division is the Ventilation division, in which axial and radial fans with a diameter from 190 mm to 1400 mm are produced. Ziehl-Abegg also has two further divisions which produce drives and the corresponding control technology. Application areas are i.e. Heat, clean room and refrigeration technology.  In the late 1980s, Ziehl-Abegg became the first company in the world to introduce EC-Motors (see Brushless DC electric motor) and use them for Ventilation Technology. In the 1990s, the rotor blades were sickled and in 2006 they were equipped with a bionic profile, in order to minimize the noise emissions. In 2013, Ziehl-Abegg was also the first company in the world to develop a Bio-Fan made entirely of a Bio-Polymer (in this case castor oil).  In the drives division, Electrical Motors for lifts, medical applications (i.e. Computer Tomographs) and Omnibuses are developed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ziehl-Abegg Automotive.", "content": "At the International Motor Show Germany in 2012, the associate company \"Ziehl-Abegg Automotive\" presented under the name \"ZAwheel\" a gearless, in-hub wheel drive for buses and other commercial vehicles with a synchronous external rotor motor.  Buses equipped with \"ZAwheel\" are in line operation since 2008, among others in Apeldoorn (\"The Whisperer\") and Rotterdam (\"eBusz\"). Five buses equipped with \"ZAwheel\" started their tour in the German city Münster in April 2015. The \"ZAwheel SM530\" model with 125 kW has a maximum torque of 6000 Nm. The Efficiency is up to 90%. The retrofitting for conventional buses with a diesel engine is also possible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Facilities.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ziehl-Abegg SE.", "content": "The headquarters are located at the Heinz-Ziehl Street in Kuenzelsau, with a subsidiary plant in the nearby Würzburger Street. Built in 2008, the world's largest and most modern air flow and noise level test chambers for fans can be found in the main production site.  Further production sites are located in Schoental-Bieringen (one facility) and in the Günther-Ziehl Street in the Hohenlohe Industrial Park, Kupferzell (ZA Kupferzell).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ziehl-Abegg France SARL.", "content": "The production site of electrical motors and complete Fan Systems for the Refrigeration and ventilation industry is located in Villieu, Lyon. 118 Employees work on an area of 10.000 qm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ziehl-Abegg KFT.", "content": "\"ZIEHL-ABEGG Motor- és Ventillátorgyártó Kft. \"in Marcali (Hungary) was founded in December 1994 by ZIEHL-ABEGG GmbH. & Co. with a capital of 84.570.000 Forint. This plant manufactures Ventilation equipment, special electrical motors, axial and radial fans and accessories for agriculture, engineering, AC-equipment and cooling industry. The production of the parts consists of three facilities on an area of 62.000 qm in total.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Training and education.", "content": "The percentage of trainees and apprentices in Ziehl-Abegg is close to 10%. In 2014, the German Chamber of Industry and Commerce gave Ziehl-Abegg the \"Dualis\" Label for its remarkable training programme.  In 2012, Ziehl-Abegg was honoured with the Human Resources Excellence Award for its outstanding Welcome Culture towards international employees. Ziehl-Abegg is also exporting the successful German Dual education system: the Ziehl-Abegg facility in Hungary is offering a cooperative study program (with an 80%–20% balance of theory and practice, similar to the special college system called \"Duale Hochschule\") for 2016, following the start of the Dual Training System in 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ziehl-Abegg SE (own notation ZIEHL-ABEGG SE, until 2013 \"Ziehl-Abegg AG\") is a German manufacturer of fans for ventilation and air conditioning applications, as well as drive technology for elevators and motors with matching control technology. The company's headquarters are in Kuenzelsau, in Hohenlohekreis, Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976139}
{"src_title": "Železná Ruda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography and Climate.", "content": "Železná Ruda, lying in a wild mountainous terrain at an elevation between, is surrounded with thick coniferous woods. Its climate is cool and wet humid continental hemiboreal (Dfb) with moderately cold, long winters and cool summers. Average July temperature is and average January temperature is. Yearly average is and there is some 967 mm of precipitation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Places of interest.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natural.", "content": "The town is surrounded by forests and green mountains. There are many popular tourist sites, such as the lakes Černé jezero and Čertovo jezero and Špičák peak (1,202 m).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical.", "content": "Historical sites include the Church of Panna Maria Pomocná z Hvězdy (with an Eastern-style cupola), the Chapel of St. Barbora (saint of mineworkers) and the Way of the Cross. The local museum and information centre are located in a house, which was the home to a well-known family of glassmakers in the past. There is an exhibition of traditional glass, documents and photographs concerning history available all year round.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Technical.", "content": "The longest train tunnel (1,747 m) in the Czech Republic goes under Špičák peak.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The local economy is very dependent on tourism because Železná Ruda is one of the most popular skiing centres of Šumava, as well as a starting point for many hiking trips on both sides of the border. The town has also gained a reputation as a hotspot for prostitution since the Velvet Revolution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "The town is located on a train line leading from Plzeň and Klatovy to the border station at Bayerisch Eisenstein, named \"Železná Ruda-Alžbětín\" in Czech. This station building is divided by the national border between the Czech Republic and Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Železná Ruda (literally \"iron ore\",, ) is a town in the Pilsen Region of the Czech Republic. It is located in the Šumava Mountains, close to the border with Bavaria and the German town Bayerisch Eisenstein. It is one of the important sports and tourism centres of the Šumava Mountains. The German name of the town comes from The Middle Ages, when it was a market town. Its German population was expelled after 1945.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976140}
{"src_title": "Andrea del Castagno", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Andrea del Castagno was born at Castagno, a village near Monte Falterona, not far from Florence. During the war between Florence and Milan, he lived in Corella, returning to his home after its end. In 1440 he moved to Florence under the protection of Bernadetto de' Medici. Here he painted the portraits of the citizens hanged after the Battle of Anghiari on the facade of the Palazzo del Podestà, gaining the nickname of \"Andrea degli Impiccati\".  Little is known about his formation, though it has been hypothesised that he apprenticed under Fra Filippo Lippi and Paolo Uccello. In 1440–1441 he executed the fresco of \"Crucifixion and Saints\" in the Ospedale di Santa Maria Nuova, whose perspective-oriented construction and figures shows the influence of Masaccio.  In 1442 he was in Venice where he executed frescoes in the San Tarasio Chapel of the church of San Zaccaria. Later he also worked in St Mark's Basilica, leaving a fresco of \"Death of the Virgin\" (1442–1443).  Back in Florence, he designed a stained window with \"Deposition\" for the local Cathedral. On May 30, 1445 he became a member of the Guild of the Medicians. From the same year is the fresco of \"Madonna with Child and Santi\" in the Contini Bonacossi Collection (Uffizi).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Last Supper\".", "content": "In 1447 he worked in the refectory of the Benedictine nuns at Sant'Apollonia in Florence, painting, in the lower part, a fresco of the Last Supper, accompanied above by other scenes portraying the Passion of Christ: \"Crucifixion\", \"Entombment\", and \"Resurrection\", which are now damaged. This combination of scenes is not known to have been represented before. He also painted a lunette in the convent's cloister, depicting a \"Pietà\". Many important Florentine families had daughters in the convent at Sant'Apollonia, so painting there likely brought Andrea to their attention.  The \"Last Supper\" displays Andrea del Castagno's talents at their best. The detail and naturalism of this fresco portray the ways in which he departed from earlier artistic styles. It is likely that Leonardo da Vinci was already familiar with this work before he painted his own Last Supper in a more dramatic form to contrast with the stillness of these works, so that more emotion would be displayed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Late activity.", "content": "In 1449–1450 he painted the \"Assumption with Saints Julian and Miniato\" for the main altar (in the St. Julian Chapel) of the church of San Miniato fra le Torri in Florence (now in Berlin).  In the same years he collaborated with Filippo Carducci to paint a series of \"Illustrious People\" for the Villa Carducci at Legnaia. These include Pippo Spano, Farinata degli Uberti, Niccolò Acciaioli, Dante, Petrarca, Boccaccio, the Cumaean Sibyl, Esther and Tomiri.  Also from around 1450 is the \"Crucifixion\" in London, as well as the \"David with Goliath's Head\" and the \"Portrait of a Man,\" both in Washington. Between January 1451 and September 1453 he completed the frescoes with \"Scenes of the Life of the Virgin\" left unfinished by Domenico Veneziano in the Florentine church of Sant'Egidio, Florence (now lost). In October Filippo Carducci commissioned him to paint frescoes for his villa at Soffiano, of which today an \"Eve\" and a ruined \"Madonna with Child\" survive.  In 1455 Andrea del Castagno worked in the Basilica della Santissima Annunziata (frescoes with the \"Trinity with Saints Jerome, Paula and Eustochium\" and \"St. Julian and the Redeemer\", the former showing a stressed realism). Also in those years is attributed a \"Crucifixion\" for St. Apollonia. In 1456 he executed in the Florentine Cathedral the fresco of the \"Equestrian Statue of Niccolò da Tolentino\", paralleling the similar painting by Paolo Uccello portraying John Hawkwood.  Giorgio Vasari, an artist and biographer of the Italian Renaissance, alleged that Castagno murdered Domenico Veneziano, but this is impossible, since Veneziano died in 1461, four years after Castagno died of the plague. It has been suggested that Vasari was confusing this murder case with another one involving a \"Domenico di Matteo\" who was killed by an \"Andreino\" in 1448, but the archival record shows that this is a misreading: \"A cursory examination reveals two things: first, that the name of the dead painter is not Domenico di Matteo, but Domenico di Marco; and second, and much more crucially, that there is no mention of him having been killed by a painter named Andrea or Andreino.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Andrea del Castagno () or Andrea di Bartolo di Bargilla (; – 19 August 1457) was an Italian painter from Florence, influenced chiefly by Masaccio and Giotto di Bondone. His works include frescoes in Sant'Apollonia in Florence and the painted equestrian monument of Niccolò da Tolentino (1456) in the Cathedral in Florence. He in turn influenced the Ferrarese school of Cosmè Tura, Francesco del Cossa and Ercole de' Roberti.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976141}
{"src_title": "Terry O'Neill (photographer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "O'Neill was born in Romford, East London, and began his career working in a photographic unit for an airline at London's Heathrow Airport. During this time, he photographed a sleeping figure in a waiting area who, by happenstance, was revealed to be Home Secretary Rab Butler. O'Neill thereafter found further employment on Fleet Street with \"The Daily Sketch\" in 1959. His first professional job was to photograph Laurence Olivier.  During the 1960s, in addition to photographing contemporary celebrities such as Judy Garland, the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, he also photographed members of the British royal family and prominent politicians, showing a more human side to these subjects than had usually been portrayed—his photographs capture his subjects candidly or in unconventional settings.  O'Neill's photographs of Elton John are among his best known. A selection of them appeared in the 2008 book \"Eltonography\". Also considered among his most famous images are a series of American actress Faye Dunaway (his girlfriend at the time) at dawn on 29 March 1977, lounging next to the swimming pool at the Beverly Hills Hotel the morning after winning the Academy Award for Best Actress for \"Network\", with several newspapers scattered around her and her Oscar statuette prominently shown on a table beside her breakfast tray. The series was photographed in both colour and black and white.  O'Neill was credited (as Terrence O'Neill) as an executive producer of the film \"Mommie Dearest\" (1981). His only other film credit was for still photography for the opera film \"Aria\" (1987).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "O'Neill was married to the actress Vera Day for 13 years; they had two children together, Keegan Alexander and Sarah Jane. He had a long-term relationship with Faye Dunaway; they were married for four years in the 1980s and had a son, Liam. In 2003, he was quoted in the U.S. tabloid magazine \"Star\" as saying Liam was adopted and not their biological son, contrary to Dunaway's public assertions. In 2001 O'Neill married Laraine Ashton, a former model agency executive.  O'Neill underwent a triple bypass and, in 2006, an operation for bowel cancer. He died on 16 November 2019 at his home in London from prostate cancer, at the age of 81.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Terence Patrick O'Neill (30 July 1938 – 16 November 2019) was a British photographer, known for documenting the fashions, styles, and celebrities of the 1960s. O'Neill's photographs capture his subjects candidly or in unconventional settings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976142}
{"src_title": "Martha Cooper", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Cooper picked up photography at the age of three. She graduated from high school at the age of 16, earned an art degree at age 19 from Grinnell College. She taught English as a Peace Corps volunteer in Thailand, journeyed by motorcycle from Bangkok to London and received an anthropology diploma from Oxford. Her first experience in artistic photography began when Cooper was in Japan, and capturing images of elaborate tattoos.  She was a photography intern at \"National Geographic\" in the 1960s, and worked as a staff photographer at the \"New York Post\" in the 1970s. Her photographs have appeared in National Geographic, \"Smithsonian\" and \"Natural History\" magazines as well as several dozen books and journals.  Her most known personal work, the New York City graffiti scene of the 1970s and 1980s, began while working at the \"New York Post.\" On her return home from the Post she began taking photographs of children in her New York City neighborhood. One day she met a young kid named Edwin Serrano (He3) who helped expose her to some of the graffiti around her neighborhood. Serrano helped to explain to her that Graffiti is an art form and that each artist was actually writing his/her nickname. He introduced her to the graffiti \"king\", Dondi. Dondi was the first to allow her to accompany him – while he was tagging she would take photos of his work. After meeting with Dondi, Cooper became fascinated with the underground subculture that these graffiti artists had created in New York City.In the 1984 she put together a book of photographs illustrating the graffiti subculture called \"Subway Art.\" It became known as the Bible of street art.  In the 1980s Cooper worked briefly in Belize photographing the people and archaeological remains of the Mayan culture at sites such as Nohmul and Cuello.  Cooper lives in Manhattan but is working on a photography project in Sowebo, a Southwest Baltimore neighborhood.  She is the Director of Photography at City Lore, the New York Center for Urban Folk Culture.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Martha Cooper is an American photojournalist born in the 1940s in Baltimore, Maryland. She worked as a staff photographer for the \"New York Post\" during the 1970s. She is best known for documenting the New York City graffiti scene of the 1970s and 1980s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976143}
{"src_title": "Troll", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The Old Norse nouns \"troll\" and \"tröll\" (variously meaning \"fiend, demon, werewolf, jötunn\") and Middle High German \"troll, trolle\" \"fiend\" (according to philologist Vladimir Orel likely borrowed from Old Norse) developed from Proto-Germanic neuter noun *\"trullan\". The origin of the Proto-Germanic word is unknown. Additionally, the Old Norse verb \"trylla\" 'to enchant, to turn into a troll' and the Middle High German verb \"trüllen\" \"to flutter\" both developed from the Proto-Germanic verb *\"trulljanan\", a derivative of *\"trullan\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Norse mythology.", "content": "In Norse mythology, \"troll\", like \"thurs\", is a term applied to \"jötnar\" and is mentioned throughout the Old Norse corpus. In Old Norse sources, trolls are said to dwell in isolated mountains, rocks, and caves, sometimes live together (usually as father-and-daughter or mother-and-son), and are rarely described as helpful or friendly. The \"Prose Edda\" book \"Skáldskaparmál\" describes an encounter between an unnamed troll woman and the 9th-century skald Bragi Boddason. According to the section, Bragi was driving through \"a certain forest\" late one evening when a troll woman aggressively asked him who he was, in the process describing herself:  Bragi responds in turn, describing himself and his abilities as a skillful skald, before the scenario ends.  There is much confusion and overlap in the use of Old Norse terms \"jötunn\", \"troll\", \"þurs\", and \"risi\", which describe various beings. Lotte Motz theorized that these were originally four distinct classes of beings: lords of nature (\"jötunn\"), mythical magicians (\"troll\"), hostile monsters (\"þurs\"), and heroic and courtly beings (\"risi\"), the last class being the youngest addition. On the other hand, Ármann Jakobson is critical of Motz's interpretation and calls this theory \"unsupported by any convincing evidence\". Ármann highlights that the term is used to denote various beings, such as a jötunn or mountain-dweller, a witch, an abnormally strong or large or ugly person, an evil spirit, a ghost, a \"blámaðr\", a magical boar, a heathen demi-god, a demon, a brunnmigi, or a berserker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scandinavian folklore.", "content": "Later in Scandinavian folklore, trolls become defined as a particular type of being. Numerous tales are recorded about trolls in which they are frequently described as being extremely old, very strong, but slow and dim-witted, and are at times described as man-eaters and as turning to stone upon contact with sunlight. However, trolls are also attested as looking much the same as human beings, without any particularly hideous appearance about them, but living far away from human habitation and generally having \"some form of social organization\"—unlike the \"rå\" and \"näck\", who are attested as \"solitary beings\". According to John Lindow, what sets them apart is that they are not Christian, and those who encounter them do not know them. Therefore, trolls were in the end dangerous, regardless of how well they might get along with Christian society, and trolls display a habit of \"bergtagning\" ('kidnapping'; literally \"mountain-taking\") and overrunning a farm or estate.  Lindow states that the etymology of the word \"troll\" remains uncertain, though he defines trolls in later Swedish folklore as \"nature beings\" and as \"all-purpose otherworldly being[s], equivalent, for example, to fairies in Anglo-Celtic traditions\". They \"therefore appear in various migratory legends where collective nature-beings are called for\". Lindow notes that trolls are sometimes swapped out for cats and \"little people\" in the folklore record.  A Scandinavian folk belief that lightning frightens away trolls and jötnar appears in numerous Scandinavian folktales, and may be a late reflection of the god Thor's role in fighting such beings. In connection, the lack of trolls and jötnar in modern Scandinavia is sometimes explained as a result of the \"accuracy and efficiency of the lightning strokes\". Additionally, the absence of trolls in regions of Scandinavia is described in folklore as being a \"consequence of the constant din of the church-bells\". This ring caused the trolls to leave for other lands, although not without some resistance; numerous traditions relate how trolls destroyed a church under construction or hurled boulders and stones at completed churches. Large local stones are sometimes described as the product of a troll's toss. Additionally, into the 20th century, the origins of particular Scandinavian landmarks, such as particular stones, are ascribed to trolls who may, for example, have turned to stone upon exposure to sunlight.  Lindow compares the trolls of the Swedish folk tradition to Grendel, the supernatural mead hall invader in the Old English poem \"Beowulf\", and notes that \"just as the poem \"Beowulf\" emphasizes not the harrying of Grendel but the cleansing of the hall of Beowulf, so the modern tales stress the moment when the trolls are driven off.\"  Smaller trolls are attested as living in burial mounds and in mountains in Scandinavian folk tradition. In Denmark, these creatures are recorded as \"troldfolk\" (\"troll-folk\"), \"bjergtrolde\" (\"mountain-trolls\"), or \"bjergfolk\" (\"mountain-folk\") and in Norway also as \"troldfolk\" (\"troll-folk\") and \"tusser\". Trolls may be described as small, human-like beings or as tall as men depending on the region of origin of the story.  In Norwegian tradition, similar tales may be told about the larger trolls and the Huldrefolk (\"hidden-folk\"), yet a distinction is made between the two. The use of the word \"trow\" in Orkney and Shetland, to mean beings which are very like the Huldrefolk in Norway, may suggest a common origin for the terms. The word \"troll\" may have been used by pagan Norse settlers in Orkney and Shetland as a collective term for supernatural beings who should be respected and avoided rather than worshipped. \"Troll\" could later have become specialized as a description of the larger, more menacing Jötunn-kind whereas \"Huldrefolk\" may have developed as the term for smaller trolls.  John Arnott MacCulloch posited a connection between the Old Norse vættir and trolls, suggesting that both concepts may derive from spirits of the dead.  Troll, a Norwegian research station in Antarctica, is so named because of the rugged mountains which stand around that place like trolls. It includes a ground station which tracks satellites in polar orbit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A troll is a class of being in Norse mythology and Scandinavian folklore. In Old Norse sources, beings described as trolls dwell in isolated rocks, mountains, or caves, live together in small family units, and are rarely helpful to human beings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976144}
{"src_title": "AMD Phenom", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "AMD considers the quad core Phenoms to be the first \"true\" quad core design, as these processors are a monolithic multi-core design (all cores on the same silicon die), unlike Intel's Core 2 Quad series which are a multi-chip module (MCM) design. The processors are on the Socket AM2+ platform.  Before Phenom's original release a flaw was discovered in the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) that could cause a system lock-up in rare circumstances; Phenom processors up to and including stepping \"B2\" and \"BA\" are affected by this bug. BIOS and software workarounds disable the TLB, and typically incur a performance penalty of at least 10%. This penalty was not accounted for in pre-release previews of Phenom, hence the performance of early Phenoms delivered to customers may have been less than the preview benchmarks. \"B3\" stepping Phenom processors were released March 27, 2008 without the TLB bug and with \"xx50\" model numbers.  An AMD subsidiary released a patch for the Linux kernel, to overcome this bug by software emulation of accessed- and dirty-bits. This method causes less performance loss than previous workarounds. The program was said in December 2007 to have received \"minimal functional testing.\"  AMD launched several models of the Phenom processor in 2007 and 2008 and an upgraded Phenom II in late 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Model naming methodology.", "content": "The model numbers of the Phenom line of processors were changed from the PR system used in its predecessors, the AMD Athlon 64 processor family. The Phenom model numbering scheme, for-later released Athlon X2 processors, is a four-digit model number whose first digit is a family indicator. Energy Efficient products end with an “e” suffix (for example, \"Phenom 9350e\"). Some Sempron processors use the prefix LE (for example, \"Sempron LE-1200\")", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phenom is the 64-bit AMD desktop processor line based on the K10 microarchitecture, in what AMD calls family 10h (10 hex, i.e. 16 in normal decimal numbers) processors, sometimes incorrectly called \"K10h\". Triple-core versions (codenamed \"Toliman\") belong to the Phenom 8000 series and quad cores (codenamed \"Agena\") to the AMD Phenom X4 9000 series. The first processor in the family was released in 2007.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976145}
{"src_title": "Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Founding.", "content": "In the 1640s, France's artistic life was still based on the medieval system of guilds like the Académie de Saint-Luc which had a tight grip on the professional lives of artists and artisans alike. Some artists had managed to get exemptions but these were based on favoritism rather than merit. A few “superior men” who were “real artists” suffered and felt humiliated under this system.  In view of increasing pressure by the Parisian guilds for painters and sculptors to submit to their control, the young but already very successful painter Charles Le Brun conceived a plan to free the true artists from the humiliating influence of mere artisans. He involved his two close friends, the brothers Louis and Henri Testelin, to lobby for an independent organisation where membership was based on merit alone, following the examples of the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence and the Accademia di San Luca in Rome.  Soon, the courtier Martin de Charmois and several more artists became involved and drafted a petition for the foundation of the Académie. Charmois assembled as many artists with royal patronage as he could to sign it, which a great number did. With the support of Le Brun's patron Pierre Séguier, Chancellor of France, Charmois presented the petition to the nine-year-old King Louis XIV, his mother Anne of Austria who acted as regent and the whole Royal Council on 20 January 1648 at the Palais-Royal. All present approved and the foundation of the Académie Royale was granted.  The promoters immediately got to work and still in January 1648 formulated statutes with 13 articles (approved in February and published on 9 March 1648), a key element of which was a public art school. There were 22 founder members who, in February 1648, elected 12 \"anciens\" (elders) who would be in charge of the academy in turn for a calendar month. These first \"anciens\" were the painters Charles Le Brun, Charles Errard, François Perrier, Juste d' Egmont, Michel I Corneille, Henri Beaubrun, Laurent de La Hyre, Sebastien Bourdon, Eustache Le Sueur and the sculptors Simon Guillain, Jacques Sarazin and Gerard van Opstal. Charmois was elected \"Chef\" (Head) of the Académy as stated in article XIII of the statutes.  With revised statutes from 24 December 1654 the offices of \"chancelier\" and of four \"recteurs\" were created, and the title \"ancien\" was abandoned in favour of the title \"professeur\" (with the exact same duties for a calendar month in turn).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vice-protectorate of Jean-Baptiste Colbert.", "content": "Following the death of the \"Protecteur\" of the Académie, Cardinal Mazarin, in 1661, the office reverted to his predecessor Chancellor Séguier. Later that year, Séguier named Jean-Baptiste Colbert, King Louis XIV's trusted minister, as \"Vice-protecteur\". Colbert took full strategic control and, working through Charles Le Brun, ensured that the arts were devoted to the glorification of the King. A \"royal style\" was enforced which in practice meant a classical style.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dominance of Charles Le Brun.", "content": "The Académie experienced its greatest power during the involvement of Charles Le Brun who, from its beginnings in 1648 until his death in 1690 occupied many positions within the Académie. After being an original \"ancien\", in 1655 he was the first to be appointed chancellor of the Académie (from 1663 chancellor for life), he became rector from 1668 and director from 1683. Despite his short seven-year reign as director, Le Brun controlled a majority of decisions within the Académie. In February 1675 he ordered that no decision would be validated in the academy without his approval.  Le Brun's involvement in the Académie and his position of first painter to the king, allowed him to dictate all painting, sculpture, and tapestry expectations. Specifically, for projects such as the \"Grande Galerie du Louvre\", Académie artists found themselves carrying out designs originated by Le Brun. In addition, Le Brun admitted more members into the Académie then ever before. Between 1664-1683 107 artists became members of the Académie. In comparison, 89 artists were admitted between 1707-1720, and the 57 admitted in 1735-54. Under Le Brun's influence the Académie became more accessible than ever before.  Le Brun's relationship with the Royal court allowed him the position of director after the death of Colbert in 1683. While still extremely influential, Le Brun began to lose power due to the rise of Pierre Mignard, in the years before his death in 1690.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Suspension.", "content": "On August 8, 1793, the Académie was suspended by the revolutionary National Convention, when the latter decreed the abolition of \"toutes les académies et sociétés littéraires patentées ou dotées par la Nation\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later history.", "content": "It was later revived as the Académie de Peinture et de Sculpture. The Académie is also responsible for the Académie de France in the villa Médicis in Rome (founded in 1666) which allows promising artists to study in Rome. In 1816, it was merged with the Académie de Musique (Academy of Music, founded in 1669) and the Académie d'Architecture (Academy of Architecture, founded in 1671), to form the Académie des Beaux-Arts, one of the five academies of the Institut de France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Documentation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mémoires.", "content": "The history of the early Académie royale is given in great detail by a contemporary who was involved in its foundation. The 17th century manuscript containing the account was published in 1853 by the French art historian Anatole de Montaiglon as  Montaiglon has identified the anonymous author as Henri Testelin, the academy's secretary from 1650 to 1681, but different names have been suggested by others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Procès-verbaux.", "content": "In addition to the \"Mémoires\" Montaiglon also published the minutes of the academy in ten volumes from 1875 to 1892:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conférences.", "content": "From 2006 to 2015, a critical edition of the \"Conférences\" held at the Académie royale was published by Jacqueline Lichtenstein and Christian Michel as a collaborative Project of the German Center for Art History, the Académie des Beaux-Arts and the École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris and made available online:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture (, ; Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture) was founded in 1648 and located in Paris, France. It was the premier art institution of France during the latter part of the Ancien Régime, until it was abolished in 1793, during the French Revolution. It included most of the important painters and sculptors, maintained almost total control of teaching and exhibitions, and afforded its members preference in royal commissions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976146}
{"src_title": "Alfonso López Michelsen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "López was the son of former two-time president of Colombia, Alfonso López Pumarejo. He was born and raised in Bogotá. He studied at the \"Gimnasio Moderno\" School and later in other cities: Paris, Brussels, London and Santiago de Chile. He graduated with a degree in law from the Universidad del Rosario.  During his father's presidency, López maintained a low profile in politics and instead focused on becoming a university professor at the \"Universidad del Rosario\".  In 1938, López married Cecilia Caballero Blanco in Bogotá. They moved to the outskirts of Bogotá in a \"hacienda\" in the then municipality of Engativá, Cundinamarca Department (nowadays a Locality of Bogotá). Settled in this town, López had his first experience with politics becoming a town councilman. During this time, his fellow councilmen included two other politicians who went to become key political players in the country, Álvaro Gómez Hurtado and future president Julio César Turbay Ayala.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1959, a group of his former college students founded the Liberal Revolutionary Movement (MRL) as a reaction against the pact between the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party to create the National Front, in which the two parties took turns to govern. López Michelsen was then offered the leadership of the newly created MRL and he accepted, becoming a presidential candidate for the 1962 presidential elections. López lost the election by a large margin to Conservative candidate Guillermo León Valencia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governor of the Department of Cesar (1967–1968).", "content": "In 1966, López was elected as a senator and negotiated the return of the MRL to the Liberal Party in 1967. This same year López traveled to the city of Valledupar after being appointed by President Carlos Lleras Restrepo as the first governor of Cesar Department, a newly created province in the northern Caribbean Region of Colombia. López was able to trace his grandmothers' family ancestors \"the Pumarejos,\" back to this town. During those years, he was also instrumental for the creation of the Vallenato Legend Festival (nowadays, one of the most important cultural events in Colombia) along with vallenato composer Rafael Escalona and journalist Consuelo Araújo. He served as governor of Cesar from December 21, 1967, until August 14, 1968.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minister of Foreign Affairs.", "content": "A year later, he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs until the end of the presidential term of President Carlos Lleras Restrepo in 1970.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidency (1974–1978).", "content": "In 1974, López was chosen by the Liberal Party as their candidate for president, after defeating former president Carlos Lleras Restrepo in the party presidential primaries, with the support of former candidate (and presidential successor) Julio César Turbay. He won the general election by a large margin against the Conservative Party candidate Álvaro Gómez Hurtado, and the ANAPO candidate, María Eugenia Rojas. His 2,929,719 votes were the highest ever for any president until that time.  His inaugural presidential speech, delivered on August 7, 1974, is mostly remembered for calling the disputed border area in the Gulf of Venezuela by its native indigenous name, \"Gulf of Coquibacoa\" given by the wayuus. In his speech he also promised to reduce the growing gap between farmer and urban populations and to fight poverty, messages that attracted the support of many left-wing political movements.  As a president, López declared economic emergency in order to correct the fiscal deficit, which allowed him to implement a number of regulatory measures to control spending, and to reduce subsidies and programs like the tax credit certificate (CAT) which reimbursed partial or total taxes for exporting companies. He also introduced a tax and fiscal reform which increased national saving, and allowed an increase in public investment and exports. Crop production increased 16%, and he also created public offices devoted to the improvement of farming. Under his government, also, power grids were expanded, and infrastructure investment increased. In contrast, inflation reached under his government its highest historical values, at around 32%.  Early support for his policies soon turned to fierce opposition, as many of his campaign promises, in particular those to make deals with unions and in the improvement of potable water access, went unfulfilled, and as subsidies were eliminated and inflation rose. Unions and other leftist activists had been accumulating frustration and resentment for decades after the killing of Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, and the subsequent violence, and the hope for a more open society that came with Lopez election turned into feelings of betrayal. As a result, and after three years as president the major Colombian Unions got together and managed to propose and organize a massive, general strike. The López administration took a hard approach towards the planned strike, calling it subversive and at some point threatening arrest and forbidding public meetings. This only enraged the participants, and the major unionists were joined by teachers, students, independent workers, housewives, guerrilla leaders, and even members of the opposition conservative party. The organizing committee demanded among other things salary increases, frozen prices for essential goods and public services fees, reestablishment of the right to meet and strike, and a reduction in work hours.  The strike, occurring on September 14, 1977, came to be known as the National Civil Strike, and it attracted such a large number of discontented participants that the organizing committee soon lost control over it. Major roads were blocked all over Bogota, and in many other cities around the country, and very soon many small skirmishes between protesters and riot police started occurring all over. The manifestations and skirmishes soon turned into riots, and protesters started pillaging on big stores and vandalizing factories and cars. By 4 pm the major declared curfew which only made protesters more enraged. Hundreds of protesters were wounded, and thousands were arrested and assembled in the city's Soccer stadium and bullfighting arena. Riots and skirmishes continued all night and well into the next day, which devastated the city. About 20 or 30 people died in the middle of it. As a consequence, unions declared victory and the López Michelsen's government had to make concessions. Alternatively, the riot made his government to adopt a harshest, more repressive stance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post presidency.", "content": "Upon the end of his term in 1978, he again became the leader of Liberal Party. He ran for president again in 1982, but was defeated by the Conservative Party candidate, Belisario Betancur.  He continued to actively participate in the decision making of the Liberal Party until the early 1990s when he decided to withdraw from political activity. He was a regular columnist for the Colombian newspaper \"El Tiempo\" which drew attention to many critical issues. For this reason he was called \"\"el hombre que pone a pensar al pais\"\" (Spanish for \"The man who made the country think\").  Lopez Michelsen died in Bogotá on July 11, 2007, after suffering a heart attack.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alfonso López Michelsen (30 June 1913 – 11 July 2007) was a Colombian politician and lawyer who served the 24th President of Colombia from 1974 to 1978. He was nicknamed \"El Pollo\" (The Chicken), a popular Colombian idiom for people with precocious careers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976147}
{"src_title": "Bergenia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "They are clump-forming, rhizomatous, evergreen perennials with a spirally arranged rosette of leaves 6–35 cm long and 4–15 cm broad, and pink flowers produced in a cyme. The leaves are large, leathery, ovate or cordate, and often have wavy or saw-toothed edges. For most of the year, the leaves have a glossy green colour, but in cooler climates, they turn red or bronze in the fall. The flowers grow on a stem similar in colour to a rhubarb stalk and most varieties have cone-shaped flowers in varying shades of pink. These can range from almost white to ruby red and purple.  The common names for \"Bergenia\" are pigsqueak (due to the sound produced when two leaves are rubbed together), elephant's ears (due to the shape of the leaves) and large rockfoil.  \"Bergenia\" is closely related to \"Mukdenia\", \"Oresitrophe\", \"Astilboides\" and \"Rodgersia\".  The creator of the taxonomic genus name, Conrad Moench, honoured the German botanist and physician Karl August von Bergen by coining the name \"Bergenia\" in 1794.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Bergenia\" are hardy plants that can grow in climates with extreme temperature ranges from about to. They prefer sun but will grow in shady areas as well. Plants can grow to about tall and wide. They do well in most soils, but moist, humus-rich soil is preferable. Exposure and dry soils tend to stunt growth, but can enhance the winter leaf colours. In areas with cold, strong winter winds, protection from the wind may be required. They are propagated by division or rooted rhizome sections. \"Bergenia crassifolia\", \"Bergenia cordifolia\", and various hybrids are often grown in gardens, with several cultivars selected.  The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pests and diseases.", "content": "Bergenia are robust plants and generally free of problems, although vine weevil adults readily eat the edges of the leaves, resulting in an indented, 'notched' outline which can detract from the appearance of the plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Bergenin, C-glycoside of 4-O-methyl gallic acid, and its O-demethylated derivative norbergenin, are chemical compounds and drugs of Ayurveda, commonly known as Paashaanbhed. They can be isolated from \"Bergenia ciliata\" and \"Bergenia ligulata\" and from rhizomes of \"Bergenia stracheyi\". It shows a potent immunomodulatory effect.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bergenia (elephant-eared saxifrage, elephant's ears) is a genus of ten species of flowering plants in the family Saxifragaceae, native to central Asia, from Afghanistan to China and the Himalayan region.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976148}
{"src_title": "Vatican Observatory", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Church has had a long-standing interest in astronomy, due to the astronomical basis of the calendar by which holy days and Easter are determined. For instance, the Gregorian Calendar, promulgated in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII, was developed by Aloysius Lilius and later modified by Christoph Clavius at the Collegio Romano from astronomical data. The Gregorian Tower was completed in 1580 for his purpose, designed by Bolognese architect Ottaviano Nonni.  In the 18th century, the Papacy actively supported astronomy, establishing the Observatory of the Roman College in 1774. In 1789–1787, the \"Specola Vaticana\" in the Tower of the Winds within the Vatican was established under the direction of Msgr. Filippo Luigi Gilii (1756–1821). When Msgr. Gilii died, the \"Specola\" was closed down because it was inconvenient for students in the city because the dome of St. Peter's obstructed its view. Its instruments were transferred to the College Observatory. A third facility, the Observatory of the Capitol, was operated from 1827 to 1870.  Father Angelo Secchi SJ relocated the College Observatory to the top of Sant'Ignazio di Loyola a Campo Marzio (Church of St. Ignatius in Rome). In 1870, with the capture of Rome, the College Observatory fell into the hands of the Italian Government. Out of respect for his work, however, Father Secchi was permitted to continue using the Observatory. After Secchi's death in 1878 the Observatory was nationalized by the Italian government and renamed the \"Regio Osservatorio al Collegio Romano\" (\"Royal Observatory at the Roman College\"), ending astronomical research in the Vatican.  In 1891, however, Pope Leo XIII issued a Motu Proprio re-founding the \"Specola Vaticana\" (Vatican Observatory) and a new observatory was built on the walls at the edge of the Vatican. The new Vatican Observatory remained there for the next forty years.  In the late nineteenth-century the Vatican Observatory was part of a group of top astronomy institutions from around the world which worked together to create a photographic \"Celestial Map\" (\"Carte du Ciel\") and an \"astrographic\" catalog pinpointing the stars' positions. Italian astronomer Father Francesco Denza led the Vatican's contribution to the project until his death in 1894. In the early twentieth-century Father John Hagen took over the project and recruited a group of nuns from the Sisters of the Holy Child Mary to work on the necessary recording and calculations. The sisters were Sisters Emilia Ponzoni, Regina Colombo, Concetta Finardi and Luigia Panceri.  By the 1930s, the smoke and sky-glow of the city had made it impossible to conduct useful observations in Rome. Pope Pius XI relocated the Observatory to Castel Gandolfo, which is southeast of Rome. By 1961, the same problems with light pollution made observing difficult at Castel Gandolfo. The Observatory then established the Vatican Observatory Research Group (VORG), with offices at the Steward Observatory of the University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona.  D.K.J. O'Connell produced the first color photographs of a green flash at sunset in 1960. In 1993, VORG completed construction of the Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope, which is at Mount Graham near Safford, Arizona.  The Observatory's headquarters remain in Italy at Castel Gandolfo. In early 2008, the Vatican announced that the Observatory would be relocated to a former convent a mile away from the castle as part of a general reconstruction of the Papal residence. Its former space would be used to provide more room for the reception of diplomatic visitors. There was some commentary that the Observatory was being shut down or cut back, but in fact the Observatory staff welcomed the move. The old quarters in the castle were cramped and very poorly laid out for the Observatory's use. VORG research activities in Arizona continued unaffected.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vatican Observatory () is an astronomical research and educational institution supported by the Holy See. Originally based in the Roman College of Rome, the Observatory is now headquartered in Castel Gandolfo, Italy and operates a telescope at the Mount Graham International Observatory in the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976149}
{"src_title": "Neues Sehen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The inter-war years saw a significant change in the field of photography. On one hand, there was a reaction against the painterly approach; while on the other, there was a renewed interest in the new forms of artistic expression. The three main currents developed during that period are Neues Sehen, New Objectivity and Direct Photography. All of them favoured specificity in the photographic medium and its separation from painting. They stood against the photographic associations that were striving to preserve painterly models, accusing them of being unsubstantial, of having a narrow outlook limited to their own assumptions, and of producing images that were unattractive and removed from reality.  But Neues Sehen was also criticised by the defenders of direct photography and New Objectivity for being too experimental, inconsistent, and producing amateur photography of poor technical standards. To defend themselves against the latter, they created classes of pure photography at the Bauhaus school and evolved toward ever-greater objectivity in photography.  The movement was formed mainly by young Russian Constructivists such as Alexander Rodchenko and the Bauhaus teachers László Moholy-Nagy and Walter Peterhans. Bauhaus students highly influenced by the Neues Sehen included Elsa Thiemann, Ivana Tomljenović-Meller, Iwao Yamawaki, Erich Consemüller and Andreas Feininger. Moholy-Nagy's wife, Lucia Moholy, was also a noted Neues Sehen photographer. Their stylistic resources included unexpected angles, experimenting with light and shadows to produce large dark areas in the photograph, the use of photomontage and collage, and photographic composition according to the strict principles of perception of the Bauhaus. Creativity was more developed in the subject matter and in the new way of interpreting the photographic image.  The works are usually didactic since they force the viewer to confront images that are not easily recognisable as elements of reality. Consequently, these are works of uneven quality and experimental nature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film und Foto.", "content": "The exhibition FIFO, organised in 1929 by the Deutscher Werkbund in Stuttgart, is considered the first great exhibition of modern European and American photography. It was seen as a showcase for the artistic ideas of the New Vision. Shortly before the opening, in the autumn of 1928, László Moholy-Nagy and Sigfried Giedion, who were in charge of the main room in the exhibition, introduced a change in the initial programme and turned it into a representation of the New Vision.  The exhibition included 1,200 works by 191 artists belonging to the fields of cinema, painting, photography and the visual arts in general, and can be considered the culmination of experimental production realised with these media. In Germany it was seen as a retrospective of these fields before the rigid aesthetics of the Nazi regime were imposed.  The selection of works was made by several well known figures including Moholy-Nagy, who was one of the selectors for European photography, and Edward Weston, who was in charge of the American section. Artists included Berenice Abbott, Willi Baumeister, Marcel Duchamp, Hein Gorny, Hannah Höch, Eugène Atget, Man Ray, Alexander Rodchenko, Edward Steichen, Imogen Cunningham, Charles Sheeler and Brett Weston, among others. The selected works were characterised by unexpected angles, such as the photographs taken by Willi Ruge from a parachute, the use of photomontage, etc. After seeing the exhibition, the critic Franz Roh wrote an essay entitled \"Foto-Auge\" (Photo-eye), asserting that photography had changed in a definitive manner. In the same year, the exhibition travelled to Zurich, Berlin, Danzig and Vienna, and in 1931 it was presented in Tokyo and Osaka.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Neues Sehen, also known as New Vision or Neue Optik, was a movement, not specifically restricted to photography, which was developed in the 1920s. The movement was directly related to the principles of the Bauhaus. Neues Sehen considered photography to be an autonomous artistic practice with its own laws of composition and lighting, through which the lens of the camera becomes a second eye for looking at the world. This new way of seeing was based on the use of unexpected framings, the search for contrast in form and light, the use of high and low camera angles, etc. The movement was contemporary with New Objectivity with which it shared a defence of photography as a specific medium of artistic expression, although Neues Sehen favoured experimentation and the use of technical means in photographic expression.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976150}
{"src_title": "Digital dermatitis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Presentation.", "content": "Digital dermatitis appears as lesions which initially looks like a raw, red, oval ulcer on the back of the heel. These lesions develop raised, hair-like projections or wart-like lesions, and some may extend up between the claws or appear on the front of the foot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "Digital dermatitis is a polymicrobial disease involving treponemes and other anaerobes. Treponemes are the bacterium most commonly found in lesions. Their abundance increases as the lesion progresses. They account for 94% of bacterial sequences detected in chronic lesions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "A scoring system was developed to classify the different stages of digital dermatitis, the M-stages system, where \"M\" stands for Mortellaro. The different stages are described as: M0, healthy skin; M1, early stage, skin defect < 2 cm diameter; M2, acute active ulcerative lesion; M3, healing stage, lesion covered with scab-like material; M4, chronic stage, that may be dyskeratotic (mostly thickened epithelium) or proliferative or both.  Diagnosis is principally based on history and clinical signs. It is very rare that attempts are made to isolate the bacteria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Treatment of lesions of digital dermatitis is done by topical application of agents to the affected skin. The skin should be cleaned and kept dry prior treatment. Topical oxytetracycline (OTC) is often referred as the most reliable treatment as cows treated with OTC have a good recovery rate. Bandaging the lesion is often undertaken but there is no evidence of any benefit and bandaging can provide the anaerobic environment which supports the spirochaetes. Systemic antibiotics are not needed.  Control and prevention of digital dermatitis relies on prompt detection, isolation and treatment of affected cattle. Group hoof disinfection can be achieved via the passage of the cows through footbaths of antimicrobial solutions. Slurry build-up should be avoided since organic matter can impair the antimicrobial efficacy of the footbath solutions. Regular footbaths should be organised, using formalin, copper sulphate or a thymol-based disinfectant. While regular footbathing can help prevent hoof infections, occasional flare-up of active M2 lesions can happen.  Copper sulfate footbaths are one of the most common forms of protection and treatment for digital dermatitis thanks to its antimicrobial trait and its ability to harden hooves to prevent exposure to bacteria. Copper is more effective as a prevention method rather than a treatment for digital dermatitis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Digital dermatitis is a disease that causes lameness in cattle. It was first discovered in Italy in 1974 by Cheli and Mortellaro. This disease is caused by a mixture of different bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria, including spirochetes of the genus \"Treponema\", are found in the lesions associated with the infection. Digital dermatitis is different from foot rot in cattle and both conditions may occur concurrently.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976151}
{"src_title": "Lena (river)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Course.", "content": "Originating at an elevation of at its source in the Baikal Mountains south of the Central Siberian Plateau, west of Lake Baikal, the Lena flows northeast, being joined by the Kirenga, Vitim and Olyokma. From Yakutsk it enters the Central Yakutian Lowland and flows north until joined by its right-hand tributary the Aldan and its most important left-hand tributary, the Vilyuy. After that, it bends westward, flowing alongside the Kharaulakh Range, part of the Verkhoyansk Range, and then making its way nearly due north to the Laptev Sea, a division of the Arctic Ocean, emptying south-west of the New Siberian Islands by the Lena Delta – in area, and traversed by seven principal branches, the most important being the Bykovsky channel, farthest east.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Basin.", "content": "The area of the Lena river basin is calculated at and the mean annual discharge is 489 cubic kilometers per year. Gold is washed out of the sands of the Vitim and the Olyokma, and mammoth tusks have been dug out of the delta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries.", "content": "The Kirenga flows north between the upper Lena River and Lake Baikal. The Vitim drains the area northeast of Lake Baikal. The Olyokma flows north. The Amga makes a long curve southeast and parallel to the Lena and flows into the Aldan. The Aldan also curves roughly parallel to the Lena until it turns east and flows into the Lena north of Yakutsk. The Maya, a tributary of the Aldan, drains an area almost to the Sea of Okhotsk. The T-shaped Chona-Vilyuy system drains most of the area to the west.  The main tributaries of the Lena are, from source to mouth:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "It is commonly believed that the Lena derives its name from the original Even-Evenk name \"Elyu-Ene\", which means \"the Large River\".  According to folktales related a century later, in the years 1620–1623 a party of Russian fur hunters under the leadership of Demid Pyanda sailed up Nizhnyaya Tunguska, discovered the Lena, and either carried their boats there or built new ones. In 1623 Pyanda explored some of the river from its upper reaches to the central Yakutia. In 1628 Vasily Bugor and 10 men reached the Lena, collected 'yasak' (tribute) from the 'natives' and then founded Kirinsk in 1632. In 1631 the \"voyevoda\" of Yeniseysk sent Pyotr Beketov and 20 men to construct a fortress at Yakutsk (founded in 1632). From Yakutsk other expeditions spread out to the south and east. The Lena delta was reached in 1633.  Baron Eduard Von Toll, accompanied by Alexander von Bunge, led an expedition that explored the Lena delta and the islands of New Siberia on behalf of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1885. In 1886 they investigated the New Siberian Islands and the Yana River and its tributaries. During one year and two days the expedition covered, of which were up rivers, carrying out geodesic surveys en route.  The Lena massacre was the name given to the 1912 shooting-down of striking goldminers and local citizens who protested at the working conditions in the mine near Bodaybo in northern Irkutsk. The incident was reported in the Duma (parliament) by Kerensky and is credited with stimulating revolutionary feeling in Russia.  Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov may have taken his alias, \"Lenin\", from the river Lena, when he was exiled to the Central Siberian Plateau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Delta.", "content": "At the end of the Lena River there is a large delta that extends into the Laptev Sea and is about wide. The delta is frozen tundra for about seven months of the year, but in May the region is transformed into a lush wetland for a few months. Part of the area is protected as the Lena Delta Wildlife Reserve.  The Lena delta divides into a multitude of flat islands. The most important are (from west to east): Chychas Aryta, Petrushka, Sagastyr, Samakh Ary Diyete, Turkan Bel'keydere, Sasyllakh Ary, Kolkhoztakh Bel'keydere, Grigoriy Diyelyakh Bel'kee (Grigoriy Islands), Nerpa Uolun Aryta, Misha Bel'keydere, Atakhtay Bel'kedere, Arangastakh, Urdiuk Pastakh Bel'key, Agys Past' Aryta, Dallalakh Island, Otto Ary, Ullakhan Ary and Orto Ues Aryta.  Turukannakh-Kumaga is a long and narrow island off the Lena delta's western shore.  One of the Lena delta islands, Ostrov Amerika-Kuba-Aryta or Ostrov Kuba-Aryta, was named after the island of Cuba during Soviet times. It is on the northern edge of the delta.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lena (, ;, \"Eljune\";, \"Ölüöne\";, \"Zülkhe\";, \"Zülge\") is the easternmost of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean (the other two being the Ob and the Yenisey). Permafrost underlies most of the catchment, 77% of which is continuous. It is long, and has a drainage basin of. The Lena is the eleventh-longest river in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976152}
{"src_title": "Wilhelm Voigt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Voigt was born in Tilsit, Prussia (now Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast). In 1863, aged 14, he was sentenced to 14 days in prison for theft, which led to his expulsion from school. He learned shoemaking from his father.  Between 1864 and 1891, Voigt was sentenced to prison for a total of 25 years for thefts, forgery and burglary. The longest sentence was a 15-year conviction for an unsuccessful burglary of a court cashier's office. He was released on 12 February 1906.  Voigt drifted from place to place until he went to live with his sister in Rixdorf near Berlin. He was briefly employed by a well-reputed shoemaker until the local police expelled him from Berlin as an undesirable, based solely on the fact that he was an ex-convict, on 24 August 1906. Officially he left for Hamburg, although he remained in Berlin as an unregistered resident.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Captain of Köpenick.", "content": "On 16 October 1906, Voigt was ready for his next caper. He had purchased parts of used captain's uniforms from different shops and tested their effect on soldiers. He had resigned from the shoe factory ten days previously. He took the uniform out of baggage storage, put it on and went to the local army barracks, stopped four grenadiers and a sergeant on their way back to barracks and told them to come with him. Indoctrinated to obey officers without question, they followed. He dismissed the commanding sergeant to report to his superiors and later commandeered six more soldiers from a shooting range. Then he took a train to Köpenick, east of Berlin, occupied the local city hall with his soldiers and told them to cover all exits. He told the local police to \"care for law and order\" and to \"prevent calls to Berlin for one hour\" at the local post office.  He had the treasurer von Wiltberg and mayor Georg Langerhans arrested, supposedly for suspicions of crooked bookkeeping, and confiscated 4002 marks and 37 pfennigs - with a receipt, of course (he signed it with his former jail director's name). Then he commandeered two carriages and told the grenadiers to take the arrested men to the Neue Wache in Berlin for interrogation. He told the remaining guards to stand in their places for half an hour and then left for the train station. He later changed into civilian clothes and disappeared.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Unraveling and capture.", "content": "In the following days, the German press speculated on what had really happened. At the same time the army ran its own investigation. The public seemed to be positively amused by the daring of the culprit.  Voigt was arrested on 26 October after a former cellmate who knew about Voigt's plans had tipped the police in anticipation of the high reward. On 1 December he was sentenced to four years in prison for forgery, impersonating an officer and wrongful imprisonment. However, much of public opinion was on his side. German Kaiser Wilhelm II pardoned him on 16 August 1908. There are some claims that even the Kaiser was amused by the incident, referring to him as an \"amiable scoundrel\", and being pleased with the authority and feelings of reverence that his military obviously commanded in the general population.  The British press were also amused, seeing it as confirmation of their stereotypes about Germans. In its 27 October 1906 issue, the editors of \"The Illustrated London News\" were to note gleefully:  For years the Kaiser has been instilling into his people reverence for the omnipotence of militarism, of which the holiest symbol is the German uniform. Offences against this fetish have incurred condign punishment. Officers who have not considered themselves saluted in due form have drawn their swords with impunity on offending privates.  In that same issue, writer G. K. Chesterton would point out:  The most absurd part of this absurd fraud (at least, to English eyes) is one which, oddly enough, has received comparatively little comment. I mean the point at which the Mayor asked for a warrant, and the Captain pointed to the bayonets of his soldiery and said, 'These are my authority'. One would have thought anyone would have known that no soldier would talk like that.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Voigt decided to capitalize on his fame. His wax figure appeared in the wax museum in Unter den Linden four days after his release. He appeared in the museum to sign his pictures but public officials banned the appearances on the same day. He appeared in small theatres in a play that depicted his exploit and signed more photographs as the Captain of Köpenick. In spite of the ban he toured in Dresden, Vienna and Budapest in variety shows, restaurants and amusement parks. In 1909, he published a book in Leipzig, \"How I became the Captain of Köpenick\", which sold well. Although his United States tour almost failed because the immigration authorities refused to grant him a visa, he arrived in 1910 via Canada. He also ended up in Madame Tussauds museum in London.  In 1910, he moved to Luxembourg and worked as a waiter and shoemaker. He received a life pension from a rich Berlin dowager. Two years later, he bought a house and retired, but post–World War I recession led to his financial ruin. Voigt died in Luxembourg in 1922. His grave is on the Cimetière Notre-Dame in Luxembourg ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plays and movies.", "content": "In 1931, German author Carl Zuckmayer wrote a play about the affair called \"The Captain of Köpenick\", which shifts the focus from the event at Köpenick itself to the prelude, showing how his surroundings and his situation in life had helped Voigt form his plan. An English language adaptation was written by John Mortimer, and first performed by the National Theatre company at the Old Vic on 9 March 1971 with Paul Scofield in the title role.  Various movies were produced about Wilhelm Voigt (most of them based on Zuckmayer's play), among them \"Der Hauptmann von Köpenick\" (1931); \"The Captain from Köpenick\" (1945), starring Albert Bassermann; \"Der Hauptmann von Köpenick\" (1956), with Heinz Rühmann; a 1956 U.S. TV adaptation starring Emmett Kelly, the circus clown; the 1960 TV movie \"Der Hauptmann von Köpenick\", featuring Rudolf Platte; and the 1997 TV movie \"Der Hauptmann von Köpenick\", starring Harald Juhnke.  The basic line of stageplays and movies was the pitiful catch-22 situation of Voigt trying to earn his living honourably in Berlin: \"No residence address - no job. No job - no residence (rented room). No residence - no passport. No passport - getting ousted.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Wilhelm Voigt (13 February 1849 – 3 January 1922) was a German impostor who, in 1906, masqueraded as a Prussian military officer, rounded up a number of soldiers under his \"command\", and \"confiscated\" more than 4,000 marks from a municipal treasury. Although he served two years in prison, he became a folk hero as \"The Captain of Köpenick\" (\"Der \") and was pardoned by Kaiser Wilhelm II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976153}
{"src_title": "Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "It's been two years since Jesse (Jason James Richter) saved and freed his orca friend, Willy. Jesse, now 14 years old, has since been adopted by his foster parents, Glen and Annie Greenwood (Michael Madsen and Jayne Atkinson). Jesse and his adoptive parents are preparing to go on a family camping trip to the Pacific Northwest. Glen has been trying to teach Jesse to drive their motorboat, but Jesse is more interested in girls. However, before they leave town, Dwight (Mykelti Williamson), Jesse's former social worker, shows up to inform them that they have found Jesse's biological mother, who abandoned him 8 years ago in New York City. Jesse's mother has died and left behind another son, Jesse's younger half-brother named Elvis (Francis Capra). Jesse is devastated about this news, but comes to terms, after talking his feelings out with Glen. When Elvis arrives, he is morose, overly talkative and mischievous, and he is also prone to telling lies and easily gets on Jesse's nerves. He is invited on their trip to San Juan Island so that he and Jesse might get to know each other.  At the environmental institute, Jesse reunites with his old Native American friend, Randolph Johnson (August Schellenberg) whom Jesse met at the aquatic park when he met Willy years back. Jesse quickly becomes smitten with Randolph's attractive and kindly goddaughter, Nadine (Mary Kate Schellhardt). Jesse also tracks down and reunites with Willy one night. Jesse cautiously begins to show his interest in Nadine, and as the awkward teenagers grow closer, Jesse helps Nadine befriend Willy and his orca siblings, Luna and Littlespot. Elvis spies on the two, forming his own bond with the young playful Littlespot, and lies to Glen and Annie telling them that Jesse kissed Nadine. Glen talked to Jesse who says that he didn't kiss Nadine, and Glen locks Elvis in his tent.  As they continue to enjoy their camping trip, an oil tanker runs aground on a reef and spills oil into the ocean due to an engine malfunction, trapping the three young killer whales in a small cove. When word gets out that the orcas are trapped and Luna is dying from the oil in her lungs having swam through the oil when the tanker ran aground, John Milner (Jon Tenney), the CEO of the oil company arrives and announces a plan to move the orcas into captivity where they can recover from their injuries. His real plan, however, is to sell the orcas to marine mammal parks. Elvis, who runs away believing that Jesse is more important and after Annie breaks her promise to allow him to help the whales, overhears the real plan and rushes back to warn everybody.  With Luna's condition worsening, Randolph and Jesse eventually use an old Indian remedy that they administer to Luna, who recovers. Shortly afterwards, with the oil spill reaching dangerous proximity to the cove, the oil company and rescue workers boom it off despite Jesse, Randolph and Nadine's objections and begin extracting the whales. As the extraction of Littlespot commences, Elvis returns in time to warn Jesse and the brothers expose Milner's plot. With the help of a distraction by Jesse and Elvis, Willy manages to rescue his little brother, Milner and his men are arrested for trying to sell the whales to an aquarium.  With time running out before the oil reaches the cove, Jesse, Elvis and Nadine steal Glen's boat to lead the whales to safety. On Jesse's signal, Willy is able to break the boom and leads his siblings out of the cove. However, an explosion on the tanker, due to fuel vapours igniting after trying to start the tanker's generator, results in the crude oil in the water catching fire. Despite the danger, the three whales are able to swim under the flaming oil to safety. Having followed the whales to ensure they got safely past the oil, Jesse, Nadine and Elvis fall into danger when they take their boat into another cove to avoid the flaming oil, hitting a rock and beginning to sink while the flames seal off the cove.  At the same time, Glen, Annie and Randolph search for the three in Randolph's boat with Randolph sending a distress signal that summons the Coastal Marine Patrol to the trio's aid. A search and rescue helicopter is able to extract Elvis and Nadine safely, but Jesse slips out of the harness and falls back into the ocean. With smoke choking the helicopter's engine, it is forced to leave Jesse behind. Jesse nearly drowns but is rescued by Willy who returns for his friend. Willy is able to carry Jesse safely under the fire to Randolph's nearby boat. Jesse says goodbye to him before Willy's departs back to his family.  Shortly after, the Coastal Marine Patrol brings Nadine and Elvis to Randolph's boat. Elvis gives Jesse an old picture of him and their mother, and explains that he once ripped it up out of anger, but taped it back together for him. Elvis tells Jesse that their mother always talked about him and that she felt bad about abandoning him. Jesse thanks him for the picture and hugs him, finally able to put his past at rest. Glen and Annie decide to adopt Elvis so the brothers can stay together.  Sometime later with the oil spill cleaned up, Willy now reunited with his family and the other orcas are shown swimming happily in the ocean near the coast of the Pacific Northwest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Free Willy 2\" was unsuccessful at the box office, grossing only $30 million on a $31 million budget. It currently holds a score of 33% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 15 reviews. However, many were impressed with the film's subtle approach to pollution and other environmental issues, while focusing on family values.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home is a 1995 American family film, directed by Dwight H. Little, and distributed by Warner Bros. under their Warner Bros. Family Entertainment label. It is a sequel to the 1993 film \"Free Willy\", also starring Jason James Richter and August Schellenberg. \"\", was subsequently released in 1997, making a trilogy. A fourth nonconsecutive film, \"\" was released on DVD in Spring 2010. Keiko the Orca does not actually appear in this film unlike the original film. Willy is played by a robotic double while the Free Willy Keiko Foundation devised a plan to bring him to the Oregon Coast Aquarium where he would be rehabilitated for poor health.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976154}
{"src_title": "Valaam Monastery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "It is not clear when the monastery was founded. As the cloister is not mentioned in documents before the 16th century, with dates from 10th to 15th centuries having been expounded. According to one tradition, the monastery was founded by a 10th-century Greek monk, Sergius of Valaam, and his Karelian companion, Herman of Valaam. Heikki Kirkinen inclines to date the foundation of the monastery to the 12th century. Contemporary historians consider even this date too early. According to the scholarly consensus, the monastery was founded at some point towards the end of the 14th century. John H. Lind and Michael C. Paul date the founding to between 1389 and 1393 based on various sources, including the \"Tale of the Valaamo Monastery,\" a sixteenth-century manuscript, which has the monastery founded during the archiepiscopate of Ioann II of Novgorod.  The Valaam monastery was a northern outpost of the Eastern Orthodox Church against pagans and, later, a western outpost against the Catholic Church from Tavastia, Savonia and Karelia Province. The power struggle between Russians and Swedes pushed the border eastwards in the 16th century; in 1578 the monastery was attacked and numerous monks and novices were killed by the Lutheran Swedes. The monastery was desolate between 1611 and 1715 after another attack of the Swedes, the buildings being burnt to the ground and the Karelian border between Russia and Sweden being drawn through Lake Ladoga. In the 18th century the monastery was magnificently restored, and in 1812 it came under the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland.  In 1917, Finland became independent, and the Finnish Orthodox Church became autonomous under the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople; previously, it had been a part of the Russian Orthodox Church. Valaam was the most important monastery of the Finnish Orthodox Church. The liturgic language was changed from Church Slavonic to Finnish and the liturgic calendar from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar. These changes led to bitter decade-long disputes in the monastic community of Valaam. The territory was fought over by the Soviet Union and Finland during World War II. Due to the Winter War, the monastery was evacuated in 1940, when 150 monks settled in Heinävesi in Finland. This community still exists as New Valamo Monastery in Heinävesi. Having received evacuees from the Konevsky Monastery and Pechenga Monastery, it is now the only monastery of the Finnish Orthodox Church. From 1941-44, during the Continuation War, an attempt was made to restore the monastery buildings at Old Valaam, but later the island served as a Soviet military base.  Since the original Valaam Monastery was bequeathed back to the Orthodox Church in 1989, it has been enjoying the personal patronage of Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow, who frequented the cloister when a child. The monastery, whose buildings have been meticulously restored, has gained significant legal power over the island, in a push to return to a state of spiritual seclusion. After years of fruitless legal proceedings with the monastery, many residents of the island chose to leave, though a few still remain. The present Father Superior of the community is Bishop Pankraty (Zherdev) of Troitsk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Valaam chant.", "content": "The monastery of Valaam has a unique tradition of singing, called the Valaam chant, that combines some features of Byzantine and Znamenny chants.  As in Byzantine chant, the singing is always 2-parts, comprising a melody and an ison, but, as in Znamenny chant, the scale structure is always diatonic, the ornamentation is simplified in comparison with Byzantine chant, and the melodies are more similar to that of ancient Znamenny Chant, at the edge of being considered a local variety of this tradition. This relative simplicity became one of the reasons for the experimental introduction of Valaam chanting in various parishes across Russia by the end of 20th century.  The monastery has a professional five-strong male-voice choir which tours the world to raise money for the ongoing restoration of the buildings. Some of its music can be heard at the monastery's website.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2016 fire.", "content": "On the morning of 1 May 2016, Orthodox Easter Sunday, a blaze covering 800 square metres erupted on the monastery's property, inside the “Winter Hotel\", constructed in the 1850s, a national heritage site. Belonging to the Valaam monastery, the building is right next to the monastery's main cathedral. Emergency services reported no casualties from the incident.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Valaam Monastery, or \"Valamo Monastery\" is a stauropegic Orthodox monastery in Russian Karelia, located on Valaam, the largest island in Lake Ladoga, the largest lake in Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976155}
{"src_title": "Bartholomew Ulufa'alu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "He completed his schooling at Aruligo Secondary School and received a Bachelor of Economics from The University of Papua New Guinea (UPNG), during which time he was also President of the UPNG Students' Union.  He founded the Solomon Islands General Workers' Union and also founded and led the union-affiliated National Democratic Party (NADEPA) in 1975. NADEPA was successful in the 1976 national elections, gaining 8 seats (including Ulufa'alu in the seat of East Honiara) in the 38 member Legislative Assembly. Ulufa'alu was appointed as the first ever Leader of the Official Opposition.  NADEPA fared poorly after the 1980 elections, winning only two seats and they subsequently joined the opposition. However, after the 'Independent Group' led by Francis Billy Hilly withdrew their support for the Kenilorea government in 1981, Solomon Mamaloni became Prime Minister and Ulufa'alu became Minister for Finance.  Ulufa'alu is generally regarded as having performed well as Finance Minister and perhaps because this distracted him from attending to his constituency, he was defeated in 1984. Out of office, he went into business and headed up both the Solomon Islands Chamber of Commerce and the Farmers' Association. In 1988, he split with fellow unionist Joses Tuhanuku and formed the Solomon Islands Liberal Party (in the meantime, Tuhanuku and the Solomon Islands Trade Union Congress established the Solomon Islands Labour Party). He was re-elected in 1989 and joined the opposition group but in 1990 he resigned from parliament after accepting an offer from Prime Minister Mamaloni of a well-paid two-year consultancy with the Prime Minister's Office.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime Minister (1997–2000).", "content": "Ulufa'alu won office for the third time when he was elected as the member for Aoke/Langalanga constituency in 1997 (a seat he held through two further elections in 2001 and 2006 until he died). He was able to muster a slender majority to defeat veteran politician Solomon Mamaloni for the position of Prime Minister in 1997. However, Ulufa'alu was faced with difficult economic problems: debts were high, government spending was out of control and logging was occurring at an unsustainable rate. He set about implementing much-needed reforms to improve government financial management and cut down on corruption; however, he was constantly harassed by motions of no confidence (in November 1997, April 1998 and September 1998), the last of which he only won in a tied vote.  The second half of the Ulufa'alu government was overwhelmed by the internal conflict commonly known as the 'Ethnic Tensions'. By late 1998, militants on the island of Guadalcanal commenced a campaign of intimidation and violence towards Malaitan settlers. During the next year, thousands of Malaitans fled back to Malaita or to the capital Honiara (which, although situated on Guadalcanal, is predominantly populated by Malaitans and Solomon Islanders from other provinces). In 1999, the Malaita Eagle Force (MEF) was established in response.  The Ulufa'alu government struggled to respond to the complexities of this evolving conflict. In late 1999, the government declared a four-month state of emergency. There were also a number of attempts at reconciliation ceremonies but to no avail. He also requested assistance from Australia and New Zealand in 1999 but this was rejected.  In June 2000, as Prime Minister, he was kidnapped by militia members of the MEF who felt that although he was a Malaitan, he was not doing enough to protect their interests. Ulufa'alu subsequently resigned in exchange for his release. Manasseh Sogavare, who had earlier been Finance Minister in Ulufa'alu's government but had subsequently joined the opposition, was elected as Prime Minister by 23–21 over Rev. Leslie Boseto. However, Sogavare's election was immediately shrouded in controversy because six MPs (thought to be supporters of Boseto) were unable to attend parliament for the crucial vote.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later career and death.", "content": "After the 2006 election, Ulufa'alu's Liberal Party joined with independents and four other parties (the Social Credit (SoCred) Party, the Party for Rural Advancement, the Nasnol Pati and the Democratic Party) to form the 'Grand Coalition for Change' (GCC). Their aim was to unseat the ruling coalition of the People's Alliance Party (headed by outgoing Prime Minister Sir Allan Kemakeza) and the Association of Independent Members (headed by outgoing Deputy Prime Minister Snyder Rini). However, the head of SoCred, Sogavare, broke away from the GCC after they failed to nominate him as their candidate for prime minister. He threw his support behind Rini and was rewarded with the post of Minister for Commerce.  However, on 18 April 2006, the announcement that Rini had been elected Prime Minister led to the 'April Riots', which resulted in three days of looting and property damage in Chinatown and, to a lesser extent, the Honiara CBD and its industrial area, Rinadi. In the aftermath, Sogavare switched sides and rejoined the GCC in return for which, he was nominated as their prime ministerial candidate and was duly elected on 5 May 2006.  Ulufa'alu suffered from diabetes and as a result, he had a leg amputated in 2004 and had developed partial blindness. Despite his illness, Ulufa'alu was appointed as finance minister in the GCC Government but was sacked only five months later, ostensibly on grounds of ill health. However, it was reported that the real reason was that he failed to vote in favour of Sogavare during a motion of no confidence – he was absent from parliament at the time of the vote.  In June 2006 he was reported to be critically ill and had not been in his office for several weeks. He seemed to make a good recovery and was back in his role as finance minister before his dismissal. His illness returned, however, and he died on 25 May 2007.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bartholomew (Bart) Ulufa'alu (25 December 1950 – 25 May 2007) was the fifth Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands from 27 August 1997 to 30 June 2000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976156}
{"src_title": "Once Upon a Time... Space", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "\"Once Upon a Time... Space\" differs from the rest of the Once Upon a Time... titles in the sense that the series revolve on a dramatic content rather than an educational premise. The series still has a handful of educational information (such as an episode discussing the rings of the planet Saturn).  The series succeeds \"Once Upon a Time... Man\". It reprises almost all of the characters from the previous series and adapts them into a science-fiction context.  The story is about the confrontation between several galactic powers. Among them there is the Omega Confederation (of which Earth is a member), the military republic of Cassiopeia (led by \"General The Pest\") and a powerful supercomputer which controls an army of robots. A group of super powerful creatures called the Humanoids later appear in the series.  The series follows the adventures of space police members Pierrot and Mercedes (aka Psi). Pierrot is the son of Colonel Pierre and President Pierrette. The series has a more egalitarian message than its predecessor as the supreme leader of the good guys is a female President and Psi is a co-protagonist. The original series instead focused on male protagonists.  The scenarios of several episodes adapt elements of Greek mythology, other mythologies, and European legends. Among them are the Apple of Discord, Atlantis, David and Goliath, the Olympian Gods, and Prometheus. Other episodes deal with the existence of God, the relationship of man with modernity and machines, the limits of technology, comparisons between armed peace under the rule of a dictator and the difficulty of maintaining order in a democracy, higher spiritual beings encountered at the beginning and the end of the series etc. Some planets visited by the characters are replicas of the Earth at a specific era in its history, thus allowing some didactic interludes over the nature of these eras.  The series contains little to no violence, the heroes mostly use non-lethal stun weapons in combat. The exception is the use of disintegrating laser beams against wild animals.  The Earth does not play a central role in this series. The capital of the Confederation is on the planet Omega, far from Earth. The Confederation is composed of multiple allied powers: Aldebaran, Auriga, Cassiopeia, Hydra, Scorpio, and Vega. The Confederation has a democratically elected government and a President.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spacecraft.", "content": "The French illustrator Philippe Bouchet (better known as Manchu) worked on some of the spacecraft and set designs.  Omega Confederation:  Cassiopeia:  Earth:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characters.", "content": "The series features the following characters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcast information.", "content": "<br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The series was animated in Japan by the animation studio Eiken, and is thus considered to be anime as it also aired on Japanese TV, albeit not until 1984, under the title Ginga Patrol PJ (, \"Galaxy Patrol PJ\"). In contrast to the show's success in the West, the series' Japanese broadcast was consigned to an early-morning time slot and attracted little attention.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976157}
{"src_title": "FS Class E.626", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The E.626 class is the result of a requirement issued in 1926 by the Ferrovie dello Stato (FS, Italian Railways) for a new locomotive to be used under the new 3,000 V DC line being built between Foggia and Benevento. The design was carried out by the team of Giuseppe Bianchi, the \"founder\" of modern Italian railways, at the FS Traction and Material Service in Florence. The requirement specified the locomotive should have six traction axles, to improve adhesion on steep lines. The E.626 series totalled 448 units in three series, each with only slight electro-mechanical differences. It was old-fashioned, but reliable, and it became the mainstay of the new FS lines at 3,000 V DC, which gradually spread to the whole peninsula.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trials.", "content": "The firsts tests occurred on the Foggia-Benevento line in the September 1927, using three prototypes built by Savigliano, with the electrical equipment provided by Metropolitan-Vickers of Manchester. The first 14 prototypes (eight E.625 with lower gear ratio, for freight services, and six E.626) proved powerful and reliable, and entered service the following year. The only teething problem encountered was with the six 32R motors mounted on the axles, hanging laterally over transverse beams, a system devised to avoid the complicated side rods of the contemporary steam and three-phase locomotives. After a series of breakdowns, it was decided to limit the speed to. Traction control was provided by three different motor combinations (series, series-parallel, parallel) through banks of resistor-based rheostats. The transmission was rather noisy, but at the time, the crew's comfort was not a high priority. The carbody was in a single steel piece, mounted on an articulated chassis. The large bonnets at the ends limited the visibility of the rails, and they were reduced in size from the third series.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mass production.", "content": "In 1930 the mass production was started, with a first series of 85 units. In the meantime the E.625 were re-converted to E.626. In 1934-1938 a record number of 308 units was built, while in 1939 the last series, with low gear ratio, was shipped (they were later standardized). The new E636 of the 1940s initially shared the motors and some of the electro-mechanical devices with the E.626.  After the destruction of World War II, in 1946 an updating and repair programme was launched. Some other units remained in the countries previously occupied by Italy. Seventeen locomotives were ceded to the Yugoslavian Railways (Class E361) and, in 1958, four were given to Czechoslovakia (Class E 666.0). Now inadequate for the passenger role, the E.626s were transferred to freight service, apart from working commuter trains in some areas of Italy.  In the 1970s, the E.626s fell out of favour, partly because of complaints from trade unions about poor working conditions for the crew. Fourteen units were sold to private railways and the remaining units were gradually replaced by more modern classes, and scrapped. The last unit to be decommissioned was E.626.194, which was used for rescue trains, in 1999.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preservation.", "content": "Seven units survive today in museums, while 11 refurbished locomotives are used for historical trains.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The FS E.625 and E.626 are two classes of Italian electric locomotives produced for the Ferrovie dello Stato. They were introduced in the course of the 1920s and remained in service until the 1990s. The E.626 was the first locomotive fed by 3,000 V DC overhead line in Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976158}
{"src_title": "Carice van Houten", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Van Houten was born on 5 September 1976 in Leiderdorp, Netherlands. Her mother, Margje Stasse, is on the board of Dutch educational TV, and her father, Theodore van Houten (1952–2016), was a writer and broadcaster. She was brought up watching silent films and in an interview she professed to prefer playing scenes without dialogue. She has a younger sister, Jelka van Houten, who is also an actress. Her paternal grandmother was Scottish. Van Houten went to the St. Bonifatiuscollege (high school) in Utrecht, where she played the leading role in Hugo Claus' \"Tijl Uilenspieghel\", directed by Ad Migchielsen. Van Houten studied briefly at the Maastricht Academy of Dramatic Arts but continued her professional education after one year at the \"Kleinkunstacademie\" in Amsterdam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "Van Houten played her first leading role in Martin Koolhoven's TV film \"Suzy Q\". She won a Golden Calf for her part as Suzy. She also won the Pisuisse Award and the Top Naeff Award for her stage acting and another Golden Calf for her part as the kitten that becomes a woman in \"Undercover Kitty\" (2001). The first time she could be seen in cinemas in the U.S. was when Martin Koolhoven's \"AmnesiA\" (2001) got a small theatrical release. Van Houten won a Golden Calf for her performance as Rachel Stein in \"Black Book\" (2006) at the Netherlands Film Festival. \"Black Book\"s director Paul Verhoeven said about her in a television interview: \"Never in my life I have worked with an actress this talented\", and when asked to compare her with Sharon Stone he said \"Carice can really act.\" The international press was also enthusiastic about her role in \"Black Book\".  In December 2006, Van Houten withdrew from a theatre production of Alex van Warmerdam due to personal reasons. According to a theatre spokesman it was because of a work overload.  In 2008, she starred in the non-commercial short movie \"Zingen in het donker\" (English: \"Singing in the dark\"), a drama on domestic violence. She appeared in the magazine \"Vanity Fair\" in the issue for March 2008, photographed by Wayne Maser. In 2008, Van Houten had a role opposite Leonardo DiCaprio in \"Body of Lies\" but her scenes did not make the final cut of the movie.  In April 2009, it was announced that Van Houten would star in \"Black Death\" by British director Christopher Smith and in the Dutch film \"Komt een vrouw bij de dokter\" (English title: \"Stricken\"), based on the novel of the same name by Ray Kluun. She also starred in the science fiction thriller \"Repo Men\". In July 2011, Van Houten was cast as the priestess Melisandre in the second season of HBO's fantasy TV series \"Game of Thrones\". Her performance has garnered her praise and recognition, earning her a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her final performance as the character in the season 8 episode \"The Long Night\" in 2019. After nominations were announced for the ceremony, Van Houten received considerable media attention for having been one of the three nominated actors from the show to have self-submitted and paid entry fees to be on the ballot for Emmy consideration after HBO had not done so for them. She has also received three Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2014, 2016, and 2017 for the role.  In 2012, Van Houten appeared in Antony and the Johnsons' \"Cut the world\" video, which was directed by Nabil Elderkin and also starred Willem Dafoe and Marina Abramović.  In 2019, Van Houten starred as a prison therapist that becomes infatuated with one of her patients, a serial rapist, in Halina Reijn’s directorial debut \"Instinct\". The film premiered at the Locarno Film Festival, receiving the Variety Piazza Grande Award and was selected as the Dutch submission for Best International Feature Film at the 92nd Academy Awards. \"Variety\"’s Guy Lodge described Van Houten as being \"on electrifying form\" and Reijn’s direction \"provides a fearsome reminder\" of the former’s breakthrough performance in \"Black Book\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Van Houten is in a relationship with Australian actor Guy Pearce. On 29 August 2016, she gave birth to their son, Monte Pearce.  She previously dated German actor Sebastian Koch, whom she met on the set of \"Black Book\".  Van Houten has stated that Hollywood makes her unhappy: \"I have seen Hollywood, and although I have nothing against it, it's not my kind of life. My agent is shocked that I want to stay in Europe,\" adding, \"If Hollywood offers me a great part, of course I'll take it, but I just don't want to live there\".  Van Houten is friends with fellow Dutch actress Halina Reijn, whom she has known since 1994. They worked together in the movies \"Black Book\" and \"Valkyrie\". In 2013, the two published a book together called \"Anti Glamour\", a parody style guide and a celebration of their friendship, as well as a candid look into the unglamourous back-stage side of their lives.  She is a lifelong fan of Laurel and Hardy and in June 2016 she called in to \"The Ross Owen Show\" on Black Sky Radio to talk about her love of the comedy duo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carice Anouk van Houten (; born 5 September 1976) is a Dutch actress and singer. Her first leading role in the television film \"Suzy Q\" (1999) won her the Golden Calf for Best Acting in a Television Drama; two years later, she won the Golden Calf for Best Actress for \"Undercover Kitty\" (2001).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976159}
{"src_title": "Tresco, Isles of Scilly", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In early times one group of islands was in the possession of a confederacy of hermits. King Henry I gave it to Tavistock Abbey which established a priory on Tresco; it was abolished during the Dissolution of the Monasteries. The priory was given the care of souls in the secular islands by the lord of the fief. In 1233, a prior here, known as Alan of Cornwall, was made abbot of Tavistock.  The original name for the island (including Bryher) was the meaning \"promontory of sand-dunes\". In 1193 when the island was granted to the abbot of Tavistock by Pope Celestine III the island was known as \"St. Nicholas's island\" and by 1305 it is called \"Trescau\" (farm of elder-trees). By 1540 this has changed to \"Iniscaw\" (island of elder-trees). The island was named as \"Trescaw\" in an 1814 publication.  The island is administered for the Crown by the Duchy of Cornwall and is leased to the Dorrien-Smith estate, which runs it as a timeshare business. The Dorrien-Smith family (descended from Augustus Smith) held the position of Lord Proprietors of the Scilly Islands between 1834 and 1920.  From 2001 until 2009, the island hosted a marathon run organised in aid of Cystic Fibrosis. The course consists of 71⁄2 laps around the island. The event is always held on the same day as the London Marathon. Past winners include Dara O'Kearney and Bob Brown. The Marathon has now been replaced with a Sprint Triathlon.  In 2007 a rebuild of the Abbey Farm/Shed area was completed; this area served as RNAS Tresco, a seaplane base during the First World War. The development included rental cottages, a swimming pool and spa and the Flying Boat Bar & Bistro.  In 2012 the Island Hotel was closed. Parts of the complex were converted into luxury holiday cottages; other parts of the hotel were demolished with new cottages built in its place. The Sea Garden Cottages now offer flexible accommodation with an on-site spa and tennis court.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "A variety of scenery is found on the island, including rugged granite outcrops, heathland of the exposed north coast and mainly shell beaches in the east and south. The variety of its scenery and geomorphology is partly a result of the last ice age, when the Devensian ice sheet clipped the north side of the island, leaving deformation till deposits.  The main settlements are New Grimsby and Old Grimsby in the central part of the island. Combined, their facilities include a convenience store (with a post office sub-branch), an art gallery, a pub, and two café/restaurants, all of which are owned and run by the Tresco Estate. At the south of the island are the sub-tropical Tresco Abbey Gardens, including the Valhalla Figurehead Collection, and Tresco Heliport. To the north of New Grimsby are King Charles's Castle and Cromwell's Castle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Civil parish and ward.", "content": "Tresco is one of the five civil parishes of the Isles of Scilly, which are also wards. The civil parish and ward covers much more than the island of Tresco: it includes uninhabited islands such as Samson (inhabited until 1855), Teän, St Helen's, Northwethel and Round Island. Tresco elects one councillor to the Council of the Isles of Scilly, the same as the other \"off-island\" wards. The civil parish is not functional, however, and there is no council or meeting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demography.", "content": "\"These figures include permanent residents only. A large number of seasonal staff also reside on the island during the summer.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Unlike the other Scilly islands, Tresco is primarily run as a holiday resort, and virtually all activity and employment is tourist-related. On the other islands tourism is important, but does not dominate to the same extent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Five Islands Academy (previously Five Islands School) has its Tresco and Bryher Base, a primary campus in Tresco. Secondary pupils board at the St Mary's main campus, staying there on weekdays and coming back and forth to their home islands on weekends.  Students at the sixth-form college level reside and board elsewhere, in mainland Great Britain. Previously the Learning and Skills Council paid for costs of accommodation for sixth-formers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Tresco is a car-free island. Farm tractors with passenger trailers are used to transport overnight visitors to and from Tresco Heliport and from the various quays, and a few golf carts are available for disabled visitors.  From 1983 to October 2012 British International Helicopters operated from Tresco Heliport, providing a year-round helicopter service to Penzance Heliport. A new helicopter service from a new Penzance Heliport will operate to Tresco and St Mary's from 2019 or 2020.  Tresco Boat Services (formerly Bryher Boats) run passenger boat services to and from the other inhabited islands, as well as occasional circular sightseeing tours.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wildlife and ecology.", "content": "Tresco is unique amongst the off islands in that its habitat ranges from a windswept northern plateau with waved heath to sheltered bulb fields, wetland and lakes, to beautiful beaches backed by a sand dune system on the south coast. Subsequently, the forerunner of Natural England designated three Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) in 1971 and 1976. They are the Castle Down (Tresco) SSSI, Great Pool (Tresco) SSSI and Pentle Bay, Merrick and Round Islands SSSI. Castle Down is a SSSI for its waved maritime heath, its lichen flora, a breeding colony of Common Tern (\"Sterna hirundo\") and for its geology. Great Pool is an SSSI because it is the largest area of fresh water in the islands and important for its breeding birds, and as a sheltering and feeding area for migrants. Pentle Bay is designated for the transition from a flora-rich sand dune system to lichen-rich heath.  In October 2012, four male and one female Red Squirrel (\"Sciurus vulgaris\"), on permanent loan from the British Wildlife Centre, were transported to Tresco by helicopter. Only two survived, but in September 2013 a further twenty were transported to Tresco and released in Abbey Woods, near the Abbey Gardens. Tresco is considered to be a ′′safe haven′′ for the endangered mammal as it is free from predators such as foxes, and from grey squirrels and the squirrel pox they carry. In June 2014, an unknown number of baby squirrels have been pictured in the Abbey Gardens, proving the squirrels are successfully breeding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vagrant birds.", "content": "Among the many vagrant birds which have been found here, the following were firsts for Britain: The island also briefly hosted the second British record of Great Blue Heron (\"Ardea herodias\") in April and May 2015, which also visited both Bryher and St Mary's during its 23-day stay.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "Because of its geography and history, Tresco has often featured in fiction, most notably in the books of author Sam Llewellyn, a direct descendant of Augustus Smith who, after his appointment as Lord Proprietor of the Scillies in 1834 and living on the island, began to create the Abbey Gardens on land which surrounded the old Priory.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tresco (, meaning \"island of elder-trees\") is the second-biggest island of the Isles of Scilly in Cornwall, England. It is in size, measuring about by.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976160}
{"src_title": "Shakhriyar Mamedyarov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Shakhriyar's parents are from the Zangilan District of Azerbaijan, which is now occupied by Armenia. In 1980, his family moved to the then-flourishing industrial city of Sumqayit, Azerbaijan, where Shakhriyar was born. His first chess trainer was his father, who is also a former boxer and taught boxing to Shakhriyar for some time. Mamedyarov has two sisters, Zeinab Mamedyarova and Turkan Mamedyarova, who are Woman Grandmasters. Mamedyarov got married in 2012, but got divorced for unknown reasons. He remarried in July 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional chess career.", "content": "In 2003 he won the World Junior Chess Championship. He repeated his victory in 2005, becoming the only two-time champion, achieving a 2953 performance rating after eight rounds, earning an invitation to the Essent Tournament 2006 in Hoogeveen, and after winning this and the 2007 edition, Mamedyarov achieved world fame.  In 2005 Mamedyarov competed at the European Club Cup and had the second-highest performance rating (2913), after Vassily Ivanchuk, of all of the participants.  Mamedyarov attained joint first place at the Aeroflot Open in Moscow in February 2006, with a score of 61⁄2/9. In May he won the combined FiNet/Ordix rapid event. In October 2006, he won the closed Essent Chess Tournament in Hoogeveen with 41⁄2/6, beating Judit Polgár on Sonneborn-Berger tie-breaks.  At the Chess World Cup 2007 Mamedyarov reached the third round where he was knocked out by Ivan Cheparinov.  In 2008 he won the Corsican Circuit rapid knockout.  In 2009 he won the Mainz Ordix Open with 10/11.  In 2010, he tied for first place with Vladimir Kramnik and Gata Kamsky at the President's Cup in Baku, followed by joint first in the Tal Memorial.  In June 2013, Mamedyarov won the World Rapid Chess Championship, scoring 111⁄2/15. The next month he won the Geneva Masters rapid event.  In November 2014, he won the Tal Memorial for the second time.  In June 2016, Mamedyarov won the 3rd Shamkir Chess Tournament, the Vugar Gashimov Memorial. He defeated both top seeds Fabiano Caruana and Anish Giri in the last two rounds, which put him in a tiebreak situation with Caruana. He defeated Caruana in the tiebreak, thus giving him tournament victory.  In April 2017, Mamedyarov won the Vugar Gashimov Memorial for the second year in a row with a score of 51⁄2/9.  In April 2018, he participated in the fifth edition of the Gashimov Memorial, finishing fourth with a score of 41⁄2/9 (+1–1=7).  From 28 May to 7 June 2018, he competed in the sixth edition of Norway Chess, placing seventh with 31⁄2/8 (+0–1=7).  From 22nd July 2018 to 1st August, he competed in the 51st Biel Chess Festival, winning the event by one-and-a-half points ahead of Magnus Carlsen.  In 14 June 2020 Mammadyarov won Sharjah online Chess tournament with 7.5 points from 10 rounds which is his first online tournament win.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Championship cycles.", "content": "In 2011, Mamedyarov was the tournament organisers' nominee, qualifying him for the Candidates tournament for the World Chess Championship 2012, where he lost to Boris Gelfand in the first round.  In the 2014 cycle, he qualified for the Candidates tournament by coming second in the FIDE Grand Prix 2012–13. He finished fourth in the Candidates, with a score of 7/14.  He failed to qualify for the 2016 Candidates. He came sixth in the FIDE Grand Prix 2014–15, and was knocked out in the quarter finals of the Chess World Cup 2015 by eventual winner Sergey Karjakin.  In the 2018 cycle, he qualified for the Candidates Tournament 2018 by winning the FIDE Grand Prix 2017. He finished as a runner-up in Candidates one point behind Caruana, with a score of 8/14.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Team competitions.", "content": "He played for Azerbaijan at the Chess Olympiads of 2000, 2002, 2004, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016 and 2018. In 2009,2013 and 2017 he won the team gold medal for Azerbaijan at the European Team Chess Championship, having won the bronze medal in 2007 and silver in 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Shakhriyar Mamedyarov (; born 12 April 1985) is an Azerbaijani chess grandmaster. As of November 2019, he is ranked as No. 1 in Azerbaijan and No. 5 in the world. His personal best rating of 2820 makes him the sixth-highest-rated player of all time in chess history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976161}
{"src_title": "Simon Poulsen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Poulsen started his senior career in 2002 for HFK Sønderjylland in the Danish 1st Division, the second tier of professional football in Denmark. He played four seasons at HFK Sønderjylland. The club changed its name to SønderjyskE in 2003, and Poulsen helped it win promotion to the Danish Superliga in 2005.  In June 2005, he agreed to move to league rivals FC Midtjylland (FCM) in the summer 2006, at the end of the 2005–06 Superliga season. SønderjyskE complained about the tapping-up of Poulsen to the Danish Football Association, but agreed to let Poulsen go in August 2005. Having played five Superliga games for SønderjyskE, Poulsen went to FCM, with Thomas Rathe switching from FCM to SønderjyskE as a replacement. He established himself in the FCM team, and only missed one Superliga game in his first six months at the club. He suffered an injury in February 2006, and returned to the team in May 2006. In the first half of the Danish Superliga 2007-08 season, he scored 3 goals in 18 games, and was included as left winger in the 2007 Danish Team of the Year.  On 23 December 2007, Poulsen transferred to Dutch side AZ Alkmaar for a reported transfer fee of €3 million, as the most expensive player sold by FCM at the time. He could not break into coach Louis van Gaal's starting line-up as a winger, and was eventually moved to the position of left-back. He played a number of games in the position, as AZ won the 2008–09 Eredivisie championship, the first club championship since 1981.  On 25 August 2012, Poulsen joined the Italian Serie A side U.C. Sampdoria on a three-year contract.  After his contract with Sampdoria had been dissolved on 16 January 2014, he rejoined his former team AZ Alkmaar.  On 15 May 2015, Poulsen signed for PSV. He was added as cover for incumbent PSV left-back Jetro Willems.  On 31 January 2017, Poulsen returned to former club SønderjyskE. On 4 January 2019, Poulsen announced his retirement from professional football, but would continue at the club, becoming the new assistant coach of the first team and a youth coach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Poulsen made his international debut for the Danish under-19 national team in September 2002, and went on to play a combined 25 games and score one goal for various Danish youth selections. In May 2006, Poulsen was selected for the Danish under-21 national team squad for the 2006 European Under-21 Championship. In all, he played 11 games and scored one goal for the Danish under-21 national team. He was called up for the Denmark League XI national football team, and played unofficial national team games against the United States, El Salvador and Honduras in January 2007.  Poulsen was called up for the Danish national team in March 2007, by national team manager Morten Olsen. He made his national team debut in a friendly match against Germany, coming on as a substitute for Dennis Rommedahl. He took part in two UEFA Euro 2008 qualification in November 2007, after which his international career went on a hiatus. He was recalled to the team in May 2010, ahead of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, as Olsen thought he had improved in the back position. He took part in the friendly match against Senegal, and was included in Olsen's final World Cup squad.  On 14 June in their first 2010 FIFA World Cup group match against the Netherlands, Poulsen had a crucial part in Daniel Agger's own goal by heading the ball against his back inside the first minute of the second half which deflected past the Danish goalkeeper, thus giving the Dutch the lead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "SønderjyskE  AZ  PSV", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Simon Busk Poulsen (born 7 October 1984) is a retired Danish professional footballer who played as a left-back. He has played 31 games for the Denmark national football team. He is currently the assistant coach of SønderjyskE.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976162}
{"src_title": "Eugénie de Beauharnais", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born and raised as a Catholic, Eugénie grew up in the Palais Leuchtenberg on Ludwigstraße in Munich and frequently spent the summer months with her parents at Schloss Eugensberg, a castle built by her father on Lake Constance (at what is now Salenstein). The family's behaviour was princely in every aspect - the French envoy Coulomb wrote in 1822: \"Prince Eugène de Beauharnais lives in greater luxury than [Napoleon's] court\". Their palace in Munich had been built by the famous Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze for over 2 million guilders. Besides Munich and Schloss Eugensberg, the family had manors at Eichstätt and Ismaning. On her father's death in 1824, Eugénie inherited Schloss Eugensberg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 22 May 1826, Eugénie married the Catholic Hereditary Prince Constantine of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in Eichstätt. Eugénie brought Hofkavalier Gustav von Billing (born in Leuchtenberg) to Hechingen as her financial advisor - he managed her large dowry on her mother's behalf and quickly won Constantine's trust as an advisor. From 1833 on, Eugénie and her husband lived at Schloss Lindich near Hechingen, the residence city of the House of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, though they also spent much of the summer months at Schloss Eugensberg, thus keeping in contact with her aunt Hortense and her cousin Louis Napoleon, who later became Napoleon III.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Life in Hechingen.", "content": "Eugénie had a great lust for life and even hunted deer with her husband in 1831. The couple took many trips to Munich, to Schloss Eugensburg by Lake Constance, to Schloss Tegernsee in Tegernsee, the summer residence of the kings of Bavaria, and in 1833 a Grand Tour to Italy, which lasted nearly 18 months and went as far as Sicily. Eugénie then sold Schloss Eugensberg for 32,000 guilders to Heinrich von Kiesow of Augsburg. The proceeds of that sale financed her rebuilding of Villa Eugenia in Hechingen, where the couple took up residence in 1834. At the southern edge of the villa's park, she acquired the Gasthaus \"Zur Silberburg\" and in 1844 rebuilt it as another villa, to house visiting noble relations. The surrounding gardens were also bought up and redesigned as an English landscape, now known as the \"Fürstengarten\".  Some of the couple's famous guests at Hechingen included her cousin Napoleon III, Hector Berlioz, and Franz Liszt. The \"Hofkapelle\" had a good choir, and from 1843 the villa hosted Sunday concerts by members of the \"Museumsgesellschaft\" (museum society) and the \"Musikvereins\" (music society). She remained childless and sought comfort in increasing piety, setting up an old-people's home in Hechingen and (in 1839) a major \"Kinderbewahranstalt\" for the town (the building which housed the latter contains a bust of her and is now the \"Amtsgericht\"). The latter was set up for those children whose parents \"were often hindered by business or domestic difficulties, at home or in the fields, from bringing up their small children.\"  For ten years she attended her father-in-law Frederick, mortally ill from war injuries, who died in 1838 at Schloss Lindich. Every Maundy Thursday, Eugénie and her husband washed the feet of twelve old and needy local people and then invited them to an \"Apostelmahl\" or Last Supper in the Billardhäuschen in the Fürstengarten, at which (after a grace) a stockfish with sauerkraut was passed round.  Eugénie became ill with tuberculosis and in winter 1846 moved into the so-called Hofküche directly behind the Villa Eugenia, since it could be better heated. Her doctors gave her odd treatments, including the inhalation of fumes from cow dung and the burning of moxa sticks on her chest. Due to the risk of spreading the disease, she could only see her husband rarely, and even then only at a distance. In summer 1847 she set off to seek a cure at the Badenweiler spa, but on the return journey she died at the Hotel Post in Freudenstadt on 1 September 1847. She was buried in the vault before the high altar of the Stiftskirche in Hechingen. On her mother's request, her heart was placed in an urn in the chapel of the Palais Leuchtenberg in Munich; since 1952 it has been housed in a niche beside the choir steps on the right side of the Stiftskirche. In her will she left her fortune of 273,000 guilders to charity.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Eugénie Hortense Auguste Napoléone, known as Eugénie de Beauharnais, princess of Leuchtenberg (22 December 1808 – 1 September 1847) was a Franco-German princess. She was the second daughter of Eugène de Beauharnais and Princess Augusta of Bavaria, and a member of the House of Beauharnais. In 1826 she married Constantine, Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976163}
{"src_title": "PEGylation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Methodology.", "content": "PEGylation is the process of attaching the strands of the polymer PEG to molecules, most typically peptides, proteins, and antibody fragments, that can improve the safety and efficiency of many therapeutics. It produces alterations in the physiochemical properties including changes in conformation, electrostatic binding, hydrophobicity etc. These physical and chemical changes increase systemic retention of the therapeutic agent. Also, it can influence the binding affinity of the therapeutic moiety to the cell receptors and can alter the absorption and distribution patterns.  PEGylation, by increasing the molecular weight of a molecule, can impart several significant pharmacological advantages over the unmodified form, such as improved drug solubility, reduced dosage frequency, without diminished efficacy with potentially reduced toxicity, extended circulating life, increased drug stability, and enhanced protection from proteolytic degradation; peglyated forms may also be eligible for patent protection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "PEGylated pharmaceuticals on the market.", "content": "The attachment of an inert and hydrophilic polymer was first reported around 1970 to extend blood life and control immunogenicity of proteins. Polyethylene glycol was chosen as the polymer. In 1981 Davis and Abuchowski founded Enzon, Inc., which brought three PEGylated drugs to market. Abuchowski later founded and is CEO of Prolong Pharmaceuticals.  The clinical value of PEGylation is now well established. ADAGEN (pegademase bovine) manufactured by Enzon Pharmaceuticals, Inc., US was the first PEGylated protein approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in March 1990, to enter the market. It is used to treat a form of severe combined immunogenicity syndrome (ADA-SCID), as an alternative to bone marrow transplantation and enzyme replacement by gene therapy. Since the introduction of ADAGEN, a large number of PEGylated protein and peptide pharmaceuticals have followed and many others are under clinical trial or under development stages. Sales of the two most successful products, Pegasys and Neulasta, exceeded $5 billion in 2011. All commercially available PEGylated pharmaceuticals contain methoxypoly(ethylene glycol) or mPEG. PEGylated pharmaceuticals on the market (in reverse chronology by FDA approval year) have included:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in research.", "content": "PEGylation has practical uses in biotechnology for protein delivery, cell transfection, and gene editing in non-human cells.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Process.", "content": "The first step of the PEGylation is the suitable functionalization of the PEG polymer at one or both ends. PEGs that are activated at each end with the same reactive moiety are known as \"homobifunctional\", whereas if the functional groups present are different, then the PEG derivative is referred as \"heterobifunctional\" or \"heterofunctional\". The chemically active or activated derivatives of the PEG polymer are prepared to attach the PEG to the desired molecule.  The overall PEGylation processes used to date for protein conjugation can be broadly classified into two types, namely a solution phase batch process and an on-column fed-batch process. The simple and commonly adopted batch process involves the mixing of reagents together in a suitable buffer solution, preferably at a temperature between 4 and 6 °C, followed by the separation and purification of the desired product using a suitable technique based on its physicochemical properties, including size exclusion chromatography (SEC), ion exchange chromatography (IEX), hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC) and membranes or aqueous two phase systems.  The choice of the suitable functional group for the PEG derivative is based on the type of available reactive group on the molecule that will be coupled to the PEG. For proteins, typical reactive amino acids include lysine, cysteine, histidine, arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, serine, threonine and tyrosine. The N-terminal amino group and the C-terminal carboxylic acid can also be used as a site specific site by conjugation with aldehyde functional polymers.  The techniques used to form first generation PEG derivatives are generally reacting the PEG polymer with a group that is reactive with hydroxyl groups, typically anhydrides, acid chlorides, chloroformates and carbonates. In the second generation PEGylation chemistry more efficient functional groups such as aldehyde, esters, amides etc. made available for conjugation.  As applications of PEGylation have become more and more advanced and sophisticated, there has been an increase in need for heterobifunctional PEGs for conjugation. These heterobifunctional PEGs are very useful in linking two entities, where a hydrophilic, flexible and biocompatible spacer is needed. Preferred end groups for heterobifunctional PEGs are maleimide, vinyl sulfones, pyridyl disulfide, amine, carboxylic acids and NHS esters.  Third generation pegylation agents, where the polymer has been branched, Y shaped or comb shaped are available and show reduced viscosity and lack of organ accumulation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Limitations.", "content": "Unpredictability in clearance times for PEGylated compounds may lead to the accumulation of large molecular weight compounds in the liver leading to inclusion bodies with no known toxicologic consequences. Furthermore, alteration in the chain length may lead to unexpected clearance times \"in vivo\". Moreover, the experimental conditions of PEGylation reaction (i.e. pH, temperature, reaction time, overall cost of the process and molar ratio between PEG derivative and peptide) also have an impact on the stability of the final PEGylated products. To overcome the above mentioned limitations different strategies such as changing the size (Mw), the number, the location and the type of linkage of PEG molecule were offered by several researchers", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "PEGylation (often styled pegylation) is the process of both covalent and non-covalent attachment or amalgamation of polyethylene glycol (PEG, in pharmacy called macrogol) polymer chains to molecules and macrostructures, such as a drug, therapeutic protein or vesicle, which is then described as PEGylated (pegylated). PEGylation is routinely achieved by the incubation of a reactive derivative of PEG with the target molecule. The covalent attachment of PEG to a drug or therapeutic protein can \"mask\" the agent from the host's immune system (reducing immunogenicity and antigenicity), and increase its hydrodynamic size (size in solution), which prolongs its circulatory time by reducing renal clearance. PEGylation can also provide water solubility to hydrophobic drugs and proteins. Having proven its pharmacological advantages and acceptability, PEGylation technology is the foundation of a growing multibillion-dollar industry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976164}
{"src_title": "Princess Marie of Orléans (1813–1839)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "She was the third child (and second daughter) of Louis-Philippe, King of the French, and his wife Maria Amalia, daughter of King Ferdinand I of Naples. She was solidly educated on her father's insistence, and took up sculpture and drawing. She had her own studio installed in the Tuileries Palace in which she would work. She was described as a lively character with great energy, interested in both parties and politics.  At the beginning of 1834, due to the consolidation of the July Monarchy and a better acceptance of Louis-Philippe by the monarchs of Europe, the King of the Two Sicilies, Ferdinand II, gave his consent to the marriage of princess Marie of Orléans with one of his younger brothers. Leopold of the Two Sicilies (1813–1860), count of Syracuse, was (like Ferdinand) born of king Francis I's second marriage to Maria Isabella of Spain. Nephew of Maria's mother (queen Maria Amalia), he was thus also half-brother to the duchesse de Berry, born by Francis I's first marriage to archduchess Maria Clementina of Austria, and mother of the Legitimist pretender to the throne of France, the duc de Bordeaux.  However, following the uprisings which afflicted France in April 1834, the court of Naples demanded that Marie immediately receive the part of the Orléans family fortune which was due to her by the \"donation-partage\" Louis-Philippe had made among his children on 7 August 1830 on the eve on his accession to the throne. Louis-Philippe judged this demand unreasonable, and the marriage proceedings came to an end.  On 17 October 1837, Marie d'Orléans married Prince Alexander of Württemberg (1804–1881), son of Duke Alexander of Württemberg (1771–1833) and his wife Antoinette of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1779–1824). The cadet branch of a not very prestigious German princely family, Alexander was nevertheless the nephew both of King Frederick I of Württemberg (via his father) and of King Leopold I of Belgium (via his mother). He was also a first cousin of both British Queen Victoria and her husband, Prince Albert as well as Portuguese King Ferdinand II and Russian Emperors Alexander I and Nicholas I. The ceremony took place on 18 October 1837 at the Grand Trianon in Versailles, restored by Louis-Philippe for his personal use. The civil ceremony was taken by chancelier Pasquier, the Catholic ceremony by Louis-Marie-Edmond Blanquart de Bailleul, bishop of Versailles, and the Lutheran ceremony by pastor Cuvier. The following reception took days and was hosted by the king and queen.  They had one child, Duke Philipp of Württemberg, who inherited his father's dukedom and in 1865 married Archduchess Marie-Therese of Austria (1845–1927) (daughter of Archduke Albert, Duke of Teschen). These are the ancestors of the present claimants to the throne of Württemberg. In 1838, weakened by pulmonary tuberculosis, Marie left for Pisa with the hope that the more favourable climate would help her to a cure. Her brother, the duc de Nemours, was later sent to escort her on their parents' instructions and arrived just before her death on 6 January 1839. She was buried on 27 January at the royal chapel at Dreux.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artist.", "content": "A student of Ary Scheffer, she was a talented artist, practicing sculpture and drawing. Toward the end of her short career, d'Orléans focused her on sculpting images of Joan of Arc, completing many works depicting this patriotic subject including a large sculpture for Versailles, commissioned by King Louis-Philipe.  According to her teacher, Ary Scheffer, she \"dreamed of an elevated life as an artist, and of exercising a profound influence over the art in France.\" Many of her works survive, in collections at the Clark Art Institute, Snite Museum of Art, and the Museum of Dordrecht.  In particular, she designed the windows in St. Saturnin's Chapel of the Palace of Fontainebleau, which were made by Émile Wattier.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marie Christine Caroline Adélaïde Françoise Léopoldine d'Orléans (12 April 1813 in Palermo – 6 January 1839 in Pisa) was a French princess, artist, and, by her marriage, duchess of Württemberg (1837). Before her marriage she was styled \"Mademoiselle de Valois\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976165}
{"src_title": "Amalgam (chemistry)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Important amalgams.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zinc amalgam.", "content": "Zinc amalgam finds use in organic synthesis (e.g., for the Clemmensen reduction). It is the reducing agent in the Jones reductor, used in analytical chemistry. Formerly the zinc plates of dry batteries were amalgamated with a small amount of mercury to prevent deterioration in storage. It is a binary solution (liquid-solid) of mercury and zinc.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Potassium amalgam.", "content": "For the alkali metals, amalgamation is exothermic, and distinct chemical forms can be identified, such as KHg and KHg. KHg is a gold-coloured compound with a melting point of 178 °C, and KHg a silver-coloured compound with a melting point of 278 °C. These amalgams are very sensitive to air and water, but can be worked with under dry nitrogen. The Hg-Hg distance is around 300 picometres, Hg-K around 358 pm.  Phases KHg and KHg are also known; rubidium, strontium and barium undecamercurides are known and isostructural. Sodium amalgam (NaHg) has a different structure, with the mercury atoms forming hexagonal layers, and the sodium atoms a linear chain which fits into the holes in the hexagonal layers, but the potassium atom is too large for this structure to work in KHg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sodium amalgam.", "content": "Sodium amalgam is produced as a byproduct of the chloralkali process and used as an important reducing agent in organic and inorganic chemistry. With water, it decomposes into concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, hydrogen and mercury, which can then return to the chloralkali process anew. If absolutely water-free alcohol is used instead of water, an alkoxide of sodium is produced instead of the alkali solution.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aluminium amalgam.", "content": "Aluminium can form an amalgam through a reaction with mercury. Aluminium amalgam may be prepared by either grinding aluminium pellets or wire in mercury, or by allowing aluminium wire or foil to react with a solution of mercuric chloride. This amalgam is used as a reagent to reduce compounds, such as the reduction of imines to amines. The aluminium is the ultimate electron donor, and the mercury serves to mediate the electron transfer. The reaction itself and the waste from it contain mercury, so special safety precautions and disposal methods are needed. As an environmentally friendlier alternative, hydrides or other reducing agents can often be used to accomplish the same synthetic result. Another environmentally friendly alternative is an alloy of aluminium and gallium which similarly renders the aluminium more reactive by preventing it from forming an oxide layer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tin amalgam.", "content": "Tin amalgam was used in the middle of the 19th century as a reflective mirror coating.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other amalgams.", "content": "A variety of amalgams are known that are of interest mainly in the research context.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dental amalgam.", "content": "Dentistry has used alloys of mercury with metals such as silver, copper, indium, tin and zinc. Amalgam is an \"excellent and versatile restorative material\" and is used in dentistry for a number of reasons. It is inexpensive and relatively easy to use and manipulate during placement; it remains soft for a short time so it can be packed to fill any irregular volume, and then forms a hard compound. Amalgam possesses greater longevity when compared to other direct restorative materials, such as composite. However, this difference has decreased with continual development of composite resins.  Amalgam is typically compared to resin-based composites because many applications are similar and many physical properties and costs are comparable.  In July 2018 the EU prohibited amalgam for dental treatment of children under 15 years and of pregnant or breastfeeding women.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use in mining.", "content": "Mercury has been used in gold and silver mining because of the convenience and the ease with which mercury and the precious metals will amalgamate. In gold placer mining, in which minute specks of gold are washed from sand or gravel deposits, mercury was often used to separate the gold from other heavy minerals.  After all of the practical metal had been taken out from the ore, the mercury was dispensed down a long copper trough, which formed a thin coating of mercury on the exterior. The waste ore was then transferred down the trough, and gold in the waste amalgamated with the mercury. This coating would then be scraped off and refined by evaporation to get rid of the mercury, leaving behind somewhat high-purity gold.  Mercury amalgamation was first used on silver ores with the development of the patio process in Mexico in 1557. There were also additional amalgamation processes that were created for processing silver ores, including pan amalgamation and the Washoe process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gold amalgam.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gold extraction (mining).", "content": "Gold amalgam has proved effective where gold fines (\"flour gold\") would not be extractable from ore using hydro-mechanical methods. Large amounts of mercury were used in \"placer mining\", where deposits composed largely of decomposed granite slurry were separated in long runs of \"riffle boxes\", with mercury dumped in at the head of the run. The amalgam formed is a heavy solid mass of dull gray color. (The use of mercury in 19th century placer mining in California, now prohibited, has caused extensive pollution problems in riverine and estuarine environments, ongoing to this day.) Sometimes substantial slugs of amalgam are found in downstream river and creek bottoms by amateur wet-suited miners seeking gold nuggets with the aid of an engine-powered water vacuum/dredge mounted on a float.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Gold extraction (ore processing).", "content": "Where stamp mills were used to crush gold-bearing ore to fines, a part of the extraction process involved the use of mercury-wetted copper plates, over which the crushed fines were washed. A periodic scraping and re-mercurizing of the plate resulted in amalgam for further processing.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Gold extraction (retorting).", "content": "Amalgam obtained by either process was then heated in a distillation retort, recovering the mercury for reuse and leaving behind the gold. As this released mercury vapors to the atmosphere, the process could induce adverse health effects and long term pollution.  Today, mercury amalgamation has been replaced by other methods to recuperate gold and silver from ore in developed nations. Hazards of mercurial toxic waste have played a major role in the phasing out of the mercury amalgamation processes. However, mercury amalgamation is still regularly used by small-scale gold placer miners (often illegally), particularly in developing countries.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Amalgam probe.", "content": "Mercury salts are, compared to mercury metal and amalgams, highly toxic due to their solubility in water. The presence of these salts in water can be detected with a probe that uses the readiness of mercury ions to form an amalgam with copper. A nitric acid solution of salts under investigation is applied to a piece of copper foil, and any mercury ions present will leave spots of silvery-coloured amalgam. Silver ions leave similar spots but are easily washed away, making this a means of distinguishing silver from mercury.  The redox reaction involved where mercury oxidizes the copper is:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Dental amalgam has been studied and is generally considered to be safe for humans, though the validity of some studies and their conclusions have been questioned. In July 2018 the EU prohibited amalgam for dental treatment of children under 15 years and of pregnant or breastfeeding women.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An amalgam is an alloy of mercury with another metal. It may be a liquid, a soft paste or a solid, depending upon the proportion of mercury. These alloys are formed through metallic bonding, with the electrostatic attractive force of the conduction electrons working to bind all the positively charged metal ions together into a crystal lattice structure. Almost all metals can form amalgams with mercury, the notable exceptions being iron, platinum, tungsten, and tantalum. Silver-mercury amalgams are important in dentistry, and gold-mercury amalgam is used in the extraction of gold from ore. Dentistry has used alloys of mercury with metals such as silver, copper, indium, tin and zinc.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976166}
{"src_title": "L'heure espagnole", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Dedication.", "content": "Ravel dedicated \"L'heure espagnole\" to Madame Jean Cruppi, whose son he would later commemorate with one of the movements of \"Le Tombeau de Couperin \".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance history.", "content": "Ravel was closely involved in every aspect of the production as it was prepared for its premiere by the Opéra-Comique at the Salle Favart in Paris. The opera was first performed by the Opéra-Comique on 19 May 1911, in a double-bill with \"Thérèse\" by Jules Massenet; after the initial nine performances it was not revived. The Paris Opéra presented it on 5 December 1921 with Fanny Heldy as Concepción, and it enjoyed more success. The opera returned to the Opéra-Comique in 1945 where it continued in the repertoire. Outside France, \"L’heure espagnole\" was first seen at Covent Garden in 1919, Chicago and New York in 1920, Brussels in 1921, followed by Basel and Rotterdam (1923), Prague (1924), Hamburg, Stockholm (1925), reaching Buenos Aires in 1932 and Cairo in 1934. The opera was performed for the first time in Canada at the 1961 Montreal Festivals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical background.", "content": "In relation to Ravel's vocal writing in the opera, Roland-Manuel wrote \"The language of the music is linked up as naturally as possible with the music of the language\". In an interview published two days before the premiere, Ravel explained his approach to his new opera. \"I have written an opéra-bouffe. Apart from [Gonzalve] who sings sérénades and cavatines with deliberately exaggerated melodies, the other rôles will give, I think, the impression of being spoken.\" Ravel also cited Mussorgsky's \"The Marriage\" for the effect he was aiming to achieve in the word setting, and underlined the Spanish elements of the score in his use of jotas, habaneras and malagueñas. Kobbé commented that from \"the delightful clock noises of the opening to the Habanera quintet of the end, \"L'Heure Espagnole\" is full of charming music\", while Grove notes that the opera is one of a group of Spanish influenced works that span Ravel’s career and that in it he employed \"a virtuouso use of the modern orchestra\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "The opera takes place in 21 scenes, with an introduction.  Torquemada is at work in his shop when the muleteer Ramiro stops by to have his watch fixed, so that he can fulfill his duties at collecting the town's post. It is Thursday, the day that Torquemada goes out to tend the municipal clocks, so Ramiro must wait. Torquemada's wife, Concepción, enters to complain that her husband hasn't yet moved a clock into her bedroom. After Torquemada has left, she takes advantage of his absence to plan assignations with gentleman friends. However, the presence of Ramiro is initially a hindrance. So she asks him to move a grandfather clock to her bedroom, which he agrees to do.  Meanwhile, she waits for Gonzalve, a poet. He arrives, and is inspired to poetry, but not to lovemaking, where Concepción would prefer the latter. When Ramiro is about to return, she sends him back saying that she chose the wrong clock. She then has the idea of having Gonzalve hide in one clock so that Ramiro can carry him upstairs. After Gonzalve is concealed, Don Iñigo, a banker and another of Concepción's gentleman friends, arrives. When Ramiro returns, she persuades him to carry up the clock with Gonzalve concealed in it, and she accompanies him.  On his own, Don Iñigo conceals himself in another clock. Ramiro enters, asked to watch the shop, and musing on how little he understands of women. Concepción then summons him back upstairs, saying that the clock's hands are running backwards. She and Don Iñigo try to communicate, but Ramiro arrives back with the other clock. Don Iñigo has hidden himself again, and Ramiro now carries up the clock with Don Iñigo upstairs.  With Gonzalve now downstairs, Concepción tries to turn him away from poetry towards her, but Gonzalve is too absorbed to follow her lead. Ramiro returns, and Gonzalve must conceal himself again. He offers to take the second clock up again. Impressed by how easily Ramiro carries the clocks (and their load) upstairs, Concepción begins to be physically attracted to him.  With Gonzalve and Don Iñigo now each stuck in clocks, Torquemada returns from his municipal duties. Both Gonzalve and Don Inigo eventually escape their respective clock enclosures, the latter with more difficulty. To save face, they each have to purchase a clock. Concepción is now left without a clock, but she muses that she can wait for the muleteer to appear regularly with his watch repaired. The opera ends with a quintet finale, as the singers step out of character to intone the moral of the tale, paraphrasing Boccaccio:  \"Among all lovers, only the efficient succeed,<br> The moment arrives, in the pursuit of love,<br> When the muleteer has his turn!\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orchestration.", "content": "Woodwinds  Brass  Percussion  Keyboard  Strings", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "L'heure espagnole is a French one-act opera from 1911, described as a \"comédie musicale\", with music by Maurice Ravel to a French libretto by Franc-Nohain, based on Franc-Nohain's 1904 play ('comédie-bouffe') of the same name The opera, set in Spain in the 18th century, is about a clockmaker whose unfaithful wife attempts to make love to several different men while he is away, leading to them hiding in, and eventually getting stuck in, her husband's clocks. The title can be translated literally as \"The Spanish Hour\", but the word \"heure\" more importantly means \"time\" – \"Spanish Time\", with the connotation \"How They Keep Time in Spain\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976167}
{"src_title": "Stephan Burián von Rajecz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Stephan Burián von Rajecz was born in Stomfa, Kingdom of Hungary (now Stupava, Slovakia) on 16 January 1851 into an ancient Hungarian noble family. In 1891, he married Olga \"née\" Freiin Fejérváry von Komlós-Keresztes (1861–1931), a daughter of General Géza Freiherr Fejérváry von Komlós-Keresztes, who briefly served as Hungarian Minister-President.  Burián entered the consular branch of the Austro-Hungarian foreign service following graduation from the Consular Academy. He subsequently served in Alexandria, Bucharest, Belgrade and Sofia. From 1882 to 1886 he headed the Consulate General in Moscow before being appointed as consul general in Sofia from 1887 to 1895, then served as minister in Stuttgart from 1896 to 1897 and in Athens from 1897 to 1903, which won him a reputation of a Balkan expert. In 1900, he was raised to the rank of Baron.  In July 1903, Baron Burián was appointed by Emperor Franz Joseph I to serve as Joint Finance Minister of Austria-Hungary, replacing the deceased Benjamin Kállay von Nagy-Kálló who had held the post since 1882. While the Imperial Finance Ministry only was responsible for the financing of common aspects of the Dual Monarchy, i.e. the Foreign Policy, the Army and the Navy), the administration of the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina fell under his responsibility following the annexation in 1908. Burián administered the two territories with a relatively mild hand and attempted to provide the population with a greater voice in the imperial administration. His conciliatory approach, however, failed to calm the country and only earned him the wrath of fellow bureaucrats. Burián left the post in February 1912 as he was finding it increasingly difficult to reconcile the various factions.  In June 1913, Baron Burián was appointed minister besides the King of Hungary, i.e. the Hungarian minister to the Court of Vienna, the closest connection between the Court of Vienna and Budapest. In his position of Hungarian emissary to Vienna, he successfully mediated between Foreign Minister Count Berchtold and the Hungarian Minister-President Count Tisza during the July Crisis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "In January 1915, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Count Berchtold was pressured by Germany to make territorial concessions to Italy as the price of securing that country's neutrality. When he acquiesced to the German proposal, he was forced from office on 13 January by hardliners. Baron Burián's name was put forward by Count Tisza, who was a close friend and ally, as Berchtold's successor which was accepted, albeit reluctantly, by Emperor Franz Joseph.  Baron Burián intended to increase the prestige of the monarchy and to get parity with Germany but also to negotiate peace with the help of the Americans. (He would fail in the latter, after Germany announced in 1916 that it intended to start full submarine warfare, leading the US to prepare for war.)  A relative moderate, he initially resisted German pressure for territorial concessions as the price of maintaining Italy's neutrality, although he somewhat vacillated towards the end as Austro-Hungarian forces suffered a crushing defeat with the surrender of Przemysl in March. This did nothing, however, to prevent Italy from joining the Entente in May 1915 and declaring war. Considered a protégé of Count Tisza, he proved to be much steadfast in resisting German pressure as regards territorial concessions to Romania at the cost of Hungary. This led to Romania entering the side of the Entente in August 1916. Baron Burián resisted the plan to offer vast amounts of territory to Bulgaria but he did win Bulgaria to the side of the Central Powers in October 1915 and provided for stronger ties with Turkey.  Baron Burián insisted that Germany treat Austria-Hungary as an equal in all military, economic and political activism, which only antagonised German opinion. He opposed Germany’s policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, insisted on retention of Austro-Hungarian control on the Balkan front and demanded recognition of Austro-Hungarian interests in Poland. However, he increasingly lacked the material resources to back up his claims for equality with Germany. He further angered Germany and its military leaders by proposing a peace plan that called for the re-establishment of a free Belgium and the return of all captured French territory in exchange for recognition of German and Austro-Hungarian rights in Eastern Europe. As a result of this peace proposal, he was forced to resign in December 1916, which reflected the extent of German control over imperial policy. He was replaced by Count Czernin and returned to serve as Imperial Finance Minister. Following the Sixtus affair, the position of Count Czernin had become untenable and on 15 April 1918, Baron Burián was recalled by Emperor Charles I to serve as Imperial Foreign Minister again, with instructions to negotiate an end to the war on favorable terms. Burián sought a compromise peace settlement, a course he had consistently advocated, but the Habsburg Empire’s deteriorating military situation provided him little margin for manoeuvre facing increasing disputes with the German ally. He signed the peace treaty with Finland on 29 May 1918 in Vienna.  On 14 September 1918, Baron Burián issued a public appeal for all nations to end the war by diplomatic negotiations. On 5 October, he and the German Chancellor requested President Wilson's participation in peace negotiations on the basis of the Fourteen Points. Within weeks, he recognized the weak state of the Habsburg army and that Germany would not agree to the unconditional surrender demanded by the Allies. He resigned from office on 24 October, realising that nothing could prevent the dissolution of the Habsburg Empire. He was succeeded by Count Julius Andrássy the Younger and thus became the penultimate Foreign Minister of the Dual Monarchy.  In 1918, Burián was elevated to the rank of Count (Graf). In the same year, he was invested as a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece. He had been bestowed with the Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen in 1910.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "Count Burián took no active part in diplomacy or politics after the war and spent his remaining years writing his war memoirs, which were published posthumously in German as \"Drei Jahre aus der Zeit meiner Amtsfuhrung im Kriege\" in 1923. The English language version, \"Austria in dissolution; being the personal recollections of Stephan, count Burian\", was translated by Brian Lunn, M. A. and was published in 1925.  Count Burián died on 20 October 1922 and is buried at the Vienna Central Cemetery.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "During the war, Count Burián had sought to balance several sometimes conflicting demands; winning the war, preserving the Austria-Hungary's status and defending Hungary's position within the Dual Monarchy. Certainly a task that was nothing short of overwhelming. Considered to be serious, legalistic and unimaginative, personal traits that made him a good fit for the bureaucracy and the Imperial Cabinet. However, his rigidity and pedantry likely made him a less suitable choice at the helm of Austro-Hungarian diplomacy at such a decisive period as World War I with a greater need for flexibility according to one historian.  The author of the 2014 book,\"Austro-Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans during World War I\", Marvin Benjamin Fried of the London School of Economics and Political Science, offers a similar, but more favourable evaluation. \"Although he was criticized as being doctrinaire, inflexible, and a Balkanist without a wider purview, Burián had a clear vision to protect Austro-Hungarian prestige, integrity, and power, which he was determined to uphold in face of compounding internal and external pressures.\"", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Stephan Burián von Rajecz () (16 January 1851 – 20 October 1922), commonly called: \"Baron von Burian\" or, later, \"Count Burian\" in English language press reports; (titles from 1900, Freiherr; from 1918, Graf) was an Austro-Hungarian politician, diplomat and statesman of Hungarian origin and served as Imperial Foreign Minister during World War I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976168}
{"src_title": "Royal Palace of Amsterdam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Town hall.", "content": "The structure was built as the Town Hall of the City of Amsterdam \"facing the landing wharfs along Damrak, which at that time would have been busy with ships\". The town hall was opened on 29 July 1655 by Cornelis de Graeff, the mayor of Amsterdam. The main architect was Jacob van Campen, who took control of the construction project in 1648. It was built on 13,659 wooden piles and cost 8.5 million gulden. A yellowish sandstone from Bentheim in Germany was used for the entire building. Marble was the chosen material for the interior.  Jacob van Campen was inspired by the Antwerp Town Hall. He wanted to build a new capitol for the Amsterdam burgomasters who thought of themselves as the consuls of the new Rome of the North. The new town hall was claimed to be the largest administrative building in Europe. In fact, some travellers described the building as too big for the city where a typical façade was only three windows wide. The technical implementation was looked after by the town construction master Daniël Stalpaert. The sculptures were executed in Antwerp by Artus Quellijn.  The interiors, focusing on the power and prestige of Amsterdam, were completed later. Paintings inside include works by Govert Flinck (who died before finishing a cycle of twelve huge canvases), Jacob Jordaens, Jan Lievens and Ferdinand Bol. Rembrandt's largest work, \"The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis\", was commissioned for the building, but after hanging for some months was returned to him; the remaining fragment is now in Stockholm.  Pieter de Hooch painted the interiors of the town hall in a series of the 1660s canvases, including \"Going for a Walk in the Amsterdam Town Hall\" and \"The Council Chamber in Amsterdam Town Hall\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Palace.", "content": "After the patriot revolution which swept the House of Orange from power a decade earlier, the new Batavian Republic was forced to accept Louis Napoleon, brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, as King Louis I of Holland in 1806. After holding his court at The Hague and Utrecht, Louis Napoleon moved to Amsterdam, and converted the Town Hall into a royal palace for himself.  The King of Holland did not have long to appreciate his new palace. He abdicated on 2 July 1810; his son, Napoleon Louis Bonaparte, then succeeded him, as King Louis II, before the Netherlands were annexed by France ten days later. The palace then became home to the French governor, Charles François Lebrun.  Prince William VI (son of Prince William V of Orange), returned to the Netherlands in 1813, after Napoleon fell from power, and restored the palace to its original owners. After his investiture as King William I of the Netherlands, however, Amsterdam was made the official capital of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands (the seats of government being Brussels and The Hague). The new king realised the importance of having a palace in the capital, and the Town Hall again became a royal palace.  It was made property of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1936. On 27 December 1949, the palace's central hall (\"Burgerzaal\") was the scene of the official ceremony for the transfer of sovereignty over Indonesia by the Netherlands (\"Soevereiniteitsoverdracht\"), represented by Queen Juliana and Indonesian vice-president Muhammad Hatta.  The palace is used by the monarch for entertaining and official functions during state visits and other official receptions, such as New Year receptions. The award ceremonies of the Erasmus Prize, of the Silver Carnation, of the Royal Awards for Painting, and of the Prince Claus Award are also held in the palace.  The balcony of the Royal Palace was used during the investiture of Queen Beatrix in 1980, where her mother Juliana announced the new queen to the people. The then-Prince Willem-Alexander and Princess Máxima kissed on the balcony on their wedding day on 2 February 2002 (\"illustrated, to the right\").  The palace was renovated from 2005 until June 2009, during which, among other things, asbestos was removed. Since 14 June 2009, the palace is open again to visitors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable features.", "content": "The sandstone of yellowish hue has darkened considerably in the course of time. Astride the rear of the building is a 6-metre-tall statue of Atlas carrying the Globe on his shoulders. It symbolises the worldwide extent of 17th-century Dutch commerce and interests.  On top of the palace is a large domed cupola, topped by a weather vane in the form of a cog ship. This ship is a symbol of Amsterdam. Just underneath the dome, there are a few windows. From here one could see the ships arrive and leave the harbour. In the cupola is the famous carillon by François and Pieter Hemony cast in 1664 in Amsterdam. It was renovated by Eijsbouts in 1965. Only 9 bells by François and Pieter Hemony remained. 38 new bells by Eijsbouts were made and tuned in meantone temperament. The old corroded Hemony bells are kept inside the palace.  The central hall is 120 feet long, 60 feet wide and 90 feet high. On the marble floor, there are two maps of the world with a celestial hemisphere. The Western and Eastern hemispheres are shown on the maps. The hemispheres detail the area of Amsterdam's colonial influence. The terrestrial hemispheres were made in the mid-18th century. They replaced an earlier pair made in the late 1650s. The originals showed the regions explored by the Dutch East India Company's ships in the first half of the 17th century. This feature may have been inspired by the map of the Roman Empire that had been engraved on marble and placed in the Porticus Vipsania, a public building in ancient Rome.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Royal Palace of Amsterdam in Amsterdam (Dutch: \"Koninklijk Paleis van Amsterdam\" or ) is one of three palaces in the Netherlands which are at the disposal of the monarch by Act of Parliament. It is situated on the west side of Dam Square in the centre of Amsterdam, opposite the War Memorial and next to the Nieuwe Kerk.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976169}
{"src_title": "Eurycantha calcarata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Range and Habitat.", "content": "\"Eurycantha calcarata\" is native to New Guinea, New Caledonia, and the Solomon Islands. Typical habitat includes warm humid rainforest where it is found in foliage and ground litter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The thorny devil color ranges from light brown to black and resembles bark or rotten wood. Both sexes are wingless and armored with spines on body and legs. Exhibiting the sexual dimorphism of many similar insects (particularly other phasmids as well as mantises), males are small and thinner, less than 9-10 cm long while females are typically 14 cm in length. The male has enlarged hind leg femurs with a curved spine or thorn on the underneath side, large enough to be used as a fish hook in New Guinea. Females (only) have a larger abdomen tipped with an ovipositor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "Thorny devils are nocturnal feeders and group together during the day to hide under bark and in trees hollows, providing protection from predators. Like other types of stick insects they use crypsis and catalepsy to evade predators.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "\"Eurycantha calcarata\" typically reproduce through sexual reproduction and produce eggs that hatch 4.5-6.5 months later. When no males are present in the population, this stick insect exhibits parthenogenesis instead. Eggs are typically 8.2 mm and 4 mm wide, with a somewhat cylindrical shape. Egg color can vary from shades of brown to grey and surface texture is rough and shiny.  Males actively fight for mating rights with females. The females have a tail like structure known as the ovipositor, which is used to lay eggs under soft soil. The eggs tend to resemble plant seeds covered by a hard shell. After about 4 months’ incomplete metamorphosis takes place when the nymphs hatch out. Once hatched they are brown in colour and are about 30 – 40 mm long. The defenseless nymphs crawl up food plants to collect at the top.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "\"Eurycantha calcarata\" are herbivores, consuming forest leaves including eucalyptus, ficus, bramble, raspberry, rose, cherry laurel and guava.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eurycantha calcarata (common names thorny devil stick insect and giant spiny stick insect ) is a species of phasmid endemic to Australasia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976170}
{"src_title": "Fernando Filoni", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and early diplomatic work.", "content": "Filoni was born in Manduria near Taranto, Italy. He entered the seminary and earned doctorates in Philosophy and in Canon Law from the Pontifical Lateran University. He was ordained a priest on 3 July 1970. He served in the Nunciatures of Sri Lanka from 1981 until 1983, Iran from 1983–1985, Brazil from 1989–1992 and the Philippines from 1992 until 2000. Although formally assigned to the Apostolic Nunciature to the Philippines, he was based in Hong Kong. During this time Archbishop Filoni was Pope John Paul II’s bridge to China's bishops, official and non-official Churches and bishops, in the hope of reconciling them to the Holy See.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Apostolic Nuncio.", "content": "Pope John Paul II appointed Filoni apostolic nuncio to Iraq and Jordan on 17 January 2001, naming him titular Archbishop of Volturnum. He received episcopal consecration from Pope John Paul II on 19 March 2001. He chose as his episcopal motto \"Lumen Gentium Christus\".  Archbishop Filoni defended the freedom of the Catholic Church in Iraq under the regime of Saddam Hussein and – in line with the Pope's position – opposed the US invasion of the country in 2003. He remained in Baghdad as American bombs fell, which he called \"nothing exceptional\". When Mario Vargas Llosa visited him in Baghdad in 2003, he described Filoni as \"small, astute, tough as nails, talkative and an expert on emergencies\", who described sadly how, just as predicted, it was \"incredibly difficult to administer the peace\". After the fall of Saddam he recognized the new-found freedom enjoyed by the people, but he warned against the lack of security and the slow development of the economy. He expressed mixed feelings towards the new constitution, which he described as both a \"positive step towards normalization in the country\" and \"contradictory in some areas\", and supported the peaceful coexistence between Christians and Muslims.  He came close to being killed in Baghdad on 1 February 2006, when a car bomb exploded next to the nunciature. He served in Iraq and Jordan until 25 February 2006 when he was named Apostolic Nuncio to the Philippines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roman Curia.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Substitute of the Secretariat of State.", "content": "Pope Benedict XVI appointed Archbishop Filoni Substitute for General Affairs on 9 June 2007, effective 1 July. During his four years as Substitute, it was Filoni's job to organise the activities of the Curia and the care of official translations of papal documents and correspondence; encryption dispatches messengers to be sent to the Registry of the papal letters, the resolution of legal issues, personnel management in the Curia and nunciatures, protocol and etiquette for visiting heads of state, information and media management, and Vatican archive management. He was also responsible for organizing the activities of nuncios around the world in their activities concerning the local churches.  Observers noted that during his time as substitute, Filoni never established a strong rapport with his immediate superior, Secretary of State Tarcisio Bertone.  In 2008, Archbishop Filoni was awarded the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "McCarrick Scandal.", "content": "In his August 2018 “Testimony,” Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò reported that on 25 May 2008 he had sent Filoni a summary of information provided by an ex-priest named Gregory Littleton who attested to sexual abuse of priests and seminarians by Cardinal Theodore McCarrick along with the information included in Richard Sipe's recently published “Statement for Pope Benedict XVI” on McCarrick’s sexual misconduct. He said that Filoni “knew in every detail the situation regarding Cardinal McCarrick.” Filoni received checks totalling $3,500 from McCarrick between 2008 and 2013.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples.", "content": "On 10 May 2011, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Filoni Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, the Vatican department in charge of administering mission territories, in succession to Ivan Cardinal Dias, who had reached retirement age and had health problems. \"La Nazione\" remarked that to be reassigned after only four years as Substitute was unusual and speculated that Filoni had been moved because of a \"stormy\" relationship with Bertone.  The Holy See announced on 6 January 2012 that he would be created a cardinal on 18 February. He was created Cardinal-Deacon of. On 24 April 2012 Filoni was made a member of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Congregation for the Oriental Churches, and the Congregation for Catholic Education. On 24 November 2012 he was appointed a member of the Pontifical Council for Legislative Texts. Filoni took part in the 2013 conclave that elected Pope Francis, and was considered to be a papabile, or possible candidate to be elected pope.  Based on his work with the people of Iraq, Filoni wrote \"The Church in Iraq\".  Pope Francis raised him to the rank of Cardinal Bishop effective 28 June 2018.  Pope Francis named Cardinal Luis Antonio Tagle to succeed Filoni as Prefect of the Congregation on 8 December 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre.", "content": "Pope Francis named him Grand Master of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem on 8 December 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fernando Filoni (born 15 April 1946) is a Cardinal prelate of the Catholic Church who serves as Grand Master of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre. He was Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples from 2011 to 2019. He is an expert in Chinese affairs and on the Middle East.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976171}
{"src_title": "Bob Lazar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Lazar attended Pierce Junior College in Los Angeles. He filed for bankruptcy in 1986, where he described himself as a self-employed film processor. Lazar owns and operates United Nuclear Scientific Equipment and Supplies, which sells a variety of materials and chemicals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Claims.", "content": "Lazar has achieved notoriety as an Area 51 conspiracy theorist. In May 1989, he appeared in an interview with investigative reporter George Knapp on Las Vegas TV station KLAS, under the pseudonym \"Dennis\" and with his face hidden, to discuss his purported employment at \"S-4\", a subsidiary facility he claimed exists near the Nellis Air Force Base installation known as Area 51. Lazar said the S-4 facility was adjacent to Papoose Lake, which is located south of the main Area 51 facility at Groom Lake. He claimed the site consisted of concealed aircraft hangars built into a mountainside. Lazar said that his job was to help with the reverse engineering of one of nine flying saucers, which he alleged were extraterrestrial in origin. He claims one of the flying saucers, the one he coined the \"Sport Model\", was manufactured out of a metallic substance similar in appearance and touch to stainless steel. In a subsequent interview that November, Lazar appeared unmasked and under his own name.  Lazar claimed that the propulsion of the studied vehicle was fueled by the chemical element with atomic number 115, or \"E115\", which at the time was provisionally named \"ununpentium\" and had not yet been artificially created (it was first synthesized in 2003 and later named moscovium). He said that the propulsion system relied on a stable isotope of E115, which allegedly generates a gravity wave that allowed the vehicle to fly and to evade visual detection by bending light around it. No stable isotopes of moscovium have yet been synthesized; all have proven extremely radioactive, decaying in a few hundred milliseconds.  In addition, Lazar claimed that during his joining the program, he read briefing documents describing the historical involvement of Earth for the past 10,000 years with extraterrestrial beings described as grey aliens from a planet orbiting the twin binary star system Zeta Reticuli. The Zeta Reticuli system was previously claimed by Barney and Betty Hill as the origin of aliens they allegedly encountered. As of September 2019, no extrasolar planets have been found in the Zeta Reticuli system.  Lazar claims to have earned a master's degree in physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and a master's degree in electronic technology from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech); however, there are no records of Lazar attending either MIT or Caltech. His supposed employment at a Nellis Air Force Base subsidiary has also been discredited by skeptics, as well as by the United States Air Force itself.  A 1982 article in the \"Alamogordo Daily News\" featured Lazar's jet powered car which reportedly achieved speeds of 200 mph, describing him as \"a physicist at the Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility\", however, the Los Alamos National Laboratory has disavowed him. Lazar alleges that his records have been erased, however skeptics, such as Donald R. Prothero, Stanton T. Friedman and Timothy D. Callahan have found this to be implausible. According to Prothero, \"He was employed not by the government but rather as a technician working for a private company that contracted work at Los Alamos.\"  Lazar's story has drawn significant media attention, controversy, supporters, and detractors. Lazar admits that he has no evidence to support his core claim of alien technology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criminal convictions.", "content": "In 1990, Lazar was arrested for aiding and abetting a prostitution ring. This was reduced to felony pandering, to which he pleaded guilty. He was ordered to do 150 hours of community service, stay away from brothels, and undergo psychotherapy.  In 2006, Lazar and his wife Joy White were charged with violating the Federal Hazardous Substances Act for shipping restricted chemicals across state lines. The charges stemmed from a 2003 raid on United Nuclear's business offices, where chemical sales records were examined. United Nuclear pleaded guilty to three criminal counts of introducing into interstate commerce, and aiding and abetting the introduction into interstate commerce, banned hazardous substances. In 2007, United Nuclear was fined $7,500 for violating a law prohibiting the sale of chemicals and components used to make illegal fireworks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Desert Blast festival.", "content": "Lazar and long-time friend Gene Huff run Desert Blast, an annual festival in the Nevada desert for pyrotechnics enthusiasts. Starting in 1987, but only formally named in 1991, the name was inspired by Operation Desert Storm. The festival features homemade explosives, rockets, jet-powered vehicles, and other pyrotechnics, with the aim of emphasizing the fun aspect of chemistry and physics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In film.", "content": "The 2018 feature-length documentary \"Bob Lazar: Area 51 & Flying Saucers\" focuses on Lazar's claims that he attempted to reverse-engineer alien spacecraft for the United States military at S-4. The documentary was directed by Jeremy Corbell and produced by George Knapp.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Scott Lazar (; born January 26, 1959) is an American conspiracy theorist who claims to have been hired in the late 1980s to reverse-engineer purported extraterrestrial technology at what he described as a secret site called \"S-4\". Lazar alleges that this subsidiary installation is located several kilometres south of the United States Air Force facility popularly known as Area 51.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976172}
{"src_title": "Miklós Nyiszli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Nyiszli was born 17 June 1901 in Transylvania, Kingdom of Hungary (then the Hungarian-half of Austria-Hungary). He completed his medical degree in 1929. Following this, he specialized in forensic pathology in Germany. He returned to Transylvania with his wife and daughter in 1937 before migrating to Hungary in 1940. In 1942, he and his family were sent to a work camp in Desze before being transferred to Auschwitz concentration camp in 1944.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Authorship.", "content": "During Nyiszli's period in the camp, he witnessed many atrocities to which he refers in his book, \"Auschwitz: A Doctor’s Eyewitness Account.\"  Historian Gideon Greif characterized Nyiszli's writings as among the “myths and other wrong and defamatory accounts” of the Sonderkommando that flourished in the absence of first-hand testimony by surviving Sonderkommando members.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accounts of camp life.", "content": "While imprisoned, Nyiszli was forced to carry out medical experiments and perform autopsies on dozens of bodies, particularly on dwarfs and twins. Mengele had researched the causes of dwarfism and twinning, and used Nyiszli to gather more information. Nyiszli autopsied murdered prisoners, specifically those suspected to have died from infectious diseases. Mengele was searching for evidence supporting the \"inferiority of the Jewish race\". At one point Nyiszli was forced to carry out physical exams on a father-son pair and, after their deaths, to prepare their skeletons for study at the Anthropological Museum in Berlin.  One day, following the gassing of a transport load of prisoners, Nyiszli was summoned by Sonderkommando working in the gas chambers who had found a girl alive under a mass of bodies in a chamber. Nyiszli and his fellow prisoners did their best to help and care for the girl, but she was eventually discovered and shot. This incident was dramatized in the films \"The Grey Zone\" and \"Son of Saul\".  Nyiszli was appalled by the disregard for human life and lack of empathy for human suffering shown by the guards and officers. However, his actions were dictated by his tormentors, and he was forced to perform what he considered immoral acts. As he said: During his roughly eight months in Auschwitz, Nyiszli observed the murders of tens of thousands of people, including the slaughter of whole sub-camps at once. These sub-camps held different ethnic, religious, national, and gender groups, including a Gypsy camp, several women's camps, and a Czech camp. Each sub-camp housed between 5,000–10,000 prisoners or more. Nyiszli was often told which camps were next to be exterminated, signaling that an increased workload was imminent.  When Nyiszli discovered that the women's camp in which his wife and daughter were kept prisoner, Camp C, was to be liquidated, he bribed an SS officer to transfer them to a women's work camp. Nyiszli remained in Auschwitz until shortly before its liberation by the Soviet army on 27 January 1945. On 18 January, Nyiszli, along with an estimated 66,000 other prisoners, was forced on a death march that took the prisoners into various Nazi territories, including Poland (part of Greater Germany), Czechoslovakia, Germany proper, present-day Austria and further into various smaller concentration camps in Germany.  Nyiszli narrated his testimony of camp life in an objective tone, favoring an analytical approach over a more emotive description. He writes that he tells his story \"not as a reporter but as a doctor\". This style has been referred to by some as documentary realism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After Auschwitz.", "content": "Nyiszli's first major stop after the forced march out of Auschwitz was the Mauthausen concentration camp in northern Austria, near the city of Linz. After a three-day stay in a quarantine barracks at Mauthausen, he spent two months in the Melk an der Donau concentration camp, about three hours away by train.  After 12 months of imprisonment, Nyiszli and his fellow prisoners were liberated on 5 May 1945, when U.S. troops reached the camp. Nyiszli's wife and daughter also survived Auschwitz and were liberated from Bergen Belsen. He never again worked with a scalpel after the war.  He wrote the book \"Dr Mengele boncoló orvosa voltam az auschwitz-i krematóriumban.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Nyiszli died of a heart attack on 5 May 1956 in Oradea, Romania, at the age of 54. His widow, Margareta, died on 5 September 1985.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Miklós Nyiszli (17 June 1901 – 5 May 1956) was a Hungarian prisoner of Jewish heritage at Auschwitz concentration camp. Nyiszli, his wife, and young daughter, were transported to Auschwitz in June 1944. Upon his arrival, Nyiszli volunteered as a doctor and was sent to work at No. 12 barracks where he operated on and tried to help the ill with only the most basic medical supplies and tools. He was under the supervision of Josef Mengele, a officer and physician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976173}
{"src_title": "Community property", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Jurisdictions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "South Africa.", "content": "In South Africa, if a couple does not sign an antenuptial contract, before a notary public, which is subsequently registered at a deeds office, prior to marriage, they are married in community of property, which means that all of their assets and liabilities (even those acquired before the marriage) are merged into a joint estate during their marriage, in which each spouse has an undivided half-share. Each spouse has equal power to deal independently with the estate, except that certain major transactions require the consent of both spouses. One of the consequences of community of property in South Africa is that if one spouse is declared insolvent (bankrupt) during the marriage, the other also becomes insolvent, a potentially devastating consequence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "The United States has nine community property states: Arizona, California, Idaho, Louisiana, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin. Alaska has also adopted a community property system, but it is optional. Spouses may create community property by entering into a community property agreement or by creating a community property trust. In 2010, Tennessee adopted a law similar to Alaska's and allows residents and non-residents to opt into community property through a community property trust. The commonwealth of Puerto Rico allows property to be owned as community property also as do several Native American jurisdictions.  Division of community property may take place by item by splitting all items or by values. In some jurisdictions, such as California, a 50/50 division of community property is strictly mandated by statute so the focus then shifts to whether particular items are to be classified as community or separate property. In other jurisdictions, such as Texas, a divorce court may decree an \"equitable distribution\" of community property, which may result in an \"unequal division\" of such. In non-community property states property may be divided by equitable distribution. Generally speaking, the property that each partner brings into the marriage or receives by gift, bequest or devise during marriage is called separate property (not community property). See division of property. Division of community debts may not be the same as division of community property. For example, in California, community property is required to be divided \"equally\" while community debt is required to be divided \"equitably\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Community property (United States) or Community of Property (South Africa) is a marital property regime under which one half of all property owned by one spouse before marriage (except for gifts or inheritances) is automatically owned by the other spouse (property gain), and will become that spouse's separate property, upon divorce (property subject to loss). All property that remain in the name of one spouse during marriage is automatically acquired by the other spouse as to 50% of its value (community property rights), subject to a loss of 50 % of all property upon divorce (separation of property). As for property acquired by one spouse, that is kept undisclosed during marriage will automatically be owned by the other spouse as that spouse's separate property, as to 50% of its value, regardless, while non-shared property is a cause of action for divorce, at 200% of its market price, owed to the divorcing spouse.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976174}
{"src_title": "Li Ruihuan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "A native of Baodi, Tianjin, and originally a carpenter by trade, he was elected and reelected chairman of the 8th and 9th CPPCC National Committees in March 1993 and March 1998. Li Ruihuan is the sixth chairman of the CPPCC after Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Deng Xiaoping, Deng Yingchao, and Li Xiannian. Since this post has been held by some of the most prominent revolutionary elders, it is spoken of \"noble and sacred\" by reverent observers. The principal duties of the CPPCC chief are mainly advisory and conciliatory; Li's duties focused on mitigating conflict between different sectors of society, conferring on state affairs, and providing ideas for the top bodies of PRC central government for reference.  Li, born into ordinary peasant family on September 1934; worked as construction worker in Beijing Third Construction Company, 1951–1965; attended spare-time architecture engineering institute, 1958–1963; and received a college certificate. Li is known as the inventor of the \"simplified calculation method,\" which updated the traditional \"lofting method\" in carpentry, Li was known as \"young Lu Ban,\" a legendary master carpenter in ancient China. He rose up the ranks of the construction industry and Tianjin politics.  During his tenure of office as Tianjin mayor, he actively supported institutional restructuring, focusing attention on improving urban housing and public transport conditions. He gained great popularity among Tianjin residents with his call-in radio and television programs through which he directly answered residents' inquires in concrete terms.  In 1989, he became a member of the Politburo Standing Committee. He retired at the 2002 16th party congress.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Li Ruihuan (born September 17, 1934) is a retired Chinese politician. Li was a member of the Politburo Standing Committee, the country's top decision making body, between 1989 and 2002. Li served as Chairman of the 9th National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) from 1993 to 2003; before that, he was the party chief of Tianjin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976175}
{"src_title": "Mark Pavelich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Amateur career.", "content": "The son of Croatian immigrants, Pavelich grew up in rural Eveleth, Minnesota. A star performer on his high school hockey team, Eveleth High School. He attended the University of Minnesota Duluth as an amateur player for three seasons in 1977–79. Pavelich is best known for being a member of the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team, that won the gold medal in Lake Placid. In the game against the Soviet Union, Pavelich was credited with two assists, including one on Mike Eruzione's game-winning goal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional career.", "content": "After the Olympics, Pavelich, who was not drafted by an NHL team, played one season for HC Lugano in Switzerland where he registered 73 points. He returned to the US national team for the 1981 Ice Hockey World Championship tournament. He was brought back to the United States the following year by his former US Olympic coaches Herb Brooks and Craig Patrick, who managed of the New York Rangers. Despite his size, Pavelich thrived in his role as a center for the Rangers, and holds the Rangers record for most points as a rookie (76). However, his career in New York was ended by a feud with Brooks' successor Ted Sator, who introduced a traditional North American dump-and-chase style of play.  Pavelich briefly played for Brooks with the Minnesota North Stars in 1987 before returning to Europe. He had a stint in Britain for the Dundee Rockets and played two seasons in Italy for HC Bolzano. The expansion San Jose Sharks brought him out of retirement for the 1991–92 NHL season, but he would play only two games for the Sharks before retiring. However, he did record an assist on the Sharks' first-ever goal, scored by Craig Coxe in the third period of a 4-3 loss to the Vancouver Canucks on October 4, 1991.  On February 23, 1983, Pavelich became the first American ever to score five goals in a single game, against the Hartford Whalers at Madison Square Garden; he remains the only American to do so.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In the 2009 book \"100 Ranger Greats\", the authors ranked Pavelich at No. 83 all-time of the 901 New York Rangers who had played during the team's first 82 seasons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Pavelich married Kara Burmachuk in 1994; they had no children. She died at age 44 in an accidental fall from a second-story balcony at their Lutsen, Minnesota, home on Thursday, September 6, 2012.  In April 2014, Pavelich announced that he was putting his Olympic medal up for auction, with bidding beginning at $62,500. The medal sold in May 2014 for $262,900 through Dallas-based auction house Heritage Auctions. Pavelich is the second player from the 1980 team to put a medal up for sale, with teammate Mark Wells having sold his in late 2010.  Pavelich's brother-in-law was also a hockey player and now coaches for the Hibbing Bluejackets, in Hibbing, Minnesota.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arrest.", "content": "Pavelich was arrested on Aug. 15, 2019, after allegedly assaulting and seriously injuring a neighbor with whom he'd earlier been fishing. He was charged with four felony counts: second- and third-degree assault, possession of a short-barreled shotgun and possession of a firearm with a missing or altered serial number. On Oct. 28, Pavelich's upcoming trial was suspended and he was found incompetent to stand trial by Cook County District Judge Michael Cuzzo, who said Pavelich \"lacks the ability to rationally consult with counsel, is incapable of understanding the proceedings, and is incapable of participating in the defense due to mental illness or deficiency.\" Cuzzo initiated civil commitment proceedings. On Dec. 4, Cuzzo ruled that Pavelich is mentally ill and dangerous and ordered him committed to a secure treatment facility.  Pavelich's sister, Jean Gevik, has said that she believes he is suffering from chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), and had noticed behavioral changes in the years leading up to the incident which led to his arrest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In \"Miracle on Ice\", a 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team, Pavelich is portrayed by Jack Blessing.  In the 2004 Disney film \"Miracle\", he is portrayed by Chris Koch. Koch played junior hockey for the Delta Ice Hawks in his native Canada before concussions ended his career.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mark Thomas Pavelich (born February 28, 1958 in Eveleth, Minnesota) is an American former professional ice hockey forward who played 355 regular season games in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the New York Rangers, Minnesota North Stars and San Jose Sharks between 1981 and 1992. Pavelich was a member of the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team that won the gold medal in what has been called the \"Miracle on Ice\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976176}
{"src_title": "Void type", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In C and C++.", "content": "A function with void result type ends either by reaching the end of the function or by executing a return statement with no returned value. The void type may also appear as the sole argument of a function prototype to indicate that the function takes no arguments. Note that despite the name, in all of these situations, the void type serves as a unit type, not as a zero or bottom type (which is sometimes confusingly called the \"void type\"), even though unlike a real unit type which is a singleton, the void type lacks a way to represent its value and the language does not provide any way to declare an object or represent a value with type codice_3.  In the earliest versions of C, functions with no specific result defaulted to a return type of codice_4 and functions with no arguments simply had empty argument lists. Pointers to untyped data were declared as integers or pointers to codice_5. Some early C compilers had the feature, now seen as an annoyance, of generating a warning on any function call that did not use the function's returned value. Old code sometimes casts such function calls to void to suppress this warning. By the time Bjarne Stroustrup began his work on C++ in 1979–1980, void and void pointers were part of the C language dialect supported by AT&T-derived compilers.  The explicit use of void vs. giving no arguments in a function prototype has different semantics in C and C++, as detailed in the following table:  A C prototype taking no arguments, e.g. codice_6 above, has been deprecated in C99, however.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Haskell.", "content": "Quite contrary to C++, in the functional programming language Haskell the void type denotes the empty type, which has no inhabitants. A function into the void type does not return results, and a side-effectful program with type signature codice_7 does not terminate, or crashes. In particular, there are no total functions into the void type.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The void type, in several programming languages derived from C and Algol68, is the type for the result of a function that returns normally, but does not provide a result value to its caller. Usually such functions are called for their side effects, such as performing some task or writing to their output parameters. The usage of the void type in such context is comparable to procedures in Pascal and syntactic constructs which define subroutines in Visual Basic. It is also similar to the unit type used in functional programming languages and type theory. See Unit type#In programming languages for a comparison.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976177}
{"src_title": "Palawan peacock-pheasant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The adult male is the most peacock-like member of the genus \"Polyplectron\" in appearance. It has an erectile crest and highly iridescent electric blue-violet, metallic green-turquoise dorsal plumage. It breast and ventral regions are dark black. The rectrices are wide, flat, and rigid. Their terminal edges are squared. Each tail plume and upper-tail covert is marked with highly iridescent, light reflective, ocelli. The tail is erected and expanded laterally together with the bodies of the birds. The male also raise one wing and lower the other, laterally compressing the body during pair-bonding, courtship displays as well and may also be antipredator adaptation.  The female is slightly smaller than the male. Its contour plumage is cloudy silt in colouration. The mantle and breast are a dark sepia in coloration. The rectrices are essentially similar to those of the male, exhibiting marked adumbrations and stunning ocelli. Throughout, their plumage is earthen and difficult to distinguish from the substrate and branches. While it has similar proportions of the tail to the male, its markings are not as visually arresting. Like the male, the female has a short crest and is whitish on the throat, cheeks and eyebrows.  Chicks are vivid ginger and cinnamon hued with prominent yellow markings. Juveniles of both sexes in the first year closely resemble their mothers. Subadult males in their second year more closely resemble their fathers but the mantle and wing coverts are marked with adumbrations analogous with the ocelli in the contour plumage of other peacock-pheasant species.  Like other peacock-pheasants, Palawan males and some females exhibit multiple spurs on the metatarsus. These are used in anti-predator defense, foraging in leaf litter and contests with other males. The male Palawan excavates slight depressions in which it orients its body during postural display behaviors. The bird vibrates loudly via stridulation of rectrice quills. This communicative signal is both audible and as a form of seismic communication.  Palawan peacock-pheasants are strong fliers. Their flight is swift, direct and sustained.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Endemic to the Philippines, the Palawan peacock-pheasant is found in the humid forests of Palawan Island in the southern part of the Philippine archipelago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The Palawan peacock-pheasant, with its unique male plumage and distant range, represents a basal (Early? Pliocene, c.5-4 mya) offshoot of the genus \"Polyplectron\" (Kimball \"et al.\" 2001). The species is widely accepted to be monotypic, but while some males have white supercillia, giving a \"double-barred\" or masked appearance, others lack this trait, exhibiting dark faces, taller, denser crests and prominent white cheek spots. The birds with white supercillia are sometimes classified as a distinct subspecies, \"nehrkornae\". The white-cheeked form may inhabit deep forest habitat with low ambient light in rolling terrain whilst the masked form appears to inhabit taller, more open forest on flatter terrain with higher ambient light. This masked form exhibits an abbreviated, more tightly compacted and highly iridescent crest. Females of the two respective forms exhibit analogous differentiation. The female of the masked form is more prominently patterned and densely crested with paler contour plumage.  It was long known as \"Polyplectron emphanum\", but the name \"Polyplectron napoleonis\" was given one year before and takes priority over the newer name (Dickinson 2001).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior and ecology.", "content": "Peacock-pheasants are highly invertivorous, taking isopods, earwigs, insect larvae, mollusks, centipedes and termites as well as small frogs, drupes, seeds and berries.  They are strictly monogamous, renesting yearly. The female usually lays up to two eggs. Both parents rearing chicks for up to two years. Males act as sentinels of nest sites and are highly pugnacious during the reproductive cycle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status and conservation.", "content": "Due to ongoing habitat loss, small population size and limited range as well as hunting and capture for trade, the Palawan peacock-pheasant is classified as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Palawan peacock-pheasant (\"Polyplectron napoleonis\") is a medium-sized (up to 50 cm long) bird in the family Phasianidae. The Palawan peacock-pheasant is featured prominently in the culture of the indigenous peoples of Palawan. The bird is also depicted in the official seal of the city of Puerto Princesa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976178}
{"src_title": "Curtiss-Wright XP-55 Ascender", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "On 22 June 1940, the Curtiss-Wright company received an Army contract for preliminary engineering data and a powered wind tunnel model. The designation P-55 was reserved for the project. The USAAC was not completely satisfied with the results of these tests, and Curtiss-Wright took it upon itself to build a flying full-scale model which it designated CW-24B. The flying testbed was powered by a Menasco C68-5 inline engine. It had a fabric-covered, welded steel tube fuselage with a wooden wing. The undercarriage was non-retractable.  On 10 July 1942, the United States Army Air Forces issued a contract for three prototypes under the designation XP-55. Serial numbers were 42-78845 through 42-78847. During this time, the Pratt & Whitney X-1800 H-block sleeve valve engine was experiencing serious developmental delays, and was eventually canceled. Curtiss decided to switch to the Allison V-1710 (F16) liquid-cooled inline engine because of its proven reliability. Armament was to be two cannon and two machine guns. During the mock-up phase, it was decided to switch to the more powerful V-1710-95. The 20 mm cannons were also replaced by 0.50 in machine guns.  A special feature of the XP-55 was a propeller jettison lever located inside the cockpit to prevent the pilot from hitting the propeller during bailout. The jettison device was invented by W. Jerome Peterson while working as a design engineer for Curtiss-Wright.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first XP-55 (42-78845) was completed on 13 July 1943 and had the same aerodynamic configuration as the final prototype CW-24B. The aircraft made its first test flight on 19 July 1943 from the Army's Scott Field near the Curtiss-Wright plant in St Louis, Missouri. The pilot was J. Harvey Gray, Curtiss' test pilot. Initial testing revealed that the takeoff run was excessively long. To solve this problem, the nose elevator size was increased and the aileron up trim was interconnected with the flaps so that it operated when the flaps were lowered.  On 15 November 1943, test pilot Harvey Gray, flying the first XP-55 (S/N 42-78845), was testing the aircraft's stall performance at altitude when the XP-55 suddenly flipped over on its back and fell in an uncontrolled, inverted descent. The pilot was unable to right the airplane, and it fell out of control for before Gray was able to parachute to safety. The aircraft was destroyed.  The second XP-55 (S/N 42-78846) was similar to the first but with a slightly larger nose elevator, modified elevator tab systems, and a change from balance tabs to spring tabs on the ailerons. It flew for the first time on 9 January 1944. All flight tests were restricted so that the stall zone was avoided.  The third XP-55 (S/N 42-78847) flew for the first time on 25 April 1944. It was fitted with four machine guns, and incorporated some of the ideas learned from the loss of the first XP-55. It was found that the aircraft's stall characteristics could be greatly improved by the addition of four-foot wingtip extensions, and by increasing the limits of the nose elevator travel. Between 16 September and 2 October 1944, the second XP-55 (42-78846), which had been modified to the same standards as the third aircraft, underwent official USAAF flight trials.  The performance of the XP-55 was not very impressive and was often inferior to that of more conventional fighter aircraft already in service. In addition, by 1944 jet-powered fighter aircraft were already well along in development and there was no further development of the XP-55.  The third prototype XP-55 (s/n 42-78847) was lost on 27 May 1945 during the closing day of the Seventh War Bond Air Show at the Army Air Forces Fair at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio. After a low pass in formation with a Lockheed P-38 Lightning and a North American P-51 Mustang on each wing, its pilot, William C. Glasgow, attempted a slow roll, but lost altitude and crashed, sending flaming debris into occupied civilian ground vehicles on a highway near the airfield. The crash killed Glasgow and four civilians on the ground.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Curtiss-Wright XP-55 Ascender (company designation CW-24) is a 1940s United States prototype fighter aircraft built by Curtiss-Wright. Along with the Vultee XP-54 and Northrop XP-56, it resulted from United States Army Air Corps proposal R-40C issued on 27 November 1939 for aircraft with improved performance, armament, and pilot visibility over existing fighters; it specifically allowed for unconventional aircraft designs. A highly unusual design for its time, it had a canard configuration, a rear-mounted engine, swept wings, and two vertical tails. Because of its pusher design, it was sarcastically referred to as the \"Ass-ender\". Like the XP-54, the Ascender was initially designed for the Pratt & Whitney X-1800 engine and had to be redesigned when that engine project was canceled. It was also the first Curtiss fighter aircraft to use tricycle landing gear.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976179}
{"src_title": "Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "She was born a Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in the city of Schwerin, Germany. Her father was Frederick Francis III, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; her mother was Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia, a granddaughter of Emperor Nicholas I of Russia. She was a paternal first cousin of Juliana of the Netherlands. Her mother was a paternal first cousin of Princess Irina Alexandrovna of Russia, the wife of Felix Yusupov, one of the murderers of Rasputin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Duchess Alexandrine married Prince Christian of Denmark on 26 April 1898, in Cannes, France, when she was 18 years old. They had two children:  She died in Copenhagen as Dowager Queen of Denmark in 1952 and is interred next to her husband in Roskilde Cathedral.  The only brother of Queen Alexandrine was Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, while her only sister was Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, wife of German Crown Prince William, eldest son of German Emperor William II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queenship.", "content": "In 1902, the couple were given Marselisborg Palace, and the garden was to become one of her greatest interests. Alexandrine became crown princess in 1906 and queen in 1912. She is not considered to have played any political role, but is described as being a loyal support to her spouse.  She was interested in music, and acted as the protector of the musical societies \"Musikforeningen i København\" and \"Den danske Richard Wagnerforening\". She was known for her needlework, which she sold for charitable purposes. After the death of her mother-in-law Louise of Sweden in 1926, she succeeded her as the official protector of the various charity organisations founded by Louise. She enjoyed golf and photography. During World War I, she founded \"Dronningens Centralkomité af 1914\" (\"The Queen's Central Committee of 1914\") to the support of poor families.  She survived the 1918 flu pandemic.  The couple was given great popularity as national symbols during the World War II occupation, which was demonstrated during a tour through the country in 1946. Before the occupation, she and her daughter-in-law were engaged in mobilising the Danish women. Her rejection of General Kaupisch on 9 April 1940 became a symbol for her loyalty toward Denmark before her birth country Germany. When the General of the occupation forces first asked for an audience with the monarch, Christian was persuaded to receive him by his daughter-in-law as he would any other, which was supported by Alexandrine. He asked to do so alone, but Alexandrine told him she would interrupt them. When the General was about to leave, she came in; and when he greeted her, she said: \"General, this is not the circumstance in which I expected to greet a countryman.\" It was reported, that although Alexandrine was seen as shy and disliked official ceremonies, she had a \"sharp\" intelligence, and she was, together with her daughter-in-law, Ingrid of Sweden, a true support of the monarch and a driving force for the resistance toward the occupation within the royal house. It was also reported, that in contrast to the monarch himself and the Crown Prince, the Queen and the Crown Princess never lost their calm when the nation was attacked. As she was not the Head of the Royal House, she could show herself in public more than her spouse, who did not wish to show support to the occupation by being seen in public, and she used this to engage in various organisations for social relief to ease the difficulties caused by the occupation. Kaj Munk is quoted to describe the public appreciation of her during World War II with his comment: \"Protect our Queen, the only German we would like to keep!\"  In 1947, she was widowed; she became the first queen dowager of Denmark to opt not to use that title.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (24 December 1879 – 28 December 1952) was Queen of Denmark as the spouse of King Christian X. She was also Queen of Iceland (where the name was officially Alexandría) from 1 December 1918 to 17 June 1944.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976180}
{"src_title": "Global Underwater Explorers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Foundation.", "content": "GUE is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization formed to promote education, conservation, and exploration of the aquatic realm. The organization was formed by Jarrod Jablonski and a small group of educators, explorers, and diving instructors. The founding members sought to build upon the history of the Cousteau Society by creating a diverse network of satellite organizations. In this way, local advocates help GUE establish detailed diver training, vibrant exploration, and sustainable conservation initiatives. When GUE was formed it was co-located with Extreme Exposure dive store. However, Extreme Exposure has subsequently changed locations, which has allowed for further growth of GUE.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Board of Directors.", "content": "The GUE board of directors includes The Explorers Club fellow Jarrod Jablonski, entrepreneur Robert Carmichael, researcher Todd Kincaid, Corey Jablonski, Gideon Liew, Richard Lundgren, and Sam Meacham.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Training.", "content": "Among the diving community, GUE is known for a rigorous style of training that diverges from other diver training organizations and seeks to establish high levels of diver proficiency by extending training time, establishing objective performance criteria, and requiring requalification among its instructors and divers. GUE diver training started with technical cave and technical diving classes, expanding into recreational training while refining its most popular class known as GUE Fundamentals. GUE also adheres to a standardized equipment and procedural system, which it claims enhances diver safety and efficiency by reducing confusion and helping divers act as a team. This latter training component is a controversial aspect of GUE training, as it stipulates a fairly strict set of guiding principles. GUE's founder, Jarrod Jablonski, was a long-time proponent of a standardized system known as Hogarthian diving and also a key architect in the Doing It Right (DIR) system, which extends the scope of standardized diving equipment and procedures.  In February 2016, the British Sub-Aqua Club confirmed that a review has been completed on how to integrate GUE divers into BSAC branches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Courses.", "content": "As of May 2017, GUE offered 26 courses in four subject areas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "EUF Certification.", "content": "GUE obtained CEN certification from the EUF certification body in 2013 for the following diver grades:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "WKPP.", "content": "The best known of GUE's satellite organizations is the Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP), which is a non-profit affiliate of GUE. GUE members are engaged in science and exploration projects conducted by the WKPP. This collaboration helped encourage the state of Florida to budget more than 200 million dollars toward the development of enhanced wastewater treatment practices as means to enhance ground water protection and support the conservation of Wakulla Springs State Park. GUE has launched a global conservation project known as Project Baseline to document the condition of global aquatic environments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outreach.", "content": "Some of the organization's notable outreach projects have included: GUE instructors regularly host \"Introduction to GUE\" workshops aimed at promoting the Global Underwater Explorers approach to diving.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "GUE publishes a quarterly journal, \"Quest\", as well as a number of books and videos related to their philosophy of diving. These are generally available through their website, other online retailers and bookshops.  GUE also began publishing annual reports in 2016 to provide the public with a better overview of community dive projects, Project Baseline activities, and GUE training and operational information.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Global Underwater Explorers (GUE) is a scuba diving organization that provides education within recreational, technical, and cave diving. It is a nonprofit membership organization based in High Springs, Florida, United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976181}
{"src_title": "Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First church.", "content": "The first church on the site was dedicated around 1125 to Paul the Hermit, who had been buried in the Egyptian desert by Anthony the Great; it was in effect the cemetery chapel to the monastery of Saint-Éloi, founded by monks of saint Eloi of Noyon and Dagobert I. This monastery was on the site of what is now the parvise of the Palais de Justice. From there, bodies were carried in procession from the monastic community to the cemetery. Madame de Sévigné was baptised in this building in 1626, in the first chapel of Saint-Louis. The monastic cemetery was later forgotten, though the church retained a dedication to a saint Paul (albeit Paul of Tarsus not Paul of Thebes) up to the present day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The first stone of the present building was laid by Louis XIII in 1627 for the Jesuits in the same street as the old chapel of St Paul. Its first name was 'église Saint-Louis de la maison professe des Jésuites', in reference to the Maison Professe des Jésuites attached to it.  Its design included traditional French elements as well as others inspired by Italy. In effect, as André Chastel put it, \"the Jesuit order, even while recommending certain aspects, was attentive to local traditions.\" Also, it can easily be compared to the Gesu in Rome, though it is longer and wider than that church. Its plan is a compromise between the Gesu's single nave flanked by side chapels and the traditional French cruciform plan, as is to be seen in its long transepts. The tall windows in these prominent transepts and the short eastern apse allow in large amounts of light, and the dome under the crossing also recalls Italian architecture of a slightly earlier period, such as that of Carlo Maderno. In contrast, the high proportions (the dome is 55 metres high) are more comparable to French Gothic architecture.  The façade is also Italian but with French Gothic verticality and Dutch high ornamentation. Its main inspiration was the 1618 façade of the église Saint-Gervais-Saint-Protais de Paris by Salomon de Brosse, which has the same design of three bays with two levels on the side bays and three levels for the central bay, highlighted by a projection and doubled columns. It uses Corinthian columns on the two lower levels and composite order columns on the rest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "17th century.", "content": "The first mass was celebrated in the new building on 9 May 1641 (the feast of the Ascension) by cardinal Richelieu, with the oremuses pronounced by Bossuet. The famous Jesuit preacher Louis Bourdaloue preached some of his memorable sermons in the church, for Lent and Advent, between 1669 (the date of his first sermon) and 1693. He also preached his memorable funeral sermon for the Grand Condé in the church in 1687, whilst Bossuet and Fléchier also preached here.  Jean-Jacques Olier (founder of the Prêtres de Saint-Sulpice) was baptised in the church on 20 September 1608 and Louis Bourdaloue is buried in the church's crypt. Between 1688 and 1698, Marc-Antoine Charpentier was employed by the Jesuits and was master of music in the church of Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis. Other masters of music there included André Campra and Louis Marchand. Jacques de Létin painted \"The Death of Saint Louis\" for the church, which can still be seen here.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1700 to present.", "content": "When the Parlement de Paris suppressed the Jesuits in 1762, the building was reassigned to the canons of Sainte-Catherine-du-Val-des-Ecoliers. On 2 September 1792, 5 priests were killed in the church during the September Massacres, as is commemorated by a commemorative plaque. The church was also converted to the Cult of Reason and the Supreme Being during the French Revolution, before being restored to Catholicism in 1802 due to the Concordat of 1801.  The white marble was moved and rebuilt under Louis-Philippe I with fragments from Napoleon's tomb at Les Invalides. The church was later renamed the 'église Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis' in memory of the church of Saint-Paul, which had been demolished in 1796. On 15 February 1843, Léopoldine Hugo secretly married Charles Vacquerie in the church; her father Victor Hugo offered the church two clam-shell holy water holders to mark the occasion, still to be seen in the church.  Delacroix painted \"Christ in agony on the Mount of Olives\" for the church, which can still be seen here to the left of the altar. The church is currently displaying a placeholder as the original is on loan to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The church also houses by Germain Pilon (1586). On one pillar on the right side of the nave is a nearly-erased inscription 'République française ou la mort' (French Republic or death), probably dating to the Paris Commune of 1871.  The casing of the church's grand tribune organ was classified as a historic monument in 1867 and four years later (in 1871) its pipes were replaced by Martin. The whole organ was restored in 1972 by Danion-Gonzalez and now has 3 keyboards with 56 notes and a pedal board with 30 notes, along with electric transmissions and 40 pipes (of which 33 are reels). The choir organ is by Krischer and dates to the 19th century, with two keyboards of 56 notes, a pedal board of 30 notes, mechanical transmissions and 13 pipes.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Église Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis is a church on rue Saint-Antoine in the Marais quarter of Paris. The present building was constructed from 1627 to 1641 by the Jesuit architects Étienne Martellange and François Derand, on the orders of Louis XIII of France. It gives its name to Place Saint-Paul and its nearest Metro station, Saint-Paul.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976182}
{"src_title": "Juraj Herz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Herz was born in 1934 in Kežmarok, in modern-day Slovakia, to Jewish parents. He was a Holocaust survivor, having been imprisoned at the Ravensbrück concentration camp during his childhood. After attending secondary school in Bratislava, he studied photography at the city's University of Applied Arts, going on to study directing and puppetry at the Theatre Faculty of the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague (DAMU) alongside Jan Švankmajer. He remained in Prague after he completed his studies to work at the Semafor Theatre and Barrandov Studios.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film career.", "content": "Herz was self-taught as a film director. His first experience working on films was as second-unit director under Zbyněk Brynych (\"Transport from Paradise\"; 1962) and Ján Kadár (\"The Shop on Main Street\"; 1965). Because he had attended DAMU rather than its sister film school, FAMU, Herz was initially not part of the core group of directors who would form the Czechoslovak New Wave. His 1965 short film \"The Junk Shop\" was excluded from the group's manifesto anthology \"Pearls of the Deep\" (1966) due to its running time.  Herz made his breakthrough with his 1969 film, \"The Cremator\", based on a novel by Ladislav Fuks, starring Czech actor Rudolf Hrušínský as a demented crematorium manager who collaborates with the Nazis during World War II. The film was selected as the Czechoslovak entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 42nd Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee. In 1972, it won the Festival de Cine de Sitges Best Film award, as well as awards for Hrušínský and cinematographer Stanislav Milota. Immediately banned by Communist censors after its premiere, \"The Cremator\" was not seen again in Czechoslovakia until after the Velvet Revolution in 1989, but achieved wide international acclaim and cult status. It was re-released in 2017. The film combined horror and black comedy, and is often cited as one of the best movies ever made in Czechoslovakia.  The following year saw \"Sweet Games of Last Summer\", an expressionist adaptation of Guy de Maupassant.  Herz was best known for his work in the horror genre; he was one of the few Czechoslovak film directors working horror films during the Communist period. His other horror works included 1972 murder drama \"Morgiana\" and a gothic re-interpretation of the fairy tale \"Beauty and the Beast\" () in 1978. Herz's 1971 drama \"Oil Lamps\" () was in competition for the Palme D'Or at the 1972 Cannes Film Festival. Herz's 1976 film \"Day for My Love\", a drama about the death of a child, was entered into the 27th Berlin International Film Festival.  His 1982 movie \"Ferat Vampire\" (), a horror movie about a murderous Ferat sports car fuelled on human blood, starred Jiří Menzel and future first lady Dagmar Havlová. In 1986 Herz released \"The Night Overtakes Me\", a tragic drama about his experiences in the concentration camp.  Herz emigrated to Germany in 1987. His last major films were paranormal thriller \"Darkness\" (; 2009), and \"Habermann\" (2010), a war drama about the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia after World War II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Herz died in Prague on 8 April 2018, aged 83. His death was announced on Facebook by Slovak actor Andrej Hryc, a long-time collaborator of Herz's.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Juraj Herz (4 September 1934 – 8 April 2018) was a Slovak film director, actor, and scene designer, associated with the Czechoslovak New Wave movement of the 1960s. He is best known for his 1968 horror/black comedy \"The Cremator\", often cited as one of the best Czechoslovak films of all time, though many of his other films achieved cult status. He directed for both film and television, and in the latter capacity he directed episodes of a French-Czech television series based on George Simenon's Maigret novels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976183}
{"src_title": "John II, Duke of Bourbon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "John earned his nicknames \"John the Good\" and \"The Scourge of the English\" for his efforts in helping drive out the English from France.  He was made constable of France in 1483 by his brother Peter and sister-in-law Anne, to neutralize him as a threat to their regency.  In an effort to win discontented nobles back to his side, Louis XI of France made great efforts to give out magnificent gifts to certain individuals; John was a recipient of these overtures. According to contemporary chronicles, the King received John in Paris with \"honours, caresses, pardon, and gifts; everything was lavished upon him\". In further attempts to gain the nobles' favor, the King proposed a match between his eldest legitimized daughter Marguerite to John's eldest illegitimate son Louis de Bourbon. The marriage was celebrated in Paris with royal magnificence and the wedded couple were heaped with honors and wealth by the King. It has been said despite all of his brilliant marriages, nothing flattered John more than this particular marriage between his natural son and a legitimized daughter of the King.  John is notable for making three brilliant alliances but leaving no legitimate issue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Marriage.", "content": "In 1447, his father, the Duke of Bourbon, had John married to a daughter of Charles VII, King of France, Joan of Valois. They were duly married at the Château de Moulins. They had no surviving issue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "In 1484 at St. Cloud to Catherine of Armagnac, daughter of Jacques of Armagnac, Duke of Nemours, who died in 1487 while giving birth to:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Third marriage.", "content": "In 1487 he married Jeanne of Bourbon-Vendôme, daughter of John of Bourbon, Count of Vendôme (from a cadet branch of the House of Bourbon), by whom he had one son:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Illegitimate issue.", "content": "By Louise of Albret (- 8 September 1494):  By Marguerite de Brunant:  By unknown women:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and aftermath.", "content": "John died in 1488 at the Château de Moulins and was succeeded by his younger brother Charles. However, this succession was strongly contested due to the political strength of Peter and Anne. Within a span of days, Charles was forced to renounce his claims to the Bourbon lands to Peter in exchange for a financial settlement. John's widow Jeanne would later remarry to John III, Count of Auvergne and by him she became the mother of Madeleine de La Tour d'Auvergne, the mother of Catherine de Medici.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean (John) de Bourbon, Duke of Bourbon (1426 – 1 April 1488), sometimes referred to as John the Good and The Scourge of the English, was a son of Charles I of Bourbon and Agnes of Burgundy. He was Duke of Bourbon and Auvergne from 1456 to his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976184}
{"src_title": "Vilma Espín", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Vilma Espín Guillois was born on 7 April 1930, in Santiago de Cuba. She was the daughter of a wealthy Cuban lawyer, Jose Espín and wife Margarita Guillois. She had four siblings, Nilsa, Iván, Sonia and José. Espín attended Academia Pérez-Peña for primary school and studied ballet and singing at the Asociación Pro-Arte Cubano during the 1940s. In the 1950s, she studied chemical engineering at Universidad de Oriente, Santiago de Cuba (one of the first women in Cuba to study this subject). After graduating, her father encouraged her to attend MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts to complete her post-graduate studies in the hopes that visiting America would dissuade her from becoming involved in socialist activity. When she finally acquiesced, her brief academic career at MIT left her with even more animosity toward the United States, as she officially joined the 26th of July Movement on her way back to Cuba through Mexico.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Espín was married to Raúl Castro, the current First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, who is the brother to former First Secretary Fidel Castro. Their wedding took place only weeks after the 26th of July Movement successfully overthrew dictator Fulgencio Batista. She had four children (Deborah, Mariela, Nilsa, and Alejandro Castro Espín) and eight grandchildren. Her daughter, Mariela Castro, currently heads the Cuban National Center for Sex Education, and her son, Alejandro Castro Espín, is a Colonel in the Ministry of Interior.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in the Cuban revolution.", "content": "Returning home, she became more involved with the opposition to the dictator Fulgencio Batista. A meeting with revolutionary leader Frank País led her to become a leader of the revolutionary movement in Oriente province. Espín met the Castro brothers who had relocated to Mexico after their failed armed attack on the Moncada Barracks. Espin acted as a messenger between the Julio 26 Movement in Mexico and Pais back in Cuba. She then went on to assist the revolutionaries in the Sierra Maestra mountains after the 26th of July Movement's return to Cuba on the Granma yacht.  Espín's ability to speak both Spanish and English allowed her to represent the revolutionary movement on an international scale. Pepín Bosch, an executive of the Bacardi Corporation, arranged a meeting between CIA Inspector General Lyman Kirkpatrick and representatives of the 26th of July Movement in 1957. Espín, as both a revolutionary leader and the daughter of a Bacardi executive, told Kirkpatrick that the revolutionaries only wanted \"what you Americans have: clean politics and a clean police system.\" She also acted as an interpreter for an interview between New York Times reporter Herbert Matthews and Fidel Castro in 1957, which served the dual purpose of spreading news of the revolution and assuring Cubans and the international community that Batista's claims of Castro's death were false.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in the Federation of Cuban Women.", "content": "Vilma Espín was an outspoken supporter of gender equality in Cuba. Her involvement in the revolution helped transform the role of women in Cuba and in 1960, Espín became the president of the Federation of Cuban Women, and remained in that position until her death in 2007. The organization's primary goals were educating women, giving them the necessary skills to seek gainful employment, and above all encouraging them to participate in politics and support the revolutionary government. In 1960, when sugar mills and cane fields were under attack across Cuba shortly before the Bay of Pigs invasion, the Federation of Cuban Women created the Emergency Medical Response Brigades to mobilize women against counter-revolution. The Cuban government and the Federation encouraged women to join the labor force, even going so far as to pass the Cuban Family Code in 1975, a law mandating that men must help with household chores and childcare to lighten the workload for working mothers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in the Cuban government.", "content": "Espín served as a member of the Central Committee of the Cuban Communist Party from 1965 to 1989. She also held many other roles in the Cuban government, including chair of the Commission for Social Prevention from 1967 to 1971, director of Industrial Development in the Ministry of Food in 1969, president of the Institute of Childcare in 1971, and member of the Cuban Council of State in 1976. In addition to her roles within Cuba, Espín also served as Cuba's representative at the United Nations General Assembly.  Espín took on the role of Cuba's First Lady for 45 years, initially taking on the role as the sister-in-law to Fidel Castro, who was divorced at the time he came to power. She officially became the First Lady in 2006 when her husband, Raúl Castro, became president.  Espín headed the Cuban Delegation to the Congress of the International Federation of Democratic Women in Chile in September 1959. She also headed the Cuban delegations to subsequent Conferences on Women, praising them as \"invaluable to women in developing countries.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Espín died in Havana at 4:14 p.m. EDT on 18 June 2007, following a long illness. An official mourning-period was declared from 8 p.m. on 18 June until 10 p.m. on 19 June. A funeral ceremony was held at the Karl Marx Theatre in Havana the day after her death, and the Cuban government released a statement praising her as \"one of the most relevant fighters for women's emancipation in our country and in the world.\" Her body was cremated, and her remains rest in the Frank País Mausoleum, Municipio II Frente in the province of Santiago de Cuba, Cuba.  The Vilma Espín elementary school was opened in Havana in April of 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vilma Lucila Espín Guillois (7 April 1930 – 18 June 2007) was a Cuban revolutionary, feminist, and chemical engineer. She helped supply and organize the 26th of July Movement as an underground spy, and took an active role in many branches of the Cuban government from the conclusion of the revolution to her death. As an adamant feminist, Espín helped found the Federation of Cuban Women and promoted equal rights for Cuban women in all spheres of life.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976185}
{"src_title": "Sedlec Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Sedlec Abbey was founded in 1142 from Waldsassen Abbey in Sedlec as the first Cistercian monastery in Bohemia. The grounds covered by wood and swamp were granted by Miroslav, House of Wartenberg. It flourished under abbot, due to silver mining in the region.  The abbey was burnt in April 1421 by Hussites led by Jan Žižka, and many monks were killed. The library had been secured shortly before to the Stift Klosterneuburg in Lower Austria. A few monks returned, but it took until 1620 to revive the monastery. It flourished once more after the Thirty Years' War, when several buildings were erected or remodeled. The abbey was dissolved in 1783.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buildings.", "content": "The abbey was originally built in Romanesque style. It was remodel in Gothic style between 1280 and 1320. After the destruction by the Hussites, the buildings were reconstructed at the beginning of the 18th century.  The abbey church was dedicated to the Assumption of Mary and St. John. It was built as a basilica with five naves between 1280 and 1330. Destroyed in 1421, it was rebuilt from 1699 to 1707 after designs by and Johann Blasius Santini-Aichel. Another restoration, trying to preserve the original appearance, was performed from 1854 to 1857.  The chapel \"Kostel Všech svatých\" (All Saints' Chapel), next to the cemetery, was run from 1389 by a Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre. The building dates to around 1400, was rebuilt several times and remodeled in Baroque style in 1710 by Santini-Aichel. It holds in its basement the Sedlec Ossuary.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sedlec Abbey is a former Cistercian monastery in Sedlec, part of Kutná Hora in the Czech Republic. Founded in 1142, it was the first Cistercian foundation in Bohemia. It was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1995.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976186}
{"src_title": "Margaret III, Countess of Flanders", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "In 1355, Margaret of Flanders married Philip of Rouvres, grandson and heir of Odo IV, Duke of Burgundy. Philip was Count of Burgundy and Artois (1347–1361), Duke of Burgundy (1350–1361), and became Count of Auvergne and Boulogne (1360–1361).  Following Philip's death from a riding accident in 1361, Margaret was widowed and had no issue by him. King John II of France then claimed the Duchy of Burgundy for the kingdom of France. In 1364, Philip the Bold, King John's youngest son, was granted the duchy, and subsequently married Margaret. Margaret's second marriage to Philip the Bold took place in 1369.  When Margaret's father, the Count of Flanders, died in 1384, she and Philip inherited the counties of Artois, Burgundy, Flanders, Nevers, and Rethel. Philip died in 1404, and Margaret died the following year. With her death, the House of Dampierre came to an end, and the County of Flanders lost its (relative) independence to Burgundy. It came under the rule of her son, John the Fearless, and later to the House of Habsburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Margaret and Philip had the following children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The main line of the House of Dampierre ended with Margaret III. The Dampierres, originally only counts of Flanders, had through a clever marriage policy managed to inherit the counties of Nevers (1280) and Rethel (1328). Through her grandmother, a daughter of King Philip V of France, the counties of Artois and Burgundy (the \"Franche Comté\") were added to this (1382). These lands were to provide the core of the dominions of the House of Valois-Burgundy, which were, together with the Duchy of Burgundy, to provide them with a power base to challenge the rule of their cousins, the Valois kings of France in the 15th century.  Her eldest son, John the Fearless, succeeded her husband in 1404 as Duke of Burgundy and her as Count of Burgundy, Count of Artois, and Count of Flanders. In 1406 her younger son Anthony inherited Brabant and Limburg. Nevers and Rethel were at first, in her lifetime, given to her eldest sons John (Nevers) and Anthony (Rethel), but after John's accession to the duchy, Nevers went to her youngest son Philip. Rethel was given to Philip in 1402 when it became clear that Anthony would inherit Brabant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Residences.", "content": "In Burgundy, the Château de Germolles, offered to Margaret of Flanders by Philip the Bold in 1381, was transformed by the Duchess of Burgundy into a sumptuous country estate. It was a large rectangular building, surrounded by a moat, that enclosed a courtyard. The south and east wings contained the living apartments, while the west wing held the reception rooms. Margaret, being energetic and a country lover, decided to develop at the estate some rustic activities that would create a pleasant environment around this favourite residence of hers, as well as developing local agriculture and providing some income for the maintenance of the domain. Thus, she planted a large rose garden, and the petals were sent to Flanders to be used to make rose water. Largely preserved, the Château is today one of the best examples of the princely residences in France at the end of the Middle Ages.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Margaret III (13 April 1350 – 16/21 March 1405) was the last Countess of Flanders of the House of Dampierre, as well as Countess of Artois and Countess of Burgundy (as Margaret II). She was the only surviving child and heir of Louis II, Count of Flanders (1346–1384) and Margaret of Brabant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976187}
{"src_title": "Dasiphora fruticosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It grows to tall, rarely up to. The habit is variably upright to sprawling or prostrate, but stems are often ascending especially those stems with many long branches. The bark of older stems is shreddy with long thin strips. The plants are densely leafy, the leaves divided into five or seven (occasionally three or nine) pinnate leaflets. The leaflets are linear-oblong, long, with entire margins and more or less acute ends. The foliage (both leaves and young stems) is pubescent, variably covered in fine silky, silvery hairs about 1 mm long. The flowers are produced terminally on the stems and are cm across, buttercup-shaped, with five petals and 15–25 stamens; the petals are pale to bright yellow (orange to reddish in some western Chinese populations). The fruit is a cluster of achenes covered with long hairs. The species is variably dioecious or bisexual; flowering is typically from early to late summer. It is normally found growing in moisture-retentive soils in swamps and rocky areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "There are two subspecies:  Numerous varieties have been described from Asia, some of which have not yet been published under the genus \"Dasiphora\", and others in that genus only as distinct species. These include \"Potentilla fruticosa\" var. \"albicans\" Rehd. & Wils., \"P. f.\" var. \"arbuscula\" (D.Don) Maxim. (syn. \"Dasiphora arbuscula\" (D.Don) Soják), \"P. f.\" var. \"dahurica\" (Nestl.) Ser. (syn. \"Dasiphora dahurica\" (Nestl.) Komarov), \"P. f.\" var. \"pumila\" J.D.Hooker, \"P. f.\" var. \"mandschurica\" (Maxim.) Wolf (syn. \"Dasiphora mandshurica\" (Maxim.) Juz.), and \"P. f.\" var. \"unifoliolata\" Ludlow (syn. \"Dasiphora unifoliolata\" (Ludlow) Soják). The varieties \"D. f.\" var. \"monticola\" Rydb. and \"D. f.\" var. \"tenuiloba\" Rydb. have been described from western North America, but are not widely accepted as distinct.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and decorative uses.", "content": "Shrubby cinquefoil is a popular ornamental plant in temperate regions. Different cultivars are variable with flowers ranging from white to yellow, orange and pink, but they are all hardy plants that produce flowers for much of the summer. The flowers are always small, flat, and round, but there are many dozens on each bush. It is very often used by cities and businesses for landscaping because of its hardiness and low maintenance. It was introduced into cultivation in the 18th century, but many of the modern cultivars, particularly those with orange or red flowers, derive from collections by Reginald Farrer in western China in the early 20th century. The vast majority of sellers and gardeners still use the old name \"Potentilla fruticosa\".  All the characteristics of small leaves, delicate flowers, and orange to brown flaky bark make the shrubby cinquefoil suitable for Bonsai. It is very popular in Japan and is gaining popularity in Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "Below is a recommended selection of over 130 cultivars which have been named. Those marked have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dasiphora fruticosa is a species of hardy deciduous flowering shrub in the family Rosaceae, native to the cool temperate and subarctic regions of the northern hemisphere, often growing at high altitudes in mountains. \"Dasiphora fruticosa\" is a disputed name, and the plant is still widely referenced in the horticultural literature under its synonym \"Potentilla fruticosa\". Common names include shrubby cinquefoil, golden hardhack, bush cinquefoil, shrubby five-finger, tundra rose, and widdy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976188}
{"src_title": "PRS Guitars", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beginning: 1985-1995.", "content": "Paul Reed Smith set up a partnership to create a factory in Annapolis, Maryland. and set off work on producing guitars. The company's first outing was for the 1985 NAMM Show where they debuted the PRS Custom. Featuring a mahogany neck set into a mahogany body with a maple cap, a patented vibrato, customized tuning pegs, and custom rotary pickup switching with high quality electronics, the guitar represented influences from both old and new; something striking in the midst of an industry that was producing “high tech” guitars. “I saw Adrian Belew on King Crimson’s \"Beat\" tour in 1982,” says Smith, “and the sound he was getting out of his guitar was on another planet somewhere. He let me rebuild his Ibanez Blazer. I put in our whole tuning-peg/bridge system and a new electronic system with an Alembic Stratoblaster pre-amp. It sounded unbelievable. Right then I decided that I wanted to put those sounds on a humbucking guitar, which is when I went back to the rotary switch and redesigned it for humbuckers.” After three years the company employed 45 people producing 15 guitars per day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hardware.", "content": "Nuts are synthetic and tuners are of PRS's own design, although some models feature Korean-made Kluson-style tuners. PRS guitars feature three original bridge designs: a one-piece pre-intonated stoptail, a vibrato, and a wrapover tailpiece. The Vibrato was designed with the help of guitar engineer John Mann. It was an update on the classic Fender vibrato and used cam-locking tuners, which offered wide pitch bending with exceptional tuning stability.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pickups.", "content": "Pickups are designed and wound in-house. While most of the pickups are humbuckers, some are actually a pair of single coils wound in opposing directions, one intended for the neck and one for the bridge position. Through the use of a unique rotary pickup selector switch, PRS pickups offer 5 different sounds: a combination of thick humbucking Gibson-like tones, and chimey single-coil Stratocaster-like tones. The standard treble and standard bass pick ups use magnetic pole pieces in the non-adjustable inner coil, and a rear-placed feeder magnet in order to achieve a more authentic single-coil tone when split by the rotary switch  PRS developed pickups for the aggressive rock market, offering pick ups such as the chainsaw, and the Hot-Fat-Screams (HFS) initially used on the Special model.  In 1998, an electronic upgrade kit was released for pre-1993 instruments which included lighter-weight tuner buttons, nickel-plated brass screws for saddles and intonation, a simulated tone control, and high-capacitance hookup wire. In 2012, PRS released the 408 pickups used on the 408 and Paul's Guitar models. These pickups include innovations that feature no loss of volume when in coil split mode. They have an exclusive agreement to use wire drawn from the same machine that made wire for Les Paul and Stratocaster pickups in the 1950s.  Certain models of PRS Guitars have also used pickups by Lindy Fralin, notably in the EG II and certain specs of the Custom 22.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Models.", "content": "In 1985 Paul Reed Smith started producing factory made guitars, which later on known as PRS Standard.  In 1988 Paul Reed Smith introduced its more affordable Bolt-On series known as classic electric(CE models,) which discontinued in 2009. In 2016, the CE line was put back in production.  In 1990, PRS EG was introduced as company's first 22-fret guitar. Later on in the more successful 1992 PRS EG II was introduced, which includes PRS's first lefty guitar.  In 1992 PRS introduced the Dragon 1 model. Only 50 units were produced. It featured an intricate dragon inlay which ran down the finger board, a wide 22 fret neck, and a non-vibrato Stop-tail bridge and a new pick up design. The changes in design from previous models added a noticeable tonal improvement which led the company to use the same characteristics in later models such as the PRS Custom 22. The Dragon 2 was released in 1993, and the Dragon 3 in 1994. Both featured dragon inlays which became more extreme with every year. Only 100 of each of the 2 models were made. In 1999 PRS released the Dragon 2000, which featured complex body curves, and a 3 dimensional dragon inlay. Just 50 Dragon 2000's were ever produced.  In 1994, Paul Reed Smith collaborated with Ted McCarty and launched the \"McCarty\" Series. The McCarty series offers a more vintage feeling and sounding PRS Guitar.  PRS introduced a more affordable line of guitars in 2000 referred to as the \"SE\" which are manufactured in Korea by World Musical Instrument Co. Ltd. for the electrics and Wildwood for the acoustics. PRS produces a large range of models in the SE series including the Custom 24, SE245, SE Kestrel and Kingfisher bass guitars as well as signature guitars such as the Bernie Marsden, Tremonti, Zach Myers and Santana amongst others. They also intro their Singlecut models in 2001.  PRS introduces a range of amplifiers and acoustic guitars in 2009.  In 2013, PRS added the S2 Series and in February 2018 PRS began producing a Silver Sky model based on two of John Mayer's favourite guitars from the 1960s.  In 2019, PRS announced three SE signature models: PRS SE Santana Singlecut Trem, PRS SE Paul's Guitar, and PRS SE Schizoid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal challenge.", "content": "In 2001, PRS released their Singlecut model, which resembled the traditional Les Paul. Gibson Guitar Corporation filed a trademark infringement lawsuit against the owner, Paul Reed Smith. An injunction was ordered that required PRS to stop manufacturing of the Singlecut at the end of 2004. Federal District Court Judge William J. Haynes, then ruled the Singlecut was an imitation of the Gibson Les Paul. However, in 2005, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit reversed the lower court decision and ordered the dismissal of Gibson's suit and PRS resumed production.  While no changes to the design of the Singlecut occurred as a result of the lawsuit, some Singlecut owners and sellers have adopted the term 'pre-lawsuit' to differentiate their Singlecut guitar from others.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul Reed Smith Guitars, also known as PRS Guitars, is an American guitar and amplifier manufacturer located in Stevensville, Maryland. Founded in 1985 in Annapolis, Maryland by Paul Reed Smith, the brand has become renowned for their highly figured maple tops, high quality craftsmanship, and innovative guitar designs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976189}
{"src_title": "William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family life.", "content": "William Frederick was the second son of Ernest Casimir I, Count of Nassau-Dietz and Sophia Hedwig of Brunswick-Lüneburg. He married Countess Albertine Agnes of Nassau, the fifth daughter of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange on 2 May 1652 in Cleves. They had three children: The fact that his wife was only the fifth daughter of Frederick Henry, and that they were married after the death of her father, would later take on a special significance in the quarrel about the inheritance of the title of Prince of Orange after the death of William III of England in 1702. This was because Frederick Henry had made a provision in his will that if his male line would die out (which was the case with William III) the title of Prince of Orange would be inherited by the male issue of the line of his elder daughter Louise Henriette of Nassau. This might even have been the case without this provision, had William III not himself left the inheritance to the descendants of William Frederick in his will. The inheritance therefore came down to a clash of testaments, with the outcome that both claimants eventually took the title and divided the material inheritance. William Frederick was a paternal grandson of John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, a younger brother of his wife's paternal grandfather William the Silent. When John died in 1606 his inheritance was divided among his five sons, one of which was William Frederick's father Ernest Casimir, who received the title of Count of Nassau-Dietz and followed his eldest brother William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg as Stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe in 1620. William Frederick inherited the Nassau-Dietz possessions, the county of Diez and the county of Spiegelberg (near Lauenstein) from his elder brother Henry Casimir I of Nassau-Dietz, who died childless in 1640.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "As a second son, William Frederick did not seem destined for the career he eventually would follow. He studied at Leiden University and the University of Groningen and subsequently took a commission in the army of the Dutch Republic, like his male ancestors and his brother. As such he was a junior partner of his future father in law and brother in law William II, Prince of Orange. However, his elder brother died in action near Hulst in 1640. As Henry Casimir was unmarried, and did not have children, William Frederick inherited his titles.  However, as the office of stadtholder was not yet hereditary, William Frederick only managed to be appointed in Friesland. The stadtholdership in Groningen and Drenthe went to Frederick Henry, not without a struggle with William Frederick, however. After Frederick Henry's death in 1647 William II succeeded his father also in these two provinces as stadtholder. Only when William II died in 1650, just a week before his son William III was born, did William Frederick obtain the stadtholdership in the other two provinces also.  At that time he might have obtained the stadtholdership in the five other provinces (Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel) also. After all, the stadtholderate was an appointive office. The elder branch of the Nassau family might have \"first claim\" to the office, but as the \"claimant\" was a newborn babe (William III), such a claim was not to be taken seriously. Yet, to avoid a quarrel with the members of that elder branch (William II's widow and mother) William Frederick did not press his personal claim, but offered to serve as lieutenant-stadtholder in the five provinces until the infant William III would come of age.  He might have been taken up on that offer, except for the events that preceded the death of William II. William had performed a military coup d'état against the States of Holland in the course of a quarrel about military policy. William Frederick had played a key role in that coup by leading the attempt to seize the city of Amsterdam by force in August, 1650. Though the attempted seizure was unsuccessful, the coup had not been. However, after William's death (Nov 1650) the Holland Regents seized their chance to revert to the \"status quo ante\". They decided to leave the stadtholdership vacant in their province, followed by the four other provinces in which William had been stadtholder, thus inaugurating the First Stadtholderless Period. Because of his role in the coup William Frederick was politically unacceptable, not just as a stand-in for William III, but also on his own account.  The office of stadtholder was a provincial office. On the federal level William II had fulfilled the office of Captain general of the Union, like his father and uncle before him. William Frederick again would normally have been in line for this office (after all, he was a stadtholder in his own right), except for the same political awkwardness that blocked his appointment to stadtholder in Holland. Again he offered himself as lieutenant-captain-general (the function Marlborough would fulfil in England after 1702), but again the Regents decided to leave the function vacant. William Frederick did not even get the function of acting commander-in-chief (Field Marshal), which went to a noble from Holland.  This was to be the story of William Frederick's life. He tried to act as the \"de facto\" head of the Orangist party, in opposition to the States Party faction of Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt and his uncle Cornelis de Graeff, but was usually outwitted and checked by De Witt at every step. The fact that the members of the senior branch of the family were suspicious of his ambitions made his position even more difficult, even after he married into that senior branch.  Nevertheless, outside the Netherlands those ambitions met with more success. In 1654 his title of Count was \"upgraded\" to Imperial Prince (\"Reichsfürst\") by the Holy Roman Emperor. Within the Empire this provided him with more prestige, which however did not translate to more prestige in the Republic.  For a while, in the late 1650s, there seemed to be a chance of becoming Commander-in-chief, as part of a political compromise, brought together by De Witt, but nothing came of it. Only during the campaign against Bernhard von Galen during the Münster occupation of East Friesland, was he entrusted with a command in the field. He was successful in the reconquest of a strategic fortress (the \"Deilerschans\"), but shortly afterward he died on 31 October 1664 in an accident with a pistol that fired unexpectedly.  Before his death he had persuaded the States of Friesland that his son Henry Casimir II (only 7 years old in 1664) should succeed him as stadtholder. The States kept their word, accepting a \"regency\" of the young boy's mother. The Frisian stadtholderate was made hereditary in 1675.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "William Frederick (; Arnhem 7 August 1613 – Leeuwarden 31 October 1664), Count (from 1654 Imperial Prince) of Nassau-Dietz, Stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976190}
{"src_title": "Emirate of Granada", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Tributary state.", "content": "With the Reconquista in full swing after the conquest of Córdoba in June 1236, Mohammed I ibn Nasr aligned Granada with Ferdinand III of Castile in 1246, thereby creating a tributary state, or \"taifa\", under the Crown of Castile. Granada remained a tributary state for the next 250 years, with Nasrid emirs paying tribute to Castilian kings mostly in the form of gold from present-day Mali and Burkina Faso that was carried to Iberia through the merchant routes in the Sahara. The Nasrids also provided military assistance to Castile for its conquest of areas under Muslim control, most notably Seville in November 1248 and the Taifa of Niebla in 1262.  In 1306, Granada conquered Ceuta, but lost control of the city in 1309 to the Kingdom of Fez with the assistance of the Crown of Aragon. Granada re-captured Ceuta a year later, but again lost it in 1314. Granada again held the city from 1315 to 1327. In 1384, Granada again re-took Ceuta but lost it definitively to Kingdom of Fez in 1386. Finally Ceuta was taken by the Portuguese Empire in 1415 and by the Spanish Empire in 1580.  Granada's peace with Castile broke down on various occasions. Granada lost territory to Castile at the Battle of Teba in 1330. In 1340, Granada under Yusuf I supported the failed Marinid invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, which ended at the Battle of Río Salado.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional entrepôt.", "content": "Granada's status as a tributary state and its favorable geographic location, with the Sierra Nevada as a natural barrier, helped to prolong Nasrid rule and allowed the Emirate to prosper as a regional entrepôt with the Maghreb and the rest of Africa. The city of Granada was one of the largest cities during this time: it accepted numerous Muslim refugees expelled from Christian controlled areas, doubling the size of the city and even becoming the largest city of Europe in 1450 in terms of population. During this time there were 137 mosques in the Medina of Granada. Granada also served as a refuge for Muslims fleeing during the Reconquista. Regardless of its comparative prosperity, intra-political strife was constant. Skirmishes along the border of Granada occurred frequently and territory was gradually lost to Castile.  Granada was tightly integrated in Mediterranean trade networks and heavily financed by Genoese bankers aiming to gain control of the gold trade carried in through Trans-Saharan trade routes. However, after Portugal opened direct trade routes to Sub-Saharan Africa by sea in the 15th century, Granada became less important as a regional commercial center. With the union of Castile and Aragon in 1469, these kingdoms set their sights on annexing Granada.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fall of Granada.", "content": "The war of Granada would offer an opportunity for Ferdinand and Isabella to harness the restless Castilian nobility against a common enemy and instill subjects with a sense of loyalty to the crown. The Emirate's attack on the Castilian frontier town of Zahara in December 1481 led to a prolonged war. The Granada War began in 1482, with Christian forces capturing Alhama de Granada in February 1482. This marked the beginning of a grinding 10-year war. The Christian force was made up of troops provided by Castilian nobles, towns, and the \"Santa Hermandad\", as well as Swiss mercenaries. The Catholic Church also encouraged other Christian countries to offer their troops and their finances to the war effort. Meanwhile, civil war erupted in Granada as a result of succession struggles in the Nasrid ruling house. Castile used this internal strife as an opportunity to push further into Granada. By 1491, the city of Granada itself lay under siege. On November 25, 1491, the Treaty of Granada was signed, setting out the conditions for surrender. On January 2, 1492, the last Muslim leader, Muhammad XII, known as \"Boabdil\" to the Spanish, gave up complete control of Granada, to Ferdinand and Isabella, \"Los Reyes Católicos\" (\"The Catholic Monarchs\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The Christian ousting of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula with the conquest of Granada did not extinguish the spirit of the \"Reconquista\". Isabella urged Christians to pursue a conquest of Africa. About 200,000 Muslims are thought to have emigrated to North Africa after the fall of Granada. Initially, under the conditions of surrender, the Muslims who remained were guaranteed their property, laws, customs, and religion. This however, was not the case, causing the Muslims to rebel against their Christian rulers, culminating with an uprising in 1500. The rebellion was seen as a chance to formally end the treaty of Granada, and the rights of Muslims and Jews were withdrawn. Muslims in the area were given the choice of expulsion or conversion. In 1568–1571, the descendants of the converted Muslims revolted again, leading to their expulsion from the former Emirate to North Africa and Anatolia.  For Jews as well, a period of mixed religious tolerance and persecution under Muslim rule in Spain came to an end with their expulsion by the Christian monarchy in 1492.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "Ibn al-Khatib was a polymath and poet of the Nasrid period. He authored many works in various fields, and his poetry is carved into the walls of the Alhambra palace.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The Alhambra palace in Granada was expanded in the Nasrid period, particularly during the rule of Yusuf I and Muhammad V.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Gharnati music () is a variety of Andalusi music that originated Granada and moved to North Africa where it survives to this day.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Emirate of Granada (, trans. \"Imārat Ġarnāṭah\"), also known as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada (), was an Islamic realm in southern Iberia during the Late Middle Ages. It was the last independent Muslim state in Western Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976191}
{"src_title": "Kevin Mirallas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Mirallas spent his youth career playing for his hometown club Standard Liège. He then left Belgium and began his first team career in France by signing for Lille OSC and played for them since the opening of the 2004–05 season. Mirallas participated in the UEFA Cup in his first season at the club. Mirallas subsequently was transferred to AS Saint-Étienne for €4 million, and began to make a name for himself by scoring against Lyon on his debut in the Rhone-Loire derby.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Olympiacos.", "content": "In June 2010 Mirallas joined Greek club Olympiacos on a one-year loan for a fee of €2.5 million. Mirallas made his debut in a 5–0 win against KS Besa Kavaje in the Second Qualifying Round of the UEFA Europa League Qualifiers and scored his first two goals for the club in a 3–1 home win against Olympiakos Volos. Mirallas scored in a 2–1 away loss to their greatest rivals Panathinaikos in the Derby of the eternal enemies after which his contract was extended to four years. Olympiacos won that season's Greek Super League and Mirallas finished as the club's top scorer with 14 goals, with only Panathinaikos's Djibril Cissé scoring more league goals than him. The following season Mirallas scored his first ever hat-trick for Olympiacos in a 4–0 away win against Levadiakos F.C. and scored four in a 7–2 victory over Asteras Tripolis. Olympiacos again won the league, and Mirallas was the league's top scorer with 20 goals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Everton.", "content": "In August 2012, Mirallas joined Premier League club Everton for a reported fee of £6 million. He made his debut as a second-half substitute during a 3–1 league win over Aston Villa at Villa Park in which he had a headed goal disallowed due to it being ruled offside. In his first start four days later, Mirallas scored twice and provided two assists as Everton won 5–0 against Leyton Orient in the second round of the League Cup. He scored his first league goal on 22 September 2012, in a 3–0 away win against Swansea City after heading in his initial effort which rebounded off the underside of the bar. Mirallas suffered a number of injuries which limited his number of appearances during the middle part of the season. He made a number of brief cameos, notably against Tottenham Hotspur in December. Mirallas' next goal came against Oldham Athletic in a 3–1 win on 26 February 2013 in the fifth round of the FA Cup. He then scored again, scoring his second league goal of the season against Reading in a 3–1 win on 2 March 2013. He scored his first brace in David Moyes' last home game in charge of Everton in a 2–0 win against West Ham United.  Mirallas scored and assisted a goal during a 3–3 draw in the first Merseyside derby of the 2013–14 season on 23 November. He also received a booking for a high challenge on Luis Suárez which opposing manager Brendan Rodgers described as reckless and insisted Mirallas was lucky to remain on the pitch. He went on to score eight goals in the season, before it was ended in April due to a groin injury. Mirallas created 61 chances for his teammates during the season, the most of any Everton player.  On 18 September 2014, Mirallas scored his first European goal for Everton, in a 4–1 win over Wolfsburg in the first match of their Europa League campaign. He signed a new three-year contract with the club in August 2015.  Mirallas scored his 29th Premier League goals for Everton on 11 March 2017 as Everton cruised to victory over West Bromwich Albion at Goodison Park in a 3–0 win. On 12 May 2017, Mirallas signed a new three-year contract deal with Everton until the end of June 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loan to Olympiacos.", "content": "On 7 January 2018, Mirallas agreed to return to former club Olympiacos on loan until the end of the 2017–18 season. The club did not have an option to purchase Mirallas as part of the contract. On 16 April, Mirallas scored a stunning strike from the edge of the penalty area on the stroke of half-time in a 5–1 home win against Kerkyra. On 4 May, his loan spell was terminated by mutual consent due to Everton's high asking price to purchase Mirallas outright, as well as Mirallas' overall sub-par performances with Olympiacos.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Loan to Fiorentina.", "content": "On 4 August 2018, Mirallas signed for Fiorentina on a season-long loan deal with the option to make the transfer permanent.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Royal Antwerp.", "content": "Mirallas joined Royal Antwerp on a free transfer in August 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Mirallas has represented Belgium at under-17, under-19 and under-21 level, and was one of the leading figures in guiding the under-21s to the semi-finals of the 2007 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship.  He scored twice in the 2008 Summer Olympics football tournament, once against China (2–0 victory) and once against Italy (3–2 victory). He made his full international debut for the senior team in 2007 and scored his first ever international goal against Serbia in Brussels on 23 August of that year, as a Mousa Dembélé brace helped the Red Devils to a 3–2 home victory.  Mirallas was part of the Belgian squad which reached the quarter-finals at the 2014 FIFA World Cup, making his tournament debut in the second group match, a 1–0 win over Russia in the Maracanã, as a 75th-minute substitute for Dries Mertens. In a game of few opportunities, Mirallas hit the post with Belgium's first shot on target, with another substitute Divock Origi scoring the only goal two minutes from full-time.  In May 2018 he was left out of Belgium’s preliminary squad for the 2018 World Cup in Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Mirallas was deployed as a centre forward for Olympiacos but since his move to Everton he has been deployed mainly as a winger or a free roaming forward. He is known for his pace, close ball control, passing ability and proficiency in one-on-one situations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Mirallas' father was born in Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Olympiacos", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kevin Antonio Joel Gislain Mirallas y Castillo (born 5 October 1987), more commonly known as Kevin Mirallas (), is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a winger for Royal Antwerp and the Belgium national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976192}
{"src_title": "Endorheic basin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Endorheic lakes.", "content": "Endorheic lakes are bodies of water that do not flow into the sea. Most of the water falling on Earth finds its way to the oceans through a network of rivers, lakes and wetlands. However, there is a class of water bodies that are located in closed or endorheic watersheds where the topography prevents their drainage to the oceans. These endorheic watersheds (containing water in rivers or lakes that form a balance of surface inflows, evaporation and seepage) are often called terminal lakes or sink lakes.  Endorheic lakes are usually in the interior of a landmass, far from an ocean in areas of relatively low rainfall. Their watersheds are often confined by natural geologic land formations such as a mountain range, cutting off water egress to the ocean. The inland water flows into dry watersheds where the water evaporates, leaving a high concentration of minerals and other inflow erosion products. Over time this input of erosion products can cause the endorheic lake to become relatively saline (a \"salt lake\"). Since the main outflow pathways of these lakes are chiefly through evaporation and seepage, endorheic lakes are usually more sensitive to environmental pollutant inputs than water bodies that have access to oceans, as pollution can be trapped in them and accumulate over time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Occurrence.", "content": "Endorheic regions can occur in any climate but are most commonly found in desert locations. In areas where rainfall is higher, riparian erosion will generally carve drainage channels (particularly in times of flood), or cause the water level in the terminal lake to rise until it finds an outlet, breaking the enclosed endorheic hydrological system's geographical barrier and opening it to the surrounding terrain. The Black Sea was likely such a lake, having once been an independent hydrological system before the Mediterranean Sea broke through the terrain separating the two. Lake Bonneville was another such lake, overflowing its basin in the Bonneville flood. The Malheur/Harney lake system in Oregon is normally cut off from drainage to the ocean, but has an outflow channel to the Malheur River that is normally dry, but flows in years of peak precipitation.  Examples of relatively humid regions in endorheic basins often exist at high elevation. These regions tend to be marshy and are subject to substantial flooding in wet years. The area containing Mexico City is one such case, with annual precipitation of and characterized by waterlogged soils that require draining.  Endorheic regions tend to be far inland with their boundaries defined by mountains or other geological features that block their access to oceans. Since the inflowing water can evacuate only through seepage or evaporation, dried minerals or other products collect in the basin, eventually making the water saline and also making the basin vulnerable to pollution. Continents vary in their concentration of endorheic regions due to conditions of geography and climate. Australia has the highest percentage of endorheic regions at 21 percent while North America has the least at five percent. Approximately 18 percent of the earth's land drains to endorheic lakes or seas, the largest of these land areas being the interior of Asia. In deserts, water inflow is low and loss to solar evaporation high, drastically reducing the formation of complete drainage systems. Closed water flow areas often lead to the concentration of salts and other minerals in the basin. Minerals leached from the surrounding rocks are deposited in the basin, and left behind when the water evaporates. Thus endorheic basins often contain extensive salt pans (also called salt flats, salt lakes, alkali flats, dry lake beds or playas). These areas tend to be large, flat hardened surfaces and are sometimes used for aviation runways or land speed record attempts, because of their extensive areas of perfectly level terrain.  Both permanent and seasonal endorheic lakes can form in endorheic basins. Some endorheic basins are essentially stable, climate change having reduced precipitation to the degree that a lake no longer forms. Even most permanent endorheic lakes change size and shape dramatically over time, often becoming much smaller or breaking into several smaller parts during the dry season. As humans have expanded into previously uninhabitable desert areas, the river systems that feed many endorheic lakes have been altered by the construction of dams and aqueducts. As a result, many endorheic lakes in developed or developing countries have contracted dramatically, resulting in increased salinity, higher concentrations of pollutants, and the disruption of ecosystems.  Even within exorheic basins, there can be \"non-contributing\", low-lying areas that trap runoff and prevent it from contributing to flows downstream during years of average or below-average runoff. In flat river basins, non-contributing areas can be a large fraction of the river basin, e.g. Lake Winnipeg's basin. A lake may be endorheic during dry years and can overflow its basin during wet years, e.g., the former Tulare Lake.  Because the Earth's climate has recently been through a warming and drying phase with the end of the Ice Ages, many endorheic areas such as Death Valley that are now dry deserts were large lakes relatively recently. During the last ice age, the Sahara may have contained lakes larger than any now existing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable endorheic basins and lakes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Antarctica.", "content": "Endorheic lakes in Antarctica are located in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Victoria Land, the largest ice-free area in Antarctica.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Asia.", "content": "Much of western and Central Asia is a giant endorheic region made up of a number of contiguous closed basins. The region contains several basins and terminal lakes, including:  Other endorheic lakes and basins in Asia include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "Australia, being very dry and having exceedingly low runoff ratios due to its ancient soils, has many endorheic drainages. The most important are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Africa.", "content": "Large endorheic regions in Africa are located in the Sahara Desert, the Kalahari Desert, and the East African Rift:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "North America.", "content": "Many small lakes and ponds in North Dakota and the Northern Great Plains are endorheic; some of them have salt encrustations along their shores.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "Though a large portion of Europe drains to the endorheic Caspian Sea, Europe's wet climate means it contains relatively few terminal lakes itself: any such basin is likely to continue to fill until it reaches an overflow level connecting it with an outlet or erodes the barrier blocking its exit. Exceptions include:  All these lakes are drained, however, either through manmade canals or via karstic phenomena. Minor endorheic lakes exist throughout the Mediterranean countries of Spain (e.g. Laguna de Gallocanta, Estany de Banyoles), Italy, Cyprus (Larnaca and Akrotiri salt lakes) and Greece.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ancient.", "content": "Some of the Earth's ancient endorheic systems and lakes include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An endorheic basin (also endoreic basin or endorreic basin) is a limited drainage basin that normally retains water and allows no outflow to other external bodies of water, such as rivers or oceans, but converges instead into lakes or swamps, permanent or seasonal, that equilibrate through evaporation. Such a basin may also be referred to as a closed or terminal basin or as an internal drainage system or interior drainage basin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976193}
{"src_title": "Haakon Sigurdsson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Haakon was the son of Sigurd Haakonsson, Jarl of Lade and ruler of Trøndelag and Hålogaland. His mother was Bergljot Toresdatter, daughter of, Jarl of Møre. Adam of Bremen wrote that he was \"of the stock of Ivar (possibly Ivar the Boneless) and descended from a race of giants\". In the sagas, Haakon claimed descent from the divine lineage of Sæming, son of Odin. The Hakon Jarl Runestones in Sweden may refer to him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Haakon became earl after his father was killed by King Harald Greycloak's men in 961. Haakon Jarl warred with King Harald for some time, until he was forced to flee to Denmark, where he conspired with Harald Bluetooth against Harald Greycloak.  The two arranged the death of Harald Greycloak around 971, after which Harald Bluetooth invited his foster-son to be invested with new Danish fiefs. Civil war broke out between Haakon Jarl and the surviving brothers of Harald Greycloak, but Haakon proved victorious. After this, Haakon Jarl ruled Norway as a vassal of Harald Bluetooth, but he was in reality an independent ruler. For Harald, he attacked Götaland and killed its ruler Ottar Jarl.  Around 973–974, he went to Denmark to help Harald Bluetooth of Denmark in his defense against the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II. Otto's forces successfully opposed an attempt by Harald to throw off the German yoke. After that Haakon paid no taxes to Denmark.  Haakon was a strong believer in the old Norse gods, even after Harald Bluetooth forced him to accept baptism around 975 and assigned him clergymen to take to Norway to spread Christianity. When a favourable wind came for Haakon to leave, he commanded the clergymen to return ashore, and broke his allegiance to Denmark. In 977 Vladimir I of Kiev fled to him, collecting as many of the Viking warriors as he could to assist him to recover Novgorod, and on his return the next year marched against Yaropolk I of Kiev. In 986, a Danish invasion fleet led by the fabled Jomsvikings was defeated at the Battle of Hjörungavágr.  In 995, a quarrel broke out between Haakon and the Trønders just as Olaf Tryggvason, a descendant of Harald Fairhair arrived. Haakon quickly lost all support, and was killed by his own slave and friend, Tormod Kark, while hiding in the pig sty in the farm Rimul in Melhus. Jarlshola is the location in Melhus thought to have been the hiding place of Haakon Jarl and Tormod Kark on their last night before the infamous murder at Rimul. After his death, Haakon Jarl's two sons Eirik Håkonson and Sveinn Hákonarson, fled for protection to the king of Sweden, Olof Skötkonung.  A number of (textually related) sources also recount Earl Haakon's predilection for raping women, whether the daughters of nobles or of commoners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poets.", "content": "According to \"Skáldatal\", Haakon had the following poets at his court:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Korsvikaspillet.", "content": "Haakon Jarl is a central figure in \"Håkon og Kark\" which is performed annually at the Korsvikaspillet festival in Korsvika in Trondheim. The play is based on the story of Haakon Jarl and Tormod Kark as portrayed in the Sagas by Snorri Sturluson. The first play was a poetic tableau that was made in connection with the 800-year anniversary of the Lade Church (\"Lade kirke\") in 1989 and repeated two years later. In 1995, wrote a new script. The music is composed by.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Primary sources.", "content": "Source basis for Haakon Jarl are considerable. He was given coverage in several sagas, including by Snorri Sturluson in \"Heimskringla\", \"Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum\" and more. According to \"Hallfreðar saga\" the poet Hallfreðr composed a \"drápa\" on the earl. Several disjoint stanzas by Hallfreðr in \"Skáldskaparmál\" are often thought to belong to this otherwise lost poem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oehlenschläger tragedy.", "content": "Haakon Jarl's life also received literary treatment by Danish poet Adam Oehlenschläger, in his tragedy \"Hakon Jarl\", written in six weeks in 1805 during a stay in Halle, after reading Snorri's \"Heimskringla\". The theme is the conflict between paganism and Christianity. There is an English translation by J. C. Lindberg. Oehlenschläger's play later formed the basis for Smetana's symphonic poem \"Hakon Jarl\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Haakon Sigurdarson (Haakon Jarl) (, ) (c. 937 – 995) was the de facto ruler of Norway from about 975 to 995. Sometimes he is styled Hakon the Powerful ().", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976194}
{"src_title": "Radclyffe Hall", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Marguerite Radclyffe Hall was born in 1880 at \"Sunny Lawn\", Durley Road, Bournemouth, Hampshire (now Dorset), to a wealthy philandering father, Radclyffe Radclyffe-Hall, and an unstable mother, Mary Jane Diehl. Her stepfather was the professor of singing Albert Visetti, whom she did not like and who had a tempestuous relationship with her mother. Hall was a lesbian and described herself as a \"congenital invert\", a term taken from the writings of Havelock Ellis and other turn-of-the-century sexologists. Having reached adulthood without a vocation, she spent much of her twenties pursuing women she eventually lost to marriage.  In 1907 at the Bad Homburg spa in Germany, Hall met Mabel Batten, a well-known amateur singer of lieder. Batten (nicknamed \"Ladye\") was 51 to Hall's 27, and was married with an adult daughter and grandchildren. They fell in love and, after Batten's husband died, they set up residence together. Batten gave Hall the nickname \"John\", which she used the rest of her life.  In 1915, Hall fell in love with Batten's cousin Una Troubridge (1887–1963), a sculptor who was the wife of Vice-Admiral Ernest Troubridge and the mother of a young daughter. When Batten died in 1916, Hall had Batten's corpse embalmed and a silver crucifix blessed by the pope laid on it. Hall, Batten and Troubridge were \"undeterred by the Church's admonitions on same-sex relationships. Hall's Catholicism sat beside a life-long attachment to spiritualism and reincarnation.\" In 1917, Radclyffe Hall and Una Troubridge began living together. From 1924 to 1929 they lived at 37 Holland Street, Kensington, London. The relationship lasted until Hall's death.  In 1934, Hall fell in love with Russian émigrée Evguenia Souline and embarked upon a long-term affair with her, which Troubridge painfully tolerated. Hall became involved in affairs with other women throughout the years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years and death.", "content": "Hall lived with Troubridge in London and, during the 1930s, in the small town of Rye, East Sussex, noted for its many writers, including her contemporary the novelist E. F. Benson.  In 1930, Hall received the Gold Medal of the Eichelbergher Humane Award. She was a member of the PEN club, the council of the Society for Psychical Research and a fellow of the Zoological Society. Hall was listed at No. 16 in the top 500 lesbian and gay heroes in \"The Pink Paper\".  Hall died at age 63 of colon cancer, and is interred at Highgate Cemetery in North London at the entrance of the chamber of the Batten family, where Mabel is buried as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Novels.", "content": "Hall's first novel was \"The Unlit Lamp\", the story of Joan Ogden, a young girl who dreams of setting up a flat in London with her friend Elizabeth (a so-called Boston marriage) and studying to become a doctor, but feels trapped by her manipulative mother's emotional dependence on her. Its length and grimness made it a difficult book to sell, so she deliberately chose a lighter theme for her next novel, a social comedy entitled \"The Forge\". While she had used her full name for her early poetry collections, she shortened it to M. Radclyffe Hall for \"The Forge\". The book was a modest success, making the bestseller list of \"John O'London's Weekly\". \"The Unlit Lamp\", which followed it into print, was the first of her books to give the author's name simply as Radclyffe Hall.  There followed another comic novel, \"A Saturday Life\" (1925), and then \"Adam's Breed\" (1926), a novel about an Italian headwaiter who, becoming disgusted with his job and even with food itself, gives away his belongings and lives as a hermit in the forest. The book's mystical themes have been compared to Hermann Hesse's \"Siddhartha\". It sold well, was critically acclaimed, and won both the Prix Femina and the James Tait Black Prize, a feat previously achieved only by E. M. Forster's \"A Passage to India\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Well of Loneliness\".", "content": "Hall's best-known work was \"The Well of Loneliness\", the only one of her eight novels to have overt lesbian themes. Published in 1928, \"The Well of Loneliness\" deals with the life of Stephen Gordon, a masculine lesbian who, like Hall herself, identifies as an \"invert\".  Although \"The Well of Loneliness\" is not sexually explicit, it was nevertheless the subject of an obscenity trial in the UK, which resulted in all copies of the novel being ordered destroyed. The United States allowed its publication only after a long court battle. It is currently published in the UK by Virago, and by Anchor Press in the United States. \"The Well of Loneliness\" was number seven on a list of the top 100 lesbian and gay novels compiled by The Publishing Triangle in 1999.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later novels.", "content": "An anonymous verse lampoon titled \"The Sink of Solitude\" appeared during the controversy over \"The Well\". Although its primary targets were James Douglas, who had called for \"The Well\"s suppression, and the Home Secretary William Joynson-Hicks, who had started legal proceedings, it also mocked Hall and her book. One of the illustrations, which depicted Hall nailed to a cross, so horrified her that she could barely speak of it for years afterward. Her sense of guilt at being depicted in a drawing that she saw as blasphemous led to her choice of a religious subject for her next novel \"The Master of the House\".  At Hall's insistence, \"The Master of the House\" was published with no cover blurb, which may have misled some purchasers into thinking it was another novel about \"inversion\". Advance sales were strong, and the book made No. 1 on \"The Observer\"s bestseller list, but it received poor reviews in several key periodicals, and sales soon dropped off. In the United States reviewers treated the book more kindly, but shortly after the book's publication, all copies were seized—not by the police, but by creditors; Hall's American publisher had gone bankrupt. Houghton Mifflin took over the rights, but by the time the book could be republished, its sales momentum was lost.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Girls of Radcliff Hall\".", "content": "British composer and bon vivant Gerald Tyrwhitt-Wilson, 14th Baron Berners, wrote a roman à clef titled \"The Girls of Radcliff Hall\", in which he depicts himself and his circle of friends, including Cecil Beaton and Oliver Messel, as lesbian schoolgirls at a school named Radcliff Hall. The novel was written under the pseudonym Adela Quebec and published and distributed privately; the indiscretions to which it alluded created an uproar among Berners's intimates and acquaintances, making the whole affair highly discussed in the 1930s. Cecil Beaton attempted to have all the copies destroyed. The novel subsequently disappeared from circulation, making it extremely rare. The story is, however, included in Berners' \"Collected Tales and Fantasies\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marguerite Radclyffe Hall (12 August 1880 – 7 October 1943) was an English poet and author. She is best known for the novel \"The Well of Loneliness\", a groundbreaking work in lesbian literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976195}
{"src_title": "Franz Rohr von Denta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Arad, Kingdom of Hungary, Austrian Empire (modern-day Romania), in 1854 as Franz Denta, son of an army NCO, he became a lieutenant in the \"3 Galizisches Uhlanen-Regiment Erzherzog Carl\" in 1876 upon graduating from the Theresan Military Academy in Wiener-Neustadt. Having attained the rank of Colonel, he was appointed Chief of Staff of II Corps in September 1897, a position in which he served until April 1901. By 1903 Denta was commanding the 73 Landwehr-Brigade at Pressburg/Pozsony (modern-day Bratislava) and in 1909 was made General Inspector of military educational establishments. In 1911 he was promoted to the rank of General der Kavallerie and appointed commander of the Hungarian \"Landwehr\" (\"Honved\") in 1913.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War service.", "content": "Responsible for the task of defending the southwestern frontier and historic heartlands of the Empire following the Italian declaration of war on May 23, 1915, Rohr was appointed commander of \"Armeegruppe Rohr\" on May 27 and took charge of all troops from Graz to Innsbruck.  Having overseen the successful defense of the Carinthian frontier, Rohr was promoted to the rank of Generaloberst on January 1, 1916, and made commander of the new 10th Army following the dissolution of his army-group in anticipation of the Tyrol Offensive. With the halting of all offensive operations on the Italian front by the Imperial army in the face of the Brusilov Offensive, the Tyrol effort was prematurely brought to an end and Rohr was transferred to command the 11th Army, also in the Trento district in June 1916.  In February 1917, and with the promotion of Gen. Arz von Straussenberg to the position of Chief of the General Staff, Rohr took charge of the 1st Army and for the first time served as a commander on the Eastern Front. On April 14, 1917, he was elevated to the nobility, taking the rank of Baron and the title Rohr von Denta.  Promoted to the position of Field Marshal on January 30, 1918, Rohr continued in command of the 1st Army until its disbandment following peace with Romania on April 15, 1918.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "Retiring from command at war’s end, Rohr was nevertheless appointed Field Marshal in the army of newly independent Hungary. Freiherr Rohr von Denta died in the village of Rodaun, near Vienna, on 9 December 1927.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Freiherr Rohr von Denta (30 October 1854 – 9 December 1927) was an Austro-Hungarian Field Marshal and field commander who served as the last commander of the Austro-Hungarian First Army.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976196}
{"src_title": "Hucul pony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Hucul ponies are usually calm with a good disposition, and are used for both hacking and pulling timber in otherwise inaccessible forested areas. They are usually bay, black, chestnut, or the grullo variation of dun, with a dorsal stripe and zebra stripes on the legs characteristic of the breed. Their conformation traits include a short head with a relatively short neck, compact body, short legs, and sound feet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Hucul bears some resemblance to the now-extinct Tarpan. Said to have originated in the Carpathian Mountain range of Eastern Europe covered by present-day Ukraine, Poland, Slovakia and Romania, it is named after the small sub-ethnic Ukrainian group of Hutsuls. However, the horse breed is much older than the Hutsul people. The Huculs are probably depicted on the monuments erected by Roman Emperors Domitian and Trajan, as Dacian draft horses. The breed was mentioned for the first time in written resources around 400 years ago (as the \"Mountain Tarpan\"). Unlike the Polish Konik, the Hucul has been only rarely cross-bred with domestic horses.  In the 19th century, the Huculs were used by the Austro-Hungarian Army.  In 1856, the first stud farm was established at Rădăuţi, Romania. Several bloodlines were established by the foundation stallions Goral, Hroby, Ouşor, Pietrousu and Prislop, and the horses were carefully bred to preserve the purity of these bloodlines. In 1922, thirty-three horses were sent to Czechoslovakia to establish a herd there which would become the Gurgul line. World War II caused a severe decline in the number of Hucul horses in Czechoslovakia. After the end of the war, only 300 Hucul horses remained there. Even though a stud-book was established in 1924 in the Huzelei after Michal Holländer encouraged it, it was not until the early 1970s that breeders established an organization, Hucul Club, to prevent the extinction there caused by the declining number. In 1982 they established a stud book with fifty purebred animals and the goal of increasing the numbers in that region.  Thanks to the efforts of breeders, the world population of these horses now exceeds 1,000. Most of them live in Poland, Slovakia, Romania, the Czech Republic, and Ukraine. Many ponies in Europe also have Hucul blood. In recent years the popularity of this breed has spread as far as England.  In Vinnytsia oblast of Ukraine, a hucul stud farm was established by Gennady Romanenko in 2016.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hucul or Carpathian is a pony or small horse breed originally from the Carpathian Mountains. It has a heavy build and possesses great endurance and hardiness. The breed is also referred to as the Carpathian pony, Huculska, Hutsul, Huțul, Huțan or Huzul. The breed gets its name from the Hutsul people, who live mostly in the Carpathians in Ukraine and in Romania, but also in an area in the East Carpathian Mountains north of the river Bistritz, officially named “Huzelei”.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976197}
{"src_title": "Robert II, Count of Artois", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "An experienced soldier, he took part in the Aragonese Crusade and attempted an invasion of Sicily in 1287. In 1288 Robert began work on a great park at Hesdin. The park contained a menagerie, aviaries, fishponds, orchards, an enclosed garden and facilities for tournaments. It also contained mechanical statues including waving monkeys draped in skins.  He defeated the Flemings in 1297 at the Battle of Furnes. He was again sent into Flanders in July 1302, where he began to ravage the countryside and attempted to take the town of Kortrijk (Courtrai).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle of the Golden Spurs.", "content": "He then met the Flemish army at the Battle of the Golden Spurs. His infantry advanced with great success against the Flemings (mostly city militia), but he ordered their recall to allow his cavalry to make the final, victorious charge. But on the broken, marshy ground, his knights were unable to gain enough momentum to break the Flemish shieldwall, and they were knocked down and slaughtered. Robert led some of the reserves in a second charge in an attempt to reverse their fortunes. Artois was unhorsed by Willem van Saeftinghe. He and his troops were cut down by the Flemish infantry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1262 in Paris Robert married Amicie de Courtenay (1250–1275), daughter of, Seigneur de Conches, a great-grandson of Louis VI, and Perronelle de Joigny. They had three children:  After Amicie's death, Robert married twice more: first, in 1277, to Agnes of Dampierre (1237–1288), heiress of Bourbon, and then, on 18 October 1298 to Margaret (died 1342), daughter of John II, Count of Hainaut. After Robert's death, his daughter Mahaut inherited Artois, but his grandson Robert III unsuccessfully tried to claim it.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert II (September 1250 – 11 July 1302) was the Count of Artois, the posthumous son and heir of Robert I and Matilda of Brabant. He was a nephew of Louis IX of France. He died at the Battle of the Golden Spurs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976198}
{"src_title": "Vought", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chance Vought years 1917–1928.", "content": "The Lewis and Vought Corporation was founded in 1917 and was soon succeeded by the Chance Vought Corporation in 1922 when Birdseye Lewis retired. A former chief engineer of the Wright Company, Chance M. Vought founded the company to take advantage of the growing field of military and civilian aviation after World War I. Operations began in Astoria, New York and in 1919 were moved to Long Island City, New York.  Vought died from sepsis in 1930, but in that short time period succeeded in producing a variety of fighters, trainers, flying boats, and surveillance aircraft for the United States Navy and the United States Army Air Service. Vought made history in 1922 when their Vought VE-7 trainer made the first takeoff from the deck of the USS \"Langley\", the first American aircraft carrier. Following this success came the VE-11 naval fighter and the Vought O2U Corsair, the first of the Corsair aircraft.  In 1928, the company was acquired by United Aircraft and Transport Corporation, but stayed its own separate division among the likes of Pratt & Whitney and Boeing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1930s–1960.", "content": "Despite the Great Depression, Vought continued to design and manufacture aircraft at a growing pace. Soon after Chance Vought's death in 1930, the company moved its operations to East Hartford, Connecticut. Under the Air Mail Act of 1934, United Aircraft and Transportation Corp. was forced by law to divide its businesses, resulting in Boeing Aircraft, United Airlines, and the United Aircraft Corp, of which Vought was a part. In 1939, United Aircraft moved Vought to Stratford, Connecticut where their Sikorsky division was located and renamed the merged divisions Vought-Sikorsky Aircraft.  Chief Engineer Rex Beisel began in 1938 to develop the XF4U, recognized by its distinctive inverted gull wings. After its first flight in 1940, thousands of F4U Corsairs were produced for the Navy and Marines in World War II. By the end of its production in 1952, Vought, Goodyear, and Brewster had all produced the Corsair fighters. Vought was reestablished as a separate division in United Aircraft in 1942.  In postwar 1949, Vought moved operations to Dallas, Texas where the former North American Aviation \"B\" plant was located. Initiated by the Navy, who feared having their two main aircraft manufacturers located on the East Coast posed an unnecessary risk, Vought moved 27 million pounds of equipment and 1300 employees in 14 months, a record breaking industrial move at the time.  In 1954, the company fully separated from United Aircraft and became the independent Chance Vought Aircraft Inc.  Vought began manufacture of its F-8 Crusader for the US Navy in 1957; it was one of the first Navy fighters capable of supersonic flight and the Navy's last all-gun fighter. The same basic design was later heavily revised and shortened to produce Vought's A-7 Corsair II, a carrier-borne close air support and attack plane in 1965, an aircraft which would become heavily engaged in a variety of close support and strike missions during the Vietnam War, beginning in 1967. The A-7 has also participated in the US invasion of Grenada in 1983; a punitive raid on Syrian missile sites in 1983; reprisal raids against Libya during Operation El Dorado Canyon in 1986; strikes against Iranian coastal platforms and naval forces during Operation Praying Mantis in 1988; support of the 1989 invasion of Panama; and throughout operations during Desert Storm in 1991. The A-7A, A-7B, A-7C and A-7E served with the US Navy while the A-7D was purchased by the US Air Force and Air National Guard. Two-seat models known as the TA-7C/E served with the US Navy while the US Air Force purchased the TA-7K. The A-7 served in limited numbers with three foreign air forces, including Greece (A-7H/TA-7H), Portugal (A-7P/TA-7P) and Thailand (ex-USN A-7E/TA-7E).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "LTV acquisition 1960–1990.", "content": "Vought was bought by James Ling in 1962, forming the new conglomerate Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV). Yet despite the buyout, Vought Aeronautics and Vought Missiles and Space continued to develop and produce for the Air Force and Navy under the umbrella of LTV Aerospace. By the early 1980s, LTV was struggling, and Vought suffered heavy layoffs. The first of two decades of reorganizations began in 1972 with the creation of Vought Systems by the merging of the Vought Missiles and Space and Aeronautics divisions.  All of LTV Aerospace was renamed the Vought Corporation in 1976, but by 1983 the Vought company was again split along aeronautic and missile lines under LTV Aerospace and Defense.  1992 proved the end of Vought's relationship with LTV. In mid-year the aircraft division was purchased by Northrop and the Carlyle Group, each owning roughly 50% of the company. The missile division was sold to the Loral Corporation, part of Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1990s to today.", "content": "Northrop Grumman, the successor to Northrop and Grumman, bought the Carlyle Group's Vought interest for $130 million in 1994. The purchase by Carlyle Group of the remainder of Northrop Grumman in 2000 would lead to the establishment of Vought Aircraft Industries, Inc. It is primarily an aerostructures subcontractor. Vought is heavily involved in the Boeing 747, Boeing 787 aircraft as well as supplying parts for the F-22 Raptor and F-35 Lightning II and the V-22 Osprey. In July 2003, the Aerostructures Corp., owned by the Carlyle Group and based in Nashville, Tennessee, merged with Vought. Vought's Nashville site supplies wing components for Airbus A319, A320, A330, and A340.  Boeing announced in July 2009 that it had agreed to acquire the North Charleston, South Carolina facility of Vought Aircraft Industries, where Vought builds sections 47 and 48 of the aft fuselage for Boeing's 787 Dreamliner. Boeing agreed to pay $580 million for the facility.  In June 2010, the Carlyle Group sold Vought to the Triumph Group, an aerospace component manufacturer. The Vought acquisitions now operate as Triumph Aerostructures - Vought Aircraft Division. The Dallas/Grand Prairie facility was closed and relocated to a brand new facility in Red Oak, Texas.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vought was the name of several related American aerospace firms. These have included, in the past, Lewis and Vought Corporation, Chance Vought, Vought-Sikorsky, LTV Aerospace (part of Ling-Temco-Vought), Vought Aircraft Companies, and Vought Aircraft Industries. The first incarnation of Vought was established by Chance M. Vought and Birdseye Lewis in 1917. In 1928, it was acquired by United Aircraft and Transport Corporation, which a few years later became United Aircraft Corporation; this was the first of many reorganizations and buyouts. During the 1920s and 1930s, Vought Aircraft and Chance Vought specialized in carrier-based aircraft for the United States Navy, by far its biggest customer. Chance Vought produced thousands of planes during World War II, including the F4U Corsair. Vought became independent again in 1954, and was purchased by Ling-Temco-Vought in 1961. The company designed and produced a variety of planes and missiles throughout the Cold War. Vought was sold from LTV and owned in various degrees by the Carlyle Group and Northrop Grumman in the early 1990s. It was then fully bought by Carlyle, renamed Vought Aircraft Industries, with headquarters in Dallas, Texas. In June 2010, the Carlyle Group sold Vought to the Triumph Group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976199}
{"src_title": "Google Reader", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In early 2001, software engineer Chris Wetherell began a project he called \"JavaCollect\" that served as a news portal based on web feeds. After working at Google he began a similar project with a small team that launched an improved product on October 7, 2005, as Google Reader.  In September 2006 Google announced a redesign for Reader that included new features such as unread counts, the ability to \"mark all as read\", a new folder-based navigation, and an expanded view so people could quickly scan over several items at once. This also marked the addition of a sharing feature, which allowed readers to publish interesting items for other people to see.  In January 2007 Google added video content from YouTube and Google Video to Reader.  In September 2007 product marketing manager Kevin Systrom (later, founder of Instagram) announced that Google Reader had graduated out of Google Labs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discontinuation.", "content": "On March 13, 2013, Google announced they were discontinuing Google Reader, stating the product had a loyal but declining following, and they wanted to focus on fewer products. They gave users a sunset period until July 1, 2013, to move their data and suggested: \"If you want to retain your Reader data, including subscriptions, you can do so through Google Takeout.\"  After the closure announcement, Feedly said that more than 500,000 new users had joined them in the following 48 hours, and 3 million in the following two weeks.  In response to the planned closure, Digg also announced plans to build a Google Reader replacement, rebuilding its API and adding features to take advantage of the implicit recommendations of social network activity.  Several petitions were started to keep Google Reader running, including one on Change.org with over 100,000 signatures.  Instapaper developer Marco Arment speculated that the real reason for the closure was to try to keep everyone reading and sharing information using the now defunct Google+, and that it signaled the end of the era of unrestricted and interoperable web services like RSS from large organizations like Google, Facebook, and Twitter.  Enthusiasts re-created a work-alike replacement called \"The Old Reader.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interface.", "content": "Reader's interface evolved several times from an early version, described by a Google designer who helped work on the revision as a \"river\" of news, to various experiences optimized for a wide range of devices, from browsers to the Wii video game console.  In late 2008, Google Reader had a significant upgrade to its user experience and design. Led by Google designer Jenna Bilotta, the interface now included a cleaner visual style, collapsible navigation, \"Friends\" navigation, the ability to hide unread counts, and feed bundles.  Some of the features of Google Reader in 2013 were:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "Users could subscribe to feeds using either Google Reader's search function, or by entering in the exact URL of the RSS or Atom feed. New posts from those feeds were then shown on the left-hand side of the screen. One could then order that list by date or relevance. Items could also be organized with labels, as well as being able to create \"Starred Items\" for easy access.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sharing.", "content": "From 2007 to 2011, items in Google Reader could be shared with other Web users. Previously this was done by sending a link through e-mail, directing the user to the shared article; or by creating a basic webpage that includes all shared items from a user's account. In December 2007, Google changed the sharing policy so that items the user marked as shared were automatically visible to their Google Talk contacts. Users criticized this change because there was no way to opt out.  Google removed the sharing functionality built into Reader in October 2011, and replaced it with a Google+ +1 button. Users criticized this change because it effectively dismantled existing social networks that used these features and disabled sharing and publishing functions that served as a communications medium for Iranians seeking news sources that couldn't be blocked by the government.  The Google+ +1 button and count of how many people liked an article were removed in March 2013 shortly after the announcement that Google Reader would be discontinued.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Offline access.", "content": "Google Reader was the first application to make use of Google Gears, a browser extension that let online applications work offline. Users who installed the extension could download up to 2000 items to be read offline. After coming back online, Google Reader updated the feeds. Google Reader stopped supporting this feature in June 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mobile access.", "content": "A mobile interface was released on May 18, 2006. It could be used by devices that support XHTML or WAP 2.0. On May 12, 2008, Google announced a version of Google Reader targeted at iPhone users. in December 2010, Google released a Google Reader app for Android, available from the Android Market.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "iGoogle.", "content": "On May 4, 2006, Google released a new feature which enabled feeds from Reader to be displayed on iGoogle (formerly Google Personalized Homepage).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play.", "content": "In March 2010, Google announced and released Google Reader Play. Play presented a slideshow interface which displayed popular items one at a time. These items were drawn from assorted sites' feeds, and their appearance in Play was based on the data provided by Reader users' responses, e.g. how many people liked or shared the item. Unlike Google Reader, a Google Account was not required to access Play.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Google:  Unofficial:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Google Reader was an RSS/Atom feed aggregator operated by Google. It was created in early 2005 by Google engineer Chris Wetherell and launched on October 7, 2005, through Google Labs. Google Reader grew in popularity to support a number of programs which used it as a platform for serving news and information to people. Google closed Google Reader on July 1, 2013, citing declining use.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976200}
{"src_title": "Tata Steel Chess Tournament", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Tournament history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hoogovens Beverwijk.", "content": "The early tournaments were very small, starting with groups of four in 1938, and entry restricted to Dutch players. The first five tournaments continued this way, with the contest held annually early in January. In 1943 and 1944 the tournament field was doubled in size to eight players. No tournament was held in 1945 due to World War II. The first international tournament was held in 1946. The main tournament field was expanded to ten, with invitations to Alberic O'Kelly de Galway (Belgium) and Gösta Stoltz (Sweden) along with a Dutch contingent of eight.  The tournament field remained at ten until 1953 when it was increased to twelve, and an international women's tournament was also held. In 1954 the tournament field was returned to ten players, but the strength of the competitions increased. The field was greatly enlarged to 18 in 1963, and although it reduced to 16 in 1964, the event had become the strongest international chess tournament in the world.  As the tournament grew in stature, the ancillary women's tournament became a regular feature, as did a 'Masters' event and 'Masters Reserves' events. There also began a tradition to operate a year on year invitation policy that resembled the system used in football 'league tables'; the winner of a lesser category event would receive an invitation to the next higher event the following year.  The 1946 tournament was one of the first European international chess tournaments after World War II. Food shortages were still a problem in Europe, so the post-tournament banquet featured pea soup, inexpensive fare of the common people. In subsequent years pea soup has been served as the first course of the concluding banquet, a tradition continued when the tournament was moved from Beverwijk to Wijk aan Zee.  Winners of the top group:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hoogovens Wijk aan Zee.", "content": "The tournament was moved to the Dutch seaside town Wijk aan Zee in 1968. In this period, the tournament was popularly called both \"Hoogovens\" and \"Wijk aan Zee\". Winners of the Grandmaster A group since 1968 have been:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Corus tournament.", "content": "From 2000, the popular name for the tournament was more or less equally shared between \"Wijk aan Zee\" and \"Corus\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tata Steel tournament.", "content": "From 2011, the popular name for the tournament was changed from 'Corus' to 'Tata Steel'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Event crosstables.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1990s.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1994.", "content": "The tournament was held in Wijk aan Zee along with the first round of 1994 FIDE Candidates Tournament.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2000s.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2000.", "content": "IM (2461) won Reserve Group Swiss-system tournament with the score 7/9 and performance rating 2595.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2001.", "content": "WGM Viktorija Čmilytė (2433) won Reserve Group Swiss-system tournament with the score 7/9 and performance rating 2616.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2008.", "content": "The 2008 Corus Chess Tournament took place in the De Moriaan Community Centre in Wijk aan Zee. The format of each of the three Grandmaster groups remained a 14 player single round robin. The participants in group A included eight of the world's top ten players (country, October 2007 rating and rank in brackets): Viswanathan Anand (India, 2801, 1), Vassily Ivanchuk (Ukraine, 2787, 2), Vladimir Kramnik (Russia, 2785, 3), Veselin Topalov (Bulgaria, 2769, 4), Peter Leko (Hungary, 2755, 5=), Shakhriyar Mamedyarov (Azerbaijan, 2752, 7), Teimour Radjabov (Azerbaijan, 2742, 8) and Levon Aronian (Armenia, 2741, 9). The remaining players were Boris Gelfand (Israel, 2736, 11), Michael Adams (England, 2729, 13), Magnus Carlsen (Norway, 2714, 16=), Judit Polgár (Hungary, 2708, 20), Pavel Eljanov (Ukraine, 2691, 26) and Loek van Wely (Netherlands, 2679, 31). The average rating of 2742 made it a Category 20 tournament. The only top ten players not participating were Alexander Morozevich (Russia, 2755, 5=) and Alexei Shirov (Spain, 2739, 10).  The tournament was won by Levon Aronian and Magnus Carlsen (both scoring 8 out of 13).  Grandmaster group B was won by Sergei Movsesian of Slovakia with 91⁄2 points, and group C by Italy's Fabiano Caruana with 10, two points ahead of his nearest rival. The Honorary group, a new category consisting of four former A group champions playing a double round robin, was won by Ljubomir Ljubojević with 4 points out of 6, ahead of Jan Timman, Viktor Korchnoi and Lajos Portisch.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Tata Steel Chess Tournament is an annual chess tournament held in January in Wijk aan Zee, the Netherlands. It was called the Hoogovens tournament from its creation in 1938 until the sponsor Koninklijke Hoogovens merged with British Steel to form the Corus Group in 1999, after which the tournament was called the Corus chess tournament. Corus Group became Tata Steel Europe in 2007. Despite the name changes, the series is numbered sequentially from its Hoogovens beginnings; for example, the 2011 event was referred to as the 73rd Tata Steel Chess Tournament.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976201}
{"src_title": "Alexei Zhitnik", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Zhitnik was drafted 81st overall by the Los Angeles Kings in the 1991 NHL Entry Draft after playing for Sokil Kyiv in the Soviet Championship League for two years. After another year, he came to the NHL for the 1992–93 NHL season.  He made his NHL debut on October 6, 1992, against the Calgary Flames and scored his first goal nine nights later, also against Calgary. In his rookie season with the Kings, he finished second among rookie defenceman in points with 48. He was an important part of the Kings' playoff run to the Stanley Cup Final, where they lost to the Montreal Canadiens.  After another year of playing with the Kings and Wayne Gretzky, he was traded on February 14, 1995, along with Robb Stauber, Charlie Huddy and a fifth-round draft pick, to the Buffalo Sabres for Grant Fuhr, Denis Tsygurov and Philippe Boucher. He became one of the team's best players, helping the Sabres win the Northeast Division in the 1996–97 NHL season, his second full year with the team. In the 1997–98 NHL season, he led all defensemen in shorthanded goals (3). He also helped the Sabres reach the finals in the 1998–99 NHL season and stayed on the team until the 2004–05 NHL lockout when he returned to the Russian Super League.  Following the lockout, he signed a four-year contract with the New York Islanders. He became an effective force on the team, and even though he missed the last 18 games of the season with a fractured ankle, he finished second among team defenceman in scoring.  On December 16, 2006, Zhitnik was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers for Freddy Meyer and a conditional third round draft pick. However, he was traded two months later on February 24, 2007, to the Atlanta Thrashers to add experience for playoffs, in exchange for Braydon Coburn.  Due to Zhitnik's disappointing play and the Thrashers focus on rebuilding, the team bought out Zhitnik's contract on June 30, 2008, making him a free agent. On July 26, 2008, Zhitnik returned to Russia and the now-Kontinental Hockey League, signing a tryout contract with Dynamo Moscow.  Zhitnik won a gold medal as part of Team Ukraine's Masters hockey team at the 2017 Maccabiah Games.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Oleksiy Mykolaiovych \"Alexei\" Zhitnik (, ; born October 10, 1972) is a Ukrainian-Russian former professional ice hockey defenceman. Zhitnik has played more games in the National Hockey League (NHL) (1,085) than any other Soviet-born defenceman. He has represented the Soviet Union, CIS, and Russia internationally, and Ukraine during two NHL All-Star Games. His number, 13, has been honored by Sokil Kyiv.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976202}
{"src_title": "Jean Malouel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Documented life.", "content": "He was presumably born in the old Ottonian city of Nijmegen, then in the Duchy of Guelders, which was incorporated in the modern Netherlands in 1543 after the definitive victory of the Dukes of Burgundy in a serie of conflicts knows as the Guelders Wars. He probably trained there in the workshop of his father, the artist Willem Maelwael (his uncle was also an artist), and is recorded as an artist in 1382. He was the uncle of the famous manuscript illuminators, the three Limbourg brothers, whom he introduced to Philip's service around 1400. Malouel also worked as an illuminator, but seems mostly to have produced larger works.  Malouel is recorded as working in Paris painting armorial decorations on cloth (probably for banners) for Isabelle of Bavaria, Queen of France, in 1396–97, but by August 1397 he was in Dijon, the capital of the Duchy of Burgundy, where he succeeded Jean de Beaumetz (d. 1396) to the position of court painter to Philip, with the rank of valet de chambre. He retained these positions until his death, with a salary higher than that of Beaumetz or the sculptor Claus Sluter, and lived in Dijon. In 1405, soon after the death of Philip, he returned to Nijmegen to marry Heilwig van Redinchaven, bringing her back to Dijon. Another visit of over two months was recorded in 1413. In 1415 he died in Dijon, leaving Heilwig and four children. She received a pension from the Duke, and returned to Nijmegen, where she became involved in lengthy litigation over Malouel's estate there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attributed works.", "content": "Among a number of other commissions, many for decorative painting in the palaces, Malouel is recorded as receiving in 1398 the wood for five altarpiece panels for the Chartreuse of Champmol, Philip's new dynastic burial place near Dijon, as well as painting the Well of Moses there, sculpted by Claus Sluter, the base of which survives with some of its colouring. From 1401, Herman of Cologne, perhaps a specialist gilder, is recorded as Malouel's assistant, or perhaps foreman of a number of apprentices. Painting the \"Well\", and gilding all the upper parts, was a large job, on which they were occupied between 1401 and 1404. Malouel also painted Philip's tomb at Champmol, when the sculptors finally finished it after Sluter's death.  Malouel's \"oeuvre\" on panel remains controversial; the most generally accepted painting of his to survive is the \"Pietà\" tondo in the Louvre, the first true tondo of the Renaissance, though this is not accepted by Châtelet. This has Philip's coat of arms painted on the back, so should predate his death in 1404, and the \"unusual iconography of the piece clearly links it to [Champmol]\", which was dedicated to the Holy Trinity, who all appear. The style of the work mixes Northern and Sienese elements, in a fashion characteristic of the International Gothic court art of the period. Although painted in the traditional tempera, the work uses transparent glazes in a way that was to be greatly developed in the work of Jan van Eyck after Malouel's death. Another of Phillip's Netherlandish artists, Melchior Broederlam, was already producing works partly in oil paint for Champmol.  The large (162 x 211 cm) altarpiece, also in the Louvre, of the \"Martyrdom of St Denis with the Trinity\" (or \"The Last Communion and Martyrdom of Saint Denis\"), also from Champmol, may have been begun by Malouel but completed by Henri Bellechose (his only known work), after Malouel's death. The ducal accounts record the provision of pigments (but not gold) to Bellechose to complete (\"parfaire\" = \"perfect\") a \"painting of the life of St Denis\", known to have been a subject of Malouel's, and some see a difference in style among the figures, while others do not. Snyder and Châtelet support Malouel's participation, but this is disputed, the case against being set out in an article of 1961 by Nicole Reynaud (in French). For Châtelet the St Denis altarpiece and the large tondo in the Louvre are two of the five altarpieces commissioned in 1398. Bellechose, who is not documented before Malouel's death, succeeded him as \"valet\" and court painter; Châtelet suggests he may have been in his workshop for years, and suggests he was responsible for the large tondo over ten years earlier, thus reversing the traditional attributions for these two famous works.  Malouel is also believed to have been the originator of a portrait image of Philip of about 1400 which survives only in versions believed to be later. He is recorded as working on a portrait of John the Fearless for the King of Portugal in 1413, and there were also portraits of Philip and John in the choir at Champmol (as we know from when Philip the Good ordered one of him to be added). A later version in the Musée Condé in Chantilly has been suggested as a copy of the Malouel image type of John. A large Madonna and Child, unearthed in 1960 in Berlin and now on loan to the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin, has also been attributed to Malouel, as has another in the Louvre. It is believed the Berlin picture was one wing of a diptych opposite a portrait of John the Fearless, which would be the first known example of this format, later very common in Netherlandish painting. It was perhaps also for Champmol.  A number of other works are, or have been, attributed to Malouel or his workshop, including a smaller \"Pietà\" tondo in the Louvre, the \"Antwerp-Baltimore polytych\", also sometimes associated with Melchior Broederlam, and a damaged \"Entombment of Christ\" in Troyes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean Malouel, or Jan Maelwael in his native Dutch, ( 1365 – 1415) was a Dutch artist who was the court painter of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy and his successor John the Fearless, working in the International Gothic style.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976203}
{"src_title": "Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born \"Maria Teresa\", and named after her maternal grandmother Maria Theresa of Austria, she was the eldest of 18 children born to Ferdinand IV & III and Maria Carolina of Austria, the King and Queen of Naples and Sicily. She was her mother's favourite child from birth until she left the Neapolitan court to marry.  In February 1790, Archduke Francis of Austria's first wife, Duchess Elisabeth of Württemberg, died in childbirth, and it was announced that he would marry one of the princesses of Naples. This was in accordance with the traditional Habsburg marriage policy. Maria Theresa and her sister Princess Luisa of Naples and Sicily were both considered for the match. In the end, Luisa was chosen to marry Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany instead, and Maria Theresa to marry Francis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Empress.", "content": "On 15 September 1790 she married her double first cousin, who would in 1792 become Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, and in 1806 Emperor Francis I of Austria.  The marriage is described as a happy one based on good mutual understanding, despite differences in personality. Francis was described as a melancholic character, shy and reserved, serious and with a preference for a spartan lifestyle and duty, and with a pale and haggard appearance. Maria Theresa, on the other hand, was described as a gracious blue-eyed blonde with full lips, but a large nose, with a vivacious personality, a hot temper and a sensual nature. Despite these differences in appearance and personality, however, they were reported to have a good understanding of each other and had a very good relationship.  Maria Theresa reportedly adapted well to her new home in Vienna and did not suffer from homesickness. She loved entertainment, and participated with enthusiasm in court life, and it was noted that she enjoyed dancing, participating in every carnival ball at court even while pregnant. She particularly enjoyed the Waltz, which had been recently introduced as an innovation and became fashionable during her life in Vienna.  Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp described the view of Maria Theresa and the relationship between the couple in her famous diary during her visit to Vienna in 1798–99: The Empress is reputed to be so jealous that she does not allow him to take part in social life or meet other women. Vicious tongues accuse her of being so passionate that she exhausts her consort and never leaves him alone even for a moment. Although the people of Vienna cannot deny that she is gifted, charitable and carries herself beautifully, she is disliked for her intolerance and for forcing the Emperor to live isolated from everyone. She is also accused of interesting herself in unimportant matters and socializing exclusively with her lady-companions. With them she spends her evenings singing, acting out comedies and being applauded.  In February 1799, her seeming indifference to the revolution against her parents in Naples attracted some disfavour in Vienna. Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte also recounts a scene described to her by a foreigner, who bribed his way into the private park at Laxenburg and came to witness a scene between the couple: \"He saw the Emperor sitting on a bench, alone in his thoughts. Immediately, the Empress came to fetch him, and he exclaimed: \"Can't you ever leave me alone, so that I may breathe for one moment? For God's sake, don't follow me around all the time.\" Empress Maria Theresa was interested in politics and came to play a certain role in state affairs due to her influence over her spouse, to whom she acted as an adviser. She was a conservative force and belonged to the critics of Napoleon I, and was reported to have encouraged Francis in an anti-French position during the Napoleonic Wars. She has also been pointed out for being partially responsible for the dismissal of Johann Baptist Freiherr von Schloissnigg and Graf Franz Colloredo.  An important patron of Viennese music, she commissioned many compositions for official and private use. Joseph Haydn wrote his \"Te Deum\" for chorus and orchestra at her request. Her favourite composers included Paul Wranitzky and Joseph Leopold Eybler, a composer of sacred music.  She died due to complications after her last premature childbirth.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily (6 June 1772 – 13 April 1807) was the last Holy Roman Empress and the first Empress of Austria by marriage to Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor. She was the eldest daughter of Ferdinand IV & III of Naples and Sicily (later Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies) (1751–1825) and Marie Caroline of Austria (1752–1814).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976204}
{"src_title": "Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Preparations.", "content": "Ottoman dominance in Hungary began with the Battle of Mohács in 1526, which resulted in the conquest of most of Hungary by Suleiman the Magnificent. Meanwhile, the parts of Hungary that remained under Austrian control became known as Royal Hungary. Although the Ottomans had been in relative decline since the death of Suleiman I, Ottoman power saw a resurgence under the extremely capable Köprülü family who sought to destroy the Austrian Habsburgs once and for all. They found their \"casus belli\" when the Habsburgs supported a Transylvanian rebellion against Ottoman rule.  Transylvania had escaped Ottoman conquest during the invasion of Hungary and retained its independence by playing off of their powerful neighbors: Poland, Austria and the Ottomans. They recognized Ottoman suzerainty and paid a tribute to the Porte but were given political and religious autonomy in return. In 1658, seeking new land for his principality, Prince George Rákóczy II invaded Poland with his Swedish allies in the Second Northern War. After initial success, he was defeated by the Poles and fled back to Transylvania. On hearing about Rákóczy's unauthorized war, the Ottomans declared war on their vassal. It was not long before Grand Vizier Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (Vizier 1656-1661) defeated Rákóczy and conquered Transylvania. The new Transylvanian prince, János Kemény, fled to Vienna, seeking Austrian support.  Emperor Leopold I, not wishing to see Transylvania fall under direct Ottoman control, sent Montecuccoli into Hungary with his small army. Montecuccoli gave no direct support as he was severely outnumbered by the Ottomans. The Ottomans, meanwhile, completed the conquest of Transylvania and built up their forces in Ottoman Hungary. Leopold I, not wishing to face the Turks alone, summoned the Imperial Diet in January 1663.  The Turks failed to conquer the fortress of Nové Zámky six times, but managed to do so in 1663. It was made the center of an Ottoman province, the Uyvar eyalet in present-day southern Slovakia. Turks and Tatars crossed the Danube in strength in 1663, ravaging Slovakia, Moravia, and Silesia. They took 12,000 slaves in Moravia. Several Turkish divisions reached as far as Olomouc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomatic efforts.", "content": "Although Leopold personally objected to Protestantism, he had to rely on his Protestant German princes to provide military aid. Even worse was the military aid from France, which was (and continued to be until the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756) Austria's nemesis. Despite numerous objections from some Protestant princes, help was not withheld. The League of the Rhine - a French dominated group of German princes - agreed to send a corps of 6,000 men independently commanded by Count Coligny of France and Prince Johann Philipp of Mainz. By September 1663, Brandenburg and Saxony had also agreed to contingents of their own. In January 1664, the Imperial Diet agreed to raise 21,000 men, although this army did not yet exist other than on paper. The Turks had declared war in April 1663, but were slow in executing their invasion plans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "Köprülü's army, which might have numbered 120-150,000, probably included some 60,000 Janissaries and sipahis, 60-90,000 azaps, akıncıs, silidars, Tatars and vassals and allegedly 360 guns.  Montecuccoli's army consisted of Habsburg forces (including Czech infantry and a few hundred Hungarians, approx. 2,000 Croatians) and forces from the German principalities, French brigades, a Piedmontese regiment.  The Habsburg forces: 5,000 infantry (10 Battalions), 5,900 cavalry (27 escadrons), 10 guns The Imperial forces: 6,200 infantry (6 Battalions), 1,200 cavalry (9 escadrons), 14 guns The Rhine forces: 600 infantry (2 Battalions), 300 cavalry (4 escadrons) The French forces: 3,500 infantry (4 Battalions), 1,750 cavalry (10 escadrons) Other forces: 2,000 Croat cavalry (out of this a regiment), Hungarian foot soldiers in Szentgotthárd, and Esterházy, Batthyány and Nádasdy regiment's, Czech musketeers and the Italian (Piedmontish) infantry regiment (commander Marchese Pio de Savoya).  The Turks renewed their invasion in the spring of 1664. They besieged, conquered and destroyed Novi Zrin Fortress on the Mura river in northern Croatia at the very beginning of July. Montecuccoli was still waiting for help to arrive, and this delay was key to the defense of Austria. In July 1664 the Imperial forces were assembled and set out for the River Rába, which separated the Ottoman forces from the Austrian duchy itself. If the Turks were allowed to cross, they would threaten both Vienna and Graz. Montecuccoli intercepted the Turks before they crossed the river but the division of command made effective deployment of troops impossible.  On 1 August 1664, Ottoman forces crossed the river near the monastery of Saint Gotthard and beat the Austrians back. Although initially plagued by disunity, Montecuccoli was finally able to convince Coligny and Leopold Wilhelm of Baden-Baden (commander of the Imperial detachment) to mass their forces and attack the Ottoman troops, who were reorganizing in a nearby forest. The attack surprised the Turks, who fled in confusion back to the river, a large number drowning. The confusion caused by the fleeing troops prevented Ahmed Köprülü (Vizier 1661-1676) from sending the rest of his army across the river and he instead retired from the field.  Ottoman casualties were heavy, significantly falling mostly on the elite corps of the army. Köprülü was left with an army of ill-trained irregulars and auxiliaries while Montecuccoli's casualties were light and mostly in the Imperial contingent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Although many in Europe, especially the Croats and Hungarian nobility, expected the Austrian Habsburgs to finally liberate Hungary once and for all, Leopold abandoned the campaign. Many have criticized him for this decision (both in the past and the present). Although Montecuccoli's army was largely intact, there was no interest among the allies to liberate Hungary. Any invasion of Hungary would undoubtedly have to be done without the help of the French and German troops. Leopold noticed that the French officers had begun to fraternize with the Magyar nobles and encouraged them to rebel against Austrian rule.  In addition, Leopold had always been a member of the \"Spanish faction\" in Vienna. With the last Spanish Habsburg, Carlos II, about to die at any given moment, Leopold wanted to ensure that his hands were free for the inevitable struggle against Louis XIV of France. Although the liberation of Hungary was a strategic interest of the Habsburgs, it would have to wait until later. Throughout his reign, Leopold had always been more interested in the struggle against France rather than the Ottomans. Therefore, he signed the rather unfavourable Peace of Vasvár, which did not take into account the Battle of Saint Gotthard. The Battle of Saint Gotthard is still significant, however, for it stopped any Ottoman invasion of Austria, which certainly would have prolonged the war and led to a disastrous resolution. The Austrians would also use the twenty-year truce to build up their forces and begin the liberation of Hungary in 1683.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "The battle of Mogersdorf/Szentgotthárd provided Rainer Maria Rilke with the inspiration for his poetic short story, \"\", which was very popular among German and Austrian soldiers during the first half of the 20th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Saint Gotthard (; ; and ; ) was fought on August 1, 1664 as part of the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664), between the Imperial Army led by Generalleutnant Raimondo Montecuccoli, Jean de Coligny-Saligny, Wolfgang Julius, Count of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, together with the Army of the Holy Roman Empire led by Reichsgeneralfeldmarschall Prince Leopold of Baden and Reichsgeneralfeldmarschalleutnant Georg Friedrich of Waldeck and the army of the Ottoman Empire under the command of Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed Paşa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976205}
{"src_title": "Swiss Broadcasting Corporation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The association's official name is Schweizerische Radio- und Fernsehgesellschaft\" (SRG, formerly \"Schweizerische Rundspruchgesellschaft\") in German, Société suisse de radiodiffusion et télévision\" (SSR, formerly \"Société suisse de radiodiffusion\") in French, Società svizzera di radiotelevisione\" (SSR, formerly \"Società svizzera di radiodiffusione\") in Italian, and Societad svizra da radio e televisiun\" (SSR, formerly \"Societad svizra da radio\") in Romansh. The corporate name, SRG SSR, is derived from its initials in German, French, Italian and Romansh. In English, the organisation is known as the \"Swiss Broadcasting Corporation\"; it often uses the abbreviation \"SBC\". The moniker \"idée suisse\" (French: \"Swiss idea\"), which refers to the public service mission of the organisation, was adopted in 1999 and was removed from the name in May 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Europe's third public radio station started broadcasting from Lausanne in 1922, from the start based on a licence fee system. 980 licences were bought in 1923. Within a few years radio cooperatives working along the same principles had started throughout the country. In 1930 it was decided that radio was an important public service that should not be allowed to become a money maker for private interests, and that it needed to be structured on a federal basis. In 1931 SRG SSR was founded (see original names above), as a co-ordination organisation for the regional broadcast associations, and received the only licence to broadcast from the Federal Council. The same year it was agreed that all news reports in the new medium had to be provided by the Swiss news agency SDA, a decision that remained unchanged until 1971.  The first national transmitters began operating in 1931: Radio Sottens for French, Radio Beromünster for German, and 1933 Radio Monte Ceneri for Italian. In 1938 Romansh was recognised as the country's fourth national language, and the Zürich studios began broadcasting programmes in Romansh in between those in German. During the Second World War, SRG SSR filled an important function as a neutral, unbiased supplier of news, reaching far outside Switzerland's borders through shortwave transmissions. Radio Beromünster and Radio Monte Ceneri became known as the only free German and Italian-language radio stations in Europe.  In 1950 SRG SSR was one of 23 founding broadcasting organisations of the European Broadcasting Union. In 1939 television test transmissions started in Zürich. In 1953 regular TV transmissions started in German (from Zürich) – one hour per evening, five days a week – immediately attracting 920 early TV licence buyers. A year later, in 1954, French transmissions were broadcast from Geneva. For the Italian-speaking region, the programmes were re-transmitted with Italian subtitles until dedicated Italian studios were built in 1958. 50,000 TV licences were bought the first year.  In 1960 the company was renamed \"Schweizerische Radio- und Fernsehgesellschaft\" (and the equivalent names in the other languages - see above) to reflect the addition of television services. In 1964 the Federal Council allowed television advertising, as a means of keeping licence fees down. In 1966 the three main languages were each given a second radio channel, in order to counter the effects of new commercial broadcasters outside the country, whose strong signals were reaching the Swiss population. In the same year a dedicated Romansh broadcasting unit was created in Chur, using some of the new German-language second channel's broadcasting time. In 1968 colour television was introduced, and the number of licence fee payers passed one million.  In 1978 the radio channels started stereo transmissions. In 1983 the Federal Council relaxed the Swiss media legislation to permit local private and commercial radio channels. SRG SSR countered this threat by launching its third set of channels, aimed at a younger audience. In 1991 SRG SSR underwent a wide-ranging restructuring. The enterprise organised itself as a private industry association, structured as a holding company under Swiss company law. The name, SRG SSR idée suisse, was introduced in 1999. In 1992 Radio Rumantsch was separated from the German-language radio broadcaster, that had housed the Romansh broadcasting activities since 1938, and in 1994 the Romansh TV activities were moved over as well and the Romansh company renamed itself Radio e Televisiun Rumantscha.  On 3 June 2019, SRG SSR terminated digital terrestrial (DVB-T) broadcasts of all of its television channels due to the extremely low usage of digital terrestrial signals on television sets in Switzerland, which was part of a series of cost-saving measures partly brought about as a result of the 2018 \"No Billag\" popular initiative. Since then, reception of SRG SSR television channels is only possible mainly through digital cable, Internet streaming, IPTV and DTH satellite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organisation.", "content": "SRG SSR is headquartered in Bern. It is governed by a Board of Directors, appointed by a central council consisting of representatives of the four organisations.  Broadcasting is handled by five business units:  In addition, there are six subsidiary companies which produce TV programmes, teletext pages, book publishing, TV commercials, and audience research.  Until the termination of all terrestrial signals on 3 June 2019, the only television channels available in the whole of Switzerland were SRF 1, RTS Un, and RSI La 1, but the other channels are available in the linguistic regions represented by the broadcast language, and also nationally via cable, satellite and via the Internet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Swissinfo.", "content": "The former abbreviation SRI originally stood only for \"Swiss Radio International\", which was SRG SSR's international broadcasting arm (1935-2004), aimed at expatriates and others interested in Switzerland. In October 2004, SRI ceased broadcasting on shortwave and satellite, and instead concentrated its efforts on its multimedia internet platform Swissinfo.ch, which now takes most of the resources. The Swissinfo website is produced in English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and Japanese.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (SRG SSR;,,, ) is the Swiss public broadcasting association, founded in 1931, the holding company of 26 radio and television channels. Headquartered in Bern, the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation is a non-profit organisation, funded mainly through radio and television licence fees (70%) and making the remaining income from advertising and sponsorship.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976206}
{"src_title": "Politics of the Czech Republic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Political developments.", "content": "The Czech political scene supports a broad spectrum of parties ranging from the Communist Party on the far left to various nationalistic parties on the far right.  Czech voters returned a split verdict in the June 2002 parliamentary elections, giving Social Democrats (ČSSD) and Communists majority, without any possibility to form a functioning government together due to Vladimír Špidla's strong anticommunism. The results produced a ČSSD coalition government with Christian Democrats (KDU-ČSL) and Liberals (US-DEU), while Civic Democrats (ODS) and Communists (KSČM) took place in opposition. The MP ratio was the tiniest 101:99. After many buffetings and, finally, after the catastrophic results of the June European Parliament election, 2004 Špidla resigned after a revolt in his own party and the government was reshuffled on the same basis.  As the system in the Czech Republic repeatedly produces very weak governments (a specific problem is that about 15% of the electorate support the Communists, who are shunned by all the other parties) there is constant talk about changing it but without much chance of really pushing the reform through. An attempt to increase majority elements by tweaking the system parameters (more smaller districts, d'Hondt method used) by ČSSD and ODS during their \"opposition agreement\" of 1998–2002 was vehemently opposed by smaller parties and blocked by the Constitutional Court as going too much against the constitution-stated proportional principle; only a moderated form was adopted. This, however, led to a stalemate in the 2006 elections where both the left and the right each gained exactly 100 seats; as many commentators point out, the earlier system would have given the right a 3–4 seat majority.  In March 2006, the parliament overturned a veto by President Václav Klaus, and the Czech Republic became the first former communist country in Europe to grant legal recognition to same-sex partnerships.  A government formed of a coalition of the ODS, KDU-ČSL, and the Green Party (SZ), and led by the leader of the ODS Mirek Topolánek finally succeeded in winning a vote of confidence on 19 January 2007. This was thanks to two members of the ČSSD, Miloš Melčák and Michal Pohanka, who abstained.  On 23 March 2009, the government of Mirek Topolánek lost a vote of no-confidence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Executive branch.", "content": "The President is the head of state, but the Prime Minister is the head of government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President.", "content": "The President of the Czech Republic is elected by a direct vote (no more than two consecutive) for five years. The president is a formal head of state with limited specific powers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prime Minister.", "content": "The Prime Minister is the head of government and wields considerable powers, including the right to set the agenda for most foreign and domestic policies, mobilize the parliamentary majority, and choose governmental ministers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cabinet.", "content": "Cabinet of the Czech Republic is the supreme executive body in the Czech Republic. The Cabinet shall make its decisions as a body. The Cabinet shall consist of the Prime Minister and Ministers. Controls the state and the ministry. Publishes government decree. The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President of the Republic who shall appoint on the Prime Minister's proposal the other members of the Cabinet and shall entrust them with the direction of individual ministries or other agencies. Within thirty days after its appointment, the Cabinet shall present itself to the Chamber of Deputies and shall ask it for a vote of confidence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legislative branch.", "content": "The Parliament (\"Parlament České republiky\") has two chambers. The Chamber of Deputies (\"Poslanecká sněmovna\") has 200 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional representation with a 5% election threshold. There are 14 voting districts identical to the country's administrative regions. The Chamber of Deputies, at first the Czech National Council, has the powers and responsibilities of the now defunct federal parliament of the former Czechoslovakia.  The Senate (\"Senát\") has 81 members, in single-seat constituencies elected by two-round runoff voting for a six-year term, with one third renewed every even year in the autumn. The first election was 1996 (for differing terms). This is patterned after the U.S. Senate but each constituency is of the (roughly) same size and the system used is two-round runoff voting. The Senate is unpopular among the public and suffers from low election turnout (overall roughly 30% in the first round, 20% in the second).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Judicial branch.", "content": "The country's highest court of appeals is the Supreme Court. The Constitutional Court, which rules on constitutional issues, is appointed by the president with Senate approval, and its 15 members serve 10-year terms. The justices of the Constitutional Court have a mandatory retirement age of 70. The Supreme Administrative Court is the third arm of the Czech judiciary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative divisions.", "content": "The Czech Republic is divided in 14 Regions including the capital of Prague. The older 73 districts (\"okresy\", singular: \"okres\") and 4 municipalities* (města, singular: \"město\") were disbanded in 1999 in an often-criticised administrative reform; however are still traditionally recognized and remain the seats of various branches of state administration: Benešov, Beroun, Blansko, Břeclav, Brno-město*, Brno-venkov, Bruntál, České Budějovice, Česká Lípa, Český Krumlov, Cheb, Chomutov, Chrudim, Děčín, Domažlice, Frýdek-Místek, Havlíčkův Brod, Hodonín, Hradec Králové, Jablonec nad Nisou, Jeseník, Jičín, Jihlava, Jindřichův Hradec, Karlovy Vary, Karviná, Kladno, Klatovy, Kolín, Kroměříž, Kutná Hora, Liberec, Litoměřice, Louny, Mělník, Mladá Boleslav, Most, Náchod, Nový Jičín, Nymburk, Olomouc, Opava, Ostrava*, Pardubice, Pelhřimov, Písek, Plzeň*, Plzeň-jih, Plzeň-sever, Prachatice, Praha*, Praha-východ, Praha-západ, Přerov, Příbram, Prostějov, Rakovník, Rokycany, Rychnov nad Kněžnou, Semily, Sokolov, Strakonice, Šumperk, Svitavy, Tábor, Tachov, Teplice, Trutnov, Třebíč, Uherské Hradiště, Ústí nad Labem, Ústí nad Orlicí, Vsetín, Vyškov, Žďár nad Sázavou, Zlín, Znojmo", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International organization participation.", "content": "The Czech Republic is member of Australia Group, BIS, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (among the 10 new members since May 2004), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IEA (observer), IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OIF (Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie) (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UPU, Visegrád group, WCO, WEU (associate), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, Zangger Committee  Government", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Czech Republic is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic, in which the President is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the Government of the Czech Republic which reports to the lower house of Parliament. The Legislature is bicameral, with the Chamber of Deputies (\"Poslanecká sněmovna\") consisting of 200 members and the Senate (\"Senát\") consisting of 81 members. Both houses together make up the Parliament of the Czech Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976207}
{"src_title": "Diana Damrau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Damrau was born in Günzburg. She began her operatic studies with at the Hochschule für Musik Würzburg. During her studies, she developed an edema on a vocal fold. After consulting with several doctors, she decided to undergo an alternative therapy without surgery. The treatment lasted about one and a half years. After graduating from music conservatory she worked in Salzburg with.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Damrau's first operatic engagements were in Würzburg and subsequently the Mannheim National Theatre and Oper Frankfurt. Since then, she has sung throughout the world at venues such as the Vienna State Opera, the Metropolitan Opera New York, the Royal Opera House London, the Bavarian State Opera and the Salzburg Festival. She was invited to sing the title role in Salieri's \"Europa riconosciuta\" at the re-opening of La Scala, Milan in 2004, under the baton of Riccardo Muti.  The Queen of the Night from Mozart's \"The Magic Flute\" had been Damrau's most famous and most frequently performed role, as she had been engaged to perform it in over 15 productions at houses including the Salzburg Festival, Covent Garden, Vienna State Opera, Oper Frankfurt and the Bavarian State Opera. Damrau made Metropolitan Opera history in the 2007/08 season by appearing as both Pamina and Queen of the Night in different performances of the same run, after which she retired the Queen character. Another notable engagement was her portrayal of all four heroines in Offenbach's \"The Tales of Hoffmann\" in a new production at the Bavarian State Opera in October 2011. Other coloratura roles in her repertoire include Zerbinetta in \"Ariadne auf Naxos\", Elvira in \"I puritani\", Marie in \"La fille du régiment\", and Aminta in \"Il re pastore\". She also performs roles in the lyric soprano repertoire including the title role in \"Manon\", Sophie in \"Der Rosenkavalier\", Donna Anna in \"Don Giovanni\", Gretel in \"Hänsel und Gretel\", Susanna in \"The Marriage of Figaro\".  Damrau has furthered her exploration of the bel canto repertoire with highlights including new productions of Rossini's comic opera \"Le comte Ory\" at the Metropolitan Opera and the title role in Donizetti's \"Linda di Chamounix\" at the Liceu. She has since returned to the Metropolitan Opera as both Adina in \"L'elisir d'amore\" and Rosina in \"The Barber of Seville\" and brought her portrayal in Donizetti's \"Lucia di Lammermoor\" to Berlin and Vienna. Following the birth of her second child in autumn 2012, Damrau returned to the stage with a new production of Verdi's \"Rigoletto\" at the Metropolitan Opera in February 2013; this was followed by her role debut in the title role of Verdi's \"La traviata\" in the same house. In October 2013, she sang in the world premiere of Iain Bell's \"A Harlot's Progress\" at the Theater an der Wien. In March 2014 she sang in \"La sonnambula\" at the Metropolitan Opera. She returned to \"The Marriage of Figaro\" at La Scala debuting as the countess with the run premiering on 26 October 2016 where she received acclaim for her legato, phrasing, and interpretation of aria \"Dove sono\" in act 3.  She took up the title role in \"Maria Stuarda\" at the Zürich Opera House in April 2018. In 2019 she debuted as Ophélie in \"Hamlet\" in concert performances at the Liceu in March and Deutsche Oper Berlin in June.  As well as performing in operas, Damrau is a regular on the concert stage. She performed alongside Plácido Domingo at the concert program \"3 Orchester und Stars\" in Munich to mark the opening of the 2006 FIFA World Cup. She has performed lieder at Vienna's Musikverein, Carnegie Hall, Wigmore Hall, La Scala, the Schubertiade in Schwarzenberg, the Kissinger Sommer and both the Munich and Salzburg Festivals, especially with Xavier de Maistre as her accompanist. Her concert repertoire includes Mozart's \"Great Mass in C minor\", \"Requiem\" and \"Exsultate, jubilate\" as well as Handel's \"Messiah\". She has performed with conductors as James Levine, Zubin Mehta, Lorin Maazel, Sir Colin Davis, Christoph von Dohnányi, Leonard Slatkin, Pierre Boulez, Nikolaus Harnoncourt and Jesús López-Cobos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Damrau married French bass-baritone Nicolas Testé in May 2010. They have two sons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Key performances.", "content": "NB: * indicates a new production of the piece", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "Early recordings include Verdi's canzoni, Mahler's \"Des Knaben Wunderhorn\", and Schumann's \"Myrthen\", Op. 25, with the Telos label and live recordings of her summer 2005 \"Liederabend\" at the Salzburg Festival and her summer 2006 \"Liederabend\" at the Schubertiade are released on the Orfeo label.  Damrau also appears on Deutsche Harmonia Mundi's release of Mozart's \"Zaide\" in the title role, and performs in the trio finale from Richard Strauss' \"Der Rosenkavalier\" alongside Adrianne Pieczonka on Elīna Garanča's first solo release with Deutsche Grammophon.  Since 2007 Damrau has had an exclusive recording contract with EMI/Virgin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Videography.", "content": "DVDs are available of her performances in the following operas:  Streaming videos are available at Met Opera on Demand of her performances in the following operas:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Diana Damrau (; born 31 May 1971) is a German soprano. She has been successful in coloratura soprano roles, especially admired as the Queen of the Night in \"The Magic Flute\" and Zerbinetta in \"Ariadne auf Naxos\". Since the early 2010s, she has gradually proceeded into 19th-century Italian bel canto repertoire, singing roles such as Violetta in \"La traviata\" and the title role in \"Lucia di Lammermoor\". Damrau is also known as a lieder singer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976208}
{"src_title": "Shiprock", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The Navajo name for the peak,, \"rock with wings\" or \"winged rock\", refers to the legend of the great bird that brought the Navajo from the north to their present lands. The name \"Shiprock\" or Shiprock Peak or Ship Rock derives from the peak's resemblance to an enormous 19th-century clipper ship. Americans first called the peak \"The Needle\", a name given to the topmost pinnacle by Captain J. F. McComb in 1860. United States Geological Survey maps indicate that the name \"Ship Rock\" dates from the 1870s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "Shiprock is composed of fractured volcanic breccia and black dikes of igneous rock called minette, or lamprophyre. It is the erosional remnant of the throat of a volcano, and the volcanic breccia formed in a diatreme. The rock probably was originally formed 2,500–3,000 feet (750–1,000 meters) below the Earth's surface, but it was exposed after millions of years of erosion. Wall-like sheets of minette, known as dikes, radiate away from the central formation. Radiometric age determinations of the minette establish that these volcanic rocks solidified about 27 million years ago. Shiprock is in the northeastern part of the Navajo Volcanic Field—a field that includes intrusions and flows of minette and other unusual igneous rocks that formed about 30 million years ago. Agathla (El Capitan) in Monument Valley is another prominent volcanic neck in this volcanic field.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious and cultural significance.", "content": "Shiprock and the surrounding land have religious and historical significance to the Navajo people. It is mentioned in many of their myths and legends. Foremost is the peak's role as the agent that brought the Navajo to the southwest. According to one legend, after being transported from another place, the Navajos lived on the monolith, \"coming down only to plant their fields and get water.\" One day, the peak was struck by lightning, obliterating the trail and leaving only a sheer cliff, and stranding the women and children on top to starve. The presence of people on the peak is forbidden \"for fear they might stir up the (ghosts), or rob their corpses.\"  Navajo legend puts the peak in a larger geographic context. Shiprock is said to be either a medicine pouch or a bow carried by the \"Goods of Value Mountain\", a large mythic male figure comprising several mountain features throughout the region. The Chuska Mountains comprise the body, Chuska Peak is the head, the Carrizo Mountains are the legs, and Beautiful Mountain is the feet.  Navajo legend has it that Bird Monsters () nested on the peak and fed on human flesh. After Monster Slayer, elder of the Warrior Twins, destroyed at Red Mesa, he killed two adult Bird Monsters at Shiprock and changed two young ones into an eagle and an owl. The peak is mentioned in stories from the Enemy Side Ceremony and the Navajo Mountain Chant, and is associated with the Bead Chant and the Naayee'ee Ceremony. There are a number of other legends regarding what the Shiprock pinnacle might be. Some Navajo traditionalists argue that it is a geological anomaly that may have originated as a work of the'star people'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restrictions on the formation.", "content": "An injury to a climber in April 1966 (American Alpine Journal 1966 accident report) caused the Navajo Nation to ban rock climbing not only on Shiprock but all over the Navajo Nation on monoliths, spires and within tribal parks under the jurisdiction of Navajo Parks & Recreation. The Navajo Nation announced that the ban was \"absolute, final and unconditional\". Due to \"the Navajo's traditional fear of death and its aftermath, such accidents and especially fatalities often render the area where they occur as taboo, and the location is sometimes henceforth regarded as contaminated by evil spirits and is considered a place to be avoided.\" The pinnacle is located on private property of Navajo grazing lease holders and is currently monitored and overseen by Shiprock tribal community advocates. Two Navajo chapter tribal government organizations claim jurisdiction over the formation. The Navajo tribal parks and recreation department does not have jurisdiction over the formation because it is not presently a tribal park. The formation is a highly sacred religious site to the Navajo people.  Due to recent deaths, littering, and vandalism, the pinnacle has been under strict evaluation and observation by local Shiprock Pinnacle Tribal Advocates and by two Navajo Chapter organizations since early 2016, who oversee the area and encourage the public to not drive around the formation as if it had open access. Hiking, filming, and driving are all prohibited to the public due to its sacred nature and its sacred space. According to the Navajo traditionalists, an ecosystem of living and non-living matter needs to be protected and unharmed. In the Navajo traditional way, people are to respect the ecosystem and not disrupt its processes. It is recommended that the public respect the Navajo people who visit daily for religious activities and other miscellaneous purposes as it is Navajo trust land. A core/protection and buffer zones will be established soon. Local Shiprock Pinnacle Tribal Advocates and the two Navajo Chapter organizations also encourage visitors to use common sense etiquette and remember that the Navajo Nation is a sovereign, self-governed nation with rules and laws that must be followed.  All areas near the formation are closed to non-Natives for the traditional religious purposes and for the safety of the formation and lava dike. It is recommended that the public stay at least away from the formation and from the lava dikes or wall when visiting. Navajo religious rights (the Fundamental Laws of the Dine' (Dine' Natural Law) from the Navajo Nation Title 1 Laws), Navajo grazing rights, boundaries, and private properties lines apply around and in the formation. The formation is a Navajo religious site. The restrictions were put in place in July 2016 by the delegated tribal authority (i.e., Navajo families and grazing holders who live around the formation, Shiprock Pinnacle Tribal Advocates, and members of the Navajo Chapters & Tribal Council). Visitors without any proper tribal authorization will be considered to be trespassing on Federal Indian Reservation land and are subject to legal sanctions. The tribal police at the formation monitor its use and visits.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Shiprock (, \"rock with wings\" or \"winged rock\") is a monadnock rising nearly above the high-desert plain of the Navajo Nation in San Juan County, New Mexico, United States. Its peak elevation is above sea level. It lies about southwest of the town of Shiprock, which is named for the peak.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976209}
{"src_title": "Wanzl (company)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1918, Rudolf Wanzl Senior founded a locksmith's in Giebau in the Sudetenland (today part of the Czech Republic), which he built up into a scale manufacturing business and agricultural machinery company with 20 employees. After the expulsion of Germans from the region in 1947, Rudolf Wanzl Junior re-established the company in Leipheim as a scale manufacturer and repair workshop. The inspiration to focus on the concept of self-service came from the cash register manufacturer NCR in Augsburg. The company ordered hand-made shopping baskets for its demonstration room. At around the same time, the \"Production\" consumer co-operative, based in Hamburg, ordered 40 trolleys and 100 hand baskets for the opening of Germany's first self-service shop. At the start of the 1950s, Rudolf Wanzl travelled to the United States where he met Sylvan Goldman, inventor of the shopping trolley. On the return flight he had already designed his own more manoeuvrable version, which became the model for all shopping trolleys in use today. In 1951, the first shopping trolley with a fixed basket was patented. Three years later, the co-owning Siegel brothers left the company to found their own business. This is how it came about that Germany's two largest shopping trolley manufacturers were both based in Leipheim for many years. By 1956, Wanzl had 74 employees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The 1960s.", "content": "A new plant was opened in Kirchheim to increase production capacity. Wanzl incorporates manual turnstiles into its product range, to meet the need of Germany's increasingly large supermarkets for customer direction and reduction of theft. By 1966, the company already had 400 employees.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The 1970s.", "content": "Following the expansion of German chains into neighbouring countries, the first international branches of the company are founded. Luggage trolleys are supplied to the German Federal Railway stations for the first time. In the course of renewed expansion of production, another plant is built close to Leipheim railway station. For a time, this plant had its own railway connection. In 1978, the company was honoured with the \"Goldener Zuckerhut\" award for outstanding achievement in the grocery industry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The 1980s.", "content": "The family-run company supplies luggage trolleys to Frankfurt Airport, the first time it has supplied these to an airport. A special feature of these trolleys is that they can be taken on an escalator. In order to be able to better serve the company's market in France, a new plant is built in Sélestat in Alsace. The increasing popularity of DIY stores leads to further increases in production. The company opens sales branches in the U.K. and Belgium. By 1989, Wanzl had 1,600 employees.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The 1990s.", "content": "In 1990, plant IV is opened in Leipheim, close to the A8 motorway. Today, this plant is home to the company's headquarters. In 1991, Wanzl founds the Shop Solutions business division. From now on, the fittings for entire supermarkets may be planned and shelving systems manufactured. With the fall of the Iron Curtain, the concept of self-service shopping also spreads to Eastern Europe, opening up new markets. In 1995, a production plant is opened in the Czech Republic, not far from Rudolf Wanzl's former home town. In 1998, after ten years as Managing Director, Gottfried Wanzl assumes overall management of the business from his father. Major orders such as equipping the new airport in Hong Kong with luggage trolleys drive employee numbers and sales figures even higher. In 1999, one million shopping trolleys are manufactured in a year for the first time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The 2000s.", "content": "The markets in the conventional commercial business become increasingly saturated in Western Europe, whilst in developing countries, the self-service concept continues to increase. In 2005 in Shanghai a new Wanzl plant is opened incorporating both production and management. The rise in online trade leads Wanzl to expand its product range to include order picking trolleys and warehouse trolleys. Hotels are also supplied with a specialist product range for the first time. Following the insolvency of former competitor Siegel, Wanzl takes on a large proportion of the company's workforce. In the same year, Wanzl receives the Bavarian Quality Award. In order to develop the Shop Solutions business division, the company integrates Unseld, a carpentry firm based in Ulm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The 2010s.", "content": "In January 2012, Wanzl increased its existing stake in the North American consortium Technibilt, acquired in 2006, to 100%. On 11 February 2012, a fire broke out in the electroplating building. The 40 x 40 m large unit was completely burnt out; damage ran into the tens of millions. Just two years after this major fire, the rebuilt electroplating plant was launched into operation on the same site.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Business Divisions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retail Systems/Shop Solutions.", "content": "In addition to metal shopping trolleys, the company has now been making plastic shopping trolleys for several years. These go by the product name of Tango and are exported to other European countries in particular. The range of products also includes shop fittings such as shelving and display units and turnstiles and even complete store installation solutions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Logistics + Industry.", "content": "In 2002, the product ranges for industry and logistics customers were brought together in this business division. In addition to trolleys for picking orders, the company also manufactures transport containers and pallet boxes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Airport + Security Solutions.", "content": "Wanzl luggage trolleys, entry controls and space partitions are in use in railway stations and airports around the world. Customers include the major air transport hubs of Frankfurt, Hong Kong and Paris. Wanzl luggage trolleys are also in use at the Eurostar terminal at London St. Pancras.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hotel Service.", "content": "This business division was established in 2006. It offers hotel equipment such as laundry, cleaning and serving trolleys. The trolleys are also used on some AIDA Cruise Line ships.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production sites.", "content": "Wanzl has three production sites in Leipheim, one in Kirchheim in Schwaben and one each in France (Sélestat), Czech Republic (Hněvotín) and China (Shanghai).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International branches.", "content": "From 1970 onwards, numerous service and sales branches have been established across the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Company Management.", "content": "Gottfried Wanzl, son of Rudolf Wanzl Junior, is Chairman of the Supervisory Board of the company. Rudolf Wanzl Junior was himself honoured with the Bavarian Founder's Prize in 2006 in the category 'Lifetime achievement'. In 2014, Dr. Klaus Meier-Kortwig took over the role of CEO. Frank Derks is CFO, Harald P. Dörenbach is COO and Bernhard Renzhofer is CSO.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trade fairs.", "content": "Wanzl is a regular exhibitor at the triennial EuroShop trade fair, which takes place in Düsseldorf.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wanzl GmbH & Co. KGaA is the world's largest manufacturer of shopping trolleys and luggage trolleys. The company, which has its headquarters in Leipheim, Germany, has approximately 5,000 employees in 12 plants in 8 countries and over 27 sales offices (2018 figures). Annual production totalled approximately 2.0 million shopping trolleys.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976210}
{"src_title": "Bloch MB.131", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The MB.130 was developed in response to the August 1933 French Aviation Ministry request for a reconnaissance and tactical bomber. It was an all-metal, twin-engine, low-wing monoplane with retractable landing gear, and armed with three flexible machine guns, one each in the nose, dorsal turret, and ventral gondola. It first flew on 29 June 1934, and despite very ordinary performance, soon entered production, 40 machines being ordered in October 1935. An improved version, the MB.131 was first flown on 16 August 1936, but still needed more work to overcome its deficiencies. The radically revised second prototype which flew on 5 May 1937 eventually formed the basis for series production, with aircraft being manufactured by SNCASO, the nationalised company that had absorbed Bloch and Blériot. Total production (including prototypes) was 143.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "MB.135.", "content": "A four-engined derivative of the MB.134, was developed powered by four Gnome-Rhône 14M 14 cylinder radial engines, with an essentially similar airframe. The sole example flew for the first time on 12 January 1939.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Entering service in June 1938, the MB.131 went on to equip seven reconnaissance \"Groupes\", six in metropolitan France and one in North Africa. Upon the outbreak of the war, the metropolitan \"Groupes\" suffered heavy losses in attempts at daylight reconnaissance of Germany's western borders. They were subsequently restricted to flying night missions, though they still suffered heavy losses even then. By May 1940, all metropolitan units had been converted to Potez 63.11 aircraft, with only the African groupe retaining them for front-line duty.  After the Battle of France, the planes left in Vichy possession were relegated to target towing duty. 21 planes were reported captured by the \"Luftwaffe\" in inoperable condition, but photographic evidence suggests at least a few flew for the Nazis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bloch MB.130 and its derivatives were a series of French monoplane reconnaissance-bombers developed during the 1930s. They saw some limited action at the beginning of World War II but were obsolete by that time and suffered badly against the \"Luftwaffe\". After the fall of France, a few were pressed into \"Luftwaffe\" service.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976211}
{"src_title": "Stanley Fischer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Fischer was born into a Jewish family in Mazabuka, Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). When he was 13, his family moved to Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), where he became active in the Habonim Zionist youth movement. In 1960, he visited Israel as part of a winter program for youth leaders, and studied Hebrew at kibbutz Ma'agan Michael. He had originally planned to study at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, but went to the United Kingdom to study after receiving a scholarship from the London School of Economics, and obtained his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in economics from 1962–1966. Fischer then moved to the United States to study at MIT, and earned a Ph.D. in economics in 1969 with a thesis titled \"Essays on assets and contingent commodities\" written under the supervision of Franklin M. Fisher. He became an American citizen in 1976.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic career.", "content": "In the early 1970s, Fischer worked as an associate professor at the University of Chicago. He served as a professor at the MIT Department of Economics from 1977 to 1988.  In 1977, Fischer wrote the paper \"Long-Term Contracts, Rational Expectations, and the Optimal Money Supply Rule\" where he combined the idea of rational expectations argued by New classical economists like Robert Lucas with the idea that price stickiness still led to some degree of market shortcomings that an active monetary policy could help mitigate in times of economic downturns. The paper made Fischer a central figure in New Keynesian economics. Through this critique of new classical macroeconomics Fischer significantly contributed to clarifying the limits of the policy-ineffectiveness proposition.  He authored three popular economics textbooks, \"Macroeconomics\" (with Rüdiger Dornbusch and Richard Startz), \"Lectures on Macroeconomics\" (with Olivier Blanchard), and the introductory \"Economics\", with David Begg and Rüdiger Dornbusch. He was also Ben Bernanke's, Mario Draghi's and Greg Mankiw's Ph.D. thesis advisor.  In 2012, Fischer served as Humanitas Visiting Professor in Economic Thought at the University of Oxford.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Banking career.", "content": "From January 1988 to August 1990 he was Vice President, Development Economics and Chief Economist at the World Bank. He then became the First Deputy Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), from September 1994 until the end of August 2001. By the end of 2001, Fischer had joined the influential Washington-based financial advisory body, the Group of Thirty. After leaving the IMF, he served as Vice Chairman of Citigroup, President of Citigroup International, and Head of the Public Sector Client Group. Fischer was an executive at Citigroup from February 2002 to April 2005, earning millions of dollars in salary and stock.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Central Banks.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bank of Israel.", "content": "Fischer was appointed Governor of the Bank of Israel in January 2005 by the Israeli cabinet, after being recommended by Prime Minister Ariel Sharon and Finance Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. He took the position on May 1, 2005, replacing David Klein, who ended his term on January 16, 2005. Fischer became an Israeli citizen but did not renounce U.S. citizenship.  He had been involved in the past with the Bank of Israel, having served as an American government adviser to Israel's economic stabilization program in 1985. On May 2, 2010, Fischer was sworn in for a second term.  Under his management, in 2010, the Bank of Israel was ranked first among central banks for its efficient functioning, according to IMD's World Competitiveness Yearbook.  Fischer has earned plaudits across the board for his handling of the Israeli economy in the aftermath of the global financial crisis. In September 2009, the Bank of Israel was the first bank in the developed world to raise its interest rates.  In 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012 Fischer received an \"A\" rating on the Central Banker Report Card published by \"Global Finance\" magazine.  In June 2011, Fischer applied for the post of IMF managing director to replace Dominique Strauss-Kahn, but was barred as the IMF stipulates that a new managing director must be no older than 65, and he was 67 at the time.  On June 30, 2013, Fischer stepped down as governor of the Bank of Israel midway through his second term, despite high popularity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "U.S. Federal Reserve.", "content": "American President Barack Obama nominated Fischer as vice chair of the Federal Reserve System, the United States' central bank, in January 2014. In nominating Fischer for the position, Obama stated he brought \"decades of leadership and expertise from various roles, including serving at the International Monetary Fund and the Bank of Israel\".  On May 21, 2014, the Senate confirmed Fischer's appointment to the Federal Reserve Board of Governors. In a separate vote on June 12, he was confirmed as the vice chair. Fischer succeeded Janet Yellen as vice chair; Yellen became chair of the Federal Reserve earlier in 2014. Fischer resigned for personal reasons in mid-October, 2017, 8 months before the June, 2018, expiry of his term as vice chair.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recognition.", "content": "Fischer received an honorary doctorate from Hebrew University in 2006. In October 2010, Fischer was declared Central Bank Governor of the Year by \"Euromoney\" magazine.  He is a member of the Bilderberg Group and attended its conferences in 1996, 1998 and 1999. Apparently he also attended the Bilderberg conference in 2011 in St. Moritz, Switzerland. However, his name does not show up on the list of participants for the year 2011 as of March 2016. He is also a Distinguished Fellow in the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR). Fischer was named a Distinguished Fellow of the American Economic Association in 2013. He is also a member of the Inter-American Dialogue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Fischer is married to Rhoda Fischer (née Keet), whom he met during his days in Habonim. The couple has three children. When they moved to Israel, Rhoda became honorary president of Aleh Negev, a rehabilitation village for the disabled.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stanley Fischer (; born October 15, 1943) is an Israeli American economist and former vice chairman of the Federal Reserve. Born in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia), he holds dual citizenship in Israel and the United States. He served as governor of the Bank of Israel from 2005 to 2013. He previously served as chief economist at the World Bank. On January 10, 2014, United States President Barack Obama nominated Fischer to be Vice-Chairman of the US Federal Reserve Board of Governors. On September 6, 2017, Stanley Fischer announced that he was resigning as Vice-Chairman for personal reasons effective October 13, 2017.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976212}
{"src_title": "Sibylla of Anhalt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Sibylla was born in Bernburg in 1564. In 1577, her elder sister Anna Maria was relieved from her post as Imperial abbess of Gernrode and Frose in order to marry Joachim Frederick, eldest son and heir of the duke of Brieg; under pressure from her father, the Chapter elected Sibylla as her successor. Sibylla was confirmed in office by the emperor, Rudolph II. During her reign as abbess the only record of her activities comes from an abbey document in which she invests the widow of Stefan Molitor (the first Evangelical Superintendent of the abbey) with a piece of land.  In 1581, Sibylla was relieved of her post as abbess in order to marry Frederick, Count of Mömpelgard and heir apparent of the Duchy of Württemberg. The marriage was arranged by her stepmother, Eleonore of Württemberg. The wedding took place in Stuttgart on 22 May of that year. Her successor as abbess was her younger half-sister Agnes Hedwig (later the Duchess of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg).  Only sixteen years old at the time of her wedding, Sibylla bore her husband fifteen children during the first fifteen years of their marriage. However, she did not play a prominent role in court life or have any influence over her husband; marital fidelity was not compatible with his view of the prerogatives of an absolutist monarch. After the birth of their last child, the couple virtually lived apart. On his frequent travels to France, Italy, and England, Frederick did not take Sybilla with him. He succeeded his father's cousin Ludwig as Duke of Württemberg in 1593.  Sibylla was anxious to expand her knowledge of botany and chemistry. To veil her interest in the dubious discipline of alchemy, she explained her activity as gathering an herbal collection for the production of medicine for the poor. As scientific adviser, she appointed Helena Magenbuch, a daughter of Johann Magenbuch, the personal physician of Martin Luther and Emperor Charles V. Helena Magenbuch was awarded the title Pharmacist of the Württemberg court. From 1606/1607, Maria Andreae took over this post.  After the death of her husband in 1608, Sibylla withdrew to Leonberg, where she commissioned the architect Heinrich Schickhardt to develop Schloss Leonberg and create the famous \"Pomeranzengarten\" (Orange Garden) in Renaissance style. In 1609 Schickhardt built a lakeside house not far from Leonberg (\"Seehaus Leonberg\") that was used as a hunting lodge. Sibylla died in Leonberg 1614.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sibylla of Anhalt (28 September 1564 – 26 October 1614) was an Ascanian princess of Anhalt who became Duchess of Württemberg by marriage to Duke Frederick I. She was the fourth (but third surviving) daughter of Joachim Ernest, Prince of Anhalt, by his first wife Agnes, daughter of Wolfgang I, Count of Barby-Mühlingen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976213}
{"src_title": "John Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born at Redland near Bristol, Broughton was the eldest son of Sir Benjamin Hobhouse, 1st Baronet, and Charlotte, daughter of Samuel Cam. He was educated at Westminster School, and at Trinity College, Cambridge where he graduated in 1808. Broughton took the Hulsean prize in 1808 for his \"Essay on the Origin and Intention of Sacrifices\". At Cambridge he founded the \"Whig Club,\" and the \"Amicable Society\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Friendship with Lord Byron and mainland European journeys.", "content": "While at Cambridge Broughton became good friends with Lord Byron, who accompanied him on a tour in Spain, Greece and Turkey in 1809. Hobhouse was present at the Battle of Dresden in August 1813, and, following the Coalition armies into France, he saw Louis XVIII enter Paris in May 1814.  In 1815 Broughton was again in Paris after the return of Napoleon Bonaparte from Elba (see \"Hundred Days\"), and showed his dislike of the Bourbons and his sympathy with Bonaparte by writing in 1816 a pamphlet entitled \"The substance of some letters written by an Englishman resident in Paris during the last reign of the emperor Napoleon\". This caused some offence in England and more in France, and the French translation was seized by the government and both translator and printer were imprisoned.  A further period of travel with Byron followed, and at this time Hobhouse wrote some notes to the fourth canto of \"Childe Harold\". This canto was afterwards dedicated to him, and a revised edition of a part of his notes entitled \"Historical illustrations of the fourth canto of \"Childe Harold\" containing dissertations on the ruins of Rome and an essay on Italian literature\", was published in 1818. He shared Byron's enthusiasm for the liberation of Greece; after the poet's death in 1824 he proved his will, and superintended the arrangements for his funeral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parliament.", "content": "In February 1819 Hobhouse was the Radical candidate at a by-election for the representation of the City of Westminster, but he failed to secure election. He had already gained some popularity by writing in favour of reform, and in 1819 spoke the following words: \"I am a man chosen for the people, by the people; and, if elected, I will do no other business than that of the people\". In the same year (1819) he issued \"A defence of the People in reply to Lord Erskine's \"Two Defences of the Whigs,\"\" followed by \"A trifling mistake in Thomas, Lord Erskine's recent preface\". The House of Commons declared this latter pamphlet a breach of privilege; its author was arrested on 14 December 1819, and in spite of an appeal to the court of king's bench he remained in imprisoned in Newgate until the end of the following February. However this proceeding only increased his popularity, and at the general election of 1820 he was returned for Westminster.  In parliament Hobhouse proved a valuable recruit to the Reform party, and is credited with the invention of the phrase \"His Majesty's (Loyal) Opposition\" made in 1826 during a speech in the House of Commons.  Having succeeded his father as 2nd baronet in 1831, Hobhouse was appointed secretary at war in the Whig administration of Lord Grey in February 1832, and was made a Privy Councillor. He effected some reforms and economies during his tenure of this office (He was responsible for the passing of the Vestry Act 1831), but, unable to carry out all his wishes.  Hobhouse became Chief Secretary for Ireland in March 1833. He had only held this post for a few weeks when, in consequence of his refusal to vote with the government against the abolition of the Doors and Windows Tax, he resigned both his office and his seat in parliament. At the subsequent election he was defeated.  Hobhouse joined the cabinet as First Commissioner of Woods and Forests when Lord Melbourne became Prime Minister in July 1834, and about the same time Hobhouse was returned at a by-election as one of the members for Nottingham. In Melbourne's government of 1835 he was President of the Board of Control, in which position he strongly supported the Indian policy of Lord Auckland. He returned to the same office in July 1846 as a member of Lord John Russell's cabinet.  In February 1851 Hobhouse went to the House of Lords as Baron Broughton, of Broughton-de-Gyfford in the County of Wiltshire. He left office when Russell resigned in February 1852.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1852 Hobhouse was also made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB), and took little part in political life, being mainly occupied in literary pursuits and in correspondence. Lord Broughton was a partner in Whitbread's brewery, a fellow of the Royal Society, and one of the founders of the Royal Geographical Society. In the opinion of the author of his biography in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911) he was a good classical scholar, and although not eloquent, an able debater.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Broughton married Lady Julia, daughter of George Hay, 7th Marquess of Tweeddale, in 1828. They had three daughters. Lady Julia died of tuberculosis in April 1835.  Hobhouse died in London on 3 June 1869, and being without heir male the barony lapsed on his death, the baronetcy passing to his nephew, Charles Parry Hobhouse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Hobhouse edited and published:  Hobhouse wrote and published:  For private circulation, and he left (in manuscript) Diaries, Correspondence, and Memoranda, etc., not to be opened till 1900, extracts from which were published by his daughter, Lady Dorchester, also under the title of.  A collection of Hobhouse's diaries, correspondence and memoranda is in the British Museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Cam Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton, (27 June 1786 – 3 June 1869), known as Sir John Hobhouse, Bt, from 1831 to 1851, was an English politician and diarist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976214}
{"src_title": "Video projector", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "A video projector, also known as a digital projector, may project onto a traditional reflective projection screen, or it may be built into a cabinet with a translucent rear-projection screen to form a single unified display device.  Common display resolutions include SVGA (800×600 pixels), XGA (1024×768 pixels), SXGA+ (1400x1050 pixels), 720p (1280×720 pixels), and 1080p (1920×1080 pixels), 4K UHD (3840x2160), as well as 16:10 aspect ratio resolutions including WXGA+ (1280x800 pixels) and WUXGA (1920x1200 pixels)  The cost of a projector is typically driven by its base technology, features, resolution, and light output. A projector with a higher light output (measured in lumens, “lm”) is required for a larger screen or for a room with a larger amount of ambient light. For example, a light output of approximately 1500 to 2500 ANSI lumens is suitable for small screens viewed in rooms with low ambient light; approximately 2500 to 4000 lm is suitable for medium-sized screens with some ambient light; over 4000 lm is needed for very large screens or for use in rooms with no lighting control such as conference rooms. High brightness large-venue models are increasingly common in Boardrooms, Auditoriums and other high profile spaces, and models up to 30,000 lm are used in large staging applications such as concerts, keynote addresses and displays projected on buildings.  A few camcorders have a built-in projector suitable to make a small projection; a few more powerful \"pico projectors\" are pocket-sized, and many projectors are portable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Do-it-yourself video projectors.", "content": "Some hobbyists build a do-it-yourself (DIY) projector for low cost. They build their projectors from kits, sourced components, or from scratch, using a television set as a light source. Through the internet, they obtain plans to construct them for domestic and classroom use.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A video projector is an image projector that receives a video signal and projects the corresponding image on a projection screen using a lens system. Video projectors use a very bright ultra high pressure mercury lamp, Xenon arc lamp, LED or solid state blue, RB, RGB or remote fiber optic RGB lasers to provide the illumination required to project the image, and most modern ones can correct any curves, blurriness, and other inconsistencies through manual settings. If a blue laser is used, a phosphor wheel is used to turn blue light into white light, which is also the case with white LEDs. (White LEDs do not use lasers.) A wheel is used in order to prolong the lifespan of the phosphor, as it is degraded by the heat generated by the laser diode. Remote fiber optic RGB laser racks can be placed far away from the projector, and several racks can be housed in a single, central room. Each projector can use up to 2 racks, and several monochrome lasers are mounted on each rack, the light of which is mixed and transmitted to the projector booth using optical fibers. Projectors using RB lasers use a blue laser with a phosphor wheel in conjuntion with a conventional solid state red laser.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976215}
{"src_title": "Eduard Krebsbach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Concentration camp career.", "content": "In the autumn of 1941, Krebsbach became Standortarzt (garrison doctor) of Mauthausen concentration camp, tasked with supervising medical care and all medical personnel of the camp. He was responsible for initiating mass killing by lethal injection to the heart on handicapped and sick prisoners. Under his supervision approximately 900 Russian, Polish and Czech prisoners were murdered by lethal injections of gasoline. Because of this inmates nicknamed him 'Dr Spritzbach' (Dr Injection). Krebsbach was also responsible for the construction of a gas chamber in the basement of the hospital in the Mauthausen camp.  Krebsbach often inspected the prisoners and conducted selections for execution. A former inmate recalled Krebsbach's actions during such an inspection: \"As the senior SS doctor in the camp, Dr Krebsbach sometimes came to block 5 and had the still surviving Jews paraded before him. He then asked if any of them were doctors. If there were, he would say: 'You Jewish pig, you’re just an abortionist.' The next day they were done away with by the kapos. If a Jewish inmate was lying on the floor with a broken limb - a not uncommon occurrence at work - he was usually thrown over a wall by a kapo. If Dr Krebsbach were passing, he would say ironically: 'Yes, this broken foot is a hopeless case.'\"  Josef Herzler, former Mauthausen inmate (AMM V/3/22).  Krebsbach was transferred to the Kaiserwald concentration camp in Latvia during the autumn of 1943, as it is believed he shot Josef Breitenfellner in his home. Breitenfellner was a German soldier from Langenstein on vacation when he and his friends awoke Krebsbach from his sleep on 22 May 1943. Here he conducted selections by forcing the prisoners to perform physical exercises to check their strength and then identifying the two thousand weakest to be killed.  Following the camp's closure, Krebsbach resumed a career as “Epidemic Inspector for Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania”. Soon after he transferred to the regular army as a senior staff doctor, serving until late 1944. However this was short lived and at the end of 1944 he left the army and worked once again as a company doctor in a spinning mill in Kassel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dachau War Crime Trial.", "content": "Following the end of World War II he was arrested and given the death penalty during the Dachau trials conducted by the US military on 13 May 1946 and was executed by hanging on 28 May 1947 at Landsberg Prison in Landsberg am Lech.  The following is from the court record of the Dachau trials (quoted in Hans Maršálek, \"Die Geschichte des Konzentrationslagers Mauthausen\", p. 174):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eduard Krebsbach (8 August 1894 – 28 May 1947) was a former German physician and SS doctor in the Nazi concentration camp in Mauthausen from July 1941 to August 1943. He was executed for crimes against humanity committed at the Mauthausen camp.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976216}
{"src_title": "SMS Novara (1850)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "SMS \"Novara\" was a frigate that circumnavigated the earth in the course of the Austrian Imperial expedition of 1857–1859, during the reign of (\"Kaiser\") Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. It was a sailing ship with three masts of sails and six decks, outfitted with 42 cannons, and had a water displacement of nearly 2,107 tons.  Between 1843 and 1899 SMS \"Novara\" had several different names and configurations: originally named \"Minerva\" when the lengthy construction started in Venice during 1843, the partially completed frigate was renamed \"Italia\" by Venetian revolutionaries in 1848, finally launched with the name \"Novara\" in 1850, and converted to a steam cruiser during 1861–1865.  The name \"Novara\" originated with the Battle of Novara in March 1849: following the Austrians' retaking of Venice in August 1849, Field Marshal Radetzky visited the shipyard there, and the officers petitioned him to have the nearly-completed \"Italia\" renamed in honour of his victory over King Charles Albert at the Italian town of Novara. The ship was subsequently christened \"Novara\" in 1849, and construction restarted in earnest under Austrian supervision. The hull left the slipway the following year, in November 1850.  The circumnavigation of the earth from April 1857 through August 1859 by \"Novara\" was one of the most important journeys for what became the \"Naturhistorisches Museum\" in Vienna. A number of eminent natural scientists joined the voyage, including Georg Ritter von Frauenfeld, curator in the invertebrate department of the Imperial museums. The material collected during the expedition was voluminous and prominent scientists continue to examine and write it to the present day; (see details below).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Novara\" expedition.", "content": "The \"Novara\" expedition of 1857–1859 was the first large-scale scientific, around-the-world mission of the Austrian Imperial navy. Authorized by Archduke Maximillian, the journey lasted 2 years 3 months, from 30 April 1857 until 30 August 1859.  The expedition was accomplished by the frigate \"Novara\", under the command of Kommodore Bernhard von Wüllerstorf-Urbair, with 345 officers and crew, plus seven (7) scientists aboard. Preparation for the research journey was made by the \"Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna\" and by specialized scholars under direction of the geologist Ferdinand von Hochstetter and the zoologist Georg von Frauenfeld. The first coca plant (cocaine) investigations, in particular on St. Paul Island, the Nicobar Islands, and on New Zealand (first geological mapping by Hochstetter), created the bases for future geological research. The oceanographic research, in particular in the South Pacific, revolutionized oceanography and hydrography.  The collections of botanical, zoological (26,000 preparations), and cultural material brought back enriched the Austrian museums (especially the natural-history museum). They were also studied by Johann Natterer, a scientist who collected Vienna museum specimens during 18 years in South America. The geomagnetic observations made throughout the whole expedition significantly increased the scientific knowledge in this field. Finally, the expedition's introduction of coca plant leaves made it possible to isolate cocaine in its pure form for the first time in 1860.  The results of the research journey were compiled into a 21-binder report of the Viennese Academy of Sciences, titled \"\"Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde (1861–1876)\"\" (\"journey of the Austrian frigate Novara around the earth\"). Also published were many woodcuts under the same title. An account of the voyage was also published in English, in 3 volumes, by Karl Scherzer. (See § Legacy.)  The Novara-Expedition report included a drawing of the frigate SMS \"Novara\" surrounded by an oval border with the names of locations visited: Gibraltar, Madeira, Rio de Janeiro, Cape Town, St. Paul island, Ceylon, Madras, Nicobar Islands, Singapore, Batavia, Manila, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Puynipet Island, Stewart Island or Stuart Island (16-17 October 1858), Sydney (5 November 1858), Auckland, Tahiti, Valparaíso, Gravosa, and Triest (returning on 26 August 1859).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Voyages with Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian.", "content": "In April 1864, SMS \"Novara\" had the important task of carrying Archduke Maximilian and his wife Charlotte to Veracruz, in the Americas, for their establishment as the new Emperor and Empress of Mexico during the Second Mexican Empire. \"Novara\" arrived at Veracruz, Mexico on 28 May 1864.  Over 3 years later, upon the capture and execution of Maximilian I of Mexico, by the constitutional Mexican government (of Benito Juárez), Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff was sent with \"Novara\" to bring Maximilian's body home to Austria, arriving in the port of Trieste on 16 January 1868.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Battle of Lissa.", "content": "SMS \"Novara\" saw active service during the Battle of Lissa which took place on 20 July 1866 in the Adriatic Sea near the island of Vis (Italian: Lissa). SMS \"Novara\" belonged to Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff's 2nd Division, commanded by Baron Anton von Petz, which consisted mainly of wooden steam warships. \"'Novara\"s commander, Erik af Klint, was killed in the engagement. The battle was a decisive victory for an outnumbered Austrian Empire force over a superior Italian force. It was the first major sea battle between ironclads and one of the last to involve deliberate ramming.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "SMS \"Novara\" has left such a legacy behind that a depiction of her was selected for a commemorative coin: the 20 euro S.M.S. Novara coin minted on 16 June 2004. The obverse shows the frigate SMS \"Novara\" under sail during her circumnavigation of the globe in 1857-1859. \"Novara\" was the first Austrian ship in the Austro-Hungarian Navy to circumnavigate the world. In the background, there is a representation of the Chinese coast. Seagulls, showing the nearness to land, circle the ship.  Approximately 30,000 copies of Karl von Scherzer's book on the circumnavigation of the world of the frigate \"Novara\" were sold, a huge number in that era. It is considered the second most successful popular scientific work in the German language in the 19th century; second only to Alexander von Humboldt's 5-volume Cosmography. An English edition was published shortly after, printed by Saunders, Otley and Co. in London in three volumes 1861-1863, containing more than 1200 pages. The complete title of the book is: Karl von Scherzer: \"Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate \"Novara\" (B. von Wullersdorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government, Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander in-Chief of the Austrian Navy.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "SMS \"Novara\" was a sail frigate of the Austro-Hungarian Navy most noted for sailing the globe for the Novara Expedition of 1857–1859 and, later for carrying Archduke Maximilian and wife Carlota to Veracruz in May 1864 to become Emperor and Empress of Mexico.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976217}
{"src_title": "Adam Gontier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Gontier was born in Peterborough, Ontario, Canada on May 25, 1978. He was raised in Markham, Ontario. Shortly after his parents divorced, he moved back to the Peterborough area, where he initially attended Adam Scott Collegiate and Vocational Institute. In 1992, he moved to the Norwood area, and attended Norwood District High School, where he met and befriended Three Days Grace members Neil Sanderson and Brad Walst.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable works and collaborations.", "content": "Outside of Three Days Grace, Gontier has also written and collaborated with numerous writers, musicians and bands. Some of his collaborations include Daughtry, Ian Thornley, Max Martin, Shaun Morgan, Ben Burnley, Art of Dying, Before the Curtain, and fellow musician and long time friends Kevin Brown, Grainne Ryan, and Kim Brown.  He has also contributed to a number of other albums. He contributed vocals and musical arrangement on \"I Don't Care\" on Apocalyptica's album, \"Worlds Collide\" in 2007.  Gontier was also featured on the track \"Raining\" by fellow Canadian band Art of Dying on their album \"Vices and Virtues\". His cousin, Cale Gontier, is the bass player for Art of Dying.  In 2006, Gontier was a member of the rock supergroup Big Dirty Band along with Geddy Lee, Alex Lifeson, Jeff Burrows, Ian Thornley and Care Failure, covering \"I Fought the Law\", as part of the \"Trailer Park Boys\" movie soundtrack.  In 2009, Adam Gontier worked with Daughtry on their second studio album \"Leave This Town\". The song, \"Back Again\", did not make the final cut. The song was featured on the physical copy of Daughtry's \"\" EP.  In 2011, Gontier created the record label, Sludge Factory Records, and has signed three acts, one of which is fellow Peterborough band, Before the Curtain.  On January 9, 2013, Gontier resigned from Three Days Grace. He left as the band was about to embark on a co-headlining tour. Matt Walst from My Darkest Days, and brother of bassist Brad Walst, became the new official singer. , Gontier is working with Staind guitarist Mike Mushok on a supergroup called Saint Asonia. The band released their self-titled, debut album on July 31, 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Solo career.", "content": "Gontier joined singer and songwriter Martin Sexton on the road during his 2012 \"Fall Like Rain\" tour, providing opening support as a solo artist. He also joined Citizen Cope for a few shows as a solo act.  Gontier continued to do shows and concerts as a solo artist. Several songs have been released, but not as singles, such as \"It's All in Your Hands\", \"Take Me With You\", \"Too Drunk to Drive\" (written by Casey Marshall), \"Until the End\", \"No Regrets\", \"A Beast in Me (Over and Over It Turns on Me)\", and \"We Will Never Forget\". Gontier had previously performed solo songs like \"I Will Stay\", \"Try to Catch Up With the World\", and \"Lost Your Shot\" in 2011 and 2012.  In early March 2013, Gontier publicly announced and launched his Adam Gontier Solo Live Tour.  On May 11, 2013, Gontier released an official acoustic version and video of the song \"Give Me a Reason\" from \"Transit of Venus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Gontier has won two BMI pop awards as well as \"Billboard\"s \"Rock Single of the Year\". Michael Bell handed him the \"Big Time Award\", at the 2012 \"Wire Awards\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Gontier married Naomi Faith Brewer in 2004. The couple divorced in 2013. He married Jeanie Marie Larsen in March 2015.  In 2005, he went into rehabilitation at the CAMH (Centre for Addiction and Mental Health) in Toronto, where he wrote many of the songs for \"One-X\", including \"Never Too Late\", which was co-written by Adam's ex-wife, Naomi Faith Brewer. Both Gontier and Brewer wrote the video for the song, and she also appears in the video. While in CAMH in Toronto, Gontier wrote \"Pain\", \"Animal I Have Become\", \"Get Out Alive\", \"Over and Over\", and \"Gone Forever\". A docu-drama about his addiction, \"Behind the Pain\", was released in 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "with Three Days Grace  with Saint Asonia", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adam Wade Gontier (born May 25, 1978) is a Canadian singer, songwriter and musician. He is the lead singer, rhythm guitarist, and main songwriter for Saint Asonia, but is best known as the former lead singer and rhythm guitarist of the Canadian rock band Three Days Grace. Gontier left Three Days Grace on January 9, 2013. In addition to his work with Three Days Grace, he has been involved in collaborations with other bands including Art of Dying and Apocalyptica.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976218}
{"src_title": "Si j'étais roi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act I.", "content": "At dawn on the beach; Zizel has to be bribed to stop him arresting some of the fishermen. A few months before the action starts, Zéphoris, a young fisherman in Goa, had rescued a young woman from drowning, recovering the ring which she lost. Zéphoris recounts the story to his sister Zélide and his friend Piféar; when King Moussol and his court pass, Zéphoris recognises the beautiful woman as a princess in the retinue : Néméa. Prince Kadoor notices Zéphoris and forces him not to reveal to Néméa the secret of her ring and saviour. After Kadoor has convinced the king that he saved the princess (as she has sworn to wed the man who saved her - although she dislikes Kadoor), he demands that Zéphoris leave the village. Zéphoris is heartbroken, and lies down and dreams that he may become a king - rather than a poor fisherman - so that he could be worthy of marrying Néméa. The king, hearing this and seeing him asleep, decides to play a game, and has him carried off to the palace.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act II.", "content": "Zéphoris awakens the next day in the throne room of the palace of Moussol in royal garments, and everyone treats him like a king. He enjoys the situation, convenes his court and passes laws to assist the fishermen. However, announcing his marriage to the princess Néméa goes too far, and the king gives a sleeping draught to Zéphoris and has him returned to his hut.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act III.", "content": "In Tableau 1, Zéphoris, back in his poor fishing-hut, believes he must have dreamt everything. His sister Zélide tries to console him, but Néméa arrives to tell him that it was not a dream, and when Kadoor enters with assassins to rid himself of his rival she declares that she is in love with Zéphoris. The king and his court arrive on the scene and discover Kadoor’s treachery to conspire with the Portuguese warships off the coast. Tableau 2 is set in a square in the town of Goa; after victory over the Portuguese, the king agrees to the union of Néméa and Zéphoris.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Selected Recording.", "content": "\"Si j'étais roi\". Liliane Berton (Néméa), André Mallabrera (Zéphoris), René Bianco (Moussol), Henri Médus (Kadoor), Pierre Heral (Zizel), Bernard Alvi (Piféar), Andrée Gabriel (Zélide). Orchestre de la Société des Concerts du Conservatoire, conducted by Richard Blareau (1960). Universal Classics, France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Si j'étais roi (English: \"If I Were King\") is an opéra comique in three acts by Adolphe Adam. The libretto was written by Adolphe d'Ennery and Jules-Henri Brésil. It was first performed in Paris at the Théâtre Lyrique (Théâtre-Historique, Boulevard du Temple) on 4 September 1852, opening with a dual cast to allow performance on successive evenings (it made up half of all performances at the Théâtre Lyrique in the last four months of the year and reached over 170 performances in its first ten years). The production was considered lavish, with expensive costumes and jewels being worn by the cast.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976219}
{"src_title": "Shuttle Carrier Aircraft", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Lockheed C-5 Galaxy was considered for the shuttle-carrier role by NASA, but rejected in favor of the 747. This was due to the 747's low-wing design in comparison to the C-5's high-wing design, and also because the U.S. Air Force would have retained ownership of the C-5, while NASA could own the 747s outright.  The first aircraft, a Boeing 747-123 registered N905NA, was originally manufactured for American Airlines. With the drop in air traffic and failure to fill the 747's, American Airlines sold them to NASA. Upon testing, they still wore the visible American cheatlines while testing \"Enterprise\" in the 1970s. It was acquired in 1974 and initially used for trailing wake vortex research as part of a broader study by NASA Dryden, as well as Shuttle tests involving an F-104 flying in close formation and simulating a release from the 747.  The aircraft was extensively modified for NASA by Boeing in 1976. While first-class seats were kept for NASA passengers, its main cabin and insulation were stripped, mounting struts were added, and the fuselage was strengthened. With the Shuttle riding on top, the center of gravity was altered. Vertical stabilizers were added to the tail to aid stability when the Orbiter was being carried. The avionics and engines were also upgraded.  An internal escape slide was added behind the flight deck in case of catastrophic failure mid-flight. In the event of a bail-out, explosives would be detonated to make an opening in the fuselage at the bottom of the slide, allowing the crew to exit through the slide and parachute to the ground. The slide system was removed following the Approach and Landing Tests because of concerns over the possibility of escaping crew members being ingested into an engine.  Flying with the additional drag and weight of the Orbiter imposed significant fuel and altitude penalties. The range was reduced to, compared to an unladen range of, requiring an SCA to stop several times to refuel on a transcontinental flight. Without the Orbiter, the SCA needed to carry ballast to balance out its center of gravity. The SCA had an altitude ceiling of and a maximum cruise speed of Mach 0.6 with the orbiter attached. A crew of 170 took a week to prepare the shuttle and SCA for flight.  Studies were conducted to equip the SCA with aerial refueling equipment, a modification already made to the U.S. Air Force E-4 (modified 747-200s) and 747 tanker transports for the IIAF. However, during formation flying with a tanker aircraft to test refueling approaches, minor cracks were spotted on the tailfin of N905NA. While these were not likely to have been caused by the test flights, it was felt that there was no sense taking unnecessary risks. Since there was no urgent need to provide an aerial refueling capacity, the tests were suspended. By 1983, SCA N905NA no longer carried the distinct American Airlines tricolor cheatline. NASA replaced it with its own livery, consisting of a white fuselage and a single blue cheatline. That year, this aircraft was also used to fly \"Enterprise\" on a tour in Europe, with refueling stops in Goose Bay, Canada; Keflavik, Iceland; England; and West Germany. It then went to the Paris Air Show.  In 1988, in the wake of the \"Challenger\" accident, NASA procured a surplus 747SR-46 from Japan Airlines. Registered N911NA, it entered service with NASA in 1990 after undergoing modifications similar to N905NA. It was first used in 1991 to ferry the new shuttle \"Endeavour\" from the manufacturers in Palmdale, California to Kennedy Space Center.  Based at the Dryden Flight Research Center within Edwards Air Force Base in California the two aircraft were functionally identical, although N911NA has five upper-deck windows on each side, while N905NA has only two. The rear mounting points on both aircraft were labeled with humorous instructions to \"attach orbiter here\" or \"place orbiter here\", clarified by the precautionary note \"black side down\".  Shuttle Carriers were capable of operating from alternative shuttle landing sites such as those in the United Kingdom, Spain, and France. Because Shuttle Carrier's range is reduced while mated to an orbiter, additional preparations such as removal of the payload from the orbiter may have been necessary to reduce its weight. Boeing transported its Phantom Ray unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) demonstrator from St. Louis, Missouri, to Edwards on a Shuttle Carrier on December 11, 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ferry flights.", "content": "Ferry flights generally transported the orbiters from Edwards Air Force Base, the shuttle's secondary landing site, to the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at the Kennedy Space Center where the orbiter was processed. This was common in the early days of the Space Shuttle program when weather conditions at the SLF prevented the shuttle from landing there. Some flights started at the Dryden Flight Research Center following delivery of the orbiter from Rockwell International to NASA from the nearby facilities in Palmdale, California.  At the end of the Space Shuttle program the SCA was used to deliver the retired orbiters from the Kennedy Space Center to their museums. \"Discovery\" was delivered to the Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, Virginia, near Washington, D.C. on April 19, 2012. On April 17, 2012, \"Discovery\" was flown atop a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft escorted by a NASA T-38 Talon chase aircraft in a final farewell flight. The 747 and \"Discovery\" flew over Washington, D.C. and the metropolitan area around 10 a.m. and arrived at Dulles around 11 a.m. The flyover and landing were widely covered on national news media.  The last ferry flight took \"Endeavour\" from Kennedy Space Center to Los Angeles between 19 and 21 September 2012 via Ellington Field and Edwards Air Force Base. After leaving Edwards the SCA with \"Endeavour\" performed low level flyovers above various landmarks across California, from Sacramento to the San Francisco Bay Area, and finally to Los Angeles. \"Endeavour\" was delivered to Los Angeles International Airport (LAX). From there the orbiter was transported through the streets of Los Angeles and Inglewood to its final destination in the California Science Center in Exposition Park.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "Shuttle Carrier N911NA retired on February 8, 2012 after its final mission to the Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards Air Force Base in Palmdale, California, and was used as a source of parts for NASA's Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) aircraft, another modified Boeing 747. N911NA is now preserved and on display at the Joe Davies Heritage Airpark in Palmdale, California as part of a long-term loan to the city from NASA.  Shuttle Carrier N905NA was used to ferry the retired Space Shuttles to their respective museums. After delivering \"Endeavour\" to the Los Angeles International Airport in September 2012, the aircraft was flown to the Dryden Flight Research Facility, where NASA intended it to join N911NA as a source of spare parts for NASA's SOFIA aircraft, but when NASA engineers surveyed N905NA they determined that it had few parts usable for SOFIA. In 2013, a decision was made to preserve N905NA and display it at Space Center Houston with the mockup shuttle \"Independence\" mounted on its back. N905NA was flown to Ellington Field where it was carefully dismantled, ferried to the Johnson Space Center in seven major pieces (a process called The Big Move), reassembled, and finally mated with the replica shuttle in August 2014. The display, called Independence Plaza, opened to the public for the first time on January 23, 2016.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA) are two extensively modified Boeing 747 airliners that NASA used to transport Space Shuttle orbiters. One is a 747-100 model, while the other is a short range 747-100SR.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976220}
{"src_title": "Nachtigall Battalion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formation and training.", "content": "Prior to Operation Barbarossa, the Bandera's OUN collaborated with Nazi Germany and in fact received its training there. According to the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and other sources, OUN-R leader Stepan Bandera held meetings with the heads of Germany's intelligence, regarding the formation of \"Nachtigall\" and \"Roland\" Battalions. February 25, 1941 head of the Abwehr Wilhelm Franz Canaris sanctioned the creation of the \"Ukrainian Legion\" under German command. The unit would have had 800 persons. Roman Shukhevych became a commander of the Legion from the OUN-R side. OUN expected that the unit would become the core of the future Ukrainian army. In the spring the OUN received 2.5 million marks for subversive activities against the USSR. In the spring of 1941 the Legion was reorganized into 2 units. One of the units became known as Nachtigall Battalion, a second became the Roland Battalion.  In May 1941, the German command decided to split a 700-strong Ukrainian Legion into two battalions: Nachtigall (\"Nightingale\") and Roland Battalion.  Training for Nachtigall took place in Neuhammer near Schlessig. On the Ukrainian side, the commander was Roman Shukhevych and on the German, Theodor Oberländer. (Oberländer was later to become Federal Minister for Displaced Persons, Refugees and War Victims in the Federal Republic of Germany.) Ex-Brandenburger Oberleutnant Dr. was placed in military command of the Battalion.  The Nachtigall unit was outfitted in the standard Wehrmacht uniforms. Before entering Lviv, they placed blue and yellow ribbons on their shoulders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War with the Soviet Union.", "content": "Four days before the attack on the Soviet Union, the Battalion was moved to the border. On the night of June 23–24, 1941, the Battalion crossed the border near Przemyśl while traveling in the direction of Lviv. The Nachtigall Battalion traveled along with a Panzer-Jaeger Division and some tank units went along through Radymno-Lviv-Ternopil-Proskuriv-Vinnytsia path. As part of the 1st Brandenburg Battalion, the first soldiers of the Nachtigall Battalion entered Lviv on June 29. The battalion took up guard of strategic objects, the most important of which was the radio station on the Vysoky Zamok Hill in the centre of Lviv. From the radio station, the proclamation of the Act of Ukrainian Independence was made. The Nachtigall servicemen participated in and organized the Declaration of Ukrainian Independence proclaimed by Yaroslav Stetsko on June 30. Battalion chaplain Ivan Hrynokh made a speech after declaration meeting ended. The German administration did not support these activities but did not act harshly against organizers until mid-September 1941.  The first company of the Nachtigall Battalion left Lviv with the Brandenburgers on July 7 in the direction of Zolochiv. The remainder of the unit joined later during their eastward march towards Zolochiv, Ternopil and Vinnytsia. The unit participated in action against Stalin Line where some of its members were awarded by the Germans. During the march at three villages of the Vinnytsia region \"all Jews which were met\" were shot.  The German refusal to accept the OUN(b)'s June 30 proclamation of Ukrainian independence in L'viv led to a change of the Nachtigall battalion direction. As the result, the battalion was recalled to Cracow and disarmed on August 15. It was later transformed together with Roland battalion into the 201st Schutzmannschaft Battalion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assessment.", "content": "Russian historian V. Chuyev states that despite the ending, OUN achieved its ultimate goals – 600 members of their organization had received military training and had battle experience and these men took positions as instructors and commanders in the structure of the newly formed Ukrainian Insurgent Army.  S. Bandera wrote: \"The end of OUN was such: the revolutionary columns were commanded by Roman Shukhevych with a small party of officers who had not only undergone military training, but had come to a clear understanding of military tactics. The most important, they brought with them - an understanding of organization, strategies and tactics of partisan fighting, and the German method of dealing with partisan groups. This knowledge was very useful in the formation and activities of the UIA and in its future conflicts.  During its short history the Nachtigall Battalion had 39 casualties and had 40 wounded soldiers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "Accusations have placed the Battalion in Lviv in July 1941 and claimed that the unit participated in the pogrom that took place. Some members of the unit did indeed participate in the pogrom, which implicates the unit as a whole.  World opinion: An international commission was set up at The Hague in the Netherlands in 1959 to carry out independent investigations. The members were four former anti-Hitler activists, Norwegian lawyer Hans Cappelen, former Danish foreign minister and president of the Danish parliament Ole Bjørn Kraft, Dutch socialist Karel van Staal, Belgian law professor Flor Peeters, and Swiss jurist and member of parliament Kurt Scoch. Following its interrogation of a number of Ukrainian witnesses between November 1959 and March 1960, the commission concluded: \"After four months of inquiries and the evaluation of 232 statements by witnesses from all circles involved, it can be established that the accusations against the Battalion Nachtigall and against the then Lieutenant and currently Federal Minister Oberländer have no foundation in fact\".  The Ukrainian side states that none of the allegations have been proven by any documents, and that the Battalion's main priority was securing the radio station, newspapers and proclaiming Ukrainian independence.  Canadian Investigation: Involvement of any members of the Nachtigall Battalion in the war crimes have not yet been established. The Canadian Commission on War Criminals in Canada (Deschênes Commission) that look into allegations of war criminals residing in Canada, has not named any of the members of the Nachtigall Battalion. Moreover, it concluded, that units collaborating with the Nazis should not be indicted as a group and that mere membership in such units was not sufficient to justify prosecution.  The Simon Wiesenthal Center contends that between June 30 and July 3, 1941, in the days that the Battalion was in Lviv the Nachtigall soldiers together with the German army and the local Ukrainians participated in the killings of Jews in the city. The pretext for the pogrom was a rumor that the Jews were responsible for the execution of prisoners by the Soviets before the 1941 Soviet withdrawal from Lviv. The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust states that some 4,000 Jews were kidnapped and killed at that time. It further states that the unit was removed from Lviv on July 7 and sent to the Eastern Front.  The Polish side contends that members of the Nazi-led Nachtigall battalion also participated in the massacres of Polish professors, including the ex-Polish Prime minister Kazimierz Bartel, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński and others, in Lwów in 1941. See Massacre of Lviv professors.  The activities of the Nachtigall Battalion continue to remain controversial. A study of the massacre in Lviv based on documents of the time was made by de Zayas in his book \"The Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau, 1939-1945\" University of Nebraska Press, Rockport, Maine, 2000 edition.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nachtigall Battalion (), also known as the Ukrainian Nightingale Battalion Group (), or officially as Special Group Nachtigall, was the subunit under command of the German Abwehr special operations unit Lehrregiment \"Brandenburg\" z.b.V. 800. Along with the Roland Battalion it was one of two military units formed February 25, 1941 by head of the Abwehr Wilhelm Franz Canaris, which sanctioned the creation of the \"Ukrainian Legion\" under German command. It was composed of volunteer \"Ukrainian nationalists,\" Ukrainians operating under Stephan Bandera's OUN orders.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976221}
{"src_title": "Sophronius of Jerusalem", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Travels.", "content": "Sophronius was born in Damascus around 560. He has been claimed to be of Byzantine Greek, as well as of Syriac descent. A teacher of rhetoric, Sophronius became an ascetic in Egypt about 580 and then entered the monastery of St. Theodosius near Bethlehem. Traveling to monastic centres in Asia Minor, Egypt, and Rome, he accompanied the Byzantine chronicler St. John Moschus, who dedicated to him his celebrated tract on the religious life, \"Leimõn ho Leimõnon\" (Greek: “The Spiritual Meadow”) (and whose feast day in the Byzantine Rite,, is shared with Sophronius'). On the death of Moschus in Rome in 619, Sophronius accompanied the body back to Jerusalem for monastic burial. He traveled to Alexandria, Egypt, and to Constantinople in the year 633 to persuade the respective patriarchs to renounce Monoenergism, a heterodox teaching that espoused a single, divine energy in Christ to the exclusion of a human capacity for choice. Lest his synodal letter for the Second Council of Constantinople, Sophronius' extensive writings on this question are all lost.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Elected Patriarch.", "content": "Although unsuccessful his mission to condemn Monoenergism, Sophronius was elected patriarch of Jerusalem in 634. Soon after his enthronement he forwarded his noted synodical letter to Pope Honorius I and to the Eastern patriarchs, explaining the orthodox belief in the two natures, human and divine, of Christ, as opposed to Monoenergism, which he viewed as a subtle form of heretical Monophysitism (which posited a single divine nature for Christ). Moreover, he composed a Florilegium (“Anthology”) of some 600 texts from the Early Church Fathers in favour of the Christian tenet of Dyothelitism (positing both human and divine wills in Christ). This document also is lost.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teachings.", "content": "In his Christmas sermon of 634, Sophronius was more concerned with keeping the clergy in line with the Chalcedonian view of God, giving only the most conventional of warnings of the Saracen advance on Palestine, commenting that the Saracens already controlled Bethlehem. Sophronius, who viewed the Saracen control of Palestine as \"unwitting representatives of God's inevitable chastisement of weak and wavering Christians\", died soon after the fall of Jerusalem to the caliph Umar I in 637, but not before he had negotiated the recognition of civil and religious liberty for Christians in exchange for tribute - an agreement known as Umari Treaty. The caliph himself came to Jerusalem, and met with the patriarch at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Sophronius invited Umar to pray there, but Umar declined, fearing to endanger the Church's status as a Christian temple.  Beside polemics, Sophronius' writings included an encomium on the Alexandrian martyrs Cyrus and John in gratitude for an extraordinary cure of his failing vision. He also wrote 23 Anacreontic (classical metre) poems on such themes as the Muslim siege of Jerusalem and on various liturgical celebrations. His \"Anacreontica\" 19 and 20 seem to be an expression of the longing desire he had of the Holy City, possibly when he was absent from Jerusalem during one of his many journeys. The order of the two poems has to be inverted to establish a correct sequence of the diverse subjects. Arranged in this way, the two poems describe a complete circuit throughout the most important sanctuaries of Jerusalem at the end of the 6th century, described as the golden age of Christianity in the Holy Land. Themes of Anacreonticon 20 include the gates of Jerusalem (or Solyma), the Anastasis, the Rock of the Cross, the Constantinian Basilica, Mount Sion, the Praetorium, St. Mary at the Probatica, and Gethsemane. The Mount of Olives, Bethany, and Bethlehem come next in Anacreonticon 19. Sophronius also wrote down the Life of St. Mary of Egypt, which is read on the fifth Thursday of Lent in the Byzantine Rite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Muslim views.", "content": "According to the Muslim apocryphal treaty Pact of Umar, caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab came to Jerusalem in 637 after the conquest of Jerusalem and toured the city with Sophronius. During the tour of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the time for prayer came, and despite Sophronius's offer to Umar to pray inside the Church, Umar chose to pray outside. According to Islamic tradition, the caliph's reason for declining to pray there was because in the future Muslims might say that Umar prayed here and use it as an excuse to build a mosque there. Therefore, Muslims are not allowed to build a mosque there. So appreciating the caliph's intelligence he gave the keys of the church to him. Unable to refuse it the caliph gave it to a family of Muslims from Medina and asked them to open the church and close it; the keys of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre still remain with the Muslim family.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sophronius (c. 560 – March 11, 638; ) was the Patriarch of Jerusalem from 634 until his death. He is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Before rising to the primacy of the see of Jerusalem, he was a monk and theologian who was the chief protagonist for orthodox teaching in the doctrinal controversy on the essential nature of Jesus and his volitional acts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976222}
{"src_title": "Ragnarok Online", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "Player characters interact in a 3D environment but are represented by 2D character sprites for front, back, side and diagonal facings. The major types of server-supported gameplay are Player vs Environment, Guild vs Guild, Player vs Player. Also supported by the game server are Group vs Group, Arena Combat, Player vs Monster, Player vs All, and various other specific scenarios at designated instance locations in the game world. Non-player character-run challenges and contests are also available with prizes, awards, and/or in a specific hall of fame listing.  Players can sign up for quests and submit them for rewards as well as access storage and teleport services for a small fee. Every town will have the usual stores and shops where players can purchase and sell their items. The stores differ from city to city because each city is affiliated with a different job that players can choose from; therefore, the goods each sell are relatively for that particular job that the city is affiliated with. Quests usually provide a unique reward such as learning a new skill or receiving a rare item.  The job system initially consisted of 13 classes, which has increased to over 50 via several updates. Each class specializes in certain skills corresponding to archetypes in a role-playing game. Additionally, numerous equipment are exclusive to particular classes. The greatness of the equipment depends on the character attribute status.  Once a player reaches player level 99 and job level 50, they can'rebirth' their character (not applicable to expansion classes and Super Novices). Rebirthing brings a character back to level 1 for both player level and job level. Reborn characters generally work the same as regular characters up until the second class. Instead of a second class, characters that are born can transcend to a new second job, different from those of a character that hasn't been reborn. These transcended job types have more skills and a larger number of'stat points' to allocate to characters compared to second classes. The experience curve for transcendent jobs is significantly higher. Players are given the option to advance onto their third classes which provide an additional set of skills as well as allowing with player to break through the traditional level cap of 99.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Setting.", "content": "\"Ragnarok Online\" is divided into a series of maps on two major continents, each of which has its own terrain and native monsters, though many monsters are present in multiple regions. Transportation between maps requires loading the new map and monsters are unable to travel from one map to another unless directly associated with the player such as a pet, mount, or hireling. Areas from Norse mythology are included.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "The official \"Ragnarok Online\" servers underwent massive game system changes in 2010, which has been titled \"Renewal\". Renewal revamped game mechanics, changed the behavior and interaction of stats, gears, and modifiers in the stat system, changed the way and amount of character experience, and introduced the 3rd Job Classes. There are various other changes that come with Renewal, including interface and hotkey alterations, as well as skill changes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Ragnarok Mobile\".", "content": "Gravity Co. Ltd. released eight separate games for the mobile phone allowing players to experience the game on the road. Each version focuses on the main aspect of certain classes based on the version of the game they have. Though not placed in the server, players control their character and complete a series of quests or tasks. As players earn zeny (the in-game currency) they are able to send the zeny to their real accounts. Also, a ranking is present where characters are ranked by the amount of zeny the character has.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ragnarok Online (spelled Ragnarök in the logo;, alternatively subtitled The Final Destiny of the Gods) is a massive multiplayer online role-playing game created by Gravity based on the manhwa \"Ragnarok\" by Lee Myung-jin. It was released in South Korea on 31 August 2002 for Microsoft Windows. The game has spawned an animated series, \"Ragnarok the Animation\", and a sequel game, \"\". Player characters exist in a world with a player environment that gradually changes with the passage of time. Major changes in the features and history of the world take place as episodes in the RO timeline.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976223}
{"src_title": "Nemetschek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The company was founded by Prof. Georg Nemetschek in 1963 and went by the name of \"Ingenieurbüro für das Bauwesen\" (engineering firm for the construction industry), focusing on structural design. The engineering firm was one of the first companies in the industry to use computers and developed software for engineers, initially for its own requirements. In 1977 Nemetschek started distributing its \"program system Statik 97/77\" for civil engineering.  At the Hanover Fair in 1980, Nemetschek presented a software package for the integrated calculation and design of standard components for solid construction. This was the first time that it was possible to use Computer-aided engineering (CAE) on microcomputers, and the product remained unique on the market for many years.  In 1981 \"Nemetschek Programmsystem GmbH\" was founded and was responsible for software distribution; Georg Nemetschek’s engineering firm continued to be in charge of program development. The main product, Allplan – a CAD system for architects and engineers, was launched in 1984. This allowed designers to model buildings in three dimensions. Nemetschek began to expand internationally in the 80s: in 1996 the company had subsidiaries in eight European countries and distribution partners in nine countries in Europe, and since 1992 has also had an additional development site in Bratislava, Slovakia. The first acquisitions were made at the end of the 90s, e.g. the structural design program vendor \"Friedrich + Lochner\".  The company, operating as Nemetschek AG since 1994, went public in 1999 and has been listed in the Prime Standard market segment in Frankfurt ever since. A series of company takeovers were to follow, the largest acquisitions including the American Diehl Graphsoft (now Vectorworks) and MAXON Computer GmbH with its Cinema 4D software for visualization and animation. The next takeovers occurred in 2006 with the purchases of the Hungarian \"Graphisoft\" and the Belgian \"SCIA International\".  In November 2013 Nemetschek acquired the MEP solutions provider \"Data Design System\" (DDS). On 31 October 2014 the acquisition of Bluebeam Software, Inc. was concluded. At the end of 2015 \"Solibri\" was acquired. \"dRofus\" became a member of the Nemetschek Group at the beginning of 2017.  Among others, Nemetschek is a member of the \"BuildingSMART e.V.\" and the \"Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen\" (DGNB) (German Sustainable Building Council).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business units.", "content": "Since 2008 Nemetschek AG has been acting as a holding company with four business units: Design (Architecture and Civil Engineering), Building, Management and Multimedia. The holding company maintains 16 product brands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main subsidiaries.", "content": "Allplan: Headquartered in Munich, Allplan was founded on January 1, 2008. It develops and distributes the Allplan product family. The company has 400 employees (2017). Allplan is a platform software for architects, civil engineers, contractors and facility managers for designing and managing buildings, and is used throughout Europe.  Bluebeam, Inc.: Since 2002, Bluebeam has made desktop, mobile and cloud-based solutions for architects, engineers and construction professionals worldwide. Over 1 million users use Bluebeam software for project collaboration and digital construction document processing. The company has offices in California, Texas, Illinois, New Hampshire, Denmark, Germany, England and Sweden. (2018)  Graphisoft: Graphisoft is an international vendor of architecture software \"ArchiCad\"\" The company was founded in 1982 and now has more than 230 employees. The company is headquartered in Budapest and has international subsidiaries in the USA, Great Britain, Spain, Japan and Singapore. According to the company, ArchiCAD architecture software is used in more than 80 countries.  Vectorworks: Headquartered in Columbia, Maryland and employing around 160 people as of 2016, has been developing and distributing design software for more than 20 years. The Vectorworks product line offers professional design solutions for architecture, interior construction, the entertainment industry, landscaping, landscape architecture and mechanical engineering. According to the manufacturer, Vectorworks is used in 85 countries worldwide.  Data Design System: Data Design System AS (DDS) is one of Europe's largest vendors of \"Open BIM\" design and documentation tools for MEP (Mechanical, Electrical & Plumbing) professionals. DDS was founded in Norway in 1984.  Scia: Scia (whose name is an acronym for Scientific Applications) was founded in 1974 and has its headquarters in Herk-de-Stad, Belgium. It develops and distributes software for structural calculation, structural design and structural construction, focusing on \"Building information modeling\". Scia is a 100%-owned subsidiary of Nemetschek SE and claims to employ a staff of more than 100 at ten sites worldwide.  Maxon: Headquartered in Friedrichsdorf, Germany, MAXON Computer is a developer of \"Cinema 4D\", a software for visualization and animation.professional 3D modeling, painting, animation and rendering solutions. MAXON has offices in Germany, USA, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Japan and Singapore.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nemetschek Group is a vendor of software for architects, engineers and the construction industry. The company develops and distributes solutions for designing, building and managing buildings and real estate as well as multimedia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976224}
{"src_title": "Philippicus (general)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career under Maurice.", "content": "Little is known about Philippicus's early years. He was married to Gordia, sister of Emperor Maurice (reigned 582–602), probably in 583, and was at some point raised to the high rank of \"patricius\". At about the same time, he was appointed \"comes excubitorum\" (Commander of the Excubitors, the imperial bodyguard), and in 584, he replaced John Mystacon as \"magister militum\" for the East, thus becoming responsible for the conduct of the ongoing war against the Sassanid Persians.  He commanded numerous raids into Persian territory in 584–585, ravaging the plains near Nisibis, and making inroads in the regions of Arzanene and eastern Mesopotamia. During the same period, he actively tried to improve the discipline and efficiency of his troops.  Philippicus spent the winter of 585-586 in Constantinople, and returned to his headquarters in Amida in the spring. After Persian peace proposals were rejected, he advanced his troops to the frontier, where he defeated a superior Persian force under Kardarigan at the Battle of Solachon. He then proceeded to invade and plunder Arzanene and laid siege to the fortress of Chlomaron. However, the approach of a Persian relief army panicked the Romans, who fled in disorder back into Roman territory. There, possibly due to illness, he handed over command of his army to his \"hypostrategos\" (lieutenant general) Heraclius, the father of the future emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641). In spring 587, he was again ill, and unable to campaign in person. He assigned two thirds of his army to Heraclius and the remainder to generals Theodore and Andreas, and sent them to raid Persian territory. He did not campaign himself that year, and in the winter, he set off towards Constantinople. On his way, he learned that he had been replaced by Priscus.  When Priscus arrived in the East, however, the soldiers refused to obey him, and elected the \"dux\" of Phoenice Libanensis, Germanus, as their leader in his stead. Philippicus, who was soon re-appointed as commander of the East, could only assume his command after the mutiny was quelled through the intervention of the Patriarch of Antioch. After a public reconciliation with his troops, in the summer of 589 he campaigned against the city of Martyropolis, which had recently fallen to the Persians through the treacherous defection of a Roman officer named Sittas. Philippicus failed to retake it and was defeated by a Persian relief force led by Mahbodh and Aphrarat, after which he was replaced by Comentiolus.  Except for a diplomatic mission in 590 to the recently deposed Persian ruler Khosrau II (r. 590–628), who had taken refuge in Roman territory, Philippicus disappears from the scene for several years. In 598, he was briefly appointed general in the ongoing war in the Balkans, and is credited by some sources with a victory over the Avars in Thrace, although this is most likely due to a confusion with general Priscus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career under Phocas and Heraclius.", "content": "At some point in 602, suspicions fell upon him of plotting against Emperor Maurice, since a prophecy stated that the name of Maurice's successor would begin with a \"Φ\" (Phi). Indeed, soon after, Maurice was deposed and killed by a revolt in the Balkan army led by Phocas. As a close associate of Maurice, Philippicus was tonsured and forced to enter a monastery in Chrysopolis. He was still at the monastery when Heraclius overthrew Phocas in 610. The new emperor recalled him and sent him to negotiate with Phocas's brother, Comentiolus, who commanded the eastern army. Comentiolus imprisoned him and intended to execute him, but Philippicus was saved when Comentiolus himself was murdered.  In 612, he was again appointed by Heraclius as \"magister militum per Orientem\" succeeding the disgraced Priscus, and campaigned against the Persians in Armenia. In 614, as a Persian army under Shahin invaded Asia Minor and reached the shores of the Bosporus at Chalcedon, Philippicus invaded Persian territory in turn, hoping to cause Shahin to withdraw.  Philippicus died shortly after, and was buried in a church he had built at Chrysopolis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Possible authorship of the \"Strategikon\".", "content": "As one of the leading generals of his day, and with both the time and opportunity to write it sometime after 603, during the years he spent in a monastery, Philippicus is one of the possible authors of the military treatise known as the \"Strategikon\" and traditionally attributed to Maurice.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philippicus or Philippikos (, fl. 580s–610s) was an East Roman general, \"comes excubitorum\", and brother-in-law of Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602). His successful career as a general spanned three decades, chiefly against the Sassanid Persians.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976225}
{"src_title": "Charles Robert Jenkins", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Military service and desertion.", "content": "Jenkins was born in 1940 in Rich Square, North Carolina. He joined the Army National Guard in 1955, aged 15, below the minimum enlistment age. He joined the Regular Army in 1958 and was assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division. He served in South Korea from 1960 to 1961, in West Germany from 1962 to 1964, and in South Korea again.  In South Korea, Jenkins was assigned to night patrols. He subsequently crossed into North Korea and surrendered to forces there, in the hope of being sent to the Soviet Union and then, through prisoner exchange, eventually returned to the United States. Shortly thereafter, North Korean propaganda declared that a U.S. sergeant had defected, and broadcast statements allegedly made by the defector, reportedly in stilted English. The U.S. Army claimed Jenkins wrote four letters stating his intention to defect (an allegation Jenkins denied); however, the original letters are reportedly lost. His relatives maintained throughout his absence that he was abducted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life in North Korea.", "content": "Information about Jenkins' status was unavailable outside North Korea for many years. Jenkins said he almost immediately regretted his desertion. He said that for seven years, until 1972, he and three other U.S. servicemen—Larry Abshier, Jerry Parrish, and James Dresnok—were quarantined in a one-room house with no running water, where they were made to study the \"Juche\" philosophy of Kim Il-sung daily. They were forced to memorize large passages of Kim's writings in Korean, and beaten frequently by their guards.  He said that at one point in 1966, he found his way to the Soviet embassy in Pyongyang and requested asylum, which was denied. Eventually, Jenkins was placed in separate housing and began teaching English at the Pyongyang University of Foreign Studies.  In 1980, 40-year-old Jenkins was introduced to 21-year-old Hitomi Soga, a Japanese nursing student who had been abducted by North Korean agents in 1978, along with her mother, during a search for Japanese citizens who could train future spies in Japanese language and culture. Soga's mother was never heard from again, and Soga was \"given to\" Jenkins. Thirty-eight days after meeting, they were married. They had two daughters, Roberta Mika Jenkins (born 1983) and Brinda Carol Jenkins (born 1985). In 1982, Jenkins appeared in the North Korean film \"Unsung Heroes\", which provided the first evidence to the Western world that he was alive. The U.S. government did not publicly reveal this information until 1996.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Confirmation and return.", "content": "Jenkins drew international interest again in 2002, when North Korean leader Kim Jong-il confirmed that North Korea had abducted Japanese citizens. In an effort at \"détente\", surviving abductees were allowed to travel to Japan, including Jenkins' wife. The visit was intended to last for a week, but the Japanese government chose not to return them on schedule and instead negotiated for their families to join them in Japan. Most of the families did ultimately travel to Japan, but Jenkins and his daughters stayed behind out of fear that the North Korean government was testing his loyalty.  After assurances of protection from the Japanese government, he traveled with his daughters to Japan by way of Indonesia for medical treatment, arriving in Japan in July 2004. Japan formally requested a pardon for Jenkins, which the U.S. declined to grant. After expressing a desire to put his conscience at rest, Jenkins reported on September 11, 2004, to Camp Zama in Japan. He reported in respectful military form, saluting the receiving military police officer.  On November 3, Jenkins pleaded guilty to charges of desertion and aiding the enemy, but denied making disloyal or seditious statements – the latter charges were dropped. He was sentenced to 30 days' confinement, received a dishonorable discharge, forfeiture of all pay and benefits and was reduced in rank to E-1 private (the lowest rank in the US Army). He was released six days early, on November 27, 2004, for good behavior.  Jenkins and his family settled on Sado Island in Japan, which is Soga's home. On June 14, 2005, Jenkins, his wife, and two daughters traveled to the United States to visit his 91-year-old mother in North Carolina, returning later in the month. He found work as a greeter at a shop in Japan.  There were three other U.S. deserters who remained in North Korea as well: James Joseph Dresnok (who was interviewed for a 2006 British documentary \"Crossing the Line\"), Private Larry Allen Abshier, and Specialist Jerry Wayne Parrish. The former two defected in 1962, while the latter defected in 1963. Dresnok continued to live in North Korea until his death in 2016. According to North Korean official reports, Abshier and Parrish died of natural causes while living in that country.  On July 15, 2008, Jenkins obtained permanent residency status in Japan, a month after he applied for the status. Jenkins commented that he wanted to stay in Japan for the rest of his life, and would also like to obtain Japanese citizenship. He died at age 77 on December 11, 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memoirs.", "content": "Jenkins published a book in Japanese in October 2005, titled \"To Tell the Truth\" (; Romaji: kokuhaku; ), about his experiences in North Korea. A Korean-language edition was also released in June 2006 by Mulpure Publishing of South Korea. (Korean: 고백, \"gobaek\", )  An English-language version, titled \"The Reluctant Communist: My Desertion, Court-Martial, and Forty-Year Imprisonment in North Korea\", co-authored with journalist Jim Frederick (), was published by the University of California Press on March 1, 2008.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Robert Jenkins (February 18, 1940 – December 11, 2017) was a United States Army soldier who lived in North Korea from 1965 to 2004 after deserting his unit and crossing the Korean Demilitarized Zone.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976226}
{"src_title": "Battle of Boyacá", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Battle.", "content": "On August 7, 1819, after Bolívar secured a narrow victory at Vargas Swamp Battle, both armies headed towards Bogotá, which was lightly defended. The capture of the capital in the hands of the Patriot Army would effectively cut off the advance of the republican army and give the strategic initiative to its opponents. At 6:00 a.m., the Spanish forces (Newgranadians-Venezuelan loyalist soldiers) departed from Motavita towards Casa de Teja, a distance of only 25 km which the Spaniards completed in 7 hours 30 minutes, at an average pace of 18 minutes per kilometer. At 10:00 a.m. General Santander's forces departed from Tunja toward Casa de Piedra and the road to Bogota. The Patriot forces completed the 16 km in 4 hours (at an average pace of 15 minutes per kilometer).  The Republican forces split in two: the vanguard reached Casa de Teja at 1:30 p.m., while the rearguard stopped a kilometer and a half behind to get some rest. Shortly before 2:00 p.m., Capitan Andres Ibarra and his forces spotted Casa de Teja and the vanguard of the Republican Army. The Spaniards spotted him too, and Coronel Sebastian Dias, chief of the vanguard of the Spanish army ordered to follow and engage what he believed was only a small observation force. They returned and General Santander ordered Lieutenant Coronel Paris to attack the Republican forces.  The Spanish vanguard crossed a strategic bridge over the Teatinos River and took attack positions there. Meanwhile, the full force of the Patriot army under Santander had reached Casa de Piedra. The Spanish rearguard was still several kilometers behind, so General Anzoátegui ordered to block the way between the vanguard and the rearguard of the Spanish forces. The rearguard, outnumbered, retreated to a small hill close to Casa de Piedra.  Simón Bolívar's forces arrived from Paipa, after the Vargas Swamp battle. He ordered a flank attack on the Spanish rearguard: battalions Barcelona and Bravos de Paez were to attack on the right side while the Legion Britanica and Rifles Battalion attacked on the left. The enemy assumed battle positions: in the center were three artillery pieces surrounded by royal battalions 12 and 22, and on the wings, cavalry units. Arthur Sandes commander of Rifles Battalion charges the royalist artillery. Outnumbered, the Spanish rear guard began to retreat without any clear direction. Therefore, Bolívar ordered lancers units to attack the center of the Republican infantry, while a full cavalry squadron ran away from the battle via the road towards Samaca. Bareiro attempted to break the blockage of the Patriot forces and rendezvous with the Spanish vanguard but heavy enemy fire forced him and his forces to surrender.  Meanwhile, one kilometer and a half behind Casa de Piedra, the Patriot vanguard managed to ford the river and was approaching the rear of the Republican vanguard force. Once it reached them, the vanguard forces engaged in battle, while the rearguard attempted to cross the river by force, using bayonets. The Spanish forces fled, leaving on the bridge their leader, Coronel Juan Taira. As the assembly of enemy prisoners began, the battle was over shortly after 4:00 p.m.  At least 1,600 troops and several of the Spanish commanders, including Barreiro himself, were captured at the end of the battle. New Granada's liberation was assured by this victory, which left the road to Bogotá and the city itself practically undefended, as the survivors headed towards other locations. After the battle, Santander and Anzoátegui were promoted to Divisional General. On the orders of Santander, Colonel Barreiro and 38 more were executed in Bogotá on October 11, 1819, because of the Decree of War to the Death.  The bridge in question, el Puente de Boyacá, is no longer in use but it has been maintained as a symbol of the Independence of South America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical consequences and legacy.", "content": "Viceroy Juan de Samano was informed of the defeat and managed to escape, which brought to an end the reign of the Spanish Empire in northern Latin America. In commemoration of this battle, August 7 is a national holiday in Colombia. On this date every 4 years the elected President of Colombia is proclaimed in the Casa de Nariño.  Bogotá starts the usual celebrations one day in advance in commemoration of the foundation of the city, on August 6, 1538.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Boyacá (1819), was the decisive battle that ensured the success of Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada. The battle of Boyaca is considered the beginning of the independence of the North of South America, and is considered important because it led to the victories of the battle of Carabobo in Venezuela, Pichincha in Ecuador, and Junín and Ayacucho in Peru.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976227}
{"src_title": "Breach (2007 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Eric O'Neill is a young FBI employee assigned to work undercover as a clerk to Robert Hanssen, a senior agent he is told is suspected of being a sexual deviant. Hanssen has been recalled from a detail post at the State Department to FBI headquarters ostensibly to head up a new division specializing in Information Assurance.  Initially, Hanssen insists on a strict formality between the two men. He frequently rails against the bureaucracy of the FBI and complains that only those who regularly \"shoot guns\" are considered for senior positions instead of those, like himself, who are involved in vital national security matters. He calls the bureau's information technology systems antiquated and laments the lack of coordination and information exchange with other intelligence agencies.  Eventually, Hanssen becomes a friend and mentor to O'Neill and takes a personal interest in him and his wife Juliana, who is suspicious of Hanssen and resents his intrusions. A devout Catholic who is also a member of Opus Dei, Hanssen urges O'Neill, a lapsed Catholic, and his secular East German-born wife to become active churchgoers.  O'Neill finds no evidence of Hanssen leading a secret double life and develops a growing respect for his boss, so he confronts his handler in the undercover assignment, Kate Burroughs, and she admits that the sexual deviance allegations are only a secondary consideration. Hanssen is suspected of spying for the Soviet Union and Russia for years and being responsible for the deaths of agents working for the United States. The entire Information Assurance Division that Hanssen now heads was created specifically to lure him away from his previous job as liaison to the State Department, and his office was specially constructed with hidden surveillance equipment. The investigation already includes fifty agents, and is personally overseen by FBI Director Louis Freeh, who has been reading O'Neill's reports on Hanssen.  Although the FBI already has enough evidence to arrest Hanssen, director Freeh wants to catch Hanssen in the act of making a drop so that their case against him will be airtight, ensuring that he will cooperate once arrested and not retaliate by exposing more undercover agents and informants. O'Neill is ordered to obtain data from Hanssen's Palm Pilot and keep him occupied while FBI agents search his car and plant covert listening devices in it.  The tracking devices in Hanssen's car cause interference with the radio, which makes Hanssen suspicious. He also wonders why he was placed in an isolated position in the FBI only a few months before he is scheduled to retire. He tells O'Neill he believes he is being watched by Russian agents. The FBI intercepts a message he sends to his Russian handlers saying he will not provide any more information. O'Neill persuades Hanssen that he is not being trailed by the Russians or by him on behalf of the FBI. With his confidence restored, Hanssen makes one last dead drop of stolen information and the FBI catches him in the act.  Although he is assured promotion, O'Neill is discouraged with the toll the case has taken on his marriage and opts to leave the agency. When O'Neill leaves his office with his belongings, he unexpectedly encounters Hanssen in an elevator being escorted by arresting officers. A tearful Hanssen asks O'Neill to pray on his behalf, and O'Neill promises he will.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported 84% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 177 reviews. Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 74 out of 100, based on 36 reviews.  Manohla Dargis of \"The New York Times\" said, \"One of the strengths of \"Breach\", a thriller that manages to excite and unnerve despite our knowing the ending, is how well it captures the utter banality of this man and his world.\"  Peter Travers of \"Rolling Stone\" rated the film 31⁄2 out of four stars, calling it a \"steadily gripping hothouse of a thriller.\" He added, \"Director and co-writer Billy Ray, who detailed the misconduct of journalist Stephen Glass at \"The New Republic\" in 2003's \"Shattered Glass\"... proves himself a filmmaker of uncommon talent and ambition.\"  Ruthe Stein of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" commented, \"\"Breach\" suffers from lavishing so much attention on a relatively minor figure... O'Neill, at least the way he's presented, isn't a particularly compelling character, and he is made less so by Phillippe's lackluster performance... [The film] expends too much energy on a minor functionary, but it is still worth seeing for its fleeting looks into a heart of darkness.\"  Peter Rainer of \"The Christian Science Monitor\" named \"Breach\" the best film of the year. Richard Schickel of \"Time\" ranked it #6 and called Chris Cooper's performance \"brilliant\". Stephen Hunter of \"The Washington Post\" named it the ninth best film of 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "The film opened on 1,489 theaters screens in the US and earned $10,504,990 on its opening weekend, ranking #6 among all films in release. It eventually grossed $33,231,264 domestically and $7,722,671 in foreign markets for a total worldwide box office of $40,953,935.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accuracy.", "content": "The filmmakers fictionalized much of Eric O'Neill's story, as mentioned in the end credits. Among the major changes made for the film:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related Content.", "content": "O'Neill's memoir about the Hanssen case, \"\", was published by Penguin Random House in Spring 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Breach is a 2007 American spy thriller film directed by Billy Ray, who wrote the screenplay with Adam Mazer and William Rotko. The film is based on the true story of Robert Hanssen, an FBI agent convicted of spying for the Soviet Union and later Russia for more than two decades. It stars Chris Cooper as Hanssen and Ryan Phillippe as Eric O'Neill, the FBI agent who helped bring about his downfall. The film received generally positive reviews and grossed $41 million on a $23 million budget.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976228}
{"src_title": "Google Street View", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and features.", "content": "Street View had its inception in 2001 with the Stanford CityBlock Project, a Google-sponsored Stanford University research project. The project ended in June 2006, and its technology was folded into StreetView.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "Street View is available as a component of Google Maps, as a web application, and as a mobile application for Android and iOS. Originally, Google Maps used Adobe Flash for Street View. Google overhauled Google Maps in 2013. The newer version uses JavaScript extensively and provides a JavaScript application programming interface. At the time of their release, the new Google Maps and Street View are measured slower than the old version in various setups. A user can switch to the old version of Google Maps, which is especially useful when Google Maps is more sluggish than usual.  The drag-and-drop Pegman icon is the primary user interface element used by Google to connect Maps to Street View. Its name comes from its resemblance to a clothespeg. When not in use, Pegman sits atop the Google Maps zoom controls. Occasionally Pegman \"dresses up\" for special events or is joined by peg friends in Google Maps. When dragged into Street View near Area 51, he becomes a flying saucer. When viewing older views, the Pegman in the minimap changes to Doc Brown from \"Back to the Future\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coverage.", "content": "Google announced in May 2017 that it had captured more than of Street View imagery across 83 countries. Maps also include panoramic views taken underwater such as in West Nusa Tenggara underwater coral, in the Grand Canyon, inside museums, and Liwa Desert in United Arab Emirates which are viewed from camelback. In a ten-day trek with Apa Sherpa, Google documented Khumbu, Nepal with its Mount Everest, Sherpa communities, monasteries and schools.  Google also added landmarks in Egypt, including the Pyramids of Giza, Cairo Citadel, Saqqara, Monastery of Saint Mina, and the Citadel of Qaitbay in the 9 September 2014 release.  Many places still have limited or no coverage, including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Privacy concerns.", "content": "Google Street View will blur houses for any user who makes a request, in addition to the automatic blurring of faces and licence plates. Privacy advocates have objected to the Google Street View, pointing to views found to show men leaving strip clubs, protesters at an abortion clinic, sunbathers in bikinis, and people engaging in activities visible from public property in which they do not wish to be seen publicly. Another concern is the height of the cameras, and in at least two countries, Japan and Switzerland, Google has had to lower the height of its cameras so as to not peer over fences and hedges. The service also allows users to flag inappropriate or sensitive imagery for Google to review and remove.  Police Scotland received an apology for wasting police time in 2014 from a local business owner in Edinburgh who in 2012 had staged a fake murder for the Google camera car by lying in the road \"while his colleague stood over him with a pickaxe handle\". In May 2010, it was revealed that Google had collected and stored payload data from unencrypted Wi-Fi connections as part of Street View.  The concerns have led to Google not providing or suspending the service in countries around the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Third-party use of images.", "content": "Fine-art photographers have selected images for use in their own work. Although the images may be pixelated, the colours muddy, and the perspective warped, the photographs have been published in book form and exhibited in art galleries, such as the work of Jon Rafman at the Saatchi Gallery, London. In his personal appreciation of Street View material, Rafman sees images which evoke the \"gritty urban life\" depicted in American street photography and the images commissioned by the Farm Security Administration. He also invokes the \"decisive moment\" esthetic of Henri Cartier-Bresson \"as if I were a photojournalist responding instantaneously to an emerging event\".  Michael Wolf won an honourable mention in Daily Life in the 2011 World Press Photo competition for some of his work using Google Street View.  Mishka Henner was short-listed for the 2013 Deutsche Börse Photography Prize in November 2012 for his series 'No Man's Land', which depicts sex workers at rural roadside locations.  Swedish programmer Anton Wallén developed a game called GeoGuessr, which places players into a Google Street View and has them guess its location.  Canadian artist, Sylvia Grace Borda, worked in conjunction with John M. Lynch between 2013-14 to insert the first staged tableaux into the Google Street View engine. Their efforts won them the Lumen Prize in 2016. Borda has continued independently to author in the Google Street View engine and in 2017 created the tableaux series, the \"Kissing Project\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Google Street View is a technology featured in Google Maps and Google Earth that provides interactive panoramas from positions along many streets in the world. It was launched in 2007 in several cities in the United States, and has since expanded to include cities and rural areas worldwide. Streets with Street View imagery available are shown as blue lines on Google Maps.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976229}
{"src_title": "Geopark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Concepts.", "content": "A UNESCO definition of \"global geopark\" is a unified area with a geological heritage of international significance. Geoparks use that heritage to promote awareness of key issues facing society in the context of our dynamic planet. Many geoparks promote awareness of geological hazards, including volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis and many help prepare disaster mitigation strategies with local communities. Geoparks embody records of past climate changes and are indicators of current climate changes as well as demonstrating a \"best practise\" approach to using renewable energy and employing the best standards of \"green tourism\". Tourism industry promotion in geoparks, as a geographically sustainable and applicable tourism model, aims to sustain, and even enhance, the geographical character of a place.  Geoparks also inform about the sustainable use and need for natural resources, whether they are mined, quarried or harnessed from the surrounding environment while at the same time promoting respect for the environment and the integrity of the landscape. Geoparks are not a legislative designation though the key heritage sites within a geopark are often protected under local, regional or national legislation. The multidisciplinary nature of the concept of geopark and tourism promotion in geoparks differentiates itself from other models of sustainable tourism. In fact, sustainable tourism promotion within geoparks encompasses many of the features of sustainable tourism including geo-tourism (geo-site tourism: as a basic factor), community-based tourism and integrated rural tourism (as a vital need), ecotourism, and cultural heritage tourism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Global Network and UNESCO.", "content": "The Global Geoparks Network (GGN) is supported by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Many national geoparks and other local geoparks projects also exist which are not included in the Global Geoparks Network.  The geoparks initiative was launched by UNESCO in response to the perceived need for an international initiative that recognizes sites representing an earth science interest. Global Geoparks Network aims at enhancing the value of such sites while at the same time creating employment and promoting regional economic development. The 195 Member States of UNESCO ratified the creation of a new label, the UNESCO Global Geoparks, on 17 November 2015. This expressed governmental recognition of the importance of managing outstanding geological sites and landscapes in a holistic manner. This new designation formalized UNESCO's relationship with the Global Geoparks Network. The Global Geoparks Network works in synergy with UNESCO's World Heritage Centre and Man and the Biosphere (MAB) World Network of Biosphere Reserves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification.", "content": "The Global Geoparks Network (GGN) was established in 1998 and received \"ad hoc\" support from UNESCO from 2001 until 2015, when the relationship and designation was formalized. Since 2015, members are officially designated by UNESCO, as UNESCO Global Geoparks. According to the Statutes and Operational Guidelines of the UNESCO Global Geoparks, for a geopark to apply to be included in the GGN, it needs to:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Members of the GGN.", "content": "See UNESCO Global Geoparks.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A geopark is a unified area that advances the protection and use of geological heritage in a sustainable way, and promotes the economic well-being of the people who live there. There are global geoparks and national geoparks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976230}
{"src_title": "Nicholas Francis, Duke of Lorraine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Nicholas Francis was the youngest son of Duke Francis II of Lorraine and his wife, Christina of Salm. Born on the feast of Saint Nicholas, he was named in his honour. His sister was Marguerite of Lorraine, the Duchess of Orléans and wife of Gaston, Duke of Orléans.  As it appeared unlikely that he would succeed to the duchy, he was destined for the church. He was made coadjutor bishop of Toul, in spite of his youth, in 1619 and succeeded to the see in 1624, but never actually received any sacred orders. He studied philosophy and theology at the University of Pont-à-Mousson, 1622–1629. He returned to Nancy in June 1629. The thesis he prepared on the sacrament of penance was printed in Holland in 1627 with a dedication to Pope Urban VIII. After his promotion to the cardinalate, he received private lessons from two Jesuit priests.  Nicholas Francis was named abbot \"in commendam\" – a lucrative sinecure – of several abbeys and was sent on several embassies by his brother, Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine, and by Louis XIII of France.  On 19 January 1626 he was created cardinal \"in pectore\" (secretly). The appointment was not proclaimed publicly until 30 August 1627. He never received the cardinal's red hat nor was he assigned a cardinal-deaconry. When in 1634 his brother Charles was pressured into resigning in his favor, he became sovereign Duke of Lorraine. He wrote to Pope Urban VIII, 4 March 1634, resigning as cardinal to marry his cousin Claude of Lorraine, the second daughter of Henry II, on 17–18 February. On 8 March 1634, the pope declared him \"in nullo e sacris ordinis constitutum\", depriving him of the title of cardinal and the diocese of Toul. In the consistory of 22 March 1634, the pope communicated this to the College of Cardinals.  Immediately following Nicholas's accession to the dukedom, the French invaded the duchy and forced the new duke to sign a treaty recognizing their right to occupy it. In April 1634, Nicholas himself fled into exile, and soon after abdicated himself, returning the claim to the duchy to his older brother, Charles. With one brief exception, Charles would not, however, be able to return to his duchy until 1661.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family and issue.", "content": "He married his first cousin Claude Françoise de Lorraine who died in childbirth:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicholas Francis (French: \"Nicolas François de Lorraine\"; 6 December 1609 – 25 January 1670), also known as Nicholas II, was briefly Duke of Lorraine and Duke of Bar for a few months in 1634, spanning the time between the abdication of his older brother and his own resignation. He was therefore Duke during the invasion of Lorraine by the French in the Thirty Years War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976231}
{"src_title": "Thale", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is situated on the river Bode, approximately west of Quedlinburg. Served by Transdev Sachsen-Anhalt trains, Thale Hauptbahnhof is the terminus of the Magdeburg–Thale railway line. The town has access to the Bundesstraße 6n highway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The settlement of Thale probably emerged at the beginning of the 10th century. It was documented in 936 in connexion with the neighbouring Wendhusen Abbey, which had been founded around 825 AD as a chapter of canonesses (\"Kanonissenstift\"). Established by an Eastphalian comital family and based on the model of Herford Abbey, it was one of the first monasteries in the medieval Duchy of Saxony. After Queen Dowager Matilda, wife of the late King Henry the Fowler, tried in vain to relocate the convent in 936, it came under the guardianship of the newly established Quedlinburg chapter.  The adjacent village was first mentioned in a 1231 deed as \"Dat Dorp to dem Dale\" (from 1288 it was given the Latinised description \"de valle\", and from 1303 as \"von Thale\"). In the late Middle Ages, the estates were held by the Saxon Counts of Regenstein, vassals of the Halberstadt prince-bishops. The monastery premises were stormed and devastated in 1525 during the German Peasants' War.  From 1445 the records show that there had been an ironworks in Thale. It was rebuilt from 1648 onwards after the devastations of the Thirty Years' War as the \"Berghaus zum Wilden Mann\", but was fully destroyed in 1670. After the secularised Halberstadt territories were incorporated by Brandenburg-Prussia, a small hammer mill was established in 1686 out of which a new ironworks later developed that benefited especially from its proximity to the ore deposits and the availability of wood. It lasted until 1714. In 1740 a business was opened again. For a short time this ironworks was owned by the Prussian king Frederick the Great.  Part of the Prussian Province of Saxony since 1815, the first wrought-iron wagon axle to be made in the German lands was manufactured here in 1831. In 1835 the oldest sheet steel enamel works in Europe was founded in Thale. Following the town's connexion to the railway network in 1862 with a line to Berlin the place flourished as did the number of workers. Whilst the iron industry had only 350 workers in 1872, by 1905 there were as many as 4,400. In particular, the production of enamel contributed to Thale's international renown; in its heyday Thale produced no less than 10% of the world's production. In 1910 Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg and Clara Zetkin spoke to Thale's workers. From 1916 steel helmets were produced in Thale. In the World War II Thale had the monopoly on this product (from 1934).  Tourism blossomed from the 19th century onwards in connexion with the radon rich water of the Hubertus Spring, which had been opened up in 1836. As a result, various literary figures visited the place, including Heinrich Heine (\"Die Harzreise\") and Theodor Fontane and especially the Bode Gorge. In addition tourists from Berlin enjoyed the summer resort of Thale. This encouraged the connexion of Thale in 1862 to the railway line from Wegeleben. In 1909 a branch line from Blankenburg (Harz) followed. In 1922 the resort was given town rights. From 12 to 14 June 2009 Thale was the venue for the Saxony-Anhalt Day held under the motto \"Thale sagenhaft\" (\"Legendary Thale\"), and attracted around 200,000 visitors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Incorporation of other parishes.", "content": "Warnstedt was incorporated in 2003. In 2009 a total of seven municipalities were incorporated on four separate dates. Westerhausen was added in 2010. Allrode became a part of the borough of Thale in 2011.  The changes in area are shown in a special table.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Population growth.", "content": "The growth of population \"(from 1995 censuses were taken every 31 December)\":", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coat of arms.", "content": "The coat of arms was approved on 11 July 1996 by the Magdeburg Regional Council (\"Regierungspräsidium\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Partnerships.", "content": "Since 1990 Thale has had a town partnership with Seesen (Lower Saxony) on the northwest edge of the Harz and, since 1998, with the French town of Juvisy-sur-Orge, 18 km from Paris, as well as Tillabéri in Niger, northwest of the River Niger.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "Thale is the setting of Theodor Fontane's novel \"Cécile\". Fontane stayed in Thale a number of times between 1868 and 1884.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thale () is a town in the Harz district in Saxony-Anhalt in central Germany. Located at the steep northeastern rim of the Harz mountain range, it is known for the scenic Bode Gorge stretching above the town centre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976232}
{"src_title": "Gabe Kaplan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kaplan was born in Brooklyn, New York, to a Jewish family.  He graduated from New Utrecht High School.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "As a kid, Kaplan had aspirations of being a Major League Baseball player. However, he was unable to make the roster of a minor league team and decided to pursue other interests. He began working as a bellman at a hotel in Lakewood, New Jersey. Touring comedians would sometimes perform at the hotel, and Kaplan began to work toward his own career as a stand-up comedian. Gabe honed his standup routine in 1964 in places such as the Cafe Tel Aviv at 250 West 72nd Street, New York City.  Kaplan's comedy was successful, and he toured the country with his act based on his childhood experiences in Brooklyn. He appeared five times on \"The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson\" from May 1973 to December 1974. During that time, he also recorded the comedy album \"Holes and Mello-Rolls,\" which included long routines about his high school days, among other topics. The sitcom \"Welcome Back, Kotter\", whose central characters he helped Eric Cohen and Alan Sacks create and whose core format he helped them to develop, was in part based on his comedy act. In the sitcom, Kaplan played Gabe Kotter, who returns as a teacher to the dysfunctional high school where he had been a student. The series ran from 1975–79, and Kaplan bought a home in Palm Springs, California with his earnings. \"Up your nose with a rubber hose!\", sanitized from the original album line \"Up your hole with a Mello-Roll!\", became an unlikely catchphrase from the show. It became so popular that a comedy record by Kaplan, \"Up Your Nose\", was released by Elektra Records. The record, co-written and -produced by Kaplan, dented the Billboard Hot 100 in January 1977, peaking at #93.  From 1976–78 and again in 1981, Kaplan participated in the ABC celebrity athletic competition \"Battle of the Network Stars\". For the first five competitions, Kaplan was the captain of the ABC network team. In the very first competition, Kaplan defeated Robert Conrad, who was participating in the event representing the NBC team as its captain, in a race much to Conrad's chagrin. Kaplan, who was 31 at the time, passed Conrad, then 40, with a strong sprint to the finish line, giving ABC television network the win with 175 points. In 1981, Kaplan returned to the competition as the team captain for the NBC side, as he was appearing in the NBC TV show \"Lewis & Clark\". After \"Welcome Back, Kotter\", Kaplan continued with his stand-up act and was in several movies, including a starring role in \"Fast Break\" in 1979; and portrayed comic Groucho Marx in a one-man show.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poker.", "content": "Kaplan became involved in financial markets and poker during his acting career. He made his first appearance at the World Series of Poker in 1978. In 1980, Kaplan was considered one of poker's elite, as he won the main event at Amarillo Slim's Super Bowl of Poker and was presented with \"a loving cup that was so enormous it made the gaudy gold bracelets given to the winners at the World Series of Poker look understated.\" Over the next five years his reputation was solidified as he made the final table at the Super Bowl's main event two more times.  In July 2004, Kaplan finished third in a World Poker Tour no-limit Texas hold 'em event, earning more than $250,000. He also finished second in the 2005 World Series of Poker $5,000 Limit Hold 'Em event, winning $222,515. Kaplan was joint TV commentator for the 1997 and 2002 WSOP events. In 2007, Kaplan won on NBC's \"Poker After Dark\" in the episode \"Queens and Kings\" after defeating Kristy Gazes heads-up and outlasting Howard Lederer, Ali Nejad, Vanessa Rousso and Annie Duke in a $20,000 buy-in, six-person No-Limit Texas Hold-Em winner-take-all Sit-and-Go.  In the 2007 World Series of Poker, Kaplan finished in ninth place in the $50,000 World Championship HORSE event, winning $131,424. As of June 2017, Kaplan's total live tournament winnings were $1,991,248. His eleven cashes at the WSOP were $539,159 of those winnings.  Kaplan won again on \"Poker After Dark\" during \"Cowboys\" week that first aired in February 2008 against Chris Ferguson, Andy Bloch, Chau Giang, Hoyt Corkins and Doyle Brunson. Kaplan's \"Poker After Dark\" win in the first week of the 2010 season (the \"Commentators III\" episode) was the greatest comeback in the show's history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later activities.", "content": "Kaplan resumed performing stand-up comedy and worked on adaptations of \"Welcome Back, Kotter.\" He still plays poker frequently and became a commentator for poker events and televised poker shows, including the \"National Heads-Up Poker Championship\" on NBC, \"High Stakes Poker\" on GSN, and the Intercontinental Poker Championship on CBS.  In 1995, his name was mentioned in episode 21, \"The PTA Disbands\", of the sixth season of \"The Simpsons\" as a substitute teacher in Bart's class.  In 2007, he appeared in Zak Penn's improvisational comedy \"The Grand\" as Seth Schwartzman, father of brother-and-sister poker players. Also in 2007, Kaplan published a book titled \"Kotter's Back: E-mails from a Faded Celebrity to a Bewildered World\". In the book, people react to absurd e-mailed claims by Kaplan, such as that he:  The book also describes his e-mails:  In January 2011, GSN announced that Norm Macdonald would replace Kaplan as host of \"High Stakes Poker\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gabriel Weston Kaplan (born March 31, 1945) is an American comedian, actor and professional poker player. He played the eponymous teacher in the 1970s sitcom \"Welcome Back, Kotter\". He later became a professional poker player, and commentator for the series \"High Stakes Poker\" on GSN.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976233}
{"src_title": "Miri Regev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Regev was born in Kiryat Gat in 1965 to Sephardi Jewish immigrants. She went to Rogozin Highschool in Kiryat Gat. Her father, Felix, was from Morocco and her mother, Mercedes, was from Spain. In 1983, she joined the Gadna, where she became a platoon commander, serving in the position until 1986. She earned a Bachelor's Degree in Informal Education and an MBA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public relations career.", "content": "She began serving as the IDF Spokesperson's representative in the Israeli Southern Command. Regev was promoted to a Colonel rank for the position of Deputy IDF Spokesperson in 2002. In 2003, she was appointed coordinator of the national public relations efforts at the Israeli Prime Minister's Office in preparation for the Iraq War. After a short stint (2004–2005) as the Chief Press and Media Censor, she was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General and to the position of IDF Spokesperson in 2005. She served in this position during Israel's disengagement from Gaza in 2005 and the 2006 Lebanon War. In 2007, she was discharged and was succeeded by Avi Benayahu.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In November 2008, Regev joined the Likud party, saying that she had been a supporter of the party's platform for many years. She won twenty-seventh place on the party's list for the 2009 elections, just high enough to enter the Knesset as Likud won 27 seats. At the 2015 elections Regev was re-elected, after being placed fifth on Likud's national list. She was subsequently appointed by prime minister Netanyahu to Minister of Culture and Sport in the new government.  Revital Madar, a Tunisian-Israeli writer for \"Haaretz\", stated that Regev had faced discrimination due to her Moroccan origins, and her forthright behaviour is perceived as being stereotypically Mizrahi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Minister of culture.", "content": "In September 2015, four months in office, Regev announced a list of criteria that will cause the withdrawal of state funding the following year. The list included the deformation of state symbols and a call for boycotting Israel.  In July 2016, Regev announced that she would not participate in the 2016 Summer Olympics opening ceremonies, because they take place on Shabbat.  In her position as Minister of Culture, Regev frequently equates artistic Freedom of Expression with the power of the government to withdraw its funding, using the term \"Freedom of Funding\". Regev also argued that state-funded artists or organisations must show \"loyalty\" to the Israeli state. She has called this a \"Loyalty in Culture\" initiative, and has proposed legislation making \"support for a cultural institution dependent on its loyalty to the state of Israel\". She has said the group Breaking the Silence \"hurts Israel's image\" and accused a gallery that had hosted a talk by the group of \"holding political activities\".  At the closing ceremony of the 2017 Maccabiah Games on July 18, 2017, Regev passed the Maccabiah torch to a number of Maccabiah athletes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minister of Transportation and National infrastructure.", "content": "In May 2020, Regev was offered the portfolio of Minister of Transportation for the first half of the 35th government of Israel and the portfolio of foreign minister during the second half of the incoming government's term. She was sworn in to this position on 17 May 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Views.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Immigration from Africa.", "content": "In May 2012, at a demonstration against illegal immigrants in Tel Aviv, Regev said that \"Sudanese infiltrators are a cancer in the nation's body\". She later said that the quote was misrepresented, and, while justifying the comparison, apologized for seeming to compare human beings to cancer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "LGBT rights.", "content": "Regev met with LGBT community members of her party, and said (in parallel to social activism), that \"not only the left can support and embrace the gay community\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "She is married to Dror Regev, an engineer at Israel Aerospace Industries and has three children. Her husband is from a left-wing background and holds some views opposing her own.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Miriam \"Miri\" Regev (; born \"Miriam Siboni\" on May 26, 1965) is an Israeli politician and a former Brigadier-general in the Israel Defense Forces, in which she served as IDF Spokeswoman. She is currently a member of the Knesset for Likud, and Minister of Transportation. She also previously served as Minister of Culture and Sport. On June 14, 2017, she was appointed acting PM to serve while PM Netanyahu would be abroad.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976234}
{"src_title": "Ernest von Koerber", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ernest von Koerber was born in Trento, Tyrol, Austrian Empire, in a German speaking family, the son of a Gendarmerie officer. Koerber attended the elite Theresianum boarding school in Vienna and, having obtained his \"Matura\" degree, went on to study law at the University of Vienna. He became extremely involved in Austrian culture and politics. The study of the \"Rechtsstaat\" (\"legal state\") doctrine, or constitutionality and civil rights was popular during Koerber's teen years and Koerber and his constitutionally-minded peers such as Sieghart, Steinbach, Baernreither, and Redlich learned and immersed themselves in this principle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Koerber’s knowledge of government was apparent when in 1874 he launched his career in the civil service, entering the Austrian Ministry of Commerce. In 1895 he was appointed general manager of the Imperial Royal Austrian State Railways and obtained the honorific title of a \"Geheimrat\" the following year. By 1897 Koerber was a member of the Imperial Council parliament of Cisleithania (i.e. the 'Austrian' portion of Austria-Hungary) and Commerce Minister. At this time, after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, there were separate internal governments for the Austrian lands and the Kingdom of Hungary. Two years later in 1899, Koerber rose to the position of Austrian Minister of the Interior. In 1900, Emperor Franz Joseph asked Koerber to create a cabinet and serve as Prime Minister. This was by far the most influential position of Koerber’s career. Koerber served in this capacity until the end of 1904.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First Koerber cabinet.", "content": "From the beginning of his term in office, Minister-President Koerber encountered many difficulties. Within the multinational Dual Monarchy, he had full authority only over the Cisleithania crown lands. Furthermore, the Imperial Council parliament was politically weak. In order to make major liberal reforms Koerber depended largely on Article 14, a provision in the December Constitution which allowed the Emperor to issue an “emergency regulation” for any necessary purposes. The meetings of the Imperial Council quickly transformed into forums for Koerber to bargain with party leaders.  Koerber’s tenure in office was also marked by rising national tensions within Austria-Hungary. The Dual Monarchy dissipated any sense of allegiance to a single crown. The various ethnic groups resented one another and it became apparent that most government actions would leave at least one offended group.  In military matters, Koerber opposed providing the Hungarian portion of the Austro-Hungarian Army (the Royal Hungarian Honvéd) with its own artillery units. While the emperor advocated such a policy, Koerber sided with crown prince Archduke Franz Ferdinand against it, stating that the principle of parity would require the Imperial-Royal Landwehr to also have artillery, which Austria could not afford.  Even education was a controversial aspect within the monarchy. The Italians in the Habsburg lands of Tyrol and the Littoral could no longer get a university education within the borders of Austria after it lost Venetia in 1866. Koerber sought to fix this problem and presented a draft law establishing an Italian university. However widespread disapproval from Germans culminated in riots during the aborted inauguration of the first course, to be opened in Innsbruck in November 1904 This forced the government to abandon this project. Koerber also attempted to institute a “National University” with German as the language of teaching but the Italians and Slavs protested this plan.  Koerber pursued reform for the infrastructure of the country, particularly railways and canals. These expansive reforms known as the \"Koerber-Plan\" were made in efforts to appease the Imperial Council and create a sense of regionalism with non-controversial government reforms. Despite Koerber's efforts, these changes did not provide the reaction he expected and attention once again shifted towards the nationality question.  Additionally, Koerber aimed to promote the industrial and communications sectors. He abolished censorship of the press. Koerber believed this would benefit the changing and expansive monarchy. Koerber also exhibited his liberal ideology by reducing the harsh persecution of Social Democrats, allowing them to organize openly in Austria. This was a tremendous stride in individual rights.  Coupled with these strategies was Koerber's economic savvy. Koerber got the Imperial Council to enact his 1902 economic development program without resorting to Article 14. But once again, it was to no avail. Many historians believe that Koerber’s emphasis on economic matters over national issues made his administration highly unpopular. Ethnic hostilities ensued despite his attempts at reform. The lack of transition within the state diminished Koerber's dreams and he eventually resigned from office on 31 December 1904, officially on health grounds. Koerber was succeeded by Paul Gautsch von Frankenthurn, Minister of Education.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second Koerber cabinet.", "content": "Koerber returned to the spotlight during World War I. From 7 February 1915 to 28 October 1916, he served as Austro-Hungarian Finance Minister (one of three \"k.u.k\" common ministries which served both countries). In the ongoing discussions on the goals of the war, Koerber strictly opposed Foreign Minister Stephan Burián's ideas to annex Russian Congress Poland (Vistula Land), stating that it could further weaken the cohesion and political balance of the Dual Monarchy.  After the Austrian minister-president Count Karl von Stürgkh was assassinated by Friedrich Adler on 21 October 1916, aged Emperor Franz Joseph quickly recalled Koerber to return as his successor. Many had hoped that Koerber would modify the tyrannical system that had developed during wartime. However, after Franz Joseph's death on November 21, Koerber came into conflict with the new emperor, Charles I, and did not make such changes. In fact, the constant disputes made it difficult for Koerber to get anything accomplished. Koerber still held out hope that Austria and Hungary were able to unite, both politically and socially. Charles I, however, continued to take measures that would hinder this progress. Koerber, an aged man by this point, decided he could no longer take these differences. His resignation was caused by several issues, the most important of which was his belief that the planned convocation of the Austrian parliament was premature, but Charles I wanted to present himself as a constitutional monarch as soon as possible. Furthermore, he objected to what he considered to be too extensive concessions to Hungary in the new compromise, whereas the emperor did not want to risk jeopardizing the relationship with Hungary.  A few weeks later, on December 13, Koerber officially retired from office and was succeeded by Heinrich Clam-Martinic. He died shortly after the end of the war, on 5 March 1919, in Baden, a spa town near Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Support for Zionism.", "content": "Koerber was a friend and supporter of Theodor Herzl. He was impressed by his Zionist project and assured Herzl that he would stand behind him in his endeavors to win a charter for Jewish settlement in Palestine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernest Karl Franz Joseph Thomas Friedrich von Koerber (6 November 1850 – 5 March 1919) was an Austrian liberal statesman who served as Prime Minister of the Austrian portion of Austro-Hungary in 1900-1904 and 1916.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976235}
{"src_title": "Borassus flabellifer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Borassus flabellifer\" is a robust tree and can reach a height of. The trunk is grey, robust and ringed with leaf scars; old leaves remain attached to the trunk for several years before falling cleanly. The leaves are fan-shaped and long, with robust black teeth on the petiole margins. Like all \"Borassus\" species, \"B. flabellifer\" is dioecious with male and female flowers on separate plants. The male flowers are less than 1 cm long and form semi-circular clusters, which are hidden beneath scale-like bracts within the catkin-like inflorescences. In contrast, the female flowers are golfball-sized and solitary, sitting upon the surface of the inflorescence axis. After pollination, these blooms develop into fleshy fruits 15–25 cm wide, each containing 1-3 seeds. The fruits are black to brown with sweet, fibrous pulp and each seed is enclosed within a woody endocarp. Young palmyra seedlings grow slowly, producing only a few leaves each year (establishment phase), but at an as yet undetermined time, they grow rapidly, producing a substantial stem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fruit.", "content": "The fruit (Palmyra fruit) measures to in diameter, has a black husk, and is borne in clusters. The top portion of the fruit must be cut off to reveal the sweet jelly seed sockets, translucent pale-white, similar to that of the lychee but with a milder flavor and no pit. The sweet jelly seed sockets occur in combinations of two, three or four seeds inside the fruit. The jelly part of the fruit is covered with a thin, yellowish-brown skin. These are known to contain watery fluid inside the fleshy white body. These seed sockets have been the inspiration behind certain Sandeshes called \"Jalbhora\" (জলভরা) found in Bengal. The soft orange-yellow mesocarp pulp of the ripe fruit is sugary, dense and edible, rich in vitamin A and C. They also contain bitter compound called flabelliferrins, which are steroidal saponins.  The conventional way this fruit is eaten is when the outer casing is still unripe while the seeds are eaten as the fruit. But if the entire fruit is left to ripen, the fibrous outer layer of the palm fruits can also be eaten raw, boiled, or roasted. When this happens, the fruit takes a purple-blackish hue and tastes similar to coconut flesh. The skin is also eaten as part of the fruit similar to how mango skins are often consumed along with the fruit. Bengali People have perfected the art of making various sweet dishes with the yellowish viscous fluid substance obtained from a ripe palm fruit. These include mustard oil-fried (alternately sunflower oil-fried) \"Taal-er bora\" (তালের বড়া) \"palmyra vadas\" or mixed with thickened milk to prepare \"Taal-kheer\" (তাল ক্ষীর).  In Kerala it is called Pananungu whereas in Tamil Nadu, it is called as Nungu (நுங்கு). Ice apple in Indonesia is called Buah Lontar or Siwalan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sap.", "content": "Obtaining the sap traditionally involves tapping the top shoots and collecting the dripping juice in hanging earthen pots (in some region utilize plastic or bamboo bottle). The juice collected in evening or after fermentation becomes sour, and is called Tadi (ताडी) in Marathi. This sap was the main source of sugar production in Thailand even before sugarcane, as for the vocabulary Nahm-Taal (น้ําตาล) which used to call any kind of sugar in Thailand literally means the water of tala palm  A sugary sap called toddy, can be obtained from the young inflorescence, either male or female. Toddy is fermented to make a beverage called arrack, or it is concentrated to a crude sugar called jaggery or Taal Patali (তাল পাটালী) in Bengali and Pana Vellam or Karuppukatti (கருப்புகட்டி or கருபட்டி) in Tamil. It is called \"Gula Jawa\" (Javanese sugar) in Indonesia, and is widely used in Javanese cuisine. In Thailand it is called Nahm-Taal-Puek (น้ําตาลปึก) means the pack of sugar that dried from the palm sap (but in modern day the ingredient had been switched to mainly be coconut water because the convenient of farming and harvesting).  In Thailand there was techniques utilize anti bacterial agents of some woods to keep the sap from becoming sour while tapping. And after sterilized it was available as beverage called Nahm-Taan-Sod (น้ําตาลสด (fresh sugar)) or used to make alcoholic beverage called Nahm-Taan-Mao (น้ําตาลเมา (drunken sugar))", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sprouts.", "content": "In the Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Bihar, and in Jaffna, Sri Lanka, the seeds are planted and made to germinate and the fleshy stems (below the surface) are boiled or roasted and eaten. It is very fibrous and nutritious. It is known as Thegalu (తేగలు) or Gaygulu (గేగులు) or Gengulu (గెంగులు) (especially in Telangana) in Telugu, as Panai Kizhangu or Panangkizhangu (பனங்கிழங்கு) in Tamil, and as htabin myiq (ထန်းပင်မြစ်) in Myanmar.  The germinated seed's hard shell is also cut open to take out the crunchy kernel, which tastes like a sweeter water chestnut. It is called Buragunju (బురగుంజు) in Telugu and \"thavanai\" in Tamil.  The white kernel of the ripe palm fruit after being left for a few months is used as an offering in Lakshmi Puja in various parts of Bengal and is also eaten raw.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leaves.", "content": "The \"Borassus flabellifer\" leaves are used for thatching, mats, baskets, fans, hats, umbrellas, and as writing material.  All the literature of the old Tamil was written in preserved Palm leaves also known as Palm-leaf manuscript. In Tamil Yaedu or Olai chuvadi. Most of the ancient literature in Telugu are written on palm leaves (Tala patra grandhas).  In Indonesia the leaves were used in the ancient culture as paper, known as \"lontar\". Leaves of suitable size, shape, texture, and maturity were chosen and then seasoned by boiling in salt water with turmeric powder, as a preservative. The leaves were then dried. When they were dry enough, the face of the leaf was polished with pumice, cut into the proper size, and a hole made in one corner. Each leaf made four pages. The writing was done with a stylus and had a very cursive and interconnected style.  The stem of the leaves has thorny edges (called \"karukku\" in Tamil).  The skin of the stem can be peeled off and be used as rope and also used to weave into cots (\"நார்க்கட்டில்\" in Tamil). In some part of Tamil Nadu, a variety of rice flour cake (called \"Kolukattai\") is prepared using the leaf.  In the eastern part of India, the leaves are used to make hand fans.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trunk.", "content": "The stalks are used to make fences and also produce a strong, wiry fiber suitable for cordage and brushes. The black timber is hard, heavy, and durable and is highly valued for construction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Crown.", "content": "When the crown of the tree is removed, the segment from which the leaves grow out is an edible cake. This is called 'pananchoru\" (பனஞ்சோறு) in Tamil or \"thati adda\" (తాటి అడ్డ/తాటి మట్ట) in Telugu.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roots.", "content": "In Cambodia, where the palm is known as \"thnôt\"' (Khmer), the roots are dried and smoked to heal nasal complaints.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Borassus flabellifer\" has a growth pattern, very large size, and clean habits that make it an attractive ornamental tree, cultivated for planting in gardens and parks as landscape palm species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Borassus flabellifer, commonly known as doub palm, palmyra palm, tala palm, toddy palm, wine palm, or ice apple is native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, including Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. It is reportedly naturalized in Pakistan, Socotra, and parts of China.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976236}
{"src_title": "Francis II, Duke of Lorraine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The youngest son of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine, and his wife Claude of France, he was styled the Count of Vaudémont during his father's reign (1545–1608) as well as during that of his older brother Henry II (1608–1624). His father appointed him as his deputy (Lieutenant General) of Lorraine, while in 1594 he was out of the country.  That same year he was Lieutenant General of the French king in Toul and Verdun. From September to October 1606 he was in his father's diplomatic mission in England. In 1621 he fell out with his brother Henry II, who had become duke in 1608, and went to Germany for the emperor to fight the Protestants.  The reason for the rift was Henry's intention to have Francis's son Charles marry Henry II's daughter Nicolette of Lorraine and to leave Lorraine to her, even though the will of Duke René II had provided for a strictly male succession. Henry and his wife Margherita Gonzaga had only had daughters. After negotiations, the issue was then resolved and the marriage took place but the couple did not have any children and the duchy was to revert to Francis' other son, the future Nicholas II, Duke of Lorraine.  After Francis' brother died on 31 July 1624, the situation became complicated; Henry's final rules specified that Charles could only be the Duke of Lorraine as Nicolette's husband.  In November 1625, however, it was Francis himself who became the ruler of Lorraine. Having claimed the duchy for himself, he got it on 21 November 1625 from the duchy's States General.  After he had paid the duchy's debt out of its treasury five days later, he abdicated in favour of his son, who by then had pushed aside his wife and who then ruled in his own right.  In his will, Francis stated that he \"never had ambitions to wear a crown in this world\". After his abdication, Francis II took on the management of the county of Vaudémont. He died less than a year later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "He married Christina of Salm and had the following issue:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francis II (François de Lorraine; 27 February 1572 – 14 October 1632) was the son of Charles III, Duke of Lorraine and Claude of Valois. He was Duke of Lorraine briefly in 1625, quickly abdicating in favour of his son.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976237}
{"src_title": "Conversion marketing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Measures.", "content": "The efficacy of conversion marketing is measured by the conversion rate: the number of customers who have completed a transaction divided by the total number of website visitors. Conversion rates for electronic storefronts are usually low. Conversion marketing can boost this number as well as online revenue and website traffic.  Conversion marketing attempts to solve low online conversions through optimized customer service, which requires a complex combination of personalized customer experience management, web analytics, and the use of customer feedback to contribute to process flow improvement and site design.  By focusing on improving site flow, online customer service channels, and online experience conversion marketing is commonly viewed as a long-term investment rather than a quick fix. Increased site traffic over the past 10 years has done little to increase overall conversion rates, so conversion marketing focuses not on driving additional traffic but converting existing traffic. It requires proactive engagement with consumers using real time analytics to determine if visitors are confused and show signs of abandoning the site; then developing the tools and messages to inform consumers about available products, and ultimately persuading them to convert online. Ideally, the customer would maintain a relationship post-sale through support or re-engagement campaigns. Conversion marketing affects all phases of the customer life-cycle, and several conversion marketing solutions are utilized to help ease the transition from one phase to the next.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conversion rate.", "content": "The conversion rate is the proportion of visitors to a website who take action to go beyond a casual content view or website visit, as a result of subtle or direct requests from marketers, advertisers, and content creators.  Successful conversions are defined differently by individual marketers, advertisers, and content creators. To online retailers, for example, a successful conversion may be defined as the sale of a product to a consumer whose interest in the item was initially sparked by clicking a banner advertisement. To content creators, a successful conversion may refer to a membership registration, newsletter subscription, software download, or other activity.  For websites that seek to generate offline responses, for example telephone calls or foot traffic to a store, measuring conversion rates can be difficult because a phone call or personal visit is not automatically traced to its source, such as the Yellow Pages, website, or referral. Possible solutions include asking each caller or shopper how they heard about the business and using a toll-free number on the website that forwards to the existing line.  For websites where the response occurs on the site itself, a conversion funnel can be set up in a site's analytics package to track user behavior.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Methods of increasing conversion rates in e-commerce.", "content": "Among many possible actions to increase the conversion rate, the most relevant may be:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In electronic commerce, conversion marketing is marketing with the intention of increasing \"conversions--\"that is, site visitors who are paying customers. The process of improving the conversion rate is called conversion rate optimization. However, different sites may consider a \"conversion\" to be a result other than a sale. Say a customer were to abandon an online shopping cart. The company could market a special offer, like free shipping, to convert the visitor into a paying customer. A company may also try to recover the customer through an online engagement method, such as proactive chat, to attempt to assist the customer through the purchase process.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976238}
{"src_title": "2010 Africa Cup of Nations", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Host selection.", "content": "Bids :  Rejected Bids :  On 4 September 2006, the Confederation of African Football (CAF) approved a compromise between rival countries to host the Africa Cup of Nations after it ruled out Nigeria. CAF agreed to award the next three editions from 2010 to Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Libya respectively. They assigned Angola in 2010, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon, which submitted a joint bid in 2012, and Libya for 2014.  This edition was awarded to Angola to encourage the country to move towards peace after the Angolan Civil War.  Two-time former host Nigeria is the reserve host for the 2010, 2012 and 2014 tournaments, in the event that any of the host countries fails to meet the requirements established by CAF.  The 2014 tournament was pushed forward to 2013 and subsequently held in odd-numbered years to avoid year-clash with the FIFA World Cup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification.", "content": "The Confederation of African Football announced that the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification would also be the qualification for this tournament. Despite the fact Angola are the host of the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations, they also needed to participate in the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification. A similar situation was true for South Africa. Although they will be the hosts for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, they still needed to compete in the qualification tournament in order to qualify for the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Draw.", "content": "The draw for the final tournament took place on 20 November 2009 at the Talatona Convention Centre in Luanda, Angola. The 16 teams were split into four pots, with Pot 1 containing the top four seeded nations. Angola were seeded as hosts and Egypt as reigning holders. The remaining 14 teams were ranked based on their records in the three last editions of the competition. Cameroon and Ivory Coast had the two strongest records and so completed the top seeded Pot 1. The four seeded teams were placed into their groups in advance of the final draw.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Match officials.", "content": "The following referees were chosen for the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tie-breaking criteria.", "content": "If two or more teams end the group stage with the same number of points, their ranking is determined by the following criteria:  \"All times given as local time (UTC+1)\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Knockout stage.", "content": "\"All times given as local time (UTC+1)\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Best XI.", "content": "The following players were selected as the best in their respective positions, based on their performances throughout the tournament. Their performances were analysed by the tournament's Technical Study Group (TSG), who picked the team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "<nowiki>***</nowiki> indicates the team played only two matches in the group stage, due to the withdrawal of Togo from the tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mascot.", "content": "The Mascot for the Tournament is Palanquinha, which was inspired by the Giant Sable Antelope (\"Hippotragus niger variani\"), a national symbol and a treasured animal in Angola. In Angola, this animal is found only in the Cangandala National Park in Malange Province.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Match ball.", "content": "The official match ball for the tournament is the Adidas Jabulani Angola, a modified version of the Adidas Jabulani to be used at the 2010 FIFA World Cup, with the colours of the flag of Angola.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marketing.", "content": "Tournament had seven sponsors, Doritos, MTN Group, NASUBA, Orange, Pepsi, Samsung and only African corporate sponsor Standard Bank.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attack on the Togo national team.", "content": "On 8 January 2010, the team bus of the Togo national football team was attacked by gunmen in Cabinda, Angola as it travelled to the tournament. A spokesman for the Togolese football federation said assistant coach Améleté Abalo and press officer Stanislaud Ocloo had died as well as the driver. The separatist group Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Military Position (FLEC-PM) claimed responsibility for the attack. The Togolese team withdrew from the competition the following day. The players initially decided to compete to commemorate the victims in this way, but were immediately ordered to return by the Togolese government.  Following their departure from Angola, Togo were formally disqualified from the tournament after failing to fulfil their opening Group B game against Ghana on 11 January.  On 30 January 2010, CAF banned Togo from participating in the next two Africa Cup of Nations tournaments and fined the team $50,000 due to \"government involvement in the withdrawal from the tournament\". Togo were unable to compete until the 2015 tournament, but that ban was lifted on 14 May 2010 by a ruling from the Court of Arbitration for Sport.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2010 Africa Cup of Nations, also known as the Orange Africa Cup of Nations for sponsorship reasons, was the 27th Africa Cup of Nations, the biennial football championship of Africa (CAF). It was held in Angola, where it began on 10 January 2010 and concluded on 31 January.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976239}
{"src_title": "Prefect", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ancient Rome.", "content": "\"Praefectus\", often with a further qualification, was the formal title of many, fairly low to high-ranking, military or civil officials in the Roman Empire, whose authority was not embodied in their person (as it was with elected Magistrates) but conferred by delegation from a higher authority. They did have some authority in their prefecture such as controlling prisons and in civil administration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Praetorian prefects.", "content": "The Praetorian prefect (\"Praefectus praetorio\") began as the military commander of a general's guard company in the field, then grew in importance as the Praetorian Guard became a potential kingmaker during the Empire. From the Emperor Diocletian's tetrarchy (c. 300) they became the administrators of the four Praetorian prefectures, the government level above the (newly created) dioceses and (multiplied) provinces.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military prefects.", "content": "For some auxiliary troops, specific titles could even refer to their peoples:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prefects as provincial governors.", "content": "Roman provinces were usually ruled by high-rank officials. Less important provinces though were entrusted to prefects, military men who would otherwise only govern parts of larger provinces. The most famous example is Pontius Pilate, who governed Judaea at a time when it was administered as an annex of Syria.  As Egypt was a special imperial domain, a rich and strategic granary, where the Emperor enjoyed an almost pharaonic position unlike any other province or diocese, its head was styled uniquely \"Praefectus Augustalis\", indicating that he governed in the personal name of the emperor, the \"Augustus\". Septimius Severus, after conquering Mesopotamia, introduced the same system there too.  After the mid-1st century, as a result of the Pax Romana, the governorship was gradually shifted from the military prefects to civilian fiscal officials called procurators, Egypt remaining the exception.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feudal times.", "content": "Especially in Medieval Latin, \"præfectus\" was used to refer to various officers—administrative, military, judicial, etc.—usually alongside a more precise term in the vernacular (such as \"Burggraf\", which literally means \"Count of the Castle\" in the German language).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecclesiastical.", "content": "The term is used by the Roman Catholic Church, which based much of its canon law terminology on Roman law, in several different ways.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic.", "content": "Many college preparatory boarding schools utilize the position of Prefect as a high student leadership position.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern sub-national administration.", "content": "In the 1980s, under the presidency of François Mitterrand (1981–1995), a fundamental change in the role of the prefect (and sub-prefect) took place. The previously extremely centralized French (Fifth) Republic was gradually \"decentralized\" by the creation of the Regions and the devolution of central state powers towards the \"Régions\", \"Départements\" and \"Communes\" (municipalities). New elected authorities were created (e.g. the \"Conseils régionaux\") in order to administrate the subdivisional entities (\"collectivités territoriales\") of the nation (law from 2 March 1982). The changes have gradually altered the function of the prefect. He is still the supreme representative of the state in a département, but has lost his omnipotent function of chief administrator. Instead, he has acquired the roles of chief controller (not a title) of regional, departemental and communal public accounts and of chief inspector (not a title) of good (i.e. law-abiding) governance of the authorities of the respective territorial entities.  A \"Préfet maritime\" is a French Admiral (\"Amiral\") who is commissioned to be the chief commander of a \"Zone maritime\" (i.e. a section of the French territorial waters and the respective shores).  In Paris, the \"Préfet de police\" (prefect of police) is the head of the city's police under the direct authority of the \"Ministre de l'Intérieur\" (Minister of the Interior), which makes him unique as usually in French towns and cities the chief of the local police is subordinated to the \"maire\" (mayor), who is the local representative of the minister in police matters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Police.", "content": "The Prefect of Police (\"Préfet de police)\" is the officer in charge of co-ordinating police forces in Paris (see above under \"France\"). The local police in Japan are divided among prefectures too.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prefect (from the Latin \"praefectus\", substantive adjectival form of \"praeficere\": \"put in front\", i.e., in charge) is a magisterial title of varying definition, but essentially refers to the leader of an administrative area.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976240}
{"src_title": "Jacob's Ladder", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biblical narrative.", "content": "The description of Jacob's ladder appears in :  Afterwards, Jacob names the place \"Bethel\" (literally, \"House of God\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Judaism.", "content": "The classic Torah commentaries offer several interpretations of Jacob's ladder. According to the Midrash Genesis Rabbah, the ladder signified the exiles which the Jewish people would suffer before the coming of the Jewish messiah. First the angel representing the 70-year exile of Babylonia climbed \"up\" 70 rungs, and then fell \"down\". Then the angel representing the exile of Persia went up a number of steps, and fell, as did the angel representing the exile of Greece. Only the fourth angel, which represented the final exile of Rome/Edom (whose guardian angel was Esau himself), kept climbing higher and higher into the clouds. Jacob feared that his children would never be free of Esau's domination, but God assured him that at the End of Days, Edom too would come falling down.  Another interpretation of the ladder keys into the fact that the angels first \"ascended\" and then \"descended\". The Midrash explains that Jacob, as a holy man, was always accompanied by angels. When he reached the border of the land of Canaan (the future land of Israel), the angels who were assigned to the Holy Land went back up to Heaven and the angels assigned to other lands came down to meet Jacob. When Jacob returned to Canaan he was greeted by the angels who were assigned to the Holy Land.  Yet another interpretation is this: The place at which Jacob stopped for the night was in reality Mount Moriah, the future home of the Temple in Jerusalem. The ladder therefore signifies the \"bridge\" between Heaven and earth, as prayers and sacrifices offered in the Holy Temple soldered a connection between God and the Jewish people. Moreover, the ladder alludes to the giving of the Torah as another connection between heaven and earth. In this interpretation, it is also significant that the Hebrew word for ladder, \"sulam\" (סלם) and the name for the mountain on which the Torah was given, \"Sinai\" (סיני) have the same gematria (numerical value of the letters).  The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo, born in Alexandria, (d. ca. 50 CE) presents his allegorical interpretation of the ladder in the first book of his \"De somniis\". There he gives four interpretations, which are not mutually exclusive:  A hilltop overlooking the Israeli settlement of Beit El north of Jerusalem that is believed by some to be the site of Jacob's dream is a tourist destination during the holiday of Sukkot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Christianity.", "content": "Jesus said in John 1:51 \"And he saith unto him, Verily, verily, I say unto you, Hereafter ye shall see heaven open, and the angels of God ascending and descending upon the Son of man.\" This statement has been interpreted as associating or implicating Jesus with the mythical ladder, in that Christ bridges the gap between Heaven and Earth. Jesus presents himself as the reality to which the ladder points; as Jacob saw in a dream the reunion of Heaven and Earth, Jesus brought this reunion, metaphorically the ladder, into reality. Adam Clarke, an early 19th-century Methodist theologian and Bible scholar, elaborates:  The theme of a ladder to heaven is often used by the Church Fathers. Irenaeus in the second century describes the Christian Church as the \"ladder of ascent to God\".  In the third century, Origen explains that there are two ladders in the life of a Christian, the ascetic ladder that the soul climbs on the earth, by way of—and resulting in—an increase in virtue, and the soul's travel after death, climbing up the heavens towards the light of God.  In the fourth century, Gregory of Nazianzus speaks of ascending Jacob's Ladder by successive steps towards excellence, interpreting the ladder as an ascetic path, while Saint Gregory of Nyssa narrates that Moses climbed on Jacob's Ladder to reach the heavens where he entered the tabernacle not made with hands, thus giving the Ladder a clear mystical meaning. The ascetic interpretation is found also in Saint John Chrysostom, who writes:  Jacob's Ladder as an analogy for the spiritual ascetic of life enjoyed wide influence thanks to the classical work \"The Ladder of Divine Ascent\" by John Climacus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Islam.", "content": "In Islam, Jacob () is revered in Islam as a prophet and patriarch. Muslim scholars drew a parallel with Jacob's vision of the ladder and Muhammad's event of the Mi'raj. The ladder of Jacob was interpreted by Muslims to be one of the many symbols of God, and many saw Jacob's ladder as representing in its form the essence of Islam, which emphasizes following the \"straight path\". The twentieth-century scholar Martin Lings described the significance of the ladder in the Islamic mystic perspective:The ladder of the created Universe is the ladder which appeared in a dream to Jacob, who saw it stretching from Heaven to earth, with Angels going up and down upon it; and it is also the \"straight path\", for indeed the way of religion is none other than the way of creation itself retraced from its end back to its Beginning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pseudepigraphic apocalyptic literature.", "content": "The narrative of Jacob's Ladder was used, shortly after the destruction of the Second Temple in the Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE), as basis for the pseudepigraphic \"Ladder of Jacob\". This writing, preserved only in Old Church Slavonic, interprets the experience of Patriarchs in the context of Merkabah mysticism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "Jacob's Ladder has been depicted in many artworks, the largest of which is the facade of Bath Abbey in England where sculptures depict angels climbing up and down ladders on either side of the main window on the west front.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacob's Ladder ( ) is a ladder leading to heaven that was featured in a dream the biblical Patriarch Jacob had during his flight from his brother Esau in the Book of Genesis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976241}
{"src_title": "Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Victoria was born on 6 July 1868 at Marlborough House, London. Her father was the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII), heir apparent to the British throne as the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Her mother was the Princess of Wales (later Queen Alexandra), the eldest daughter of King Christian IX and Queen Louise of Denmark. She was known as \"Toria\" to her family.  She was christened at Marlborough House on 6 August 1868 by Archibald Campbell Tait, Bishop of London.  Princess Victoria was educated at home by tutors and spent her childhood at Marlborough House and Sandringham. The Princess was particularly close to her brother, George, the future King George V.  With her sisters, she was a bridesmaid at the wedding in 1885 of their paternal aunt Princess Beatrice to Prince Henry of Battenberg. She was a bridesmaid at the wedding of the Duke and Duchess of York (future King George V and Queen Mary) on 6 July 1893.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Although she had a number of suitors, the most famous of them being King Carlos I of Portugal, Princess Victoria never married and had no children. Her mother, Alexandra, is believed to have actively discouraged her from marrying. Instead she remained a companion to her parents, particularly her mother, with whom she lived until Queen Alexandra's death in 1925. The Princess then set up her own home at Coppins, Iver, in Buckinghamshire. She took a particular interest in the village life, becoming honorary president of the Iver Horticultural Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After the death of her mother, she left Sandringham House and decided to live in Buckinghamshire. Princess Victoria's last years were plagued with health problems. She suffered from neuralgia, migraines, indigestion, depression, colds and influenza. Princess Victoria died at home on 3 December 1935, aged 67. Her funeral took place on 7 December 1935 at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, where she was initially buried. Her remains were later moved and reburied at the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore, Windsor Great Park, on 8 January 1936. Her death greatly affected her brother, George V, who died one month later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles, honours and arms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "Upon her younger sister's marriage in 1896, Princess Victoria was awarded a personal coat of arms, being the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom, bearing an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony and differenced with a label argent of five points, the first, third and fifth bearing roses gules, and the second and fourth crosses gules. The inescutcheon was dropped by royal warrant in 1917.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom (Victoria Alexandra Olga Mary; 6 July 1868 – 3 December 1935) was the fourth child and second daughter of Edward VII and Alexandra of Denmark, and the younger sister of George V.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976242}
{"src_title": "Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Alexandra was born Princess Alexandra of Edinburgh on 1 September 1878 at Rosenau Castle, Coburg. Her father was Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, the second-eldest son of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Her mother was Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, the only surviving daughter of Alexander II of Russia and Marie of Hesse and by Rhine. She was baptised \"Alexandra Louise Olga Victoria\" on 2 October 1878 at Edinburgh Palace, Coburg, presumably by her mother's chaplain. Her godparents included her maternal uncle Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia.  During Alexandra's formative years, her father, occupied with his career in the Navy and later as a ruler in Coburg, paid little attention to his family. It was Alexandra's mother who was the domineering presence in their children's life. Alexandra had four siblings: Alfred, Marie, Victoria Melita, and Beatrice (her only younger sibling). Throughout her life, Alexandra was usually overshadowed by her elder sisters; she was considered less beautiful and more subdued than Marie and Victoria Melita. Nicknamed 'Sandra' by her family, Alexandra spent her childhood first in England, then from 1886 to 1889 in Malta, where her father was serving with the British Navy. In 1889 the family moved to Coburg, Germany, as her father was the heir apparent to the duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. She was a bridesmaid at the 1885 wedding of her aunt Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom to Prince Henry of Battenberg, and at the wedding of the Duke and Duchess of York in 1893. That year, her great-uncle, The Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (brother of her paternal grandfather, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha) died without issue. As Prince Albert had passed away, and her uncle The Prince of Wales had renounced his claim to the duchy, the ducal throne fell to the Duke of Edinburgh. Following her father's succession, though Alexandra remained a British princess, she took the title of Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Alexandra's mother, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna, believed in marrying her daughters young, before they began to think for themselves. At the end of 1895, she arranged Alexandra's engagement to Ernst, Hereditary Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (13 September 1863 – 11 December 1950). Alexandra's grandmother, Queen Victoria, complained that she was too young. Alexandra's father objected to the status of his future son-in-law, who would become the 7th Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. The House of Hohenlohe-Langenburg was mediatized — a formerly ruling family who had ceded their sovereign rights to others while (in theory) retaining their equal birth; it was not considered a brilliant match. The couple were also related: Ernst was a grandson of Princess Feodora of Leiningen, Queen Victoria's half-sister. The wedding took place on 20 April 1896 in Coburg, Germany. Alexandra was 17 and Ernst 32.  They had five children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Alexandra lived for the rest of her life in Germany. At the death of her father in 1900, Alexandra's husband was appointed regent of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg during the minority of the new Duke, who was her first cousin. Alexandra's only brother, Alfred, had died in 1899. During World War I, she worked as a Red Cross nurse. In February 1916 her eldest daughter Marie Melita was married in Coburg to Prince Wilhelm Friedrich, the future Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and Alexandra became a grandmother when the couple's first child Prince Hans was born in May 1917. On her thirty-fifth wedding anniversary in April 1931, her eldest son Gottfried married Princess Margarita of Greece and Denmark. In the years preceding World War II, Alexandra was an early supporter of the Nazi Party, which she joined on 1 May 1937, together with several of her children. She died in Schwäbisch Hall, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany in 1942.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles, honours and arms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "British arms.", "content": "Alexandra's personal coat of arms was that of the British monarch, with an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony, all differenced, as a male-line grandchild, with a label argent of five points, the central point bearing a cross gules, the inner pair anchors azure, and the outer pair fleurs-de-lys azure. In 1917, the inescutcheon was dropped by Royal Warrant from George V.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, VA, CI (Alexandra Louise Olga Victoria; 1 September 1878 – 16 April 1942) was the fourth child and third daughter of Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia. As the wife of Ernst II, she was Princess consort of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. She was a granddaughter of both Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and Tsar Alexander II of Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976243}
{"src_title": "Leśna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The town is situated north of the Jizera Mountains on the left banks of the Kwisa River, the eastern edge of the historic Upper Lusatia region. It lies approximately south of Lubań, and west of the regional capital Wrocław. In the south, a border crossing leads to Jindřichovice pod Smrkem in Bohemia.  Lake Leśnia, a reservoir of the Kwisa River, is located east of the town.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Leśna Castle, erected on the border with the Polish Duchy of Silesia about southeast of the town, was first mentioned in a 1247 deed. King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia, then ruler of the Upper Lusatian lands, ceded it to the Meissen bishop Conrad I of Wallhausen. The fortress probably lost its strategic importance with the construction of Czocha Castle further east in the early 14th century.  The \"Lissa\" settlement is documented in 1329. It may have been a founding of the Silesian Duke Henry I of Jawor, heir of the Upper Lusatian Kwisa District by his mother Beatrice of Brandenburg. Upon Henry's death in 1346, the Kwisa lands reverted to the Bohemian Crown, whereafter the lordship was enfeoffed to local noble dynasties. A first town layout was abandoned in 1434 upon devastations by the Hussite Wars, a flood and a fire, and rebuilt at its present location further south on the route from Frýdlant to Lubań. A centre of cloth manufacturing, it received market rights in 1515.  The name \"Marklissa\" first appeared in 1574. Upon the 1635 Peace of Prague it fell with Upper Lusatia to the Electorate of Saxony. The town's economy was boosted by the immigration of Protestants fleeing from the Counter-Reformation in the adjacent Habsburg lands of Bohemia and Silesia. After the Napoleonic Wars and the 1815 Congress of Vienna, southeastern Upper Lusatia was annexed by Prussia and incorporated into the Province of Silesia.  With Prussia Marklissa became part of the German Empire in 1871. After World War II the town, located east of the Oder-Neisse line, was ceded to the Republic of Poland according to the 1945 Potsdam Agreement. The German population was expelled and the area resettled with Poles deported from the eastern Kresy borderlands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "See twin towns of Gmina Leśna.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leśna () is a town in Lubań County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland, close to the Czech border. It is the seat of the administrative district (gmina) called Gmina Leśna. As of 2019, the town has a population of 4,439.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976244}
{"src_title": "MGR-3 Little John", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Carried on the XM34 rocket launcher, it could carry either nuclear or conventional warheads. It was primarily intended for use in airborne assault operations and to complement the heavier, self-propelled MGR-1 Honest John rocket. Development of the missile was started at Army’s Rocket and Guided Missile Agency laboratory at Huntsville, Alabama, the Redstone Arsenal, in June 1955.  In June 1956, the first launch of the XM47 Little John occurred. This initial model was spin-stabilised by larger triangular fins and a longer launch rail. It was stabilised by the fins alone until it began to spin. The production XM51 version had smaller rectangular fins, too small to stabilise the rocket, and was stabilised from launch by a unique \"spin-on-straight-rail\" system.  The XM51 Little John was delivered to the field in November 1961 and remained in the regular Army's weapons inventory until August 1969.  It was a spin-stabilized field artillery rocket that followed a ballistic trajectory to ground targets. The rocket XM51 consisted of a warhead, a rocket motor assembly, and an igniter assembly. The components were shipped in separate containers, with the warhead and motor assembled before issue and the igniter inserted immediately before use.  The Little John differs from the Honest John in not only its size but how it is stabilized in flight. The flight of the Honest John is stabilized by a spin that is imparted to the rocket by spin rockets after the round leaves the launcher. The XM51 Little John rocket flight is stabilized by applying spin to the rocket while on the launcher, just before firing. This manual method of stabilization was called \"spin-on-straight-rail\" (SOSR). A hand-wound mechanical clock spring on the launcher rotates the missile through gears, when the firing lanyard is pulled. Once the rocket is rotating at 31⁄2 rev. per second, inertial switches connect the thermal batteries to the rocket motor's igniter. In flight, the spin is maintained by canted fins. The system was manufactured by the Douglas Aircraft Company.  The missile and launcher system were light enough to be easily transported by helicopters and other aircraft or towed by a vehicle. The Phase II Little John weapon system was initially deployed with the 1st Missile Battalion, 57th Field Artillery in Okinawa, Japan.  The missile was retired beginning in July, 1967, with the final missile removed from inventory in 1970. Five hundred missiles were produced during the life of the weapon program.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The MGR-3 Little John was a free flight artillery rocket system designed and put into service by the U.S. Army during the 1950s and 1960s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976245}
{"src_title": "Sweyn III of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sweyn was the illegitimate son of King Erik II the Memorable and the concubine Thunna. Sweyn travelled with Eric II to Norway in the mid-1130s, when his father fought King Niels to win the Danish throne. When Eric II died in 1137, he was succeeded by Eric III, and Sweyn was sent to the court of Conrad III of Germany. Here he befriended Conrad's nephew Frederick.  Sweyn travelled to Denmark, where he and his cousin Valdemar sought to canonize Sweyn's uncle and Valdemar's father Canute Lavard in 1146, under protest from Archbishop Eskil of Lund in Scania. At the abdication of Eric III in 1146, Sweyn was elected king by the magnates on Zealand while Canute V was crowned by their counterparts in Jutland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Civil war.", "content": "For the next years, Sweyn fought a civil war against Canute for the kingship of Denmark, supported by Valdemar. Canute was supported by Archbishop Eskil, but Sweyn moved to secure Eskil's loyalty by granting the Archbishop of Lund land holdings in Scania and Bornholm. Sweyn subsequently defeated Canute on Zealand, to confine him to Jutland. In 1147, Sweyn and Canute united to support the Wendish Crusade. As Sweyn engaged the Wends in naval battle, he received little support from Canute, and lost his flagship. The civil war was soon re-ignited.  After several battles, Sweyn conquered Funen and parts of Jutland, and set Valdemar up as Duke of Schleswig. Sweyn then campaigned with Etheler von Dithmarschen against Adolf II of Holstein, a supporter of Canute. Sweyn succeeded in banishing Canute in 1150, and Canute's re-entry with German troops in 1151 was also repulsed. Both Canute and Sweyn sought the support of Conrad III of Germany. In 1152, Frederick I was crowned King of Germany, and he brokered a deal in Merseburg later that year. The deal made Sweyn \"premier king\", with Canute eligible to receive a substantial portion of Denmark, and Valdemar keeping the Duchy of Schleswig. However, Sweyn only granted Canute small holdings, breaking the agreement, and Sweyn's position in Denmark was further undermined by his alleged tyrant manners and his pro-German behaviour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tripartition.", "content": "In 1154, Sweyn was overthrown by an alliance between Canute and Valdemar, who was crowned Canute's co-ruler as Valdemar I. Eskil and the majority of Sweyn's other supporters deserted him, and he went into exile in Germany. Sweyn spent three years seeking support for a reconquest, and returned to Denmark in 1157 with the support of German duke Henry the Lion. This prompted the Danish magnates to force through a tripartition of the kingdom into Jutland, Zealand, and Scania. Sweyn chose first, and was made the ruler of Scania. At the peace banquet in Roskilde on 9 August 1157, Sweyn planned on killing his two co-rulers, and succeeded in having Canute killed. The incident became known as the \"Bloodfeast of Roskilde\".  Valdemar escaped to Jutland, and on 23 October 1157, Sweyn and his army faced and met him at the Battle of Grathe Heath, which gave him his nickname \"Grathe\". Sweyn's army was defeated, and he was killed by peasants who caught him when his horse was sucked into a bog while he fled from the battle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In 1152, Sweyn married Adela of Meissen, daughter of Conrad, Margrave of Meissen, and Luitgard of Ravenstein. They had a short-lived son, possibly named Eric, and a daughter, Luitgard, who married Berthold I of Istria.:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sweyn III Grathe () ( – 23 October 1157) was the King of Denmark between 1146 and 1157, in shifting alliances with Canute V and his own cousin Valdemar I. In 1157, the three agreed a tripartition of Denmark. Sweyn attempted to kill his rivals at the peace banquet, and was subsequently defeated by Valdemar I at the Battle of Grathe Heath and killed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976246}
{"src_title": "Hanford Reach National Monument", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Fish and wildlife.", "content": "There are two main habitats in the Hanford Reach National Monument: desert and river.  Islands, riffles, gravel bars, oxbow ponds and backwater sloughs provide support to forty-three species of fish. Large numbers of fall Chinook salmon spawn in the Hanford reach. Federally threatened species such as the Upper Columbia River Spring Chinook, the Middle Columbia River Steelhead and the Upper Columbia River Steelhead use the reach for migration purposes.  The refuge is famous for the elk located on the Arid Lands Ecology Area. Herd numbers vary by time of year with 150 seen during the spring/summer and 350 to 375 during the fall. The elk population reaches its peak in the winter with an average of 670. Archaeologists believed the elk had been in the region for the last 10,000 years. During the mid-19th century, first hand accounts mentioned the disappearance of the species. Rocky Mountain elk were reintroduced into the region during the 1930s, as well as a natural recolonization event from the nearby cascade mountains during the difficult 1978 winter.  The dry, desert region is home to forty-two mammal species. Mice are the most abundant and include the deer mouse, western harvest mouse, northern grasshopper mouse. Mammals that inhabit this refuge include coyotes, skunks, beavers, mule deer, bobcats, river otters, minks, cougars and badgers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hanford Nuclear Reservation.", "content": "Hanford Reach is home to nine nuclear reactors of which B Reactor is the most famous; constructed in 13 months during World War II, it was the world’s first full scale reactor. Plutonium from the reactor was used in the first nuclear explosion at the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range in New Mexico (July 16, 1945) and in the Fat Man atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan (August 9, 1945). The reactor’s significance has led to many distinctions including a place on the National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark, National Register of Historic Places, Nuclear Historic Landmark, National Civil Engineering Landmark and National Historic Landmark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Access.", "content": "The monument is open from two hours before sunrise to two hours after sunset; some areas are open to the public and others are not:  The Rattlesnake Mountain Public Access Act () is a bill that has been introduced into the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress which would change some of the access to this site. The bill would require the United States Secretary of the Interior to provide public access to the summit of Rattlesnake Mountain in the Hanford Reach National Monument in the state of Washington. The bill is supposed to help with tourism and scientific undertakings. It passed the House on June 11, 2013 and was sent to the Senate.  Several sites in the adjacent Hanford Site including the B Reactor are part of the Manhattan Project National Historical Park and are accessible on public tours.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hanford Reach National Monument is a national monument in the U.S. state of Washington. It was created in 2000, mostly from the former security buffer surrounding the Hanford Nuclear Reservation (Hanford Site). The area has been untouched by development or agriculture since 1943. Because of that it is considered an involuntary park.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976247}
{"src_title": "Kbely Aviation Museum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Creation of the museum.", "content": "During the mid 1960s, the Prague Military Museum commenced a programme to recover, restore and preserve historic aircraft from around the country for eventual display at Kbely. Initially, one hangar was used, and about fifty aircraft were placed on public display. The aircraft collection continued to grow, and one of the original Wagner-type hangars on the airfield was brought into use, and now contains the earliest aircraft types on display. Another Picha-type hangar has also been added to bring the number of hangars housing the large and varied collection to four.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The aircraft collection.", "content": "The collection at Kbely now includes 275 aircraft, of which approximately 110 are on public display at any given time. The museum contains many Czech designed and Czech built aircraft dating from World War I through World War II and up to 1960s supersonic jet fighters. Several unique types are on display, including the early 1920s-built Avia BH-11C L-BONK. Periods before World War II represent Avia B-534. Aircraft from World War II include a Soviet-built Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik, Avia S-92 (Czech version of Messerschmitt Me-262A Schwalbe in typical czech colour), Avia CS-92 (Messerschmitt Me-262B Schwalbe in german camouflage), Lavochkin La-7. The formerly displayed fully authentic Supermarine Spitfire LF.IX flown by a Czech squadron of the Royal Air Force was transferred to its owner, the National Technical Museum in Prague in 2008. Periods after World War II represent Avia S-199 and double seats Avia CS-199 (Messerschmitt Bf-109G with Jumo engine), Aero C3A (Siebel Si-204).  In addition to the many military aircraft and helicopters on display, there are several Soviet-designed airliners, some of which were built under licence in Czechoslovakia. Airliners displayed include the Avia 14M (Ilyushin Il-14), an Avia 14T, an ex-CSA Ilyushin Il-18 and a CSA Tupolev Tu-104. Light aircraft exhibited include the Czech-built Praga E-114 Air Baby of 1936, a Mraz Sokol, an Aero 45, an Orlican L-40 Meta Sokol and a Zlin 22 Junak. Helicopters on display include a HC-2 Heli-Baby designed by VZLU (Výzkumný a zkušební letecký ústav).  After 1 January 1993, when Czechoslovakia was divided, a few aircraft were transferred from the collection to the Slovak Republic for inclusion in that country's aviation museums. Also, in recent years, the museum has exchanged several Czech- and Soviet-designed aircraft for military aircraft from the USA, UK, Sweden, Switzerland and other countries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kbely Aviation Museum (\"Letecké Muzeum Kbely\") is the largest aviation museum in the Czech Republic and one of the largest of its kind in Europe. It is located at the north-east of Prague, at the military airport Kbely.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976248}
{"src_title": "Magic SysRq key", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Commands.", "content": "The key combination consists of and another key, which controls the command issued. may be released before pressing the command key, as long as remains held down.  The combinations always assume the QWERTY keyboard layout; for example, on the Dvorak keyboard layout, the combination to shutdown the system uses the key instead of. Furthermore, some keyboards may not provide a separate key. In this case, a separate key should be present.  On some devices, notably laptops, the key may need to be pressed to use the magic key, e.g. Thinkpad Carbon X1 the is activated by pressing simultaneously, then releasing and while still holding (see here).  SysRq functionalities can also be accessed without a keyboard. See below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "A common use of the magic SysRq key is to perform a safe reboot of a Linux computer which has otherwise locked up (abbr. REISUB). This can prevent a being required on reboot and gives some programs a chance to save emergency backups of unsaved work. The QWERTY (or AZERTY) mnemonics: \"Raising Elephants Is So Utterly Boring\", \"Reboot Even If System Utterly Broken\" or simply the word \"BUSIER\" read backwards, are often used to remember the following SysRq-keys sequence:  When magic keys are used to kill a frozen graphical program, the program has no chance to restore text mode. This can make everything unreadable. The commands (part of SVGAlib) and the command can restore text mode and make the console readable again.  On distributions that do not include a command, the key command may sometimes be able to force a return to a text console. (Use,,,...,, where \"n\" is the highest number of text consoles set up by the distribution. would normally be used to reenter GUI mode on a system on which the X server has not crashed.) There are also distributions where opens text consoles, reenter GUI mode, reenter GUI mode on the login page, in order to log in another user.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Configuration.", "content": "The feature is controlled both by a compile-time option in the kernel configuration,, and a sysctl kernel parameter,.  On newer kernels (since 2.6.12), it is possible to have more fine-grained control over how the magic SysRq key can be used. On these machines, the number written to can be 0, 1, or a number greater than 1 which is a bitmask indicating which features to allow. On Ubuntu this is set at boot time to the value defined in.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other ways to invoke Magic SysRq.", "content": "While the magic SysRq key was originally implemented as part of the kernel's keyboard handler for debugging, the functionality has been also exposed via the proc filesystem and is commonly used to provide extended management capabilities to headless and remote systems. From user space programs (such as a command line shell), SysRq may be accessed by writing to (e.g., ).  Many embedded systems have no attached keyboard, but instead use a serial console for text input/output to the running system. It is possible to invoke a Magic SysRq feature over a serial console by sending a serial break signal, followed by the desired key. The method of sending a break is dependent on the terminal program or hardware used to connect to the serial console. A sysctl option needs to be set to enable this function.  The Linux daemons and provide a method of accessing SysRq features over a TCP connection after authenticating with a plain-text password. The daemon will invoke pre-configured SysRq triggers when system load average exceeds a certain threshold.  The Xen hypervisor has functionality to send magic commands to hosted domains via its command. Additionally, a SysRq command can be invoked from a Xen paravirtual console by sending a break sequence followed by the desired key.  Chromebooks have a keyboard but no dedicated SysRq key. They use () instead, however some keys have a different function.  IBM Power Systems servers can invoke the Magic SysRq feature using followed by the desired key from the Hardware Management Console.  IBM mainframe partitions can invoke the Magic SysRq feature using followed by the desired key on 3270 or HMC console.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The magic SysRq key is a key combination understood by the Linux kernel, which allows the user to perform various low-level commands regardless of the system's state. It is often used to recover from freezes, or to reboot a computer without corrupting the filesystem. Its effect is similar to the computer's hardware reset button (or power switch) but with many more options and much more control.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976249}
{"src_title": "Pillar of the Boatmen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The pillar is made of a type of limestone called \"pierre de Saint-Leu-d'Esserent\", from Saint-Leu, Oise, France. The original pillar would have been 5.24m high, 91cm wide at the base and 74cm wide at the top (Saragoza 2003). It is likely to have been formed in four tiers and although the order from top to bottom is reasonably certain from the relative sizes of the blocks, we do not know the rotational order in which the blocks were arranged; there are 64 possibilities.  However, there is no proof that they were stacked and could also have been two pairs of altars.  The guild was for relatively wealthy shipowners or traders. An indication of the power of the guild is shown by one of the sculptures of the pillar where they parade in arms with shields and spears, a privilege granted by the Romans, which is exceptional in less than half a century after the conquest of Gaul. The guild was also the first known society of Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inscription.", "content": "Written in Latin with some Gaulish language features, the inscription mingles Roman deities with gods that are distinctly Gallic. The pillar is dated by a dedication to \"Tiberius Caesar Augustus\", that is Tiberius who became emperor in 14 AD. It was set up publicly \"(publice posierunt)\" by the guild of sailors of Lutetia, from the \"civitas\" of the Parisii \"(nautae Parisiaci)\". These sailors would have been merchants who travelled along the Seine.  The main dedication is to Jupiter in the form of \"Iovis Optimus Maximus\" (\"Jove Best and Greatest\"). The names of the emperor and the supreme deity appear in the dative case as the recipients of the dedication. The remaining theonyms are nominative legends that accompany individual depictions of the gods. These are (in the order they appear below) Jove, Tarvos Trigaranos (the Bull with three Cranes), Volcanus (Vulcan), Esus, Cernunnos, Castor, Smertrios, and Fortuna.  The dedication (; \"RIG\" L2-1) is as follows:  The pillar provides the only undisputed instance of the divine name \"Cernunnos\". The Gaulish theonyms are presented as deity names in their own right, and not as epithets for Roman gods (by contrast, see the many Celtic gods syncretized with Mars). Other figures appear on the pillar without legible inscriptions, including the Roman gods Mars and Mercury, who can be identified by their conventional iconography, and other unidentified figures, mainly female.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deities.", "content": "The top tier, of which only the top half remains, depicts Cernunnos, Smertrios, and Castor and Pollux. Cernunnos has stag's antlers from which hang two torcs. From the amount of the body in the top half, Cernunnos is assumed to have been depicted in a cross-legged seated position as is typical of other Cernunnos depictions ; there is insufficient room for him to be seated on a chair or standing. Smertrios is shown kneeling, brandishing a club and attacking a snake. Castor and Pollux are shown standing beside their horses, each holding a spear.  The second tier, which is complete, shows Jupiter, Esus, Tarvos Trigaranos and Vulcan. Jupiter is shown standing, holding a spear and a thunderbolt. Esus is shown standing beside a willow tree, which he is cutting down with an axe. Tarvos Trigaranus is depicted as a large, heavy-set bull standing in front of a willow tree. Two cranes stand on his back and a third on his head. Vulcan is shown standing, with hammer and tongs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Block of dedication.", "content": "The third tier, the top half of which survives, bears the main dedicatory inscription on one face. Since this has a border and appears complete, the content of the bottom half of this face is unknown. The other sides show a group of three young men with shields and spears; a group of three older, bearded men with spears and shields, bearing the inscription \"Iurises\"; and a group of three figures, at least one of which is female. They are unarmed, dressed in flowing gowns, and have an inscription \"Senani U[s]eiloni\".  The fourth, lowest tier is slightly wider than the upper three. Only the top half remains, and the inscriptions are badly damaged. Each face shows a pair of standing figures. Mars, with spear and sword, is accompanied by a female deity with large round ear-rings and a flowing garment which is held over one arm. Mercury, identifiable by his caduceus, is depicted with a goddess who may be Rosmerta, his frequent companion in Gallic art. Fortuna is accompanied by another female deity, perhaps Juno. Two other unidentified female deities are on the fourth face, the one to the left is naked to the waist and holds a large cloak behind her with upraised arms; the other is clothed and has large round ear-rings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History of the Pillar.", "content": "Some time in the 3rd century, the stone blocks that formed the pillar were broken into two and used to reinforce the foundations of the walls along the riverbank. Over time, the island grew slightly so that the 3rd-century wharfs are now a dozen metres from the banks of the modern river.  The Christian cathedral of St. Etienne was founded by Childebert in 528 AD on the site of the Gallo-Roman temple; Notre-Dame de Paris was in turn built over this in 1163 AD.  The pillar was found on 6 March 1710 during the construction of a crypt under the nave of Notre-Dame de Paris and first published by Baudelot de Dairval in 1712. Not all of the pieces were recovered; for three of the tiers we have only the top half.  After discovery, the stone blocks were taken to the Hôtel de Cluny, a medieval ecclesiastical building constructed over the remains of a 2nd-century Roman bath house. This became the \"Musée de Cluny\" and then, the \"Musée national du Moyen Age\".  In 2001, the blocks were restored, removing the black patina of grime that had accumulated on the surface of the stone over the three centuries since discovery. The restored stones are once again on display in the museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pillar of the Boatmen () is a monumental Roman column erected in Lutetia (modern Paris) in honour of Jupiter by the guild of boatmen in the 1st century AD. It is the oldest monument in Paris and is one of the earliest pieces of representational Gallo-Roman art to carry a written inscription.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976250}
{"src_title": "Red-fronted parrot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The red-fronted parrot is 28 cm (11 in) long. It is mostly green and has a short black squarish tail. Black feathers on the head, neck, back, and wings have lighter green edges giving a scalloped appearance. The lower mandible is dark grey and the upper mandible has a horn coloured base and a dark grey tip. The irises are red-orange, the eyerings are pinkish-grey, and the legs are grey-brown. The amount of red or orange on the forecrown, the bend of the wing, and thighs varies in the three subspecies but is absent in all young birds – juveniles having a dark smokey appearance above a paler beak and brown irises. The adult male and female are identical in external appearance. Gender determination of chicks is normally carried out by breeders using DNA analysis of a feather sample or by internal examination of the cloaca. This latter method is cheaper and quicker but does cause some distress to the bird.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The first red-fronted parrot to be scientifically identified was named Congo Jack. The parrot was brought back live from the Congo to the United Kingdom by Sir William Jardine's son on his return from a three-year cruise on. Congo Jack became tame and whistled and screamed, rather than talk. Sir William Jardine gave the species the binomial name \"Pionus Gulielmi\" after his son, William R.N. (Latin: Gulielmi means \"William's\"), and published the description in 1849.  Three subspecies are now recognized:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "The red-fronted parrot nests in tree cavities. The eggs are white and there are usually three or four in a clutch. The female incubates the eggs for about 27 days and the chicks leave the nest about 80 days after hatching.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "They fly swiftly making noisy calls above the forest in pairs or small groups between their night-time roosts and feeding grounds. They feed quietly in the upper canopy of trees, where they are well camouflaged.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pets.", "content": "Usually called Jardine's parrots, the red-fronted parrot is becoming an increasingly popular pet, owing to increased availability and a growing following. They are particularly playful, intelligent, and affectionate. Some speak very clearly, and imitate other birds expertly. Their size, temperament, and voice makes them good candidates for apartment dwellers, though they can give a shrill call. Captive bred birds have an endearing nature, bonding well, usually imperceptibly or only slightly favouring one member of the family more than others. They are not as \"needy\" as some companion species and so long as they are occupied, can be left alone for longer periods without emotional stress (allowing the owners to work for example).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "The wild red-fronted parrot population in Africa is difficult to estimate, because of its vast range. They are potentially threatened by trapping of wild parrots for the pet trade; however, that are listed on appendix II of The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), along with almost all other parrot species. This has made the trade, import and export of all wild caught parrots illegal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The red-fronted parrot (\"Poicephalus gulielmi\"), also known as Jardine's parrot, is a medium-sized mainly green parrot distributed across wide areas of Africa. It has three subspecies. The extent and shade of the red or orange plumage on its head, thighs, and bend of wings vary depending on the subspecies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976251}
{"src_title": "Yellow-collared lovebird", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The yellow-collared lovebird is a mainly green small parrot about 14.5 cm (5.5 in) long. Its upperparts are a darker green than its lower surfaces. Its head is black, and it has a bright red beak with white above it and white eyerings. Yellow on the breast is continuous with a yellow collar and an expansion of yellow over the nape of the neck. Male and female have an identical external appearance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "The yellow-collared lovebird brings nesting material in its beak to a tree cavity for their nest. The eggs are white and there are usually four to five in a clutch. The female incubates the eggs for about 23 days and the chicks leave the nest about 42 days after hatching.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aviculture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Housing.", "content": "White eye-rings lovebirds, of which masked lovebirds are part, are reportedly less aggressive in comparison to the slightly larger peach-faced lovebird. They are frequently housed in aviaries with other species of their genus, a practice which although can be convenient, and wonderfully aesthetic, may lead to hybridization. This can especially be concerning where other species may not be as locally common e.g. black-cheeked lovebird, and Lilian's lovebird. It would be advisable to house lovebirds either; by themselves, or if a mixed collection is desired, ensure they are kept in a large flight with a few feeding stations, & assertive species e.g. red-rumped parrot, kakariki, rose-ringed parakeet or cockatiels. They can usually be kept safely with quails, and pheasants in aviaries.  Breeding cages should be 400mm x 400mm x 500mm, or these birds can be housed in colonies, or have in some cases been \"kept at liberty\". There was a mixed flock of masked, peach-faced lovebird, and a few hybrids near Napier, New Zealand for a number of years in the mid 2000s. There is also a small feral population in France, which contains the Blue mutant, and mixes with larger proportion of Fischer's lovebirds - also from aviary origin.  Aviaries, and cages need perches in a range of diameters. Natural perches in the form of branches are ideal, especially if they have a variety of forks, angles, and a bit of bounce in them. The reason for this is to give the captives stimuli; it also keeps their feet healthy, and nimble. Research (suitability, and toxicity) must be carried out on all plant material going into any cages. Cherry wood is poisonous, as is broom, kowhai, and avocado (its fruit being surprisingly poisonous to parrots), to mention just a few examples.  Nesting boxes are usually utilised throughout the year as sleeping quarters. It is advisable to clean them, but keep them up even after breeding season. The risk of losing a bird to egg laying complications (in the unlikely event they do decide to breed in the winter), is out-weighed by the benefit of keeping the birds content, keeping pair-bonds strong, & the reduced risk of losing a bird to the cold. A supply of willow branches, and roughly slivered corn, or maize husk can be given in the aviary as nesting box lining: It will be ripped up, & carried into the nest box by the female.  Lovebirds are reasonably difficult to sex. A \"pair\" will often be of the same gender, even though they are exhibiting signs of mutual affection. This usually arises when inexperienced bird keepers house two birds alone, & wait on behavioral signs that they're a \"true pair\", with the intention of swapping one out for another lovebird if they're not; then being excited when they see birds \"pair up\", even though they may both be of the same sex. These bonds are artificial, & can be broken, or tested if the \"pair\" are re-housed communally (or split up by the keeper). One or both of a pair of males may go, and breed with lone hens, despite staying connected to their original partner. Or the same sex pair's bond may completely dissolve immediately.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Colour varieties.", "content": "The blue mutation was originally found in wild birds in the 1920s and is the oldest colour mutation known in the lovebird genus. The other mutations are a result of selective breeding in aviculture, such as two cobalts which will make a mauve (black). Various color mutations exist, including blue, cobalt, mauve, slate, dilute slate, violet, lutino (ino) and albino.  The Blue and the Lutino mutations are where some colour genes have not been passed on, or have been suppressed from the original wild colour form. In the case of the lutino the micro-structure which creates the blue based colours in the normal form is not passed on to offspring when it arises; hence everywhere yellow except the face which contained the colours which make up orange. In the case of the original Blue, none of the yellow or red pigment genes are passed on. The Albino is the latest \"colour\" which is a combination of the Lutino, and the Blue ('wild' colouring minus blue, and minus red and yellow = no colour so is completely white).  The Dilute mutation is a lightening of the darker feathers, most noticeable in the wings, and face. It was first noted from Green (Wild) coloured parents, & originally called \"\"Yellow\"\". This new colour was soon built up in numbers by passionate aviculturelists, and once secure was bred to Blue coloured birds. The result was then known as \"\"White\"\", but we now call this combo a Dilute Blue.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The yellow-collared lovebird (\"Agapornis personatus\"), also called masked lovebird, Black-masked lovebird or eye ring lovebird, is a monotypic species of bird of the lovebird genus in the parrot family Psittaculidae. They are native to northeast Tanzania and have been introduced to Burundi and Kenya. Although they have been observed in the wild in Puerto Rico, they are probably the result of escaped pets, and no reproduction has been recorded.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976252}
{"src_title": "Fischer's lovebird", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Fischer's lovebird has a green back, chest, and wings. Their necks are a golden yellow and as it progresses upward it becomes darker orange. The top of the head is olive green, and the beak is bright red. The upper surface of the tail has some purple or blue feathers. It has a white circle of bare skin (eye-ring) around its eyes. Young birds are very similar to the adults, except for the fact that they are duller and the base of their mandible has brown markings. They are one of the smaller lovebirds, about 14 cm (5.5 in) in length and 43-58g weight.  While most Fischer's lovebirds are green, several color variations have been bred. The blue variation is predominant; lacking yellow, it has a bright blue back, tail, and chest, a white neck, a pale grey head and a pale pink beak. This mutation was first bred by R. Horsham in South Africa in 1957. There is a yellow mutation, which first appeared in France. These birds are typically pale yellow with an orange face and a red beak. Lutino (a mutation that is yellow in color), pied, black or dark eyed white, cinnamon, white, and albino mutations have also been bred.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sexual morphism.", "content": "Fischer's lovebirds show no sexual dimorphism; therefore, it is impossible to tell whether an individual is male or female through plumage alone.  The sexes of \"Agapornis fischeri\" appear the same, and are distinguished with certainty through DNA testing, and less certainly by their habits in perching. Generally, females sit with their legs farther apart than males because the female pelvis is wider.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Fischer's lovebird are native to a small area of east-central Africa, south and southeast of Lake Victoria in northern Tanzania. In drought years, some birds move west into Rwanda and Burundi seeking moister conditions. They live at elevations of 1,100-2,200m (3,600-7,200 ft  in small flocks. They live in isolated clumps of trees with grass plains between them. The population is estimated to be between 290,000-1,000,000, with low densities outside of protected areas due to capture for the pet trade; export licenses were suspended in 1992 to halt any further decline in the species. Although they have been observed in the wild in Puerto Rico, they are probably the result of escaped pets, and no reproduction has been recorded. Around 100 mating pairs can be found in the wild between Porches and Armacao de Pera and Lagoa area in the Algarve region of Portugal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "Fischer's lovebird has a fast flight, and the sound of their wings as they fly can be heard. Like all Lovebirds, they are very vocal and when they do make noise they have a high-pitched chirp and can be very noisy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food and feeding.", "content": "Fischer's lovebirds eat a wide variety of foods, including seeds and fruit. They sometimes are pests to farmers, as they eat their crops such as maize and millet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "Fischer's lovebirds, like other lovebirds in the genus Agapornis, mate for life. The term lovebird arose from the strong bonds that mates make with one another. When separated, the physical health of each individual will suffer. Mates like to be in physical contact as much as possible.The breeding season is January through April and June through July. The nest is in a hole in a tree 2 to 15 metres above the ground. The eggs are white and there are usually four or five in a clutch, but there could be as few as three or as many as eight. The female incubates the eggs for 23 days, and the chicks fledge from the nest about 38–42 days after hatching.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aviculture.", "content": "Fischer's lovebirds are difficult birds to keep healthy in captivity. They are active birds that need a lot of room. When confined to a cage their health tends to suffer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personality.", "content": "Lovebirds are seen as charming and affectionate by their owners. Though they're not as cuddly as many parrots, they enjoy spending time with their owners, and require regular interaction.  As with many parrots, lovebirds are intelligent and inquisitive birds. In captivity, they like to investigate around the house, and have been known to figure out ways to escape from their cages, and to find hiding places where they may get stuck, and where it may be difficult to locate them.  Lovebirds are avid chewers, with strong beaks. They can enjoy \"preening\" the hair and clothing of their owners, and chewing on clothing, buttons, watches, and jewelry. They may also, especially the females, chew up paper and weave it into their tails, which they will carry back to their cages to make nests. Female lovebirds are supposedly more aggressive than the males but both can make fine pets with patience and correct training.  Lovebirds (in general) are not known for their talking ability, although there are some lovebirds that do learn words - the females are usually the ones that do this. As is the case when many smaller parrots, the \"voice\" of lovebirds is high-pitched and raspy and it may be difficult to understand their speech.  Lovebirds are very vocal birds, making loud, high-pitched noises that can be a nuisance to neighbors. They make noise all day, but especially at certain times of day. However, Fischer's are not quite as loud as some other lovebird varieties, and while they cheep frequently, they do not scream like the larger parrots. Their noise level increases substantially when they are engaged in pre-mating rituals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health problems.", "content": "Fischer's lovebirds, like many captive birds, can suffer from feather-plucking and infections as a result of their obsessive biting of feathers and feet due to high levels of stress. This is more likely to occur with single lovebirds than those kept in pairs or groups.One hypothesis is that they suffer from hormonal problems caused by changing light levels and the inability to perform things Fischer's lovebirds in the wild would naturally perform, such as building a nest, socialising in groups, flying high and foraging. Another hypothesis is that it is caused by a pathogen. Treatments usually involve antibiotics for the wounds, some way to stop them from continuing the biting of the area and a change of environment. The Elizabeth collar may also be used, though wearing them is extremely stressful both to the bird wearing the collar and to the birds around it, and some lovebirds may start feather-plucking as a result of the stress.  Lovebirds require a varied daily diet. Female lovebirds may suffer from egg-binding due to mineral imbalance, an often fatal condition in which an eggshell does not harden and gets caught in the reproductive tract.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Fischer's lovebird (\"Agapornis fischeri\") is a small parrot species of the genus \"Agapornis\". They were originally discovered in the late 19th century, and were first bred in the United States in 1926. They are named after German explorer Gustav Fischer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976253}
{"src_title": "Battle of Petrovaradin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1716, Grand Vizier Damat Ali gathered a 150,000 strong Ottoman army at Belgrade, at the core of which were 40,000 Janissaries, 20,000 Sipahi, and 10,000 Tatars, together with some renegade Kuruc cavalry. They crossed the Sava at Zemun at the end of July, and moved on the right bank of the Danube towards Sremski Karlovci (in the Habsburg territory). The Tatars, with Moldavians and Kurucs drove into Transylvania, but the Transylvanian forces were no match for the Tatars.  The commander of the Austrian forces, Prince Eugene of Savoy, decided to engage the Ottomans at Petrovaradin. He had arranged for the construction of a fortified encampment within the Petrovaradin fortress there, and set the 83,300 strong Imperial army on the march from their quarters in Futog. There was an 8,000 man garrison in the fortress consisting primarily of Serbs. In the Austrian army served Croatian and Hungarian infantry and cavalry regiments (approx. 42,000 men), Serbian border soldiers in the Vojvodina and the auxiliaries from Württemberg.  On August 2, the first skirmish between the Imperial vanguard and Ottoman horsemen occurred. By the next day, the Grand Vizier had already reached Petrovaradin and immediately dispatched 30,000 Janissaries against the imperial positions. They dug saps and began to bombard the fortress.  The core of the Imperial army only crossed the Danube on the night of August 5 by two pontoon bridges after which they encamped.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The battle and its effects.", "content": "At 7 o'clock on the morning of August 5, Prince Eugene began the Austrian offensive. While the right flank under Prince Alexander von Württemberg stormed an Ottoman artillery battery, the Imperials rode into trouble in the center: deployment through the small gate of the Petrovaradin fortress proceeded slowly. The Janissaries went on the counter-attack immediately and forced the imperial army back into the fortress. Prince Eugene sealed off the central incursion with additional troops and sent his cavalry into the Ottoman flanks, by which means they were encircled. The Grand Vizier could not manage to break the encirclement with his sipahis nor could he regroup his troops. The Tatars even pulled back without engaging in combat.  After the defeated Ottomans were wiped out, Prince Eugene personally led his troops against the Grand Vizier's encampment. Supported by the guns of six frigates of the Danube fleet, the battle had been won by two o'clock, with the Grand Vizier himself among the slain. Barely 50,000 Ottomans returned to Belgrade. Soon, from Constantinople came a messenger from the Sultan with order of execution of Damat Ali. He is buried at the Belgrade Fortress, Kalemegdan, in the tomb known as \"Damad Ali Pašino Turbe\".  After the war, a church commemorating this event was built on Tekije, on the hill over battlefield, and is dedicated to Our Lady of Tekije, also known as \"Our Lady of the Snows\". The church is special, because it has both Catholic and Orthodox altars and both Christian denominations use it. The site is a place of pilgrimage on every August 5.  After Petrovaradin, Prince Eugene turned against Timișoara (in Ottoman territory) and captured it despite great resistance and desperate attempts by the Ottomans to relieve the town. Eventually, they admitted defeat and signed a treaty with Austria and her ally Venice.  At the place of the battlefield at the hill Vezirac in Petrovaradin the monument that honors the victory of Austrian army was erected in 1902. It was designed by Zagreb architect Herman Bollé.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Petrovaradin or Peterwardein was a decisive victory for the Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Emperor in the war between the Archduchy of Austria of the Holy Roman Empire and the Ottoman Empire (1716–1718), at Petrovaradin (then part of Military Frontier, Archduchy of Austria; today part of Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Serbia).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976254}
{"src_title": "Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "She was born in Arolsen, capital of Waldeck principality, in Germany. She was the sister of Friedrich, last reigning Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont; Marie, the first wife of William II of Württemberg; and of Emma, Queen consort of William III of the Netherlands (and mother of Queen Wilhelmina).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Along with Emma and a third sister, Pauline, Helena was considered as a second wife for their distant cousin William III of the Netherlands. She later met with another distant cousin Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, youngest son of Queen Victoria, at the suggestion of his mother. The two became engaged in November 1881.  On 27 April 1882, Leopold and Helena married in St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. After their wedding, Leopold and Helena resided at Claremont House. The couple had a brief, but happy marriage, ending in the hemophiliac Leopold's death from a fall in Cannes, France, in March 1884. At the time of Leopold's death, Helena was pregnant with their second child.  The couple had two children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personality and social work.", "content": "According to the memoirs of Helena's daughter, Princess Alice of Albany, Helena was very intelligent, had a strong sense of duty, and a genuine love of welfare work. Queen Victoria, initially worried that Helena might turn out to be a stereotypically-remote German Princess, remarked in a letter to her eldest daughter, German Crown Princess Victoria, that she was pleased Helena liked 'to go among the people.' The Queen soon came to regard her young daughter-in-law with great respect and affection, notwithstanding her initial concerns upon hearing from the match-making Vicky that Helena was an \"intellectual\", being unusually well-educated for a princess. Before her marriage, Helena's father had made her superintendent of the infant schools in his principality, and in this position the Princess had devised the pupils' educational curriculum. Helena particularly enjoyed solving mathematical problems and reading philosophy: during their tragically brief marriage, Prince Leopold proudly introduced his wife to the circle of academics he'd befriended at Oxford University. Helena maintained these friendships for the rest of her life.  In 1894, Helena was one of the founders of the Deptford Fund. Originally dedicated to helping find alternative work for women and girls employed in the dangerous cattle slaughter business, the Fund soon expanded, with many projects instigated to help the local community. In 1899 Helena opened the Albany Institute. This later expanded into a combined community/performance centre with the theatre venue known as the Albany Empire. A centre of 1970s anti-fascist activity and Rock Against Racism, the Empire and Institute buildings were destroyed in an arson attack in 1978. A new Albany Theatre was opened by the Princess of Wales in 1982 and the Deptford Fund continues to this day.  Helena was also involved in several hospital charities and with those dedicated to ending human trafficking. During World War I, she organised much of her charity work along with that of her sister-in-law Princess Beatrice and husband's niece Princess Marie-Louise to avoid the not-uncommon problem of conflicting (and sometimes misguided) royal war-work projects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After Leopold's death, Helena and her two children, Alice and Charles Edward, continued to reside at Claremont House. After the death of her nephew, the Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1899, Helena's sixteen-year-old son was selected as the new heir to the German duchy, and was parted from his mother and sister in order to take up residence there. When the First World War broke out 14 years later, Charles Edward found himself fighting in the German Army. As a result, he was stripped of his British titles by an act of Parliament in 1917. By contrast, her daughter Alice remained in England and by marriage to Prince Alexander of Teck in 1904 became a sister-in-law of Queen Mary, consort of King George V.  In 1901, it was speculated that Helena would marry Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery.  Helena died on 1 September 1922 of a heart attack in Hinterriss in Tyrol, Austria, while visiting her son.  Through her son Charles Edward, Helena is the great-grandmother of Carl XVI Gustav, the current King of Sweden.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (Helene Friederike Auguste; later Duchess of Albany; 17 February 1861 – 1 September 1922), who became a member of the British royal family by marriage, was the fifth daughter and child of George Victor, Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont and his first wife, Princess Helena of Nassau.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976255}
{"src_title": "Marg Moll", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Inspiration.", "content": "From 1907 to 1908 Marg studied at Académie Matisse, Paris, and founded the Matisse School in Paris with her husband, Oskar Moll, in 1908 to educate and promote the modernist aesthetics in arts including Matisse's form of art. In 1908, Marg and her husband met Henri Matisse. In the same year, Matisse painted his famous portrait of Greta Moll, now located in the National Gallery in London. When Marg began to work with Matisse, she concentrated more heavily on sculpture, perfecting her technique and using all sorts of sculpting materials.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "She was born in Mühlhausen. She attended the Stadelsches Institut in Frankfurt am Main from 1903 to 1905 and studied under painter Hans Volker in Wiesbaden. She also studied painting in Bavaria under Oskar Moll, whom she later married. Additionally, Marg studied sculpture under Louise Schmidt in Frankfurt am Main. In 1905, Marg traveled to Rome and later studied at Lovis Corinth's famous school for women in Berlin from 1906 to 1907. Margarethe married Oskar Moll, a professor and director at the Breslau Academy, and became known as the Director's Wife due to her husband's position. Margarethe and Oskar had two daughters: Melita, born in 1908, and Brigitte, born in 1918. Marg lived in several cities throughout her life, including Berlin, where she lived from 1908 to 1919, and Breslau, where she moved in 1919 and remained until 1932. In 1934 she returned to Berlin and lived there throughout World War II. Though her family hid from the Nazis during the war, the Molls built a house in Berlin in 1943 designed by the German architect Hans Scharoun. The Molls filled their home with paintings by Matisse, Fernand Léger, Georges Braque, and Picasso. Their home, along with many of Marg's works, was destroyed by the bombing of Berlin in 1943. Marg traveled to Europe and the United States after Oskar died in 1947. She lived in both Düsseldorf and Munich after 1952.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art.", "content": "Marg painted and sculpted her entire life but her sculpting style over time changed from Matisse-like figurative arts to a much more modern form of art like Constantin Brâncuși’s works. Her works incorporated various styles of German art, including Expressionism and Bauhaus style. She experienced these forms of art as the wife of Oskar Moll, who was the director of Breslau Academy. Marg once took an \"Eheferien\", German for a vacation from marriage and went to Paris to finish some of her works in 1928, as stated in her autobiographical notes. Marg wanted to separate her works from her husband's, but at times they did exhibit their works together. Her earliest exhibitions of art were with other artists like the Novembergruppe in Berlin and with Oskar Schlemmer, a Breslau artist at the Galerie Flechtheim in 1931. Her works were bought by museums throughput Germany, but many of them were later removed and destroyed by the Nazis. One of her sculptures, “The Dancer” was found in ruins during excavation for a new train station in Berlin, along with 10 other works. Her work was a victim of Hitler's campaign against so-called degenerate art. Marg's sculpture is featured at Berlin's Neues Museum in Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition and legacy.", "content": "After her husband's death in 1947, she exhibited her works several times. She traveled to the United States where she was recognized as an artist who pushed the importance of modern art in Germany and throughout the world. In 1950 she met famous sculptor Henry Moore. In 1951, she became a member of the Women's International Art Club in London and received a medal. She continued to work with GEDOK, an organization that helped female artists exhibit their work freely from 1930 to 1970. She was awarded a Groupe 1940 medal in Paris. When she was 70, she gave lectures at Wayne State University in Detroit. By the 1950s her works were being exhibited along with her husband's paintings. She died in Munich, Germany in 1977.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Marg Moll (born Margarethe Haeffner; 2 August 1884 – 15 March 1977) was a German sculptor, painter, and author. She stated once that she would rather do sculptures because she tried to avoid competition between her and her husband, a painter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976256}
{"src_title": "EUROSAI", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "EUROSAI was set up in 1990 with 30 members (the SAIs of 29 European States and the European Court of Auditors). Now membership stands at 50 SAIs (the SAIs of 49 European States and the European Court of Auditors). Although EUROSAI is the junior of INTOSAI’s seven Regional Working Groups, the idea of a European organisation of SAIs dates back to the foundation of INTOSAI in 1953. The first active steps towards the establishment of EUROSAI took place in 1974 during the VIII INTOSAI Congress in Madrid (1974). Between 1975 and 1989 the SAIs of Italy and Spain, counting on the Contact Committee of Heads of SAIs of the European Economic Community countries, paved the way for EUROSAI by preparing the initial drafts of EUROSAI Statutes. In June 1989 the XIII INTOSAI Congress, held in Berlin, adopted the “Berlin Declaration” comprising the agreement of creating the European organisation of SAIs. In November 1990, the Constitutive Conference and the first Congress of EUROSAI were held in Madrid (Spain). During this event, the first EUROSAI President and Governing Board were elected, the Statutes were debated and approved, and the headquarters and permanent Secretariat were established.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tasks.", "content": "The objectives of the organisation, defined in Article 1 of its Statutes, are to promote professional cooperation among SAI members and other organizations, to encourage the exchange of information and documentation, to advance the study of public sector audit, to stimulate the creation of university professorships in this subject and to work towards the harmonisation of terminology in the field of public sector audit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bodies.", "content": "EUROSAI undertakes its activity through three bodies, i.e. the Congress, the Governing Board and the Secretariat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Congress.", "content": "According to the organisation’s Statutes, the EUROSAI Congress is the supreme authority of the organisation and consists of all its members. It is convened every three years. Up to now, the following congresses have taken place: The next Congress will be held in the Czech Republic in 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Governing Board.", "content": "According to the Statutes, the EUROSAI Governing Board is composed of eight members: four full-fledged members (Heads of the SAIs that hosted the last two ordinary sessions of Congress, Head of the SAI to hold the next regular session of Congress, and Secretary General of EUROSAI), and four members elected by the Congress for a period of six years (two members renewable every three years). The Heads of SAIs that are part of the INTOSAI Governing Board and are EUROSAI members also participate in the Governing Board, as observers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Secretariat.", "content": "The Secretariat is held permanently by the SAI of Spain (Tribunal de Cuentas), which is also the EUROSAI headquarters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Strategic Plan.", "content": "The VIII EUROSAI Congress in Lisbon adopted the EUROSAI Strategic Plan 2011-2017. This first strategic plan defines the organisation’s mission, vision and values:  It is based on 4 strategic goals that reflect the needs and priorities of the organisation’s membership:  The current model has been designed in accordance with the principles of good governance and effective communication. This model also reflects the strategic goals, encourages the widest possible involvement of the member SAIs in the work of the organisation, and builds strong links among all EUROSAI bodies that are involved in implementing the strategic plan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "EUROSAI - European Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions - is one of the seven regional working groups of the International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976257}
{"src_title": "Werner Ostendorff", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "SS service.", "content": "NSDAP #: 4 691 488 - (Joined 1 May 1937) SS #: 257 146 - (Joined, 1 October 1935)  Ostendorff joined the army in 1925. In 1933 and 1934, he helped form an SA military training school, and then transferred to the Luftwaffe. Moving to the SS-Verfügungstruppe in 1935, he was an instructor at an SS school until April 1938. Ostendorff then transferred to the new \"SS-Standarte \"Der Führer\"\". With the forming of the first SS division on 10 October 1939, that became SS Division Das Reich, he was appointed divisional chief of staff and held the post until June 1942. Ostendorff was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 13 September 1941 for leading a counter-attack against the village of Ushakovo in the vicinity of Smolensk which dominated the important Yelnya-Dorogobuzh road. The village was recaptured and the danger of a Soviet breakthrough was eliminated. Ostendorff led \"Kampfgruppe Das Reich\" on the Eastern front from February to June 1942, earning the German Cross in Gold. When Paul Hausser formed the initial SS corps in June 1942, he selected Ostendorff as his chief of staff. He held the post with \"SS-Generalkommando\" (later II SS Panzer Corps) until November 1943. Promoted to Oberführer for his actions at Kharkov, he was next given a divisional command. Ostendorff was assigned command of the SS Division Götz von Berlichingen, assuming command in January 1944. During the fighting in Normandy, Ostendorff was seriously wounded near Carentan on 16 June 1944. Resuming command on 21 October 1944, he remained the division's commander until transferred in late November 1944.  Ostendorff was promoted to Gruppenführer on 1 December 1944 and became chief of staff for Heinrich Himmler's Army Group Oberrhein from 2 December 1944 to 22 January 1945. His final posting was to SS Division Das Reich as divisional commander, assuming command on 10 February 1945, and led the division until seriously wounded on 9 March 1945 during the fighting in Hungary. Werner Ostendorff died at a field hospital in Bad Aussee on 1 May 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Werner Ostendorff was a son of the Prussian \"Regierungsvizepräsident\" Ernst Ostendorff. Married in October 1935, he and his wife had two sons and a daughter.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Werner Ostendorff (15 August 1903 – 1 May 1945) was a German SS-general during World War II who served as chief of staff of the II SS Panzer Corps and divisional commander of the SS Division Das Reich. He died of wounds in May 1945.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976258}
{"src_title": "Marozia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Marozia was born about 890. She was the daughter of the Roman consul Theophylact, Count of Tusculum, and of Theodora, the real power in Rome, whom Liutprand of Cremona characterized as a \"shameless whore... [who] exercised power on the Roman citizenry like a man.\"  At the age of fifteen, Marozia became the mistress of Theophylact's cousin Pope Sergius III, whom she knew when he was bishop of Portus. The two had a son, John (the later Pope John XI). That, at least, is the story found in two contemporary sources, the \"Liber Pontificalis\" and the \"Antapodosis sive Res per Europam gestae\" (958–62), by Liutprand of Cremona (c. 920–72). But a third contemporary source, the annalist Flodoard (c. 894–966), says John XI was brother of Alberic II, the latter being the offspring of Marozia and her husband Alberic I. Hence John too may have been the son of Marozia and Alberic I.  Marozia married Alberic I, duke of Spoleto, in 909, and their son Alberic II was born in 911 or 912. By the time Alberic I was killed at Orte in 924, the Roman landowners had won complete victory over the traditional bureaucracy represented by the papal curia. Rome was virtually under secular control, the historic nadir of the papacy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Guy of Tuscany.", "content": "In order to counter the influence of Pope John X (whom the hostile chronicler Liutprand of Cremona alleges was another of her lovers), Marozia subsequently married his opponent Guy of Tuscany, who loved his beautiful wife as much as he loved power. Together they attacked Rome, arrested Pope John X in the Lateran, and jailed him in the Castel Sant'Angelo. Either Guy had him smothered with a pillow in 928 or he simply died, perhaps from neglect or ill treatment. Marozia seized power in Rome in a \"coup d'état\". The following popes, Leo VI and Stephen VII, were both her puppets. In 931 she even managed to impose her son as pontiff, under the name of John XI. John was only twenty-one at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hugh of Arles, and death.", "content": "When her husband died in 929, Marozia negotiated a marriage with his half-brother Hugh of Arles, who had been elected King of Italy. Hugh was already married, but had that marriage annulled so that Hugh and Marozia could be wed. Alberic II, Marozia's son, led the opposition to the rule of Marozia and Hugh. After deposing them in 932, at the very wedding ceremonies, Alberic II imprisoned his mother until her death. Hugh escaped the city.  Marozia would remain in prison for some 5 years before she died. Marozia may well have had the misfortune of having eloquent detractors: the \"Liber Pontificalis\" and the chronicle of Liutprand of Cremona are the main sources for the details of her life. Although given the level of widespread violence and corruption of the period, there was more than likely little to be exaggerated.  Alberic II was in his turn father of Octavian, who became Pope John XII in 955. Popes Benedict VIII, John XIX, Benedict IX, and antipope Benedict X of the House of Tusculani were also Marozia's descendants. By Guy of Tuscany she had a daughter named Berta Theodora, who never married.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marozia, born Maria and also known as Mariuccia or Mariozza ( 890 – 937), was a Roman noblewoman who was the alleged mistress of Pope Sergius III and was given the unprecedented titles \"senatrix\" (\"senatoress\") and \"patricia\" of Rome by Pope John X.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976259}
{"src_title": "Socialism of the 21st century", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical foundations.", "content": "After a series of structural adjustment loans and debt restructuring led by the International Monetary Fund in the late 20th century, Latin America experienced a significant increase in inequality. Between 1990 and 1999, the Gini coefficient rose in almost every Latin American country. Volatile prices and inflation led to dissatisfaction. In 2000, only 37% of Latin Americans were satisfied with their democracies (20 points less than Europeans and 10 points less than sub-Saharan Africans). In this context, a wave of left-leaning socio-political movements on behalf of indigenous rights, \"cocaleros\", labor rights, women's rights, land rights and educational reform emerged to eventually provide momentum for the election of socialist leaders. Socialism of the 21st century draws on indigenous traditions of communal governance and previous Latin America socialist and communist movements, including those of Salvador Allende, Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation and the Sandinista National Liberation Front.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theoretical tenets.", "content": "According to Dieterich, this form of socialism is revolutionary in that the existing society is altered to be qualitatively different, but the process itself should be gradual and non-violent, instead utilising participatory democracy to secure power, education, scientific knowledge about society and international cooperation. Dieterich suggests the construction of four basic institutions within the new reality of post-capitalist civilisation:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Latin American application.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regional integration.", "content": "The model of socialism of the 21st century encourages economic and political integration among nations in Latin America and the Caribbean. This is often accompanied with opposition to North American influence. Regional organizations like ALBA, CELAC, Mercosur and UNASUR promote cooperation with Latin America and exclude North American countries. ALBA is most explicitly related to socialism of the 21st century while other organizations focus on economic integration, ALBA promotes social, political and economic integration among countries that subscribe to democratic socialism. Its creation was announced in direct opposition to George W. Bush's attempts to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas that included the United States. In 2008, ALBA introduced a monetary union using the SUCRE as its regional currency.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bolivarian process.", "content": "Former Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez called the process of social reforms in Venezuela the Bolivarian process. This approach is more heavily influenced by the theories of Istvàn Mészáros, Michael Lebowitz and Marta Harnecker (who was Chávez's adviser between 2004 and 2011) than by those of Heinz Dieterich. The process draws its name from Latin American liberator Simón Bolívar and is a contemporary example of Bolivarianism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Buen vivir\".", "content": "Often translated to good living or living well, the concept of \"buen vivir\" is related to the movement for indigenous rights and rights of nature. It focuses on the living sustainably as the member of a community that includes both human beings and Nature. \"Buen vivir\" is enshrined in Ecuador's new constitution as an alternative to neoliberal development. The constitution outlines a set of rights, one of which is the rights of nature. In line with the assertion of these rights, \"buen vivir\" seeks to change the relationship between nature and humans to a more bio-pluralistic view, eliminating the separation between nature and society. This approach has been applied to the Yasuní-ITT Initiative. \"Buen vivir\" is sometimes conceptualised as collaborative consumption in a sharing economy and the term is used to look at the world in way sharply differentiated from natural, social or human capital.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Authoritarianism.", "content": "Critics claim that socialism of the 21st century in Latin America acts as a façade for authoritarianism. The charisma of figures like Hugo Chávez and mottoes like \"Country, Socialism, or Death!\" have drawn comparisons to the Latin American dictators and \"caudillos\" of the past. According to Steven Levitsky of Harvard University: \"Only under the dictatorships of the past [...] were presidents reelected for life\", with Levitsky further stating that while Latin America experienced democracy, citizens opposed \"indefinite reelection, because of the dictatorships of the past\". Levitsky then noted: \"In Nicaragua, Venezuela and Ecuador, reelection is associated with the same problems of 100 years ago\". \"The Washington Post\" also stated in 2014 that \"Bolivia's Evo Morales, Daniel Ortega of Nicaragua and the late Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez [...] used the ballot box to weaken or eliminate term limits\".  In 2015, \"The Economist\" stated that the Bolivarian Revolution in Venezuela—now under Nicolás Maduro after Chávez's death in 2013—was devolving from authoritarianism to dictatorship as opposition politicians were jailed for plotting to undermine the government, violence was widespread and opposition media shut down. Western media coverage of Chávez and other Latin American leaders from the 21st-century socialist movement has been criticised as unfair by their supporters and leftist media critics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economics.", "content": "The sustainability and stability of economic reforms associated with governments adhering to socialism of the 21st century have been questioned. Latin American countries have primarily financed their social programs with extractive exports like petroleum, natural gas and minerals, creating a dependency that some economists claim has caused inflation and slowed growth. For the Bolivarian government of Venezuela, their economic policies led to shortages in Venezuela, a high inflation rate and a dysfunctional economy. However, the Chávez and Maduro governments have attributed Venezuela's economic problems to the decline in oil prices, sanctions imposed by the United States and economic sabotage by the opposition.  In 2015, Venezuela's economy was performing poorly—the currency had collapsed, it had the world's highest inflation rate and its GDP shrank into an economic recession. A 2017 NACLA analysis stated that \"reductions in poverty and inequality during the Chávez years were real, but somewhat superficial. [...] [S]tructural poverty and inequality, such as the quality of housing, neighborhoods, education, and employment, remained largely unchanged\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Populism.", "content": "Although democratic socialist intellectuals have welcomed a socialism of the 21st century, they have been sceptical of Latin America's examples. While citing their progressive role, they argue that the appropriate label for these governments is populist rather than socialist.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Socialism of the 21st century () is an interpretation of socialist principles first advocated by German sociologist and political analyst Heinz Dieterich and taken up by a number of Latin American leaders. Dieterich argued in 1996 that both free-market industrial capitalism and 20th-century socialism have failed to solve urgent problems of humanity like poverty, hunger, exploitation, economic oppression, sexism, racism, the destruction of natural resources and the absence of a truly participative democracy. Socialism of the 21st century has democratic socialist elements, but it primarily resembles Marxist revisionism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976260}
{"src_title": "Steven R. Nagel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal data.", "content": "Nagel was born on October 27, 1946, in Canton, Illinois, to parents Ivan R. Nagel (1912–2008) and Helene M. Nagel (; 1914–2004). He had one sibling, sister Janice, who predeceased him. He was married to fellow astronaut Linda M. Godwin of Jackson, Missouri. They had two daughters. His hobbies included sport flying, amateur radio operations and music. His wife's father, Mr. James M. Godwin, resides in Oak Ridge, Missouri.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Nagel graduated from Canton High School, Canton, Illinois, in 1964; received a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering (high honors) from the University of Illinois in 1969, and a Master of Science degree in Mechanical Engineering from California State University, Fresno, in 1978.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flight experience.", "content": "Nagel received his commission in 1969 through the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps (AFROTC) program at the University of Illinois. He completed Undergraduate Pilot Training at Laredo Air Force Base, Texas, in February 1970, and subsequently reported to Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, for F-100 training. From October 1970 to July 1971, Nagel was an F-100 pilot with the 68th Tactical Fighter Squadron at England Air Force Base, Louisiana. He served a 1-year tour of duty as a T-28 instructor for the Laotian Air Force at Udon RTAFB, Udon Thani, Thailand, prior to returning to the United States in October 1972 to assume A-7D instructor pilot and flight examiner duties at England Air Force Base, Louisiana.  Nagel attended the USAF Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California, from February 1975 to December 1975. In January 1976, he was assigned to the 6512th Test Squadron located at Edwards. As a test pilot, he worked on various projects which included flying the F-4 and A-7D.  He logged 12,600 hours flying time—9,640 hours in jet aircraft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NASA career.", "content": "Nagel became a NASA astronaut in August 1979. His technical assignments included: backup T-38 chase pilot for STS-1; support crew and backup entry spacecraft (CAPCOM) for STS-2; support crew and primary entry CAPCOM for STS-3; software verification at the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) and the Flight Simulation Laboratory (FSL); representing the Astronaut Office in the development of a crew escape system for the Space Shuttle; Acting Chief of the Astronaut Office. With the completion of his fourth flight, Nagel had logged a total of 723 hours in space. Nagel retired from the Air Force, effective February 28, 1995. He retired from the Astronaut Office, effective March 1, 1995, to assume the full-time position of Deputy Director for Operations Development, Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance Office, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. In September 1996, Nagel transferred to Aircraft Operations Division where he performs duties as a Research Pilot. Nagel was a veteran of four space flights (STS-51-G and STS-61-A in 1985, STS-37 in 1991, and STS-55 in 1993) as described below:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spaceflight experience.", "content": "Nagel first flew as a Mission Specialist on STS-51G, which launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on June 17, 1985. The crew aboard the Shuttle \"Discovery\" deployed communications satellites for Mexico (Morelos), the Arab League (Arabsat), and the United States (AT&T Telstar). They used the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) to deploy and later retrieve the SPARTAN satellite which performed 17 hours of x-ray astronomy experiments while separated from the Space Shuttle. In addition, the crew activated the Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF), six \"Getaway Specials,\" participated in biomedical experiments, and conducted a laser tracking experiment as part of the Strategic Defense Initiative. After completing approximately 170 hours of space flight, \"Discovery\" landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on June 24, 1985.  Nagel then flew as pilot on STS-61A, the West German D-1 Spacelab mission, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on October 30, 1985. This mission was the first in which payload activities were controlled from outside the United States. More than 75 scientific experiments were completed in the areas of physiological sciences, materials processing, biology, and navigation. After completing 111 orbits of the Earth, Shuttle \"Challenger\" landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California on November 6, 1985. On his third flight, Nagel was Commander of STS-37, which launched into orbit on April 5, 1991, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and landed on April 11, 1991, at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During this mission the crew aboard the Shuttle \"Atlantis\" deployed the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory for the purpose of exploring gamma ray sources throughout the universe. The crew and conducted the first scheduled space walk in more than five and one-half years, and the first successful unscheduled space walk to free a stuck antenna on the satellite. Nagel also served as Commander of STS-55, the German D-2 Spacelab mission. After launching on April 26, 1993, on the Shuttle \"Columbia\"; the crew landed 10 days later on May 6, 1993, at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the ambitious mission 89 experiments were performed in many disciplines such as materials processing, life sciences, robotics, technology, astronomy and earth mapping.  In total, he logged 723 hours in space.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-NASA career.", "content": "In 2011, Nagel and his wife Linda moved to Columbia, Missouri, where they both were teaching at the University of Missouri. Nagel was a retention specialist in the College of Engineering and instructor in the Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department, specializing in aerospace propulsion; Godwin was a professor in the physics department, specializing in astronomy.  Specifically he worked at the University of Missouri College of Engineering. There he served as an instructor in the University's Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organizations.", "content": "Life member of the Order of Daedalians and Alpha Delta Phi; and honorary member of Phi Eta Sigma, Sigma Tau, Tau Beta Pi, and Sigma Gamma Tau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Special honors.", "content": "Awarded the Air Force Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal with 7 Oak Leaf Clusters; and for Undergraduate Pilot Training, recipient of the Commander's Trophy, the Flying Trophy, the Academic Trophy, and the Orville Wright Achievement Award (Order of Daedalians); also presented the Air Force Meritorious Service Medal (1978).  Recipient of 4 NASA Space Flight Medals, (1985, 1991, 1993), NASA Exceptional Service Medals (1988, 1989), NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal (1992), AAS Flight Achievement Award, STS-37 Crew (1992), Outstanding Alumni Award (University of Illinois, 1992), NASA Distinguished Service Medal (1994), Distinguished Alumni Award (California State University, Fresno, 1994), Lincoln Laureate (State of Illinois, 1994).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Nagel died in Columbia, Missouri from advanced melanoma on August 21, 2014. He was 67 years old.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Steven Ray Nagel (October 27, 1946 – August 21, 2014), (Col, USAF), was an American astronaut, aeronautical and mechanical engineer, test pilot, and a United States Air Force pilot. In total, he logged 723 hours in space. After NASA, he worked at the University of Missouri College of Engineering as an instructor in its Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976261}
{"src_title": "Maria Teresa of Savoy (1803–1879)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Maria Teresa was born in Palazzo Colonna in Rome, the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia and of his wife, Archduchess Maria Teresa of Austria-Este. She had a twin sister Maria Anna. The two princesses were baptised by Pope Pius VII. Their godparents were their maternal grandparents, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este and his wife Maria Beatrice Ricciarda d'Este. In the Museo di Roma can be seen a painting of the baptism.  Maria Teresa spent the majority of her childhood in Cagliari on the island of Sardinia, where her family had taken refuge from the armies of Napoleon I of France. In 1814 her father was restored to rule in Piedmont and the family returned to Turin. She had hoped to marry her cousin Charles Albert of Savoy who in 1817 married Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria, a daughter of the Duke of Tuscany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 5 September 1820, in Lucca, Maria Teresa married Charles Louis, Prince of Lucca.  They had two children:  Maria Teresa was beautiful, tall, regal with a noble and melancholic expression. Charles Louis, Prince of Lucca was handsome and they were said to be the best looking royal couple of their time. However they were mismatched. She was a deeply religious woman committed to her Catholic faith. Charles Louis lived largely for his own pleasure often ignoring his governmental responsibilities. They lived most of their married life apart from each other. \"Even if there was no love\", Charles Louis later commented, \"there was respect\".  On 13 March 1824, Charles Louis' mother died, and he succeeded her as Duke Charles I of Lucca; Maria Teresa became \"Duchess of Lucca\". Neglected by her husband who had numerous affairs, she turned increasingly towards religion and grew disdainful of court life and entertainments, to which her husband was attached. He sometimes dragged her in his travels and in 1829 she accompanied him visiting the court of Saxony. Their relationship, cold from the beginning, deteriorated quickly with time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Eventually she retired completely from the court of Lucca, settling permanently first in Villa di Marlia and later to her villa at Pianore, where surrounded by priest and nuns, she dedicated her life to religion. After 1840 she lived in complete religious seclusion in Pianore. She was very attached to her own Sardinian family and lived a life dedicated to religion. She surrounded herself by her confessor and her homeopathic doctors. Her husband visited her but he commented that her weak intellect and lack of sensitivity \"would enable her to live a century \". She had little influence over their son who, in 1845, married princess Louise Marie Thérèse d'Artois, a daughter of the Duke of Berry and the only sister of the French legitimate pretender the Count of Chambord.  On 17 December 1847, the Empress Marie Louise died, and, in accordance with the Congress of Vienna, Charles exchanged the duchy of Lucca for that of Parma, becoming Duke Charles II of Parma; Maria Teresa became \"Duchess of Parma\" but only for few months. The revolution broke out in March 1848. In March 1849 Charles abdicated as duke of Parma and was succeeded by their son, Charles III.  Maria Teresa lived mostly at her villa at Viareggio, particularly after the assassination of her son in 1854. There she built a chapel as a memorial for her son. Later she lived in a villa in San Martino in Vignale on the hills just north of Lucca served only by her confessor and the administrator of the property. The villa is still called \"Tenuta Maria Teresa\" in her honor. There she died in 1879 as a result of cerebral arteriosclerosis. She was buried in the Verano cemetery in Rome, dressed in the habit of the Third Order of St. Dominic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Teresa of Savoy, (Maria Teresa Fernanda Felicitas Gaetana Pia; 19 September 1803 – 16 July 1879) was Duchess consort of Parma and Piacenza by marriage to Charles II, Duke of Parma (Duke Charles I of Lucca).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976262}
{"src_title": "Zofia Kossak-Szczucka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Zofia Kossak was the daughter of Tadeusz Kossak, who was the twin brother of painter Wojciech Kossak, and granddaughter of painter Juliusz Kossak. She married twice. In 1923, following the death of her first husband Stefan Szczucki in Lwiw, she settled in the village of Górki Wielkie in Cieszyn Silesia where in 1925 she married Zygmunt Szatkowski.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Activism.", "content": "She was associated with the Czartak literary group, and wrote mainly for the Catholic press. Her best-known work from that period is \"The Blaze\", a memoir of the Russian Revolution of 1917. In 1936, she received the prestigious Gold Laurel (\"Złoty Wawrzyn\") of the Polish Academy of Literature. Kossak-Szczucka's historical novels include \"Beatum scelus\" (1924), \"Złota wolność\" (Golden Liberty, 1928), \"Legnickie pole\" (\"The Field of Legnica\", 1930), \"Trembowla\" (1939), \"Suknia Dejaniry\" (\"The Gift of Nessus\", 1939). Best known are \"Krzyżowcy\" (\"Angels in The Dust\", 1935), \"Król trędowaty\" (\"The Leper King\", 1936), and \"Bez oręża\" (\"Blessed are The Meek\", 1937) dealing with the Crusades and later \"Francis of Assisi\", translated into several languages. She also wrote \"Z miłości\" (\"From Love\", 1926) and \"Szaleńcy boży\" (\"God's Madmen\", 1929), on religious themes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Press activities.", "content": "During the German occupation of Poland, she worked in the underground press: from 1939 to 1941, she co-edited the underground newspaper \"Polska żyje\" (\"Poland Lives\"). In 1941, she co-founded the Catholic organization \"Front Odrodzenia Polski\" (\"Front for the Rebirth of Poland\"), and edited its newspaper, \"Prawda\" (\"The Truth\"). In the underground, she used the code name \"Weronika\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "\"Protest!\".", "content": "In the summer of 1942, when the liquidation of the Warsaw Ghetto began, Kossak-Szczucka published a leaflet entitled \"Protest,\" of which 5,000 copies were printed. In the leaflet, she described in graphic terms the conditions in the Ghetto, and the horrific circumstances of the deportations then taking place. \"All will perish... Poor and rich, old, women, men, youngsters, infants, Catholics dying with the name of Jesus and Mary together with Jews. Their only guilt is that they were born into the Jewish nation condemned to extermination by Hitler.\"  The world, Kossak-Szczucka wrote, was silent in the face of this atrocity. \"England is silent, so is America, even the influential international Jewry, so sensitive in its reaction to any transgression against its people, is silent. Poland is silent... Dying Jews are surrounded only by a host of Pilates washing their hands in innocence.\" Those who are silent in the face of murder, she wrote, become accomplices to the crime. Kossak-Szczucka saw this largely as an issue of religious ethics. \"Our feelings toward Jews have not changed,\" she wrote. \"We do not stop thinking of them as political, economic and ideological enemies of Poland.\" But, she wrote, this does not relieve Polish Catholics of their duty to oppose the crimes being committed in their country.  She co-founded the Provisional Committee to Aid Jews (\"Tymczasowy Komitet Pomocy Żydom\"), which later turned into the Council to Aid Jews (\"Rada Pomocy Żydom\"), codenamed Żegota, an underground organization whose sole purpose was to save Jews in Poland from Nazi extermination. In 1985, she was posthumously named one of the Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem.  Regarding Kossak-Szczucka's \"Protest\", Robert D. Cherry and Annamaria Orla-Bukowska wrote in the introduction to \"Rethinking Poles and Jews\": \"Without at all whitewashing her antisemitism in the document, she vehemently called for active intercession on behalf of the Jews - precisely in the name of Polish Roman Catholicism and Polish patriotism. The deportations from the Warsaw Ghetto precipitated her cofounding of Żegota that same year - an Armia Krajowa (AK, Home Army) unit whose sole purpose was to save Jews.\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Arrest.", "content": "On September 27th 1943 Kossak-Szczucka in Warsaw was arrested by a German street patrol. The Germans, not realising who she was, sent her first to the prison at Pawiak and then to Auschwitz II-Birkenau concentration camp. In April 1944 when her true identity became known, she was sent back to Warsaw for interrogation and sentenced to death. End July 1944 she was released through the efforts of the Polish underground and participated in the Warsaw Uprising.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "At the end of World War II, a communist regime began to establish itself in Poland. In June 1945, Kossak was called in by Jakub Berman, the new Polish Minister of the Interior, who was Jewish. He strongly advised her to leave the country immediately for her own protection, knowing what his government would do to political enemies, and also knowing from his brother, Adolf Berman, what Kossak had done to save Jewish lives. Kossak escaped to the West, but returned to Poland in 1957.  Kossak-Szczucka published \"Z otchłani\" (\"From the Abyss\", 1946), based on her experiences of Auschwitz. \"Dziedzictwo\" (1956–67) is about the Kossak family. \"Przymierze\" (\"The Covenant\", 1951) tells the story of Abraham. Kossak-Szczucka also wrote books for children and teenagers, including \"Bursztyn\" (1936) and \"Gród nad jeziorem\" (\"Settlement by the Lake\", 1938).  In 1964 she was one of the signatories of the so-called Letter of 34 to Prime Minister Józef Cyrankiewicz regarding freedom of culture.  In 1982 the Yad Vashem Institute in Jerusalem recognised Zofia Kossak as a Righteous Among Nations. In 2009, the National Bank of Poland issued a coin posthumously commemorating the work of Kossak, Irena Sendler and Matylda Getter in helping Jews (see Żegota). In 2018 Zofia Kossak was awarded the highest Polish order, the Order of the White Eagle.  Zofia's daughter, Anna Szatkowska (15 March 1928, Górki Wielkie – 27 February 2015), wrote a book about her experience during the Warsaw Uprising.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "She has been an author many works, a number of which have been translated into English.  Selected works:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zofia Kossak-Szczucka (; 10 August 1889 – 9 April 1968) was a Polish writer and World War II resistance fighter. She co-founded two wartime Polish organizations: Front for the Rebirth of Poland and Żegota, set up to assist Polish Jews to escape the Holocaust. In 1943, she was arrested by the Germans and sent to Auschwitz Concentration Camp, but survived the war.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976263}
{"src_title": "Princess Vilhelmine Marie of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Wilhelmine Marie was born the daughter of Crown Prince Frederick by his wife and first cousin Princess Marie Sophie of Hesse-Kassel. Her father Frederick was the only son of King Christian VII of Denmark. He had been appointed regent at the age of 16 in 1784 because his father, King Christian VII, had major psychological problems and was mentally incapable of functioning as king. Within two months of Wilhelmine Marie's birth, her grandfather died of a cerebral aneurysm and her father became king. At the time of her death, she was the last surviving grandchild of Christian VII.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First marriage.", "content": "Since her father had no surviving legitimate sons, Wilhelmine Marie was a very desirable bride. Among her suitors was the future Oscar I of Sweden of the then newly established Bernadotte dynasty. On 1 November 1828 in Copenhagen, she married Prince Frederick of Denmark, the future King Frederick VII. The engagement had been made official in 1826. Prince Frederick was a direct male-line descendant of King Frederick V by his second Queen Juliana Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. The marriage united the two lines of the Royal House, which had been in a strained relationship since 1814, and was very popular: the public celebrations were unusually vivid, with illuminations, poems, public festivities and a foundation, Vilhelmine-Stiftelsen, for the benefit of providing brides with a suitable equipment. The marriage soon turned out to be an unhappy one. That was not least because of Frederick's debauched lifestyle with infidelity and heavy drinking. It was said that Wilhelmine, although good hearted and mild, lacked character and was unable to gain any influence on Frederick, and that Frederick deeply hurt her \"female feelings\". Her unhappy marriage was also a cause of concern for her parents, who felt sorry for her. The couple were separated in 1834, and divorced in 1837.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "In Amalienborg Palace on 19 May 1838 she married second Karl, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, eldest brother of the future King Christian IX of Denmark, and took residence in Kiel. Her second marriage was said to have been very happy. Both her marriages were childless. Many believe that she was barren as there are no records of her having any miscarriages or stillbirths.  During the First Schleswig War (1848–1851), her spouse actively sided against Denmark. That caused Wilhelmine's relations with the Danish Royal family to be severed for some time. During the war, she resided in Dresden. In 1852 there was a reconciliation and she again enjoyed a close relationship with her family in Copenhagen, returning to Denmark with Karl, often living at Louisenlund Castle. Her status as the daughter of a well-loved King helped her to regain her popularity among the Danish people. Her consort never did. In 1870, she took residence in Glücksburg Castle, where she lived the rest of her life. Karl died in 1878. Wilhelmine spent her old age isolated, as she had difficulty communicating in social life after she lost her hearing, but she spent a lot of time on charity and became popular in Glücksburg because of this. She was reportedly sorry for Denmark's loss of the duchies in 1864 and happy over the new royal dynasty in Denmark.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Wilhelmine Marie of Denmark and Norway (; ) (18 January 1808, Kiel, Duchy of Holstein – 30 May 1891 in Glücksburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Prussia, Germany) was a Princess of Denmark by birth, as daughter of King Frederick VI. She married her agnatic second cousin, the future King Frederick VII of Denmark, but the marriage ended in divorce.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976264}
{"src_title": "Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "Her paternal grandparents were George I of Greece and Olga Konstantinovna of Russia. Her maternal grandparents were Friedrich III, German Emperor, and his Empress consort Victoria. Victoria was a daughter of Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.  Irene was born in Athens, preceded in birth by three brothers, George (1890), Alexander (1893) and Paul (1901), and one sister, Helen (1896). Another sister, Katherine was born in 1913. In 1927, her brother, George, announced her engagement to Prince Christian of Schaumburg-Lippe, a nephew of Christian X of Denmark, but no marriage occurred.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 1 July 1939, Princess Irene married Prince Aimone, Duke of Spoleto (b. 9 March 1900 in Florence, Italy) They had one child:  In March 1942 Irene, who was a trained nurse, headed a Red Cross hospital train going to Russia to repatriate wounded Italian soldiers. After a difficult journey, she returned to Florence the following month. Prince Aimone became the 4th Duke of Aosta on 3 March 1942, following the death of his elder brother, Amedeo. On 18 May 1941, taking the name Tomislav II, he was proclaimed King of the Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state of fascist Germany and Italy, but he never set foot on the territory of the state and abdicated in 1943.  After the Allied armistice with the Kingdom of Italy, the princess was interned by the Germans at the Hotel Ifen in Hirschegg, Austria, July 1944, along with her infant son, her sister-in-law and two nieces. They were liberated by the French in May 1945.  After the war and the 1946 plebiscite which ended the monarchy in Italy, the family went into exile. Prince Aimone died on 29 January 1948 in Buenos Aires. Upon his death, his son Amedeo succeeded him as the 5th Duke of Aosta. In June 1948, the family was allowed to return to Italy, and Irene spent the rest of her life living outside of Florence.  Princess Irene died on 15 April 1974 in Fiesole, Italy after fighting a long illness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Edward Hanson, The Wandering Princess: Princess Helene of France, Duchess of Aosta (1871-1951) [Fonthill, 2017].", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark () (13 February 1904 – 15 April 1974) was the fifth child and second daughter of Constantine I of Greece and his wife, the former Princess Sophie of Prussia. She was a member of the royal families of Greece and Italy. From 1941 to 1943 she was also officially Queen Consort of Croatia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976265}
{"src_title": "Rapa Iti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Rapa Iti is located at. It is shaped roughly like a Greek final sigma (ς), with a well-protected central bay, surrounded by a ring of relatively high mountains. The whole island appears very much to be the peak of a sinking volcano, with the bay as the caldera. The area of the main island is 38.5 km. Little Rapa Tauturau is an offshore island.  Its main town, Ahuréi (or Ha'uréi), lies on the southern shore of that bay, which is called the Baie d'Ahuréi. A smaller village, 'Area, is located on the northern shore of the bay. The people are Polynesian. Former times' warfare is indicated by 28 extant ridgetop forts. Today Rapa is home to the Tahitian Choir, in which a third of the island's population sing traditional songs.  Although sometimes considered part of the Austral Islands, Rapa Iti and the Bass Islands have a different geological, linguistic and cultural history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Rapa Iti was first settled by Polynesians, most likely in the 13th century. Their Polynesian dialect developed into what is today the Rapa language over the centuries. It is believed that the depletion of natural resources on the island resulted in warfare, and the inhabitants lived in up to 14 fortified settlements (\"pa\" or \"pare\", a type of fort) on peaks and clifftops. It is considered that the oldest of these is Morongo Uta, which was developed.  The first European to visit Rapa Iti was George Vancouver on 22 December 1791; he named the island Oparo. Contact with Europeans brought liquor and disease, and between 1824 and 1830 over three quarters of the natives died. Peruvian slavers raided the island as well. When a handful of their victims were returned to the island, they brought with them smallpox, which caused an epidemic. In 1826, there were almost 2000 inhabitants; forty years later, there were fewer than 120.  The independent island kingdom was declared a French protectorate in 1867. The British established a coaling station on the island, which prompted France to formally annex it on 6 March 1881. Subsequently, the native monarchy was abolished and the last queen, the daughter or Parima, was deposed on 18 June 1887.  Thor Heyerdahl, notably, made excavations in Morongo Uta, seeking links between Rapa Iti and Rapa Nui (Easter Island).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "As Rapa is well south of the Tropic of Capricorn, it doesn't have a tropical climate. Rather, its climate is closer to the oceanic and humid subtropical classifications. The island is devoid of coconuts due to the cool temperatures in winter, during which time, the temperature can drop below 9 °C (48 °F) at night. The summer is very mild but seldom very hot. Overall, Rapa is very windy, characteristic of the oceanic and subtropical influence. It receives about 2,500 mm of annual rainfall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environment.", "content": "The Manatau French Polynesian Reserve is a special French Polynesian Reserve to protect the animals and ridgetop forts of an area of southern Rapa. It is located near South Ahuréi.  The island is home to the endemic and vulnerable Rapa fruit dove which is threatened by habitat loss, predation by feral cats and hunting. Its population was estimated in 1989–90 at 274 individual birds. Other birds include the near threatened Murphy's petrel, the endangered Newell's shearwater, both of which nest there in small numbers, and the vulnerable bristle-thighed curlew which is a non-breeding visitor while migrating. Because of its significance for these species the island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "The commune of Rapa consists of the island of Rapa Iti and the four uninhabited Marotiri rocks.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rapa, sometimes called Rapa Iti (Little Rapa, to distinguish it from \"Rapa Nui\" (Big Rapa), a name for Easter Island), is the largest and only inhabited island of the Bass Islands in French Polynesia. An older name for the island is Oparo. The total land area including offshore islets is. At the 2017 census it had a population of 507. The island rises to elevation at Mont Perahu. Its main town is Ahuréi.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976266}
{"src_title": "Louise of Lorraine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born in Nomeny in the Duchy of Bar, Louise was the third daughter and youngest child of Nicholas of Lorraine, Duke of Mercœur, and Countess Marguerite d'Egmont. She was the only surviving child of her parents; her older siblings, two sisters and one brother, died in infancy.  Louise's mother died shortly before her first birthday in 1554, and her father quickly remarried in 1555 Princess Joanna of Savoy-Nemours, and gave Louise a solid classical education and introduced her to Nancy's court at the age of ten. Joanna of Savoy-Nemours died in 1568 and Louise's father contracted his third and last marriage in 1569 with Princess Catherine of Lorraine-Aumale.  At the age of 20, Louise was described as a beautiful and delicate tall, blonde girl with a white complexion, light brown eyes (veiled by a slight myopia), with a slender and refined silhouette. Her upbringing reportedly resulted in her personality being quiet, dutiful and pious.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The marriage proposal of Henry III.", "content": "Louise would first meet Henry in the autumn of 1573, when Henry, Duke of Anjou, was on his way to Krakow, the capital of his new kingdom, Poland-Lithuania. She attracted Henry's interest during a celebration in honor of Henry's election as King of Poland-Lithuania.  Following the death of Charles IX of France, Henry of Poland-Lithuania succeeded him under the name of Henry III of France and returned clandestinely to France. Louise was with her family traveling to Reims for Henry's coronation, when Philippe Hurault de Cheverny and Michel Du Guast arrived to make Henry's marriage proposal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen of France.", "content": "Louise and Henry's wedding took place at the Cathedral of Reims in a ceremony celebrated by Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon two days after Henry's coronation, 15 February 1575. At the end of the month, the new Queen of France made her official entry to Paris with her husband.  Described as a \"sweet and virtuous\" young woman, Louise reportedly immediately and deeply fell in love with her husband, a feeling that never changed, despite the difficulties, tragedies, his infidelities and finally death. Being a pious a very simple person, she is said to have suffered terribly because of the conflicts between her family (the Houses of Guise and Lorraine and in particular between her brother Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur) and her husband during the Wars of Religion.  Thanks to her calm personality, Louise duly accepted her husband's eccentricities: for example, Henry III loved to dress her in elegant dresses and made her into something of a fashion doll; she readily accepted this because she was happy for his attention. Coming from a simple upbringing in the country, Louise was given Jeanne de Dampierre as \"Première dame d'honneur\" to guide her in court protocol and manners, and Louise de la Béraudière as \"Dame d'atour\" to guide her in fashion and appearance to make her a Queen consort able to meet Henry III's idea of presentation, and they were both reported to have succeeded very well with their task. The King's interest in pampering Louise was used by his enemies against him; he was called \"Hair-dresser to his Wife\" in a libelous pamphlet.  The marriage did not produce children — apparently Louise was pregnant at the beginning of her marriage, but had a miscarriage in May 1575; however this is an unconfirmed rumor, as no pregnancy was ever officially announced. The Queen blamed herself for this and as a result became thin, suffering bouts of depression. Between 1579 and 1586, both she and her husband made numerous pious offerings and pilgrimages, especially to Chartres and spa treatments in the hope of having an heir. As a result, the heir presumptive was (after the death of the King's brother Francis, Duke of Anjou in 1584) the controversial Henry III of Navarre, a fact which placed additional pressure upon both Louise and her husband. In 1584, there were rumors that Henry III would divorce her, but they proved to be untrue. According to Brantôme, Louise was at one point advised by a lady-in-waiting, that because her marriage would not result in children, it would be wise to use a different method to accomplish this (referring to another biological father), but the Queen took deep offense at this advice and refused to listen.  As Queen consort, Louise was given a great representational role by Henry and often in his company, participating in ceremonies, parties, and receptions at his side, and performing representational tasks, such at the opening session of the Estates General and when she placed the foundation stone to Pont Neuf with her husband on 31 May 1578. She was never involved in state affairs except in a purely ceremonial sense: she attended the Council of the King, received ambassadors in her own chambers, and officiated over the opening of parliament when it was required that she perform such tasks for ceremonial reasons, but she never used these tasks to actually participate in politics.  Louise was popular among the public for her beauty and charitable personality. Due to this popularity, in 1588 she proved a moral symbolic support for the royal cause when she remained in Paris with her mother-in-law after the King had fled from the capital during his conflict with the Duke of Guise.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen Dowager.", "content": "After the assassination of her husband by the Dominican Jacques Clément on 1 August 1589, Louise fell into a state of permanent depression and began to dress in white, the traditional mourning colour of French queens, being nicknamed the \"White Queen\". As a dower land, she received the Duchy of Berry during her lifetime. She was working to rehabilitate the memory of her husband, who had been excommunicated after the assassination of the Cardinal of Guise. On 6 September 1589, barely a month after the death of her husband, Louise asked Henry IV to clear her late husband's name, and on 20 January 1594, she officially demanded the rehabilitation of Henry III at a ceremony in Nantes.  Following her husband's death and for the next 11 years, Louise lived at the Château de Chenonceau, which she received as inheritance from her mother-in-law; she installed her room on the second floor, and she covered the walls with black. The decor was rather somber with the attributes ordinarily reserved for mourning: crosses, shovels and tips of the burial, cornucopia shedding tears. This black and silver decoration was reproduced on the curtains of the bed and the windows. But the castle being mired in debts and having not itself a huge pension, she bequeathed it to her niece Françoise of Lorraine, the only surviving child and heiress of her brother, who later married César, Duke of Vendôme (illegitimate son of Henri IV and Gabrielle d'Estrées).  Louise died in the Château de Moulins in Moulins, Allier on 29 January 1601 and all her property was distributed or used to pay her debts. In September 1603, a papal bull ordered the construction of a Convent of Capuchins in Paris to bury her, which was done on 20 March 1608. Her remains, found in October 1805, are located since 1817 in the royal crypt of Saint Denis Basilica. She was the only Queen consort prior to the French Revolution to actually be buried in a tomb bearing her name in Saint-Denis.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Louise of Lorraine (French: Louise de Lorraine) (30 April 1553 – 29 January 1601), was Queen consort of France and briefly Queen consort of Poland and Grand Duchess consort of Lithuania by marriage to Henry III of France. As a Dowager Queen, she also held the title of Duchess of Berry from 1589 until her death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976267}
{"src_title": "Local shared object", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Storage.", "content": "Local shared objects contain data stored by individual websites. Data is stored in the Action Message Format. With the default settings, the Flash Player does not seek the user's permission to store local shared objects on the hard disk. By default, a SWF application running in Flash Player from version 9 to 11 (as of Sept 1, 2011) may store up to of data to the user's hard drive. If the application attempts to store more, a dialog asks the user whether to allow or deny the request.  Adobe Flash Player does not allow third-party local shared objects to be shared across domains. For example, a local shared object from \"www.example.com\" cannot be read by the domain \"www.example.net\". However, the first party website can always pass data to a third party via some settings found in the dedicated XML file and passing the data in the request to the third party. Also, third party LSOs are allowed to store data by default. By default LSO data is shared across browsers on the same machine. As an example:  This is distinct from cookies which have directory isolated storage paths for saved cookies while LSOs use a common directory path for all browsers on a single machine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application to games.", "content": "Flash games may use LSO files to store the user's personal game data, such as user preferences and actual game progress. Backing up files such as these requires some technical understanding of software. However, both browser updates and programs designed to remove unused files may delete this data.  To prevent cheating, games may be designed to render LSO files unusable if acquired from another location.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Privacy concerns.", "content": "As with HTTP cookies, local shared objects can be used by web sites to collect information on how people navigate them, although users have taken steps to restrict data collection. Online banks, merchants, or advertisers may use local shared objects for tracking purposes.  On 10 August 2009, \"Wired\" magazine reported that more than half of the top websites used local shared objects to track users and store information about them but only four of them mentioned it in their privacy policy. \"Flash cookies are relatively unknown to web users,\" it said, \"even if a user thinks they have cleared their computer of tracking objects, they most likely have not.\" The article further says that some websites use Flash cookies as hidden backups, so that they can restore HTTP cookies deleted by users.  According to the \"New York Times\", by July 2010 there had been at least five class-action lawsuits in the United States against media companies for using local shared objects.  In certain countries, it is illegal to track users without their knowledge and consent. For example, in the United Kingdom, customers must consent to use of cookies/local shared objects: Local shared objects were the first subject to be discussed in the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) roundtable in January 2010. FTC Chairman Jon Leibowitz has been talking with Adobe about what it describes as \"the Flash problem.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "User control.", "content": "Users can disable local shared objects using the \"Global Storage Settings panel\" of the online Settings Manager at Adobe's website. However, this places a permanent flash cookie on the computer, informing all other websites that the user does not want flash cookies stored on their computer. Users can opt out of LSOs from specified sites from Flash Player's \"Settings\", accessed by right-clicking the Player, or using the \"Website Storage Settings\" panel; the latter also allows users to delete local shared objects.  Users may also delete local shared objects either manually or using third-party software. For instance, CCleaner, a standalone computer program for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X, allows users to delete local shared objects on demand. There is also a Firefox add-on, Clear Flash Cookies, which will automatically clear out all LSOs each time the browser is restarted.  Since version 10.3 of Flash, the Online Settings Manager (letting users configure privacy and security permissions via Adobe's website) is superseded by the Local Settings Manager on Windows, Mac, and Linux platforms. It can be accessed via the Windows Control Panel or Mac OS System Preferences. Users of other operating systems still use the Adobe Online Settings Manager. Since at least April 2012 (v 11.2.202.233), updating by downloading a new Flash version resets the security and privacy settings to the defaults of allowing local storage and asking for media access again, which may be against users' wishes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Browser control.", "content": "Browser control refers to the web browser's ability to delete local shared objects and to prevent the creation of persistent local shared objects when privacy mode is enabled. As for the former, Internet Explorer 8, released on March 19, 2009, implements an API that allows browser extensions to co-operate with the browser and delete their persistent data stored when user issues a \"Delete Browsing History\" command. However, two years passed since its introduction until Adobe, on March 7, 2011, announced that Flash Player v10.3, which was still in development at the time, supports co-operating with Internet Explorer 8 or later to delete local shared objects.  Also on January 5, 2011, Adobe Systems, Google Inc., and Mozilla Foundation finalized a new browser API (dubbed \"NPAPI ClearSiteData\"). This will allow browsers implementing the API to clear local shared objects. Four months later, Adobe announced that Flash Player 10.3 enables Mozilla Firefox 4 and \"future releases of Apple Safari and Google Chrome\" to delete local shared objects, so since version 4, Firefox treats LSOs the same way as HTTP cookies - deletion rules that previously applied only to HTTP cookies now also apply to LSOs. This caused loss of data and backward-incompatible flash application behavior for those Firefox and Flash users who used HTTP cookies and Flash local shared objects for different goals. Mainly this affected flash gamers, who rely on Flash LSOs to store saved games. The resulting support requests cannot be solved favorably for Mozilla Firefox users without changes to the browser, because of the introduced equivalence between HTTP and flash cookies. Currently, the workaround in use is to either configure the browser to never clear history data and cookies, or to revert the part of the changes affecting this use case, using third-party patches.  As for the behavior in browser's privacy mode, Adobe Flash Player 10.1, released on June 10, 2010, supports the privacy modes of Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Safari. Local shared objects created in privacy are discarded at the end of the session. Those created in a regular session are also not accessible in privacy mode.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "File locations.", "content": "The default storage location for local shared objects is operating system-dependent, and depends on the flash plugin being NPAPI or PPAPI.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "NPAPI, ActiveX and standalone projector.", "content": "On Microsoft Windows NT 5.x and 6.x, they are stored in:  On Mac OS X, they are stored in:  On Linux or Unix, they are stored in:  For Linux and Unix systems, if the open-source Gnash plugin is being used instead of the official Adobe Flash, they will instead be found at:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "PPAPI.", "content": "When using Google Chrome the location for the Pepper Flash (PPAPI) storage is:", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "A local shared object (LSO), commonly called a Flash cookie (due to its similarity with an HTTP cookie), is a piece of data that websites which use Adobe Flash may store on a user's computer. Local shared objects have been used by all versions of Flash Player (developed by Macromedia, which was later acquired by Adobe Systems) since version 6.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976268}
{"src_title": "Tverskaya Street", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and architecture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Middle Ages to 18th century.", "content": "Tourists are told that Tverskaya Street existed as early as the 12th century. Its importance for the medieval city was immense, as it connected Moscow with its superior, and later chief rival, Tver. At that time, the thoroughfare crossed the Neglinnaya River. The first stone bridge across the Neglinnaya was set up in 1595.  In the 17th and 18th centuries, Tverskaya Street was renowned as the centre of Moscow's social life. The nobility considered it fashionable to settle in this district. Among the Palladian mansions dating from the reign of Catherine the Great are the residence of the mayor of Moscow (1778–82, rebuilt in ), and the English Club (1780s). The mayor's residence among a number of other historic buildings was moved about 14 meters for the widening of the Gorky Street during Stalin's time. On the square before it stands a statue of the legendary founder of Moscow, Yuri Dolgoruky, erected for the city's 800th anniversary.  During the imperial period, the importance of the thoroughfare was highlighted by the fact that it was through this street that the tsars arrived from the Northern capital to stay at their Kremlin residence. Several triumphal arches were constructed to commemorate coronation ceremonies. In 1792, the Tverskaya Square was laid out before the residence of the governor of Moscow as a staging ground for mass processions and parades. In 1947, the square was decorated with an equestrian statue of Prince Yury Dolgoruky, founder of Moscow.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "19th century.", "content": "During Pushkin's time, the Tverskaya was lined with five churches. The poet wove his impressions from the street into the following stanza of \"Eugene Onegin\":  Towards the end of the 19th century, the street was reconstructed, with stately neoclassical mansions giving way to grandiose commercial buildings in an eclectic mixture of historical styles. A characteristic edifice of the time is the eclectic Hotel National, Moscow (1901-1903), whose interior is a landmark of Russian Art Nouveau. In 1888 the actor, theatre director and founder of the Moscow Art Theatre, Constantin Stanislavski, rented the Ginzburg House on the street and had it converted into a luxurious clubhouse with its own large stage and several exhibition rooms, in order to house his newly formed Society of Art and Literature. The Society gave its last performance there on 3 January 1891 and the building burnt down on the night of January 10.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "Between the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the rise of Stalinist architecture in mid-1930s, the street acquired three modernist buildings - constructivist Izvestia Building by Grigory Barkhin (1925–1927, Pushkin Square), Central Telegraph Building (1927-29, 7 Tverskaya), a modernist masterpiece by Ivan Rerberg, and a stern \"black cube\" of the Lenin Institute in Tverskaya Square (1926) by Stepan Chernyshyov. The street was renamed in 1932 for Maxim Gorky, the Russian writer and revolutionary admired by both Vladimir Lenin and Josef Stalin.  Further expansion occurred in line with Joseph Stalin's 1935 master plan. During that period, all the churches and most other historic buildings were torn down in order to widen the street and replace low-rise buildings with larger, early Stalinist apartment blocks and government offices. Arkady Mordvinov, who handled this ambitious project, retained some historical buildings, like the ornately decorated Savvinskoye Podvorye by Ivan Kuznetsov. This building was moved to a new foundation North from the new street line, and is now completely enclosed inside Mordvinov's Stalinist block at 6, Tverskaya Street.  The project was only partially completed before World War II; more Stalinist blocks appeared in the 1940s and 1950s, still leaving a lot of 19th-century buildings. Most of them were torn down later, with a few exceptions like Yermolova Theatre still standing. Hotel Intourist, a 22-story tower built in 1970, was demolished in 2002 and replaced by the Ritz-Carlton Hotel Moscow.  When Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev assumed power, he encouraged a return to the country's old Russian names. Thus, the street's name became \"Tverskaya Street\" again, after a 55-year interlude as Gorky Street.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Layout and functions.", "content": "Tverskaya Street runs from the Manege Square through the Tverskoy District and the crossing with the Boulevard Ring, known as Pushkin Square, to the Garden Ring. Its extension, First Tverskaya-Yamskaya Street, continues further on Northwest right up to Belorussky Rail Terminal (Tverskaya Zastava Square), changing its name again into Leningradsky Prospekt. It keeps the same direction before diverging into Volokolamskoye Shosse and Leningradskoye Shosse (\"Leningrad Highway\").  Tverskaya Street is the most expensive shopping street in Moscow and Russia. According to an index published by global real estate company Colliers International in 2008, it is now the third most expensive street in the world, based on commercial rental fees. It is the center of the city's nightlife and entertainment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reconstruction plan, 2007-2009.", "content": "Plans for the reconstruction of the Tverskaya radius into a grade-separated freeway, already under way in remote parts of the route (see Leningradsky Prospekt Reconstruction for a complete schedule), have been authorized for Tverskaya Zastava and Pushkin Square in April, 2007, to be completed in 2009. Work is already underway at the first location. Both squares will acquire complex multi-level, grade-separated crossings and underground shopping malls, despite objections from preservationists and traffic experts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tverskaya Street (), known between 1935 and 1990 as Gorky Street (), is the main radial street in Moscow. The street runs Northwest from the central Manege Square in the direction of Saint Petersburg and terminates at the Garden Ring, giving the name to Tverskoy District. The route continues further as First Tverskaya-Yamskaya Street, Leningradsky Avenue and Leningradskoye Highway.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976269}
{"src_title": "The Embarkation for Cythera", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Subject.", "content": "The painting portrays a \"fête galante\"; an amorous celebration or party enjoyed by the aristocracy of France during the Régence after the death of Louis XIV, which is generally seen as a period of dissipation and pleasure, and peace, after the sombre last years of the previous reign.  The work celebrates love, with many cupids flying around the couples and pushing them closer together, as well as the statue of Venus (the goddess of sexual love). There are three pairs of lovers in the foreground. While the couple on the right by the statue are still engaged in their passionate tryst, another couple rises to follow a third pair down the hill, although the woman of the third pair glances back fondly at the goddess’s sacred grove. At the foot of the hill, several more happy couples are preparing to board the golden boat at the left. With its light and wispy brushstrokes, the hazy landscape in the background does not give to any clues about the season, or whether it is dawn or dusk.  It has often been noted that, despite the title, the people on the island seem to be leaving rather than arriving, especially since they have already paired up. Many art historians have come up with a variety of interpretations of the allegory of the voyage to the island of love. Watteau himself purposely did not give an answer. In the ancient world, Cythera, one of the Greek islands, was thought to be the birthplace of Venus, goddess of love. Thus, the island became sacred to the goddess and love. However, the subject of Cythera may have been inspired by certain 17th century operas or an illustration of a minor play. In Florent Carton Dancourt's \"Les Trois Cousines\" (The Three Cousins), a girl dressed as a pilgrim steps out from the chorus line and invites the audience to join her on a voyage to the island, where everyone will meet their ideal partner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "It was around 1717 that Watteau painted his first, more literal version of the theme, which nonetheless bears a compositional similarity to the Louvre painting. This work is now in the Städtische Galerie im Städelschen Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt-am-Main.  When Watteau was accepted as a member of the Academy in 1714, he was expected to present the customary reception piece. Although he was given unusual freedom in choosing a subject for his painting, his failure to submit a work brought several reprimands. Meanwhile, Watteau worked on numerous private commissions that his rising reputation brought him. Finally, in January 1717, the Academy called Watteau to task, and in August of that year he presented his painting, which had been painted quickly in the preceding eight months. Once submitted, the painting caused the Academy to invent a new classification for it, since the subject was so striking and new. This resulted in the fête galantes (elegant fêtes or outdoor entertainments), a genre subsequently practiced by imitators of Watteau, such as Jean-Baptiste Pater and Nicolas Lancret. While the creation of the new category acknowledged Watteau as the originator of the genre, it also prevented him being recognised as history painter, the highest class of painter, and the only one from which the academy's professors were drawn. Charles-Antoine Coypel, the son of its then director, later said: \"The charming paintings of this gracious painter would be a bad guide for whoever wished to paint the Acts of the Apostles.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popularity.", "content": "In years after Watteau’s death, his art fell out of fashion. During the French Revolution, some eighty years after the work was painted, his depictions of lavishly set pastoral escapades were associated with the old days of the monarchy and a frivolous aristocracy. This particular piece, which had entered the collection of the Louvre in 1795, was used by art students for target practice; an account by Pierre Bergeret (1782–1863) describes the drawing students throwing bread pellets at it.</ref> In the early 19th century the curator at the Louvre was forced to place it in storage until 1816 in order to protect the painting from angry protesters. It was not until the 1830s that Watteau and the Rococo returned into fashion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derivative works.", "content": "In 1904 Claude Debussy wrote a piece for solo piano titled \"L'Isle Joyeuse\", which may have been inspired by the painting; the colorful and brilliant piano writing depicts the ecstasy of the lovers. Four decades later, Debussy's compatriot Francis Poulenc wrote a lively piece for two pianos which took the name of the painting for its title, \"L'Embarquement pour Cythere\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "On screen.", "content": "\"\"Les secrets de la fête galante. Le pèlerinage à l'île de Cythère\", film by Alain Jaubert from \"Palettes\" series (1995).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Embarkation for Cythera (\"L'Embarquement pour Cythère\") is a painting by the French painter Jean-Antoine Watteau. It is also known as Voyage to Cythera and Pilgrimage to the Isle of Cythera. Watteau submitted this work to the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture as his reception piece in 1717. The painting is now in the Louvre in Paris. A second version of the work, sometimes called Pilgrimage to Cythera to distinguish it, was painted by Watteau about 1718 or 1719 and is in the Charlottenburg Palace, Berlin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976270}
{"src_title": "Seine–Nord Europe Canal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Economic impact.", "content": "The existing Canal du Nord and parallel Canal de Saint-Quentin represent a bottleneck on one of Europe’s principal transport arteries. This is reflected in the current statistics: where the market share of inland water transport measured in tonne-kilometres reaches 18% in the Seine-Oise basin and 14% in Nord-Pas-de-Calais, and even more than 50% on the major waterways of Germany and Benelux, the constraints of carrying capacity on the corridor in France limit the waterway market share to between 3 and 4% (peaking at about 5 million tonnes). Traffic is projected to reach between 15 and 18 million tonnes per year a few years after the waterway has opened.  Analysis by the European Court of Auditors published in 2020, examined the economic case and stated that:  \"The Seine-Scheldt inland waterway link was approved on the basis that traffic levels on the Canal Seine Nord Europe by 2060 would be four times as high as the reference situation in 2030 without the Canal. To achieve this a significant increase in freight volumes on the axis across France and Europe is necessary.  However, the statistics from the last decade do not suggest that this will occur. In addition, two specific conditions are necessary, none of which seem particularly realistic in the light of industrial trends over time:  — a fourfold increase – from 2.3 million tonnes per year to 8.1 million tonnes per year – in traditional flows of construction materials moved by inland waterways using the Canal Seine Nord Europe over the 30 years following entry into service. For such a significant modal shift to come about, various accompanying conditions (e.g. tolling) would need to be put in place.  — a massive diversion of containerised road traffic to waterways, resulting in 36 % of freight on the entire traffic axis being shifted onto the waterway. This would require the current proportion of freight carried by waterway on that axis to be multiplied by 38, or the share of container traffic volumes to be three times as high as it currently is for the entire Rhine river.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environmental impact.", "content": "Voies navigables de France, the project authority, sets out the principal environmental impacts on the website dedicated to the project. The CO2 emissions of a barge carrying 1500 tonnes are three times less than those of the fleet of trucks required to move this load. A single push-tow 185 m long can carry 300 containers unloaded in a maritime port, compared to 5 fully loaded trains and 200 trucks.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Seine–Nord Europe Canal is a projected high-capacity (\"grand gabarit\") canal in France that would link the Oise River at Compiègne with the Canal Dunkerque-Escaut, east of Arleux. It is the French part of a proposed Seine-Scheldt canal that would ultimately connect the Rhine and Seine basins inland. The stated objective is to expand trade flows in a fuel-efficient and ecologically friendly manner between the Seine basin and Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands, while reducing saturation on the A1 motorway in France and reducing the CO2 emissions in the transport sector within this corridor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976271}
{"src_title": "Infanta Eulalia of Spain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Eulalia was born on 12 February 1864 in the Royal Palace of Madrid, the youngest of the five children born to Isabella II during her marriage to Francis de Assisi de Borbón, Duke of Cadiz who survived to adulthood. She was baptised on 14 February 1864 with the names \"María Eulalia Francisca de Asís Margarita Roberta Isabel Francisca de Paula Cristina María de la Piedad\". Her godparents were Robert I, Duke of Parma, and his sister Princess Margherita.  In 1868, Eulalia and her family were forced to leave Spain in the wake of the revolution. They lived in Paris, where Eulalia was educated. She received her first communion in Rome from Pope Pius IX.  In 1874, Eulalia's brother Alfonso was restored to the throne in place of their mother Queen Isabella II. Three years later, Eulalia returned to Spain. She lived at first in El Escorial with her mother, but later moved to the Alcázar of Seville and then to Madrid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "On 6 March 1886, at Madrid, Eulalia married her first cousin Infante Antonio de Orléans y Borbón, Duke di Galliera, son of Antoine, Duke of Montpensier, and his wife, Infanta Luisa Fernanda of Spain. The officiant was Cardinal Zeferino González y Díaz Tuñón, Archbishop of Seville. The wedding was delayed several months on account of the death of Eulalia's brother, King Alfonso XII. Eulalia and Antonio spent their honeymoon at the Palacio Real de Aranjuez.  Eulalia and Antonio had two sons:  After the birth of her younger son, Eulalia lived apart from her husband. She maintained residences in Spain and Paris and visited England frequently.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visit to the United States.", "content": "In May 1893 Eulalia visited the United States; her controversial visit to the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago was particularly well-documented. She traveled first to Puerto Rico, then to Havana, Cuba, and arrived in New York on the 18 of May on the Spanish cruiser Infanta Isabel, before making her way to Washington, D.C., where she was received by President Grover Cleveland at the White House. She then proceeded to New York City. Eulalia was later admitted to membership in the Daughters of the American Revolution as a descendant of King Charles III of Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Eulalia was the author of several works that were controversial within royal circles, although she never ceased to have frequent contact with her relatives both in Spain and elsewhere.  In 1912, under the pseudonym \"Comtesse de Avila\", Eulalia wrote \"Au fil de la vie\" (Paris: Société française d'Imprimerie et de Librarie, 1911), translated into English as \"The Thread of Life\" (New York: Duffield, 1912). The book expressed Eulalia's thoughts about education, the independence of women, the equality of classes, socialism, religion, marriage, prejudices, and traditions. Her nephew King Alfonso XIII telegraphed her to demand that she suspend the book's publication until he had seen it and received his permission to publish it. Eulalia refused to comply.  In May 1915, Eulalia wrote an article about the German Emperor William II for \"The Strand Magazine\". The following month she published \"Court Life from Within\" (London: Cassell, 1915; reprinted New York: Dodd, Mead, 1915).  In August 1925, Eulalia wrote \"Courts and Countries After The War\" (London: Hutchinson, 1925; reprinted New York: Dodd, Mead, 1925). In this work she commented on the world political situation and articulated her belief that there could never be peace between France and Germany. She also made a celebrated observation about Benito Mussolini's Italy by reporting that she crossed the Italian frontier and heard the phrase \"\"Il treno arriva all'orario\"\" [the train is arriving on time], a boast often cited in connection with the Fascist regime at the time.  In 1935, Eulalia published her memoirs in French, the \"Mémoires de S.A.R. l'Infante Eulalie, 1868–1931\" (Paris: Plon, 1935). In July 1936, they were published in English as \"Memoirs of a Spanish Princess, H.R.H. the Infanta Eulalia\" (London: Hutchinson, 1936; reprinted New York: W.W. Norton, 1937).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 9 February 1958, Eulalia had a heart attack at her home in Irun. She died there on 8 March and is buried in the Pantheon of the Princes in El Escorial. She was the last surviving grandchild of Ferdinand VII of Spain.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Infanta Eulalia of Spain, Duchess of Galliera (María \"Eulalia\" Francisca de Asís Margarita Roberta Isabel Francisca de Paula Cristina María de la Piedad) (12 February 1864 – 8 March 1958) was the youngest and last surviving child of Queen Isabella II of Spain and the youngest sister of King Alfonso XII. She authored memoirs that were controversial for their critical perspective and allegations about the political policies of various Spanish and foreign governments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976272}
{"src_title": "Barbara of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Princess of Portugal.", "content": "Born Maria Madalena Josefa Teresa Bárbara, Barbara was the eldest child of King John V of Portugal and Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria, a daughter of Emperor Leopold I. She was baptised \"Maria Madalena Bárbara Xavier Leonor Teresa Antónia Josefa\", her names honouring a number of saints and relatives. She was usually referred to as \"Bárbara\" or \"Maria Bárbara\", a name never before used among Portuguese royalty but given in honour of Saint Barbara, the saint of her birthday. She was a first cousin of the future Empress Maria Theresa as well as Maria Josepha of Austria. Although her parents were married in 1708, they remained childless for nearly three years. The King then made a promise to God that if an heir to the throne was born, a great convent would be built as a sign of gratitude. On 4 December 1711 Barbara was born, and, as promised, the King had the Convent of Mafra built.  Barbara was born heir-presumptive to the Portuguese throne, and styled Princess of Brazil. Her status as heir-presumptive came to an end two years later when her mother gave birth to a son, Pedro. Though Pedro died at the age of two, the queen had already had another boy, Joseph, and hence Barbara never became heir-presumptive again. As a girl her family intended that she be married to Louis XV of France. Barbara had a fine education and loved music. A prodigiously talented keyboard player, she was the sole pupil of Domenico Scarlatti, the great harpsichordist and composer, from age 9 or 10 until 1757, when Scarlatti died, a year before her own death.  In 1725, Barbara was among the seventeen princesses seriously considered for marriage to king Louis XV of France, when the list of the original 99 had been reduced. However, there were concerns about the perceived weak physical and mental health of her family as well as her young age, and in the end she was removed from the list.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Princess of Asturias.", "content": "In 1729 at the age 18, Barbara married the future Ferdinand VI of Spain, two years her junior. Her brother Joseph married Ferdinand's half-sister, the Spanish Infanta Mariana Victoria, who had been rejected as a bride for Louis XV. The double marriage was meant to repair the Portuguese-Spanish alliance. Scarlatti followed Barbara to Madrid after her marriage and remained with her, composing hundreds of harpsichord sonatas for her.  During their time as Prince and Princess of the Asturias, Ferdinand and Barbara became the target of the opposition known as the Spanish party, in parallel with Spain's deteriorating relations with Portugal. From 1733 until 1737 they were kept more or less under house arrest in their apartments, prevented from appearing in public and watched by the spies of Queen Elizabeth. This gave Barbara the time to deepen her relationship with Ferdinand, a timid person who suffered also from ill health.  Barbara was not considered beautiful by her contemporaries, and her homely looks were thought by observers to have caused her future husband a visible shock when he was first presented to her. However, 'Ferdinand the Learned' (as he was later known) became deeply attached to her, sharing her passion for music and soon becoming dependent on her for advice and support. When he ascended the Spanish throne as Ferdinand VI, the French ambassador noted \"it is rather Barbara who succeeds Elizabeth [Ferdinand's step-mother] than Ferdinand succeeding Philippe.\" Barbara was well-educated, and in addition to her musical talents was adept at languages and was an avid reader on many varied subjects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queen of Spain.", "content": "Upon their succession, Barbara was exposed to attempts to drive a political wedge between her and Ferdinand, engineered by, among others, supporters of the Queen Dowager, and she formed an alliance with three members of the Spanish party, who had been in opposition during the previous regime, Ensenada, Huescar and Carvajal. She thus secured the Spanish party as her supporters and obtained the dismissal of all power holders of the previous regime who threatened her influence over Ferdinand. Encouraged by Barbara, Ferdinand fired the minister Villarias, who was replaced by Carvajal, and in July 1747 the Queen Dowager was banished from court.  During her husband's reign, Barbara was to preside over magnificent parties and concerts at her favorite retreat, the Royal Palace of Aranjuez. However, in contrast to her predecessor as queen, Barbara did not like to flaunt her influence over her spouse and the government policy, and she made a moderately positive impression upon the public. She was not as self-assured, nor did she have as much political ambition as Elisabeth Farnese, and her policy focused mainly upon a friendly relationship between Spain and Portugal in cooperation with her father and the Portuguese ambassador Belmonte. Queen Barbara participated regularly in the affairs of state: the ministers, who respected her, presented to her all documents of state before they were given to the king, because: \"only she knows what ought either be said or hidden from the king\": she was the channel through which the ministers worked with the king, as it was she who advised them how to achieve the desired result from the king, and the ministers relied upon her for their work as, the British ambassador Benjamin Keene reported: \"She can sway him as she pleases, with as much power, but much less difficulty, than ever the Dowager did with the late King, his father.\" In 1754, she was behind the fall of her previous ally Ensenada. Keene and Huascar presented the Queen with a paper implying that minister Ensenada was making puppets of the royal couple. They succeeded in convincing her to act against Ensenada, and in cooperation with Richard Wall and Huascar, Barbara convinced Ferdinand to exile Ensenada.  The couple produced no children who survived, with Barbara having a stillborn son in 1733. Barbara suffered from severe asthma for most of her life and in later years became overweight. She died at the Royal Palace of Aranjuez, on the outskirts of Madrid on 27 August 1758. Her death was said to have broken her husband's heart.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Barbara of Portugal (Maria Madalena Bárbara Xavier Leonor Teresa Antónia Josefa; 4 December 1711 – 27 August 1758) was an Infanta of Portugal, and a Queen of Spain by marriage to Ferdinand VI of Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976273}
{"src_title": "Anne Marie d'Orléans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Youth.", "content": "She was the daughter of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, younger brother of Louis XIV, and Henrietta of England, the youngest daughter of Charles I of England. Her mother died at the \"Château de Saint-Cloud\" ten months after Anne Marie's birth. A year later, her father married 19-year-old Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, who became very close to her stepdaughters. Her half-brother Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the future regent of France, was born of her father's second marriage.  Her stepmother later described her as \"one of the most amiable and virtuous of women\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "To maintain French influence in the Italian states, her uncle King Louis XIV arranged her marriage, at the age of fourteen, to her third cousin Victor Amadeus II of Savoy, then Duke of Savoy, later King of Sicily and then of Sardinia. Louis XIV was an ally of her future mother-in-law, Marie Jeanne, and supported Marie Jeanne when she extended her regency even after her actual mandate as regent had come to an end in 1680: Marie Jeanne did, in fact, not surrender her position as regent until shortly before her son's wedding.  The proxy marriage of Anne Marie and Víctor Amadeus took place at Versailles on 10 April 1684, the day after the signature of the marriage contract. Her husband-to-be was represented by her cousin, Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine. Louis XIV gave her a dowry of 900,000 \"livres\".  The Duke of Orléans accompanied his daughter as far as Juvisy-sur-Orge (18 kilometers south of Paris), and the comtesse de Lillebonne accompanied her all the way to Savoy. She met her husband Victor at Chambéry on 6 May, the nuptials being performed at the castle by the Archbishop of Grenoble. Two days later, the newlyweds made their \"Joyous Entry\" into Turin.  Anne Marie bore nine children, beginning with Marie-Adélaïde just a few months after Anne Marie's 16th birthday. The birth nearly cost Anne Marie her life, prompting administration of the viaticum. Marie-Adélaïde married Louis, Duke of Burgundy, grandson of Louis XIV in 1697, and was the mother of Louis XV.  This marriage was arranged with the assistance of the maréchal de Tessé and of Jeanne Baptiste d'Albert de Luynes, comtesse de Verrué, who was Victor's mistress from 1689 till 1700.  Her husband had two children with Jeanne. Nonetheless, when he fell ill with smallpox, Anne Marie nursed him until his recovery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duchess and Queen.", "content": "After her arrival in Savoy, Anne Marie came under the influence of her pro-French mother-in-law, who maintained a powerful position as a French ally at the court of Savoy. She was described as a dutiful and humble daughter-in-law, who loyally adhered to Marie Jeanne's wishes. Her close relationship with her mother-in-law was not viewed favorably by her spouse, who regarded it as a political threat, as he had long been opposed to his mother's influence in politics.  The personal relationship between Anne Marie and Victor Amadeus was reportedly somewhat cool during the first years of their marriage, partly due to the adultery on his part and his disappointment that she did not give birth to a son for several years. Anne Marie served as regent for the first time during the trip of Victor Amadeus in 1686, and was said to have handled the task well despite her young age.  When Victor Amadeus severed his ties with France in 1690, Anne Marie and her children accompanied her mother-in-law when they demonstratively left the capital in protest.  Despite his marriage ties to France, Victor Amadeus joined the anti-French side in the War of the Spanish Succession. Anne Marie was appointed by him to serve as regent of Savoy during his absence in the war, a task she handled with maturity and judgement. In 1706, Turin was besieged by French forces under the command of Anne Marie's half-brother Philippe d'Orléans, and Spanish forces of her cousin and son-in-law Philip V. She and her sons Victor Amadeus and Carlo Emanuele were forced to flee to Genoa.  When the war was ended in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht, Victor Amadeus received the Kingdom of Sicily, formerly a Spanish possession. Anne Marie's stepmother wrote: \"I shall neither gain nor lose by the peace, but one thing I shall enjoy is to see our Duchess of Savoy become a queen, because I love her as though she were my own child...\" When Victor Amadeus left for his coronation in Sicily, he had originally planned to leave Anne Marie behind to function as regent in his absence, but as he feared that she would let herself be directed by his mother because of her loyalty to her, he changed his mind and took her along with him instead. Anne Marie was crowned with him in Sicily.  At the death of her eldest son in 1715, both she and Victor Amadeus fell into severe depression and left the capital to mourn, leaving Marie Jeanne to handle their official duties. Victor Amadeus was forced to exchange Sicily for the less important domain of Sardinia in 1720, but retained the title of King.  As the Savoyard consort, Anne-Marie had the use of the Royal Palace of Turin, the vast Palazzina di caccia di Stupinigi outside the capital, and the Vigna di Madama Reale.  Queen Anne Marie died of heart failure at her villa on 26 August 1728, the day before her 59th birthday. She is buried at the Basilica of Superga in Turin, where all her children, except Marie-Adélaïde and Maria Luisa, are also buried.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jacobite succession.", "content": "From 1714 to 1720, Anne Marie d'Orléans was the heiress presumptive to the Jacobite claim to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland. These claims were held at the time by James Francis Edward Stuart (\"the Old Pretender\", son of James II). Anne Marie became heiress presumptive with the death of James' daughter Queen Anne in 1714. She was displaced as heir by the birth of the Old Pretender's son, Charles Edward Stuart (\"Bonnie Prince Charlie\"), on 31 December 1720. Charles Edward and his brother Henry, Cardinal Stuart, both died without legitimate issue, so the descendants of Anne Marie d'Orléans inherited the Jacobite claim, i.e. they would have inherited the British crown had it not been for the Act of Settlement, which excluded the claims of the Catholic Stuarts and d'Orléans' and settled the throne on the nearest Protestant relatives, the Hanoverians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "During her marriage, Anne Marie gave birth to nine children, of whom only three survived to adulthood and one outlived her:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anne Marie d'Orléans (27 August 1669 – 26 August 1728) was the first Queen consort of Sardinia by marriage to Victor Amadeus II of Savoy. She served as regent of Savoy during the absence of her spouse in 1686 and during the War of the Spanish Succession. She is also an important figure in British history (see Jacobite Succession below).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976274}
{"src_title": "Yakov Yurovsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Yakov Mikhailovich Yurovsky was the eighth of ten children born to Mikhail Yurovsky, a glazier, and his wife Ester Moiseevna (1848–1919), a seamstress. He was born on in the Siberian city of Tomsk, Russia. The Yurovsky family were Jewish. The historian Helen Rappaport writes that the young Yurovsky studied the Talmud in his early youth, while the family seems to have later attempted to distance themselves from their Jewish roots; this may have been prompted by the prejudice toward Jews frequently exhibited in Russia at the time. Shortly before fully devoting himself to the cause of revolution, in the early twentieth century Yurovsky converted to Lutheranism.  A watchmaker by trade, he lived for a short time in the German Empire in 1904.  After returning to Russia during the Russian Revolution of 1905, he joined the Bolsheviks. He received the party ticket no.1500 in Krasnopresnenskaya organization. Arrested several times over the years, he became a devoted Marxist.  He was a Chekist for a short period of time in 1917.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Execution of the imperial family.", "content": "On the night of 16/17 July 1918, a squad of Bolshevik secret police (Cheka), led by Yurovsky, executed Russia's last emperor, Nicholas II, along with his wife Alexandra, their four daughters–Olga, Tatiana, Maria, and Anastasia–and son Alexei. Along with the family, four members of the imperial household (court physician Eugene Botkin, chambermaid Anna Demidova, cook Ivan Kharitonov and footman Alexei Trupp) were also killed. All were shot in a half-cellar room (measured to be 25 feet x 21 feet) of the Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg, a city in the Ural Mountains region, where they were being held prisoner. The firing squad comprised three local Bolsheviks and seven soldiers. It has been documented that the order to assassinate the imperial family came from Yakov Sverdlov in Moscow and had been initiated by Lenin himself. It is also well documented that Yurovsky had visited the Bolshevik leadership in Moscow, and notably Sverdlov, only a few weeks before the killing took place.  To prevent the development of a personality cult of the former imperial family, the corpses were stripped and dismembered; then taken to the countryside, where they were initially thrown into an abandoned mineshaft. The following morning, when rumours spread in Yekaterinburg regarding the disposal site, Yurovsky removed the bodies. When the vehicle carrying the bodies broke down on the way to the next chosen site, he made new arrangements and threw the bodies into a pit on Koptyaki Road, a since-abandoned cart track 12 miles north of Yekaterinburg, and doused the dismembered remains with sulfuric acid then burned them with gasoline before finally sealing the pit with concrete.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Civil War.", "content": "During and after the Russian Civil War, Yurovsky worked as a head of local Cheka in Moscow, then member of Vyatka Cheka, head of Yekaterinburg Cheka (1919). In 1921, he worked in the Rabkrin and became Chief of the Gold Department of the Soviet State Treasury. Yurovsky achieved a solid reputation by combating corruption and theft. He also worked in management at the Polytechnical Museum starting in 1928 and became its director in 1930. He died in 1938 of a peptic ulcer.  Yurovsky was survived by a wife, two sons, and a daughter.  In 1920, a British officer who met Yurovsky alleged he was remorseful over his role in the execution of the Romanovs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The character of Yakov Yurovsky appeared in several historical films dealing with the execution of the Russian imperial family.  In the 1971 British epic \"Nicholas and Alexandra\", Yurovsky was depicted much older than 40 (his real age in 1918), as he was played by 65-year-old Alan Webb.  In the 1991 Russian film \"Tsareubiytsa\", Yurovsky was portrayed by Malcolm McDowell.  In the 2019 American docudrama \"The Last Czars\", Yurovski was portrayed by Duncan Pow.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yakov Mikhailovich Yurovsky (; – 2 August 1938) was a Russian Old Bolshevik and a Soviet Revolutionary. He was best known as the chief executioner of Emperor Nicholas II of Russia, his family, and four retainers on the night of 17 July 1918.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976275}
{"src_title": "Mercedes of Orléans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and upbringing.", "content": "She was born at the \"Palacio Real\" in Madrid, the sixth of her parents' nine children, none of whom died in infancy but only four of whom would live to the age of 20. Her mother's elder sister, Queen Isabella II, and brother-in-law, King Francis, served as Mercedes' godparents at her christening, when she was given the names: \"María de las Mercedes Isabel Francisca de Asís Antonia Luisa Fernanda Felipa Amalia Cristina Francisca de Paula Ramona Rita Cayetana Manuela Juana Josefa Joaquina Ana Rafaela Filomena Teresa Santísima Trinidad Gaspara Melchora Baltasara et omni sancti\".  Although Mercedes was patrilineally a French princess, she was also a Spanish infanta and spent the first eight years of her life in Spain. Her childhood was spent at the palace of San Telmo in Andalusia, her father's rumoured aspirations to obtain his sister-in-law's crown periodically rendering him unwelcome at the royal court in Madrid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "When Queen Isabella II was deposed in 1868, Mercedes' family left Spain for exile. It was reportedly during that banishment, in 1872, that she met her first cousin, Alfonso, Prince of Asturias, also living in exile.  Upon restoration, King Alfonso married María de las Mercedes at the church of Atocha, in Madrid on 23 January 1878, following a huge ball in December 1877. Allegedly the king's choice dashed the hopes of his still-exiled mother, Queen Isabella, for Alfonso's marriage to Blanca de Borbón, daughter of his Carlist rival, Carlos, Duke of Madrid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Shortly after their honeymoon, it became evident that Queen Mercedes suffered from typhoid fever. The marriage would last only six months, during which she had a miscarriage. She succumbed to the illness in Madrid two days after her 18th birthday, on 26 June 1878, having been unconscious for several days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Queen Mercedes co-initiated the building of the Cathedral of la Almudena in Madrid, opposite the royal palace, construction beginning in 1883. In May 2004 Felipe, Prince of Asturias was wed there to Letizia Ortiz. Queen Mercedes' remains were re-interred there on 8 November 2000, in accordance with the wishes of her widower.  A town in the province of Isabela, located in the Philippines, was named Reina Mercedes in her honor during the Spanish colonial period.  When the king's minister Cánovas del Castillo suggested that he take a new wife, Alfonso acquiesced, choosing his Mercedes' sister, Maria Cristina. But she, too, contracted tuberculosis, and died during the engagement period. In late 1879 he married Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria-Teschen; the eldest of their children, the Princess of Asturias, was named in honour of Queen Mercedes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria de las Mercedes of Orléans (24 June 1860 – 26 June 1878) was Queen of Spain as the first wife of King Alfonso XII. She was born in Madrid, the daughter of Antoine of Orléans, Duke of Montpensier, and of Infanta Luisa Fernanda of Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976276}
{"src_title": "Independence-class aircraft carrier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "Adapted from the design for the light cruisers, this class of ship resulted from the interest of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in naval air power. With war looming, the former Assistant Secretary of the Navy noted no new fleet aircraft carriers were expected to be completed before 1944. He proposed to convert some of the many cruisers then under construction to carriers. Studies of cruiser-size aircraft carriers had shown the type had serious limitations, and on 13 October 1941, the General Board of the United States Navy replied that such a conversion showed too many compromises to be effective.  Undeterred, President Roosevelt ordered another study. On 25 October 1941, the Navy's Bureau of Ships reported that aircraft carriers converted from cruiser hulls would be of lesser capability, but available much sooner. After the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, the need for more carriers became urgent. The Navy accelerated construction of the 34,000-ton s, but these large ships could not be finished quickly. The \"Cleveland\"-class light cruisers then under construction were adopted for this purpose.  Plans developed for this conversion showed much more promise than expected. Nine light cruisers were reordered as carriers in the first half of 1942. The \"Independence\"-class design had a relatively short and narrow flight deck and hangar, with a small island superstructure. The hangar, flight deck, and island represented a significant increase in the ship's topside weight. To compensate for this, blisters were added to the original cruiser hull, which increased the original beam by. Ships of this class carried a small air group – only about 30 aircraft. This was originally set to consist of nine fighters, nine scout bombers, and nine torpedo bombers, but later revised to about two dozen fighters and nine torpedo bombers.  These were limited-capability ships, whose principal virtue was near-term availability. Their limited size made for seakeeping difficulties in the many typhoons of the Pacific, and their small flight decks led to a high aircraft accident rate. However, being based on a light cruiser, they were fast ships, much faster than the s. The cruiser hull and engineering allowed them the speed necessary to operate with the main fleet carrier task groups. Their names followed the US Navy's policy of naming aircraft carriers after historic navy ships (\"Independence\") or historic battles (\"Cowpens\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "Completed in the course of 1943, and coming into service with the first eight of the \"Essex\"-class carriers, the nine \"Independence\"-class ships made up a vital component of the Fast Carrier Task Force, which carried the Navy's offensive through the central and western Pacific from November 1943 through August 1945. Eight of these carriers participated in the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, which effectively ended Japan's carrier air power. The light carriers provided 40 percent of the Fast Carrier Task Force's fighters and 36 percent of the torpedo bombers. The protection on these carriers was modest, and munitions often had to be stowed at the hangar level, a factor that contributed greatly to the loss of \"Princeton\" in October 1944.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ships in class.", "content": "The nine ships of the \"Independence\" class were all converted from \"Cleveland\"-class light cruisers building at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation shipyard, Camden, New Jersey. Initially classified as \"aircraft carriers\" (CV), all were re-designated \"small aircraft carriers\" (CVL) on 15 July 1943 while four ships were still under construction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disposal.", "content": "There was little margin for growth, as the ships' post-war careers showed. \"Independence\" was expended as an atomic bomb target, and the rest were laid up in 1947. Five returned to service in 1948–53, two with the French Navy. Two were used as training carriers, while \"Bataan\" saw Korean War combat duty with Marine Corps air groups. She and \"Cabot\" received anti-submarine warfare modernizations in the early 1950s, emerging with two funnels instead of the original four. All but the French ships were decommissioned in 1954–56 and were reclassified as aircraft transports in 1959. \"Cabot\" got a new lease on life in 1967, when she became the Spanish Navy's carrier \"Dédalo\", serving until 1989 (in Spanish service, she was the first carrier to regularly deploy the Harrier jump jet). Despite efforts to preserve her, \"Cabot\" was scrapped at Brownsville in 1999–2003. Preservation efforts continued until the hull was half scrapped.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Independence\"-class aircraft carriers were a class of light carriers built for the United States Navy that served during World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976277}
{"src_title": "Darya Pishchalnikova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Pishchalnikova rose through the ranks as a young athlete, winning the silver medal in the discus at the 2001 World Youth Championships in Athletics, then repeating that feat at the World Junior Championships in 2004. She established herself as one of the top women's throwers at the 2006 European Athletics Championships, taking the gold medal with a throw of 65.55 metres, which remains her personal best.  She set a personal best throw of 65.78 metres when she won the silver medal at the 2007 World Championships in Osaka, but that throw was to be subsequently discredited. She was selected to represent Russia at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, but on 31 July, she was suspended from competition due to doping test irregularities, along with several other high-profile Russian female athletes. On 20 October 2008, it was announced that Pishchalnikova was one of seven Russian athletes receiving a two-year doping ban for manipulating drug samples.  She returned to competition in 2011 and finished eleventh at the World Championships in Daegu that year. She took second place at the 2012 European Cup Winter Throwing, then had a personal best throw of 67.00 m in Adler in May. At the Prefontaine Classic Diamond League meeting she was runner-up to Sandra Perković. She won the Russian Championships with a throw of 70.69 m – the best performance in the event since 1992.  Pishchalnikova participated in the 2012 Olympics and was awarded a silver medal. However, she tested positive for the anabolic steroid oxandrolone in the samples taken in May 2012. On April, 2013 she was banned by the Russian Athletics Federation for ten years, and her results from May 2012 were annulled, meaning she was set on track to lose her Olympic medal. According to the New York Times, she was a whistleblower who sent the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) a December 2012 email detailing state-run doping programs in which Russian athletes had to participate; her ban by the Russian Athletics Federation was likely in retaliation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Darya Vitalyevna Pishchalnikova (, born 19 July 1985 in Astrakhan) is a female discus thrower from Russia. Pishchalnikova is the sister of Bogdan Pishchalnikov and Kirill Pishchalnikov.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976278}
{"src_title": "Namkhai Norbu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nomenclature, orthography and etymology.", "content": "This section details the origins and meaning of the title Chögyal and the name Namkhai Norbu (Tibetan: \"Chos-rGyal Nam-mkha’i Nor-bu\").  Chögyal is a title most commonly associated with the monarchy of Sikkim, now a state in far-northern India. However, Chögyal (or Chos-rGyal) is also a title conferred upon a special class of temporal and spiritual rulers of the Kingdom of Bhutan, who were recognized mindstream emanations of Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyel, the 17th Century Tibetan-born founder of Bhutan. Namkhai Norbu, recognized at the age of five as an emanation of Ngawang Namgyel, holds the title of Chögyal in this context.  \"Namkhai\" (Tibetan) holds the semantic field of \"sky\", \"space\" and \"aether,\" and has the possessive case ending, thus it may be rendered into English as \"...of the sky\". \"Norbu\" (Tibetan) holds the semantic field of \"jewel\", \"crystal\", \"gem\", \"cintamani\". Therefore, Namkhai Norbu may be rendered in English as \"Jewel of the Sky\", \"Gem of the Aether\" or \"Crystal of Space\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition as a Tulku.", "content": "Namkhai Norbu was a recognized tulku (also trulku), a reincarnate master. At birth two of Namkhai Norbu's uncles, the Dzogchen masters Palyul Karma Yangsid and Shechen Rabjam believed him to be the reincarnation of their master, Adzom Drugpa Rinpoche (1841–1934). When Namkhai Norbu was two years old, this was confirmed by a senior tulku of the Nyingma school.  Then when he was five years old, the 16th Gyalwa Karmapa and the Situ Rinpoche together recognized Namkhai Norbu as the mind emanation of the mindstream of another well known teacher, who was in turn the emanation of Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyel, the 17th Century Tibetan-born founder of Bhutan.  At a very young age, these recognitions conferred upon Namkhai Norbu a great deal of attention and prestige, as he himself remarks: \"As I grew up, I was thus given quite a few names and titles, many of which are very long and grand sounding. But I have never used them, because I have always preferred the name my parents gave me at birth.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "In his early years Namkhai Norbu studied at the Derge Gonchen monastery. At the age of nine he entered a Sakya College where he studied Buddhist philosophy for many years with Khyenrab Chökyi Odzer. He also received numerous tantric and Dzogchen transmissions and teachings from many masters, including his paternal uncle Togden Ugyen Tendzin (who achieved the rainbow body), maternal uncle Khyentse Rinpoche Chökyi Wangchug, Drubwang Rinpoche Kunga Palden, Negyab Rinpoche, Drugse Gyurmed Dorje, Dzongsar Khyentse Chökyi Lodrö and Bo Gongkar Rinpoche. In 1951, he also received Chöd teachings from Ayu Khandro Dorje Paldrön (1838–1953), a woman who spent over fifty years in dark retreat and was a disciple of Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo.  Namkhai Norbu was invited to China in 1953 as a representative of the Tibetan monasteries. After visiting Chengdu and Chungching, he accepted the invitation to teach Tibetan language in Menyag. During this time he met Kangkar Rinpoche, from whom he received instructions on the Six Yogas of Naropa and other teachings.  Namkhai Norbu met his root teacher Rigdzin Changchub Dorje in 1955 and stayed at his residence in Khamdogar for six months. From Changchub Dorje he received the authentic transmission of Dzogchen and realized the essence of the dharma (subsuming both Wylie: 'chos' & 'bon') as one state of knowledge beyond all limitations. This realization has remained a characteristic feature of his way of teaching throughout his life.  In the late 1950s, Namkhai Norbu made a pilgrimage to Tibet, India, and Nepal. Because of the turmoil and aftermath of the 1959 Tibetan Rebellion, he could not return to Tibet from Sikkim, so he stayed in the erstwhile kingdom while working as an author and editor for the Chogyal government.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professorship.", "content": "Already recognized as extremely knowledgeable in all aspects of Tibetan culture at the age of 22, he was invited to Italy by Professor Giuseppe Tucci to work at the ISMEO Institute in Rome for two years. In 1962, he took up a post in Naples at the Istituto Universitario Orientale, where he taught Tibetan language and literature until 1992. From the time of his residence in Italy, Namkhai Norbu focused his research mainly on the ancient history of Tibet, investigating thoroughly the native Bön tradition. His books include works on history, Tibetan medicine, astrology, Bön and folk traditions such as namkha. They have been highly appreciated by Tibetans as well as scholars throughout the world.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teaching Dzogchen in the West.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trul Khor: Yantra Yoga.", "content": "In 1971, Namkhai Norbu began to teach Yantra Yoga, an ancient form of Tibetan Yoga combining movement, breathing and visualization. A few years later, he started to give Dzogchen teachings to a small group of Italian students, with whom he founded the 'Dzogchen Community' (Wylie: rdzogs chen 'dus sde). At that time, Dzogchen was relatively unknown in the West.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International Dzogchen Community.", "content": "As interest in his teachings grew, Rinpoche dedicated himself to spreading Dzogchen and establishing 'gars' (Tibetan), seats of the International Dzogchen Community, throughout the world. Today there are gars in Italy, the United States, Mexico, Venezuela, Argentina, Australia, Romania, Russia, Spain, Ukraine and China. Apart from his spiritual activity, he founded the International Shang-Shung Institute to preserve the cultural traditions of Tibet, and ASIA, a nonprofit organization in Tibet mainly dedicated to serving the educational and medical needs of the Tibetan people.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "CDs and DVDs", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Namkhai Norbu () was a Tibetan Dzogchen master. When he was two years old, Namkhai Norbu was recognized as the'mindstream emanation', a tulku, of the Dzogchen teacher Adzom Drugpa (1842–1924). At five, he was also recognized as a mindstream emanation of an emanation of Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594–1651). From an early age, Namkhai Norbu undertook an accelerated course of study, attending monastic college, taking retreats, and studying with renowned teachers, including some of the most important Tibetan masters of his time. Under the tutelage of these teachers, he completed the training required by the Buddhist tradition in both Sutrayana and Tantrayana. At the age of sixteen, he met master Rigdzin Changchub Dorje (1826–1961/1978), who became his principal Dzogchen teacher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976279}
{"src_title": "Mickaël Tavares", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club career.", "content": "Born in Villeneuve-Saint-Georges, France, Tavares began his career at US Créteil, and moved in 2000 to Portuguese club FC Alverca. After two years, he returned to France and signed a contract with SC Abbeville, for whom he scored 9 goals in 26 games in the 2002–03 season, following which he moved to FC Nantes, where he played in the reserve team. In 2005, he joined FC Tours, who were promoted a year later to the Ligue 2.  In July 2007, he was on trial at Slavia Prague, and signed a contract with the club after one week in the Czech Republic. He signed a two-year contract in Prague with the option of one more, before moving to Hamburger SV on 30 January 2009. He made his debut on 22 February 2009 against Bayer Leverkusen.  On 24 January 2010, Tavares was loaned to 1. FC Nürnberg until the end of the season. In August 2010, Tavares was assigned to train with Hamburg's second team and told he has no future in the first team. On 27 August 2010, Tavares joined Football League Championship club Middlesbrough on loan until July 2011. However,despite playing under Gordon Strachan, Tony Mowbray did not appear to rate Tavares. This limited him to just 13 appearances, his last coming in the 90th minute against Sheffield United, 4 months after his penultimate appearance.  In September 2012 he was close to sign with Bulgarian side Chernomorets Burgas.  On 5 October 2012, Tavares signed on a free transfer for Fulham. He was given the number 25 shirt, previously worn by Bobby Zamora. On 4 January 2013, Martin Jol confirmed that Tavares was not offered a new contract and had left the club. He made no appearances for Fulham.  On 25 August 2013, it was announced that Tavares would sign an amateur contract with Dutch side RKC Waalwijk. After releasing for free from Waalvijk he signed a new deal with Czech first league club FK Mladá Boleslav. In January 2015 he left Mladá Boleslav and signed with Australian club Sydney FC.  On 18 April 2016, Tavares was released by Sydney FC and shortly after signed with the Central Coast Mariners, where he would reunite with cousin Jacques Faty for the 2016–17 A-League season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "He received a call-up from Cape Verde in May 2008 against Luxembourg in preparation for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification, but Tavares did not play in the match. He now plays for Senegal National Team, receiving his first cap in 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Tavares is the son of Tony Tavares nicknamed \"Zagallo\", a Senegalese international from ASC Diaraf and ASF Police, and also the cousin of Jacques Faty and Ricardo Faty. Tavares has a wife and a three-year-old daughter, Ciara. Tavares can speak Portuguese, having picked up the language during his time playing in Portugal with F.C. Alverca.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mickaël Zidro Tavares (born 25 October 1982) is a Senegalese footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for French lower-league side Sénart-Moissy. He has 25 caps for the Senegalese national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976280}
{"src_title": "Luiz Gustavo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Pindamonhangaba, São Paulo, Luiz Gustavo started his professional career at Corinthians Alagoano. In August 2007, he was loaned to German club 1899 Hoffenheim, then of the 2. Bundesliga. On 1 April 2008, Hoffenheim signed Luiz Gustavo on a permanent contract. He went on to play two and a half Bundesliga seasons for the club.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bayern Munich.", "content": "On 3 January 2011, Luiz Gustavo was signed by Bayern Munich. The amount of the transfer fee varies from €15–20 million, depending on different sources. Twelve days later, he made his debut for the Bavarian club, coming on as a second-half substitute in the 1–1 away draw with VfL Wolfsburg. He scored his first goal for the club on 26 February, the equaliser in the 1–3 home loss against Borussia Dortmund, by volleying in Franck Ribéry's cross.  In his first full season at Bayern, he played 46 matches in total, with Bayern finishing runner-up in all three competitions which they contested. His only goal came on 13 August, an added-time strike which won a league match away to VfL Wolfsburg. On 12 May 2012, Luiz Gustavo was selected to start in the centre of midfield in the DFB-Pokal Final, but he was substituted at half-time for Thomas Müller as Bayern were beaten 5–2 by Dortmund. He missed their defeat a week later in the Champions League final, as he was booked in the second leg of their semi-final victory over Real Madrid.  Luiz Gustavo began the 2012–13 season by featuring in Bayern's 2–1 win over Borussia Dortmund in the DFL-Supercup on 12 August. He scored four times in 22 matches as they won the league title. On 25 May 2013, Luiz Gustavo appeared as an added-time substitute for Franck Ribéry as Bayern defeated Borussia Dortmund 2–1 in the Champions League final at Wembley Stadium.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "VfL Wolfsburg.", "content": "On 16 August 2013, it was reported that Luiz Gustavo had signed for VfL Wolfsburg for an unspecified amount, on a contract that would tie him to the club till 2018. He made his debut the following day, starting in a 4–0 win over Schalke 04 at the Volkswagen Arena. One week later, in his next appearance, he was sent off for two bookings as his team lost 0–2 at Mainz 05, and he was also dismissed on his return on 14 September in a 1–3 defeat at Bayer Leverkusen. He scored 4 goals in 29 matches as Wolfsburg came fifth to qualify automatically for the group stage of the next season's UEFA Europa League, receiving a third red card on 19 April 2014 in a 3–1 win at rivals Hamburger SV.  Luiz Gustavo scored four times in five matches as Wolfsburg won the DFB-Pokal in his second season, starting with a brace in a 4–1 win over 1. FC Heidenheim in the second round on 29 October 2014, and continuing with a goal in their 4–0 victory at Arminia Bielefeld in the semi-final on 29 April 2015. On 30 May, he scored from a rebounded shot by compatriot Naldo to equalise in the final against Borussia Dortmund, with Wolfsburg eventually winning 3–1 for their first cup honour.  On 29 April 2017 Luiz Gustavo was sent off for the eighth time in his career in a 6–0 defeat to his former club Bayern Munich, in doing so becoming tied with Jens Nowotny for the most red cards in Bundesliga history. Referee Felix Zwayer sent Gustavo off in the 78 minute after he picking up a second yellow card for fouling Renato Sanches. Gustavo had to be restrained by his teammates as he sarcastically applauded the referee and refused to leave the field.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Olympique de Marseille.", "content": "On 4 July 2017, Luiz Gustavo ended his decade-long spell in German football, signing for France's Olympique de Marseille for a fee of €8 million. He agreed a four-year deal with a club record monthly salary of €750,000. He made his debut 23 days later in a 4–2 home win over Belgium's KV Oostende in the third round of Europa League qualification.  He made his Ligue 1 debut on 6 August, starting in a 3–0 home win over Dijon in the first game of the new season, contributing to the first goal from Clinton N'Jie. On 1 October, he scored his first goal to conclude a 4–2 win at Nice, but was later sent off for a shin-high-challenge on Pierre Lees-Melou. On his return three weeks later, he scored again from 30 yards to open the scoring in a 2–2 draw with rivals Paris Saint-Germain in \"Le Classique\", again at the Stade Vélodrome.  Luiz Gustavo was an ever-present in the 2017–18 UEFA Europa League, playing all of Marseille's 19 matches as they reached the final, losing 3–0 to Atlético Madrid in Lyon. He made 56 official appearances in his first season in France, making him the most selected player by manager Rudi Garcia that year. He was named in the Ligue 1 team of the year at the Trophées UNFP du football.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fenerbahçe.", "content": "On 2 September 2019, Luiz Gustavo signed a four-year deal with Turkish club Fenerbahçe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Luiz Gustavo made his debut for Brazil on 10 August 2011, coming on as a second-half substitute in a friendly match against Germany.  He was a member of Luiz Felipe Scolari's 23-man squad for the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup on home soil, and played the full 90 minutes as Brazil defeated world champions Spain 3–0 in the final at the Estádio do Maracanã on 30 June. He scored his first goal for Brazil in a friendly match against Australia on 7 September, later that year.  During the 2014 FIFA World Cup on home soil, and having played every minute up to that point, he was suspended for the quarter-final match against Colombia due to accumulation of yellow cards. He returned to the starting eleven for the next two games as the team finished fourth.  Luiz Gustavo was initially called into Dunga's squad for the 2015 Copa América in Chile, but withdrew with a knee injury which required surgery, and was replaced by Fred.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Luiz Gustavo is a devout Catholic, commenting that he \"read[s] the Bible a lot and pray[s] twice a day\". He became engaged to his girlfriend Milene on 25 December 2010, while on holiday in Brazil. He cites his mother as a big source of inspiration for him because of her dream that he would one day succeed as a player, before her death when he was just 16 years old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Bayern Munich  VfL Wolfsburg  Marseille", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Brazil", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Luiz Gustavo Dias (born 23 July 1987) is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for Süper Lig club Fenerbahçe. He began his career as a left back, but has played mostly as a defensive midfielder, and also as a centre back.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976281}
{"src_title": "Mesotherapy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Usage.", "content": "There are published studies on the clinical treatments and effects of these medications and numerous cocktails of combined chemical compounds on the body have been reported in Europe and South America for several years. There is no conclusive research proof that these chemical compounds work to target adipose (fat cells) specifically. Cell lysis, resulting from the detergent action of deoxycholic, may account for any clinical effect.  In 2012, a French laboratory invented a way to insert a treatment of Mesotherapy into a liquid podlet. This podlet is then plugged into a facial steamer which applies the treatment to the user's facial pores via steam. This was the first invention of its kind to enable Mesotherapy treatments directly to consumers within their own home.  Substances used include these:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Michel Pistor (1924–2003) performed clinical research and founded the field of mesotherapy. Multi-national research in intradermal therapy culminated with Pistor's work from 1948 to 1952 in human mesotherapy treatments. The French press coined the term Mesotherapy in 1958. The French Académie Nationale de Médecine recognized Mesotherapy as a Specialty of Medicine in 1987. The French society of Mesotherapy recognizes its use as treatment for various conditions but makes no mention of its use in plastic surgery. Popular throughout European countries and South America, mesotherapy is practiced by approximately 18,000 physicians worldwide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Mesotherapy treatments have been performed throughout Europe, South America, and more recently the United States for over fifty years. However physicians have expressed concern over the efficacy of mesotherapy, arguing that the treatment hasn't been studied enough to make a determination. The primary issue is that mesotherapy for the treatment of cosmetic conditions hasn't been the subject of gold standard clinical trials; however the procedure has been studied for the pain relief of other ailments, such as tendonitis, tendon calcification, dental procedures, cancer, cervicobrachialgia, arthritis, lymphedema, and venous stasis. Further, there have been case series and numerous medical papers on the mesotherapy as a cosmetic treatment, as well as studies that employ the ingredients used in mesotherapy.  The other side of the debate is expressed by Rod Rohrich, M.D., Chairman, Dept. of Plastic Surgery, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas: \"There is simply no data, no science and no information, to my knowledge, that mesotherapy works.\" The American Society of Plastic Surgeons issued a position statement not endorsing mesotherapy, but this non-endorsement is the subject of some controversy. Since mesotherapy isn't a surgical treatment but, rather, a non-invasive alternative to plastic surgery, the treatment competes with plastic surgery for the same patients.  The FDA cannot control the use of practitioners injecting various mixtures into patient's bodies because this practice falls under the jurisdiction of state medical boards. This is the case because the mesotherapy is considered a \"procedure\" by state medical boards. The FDA, on the other hand, is mandated to approve foods, dietary supplements, drugs, vaccines, biological medical products, blood products, medical devices, radiation-emitting devices, veterinary products and cosmetics.  Robin Ashinoff, speaking for the American Academy of Dermatology, says \"A simple injection is giving people false hope. Everybody's looking for a quick fix. But there is no quick fix for fat or fat deposits or for cellulite.\" The American Society for Dermatologic Surgery informed its members in February 2005 that \"further study is warranted before this technique can be endorsed.\"  Many dermatologists and plastic surgeons are alarmed about the growing profile of mesotherapy. \"No one says exactly what they put into the (syringe),\" says Naomi Lawrence, a derma-surgeon at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. \"One drug they often use, phosphatidylcholine, is unpredictable and causes extreme inflammation and swelling where injected. It is not a benign drug.\"  It is currently banned in a number of South American countries. Even Brazil, which is less strict than the USA in drug approvals, has banned the drug for these purposes.  In Australia, an alternative therapy salon is being investigated by the Health Department after several clients developed skin abscesses on the calves, buttocks, thighs, abdomen, shoulders, face and neck from the treatment, with one patient also developing a mycobacterial infection.  Following undesirable effects observed on several patients of a French practitioner, an official ratification was published in France in April 2011 to ban Mesotherapy as a method for removing fat deposits. This ban has been canceled in June 2011 by the French Council of State because the investigation proved that these undesirable effects weren’t due to the Mesotherapy itself, but to the fact it had been practiced in bad conditions and without respecting the hygiene principles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical studies.", "content": "In a prospective study, 10 patients underwent four sessions of facial mesotherapy using multivitamins at monthly intervals. This study found that there was no clinically relevant benefit.  Deoxycholic acid received FDA approval as an injectable to dissolve submental fat June 2015. This was based on a Phase III randomized trial of 2600 patients. 68.2% showed a response by measurement of the fat deposit. 81% had mild adverse reactions of bruising, swelling, pain, numbness, erythema, and firmness around the treated area.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mesotherapy (from Greek \"mesos\", \"middle\", and therapy from Greek \"therapeia\") is a non-surgical technique that uses micro-injections of pharmaceutical and homeopathic preparations, plant extracts, vitamins, and other ingredients into subcutaneous fat. Mesotherapy injections allegedly target adipose fat cells, apparently by inducing lipolysis, rupture and cell death among adipocytes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976282}
{"src_title": "Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and influence of his works.", "content": "Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos (pseudonym Jovino) was born at Gijón in Asturias, Spain. Selecting law as his profession, he studied at Oviedo, Ávila, and the University of Alcalá, before becoming a criminal judge at Seville in 1767.  His integrity and ability were rewarded in 1778 by a judgeship in Madrid, and in 1780 by appointment to the council of military orders. In the capital Jovellanos was a respected member of the literary and scientific societies; he was commissioned by the Society of Friends of the Country (Madrid's economic society) in 1787 to write his most well-known and influential work, \"Informe en el expediente de ley agraria\" (\"A report on the dossier of the Agrarian Law\"), a project which he completed in 1794, and published in 1795.  In his work on agrarian law, he called on the crown to eliminate the concentration of land ownership in the entailment of landed estates, ownership of land by the Catholic Church, and the existence of common lands unavailable to private ownership. In his view, Spain's wealth lay in its agricultural productivity which would allow its population to grow and prosper. In the eighteenth-century regime of land tenure, productivity was stifled by the latifundia (large landed estates) of the political elites and the Catholic Church as an institution, and common lands where there was no incentive for individuals to invest in its productivity. Jovellanos was influenced by Adam Smith's \"The Wealth of Nations\" (1776), which saw self-interest as the motivating force for economic activity. Jovellanos's recommendations were not implemented in Spain, but did influence thinking about agrarian land reform in the viceroyalty of New Spain by Bishop Manuel Abad y Queipo in the early nineteenth century before its independence in 1821. In turn, his writings influenced Alexander von Humboldt's thinking and writing on land issues in Mexico. Jovellanos also influenced thinking about agrarian land reform in Mexico in the late period of President Porfirio Díaz's regime by Andrés Molina Enríquez, who was the intellectual father of the article that empowered the State to expropriate land and other resources following the Mexican Revolution Constitution of 1917  Involved in the disgrace of his friend, Francisco de Cabarrús, Jovellanos spent the years 1790 to 1797 in what amounted to exile at Gijón, engaged in literary work and in founding the Asturian institution for agricultural, industrial, social and educational reform throughout his native province.  He was summoned again to public life in 1797 when, turning down the post of ambassador to Russia, he accepted that of minister of grace and justice, under \"the prince of peace\", Godoy, whose attention had been directed to him by Cabarrus, then one of his favorites. Displeased with Godoy's policy and conduct, Melchor de Jovellanos combined with his colleague Saavedra to procure his dismissal. Godoy returned to power in 1798 and Jovellanos was again sent away to Gijón.  Together with Asturian intellectual colleagues such as González Posada, Caveda y Solares and his sister Xosefa Xovellanos, Jovellanos then focused on the study of Asturias. He intended to start several projects in the study of his native Asturian language, including an Academy of Asturian Language and an Asturian dictionary, but in 1801 he was imprisoned in Bellver Castle (Majorca) and was forced to put all his cultural projects on hold.  The Peninsular War, and the advance of the French into Spain, set him once more at liberty. Joseph Bonaparte, having gained the Spanish throne, made Jovellanos the most brilliant offers, but the latter rejected them all and joined the patriotic opposition. He became a member of the Supreme Central Junta and contributed to reorganize the Cortes Generales. This accomplished, the Junta at once fell under suspicion, and Jovellanos was involved in its fall. In 1811 he was enthusiastically welcomed to Gijon; but the approach of the French forced him to leave once more. The vessel in which he sailed was compelled by bad weather to put in at Vega de Navia (now known as Puerto de Vega) in Asturias, and there he died on November 27, 1811.  Pedro de Silva, the second President of the Principality of Asturias, is a direct descendant of Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos through his mother, María Jesús Cienfuegos-Jovellanos Vigil-Escalera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Jovellanos's prose works, especially those on political and legislative economy, constitute his real claim to literary fame. In them, depth of thought and clear-sighted sagacity are couched in a certain Ciceronian elegance and classical purity of style. Besides the \"Ley agraria\", he wrote \"Elogios\", and a most interesting set of diaries or travel journals (1790–1801, first published in 1915) reflecting his trips across Northern Spain. He also published several other political and social essays.  His poetical works comprises a tragedy, \"Pelayo\", the comedy \"El delincuente honrado\", satires, and miscellaneous pieces, including a translation of the first book of \"Paradise Lost\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Enlightenment in Spain", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos (born Gaspar Melchor de Jove y Llanos, 5 January 1744 – 27 November 1811) was a Spanish neoclassical statesman, author, philosopher and a major figure of the Age of Enlightenment in Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976283}
{"src_title": "Achatina fulica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "Subspecies within this species:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The species is native to East Africa, but it has been widely introduced to other parts of the world through the pet trade, as a food resource, and by accidental introduction.  This species has been found in China since 1931 and its initial point of distribution in China was Xiamen. The snail has also been established in the Pratas Islands, of Taiwan, throughout India, the Pacific, Indian Ocean islands, Southeast Asia and the West Indies. The species was established in the United States in 1936. They were brought to the U.S. through imports. They were intended to be used for educational uses and to be pets. Some were also introduced because they were accidentally shipped with other cargo. Eradication is currently underway in Florida.  The species has recently been observed in Bhutan (Gyelposhing, Mongar), where it is an invasive species. It has begun to attack agricultural fields and flower gardens. It is believed there that dogs have died as a result of consuming the snail and being infected by the rat lungworm,\" Angiostrongylus cantonensis\".  Starting in 2010, individuals of the species have been found in the humid, subtropical Argentine Mesopotamia. The National Agricultural Health Service has established an ongoing project to detect, study, and prevent the expansion of this pest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The adult snail is around in height and or more in length.  The shell has a conical shape, being about twice as high as it is broad. Either clockwise (dextral) or counter-clockwise (sinistral) directions can be observed in the coiling of the shell, although the dextral cone is the more common. Shell colouration is highly variable, and dependent on diet. Typically, brown is the predominant colour and the shell is banded. The shell is particularly tough and has the highest heavy metal content of any snail species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "The giant African snail is native to East Africa, and can be traced back to Kenya and Tanzania. It is a highly invasive species, and colonies can be formed from a single gravid individual. In many places, release into the wild is illegal. Nonetheless, the species has established itself in some temperate climates and its habitat now includes most regions of the humid tropics, including many Pacific islands, southern and eastern Asia, and the Caribbean. The giant snail can now be found in agricultural areas, coastland, natural forest, planted forests, riparian zones, scrub and shrublands, urban areas, and wetlands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "The giant African snail is a macrophytophagous herbivore; it eats a wide range of plant material, fruit, and vegetables, paper, and cardboard. It sometimes eats sand, very small stones, bones from carcasses, and even concrete as calcium sources for its shell. In rare instances, the snails consume each other.  In captivity, this species can be fed on a wide range of fruit and vegetables, plain unseasoned mince, or boiled egg. They can also occasionally be fed cuttlefish bone, which is commonly used as a calcium source for healthy shell growth. They require about 18.28% of crude protein in their diet for optimal growth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lifecycle.", "content": "This species is a simultaneous hermaphrodite; each individual has both testes and ovaries and is capable of producing both sperm and ova. Instances of self-fertilization are rare, occurring only in small populations. Although both snails in a mating pair can simultaneously transfer gametes to each other (bilateral mating), this is dependent on the size difference between the partners. Snails of similar size can reproduce in this way. Two snails of differing sizes mate unilaterally (one way), with the larger individual acting as a female, due to the comparative resource investment associated with the different genders.  Like other land snails, these have intriguing mating behaviour, including petting their heads and front parts against each other. Courtship can last up to half an hour, and the actual transfer of gametes can last for two hours. Transferred sperm can be stored within the body up to two years. The number of eggs per clutch averages around 200. A snail may lay five to six clutches per year with a hatching viability around 90%.  Adult size is reached in about six months, after which growth slows, but does not cease until death. Life expectancy is commonly five to six years in captivity, but the snails can live for up to 10 years. They are active at night and spend the day buried underground. The giant African snail is capable of aestivating up to three years in times of extreme drought, sealing itself into its shell by secretion of a calcareous compound that dries on contact with the air.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Parasites.", "content": "Parasites of \"Achatina fulica\" include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As an invasive species.", "content": "In many places, this snail is a pest of agriculture and households, with the ability to transmit both human and plant pathogens. Suggested preventive measures include strict quarantine to prevent introduction and further spread. This snail has been given top national quarantine significance in the United States. In the past, quarantine officials have been able to successfully intercept and eradicate incipient invasions on the mainland USA.  They are also known to damage buildings by eating stucco and similar materials for the calcium.  In the wild, this species often harbors the parasitic nematode \"Angiostrongylus cantonensis\", which can cause a very serious meningitis in humans. Human cases of this meningitis usually result from a person having eaten the raw or undercooked snail, but even handling live wild snails of this species can infect a person with the nematode, thus causing a life-threatening infection.  In some regions, an effort has been made to promote use of the giant African snail as a food resource to reduce its populations. However, promoting a pest in this way is a controversial measure, because it may encourage the further deliberate spread of the snails.  One particularly catastrophic attempt to biologically control this species occurred on South Pacific Islands. Colonies of \"A. fulica\" were introduced as a food reserve for the American military during World War II and they escaped. A carnivorous species (Florida rosy wolfsnail, \"Euglandina rosea\") was later introduced by the United States government, in an attempt to control \"A. fulica\", but the rosy wolf snail instead heavily preyed upon the native \"Partula\" snails, causing the extinction of most \"Partula\" species within a decade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human use.", "content": "These snails are used by some practitioners of Candomblé for religious purposes in Brazil as an offering to the deity Oxalá. The snails substitute for a closely related species, the African giant snail (\"Archachatina marginata\") normally offered in Nigeria. The two species share a common name (\"Ìgbín\", also known as \"ibi\" or \"boi-de-oxalá\" in Brazil), and are similar enough in appearance to satisfy religious authorities. They are also edible if cooked properly. In Taiwan, this species is used in the dish of 炒螺肉 (hot frying snails), which is a delicacy among the traditional drinking snacks. \"L. fulica\" also constitutes the predominant land snail found in Chinese markets, and larger African species have potential as small, efficient livestock.  The snails have also become increasingly popular as pets in countries including France and the UK, where various companies have sold the animal both as a pet and an education aide. \"L. fulica\" is one of the most common snails being sold in the pet trade.  The heparinoid acharan sulfate is isolated from this species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "This article incorporates CC BY-2.0 text from the reference.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Achatina fulica is a species of large land snail that belongs in the family Achatinidae. It is also known as the Giant African land snail. It shares the common name \"giant African snail\" with other species of snails such as \"Achatina achatina\" and \"Archachatina marginata\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976284}
{"src_title": "Barbora Špotáková", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Špotáková was an All-American during her one season at the University of Minnesota in 2001-02 and won the silver medal at the 2006 European Championships in Gothenburg.  Špotáková improved the Czech national record (previously 66.21 m held by herself since 2006) twice in the final of the 2007 World Championships in Osaka. She took an early lead for 66.40 m in the first attempt and secured the gold medal in the third attempt (67.07 m) before German Christina Obergföll (66.46 m). Špotáková became the seventh woman in the world to reach the 67 m mark. More importantly, she became the Olympic winner in 2008 with her last throw, 71.42 m, which then was the new European record.  At the 2008 IAAF World Athletics Final on 13 September 2008, Špotáková broke the world record in the first round to win the competition with a throw of 72.28 m.  Špotáková was a heptathlete in her early career, finishing fourth at the 2000 World Junior Championships. Špotáková also won the International Combined Events Meeting in Hexham in 2000 before she went on to study in the USA and specialise in Javelin throwing. She is currently a member of the elite ASO (\"Armádní sportovní oddíl\", Army Sport Group) of Dukla Prague. Until the end of the 2010 season she was coached by Rudolf Černý, who led her from a national elite level heptathlete to the World Record in the Women's Javelin. Prior to the 2011 season it was announced that Jan Železný would take over as her coach. At the end of 2010 she won the Czech federation's annual poll for \"Athlete of the year\" for the fourth year in a row. Then she won it again in 2011, making it five years in a row. Barbora Špotáková is consecutive winner of 2008 Beijing Olympics and 2012 London Olympics.  Špotáková gave birth to a son Janek in May 2013 and did not compete at the world championships in Moscow later that year.  In 2014, Špotáková finally captured the one major title to have eluded her, winning the European Championships in Zürich, Switzerland with a throw of 64.41 m.  Špotáková reunited with her former coach Rudolf Černý in 2015 to train for The Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro in 2016, where she won the bronze medal with a throw of 64.80m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Miscellaneous.", "content": "Špotáková is a fan of Czech rock band \"Tři Sestry\" (Three Sisters). Before the Olympic Games in 2008, their leader Lou Fanánek Hagen announced that if she wins the gold medal, the band will record a song in her honor. After she had indeed won the Olympics, Tři Sestry recorded a song called \"Čtvrtá sestra\" (The fourth sister) celebrating her triumph.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Barbora Špotáková (; born 30 June 1981) is a Czech track and field athlete who competes in the javelin throw. She is a two-time Olympic Champion and three-time World Champion, as well as the current world record holder with a throw of 72.28 m.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976285}
{"src_title": "Slavonic Dances", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition.", "content": "Prior to the publication of the \"Slavonic Dances\", Op. 46, Dvořák was a relatively unknown composer and was of modest means. Consequently, he had applied for the Austrian State Prize fellowship (German \"Stipendium\") in order to fund his composing work. After he won the prize three times in four years (1874, 1876 and 1877), Johannes Brahms, as one of the members of the committee responsible for awarding the stipend, referred Dvořák to his own publisher, Fritz Simrock. The first of Dvořák's music to be published by Simrock was the \"Moravian Duets\", which attained widespread success; encouraged, Simrock asked the composer to write something with a dance-like character.  Unsure how to begin, Dvořák used Brahms's \"Hungarian Dances\" as a model—but only as a model; there are a number of important differences between the two works. For example, whereas Brahms made use of actual Hungarian folk melodies, Dvořák only made use of the characteristic rhythms of Slavic folk music: the melodies are entirely his own. Simrock was immediately impressed by the music Dvořák produced (originally for piano four hands), and asked the composer for an orchestral version as well. Both versions were published within the year, and quickly established Dvořák's international reputation. The enormous success of the Op. 46 dances led Simrock to request another set of \"Slavonic Dances\" in 1886; Dvořák's subsequent Op. 72 dances met with a similar reception.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orchestration.", "content": "The orchestration for the \"Slavonic Dances\", with minor variations for each number, is as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The music.", "content": "The types of dances upon which Dvořák based his music include the furiant, the dumka, the polka, the sousedská, the skočná, the mazurka, the odzemek, the špacírka, the kolo and the polonaise. A full performance of each opus typically takes approximately 35-40 minutes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opus 72.", "content": "The dances of this opus are sometimes numbered separately from the first and sometimes as numbers 9–16. Most editions give both numbers.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Slavonic Dances () are a series of 16 orchestral pieces composed by Antonín Dvořák in 1878 and 1886 and published in two sets as Op. 46 and Op. 72 respectively. Originally written for piano four hands, the \"Slavonic Dances\" were inspired by Johannes Brahms's own \"Hungarian Dances\" and were orchestrated at the request of Dvořák's publisher soon after composition. The pieces, lively and full of national character, were well received at the time and today are considered among the composer's most memorable works, occasionally making appearances in popular culture. “Contrary to what the title might suggest, the dances are not so much inspired by Slavic folk music generally, but specifically by styles and forms from Bohemia. In these pieces, Dvořák never actually quotes folk melodies, but evokes their style and spirit by using traditional rhythmic patterns and structures in keeping with traditional folk dances.”", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976286}
{"src_title": "Duchy of Lorraine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lotharingia.", "content": "Lorraine's predecessor, Lotharingia, was an independent Carolingian kingdom under the rule of King Lothair II (855–869). Its territory had originally been a part of Middle Francia, created in 843 by the Treaty of Verdun, when the Carolingian empire was divided between the three sons of Louis the Pious. Middle Francia was allotted to Emperor Lothair I, therefore called \"Lotharii Regnum\". On his death in 855, it was further divided into three parts, of which his son Lothair II took the northern one. His realm then comprised a larger territory stretching from the County of Burgundy in the south to the North Sea. In French, this area became known as \"Lorraine\", while in German, it was eventually known as \"Lothringen\". In the Alemannic language once spoken in Lorraine, the -ingen suffix signified a property; thus, in a figurative sense, \"Lotharingen\" can be translated as \"Land belonging to Lothair\", or more simplified *Lothairs realm*.  As Lothair II had died without heirs, his territory was divided by the 870 Treaty of Meerssen between East and West Francia and finally came under East Frankish rule as a whole by the 880 Treaty of Ribemont. After the East Frankish Carolingians became extinct with the death of Louis the Child in 911, Lotharingia once again attached itself to West Francia, but was conquered by the German king Henry the Fowler in 925. Stuck in the conflict with his rival Hugh the Great, in 942 King Louis IV of France renounced all claims to Lotharingia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Duchy of Upper Lorraine.", "content": "In 953, the German king Otto I had appointed his brother Bruno the Great Duke of Lotharingia. In 959, Bruno divided the duchy into Upper and Lower Lorraine; this division became permanent following his death in 965. The Upper Duchy was further \"up\" the river system, that is, it was inland and to the south. Upper Lorraine was first denominated as the Duchy of the Moselle, both in charters and narrative sources, and its duke was the \"dux Mosellanorum\". The usage of \"Lotharingia Superioris\" and \"Lorraine\" in official documents begins later, around the fifteenth century. The first duke and deputy of Bruno was Frederick I of Bar, son-in-law of Bruno's sister Hedwig of Saxony.  Lower Lorraine disintegrated into several smaller territories and only the title of a \"Duke of Lothier\" remained, held by Brabant. After the duchy of the Moselle came into the possession of René of Anjou, the name \"Duchy of Lorraine\" was adopted again, only retrospectively called \"Upper Lorraine\". At that time, several territories had already split off, such as the County of Luxembourg, the Electorate of Trier, the County of Bar and the \"Three Bishoprics\" of Verdun, Metz and Toul.  The border between the Empire and the Kingdom of France remained relatively stable throughout the Middle Ages. In 1301, Count Henry III of Bar had to receive the western part of his lands (\"Barrois mouvant\") as a fief by King Philip IV of France. In 1475, the Burgundian duke Charles the Bold campaigned for the Duchy of Lorraine, but was finally defeated and killed at the 1477 Battle of Nancy. In the 1552 Treaty of Chambord, a number of insurgent Protestant Imperial princes around Elector Maurice of Saxony ceded the Three Bishoprics to King Henry II of France in turn for his support.  Due to the weakening of Imperial authority during the 1618-1648 Thirty Years' War, France was able to occupy the duchy in 1634 and retained it until 1661 when Charles IV was restored. In 1670, the French invaded again, forcing Charles into exile; his nephew and heir Charles V (1643-1690) spent his life in the service of the Imperial House of Habsburg. France returned the Duchy in the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick ending the Nine Years' War and Charles' son Leopold (1679-1729), became duke and was known as 'Leopold the Good;' in the 1701-1714 War of the Spanish Succession, parts of Lorraine, including the capital Nancy, were again occupied by France, but Leopold continued to reign at the Château de Lunéville.  In 1737, after the War of the Polish Succession, an agreement between France, the Habsburgs and the Lorraine House of Vaudémont assigned the Duchy to Stanisław Leszczyński, former king of Poland. He was also father-in-law to King Louis XV of France, who lost out to a candidate backed by Russia and Austria in the War of the Polish Succession. The Lorraine duke Francis Stephen, betrothed to the Emperor's daughter Archduchess Maria Theresa, was compensated with the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, where the last Medici ruler had recently died without issue. France also promised to support Maria Theresa as heir to the Habsburg possessions under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. Leszczyński received Lorraine with the understanding that it would fall to the French crown on his death. The \"title\" of Duke of Lorraine was of course given to Stanisław, but also retained by Francis Stephen, and it figures prominently in the titles of his successors (as a non-claimant family name), the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. When Stanisław died on 23 February 1766, Lorraine was annexed by France and reorganized as a province by the French government.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "Two regional languages survive in the region.  Lorraine Franconian, known as'or'in French, is a West Central German dialect spoken by a minority in the northern part of the region. This is distinct from the neighbouring Alsatian language, although the two are often confused. Neither has any form of official recognition.  Lorrain is a Romance dialect spoken by a minority in the southern part of the region.  The duchy produced a number of important painters, including Claude Lorrain, Georges de La Tour and Jean LeClerc.  Like most of France's regional languages (such as Breton, Franco-Provençal, Occitan, Alsatian, Catalan, Basque and Flemish), Lorrain and Lorraine Franconian were largely replaced by French with the advent of mandatory public schooling in the 19th and 20th centuries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Duchy of Lorraine ( ; ), originally Upper Lorraine, was a duchy now included in the larger present-day region of Lorraine in northeastern France. Its capital was Nancy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976287}
{"src_title": "Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Catherine was born in Ratzeburg to Magnus I, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg and Catherine, daughter of Henry IV, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Her marriage to Gustav I of Sweden was arranged for political reasons. Gustav wished to marry shortly after having taken the Swedish throne. He had failed in his negotiations to marry Dorothea of Denmark (also proposed to by Philip of Hesse who was considered more advantageous); Sophia of Mecklenburg; Anna of Pomerania (parents considered his rule too unstable); and Hedwig of Poland (parents discontinued negotiations because of Swedish Reformation), and was finally advised to consider the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg.  Though the duchy was small and poor, it had many advantages: its dynasty was related to many of the most powerful dynasties of Europe, which would give valuable connections with the German princes; it was Protestant, which was important for the ongoing Swedish Reformation, but could also give Imperial connections through Catherine's mother; it would give a valuable link to Denmark, as Catherine's older sister Dorothea was married to Christian, the Crown Prince of Denmark; and finally, the duchy at that point was known as a center for mercenaries, which was important for Gustav as a newly established ruler. The negotiations started in 1528, but were delayed several years as the bride's father doubted the stability of the Swedish throne, doubt partially confirmed by events such as the Dalecarlian rebellions. Finally, with mediation from Lübeck, they were completed after almost three years, and Catherine was granted the counties of Korsholm, Kalmar and Öland as a dower.  In September 1531, Catherine was escorted to Sweden on a fleet by the \"highest lords and ladies of the realm\" headed by her future sister-in-law Margaret with her spouse Count John of Hoya, and met her future husband for the first time. Their wedding was celebrated in Stockholm on her 18th birthday 24 September 1531. Shortly after the royal wedding, in events hosted by King Gustav and Queen Catherine, Brita Leijonhufvud, the daughter of the king's second cousin Ebba Eriksdotter Vasa, was married to the king's courtier and favorite Gustav Olsson Stenbock (they were to be the parents of the king's third wife Catherine Stenbock) and the king's niece Brita Joakimsdotter Brahe was engaged to \"riksråd\" Birger Nilsson Grip. These were the first events Catherine hosted as queen of Sweden.  Very little is known about queen Catherine as a person and her tenure as queen. There is no information on her courtiers, though she is assumed to have brought ladies-in-waiting from Germany in addition to her Swedish ones, among whom Margaret Leijonhufvud (the king's future second queen) is likely to have been one. Traditional history describes Catherine as capricious, cold, melancholic and discontent, and the marriage has been described as a stormy and unhappy one. There is, however, no contemporary information on that. On 13 December 1533, she fulfilled her most important task as queen consort by giving birth to an heir to the throne: the future King Eric XIV.  In September 1535, during a ball given in honor of her brother-in-law, King Christian III of Denmark, who was visiting the Swedish royal court, Queen Catherine fell while pregnant during a dance with Christian III. The fall confined her to bed and led to complications, and she died on 23 September with her unborn child.  At the time of her death, king Gustav was involved in the Count's Feud, and his opponents in this conflict, Lübeck and Rostock, spread the rumor that he had murdered his queen by beating her on the head with a silver cane after a report from a spy that she had slandered him to Christian while dancing. The exhumation of Catherine's skeleton done in the 1940s showed no sign of any such injury, and no accusations were ever made by her family. Furthermore, Christian III himself confirmed the serious fall of Queen Catherine in his private letters, even though he was no friend of Gustav Vasa's.  In traditional history writings, queen Catherine was given a bad reputation and often presented as a bad example, by contrast to the second queen of Gustav I, Queen Margaret, who was made out to be a stereotypically and perfectly ideal queen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg (\"Katarina\" in Swedish) (24 September 1513 – 23 September 1535) was the first wife of Gustav I of Sweden and thus Queen of Sweden from 1531 until her death in 1535.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976288}
{"src_title": "Armistice of Znaim", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "The immediate cause of the two-day Battle of Znaim was the decision of the Austrian commander in chief, Archduke Charles, to stage a rearguard action near the town of Znaim, about 80 kilometers north of Vienna, in order to give his army time to withdraw its baggage train in safety toward Moravia. Marmont’s two combined French and Bavarian corps were the first of Napoleon’s troops to arrive on the field following the course of the river Thaya. Believing that he faced only a rear guard, Marmont ordered his Bavarian troops to take the village of Tesswitz south of Znaim, while the rest of his troops attacked the village of Zuckerhandl.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "The Bavarians succeeded in storming Tesswitz but were then thrown out by Austrian reinforcements. Marmont renewed the Bavarian attack, and Tesswitz was retaken, only to be lost soon after. The village changed hands a number of times during the day, this contest constituting the heaviest fighting the Bavarians saw in the whole campaign. Marmont had hoped to swing his cavalry in behind the Austrian rear guard, but on reaching high ground above Tesswitz, they were faced with five enemy corps. The French cavalry was forced to withdraw in the face of a large body of Austrian cuirassiers.  Marmont was now engaged by 40,000 Austrian troops and was heavily outnumbered. His men nevertheless managed to hold on to both Tesswitz and Zuckerhandl overnight. Archduke Charles withdrew his forces into a strong defensive position situated so as to hold the north bank of the Thaya and Znaim. Napoleon arrived at Tesswitz at 10:00 A.M., and despite the fact that he had brought with him reinforcements of cavalry and artillery, he believed that his force was too weak to launch a full-scale attack. His plan therefore was to employ Masséna’s corps to pin the Austrians throughout the day and to await the corps of marshals Louis-Nicolas Davout and Nicolas Oudinot, which would be able to arrive early on the twelfth. Masséna launched his attack on the extreme right of the Austrian position during midmorning and quickly seized the main bridge across the Thaya south of Znaim. His troops took two small villages and then advanced directly on Znaim. Charles meanwhile reinforced the Austrian position with two grenadier brigades, which advanced during a thunderstorm and initially threw the French back.  The situation was stabilized by a body of French cavalry at approximately 7:00 P.M., when French and Austrian staff officers rode along the opposing lines announcing a cease-fire, which led to the signature of an armistice on the twelfth. Znaim was to prove the last action of the 1809 campaign. The two sides signed a treaty of peace at the Schönbrunn Palace on 14 October.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Armistice of Znaim was a ceasefire agreed between Archduke Charles and Napoleon I on 12 July 1809 following the Battle of Znaim, effectively ending hostilities between Austria and France in the War of the Fifth Coalition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976289}
{"src_title": "Francisco de Paula Martínez de la Rosa y Berdejo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born at Granada, and educated at the university there.  He won popularity with a series of epigrams on local celebrities published under the title of \"El Cementerio de momo\". During the struggle against Napoleon he took the patriotic side, was elected deputy, and at Cadiz produced his first play, \"Lo que puede un empleo\", a prose comedy in the manner of the younger Leandro Fernández de Moratín. \"La Viuda de Padilia\" (1814), a tragedy modelled upon Alfieri, was less acceptable to the Spanish public.  Meanwhile, the author became more and more engulfed in politics, and in 1814 was banished to Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera on the Barbary Coast, where he remained until 1820, when he was suddenly recalled and appointed prime minister. During the next three years he was the most unpopular man in Spain; denounced as a revolutionist by the Conservatives and as a reactionary by the Liberals, he alienated the sympathies of all parties, and his rhetoric earned for him the contemptuous nickname of Rosita la Pastelera (Rosie the compromiser/cake maker).  Exiled in 1823, he took refuge in Paris, where he issued his \"Obras literarias\" (1827), including his \"Arte poética\", in which he exaggerated the literary theories already promulgated by Luzan.  Returning to Spain in 1831, he became prime minister on the death of Ferdinand VII, but proved incapable of coping with the insurrectionary movement and resigned in 1834. It is worth noting that, before retiring, Martinez de la Rosa, as President of the Cabinet, approved the royal decree that finally abolished the Spanish Inquisition.  He was ambassador at Paris in 1839-1840 and at Rome in 1842–1843, joined the Conservative party, held many important offices, and was president of congress and director of the Spanish academy at the time of his death, which took place at Madrid on the 7th of February 1862.  As a statesman, Martinez de la Rosa never rose above mediocrity. It was his misfortune to be in place without real power, to struggle against a turbulent pseudo-democratic movement promoted by unscrupulous soldiers, and to contend with the intrigues of the king, the court camarilla and the clergy. But circumstances which hampered him in politics favoured his career in literature. He was not a great natural force; his early plays and poems are influenced by Leandro Moratín or by Juan Meléndez Valdés; his \"Espíritu del siglo\" (1835) is a summary of all the commonplaces concerning the philosophy of history; his \"Doña Isabel de Solís\" (1837–1846) is an imitation of Walter Scott's historical novels.  Through the accident of his exile at Paris he was thrown into relations with the leaders of the French Romantic Movement, and was so far impressed with the innovations of the new school as to write in French a romantic piece entitled \"Abén Humeya\" (1830), which was played at the Porte Saint-Martin. On his return to Madrid Martinez de la Rosa produced \"La Conjuracíon de Venecia\" (April 23, 1834), which entitles him to be called the pioneer of the romantic drama in Spain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francisco de Paula Martínez de la Rosa y Cornejo (March 10, 1787 – February 7, 1862) was a Spanish statesman and dramatist and the first prime minister of Spain to receive the title of \"President of the Council of Ministers\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976290}
{"src_title": "Peter Arshinov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Peter Arshinov was born in Yekaterinoslav. In 1904 he become involved with the revolutionary movement. In 1905 he worked as a locksmith in the railway workshops of \"Kizyl-Arvat\" (now Serdar in Turkmenistan), where he joined the Bolshevik section of the Russian Social Democratic Party. From here he led the organization of the \"RSDLP\" and was the editor of the illegal Bolshevik newspaper \"Molot\". Hiding from the police, he soon returned to Ukraine where he joined the workers at a factory in Ekaterinoslav. In December 1906, after the autumn defeat, he united the militant anarchist survivors of Ekaterinoslav into a terrorist group and organized a series of attacks - including the assassination of a ruthless railroad boss and the bombing of a village police station on 23 December 1906, in which a number of Cossack and police officers were killed.  On the 9th March 1907 he was arrested and condemned to death by hanging by a military tribunal. In 22nd April 1907 he escaped from prison. Arshinov then found refuge in France, venturing to Russia two years later. In the autumn of 1909 he was arrested for spreading anarchist propaganda. He would escape before sentencing and would go onto to participate in underground propaganda work. In May-July 1910 he performed a robbery with fellow anarchists on a wine depot in the village of Filopovo. This would soon lead to his arrest in Austria and subsequent trial in Russia. In October 1911 he was again imprisoned for a 20-year sentence in Moscow's Butyrka prison. There he met fellow convict and anarchist leader Nestor Makhno. They were released seven years later, in 1917, during the February Revolution. While Makhno returned to Ukraine, Arshinov joined the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups. Arshinov returned to Ukraine to participate in Makhno's 1919 Makhnovist insurrection, which lasted until 1921.  Arshinov emigrated to Germany in 1922, later moving to France and the United States. In 1923 he published his \"History of the Makhnovist Movement\", which was used as evidence for defence in the court proceedings against Nestor Makhno in Paris, and helped obtain his exoneration.. Arshinov got in contact with Communist leader Ordzhonidze who promised to help Arshinov if he formally broke all ties with anarchism. Arshinov produced two anti-anarchist pamphlets, Anarchism and the dictatorship of the proletariat in 1931 and Anarchism in our age, in 1933, which both gained him notoriety in anarchist circles with Camillo Berneri remarking that he \"had not left the movement quietly and with dignity, but had slammed the door behind him like a drunk\". After breaking up with anarchism Arshinov returned to the USSR in 1934 with permission of the Soviet authorities. He was arrested in 1937, accused of creation of anarchist underground network, and was summarily executed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Andreyevich Arshinov (), also P. Marin () (1886–1937), was a Ukrainian anarchist revolutionary and intellectual who chronicled Nestor Makhno's 1919–1921 uprising.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976291}
{"src_title": "Ethnic cleansing of Zamojszczyzna by Nazi Germany", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Genesis.", "content": "Wartime fate of the Polish children from Zamojszczyzna was closely related to the German plans for the expansion of their own so-called \"living space in the East\", part of a broader Nazi policy called the \"Generalplan Ost\". The plans for \"ethnically cleansing the land\" of its inhabitants were created in the fall of 1941 in Berlin and were closely connected with the idea of the new great consolidation of German nationhood. Country-wide actions dubbed \"Heim ins Reich\" (\"Home to the Reich\") were conducted across all of Central and Eastern Europe (see Action Saybusch in Polish Silesia). Their main purpose was to transplant colonists of the German origin from Russia, Romania, and other countries, to occupied Poland. At the beginning of war, the programme was mainly realised in western parts of Poland, including Wielkopolska, Eastern Silesia and Danzig-Westpreußen already controlled by Nazi Germany; but after Operation Barbarossa, it was continued throughout the General Government.  In order to prepare the land for the new German settlers, both German military and all \"branches of police\" including \"Sonderdienst\", aided by the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police battalions, conducted mass deportations of native Polish inhabitants using Holocaust trains as well as lorries and even horse-drawn wagons. Zamojszczyzna was recognized as one of the core German settlement areas in \"Distrikt Galizien\", and according to the order of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler became the first intervention target in the region. Ukrainians were transferred to villages on the perimeter of German colonies to provide a buffer zone protecting the German settlers from Polish partisans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The forcible depopulation of Zamojszczyzna.", "content": "The German Wehrmacht attacked the Soviet forces in eastern Poland on June 22, 1941, and in the euphoric atmosphere surrounding their initial victories, the \"Aktion Zamosc\" was first outlined by Himmler together with Governor Hans Frank who initially requested that the programme be delayed until complete victory, but was convinced otherwise. In accordance with the General Plan East, the first forcible removal of the 2,000 inhabitants from selected villages was conducted between 6th and 25 of November 1941, while the general deportation programme began a year later on the night of 27–28 November 1942 in Skierbieszów and its vicinity. By then, the murderous Operation Reinhard was already in full swing.  The expulsions encompassed the districts of Hrubieszów, Tomaszów Lubelski, Zamość and Biłgoraj, and were completed in March 1943. In total 297 Polish villages were depopulated. A concentration camp was created in Zamość around the streets of Piłsudskiego and Okrzei. Initially, it was a transit camp for Soviet POWs, rebuilt and expanded with 15 new barracks added for the imprisonment of rounded up families. \"SS-Unterscharführer\" Artur Schütz was appointed the camp's commandant. From there, transports of children no older than 14 years of age – whose names have already been Germanized – were sent elsewhere. Historians estimate that 116,000 people in total were forcibly removed from Zamojszczyzna, among them 30,000 children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deportations to concentration camps.", "content": "The camp in Zamość, located on S. Okrzei street, served as the transit point for selections and further deportations. In the first month of Action Zamość the camp processed 7,055 Polish inhabitants of 62 villages. People were divided into four main categories with the following code letters: \"WE\" (re-Germanization), \"AA\" (transport to the Reich), \"RD\" (farm-work for the settlers), \"KI\" (\"Kindertransport\"), \"AG\" (work in the General Government); and finally, \"KL\" (concentration camp). Those expelled from Zamojszczyzna to perform slave labour in Germany were loaded onto trains departing for temporary displacement camps governed by main resettlement HQ in Łodź. People from the last group were sent to the Nazi concentration camps at Auschwitz and Majdanek.  The camp in Zamość processed 31,536 Poles according to Germany's own records, or 41,000 based on postwar estimates. Dispossessed Polish families were sent to other transit camps as well including Zwierzyniec in the Zamość County, which processed 20,000-24,000 Poles (12,000 between July and August 1943). Transit camps existed in Budzyń, Frampol, Lublin (on Krochmalna street), Stary Majdan, Biłgoraj County, Tarnogród, Wola Derezieńska, Old Wedan, Biłgoraj and also in Puszcza Solska. Race selections based on forcible abduction of children from their parents were conducted in all of them. The term \"Children of Zamojszczyzna\" originates from the multitude of those locations.  Children suffered the most in those camps. The average stay lasted several months. Starvation, cold, disease were fatal for them a lot more often than for adults. Separated from their parents, children were transported in cattle wagons (100 up to 150 children in one wagon) to other destinations. Many of them were sent to the concentration camp for children run side-by-side with the Łódź Ghetto. Kinder KZ processed up to 13,000 children. News about enormous drama of children from Zamojszczyzna quickly spread through entire country. Polish railwayman were forwarding messages about transports to inhabitants of the cities where transports were stopping by. There were several stations where ordinary people took a chance and risked rescuing the children, like in Sobolew, Żelechów, Siedlce, Garwolin, Pilawa and Warsaw. Another deportation action, called Operation Werwolf, was conducted during the summer of 1944 ahead of the Soviet advance. Many of the inhabitants were forced to evacuate after being previously transferred into these areas by Germany as early as 1939. Entire families ended up in concentration camps at Majdanek (up to 15,000 prisoners of Action Zamość) and Oświęcim, before deportation to forced labour in the Reich. At Majdanek, due to severe overcrowding, entire train-loads were kept in open fields numbered from III to V.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germanization.", "content": "There was also a portion of children designated for germanisation. Those, in which German anthropologists confirmed the presence of desirable racial traits, were supposed to go through transition by being placed in German families or German orphanages. Out of several thousand of children taken to Germany only 800 were successfully reclaimed. After the World War II this atrocity was investigated in Nuremberg. From Polish side statements came from Zygmunt Klukowski – a doctor from Szczebrzeszyn, who knew well conditions of camps in Zwierzyniec and Biłgoraj, and from three of the returned children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The ethnic cleansing of Zamojszczyzna by Nazi Germany (, also: \"Operation Himmlerstadt\") during World War II was carried out as part of a greater plan of forcible removal of the entire Polish populations from targeted regions of occupied Poland in preparation for the state-sponsored settlement of the ethnic German \"Volksdeutsche\". The operation of mass expulsions from Zamojszczyzna region around the city of Zamość (now in Lublin Voivodeship, Poland) was carried out between November 1942 and March 1943 on direct order from Heinrich Himmler. It was preplanned by both, Globocnik from Action Reinhard and Himmler, as the first stage of the eventual murderous ethnic cleansing ahead of projected Germanization of the entire General Government territory.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976292}
{"src_title": "John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Kimberley was born in 1826 in Wymondham, Norfolk, the eldest son of the Hon. Henry Wodehouse (1799–1834) and grandson of John Wodehouse, 2nd Baron Wodehouse. His mother was Anne Gurdon (d. 1880), daughter of Theophilus Thornhagh Gurdon. In 1846 he succeeded his grandfather as third Baron Wodehouse. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a first-class degree in classics in 1847.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career (1852–1874).", "content": "He was by inheritance a Liberal in politics, and in 1852–1856 and 1859–1861 he was Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in Lord Aberdeen's and Lord Palmerston's ministries. In the interval (1856–1858) he had been envoy-extraordinary to Russia; and in 1863 he was sent on a special mission to Copenhagen in the hope of finding a solution to the Schleswig-Holstein question. However, the mission was a failure.  In 1864 Kimberley became Under-Secretary of State for India, but towards the end of the year was made Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. In that capacity, he had to grapple with the first manifestations of Fenianism, and in recognition of his services, he was created Earl of Kimberley in 1866. In July 1866 he vacated his office with the fall of Lord Russell's ministry, but in 1868 he became Lord Privy Seal in Gladstone's cabinet, and in July 1870 was transferred from that post to be Secretary of State for the Colonies. It was the moment of the great diamond discoveries in southern Africa, and the town of Kimberley in the Cape Colony was named after him. Lord Kimberley has been credited with the change in British policy towards the independent Malay states that led to the signing of the Pangkor Treaty of 1874, after which British political agents known as Residents were placed in the Malay states as advisors to the rulers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later career (1875–1902).", "content": "After an interval in opposition from 1874 to 1880, Lord Kimberley returned to the Colonial Office in Gladstone's next ministry. He was in that office when responsible government was granted to Cape Colony, British Columbia was added to the Dominion of Canada and during the First Boer War. At the end of 1882 he exchanged this office first for that of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and then for the secretaryship of state for India, a post he retained during the remainder of Gladstone's tenure of power (1882–1885, 1886, 1892–1894), though in 1892–1894 he combined with it that of the lord presidency of the council.  In Lord Rosebery's cabinet (1894–1895) he was Foreign Secretary. During this time he signed the landmark Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation. Sir Edward Grey who served as Parliamentary Under-Secretary under Kimberley at the Foreign Office portrays him unfavourably as prolix and prone to irrelevant digressions in conversation although \"concise, definite and clear\" on paper. However, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, \"As leader of the Liberal party in the House of Lords he acted with undeviating dignity, and in opposition, he was a courteous antagonist and a critic of weight and experience\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other public positions.", "content": "On 5 April 1850, he joined the Canterbury Association, formed to establish a colony (in the later Canterbury region) on the South Island of New Zealand.  Lord Kimberley took interest in education, and after being for many years a member of the senate of the University of London, he became its chancellor in 1899.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Kimberley married Lady Florence FitzGibbon (d. 1895), daughter of Richard FitzGibbon, 3rd Earl of Clare, on 16 August 1847. He died at 35 Lowndes Square in London (now the High Commission of Pakistan) on 8 April 1902, aged 76, and was succeeded in his titles by his eldest son, John. His second son, the Hon. Armine Wodehouse, was also a Liberal politician but died at an early age. His more distant relations include the writer P. G. Wodehouse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memorials.", "content": "The following places were named after the 1st Earl of Kimberley:  Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley, (7 January 18268 April 1902), known as The 3rd Baron Wodehouse from 1846 to 1866, was a British Liberal politician. He held office in every Liberal administration from 1852 to 1895, notably as Secretary of State for the Colonies and as Foreign Secretary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976293}
{"src_title": "MICA (missile)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "There are two MICA variants; MICA RF has an active radar homing seeker and MICA IR has an imaging infra-red homing seeker. Both seekers are designed to filter out counter-measures such as chaff and decoy flares. A thrust vector control unit fitted to the rocket motor increases the missile's agility. The missile is capable of lock-on after launch (LOAL) which means it is capable of engaging targets outside its seeker's at-launch acquisition range. Mounted on the Rafale, the MICA IR can provide IR imagery to the central data processing system, thus acting as an extra sensor.  MICA can also be employed as a short-range surface-to-air missile. It is available in a ground-based version, VL MICA, fired from a truck-mounted box launcher, and a naval version, VL MICA-M, fired from a ship-fitted vertical launch system. On October 23, 2008, 15:30, at CELM, Biscarosse (Landes), a VL MICA missile successfully performed the last of its 14 test firings meaning it is now ready for mass production. The target drone was flying at low level, over the sea, 12 km away; despite this distance, MICA, equipped with an active radar seeker, locked on the target and shot it down.  Corvettes too small to have the big and costly Aster missile system are the most likely customers for the VL MICA-M, which offers similar capability as the Aster 15 but without its booster and PIF-PAF vectorial control.  While the VL MICA has an advertised range of 20 km, aerodynamic performance is significantly degraded at those ranges. From 0 to 7 km MICA has maneuverability of 50g, however by 12 km this is reduced to 30g as energy is lost.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The MBDA MICA (\"Missile d’interception, de combat et d’autodéfense\", “interception, combat and self-defence missile”) is an anti-air multi-target, all weather, fire-and-forget short and medium-range missile system. It is intended for use both by air platforms as individual missiles as well as ground units and ships, which can be equipped with the rapid fire MICA Vertical Launch System. It is fitted with a thrust vector control (TVC) system. It was developed from 1982 onward by Matra. The first trials occurred in 1991, and the missile was commissioned in 1996 to equip the Rafale and Mirage 2000. It is a replacement for both the Super 530, in the interception role, and the Magic II, in the dogfighting role.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976294}
{"src_title": "Dancing House", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The \"Dancing House\" is set on a property of great historical significance. Its site was the location of a house destroyed by the U.S. bombing of Prague in 1945. The plot and structure lay decrepit until 1960 when the area was cleared. The neighboring plot was co-owned by the family of Václav Havel who spent most of his life there. As early as 1986 (during the Communist era), Vlado Milunić, then a respected architect in the Czechoslovak milieu, conceived an idea for a project at the place and discussed it with his neighbour, the then little-known dissident Václav Havel. A few years later, during the Velvet Revolution Havel became a popular leader and was subsequently elected president of Czechoslovakia. Thanks to his authority the idea to develop the site grew. Havel eventually decided to have Milunić survey the site, hoping for it to become a cultural center, although this was not the result.  The Dutch insurance company Nationale-Nederlanden (since 1991 ING Bank) agreed to sponsor the building of a house on site. The \"superbank\" chose Milunić as the lead designer and asked him to partner with another world-renowned architect to approach the process. The French architect Jean Nouvel turned down the idea because of the small square footage, but the well-known Canadian-American architect Frank Gehry accepted the invitation. Because of the bank's excellent financial state at the time, it was able to offer almost unlimited funding for the project. From their first meeting in 1992 in Geneva, Gehry and Milunić began to elaborate Milunić's original idea of a building consisting of two parts, static and dynamic (\"yin and yang\"), which were to symbolize the transition of Czechoslovakia from a communist regime to a parliamentary democracy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "The style is known as deconstructivist (\"new-baroque\" to the designers) architecture due to its unusual shape. The \"dancing\" shape is supported by 99 concrete panels, each a different shape and dimension. On the top of the building is a large twisted structure of metal nicknamed \"Mary'.  In the middle of a square of buildings from the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the Dancing House has two main parts. The first is a glass tower that narrows at half its height and is supported by curved pillars; the second runs parallel to the river and is characterized by undulating mouldings and unaligned windows.  The famous dancers Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers are represented in the structure. A tower made of rock is used to represent Fred. This tower also includes a metal head. A tower made of glass is used to represent Ginger.  This design was driven mainly by aesthetic considerations: aligned windows would make evident that the building has two more floors, although it is the same height as the two adjacent nineteenth century buildings. The windows have protruding frames, such as those of paintings, as the designer intended for them to have a three-dimensional effect. The winding mouldings on the façade also serve to confuse perspective and diminish contrast with the surrounding buildings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The British architect, Eva Jiřičná, designed most of the interior. The building is 9 floors tall and consists of two floors underground. The layout of each of the floors varies due to the asymmetric shape of the building, causing the rooms inside to also be asymmetric. The commercial areas of the building are in the lobby and the first floor. The six floors above are used primarily as office spaces. The ninth floor housed a restaurant. Since the building takes a slim shape, and the building is split into two parts vertically, the office space is limited. To make the most of the space, architect Jiřičná used design elements common in ships and incorporated small hallways into the interior of the building. The total interior of the building is 3,796 sqm.  In 2016, over a course of five months, two floors of the building were renovated into a 21-room hotel by Luxury Suites s.r.o. The hotel also has apartments available in each of the tower named after Fred and Ginger. The Ginger & Fred Restaurant now operates on the seventh floor. There is now a glass bar on the eighth floor. There is also now an art gallery in the building.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "The general shape of the building is now featured on a gold 2,000 Czech koruna coin issued by the Czech National Bank. The coin completes a series called \"Ten Centuries of Architecture\". The Dancing House won Time Magazine's design contest in 1997. The Dancing House was also named one of the 5 most important buildings in the 1990s by Architekt Magazine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "The Dancing House has been called inappropriate in the classical city of Prague. The style, shape, heavy asymmetry, and material were seen as out of place by critics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dancing House (), or Fred and Ginger, is the nickname given to the Nationale-Nederlanden building on the Rašínovo nábřeží (Rašín Embankment) in Prague, Czech Republic. It was designed by the Croatian-Czech architect Vlado Milunić in cooperation with Canadian-American architect Frank Gehry on a vacant riverfront plot. The building was designed in 1992 and was completed four years later in 1996.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976295}
{"src_title": "2008 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Top Division.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relegation round.", "content": "\"Note: Matches\" 3–4 \"and\" 1–3 \"from the preliminary round (both on Dec 30th, 2007) are included as well since these results carry forward\"  All times local (CET/UTC +1)  \" and are relegated to Division I for the 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Winning team roster.", "content": "Roster of the winning Canadian team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division I tournament, that was held from December 9, through December 18, 2007. Group A was played at Bad Toelz, Germany. Group B was played at Riga, Latvia:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "\" is promoted to Pool A and is relegated to Division II for the 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "\" is promoted to Pool A and is relegated to Division II for the 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division II tournament, that was held from December 9, through December 16, 2007. Group A was played at Canazei, Italy. Group B was played at Tallinn, Estonia:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "\" is promoted to Division I and is relegated to Division III for the 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "\" is promoted to Division I and is relegated to Division III for the 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division III tournament, that was held from January 16 through January 24, 2008 in Belgrade, Serbia.  \" and were promoted to Division II for the 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2008 IIHF World U20 Championship, commonly referred to as the 2008 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships (2008 WJHC), was the 32nd edition of the Ice Hockey World Junior Championship. The Elite group, what the IIHF refer to as the Top Division, was held in Pardubice and Liberec, Czech Republic, between 26 December 2007 and 5 January 2008. Canada won the gold medal for the fourth consecutive time. Sweden earned its first World Junior medal since 1996 by reaching the final.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976296}
{"src_title": "Miloš Krasić", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Krasić was born on 1 November 1984 in Titova Mitrovica, SR Serbia, SFR Yugoslavia, to Serbian parents Veljko and Zorica. He is the younger brother of Bojan Krasić. After starting out with the hometown side FK Rudar, Krasić was noticed by FK Vojvodina in 1998 and he made a switch northwards at age 13. He spent the next four-and-a-half seasons in Novi Sad, where he further raised his level and became the team captain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CSKA Moscow.", "content": "Vojvodina and CSKA Moscow were in negotiations over Krasić's transfer since January 2004, but the deal stalled. The player himself even made several unsuccessful trips to Moscow. During the summer of 2004, the deal was completed and the winger was on his way to Russia. He featured in three games during the club's 2004–05 UEFA Cup-winning run, including an appearance in the final as a substitute. He also helped them win the Russian title in 2005 and 2006, the Russian Cup in 2005, 2006, 2008 and 2009, and the Russian Super Cup in 2006, 2007 and 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Juventus.", "content": "After much speculation in the summer of 2010, Juventus and CSKA agreed on a fee for Krasić reported to be in the range of about €15 million. Krasić officially became a Juventus player on 21 August and was given the number 27 shirt. Krasić was instrumental in his home debut against Sampdoria, assisting a goal and creating many chances. The game ended 3–3. In his second away game in the Serie A, against Udinese, Krasić proved once again instrumental in their 4–0 victory, assisting Fabio Quagliarella and Claudio Marchisio for a goal each. Krasić scored his first Juventus goals against Cagliari on 26 September 2010, netting a hat-trick.  He scored his first European goal for Juventus, helping his side salvage a point against Austrian side Red Bull Salzburg in the Group A tie of the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League, in a match that finished 1–1. On 26 October, he was given a two-match ban after diving, although winning a penalty (the penalty was then missed), during the league match against Bologna. Krasić scored a goal in a 2–0 away win over Genoa after Eduardo put a ball in his own net in the 18th minute. On 12 December, in the game against Lazio, Krasić scored a very late, match-winning goal in which his attempted cross deflected off Lazio goalkeeper Fernando Muslera and into the net. The match ended immediately after the goal in a 2–1 victory for Juventus. He scored a screamer which guided the \"Bianconeri\" to a 2–1 victory against Brescia. He managed to score another screamer against Roma in which the match ended 2–0.  In the 2011–12 season, under manager Antonio Conte, Krasić lost his place in the starting line-up and managed to make only 9 appearances, scoring once (against Catania on 25 September 2011). However, as the team finished first in the Serie A, he became an Italian highest league winner.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fenerbahçe.", "content": "Fenerbahçe completed the transfer of Krasić for €7 million on 3 August 2012. He signed a four-year contract worth €2.3 million per-season. His played first match for the club on 12 August 2012 against rivals Galatasaray, then scored his first goal for Fenerbahçe against Göztepe in a 4–0 Turkish Cup victory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loan to Bastia.", "content": "On the last day of the 2013 summer transfer window, French side Bastia managed to acquire Krasić on a season-long loan deal for €826,000. He scored a skillful goal in a 2–0 win against Evian on 1 December 2013.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Back to Fenerbahçe.", "content": "Prior to the 2014–15 season, Krasić returned to Fenerbahçe after his loan season but could not break into first team squad, instead beginning to play for the club's reserve team. Before the 2015–2016 season, he was called up to train with the first team.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Lechia Gdańsk.", "content": "On 30 August 2015, Krasić signed for Polish club Lechia Gdańsk. He made his debut during the second half of Lechia's Ekstraklasa match with Korona Kielce. He spent three seasons at the club.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Krasić was an important member of the Serbia and Montenegro under-21 squad in two UEFA European Under-21 Championships, as well as at the 2004 Summer Olympics. He was in the team that finished as runners-up in the 2004 European U-21 Championship in Germany, but did not play in any games. Two months later, he was part of the Serbia and Montenegro squad at the 2004 Summer Olympics.  In May 2006, Krasić played a leading role in the 2006 European U-21 Championship. He made his debut for the senior side later that year in a friendly against Denmark.  At senior level, Krasić was an important player for Serbia in 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification. He scored one goal in the match against Lithuania, another in the game against Austria and set up three in the game against Romania, which sealed his nation's qualification to the final tournament in South Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Krasić is a right-sided winger, noted for his powerful dribbling technique, energy on the pitch, and sprinting speed. During his time with Juventus, he earned comparisons with former Juventus great Pavel Nedvěd, due to their similar physical appearance, playing role, hard-working playing style, and Eastern European origins. He was named one of three examples of \"traditional wingers\" (the other two were Antonio Valencia and Ángel Di María) by UEFA's \"Champions\" magazine, who says such wingers take on the full-backs by the flanks to get as close to the goal-line as possible to cross the ball.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "CSKA  Juventus  Fenerbahçe", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Miloš Krasić (; born 1 November 1984) is a Serbian former professional footballer who played as a winger. He represented the Serbia national team at the 2010 FIFA World Cup, and at one point in his career, he was named by \"FourFourTwo\" as one of the 100 best players in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976297}
{"src_title": "Probability-generating function", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Univariate case.", "content": "If \"X\" is a discrete random variable taking values in the non-negative integers {0,1,...}, then the \"probability generating function\" of \"X\" is defined as where \"p\" is the probability mass function of \"X\". Note that the subscripted notations \"G\" and \"p\" are often used to emphasize that these pertain to a particular random variable \"X\", and to its distribution. The power series converges absolutely at least for all complex numbers \"z\" with |\"z\"| ≤ 1; in many examples the radius of convergence is larger.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Multivariate case.", "content": "If is a discrete random variable taking values in the \"d\"-dimensional non-negative integer lattice {0,1,...}, then the \"probability generating function\" of \"X\" is defined as where \"p\" is the probability mass function of \"X\". The power series converges absolutely at least for all complex vectors with.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Power series.", "content": "Probability generating functions obey all the rules of power series with non-negative coefficients. In particular, \"G\"(1) = 1, where \"G\"(1) = lim\"G\"(\"z\") from below, since the probabilities must sum to one. So the radius of convergence of any probability generating function must be at least 1, by Abel's theorem for power series with non-negative coefficients.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Probabilities and expectations.", "content": "The following properties allow the derivation of various basic quantities related to \"X\":", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Functions of independent random variables.", "content": "Probability generating functions are particularly useful for dealing with functions of independent random variables. For example:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Related concepts.", "content": "The probability generating function is an example of a generating function of a sequence: see also formal power series. It is equivalent to, and sometimes called, the z-transform of the probability mass function.  Other generating functions of random variables include the moment-generating function, the characteristic function and the cumulant generating function. The probability generating function is also equivalent to the factorial moment generating function, which as formula_33 can also be considered for continuous and other random variables.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In probability theory, the probability generating function of a discrete random variable is a power series representation (the generating function) of the probability mass function of the random variable. Probability generating functions are often employed for their succinct description of the sequence of probabilities Pr(\"X\" = \"i\") in the probability mass function for a random variable \"X\", and to make available the well-developed theory of power series with non-negative coefficients.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976298}
{"src_title": "Princess María de las Mercedes of Bourbon-Two Sicilies", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "María was born in Madrid, daughter of Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, Infante of Spain, a grandson of King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, and his second wife, Princess Louise of Orléans, daughter of Prince Philippe, Count of Paris, a pretender to the French throne. She was granted, at birth, the rank and precedence of an infanta of Spain, although not the actual use of the title, her own being Princess of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. Her family moved to Seville, when her father was made Captain General of that province. When the Second Spanish Republic forced them into exile, they lived in Cannes and later in Paris, where she studied art at the Louvre.  On 14 January 1935, she attended the wedding, in Rome, of Infanta Beatriz of Spain, daughter of King Alfonso XIII. There she met the brother of the bride, her second cousin and future husband, the Infante Juan, fourth son and designated heir of Alfonso XIII. They married in Rome on 12 October 1935. When her husband took up Count of Barcelona as a title of pretence on 8 March 1941, María became the \"Countess of Barcelona\". They had four children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "They lived in Cannes and Rome, and, with the outbreak of World War II, they moved to Lausanne to live with Queen Victoria Eugenie, the mother of Infante Juan. Afterwards, they resided at Estoril, on the Portuguese Riviera.  In 1953, the Countess represented the Spanish Royal Family at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.  In 1976, one year after the monarchy was restored in Spain in the person of her son, Juan Carlos, they returned to Spain. She mediated between her son and her husband, estranged since Juan Carlos had been designated heir by Franco. In 1977, Juan renounced his rights in favour of their son, who officially allowed him to retain the title of Count of Barcelona.  She broke her hip in 1982 and the left femur in 1985, which forced her to use a wheelchair for the rest of her life. She became a widow in 1993.  She was a fervid fan of bull fighting and of the Andalusian culture. In 1995, her granddaughter Infanta Elena married in Seville in part because the Countess' love for the city.  She was the 1,171st Dame of the Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa on 4 March 1929.  She died of a heart attack in the Royal Residence of La Mareta, in Lanzarote, where the royal family had gathered to celebrate the New Year. She was buried with the honors of a queen at the Royal Crypt of the monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, near Madrid.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "María de las Mercedes de Borbón-Dos Sicilias y Orléans, Countess of Barcelona (Spanish: \"Doña María de las Mercedes Cristina Genara Isabel Luisa Carolina Victoria y Todos los Santos de Borbón y Orléans\" (; 23 December 1910 – 2 January 2000) was the mother of Juan Carlos I, King of Spain from 1975 to 2014, and grandmother of the reigning Spanish King, Felipe VI.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976299}
{"src_title": "Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Marriages and children.", "content": "On 14 February 1901 in Madrid, Carlos married Mercedes, Princess of Asturias, elder daughter of the late King Alfonso XII of Spain and of his wife Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria. Mercedes was the elder sister and heiress presumptive to King Alfonso XIII of Spain, an unmarried teenager. A week before the wedding, on 7 February, Carlos was given the title of \"Infante of Spain\".  Carlos and Mercedes had three children:  Mercedes died in childbirth in 1904.  In 1907, Carlos married secondly to Princess Louise of Orléans, daughter of Prince Philippe, Count of Paris. The couple had four children:  Prince Carlos's descendants include King Felipe VI of Spain, Infante Carlos, Duke of Calabria, Prince Pedro Carlos of Orléans-Braganza and Prince Peter of Yugoslavia, among others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military service.", "content": "Carlos served in the Spanish Army in the Spanish–American War and received the Military Order of Maria Cristina. Eventually he rose to the rank of Inspector General.  He was the 1,099th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain on 7 February 1901 and the 280th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Two Sicilies succession.", "content": "In 1894, Carlos's father Alfonso became the Head of the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. On marrying his first wife, Carlos renounced his rights of succession to the Crown of Two Sicilies on 14 December 1900. In 1960, Carlos's older brother Ferdinand died without male issue, and Carlos' son Alfonso reclaimed his rights. However, Carlos's younger brother Ranieri objected and also claimed rights based on the renunciation of 1900. The dispute is still not resolved. While most royal houses in Europe recognize the claim of Ranieri's descendants, the Spanish Royal House recognizes the claim of Carlos's descendants.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Don Carlos, Prince of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, Infante of Spain (Full Italian name: \"Carlo Maria Francesco d'Assisi Pasquale Ferdinando Antonio di Padova Francesco de Paola Alfonso Andrea Avelino Tancredi, Principe di Borbone delle Due Sicilie, Infante di Spagna\"; 10 November 1870,, Bolzano, Austria-Hungary – 11 November 1949, Seville, Spain) was the son of Prince Alfonso of the Two Sicilies, Count of Caserta and his wife Princess Maria Antonietta of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, and nephew of the last King of the Two Sicilies, Francis II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976300}
{"src_title": "Methodius of Olympus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Few reports have survived on the life of this first systematic opponent of Origen; even these short accounts present many difficulties. Eusebius does not mention him in his \"Church History\", probably because he opposed various theories of Origen. We are indebted to Saint Jerome for the earliest accounts of him. According to him, Methodius was Bishop of Olympos in Lycia and afterwards Bishop of Tyre. No later Greek author knows anything of his being Bishop of Tyre; and according to Eusebius, Tyrannio was Bishop of Tyre during the persecutions of Diocletian and died a martyr; after the persecution Paulinus was elected bishop of the city. Later sources make him bishop not of Olympos but of Patara, also in Lycia. It has been conjecture that he could have held both sees simultaneously, but this is unlikely.  Jerome further states that Methodius suffered martyrdom at the end of the last persecution, i.e., under Maximinus Daia (311). Although he then adds, \"that some assert\", that this may have happened under Decius and Valerian at Chalcis, this statement (\"ut alii affirmant\"), adduced even by him as uncertain, is unlikely. Various attempts have been made to clear up the error concerning the mention of Tyre as a subsequent bishopric of Methodius; it is possible that he was transported to Tyre during the persecution and died there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Methodius had a comprehensive philosophical education, and was an important theologian as well as a prolific and polished author. Chronologically, his works can only be assigned in a general way to the end of the third and the beginning of the 4th century. He became of special importance in the history of theological literature, in that he combated various views of the great Alexandrian, Origen. He particularly attacked his doctrine that man's body at the resurrection is not the same body as he had in life, as well as his idea of the world's eternity. Nevertheless, he recognized the great services of Origen in ecclesiastical theology.  Like Origen, he is strongly influenced by Plato's philosophy, and uses to a great extent the allegorical explanation of Scripture. Of his numerous works only one has come down to us complete in a Greek text: the dialogue on virginity, under the title \"Symposium, or on Virginity\" (\"Symposion e peri hagneias\"). In the dialogue, composed with reference to Plato's \"Symposium\", he depicts a festive meal of ten virgins in the garden of Arete, at which each of the participators extols Christian virginity and its sublime excellence. It concludes with a hymn on Jesus as the Bridegroom of the Church. Larger fragments are preserved of several other writings in Greek; we know of other works from old versions in Slavonic, though some are abbreviated.  The following works are in the form of dialogue:  While large portions of the original Greek text of both these writings are preserved, we have only Slavonic versions of the four following shorter treatises:  Of other writings, no longer extant, Jerome mentions (loc. cit.) a voluminous work against Porphyry, the Neoplatonist who had published a book against Christianity; a treatise on the \"Pythonissa\" directed against Origen, commentaries on Genesis and the Canticle of Canticles. Other authors attributed a work \"On the Martyrs\", and a dialogue \"Xenon\" to Methodius; in the latter he opposes the doctrine of Origen on the eternity of the world. Gregory Abu'l Faraj attribute to Methodius some kind of work dealing with the patriarchs.  The 7th-century Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius is falsely attributed to him. His feast day is September 18. Among the editions of his works are: P.G., XVIII; Jahn, \"S. Methodii opera et S. Methodius platonizans\" (Halle, 1865); Bonwetsch, \"Methodius von Olympus: I, Schriften\" (Leipzig, 1891).  Six brief points summarize his contribution concerning Revelation:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Doctrines.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Virginity of Jesus Christ.", "content": "Methodius taught that Jesus Christ remained a virgin His whole life as an example for men:  \"What then did the Lord, the Truth and the Light, accomplish on coming down to the world? He preserved His flesh incorrupt in virginity with which he had adorned it. And so let us too, if we are to come to the likeness of God, endeavor to aspire to the virginity of Christ.\" (Symposium 1.5)", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Saint Methodius of Olympus (died c. 311) was a Christian bishop, ecclesiastical author and martyr today regarded as a Church Father. He is commemorated on June 20.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976301}
{"src_title": "Crowbar (American band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins (1988–1991).", "content": "The band dates back to 1988, when Kirk Windstein joined the New Orleans hardcore punk band ShellShock. He met Jimmy Bower, who was their drummer, and they quickly became friends. The band collapsed when Mike Hatch, their guitarist, committed suicide in late 1988 (some Pantera fans believe that this was the inspiration for the song \"Hollow\" from their 1992 album \"Vulgar Display of Power\"). The band hence replaced Hatch with Kevin Noonan and continued under the new name, Aftershock. Under that name they released a demo in mid-1989, and then renamed themselves again as Wrequiem, with their bassist Mike Savoie leaving the band and Todd Strange replacing him. They renamed themselves yet again in 1990 as The Slugs, and released a demo in mid-1990, but the band collapsed.  Windstein considered becoming the guitarist for New Orleans-based groove metal band Exhorder but he and Strange reformed their band, with Craig Nunenmacher as the drummer, who was later replaced by Tommy Buckley from Soilent Green, and Kevin Noonan returned on guitar. The band renamed themselves Crowbar in mid-1991. Windstein has listed Celtic Frost as one of the band's early influences in terms of sound.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career (1991–present).", "content": "Crowbar's debut studio album, \"Obedience Thru Suffering\", was released in 1991, but failed to achieve significant sales or airplay. By 1993's self-titled (\"Crowbar\") album, personal friend Phil Anselmo (Pantera, Down and Superjoint Ritual) produced the record, which eventually led to national promotion on MTV's \"Headbanger's Ball\". In addition, the videos for \"All I Had (I Gave)\" and \"Existence is Punishment\" were played on \"Beavis and Butt-head\". Following this success the band went on to record music videos, embark on major tours with Pantera, and record more albums.  Their stage antics, immortalized in the Pantera \"Home Video 3\" and Crowbar's \"Like Broken Glass\" home video, became infamous. The band continued recording and touring. In 1994, the Pantera video for the song \"I'm Broken\" showed Anselmo wearing a Crowbar / Eyehategod T-shirt. Original drummer Nunenmacher left the band in 1996 and was replaced by Bower from Down and Eyehategod, and for their 1996 release Anselmo sang back up on a few tracks on \"Broken Glass\".  In 2000, after recording and releasing \"Equilibrium\" with Sid Montz on drums, original drummer Nunenmacher rejoined the band, for the \"Penchant For Violence Tour\" with \"the Brotherhood of Brewtality\" Black Label Society and Sixty Watt Shaman. Halfway through the tour, Nunenmacher replaced BLS's drummer Phil Ondich and pulled double duty for the rest of the tour, eventually joining BLS permanently.  The band continues to perform, borrowing members from New Orleans metal bands like Goatwhore and Acid Bath. In their recent 2005 release, \"Lifesblood for the Downtrodden\", Pantera bassist Rex Brown lent his bass skills and keyboard playing. Down's producer, Warren Riker, assisted in production.  Also in 2005, \"Existence\" appeared on the \"\" No. 3 DVD.  On April 21, 2008, the albums \"Crowbar\", \"Time Heals Nothing\", and the \"Live+1\" EP were reissued in Europe with bonus and multimedia tracks.  The band is also known for covering other band's material and putting a heavy spin on it. Crowbar covers Gary Wright's \"Dream Weaver\" on their \"Equilibrium\" album, Iron Maiden's \"Remember Tomorrow\" on \"Odd Fellows Rest\", and Led Zeppelin's \"No Quarter\" on \"Crowbar\".  On May 24, 2009, it was announced that Anselmo's Housecore Records would be re-releasing Crowbar's back catalog.  In December 2009, Crowbar toured with Hatebreed, The Acacia Strain, The Casualties, and Thy Will Be Done as part of the Stillborn Fest.  As of September 2010, Crowbar is currently under contract with E1 Music in North America, and Century Media in Europe, and released their ninth studio album, \"Sever the Wicked Hand\", on February 8, 2011. This date is the 6th anniversary of the release of their previous album, \"Lifesblood for the Downtrodden\". The band embarked on a six date UK tour in January 2011.  Bassist Pat Bruders left Crowbar in September 2013. Bruders explained he wanted to focus on touring with Down. He tells Louder Than Hell, \"It is better for all parties in Crowbar and in Down that I leave Crowbar. With Down's brutal tour schedule and overseas shows. It is better if I focus 100 percent of my time to Down. There are no hard feelings with my bandmates of Crowbar.\" Bruders was replaced by Jeff Golden, who formerly played with Six Feet Under, Thy Will Be Done and Goatwhore.  Crowbar entered the studio in late 2013 to begin recording \"Symmetry in Black\", which was released in North America on May 27, 2014, via E1 Music.  In May 2016, bassist Jeff Golden announced on his Facebook page that he had been fired from the band. He later joined Portland-based metal band Lord Dying. Shortly after Golden's departure, Windstein announced that founding bassist Todd Strange would return to the band. In July 2018, Strange had retired from touring although he will remain a member of Crowbar. His final performance was at the \"Odd Fellows Rest\" 20th anniversary show on 4 August 2018 - Shane Wesley is his live replacement and had already played on the summer European tour.  In mid 2017, Crowboar supported Overkill support on the annual Metal Alliance Tour. Havok, Black Fast and Invida joined up as the openers.  In the Spring of 2018, Crowbar opened up for Hatebreed on their 20 Years of Desire and 15 Years of Perseverance Tour. The Acacia Strain and Twitching Tongues were on as support.  Crowbar opened up for Killswitch Engage on a short Fall tour in the November of 2018. Born of Osiris and Death Ray Vision joined up as support.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Crowbar is an American sludge metal band formed in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States, in 1990. Through infusing a slow, low-keyed, brooding doom metal sound with the aggression of hardcore punk, they pioneered a style known as sludge metal - albeit Windstein admitted a mild dislike to the term - alongside other bands of the New Orleans heavy metal scene such as Eyehategod, Soilent Green, Acid Bath, and Down.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976302}
{"src_title": "Cinema Bizarre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Their first single CD \"Lovesongs (They Kill Me)\" was released on 14 September 2007, two weeks after their first live performance in the German music show The Dome. The Norddeutscher Rundfunk \"(North German television broadcast)\" nominated the band for the national final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2008. No Angels and Carolin Fortenbacher, made it into the second election round of the final, leaving Cinema Bizarre behind.  They released their first studio album, \"Final Attraction\", in 2007. This is the only album to feature keyboardist and backing vocalist Luminor. Three singles were released from the album: \"Lovesongs (They Kill Me)\", \"Escape to the Stars\", and \"Forever or Never\". The album was released in several European countries.  On 28 March 2008, they began their first tour throughout Europe. In September 2008 Luminor took a break from going on tour with the band. It was announced that his health was poor and he needed time off in order to get better. While he was on break, Yu's close friend traveled and played with the band.  On 1 November 2008, a trailer was released which stated the name of Cinema Bizarre's second album to be \"Toyz\".  On 27 November 2008, Luminor announced that he was leaving the band. Romeo, a friend of Yu, eventually took his place as keyboardist for the band.  In 2009, Cinema Bizarre toured through North America as opening act for Lady GaGa on her The Fame Ball Tour.  Initially, the first single from their new album was to be \"My Obsession\", a song Strify described to be a 'powerful ballad'. However, the single was leaked, and thus was pulled off the Internet. The album release date was also pushed back from May to 21 August. \"My Obsession\", although it already had cover art, was not released. The band released a message on their official YouTube account expressing their disappointment, and that they would change the single. On their official website, they announced that their American album was going to be titled \"Bang!\". The first single from the albums \"ToyZ\" and \"BANG!\" was \"I Came 2 Party\", a duet with Space Cowboy (musician).  \"My Obsession\" was chosen to be the second single from \"Toyz\" and \"BANG!\" and was accompanied by two different versions of the music video. Due to the lack of further promotion, the song failed entering the German music charts.  In 2009 Cinema Bizarre won an EBBA Award. Every year the European Border Breakers Awards (EBBA) recognize the success of ten emerging artists or groups who reached audiences outside their own countries with their first internationally released album in the past year.  On 21 January 2010 the band announced via MySpace that they were taking a break, as they felt that it was \"time to start something new.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-Cinema Bizarre.", "content": "Strify started going by his full name, Jack Strify, and released a new version of their song \"Blasphemy\" as a featured artist with French DJ Junior Caldera in June 2011. He later announced that he would be releasing a solo album. In 2012, three music videos have been published on his YouTube channel as a trilogy entitled \"GLITTER + DIRT\", including the songs \"Brave New World\", \"Sanctuary\" and \"HALO (We're The Only One)\" which were eventually released on his first EP Glitter + Dirt in August 2013. On August 1, 2014 he announced the name of his first album to be called ILLUSION and launched a crowdfunding campaign to finish the album. Teasers were posted throughout the campaign and on November 30, 2014 his album was released through the crowdfunding partner PledgeMusic. The album was released through Membran Music worldwide on April 24, 2015, proceeded by the digital single release \"Burn/Fear\" and \"Lovers When It's Cold\" on April 2, 2015.  On 11 November 2011, Yu Phoenix (guitarist) released a new single on iTunes named \"Moonflower\" which features J'Lostein. Later on, in January 2012 he announced a new band project with Sebastiano Serafini called \"Monochrome Hearts\". A preview for the first single has been released on their YouTube Channel. In January 2013, Monochrome Hearts debuted their first full single, Your Knight, on iTunes and amazon. The second single, When the Night Kills the Day was released on Amazon and iTunes on July 13, 2013. In October, 2013, Yu Phoenix also joined the band DNR (Dreams Not Reality) as the new guitarist. Yu Phoenix has a Twitch community located at http://www.Twitch.tv/YuPhoenix where he talks to his supporters almost daily. In early 2018 Yu Phoenix released that he was starting a new project entitled Everyze with singer David Baßin from the metal band Victorius. In the fall of 2018 Yu Phoenix embarked on an adventure that took him from Dubai to the west coast of the United States and back across the globe to Japan for game influenced networking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Luminor's departure.", "content": "From September onwards, Luminor had been absent at a few concerts and Yu's closest friend, Romeo, temporarily helped out in Luminor's place. On 27 November 2008 Luminor announced on his MySpace profile that he had to leave Cinema Bizarre. He said this departure was due to health issues and unresolvable inner conflicts. In his statement, he briefly said that his condition had worsened, he was not able to continue participating in the band, and it was a private issue. Eventually, Romeo permanently took over for Luminor as keyboardist.  Luminor came back to the stage in 2010 with the Italian band DNR (Dreams Not Reality) for a featuring during their European tour, and again in 2013 together with the Italian singer Roberto Romagnoli.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cinema Bizarre was a German glam rock band from Berlin. They released their debut album in 2007. Their manager was Lacrimosa singer and songwriter Tilo Wolff. In January 2010, the band announced that they were taking a break.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976303}
{"src_title": "Musée d'Art Moderne de Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Located in the eastern wing of the Palais de Tokyo and constructed for the International Exhibition of Arts and Technology of 1937, the museum was inaugurated in 1961.  The museum reopened in October 2019 after a €10 million redesign by h2o architectes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Programs.", "content": "The museum collections include more than 10,000 works from art movements of the 20th century. Exhibitions highlight the European and international art scenes of the 20th century, as well as displaying monographic and thematic exhibitions of trends in today's art. Temporary exhibitions run every six weeks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "The museum's permanent collection includes works by:  Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Henri Matisse, Emile Othon Friesz, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Maurice de Vlaminck, Georges Rouault, Raoul Dufy, Marie Laurencin, Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard, Albert Marquet, Henri Laurens, Jacques Lipchitz, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, André Lhote, Juan Gris, Alexander Archipenko, Joseph Csaky, Ossip Zadkine, Marcel Duchamp, Francis Picabia, František Kupka, Robert and Sonia Delaunay, Fernand Léger, Jean Hélion, Auguste Herbin, Joaquín Torres García, Natalia Gontcharova, Luigi Russolo, Amedeo Modigliani, Giorgio de Chirico, Alberto Magnelli, Gino Severini, Kees van Dongen, Bart van der Leck, Jean Arp, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, Maurice Utrillo, Suzanne Valadon, André Derain, Moïse Kisling, Marcel Gromaire, Marc Chagall, Chaïm Soutine, Leonard Foujita, Alexander Calder, Alberto Giacometti, Jean Crotti, Man Ray, Max Ernst, André Masson, Victor Brauner, Hans Bellmer, Roberto Matta, Wifredo Lam, Jean Fautrier, Jean Dubuffet, Bernard Buffet, Pierre Soulages, Nicolas de Staël, Zao Wou Ki, Pierre Alechinsky, Henri Michaux, Étienne-Martin, Antoni Tàpies, Lucio Fontana, Yves Klein, Arman, Martial Raysse, Jean Tinguely, Christo, Victor Vasarely, François Morellet, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Bridget Riley, Daniel Buren, Nam June Paik, Mario Merz, Giuseppe Penone, Luciano Fabro, Simon Hantaï, Bernard Frize, Jean-Michel Othoniel, Robert Rauschenberg, Keith Haring, John Heartfield, James Lee Byars, Peter Doig, Otto Freundlich, Hannah Höch, Hans Hartung, Gerhard Richter, Georg Baselitz, Sigmar Polke, Jörg Immendorff, Wolf Vostell, Andreas Gursky, Markus Lüpertz, Thomas Schütte, Thomas Ruff, Gisèle Freund, Rosemarie Trockel, Albert Oehlen, Per Kirkeby, Marcel Broodthaers, Zeng Fanzhi, and others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2010 theft.", "content": "On 20 May 2010, Vjeran Tomic broke into the museum and stole several paintings after meticulous preparation. The museum reported the overnight theft of five paintings from its collection the following morning. The paintings taken were \"Le pigeon aux petits pois\" (\"Pigeon with Peas\") by Pablo Picasso, \"La Pastorale\" by Henri Matisse, \"L'Olivier Près de l'Estaque\" (\"Olive Tree near L'Estaque\") by Georges Braque, \"\" (\"Woman with a Fan\") by Amedeo Modigliani and \"Nature Morte aux Chandeliers\" (\"Still Life with Candlestick\") by Fernand Léger and were valued at ( ). A window had been smashed and CCTV footage showed a masked man taking the paintings. Authorities believe the thief acted alone. The man carefully removed the paintings from their frames, which he left behind.  The theft was investigated by the Brigade de Répression du Banditisme specialist unit of the French Police. It is unclear why the alarm systems in the museum failed to detect the robbery, staff only noticing when they arrived at the museum just before.  For fear that investigators were closing in on the thief, accomplices apparently destroyed the paintings. \"I threw them into the trash,\" cried Yonathan Birn, one of three people on trial in the case, \"I made the worst mistake of my existence.\" However, neither the judge or other defendants believe Birn's. The authorities believe all of the paintings were removed from France. Birn's co-defendants testified he was \"too smart\" to destroy €100 million worth of artwork. The French auctioneer and president of the,, commented, \"These five paintings are unsellable, so thieves, sirs, you are imbeciles, now return them.\"  The theft follows the $162 million heist of masterpieces by Cézanne, Degas, Van Gogh and Monet from Foundation E.G. Bührle in Zurich in February 2008 and could be one of the biggest art thefts in history (by value). It has been described as the \"heist of the century\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Musée d'Art Moderne de Paris (, Paris' Museum of Modern Art) or MAM Paris, is a major municipal museum dedicated to modern and contemporary art of the 20th and 21st centuries, including monumental murals by Raoul Dufy and Henri Matisse. It is located at 11, Avenue du Président Wilson in the 16th arrondissement of Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976304}
{"src_title": "Bryonia alba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "An herbaceous, perennial vine of the cucumber family, white bryony is monoecious but diclinous (separate male and female flowers found on the same plant) with a tuberous yellow root. Greenish-white flowers are across. Long curling tendrils, flowers, and fruit all stem from axils of palmately lobed leaves. The fruit is a berry which blackens as it ripens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "White bryony is native to Europe and Northern Iran. It has also been introduced to the United States, where it is listed as a noxious weed in Washington, Idaho, and Montana.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Birds are the most common dispersal mechanism for this plant. They deposit seeds where they eat and nest, and so bryony is prevalent in native hawthorn patches and in windbreak, shelterbelt, riparian buffer, and wildlife plantings. \"Bryonia alba\" leaves may be used as a food plant by the larvae of cabbage moths.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "All parts of \"Bryonia alba\" contain bryonin which is poisonous and may cause illness or death. Livestock may also be poisoned by consuming the fruit and leaves. Forty berries constitutes a lethal dose for adult humans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "Outside of its native range, this vine is often a very aggressive invasive weed. It can produce three vines at a time, which each grow up to per day. It has a climbing growth pattern similar to kudzu, and will grow into a dense mat when it cannot climb. Once established, it will climb other plants and trees as well as fences and buildings, blocking the sun and even rain from its host. Winter snow or heavy rains weighing down the mat of foliage create extra weight, leading to breakage of host limbs or even felling of entire host trees.  Control of white bryony usually involves manual pulling and very frequent removal of new growth, diligence being the key to success. Plants may be killed manually by severing the roots below ground surface to remove the crown and prevent re-sprouting. Tillage is often ineffective and can harm host plant roots, but broadleaf herbicides such as glyphosate can be useful when care is taken not to spray host plant leaves. Multiple applications are necessary to eventually move herbicide to the root and block production of new shoots. The dispersed seeds are viable for many years, so manually removing \"B. alba\" before seed production is important.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bryonia alba (also known as white bryony or wild hop) is a vigorous vine in the family Cucurbitaceae, found in Europe and Northern Iran. It has a growth habit similar to kudzu, which gives it a highly destructive potential outside its native range as a noxious weed. Other common names include false mandrake, English mandrake, wild vine, and wild hops, wild nep, tamus, ladies' seal, and tetterbury.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976305}
{"src_title": "Benedikt Höwedes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Schalke.", "content": "Höwedes started playing football for his hometown club TuS Haltern in 1994. In 2001, he was transferred to the youth teams of FC Schalke 04. In 2003, he became captain of Schalke's under-19 team and as a member of that team he won the Under 19 Bundesliga in 2006.  In September 2007, the German Football Association honoured Höwedes with the Fritz Walter Medal as the best player of his age-group for the 2006–07 season.  In January 2007, he signed a professional contract with Schalke, which ran until 30 June 2010, he then joined Schalke's Bundesliga squad in July. Until October 2007, however, he only played for Schalke's second team in the Oberliga (fourth division).  Höwedes' first professional match was in the Champions League on 3 October 2007.  On 10 December 2008, Höwedes extended his contract which will keep him at the club until 30 June 2014. On 23 July 2011, Höwedes became captain of Schalke. On 9 March 2013, Höwedes extended his contract with Schalke, until 30 June 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loan to Juventus.", "content": "On 30 August 2017, Höwedes joined Juventus on a one-year loan deal for €3.5 million plus €3 million variables, with an option to buy for €13M. On 26 November, Höwedes made his Serie A and Juventus debut, in a 3–0 home win over Crotone. On 15 April 2018, he scored his first goal for Juventus, in his second appearance for the club, in a 3–0 home win over Sampdoria.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Lokomotiv Moscow.", "content": "On 29 July 2018, Höwedes left Schalke to join Lokomotiv Moscow. Lokomotiv announced the signing of a 4-year contract with Höwedes on 31 July 2018. On 7 October 2018, he scored his first goal for Lokomotiv late in a game against PFC CSKA Moscow, giving his team a 1–0 victory.  On 8 June 2020, his contract with Lokomotiv was terminated by mutual consent as he decided to return to Germany for family reasons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Höwedes played for the under-18 team and under-19 team and appeared in all matches up to and including the semi-final at the 2007 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. On 5 September 2007, he made his first and only under-20 team appearance, due to the fact that he was turning out for the under-21 team on a regular basis.  He was a member of the squad which won the 2009 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship and started in Germany's 4–0 win against England in the final.  On 29 May 2011, he made his debut for the senior team in a friendly against Uruguay. On 7 June 2011, he played his first official match against Azerbaijan in UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying, Germany won the match 3–1, with Höwedes setting up the first goal, which was scored by Mesut Özil.  Höwedes was selected for the German squad for UEFA Euro 2012 but did not make an appearance in the tournament.  On 15 August 2012, he scored his first goal in a 1–3 friendly defeat at home against Argentina.  After making three appearances during 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification, Höwedes was named in Germany's squad for the tournament finals. He was named in the starting line-up at left back against Portugal in the team's opening match, making his tournament debut. Later on, he won the tournament, along with his team. In the 2014 World Cup final, Höwedes went close to opening the scoring by hitting the goalpost with a header after a corner kick in the last seconds of the first half. Höwedes was also one of three German players who played every minute of all seven World Cup games, alongside goalkeeper Manuel Neuer and captain Philipp Lahm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "A large, versatile, reliable, and tenacious defender, Höwedes is considered a defensive all-rounder, as he can be deployed in any defensive position. Höwedes's main playing position is as a centre back, but he can also be deployed as right or left-sided full-back and as a right or left-sided wing-back, which are the main positions that Höwedes was deployed in under Jens Keller. In the early phase of his youth career, Höwedes mainly played as a defensive midfielder; after joining Schalke, however, with whom he began his professional football career, he played mainly as a left-back. Höwedes's main defensive strengths lie in his ability to win his oppositional one-on-one duels consistently, his fine heading ability, and his no-nonsense style of play. Höwedes's height and high-jumping ability also make him an aerial threat, and see him both score and set-up goals with his head. Additionally, Höwedes is also known for his well-timed sliding tackles and standing tackles, as well as his good first-time passing, technique, positional sense, and great physical strength. Despite his ability as a defender, he has often struggled with injuries throughout his career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Höwedes was born in Haltern, North Rhine-Westphalia, and he attended Gesamtschule Berger Feld.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Benedikt Höwedes (; born 29 February 1988) is a German professional footballer who plays as a defender who is currently a free agent and plays for the Germany national football team. At international level, Höwedes won the World Cup with Germany in 2014, and was one of only three players to play every single minute of the tournament. Höwedes has described himself as a'multi-functional player' in the defence, who can play in the centre or as both a left or right-sided full-back.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976306}
{"src_title": "Saturn I SA-5", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Upgrades and objectives.", "content": "The major changes that occurred on SA-5 were that for the first time the Saturn I would fly with two stages - the S-I first stage and the S-IV second stage. The second stage featured six engines burning liquid hydrogen. Although this engine design (RL10) was meant to be tested several years earlier in the Centaur upper stage, in the end the first Centaur was launched only two months before SA-5. This rocket stage was delivered to the Cape by a modified B-377 aircraft, the \"Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy\".  Other major design changes included the enlargement of the fuel tanks on the first stage. For the first time the rocket would carry its planned 750,000 lb (340,000 kg) of propellant and would use eight upgraded engines producing a thrust each of 188,000 lbf (836 kN). The first stage also featured for the first time eight fins for added stability during flight. As with the earlier flight the rocket would still carry only a Jupiter-C nosecone instead of a boilerplate Apollo spacecraft.  Also the guidance and control computer on the rocket was positioned above the second stage. This was where it would be found on the Saturn V flights that would take astronauts to the Moon. The Instrument Unit controlled the ascent of the rocket through the atmosphere, automatically compensating for any winds or loss of thrust during the ascent.  For the first time in the Apollo program, this flight would be an orbital mission. This was possible because of the upgraded first stage and the addition of the second stage. It would enter into an elliptical orbit and re-enter a couple of days later as its orbit decayed.  President Kennedy referred specifically to this launch in a speech at Brooks AFB in San Antonio, Texas, on November 21, 1963, the day before he was assassinated. He said:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flight.", "content": "The first scheduled launch attempt was for 27 January 1964, with all going well until 93% of the liquid oxygen (LOX) had been loaded into the first stage. At this time, the ground crews switched it from a fast fill to a replenish system. However, the LOX in the tanks began to fall, i.e., it was not being replenished. The cause was found to be a blind flange (a plate without an opening) in the line. This could not be removed easily and the launch had to be postponed for two days.  The second launch attempt had no such problems and lifted off into overcast skies at January 29, 1964, 11:25 EST. The rocket sent back 1,183 measurements to the ground during the flight while at the same time it was tracked by six telescopes. For the first 1000 meters the rocket was filmed by 13 cameras that looked for any pitch, yaw, and roll movements.  The separation of the two rocket stages was filmed by eight cameras that themselves separated from the rocket to be recovered downrange in the Atlantic Ocean. The whole stage separation system worked perfectly with the retrorockets firing on the first stage to decelerate it and ullage rockets on the S-IV firing to settle its fuel to aft of the stage.  After an eight-minute burn, the second stage entered into a orbit. At 16,965 kg (37,401 lb) it was the largest satellite ever to go into orbit at that time. However, the achievement of Earth orbit was not an objective of the mission but merely a bonus. It did show to the American public that the United States could build launch vehicles as large as those of the Soviet Union.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SA-5 was the first launch of the Block II Saturn I rocket and was part of the Apollo program. In 1963, president John Kennedy identified this launch as the one which would place US lift capability ahead of the Soviets, after being behind for more than six years since Sputnik.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976307}
{"src_title": "Victoria Ocampo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born Ramona Victoria Epifanía Rufina Ocampo in Buenos Aires into a high-society family, she was educated at home by a French governess. She later wrote: \"the alphabet-book in which I learned to read was French, as was the hand that taught me to draw those first letters.\"  She is sometimes said to have attended the Sorbonne: on page 39 of her biography of Ocampo, Doris Meyer states that, during the family's 1906–1907 trip to Paris, the same during which she was etched by Paul César Helleu, the Ocampos allowed 17-year-old Victoria, \"well-chaperoned\", to audit some lectures at the Sorbonne and at the Collège de France. She remembered particularly enjoying Henri Bergson's lectures at the latter. She never matriculated at either. Her old traditional wealthy family frowned on formal education for women, so Victoria had little. In 1912, Ocampo married Bernando de Estrada (also known as Monaco Estrada). The marriage was not happy; the couple separated in 1920, and Ocampo began a long–lasting affair with her husband's cousin Julián Martínez, a diplomat.  In Buenos Aires, she was a lynchpin of the intellectual scene of the 1920s and 1930s. Her first book, written in French, was \"De Francesca à Beatrice\" ( 1923), a commentary on Dante's \"Divine Comedy\". Other works include \"Domingos en Hyde Park\"; \"El Hamlet de Laurence Olivier\"; \"Emily Brontë (Terra incógnita)\"; a series called \"Testimonios\" (ten volumes); \"Virginia Woolf, Orlando y Cía\"; \"San Isidro\"; \"338171 T.E. (Lawrence of Arabia)\" (a biography of T. E. Lawrence) and a posthumously published autobiography. There is also an edited book of dialogues between Ocampo and Jorge Luis Borges.  Ocampo corresponded with Virginia Woolf in the later 1930s; the two writers met in London in June 1939 but the meeting was not a success.  Perhaps of greater significance than her own writing, she was founder (1931) and publisher of the magazine \"Sur\", the most important literary magazine of its time in Latin America. Among the writers published in \"Sur\" were Borges, Ernesto Sabato, Adolfo Bioy Casares, Julio Cortázar, José Ortega y Gasset, Manuel Peyrou, Albert Camus, Enrique Anderson Imbert, José Bianco, Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Pierre Drieu La Rochelle, Waldo Frank, Gabriela Mistral, Eduardo Mallea, and her own younger sister Silvina Ocampo.  In 1935, Ocampo expressed some approval for Benito Mussolini with whom she was granted an interview in March of that year in Rome, hailing him then as \"genius\" and Caesar reborn. \"I have seen Italy in blossom turn its face towards him.\" However, she was never a convinced fascist sympathizer, and expressed disapproval of Mussolini's conservative views on gender roles and the regime's growing militarism. By the time her interview with Mussolini was published in August 1936, Italy had invaded Abyssinia and Ocampo appended a note to it declaring that any hope that the fascist regime might improve was lost and criticized those in Argentina who supported Italy's belligerence.  In 1937, Ocampo and the editors of \"Sur\" came out openly against fascism and definitively linked the journal with liberalism. During the Spanish Civil War, the magazine sided with the Republicans. She supported and edited from Argentina, in collaboration with her friend and translator Pelegrina Pastorino, the anti-Nazi magazine \"Les Lettres Francaises\", directed by Roger Caillois; and in 1946 she was the only Argentine who attended the Nuremberg Trials. A few months before World War II, in 1939, Ocampo was appointed to the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations, but did not participate in its works. In 1953, she was briefly imprisoned for her open opposition to the government of Juan Domingo Perón.  Ocampo was made a member of the Argentine Academy of Letters in 1976 (the first woman ever admitted to the Academy); she formally took her seat on 23 June 1977. The \"cultural dialog\", initiated in 1977 by the \"de facto\" government but organized by UNESCO, was held in her home, Villa Ocampo, in San Isidro, Buenos Aires Province; she eventually donated the house to UNESCO in 1973.  At Villa Ocampo, her guests included Igor Stravinsky, André Malraux and Rabindranath Tagore had been her guests, also Indira Gandhi, José Ortega y Gasset, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Ernest Ansermet and Rafael Alberti. Graham Greene dedicated his 1973 novel \"The Honorary Consul\" to her, \"with love, and in memory of the many happy weeks I have passed at San Isidro and Mar del Plata\".  Victoria Ocampo died in Buenos Aires in 1979, and is buried in La Recoleta Cemetery in Buenos Aires.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Victoria Ocampo (7 April 1890 – 27 January 1979) was an Argentine writer and intellectual, described by Jorge Luis Borges as \"La mujer más argentina\" (\"The quintessential Argentine woman\"). Best known as an advocate for others and as publisher of the literary magazine \"Sur\", she was also a writer and critic in her own right and one of the most prominent South American women of her time. Her sister Silvina Ocampo, also a writer, was married to Adolfo Bioy Casares.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976308}
{"src_title": "Moscow uprising of 1682", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Course of events.", "content": "The death of Tsar Feodor III of Russia on 27 April (7 May N.S.) 1682 triggered the uprising. The Naryshkin brothers of Tsarina Natalia Naryshkina availed themselves of the interregnum and persuaded the Patriarch to proclaim her ten-year-old son Peter as the new Tsar of Russia. In their turn, the Miloslavsky party, which comprised the relatives of the late Tsarina Maria Miloslavskaya, spread rumours that the Naryshkins had strangled Maria's son, Peter's elder half-brother Ivan, in the Moscow Kremlin.  The Miloslavsky conspirators stirred up riots in the streets of the capital. They exploited the discontent of the Moscow regiments against their commanding officers, and on 11 May 1682 the mob of the Streltsy took over the Kremlin and lynched the leading boyars and military commanders, whom they suspected of corruption — Artamon Matveev, Mikhail Dolgorukov, and Grigory Romodanovsky.  A few days later, on 17 May, the rebels once again stormed the royal residence and killed a number of Naryshkin supporters, including two of the Naryshkin brothers (Kirill and Ivan) in the presence of the young tsar Peter, their nephew. Mobs of poor people joined with the Streltsy, and the streets of Moscow saw several days of looting. The May uprising led to the proclamation of Peter's older half-brother Ivan V as the \"first\" tsar and the relegation of the young Peter I to second position, with Sophia, Ivan's full sister and Peter's half sister, acting as a regent for them both.  In the fall of 1682 Prince Ivan Andreyevich Khovansky (Tararui) — Sophia's close associate and one of the leaders of the rebellious Streltsy — turned against her. Supported by the Old Believers, Khovansky — who supposedly wanted to install himself as the new regent — demanded the reversal of Nikon's reforms. Sophia and her court had to flee the Moscow Kremlin and sought refuge in the Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra. Eventually, Sophia managed to suppress the so-called \"Khovanshchina\" (Khovansky affair) with the help of Fyodor Shaklovity, who succeeded Khovansky in charge of the Muscovite army.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Moscow uprising of 1682, also known as the Streltsy uprising of 1682 (), was an uprising of the Moscow Streltsy regiments that resulted in supreme power devolving on Sophia Alekseyevna (the daughter of the late Tsar Aleksey Mikhailovich and of his first wife Maria Miloslavskaya). Behind the uprising lurked the rivalry between the Miloslavsky and Naryshkin relatives of the two wives of the late Tsar Aleksey (died 1676) for dominant influence on the administration of the Tsardom of Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976309}
{"src_title": "Eleanor de Guzmán", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "De Guzmán was the daughter of nobleman Pedro Núñez de Guzmán and his wife, Beatriz Ponce de León, a great-granddaughter of King Alfonso IX of León. Her parents married her off as a young girl to Juan de Velasco.  De Guzmán's husband died in 1328, at twenty years old. Soon thereafter, in Seville she met King Alfonso XI. He was so impressed by her beauty that he made her his mistress. He preferred De Guzmán to his wife Maria of Portugal, daughter of Alfonso IV of Portugal, whom he married in 1328. After Maria's son and heir, the future Peter of Castile, was born in 1334, Alfonso left Maria and lived with De Guzmán instead. The humiliated queen resented her unfaithful husband and asked him to cease his public displays of preference for his mistress. The king ignored his wife's pleas, and gave De Guzmán Huelva, Tordesillas, and Medina-Sidonia in addition to other holdings. He also established De Guzmán's household in Seville where she was allowed to hear political matters. The court was increasingly troubled by Alfonso's behavior and as a result, the Pope intervened by forcing Portugal to invade Castile. The King died on 27 March 1350 and was succeeded by his heir Peter and his wife Maria who served as regent. Maria had not forgotten the myriad slights that she had endured because of her husband's love for his mistress. Thirsting for revenge, Maria imprisoned De Guzmán, and later ordered the execution of her rival in 1351 in the Arab castle of Abderrahman III of Talavera de la Reina. De Guzmán's death only exacerbated the rift within the royal family. Her son Henry and Maria's son Peter continued to fight one another for control of Castile. Henry eventually won and was crowned King of Castile.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "De Guzmán was a common ancestor to the Catholic Monarchs. Three of her sons, Henry II of Castile, Fadrique Alfonso and Sancho Alfonso, 1st Count of Alburquerque were ancestors of Ferdinand II of Aragon. In addition, Isabella I of Castile, wife of Ferdinand II of Aragon was descended from both De Guzmán and Maria, as follows: Henry II of Castile's grandson, Henry III of Castile, married Peter of Castile's granddaughter, Catherine of Lancaster; their son, John II of Castile, was the father of Isabella I of Castile.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eleanor de Guzmán (\"Leonor\") (1310–1351) was a Castilian noblewoman and long-term mistress to Alfonso XI of Castile. She was the mother of King Henry II of Castile.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976310}
{"src_title": "Gyula Andrássy the Younger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The second son of Count Gyula Andrássy and Countess Katinka Kendeffy, the younger Andrássy became under-secretary in the Sándor Wekerle ministry in 1892; in 1893, he became Minister of Education, and, in June 1894, he was appointed minister in attendance on the king, retiring in 1895 with Wekerle. In 1898, with his elder brother, he left the Liberal Party but returned to it after the fall of the Bánffy ministry. In 1905, he was one of the leaders of the Coalition which brought about the fall of the Liberal Tisza ministry. In 1906 he became Minister of the Interior in the compromise Wekerle cabinet and held that office until the fall of the ministry in 1909.  In 1912, he represented Austria-Hungary in the diplomatic endeavor to prevent the outbreak of the Balkan War. In 1915, he urged peacemaking and an extension of the franchise in Hungary. As Foreign Minister of Austria-Hungary, in 1918, he declared the alliance with Germany dissolved and tried to conclude a separate peace. He retired from office in the same year was returned in 1920 to the National Assembly as non-partisan delegate. He subsequently became leader of the Christian National Party. He is the author of \"Ungarns Ausgleich mit Österreich vom Jahre 1867\" (Ger. ed., Leipzig, 1897) and a work in Hungarian on the origins of the Hungarian state and constitution (Budapest, 1901). That book was translated into English and published as \"The Development of Hungarian Constitutional Liberty\" (London, 1908) His later works include \"Wer hat den Krieg verbrochen? Interessensolidarität des Deutschtums and Ungartums\" (translated by Ernest J. Euphrat and published in 1915 as \"Whose Sin is the World-War?\") and \"Diplomatie und Weltkrieg\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Count Gyula Andrássy de Csíkszentkirály et Krasznahorka the Younger (; 30 June 1860 – 11 June 1929) was a Hungarian politician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976311}
{"src_title": "La chanson de Fortunio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "The first public performance of \"La chanson de Fortunio\" took place in the Salle Choiseul of the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens, Paris, on 5 January 1861. Its premiere in Vienna was on 25 April and it continued to appear regularly on the bill in Paris during 1861 and 1862; it was presented in Germany in Bad Ems the following year.  The work was soon seen around Europe and beyond: Brussels and Berlin in 1861, Budapest, Prague, Graz and Stockholm in 1862, St Petersburg in 1864 (and 1905), New York and Basel in 1867, Milan in 1868 and London in 1871 (and 1907).  In 1979, the opera was revived in an English translation by Michael Geliot, by Welsh National Opera, who staged it at the Teatr y Werin in Aberystwyth, the Sir Thomas Picton School in Haverfordwest, the Teatr Gwynedd in Bangor, the Sherman Theatre in Cardiff, the Haymarket Theatre in Leicester, the Astra Theatre in Llandudno, and the Playhouse Theatre in Cheltenham. It formed the first part of an Offenbach double bill, the other half of the programme being \"M. Choufleuri restera chez lui le...\" (or, as it was advertised in English, \"Monsieur Colli-flahr's at Home\").  It was recorded on Swedish television in 1981 with Gunnar Björnstrand as Maitre Fortunio.  The State Opera of South Australia presented the opera in 2015 on a double bill with Mozart's \"Bastien und Bastienne\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "Maître Fortunio, an elderly lawyer, is married to a young and attractive wife (Laurette).  Many years ago, when he was a young clerk, Fortunio had seduced the wife of his employer with the help of a particularly alluring song which he used as a means of charming her. Fortunio still recalls this episode, and he begins to suspect that his own young wife might be carrying on a clandestine affair. And indeed, his second clerk Valentin has fallen deeply in love with Laurette, although the young man's timidity has so far prevented him from declaring his passion.  Fortunio accuses his wife of infidelity and resolves to dismiss Valentin from his service. In the meantime, however, the clerks have discovered the old song, and when they begin to sing it, Fortunio realises that his hypocrisy has been exposed. The song has lost none of its efficacy, as is proved when all the clerks suddenly and miraculously acquire new girl friends.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "La chanson de Fortunio (\"The Song of Fortunio\") is a short opéra-comique in one act by Jacques Offenbach with a French libretto by Ludovic Halévy and Hector Crémieux. The music was composed within a week, with a further week being spent in preparations for the production. Its success was welcome after the failure of \"Barkouf\" a fortnight earlier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976312}
{"src_title": "Gabriel (missile)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "On October 21, 1967, four Styx missiles sank the destroyer INS \"Eilat\", which was patrolling along the northern shores of the Sinai. Forty-seven Israeli sailors and officers were killed or went missing in action and 100 were injured. The loss of the ship prompted the Israeli navy to ask Israel Aerospace Industries to accelerate the development of an anti-ship missile, which had begun in 1958 with the Luz (or Lutz) program.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Faced with Rafael Advanced Defense Systems's anxiety to develop a new guidance system, Shlomo Erell asked Israel Aerospace Industries to take over the program by recruiting Ori Even-Tov, a former Rafael engineer. Even-Tov suggested dropping the guidance joystick approach used by the Luz, and instead proposed the development of an autonomous guidance system which would allow the missile to seek its objective, even in bad weather or bad visibility. He further proposed using an altimeter, allowing the missile to fly some meters over the surface of the sea, making it difficult to detect and allowing it to hit the target just above the waterline. A radar installed on the ship had to guide the missile, while the altimeter would keep the missile in sea-skimming mode.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gabriel Mk 1.", "content": "The development of the Gabriel for the Israeli Navy began in 1962, before being first shown to the public in 1970. It was touted to be the world's first operational sea-skimming missile, and saw extensive action during the Yom Kippur War. A batch of 50 was imported by the Republic of China Navy for evaluation and as the interim weapon for the three Allen M. Sumner class destroyers upgraded with Gabriel Mk 2 missile system, and it is also the basis for the Taiwanese Hsiung Feng I missile.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gabriel Mk 2.", "content": "The Gabriel Mk 2, an improved version of Gabriel, was created in 1972 and entered service in 1976. It was also built under license South Africa under the name \"Skerpioen\" (Afrikaans for Scorpion). The Taiwanese Hsiung Feng I missile can be considered as a parallel development, being based on Gabriel Mk 1 but with similar improvements, and ordnances used by the two systems are interchangeable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gabriel III.", "content": "Gabriel III and Gabriel III A/S were introduced in 1978 with major improvements. The air-launched Gabriel III A/S has a range of over 60 km. Both Gabriel III versions employ the widely used 'fire and forget' mode.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gabriel IV.", "content": "Developed in the early 1990s is related to the Gabriel Mk III but larger and with a turbojet engine for sustained flight. It is distinguishable from the Mk III because of its swept wings with cropped tip. Like the Mk III, it has 3 guidance modes: Fire and Forget, Fire and Update with data link, and Fire and command using Radar update", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gabriel V (Advanced Naval Attack Missile).", "content": "Israel Aerospace Industries is reportedly working on a Gabriel V Advanced Naval Attack Missile, with an advanced active multi-spectra seeker designed for cluttered littoral environments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Older models.", "content": "Older models of the Gabriel are still used by Chile: Sa'ar 4 with Gabriel II, Israel: Sa'ar 4.5 with Gabriel II, Mexico: Sa'ar 4.5 with Gabriel II, Sri Lanka: Sa'ar 4 with Gabriel II, Thailand: FPB-45 with Gabriel I.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "During the Yom Kippur War the Gabriel I was used for the first time during the Battle of Latakia. Israeli missile boats armed with Gabriel Mk 1 missiles were credited with defeating Syrian ships armed with the Soviet-made Styx missile. Even though the Styx missile had a longer range, the Gabriel's reliability and flexibility of handling contributed to the Israeli victory. It is known that the Syrians shot missile salvos at the charging Israeli vessels, but missed due to the Israeli ECM technology of the time. When they were in range, the Israeli boats launched their Gabriel missiles, and sank all but one Syrian Osa class ship, which was later sunk by cannon fire. After defeating the Syrian Navy (surviving Syrian ships stayed in port) the Israeli missile boats defeated the Egyptian navy as well, achieving naval supremacy for the remainder of the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Details.", "content": "During the Yom Kippur War in 1973, the Styx was shown to be much less effective than previously believed. From October 6 to October 12, 54 missiles were fired to no effect, according to Western sources. The aforementioned Russian sources however, claim that a total of seven ships were sunk - all small vessels such as trawlers, patrol boats, and missile boats. But the Russian specialists agreed with their Western counterparts that the overall results were unsatisfying, especially considering that seven Egyptian and Syrian vessels were sunk after being hit by Israeli Gabriel Mk.1 anti-ship missiles. This last figure is commonly recognized by specialists in both the West and East.  The first such encounter took place during the night of October 6 to October 7, 1973, near Latakia on the Syrian coast. Israeli forces used helicopters flying slowly at very low altitude, effectively simulating naval targets. No Israeli ship was hit by the large salvo of P-15s subsequently fired by the Syrians, who themselves lost the T-43 class trawler Jarmuk and three torpedo boats to Israeli Gabriel missiles. The Syrian missile boats withdrew successfully, but all of their missiles missed the Israeli helicopters, which had climbed to break the missile radars' locks. On the same night, a similar trick with helicopters was repeated against Egyptian ships north of the Sinai Peninsula. Yet another encounter took place near Latakia on the night of October 10–11. This time, the missile exchange between Israeli and Syrian missile boats took place without the use of helicopters, and Israeli ships relied on chaff. The Syrian vessels maneuvered outside their harbor among the anchored merchant ships. Two of the warships were sunk by Gabriel missiles, which also hit two neutral ships, the Greek Tsimentaros and the Japanese Yamashuro Maru. According to Israeli sources, the use of chaff saved all of its vessels. The following night, the helicopter maneuver was again successfully used during an encounter near Tartus off the Syrian coast. No Israeli ship was hit by a salvo of P-15s fired by Syrian missile boats. On the Syrian side, two Komar-class vessels were sunk by Gabriel missiles, and also the Soviet merchant ship Ilya Mechnikov was hit. On the same night, a similar encounter took place off the coast of Port Said.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gabriel missiles, created by Israel Aerospace Industries, are a range of anti-ship missiles that use the technique of sea skimming, created in response to an attack on an Israeli warship in 1967. The Mark IV version was in service with the Israeli Navy while other versions are in service with navies around the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976313}
{"src_title": "Madaba Map", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Madaba Mosaic Map depicts Jerusalem with the New Church of the Theotokos, which was dedicated on November 20, 542. Buildings erected in Jerusalem after 570 are absent from the depiction, thus limiting the date range of its creation to the period between 542 and 570. The mosaic was made by unknown artists, probably for the Christian community of Madaba, which was the seat of a bishop at that time. In 614, Madaba was conquered by the Sasanian Empire. In the eighth century, the ruling Muslim Umayyad Caliphate had some figural motifs removed from the mosaic. In 746, Madaba was largely destroyed by an earthquake and subsequently abandoned.  The mosaic was rediscovered in 1884, during the construction of a new Greek Orthodox church on the site of its ancient predecessor. Patriarch Nicodemus I of Jerusalem was informed, but no research was carried out until 1896.  In the following decades, large portions of the mosaic map were damaged by fires, activities in the new church and by the effects of moisture. In December 1964, the Volkswagen Foundation gave the \"Deutscher Verein für die Erforschung Palästinas\" (\"German Society for the exploration of Palestine\") 90,000 DM to save the mosaic. In 1965, the archaeologists Heinz Cüppers and Herbert Donner undertook the restoration and conservation of the remaining parts of the mosaic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The floor mosaic is located in the apse of the church of Saint George at Madaba. It is not oriented northwards, like modern maps, but faces east towards the altar in such a fashion that the position of places on the map coincides with the actual compass directions. Originally, it measured 21 by 7 m and contained over two million \"tesserae\". Its current dimensions are 16 by 5 m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Topographic representation.", "content": "The mosaic map depicts an area from Lebanon in the north to the Nile Delta in the south, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Eastern Desert. Among other features, it depicts the Dead Sea with two fishing boats, a variety of bridges linking the banks of the Jordan, fish swimming in the river and receding from the Dead Sea; a lion (rendered nearly unrecognisable by the insertion of random tesserae during a period of iconoclasm) hunting a gazelle in the Moab desert, palm-ringed Jericho, Bethlehem and other biblical-Christian sites. The map may partially have served to facilitate pilgrims' orientation in the Holy Land. All landscape units are labelled with explanations in Greek. A combination of folding perspective and aerial view depicts about 150 towns and villages, all of them labelled.  The largest and most detailed element of the topographic depiction is Jerusalem (), at the centre of the map. The mosaic clearly shows a number of significant structures in the Old City of Jerusalem: the Damascus Gate, the Lions' Gate, the Golden Gate, the Zion Gate, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the New Church of the Theotokos, the Tower of David and the \"Cardo Maximus\". On Jerusalem's southwest side is shown \"Acel Dama\" (lit. \"field of blood\"), from Christian liturgy. The recognisable depiction of the urban topography makes the mosaic a key source on Byzantine Jerusalem. Also unique are the detailed depictions of cities such as Neapolis, Askalon, Gaza, Pelusium and Charachmoba, all of them nearly detailed enough to be described as street maps. Other designated sites include: Nicopolis (); Beth Zachar[ias] (); Bethlehem (); Socho (), now \"Kh. Shuweikah\" (southwest of Hebron); Beth Annaba (); Saphitha (); Jericho (); Modi'im (); Lydda (); Bethoron (); Gibeon (); Rama (), \"Coreae\" (), among other sites.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scientific significance.", "content": "The mosaic map of Madaba is the oldest known geographic floor mosaic in art history. It is used heavily for the localisation and verification of biblical sites. Study of the map played a major role in answering the question of the topographical location of Askalon (\"Asqalan\" on the map). In 1967, excavations in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem revealed the Nea Church and the \"Cardo Maximus\" in the very locations suggested by the Madaba Map.  In February 2010, excavations further substantiated its accuracy with the discovery of a road depicted in the map that runs through the center of Jerusalem. According to the map, the main entrance to the city was through a large gate opening into a wide central street. Until the discovery, archaeologists were not able to excavate this site due to heavy pedestrian traffic. In the wake of infrastructure work near the Jaffa Gate, large paving stones were discovered at a depth of four meters below ground that prove such a road existed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Copies of the Madaba Map.", "content": "A copy of the map is in the collection of the Archaeological Institute at Göttingen University. It was produced during the conservation work at Madaba in 1965 by archaeologists of the Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Trier. A copy produced by students of the \"Madaba Mosaic School\" is in the foyer of the Akademisches Kunstmuseum at Bonn. The lobby of the YMCA in Jerusalem has a replica of the map incorporated in the floor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Chronological list of early Christian geographers and pilgrims to the Holy Land who wrote about their travels, and other related works", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Madaba Map, also known as the Madaba Mosaic Map, is part of a floor mosaic in the early Byzantine church of Saint George in Madaba, Jordan. The Madaba Map is of the Middle East, and part of it contains the oldest surviving original cartographic depiction of the Holy Land and especially Jerusalem. It dates to the 6th century AD.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976314}
{"src_title": "Hydrangea macrophylla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The term \"macrophylla\" means large- or long-leaved. The opposite leaves can grow to in length. They are simple, membranous, orbicular to elliptic and acuminate. They are generally serrated.  The inflorescence of \"Hydrangea macrophylla\" is a corymb, with all flowers placed in a plane or hemisphere, or even a whole sphere in cultivated forms. Two distinct types of flowers can be identified: central, non-ornamental, pentamerous ones, and peripheral, ornamental, tetramerous ones. The latter are often considered as sterile, but a study of several cultivars showed that all the flowers were fertile. The four sepals of decorative flowers have colors ranging from pale pink to red fuchsia purple to blue. The non-decorative flowers have five small greenish sepals and five small petals. Flowering lasts from early summer to early winter. The fruit is a subglobose capsule.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Hydrangea macrophylla\" is native to Japan and possibly Korea. It is reported from seaside habitats as well as mountains in Japan, from Honshu southwards. This species has naturalized in China, New Zealand and the Americas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Colors and soil acidity.", "content": "\"Hydrangea macrophylla\" blooms can be blue, red, pink, light purple, or dark purple. The color is affected by soil pH. An acidic soil (pH below 7) will usually produce flower color closer to blue, whereas an alkaline soil (pH above 7) will produce flowers more pink.This is caused by a color change of the flower pigments in the presence of aluminium ions which can be taken up into hyperaccumulating plants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landscaping.", "content": "In climates where \"Hydrangea macrophylla\" flowers, place in a mixed shrub border or at the back of a flower bed. Its rich foliage and large size make it a wonderful background for white or light colored flowers, even tall growing perennials and annuals. In warm climates \"H. macrophylla\" is good for adding a splash of early summer color to shady areas and woodland gardens. Minimal pruning is recommended for most prolific flowering. Flowers are easily air dried and are long lasting.  While \"Hydrangea macrophylla\" is not considered a particularly difficult plant to grow, it may fail to flower. This may be due to cold winter damage to the flower buds, not getting enough sunlight, too much nitrogen fertilizer, or pruning at the wrong time of year. \"H. macrophylla\" forms flower buds in late summer. As a result, pruning in late summer, fall or winter could remove potential flowers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "Phyllodulcin, hydrangenol, and their 8-O-glucosides, and thunberginols A and F can be found in \"H. macrophylla\". Thunberginol B, the dihydroisocoumarins thunberginol C, D and E, the dihydroisocoumarin glycosides thunberginol G 3'-O-glucoside and (−)-hydrangenol 4'-O-glucoside and four kaempferol and quercetin oligoglycosides can be found in \"Hydrangeae Dulcis Folium\", the processed leaves of \"H. macrophylla\" var. \"thunbergii\". The leaves also contain the stilbenoid hydrangeic acid.  The various colors, such as red, mauve, purple, violet and blue, in \"H. macrophylla\" are developed from one simple anthocyanin, delphinidin 3-glucoside (myrtillin), which forms complexes with metal ions called metalloanthocyanins.  Lunularic acid, lunularin, 3,4′-dihydroxystilbene and a glycoside of lunularic acid have been found in the roots of \"H. macrophylla\".  Hydrangine is another name for the coumarin umbelliferone, and may be responsible for the possible toxicity of the plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Possible uses.", "content": "Amacha is a Japanese beverage made from fermented leaves of \"Hydrangea macrophylla\" var. \"thunbergii\".  \"Hydrangeae Dulcis Folium\" is a drug made from the fermented and dried leaves of \"H. macrophylla var. thunbergii\" with possible antiallergic and antimicrobial properties. It also has a hepatoprotective activity by suppression of D-galactosamine-induced liver injury in vitro and in vivo.  \"Hydrangea macrophylla\" is included in the Tasmanian Fire Service's list of low flammability plants, indicating that it is suitable for growing within a building protection zone.  Leaf extracts of \"Hydrangea macrophylla\" are being investigated as a possible source of new chemical compounds with antimalarial activity. Hydrangeic acid from the leaves is being investigated as a possible anti-diabetic drug as it significantly lowered blood glucose, triglyceride, and free fatty acid levels in laboratory animals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "The two main types of \"H. macrophylla\" cultivars are called mophead and lacecap. Other types are in different species.  Some popular hydrangea cultivars (those marked have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit) include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hydrangea macrophylla is a species of flowering plant in the family Hydrangeaceae, native to Japan. It is a deciduous shrub growing to tall by broad with large heads of pink or blue flowers in summer and autumn. Common names include bigleaf hydrangea, French hydrangea, lacecap hydrangea, mophead hydrangea, penny mac and hortensia. It is widely cultivated in many parts of the world in many climates. It is not to be confused with \"H. aspera\" 'Macrophylla'.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976315}
{"src_title": "Charles César de Fay de La Tour-Maubourg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Monarchy.", "content": "De Faÿ was colonel of the Regiment of Soissons in 1789.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revolution.", "content": "He was appointed to the nobility of Puy-en-Velay in the Estates General. He was a friend of Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette. De Faÿ was one of the first nobles to join the Third Estate. He was representative to Nord and Pas de Calais.  De Faÿ was charged, with Antoine Barnave and Jerome Pétion, to return the royal family to Paris following its flight to Varennes (June 1791). His devotion on this occasion was misunderstood by Marie-Antoinette. However, in her memoirs, Madame Tourzel, witness of the facts, paid tribute to his dedication to the royal family.  De Faÿ was Colonel of the 3ème régiment de chasseurs à cheval from 1791 to February 1792. With the separation of the National Constituent Assembly, he accompanied the marquis de Fayette with the Army of the Center in 1792 and emigrated with him after the dismissal by Louis XVI on 10 August 1792. Captured at Rochefort, Belgium, with Lafayette, and imprisoned by Austria, he was released after the treaty of Campo-Formio (18 October 1797) and lived in exile in Hamburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Under the Consulate and the First Empire.", "content": "De Faÿ returned to France in 1798 and became a member of the Corps législatif (under the Directory), after which he became a member of the Senate in 1804, under the First French Empire. In 1808 he became military governor of Cherbourg, which he helped to become a major port. He was excluded from the House of Peers from the Hundred Days until 1819. Concerned with the management of its inheritance, he took part in financing the industrial activities of Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, scion of the American business family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After the Restoration.", "content": "In 1814, de Faÿ was named at the time of the Bourbon Restoration and preserved his position during the Hundred Days. He was Government commissioner for certain departments in the West of France. During the fall of Napoleon he was excluded from government until 1819. He was reinstated to the Senate, then made Knight of the Order of Saint Louis. Napoleon had made him commander of the Legion of Honor.  César de Faÿ de La Tour-Maubourg married Henriette de Tenella Pinault, heir of a member of the Parliament of Douai. They had many descendants He died in 1831 in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relatives.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brothers.", "content": "His brother, Marie Victor de Fay, marquis de Latour-Maubourg, was a Cavalry Corps commander, survived the Russian Campaign and was wounded at the battle of Leipzig.  Juste-Charles de la Tour-Maubourg married Anastasie de La Fayette, daughter of Lafayette. They had three daughters. The second, Jenny, married General Ettore Perrone di San Martino, politician of the Kingdom of Piedmont. Among their descendants is the present Queen Paola of Belgium.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Marie-Charles, comte de La Tour-Maubourg (11 February 1757 - 28 May 1831) married Charlotte, daughter of Charles Pinault de Thénelles, (d. 18 June 1837). They had six children: Just Pons Florimond de Faÿ de la Tour Maubourg (1781–1837) was Auditor with the Conseil d'État under the Empire and ambassador from France to Dresden, Constantinople and Rome. From March 1809 until 1811 he was Chargé d'Affaires to Constantinople but was recalled upon the peace between England and Turkey. He was made officer of the Legion of Honor in 1830. In 1831, at the consistory that elected Pope Gregory XVI, the marquis had the honour of informing the assembled cardinals that Louis-Philippe would waive his right of veto with assurance that only a wise and virtuous pontiff could be elected by such a wise and virtuous assembly.  Rodolphe (1787–1871) was an officer in the campaigns of the Empire, major general, officer of the Legion of Honor.  Armand - Septime (1801–1845), bachelor of law, was Master of the Requests to the Council of State. Under the Monarchy of July, he was Ambassador in Naples and Spain, then Rome, where he succeeded his older brother. He was commander of the Legion of Honor. A portrait of his wife painted by Théodore Chassériau was recently acquired by the Metropolitan Museum in New York.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Grandchildren.", "content": "Notable members of the following generation include César Florimond de la Tour Maubourg (1820–1886), son of Just Florimond and Caroline de La Perron de Saint Martino (sister of Hector Perrone de San Martino). A cavalry officer in 3rd Regiment of Chasseurs-à-Cheval. He was administrator of the Grand Central Railroad, appointed to Haute-Loire and, throughout the Second Empire, honorary chamberlain of Napoleon III and captain of the Imperial Hunt. In 1849 he married Anne Mortier of Trévise (1824–1900), granddaughter of marshal Mortier duke of Trévise and Lady of the Table of Empress Eugenie, who appears in the extreme righthand side of Winterhalter'sFranz Xaver Winterhalter famous painting. Some of her notebooks were published by General Thimble-Brissac in \"Review of the Napoleonean Memory.\" Their son was killed during the Franco-Prussian War, while their daughter died shortly after her marriage, without issue. They were left the Château de Frouard. After the death of her husband, the marchioness withdrew to her various residences at Maubourg, Paris, Cannes and Glareins (Ain). The last descendants of the Faÿ family de la Tour-Maubourg are buried in a mausoleum in the commune of Saint-Maurice-de-Lignon, built from the plans of Lyons architect Carra.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Marie-Charles-César de Faÿ, comte de la Tour-Maubourg (born 11 February 1757 at La Motte-de-Galaure, Drôme - died 28 April 1831 in Paris) was a French soldier and politician during the French Revolution and the First French Empire. His father was Claude Florimond de Faÿ (1712–1790); his mother was Vacheron Bermont Marie Françoise (b. 1712).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976316}
{"src_title": "Werwolf (Wehrmacht headquarters)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Naming.", "content": "The name is derived from \"Werwolf\" or \"Wehrwolf\" in German, which can be translated as werewolf. The Nazis also used the term \"Werwolf\" as a codename for clandestine resistance groups which were intended to carry out guerrilla attacks against the occupying forces towards the end of World War II. The naming scheme is in accord with other code-names given to \"Führerhauptquartiere\" during the Second World War, such as \"Wolfsschanze.\" Several were named for Hitler himself, whose nickname was \"Wolf\". The site was also the easternmost Wehrmacht headquarters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Headquarters.", "content": "The complex was located in a pine forest, about north of Vinnytsia in Ukraine, between the villages of Stryzhavka and Kolo-Mikhailovka on the Kiev highway. It was built between December 1941 and June 1942 under top secret conditions by Soviet prisoners of war. The location may have been influenced by the Nazis' proposed trans-European highway to the Crimean Peninsula, which would have connected with the site. The Wehrmacht had its regional headquarters in Vinnytsia, and the Luftwaffe had a strong presence at their airbase in Kalinovka, about 20 km away.  Hitler's accommodation at Werwolf (the Führerhaus) consisted of a modest log cabin built around a private courtyard with its own concrete bunker. The rest of the complex consisted of about 20 wooden cottages and barracks and up to three \"B\" class bunkers, surrounded by ring of barbed wire and ground defensive positions connected by tunnels. A couple of observation points were set up on platforms in the oak trees surrounding the pine forest. The area was surrounded by a defensive strip of bunkers, anti-aircraft guns and tanks, as well as anti-tank ditches and minefields. There was a tea house, a barber shop, a bathhouse, a sauna, a cinema and a swimming pool, primarily intended for Hitler who never actually used it. The facility also contained a large vegetable garden organised by the German horticultural company Zeidenspiner to provide Hitler with a secure supply of food. Hitler's personal chef selected his vegetables and the food was chemically analyzed before being tried by a taster because of Hitler's fear of poisoning. Oxygen tanks were also available at Hitler's insistence. Water for the site was provided by artesian wells while power was provided by a generator. Some historians, including Lloyd Clark, indicate that some buildings were connected by tunnels.  The bunkers were constructed by Organisation Todt using some local Ukrainian workers, forced labour but mainly Soviet prisoners of war. The code name for the secret construction project was \"Anlage Eichenhain\" (Camp Oak Grove).  The complex was served by a daily three-hour flight connection from Berlin to the airfield in Kalinovka 20km from the compound. There was also a regular train connection from Berlin-Charlottenburg to \"Eichenbein\" station at Werwolf. The ride took 34 hours.  During his Eastern campaign, Adolf Hitler lived mainly at FHQ Wolfsschanze (near Rastenburg, East Prussia) but he stayed at FHQ Werwolf three times:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Nazis destroyed the site, including mining access to the underground complex, on abandoning the region. The site was examined after the Nazi departure in March 1944 under the orders of Joseph Stalin, but no documentation was found. The Soviet Union took steps to permanently seal the underground parts of the complex.  Today only the swimming pool and concrete fragments remain visible on the site, which is an open recreation area. The site can be visited but plans to create a full-fledged museum had not come to fruition as of August 2018. Nearby is a memorial to the thousands of labourers and others buried by the Nazis in gravepits at Stryzhavka.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Führerhauptquartier Werwolf was the codename used for one of Adolf Hitler's World War II Eastern Front military headquarters located in a pine forest about north of Vinnytsia, in Ukraine, which was used between 1942 and 1943. It was one of a number of \"Führer\" Headquarters throughout Europe, and the most easterly ever used by Hitler in person.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976317}
{"src_title": "Greater Poland uprising (1918–19)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "After the Third Partition of Poland in 1795, the Polish nation had ceased to exist as an independent state. From 1795 through the beginning of World War I, several unsuccessful uprisings to regain independence took place. The Great Poland Uprising of 1806 was followed by the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw, which lasted for eight years before it was partitioned again between Prussia and Russia. Under German rule, Poles faced systematic discrimination and oppression. The Poles living in the region of Greater Poland were subjected to Germanisation and land confiscations to make way for German colonization.  At the end of World War I, US President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points and the idea of national self-determination were met with opposition from European powers standing to lose influence or territory, such as Germany, which dominated Greater Poland. German politicians had signed an armistice leading to a ceasefire on 11 November 1918. Also, Germany had signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Bolshevik Russia to settle the territorial boundaries of the eastern frontiers. That treaty took into consideration of a future Polish state and so from then until the Treaty of Versailles was fully ratified in January 1920, many territorial and sovereignty issues remained unresolved.  Wilson's proposal for an independent Poland initially did not set borders that could be universally accepted. Most of Poland that was partitioned and annexed to Prussia in the late 18th-century was still part of Greater Germany at the close of World War I, the rest of the Kingdom of Poland being in Austria-Hungary. The portion in Germany included the region of Greater Poland, of which Poznań (Posen) was a major industrial city and its capital. The majority of the population was Polish (more than 60%) and hoped to be within the borders of the new Polish state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uprising.", "content": "In late 1918, Poles hoping for a sovereign Poland started serious preparations for an uprising after Wilhelm II's abdication on 9 November 1918, which marked the end of the German Empire. The monarchy was replaced by the Weimar Republic.  The uprising broke out on 27 December 1918 in Poznań, after a patriotic speech by Ignacy Paderewski, the famous pianist, who would become the Polish prime minister in 1919.  The insurrectionist forces consisted of members of the Polish Military Organization, who formed the (Citizen's Guard), later renamed as (People's Guard), which included many volunteers, who were mainly veterans of World War I. The first contingent to reach the Bazar Hotel, from where the uprising was initiated, was a 100-strong force from (Wilda's People's Guard) led by Antoni Wysocki. The ruling body was the (Supreme People's Council). Initially, the members of the Council, including Captain Stanisław Taczak and General Józef Dowbor-Muśnicki were against the uprising, but they changed their minds in support of the insurrection on 9 January 1919.  The timing was advantageous for the insurrectionists since between late 1918 and early 1919, internal conflict had weakened Germany, and many of its soldiers and sailors engaged in mutinous actions against the state. Demoralized by the signing of the armistice on 11 November 1918, the new German government was further embroiled in subduing the German Revolution.  By 15 January 1919, Poles had taken control of most of the province, and they engaged in heavy fighting with the regular German army and irregular units such as the Grenzschutz. Fighting continued until the renewal of the truce between the Entente and Germany on 16 February. The truce also affected the front line in Greater Poland, but despite the ceasefire, skirmishes continued until the final signing of the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919.  The uprising is one of the two most successful Polish uprisings, the other being the Great Poland Uprising of 1806, which ended with the entry of Napoleon's army on the side of the Poles fighting against Prussia.  Many of the Greater Poland insurrectionists later took part in the Silesian Uprisings against German rule, which started in late 1919 and ended in 1921.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reaction.", "content": "The uprising had a significant effect on the decisions in Versailles that granted Poland not only the area won by the insurrectionists but also the lands of the Polish Corridor, which were also part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth before the First Partition of Poland in 1772 and connected Poland to the Baltic Sea. Some of the major cities included Bydgoszcz (Bromberg), Leszno (Lissa) and Rawicz (Rawitsch). The riots initiated by the minority Germans later influenced the decision to have popular votes in Silesia, where the public was allowed to vote whether it wanted to be part of Poland or Germany.  Germany's territorial losses following the Treaty of Versailles incited German revanchism, and created unresolved problems such as the status of the independent Free City of Danzig and of the Polish Corridor between East Prussia and the rest of Germany. Attending to these issues was part of Adolf Hitler's political platform. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, Poland refused several German proposals for popular referendums, population transfers, highway projects and customs union reforms for fear of an eventual land grab from Germany.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Greater Poland uprising of 1918–1919, or Wielkopolska uprising of 1918–1919 (; ) or Posnanian War was a military insurrection of Poles in the Greater Poland region (German: Grand Duchy of Posen or Provinz Posen) against German rule. The uprising had a significant effect on the Treaty of Versailles, which granted a reconstituted Second Polish Republic the area won by the Polish insurrectionists. The region had been part of the Kingdom of Poland and then Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth before the 1793 Second Partition of Poland when it was annexed by the German Kingdom of Prussia. It had also, following the 1806 Greater Poland Uprising, been part of the Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815), a French puppet state during the Napoleonic Wars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976318}
{"src_title": "Frances Stewart, Duchess of Richmond", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Frances was the daughter of Walter Stewart, or Stuart, a physician in Queen Henrietta Maria's court, and a distant relative of the royal family. She was born on 8 July 1647 in exile in Paris, but was sent to England in 1663 after the restoration by Charles I's widow Henrietta Maria as maid of honour (a court appointment) and subsequently as lady-in-waiting to Charles II's new bride, Catherine of Braganza.  The great diarist Samuel Pepys recorded that she was the greatest beauty he ever saw. She had numerous suitors, including the Duke of Buckingham and Francis Digby, son of the Earl of Bristol, whose unrequited love for her was celebrated by Dryden. Her beauty appeared to her contemporaries to be equalled only by her childish silliness; but her letters to her husband, preserved in the British Museum, are not devoid of good sense and feeling.  The Count de Gramont said of her that \"it would be difficult to imagine less brain combined with more beauty.\"  While a member of the royal court, she caught the eye of Charles II, who fell in love with her. The king's infatuation was so great that when the queen's life was despaired of in 1663, it was reported that he intended to marry Stewart, and four years later he was considering the possibility of obtaining a divorce to enable him to make her his wife because she had refused to become his mistress.  Eventually, in March 1667, she married (as his third wife) Charles Stewart, 3rd Duke of Richmond, 6th Duke of Lennox (1639-1672), a 4th cousin of King Charles II, but produced no issue. It is possible she had to elope, after being discovered with him by Lady Castlemaine, a rival for the king's affections.  The now Duchess of Richmond, however, soon returned to court, where she remained for many years; and although she was disfigured by smallpox in 1669, she retained her hold on the king's affections. It is certain, at least, that Charles went on to post the Duke to Scotland and then to Denmark as ambassador, where he died in 1672.  The duchess was present in 1688 at the birth of James Francis Edward Stuart (\"The Old Pretender\"), son of James II, and was one of those who signed the certificate before the council. She died in 1702 aged 55, leaving a valuable property to her nephew Alexander Stuart, 5th Lord Blantyre, whose seat of Lethington was renamed Lennoxlove after her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Britannia.", "content": "Following the war with the Dutch, Charles had a commemorative medal cast, in which her face was used as a model for Britannia; this subsequently became customary for medals, coins and statues. She continued to appear on some of the copper coinage of the United Kingdom until the decimalization of the currency in 1971. She also appeared on the fifty pence piece in 2006.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frances Teresa Stewart, Duchess of Richmond and Lennox (8 July 1647 – 15 October 1702) was a prominent member of the Court of the Restoration and famous for refusing to become a mistress of Charles II of England. For her great beauty she was known as \"La Belle Stuart\" and served as the model for an idealised, female Britannia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976319}
{"src_title": "Aimée du Buc de Rivéry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Aimée was born 4 December 1768, the daughter of wealthy French plantation owner Henri du Buc de Rivery (1748 - 1808) and Marie Anne Arbousset-Beaufond (1739 - 1811) in Pointe Royale, south-west of Robert on the Caribbean island of Martinique. Through marriage, she was an eighth cousin-in-law, once removed, of Empress Josephine. via Josephine's first marriage with Alexandre de Beauharnais, who had been executed during the Reign of Terror.  Having been sent to a convent school in France, she was returning home, in July or August 1788, when the ship on which she traveled vanished at sea. It is theorized that the ship was attacked and taken by Barbary pirates. It has been further suggested that she was enslaved, and eventually sent to Constantinople as a gift to the Ottoman Sultan by the Bey of Algiers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legend about her being Valide Sultan Nakşidil.", "content": "According to the legend, Aimée became the wife of the sultan, taking the name of Nakşidil, who introduced French ideas to the sultan, and so to the Ottoman people. It has been theorized that her French-style reforms may have led to his death at the hands of the Janissaries and the Ulema, since both groups opposed liberalization of the empire. During the rule of Abdul Hamid I, she taught him French and, for the first time, a permanent ambassador was sent from Constantinople to Paris. Selim III, a son of Abdul Hamid I who later succeeded him as Sultan, started a French newspaper. He also allowed Nakşidil to decorate the palace in rococo style, which was popular in France at that time.  The legend of Aimée as Nakşidil continues, claiming that she had accepted Islam as part of the harem etiquette, as well as the religion of her husband, yet always remained a Roman Catholic in her heart. Her last wish was for a priest to perform the last rites. Her son, the sultan, did not deny her this: as Aimée lay dying, a priest passed for the first time through the Seraglio, to perform the Holy Sacrament before her death. Her tomb lies not far from the Hagia Sophia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy over the legend.", "content": "Some researchers have looked into the alleged history of Aimée du Buc de Rivéry in the royal harem and found it implausible. According to Turkish historian Necdet Sakaoğlu, Nakşîdil Sultan was ethnically Georgian in origin.  While several stories claimed that Aimée was abducted in 1781 - early enough that the seventeen year old could have been the mother of Mahmud II, born in 1785 - other stories took into account that Aimée was well in France with her family until the year 1788 at least. In the latter recounts of the tale, Aimée is only the foster mother to Mahmud II, while his birth mother died in his childhood.  None of those accounts however are considering a contemporary source from the year 1817: Nakşidil was reportedly abducted when she was still two years old. That version of her story, if true, would make it impossible for her to be identical with the missing Aimée.  Robert Vine wrote: \"The myth of two cousins from a island becoming respectively the wife of the French Emperor and the mother of the Ottoman Sultan has an obvious romantic attraction - but by the same token, is highly improbable, unless provided with solid factual proof\".  There are however indications that seeds of the legend have been carefully planted. Several older myths, dating back even to the early 16th century, already purported connections between the French and the Ottoman monarchy. These have been traced to be politically motivated fabrications, so that alliances between the respective monarchs were seen as justifiable. The Aimée-Nakşidil tale distinctly parallels to these older tales. In times of monarchy, the stories about abducted French princesses weren't repudiated to maintain good relations - in fact, both Napoleon III and Abdülaziz were pleased to announce their kinship to each other, years later. In later times this and similar harem tales have been used to perpetuate the prejudice of Turkey, the Middle East and the Islam in general as mysterious and despotic in nature, despite more accurate accounts available. The legend furthermore reinforced prejudices of the Ottoman Empire as a backwater country, where even a western slave consort was able to initiate an overdue modernization while the primitive natives couldn't conceive necessary reforms.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aimée du Buc de Rivéry (4 December 1768 –?) was a French heiress who went missing at sea as a young woman. There is a legend that she was captured by Barbary pirates, sold as a harem concubine, and was the same person as Nakşîdil Sultan, a Valide Sultan (Queen Mother) of the Ottoman Empire; this has not been proven.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976320}
{"src_title": "Lyon Metro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Routes.", "content": "The Lyon Metro consists of four lines, A, B, C and D, each identified on maps by different colours:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lines A and B.", "content": "Line A (\"Perrache - Laurent Bonnevay (Astroballe)\") and Line B (\"Charpennes - Part-Dieu\") were constructed by cut-and-cover and went into service on May 2, 1978, as the inaugural lines of the Lyon Metro. Trains on both lines run on rubber tyres rather than steel wheels.  Line B was extended to \"Jean Macé\" on September 9, 1981, to \"Gerland\" on September 4, 2000 and to \"Gare d'Oullins\" on 11 December 2013.  An extension to \"Vaulx-en-Velin La Soie\" on Line A opened in October 2007.  By 2020, Line B will be automated, with the same system as Line D. New MPL 16 rolling stock has been ordered to Alstom in 2016 for Line B. The MPL 75 trains currently used on Line B will join the other MPL 75s on Line A to increase the capacity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Line C.", "content": "The \"Croix-Rousse-Croix-Paquet\" rack railway, which was refurbished in 1974, was integrated into the Metro in 1978 as Line C, with an extension to Hôtel-de-Ville (thus running from \"Hôtel-de-Ville\" to \"Croix-Rousse\"). It was extended to \"Cuire\" on December 8, 1984.  The line was constructed using various methods; the incline rising through a deep tunnel, the portion on the flat at \"Croix-Rousse\" using cut-and-cover while the section beyond \"Hénon\" runs on the surface. The \"Croix Paquet\" station claims to be the steepest metro station in Europe, with an incline of 17%.  Line C uses an overhead wire while Lines A, B and D use a third rail.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Line D.", "content": "Line D, the first fully automatic metro line in France, started with operators on board trains on September 4, 1991, between \"Gorge de Loup\" and \"Grange Blanche\". The line was extended to \"Gare de Vénissieux\" on December 11, 1992, when it switched to driverless operation. On April 28, 1997, it was extended again to \"Gare de Vaise\".  Using rubber tyres like lines A and B, trains on line D are controlled by a system known as MAGGALY (\"Métro Automatique à Grand Gabarit de l’Agglomération Lyonnaise\"). Unusually for a driverless metro, no platform screen doors are installed on station platforms. The trains use infrared sensors to detect obstructions on the track. Other systems using this technology include the Nuremberg U-Bahn and Budapest Metro's Line 4.  The deepest line in Lyon, Line D was constructed partly using boring machines and passes under both rivers, the \"Rhône\" and the \"Saône\". At long with 15 stations, it is also the longest line in Lyon.  In 2016, new MPL 16 rolling stock was ordered from Alstom for Lines B and D and is expected to come into service on the line starting in 2020. These trains will increase the capacity of Line D and they will be coupled to form four-car units at rush hours and should replace the MPL 75 of line B which would be only on line A.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "The Metro, like the rest of the local public transport system, is operated by Keolis Lyon (ex-SLTC - the'(Lyon public transport company)), under the TCL brand -'(Lyon public transport). It is operated on behalf of SYTRAL - the \"\" (Rhône department and Lyon metropolitan transport syndicate), a Syndicat Mixte.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future expansion.", "content": "Work is under way to extend Line B to a new terminus at Lyon's southern hospital complex in Saint-Genis-Laval. The extension is due to enter service in 2023. New rolling stock, capable of operating as a single two-car trainset or two coupled trainsets for four-car operation, will be introduced and the line will be automated. Existing rolling stock used on Line B will be used to enhance capacity on Line A. Line D will also receive 10 new trainsets and its automatic control system will be upgraded.  A new line, dubbed Line E, is under consideration to link Lyon's western suburbs to the city centre. Twelve variants were initially proposed; two options, running from either \"Bellecour\" or \"Hôtel de Ville\" to \"Alaï\", have been selected for further study and could potentially be opened by around 2030.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lyon Metro () is a rapid transit system serving Lyon Metropolis, France. First opened in 1974, it currently consists of four lines, serving 40 stations and comprising of route. Part of the Transports en Commun Lyonnais (TCL) system of public transport, it is supported by two funiculars and a tramway network.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976321}
{"src_title": "Surplex", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foundation.", "content": "Surplex.com AG was established by the brothers Bruno and Florian Schick at the end of 1999 as a typical start-up company of the Dotcom-era. The core idea was to develop an online marketplace to simplify the trading of used machinery and to make the highly segmented second hand machinery market more transparent.  This business model attracted many institutional and private investors. International venture capital consortia such as the Carlyle Group and the French Vivendi-group invested a total of around EUR 50 million. Also prominent private investors including Lars Schlecker, Lars Windhorst, Marc Schrempp or the chairman of Fiat Paolo Fresco have invested in Surplex.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Crisis.", "content": "With the bursting of the Dot-com bubble, Surplex.com AG found itself in a struggle to survive. Offices were closed, the head office was transferred back from Berlin to Düsseldorf and most of the approximately 140 jobs were lost. In March 2003 Michael Werker, who had initially come to Surplex from the traditional engineering company Deutz, became CEO.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Turnaround.", "content": "It was only through a rebalancing of the company, to include a focus on more traditional services, that Surplex was able to consolidate its finances. Today Surplex is no longer limited to „virtual“ business processes, but also offers „real“ services around the application of used machinery, e.g. personal consultation, appraisals and storage. Used machines and production lines are marketed worldwide. Furthermore, Surplex carries out big internet auctions (live and online), e.g. for companies like Linde, ABB, ThyssenKrupp and Bayer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "The business-to-business-platform from Surplex is a European player in selling used machines and equipment and was awarded the best platform in 2001 by Forrester Research. At its peak, the platform had more than 8,000 customers and 12,000 machines.  Surplex is the publisher of the world's largest magazine for used machinery and equipment (communicator). With a circulation of 45,000 and more than 100,000 readers, it reaches people in more than 100 different countries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Surplex GmbH is a Düsseldorf based company that is primarily focused on buying and selling used machinery. The company buys and sells used machinery and industrial plants, carries out internet auctions and offers appraisals and valuations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976322}
{"src_title": "License", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mass licensing of software.", "content": "Mass distributed software is used by individuals on personal computers under license from the developer of that software. Such license is typically included in a more extensive end-user license agreement (EULA) entered into upon the installation of that software on a computer. Typically, a license is associated with a unique code, that when approved grants the end user access to the software in question.  Under a typical end-user license agreement, the user may install the software on a limited number of computers.  The enforceability of end-user license agreements is sometimes questioned.  As of 2020, there are various ways to license software with different kinds of licensing models, which allow software vendors to profit from their product offerings in flexible ways.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patent licensing.", "content": "A licensor may grant permission to a licensee to conduct activities which would otherwise be within the, offer for sale, or import a patented product, or to perform a patented process. The term of a patent license may be a \"fixed\" (i.e., specified) term, such as 5 years, or may be for the life of the patent (i.e., until the patent expires). A patent is by its nature limited in territorial scope; it only covers activity within the borders of the country issuing the patent. Accordingly, a patent license does not require a territory provision.  The consideration provided by the licensee in return for the patent license grant is called a patent royalty payment. In a \"paid-up\" license, the \"lump sum\" royalty payment is a specified monetary amount, typically due shortly after the effective date of the patent (e.g., within 15 business days of the effective date), and no further payments are required. Otherwise, the royalty payment is a \"running royalty,\" typically payable on an annual basis. The annual royalty may be a specified amount (e.g., one million dollars each year), or an amount proportional to the volume of licensed activity conducted by the licensee (e.g., one dollar per unit of licensed product sold by the licensee that year, or one percent of the net sales amount of the licensed products sold by the licensee that year).  A licensing agreement is an arrangement whereby a licensor grants the right to intangible property to another entity for a specified period, and in return, the licensor receives a royalty fee from the licensee. Intangible property includes patents, inventions, formulas, processes, designs, copyrights, and trademarks.  Advantages of a licensing agreement:  Disadvantages of a licensing agreement", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trademark and brand licensing.", "content": "A licensor may grant permission to a licensee to distribute products under a trademark. With such a license, the licensee may use the trademark without fear of a claim of trademark infringement by the licensor. The assignment of a license often depends on specific contractual terms. The most common terms are, that a license is only applicable for a particular geographic region, just for a certain period of time or merely for a stage in the value chain. Moreover, there are different types of fees within the trademark and brand licensing. The first form demands a fee independent of sales and profits, the second type of license fee is dependent on the productivity of the licensee.  When a licensor grants permission to a licensee to not only distribute, but manufacture a patented product, it is known as licensed production.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Artwork and character licensing.", "content": "A licensor may grant a permission to a licensee to copy and distribute copyrighted works such as \"art\" (e.g., Thomas Kinkade's painting \"Dawn in Los Gato\") and characters (e.g., Mickey Mouse). With such license, a licensee need not fear a claim of copyright infringement brought by the copyright owner.  Artistic license is, however, not related to the aforementioned license. It is a euphemism that denotes freedom of expression, the ability to make the subject appear more engaging or attractive, by fictionalising part of the subject.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academia.", "content": "A licentiate is an academic degree that traditionally conferred the license to teach at a university or to practice a particular profession. The term survived despite the fact that nowadays a doctorate is typically needed in order to teach at a university. The term is also used for a person who holds a licentiate. In English, the degree has never been called a license. In France, the \"licence\" is the first degree awarded in Universities.  In Sweden, Finland, and in some other European university systems, a 'licentiate' is a postgraduate degree between the master's degree and the doctorate. The licentiate is a popular choice in those countries where a full doctoral degree would take five or more years to achieve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vehicle licensing.", "content": "A license to driving certain vehicles has been applied to many countries around the world. Being allowed to drive a certain vehicle requires a specific driving license, the type of license depending on the type of vehicle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criminal law.", "content": "In the United Kingdom prisoners serving a determinate sentence (a fixed time in prison) will be released prior to the completion of their full sentence \"on licence\". The licence is the prisoner's agreement to maintain certain conditions, such as periodic reporting in to a probation officer and only living at an approved address, in exchange for their early release. If they break the conditions of the licence, they can be \"recalled\" (returned to prison).  Offenders serving determinate sentences are released automatically at a set point in their sentence, whereas prisoners serving indeterminate sentences (e.g. life imprisonment) can only be released by the parole board.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic theory.", "content": "Patent licensing has been studied in formal economic models in the field of industrial organization. In particular, Katz and Shapiro (1986) have explored the optimal licensing strategy of a research lab selling to firms who are competitors on the product market. It turns out that (compared to the welfare-maximizing solution) the licensor’s incentives to develop innovations may be excessive, while the licensor’s incentives to disseminate the innovation are typically too low. Subsequently, the seminal work of Katz and Shapiro (1986) has been extended in several directions. For example, Bhattacharya, Glazer, and Sappington (1992) have taken into account that the firms acquiring licenses must make further investments in order to develop marketable products. Schmitz (2002, 2007) has shown that asymmetric information due to adverse selection or moral hazard may lead the research lab to sell more licenses than it would do under complete information. Antelo and Sampayo (2017) have studied the optimal number of licenses in a signalling model.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "The provision of licenses and the agencies that mandate them are often criticised by libertarians, like Milton Friedman, for creating an anticompetitive environment for occupations, which creates a barrier to entry for more qualified and skilled individuals who may not have the resources to obtain the necessary licences. According to Friedman, licenses and permits have become so burdensome due to legislation that favors the current establishment of wealthy occupants that they decrease the supply of such occupations, which raises prices for the average consumer. Libertarians and the anti-authoritarian left (anarcho-communists) view competing guilds and other voluntary communes as being more beneficial for disseminating the skills and education required to perform a specified career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Intellectual property-related:  Other:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A license (American English) or licence (British English) is an official permission or permit to do, use, or own something (as well as the document of that permission or permit).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976323}
{"src_title": "Mario Capecchi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Mario Capecchi was born in Verona, Italy, as the only child of Luciano Capecchi, an Italian airman who would be later reported as missing in action while manning an anti-aircraft gun in the Western Desert Campaign, and Lucy Ramberg, an American-born daughter of Impressionist painter Lucy Dodd Ramberg and German archaeologist Walter Ramberg. During World War II, his mother was sent to the Dachau concentration camp as punishment for pamphleteering and belonging to an anti-Fascist group. Prior to her arrest she had made contingency plans by selling her belongings and giving the proceeds to a peasant family near Bolzano to provide housing for her child. However, after one year, the money was exhausted and the family was unable to care for him. At four-and-a-half years old he was left to fend for himself, living as a street child on the streets of northern Italy for the next four years, living in various orphanages and roving through towns with groups of other homeless children.  He almost died of malnutrition. His mother, meanwhile, had been freed from Dachau and began a year-long search for him. She finally found him in a hospital bed in Reggio Emilia, ill with a fever and subsisting on a daily bowl of chicory coffee and bread crust. She took him to Rome, where he had his first bath in six years.  In 1946 his uncle, Edward Ramberg, an American physicist at RCA, sent his sister money to return to the United States. He and his mother moved to Pennsylvania to live at an \"intentionally cooperative community\" called Bryn Gweled, which had been co-founded by his uncle. (Capecchi's other maternal uncle, Walter Ramberg, was also an American physicist who served as the tenth president of the Society for Experimental Stress Analysis.) He graduated from George School, a Quaker boarding school in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, in 1956.  Mario Capecchi received his Bachelor of Science in chemistry and physics in 1961 from Antioch College in Ohio. Capecchi came to MIT as a graduate student intending to study physics and mathematics, but during the course of his studies, he became interested in molecular biology. He subsequently transferred to Harvard to join the lab of James D. Watson, co-discoverer of the structure of DNA. Capecchi received his Ph.D. in biophysics in 1967 from Harvard University, with his doctoral thesis completed under the tutelage of Watson.  Capecchi was a Junior Fellow of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University from 1967 to 1969. In 1969 he became an assistant professor in the Department of Biochemistry at Harvard Medical School. He was promoted to associate professor in 1971. In 1973 he joined the faculty at the University of Utah. Since 1988 Capecchi has also been an investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences. He has given a talk for Duke University's Program in Genetics and Genomics as part of their Distinguished Lecturer Series. He was the speaker for the 2010 Racker Lectures in Biology & Medicine and Cornell Distinguished Lecture in Cell and Molecular Biology at Cornell University. He is a member of the Italy-USA Foundation.  After the Nobel committee publicly announced that Capecchi had won the Nobel prize, an Austrian woman named Marlene Bonelli claimed that Capecchi was her long-lost half-brother. In May 2008, Capecchi met with Bonelli, 69, in northern Italy, and confirmed that she was his sister.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout mice.", "content": "Capecchi won the Nobel prize for creating a knockout mouse. This is a mouse, created by genetic engineering and in vitro fertilization, in which a particular gene has been turned off. For this work, Capecchi won the 2007 Nobel prize for medicine or physiology, along with Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies, who also contributed.  Capecchi has also pursued a systematic analysis of the mouse Hox gene family. This gene family plays a key role in the control of embryonic development in all multicellular animals. They determine the placement of cellular development in the proper order along the axis of the body from head to toe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mario Ramberg Capecchi (6 October 1937) is an Italian-born molecular geneticist and a co-winner of the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering a method to create mice in which a specific gene is turned off, known as knockout mice. He shared the prize with Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies. He is currently Distinguished Professor of Human Genetics and Biology at the University of Utah School of Medicine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976324}
{"src_title": "Gordon Tullock", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "A native of Rockford, Illinois and graduate of Rockford Central High School, Tullock attended the University of Chicago and, after a break for military service during World War II, received a J.D. in 1947. Following a brief period in private practice, he joined the Foreign Service that fall. After completing training, he was posted to Tianjin, China, later receiving Chinese language instruction at Yale and Cornell and follow-on postings to Hong Kong and Korea. He resigned from the Foreign Service in 1956. While he originally intended to pursue a career as a foreign trader in the Far East, his work on \"The Politics of Bureaucracy\" eventually led him to begin collaboration with James M. Buchanan at the University of Virginia while Tullock worked at the University of South Carolina teaching international studies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic career.", "content": "Tullock's collaboration with Buchanan produced \"The Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy\" (1962), which quickly became a seminal work in the new field of public choice. He later joined Buchanan as a faculty colleague at Virginia. For four years Buchanan and Tullock continued their research program, even founding a new journal for their field (1966), first called \"Papers in Non-Market Economics\" and eventually titled \"Public Choice\", where they invited articles applying economic theory to all sorts of non-market phenomena, especially in the realm of government and politics. Despite the success of the book and the journal, disagreements with the UVA administration eventually led Tullock to leave.  In 1967, Tullock identified many of the concepts of what came to be known as rent-seeking in a seminal paper.  Tullock moved to Virginia Polytechnical Institute (VPI, now called Virginia Tech) in 1968 and was joined by Buchanan a year later. There they continued the Public Choice Society and the journal, of which Tullock remained editor until 1990. At VPI, Tullock wrote a number of influential articles and books, including \"Private Wants, Public Means\" (1970), \"The Logic of the Law\" (1971), \"The Social Dilemma\" (1974), and \"The Vote Motive\" (1976).  In 1983, Tullock and the Center for Study of Public Choice moved to George Mason University, at the time a relatively unknown school in Fairfax, Virginia. Tullock taught at GMU from 1983–1987 and at the University of Arizona from 1987–1999. He continued to publish widely (more than 150 papers and 23 books in all), including \"The Economics of Wealth and Poverty\" (1986), \"Autocracy\" (1987), \"Rent Seeking\" (1993), \"The Economics of Non-Human Societies\" (1994) and \"On Voting: A Public Choice Approach\" (1998). In 1999 he returned to George Mason as a professor of law and economics, where he retired in 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rent seeking.", "content": "Tullock developed a theory referred to as rent-seeking. Rent seeking, according to public choice theory, is securing profits through the political process rather than the market process of exchange. An example of rent seeking is when a firm, union, or special-interest group lobbies political actors (e.g. politicians or bureaucrats) to influence legislation in a beneficial manner. This can lead to moral hazard when politicians make policy decisions based on the lobby instead of the efficiency of the policy.  Tullock also formulated and considered the Tullock paradox, namely, the paradox of why rent-seeking is so cheap.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tullock's spike.", "content": "The name \"Tullock's spike\" refers to a thought experiment in which Tullock suggested that if governments were serious about reducing road casualties, they should mandate that a sharp spike be installed in the center of each car's steering wheel, to increase the probability that an accident would be fatal to the driver. Tullock's idea was that the normal process of risk compensation would then lead to safer driving by the affected drivers, thereby actually reducing driving fatalities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "In 1994 Tullock was awarded an honorary Ph.D. from the University of Chicago and in 1998 became a distinguished fellow of the American Economic Association. He served as President of the Southern Economic Association, the International Atlantic Economic Society (1998–1999), the Western Economic Association and the Public Choice Society. In 1996 he was elected to the \"American Political Science Review\" Hall of Fame. He was sometimes considered a longshot candidate for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "His book, \"The Politics of Bureaucracy\", has been criticized for overlooking a substantial body of literature. A number of authors have criticized Tullock and the public choice tradition as being too simplistic in its explanation of political behavior.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On November 3, 2014, Tullock died at the age of 92 in Des Moines.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gordon Tullock (; February 13, 1922 – November 3, 2014) was an economist and professor of law and Economics at the George Mason University School of Law. He is best known for his work on public choice theory, the application of economic thinking to political issues. He was one of the founding figures in his field.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976325}
{"src_title": "Anna Maria of Mecklenburg-Schwerin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "The wars involving Mecklenburg forced her father to send Anna Maria and her two older brothers, Christian Louis and Karl, first to Sweden and shortly afterwards to Denmark, to the court of Dowager Queen Sophia (born Duchess of Mecklenburg-Güstrow). In 1629 Anna Maria was sent to Saxony with Dowager Electress Hedwig, to the latter's dower state, Castle Lichtenberg near Prettin, where she was educated. After Hedwig's death in 1642, Anna Maria returned to Schwerin, where she was reunited with her father, her mother having died in 1634. She also probably then met for the first time her stepmother, Marie Katharina of Brunswick-Dannenberg, and her three surviving half-siblings. Anna Maria was her father's favorite child as demonstrated by the cordial, even affectionate tone of the letters that they wrote to each other.  On 23 November 1647, in Schwerin, Anna Maria married Augustus, second surviving son of Johann Georg I, Elector of Saxony, and moved with her husband to Halle, the main city of his domains as Administrator of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg. During her marriage, she bore twelve children, including three daughters who died in infancy in 1663.  On 22 April 1657 her husband, by the terms of his father's will, received the towns of Weissenfels and Querfurt as his own Duchy, and hence Anna Maria became Duchess consort of Saxe-Weissenfels.  Anna Maria died on 11 December 1669 in Halle and was buried in a magnificent coffin in the Schloss Neu-Augustusburg in Weissenfels. Her three infant daughters who had been buried in the Halle Cathedral were reinterred with her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "In Schwerin on 23 November 1647 Anna Maria married Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. They had twelve children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna Maria of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1 July 1627, in Schwerin – 11 December 1669, in Halle) was a German noblewoman, a member of the House of Mecklenburg and by marriage Duchess of Saxe-Weissenfels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976326}
{"src_title": "Toilers of the Sea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "A woman arrives in Guernsey, with her son Gilliat, and buys a house said to be haunted. The boy grows up, the woman dies. Gilliat becomes a good fisherman and sailor. People believe him to be a wizard.  In Guernsey also lives Mess Lethierry – a former sailor and owner of the first steamship of the island, the \"Durande\" – with his niece Deruchette. One day, near Christmas, when going to church, she sees Gilliat on the road behind her and writes his name in the snow. He sees this and becomes obsessed with her gesture. In time he falls in love with her and goes to play the bagpipes near her house.  Sieur Clubin, the trusted captain of \"Durande\", sets up a plan to sink the ship on the Hanois reef and flee with a ship of Spanish smugglers, \"Tamaulipas\". He gets in touch with Rantaine, a swindler who had stolen a large sum of money from Mess Lethierry many years ago. Clubin takes the money from Rantaine at gunpoint.  In thick fog, Clubin sails for the Hanois reef from where he can easily swim to the shore, meet the smugglers, and disappear, giving the appearance of having drowned. Because of the fog he has mistakenly arrived at the Douvres reef, which is still halfway between Guernsey and France. Left alone on the ship, he is terrified, but he sees a cutter and leaps into the water to catch it. At that moment he is grabbed by the leg and is pulled down to the bottom.  Everybody in Guernsey finds out about the shipwreck. Mess Lethierry is desperate to get the \"Durande\"s engine back. His niece declares she will marry the rescuer of the engine, and Mess Lethierry swears she will marry no other. Gilliat immediately takes up the mission, enduring hunger, thirst, and cold trying to free the engine from the wreck. In a battle with an octopus, he finds the skeleton of Clubin and the stolen money on the bottom of the sea.  Eventually he succeeds in returning the engine to Lethierry, who is very pleased and ready to honour his promise. Gilliat appears in front of the people as the rescuer but he declines to marry Deruchette because he had seen her accepting a marriage proposal made by Ebenezer Caudry, the young priest recently arrived on the island. He arranges their hurried wedding and helps them run away on the sailing ship \"Cashmere\". In the end, with all his dreams shattered, Gilliat decides to wait for the tide sitting on the Gild Holm'Ur chair (a rock in the sea) and drowns as he watches the \"Cashmere\" disappear on the horizon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "The novel is credited with introducing the Guernésiais word for octopus (\"pieuvre\") into the French language (standard French for octopus is \"poulpe\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dedication.", "content": "The following dedication appears at the front of the book:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publishing history.", "content": "The novel was first published in Brussels in 1866 (Hugo was in exile from France). An English translation quickly appeared in New York later that year, under the title \"The Toilers of the Sea\". A UK edition followed in 1887, with Ward Lock publishing Sir G Campbell's translation under the title \"Workers of the Sea\" followed by an 1896 Routledge edition under the title \"Toilers of the Sea\".  Hugo had originally intended his essay \"L'Archipel de la Manche\" (\"The Archipelago of the [English] Channel\") as an introduction to this novel, although it was not published until 1883, and the two have only been published together in the 20th century.  In 2002, Modern Library published an edition with a new translation by James Hogarth, which bills itself as \"the first unabridged English edition of the novel\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film adaptations.", "content": "There have been at least five film adaptations of the novel, including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Toilers of the Sea () is a novel by Victor Hugo published in 1866. The book is dedicated to the island of Guernsey, where Hugo spent 15 years in exile. Hugo uses the setting of a small island community to transmute seemingly mundane events into drama of the highest calibre. \"Les Travailleurs de la Mer\" is set just after the Napoleonic Wars and deals with the impact of the Industrial Revolution upon the island.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976327}
{"src_title": "Klaus Nomi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Klaus Nomi was born Klaus Sperber in Immenstadt, Bavaria, Germany on January 24, 1944. In the 1960s, he worked as an usher at the Deutsche Oper in West Berlin where he sang for the other ushers and maintenance crew on stage in front of the fire curtain after performances. He also sang opera arias at the Berlin gay discothèque Kleist Casino.  Nomi moved to New York City in 1972. He began his involvement with the art scene based in the East Village. According to \"The Nomi Song\", a documentary by Andrew Horn, Nomi took singing lessons and supported himself as a pastry chef.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1972, Nomi appeared in a satirical camp production of Richard Wagner's \"Das Rheingold\" at Charles Ludlam's Ridiculous Theater Company as the Rheinmaidens and the Wood Bird. He came to the attention of New York City's art scene in 1978 with his performance in \"New Wave Vaudeville\", a four-night event MC'd by artist David McDermott. Dressed in a skin-tight spacesuit with a clear plastic cape, Nomi sang the aria \"Mon cœur s'ouvre à ta voix\" (\"My heart opens to your voice\") from Camille Saint-Saëns' opera \"Samson et Dalila\" The performance ended with a chaotic crash of strobe lights, smoke bombs, and loud electronic sound effects as Nomi backed away into the smoke. Joey Arias recalled: \"I still get goose pimples when I think about it... It was like he was from a different planet and his parents were calling him home. When the smoke cleared, he was gone.\" After that performance Nomi was invited to perform at clubs all over New York City.  At the New Wave Vaudeville show Nomi met Kristian Hoffman, songwriter for the Mumps. Hoffman was a performer and MC in the second incarnation of New Wave Vaudeville and a close friend of Susan Hannaford and Tom Scully, who produced the show, and Ann Magnuson, who directed it. Anya Phillips, then manager of James Chance and the Contortions, suggested Nomi and Hoffman form a band. Hoffman became Nomi's de facto musical director, assembling a band that included Page Wood from another New Wave vaudeville act, Come On, and Joe Katz, who was concurrently in The Student Teachers, the Accidents, and The Mumps.  Hoffman helped Nomi choose his pop covers, including the Lou Christie song \"Lightnin' Strikes\". Hoffman wrote several pop songs with which Nomi is closely identified: \"The Nomi Song\", \"Total Eclipse\", \"After The Fall\", and \"Simple Man\", the title song of Nomi's second RCA French LP. This configuration of the Klaus Nomi band performed at Manhattan clubs, including several performances at Max's Kansas City, Danceteria and Hurrah.  Disagreements with the management Nomi engaged led to a dissolution of this band, and Nomi continued without them. In the late 1970s, while performing at Club 57, The Mudd Club, The Pyramid Club, and other venues, Nomi assembled various up-and-coming models, singers, artists, and musicians to perform live with him, including Joey Arias, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Keith Haring, John Sex and Kenny Scharf. He also appeared on Manhattan Cable's TV Party. David Bowie heard about Nomi's performances in New York and soon met him and Arias at the Mudd Club. Bowie hired them as performers and backup singers for his appearance on \"Saturday Night Live\" on December 15, 1979. The band performed \"TVC 15\", \"The Man Who Sold the World\", and \"Boys Keep Swinging\". During the performance of \"TVC 15\", Nomi and Arias dragged around a large prop pink poodle with a television screen in its mouth. Nomi was so impressed with the plastic quasi-tuxedo suit that Bowie wore during \"The Man Who Sold the World\" that he commissioned one for himself. He wore the suit on the cover of his self-titled album, as well as during a number of his music videos. Nomi wore his variant of the outfit, in monochromatic black-and-white with spandex and makeup to match, until the last few months of his life. He released his second album, \"Simple Man\", in November 1982.  Nomi also collaborated with producer Man Parrish, appearing on Parrish's album \"Hip Hop Bee Bop\" as a backup vocalist on the track \"Six Simple Synthesizers\".  He played a supporting role as a Nazi official in Anders Grafstrom's 1980 underground film \"The Long Island Four\".  The 1981 rock documentary film \"Urgh! A Music War\" features Nomi's live performance of \"Total Eclipse.\" His performance of \"Mon cœur s'ouvre à ta voix\" was used for the closing credits.  666 Fifth Avenue was listed as the contact address in the liner notes of Nomi's 1981 self-titled record.  In the last several months of his life, Nomi changed his focus to operatic pieces and adopted a Baroque era operatic outfit complete with full collar as his typical onstage attire. The collar helped cover the outbreaks of Kaposi's sarcoma on his neck, one of the numerous AIDS-related diseases Nomi developed toward the end of his life. Nomi was reported to be gay, and at one point was involved in the \"rampant promiscuity\" that earned John Sex his surname; before his illness, there was speculation that he was asexual.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Illness and death.", "content": "Nomi died on August 6, 1983 at the Sloan Kettering Hospital Center in New York City, one of the first celebrities to die of complications from AIDS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Filmmakers such as Andrew Horn and writers such as Jim Fouratt consider Nomi an important part of the 1980s East Village scene, which was a hotbed of development for punk rock, music, the visual arts and the avant-garde. Although Nomi's work had not yet met with national commercial success at the time of his death, he garnered a cult following, mainly in New York and in France. Andrew Horn's 2004 feature documentary about Nomi's life, \"The Nomi Song\", which was released by Palm Pictures, helped spur renewed interest in the singer, including an art exhibit in San Francisco at the New Langton Arts gallery and one in Milan at the Res Pira Lab, which subsequently moved to Berlin's Strychnin Gallery, called \"Do You Nomi?\". New music pieces inspired by Nomi were commissioned by the gallery for a variety of European musicians, including Ernesto Tomasini, a singer often considered to be Nomi's heir.  In 2001 German pop duo Rosenstolz and English singer Marc Almond recorded a cover version of \"Total Eclipse\". Garbage used his \"Valentine’s Day\" song as the basis for their 2012 \"Beloved Freak\".  Nomi makes an appearance in Derf Backderf's graphic novel \"Punk Rock and Trailer Parks,\" released in 2008.  | valign=top |", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Klaus Sperber (January 24, 1944 – August 6, 1983), known professionally as Klaus Nomi, was a German countertenor noted for his wide vocal range and an unusual, otherworldly stage persona.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976328}
{"src_title": "Rachel Bluwstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Rachel was born in Saratov in Imperial Russia on September 20, 1890, the eleventh daughter of Isser-Leib and Sophia Bluwstein, and granddaughter of the rabbi of the Jewish community in Kiev. During her childhood, her family moved to Poltava, Ukraine, where she attended a Russian-speaking Jewish school and, later, a secular high school. She began writing poetry at the age of 15. When she was 17, she moved to Kiev and began studying painting.  At the age of 19, Rachel visited Palestine with her sister en route to Italy, where they were planning to study art and philosophy. They decided to stay on as Zionist pioneers, learning Hebrew by listening to children’s chatter in kindergartens. They settled in Rehovot and worked in the orchards. Later, Rachel moved to Kvutzat Kinneret on the shores of the Sea of Galilee, where she studied and worked in a women's agricultural school. At Kinneret, she met Zionist leader A. D. Gordon who was to be a great influence on her life, and to whom she dedicated her first Hebrew poem.  In 1913, on the advice of Gordon, she journeyed to Toulouse, France to study agronomy and drawing. When World War I broke out, unable to return to Palestine, she returned instead to Russia where she taught Jewish refugee children. In Russia she suffered from poverty and strenuous labour, as well as the reappearance of her childhood lung disease. It may have been at this point in her life that she contracted tuberculosis. Lonely, ill and famished, she had only one hope left: to return to Palestine. In 1919, after the war, she boarded the first ship to leave Russia to Palestine. She returned to Palestine on board the ship \"Ruslan\" and for a while joined the small agricultural kibbutz Degania, a settlement neighboring her previous home at Kinneret. However, shortly after her arrival she was diagnosed with tuberculosis, then an incurable disease. Now unable to work with children for fear of contagion, she was expelled from Degania and left to fend for herself. In 1925 she lived briefly in a small white house in the courtyard of the William Holman Hunt House at No. 64 Street of the Prophets in Jerusalem. She spent the rest of her life traveling and living in Tel Aviv, eking out a living by providing private lessons in Hebrew and French, and finally settled in a sanatorium for tuberculosis patients in Gedera.  Rachel died on April 16, 1931 in Tel Aviv, at the age of 40. She is buried in the Kinneret cemetery in a grave overlooking the Sea of Galilee, following her wishes as expressed in her poem \"If Fate Decrees\". Alongside her are buried many of the socialist ideologues and pioneers of the second and third waves of immigration. Naomi Shemer was buried near Rachel, according to Shemer's wish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "As a member of the editorial staff of Davar newspaper, Zalman Rubashov later Zalman Shazar, who became the third President of Israel, encouraged her to write and publish her poetry. Her early work was in Russian but she switched to Hebrew. Most of her poems were written in the final six years of her life, usually on small notes to her friends. In 1920 her first poem, \"Mood\", was published in the Hebrew newspaper \"Davar\". Eventually the majority of her poems were published there on a weekly basis, and quickly became popular with the Jewish community in Palestine and later, the State of Israel.  Rachel is known for her lyrical style, the brevity of her poems, and the revolutionary simplicity of her conversational tone. The majority of her poetry is set in the pastoral countryside of the Land of Israel. Many of her poems echo her feelings of longing and loss, a result of her inability to realize her aspirations in life. In several poems she mourns the fact that she will never have a child of her own. Lyrical, exceedingly musical and characterized by its simple language and deep feeling, her poetry deals with fate, her own difficult life, and death. Her love poems emphasize the feelings of loneliness, distance, and longing for the beloved. It also touches upon the hardships and laments of a pioneer reminiscing of times spent in labouring on the land. Her lighter poetry is ironic, often comic. Her writing was influenced by French imagism, Biblical stories, and the literature of the Second Aliyah pioneers. Another major creative influence on Rachel’s poetry was the Acmeists and their leader, the Russian poet Anna Akhmatova. Rachel’s style reflects the movement’s strive for “clarity, accuracy, conciseness, and economy of language” in poetry.  In some poems Rachel expresses identification with biblical figures such as Rachel, her namesake matriarch, and Michal, wife of David.  Rachel also wrote a one-act comic play \"Mental Satisfaction\", which was performed but not published in her lifetime. This ironic vignette of pioneer life was recently rediscovered and published in a literary journal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "Rachel was the first Jewish woman poet in Palestine to receive recognition in a genre that was practiced solely by men. Anthologies of her poetry remain bestsellers to this day. Many of her poems were set to music, both during her lifetime and afterwards, and are widely sung by Israeli singers. Her poems are included in the mandatory curriculum in Israeli schools. A selection of her poetry was translated to English and published under the title \"Flowers of Perhaps: Selected Poems of Ra'hel\", by the London publisher Menard. Poems by Rachel have been translated to English, German, Czech, Polish, Esperanto, Italian, Serbo-Croatian, Hungarian, Basque (by Benito Lertxundi) and Slovak.  In his foreword to the 1994 edition of \"Flowers of Perhaps\", the acclaimed Israeli poet Yehuda Amichai stated: \"What may be most remarkable about the poetry of Ra'hel, a superb lyric poet, is that it has remained fresh in its simplicity and inspiration for more than seventy years.\"  In 2011, Rachel was chosen as one of four great poets whose portraits would be on Israeli currency (the other three being Leah Goldberg, Shaul Tchernichovsky, and Nathan Alterman).  In 2016, Google Doodle commemorated her 126th birthday.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Published works.", "content": "Poetry books published in Hebrew  Later compilations and editions in Hebrew  Books in translation  Individual poems have been published in Afrikaans, Arabic, Chinese, Dutch, English, Esperanto, French, Frisian, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Romanian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Spanish, Ukrainian, Vietnamese, Welsh, and Yiddish.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rachel Bluwstein Sela (September 20 (Julian calendar), 1890 – April 16, 1931) was a Hebrew-language poet who immigrated to Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire, in 1909. She is known by her first name, Rachel (, ), or as Rachel the Poetess (, ).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976329}
{"src_title": "1934 FIFA World Cup", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Host selection.", "content": "After a lengthy decision-making process in which FIFA's executive committee met eight times, Italy was chosen as the host nation at a meeting in Stockholm on 9 October 1932. The decision was taken by the executive committee without a ballot of members. The Italian bid was chosen in preference to one from Sweden; the Italian government assigned a budget of 3.5 million lire to the tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification and participants.", "content": "36 countries applied to enter the tournament, so qualifying matches were required to thin the field to 16. Even so, there were several notable absentees. Reigning World Cup holders Uruguay declined to participate, in protest at the refusal of several European countries to travel to South America for the previous World Cup, which Uruguay had hosted in 1930. As a result, the 1934 World Cup is the only one in which the reigning champions did not participate. The British Home Nations, in a period of self-imposed exile from FIFA, also refused to participate, even though FIFA had offered England and Scotland direct entry to the tournament without qualification. Football Association committee member Charles Sutcliffe called the tournament \"a joke\" and claimed that \"the national associations of England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland have quite enough to do in their own International Championship which seems to me a far better World Championship than the one to be staged in Rome\".  Despite their role as hosts, Italy were still required to qualify, the first and only time the host nation needed to do so. The qualifying matches were arranged on a geographical basis. Withdrawals by Chile and Peru meant Argentina and Brazil qualified without playing a single match.  Twelve of the 16 places were allocated to Europe, three to the Americas, and one to Africa or Asia (including Turkey). Only 10 of the 32 entrants, and four of the 16 qualified teams (Brazil, Argentina, United States and Egypt, the first African team to qualify for a World Cup finals tournament), were from outside Europe. The last place in the finals was contested between the United States and Mexico only three days before the start of the tournament in a one-off match in Rome, which the United States won.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of qualified teams.", "content": "The following 16 teams qualified for the final tournament. 10 of these teams made their first World Cup appearance. This included 9 of the 12 European teams (Italy, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Sweden, Austria, and Switzerland) as well as Egypt. Egypt was the first team from Africa in the finals and would not qualify again until the next time the competition was held in Italy, in 1990.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Venues.", "content": "The number of supporters travelling from other countries was higher than at any previous football tournament, including 7,000 from the Netherlands and 10,000 each from Austria and Switzerland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "The group stage used in the first World Cup was discarded in favour of a straight knockout tournament. If a match was tied after ninety minutes, then thirty minutes of extra time were played. If the score was still tied after extra time, the match was replayed the next day.  The eight seeded teams – Argentina, Brazil, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Hungary – were kept apart in the first round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Summary.", "content": "All eight first-round matches kicked off at the same time. Hosts and favourites Italy won handsomely, defeating the USA 7–1; \"The New York Times\" correspondent wrote that \"only the fine goal-tending of Julius Hjulian of Chicago kept the score as low as it was\". Internal disputes meant Argentina's squad for the tournament did not contain a single member of the team which had reached the final in 1930. Against Sweden in Bologna, Argentina twice took the lead, but two goals by Sven Jonasson and a winner by Knut Kroon gave Sweden a 3–2 victory. Fellow South Americans Brazil also suffered an early exit. Spain beat them comfortably; 3–1 the final score.  For the only time in World Cup history, the last eight consisted entirely of European teams – Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. All four non-European teams who made the journey to Italy were eliminated after one match.  In the quarter-finals, the first replayed match in World Cup history took place, when Italy and Spain drew 1–1 after extra time. The match was played in a highly aggressive manner with several players of both sides injured: rough play injured the Spanish goalkeeper Ricardo Zamora in the first match, leaving him unable to participate in the replay, while on the other side rough play by Spaniards broke the leg of the Italian Mario Pizziolo who would not play in the national team again. Italy won the replay 1–0; their play so physical that at least three Spaniards had to depart the field with injuries. Italy then went on to beat Austria in the semi-finals by the same score. Meanwhile, Czechoslovakia secured their place in the final by beating Germany 3–1.  The Stadium of the National Fascist Party was the venue for the final. With 80 minutes played, the Czechoslovaks led 1–0. The Italians managed to score before the final whistle and then added another goal in extra time to be crowned World Cup winners.  Throughout the years, several sources have reported that the tournament was marred by bribery and corruption, and could have been influenced by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, who used the tournament as a propaganda tool for fascism. According to these accusations, Mussolini personally selected referees for the matches where the Italian national team were playing, while the Italian government meddled in FIFA's organisation of events, re-organizing the logistics of the matches to further promote fascism. Nonetheless, Italy also won the following edition of the World Cup (held in France) as well as the Olympic football tournament in 1936.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Squads.", "content": "For a list of all squads that appeared in the final tournament, see \"1934 FIFA World Cup squads\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Goalscorers.", "content": "With five goals, Oldřich Nejedlý was the top scorer in the tournament. In total, 70 goals were scored by 45 players, with none of them credited as an own goal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "FIFA retrospective ranking.", "content": "In 1986, FIFA published a report that ranked all teams in each World Cup up to and including 1986, based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition (not counting replay results). The rankings for the 1934 tournament were as follows:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1934 FIFA World Cup was the second edition of the FIFA World Cup, the world championship for men's national association football teams. It took place in Italy from 27 May to 10 June 1934.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976330}
{"src_title": "East Pomeranian Offensive", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Planning.", "content": "The 2nd Belorussian Front—under Konstantin Rokossovsky—had initially been tasked with advancing westward north of the Vistula River toward Pomerania and the major port city of Danzig, with the primary aim of protecting the right flank of Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front, which was pushing towards Berlin. During the East Prussian Offensive, however, Rokossovsky was ordered to wheel directly north toward Elbing. This left substantial German forces intact in Pomerania, where they threatened the right flank of Zhukov's formations.  As a result, once the initial phase of the East Prussian Offensive was over, the 2nd Belorussian Front was redeployed with the intention of attacking westwards into Pomerania, eliminating the possibility of a German counter-offensive (similarly, the parallel Silesian Offensives of Konev's 1st Ukrainian Front in the south were in part designed to protect the 1st Belorussian Front's left flank). The need to secure the flanks delayed the Soviets' final push towards Berlin, which was originally planned for February, until April.  Joseph Stalin's decision to delay the push toward Berlin from February to April has been a subject of some controversy among both the Soviet generals and military historians, with one side arguing that the Soviets had a chance of securing Berlin much quicker and with much lower losses in February, and the other arguing that the danger of leaving large German formations on the flanks could have resulted in a successful German counter-attack and prolonged the war further: the Germans did in fact mount a surprise counter-attack in Pomerania in mid-February, Operation Solstice. The delay did, however, allow the Soviets to occupy significant parts of Austria in the Vienna Offensive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "German intelligence.", "content": "As early as 13 February, German intelligence services had deduced that the Soviets would seek to clear Pomerania before advancing on Berlin. The 2nd Army—defending a large and exposed sector running through Pomerania eastward toward the edge of East Prussia at Elbing — sought permission to withdraw, but this was denied by Adolf Hitler. Graudenz, on the Vistula, was surrounded on 18 February (the garrison, from the 83rd Infantry Division—finally surrendered the following month).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deployments.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wehrmacht.", "content": "The corps of the Second Army were seriously understrength by this time, being composed largely of fragmentary or \"ad hoc\" units. The 3rd Panzer Army had been rebuilt using the \"korps\" of the recently formed 11th SS Panzer Army, the original formation having been largely destroyed in Lithuania and East Prussia, where its remnants were now defending Königsberg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The offensive.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breakthrough.", "content": "Rokossovsky opened the offensive on 24 February using the fresh troops of Kozlov's 19th Army, but after an initial advance of some they were halted by intense German resistance. On 26 February, he inserted the 3rd Guards Tank Corps east of Neustettin, where they achieved a penetration of, and relieved Kozlov of command. The 3rd Guards Tank Corps broke through at Baldenburg, while Neustettin on the Front's left flank fell to the 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps on 27 February.  Weiß had hurriedly assembled the VII Panzer Corps, including the remnants of the 7th Panzer Division, at Rummelsburg to threaten 19th Army's flank. However, after a Soviet breakthrough at Köslin on 2 March, the 2nd Army found itself completely cut off from the rest of its Army Group.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1st Belorussian Front joins the attack.", "content": "Zhukov's right wing—a grouping of the 3rd Shock Army and 1st and 2nd Guards Tank Armies—went over to the offensive on 1 March, striking northward with the main force concentrated at Reetz. The entire left wing of 3rd Panzer Army was cut off by their breakthrough, after Guderian refused Raus' request for withdrawal; the right flank withdrew towards Stettin.  On 4 March, forward Soviet tank units reached the Baltic, and the German forces in Pomerania were trapped in a series of encirclements. The 2nd Army began to fall back on the Danzig fortified area, while the X SS Corps of the 3rd Panzer Army had been surrounded at Dramburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The second phase.", "content": "Rokossovsky opened the second phase of his offensive on March 6. The 2nd Shock Army threatened to cut off the defending forces in the fortress of Marienburg, which was evacuated two days later, while in the east Elbing finally fell on 10 March. The defence of Marienburg was conducted by a \"Kampfgruppe\" under the nominal control of the staff of the 7th Infantry Division, including marine, SS and other units. Weiß, having warned that the Elbing pocket could not be held, was relieved of command on 9 March and replaced by Dietrich von Saucken. The troops of the German 2nd Army withdrew in disarray into Danzig and Gdingen, where the 2nd Belorussian Front besieged them. Zhukov's forces meanwhile, cleared the remainder of 3rd Panzer Army from the east bank of the lower Oder, driving the Germans from their last positions in a bridgehead at Altdamm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Siege of Kolberg.", "content": "Many civilian refugees from Pomerania had fled into the coastal town of Kolberg, which was surrounded by 4 March. Nevertheless, the town was successfully defended until 18 March, by which time evacuation was almost complete.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Siege of Danzig.", "content": "The Danzig-Gotenhafen (Gdingen) Fortified Area—also the main port for refugees from East Prussia escaping to the west—was ordered to be defended for as long as possible by von Saucken in order to keep the evacuation routes open.  Rokossovsky opened his final offensive on 15 March 1945; the main thrust, toward the coast at Zoppot between Gdingen and Danzig, being undertaken by the 70th and 49th Army advancing in parallel. The fighting was savage, but by 19 March 1945 the Soviet spearheads had reached the heights over Zoppot, while the 4th Panzer Division had been pushed back to the outskirts of Danzig itself. By 22 March 1945, the 70th Army reached the sea, splitting the German defence. Gdingen was taken on 26 March 1945, its defenders and many civilians retreating to the headland at Oxhöft, from where they were evacuated to the Hel Peninsula.  Danzig finally fell on 30 March 1945, after which the remnants of the 2nd Army withdrew to the Vistula delta southeast of the city. Evacuation of civilians and military personnel from there and from the Hel Peninsula continued until 10 May 1945. The Soviets declared the East Pomeranian Offensive complete a week after the fall of Danzig.  According to Soviet claims, in the Battle of Danzig the Germans lost 39,000 soldiers dead and 10,000 captured.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The East Pomeranian Strategic Offensive operation () was an offensive by the Soviet Red Army against the German \"Wehrmacht\" on the Eastern Front. It took place in Pomerania and West Prussia from 10 February – 4 April 1945.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976331}
{"src_title": "Paul Romer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Romer was born to former Colorado governor Roy Romer and Beatrice \"Bea\" Miller. He has four brothers and two sisters. One of his brothers, Chris Romer, is a former Colorado state senator.  He graduated in 1977 from Phillips Exeter Academy. He earned his Bachelor of Science in mathematics and a PhD in economics in 1983, both from the University of Chicago, after graduate studies at Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1977 to 1979 and at Queen's University (Kingston, Canada) from 1979 to 1980.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Romer's most important work is in the field of economic growth, and he has made important contributions in the development of endogenous growth theory. He was named one of America's 25 most influential people by \"Time\" magazine in 1997, and he was awarded the Horst Claus Recktenwald Prize in Economics in 2002. In 2015, he was recipient of the John R. Commons Award, given by the economics honor society Omicron Delta Epsilon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academia.", "content": "Romer's research on economic growth followed extensive studies of long-run growth during the 1950s and 1960s. The Solow–Swan model, for example, established the primacy of technological progress in accounting for sustained increases in output per worker. His 1983 dissertation, supervised by José Scheinkman and Robert Lucas Jr., amounted to constructing mathematical representations of economies in which technological change is the result of the intentional actions of people, such as research and development. It led to two \"Journal of Political Economy\" articles published in 1986 and 1990, respectively, which started endogenous growth theory.  He taught at the University of Rochester, the University of Chicago, the University of California, Berkeley, Stanford University and New York University.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Business.", "content": "Romer temporarily left academia in 2001 to found Aplia, a company which produces online problem sets for college students; Aplia was purchased in 2007 by Cengage Learning.  He is credited with the quote \"A crisis is a terrible thing to waste,\" which he said during a November 2004 venture-capitalist meeting in California. Although he was referring to the rapidly rising education levels in other countries compared to the United States, the quote became a rallying concept for economists and consultants looking for constructive opportunities amid the Great Recession.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Charter cities.", "content": "Romer has attempted to replicate the success of charter cities and make them an engine of economic growth in developing countries. He promoted this idea in a TED talk in 2009, and he has argued that with better rules and institutions less developed nations can be set on a different and better trajectory for growth. In his model, a host country would turn responsibility for a charter city over to a more developed trustee nation, which would allow for new rules of governance to emerge. People could \"vote with their feet\" for or against these rules.  The government of Honduras considered creating charter cities, though without the oversight of a third-party government, which some argue is neo-colonialism. Romer served as chair of a \"transparency committee\" but resigned in September 2012 when the Honduran government agency responsible for the project signed agreements with international developers without involvement of the committee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World Bank.", "content": "He became World Bank Chief Economist in October 2016. He resigned on 24 January 2018, following a controversy in which he stated in an interview with \"The Wall Street Journal\" on January 12, that during the tenure of Chile's socialist President Michelle Bachelet from 2014 onwards, Chile's ranking for ease of doing business had been downgraded by the World Bank as a result of changes of methodology which he claimed may have been politically motivated, a claim denied by the former World Bank economist responsible for compiling Chile's ranking, Chilean economist Augusto Lopez-Claros.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics.", "content": "Romer shared the 2018 Prize with William Nordhaus. In choosing Romer as one of the 2018 economics laureates, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences stated that he had shown \"how knowledge can function as a driver of long-term economic growth.... [Prior macroeconomic studies] had not modelled how economic decisions and market conditions determine the creation of new technologies. Paul Romer solved this problem by demonstrating how economic forces govern the willingness of firms to produce new ideas and innovations.\"  After receiving the prize, Romer described how he started thinking about the relationship between growth and innovation: \"The question that I first asked was, why was progress... speeding up over time? It arises because of this special characteristic of an idea, which is if [a million people try] to discover something, if any one person finds it, everybody can use the idea.\"  The same day he received the award, Romer married Caroline Weber, a professor of French Literature at Barnard College.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Paul Michael Romer (born November 6, 1955) is an American economist and co-recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared with William Nordhaus) in 2018 for his contributions to endogenous growth theory. He was awarded the prize \"for integrating technological innovations into long-run macroeconomic analysis\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976332}
{"src_title": "Ai Qing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Ai Qing was born in Fantianjiang village (), Jinhua county, in eastern China's Zhejiang province. After entering Hangzhou Xihu Art School in 1928, under the advice of principal Lin Fengmian, he went abroad and studied in Paris the following spring. From 1929 to 1932 while studying in France, besides learning art of Renoir and Van Gogh, the philosophy of Kant and Hegel, he also studied modern poets such as Mayakovsky and was especially influenced by Belgian poet Verhaeren.  After returning to Shanghai, China in May 1932, he joined China Left Wing Artist Association, and was arrested in July for opposing the Kuomintang. During his imprisonment, Ai Qing translated Verhaeren's poems and wrote his first book \"Dayanhe—My Nanny\" (), \"Reed Flute\" (), and \"Paris\" (). He was finally released in October 1935.  After the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Ai Qing wrote \"Snow falls on China's Land\" () after arriving at Wuhan to support the war effort. In 1938, he moved to Guilin to become the editor of \"Guixi Daily\" newspaper. In 1940, he became the dean of the Chinese department at Chongqing YuCai University.  In 1941, he moved to Yan'an, and joined the Chinese Communist Party in the subsequent year. Beginning in 1949, he was on cultural committees. He was editor of \"Poetry Magazine\", and associate editor of \"People's Literature\".  However, in 1957, during the Anti-Rightist Movement, he defended Ding Ling and was accused of \"rightism\". He was exiled to farms in northeast China in 1958 and was transferred to Xinjiang in 1959 by the Communist authorities. During the period of the Cultural Revolution he was forced to work daily cleaning the communal toilets for his village of about 200 people, a physically demanding job he was required to carry out for five years, then aged in his 60s. According to an account by his son Ai Weiwei, he lost vision in one of his eyes due to lack of nutrition. He was not allowed to publish his works \"Return Song\"() and \"Ode to Light\"() until he was reinstated in 1979. In 1979, he was vice-chairman of the Chinese Writers Association.  He made a second journey to France in 1980, and in 1985 French president François Mitterrand awarded him the title of Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "He is the father of famed Chinese artist and activist Ai Weiwei, who also participated in designing the Beijing National Stadium, and artist Ai Xuan. He had two daughters with his second wife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pen name.", "content": "In 1933, while being tortured and imprisoned by the Kuomintang and writing his book \"Da'an River — My Nanny\", he went to write his surname (\"Jiang\", ), but stopped at the first component \"艹\" due to his bitterness towards KMT leader Chiang Kai-shek. He resented sharing the same surname (Jiang/Chiang) and simply crossed out the rest of the character with an \"X\". This happens to be the Chinese character \"ài\" (), and since the rest of his name, \"Hǎi Chéng\" meant the limpidity of the sea, it implied the color of limpid water \"qīng\" (青, turquoise, blue, or green), so he adopted the pen name \"Ai Qing\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aì Qīng (, March 27, 1910 – May 5, 1996), born Jiǎng Zhènghán () and styled Jiǎng Hǎichéng (), is regarded by some as one of the finest modern Chinese poets. He was known under his pen names Línbì (), Kè'ā () and Éjiā ().", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976333}
{"src_title": "Homomonument", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1980 artists were invited to submit designs and a jury was assembled consisting of experts in the fields of art and design. The jury chose a design by Karin Daan, based on the pink triangle. With the triangle on the water as its central point, Daan expanded the design to make her work as monumental as possible without disrupting the surroundings.  The idea of a permanent memorial to gay and lesbian victims of persecution dated from 1970, when gay activists were arrested for attempting to place a lavender wreath at the National War Memorial (Netherlands) on Dam Square in the centre of Amsterdam. The wreath was removed by police and denounced as a disgrace.  In 1979 the Dutch gay and lesbian rights movement started an initiative to raise funds for a monument, with the support of groups in other countries. It took eight years to raise the necessary €180,000 to build the Homomonument. Most of this came from donations from individuals and organisations. The Dutch Parliament donated €50,000, and the city of Amsterdam and the province of North Holland also made contributions.  A monument in memory of LGBT victims of repression and persecution was dedicated in Barcelona, Spain in 2011. It was modeled after the Homomonument.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "As well as the triangle on the canal, which has a set of steps leading to the water where floral wreaths are frequently laid, there is a triangle on land 60 cm high and a memorial triangle at street level. The three triangles—each measuring 10 meters (30 ft) on each side—together form a larger triangle connected on each side by a thin row of pink granite bricks. This larger triangle measures 36 meters on each side.  The alignments of the three points of the larger triangle are symbolic. One points towards the National War Memorial on Dam Square. One points towards the house of Anne Frank, a Jewish girl who was deported to her death by the Nazis. The third points towards the headquarters of COC Nederland, the Dutch gay rights group founded in 1946, making it the oldest continuously operating gay and lesbian organisation in the world.  On the triangle pointing towards the Anne Frank House is engraved a line of poetry by the Dutch Jewish gay poet Jacob Israël de Haan (1881–1924): \"Naar Vriendschap Zulk een Mateloos Verlangen\" (\"Such an endless desire for friendship\"). The text is from his poem \"To a Young Fisherman\".  A miniature version of the Homomonument can be seen at The Hague's Madurodam park. The scale model was unveiled on 24 October 24 2006, by Amsterdam mayor Job Cohen and COC chair Frank van Dalen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Homomonument is a memorial in the centre of Amsterdam, the capital of the Netherlands. It commemorates all gay men and lesbians who have been subjected to persecution because of their homosexuality. Opened on September 5, 1987, it takes the form of three large pink triangles made of granite, set into the ground so as to form a larger triangle, on the bank of the Keizersgracht canal, near the historic Westerkerk church. The Homomonument was designed to \"inspire and support lesbians and gays in their struggle against denial, oppression and discrimination.\" It was the first monument in the world to commemorate gays and lesbians who were killed by the Nazis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976334}
{"src_title": "Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Katherine was born in the Royal Palace in Athens, a few weeks after her paternal grandfather, King George I of Greece, was assassinated in that country's second-largest city (in the English-speaking world until the late 20th century known as Salonika, namely Thessaloniki). She was baptised on 14 June 1913. Her godparents were Dowager Queen of Greece (her paternal grandmother), Dowager Queen of the United Kingdom (her paternal grandfather's sister and her maternal grandmother's sister-in-law), George V of the United Kingdom (her paternal grandfather's nephew and her maternal grandmother's nephew), Wilhelm II, German Emperor (her maternal uncle), The Greek Navy (represented by the Minister of Marine) and The Greek Army (represented by the Minister of War)  She had five siblings – three brothers (George, Alexander and Paul, each of whom would become King of the Hellenes) and two sisters (Princess Helen, who married Crown Prince Carol of Romania, and Princess Irene who married Prince Aimone of Savoy, Duke of Spoleto). When she was christened, the members of the whole Greek Army and Greek Navy became her godparents. At three years of age, she and her mother were trapped in Tatoi Palace, outside Athens, when a fire broke out. The Queen, carrying Katherine, managed to escape in time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life in exile.", "content": "Her father abdicated in 1917, replaced as king by her brother Alexander. She and her parents were exiled to Switzerland. They were re-instated following Alexander's death in 1920, but Constantine abdicated again in 1922. Exiled again, this time to Sicily, her father died in Palermo in 1923. The family moved to in Florence, where Katherine took up painting. Her second brother George became King George II in 1922, but was deposed in 1924.  Katherine was educated in England, at a boarding school at Broadstairs and then North Foreland Lodge. Her mother died in January 1932, after which she continued to live at the Villa Sparta with her sister, Helen. She and the future Elizabeth II were bridesmaids at the wedding of her first cousin, Princess Marina, to Prince George in 1934.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Return to Greece and marriage.", "content": "Her brother George was reinstated as king in 1935, and Katherine returned to Greece with her sister, Irene. She joined the Greek Red Cross when the Second World War broke out in 1939. In 1941, after Greece had been overrun by Axis forces, she fled to South Africa with her third brother, Paul, in a Sunderland flying boat, where she worked as a nurse at a hospital in Cape Town. She heard no news of her sister Helen for four years. She returned to England in 1946, sailing the last leg from Egypt to England on the Cunard liner RMS \"Ascania\". On board, she met Major Richard Campbell Brandram MC (5 August 1911 – 5 April 1994), an officer in the British Royal Artillery. They were engaged three weeks after they arrived in England, but their engagement was announced only in February 1947. On 1 April at the Royal Palace, three weeks prior to the wedding, her brother King George had a stroke and died shortly after in Katherine's presence. George was succeeded on the Greek throne by Katherine's third brother Paul, who acted as best man at the wedding, which took place according to schedule on 21 April 1947.  She then accompanied her husband to his new army posting in Baghdad, and they later settled in England. On 25 August 1947, King George VI granted her the rank and title of a duke's daughter and she became known as Lady Katherine Brandram. She and her husband lived in Eaton Square in Belgravia, and later moved to Marlow, Buckinghamshire.  According to her obituary in \"The Daily Telegraph\", \"Lady Katherine lived quietly but remained in close touch with her own and the British royal families. She attended the Queen's wedding to Prince Philip (her first cousin), and was a guest at the service to mark Prince Philip's 80th birthday at St George's Chapel, Windsor, in 2001.\"  After the death of Infanta Beatriz of Spain in 2002, Katherine was the last surviving great-granddaughter of Queen Victoria, as well the last surviving grandchild of Frederick III, German Emperor and Victoria, Princess Royal. She lived for almost 87 years after the death of her brother, King Alexander, and her death left Count Carl Johan Bernadotte of Sweden (31 October 1916 – 5 May 2012) as Queen Victoria's last living great-grandchild.  From the time of the death of her eldest sister Queen Helen, Queen Mother of Romania in 1982, to the time of her own death, she was Queen Victoria's most senior female line descendant. Her death marked the end of all female-line direct descendants of Frederick III, German Emperor and Victoria, Princess Royal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark and Major Richard Campbell Andrew Brandram had one child, a son:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark (; 4 May 1913 – 2 October 2007), styled in the UK as Lady Katherine Brandram from 1947 till her death, was the third daughter and youngest child of King Constantine I of Greece and Sophia of Prussia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976335}
{"src_title": "Hans Rosling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Rosling was born in Uppsala, Sweden, on 27 July 1948. From 1967 to 1974 Rosling studied statistics and medicine at Uppsala University, and in 1972 he studied public health at St. John's Medical College, Bangalore, India. He became a licensed physician in 1976 and from 1979 to 1981 he served as District Medical Officer in Nacala in northern Mozambique. On 21 August 1981 Rosling began investigating an outbreak of konzo, a paralytic disease first described in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. His investigations earned him a Ph.D. at Uppsala University in 1986. Hans struggled with dyslexia.  Rosling presented the television documentary \"The Joy of Stats\", which was broadcast in the United Kingdom by BBC Four in December 2010 and has been made available to 'catch up' on BBC iPlayer since. He presented a documentary \"Don't Panic — The Truth about Population\" for the \"This World\" series using a Musion 3D projection display, which appeared on BBC Two in the UK in November 2013. In 2015 he presented the documentary \"Don't Panic: How to End Poverty in 15 Years\", which was produced by Wingspan and aired on the BBC just ahead of the announcement of the UN's Sustainable Development Goals.  Rosling was a sword swallower, as demonstrated in the final moments of his second talk at the TED conference. In 2009 he was listed as one of 100 leading global thinkers by \"Foreign Policy\", and in 2011 as one of 100 most creative people in business by \"Fast Company\". In 2011 he was elected member of the Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences and in 2012 as member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was included in the \"Time\" 100 list of the world's 100 most influential people in 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal health and death.", "content": "When he was 20, in 1968, doctors told Rosling that there was something wrong with his liver and as a consequence, he stopped drinking alcohol. In 1989, Rosling was diagnosed with hepatitis C. Over the years this progressed and Rosling developed liver cirrhosis. At the beginning of 2013, he was in the early stages of liver failure. However, at the same time, new hepatitis C drugs were released and Rosling went to Japan to buy the drugs needed to treat the infection. He expressed concerns in the media over the restricted use of the new drugs due to high costs, stating that it is a crime not to give every person with hepatitis C access to the drugs.  A year after being diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, Rosling died in Sweden on 7 February 2017 at the age of 68. Amardeo Sarma remembers Rosling as being \"able to bring data to life\" and how \"he shows us how we are wrong in many of our beliefs and that we just don't know much about the world.\" Sarma calls Rosling a \"global citizen\" for his activities around the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work in healthcare.", "content": "Rosling spent two decades studying outbreaks of konzo, a paralytic disease, in remote rural areas across Africa and supervised more than ten PhD students. His work with Julie Cliff, Johannes Mårtensson, Per Lundqvist, and Bo Sörbo found that outbreaks occur among hunger-stricken rural populations in Africa where a diet dominated by insufficiently processed cassava results in simultaneous malnutrition and high dietary cyanide intake.  Rosling's research also concerned other links between economic development, agriculture, poverty and health. He was a health adviser to WHO, UNICEF and several aid agencies. In 1993 he was one of the initiators of Médecins Sans Frontières in Sweden. At Karolinska Institutet he was head of the Division of International Health (IHCAR) from 2001 to 2007. As chairman of the Karolinska International Research and Training Committee (1998–2004), he started health research collaborations with universities in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America. He started new courses on global health and co-authored a textbook on global health that promotes a fact-based worldview.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trendalyzer and Gapminder.", "content": "Rosling's son, Ola Rosling, built the Trendalyzer software to animate data compiled by the UN and the World Bank that helped him explain the world with graphics. Rosling co-founded the Gapminder Foundation together with his son Ola and daughter-in-law Anna Rosling Rönnlund to develop Trendalyzer to convert international statistics into moving, interactive graphics. The provocative presentations that have resulted have made him famous, and his lectures using Gapminder graphics to visualize world development have won awards. The interactive animations are freely available from the Foundation's website. In March 2007, Google acquired the Trendalyzer software with the intention to scale it up and make it freely available for public statistics. In 2008, Google made available a Motion Chart Google Gadget and in 2009 the Public Data Explorer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception of Rosling's views on the world's future.", "content": "Rosling is commonly described as optimist, though he personally rejects the label. In his posthumous book he wrote \"The five global risks that concern me most are the risks of global pandemic, financial collapse, world war, climate change, and extreme poverty.” In summary, he wrote, \"People often call me an optimist, because I show them the enormous progress they didn't know about. That makes me angry. I'm not an optimist. That makes me sound naive. I'm a very serious “possibilist”. That's something I made up. It means someone who neither hopes without reason, nor fears without reason, someone who constantly resists the overdramatic worldview. As a possibilist, I see all this progress, and it fills me with conviction and hope that further progress is possible. This is not optimistic. It is having a clear and reasonable idea about how things are. It is having a worldview that is constructive and useful.”  In his later years he was advocating on behalf of refugees from Syria and partnered with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in this effort. In his last book he wrote repeatedly about the tragedy of the war in Syria saying: \"The Syrian conflict will most likely prove to be the deadliest in the world since the Ethiopian-Eritrean war of 1998 to 2000.”  However, some experts still consider Rosling's world-view excessively rose-tinted, or anti-environmental. For instance, in \"The One-Sided Worldview of Hans Rosling\" Christian Berggren, a Swedish professor of industrial management, argues that \"Factfulness\", “presents a highly biased sample of statistics as the true perspective on global development, avoids analysis of negative trends, and refrains from discussing difficult issues”. Seeing Rosling as more optimist than “possibilist”, Berggren remarks that, “\"Factfulness\" includes many graphs of 'bad things in decline' and 'good things on the rise' but not a single graph of 'bad things on the rise'.” In 2013 in \"The Ecologist\" Robin Maynard reported Rosling as raging against the UN's population projections, and against some ecological objections to development: \"I don't give a damn about polar bears! I can live without polar bears.\"  Hence, Rosling has been criticized as being Pollyannaist about the global political situation in the face of tragedies such as the long-running conflict in Syria, among others. His work on population growth has also been criticized by Paul R. Ehrlich, the U.S. biologist and Professor of Population Studies at Stanford University, and Anne H. Ehrlich, associate director of the Center for Conservation Biology at Stanford University, in an article, published online by the MAHB, titled \"A Confused Statistician.\" The Ehrlichs also warn that, while some trends that Rosling cites may indeed be positive, there is the possibility of total collapse of those trends if social and political instabilities occur.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hans Rosling (; 27 July 1948 – 7 February 2017) was a Swedish physician, academic, and public speaker. He was the Professor of International Health at Karolinska Institute and was the co-founder and chairman of the Gapminder Foundation, which developed the Trendalyzer software system. He held presentations around the world, including several TED Talks in which he promoted the use of data to explore development issues. His posthumously published book \"\", coauthored with Anna Rosling Rönnlund and Ola Rosling, became an international bestseller.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976336}
{"src_title": "Crimean Offensive", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "During late 1943 and early 1944, the Wehrmacht was pressed back along its entire front line in the east. In October 1943, the 17th Army withdrew from the Kuban bridgehead across the Kerch Strait into the Crimea. During the following months, the Red Army pushed back the Wehrmacht in southern Ukraine, eventually cutting off the land-based connection of 17th Army through the Perekop Isthmus in November 1943.  The Wehrmacht was able to successfully hold on to the Crimea even after it had been cut off by land due to their ability to supply it via the Black Sea. Holding the Crimea was considered important as its loss would negatively affect the attitude of Turkey and put Romanian oilfields under risk of Soviet air attacks. Aside from Soviet landings across the Kerch Strait and in the north-eastern sector near Sivash at the end of 1943, the Soviet Army largely ignored the Crimea for the next five months.  Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist was removed from the command of Army Group A on March 30, 1944. He was succeeded by Ferdinand Schörner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Progress of the battle.", "content": "An assault across the Perekop Isthmus was launched on 8 April by elements of the 4th Ukrainian Front's 2nd Guards and 51st Armies. The 17th Army defended but was unable to stop the advance. Kerch was reached by the Separate Coastal Army on 11 April; Simferopol, about northeast of Sevastopol, followed two days later. The 17th Army was retreating toward Sevastopol by 16 April, with remaining Axis forces in the Crimea concentrating around the city by the end of the third week of April.  The OKH intended to hold Sevastopol as a fortress, as the Red Army had done during the first Crimean campaign in 1941–42. However, the fortifications of the city had never been restored and Sevastopol was not the strong defensive position that it had been in 1941. Fighting broke out in the city outskirts towards the end of April and the city fell on 9 May, less than a month after the start of the offensive. The Axis sea evacuation to Constanța was attacked by Soviet land-based bombers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evacuation of the Crimea.", "content": "The evacuation of the Crimea in April–May 1944 was the most complex and extensive operation of the Romanian Navy during the Second World War. From 15 April to 14 May, numerous German and Romanian warships escorted many convoys between Constanța and Sevastopol. The scale and importance of the operation can be attested by the usage in combat of all four Romanian destroyers, the largest Axis warships in the Black Sea. The last phase of the evacuation (10-14 May) saw the fiercest combat, as Axis ships transported, under constant attacks from Soviet aircraft and shore artillery, over 30,000 troops. Of these, 18,000 were transported by Romanian ships. On 11 May, the German tanker \"Friederike\" was torpedoed and heavily damaged by Soviet submarine L-4, preventing her participation. In total, Romanian and German convoys evacuated over 113,000 Axis troops from the Crimea, most of them (over 63,000) during the first phase of the evacuation (15–25 April). No Romanian Navy warships were lost during the evacuation, however the destroyer \"Regele Ferdinand\" came close to being sunk. She was struck by a large aerial bomb, which fell in her fuel tanks, but failed to detonate. The bomb was extracted several days after the end of the operation. Two naval actions involving the Romanian Navy took place during the second phase of the evacuation (25 April–10 May), near Sevastopol. On 18 April, the Soviet \"Leninets\"-class submarine \"L-6\" was twice attacked with depth charges and damaged by the Romanian gunboat \"Ghiculescu\", numerous bubbles emerged from the depths after each attack, before being finished off by the German submarine hunter \"UJ-104\". During the night of 27 April, a convoy escorted by the Romanian gunboat \"Ghiculescu\", the German submarine hunter \"UJ-115\", one R-boat, two KFK naval trawlers and 19 MFPs (including the Romanian \"PTA-404\" and \"PTA-406\") engaged the Soviet G-5-class motor torpedo boats \"TKA-332\", \"TKA-343\" and \"TKA-344\", after the three attacked and damaged the German submarine hunter \"UJ-104\". \"Ghiculescu\" opened fire with tracer rounds, enabling the entire escort group to locate the two Soviet MTBs and open fire. \"TKA-332\" was hit and sunk. Over 12 Soviet aircraft were also shot down during the evacuation, including two by the minelaying destroyer escort \"Amiral Murgescu\". The last Axis pockets in the Crimea were destroyed on 12 May. The last Axis warship to leave the peninsula was \"Amiral Murgescu\", carrying on board 1,000 Axis troops, including the German General Walter Hartmann.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Consequences.", "content": "In a meeting with Adolf Hitler in Berchtesgaden, Jaenecke had insisted that Sevastopol should be evacuated and his cut off Army of 235,000 men withdrawn. After the loss of the Crimea, he was held responsible, arrested in Romania and court-martialed. Only the intervention of Heinz Guderian saved his life. He was dismissed from the army on 31 January 1945.  The German and Romanian formations suffered the loss of 57,000 men, many of whom drowned during the evacuation. The sinking of the \"Totila\" and \"Teja\" on 10 May alone caused up to 10,000 deaths. In total, the German losses at sea amounted to five cargo ships, one tanker, three tugs, three lighters, three motorboats and four submarine hunters, while the Romanians lost three cargo ships. The partially successful evacuation of Axis troops from the Crimea earned the commander of the Romanian Navy, Rear Admiral Horia Macellariu, the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. The table below is based on information from Glantz/House \"When Titans Clashed\".: Axis losses  German: Killed and missing: 31,700 Wounded: 33,400 Total: 65,100  Romanian: Killed and missing: 25,800 Wounded: 5,800 Total: 31,600  Total: Killed and missing: 57,500 Wounded: 39,200 Total: 96,700  Soviet losses  Killed and missing: 17,754 Wounded: 67,065 Total: 84,819  Tanks: 171 Artillery: 521 Aircraft: 179", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Crimean Offensive (8 April – 12 May 1944), known in German sources as the Battle of the Crimea, was a series of offensives by the Red Army directed at the German-held Crimea. The Red Army's 4th Ukrainian Front engaged the German 17th Army of Army Group A, which consisted of Wehrmacht and Romanian formations. The battles ended with the evacuation of the Crimea by the Germans. German and Romanian forces suffered considerable losses during the evacuation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976337}
{"src_title": "Laxative", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bulk-forming agents.", "content": "Bulk-forming laxatives, also known as roughage, are substances, such as fiber in food and hydrophilic agents in over-the-counter drugs, that add bulk and water to stools so that they can pass more easily through the intestines (lower part of the digestive tract).  Properties Bulk-forming agents generally have the gentlest of effects among laxatives, making them ideal for long-term maintenance of regular bowel movements.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dietary fiber.", "content": "Foods that help with laxation include fiber-rich foods. Dietary fiber includes insoluble fiber and soluble fiber, such as:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Emollient agents (stool softeners).", "content": "Emollient laxatives, also known as stool softeners, are anionic surfactants that enable additional water and fats to be incorporated in the stool, making it easier for them to move through the gastrointestinal tract.  Properties  Emollient agents prevent constipation rather than treating long-term constipation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lubricant agents.", "content": "Lubricant laxatives are substances that coat the stool with slippery lipids and retard colonic absorption of water so that the stool slides through the colon more easily. Lubricant laxatives also increase the weight of stool and decrease intestinal transit time.  Properties  Mineral oil is the only nonprescription lubricant. Mineral oil may decrease the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and some minerals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hyperosmotic agents.", "content": "Hyperosmotic laxatives are substances that cause the intestines to hold more water within and create an osmotic effect that stimulates a bowel movement.  Properties  Lactulose works by the osmotic effect, which retains water in the colon, lowering the pH through bacterial fermentation to lactic, formic and acetic acid, and increasing colonic peristalsis. Lactulose is also indicated in portal-systemic encephalopathy. Glycerin suppositories work mostly by hyperosmotic action, but the sodium stearate in the preparation also causes local irritation to the colon.  Solutions of polyethylene glycol and electrolytes (sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, potassium chloride, and sometimes sodium sulfate) are used for whole bowel irrigation, a process designed to prepare the bowel for surgery or colonoscopy and to treat certain types of poisoning. Brand names for these solutions include GoLytely, GlycoLax, CoLyte, Miralax, Movicol, NuLytely, Suprep, and Fortrans. Solutions of sorbitol (SoftLax) have similar effects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Saline laxative agents.", "content": "Saline laxatives are non-absorbable osmotically active substances that attract and retain water in the intestinal lumen, increasing intraluminal pressure that mechanically stimulates evacuation of the bowel. Magnesium-containing agents also cause the release of cholecystokinin, which increases intestinal motility and fluid secretion. Saline laxatives may alter a patient's fluid and electrolyte balance.  Properties", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stimulant agents.", "content": "Stimulant laxatives are substances that act on the intestinal mucosa or nerve plexus, altering water and electrolyte secretion. They also stimulate peristaltic action and can be dangerous under certain circumstances.  Properties  Prolonged use of stimulant laxatives can create drug dependence by damaging the colon's haustral folds, making a user less able to move feces through the colon on their own. A study of patients with chronic constipation found that 28% of chronic stimulant laxative users lost haustral folds over the course of one year, while none of the control group did.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Miscellaneous.", "content": "Castor oil is a glyceride that is hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipase to ricinoleic acid, which produces laxative action by an unknown mechanism.  Properties  Long-term use of castor oil may result in loss of fluid, electrolytes, and nutrients.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Serotonin agonist.", "content": "These are motility stimulants that work through activation of 5-HT receptors of the enteric nervous system in the gastrointestinal tract. However, some have been discontinued or restricted due to potentially harmful cardiovascular side-effects.  Tegaserod (brand name Zelnorm) was removed from the general U.S. and Canadian markets in 2007, due to reports of increased risks of heart attack or stroke. It is still available to physicians for patients in emergency situations that are life-threatening or require hospitalization.  Prucalopride (brand name Resolor) is a current drug approved for use in the EU October 15, 2009 and in Canada (brand name Resotran) on December 7, 2011. It has not been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for use in the United States, but it is in development by Shire PLC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chloride channel activators.", "content": "Lubiprostone is used in the management of chronic idiopathic constipation and irritable bowel syndrome. It causes the intestines to produce a chloride-rich fluid secretion that softens the stool, increases motility, and promotes spontaneous bowel movements (SBM).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Comparison of available agents.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effectiveness.", "content": "For adults, a randomized controlled trial found PEG (MiraLax or GlycoLax) 17 grams once per day to be superior to tegaserod at 6 mg twice per day. A randomized controlled trial found greater improvement from two sachets (26 grams) of PEG versus two sachets (20 grams) of lactulose. 17 grams per day of PEG has been effective and safe in a randomized controlled trial for six months. Another randomized controlled trial found no difference between sorbitol and lactulose.  For children, PEG was found to be more effective than lactulose.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Problems with use.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Laxative abuse.", "content": "Some of the less significant adverse effects of laxative abuse include dehydration (which causes tremors, weakness, fainting, blurred vision, kidney damage), low blood pressure, fast heart rate, postural dizziness and fainting; however, laxative abuse can lead to potentially fatal acid-base and electrolyte imbalances. For example, severe hypokalaemia has been associated with distal renal tubular acidosis from laxative abuse. Metabolic alkalosis is the most common acid-base imbalance observed. Other significant adverse effects include rhabdomyolysis, steatorrhoea, inflammation and ulceration of colonic mucosa, pancreatitis, kidney failure, factitious diarrhea and other problems. Colon will need more quantities of laxatives to keep functioning, this will result in a lazy colon, infections, irritable bowel syndrome, and potential liver damages.  Although patients with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa frequently abuse laxatives in an attempt to lose weight, laxatives act to speed up the transit of feces through the large intestine, which occurs subsequent to the absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. Thus, studies of laxative abuse have found that effects on body weight reflect primarily temporary losses of body water rather than energy (calorie) loss.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Laxative gut.", "content": "Physicians warn against the chronic use of stimulant laxatives due to concern that chronic use could cause the colonic tissues to get worn out over time and not be able to expel feces due to long-term overstimulation. A common finding in patients having used stimulant laxatives is a brown pigment deposited in the intestinal tissue, known as melanosis coli.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical and non-mainstream medical use.", "content": "Laxatives, then called \"physicks\" or \"purgatives\", were used extensively in pre-modern medicine to treat a wide range of conditions for which they are now generally regarded as ineffective in modern evidence-based medicine. Likewise, laxatives (often termed colon cleanses) continue to be promoted by practitioners of alternative medicine for a range of conditions, including conditions that are not medically recognized, such as \"mucoid plaque\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Laxatives, purgatives, or aperients are substances that loosen stools and increase bowel movements. They are used to treat and prevent constipation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976338}
{"src_title": "Painkiller (Judas Priest album)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Recording.", "content": "\"Painkiller\" is the first Judas Priest album to feature drummer Scott Travis, who replaced long-time drummer Dave Holland in 1989. Travis was previously a member of Los Angeles band Racer X and with his heavy use of double pedals and blast beats, it gave Judas Priest a new sound and heavier edge.  The album was recorded at Miraval Studios, Brignoles, France in early 1990 and mixed at Wisseloord Studios, Hilversum, the Netherlands later that year. It was produced by the band and Chris Tsangarides, marking the first time since 1978's \"Killing Machine\" that Judas Priest had not worked with Tom Allom and the first time since 1976's \"Sad Wings of Destiny\" that Judas Priest and Tsangarides worked together.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "Despite the album being finished in March 1990, the album's release was delayed due to the pending, much-publicized subliminal message trial that began on 16 July 1990. The band was the subject of a civil lawsuit alleging their recording was responsible for the suicide attempts of two young men in Reno, Nevada on 23 December 1985. The case was eventually dismissed on 24 August 1990. With the trial behind them, the band finally released the album on 3 September 1990 on LP, cassette and CD.  The album was certified Gold by RIAA in January 1991. A remastered CD was released in May 2001, including a live recording of \"Leather Rebel\" and a previously unreleased song, \"Living Bad Dreams\". The album received a Grammy nomination for Best Metal Performance at the 33rd Annual Grammy Awards, losing to Metallica's cover of the Queen song \"Stone Cold Crazy\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Critical reaction to \"Painkiller\" has been overwhelmingly positive, especially from the metal community. Steve Huey of Allmusic, praised the album, saying that it was one of Judas Priest's best albums in years adding that \"Travis' thunderous (and crisp-sounding) percussive maelstrom lights an immediate fire under the bandmembers' asses; Glenn Tipton and K.K. Downing tear through a crushing, diabolical riff; and Rob Halford starts shrieking like a wicked witch, giving perhaps the most malevolent-sounding performance of his career. It's a startling statement of musical purpose that arrived seemingly out of nowhere, heralding a comeback that rivals George Foreman's.\" Mikesn of Sputnikmusic gave the album a 5 out of 5, stating that \"Painkiller is full of many memorable riffs and leads from Glenn and K.K. Among the finest moments of the album come from the intense riffing combined with Halford's wailing vocals. The songs found on Painkiller are very energetic from start to finish, and each member seems to feed off each other's performances.\" On metal-archives.com, the album holds an average score of 92% based on 26 reviews.  Most of the album's tracks were performed live on the Painkiller World Tour, with the title track becoming one of the band's concert staples. \"Hell Patrol\", \"All Guns Blazing\", \"A Touch of Evil\", \"Night Crawler\" and \"Between the Hammer and the Anvil\" have all returned to the setlist on later tours, while \"Metal Meltdown\" and \"Leather Rebel\" were retired after only a few performances in 1990. \"One Shot at Glory\" and the intro \"Battle Hymn\" are the only tracks not yet performed live from the album.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Halford's departure.", "content": "Following the tour for this album, singer Rob Halford left the band in May 1992 and maintained little contact with his former bandmates throughout the 1990s. The reason for this was growing tensions within the band, along with Halford's desire to explore new musical territory by creating a new band of his own, Fight, which forced him to legally leave Judas Priest to allow this creation to be sold. Judas Priest remained inactive for several years after Halford had gone; however, the band would eventually re-vamp, record, and tour, recruiting new singer Tim \"Ripper\" Owens in 1996, who would perform on the studio albums \"Jugulator\" and \"Demolition\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Certifications.", "content": "!scope=\"row\"| Worldwide sales:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Painkiller is the twelfth studio album by British heavy metal band Judas Priest, released in September 1990. It is the last Judas Priest album to feature lead singer Rob Halford until his return for the 2005 album \"Angel of Retribution\" and the first to feature drummer Scott Travis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976339}
{"src_title": "The Kid (1921 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "A married mother (Edna Purviance) leaves a charity hospital with her newborn son; a short scene shows that the baby's apparent artist father (Carl Miller) has lost interest in her. With much anguish the mother abandons the child, placing him in an expensive automobile, with a handwritten note: \"Please love and care for this orphan child\". Two thieves steal the car and leave the baby in an alley, where he is found by The Tramp (Charlie Chaplin). After some slapstick attempts to hand the child off to various passersby, he finds the note and his heart melts. He takes the boy home, names him John and adjusts his household furniture for him. Meanwhile, the mother has a change of heart and returns for her baby but she learns that the car has been stolen and faints.  Five years pass. The Kid (Jackie Coogan) and the Tramp live in the same tiny room; they have little money but much love. They support themselves in a minor scheme: the Kid throws stones to break windows so that the Tramp, working as a glazier, can earn money repairing them. Meanwhile, the mother has become a wealthy actress. She does charity by giving presents to poor children. By chance, the mother and the Kid cross paths, but of course do not know each other.  The Kid later gets into a fight with another local boy as people in the area gather to watch the spectacle. The Kid wins, drawing the ire of the other boy's older brother, who attacks the Tramp as a result. The Mother breaks up the fight, though the Tramp still beats the \"Big Brother\" over the head with a brick repeatedly until he walks away.  Shortly afterward, the Mother advises the Tramp to call a doctor after the Kid falls ill. The doctor discovers that the Tramp is not the Kid's father, and notifies authorities. Two men come to take the boy to an orphanage, but after a fight and a chase, the Tramp and the boy remain side by side. When the Mother comes back to see how the boy is doing she encounters the doctor, who shows her the note (which he had taken from the Tramp); she recognizes it as the one she left with her baby years ago.  Now fugitives, the Tramp and the boy spend the night in a flophouse. Its proprietor learns of a $1000 reward offered by the authorities and takes the Kid to the police station, while the Tramp is asleep. As the tearful Mother is reunited with her long-lost child, the Tramp searches frantically for the missing boy. Unsuccessful, he returns to the doorway of their humble home, where he falls asleep. He enters \"Dreamland,\" where his neighbors have turned into angels and devils. He is awakened by a policeman, who leads him away, taking him to a mansion. The door is opened by the Mother and the Kid, who jumps into the Tramp's arms. The policeman congratulates the Tramp and the Mother welcomes the Tramp into her home.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "\"The Kid\" is notable for combining comedy and drama. As the opening title says: \"A picture with a smile—and perhaps, a tear.\" Its most famous and enduring sequence is the Tramp's desperate rooftop pursuit of the truck taking the child to the orphanage, and their emotional reunion.  The film made Coogan, then a vaudeville performer, into the first major child star of the movies. Many of the Chaplin biographers have attributed the relationship portrayed in the film to have resulted from the death of Chaplin's firstborn infant son just ten days before the production began. The portrayal of poverty and the cruelty of welfare workers are also directly reminiscent of Chaplin's own childhood in London. Several of the street scenes were filmed on Los Angeles's famed Olvera Street, almost 10 years before it was converted into a Mexican-themed tourist attraction.  After production was completed in 1920, the film was caught up in the divorce actions of Chaplin's first wife Mildred Harris, who sought to attach Chaplin's assets. Chaplin and his associates smuggled the raw negative to Salt Lake City (reportedly packed in coffee cans) and edited the film in a room at the Hotel Utah. Before releasing the film Chaplin negotiated for and received an enhanced financial deal for the film with his distributor, First National Corporation, based on the success of the final film.  Twelve-year-old Lita Grey, who portrays an angel in the film, was Chaplin's second wife from 1924 to 1927.  In 1972, Chaplin edited and reissued the film and he composed a new musical score.  Chaplin and Coogan met for the last time in 1972, during Chaplin's brief return to America to receive an honorary Academy Award for his lifetime contribution to cinema.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"The Kid\" was acclaimed by film critics upon its release.  A reviewer from \"Theatre Magazine\" glowingly wrote, \"[Chaplin's] new picture, \"The Kid\", certainly outdoes in humor and the special brand of Chaplin pathos anything this popular film star has yet produced. There are almost as many tears as laughs in the new First National release--which proves the contention that Chaplin as almost as good a tragedian as he is a comedian. \"The Kid\" may be counted as a screen masterpiece.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Chaplin biographer Jeffrey Vance writes, of the legacy of Chaplin's \"The Kid\": \"\"The Kid\" remains an important contribution to the art of film, not only because of Chaplin’s innovative use of dramatic sequences within a feature-length comedy, but also because of the revelations \"The Kid\" provides about its creator. Undoubtedly, when Chaplin penned the preface to \"The Kid\", “A picture with a smile--and perhaps, a tear,” he had his own artistic credo—and life—in mind.\" Mary Pickford said of the film, \"\"The Kid\" is one of the finest examples of the screen language, depending upon its actions rather than upon subtitles\".  In December 2011, \"The Kid\" was chosen to be preserved in the Library of Congress' National Film Registry. The Registry said that the film is \"an artful melding of touching drama, social commentary and inventive comedy\" and praised Chaplin's ability to \"sustain his artistry beyond the length of his usual short subjects and could deftly elicit a variety of emotions from his audiences by skillfully blending slapstick and pathos.\"  As of June 2019, \"The Kid\" has earned a rare 100% perfect rating on film review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes based on 30 reviews, with a weighted average of 8.51/10. and a 8.3 user rating on the Internet Movie Database, placing it at #103 among the site's Top 250 Titles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remakes.", "content": "In 1989, Charles Lane directed and starred in \"Sidewalk Stories\", a remake of the film, updated to 1980s New York.  Some have called the 1999 comedy \"Big Daddy\" a loose remake of the film as well.  In May 2017, it was announced that FilmNation Entertainment is remaking \"The Kid\" as an animated sci-fi movie. \"The Kid, an animated adventure\" will be directed by Christian Volckman and Rupert Wyatt and is \"inspired by the characters and themes in \"The Kid\".\" As of 2019 it was still in development.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kid is a 1921 American silent comedy-drama film written, produced, directed and starring Charlie Chaplin, and features Jackie Coogan as his foundling baby, adopted son and sidekick. This was Chaplin's first full-length film as a director (he had been a co-star in 1914's \"Tillie's Punctured Romance\"). It was a huge success, and was the second-highest-grossing film in 1921, behind \"The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse\". In 2011, \"The Kid\" was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.\" Innovative in its combination of comedic and dramatic elements, \"The Kid\" is widely considered one of the greatest films of the silent era.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976340}
{"src_title": "L'enfant et les sortilèges", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition history.", "content": "During World War I, the Opéra de Paris director Jacques Rouché asked Colette to provide the text for a fairy ballet. Colette originally wrote the story under the title \"Divertissements pour ma fille\". After Colette chose Ravel to set the text to music, a copy was sent to him in 1916 while he was still serving in the war; however, the mailed script was lost. In 1917, Ravel finally received a copy and agreed to compose the score, humorously replying to Colette, \"I would like to compose this, but I have no daughter.\" It was eventually agreed that the composition would be more of an operetta, but retain the ballet dance elements. Colette accordingly revised the text and developed a libretto.  Ravel stopped composition of the work in the spring of 1920, suffering from physical exhaustion and poor health. In the next few years he was compelled to complete the work by Raoul Gunsbourg, director of the Monte Carlo Opera, who had insisted Ravel write a sequel to \"L'Heure espagnole\". By this time Ravel had become newly inspired by the stage presentations of American musicals and revues by composers such as George Gershwin. Ravel's work on the composition began to incorporate the musical style of these productions.  By early 1925 he had finally completed it. Colette, who had believed that the work would never be completed, expressed her extreme pleasure, believing that her modest writing had been raised beyond its initial scope. Now officially under the title of \"L'enfant et les sortilèges\", the first performance took place on 21 March 1925 in Monte Carlo, conducted by Victor de Sabata, with ballet sequences choreographed by George Balanchine. Ravel said of the premiere production:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance history.", "content": "Marie-Thérèse Gauley sang the part of the child at both the premiere in Monte-Carlo and the first performance at the Opéra-Comique on 1 February 1926. The original cast also included Henri Fabert as Vieillard Arithmétique, Warnerey as the clock and cat, while at the Opéra-Comique, conducted by Albert Wolff and with choreography by Louise Virard, the cast included Germaine Féraldy, Mathilde Calvet, Madeleine Sibille, Roger Bourdin, René Hérent and Louis Guenot.  The opera was then seen in Prague (17 February 1927), Leipzig (6 May 1927) and Vienna (14 March 1929). The US premiere was given on 19 September 1930 by the San Francisco Opera. The Canadian premiere of the work was a film version made by CBC Television in 1950 with conductor Wilfrid Pelletier. It was not until 3 December 1958 that the opera was given its UK premiere, in the Town Hall in Oxford.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roles.", "content": "The score specifies that fire / the princess / nightingale must be sung by the same singer, and the little old man and frog by the same singer. It is also specified that the following groups or pairs of roles can be sung by the same singer: mother / china cup / dragonfly; the bergère / owl; the female cat / the squirrel; the male cat / grandfather clock; the armchair / tree.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "Part 1  This is the story of a rude child who is reprimanded by the objects in his room, which he has been destroying. After being scolded by his mother in the beginning of the opera, the child throws a tantrum, destroying the room around him and harming the animals nearby. He is then surprised to find that the unhappy objects in his room come to life. The furniture and decorations begin to talk; even his homework takes shape as it becomes an old man and a chorus of numbers. They all sing out the pain and misery that the child inflicts on them and their wishes to punish him for his misdeeds.  Part 2  The bedroom becomes a garden filled with singing animals and plants which have been tortured by the child. The child attempts to make friends with the animals and plants, but they shun him because of the injuries he did to them earlier, before they could talk. They leave him aside, and in his loneliness, he eventually cries out \"Maman\". At this, the animals turn on him and attack him in an act of vengeance, but they wind up jostling among each other as the child is tossed aside. At the culmination, a squirrel is hurt, which causes the other animals to stop fighting. The child bandages the squirrel's wound and collapses exhausted. Seeing this act of kindness, the animals have a change of heart toward the child, and decide to try to help him home. They mimic the cry of \"Maman\", carry the child back to his house, and sing in praise of the child. The opera ends with the child singing \"Maman\", as he greets his mother, in the very last bar of the score.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "The opera calls for a large orchestra, a mixed chorus of adults, a chorus of children and eight soloists, most of whom individually play a number of characters. The scale of the cast and fantastic setting make the opera difficult to stage, which helps to explain why the work is not performed often. Ravel uses various subtle leitmotifs throughout the work, and there is considerable virtuosity in the instrumental writing. Yet the orchestra plays a mostly secondary role to the sung melodies: Ravel explained that he was following the style of Gershwin and American operettas of the time. Ravel contrasted the work to his previous opera, \"L'heure espagnole\":  The opera was initially well received in Monte Carlo, but in a Paris production the following year it was less successful. André Messager criticized the purposely imitative nature of the music, but Francis Poulenc and Les six were impressed. His cat duet \"Duo miaulé\" is often seen as a parody of Wagner, which was quite controversial, although Arthur Honegger praised this piece in particular. The use of pentatonic music and parallel fourths in the depiction of the Chinese tea cup is an example of \"orientalism\" in orchestral music.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "L'enfant et les sortilèges: Fantaisie lyrique en deux parties (\"The Child and the Spells: A Lyric Fantasy in Two Parts\") is an opera in one act, with music by Maurice Ravel to a libretto by Colette. It is Ravel's second opera, his first being \"L'heure espagnole\". Written from 1917 to 1925, \"L'enfant et les sortilèges\" was first performed in Monte Carlo in 1925 conducted by Victor de Sabata.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976341}
{"src_title": "Stiv Bators", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Music and film career.", "content": "In the course of his career Bators was involved with a variety of bands beyond those for which he was best known, including Hormones, with Dennis Comeau and Andre Siva, Frankenstein, The Wanderers and The Whores of Babylon (with Dee Dee Ramone and Johnny Thunders). He also recorded as a solo artist with Bomp! Records.  As the lead singer and driving force of the Cleveland, Ohio–based Dead Boys, Bators helped pioneer the punk rock sound, look and attitude. The band quickly became a popular staple at \"CBGB\", a music club in New York City's East Village. The Dead Boys were featured in the punk rock films \"Punking Out\" (1978), \"Live at CBGB's\" (1977) and \"Crash 'n' Burn\" (1977).  Following the demise of Dead Boys in 1979, Bators began a tumultuous relationship with Bomp! Records and its president, Greg Shaw. According to Shaw: \"[W]hat he craved most was to escape the fetters of his Dead Boy image and win respect as a singer of contemporary pop rock.... in other words, he wanted to be 'the thinking punk's Eric Carmen.'\" To this end, and usually with first-wave punk rock veterans in tow, he recorded several singles, many of which were unreleased, and an LP, \"Disconnected\", which was released in 1980. A retrospective album released in 1994, \"L.A. L.A.\" documented Bators' efforts as a pop-punk singer.  After Sham 69 disbanded, Bators, now located in London, formed The Wanderers with Dave Tregunna, the Sham 69 ex-bass-player. The band came up with a concept album, called \"Only Lovers Left Alive\" (released in May 1981), along with two singles.  Bators formed The Lords of the New Church later in 1981 with Brian James of The Damned and Dave Tregunna of Sham 69. The Lords became notorious for their live shows. A devotee of Iggy Pop, Bators had developed a fearless reputation in his Dead Boys days and continued such antics with The Lords, the most famous being the time he reportedly hanged himself during a show. Bator's stunt went awry and he was pronounced clinically dead for several minutes. Nonetheless, Bator survived and The Lords recorded two more successful albums.  Later, the punk vocalist gained additional exposure through more mainstream film. In 1981, Bators had a small role as \"Bobo\" in the satirical John Waters film, \"Polyester\". Seven years later, Bators made a memorable cameo appearance as \"Dick Slammer\", lead singer of \"The Blender Children\", in the offbeat comedy, \"Tapeheads\", starring John Cusack and Tim Robbins.  In summer 1985, Bators contributed backing vocals to \"Sun City\" by Artists United Against Apartheid and also appeared in its music video, shot in October.  The Lords of the New Church broke up in 1989, when Bators injured his back and guitarist Brian James secretly began advertising for a replacement singer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In mid-1990, Bators died in Paris after being hit by a car. He was taken to a hospital but reportedly left before seeing a doctor, after waiting several hours and assuming he was not injured. Reports indicate that he died in his sleep as the result of a traumatic brain injury. Dave Tregunna said that Bators, a fan of Jim Morrison, had earlier requested that his ashes be spread over Morrison's Paris grave and that his girlfriend complied.  In the director's commentary of the film \"Polyester\", in which Bators had a small role, director/producer John Waters stated that Bators' girlfriend Caroline confessed to him that she snorted a portion of Stiv's ashes so that she could be closer to him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CBGB movie.", "content": "In 2013, an American made motion picture titled \"CBGB\" was released to theaters. Dead Boys were featured as one of the seminal punk bands that got their start at the CBGB club, and were first managed by Hilly Kristal. Bators is portrayed by actor Justin Bartha, best known for his role in \"The Hangover\" films.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Steven John Bator (October 22, 1949 – June 4, 1990), better known by his stage name Stiv Bators, was an American punk rock vocalist and guitarist from Girard, Ohio. He is best remembered for his bands Dead Boys and The Lords of the New Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976342}
{"src_title": "Object-relational mapping", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Implementation-specific details of storage drivers are generally wrapped in an API in the programming language in use, exposing methods to interact with the storage medium in a way which is simpler and more in line with the paradigms of surrounding code.  The following is a simple example, written in C# code, to execute a query written in SQL using a database engine. var sql = \"SELECT id, first_name, last_name, phone, birth_date, sex, age FROM persons WHERE id = 10\"; var result = context.Persons.FromSqlRaw(sql).ToList(); var name = result[0][\"first_name\"]; In contrast, the following makes use of an ORM-job API, allowing the writing of code which naturally makes use of the features of the language. var person = repository.GetPerson(10); var firstName = person.GetFirstName(); The case above makes use of an object representing the storage repository and methods of that object. Other frameworks might provide code as static methods, as in the below, and yet other methods may not implement an object-oriented system at all. Often the choice of paradigm is made to fit the ORM best into the surrounding language's design principles. var person = Person.Get(10); Usually, the framework will expose some filtering and querying functionality, allowing subsets of the storage base to be accessed and modified. The code below queries for people in the database whose ID value is '10'. var person = Person.Get(Person.Properties.Id == 10);", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison with traditional data access techniques.", "content": "Compared to traditional techniques of exchange between an object-oriented language and a relational database, ORM often reduces the amount of code that needs to be written.  Disadvantages of ORM tools generally stem from the high level of abstraction obscuring what is actually happening in the implementation code. Also, heavy reliance on ORM software has been cited as a major factor in producing poorly designed databases.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Object-oriented databases.", "content": "Another approach is to use an object-oriented database management system (OODBMS) or document-oriented databases such as native XML databases that provide more flexibility in data modeling. OODBMSs are databases designed specifically for working with object-oriented values. Using an OODBMS eliminates the need for converting data to and from its SQL form, as the data is stored in its original object representation and relationships are directly represented, rather than requiring join tables/operations. The equivalent of ORMs for document-oriented databases are called object-document mappers (ODMs).  Document-oriented databases also prevent the user from having to \"shred\" objects into table rows. Many of these systems also support the XQuery query language to retrieve datasets.  Object-oriented databases tend to be used in complex, niche applications. One of the arguments against using an OODBMS is that it may not be able to execute ad-hoc, application-independent queries. For this reason, many programmers find themselves more at home with an object-SQL mapping system, even though most object-oriented databases are able to process SQL queries to a limited extent. Other OODBMS provide replication to SQL databases, as a means of addressing the need for ad-hoc queries, while preserving well-known query patterns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Challenges.", "content": "A variety of difficulties arise when considering how to match an object system to a relational database. These difficulties are referred to as the object-relational impedance mismatch.  An alternative to implementing ORM is use of the native procedural languages provided with every major database. These can be called from the client using SQL statements. The Data Access Object (DAO) design pattern is used to abstract these statements and offer a lightweight object-oriented interface to the rest of the application.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Object-relational mapping (ORM, O/RM, and O/R mapping tool) in computer science is a programming technique for converting data between incompatible type systems using object-oriented programming languages. This creates, in effect, a \"virtual object database\" that can be used from within the programming language. There are both free and commercial packages available that perform object-relational mapping, although some programmers opt to construct their own ORM tools.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976343}
{"src_title": "Laura Flessel-Colovic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sporting career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fencer.", "content": "Laura Flessel began fencing at age six and quickly became a very talented fencer. She progressed quickly and became champion of Guadeloupe. Then, she gained solid experience on the Caribbean, Central American and Pan American circuits, winning in 1990 the Pan American Championships in foil and épée. The same year, she joined the metropolis, to train with the Racing Club de France. She also trains within the INSEP, which allows her to face the best French fencers.  She won her first world stage success in 1995, finishing in third place at the Hague World Championships. This bronze medal is accompanied by a silver medal in the team event, which was defeated 45 to 44 by Hungary. Her teammates were Valérie Barlois, Sophie Moressee and Sangita Tripathi.  After her gold medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics and her victory at 1998 World Cup, she became the eighth French fencer, and first woman, to win the Olympic and World Champion titles. She is one of the favorites for the 2000 Summer Olympics title. She finally fails in the semi-final against Timea Nagy. At the 2006 World Championships in Turin, she gets a new individual bronze medal, beaten again by Timea Nagy  The 2008 Summer Olympics, her fourth Olympic Games, marks a turning point as it is the first Olympics where she does not get a medal after being eliminated by Li Na (15-9) in the quarter-finals. The year 2009 sees again Laura Flessel at the top but still without success with a third place at the European Championships in Plovdiv and a failure at the World Championships in Antalya where she lost f in quarter final against Lyubov Shutova after a close match that ends in sudden death on the score of 7 to 8.  On 21 April 2012, she qualifies for the individual event of the London Olympics by defeating Emma Samuelsson in the semifinals of the European Zone Qualifying Championship in Bratislava. On May 14, 2012, Laura Flessel is officially designated flag bearer of the French delegation for the London Olympics. In her final competition, she defeated Courtney Hurley (15-12) before losing to Simona Gherman (No. 4 worldwide) 15-13. She ends her career at the age of 40.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "Laura Flessel was banned for three months in 2002 after failing a doping test. She tested positive for the banned substance coramine glucose, blaming the French team doctors for giving her a drug that is available over the counter in France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports management.", "content": "In 2012, she took over the management of Nathalie Moellhausen, a native of Italy and competing under the colors of Brazil, forming a group also composed of two fencing masters, Daniel Levavasseur and Michel Sicard, the latter having both coached Flessel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports consultant and other activities.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media and television.", "content": "In 2008, Laura Flessel was a columnist for the daily newspaper Aujourd'hui Sport.  She was a contestant on the third season of \"Danse avec les stars\".  During the 2016 Summer Olympics she commented, on Canal +, the opening ceremony with Stéphane Guy and Joris Sabi, the fencing events with Frédéric Roullier and the closing ceremony with Julien Fébreau and Jean Galfione.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Community life.", "content": "She is ambassador of the AMREF Flying Doctors' Stand Up for African Mothers campaign, the godmother of Handicap International, and Ambassador of Plan France. His long-term project is to bring fencing to disadvantaged cities and places. She is also a goodwill ambassador for UNESCO where she promotes tolerance in sports.  She founded the association Ti'Colibri which aims to promote fencing. Thanks to its action, it has been able to offer means and equipment to clubs with few resources.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "During the two-rounds of the French presidential election of 2017, she was one of the sixty active or retired sportsmen who signed a call to vote for Emmanuel Macron on May 7, 2017 in the second round of the presidential election \"so that sport remains an area of freedom, equality and fraternity.\"  On May 17, 2017, she was appointed Minister of Sports in the First Philippe government, under the presidency of Emmanuel Macron, a position she held in the Second Philippe government, which was formed on June 21, 2017.  The government's second most popular minister at the end of 2017, she is notably responsible for preparing the organization of the 2024 Summer Olympics. At the beginning of 2018, she launched a campaign against discrimination in the sporting world, with as ambassadors Antoine Griezmann, Estelle Mossely, Marie-Amélie Le Fur, Frédéric Michalak, Emmeline Ndongue and Florent Manaudou.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Laura Flessel-Colovic (born 6 November 1971) is a French politician and épée fencer who served as Minister of Sports from 2017 to 2018. Born in Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, she has won the most Olympic medals of any French sportswoman, with five. Before 2007, she was a member of the Levallois Sporting Club Escrime, and now works with Lagardère Paris Racing. She is married and has one daughter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976344}
{"src_title": "Princess Charlotte of Württemberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "She was born in Stuttgart, as Princess Charlotte of Württemberg, eldest daughter of Prince Paul of Württemberg and of Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Hildburghausen. As a child, Charlotte lived in Paris with her father and her younger sister Pauline. Their home was quite modest by royal standards. In Paris Charlotte came under the tutelage of several intellectuals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "In 1822, she became engaged to Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich of Russia, her first cousin once removed (Mikhail's mother was her father's aunt). It was said that Charlotte was an exceptional girl, highly intelligent and mature for her age of 15. The Grand Duke was obviously impressed by her beauty and her poise, and during a reception held in her honor, she charmed all the guests with her conversations. On 17 December 1823, she was received into the Russian Orthodox Church and was given the name Elena Pavlovna. On 20 February 1824, the couple married in Saint Petersburg and settled in the Mikhailovsky Palace. When the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna died in 1828, the palace of Pavlovsk passed on to Mikhail and he and Elena visited it often. Their marriage was not a happy one: Mikhail's only passion was for the army and he neglected Elena. Nevertheless, he and Elena had five daughters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence at the Russian court.", "content": "Elena was a close friend of her brother-in-law, Alexander I of Russia and his wife the Empress Elizabeth Alexeievna. She was also quick to befriend the shy Maria Alexandrovna, the wife of the then Tsarevich Alexander. When Princess Charlotte's husband died, in 1849, she became a patron of several charitable organizations and the arts. She founded the Saint Petersburg Conservatoire as well as a group of nursing sisters which would eventually become the forerunners of the Red Cross in Russia. During her time in Russia, she became known as the \"family intellectual\", and was considered the most exceptional woman in the family since Catherine the Great. She founded the Russian Musical Society and the Conservatoire, and was also liberal on serfdom. She helped to push Alexander II to abolish serfdom while he stayed with her.  As a patroness of the composer Anton Rubinstein, she commissioned his first three operas: \"Fomka the Fool\" (1853), \"The Siberian Hunters\", and \"Vengeance.\"  Elena died in Stuttgart, at the age of 66.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Charlotte of Württemberg (9 January 1807 – 2 February 1873) was later known as Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, the wife of Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich of Russia. He was the youngest son of Emperor Paul I of Russia and Duchess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976345}
{"src_title": "Where Have All the Flowers Gone?", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition.", "content": "Seeger found inspiration for the song in October 1955 while he was on a plane bound for a concert at Oberlin College, one of the few venues which would hire him during the McCarthy era. Leafing through his notebook he saw the passage, \"Where are the flowers, the girls have plucked them. Where are the girls, they've all taken husbands. Where are the men, they're all in the army.\" These lines were taken from the traditional Cossack folk song \"Koloda-Duda\", referenced in the Mikhail Sholokhov novel \"And Quiet Flows the Don\" (1934), which Seeger had read \"at least a year or two before\". In a 2013 interview, Seeger explained that he borrowed the melody from an Irish lumberjack song with the words 'Johnson says he'll load more hay.' He simply slowed the tune and incorporated it to the lines.  Seeger created a song which was subsequently published in \"Sing Out\" in 1962. He recorded a version with three verses on \"The Rainbow Quest\" album (Folkways LP FA 2454) released in July 1960. Later, Joe Hickerson added two more verses with a recapitulation of the first in May 1960 in Bloomington, Indiana.  In 2010, the \"New Statesman\" listed it as one of the \"Top 20 Political Songs\".  The song appeared on the compilation album \"Pete Seeger's Greatest Hits\" (1967) released by Columbia Records as CS 9416.  Pete Seeger's recording from the Columbia album \"The Bitter and the Sweet\" (November 1962), CL 1916, produced by John H. Hammond was also released as a Columbia Hall of Fame 45 single as 13-33088 backed by \"Little Boxes\" in August, 1965.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grammy Hall of Fame.", "content": "Pete Seeger's recording of his composition was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have \"qualitative or historical significance.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Where Have All the Flowers Gone?\" is a modern folk-style song. The melody and the first three verses were written by Pete Seeger in 1955 and published in \"Sing Out!\" magazine. Additional verses were added in May 1960 by Joe Hickerson, who turned it into a circular song. Its rhetorical \"where?\" and meditation on death place the song in the \"ubi sunt\" tradition. In 2010, the \"New Statesman\" listed it as one of the \"Top 20 Political Songs\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976346}
{"src_title": "Bloch MB.210", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The MB.210 derived from the MB.200 and differs in particular by having its cantilever wing set at the bottom of the fuselage, and in having a retractable undercarriage.  Developed as a private venture, the prototype MB.210 accomplished its first flight on 23 November 1934, powered by two 596 kW (800 hp) Gnome-Rhône 14Kdrs / Gnome-Rhône 14Kgrs air-cooled radial engines and having a fixed undercarriage. This was followed by a second prototype, the MB.211 Verdun, powered by 641 kW (860 hp) Hispano-Suiza 12Y V-12 liquid-cooled inlines and fitted with a retractable undercarriage, this flying on 29 August 1935. Initial flight testing of this version was somewhat disappointing, so no further examples were built. Further progress with the MB.210, however, convinced the \"Armée de l'Air\" to order series production, the first example of which flew on 12 December 1936.  The satisfaction did not last very long, however, since it was underpowered and the engines of production aircraft were inclined to overheating. The type was grounded until its engines could be replaced by the more powerful and reliable Gnome-Rhône 14N, these engines first being tested in summer 1937 and had to be replaced. Altogether, 257 units were manufactured amongst companies as diverse as Les Mureaux over Potez-CAMS, Breguet, Hanriot, and Renault.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "In September 1939, the Bloch MB.210 equipped 12 bomber units of the \"Armée de l'Air\". At the time of Nazi Germany's attack on France in spring 1940, these squadrons were in the middle of a restructuring aimed at removing outdated aircraft from the front line. Up to the armistice on 25 June of the same year, the MB.210 was used still for nighttime bombing missions and shifted then to North Africa.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The MB.210 and MB.211 were the successors of the French Bloch MB.200 bomber built by Societé des Avions Marcel Bloch in the 1930s and differed primarily in being low wing monoplanes rather than high wing monoplanes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976347}
{"src_title": "Stage (stratigraphy)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "Stages are primarily defined by a consistent set of fossils (biostratigraphy) or a consistent magnetic polarity (see paleomagnetism) in the rock. Usually one or more index fossils that are common, found worldwide, easily recognized, and limited to a single, or at most a few, stages are used to define the stage's bottom.  Thus, for example in the local North American subdivision, a paleontologist finding fragments of the trilobite \"Olenellus\" would identify the beds as being from the Waucoban Stage whereas fragments of a later trilobite such as \"Elrathia\" would identify the stage as Albertan.  Stages were important in the 19th and early 20th centuries as they were the major tool available for dating and correlating rock units prior to the development of seismology and radioactive dating in the second half of the 20th Century. Microscopic analysis of the rock (petrology) is also sometimes useful in confirming that a given segment of rock is from a particular age.  Originally, faunal stages were only defined regionally; however, as additional stratigraphic and geochonologic tools were developed, stages were defined over broader and broader areas. More recently, the adjective \"faunal\" has been dropped as regional and global correlations of rock sequences have become relatively certain and there is less need for faunal labels to define the age of formations. A tendency developed to use European and, to a lesser extent, Asian stage names for the same time period worldwide, even though the faunas in other regions often had little in common with the stage as originally defined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International standardization.", "content": "Boundaries and names are established by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) of the International Union of Geological Sciences. As of 2008, the ICS is nearly finished a task begun in 1974, subdividing the Phanerozoic eonothem into internationally accepted stages using two types of benchmark. For younger stages, a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP), a physical outcrop clearly demonstrates the boundary. For older stages, a Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA) is an absolute date. The benchmarks will give a much greater certainty that results can be compared with confidence in the date determinations, and such results will have farther scope than any evaluation based solely on local knowledge and conditions.  In many regions local subdivisions and classification criteria are still used along with the newer internationally coordinated uniform system, but once the research establishes a more complete international system, it is expected that local systems will be abandoned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stages and lithostratigraphy.", "content": "Stages can include many lithostratigraphic units (for example formations, beds, members, etc.) of differing rock types that were being laid down in different environments at the same time. In the same way, a lithostratigraphic unit can include a number of stages or parts of them.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In chronostratigraphy, a stage is a succession of rock strata laid down in a single age on the geologic timescale, which usually represents millions of years of deposition. A given stage of rock and the corresponding age of time will by convention have the same name, and the same boundaries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976348}
{"src_title": "Bloch MB.170", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In 1936, the Ministry for the Air initiated a programme of modernisation of French aviation which included a request concerning a two- or three-seat multi-role aircraft that could be used as a light-bomber or attack aircraft or for reconnaissance. A design team at the former Bloch factory at Courbevoie (which had recently become part of the nationalised SNCASO), led by Henri Deplante, proposed the MB.170, a twin-engined, low-winged cantilever monoplane.  The first prototype, the MB 170 AB2-A3 No.01, equipped as a two-seat attack bomber or a three-seat reconnaissance aircraft, made its maiden flight on 15 February 1938. It was powered by two Gnome-Rhône 14N radial engines and was armed with a 20 mm Hispano-Suiza cannon in the nose, two 7.5 mm MAC 1934 machine guns in the wing, with another machine gun flexibly mounted in the rear cockpit, with a ventral cupola housing either a rearward firing machine gun or a camera. The second prototype, the MB 170 B3 No.2 was a three seat bomber, with the ventral cupola removed, a revised canopy and larger tail fins.  After many modifications it became the definitive MB.174. After the 50th example was delivered in May 1940, the MB.175 succeeded the MB.174 on the assembly lines in full flow. This bomber version, had a redesigned bomb bay capable of carrying bombs of 100–200 kg (220-440 lb), where the MB.174 was limited to 50 kg (110 lb) bombs. The MB.175's fuselage was lengthened and widened to accommodate this greater capacity but only 25 were delivered before the armistice. They were eventually used in the same reconnaissance units as the MB.174s. The MB.176 was a version with Pratt & Whitney R-1830 radials which proved to have poorer performance than the MB.175. It was ordered into production to ease demand on the French engine manufacturers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Bloch MB.174 flew for the first time in July 1939 and entered service in March 1940 with strategic reconnaissance units where it replaced the Potez 637 that had proved too vulnerable during the Phoney war. Its first operational mission was flown by the famed pilot and writer, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, of II/33, on 29 March 1940. The Bloch 174 appeared extremely effective in these missions as its speed and manoeuvrability at altitude allowed it to escape from most modern fighters. Only three examples were lost to enemy fire during the Battle of France. Like the majority of the modern equipment of the during the campaign, they were too little and too late. At the time of the armistice, most surviving MB.174s and 175s had been evacuated to North Africa. A few were recovered by the Germans and then used for pilot training. During the Vichy period, MB.174s frequently flew over Gibraltar to monitor the British fleet.  In March 1941, German engineers used engines taken from MB.175s (as well as other captured aircraft) to propel the Messerschmitt Me 323 cargo aircraft, some of which flew with parts taken from completed MB.175s. After Operation Torch, French forces defected again from Vichy back to the Allies and surviving examples of the MB.170 flew their final combat missions during the Battle of Tunisia. They were replaced by reconnaissance variants of the P-38 Lightning and used as transports and target tugs. A final version designed for torpedo bombing, the MB.175T, was built in small series in 1947 and served with the until 1950.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bloch MB.170 and its derivatives were French reconnaissance bombers designed and built shortly before the Second World War. They were the best aircraft of this type available to the at the outbreak of the war, with speed, altitude and manoeuvrability that allowed them to evade interception by the German fighters. Although the aircraft could have been in service by 1937, debate over what role to give the aircraft delayed deliveries until 1940.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976349}
{"src_title": "Johann Christoph Gottsched", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born at Juditten (Mendeleyevo) near Königsberg (Kaliningrad), Brandenburg-Prussia, the son of a Lutheran clergyman, and was baptised in St. Mary's Church. He studied philosophy and history at the University of Königsberg, but immediately on taking the degree of \"Magister\" in 1723, he fled to Leipzig in order to avoid being drafted into the Prussian army. In Leipzig, he enjoyed the protection of J. B. Mencke, who, under the name of \"Philander von der Linde,\" was a well-known poet and president of the \"Deutschübende poetische Gesellschaft\" in Leipzig. Of this society, Gottsched was elected \"Senior\" in 1726, and in the next year reorganized it under the title of the \"Deutsche Gesellschaft\".  As editor of the weeklies \"Die vernünftigen Tadlerinnen\" (1725–26) and \"Der Biedermann\" (1727), Gottsched started on his career of untiring critical activity, continued later in other literary journals. Directing his criticism at first chiefly against the bombast and absurd affectations of the Second Silesian School, he proceeded to lay down strict laws for the composition of poetry. He insisted on German literature being subordinated to the laws of French classicism. He enunciated rules by which the playwright must be bound (such as the Ständeklausel), and abolished bombast and buffoonery from the serious stage. He insisted on the observance of the dramatic unities.  In his efforts toward the reformation of the German drama, Gottsched was aided by his wife, Luise, a prolific writer and translator, and had the cooperation of the theatrical manager Johann Neuber and his wife, Caroline. They succeeded indeed in bringing about a considerable change in the condition of the German stage by substituting for the prevailing operatic performances translations of French dramas and original plays, and by banishing from it forever the coarse buffooneries of Hanswurst (Jack Pudding).  In 1730, Gottsched was appointed an extraordinary professor of poetry, and, in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Leipzig. He was also a corresponding member of the first learned society of the Habsburg monarchy, the Societas eruditorum incognitorum in Olmütz (Olomouc), and was published in the Society's journal, which was the first scientific journal in the Habsburg monarchy.  Eventually, Gottsched went too far in his criticism. He refused to recognize the work of Klopstock and Lessing. In 1740, he came into conflict with the Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer and Johann Jakob Breitinger. Under the influence of Addison and contemporary Italian critics, they demanded that the poetic imagination should not be hampered by artificial rules. As examples, they pointed to English poets, especially Milton. Gottsched, although not blind to the beauties of the English writers, clung the more tenaciously to his principle that poetry must be the product of rules, and, in the fierce controversy which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zürich, he was ultimately defeated.  In 1741, he fell out with Caroline Neuber regarding practical stage matters, and even placed himself in opposition to his wife. His influence speedily declined, and before his death his name became proverbial for pedantic folly. He died in Leipzig at the age of 66.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Gottsched's chief work was his \"Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst für die Deutschen\" (1730), the first systematic treatise in German on the art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau. His \"Ausführliche Redekunst\" (1728) and his \"Grundlegung einer deutschen Sprachkunst\" (1748) were of importance for the development of German style and the purification of the language. He wrote several plays, of which \"Der sterbende Cato\" (1732), an adaptation of Joseph Addison's tragedy and a French play on the same theme, was long popular on the stage. His \"Deutsche Schaubühne\" (6 volumes, 1740–1745) contained mainly translations from the French, but also some works written by himself, his wife, and others. With this, he provided the German stage with a classical repertory. His bibliography of the German drama, \"Nötiger Vorrat zur Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst\" (1757–1765), intended to contain an account of all previous German plays, though not complete is still valuable. He was also the editor of several journals devoted to literary criticism.  Gottsched wrote the texts of two secular cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach: \"Laß, Fürstin, laß noch einen Strahl\" (BWV 198) and \"Willkommen! Ihr herrschenden Götter der Erden\" (BWV Anh. 13, music lost).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "His first wife, Luise Kulmus, was also a prominent author. She died in 1762. After a three-year mourning period, in 1765 in Camburg, Saale, Gottsched married his 19-year-old second wife, Ernestine Susanne Katharina Neunes (1746–1811).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Christoph Gottsched (2 February 1700 – 12 December 1766) was a German philosopher, author, and critic. For about thirty years, he exercised an almost undisputed literary dictatorship in Germany. But by his later years, his name had become a by-word for foolish pedantry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976350}
{"src_title": "East Prussian Offensive", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The East Prussian Offensive.", "content": "The main thrust of the offensive was to be conducted by the 3rd Belorussian Front under Ivan Chernyakhovsky. His forces were tasked with driving westwards towards Königsberg, against the defensive positions of the 3rd Panzer Army and 4th Army, the northern armies of General Georg-Hans Reinhardt's Army Group Centre.  From the north, on Chernyakhovsky's right flank, General Hovhannes Bagramyan's 1st Baltic Front would attack the positions of the 3rd Panzer Army on the Neman, as well as crushing its small bridgehead at Memel. Chernyakhovsky's left flank would be supported by the 2nd Belorussian Front of Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky, which was initially ordered to push north-west to the Vistula, through the lines of the 2nd Army, thereby sealing off the whole of East Prussia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opening of the offensive.", "content": "The Soviet offensive began on 13 January with a heavy preparatory bombardment. At first, the Red Army made disappointing progress; the 3rd Belorussian Front gained just 1.5 km on the first day. Over the next five days, the Soviets managed to advance only a further 20 km, at the cost of very high casualties. Eventually, after almost two weeks of severe fighting, the Red Army began making steady progress, although again, this came at the price of high losses; the defenders having the advantage of substantial fortifications in the Insterburg Gap east of Königsberg, and around Heilsberg. Over the next few days, the 3rd Panzer Army of General Erhard Raus was largely destroyed or withdrew into Königsberg, while General Friedrich Hossbach′s 4th Army began to find itself outflanked.  Against fierce resistance, Rokossovsky attacked across the Narew on 14 January; on 20 January, he received orders to swing the axis of his advance northward toward Elbing. This sudden change of direction caught Reinhardt and Hossbach by surprise; on Rokossovsky's right flank, the 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps captured the major town of Allenstein on 22 January, threatening the rear of Hossbach's formation. On 24 January, Rokossovsky's leading tank units had reached the shore of the Vistula Lagoon, severing land communications with the rest of German armed forces for the entire 4th Army along with several divisions of the 2nd Army which were now trapped in a pocket centered on East Prussia. On the same day, Hossbach began to pull his units back from the fortified town of Lötzen—a center of the East Prussian defence system—and through a series of forced marches attempted to break out westward.  In the meantime, Chernyakhovsky had succeeded in rolling up the defences from the East, pushing the remnants of the 3rd Panzer Army into Königsberg and Samland. On 28 January, Bagramyan's forces captured Memel; the remnants of the three divisions defending the town were evacuated and redeployed in Samland to reinforce the defence there.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Siege of Königsberg and the Heiligenbeil pocket.", "content": "With the remnants of Army Group Centre effectively contained, Soviet forces could concentrate on reducing the German forces in Pomerania and eliminating any possible threat to the northern flank of their eventual advance on Berlin. Reinhardt and Hossbach—who had attempted to break out of East Prussia and save their troops—were relieved of command, and the Army Group (redesignated Army Group North) was placed under the command of General Lothar Rendulic. Reinhardt gave up his command with the words \"There is nothing more to say\". Raus and the staff of the destroyed 3rd Panzer Army were assigned to a new formation. The defending forces, in the meantime, were besieged in three pockets by Chernyakhovsky's armies:  Even after this time, German forces continued to resist on the Vistula Spit, the long sandbar enclosing the Vistula Lagoon, until the end of the war.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Memoirs:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The East Prussian Offensive was a strategic offensive by the Soviet Red Army against the German \"Wehrmacht\" on the Eastern Front (World War II). It lasted from 13 January to 25 April 1945, though some German units did not surrender until 9 May. The Battle of Königsberg was a major part of the offensive, which ended in victory for the Red Army.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976351}
{"src_title": "Château d'Angers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally, the Château d'Angers was built as a fortress at a site inhabited by the Romans because of its strategic defensive location.  In the 9th century, the Bishop of Angers gave the Counts of Anjou permission to build a castle in Angers. The construction of the first castle begun under Count Fulk III (970–1040), celebrated for his construction of dozens of castles, who built it to protect Anjou from the Normans. It became part of the Angevin Empire of the Plantagenet Kings of England during the 12th century. In 1204, the region was conquered by Philip II and the new castle was constructed during the minority of his grandson, Louis IX (\"Saint Louis\") in the early part of the 13th century. Louis IX rebuilt the castle in whitestone and black slate, with 17 semicircular towers. The construction undertaken in 1234 cost 4,422 livres, roughly one per cent of the estimated royal revenue at the time. Louis gave the castle to his brother, Charles in 1246.  In 1352, King John II \"le Bon\", gave the castle to his second son, Louis who later became count of Anjou. Married to the daughter of the wealthy Duke of Brittany, Louis had the castle modified, and in 1373 commissioned the famous \"Apocalypse Tapestry\" from the painter Hennequin de Bruges and the Parisian tapestry-weaver Nicolas Bataille. Louis II (Louis I's son) and Yolande d'Aragon added a chapel (1405–12) and royal apartments to the complex. The chapel is a \"sainte chapelle\", the name given to churches which enshrined a relic of the Passion. The relic at Angers was a splinter of the fragment of the True Cross which had been acquired by Louis IX.  In the early 15th century, the hapless dauphin who, with the assistance of Joan of Arc would become King Charles VII, had to flee Paris and was given sanctuary at the Château d' Angers. In 1562, Catherine de' Medici had the castle restored as a powerful fortress, but, her son, Henry III, reduced the height of the towers and had the towers and walls stripped of their embattlements; Henry III used the castle stones to build streets and develop the village of Angers. Nonetheless, under threat of attacks from the Huguenots, the king maintained the castle's defensive capabilities by making it a military outpost and by installing artillery on the château's upper terraces. At the end of the 18th century, as a military garrison, it showed its worth when its thick walls withstood a massive bombardment by cannons from the Vendean army. Unable to do anything else, the invaders simply gave up.  A military academy was established in the castle to train young officers in the strategies of war. Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, best known for taking part in the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at the Battle of Waterloo, was trained at the Military Academy of Angers. The academy was moved to Saumur and the castle was used for the rest of the 19th century as a prison, powder magazine, and barracks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern.", "content": "The castle continued to be used as an armory through the First and Second World Wars. It was severely damaged during World War II by the Nazis when an ammunition storage dump inside the castle exploded.  On 10 January 2009, the castle suffered severe damage from an accidental fire due to short-circuiting. The Royal Logis, which contains old tomes and administrative offices, was the most heavily damaged part of the chateau, resulting in of the roof being completely burnt. The Tapestries of the Apocalypse were not damaged. Total damages have been estimated at 2 million Euros. According to Christine Albanel, the Minister of Culture, the expected date of completion for the restoration was the second trimester of 2009.  Today, owned by the City of Angers, the massive, austere castle has been converted to a museum housing the oldest and largest collection of medieval tapestries in the world, with the 14th-century \"Apocalypse Tapestry\" as one of its priceless treasures. As a tribute to its fortitude, the castle has never been taken by any invading force in history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Layout.", "content": "The outer wall is thick, extends for about and is protected by seventeen massive towers. Each of the perimeter towers measures in diameter. The château covers an area of. Two pairs of towers form the city and landward entrances of the château. Each of the towers was once in height, but they were later cut down for the use of artillery pieces. The Tour du Moulin is the only tower which conserves the original elevation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Château d'Angers is a castle in the city of Angers in the Loire Valley, in the \"département\" of Maine-et-Loire, in France. Founded in the 9th century by the Counts of Anjou, it was expanded to its current size in the 13th century. It is located overhanging the river Maine. It is a listed historical monument since 1875. Now open to the public, the Château d'Angers is home of the Apocalypse Tapestry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976352}
{"src_title": "The City and the Stars", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Setting.", "content": "\"The City and the Stars\" takes place one billion years in the future, in the city of Diaspar. By this time, the Earth is so old that the oceans have gone and humanity has all but left. As far as the people of Diaspar know, theirs is the only city left on the planet. The city of Diaspar is completely enclosed. Nobody has come in or left the city for as long as anybody can remember, and everybody in Diaspar has an instinctive insular conservatism. The story behind this fear of venturing outside the city tells of a race of ruthless invaders which beat humanity back from the stars to Earth, and then made a deal that humanity could live—if they never left the planet.  In Diaspar, the entire city is run by the Central Computer. Not only is the city repaired by machines, but the people themselves are created by the machines as well. The computer creates bodies for the people of Diaspar to live in and stores their minds in its memory at the end of their lives. At any time, only a small number of these people are actually living in Diaspar; the rest are retained in the computer's memory banks.  All the currently existent people of Diaspar have had past \"lives\" within Diaspar except one person—Alvin, the main character of this story. He is one of only a very small number of \"Uniques\", different from everybody else in Diaspar, not only because he does not have any past lives to remember, but because instead of fearing the outside, he feels compelled to leave. Alvin has just come to the age where he is considered grown up, and is putting all his energies into trying to find a way out. Eventually, a character called Khedron the Jester helps Alvin use the central computer to find a way out of the city of Diaspar. This involves the discovery that in the remote past, Diaspar was linked to other cities by an underground transport system. This system still exists although its terminal was covered over and sealed with only a secret entrance left.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alvin's quest.", "content": "Once out of Diaspar, Alvin finds that one other human habitation remains on Earth. In contrast to technological Diaspar, Lys is a vast green oasis shielded by mountains from the worldwide desert. Its people are not stored and recreated technologically, but naturally conceive, are born, age, and die. They have rejected the hyper-advanced technology of Diaspar in favor of an almost agrarian existence, with machines used only for labor-saving purposes. The people of Lys have instead worked to perfect the arts of the mind; they are telepaths, capable of communicating with each other over great distances and without words.  Alvin continues his quest until he finds out the truth of why the people of Diaspar are so frightened of the external universe and why Lys is so scared of space travel and mechanical things. In Lys he goes on a trip with a young man named Hilvar who becomes his friend, and they see a signal light, which they decide to investigate. It leads them to Shalmirane, the remains of the fortress where the Invaders were fought off with unimaginable weapons, and there they encounter an extraterrestrial creature with a strange robot. The creature is the last survivor of a religious cult dating back to the days of the Galactic Empire. The robot was the companion of the founder, the \"Master\", who came with his followers to Earth at the end of his life. Alvin and Hilvar are unable to understand the content of the religion except that it refers to \"Great Ones\" who have left, but will someday return. Alvin persuades the creature to lend him the robot, arguing that the Master would want it to see how things were developing in the world. The Master had, however, forbidden the robot to give out any information at all, so Alvin does not learn anything.  Alvin instructs the robot to ignore his entreaties to take him back to Lys which he knew the people of Lys would induce in him with their great telepathic powers—the previous 14 Uniques had stayed. Alvin had originally been told he would be free to choose whether to stay or return, but because the people of Lys had their own insular failure, just like Diaspar, this option was no longer available. Back in Diaspar, he seeks the help of the Central Computer, which overcomes the Master's block on the robot by producing an illusion of an apocalyptic return of the Great Ones.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discoveries.", "content": "Alvin now learns that the Master's ship is still functional, buried outside Diaspar. He manages to retrieve it, fetches Hilvar from Lys, and travels into deep space. They encounter Vanamonde, a being of pure intellect, with whom Hilvar, being telepathic like other Lys people, can communicate and bring him back to Earth. From him the truth of history finally emerges.  The fearsome Invaders, it turns out, were a myth: Shalmirane was actually used to destroy the Moon when this became necessary to prevent it from colliding with the Earth. Instead, the people of Diaspar and Lys are the descendants of those humans who deliberately turned away from the universe in rejection of history's greatest scientific project: the creation of a disembodied intellect. The first attempt had created a powerful but insane being, the Mad Mind. The Mad Mind had devastated the galaxy and its civilizations before being imprisoned in a \"strange artificial star\" called the Black Sun.  Vanamonde is the second, successful experiment of the ancient empire: a being of pure intellect, immensely old, immensely powerful, able to move instantly to any point in space—but entirely childlike and unsophisticated. Vanamonde's ultimate destiny, Hilvar realizes, is to battle the Mad Mind, when it escapes its prison at the end of Time.  After this, most of the Galactic Empire had left our galaxy, leaving only a scattered few. This departure from the galaxy, leaving it to Vanamonde, was because contact had been made with a \"very strange and very great\" intelligent, extraterrestrial species, which called them urgently to the other side of the universe.  Alvin's discoveries reunite Diaspar with Lys. He then sends the ship, under the command of the robot, to search for the long-lost people of the Empire. He does not wish to search himself—even if there are human remnants in the Galaxy, they are probably decadent—and he has work to do on Earth. Even the environment, he hopes, can be revived.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The City and the Stars is a science fiction novel by British writer Arthur C. Clarke, published in 1956. This novel is a complete rewrite of his earlier \"Against the Fall of Night\", Clarke's first novel, which had been published in \"Startling Stories\" magazine in 1948 after John W. Campbell, Jr., editor of \"Astounding Science-Fiction\", had rejected it, according to Clarke.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976353}
{"src_title": "Neal Broten", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Broten, like his two brothers, attended Roseau High School, a perennial hockey contender in the state of Minnesota, where he appeared with the Rams in the state tournament in three consecutive years (1977–79). His 1978 achievement of four assists in a single period still stands as a Roseau Rams' record today.  As a college freshman playing for Herb Brooks and the Minnesota Golden Gophers, Broten scored 21 goals, had 50 assists, and was named WCHA Rookie of the Year His final goal of that season was the game winner that clinched the 1979 NCAA Championship in which the Gophers defeated the University of North Dakota by a score of 4–3. Broten would later win the inaugural Hobey Baker award in 1981, which honors the US collegiate hockey's best player.  Broten is one of a few players to have played on teams that won the NCAA hockey championship (University of Minnesota in 1979), the Olympic Gold Medal (Team USA, 1980), and the Stanley Cup (New Jersey Devils, 1995). He is the only player to have won the Hobey Baker, the Olympic Gold Medal and the Stanley Cup. In addition Neal Broten and Ed Belfour are the only players to have won an NCAA championship, an Olympic Gold medal and the Stanley Cup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NHL/International career.", "content": "Broten was member of the United States Olympic team that won a gold medal at the 1980 Winter Olympics in an event known as the \"Miracle on Ice\". He was also a member of Team USA at the 1981 Canada Cup and 1984 Canada Cup tournaments as well as the 1990 Ice Hockey World Championship.  Broten played 17 seasons in the National Hockey League. Highlights of his long NHL career include the first American to score more than 100 points in a single season (1985–86) as well as two NHL All-Star Game appearances in 1983 and 1986.  He won a Stanley Cup with the New Jersey Devils in 1995, scoring the game-winning goal in Game Four against the Detroit Red Wings to clinch the title. Coincidentally, his 1980 Soviet counterpart Viacheslav Fetisov was on the ice for the heavily favored Red Wings when Broten scored the clincher. Broten became the first American to score a Cup-winning goal. Fellow Americans Brett Hull, Mike Rupp, Patrick Kane, and Alec Martinez have done it since.  Broten served as the captain of the Dallas Stars for two months during the lockout-shortened 1994–95 NHL season after the trade of previous captain Mark Tinordi, serving as captain for a month prior to his trade to New Jersey. He had previously served as an alternate captain on a number of occasions.  During the 1982–83 NHL season, Broten participated in a rare fight against Wayne Gretzky. It was one of only a handful of fights during both his and Gretzky's careers. Broten later recalled how he and his teammates would later have to deal with Gretzky's enforcers, Marty McSorley and Dave Semenko.  Broten initially refused to play for the North Stars in 1991–92 due to a contract dispute, instead playing in Germany for BSC Preussen Berlin where he filled in for his former U.S. Olympic teammate Dave Silk who was on temporary leave in the U.S. with his pregnant wife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post career.", "content": "Broten briefly came out of retirement in 1999 to once again play for the US national team in the 1999 Ice Hockey World Championship qualifying tournament (the U.S. team featuring several NHL players had surprisingly finished among the bottom four in the previous 1998 world championship tournament) when no active NHL players were available. He scored six points in three games as the U.S. won the tournament, before retiring from hockey for good. He lives in River Falls, WI. In 2014, Broten's nephew, Shane Gersich, was drafted by the Washington Capitals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Broten is not featured in the 1981 TV movie about the 1980 U.S. hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\" except in archival footage of the gold medal ceremony.  In the 2004 Disney movie \"Miracle\", he is portrayed by Trevor Alto. Alto played college hockey for the University of British Columbia Thunderbirds.  In the 2008 documentary, \"Pond Hockey\", he reflects on his youth growing up playing hockey in his hometown of Roseau, MN.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "Transactions", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Neal LaMoy Broten (born November 29, 1959) is an American former professional ice hockey player. A member of the 1980 US Olympic hockey team that won the gold medal at Lake Placid in 1980, Broten was inducted into the US Hockey Hall of Fame in 2000 having appeared in 1,099 National Hockey League (NHL) regular season games from 1981 to 1997 with the Minnesota North Stars, Dallas Stars, New Jersey Devils and Los Angeles Kings. He is the older brother of Aaron and Paul Broten.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976354}
{"src_title": "Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Mary was born on 25 April 1776, at Buckingham Palace, London. Her father was the reigning British monarch, George III. Her mother was Queen Charlotte, the daughter of Charles, reigning Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  Mary was baptized on 19 May 1776, in the Great Council Chamber at St. James's Palace, by Frederick Cornwallis, The Archbishop of Canterbury. Her godparents were: The King was a devoted father, finding time to regularly visit the royal nursery. Engaging in active play with his young children, he behaved quite informally in contrast to the dignified Queen Charlotte, who had more difficulty abandoning the formal behaviour expected of their class. Despite her outer reserve, however, Charlotte took a role as conscientious as her husband in their children's upbringing. For the royal princesses, the Queen carefully oversaw their welfare, education, and development of moral values. Faced with less time due to her public duties and close marriage to the King, she appointed Lady Charlotte Finch to manage the royal nursery and administer her ideas.  According to Flora Fraser, Mary was considered to be the most beautiful daughter of George III; Fraser calls her a \"bland beauty\". Mary danced a minuet for the first time in public at the age of sixteen in June 1791, during a court ball given for the king's birthday. In the spring of 1792 she officially debuted at court. Around 1796 Mary fell in love with the Dutch Prince Frederick, while he and his family lived in exile in London. Frederik was a son of William V, Prince of Orange, the Dutch stadholder, and younger brother to the future King William I of the Netherlands. However Frederik and Mary never wed because George III stipulated that her elder sisters should marry first. In 1799 Prince Frederik died of an infection while serving in the army, and Mary was allowed to go into official mourning.  Mary's youngest sister and beloved companion Princess Amelia called her \"Mama's tool\" because of her obedient nature. Amelia's premature death in 1810 devastated her sister, who had nursed her devotedly during her painful illness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Mary's upbringing was very sheltered and she spent most of her time with her parents and sisters. King George and Queen Charlotte were keen to shelter their children, particularly the girls. Mary, however, married on 22 July 1816, to her first cousin, Prince William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh, the son of George III's brother, Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh. On their wedding day, Mary's brother, The Prince Regent, raised the bridegroom's style from \"Highness\" to \"Royal Highness\", an attribute to which Mary's rank as daughter of the King already entitled her.  William Frederick had initially sought to marry Mary's niece Princess Charlotte of Wales. The historian A. W. Purdue suggests that Mary's motive for marrying her cousin sprang from her dislike of Queen Charlotte's restrictive household. Princess Charlotte observed that the duke \"is much in love, & and tells me he is the happiest creature on earth. I won't say [Mary] does as much, but being her own mistress, having her own house, & being able to walk in the streets all delights her in their several ways.\"  The couple lived at Bagshot Park, but after William's death she moved to White Lodge in Richmond Park. They had no children together. Mary was the last surviving child of George III, and was said to be the favourite aunt of her niece, Queen Victoria.  Princess Mary was quite close to her eldest brother, and she shared his dislike toward his wife, their cousin Caroline of Brunswick. When the latter left for Italy, Princess Mary congratulated her brother \"on the prospect of a good riddance. Heaven grant that she may not return again and that we may never see more of her.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Princess Mary died on 30 April 1857 at Gloucester House, London, aged 81. She was the last surviving child as well as the longest-lived child of King George III and Queen Charlotte.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles and arms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "As of 1789, as a daughter of the sovereign, Mary had use of the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a \"label argent of three points, the centre point bearing a rose gules, the outer points each bearing a canton gules\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh (25 April 1776 – 30 April 1857) was the eleventh child and fourth daughter of King George III of the United Kingdom and his consort Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976355}
{"src_title": "Édouard Schuré", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Schuré was the son of a doctor in the Alsatian town of Strasbourg, who died when Édouard was fourteen years old. Schuré mastered French as well as German, and was influenced by German and French culture in his formative years. He received his degree in law at the University of Strasbourg, but he never entered into practice. Schuré called the three most significant of his friendships those with Richard Wagner, Marguerita Albana Mignaty and Rudolf Steiner.  Schuré's interest and studies led to an extensive knowledge of German literature. The discovery of Wagner's \"music drama\" \"Tristan and Isolde\" impressed him sufficiently to seek—and obtain—Wagner's personal acquaintance.  In France, he published his first work \"Histoire du Lied\"—a history of the German folk song, which earned him some recognition in the country of his family. With the publication of the essay \"Richard Wagner et le Drame Musical\", he established himself as a major French Wagner expert and advocate of the time.  When the Franco-German war of 1870-71 poisoned the German arts for many French, it would seem that Schuré was not immune from this influence. His nationalism is reflected in his remarks of this time—and later in his life—in a comparison of glorified Celtism (France) and a negatively viewed \"Teutonism\" (Germany).  On a trip to Italy during this time he met, twenty years his senior, a Greek woman, Marguerita Albana Mignaty, whom he subsequently described as his \"muse\", although he himself was married.  After the tide of war had ebbed, Schuré reestablished his relationship with Wagner. In 1873, he met the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche; with frequent contact they shared enthusiasm for Wagner. The cultist veneration of Wagner, however, seeded Schuré's alienation from the composer.  Schuré now turned increasingly to the esoteric and the occult, his major influence being the famous French occultist-scholar Fabre d'Olivet. In 1884, he met the founder of the Theosophical Society Helena Petrovna Blavatsky. Although unwelcome in the Theosophical Society, he nevertheless entered. In 1889, he published, after some smaller works on similar topics, his major work \"Les Grands Initiés\" (\"The Great Initiates\").  In 1900, the actress Marie von Sivers came into contact with him because she intended to translate his works into German (\"The Great Initiates\", \"The Sacred Drama of Eleusis\" and \"The Children of Lucifer\"). At the German Section of the Theosophical Society, he met the Austrian philosopher and later founder of Anthroposophy, Rudolf Steiner. In 1906, Sivers brought about a meeting between Schuré and Steiner. Schuré was deeply impressed and thought of Steiner as an authentic 'initiate' in line with his \"The Great Initiates\". After hearing Steiner lecture in Paris for the first time in 1906, Schuré in an ecstatic state ran home and wrote down the entirety of the lecture from memory. This first lecture, and the other lectures in the series (which Schuré wrote down) were published as \"Esoteric Cosmology\". Subsequently, Steiner and von Sivers staged Schuré's esoteric dramas at the following Theosophical Congresses in Berlin and Munich. Schuré's \"The Children of Lucifer\", served as a precursor of Rudolf Steiner's own esoteric dramas.  In 1908 Schuré brought out \"Le Mystère Chrétien et les Mystères Antiques\", a French translation of Steiner's work \"Christianity as Mystical Fact and the Mysteries of Antiquity\". With the outbreak of World War I, Schuré's relationship with Steiner and his wife became strained. Schuré threw in the two secret intentions about Germanic and Pan and stepped out of Steiner's Anthroposophical Society. Four years after the war, Schuré re-consolidated his friendship with Steiner.  In subsequent years, Schuré published his autobiography.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Esoteric and literary meaning.", "content": "Schuré's \"The Great Initiates\" is described by some as a masterpiece. In it, he describes the path allegedly followed by some of the ancient philosophers in search of profound esoteric knowledge, often called the \"initiation\", as describing the process of becoming a mystic master or spiritual healer.  Those familiar with Rama, Hermes Trismegistus, Socrates, Jesus, Orpheus will find frequent references in Schuré's work. Although having no knowledge of the 'druid' Rama, Schuré pursued the notion that a secret esoteric knowledge was known to them all, that this group were among the pillars of civilization and represented the founders of spiritual and philosophical ways of being as well as in some cases—though contrary to their message—religions. Schuré recognized that the path to a harmonious world was not to be found through a bigoted denial of the value found by other civilizations by their own sages. He wanted people to recognize the value of democracy in spiritual, philosophical, and religious ways.  Schuré wrote a considerable number of books and plays. In his 1912 \"From Sphinx to Christ (Treatise on Occult History)\" he admires the racist basis of the hereditary caste system in India. He believed the Brahmans had to protect their pure Aryan blood from admixtures with the blood of the other - inferior - races of India after the 'invasion' of India by the Aryans.  His plays enjoyed relative fame in his days in Europe, and some of them were put on stage by Steiner. He also influenced Russian composer Sergei Prokofiev.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eduard (Édouard) Schuré (January 21, 1841 in Strasbourg – April 7, 1929 in Paris) was a French philosopher, poet, playwright, novelist, music critic, and publicist of esoteric literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976356}
{"src_title": "Baltic Offensive", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In 1944, the \"Wehrmacht\" was pressed back along its entire frontline in the east. In February 1944, it retreated from the approaches to Leningrad to the prepared section of the Panther Line at the border of Estonia. In June and July, Army Group Centre was thrown back from the Belorussian SSR into Poland by Operation Bagration. This created the opportunity for the Red Army to attack towards the Baltic Sea, thereby severing the land connection between the German Army Groups.  By 5 July, the Šiauliai Offensive commenced, as a follow-on from Operation Bagration. The Soviet 43rd, 51st, and 2nd Guards Armies attacked towards Riga on the Baltic coast with 3rd Guards Mechanized Corps in the van. By 31 July, the coast on the Gulf of Riga had been reached; 6th Guards Army covered Riga and the extended flank of the penetration towards the north.  The German reaction was rapid, and initially successful. A counterattack, code-named Operation Doppelkopf, was conducted on 16 August by XXXX and XXXIX Panzer Corps under the command of Third Panzer Army, Army Group Centre. Acting in coordination with armored formations from Army Group North, they initially cut off the Soviet troops on the coast, and re-established a tenuous 30-kilometer-wide corridor connecting Army Groups Centre and North. The main objective of the attack was to retake the key road junction of Šiauliai (), but the German tanks ran head-on into an in-depth defense by the 1st Baltic Front, and by 20 August the German advance had stalled with heavy losses. A follow-on attack, code-named Operation Cäsar, and launched on 16 September, failed in the same manner. After a brief period of respite, STAVKA issued orders for the Baltic Strategic Offensive, which lasted from 14 September-24 November.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battles.", "content": "In common with other Soviet strategic offensives, the Baltic Offensive covers a number of operational level operations and individual Front offensive operations:  From the German defensive perspective, the period included the following operations:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet victory.", "content": "The Baltic Offensive operation resulted in the expulsion of German forces from Estonia and Lithuania. The Soviet fronts involved in the battle lost a total of ca. 280,000 men to all causes (killed, missing, wounded, sick).  Communication lines between Army Group North and Army Group Centre were permanently severed, and the former was relegated to an occupied Baltic seashore area in Latvia. On 25 January, Adolf Hitler renamed Army Group North to Army Group Courland implicitly recognising that there was no possibility of restoring a new land corridor between Courland and East Prussia. The Red Army commenced the encirclement and reduction of the Courland cauldron which retained a possibility of being a major threat, but were able to focus on operations on its northern flank that were now aiming at East Prussia. Operations by the Red Army against the Courland Pocket continued until the surrender of the Army Group Courland on 9 May 1945, when close to 200,000 Germans were taken prisoner there.  The German command released thousands of native conscripts from military service. However the Soviet command began conscripting Baltic natives as areas were brought under Soviet control. While some ended up serving on both sides, many partisans hid in the woods to avoid conscription. (\"See also Forest Brothers\")  112 Hero of the Soviet Union awards were given out during the offensive, of which three were given soldier's second award.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reoccupation of the Baltic states.", "content": "Soviet rule of the Baltic states was re-established by force, and sovietisation followed, which was mostly carried out in 1944–1950. The forced collectivisation of agriculture began in 1947, and was completed after the mass deportation of civilians in March 1949. All private farms were confiscated, and farmers were made to join the collective farms. An armed resistance movement of 'forest brothers' was active until the mass deportations. Tens of thousands participated or supported the movement; thousands were killed. The Soviet authorities fighting the forest brothers suffered also hundreds of deaths. Among those killed on both sides were innocent civilians. Besides the armed resistance of the forest brothers, a number of underground nationalist schoolchildren groups were active. Most of their members were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. The punitive actions decreased rapidly after Joseph Stalin's death in 1953; from 1956–1958, a large part of the deportees and political prisoners were allowed to return to their homelands. Political arrests and numerous other kind of crimes against humanity were committed all through the occupation period until the late 1980s. Although the armed resistance was defeated, the populations remained anti-Soviet. This helped the Baltic citizens to organise a new resistance movement in the late 1980s and then rapidly develop a modern society after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Baltic Offensive, also known as the Baltic Strategic Offensive, denotes the campaign between the northern Fronts of the Red Army and the German Army Group North in the Baltic States during the autumn of 1944. The result of the series of battles was the isolation and encirclement of the Army Group North in the Courland Pocket and Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976357}
{"src_title": "Charlotte Kalla", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Winter Olympics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2010 Winter Olympics.", "content": "Kalla won the gold medal in the women's 10 km individual for Sweden at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, with a time of 24:58.4. She also won a silver in the team sprint event with Anna Haag at those same games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014 Winter Olympics.", "content": "Kalla won a silver medal in the skiathlon event on 8 February in Sochi, and another silver in the classical race on 13 February. In the 4 × 5 km women's relay race, held on 15 February, she ran in the final leg and started third with a 25.7 sec lag behind the first place and a 19.9 lag behind the second place, but totally reduced the gap, and overtook her competitors in the final straight, giving Sweden the gold medal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018 Winter Olympics.", "content": "Kalla took the first gold medal awarded at the 2018 Games in Pyeongchang when she won the skiathlon, breaking away from the leading group on the last lap of the course to take victory with a lead of 7.8 seconds over second-placed Marit Bjørgen. Her win made her the first Swedish woman to win three Winter Olympic golds, and tied her with canoer Agneta Andersson as the female Swede with most Olympic gold medals overall. It was also Kalla's sixth Olympic medal, equalling Anja Pärson's record for the most Winter Olympic medals among Swedish women. She then went on to win silver in the 10 km freestyle individual start, the 4 × 5 km relay (together with Anna Haag, Ebba Andersson and Stina Nilsson) and the team sprint (with Stina Nilsson).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cross-country skiing results.", "content": "All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other sports.", "content": "On 17–18 April 2015, Kalla participated and placed second in Keb Classic, a ski mountaineering event in Kebnekaise, Sweden, with Emelie Forsberg and Josefina Wikberg.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marina Charlotte Kalla (born 22 July 1987 in Tärendö) is a Swedish cross-country skier who has been competing at international level since the 2003–04 season. Kalla is a three-time Olympian, winning her first Olympic gold medal at the 2010 Winter Olympics in the 10 km freestyle event in Vancouver. At the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi Kalla ran the final leg in the 4 × 5 km women's relay race and started third with a 25.7 seconds lag behind the first place but reduced the gap, overtaking her competitors in the final straight, earning Sweden the first gold medal in the women's relay event since 1968. At the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang Kalla won Olympic gold medal in the skiathlon event.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976358}
{"src_title": "Ken Morrow", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Amateur career.", "content": "Ken Morrow was born in Flint and grew up in the nearby town of Davison, Michigan. He is a graduate of Davison High School. Morrow attended Bowling Green State University in Bowling Green, Ohio where he was a star defenseman and also represented Team USA at the 1978 Ice Hockey World Championship. His best year as a college player was in 1979 when he was named Central Collegiate Hockey Association player of the year.  The following season, Morrow played for the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team that beat the Soviet team in an event known as the \"Miracle on Ice\" during the 1980 Winter Olympics before defeating Finland to win the gold medal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional career.", "content": "Selected 68th overall in the 1976 NHL Entry Draft by the New York Islanders, Morrow joined the Islanders immediately after the Olympics. He helped them win their first Stanley Cup in 1980, making him the first player to win the Olympic Gold and an NHL championship in one season. He was an integral member of all four Islanders Stanley Cup teams in 1980, 1981, 1982 and 1983; furthermore, although Morrow was never a goal-scorer, during the playoffs the Isles often benefited from his clutch goal scoring at key times. Morrow also returned to the United States national team for the 1981 Canada Cup tournament.  During the 1980 and 1983 playoffs, Morrow had arthroscopic surgeries performed to his knees, and played only days afterward in order to contribute to the Islanders championships, often having fluid drained from his knees between games. He was eventually forced to retire prematurely from the game in 1988–89 due to constant knee problems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post playing career.", "content": "Morrow, who was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 1995, has been director of pro scouting for the Isles since 1993. He remains employed in this position despite the fact that a large amount of Islanders draft picks have never panned out. He previously served as the Islanders' assistant coach for one season, in 1991–92. He was also co-coach of the International Hockey League's Kansas City franchise in 1990–91 and assistant coach of the IHL Flint Spirits in 1989–90 shortly after retiring from hockey. On December 31, 2011, Morrow was inducted into the New York Islanders Hall of Fame. Ken Morrow is also President of KCIce, an Outdoor Ice Rink Development and Management company in Kansas City, MO.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In the 1981 TV movie about the 1980 gold medal-winning U.S. Hockey team called \"Miracle on Ice\", he is played by Scott Feraco.  Morrow was portrayed by actor Casey Burnette in the 2004 Disney movie \"Miracle\". Before the movie, Burnette played junior hockey for the Barrie Colts in the Ontario Hockey League, the Hull Olympiques (now called the Gatineau Olympiques) and the Montreal Rocket, both in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League. Bizarrely he was not depicted with his trademark beard in the movie despite this almost being an issue for Coach Herb Brooks. Brooks specifically made a rule to allow Morrow to keep his beard for the team, based on his having a beard prior to joining the team.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kenneth Arlington Morrow (born October 17, 1956 in Davison, Michigan) is a former American professional ice hockey defenseman and a member of the 1980 USA Olympic Miracle on Ice hockey team. He is currently serves as the New York Islanders' director of pro scouting. A member of the United States Hockey Hall of Fame, he played 550 regular season games in the National Hockey League between 1980 and 1989.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976359}
{"src_title": "Valery Legasov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Legasov was born on September 1, 1936, in Tula, Russian SFSR, into a family of civil workers. He attended secondary school in Kursk. In 1949–1954, he attended School No. 56 in Moscow and graduated with a gold medal. The school now bears his name, and his bronze bust stands at the entrance. He married Margarita Mikhailovna and had a daughter, Inga Legasova.  In 1961, he graduated from the Faculty of Physicochemical Engineering at the Mendeleev Moscow Institute of Chemistry and Technology.  He worked as secretary of the Komsomol Committee of the Moscow Institute of Chemical Technology.  In 1962, he joined the graduate school in the Department of Molecular Physics of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, first as a junior then senior researcher, and finally as head of the laboratory. In 1967, he defended his thesis at the Kurchatov Institute, under the supervisor Isaac Kikoin, on the synthesis of compounds of noble gases and the study of their properties. He received the degree of candidate in 1967 and his doctorate in chemistry in 1972.  In 1976, he was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.  From 1978 to 1983, he was a professor at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.  In 1981, he became a full member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, in the Department of Physical Chemistry and Technology of Inorganic Materials.  From 1983 until his death, he worked as chair of the department of Radiochemistry and Chemical Technology at the Faculty of Chemistry at Moscow State University. In 1983, he became the first Deputy Director for scientific work of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy.  Legasov studied methods for the synthesis and the properties of new compounds with elements in high oxidation states; nuclear and plasma technology; energy-saving technology, and hydrogen energy. Under his leadership, a scientific school was created in the newest section of inorganic chemistry – chemistry of noble gases.  Even before the Chernobyl disaster, Legasov was known to stress the need for new security and safety methods to prevent large catastrophes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chernobyl disaster.", "content": "By the time of the Chernobyl disaster on 26 April 1986, Legasov was the first deputy director of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy. He became a key member of the government commission formed to investigate the causes of the disaster and to plan the mitigation of its consequences. He took the most important decisions to avoid repeat accidents and informed the government of the situation in the disaster area. He did not hesitate to speak to his fellow scientists and to the press about the safety risks of the destroyed plant and insisted on the immediate evacuation of the entire population of the city of Pripyat nearby. In August 1986, he presented the report of the Soviet delegation at the special meeting of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna. His report displayed a depth of analysis and honesty in discussing the extent and consequences of the tragedy. Legasov recorded five audio tapes where he expressed his point of view on events that happened in Chernobyl. The fifth and last tape was recorded with Ales Adamovich as an interview for an article.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 27 April 1988, one day after the second anniversary of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant accident and one day before he was due to announce his results of the investigation into the causes of the disaster, Legasov hanged himself (some sources say in his apartment or the stairwell of his apartment; others in his office). A personal pistol remained in a drawer, but the professor chose to hang himself. He was buried at the Novodevichy cemetery in Moscow.  This was not Legasov's first suicide attempt. David R. Marples has suggested that the adversity of the Chernobyl disaster on Legasov's psychological state was the factor that led to his decision to die by suicide. Before his suicide, Legasov wrote documents revealing previously undisclosed facts about the catastrophe. According to an analysis of the recording for the BBC TV movie \"Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster\", Legasov claims political pressure censored the mention of Soviet nuclear secrecy in his report to the IAEA, a secrecy which forbade even plant operators having knowledge of previous accidents and known problems with reactor design. The \"Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists\" also stated that Legasov had become bitterly disillusioned with the failure of the authorities to confront the design flaws.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Legasov's suicide caused shockwaves in the Soviet nuclear industry. In particular, the problem with the design of the control rods in Chernobyl-type RBMK reactors was rapidly admitted and addressed.  On 20 September 1996, then-Russian president Boris Yeltsin posthumously conferred on Legasov the honorary title of Hero of the Russian Federation, the country's highest honorary title, for the \"courage and heroism\" shown in his investigation of the disaster.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In media.", "content": "Legasov is portrayed by Ade Edmondson in the BBC docudrama \"Surviving Disaster\" (2006), and by Jared Harris in the Sky/HBO miniseries \"Chernobyl\" (2019).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Valery Alekseyevich Legasov (; 1 September 1936 – 27 April 1988) was a Soviet inorganic chemist and a member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. He is now mainly remembered for his work as the chief of the commission investigating the Chernobyl disaster.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976360}
{"src_title": "H2O: Just Add Water", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Rikki Chadwick, Emma Gilbert, and Cleo Sertori are three teenage Australian girls who find themselves stranded on the mysterious Mako Island, where they end up in a pool under a dormant volcano just as a full moon passes above them, bathing the pool in light. The girls are rescued and brought back to shore, where they return to their normal lives, until discovering their lives have become anything but normal. The girls find out that ten seconds after coming into contact with water they transform into mermaids. After further experimentation, the girls also discover they have supernatural powers over water. The trio enlist the help of Cleo's friend Lewis McCartney to help them keep their secret.  Everyday situations, such as bathing and dealing with rainy weather, become tricky as the girls struggle with their newfound abilities, which come with many advantages and disadvantages, while also trying to keep them a secret from everyone else, including their families. They soon adapt to their new abilities and lifestyles.  Series two introduces Charlotte Watsford, a rival to Cleo, for dating Lewis shortly after Cleo had broken up with him. She gains mermaid powers and becomes the main antagonist of series two. She has all three of the mermaids' powers. In the end, Charlotte loses both her powers and Lewis.  Series three sees the departure of Emma, who has left to travel the world with her parents. A new character, Bella Hartley, is introduced and it is discovered that she has been a mermaid since the age of nine. Rikki and Cleo become friends with Bella, but are soon beset by a mysterious tentacle of water with a connection to Mako Island. A new boy, Will Benjamin, also arrives and becomes friends with the trio when he discovers that they are mermaids. The girls learn that Earth is in the path of a comet that could destroy the planet. Using their powers, they manage to stop the comet from colliding with Earth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development and production.", "content": "There are three different types of mermaid tails used on the show: custom-fitted tails that the girls swim in, a \"floppy tail\" used for stationary shots, and a \"hard tail\" for stunts. The custom costumes took six months to build, with the tails and tops made from body casts and comprising individually hand-crafted scales. The finished product weighs between. Inside the tail are leg straps where the girls are strapped up and then zipped up. Once in costume, the girls have to be lifted into the water. Attempts were made to minimise the on-screen visibility of the zips on the tails, such as adding extra scales and crafting a ridge of material around the length of the zip. The tail fin itself was designed with a foot pedal to assist the actresses with swimming. This, along with the fin, adds some to the length of the costume.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Multimedia.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "All series have been released on DVD in Region 4 PAL format. Series one comprises six individual DVD sets released between September 2007 and November 2008, and a complete series set released in June 2009. Series two comprises three individual sets released between February and September 2009, and a complete series set released in November 2009. Series three comprises two individual sets released in July and September 2012, with a complete series released in December 2012.  A three-disc set, \"HO: Season 1, Volume 1\", containing the first 13 episodes of series 1 for Region 1 NTSC format was released on 16 June 2009 by Nickelodeon as a manufacture-on-demand (MOD) DVD-R release via Amazon.com through their CreateSpace service. No follow-up DVD volume releases were made from this initial set, which was later discontinued. A complete series DVD boxed set was released in Region 1 NTSC format on 6 November 2012 from New Video, and all three series were made available for purchase individually beginning on 5 March 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soundtracks.", "content": "An official soundtrack for series two of the show, titled \"\" and recorded by singer Kate Alexa, was first released on 10 September 2007 in Australia on Liberation Records and has since been made available worldwide. Its lead track, \"No Ordinary Girl\", is the theme song for the show. \"No Ordinary Girl\" is performed by Ellie Henderson in series one, by Kate Alexa in series two and by Indiana Evans in series three.  A second soundtrack, featuring music from series three, was first released on iTunes on 17 February 2011 and later worldwide in March 2011. It is also titled \"\" and was recorded by actress Indiana Evans.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "Several children's books have been released by Nickelodeon UK:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spin-offs.", "content": "In July 2011, the production of a 26-episode spin-off was announced. The new series, \"\", follows the adventures of 15-year-old Zac and mermaids Sirena, Nixie, and Lyla. In the final series of the show, Cariba Heine makes a guest appearance as Rikki.  In May 2015, an animated spin-off targeted to children premiered on Netflix, titled \"\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "HO: Just Add Water, also known as HO, is an Australian dramatic fantasy television series for children and teenagers created by Jonathan M. Shiff. It first screened on Australia's Network Ten and runs in syndication on channels in over 120 countries and has a worldwide audience of more than 250 million. It was filmed on location at Sea World and other locations on the Gold Coast. The show revolves around three teenage girls facing everyday teen problems with an added twist: they're mermaids with powers over water.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976361}
{"src_title": "Titan Saturn System Mission", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin and status.", "content": "The Titan Saturn System Mission (TSSM) was officially created in January 2009 by the merging of the ESA's Titan and Enceladus Mission (TandEM) with NASA's Titan Explorer (2007) study, although plans to combine both concepts date at least back to early 2008. TSSM was competing against the Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM) proposal for funding, and in February 2009 it was announced that NASA/ESA had given EJSM priority ahead of TSSM. TSSM will continue to be studied for a later launch date, probably sometime in the 2020s. Detailed assessment reports of the mission elements as well as a specific concept for a lake-landing module for Titan's lakes called Titan Mare Explorer (TiME) with the potential of becoming a part of the TSSM have been proposed in February and October 2009, respectively.  The TSSM may be revived and launched on the SLS super-heavy-lift rocket.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission overview.", "content": "The TSSM mission consists of an orbiter and two Titan exploration probes: a hot air balloon (\"Montgolfier\" type) that will float in Titan's clouds, and a lander that will splash down on one of its methane seas.  Both probes’ data are to be relayed to a Titan orbiter. They will be equipped to study Titan's features with instruments for imaging, radar profiling, and surface as well as atmospheric sampling, much more complete than done by the Cassini–Huygens mission.  The spacecraft will use several gravity assist flybys of other planets to enable it to reach Saturn. The baseline design envisaged a September 2020 launch, followed by four gravity assists (Earth–Venus–Earth–Earth), and arrival at Saturn 9 years later in October 2029. This is one of several available Earth-to-Saturn transfer options from the year 2018 through 2022. Current NASA plans do not give the TSSM a priority, however, and it is unlikely any of the proposed launch dates can be met.  Upon Saturn arrival, in October 2029, the orbiter's chemical propulsion system would place the flight system into orbit around Saturn, followed by a two-year Saturn Tour Phase, characterized by the deployment of the \"in situ\" elements, and including a minimum of seven close Enceladus flybys and 16 Titan flybys. During this period, repeated satellite gravity assists and manoeuvres will reduce the energy needed to insert into Titan's orbit. As the craft completes its flyby by Enceladus, the orbiter will analyze the unusual cryovolcanic plumes at the moon's south pole.  The montgolfière, a hot air balloon, would be released on approach to the first Titan flyby for ballistic entry into Titan's atmosphere for its six Earth months’ mission from April 2030 to October 2030. Based on Cassini–Huygens discoveries, the montgolfière should be able to circumnavigate Titan at least once during its nominal lifetime at its deployment latitude of about 20°N, 10 kilometers above Titan's surface.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lake lander.", "content": "Numerous proposals have been brought forward with respect to the lake-lander concept. One of the most detailed plans so far is the so-called Titan Mare Explorer (TiME), which had originally been proposed as a separate scout mission, but might eventually be postponed and included in the TSSM. If approved, TiME would be released by the orbiter on its second Titan flyby. Due to Titan's haze layer and its distance to the Sun, the lander cannot be powered by solar panels and it would rely on the new Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator (ASRG), which is a prototype meant to provide availability of long-lived power supplies for landed networks and other planetary missions. The lander will target Ligeia Mare, a northern polar sea of liquid hydrocarbons at about 79°N. The probe will descend by parachute, like the Huygens probe of 2005. During the 6 hours of descent it will analyze the atmosphere and then splashdown on the liquid surface. The plutonium-powered craft's principal function is to sample and analyze organics on the surface for a period of about 3 to 6 months; this would be the first floating exploration of an extraterrestrial sea.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Science goals and objectives.", "content": "The major goals of the TSSM mission can be summarized under four categories: At Titan, the science goals would be to provide information on such aspects as the composition of the surface and the geographic distribution of the various organic constituents; on the methane cycle and the methane reservoirs; on the ages of the surface features, and in particular on whether cryovolcanism and tectonism are actively ongoing or are relics of a more active past; on the presence or absence of ammonia, of a magnetic field and of a sub-surface ocean; on the chemistry that drives complex ion formation in the upper atmosphere; and on a large altitude range in the atmosphere, from 400–900 km, which remains poorly explored after Cassini. In addition, much remains to be understood about seasonal changes of the atmosphere at all levels, and the long-term escape of constituents to space.  TiME lander would splashdown on Ligeia Mare, a methane sea on Titan's northern hemisphere. It is believed that Titan's methane cycle is analogous to Earth's hydrologic cycle, with meteorological working fluid existing in liquid and gas phase. TiME would directly discern the methane cycle of Titan and help understand its similarities and differences to the hydrologic cycle on Earth. However, questions about the sources of re-supply of methane to the atmosphere remain to be answered. This world is built by organic activities which still operate and Cassini–Huygens findings suggest a world with a balance of geologic and atmospheric processes that is the solar system's best analogue to Earth. Moreover, an interior ocean discovered by Cassini, deep underneath Titan's dense atmosphere and surface is thought to be largely composed of liquid water. TSSM would be the first mission in the 50 years of space exploration where an extensive and interdisciplinary in situ survey of active organic chemistry and climate on the land, on the sea, and in the air of another world will take place.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Titan Saturn System Mission (TSSM) was a joint NASA–ESA proposal for an exploration of Saturn and its moons Titan and Enceladus, where many complex phenomena were revealed by \"Cassini\". With an estimated NASA cost of $2.5 billion (FY07), TSSM was proposed to launch in 2020, get gravity assists from Earth and Venus, and arrive at the Saturn system in 2029. The 4-year prime mission would include a two-year Saturn tour, a 2-month Titan aero-sampling phase, and a 20-month Titan orbit phase.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976362}
{"src_title": "Hop-Frog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The court jester Hop-Frog, \"being also a dwarf and a cripple\", is the much-abused \"fool\" of the unnamed king. This king has an insatiable sense of humor: \"he seemed to live only for joking\". Both Hop-Frog and his best friend, the dancer Trippetta (also small, but beautiful and well-proportioned), have been stolen from their homeland and essentially function as slaves. Because of his physical deformity, which prevents him from walking upright, the King nicknames him \"Hop-Frog\".  Hop-Frog reacts severely to alcohol, and though the king knows this, he forces Hop-Frog to consume several goblets full. Trippetta begs the king to stop. Though Trippetta is said to be a favorite of his, he pushes her and throws a goblet of wine into her face in front of seven members of his cabinet council. The violent act makes Hop-Frog grind his teeth. The powerful men laugh at the expense of the two servants and ask Hop-Frog (who suddenly becomes sober and cheerful) for advice on an upcoming masquerade. He suggests some very realistic costumes for the men: costumes of orangutans chained together. The men love the idea of scaring their guests and agree to wear tight-fitting shirts and pants saturated with tar and covered with flax. In full costume, the men are then chained together and led into the \"grand saloon\" of masqueraders just after midnight.  As predicted, the guests are shocked and many believe the men to be real \"beasts of \"some\" kind in reality, if not precisely ourang-outangs\". Many rush for the doors to escape, but the King had insisted the doors be locked; the keys are left with Hop-Frog. Amidst the chaos, Hop-Frog attaches a chain from the ceiling to the chain linked around the men in costume. The chain then pulls them up via pulley (presumably by Trippetta, who has arranged the room to help with the scheme) far above the crowd. Hop-Frog puts on a spectacle so that the guests presume \"the whole matter as a well-contrived pleasantry\". He claims he can identify the culprits by looking at them up close. He climbs up to their level, grits his teeth again, and holds a torch close to the men's faces. They quickly catch fire: \"In less than half a minute the whole eight ourang-outangs were blazing fiercely, amid the shrieks of the multitude who gazed at them from below, horror-stricken, and without the power to render them the slightest assistance\". Finally, before escaping through a sky-light with Trippetta to their home country, Hop-Frog identifies the men in costume:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "The story, like \"The Cask of Amontillado\", is one of Poe's revenge tales, in which a murderer apparently escapes without punishment. In \"The Cask of Amontillado\", the victim wears motley; in \"Hop-Frog\", the murderer also dons such attire. However, while \"The Cask of Amontillado\" is told from the murderer's point of view, \"Hop-Frog\" is told from an unidentified third-person narrator's point of view.  The grating of Hop-Frog's teeth, right after Hop-Frog witnesses the king splash wine in Trippetta's face, and again just before Hop-Frog sets the eight men on fire, may well be symbolic. Poe often used teeth as a sign of mortality, as with the lips writhing about the teeth of the mesmerized man in \"The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar\" or the obsession with teeth in \"Berenice\".  \"The Cask of Amontillado\" represents Poe's attempt at literary revenge on a personal enemy, and \"Hop-Frog\" may have had a similar motivation. As Poe had been pursuing relationships with Sarah Helen Whitman and Nancy Richmond (whether romantic or platonic is uncertain), members of literary circles in New York City spread gossip and incited scandal about alleged improprieties. At the center of this gossip was a woman named Elizabeth F. Ellet, whose affections Poe had previously scorned. Ellet may be represented by the king himself, with his seven councilors representing Margaret Fuller, Hiram Fuller (no relation), Thomas Dunn English, Anne Lynch Botta, Anna Blackwell, Ermina Jane Locke, and Locke's husband.  The tale is arguably autobiographical in other ways. The jester Hop-Frog, like Poe, is \"kidnapped from home and presented to the king\" (his wealthy foster father John Allan), \"bearing a name not given in baptism but 'conferred upon him'\" and is susceptible to wine... when insulted and forced to drink becomes insane with rage\". Like Hop-Frog, Poe was bothered by those who urged him to drink, despite a single glass of wine making him drunk.  Poe may have based the story on the \"Bal des Ardents\" at the court of Charles VI of France in January 1393. At the suggestion of a Norman squire, the king and five others dressed as Wild Men in highly flammable costumes made with pitch and flax. Four of the men died in the fire, and only Charles and the fifth man were saved. Citing Barbara Tuchman as his source, Jack Morgan, of the University of Missouri–Rolla, author of \"The Biology of Horror\", discusses the incident as a possible inspiration for \"Hop-Frog\".  The king and his seven councilors appear in the masquerade at midnight, the same time that the Red Death appears in the masquerade in \"The Masque of the Red Death\", the narrator of \"The Tell-Tale Heart\" enters the old man's bedroom each night for one week, and the raven taps on the narrator's door in Poe's poem \"The Raven\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication history.", "content": "The tale first appeared in the March 17, 1849 edition of \"The Flag of Our Union\", a Boston-based newspaper published by Frederick Gleason and edited by Maturin Murray Ballou. It originally carried the full title \"Hop Frog; Or, The Eight Chained Ourang-Outangs\". In a letter to friend Nancy Richmond, Poe wrote: \"The 5 prose pages I finished yesterday are called — what do you think? — I am sure you will never guess — \"Hop-Frog!\" Only think of \"your\" Eddy writing a story with \"such\" a name as 'Hop-Frog'!\"  He explained that, though \"The Flag of Our Union\" was not a respectable journal \"in a literary point of view\", it paid very well.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Hop-Frog\" (originally \"Hop-Frog; Or, the Eight Chained Ourang-Outangs\") is a short story by American writer Edgar Allan Poe, first published in 1849. The title character, a person with dwarfism taken from his homeland, becomes the jester of a king particularly fond of practical jokes. Taking revenge on the king and his cabinet for the king's striking of his friend and fellow dwarf Trippetta, he dresses the king and his cabinet as orangutans for a masquerade. In front of the king's guests, Hop-Frog murders them all by setting their costumes on fire before escaping with Trippetta.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976363}
{"src_title": "At Close Range", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Brad Whitewood Sr. is a career criminal and the leader of his family's gang of rural back-door criminals. The film chronicles the intersection of Sr's criminal enterprises with his son, Brad Whitewood Jr., who starts out as a floundering, out-of-work teenager living in near squalor with his mother, grandmother, brother and mother's boyfriend. When his father shows up in a flashy car with a pocket full of hundred dollar bills, Brad Jr. formulates a desire to join his father's life of crime. At first Jr. starts a gang with his brother, Tommy, fencing their stolen goods through Brad Sr.'s criminal network. As a result of entanglements with his 16-year-old girlfriend, Terry, Brad Jr. seeks full entry into his father's gang, but after witnessing a murder he tries to back out. Eventually Brad Jr's gang is arrested while attempting to steal tractors, and the FBI and local law enforcement attempt to lean on Brad Jr. to get him to turn evidence on his father's gang.  During Brad Jr.'s time in jail, Brad Sr. becomes convinced that Terry is a risk to his activities, thinking that Brad Jr. may confide details to Terry and that she has a big mouth. In an attempt to destroy her relationship with Brad Jr., Brad Sr. rapes Terry after getting her drunk and stoned. After a prison visit where Terry, accompanied by Brad Jr's mother, has an inaudible conversation with Brad Jr., it appears that Brad Jr. begins to cooperate with the police. The members of Brad Jr's gang are subpoenaed, and Brad Sr. feels his only recourse is to eliminate them. Brad Jr. and Terry plan to flee to Montana, but they are ambushed. Terry is killed, and Brad Jr. is seriously wounded. Brad Jr. confronts his father armed with his father's gun, but decides instead to cooperate with police. The film ends with a close up of Brad Jr. on the witness stand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filming.", "content": "The movie, while depicting incidents in Chester County and Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, was actually filmed in Franklin, Tennessee and Spring Hill, Tennessee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "Music for the film was composed by Patrick Leonard, who had been working on an instrumental theme for \"Fire with Fire\", and wanted to enlist Madonna for the vocals. Leonard was turned down by Paramount for that project, but Madonna, who was at the time married to Sean Penn, decided that the theme would work well for \"At Close Range\". She composed the lyrics and presented a demo cassette to director James Foley, and suggested Leonard compose the film's soundtrack. The theme with Madonna's lyrics became the single \"Live to Tell\". A slower instrumental version opened the film's main title sequence, a harbinger of the end credit sequence, which was accompanied by the version from Madonna's album \"True Blue\". Versions of the instrumental show up throughout. The instrumental score by Leonard remained unreleased until a version of the main titles appeared on the Internet in 2014, although the 45 single of \"Live to Tell\" included a B-side incomplete instrumental version of the score, and DJ A!O released a seven-minute instrumental suite of Leonard's film arrangement prior to 2008 on Sp!n.  The official soundtrack to the film included a number of singles from the 1970s decade, including \"Miss You\" by The Rolling Stones, \"Boogie Oogie Oogie\" by A Taste of Honey, as well as a number of arrangements featuring LeRoux.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "Roger Ebert gave the \"At Close Range\" 31⁄2 (out of 4) stars, noting that \"few recent films have painted such a bleak picture of human nature\". He described Penn as \"probably the best of the younger actors\", while lauding Walken's \"hateful\" performance.  At Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 87% based on 23 reviews, with an average score of 7.2/10. It holds a score of 67 out of 100 on Metacritic from 9 appraisals, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "Despite the accolades and warm reviews, the film was not a box office success. It grossed a total of $2,347,000 at the North American box office during its theatrical run in 83 theaters, earning less than its production budget of $6.5 million.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "At Close Range is a 1986 American neo-noir crime drama film directed by James Foley, based on the real life rural Pennsylvania crime family led by Bruce Johnston Sr. which operated during the 1960s and 1970s. It stars Sean Penn and Christopher Walken, with Mary Stuart Masterson, Sean's brother Chris Penn, David Strathairn, Crispin Glover, Kiefer Sutherland, and Eileen Ryan in supporting roles. Madonna both sang and co-wrote the song “Live to Tell” which features in the film's soundtrack.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976364}
{"src_title": "Keimfarben", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The reign of King Ludwig I of Bavaria was a time of intensive research into water glass (potassium silicate). The king loved the colorful lime frescoes in North Italy and longed to enjoy the typically splendid colors produced by lime paints in his own kingdom. But the harsh German climate was not suitable for the technique used in Italy. Eventually, the skilled craftsman and researcher Adolf Wilhelm Keim succeeded in mixing liquid water glass and mineral color pigments to create a paint that could withstand the climate north of the Alps while at the same time offering brilliant colors. The paint's durability results from the chemical bond formed by the binding agent with the substrate (silification). Keim obtained a patent for his mineral paints in 1878, thus laying the foundation stone for today's company KEIMFARBEN GMBH. The first production site was near to the limestone quarry in Offenstetten (which belongs to Abensberg today) in Lower Bavaria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group structure.", "content": "Headquarters in Diedorf Subsidiary in Alteno  Keimfarben has two German sites in Diedorf (headquarters) and Alteno/Luckau and altogether eleven foreign subsidiaries in Europe (Austria, Switzerland, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Scandinavia, Poland, the Czech Republic) and the United States. Authorised dealers are responsible for sales in countries where Keimfarben does not have its own subsidiary (Australia, Canada, China, Singapore, Malaysia and Russia). On 6 September 2012, KEIMFARBEN GMBH & Co KG changed its legal form and now operates under the name of \"KEIMFARBEN GMBH\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Product range.", "content": "Keim laid the foundation for the success of Keimfarben in 1878 with KEIM Purkristalat, a two-component pure silicate paint. The second generation of Keim paints followed in 1962 with Keim Granital, the first silicate emulsion paint; in contrast to Purkristalat, this is a one-component paint which makes it easier to apply. In 2002, Keimfarben then launched Keim Soldalit, a sol-silicate or colloidal silicate paint (binding agent: colloidal silica and water glass), which makes it much easier to apply silicate paints so that they are suitable for universal use.  Keimfarben produces paint systems for external and internal use, mineral renders and fillers, natural stone repair systems and thermal insulation composite systems, together with concrete repair and surface protection systems. A new item in the product range is silicate paint for wooden substrates.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "KEIMFARBEN GMBH is a medium-sized company based in Diedorf near Augsburg. It belongs to the Leonhard Moll AG Group and is one of the world's leading manufacturers of silicate paints. Buildings such as the White House, Mariyinsky Palace, Buckingham Palace, Sydney Opera House and the Bolshoi Theatre are painted with Keimfarben paints.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976365}
{"src_title": "František Sláma (musician)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born in Bohemian-Moravian Highlands. Until the age of 18 he worked in the quarry. His meeting with the famous Czech cello pedagogue Karel P. Sádlo proved to be a turning point in his life. Sádlo supported him, introduced him to the cello (1941) and tutored him for the Conservatoire (1942–1948, cello with K. P. Sádlo, chamber music with Václav Talich). Between 1948-52 Sláma completed his studies at the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague. By this time he had already been a member of the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra (1948–1981, since 1962 sub-principal cello and cello section leader).  The legendary conductor Václav Talich encouraged Sláma's enthusiasm for chamber music and had, along with K.P.Sádlo and later Milan Munclinger, a lasting influence on Sláma's musical development. During the next 45 years Sláma performed with leading chamber ensembles in Czechoslovakia. In 1946 he was a founding member of Talich's Czech Chamber Orchestra, between 1953-1976 the viol da gambist of Pro Arte Antiqua (one of the oldest European ensembles focused on medieval and Renaissance music) and between 1954-1997 a member of the ensemble Ars Rediviva, whose performances and recordings played an important role in the revival of the Baroque music in Czechoslovakia.  With these ensembles he made a large number of recordings (with Supraphon, Panton, Columbia, DGG, Ariola, Nippon, etc.), which received several awards both in Czechoslovakia and abroad (e.g. Grand Prix du Disque). He participated also in first performances of modern compositions (e.g. Ilja Hurník: \"Sonata da camera\", Jan Tausinger: \"Evocations\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pedagogue and publicist.", "content": "Since the 1970s he was a teacher at the Conservatoire in Prague. He also wrote about music and musicians, cooperated with Czech Radio (e.g. introduced Jordi Savall to the Czech audience). In 2001 his book \"\"Z Herálce do Šangrilá a zase nazpátek\"\" (“\"From Heralec to Shangrila and Back Again\"”) was published - reminiscences about the Prague music scene between the 1940s and the 1990s as well as about Sláma's musical colleagues, conductors (Talich, Barbirolli, Cluytens, Karajan, Kleiber, Klemperer, Kletzki, Kubelík, Maazel, Mackerras, Markevitch, Matačić, Mravinsky, Münch, Pedrotti, Rozhdestvensky, Sawallisch, Stokowski, etc.) and other personalities whom he had met (e.g. Adorján, André, Fournier, Honegger, Mainardi, Menuhin, Milhaud, Navarra, Nureyev, Oistrakh, Rampal, Richter, Szeryng, Sudek, Tortelier).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "František Sláma archive.", "content": "František Sláma archive collection donated to his native village Heralec consists of more than 5000 negatives and photos, over 150 hours of authentic recordings and documents about Czech Philharmonic Orchestra, Václav Talich, Milan Muclinger, Ars Rediviva, etc. Live recordings of Ars Rediviva performances in Rudolfinum are also deposited in the Czech Music Museum (see: External links).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "František Sláma (November 19, 1923 – May 5, 2004) was a significant Czech chamber music performer. He was the first Czech cellist who focused on Early music.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976366}
{"src_title": "Akechi Mitsuhide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and rise.", "content": "Mitsuhide was born in Tara castle, Mino Province-now Gifu Prefecture Mitsuhide was a descendant of the Toki-Akechi family of the shugo Toki clan. Mitsuhide is rumored to be a childhood friend or cousin of Nōhime. It is believed that he was raised to be a general among 10,000 by Saitō Dōsan and the Toki clan during their governorship of the Mino Province. When Dōsan's son, Saitō Yoshitatsu, rebelled against his father in 1556, Mitsuhide sided with Dōsan.  Mitsuhide began serving the \"wandering \"shōgun\"\" Ashikaga Yoshiaki as one of his guardians under Hosokawa Yusai. \"Shōgun\" Ashikaga ordered Asakura Yoshikage to be his official protector, an offer which Yoshikage declined. Yoshiaki appealed to Mitsuhide, who suggested Oda Nobunaga instead.  In 1564, Nobunaga sent his sister Oichi to be the bride of Azai Nagamasa. This aided him in his 1566 conquest for Mino province this also opened the path to Kyoto. The \"shōgun\" Yoshiaki and Mitsuhide arrived at Kyoto, the capital of Japan, converting Hongoku-ji temple to a temporary palace in November 1568. Nobunaga returned from Kyoto on January 4, 1569. The Miyoshi clan and Saito Tatsuoki defeated the daimyo of Mino, and attacked Ashikaga Yoshiaki at Hongoku-ji, where Mitsuhide successfully defended the \"shōgun\". Nobunaga asked Mitsuhide to join his troops and Mitsuhide decided to serve both the \"shōgun\" and Nobunaga.  Mitsuhide received Sakamoto and built Sakamoto Castle in 1571 after the successful attack at the Enryaku-ji temple. Although Nobunaga rarely put too much trust in his retainers, he particularly trusted Shibata Katsuie, Hashiba Hideyoshi, and Akechi Mitsuhide, who was the first subordinate to receive a castle from Nobunaga. After Mitsuhide received Sakamoto, he moved to pacify the Tanba region by defeating several clans such as the Hatano clan and Akai Naomasa of Tango. Mitsuhide also received Kameyama castle and Tanba Province (550,000 \"koku\").  He participated in Ishiyama Hongan-ji War (1570-1580) and the Battle of Tedorigawa in 1577.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Incident at Honnō-ji.", "content": "In 1579, Nobunaga captured Yakami Castle from Hatano Hideharu by promising Hideharu peace terms; however, Nobunaga betrayed the peace agreement and had Hideharu executed. This reputedly displeased the Hatano family, and a short while later several of Hideharu's retainers murdered Akechi Mitsuhide's mother (or aunt). The failing relationship between Nobunaga and Mitsuhide was further fueled through several public insults which Nobunaga directed at Mitsuhide.  In 1582, Mitsuhide was ordered to march west and assist Hashiba Hideyoshi who was at that time fighting the Mōri clan. Ignoring his orders, Mitsuhide assembled an army of 13,000 soldiers and moved against Nobunaga's position at Honnō-ji. On June 21, Mitsuhide was quoted as saying, \"The enemy is at Honnō-ji!\" His army surrounded the temple and eventually set it on fire. Oda Nobunaga was killed either during the fighting, or by his own hand. Nobunaga's son, Oda Nobutada, fled the scene, but was surrounded at Nijō and killed. Despite not killing Nobunaga personally, Mitsuhide claimed responsibility for his death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Battle of Yamazaki.", "content": "Mitsuhide's betrayal of the Oda shocked the capital, and he was forced to move quickly to secure his position. Mitsuhide looted Azuchi castle to reward his men and maintain their loyalty.  Mitsuhide attempted to make gestures of friendship to a panicked Imperial Court; he also made many attempts to win over the other clans, but to no avail. Hosokawa Fujitaka, to whom he was related through marriage, quickly cut ties with him.  Tsutsui Junkei half-heartedly supported Hideyoshi.  Mitsuhide had counted on Toyotomi Hideyoshi being occupied fighting with the Mori, and unable to respond to Mitsuhide's coup d'état. However, having learned of the assassination of his lord, Hideyoshi quickly signed a peace treaty with the Mori, and alongside Tokugawa Ieyasu rushed to be the first to avenge Nobunaga and take his place.  Hideyoshi force-marched his army to Settsu in four days, and caught Mitsuhide off guard. Mitsuhide had been unable to garner support for his cause, and his army had dwindled down to 10,000 men. Hideyoshi, however, had won over former Oda retainers, including Niwa Nagahide and Takayama Ukon, and had a strength of 20,000 men. The two forces met at the Battle of Yamazaki.  Mitsuhide took up a position south of Shōryūji Castle, securing his right flank by the Yodo river, and his left at the foot of the 270-metre Tennozan. Hideyoshi immediately seized the advantage by securing the heights of Tennōzan; his vanguard then maneuvered to face the Akechi forces along the Enmyōji river. Mitsuhide's forces made a failed attempt to force Hideyoshi from Tennōzan. Hideyoshi's general, Ikeda Nobuteru moved to reinforce Hideyoshi's right flank, which soon crossed Enmyōji-gawa and turned the Akechi flank. Simultaneously, Hideyoshi's forces marched against the Akechi front; this started a rout, only two hours after the battle had begun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Mitsuhide's reign as \"shōgun\" only lasted 13 days, hence the reference \"thirteen-day shogun\", he was later killed while fleeing the battle of Yamazaki by the bandit leader Nakamura Chōbei.  The short reign of Mitsuhide is listed as the inspiration for the yojijukugo set phrase.  He is still popular in present culture. A ceremonial activity was held on April 15, 2018 in Kyoto.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reasons for betrayal.", "content": "No one knows the specific reason that Mitsuhide betrayed Nobunaga, though there are several theories:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancestors.", "content": "The Akechi family was able to trace their heritage to the Toki clan and from there to the Minamoto clan. The sword of Mitsuhide is of the Tensho style; the Tensho Koshirae was first designed to be a replica of Akechi Mitsuhide's own sword.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Castles built or reconstructed by Mitsuhide.", "content": "Mitsuhide was well known as a master of castle construction, and was engaged in the construction of many castles.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": ", first called Jūbei from his clan and later from his title, was a samurai and general who lived during the Sengoku period of Feudal Japan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976367}
{"src_title": "Guizotia abyssinica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Seed.", "content": "Native to Ethiopia and Malawi, niger seeds are also grown in India. Niger seeds resemble sunflower seeds in shape, but are smaller in size and black. It bears a fairly thick, adherent seed coat and can be stored for up to a year without deterioration. Niger seed contains proteins, oil and soluble sugars. Niger seeds are used as bird feed worldwide. Commercial niger seed is grown in Africa, India and other areas of southeast Asia, and the seed is imported around the world as a popular type of birdseed. Before it is imported, however, niger seed is sterilized by intense heat to prevent germination of any additional seeds that may be part of the mix. Treated niger seed may germinate but would typically be stunted, limiting its spread and offering less of a threat to native plants.  Basic nutritional components of niger seeds", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Requiring moderate rainfall between 1000 and 1250 mm (39–49 in) annually, niger seed needs moist soil to grow properly. Niger should be grown in light black soils or brownish loam with sufficient depth but it also can be grown on well drained heavy soils or rocky laterite soils. It can grow in semi-shade or full sun. The yield of seeds will average 300–400 kg/hectare (270–360 lb/acre) under favorable conditions but can produce up to 600 kg/hectare (540 lb/acre). It gives a dependable yield even under unfavorable climatic conditions.  The seed, technically a fruit called an achene, is often sold as birdseed as it is a favourite of finches, especially the goldfinch and the greenfinch. In the birdseed market, niger is often sold or referred to as thistle seed. This is a misnomer resulting from early marketing of the seed as \"thistle\" to take advantage of the finches' preference for thistle.  The Wild Bird Feeding Industry (WBFI) has trademarked the name Nyjer \"... to eliminate product confusion and the offensive mispronunciation of Niger as well as to promote a positive image for the use of 'Guizotia abyssinica' as a wild bird feed.\" In 1982 the USDA ordered that imported niger seed must be heat sterilized to kill the contaminant dodder seed. This treatment, however, was insufficient to kill seeds of other Federal noxious weeds, including \"Asphodelus fistulosus\" (onion weed), \"Digitaria\" spp. (includes African couchgrass), \"Oryza\" spp. (red rice), \"Paspalum scrobiculatum\" (kodo millet), \"Prosopis\" spp. (includes mesquites), \"Solanum viarum\" (tropical soda apple), \"Striga\" spp. (witchweed), and \"Urochloa panicoides\" (liver-seed grass). In 2001 a new treatment required that imported niger seed must be heat treated at 120 °C (248 °F) for 15 minutes.  In 2002 the 'EarlyBird' variety of \"Guizotia abyssinica\" with a crop maturity of 65 days was developed and adapted to grow in the United States. The 'EarlyBird' variety of \"Guizotia abyssinica\" is protected by U.S.D.A. Plant Variety Protection Certificate Number 9900412. A second variety of \"Guizotia abyssinica\" submitted to the U.S.D.A. for Plant Variety Protection (Application Number 200500140) called 'Earlybird 50' has a crop maturity of 50 days and is a shorter, more dense plant with a higher yield and is less susceptible to lodging than the 'EarlyBird' variety. Both varieties have short enough maturities to make production feasible in many U.S. growing regions. \"Guizotia abyssinica\" is not a Federal noxious weed and is now in commercial agricultural production in the United States often grown as a first or second crop before or after wheat, corn, soybeans, and cucurbits. Niger is self-sterile and requires bees for cross pollination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Oil.", "content": "Niger seed yields about 30–35% of its weight in oil which is clear, slow-drying, and edible. Niger seed oil is polyunsaturated semi-drying oil. It has pale yellow or orange color with a nutty taste and sweet odor. Raw oil has low acidity and can be used directly for cooking. Normally it has a poor shelf life and will become rancid when stored for a long period. Its fatty acid composition is similar to sunflower oil and has high content of linoleic acid. It is used as a substitute for olive oil and can be mixed with linseed oil. The presence of linoleic acid varies from 45.0–65.0% depending on harvested soil conditions and seed variety. The physical character of oil and its fatty acid composition is furnished in the following tables.  Physical characteristics of oil Fatty acid composition of niger seed oil", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary and medicinal uses.", "content": "Niger seeds are also used in human consumption in southern parts of India. In Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, niger seeds (called \"valisalu\"/\"valasulu\" in Telugu, \"uchellu\"/\"gurellu\" in Kannada, and \"karale\" in Marathi) are used to make a dry chutney which is used as an accompaniment with breads such as chapati. They are also used as a spice in some curries. In Ethiopia, an infusion made from roasted and ground niger seeds, sugar and water is used in treating common colds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "A paste or gruel made from ground niger seed, mixed with ground flaxseeds (Amharic: \"telbah\"), is traditionally used in Ethiopia in treating leather.  The seed's oil is widely used for industrial purposes such as soap making, paints preparations and preparation of different types of emulsions.  The seed is used as bird food. As the seeds are so small, specialized bird feeders are manufactured for niger seed. In the United Kingdom the seeds attract finches and siskins.  Niger oil cake, which consists of the residues obtained after processing of the seeds to make oil, is rich in protein and is used to feed livestock, particularly in Ethiopia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Guizotia abyssinica is an erect, stout, branched annual herb, grown for its edible oil and seed. Its cultivation originated in the Ethiopian highlands, and has spread to other parts of Ethiopia. Common names include noog/nug (Ethio-Semitic ኑግ \"nūg\"); niger, nyger, nyjer, or niger seed ; ramtil or ramtilla; inga seed; and blackseed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976368}
{"src_title": "Taylorcraft Auster", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Auster was a twice-removed development of an American Taylorcraft design of civilian aircraft, the Model A. The Model A had to be redesigned in Britain to meet more stringent Civil Aviation standards and was named the Taylorcraft Plus C. After the start of the Second World War, the company developed the model further as an Air Observation Post (AOP)—flown by officers of the Royal Artillery and used for directing artillery fire of British Army Royal Artillery units.  The Plus C was re-engined with the Blackburn Cirrus Minor I engine and redesignated the Taylorcraft Plus D. Most of the civil Plus Cs and Ds were impressed into Royal Air Force service, the Plus Cs were re-engined with the Cirrus Minor I and redesignated as Plus C2.  Prewar tests identified the Taylorcraft Model D as the most suitable aircraft for the AOP role. Three more Ds were purchased from Taylorcraft and a trials unit, D Flight, under Major Charles Bazeley RA, formed at Old Sarum on 1 February 1940. The flight with three Austers and one Stinson Voyager, and three artillery and one RAF pilots, moved to France where they trained with artillery and practised fighter avoidance with Hurricanes of Air Component before moving south to train with French artillery. The flight did not participate in the fighting and withdrew without loss to the UK. However, the War Office then ordered 100 Stinson L-1 Vigilants. Formation of the RAF's Army Cooperation Command in December 1940 led to the RAF rejecting the very notion of light AOP aircraft.  Intercession by General Alan Brooke led to an accommodation that led to the first AOP pilot course for artillery officers taking place in October 1940 and in 1941, the first AOP squadron, No 651, formed. Stinson Vigilants eventually arrived in early 1942 but most had been severely damaged in transit leading to the adoption of the Taylorcraft Auster 1 and an order for 100 aircraft placed. Some of the Stinsons were resurrected but found to be too big for the AOP role.  The Auster II was a re-engined aircraft with an American 130 hp (97 kW) Lycoming O-290 engine. Due to the shortage of American engines that version was not built but led to the Auster III (Model E), which was the same as the Auster I but had a 130 hp (97 kW) de Havilland Gipsy Major engine. The next development was the Auster IV (Model G) which had a slightly larger cabin with three seats and used the Lycoming O-290. The major production version was the Auster V (Model J) which was an Auster IV with blind flying instruments, and a flap modification.  Post war, the Auster Mark V was used as the basis for the Auster J/1 Autocrat intended for the civilian market; the British firm having changed their name to Auster and stopped licensing from Taylorcraft. Further military aircraft were supplied post war; the Auster AOP6, Auster T7 (a trainer), and the Auster AOP9.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Auster Mark III, IV and V were issued to 12 Royal Air Force (RAF), one Polish and three Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) Air Observation Post (AOP) Squadrons. The first to deploy was No. 651 Squadron RAF. The leading elements landed in Algiers on 12 November 1942 with eight aircraft, 11 Royal Artillery (RA) pilots, 39 RA soldiers and 25 airmen (mostly maintenance technicians). The normal strength of an AOP squadron was 12 aircraft, 19 RA officers (all pilots), 83 RA other ranks and 63 RAF including two administrative officers. Aircraft were fitted with the Army's No 22 Wireless, an HF set providing two-way voice communications with artillery units and formations on the ground.  On 31 March 1943 the Army Cooperation Command was disbanded, most of its assets being used to form the Second Tactical Air Force.  Four squadrons (No. 651, No. 654 Squadron RAF, No. 655 Squadron RAF and No. 657 Squadron RAF) fought in North Africa and Italy, being joined from August 1944 by No. 663 Polish squadron. The other seven squadrons (Nos. 652, 653, 658, 659, 660, 661 and 662 of the RAF) operated after D-Day in France, the Low Countries and into Germany.  No. 664 Squadron RCAF, No. 665 Squadron RCAF, and No. 666 Squadron RCAF were also issued with the Auster Mk. IV and V, formed in the UK at RAF Andover in late 1944 and early 1945. The RCAF squadrons were manned by Canadian personnel of the Royal Canadian Artillery and the RCAF, with brief secondment to the squadrons with pilots from the Royal Artillery; overall control was maintained in the UK by 70 Group, RAF Fighter Command. The three squadrons deployed from RAF Andover, England, to the Netherlands, to Dunkirk, France, where the last Canadian'shots' in Europe were fired, and later to occupied Germany.  No. 656 Squadron RAF was assigned to 14th Army and used Austers in Burma, generally with flights assigned to each corps. In European theatres a squadron was generally assigned to each corps, but under command for technical matters of an RAF group.  The Royal Australian Air Force's No. 16 AOP Flight and No. 17 AOP Flight operated Auster Mark III aircraft in support of the Australian Army in the Pacific Theatre from October 1944 until the end of the war.  Postwar Auster AOP aircraft were reorganised into independent flights (probably because the RAF used Wing-Commanders, equivalent to Lieutenant-Colonels, to command squadrons while the army insisted on a major's command) including 1903 Flight in Korea that had artillery pilots from several Commonwealth countries. There was also an Auster-equipped Liaison Flight, No 1913, in that theatre. Air OP flights also operated in the Malayan Emergency. Several AOP squadrons were reformed within the Royal Auxiliary Air Force in 1949 and these operated some AOP.5s, AOP.6s and AOP.9s until at least March 1957, when the Auxiliary Air Force was disbanded. All Auster AOP units were transferred to the Army Air Corps when it was formed in September 1957, with AAC squadrons using numbers starting with 651.  The air observation duties, counter-insurgency and casualty evacuation roles performed by Auster and similar light aircraft were generally taken over by light helicopters from the mid-1960s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "[[Category:1940s British military reconnaissance aircraft]] [[Category:Single-engined tractor aircraft]] [[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1942]]", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Taylorcraft Auster was a British military liaison and observation aircraft produced by the Taylorcraft Aeroplanes (England) Limited company during the Second World War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976369}
{"src_title": "Prince Daniel, Duke of Västergötland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and early life.", "content": "Daniel was born to Olle and Ewa Westling (born Ewa Westring) at Örebro Hospital, on the day Carl XVI Gustaf ascended the throne. His family initially lived in Örebro, but later moved to Ockelbo. He has a sister, Anna Westling Söderström (formerly Anna Westling Blom, born Anna Westling; 1970). Most of his ancestors were farmers in the province of Hälsingland. Daniel Westling was christened at Almby Church in January 1974. His family has Forest Finnish ancestry and his father is a leader in the Forest Finnish community.  After completing his education, he briefly served, as part of national conscription, in the Swedish Army at Hälsinge Regiment in Gävle. In 2001, he met the Crown Princess when he became her personal trainer.  On 1 July 2008, he moved into a one-bedroom rental apartment in the Pagebyggnaden building on the grounds of Drottningholm Palace. The move was confirmed by the Royal Court.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In November 2009 it was reported that Daniel Westling was to step down as CEO and member of the Board of Directors of the \"Balance\" company. He will still be an equity partner. It was expected that the same procedure would be followed with his involvements in other companies, before he became prince. His business positions: Balance – CEO and member of the Board of Directors (stepped down November 2009); Master Training – CEO and member of the Board of Directors; Brasil Development – member of the Board of Directors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engagement and marriage.", "content": "On 24 February 2009, Westling and Crown Princess Victoria received the required consent of King Carl XVI Gustaf and the Government of Sweden for marriage. Such permission is necessary according to the terms of the Swedish Act of Succession.  Westling suffered from a congenital (but not hereditary) ailment causing impaired renal function. Three months after his engagement, on 28 May 2009, Westling underwent a kidney transplant at Karolinska University Hospital. His father was the donor. The operation was a success. Victoria could not be present when the operation took place because she was in Greenland at the time.  The wedding took place in Stockholm Cathedral on 19 June 2010, the 34th anniversary of her parents' wedding. After the wedding, the Duke and Duchess of Västergötland moved into the Haga Palace. On 26 September 2010, Daniel went on his first tour with Victoria, visiting France in connection with the Bernadotte anniversary.  On 17 August 2011, the Swedish royal court announced that Prince Daniel and Crown Princess Victoria were expecting their first child in March 2012. She gave birth to a girl on 23 February 2012, Princess Estelle, Duchess of Östergötland. Daniel took his paternity leave and switched parental roles with Victoria when Estelle began preschool. Their second child, Prince Oscar, Duke of Skåne, was born on 2 March 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charity work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patronage.", "content": "Prince Daniel is a patron in the following organizations: A Swedish Classic, The Healthy Generation Foundation, International Society of Nephrology, More Organ Donation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Areas of work.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "Prince Daniel is an honorary chairman of the board of the Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation and has given his name \"Prince Daniel's Grant for Promising Young Researchers\". Prince Daniel invented \"Prince Daniel's Race and Sports Day\", which are arranged each year to encourage more young people to get exercise and to take an interest in sport. The game is in association with the Swedish Sports Confederation.  Prince Daniel and Crown Princess Victoria established a foundation to mark the occasion of their marriage in 2010. The focus of the foundation is to combat exclusion and promote good health among children and young people in Sweden. The couple took the initiative for Generation PEP, a non-profit organisation that works to raise awareness of and encourage commitment to issues relating to the health of children and young people.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Entrepreneurship.", "content": "Each year, Prince Daniel visits the Swedish Young Enterprise Championship. He is also a member of Young Enterprise's national board.  The Prince Daniel's Fellowship project and its entrepreneurial programme were launched in January 2013. Prince Daniel with business leaders and entrepreneurs visits upper secondary schools, universities and university colleges around Sweden to inspire young people to get involved in entrepreneurship. This project is a long-term partnership between Prince Daniel and the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Titles, styles, honours and arms.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Titles and styles.", "content": "Sweden has practised absolute primogeniture only since 1980. This means that Victoria is the first female heir apparent, and questions arose as to how Daniel Westling would be known after their marriage.  When Carl XVI Gustaf married Silvia Sommerlath in 1976, he discontinued the established norm that Swedish princes must marry royalty to be eligible to inherit the throne. But men, royal or not, had only twice before, in the 13th and 17th centuries, obtained new title or rank as the spouse of a Swedish princess, and even three queens regnant left no clear precedent. Margaret (reigned 1388–1412) was the widow of Håkon VI of Norway and Christina (reigned 1632–1654) was unmarried. The most recent Ulrika Eleonora (reigned 1718–1720) was already married during her tenure as queen regnant: her husband, Frederick, was given the style \"Royal Highness\" during his tenure as consort, a style granted to him by the estates. Ulrika Eleonora later abdicated so her consort Frederick—who was born a prince of Hesse-Kassel—could be king. In Daniel's case, the Swedes were treading on new ground.  The Swedish Royal Court announced that Westling would become \"Prince Daniel\" and \"Duke of Västergötland\", corresponding in form to the style used by previous Swedish princes, including Victoria's younger brother Prince Carl Philip, Duke of Värmland, i.e. \"Prince + Given name + Duke of [Province]\".  As was further announced in May 2010, on his wedding day Westling was made a prince of Sweden and was granted the style \"Royal Highness\", making him an official member of the Swedish royal family and on a par with other senior members of the royal family, such as Prince Carl Philip, Princess Madeleine and Princess Lilian. At Stockholm Cathedral, he was also then made a knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim and already wore its badge and ribbon upon emerging after the ceremony.  Since his marriage, Daniel has been styled as \"His Royal Highness Prince Daniel, Duke of Västergötland\". He added the surname of the Swedish royal family, Bernadotte, making his full legal name Olof Daniel Westling Bernadotte. When referring to both him and his wife, they are called the Crown Princess Couple ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "Prince Daniel's coat of arms is based on the greater coat of arms of Sweden. It features in the first and fourth quarters, the Three Crowns; in the second, the lion of the House of Bjelbo; and in the third, the lion of the arms of Västergötland, representing the titular designation of his and his wife's dukedom. In the centre, on an inescutcheon, is his personal arms (Westling). This arms is based on the arms of Ockelbo. Surrounding the shield is the chain of the Order of the Seraphim, of which he has been a member since his wedding.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Prince Daniel, Duke of Västergötland (born Olof Daniel Westling on 15 September 1973), is a member of the Swedish royal family. Prior to his marriage to the heir apparent, Crown Princess Victoria, Daniel was a personal trainer and gym owner and ran a company called Balance Training with three gyms in central Stockholm.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976370}
{"src_title": "Spanish Synagogue (Prague)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Spanish Synagogue is not the first synagogue at the site. Before it there stood probably the oldest synagogue in Prague Jewish Town, \"Altschule\". In the second half of 19th century, the capacity of the \"Altschule\" did not suffice. The modernist faction in the community, which renovated it in 1837 for the purpose of moderately reformed services, therefore decided to demolish the synagogue in 1867 and one year later it was replaced by the new, Spanish Synagogue. Its name presumably refers to the style in which it was built, Moorish Revival style, which was inspired by the art of Arabic period of Spanish history (this name was not always prevalent, in the beginnings it was usually called by German-speaking Jews Geistgasse-Tempel, i.e. Temple in Holy Spirit Street). The architectural plans were designed by Vojtěch Ignác Ullmann and Josef Niklas (an imposing interior decoration).  In 1935, a functionalistic building, designed by Karel Pecánek, was added to the synagogue. Till the Second World War it served to the Jewish Community as a hospital. The synagogue used the space of the new building as well; there was a vestibule and a winter oratory in it. Since 1935, the appearance of the synagogue remained essentially unchanged.  During the Second World War, confiscated properties of Czech Jewish Communities were stored in the synagogue, e.g. the furniture from other synagogues. Ten years after the war, the synagogue was handed over to the Jewish Museum and in 1958–1959 it was completely restored inside. In the following year an exposition of synagogue textiles was opened there. In the 1970s the building was neglected and after 1982 it remained closed. The restoration started only after the Velvet revolution. Completely restored to its former beauty, the synagogue was re-opened with a ceremony in 1998.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The synagogue itself is two storeys high. Its ground plan is square. The main hall with a dome is surrounded by three built-in balconies. At the south balcony, there is an organ. In the eastern wall there is a great round stained glass window with a central ornament of Magen David (hexagram), installed in 1882–1883. Underneath it there is a monumental aron ha-kodesh. The most impressive decorative element in the synagogue is a gilded and multi-colored parquet arabesque. Its designers, Antonín Baum and Bedřich Münzberger, were inspired by Arabic architecture and art. The synagogue was decorated according to their design in 1882–1893. The disposition of the synagogue is reform – the reading platform, bimah, is situated at the eastern wall, not in the central space as in older synagogues. Benches (not original, but from synagogue in Zruč nad Sázavou) stand in rows (as in a church), not around the walls. The aron ha-kodesh is designed in the style of mihrab, and has no curtain (parochet) today.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "Since the last restoration in 1998, an exposition about modern Jewish history in the Czech lands can be seen there. It begins with reforms initiated by enlightened Emperor Joseph II, which started the Jewish emancipation and inclusion of Jews to major society. Many personalities, which have attributed to its economy, science and culture, are mentioned here. Traumatic events of the 20th century are also commemorated. The themes of modern times accords well with the relation between the synagogue and Reform Jewish Community. The European Cantors Association held the concert for their 11th Annual Convention in the Spanish Synagogue in front of a packed crowd on 19 November 2016. Arranged as a tribute to ECA Convenor, Alex Klein, the concert was led by the Tel Aviv Cantorial Institute Choir conducted by Cantor Naftali Herstik.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Spanish Synagogue (,, ) is the newest synagogue in the area of the so-called Jewish Town, yet paradoxically, it was built at the place of the presumably oldest synagogue, Old School (also known as Altshul). The synagogue is built in Moorish Revival Style. Only a little park with a modern statue of famous Prague writer Franz Kafka (by Jaroslav Róna) lies between it and the church of Holy Spirit. Today, the Spanish Synagogue is administered by the Jewish Museum in Prague.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976371}
{"src_title": "Antonio Rosmini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Antonio Rosmini Serbati was born 24 March 1797, at Rovereto, in the Austrian Tyrol. He studied at the University of Padua, and was ordained priest at Chioggia, 21 April 1821. In 1822 he received a Doctorate in Theology and Canon Law.  During this time Rosmini formulated his \"Principle of Passivity\". Rosmini felt compelled to ask himself: Do my plans spring more from my own subjective desire to do good than from a desire to do the will of God?”. Reflecting in this way, Rosmini articulated the principle in two parts: be ready to undertake any work of charity but only so long as it is God's Providence that presents it; in the meantime, immerse oneself in the commitment to continual conversion, seeking the amendment of one's own life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Institute of Charity.", "content": "In 1828 he founded at Monte Calvario near Domodossola, a new religious community, the Institute of Charity, known generally since as the Rosminians. In the autumn of 1830 he inaugurated the observance of the rule at Calvario, and from 1834 to 1835 had charge of a parish at Rovereto. Later foundations followed at Stresa and Domodossola. The Constitutions of the institute were approved by presented to Pope Gregory XVI on 20 December 1838. The institute spread rapidly in England and Italy, and requests for foundations came from various countries.  The members might be priests or laymen, who devoted themselves to preaching, the education of youth, and works of universal charity—material, spiritual and intellectual. They work in Italy, England, Ireland, France, Wales, New Zealand, Kenya, Tanzania, India, Venezuela, and the United States. In London they were attached to the historical Church of St Etheldreda, Ely Place, Holborn. In 1962, Rosmini College School for Boys was founded in Auckland, New Zealand by Father Catcheside.  Rosmini was retained as a political advisor to the then government of Piedmont. In August 1848, he was sent to Rome by King Charles Albert of Piedmont to enlist the pope on the side of Italy as against Austria. Rosmini was invited to serve in the Roman Curia of Pope Pius IX as prime minister of the Papal States. He participated in the intellectual struggle which had for its object emancipation from Austria, but as a trusted ecclesiastical advisor and diplomat he was not an initiator of the movement which ended in the freedom and unity of Italy. In fact, while eager for the deliverance of Italy from Austria, his aim was to bring about a confederation of the states of the country, which was to be under the control of the pope. Upon establishment of the Roman Republic, the Pontiff was forced to flee and became estranged from his former advisor in political matters. The tenuous political circumstances made it very difficult to reconcile the two men's differing projects: innovative social and juridical reforms, however modest, fell victim to the more pressing existential needs of defending the supremacy of the Church's temporal powers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "Rosmini's works, \"Of the five wounds of the Holy Church\" and \"The Constitution of Social Justice\" (see Works below), aroused great opposition, especially among the Jesuits, and in 1849 they were placed upon the Index. Rosmini at once declared his submission and retired to Stresa on Lago Maggiore, where he died. Before his death he had the satisfaction of learning that the works in question were dismissed, that is, proclaimed free from censure by the Congregation of the Index. Twenty years later, the word dismissed (\"dimittantur\") became the subject of controversy, some maintaining that it amounted to a direct approval, others that it was purely negative and did not imply that the books were free from error. Vincenzo Maria Gatti, the Dominican professor of theology at the College of Saint Thomas, the forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas and Master of the Sacred Palace, was instrumental in partially rehabilitating the works of Rosmini. In an article published in \"L'Osservatore Romano\" on 16 June 1876, Gatti made clear that Pius IX did not intend the \"dimittantur\" as amounting to wholesale condemnation.  The controversy continued until 1887, when Pope Leo XIII condemned forty of Rosmini's propositions. Referring to this condemnation, however, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued a document in 2001 in which it declared that \"the meaning of the propositions, as understood and condemned by the Decree, does not belong to the authentic position of Rosmini.\"  In 1998 Rosmini was named by Pope John Paul II in the encyclical \"Fides et Ratio\" as one of the greater Christian thinkers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thought.", "content": "The most comprehensive view of Rosmini's philosophical standpoint is to be found in his \"\", in which he set forth the conception of a complete encyclopaedia of the human knowable, synthetically conjoined, according to the order of ideas, in a perfectly harmonious whole. Contemplating the position of recent philosophy from John Locke to Georg Hegel, and having his eye directed to the ancient and fundamental problem of the origin, truth and certainty of our ideas, he wrote: \"If philosophy is to be restored to love and respect, I think it will be necessary, in part, to return to the teachings of the ancients, and in part to give those teachings the benefit of modern methods\" (\"Theodicy\", a. 148). He examined and analysed the fact of human knowledge, and obtained the following results:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The cause for canonization.", "content": "On 26 June 2006, Pope Benedict XVI signed a Decree of the heroic virtues, and hence declared Rosmini to be Venerable. On 3 June 2007, Pope Benedict XVI authorized the promulgation of a decree approving Rosmini's beatification. On 18 November 2007 he was beatified in Novara, Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Of his numerous works, of which a collected edition in 17 volumes was issued at Milan (1842–44), supplemented by \"Opere postume\" in 5 volumes (Turin, 1859–74), the most important are: The following have also been translated into English:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Blessed Antonio Francesco Davide Ambrogio Rosmini-Serbati (; Rovereto, 25 March 1797Stresa, 1 July 1855) was an Italian Roman Catholic priest and philosopher. He founded the Rosminians, officially the Institute of Charity or \"\", pioneered the concept of social justice, and was a key figure in Italian Liberal Catholicism. Alessandro Manzoni considered Rosmini the only contemporary Italian author worth reading.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976372}
{"src_title": "Gabriel's Horn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mathematical definition.", "content": "Gabriel's horn is formed by taking the graph of with the domain formula_2 and rotating it in three dimensions about the -axis. The discovery was made using Cavalieri's principle before the invention of calculus, but today calculus can be used to calculate the volume and surface area of the horn between and, where. Using integration (see Solid of revolution and Surface of revolution for details), it is possible to find the volume and the surface area :  The value can be as large as required, but it can be seen from the equation that the volume of the part of the horn between and will never exceed ; however, it does gradually draw nearer to as increases. Mathematically, the volume \"approaches\" as \"approaches\" infinity. Using the limit notation of calculus:  The surface area formula above gives a lower bound for the area as 2 times the natural logarithm of. There is no upper bound for the natural logarithm of, as approaches infinity. That means, in this case, that the horn has an infinite surface area. That is to say,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Apparent paradox.", "content": "When the properties of Gabriel's horn were discovered, the fact that the rotation of an infinitely large section of the -plane about the -axis generates an object of finite volume was considered a paradox. While the section lying in the -plane has an infinite area, any other section parallel to it has a finite area. Thus the volume, being calculated from the \"weighted sum\" of sections, is finite.  Another approach is to treat the horn as a stack of disks with diminishing radii. The sum of the radii produces a harmonic series that goes to infinity. However, the correct calculation is the sum of their squares. Every disk has a radius and an area or. The series diverges but converges. In general, for any real, converges.  The apparent paradox formed part of a dispute over the nature of infinity involving many of the key thinkers of the time including Thomas Hobbes, John Wallis and Galileo Galilei.  There is a similar phenomenon which applies to lengths and areas in the plane. The area between the curves and from 1 to infinity is finite, but the lengths of the two curves are clearly infinite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Painter's paradox.", "content": "Since the horn has finite volume but infinite surface area, there is an apparent paradox that the horn could be filled with a finite quantity of paint and yet that paint would not be sufficient to coat its inner surface. The paradox is resolved by realizing that a finite amount of paint can in fact coat an infinite surface area — it simply needs to get thinner at a fast enough rate. (Much like the series gets smaller fast enough that its sum is finite.) In the case where the horn is filled with paint, this thinning is accomplished by the increasing reduction in diameter of the throat of the horn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Converse.", "content": "The converse of Gabriel's horn—a surface of revolution that has a \"finite\" surface area but an \"infinite\" volume—cannot occur when revolving a continuous function on a closed set:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theorem.", "content": "Let be a continuously differentiable function. Write for the solid of revolution of the graph about the -axis. \"If the surface area of is finite, then so is the volume.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proof.", "content": "Since the lateral surface area is finite, the limit superior: Therefore, there exists a such that the supremum } is finite. Hence, Finally, the volume: Therefore: \"if the area is finite, then the volume must also be finite.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gabriel's horn (also called Torricelli's trumpet) is a particular geometric figure that has infinite surface area but finite volume. The name refers to the Christian tradition identifying the archangel Gabriel as the angel who blows the horn to announce Judgment Day, associating the divine, or infinite, with the finite. The properties of this figure were first studied by Italian physicist and mathematician Evangelista Torricelli in the 17th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976373}
{"src_title": "Ivo Babuška", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Ivo Babuška was born on March 22, 1926 in Prague the son of architect Milan Babuška (who designed the National Technical Museum (Prague) and his wife Marie. He studied civil engineering at the Czech Technical University in Prague, where he received the Dipl. Ing in 1949. In 1951 he received the degree Dr. Tech.; his doctoral dissertation was supervised by Eduard Čech and Vladimir Knichal. From 1949 he studied at Mathematical Institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences and then was the head of the Department of Partial Differential Equations. In 1955, he received a C.Sc (=Ph.D.) in mathematics and in 1960 D.Sc. in mathematics. He is married to Renata and they had two children, a girl, Lenka and a boy, Vit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Babuška works in the field of mathematics, applied mathematics, numerical methods, finite element methods, and computational mechanics. In 1968, he became a professor at University of Maryland, College Park in the mathematics department, which is part of the University of Maryland College of Computer, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences. He retired in 1996 as a Distinguished University Professor. In 1989 he co-founded the company ESRD, Inc. which developed the StressCheck finite element software, putting into practice much of Babuška's research and contributions to the finite element method. After his time at the University of Maryland, he moved to the Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences at the University of Texas at Austin where he currently holds the Robert B. Trull Chair in Engineering. Babuška has published more than 300 papers in refereed journals, more than 70 papers in conference proceedings, and several books. He is an invited speaker at major international conferences and is a member of numerous editorial boards for scientific journals. In 2018 he retired as Professor Emeritus. His doctoral students include Christoph Schwab and Michael Vogelius.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "He has received many honors for his work, including five doctorates \"honoris causa\", member of European Academy of Sciences (2003), Fellow of SIAM and ICAM, the Czechoslovak State prize for Mathematics, the Leroy P. Steele Prize (2012), the Birkhoff Prize (1994), the Humboldt Award of Federal Republic of Germany, the Neuron Prize Czech Republic, Honorary Foreign Member of the Czech Learned Society and the Bolzano Medal. In 2003, asteroid 36060 Babuška was named in his honor by the International Astronomical Union. In 2005, Babuska was awarded the Honorary Medal \"De Scientia Et Humanitate Optime Meritis\", received the ICAM Congress Medal (Newton Gauss, 2016) and he was elected to the National Academy of Engineering. He is also a member of the Academy of Medicine, Engineering, and Sciences of Texas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ivo M. Babuška (born March 22, 1926 in Prague) is a Czech-American mathematician, noted for his studies of the finite element method and the proof of the Babuška–Lax–Milgram theorem in partial differential equations. One of the celebrated result in the finite elements is the so-called Ladyzenskaja–Babuška–Brezzi (LBB) condition (also referred to in some literature as Banach–Necas–Babuška (BNB)), which provides sufficient conditions for a stable mixed formulation. The LBB condition has guided mathematicians and engineers to develop state-of-the-art formulations for many technologically important problems like Darcy flow, Stokes flow, incompressible Navier–Stokes, nearly incompressible elasticity. He is also well known for his work on adaptive methods and the \"p\"- and \"hp\"-versions of the finite element method. He also developed the mathematical framework for the partition of unity methods.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976374}
{"src_title": "T28 Super Heavy Tank", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "Initially named Heavy Tank T28 when construction was authorized in 1944, the design did not fit in the usual categories of vehicles leading to reclassification. As it did not have its armament in a revolving turret, Ordnance requested a name change to 105 mm Gun Motor Carriage T95, the change becoming official in March 1945. However, due to its heavy armor and armament—while self-propelled guns in United States service were lightly armored—it was renamed Super Heavy Tank T28 in June 1946 by OCM 37058.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "The T28/T95 was designed to be used for attacking the heavy defenses expected of the German Siegfried Line. The 105mm T5E1 gun selected was known to have very good performance against concrete and \"expected to be extremely effective at reducing heavy fortifications\" After the vehicle passed trials, the German Siegfried Line had already been infiltrated and overwhelmed by the allied forces, so the designers decided to have the T28/T95 tanks to fight on the Japanese mainland later in the war. Japan surrendered before the tank was able to be transported overseas.  The need for an assault tank was first identified in 1943, Ordnance proposing that 25 vehicles could be ready for operations. A conference in March 1944 between Ordnance Department and Army Ground Forces resulted in agreement to build five. The Pacific Car and Foundry Company were supplied with the design in March 1945, completed final design and had the first hull welded by August. By the time the first tank was completed and ready for combat, the war was over. The plan for five was reduced to two.  As it did not have a turret, but a fixed casemate mount instead for its main armament (as German \"Jagdpanzers\" and Soviet \"Samokhodnaya Ustanovka\"-designation combat vehicles did), and the 105 mm gun fitted could only elevate from 19.5° to −5° and traverse from 10° right to 11° left of the centerline, the T28/T95 more closely resembled a self-propelled gun, and was redesignated as \"T95 Gun Motor Carriage\" in 1945, but in June 1946, the vehicle was redesignated again as \"Super Heavy Tank T28\".  Two prototypes of the T28 were built. They underwent evaluation at the Aberdeen Proving Ground and Fort Knox facilities until 1947. In 1947, one of the T28s was heavily damaged by an engine fire during trials at Yuma Proving Ground and was broken up and sold for scrap. The T28 never went into service due to the obsolete design, expensive maintenance costs, and the heavy weight, which prevented it from being transported across seas, but was retained to test the \"durability of components on such a heavy vehicle\". Work on it ended before completion as the War Department decided to stop the development of vehicles of that sort of weight and the T28 program terminated in October 1947. By that point, the T29 and T30 turreted heavy tank designs had been built. The T29 mounted the same gun as the T28 in a conventional rotating turret. The T30 was developed with a larger-caliber gun and more powerful engine. The T29 program was used to test mechanical components for future tank designs", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving vehicle.", "content": "In 1974, the last prototype was discovered abandoned in a field at Fort Belvoir, Virginia. Camouflaged in the middle of some bushes, it is unknown where it spent the intervening 27 years. It is the sole remaining example of these tanks and was exhibited at the Patton Museum of Cavalry and Armor in Kentucky. In 2011, it was shipped to its new home at Fort Benning, Georgia. It was placed in the new Patton Park, which is a plot of 30 acres where all of the tanks being stored at Fort Benning are now displayed. Unfortunately, the vehicle was damaged in January 2017 during transit to another facility for external refurbishment when it broke loose from the M1070 HET carrying it. The transporter failed to negotiate a downhill slope and subsequent turn at a safe speed, causing the securing chains to break and allowing the T28 to slide off the trailer. Despite then rolling into a ditch, only minor repairable damage was sustained to two bogies. The outer track units had been removed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The mechanical superstructure was taken from a T23. The original plan was to build five prototype vehicles, with a production total of 25. Its total weight when fully equipped would have reached 95 short tons (86 tonnes). To lower ground pressure, instead of two tracks, it used four tracks that projected forward of the hull, each 12.9 inches (328 mm) wide. The outer tracks could be detached within two hours for rail transport: After removal, they could be fixed together to make a unit that could be towed behind the tank. Due to its extreme weight and low engine power, the T28 had extremely limited obstacle-crossing ability and could not cross any of the portable bridges available at the time, and so was considered impractical in the field and not suitable for production.  The T28 had no conventional turret, with a casemate style hull instead, giving it a comparatively low profile, as the later examples of the fully enclosed \"Jagdpanzer\"-family of German tank destroyers, not entirely dissimilar to the 50 short-ton weight German Jagdpanther. Its main armament was a 105 mm T5E1 gun, in a ball-shaped gun mantlet set into the vertical hull front. The traverse was limited to 10° right and 11° left, and elevation from 19.5° to −5°. When traveling, the gun was locked at the maximum elevation. The only other armament was a.50 cal. (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gun on a ring mount above the commander's hatch for anti-aircraft use. The main gun—65 calibres long—had a muzzle velocity of 3,700 feet per second (1,130 m/s), with a range of up to 12 miles (19 km).  The armor was very thick compared to other tanks of the time, up to 12 inches (305 mm) thick on the front. This was considered heavy enough to provide protection from the German 88 mm gun used as tank and anti-tank guns. The lower hull front had 5.25 in (130 mm) of armor, and the sides 2.5 in (64 mm). The suspension system and lower hull were covered with 4-in (100 mm) thick steel skirts. The engine was a gasoline-powered Ford GAF V-8, delivering 500 hp, at 2600 rpm through the Torqmatic transmission; which left the vehicle underpowered, geared down to a top speed of about 8 mph (13 km/h) and greatly limited its obstacle-climbing capability.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The T28 Super Heavy Tank was an American heavily armored tank/self-propelled gun designed for the United States Army during World War II. It was originally designed to be used to break through German defenses of the Siegfried Line, and was later considered as a possible participant in the planned invasion of the Japanese mainland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976375}
{"src_title": "Therese Johaug", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Athletic career.", "content": "After skiing some domestic races in the 2006 season, Johaug took part at the Norwegian Championships in 2007, winning a bronze at the 7.5 km + 7.5 km double pursuit event. She was selected for two World Cup races prior to the World Championships, finishing eighth and 33rd in two interval start races over 10 km, which was enough to be selected for competition in the 30 km distance at the 2007 Sapporo World Championships where she won a surprising bronze medal.  At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, she won gold in the 4 x 5 km relay, came sixth in the 15 km pursuit and seventh in the 30 km mass start (classic) race.  Johaug won her first individual gold medal in the 30 km mass start race at the 2011 World Championships in Oslo. She also won gold in the 4 x 5 km relay, bronze in the 7.5 km + 7.5 km double pursuit and fourth in the 10 km individual start. At the 2013 World Championships she won her second individual gold medal in the 10 km freestyle race.  At the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, she won the silver medal in the 30 km mass start (free), the bronze medal in the 10 km classical, and finished fourth in the 15 km skiathlon.  Johaug and compatriot Martin Johnsrud Sundby became the first Norwegians to win the Tour de Ski when they won the women's and men's competitions in the 2013–14 edition of the race. Johaug subsequently won the overall and distance competitions in the 2013–14 FIS Cross-Country World Cup.  She won the Birkebeinerrennet ski marathon in 2015 with a time of 2.41.46. That year she also enjoyed her most successful World Championship performance in Falun, where she took three gold medals: two in individual events (the 15km skiathlon and the 30km classic mass start) and one as part of the Norwegian women's team in the 4x5km relay.  Johaug followed her World Championship success with her best ever World Cup season in 2015–16, winning a second Tour de Ski by overturning a 39-second deficit to Ingvild Flugstad Østberg on the final stage to complete the climb up Alpe Cermis with a lead of 2 minutes 21 seconds over runner-up Østberg. She went on to capture the overall and distance World Cups, rounding off her season by winning the inaugural Ski Tour Canada in a similar fashion to her Tour de Ski win, eradicating Heidi Weng's 30 second lead on the final stage pursuit to take victory by over a minute.  Until 2016 Egil Kristiansen coached Johaug, and was described (by media) as \"in reality her best coach... [and he had] helped her master freestyle\" skiing.  In August 2019 Johaug competed in the Norwegian national athletics championship and won the 10,000 metres on 32:20.87.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Doping.", "content": "In September 2016, Johaug was tested positive for a performance-enhancing drug called Clostebol, an anabolic steroid. Johaug said that the substance came from an ointment for her sore, sunburnt lips, which she said she used from 4 to 15 September. Plausibility of this explanation has been widely questioned. The ointment she claims to have used is called Trofodermin. It contains Clostebol. A big red warning label with the word “Doping” is normally printed on its packaging. Johaug said that the drug was given to her by the team's physician, Fredrik S. Bendiksen. Bendiksen said that he did not notice that it contained a forbidden substance. He resigned his position as a team's physician, but he remains closely associated with elite Norwegian skiing. Bendiksen had previously worked for Pfizer, the medical company that produces the salve in question.  The concentration of clostebol that was measured in her blood is by itself consistent with her explanation of using Trofodermin on her lips right before the test was taken. It is also consistent with using Clostebol in large doses in the weeks before the test. The positive drug test was taken after Johaug did not have any doping control for a period of four months.  On 19 October Johaug was suspended by Anti-Doping Norway for two months while the case was investigated. Johaug was later given a 13-month suspension by the Norwegian Olympic Committee. This ban would have expired in time to allow Johaug to compete in the 2018 Winter Olympics, but In March 2017, the International Ski Federation appealed this decision. They argued that the suspension was at the low end of applicable suspensions and failed to reflect the fact that the athlete had missed a printed doping warning label. On 22 August 2017 the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) issued a decision \"in which Ms Johaug is suspended for a period of 18 months commencing on 18 October 2016\". As a result of the suspension Johaug was not able to participate in the 2018 Winter Olympics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cross-country skiing results.", "content": "All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sponsors.", "content": "Her sponsors are (as of 13 October 2016) Tag Heuer, Huawei, Isklar and Eger.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Therese Johaug (born 25 June 1988) is a Norwegian cross-country skier who has competed for the clubs Tynset IF and IL Nansen. In world championships she has won seven individual gold medals along with three gold medals in relays and she is a three-time Olympic medallist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976376}
{"src_title": "Justus van Gent", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Very little is known about the early life of Joos van Wassenhove. It is believed that the artist referred to by Vasari and Guicciardini as 'Giusto da Guanto' (i.e. 'Justus of Ghent') is the painter Joos van Wassenhove, who became a member of the Antwerp Guild of St. Luke in 1460 and a freemaster in the Ghent painters' guild in 1464. While in Ghent, he vouched for Hugo van der Goes, Sanders Bening and Agnes van den Bossche when they entered the local painters' guild. Van Wassenhove seems to have enjoyed an international reputation as in 1467-68 he received payment for the production of 40 coats of arms of the Pope. Van Wassenhove travelled to Rome around 1470.  Between 1473 and 1475 he is documented in Urbino, where he operated a workshop. He was one of the court painters of duke Federico da Montefeltro, a leading politician and art patron of the Italian Renaissance. Da Montefeltro gave him the commission for the \"Communion of the Apostles\" painted for the brotherhood of the Corpus Domini in Urbino between 1472 and 1474. A portrait of da Montefeltro (with his broken nose in profile) in the company of Caterino Zeno, a Persian envoy to the court of Urbino, is included in the picture. Van Wassenhove participated in the decoration of the ducal residences in Urbino and Gubbio. This included a commission for a portrait series of 'uomini famosi' (famous men) for the study of da Montefeltro (Louvre Museum, Paris and Galleria Nazionale, Urbino). He died around 1480.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Two works from the time before he left for Italy have been preserved: the monumental \"Crucifixion Altarpiece\" or \"Calvary Triptych\" (in the Saint Bavo Cathedral, Ghent) and the \"Devotion of the Kings\" (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York). The latter painting was possibly commissioned for a convent near Burgos in Spain. For this reason the picture was painted on canvas so it could be rolled up for easy transport. The stage-like space and arrangement of the main figures in two parallel diagonal lines seem to suggest an inspiration by theatre reenactments of the story of the Epiphany. Both these early paintings are characterized by monumentality. The facial features of the figures and colour spectrum are closely related to the oeuvre of Hugo van der Goes. The two masters likely worked together before van Wassenhove left for Rome. There is also a relationship with the work of Dieric Bouts.  The \"Communion of the Apostles\" (a.k.a. \"The Institution of the Eucharist\", sometimes called \"The Last Supper\") for the Confraternity of Corpus Domini in Urbino shows some adaptations from the characteristically Netherlandish high viewpoint and decoratively organized surface of the Calvary Triptych. Van Wassenhove also increased the size of the figures relative to the picture space. The work cites Dieric Bouts' \"The Martyrdom of St Erasmus\" in the figure of the Persian envoy. All other works attributed to Joos van Wassenhove were painted on commission by Federico da Montefeltro. In the enlarged version of \"Communion of the Apostles\" it can be easily seen that Jesus Christ is depicted with light rays originating from his head which is also surrounded by a circular aureola both of which constitute a halo. A series of 28 portraits of \"Famous men\", which are still in existence and part of the collections of the Louvre and the Galleria Nazionale delle Marche in Urbino, have been attributed to Joos van Wassenhove. There are many arguments for such attribution. The paintings appear to be made by a painter grounded in Netherlandish technique who had become strongly influenced by Italian painting. In addition, in his biography of Federico da Montefeltro, his former librarian, Vespasiano da Bisticci, attests that van Wassenhove made the series of 28 portraits of \"Famous men\". Technological examination of the \"Famous men\" has revealed similarities of these works with the other important earlier commission that van Wassenhove completed for the duke in Urbino, i.e. the \"Communion of the Apostles\". The underdrawing showed that there was stylistic continuity between these works. The examination also disclosed a number of changes in composition and execution, which may point to a reworking by another artist. The attribution to van Wassenhove of some or all of the works in the \"Famous men\" series has not received unanimous support. Various other artists have been proposed as the author of the \"Famous men\" series, of whom the Spanish painter Pedro Berruguete has received the strongest support. The case for Berruguete rests on various arguments including the mention of a 'Pietro Spagnuolo pittore' in Urbino in 1477, a reference to the \"Famous men\" by Pablo de Cespedes dating from 1604, which could be regarded as an attribution to Berruguete (although Cespedes specifically stated that they were by a Spanish painter ‘other’ than Berruguete), the depiction of a Spanish-language book in a painting in the series and stylistic similarities with later works of Berruguete. Although the matter of attribution is still unresolved the known pictures of this Spanish artist are inferior in style and technique to those in the \"Famous men\" series and are unlikely the work of the same artist. Another hypothesis is that the work was a collaborative effort by the studio of van Wassenhove in Urbino, in which Berruguete may have worked as a collaborator.  Further attributed to Joos van Wassenhove are two paintings from a series on the liberal arts: \"Music\" and \"Rhetoric\" (both at the National Gallery London). Two other paintings from this series were destroyed during World War II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Justus van Gent or Joos van Wassenhove (also: Justus or Jodocus of Ghent, or Giusto da Guanto) (c. 1410 – c. 1480) was an Early Netherlandish painter who after training and working in Flanders later moved to Italy where he worked for the duke of Urbino. The artist is known for his religious compositions executed in the early Netherlandish idiom and a series of portraits of famous men, which show the influence of early Italian Renaissance painting.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976377}
{"src_title": "Supermarine Spiteful", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "By 1942, Supermarine designers had realised that the characteristics of the Spitfire's wing at high Mach numbers might become a limiting factor in increasing the aircraft's high-speed performance. The main problem was the aeroelasticity of the Spitfire's wing; at high speeds the relatively light structure behind the strong leading edge torsion box would flex, changing the airflow and limiting the maximum safe diving speed to 480 mph (772 km/h) IAS. If the Spitfire were to be able to fly higher and faster, a radically new wing would be needed.  Joseph Smith and the design team were aware of a paper on compressibility, published by A.D. Young of the R.A.E, in which he described a new type of wing section; the maximum thickness and camber would be much nearer to the mid-chord than conventional airfoils and the nose section of this airfoil would be close to an ellipse. In November 1942, Supermarine issued Specification No 470 which (in part) stated: Specification 470 described how the wing had been designed with a straight taper to simplify production and to achieve a smooth and accurate contour. The wing skins were to be relatively thick, aiding torsional rigidity which was needed for good aileron control at high speeds. Although the prototype was to have a dihedral of 3° it was intended that this would be increased in subsequent aircraft. To improve the ground-handling the Spitfire's narrow-track, outward-retracting undercarriage was replaced with a wider-track, inward-retracting system. (This eliminated a weakness in the original Spitfire design, giving the new plane similar, safer landing characteristics, comparable to the Hurricane, Typhoon, Tempest, Mustang, and Focke-Wulf 190.) The Air Ministry was impressed by the proposal and, in February 1943, issued Specification F.1/43 for a single-seat fighter with a laminar flow wing; there was also to be provision made for a wing folding scheme to meet possible Fleet Air Arm requirements. The new fighter was to use a fuselage based on a Spitfire VIII.  The new wing was fitted to a modified Spitfire XIV \"NN660\", in order to make a direct comparison with the earlier elliptical wing, and was first flown on 30 June 1944 by Jeffrey Quill. Although the new Spitfire's speed performance was comfortably in excess of an unmodified Spitfire XIV, the new wing displayed some undesirable behaviour at the stall which, although acceptable, did not come up to the high standards of Mitchell's earlier elliptical wing. \"NN660\" crashed on 13 September 1944 while performing mock-combat at low altitude with a standard Spitfire, killing pilot Frank Furlong. No reason for the loss was officially established, although Quill suspected that the aileron control rods had momentarily seized, the Spiteful using control rods rather than the Spitfire's cables. Quill noted that from then on a careful check was always made of the control rods at the factory, and that type of accident never re-occurred.  In the meantime, the opportunity had been taken to redesign the Spitfire's fuselage, to improve the pilot's view over the nose and to eliminate gross directional instability by using a larger fin and rudder. This instability had been apparent since the introduction of the more powerful Griffon engine. The instability was exacerbated by the increase in propeller blade area due to the introduction of the four-bladed and subsequent five-bladed Rotol airscrews for the next aircraft, \"NN664\" (for which Specification F.1/43 had been issued). The updated design incorporated the new fuselage (although lacking the enlarged fin/rudder) and, as it was now substantially different from a Spitfire, the aircraft was named \"Spiteful\" (although \"Victor\" had been originally proposed).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Spiteful was ordered into production as the Spiteful XIV (having no preceding marks of its own, the numerals were carried over from the original Spitfire XIV conversion), and 150 of the aircraft were ordered. With the advent of jet propulsion, however, the future of high-performance fighters was clearly with the jet-engined aircraft, and so the order was later cancelled with only a handful of Spitefuls built. At the time however, there was some uncertainty over whether jet aircraft would be able to operate from the Royal Navy's aircraft carriers so it was decided to develop a naval version of the Spiteful, to specification N.5/45, subsequently named Seafang.  The Seafang featured folding wingtips, a \"sting\"-type arrester hook and a Griffon 89 or 90 engine, fed from an extended carburettor air intake driving two new Rotol three-bladed contra-rotating propellers. The first one produced was a converted Spiteful XV (\"RB520\") but with the successful operation of the de Havilland Sea Vampire from the carrier in 1945, the need for the Seafang disappeared.  With the end of the Second World War, Supermarine entered into discussions with \"Société Nationale de Constructions Aéronautiques du Nord\" (SNCAN) about licence production of the Spiteful in France, but again the introduction of jet fighters overshadowed the piston-engined fighter and the talks came to nothing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jet Spiteful.", "content": "In late 1943 or early 1944, Supermarine's chief designer Joe Smith suggested Supermarine develop a simple jet fighter based around the Spiteful's wing, and use a new jet engine being proposed by Rolls-Royce (later the Nene). This proposal was accepted and a new specification, E.10/44, was issued by the Air Ministry for an experimental aircraft which was initially referred to as the \"Jet Spiteful\"; the prototype \"TS409\" first flew on 27 July 1946. The E.10/44 was not ordered by the RAF, as its performance was not substantially better than the Gloster Meteor and de Havilland Vampire, but the Admiralty expressed an interest in the aircraft for use as a naval fighter and issued specification E.1/45 around it. The aircraft was subsequently named \"Attacker\" and had a short career with the Fleet Air Arm and the Pakistan Air Force.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spiteful tail.", "content": "The enlarged fin/rudder of the Spiteful was also used on the Spitfire Mark 22 and 24s and Seafire Mark 46 and 47s and was usually referred to as the \"Spiteful type\" tail.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Supermarine Spiteful was a British Rolls-Royce Griffon-engined fighter aircraft designed by Supermarine to Air Ministry specification F.1/43 during the Second World War as a successor to the Spitfire. It had a new wing design, to improve its critical Mach number and allow safe operations at higher speeds. The new design also had a modern inwards-retracting undercarriage. Other changes included a larger fin to improve the somewhat marginal stability of Griffon Spitfires and changes to the mounting of the engine to tilt it down slightly for better visibility over the nose.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976378}
{"src_title": "Steven Defour", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Racing Genk.", "content": "Born in Mechelen, Defour played youth football with local KV Mechelen, moving to K.R.C. Genk in 2004 due to the club's financial difficulties. He made his Pro League debut during the 2004–05 season and, at just 17, became first-choice, finishing the 2005–06 campaign with 26 games and one goal to help his team to the fifth position.  When Genk failed to qualify for European competition, Defour tried to move to AFC Ajax in the summer of 2006. Enraged by earlier reports that Ajax had approached the player to broker a deal without their consent, Genk did not accept the proposed transfer fee, and after protracted negotiations, Ajax pulled out of the deal. Defour tried to force a transfer by threatening to leave, using a Belgian law that allowed professional athletes on fixed-term contracts to leave their employers before the end of the stipulated term, but Ajax did not express a renewed interest in his services, and he ended up signing for Standard Liège for a much-reduced transfer fee, effectively breaking a gentlemen's agreement between Belgian sides not to sign under-contract players using the aforementioned law.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Standard Liège.", "content": "Defour joined Standard on a five-year deal, being appointed team captain at the start of his second year after taking over from Portugal's Sérgio Conceição – he was just 19 years old. He received the Belgian Golden Shoe at the end of the season in the process, leading the \"Reds\" to their first league title in 25 years.  In late 2009, shortly after scoring four goals in 31 games to help Standard renew its domestic supremacy, Defour broke his right foot. During his period of recovery he received a letter from Alex Ferguson, manager of Manchester United, wishing him all the best in his recovery, and this led to persistent rumours of a switch to the English club, but he refuted these by saying \"I do know that Manchester United are monitoring me – if everything goes well and I continue playing as I am, there is a better chance of me leaving than there was at the start of the season\"; eventually, nothing came of it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Porto.", "content": "On 15 August 2011, Portuguese club FC Porto agreed with Standard Liége to buy the sporting rights of Defour for €6 million, and he signed a five-year contract. He finished his first year with 37 appearances all competitions comprised and added two goals, helping his new team win the Primeira Liga championship.  On 18 September 2012, Defour netted Porto's second goal against GNK Dinamo Zagreb, in the season's Champions League group stage (2–0 away win). On 13 March of the following year, for the same competition but in the round-of-16, he was booked twice and subsequently sent off in the 49th minute of the second leg of the tie at Málaga CF, as the northerners lost 0–2 at La Rosaleda Stadium and 1–2 on aggregate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anderlecht.", "content": "On 13 August 2014, Defour signed a five-year deal with R.S.C. Anderlecht, for €6 million. On 25 January of the following year, when playing at Standard Liège, he was sent off for deliberately kicking the ball at home fans who had unfurled a banner depicting his severed head under the slogan \"Red or Dead\". His ejection caused the visiting supporters to rip out their seats and throw them onto the pitch, and the banner received criticism from both the Royal Belgian Football Association and the league.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Burnley.", "content": "On 16 August 2016, Defour signed for Premier League club Burnley for a club-record transfer fee of £8 million. He made his competitive debut four days later, starting in a 2–0 home win over Liverpool in which he helped create the second goal by Andre Gray but was substituted early in the second half due to a lack of fitness. On 10 September, also at Turf Moor, he scored his first goal for his new team to open a 1–1 draw with fellow promotee Hull City, and was praised after the match by manager Sean Dyche.  During his later spell, Defour was constantly bothered by injury problems. On 31 August 2019, he had his contract terminated citing personal reasons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Antwerp.", "content": "In September 2019, aged 31, Defour joined Royal Antwerp F.C. on a one-year deal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Defour made his debut for the Belgian senior team in May 2006, aged just 18. He scored his first goal on 6 September 2008, in a 3–2 win against Estonia at his club ground the Stade Maurice Dufrasne for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers.  Defour scored once in three appearances in qualification for the 2014 World Cup, opening a 2–0 win away to Scotland on 6 September 2013. He was selected for the finals in Brazil by manager Marc Wilmots, making his debut in the competition on 26 June in the third group stage match against South Korea after Belgium had already won their first two outings and sealed qualification, and was sent off in the last minute of the first half of the eventual 1–0 success after a rash tackle on Kim Shin-wook.  On 25 May 2018, 30-year-old Defour announced his retirement from international football.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International goals.", "content": "Belgium score listed first, score column indicates score after each Defour goal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Standard Liège  Porto", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Steven Arnold Defour (born 15 April 1988) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays for Royal Antwerp F.C. as a midfielder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976379}
{"src_title": "Supermarine Seafang", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Seafang was essentially a Spiteful redesigned for Royal Navy carrier use, with the addition of an arrester hook, a contra-rotating propeller to eliminate engine torque effects, and power folding outer wing panels.  Two prototype Type 396 Seafang Mark 32s were ordered on 12 March 1945 followed by an order for 150 Type 382 Seafang Mark 31s on 7 May 1945. To expedite entry into service the interim Mark 31 was ordered which was a navalised Spiteful, basically a Spiteful with an arrestor hook. This would allow the Mark 32 to be developed; it would be the definitive naval variant, again with an arrestor hook but also folding outer wing panels and a contra-rotating propeller.  The first Seafang flew in 1946; it was the first interim production Mark 31 \"VG471\". Although 150 of the interim variant were ordered, only nine were completed before the order was cancelled as the urgency of an interim type was removed due to the end of the war.  The first prototype definitive Mark 32 \"VB895\" was first flown in June 1946. It was powered by a Griffon 89 engine rated at 2,350 hp (1,752 kW) driving two three-bladed contra-rotating propellers. In August 1946, \"VB895\" was demonstrated to the Royal Netherlands Navy at Valkenburg. The same aircraft was flown by noted test pilot Mike Lithgow in May 1947, during deck landing trials on. Compared to the Seafire F.47, its performance advantage was not deemed to be enough to disrupt series production of new navalised Meteor and Vampire jet fighters. Also, the Seafang's low-speed handling characteristics were not as good as hoped, and the contemporary Hawker Sea Fury was preferred as a fleet fighter.  Seafang Mark 31 \"VG474\" was used as a development aircraft for the Supermarine Attacker including the fitment of power-operated ailerons and contra-rotating propellers. The Attacker was a jet-powered development of the Spiteful/Seafang design which used the Spiteful laminar-flow wing and landing gear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Supermarine Type 391.", "content": "In 1943, as the design of the Spiteful was developing, Supermarine presented a brochure to the Air Ministry describing a \"High-Performance Aeroplane for the Royal Navy\", also known as the Supermarine Type 391. This design was intended to be used as a carrier-borne fighter, with a secondary role as a strike aircraft, able to carry an 18-inch (45.7 cm) Mark XV aerial torpedo. Bombs or rockets could also be carried and the fixed armament was four Hispano Mk. V 20mm cannon. The 391 used the Spiteful/Seafang wing and undercarriage mated to a wide centre-section incorporating leading edge air intakes feeding the coolant radiators for a 3,550 hp, 24 cylinder 46-H-24 (later known as the \"Eagle\"); this engine drove contra-rotating, four-bladed propellers. The fuselage was longer with a redesigned fin and rudder unit.  Specifications for the Type 391 include a wingspan of 43 ft 6 in (13.3 m), a fuselage length of 39 ft 9 in (12.1 m) and a wing area of 335 ft2 (31.2 m2). Maximum weights were 15,750 lb (7,144 kg) as a fighter and 17,250 lb (7,825 kg) when armed with a torpedo. The maximum speed was projected to be 546 mph (879 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,620 m).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Supermarine Seafang was a British Rolls-Royce Griffon–engined fighter aircraft designed by Supermarine to Air Ministry specification N.5/45. It was a further development of Supermarine's famous Spitfire and Spiteful aircraft, which by that point was a 10-year-old design following a rapid period of aviation development in history. It was outmoded by jet aircraft, and only 18 were built.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976380}
{"src_title": "Indian Runner duck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins of the breed.", "content": "The Indian Runner ducks are domesticated waterfowl that live in the archipelago of the East Indies. There is no evidence that they came originally from India itself. Attempts by British breeders at the beginning of the twentieth century to find examples in the subcontinent had very limited success. Like many other breeds of waterfowl imported into Europe and America, the term 'Indian' may well be fanciful, denoting a loading port or the transport by 'India-men' sailing ships of the East India Company. Other misnamed geese and ducks include the African goose, the black East Indian duck and the Muscovy duck.  The Runner became popular in Europe and America as an egg-laying variety towards the end of the nineteenth century largely as a result of an undated pamphlet called \"The India Runner: its History and Description\" published by John Donald of Wigton between 1885 and 1890. Donald's publication is advertised briefly in \"The Feathered World\", 1895, under the title of \"The Indian Runner Duck\". Donald describes the pied variety and gives the popular story of the importation into Cumbria (Northwest England) by a sea captain some fifty years earlier.  The breed is unusual not only for its high egg production but also for its upright stance and variety of color genes, some of which are seen in seventeenth century Dutch paintings. Other references to such domestic ducks use the names 'Penguin Ducks' and 'Baly Soldiers'. Harrison Weir's \"Our Poultry\" (1902) describes the Penguin Ducks belonging to Mr Edward Cross in the Surrey Zoological Gardens between 1837–38. These may well have been imported by the 13th Earl of Derby. Darwin describes them (1868) as having elongated 'femur and meta-tarsi', contrary to Tegetmeier's assertions.  The Cumbrian importations, according to Matthew Smith in 1923, included completely fawn Runners and completely white Runners as well as the pied (fawn-and-white and grey-and-white) varieties. The most successful attempt to import fresh blood lines was by Joseph Walton between 1908 and 1909. Accounts of these ventures can be found in Coutts (1927) and Ashton (2002). Walton shipped in birds from Lombok and Java, revolutionizing the breeding stock which, according to Donald, had become badly mixed with local birds. Further importations by Miss Chisholm and Miss Davidson in 1924 and 1926 continued to revive the breed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Pure breed enthusiasts, exhibitors and show judges wanted to establish standard descriptions. Standards were drawn up in by the Waterfowl Club in England (1897) and America (1898) for the pied color varieties. These were largely the same until 1915 when the two countries diverged. The American Poultry Association chose a variety with blue in the genotype whilst the English Poultry Club Standard kept to the pure form described by Donald in his original pamphlet. Other colors followed making use of black genes brought in by some of Walton's birds. These were to produce black, chocolate and Cumberland blue. Later were developed the mallard, trout, blue trout, and apricot trout versions. Slightly different names and descriptions can be found in American and German standards. An account of the influence of the Indian Runner Duck Club (founded in 1906), particularly the input by John Donald, Joseph Walton, Dr J. A. Coutts and Matthew Smith, can be found in Ashton (2002).  The most profound impact of the Indian Runners was on the development of the modern 'light duck' breeds. Before 1900, most ducks were bred for the table. Aylesbury and Rouen ducks were famous throughout the nineteenth century, and these were supplemented or replaced, after 1873–74, by importation from China of the Pekin duck. As soon as the Indian Runners became fashionable, a demand for egg-layers and general purpose breeds developed. Using Runners crossed to Rouens, Aylesburys and Cayugas (the large black American breed), William Cook produced his famous Orpington Ducks. Mrs Campbell crossed her fawn-and-white Runner duck to a Rouen drake to create the Campbell ducks introduced in 1898. Later, she introduced wild mallard blood and managed to create the most prolific egg-layer, the Khaki Campbell (announced in 1901). Other breeds followed, some of which emerged as direct mutations of the Khaki Campbell, along with crosses back to Indian Runners, the most famous being the Abacot Ranger (known in Germany as the Streicher) and the Welsh Harlequin. Currently there are eight varieties of Indian Runner recognized with the American Poultry Association. They are, in order of recognition, Fawn & White, White, Penciled, Black, Buff, Chocolate, Cumberland Blue, and Gray.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Color breeding.", "content": "Indian Runner ducks and Pekins brought in unusual plumage colour mutations. These included the dusky and restricted mallard genes, light phase, harlequin phase, blue and brown dilutions, as well as the famous pied varieties named by the geneticist F. M. Lancaster as the 'Runner pattern'. Much of the proliferation of new colour varieties in breeds of domestic duck begins with the importation of these oriental ducks. Original research by R. G. Jaap (1930s) and F. M. Lancaster has allowed breeders to understand the effect of genotypes in managing and creating colour varieties. Simplified information can be found in writings by Dave Holderread, and Mike and Chris Ashton.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Indian Runners are a breed of \"Anas platyrhynchos domesticus\", the domestic duck. They stand erect like penguins and, rather than waddling, they run. The females usually lay about 300 to 350 eggs a year or more, depending whether they are from exhibition or utility strains. They were found on the Indonesian islands of Lombok, Java and Bali where they were 'walked' to market and sold as egg-layers or for meat. These ducks do not fly and only rarely form nests and incubate their own eggs. They run or walk, often dropping their eggs wherever they happen to be. Duck-breeders need to house their birds overnight or be vigilant in picking up the eggs to prevent them from being taken by other animals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976381}
{"src_title": "Jezebel (1938 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 1852 New Orleans, spoiled, strong-willed belle Julie Marsden (Bette Davis) is engaged to banker Preston \"Pres\" Dillard (Fonda). In an important meeting, Pres is trying to convince the board to invest in railroads, as Northerners are doing, and supporting Dr. Livingstone's (Crisp) plea for measures to prevent an otherwise inevitable outbreak of yellow fever.  In retaliation for Pres refusing to leave the meeting and accompany her to the last fitting for a ball gown, she buys a brazen red satin dress ordered by a notorious woman. At the Olympus Ball, the most important social event of the year, unmarried women are expected to wear virginal white. All of Julie's friends are horrified, but no one can convince her to give up her whim.  At the Olympus ball, Pres and Julie's entrance is met with shock and disgust by all present. She finally realizes the magnitude of her social blunder and begs Pres to take her away, but instead he forces her to dance with him while all others withdraw from the floor and turn their backs. When the orchestra stops playing at the instruction of one of the ball's sponsors, Pres orders the conductor to continue. Pres and Julie finish the dance.  Afterwards, Pres takes his leave of Julie, implicitly breaking their engagement. In a final act of spite, Julie slaps him in the face. Aunt Belle Massey (Fay Bainter) urges her to go after Pres, but she refuses, confident that he will return to her. Instead, he goes North on business. Julie shuts herself up in her house and refuses to see visitors.  A year later, Pres finally returns, bringing his Northern wife, Amy (Margaret Lindsay). to the homecoming party planned for him at Halcyon Plantation, Julie's estate. Aunt Belle cannot find Julie to warn her. Wearing a luminous white gown, before Pres can stop her, Julie humbles herself and begs for his forgiveness and a return of his love. Pres introduces her to Amy.  Dismayed but controlled, Julie eggs on her longtime admirer, skilled duellist Buck Cantrell (Brent), to quarrel with Pres, but the scheme goes awry. It is Pres's inexperienced brother, Ted (Richard Cromwell), who is goaded into challenging Buck. In an unexpected twist, Ted shoots and kills Buck.  Then something happens that overshadows everything else. As Dr. Livingstone foretold, a deadly epidemic has swept the city. They fight it with cannon and smoke and, believing that yellow fever is highly contagious, a quarantine so rigid that people who try to escape the city are shot. In New Orleans, Pres is stricken and, like all other victims, is to be quarantined in the leper colony on Lazaret island. Julie persuades Gros Bat (Anderson) to take her through the woods to Dr. Livingstone's, where she nurses Pres for a night and a day. The family arrives, thanks to a pass from the governor. When the wagon comes for Pres, Amy begs to go with him, but Julie tells her that she is not equipped to fight for Pres. She does not know the creole words for food and water, or how to deal with the conditions or the people there. Julie begs to go in Amy's place, as an act of redemption. Amy agrees, but asks if Pres still loves Julie. Julie declares that he loves only his wife. Amy blesses them, and Julie holds her head high as the wagonload of victims and caregivers, including a nun, bears them into an unknown future.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "The Turner Classic Movies Database states that the film was offered as compensation for Bette Davis after she failed to win the part of Scarlett O'Hara in \"Gone with the Wind\". Despite a radio poll showing Davis the audience favorite for the role in that film, David O. Selznick never seriously considered her for it. \"Jezebel\" was her second Best Actress Oscar win after winning for \"Dangerous\" three years earlier. This win established her as a leading lady from this point on.  Selznick reportedly hired Max Steiner to score \"Gone with the Wind\" (1939) on the strength of his work on \"Jezebel\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Contemporary reviews were generally positive and praised Davis' performance in particular, although some found her character's redemption at the end of the film to be unconvincing. Frank S. Nugent of \"The New York Times\" wrote that the film \"would have been considerably more effective... if its heroine had remained unregenerate to the end. Miss Davis can be malignant when she chooses, and it is a shame to temper that gift for feminine spite... It is still an interesting film, though, in spite of our sniffs at its climax.\" \"Variety\" reported that the film was \"not without its charm\" and \"even completely captivating\" at times, but found it detracting that the main character \"suddenly metamorphoses into a figure of noble sacrifice and complete contriteness,\" and described the ending as \"rather suspended and confusing.\" \"Film Daily\" called it \"a really outstanding screen triumph for Bette Davis. She plays an emotional role that calls for running the gamut of emotions, and she handles the part with consummate artistry.\" \"Harrison's Reports\" called it \"Powerful dramatic entertainment... It is not what one would call cheerful entertainment, and may not appeal to the rank and file, but it should please those who like good acting.\" John Mosher of \"The New Yorker\" wrote, \"Something went wrong with 'Jezebel,' possibly nothing more than the plot, and all its rich dressing-up can't make it alive... no scene quite comes off, and at the end, when the she-devil suddenly turns into a saint and a martyr, one isn't even interested. This Jezebel just seems daffy.\" The film has scored more positive reviews in later years, and has a 94% rating on Rotten Tomatoes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accolades.", "content": "In 2009, \"Jezebel\" was selected for the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as \"culturally, historically or aesthetically\" significant, and will be preserved for all time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "DVD commentary.", "content": "In 2006, film historian Jeanine Basinger recorded a comprehensive scene-by-scene commentary as part of the re-issued DVD of the film. In her commentary about Davis, Basinger relates that this film is distinctive in the realm of women's pictures because of Orry-Kelly's brilliant costume designs for the actress. Basinger states that the viewer is compelled to watch Davis in four stylings in particular: the riding crop/outfit in the beginning of the film, the scandalous scarlet red dress at the Olympus Ball, the virginal white dress she wears when she attempts to woo back Henry Fonda, and finally the cape she dons at the end of the film when she must go to help care for Fonda. In Basinger's opinion, this was the performance at the height of Davis's career and \"Jezebel\" is the quintessential American woman's film.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jezebel is a 1938 American romantic drama film released by Warner Bros. and directed by William Wyler. It stars Bette Davis and Henry Fonda, supported by George Brent, Margaret Lindsay, Donald Crisp, Richard Cromwell, and Fay Bainter. The film was adapted by Clements Ripley, Abem Finkel, John Huston, and Robert Buckner, from the play by Owen Davis Sr.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976382}
{"src_title": "The Song of Bernadette (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Fourteen-year-old Bernadette Soubirous lives in relative poverty with her family in Lourdes. At her Catholic school, Bernadette is shamed by her teacher, Sister Vauzou, for falling behind in her studies because of her asthma.  Later that afternoon, while she is fetching firewood with her sister Marie and school friend Jeanne outside town, Bernadette is left behind at the Massabielle grotto when her companions warn her not to wade through the cold river for fear of taking ill. About to cross it anyway, Bernadette is distracted by a strange breeze and a change in the light. Investigating the grotto, she sees a beautiful lady dressed in white, holding a pearl rosary. She tells her companions, who promise not to tell anyone else. However, Marie tells their mother when they return home, and the story soon spreads all over Lourdes.  Many, including Bernadette's Aunt Bernarde, are convinced of her sincerity and stand up for her against her disbelieving parents, but Bernadette faces civil and church authorities alone, including Abbé Dominique Peyramale. Repeatedly questioned, she stands solidly behind her seemingly-unbelievable story and continues to return to the grotto, as the lady asked. She faces ridicule since the lady tells her to drink and wash at a spring that does not yet exist, but Bernadette digs a hole in the ground and uses the wet sand and mud. Water later begins to flow and exhibits miraculous healing properties. On Bernadette’s last visit to the grotto, the lady finally identifies herself as \"the Immaculate Conception.\" When civil authorities try to have Bernadette declared insane, Peyramale, who once doubted her, now becomes her staunchest ally and asks for a formal church investigation to verify if Bernadette is a fraud, insane, or genuine.  The grotto is fenced off and the Bishop of Tarbes declares that unless the Emperor orders the grotto to be opened, there will be no investigation. Shortly thereafter, several are arrested, fined, or jailed for attempting to enter the grotto and taking the water. Of those apprehended is the governess of the Emperor's infant son, who had been ordered to retrieve the water by the Empress for her child, who had fallen ill. The governess pays her and the others' fines and is allowed to leave with the water. The Emperor's son drinks the water and recovers. The Empress believes that his recovery is miraculous, and at her insistence, the Emperor reopens the grotto. The Bishop of Tarbes then directs the commission to convene. The investigation takes many years, and Bernadette is questioned again and again, but the commission eventually determines that Bernadette truly experienced the visions and was visited by the Virgin Mary.  Afterwards, Bernadette intends to live an ordinary life, but Peyramale does not think that it is appropriate to turn Bernadette loose in the world and persuades her to become a nun with the Sisters of Charity of Nevers. Bernadette undergoes rigorous spiritual training and works hard at the convent, but she is also subjected to emotional abuse from Sister Vauzou, now the mistress of novices at the convent. Vauzou reveals to Bernadette that she is skeptically jealous of the attention that Bernadette has been receiving as a result of the visions and says she is angry that God would choose Bernadette instead of her, when she has spent her life in suffering in his service. She asserts that Bernadette has not suffered enough and wants a \"sign\" to prove that Bernadette really was chosen by Heaven.  Bernadette makes a revelation to Sister Vauzou that is later diagnosed as tuberculosis of the bone; the condition causes intense pain, yet Bernadette has never complained or so much as mentioned it. Vauzou, realizing her error and Bernadette's saintliness, prays for forgiveness and vows to serve Bernadette for the rest of her life. Knowing that she is dying, Bernadette sends for Abbé Peyramale and confesses to him her feelings of unworthiness while she sorrowfully maintains that she will never see the lady again. However, the lady appears in the room, smiles, and holds out her arms. Bernadette joyfully cries out to the apparition before finally dying. Upon her death, Peyramale remarks, \"You are now in Heaven and on earth. Your life begins, O Bernadette.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Historical accuracy.", "content": "The film's plot follows the novel by Franz Werfel, which is not a documentary but a historical novel blending fact and fiction. Bernadette's real-life friend Antoine Nicolau is portrayed as being deeply in love with her and vowing to remain unmarried when Bernadette enters the convent. No such relationship is documented as existing between them. In addition, the government authorities, in particular, Imperial Prosecutor Vital Dutour (played by Vincent Price) are portrayed as being much more anti-religion than they actually were; in fact, Dutour was himself a devout Catholic who simply thought Bernadette was hallucinating. Other portrayals come closer to historical accuracy, particularly Anne Revere and Roman Bohnen as Bernadette's overworked parents, Charles Bickford as Father Peyramale (although his presence at Bernadette's deathbed was an artistic embellishment; in reality, Peyramale had died a few years before Bernadette), and Blanche Yurka as formidable Aunt Bernarde.  The film combines the characters of Vital Dutour and the man of letters Hyacinthe de La Fite, who appears in the novel and believes he has cancer of the larynx. La Fite does not appear at all in the movie. In the film, it is Dutour who is dying of cancer of the larynx at the end, and who goes to the Lourdes shrine, kneels at the gates to the grotto and says, \"Pray for me, Bernadette.\"  The film ends with the death of Bernadette and does not mention the exhumation of her body or her canonization, as the novel does.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Igor Stravinsky was initially informally approached to write the film score. On 15 February 1943, he started writing music for the \"Apparition of the Virgin\" scene. However, the studio never approved a contract with Stravinsky, and the project went to Alfred Newman, who won an Oscar. The music Stravinsky had written for the film made its way into the second movement of his Symphony in Three Movements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "The film was a great success both critically and financially. \"The Song of Bernadette\" won four Oscars in the 1943 Academy Awards:  In addition, the film was nominated for a further eight categories:  In the first Golden Globe Awards in 1944, the film won three awards:  Also, the film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Radio adaptation.", "content": "\"The Song of Bernadette\" was presented on \"Hollywood Star Time\" 21 April 1946. The 30-minute adaptation starred Vincent Price, Lee J. Cobb, Pedro DeCordoba, and Vanessa Brown.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Song of Bernadette is a 1943 biographical drama film based on the 1941 novel of the same name by Franz Werfel. It stars Jennifer Jones in the title role, which portrays the story of Bernadette Soubirous, who reportedly experienced eighteen visions of the Blessed Virgin Mary from February to July 1858 and was later canonized in 1933. The film was directed by Henry King, from a screenplay written by George Seaton.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976383}
{"src_title": "Scintigraphy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Process.", "content": "Scintillography is an imaging method of nuclear events provoked by collisions or charged current interactions among nuclear particles or ionizing radiation and atoms which result in a brief, localised pulse of electromagnetic radiation, usually in the visible light range (Cherenkov radiation). This pulse (scintillation) is usually detected and amplified by a photomultiplier or charged coupled device elements, and its resulting electrical waveform is processed by computers to provide two- and three-dimensional images of a subject or region of interest.  Scintillography is mainly used in scintillation cameras in experimental physics. For example, huge neutrino detection underground tanks filled with tetrachloroethylene are surrounded by arrays of photo detectors in order to capture the extremely rare event of a collision between the fluid's atoms and a neutrino.  Another extensive use of scintillography is in medical imaging techniques which use gamma ray detectors called gamma cameras. Detectors coated with materials which scintillate when subjected to gamma rays are scanned with optical photon detectors and scintillation counters. The subjects are injected with special radionuclides which irradiate in the gamma range inside the region of interest, such as the heart or the brain. A special type of gamma camera is the SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography). Another medical scintillography technique, the Positron-emission tomography (PET), which uses the scintillations provoked by electron-positron annihilation phenomena.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "By organ or organ system.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biliary system (cholescintigraphy).", "content": "Scintigraphy of the biliary system is called \"cholescintigraphy\" and is done to diagnose obstruction of the bile ducts by a gallstone (cholelithiasis), a tumor, or another cause. It can also diagnose gallbladder diseases, e.g. bile leaks of biliary fistulas. In cholescintigraphy, the injected radioactive chemical is taken up by the liver and secreted into the bile. The radiopharmaceutical then goes into the bile ducts, the gallbladder, and the intestines. The gamma camera is placed on the abdomen to picture these perfused organs. Other scintigraphic tests are done similarly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lung scintigraphy.", "content": "The most common indication for lung scintigraphy is to diagnose pulmonary embolism, e.g. with a ventilation/perfusion scan and may be appropriate for excluding PE in pregnancy. Less common indications include evaluation of lung transplantation, preoperative evaluation, evaluation of right-to-left shunts.  In the ventilation phase of a ventilation/perfusion scan, a gaseous radionuclide xenon or technetium DTPA in an aerosol form (or ideally using Technegas, a radioaerosol invented in Australia by Dr Bill Burch and Dr Richard Fawdry) is inhaled by the patient through a mouthpiece or mask that covers the nose and mouth. The perfusion phase of the test involves the intravenous injection of radioactive technetium macro aggregated albumin (Tc99m-MAA). A gamma camera acquires the images for both phases of the study.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bone.", "content": "For example, the ligand methylene-diphosphonate (MDP) can be preferentially taken up by bone. By chemically attaching technetium-99m to MDP, radioactivity can be transported and attached to bone via the hydroxyapatite for imaging. Any increased physiological function, such as a fracture in the bone, will usually mean increased concentration of the tracer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Heart.", "content": "A \"thallium stress test\" is a form of scintigraphy, where the amount of thallium-201 detected in cardiac tissues correlates with tissue blood supply. Viable cardiac cells have normal Na/K ion exchange pumps. Thallium binds the K pumps and is transported into the cells. Exercise or dipyridamole induces widening (vasodilation) of normal coronary arteries. This produces coronary steal from areas of ischemia where arteries are already maximally dilated. Areas of infarct or ischemic tissue will remain \"cold\". Pre- and post-stress thallium may indicate areas that will benefit from myocardial revascularization. Redistribution indicates the existence of coronary steal and the presence of ischemic coronary artery disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Parathyroid.", "content": "Tc99m-sestamibi is used to detect parathyroid adenomas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Thyroid.", "content": "To detect metastases/function of thyroid, the isotopes technetium-99m or iodine-123 are generally used, and for this purpose the iodide isotope does not need to be attached to another protein or molecule, because thyroid tissue takes up free iodide actively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Full body.", "content": "Examples are gallium scans, indium white blood cell scans, iobenguane scan (MIBG) and octreotide scans. The MIBG scan detects adrenergic tissue and thus can be used to identify the location of tumors such as pheochromocytomas and neuroblastomas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Function tests.", "content": "Certain tests, such as the Schilling test and urea breath test, use radioisotopes but are not used to produce a specific image.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Scintigraphy (from Latin \"scintilla\", \"spark\"), also known as a gamma scan, is a diagnostic test in nuclear medicine, where radioisotopes attached to drugs that travel to a specific organ or tissue (radiopharmaceuticals) are taken internally and the emitted gamma radiation is captured by external detectors (gamma cameras) to form two-dimensional images in a similar process to the capture of x-ray images. In contrast, SPECT and \"positron emission tomography\" (PET) form 3-dimensional images, and are therefore classified as separate techniques to scintigraphy, although they also use gamma cameras to detect internal radiation. Scintigraphy is unlike a diagnostic X-ray where external radiation is passed through the body to form an image.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976384}
{"src_title": "Synyster Gates", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Synyster Gates is the son of musician, author, and comedian Brian Haner, Sr., who worked with Sam the Sham's band in the 1970s and has done session work for Avenged Sevenfold. Gates studied at the Musicians Institute in Los Angeles, California, as part of the Guitar Institute of Music program, studying jazz and classical guitar. Gates is of Spanish and German ancestry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Besides metal music, Synyster Gates is a big fan of jazz, gypsy jazz, classical and avant-garde. He cites Dimebag Darrell, Django Reinhardt, Steve Vai, John Petrucci, Slash, Marty Friedman, Zakk Wylde, Allan Holdsworth, Mr. Bungle, Frank Gambale, Oingo Boingo, and Danny Elfman as his artistic influences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Avenged Sevenfold.", "content": "Gates was featured on the EP \"Warmness on the Soul\" which contains select songs from the first album as well as his new version of \"To End The Rapture\". His name on Avenged Sevenfold's debut album was \"Synyster Gates\".  On the Avenged Sevenfold DVD \"All Excess\", Gates claimed that his name was created on a drunken drive through the park with the Rev.  Gates was voted Sexiest Male in the 2008 Kerrang Readers Poll. In 2010, Guitar World listed him as one of the 30 greatest shredders of all time. They described him as being able to perform finger-twisting licks, acrobatic sweeps, devilish chromatics and towering dual-harmonies. Gates was chosen as one of Guitar Hero's 50 fastest guitarists. On Guitar World's 2010 Readers Poll, Gates was chosen Snappiest Dresser and the Best Metal Guitarist. Rock One Magazine's 2010 Readers Poll voted Gates the No. 3 best musician in the industry. On April 20, 2011, Gates won the Revolver Golden God award for Best Guitarist along with bandmate, Zacky Vengeance. Avenged Sevenfold picked up numerous other awards and delivered the headlining performance of the night. In the Special Edition of \"Revolver\" magazine that was released the same day as the \"Nightmare\" album, Gates stated that he originally started out writing the song \"So Far Away\" in honor of his grandfather. However, the song is now primarily about his former bandmate, best friend and previous drummer of A7X, the Rev, who died on December 28, 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pinkly Smooth.", "content": "Gates and The Rev played in an experimental metal band named Pinkly Smooth. Formed in the summer of 2001 in Huntington Beach, California, the band featured ex-Ballistico members Buck Silverspur on bass and D-Rock on drums. The band released one album, \"Unfortunate Snort\" on Bucktan Records, which features a crossover sound of mostly punk, ska and progressive metal. Former Avenged Sevenfold bassist Justin Sane played keyboards and piano on the album. There was speculation that Pinkly Smooth was going to produce another record, but due to the death of the Rev, it is highly unlikely that they will produce any more material. However, Gates has said that he would consider remastering the tracks from \"Unfortunate Snort\" and re-releasing the album.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Synyster Gates married Michelle DiBenedetto on May 7, 2010. The couple have two children, a son, Nicolangelo \"Nicci\" Saint James Haner, born May 12, 2017, and a daughter, Monroe Saint James Haner, born October 14, 2019.  Michelle's twin sister, Valary, is married to M. Shadows, making Shadows and Gates brothers-in-law.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Guitars.", "content": "Synyster Gates uses mainly Schecter Guitars. Schecter Guitar Research has been sponsoring him and he has signature Avenger models. He has also been using Gibson Guitars when Avenged Sevenfold was recording \"Waking the Fallen\" and \"City of Evil\". He has his own Seymour Duncan pickups, a custom SH-8 Invader, with Black, Gold, White or Chrome caps.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Brian Elwin Haner Jr. (born July 7, 1981), better known by his stage name Synyster Gates or simply Syn, is an American musician, best known for being the lead guitarist and backing vocalist of the band Avenged Sevenfold. He ranks No. 87 on \"Guitar World\"s 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time. Gates was voted as Best Metal Guitarist in the World by \"Total Guitar\" in 2016 and once again in 2017.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976385}
{"src_title": "Sherlock Holmes (1984 TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Set in the late Victorian era, Sherlock Holmes is the world's only consulting detective. His practice is largely with private clients, but he is also known to assist the police, often in the shape of Inspector Lestrade, when their cases overlap. His clients range from private citizens of modest means to members of Royalty. His ability to spot clues overlooked by others, bring certain specialist knowledge - for example chemistry, botany, anatomy - and deductive reasoning to bear on problems enable him to solve the most complex cases. He is assisted in his work by military veteran Dr John Watson, with whom he shares a flat at 221B Baker Street. He craves mental stimulation, and is known to relapse into depression when there are insufficiently complex cases to engage him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "The series was initially produced by Michael Cox, with later episodes produced by June Wyndham Davies. It was developed for television by screenwriter John Hawkesworth, who also wrote many of the episodes (all based on individual Conan Doyle stories). Other writers to adapt Doyle's stories in the series included Alexander Baron, Jeremy Paul, T.R. Bowen, and Alan Plater. A full-scale outdoor replica of Baker Street was constructed at Granada's studios in Quay Street, Manchester, which later formed a central part of the Granada Studios Tour tourist attraction, before that venue's closure in 1999.  In addition to Brett, Burke and Hardwicke, other regular cast members included Rosalie Williams as housekeeper Mrs. Hudson, and Colin Jeavons as Inspector Lestrade of Scotland Yard. Also appearing in several episodes was Charles Gray as Holmes' brother Mycroft Holmes (who played the same character in the 1976 film \"The Seven-Per-Cent Solution\"), and Eric Porter who portrayed Holmes's nemesis Professor Moriarty in the second series of \"Adventures\". The role of the servant Joe Barnes who impersonates Lady Beatrice in the 1991 episode \"The Adventure of Shoscombe Old Place\" was played by Jude Law, who later played Dr. Watson in the 2009 film \"Sherlock Holmes\" and its 2011 sequel \"\". Helen Ryan made two guest appearances in the show as different characters, appearing in The Adventure of the Norwood Builder as Mrs McFarlane, and in The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone as the Princess of Wales (a role she previously played in Edward the Seventh). Inspector Bradstreet appeared in \"The Blue Carbuncle\", played by Brian Miller and then in \"The Man with the Twisted Lip\", \"The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans\" and \"The Mazarin Stone\", played by Denis Lill.  The series came to an end owing to the death of Brett at the age of 61 from heart failure in 1995.  The series is considered to present the most faithful screen adaptations of many of the Holmes stories, although liberties were taken with some plotlines and characters, particularly later in the run during the 1990s episodes (for instance \"The Mazarin Stone\", filmed in 1994, combined the plot elements of two separate Conan Doyle stories). A big change was Holmes quitting his cocaine habit in the episode \"The Devil's Foot,\" which was done with the approval of Conan Doyle's daughter, when it was discovered that the series had a considerable child audience. Nonetheless, the series has been highly praised for the performance of Jeremy Brett, its adherence to Doyle's original concept in the characterisation of Watson, its high production values, and its close attention to period detail.  As well as being broadcast by ITV in the UK, the series was also seen overseas, particularly in the United States, where the episodes initially ran on PBS stations in the \"Mystery!\" strand. Later series gained co-production funding from Boston PBS broadcaster WGBH. The shows have also been transmitted on two US cable television stations, Disney Channel and A&E Network, and on CBC in Canada. In the UK, the series has often been repeated: on Granada Plus; on ITV3; and on BBC Two, which ran the complete series on Saturday afternoons from 2003 to 2005. This makes it one of the very few programmes originally produced by an ITV company for broadcast on their own channel to have subsequently been shown on the BBC. In March 2006, the series returned to its original channel for the first time in over a decade, as part of the daytime television line-up on weekday afternoons.  The complete series has also been released on VHS and on DVD, twice on the latter medium, with the most recent 2005 release taking advantage of the digitally remastered film prints originally prepared for the BBC Two repeat run. In December 2012 the series was released on Blu-ray in Japan, in Spain in May 2013 in France in October 2013 and in the US in September 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Episodes.", "content": "The series ran for 41 episodes as \"The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes\" (1984–1985), \"The Return of Sherlock Holmes\" (1986–1988), \"The Case-Book of Sherlock Holmes\" (1991–1993) and \"The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes\" (1994); 36 ran for 50 minutes, and 5 were feature-length specials.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Four Oaks Mystery\".", "content": "In 1992 Brett and Hardwicke appeared in a mini-episode (about ten minutes in length) as part of \"The Four Oaks Mystery\", shown as part of the ITV network's \"Telethon 92\" charity telethon. This episode formed one of a four-part sequence of stories featuring the stars of four ITV detective shows of the time all separately working to solve the same mystery, broadcast at two episodes a night across one weekend. The other shows that produced mini-episodes for the special were \"Taggart\", \"Van der Valk\" and \"Inspector Wexford\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Region 1.", "content": "MPI Home Video has released the entire series on DVD in Region 1, in various incarnations. MPI released \"The Adventures & The Return\" in single disc volumes as well as complete collections. \"The Casebook & The Memoirs\" were released as a single collection box sets. In addition, on 25 September 2007, a complete series set was released featuring all 41 episodes in one complete collection for the very first time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Region 2.", "content": "ITV DVD has released the entire series in various collections as well as a complete series box set.  The Complete Collection mentioned above has English subtitles only. The complete series was released on Blu-ray in Spain in 2013. Though native to Spain, the 10 disc set is region-free and thus can be played in any region of the world.  The Complete Collection was released a second time on Blu-ray in Germany in 2016. It has German subtitles only but German and English soundtracks. This is a 14 disc set and is marked region 'B'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In other media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theatre.", "content": "During 1988–89 Brett and Hardwicke appeared in a West End play, \"The Secret of Sherlock Holmes\", a two-hander written specially for them by the television series screenwriter Jeremy Paul.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sherlock Holmes is the overall title given to the series of Sherlock Holmes adaptations produced by the British television company Granada Television between 1984 and 1994. The first two series were shown under the title \"The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes\" and were followed by subsequent series with the titles of other short story collections by Arthur Conan Doyle. The series was broadcast on the ITV network in the UK and starred Jeremy Brett (who had earlier portrayed Dr Watson on stage in the Los Angeles production of \"The Crucifer of Blood\" ) as the famous detective. His portrayal remains very popular and is accepted by some as the definitive on-screen version of Sherlock Holmes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976386}
{"src_title": "Stefan Dečanski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Stefan Uroš III was the son of King Stefan Uroš II Milutin and his first wife Jelena, a Serbian noblewoman. He was born before his father took the throne in 1282.  While still a youth, he was sent by his father as a hostage with his entourage to Nogai Khan of the Golden Horde, to maintain the peace between the Serbs and Tatars. He stayed at Nogai's court until the Khan's death in 1299.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile and return.", "content": "In 1314, Dečanski quarreled with his father, who sent him to Constantinople to be blinded. Dečanski was never totally blinded and was likely not blinded at all. In Constantinople, Dečanski was at the court of Andronikos II Palaiologos, indicating good relations between the states. Dečanski wrote a letter to Danilo, Bishop of Hum, asking him to intervene with his father. Danilo wrote to Archbishop Nicodemus of Serbia, who spoke with Milutin and persuaded him to recall his son. In 1320, Dečanski was permitted to return to Serbia and was given the appanage of Budimlje, while his half-brother Stefan Konstantin, held Zeta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "Milutin became ill and died on 29 October 1321, leaving no formal instruction regarding his inheritance. Konstantin was crowned King in Zeta, but civil war broke out immediately as both Dečanski and his cousin, Stefan Vladislav II, claimed the throne. Dečanski revealed that his eyesight was still intact, claiming a miracle, and the populace rallied behind him believing the restoration of his sight to be a sign from God. On 6 January 1322, the Archbishop of Serbia, Nicodemus, crowned Dečanski king and his son, Stefan Dušan, the young king. Dečanski later granted Zeta to Dušan as a fief, indicating his intention for Dušan to be his heir. According to one account, Dečanski offered to split the realm with Konstantin, who refused. Dečanski then invaded Zeta, and Konstantin was defeated and killed.  In the meantime, Vladislav II had been released from prison upon Milutin's death and recovered the throne of Syrmia, which his father had established in northern Serbia. Vladislav also claimed the throne of Serbia upon Milutin's death and mobilized local support from Rudnik, a former possession of Vladislav's father. Also supported by Hungarians, Bulgarians, and Bosnians, Vladislav consolidated control over Syrmia and prepared for battle with Dečanski.  In 1323, war broke out between Dečanski and Vladislav. In autumn, Vladislav still held Rudnik, but by the end of 1323, the market of Rudnik was held by officials of Dečanski, and Vladislav seems to have fled further north. Some of Vladislav's supporters from Rudnik, led by Ragusan merchant Menčet, took refuge in the nearby Ostrovica fortress, where they resisted Dečanski's troops. Dečanski sent envoys to Dubrovnik (Ragusa), to protest the support of Vladislav. Dubrovnik rejected Dečanski's complaint, claiming Ostrovica was held by Serbs. Dečanski was not satisfied, and in 1324 he rounded up all the Ragusan merchants he could find, confiscated their property, and held them captive. By year's end, Rudnik was restored to Dečanski, who released the merchants and returned their property. Vladislav was defeated in battle in late 1324, and fled to Hungary. Tensions between Dubrovnik and Serbia continued: in August 1325 Vojvoda Vojin plundered Dubrovnik, resulting in a brief trade ban. On 25 March 1326 Dečanski reaffirmed privileges previously granted to Ragusa by Milutin. Tensions began again, however, when Bosnia and Dubrovnik took actions against the Branivojevići.  Dečanski generally maintained an alliance with Andronikos II, aside from occasional disruptions. He avoided taking a position in the Byzantine civil war between Andronikos II and Andronikos III Palaiologos. Nevertheless, as Andronikos III gained control, he developed an alliance with Tsar Michael Asen III of Bulgaria. Michael Asen III divorced Dečanski's sister Anna and married the Byzantine princess Theodora Palaiologina instead. The allies intended to join forces for a major invasion of Serbia in 1330. In the most significant event of Dečanski's reign, he defeated and killed Michael Asen III in the Battle of Velbazhd (1330). Prince Stefan Dušan also contributed to the victory.  Hearing of Michael's defeat, Andronikos III retreated. Dečanski's subsequent conquests pushed the Serbian border south into Byzantine Macedonia. Some of his courtiers, however, were discontented with his policies and conspired to dethrone him in favour of Stefan Dušan. In 1331, Dušan came from Skadar to Nerodimlje to overthrow Dečanski, who fled to Petrič. On 21 August 1331 Dušan captured Petrič after a siege and imprisoned his father in Zvečan Fortress, where he was strangled to death on 11 November 1331.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Dečanski was married to an unnamed wife. They had no issue.  By his second wife, Theodora of Bulgaria, Stefan Dečanski had:  By his third wife, Maria Palaiologina, daughter of John Palaiologos, Dečanski had:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Dečanski is seen as a noble character in epic poetry, and the Serbian Orthodox Church had him canonized; his feast day is 24 November. His remains are venerated at the church of the Visoki Dečani monastery, which he built, in Kosovo.  Dečanski's royal crown has been preserved and is now kept at the Cetinje Monastery, in Montenegro.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stefan Uroš III Nemanjić (, ), known as Stefan Dečanski (Stefan of Dečani; Стефан Дечански, ; 1276 – 11 November 1331), was the King of Serbia from 6 January 1322 to 8 September 1331. Dečanski was the son of King Stefan Milutin, and he defeated several of his family members vying for the throne. He took his epithet \"Dečanski\" from the great monastery he built at Dečani.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976387}
{"src_title": "Nick Young (basketball)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "High school career.", "content": "Born in Los Angeles, California, Young played for Cleveland High School in suburban Reseda, California. He averaged 27.2 points and 10.8 rebounds as a 2004 senior at Cleveland, earning 2004 CIF L.A. City Section, Los Angeles Times All-City and San Fernando Valley first team honors. He shot 57.3% from the field and 46.8% from three-point range (52-of-111), had 48 steals and 41 blocks as Cleveland finished 25–4. Young was tabbed the seventh-best player in the country by HoopScoop and listed by prep basketball guru Frank Burlison as among the Top 50 recruits in 2004. He once scored 56 points in one game and had 23 rebounds in another. He earned CIF L.A. City Section first team honors in 2003 and was included in a list of Top Seniors by \"Athlon Sports\" heading into 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "College career.", "content": "Young played for the University of Southern California from 2004 to 2007 and was All-Pac-10 First Team in the 2005–06 and 2006–07 seasons. In the 2007 NCAA Tournament, Young led the fifth-seeded Trojans to a berth in the Sweet Sixteen, where they lost to the one-seeded North Carolina Tar Heels, 74–64. Along the way, Young led USC to a 77–60 first-round win against Arkansas. In the 2nd round, Young led the team with 22 points over the Texas Longhorns in an 87–68 rout of the team featuring the National Player of the Year, Kevin Durant, though Durant led both teams in scoring with 30.  Following his junior season, as expected, Young announced on April 15, 2007 to the \"Los Angeles Times\" that he would forgo his senior year to turn professional and enter the 2007 NBA Draft, where he was selected with the 16th overall pick by the Washington Wizards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Washington Wizards (2007–2012).", "content": "Young was selected 16th overall by the Washington Wizards in the 2007 NBA draft. He started his first career NBA game on December 15, 2007, against the Sacramento Kings.  On January 9, 2010, Young was fined $10,000 by the Washington Wizards for participating in Gilbert Arenas's antics before a game on January 5, 2010 against the Philadelphia 76ers. Arenas was being investigated for a prior incident involving guns in the Wizards' locker room, but made light of the accusations by pointing his finger at his teammates, as if he were shooting them. His teammates were photographed smiling and laughing with him.  Young scored a career-high 43 points on January 11, 2011 against the Sacramento Kings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Los Angeles Clippers (2012).", "content": "On March 15, 2012, Young was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers in a three-way trade involving the Denver Nuggets and Washington Wizards. Later, on April 16, 2012, he helped the Clippers clinch their first playoff berth in 6 years with a 19-point performance against the Oklahoma City Thunder. He was also a key part of the Clippers' comeback victory against the Memphis Grizzlies in game one of the first round of the 2012 playoffs, making three three-pointers in under a minute.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philadelphia 76ers (2012–2013).", "content": "On July 12, 2012, Young signed with the Philadelphia 76ers to a one-year deal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Los Angeles Lakers (2013–2017).", "content": "On July 11, 2013, Young signed with the Los Angeles Lakers. During the 2013–14 season, he converted a Lakers-record seven four-point plays while averaging a career-high 17.9 points per game.  On July 21, 2014, Young re-signed with Lakers to a reported four-year, $21.5 million contract. During training camp, he suffered a complete tear of the radial collateral ligament in his right thumb, and was expected to miss six to eight weeks. After missing the first ten games of the season with the injury, Young made his season debut on November 18 against the Atlanta Hawks, recording 17 points and 5 rebounds in a 114–109 win. On December 12, he scored a season-high 29 points in a 112–110 win over the San Antonio Spurs.  On November 30, 2016, Young was ruled out for two to four weeks due to a strained right calf muscle. On December 17, 2016, he made eight three-pointers and scored a season-high 32 points in a 119–108 loss to the Cleveland Cavaliers. Between late December and early January, Young's burst from long range gave him 36 three-pointers in eight games—the most in an eight-game stretch in Lakers franchise history. On April 2, 2017, after being held out of 11 of the previous 12 games despite being healthy, Young was shut down by the Lakers for the last five regular-season games. On June 21, 2017, the Lakers announced that Young elected not to exercise his option to extend his contract for the 2017–18 season, thus becoming an unrestricted free agent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Golden State Warriors (2017–2018).", "content": "On July 7, 2017, Young signed with the Golden State Warriors. In his debut for the Warriors in their season opener on October 17, 2017, Young came off the bench to hit six 3-pointers and score 23 points in a 122–121 loss to the Houston Rockets. He helped the Warriors reach the 2018 NBA Finals, where they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in a four-game sweep, with Young winning his first NBA championship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Denver Nuggets (2018).", "content": "On December 10, 2018, Young signed with the Denver Nuggets. Twenty days later, on December 30, he was waived by the Nuggets, after only appearing in four games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2007, Young became the main subject of a documentary titled \"Second Chance Season\", in which his exploits, shortcomings, and successes are reviewed.  Young has had an on-again, off-again relationship with his high school sweetheart Keonna Green since 2002. They have three children together, sons (born in 2012 and 2019) and a daughter (born in 2016).  Young and Australian rapper Iggy Azalea announced their engagement on June 1, 2015. Azalea broke off their engagement a year later after a video of Young discussing how he was having an affair with another woman surfaced. After Azalea broke off her engagement to Young, Keonna Green confirmed that she was 22 weeks pregnant with Young's second child.  Young is the cousin of Kevon Looney, who is also an NBA player. They became teammates with the Warriors in 2017–18. Young is also a cousin of rapper Kendrick Lamar.  Young's nickname is \"Swaggy P\", which he said is a pseudo-biblical reference to \"the Prophet of Swag\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicholas Aaron Young (born June 1, 1985), nicknamed \"Swaggy P\", is an American professional basketball player who last played for the Denver Nuggets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He plays both shooting guard and small forward positions. Young played college basketball for the USC Trojans and was a two-time first-team all-conference selection in the Pac-10. He was selected by the Washington Wizards in the first round of the 2007 NBA draft with the 16th overall pick. He won an NBA championship with the Golden State Warriors in 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976388}
{"src_title": "The Servant of Two Masters", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The play opens with the introduction of Beatrice, a woman who has traveled to Venice disguised as her dead brother in search of the man who killed him, Florindo, who is also her lover. Her brother forbade her to marry Florindo, and died defending his sister's honor. Beatrice disguises herself as Federigo (her dead brother) so that he can collect dowry money from Pantaloon (also spelled Pantalone), the father of Clarice, her brother's betrothed. She wants to use this money to help her lover escape, and to allow them to finally wed. But thinking that Beatrice's brother was dead, Clarice has fallen in love with another man, Silvio, and the two have become engaged. Interested in keeping up appearances, Pantalone tries to conceal the presence of Federigo and Silvio from one another.  Beatrice's servant, the exceptionally quirky and comical Truffaldino, is the central figure of this play. He is always complaining of an empty stomach, and always trying to satisfy his hunger by eating everything and anything in sight. When the opportunity presents itself to be servant to another master (Florindo, as it happens) he sees the opportunity for an extra dinner.  As Truffaldino runs around Venice trying to fill the orders of two masters, he is almost uncovered several times, especially because other characters repeatedly hand him letters, money, etc. and say simply \"this is for your master\" without specifying which one. To make matters worse, the stress causes him to develop a temporary stutter, which only arouses more problems and suspicion among his masters. To further complicate matters, Beatrice and Florindo are staying in the same hotel, and are searching for each other.  In the end, with the help of Clarice and Smeraldina (Pantalone's feisty servant, who is smitten with Truffaldino), Beatrice and Florindo finally find each other, and with Beatrice exposed as a woman, Clarice is allowed to marry Silvio. The last matter up for discussion is whether Truffaldino and Smeraldina can get married, which at last exposes Truffaldino's having played both sides all along. However, as everyone has just decided to get married, Truffaldino is forgiven. Truffaldino asks Smeraldina to marry him.  The most famous set-piece of the play is the scene in which the starving Truffaldino tries to serve a banquet to the entourages of both his masters without either group becoming aware of the other, while desperately trying to satisfy his own hunger at the same time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characterization.", "content": "The characters of the play are taken from the Italian Renaissance theatre style \"commedia dell'arte\". In classic \"commedia\" tradition, an actor learns a stock character (usually accentuated by a mask) and plays it to perfection throughout his career. The actors had a list of possible scenarios, each with a very basic plot, called a \"canovaccio\", and throughout would perform physical-comedy acts known as \"lazzi\" (from Italian \"lazzo\", a joke or witticism) and the dialogue was improvised.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characters.", "content": "The characters from \"The Servant of Two Masters\" are derived from stock characters used in \"commedia dell'arte\". True \"commedia dell'arte\" is more or less improvised without a script, so \"The Servant of Two Masters\" is not true \"commedia\". The stock characters were used as guides for the actors improvising.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "There have been several adaptations of the play for the cinema and for the stage:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Servant of Two Masters () is a comedy by the Italian playwright Carlo Goldoni written in 1746. Goldoni originally wrote the play at the request of actor Antonio Sacco, one of the great Truffaldinos in history. His earliest drafts had large sections that were reserved for improvisation, but he revised it in 1753 in the version that exists today. The play draws on the tradition of the earlier Italian \"commedia dell'arte\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976389}
{"src_title": "Napier Lion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Early in the First World War, Napier were contracted to build aero engines to designs from other companies, initially a Royal Aircraft Factory model and then Sunbeams. Both engines proved to be unreliable and in 1916 Napier decided to design an engine with high power, light weight and low frontal area. Napier's engineers laid out the engine with its 12 cylinders in what they called a \"broad arrow\"—three banks of four cylinders sharing a common crankcase. This suggested the design's first name, the Triple-Four. The configuration is also known as a W engine. The engine was also advanced in form, the heads using four valves per cylinder with twin overhead camshafts on each bank of cylinders and a single block being milled from aluminium instead of the common separate-cylinder steel construction used on almost all other designs.  Under Arthur Rowledge, the design of the engine, renamed Lion, was completed in 1917; hand-built prototypes ran later that year. It was fitted to an Airco DH.9 in early 1918, and many cooling problems were observed during testing. The milled block was difficult to build with the required accuracy and the design reverted to separate aluminium cylinders. Both problems were solved by the middle of the year and the engine entered production in June 1918. The first Lion I versions delivered from their 24 litres. The power output made the Lion the most powerful Allied aircraft engine, which had previously been the Liberty L-12, producing.  As the most powerful engine available (particularly after a turbocharger became an option in 1922), the Lion went on to commercial success. Through the years between the wars the Lion was ubiquitous and Napier manufactured little else. They stopped making cars in 1925 and little thought was given to replacing their world-famous product. Between the wars the Lion engine powered over 160 different aircraft types. In highly tuned racing versions, the engine could reach and it was used to break many world height, air speed and distance records in aircraft and boats, delivering in a highly tuned Lion for a water speed record of in 1933. In land speed records, Lion engines powered many of Sir Malcolm Campbell's including a record of over in 1932 and John Cobb's \"Railton Mobil Special\" in 1947—a record that came well after the Lion had passed its prime and stood until the 1960s. The record had been held by British drivers for 32 years. Lions powered successful entrants in the most prestigious event in air racing, the Schneider Trophy, in 1922 and 1927 but were dropped by Supermarine in favour of a new engine, the Rolls-Royce R, which had been designed for racing.  During the 1930s a new generation of much larger and more powerful engines appeared and the Lion became uncompetitive. By the time the Bristol Hercules and the Rolls-Royce Merlin arrived in the late 1930s, the Lion was obsolete. The Sea Lion, a marine version of the Lion, was used to power high speed RAF Rescue Launches. The Lion aero engine was also adapted to power propeller-driven motor sleighs, which were used for high-speed transport and SAR duties on sea ice by the Finnish Air Force and Navy.  Turning away from the broad arrow layout, Napier designed new engines using the more compact H engine layout. The 16-cylinder Napier Rapier produced and the 24-cylinder Napier Dagger delivered just under. The engines were smaller than contemporary designs from other companies and Napier started afresh with a new sleeve valve design, which evolved into the Napier Sabre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engines on display.", "content": "Preserved Napier Lion engines are on static display at", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Napier Lion was a 12-cylinder, petrol-fueled 'broad arrow' W12 configuration aircraft engine built by D. Napier & Son from 1917 until the 1930s. A number of advanced features made it the most powerful engine of its day and kept it in production long after other contemporary designs had been superseded. It is particularly well known for its use in a number of racing designs, for aircraft, boats and cars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976390}
{"src_title": "Tanacetum parthenium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The plant is a herbaceous perennial that grows into a small bush, up to high, with pungently-scented leaves. The leaves are light yellowish green, variously pinnatifid. The conspicuous daisy-like flowers are up to 20 mm across, borne in lax corymbs. The outer, ray florets have white ligules and the inner, disc florets are yellow and tubular. It spreads rapidly by seed, and will cover a wide area after a few years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and cultivation.", "content": "Feverfew is native to Eurasia, specifically the Balkan Peninsula, Anatolia, and the Caucasus, but cultivation has spread it around the world and it now is found in the rest of Europe, North America, and Chile.  A perennial herb, it should be planted in full sun, apart, and cut back to the ground in the autumn. It grows up to tall. It is hardy to USDA zone 5 (). Outside of its native range, it may become an invasive weed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "In traditional herbal medicine, feverfew has been used for fever, headache, arthritis, and digestive problems. The active ingredients in feverfew include parthenolide. There has been some scientific interest in parthenolide, which has been shown to induce apoptosis in some cancer cell lines \"in vitro\" and, potentially, to target cancer stem cells. There are no published \"in vivo\" studies of parthenolide or feverfew for humans with cancer.  The parthenolide content of commercially available feverfew supplements varies substantially, by more than 40-fold, despite labeling claims of \"standardization\". A study found that the parthenolide content of these supplements bore little resemblance to the content claimed on the product labels.  In August of 2019, \"ScienceDaily\" reported that researchers at the University of Birmingham announced that they had developed a method to produce parthenolide directly from the plants and a way of modifying that parthenolide to produce a number of compounds, both of which techniques seem promising to enable clinical research into the potential of feverfew for medical applications.  Long-term use of feverfew followed by abrupt discontinuation may induce a withdrawal syndrome featuring rebound headaches and muscle and joint pains. Feverfew may cause allergic reactions, including contact dermatitis. Other side effects have included gastrointestinal upset such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and flatulence. When the herb is chewed or taken orally it may cause mouth ulcers and swelling and numbness of the mouth. Feverfew should not be taken by pregnant women. It may interact with blood thinners and increase the risk of bleeding, and also may interact with a variety of medications metabolized by the liver.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The word \"feverfew\" derives from the Latin word \"febrifugia\", meaning \"fever reducer\", although it no longer is considered useful for that purpose.  Although its earliest medicinal use is unknown, it was documented in the first century (AD) as an anti-inflammatory by the Greek herbalist physician, Dioscorides.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tanacetum parthenium, known as feverfew, is a flowering plant in the daisy family, Asteraceae. It is a traditional medicinal herb that is used commonly to prevent migraine headaches. Occasionally, it is grown for ornament. It usually is identified in the literature with its synonyms, \"Chrysanthemum parthenium\" and \"Pyrethrum parthenium\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976391}
{"src_title": "Roza Robota", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Ciechanów, Poland, to a middle-class family, Róża had one brother and one sister. She was a member of Hashomer Hatzair Zionist-socialist youth movement, and joined that movement's underground, upon the 1939 Nazi German invasion of Poland. Róża often used her Hebrew name, Shoshanah. In the home of Izajasz (Isaiah) Robota at Żydowska 4 Street in Ciechanów was the Perec Library, the most active Jewish cultural society in the city, organizing discussions about the Polish, Jewish and world literature, as well as theatre performances, lectures, and dances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Auschwitz.", "content": "Roza was transported to Auschwitz concentration camp in a Holocaust train during the liquidation of the Ciechanów Ghetto in 1942. She survived the \"selection\" and was assigned to Auschwitz-II Birkenau labor commando for women, where she got involved in the underground dissemination of news among the prisoners. No one else from her family in Europe is known to have survived. She worked in the clothing depot at the Birkenau \"Effektenlager\" adjacent to Crematorium III of Birkenau, where the bodies of gas chamber victims were burned. She had been recruited by men of the underground whom she knew from her hometown, to smuggle \"Schwarzpulver\" (gunpowder; or dynamite according to other sources) collected by women in the Krupp \"Weichsel\" munitions factory, and then transferring it to a \"Sonderkommando\" man named Wróbel, who was also active in the resistance. This \"schwartzpulver\" was used to manufacture primitive grenades to help blow up the crematorium during the \"Sonderkommando\" revolt. In her work, she was assisted by Hadassa Zlotnicka and Asir-Godel Zilber, both also from Ciechanów, whom Robota apparently enlisted in the resistance. Together with a few other women who worked in the Nazi \"pulverraum\" factory, they were able to obtain, hide, and turn over to the men of the underground no more than one to three teaspoons of the \"schwartzpulver\" compound per day, and not every day. The \"Sonderkommando\" blew up Crematorium III on 6 October 1944.  Robota and three other women – Ala Gertner, Estusia Wajcblum, and Regina Safirsztajn – were arrested by the Gestapo and tortured in the infamous Bloc 23 but they refused to reveal the names of others who participated in the smuggling operation. They were hung on 6 January 1945 – two women at the morning roll-call assembly, two others in the evening. Robota was 23 years old. According to some eyewitness accounts, she and her comrades shouted \"Nekamah\" (\"Vengeance!\"), or \"Be Strong\" to the assembled inmates before they died. Some say they shouted, \"Chazak V'amatz\" – \"Be strong and have courage\", the Biblical phrase that God uses to encourage Joshua after the death of Moses. This is also the motto of Hashomer Hatzair, the youth organization she belonged to.  The Sonderkommando Revolt caused some 70 fatalities among the SS and kapos, and blew the roof off one crematorium, yet the Nazis knew the advancing Russian Army was very close to liberating the camp. It was clear to the Nazis that all evidence of the war-time atrocities had to be concealed, so the Germans attempted to destroy the other four crematoria themselves.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Roza Robota's memory lives on, in the naming of the Roza Robota Gates at Montefiore Randwick (Sydney, Australia). This initiative was made possible by Sam Spitzer, a resistance fighter during World War II and now a resident of Sydney. He named the gates in honour of his war-time hero, Robota, and his late wife, Margaret. Spitzer's sister was in Auschwitz with Robota.  At Yad Vashem in Jerusalem, a monument was built to honor Robota and the three other executed women. It stands in a prime location in the garden.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roza Robota (1921, Ciechanów – 6 January 1945) or Róża Robota in Polish, referred to in other sources as Rojza, Rozia or Rosa, was the leader of a group of four women Holocaust resistors hanged in the Auschwitz concentration camp for their role in the \"Sonderkommando\" prisoner revolt of 7 October 1944.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976392}
{"src_title": "Jimmy Carson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "As a youth, Carson played in the 1980 and 1981 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournaments with the Detroit Compuware minor ice hockey team.  Carson was drafted by the Los Angeles Kings in the 1986 NHL Entry Draft as the second overall pick. He scored 37 goals as an 18-year-old rookie in the 1986–87 NHL season. In just his second NHL season he notched 55 goals, and established himself as one of the sport's top young players. He was part of the August 9, 1988, blockbuster trade that sent himself, Martin Gélinas, the Kings' three first-round draft picks in 1989, 1991 and 1993, and $15 million cash to the Edmonton Oilers for Wayne Gretzky, Marty McSorley and Mike Krushelnyski.  Carson demanded a trade out of Edmonton in November 1989. He was traded to his hometown of Detroit along with Kevin McClelland and a fifth-round draft pick for Adam Graves, Petr Klíma and Joe Murphy. These players were instrumental in helping Edmonton win their fifth Stanley Cup in seven years in 1990.  Carson later returned to Los Angeles in January 1993, following a trade for popular all-star defenseman Paul Coffey. He played with Gretzky and the Kings for parts of two seasons, but never regained the scoring touch he had early in his career. He later played for the Vancouver Canucks and the Hartford Whalers, where he ended his NHL career in 1996.  From 1996-1998 Carson played for his hometown Detroit Vipers of the International Hockey League. He was a member of the 1997 Turner Cup-winning team.  Carson represented the United States in the 1986 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships and the 1987 World Ice Hockey Championships.  Carson participated in the Red Wings versus Toronto Maple Leafs alumni game before the 2014 NHL Winter Classic at Comerica Park.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Carson is of Greek descent; his grandfather changed the family name from Kyriazopoulos to Carson upon immigrating to the United States.  While still a player in the NHL, Carson began to prepare for a post-hockey career by earning certifications in financial planning in 1992. When his playing career ended, he joined Northwestern Mutual.  Carson and his wife have four children and reside in the Metro Detroit area. They have three sons and one daughter.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "James Charles Carson (born July 20, 1968) is an American former professional hockey player. He played 10 seasons in the National Hockey League with five different teams. In 1988, he became only the second teenager in NHL history to score 50 goals in a season; the first was Wayne Gretzky.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976393}
{"src_title": "Butyriboletus appendiculatus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The species was first described scientifically by German polymath Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1774 as \"Boletus appendiculatus\". American Charles Horton Peck later used the name in 1896 for a species he found in Washington, but the name was illegitimate because Schäffer's earlier usage has priority. Until 2014, it was classified in the genus \"Boletus\". Molecular phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that it and other members of \"Boletus\" section \"Appendiculati\" were phylogenetically distinct from \"Boletus\", and the genus \"Butyriboletus\" was created to contain them.  The specific epithet \"appendiculatus\" means \"with a small appendage\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Fruit bodies of \"Butyriboletus appendiculatus\" have convex to flattened, brown to yellowish brown caps measuring in diameter. They have a dry to slightly sticky surface texture that may develop cracks with age. The mushroom has very firm yellowish flesh that may slowly change blue when cut or bruised. The pores on the cap undersurface are butter yellow, and may also bruise blue, although this is less likely in young specimens. The stipe is long by thick at the top near the attachment to the cap, and ranges from thicker at the base to equal throughout, to tapered at the bottom. It is also yellow, sometimes developing brownish to reddish stains, and may have fine reticulations near the top. The spore print is dark olive-brown. Individual spores are ellipsoidal to spindle-shaped, smooth, and measure 12–15 by 3.5–5 μm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "The Europe species \"Butyriboletus subappendiculatus\" is quite similar to \"B. appendiculatus\" in microscopic characters. It can be distinguished in the field by the lack of a bruising color reaction, more pallid cap colors, and growth under conifers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "The bolete is edible and considered choice by several sources, although some warn that certain individuals may have an allergic reaction to it. The earthy flavor of the mushrooms make them suitable for soups, sauces and stews. Cooked portions will often turn blue, then gray, then return to their original yellow color.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Butyriboletus appendiculatus\" is found in Europe and North America. Fruit bodies grow singly, scattered, or in groups under hardwood trees. In North America, it is more common in the Pacific Northwest region, where it often associates with live oak and tanoak.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Butyriboletus appendiculatus is an edible pored mushroom that grows under oaks and other broad leaved trees such as beech. It is commonly known as the butter bolete. It often grows in large colonies beneath the oak trees, and is frequently found cohabiting with old oaks in ancient woodland. It is relatively rare in Britain. Its stipe and pores are often bright yellow (hence its name of butter bolete) and its flesh stains bright blue when cut or bruised.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976394}
{"src_title": "La Trinità della Cava", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "It was founded in 1011 by Alferius of Pappacarbone, a noble of Salerno who became a Cluniac monk and had lived as a hermit in the vicinity since 1011. Pope Urban II endowed this monastery with many privileges, making it immediately subject to the Holy See, with jurisdiction over the surrounding territory.  The first four abbots were canonized as saints on December 21, 1893, by Pope Leo XIII.  In 1394, Pope Boniface IX elevated it to a diocese, with the abbots functioning as bishops. In 1513, Pope Leo X separated the two offices, detaching the city of Cava from the abbot's jurisdiction. About the same time the Cluniacs were replaced by Cassinese monks.  The monastery was closed under Napoleon but the community remained relatively unscathed, thanks to Abbot Carlo Mazzacane, and was restored after his fall. The abbey still provides the surrounding parishes with clergy.  The church and the greater part of the buildings were entirely modernized in 1796. The old Gothic cloisters are preserved. The church contains a fine organ and several ancient sarcophagi.  The church of the monastery has the tombs of Queen Sibylla of Burgundy (died 1150), second consort of King Roger II of Sicily, and a number of notable ecclesiastics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Library.", "content": "The monastery contains the Biblioteca statale del Monumento Nazionale Badia di Cava with its rich archives of public and private documents, which date back to the 8th century, e.g., the \"Codex Legum Longobardorum\" of 1004 (the oldest digest of Lombard law), and the La Cava Bible and fine \"incunabula\". The monastery later became the seat of a national educational establishment, under the care of the Benedictines.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "La Trinità della Cava (), commonly known as Badia di Cava, is a Benedictine territorial abbey located near Cava de' Tirreni, in the province of Salerno, southern Italy. It stands in a gorge of the Finestre Hills.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976395}
{"src_title": "Chemical reactor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The most common basic types of chemical reactors are tanks (where the reactants mix in the whole volume) and pipes or tubes (for laminar flow reactors and plug flow reactors)  Both types can be used as continuous reactors or batch reactors, and either may accommodate one or more solids (reagents, catalysts, or inert materials), but the reagents and products are typically fluids (liquids or gases). Reactors in continuous processes are typically run at steady-state, whereas reactors in batch processes are necessarily operated in a transient state. When a reactor is brought into operation, either for the first time or after a shutdown, it is in a transient state, and key process variables change with time.  There are three idealised models used to estimate the most important process variables of different chemical reactors:  Many real-world reactors can be modeled as a combination of these basic types.  Key process variables include:  A tubular reactor can often be a packed bed. In this case, the tube or channel contains particles or pellets, usually a solid catalyst. The reactants, in liquid or gas phase, are pumped through the catalyst bed. A chemical reactor may also be a fluidized bed; see Fluidized bed reactor.  Chemical reactions occurring in a reactor may be exothermic, meaning giving off heat, or endothermic, meaning absorbing heat. A tank reactor may have a cooling or heating jacket or cooling or heating coils (tubes) wrapped around the outside of its vessel wall to cool down or heat up the contents, while tubular reactors can be designed like heat exchangers if the reaction is strongly exothermic, or like furnaces if the reaction is strongly endothermic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Batch reactor.", "content": "The simplest type of reactor is a batch reactor. Materials are loaded into a batch reactor, and the reaction proceeds with time. A batch reactor does not reach a steady state, and control of temperature, pressure and volume is often necessary. Many batch reactors therefore have ports for sensors and material input and output. Batch reactors are typically used in small-scale production and reactions with biological materials, such as in brewing, pulping, and production of enzymes. One example of a batch reactor is a pressure reactor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CSTR (continuous stirred-tank reactor).", "content": "In a CSTR, one or more fluid reagents are introduced into a tank reactor which is typically stirred with an impeller to ensure proper mixing of the reagents while the reactor effluent is removed. Dividing the volume of the tank by the average volumetric flow rate through the tank gives the space time, or the time required to process one reactor volume of fluid. Using chemical kinetics, the reaction's expected percent completion can be calculated. Some important aspects of the CSTR: The behavior of a CSTR is often approximated or modeled by that of a Continuous Ideally Stirred-Tank Reactor (CISTR). All calculations performed with CISTRs assume perfect mixing. If the residence time is 5-10 times the mixing time, this approximation is considered valid for engineering purposes. The CISTR model is often used to simplify engineering calculations and can be used to describe research reactors. In practice it can only be approached, particularly in industrial size reactors in which the mixing time may be very large.  A loop reactor is a hybrid type of catalytic reactor that physically resembles a tubular reactor, but operates like a CSTR. The reaction mixture is circulated in a loop of tube, surrounded by a jacket for cooling or heating, and there is a continuous flow of starting material in and product out.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PFR (plug flow reactor).", "content": "In a PFR, sometimes called continuous tubular reactor (CTR), one or more fluid reagents are pumped through a pipe or tube. The chemical reaction proceeds as the reagents travel through the PFR. In this type of reactor, the changing reaction rate creates a gradient with respect to distance traversed; at the inlet to the PFR the rate is very high, but as the concentrations of the reagents decrease and the concentration of the product(s) increases the reaction rate slows. Some important aspects of the PFR:  For most chemical reactions of industrial interest, it is impossible for the reaction to proceed to 100% completion. The rate of reaction decreases as the reactants are consumed until the point where the system reaches dynamic equilibrium (no net reaction, or change in chemical species occurs). The equilibrium point for most systems is less than 100% complete. For this reason a separation process, such as distillation, often follows a chemical reactor in order to separate any remaining reagents or byproducts from the desired product. These reagents may sometimes be reused at the beginning of the process, such as in the Haber process. In some cases, very large reactors would be necessary to approach equilibrium, and chemical engineers may choose to separate the partially reacted mixture and recycle the leftover reactants.  Under laminar flow conditions, the assumption of plug flow is highly inaccurate, as the fluid traveling through the center of the tube moves much faster than the fluid at the wall. The continuous oscillatory baffled reactor (COBR) achieves thorough mixing by the combination of fluid oscillation and orifice baffles, allowing plug flow to be approximated under laminar flow conditions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semibatch reactor.", "content": "A semibatch reactor is operated with both continuous and batch inputs and outputs. A fermenter, for example, is loaded with a batch of medium and microbes which constantly produces carbon dioxide that must be removed continuously. Similarly, reacting a gas with a liquid is usually difficult, because a large volume of gas is required to react with an equal mass of liquid. To overcome this problem, a continuous feed of gas can be bubbled through a batch of a liquid. In general, in semibatch operation, one chemical reactant is loaded into the reactor and a second chemical is added slowly (for instance, to prevent side reactions), or a product which results from a phase change is continuously removed, for example a gas formed by the reaction, a solid that precipitates out, or a hydrophobic product that forms in an aqueous solution.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Catalytic reactor.", "content": "Although catalytic reactors are often implemented as plug flow reactors, their analysis requires more complicated treatment. The rate of a catalytic reaction is proportional to the amount of catalyst the reagents contact, as well as the concentration of the reactants. With a solid phase catalyst and fluid phase reagents, this is proportional to the exposed area, efficiency of diffusion of reagents in and products out, and efficacy of mixing. Perfect mixing usually cannot be assumed. Furthermore, a catalytic reaction pathway often occurs in multiple steps with intermediates that are chemically bound to the catalyst; and as the chemical binding to the catalyst is also a chemical reaction, it may affect the kinetics. Catalytic reactions often display so-called \"falsified kinetics\", when the apparent kinetics differ from the actual chemical kinetics due to physical transport effects.  The behavior of the catalyst is also a consideration. Particularly in high-temperature petrochemical processes, catalysts are deactivated by processes such as sintering, coking, and poisoning.  A common example of a catalytic reactor is the catalytic converter that processes toxic components of automobile exhausts. However, most petrochemical reactors are catalytic, and are responsible for most industrial chemical production, with extremely high-volume examples including sulfuric acid, ammonia, reformate/BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene), and fluid catalytic cracking. Various configurations are possible, see Heterogeneous catalytic reactor.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A chemical reactor is an enclosed volume in which a chemical reaction takes place. In chemical engineering, it is generally understood to be a process vessel used to carry out a chemical reaction, which is one of the classic unit operations in chemical process analysis. The design of a chemical reactor deals with multiple aspects of chemical engineering. Chemical engineers design reactors to maximize net present value for the given reaction. Designers ensure that the reaction proceeds with the highest efficiency towards the desired output product, producing the highest yield of product while requiring the least amount of money to purchase and operate. Normal operating expenses include energy input, energy removal, raw material costs, labor, etc. Energy changes can come in the form of heating or cooling, pumping to increase pressure, frictional pressure loss or agitation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976396}
{"src_title": "Francisco Boix", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "As a Spanish republican he was exiled in France in 1939. He was recruited by the French Foreign Legion and French Army and captured in 1940 by the Germans. Boix, like over 7,000 Spaniards, was an inmate in the Mauthausen concentration camp between January 1941 and May 1945. From the end of August 1941 he worked in the \"Erkennungsdienst\", the photography department of the camp administration, taking ID photos of inmates and documenting events in the camp. He was able to hide and preserve until liberation about 20,000 negatives taken by the SS head of the department, Paul Ricken, as well as by himself.  On January 28 and 29, 1946 at the Nuremberg trial (International Military Tribunal), Boix was called by the French prosecution to show photographs taken by the SS in Mauthausen. Those photos depicted the conditions in which the prisoners lived and were murdered in that camp. They were also proof that the camp was known and visited by high leaders of the Third Reich, such as Ernst Kaltenbrunner, who appeared visiting both the Mauthausen camp proper, and the Wienergraben quarry adjacent to the camp.  In April 1946 Boix was again a witness, this time in the American military trial that took place in Dachau against 61 accused from the Mauthausen camp.  Between 1945 and 1951 Boix worked as a photo reporter in the French press, particularly for a newspaper associated with the French Communist Party.  He died in Paris on 7 July 1951 from kidney failure at age 30.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Films.", "content": "\"Francisco Boix, A Photographer in Hell\" is a documentary directed by Llorenç Soler and released in 2000. \"El fotógrafo de Mauthausen\" is a Spanish film directed by Mar Targarona released on 26 October 2018. Mario Casas plays Francisco Boix.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Graphic novel.", "content": "A graphic novel adaptation telling the story of Boix titled \"Le Photographe de Mauthausen\" was published in 2017 by Belgian publisher Le Lombard, written by Salva Rubio and drawn by Pedro J. Colombo.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Francesc Boix i Campo (in Spanish \"Francisco Boix Campo\", 31 August 1920 in Barcelona – 7 July 1951 in Paris) was a veteran of the Spanish Civil War and photographer who was imprisoned in the Mauthausen concentration camp. At the Nuremberg and Dachau trials he presented photographs that played a role in the conviction of Nazi war criminals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976397}
{"src_title": "Izis Bidermanas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Marijampolė, present-day Lithuania, Bidermanas arrived in France in 1930 to become a painter. In 1933, he directed a photographic studio in the 13th Arrondissement of Paris. During World War II, being a Jew, he had to leave occupied Paris. He went to Ambazac, in the Limousin, where he adopted the pseudonym Izis and where he was arrested and tortured by the Nazis. He was freed by the French Resistance and became an underground fighter. At that time he photographed his companions, including Colonel Georges Guingouin. The poet and underground fighter Robert Giraud was the first to write about Izis in the weekly magazine \"Unir\", a magazine created by the Resistance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Humanist photography.", "content": "Upon the liberation of France at the end of World War II, Izis had a series of portraits of \"maquisards\" (rural resistance fighters who operated mainly in southern France) published to considerable acclaim. He returned to Paris where he became friends with French poet Jacques Prévert and other artists. Izis became a major figure in the mid-century French movement of humanist photography — also exemplified by Brassaï, Cartier-Bresson, Doisneau, Sabine Weiss and Ronis — with \"work that often displayed a wistfully poetic image of the city and its people.\"  For his first book, \"Paris des rêves\" (Paris of Dreams), Izis asked writers and poets to contribute short texts to accompany his photographs, many of which showed Parisians and others apparently asleep or daydreaming. The book, which Izis designed, was a success. Izis joined \"Paris Match\" in 1950 and remained with it for twenty years, during which time he could choose his assignments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition and legacy.", "content": "Meanwhile, his books continued to be popular with the public. Among the numerous books by Izis, Gerry Badger and Martin Parr have especial praise for \"Le Cirque d'Izis\" (The Circus of Izis), \"published in 1965, but bearing the stamp of an earlier era\". Shot mostly in Paris but also in Lyon, Marseille and Toulon, the photographs are \"affectionate and nostalgic, but also deeply melancholic\" with \"a desolate undercurrent\", forming a work that is \"profound, moving and extraordinary\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Israëlis Bidermanas (17 January 1911 in Marijampolė – 16 May 1980 in Paris), who worked under the name of Izis, was a Lithuanian-Jewish photographer who worked in France and is best known for his photographs of French circuses and of Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976398}
{"src_title": "Olga Kurylenko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kurylenko was born in Berdyansk, Ukraine, then Ukrainian SSR. Her father, Konstantin, is Ukrainian, and her mother, Marina Alyabusheva, who teaches art and is an exhibited artist, was born in Irkutsk Oblast, Russia, and is of Russian and Belarusian ancestry.  Her parents divorced when she was three and she was raised by her single mother. Kurylenko rarely had contact with her father, meeting him for the first time after the split when she was eight, and later when she was thirteen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Kurylenko moved from native Berdyansk to Moscow at 15. At the age of 16, she moved to Paris. In 1996, she signed a contract with the Paris-based Madison modelling agency where she met her publicist Valérie Rosen. The following year, by the age of 18, she had appeared on the covers of \"Vogue\" and \"Elle\" magazines. While working as a model in Paris, Kurylenko supported her mother in Ukraine.  She also appeared on the covers of \"Madame Figaro\" and \"Marie Claire\" magazines. She became the face of brands Bebe, Clarins, and Helena Rubinstein. She has also modelled for Roberto Cavalli and Kenzo and appeared in the Victoria's Secret catalogue.  In 1998, she features in the music video of French-Algerian Raï style singer Faudel called \"Tellement Je T'aime\".  One of her first acting appearances was in Seal's music video, \"Love's Divine\" in 2003, but her film career truly began in France during 2005. She received the certificate of excellence award at the 2006 Brooklyn International Film Festival for her performance in \"L'Annulaire\", and also starred in the \"Paris, je t'aime\" segment \"\"Quartier de la Madeleine\" opposite Elijah Wood. That same year, she was selected to be the face of Kenzo's new fragrance, \"Kenzo Amour\". She has appeared in all subsequent \"Kenzo Amour\" advertisements.  In 2007, she starred in \"Hitman\" alongside Timothy Olyphant. She had a minor role in \"Max Payne\" as Natasha. She played Bond girl Camille Montes in the 2008 James Bond film, \"Quantum of Solace\" (after beating out Gal Gadot in the auditions). In the film she plays the role of a Bolivian Secret Service agent named Camille, who teams up with James Bond to avenge the death of her parents.  She was featured on the cover of the December 2008 issue of the US edition of \"Maxim\" magazine and on the cover of the February 2009 issue of the Ukrainian edition of \"Maxim\". In Ukraine the mayor of Berdyansk suggested naming a street after her in early 2008, and she and her mother met Ukraine's First Lady Kateryna Yushchenko in President Yushchenko's family country house.  Kurylenko appeared in Terrence Malick's \"To the Wonder\", shot in fall 2010 in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. She also appeared in \"Oblivion\", a science fiction film starring Tom Cruise and directed by Joseph Kosinski. Kurylenko played Alice Fournier who is the main subject of the spy thriller \"November Man\".  In 2014, Kurylenko starred in the historical drama film \"The Water Diviner\" alongside Russell Crowe (who made his directorial debut), Jacqueline McKenzie and Jai Courtney. She also played the headmistress in Vampire Academy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Kurylenko acquired French citizenship in 2001. She married French fashion photographer Cedric van Mol in 2000, but the couple divorced four years later. She married American mobile phone accessory entrepreneur Damian Gabrielle in 2006, but that marriage ended in divorce in late 2007. Kurylenko moved to London in 2009.  Kurylenko and her former partner Max Benitz have one son, Alexander Max Horatio, born on 3 October 2015.  On 15 March 2020, Kurylenko announced she had tested positive for COVID-19. On 22 March, she said that she had completely recovered.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Olga Konstiantinivna Kurylenko (born 14 November 1979) is a Ukraine-born French actress and model. She was discovered as a model in Moscow at the age of 13. She moved to Paris to pursue a modelling career at the age of 16 and started her acting career in 2005. She found success as an actress for her role as Nika Boronina in the film adaptation of the video game \"Hitman\" (2007), and then mainstream prominence with the role of Bond girl Camille Montes in the 22nd James Bond film, \"Quantum of Solace\" (2008). More recently she starred in Stephen S. Campanelli's \"Momentum\" (2015), Terrence Malick's \"To the Wonder\" (2012), alongside Tom Cruise in \"Oblivion\" (2013), with Russell Crowe in \"The Water Diviner\" (2014), alongside Rowan Atkinson in the spy comedy film \"Johnny English Strikes Again\" (2018) and \"The Room\" (2019).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976399}
{"src_title": "Bursera simaruba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Bursera simaruba\" is a small to medium-sized tree growing to 30 meters tall, with a diameter of one meter or less at 1.5 meters above ground. The bark is shiny dark red, and the leaves are spirally arranged and pinnate with 7-11 leaflets, each leaflet broad ovate, 4–10 cm long and 2–5 cm broad.  The gumbo-limbo is comically referred to as the tourist tree because the tree's bark is red and peeling, like the skin of sunburnt tourists, who are a common sight in the plant's range.  The tree yields some ripe fruit year-round, but the main fruiting season is March and April in the northern part of the plant's range. The fruit is a small three-valved capsule encasing a single seed which is covered in a red fatty aril (seedcoat) of 5–6 mm diameter. Both ripe and unripe fruits are borne quite loosely on their stems and can spontaneously detach if the tree is shaken. Ripe capsules dehisce or are cracked open by birds. Birds also seek out the fruit to feed on the aril, which, though small, is rich in lipids (about half its dry weight).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Gumbo-limbo is a very useful plant economically and ecologically. It grows rapidly and is well adapted to several kinds of habitats, which include salty and calcareous soils (however, it does not tolerate boggy soils). Gumbo-limbo is also considered one of the most wind-tolerant trees, and it is recommended as a rugged, hurricane-resistant species in South Florida. They may be planted to serve as wind protection of crops and roads, or as living fence posts, and if simply stuck into good soil, small branches will readily root and grow into sizeable trees in a few years. However, it has been noted in Central America that posts do not produce a tap root, only side roots, thus questioning the real value of wind protection as such fence posts would not be as sturdy as a true, naturally occurring sapling. Gumbo-limbo wood is suitable for light construction. It is rather brittle, though the trunk is used in Haiti to make drums and as firewood, and the tree's resin, called chibou, cachibou or gomartis, is used as glue, varnish and incense.  The arils are an important source of food for birds, including many winter migrants from North America. Local residents such as the masked tityra, bright-rumped attila, black-faced grosbeak and, in Hispaniola, palmchat, are particularly fond of gumbo-limbo fruit, as are migrants like the Baltimore oriole or the dusky-capped flycatcher. It is an especially important local food source for vireos such the red-eyed vireo when ripe fruit are abundant. Many migrant species will utilize gumbo-limbo trees that are in human-modified habitat, even in settlements. This creates the opportunity to attract such species to residential areas for bird watching, and to reduce the competition for gumbo-limbo seeds in an undisturbed habitat which rarer local resident birds might face. Given the eagerness with which some birds seek out the arils, it may be that they contain lipids or other compounds useful to humans; in order for these to be exploited, however, they would probably have to be synthetically produced, because although the crop of a single tree can be very large (up to or even exceeding 15,000 fruits, translating into a raw lipid yield of over 200 grams per harvest), individual seeds are small and cumbersome to harvest.  Gumbo-limbo's rapid growth, ease and low cost of propagation, and ecological versatility makes it highly recommended as a \"starter\" tree in reforestation, even of degraded habitat, and it performs much better overall in such a role than most exotic species.  The resin is used as a treatment for gout, while the leaves are brewed into a medicinal tea. Hexane extracts of the leaves have been shown to possess anti-inflammatory properties in animal tests. Gumbo-limbo bark is an antidote to \"Metopium toxiferum\", also known as chechen tree, which often grows in the same habitat and can cause extreme rashes just as the related poison ivy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bursera simaruba, commonly known as gumbo-limbo, copperwood, chaca, and turpentine tree, is a tree species in the family Burseraceae, native to tropical regions of the Americas from South Florida to Mexico and the Caribbean to Brazil, Jinotega and Venezuela. \"Bursera simaruba\" are prevalent in the Petenes mangroves ecoregion of the Yucatán, where it is a subdominant plant species to mangroves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976400}
{"src_title": "Paul Arzens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cars.", "content": "In 1935 Arzens turned his interests to automobile engineering. He designed and constructed a six-speed automatic transmission which he installed in an old Chrysler and which worked. Robert Peugeot tried the car and was impressed, although hopes that the system might be adopted for the Peugeot 402 came to nothing, possibly because Peugeot had recently signed a deal with Cotal involving their pre-selector transmission.  Two years later Arzens came up with an eye-catching and streamlined two seater cabriolet prototype body built around the chassis of an old Buick. The car was christened \"La Baleine\" (\"the whale\"). With its integrated headlights, panoramic curved windscreen (of \"plexiglas\") and proto-ponton format styling, the design anticipated sports cars of the 1950s and 1960s. The car subsequently joined the Bugattis of the Schlumpf Collection at what has become the National Motor Museum in Mulhouse.  Two years later, following the German invasion, and the virtual disappearance of petrol for civilian use, Arzens came up with a second Baleine, closely resembling the first at least from the outside, but based on the chassis of an old Fiat - much lighter than a Buick - and encumbered by 1,100 kg of accumulator batteries. This was an electric vehicle with a claimed 10 hp providing a range of more than 200 km (125 miles) at 65/70 km/h (approx 40 mph).  Arzens' next automotive one-off appeared in 1942 and was instantly christened \"L'Oeuf\" (the egg), reflecting its egg-shape. Other eye catching features were the tiny wheels and the high proportion of the bodywork formed of curved transparent plexiglas. The body itself weighed just 60 kg, although adding the electric rear mounted motor raised this to 90 kg. Once batteries were added the vehicle weight was increased to 350 kg, allowing for a range of 100 km (63 miles) at 70 km/h (44 mph) or at 60 km/h 37 mph if two people were on board.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rail locomotives.", "content": "In 1947 Paul Arzens was placed on the payroll of the French National Railway Company (SNCF) and his first commission for them dates from that same year. Arzens was behind the designs of the BB and CC locomotives and their numerous derivatives which would together dominate the French railway network during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.  One of his earlier designs was for the smooth fronted CC7100 series. It was one of these, the CC7107, which broke the electric train speed record in 1955. The record would stand until broken by a TGV in 1981. Arzens was also behind the reverse sloping front window characteristic of locomotives such as the BB15000, which he said had been inspired by the form of a \"sprinter on the starting block\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul Arzens (1903–1990) was a French industrial designer of railway locomotives and motor cars. Arzens was born in Paris, at an address along the on the northern side of the city. As a young man he studied at the École des Beaux-Arts and soon gained recognition as a talented artist able at this stage, unusually, to live reasonably well on the sales proceeds from his paintings. This gave him enough time to pursue other interests in the realms of engineering and design. As his life progressed he accumulated a large collection of his own paintings and gained a reputation for an acute reluctance to sell any.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976401}
{"src_title": "Marianne Golz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Maria Agnes Belokosztolszky was born to a Catholic family on January 30, 1895, in Vienna, Austria. Her mother was Czechoslovakian, while her father was Polish. She had a sister named Rosi. After high school, Belokosztolsky trained as an opera singer and ballet dancer. She took on the stage name Marianne Tolska. Throughout the early 1920s, she appeared in performances in Linz, Stuttgart and Salzburg City, working with Austrian composer Nico Dostal and singing operettas alongside tenor Richard Tauber. During this time, she married and divorced twice.  In 1924, Belokosztolszky moved to Berlin, where she met Jewish editor and journalist Hans Goldlust. The two married in 1929. Hans had informally adopted the surname 'Golz' to avoid social stigma surrounding traditionally Jewish-sounding names in Germany, so when Marianne married him she adopted the surname Golz-Goldlust. The couple moved to Prague in 1934, and Golz-Goldlust put her skills to work as a theatre critic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resistance work.", "content": "When the Nazis invaded Prague in 1939, Hans was arrested. Golz-Goldlust successfully got him released, helping him escape to England. She also helped Hans' mother and sister escape the country. Instead of joining them in safety, Golz-Goldlust decided to stay in Prague to help other persecuted Jews. She began holding social gatherings at her house to find like-minded citizens, and she soon met local resistance organizer Ottokar Zapotecky, whose network helped smuggle refugees out of Prague. Golz-Goldlust recruited new resistance members from Czechoslovakia and Austria, assisting Jewish refugees in their escape by putting them in touch with the network and moving financial resources across borders. She hid refugees in her home, continued to hold resistance meetings, and arranged to smuggle important information about Prague conditions to the exiled Czech government over in England.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "On November 19, 1942, Golz-Goldlust and several of her resistance associates were arrested by the Nazis. Golz-Goldlust confessed immediately, telling her interrogators that she was the only resistance member in the group, and her associates were consequently allowed to go free. Golz-Goldlust was held in Pankrác Prison. Despite her captivity, however, she continued to write a steady stream of letters to friends and contacts; the letters were written on paper scraps and smuggled out of prison whenever she had meals brought to her.  Although Golz-Goldlust's family pursued legal means to have her freed, most lawyers were unwilling to risk the wrath of German authorities by arguing in her defense. Czech lawyer Marie Schrámek finally agreed to take the case, but was ultimately unable to free Golz-Goldlust, despite an appeal to the Special German High Court and to the Reich Minister of Justice. In May 1943, Golz-Goldlust was sentenced to death for her actions, and she was guillotined on October 8, 1943.  In 1946, Golz-Goldlust's letters were compiled and published as a book titled \"Zaluji\" (I Accuse), and later in German translation as \"Der Große Tag\" (The Great Day). Her story was eventually featured in radio broadcasts, articles, and a play. In June 1988, Golz-Goldlust was formally recognized posthumously by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among the Nations for her work rescuing Jewish refugees. An olive tree was planted in her honour at the Yad Vashem Memorial Centre in Israel.  In 2011, the German Resistance Memorial Centre held a special exhibition focused on Golz-Goldlust's life.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Marianne Golz-Goldlust (née Belokosztolszky) was an Austrian-born opera singer and actress. She maintained a successful career in eastern Europe during the early 1920s, later moving to Prague, Czechoslovakia, and becoming a theatre critic. She married Jewish journalist Hans Goldlust in 1929. When Hans was arrested by Nazis in 1938, Golz-Goldlust secured his release, helping him and his other relatives escape to England. She stayed in Prague to help the Resistance, a dangerous task which she accomplished by hiding Jewish refugees, smuggling financial resources and information across borders, recruiting new resistance members, and holding resistance meetings at her home.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976402}
{"src_title": "Lyon-Saint-Exupéry TGV station", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Saint-Exupéry station was designed by Santiago Calatrava, cost 750 million Francs and opened on 3 July 1994, at the same as the high-speed line to Saint-Marcel-lès-Valence. The building is mostly a combination of concrete and steel. The station has six tracks laid in a cutting. The two central tracks are isolated to permit trains to traverse the station at full speed (300 km/h) and have no platforms. The two external sets of tracks have 500 m long platforms. A small piece of land to the west is put aside for future expansion. Above the tracks, a 300 m long passenger concourse gives easy access to the platforms and is equipped with several travelators.  The railway station is linked to Lyon-Saint Exupéry Airport by a footbridge equipped with a travelator. This airport is historically the first to be served by a high-speed station. This proximity to the airport has not helped the station and it sees little use as passengers mainly use Lyon-Perrache and Lyon Part-Dieu.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Lack of interconnection with Lyon's urban transport network is frequently cited for the station's low usage. The arrival of the Rhônexpress express tram (opened August 2010) is unlikely to change this as Lyon residents will still find it easier (and cheaper) to use the stations within the city. The main \"advantage\" of the station is for travellers, arriving by plane, who are travelling onwards to the east. The underutilisation of the station has led to lower access charges than for the busier downtown stations, leading to low-cost operator Ouigo making it part of its network.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Train services.", "content": "The station is served by the following services:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gare de Saint-Exupéry TGV (formerly \"Gare de Satolas TGV\") is a railway station near Lyon, France, directly attached to Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport. The station was built as an addition to the airport to serve TGV trains on the LGV Rhône-Alpes, part of the main line running from Paris Gare de Lyon to Marseille Saint-Charles. It is situated about 20 km east of Lyon city centre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976403}
{"src_title": "Silent Night", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"\" was first performed on Christmas Eve 1818 at St Nicholas parish church in Oberndorf, a village in the Austrian Empire on the Salzach river in present-day Austria. A young priest, Father Joseph Mohr, had come to Oberndorf the year before. He had written the lyrics of the song \"\" in 1816 at Mariapfarr, the hometown of his father in the Salzburg Lungau region, where Joseph had worked as a co-.  The melody was composed by Franz Xaver Gruber, schoolmaster and organist in the nearby village of Arnsdorf. Before Christmas Eve, Mohr brought the words to Gruber and asked him to compose a melody and guitar accompaniment for the Christmas Eve mass, after river flooding had damaged the church organ. The church was eventually destroyed by repeated flooding and replaced with the Silent-Night-Chapel. It is unknown what inspired Mohr to write the lyrics, or what prompted him to create a new carol.  According to Gruber, Karl Mauracher, an organ builder who serviced the instrument at the Obendorf church, was enamoured with the song, and took the composition home with him to the Zillertal. From there, two travelling families of folk singers, the Strassers and the Rainers, included the tune in their shows. The Rainers were already singing it around Christmas 1819, and once performed it for an audience that included Franz I of Austria and Alexander I of Russia, as well as making the first performance of the song in the U.S., in New York City in 1839. By the 1840s the song was well known in Lower Saxony and was reported to be a favourite of Frederick William IV of Prussia. During this period, the melody changed slightly to become the version that is commonly played today.  Over the years, because the original manuscript had been lost, Mohr's name was forgotten and although Gruber was known to be the composer, many people assumed the melody was composed by a famous composer, and it was variously attributed to Haydn, Mozart, or Beethoven. However, a manuscript was discovered in 1995 in Mohr's handwriting and dated by researchers as. It states that Mohr wrote the words in 1816 when he was assigned to a pilgrim church in Mariapfarr, Austria, and shows that the music was composed by Gruber in 1818. This is the earliest manuscript that exists and the only one in Mohr's handwriting.  The first edition was published by in 1833 in a collection of \"Four Genuine Tyrolean Songs\", with the following musical text: <score vorbis=\"1\" lang=\"lilypond\"> \\relative c\" { </score>  The contemporary version, as in the choral example below, is:  <score vorbis=\"1\" lang=\"lilypond\"> \\relative c\" {  </score>", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translations.", "content": "In 1859, the Episcopal priest John Freeman Young, then serving at Trinity Church, New York City, wrote and published the English translation that is most frequently sung today, translated from three of Mohr's original six verses. The version of the melody that is generally used today is a slow, meditative lullaby or pastorale, differing slightly (particularly in the final strain) from Gruber's original, which was a \"moderato\" tune in time and siciliana rhythm. Today, the lyrics and melody are in the public domain, although newer translations usually are not.  In 1998 the Silent Night Museum in Salzburg commissioned a new English translation by Bettina Klein of Mohr's German lyrics. Whenever possible, (and mostly), Klein leaves the Young translation unchanged, but occasionally Klein (and Mohr) varies markedly. For example, \"Nur das traute hochheilige Paar, Holder Knabe im lockigen Haar\" is translated by Young: \"Round yon Virgin mother and child, Holy infant so tender and mild\" whereas Klein rewords it: \"Round yon godly tender pair, Holy infant with curly hair\", a translation closer to the original.  The carol has been translated into about 140 languages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical settings.", "content": "Max Reger quotes the tune in the Christmas section of his organ pieces \"Sieben Stücke\", Op. 145.  Alfred Schnittke composed an arrangement of \"Stille Nacht\" for violin and piano in 1978, as a holiday greeting for violinist Gidon Kremer. Due to its dissonant and nightmarish character, the miniature caused a scandal in Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In film.", "content": "Several theatrical and television films depict how the song was ostensibly written. Most of them however are based on a spurious legend about the organ breaking down at the church in Oberndorf, which appeared in a fictional story published in the U.S. in the 1930s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Silent Night\" () is a popular Christmas carol, composed in 1818 by Franz Xaver Gruber to lyrics by Joseph Mohr in the small town of Oberndorf bei Salzburg, Austria. It was declared an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO in 2011. The song has been recorded by many singers across many music genres. The version sung by Bing Crosby in 1935 is the fourth best-selling single of all-time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976404}
{"src_title": "Bion of Borysthenes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bion was from the town of Olbia on the north coast of the Black Sea by the mouth of the river Borysthenes (modern-day Dnieper). He lived c. 325-c. 250 BC, but the exact dates of his birth and death are uncertain. Strabo mentions him as a contemporary of Eratosthenes, who was born 275 BC. Diogenes Laërtius has preserved an account in which Bion describes his parentage to Antigonus II Gonatas, King of Macedonia. His father was a freedman and a dealer in salt fish, with which he combined the occupation of smuggling. His mother, Olympia, was a Lacedaemonian prostitute. The whole family were sold as slaves, on account of some offence committed by the father. In consequence of this, Bion fell into the hands of a rhetorician, who made him his heir. Having burnt his patron's library, he went to Athens, and applied himself to philosophy, in the course of which study he embraced the tenets of almost every sect in succession. First he was an Academic studying under Xenocrates and Crates of Athens, then he became a Cynic, (perhaps under Crates of Thebes), afterwards he attached to Theodorus, the Cyrenaic philosopher whose alleged atheism is supposed to have influenced Bion, and finally he became a pupil of Theophrastus the Peripatetic. After the manner of the sophists of the period, Bion travelled through Greece and Macedonia, and was admitted to the literary circle at the court of Antigonus II Gonatas. He subsequently taught philosophy at Rhodes, and died at Chalcis in Euboea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Because of his early association with the Academy, Diogenes Laërtius placed Bion among the Academics, but there is nothing in his life or thought suggesting an affinity with Platonism and modern scholars regard him as a Cynic, albeit an atypical one with strong Hedonistic or Cyrenaic leanings. Much of what Laërtius has to say about Bion seems to have been drawn from hostile sources so care has to be taken in using his account to reconstruct Bion's life and thought. Laërtius reveals to us a man of considerable intellectual acuteness, but quite ready to attack everyone and everything. He was essentially a popular writer, and in his \"Diatribes\" he satirized the foolishness of people. While eulogizing poverty and philosophy, he attacked the gods, musicians, geometricians, astrologers, and the wealthy, and denied the efficacy of prayer. Laërtius claims Bion was an atheist (which he renounced at the time of his death) but the surviving fragments reveal only a religious skepticism concerning mystery religions, oracles, etc. The quotations of Bion recorded by Teles, and preserved by Stobaeus reveal a man who \"treats of ordinary human problems in a common-sense spirit, though for emphasis employing all the devices of contemporary prose style.... The situations dealt with are those that may confront any person, from the \"universalia\" of old age, poverty, exile, slavery, the fear of death, down to the more particular case of a nagging wife.\"  His influence is distinctly traceable in succeeding writers, e.g. in the satires of Menippus. Horace alludes to his satires and caustic wit. Examples of this wit are his sayings:  One saying is preserved by Cicero:  Another is cited by Plutarch:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bion of Borysthenes (, \"gen\".: Βίωνος; BC) was a Greek philosopher. After being sold into slavery, and then released, he moved to Athens, where he studied in almost every school of philosophy. It is, however, for his Cynic-style diatribes that he is chiefly remembered. He satirized the foolishness of people, attacked religion, and eulogized philosophy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976405}
{"src_title": "Anna Chicherova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Chicherova was born in Yerevan and then moved to Belaya Kalitva, Russia, when the Soviet Union dissolved. She previously announced that she would retire after the 2013 World Championships in Moscow, after 14 years at the top, but has since continued to jump. After her second world silver in 2009, Chicherova announced her retirement, but after giving birth in 2010, she made her come back in 2011.  In 1999, she won her first major title when she was only 16, at the world youth championships in Bydgoszcz. Chicherova was among the world leading high jumpers for several years until she missed the 2010 season due to pregnancy. After returning in 2011 she established herself as the world leading female high jumper displacing Blanka Vlašić. Her personal best jump and the Russian national record is 2.07 metres, achieved on her 29th birthday at the Russian track and field championships of 2011. Her best indoors was achieved at the Hochsprung mit Musik meeting 2012 in Arnstadt with 2.06 m. She thereby improved her Russian indoor national record by two centimeters. Chicherova is among the top ten high jumpers of all time both indoor and outdoor.  Chicherova is currently in the athletics club based in Moscow, where she is coached by Yevgeni Zagorulko. She is married to Gennadiy Chernovol. She was absent for the 2010 season due to pregnancy and had her first child, Nika, in September that year.  With her victories in Daegu and London, Chicherova became only the third female high jumper in history (after Stefka Kostadinova & Heike Henkel) to win at both the Olympic Games and the World Championships.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna Vladimirovna Chicherova (; born 22 July 1982) is a Russian high jumper. She was the gold medalist at the 2012 London Olympics and the 2011 World Championships in Athletics and originally won a bronze medal in the event at the 2008 Summer Olympics. She was also runner-up at the World Championships in 2007 and 2009, and bronze medalist in 2013 and 2015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976406}
{"src_title": "Philip de László", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "László was born in humble circumstances in Budapest as Fülöp Laub, the eldest son of Adolf and Johanna Laub, a tailor and seamstress of Jewish origin. Fülöp and his younger brother Marczi changed their surname to László in 1891.  He was apprenticed at an early age to a photographer while studying art, eventually earning a place at the National Academy of Art, where he studied under Bertalan Székely and Károly Lotz. He followed this with studies in Munich and Paris. László's portrait of Pope Leo XIII earned him a Grand Gold Medal at the Paris International Exhibition in 1900. In 1903 László moved from Budapest to Vienna. In 1907 he moved to England and remained based in London for the remainder of his life, although endlessly travelling the world to fulfill commissions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1900, László married Lucy Madeleine Guinness, a member of the banking branch of the Guinness family and a sister of Henry Guinness. They had first met in Munich in 1892, but for some years had been forbidden to see each other. The couple had six children and 17 grandchildren.  László became interested in Catholicism as a young man, probably through his friendship with the Valentins, an elderly Bavarian couple. He was baptised into the Hungarian Catholic Church in 1894... \"he never worshipped regularly but read the Bible and was a firm believer in God and the Christian story\". His faith was especially strengthened by his visit to the Vatican in 1900, where he met and painted the aging Pope Leo XIII. László converted to Anglicanism upon his marriage, and his children were raised as Protestants. At a lecture to the Fisher Society in 1934, he said \"I believe that to worship nature is a religious duty. I see in nature the fullest revelation of the Divinity, and my faith is that only by acceptance of this revelation and by striving to realise it in all its perfection can I prove my worship to be sincere\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "László's patrons awarded him numerous honours and medals. In 1909 he was invested MVO by Edward VII. In 1912 he was ennobled by King Franz Joseph of Hungary; his surname then became \"László de Lombos\", but he soon was using the name \"de László\".  Despite his British citizenship, his marriage and five British citizen sons, de László was interned for over twelve months in 1917 and 1918 during the First World War, accused of making contact with the enemy (he had written letters to family members in Austria). He was released on grounds of ill health, and exonerated in June 1919.  Due to overwork de László suffered heart problems for the last years of his life. In October 1937 he had a heart attack and died a month later at his home, Hyme House, in Hampstead, London.  In 1939, \"Portrait of a Painter. The Authorized Life of Philip de László\" by Owen Rutter, written in conjunction with de László, was published. In 2010 Yale University Press published \"De László, His Life and Art\" by Duff Hart-Davis and Dr. Caroline Corbeau-Parsons. His reputation still remains largely as a society portrait painter, but well numbered amongst his sitters were industrialists and scientists, politicians and painters, men and women of letters and many other eminent, as well as ordinary, people. Family members and a team of editors are compiling a catalogue raisonné published online and in progress. His oeuvre currently numbers almost 4,000 works, including drawings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subjects.", "content": "Portraits painted by László include the following individuals:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philip Alexius de László, (, 30 April 1869 – 22 November 1937) was an Anglo-Hungarian painter known particularly for his portraits of royal and aristocratic personages. In 1900, he married Lucy Guinness of Stillorgan, County Dublin and he became a British subject in 1914.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976407}
{"src_title": "Alison Sudol", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Alison Sudol was born in Seattle, Washington, to two dramatic arts teachers, Sondra (Fraser) West-Moore and acting coach John Sudol. Sudol and both parents moved to Los Angeles after their divorce, when she was five years old. Sudol grew up listening to a wide range of music, including Aretha Franklin, Ella Fitzgerald, and swing. She cites Bob Dylan, Johnny Cash, and Simon and Garfunkel as some of her biggest musical influences.  She graduated from high school at the age of 16, and considered herself \"nerdy and quiet\". Sudol did not \"drink or smoke or do anything like that\". She stated in an interview \"I was so nervous about going into college like that and super young. I figured I would take two years and try to find out what I was doing with music. And when I was 18, I was just so deep into it that I didn't want to stop.\"  Sudol had a passion for literature, and immersed herself in the works of C. S. Lewis, E. B. White, Lewis Carroll, Anthony Trollope, and Charles Dickens. Her band's name, \"A Fine Frenzy\", is taken from a verse in William Shakespeare's \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\": \"The poet's eye, in \"a fine frenzy\" rolling, doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven\" (Act 5, Scene 1). After teaching herself to play the piano, she began putting her creative energy into writing songs.  A short demo she sent out received attention from EMI's Jason Flom, who signed her after visiting her house and \"listening to her play\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2007–2013: Music releases.", "content": "In her music career, Sudol used the moniker A Fine Frenzy, taken from the phrase \"in a fine frenzy rolling\" (i.e., rolling in the ecstasy of inspiration), in William Shakespeare's \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", Act V, Scene 1. In March 2007, Sudol appeared at the South by Southwest (SXSW) conference, opening for The Stooges. Shortly after, her debut album, \"One Cell in the Sea\", was released to generally positive reviews. The first single, \"Almost Lover\", peaked at number 25 on \"Billboard's\" Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart. In mid-2007, she secured another opening spot, this time for Rufus Wainwright on his tour. In March and April 2008, Sudol headlined her own tour in the US and Canada, and in April she toured France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. In September 2008, she was the star act on the opening night of the New Pop Festival organized by the German broadcaster SWR3. She returned to Germany, Austria, and Switzerland on a headline tour in November 2008 and played in the Super Bock em Stock festival in Portugal in December 2008.  Her song \"You Picked Me\" was featured on iTunes as one of the \"Free Single of the Week\" for August 14, 2007, and VH1 featured her as one of their \"You Oughta Know\" artists. Additionally, in October 2008, \"You Picked Me\" was chosen as network theme by SIC, a Portuguese television network. To date, \"One Cell in the Sea\" has sold 300,000 copies. In 2008 it was released in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Poland. In each of those countries, the album peaked within the top 30, with the first single, \"Almost Lover,\" reaching number eight in Germany, number ten on the Swiss Charts and number five in Austria. Sudol's second album, \"Bomb in a Birdcage\", was released September 8, 2009. The first single, \"Blow Away,\" was released on July 17, 2009, followed by two more singles, \"Happier\" and \"Electric Twist\". On November 23, 2009, a live album and concert film recorded in 2007, \"A Fine Frenzy Live at the House of Blues Chicago\", was released on iTunes.  On October 31, 2011, Sudol stated via Twitter that the band was mastering their new record. Several song titles, including \"Avalanches\" and \"Riversong\", were confirmed during Sudol's appearance at the Sundance Film Festival. In the March 2012 issue of \"Lucky\" magazine, Sudol revealed the third album's title as being \"Pines\". Previously scheduled for release in September 2012, the album's release date was pushed back to October 9. Along with \"Pines\", Sudol released an animated short film and a companion book illustrated by Jen Lobo. In September 2012, A Fine Frenzy was featured in a campaign called \"30 Songs / 30 Days\" to support \"\", a multi-platform media project inspired by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn's book. Afterwards, Sudol stated that she will no longer perform as A Fine Frenzy, although she continues to write songs: \"I put A Fine Frenzy to bed\".  For Season 1 of the television series \"Transparent\", Sudol and fellow cast member Clementine Creevy recorded a cover of Jim Croce's song \"Operator (That's Not The Way It Feels)\" under the band name Glitterish. A full version of the song was included on the Transparent soundtrack album, released in December 2014.  On November 24, 2017 Alison Sudol released \"Enough Honey\", the debut single under her own name.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014–present: acting.", "content": "In 2014, Sudol focused on her acting career and starred as Kaya in the recurring cast of the first season of Amazon Video series \"Transparent\". The role was a singer and love interest of Jay Duplass' character Josh. She also starred in the main cast of the television series \"Dig\", as the archeologist Emma Wilson. \"Elle\" named Sudol one of \"The 7 Most Exciting Newcomers on TV this Season\" in January 2015.  In 2016, Sudol co-starred in the film \"Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them\", the first in a series of five \"Harry Potter\" prequel films written by J. K. Rowling. Sudol plays Queenie Goldstein, the younger sister of Tina (Katherine Waterston), alongside Newton \"Newt\" Scamander (Eddie Redmayne). The film is set in New York sixty-five years before Harry Potter's story starts, is based on the Hogwarts textbook of the same name, and follows the adventures of its author, \"magizoologist\" Newt Scamander. The film was released in November. Sudol reprised the role in the film's 2018 sequel, \"\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literature and writing.", "content": "Sudol has often referred to the literary influences on her music. Recently she disclosed that she is also pursuing a secondary career as a writer. In an interview, Sudol said she is working a children's story in the \"Narnia\" tradition, a fantasy featuring animals. In a later interview with \"Ladygunn\" magazine, Sudol revealed the title of her fantasy adventure book to be \"Three Sails and the Family Moss\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Charities and conservation.", "content": "Since 2011, Sudol has been a part of International Union for Conservation of Nature, becoming a goodwill ambassador in an effort to encourage others to participate in nature and conservation. She designed three tee shirts for Alternative Apparel in support for IUCN.  She is Greenpeace's first Arctic Ambassador.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alison Sudol (born December 23, 1984) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and music video director. She is known as the singer A Fine Frenzy, and also for her role as Queenie Goldstein in the \"Fantastic Beasts\" films \"Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them\" (2016) and \"\" (2018). Her music has been featured on numerous television shows and in several major motion pictures.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976408}
{"src_title": "The Mighty Boosh (TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Format.", "content": "\"The Mighty Boosh\" centres on the adventures of Howard Moon (Barratt) and Vince Noir (Fielding). Series 1 opens and often closes with Howard and Vince addressing the audience in front of a theatre curtain, introducing the show and offering some final reflections. Series 2 leaves this format, instead starting in the characters' flat, with no direct address to the audience. Unlike the radio series, which is played as though real, the characters on the TV series all seem aware that they are in a TV show, and Vince especially will often break the fourth wall to address the audience and to comment on the situation. Little attention is paid to continuity; for instance, in the second series the shaman Saboo is shown being killed by the demon Nanatoo, but in series 3 he is alive and well. In the first series episode, 'Bollo', Bollo the gorilla dies at the end of the episode, before the credits. However, in subsequent episodes, Bollo is also seen alive and well.  Each series of the show featured Howard and Vince and the various recurring characters in a different context; in series 1 Howard and Vince are zookeepers in the \"Zooniverse\", Naboo is a fellow employee of the zoo and Bollo is one of the animals that live there. In series 2, Howard, Vince, Naboo and Bollo are flatmates in a district of London. In series 3, Howard and Vince work in Naboo's magical shop, the Nabootique, and plots often revolve around them getting in trouble whilst Naboo and Bollo are away from the shop.  Several episodes featured a \"crimp\"; a humorous \"a cappella\" nonsense song sung by Fielding and Barratt. The crimps were sung in a scat style and were lyrically characterized by non-sequiturs that were rhythmically similar to beatboxing, often accompanied by a small performance of hand gestures and pantomimes. The term was first coined in \"The Power of the Crimp\", episode 3 of the third season. Controversy arose in March 2008 when a new advertisement campaign for the cereal Sugar Puffs was shown to have imitated the particular style of crimping.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characters.", "content": "Though there are many recurring characters, the \"central cast\" consists of five characters:  Recurring characters include:  Notable guest actors and actresses include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Mighty Boosh made the transition from radio to television in 2004, when an eight-part television series - called \"The Mighty Boosh\" - was commissioned by the BBC. It was directed by Paul King and produced by Baby Cow Productions. The pilot episode was directed by Steve Bendelack, and a large portion of the pilot episode was used in the actual series, in the episode \"Tundra\". The pilot was shot with a live audience because there had been doubts as to whether the successful stage show could translate to the screen, but the actual series had no live audience.  Series 1 of the television version of \"The Mighty Boosh\" expanded on the radio series. It was first broadcast on BBC Three on 18 May 2004 and, from 9 November, also on BBC Two, although in a different order and with the mild swearing censored or edited out.  The second series began showing on BBC Three on 26 July 2005, though with a smaller budget. A full-length preview of the following week's episode was available online at the BBC's Boosh webpage. Series 3 started airing on BBC Three from 15 November 2007.  Series 3 began airing on America's Adult Swim on 29 March 2009. Series 1 aired on Adult Swim on 10 May 2009 with Series 2 airing on 5 July 2009.  In June of 2020, the program became one of several British comedy series to be removed from Netflix amid controversies resulting from the killing of George Floyd due to the blackface donned by the Spirit of Jazz character.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "DVD releases.", "content": "In the UK the Mighty Boosh has released Series 1-3 individually and in a few boxsets. Series 1 was released on DVD (Region 2) on 29 August 2005, Series 2 on 13 February 2006 and series 3 was released on 11 February 2008.  As a result of a growing fan base in the U.S. the BBC released seasons 1-3 individually on North American NTSC-formatted DVDs on 21 July 2009. The North American series 1-3 boxset was released on 13 October 2009.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Mighty Boosh is a British comedy television show created by Julian Barratt, Noel Fielding and others (collectively known as The Mighty Boosh).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976409}
{"src_title": "František Kaberle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Kaberle was drafted 76th overall in the 1999 NHL Entry Draft by the Kings. During the 1999-2000 season, he was traded to the Atlanta Thrashers for whom he would score his first career NHL goal on April 8, 2000 against Artūrs Irbe and the Carolina Hurricanes in a 4-3 Thrashers loss. Coincidentally, after the 2004-05 lockout, Kaberle would sign with Carolina.  In the 2006 Stanley Cup Finals, Kaberle scored a power play goal in the second period of Game 7 against the Edmonton Oilers, which would turn out to be the game and Stanley Cup winning goal. It would mark Kaberle's only Stanley Cup win.  During the off-season before the 2006–07 season, Kaberle suffered a shoulder injury, and was placed on the injured reserve on September 13, 2006. He was removed from the injured reserve on February 6, 2007, and scored the game winner that same night.  After four seasons with the Hurricanes, Kaberle was declared a free agent after he was bought out his final year of his contract on July 28, 2009. With his North American career at a close, he returned to his native Czech Republic and re-joined his original club, HC Kladno, for the 2009–10 season.  Kaberle played two more seasons in the Czech Extraliga with HC Pardubice and HC Plzeň before concluding his professional career after the 2011–12 season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "František Kaberle won the Ice Hockey World Championships five times: in 1996, 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2005. In 2006, he won the bronze medal at the Olympic Games in Turin. That same year, he would become the third player (first and second were Igor Larionov and Pavel Datsyuk in 2002) to win both bronze medal and Stanley Cup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "František Kaberle married his wife Kateřina on May 30, 1998. They have two daughters named Francesca and Vanessa.  His brother Tomáš Kaberle is a free agent and is also a fellow Stanley Cup winner with the Boston Bruins in 2011. Both of the Kaberle brothers were named to the Czech national ice hockey team for the 2006 Winter Olympics.  His father František Kaberle, Sr. used to play for the Czechoslovak national ice hockey team as well.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "František \"Frank\" Kaberle () (born November 8, 1973) is a Czech former professional ice hockey defenceman. His playing career extended over 20 seasons, most notably in the National Hockey League with the Los Angeles Kings, Atlanta Thrashers, and the Carolina Hurricanes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976410}
{"src_title": "Undine (novella)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Success and influence.", "content": "During the nineteenth century the book was very popular and was, according to \"The Times\" in 1843, \"a book which, of all others, if you ask for it at a foreign library, you are sure to find engaged\". The story is descended from Melusine, the French folk-tale of a water-sprite who marries a knight on condition that he shall never see her on Saturdays, when she resumes her mermaid shape. It was also inspired by works by the occultist Paracelsus.  An unabridged English translation of the story by William Leonard Courtney and illustrated by Arthur Rackham was published in 1909. George MacDonald thought \"Undine\" \"the most beautiful\" of all fairy stories, while Lafcadio Hearn referred to \"Undine\" as a \"fine German story\" in his essay \"The Value of the Supernatural in Fiction\". The references to \"Undine\" in such works as Charlotte Yonge's \"The Daisy Chain\" and Louisa Alcott's \"Little Women\" show that it was one of the best loved of all books for many 19th-century children.  The first adaptation of \"Undine\" was E. T. A. Hoffmann's opera in 1816. It was a collaboration between Hoffmann, who composed the score, and Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué who adapted his own work into a libretto. The opera proved highly successful, and Carl Maria von Weber admired it in his review as the kind of composition which the German desires: \"an art work complete in itself, in which partial contributions of the related and collaborating arts blend together, disappear, and, in disappearing, somehow form a new world\".  In the 1830s, the novella was translated into Russian dactylic hexameter verse by the Romantic poet Vasily Zhukovsky. This verse translation became a classic in its own right and later provided the basis for the libretto to Tchaikovsky's operatic adaptation. The novella has since inspired numerous similar adaptions in various genres and traditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "English-language editions", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Undine is a fairy-tale novella (\"Erzählung\") by Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué in which Undine, a water spirit, marries a knight named Huldebrand in order to gain a soul. It is an early German romance, which has been translated into English and other languages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976411}
{"src_title": "Metasepia pfefferi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The natural range of \"M. pfefferi\" extends from Mandurah in Western Australia (), northeastward to Moreton Bay in southern Queensland (), and across the Arafura Sea to the southern coast of New Guinea. The species has also been recorded from Sulawesi and the Maluku Islands in Indonesia, and even as far west as the Malaysian islands of Mabul and Sipadan. They are also common in the Philippines and are frequently sighted in the Visayas.  The type specimen, a female, was collected off Challenger Station 188 in the Arafura Sea () at a depth of 51 m on October 9, 1874, as part of the \"Challenger\" expedition. It is deposited at The Natural History Museum in London.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"M. pfefferi\" is a robust-looking species, having a very broad, oval mantle. Arms are broad and blade-like and have four rows of suckers. The modified arm used by males for fertilisation, called the hectocotylus, is borne on the left ventral arm. The oral surface of the modified region of the hectocotylus is wide, swollen, and fleshy. It bears transversely grooved ridges and a deep furrow running along the middle. The sucker-bearing surface of the tentacular clubs is flattened, with 5 or 6 suckers arranged in transverse rows. These suckers differ greatly in size, with the largest located near the centre of the club. Three to four median suckers are especially large, occupying most of middle portion of the club. The swimming keel of the club extends considerably near to the carpus. The dorsal and ventral protective membranes are not joined at the base of the club, but fused to the tentacular stalk. Dorsal and ventral membranes differ in length and extend near to the carpus along the stalk. The dorsal membrane forms a shallow cleft at the junction with the stalk. This particular species of cuttlefish is the only one known to walk upon the sea floor. Due to the small size of its cuttlebone, it can float only for a short time.  Most sources agree that \"M. pfefferi\" grows to in mantle length, although others give a maximum mantle length of. The dorsal surface of the mantle bears three pairs of large, flat, flap-like papillae. Papillae are also present over the eyes.  The cuttlebone of this species is small, two-thirds to three-quarters the length of the mantle, and positioned in its anterior. Characteristic of the genus \"Metasepia\", the cuttlebone is rhomboidal in outline. Both the anterior and posterior of the cuttlebone taper gradually to an acute point. The dorsal surface of the cuttlebone is yellowish and evenly convex. The texture throughout is smooth, lacking bumps or pustules. The dorsal median rib is absent. A thin film of chitin covers the entire dorsal surface. The cuttlebone lacks a pronounced spine; if present, it is small and chitinous. The striated zone of the cuttlebone is concave, with the last loculus being strongly convex and thick in the front third. The sulcus is deep and wide and extends along the striated zone only. Striae (furrows) on the anterior surface form an inverted V-shape. The limbs of the inner cone are very short, narrow, and uniform in width, with the U-shape thickened slightly towards the back. The cuttlebone of \"M. pfefferi\" does not possess an outer cone, unlike that of most other cuttlefish species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and biology.", "content": "\"M. pfefferi\" has been recorded from sand and mud substrate in shallow waters at depths of 3 to 86 m. The species is active during the day and has been observed hunting fish and crustaceans. It employs complex and varied camouflage to stalk its prey. The normal base color of this species is dark brown. Individuals that are disturbed or attacked quickly change colour to a pattern of black, dark brown, white, with yellow patches around the mantle, arms, and eyes. The arm tips often display bright red coloration to ward off would-be predators. Animals displaying this colour pattern have been observed using their lower arms to walk or \"amble\" along the sea floor while rhythmically waving the wide protective membranes on their arms. This behavior advertises a poisonous nature: the flesh of this cuttlefish contains a unique toxin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Copulation occurs face-to-face, with the male inserting a packet of sperm into a pouch on the underside of the female's mantle. The female then fertilises her eggs with the sperm. The eggs are laid singly and placed by the female in crevices or ledges in coral, rock, or wood. In one instance, around a dozen eggs were found under an overturned coconut half. They had been placed there by a female which had inserted them through the central hole of the husk. Thereby, the eggs were protected from predatory fish.  Freshly laid eggs are white, but slowly turn translucent with time, making the developing cuttlefish clearly visible. From birth, juvenile \"M. pfefferi\" are capable of producing the same camouflage patterns as adults.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial value.", "content": "A toxicology report has confirmed that the muscle tissue of flamboyant cuttlefish is highly toxic, making it only the third cephalopod found to be poisonous. Research by Mark Norman with the Museum Victoria in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, has shown the toxin to be as lethal as that of fellow cephalopod the blue-ringed octopus.  \"M. pfefferi\" represents no interest to fisheries for the above reason. If its supply were steady, the spectacular colour and textural displays of this species would make it an excellent candidate for private aquariums. The species is sometimes seen in public aquariums, available through captive breeding programs, such as the Monterey Bay Aquarium.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Metasepia pfefferi, also known as the flamboyant cuttlefish, is a species of cuttlefish occurring in tropical Indo-Pacific waters off northern Australia, southern New Guinea, as well as numerous islands of the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia. The flesh of this colorful cephalopod contains unique acids, making it unsuitable for consumption.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976412}
{"src_title": "Jeanne Hébuterne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jeanne Hébuterne was born in Meaux, Seine-et-Marne, the second child to Achille Casimir Hébuterne, who worked at Le Bon Marché, a department store, and Eudoxia (or Eudoxie) Anaïs Tellier Hébuterne. The family was Roman Catholic.  A beautiful girl, she was introduced to the artistic community in Montparnasse by her brother André Hébuterne, who wanted to become a painter. She met several of the then-starving artists and modeled for Tsuguharu Foujita.  Wanting to pursue a career in the arts herself, and with a talent for drawing, she chose to study at the Académie Colarossi, where in the spring of 1917 Hébuterne was introduced to Amedeo Modigliani by the sculptress Chana Orloff, who came with many other artists to take advantage of the Academy's live models.  Jeanne began an affair with the charismatic artist, and the two fell deeply in love. She soon moved in with him, despite strong objection from her parents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life with Modigliani.", "content": "Described by the writer (1883–1954) as gentle, shy, quiet, and delicate, Jeanne Hébuterne became a principal subject for Modigliani's art.  In the spring of 1918, the couple moved to the warmer climate of Nice on the French Riviera where Modigliani's agent hoped he might raise his profile by selling some of his works to the wealthy art connoisseurs who wintered there. While they were in Nice, their daughter, Jeanne Modigliani, was born on 29 November.  The following spring, they returned to Paris and Jeanne became pregnant again. By this time, Modigliani was suffering from tuberculous meningitis and his health, made worse by complications brought on by substance abuse, was deteriorating badly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 24 January 1920 Modigliani died. Hébuterne's family brought her to their home, but she threw herself out of the fifth-floor apartment window two days after Modigliani's death, killing herself and her unborn child.  Her family, who blamed her demise on Modigliani, interred her in the Cimetière de Bagneux. Nearly ten years later, at the request of Modigliani's brother, Emanuele, the Hébuterne family agreed to have her remains transferred to Père Lachaise Cemetery to rest beside Modigliani.  Her epitaph reads: \"Devoted companion to the extreme sacrifice.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Their orphaned daughter, Jeanne Modigliani (1918–1984), was adopted by her father's sister in Florence, Italy. She grew up knowing virtually nothing of her parents and as an adult began researching their lives. In 1958, she wrote a biography of her father that was published in the English language in the United States as \"Modigliani: Man and Myth\".  It took more than thirty years before an art scholar persuaded the Hébuterne heirs to allow public access to Jeanne Hébuterne's artwork. In October 2000, her works were featured at a major Modigliani exhibition in Venice, Italy by the Fondazione Giorgio Cini.  It was revealed in January 2010 that the works presented at the exhibition were forged. Christian Parisot, the curator of the exhibition, had been accused by Hébuterne's grandnephew of faking 77 drawings. He was sentenced to a two-year suspended sentence and a 50,000€ ($70,000) fine by a French court of appeals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jeanne Hébuterne (6 April 1898 – 26 January 1920) was a French artist best known as the frequent subject and common-law wife of the artist Amedeo Modigliani. She took her own life two days after Modigliani died, and is now buried beside him.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976413}
{"src_title": "Lucien Clergue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Lucien Clergue was born in Arles, France. At the age of 7 he began learning to play the violin, and after several years of study his teacher admitted that he had nothing more to teach him. Clergue was from a family of shopkeepers and could not afford to pursue further studies in a college or university school of music, such as a conservatory.  In 1949, he learned the basics of photography. Four years later, at a corrida in Arles, he showed his photographs to Spanish painter Pablo Picasso who, though subdued, asked to see more of his work. Within a year and a half, young Clergue worked on his photography with the goal of sending more images to Picasso. During this period, he worked on a series of photographs of travelling entertainers, acrobats and harlequins, the « Saltimbanques ». He also worked on a series whose subject was carrion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Friendship with Picasso.", "content": "On November 4, 1955, Lucien Clergue visited Picasso in Cannes, France. Their friendship lasted nearly 30 years until Picasso's death. Clergue's autobiographical book, \"Picasso My Friend\", looks back on important moments of their relationship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Founding the Rencontres d’Arles photography festival.", "content": "In 1968, and with his friend Michel Tournier, Clergue founded the Rencontres d’Arles photography festival which is held annually in July in Arles. He exhibited his work at the festival during the years 1971–1973, 1975, 1979, 1982–1986, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994, 2000, 2003 and 2007.  Clergue also illustrated books, among them a book by writer Yves Navarre.  Clergue took many photographs of the gypsies of southern France, and was instrumental in propelling the guitarist Manitas de Plata to fame.  Clergue's photographs are in the collections of numerous well-known museums and private collectors. His photographs have been exhibited in over 100 solo exhibitions worldwide, with noted exhibitions such as in 1961, at the Museum of Modern Art New York, the last exhibition organized by Edward Steichen with Lucien Clergue, Bill Brandt and Yasuhiro Ishimoto. Museums with large collections of his work include The Fogg Museum at Harvard University and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. His work, \"Fontaines du Grand Palais\" (Fountains of the Grand Palais), is in of Lugano. His photographs of Jean Cocteau are on permanent display at the Jean Cocteau Museum in Menton, France. In the U.S., an exhibition of the Cocteau photographs was premiered at Westwood Gallery, New York City.  In 2007, the city of Arles honored Lucien Clergue and dedicated a retrospective collection of 360 of his photographs dating from 1953 to 2007. He also received the 2007 Lucie Award.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Election as Member of the Academy of Fine Arts.", "content": "He was named Knight of the Légion d'honneur in 2003 and elected member of the Academy of Fine Arts of the Institute of France on May 31, 2006, at the same time as a new section dedicated to photography was created. Clergue was the first photographer to enter the Academy to a position devoted specifically to photography.  He was Chairman of the Academy of Fine Arts for 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Lucien Clergue was married to the art curator Yolande Clergue, founder of The Fondation Vincent van Gogh Arles. He was the father of two daughters: Anne Clergue, a curator of contemporary art who has worked at Leo Castelli Gallery, and Olivia Clergue, a handbag fashion designer whose godfather was Pablo Picasso.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lucien Clergue (; August 14, 1934 – November 15, 2014) was a French photographer. He was Chairman of the Academy of Fine Arts, Paris for 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976414}
{"src_title": "Leander-class cruiser (1931)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The \"Leander\" class was influenced by the \"York\"-class heavy cruiser, and was an attempt to better provide for the role of commerce protection. The 7,000-7,200 ton \"Leander\"s were armed with eight BL 6 inch Mk XXIII naval guns in twin turrets, two forward and two aft. Their secondary armament consisted of four high angle QF 4 inch Mk V naval guns, which were later replaced by twin mountings for eight guns (the later high angle QF 4 inch Mk XVI naval gun). Their close range anti-aircraft weaponry consisted of twelve Vickers machine guns in three quadruple mounts. They also shipped a bank of four torpedo tubes on each beam and provision was made in the design for carriage of two catapult-launched Fairey Seafox aircraft.  Speed was, and 845 tons of armour was provided. During trials in December 1932 \"Leander\" made with at 7265 tons displacement and with at 9010 tons deep displacement. The first five vessels did not contain dispersed machinery; the boiler rooms were arranged together and exhausted into a single funnel, a unique feature amongst British cruisers. This meant that damage amidships was more liable to disable all the boiler rooms. In service their machinery proved to be highly reliable and exceeded trials output by a wide margin as evidenced by \"Achilles\" on 13 December 1939 during The Battle of the River Plate:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wartime modifications.", "content": "During the war, significant modifications were made to the vessels. Various additional anti-aircraft armaments were added, and the two New Zealand vessels removed a turret to carry heavier 20 mm and 40 mm anti-aircraft guns in its place. Changes to the aircraft launching capability were reported, although use is unclear.  Named after the character from Greek mythology. Loaned to New Zealand, commissioned as HMNZS \"Leander\" in September 1941. At the Battle of Kolombagara, \"Leander\" was heavily damaged by a Long Lance torpedo, causing many casualties, and sending the ship to repairs for two years.  \"Achilles\" was the second vessel loaned to New Zealand, commissioned as HMNZS \"Achilles\" in September 1941. She had earlier participated in the Battle of the River Plate. \"Achilles\" was sold to India in 1948, and was known as HMIS \"Delhi\" for a few years, then served as INS \"Delhi\", until 1978.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ships in class.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Leander\" group.", "content": "\"Ajax\" participated in the Battle of the River Plate. The town of Ajax, Ontario was named after the ship, with street names in the town named after members of the crew. \"Ajax\" also participated in the Battle of Cape Matapan and took part in shelling the mainland of Normandy during the beach landings. Chile wanted to buy HMS \"Ajax\" in 1948-9, but the opposition leader in the UK, Winston Churchill thought the ship should be retained for the RN and it became a political issue. The Leander class cruisers were very well built in the early 1930s and in the case of \"Achilles\" proved capable of more than 40 years service. After the rest of the class, including HMS \"Ajax,\" were scrapped, there was regret in the RN, because in many ways with their long 12,000 mile range and generous hull they were ideal for use as ocean radar pickets.  Manned by New Zealand crew, although not part of the Royal New Zealand Navy. \"Neptune\" was sunk by an Italian mine off the coast of Tripoli.  \"Orion\" spent much of the early war in the Mediterranean providing escort to convoys and was also at the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941. She participated in the evacuation of Crete in 1941 and was heavily damaged. Orion's repairs were completed in March 1942, after which she was widely employed, in home waters and on convoy escort duties to Africa and the Indian Ocean. Orion returned to the Mediterranean in October 1942 and was involved in convoy escort duties and supported the army in the invasion of Sicily. She also took part in the Normandy Landings in June 1944, where she fired the first shell. Orion received 13 battle honours, a record only exceeded by HMS Warspite and matched by two others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modified \"Leander\" group.", "content": "The last three ships of the class, referred to as the \"Modified \"Leander\"\", \"\"Amphion\"\", or \"\"Perth\"\" class, had their machinery and propulsion equipment organised in two self-contained units (separated fore and aft), allowing the ship to continue operating if one set was damaged. The two exhaust funnels, one for each machinery space, gave the modified ships a different profile from the early \"Leander\"s, which had a single funnel. To cover the separate machinery spaces, the side armour was extended from, negating the weight reduction created by the separation. During design, it was planned to modify the forward-most and aft-most 6-inch turrets to be fitted with three guns instead of two, but the plan was cancelled when it was determined that the required alterations would cause several negative side effects, including reducing the ship's top speed and causing problems with effective fire control. All three ships were sold to the RAN, \"Sydney\" while under construction and \"Perth\" and \"Hobart\" after a few years of British service.  Completed 1936 as HMS \"Amphion\" and transferred to the RAN as HMAS \"Perth\" in 1939. She operated with British ships in the Battle of the Mediterranean, participating in the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941. Lost in the Battle of Sunda Strait in early 1942.  Completed 1936 as HMS \"Apollo\" and transferred to the RAN in 1938 as HMAS \"Hobart\", she took part in the East African Campaign, the Battle of the Coral Sea and provided fire support at Guadalcanal. After being badly damaged by a torpedo strike in 1943, she returned to action in the Philippines landings (1944), followed by the Borneo and Aitape-Wewak campaigns. She was put into reserve after the war and was not decommissioned until 1962.  Laid down as HMS \"Phaeton\", the ship was acquired by the RAN, launched as HMAS \"Sydney\" and was commissioned in 1935. Also involved in the Mediterranean campaign. \"Sydney\" sank the Italian cruiser \"Bartolomeo Colleoni\" at the Battle of Cape Spada in 1940. Later that year, \"Sydney\" took part in the Battle of Cape Matapan and Battle of Calabria, sinking two Italian destroyers, the and. In 1941, off Western Australia, \"Sydney\" encountered the German auxiliary cruiser \"Kormoran\"; the two ships destroyed each other and \"Sydney\" was lost with all hands; the wrecks of both ships were located in 2008.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Warren Tute's novel \"The Cruiser\" features \"HMS Antigone\", a \"Leander\"-class cruiser with a striking similarity to \"HMS Ajax\".  Douglas Reeman's novel \"A Ship must die\" is set aboard the titular fictional \"Leander\"-class cruiser \"Andromeda\" pitted against a German surface raider operating in the Indian Ocean.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Leander\" class was a class of eight light cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s that saw service in World War II. They were named after mythological figures, and all ships were commissioned between 1933 and 1936. The three ships of the second group were sold to the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) before World War II and renamed after Australian cities.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976415}
{"src_title": "Letter of Aristeas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Letter of Aristeas, called so because it was a letter addressed from Aristeas to his brother Philocrates, deals primarily with the reason the Greek translation of the Hebrew Law, also called the Septuagint, was created, as well as the people and processes involved. The letter's author alleges to be a courtier of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (reigned 281-246 BC).  Over twenty Greek manuscript copies of the letter are known to survive, dating from the 11th to the 15th century. The letter is also mentioned and quoted in other ancient texts, most notably in \"Antiquities of the Jews\" by Josephus (c. 93 AD), in \"Life of Moses\" by Philo of Alexandria (c. AD 15), and in an excerpt from Aristobulus of Paneas (c. 160 BC) preserved in \"Praeparatio evangelica\" by Eusebius.  In detail, the work relates how the king of Egypt, presumably Ptolemy II Philadelphus, is urged by his chief librarian Demetrios of Phaleron to have the Hebrew Law translated into Greek, and so add the knowledge of the Hebrews to the vast collection of books the empire had already collected. The king responds favorably, including giving freedom to Jews who had been taken into captivity by his predecessors, and sending lavish gifts (which are described in great detail) to the Temple in Jerusalem along with his envoys. The high priest chooses exactly six men from each of the twelve tribes, giving 72 in all; he gives a long sermon in praise of the Law. When the translators arrive in Alexandria the king weeps for joy and for the next seven days puts philosophical questions to the translators, the wise answers to which are related in full. The 72 translators then complete their task in exactly 72 days. The Jews of Alexandria, on hearing the Law read in Greek, request copies and lay a curse on anyone who would change the translation. The king then rewards the translators lavishly and they return home.  A main goal of the 2nd-century author seems to be to establish the superiority of the Greek Septuagint text over any other version of the Hebrew Bible. The author is noticeably pro-Greek, portraying Zeus as simply another name for the God of Israel, and while criticism is lodged against idolatry and Greek sexual ethics, the argument is phrased in such a way as to attempt to persuade the reader to change, rather than as a hostile attack. The manner in which the author concentrates on describing Judaism, and particularly its temple in Jerusalem could be viewed as an attempt to proselytise.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Demetrios of Phaleron, a client of Ptolemy I Soter, is not a good candidate as a collaborator with Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Roger S. Bagnall notes that he made the strategic mistake at the beginning of the reign of supporting Ptolemy's older half-brother, and was punished with internal exile, dying soon afterwards.  The Spanish humanist Luis Vives is sometimes quoted as having been the first to have exposed the fictitious character of the Letter, in his \"In XXII libros de civitate Dei commentaria\" (Basel: Frobenius, 1522), on Aug. Book XVIII, 42. But a lecture of the Latin text reveals that Vives only transmitted Jerome's criticisms of the Aristeas story, and added nothing critical of his own account. The inconsistencies and anachronisms of the author, exposed by many 17th-century scholars were collected and presented with great erudition and wit by Humphrey Hody (1659–1706), Hody placed the writing closer to 170–130 BC. His Oxford dissertation of 1685 provoked an \"angry and scurrilous reply\" from Isaac Vossius (1618–1689), who had been librarian to Queen Christina of Sweden, in the appendix to his \"Observations on Pomponius Mela\", 1686, to which Hody conclusively replied in notes to his reprint of 1705. Due to this, the author of the letter of Aristeas is most often referred to as pseudo-Aristeas. Modern scholarship is unanimously with Hody. Victor Tcherikover (Hebrew University) summed up the scholarly consensus in 1958: \"Modern scholars commonly regard the “Letter of Aristeas” as a work typical of Jewish apologetics, aiming at self-defense and propaganda, and directed to the Greeks. Here are some instances illustrating this general view. In 1903 Friedlander wrote that the glorification of Judaism in the letter was no more than self-defense, though “the book does not mention the antagonists of Judaism by name, nor does it admit that its intention is to refute direct attacks.” Stein sees in the letter “a special kind of defense, which practices diplomatic tactics,” and Tramontano also speaks of “an apologetic and propagandist tendency.” Vincent characterizes it as “a small unapologetic novel written for the Egyptians” (i.e. the Greeks in Egypt). Pheiffer says: “This fanciful story of the origin of the Septuagint is merely a pretext for defending Judaism against its heathen denigrators, for extolling its nobility and reasonableness, and first striving to convert Greek speaking Gentiles to it.” Schürer classes the letter with a special kind of literature, “Jewish propaganda in Pagan disguise,” whose works are “directed to the pagan reader, in order to make propaganda for Judaism among the Gentiles.” Andrews, too, believes that the role of a Greek was assumed by Aristeas in order “to strengthen the force of the argument and commend it to non-Jewish readers. Even Gutman, who rightly recognizes that the Letter sprang 'from an inner need of the educated Jew,' sees in it 'a strong means for making Jewish propaganda in the Greek world.' ” But Tcherikover continues, \"In this article an attempt will be made to prove that the Letter of Aristeas was not written with the aim of self-defense or propaganda, and was addressed not to Greek, but to Jewish readers.\"  In 2001, Bruce Metzger writes: Most scholars who have analyzed the letter have concluded that the author cannot have been the man he represented himself to be but was a Jew who wrote a fictitious account in order to enhance the importance of the Hebrew Scriptures by suggesting that a pagan king had recognized their significance and therefore arranged for their translation into Greek.  Scholars avid for the scant information about the Library and the Musaeum of Alexandria have depended on pseudo-Aristeas, who \"has that least attractive quality in a source: to be trusted only where corroborated by better evidence, and there unneeded,\" Roger Bagnall concluded.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Letter of Aristeas or Letter to Philocrates is a Hellenistic work of the 2nd century BC, assigned by Biblical scholars to the Pseudepigrapha.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976416}
{"src_title": "Agricola (board game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "Players start the game with a farming couple living in a two roomed hut. Each round, they take turns to place their family members on action spaces to get resources and improve and grow their households. Only one family member can occupy each action space within the same round, so players need to time their actions to get maximum profit while denying progress to the opponents.  The game is played in 14 rounds, divided by 6 harvests. At each harvest, food is grown, people are fed, and animals multiply. Players lose victory points if they have trouble feeding their family, which makes food production a major point of tension in the game.  At the end of round 14 comes the final harvest after which victory points are counted. Scoring in \"Agricola\" rewards a middle of the road strategy. Players are penalized for not focusing on any one aspect of the game, and stop scoring in any area they focus on too much. The player with the most balanced and prosperous farm wins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Optional cards.", "content": "To achieve variation between games, players are dealt a hand of optional cards – occupations and minor improvements. Players get additional resources and various bonuses for playing these cards. They can also get an initial direction for their strategy, based on the occupations and improvements they were dealt. Numerous expansion decks have been released to fill in gaps in gameplay and add thematic settings. The game offers a simplified 'family' variation for less involved players, in which occupation and minor improvement cards are not used.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Differences in the Revised Edition.", "content": "The original Agricola used multicolored wooden pieces of the same circular shape to denote various resources (clay, wood, reeds, etc.). The 2016 edition offered shaped wooden pieces for resources that make it easier to differentiate between the many types of resources. The new edition also included fewer optional cards – two decks for a total of 96 cards (as opposed to three decks with 308 cards in the original edition). Some reviewers praised the balance of the new decks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "2009  2008  2007", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agricola is a Euro-style board game created by Uwe Rosenberg. It is a worker placement game with a focus on resource management. In \"Agricola\", players are farmers that sow, plow the fields, collect wood, build stables, buy animals, expand their farms and feed their families. After 14 rounds players calculate their score based on the size and prosperity of the household.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976417}
{"src_title": "Steve Mason (ice hockey)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Mason grew up in Oakville, Ontario, playing mostly A hockey until his Bantam year, when he moved up to the AAA level with the Oakville Rangers of the OMHA's South Central AAA League. He was drafted after his minor midget season with Oakville by the London Knights of the OHL in the 11th round of the 2004 OHL Priority Selection.  In 2004–05, while attending Abbey Park High School, he led the Grimsby Peach Kings club to the OHA Jr.C. title in 2004–05 and in 2005–06 was assigned to the Petrolia Jets Jr.B. club when his playing time was limited with London. Despite this, Mason was selected by the Columbus Blue Jackets in the third round, 69th overall, in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft. He started the 2007–08 season with the Blue Jackets, but was returned to London after being a healthy scratch for Columbus' first two games of the season. While competing for Team Canada at the 2008 World Junior Championships, he was traded by the Knights to the Kitchener Rangers on January 4, 2008, hours before the semi-final game.  Upon returning from the World Junior Championships with a gold medal, Mason was briefly recalled by the Blue Jackets on an emergency basis in February, but did not appear in a game and was quickly returned. Mason suffered a knee injury towards the end of the regular season, but with the playoffs approaching, he tried to play through it for several weeks. After defeating the Plymouth Whalers in the first round, Mason was pulled out of the line-up and underwent arthroscopic knee surgery on April 18, forcing him to miss the remainder of the OHL playoffs, as well as the 2008 Memorial Cup. Kitchener won the OHL championship without Mason, but lost 4–1 in the Memorial Cup final against the Spokane Chiefs of the Western Hockey League (WHL).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Columbus Blue Jackets.", "content": "Before his first professional season, Mason underwent an additional knee surgery in September, causing him to miss the first month of play in the American Hockey League (AHL) with the Blue Jackets' minor league affiliate, the Syracuse Crunch. Shortly after recovering and joining the Crunch's line-up, Mason was called up by the Blue Jackets on November 4, 2008, in the absence of injured starter Pascal Leclaire. He made his NHL debut on November 5, starting against, and defeating, the Edmonton Oilers 5–4. He recorded his first NHL shutout several games later on November 22, making 15 saves in a 2–0 win against the Atlanta Thrashers.  Mason continued to start games upon Leclaire's return from injury and was named NHL Rookie of the Month for November after posting a 5–2–1 record, including three straight wins and two shutouts. In the midst of shutout streak, having not allowed a goal against the Philadelphia Flyers, Los Angeles Kings and Anaheim Ducks, he was named Rookie of the Month for a second-straight month in December. Along with Mason's three straight shutouts, he posted a 7–5–0 record, 1.41 goals against average (GAA) and.950 save percentage for the month. Chosen to play for the rookies at the 2009 NHL YoungStars Game, he opted, however, to skip the competition. It was later revealed on January 30, 2009, by Blue Jackets General Manager Scott Howson that Mason had been suffering from mononucleosis for the previous three-to-four weeks. After three more starts, on February 8, Mason was put on the injured reserve. He returned to the line-up on February 13 against the Detroit Red Wings in a 3–2 Columbus victory. Mason finished the season with a 33–20–7 record, 2.29 GAA and.916 save percentage. For his season's performances, he was awarded the 2009 Calder Memorial Trophy for rookie of the year honours, edging out Kris Versteeg of the Chicago Blackhawks and Bobby Ryan of the Anaheim Ducks in the process. Additionally, on April 27, 2009, the NHL announced that Mason was nominated for the Vezina Trophy as the NHL's top goaltender, along with Tim Thomas of the Boston Bruins and Niklas Bäckström of the Minnesota Wild. Thomas was eventually awarded the trophy.  The next three seasons were a disappointment for Mason, however, as he was unable to duplicate the play of his rookie year, and the Blue Jackets failed to make another playoff appearance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philadelphia Flyers.", "content": "Mason was traded on April 3, 2013, to the Philadelphia Flyers for goaltender Michael Leighton and a 2015 third round draft pick. On April 8, Mason signed a one-year contract extension worth $1.5 million. Mason had four wins and two losses in Philadelphia and posted an impressive 1.90 GAA and a.944 save percentage, leading to speculation that Mason would replace Ilya Bryzgalov as the starter for Philadelphia. In the off-season, on June 25, 2013, Bryzgalov was bought-out by the Flyers, where the team subsequently signed goaltender Ray Emery, effectively promoting Mason to the starter's role. On November 12, 2013, Mason recorded his first shutout for Philadelphia against the Ottawa Senators in a 5–0 win. On January 18, 2014, Mason signed a three-year contract extension with the Flyers worth $12.3 million for an annual average of $4.1 million. Mason finished the 2013-14 season with a 33-18-7 record and a.917 save percentage, which was enough to bring the Flyers to the playoffs. In the playoffs, Mason started 4 games and played in 5, going 2-2 with a 1.97 GAA and a.939 save percentage, but the Flyers were eliminated by the New York Rangers in 7 games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Winnipeg Jets.", "content": "On July 1, 2017, as an unrestricted free agent from the Flyers, Mason signed a two-year deal with the Winnipeg Jets worth $8.3 million.  On June 30, 2018, Mason was traded to the Montreal Canadiens along with forward Joel Armia and a few draft picks for defenceman Simon Bourque. Minutes after acquiring him, the Canadiens sent him to waivers in order to buy out his contract. Mason's contract was not picked up by another team, thus making him an unrestricted free agent.  He is now retired, returning to his hometown of Oakville to serve as the Director of Goalie Development for the Oakville Rangers, a youth team in Oakville.<ref", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Steve Mason (born May 29, 1988) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender who is currently the Director of Goalie Development for the Oakville Rangers of the Ontario Minor Hockey Association (OMHA). He was selected 69th overall in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft by the Columbus Blue Jackets. Playing major junior in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL), Mason spent three seasons with the London Knights and Kitchener Rangers. In the 2006–07 season, he was named OHL Goaltender of the Year. He joined the Blue Jackets in 2008–09 and won the Calder Memorial Trophy as rookie of the year. Internationally, he won a gold medal with Team Canada at the 2008 World Junior Championships while earning tournament MVP and Best Goaltender honours.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976418}
{"src_title": "Trifoliate orange", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The trifoliate orange is recognizable by the large thorns on the shoots, and its deciduous leaves with three (or rarely, five) leaflets, typically with the middle leaflet long, and the two side leaflets long. The flowers are white, with pink stamens, in diameter, larger than those of true citrus but otherwise closely resembling them, except that the scent is much less pronounced than with true citrus. As with true citrus, the leaves give off a spicy smell when crushed.  The fruits are green, ripening to yellow, and in diameter similar in size to a lime and resembling a small orange, but with a finely downy surface and having a fuzzy texture similar to a peach. The fruits also have distinctive smell from other citrus varieties and often contain a high concentration of seeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "The cultivar \"Flying Dragon\" is dwarfed in size and has highly twisted, contorted stems. It makes an excellent barrier hedge due to its density and strong curved thorns. Such hedges have been grown for over 50 years at Oklahoma State University in Stillwater, and are highly student-proof. The plant is also highly deer resistant. In central London, mature Trifoliate Orange specimens can be seen in the gardens of St Paul's Cathedral.  Trifoliate orange and various hybrids of this plant are widely used as citrus rootstocks.  Recent studies have revealed that the trifoliate orange contains aurapten at a high concentration, which is one of the functional components having immunity against citrus tristeza virus (CTV).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As food.", "content": "The fruits are very bitter, due in part to their poncirin content. Most people consider them inedible fresh, but they can be made into marmalade. When dried and powdered, they can be used as a condiment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medicine.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "The fruits of the trifoliate orange are widely used in medical traditions of East Asia as a treatment for allergic inflammation.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Related cultivars.", "content": "A second species in \"Poncirus\" native to Yunnan (China) has been reported and named \"P. polyandra\". Were \"Poncirus\" to be subsumed into \"Citrus\", a renaming would be required since a distinct \"C. polyandra\" already exists: \"Citrus polytrifolia\" has been suggested. However, Zhang and Mabberley concluded this Yunnan cultivar is likely a hybrid between the Trifoliate orange and another \"Citrus\", which would make it \"C. x polytrifolia\".  The trifoliate orange does not naturally interbreed with core \"Citrus\" taxa due to different flowering times, but hybrids have been produced artificially between the Trifoliate orange and other citrus. In the Swingle system, where the trifoliate orange is place in \"Poncirus\", a hybrid genus name has been coined for these intra-generic crosses, \"× \"Citroncirus\"\". The most notable of these are the citrange, a cross between the trifoliate and sweet oranges, and the citrumelo, a hybrid of trifoliate orange and 'Duncan' grapefruit. Placing the trifoliate orange in \"Citrus\" would mean these hybrids would no longer be intergeneric, but instead hybrids within \"Citrus\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The trifoliate orange, Citrus trifoliata or Poncirus trifoliata, is a member of the family Rutaceae. Whether the species should be considered to belong to its own genus, \"Poncirus\" or included in the genus \"Citrus\" is debated. The species is unusual among citrus for having deciduous, compound leaves and pubescent (downy) fruit.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976419}
{"src_title": "Princess Amelia of Great Britain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Amelia was born at Herrenhausen Palace, Hanover, Germany, on 30 May 1711 (Old Style). At the time of her birth, her father was The Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, the son of the Elector of Hanover. Her mother was Caroline of Ansbach, daughter of Johann Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. She was known to her family as Emily.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Great Britain.", "content": "On 1 August 1714, Queen Anne of Great Britain died. Princess Amelia's grandfather succeeded her to become George I of Great Britain, in accordance with the provisions of the Act of Settlement 1701. Amelia's father, now heir apparent to the throne of Great Britain, was made Duke of Cornwall and created Prince of Wales on 27 September 1714. She moved to Great Britain with her family and they took up residence at St James's Palace in London.  Though comparatively healthy as an adult, Amelia was a sickly child and her mother employed Johann Georg Steigerthal and Hans Sloane to treat her as well as secretly asking advice from physician John Freind. In 1722, her mother, who had progressive ideas, had Amelia and her sister Caroline inoculated against smallpox by an early type of immunisation known as variolation, which had been brought to England from Constantinople by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and Charles Maitland. On 11 June 1727, George I died and her father succeeded him as George II. She lived with her father until his death in 1760.  Amelia's aunt Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia suggested Amelia as a suitable wife for her son Frederick (later known as Frederick the Great) but his father Frederick William I of Prussia forced his son to marry Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern instead.  Amelia greatly enjoyed riding and hunting. She was disliked by artistic fops such as John, Lord Hervey, and Lady Pomfret considered her \"one of the oddest princesses that ever was known; she has ears shut to flattery and her heart open to honesty.\"  Amelia may have been the mother of composer Samuel Arnold (1740–1802) through an affair with a commoner of the name Thomas Arnold.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1751, Princess Amelia became ranger of Richmond Park after the death of Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford. Immediately afterwards, the Princess caused major public uproar by closing the park to the public, only allowing few close friends and those with special permits to enter.  This continued until 1758, when a local brewer, John Lewis, took the gatekeeper, who stopped him from entering the park, to court. The court ruled in favour of Lewis, citing the fact that, when Charles I enclosed the park in the 17th century, he allowed the public right of way in the park. Princess Amelia was forced to lift the restrictions.  The Princess was generous in her gifts to charitable organisations. In 1760 she donated £100 to the society for educating poor orphans of clergymen (later the Clergy Orphan Corporation) to help pay for a school for 21 orphan daughters of clergymen of the Church of England. In 1783 she agreed to become an annual subscriber of £25 to the new County Infirmary in Northampton.  In 1761, Princess Amelia became the owner of Gunnersbury Estate, Middlesex, purchased from the estate of Henry Furnese. Princess Amelia used Gunnersbury as her summer residence. She added a chapel and at some time between 1777 and 1784, she commissioned a bath house, extended as a folly by a subsequent owner of the land in the 19th century, which still stands today with a Grade II English Heritage listing and is known as \"Princess Amelia's Bathhouse\".  She also owned a property in Cavendish Square, Soho, London, where she died unmarried on 31 October 1786, at which time she was the last surviving child of King George II and Queen Caroline. A miniature of Prince Frederick of Prussia was found on her body. She was buried in the Henry VII Lady Chapel in Westminster Abbey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Amelia Island in Florida, United States, is named for her, as is Amelia County in Virginia, United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "On 31 January 1719, as a grandchild of the sovereign, Amelia was granted use of the arms of the realm, differenced by a \"label argent of five points ermine\". On 30 August 1727, as a child of the sovereign, Amelia's difference changed to a \"label argent of three points ermine\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Amelia of Great Britain (Amelia Sophia Eleanor; 10 June 1711 (New Style) – 31 October 1786) was the second daughter of King George II of Great Britain and Queen Caroline.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976420}
{"src_title": "Hélène Berr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Hélène Berr was born in Paris, France, a member of a Jewish family that had lived in France for several generations. She studied Russian and English literature at the Sorbonne university. She also played the violin. She was not able to pass her final exam at the university because the anti-Semitic laws of the Vichy regime prevented her from doing so. She was active in the \"General Organization of Jews in France\" (Union générale des israélites de France, UGIF). On 8 March 1944 Hélène and her parents were captured and taken to Drancy internment camp and from there were deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp on 27 March 1944. In early November 1944 Hélène was transferred to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, where she died in April 1945 just five days before the liberation of the camp.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diary.", "content": "Hélène Berr began her notes on 7 April 1942 at the age of 21. At first the horrors of anti-Semitism and the war do not show in her diary. The landscape around Paris, her feelings for one young man, Gérard, and her friends at the Sorbonne are the topics of her diary. In addition to her studies, the reading and discussion of literature, and playing and listening to music comprise a significant part of her social and cultural life. She falls in love with Jean Morawiecki, who reciprocates, but ultimately decides he must leave Paris to join the Free French in late November 1942.  In her text, which has many literary citations including William Shakespeare, John Keats and Lewis Carroll, the war initially appears at most as an evil dream. But little by little she becomes more conscious of her situation. She reports about the yellow badge that Jews were ordered to wear and notes the expulsions from public parks, the curfews and arrests, as well as the abuse against her family members and friends.  The actions directed against the Jews become harsher and more painful to all of them, but the Final Solution itself is never made explicit to the public. Because of this, Berr, who does much volunteer work with orphans, initially finds it impossible to comprehend why women and especially children are included in the deportations to the camps. She hears rumours about the gas chambers and complains about her fear of the future: \"We live from hour to hour, not even from day to day.\" A deported Jew tells her about the plans of the Nazis. The last entry in the diary is about a conversation with a former prisoner of war from Germany. The diary ends on 15 February 1944 with a citation from Shakespeare's 'Macbeth': \"Horror! Horror! Horror!\" The Diary, written in French, contains some English. It was translated by David Bellos and the entire diary has been translated besides 2 sentences. The first sentence appears on page 48 (of the English copy). \"Refait l'Ancien dans la matinée.\" The meaning of this sentence has not been established. The second sentence that has not been translated was on page 261. \"Nous serons de la même fournée.\" Madame Loewe says this sentence to reassure Hélène. In common tongue, this phrase means, \"We'll be in the same boat.\" Madame Loewe is trying to reassure Hélène that she is not alone and that if they are taken they will be taken together. It was meant to reassure her. However, the literal translation of that sentence is, \"We will be in the same oven.\" To quote David Bellos (the translator), \"I cannot reproduce in English the hideous lurch into prophecy made by this phrase in French, and so I have left it alone.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication.", "content": "Berr ordered her notes to be released to her fiancé Jean Morawiecki after her death. Morawiecki later followed a career as a diplomat. In November 1992, Hélène Berr's niece, Mariette Job, decided to track down Morawiecki with a view to publishing the diary. He gave the diary that consists of 262 single pages to Job in April 1994. The diary has been stored at Paris' (Holocaust Memorial Museum) since 2002.  The book was published in France in January 2008. The \"Libération\" paper declared it as \"the editorial event at the beginning of 2008\" and reminded the readers of the lively discussions about the book of Jewish Irène Némirovsky. The first print of 24,000 copies was sold out after only two days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibition.", "content": "Opening of the exhibit \"Hélène Berr, A Stolen Life - Exhibition from Mémorial de la Shoah, Paris France\", was held at the Alliance Française d'Atlanta in Atlanta, Georgia USA, on Wednesday, 22 January 2014, at 7:00 PM. Speakers included the Consul Generals of France and Germany, Directors of the Alliance Française and the Goethe-Zentrum as well as the Executive Directors of the Memorial de la Shoah, Paris and the Georgia Commission on the Holocaust.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hélène Berr (27 March 1921 – April 1945) was a French woman of Jewish ancestry and faith, who documented her life in a diary during the time of Nazi occupation of France. In France she is considered to be a \"French Anne Frank\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976421}
{"src_title": "Venus and Adonis (Shakespeare poem)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "Adonis is a young man renowned for his incredible beauty. However, he is not interested at all in love; he only wants to go hunting. Venus is the goddess of love. When she sees Adonis, she falls in love with him, and comes down to earth, where she encounters him setting out on a hunt. She desires him to get off his horse, and speak to her. Adonis doesn't want to talk to any woman, not even a goddess. So she forces him, and then lies down beside him, gazes at him, and talks of love. She craves a kiss; he wants to leave and go hunting. He manages to get away, and he goes to get his horse.  At that moment, his horse becomes enamored of another horse, who at first resists, but soon the two animals gallop off together, which keeps Adonis from going hunting. Venus approaches him, and continues to speak to him of love. He listens for a bit, then turns away scornfully. This pains her, and she faints. Afraid he might have killed her, Adonis kneels beside her, strokes and kisses her. Venus recovers and requests one last kiss. He reluctantly gives in.  Venus wants to see him again; Adonis tells her that he cannot tomorrow, because he is going to hunt the wild boar. Venus has a vision, and warns him that if he does so, he will be killed by a boar. She then flings herself on him, tackling him to the ground. He prises himself loose, and lectures her on the topic of lust versus love. He then leaves; she cries.  The next morning Venus roams the woods searching for Adonis. She hears dogs and hunters in the distance. Thinking of her vision that he will be killed by the boar, she is afraid, and hurries to catch up with the hunt. She comes across hunting dogs that are injured. Then she finds Adonis, killed by a wild boar. Venus is devastated. Because this loss occurred to the goddess of love, she decrees that love will henceforth be mixed with suspicion, fear, and sadness. Adonis' body has grown cold and pale. His blood gives color to the plants all around him. A flower grows from the soil beneath him. It is white and purple, like blood on Adonis' flesh. Venus, bereft, leaves the Earth to hide her sadness where the gods live.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes  Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Venus and Adonis is a narrative poem by William Shakespeare published in 1593. It is probably Shakespeare's first publication. The poem tells the story of Venus, the goddess of Love; of her unrequited love; and of her attempted seduction of Adonis, an extremely handsome young man, who would rather go hunting. The poem is pastoral, and at times erotic, comic, and tragic. It contains discourses on the nature of love, and observations of nature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976422}
{"src_title": "Angelica Garnett", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family background.", "content": "Angelica Garnett was born at Charleston Farmhouse in East Sussex on Christmas Day 1918. She was the biological daughter of the painter Duncan Grant and Vanessa Bell; her aunt was Virginia Woolf.  Until the summer of 1937, when Garnett was 18, she believed her biological father was Clive Bell, Vanessa's husband, rather than the mostly homosexual Grant, although the reality was an open secret within their immediate Bloomsbury circle. In fact, although there was no formal separation or divorce, the Bells' marriage had come to an end in 1916. In that year, Vanessa rented Charleston Farmhouse from the Gage estate, so that Duncan Grant, with whom she had fallen in love, and his lover, David Garnett, could work there as farm labourers; both were conscientious objectors. Grant and Vanessa Bell continued to live together after the presumed end of their sexual relationship. Clive Bell would visit at weekends.  When Vanessa Bell informed her daughter of her true parentage she advised her not to talk about it. The deception avoided servant gossip and preserved the possibility of a legacy from Clive Bell's father who had settled allowances on his grandchildren. Angelica grew up believing that two of those grandchildren, Vanessa and Clive's sons, Julian Bell, who was killed in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War, and the art historian Quentin Bell, were her biological brothers, rather than her biological half-brothers. Vanessa comforted herself with the idea that her daughter had two fathers; \"in reality,\" Angelica wrote, \"I had none\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Angelica Garnett grew up at Charleston, indulged by her mother and surrounded by the artists, writers and intellectuals of the Bloomsbury Group. After her 14th birthday, Virginia Woolf gave Angelica a clothing budget of £100 a year.  At the age of ten she was sent to boarding school at Langford Grove in Essex. She left without any qualifications, spent several months living in Rome and in 1935 moved for a time to Paris, staying with the artist Zoum Walter and her writer husband Francois. In 1936 Angelica went to the London Theatre Studio to train, briefly, as an actress under Michel Saint-Denis and George Devine. She changed to the study of art at the Euston Road School, where she was taught by William Coldstream and Victor Pasmore, the latter of whom apparently reduced her to tears.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "In 1942, aged 24, Angelica married David Garnett, by then an editor, reviewer and novelist whose mother was Constance Garnett, the noted translator of Russian literature. The relationship had begun in the spring of 1938, when Garnett was married to his first wife, Rachel \"Ray\" Marshall, who was dying of cancer. Angelica had four daughters with Garnett—Amaryllis, Henrietta, Nerissa, and Frances.  Garnett was a member of her parents' circle, a former lover of Duncan Grant who had also attempted to seduce Vanessa Bell. When Angelica was born, Garnett had written to Lytton Strachey saying of the baby: \"\"Its beauty is the remarkable thing... I think of marrying it; when she is 20 I shall be 46 – will it be scandalous?\"\" In fact Garnett was nearly 50 at the time of their marriage. Despite their consternation, Angelica's parents did not inform their daughter of these details of Garnett's past, although various associates of the family did attempt to warn her against the marriage: John Maynard Keynes had her to tea. Angelica lost her virginity to Garnett in H.G. Wells's spare bedroom.  The couple moved to Hilton Hall, Cambridgeshire, which David Garnett had bought in 1924. His novella, \"Aspects of Love\" (1955), dedicated to Angelica and involving similarly complicated domestic arrangements, was later adapted into a highly successful musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber. The Garnetts separated in 1967.  For a time Angelica was in love with George Bergen, a Russian-Jewish painter who had been another of Duncan Grant's lovers, but the relationship did not last.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memoir.", "content": "In 1984 Angelica Garnett published her memoir, \"Deceived with Kindness: A Bloomsbury Childhood\". The book was direct and sharply critical in its description of her upbringing and relationship with her parents, revealing Bloomsbury's rather conventional inability to confront deep personal feelings. In those characteristics it was a departure from much of the coverage the Bloomsbury Group had received up to that time. In it Garnett wrote, \"\"My dream of the perfect father – unrealized – possessed me, and has done so for the rest of my life. My marriage was but a continuation of it, and almost engulfed me.\"\" The memoir was awarded the J. R. Ackerley Prize for Autobiography in 1985.  Garnett was the author of a second memoir, \"The Eternal Moment\" (1998), and published a volume of autobiographical fiction entitled \"The Unspoken Truth: A Quartet of Bloomsbury Stories\" (2010). At the time of her death she had been working on an autobiography.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and work.", "content": "After the end of her marriage, Angelica Garnett moved to Islington, north London. She moved back to Charleston after the death of Duncan Grant in 1978, before moving to nearby Ringmer and then to France. Garnett had spent long parts of her childhood staying in the south of France, mostly at Cassis, near Marseilles.  Garnett was actively involved in the efforts that saw Charleston restored and opened to the public as a museum. She advised on the reconstruction of its fabrics, and on the selection and application of pigments; also talking at festivals and giving fund-raising lectures, including in America. In 1994 she donated more than 8000 sketches and drawings by Duncan Grant and Vanessa Bell to The Charleston Trust.  Angelica Garnett continued to paint, developing a reputation, mostly for still lifes, and exhibiting in Europe and America. She also worked with mosaics, designed book jackets and textiles, decorated pots, and, in the 1980s, began to create sculptures using found objects and materials.  The last 30 years of her life were spent in Forcalquier in the south of France. Angelica Garnett died in Aix-en-Provence on 4 May 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "\"Bloomsbury's Outsider: A Life of David Garnett\", Sarah Knights, Bloomsbury Reader, Paperback and Digital, (15 May 2015),, 632 pages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "With David Garnett, Angelica had four daughters: Amaryllis Virginia (1943–1973), an actress; Henrietta (1945–2019), a writer; Nerissa, called Nel (1946–2004), a painter, photographer and ceramics artist; and Nel's twin Frances, called Fanny (b. 1946), who farms in France.  When Henrietta Garnett was 17 she married Lytton Burgo Partridge, the son of Frances Partridge, who was the sister of David Garnett's first wife. Burgo Partridge died from a heart attack less than a year later, three weeks after the birth of their daughter, Sophie Vanessa. Amaryllis Garnett drowned in the Thames in 1973; she was 29. Nerissa Garnett died from a brain tumour in 2004.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Angelica Vanessa Garnett, née Bell (25 December 1918 – 4 May 2012), was a British writer, painter and artist. She was the author of the memoir \"Deceived with Kindness\" (1984), an account of her experience growing up at the heart of the Bloomsbury Group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976423}
{"src_title": "Jovan Ristić", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born at Kragujevac, he was educated at Belgrade, Heidelberg, Berlin and Paris. After failing to obtain a professorship at Belgrade's Grandes écoles, he was appointed in 1861 Serbian diplomatic agent at Constantinople. On his return from Constantinople, his brilliant intellectual qualities attracted the attention of the government. He soon became known as the most competent of the government officials. He was immediately offered a ministerial post by Prince Mihailo, who described him as his \"right arm\", but declined office, being opposed to the reactionary methods adopted by the prince's government. He had already become the recognized leader of the Liberal Party. As a politician, he saw all the dangers that would have to be faced should Serbia embark on a policy of land redemption. The Turkish army, always a formidable fighting force, would overwhelm the Serbs, if it could be wholly massed against them. A Serbian invasion of the rebellious provinces would also, if successful, mean a conflict with Austria-Hungary, in which Russia would probably not interfere, while France was then in no condition to support other nations' plights for freedom. Ristić's reputation was enhanced by the series of negotiations which ended in the peaceful withdrawal of the Turkish troops from the Serbian fortresses in 1867. After the assassination of Prince Mihailo in 1868, he was nominated member of the council of regency, and on 2 January 1869 the third Serbian constitution, which was mainly his creation, was promulgated. When the regency came to an end, and Prince MIlan attained his majority in 1872, Ristić became foreign minister; a few months later he was appointed prime minister, but resigned in the following autumn (1873). Later, Old Serbia broke into rebellion, and this was followed by a similar movement in Bulgaria. Ristić again became prime minister in April 1876, and was faced with a dilemma. If Serbia could only act quickly and establish herself in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Old Serbia, it would take time to dislodge her, and meanwhile the example of insurrection would probably spread far and wide over the whole of Turkey in Europe. Also Ristić, Stevča Mihailović, Ilija Garašanin, Nikola Hristić, Miloje Lješanin, Ljubomir Kaljević, Milivoje Petrović Blaznavac, Jovan Marinović, Milan Piroćanac, Sava Grujić, and other distinguished Serbian statesmen have been taught by long experience that with the Powers nothing succeeds like self-help. Possession is nine points of the law. Ristić was able to deduct, if Serbia could maintain a position, however precarious, in the \"unredeemed\" Serbian lands, the Serbs could look forward with confidence to being ultimately supported by Russia. Ristić therefore decided to act, and all Serbia was behind him. In that way he gained an international reputation as foreign minister on two important occasions (while prosecuting two wars against Turkey: July 1876; and March 1877 and December 1877; March 1878) by promoting an expansionist policy that he hoped would make Serbia the nucleus for a strong South Slav state. There were times when things looked dim. While Bulgaria was to obtain frontiers far beyond her wildest dreams, Serbia was to obtain little more than the merest rectification.  At the Congress of Berlin Ristić labored with some success to obtain greater advantages for Serbia than had been accorded to her by the Treaty of San Stefano. His personal secretary at the congress was poet and attorney Laza Kostić. The provisions of the Treaty of Berlin provided Serbia with no more than of new territory and a proclamation of complete independence from Turkey. This, however, disappointed the Serbians, owing to the obstacles now raised to the realization of the national program. The Ristić government became unpopular. He was forced to resign when he refused to sign a trade agreement with Austria-Hungary that he believed would make Serbia economically dependent on that country.  In 1887 King Milan I (who had assumed the royal title in 1882), alarmed at the threatening attitude of the Radical party, recalled Ristić to power at the head of a coalition cabinet; a new constitution was granted in 1889, and later that year the king abdicated in favor of his son, Prince Alexander. Ristić now became head of a council of regency, entrusted with power during the minority of the young king, and a Radical ministry was formed.  In 1892, however, Ristić transferred the government to the Liberal party, with which he had always been connected. This step and the subsequent conduct of the Liberal politicians caused serious discontent in the country. On 1 (13) April 1893 King Alexander, by a successful stratagem, imprisoned the regents and ministers in the palace, and, declaring himself of age, recalled the Radicals to office.  Ristić now retired into private life. He died in Belgrade on September 4, 1899. Though cautious and deliberate by temperament, he was a man of strong will and firm character.  He was awarded Order of the White Eagle and a number of other decorations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "He was the author of several major historical works:  Jovan Ristić was a member of the Serbian Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Serbian Learned Society in Belgrade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "He is included in The 100 most prominent Serbs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jovan Ristić, or Ristitch (Serbian Cyrillic: Јован Ристић; 16 January 1831 – 4 September 1899) was a Serbian politician, diplomat and historian.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976424}
{"src_title": "Amalia of Solms-Braunfels", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, born into the House of Solms, a ruling family with Imperial immediacy, spent her childhood at the parental castle at Braunfels.  She became part of the court of Elizabeth, wife of Frederick V, Elector Palatine, the \"Winter King\" of Bohemia. After imperial forces defeated Frederick V, she fled from Prague with the pregnant queen to the west. Shelter was denied to them along the way because the emperor forbade it as Frederick had been placed under an Imperial ban. Elizabeth went into labour during their flight and Amalia helped her with her delivery of Prince Maurice at Küstrin castle.  The end of their journey was The Hague, where stadtholder Maurice of Nassau, uncle of the elector gave them asylum in 1621. They often appeared at his court, where Maurice's younger half-brother Frederick Henry became infatuated with Amalia in 1622. She refused to become his lover and held out for marriage.  When Maurice of Nassau died, he made his half-brother Frederick Henry promise to wed. Frederick married Amalia on 4 April 1625.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wife to the Stadtholder.", "content": "When Frederick Henry became stadtholder after the death of his half-brother Prince Maurice, his influence grew substantially, as did Amalia's. Together Frederick Henry and Amalia succeeded in expanding court life in The Hague. They had several palaces built, including Huis ten Bosch. Amalia was a great collector of art and amassed many jewels, which were inherited by her four surviving daughters. She was described as intelligent, arrogant and ambitious, not beautiful but with a fresh and appealing appearance.  Amalia was the prime mover of several royal marriages, including that of her son William II to Mary, Princess Royal of England and Scotland (daughter of King Charles I of England) and of their daughters with several German princes.  The relationship between Amalia and Frederik Hendrik was described as happy, and Amalia is acknowledged to have acted as his political adviser. From 1640 until his death in 1647, Frederik Hendrik's health (he suffered from gout and probably also from a form of Alzheimer's) made it increasingly difficult for him to participate in politics, and during these seven years, Amalia therefore effectively functioned as regent and stadtholder, maintaining diplomatic contacts and making political decisions on his behalf. Her de facto political position was acknowledged and diplomats, aware of this, tried to influence her decisions by costly presents. It was reportedly Amalia who was behind Frederik Hendrik's participation in the negotiations which was eventually to result in the Peace of Münster of 1648. As a recognition, King Philip IV of Spain granted her the seigniory and castle of Turnhout in 1649.  In 1647, her spouse died and was succeeded as stadtholder and prince of orange by their son William II, Prince of Orange.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regency.", "content": "After the death of her son William II in 1650, her grandson William III (Prince William III of Orange and later also King William III of England) became prince of Orange. A regency council was appointed during her minority, and Amalia and her former daughter-in-law Mary Stuart fought over guardianship and thereby chairmanship of the regency council; the High Court of Holland and Zeeland finally granted both Mary and Amalia shared guardianship, and thereby shared part in the regency council of Orange.  Amalia was supported against Mary by her son-in-law, the Elector of Brandenburg, and she was on good terms with the Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt, a relationship which did not change with the Act of Exclusion of 1654, barring the prince from all ancestral offices. When Mary died in 1660, Amalia in practice took sole control of the regency of her grandson. She maintained good relations to De Witt even by the passing of the 1667 Eternal Edict, which abolished the office of stadholder entirely. During this time she lived in the Oude Hof on the Noordeinde, maintaining her court and diplomatic contacts with royalty.  In 1672, her grandson was declared adult and his regency council thereby dismissed. Amalia retired and witnessed him becoming stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel and captain-general of the Union.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tributes.", "content": "A wine from wine estate Solms-Delta in Franschhoek (South Africa) is named after Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. The wine honours the role played by her in Dutch political life. Her grandson, William III, King of England, provided refuge and support to thousands of French Huguenots after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Some 180 of these refugees, fleeing religious persecution, were relocated to the Cape and granted farms in Franschhoek. Here they laid the foundations of the modern South African wine industry.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Amalia of Solms-Braunfels (31 August 1602, Braunfels – 8 September 1675, The Hague), was Princess consort of Orange by marriage to Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. She acted as the political adviser of her spouse during his reign, and acted as his de facto deputy and regent during his infirmity from 1640–47. She also served as chair of the regency council during the minority of her grandson William III, Prince of Orange from 1650 until 1672. She was the daughter of count John Albert I of Solms-Braunfels and countess Agnes of Sayn-Wittgenstein.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976425}
{"src_title": "Auschwitz Album", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The images follow the processing of newly arrived Hungarian Jews from Carpatho-Ruthenia in the early summer of 1944. They document the disembarkation of the Jewish prisoners from the train boxcars, followed by the selection process, performed by doctors of the SS and wardens of the camp, which separated those who were considered fit for work from those who were to be sent to the gas chambers. The photographer followed groups of those selected for work, and those selected for death to a birch grove just outside the crematoria, where they were made to wait before being killed. The photographer also documented the workings of the \"Canada\" storage facilities, where the looted belongings of the prisoners were sorted before transport to Germany.  The album's survival is remarkable, given the strenuous efforts made by the Nazis to keep the \"Final Solution\" a secret. Also remarkable is the story of its discovery. Lili Jacob (later Lili Jacob-Zelmanovic Meier) was selected for work at Auschwitz-Birkenau, while the other members of her family were sent to the gas chambers. The Auschwitz camp was evacuated by the Nazis as the Soviet army approached. Jacob passed through various camps, finally arriving at the Dora concentration camp, where she was eventually liberated. Recovering from illness in a vacated barracks of the SS, Jacob found the album in a cupboard beside her bed. Inside, she found pictures of herself, her relatives, and others from her community. The coincidence was astounding, given that the Nordhausen-Dora camp was over away, and that over 1,100,000 people were killed at Auschwitz.  The album's existence had been known publicly since at least the 1960s, when it was used as evidence at the Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials. Nazi-hunter Serge Klarsfeld visited Lili in 1980 and convinced her to donate the album to Yad Vashem. The album's contents were first published that year in the book \"The Auschwitz Album\", edited by Klarsfeld.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Auschwitz Album is a photographic record of the Holocaust during the Second World War. It and the \"Sonderkommando\" photographs are the only known pictorial evidence of the extermination process inside Auschwitz II-Birkenau, the German extermination camp in occupied Poland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976426}
{"src_title": "Anna d'Este", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Anna d'Este was born on 16 November 1531, the eldest daughter of the Duke of Ferrara Ercole II (son of Lucrezia Borgia and grandson of Pope Alexander VI) and his wife, Renée of France (daughter of King Louis XII of France). She grew up in Ferrara, where she received an excellent education. The future writer and scholar Olympia Fulvia Morata was chosen as one of her companions at court.  In 1548, after long and difficult negotiations, her marriage was arranged with the French prince Francis, Duke of Aumale, son of the Duke of Guise. The contract was signed in Ferrara on 28 September and the marriage was held in Saint-Germain-en-Laye near Paris on 16 December. The princess was never to return to Italy. Anna was the granddaughter of the French king Louis XII and therefore related to Henry II and his sons.  By her marriage she had become a member of the powerful Guise family, and because of her Italian roots she had especially close ties to the queen and later queen-mother, Catherine de' Medici. For these reasons, her position at court was outstanding. Duchess of Guise after the death of her father-in-law in 1550, she governed the family estates and the enormous fortunes of the Guise with the help of her mother-in-law, Antoinette de Bourbon. She was active on behalf of her father and acted as mediator between the courts of France and of Ferrara. She gave birth to seven children, four of whom reached adulthood. In February 1563 Francis, Duke of Guise, was assassinated. While the murderer was seized and immediately put to death, Anna took all possible steps to sue the leader of the French Huguenots, Gaspard de Coligny, whom she held responsible. During the next three years, the widow put pressure on the king and his courts of justice with her petitions, but in January 1566 the king's council declared the admiral of Coligny innocent and imposed eternal silence in the matter. Consequently, most of her contemporaries held the widow of the Duke of Guise responsible for the shot which was fired on Coligny on 22 August 1572 and which became the starting signal for the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. On 29 April 1566, Anna married Jacques of Savoy, Duke of Nemours and Genevois. Henceforth, the princess spent most of her time in Annecy or on the road between her duchy of Genevois and the court of France. In politically difficult situations she acted as mediator between her husband and the Duke of Savoy, and in the meantime she held her position at the court of France. Anna promoted her sons' careers, she helped her clients to make their living, and she claimed a prominent place in official ceremonies at court. After the death of her second husband in 1585, Anna lived in Paris, in her Hôtel de Nemours, on the left bank of the Seine, in what is today Rue Séguier. With the formation of the Catholic League, in which her sons played a prominent part, her importance increased considerably.  In December 1588 Henry III ordered the murder of her two oldest sons and the imprisonment of Anna d'Este. Although the sources tell us nothing about the deeds of the Duchess after her liberation, some contemporaries held her responsible for the assassination of the king. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV, Anna was declared \"queen-mother\" by the League, but after the Bourbon's conversion back to Catholicism she recognized him as king and tried to convince her rebellious sons to take the same step. In 1594 Anna traveled to Paris to pay homage to Henry IV. Anna spent her last years in the highly respectable position of \"superintendante de la maison\" of the queen, Marie de' Medici, but also in growing indebtedness and in constant worry about the financial situation of her children and grandchildren.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "When she died on 17 May 1607, the value of her movable goods came to little more than 4000 livres. The entrails and the heart of the Duchess were interred in Paris and in Joinville while her body was brought to Annecy, where it was buried next to her second husband. None of the tombs remain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Significance.", "content": "With regard to the confessional disputes, Anna's life does not differ much from those of other princesses of her time. Her mother was a Calvinist, her father, husbands, and sons were more or less radical Catholics. Although she didn't abjure Catholicism, she never gave away her \"true\" beliefs. In other regards, she held a special position at the court of France, which can be seen from the numerous lawsuits she was involved in. Although the entanglement in legal proceedings even for minor causes was quite common for the French aristocracy of the early modern period, it was Anna and her mother who contested the king's right to Brittany, and in doing so they referred to their positions as daughter and granddaughter of a French king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Children from the marriage with Francis, Duke of Guise (1519–1563):  Children of the marriage with Jacques de Savoie (1531–1585):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna d'Este (16 November 1531 – 17 May 1607) was an important princess with considerable influence at the court of France and a central figure in the French Wars of Religion. In her first marriage she was Duchess of Aumale, then of Guise, in her second marriage Duchess of Nemours and Genevois.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976427}
{"src_title": "Loire-Nieuport LN.401", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Between 1932 and 1936, Nieuport-Delage had been developing a two-seat dive bomber, the Nieuport Ni.140, for the \"Aéronautique Navale\", the aviation arm of the French Navy. It was renamed Loire-Nieuport LN.140 after the Nieuport company was absorbed into Loire-Nieuport, in 1933. The first of two prototypes, the LN.140-01, was flown on 12 March 1935, but had crashed in July during a forced landing, not being repaired. Flight testing continued with the second prototype, the LN.140-02, until development was abandoned after, that too, crashed in July 1936.  Development efforts were then concentrated on the LN.40 project which benefited from experience with the LN.140, but was a new, and aerodynamically more refined design, replacing the fixed and spatted undercarriage of the LN.140 with rearward retracting main gear legs, and dispensing with the second crewman. In the second half of 1937 an order was received for a prototype, followed by orders for seven production aircraft for the aircraft carrier \"Béarn\" and three more for operational evaluation by the air force. The French Air Force had expressed interest in a land-based derivative of the LN.40, designated the LN.41. Initial plans were for 184 to equip six dive bomber squadrons with 18 aircraft each, plus reserves.  The prototype made its first flight on 6 July 1938, the second followed in January 1939, and the third in May. Four of the pre-series LN.40 dive bombers were delivered in July, and it passed its carrier trials aboard the \"aircraft carrier Béarn\". Nevertheless, the flight tests found that the dive brakes were ineffective, which led to their being removed in favour of using the extended landing gear doors as air brakes. The LN.40 also could not carry out diving attacks with full fuel tanks. The aircraft was too slow for the air force which requested the development of a faster dive bomber, which would become the Loire-Nieuport LN.42.  In July 1939, Loire-Nieuport had received orders for 36 LN.401 production dive bombers for the Navy, and 36 LN.411 aircraft for the Army. The LN.411 was almost identical to the LN.401, except for the deletion of the arrestor hook, the wing folding mechanism and the emergency floatation devices. The first LN.411s were delivered in September which coincided with an order from the air force for 270 more but in October they were refused, and the LN.411s were sent to the Navy.  Loire-Nieuport also attempted to develop a faster version, by substituting an Hispano-Suiza 12Y-31 for the Hispano-Suiza 12Xcrs engine of the LN.401. This LN.402 made its first flight on 18 November 1939. Further development of the LN.402 was prevented by the French defeat in May 1940 and the following armistice.  The final development was the LN.42 dispensed with the inverted gull wing and elevator endplates and used the much more powerful Hispano-Suiza 12Y-51 engine but was too late for the Second World War, making only a few short hops before France fell during the 1940 invasion of France when it was hidden from the Germans for the duration of the war. Flight trials resumed on 24 August 1945 and ran until 1947, however no interest was forthcoming of the now obsolete type and only one example was built.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "Two \"escadrilles\" of the Aéronautique Navale, designated as AB2 and AB4, converted to the LN.401/411 between late 1939 and early 1940. AB2 received its first LN.401 dive bombers in November 1939, while AB4 received the LN.411 dive bombers rejected by the Air Force from February 1940 onwards. The dive bombers rejected by the Air Force were a welcome reinforcement to the Navy, as the production of the LN.401 was very slow.  Both used the type in combat during the Battle of France in ground attacks against German motorized columns and troop concentrations. Losses were heavy. One attack on 19 May resulted in the loss of 10 out of 20 dive bombers committed, while seven of the survivors were sufficiently damaged to be no longer airworthy. The production rate of the LN.401 and LN.411 was insufficient to replace losses, and in about a month of fighting the two squadrons lost two-thirds of their strength.  After the armistice with Germany, Loire-Nieuport dive bombers were retired from service and the two \"escadrilles\" were re-equipped with the Glenn-Martin 167-F level bomber.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Loire-Nieuport LN.40 aircraft were a family of French naval dive-bombers for the Aeronavale in the late 1930s, which saw service during World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976428}
{"src_title": "Leucaena leucocephala", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Use by humans.", "content": "During the 1970s and 1980s, it was promoted as a \"miracle tree\" for its multiple uses. It has also been described as a \"conflict tree\" because it is used for forage production but spreads like a weed in some places.  The legume is promoted in several countries of Southeast Asia (at least Burma, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand), most importantly as a source of quality animal feed, but also for residual use for firewood or charcoal production.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Forage and fodder.", "content": "The legume provides an excellent source of high-protein cattle fodder. However, the fodder contains mimosine, a toxic amino acid. Horses and donkeys which are fed it lose their hair.  In many cases this acid is metabolized by ruminants to goitrogenic DHP [3-hydroxy-4(1H) pyridone] in the rumen, but in some geographical areas, ruminants lack the organisms (such as Synergistes jonesii) that can degrade DHP.  In such cases, toxicity problems from ingestion of Leucaena have sometimes been overcome by infusing susceptible animals with rumen fluid from ruminants that possess such organisms, and more recently by inoculating cattle rumina with such organisms cultured in vitro.  Such measures have facilitated Leucaena use for fodder in Australia and elsewhere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Green manure and biomass production.", "content": "\"Leucaena leucocephala\" has been considered for biomass production because its reported yield of foliage corresponds to a dried mass of kg/ha/year, and that of wood 30–40 m3/ha/year, with up to twice those amounts in favorable climates. In India it is being promoted for both fodder and energy..  It is also efficient in nitrogen fixation, at more than 500 kg/ha/year.  It has a very fast growth rate: young trees reach a height of more than 20 ft in two to three years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Food for humans.", "content": "The young pods are edible and occasionally eaten in Javanese vegetable salad with spicy peanut sauce, and spicy fish wrapped in papaya or taro leaves in Indonesia, and in papaya salad in Laos and Thailand, where they are known as \"phak krathin\" (). In Mexico it is eaten in soups and also inside tacos, it is known as \"guaje\". Additionally, the state of Oaxaca in Mexico derives its name from the Nahuatl word \"huaxyacac\", the name for \"Leucaena leucocephala\" trees that are found around Oaxaca City.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pulpwood for paper industry.", "content": "Recently, the wood part of the Subabul tree is used for making pulp in the pulp and paper industry. In the southern and central states of India, Subabul is the most important pulpwood species for making pulp. It has huge positive socio-economic impact on the livelihood of the small farmers where Subabul is grown as an industrial crop. This provides an alternate crop choice to the farmers of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states of India where they are also growing cotton and chillies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Invasive properties.", "content": "\"L. leucocephala\" is considered one of the 100 worst invasive species by the Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission.  It is a highly invasive species in the arid parts of Taiwan, The Bahamas, the Hawaiian Islands, Fiji, Puerto Rico, Hong Kong, South Africa, and northern Australia, as well as in South America and Europe.  The plant is also found in parts of the U.S., including California, Arizona, Texas, and Florida. It grows quickly and forms dense thickets that crowd out all native vegetation.  In urban areas, it is an especially unwanted species, growing along arid roadsides, in carparks, and on abandoned land.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other limitations.", "content": "This species is susceptible to insect infestations. In the 1980s, a widespread loss in Southeast Asia was due to pest attack by psyllids.  In India, this tree was initially promoted for afforestation due to its fast-growing nature. However, it is now considered unsuitable for urban planting because of its tendency to get uprooted in rain and wind. Eight of every ten trees uprooted by wind in Pune are \"L. leucocephala\".  The seeds contain mimosine, an amino acid known to be toxic to nonruminant vertebrates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Potential as bioherbicidal agent.", "content": "\"L. leucocephala\" is an allelopathic tree. Phytotoxic allelochemicals, such as mimosine and certain phenolic compounds, including p-hydroxycinnamic acid, protocatechuic acid, and gallic acid, have been identified in the leaves of the species. Bioherbicidal activity of \"L. leucocephala\" on terrestrial plants and aquatic weed water hyacinth were reported.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leucaena leucocephala is a small fast-growing mimosoid tree native to southern Mexico and northern Central America (Belize and Guatemala) and is now naturalized throughout the tropics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976429}
{"src_title": "Interstellar Boundary Explorer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Science Goal.", "content": "The Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science goal is to discover the nature of the interactions between the solar wind and the interstellar medium at the edge of our solar system. IBEX has achieved this goal by generating full sky maps of the intensity (integrated over the line-of-sight) of ENAs in a range of energies every six months. Most of these ENAs are generated in the heliosheath, which is the region of interaction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Launch.", "content": "The IBEX satellite was mated to its Pegasus XL rocket at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, and the combined vehicle was then suspended below the Lockheed L-1011 \"Stargazer\" mother airplane and flown to Kwajalein Atoll in the Central Pacific Ocean. \"Stargazer\" arrived at Kwajalein on Sunday, October 12, 2008.  The IBEX satellite was carried into space on October 19, 2008, by the Pegasus XL rocket. The rocket was released from \"Stargazer\", which took off from Kwajalein, at 17:47:23 UTC. By launching from this site close to the Equator, the Pegasus rocket lifted as much as more mass to orbit than it would have with a launch from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mission profile.", "content": "The IBEX satellite, initially launched into a highly-elliptical transfer orbit with a low perigee, used a solid fuel rocket motor as its final boost stage at apogee, in order to raise its perigee greatly and to achieve its desired high-altitude elliptical orbit.  IBEX is in a highly-eccentric elliptical terrestrial orbit, which ranges from a perigee of about to an apogee of about. Its original orbit was about —that is, about 80% of the distance to the Moon—which has changed primarily due to an intentional adjustment to prolong the spacecraft's useful life (see Orbit adjusted below).  This very high orbit allows the IBEX satellite to move out of the Earth's magnetosphere when making scientific observations. This extreme altitude is critical due to the amount of charged-particle interference that would occur while taking measurements within the magnetosphere. When within the magnetosphere of the Earth (), the satellite also performs other functions, including telemetry downlinks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Orbit adjusted.", "content": "In June 2011 IBEX shifted to a new orbit that raised its perigee to more than. The new orbit has a period of one third of a lunar month, which, with the correct phasing, avoids taking the spacecraft too close to the Moon, whose gravity can negatively affect IBEX's orbit. Now the spacecraft uses less fuel to maintain a stable orbit, increasing its useful lifespan to more than 40 years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Instruments.", "content": "The heliospheric boundary of the Solar System is being imaged by measuring the location and magnitude of charge-exchange collisions occurring in all directions. The satellite's payload consists of two energetic neutral atom (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each consists of a collimator that limits their fields-of-view, a conversion surface to convert neutral hydrogen and oxygen into ions, an electrostatic analyzer (ESA) to suppress ultraviolet light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. Both of these sensors are a single-pixel camera with a field-of-view of roughly 7° x 7°. The IBEX-Hi instrument is recording particle counts in a higher energy band (300 eV to 6 keV) than the IBEX-Lo energy band (10 eV to 2 keV). The scientific payload also includes a Combined Electronics Unit (CEU) that controls the voltages on the collimator and the ESA, and it reads and records data from the particle detectors of each sensor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Communication.", "content": "Compared to other space observatories, IBEX has a low data transfer rate due to the limited requirements of the mission.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Data collection.", "content": "IBEX is collecting energetic neutral atom (ENA) emissions that are traveling through the Solar System to Earth that cannot be measured by conventional telescopes. These ENAs are created on the boundary of our Solar System by the interactions between solar wind particles and interstellar medium particles.  On the average IBEX-Hi detects about 500 particles per day, and IBEX-Lo, less than 100. By 2012, over 100 scientific papers related to IBEX were published, described by the PI as \"an incredible scientific harvest\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Data Availability.", "content": "As the IBEX data is validated, the IBEX data is made available in a series of data releases on the SWRI IBEX Public Data website (see External Links below). In addition, the data is periodically sent to the NASA Space Physics Data Facility (SPDF), which is the official archive site for IBEX data. SPDF data can be searched at the Heliophysics Data Portal (see External Links below).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Science results.", "content": "Initial data revealed a previously unpredicted \"very narrow ribbon that is two to three times brighter than anything else in the sky\". Initial interpretations suggest that \"the interstellar environment has far more influence on structuring the heliosphere than anyone previously believed\". It is unknown what is creating the ENA (energetic neutral atoms) ribbon. The Sun is currently traveling through the Local Interstellar Cloud, and the heliosphere's size and shape are key factors in determining its shielding power from cosmic rays. Should IBEX detect changes in the shape of the ribbon, that could show how the heliosphere is interacting with the Local Fluff. It has also observed ENAs from the Earth's magnetosphere.  In October 2010, significant changes were detected in the ribbon after six months, based on the second set of IBEX observations.  It went on to detect neutral atoms from outside the Solar System, which were found to differ in composition from the Sun. Surprisingly, IBEX discovered that the heliosphere has no bow shock, and it measured its speed relative to the local interstellar medium (LISM) as, improving on the previous measurement of by \"Ulysses\". Those speeds equate to 25% less pressure on the Sun's heliosphere than previously thought.  In July 2013, IBEX results revealed a 4-lobed tail on the Solar System's heliosphere.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) is a NASA satellite in Earth orbit that uses Energetic Neutral Atoms (ENAs) to image the interaction region between the Solar System and interstellar space. The mission is part of NASA's Small Explorer program and was launched with a Pegasus-XL rocket on October 19, 2008.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976430}
{"src_title": "Bone age", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Methods.", "content": "The most commonly used method is based on a single x-ray of the left hand, fingers, and wrist. A hand is easily x-rayed with minimal radiation and shows many bones in a single view. The bones in the x-ray are compared to the bones of a standard atlas, usually \"Greulich and Pyle\".  A more complex method also based on hand x-rays is the \"TW2\" or the \"TW3\" method (TW = Tanner Whitehouse) method.  An atlas based on knee maturation has also been compiled.  Bone age rating is a procedure well-suited for automation by computer. The main advantage is the elimination of the variability of rating between different human raters. The BoneXpert method is the most prominent example of a completely automated method.  The hands of infants do not change much in the first year of life and if precise bone age assessment is desired, an x-ray of approximately half of the skeleton (a \"hemiskeleton\" view) may be obtained to assess some of the areas such as shoulders and pelvis which change more in infancy.  Lamparski (1972) utilized the cervical vertebrae and found them to be as reliable and valid as the hand-wrist area for assessing skeletal age. He developed a series of standards for assessment of skeletal age for both males and females. This method has the advantage of eliminating the need for an additional radiographic exposure since the vertebrae are already recorded on the lateral cephalometric radiographic.  Hassel & Farman (1995) developed an index based on the second, third, and fourth cervical vertebrae (C2, C3, C4) and proved that atlas maturation was highly correlated with skeletal maturation of the hand-wrist. Several smartphone applications have been developed to facilitate the use of vertebral methods such as \"Easy Age\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Height prediction.", "content": "Statistics have been compiled to indicate the percentage of height growth remaining at a given bone age. By simple arithmetic, a predicted adult height can be computed from a child's height and bone age. Separate tables are used for boys and girls because of the sex difference in timing of puberty, and slightly different percentages are used for children with unusually advanced or delayed bone maturation. These tables, the Bayley-Pinneau tables, are included as an appendix in the Greulich and Pyle atlas. In 2009, the Bayley-Pinneau method was modernized as part of the BoneXpert for automated bone age determination. It has the option of including parental height and menarche, and there is a special version for Asian children. The method is implemented as an interactive web-page  The average girl begins puberty at 10 years. On average, she completely stops growing at a bone age of 15 or 16 years. The average boy begins puberty at 12 years. The average boy grows for approximately 3 more years than the average girl so he completely stops growing at a bone age of 18-19 years.  In a number of conditions involving atypical growth, bone age height predictions are less accurate. For example, in children born small for gestational age who remain short after birth, the bone age is a poor predictor of adult height.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical application of bone age readings.", "content": "An advanced or delayed bone age does not always indicate disease or \"pathologic\" growth. Conversely, the bone age may be normal in some conditions of abnormal growth. Children do not mature at exactly the same time. Just as there is wide variation among the normal population in age of losing teeth or experiencing the first menstrual period, the bone age of a healthy child may be a year or two advanced or delayed. Those with an advanced bone age typically hit a growth spurt early on but stop growing at an earlier age. Consequently, when a naturally short child has an advanced bone age, it stunts their growth at an early age leaving them even shorter than they would have been. Because of this, those who are short with an advanced bone age, need medical attention before their bones fully fuse.  An \"advanced\" bone age is common when a child has had prolonged elevation of sex steroid levels, as in precocious puberty or congenital adrenal hyperplasia.The bone age is often marginally advanced with premature adrenarche, when a child is overweight from a young age or when a child has lipodystrophy. Those with an advanced bone age typically hit a growth spurt early on but stop growing at an earlier age.Bone age may be significantly advanced in genetic overgrowth syndromes, such as Sotos syndrome, Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome and Marshall-Smith syndrome.  Bone maturation is \"delayed\" with the variation of normal development termed Constitutional delay of growth and puberty, but delay also accompanies growth failure due to growth hormone deficiency and hypothyroidism.  Recent studies show that organs like liver can also be used to estimate age and sex, because of the unique feature of liver. Liver weight increases with age and is different between males and females. Thus, liver can be employed in special medico-legal cases of skeletal deformities or mutilation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bone age is the degree of maturation of a child's bones. As a person grows from fetal life through childhood, puberty, and finishes growth as a young adult, the bones of the skeleton change in size and shape. These changes can be seen by x-ray. The \"bone age\" of a child is the average age at which children reach this stage of bone maturation. A child's current height and bone age can be used to predict adult height. For most people, their bone age is the same as their biological age but for some individuals, their bone age is a couple of years older or younger. Those with advanced bone ages typically hit a growth spurt early on but stop growing sooner, while those with delayed bone ages hit their growth spurt later than normal. Children who are below average height do not necessarily have a delayed bone age; in fact their bone age could actually be advanced which if left untreated, will stunt their growth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976431}
{"src_title": "Uri Zvi Greenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Uri Zvi Greenberg was born in the Galician town Bilyi Kamin, in Austria-Hungary, into a prominent Hasidic family. He was raised in Lemberg (Lwów) where he received a traditional Jewish religious education.  In 1915, he was drafted into the Austrian army and fought in the First World War. His experience at the fording of the Save River, where many of his comrades in arms died or were severely wounded, affected him deeply, and appeared in his future writings for years to come. After returning to Lemberg, he was witness to the pogroms of November 1918. Greenberg and his family miraculously escaped being shot by Polish soldiers, celebrating their victory over the Ukrainians, an experience which convinced him that all Jews living in the “Kingdom of the Cross” faced physical annihilation.  Greenberg moved to Warsaw in 1920, where he wrote for the radical literary publications of young Jewish poets. After a brief stay in Berlin, he immigrated to Mandatory Palestine (the Land of Israel) in 1923.  Greenberg spent most of the 1930s in Poland, working as a Revisionist-Zionist activist until the time when the Second World War erupted in 1939. At the outset of the war, Greenberg was able to escape and return home to Mandatory Palestine. His parents and sisters remained behind and were subsequently murdered during the Holocaust.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal.", "content": "In 1950, Greenberg married Aliza, with whom he had two daughters and three sons. He added \"Tur-Malka\" to the family name, but continued to use \"Greenberg\" to honor family members who perished in the Holocaust.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "Some of his poems in Yiddish and Hebrew were published when he was 16. His first works were published in 1912 in the Labor Zionist weekly \"Der yudisher arbayter\" (The Jewish Laborer) in Lemberg and in Hebrew in \"Hashiloah\" (The Shiloach) in Odessa. His first book, in Yiddish, was published in Lwów while he was fighting on the Serbian front. In 1920, Greenberg moved to Warsaw, with its lively Jewish cultural scene. He was one of the founders of the Chaliastra (literally, the \"gang\"), a group of young Yiddish writers that included Melech Ravitch. He also edited a Yiddish literary journal, \"Albatros\". In the wake of his iconoclastic depictions of Jesus in the second issue of Albatros, particularly his prose poem \"Royte epl fun veybeymer\" (Red Apples from the Trees of Pain), the journal was banned by the Polish censors and Grinberg fled to Berlin to escape prosecution in November 1922. The magazine incorporated avant-garde elements both in content and typography, taking its cue from German periodicals like \"Die Aktion\" and \"Der Sturm\". Greenberg published the last two issues of \"Albatros\" in Berlin before renouncing European society and immigrating to Palestine in December 1923.  In his early days in Palestine, Greenberg wrote for \"Davar\", one of the main newspapers of the Labour Zionist movement. In his poems and articles he warned of the fate in store for the Jews of the Diaspora. After the Holocaust, he mourned the fact that his terrible prophecies had come true. His works represent a synthesis of traditional Jewish values and an individualistic lyrical approach to life and its problems. They draw on Jewish sources such as the Bible, the Talmud and the prayer book, but are also influenced by European literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary motifs.", "content": "In the second and third issues of Albatros, Greenberg invokes pain as a key marker of the modern era. This theme is illustrated in \"Royte epl fun vey beymer\" and \"Veytikn-heym af slavisher erd\" (Pain-Home on Slavic Ground).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activism.", "content": "In 1930, Greenberg joined the Revisionist camp, representing the Revisionist movement at several Zionist congresses and in Poland. After the 1929 Hebron massacre, he became more militant. With Abba Ahimeir and Joshua Yeivin, he founded \"Brit HaBirionim\", a clandestine, self-declared fascist faction of the Revisionist movement which adopted an activist policy of violating British mandatory regulations. In the early 1930s, the members of Brit Habirionim group disrupted a British-sponsored census, sounded the shofar in prayer at the Western Wall despite a British prohibition, held a protest rally when a British colonial official visited Tel Aviv, and tore down Nazi flags from German offices in Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. When the British arrested hundreds of its members the organization effectively ceased to exist.  He believed that the Holocaust was a 'tragic but almost inevitable outcome of Jewish indifference to their destiny.' As early as 1923, Greenberg \"envisioned and warned of the destruction of European Jewry.\"  Following Israeli independence in 1948, he joined Menachem Begin's Herut movement. In 1949, he was elected to the first Knesset. He lost his seat in the 1951 elections. After the Six-Day War he joined the Movement for Greater Israel, which advocated Israeli sovereignty over the West Bank.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Uri Zvi Greenberg (; September 22, 1896 – May 8, 1981) was an acclaimed Israeli poet and journalist who wrote in Yiddish and Hebrew.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976432}
{"src_title": "Meir Sheetrit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sheetrit was born in Ksar es Souk (now Errachidia), Morocco. His family immigrated to Israel in 1957. He earned a BA and an MA in Public Policy from Bar-Ilan University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Likud.", "content": "Sheetrit began his political career in 1974 as mayor of the city of Yavne, a position he held until 1987.  He was first elected to the Knesset in 1981 on the Likud list. He was re-elected in 1984, but lost his seat in 1988. That year he was elected treasurer of the Jewish Agency and served in this position until 1992, when he returned to the Knesset. In 1998 he was appointed Minister of Finance, serving until the fall of Benjamin Netanyahu's first government in 1999. He returned to the cabinet in 2001 as Minister of Justice. After being re-elected in 2003, he was appointed Minister in the Ministry of Finance, where he worked closely with then Minister of Finance Netanyahu who was spearheading a sweeping privatization reform. He was appointed Minister of Transportation in 2004, and later served as Minister of Education, Culture and Sport until 2006.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Kadima.", "content": "In 2005, Sheetrit left Likud and joined Ariel Sharon's new Kadima party. He was re-elected in 2006 and appointed Minister of Housing and Construction, a post he held until July 2007, when he was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs. Between 23 August and 29 November 2006, he also served as Acting Justice Minister following Haim Ramon's resignation on 18 August over an indecent assault indictment. Sheetrit was replaced in the Justice portfolio by Tzipi Livni, who also continued to serve as Foreign Minister.  In February 2008, whilst Israeli airstrikes in Gaza were ongoing, Sheetrit told Army Radio that: \"If it were up to me, I would hit everything that moves with weapons and ammunition\", adding: \"I don't think we have to show pity for anyone who wants to kill us.\"  Following Ehud Olmert's resignation as party leader, Sheetrit ran for the party chairmanship. However, he came third out of the four candidates in the election, receiving only 8.5% of the vote. Placed seventh on the party's list, he retained his seat in the 2009 elections  In early 2011, he and another MK sprayed air freshener in the Knesset, complaining about the \"stench of bad politics\". Both MKs were escorted out and speaker Reuven Rivlin condemned the actions.  As head of the Knesset Science and Technology Committee, he spoke at the international Wikimania conference held in Haifa in 2011.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Hatnuah.", "content": "On 1 December 2012, Sheetrit joined Tzipi Livni's new party, Hatnuah. He disagreed with Livni's decision to run as part of the joint Zionist Union list with the Labor Party in the 2015 elections, opted not to contest the elections.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Meir Sheetrit (, born 10 October 1948) is an Israeli politician. He served as a member of the Knesset in two spells for Likud between 1981 and 1988, and again from 1992 until 2005, when he joined Kadima. He remained a Knesset member for Kadima until joining Hatnuah in 2012, for whom he served until 2015. He also held several ministerial posts, including being Minister of the Interior, Minister of Housing & Construction, Minister of Finance, Minister of Justice, Minister of Transportation and Minister of Education, Culture & Sport. He was also candidate for President of Israel in 2014.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976433}
{"src_title": "Jan Boeckhorst", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Jan Boeckhorst was born in Münster, Westphalia as the second oldest of twelve children. His family belonged to Münster’s highly respected citizens (Honoratioren) and his father Heinrich was for a while the mayor of Münster. Jan Boeckhorst became a canon in the Jesuit order at age 17. He only started his artistic study when he was about twenty-two years of age.  In the mid 1620s Boeckhorst moved to Antwerp apparently to study with Peter Paul Rubens. There is no firm evidence that Boeckhorst actually studied under Rubens, only a statement by Rubens’ nephew Philip to that effect. However, a close relationship between the artists during the 1630s is documented. Boeckhorst likely also briefly trained with Jordaens during Rubens' stay in London in the late 1620s. In Antwerp, Boeckhorst was known as \"Lange Jan\" (Tall John) because of his tall stature.  From 1626 to 1635 Boeckhorst worked on a commission paid for by the devout merchant Lodewijk De Roomer to complete 26 works for a chapel in the Falcon monastery in central Antwerp (or for St. Joseph’s chapel in the Antwerp convent of St. Augustine). These works on which he collaborated with Jan Wildens are now lost. Between 1627 and 1632 he likely worked closely with Anthony van Dyck who was during that period back in Antwerp after a long stay abroad. The two artists collaborated on individual works of art while Boeckhorst also produced copies after van Dyck. Jan Boeckhorst became a master in the Antwerp Guild of Saint Luke in 1633–1634. He was a regular collaborator with Rubens in the mid 1630s. He first worked on the decorations for the 1635 Joyous Entry (the so-called 'Pompa Introitus') into Antwerp of the new governor of the Habsburg Netherlands Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand. Rubens was in overall charge of this project. For the Pompa Introitus Broeckhorst contributed architectural elements on the 'Arch of Isabella' and the figures of 'Securitas' and 'Salus publica' in collaboration with Gerard Seghers and Jan Borchgraef.  Boeckhorst traveled to Italy in 1635. He returned to Antwerp and in the period 1636–1638 he collaborated with Rubens’ workshop on a large commission to make mythological decorations for the hunting pavilion Torre de la Parada of the Spanish king Philip IV near Madrid. For this project Jan Boeckhorst painted decorations after oil sketches by Rubens.  In 1639 Boeckhorst traveled to Italy again where he resided in Rome. In Rome he likely joined the circle of Dutch and Flemish artists in Rome known as the Bentvueghels. It was the custom among the Bentvueghels to adopt a nickname. Boeckhorst's nickname was possibly \"Doctor Faustus\".  The date of his return to Antwerp is not known with certainty and estimates vary from 1639 to 1649. It is known that he completed a few unfinished works of Rubens' after Rubens' death in 1640. After his return to Antwerp he received multiple commissions from religious institutions in Flanders including for the Saint James Church in Bruges and the Saint Michael's Church and Saint James Church in Ghent.  Jan Boeckhorst died on 21 April 1668 in Antwerp where he was buried in the Saint James Church. His large collection was sold after his death in a sale which lasted six days and raised the considerable sum of 6,026 guilders. His collection included a complete set of early drawings of Rubens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General.", "content": "Boeckhorst was a versatile painter who produced history paintings on religious and mythological subjects, allegorical works, genre scenes and portraits. Boeckhorst also worked as a designer of cartoons for tapestries. He is known to have designed eight tapestries on the myths of Apollo. The Musée Mont-de-Piété in Bergues preserves 8 preliminary drawings for this Apollo series of tapestries.  Boeckhorst also provided designs for the Antwerp publishers. In the early 1650s he provided several designs for the Breviarium Romanum and 9 for the Missale Romanum, all engraved by Cornelis Galle the Younger and published by the Plantin Press in Antwerp.  There only exist three signed and dated paintings (dated between 1646 and c. 1660) and five that are dated only from 1659-1666. The first signed painting, a \"Madonna and Child with Saint John\" is dated 1646, about 20 years after his arrival in Antwerp. Because of the few number of signed paintings it has been difficult to attribute works to Boeckhorst with certainty and some attributions are contested among art historians.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collaborations.", "content": "As was common practice among Antwerp painters, Boeckhorst often collaborated as a figure painter on compositions with landscape painters Jan Wildens and Jan Brueghel the Younger and still life painter Frans Snyders. An example is the \"\" (Rubenshuis, Antwerp) on which he collaborated with Frans Snyders. This genre scene, which also acts as an allegory of the four elements, is of a monumentally large scale at 217.5 cm in height and 272.5 cm in width. The work shows the influence of Jordaens' genre paintings. Boeckhorst may have collaborated on devotional garland paintings. Garland paintings are a special type of still life developed in Antwerp by Jan Brueghel the Elder in collaboration with the Italian cardinal Federico Borromeo at the beginning of the 17th century. The genre was initially connected to the visual imagery of the Counter-Reformation movement and typically involved a collaboration between a figure painter and a still life painter. No collaborations with Boeckhorst on garland paintings have been attributed with certainty.  Boeckhorst is believed to have made changes to works by Rubens. He did so with a tronie painted by Rubens around 1613 called \"\" (Städel, Frankfurt am Main). The second Rubens tronie of c. 1616/17, which Boeckhorst transformed around 1640/41 into a bust-length format was the \"\" (Christie’s, London, 2 July 2013, lot 30). He possibly also enlarged Rubens’ \"Rise of the Blessed\" at the request of Jan Wildens in order to form a pendant with the \"Fall of the Damned\" then in Wildens’ own collection. After the late 1630s Boeckhorst's collaborations appear to have ceased.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Portraits.", "content": "Boeckhorst's portraits are influenced by Anthony van Dyck and Cornelis de Vos, the two leading portrait painters in the first half of the 17th century. He occasionally painted lively group portraits. Some of his large group portraits, such as the \"Portrait of a Family\" (Alte Pinakothek, Munich), are in the style of Cornelis de Vos but with more liveliness and spontaneity.  Central in his group portraits is the emphasis on the virtue of strong family bonds, the so-called 'Concordia familiae'. Boeckhorst was skilled in depicting his models in a spontaneous and lively manner. His portraits are of an informal character. He also used backdrop draperies, which in imitation of Jordaens, were represented very vividly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later works.", "content": "His later works from the 1650s and 1660s include numerous altarpieces for churches throughout Flanders and designs of cartoons for tapestries. The expressiveness of van Dyck's figures and use of colors, such as in \"Ulysses discovers Achilles dressed up as a girl\" (Alte Pinakothek, Munich), is also noticeable in works from this period.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jan Boeckhorst or Johann Bockhorst (c. 1604 – 21 April 1668), was a German-born Flemish Baroque painter and draughtsman. He was a versatile artist who produced history paintings, genre scenes and portraits in a style influenced by the trio of leading Baroque painters in Antwerp Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck and Jacob Jordaens. Boeckhorst also worked as a designer of cartoons for tapestries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976434}
{"src_title": "Inter gravissimas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The intention expressed by the text of this bull was \"to restore\" the calendar so that seasonal events critical for the calculation of Easter dates would be back in their \"proper places\" and would be prevented from being moved away again. The idea of reform as such is not otherwise mentioned. The bull identifies \"three necessary\" things for the correct determination of Easter dates: correct placement of the northern vernal equinox; correct identification of the \"14th day of the moon\" (effectively full moon) that happens on or next after the vernal equinox, and the first Sunday that follows that full moon. The first two items were the ones that received attention; the third, about choosing the next following Sunday, was not identified as causing any problem, and was not further mentioned.  By \"restore\", Gregory meant two things. First, he adjusted the calendar so that the vernal equinox was near March 21, where it had been during the Council of Nicaea (May 20 – August 25, 325). This required removing ten days of drift. Second, he made the tabular 14th day of the moon correspond with the real full moon, removing \"four days and more\" of drift. This would restore the dates of Easter to near where they were at the time of the Council of Nicaea, although that council had not specified where in the calendar the vernal equinox should fall and had not adopted any particular type of lunar tables. The practices of the Roman Catholic Church that had become traditional by 1582 for calculating the Easter and lunar calendars became settled when Dionysius Exiguus translated the rules of the Church of Alexandria from Greek into Latin in 525. (Northumbria adopted them at Whitby in 664, the Welsh around 768, and France around 775. Before this, France and Rome had used Victorius's less exact 457 translation of the Alexandrian calendar; Britain and Rome before Victorius had used Augustalis's 84-year cycle.)  Gregory also made changes to the calendar rules, intending to ensure that, in the future, the equinox and the 14th day of the Paschal moon, and consequently Easter Sunday, would not move away again from what the bull called their proper places.  The changes (relative to the Julian calendar) were as follows:  The name of the bull consists of the first two words of the bull, which starts: \"\"Inter gravissimas pastoralis officii nostri curas...\"\" (\"Among the most serious duties of our pastoral office...\").  The bull refers to \"the explanation of our calendar\" and to a canon related to the dominical letter. To accompany the bull there were six chapters of explanatory rules ('canons'), and some of these (canons 1, 2, 4) refer to a book entitled \"Liber novæ rationis restituendi calendarii Romani\" for a fuller explanation of the tables than that contained in the canons (or the bull). Because the bull and canons refer to each other, they must have been written at roughly the same time, printed at the same time (March 1), and distributed to the several countries together.  These canons enabled the computation of Easter dates in the reformed ('restored') Gregorian calendar, and gave two calendar-listings saints' days, one for the 'year of correction' (1582) and another for the entire new Gregorian year. The bull, canons, and calendars were reprinted as part of the principal book explaining and defending the Gregorian calendar, Christoph Clavius, \"Romani calendarii a Gregorio XIII. P. M. restituti explicatio\" (1603), which is tome V in his collected works \"Opera Mathematica\" (1612).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Date.", "content": "The version of \"Inter gravissimas\" included by Christoph Clavius in his work explaining the Gregorian calendar contained these dating clauses: \"Anno Incarnationis Dominicae M. D. LXXXI. Sexto Calend. Martij, Pontificatus nostri Anno Decimo.... Anno à Natiuitate Domini nostri Iesu Christi Millesimo Quingentesimo Octuagesimo secundo Indictione decima,\". These clauses include four years: All of these years agree that the bull was dated February 24, 1582, using the modern beginning of the year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adoption.", "content": "Gregory's reform was enacted in the most solemn of forms available to the Church, but the bull had no authority beyond the Catholic Church and the Papal States. The changes which Gregory was proposing included changes to the civil calendar over which Gregory had no authority (except in the Papal States). The text of the bull recognized this by giving what amounted to orders to the clergy and those \"presiding over churches\": but in contrast, where the text addresses the civil authorities (\"kings, princes and republics\"), it \"asks\", \"exhorts\" and \"recommends\" the new calendar changes. The changes required adoption by the civil authorities in each country to have legal effect.  The bull \"Inter gravissimas\" was immediately adopted by the major Catholic powers of Europe, but the Protestant countries refused to adopt it until the 18th century, and Eastern European countries adopted it only during or after World War I (the last European country to adopt it was Greece, in 1923).  Most Eastern Orthodox Churches and Oriental Orthodox Churches have not adopted it at all and continue to reckon their ecclesiastical years by the Julian calendar, even though their home countries use the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Inter gravissimas (English: \"Among the most serious...\") was a papal bull issued by Pope Gregory XIII on February 24, 1582. The document, written in Latin, reformed the Julian calendar. The reform came to be regarded as a new calendar in its own right and came to be called the Gregorian calendar, which is used in most countries today.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976435}
{"src_title": "Leah Goldberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Leah Goldberg was born to a Jewish Lithuanian family from Kaunas, however her mother traveled to the nearby German city of Königsberg (today, Russian Kaliningrad) in order to give birth in better medical conditions. When asked about her place of birth, Goldberg often stated \"Kaunas\" rather than Königsberg.  When the First World War broke out, three-year-old Goldberg had to escape with her parents to the Russian Empire, where they spent a year in hard conditions. In Russia, her mother gave birth to a baby boy, Immanuel, who died before reaching his first birthday.  According to Goldberg's autobiographical account, in 1938, when the family traveled back to Kaunas in 1919, a Lithuanian border patrol stopped them and accused her father of being a \"Bolshevik spy\". They locked the father in a nearby abandoned stable, and abused him by preparing his execution every morning for about a week and cancelling it at the last moment. When the border guards finally let the family go, Goldberg's father was in a serious mental state. He eventually lost his ability to function normally and left Kaunas and his family to receive treatment, though it is unclear what his fate was and why he never returned to his family. Goldberg and her mother became very close and lived together until Leah Goldberg's death.  Goldberg's parents spoke several languages, though Hebrew was not one of them. However, Goldberg learned Hebrew at a very young age, as she received her elementary education in a Jewish Hebrew-language school. She began keeping a diary in Hebrew when she was 10 years old. Her first diaries still show limited fluency in Hebrew and the influence of Russian language, but she was determined to write in Hebrew and mastered the language within a short period of time. Even though she was fluent and literate in various European languages, Goldberg wrote her published works, as well as her personal notes, only in Hebrew. In 1926, when she was 15 years old, she wrote in her personal diary, \"The unfavourable condition of the Hebrew writer is no secret to me [...] Writing in a different language than Hebrew is the same to me as not writing at all. And yet I want to be a writer [...] This is my only objective.\"  Goldberg received a PhD from the Universities of Berlin and Bonn in Semitic languages and German. Her erudition and renown was such that a leading newspaper in Palestine excitedly reported her plans to immigrate to that country. In 1935, she settled in Tel Aviv, where she joined a group of Zionist Hebrew poets of Eastern-European origin known as \"Yachdav\" ( \"together\"). This group was led by Avraham Shlonsky and was characterised by adhering to Symbolism especially in its Russian Acmeist form, and rejecting the style of Hebrew poetry that was common among the older generation, particularly that of Haim Nachman Bialik.  She never married and lived with her mother, first in Tel Aviv and later in Jerusalem. Goldberg was a heavy smoker, and in her late years she became aware of the damage in this habit, as reflected in her poem \"About the Damage of Smoking\". In the spring of 1969, she was diagnosed with breast cancer. After removing one of her breasts, her physicians were optimistic. Goldberg went on a short visit to Switzerland, but returned in a bad physical condition, as the cancer spread through her body. She died on 15 January 1970. Goldberg received the Israel Prize posthumously, her mother took the prize in her name.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "Goldberg worked as a high-school teacher and earned a living writing rhymed advertisements until she was hired as an editor by the Hebrew newspapers Davar and Al HaMishmar. She also worked as a children’s book editor at Sifriyat Po'alim publishing house, while also writing theatre reviews and literary columns. In 1954 she became a literature lecturer at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, advancing to senior lecturer in 1957 and full professor in 1963, when she was appointed head of the university's Department of Comparative Literature.  Goldberg wrote Hebrew poetry, drama, and children's literature. Goldberg's books for children, among them \"A Flat for Rent\" (\"דירה להשכיר\", \"dira lehaskir\") and \"Miracles and Wonders\" (ניסים ונפלאות, \"nisim veniflaot\"), have become classics of Hebrew-language children's literature.  With exemplary knowledge of seven languages, Goldberg also translated numerous foreign literary works exclusively into Modern Hebrew from Russian, Lithuanian, German, Italian, French, and English. Of particular note is her \"magnum opus\" of translation, Tolstoy's epic novel \"War and Peace\", as well as translations of Rilke, Thomas Mann, Chekhov, Akhmatova, Shakespeare, and Petrarch, plus many other works including reference books and works for children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Novel.", "content": "In 1946, Goldberg published her first novel, והוא האור (Hebrew: \"Vehu ha'or\", literally: \"And he is the light\"). The novel had a strong autobiographical basis, and has been received as shedding much light on the rest of her work. The book opens with symbolic patricide: the protagonist, Nora, is pressed by someone she meets to describe her parents. She does not want to disclose the fact her father is at a psychiatric hospital and tries to evade the questions, but the other person wouldn't let go, until Nora explodes: \"I have no father! My father is dead! Do you hear? Dead!\". Despite this attempt, the specter of mental illness continues to haunt her throughout the novel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literary style and influences.", "content": "Goldberg was widely read in Russian, German, and French poetry. Symbolism and Acmeism were strong influences on her style. Her poetry is notable for coherence and clarity, and for an emphasis on ideas over baroque forms.  Goldberg's poetics perceive the general in the specific: a drop of dew represents vast distances and the concrete reflects the abstract. Her poetry has been described as \"a system of echoes and mild reverberations, voices and whispers,\" that recognizes the limitations of the poem and language. Her work is minor and modest, taking a majestic landscape like the Jerusalem hills and focusing on a stone, a thorn, one yellow butterfly, a single bird in the sky.  Unlike many of her contemporary peers, most notably Nathan Alterman, Goldberg avoided outright political poetry, and did not contribute occasional poetry to Hebrew periodicals with overt current-affairs discourse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical acclaim.", "content": "Goldberg received in 1949 the Ruppin Prize (for the volume \"Al Haprikhá\") and, in 1970, the Israel Prize for literature.  The American Hebraist, Gabriel Preil, wrote a poem about Goldberg: \"Leah's Absence\".  In 2011, Goldberg was announced as one of four great Israeli poets who would appear on Israel's currency (together with Rachel Bluwstein, Shaul Tchernichovsky, and Natan Alterman).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leah Goldberg or Lea Goldberg (; May 29, 1911, Königsberg – January 15, 1970, Jerusalem) was a prolific Hebrew-language poet, author, playwright, literary translator, and comparative literary researcher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976436}
{"src_title": "The White Horse Inn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The original play.", "content": "In the last decade of the 19th century, Oscar Blumenthal, a theatre director from Berlin, Germany, was on holiday in Lauffen (now part of Bad Ischl), a small town in the vicinity of St. Wolfgang. There, at the inn where he was staying, Blumenthal happened to witness the head waiter's painful wooing of his boss, a widow. Amused, Blumenthal used the story as the basis of a comedy—without music—which he co-authored with actor Gustav Kadelburg. However, Blumenthal and Kadelburg relocated the action from Lauffen to the much more prominent St. Wolfgang, where the Gasthof Weißes Rößl had actually existed since 1878. Having thus chanced upon a suitable title, the authors went to work, and \"Im weißen Rößl\" eventually premiered in Berlin in 1897.  The play was an immediate success. The Berlin audience would laugh at the comic portrayal of well-to-do city dwellers such as Wilhelm Giesecke, a producer of underwear, and his daughter Ottilie, who have travelled all the way from Berlin to St. Wolfgang and now, on holiday, cannot help displaying many of the characteristics of the nouveaux-riches. \"Wär' ick bloß nach Ahlbeck jefahren\"—\"If only I had gone to Ahlbeck\", Giesecke sighs as he considers his unfamiliar surroundings and the strange dialect spoken by the wild mountain people that inhabit the Salzkammergut. At the same time the play promoted tourism in Austria, especially in and around St. Wolfgang, with a contemporary edition of the Baedeker praising the natural beauty of the region and describing the White Horse Inn as nicely situated at the lakefront next to where the steamboat can be taken for a romantic trip across the Wolfgangsee. The White Horse Inn was even awarded a Baedeker star.  Sydney Rosenfeld, a prolific American adapter of foreign plays, debuted an English version of the play titled \"At the White Horse Tavern\" at Wallack's Theatre in 1899, with a cast including Amelia Bingham and Leo Ditrichstein.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The musical comedy.", "content": "Just as the play was about to be forgotten—a silent film \"The White Horse Inn\" directed by Richard Oswald and starring Liane Haid had been made in Germany in 1926—it was revived, again in Berlin, and this time as a musical comedy. During a visit to the Salzkammergut, the actor Emil Jannings told Berlin theatre manager Erik Charell about the comedy. Charell was interested and commissioned a group of prominent authors and composers to come up with a musical show based on Blumenthal and Kadelburg's play. They were Ralph Benatzky, Robert Stolz and Bruno Granichstaedten (music), Robert Gilbert (lyrics), Hans Müller-Einigen and Charell himself.  The show premiered in Berlin on November 8, 1930. Immediately afterwards it became a success around the world, with long runs in cities like London, Paris, Vienna, Munich and New York. During the Third Reich the comedy was marginalized and not performed (Goebbels called it \"eine Revue, die uns heute zum Hals heraushängt\"—\"the kind of entertainment we find boring and superfluous today\"), whereas people in the 1950s, keen on harmony and shallow pleasures, eagerly greeted revivals of the show. German-language films based on the musical comedy were made in 1935, 1952 and 1960.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "It is summertime at the Wolfgangsee. Josepha Vogelhuber, the young, attractive but resolute owner of the White Horse Inn, has been courted for some time by her head waiter, Leopold Brandmeyer. While appreciating his aptness for the job, she mistrusts all men as potential gold-diggers, rejects Leopold's advances and longingly waits for the arrival of Dr Siedler, a lawyer who has been one of her regular guests for many years. This year, Josepha hopes, Siedler might eventually propose to her.  When Siedler arrives, he finds himself in the very same place with Wilhelm Giesecke, his client Sülzheimer's business rival, and immediately falls in love with Giesecke's beautiful daughter Ottilie. As it happens, Sülzheimer's son Sigismund, a would-be beau, also arrives at the White Horse Inn. Angry at first about that person's presence at the same inn, Giesecke soon has the idea of marrying off his daughter to Sigismund Sülzheimer, thus turning a pending lawsuit into an advantageous business merger. However, Siedler's love is reciprocated by Ottilie, who adamantly refuses to marry Sigismund, while Sigismund himself has fallen for Klärchen Hinzelmann, a naive beauty who accompanies her professorial father on a tour through the Salzkammergut.  Seeing all this, Leopold Brandmeyer decides that he has had enough and quits his job. Josepha has also done a lot of thinking in the meantime, reconsiders her head waiter's proposal of marriage, and can persuade him to stay—not just as an employee but also as boss. Love gets its way with the other two couples as well, and the play ends with the prospect of a triple marriage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film adaptations.", "content": "A post-war Argentinian movie in Spanish, \"La Hostería del caballito blanco\", was directed by Benito Perojo and released in 1948. A Danish film of 1964 by Erik Balling, \"Sommer i Tyrol\" (although the Tyrol is not the original setting), starred Dirch Passer and Susse Wold.  In addition, the musical triggered a number of spin-offs such as the 1961 Austrian comedy film \"Im schwarzen Rößl\" (\"The Black Horse Inn\"), directed by Franz Antel, about a young woman (surprisingly, it was Karin Dor again, who had just played Giesecke's daughter in the 1960 version) who inherits a dilapidated hotel on the shores of the Wolfgangsee. As a matter of fact, a number of hotels in St. Wolfgang do use similar names (Black Horse, White Stag, etc.).  Most recently, a new musical film adaptation of \"Im Weissen Rössl\" came out in November 2013 with the German title \"\" from director Christian Theede. Unlike its predecessors, however, the movie was not filmed on location at the Hotel Im Weissen Rössl in St. Wolfgang, Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "A note on the spelling.", "content": "According to the German spelling reform of the 1990s, which curbed the use of the letter \"ß\", \"Rößl\", which has a diminutive suffix added to the noun \"Roß\" (\"horse\", \"steed\"), now has to be spelt \"Rössl\" (just as it is \"Ross\" now instead of \"Roß\"). Therefore, both \"Rößl\" and \"Rössl\" can be seen nowadays, depending on when a particular text was written.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "White Horse Inn (or \"The White Horse Inn\"), (German title: Im weißen Rößl), is an operetta or musical comedy by Ralph Benatzky and Robert Stolz in collaboration with a number of other composers and writers, set in the picturesque Salzkammergut region of Upper Austria. It is about the head waiter of the White Horse Inn in St. Wolfgang who is desperately in love with the owner of the inn, a resolute young woman who at first only has eyes for one of her regular guests. Sometimes classified as an operetta, the show enjoyed huge successes both on Broadway and in the West End (651 performances at the Coliseum starting 8 April 1931) and was filmed several times. In a way similar to \"The Sound of Music\" and the three \"\" movies, the play and its film versions have contributed to the image of Austria as an alpine idyll—the kind of idyll tourists have been seeking for almost a century now. Today, \"Im weißen Rößl\" is mainly remembered for its songs, many of which have become popular classics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976437}
{"src_title": "Rafina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Rafina lies on the Aegean Sea coast, east of the Penteli mountains and northeast of the Mesogaia plain. It is north of Artemida, south of Nea Makri and east of Athens city centre. The municipal unit of Rafina contains, besides the city itself, a large portion of the surrounding area, which is mostly woodland and farmland. The only other town is Kallitechnoupoli with a population of 923.  The town can be accessed through Greek National Road 54 (Athens – Rafina), Greek National Road 83 (Athens – Marathon – Rafina) and Greek National Road 85 (Lavrio – Rafina).  Rafina is a port town serving ferries to the southern part of Euboea as well as most of the Cyclades. Its port is the second largest of Attica, after that of Piraeus, but it will probably be superseded by the one in Lavrio, which is currently being expanded.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prehistory.", "content": "Rafina was inhabited in prehistoric times. The oldest finds are from the Neolithic Period, and a large number date from the Bronze Age (3,000 years B.C.), discovered by the excavations of Dimitrios Theocharis in '50s: a settlement on the hill above the port, bronze processing facilities near the delta of the Great Stream, and a Protohelladic Akropolis in the cape of Askitario which you can visit today.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Antiquity and later.", "content": "In ancient times, Rafina was one of the 100 demes of Athens as defined by Kleisthenes. The municipality was called \"Araphen\", after its first ruler, Arafinas, who was one of the 100 heroes of Attica. In the municipality of Arafin, lived one of the ten breeds of Attica. Also, the area near the sea till Artemida, called \"Halae Araphenides\" is where Orestis and Ifigenia arrived from Tavrida according to the myth.  From later centuries, excavations discovered Roman baths and the remains of a Byzantine Church.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern period and settlement of Triglian refugees.", "content": "After the defeat of the Greek army in the Minor Asia (1922), many refugees arrived in Greece. Some of them arrived in the area by Triglia, with ships owned by Filippos Kabounides, a Triglian shipowner, who arrived at the time of the destruction to save people and heirlooms.  A year later (August 29, 1923), Kabounides' ships brought to Rafina refugees who have lived in Tenedos for one year. After a few months, the first houses of the new refugee settlement were built and were located at the Skouze's estate that was given to the refugees. Also, around the area of the square, small shops were built and given to shop owners.  Six years later (1929), Rafina became a community.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Expansion.", "content": "During the 1950s, Pantovasilissa's church was built in remembrance of the Byzantine church in Triglia which held the same name. At its forecourt was erected a statue of the metropolite of Smyrni, Chrysostomos, who was killed by the Turks during the destruction. Many years later, people in Rafina built a little church to his memory.  When Triglians arrived from Asia Minor, they brought many things from their old country, the most important being \"Panagia Episkepsis\", a hagiography created during the 14th century A.D., which one can now see in the Byzantine Museum in Athens. A copy can be found in the city hall of Rafina.  Many heirlooms can be found in the Refugee Museum \"Triglia's House\", where visitors can see many originals or their copies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "During the Second World War, and during the German Occupation, German and Italian armies were installed in Rafina. Important projects for the guarding and the vallation of the area were built at the port, along the seaside and on the hill that was since named \"Fort\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rafina Today.", "content": "In 1994, Rafina became a municipality and its first mayor was Andreas Kechagioglou, who kept his office until November 2011 when Rafina integrated with Pikermi as part of the Kallikratis plan. Following the planned municipal elections, Giorgios Christopoulos was elected Mayor for the new municipality of Rafina and Pikermi. During the past few years, the town has advanced significantly. Its population reaches about 12,000 people, and climbs to 30,000–50,000 during the summer. During the summer, many events take part in the town such as the \"August's Moon\", which takes place in August when the last full moon of August occurs. During this day, many musicians gather outside the church of St. Nikolaos and sing songs about the moon.  Rafina suffered damage from a forest fire in July 2005 and again in 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Rafina is the seat of two football clubs with presence in third national division (Gamma Ethniki), Triglia Rafina, club founded in 1932 by refugees, and Thyella Rafina, club founded in 1957.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Rafina is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rafina () is a suburban port town located on the eastern coast of Attica in Greece. It has a population of 13,091 inhabitants (2011 census). Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Rafina-Pikermi, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 18.979 km. It is part of Athens metropolitan area.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976438}
{"src_title": "Catherine of Cleves", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Catherine was the second daughter of François de Clèves, Duke of Nevers, and Marguerite de Bourbon, elder sister of Antoine de Bourbon. She was the first cousin of Henry of Navarre, sister-in-law of Henri de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, and great aunt of Ludwika Maria Gonzaga, Queen of Poland.  At the age of twelve, Catherine married Antoine de Croÿ, Prince de Porcien (or Porcean), who died seven years later. After the conventional three years of mourning, on 4 October 1570, she married Henri de Lorraine, Duke of Guise, who was two years her junior. They had fourteen children, including Charles, Duke of Guise and Louis III, Cardinal of Guise. She had a widely publicised affair with a young nobleman, Saint-Mégrin, who was killed by her husband. The event is dramatised in the Alexandre Dumas play \"Henri III et sa cour\" (1829).  Henry of Guise was the leader of the fervently Catholic faction in the French Wars of Religion. From 1584, the conflict among factions led by Henry of Guise, Henry of Navarre, and Henry III of France was known as the War of the Three Henrys. In 1588, Henry of Guise was assassinated on the orders of King Henry III.  Catherine never forgave Henry III of France (who kept taunting her as \"la maîtresse de Saint Megrin\") for his part in the assassination of her husband. She took a keen interest in the intrigues of the Catholic League and encouraged Henry's assassination in 1589. At the conclusion of the War of the Three Henrys she was mindful of the interests of her large family and supported her son Charles as a candidate for the French throne.  Catherine's reconciliation with her cousin, Henry IV, was not effected until his conversion to Catholicism. She immediately moved to Paris and obtained a very honorable position in the retinue of his wife, Marie de' Medici. In 1613, Catherine interceded for her son, François Alexandre, who had killed the Baron of Luz in a duel, asking for his banishment instead of execution for murder.  The Guises continued to support the Queen throughout the regency, and Catherine followed Marie into exile in Blois after Louis XIII assumed the reins of government in 1619. After returning to the Louvre, the Dowager Duchess - anxious to promote the interests of the House of Guise - resumed plotting against Cardinal Richelieu.  The death of her youngest daughter, the princesse de Conti (who had been implicated in the Day of the Dupes conspiracy), proved a blow to her spirits. She retired to her château d'Eu, where she died aged 85. She was buried at the château next to her husband's ornate tomb.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "She married on October 4, 1570 in Paris to Henri de Lorraine, Duke of Guise, by whom she had fourteen children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Catherine de Clèves (or de Nevers), Countess of Eu (1548 – 11 May 1633) was the wife of Henry, Duke of Guise, and matriarch of the numerous and influential House of Guise. By marriage she was Duchess of Guise from 1570 to 1588, and Dowager Duchess of Guise thereafter. She was Countess of Eu in her own right from 1564.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976439}
{"src_title": "Filip Müller", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Auschwitz.", "content": "Müller was born in Sereď in the Czechoslovak Republic. In April 1942, he was sent on one of the earliest Holocaust transports to Auschwitz II where he was given prisoner number 29236. Müller was assigned to the \"Sonderkommando\" that worked on the construction of crematoria and the installation of the gas chambers.  Once the crematoria were completed, Müller was assigned to a \"Sonderkommando\" unit tasked with operating the death facility; his performing this role, he believed, was the only reason the Germans kept him alive. Müller's unit would meet new arrivals of men, women, and children at the undressing area just outside the gas chambers, in the basement of the crematoria. He testified he would tell the terrified new arrivals that they were somewhere safe. Once the SS had given the command, the naked victims would be herded into the gas chambers, where they were gassed with the cyanic crystalline poison Zyklon B.  After the victims had been killed, Müller's unit was tasked with the removal of the bodies and grouping them by size and fatty tissue to facilitate their disposal in the crematoria. The victims' clothes were collected and disinfected, and all valuables to be surrendered to the SS – some of which the \"Sonderkommando\" would pocket for bartering purposes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Survival.", "content": "Sonderkommando units were periodically murdered to eradicate witnesses but Müller managed to survive in Auschwitz for over two years. Eventually, Müller decided to end his life by joining a group of Czech arrivals destined for the gas chambers. While awaiting his fate, a girl came up to him, stating,  Müller came to believe that he had a duty to stay alive so that he could join other survivors and become a living witness to the horrors of the Holocaust. He remained at Auschwitz until January 1945, when the camp was evacuated before the arrival of the Red Army. After a death march into Germany, he was liberated from the Mauthausen subcamp of Gunskirchen in May 1945.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Testimony.", "content": "Müller first testified during his hospital recovery. His statement was originally published in an obscure Czech collection, but it was reprinted in the 1966 book \"The Death Factory\", written by two other Holocaust survivors, Erich Kulka, and Ota Kraus. Müller testified at the second Frankfurt Auschwitz trials in 1964.  He stated that, in the summer of 1942, he was transferred from the \"Sonderkommando\" of crematorium one, where he spent six weeks, to Monowitz. The Monowitz subcamp, from the main Auschwitz site, was a labor camp run by the German firm IG Farben, and there were no crematoria there. For the remainder of his imprisonment at Auschwitz, Müller worked mainly at Birkenau, where the main crematoria were located.  After 1969, Müller lived in the West. He died on 9 November 2013, at the age of 91.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Filip Müller (3 January 1922 – 9 November 2013) was a Jewish Slovak Holocaust survivor and \"Sonderkommando\" at Auschwitz, the largest Nazi German concentration camp during World War II, where he witnessed the deaths of tens of thousands of people.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976440}
{"src_title": "William Henry, Prince of Nassau-Saarbrücken", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "William Henry was born in Usingen, the fifth son of William Henry of Nassau-Usingen Born and Princess Charlotte Amalia of Nassau-Dillenburg. His father died just weeks before his birth. His mother then acted as guardian and regent until her death in 1738. She provided a comprehensive education and raised her sons in the Calvinist faith. In 1730 and 1731, he and his brother were enrolled at the University of Strasbourg and was taught by various tutors. He probably also studied for a while at the University of Geneva, which was popular among reformed students. His Grand Tour took William Henry to the court of Louis XV in France, among other places.  After his mother's death, his brother Charles acted as regent until William Henry came of age in 1741. In 1741, the brothers decided to divide their inheritance. Charles received Nassau-Usingen on the right bank of the Rhine; William Henry received Nassau-Saarbrücken on the left bank. At the time, Nassau-Saarbrücken measured about 12 square miles and it had. This made it one of the smallest principalities in the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics and economy.", "content": "Shortly after his accession to power, he participated with his \"Royal-Allemand\" regiment in the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1742 he sold his regiment to the Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, during his stay in Frankfurt on the occasion of the coronation of Charles VII. During this visit, he also met Princess Sophie of Erbach, his future wife.  He later took part in the Seven Years' War, again with his own troops. He had a close relationship with France, his large neighbour. He often traveled to Paris, where he received military honors—as was usual at the time for ruling nobility—including a promotion to field marshal.  William Henry reformed the administration and justice. He separated these two branches of government and issued some orders typical of the enlightened absolutists of his time. These included a cameralistic economic policy. He took measures to standardize taxes and introduced a modern cadastre on the Austrian model. He also promoted modern agricultural methods, such as the potato cultivation and pest control. He was also involved in coal mining and iron smelting. He nationalized the mines and leased the ironworks to entrepreneurs such as Cerf Beer. He laid the basis for a proto-industrialized economy, which would later evolve into the highly industrialized Saarland region. Despite the increase in revenues, his financial situation did not improve, because of his high spending on construction activities. He died in Saarbrücken.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Extension of the residence.", "content": "When William Henry's reign began, he and his family and some noble families moved from Usingen to Saarbrücken and he began to develop his capital. The city had been severely affected by the confusion of the Thirty Years' War and the War of the Reunions. It was redesigned and expanded into a baroque capital, especially by the architect Friedrich Joachim Stengel. Noteworthy buildings from this periods are the Saarbrücken Castle, the Louis Church and Basilica of St. John. He also built a number of palaces and town houses. The downside of his magnificent city was an immense debt, which his son and successor Louis had to deal with. Nevertheless, the city of Saarbrücken is still dominated by William Henry's buildings and the keep his memory alive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "William Henry as enlightened absolutist.", "content": "William Henry and his princely contemporaries show the possibilities and limits of an enlightened absolutist policy. As much as he insisted on enlightened principles of legal reforms, continued economic stimulus and the exercise of religious tolerance, he also remained a patriarchal ruler who forbade his subjects to actively participate in government and who tried to regulate all areas of life with an immense flood of regulations, and who suppressed social protests harshly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "William Henry married on 28 February 1742 in Erbach with Sophie (1725–1795), the daughter of Count George William of Erbach and granddaughter of George Albert II, Count of Erbach-Fürstenau. With her, he had the following children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William Henry, Prince of Nassau-Saarbrücken (6 March 1718 – 24 July 1768), was Prince of Nassau-Saarbrücken from 1741 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976441}
{"src_title": "Unai Emery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and playing career.", "content": "Emery was born in Hondarribia, Gipuzkoa, Basque Country. His father and grandfather, named Juan and Antonio respectively, were also footballers, both goalkeepers. The former appeared for several clubs in the second tier, whilst the latter competed with Real Unión in the top division. Emery's uncle, Román, played as a midfielder.  Emery, a left-sided midfielder, was a youth graduate of Real Sociedad, but never really broke into the first team (aged 24 he appeared in five La Liga games, scoring against Albacete Balompié in an 8–1 home win). After that, he resumed his career mostly in the Segunda División, amassing totals of 215 matches and nine goals over seven seasons.  He retired with Lorca Deportiva CF at the age of 32, after one season in Segunda División B.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Managerial career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lorca and Almería.", "content": "Emery suffered a serious knee injury while at Lorca in the 2004–05 season; he was offered the vacant manager position by the club president, and immediately helped the club achieve promotion to the second division for the first time in its history, while beating top level side Málaga in the Copa del Rey. In his second season, the Murcians' first ever in the second division, the team finished fifth with 69 points, only five points off promotion to the top flight; they suffered relegation in 2007, after the manager's departure.  Emery then moved to Almería in division two, and again helped his squad overachieve: after guiding them to a first ever promotion in 2007, the Andalusian side finished eighth in La Liga in 2007–08. This prompted a move to Valencia, where he succeeded Ronald Koeman as manager.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Valencia.", "content": "In 2008–09, his first season with \"Los Che\", Emery led them to a sixth-place finish, with subsequent qualification to the UEFA Europa League, in spite of the club's serious financial problems. The team reached the Round of 32 in the UEFA Cup, a 3–3 aggregate loss against Dynamo Kyiv, and the quarter-finals of the Copa del Rey, exiting against Sevilla.  In 2009–10, Emery led Valencia to third place, so the club returned to the UEFA Champions League after two years. In the Europa League they lost in the quarter-finals to eventual winners Atlético Madrid on the away goals rule, and exited in the round of 16 in the Copa del Rey against Deportivo de La Coruña, losing 3–4 on aggregate. In May 2010 Emery renewed his contract for another year.  2010–11 started without David Villa and David Silva, sold to Barcelona and Manchester City respectively. Despite this, Valencia won five out of the first six league games (with one draw), starting the Champions League campaign with a 4–0 win in Turkey against Bursaspor, before being eliminated in the round of 16 by Schalke, and being knocked out in the same stage in the Copa del Rey by Villareal. In the domestic league the side finished third, thus again qualifying for the Champions League.  Emery left the club in June 2012, after again finishing third in 2011–12.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spartak Moscow.", "content": "On 13 May 2012, Leonid Fedun, owner of Spartak Moscow, announced Emery as the Russian club's coach for the following two seasons. On 25 November he was sacked after a run of poor results, the last one being a 1–5 derby home loss against Dynamo Moscow.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sevilla.", "content": "Emery returned to Spanish football on 14 January 2013, replacing the sacked Míchel at the helm of Sevilla. He led the club to fifth position in 2013–14, his first full season, and, on 14 May 2014, won the Europa League final, defeating Benfica on penalties.  After finishing the 2014–15 season in fifth place, one point behind former club Valencia, Emery again won the Europa League after defeating Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk, thus qualifying for the following Champions League. The victory meant that Sevilla became the most successful club in the history of the UEFA Cup/Europa League, with four wins, and Emery signed a one-year contract extension on 5 June 2015 which would have kept him at the club until 2017, after reported interest from West Ham United and Napoli.  In 2015–16 Emery led Sevilla to seventh position, having played the final games of the domestic league with several reserves and youth team players after the team confirmed their place in the Europa League final. On 18 May 2016, despite trailing 0–1 at half-time, a goal from Kevin Gameiro and two from Coke resulted in a 3–1 victory over Liverpool at St. Jakob-Park in Basel.  On 12 June 2016, after Emery expressed his desire to leave Sevilla, the club announced that they would be parting ways.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Paris Saint-Germain.", "content": "On 28 June 2016, Emery signed a two-year deal, with the option of a third, to succeed Laurent Blanc at French quadruple-holders Paris Saint-Germain. In his first competitive match in charge, on 6 August, his side beat Lyon 4–1 in Austria to lift the Trophée des Champions.  Emery led PSG to second place in their group of the Champions League, behind Arsenal. In the first knockout round they defeated Barcelona 4–0 at the Parc des Princes, only to historically lose 1–6 in Spain and subsequently be eliminated.  On 1 April, he picked up his second honour with \"les Rouge-et-Bleu\" with a 4–1 win over title rivals Monaco in the final of the Coupe de la Ligue. On 28 April 2018, Emery announced his decision to leave the Parisian club at the end of the season with a year left on his contract. He was replaced by German coach Thomas Tuchel at PSG following the conclusion of the 2017–18 season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arsenal.", "content": "On 23 May 2018, Emery was appointed head coach of Arsenal. He agreed to a two-year deal, with the club having the option to extend his deal for a further year. In his first competitive game in charge, on 13 August, his side lost to Manchester City 0–2 in the Premier League. After a second consecutive loss to Chelsea on 18 August, Emery recorded his first win as Arsenal manager on 25 August, in a 3–1 home win over West Ham United. After this game, Arsenal won 11 games in a row, their best run of form since 2007. Arsenal then extended their unbeaten run to 22 games. Their 3–2 loss to Southampton in December was the first time they had been defeated in all competitions since August. Emery yet again reached a Europa League final, but was unsuccessful as Arsenal were beaten 4–1 by fellow English side Chelsea. Arsenal finished the season in fifth position, one place higher than the previous season, narrowly missing out on a Champions League spot.  In the 2019 summer transfer window, Emery broke Arsenal's previous club record by signing Ivory Coast winger Nicolas Pépé. He also brought in David Luiz from rivals Chelsea and Scotsman Kieran Tierney from Celtic. Pépé recorded his first assist against arch rivals Tottenham Hotspur in the North London derby, which finished in a 2–2 draw.  On 29 November 2019, following a series of poor results and a winless run of seven games, Emery was sacked by Arsenal. His final game in charge was a 2–1 home defeat to Eintracht Frankfurt in the Europa League. He was replaced on an interim basis by Freddie Ljungberg and later on a permanent basis by Mikel Arteta.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manager.", "content": "Sevilla  Paris Saint-Germain  Arsenal  Individual", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Unai Emery Etxegoien (; born 3 November 1971) is a Spanish football manager and former player. He was most recently the head coach of Premier League club Arsenal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976442}
{"src_title": "Kat Von D", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Von D was born in Montemorelos, Nuevo León, Mexico. Her Seventh-day Adventist Church missionary parents, father René and mother Sylvia Galeano, were born in Argentina, and are of German, Italian and Spanish descent, respectively. Von D has a sister, Karoline and a brother, Michael. She moved with her family to the Los Angeles area at age 4 and grew up in Colton, California. Von D was classically trained in piano beginning at age 6.  Kat Von D credits her grandmother, Clara von Drachenberg, as an inspiration for her in music and art, and the Latino culture of Los Angeles as a major influence on her tattoo art and style. She began listening to the Ramones, Misfits, and other punk rock bands at the age of 12. She got her first tattoo at 14 and quit school at 16 to become a tattoo artist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Von D appeared in two seasons of \"Miami Ink\", the reality TV show taped at 305 Ink in Miami for the cable network TLC. She was offered the position after Darren Brass broke his elbow, preventing him from tattooing. She had a falling out with Ami James, which led to her decision to leave the shop and the show.  She subsequently acquired her own TLC series, \"LA Ink\", which chronicled her work at her tattoo shop, High Voltage Tattoo, in Hollywood, California. On the show, she broke the Guinness World Record of most tattoos given by a single person in 24 hours, with a total of 400. Accomplished in December 2007, it involved a Von D-designed logo for the city of Los Angeles, with proceeds going to the children's-blindness charity Vitamin Angels. \"LA Ink\" ran four seasons, ending September 15, 2011; TLC announced the cancellation on August 18, 2011. Von D has publicly said that the cancellation was because she chose not to continue doing the show.  Her first book, \"High Voltage Tattoo\", compiling her artworks and tattoos, with a foreword by Mötley Crüe's Nikki Sixx, was released in January 2009 and reached #6 on \"The New York Times\" Best Seller list. Von D described the book as \"not an autobiography, you know, 'cause I'm too young to do that. But this is just kind of like a picture-driven outline of my career as an artist. So, you see everything from my drawings when I was six to tattoos that have never before been seen.\" Her second book, \"The Tattoo Chronicles\", an illustrated diary following a year in her life, was released October 26, 2010, and reached #3 on \"The New York Times\" \"Hardcover Advice & Misc.\" best-seller list.  In 2008, Von D created and launched a make-up line for Sephora. She has released new collections every year and has expanded her line to include fragrances. In 2012, through Sephora, her New American Beauty Art Tour benefitted the Art of Elysium charitable organization. In June 2016, she announced that all products in the line would be reformulated to be vegan. In August 2016, the line released a limited-edition lipstick named Project Chimps, with 20% of sales being donated to Project Chimps, an organization dedicated to providing care for retired research chimpanzees. Her makeup line later became mired in controversy after releasing a lipstick called \"Selektion\". The word \"Selektion\" is considered widely controversial and inappropriate in its native Germany where it was the term used by the Nazis to decide who would be chosen to either be put to work or death upon arrival to the concentration camps. The fallout led to the lipstick being renamed \"Beloved\". This choice is even more controversial with her being implicated in other anti-semitic acts. Von D fell under criticism again when she named a lipstick \"Celebutard\", Sephora quickly pulled the lipstick from their stores and issued an apology.  Von D is the creator of the MusInk Tattoo Convention and Music Festival, which began in 2008. Musink is an all ages Tattoo, Music, and Art festival located in Southern California.  On September 2, 2010, Von D opened the art gallery and boutique Wonderland Gallery in the space next door to High Voltage Tattoo. She launched the clothing lines KVD Los Angeles and Kat Von D Los Angeles in the US and Canada in fall 2011, with the latter expanding internationally the following year.  Kat Von D provided the female vocals to the song \"Rosary Blue\" on \"X\", a 2012 studio album by the Finnish Gothic Rock band The 69 Eyes. In August 2013, she tweeted that Dave Grohl and producer Danny Lohner had finished two tracks of an album she had talked about recording as early as 2011.  In 2016 she recorded vocals for the electronic music duo, Prayers, on the song \"Black Leather\", and appeared in the band's video for the song.  In 2018, she collaborated with Rooney Mara, Sia, Sadie Sink and Joaquin Phoenix to narrate Chris Delforce's animal rights documentary \"Dominion\". For her contribution to the documentary, she was granted the 2018 Award of Excellence for Narration by Hollywood International Independent Documentary Awards.<ref", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Katherine Von Drachenberg, known as Kat Von D (born March 8, 1982), is a Mexican-American tattoo artist, model, musician, author, entrepreneur, and television personality. She is best known for her work as a tattoo artist on the TLC reality television show \"LA Ink\", which premiered in the United States on August 7, 2007, and ran for four seasons. She is also known for being the former head of Kat Von D Beauty (now KVD Vegan Beauty).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976443}
{"src_title": "Samzhubzê District", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the 17th century, the city and the dzong was called Samdrubtsé (one of the transliterations of the current name). It was the capital of the Tsang.  In the 19th century, the \"Tashi\" or Panchen Lama had temporal power over Tashilhunpo Monastery and three small districts, though not over the town of Shigatse itself, which was administered by two Dzongpön (Prefects) appointed from Lhasa. Before military conflict between the PRC's People's Liberation Army and the then Tibetan Govt., the Tibetan territory was divided into 53 prefecture districts called \"Dzongs\".  There were two \"Dzongpöns\" for every \"Dzong\"—a lama (Tse-dung) and a layman. They were entrusted with both civil and military powers and are equal in all respects, though subordinate to the generals and the Chinese Amban in military matters. However, there were only one or two Ambans representing the Qing (Manchu) Chinese emperor residing in Lhasa, directing a little garrison, and their power installed since 1728, progressively declined to end-up as observer at the eve of their expulsion in 1912 by the 13th Dalai Lama. In 1952, shortly after the PRC sent forces to the region, Shigatse had a population of perhaps 12,000 people, making it the second largest town in Tibet.  In 1959, Shigatse was made the administrative center of an eponymous special district () of Tibet. In 1970 the special district was upgraded to a prefecture and the town designated a county. In 1986 the county became a county-level city, and when the prefecture was again upgraded to a prefecture-level city in 2014, the county-level city was redesignated a district and given the new name of Samzhubzê.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography and climate.", "content": "Samzhubzê lies on flat terrain surrounded by high mountains, and the urban area is located just south of the Yarlung Zangbo River. The city lies at an elevation of around, and within its administrative area there are five peaks higher than. The city's administrative area ranges in latitude from 29° 07' to 29° 09' N and in longitude from 88° 03' to 89° 08' E.  Samzhubzê has a monsoon-influenced, alpine version of a humid continental climate (Köppen \"Dwb\"), with frosty, very dry winters and warm, wet summers. Temperatures are relatively moderate for the Tibetan Plateau, as the annual mean temperature is. Barely any precipitation falls from November to March, when the diurnal temperature variation can frequently exceed. Nearly two-thirds of the annual rainfall occurs in July and August alone. Sunshine is abundant year-round, totaling 3248 hours annually.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative divisions.", "content": "Shigatse administers two subdistricts and ten townships.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tashilhunpo.", "content": "Samzhubzê contains the huge Tashilhunpo Monastery, founded in 1447 by Gendun Drup, the First Dalai Lama. It is the traditional seat of the Panchen Lamas. Until the Chinese arrived in the 1950s, the \"Tashi\" or Panchen Lama had temporal power over three small districts, though not over Samzhubzê itself, which was administered by a dzongpön (general) appointed from Lhasa. In the 2nd week of the 5th lunar month (around June/July), Tashilhunpo Monastery is the scene of a 3-day festival and a huge thangka is displayed. The imposing castle, Samdrubtse Dzong or \"Shigatse Dzong\", was probably built in the 15th century. It looked something like a smaller version of the Potala Palace in Lhasa, and had turret-like fortifications at the ends and a central Red Palace. It used to be the seat of the kings of Ü-Tsang and the capital of the province of Ü-Tsang or Tsang.  The castle was totally dismantled, rock by rock, by hundreds of Tibetans at the instigation of the Chinese in 1961. Between 2005 and 2007, the building was reconstructed, financed by donations from Shanghai. Old photographs served as a basis for the reconstruction, which was executed in concrete. Afterwards, the exterior was to be wainscotted with natural stones. The \"dzong\", which in the 17th century served as a model for the construction of the Potala Palace, is set to become a museum for Tibetan culture.  Nearby attractions include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Samzhubzê District (also spelled Sangzhuzi District, Samdruptse District) is a district in the Tibet Autonomous Region of the China, and the administrative center of the prefecture-level city of Shigatse (Tibetan Pinyin: Xigazê). Prior to 2014 it was known as the county-level city of Shigatse. It was the ancient capital of Ü-Tsang province and is the second largest city in Tibet with an estimated population of 117,000 in 2013. Samzhubzê is located at the confluence of the Yarlung Tsangpo River and the Nyang River (Nyang Chu or Nyanchue), about southwest of Lhasa and northwest of Gyantse, at an altitude of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976444}
{"src_title": "Locking (dance)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The beginning of Locking can be traced to one man, Don Campbell. In the late 1960s he put together several fad dances adding moves of his own (known as the \"Lock\") when performing. The original lock was created by accident: Campbell couldn't do a move called the 'Robot Shuffle' and stopped at a particular point whilst moving his arms, creating a 'locking' effect. He wasn't able to perform it fluently, for he couldn't remember which step to take next. (Even the acting towards the audience was spontaneous: when people started laughing at Don because of his unfamiliar moves, he responded by pointing at them.) These halts soon became popular as Don added them into his performances. The resulting dance was called Campbellocking, which was later shortened to Locking. In the early 1970s this set off a movement of Locking dance groups, notably Campbell's group The Lockers. Other lockers Jimmy \"Scoo B Doo\" Foster, Greggory \"Campbellock Jr.\" Pope, Tony \"GoGo\" Lewis, Fred \"Mr Penguin\" Berry (a.k.a. Rerun), Leo \"Fluky Luke\" Williamson, Damita Jo Freeman and others also helped set the foundation for the locking dance and clothes style.  Clothes style can consist of loud striped socks, pegged pants that stopped at the knees, bright colorful satin shirts with big collars, big colorful bow ties, gigantic Apple Boy hats, and white gloves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Moves.", "content": "Locking may be done in solo or in unison with two or more dancers doing steps or handshakes together. A locker may smile while performing to emphasize the comical nature of the dance; other times, a serious demeanor will be maintained to place emphasis on technique. Other important stylistic features are waving of arms, pointing, walking stationary and grabbing and rotating the cap or hat. Don Campbell created the original freezes, incorporating his unique rhythm and adding gestures such as points and handclaps. Other dancers also adapted this style while creating other steps and moves.  Locking is by nature an improvisational dance but also consists of a set of signature moves of locking pioneers, However, many lockers alter or blend these with other moves or create their own variations. In general, Lockers will often put a small pause and move up on the second and fourth beats to emphasize the locking.  Up Lock (Muscle man)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Locking is a style of funk dance, which is today also associated with hip hop. The name is based on the concept of \"locking\" movements, which basically means freezing from a fast movement and \"locking\" in a certain position, holding that position for a short while and then continuing at the same speed as before. It relies on fast and distinct arm and hand movements combined with more relaxed hips and legs. The movements are generally large and exaggerated, and often very rhythmic and tightly synced with the music. Locking is performance oriented, often interacting with the audience by smiling or giving them a high five, and some moves are quite comical.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976445}
{"src_title": "Jarmila Novotná", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "A student of Emmy Destinn, Novotná made her operatic debut at the Prague Opera House, on June 28, 1925, as Marenka in Smetana's \"The Bartered Bride\". Six days later, she sang there as Violetta in Verdi's \"La traviata\". In 1928 she starred in Verona as Gilda opposite Giacomo Lauri-Volpi in Verdi's \"Rigoletto\" and at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples as Adina opposite Tito Schipa in Donizetti's \"L'elisir d'amore\". In 1929 she joined the Kroll Opera in Berlin, where she sang Violetta as well as the title roles of Puccini's \"Manon Lescaut\" and \"Madama Butterfly\".  In January 1933 she created the female lead in Jaromir Weinberger's new operetta \"Frühlingsstürme\", opposite Richard Tauber at the Theater im Admiralspalast, Berlin. This was the last new operetta produced in the Weimar Republic, and she and Tauber were both soon forced to leave Germany by the new Nazi regime.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vienna and New York.", "content": "In 1934 she left Berlin for Vienna, where she created the title role in Lehár's \"Giuditta\" opposite Richard Tauber. Her immense success in that role led to a contract with the Vienna State Opera, where she was named \"Kammersängerin\". Prior to the \"Anschluss\", she also appeared with Tauber there in \"The Bartered Bride\" and \"Madama Butterfly\".  She appeared as Pamina in the 1937 Salzburg Festival production of Mozart's \"The Magic Flute\", conducted by Arturo Toscanini. In the orchestra pit was the young Georg Solti, who played the glockenspiel in the opera.  On January 5, 1940 she made her debut with the Metropolitan Opera, as Mimì in Puccini's \"La bohème\". She also appeared in twelve other roles at the Met: Euridice, Violetta, Cherubino, Massenet's Manon, Marenka, Donna Elvira, Pamina, Octavian, Antonia, Freia, Mélisande and Prince Orlofsky, the role in which she made her farewell performance on January 15, 1956. Of her 208 appearances at the Met, 103 were in the breeches roles of Prince Orlofsky, Cherubino and Octavian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Films.", "content": "She appeared in several films, including Max Ophüls's 1932 version of \"The Bartered Bride\". In 1948 she won acclaim for her leading role as an Auschwitz survivor who searches for her young son, played by Ivan Jandl, in \"The Search\" which co-starred Montgomery Clift. In 1951, she appeared in \"The Great Caruso\", starring Mario Lanza.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jarmila Novotná (September 23, 1907, in Prague – February 9, 1994, in New York City) was a celebrated Czech soprano and actress and, from 1940 to 1956, a star of the Metropolitan Opera.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976446}
{"src_title": "Harmonic analysis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Applied harmonic analysis.", "content": "Many applications of harmonic analysis in science and engineering begin with the idea or hypothesis that a phenomenon or signal is composed of a sum of individual oscillatory components. Ocean tides and vibrating strings are common and simple examples. The theoretical approach is often to try to describe the system by a differential equation or system of equations to predict the essential features, including the amplitude, frequency, and phases of the oscillatory components. The specific equations depend on the field, but theories generally try to select equations that represent major principles that are applicable.  The experimental approach is usually to acquire data that accurately quantifies the phenomenon. For example, in a study of tides, the experimentalist would acquire samples of water depth as a function of time at closely enough spaced intervals to see each oscillation and over a long enough duration that multiple oscillatory periods are likely included. In a study on vibrating strings, it is common for the experimentalist to acquire a sound waveform sampled at a rate at least twice that of the highest frequency expected and for a duration many times the period of the lowest frequency expected.  For example, the top signal at the right is a sound waveform of a bass guitar playing an open string corresponding to an A note with a fundamental frequency of 55 Hz. The waveform appears oscillatory, but it is more complex than a simple sine wave, indicating the presence of additional waves. The different wave components contributing to the sound can be revealed by applying a mathematical analysis technique known as the Fourier transform, the result of which is shown in the lower figure. Note that there is a prominent peak at 55 Hz, but that there are other peaks at 110 Hz, 165 Hz, and at other frequencies corresponding to integer multiples of 55 Hz. In this case, 55 Hz is identified as the fundamental frequency of the string vibration, and the integer multiples are known as harmonics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abstract harmonic analysis.", "content": "One of the most modern branches of harmonic analysis, having its roots in the mid-20th century, is analysis on topological groups. The core motivating ideas are the various Fourier transforms, which can be generalized to a transform of functions defined on Hausdorff locally compact topological groups.  The theory for abelian locally compact groups is called Pontryagin duality.  Harmonic analysis studies the properties of that duality and Fourier transform and attempts to extend those features to different settings, for instance, to the case of non-abelian Lie groups.  For general non-abelian locally compact groups, harmonic analysis is closely related to the theory of unitary group representations. For compact groups, the Peter–Weyl theorem explains how one may get harmonics by choosing one irreducible representation out of each equivalence class of representations. This choice of harmonics enjoys some of the useful properties of the classical Fourier transform in terms of carrying convolutions to pointwise products, or otherwise showing a certain understanding of the underlying group structure. See also: Non-commutative harmonic analysis.  If the group is neither abelian nor compact, no general satisfactory theory is currently known (\"satisfactory\" means at least as strong as the Plancherel theorem). However, many specific cases have been analyzed, for example SL. In this case, representations in infinite dimensions play a crucial role.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Harmonic analysis is a branch of mathematics concerned with the representation of functions or signals as the superposition of basic waves, and the study of and generalization of the notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms (i.e. an extended form of Fourier analysis). In the past two centuries, it has become a vast subject with applications in areas as diverse as number theory, representation theory, signal processing, quantum mechanics, tidal analysis and neuroscience.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976447}
{"src_title": "Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "In this position, Haugwitz presided over the hereditary lands of the Habsburg Monarchy. After 1760, the chancery also dealt in the affairs of Bohemia. The \"Directorium in publicis et cameralibus\" became a centralized agency established with the advisement of Haugwitz to deal with matters such as “international administration and taxation, public safety, social welfare, education, church matters, mining and commerce”. It is clear from Maria Theresa's testament that Haugwitz was one of her most valued advisors. “He was truly sent to me by Providence, for to break the deadlock I needed such a man, honorable, disinterested, without predispositions, and with neither ambition nor hangers-on, who supported what was good because he saw it to be good...”  Haugwitz’ father was a general in the service of Saxony. As a young man’ Haugwitz went to Rome and then entered the civil service in Silesia. This job came to an end when Frederick II invaded Silesia and Haugwitz escaped to Vienna. Maria Theresa sent him to the remaining part of Silesia under her rule to get the finances in order. Haugwitz, as a student of the Austrian cameralist, Wilhelm von Schröder, learned hostility towards the wealthy estates. Haugwitz was also an admirer of the reforms and new administration in the Prussian province of Silesia. He intended to change economic and administrative institutions through compartmentalization of government functions, education, centralization of the economy and provision of economic information to the monarchy.  In terms of compartmentalization, Haugwitz instituted a separation of judicial matters from political and fiscal matters by instituting a new High Court (\"Oberste Justizstelle\"). Regional courts functioned directly beneath the Empress with each departmental chief supervising his own affairs.  Haugwitz also focused on another important initiative to bring modern economic thought to students. Maria Theresa had established the \"Theresianum\" to train noble children for civil service. Through this institution, Haugwitz planned to bring about economic modernization. To catalyze this modernization and establish Vienna as a place of economic discourse, Haugwitz brought Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi to Vienna, first to teach German as the language of administration and later to train students according to both German Kameralism and modern economic theories and practices. As both a former soldier in Prussia and a Protestant, Justi was not well liked in Vienna. Because of this mistrust, Justi lacked the access to pertinent economic data required to execute his theories. Society was also not prepared for modern economic thought because of the traditionally Jesuit nature of scholarship and the division of the Habsburg economy into various regional and local economies.  In 1746, under the direction of Haugwitz, in an attempt to bring about economic centralization, the \"Directorium\" was established as a central agency to supervise the lands in the monarchy and make recommendations about economic improvements. In 1749, the government established \"Representationen und Cammern\" as local offices of the \"Directorium\" chiefly as mechanisms for supervising tax policy.  Because of this economic centralization, Haugwitz provided Emperor Joseph II with an unprecedented amount of information about the economies of the states over which he would reign. As part of Joseph II's education, he received an extensive overview of the economic makeup of each state. Such a report was unprecedented because it would traditionally have been viewed as an intrusion in the affairs normally reserved to the estates. All of these reforms helped to bring about the eventual peak of mercantilism in the 1760s.  Military reforms complimented Haugwitz's economic initiatives. Due to his belief in the need for “immediate supremacy of the sovereign over the army, and the maintenance of an adequate body of troops even in time of peace,” Haugwitz contributed to military reform in both funding and the development of a standing army.  To protect the monarchy, Haugwitz recommended a standing army of 108,000 supported by contributions by the estates of 14 million gulden. To avoid the previous issues in estates' withholding of contributions, or the tedious process of frequent appeals to the estates, Haugwitz instituted the Ten Years’ Recess. Under this program, despite the resistance of the estates, the estates would guarantee payment for ten years. This period abolished the previous fluctuations in finances. Previously, when taxes were levied from the estates, the estates disagreed amongst themselves over the amount levied, divided the sum among the various estates, collected taxes from the peasantry, deducted from these taxes and then distributed the remainder to the monarchy. In this reform, \"Representationen und Cammern\" collected the taxes in order that the greatest portion of the levy would be distributed to the monarchy.  In addition to these military finance reforms, Haugwitz instituted reforms within the military. A policy quite close to conscription was established. Uniform dress was required of soldiers in order to foster national spirit. Haugwitz advocated the usage of Prussian fighting tactics. A training school was founded to train officers in these tactics.  Despite the large-scale nature and depth of Haugwitz's reforms, their efficacy was not as great as he had intended. Haugwitz's attempt to transform the monarchy from a “feudal aristocracy” to a “well-organised-despotism” was incomplete. (Franck p. 190) The superior court system that established local judges, while initially an attempt at both centralization and organization brought about the opposite due to the tremendous autonomy of each departmental chief. Furthermore, the reforms had limited scope, because they were not aimed at nor did they have any effect on Hungary, Transylvania, Austria, the Netherlands, or Lombardy.  The beginning of the Seven Years’ War in 1757 thwarted the development of many of the reforms. In false defense of his failing policies, Haugwitz argued that the reforms “were only for peacetime”. Eventually, Haugwitz's \"Directorium\" was stripped of its military and financial functions and renamed the Bohemian and Austrian Court Chancellery. Most power now became centered in the Council of State headed by Wenzel Anton Graf Kaunitz. Kaunitz, a historic foe of Haugwitz, replaced him in instituting policies. However, Haugwitz's policies would have an effect throughout the reign of Maria Theresa and later in the reign of Joseph II.  Early in his career the composer Joseph Haydn was briefly in Count Haugwitz's employ, playing the organ in the Bohemian Chancellery chapel at the Judenplatz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In the summer of 1765, he moved to one of his castles in Miroslavské Knínice, where, due to dysentery, his health worsened. He died on 30 August 1765. His body was taken to Náměšť nad Oslavou, where he was buried on 1 September 1765 in the crypt of the Church of St. John the Baptist. Later, his remains, along with those of his wife, were moved, on 19 February 1768, to a crypt in the Capuchin church near the castle in Náměšť.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Friedrich Wilhelm Graf von Haugwitz (), ; 11 December 1702, Saxony – 30 August 1765, Deutsch Knönitz (), Habsburg Moravia) was Supreme Chancellor of the United Court Chancery and the head of \"Directorium in publicis et cameralibus\" under Maria Theresa of Austria. He also served as one of the key advisors in instituting Maria Theresa's reforms. Haugwitz attempted to bring both centralization and economic reform to the Habsburg lands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976448}
{"src_title": "Tea tree oil", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Uses.", "content": "Tea tree oil has been used as a traditional herbal medicine in the belief it treats acne, nail fungus, or athlete's foot, with little evidence to support these uses. In a 2015 Cochrane systematic review, the only trial comparing it to placebo for acne found low-quality evidence of benefit.  According to the Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency, traditional usage suggests that tea tree oil is a plausible treatment for \"small superficial wounds, insect bites and small boils\", that it may help reduce itching in minor cases of athlete's foot, and help with mild inflammation of the mouth lining. The CHMP say tea tree oil products should not be used on people under 12 years of age.  Tea tree oil is not recommended for treating nail fungus, as it is not effective. It is not recommended for treating head lice in children because its effectiveness and safety has not been established and it could cause skin irritation or allergic reactions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Tea tree oil is poisonous when taken internally. It may cause drowsiness, confusion, hallucinations, coma, unsteadiness, weakness, vomiting, diarrhea, nausea, blood cell abnormalities, and severe rashes. It should be kept away from pets and children. Tea tree oil should not be used in or around the mouth.  Application of tea tree oil to the skin can cause an allergic reaction. Tea tree oil has caused more documented allergic reactions than any other form of essential oil. The potential for causing an allergic reaction increases as the oil ages and its chemical composition changes. Adverse effects include skin irritation, allergic contact dermatitis, systemic contact dermatitis, linear immunoglobulin A disease, erythema multiforme-like reactions, and systemic hypersensitivity reactions. Allergic reactions may be due to the various oxidation products that are formed by exposure of the oil to light and/or air. Consequently, oxidized tea tree oil should not be used.  In Australia tea tree oil is one of the many essential oils that have been increasingly causing cases of poisoning, mostly of children. In the period 2014-2018 there were 749 reported cases in New South Wales, accounting for 17% of essential oil poisoning incidents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hormonal effects.", "content": "Tea tree oil potentially poses a risk for causing abnormal breast enlargement in men. A 2018 study by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences found four of the constituent chemicals (eucalyptol, 4-terpineol, dipentene and alpha-terpineol) are endocrine disruptors, raising concerns of potential environmental health impact from the oil.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity in animals.", "content": "In dogs and cats, death or transient signs of toxicity (lasting 2 to 3 days), such as lethargy, weakness, in coordination and muscle tremors, have been reported after external application at high doses.  As a test of toxicity by oral intake, the median lethal dose (LD50) in rats is 1.9–2.4 ml/kg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Composition and characteristics.", "content": "Tea tree oil is defined by the International Standard ISO 4730 (\"Oil of \"Melaleuca\", terpinen-4-ol type\"), containing terpinen-4-ol, γ-terpinene, and α-terpinene as about 70% to 90% of whole oil, while p-cymene, terpinolene, α-terpineol, and α-pinene collectively account for some 15% of the oil (table, right). The oil has been described as colorless to pale yellow having a fresh, camphor-like smell.  Tea tree oil products contain various phytochemicals among which terpinen-4-ol is the major component. Adverse reactions diminish with lower eucalyptol content.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History and extraction.", "content": "The name tea tree is used for several plants, mostly from Australia and New Zealand, from the family \"Myrtaceae\", related to the myrtle. The use of the name probably originated from Captain James Cook's description of one of these shrubs that he used to make an infusion to drink in place of tea.  The commercial tea tree oil industry originated in the 1920s when Arthur Penfold, an Australian, investigated the business potential of a number of native extracted oils; he reported that tea tree oil had promise, as it exhibited antiseptic properties.  Tea tree oil was first extracted from \"Melaleuca alternifolia\" in Australia, and this species remains the most important commercially. In the 1970s and 1980s, commercial plantations began to produce large quantities of tea tree oil from \"Melaleuca alternifolia\". Many of these plantations are located in New South Wales. Since the 1970s and 80s, the industry has expanded to include several other species for their extracted oil: \"Melaleuca armillaris\" and \"Melaleuca styphelioides\" in Tunisia and Egypt; \"Melaleuca leucadendra\" in Egypt, Malaysia and Vietnam; \"Melaleuca acuminata\" in Tunisia; \"Melaleuca ericifolia\" in Egypt; and \"Melaleuca quinquenervia\" in the United States. Similar oils can also be produced by water distillation from \"Melaleuca linariifolia\" and \"Melaleuca dissitiflora\". Whereas the availability and nonproprietary nature of tea tree oil would make it – if proved effective – particularly well-suited to a disease like scabies that affects poor people disproportionately, those same characteristics diminish corporate interest in its development and validation.  According to Allied Market Research, \"the global tea tree oil market size was valued at $38.8 million in 2017 and is projected to reach $59.5 million by 2025\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research directions.", "content": "Tea tree oil is under investigation to see whether it might help in controlling \"Demodex\" mites and associated rosacea. no clinical trials had been conducted.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tea tree oil, also known as melaleuca oil, is an essential oil with a fresh camphoraceous odor and a colour that ranges from pale yellow to nearly colourless and clear. It is derived from the leaves of the tea tree, \"Melaleuca alternifolia\", native to southeast Queensland and the northeast coast of New South Wales, Australia. The oil comprises many constituent chemicals and its composition changes if it is exposed to air and oxidizes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976449}
{"src_title": "Galerkin method", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Introduction with an abstract problem.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "A problem in weak formulation.", "content": "Let us introduce Galerkin's method with an abstract problem posed as a weak formulation on a Hilbert space formula_1, namely,  Here, formula_4 is a bilinear form (the exact requirements on formula_4 will be specified later) and formula_6 is a bounded linear functional on formula_1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Galerkin dimension reduction.", "content": "Choose a subspace formula_8 of dimension \"n\" and solve the projected problem:  We call this the Galerkin equation. Notice that the equation has remained unchanged and only the spaces have changed. Reducing the problem to a finite-dimensional vector subspace allows us to numerically compute formula_11 as a finite linear combination of the basis vectors in formula_12.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Galerkin orthogonality.", "content": "The key property of the Galerkin approach is that the error is orthogonal to the chosen subspaces. Since formula_8, we can use formula_14 as a test vector in the original equation. Subtracting the two, we get the Galerkin orthogonality relation for the error, formula_15 which is the error between the solution of the original problem, formula_16, and the solution of the Galerkin equation, formula_17", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Matrix form.", "content": "Since the aim of Galerkin's method is the production of a linear system of equations, we build its matrix form, which can be used to compute the solution algorithmically.  Let formula_19 be a basis for formula_20. Then, it is sufficient to use these in turn for testing the Galerkin equation, i.e.: find formula_21 such that  We expand formula_17 with respect to this basis, formula_24 and insert it into the equation above, to obtain  This previous equation is actually a linear system of equations formula_26, where", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Symmetry of the matrix.", "content": "Due to the definition of the matrix entries, the matrix of the Galerkin equation is symmetric if and only if the bilinear form formula_4 is symmetric.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Analysis of Galerkin methods.", "content": "Here, we will restrict ourselves to symmetric bilinear forms, that is  While this is not really a restriction of Galerkin methods, the application of the standard theory becomes much simpler. Furthermore, a Petrov–Galerkin method may be required in the nonsymmetric case.  The analysis of these methods proceeds in two steps. First, we will show that the Galerkin equation is a well-posed problem in the sense of Hadamard and therefore admits a unique solution. In the second step, we study the quality of approximation of the Galerkin solution formula_17.  The analysis will mostly rest on two properties of the bilinear form, namely By the Lax-Milgram theorem (see weak formulation), these two conditions imply well-posedness of the original problem in weak formulation. All norms in the following sections will be norms for which the above inequalities hold (these norms are often called an energy norm).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Well-posedness of the Galerkin equation.", "content": "Since formula_8, boundedness and ellipticity of the bilinear form apply to formula_20. Therefore, the well-posedness of the Galerkin problem is actually inherited from the well-posedness of the original problem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quasi-best approximation (Céa's lemma).", "content": "The error formula_39 between the original and the Galerkin solution admits the estimate  This means, that up to the constant formula_41, the Galerkin solution formula_17 is as close to the original solution formula_16 as any other vector in formula_20. In particular, it will be sufficient to study approximation by spaces formula_20, completely forgetting about the equation being solved.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proof.", "content": "Since the proof is very simple and the basic principle behind all Galerkin methods, we include it here: by ellipticity and boundedness of the bilinear form (inequalities) and Galerkin orthogonality (equals sign in the middle), we have for arbitrary formula_46:  Dividing by formula_48 and taking the infimum over all possible formula_14 yields the lemma.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, in the area of numerical analysis, Galerkin methods are a class of methods for converting a continuous operator problem (such as a differential equation) to a discrete problem. In principle, it is the equivalent of applying the method of variation of parameters to a function space, by converting the equation to a weak formulation. Typically one then applies some constraints on the function space to characterize the space with a finite set of basis functions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976450}
{"src_title": "Casimir I of Kuyavia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Casimir I received Kujawy (however without Dobrzyń and Sieradz-Łęczyca) from his father in 1233. In 1239, he would enlarge his domains with the castellany of Ląd, which he received as the dowry of his second wife. In subsequent years, Casimir I actively supported his father's turbulent politics, which brought him in 1242 to conquer the district of Wyszogród from the rulers of Gdańsk.  Konrad I died on 31 August 1247. According to his will, most of Masovia passed to his oldest son, Bolesław I, and the youngest of his sons, Siemowit I, received Sieradz-Łęczyca. Dissatisfied with his part of the paternal inheritance, Casimir I attacked his brothers' lands while they were in Płock at the funeral of their father, and was able to conquer Siemowit I's inheritance.  The next geopolitical change in Masovia came in early 1248, when Bolesław I died unexpectedly and without issue. In his will, he left all his domains to his brother Siemowit I. With this opportunity, Casimir I was able to take advantage of the confusion after his older brother's death and capture Dobrzyń.  During the 1250s Casimir I was busy with his effort to Christianize the Yotvingian tribes and establish peaceful relations with them. His plans were not supported by the Teutonic Order, however, which had the Pope on its side. After this failure, Casimir I appealed to the Knights Templar, who settled in Łuków, in order to secure the northern border of his territory. It was not until 1263 that his relations with the Teutonic Order where normalized.  Meanwhile, Casimir I faced additional internal problems. In 1258, Bolesław the Pious, Duke of Greater Poland, allied with Wartislaw III, Duke of Pomerania, and attacked Kujawy, demanding the return of the castellany of Ląd. It was his opinion that the land was unlawfully transferred by Henry II the Pious to his son-in-law. The expedition was only partially successful, and so the following year Bolesław the Pious organized a more powerful coalition with Bolesław V the Chaste, Siemowit I, and Daniel of Halych against Casimir I. This expedition was a complete victory, and on 29 November 1259, Casimir I was forced to surrender and promised to cede Ląd to Bolesław the Pious.  Ultimately, however, Casimir I refused to return Ląd, and this caused the coalition to attack again in 1261. Leszek II the Black, Casimir I's eldest son, took advantage of his father's difficult position and demanded his own district, using as an excuse the intrigues of his stepmother, who wanted to obtain more land for her own children. In the end, Casimir I was forced to not only surrender the castellany of Ląd, but to also give Sieradz to his son as a separate district.  Casimir died on 14 December 1267 and was buried in the Cathedral of Włocławek.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and Issue.", "content": "Around 1230/31 Casimir I married firstly with Hedwig (1218/20 – 8 January aft. 1234), probably the daughter of Władysław Odonic. They had no children.  In 1239 Casimir I married secondly with Constance (c. 1221/27 – c. 21 February 1257), a daughter of Henry II the Pious. As her dowry, she received the castellany of Ląd, which was the cause of the Casimir I's long conflict with the Duchy of Greater Poland. They had two sons:  In 1257, Casimir I married thirdly with Euphrosyne (c. 1228/30 – 4 November 1292), daughter of Casimir I of Opole. As her dowry, she received the district of Ruda, but the quick action of Przemysł I, Duke of Greater Poland, prevented this land from passing to the Masovian branch. They had four children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Casimir I of Kuyavia () (c. 1211 – 14 December 1267) was a Polish prince and a member of the House of Piast. He was Duke of Kujawy since 1233, ruler over Ląd from 1239-1261, ruler over Wyszogród since 1242, Duke of Sieradz from 1247-1261, Duke of Łęczyca since 1247, and Duke of Dobrzyń since 1248.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976451}
{"src_title": "Principality of Serbia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Serbian revolutionary leaders — first Karađorđe and then Miloš Obrenović — succeeded in their goal of liberating Serbia from centuries-long Turkish rule. Turkish authorities acknowledged the state by the 1830 Hatt-i Sharif, and Miloš Obrenović became a hereditary prince (knjaz) of the Serbian Principality.  At first, the principality included only the territory of the former Pashaluk of Belgrade, but in 1831–33 it expanded to the east, south, and west. In 1866 Serbia began the campaign of forging The First Balkan Alliance by signing the series of agreements with other Balkan entities in the period 1866–68. On 18 April 1867 the Ottoman government ordered the Ottoman garrison, which since 1826 had been the last representation of Ottoman suzerainty in Serbia, withdrawn from the Belgrade fortress. The only stipulation was that the Ottoman flag continue to fly over the fortress alongside the Serbian one. Serbia's \"de facto\" independence dates from this event. A new constitution in 1869 defined Serbia as an independent state. Serbia was further expanded to the southeast in 1878, when its independence from the Ottoman Empire won full international recognition at the Treaty of Berlin. The Principality would last until 1882 when it was raised to the level of the Kingdom of Serbia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "This is ethnic and religious composition of Principality of Serbia in 1866 and after that population by year (with bolded text being dominant).  In the first decades of the principality, the population was about 85% Serb and 15% non-Serb. Of those, most were Vlachs, and there were some Muslim Albanians, which were the overwhelming majority of the Muslims that lived in Smederevo, Kladovo and Küprili. The new state aimed to homogenize of its population. As a result, from 1830 to the wars of the 1870s in which Albanians were expelled from the environs of Nis, it has been estimated that up to 150,000 Albanians that lived in the territories of the Principality of Serbia had been expelled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rulers.", "content": "The Principality was ruled by the Obrenović dynasty, except for a period under Prince Aleksandar of the Karađorđević dynasty. Princes Miloš and Mihailo Obrenović each reigned twice.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Principality of Serbia ( / \"Kneževina Srbija\") was a semi-independent state in the Balkans that came into existence as a result of the Serbian Revolution, which lasted between 1804 and 1817. Its creation was negotiated first through an unwritten agreement between Miloš Obrenović, leader of the Second Serbian Uprising, and Ottoman official Marashli Pasha. It was followed by the series of legal documents published by the Porte in 1828, 1829 and finally, 1830 — the Hatt-i Sharif. Its \"de facto\" independence ensued in 1867, following the expulsion of all Ottoman troops from the country; its independence was recognized internationally in 1878 by the Treaty of Berlin. In 1882 the country was elevated to the status of kingdom.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976452}
{"src_title": "Yael Naim", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Yael Naim was born in Paris, France to Sephardic Jewish immigrants from Tunisia. At the age of four, she moved with her family to Ramat HaSharon, Israel, where she spent the rest of her childhood. She served in the Israel Defense Forces as a soloist in the Israeli Air Force Orchestra.  She began her singing career with a part in the musical \"\" and her first solo album, \"In a Man's Womb\" (recorded in Los Angeles with Kamil Rustam), was released in 2001. She also sang the song \"You Disappear\" by Bruno Coulais for the film \"Harrison's Flowers\". In her early work, she was credited simply as Yael. She also performed a duet with Din Din Aviv titled \"Mashmauyot\". Her version of the Britney Spears song, \"Toxic\" also garnered significant attention.  Naim joined with percussionist and, over a period of two years, they arranged and recorded thirteen of Naim's songs in a studio in her apartment in Paris. These were released as her second album, \"Yael Naim\", on 22 October 2007, on the label. The songs are in French, English and Hebrew and received critical acclaim. The album entered the French album chart at No. 11 the week after its release. Her style has been described as having a touch of folk and a touch of jazz, with mysterious and evocative words sung with a delicate and intentionally husky voice.  In January 2008, Apple featured her song \"New Soul\" in its debut commercial for the MacBook Air laptop. Steve Jobs himself picked the song for the launch of the laptop line. Owing to high U.S. digital sales, the song debuted on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 for the chart week of 16 February 2008, at No. 9, becoming Naim's first U.S. top ten single, and making her the first Israeli solo artist to ever have a top ten hit in the United States. \"New Soul\" moved up to No. 7 the following week. The song was also featured on the soundtrack of the movies \"The House Bunny\" and \"Wild Target\". Her third album was released in November 2010. The first single from this new record was \"Go to the River\".  In 2016, she won her second Female Artist of the Year award at, the French equivalent of the Grammys. She previously won the award in 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "She is married to, a Martiniquais musician, with whom she has two children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Television.", "content": "Naim's voice was used in a Season 21 episode of \"The Simpsons\", entitled \"The Greatest Story Ever D'ohed\". She voiced Dorit, the niece of an Israeli tour guide named Jakob (voiced by Sacha Baron Cohen).  Her single \"Come Home\" was in an episode of Season 7 of \"Grey's Anatomy\" and in episode 6 of the ABC Family series \"Switched at Birth\". Also, her cover of Irene Cara's \"Flashdance (What a Feeling)\" was used in the promotion video of \"The Voice UK\" in 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philanthropy.", "content": "On 27 November 2015, she participated together with Nolwenn Leroy and Camélia Jordana at the national memorial day for the victims of the November 2015 Paris attacks singing the song \"\" from Jacques Brel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yael Naim (, born 6 February 1978 in Paris, France), is an Israeli-French singer-songwriter. She rose to fame in 2008 in the US after her hit single \"New Soul\" was used by Apple in an advertising campaign for its MacBook Air. The song peaked at No. 7 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. In 2013, the French government made her a knight of the.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976453}
{"src_title": "Charles Lyttelton, 10th Viscount Cobham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Lyttelton was born in Kensington, London, the son of John Lyttelton, 9th Viscount Cobham, and Violet Yolande Leonard. He was a cousin of the musician Humphrey Lyttelton. He was educated at Eton College and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating with a law degree in 1932. He had a family connection with New Zealand, where he became governor-general, through his great-grandfather George Lyttelton, 4th Baron Lyttelton, who was chairman of the Canterbury Association and contributed financially to the early development of Christchurch. Hagley Park is named after their family estate (Hagley Park, Worcestershire), and the port town of Lyttelton bears his great-grandfather's name. He visited New Zealand in 1950 in relation to property holdings in Christchurch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military service.", "content": "Lyttelton joined the Territorial Army in 1933. He served in the Second World War with the British Expeditionary Force in France from 1940. He was commander of the 5th Regiment from 1943.  Lyttelton was made Honorary Colonel of Queen's Own Warwickshire and Worcestershire Yeomanry on 1 April 1969.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "After the war Lyttelton wanted to follow in his father's footsteps and enter the House of Commons. However, his father died in 1949 and he succeeded as Viscount Cobham, precluding a career in the Commons.  Cobham became the ninth Governor-General of New Zealand on 5 September 1957. Although from an aristocratic background, he proved popular. He was seen as an outdoors man with a sporting prowess in cricket, and golf, and a competent rugby judge. He was good with a gun and an enthusiastic fly fisherman, all attributes that resonated well with New Zealanders. Significant events during his tenure included the independence of Western Samoa and the opening of the Auckland Harbour Bridge.  Cobham was served by three Prime Ministers: Sidney Holland (1949–1957), Keith Holyoake (1957 and 1960–1972) and Walter Nash (1957–1960). He was most careful to not comment on controversial matters, and had a good working relationship with all three. He was instrumental in setting up the Outward Bound outdoor education organisation in New Zealand, opening the Outward Bound school in Anakiwa near Picton in September 1962, which bears his name. He visited the school in 1966 and was pleased with the progress that had been made.  Cobham served until 13 September 1962. He was a skilled orator and a book of his speeches sold 50,000 copies – he donated the £10,000 profit to Outward Bound. Cobham Oval in Whangarei and Cobham Court in Porirua are named after him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cricket.", "content": "Lyttelton enjoyed a career in first-class cricket, playing more than 90 times for Worcestershire in the 1930s and captaining the club between 1936 and 1939.  He made his first-class debut, against Gloucestershire, in June 1932, but made a duck in his only innings and did not reappear for two years. He played five times in 1934, but it was only the following season that he became established in the side, playing about 20 matches a year from then until the Second World War, with the exception of 1937 when he appeared only twice.  His highest score (and only first-class century) was the 162 he made against Leicestershire in 1938, but he made many other useful contributions, reaching 50 on 14 further occasions. His most productive year was 1938, when he scored 741 runs at an average of 21.17.  With the ball, his first victim (in July 1934) was Charlie Barnett, while in 1935 he produced his best innings' bowling, claiming 4–83 against the South Africans. After 1935 his bowling became largely occasional, and with the exception of nine wickets in 1938 he never again took more than three in a season.  He played ten games for Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) pre war: one against Oxford University in 1935, and nine on MCC's tour of Australia and New Zealand during the following winter.  His cricketing career proper ended with the outbreak of war, but (now listed on the scorecard as Lord Cobham, having succeeded to the title in 1949) he played for an \"MCC New Zealand Touring Team\" against a strong \"London New Zealand Club\" side in 1954, taking two wickets including that of Bill Merritt. Remarkably, he made a one-off return to first-class action aged 51 in February 1961, more than two decades after his previous appearance at that level, when as Governor-General he captained a New Zealand side against MCC at Auckland: he showed he still had ability, with a handy first-innings 44 from number ten in the order.  A number of his relatives played first-class cricket. His great-grandfather George played for Cambridge University in the 1830s, his grandfather (also Charles) turned out for teams including Cambridge and MCC in the 1860s, his father John made a handful of appearances for Worcestershire in the 1920s, and his uncle – another Charles – played for Worcestershire, Cambridge and MCC before the First World War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Cobham married Elizabeth Alison Makeig-Jones on 30 April 1942 in Chelsea, London. They had four sons and four daughters. He died in Marylebone, London, on 20 March 1977, and was survived by his wife and children. He was cremated in London; his ashes were returned to Hagley for burial in the Lyttelton plot at Hagley parish church.  Children of Charles Lyttelton, 10th Viscount Cobham:  His Garter banner, which hung in St. George's Chapel in Windsor during his lifetime, is now on display in the church of St John the Baptist, Hagley.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles John Lyttelton, 10th Viscount Cobham, (8 August 1909 – 20 March 1977) was the ninth Governor-General of New Zealand and an English cricketer from the Lyttelton family.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976454}
{"src_title": "Justin Hartley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hartley was born in Knoxville, Illinois, and was raised in the Chicago suburb of Orland Park, with his brother Nathan, and sisters Megan and Gabriela. After graduating from Carl Sandburg High School, he attended Southern Illinois University Carbondale and University of Illinois at Chicago where he majored in history and theater.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Justin Hartley portrayed Fox Crane on the NBC daytime soap opera \"Passions\" from 2002 to 2006. In 2006, he played the starring role as Aquaman in a television pilot for The CW titled \"Aquaman\" (or \"Mercy Reef\"), but it was not picked up as a series. Hartley did a seven-episode run as billionaire Oliver Queen on the CW series \"Smallville\" later that year. In 2008, he returned to \"Smallville\" as a regular cast member, following the departures of Kristin Kreuk, Michael Rosenbaum, Laura Vandervoort, and John Glover. Hartley also co-wrote the 2010 episode \"Sacrifice\" and directed the 2011 episode \"Dominion\". In 2008, he starred as Tom in the film \"Red Canyon\", filmed in the badlands of Utah.  After \"Smallville\", Hartley starred opposite Mamie Gummer in The CW comedy-drama \"Emily Owens, M.D.\", but the show was cancelled after one season. He also guest-starred on \"Chuck\", \"Castle\", and \"Hart of Dixie\", and from 2013–14, he had a recurring role as Victoria Grayson's (Madeleine Stowe) illegitimate son, Patrick Osbourne, on the ABC primetime soap opera \"Revenge\". In February 2014, Hartley landed the lead role of Tim opposite Anna Camp in the ABC comedy pilot \"Damaged Goods\", but the show was never picked up to series. In March 2014, he was cast in a recurring role in the second season of the ABC drama series \"Mistresses\" as plastic surgeon Scott Trosman, a love interest for Josslyn Carver (Jes Macallan). In November 2014, Hartley took over the role of Adam Newman on the CBS daytime soap opera \"The Young and the Restless\", and played the role until September 2016.  In 2015, it was announced that Hartley had been cast in a series regular role on the NBC drama series \"This Is Us\", which debuted in September 2016. He and the cast won Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 24th Screen Actors Guild Awards. In 2017 he had a co-starring role in the comedy film \"A Bad Moms Christmas\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2003, Hartley began dating his \"Passions\" co-star Lindsay Korman (who played Theresa Lopez-Fitzgerald). After six months, the two became engaged on November 13, 2003, and on May 1, 2004, they married in a small ceremony. On July 3, 2004, Korman gave birth to their daughter. On May 6, 2012, it was announced that Lindsay filed for divorce after eight years of marriage in the Los Angeles County Superior Court, citing \"irreconcilable differences\". They remain on amicable terms and share joint custody of their daughter.  In January 2014, actress Chrishell Stause's representation confirmed that Hartley and Stause were dating and in July 2016, they announced their engagement. They were married on October 28, 2017. Hartley and Stause reside in Valley Glen, Los Angeles. In November 2019, Hartley filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences. Stause filed for dissolution of the marriage in December 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Justin Scott Hartley (born January 29, 1977) is an American actor. He is known for his television roles that include Fox Crane on the NBC daytime soap opera \"Passions\" (2002–2006), Oliver Queen/Green Arrow on The CW television series \"Smallville\" (2006–2011), and Adam Newman on the CBS daytime soap opera \"The Young and the Restless\" (2014–2016) which earned him an Emmy nomination. Hartley appeared in the recurring role of Patrick Osbourne in the third season of the television series \"Revenge\". Since 2016, he has starred in the NBC drama series \"This Is Us\", for which he was nominated for the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976455}
{"src_title": "Karađorđević dynasty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "In English, it is typically spelled \"Karadjordjevic\" while pronunciation is roughly anglicized as \"Karageorgevitch\", and was in previous times rendered also as \"Kara-Georgevitch\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancestry.", "content": "According to some researchers, Karađorđe's paternal ancestors most likely migrated from the Highlands (in what is today Montenegro) to Šumadija during the Second Great Serb Migration in 1737–39 under the leadership of Patriarch Šakabenta, as a result of the Austro-Turkish War (in which Serbs took part). Serbian historiography accepted the theory that Karađorđe's ancestors came from Vasojevići.  Some conjecture has arisen about where the family ended up after arriving in Šumadija. According to Radoš Ljušić, Karađorđe's ancestors most likely hailed from Vasojevići, but he has said there is no certain historical information on Karađorđe's ancestors or where they came from, folklore being the only real source. Most likely, Karađorđe's ancestors hailed from Vasojevići. Grigorije Božović (1880–1945) claimed that the family were \"Srbljaci\" (natives) in Vasojevići territory. Contributing to \"Srbljak\" theory is the fact that the family celebrated St Clement as their Slava until 1890, while the patron saint of Vasojevići, i.e. Vaso's descendants is Archangel Michael. King Peter I was allowed to change his Slava to St Andrew the First-called by Belgrade Metropolitan Mihailo in 1890, following the death of his wife, Princess Zorka, thus honoring the date by Julian calendar when Serbian rebels liberated Belgrade during the First Serbian Uprising. Furthermore, King Peter chose Duke of Vasojevići Miljan Vukov Vešović to be his bridesman during his wedding to princess Zorka in 1883. Upon being asked by his future father-in-law prince Nicholas why he chose Miljan amongst various Dukes of Montenegro, he replied that he chose him because of \"heroism and relation\" describing him as \"Vojvode of my own blood and kin\". His son, Alexander, who was born in Cetinje was nicknamed \"Montenegrin\" The Vasojevići tribe claim descent from Stefan Konstantin of the Nemanjić dynasty. The Vasojevići were proud of Karađorđe, and saw him as their kinsman. Montenegrin politician and Vasojević Gavro Vuković, supported this theory. Accordingly, Alexander Karađorđević (1806-1885) was given the title \"Voivode of Vasojevići\" by Petar II in 1840. Other theories include: Montenegrin historian Miomir Dašić claimed that Karađorđe's family originated from the Gurešići from Podgorica in Montenegro. Folklorist Dragutin Vuković believed that Tripko Knežević–Guriš was Karađorđe's great-grandfather; Vukićević, writing in 1907, said that in the surroundings of Podgorica, there is a local claim that Karađorđe's ancestors initially came from Vranj.  The family claimed descent from the Vasojevići tribe (in Montenegro) and had emigrated in the late 1730s or early 1740s. The family lived in Mačitevo (in Suva Reka), from where grandfather Jovan moved to Viševac, while Jovan's brother Radak moved to Mramorac. According to Serbian socialist Dimitrije Tucović and publicist Miroslav Ćosovic, the ancestors of Karađorđević are part of the Vasojevići tribe, which according to them is of Albanian origin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current claims to the throne.", "content": "The Karađorđevićs are active in Serbian society in various ways. There is a view that constitutional parliamentary monarchy would be the ultimate solution for stability, unity and continuity. In addition, they support Serbia as a democratic country with a future in the European Union.  The last crown prince of Yugoslavia, Alexander, has lived in Belgrade in the Dedinje Royal Palace since 2001. As the only son of the last king, Peter II, who never abdicated, and the last official heir of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia he claims to be the rightful heir to the Serbian throne in the event of restoration. Prior to the fall of Slobodan Milošević, he personally united the parliamentary opposition in several major congresses. In the palace, he regularly receives religious leaders and strives, as opportunity permits, to demonstrate his commitment to human rights and to democracy.  The Karađorđevićs are much engaged in humanitarian work. Crown Princess Katherine has a humanitarian foundation while Crown Prince Alexander heads the Foundation for Culture and Education, whose activities include student scholarships, summer camps for children, etc. The Karađorđevićs are also prominent in national sports activities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Serbia and Yugoslavia.", "content": "The Karadjordjević family initially was a Serbian Royal House, then the Royal House of \"the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes\" and then the Royal House of Yugoslavia. When they last reigned they were called the Royal House of Yugoslavia.  Crown Prince Alexander was born in London but on property temporarily recognised by the United Kingdom's government as subject to the sovereignty of the Yugoslav crown, on which occasion it was publicly declared that the Crown Prince had been born on the native soil of the land he was expected to eventually rule.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Karađorđević (, Karađorđevići / Карађорђевићи, ) is a Serb dynasty, founded by Karađorđe Petrović, the \"veliki vožd\" (\"grand leader\") of Serbia in the early 1800s during the First Serbian Uprising. The relatively short-lived dynasty was supported by the Russian Empire and was opposed to the Austria-Hungary-supported Obrenović dynasty. After Karađorđe's assassination in 1817, Miloš Obrenović founded the House of Obrenović. The two houses subsequently vied for the throne for several generations. Following the assassination of Alexander in 1903, the Serbian Parliament chose Karađorđe's grandson, Peter I Karađorđević, then living in exile, for the throne of the Kingdom of Serbia. He was duly crowned as King Peter I, and shortly before the end of World War I, representatives of the three peoples proclaimed a Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes with Peter I as sovereign. In 1929, the kingdom was renamed Yugoslavia, under Alexander I, the son of Peter I. In November 1945, the throne was lost when the League of Communists of Yugoslavia seized power, during the reign of Peter II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976456}
{"src_title": "Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "Ibrahim was born to Orthodox Christian parents in Parga, Epirus, then part of the Republic of Venice. His ethnicity is unknown, but he probably originally spoke a Slavic dialect and also knew Greek and Albanian. His father was either a sailor or a fisherman. Some time between 1499 and 1502 he was captured in a raid by Iskender Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Bosnia, becoming a slave. He first met Prince Suleiman while residing at Iskender Pasha's estate near Edirne, most likely in 1514. It was then that he was taken into Suleiman's service.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "After his rival Hain Ahmed Pasha, the governor of Egypt, declared himself independent of the Ottoman Empire and was executed in 1524, Ibrahim Pasha traveled south to Egypt in 1525 and reformed the Egyptian provincial civil and military administration system. He promulgated an edict, the \"Kanunname\", outlining his system.  In a lavish ceremony in 1523, Ibrahim Pasha was married to Muhsine Hatun, the granddaughter of the same Iskender Pasha who had captured him more than two decades previously. This marriage appears to have been politically motivated as a method of integrating Ibrahim, an outsider, into the Ottoman elite. While Muhsine was initially skeptical about her new husband, they eventually formed a loving relationship. Although historians once believed that the woman Ibrahim married was Hatice Sultan, the sister of Sultan Suleiman, this had been based on scanty evidence and conjecture. As a result of research carried out by the historian Ebru Turan, including the discovery of multiple references to Muhsine in Venetian and Ottoman texts as well as a signed letter from her to Ibrahim, it is now generally accepted that Ibrahim's wife was Muhsine and not Hatice.  On the diplomatic front, Ibrahim's work with Western Christendom was a complete success. Portraying himself as \"the real power behind the Ottoman Empire\", Ibrahim used a variety of tactics to negotiate favorable deals with the leaders of the Catholic powers. The Venetian diplomats even referred to him as \"Ibrahim the Magnificent\", a play on Suleiman's usual sobriquet. In 1533, he convinced Charles V to turn Hungary into an Ottoman vassal state. In 1535, he completed a monumental agreement with Francis I that gave France favorable trade rights within the Ottoman Empire in exchange for joint action against the Habsburgs. This agreement would set the stage for joint Franco-Ottoman naval maneuvers, including the basing of the Ottoman fleet in southern France (in Toulon) during the winter of 1543–1544.  Although Ibrahim Pasha had long since converted to Islam, he maintained some ties to his roots, even bringing his parents to live with him in the Ottoman capital, where they also converted to Islam. His father took the name Yusuf and joined the Ottoman elite, becoming a governor in Epirus.  On 15 March 1536, Ibrahim Pasha, at age 43, was strangled to death without explanation by mute executioners at a dinner party on Suleiman's orders.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha (\"Ibrahim Pasha of Parga\"; c. 1495 – 15 March 1536), also known as Frenk Ibrahim Pasha (\"the Westerner\"), Makbul Ibrahim Pasha (\"the Favorite\"), which later changed to Maktul Ibrahim Pasha (\"the Executed\") after his execution in the Topkapı Palace, was the first Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire appointed by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976457}
{"src_title": "Committee of General Security", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins and evolution.", "content": "On 2 October 1792, the National Convention created the Committee of General Security from its predecessors: the Search Committee (Comité des recherches) and the Committee of Surveillance (Comité de Surveillance). The Committee was not large and never exceeded 16 members. The Committee's main responsibility was the internal security of France and to protect the Republic from both external and internal enemies. One way of ensuring the security of France was through the passport system. Through this system the members of the Committee had the knowledge of who was entering France and where they were going. The Committee had the authority to decide who was sent to the Revolutionary Tribunal for judgment during the Reign of Terror. Once the evidence was fully considered in an individual case the members of the Committee made the decision on the innocence or guilt of the suspect, which determined if that person would be released or sent to the Tribunal.  Throughout, the existence of the committee it contributed to a large number of people being sent to the guillotine. On March 29, 1794, the committee ordered twenty-four former members of the parlements of Paris and Toulouse to be sent to the Tribunal, where they were subsequently executed. Shortly after, another twenty-eight people that were a part of the Farmers-General, were investigated by the Committee and sent to the Tribunal for trial. After the trial the men were found guilty and executed.  A proposal of Danton on 13 September 1793 marked a turning point in the composition of the committee: from then on its members were appointed directly by the Committee of Public Safety and were no more than twelve in number. The regulation of 19 October 1793 stated that the committee should sit every day from eight o'clock till eleven o'clock in the evening, later if circumstances required that. The Law of 14 Frimaire (4 December 1793), voted on the report of Billaud-Varenne, restored a degree of equality between the two committees. On 16 April 1794 the Committee of Public Safety received the power to search and to bring the accused before the Revolutionary Tribunal, in the same way as the Committee of General Security. The Committee of General Security and the Committee of Public Safety worked alongside one another. Their responsibilities became overlapping which caused tensions between the two groups. The Law of 22 Prairial year II (10 June 1794) deepened this rivalry as it enabled the two committees to send the accused directly before the Revolutionary Tribunal. The law was introduced to the public without consultation from the Committee of General Security, which, in turn, doubled the number of executions permitted by the Committee of Public Safety. On 22 and 23 July the two committees met in a plenary session. Saint-Just declared in negotiations with Barère to be prepared to make concessions on the subordinate position of the Committee of General Security. Couthon agreed with more cooperation between the two committees. For Robespierre, the Committee of General Security had to remain subordinate to the Committee of Public Safety. Both committees were responsible for suppressing counterrevolution, but ended targeting each other.  The tensions grew and contributed to the downfall of Robespierre. One example of the rising tension was when two members of the Committee of General Security, Jean-Pierre-André Amar and Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier, participated in the 9 Thermidor coup against Robespierre. During the same time at the National Convention, Vadier also used false accusations implementing Catherine Théot in a plot to overthrow the Republic, which was also connected to Robespierre and the Cult of the Supreme Being.  The Committee of General Security had more than 160 employees on the eve of the 9 Thermidor. The Committee of General Security dissolved with the end of the National Convention in November 1795.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prominent members.", "content": "The Committee of General Security had a significant number of members : there were 144 member of the Convention elected in the Committee between 2 October 1792-November 4, 1795.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Committee of General Security () was a French parliamentary committee which acted as police agency during the French Revolution that, along with the Committee of Public Safety, oversaw the Reign of Terror.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976458}
{"src_title": "Karol Modzelewski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "He was the adopted son of Zygmunt Modzelewski. A professor at the University of Wrocław and the University of Warsaw, he was a member of the Polish United Workers Party but was expelled from it in 1964 for opposition to some policies of the party. With Jacek Kuroń he co-wrote the Open Letter to the Party, for which he was imprisoned for three years. He took part in the Polish 1968 political crisis, and for his activities he was again imprisoned for three and a half years.  During the 1980 strikes he came up with the name of 'Solidarity'. He was one of the Solidarity press contacts, and a member of the Solidarity region in Silesia. He was interned with many others during the martial law in Poland. From 1989 to 1991 he was a member of the Polish Senat (Solidarity Citizens' Committee), supporting the left-wing, particularly the Labour Union party and later Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz.  He died on 28 April 2019 in Warsaw.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and distinctions.", "content": "In 1998, he was awarded Poland's highest distinction Order of White Eagle. In 2007, he won the Prize of the Foundation for Polish Science for his research on the emergence of the European identity revealing the importance of pre-Christian and multicultural tradition for the contemporary concept of Europe, presented in his work \"Barbarzyńska Europa\" (\"Barbarian Europe\").  In 2009, he received an honorary degree at the Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, and in 2014 he was the winner of the prestigious Nike Award for his autobiography entitled \"Zajeździmy kobyłę historii: wyznania poobijanego jeźdźca\" (\"We'll Ride the Mare of History to the Ground: Confessions of a Bruised Rider\") as well as the Kazimierz Moczarski History Award and the Józef Tischner Award. In 2016, he became an honorary citizen of the city of Wrocław and together with Róża Thun received the Order of Legion d'Honneur.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karol Cyryl Modzelewski (23 November 1937 – 28 April 2019) was a Polish historian, writer, politician and academic of Russian origin, one of the leading figures of the democratic opposition in the Polish People's Republic from the 1960s to the 1980s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976459}
{"src_title": "Ilan Pappé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Pappé was born in Haifa, Israel, to German Jewish parents who fled Nazi persecution in the 1930s. At the age of 18, he was drafted into the Israel Defense Forces, serving in the Golan Heights during the 1973 Yom Kippur War. He graduated from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1978, and in 1984 obtained his PhD in history from the University of Oxford, under the guidance of Albert Hourani and Roger Owen. His doctoral thesis became his first book, \"Britain and the Arab-Israeli Conflict\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic career.", "content": "Pappé was a senior lecturer at the Middle Eastern History Department and the Political Science Department of the University of Haifa between 1984 and 2006. He was the Academic Director of the Research Institute for Peace at Givat Haviva from 1993 to 2000, and chair of the Emil Touma Institute for Palestinian Studies.  Pappé left Israel in 2007 to take up his appointment in Exeter, after his endorsement of the boycott of Israeli universities led the president of the University of Haifa to call for his resignation. Pappé said that he found it \"increasingly difficult to live in Israel\" with his \"unwelcome views and convictions.\" In a Qatari newspaper interview explaining his decision, he said: \"I was boycotted in my university and there had been attempts to expel me from my job. I am getting threatening calls from people every day. I am not being viewed as a threat to the Israeli society but my people think that I am either insane or my views are irrelevant. Many Israelis also believe that I am working as a mercenary for the Arabs.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Katz controversy.", "content": "Pappé publicly supported an M.A. thesis by Haifa University student Teddy Katz, which was approved with highest honors, that claimed Israel had committed a massacre in the Palestinian village of Tantura during the war in 1948, based upon interviews with Arab residents of the village and with an Israeli veteran of the operation. Neither Israeli nor Palestinian historians had previously recorded any such incident, which Meyrav Wurmser described as a \"made-up massacre\", but, according to Pappé, \"the story of Tantura had already been told before, as early as 1950... It appears in the memoirs of a Haifa notable, Muhammad Nimr al-Khatib, who, a few days after the battle, recorded the testimony of a Palestinian.\" In December 2000, Katz was sued for libel by veterans of the Alexandroni Brigade and after the testimony was heard, he retracted his allegations about the massacre. Twelve hours later, he retracted his retraction. During the trial, lawyers for the veterans pointed to what they said were discrepancies between the taped interviews Katz conducted and descriptions in Katz's thesis.  Katz revised his thesis, and, following the trial, the university appointed a committee to examine it. After reviewing the taped interviews and finding discrepancies between them and what was written in the thesis, Katz was allowed to submit a revised thesis. According to Counterpunch, the assessment of the revised thesis was highly mixed, but overall it failed. Pappé continues to defend both Katz and his thesis. Tom Segev and others argued that there is merit or some truth in what Katz described. According to the Israeli New Historian Benny Morris: \"There is no unequivocal proof of a large-scale massacre at Tantura, but war crimes were perpetrated there.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political activism.", "content": "In 1999, Pappé ran in the Knesset elections as seventh on the Communist Party-led Hadash list.  After years of political activism, Pappé supports economic and political boycotts of Israel, including an academic boycott. He believes boycotts are justified because \"the Israeli occupation is a dynamic process and it becomes worse with each passing day. The AUT can choose to stand by and do nothing, or to be part of a historical movement similar to the anti-apartheid campaign against the white supremacist regime in South Africa. By choosing the latter, it can move us forward along the only remaining viable and non-violent road to saving both Palestinians and Israelis from an impending catastrophe.\"  As a result, then University of Haifa President Aaron Ben-Ze'ev called on Pappé to resign, saying: \"it is fitting for someone who calls for a boycott of his university to apply the boycott himself.\" He said that Pappé would not be ostracized, since that would undermine academic freedom, but he should leave voluntarily. In the same year, Pappé initiated the annual Israeli Right of return conferences, which called for the unconditional right of return of the Palestinian refugees who were expelled in 1948.  In August 2015, Pappé was a signatory to a letter criticising \"The Jewish Chronicle\"s reporting of Jeremy Corbyn's association with alleged antisemites.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical assessment.", "content": "Israeli scholar Emmanuel Sivan, reviewing Pappé's 2003 political biography of the al-Husayni family, praised the book's treatment of the development of Palestinian nationalism and that of Haj Amin's exile in Germany, but criticised the view taken on the mufti's visit to the German consul and the scant attention given to Faisal Husseini.  Those critical of his work include Benny Morris (who described some of Pappe's writing as \"complete fabrication\" and said he was \"at best...one of the world's sloppiest historians; at worst, one of the most dishonest\"), Efraim Karsh, and Herbert London as well as professors Daniel Gutwein and Yossi Ben-Artzi from Haifa University. Pappé has replied to this criticism, condemning Morris for holding \"abominable racist views about the Arabs in general and the Palestinians in particular.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ilan Pappé (, ; born 1954) is an expatriate Israeli historian and socialist activist. He is a professor with the College of Social Sciences and International Studies at the University of Exeter in the United Kingdom, director of the university's European Centre for Palestine Studies, and co-director of the Exeter Centre for Ethno-Political Studies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976460}
{"src_title": "Juan Trippe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Trippe was born in Sea Bright, New Jersey, on June 27, 1899, the great-great-grandson of Lieutenant John Trippe, captain of the. Because he was named \"Juan\", he is widely assumed to have been of Hispanic descent, but his family was actually Northern European in ancestry and settled in Maryland in 1664. He was named after Juanita Terry, the Venezuelan wife of his great uncle. Trippe attended the Bovea School and graduated from The Hill School in 1917.  He enrolled at Yale University but left when the United States entered World War I to apply for flight training with the United States Navy. After completing training in June 1918, he was designated as a Naval Aviator and was commissioned as an Ensign in the United States Navy Reserve. However, the end of World War I precluded him from flying in combat. Demobilized from active duty, he returned to Yale, graduating in 1921. While there, he was a member of St. Anthony Hall and of the Skull and Bones society. Trippe was treasurer at the first meeting of the National Intercollegiate Flying Association in 1920.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After graduation from Yale, Trippe began working on Wall Street, but soon became bored. In 1922 he raised money from his old Yale classmates, selling them stock in his new airline, an air-taxi service for the rich and powerful called Long Island Airways. Once again tapping his wealthy friends from Yale, Trippe invested in an airline named Colonial Air Transport, which was awarded a new route and an airmail contract on October 7, 1925. Interested in operating to the Caribbean, Trippe created the Aviation Corporation of the Americas. Based in Florida, the company would evolve into the unofficial United States flag carrier, Pan American Airways, commonly known as Pan Am.  Pan Am's first flight took off on October 19, 1927, from Key West, Florida, to Havana, Cuba, in a hired Fairchild FC-2 floatplane being delivered to West Indian Aerial Express in the Dominican Republic. The return flight from Havana to Key West, in a Pan Am Fokker F.VII, took place October 29, being delayed from October 28 by rain.  Later, Trippe bought the China National Aviation Corporation (CNAC) to provide domestic air service in the Republic of China, and became a partner in Panagra. In the 1930s. Pan Am became the first airline to cross the Pacific Ocean with the famous \"Clipper\" flying boats.  Trippe served as the chairman of the board of directors of the airline for all but about two years between the founding of the company and World War II. \"Sonny\" Whitney, a stockholder, managed to seize this position. He later regretted his action and allowed Trippe to retake it. For a long time Trippe refused to pardon Whitney. At one point, he even agreed to meet Whitney for lunch for a reconciliation, but changed his mind and turned around shortly after departing from his office in the Chrysler Building. Pan Am continued to expand worldwide throughout World War II. Trippe is responsible for several innovations in the airline world. A firm believer in the idea of air travel for all, Trippe is credited as the father of the \"tourist class\" in the airline industry, and was the driving force behind Pan Am's formation of the InterContinental hotel group.  Trippe quickly recognized the opportunities presented by jet aircraft and ordered several Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 airplanes. Pan Am's first scheduled jet flight was operated on October 26, 1958 by 707 \"Clipper America\" from Idlewild International Airport (now JFK) to Le Bourget Airport, Paris. The new jets allowed Pan Am to cut the flight time nearly in half, introduce lower fares, and fly more passengers in total.  In 1965, Trippe asked his friend Bill Allen at Boeing to produce an airplane much larger than the 707. The result was the Boeing 747, and Pan Am was the first customer. Originally, Trippe believed the 747 would ultimately be destined to haul cargo only and would be replaced by faster, supersonic aircraft which were then being developed. The supersonic airliners failed to materialize, with the exception of the Concorde and Tupolev Tu-144, and the 747 became the iconic image of international travel. In 1965, Trippe received the Tony Jannus Award for his distinguished contributions to commercial aviation.  Trippe gave up the presidency of the airline in 1968. He continued to attend meetings of the board of directors and maintained an office in the company's Park Avenue office building.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Trippe was a member of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in Scotland and president of the Maidstone Club in East Hampton, New York, from 1940 to 1944.  Trippe married Elizabeth \"Betty\" Stettinius Trippe (1904–1983), the sister of United States Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius Jr., in 1928. They had four children, Elizabeth (\"Betsy\"), John Terry, Charles White, and Edward Stettinius Trippe, who now resides in Tucker's Town, Bermuda, where he is executive director of the Tucker's Point Club and serves on Bermuda International Airport's advisory board. The couple remained married until Trippe's death in 1981.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Trippe suffered a stroke in September 1980, which forced him to cut back on his workload; he died after suffering a second stroke at his New York City home on April 3, 1981, at the age of 81. He is buried in Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn.  In 1985, Trippe was posthumously awarded the Medal of Freedom by United States President Ronald Reagan. Trippe was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1990. An endowed chair at the Yale University School of Management is the \"Juan Trippe Professor in the Practice of International Trade, Finance, and Business\".  In 1982, Trippe was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.  Trippe is widely regarded as the last of the greatest aviation pioneers along with industry titans such as American Airlines' C. R. Smith, United Airlines' William A. \"Pat\" Patterson, Eastern Airlines' Eddie Rickenbacker, and Delta Air Lines' Collett E. Woolman. Under his control, Pan American World Airways became one of the premier international airlines in the world. He is also credited as playing an instrumental role in the development of an intercontinental version of the Boeing 707 and the Douglas DC-8 as Trippe's determination to get a jet that could cross the Atlantic was instrumental not only in Douglas developing a long-range DC-8, but also Boeing's famed 707 as they had to redesign it in order to stay competitive with Douglas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "A character based on Trippe was played by Pat O'Brien in Ray Enright's 1936 film \"The China Clipper\". Trippe was played by Alec Baldwin in Martin Scorsese's 2004 film \"The Aviator\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Juan Terry Trippe (June 27, 1899 – April 3, 1981) was an American commercial aviation pioneer, entrepreneur and the founder of Pan American World Airways, one of the iconic airlines of the 20th century. He was instrumental in numerous revolutionary advances in airline history, including the development and production of the Boeing 314 Clipper, which opened trans-Pacific airline travel, the Boeing Stratoliner which helped to pioneer cabin pressurization, the Boeing 707 and the Boeing 747 which introduced the era of jumbo jets (evolved from Air Force bombers, tanker and transport design, respectively). Trippe's signing of the 747 contract coincided with the 50th anniversary of Boeing, and he gave a speech where he explained his belief that these jets would be a force that would help bring about world peace.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976461}
{"src_title": "Melaleuca alternifolia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Melaleuca alternifolia\" is a small tree to about with a bushy crown and whitish, papery bark. The leaves are arranged alternately, sometimes scattered or whorled. The leaves are smooth, soft, linear in shape, long and wide. They are also rich in oil with the glands prominent. Flowers occur in white or cream-colored masses of spikes long over a short period, mostly spring to early summer, and give the tree an appearance of looking fluffy. The small woody, cup-shaped fruit, in diameter are scattered along the branches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy and naming.", "content": "\"Melaleuca alternifolia\" was first formally described in 1905 by Joseph Maiden and Ernst Betche as \"Melaleuca linariifolia\" var. \"alternifolia\". The description was published in \"Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales\" but was renamed \"Melaleuca alternifolia\" in 1925 by Edwin Cheel. The specific epithet (\"alternifolia\") is derived from the Latin \"alternus\" meaning \"alternate\" and \"folium\" meaning \"leaf\", referring to the leaf arrangement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Melaleuca alternifolia\" is endemic to Australia and is found from the Grafton district in New South Wales as far inland as Stroud and north to Maryborough in Queensland. It grows along streams and in swampy places.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Horticulture.", "content": "This species grows well in a wide range of soils and climates. It prefers well-drained but moist soils and to be grown in full sun.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medicinal uses.", "content": "Tea tree has been used as an alternative medicinal treatment for almost a century in Australia. Indigenous Australians of eastern inland areas use \"tea trees\" as a traditional medicine by inhaling the oils from the crushed leaves to treat coughs and colds. They also sprinkle leaves on wounds, after which a poultice is applied. In addition, tea tree leaves are soaked to make an infusion to treat sore throats or skin ailments.  Characteristic of the myrtle family Myrtaceae, it is used to distill essential oil. It is the primary species for commercial production of tea tree oil (melaleuca oil), a topical antibacterial. Tea tree oil is commonly used as a topical antiseptic agent because of its antimicrobial properties, especially in the treatment of acne. It is also known to reduce inflammation and may be effective in the treatment of fungal infections such as Athlete's foot.  Tea tree oil should not be ingested in large amounts due to its toxicity and may cause skin irritation if used topically in high concentrations. No deaths have been reported in medical literature.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Melaleuca alternifolia, commonly known as tea tree, is a species of tree or tall shrub in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Endemic to Australia, it occurs in southeast Queensland and the north coast and adjacent ranges of New South Wales where it grows along streams and on swampy flats, and is often the dominant species where it occurs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976462}
{"src_title": "Tennen Mountains", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Extent and neighbouring ranges.", "content": "The outline of the Tennen range is formed:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Summit.", "content": "The highest mountains in the Tennen are Raucheck () in the west and Bleikogel () in the east. The highest points all rise on the southern edge of the plateau, which falls away to the north. The most important peaks are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "The Tennen is a heavily karstified massif, composed mainly of Dachstein limestone lying on a foundation of Ramsau dolomite.  Its southern foothills, along the line Lungötz–Werfenweng–Werfen, belong to an imbricate zone (\"Schuppenzone\"). This zone, made of Werfen Formation from the Lower Triassic and middle triadic dolomites (Anisian, Ladinian), is called the \"Werfen-St.-Martin Schuppen Zone\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Caves.", "content": "There are numerous caves in the Tennen Mountains..  The Tennen Mountains are a preferred research region for the State Cave Research Association in Salzburg, which collects and publishes results of its research. New caves are continually being found, but even old, well-known caves sometimes reveal new secrets.  Knowledge of the caves, and the routes that water takes through them, is important, particularly in terms of future water supply for the population and the protection of water resources.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Walking and climbing.", "content": "Being a high plateau, the Tennen has numerous trails for the Alpine hiker. However, walkers need to be aware of the lack of water in the karst terrain and the dangers of getting lost in mist or fog. Alpine experience and a good level of fitness are basic pre-requisites, even though there are many mountain huts available. The precipices on the edge of the plateau offer the climber a wide scope of climbing options. The faces on the southern edge of the range, especially around the Werfener Hut and above Dr. Heinrich Hackel Hut are very popular due to their easy accessibility. In winter there are various ski touring routes, mainly crossing the plateau, but also extreme ski routes in some places.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Long distance trails.", "content": "The \"European long-distance trail\" E4/\"North Alpine Way\" 01/\"Via Alpina\" (\"Violet Trail\" Stage A34/35) runs through the southern Tennen, from Lungötz to Werfen via the Dr. Heinrich Hackel Hut.  In addition Salzburg's \"Arno Way\" runs along the west of the group (Section 6 \"Kalkberge Ost\", Stage 52 Annaberg Laufener Hut and 53 to Abtenau).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Tennen Mountains () is a small, but rugged, mountain range in the Northern Limestone Alps, which lies in front of the Eastern Alps for its entire length. It is a very heavily karstified high plateau, about 60 km2 in area, with many caves. The range is located in Austria in the district of Salzburg near Bischofshofen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976463}
{"src_title": "Vladimír Růžička", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Růžička started his career with Czechoslovak side Litvínov, making his first appearance at the age of 16 and scoring after just 10 seconds in his first game, against Dukla Jihlava. Růžička was selected by the Toronto Maple Leafs 73rd overall in the 1982 NHL Entry Draft. Despite this, he was barred from leaving Czechoslovakia by the Communist authorities. He continued to play internationally for Czechoslovakia before finally making his NHL debut in 1989. Růžička had a short career in the NHL, playing a total of five seasons for the Edmonton Oilers, Boston Bruins and Ottawa Senators. His best season statistically came in 1991–92 when he recorded 75 points (39 goals, 36 assists) with Boston, and led the team in scoring. He has a Stanley Cup ring and is on the 1990 Edmonton Oilers Stanley Cup team picture. However, Růžička only played 25 regular season games and did not appear in the playoffs that season. Thus, his name was not engraved on the Stanley Cup. Růžička finished his NHL career with 233 games, scoring 82 goals and 85 assists.  Růžička played 200 games for his national team, scoring 112 goals in the process. In 1985, he won a gold medal with Czechoslovakia at the 1985 World Ice Hockey Championships. He captained the gold medal winning Czech Republic team at the 1998 Winter Olympics, going on to retire from the international team after the tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "After retiring as a player in 2000 he started working as a coach in HC Slavia Praha and in 2002–03 and 2007–08 seasons his team won the Czech Extraliga. Between 2002–2004 he was also an assistant coach of the Czech national ice hockey team. Shortly after he left the team, the head coach Ivan Hlinka died and Růžička took over the position, leading the Czech Republic team to the Vienna World Championship gold medal in 2005. Růžička has coached the Czech national ice hockey team to two gold medals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vladimír Růžička (; born 6 June 1963) is a Czech ice hockey coach and former professional player. Růžička was twice named the top player in the Czechoslovak Elite League, and was on the gold medal team in the Ice Hockey World Championship in 1985 and 1998 Olympic Games. He also played 233 games in the National Hockey League (NHL). Since 2008, Růžička has been the head coach of both HC Slavia Praha and the Czech national ice hockey team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976464}
{"src_title": "Willis Augustus Lee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life through World War II.", "content": "The son of Judge Willis Augustus Lee and Susan Arnold, he was known as \"Mose\" Lee to family and friends.  He entered the U.S. Naval Academy in 1904. While at the Naval academy, his Chinese-sounding last name, compounded by his fondness for the Far East earned him the nickname \"Ching\" Lee.  Following graduation, Lee joined the academy's rifle team twice. He was assigned to the battleship from October 1908 to May 1909, before returning to the naval academy and re-joining the rifle team. From November 1909 until May 1910, Lee served aboard the protected cruiser, and then transferred to the gunboat. Upon being detached back to the United States, Lee re-joined the Academy shooting team a third time. In July 1913, Lee re-joined \"Idaho\", and in April 1914 he transferred to the battleship to participate in the occupation of Veracruz.  During World War I, Lee served on the destroyers and.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1920 Olympics.", "content": "Lee participated in 14 events at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. He won 7 medals (5 gold, 1 silver, and 1 bronze), all in team events. His teammates for the various events were Dennis Fenton, Lawrence Nuesslein, Arthur Rothrock, Oliver Schriver, Morris Fisher, Carl Osburn, Lloyd Spooner, and Joseph Jackson.  Lee and Spooner ended the 1920 Olympics with 7 medals each, the most anyone had ever received in a single games. Boris Shakhlin was the next person to reach 7, in 1960. It would not be until Alexander Dityatin in the 1980 games that anyone would beat the record.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interwar years.", "content": "Lee attended the Naval War College in the late 1920s, and was promoted to the rank of captain in 1936.  During the 1930s and early 1940s, Lee was several times assigned to the Fleet Training Division, commanded the light cruiser, and served on the staff of Commander, Cruisers, Battle Force. In early 1942, following his promotion to the rank of rear admiral, Lee became Assistant Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Lee's specialty in life was gunnery. At the age of 19 in 1907 \"he became the only American to win both the US National High Power Rifle and Pistol championships in the same year.\" In 1914 during the Veracruz campaign in Mexico he drew the fire of three enemy snipers, thereby exposing their positions and then shot them at long range. He understood the powerful guns of a battleship as an extension of the law of ballistics and adapted his expertise to the new age of technology. When Admiral Lee engaged the Japanese Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō's battleship on the evening of 14 November 1942 in the waters off Guadalcanal, he became naval history's first battleship commander to conduct a \"gunfight\" primarily by radar remote control.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naval Battle of Guadalcanal.", "content": "In August 1942, Rear Admiral Lee was sent to the Pacific to command Battleship Division Six, consisting of the battleships and. Flying his flag in \"Washington\", Lee engaged an Imperial Japanese Navy surface fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Kondō during the second night of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on the night of 14–15 November 1942. While riding in the battleship \"Washington\", which served as his flagship during this sea-fight, Lee's battleship decisively gunned the battleship \"Kirishima\" into a wreck, resulting in her scuttling shortly afterwards. With 300 Imperial sailors still entombed within her hull, she slid into Ironbottom Sound, leaving Admiral Lee's flagship \"Washington\" the only American battleship during World War II to sink an enemy battleship in a \"one on one\" gunfight.  Lee, who \"knew more about radar than the radar operators\", used the SG radar installed aboard \"Washington\" to skillfully maneuver his ships during the night.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After Guadalcanal.", "content": "Lee was awarded the Navy Cross for his actions at the battle, promoted to vice admiral in 1944 and placed in charge of the Pacific Fleet's fast battleships, as Commander, Battleships, Pacific Fleet (ComBatPac).  In May 1945, he was sent to the Atlantic to command a special unit researching defenses against the threat of Japanese kamikaze aircraft, the Composite Task Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet. While serving in that position on 25 August 1945, Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee died suddenly after suffering a heart attack, ten days after the Surrender of Japan. He collapsed and died in a motor launch that was ferrying him out to his flagship in the harbor at Portland, Maine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Willis Lee Jr. was a distant relative of Confederate General Robert E. Lee and the third Attorney General of the United States, Charles Lee. He married Mabelle Allen Elspeth (1894–1949) on July 14, 1919. They had no children. Willis' father, Judge Willis Augustus Lee Sr., was one of fourteen children of Nathaniel Wiley Lee (aka Nat Lee, founder of Natlee) and Frances Abbott, of Owen County, Kentucky. While in the Pacific theater, Lee unofficially adopted two Korean children in Vietnam after the children's family requested that Lee take the children to the United States. While the children were never adopted under United States law due to Lee's heart attack, the adoption was consummated under Korean custom at the time. Both children took Lee's name - Barry Lee and Willis H. Lee - and were permitted to enter the United States with their biological parents. Barry was adopted by a family in Long Island, New York while Willis and his family relocated to Scarsdale, New York. Both now reside in Saratoga Springs.  His great-grandparents were early Kentucky settlers, Joseph R. Lee and Mary Wiley. His grandfather Nathaniel W. Lee operated a distillery at his namesake village of Natlee. In 1893, Nat Lee's sour mash whiskey was taken to the Chicago World's Fair where it won the Gold Medal over 5000 other entries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Namesakes.", "content": "The was named for him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and decorations.", "content": "Here is the ribbon bar of Vice admiral Willis Augustus Lee:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Willis Augustus \"Ching\" Lee Jr. (May 11, 1888 – August 25, 1945) was a vice admiral of the United States Navy during World War II. Lee commanded the American ships during the second night of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal (November 14–15, 1942) and turned back a Japanese invasion force headed for the island. The victory ended Japanese attempts to reinforce their troops on Guadalcanal, and thus marked a turning point in both the Guadalcanal Campaign and the Pacific War itself.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976465}
{"src_title": "Deus caritas est", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Title.", "content": "The Latin title of an encyclical is taken from its first few words. This encyclical begins with a quotation from the Vulgate, First Epistle of John, translated from the original Greek, (\"Ho Theos agape estin\"). The Douai Bible translates this into English as, while in most contemporary English translations it reads \"God is love\" (since the word \"charity\" is derived from ). The Latin version of the First Epistle of John uses the same formulation, \"Deus caritas est\", at the end of translating. This second biblical reference is not mentioned in the encyclical.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Summary.", "content": "In this encyclical, Benedict reflects on the concepts of \"eros\", \"agape\", and \"philia\", and their relationship with the teachings of Jesus. \"Eros\" and \"agape\" are two of the various Greek words for love, each of which has a slightly different shade of meaning: \"agape\" is descending, oblative love in which one gives of oneself to another; \"eros\" is ascending, possessive love which seeks to receive from another; \"philia\" is the mutual love between friends.  The document explains that \"eros\" and \"agape\" are both inherently good, but that \"eros\" risks being downgraded to mere sex if it is not balanced by an element of spiritual Christianity. The opinion that \"eros\" is inherently good follows a school of thought in the Catholic Church known as the \"\"Caritas\" tradition\", and contrasts with the view expressed, for example, by Anders Nygren, a Lutheran bishop, in his mid-20th century book \"Eros and Agape\", that \"agape\" is the only truly Christian kind of love, and that \"eros\" is an expression of the individual's desires and turns us away from God. These two positions have been an ongoing cause for debate in both Catholic and Protestant theology. The continuity of these two forms of love follows the traditional Catholic understanding, which is influenced by the philosophy of Plato, Augustine, Bonaventure and ancient Jewish tradition. The Nygren position was favoured by the Reformed theologian Karl Barth while the Caritas position was supported by the liberal Protestant theologian Paul Tillich.  The first half of the encyclical is more philosophical, tracing the meaning of the Greek words for \"love\". In considering \"eros\", Benedict refers to a line from Virgil's \"Eclogues\", Book X, line 69, \"Omnia vincit amor, et nos cedamus amori\" (\"Love conquers all, let us also yield to love\"), and the opinion of Friedrich Nietzsche that Christianity has poisoned \"eros\", turning it into a vice. He refers to the conjugal love exhibited in the \"Song of Songs\", and analyzes passages from the First Letter of St. John which inspired the title. The encyclical argues that \"eros\" and \"agape\" are not distinct kinds of love, but are separate halves of complete love, unified as both a giving and receiving. The second half, based on a report prepared by the Pontifical Council \"Cor Unum\", is less abstract, considering the charitable activities of the Church as an expression of love which draws its power from contemplative union with God. The second half also refers to the Church's threefold responsibility: proclaiming the word of God (\"kerygma-martyria\"), celebrating the sacraments (\"leitourgia\"), and exercising the ministry of charity (\"diakonia\").  The encyclical says that social justice is the primary responsibility of politics and the laity; the church itself should inform the debate on social justice with reason guided by faith, but its main social activity should be directed towards charity. Charity workers should have a deep prayer life, and be uninfluenced by party and ideology. Benedict rejects both Marxist arguments that the poor \"do not need charity but justice\", and the merger of church and state functions (theocracy); rather, he encourages \"cooperation\" between the church, the state, and other Christian charitable organizations.  Paragraph 39 appears to be inspired by Dante Alighieri's \"Divine Comedy\", reflecting in particular the last canto of \"Paradise\", which ends before \"the everlasting Light that is God himself, before that Light which at the same time is the love which moves the sun and the other stars\". The three concluding paragraphs consider the example of the saints, ending with a prayer to the Virgin Mary. The text mentions the name of Mother Teresa four times, the last as a \"saint\" (despite the fact that she was not yet canonised) in such company as Francis of Assisi, Ignatius of Loyola, John of God, Camillus of Lellis, Vincent de Paul, Louise de Marillac, Giuseppe B. Cottolengo, John Bosco, and Luigi Orione.  \"Deus caritas est\", like the encyclicals of many previous popes, including Pope John Paul II, uses the Royal we in the official Latin text (\"\"cupimus loqui de amore\"\"). This is the text that appears promulgated in the Vatican's official gazette of record, \"Acta Apostolicae Sedis\". However, in accordance with a practice initiated in the pontificate of John Paul II, the unofficial versions prepared by the Vatican in 7 other languages use the singular (\"\"I wish to speak of love\"\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other events.", "content": "At an audience on 18 January 2006, Pope Benedict said that \"Deus caritas est\" would discuss the concept of love \"in its various dimensions, from the love between man and woman to the love that the Catholic Church has for others in its expression of charity\". The Vatican, through the Pontifical Council \"Cor Unum\", sponsored a conference in Rome to discuss the themes of the encyclical on 23 January and 24 January 2006, involving Liliana Cavani (director of films including \"The Night Porter\" and \"Ripley's Game\") and James Wolfensohn (former head of the World Bank).  The encyclical was published on the feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul and on the last day of the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity. Pope Benedict led an ecumenical prayer service at the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, a traditional site for such celebrations, on the evening after the encyclical was published. Presiding at vespers, he said in his homily: \"God is love. On this solid rock the entire faith of the church is based.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Deus caritas est (), subtitled \"De Christiano Amore\" (\"Of Christian Love\"), is a 2005 encyclical, the first written by Pope Benedict XVI, in large part derived from writings by his late predecessor, Pope John Paul II. Its subject is love, as seen from a Christian perspective, and God's place within all love. Charity is one of the three theological virtues; and the other two (hope and faith) were treated in two successive encyclicals, one signed by Benedict (\"Spe Salvi\") and one written substantially by him but signed by his successor Pope Francis (\"Lumen fidei\"). This text begins with a reflection on the forms of love known in Greek philosophy—\"eros\" (possessive, often sexual, love), \"agape\" (unconditional, self-sacrificing love), \"philia\" (friendship)—and their relationship with the teachings of Jesus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976466}
{"src_title": "Shared parenting", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Frequency.", "content": "The popularity of shared parenting is increasing. The frequency of shared parenting versus sole custody varies across countries, being most common in Scandinavia.  In a comparative survey of 34 western countries conducted in 2005/06, the proportion of 11-15 year old children living in a shared parenting arrangement versus sole custody was highest in Sweden (17%), followed by Iceland (11%), Belgium (11%), Denmark (10%), Italy (9%) and Norway (9%). Ukraine, Poland, Croatia, Turkey, the Netherlands and Romania all had 2% or less. Among the English speaking countries, Canada and the United Kingdom had 7% while the United States and Ireland had 5%.  Shared parenting is increasing in popularity and it is particularly common in Scandinavia. By 2016/17, the percentage in Sweden had increased to 28%; with 26% for children age 0-5 years, 34% among the 6-12 year old age group, and 23% among the oldest children ages 13-18.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific research.", "content": "Epidemiological studies on the effect of shared parenting on children has been conducted using both cross-sectional and longitudinal study designs. Their conclusions are that children with a shared parenting arrangement have better physical, mental, social and academic outcomes compared to children in a primary parenting arrangement. These finding holds for all age groups, whether the parents have an amicable or high-conflict relationship, and after adjusting for socio-economic variables.  With its early adoption of shared parenting and excellent health data, the largest studies on shared parenting have been conducted in Sweden. In a large cross-sectional study comparing over 50,000 children, ages 12 and 15, living in either a shared or sole custody arrangement, Dr. Malin Bergström found that children with shared parenting had better outcomes for physical health, psychological well-being, moods and emotions, self-perception, autonomy, parental relations, material outcomes, peer relations, school satisfaction and social acceptance. Using data from the same cross-sectional survey, Bergström did a follow-up study focusing on psychosomatic problems of concentration, sleeping, headaches, stomach aches, tenseness, lack of appetite, sadness and dizziness. They found that both boys and girls did better living in a shared parenting versus sole custody arrangement. Both studies adjusted for selected socio-economic variables.  A review of 60 quantitative research studies found that in 34 of the studies, children in a shared parenting arrangement had better outcomes on all measured variables for well-being, most notably for their family relationships, physical health, adolescent behavior and mental health. In 14 studies, they had better or equal outcomes on all measures, in 6 studies that had equal outcomes on all measures, and in 6 studies that had worse outcomes on one measure and equal or better outcomes on the remaining measures. The results were similar for the subset of studies that adjusted for socio-economic variables and the level of conflict between parents. The variable with the smallest difference was academic achievement, for which only 3 out 10 studies showed an advantage for shared parenting. Studies indicate that children fare better in joint custody arrangements, or where they have good access to both parents, as compared to sole custody arrangements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parental benefits.", "content": "While the primary arguments for shared parenting is based on the child's best interest of having close contact with both parents in their daily life, there are also important advantages to the parents. Most parents enjoy spending time with their children, and with shared parenting, both parents have that joy in their life. Both parents also get child-free time to work or play without having to hire a baby sitter, which a sole custodial parent must do. Moreover, both parents get the same opportunity for career development and advancement. In fact, some argue that shared parenting is one critical component in the efforts to reduce the gender pay gap.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Early criticism of shared parenting was based upon the assumptions (i) that children need one single primary attachment figure to bond with, (ii) that child development suffer from frequent moves back and forth between two households, and (iii) that one should not disrupt the status quo. When scientific research showed those assumptions to be false, a second wave of criticism argued that shared parenting increases parental conflict and that shared parenting is only suitable for parents who get along well as co-parents. When research showed that second set of assumptions to be false, a third wave of criticism acknowledges that shared parenting could be an appropriate custodial arrangement but argued that there should be no presumptions in family law, with each custody decision made based upon a judge's assessment of the best interest of a child. Critics also suggest that shared parenting requires more logistical coordination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legislation.", "content": "Some legislatures have established a legal rebuttable presumption for \"shared parenting\" which favors shared parenting in most custody cases while allowing the court to order alternative arrangements based upon evidence that shared parenting would not be in the best interest of the children, such as in cases of parental child abuse or neglect. Bills promoting shared parenting have been introduced in Canada and the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Italy.", "content": "In 2006, Italy passed a law that made joint custody the default arrangement for separating couples. A study of the effect of the law suggested that the joint custody presumption increased the duration and complexity of custody litigation, but that it did not find evidence that parents were making concessions on the division of assets to \"buy back\" custody from the other parent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "In 2018, Kentucky became the first jurisdiction to establish a legal presumption for shared parenting, after the house voted 81-2 and the senate voted 38-0 in favor, and after the bill was signed by governor Matt Bevin. Similar laws were passed by both chambers in Minnesota and Florida, but vetoed by the governors.  Some family lawyers and state bar associations have argued against a presumption of joint parenting. For example, concerns have been expressed that a presumption for joint custody might get in the way of negotiated custody outcomes that are better suited to the children, and joint custody might be inappropriately imposed upon couples who suffer unnecessary financial burdens or conflict as a result.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Advocacy.", "content": "The advocacy for shared parenting is a world-wide movement. It is unified in its belief that shared parenting is in the best interest of children, and that it is a children's right issue. The gender perspective varies greatly across nations though. In the Scandinavian countries, such as Iceland, it is commonly viewed as a gender equity issue with strong support from women's organizations. As a contrast, in North America, several organizations see it as a father's rights issue, and some women's organizations work against shared parenting, while other women are among the strongest advocates. As yet another contrast, in countries like Turkey and Iran, it is often seen as a women's right issue, as sole custody is commonly awarded to the father.  There are a number of organizations that advocate for shared parenting as being in the best interest of children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Shared parenting, shared residence, joint residence, shared custody, and joint physical custody, all refers to a child custody arrangement after divorce or separation, in which both parents share the responsibility of raising their child(ren), with equal or close to equal parenting time. A regime of shared parenting is based on the idea that children have the right to and benefit from a close relationship with both their parents, and that no child should be separated from a parent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976467}
{"src_title": "Triethylaluminium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure and bonding.", "content": "The compound is a dimer of triethylaluminium. One pair of ethyl groups bridge the two Al centers, and the other four groups are terminal ligands. The two bridging carbon centres are five-coordinate. The bonding is reminiscent of that of diborane, involving 3-centred, 2-electron bonds. As in trimethylaluminium, triethylaluminium is structurally fluctional resulting in rapid interchange of the terminal and bridging ethyl groups. At higher temperatures, the dimer cracks into monomeric AlEt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synthesis and reactions.", "content": "Triethylaluminium can be formed via several routes. The discovery of an efficient route was a significant technological achievement. The multistep process uses aluminium metal, hydrogen gas, and ethylene, summarized as follows: Because of this efficient synthesis, triethylaluminium is one of the most available organoaluminium compounds.  Triethylaluminium can also be generated from ethylaluminium sesquichloride (AlClEt), which arises by treating aluminium powder with chloroethane. Reduction of ethylaluminium sesquichloride with an alkali metal such as sodium gives triethylaluminium:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactivity.", "content": "The Al–C bonds of triethylaluminium are polarized to such an extent that the carbon is easily protonated, releasing ethane: For this reaction, even weak acids can be employed such as terminal acetylenes and alcohols.  The linkage between the pair of aluminium centres is relatively weak and can be cleaved by Lewis bases (L) to give adducts with the formula AlEtL:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Precursors to fatty alcohols.", "content": "Triethylaluminium is used industrially as an intermediate in the production of fatty alcohols, which are converted to detergents. The first step involves the oligomerization of ethylene by the \"Aufbau\" reaction, which gives a mixture of trialkylaluminium compounds (simplified here as octyl groups): Subsequently, these trialkyl compounds are oxidized to aluminium alkoxides, which are then hydrolysed:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Co-catalysts in olefin polymerization.", "content": "Large amount of TEAL and related aluminium alkyls are used in Ziegler-Natta catalysis. They serve to activate the transition metal catalyst both as a reducing agent and an alkylating agent. TEAL also functions to scavenge water and oxygen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reagent in organic and organometallic chemistry.", "content": "Triethylaluminium has niche uses as a precursor to other organoaluminium compounds, such as diethylaluminium cyanide:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Triethylaluminium is an organoaluminium compound. It is actually a dimer, so despite its name, the formula for this compound is Al(CH), shortened to AlEt (Et, ethyl). This volatile, colorless liquid is highly pyrophoric, igniting immediately upon exposure to air. It is normally stored in stainless steel containers either as a pure liquid or as a solution in hydrocarbon solvents such as hexane, heptane, or toluene. Triethylaluminium is mainly used as a co-catalyst in the industrial production of polyethylene, polypropylene and for the production of medium chain alcohols.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976468}
{"src_title": "Alexander Gardner (photographer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Alexander was born in Paisley, Renfrewshire, on 17 October 1821. He became an apprentice jeweller at the age of 14, lasting seven years. Gardner had a Church of Scotland upbringing and was influenced by the work of Robert Owen, Welsh socialist and father of the cooperative movement. By adulthood he desired to create a cooperative in the United States that would incorporate socialist values. In 1850, Gardner and others purchased land near Monona, Iowa, for this purpose, but Gardner never lived there, choosing to return to Scotland to raise more money. He stayed there until 1856, becoming owner and editor of the \"Glasgow Sentinel\" in 1851. Visiting The Great Exhibition in 1851 in Hyde Park, London, he saw the photography of American Mathew Brady, and thus began his interest in the subject.  In 1856, Alex and his family immigrated to the United States. Finding that many friends and family members at the cooperative he had helped to form were dead or dying of tuberculosis, he stayed in New York. He initiated contact with Brady and came to work for him that year, continuing until 1862. At first, Gardner specialized in making large photographic prints, called Imperial photographs, but as Brady’s eyesight began to fail, Gardner took on increasing responsibilities. In 1858, Brady put him in charge of his Washington, D.C. gallery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Civil War photography.", "content": "Abraham Lincoln became the American President in the November 1860 election and along with his election came the threat of war. Gardner, being in Washington, was well-positioned for these events, and his popularity rose as a portrait photographer, capturing the visages of soldiers leaving for war.  Brady had the idea to photograph the Civil War. Gardner's relationship with Allan Pinkerton (who was head of an intelligence operation that would become the Secret Service) was the key to communicating Brady's ideas to Lincoln. Pinkerton recommended Gardner for the position of chief photographer under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Topographical Engineers. Following that short appointment, Gardner became a staff photographer under General George B. McClellan, commander of the Army of the Potomac. At this point, Gardner's management of Brady's gallery ended. The honorary rank of captain was bestowed upon Gardner, and he photographed the Battle of Antietam in September 1862, developing photos in his travelling darkroom.  Gardner has often had his work misattributed to Brady, and despite his considerable output, historians have tended to give Gardner less than full recognition for his documentation of the Civil War. Lincoln dismissed McClellan from command of the Army of the Potomac in November 1862, and Gardner’s role as chief army photographer diminished. About this time, Gardner ended his working relationship with Brady, probably in part because of Brady's practice of attributing his employees' work as \"Photographed by Brady\". That winter, Gardner followed General Ambrose Burnside, photographing the Battle of Fredericksburg. Next, he followed General Joseph Hooker. In May 1863, Gardner and his brother James opened their own studio in Washington, D.C, hiring many of Brady's former staff. Gardner photographed the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1863) and the Siege of Petersburg (June 1864–April 1865) during this time.  In 1866, Gardner published a two-volume work, \"Gardner's Photographic Sketch Book of the Civil War\". Each volume contained 50 hand-mounted original prints. The book did not sell well. Not all photographs were Gardner's; he credited the negative producer and the positive print printer. As the employer, Gardner owned the work produced, as with any modern-day studio. The sketchbook contained work by Timothy H. O'Sullivan, James F. Gibson, John Reekie, William Pywell, James Gardner (his brother), John Wood, George N. Barnard, David Knox and David Woodbury, among others. Among his photographs of Abraham Lincoln were some considered to be the last taken of the President, four days before his assassination, although later this claim was found to be incorrect, while the pictures were actually taken in February 1865, the last one being on the 5th of February. Gardner would photograph Lincoln on a total of seven occasions while Lincoln was alive. He also documented Lincoln's funeral, and photographed the conspirators involved (with John Wilkes Booth) in Lincoln's assassination. Gardner was the only photographer allowed at their execution by hanging, photographs of which would later be translated into woodcuts for publication in \"Harper's Weekly\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-War.", "content": "After the war, Gardner was commissioned to photograph Native Americans who came to Washington to discuss treaties; and he surveyed the proposed route of the Kansas Pacific railroad to the Pacific Ocean. Many of his photos were stereoscopic. After 1871, Gardner gave up photography and helped to found an insurance company. Gardner stayed in Washington until his death. When asked about his work, he said, \"It is designed to speak for itself. As mementos of the fearful struggle through which the country has just passed, it is confidently hoped that it will possess an enduring interest.\" He became sick in the late fall of 1882 and died shortly afterward on December 10, 1882, at his home in Washington, D.C. He was survived by his wife and two children. He was buried in local Glenwood Cemetery.  In 1893, photographer J. Watson Porter, who had worked for Gardner years before, tracked down hundreds of glass negatives made by Gardner, that had been left in an old house in Washington where Gardner had lived. The result was a story in the \"Washington Post\" and renewed interest in Gardner's photographs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "A century later, photographic analysis suggested that Gardner had manipulated the setting of at least one of his Civil War photos by moving a soldier's corpse and weapon into more dramatic positions. In 1961, Frederic Ray of the \"Civil War Times\" magazine compared several of Gardner's Gettysburg photos showing \"two\" dead Confederate snipers and realized that the same body had been photographed in two separate locations. One of his most famous images, \"Home of a Rebel Sharpshooter\", has been argued to be a fabrication. This argument, first put forth by William Frassanito in 1975, goes this way: Gardner and his assistants Timothy O'Sullivan and James Gibson had dragged the sniper's body into the more photogenic surroundings of the Devil's Den to create a better composition. Though Ray's analysis was that the same body was used in two photographs, Frassanito expanded on this analysis in his 1975 book \"Gettysburg: A Journey in Time\", and acknowledged that the manipulation of photographic settings in the early years of photography was not frowned upon.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alexander Gardner (October 17, 1821 – December 10, 1882) was a Scottish photographer who immigrated to the United States in 1856, where he began to work full-time in that profession. He is best known for his photographs of the American Civil War, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, and the execution of the conspirators to Lincoln's assassination.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976469}
{"src_title": "NuSTAR", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "NuSTAR's predecessor, the High Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT), was a balloon-borne version that carried telescopes and detectors constructed using similar technologies. In February 2003, NASA issued an Explorer Program Announcement of Opportunity. In response, NuSTAR was submitted to NASA in May, as one of 36 mission proposals vying to be the tenth and eleventh Small Explorer missions. In November, NASA selected NuSTAR and four other proposals for a five-month implementation feasibility study.  In January 2005, NASA selected NuSTAR for flight pending a one-year feasibility study. The program was cancelled in February 2006 as a result of cuts to science in NASA's 2007 budget. On 21 September 2007 it was announced that the program had been restarted, with an expected launch in August 2011, though this was later delayed to June 2012.  The principal investigator is Fiona A. Harrison of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). Other major partners include the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), University of California at Berkeley, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Columbia University, Goddard Space Flight Center, Stanford University, University of California, Santa Cruz, Sonoma State University, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and the Italian Space Agency (ASI). NuSTAR's major industrial partners include Orbital Sciences Corporation and ATK Space Components.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Launch.", "content": "NASA contracted with Orbital Sciences Corporation to launch NuSTAR (mass ) on a Pegasus XL rocket for 21 March 2012. It had earlier been planned for 15 August 2011, 3 February 2012, 16 March 2012, and 14 March 2012. After a launch meeting on 15 March 2012, the launch was pushed further back to allow time to review flight software used by the launch vehicle's flight computer. The launch was conducted successfully at 16:00:37 UTC on 13 June 2012 about 117 nautical miles south of Kwajalein Atoll. The Pegasus rocket was dropped from the L-1011 'Stargazer' aircraft.  On 22 June 2012 it was confirmed that the 10 m mast was fully deployed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Optics.", "content": "Unlike visible light telescopes – which employ mirrors or lenses working with normal incidence – NuSTAR has to employ grazing incidence optics to be able to focus X-rays. For this two conical approximation Wolter telescope design optics with focal length are held at the end of a long deployable mast. A laser metrology system is used to determine the exact relative positions of the optics and the focal plane at all times, so that each detected photon can be mapped back to the correct point on the sky even if the optics and the focal plane move relative to one another during an exposure.  Each focusing optic consists of 133 concentric shells. One particular innovation enabling NuSTAR is that these shells are coated with depth-graded multilayers (alternating atomically thin layers of a high-density and low-density material); with NuSTAR's choice of Pt/SiC and W/Si multilayers, this enables reflectivity up to 79 keV (the platinum K-edge energy).  The optics were produced, at Goddard Space Flight Center, by heating thin (210 μm) sheets of flexible glass in an oven so that they slump over precision-polished cylindrical quartz mandrels of the appropriate radius. The coatings were applied by a group at the Danish Technical University.  The shells were then assembled, at the Nevis Laboratories of Columbia University, using graphite spacers machined to constrain the glass to the conical shape, and held together by epoxy. There are 4680 mirror segments in total (the 65 inner shells each comprise six segments and the 65 outer shells twelve; there are upper and lower segments to each shell, and there are two telescopes); there are five spacers per segment. Since the epoxy takes 24 hours to cure, one shell is assembled per day – it took four months to build up one optic.  The expected point spread function for the flight mirrors is 43 arc-seconds, giving a spot size of about two millimeters at the focal plane; this is unprecedentedly good resolution for focusing hard X-ray optics, though it is about one hundred times worse than the best resolution achieved at longer wavelengths by the Chandra X-ray Observatory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Detectors.", "content": "Each focusing optic has its own focal plane module, consisting of a solid state cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) pixel detector surrounded by a CsI anti-coincidence shield. One detector unit — or focal plane — comprises four (two-by-two) detectors, manufactured by eV Products. Each detector is a rectangular crystal of dimension 20mm x 20mm and thickness ~2mm that have been gridded into 32 × 32, 0.6 mm pixels (each pixel subtending 12.3 arc seconds) and provides a total of 12 arc minute field of view for each focal plane module.  CZT detectors are state-of-the-art room temperature semiconductors that are very efficient at turning high energy photons into electrons. The electrons are digitally recorded using custom Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) designed by the NuSTAR Caltech Focal Plane Team. Each pixel has an independent discriminator and individual X-ray interactions trigger the readout process. On-board processors, one for each telescope, identify the row and column with the largest pulse height and read out pulse height information from this pixel as well as its eight neighbors. The event time is recorded to an accuracy of 2 μs relative to the on-board clock. The event location, energy, and depth of interaction in the detector are computed from the nine-pixel signals.  The focal planes are shielded by cesium iodide (CsI) crystals that surround the detector housings. The crystal shields, grown by Saint-Gobain, register high energy photons and cosmic rays which cross the focal plane from directions other than the along the NuSTAR optical axis. Such events are the primary background for NuSTAR and must be properly identified and subtracted in order to identify high energy photons from cosmic sources. The NuSTAR active shielding ensures that any CZT detector event coincident with an active shield event is ignored.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major scientific results.", "content": "NuSTAR has proven itself to be a versatile instrument and has opened up new discoveries in wide and varied areas of astrophysical research since it launch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spin measurement of a supermassive black hole.", "content": "In February 2013, NASA revealed that NuSTAR, along with the XMM-Newton space observatory, has measured the spin rate of the supermassive black hole at the centre of the galaxy NGC 1365.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tracing radioactivity in a supernova remnant.", "content": "One of NuSTAR's main goals is to characterize stars' explosions by mapping the radioactive material in a supernova remnant. The NuSTAR map of Cassiopeia A shows the titanium-44 isotope concentrated in clumps at the remnant's center and points to a possible solution to the mystery of how the star exploded. When researchers simulate supernova blasts with computers, as a massive star dies and collapses, the main shock wave often stalls and the star fails to shatter. The latest findings strongly suggest the exploding star literally sloshed around, re-energizing the stalled shock wave and allowing the star to finally blast off its outer layers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nearby supermassive black holes.", "content": "In January 2017, researchers from Durham University and the University of Southampton, leading a coalition of agencies using NuSTAR data, announced the discovery of supermassive black holes at the center of nearby galaxies NGC 1448 and IC 3639.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "NuSTAR (Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array) is a space-based X-ray telescope that uses a conical approximation to a Wolter telescope to focus high energy X-rays from astrophysical sources, especially for nuclear spectroscopy, and operates in the range of 3 to 79 keV.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976470}
{"src_title": "Charles IV of Spain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Charles was the second son of Charles III and his wife, Maria Amalia of Saxony. He was born in Naples (11 November 1748), while his father was King of Naples and Sicily. His elder brother, Don Felipe, was passed over for both thrones, due to his learning disabilities and epilepsy. In Naples and Sicily, Charles was referred to as the \"Prince of Taranto\". He was called \"El Cazador\" (meaning \"the Hunter\"), due to his preference for sport and hunting, rather than dealing with affairs of the state. Charles was considered by many to have been amiable, but simple-minded.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "In 1788, Charles III died and Charles IV succeeded to the throne. He intended to maintain the policies of his father, and retained his prime minister, the Count of Floridablanca, in office. Even though he had a profound belief in the sanctity of his office, and kept up the appearance of an absolute, powerful monarch, Charles never took more than a passive part in his own government. The affairs of government were left to his wife, Maria Luisa, and his prime minister, while he occupied himself with hunting.  In 1792, political and personal enemies ousted Floridablanca from office, replacing him with Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, Count of Aranda. However, in the wake of the war against Republican France, the liberal-leaning Count of Aranda was himself replaced by Manuel de Godoy, a favourite of the Queen and widely believed to be her lover, who enjoyed the lasting favor of the King.  In 1799, he authorized Prussian aristocrat and scientist Alexander von Humboldt to travel freely in Spanish America, with royal officials encouraged to aid him in his investigation of key areas of Spain's empire. Humboldt's \"Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain\" was a key publication from his five-year travels.  Godoy continued Abarca de Bolea's policy of neutrality towards France, but after Spain protested the execution of Louis XVI of France, the deposed king, in 1793, France declared war on Spain. After the declaration, Portugal and Spain signed a treaty of mutual protection against France. In 1796 France forced Godoy to enter into an alliance, and declare war on the Kingdom of Great Britain. As a consequence, became one of the maritime empires to have been allied with Republican France in the French Revolutionary War, and for a considerable duration.  Spain remained an ally of France and supported the Continental Blockade until the British naval victory at Trafalgar, when Spain became allied with Britain. However, after Napoleon's victory over Prussia in 1807, Godoy again steered Spain back onto the French side. This switching of alliances devalued Charles' position as a trustworthy ally, increasing Godoy's unpopularity, and strengthening the \"fernandistas\" (supporters of Crown Prince Ferdinand), who favoured an alliance with the United Kingdom.  Economic troubles, rumours about a sexual relationship between the Queen and Godoy, and the King's ineptitude, caused the monarchy to decline in prestige among the population. Anxious to take over from his father, and jealous of the prime minister, Crown Prince Ferdinand attempted to overthrow the King in an aborted coup in 1807.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abdications of Bayonne.", "content": "Riots, and a popular revolt at the winter palace Aranjuez, in 1808 forced the king to abdicate on 19 March, in favor of his son. Ferdinand took the throne as Ferdinand VII, but was mistrusted by Napoleon, who had 100,000 soldiers stationed in Spain by that time due to the ongoing War of the Third Coalition.  The ousted King, having appealed to Napoleon for help in regaining his throne, was summoned before Napoleon in Bayonne, along with his son, in April 1808. Napoleon forced both Charles and his son to abdicate, declared the Bourbon dynasty of Spain deposed, and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King Joseph I of Spain, which began the Peninsular War.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life and death.", "content": "Following Napoleon's deposing of the Bourbon dynasty, the ex-King, his wife, and former Prime Minister Godoy were held captive in France first at the château de Compiègne and three years in Marseille (where a neighborhood was named after him). After the collapse of the regime installed by Napoleon, Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne. The former Charles IV drifted about Europe until 1812, when he finally settled in Rome, in the Palazzo Barberini. His wife died on 2 January 1819, followed shortly by Charles, who died on 20 January of the same year. Sir Francis Ronalds included a detailed description of the funeral in his travel journal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Character.", "content": "Well-meaning and pious, Charles IV floundered in a series of international crises beyond his capacity to handle. He was painted by Francisco Goya in a number of official court portraits, which numerous art critics have seen as satires on the King's stout vacuity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Charles IV married his first cousin Maria Louisa, the daughter of Philip, Duke of Parma, in 1765. The couple had fourteen children, six of whom survived into adulthood:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles IV (Carlos Antonio Pascual Francisco Javier Juan Nepomuceno José Januario Serafín Diego; 11 November 1748 – 20 January 1819) was King of Spain from 14 December 1788, until his abdication on 19 March 1808.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976471}
{"src_title": "Suzanne Collins", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Suzanne Collins was born on August 10, 1962, in Hartford, Connecticut to Jane Brady Collins (born 1932) and Lieutenant Colonel Michael John Collins (1931–2003), a U.S. Air Force officer who served in the Korean War and the Vietnam War, and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and Bronze Star. She is the youngest of four children, who include Kathryn (born 1957), Andrew (born 1958), and Joan (born 1960). As the daughter of a military officer, she and her family were constantly moving. She spent her childhood in the eastern United States.  Collins graduated from the Alabama School of Fine Arts in Birmingham in 1980 as a Theater Arts major. She completed her bachelor of arts degree from Indiana University Bloomington in 1985 with a double major in theater and telecommunications. In 1989, Collins earned her Master of Fine Arts in dramatic writing from the New York University Tisch School of the Arts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Suzanne Collins began her career in 1991 as a writer for children's television shows. She worked on several shows for Nickelodeon, including \"Clarissa Explains It All\", \"The Mystery Files of Shelby Woo\", \"Little Bear\", and \"Oswald\". She did not write the children's book Little Bear, which is sometimes mistaken as her own book. She was also the head writer for Scholastic Entertainment's \"Clifford's Puppy Days\". She received a Writers Guild of America nomination in animation for co-writing the critically acclaimed Christmas special, \"Santa, Baby!\" After meeting children's author James Proimos while working on the Kids' WB show \"Generation O!\", Collins felt inspired to write children's books herself. Her inspiration for \"Gregor the Overlander\", the first book of \"The New York Times\" best-selling series \"The Underland Chronicles\", came from \"Alice in Wonderland\", when she was thinking about how one was more likely to fall down a manhole than a rabbit hole, and would find something other than a tea party. Between 2003 and 2007 she wrote the five books of the \"Underland Chronicles\": \"Gregor the Overlander\", \"Gregor and the Prophecy of Bane\", \"Gregor and the Curse of the Warmbloods\", \"Gregor and the Marks of Secret\", and \"Gregor and the Code of Claw\". During that time, Collins also wrote a rhyming picture book, \"When Charlie McButton Lost Power\" (2005), illustrated by Mike Lester.  In September 2008, Scholastic Press released \"The Hunger Games\", the first book of a trilogy by Collins. \"The Hunger Games\" was partly inspired by the Greek myth of Theseus and the Minotaur. Another inspiration was her father's career in the Air Force, which gave her insight to poverty, starvation, and the effects of war. The trilogy's second book, \"Catching Fire\", was released in September 2009, and its third book, \"Mockingjay\", was released on August 24, 2010. Within 14 months, 1.5 million copies of the first two \"Hunger Games\" books were printed in North America alone. \"The Hunger Games\" was on \"The New York Times\" Best Seller list for more than 60 weeks in a row. Lions Gate Entertainment acquired worldwide distribution rights to a film adaptation of \"The Hunger Games\", produced by Nina Jacobson's Color Force production company. Collins adapted the novel for film herself. Directed by Gary Ross, filming began in late spring 2011, with Jennifer Lawrence portraying main character Katniss Everdeen. Josh Hutcherson played Peeta Mellark and Liam Hemsworth played Gale Hawthorne. The subsequent two novels were adapted into films as well, with the latter book split into two cinematic installments, for a total of four films representing the three books. As a result of the popularity of \"The Hunger Games\" books, Collins was named one of \"Time\" magazine's most influential people of 2010. In March 2012, Amazon announced that she had become the best-selling Kindle author of all time. Amazon also revealed that Collins had written 29 of the 100 most highlighted passages in Kindle ebooks—and on a separate Amazon list of recently highlighted passages, she had written 17 of the top 20. On June 17, 2019, Collins announced that a prequel to \"The Hunger Games\" would be released on May 19, 2020. The premise is based on the failed rebellion 74 years before \"The Hunger Games\" trilogy. On October 4, 2019 the title was revealed to be \"The Ballad of Songbirds and Snakes.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "With her husband Charles, Suzanne Collins has two children, Charlie and Isabella.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Suzanne Collins (born August 10, 1962) is an American television writer and author. She is known as the author of \"The New York Times\" best-selling series \"The Underland Chronicles\" and \"The Hunger Games\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976472}
{"src_title": "Junjo Romantica: Pure Romance", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manga.", "content": "Written by Shungiku Nakamura, \"Junjo Romantica: Pure Romance\" began serialization in \"Asuka Ciel\" in 2002. The individual chapters have been compiled into fifteen \"tankōbon\" volumes by Kadokawa Shoten. The first volume was released on June 2, 2003; as of July 1, 2015, 19 volumes have been released.  The series was licensed for an English-language release in North America by Blu Manga, an imprint of Tokyopop, until Tokyopop's closure in May 2011. As of April 2011, 12 English volumes have been released. An attempt to gauge relative sales of manga titles by online vendors (based on publicly available \"bestseller\" listings) suggests that \"Junjo Romantica\" was the best-selling yaoi manga series of 2008 among online vendors. Volume 10 was #6 in the manga category of the New York Times \"Graphic Books\" weekly bestseller list for July 11, 2009, and volume 12 was #4 on the same list for September 10, 2010.  In 2017, Viz Media stated at Yaoi-Con that they received requests to re-license the series, but they decided against it due to the series being too long.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anime.", "content": "Studio Deen produced an anime adaptation based around the manga series. Premiering in Japan on TV Hokkaido on April 10, 2008, the series' first season ran for twelve episodes until its conclusion on June 26, 2008. A second season premiered on the same channel on October 12, 2008, it also ended after twelve episodes. On March 28, 2012, a new anime adaptation of Junjo Romantica was announced to be in the works, which has been revealed as an OVA to be released with the limited edition Volume 16 on December 20, 2012. On August 29, 2013, it was announced that more anime for the series is in production. On July 30, 2014, it was confirmed that the series had been green-lit for a third season, which premiered on July 8, 2015.  The anime series is licensed for release in North America by Kadokawa Pictures USA; Season 1 was released on May 4, 2010. The series has not been dubbed for English audiences, but released in Japanese with English subtitles. Per their website, they may be releasing the series under the name \"Romantica: Pure Love\". Anime OVA in bundled with volume 16 is released on December 20, 2012. Nozomi Entertainment will re-release the series on Blu-ray on July 17, 2017.  On July 9, 2015 at 1:05 am in Japan, the third season of the show was released and was credited as a sequel to the previous seasons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Junjo Romantica\" became the first yaoi (boys' love) title to enter the New York Times Manga Best Seller list when it debuted in week 28. According to Oricon and DVD sales data from Animesuki, the first DVD for the \"Junjō Romantica\" anime adaptation was released on July 25, 2008 and it became a hit, selling 8,406 copies in its first week. It is currently the fourth best selling debut DVD for an anime series of 2008, just after Gundam 00, Macross Frontier and Aria the Origination. It continued to dwell on the Oricon anime DVD charts for the second week charting on the top 5 with total sales for the first DVD at 10,986 copies. With those sales, it is currently ranked at number 1 for the shōjo category on DVD sales for the year 2008. According to Oricon sales for the past 5 years, it is the best selling BL (Boys Love) anime so far and has performed the best on the charts.  The second season's DVD sales have performed extremely well as well, selling an average of 7,000 to 8,000 copies, which makes it one of the most profitable anime series of the year. It is constantly ranked very high on Amazon Japan for the DVD category as well. Fan reviews and the responses were positive.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Shungiku Nakamura has written a second series based on \"Junjou Romantica\" titled \"Sekai-ichi Hatsukoi\" (lit. \"The World's Greatest First Love\") focusing on a shōjo manga editor and his first love, which was also animated by Studio Deen in 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976473}
{"src_title": "Great Storm of 1703", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Severity.", "content": "Contemporary observers recorded barometric readings as low as 973 millibars (measured by William Derham in south Essex), but it has been suggested that the storm deepened to 950 millibars over the Midlands.  Retrospective analysis conjectures that the storm was consistent with a Category 2 hurricane.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Damage.", "content": "In London alone, approximately 2,000 massive chimney stacks were blown down. The lead roofing was blown off Westminster Abbey and Queen Anne had to shelter in a cellar at St James's Palace to avoid collapsing chimneys and part of the roof. On the Thames, some 700 ships were heaped together in the Pool of London, the section downstream from London Bridge. HMS \"Vanguard\" was wrecked at Chatham. Admiral Sir Cloudesley Shovell's HMS \"Association\" was blown from Harwich to Gothenburg in Sweden before way could be made back to England. Pinnacles were blown from the top of King's College Chapel, in Cambridge.  There was extensive and prolonged flooding in the West Country, particularly around Bristol. Hundreds of people drowned in flooding on the Somerset Levels, along with thousands of sheep and cattle, and one ship was found inland. Approximately 400 windmills were destroyed, with the wind driving their wooden gears so fast that some burst into flames. At Wells, Bishop Richard Kidder and his wife were killed when two chimneystacks in the palace fell on them, asleep in bed. This same storm blew in part of the great west window in Wells Cathedral. Major damage occurred to the southwest tower of Llandaff Cathedral at Cardiff in Wales.  At sea, many ships were wrecked, some of which were returning from helping Archduke Charles, the claimed King of Spain, fight the French in the War of the Spanish Succession. These ships included HMS \"Stirling Castle\", HMS \"Northumberland\", HMS \"Mary\" and HMS \"Restoration\", with about 1,500 seamen killed particularly on the Goodwin Sands. Between 8,000 and 15,000 lives were lost overall. The first Eddystone Lighthouse off Plymouth was destroyed on 27 November 1703 (Old Style), killing six occupants, including its builder Henry Winstanley. (John Rudyard was later contracted to build the second lighthouse on the site.) A ship torn from its moorings in the Helford River in Cornwall was blown for before grounding eight hours later on the Isle of Wight. The number of oak trees lost in the New Forest alone was 4,000.  The storm of 1703 caught a convoy of 130 merchant ships sheltering at Milford Haven, along with their man of war escorts \"Dolphin\", \"Cumberland\", \"Coventry\", \"Looe\", \"Hastings\" and \"Hector\". By 3:00pm the next afternoon, losses included 30 vessels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reaction.", "content": "The storm was unprecedented in ferocity and duration and was generally reckoned by witnesses to represent the anger of God, in recognition of the \"crying sins of this nation\". The government declared 19 January 1704 a day of fasting, saying that it \"loudly calls for the deepest and most solemn humiliation of our people\". It remained a frequent topic of moralising in sermons well into the 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary.", "content": "The Great Storm also coincided with the increase in English journalism, and was the first weather event to be a news story on a national scale. Special issue broadsheets were produced detailing damage to property and stories of people who had been killed.  Daniel Defoe produced his full-length book \"The Storm\" (July 1704) in response to the calamity, calling it \"the tempest that destroyed woods and forests all over England\". He wrote: \"No pen could describe it, nor tongue express it, nor thought conceive it unless by one in the extremity of it.\" Coastal towns such as Portsmouth \"looked as if the enemy had sackt them and were most miserably torn to pieces\". Winds of up to destroyed more than 400 windmills. Defoe reported that the sails in some turned so fast that the friction caused the wooden wheels to overheat and catch fire. He thought that the destruction of the sovereign fleet was a punishment for their poor performance against the Catholic armies of France and Spain during the first year of the War of the Spanish Succession.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Naval losses.", "content": "In the English Channel, fierce winds and high seas swamped some vessels outright and drove others onto the Goodwin Sands, an extensive sand bank off the southeast coast of England and the traditional anchorage for ships waiting either for passage up the Thames Estuary to London or for favourable winds to take them out into the Channel and the Atlantic Ocean. The Royal Navy was badly affected, losing thirteen ships including the entire Channel Squadron, and upwards of 1,500 seamen drowned.  Lamb (1991) claimed 10,000 seamen were lost in one night, a far higher figure, about one third of the seamen in the Royal Navy. Daniel Defoe's book \"The Storm\" suggests that the Royal Navy lost one fifth of its ships which would however indicate a much lower proportion of seamen were lost, as some wrecked sailors survived. narrowly escaped a similar fate. More than 40 merchant ships were also lost.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Great Storm of 1703 was a destructive extratropical cyclone that struck central and southern England on 26 November 1703 (7 December 1703 in the Gregorian calendar in use today). High winds caused 2,000 chimney stacks to collapse in London and damaged the New Forest, which lost 4,000 oaks. Ships were blown hundreds of miles off-course, and over 1,000 seamen died on the Goodwin Sands alone. News bulletins of casualties and damage were sold all over England – a novelty at that time. The Church of England declared that the storm was God's vengeance for the sins of the nation. Daniel Defoe thought it was a divine punishment for poor performance against Catholic armies in the War of the Spanish Succession.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976474}
{"src_title": "Crashdïet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation and early years (2000–2005).", "content": "The band was originally formed in 2000 and built up a cult following with the release of their first demos, several of which were released on their official website via download. However, in late 2002, the band split up, with former members joining Repugnant and SubVision. Vocalist Dave Lepard then reformed the band with members from the current lineup, guitar player Martin Sweet and bassist Peter London were announced on the band's website on Christmas Day along with a call for drummers. In April 2003 Eric Young was announced as the band's new drummer. In 2003 Crashdiet released their first self-titled EP, and in 2004 they were signed to Universal Records.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Rest in Sleaze\" and Lepard's suicide (2005–2006).", "content": "In 2005, the band released their debut album, \"Rest in Sleaze\", and they embarked on a Swedish tour in the fall of 2005 to support the album. The album did well overall (debuted at No. 12 on the Swedish album chart) although they were not especially famous outside of Sweden. The band also played at Download Festival in the United Kingdom in 2005, to support the album. The album debuted at No. 12 on the Swedish album chart and Four singles were produced from that album, including \"Riot in Everyone\", \"Breakin' the Chainz\", \"Knokk 'Em Down\" and \"It's a Miracle\".  On January 20, 2006, vocalist Dave Lepard committed suicide at the age of 25, after a bout of depression during which he hid from family and friends. After the death of Lepard, the band decided to end the band and said in an official statement that:  Several months later, on April 2, they decided to start the band up again after getting support from the Lepard family and fans all over the world, they announced the following statement via their website:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New singer and \"The Unattractive Revolution\" (2007–2008).", "content": "On January 22, 2007 the band announced the addition of a new vocalist, H. Olliver Twisted from Finland (also playing in the band Reckless Love). They officially released their entire debut live performance (on the Rest in Sleaze Festival in February) with Olliver via their website as a free download. Later in the year the band also announced plans for the album \"The Unattractive Revolution\", and a single, \"In The Raw\", to be released on September 5, 2007, in Sweden.The album was released on October 3, 2007 and debuted at No. 11 on the Swedish album chart.  In November–December 2007, and February–April 2008 Crashdiet toured as opening act for Hardcore Superstar and on February 23, the band announced via their official website that the second single from their new album would be \"Falling Rain\" On July 13, 2008 it was announced via the band's official website that H. Olliver Twisted had come to an agreement with the band to go their separate ways. In 2009 the band announced their new lead singer, Simon Cruz and played their first show with him on the Sweden Rock Cruise in October.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Generation Wild\" and recent events (2010–2017).", "content": "On April 14, 2010, the band released \"Generation Wild\", their first album with their new singer, Simon Cruz, and it debuted at No. 3 on the Swedish Album Chart. The title track was released as the first single on February 28, 2010, and its music video was banned by MTV due to obscene images. In September they were the opening act for Ozzy Osbourne in Globen, Sweden, and in October, the band played in front of 50,000 people at the SWU Festival in Brazil.  Chemical, the second single from \"Generation Wild\", was released on September 19. On March 24, 2011, Crashdiet launched the European \"Dark Decadence Tour\" with Hardcore Superstar and the 69 Eyes that ended on April. 16 Only a couple days later, they played a UK tour with Houston as co-headliners. On June 4, the band announced on their website that they will film their Sweden Rock Festival show on June 8 for an upcoming DVD.  \"Generation Wild\" was released on vinyl on November 2. This version also featured a bonus track called \"Hollywood Teaze\".  The band released their fourth album, \"The Savage Playground\", on January 22, 2013. The first single, \"Cocaine Cowboys,\" was released on December 14, 2012. Singer Simon Cruz left the band in the middle of their 2015 Japan tour.  On December 6th 2017 Crashdïet announced Gabriel Keyes as the new lead singer with the single \"We Are Legion\" to follow December 31st 2017 And Also Released Reptile On January 1st 2019", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2019 RUST.", "content": "Crashdiet released their new full length studio record, RUST, with new singer, Gabriel Keyes, on 13th September 2019 via Frontiers music srl and also released the third single from the album, In The Maze, on Aug 5, 2019.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Crashdïet (often stylised as CRASHDÏET) are a Swedish sleaze metal band from Stockholm. They have released five albums: 2005's \"Rest in Sleaze\", 2007's \"The Unattractive Revolution\", 2010s \"Generation Wild\", 2013's \"The Savage Playground\" and 2019's \"Rust\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976475}
{"src_title": "Central Tibetan Administration", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Position on Tibet.", "content": "The territory of Tibet is administered by the People's Republic of China, a situation that the Central Tibetan Administration considers an illegitimate military occupation. The position of the CTA is that Tibet is a distinct nation with a long history of independence. The position of the People's Republic of China holds that China is multi-ethnic and that Tibetans are among the recognised nations, that the central government of China (throughout its incarnations) has continuously exercised sovereignty over Tibet for over 700 years, that Tibet has not been independent but its \"de facto\" independence between 1912 and 1951 was \"nothing but a fiction of the imperialists who committed aggression against China in modern history\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Funding.", "content": "The funding of the CTA comes mostly from private donations collected with the help of organizations like the Tibet Fund, revenue from the Green Book (the \"Tibetan in exile passport\") and aid from governments like India and the US.  The annual revenue of the Central Tibetan Administration is officially 22 million (measured in US dollars), with the biggest shares going to political activity ($7 million), and administration ($4.5 million). However, according to Michael Backman, these sums are \"remarkably low\" for what the organisation claims to do, and it probably receives millions more in donations. The CTA does not acknowledge such donations or their sources.  The United States have funded the CTA as well in some periods. According to a Chinese source, between 1964 and 1968, the U.S. provided 1.735 million dollars each year.  In 2012, the Tibetan Policy Act of 2002 was passed in the U.S. to subsidize the CTA. In 2016, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) awarded a grant of US$23 million to CTA. In 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump proposed to stop aid to the CTA in 2018. Trump's proposal was criticized heavily by members of the Democratic Party like Nancy Pelosi and co-chair of the bipartisan Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission Jim McGovern.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Headquarters.", "content": "The CTA is headquartered in McLeod Ganj, Dharamshala, India. It claims to represent the people of the entire Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai province, as well as two Tibetan Autonomous Prefectures and one Tibetan Autonomous County in Sichuan Province, one Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and one Tibetan Autonomous County in Gansu Province and one Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan Province – all of which is termed \"Historic Tibet\" by the CTA.  The CTA attends to the welfare of the Tibetan exile community in India, who number around 100,000. It runs schools, health services, cultural activities and economic development projects for the Tibetan community. More than 1,000 refugees still arrive each year from China, usually via Nepal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Green Book.", "content": "Tibetans living outside Tibet can apply at the CTA office in their country of residence for a personal document called the \"Green Book\", which serves as a receipt book for the person's \"voluntary contributions\" to the CTA and the evidence of their claims for \"Tibetan citizenship\".  For this purpose, CTA defines a Tibetan as \"any person born in Tibet, or any person with one parent who was born in Tibet.\" As Tibetan refugees often lack documents attesting to their place of birth, the eligibility is usually established by an interview.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Blue Book.", "content": "The Blue Book or Tibetan Solidarity Partnership is a project by Central Tibetan Administration, in which the Tibetan Government in exile issues any supporter of Tibet who is of age 18 years or more a Blue Book. This initiative enables supporters of Tibet worldwide to make financial contributions to help the administration in supporting educational, cultural, developmental and humanitarian activities related to Tibetan children and refugees. The book is issued at various Tibet offices worldwide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Internal structure.", "content": "The CTA operates under the \"Charter of the Tibetans In-Exile\", adopted in 1991. Executive authority is vested in the Sikyong (also known as the President) an office currently held by Lobsang Sangay, who was elected in 2011. The Sikyong is supported by a cabinet of ministers responsible for specific portfolios. Legislative authority is vested in the Parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration.  The Central Tibetan Administration's Department of Finance is made of seven departments and several special offices. Until 2003, it operated 24 businesses, including publishing, hotels, and handicrafts distribution companies. At the time of its founding, the Dalai Lama was head of the Central Tibetan Administration. Over the ensuing decades, a gradual transition to democratic governance was effected. The first elections for an exile parliament took place on 2 September 1960. The position of Sikyong was later empowered to share executive authority with the Dalai Lama. The Sikyong was initially appointed by the Dalai Lama, but, beginning in 2001, this position was democratically elected by the Tibetan exile voters. The first elected Sikyong was a 62-year-old Buddhist monk, Lobsang Tenzin (better known as Samdhong Rinpoche), to the position of Prime Minister of the CTA. On 10 March 2011, the Dalai Lama proposed changes to the exile charter which would remove his position of authority within the organisation. These changes were ratified on 29 May 2011, resulting in the Sikyong becoming the highest-ranking office holder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cabinet.", "content": "Notable past members of the Cabinet include Gyalo Thondup, the Dalai Lama's eldest brother, who served as Chairman of the Cabinet and as Minister of Security, and Jetsun Pema, the Dalai Lama's younger sister, who served variously as Minister of Health and of Education. Lobsang Nyandak Zayul who served as a representative of the 14th Dalai Lama in the Americas and a multiple cabinet member. He currently serves as president of The Tibet Fund.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Lynn Pulman, in her 1983 text on Tibetans living in India, argues that the broad goals of the CTA are to develop an intense cultural and political nationalism among Tibetans, to expand the charisma and structure of the Dalai Lama, and to establish and maintain \"social, political, and economic boundaries\" between the Tibetan diaspora and their host countries. To increase nationalism, the CTA has created the Tibetan Uprising Day holiday, and a Tibetan National Anthem which is sung daily in CTA-run schools. The CTA controls much of the Tibetan-language media which, according to Pulman, promote the idea that the Chinese are endeavouring to \"eradicate the Tibetan race\" and how it is the duty of the refugees to \"maintain the greatness and vitality of Tibetan race and national culture.\" However, Lynn Pulman's findings are not the product of systematic research, for which Pulman had insufficient time, but of information gained from informal conversations with Tibetans and observations Pulman made, supplemented with the little published material available at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities with other organisations.", "content": "The CTA is not recognised as a sovereign government by any country, but it receives financial aid from governments and international organisations for its welfare work among the Tibetan exile community in India. In October 1998 the Dalai Lama's administration acknowledged that it received US$1.7 million a year in the 1960s from the US Government through the Central Intelligence Agency, which had also trained a guerrilla force at Camp Hale in Colorado. On 11 February 1991 the CTA became a founding member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization at a ceremony held at the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Central Tibetan Administration (,, literally Exile Tibetan People's Organisation) or CTA is an organisation based in India. The CTA is also referred to as the Tibetan Government in Exile which has never been recognized by China. Its internal structure is government-like; it has stated that it is \"not designed to take power in Tibet\"; rather, it will be dissolved \"as soon as freedom is restored in Tibet\" in favor of a government formed by Tibetans inside Tibet. In addition to political advocacy, it administers a network of schools and other cultural activities for Tibetans in India. On 11 February 1991, the CTA became a founding member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) at a ceremony held at the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976476}
{"src_title": "Nachman Syrkin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Nachum Syrkin was born in Mogilev, Russian Empire (now Belarus). He was influenced by Hovevei Zion and socialism in his youth and dedicated himself to synthesizing the two concepts. In this task he was joined by Ber Borochov. Syrkin's daughter Marie was a noted writer, educator and American Zionist activist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zionist career.", "content": "Syrkin was one of the leaders of the socialist Zionist faction at the First Zionist Congress in 1897 and was an early proponent of the Jewish National Fund. He was also the first person to propose that olim to Palestine form collective settlements.  Unlike other socialist thinkers of the time, Syrkin was comfortable with his Jewish heritage and, although he does not spell it out explicitly in his essay \"The Jewish Question and the Jewish Socialist State\" (1898), it is clear that he had in mind the biblical emphasis on strict social justice, irrespective of wealth, power or privilege. However, he saw Zionism as a replacement for traditional Judaism: The new, Zionist Judaism stands in complete contrast to the Judaism of exile... Zionism uproots religious Judaism in a stronger way than Reform or assimilation, by creating new standards of 'Judaism' which will constitute a new ideology that can be elevated to the status of a religion.  Syrkin worked to establish socialist Zionist groups throughout Central Europe. After studying and working in Germany and France and after being banned from Germany in 1904, Syrkin returned to Russia after the Russian Revolution of 1905. He took part at the 1905 Basle Seventh Zionist Congress as a delegate of the new Zionist Socialist Workers Party. Syrkin was not always convinced the Jewish state had to be located in Palestine: for a few years after the Seventh Zionist Congress (1905) Syrkin quit the Zionist Organization and headed the Russian socialist wing of the Territorialist movement, which regarded Palestine as only one of several possible sites for Jewish settlement and autonomy. In 1907 he moved to the United States. By 1909, he had returned to the Palestine-oriented Zionist mainstream by joining Poale Zion (\"Po‘alei Tziyon\", “Workers of Zion”) in America, the strongest socialist-Zionist tendency within the Zionist movement, and became one of its leaders.  In 1919, Syrkin was a member of the American Jewish delegation to the Versailles Peace Conference. He was also a leading figure in the World Poale Zion conference that year and was given the task of visiting Palestine to develop a plan for kibbutz settlement. He intended to relocate to Palestine, but died of a heart attack in 1924 in New York City.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 1951 his mortal remains were buried in the Kibbutz Kinneret beside the other founders of Labour Zionism. Kfar Sirkin, founded in 1933 close to Petach Tikva, is named for him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nachman Syrkin (or \"Nahman Syrkin\" or \"Nahum Syrkin\"; ; 11 February 1868 – 6 September 1924) was a political theorist, founder of Labour Zionism and a prolific writer in the Hebrew, Yiddish, Russian, German and English languages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976477}
{"src_title": "Charles Lennox, 4th Duke of Richmond", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Richmond was born to General Lord George Lennox, the younger son of Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond, and Lady Louisa, daughter of William Kerr, 4th Marquess of Lothian. His aunts included the famous five Lennox sisters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cricket.", "content": "Richmond was a keen cricketer. He was an accomplished right-hand bat and a noted wicket-keeper. An amateur, he was a founder member of the Marylebone Cricket Club. In 1786, together with the Earl of Winchilsea, Richmond offered Thomas Lord a guarantee against any losses Lord might suffer on starting a new cricket ground. This led to Lord opening his first cricket ground in 1787. Although Lord's Cricket Ground has since moved twice, Richmond and Winchilsea's guarantee provided the genesis of the best-known cricket ground in the world, a ground known as the Home of Cricket. Nearly always listed as the Hon. Colonel Charles Lennox in contemporary scorecards, Richmond had 55 recorded first-class appearances from 1784 to 1800 and played a few more games after that.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Army general.", "content": "Richmond became a British Army captain at the age of 23 in 1787. On 27 May 1789, while a colonel in the Duke of York's regiment, he was involved in a duel with Frederick, Duke of York, who had expressed the opinion that \"Colonel Lennox had heard words spoken to him at Daughbigny's, to which no gentleman ought to have submitted\", effectively an accusation of failing to respond to an insult in the way that a gentleman should. At Wimbledon Common, Richmond fired, but his ball \"grazed his Royal Highness's curl\"; the Duke did not fire. Richmond shortly after exchanged his company for the commission of a lieutenant-colonel in the 35th Regiment of Foot. On 1 July of the same year, he was involved in another duel, with Theophilus Swift, Esq., in consequence of a pamphlet criticising Richmond's character published under Swift's name. They met in a field near the Uxbridge Road, where Swift was wounded in the body, but recovered.  Later in the year he married Lady Charlotte Gordon. In 1794 and 1795 he participated in naval engagements against the French in the West Indies and Gibraltar, but was sent home when he came into conflict with his superiors. He was also MP for Sussex, succeeding his father, from 1790 until he succeeded to the dukedom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duke.", "content": "He became the 4th Duke of Richmond on 29 December 1806, after the death of his uncle, Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of Richmond. In April 1807 he became Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He remained in that post until 1813. He participated in the Napoleonic Wars and in 1815 he was in command of a reserve force in Brussels, which was protecting that city in case Napoleon won the Battle of Waterloo. On 15 June, the night before the Battle of Quatre Bras, his wife held a ball for his fellow officers. The glittering celebration became famous as the Duchess of Richmond's ball and was immortalised by William Makepeace Thackeray in \"Vanity Fair\" and by Lord Byron in \"Childe Harold's Pilgrimage\".  Although the Duke observed the Battle of Quatre Bras the next day, as well as Waterloo on 18 June, he did not participate in either.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governor General of Canada.", "content": "In 1818 he was appointed Governor General of British North America.  During summer 1819, Richmond was undertaking a tour of Upper and Lower Canada, when he was bitten on the hand by a fox. The injury apparently healed and he continued on the tour, but later in his journey the initial symptoms of hydrophobia appeared. After the disease had developed rapidly, he died 28 August. Richmond's body was returned to Quebec, where he was buried at the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity on 4 September.  The night before his death, he slept at the \"Masonic Arms\", which was renamed the \"Duke of Richmond Arms\" to commemorate the visit.  Richmond's title was inherited by his son, Charles Gordon-Lennox, 5th Duke of Richmond.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Richmond County, Nova Scotia; Richmond, Ontario; March Township, Ontario; Huntley Township, Ontario; Torbolton Township, Ontario; Fitzroy Township, Ontario; Earl of March Secondary School; Lennoxville, Quebec; Richmond, Quebec; and Richmond County, Nova Scotia; along with Richmond Street in Toronto, Ontario, and Richmond Street in London, Ontario, were named after him. According to tradition, the town of Richmond Hill, Ontario, was also named after him, as he was said to have passed through the then village during his visit in 1819. Richmond Park (football ground) in Inchicore, Dublin, still bears his name. Now the home ground of St. Patrick's Athletic Football Club, it was once a part of Richmond Barracks as Richmond was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (1807–1813). It was to these barracks that over 3,000 prisoners were brought after the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin. After independence the barracks were renamed Keogh Barracks and later were redeveloped as housing for the capital's poor and again renamed Keogh Square.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Richmond had fourteen children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Lennox, 4th Duke of Richmond, 4th Duke of Lennox, 4th Duke of Aubigny, (9 December 176428 August 1819) was a Scottish peer, soldier, politician, and Governor General of British North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976478}
{"src_title": "Vasily Rozanov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Views.", "content": "Rozanov tried to reconcile Christian teachings with ideas of healthy sex and family life, though as his adversary Nikolai Berdyaev put it, \"to set up sex in opposition to the Word\". Because of references to the phallus in Rozanov's writings, Klaus von Beyme called him the Rasputin of the Russian intelligentsia.  Rozanov's mature works are personal diaries containing intimate thoughts, impromptu lines, unfinished maxims, vivid aphorisms, reminiscences, and short essays. These works, in which he thus attempted to recreate the intonations of speech, form a loosely connected trilogy, comprising \"Solitaria\" (1911) and the two volumes of \"Fallen Leaves\" (1913 and 1915).  Rozanov frequently referred to himself as Fyodor Dostoyevsky's \"Underground Man\" and proclaimed his right to espouse contrary opinions at the same time. He first attracted attention in the 1890s when he published political sketches in the conservative newspaper \"Novoye Vremya\", owned and run by Aleksey Suvorin. Rozanov's comments, always paradoxical and sparking controversy, led him into clashes with the Tsarist government and with radicals such as Lenin. For example, Rozanov readily passed from criticism of Russian Orthodoxy, and even of what he saw as the Christian preoccupation with death, to fervent praise of Christian faith, from praise of Judaism to unabashed anti-Semitism, and from acceptance of homosexuality as yet another side of human nature to vitriolic accusations that Gogol and some other writers had been latent homosexuals. He proclaimed that politics was \"obsolete\" because \"God doesn't want politics any more,\" constructed an \"apocalypse of our times,\" and recommended the \"healthy instincts\" of the Russian people, their longing for authority, and their hostility to modernism.  Rozanov starved to death in a monastery in the hungry years following the Revolution. His work was suppressed and largely forgotten in the Soviet Union, though there were some prominent writers, including Maxim Gorky and Venedikt Erofeev among his admirers, and his ideas are thought to have exercised an influence on Vladimir Nabokov's approach to the everyday world of existence (быт/\"byt\") as utopic. Recently, however, his paradoxical writings have once again become available to Russian readers, and there has been somewhat of a resurgence among readers sympathetic to Rozanov's political views. Rozanov is the main source of inspiration for Dmitry Galkovsky's philosophical novel \"The Infinite Deadlock\" (1988), which revises 19th-century Russian history and places Rozanov at the center of Russian philosophical thought. Rozanov remains little known outside Russia, though some western scholars have become increasingly fascinated by his work and his persona.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vasily Vasilievich Rozanov (; – 5 February 1919) was one of the most controversial Russian writers and philosophers of the pre-revolutionary epoch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976479}
{"src_title": "Ezequiel Garay", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Garay was born in Rosario, Santa Fe. At the early age of 18, he made his professional debut for hometown's Newell's Old Boys, in the Primera División. His first match was against Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata, as the local team eventually won the Apertura championship in the 2004–05 season.  Garay made another 12 league appearances for Newell's, scoring his first and only goal for the club in the local derby against Rosario Central, a 2–1 win.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Racing Santander.", "content": "Garay joined La Liga club Racing de Santander in December 2005, helping with seven complete matches as the Cantabria side barely avoided relegation. His first full season was nothing short of spectacular as he netted nine league goals in 31 games, being the second top scorer in his position in Europe's major leagues only behind Inter Milan's Marco Materazzi (ten); against Real Madrid only, he scored three times – 2–1 home win (both through penalties, as well as five other goals) and 1–3 away loss – as Racing eventually finished tenth, the club's best since returning to the top flight in 2002.  On 19 March 2008, in the semi-finals of the Copa del Rey against Getafe CF, Garay suffered a serious leg injury which put him out of action for the remainder of the campaign. He still scored three goals in 22 contests with his team finishing in a best-ever sixth position, qualifying for the first time to the UEFA Cup– one of those came on 30 September 2007 in a 1–0 win at UD Almería.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Real Madrid.", "content": "On 18 May 2008, Racing sold Garay to Real Madrid, but received the player again on a season-long loan. Returned in July 2009, he made his league debut for the latter on 29 August, in the opening game of the season against Deportivo de La Coruña, a 3–2 home win; on 12 December, after coming on as a substitute for severely injured Pepe, he scored his first goal for the club, heading in a free kick from Xabi Alonso to make it 3–2 at Valencia CF with six minutes to go.  Garay was only fourth-choice stopper in 2010–11 under new manager José Mourinho, only appearing in five league matches, adding two in the Spanish Cup (including one minute in the final against FC Barcelona, a 1–0 extra-time win).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Benfica.", "content": "On 5 July 2011, Garay transferred to S.L. Benfica for a fee of €5.5 million, signing a four-year contract – initially part of the deal that sent Fábio Coentrão to Real Madrid, Garay eventually signed a separate deal. Real Madrid also remained eligible for 50% of any transfer fee Benfica would receive, and the latter also sold part of his rights to Benfica Stars Fund for €1.175 million, making the club owner of 40%.  During his spell in Lisbon, Garay shared teams with a host of compatriots, and often partnered with Luisão in central defence. On 24 April 2014, he scored his eighth official goal of the season, netting his team's first in a 2–1 home victory over Juventus F.C. for the first leg of the Europa League semi-finals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zenit.", "content": "On 25 June 2014, Russian club FC Zenit Saint Petersburg signed Garay in a transfer totalling €6 million, with Benfica receiving €2.4 million for their 40% part of the player's rights.  He appeared in 42 games across all competitions in his first season, helping the team to their fifth Russian Premier League championship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Valencia.", "content": "On 31 August 2016, Garay joined Spanish club Valencia for a fee reported at around €20 million. He scored four goals in his debut campaign, but his side could only finish 12th.  Garay was on the starting XI in the 2019 Copa del Rey Final, a 2–1 triumph against Barcelona. In February 2020, after suffering a cruciate ligament injury to his right knee which would sideline him for up to six months, he asked to be released so that another player in his position could be signed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "In 2005, Garay helped the Argentine under-20s win the FIFA U-20 World Cup in the Netherlands. That side also included Sergio Agüero, Fernando Gago, Lionel Messi and Oscar Ustari.  Garay earned his first cap for the senior team cap in a friendly against Norway, a 1–2 loss on 22 August 2007. He had previously been called in May by coach Alfio Basile to a series of friendlies prior to the 2007 Copa América, but injury prevented him from appearing in those matches and the official competition.  Garay was selected by new national team manager Sergio Batista to the 2011 Copa América. He was also picked by the following coach, Alejandro Sabella, for his 2014 FIFA World Cup squad, making his debut in the competition on 15 June by featuring the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 group stage defeat of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He was first-choice in all the remaining games and, on 9 July, converted his penalty shootout attempt against the Netherlands (0–0 after 120 minutes) to send his country to the final for the first time in 24 years.  Garay made the list for the 2015 Copa América, starting in the team's opening fixture against Paraguay in La Serena (2–2).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "On 15 March 2020, Garay became the first La Liga player to test positive for COVID-19.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Newell's Old Boys  Real Madrid  Benfica  Zenit Saint Petersburg  Valencia", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Argentina U17  Argentina U20  Argentina U23  Argentina", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ezequiel Marcelo Garay González (; born 10 October 1986) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a central defender for Spanish club Valencia CF.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976480}
{"src_title": "Aleramici", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The founder of the family was William I of Montferrat, a Frank, who came to Italy in 888 or 889 to aid his fellow Frank Guy III of Spoleto in a quest for the Iron Crown of Lombardy. His son Aleram was the first to carry the title \"marchio\" or margrave.  By the 12th century, the Aleramici were one of the most considerable in Piedmont, related to the Capetians and the Hohenstaufen. Members of the family participated frequently in the Crusades, and became kings and queens of Jerusalem. They also married into the Byzantine imperial families of Comnenus, Angelus, and Palaeologus and, as a result of the Fourth Crusade, founded the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica.  Conrad of Montferrat (or Conrad I of Jerusalem) (Italian: Corrado di Monferrato; Piedmontese: Conrà ëd Monfrà) (mid-1140s – 28 April 1192) was a northern Italian nobleman, one of the major participants in the Third Crusade. He was the \"de facto\" King of Jerusalem, by marriage, from 24 November 1190, but officially elected only in 1192, days before his death. He was also marquis of Montferrat from 1191.  At the end of the 11th century the family was split into two main branches: one ruled Montferrat until 1305; the other (Del Vasto) ruled the south of Piedmont and western Liguria. In the middle of 12th century the Del Vasto family branched again into several lines, governing smaller marquisates, such as Saluzzo (from 1135 to 1548), Finale (ruled by the Del Carretto from 1135 to 1602), Ceva, Busca and Clavesana. The Del Carretto had many collateral lines in Piedmont, in Sicily and apparently even in France (de Charette). On the other hand, the Lancia are a branch of the marquesses of Busca.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Aleramici were a medieval Italian noble family of Frankish origin which ruled various northwestern counties and marches, in Piedmont and Liguria from the tenth to the 14th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976481}
{"src_title": "DF-31", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The PRC began developing the DF-31 ICBM in January 1985. ARMT (then called the 4th Aerospace Academy) was appointed as the main contractor while the research arm of the Second Artillery Corps provided contributing support. The land-based variant of the JL-2 was originally called the DF-23 but was changed later on to the DF-31 because of a change in operational requirements. In 1999, the missile was first displayed publicly at the National Day Parade. On August 2, 1999, the Chinese state news media reported the successful test of the DF-31. The third test flight of the missile occurred on November 4, 2000; the second test flight had taken place earlier that year. Operational deployment of the missiles reportedly began in 2006. In 2009, US Air Force Intelligence reported that under 15 DF-31 missiles had been deployed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The DF-31 is a three stage solid-fuel rocket equipped with an inertial navigation system. The missile is mounted on a transporter erector launcher. It is capable of reaching targets throughout Europe, Asia, and parts of Canada and the northwestern United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "DF-31A.", "content": "The PRC has developed an improved variant of the DF-31 called the DF-31A. This upgraded missile has a reported range of 11,200 km, will allow targeting of most of the continental United States and was designed with MIRV capability to hold 3 to 5 warheads, each capable of a 20–150 kt yield, but is thought to be armed with only one warhead with penetration and decoy aids to complicate missile defense efforts. The missile was shown to the public during the parade in Beijing celebrating 70 years since the end of World War II on September 3, 2015. It can carry maneuverable reentry vehicles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "DF-31AG/DF-31B.", "content": "The PRC has developed an improved variant of the DF-31A called the DF-31AG (G stands for 改 (Gaï), \"modified) or DF-31B with an off-road 8 axle TEL and MIRVs. China has successfully tested it from a mobile launcher. The missile's TEL features an extra pair of elevators near the aft of the missile unlike the TELs of the DF-31 or DF-31A, suggesting a heavier missile second and third stage than earlier variants. On the military parade marking the 90th Anniversary of the founding of the People’s Liberation Army in 2017, DF-31AG ICBM was officially demonstrated.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dong Feng 31 (; NATO reporting name CSS-10) is a third-generation long-range, road-mobile, three stage, solid-fuel rocket intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) in the Dongfeng missile series developed by the People's Republic of China. It is designed to carry a single 1-megaton thermonuclear weapon. It is a land-based variant of the submarine-launched JL-2. It is operated by the Second Artillery Corps (SAC) which, in 2009, was estimated to have under 15 DF-31 missiles and under 15 DF-31A missiles in inventory. US Air Force National Air and Space Intelligence Center estimates that as of June 2017, five to ten Mod 1 and over fifteen Mod 2 launchers were operationally deployed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976482}
{"src_title": "Spy Hard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Secret agent WD-40 Dick Steele (Leslie Nielsen) has his work cut out for him. Along with the mysterious and lovely Veronique Ukrinsky, Agent 3.14 (Nicollette Sheridan), he must rescue the kidnapped Barbara Dahl and stop the evil genius, a General named Rancor (Andy Griffith), from seizing control of the entire world.  Rancor was wounded in an earlier encounter and no longer has arms. However, he can \"arm\" himself by attaching robotic limbs with various weapons attached. Steele is approached by an old friend, agent Steven Bishop (Robert Guillaume), who unsuccessfully tries to recruit him out of retirement. However, when a news report Steele is watching reveals that Bishop has been killed, Steele returns to the agency. Steele given his new assignment by The Director (Charles Durning), who also is testing out a variety of elaborate disguises. At headquarters, Steele encounters an old agency nemesis, Norm Coleman (Barry Bostwick), and flirts with the Director's adoring secretary, referred to as Miss Cheevus (Marcia Gay Harden).  On the job, Steele is assisted by an agent named Kabul (John Ales), who gives him rides in a never-ending variety of specially designed cars. They seek help from McLuckey (Mason Gamble), a blond child left home alone, who is very good at fending off intruders. Steele resists the temptations of a dangerous woman (Talisa Soto) he finds waiting for him in bed. But he does work very closely with Agent 3.14, whose father, Professor Ukrinsky (Elya Baskin), is also being held captive by Rancor.  Everything comes to an explosive conclusion at the General's remote fortress, where Steele rescues both Barbara Dahl (Stephanie Romanov) and Miss Cheevus and launches a literally disarmed Rancor into outer space, saving mankind.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Title sequence.", "content": "\"Weird Al\" Yankovic sings the title song and directed the title sequence. It is a parody of title sequences from the James Bond films designed by Maurice Binder, specifically 1965's \"Thunderball\", complete with multiple colored backgrounds, silhouetted figures, women dancing with guns, and \"wavy\" text. Additionally, an urban legend states that during the recording of the theme to \"Thunderball\", Tom Jones held the song's final note long enough to pass out. Yankovic holds it so long that his head explodes. Originally, Yankovic had planned to loop the note to the required length, but in the studio, he discovered he was able to hold the note long enough that no looping was required. The sequence was later included on \"\", although, for legal reasons, all credits and titles had to be taken out, excluding that of the film and of Yankovic himself.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "The film opened at #3 with $10,448,420 behind \"\"s opening weekend and \"Twister\"s third. It eventually grossed $26,960,191 at the box office.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reaction.", "content": "\"Spy Hard\" was critically panned upon its release, receiving a \"Rotten\" rating of 8% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 40 reviews and a 3.5/10 rating. The site's consensus states: \"Leslie Nielsen's comic gifts are undisputed, but \"Spy Hard\"'s lazy script and slapdash direction fail to take advantage of them.\"  James Berardinelli of \"ReelViews\" wrote: \"Director Rick Friedberg [...] has crafted a dreadfully unfunny comedy that takes \"Naked Gun\"-like sketches and rehashes them without a whit of style or energy.... For movie-after-movie, Leslie Nielsen has milked this same personality, and it's starting to wear \"very\" thin. As affable as the actor is, there's just nothing left in this caricature. However, while \"Spy Hard\" might have worked better with, say, Roger Moore in the title role (his 007 was a parody towards the end, anyway), Nielsen's performance is only a small part of a massively-flawed production. \"Hard\" is the operative word here, because, even at just eighty-one minutes, this movie is unbelievably difficult to sit through.\"  Stephen Holden of \"The New York Times\" wrote: \"\"Spy Hard\" is never funnier than during its opening credit sequence in which \"Weird Al\" Yankovic bellows his parody of the brassy theme song from \"Goldfinger\", while obese cartoon silhouettes swim across the screen.... Instead of building sustained comic set pieces, it takes a machine-gun approach to humor. Without looking at where it's aiming, it opens fire and sprays comic bullets in all directions, trusting that a few will hit the bull's-eye. A few do, but many more don't.... Around the halfway point, \"Spy Hard\" begins to run out of ideas and becomes a series of crude, rambunctious parodies of other films.... When \"Spy Hard\" abruptly ends after only 81 minutes, you sense that it has used up every last round of available ammunition. It was simply exhausted and couldn't move another inch.\"  Mick LaSalle of \"San Francisco Chronicle\" wrote: \"It's done in the style of the Zucker-Abrahams-Zucker \"Naked Gun\" series, but although the style is there, the jokes aren't. \"Spy Hard\" relies on silly slapstick, takeoffs of recent films and the shock effect of celebrity cameos. But all that exertion doesn't add up to more than a handful of laughs.... The story is too weak to work even as a clothesline for gags. \"Spy Hard\" eschews a coherent story and instead just strings together movie takeoffs.... Nielsen, with his expert deadpan and sense of comic timing, creates the illusion of humor – for about 15 minutes. Thanks to him, what could have been an unbearable experience becomes merely empty. Still, he can't work miracles, and nothing short of a miracle could have made \"Spy Hard\" worth seeing.\"  Stephen Hunter of \"The Baltimore Sun\" gave the film a negative review, writing that the film is \"more of a parody of a parody than a parody\" and in particular criticizing director Rick Friedberg, asking, \"[w]as this poor guy ever funny?\"  Marcia Gay Harden wasn't a fan of the film itself as well:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Spy Hard is a 1996 American spy comedy film parody starring Leslie Nielsen and Nicollette Sheridan, parodying James Bond movies and other action films. The introduction to the movie is sung by comedy artist \"Weird Al\" Yankovic. It was the first film to be written by Jason Friedberg and Aaron Seltzer. The film's title is a parody of \"Die Hard\". The film was directed by Rick Friedberg and produced by Doug Draizin and Jeffrey Konvitz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976483}
{"src_title": "Club Atlético Colón", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The club was founded on 5 May 1905, as \"Colón Foot-ball Club\" by a group of friends that were enthusiastic about football. It was named after Cristóbal Colón (Christopher Columbus), whose biography was being studied by one of the boys at the time.  In 1965 Colon won the Primera B title. The first game played by Colón in Primera was v Chacarita Juniors on 6 May 1966. After the first season in the top level Colón finished 16th, but the following year the structure of Argentine football was changed so as there were two championships each season, the Metropolitano and the Nacional, with entrance to the latter originally only available to the higher placed Metropolitano teams. Colon did not qualify for the Nacional until 1968, although the squad did then managed a 6th place finish.  Colón finished 2nd in their group in the 1972 Nacional.  In 1975 the team made a good campaign in the Metropolitano, finishing in 6th place. This got better two years later, when Colón finished 5th in the Metropolitano, although the team then struggled in the Nacional. In 1978 Colón reached the knockout stages of the Nacional but was beaten in the quarter-finals by Independiente.  Colon was relegated from the Metropolitana in 1981 having won only 6 games that season It was to take 14 years for Colón to return to the top division (for the 1995–96 season). During the intervening period the team came close to promotion on a number of occasions, and lost Promotion Play-off games in 1988–89 to arch-rivals Union 3–0 on aggregate, and in 1992–93 Colón lost the championship play-off, being defeated by Banfield and then failed to qualify through the secondary play-offs.  After a few mid-table finishes Colón was placed 2nd in the 1997 Clausura tournament, which is team's highest placed finish to date. As River Plate won both titles that season, a play-off was required between the two runners-up. In December 1997 Colón defeated Independiente 1–0 to qualify for the Copa Libertadores 1998. In the 2016-17 season, Colón drew an average home league attendance of 25,000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "South American Tournament Qualification.", "content": "Colon made their South American debut in the Copa CONMEBOL 1997 against Universidad de Chile. They subsequently reached the semi-finals where they lost to fellow Argentine side Lanús.  They made their debut in South America's most prestigious club tournament (Copa Libertadores) the following season. Their first game in the group stage was a 1–2 home defeat to River Plate, although they were still to qualify for the knockout stages. After beating Olimpia on penalties they were again drawn to play River Plate, but were defeated 5–2 on aggregate in the quarter-final.  In 2003, they qualified for their 3rd different continental competition (Copa Sudamericana), and they defeated Vélez Sársfield before losing to Boca Juniors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stadium.", "content": "The club's current stadium is the Estadio Brigadier General Estanislao López, which holds 33,500 spectators. The ground was inaugurated in 1946, and received a renovation in 2002.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Club Atlético Colón (), commonly referred to as Colón de Santa Fe, is a sports club from Santa Fe, Argentina. The football team plays in the first division of the Argentine football league system, the Argentine Primera División.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976484}
{"src_title": "Prater", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name Prater derives from one or the other or possibly both Latin words ', meaning meadow, and \",\" meaning magistrate or lawyer, possibly via Spanish'or Italian \"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The area that makes up the modern Prater was first mentioned in 1162, when Emperor Friedrich I gave the land to a noble family called de Prato. The word \"Prater\" was first used in 1403, originally referring to a small island in the Danube north of Freudenau, but was gradually extended to mean the neighbouring areas as well. The land changed hands frequently until it was bought by Emperor Maximilian II in 1560 to be a hunting ground. To deal with the problem of poachers, Emperor Rudolf II forbade entry to the Prater. On April 7, 1766, Emperor Joseph II declared the Prater to be free for public enjoyment, and allowed the establishment of coffee-houses and cafés, which led to the beginnings of the Wurstelprater. Throughout this time, hunting continued to take place in the Prater, ending only in 1920.  In 1873, a World Exhibition was held in the Prater, for which a large area of land was set aside, centered on the Rotunda, which burnt down in 1937. This land now houses the \" (exhibition centre).  On the grounds of modern-day Kaiserwiese, an attraction called \"Venice in Vienna” was established in 1895 by Gabor Steiner. The area included an artificial lagoon to simulate the canals of Venice, Italy.  In 2004, major renovations to the began, and a new underground railway line was finished and brought into service on May 11, 2008, which includes three stops along the Prater (see Vienna U-Bahn). Wien Praterstern railway station has been in operation for a long time and is only a few dozen metres away from an entrance to the park.  The overall area of the park has also been reduced by the building of the Ernst-Happel-Stadion (Austria's national stadium), the \" (Austria's busiest motorway) and Krieau Race Track. In 2013, the new campus of the Vienna University of Economics and Business was opened next to the Prater.  In 2019, Eliud Kipchoge ran the marathon distance of 26.2 miles laps on a stretch of road in the park in the. His time of 1:59:40 was the first time anyone had run the marathon distance in under two hours.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other attractions.", "content": "The'(main avenue) is the main artery, lined with horse chestnut trees, closed to motorists and known to sports enthusiasts from the annual Vienna Marathon. The is home to the Liliputbahn, a narrow gauge railway. Another unusual object to be found in the is the'(Republic of Kugelmugel), a spherical micronation. The also houses a planetarium and the Prater Museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Prater () is a large public park in Vienna's 2nd district (). The Wurstelprater, an amusement park that is often simply called \"Prater\", lies in one corner of the Wiener Prater and includes the Wiener Riesenrad Ferris wheel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976485}
{"src_title": "51 Pegasi b", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "51 Pegasi is the Flamsteed designation of the host star. The planet was originally designated 51 Pegasi b by Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz, who discovered the planet in December 1995. The following year it was unofficially dubbed \"Bellerophon\" by astronomer Geoffrey Marcy, who followed the convention of naming planets after Greek and Roman mythological figures (Bellerophon was a figure from Greek mythology who rode the winged horse Pegasus).  In July 2014, the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars. The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names. In December 2015, the IAU announced the winning name for this planet was Dimidium. The name was submitted by the Astronomische Gesellschaft Luzern (), Switzerland. 'Dimidium' is Latin for 'half', referring to the planet's mass of at least half the mass of Jupiter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery.", "content": "The exoplanet's discovery was announced on October 6, 1995, by Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva in the journal \"Nature\". They used the radial velocity method with the ELODIE spectrograph on the Observatoire de Haute-Provence telescope in France and made world headlines with their announcement. For this discovery, they were awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics.  The planet was discovered using a sensitive spectroscope that could detect the slight and regular velocity changes in the star's spectral lines of around 70 metres per second. These changes are caused by the planet's gravitational effects from just 7 million kilometres' distance from the star.  Within a week of the announcement, the planet was confirmed by another team using the Lick Observatory in California.  This was the first discovery of an exoplanet orbiting a Sun-like star (the first exoplanet discovery was made by Aleksander Wolszczan in 1992, around pulsar PSR 1257). It marked a turning point and forced astronomers to accept that giant planets could exist in short-period orbits. Once astronomers realized that it was worth looking for giant planets with the currently available technology, much more telescope time was devoted to radial velocity planet searches, and hence many more exoplanets in the Sun's neighborhood were discovered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical characteristics.", "content": "After its discovery, many teams confirmed the planet's existence and obtained more observations of its properties. It was discovered that the planet orbits the star in around four days. It is much closer to it than Mercury is to the Sun, moves at an orbital speed of 136 km/s, yet has a minimum mass about half that of Jupiter (about 150 times that of the Earth). At the time, the presence of a huge world so close to its star was not compatible with theories of planet formation and was considered an anomaly. However, since then, numerous other 'hot Jupiters' have been discovered (such as 55 Cancri and τ Boötis), and astronomers are revising their theories of planet formation to account for them by studying orbital migration.  Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects, and a Bond albedo of 0.1, the temperature would be 1265 K (approximately 1000 °C / 1800 °F). This is between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b (1180–1392 K), before they were measured.  In the report of the discovery, it was initially speculated that 51 Pegasi b was the stripped core of a brown dwarf of a decomposed star and was therefore composed of heavy elements, but it is now believed to be a gas giant. It is sufficiently massive that its thick atmosphere is not blown away by the star's solar wind.  51 Pegasi b probably has a greater radius than that of Jupiter despite its lower mass. This is because its superheated atmosphere must be puffed up into a thick but tenuous layer surrounding it. Beneath this, the gases that make up the planet would be so hot that the planet would glow red. Clouds of silicates may exist in the atmosphere.  The planet is tidally locked to its star, always presenting the same face to it.  The planet (with Upsilon Andromedae b) was deemed a candidate for aperture polarimetry by Planetpol. It is also a candidate for \"near-infrared characterisation... with the VLTI Spectro-Imager\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Direct detection of visible light.", "content": "The first ever direct detection of the visible light spectrum reflected from an exoplanet has been made by an international team of astronomers on 51 Pegasi b. The astronomers studied light from 51 Pegasi b using the High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) instrument at the European Southern Observatory's La Silla Observatory in Chile. This detection allowed the inference of a true mass of 0.46 Jupiter masses.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "51 Pegasi b (abbreviated 51 Peg b), unofficially dubbed Bellerophon, later formally named Dimidium, is an extrasolar planet approximately 50 light-years away in the constellation of Pegasus. It was the first exoplanet to be discovered orbiting a main-sequence star, the Sun-like 51 Pegasi, and marked a breakthrough in astronomical research. It is the prototype for a class of planets called hot Jupiters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976486}
{"src_title": "Dorothy Thompson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Dorothy Thompson was born in Lancaster, New York, in 1893, one of three children of Peter and Margaret (Grierson) Thompson. Her siblings were Peter Willard Thompson and Margaret Thompson (later Mrs. Howard Wilson). Her mother died when Dorothy was seven (in April 1901), leaving Peter, a Methodist preacher, to raise his children alone. Peter soon remarried, but Dorothy did not get along with his new wife, Elizabeth Abbott Thompson. In 1908, Peter sent Dorothy to Chicago to live with his two sisters to avoid further conflict. Here, she attended Lewis Institute for two years before transferring to Syracuse University as a junior. At Syracuse, she studied politics and economics and graduated with a degree in 1914. Because she had the opportunity to be educated, unlike many women of the time, Thompson felt that she had a social obligation to fight for women's suffrage in the United States, which would become the base of her ardent political beliefs. Shortly after graduation, Thompson moved to Buffalo, New York and became involved in the women's suffrage campaign. She worked there until 1920, when she went abroad to pursue her journalism career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Journalism in Europe.", "content": "After working for women’s suffrage in the United States, Thompson relocated to Europe in 1920 to pursue her journalism career. She was interested in the early Zionist movement. Her big break occurred when she visited Ireland in 1920 and was the last to interview Terence MacSwiney, one of the major leaders of the Sinn Féin movement. It was the last interview MacSwiney gave before he was arrested days later and died two months after that. Because of her success abroad, she was appointed Vienna correspondent for the Philadelphia \"Public Ledger\". While working in Vienna, Thompson focused on becoming fluent in German. She met and worked alongside correspondents John Gunther and G. E. R. Gedye. In 1925, she was promoted to Chief of the Central European Service for the \"Public Ledger\". She resigned in 1927 and, not long after, the \"New York Post\" appointed her head of its Berlin bureau in Germany. There she witnessed firsthand the rise of the National Socialist or Nazi party. According to her biographer, Peter Kurth, Thompson was \"the undisputed queen of the overseas press corps, the first woman to head a foreign news bureau of any importance.\"  During this time Thompson cultivated many literary friends, particularly among exiled German authors. Among her acquaintances from this period were Ödön von Horváth, Thomas Mann, Bertolt Brecht, Stefan Zweig and Fritz Kortner. She developed a close friendship with author Carl Zuckmayer. In Berlin she even got involved in a lesbian affair with German author Christa Winsloe, while still married, claiming \"the right to love\".  Thompson's most significant work abroad took place in Germany in the early 1930s. While working in Munich, Thompson met and interviewed Adolf Hitler for the first time in 1931. This would be the basis for her subsequent book, \"I Saw Hitler\", in which she wrote about the dangers of him winning power in Germany. Thompson described Hitler in the following terms: \"He is formless, almost faceless, a man whose countenance is a caricature, a man whose framework seems cartilaginous, without bones. He is inconsequent and voluble, ill poised and insecure. He is the very prototype of the little man.\"  Later, when the full force of Nazism had crashed over Europe, Thompson was asked to defend her \"Little Man\" remarks; it seemed she had underestimated Hitler. The Nazis considered both the book and her articles offensive and, in August 1934, Thompson was expelled from Germany. She was the first American journalist to be kicked out.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "At the New York Tribune.", "content": "In 1936 Thompson began writing \"On the Record\", a \"New York Tribune\" syndicated newspaper column. It was read by over ten million people and carried by more than 170 papers. She also wrote a monthly column for the \"Ladies' Home Journal\" for 24 years (1937–1961); its topics were far removed from war and politics, focusing on gardening, children, art, and other domestic and women's-interest topics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Radio and the Herschel Grynszpan affair.", "content": "Around the same time as she started \"On the Record\", NBC hired Thompson as a news commentator. She began in 1936 and remained with NBC until 1938. Her radio broadcasts went on to become some of the most popular in the United States, making her one of the most sought after female public speakers of her time. When Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939, Thompson went on the air for fifteen consecutive days and nights.  In 1938, Thompson championed the cause of a Polish-German Jewish teenager, Herschel Grynszpan, whose assassination in Paris of a minor German diplomat, Ernst vom Rath, had been used as propaganda by the Nazis to trigger the events of Kristallnacht in Germany. Thompson's broadcast on NBC radio was heard by millions of listeners, and led to an outpouring of sympathy for the young assassin. Under the banner of the Journalists' Defense Fund, over $40,000 USD was collected, enabling famed European lawyer Vincent de Moro-Giafferi to take up Grynszpan's case.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fame and controversy.", "content": "In 1939, Thompson was featured on the cover of \"Time\", with an accompanying picture of her speaking into an NBC radio microphone. The article was captioned \"she rides in the smoking car\" and it declared that \"she and Eleanor Roosevelt are undoubtedly the most influential women in the U.S.\" She was one of the most respected women of her age. The article explained Thompson's influence: \"Dorothy Thompson is the U.S. clubwoman's woman. She is read, believed and quoted by millions of women who used to get their political opinions from their husbands, who got them from Walter Lippmann.\" In \"Woman of the Year\" (1942) Katharine Hepburn played Tess Harding, a character directly based on Thompson. The Broadway musical is based on Thompson as well, this time played by Lauren Bacall.  In 1941, Thompson wrote \"Who Goes Nazi?\" for \"Harper's Magazine\". She was a keynote speaker at the Biltmore Conference, and by war's end was regarded as one of the most effective spokespersons for Zionism. Thompson switched her views round radically after a trip to Palestine in 1945, and ran into difficulties, including accusations of anti-Semitism, which she strongly rebuffed, after being warned that hostility toward Israel was, in the American press world, \"almost a definition of professional suicide\". She eventually concluded that Zionism was a recipe for perpetual war.  Thompson died 1961, aged 67, in Lisbon, Portugal and is buried in the Town cemetery, Barnard, Vermont.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family life.", "content": "She was married three times, most famously to second husband and Nobel Prize in literature winner Sinclair Lewis. In 1923 she married her first husband, Hungarian Joseph Bard; they divorced in 1927. Thompson married Lewis in 1928 and acquired a house in Vermont. They had one son, Michael Lewis, born in 1930. The couple divorced in 1942. She married her third husband, the artist Maxim Kopf, in 1945, and they were married until Kopf's death in 1958.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Her marriage to Sinclair Lewis was the subject of Sherman Yellen's Broadway play \"Strangers\", where she was played by Lois Nettleton. The play opened on March 4, 1979 and closed after nine performances.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dorothy Celene Thompson (July 9, 1893 – January 30, 1961) was an American journalist and radio broadcaster, who in 1939 was recognized by \"Time\" magazine as being equal in influence to Eleanor Roosevelt. She is notable as the first American journalist to be expelled from Nazi Germany in 1934 and as one of the few women news commentators on radio during the 1930s. She is regarded by some as the \"First Lady of American Journalism\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976487}
{"src_title": "Jelena Tomašević", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Music career.", "content": "Jelena gained notability at the age of eight when she won the top award at the children's music festival \"Šarenijada\" in Kragujevac and three years later, she became the winner of the Yugoslav Children's Festival. After becoming a member of the Abrašević Folklore Ensemble, one of the most successful Serbian ensembles, her music career soared. She achieved tremendous results at the most prestigious festivals in Central and Eastern Europe (Czech Republic, Belarus, Bulgaria etc.). In 1996. at the Folklore Festival Serbian Ensemble's she won the award of the best soloist.  In 2002, Jelena emerged on the Serbian music scene and her career as a pop singer started to take off. She competed and won over the jury in an Idol style show, called \"3K dur\" aired on RTS3 with the aim of promoting young talented artists.  After this turning point in Jelena's career, she made a huge breakthrough. In 2003, she competed for the first time at the Budva Festival and finished second at the prestigious festival \"Slavjanski bazar\" in Belarus. The same year she collaborated with music group Biber.  In 2004, singing the song \"Kad ne bude tvoje ljubavi\" with great success at the Beovizija Festival, the Serbian selection for the Eurovision Song Contest.  In 2005, she started a professional involvement with popular Serbian singer Željko Joksimović. She became a member of Minacord Production Company. At the Beovizija 2005, she sang the song \"Jutro\" composed by Željko Joksimović, written by Aleksandra Milutinović and won. Jelena was considered one of the favourites, ultimately she missed out in controversial fashion at the overall Serbia and Montenegro final (Evropesma), when all four Montenegrin jurors overlooked it in distributing their points. This was the final appearance at the contest for a united Serbia and Montenegro.  Later the same year, she sang the soundtrack to the film Ivkova slava which was written by Željko Joksimović. The film pulled in a record number of viewers. In September 2005, she sang at the opening of the EuroBasket 2005 in Belgrade. At the end of this year she was a guest in Joksimović's album.  Many songs of her debut album \"Panta rei\" are written by her. In 2007, was her first appearance as a lyrics writer, she wrote the song \"Gotova stvar\", for the Montenegrin singer Milena Vučić.  In December 2007, Jelena Tomašević entered the Beovizija 2008. Open competition with song \"Oro\" composed by Željko Joksimović and written by Dejan Ivanović. In March 2008, she won the Serbian national selection, having received the highest number of points from both the jury and televoters. She was awarded as the best interpretation prize by the selection jury. She represented Serbia in Eurovision Song Contest 2008 in Belgrade and came sixth.  Her debut album Panta rei successfully released in October 2008. Including 15 tracks, most composed by Željko Joksimović.  In 2009, Jelena recorded a trio song dedicated to peace, with the participants of Eurovision 2008, Boaz Mauda (Israel) and Sirusho (Armenia). The song is called \"Time To Pray\" and the lyricist is the president of Israel, Shimon Peres. The song premiered in Serbia during the Serbian National Final of Eurovision 2009, also presented in Armenia and Israel that same year.  In memoriam music collection \"Toše i prijatelji\" in 2010, Jelena Tomašević taking part with song \"Gde da odem da te ne volim\" composed by Toše Proeski. The summer of that year she filmed her spot in Ibiza and toured Yugoslavia as guest at Joksimović's concerts.  In 2011, Jelena traveled to Canada and US for two traditional theme concerts. Unfortunately she appeared only in Toronto, because of a problem with her visa when she arrived in Chicago.  After a small pause because of her wedding and her daughter's birth, on February 24, 2012, Jelena released at the TV Show \"Ja imam talenat\", song \"Melanholija\". The composer is Rafael Artesero from Spain and lyrics writer Ljiljana Jorgovanović. Next year on June 23, released her second single \"Vertigo\" from her upcoming album. Her good friend and college Emina Jahović is the composer and lyrics writer.  Same year, on October 5, 2013, Jelena traveled in Barcelona, where invited from OGAE Spain to sing for Eurovision fans. Also, there she filmed her video clip for the song \"Radio svira za nas\", which realised on November 26, 2013. The composer is Darko Dimitrov and lyrics writer Aleksandra Milutinović.  Exactly one year later, this time OGAE Portugal asked Jelena as a guest star at their ESC party. Jelena competed in two concerts at Setubal with great Portuguese artists.  On December 6, 2014, Jelena finished her records for her second studio album. On 29. May 2015 she released one more single, called \"Ime moje\". One month later her homonym album (cc \"Ime moje\") is out, expect new songs, including her last three years singles and some old songs that never released on an album. She used to say that this album is full of songs given to her as presents from good friends and colleges.  From 2014 to 2018 she appeared as a judge in the Serbian children's talent show Pinkove zvezdice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theatre appearance.", "content": "On 2012, Jelena took part at the musical \"Beli ždralovi\" held in Belgrade. It's based on the Soviet movie \"The cranes are flying\". In 2015, Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko invited this musical performance to Minsk on May 5, 2015, the celebration day of victory against Nazi. The director is the Serbian actress Ivana Žigon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Jelena finished Elementary School and Mathematic Gymnasium in Kragujevac in 2002. That same year she started studying English (in which she is fluent) at the University of Kragujevac. She has put her studies on hold but plans to graduate one day.  On August 28, 2011, she married the Serbian actor Ivan Bosiljčić; and on January 24, 2012, they had a baby girl named Ninoslava.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jelena Tomašević (; ; born November 1, 1983) is a Serbian pop singer of international career famed for her strong vocal performances. She has won numerous awards for her songs and represented Serbia at 2008 Eurovision Song Contest, coming sixth with the song \"Oro\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976488}
{"src_title": "Princess Ragnhild, Mrs. Lorentzen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Ragnhild was the first Norwegian princess to have been born on Norwegian soil for 629 years. She grew up at the royal residence of Skaugum near Asker, west of Oslo. She was christened in the Palace Chapel on 27 June 1930 and her godparents were: her paternal grandparents, The King and Queen of Norway; her maternal grandparents, The Duke and Duchess of Västergötland; her great uncle, The King of Sweden; her great aunt, Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom; her maternal aunt, Princess Axel of Denmark; and The Duke of York.  In 1940, during World War II, she and her family fled the German invasion of Norway, and she spent the wartime years in exile with her mother and siblings in Washington, D.C.. Before the birth of her younger brother, it was assumed she would accede to the throne in the absence of a male heir, although this would have required a constitutional amendment, as women could not inherit the throne at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "Princess Ragnhild married Erling Lorentzen, a member of the Norwegian merchant upper-class (see Lorentzen family), in Asker on 15 May 1953. Lorentzen was a businessman and army officer who had served as her bodyguard during the War. There was great controversy at the time as she was the first member of the Norwegian Royal Family to marry non-royalty. (In Norway, there is a tradition of \"official flagdays\", and royal birthdays are normally listed as such occasions; however, soon after the couple's wedding, it was announced that her birthday (9 June) would cease to be such an official flagday.)  Following her marriage, the couple moved to Rio de Janeiro, where her husband had substantial business holdings. Their residence in Brazil there was originally temporary, but they eventually settled there, and remained in Rio until Ragnhild's death in 2012. In Brazil, her husband founded Aracruz Celulose. The couple had three children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public life.", "content": "Princess Ragnhild opened the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway, as her father and grandfather were attending the funeral of King George VI.  A conservative, Princess Ragnhild publicly criticized her niece and nephew, Princess Märtha Louise and Crown Prince Haakon Magnus, for their choice of spouses, in 2004.  Princess Ragnhild was patron of the Norwegian Organisation for the Hearing Impaired.  Several ships, including MS \"Prinsesse Ragnhild\", were named for her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Princess Ragnhild died of cancer at her home in Rio de Janeiro on 16 September 2012, aged 82. Her body arrived in Oslo on 24 September 2012, where her brother King Harald V and her sister Princess Astrid were present to greet her alongside her spouse Erling and their children. The funeral of Princess Ragnhild was held on 28 September 2012 in the chapel of the Royal Palace of Oslo. She was later cremated and privately interred in the church of Asker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honorific eponym.", "content": "A 540 000 km2 area in Antarctica is named Princess Ragnhild Coast in her honour. The Jahre Line (later Color Line) cruiseferry was named in her honour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancestry.", "content": "She was a great-great granddaughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and thus a second cousin to Queen Elizabeth II. At the time of her birth she was 17th in the line of succession to the British throne, and 77th at the time of her death. Princess Ragnhild's maternal aunt was Queen Astrid of Belgium, which also made Princess Ragnhild a first cousin of kings Baudouin and Albert II of Belgium.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Ragnhild, Mrs Lorentzen (Ragnhild Alexandra; 9 June 1930 – 16 September 2012), was the eldest child of King Olav V of Norway and Princess Märtha of Sweden. She was the older sister of King Harald V and Princess Astrid. She was the first royal to have been born in Norway since the middle ages. In 1953 she married the industrialist Erling Lorentzen, a member of the Lorentzen family of shipping magnates. In the same year they moved to Brazil, where her husband was an industrialist and a main owner of Aracruz Celulose. She lived in Brazil until her death 59 years later.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976489}
{"src_title": "Duchess Jutta of Mecklenburg-Strelitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and marriage.", "content": "Duchess Auguste Charlotte \"Jutta\" (Judith) Alexandra Georgina Adolphine of Mecklenburg was born in Neustrelitz, the youngest daughter of the then Hereditary Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Adolf Friedrich and his wife Princess Elisabeth of Anhalt. Along with her sister Marie, Jutta was raised by governesses and had little contact with her parents. The atmosphere of Erbgrossherzog Palace was noted for its rigor and need for etiquette. A scandal broke out when her 19-year-old sister became pregnant by a palace servant.  Through the influence of the German Emperor, William II, her marriage to the heir apparent of Montenegro Prince Danilo was arranged. Hours after her arrival at Antivari in Montenegro she converted to the Orthodox faith. She was accompanied by her future brother in law the Crown Prince of Italy, Victor Emmanuel as she made her way to Cetinje for her wedding. She married Prince Danilo on 27 July 1899. After her marriage and conversion to Orthodoxy she took the name Militza.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I and later life.", "content": "During the First World War, Montenegro fought against the Central Powers which included the country of her birth, the German Empire. These links did not stop her from being a target; the villa in Antivari where she was staying was bombed by Austrian aircraft. After the war, the Royal Family established a government in exile after Montenegro was incorporated into the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Her father-in-law King Nicholas I died on 1 March 1921 and her husband succeeded as titular King of Montenegro. He only held the position for a week before abdicating in favour of his nephew Michael.  Jutta spent the rest of her life in exile. She and her husband lived in France. Danilo died in Vienna in 1939. Jutta died in Rome where her brother-in-law King Victor Emmanuel III reigned.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Duchess Jutta of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (Auguste Charlotte Jutta Alexandra Georgina Adophine; 24 January 1880 – 17 February 1946) was a member of the House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and the consort of Crown Prince Danilo of Montenegro. When a married woman, she was known as \"Militza\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976490}
{"src_title": "From the Life of the Marionettes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Peter Egermann visits and murders a prostitute named Ka, committing an act of necrophilia. The coroner interrogates Peter's friends for an explanation. Mogens Jensen tells the coroner he is shocked by the murder, claiming there were no signs this could happen. Peter is married to career woman Katarina; they have no children. In fact, Peter had confided in Jensen that he was plagued with homicidal thoughts, primarily aimed against Katarina. Jensen considered the thoughts likely not serious, but advised Katarina to leave town. Katarina dismissed the warning as preposterous, and given it was a busy season for work, she decided it was impossible for her to leave.  Before the murder, Peter considered suicide by throwing himself from a building, and Katarina called a friend to calm him down. Peter came back inside, where he quarreled with Katarina. The two shared an open relationship, as Katarina seeks other lovers. Peter claimed he is the one who knows how to sexually satisfy Katarina. Katarina responded she sometimes had orgasms with Peter, but also that she sometimes faked them and left the bedroom to masturbate, and that on other occasions she only had small convulsions.  The interrogator questions Tim, a homosexual. Tim is a business partner of Katarina and her friend, and by extension, he also knew Peter. The interrogator asks if Tim ever had an affair with Peter; Tim hesitates before replying no. Agitated, Tim reveals he had desires for Peter, and is suffering a guilty conscience after having introduced Peter to Ka. Ka was one of Tim's friends. Tim blames his homosexuality for bringing Peter and Ka together, saying he had difficulties with Katarina and liked the idea that Peter would cheat on her with a prostitute. Slowly, he thought, he would lure Peter to him.  When Peter met Ka at a Munich peep show, Ka told Peter her real name was Katarina, the same as his wife. He tearfully murdered her. Jensen concludes that Peter, having grown up under an aggressive mother and then lived with a similarly aggressive wife, was unaware of his own latent homosexuality and that meeting Ka disrupted Peter's daily routine and triggered an emotional blackout. Peter is confined to a mental institute, where he cradles a teddy bear at night.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Ingmar Bergman wrote \"From the Life of the Marionettes\" after being arrested in Stockholm in 1976 and subsequently leaving for West Germany. He stated: He based the lead characters after Peter and Katarina in his 1973 miniseries \"Scenes from a Marriage\". Bergman's initial conception for the project was titled \"Love for No Lovers\", but in the rewrite culminating in \"From the Life of the Marionettes\" Peter and Katarina were reimagined as a German couple distinct from the Swedish characters in \"Scenes from a Marriage\". Bergman explained the final title: In casting, the filmmakers recruited all actors from the Residenztheater.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Filming.", "content": "The film was shot in the Bavaria Film Studios in Munich, and at Tobis Film Studios, beginning in October 1979. Bergman's regular cinematographer Sven Nykvist returned for the project. Nykvist and Bergman mainly shot in black-and-white, but at the insistence of television broadcaster ZDF, some colour was added and a red tint was given to the prologue for fear the black-and-white would lose viewers.  German composer Rolf A. Wilhelm wrote the score, making use of timpani and glass harmonicas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "The premiere took place in July 1980 at a minor festival in Oxford, with Tobis Film as the main distributor. The film was originally made for television and had its TV premiere on German ZDF on 3 November 1980; it went to German theatres on 6 November. It was subsequently released in Swedish theatres on 24 January 1981.  On 28 January 1981, \"From the Life of the Marionettes\" screened on SVT1. The Criterion Collection released a Blu-ray on 20 November 2018, along with 38 other Bergman films, in the set \"Ingmar Bergman's Cinema\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "According to author Birgitta Steene, Swedish critics were generally \"respectful but not enthusiastic\". Janet Maslin credited Bergman for a \"forceful\" work despite what she found to be \"less articulate or analytical\" characters, praised Nykvist's shots in dream sequences, and positively reviewed Christine Buchegger and Robert Atzorn's performances. David Denby wrote \"I wish [Bergman] had dramatized more and explained a whole lot less\". \"People\" staff criticized it as \"banal\" with \"no suspense\". In his \"Movie Guide\", Leonard Maltin gave the film three and a half stars, describing it as \"Powerful, provocative\".  The film was nominated for Best Foreign Language Film of the year by the U.S. National Board of Review. It currently holds a 60% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 10 reviews.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "From the Life of the Marionettes () is a 1980 television film directed by Ingmar Bergman. The film was produced in West Germany with a German-language screenplay and soundtrack while Bergman was in \"tax exile\" from his native Sweden. It is filmed in black and white apart from two colour sequences at the beginning and end of the film.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976491}
{"src_title": "Alfama", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Rua do Barão is one of the streets of the Freguesia da Sé, which begins at the Rua São João da Praça (where once stood the Door of the Alfama) and ends at Rua Augusto Rosa (at the Cathedral's walls). The toponym \"Rua do Barão\" is because João Fernandes da Silveira, the first Baron of Alvito, minister of Portuguese kings Dom Afonso V and Dom João II, lived here.  During the times of Moorish domination, Alfama constituted the whole of the city, which later spread to the West (Baixa neighbourhood). Alfama became inhabited by the fishermen and the poor, and its condition as the neighbourhood of the poor continues to this day.  The great 1755 Lisbon earthquake did not destroy the Alfama, which has remained a picturesque labyrinth of narrow streets and small squares. Lately the neighbourhood has been invigorated with the renovation of the old houses and new restaurants where Fado—Portuguese typical melancholy music—can be enjoyed.  Overlooking the Alfama is the medieval Castle of São Jorge, royal residence until the early 16th century and now offering the best views of the city. In the slopes of Alfama there are other terraces (\"miradouros\") from which to see the city, like the \"Miradouro de Santa Luzia\", near the church of the same name and over remnants of the Moorish city walls, and the \"Miradouro das Portas do Sol\" (Gates of the Sun). Near Miradouro of Santa Luzia is located the Museum of Decorative Arts (\"Museu de Artes Decorativas\"), a 17th-century mansion with magnificent interiors.  From 2012, Alfama is part of the freguesia of Santa Maria Maior.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Landmarks.", "content": "Among the churches of the Alfama are Lisbon Cathedral (12th–14th centuries), the oldest of the city and located to the West of the neighbourhood, the Convent of the Grace (\"Convento da Graça\", 18th century), near the Castle, the mannerist Monastery of São Vicente de Fora (late 16th–18th century), where the Kings of the House of Braganza are buried, and the baroque Church of Santa Engrácia (17th century), now converted into a National Pantheon for important Portuguese personalities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Alfama () is the oldest neighborhood of Lisbon, spreading on the slope between the São Jorge Castle and the Tagus river. Its name comes from the Arabic \"Al-hamma\" (), meaning \"hot fountains\" or \"baths\". The district includes the \"freguesias\" (parishes) of São Miguel, Santo Estêvão, São Vicente de Fora and part of the two streets, \"Freguesia da Sé: Rua do Barão\" and \"Rua São João da Praça\". It contains many important historical attractions, as well as an abundance of Fado bars and restaurants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976492}
{"src_title": "Temple of the Tooth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "After the \"parinirvana\" of Gautama Buddha, the tooth relic was preserved in Kalinga and smuggled to the island by Princess Hemamali and her husband, Prince Dantha on the instructions of her father King Guhasiva. They landed on the island in Lankapattana during the reign of Sirimeghavanna of Anuradhapura (301-328) and handed over the tooth relic. The king enshrined it \"Meghagiri Vihara\" (present day Isurumuniya) in Anuradhapura. Safeguard of the relic was a responsibility of the monarch, therefore over the years, the custodianship of relic came to symbolize the right to rule. Therefore, reigning monarchs built the tooth relic temples quite close to their royal residences, as was the case during the times of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, Kingdom of Polonnaruwa, and Kingdom of Dambadeniya. During the era of the Kingdom of Gampola, the relic was housed in \"Niyamgampaya Vihara\". It is reported in the messenger poems such as \"Hamsa\", \"Gira\", and \"Selalihini\" that the temple of tooth relic was situated within the city of Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte when the Kingdom of Kotte was established there.  During the reign of Dharmapala of Kotte, the relic was kept hidden in Delgamuwa Vihara, Ratnapura, in a grinding stone. It was brought to Kandy by Hiripitiye Diyawadana Rala and Devanagala Rathnalankara Thera. King Vimaladharmasuriya I built a two-storey building to deposit the tooth relic and the building is now gone. In 1603 when the Portuguese invaded Kandy, it was carried to Meda Mahanuwara in Dumbara. It was recovered in the time of Rajasinha II and it has been reported that he reinstated the original building or built a new temple. The present-day temple of the tooth was built by Vira Narendra Sinha. The octagonal \"Paththirippuwa\" and moat were added during the reign of Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. The royal architect Devendra Moolacharya is credited with building the \"Paththirippuwa\". Originally it was used by the king for recreational activities and later it was offered to the tooth relic, it now houses the temple's library.  The temple has been attacked on two occasions, in 1989 by the \"Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna\" and in 1998 by the militant organization Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The brick wall which runs along the moat and Bogambara lake is known as water waves wall. Holes in this wall are built to light coconut oil lamps. The main entrance gate which lies over the moat is called \"Mahawahalkada\". At the foot of \"Mahawahalkada\" steps, there is a \"Sandakada pahana\" (moonstone) which is carved in Kandyan architectural style. \"Mahawahalkada\" was totally destroyed in a 1998 bomb blast and rebuilt afterward along with \"Sandakada pahana\" other stone carvings. Elephants are depicted in stone on either side of the entrance. A \"Makara\" \"Torana\" and two guardian stones are placed on top of the staircase.  \"Hewisi\" drummers' chamber is situated in front of the main shrine. The two storeys of the main shrine are known as \"Palle malaya\" (lower floor) and \"Udu malaya\" (upper floor) or \"Weda hitina maligawa\". The doors of the \"Weda Hitana Maligawa\" are Ivory carvings. The actual chamber in which the tooth relic is kept is known as the \"Handun kunama\".  The golden canopy over the main shrine, built in 1987 by Prime Minister Ranasinghe Premadasa, and the golden fence which encircles the main shrine are other notable features. The tooth relic is encased in seven golden caskets which are engraved with precious gemstones. The caskets have a shape of a stupa. The procession casket which is used during the \"Kandy Esala Perahera\" is also displayed in the same chamber.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Associated buildings and structures.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royal Palace.", "content": "The royal palace is situated to the north of the temple. John Pybus, who was on an embassy in 1762, gives a detailed description on the royal palace. Vikramabahu III of Gampola (r. 1356-1374) and Sena Sammatha Wickramabahu of Kandy (r. 1469-1511) built royal palaces on this site. Vimaladharmasuriya I of Kandy undertook various decorations to the palace. The Dutch orientalist Philippus Baldaeus visited the palace with General Gerard Pietersz Hulft in 1656. The royal residence was known as \"Maha Wasala\" in Sinhalese starting in the \"Polonnaruwa\" period. The royal palace is also known as \"Maligawa.\" There were three \"Wahalkadas\" and an high wall used as main entrances. The section of the palace facing the \"Natha Devale\" is said to be the oldest. During the beginning of the British period, it was used by government agent Sir John D'Oyly, 1st Baronet, of Kandy. Successors of D'Oyly have continued to use it as their official residence. Today it is preserved as an archeological museum. \"Ulpen Ge\" and Queens Palace are the associated buildings of the palace.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Audience hall.", "content": "The audience hall or \"magul maduwa\" is where the Kandyan kings held their court. It was completed during the reign of Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. The carvings of the wooden pillars which support the wooden roof are an example of wood carving of the Kandyan period. Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha of Kandy built it in 1783. The hall was renovated for the reception of arrival of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales in 1872. Originally the hall was ; after renovation, its length was extended by an additional. Other nearby building to the halls believed to be demolished during the British rule. The audience hall was the venue where the Kandyan Convention was drawn up, it was where the convention was read out to the people and where the conference, about the convention was held on 2 March 1815. That space was later used to erect the Kandy \"Kachcheri\" and Kandy Supreme Court. Today it is used for state ceremonies and conserved under the department of archaeology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Mahamaluwa\".", "content": "\"Mahamaluwa\" is public who came to see the annual \"Esala perahera\". Today it contains a statue of Madduma Bandara. The memorial of which contains the skull of Keppetipola Disawe another attraction. The statue of Princess Hemamali and Prince Dantha are also located here.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sri Dalada Maligawa or the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic is a Buddhist temple in the city of Kandy, Sri Lanka. It is located in the royal palace complex of the former Kingdom of Kandy, which houses the relic of the tooth of the Buddha. Since ancient times, the relic has played an important role in local politics because it is believed that whoever holds the relic holds the governance of the country. Kandy was the last capital of the Sri Lankan kings and is a World Heritage Site mainly due to the temple.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976493}
{"src_title": "Shippingport Atomic Power Station", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "In 1953, US President Dwight D. Eisenhower gave his Atoms for Peace speech to the United Nations. Commercial nuclear power generation was cornerstone of his plan. A proposal by Duquesne Light Company was accepted by Admiral Rickover and the plans for the Shippingport Atomic Power Station started.  Ground was broken on Labor Day, September 9, 1954. President Eisenhower remotely initiated the first scoop of dirt at the ceremony. The reactor achieved first criticality at 4:30 AM on December 2, 1957. Sixteen days later, on December 18, the first electrical power was generated and full power was achieved on December 23, 1957, although the station remained in test mode. Eisenhower opened the Shippingport Atomic Power Station on May 26, 1958. The plant was built in 32 months at a cost of $72.5 million.  The type of reactor used at Shippingport was a matter of expediency. The Atomic Energy Commission urged the construction of a reactor integrated into the utility grid. The only suitable reactor available at the time was the one that was intended for the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier desired by the Navy, but which Eisenhower had just vetoed.  Kenneth Nichols of the AEC said it \"became obvious\" that the Rickover-Westinghouse pressurised-water reactor intended for an aircraft carrier was \"the best choice for a reactor to demonstrate the production of electricity\" with Rickover \"having a going organization and a reactor project under way that now had no specific use to justify it\". This was accepted by Lewis Strauss and the Commission in January 1954. The acceptance of Duquesne Light as the utility partner was announced on 11 March. The ground-breaking ceremony in August was initiated by Eisenhower from Denver where he was giving a talk on atomic energy on Labor Day; Rickover ensured that the unmanned bulldozer pushing dirt did not dig in and stall by having the dozer blade riding along two railroad rails buried under six inches of dirt. The origin of the project explains why the Shippingport reactor used 93%-enriched uranium, unlike later commercial power reactors that do not exceed 5% enrichment. Other significant differences from commercial reactors include the use of hafnium for its control rods, although these were necessary and used only in the reactor's seed. Shippingport was created and operated under the auspices of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, whose authority included a substantial role within the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cores.", "content": "The Shippingport reactor was designed to accommodate different cores during its lifetime; three were used.  The first, installed in 1957, held 14.2 tons of natural uranium (the \"blanket\") and 165 pounds of high-enriched (93% U-235) uranium (the \"seed\"); despite this disparity in mass, about half the power was generated in the seed. The seed was depleted quicker than the blanket, and it was replenished three times during the lifetime of the first core. Seven years later (when running on its fourth seed) the first core was retired, after having produced 1.8 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity.  The second core had increased generating capacity (more than five times) and instrumentation to measure performance, but otherwise used the same seed-and-blanket design. For the second core, the seed volume was 21% of the total core volume. The second core thus required only one seed refueling. It began operating in 1965 and over the next nine years generated almost 3.5 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. In 1974 the turbine-generator suffered mechanical failure, causing the plant to be shut down.  The third and final core was a light water breeder, which began operating in August 1977 and after testing was brought to full power by the end of that year. It used pellets made of thorium dioxide and uranium-233 oxide; initially the U233 content of the pellets was 5-6% in the seed region, 1.5-3% in the blanket region and none in the reflector region. It operated at 236 MWt, generating 60 MWe and ultimately produced over 2.1 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. After five years (29,000 effective full power hours) the core was removed and found to contain nearly 1.4% more fissile material than when it was installed, demonstrating that breeding had occurred.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decommissioning.", "content": "On October 1, 1982, the reactor ceased operations after 25 years. Dismantlement of the facility began in September 1985. In December 1988, the 956-ton (870-T) reactor pressure vessel/neutron shield tank assembly was lifted out of the containment building and loaded onto land transportation equipment in preparation for removal from the site and shipment to a burial facility in Washington State. The site has been cleaned up and released for unrestricted use. While the Shippingport Reactor has been decommissioned, Beaver Valley Nuclear Generating Station Units 1 and 2 are still licensed and in operation at the site.  The $98 million (1985 estimate) cleanup of Shippingport has been used as an example of a successful reactor decommissioning by proponents of nuclear power; however, critics point out that Shippingport was smaller than most commercial nuclear power plants, most reactors in the United States are about 1,000 MWe, while Shippingport was only 60 MWe. Others argue that it was an excellent test case to prove a reactor site could be safely decommissioned and a site released for unrestricted use. Shippingport, while somewhat smaller than a large commercial reactor today, was representative, with four steam generators, pressurizer and reactor. The reactor alone, when packaged for shipment, weighed in excess of 1000 tons (921 tons weight of the vessel plus the weight of a structural steel shipping skid) and was successfully shipped by waterway for burial at the Hanford Reservation. The reactor vessel from Trojan Nuclear Power Plant (located in Oregon), was also successfully shipped by waterway to the Hanford site; a much shorter trip than the Shippingport reactor.  Subsequent to Shippingport's decommissioning, three other large commercial reactors have been entirely leveled: Yankee Rowe Nuclear Power Station having been entirely decommissioned in 2007 with the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) notifying Yankee that August that the former plant site had been fully decommissioned in accordance with NRC procedures and regulations; Maine Yankee Nuclear Power Plant completely decommissioned in 2005; and Connecticut Yankee Nuclear Power Plant. All three prior commercial reactor sites have been returned to greenfield conditions and are open to visitors.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Shippingport Atomic Power Station was (according to the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission) the world's first full-scale atomic electric power plant devoted exclusively to peacetime uses. It was located near the present-day Beaver Valley Nuclear Generating Station on the Ohio River in Beaver County, Pennsylvania, United States, about 25 miles (40 km) from Pittsburgh.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976494}
{"src_title": "Arthur Shawcross", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Shawcross was born in Kittery, Maine, the first of four children of Arthur Roy Shawcross and Elizabeth \"Bessie\" (\"Betty\") Yerakes Shawcross. His family moved to Watertown, New York when he was young. While several later tests showed Shawcross' intelligence to be sub-normal or even \"borderline retarded,\" he received As and Bs in his first two years of grade school but was later tested to have an IQ of 86, signifying below average intelligence.  Shawcross said throughout his childhood, he was a frequent bed-wetter (which is one part of the Macdonald triad). He later claimed his mother would insert foreign objects into his rectum and that his aunt performed oral sex on him when he was 9, and that during junior high school he had sexual relations with his sister. Shawcross had a reputation at school as a bully and would frequently act out violently. He dropped out of high school in 1960.  In April 1967, at age 21, he was drafted by the Army. At this time, Shawcross divorced his first wife and gave up his rights to their 18-month-old son, whom he never saw again. He served one tour of duty in Vietnam, where he boasted of grotesque combat exploits, such as \"beheading mama-sans and nailing their heads to trees as a warning to the Vietcong\"—though he in fact never saw combat.  After Vietnam he was stationed at Fort Sill in Lawton, Oklahoma as an armorer. His second wife Linda experienced several aspects of his disturbing behavior, especially his penchant for starting fires; an Army psychiatrist told her that Shawcross derived \"sexual enjoyment\" from fire starting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Return to New York.", "content": "After his discharge from the Army, Shawcross moved with his wife from Oklahoma to Clayton, New York. His wife would soon divorce him, and he began committing crimes such as arson and burglary. His offenses earned him a five-year sentence at Attica Correctional Facility, and later Auburn Correctional Facility. After serving 22 months, he was granted an early release in October 1971, in part due to his role in the rescue of a correctional officer during a prison riot.  Shawcross returned to Watertown, eventually getting a job with the Watertown Public Works Department, and marrying for the third time. On May 7, 1972, he raped and killed 10-year-old Jack Owen Blake, his first known victim, after luring the boy into some woods in Watertown. Jack's body wasn't found until authorities received a tip by phone on September 5.  On September 2, just prior to the body's discovery, he raped and killed eight-year-old Karen Ann Hill, who had been visiting Watertown with her mother for the Labor Day weekend. Shawcross was arrested the next day. A grand jury indicted Shawcross for murder in Hill's death. On October 17, he was allowed to plead guilty to a lesser charge of first degree manslaughter for both deaths and was sentenced to an indeterminate term at Attica, with a maximum of 25 years.  Jefferson County District Attorney William McClusky explained the plea by stating there was no direct evidence linking Blake and Shawcross, only Shawcross' confession to police. McClusky also suggested Shawcross could have argued at trial that he was under \"extreme emotional disturbance,\" and a jury would have been likely to arrive at a verdict of manslaughter. In November, he was transferred from Attica to Green Haven Correctional Facility.  After fourteen years, inexperienced prison staff and social workers concluded that Shawcross was \"no longer dangerous\", disregarding the warnings of psychiatrists, who had assessed Shawcross as a \"schizoid psychopath.\" He was released on parole in April 1987. He had difficulty settling down in communities as the neighbors would protest his presence and employers would fire him.  He first moved into Binghamton, New York, then relocated to Delhi, New York, with his girlfriend, Rose Marie Walley. When Delhi residents became aware of Shawcross' presence, the couple moved to nearby Fleischmanns, New York, only to be met with hostility there as well. In late June 1987, Shawcross' parole officer moved him and Walley into a transient hotel in Rochester, New York, but failed to notify Rochester authorities of this action. In mid-October, Shawcross and Walley found more permanent lodgings at 241 Alexander Street in Rochester.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second series of murders.", "content": "In March 1988, Shawcross began murdering again, primarily sex workers in the area (apart from June Stott, who was a local and was the first one of his victims to be mutilated after her death), before his capture less than two years later. He was convicted of 11 murders, with a 12th not officially charged to him. The victims were:  All the victims were murdered in Monroe County, except for Gibson, who was killed in neighboring Wayne County. The retired detective Robert Keppel has argued that the detectives investigating the case over-relied on the concept of \"modus operandi\", at times searching for multiple suspects due to small differences in the profiles of each victim.  June Cicero's body was discovered by aerial surveillance on January 3, 1990.  Police arrested Shawcross two days later, on January 5, 1990. He had been spotted by a police surveillance team (and by an eyewitness) standing near his car, apparently urinating, on a bridge over Salmon Creek; upon whose frozen waters the body of his final victim was dumped.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial and conviction.", "content": "In November 1990, Shawcross was tried by Monroe County First Assistant District Attorney Charles J. Siragusa for the 10 murders in Monroe County. Shawcross pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity, with testimony from psychiatrist Dorothy Lewis that he had brain damage, multiple personality disorder (now known as dissociative identity disorder) and post-traumatic stress disorder, and had been sexually abused as a child.  Shawcross, who had served in Vietnam with the 4th Supply and Transport Company of the 4th Infantry Division, had told many outlandish tales of murderous activities (including cannibalism), often perpetrated while alone in the jungle. From the time Shawcross returned from his tour of duty, he told acquaintances of seeing American soldiers \"skinned from their neck to their ankles,\" and claimed to have decapitated two women he had victimized, \"placing\" their heads on poles.  FBI criminal profiler Robert K. Ressler reviewed the PTSD claim on behalf of the prosecution before the trial. Ressler wrote that \"his claim of having witnessed wartime atrocities was patently outrageous and untrue.\" Prosecution psychiatrist Dr. Park Dietz said Shawcross had antisocial personality disorder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imprisonment.", "content": "Shawcross was held at the Sullivan Correctional Facility in Fallsburg, New York, until he died on November 10, 2008, at the Albany Medical Center.  In 2003, Shawcross was interviewed by British reporter Katherine English for a documentary on cannibalism. Shawcross bragged about slicing out and eating the vulvae of three victims, but refused to discuss his earlier claim of eating the genitals of his first victim, Jack Blake.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Officials said Shawcross complained of a pain in his leg on the afternoon of November 10, 2008, his date of death. He was taken to Albany Medical Center, where he went into cardiac arrest. Shawcross died at 9:50 PM. He was cremated.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arthur John Shawcross (June 6, 1945 – November 10, 2008), also known as the Genesee River Killer, was an American serial killer active in Rochester, New York.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976495}
{"src_title": "Joliet Correctional Center", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Joliet Correctional Center, which was a completely separate prison from Stateville Correctional Center in nearby Crest Hill, opened in 1858. The prison was built with convict labor leased by the state to contractor Lorenzo P. Sanger and warden Samuel K. Casey. The limestone used to build the prison was quarried on the site. The first 33 inmates arrived from Alton in May 1858 to begin construction; the last prisoners were transferred in July 1860. Both criminals and prisoners of war were confined there during the Civil War. The first corrections officer to be killed there was Joseph Clark in 1865. By 1872 the population had reached 1,239, a record number for a single prison. From the 1870s the prison had work contracts with local businesses.  The penitentiary's original plans included a one-hundred cell \"Female Cell House\" located inside the male penitentiary. Female prisoners were housed adjacent to men's cells from 1859 until 1870, when they were moved to the fourth floor of the central administration building. In 1896 a separate, one-hundred cellblock \"Joliet Women's Prison\" was built across the street from the male penitentiary. In design it was an exact mini-replica of the male prison. In 1933 all female prisoners were moved to the Oakdale Women's Reformatory (later known as Dwight Correctional Center) and the facility was used for male prisoners.  The prison was slow to modernize. There was no running water or toilets in the cells in 1910. The construction of the nearby Stateville Correctional Center began in 1917 and opened in March 1925 was meant to lead to the swift closure of Joliet. This did not happen, and both prisons operated simultaneously for the rest of the 20th Century.  In 1924, Nathan Leopold and Richard Loeb were given life sentences to be served at Joliet (after their successful defense—from the death penalty—by Clarence Darrow). Their case was known as \"the crime of the century\" at the time after kidnapping and murdering Robert Franks.  In 1933 Lester Joseph Gillis (Baby Face Nelson) was released from Joliet Prison, and a mock-up of the foyer is shown in the 1957 movie, \"Baby Face Nelson\" where Gillis (played by Mickey Rooney) is seen both entering and leaving the facility with a suitcase in his hand. The name of the prison can be seen in his exit sequence.  From at least the early 1960s, the prison included a reception and classification center for northern Illinois, holding new prisoners for less than a month before their final assignments and processing over 20,000 a year. In addition to the prisoners temporarily held in the R&C unit, Joliet maintained a large population of permanent inmates.  In 1975, members of the Almighty Black P. Stone Nation and other Chicago street gangs took over a cell block and held several corrections officers hostage. The warden at the time, Fred L. Finkbeiner, spoke to the inmates through a bullhorn and promised they would not be harmed. Their primary grievance was the fact that they were being transferred to other prisons because they had too much control over other inmates at Joliet. One former gang member, Herbert \"Cadillac\" Catlett, had reformed and been cooperating with the administration to bring about positive change. He tried to reason with the rioting inmates and was murdered. Warden Finkbeiner was standing in Catlett's blood as he spoke to the inmates, and the hostage situation was resolved. The warden later eulogized Catlett at an African-American church in Chicago Heights.  The number of inmates peaked at 1,300 in 1990 and was still 1,156 in 2000, although capacity had been raised to 1,300 over 1999–2000, from 1,180 previously. In 2000 there were 541 staff.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Closure.", "content": "Joliet Correctional Center closed as a holding prison in 2002. Budget cuts and the obsolete and dangerous nature of the buildings were the cited reasons. All inmates and most staff were transferred to Stateville Correctional Center.  On May 30, 2017, one of the buildings (the mattress factory) in Joliet Correctional Center was heavily damaged by fire, the cause of which was later determined to be arson. This is the third building to be severely damaged or destroyed by fire at the facility.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poetry.", "content": "Joliet is referred to in Edgar Lee Masters's poem \"Silas Dement\", part of the \"Spoon River Anthology\":", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fiction.", "content": "In the Commitment Arc of \"The Adventure Zone\" one of the characters suggests \"going to Joliet\".  Mentioned in Kerouac's \"On the Road\": \"To get out of the impossible complexities of Chicago traffic I took a bus to Joliet, Illinois, went by the Joliet pen, stationed myself just outside town after a walk through its leafy rickety streets behind, and pointed my way.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Memphis Minnie recorded the song \"Joliet Bound\" with Kansas Joe McCoy in 1932, which was most likely derived from the same source as Noah Lee's \"Viola Lee Blues\". Perhaps the most well-known version of the tune was by Rory Block on \"When a Woman Gets the Blues\".  Bob Dylan's \"Percy's Song\" tells the story of the singer's attempt to have a friend's ninety-nine year sentence in Joliet Prison commuted. The song, an outtake from the sessions that produced Dylan's album \"The Times They Are a-Changin'\", has been covered by Fairport Convention and Arlo Guthrie.  The Henningsens wrote and recorded the song \"Gun\", which mentions Joliet – \"I'm singing solo in my cell in Joliet\".  Folk singer Steve Goodman recorded the song \"Lincoln Park Pirates\" concerning an auto towing company of Chicago. The song includes the lyrics \"Our drivers are friendly and courteous/ Their good manners you always will get/ 'Cause they all are recent graduates/ Of the charm school in Joliet\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Television and film.", "content": "Joliet Prison was featured in the 1980 John Landis film \"The Blues Brothers\" both as a filming location and as the namesake for \"Joliet\" Jake Blues (John Belushi).  Some characters from \"Saw II\" were ex-Joliet Prison inmates.  Since its closure, Joliet Prison has been used much more as a set for various film and television projects.  The Joliet Prison collection of photographs by inmates is maintained at jolietprison.com", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Joliet Correctional Center (originally known as Illinois State Penitentiary, colloquially as Joliet Prison, Joliet Penitentiary and the Collins Street Prison) was a prison in Joliet, Illinois, America from 1858 to 2002. It is featured in the motion picture \"The Blues Brothers\" as the prison from which Jake Blues is released at the beginning of the movie. It is also used for the exterior shots of the Illinois \"state prison\" in the James Cagney film \"White Heat\", and the location for first season of Fox Network's \"Prison Break\" television show, and the movie \"Let's Go to Prison\". In 2018, it opened for tours.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976496}
{"src_title": "Ed Viesturs", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Viesturs was born in Fort Wayne, Indiana, of Latvian and German descent. He was raised in Rockford, Illinois, Viesturs moved to Seattle, Washington in 1977 to attend the University of Washington. It was here that he began his mountaineering career on the slopes of Mount Rainier. Viesturs graduated from the University of Washington in 1981 with a BS in zoology and worked as a guide for Rainier Mountaineering. He later obtained a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree from Washington State University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mountain climbing career.", "content": "His interest in the Himalayas was sparked in high school by reading Maurice Herzog's account of the first climb of Annapurna, titled \"Annapurna\". After climbing Kangchenjunga in 1989, Mount Everest in 1990 and K2 in 1992, Viesturs became an international mountain guide and was sponsored for full-time mountaineering. He served as a guide for Rob Hall's Adventure Consultants company during their 1995 Everest expedition. Viesturs climbs with Finnish partner Veikka Gustafsson.  Viesturs has assisted other mountaineers several times. In 1992, he and fellow American Scott Fischer brought down French climber Chantal Mauduit, suffering from exhaustion, after her summit of K2. Viesturs was in the IMAX climbing team during the 1996 Everest Disaster. He was featured in David Breashears' documentary film \"Everest\" (1998), and filming was delayed as a blizzard struck. The IMAX team postponed shooting and followed Viesturs up the mountain to aid the stranded climbers. The team ultimately decided to keep going, and summitted Everest on May 23, 1996. Viesturs was also featured in the \"Nova\" television documentary, \"Everest: The Death Zone\" (1998), in which he and Breashears climbed Everest to the summit, while undergoing physical and mental tests to record the effects of altitude on humans.  In July 2003, Viesturs and a Kazakh team, headed by Denis Urubko, were instrumental in the rescue of French climber Jean-Christophe Lafaille from Broad Peak. Lafaille had developed high-altitude pulmonary edema and was unable to complete his descent. They coordinated a rescue attempt in the dark, and were able to get Lafaille safely off the mountain and helicoptered out for medical help.  In 2005, Viesturs became the first American, and 12th person overall, to summit all 14 mountains over 8,000 meters (collectively known as the eight-thousanders). He is the fifth climber to do it without supplemental oxygen. Viesturs also has summitted Mount Everest seven times.  Viesturs' more recent climbs have included Broad Peak (the world's 12th highest mountain) and Nanga Parbat (the world's ninth highest mountain) in 2003, Annapurna (the world's 10th highest mountain) in 2005, and Mount Everest (for the seventh time) in 2009. On July 8, 2009 he led an expedition to Mount Rainier as part of the United Way Climb for the Community effort. UCLA coach Jim Mora, Seahawks CEO Tod Leiweke, and NFL commissioner Roger Goodell took part in this charitable enterprise, summiting the 14,410 ft peak. Viesturs led an expedition to Antarctica, in January 2011, to climb its highest peak, Vinson Massif. In August 2011, he summitted Mount Rainier for the 208th time. Viesturs now acts as a guide for RMI Expeditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accomplishments.", "content": "Viesturs is a recipient of the David A. Sowles Memorial Award (1992) from the American Alpine Club. He is also the recipient of the Explorers Club Lowell Thomas Award (2001) He was named National Geographic's Adventurer of the Year (2005).  On November 5, 2006, Viesturs completed his first marathon, the New York City Marathon, in 3:15:18.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other work.", "content": "Viesturs was a cinematographer for the film \"Trio for One\" (2003), which told the story of French alpinist Jean-Christophe Lafaille's mission to climb Dhaulagiri, Nanga Parbat, and Broad Peak in a period of two months. He acts as a design consultant for manufacturers of outdoor equipment, and is a representative of his adopted hometown's football team, the Seattle Seahawks. He is a member of the board of directors for Big City Mountaineers, an urban youth organization that offers wilderness experiences. Viesturs has also found a niche as a corporate motivational speaker.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edmund Viesturs (born June 22, 1959) is a high-altitude mountaineer and corporate speaker. He is the only American to have climbed all 14 of the world's eight-thousander mountain peaks, and the fifth person to do so without using supplemental oxygen. Along with Apa Sherpa, he has summitted peaks of over 8,000 meters on 21 occasions, including Mount Everest seven times; only four other climbers, Phurba Tashi Sherpa Mendewa, Juanito Oiarzabal, Namgyal Sherpa, and Ang Dorje Sherpa, have more high-altitude ascents.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976497}
{"src_title": "Time in the United States", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Before the adoption of four standard time zones for the continental United States, many towns and cities set their clocks to noon when the sun passed their local meridian, pre-corrected for the equation of time on the date of observation, to form local mean solar time. Noon occurred at different times but time differences between distant locations were barely noticeable prior to the 19th century because of long travel times and the lack of long-distance instant communications prior to the development of the telegraph.  The use of local solar time became increasingly awkward as railways and telecommunications improved. American railroads maintained many different time zones during the late 1800s. Each train station set its own clock making it difficult to coordinate train schedules and confusing passengers. Time calculation became a serious problem for people traveling by train (sometimes hundreds of miles in a day), according to the Library of Congress. Every city in the United States used a different time standard so there were more than 300 local sun times to choose from. Time zones were therefore a compromise, relaxing the complex geographic dependence while still allowing local time to be approximate with mean solar time. Railroad managers tried to address the problem by establishing 100 railroad time zones, but this was only a partial solution to the problem.  Weather service chief Cleveland Abbe introduced four standard time zones for his weather stations, an idea which he offered to the railroads. Operators of the new railroad lines needed a new time plan that would offer a uniform train schedule for departures and arrivals. Four standard time zones for the continental United States were introduced at noon on November 18, 1883, in Chicago, IL, when the telegraph lines transmitted time signals to all major cities.  In October 1884, the International Meridian Conference at Washington, D.C. adopted a proposal which stated that the prime meridian for longitude and timekeeping should be one that passes through the centre of the transit instrument at the Greenwich Observatory in the United Kingdom (UK). The conference therefore established the Greenwich Meridian as the prime meridian and Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) as the world's time standard. The U.S. time-zone system grew from this, in which all zones referred back to GMT on the prime meridian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "From GMT to UTC.", "content": "In 1960, the International Radio Consultative Committee formalized the concept of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which became the new international civil time standard. UTC is, within about 1 second, mean solar time at 0°. UTC does not observe daylight saving time.  For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, but GMT is no longer precisely defined by the scientific community. UTC is one of several closely related successors to GMT.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States and regional time zones.", "content": "Standard time zones in the United States and other regions are currently defined at the federal level by law 15 USC §260. The federal law also establishes the transition dates and times at which daylight saving time occurs, if observed. It is ultimately the authority of the secretary of transportation, in coordination with the states, to determine which regions will observe which of the standard time zones and if they will observe daylight saving time. As of August 9, 2007, the standard time zones are defined in terms of hourly offsets from UTC. Prior to this they were based upon the mean solar time at several meridians 15° apart west of Greenwich (GMT).  Only the full-time zone names listed below are official; abbreviations are by common use conventions, and duplicated elsewhere in the world for different time zones.  The United States and its surrounding areas use nine standard time zones. As defined by U.S. law they are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zones used in the contiguous U.S..", "content": "From east to west, the four time zones of the contiguous United States are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minor Outlying Islands.", "content": "Some United States Minor Outlying Islands are outside the time zones defined by 15 U.S.C. §260 and exist in waters defined by nautical time. In practice, military crews may simply use Zulu time () when on these islands. Baker Island and Howland Island are in, while Wake Island is in. Because they exist on opposite sides of the International Date Line, it can, for example, be noon Thursday on Baker and Howland islands while simultaneously being noon Friday on Wake Island. Other outlying islands include Jarvis Island, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman Reef (); Johnston Atoll (); and Navassa Island, Bajo Nuevo Bank, and Serranilla Bank ().", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Antarctic research stations.", "content": "In Antarctica, the U.S. research facility Palmer Station is in, while McMurdo Station and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station use in order to coordinate with their main supply base in New Zealand.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Daylight saving time (DST).", "content": "Daylight saving time (DST) begins on the second Sunday of March and ends on the first Sunday of November.  Clocks will be set ahead one hour at 2:00 a.m. on the following start dates and set back one hour at 2:00 a.m. on these ending dates:  In response to the Uniform Time Act of 1966, each state has officially chosen to apply one of two rules over its entire territory:  The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time (DST) for an additional month beginning in 2007.  Previous DST change dates include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Time in the United States, by law, is divided into nine standard time zones covering the states, territories and other US possessions, with most of the United States observing daylight saving time (DST) for approximately the spring, summer, and fall months. The time zone boundaries and DST observance are regulated by the Department of Transportation. Official and highly precise timekeeping services (clocks) are provided by two federal agencies: the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (an agency of the Department of Commerce); and the United States Naval Observatory (USNO). The clocks run by these services are kept synchronized with each other as well as with those of other international timekeeping organizations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976498}
{"src_title": "Ani Lorak", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ani Lorak had a notably tough childhood. Born in Kitsman Western Ukraine, speaking Ukrainian as her native language, Karolina was raised by a single mother. At the age of 6, she and her brothers were placed in a foster home. One of her brothers later died when fighting in Afghanistan. Karolina Kuiek developed the desire to become a singer as early as the age of four. She often performed at various school vocal competitions. In 1992, she took part in the popular contest 'Pervotsvit' and was the winner. It was here where she met her ex-producer Yuriy Falyosa. As a result, at the age of 14 she signed her first professional contract. Kuiek became known as Ani Lorak in March 1995 when she took part in a contest at the television program \"Morning Star\" in Moscow, Russia. There was a Russian singer with the same name already enrolled in that competition so Kuiek had to invent a stage name. \"Ani Lorak\" is the name \"Karolina\" read backwards. Ani Lorak moved to Kiev in 1995. By that time her name was well known in Ukrainian show business. She became even more popular after winning the \"Big Apple Music 1996 Competition\" in New York City. She was named \"Discovery of the Year\" at the popular Ukrainian festival \"Tavria Games\" in 1996. The same year she released her first album \"I Want to Fly\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1997–2011.", "content": "Lorak continued recording new songs in 1997. Her two videos \"The Model\" and \"My God\" were filmed and the latter became a soundtrack to the movie \"The Right to Choose\". In the spring of 1998 her new video \"I will be back\" was shot and in December Lorak's second album \"I will be back\" was released. Mastering of this album took place in New York. Simultaneously her two music videos \"Oh my love\" and \"A Stranger's City\" were filmed to accompany her new album. At the outset of 1999 she started extensive touring, performing in the US, France, Germany, Hungary, and her concerts took place in every major city of Ukraine. In 1999 she earned the title of the Honoured Artist of Ukraine.  In the spring of 2000 Ani Lorak recorded the soundtrack for an advert for the Chocolate \"Korona\" at the London studio \"Astoria\". Here, the singer met British composers Burrie Guard and Josh Phillips. Also, in London Lorak recorded new songs. In 2004-2005 Ani Lorak was a UN Good Will Ambassador in Ukraine for HIV/AIDS.  In October 2009, Lorak was ranked 41st in a top 100 of \"most influential women in Ukraine\" compiled by experts for the Ukrainian magazine Focus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business ventures.", "content": "In 2005, Ani Lorak and her fiancé Murat opened the Angel Lounge, a restaurant that specializes in Mediterranean cuisine in the center of Kiev. In 2009, they opened a Ukrainian travel agency called \"Holiday Travel\", which is a sub-division of \"Turtess Travel\", a company Murat works for. In 2010, Lorak became an Oriflame advert. She participated in several catalogues and developed a new fragrance called Chiffon by Ani Lorak.  In 2011, Lorak was announced the fifth richest singer in Ukraine, with her team's revenues amounting to $2.35 million that year. Her typical fee is $25,000-$40,000 per concert.  In 2014 the singer was criticised in Ukraine for having accepted awards in Russia while Ukraine had conflicts with Russia. Lorak then told reporters that she was a true Ukrainian patriot and loved her country dearly, advising her critics to “go and join [the] Anti-Terror Operation”", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "On 21 August 2009 Lorak married her longtime Turkish fiancé and manager Murat Nalçacıoğlu, whom she met in 2003 when vacationing in Turkey. Murat Nalçacıoğlu, is a Turkish hotel manager and travel agent. Lorak confirmed her pregnancy at the end of November 2010. Their daughter, Sophia, was born on 9 June 2011. She and her family lived in a house on the outskirts of Kiev, Ukraine but frequently travel to Turkey. The couple's marriage was officially annulled in January 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eurovision.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2005.", "content": "In 2005, Ani Lorak made her first attempt to perform at the Eurovision Song Contest and was virtually certain to sing the home country's entry in Kiev, but ultimately failed to be selected. Her narrow defeat in the 2005 national pre-selection competition was particularly controversial, given that the winners, GreenJolly, did not have to qualify for the final by winning one of the fifteen preliminary heats (unlike her). Lorak finished in second place in the Ukrainian national final with the song \"A Little Shot Of Love\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2008.", "content": "Having come close to singing the home country's entry in 2005, when Ukraine staged the Eurovision Song Contest, Ukrainian television NTU announced in late December that Ani Lorak, one of the country's most successful singers would represent the country at Eurovision in Belgrade and that the public and a jury would choose the song. On 23 February, Ani performed five potential entries, in a special show and the winner, chosen by both the public and by the jury was \"Shady Lady\", written by Greek composer and producer Dimitris Kontopoulos, also known in the Eurovision bubble.  She also recorded a Russian version of her Eurovision song \"Shady Lady\" with the title \"S neba v nebo\". Ani had visited other countries to present her song, like Malta, Russia, Bulgaria, Spain and Germany. At the 2008 Eurovision Song Contest in Belgrade, she sang the song \"Shady Lady\" in the second semi final on 23 May 2008, winning a place in the final. She took the second place in the final after Dima Bilan. She was awarded a prize for being the Best Artist at the contest from the media. Italian designer Roberto Cavalli designed a dress for Ani Lorak performance at the festival. The ornate dress was made with Swarovski Diamonds, and her choreography produced by Fokas Evangelinos who designed the stage show for her entry. He also arranged the stage shows of Greece 2005, Russia 2006 and Belarus 2007.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Charity.", "content": "Lorak spends a lot of time on charitable activities. Since 2004-2005 Lorak has been a UN Goodwill Ambassador on HIV/AIDS in Ukraine. UNICEF and UN in Ukraine have awarded a commendation to Lorak for assistance and help to HIV positive citizens of Ukraine. In 2005, Lorak was conferred with the St. Stanislav Order of the 4th degree and the Officer's Cross \"for strengthening the international authority of Ukraine, for the high professionalism, great creative achievements, charity and adherence to the ideals of chivalry\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karolina Myroslavivna Kuiek (,, also transliterated as Kuyek or Kuek; born 27 September 1978), popularly known as Ani Lorak (), is a Ukrainian singer, songwriter, actress, entrepreneur, and former UN Goodwill Ambassador. Having received Ukraine's most prestigious and honorary title, the People's Artist of Ukraine, Lorak has been cited as one of the most powerful and influential women in her country, as well as ranked one of the most beautiful women from Eastern Europe. Ani Lorak reported the highest income of all singers in Ukraine in 2014", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976499}
{"src_title": "Esperanto Wikipedia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin and influence of the Esperanto Wikipedia.", "content": "Chuck Smith, an American Esperantist, is considered to be Esperanto Wikipedia's founder. The encyclopedia started off when he imported the 139 articles of the by Stefano Kalb, which took him three weeks following 15 November 2001. Later on, he undertook a journey to Europe with the goal of popularizing Wikipedia among the speakers of Esperanto in European countries. For instance, already in November 2002 he gave a talk about Wikipedia at the 10th Conference on the Application of Esperanto in Science and Technology in Dobřichovice (Czech Republic).  Esperanto speakers have also been involved in the founding of several other language versions of the Wikipedia (Czech, Slovak, Ossetian, Swahili). The introduction of support for the Esperanto alphabet by Brion Vibber, an Esperanto speaker and later Wikimedia Foundation's first employee, in January 2002 has paved the way for alphabets of languages other than English and initiated the transition of the whole Wikipedia to Unicode.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quality of the Esperanto Wikipedia.", "content": "As of July 2018, the Esperanto Wikipedia has 287 articles of () and a further 206 considered (). Weekly community projects include a () which improves neglected articles and an Article of the Week featuring good-quality articles on the front page. The Esperanto community is a frequent contributor to the Meta project,.  According to the at Meta, a list based on, Esperanto ranks 36th, lacking almost none of the list of vital articles, but having in general relatively short articles.  On 18 November 2008, the Esperanto Wikipedia implemented the extension.  As of February 2012, the Esperanto Wikipedia had the 5th greatest number of articles per speaker among Wikipedias with over 100,000 articles, and ranked 11th overall. These figures were based on \"Ethnologue\"s estimate of 2,000,000 Esperanto speakers.  Due to the geographical spread of its editors (see the box on the right), the Esperanto Wikipedia has a varied list of countries of origin of its editors.  On 13 August 2014 Esperanto Wikipedia reached 200,000 articles.  In 2019 the Esperanto Wikipedia has 83 thousand unique categories and 18.87% of them do not have appropriate page in the category namespace. The average article in this language version has 4 categories, while number of unique categories per articles ratio is 0.325. The largest number of articles has People (20%) and Geography (20%) category. In Esperanto Wikipedia articles related to Life and Religion has the highest average quality. Content about Events is read more often and articles in Philosophy category have the highest authors' interest on average.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notability within the Esperanto community.", "content": "Along with learners and other Esperantists of all levels, many very experienced Esperantists and native Esperantists have joined the project. At least three editors are members of the Academy of Esperanto, Gerrit Berveling, John C. Wells, and Bertilo Wennergren, a notable Esperanto grammarian and the director of the Academy's section about Esperanto vocabulary.  The Esperanto Wikipedia has been featured in many Esperanto news media, including a radio interview at Radio Polonia, and articles at,, and. The Esperanto Wikimania, a gathering held in 2011 to celebrate the encyclopedia's 10th anniversary, has been subsidized by the host city of Svitavy (Czech Republic) and the Pardubice Region and covered by Czech Television.  Esperanto organisations like Universal Esperanto Association do not contribute to but support it by providing chambers at Esperanto conventions for presentations and trainings. At the World Esperanto Congress in Rotterdam, summer 2008, there were two Wikipedian meetups and a lecture at the Esperantology Conference. In April 2013, (\"Esperanto and Free Knowledge\") was established as one of the first Wikimedia user groups.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wikipedia handbook in Esperanto.", "content": "The Esperanto Wikipedia community has created and published a 40-page \"Wikipedia: Practical Handbook\" () which is sold on-line and at conventions. The manual is intended to give new Wikipedians advice and information on how to edit Wikipedia in Esperanto. It is currently in its second printing.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Esperanto Wikipedia (, or ) is the Esperanto version of Wikipedia, which was started on 11 May 2001, alongside the Basque Wikipedia. With over articles, it is the 32nd-largest Wikipedia as measured by the number of articles, and the largest Wikipedia in a constructed language.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976500}
{"src_title": "Caster board", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Movement.", "content": "The motion requires that the board be twisted back and forth so as to move either just the back foot or both the front and back feet side to side, essentially pushing the board forward at the outside of the movement, before the foot is brought back in the other direction. In principle, the act is similar to what is required to propel one who is riding inline skates forward, as opposed to how skateboarders push with their feet on the ground. Riding a caster board requires using a twisting motion of hips and legs.  A rider or \"caster boarder\" gains speed because each wheel is mounted on a 30° slant on the bottom of each deck. When each deck is pushed to the side, it causes the board to be pushed upward by the wheels' rotation against the gradient of the mounts. This creates potential energy that is then released moves back down under the rider's weight and its own combined. The weight pushing the board back down causes the wheels to turn to face straight again. While riding on a caster board, the increase in height is barely noticeable unless the rider twists the board along the vertical axis too hard, causing stability to be momentarily reduced.  Caster boarding has been introduced into many school curricula as a means of teaching the basic movement principles that govern board-sports. The success in its ability to engage with pupils not interested in sport was assessed in a 12-week, 6 secondary school case study in the UK carried out by Curriculum Ex.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foot placement.", "content": "Foot placement is similar to that of a skateboard. Foot placement is critical on a caster board because one wheel rests under each foot while in use. In order to start with proper foot placement, it is necessary to have the front foot above the center of the front caster and to allow the back foot to give a good push of speed that will allow the board to keep proper balance. Attempting to place the back foot too quickly will make it even more difficult to achieve a desirable foot placement, so it is best to give that foot a maximum of two seconds for it to properly set itself on the board. More experienced riders will be able to place their back feet more quickly. A manual is performed by putting the rear foot on the back end of the rear deck without letting it come off and gently lifting the front foot.  If the user is already riding the board and the user recognizes that the foot placement is slightly undesirable, the user could replace both feet simultaneously without interrupting their ride that is already taking place. This is done by the rider's first making sure that they are riding at a normal speed and that the riding surface ahead is stable for riding on and then jumping with both feet at a minimal height that allows both shoes to separate their treads from the grips of the caster board. The rider may continue to \"hop around\" the board until a most desirable foot placement is achieved and for as long as a proper speed is maintained. Hopping around may even more easily produce better results than getting off the board and getting back on again. A much more difficult means of replacing the feet while riding is attempting to correct only one foot at a time, increasing the risk of shifting his/her weight too far forward or backward and falling to the ground.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Steering.", "content": "In order to steer properly on a caster board, the front foot must lean into the curve while the back foot leans out of the curve. By leaning the front foot in and the back foot out, the front wheel, which will have its front facing inward, is forced to form an arc with the back wheel, which will have its front facing outward. This arcing allows for very sharp turning, but can be exercised for making wide turns as well. While attempting to turn on the board at a higher speed and/or using a tighter arc, the rider leans his/her center of gravity into the turn to keep from falling from the board. However, like all vehicles, there is a limit to the combined sharpness and speed of turning on a caster board without it becoming overturned. It is possible to propel the board while turning by making weaving motions that are typically smaller than those of a relatively straight trajectory.  The wrong way to turn on a caster board is to lean both decks in the direction of the turn, which will cause the board to move away from the leaning direction in a parallel-sliding fashion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "A helmet, elbow pads, knee pads, gloves, and shin guards are recommended when using a caster board. Falling is common for inexperienced riders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tricks.", "content": "A variety of tricks can be done on a caster board. They are coping and ledge tricks, manuals, Carves and flips. The various flips tricks include: Kickflip, No Comply Impossible, Double Kickflip, Fakie Kickflip, Switch Kickflip, Fakie Bigspin, Nollie Kickflip, Nollie Heelflip, Nollie Frontside 180 Bigspin, Varial Kickflip, Varial Heelflip, Backside 180 Kickflip, Frontside 180 Heelflip, Frontside 180 Kickflip, 360 Kickflip and the Frontside 180 Double Kickflip.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Skatepark.", "content": "Casterboarders can ride in skateparks as with other types of skateboards. However, some skateparks have prohibited caster boards. Planet Park (Hachioji city) skatepark in Tokyo, Japan allows only skateboards with four wheels and a single deck. The Japan Skatepark Association claims that if a caster board rider falls, it can be difficult to predict which direction the board will travel, constituting an unpredictable element of danger that may interfere with other skateboarders, inline-skaters and BMX riders in the park.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exercise.", "content": "The Vigorboard's ability to combine fun with a full cardio-vascular workout has prompted St Helens council to promote the boards in all of its high schools and some of its primary schools, seeing it as a method of inspiring children who wouldn't normally take part in traditional exercise.  The Vigorboard is proving a valuable weapon in the fight against childhood obesity, with some teachers at the schools currently trialing the boards also reporting drops in truancy, with pupils not wishing to miss school should they miss their Vigorboard session.  An independent study conducted by the University of Salford found that vigorboarding resulted in an average increase in heart rate of 227% and a 535% increase in energy expenditure. The study also concluded that vigorboarding results in a 233% greater energy expenditure (407kcal/hr) than walking at 3 mph (174.5kcal/hr).  In its conclusion, the authors of the university study went on to say, 'Vigorboarding may be a useful alternative to increasing physical activity levels and energy expenditure, especially for individuals that do not wish to participate in the usual sports or activities performed by adolescents.'.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A caster board or vigorboard is a two-wheeled, human-powered land vehicle. Other names are waveboard, \"J-board\", and RipStik (sometimes written \"rip stick\"), both of which are derived from commercial brands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976501}
{"src_title": "Warrant (finance)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Structure and features.", "content": "Warrants have similar characteristics to that of other equity derivatives, such as options, for instance:  The warrant parameters, such as exercise price, are fixed shortly after the issue of the bond. With warrants, it is important to consider the following main characteristics:  Warrants are longer-dated options and are generally traded over-the-counter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secondary market.", "content": "Sometimes the issuer will try to establish a market for the warrant and to register it with a listed exchange. In this case, the price can be obtained from a stockbroker. But often, warrants are privately held or not registered, which makes their prices less obvious. On the NYSE, warrants can be easily tracked by adding a \"w\" after the company's ticker symbol to check the warrant's price. Unregistered warrant transactions can still be facilitated between accredited parties and in fact, several secondary markets have been formed to provide liquidity for these investments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comparison with call options.", "content": "Warrants are very similar to call options. For instance, many warrants confer the same rights as equity options and warrants often can be traded in secondary markets like options. However, there also are several key differences between warrants and equity options:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traded warrants.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pricing.", "content": "There are various methods (models) of evaluation available to value warrants theoretically, including the Black–Scholes model. However, it is important to have some understanding of the various influences on warrant prices. The market value of a warrant can be divided into two components:  Intrinsic value: This is simply the difference between the exercise (strike) price and the underlying stock price. Warrants are also referred to as in-the-money or out-of-the-money, depending on where the current asset price is in relation to the warrant's exercise price. Thus, for instance, for call warrants, if the stock price is below the strike price, the warrant has no intrinsic value (only time value—to be explained shortly). If the stock price is above the strike, the warrant has intrinsic value and is said to be in-the-money.  Time value: Time value can be considered as the value of the continuing exposure to the movement in the underlying security that the warrant provides. Time value declines as the expiry of the warrant gets closer. This erosion of time value is called time decay. It is not constant, but increases rapidly towards expiry. A warrant's time value is affected by the following factors:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Warrants can be used for Portfolio protection: Put warrants allow the owner to protect the value of the owner's portfolio against falls in the market or in particular shares.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Risks.", "content": "There are certain risks involved in trading warrants—including time decay. Time decay: \"Time value\" diminishes as time goes by—the rate of decay increases the closer to the date of expiration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types of warrants.", "content": "A wide range of warrants and warrant types are available. The reasons you might invest in one type of warrant may be different from the reasons you might invest in another type of warrant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional.", "content": "Traditional warrants are issued in conjunction with a bond (known as a warrant-linked bond) and represent the right to acquire shares in the entity issuing the bond. In other words, the writer of a traditional warrant is also the issuer of the underlying instrument. Warrants are issued in this way as a \"sweetener\" to make the bond issue more attractive and to reduce the interest rate that must be offered in order to sell the bond issue.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Covered or naked.", "content": "Covered warrants, also known as naked warrants, are issued without an accompanying bond and, like traditional warrants, are traded on the stock exchange. They are typically issued by banks and securities firms and are settled for cash, e.g. do not involve the company who issues the shares that underlie the warrant. In most markets around the world, covered warrants are more popular than the traditional warrants described above. Financially they are also similar to call options, but are typically bought by retail investors, rather than investment funds or banks, who prefer the more keenly priced options which tend to trade on a different market. Covered warrants normally trade alongside equities, which makes them easier for retail investors to buy and sell them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third-party warrants.", "content": "A third-party warrant is a derivative issued by the holders of the underlying instrument. Suppose a company issues warrants which give the holder the right to convert each warrant into one share at $500. This warrant is company-issued. Suppose, a mutual fund that holds shares of the company sells warrants against those shares, also exercisable at $500 per share. These are called third-party warrants. The primary advantage is that the instrument helps in the price discovery process. In the above case, the mutual fund selling a one-year warrant exercisable at $500 sends a signal to other investors that the stock may trade at $500-levels in one year. If volumes in such warrants are high, the price discovery process will be that much better; for it would mean that many investors believe that the stock will trade at that level in one year. Third-party warrants are essentially long-term call options. The seller of the warrants does a covered call-write. That is, the seller will hold the stock and sell warrants against them. If the stock does not cross $500, the buyer will not exercise the warrant. The seller will, therefore, keep the warrant premium.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In finance, a warrant is a security that entitles the holder to buy the underlying stock of the issuing company at a fixed price called exercise price until the expiry date.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976502}
{"src_title": "Vasari Corridor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and overview.", "content": "The Vasari Corridor was built in five months by order of Duke Cosimo I de' Medici in 1565, to the design of Giorgio Vasari. It was commissioned in connection with the marriage of Cosimo's son, Francesco, with Johanna of Austria. The idea of an enclosed passageway was motivated by the Grand Duke's desire to move freely between his residence and the government palace, when, like most monarchs of the period, he felt insecure in public, in his case especially because he had replaced the Republic of Florence. The meat market of Ponte Vecchio was moved to avoid its smell reaching into the passage, its place being taken by the goldsmith shops that still occupy the bridge. At the latter extremity, the corridor was forced to pass around the Mannelli's Tower, after the staunch opposition of that family to its destruction.  In the middle of Ponte Vecchio, the corridor is characterized by a series of panoramic windows facing the Arno, in the direction of the Ponte Santa Trinita. These replaced the smaller windows of the original construction in 1939, by order of Benito Mussolini. The larger windows were installed for an official visit to Florence by Adolf Hitler to give him a panoramic view of the river.  After the Ponte Vecchio the Corridor passes over the loggiato of the church of Santa Felicita; at that point it had a balcony, protected by a thick railing, looking into the interior of the church, in order to allow the Grand Duke's family to follow services without mixing with the populace.  In its Uffizi section, the Vasari Corridor is used to exhibit the museum's famous collection of self-portraits.  The area closest to the Uffizi entrance was heavily damaged by a bombing commissioned by the Italian mafia on the night of May 27, 1993. When a car bomb was detonated next to the Torre dei Pulci, located between via Lambertesca and via de' Georgofili, this section of the Uffizi Gallery was among the buildings damaged, and several artworks in the Corridor were destroyed. These paintings, some hopelessly damaged, have been pieced back together and placed back on their original spot to serve as a reminder of the event.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vasari Corridor () is an elevated enclosed passageway in Florence, central Italy, which connects the Palazzo Vecchio with the Palazzo Pitti. Beginning on the south side of the Palazzo Vecchio, it then joins the Uffizi Gallery and leaves on its south side, crossing the Lungarno dei Archibusieri and then following the north bank of the River Arno until it crosses the river at Ponte Vecchio. At the time of construction, the corridor had to be built around the Torre dei Mannelli, using brackets, because the owners of the tower refused to alter it. The corridor covers up part of the façade of the Church of Santa Felicita. The corridor then snakes its way over rows of houses in the Oltrarno district, becoming narrower, to finally join the Palazzo Pitti. The full length of the corridor is approximately one kilometre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976503}
{"src_title": "Kikkan Randall", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Randall's parents, Ronn and Deborah (née Haines) originally met at a California ski resort. Kikkan's name was the result of a compromise between her parents: her father wanted to name her Kikki, after Kiki Cutter, the first American to win a race on the Alpine Skiing World Cup, whilst her mother wanted to name her Meghan. Ronn started teaching Kikkan to ski one day after her first birthday. She is the niece of former cross-country skiing Olympians Betsy Haines (1980) and Chris Haines (1976).  Randall lived in Salt Lake while her mother attended law school at the University of Utah. In the mid-1980s, she moved to Anchorage, Alaska with her parents, where her younger siblings, Tanner and Kalli were born. Originally she had ambitions to race as an alpine skier, as well as to run for a NCAA Division I college. She ran a 6:06 minute mile in sixth grade at Scenic Park Elementary. Randall won 10 state titles at East Anchorage High School — seven in track and three in cross-country running. She is the last Alaskan state speed-skiing champion. Randall took up cross-country skiing in 1998, when her track coach suggested using it as a means of keeping fit during the winter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Skiing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "After graduating from high school, Randall moved to Utah to train with the United States Ski Team, but returned to Alaska due to homesickness. Her sixth-place finish in the sprint at the 2001 Junior World Championships was the best ever result by an American woman. Randall made her Olympic debut as a 19-year-old at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City and finished 44th in the inaugural Olympic individual sprint. In January 2006, Randall returned to Soldier Hollow, Utah, the site of the 2002 Olympic cross-country competition, and won national titles in the 5-kilometer freestyle, the 10-km classical and the sprint. At the 2005 World Championships in Oberstdorf, Germany, she finished 30th in the individual sprint.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2006–2011.", "content": "At the 2006 Winter Olympics, Randall finished ninth in the Olympic Sprint, the best ever Olympic result in cross-country skiing by an American woman. Shortly thereafter, she finished fifth in a World Cup sprint. On January 21, 2007, she captured bronze in the women's 1.2-kilometer sprint in Rybinsk, Russia, the best ever cross-country World Cup result by an American woman. Later that calendar year, in the following season, she took the first World Cup win for an American female skier since the introduction of women's competition in 1978 in another 1.2 kilometre sprint at the same venue.  In February 2009, Randall won the silver medal in the 1.3-kilometer sprint at the Nordic Skiing World Championships - the first American cross-country skier to take a World Championship medal since Bill Koch in 1982. In January 2010, Randall qualified for the 2010 Winter Olympics, where she earned a US best finish of sixth in the team sprint and her best individual finish of eighth in the individual sprint event. In the 2010-11 season, she finished third in the Sprint World Cup standings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011–2012.", "content": "Randall became the first American woman to win a World Cup discipline title in cross-country by topping the season's Sprint standings. Her season included wins in the World Cup freestyle sprints in Düsseldorf and Davos. She also finished fifth in the Overall World Cup that season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012–2013.", "content": "Randall won four World Cup freestyle sprint events, in Quebec, Val Mustair, Sochi, and Lahti. She also won the 3 km freestyle prologue of the Tour de Ski in Oberhof. She won a team freestyle sprint in Quebec with teammate Jessica Diggins. Randall finished first in the final World Cup sprint standings and third in the overall standings. Third place is the highest ever by a U.S. woman. Randall, with Diggins, won the first-ever team sprint gold for U.S. women at the World Ski Championships.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013–2014.", "content": "Randall qualified for the U.S. Olympic team at Sochi, and went into the 2014 Winter Olympics as heavily favored to win the USA's first medal in cross-country skiing since 1976, but missed qualifying to advance in the sprint quarterfinals by.05 of a second. Subsequently, she suggested that her focus on peaking for the Olympics was disrupted by a back injury which she sustained whilst training in Davos in December 2013.  Randall topped the overall World Cup sprint standings for a third time. She won the World Cup freestyle sprint events in Nove Mesto, Szklarska Poreba, and Lahti.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014–2015.", "content": "Randall placed third in the Lahti freestyle sprint.  In October 2015 Randall announced that she was expecting her first child in April, and would take a break from competition in the 2015-16 season before returning in 2016-17 with a focus on the 2017 World Championships in Lahti and the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016–2017.", "content": "Upon returning to competition, Randall initially struggled, failing to advance beyond qualifying in the first two World Cup Sprint competitions of the season. However she was able to make steady progress, and in January 2017 finished fifth in a World Cup Sprint in Falun, Sweden - her best result in nearly two years. Subsequently, at the 2017 World Nordic Ski Championships in Lahti, Finland, Randall took the bronze medal in the freestyle sprint, catching Hanna Falk in the last 100 metres to pip her for third place by 0.1 seconds, one place behind team-mate Diggins in second.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017-2018.", "content": "In December 2017 Randall took her first World Cup podium finish in almost three years when she finished third in a sprint in Davos, Switzerland.  During the 2018 Winter Olympics, she and Jessica Diggins became the first American cross-country skiers to win a gold medal by winning the women's team sprint at the Alpensia Cross-Country Centre in Pyeongchang, South Korea.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cross-country skiing results.", "content": "All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other achievements.", "content": "In 2009, Randall was elected to the International Ski Federation's Athletes Commission, which she served on for eight years. Subsequently, in 2018 she was elected to the International Olympic Committee's Athletes Commission, succeeding American ice hockey player Angela Ruggiero.  Randall defeated teammate Holly Brooks to win the Mount Marathon Race in 2011, following in the footsteps of her mother Debbie (who won the Race in 1975) and aunt Betsy (who won it three years in succession from 1979 to 1981).  Randall was inducted into the Alaska Sports Hall of Fame in 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Randall is married to former Canadian ski racer Jeff Ellis, who works as a marketing support manager for the FIS Cross-Country World Cup. The pair originally met at a ski competition in 2006, and married in May 2008 in a ceremony officiated by her coach Erik Flora. The couple have a son, Breck, who was born in April 2016.  In April 2008 she was diagnosed with the genetic blood clotting disorder Factor V Leiden after being hospitalized twice due to blood clots in her left leg.  Randall mixes studies at Alaska Pacific University with skiing for the APU Nordic Ski Center program run by former national level ski racer, Erik Flora.  In April 2018, Randall was diagnosed with breast cancer. She announced her diagnosis in July of that year on her social media accounts, as well as her plans to return to Anchorage to undergo chemotherapy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kikkan Randall (born December 31, 1982) is an American, Olympic champion cross-country skier. She has won 17 U.S. National titles, made 29 podiums on the World Cup, made five trips to the Winter Olympic Games and had the highest finish by an individual American woman at the World Championships, second in the Sprint in Liberec in 2009. She was the first American female cross-country skier to take a top ten finish in World Cup competition, to win a World Cup race and to win a World Cup discipline title. She won the silver medal in the individual sprint at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2009 in Liberec, becoming the first American woman to win a medal in cross country skiing at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships, and in 2013 teamed up with Jessica Diggins to win the first ever American FIS Nordic World Ski Championships gold medal in the team sprint. She and Diggins won the United States' first ever cross-country skiing gold medal at the Winter Olympics in women's team sprint at Pyeongchang in 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976504}
{"src_title": "Heinrich Ritter von Wittek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Heinrich Wittek was born in the Austrian capital Vienna, the eldest son of Johann Marzellin Wittek (1801–1876), an officer of the Imperial and Royal Army, who shortly after Heinrich's birth was appointed an educator of the Habsburg archdukes, the sons of Archduke Franz Karl. The boy grew up at the Austrian court and especially befriended with Archduke Ludwig Viktor, younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I, who was almost of the same age. His father was ennobled in 1858 and elevated to the hereditary rank of \"Ritter\" in 1871.  Wittek attended the Vienna \"Schottengymnasium\", where he obtained his \"Matura\" degree, and went on to study law at the University of Vienna. Having received his doctorate, he began a career as a state official at the Austrian Ministry of Commerce, where he was concerned with the establishment of the Imperial Royal Austrian State Railways upon the Long Depression from 1873 onwards. As a proven expert, he was promoted to head of the railway department in 1886 and led the ministry for a short while in 1895.  On 30 November 1897, Wittek was appointed Railway Minister in the Austrian government of Minister-President Paul Gautsch von Frankenthurn, a post he held in various succeeding Austrian cabinets until 1 May 1905. Upon the resignation of Count Manfred von Clary-Aldringen on 21 December 1899, he also served as acting Austrian Minister-President until the appointment of Ernest von Koerber on 18 January 1900.  During Wittek's time in office, the public railroad network of the Imperial Royal Austrian State Railways was significantly enlarged by an extensive construction programme, as decided by the Austrian Imperial Council parliament in 1901, including the Alpine Bohinj and Tauern Railway lines. Wittek is also credited with improving the social conditions of the railway employees. However, as the building projects suffered substantial cost overruns, he lost support and finally handed in his resignation on 1 May 1905.  A few days later, his CS party colleague Mayor Karl Lueger made him an honorary citizen of Vienna. On August 16 he was appointed life peer of the Austrian House of Lords by Emperor Franz Joseph I. Upon the 1907 legislative election, he succeeded Mayor Karl Lueger as a CS member of the House of Deputies.  Wittek died in Vienna and was buried in the Hietzing Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heinrich Ritter von Wittek (29 January 1844 – 9 April 1930) was an Austrian politician of the Christian Social Party (CS). He served as head of the \"k.k.\" Railway Ministry and as Minister-President of Cisleithania for four weeks in 1899/1900.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976505}
{"src_title": "Hilsner Affair", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Anežka Hrůzová murder case.", "content": "Anežka Hrůzová was a 19-year-old Czech Catholic girl, living in the village of Věžnička. She worked as a seamstress in Polná, away. On the afternoon of 29 March 1899, she left her place of employment as usual, but did not return to her home. Three days later (1 April) her body was found in a forest, her throat having been cut and her garments torn. Nearby was a pool of blood, some blood-stained stones, parts of her garments, and a rope with which she had been either strangled to death or dragged, after the murder, to the place where the body was found. Because of the little amount of blood found near the body, and the fact that Anežka Hrůzová's disappearance had taken place during the Jewish holiday of Passover, authorities and population began speculating this was a case of Jewish ritual murder (blood libel).  The suspicion of the sheriff was first turned against four vagrants who had been seen in the neighborhood of the forest on the afternoon of the day when the murder was supposed to have been committed. Among them was Leopold Hilsner, a 23-year-old Jew, a man of little intelligence, who had been a vagrant all his life. Suspicion against him was based on the fact that he had been frequently seen strolling in the forest where the body was found. A search of his house showed nothing suspicious. He claimed to have left the place on the afternoon of the murder long before it could have been committed; but he could not establish a perfect alibi. Hilsner was arrested, and tried at Kutná Hora on 12–16 September. He denied all knowledge of the crime. The only physical evidence against him was a pair of trousers on which some stains were found, which chemical experts said might have been blood, while the garment was wet as if an attempt had been made to wash it. One witness against him claimed to have seen Hilsner, at a distance of, in company with two strange Jews, on the day on which the murder was supposed to have been committed and on the spot where the body was found. Another witness claimed to have seen him come from that place on the afternoon of 29 March and to have noticed that he was very much agitated. Both the prosecuting attorney, and the attorney for the Hrůza family, Karel Baxa, made clear suggestions of ritual murder. Testimony had proved that Hilsner was too weak to have committed the crime by himself. Still he was sentenced to death for participation in the murder, while his supposed accomplices were undiscovered and no attempt was made to bring them to justice. The prominent Czech nationalist scholar Tomáš Masaryk, professor of the Charles University in Prague, intervened on behalf of Hilsner; he filed an appeal to the supreme court, citing technical errors in the trial. The supreme court ordered a new trial, to be held at Písek in order to avoid intimidation of the jury by the mob, and the influence of political agitation. On 20 September 1899, a few days after the first trial, Hilsner was confronted by hostile fellow prisoners, who showed him some carpenters working in the courtyard of the jail and told him that they were constructing a gallows for him. They demanded the names of his accomplices, and said he could thus obtain a commutation of his sentence. Hilsner, terrified, named Joshua Erbmann and Solomon Wassermann as those who had assisted him. Being brought before the judge on 29 September, he declared that this statement was false. On 7 October, he reiterated the statement, but again recanted on 20 November. Fortunately for those he had accused, they were able to prove perfect alibis, one of them having been in jail on the day of the murder, while the other proved, from certificates of poorhouses in Moravia which he had visited as a beggar, that he could not possibly have been in Polná on that day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Marie Klímová disappearance case.", "content": "Meanwhile, Hilsner was accused of another murder. Marie Klímová, a servant, had disappeared on 17 July 1898. A female body was found on 27 October following in the same forest as the body of Anežka Hrůzová. This body had, with great probability, been identified as the missing girl. However, decomposition was so advanced that not even the fact that the girl had been murdered could be established. Hilsner, charged with this crime also, was tried for both murders in Písek (25 October-14 November 1900). The witnesses at this trial became more definite in their statements. Those that at the first trial had spoken of a knife which they had seen in Hilsner's possession, now asserted distinctly that it was such a knife as was used in ritual slaughtering. The strange Jews who were supposedly seen in company with Hilsner were more and more particularly described. When witnesses were shown that the testimony given by them at the second trial differed from that given at the first trial, they said either that they had been intimidated by the judge or that their statements had not been correctly recorded.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sentence, pardon and aftermath.", "content": "Hilsner was found guilty of having murdered both Anežka Hrůzová and Marie Klímová and sentenced to death on 14 November 1900. The sentence was commuted by Emperor Franz Josef to life imprisonment on 11 June 1901 but requests to renew the trial were turned down. Shortly before the end of World War I (24 March 1918), Hilsner was pardoned by Emperor Karl. He spent the rest of his life in Velké Meziříčí, Prague, and Vienna; he died on 9 January 1928 at the age of 52 in Vienna. His conviction was never annulled, and no one else was ever charged with the murders. Although the case was never solved, Hilsner's innocence concerning the anachronistic charge of ritual murder is recognized. A tombstone unveiled over his grave reads: 'As the innocent victim of lies of ritual murder, he languished in prison for 19 years'. A plaque on his last place of residence also reads: 'Here stood the house where Leopold Hilsner (1876-1928) lived before his death. As the innocent victim of lies about ritual murder, he wasted 19 years in prison.'", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "See History of East European Jews, Heiko Haumman, CEU Press (2002), at 200-01.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hilsner Affair (also known as the Hilsner Trial, Hilsner Case or Polná Affair) was a series of anti-semitic trials following an accusation of blood libel against Leopold Hilsner, a Jewish inhabitant of the town of Polná in Bohemia, Austria-Hungary in 1899 and 1900. The affair achieved widespread media publicity at the time, and Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, then professor at Charles University in Prague also got involved in the case to defend Leopold Hilsner. Hilsner spent 19 years in prison before being pardoned by the Emperor of Austria-Hungary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976506}
{"src_title": "Dudley Ryder, 1st Earl of Harrowby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Born in London, Ryder was the eldest son of Nathaniel Ryder, 1st Baron Harrowby, and his wife Elizabeth (née Terrick). Sir Dudley Ryder was his grandfather and Richard Ryder his younger brother. He was educated at Harrow School and St John's College, Cambridge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Harrowby was elected to his father's old Parliament seat of Tiverton in 1784. His administrative career began with an appointment to be Joint Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1789. In 1791 he was appointed joint Paymaster of the Forces, having been made Vice-President of the Board of Trade in 1790. He resigned the positions and also that of Treasurer of the Navy when he succeeded to his father's barony in June 1803. In 1804 he was Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. After James Monroe's first interview with him on 30 May 1804, \"...Monroe reported to his Government that Lord Harrowby's manners were designedly unfriendly; his reception was rough, his comments on the Senate's habit of mutilating treaties were harsh, his conduct throughout the intervuew was calculated to wound and to irritate.\"  In 1805 he was Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster under his intimate friend William Pitt; in the latter year he was sent on a special and important mission to the emperors of Austria and Russia and the king of Prussia. In 1809 he was honoured when he was made Viscount Sandon, of Sandon in the County of Stafford, and Earl of Harrowby, in the County of Lincoln. From November 1809 to June 1812 he served as Minister without portfolio in the cabinet of Spencer Perceval.  From 1812 to 1827, he served as Lord President of the Council under Lord Liverpool. After George Canning's death in 1827, Harrowby refused to serve George IV as prime minister and never held office again. Despite this he continued to take part in politics, being especially prominent during the deadlock which preceded the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832. Harrowby's long association with the Tories did not prevent him from assisting to remove the disabilities of Roman Catholics and Protestant dissenters, or from supporting the movement for electoral reform; he was also in favour of the emancipation of the slaves. He was a member of the Literary Association of the Friends of Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Harrowby married Lady Susanna Leveson-Gower, daughter of Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford, in 1795. They had three sons and five daughters. She died in May 1838. Lord Harrowby survived her by nine years and died in December 1847 at his Staffordshire residence, Sandon Hall, aged 85, being, as Charles Cavendish Fulke Greville says, \"the last of his generation and of the colleagues of Mr Pitt, the sole survivor of those stirring times and mighty contests.\" He was succeeded in his titles by his eldest son Dudley. His second son, Granville Ryder, became a Member of Parliament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dudley Ryder, 1st Earl of Harrowby, PC, FSA (22 December 176226 December 1847) was a prominent British politician of the Pittite faction and the Tory party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976507}
{"src_title": "George Nugent-Temple-Grenville, 1st Marquess of Buckingham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and early life.", "content": "Grenville was the eldest son of George Grenville, Prime Minister of Great Britain, and his wife, Elizabeth Wyndham, daughter of Sir William Wyndham, 3rd Baronet, and was born on 17 June 1753. He was the nephew of Richard Grenville-Temple, 2nd Earl Temple, and the elder brother of Thomas Grenville and of William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville, also Prime Minister of Great Britain. In 1764, he was appointed a Teller of the Exchequer. He was educated at Eton College from 1764 to 1770 and matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford in 1770. He succeeded his father on 13 November 1770. In 1774 he undertook a Grand Tour through Italy and Austria. In 1775, he married the Hon. Mary Nugent, daughter of the 1st Viscount Clare (later the 1st Earl Nugent).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Grenville was returned as Member of Parliament for Buckinghamshire at the 1774 general election. In the House of Commons he emerged as a sharp critic of the American policy of Lord North. In September 1779, he succeeded his uncle as Earl Temple and moved to the House of Lords.  Grenville also took the additional family names Nugent and Temple by Royal Warrant issued on 4 December making the compound family name Nugent-Temple-Grenville. In 1782, Lord Temple was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire and in July 1782, he became a member of the Privy Council and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in the Ministry of Lord Shelburne. He was instrumental in the enactment of the Renunciation Act of 1783, which supplemented the legislative independence granted to Ireland in 1782. As Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and by Royal Warrant, he created the Order of St Patrick in February 1783, with himself as the first Grand Master. He left Ireland in 1783 and again turned his attention to English politics. He enjoyed the confidence of King George III, and having opposed Fox's East India Bill, he was authorised by the King to say that \"whoever voted for the India Bill was not only not his friend, but would be considered by him as an enemy\", a message which ensured the defeat of the Bill. He was appointed a Secretary of State when the younger Pitt (his father's sister's son) formed his ministry in December 1783, but resigned only three days later.  In December 1784, Lord Temple was created Marquess of Buckingham. In November 1787, he was again appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, this time under Pitt, but his second tenure of this office proved less successful than the first. Grattan denounced him for extravagance; the Irish Houses of Parliament censured him for refusing to transmit to England an address calling upon the Prince of Wales to assume the regency; and he could only maintain his position by resorting to bribery on a large scale. When his father-in-law died in 1788, Lord Buckingham succeeded him as 2nd Earl Nugent. However, since he already held the higher rank of Marquess, he was never known by this title. Having become very unpopular, he resigned his office in September 1789.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Lord Buckingham subsequently took very little part in politics, although he spoke in favour of the Act of Union of 1800. His wife died in 1812 and he died on 11 February 1813 at his residence, Stowe in Buckinghamshire. He was buried at his ancestral Wotton. He left two sons: The 1st Duke of Buckingham and Chandos and The 2nd Baron Nugent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George Nugent-Temple-Grenville, 1st Marquess of Buckingham, (17 June 1753 – 11 February 1813; known as The 3rd Earl Temple between 1779 and 1784) was a British statesman.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976508}
{"src_title": "Jonathan Eybeschutz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Rav Eybeschütz's father Nosson Nota was the rabbi in Ivančice (, sometimes \"Eibeschutz\"), Habsburg Moravia. Rav Eybeschütz was a child prodigy in Talmud; on his father's death, he studied in the yeshiva of Meir Eisenstadt in Prostějov (Prossnitz), and then later in Holešov (Holleschau). He also lived in Vienna for a short time. He married Elkele Spira, daughter of Rabbi Isaac Spira, and they lived in Hamburg for two years with Mordecai ha-Kohen, Elkele's maternal grandfather.  At the age of eighteen, Rav Eybeschütz was appointed rabbi of Mladá Boleslav, where he stayed for three years, afterward settling in Prague in 1700 and becoming head of the yeshivah and a famous preacher. The people of Prague held Rav Eybeschütz in high esteem and he was considered second there only to Dayan David Oppenheim.  In Prague, Rav Eybeschütz received permission to print the Talmud—but with the omission of all passages contradicting the principles of Christianity in consultation with Dayan David Oppenheim. Legends and rumors seeking to discredit the event said that he did this without the consultation of the Rabbis of Prague, and they revoked the printing license.  Already in Prague 1724, he was suspected of being a Sabbatean. He even got up on Yom Kippur to denounce the Sabbatean movement, but he remained suspected. Therefore, In 1736, Rav Eybeschutz was only appointed dayan of Prague and not chief rabbi. He became rabbi of Metz in 1741. In 1750, he was elected rabbi of the \"Three Communities:\" Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbek.  He was \"an acknowledged genius\" in at least three separate areas of Jewish religious creativity: Talmud and Jewish law (halakhah); homiletics (derush) and popular preaching; and Kabbalah. \"He was a man of erudition, but he owed his fame chiefly to his personality. Few men of the period so profoundly impressed their mark on Jewish life.\" His granddaughter was the Breslau poet and intellectual, born Esther Gad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sabbatian controversy.", "content": "Rav Eybeschütz again became suspected of harboring secret Sabbatean beliefs because of a dispute that arose concerning the amulets which he was suspected of issuing. It was alleged that these amulets recognized the Messianic claims of Sabbatai Zevi. The controversy started when Rav Yaakov Emden found serious connections between the Kabbalistic and homiletic writings of Rav Eybeschutz with those of the known Sabbatean Judah Leib Prossnitz, whom Rav Eybeschütz knew from his days in Prossnitz. Rabbi Jacob Emden accused him of heresy. The majority of the rabbis in Poland, Moravia, and Bohemia, as well as the leaders of the Three Communities supported Rav Eybeschütz: the accusation was \"utterly incredible\"—in 1725, Rav Eybeschütz was among the Prague rabbis who excommunicated the Sabbateans. Others suggest that the Rabbis issued this ruling because they feared the repercussions if their leading figure, Rav Eybeschütz, was found to be a Sabbatean. Recent evidence has produced the actual amulets and their alleged connection to Sabbatean amulets.  In 1752, the controversy between Rav Emden and Rav Eybeschütz raged. In December of that year, the Hamburg government banned any more discussion of the amulets, the Senate of Hamburg suspended Rav Eybeschütz, and many members of that congregation demanded that he should submit his case to rabbinical authorities. At this point he was defended by Carl Anton, a convert to Christianity, but a former disciple of Rav Eybeschütz.  The controversy was a momentous incident in Jewish history of the period—involving both Rav Yechezkel Landau and the Vilna Gaon—and may be credited with having crushed the lingering belief in Sabbatai current even in some Orthodox circles.  In 1760, the quarrel broke out once more when some Shabbatean elements were discovered among the students of Rav Eybeschütz' yeshivah. At the same time his younger son, Wolf Jonas Eybeschutz, presented himself as a Shabbatean prophet, and was close to several Frankists, with the result that the yeshivah was closed.  According to Jacob Katz, Rav Jonathan Eybeschütz's grandson was rumored to be Baron Thomas von Schoenfeld, an apostate Jew who inherited his grandfather's collection of Sabbatean kabbalistic works. He eventually left the Sabbatean movement and founded a Masonic lodge called the Asiatische Bruder, one of four Illuminati lodges in Vienna. After his uncle's death on August 10, 1791, he was offered the leadership of the Frankist movement which he refused. Katz disputes this claim however, saying that Baron Thomas von Schoenfeld was a member of the Dobruschka family of Brno and was in no way related, either by blood or marriage, to Rav Eybeschutz. According to Gershom Scholem, the ideology of the Asiatic Brethren mixed Kabbalistic and Sabbatean ideas jumbled together with Christian theosophic doctrines.  Some of Rav Eybeschutz's descendants are the Yiddish novelist and Holocaust survivor Chava Rosenfarb (1923–2011), Rav Chaim Kreiswirth of Antwerp, Belgium, and Rav Shmuel Wosner (1913–2015), a prominent Haredi rabbi and posek ('decisor of Jewish law') who lived in Bnei Brak, Israel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Thirty of his works in the area of Halakha (Jewish law) have been published. In addition, several of his works on homiletics, teaching methodology, and Kabbalah are currently in print. Only one of his works was published in his lifetime. The posthumous printing of so many of his works is testimony to his influence on his contemporaries through his oral teachings and his personality.  Rabbi Eybeschutz also wrote \"Luchoth Edut\" (Tablets of Testimony), in which he describes the whole dispute and attempts to refute the charges against him. It includes also the letters of recommendation which he had received from leading rabbis who came to his defense. In January 2014, Maggid Books, a division of Koren Publishers Jerusalem published \"Derash Yehonatan: Around the Year with Rav Yehonatan Eybeshitz\" by Rabbi Shalom Hammer. This work is one of the first English translations of Rabbi Eybeshutz's writings.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rav Jonathan (Yonoson יונתן) Eybeschütz (also Eibeschutz or Eibeschitz; 1690 in Kraków1764 in Altona), was a Talmudist, Halachist, Kabbalist, holding positions as Dayan of Prague, and later as Rabbi of the \"Three Communities\": Altona, Hamburg and Wandsbek. With Rav Jacob Emden, he is well known as a protagonist in the Emden–Eybeschütz Controversy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976509}
{"src_title": "The Accidental Husband", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Patrick Sullivan is looking forward to a life with Sophia, until she calls into the radio show hosted by famed love expert Dr. Emma Lloyd. Emma questions Sophia’s concept of romantic love and advises her to break their engagement, which she swiftly does.  Patrick is so upset that when he hears that Emma is about to be married herself, he allows his young neighbour, Ajay, to hack into public records and create a fake marriage certificate between himself and Emma. Upon going to the public records office to get a marriage license, Emma and her perfect-gentleman fiancé, Richard, are told she is already married.  Emma sets out to find Patrick and give him annulment papers to sign so that she can marry Richard. Emma finds Patrick in a bar, and their initial meeting ends with her getting drunk. The following day, Patrick comes to Emma's workplace to give her the annulment papers as she is leaving for a wedding cake tasting. Patrick accompanies her to the tasting, where Frau Greta Bollenbecker assumes he is Emma's fiancé, Richard. Greta later comes to Emma's book launch because her husband Herr Karl Bollenbecker is planning to liquidate Richard's publishing house. Greta meets Emma during the banquet and tells her of the same. Patrick still has the annulment papers, so he comes to the book launch. Matters get worse when Richard sees Greta and Karl with Emma and Patrick, who is posing as Richard, but Richard agrees to go along with it when he learns that Greta thinks Patrick will charm Karl so much that Karl will decide to continue business with \"Richard\".  Patrick invites them all to Ajay's ceremony. Emma and the other guests have a good time there, and she sees a whole new side of Patrick, who had been repulsive to her so far. There is a slight spark of attraction, but Emma flees the scene before anything can happen.  Patrick decides to throw out everything related to Emma or Sophia, but instead reads Emma's book, \"Real Love\". He comes to confront her about the book because he thinks it only points out all the bad things in a relationship. Patrick and Emma continue their argument in an elevator. Suddenly Patrick falshes his New York Fire Department badge and asks the other occupants to leave the elevator. He then locks the elevator to kiss Emma. Security staff see them through a CCTV in the elevator and ask them to leave.  Emma finally has the signed and notarized annulment papers, but she considers calling off her wedding. She goes to Patrick’s lodgings and they make love that night. The following morning, Emma finds all the papers related to her and Sophia in the trash. Patrick then confesses that he had initially wanted to teach her a lesson about love but then fell for her. Emma then goes back to the honorable Richard, who still loves her and says that she wants to marry him.  One day before her wedding, Patrick calls her at the radio station and tells her that he loves her. She does not answer him. The next day on her wedding day, she confides in her father, Wilder, and asks for his advice. He tells her that the decision is hers. Richard comes to see Emma in the bridal chamber. Richard had also heard the radio show the night before and tells her that he wants her to be happy, and they amicably break up.  Emma sets off the church's fire sprinklers in an attempt to get Patrick to the church. Meanwhile, the fire department where Patrick works is called to the church to put out the fire. When Patrick arrives there, Emma and Patrick get married and leave in the fire truck. The final scene shifts to a year later where it is shown that Emma is pregnant and that she and Patrick are still very much in love. The movie ends with a Tamil song, \"Swasame\", from the movie \"Thenali\" in the background.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The film features several Indian songs, including A. R. Rahman's \"Yaro Yarodi\", \"Swasamae\" and \"Rang De\" (from the films \"Alaipayuthey\", \"Thenali\" and \"Thakshak\" respectively) as well as Panjabi Hit Squad's \"Kuriyeh\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "Theatrically, the film was released on February 29, 2008 in the UK and was scheduled to be released on August 22, 2008 in the United States. It was delayed to March 27, 2009 before being shelved indefinitely following the bankruptcy of its distributor, Yari Film Group's releasing division. It was released direct-to-DVD in the United States on November 10, 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "As of December 12, 2010, it made $22,707,064.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical Response.", "content": "On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 6% based on reviews from 17 critics. On Metacritic it has an approval rating of 14% based on reviews from 4 critics, indicating \"overwhelming disklike\".  Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian criticized the predictable plot and the actors lack of romantic chemistry. Jenny McCartney of The Telegraph was critical of the lack of chemistry \"None of it works: the inexplicable alchemy between co-stars that can seduce the audience even in an indifferent rom-com doesn't arise between Thurman and Morgan.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Accidental Husband is a 2008 American romantic comedy film directed by Griffin Dunne and starring Uma Thurman, Jeffrey Dean Morgan, Colin Firth, Isabella Rossellini, and Sam Shepard. The film was written by Mimi Hare, Clare Naylor and Bonnie Sikowitz, and was produced by Jennifer Todd, Jason Blum, and Uma Thurman. It was theatrically released in the United Kingdom in 2008, but was released direct-to-DVD in the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976510}
{"src_title": "Wax gourd", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"winter melon\" that is sometimes given to this plant is based on the Chinese name (); however, the character () can also mean “gourd” or “squash.” It is likely that the name “melon” is given because this gourd is sometimes candied or made into a sweet tea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "It is grown in well-drained loam and sandy soils in warm, mild climates, and will not tolerate frosts. It is grown in riverbeds or furrows, and needs constant irrigation during the growing season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The wax gourd can be stored for many months, much like winter squash. Ash gourds of the Indian subcontinent have a white coating with a rough texture (hence the name ash gourd). Southeast Asian varieties have a smooth waxy texture. It is one of the few vegetables available during winter in areas of deciduous vegetation. In India, the wax gourd is recognized for its medicinal properties in the Ayurvedic system of medicine. It also has significance in spiritual traditions of India and Yoga, where it is identified as a great source of prana.  In Vietnamese cuisine, it is called \"bí đao\", and is usually used to make soup or stew. When cooked with pork short ribs, the resulting soup is traditionally thought to help produce more milk for breastfeeding mothers.  In Chinese cuisine, the gourds are used in stir fries or combined with pork or pork/beef bones to make winter gourd soup, often served in the scooped out gourd, carved by scraping off the waxy coating. It is also chopped and candied as wintermelon candy (táng dōng guā), commonly eaten at New Year festivals, or as filling for Sweetheart cake (lǎopó bǐng). It has also been used as the base filling in Chinese and Taiwanese mooncakes for the Moon Festival.  In the Philippines it is candied (referred to plainly as \"kundol\") and is used as a pastry filling for bakpia (\"hopia\" in the Philippines). It is also an ingredient in some savory soups (sabaw) and stir-fries (guisado).  In Indian cuisine it is traditionally used to prepare a wide variety of dishes. In northern India it is used to prepare a candy called \"petha\". In South Indian cuisine, it is traditionally used to make a variety of curries, including a stew made with a yogurt base. The juice of the raw ash gourd (Maipawl or Khar) is used by the Mizo community and indigenous Assamese ethnicities of North-East India as a natural remedy to treat mild to severe dysentery. In north India, particularly in the middle Himalayas, it is paired with pulses such as moong which, when crushed, along with winter gourd, make a dish locally called \"bori\". When dried in sunlight it becomes somewhat hard and is used in curry dishes and eaten with rice or chapati. This practice is especially prevalent in the Himalayas due to the long shelf life of the resulting product.  In Andhra Pradesh, it is called \"boodidi gummidikaya\" (Telugu language). It is used to make stews, stir fries and vadialu. Vadialu (plural; vadiam is singular) are made by chopping the gourd in small pieces and mixing with yogurt and spices, then sun-drying. To eat, vadialu are deep fried in oil and eaten as an accompaniment to rice and sambar or lentil stews.  In Kerala, the plant is called Kumbalam (കുമ്പളം) and the fruit is called Kumbalanga (കുമ്പളങ്ങ) or Kooshmandam (കൂശ്മാണ്ടം). It is traditionally used to offer 'Guruthi' (ഗുരുതി) instead of 'Kuruti' (കുരുതി) among Malayali Brahmins. Thus, instead of offering someone's life in the pier, an ash gourd is cut into two as a symbolic performance in lieu of human sacrifice.  In Udupi cuisine, the ash gourd is known as Budu Kumbda or Boldu Kumbda in the Tulu language, Budi Kumblakayi in Kannada is used to prepare dishes like Kodel (Sambhar), Ale bajji, Kashi Halwa and chutney. In Gujarat, is called kolu (કોળુ).  In Nepal, where it is called Kubhindo, it is cooked as a vegetable when young, but the ripe gourds are usually made into preserves or crystallized candy known as \"murabba\" or \"petha\".  Occasionally, it is used to produce a fruit drink with a distinctive taste. It is usually sweetened with caramelized sugar. In Southeast Asia, the drink is marketed as wax gourd tea or wax gourd punch.  The shoots, tendrils, and leaves of the plant may also be eaten as greens.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Benincasa hispida, the wax gourd, also called ash gourd, white gourd, winter gourd, tallow gourd, ash pumpkin, winter melon, Chinese preserving melon and (Alu) Puhul, is a vine grown for its very large fruit, eaten as a vegetable when mature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976511}
{"src_title": "William of St-Thierry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "William was born at Liège (in present-day Belgium) of a noble family between 1075 and 1080 (or 1085), and died at Signy-l'Abbaye in 1148. He probably studied at the cathedral school in Reims, though some have argued it was at Laon, prior to his profession as a Benedictine monk. He became a monk with his brother Simon at the monastery of St. Nicaise, also in Reims, sometime after 1111. From here both eventually became abbots of other Benedictine abbeys: Simon at the abbey of Saint-Nicolas-au-Bois, in the Diocese of Laon, and William at Saint-Thierry, on a hill overlooking Reims, in 1119.  In 1118 William met St. Bernard, abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Clairvaux, where they formed an intimate friendship that lasted for life. His greatest desire was to move to Clairvaux and profess as a Cistercian, but Bernard disapproved of the plan and imposed on him the responsibility of remaining in charge of the abbey at St. Thierry as a Benedictine. Their friendship, however, grew stronger while Bernard lay in the infirmary of Clairvaux convalescing after an illness in 1125.  William was instrumental in the first General Chapter meeting of the Benedictine abbots in the Diocese of Reims, in 1131, and it is possible that he hosted the chapter meeting at Saint-Thierry. After the second General Chapter of the Benedictines, held at Soissons in 1132, where many Cistercian reforms were adopted by the Benedictines, William submitted his \"Responsio abbatum\" (\"Response of the Abbots\") to Cardinal Matthew — papal legate in the diocese and critic of the abbots' reforms — successfully defending their reformation efforts. On account of long infirmities and a lifelong desire for a life of contemplation, William resigned his abbacy in 1135 and entered the newly established Cistercian Signy Abbey, also in the diocese of Reims. He did not venture to retire to Clairvaux lest his friend Bernard refuse to accept his abdication. There he divided his free time between prayer, study, and writing. According to a contemporary, his death occurred in 1148, about the time of the council held at Reims under Pope Eugenius. The necrology of Signy dates it 8 September, a few years prior to his good friend Bernard's death in 1153.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writings.", "content": "William wrote throughout all of his abbatial career as a Benedictine and his final years as a Cistercian monk. His earliest works reflect a monk seeking God continually and investigating the various and best ways of furthering the soul's ascent to God in spiritual union, William's ultimate goal. When read chronologically, one can discern the development and evolution of William's thought.  Toward the end of his career, having written extensively on spiritual life and especially on the moral interpretation of the biblical Song of Songs, William came across the writings of Peter Abelard, whose Trinitarian theology and especially Christology William found to be in error and dangerous to Christian faith. He wrote his own work against Abelard and alerted others about these concerns, urging St. Bernard to act. As a result, Abelard was condemned by the Council of Sens in 1140 or 1141. William wrote against what he saw as errors in the writings of William of Conches concerning Trinitarian theology and also against Rupert of Deutz on sacramental theology.  Besides his letters to St. Bernard and others, William wrote several works, some of which he himself enumerates, though somewhat incorrectly. In total, there were twenty two works by William (twenty one extant), all written in Latin between c. 1121 and 1148.  In approximate chronological order, these include:  Three of William's writings were widely read in the later Middle Ages. However, they were frequently attributed to Bernard of Clairvaux - a sign of their quality and also another reason for their continued popularity. Only in the early twentieth century did interest in William as a distinct writer begin to develop again and was his name correctly attached to all of his own writings.  William drew upon the existing and traditional monastic and theological authors of his day and significant authors of previous centuries, but not in a slavish way; rather he is creative and independent in his thought and exposition. His own commentaries show his remarkable insight while they also incorporate traditional authors such as Augustine of Hippo and Origen of Alexandria. Perhaps his most influential works are those dealing with the spiritual life of the contemplative monk. From his \"On Contemplating God\" to his \"Golden Epistle\", one can see a progressive evolution of William's thought and a maturing of William's spiritual insight and experience, while also noticing an improved, more polished writing style and organization. Some scholars also argue that although William drew on texts and authors in the past, his creativity and usage of spiritual terminology was also influential on many other authors from the 12th century onward.  The Latin texts of most of William's writings are contained in J.-P. Migne's \"Patrologia Cursus Completus Series Latina\" (\"Patrologia Latina\") volume 180, with other works also in volumes 184 and 185. All of his works are available in critical editions in the Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Medievalis series from Brepols in six volumes (86-89B). The bulk of William’s writings are available in English translation from Cistercian Publications (formerly located in Kalamazoo and now located at Collegeville, Minnesota, at St. John's University).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William of Saint-Thierry (French: \"Guillaume de Saint-Thierry\"; Latin: \"Guillelmus S. Theodorici\"; 1075/80/85–1148) was a twelfth-century French Benedictine abbot of Saint-Thierry, theologian and mystic who became a Cistercian monk and writer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976512}
{"src_title": "Definitely, Maybe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Will Hayes works at an advertising agency in New York City and is in the midst of a divorce. After her first sex education class, his 10-year-old daughter Maya insists on hearing the story of how her parents met. Will gives in, but changes the names and some of the facts, leaving Maya to guess which of the women from his past would become her mother.  Will begins his “mystery love story” in 1992, when he moves away from Madison, Wisconsin and his college sweetheart, Emily, to work on the Clinton campaign in New York City. There, he meets April Hoffman, a fellow campaign staffer, and delivers a package from Emily to her college friend, Summer Hartley. The package is revealed to be Summer’s diary, which Will had read, learning she had a brief affair with Emily. Summer is dating her professor, Hampton Roth, but spontaneously kisses Will.  He tells April his plan to propose to Emily, and rehearses his proposal; April replies, “Definitely, maybe”. They go to her apartment, where Will notices her many copies of \"Jane Eyre\". She explains that her father gave her a copy with a personal inscription shortly before he died, but the book was later lost. She has spent years searching secondhand bookstores to find it, and collects any copy with an inscription. April and Will kiss, but he abruptly leaves. The next day, Emily arrives in New York City. Will tries to propose, but Emily confesses that she slept with his roommate, and urges him to move on and pursue his ambitions.  After Clinton is elected, Will opens a political consulting firm, and stays in close touch with April as she travels the world. He encounters Summer, now a journalist and single, and they begin a relationship. April returns from abroad, planning to tell Will that she loves him, but discovers he is planning to propose to Summer. Will learns that Summer has written an article that will ruin his candidate’s campaign. He asks her not to publish it, but she refuses, and Will ends their relationship. The article derails the campaign, losing Will his political career and friends.  Years later, April reaches out to Will, who has fallen into depression in his new job, while she has a new boyfriend named Kevin. She throws Will a birthday party, reuniting him with his old colleagues. He drunkenly confesses to April that he loves her, leading to an argument about the state of their lives. Passing a bookstore, he finds the inscribed copy of \"Jane Eyre\" April’s father gave her. He goes to April’s apartment to give her the book, but decides against it when he meets Kevin, who is living with her. Will runs into Summer, who invites him to a party where he reunites with Emily, who has moved to New York City.  In the present, Maya deduces that “Emily” is her mother, Sarah. Will assures Maya that she is the story’s happy ending, and he and Sarah finalize their divorce. Unpacking in his new apartment, he discovers April’s book. He brings it to her, apologizing for waiting so long, but she asks him to leave. At Maya’s urging, Will realizes he is miserable without April, and he and Maya go to April’s apartment. When she does not let them inside, Will and Maya walk away, but April runs after them. Will explains that he kept the book as the only thing he had left of her. April invites them in to tell her the story, and she and Will kiss.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "The film was scored by English composer Clint Mansell. Lakeshore Records released the score on March 18, 2008. All Music Guide reviewer William Ruhlmann praised the album as filled with \"sweet, melodic numbers that often seem to lack only a lyric to turn them into pop songs\". He also stated that it functioned as \"light accompaniment to an equally light entertainment\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "In its opening weekend, the film cleared its production budget of $7 million by grossing $9.8 million in 2,204 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking #5 at the box office. As of September 28, 2008, the film has grossed $55,447,968 worldwide.  The film was released on DVD June 24, 2008, with a widescreen transfer, deleted scenes, two short featurettes, and a commentary track by Reynolds and director Brooks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 70% based on reviews from 147 critics, with an average rating of 6.49/10. The site's consensus reads: \"With a clever script and charismatic leads, \"Definitely, Maybe\" is a refreshing entry into the romantic comedy genre.\" On Metacritic the film has an average score of 59 out of 100 based on 33 reviews, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B+ on scale of A to F.  Dennis Harvey of \"Variety magazine\" called it \"A pleasingly non-formulaic romantic seriocomedy, \"Definitely, Maybe\" has charm and some depth, even if it’s ultimately more a third-base hit than a home run.\" A.O. Scott of The New York Times called it \"A nimble and winning little romance\". Claudia Puig of USA Today gave it a positive reviwe and wrote: \"It's generally enjoyable, amusing and more sophisticated than most films in this genre.\"  Stephen Farber The Hollywood Reporter gave a more mixed review, but praised the cast: \"The film is far from a complete washout, and this is chiefly a tribute to its immensely attractive and appealing cast. Ryan Reynolds proves to have the stuff of a true leading. man.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Definitely, Maybe is a 2008 romantic comedy-drama film written and directed by Adam Brooks, and starring Ryan Reynolds, Isla Fisher, Rachel Weisz, Elizabeth Banks, Abigail Breslin, and Kevin Kline. Set in New York City during the 1990s, the film is about a political consultant who tries to help his eleven-year-old daughter understand his impending divorce by telling her the story of his past romantic relationships and how he ended up marrying her mother. The film grossed $55 million worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976513}
{"src_title": "View of Delft", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The landscape was painted from an elevated position to the southeast of Delft, possibly the upper floor of a house on the quayside across the river Schie. The artist is looking back to the city to the northwest, with the in the middle of the composition, and the and its barbican to the right, all reflected in the water of the harbour created in 1616–1620. Behind the Schiedam Gate is the long red-roofed arsenal (the Armamentarium).  It is a morning scene, with the sun to the east (viewer's right) illuminating the Protestant Nieuwe Kerk (\"New Church\", right of centre) before its bells were replaced in 1660. The New Church in Delft is the burial place of William the Silent and other members of the House of Orange-Nassau.  To the left is the tower the \"De Papegaey\" (Parrot) brewery (since demolished) and, to its left, the top of the tower of the Oude Kerk (\"Old Church\"). Some barges are drawn up on the quayside, with a few people passing by. The top half of the painting is dominated by a cloudy sky, with a dark cloud suggesting a rain shower has just passed.  It is believed that Vermeer created this painting using an optical device—possibly a camera obscura, or a telescope—to capture the detail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Painting materials.", "content": "The technical analysis shows that Vermeer used a limited choice of pigments for this painting: calcite, lead white, yellow ochre, natural ultramarine and madder lake are the main painting materials. His painting technique, on the other hand, is very elaborate and meticulous.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The painting may have been bought by Pieter van Ruijven and inherited by his daughter Magdalena. It is known to have passed through the collection of her husband Jacob Dissius. It was auctioned in 1822, and bought for 2,900 guilders for the new Dutch Royal Cabinet of Paintings established at the Mauritshuis.  The painting features in Marcel Proust's novel \"In Search of Lost Time\", in the death scene of the writer Bergotte in \"The Captive\". Bergotte takes inspiration from Vermeer's technique: \"That's how I ought to have written... My last books are too dry, I ought to have... made my language precious in itself, like this little patch of yellow wall.\" Proust himself greatly admired Vermeer, particularly this painting. When seeing the work for the first time, Proust is quoted as saying:  In 2011, the painting was featured on gold and silver commemorative coins issued by the Royal Dutch Mint.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "View of Delft () is an oil painting by Johannes Vermeer, painted ca. 1660–1661. The painting of the Dutch artist's hometown is among his most popular, painted at a time when cityscapes were uncommon. It is one of three known paintings of Delft by Vermeer, along with \"The Little Street\" and the lost painting \"House Standing in Delft\". The use of pointillism in the work suggests that it postdates \"The Little Street\", and the absence of bells in the tower of the New Church dates it to 1660–1661. Vermeer's \"View of Delft\" has been held in the Dutch Royal Cabinet of Paintings at the Mauritshuis in The Hague since its establishment in 1822.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976514}
{"src_title": "Palace of Nestor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The site is on the hill of Epano Englianos, situated close to the road south of Chora and north of Pylos, at above sea level and in an area of by.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Excavations.", "content": "In 1912 and 1926 two tholos tombs north of the Bay of Navarino were excavated. One contained three decorated jars and the other a collection of Early Mycenaean and Middle Helladic pots.  A joint Hellenic-American expedition was formed with the Greek Archaeological Service and the University of Cincinnati and trial excavations of Epano Englianos were started on 4 April 1939. From the first day stone walls, fresco fragments, Mycenaean pottery and inscribed tablets were found.  During excavation in 1939 around 1,000 Linear B tablets were found. A systematic excavation was impossible throughout World War II and excavations resumed in 1952. From 1952 to 1966 the Palace was uncovered with areas around the acropolis being further explored. A breakthrough in translating them was achieved by Michael Ventris, an English architect in 1952 who found that it was an archaic form of Greek. The translation of such tablets in the following years showed that they consisted of part of the royal archive.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Griffin Warrior Tomb.", "content": "In 2015 the University of Cincinnati uncovered an extraordinarily rich find not far from the palace. This undisturbed burial of a Mycenaean warrior, called the \"griffin warrior\" by the team, yielded gold rings, bronze weapons, and many other artifacts. The iconography of the artifacts displays a mixture of Minoan and Mycenaean culture.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tablets.", "content": "The Linear B clay tablets confirm that the palace served as the administrative, political and financial centre of Mycenaean Messenia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Palace of Nestor (Modern Greek: Ανάκτορο του Νέστορα ; Ἀνάκτορον Νέστορος ) was an important centre in Mycenaean times, and described in Homer's Odyssey and Iliad as Nestor's kingdom of \"sandy Pylos\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976515}
{"src_title": "Resource Description and Access", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "RDA emerged from the International Conference on the Principles & Future Development of AACR held in Toronto in 1997. It is published jointly by the American Library Association, the Canadian Federation of Library Associations, and the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) in the United Kingdom. Maintenance of RDA is the responsibility of the RDA Steering Committee (RSC). As of 2015, RSC is undergoing a transition to an international governance structure, expected to be in place in 2019.  RDA instructions and guidelines are available through RDA Toolkit, an online subscription service, and in a print format.  RDA training materials and texts are available online and in print.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "RDA is a package of data elements, guidelines, and instructions for creating library and cultural heritage resource metadata that are well-formed according to international models for user-focused linked data applications. The underlying conceptual models for RDA are the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR), Functional Requirements for Authority Data (FRAD), and Functional Requirements for Subject Authority Data (FRSAD) maintained by IFLA, and will be compliant with the Library Reference Model, the IFLA standard that consolidates them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "RDA Vocabularies.", "content": "RDA Vocabularies is a representation of the RDA entities, elements, relationship designators, and controlled terms in RDF (Resource Description Framework). The Vocabularies are intended to support linked data applications using RDA. They are maintained in the Open Metadata Registry, a metadata registry, and released via GitHub and the RDA Registry.  The human-readable labels, definitions, and other textual annotations in the Vocabularies are known as RDA Reference. The RDA Reference data are used in the production of RDA Toolkit content.  The RDA Vocabularies and RDA Reference are available under an open license.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Internationalization.", "content": "RDA is in step with the Statement of International Cataloguing Principles published by IFLA in 2009, and updated in 2016.  The Committee of Principals for RDA, now the RDA Board, announced its commitment to internationalization of RDA in 2015. This is reflected in the new governance structure with representation based on the United Nations Regional Groups, comprising, Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America, and Oceania.  As of May 2017, the RDA Toolkit has been translated from English into Catalan, Chinese, Finnish, French, German, Italian, and Spanish. RDA Reference is currently being translated into these languages as well as others including Arabic, Danish, Dutch, Greek, Hebrew, Swedish, and Vietnamese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adoption of RDA.", "content": "In March 2012 the Library of Congress announced that it would fully implement RDA cataloging by the end of March 2013. Library and Archives Canada fully implemented the standard in September 2013. British Library, National Library of Australia, and Deutsche Nationalbibliothek and other national libraries have since implemented RDA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opposition.", "content": "In the United States, the cataloguing community expressed reservations about the new standard in regard to both the business case for RDA in a depressed economy and the value of the standard's stated goals. Michael Gorman, one of the authors of AACR2, was particularly vocal in expression of his opposition to the new guidelines, claiming that RDA was poorly written and organized, and that the plan for RDA unnecessarily abandoned established cataloging practices. Others felt that RDA was too rooted in past practices and therefore was not a vision for the future. In response to these concerns, the three United States national libraries (Library of Congress, National Library of Medicine, and the National Agricultural Library) organized a nationwide test of the new standard.  On 13 June 2011, the Library of Congress, the National Agricultural Library, and the National Library of Medicine released the results of their testing. The test found that RDA to some degree met most of the goals that the JSC put forth for the new code and failed to meet a few of those goals. The Coordinating Committee admitted that they \"wrestled with articulating a business case for implementing RDA\", nevertheless the report recommended that RDA be adopted by the three national libraries, contingent on several improvements being made. The earliest possible date for implementation was given as January 2013, as the consensus emerging from the analysis of the test data showed that while there were discernible benefits to implementing RDA, these benefits would not be realized without further changes to current cataloging practices, including developing a successor to the MARC format.  Several other institutions were involved in the RDA test. Many of these institutions documented their findings in a special issue of \"Cataloging & Classification Quarterly\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Resource Description and Access (RDA) is a standard for descriptive cataloging initially released in June 2010, providing instructions and guidelines on formulating bibliographic data. Intended for use by libraries and other cultural organizations such as museums and archives, RDA is the successor to \"Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, Second Edition\" (AACR2).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976516}
{"src_title": "Francis Darwin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Francis Darwin was born in Down House, Downe, Kent in 1848. He was the third son and seventh child of Charles Darwin and his wife Emma Wedgwood. He was educated at Clapham Grammar School.  He then went to Trinity College, Cambridge, first studying mathematics, then changing to natural sciences, graduating in 1870. He then went to study medicine at St George's Medical School, London, earning an MB in 1875, but did not practise medicine.  Darwin was married three times and widowed twice. First he married Amy Richenda Ruck in 1874, but she died in 1876 four days after the birth of their son Bernard Darwin, who was later to become a golf writer. In September 1883 he married Ellen Wordsworth Crofts (1856 - 1903) and they had a daughter Frances Crofts Darwin (1886–1960), a poet who married the poet Francis Cornford and became known under her married name. His third wife was Florence Henrietta Fisher, daughter of Herbert William Fisher and widow of Frederic William Maitland, whom he married in 1913, the year in which he was knighted. Her sister Adeline Fisher was the first wife of Darwin's double first cousin once removed Ralph Vaughan Williams.  Francis Darwin worked with his father on experiments dealing with plant movements, specifically phototropism and they co-authored \"The Power of Movement in Plants\" (1880). Their experiments showed that the coleoptile of a young grass seedling directs its growth toward the light by comparing the responses of seedlings with covered and uncovered coleoptiles. These observations would later lead to the discovery of auxin.  Darwin was nominated by his father to the Linnean Society of London in 1875, and was elected as a Fellow of the Society on 2 December 1875. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 8 June 1882, the same year in which his father died. Darwin edited \"The Autobiography of Charles Darwin\" (1887), and produced some books of letters from the correspondence of Charles Darwin; \"The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin\" (1887) and \"More Letters of Charles Darwin\" (1905). He also edited Thomas Huxley's \"On the Reception of the Origin of Species\" (1887).  Cambridge University awarded him an honorary doctorate (DSc) in 1909. He also received honorary doctorates from Dublin, Liverpool, Sheffield, Brussels, St Andrews, Upsala, and Prague. He was knighted in 1913.  He is buried in Cambridge. His daughter, Frances Cornford, was later buried with him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "His first wife, Amy Ruck, died in 1876, a few days after the birth of her son Bernard, and was buried in Holy Trinity Church, Corris, North Wales. According to a letter written by Charles Darwin to his close friend, Joseph Dalton Hooker: \" I never saw anyone suffer so much as poor Frank. He has gone to N. Wales to bury the body in a little church-yard amongst the mountains\".  He married his second wife, Ellen Wordsworth Crofts, in 1883. She was a Fellow and lecturer at Newnham College. She was a member of the Ladies Dining Society in Cambridge, together with 11 other members. She died in 1903, and is buried in the churchyard of St. Andrew's Church, Girton.  In 1913, he married his third wife, Lady Florence Henrietta Fisher, the widow of Frederic William Maitland. She died in 1920 and is interred in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground, Cambridge, opposite the grave of Sir Francis Darwin and his daughter Frances Cornford.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sir Francis \"Frank\" Darwin (16 August 1848 – 19 September 1925) was a British botanist. He was a son of the naturalist and scientist Charles Darwin, and brother of George Howard Darwin, Horace Darwin, and Leonard Darwin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976517}
{"src_title": "Willy Maywald", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Maywald was born on August 15, 1907 in Kleve, German Empire (present day Germany) to a family of hoteliers. He grew up becoming interested in the aesthetics of art. Maywald studied at the Technical Schools of Art in Krefeld, Cologne and Berlin. His wide range of education was what let him to be the avant-garde artist that he was.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After school, Maywald returned to this hometown in 1931 but soon realized that the city was too small for the career he wanted for himself. He then moved to Paris where he began his career of photo reporting and befriending other modern artists. He chose to live a bohemian lifestyle and photographed various subjects such as artists, dancers, fashion and etc. Maywald photographed the qualities of living in France with his camera. He became an assistant to Harry Meerson who was a Polish photographer and started to learn from Meerson how to make a living from photography.  Maywald moved to Switzerland in 1942 and was held captive in camps for foreigners. In the year of 1943 he was allowed to start working again in portrait photography as a self-employed artist. Maywald was very well known for his black and white photography and stunning lighting.  When he moved back to Paris in August 1946 he mainly focused on fashion and celebrity photography. He photographed for various fashion designers and his images were recognized internationally. Maywald was known for photographing in unique scenes. He was one of the first fashion photographers to photograph his subjects in the streets of Paris. He had a way of photographing his subjects in these various places but the image still focused on the model/clothing. He became Christian Dior’s elite photographer. Maywald photographed the well-known designers creations and his photographs were featured on the cover of several magazines including Vogue and Vanity Fair. Although Maywald was the main photographer for Dior, he also photographed for several other fashion designers at the time. Although photographing fashion, he produced images of celebrities as well. These celebrities ranged from artists to movie stars to athletes.  Maywald retired in 1968, and died in 1985 in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Maywald, Willy. Die Splitter Des Spiegels: Eine Illustrierte Autobiographie. German ed. Schirmer/Mosel, 1985. 292. Print", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wilhelm \"Willy\" Maywald (15 August 1907 – 21 May 1985) was a German photographer who was best known for his portrait and fashion photography.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976518}
{"src_title": "Thai Canal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A canal through the Kra Isthmus, which would shorten shipping times around Asia, was suggested as early as 1677. Thai King Narai asked the French engineer de Lamar to survey the possibility of building a waterway to connect Songkhla with Marid (now Myanmar), but the idea was discarded as impractical with the technology of that time.  In 1793, the idea resurfaced. Maha Sura Singhanat, the younger brother of King Chakri (Rama I), suggested it would make it easier to protect the west coast with military ships. In the early-19th century, the British East India Company became interested in a canal. After Burma became a British colony in 1863, an exploration was undertaken with Victoria Point (Kawthaung) opposite the Kra estuary as its southernmost point, again with negative result. In 1882, the constructor of the Suez canal, Ferdinand de Lesseps, visited the area, but the Thai king did not allow him to investigate in detail. In 1897, Thailand and the British empire agreed not to build a canal so that the regional dominance of the harbour of Singapore would be maintained.  As there was no progress on a canal, the construction of a land bridge across the isthmus was started in 1993. A superhighway was built that crosses the isthmus, but as the location of the harbours at either end were undetermined, Highway 44—the only finished part of the project—does not end at the sea. The highway's two lanes were built 150 m apart to leave space for railroad tracks and eventually also a pipeline., the highway runs from to.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The width of the Kra Isthmus at its minimum is only, but the height of the intervening mountain chain is. The Panama Canal has a length of, but highest point at the Culebra Cut was only. The Panama Canal passes this point at a height of (canal bottom) and (water line), thus ships have to be lifted with locks to a height of above the ocean. The Suez Canal is long but passes entirely through a flat area (which was historically flooded by seas before). At a depth of below sea level the width of the Kra Isthmus is about. At below sea level this becomes about.  Several canal routes have been proposed: The original Kra Canal was envisioned as cutting through the Kra Isthmus between Ranong and Chumphon, the narrowest part of the South, a distance of about 50 kilometres. Other routes proposed include a route in southern Thailand connecting Bandon Bay near Surat Thani with Phang Nga Province. Another is across Nakhon Si Thammarat Province and Trang Province. The seemingly preferred version of the Kra Canal project—Route 9A—would dig through Krabi, Trang, Phattalung, Nakhon Si Thammarat and Songkhla, a distance of 128 kilometres. Variation Route 5A would have ships enter the canal at Pak Bara in Satun Province. Another route would see ships entering a 135 km long canal at Sikao in Trang.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rationale.", "content": "The idea of a Kra Canal has been proposed in modern times since the 1930s, but has never materialized due to high cost and environmental repercussions.  The Strait of Malacca, just under long, is narrow, less than at the narrowest, and just deep at its shallowest point. It is used by many oil tankers, bulk carriers and container ships. It is estimated that some 80% of Japan's and South Korea's oil and natural gas supplies pass through it. The strait, the world's busiest shipping route, saw a record 84,000 vessels sail through it in 2016. Its yearly capacity is 120,000 vessels. The Maritime Institute of Malaysia forecasts that by 2025, about 140,000 vessels and freighters will seek to transit the strait. A canal would reduce shipping times between the South China Sea and the Andaman Sea two or three days and reduce distance travelled by at least 1,200 kilometres compared with the strait. Bunker fuel savings for a 100,000 dwt (deadweight) oil tanker could be as much as US$350,000 per trip.  In early-2015, calls for yet another feasibility study of the canal were put forward, a leading proponent being the Thai-Chinese Culture and Economic Association of Thailand (TCCEAT). Supporters of the canal believe that it would end Thailand's economic slump and make it a \"global shipping and economic hub, rivalling the Panama Canal\". On 15 May 2015, a memorandum of understanding was signed by the China-Thailand Kra Infrastructure Investment and Development company / 中泰克拉基础设施投资开发有限公司 in Guangzhou to advance the project. On 19 May 2015 the Thai government denied reports that an agreement had been signed with China to construct the canal. The canal would take an estimated ten years to complete at a cost of US$28 billion  In 2005, an internal report prepared for U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was leaked to \"The Washington Times\", spelling out China's strategy of underwriting construction of the canal across the Kra Isthmus, with Chinese port facilities and refineries, as part of its \"string of pearls\" strategy of forward bases and energy security. The Chinese plan called for construction over ten years employing roughly 30,000 workers at a cost of between US$20–25 billion.  Canal opponents have raised several objections to the construction of a canal:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impact on Malaysia and Singapore.", "content": "The canal would compete directly with ports in the Strait of Malacca area, including Port Klang, Tanjung Pelepas, and Singapore. According to a May 2002 report in the Malaysian \"Business Times\", any effect on Malaysia would not be felt for 15 years after the completion of the canal. Singapore has expressed concerns about an adverse impact on its economy from the proposed canal. One report estimated that Singapore might lose 30% of its shipping trade as a result of the canal.  As of 2011, an estimated 15.1 million barrels of oil per day pass through the Strait of Malacca, which would be the canal's nearest alternative. Excluding port fees and tolls, it costs about US$0.00106 per ton-mile to operate a 265,000 DWT double-hulled tanker in 1995 dollars. Thus, assuming a one-way distance saved of, about 6.5 barrels per ton of crude oil, and adjusting to 2011 dollars, the Thai canal could hypothetically reduce the cost of crude by about US$ per barrel, which, if the entire traffic of the competing strait were diverted, would reduce annual oil shipping costs by US$ million, disregarding canal fees and the return trip costs of the empty tanker.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Thai Canal, also known as Kra Canal or Kra Isthmus Canal, refers to proposals for a canal that would connect the Gulf of Thailand with the Andaman Sea across the Kra Isthmus in southern Thailand. It is envisaged that such a canal would improve transportation in the region, similar to the Panama Canal and Suez Canal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976519}
{"src_title": "Sant'Agata de' Goti, Rome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The church was built by Ricimer for the Goths c. 460. The Goths were Arians, so when Arianism was suppressed in Rome, the building was taken over by the Catholic Church, in 592 or 593, and reconsecrated by Pope Gregory the Great. It was restored in the 9th century, and a Benedictine monastery was founded next to it. The apse of the church collapsed in 1589, and it was partially rebuilt in 1633, without major changes to the building itself apart from the new apse. The small courtyard outside the church was laid out at this time.  The church has been served by the Stigmatines since 1926. Their generalate is adjacent to it. It is the only Arian church that has been preserved in Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The Romanesque campanile was built in the 12th century. The façade was rebuilt by Francesco Ferrari in 1729. The relief above the door shows St. Agatha holding her severed breast on a plate; her torturers severed her breasts when she refused to renounce her faith in Christ.  The entrance from Via Mazzarino opens on a 17th-century courtyard. From 1836 to 1926, it belonged to the Irish College. Cardinal Paul Cullen, a former Rector of the Irish College, modelled the church of the Holy Cross College in Clonliffe in Dublin on the plans of St Agatha's.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "Although it was redecorated in the Baroque style and has some 19th-century additions, it is still possible to see traces of the 5th-century plan, which was a basilica with three naves. The granite columns separating the naves are ancient.  The fresco in the apse shows the \"Glory of St Agatha\", made by Paolo Gismondi in the 17th century. There is a 12th- or 13th-century canopy above the altar, reassembled and erected here in 1933. It has four columns of pavonazzetto marble, all decorated with Cosmatesque mosaic, and a temple roof. The former canopy was destroyed in 1589; fragments can be seen in the ceiling of the main chapel on the left-hand side.  The 15th-century Cosmatesque pavement in the middle of the nave has an unusual, but very nice, design. It is a very late example of the style. The rectangular windows were installed in the 17th century at the request of the Cardinals Francesco and Antonio Barberini. By the altar of St Agatha is a large statue of the saint.  Ricimer, who was buried in the church, had a mosaic installed. This was unfortunately destroyed in 1589, when the apse collapsed. The Greek humanist John Lascaris (died 1535) is interred in the church and the heart of Daniel O'Connell, the 'Liberator' (died Genoa 1847), is buried here.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Liturgy.", "content": "The feast of the Greek martyrs whose relics are preserved here is on 2 December. It is usually celebrated with an evening Mass with the liturgy of the Byzantine Catholic rite.  Other important feasts are that of St Agatha on 5 February and St Gaspar Bertoni, founder of the Stigmatines, on 12 June.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titulars.", "content": "\"Pro illa vice\", literally \"for that turn\", indicates a temporary appointment. \"In commendam\" indicates that a bishop who holds one title is also granted oversight of another vacant title. A titular see is an episcopal see of a former diocese. A titular see is generally conferred on a non-residential bishop such as an auxiliary bishop in another diocese, nuncios and members of the Curia, and occasionally, ordinaries who have resigned or retired from their primary see.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sant'Agata dei Goti is a church in Rome, Italy, dedicated to the martyr Saint Agatha. It is the \"diaconia\" assigned to Cardinal Raymond Leo Burke, patron of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976520}
{"src_title": "Naval Station Everett", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "Although a Naval Reservation existed previously at the site, the history of Naval Station Everett began in 1983 when Secretary of the Navy John Lehman first proposed a new Puget Sound-area naval base as part of the Strategic Homeport concept. In the early 1980s, Congress approved the strategic homeporting initiative to build additional bases and disperse the fleet from the main concentration areas. The strategic homeport program enjoyed the support of not only of the House and Senate but of the Reagan Administration and the Department of Defense. It was decided in 1985 that the strategic homeport program was the best method for implementing the militarily-sound principles of dispersal, battlegroup integrity, and increasing the naval presence in the geographic flanks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Planning and construction.", "content": "On April 17, 1984, Everett was selected from among 13 ports as the ideal location for the new homeport, ahead of a site near the Port of Seattle. The decision to build the base in Everett was opposed by local residents and the longshoreman's union, and an advisory ballot measure on whether to accept the base was held in the city on November 6, 1984. Voters approved the construction of the naval base by a margin of more than 2 to 1. Congress approved $43.5 million in funds for construction of the homeport on October 2, 1986, amid the removal of the homeport program from the federal budget and increases in the base's estimated cost.  The Port of Everett Commission approved the sale of to build the base on May 5, 1987, and the official ground breaking ceremony was November 9, 1987. Despite the groundbreaking, the Navy was unable to secure dredging permits until the following week due to opposition from environmentalist groups, who unsuccessfully appealed in court to halt construction. On September 9, 1988, the Navy awarded the $56 million construction contract for the carrier pier, which is long and wide. On June 4, 1992, three Navy ships participated in the formal opening of the new $56.4 million pier.  On June 26, 1993, the Base Realignment and Closure Commission voted unanimously to retain the planned Everett homeport and close the Naval Air Station Alameda in California. In January 1994, Naval Station Puget Sound personnel began transitioning to the new Fleet Support and Administration buildings and officially began operations at Naval Station Everett. On April 8, 1994, an official dedication ceremony was conducted with over 1,500 guests in attendance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ship assignments.", "content": "On September 3, 1994, and arrived as the first of seven ships to be assigned here, welcomed by a celebration from the city. On November 22, 1995, arrived at the naval station. On that same date, the Navy officially announced the assignment of,, and to Naval Station Everett. \"David R. Ray\" arrived July 29, 1996, and \"Callaghan\" and \"Chandler\" both arrived September 27, 1996. To complete the complement of ships at Naval Station Everett, made a change of homeport from Puget Sound Naval Shipyard at Bremerton to Everett on January 8, 1997. and made their official change of homeport from Japan to Everett on May 5, 1998. \"Callaghan\" was decommissioned on March 31, 1998, followed by the \"Chandler\" on September 23, 1999.  In July 1999 the Navy completed a Final Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) designed to determine the appropriate homeports for three \"Nimitz\"-class nuclear-powered aircraft carriers in the Pacific Fleet. The EIS examined four locations: Bremerton, Everett, San Diego, and Pearl Harbor. The Navy's decision was to develop facilities to homeport two \"Nimitz\"-class carriers at Naval Air Station North Island, California in addition to, and to maintain Everett as a homeport for one \"Nimitz\"-class aircraft carrier. The successful completion of \"Abraham Lincoln\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s six-month maintenance period at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton, validated the Navy's preference to keep a carrier homeported in Everett. The in-depth EIS process began in December 1996. Following public scoping meetings held in communities at each of the four alternate locations in February 1997, the Navy spent more than 18 months examining the ports to determine how well they satisfied the CVN Homeporting Objectives and Requirements as they pertain to Operations and Training; Facilities and Infrastructure; Maintenance; and Quality of Life.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other events.", "content": "On September 15, 2000, two vessels from the Chinese Navy (\"Qingdao\" and \"Taicang\") began a three-day visit to Naval Station Everett as part of a cultural exchange and goodwill tour for Chinese sailors. The visit was the second by a Chinese Navy vessel to the United States, following a similar goodwill program in San Diego in 1997.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Facilities.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naval Support Complex.", "content": "The Naval Support Complex is located in Smokey Point, approximately north of Everett, and houses the base's support facilities. The complex includes a commissary, Navy Exchange store, gas station, family service center, thrift shop, education offices, Bachelor Officer Quarters, craft shop/gear issue, chapel and religious education center, an auto hobby shop, ball fields and courts, fleet parking for personnel assigned to deployed Everett-based ships and a 50-room Navy Lodge. The campus was designed to look \"more like a community college campus\" than traditional military facilities and serves more than 30,000 personnel and families in Western Washington.  The Navy originally proposed housing the support complex in downtown Everett in high-rise structures by 1992, but dropped the site after being unable to find of suitable real estate. A site on the Tulalip Indian Reservation near Marysville was chosen in 1990, but was turned down after concerns from the Tulalip Tribes over the 75-year lease being rejected by the Navy. A new site in Smokey Point was chosen in late 1992, and construction of the $90 million project began on August 30, 1993. The commissary and Navy Exchange opened on June 6, 1995, replacing similar facilities at Naval Air Station Sand Point in Seattle, while the rest of the complex opened later that year.  In 2012, the $33 million Marysville Armed Forces Reserve Center opened at a site south of the Naval Support Complex. The facility houses 250 soldiers from the 364th Expeditionary Sustainment Command of the U.S. Army Reserve, who moved from Seattle's Fort Lawton, and 300 members of the Washington Army National Guard; the facility is designed to support a total of 1,200 military members. It also includes a training center and services for members of the military and their families.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Homeported ships.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aircraft carriers.", "content": "There are currently no aircraft carriers homeported at Naval Station Everett due to the reassignment of to Naval Base Kitsap in January 2015. The carrier was planned to return to Everett in 2019, but the Navy announced in late 2018 that it would remain at Kitsap. The was formerly homeported at Everett from 1994 to 2011, when it moved to Naval Station Norfolk in Virginia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Naval Station Everett (NAVSTA Everett) is a military installation located in the city of Everett, Washington, north of Seattle. The naval station, located on the city's waterfront on the northeastern end of Puget Sound, was designed as a homeport for a US Navy carrier strike group and opened in 1994. A separate Navy Support Complex is located in Smokey Point, north of Everett near Marysville, and houses a commissary, Navy Exchange, a college and other services.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976521}
{"src_title": "Luigi Cherubini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Cherubini was born Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore Cherubini in Florence in 1760. There is uncertainty about his exact date of birth. Although 14 September is sometimes stated, evidence from baptismal records and Cherubini himself suggests the 8th is correct. Perhaps the strongest evidence is his first name, Maria, which is traditional for a child born on 8 September, the feast-day of the Nativity of the Virgin. His instruction in music began at the age of six with his father, Bartolomeo, \" maestro al cembalo\" (\"Master of the harpsichord\", in other words, ensemble leader from the harpsichord). Considered a child prodigy, Cherubini studied counterpoint and dramatic style at an early age. By the time he was thirteen, he had composed several religious works.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adulthood and first operas.", "content": "In 1780, he was awarded a scholarship by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to study music in Bologna and Milan. Cherubini's early \"opera serie\" used libretti by Apostolo Zeno, Metastasio (Pietro Trapassi), and others that adhered closely to standard dramatic conventions. His music was strongly influenced by Niccolò Jommelli, Tommaso Traetta, and Antonio Sacchini, who were the leading Italian composers of the day. The first of his two comic works, \"Lo sposo di tre e marito di nessuna,\" premiered at a Venetian theater in November 1783.  Feeling constrained by Italian traditions and eager to experiment, Cherubini traveled to London in 1785 where he produced two \"opere serie\" and an \"opera buffa\" for the King's Theatre. In the same year, he made an excursion to Paris with his friend the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, who presented him to Marie Antoinette and Parisian society. Cherubini received an important commission to write \"Démophoon\" to a French libretto by Jean-François Marmontel that would be his first \"tragédie en musique.\" Except for a brief return trip to London and to Turin for an \"opera seria\" commissioned by King Victor Amadeus III, Cherubini spent the rest of his life in France where he was initiated into Grand Orient de France \"Saint-Jean de Palestine\" Masonic Lodge in 1784.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French assimilation.", "content": "Cherubini adopted the French version of his name, Marie-Louis-Charles-Zénobi-Salvador Cherubini; this appears in \"all\" extant documents that show his full name after 1790, though his Italian name is favored nowadays. Performances of \"Démophon\" were favorably received at the Grand Opéra in 1788. With Viotti's help, the Théâtre de Monsieur in the Tuileries appointed Cherubini as its director in 1789. Three years later, after a move to the rue Feydeau and the fall of the monarchy, the company became known as the Théâtre Feydeau. This position gave Cherubini the opportunity to read countless libretti and choose one that best suited his temperament.  Cherubini's music began to show more originality and daring. His first major success was \"Lodoïska\" (1791), which was admired for its realistic heroism. This was followed by \"Elisa\" (1794), set in the Swiss Alps, and \"Médée\" (1797), Cherubini's best-known work. \"Les deux journées\" (1800), in which Cherubini simplified his style, was a popular success. These and other operas were premièred at the Théâtre Feydeau or the Opéra-Comique. Feeling financially secure, he married Anne Cécile Tourette in 1794 and began a family of three children.  The fallout from the French Revolution affected Cherubini until the end of his life. Politics forced him to hide his connections with the former aristocracy and seek governmental appointments. Although Napoleon found him too complex, Cherubini wrote at least one patriotic work per year for more than a decade. He was appointed Napoleon's director of music in Vienna for part of 1805 and 1806, whereupon he conducted several of his works in that city.  In 1808 Cherubini was elected an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "From opera to church music.", "content": "After \"Les deux journées\", Parisian audiences began to favor younger composers such as Boieldieu. Cherubini's opera-ballet \"Anacréon\" was an outright failure and most stage works after it did not achieve success. \"Faniska\", produced in 1806, was an exception, receiving an enthusiastic response, in particular by Haydn and Beethoven. \"Les Abencérages\" (1813), an heroic drama set in Spain during the last days of the Moorish kingdom of Granada, was Cherubini's attempt to compete with Spontini's \"La vestale\"; it received critical praise but few performances.  Disappointed with his lack of acclaim in the theater, Cherubini turned increasingly to church music, writing seven masses, two requiems, and many shorter pieces. During this period (under the restored monarchy) he was appointed \"Surintendant de la Musique du Roi\", a position he would hold until the fall of Charles X (1830). In 1815 London's Royal Philharmonic Society commissioned him to write a symphony, an overture, and a composition for chorus and orchestra, the performances of which he went especially to London to conduct, increasing his fame.  Cherubini's \"Requiem in C minor\" (1816), commemorating the anniversary of the execution of King Louis XVI of France, was a huge success. The work was greatly admired by Beethoven, Schumann and Brahms. In 1836, Cherubini wrote a \"Requiem in D minor\" to be performed at his own funeral. It is for male choir only, as the religious authorities had criticised his use of female voices in the earlier work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Old age and legacy.", "content": "In 1822, Cherubini became director of the Conservatoire and completed his textbook, \"Cours de contrepoint et de fugue,\" in 1835. His role at the Conservatoire brought him into conflict with the young Hector Berlioz, who portrayed the old composer in his memoirs as a crotchety pedant. Some critics, such as Basil Deane, maintain that Berlioz's depiction has distorted Cherubini's image with posterity. There are many allusions to Cherubini's personal irritability among his contemporaries; Adolphe Adam wrote, \"some maintain his temper was very even, because he was always angry.\" Nevertheless, Cherubini had many friends, including Szymanowska, Rossini, Chopin and, above all, the artist Ingres. The two had mutual interests: Cherubini was a keen amateur painter and Ingres enjoyed practising the violin. In 1841, Ingres produced the most celebrated portrait of the old composer.  Although chamber music does not make up a large portion of his output, what he did write was important. Wilhelm Altmann, writing in his \"Handbuch für Streichquartettspieler\" (\"Handbook for String Quartet Players\") about Cherubini's six string quartets, stated that they are first rate and regarded Nos. 1 and 3 as masterworks. His String Quintet for two violins, viola and two cellos is also considered a first-rate work.  During his lifetime, Cherubini received France's highest and most prestigious honors. These included the \"Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur\" (1814) and \"Membre de l'Académie des Beaux-Arts\" (1815). In 1841, he was made \"Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur,\" the first musician to receive that title.  Cherubini died in Paris in 1842 at age 81 and is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery, just four metres from his friend Chopin. His tomb was designed by the architect Achille Leclère and includes a figure by the sculptor Augustin-Alexandre Dumont representing \"Music\" crowning a bust of the composer with a wreath.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Luigi Cherubini (, ; 8 or 14 September 1760 – 15 March 1842) was an Italian Classical and Romantic composer. His most significant compositions are operas and sacred music. Beethoven regarded Cherubini as the greatest of his contemporaries. His operas were heavily praised and interpreted by Rossini.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976522}
{"src_title": "Abd-ru-shin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The Messiah.", "content": "He claimed to be the Messiah or Son of Man. By his own admission, he was described in leading newspapers as the Messiah of the Tyrol and the Prophet of Vomperberg.  Certain strands of the Grail Movement consider Abd-ru-shin’s wife Maria and her daughter divine as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life, publishing, legacy.", "content": "Bernhardt was born in Bischofswerda, Germany, trained in business, and successfully established himself in Dresden. He traveled and wrote travel books, stories, and plays. He resided in New York and London. He was in London when World War I broke out and in 1914 he was interned on the Isle of Man.  This seclusion gave him time to reflect, question, and deepen his understanding. He was released in the Spring of 1919 and returned to Germany. He began to write \"In the Light of Truth: The Grail Message\" in 1923 and completed it in 1931 under the pen name Abd-ru-shin.  In 1928 he settled in Austria, Tyrol on a mountain plateau called Vomperberg. Here he continued writing \"The Grail Message\". The Nazis came to power in 1938, ending his work there. He was arrested and exiled to Kipsdorf in the Erzgebirge. He was forbidden any further writing. He died while in Gestapo custody.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "After the war, his family returned to Vomperberg and carried on his work. Other writings by Abd-ru-shin published by Grail Foundation Press include \"The Ten Commandments of God and The Lord's Prayer\", \"Questions and Answers\", and \"Prayers\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Oskar Ernst Bernhardt, also known as Abd-ru-shin or Abdruschin (18 April 1875, Bischofswerda, Kingdom of Saxony, German Empire – 6 December 1941, Kipsdorf, Ore Mountains, Germany), is best known as the author of the \"\". After a brief commercial training Oskar Ernst Bernhardt began his literary activity while still a young man. Some of his literary works included \"The Bracelet\", \"Annita\", \"The Adventurer\", and \"Diamonds\". Some of his works would later preview the ideas he would publish in the Grail Message. For example, \"Diamonds\" is a comedy featuring a bet in which the main character must tell the truth for twenty-four hours, in order to win one million dollars. The plot highlighted the hypocrisy of everyday social life. While traveling, he was often led to foreign countries. In 1915 he was interned in England. Released in 1919, he first went to Dresden, later to Bavaria and in 1923 began to write the first lectures of the Grail Message.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976523}
{"src_title": "Taiwan Province", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qing Empire.", "content": "In 1683, Zheng Keshuang (third ruler of the Kingdom of Tungning and a grandson of Koxinga), surrendered to the Qing Empire following a naval engagement with Admiral Shi Lang. The Qing then ruled the Taiwanese archipelago (including Penghu) as Taiwan Prefecture of Fujian Province. In 1875, Taipeh Prefecture was separated from Taiwan Prefecture. In 1885, work commenced under the auspices of Liu Ming-chuan to develop Taiwan into a province. In 1887, the island was designated as a province (officially ), with Liu as the first governor. The province was also reorganized into four prefectures, eleven districts, and three sub-prefectures. The provincial capital, or \"Taiwan-fu\", was intended to be moved from the south (modern-day Tainan) to the more central area of \"Toatun\" (modern-day Taichung) in the revamped Taiwan Prefecture. As the new central Taiwan-fu was still under construction, the capital was temporarily moved north to Taipeh (modern-day Taipei), which eventually was designated the provincial capital.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Empire of Japan.", "content": "In 1895, the entire Taiwan Province, including Penghu, was ceded to Japan following the First Sino-Japanese War through the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Under Japanese rule, the province was abolished in favour of Japanese-style divisions. After the surrender of Japan in 1945, the Taiwan was handed over to the Republic of China (ROC). The way that the ROC obtained Taiwan is a subject of controversy that gave root to the complex unresolved political status of Taiwan and the Taiwan independence movement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Republic of China.", "content": "The ROC government immediately established the Taiwan Provincial Government under first Chief Executive and government-general Chen Yi in September 1945. Chen was extremely unpopular and his rule led to an uprising – the February 28 Incident of 1947. Chen was recalled in May 1947 and the government-general position was abolished.  When the Republic of China government was relocated to Taipei in 1949 as a result of the Kuomintang's (KMT) defeat by the Communist Party of China forces in the Chinese Civil War, the provincial administration remained in place under the claim that the ROC was still the government of all of China even though the opposition argued that it overlapped inefficiently with the national government.  The seat of the provincial government was moved from Taipei to Zhongxing New Village in 1956. Historically, Taiwan Province covers the entire island of Taiwan and all its associated islands. The city of Taipei was split off to become a province-level special municipality in 1967, and the city of Kaohsiung was split off in 1979 to become another special municipality. In December 2010, Kaohsiung County left the province and merged with the original Kaohsiung City to become an expanded Kaohsiung City, Taipei County became the special municipality named New Taipei City. The cities and counties of Taichung and Tainan were also merged, respectively, and elevated to special municipality. On 25 December 2014, Taoyuan County was upgraded into a special municipality and split off from Taiwan Province.  Until 1992, the governor of Taiwan province was appointed by the ROC central government. The office was often a stepping stone to higher office.  In 1992, the post of the governor of the province was opened to election. The then-opposition Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) agreed to retain the province with an elected governor in the hopes of creating a \"Yeltsin effect\" in which a popular local leader could overwhelm the national government. These hopes proved unfulfilled as then-Kuomintang member James Soong was elected governor of Taiwan province, defeating the DPP candidate Chen Ding-nan.  In 1997, as the result of an agreement between the KMT and the DPP, the powers of the provincial government were curtailed by constitutional amendments. The post of provincial governor was abolished. In addition, the provincial council was also replaced by the Taiwan Provincial Consultative Council. Although the stated purpose was administrative efficiency, Soong and his supporters claim that it was actually intended to impede James Soong's political life, though it did not have this effect.  The provincial administration was downscaled in 1998, most of its power handed to the central government. The counties and provincial cities under the province became the primary administrative divisions of the country.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "The position of the Chairperson of the Provincial Government, appointed by the central government, is retained to comply with the Constitution.  The major operations of the provincial government, such as managing provincial highways and the Bank of Taiwan, have been transferred to the Executive Yuan since 1998. In July 2018, all remaining duties were transferred to the National Development Council and other ministries of the Executive Yuan.  The Taiwan Provincial Government was located in Zhongxing New Village, Nantou City, Nantou County between 1957 and 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Divisions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of divisions.", "content": "In October 1945, The government of the Republic of China reformed the eight(8) Japanese prefectures under the Government-General of Taiwan into 8 counties and 9 cities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Current divisions.", "content": "Taiwan Province is nominally divided into 11 counties and 3 cities. All divisions are directly administered by the central government in practice. Note that the special municipalities of Kaohsiung, New Taipei, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei and Taoyuan are both nominally under and directly administered by the central government. They are not part of any province.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sister states/provinces.", "content": "Taiwan Province is twinned with 42 U.S. states:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Territorial disputes.", "content": "The People's Republic of China (PRC) regards itself as the \"successor state\" of the Republic of China (ROC), which the PRC claims no longer legitimately exists, following establishment of the PRC in mainland China. The PRC asserts itself to be the sole legitimate government of China, and claims Taiwan as its 23rd province, even though the PRC itself has never had control of Taiwan or other ROC-held territories. The ROC disputes this position, maintaining that it still legitimately exists and that the PRC has not succeeded it to sovereignty.  The PRC claims the entirety of the island of Taiwan and its surrounding islets, including the Penghu, as parts of its Taiwan Province, corresponding to the ROC's Taiwan Province before the special municipalities were split off. The PRC claims that Taiwan is part of China, that the PRC succeeded the ROC as the sole legitimate authority in all of China upon its founding in 1949, and that therefore Taiwan is part of the PRC.  The Senkaku Islands, which are currently administered by Japan, are disputed by both the ROC and PRC, which claim them as the Tiaoyutai/Diaoyu Islands. The ROC government claims them as part of Toucheng Township, Yilan County.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Taiwan Province (Traditional Chinese: 臺灣省; Pinyin: \"Táiwān Shěng\"; POJ: \"Tâi-oân-séng\"; PFS: \"Thòi-vàn-sén\" or \"Thòi-vân-sén\") is a nominal province of the Republic of China without administrative function. Its administrative powers have been transferred to the central and county governments.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976524}
{"src_title": "Morrison Formation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geologic history.", "content": "According to radiometric dating, the Morrison Formation dates from 156.3 ± 2 million years old (Ma) at its base, to 146.8 ± 1 million years old at the top, which places it in the earliest Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the late Jurassic. This is similar in age to the Solnhofen Limestone Formation in Germany and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania. The age and much of the fauna is similar to the Lourinhã Formation in Portugal. Throughout the western United States, it variously overlies the Middle Jurassic Summerville, Sundance, Bell Ranch, Wanakah, and Stump Formations.  At the time, the supercontinent of Laurasia had recently split into the continents of North America and Eurasia, although they were still connected by land bridges. North America moved north and was passing through the subtropical regions.  The Morrison Basin, which stretched from New Mexico in the south to Alberta and Saskatchewan in the north, was formed during the Nevadan orogeny, a precursor event to later orogenic episodes that created the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drainage basins, carried by streams and rivers from the Elko Highlands (along the borders of present-day Nevada and Utah) and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels and floodplains, became the Morrison Formation.  In the north, the Sundance Sea, an extension of the Arctic Ocean, stretched through Canada down to the United States. Coal is found in the Morrison Formation of Montana, which means that the northern part of the formation, along the shores of the sea, was wet and swampy, with more vegetation. Aeolian, or wind-deposited sandstones, are found in the southwestern part, which indicates it was much more arid—a desert, with sand dunes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stratigraphy.", "content": "In the Colorado Plateau region, the Morrison Formation is further broken into four sub-divisions, or \"members\". From the oldest to the most recent, they are:  In the San Juan Basin, there is an additional Jackpile Sandstone Member above the Brushy Basin Member. This is primarily a whitish crossbedded subarkose sandstone with a clay matrix. It is interbedded with variegated, pale-green to red, bentonitic mudstone lenses.  Deposition in the Morrison Formation ended about 147 Ma. The latest Morrison strata are followed by a thirty-million-year gap in the geologic record. The overlying units are the Lower Cretaceous Cedar Mountain, Burro Canyon, Lytle, and Cloverly Formations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fossil content.", "content": "Though many of the Morrison Formation fossils are fragmentary, they are sufficient to provide a good picture of the flora and fauna in the Morrison Basin during the Kimmeridgian. Overall, the climate was dry, similar to a savanna but, since there were no angiosperms (grasses, flowers, and some trees), the flora was quite different. Conifers, the dominant plants of the time, were to be found with ginkgos, cycads, tree ferns, and horsetail rushes. Much of the fossilized vegetation was riparian, living along the river flood plains. Along the rivers, there were fish, frogs, salamanders, lizards, crocodiles, turtles, pterosaurs, crayfish, clams, and mammaliforms.  The dinosaurs were most likely riparian, as well. Hundreds of dinosaur fossils have been discovered, such as \"Allosaurus\", \"Ceratosaurus\", \"Torvosaurus\", \"Saurophaganax\", \"Camptosaurus\", \"Ornitholestes\", several stegosaurs comprising at least two species of \"Stegosaurus\" and the slightly older \"Hesperosaurus\", and the early ankylosaurs, \"Mymoorapelta\" and \"Gargoyleosaurus\", most notably a very broad range of sauropods (the giants of the Mesozoic era). Since at least some of these species are known to have nested in the area (\"Camptosaurus\" embryoes have been discovered), there are indications that it was a good environment for dinosaurs and not just home to migratory, seasonal populations.  Sauropods that have been discovered include \"Diplodocus\" (most famously, the first nearly complete specimen of \"D. carnegii\", which is now exhibited at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), \"Camarasaurus\" (the most commonly found sauropod), \"Brachiosaurus\", \"Apatosaurus\", \"Brontosaurus\", \"Barosaurus\", the uncommon \"Haplocanthosaurus\" and \"Supersaurus\". The very diversity of the sauropods has raised some questions about how they could all co-exist. While their body shapes are very similar (long neck, long tail, huge elephant-like body), they are assumed to have had very different feeding strategies, in order for all to have existed in the same time frame and similar environment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sites and quarries.", "content": "Locations where significant Morrison Formation fossil discoveries have been made include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Site comparisons.", "content": "The Morrison Formation is comparable to the Tendaguru beds in Tanzania and Lourinhã Formation in Portugal. In age it is also comparable with the Solnhofen Limestone in Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economic geology.", "content": "The Morrison Formation contains uranium deposits, including the Jackpile uranium body discovered near Grants, New Mexico in 1951.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Morrison Formation is a distinctive sequence of Upper Jurassic sedimentary rock found in the western United States which has been the most fertile source of dinosaur fossils in North America. It is composed of mudstone, sandstone, siltstone, and limestone and is light gray, greenish gray, or red. Most of the fossils occur in the green siltstone beds and lower sandstones, relics of the rivers and floodplains of the Jurassic period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976525}
{"src_title": "Categoría Primera A", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Before 1948 there was no professional football league in Colombia. The first clubs were formed in Barranquilla and Bogotá: Barranquilla FC, Polo Club, Escuela Militar and Bartolinos, although the game took a while to develop in popularity. The 1918 Campeonato Nacional was the first tournament played between Colombian clubs, followed by the Copa Centenario Batalla de Boyacá. Independiente Medellín, founded on 15 April 1913, is the oldest club that remains as a professional club. The first tournament was organised by the Colombian Football Federation and DIMAYOR in 1948. Ten teams signed up for this first tournament, paying the required fee of 1,000 pesos). Two teams each signed on from Bogotá, Cali, Manizales, and Pereira, plus one from Barranquilla. 252 players were registered for that year's tournament, 182 of which were Colombians, 13 were Argentine, 8 Peruvian, 5 Uruguayan, 2 Chilean, 2 Ecuadorian, 1 Dominican, and 1 Spanish.  Soon after the league's foundation, disputes between Adefútbol (the body governing amateur football in Colombia) and DIMAYOR (the organizing body behind the new national league) erupted. DIMAYOR broke away from Adefútbol, announcing that it would operate independently of FIFA rules and regulations. In response, FIFA sanctioned Colombian football, banning the national team and all its clubs from international competition. This period, which lasted from 1949 to 1954, is known as El Dorado.  Far from being a dark time in Colombian football, this was its golden age. No longer required to pay transfer fees to clubs from other nations, Colombian clubs began importing stars from all over South America and Europe. The most aggressive signer of international players was Millonarios, which won consecutive championships with stars such as Alfredo di Stéfano. Attendances boomed, and the expanding appetite for club competitions resulted in the creation of the Copa Colombia in 1950. That knockout competition was played sporadically over the next 58 years and only became an annual tournament in 2008. Although the stars returned to their nations when Colombia rejoined the international fold in 1954, the era was never forgotten.  In 1968 the league followed the pattern emerging in South America by replacing its year-long tournament with two shorter ones. From this point forward, Colombian clubs would compete in two tournaments a year; the \"Apertura\" from February to June and the \"Finalización\" from July to December, which became independent championships in 2002. Another league restructuring came in 1991, with the addition of second and third divisions. The third division had its 2002 edition cancelled for economic reasons, and stopped awarding promotion to the professional tiers in 2003 until it was finally dropped in 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "The current format of Colombian football was adopted for the 2019 season. The top flight features 20 teams, all of which play through the Apertura and Finalización tournaments each year. Both tournaments are conducted according to an identical three-stage format.  The first stage is conducted on a single round-robin basis, with each team playing the other teams once for a total of 19 matches. The top eight teams then advance to a knockout round consisting of two groups, each team playing six times in a round-robin format. The two leaders of each group advance to the final, which is played in a home and away leg fashion.  Relegation to Categoría Primera B is determined by averaging the point totals achieved by teams over the previous three seasons. Each year, the bottom two teams drop out and are replaced by the top two from Primera B.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trophy.", "content": "The same trophy has been used to commemorate the annual champion since 1948. The original stays at DIMAYOR headquarters and is engraved with all the names of the champion clubs. A replica is given to the winner each year to decorate their trophy room.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Champions by seasons.", "content": "The only tournament that was not awarded to a champion occurred on 1989, after the assassination of referee Álvaro Ortega on October 1 in Medellín. All games, post-season games and international representation for the following year were cancelled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Table.", "content": "Source for champions and runners-up by season: RSSSF", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Categoría Primera A (), commonly referred to as Liga BetPlay Dimayor (between 2015 and 2019 \"Liga Águila\") due to sponsorship by online betting company BetPlay, is a Colombian professional league for association football clubs. It is the country's premier football tournament and sits at the top of the Colombian football league system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976526}
{"src_title": "Alina Kabaeva", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Kabaeva, the daughter of a Tatar father and Russian mother, was born in Tashkent, Uzbek SSR, in the Soviet Union, on 12 May 1983. Kabaeva's father, Marat Kabayev, was a professional football player, and the family was constantly following him to different places in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Russia.  Kabaeva previously practiced Islam, but was later baptized into Christianity.  She was engaged to policeman David Museliani in 2004. They began a relationship in 2002 but separated in 2005.  In April 2008, the \"Moskovsky Korrespondent\" reported that Kabaeva was engaged to Russian President Vladimir Putin. The story was denied and the newspaper was shut down. In the following years, the status of Kabaeva and Putin's relationship became a topic of speculation, including allegations that they have multiple children together. In July 2013, Kabaeva reported that she does not have any children. In March 2015, Kabaeva was reported to have given birth at the VIP-hospital of Saint Ann in Ticino, Switzerland; the paternity of her child is disputed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rhythmic gymnastics career.", "content": "Kabaeva started Rhythmic Gymnastics at age 3, with Coach Margarita Samuilovna.  In her young teens, Kabaeva moved to Moscow, where her mother took her to the Russian Head Coach, Irina Viner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1996 to 1999.", "content": "Kabaeva stayed with Viner, and made her international debut in 1996. In 1998, the 15-year-old Kabaeva won the European Championships in Portugal. At the time, Kabaeva was the youngest member of the Russian squad, competing alongside internationally recognized teammates, such as Amina Zaripova. In 1999, Kabaeva became the European Champion for the second consecutive time, and won the World Title in Osaka, Japan. Kabaeva went on to win a total of 5 All-Around titles at the European Championships.  At the 2000 Sydney Olympics, in Australia, Kabaeva was expected to claim Gold in All-Around; however, due to an error in an otherwise exceptional performance—she dropped her hoop, and ran to retrieve it outside of the competition area—Kabaeva won the Bronze Medal, with the final score of 39.466 (Rope 9.925, Hoop 9.641, Ball 9.950, Ribbon 9.950). Belarus' Yulia Raskina took the Silver Medal, while fellow Russian teammate, Yulia Barsukova, won the Olympic Gold Medal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2001 to 2004.", "content": "At the 2001 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships, Kabaeva won the Gold Medal for the Ball, Clubs, Hoop, Rope, the Individual All-Around, and the Team competitions. At the 2001 Goodwill Games in Brisbane, Australia, Kabaeva won the Gold Medal for the Ball, Clubs, and Rope competitions, and the Silver in the Individual All-Around, and Hoop. However, Kabaeva and her teammate, Irina Tchachina, tested positive to a banned diuretic (furosemide), and were stripped of their medals.  Viner, the Russian Head Coach, who also served as the Vice President of the FIG Rhythmic Gymnastics Technical Committee at the time, said her gymnasts had been taking a food supplement called \"Hyper\", that contained mild diuretics, which, according to Viner, the gymnasts were taking for premenstrual syndrome. When the supply ran out shortly before the Goodwill Games, the team physiotherapist restocked at a local pharmacy. According to Viner, the supplement sold there was fake and contained furosemide. The Committee requested that the Goodwill Games Organizing Committee nullify Kabaeva and Tchachina's results. The FIG also nullified their results from the World Championships in Madrid, Spain, causing Ukraine's Tamara Yerofeeva to be declared the 2001 World Champion.  Kabaeva added another World Title in 2003 in Budapest, Hungary. Kabaeva won the All-Around Gold Medal at the 2003 World Championships, as well as the event final in Ribbon and Ball ahead of Anna Bessonova from Ukraine.  In 2004, Kabaeva won the All-Around Gold at the 2004 European Championships in Kiev. At the 2004 Athens Olympics, Greece, Kabaeva won the Gold Medal in the Individual All-Around for Rhythmic Gymnastics, with a score of 108.400 (Hoop 26.800, Ball 27.350, Clubs 27.150, Ribbon 27.100), the Silver Medal went to her teammate, Irina Tchachina.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2005 to 2007.", "content": "In October 2004, Kabaeva announced her retirement from the sport. However, in June 2005, the Russian Head Coach Irina Viner announced a possible comeback. Kabaeva resumed her sport career at an Italy-Russia friendly competition in Genoa, on 10 September 2005. On 5 March 2006, Kabaeva won the Gazprom Moscow Grand Prix, with fellow Russians Vera Sessina and Olga Kapranova, taking the Second and Third places. Kabaeva won the Silver Medal in All-Around at the 2006 European Championships, behind teammate, Sessina.  At the 2007 European Championships in Baku, Azerbaijan; Kabaeva, Sessina, and Kapranova were chosen to represent Russia. However, on the eve of the competition, Kabaeva withdrew due to an injury. Viner selected rising upcoming gymnast Evgenia Kanaeva from Russia's National Team as the replacement. Kabaeva finished 4th in All-Around qualifications at the 2007 World Championships, and did not advance into the finals due to the two per country rule, with Vera Sessina and Olga Kapranova placing ahead of Kabaeva.  Kabaeva completed her career after the 2007 Season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Contributions to rhythmic gymnastics.", "content": "Kabaeva revolutionized rhythmic gymnastics as one of the few gymnasts to have performed new skills and elements, including the back split pivot with hand help (also known as \"The Kabaeva\"), the ring position with a slow full turn, and the backscale pivot that she first performed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014 Winter Olympics torch bearer in Sochi, Russia.", "content": "Kabaeva was among the six Russian athlete torch bearers who carried the Olympic flame through Fisht Stadium during the Opening Ceremony of the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics. Kabaeva's selection as a torch bearer generated controversy in the international media because of her alleged close relationship with President Vladimir Putin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Model, film, and post-gymnastics careers.", "content": "In 2001, Kabaeva appeared in the Japanese movie, \"Red Shadow\", performing her gymnastic routine.  In May 2009, Kabaeva traveled to Japan and participated in a bikini photo shoot.  In January 2011, Kabaeva appeared on the cover of Vogue Russia. In the same month, Kabaeva launched her singing career, taking to the stage for the first time.  In 2015, Kabaeva was an honorary guest at the 2015 World Championships in Stuttgart, Germany. In 2017, Kabaeva became the official FIG Rhythmic Gymnastics Ambassador at the 2017 World Championships in Pesaro, Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Since 2005, Kabaeva was a member of the Public Chamber of Russia.  Since February 2008, Kabaeva has been chairwoman of the Public Council, the media group that controls Izvestia, Channel One and REN TV.  Between 2007 and 2014, Kabaeva has been a Member of the Russian Parliament, the State Duma, representing the United Russia party. In her capacity of a Member of Parliament, Kabaeva voted for a number of controversial laws that were speedily adopted in 2012 and 2013, including the Anti-Magnitsky bill banning inter-country adoption (of Russian orphans) by families in the United States, as well as the Russian gay propaganda law making the distribution of \"propaganda of non-traditional sexual relationships\" among minors a punishable offense, the extrajudicial ban on access to websites which may host materials violating copyright laws, and the reorganization of the Academy of Sciences.  In September 2014, Kabaeva resigned from the Duma and accepted the position of chair of the board of directors of the National Media Group (ru), the largest Russian media conglomerate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alina Maratovna Kabaeva (, ; ; born 12 May 1983) is a Russian Honored Master of Sports, a retired individual rhythmic gymnast, a model and film star, and a politician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976527}
{"src_title": "Hidradenitis suppurativa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Causes.", "content": "The cause of HS remains unknown, and experts disagree over proposed causes. The condition probably results from a combination of genetic and environmental factors.  Lesions occur in any body areas with hair follicles, although areas such as the axilla, groin, and perianal region are more commonly involved. This theory includes most of the following potential indicators:  The historical understanding of the disease suggests dysfunctional apocrine glands or dysfunctional hair follicles, possibly triggered by a blocked gland, create inflammation, pain, and a swollen lesion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Triggering factors.", "content": "Several triggering factors should be taken into consideration:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Predisposing factors.", "content": "Some cases have been found to result from mutations in the NCSTN, PSEN1 or PSENEN genes. The genes produce proteins that are all components of a complex called gamma- (γ-) secretase. This complex cuts apart (cleaves) many different proteins, which is an important step in several chemical signaling pathways. One of these pathways, known as Notch signaling, is essential for the normal maturation and division of hair follicle cells and other types of skin cells. Notch signaling is also involved in normal immune system function. Studies suggest that mutations in the NCSTN, PSEN1, or PSENEN gene impair Notch signaling in hair follicles. Although little is known about the mechanism, abnormal Notch signaling appears to promote the development of nodules and lead to inflammation in the skin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stages.", "content": "HS presents itself in three stages. Due to the large spectrum of clinical severity and the severe impact on quality of life, a reliable method for evaluating HS severity is needed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hurley's staging system.", "content": "This is historically the first classification system proposed, and is still in use for the classification of patients with skin/dermatologic diseases (i.e., psoriasis, HS, acne). Hurley separated patients into three groups based largely on the presence and extent of cicatrization and sinuses. It has been used as a basis for clinical trials in the past and is a useful basis to approach therapy for patients. These three stages are based on Hurley's staging system, which is simple and relies on the subjective extent of the diseased tissue the patient has. Hurley's three stages of hidradenitis suppurativa are:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Sartorius staging system.", "content": "The Sartorius staging system is more sophisticated than Hurley's. Sartorius \"et al.\" suggested that the Hurley system is not sophisticated enough to assess treatment effects in clinical trials during research. This classification allows for better dynamic monitoring of the disease severity in individual patients. The elements of this staging system are:  Points are accumulated in each of the above categories, and added to give both a regional and total score. In addition, the authors recommend adding a visual analog scale for pain or using the dermatology life quality index (DLQI, or the Skindex) when assessing HS.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Treatment depends upon presentation and severity of the disease. Due to the poorly studied nature of the disease, the effectiveness of the drugs and therapies listed below is unclear. Possible treatments include the following:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lifestyle.", "content": "Warm baths may be tried in those with mild disease. Weight loss and stopping smoking is also recommended.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Surgery.", "content": "When the process becomes chronic, wide surgical excision is the procedure of choice. Wounds in the affected area do not heal by secondary intention, and immediate or delayed application of a split-thickness skin graft is an option. Another option is covering the defect with a so-called perforator flap. With this technique the (mostly totally excised) defect is covered with living tissue'stolen' from the area nearby. For example, the axilla with a fully excised defect of 15 × 7 cm can be covered with a so-called TAP flap (thoracodorsal artery perforator flap)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Laser hair removal.", "content": "The 1064 nanometer wavelength laser for hair removal may aid in the treatment of HS. A randomized control study has shown improvement in HS lesions with the use of an.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prognosis.", "content": "In stage III disease, fistulae left undiscovered, undiagnosed, or untreated, can rarely lead to the development of squamous cell carcinoma in the anus or other affected areas. Other stage III chronic sequelae may also include anemia, multilocalized infections, amyloidosis, and arthropathy. Stage III complications have been known to lead to sepsis, but clinical data is still uncertain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "A surgeon from Paris, Velpeau described an unusual inflammatory process with formation of superficial axillary, submammary, and perianal abscesses, in a series of three publications from 1833 to 1839. One of his colleagues also located in Paris, named Verneuil, coined the term \"hidrosadénite phlegmoneuse\" about 15 years later. This name for the disease reflects the former pathogenetic model of acne inversa, which is considered inflammation of sweat glands as the primary cause of hidradenitis suppurativa. In 1922, Schiefferdecker suspected a pathogenic association between acne inversa and apocrine sweat glands. In 1956 Pillsbury postulated follicular occlusion as the cause of acne inversa, which they grouped together with acne conglobata and perifolliculitis capitis abscendens et suffodiens (dissecting cellulitis of the scalp) as the \"acne triad\". Plewig and Kligman added another element to their acne triad, pilonidal sinus. Plewig \"et al.\" noted that this new \"acne tetrad\" includes all the elements found in the original \"acne triad\", in addition to a fourth element, pilonidal sinus. In 1989, Plewig and Steger introduced the term \"acne inversa\", indicating a follicular source of the disease and replacing older terms such as \"Verneuil disease\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other names.", "content": "Hidradenitis suppurativa has been referred to by multiple names in the literature, as well as in various cultures. Some of these are also used to describe different diseases, or specific instances of this disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Terminology.", "content": "Although hidradenitis suppurativa is often referred to as \"acne inversa\", it is not a form of acne and lacks the core defining features of acne such as the presence of closed comedones and increased sebum production.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS), also known as acne inversa, is a long-term skin disease characterized by the occurrence of inflamed and swollen lumps. These are typically painful and break open, releasing fluid or pus. The areas most commonly affected are the underarms, under the breasts, and groin. Scar tissue remains after healing. Self-consciousness or depression may result. The exact cause is usually unclear but believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors. About a third of people with the disease have an affected family member. Other risk factors include obesity and smoking. The condition is not infectious or related to hygiene or the use of deodorant. The underlying mechanism is believed to involve either a dysfunction of apocrine sweat glands or hair follicles. Diagnosis is based on the symptoms. There is no known cure. Warm baths may be tried in those with mild disease. Cutting open the lesions to allow them to drain does not result in significant benefit. While antibiotics are commonly used, evidence for their use is poor. Immunosuppressive medication may also be tried. In those with more severe disease, laser therapy or surgery to remove the affected skin may be carried out. Rarely, a skin lesion may develop into skin cancer. It is estimated to affect between 1% and 4% of people. Women have the condition about three times more often than men. Onset is typically in young adulthood and may become less common after 50 years old. It was first described some time between 1833 and 1839 by French anatomist Alfred Velpeau.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976528}
{"src_title": "OK-GLI", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "The development of the Buran began in the late 1970s as a response to the U.S. Space Shuttle program. The construction of the orbiters began in 1980, and by 1984 the first full-scale Buran was rolled out. The first suborbital test flight of a scale-model took place as early as July 1983. As the project progressed, five additional scale-model flights were performed.  The OK-GLI (Buran Analog BST-02) test vehicle (\"Buran aerodynamic analogue\") was constructed in 1984. It was fitted with four AL-31 jet engines mounted at the rear (the fuel tank for the engines occupied a quarter of the cargo bay). This Buran could take off under its own power for flight tests, in contrast to the American \"Enterprise\" test vehicle, which was entirely unpowered and relied on an air launch.  The jets were used to take off from a normal landing strip, and once it reached a designated point, the engines were cut and the OK-GLI glided back to land. This provided invaluable information about the handling characteristics of the Buran design, and significantly differed from the carrier plane/air drop method used by the US and the \"Enterprise\" test craft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Test flights.", "content": "Nine taxi tests and twenty-five test flights of the OK-GLI were performed, after which the vehicle was \"worn out\". All tests and flights were carried out at Baikonur.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-retirement.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zhukovsky Air Base.", "content": "After the program was cancelled, the OK-GLI was stored at Gromov Flight Research Institute, near Moscow, where it was displayed during the annual MAKS air show.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sydney, Australia.", "content": "In 2000, the OK-GLI was sold to an Australian company called the Buran Space Corporation, owned by Australian astronaut Paul Scully-Power. It was disassembled and transported by ship to Sydney, Australia, via Gothenburg, Sweden; arriving on 9 February 2000 and appeared as a static tourist attraction under a large temporary structure in Darling Harbour for a few years.  Upon reassembly, the OK-GLI was put on display in a temporary enclosure for the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. Visitors could walk around and inside the vehicle (a walkway was built along the cargo bay), and plans were in place for a tour of various cities in Australia and Asia. The owners went into bankruptcy after the Olympics, and the vehicle was moved into the open air and stored for a year, in a fenced-in parking lot and protected by nothing more than a large tarpaulin, where it suffered deterioration and repeated vandalism.  The OK-GLI was then offered for sale, including by a radio auction on the American News 980 KFWB-AM with a starting price of, however it did not receive any genuine bids.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bahrain.", "content": "In September 2004 a team of German journalists found the OK-GLI in Bahrain, having been abandoned after it was on display as an attraction of the 2002 \"Bahrain Summer\" festival.  It was then bought by the Sinsheim Auto & Technik Museum, to be transported to Germany in 2005. Due to legal issues, it remained in Bahrain for several years, pending settlement of an international court case over fees.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Technik Museum Speyer, Germany.", "content": "On 4 March 2008 the OK-GLI began its journey by sea to the Technik Museum Speyer where it was refurbished and serves as a walk-in exhibit.  The journey got off to an inauspicious start when, during the transfer from the storage barge to the ship, there was a failure of the aft spreader (part of the lifting mechanism) and the tail of the vehicle dropped from just above deck height to the bottom of the hold. No one was hurt and both the ship and vehicle seemed to suffer only minor damage.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The OK-GLI (), also known as Buran Analog BTS-02 (), was a test vehicle (\"Buran aerodynamic analogue\") in the Buran programme. It was constructed in 1984, and was used for 25 test flights between 1985 and 1988 before being retired. It is now an exhibit at the Technik Museum Speyer in Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976529}
{"src_title": "Aurel Stodola", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Aurel Stodola was born in Vrbica-Hušták (now a part of Liptovský Mikuláš), in the Kingdom of Hungary (now in Slovakia) on 11 May 1859. His father Ondrej Stodola was a leather manufacturer. His mother was Anna (born Kováčová). He was baptized as Aurel Bohuslav, but he used just name Aurel. He was baptized by the famous person of the Slovak emancipation movement, Protestant priest, poet, linguist, and representative of the Slovak national movement in 1840s Michal Miloslav Hodža.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "He attended a local primary school in Vrbica, Liptovský Mikuláš. After first four years, he went to town called Stráže pod Tatrami (now Poprad) in order to improve his German. There was a strong German speaking community and this practice was very usual. He attended secondary education in Levoča, Kežmarok and Košice, where he completed his secondary schooling. He studied on his own, as well. Especially classics and other languages.  In 1876, he moved to Budapest, where he studied two semesters at the Royal Jeseph University in Budapest. He was acknowledged as gifted student and he received a grant. In 1876, he transferred to the \"Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule\" (Federal Polytechnic School), today known as the ETH. In 1881, he completed his degree in Mechanical Engineering. After graduation, he went to work in a factory in Budapest for seven months. In 1882/1883, he attended The \"TH Charlottenburg\" (\"Royal Technical Higher School of Charlottenburg\") in Berlin.  After this, he did volunteering in a technical studio in Paris. He wanted to improve his skills and French, as well. It was important for his future career in Switzerland. After this trip, he began to work in Prague as engineer. He improved his practical engineering and soon became a main engineer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zürich.", "content": "In 1892, he was appointed Professor of Machine Construction by the Polytechnikum in Zürich. He worked and taught at Polytechnikum until his retirement in 1929. He gave his first lecture on 23 October 1892. Stodola provided stimuli in the development of the curriculum and the construction of the first machine laboratory (now Laboratory for Energy Conversion). It was opened in 1900. He was invited as evaluator to \"The Exposition Universelle\" in Paris, during the same year.  He was awarded Swiss citizenship in 1905.  In 1924 he endowed a foundation with the stated aim ‘to promote the development of mechanical and electro-technical science in the ETH’. This foundation still exists today.  He maintained friendly contact with academics in Switzerland and abroad, including Albert Einstein. Einstein wrote him an impressive letter for his anniversary. Einstein was not his student, as some sources say, because he studied physics and mathematics. Another prominent friend was theologian, organist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician Albert Schweizer. Stodola encouraged Swiss businessmen to support Schweitzer's hospital in Africa.  Stodola retired at the age of 70. Then, he did not teach, but he carried on as expert and advisor. He was interested in Theoretical physics and philosophy, as well. In 1931, he published his book about philosophy of technology ‘Gedanken zu einer Weltanschauung vom Standpunktedes Ingenieurs’ (‘Thoughts of a worldview from the standpoint of the engineer’). The title of the fourth and fifth edition was \"Die geheimnisvolle Naturweltanschauliche Betrachtung.\" It was his contribution to social, political and technological issues of his time. This book was reprinted several times and made a significant contribution to the technical philosophy in Europe.  Stodola's farewell lecture is also included in this publication. In 1939, he led a team at Brown Boveri in the first test worldwide using a gas turbine to generate electricity. This machine is still exhibited today at the Alstom works in Birr and due to its importance is considered to be an ‘historical milestone in mechanical engineering’.  He died on December 25, 1942 in Zurich. His remains were moved to his birthplace in 1989 because the ETH denied paying for his grave.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Steam and gas turbines.", "content": "In 1903, one of his major textbooks ‘Die Dampfturbine’ (the Steam Turbine) was first published. This was translated into several languages and formed a groundbreaking basis for the construction of thermal turbo-machinery.  The Law of the Ellipse, or Stodola's cone law, provides a method for calculating the highly nonlinear dependence of extraction pressures with a flow for multistage turbine with high backpressure, when the turbine nozzles are not choked. It is important in turbine off-design calculations.  Stodola's book \"Steam and Gas Turbines\" was cited by Soviet rocket scientist Fridrikh Tsander in the 1920s. Published in English in 1927 and reprinted many times up to 1945, it was a basic reference for engineers working on the first generation of jet propulsion engines in the United States. Stodola worked closely with industries on the development of the first practical gas turbines, in particular Brown, Boveri & Cie, who built the first gas turbine-powered electric generator in 1939.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medical equipment.", "content": "In 1915–1916 Stodola collaborated with Ferdinand Sauerbruch a German surgeon to develop an advanced mechanically driven prosthetic arm. This collaboration marked one of the first documented examples of a surgeon and engineer merging efforts. Sauerbruch said, \"Henceforth, surgeon, physiologist, and technician (prosthetist/engineer) will have to work together.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "Corresponding member of French Academy of Sciences.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aurel Boleslav Stodola (11 May 1859 – 25 December 1942) was a Slovak engineer, physicist, and inventor. He was a pioneer in the area of technical thermodynamics and its applications and published his book \"Die Dampfturbine\" (the steam turbine) in 1903. In addition to the thermodynamic issues involved in turbine design the book discussed aspects of fluid flow, vibration, stress analysis of plates, shells and rotating discs and stress concentrations at holes and fillets. Stodola was a professor of mechanical engineering at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute (now ETH) in Zurich. He maintained friendly contact with Albert Einstein. In 1892, Stodola founded the Laboratory for Energy Conversion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976530}
{"src_title": "The Little Street", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Painting.", "content": "The painting is made in oil on canvas, and it is a relatively small painting, being high by wide.  The painting, showing a quiet street, depicts a typical aspect of the life in a Dutch Golden Age town. It is one of only three Vermeer paintings of views of Delft, the others being \"View of Delft\" and the now lost \"House Standing in Delft\". This painting is considered to be an important work of the Dutch master.  Straight angles alternate with the triangle of the house and of the sky giving the composition a certain vitality. The walls, stones and brickwork are painted in a thicker paint layer, such that it makes them almost palpable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Painting materials.", "content": "Vermeer achieved the realistic depiction of the surfaces with the masterful application of a relatively limited number of pigments. He employed red ochre and madder lake for the reddish-brown brick wall, the blue in the sky contains lead white and natural ultramarine. The green shutters and foliage are painted with azurite mixed with lead-tin-yellow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "While generally agreed to depict a contemporary street scene in 17th-century Delft, where Vermeer lived and worked, the exact location of the scene Vermeer painted has long been a topic of research and discussion, with studies arguing for the Voldersgracht, where the Vermeer Centre is located, or the Nieuwe Langendijk at the present-day numbers 22 to 26.  In 2015, archival research based on the city's quay dues register, which gives detailed measurements of all houses and passageways along the canals of Delft at the time, has resulted in the conclusion that the site is the Vlamingstraat, a street with a narrow canal, at the present-day numbers 40 and 42. The research also found that the property on the right in the painting belonged to Vermeer’s aunt, Ariaentgen Claes van der Minne. She had a business selling tripe, and the passageway beside the house was known as the \"Penspoort\", or Tripe Gate. Vermeer’s mother and sister also lived on the same canal, diagonally opposite.  In 2017, this apparently sound conclusion was disputed by art historians Gert Eijkelboom and Gerrit Vermeer in the Dutch \"Journal of Historical Geography\" (\"Tijdschrift voor historische geografie\"). Their argumentation is essentially founded in the assertion that the painting does not depict an actual place, and thus cannot be accurately located. The authors said: \"We do not know whether the question will ever be answered, because it seems that Vermeer's world-famous work is an allegorical representation, which he compiled from various elements and places.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Little Street (\"Het Straatje\") is a painting by the Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer, executed c. 1657–58. It is exhibited at the Rijksmuseum of Amsterdam, and signed, below the window in the lower left-hand corner, \"I V MEER\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976531}
{"src_title": "Franz Hössler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hößler was born in 1906 in the town of Oberdorf, today Marktoberdorf, in the Schwabenland of the German Empire. The son of a foreman, he quit school early to become a photographer. Later employed as a warehouse worker, he was unemployed during the Great Depression of the 1930s. He joined the Nazi Party in early November 1932 (member no. 1,374,713) and the SS (member no. 41,940). Hößler was married and had three children.  During his time in the SS, Hößler rose to the rank of SS-\"Obersturmführer\" and became a reserve officer in the Waffen-SS. After the establishment of the Dachau concentration camp in July 1933, he became the first member of the guard staff and worked later as a cook. He served at Dachau until after the outbreak of World War II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Auschwitz.", "content": "In June 1940, Hößler was transferred to the newly opened Auschwitz I concentration camp as it received the first mass transports. He managed the camp kitchens and was occasionally used as a subcamp supervisor (). He then became a Work Service Leader () at the camp in early 1941. On 28 July 1941, Hößler accompanied a shipment of 575 selected Auschwitz I inmates to the euthanasia center at Sonnenstein Castle, where they were murdered as part of the Action 14f13 program. In June 1942, Hößler, together with Otto Moll and Hans Aumeier, participated in killing 168 survivors of a failed uprising in the punishment section of Auschwitz I. For a few months during 1942 he was also responsible for the construction of a holiday resort for the SS in Żywiec, the so-called \"Solahütte\".  After Auschwitz-Birkenau was formally expanded into an extermination camp in 1942, Hößler took on various commands there. From September to November 1942, a brigade composed of prisoners called \"Sonderkommando Hößler\" exhumed 107,000 corpses from mass graves around Auschwitz I in order to burn them in the new Auschwitz II crematoria. The prisoners of the \"Sonderkommando\" were then almost invariably murdered after the action. To conduct this disposal, Hößler, along with Rudolf Höß and Walter Dejaco, had previously visited the Chelmno extermination camp on 16 September 1942 to observe tests conducted by Paul Blobel.  At the same time Hößler worked as before in the old crematorium at the main camp Auschwitz I, including gassings in the bunkers. Johann Kremer, SS camp doctor from 30 August to 17 November 1942, recorded a transport of 1,703 Dutch Jews to the main camp managed by Hoßler. The incident was described in his diary:  By the middle of 1943, Hößler became involved in recruiting so-called \"Aryan\" prison women, with the prospect of better food and care, for a newly opened camp brothel at the Auschwitz I main camp. He was then promoted to the senior role of \"Schutzhaftlagerführer\" at the Auschwitz-Birkenau women's camp in August 1943, which he directed together with \"Oberaufseherin\" Maria Mandel. In this role he participated in selections and gassings. He succeeded Paul Heinrich Theodor Müller in this capacity. Filip Müller, one of the very few \"Sonderkommando\" members who survived Auschwitz, paraphrased Hößler's speech given to trick a group of Greek Jews in the undressing room at the portals of the gas chambers:  For a short time between 15 March to 15 May 1944, Hößler was also camp commander () of the Neckarelz concentration camp in Mosbach, Germany, a subcamp of the larger Natzweiler-Struthof camp complex in occupied France. Following the Allied invasion of France in June 1944, he returned to the Auschwitz main camp where he was Protective Custody Camp Leader until its final evacuation in January 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dora-Mittelbau.", "content": "In January 1945, as the Red Army overran German positions on the Eastern Front, the SS personnel at Auschwitz evacuated to the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp. Auschwitz commander Richard Baer took over the Dora portion of the complex and Hößler was again made a Protective Custody Camp Leader. On 5 April 1945, as American 3rd Armored Division closed in on Mittelbau-Dora, Hößler led a forced evacuation of prisoners to the railhead for transfer to the still-functioning Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. The prisoners were then led on a death march for the last stage of their journey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bergen-Belsen.", "content": "On 8 April 1945, Hößler arrived with his transport at Bergen-Belsen and became deputy camp commander under Josef Kramer. There he directly shot prisoners until the liberation of the camp, crimes for which he would be eventually arrested and tried. On 15 April 1945, Hößler was found hiding among the prisoners in camouflaged clothing and was detained with the remaining SS staff by a unit of the British Army. The SS detainees were then forced to bury thousands of corpses lying around on the camp grounds in mass graves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conviction and execution.", "content": "Hößler and 44 other camp staff were tried in the Belsen Trial by a British military court at Lüneburg. The trial lasted several weeks from September to November 1945. During the trial Anita Lasker testified that he took part in selections for the gas chamber. On 17 November 1945 Hößler was sentenced to death by hanging. The sentence was carried out by British hangman Albert Pierrepoint on 13 December 1945 at Hameln prison.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Hößler, also Franz Hössler (; 4 February 1906 – 13 December 1945) was a Nazi German SS-\"Obersturmführer\" and \"Schutzhaftlagerführer\" at the Auschwitz-Birkenau, Dora-Mittelbau and Bergen-Belsen concentration camps during World War II. Captured by the Allies at the end of the war, Hößler was charged with crimes against humanity in the First Bergen-Belsen Trial, found guilty, and sentenced to death. He was executed by hanging at Hameln Prison in 1945.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976532}
{"src_title": "Nino Ferrer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography and career.", "content": "Nino Ferrer was born on 15 August 1934 in Genoa, Italy, but lived the first years of his life in New Caledonia (an overseas territory of France in the southwest Pacific Ocean), where his father, an engineer, was working. Jesuit religious schooling, first in Genoa and later in Paris, left him with a lifelong aversion to the Church. From 1947, the young Nino studied ethnology and archaeology in the Sorbonne university in Paris, also pursuing his interests in music and painting.  After completing his studies, Ferrer started traveling the world, working on a freighter ship. When he returned to France he immersed himself in music. A passion for jazz and the blues led him to worship the music of James Brown, Otis Redding and Ray Charles. He started to play the double bass in Bill Coleman's New Orleans Jazz Orchestra. He appeared on a recording for the first time in 1959, playing bass on two 45 singles by the Dixie Cats. The suggestion to take up solo singing came from the rhythm 'n' blues singer Nancy Holloway, whom he also accompanied.  In 1963, Nino Ferrer recorded his own first record, the single \"Pour oublier qu'on s'est aimé\" (\"To forget we were in love\"). The B-side of that single had a song \"C'est irréparable\", which was translated for Italian superstar Mina as \"Un anno d'amore\" and became a big hit in 1965. Later again, in 1991, Spanish singer Luz Casal had a hit with \"Un año de amor\", translated from Italian by director Pedro Almodóvar for his film \"Tacones Lejanos\" (High Heels).  His first solo success came in 1965 with the song \"Mirza\". Other hits, such as \"Cornichons\" and \"Oh! hé! hein! bon!\" followed, establishing Ferrer as something of a comedic singer. The stereotyping and his eventual huge success made him feel \"trapped\", and unable to escape from the constant demands of huge audiences to hear the hits he himself despised. He started leading a life of \"wine, women and song\" while giving endless provocative performances in theatres, on television and on tour.  In Italy, he scored a major hit in 1967 with \"La pelle nera\" (the French version is \"Je voudrais être un noir\" [\"I'd like to be a black man\"]). This soul song, with its quasi-revolutionary lyrics imploring a series of Ferrer's black music idols to gift him their black skin for the benefit of music-making, achieved long-lasting iconic status in Italy.  \"La pelle nera\" was followed by a string of other semi-serious Italian songs, which included two appearances at the Sanremo Music Festival (in 1968 and 1970). In 1970, he returned to France and resumed his musical career there. Ferrer rebelled against the \"gaudy frivolity\" of French show business, filled with what he perceived as its \"cynical technocrats and greedy exploiters of talent\" (he had considered leaving show business altogether in 1967, when he left France for Italy). In his lesser-known songs, which the public largely ignored, he mocked life's absurdities. He agreed with Serge Gainsbourg and Claude Nougaro that songs are a \"minor art\" and \"just background noise\".  In 1975 he started breeding horses in Quercy, France. In 1989, Ferrer obtained French citizenship, which he explained as his \"celebration of the bicentenary of the French Revolution.\" He went on to record the French national anthem, accompanied by a choir.  A couple of months after his mother died, Ferrer, on 13 August 1998, two days before his 64th birthday, took his hunting gun and walked to a field of corn, recently cut, near the neighbouring village of Saint-Cyprien. There, he lay down in a grove nearby and shot himself in the chest. His wife Kinou, with whom he had two sons, had already alerted the \"gendarmerie\" after finding a farewell letter in the house. Next day, there were front-page headlines in most French and Italian newspapers, such as \"Adieu Nino!\", \"Nino Ferrer Hung Up His Telephone\", \"Our Nino Has Left for the South.\" They called him the Don Quixote and the Corto Maltese of French show business.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nino Agostino Arturo Maria Ferrari, known as Nino Ferrer (15 August 1934 – 13 August 1998), was an Italian-born French singer-songwriter and author.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976533}
{"src_title": "Black stilt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and systematics.", "content": "Black stilts are one of several species in the genus \"Himantopus\", classified along with avocets in the family Recurvirostridae. Although genetically and behaviourally distinct from pied stilts (\"Himantopus himantopus\"), they are able to successfully hybridise with them. Hybridisation and dilution of the gene pool is one reason black stilts are threatened with extinction. Black and pied stilts in New Zealand represent two colonisations of pied stilt ancestors from Australia: the first, long ago, giving rise to melanistic descendants, the second in the early 19th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Black stilts are a medium-sized (220 g) wader with extremely long pink legs, red eyes, distinctively black plumage, and a long slender black bill. Juveniles have a white breast, neck and head, with a black patch around the eyes, and black belly feathers that distinguish them from pied stilts. Black adult plumage appears in their first or second year. Black plumage may be an adaptation to \"absorb heat better in the cold, windswept habitat of glacial riverbeds and lakeshores\".  Hybrids between black and pied stilts are very variable in their plumage, but usually have black breast feathers, which pied stilts never do.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Although black stilts currently breed only in braided river systems in the South Island, subfossil bones show that prior to human arrival they were found in habitats as diverse as narrow bush streams in Hawkes Bay, and a wetland lake surrounded by forest in North Canterbury. In the nineteenth century they bred on riverbeds and in wetlands of the central and eastern North Island and most of the South Island except Fiordland. As late as the 1940s they were still common in South Canterbury and Central Otago, and nesting occurred in Central Otago as late as 1964. Throughout their range they have been almost entirely replaced by pied stilts, which colonised New Zealand after human settlement and now number approximately 30,000.  Currently black stilts breed only in the upper Waitaki River system in the Mackenzie Basin. Most black stilts will also overwinter in the Mackenzie Basin, but about 10% of the population, especially hybrids and those paired with pied stilts, migrate to North Island harbours such as Kawhia and Kaipara in January for the winter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "Black stilts breed at 2 (more usually 3) years of age. They nest as solitary pairs, not in a protective colony like pied stilts. Both birds collaborate on building a nest in July or August on stable islands or banks in a shingle riverbed; pairs tend to nest in the same site each year. Three to five eggs are laid from September to December, peaking in October, and are incubated for roughly 25 days. Chicks take six to eight weeks to fledge, and remain with their parents for a further six to eight months.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "Despite 20 years of intensive protection, the black stilt remains one of the rarest species of wading bird, and one of the most endangered birds in the world. The population may have numbered 500–1000 birds in the 1940s, but began to rapidly decline in the 1950s, and just 68 adults were counted in 1962. Intensive management began in 1981, when numbers had declined to just 23 adult birds. By 1984, there were 32 adults in the wild, rising to 52 by 1992 (with another 32 in captivity). The current wild population is estimated at 132 wild adult birds (as of August 2018), along with a captive population kept for breeding purposes. Annual release in the wild of these captive-bred birds, combined with predator control, have probably prevented black stilt from becoming extinct. In January 2017, 19 juvenile birds were released by the Department of Conservation onto the Tasman River.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Predators.", "content": "Predation from mammalian invasive species poses the greatest threat to the survival of the species. In the 19th century, mustelids such as stoats, ferrets and weasels, as well as cats, were released into the Mackenzie Country to try to control the spread of rabbits. Black stilts are very vulnerable to these predators: they nest on the banks of streams and rivers, rather than islands; their nesting season begins in late winter, a time when rabbit numbers are low; and they currently nest as solitary pairs, so lose the protection of a colony (although they formed colonies in the past when numbers were higher). Compared with pied stilts, they have more noticeable plumage, are less likely to perform distraction displays while incubating, and their chicks take longer to fledge. Intensive trapping and electric fences are used around black stilt breeding sites to control predators.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hybridisation.", "content": "Hybridisation with far more numerous pied stilt is also a major threat to the black stilt gene pool. Hybridisation is a symptom of the continuing decline of the black stilt population; black stilts will choose the darkest-plumaged partner available, but mixed-species pairing can happen because potential black stilt mates are so rare. Black stilts mate for life, so those which pair with a pied stilt are lost to the breeding population.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Habitat loss.", "content": "Black stilts rely on wetlands and braided riverbeds for feeding, and these have been extensively drained or modified for agriculture, irrigation, and flood control. Invasive weeds such as Russell lupin and crack willow are able to colonise braided riverbeds, reducing nesting habitat and providing cover for predators.  Because black stilts nest on braided river beds, they are threatened by changes in river flows as a result of new and existing hydroelectric dams. As part of the Upper Waitaki Power Development, braided riverbeds in the Upper Waitaki were receiving less water, which allowed weeds to encroach into black stilt breeding areas. These provided cover for predators, and from 1991 a new flow regime was introduced to reduce encroaching vegetation. Artificial lowering of the level of Lake Benmore, which caused exposure of shallow riverbed in the deltas of the rivers that feed it, created temporary foraging areas for black stilts.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The black stilt (\"Himantopus novaezelandiae\") or kakī (Māori) is a wading bird found in New Zealand. It is one of the world's rarest birds, with 132 adults surviving in the wild as of August 2018. Adult kakī have distinctive black plumage, long pink legs, and a long thin black bill. Black stilts largely breed in the Mackenzie Basin in the South Island, and are threatened by introduced feral cats, ferrets, and hedgehogs as well as habitat degradation from hydroelectric dams, agriculture, and invasive weeds.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976534}
{"src_title": "Jaime Alguersuari", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born in Barcelona, Spain, Alguersuari began his formula racing career, in the Italian Formula 1600 Junior Series, in 2005. In 2006, he won the Italian Formula Renault Winter Series, before finishing as runner-up to Mika Mäki in the main championship the following year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Formula Three.", "content": "He moved up to the British Formula Three Championship for 2008, driving for the Carlin Motorsport alongside teammates Brendon Hartley, Oliver Turvey and Sam Abay. After a season-long battle between Alguersuari, Hartley, Turvey and Sergio Pérez, Alguersuari won the final three races of the season to clinch the championship. He thus became the youngest title winner in championship history, aged 18 years and 203 days. He also deputised for the injured Mark Webber in the 2008 Race of Champions event at the Wembley Stadium in December 2008.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Formula Renault 3.5 Series.", "content": "He competed in the Formula Renault 3.5 Series in 2009, continuing with the Carlin team and with Turvey once again as his teammate. At the time of his move to Formula One mid-season, he was eighth in the championship, with one podium finish, and was the second-highest rookie driver in the standings behind Turvey. Despite his promotion to an F1 race seat, he carried on in FR3.5. A week after his Formula One debut, Alguersuari returned to the series at the Autódromo Internacional do Algarve, and scored both his first pole, and his first victory in the series. His 27-point haul for the weekend moved him from eighth to third in the championship standings. Alguersuari eventually ended up sixth, dropping from third in the final race.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Formula One (2009–2011).", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scuderia Toro Rosso.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2009.", "content": "Alguersuari took over the role of reserve driver for the Red Bull Racing and Scuderia Toro Rosso Formula One teams from fellow Red Bull Junior driver Brendon Hartley in the second half of the 2009 Formula One season. Less than two weeks later, race driver Sébastien Bourdais left the Toro Rosso team after the 2009 German Grand Prix and Alguersuari was immediately expected to be his successor, despite the lack of an official confirmation. Four days later, Toro Rosso announced that Alguersuari would drive for the team at the 2009 Hungarian Grand Prix. He became the youngest ever Formula One driver at the age of 19 years and 125 days, breaking the record previously held by Mike Thackwell. He became only the seventh teenager to start a Grand Prix. Qualifying in last place following a mechanical problem, he finished the race in fifteenth, one place ahead of his teammate Sébastien Buemi. Through the rest of the season, he had little success, with his best result coming at the 2009 Brazilian Grand Prix, where he managed 14th place. At the remaining 8 races, he only finished 3 of them and retired in the other 5. During the season he also had a huge crash in the while he was attempting to chase for his first points.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "2010.", "content": "Toro Rosso retained Alguersuari for the 2010 season, starting with a career-best finishes of thirteenth in Bahrain and eleventh in Australia including 22 laps battling with the 7 time world champion Michael Schumacher. In Malaysia one week later, Alguersuari scored his first ever Formula One points with a ninth-placed finish. Toro Rosso team principal Franz Tost praised Alguersuari's performance, saying the Spaniard \"drove a fantastic race\". Alguersuari then scored another point after finishing tenth at his home Grand Prix. In May, Alguersuari visited the Dominican Republic with his Red Bull team and became one of the first drivers to ever drive a Formula 1 vehicle on the beaches there. In the next 14 races, he only had one more points finish, at the final race of the year in Abu Dhabi.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "2011.", "content": "Toro Rosso confirmed that Alguersuari was to be retained alongside Sébastien Buemi for the 2011 season. After finishing the first two races outside the points, Alguersuari qualified inside the top ten for the first time in Formula One, with a seventh place grid start in China. Two 16th places and a retirement followed in the next three races, before taking his best Formula One placing of eighth at the, and then matching that at the. These results came at a crucial time for Alguersuari, with Daniel Ricciardo being linked to replace Alguersuari for the season. Alguersuari finished tenth at the, giving him a run of three consecutive point scoring finishes. He qualified a career best 6th at the before being forced to retire during the race after a first corner collision with Bruno Senna. Alguersuari finished in seventh place at the, improving upon his previous best of two eighth places earlier in the season. He crashed out on the penultimate lap in Singapore, but was classified in 21st place. In Korea, Alguersuari finished seventh after passing Nico Rosberg on the final lap, and added another eighth-place finish in India.  Following the last race of the season in Brazil, Alguersuari won the Desafio Internacional das Estrelas karting event, organised by Felipe Massa. On 14 December 2011, Toro Rosso announced that Ricciardo and Jean-Éric Vergne would be the team's drivers in, replacing Alguersuari and Buemi.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Formula E.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Virgin (2014/15).", "content": "Alguersuari commented by 2013 that he would not be trying to return to Formula One. The same week he contested a round of the CIK-FIA KZ world karting championship.  Later, he became part of the Formula E Drivers' Club, enabling him to be picked by any of the Formula E teams to race with them. In March 2014, Alguersuari announced that he would compete with Virgin Racing, joining Sam Bird for the season. Alguersuari got a best finish of fourth at the 2015 Buenos Aires ePrix but only scored points on four occasions throughout the season. He had a single retirement at the 2015 Monaco ePrix where he was caught up in the first lap collision. Alguersuari had to miss the final two rounds of the season due to minor health issues which caused him to faint at the end of the 2015 Moscow ePrix and was replaced by Fabio Leimer. Alguersuari finished the season with 30 points and placed 13th in the championship.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Departure from motorsport.", "content": "On 1 October 2015, Alguersuari officially retired from all forms of motorsport, explaining that he had \"fallen out of love with this girlfriend\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "DJ career.", "content": "In addition to driving racing cars, Alguersuari has his own recording studio in Barcelona, and is well known in Spain as a DJ, under the stage name Squire. Alguersuari headlined the 2010 Barcelona Music Conference and has played sets at clubs including Amnesia in Ibiza. His debut album \"Organic Life\" was released by Blanco y Negro Records on 14 September 2011, and topped the iTunes album chart five days after its release.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Racing record.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career summary.", "content": "As Alguersuari was a guest driver, he was ineligible to score points.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complete Formula Renault 3.5 Series results.", "content": "† – Retired, but classified", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complete Formula One results.", "content": "Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jaime Víctor Alguersuari Escudero (; born 23 March 1990), also known as Jaume Alguersuari (), is a Spanish retired racing driver best known for competing in Formula One between and, and for being the 2008 British Formula 3 champion. He is the son of Jaime Alguersuari, Sr., a former motorcyclist and racing driver.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976535}
{"src_title": "Highest unclimbed mountain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Challenges in definition.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition of a mountain.", "content": "Many mountains, in addition to their highest point or peak, will also have subsidiary subpeaks. Generally, the topographic prominence of a peak or subpeak, as well as the general topography, all come into consideration when determining whether such apexes are considered to be independent peaks or subpeaks. Although objective criteria have been proposed for distinguishing peaks from subpeaks, there is no widely agreed standard. In 1994, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA) classified 82 mountain peaks in the Alps whose summits were at least above sea level and with at least of topographic prominence over any adjacent mountain pass or col, as a distinct peak.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Verification of unclimbed status.", "content": "It can be difficult sometimes to determine whether or not a mountain peak has been fully summited. Long before modern mountaineering commenced in the middle of the 19th century, evidence indicates that people did indeed travel up to the summits or near to the summits of major mountain peaks. Archaeological excavations in the Andes have shown that humans travelled up to in pre-historic times. Permanent settlements as high as were established as far back as 12,000 years ago in the Andes. In the Greater Himalaya region, Lhasa, in Tibet, sitting at has been permanently occupied since the 7th century and many smaller settlements across the Greater Himalaya thrive at elevations exceeding. With humans living at high elevations for many millennia, nearby peaks to such settlements may or may not have been summited at some point in the past. However, many regions away from settlements may never have been explored, especially since some high peaks in the Greater Ranges are so remote that they were unknown to local inhabitants until they were sighted by European explorers.  The world's third tallest peak, Kangchenjunga, has been summited a number of times, but after the first climbers of the peak agreed to honor the wishes of locals and not set foot on the topmost part of the mountain, succeeding mountaineering parties may have followed this tradition. Similarly, Nanda Devi has also been climbed but the topmost summit was not ascended and the primary summit is now off limits to climbers. Machapuchare had only one summit attempt back in 1957 when climbers came within of the summit; Nepal then banned future attempts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gangkhar Puensum.", "content": "The mountain most widely claimed to be the highest unclimbed mountain in the world in terms of elevation is Gangkhar Puensum (). It is in Bhutan, on or near the border with China. In Bhutan, the climbing of mountains higher than has been prohibited since 1994. The rationale for this prohibition is based on local customs that consider this and similar peaks to be the sacred homes of protective deities and spirits, and the lack of high-altitude rescue resources from any locale closer than India. The prohibition was further expanded in 2003 when mountaineering of any kind was disallowed entirely within Bhutan. Gangkhar Puensum will likely remain unclimbed so long as the government of Bhutan prohibits it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Highest unclimbed non-prohibited peak.", "content": "It is unclear which is the highest unclimbed non-prohibited mountain. While some recognize only peaks with of topographical prominence as individual summits, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation uses a cutoff for determining individual summits. Based on the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation's criteria, Muchu Chhish ( with a prominence of ) in Pakistan is currently the world's tallest that has not been climbed even though it is legal to do so. Other unclimbed summits include one on the massif known as Kabru ( prominence c. ), Labuche Kang III/East () with prominence of and Karjiang ( with a prominence of ).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Most prominent unclimbed peak.", "content": "Unclimbed candidates with high topographic prominence are by definition independent mountains, but some have relatively modest elevations. With such peaks there is a greater possibility of undocumented ascents, perhaps occurring long ago.  As of mid-2014 Sauyr Zhotasy (, prominence of ), the highpoint in the Saur Range on the border between Kazakhstan and China, and Mount Siple (, prominence of ) on Siple Island off the coast of Antarctica, have no record of successful ascents. The unclimbed status of each of these peaks is difficult to confirm, although Mount Siple in particular is remote, uninhabited (and without any nearby habitation), and seldom visited. The most recent remaining most prominent mountain summited (with a prominence of ) was in June of 2014 in the Finisterre Range of Papua New Guinea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of highest unclimbed peaks.", "content": "The following peaks, with a minimum prominence of, were thought to be unclimbed as of August 2018.  Mountains with prominence over 300m in bold.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An unclimbed mountain is a mountain peak that has yet to be climbed to the top. Determining which unclimbed peak is highest is often a matter of controversy. In some parts of the world, surveying and mapping are still unreliable. There are no comprehensive records of the routes of explorers, mountaineers, and local inhabitants. In some cases, even modern ascents by larger parties have been poorly documented and, with no universally recognized listing, the best that can be achieved in determining the world's highest unclimbed peaks is somewhat speculative. Most sources indicate that Gangkhar Puensum () in Bhutan or on the Bhutan–China border is the tallest mountain in the world that has yet to be fully summited. Gangkhar Puensum has been off limits to climbers since 1994 when Bhutan prohibited all mountaineering above due to spiritual/religious beliefs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976536}
{"src_title": "Rec (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Reporter Ángela Vidal (Manuela Velasco) and her cameraman Pablo are covering the night shift in one of Barcelona's local fire stations for the documentary television series \"While You're Sleeping\". While they are recording, the firehouse receives a call about an old woman, Mrs. Izquierdo, who is trapped in her apartment and screaming. Ángela and Pablo accompany two of the firefighters, Álex and Manu, to the apartment building, where two police officers are waiting. As they approach, the old woman becomes aggressive and attacks one of the officers, biting his neck. As they carry the injured officer downstairs, they find the building residents gathered in the lobby. The police and military have sealed off the building and trapped them inside.  As people begin to panic, Álex, who remained upstairs with the old woman, is thrown over the staircase railings and critically injured. Mrs. Izquierdo then kills a girl, and the remaining officer, Sergio, is forced to shoot her. Ángela and Pablo begin interviewing the residents. One of the interviewees is a sick little girl named Jennifer. Her mother Mari Carmen claims she has tonsillitis, and says her dog, Max, is at the vet because he is sick as well. A health inspector in a hazmat suit arrives and attempts to treat the injured until they suddenly become preternaturally aggressive. After the injured are locked in the building's textile warehouse, the health inspector explains that they are infected with a virus similar to rabies, and that the disease was traced back to a dog in the apartment building, and Ángela realizes it must be Max. When the residents confront Mari Carmen, Jennifer turns, vomits blood at her mother's face and flees upstairs. Sergio handcuffs Mari Carmen to the stairs and proceeds upstairs with Manu and Pablo. They find Jennifer but she bites Sergio, who tells the others to leave him. Manu and Pablo find the remaining residents running upstairs as the infected in the warehouse have broken down the door. Gradually, the rest of the apartment's residents are bitten and infected.  Ángela, Pablo and Manu, the three survivors, find a key that will allow them to escape from the building via a large drain in the basement that is connected to the sewers. Manu is bitten outside the apartment of the key's location, forcing Ángela and Pablo to take refuge in the penthouse. They discover a tape recorder which explains that the penthouse owner, an agent of the Vatican, was charged with the task of isolating an enzyme carried by a young Portuguese girl named Tristana Medeiros, whose symptoms suggest a demonic possession. As the agent attempted to treat Medeiros, the enzyme mutated and became contagious. The agent then sealed Tristana in the house to die of starvation. An infected boy within the attic damages the light on Pablo's camera, requiring Pablo to activate the camera's night vision. A now-ghoulish Tristana emerges and searches the penthouse for food. Ángela and Pablo try to escape, but Pablo is killed by Tristana and drops the camera. Ángela then picks it up and looks through the screen. Seeing Tristana eating Pablo, she panics, trips and drops the camera. The camera continues to record as Ángela is dragged into the darkness screaming.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Balagueró and Plaza had previously directed the 2002 documentary \"OT: la película\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "The film premiered in August 2007 at the 64th Venice International Film Festival, out of competition, in the opening and closing films sessions. It was also shown in October 2007 at the Sitges Film Festival and the Málaga International Week of Fantastic Cinema in November 2007, before going on general release in Spain later that month.  The film was also shown in February 2008 at the Glasgow Film Festival and the co-directors participated in a corresponding interview in which they revealed their influences during the creation of the cinema work: \"Our main reference was TV; was not other films, or a tradition of previous features. I think the main influence for us was TV. What we wanted was to build a classic horror story, but, ahh, telling it in the way of a TV show.\" \"REC\" was then released in the United Kingdom in April 2008 and a North American DVD release occurred in 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an 89% approval rating based on 37 reviews, with an average rating of 7.52/10. The site's consensus states: \"Plunging viewers into the nightmarish hellscape of an apartment complex under siege, \"[Rec]\" proves that found footage can still be used as an effective delivery mechanism for sparse, economic horror.\"  Reviewing the film for the BBC, Jamie Russell called it \"A runaway rollercoaster of a fright flick\", praising the \"faux-docu handheld style\", and the sense of claustrophobia and confusion, claiming that \"\"[Rec]\" will definitely jangle the nerves\"; however, Russell criticised the lack of substance and a \"one-dimensional\" supporting cast. Bloody Disgusting awarded the film four-and-a-half stars out of five, with the reviewer writing, \"\"[REC]\" has it all and is probably one of the best Spanish horror films in recent memory.\" \"Bloody Disgusting\" later ranked the film eleventh in their list of the 'Top 20 Horror Films of the Decade', with the article stating: \"Out of all the'shaky-cam' films... this one is arguably the best.\" In the early 2010s, \"Time Out\" conducted a poll with several authors, directors, actors, and critics who have worked within the horror genre to vote for their top horror films. \"Rec\" placed at number 54 on their top 100 list.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequels.", "content": "The sequel \"Rec 2\" premiered in September 2009 at the 66th Venice International Film Festival, and was commercially released in Spain in October of the same year. The second installment portrays the events that immediately follow the end of the first film. Actress Manuela Velasco's role of Ángela Vidal returned in the sequels \"Rec 2\" and \"\".  \"\" is the third installment of the series and was released in Spanish theaters on 30 March 2012. The conclusion of the franchise, \"\", was released in 2014, first being screened at the Toronto Film Festival and later in Spain at the Sitges Film Festival on 3 October before being released in cinemas on 31 October.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rec (stylized as [•REC]; short for \"record\") is a 2007 Spanish found-footage horror film co-written and directed by Jaume Balagueró and Paco Plaza. The film centers on a reporter and her cameraman covering a firefighter intervention in an apartment building in Barcelona. As the situation escalates, after some of the building's occupants show animalistic and murderous behavior, the reporter and cameraman find themselves confined inside the perilous building.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976537}
{"src_title": "Škoda Transportation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Škoda Works.", "content": "Count Waldstein established a metallurgical factory in Pilsen in 1859. Starting with 100 employees, the factory was making products for breweries, sugar mills, mines, as well as steam engines and railway products. The factory was bought by its chief engineer Emil Škoda in 1869. By the end of the century, Škoda Works became one of the largest enterprises in Europe, focusing mainly on the production of heavy arms and heavy ship components.  Apart from military production, the Works were also producing a number of rolling stock components by the end of the 19th century: wheels, axles, hoops and steam engines. During the first world war the company started refurbishing locomotives. By 1918, the company had 35.000 employees and a debilitating debt accrued due to unpaid military deliveries to the Central Powers as well as unpaid pre-war loan that the company provided to China.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Locomotive factory.", "content": "As a part of its shift towards non-military production, the Works earmarked a portion of its facilities for manufacturing of locomotives. The production started following an order for 30 locomotives for Czechoslovakia. The first Škoda locomotive left the factory on 11 June 1920. Meanwhile, Škoda gained a major contract for production of 80 and refurbishment of 500 locomotives for Romania. Due to the Romanian order Škoda regained banks' confidence which provided the company with financing to survive through the immediate post-war years. The locomotive factory became one of the company's main pillars.  The company produced its 100th locomotive on 13 September 1921. In 1927 Škoda produced its first express electric locomotive which was followed by the introduction of electric freight locomotives. While electric locomotives were used on electrified lines within Prague, the company further produced electric locomotives with batteries for use within factory areas. Also in 1927, Škoda started production of diesel locomotives and diesel express trains. In the 1930s, the locomotive factory was producing on average 3 locomotives a month with third of the production for export.  Meanwhile in another factory building situated in Pilsen, Škoda started producing electrical propulsion units for trams in the early 1920s. In 1936 the company started producing trolleybuses.  Production of locomotives as well as trolleybuses continued during the company's period of nationalization after the WW2. After fall of communism in 1989, Škoda Works were transformed into a joint stock company, the assets of which were later diversified into several separate entities, among them also Škoda Dopravní Technika s. r. o. which included the rolling stock factory in Pilsen and which was renamed to Škoda Transportation in 2004.  In the early 1990s, the company started working also on refurbishment of trams, which was followed by introduction of its first own tram design in 1997, the low-floor Škoda 03 T.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Škoda Transportation.", "content": "The Czech Republic sold Škoda Transportation to private owners in 2002. While in private hands, the company extended its reach by purchasing stock in other companies that are active in production and R&D of rolling stock in Europe. Today, Škoda Transportation group of companies is one of the world's largest manufacturers of trams and propulsion units for trolleybuses as well as a significant regional producer of locomotives and electric trains.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Daughter and affiliate companies.", "content": "Škoda Transportation a.s. daughter and affiliated companies The group of companies employed close to 5,600 people in 2015, with revenues reaching CZK 17 billion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Techmania Science Center.", "content": "Škoda Transportation and the University of West Bohemia run Techmania Science Center in Pilsen. The exhibition is annually visited by tens of thousands of schoolchildren and students who learn about various principles of mathematics and physics in an engaging way. The science center also includes a number of historical Škoda rolling stock products.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Škoda Transportation a.s. is a Czech engineering company that continues the legacy of Škoda Works' rolling stock manufacturing that started at the end of 19th century in Pilsen. Following the first world war, the Works commenced locomotive production in a separate factory dedicated to that purpose. This factory became a separate company in the 1990s. Today, Škoda Transportation develops and manufactures electric rail vehicles for urban and railway transport.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976538}
{"src_title": "Harris's hawk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "This medium-large hawk is roughly intermediate in size between a peregrine falcon (\"Falco peregrinus\") and a red-tailed hawk (\"Buteo jamaicensis\"). Harris's hawks range in length from and generally have a wingspan of about These hawks have a brownish plumage, reddish shoulders and tail feathers with a white base and white tip.  They exhibit sexual dimorphism with the females being larger by about 35%. In the United States, the average weight for adult males is about, with a range of, while the adult female average is, with a range of. They have dark brown plumage with chestnut shoulders, wing linings, and thighs, white on the base and tip of the tail, long, yellow legs and a yellow cere. The vocalizations of the Harris's hawk are very harsh sounds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Juvenile.", "content": "The juvenile Harris's hawk is mostly streaked with buff, and appears much lighter than the dark adults. When in flight, the undersides of the juveniles' wings are buff-colored with brown streaking. They can look unlike adults at first glance, but the identical chestnut plumage is an aid for identification.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are three subspecies of Harris's hawk:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Harris's hawks live in sparse woodland and semi-desert, as well as marshes (with some trees) in some parts of their range (Howell and Webb 1995), including mangrove swamps, as in parts of their South American range. Harris's hawks are permanent residents and do not migrate. Important perches and nest supports are provided by scattered larger trees or other features (e.g., power poles, woodland edges, standing dead trees, live trees, and boulders, and saguaros).  The wild Harris's hawk population is declining due to habitat loss; however, under some circumstances, they have been known to move into developed areas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "This species occurs in relatively stable groups. A dominance hierarchy occurs in Harris's hawks, wherein the mature female is the dominant bird, followed by the adult male and then the young of previous years. Groups typically include from 2 to 7 birds. Not only do birds cooperate in hunting, they also assist in the nesting process. No other bird of prey is known to hunt in groups as routinely as this species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "The diet of the Harris's hawk consists of small creatures including birds, lizards, mammals, and large insects. Because it often hunts in groups, the Harris's hawk can also take down larger prey. Although not particularly common, the Harris's hawk may take prey weighing over, such as adult jackrabbits, great blue heron (\"Ardea herodias\") and half-grown wild turkeys (\"Meleagris gallapavo\"). The desert cottontail (\"Syvilagus auduboni\"), the leading prey species in the north of the Harris's hawk range, usually weighs or less. Undoubtedly because it pursues large prey often, this hawk has larger and stronger feet, with long talons, and a larger, more prominent hooked beak than most other raptors around its size. Locally, other buteonine hawks, including the ferruginous hawk, the red-tailed hawk and the white-tailed hawk also hunt primarily cottontails and jackrabbits, but each are bigger, weighing about, and, respectively, more on average than a Harris's hawk.  In the Southwestern United States, the most common prey species (in descending order of prevalence) are desert cottontail (\"Syvilagus auduboni\"), eastern cottontail (\"Syvilagus floridanus\"), black-tailed jackrabbit (\"Lepus californicus\"), ground squirrels (\"Ammopsermophilus\" spp. and \"Spermophilus\" spp.), woodrats (\"Neotoma\" spp.), kangaroo rats (\"Dipodomys\" spp.), pocket gophers (\"Geomys\" and \"Thomomys\" spp.), Gambel's quail (\"Callipepla gambelii\"), scaled quail (\"C. squamata\"), northern bobwhite (\"Colinus virginianus\"), cactus wren (\"Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus\"), northern mockingbird (\"Mimus polyglottos\"), desert spiny lizards (\"Sceloporus magister\"), and skinks (\"Eumeces\" spp.) In the tropics, Harris's hawks have adapted to taking prey of several varieties, including those like chickens and European rabbits introduced by man. In Chile, the common degu (\"Octodon degus\") makes up 67.5% of the prey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hunting.", "content": "While most raptors are solitary, only coming together for breeding and migration, Harris's hawks will hunt in cooperative groups of two to six. This is believed to be an adaptation to the lack of prey in the desert climate in which they live. In one hunting technique, a small group flies ahead and scouts, then another group member flies ahead and scouts, and this continues until prey is bagged and shared. In another, all the hawks spread around the prey and one bird flushes it out. Groups of Harris's hawks tend to be more successful at capturing prey than lone hawks, with groups of two to four individuals having ~10% higher success rates per extra individual.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "They nest in small trees, shrubby growth, or cacti. The nests are often compact, made of sticks, plant roots, and stems, and are often lined with leaves, moss, bark and plant roots. They are built mainly by the female. There are usually two to four white to blueish white eggs sometimes with a speckling of pale brown or gray. The nestlings start out light buff, but in five to six days turn a rich brown.  Very often, there will be three hawks attending one nest: two males and one female. Whether or not this is polyandry is debated, as it may be confused with backstanding (one bird standing on another's back). The female does most of the incubation. The eggs hatch in 31 to 36 days. The young begin to explore outside the nest at 38 days, and fledge, or start to fly, at 45 to 50 days. The female sometimes breeds two or three times in a year. Young may stay with their parents for up to three years, helping to raise later broods. Nests are known to be predated by coyotes (\"Canis latrans\"), golden eagles (\"Aquila chrysaetos\"), red-tailed hawks (\"Buteo jamaicensis\"), great horned owls (\"Bubo virginianus\") and flocks of common ravens (\"Corvus corax\"), predators possibly too formidable to be fully displaced by the Harris's hawk's cooperative nest defenses. No accounts show predation on adults in the United States and the Harris's hawk may be considered an apex predator, although presumably predators like eagles and great horned owls would be capable of killing them. In Chile, black-chested buzzard-eagles (\"Geranoaetus melanoleucus\") are likely predators.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relationship with humans.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Falconry.", "content": "Since about 1980, Harris's hawks have been increasingly used in falconry and are now the most popular hawks in the West (outside of Asia) for that purpose, as they are one of the easiest to train and the most social.  Trained Harris's hawks have been used to remove an unwanted pigeon population from London's Trafalgar Square, and from the tennis courts at Wimbledon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In art.", "content": "John James Audubon illustrated the Harris's hawk in \"The Birds of America\" (published, London 1827–38) as Plate 392 with the title \"Louisiana Hawk -\"Buteo harrisi\"\". The image was engraved and colored by the Robert Havell, London workshops in 1837. The original watercolor by Audubon was purchased by the New York History Society where it remains to this day (January 2009).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Harris's hawk (\"Parabuteo unicinctus\"), formerly known as the bay-winged hawk or dusky hawk, and known in Latin America as peuco, is a medium-large bird of prey that breeds from the southwestern United States south to Chile, central Argentina, and Brazil. Birds are sometimes reported at large in Western Europe, especially Britain, but it is a popular species in falconry and these records almost certainly all refer to escapes from captivity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976539}
{"src_title": "Vicky Cristina Barcelona", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Vicky and Cristina visit Barcelona for the summer, staying with Vicky's distant relative Judy and her husband Mark. While the two are great friends, Vicky is practical and traditional in her approach to love and commitment and is engaged to the reliable Doug, whereas Cristina imagines herself to be a nonconformist, spontaneous but unsure of what she wants from life or love.  At an art exhibition, Cristina is intrigued by artist Juan Antonio, who Judy says has suffered a violent relationship with his ex-wife. Later, he brazenly approaches the two women to invite them to join him right away for the weekend in the city of Oviedo, in a small plane he flies himself, for sight-seeing, fine eating and drinking, and hopefully, lovemaking. Cristina is won over by the offer almost at once, but Vicky is unimpressed and reluctant; she, however, eventually decides to accompany her friend anyway, mainly to watch over her.  At the end of their first day, Vicky refuses to join Juan Antonio in his hotel room, citing her fidelity to Doug, but Cristina accepts his invitation immediately. Before the lovemaking starts, Cristina suddenly falls ill with digestive complaints, and is put to bed, with food poisoning. Vicky and Juan Antonio proceed to spend the weekend together alone while they wait for Cristina to recuperate. Vicky gradually changes her opinion of Juan Antonio as he tells her about his tumultuous relationship with his former wife, María Elena. Vicky accompanies him to visit his father, an old poet, and then becomes deeply moved by a Spanish guitar performance later that evening. She finally succumbs to Juan Antonio's advances as they walk through a grove of trees in the dark. The next day, with Cristina recovered, the three of them fly back to Barcelona.  Feeling guilty, Vicky does not mention the incident to Cristina, and the two begin to grow apart. Vicky starts throwing herself into her studies while Cristina and Juan Antonio take up a relationship. Cristina then moves in with Juan Antonio and begins to discover more about his past. After learning that María Elena attempted to kill herself, Juan Antonio takes her to his home, where Cristina already lives. After some defiance, the two women grow fond of each other. Cristina realizes that the ex-spouses are still in love, and María Elena suggests that Cristina may be the element that can give balance and stability to their relationship. All three become romantically involved with one another.  In the meantime, Vicky is joined in Spain by an enthusiastic Doug and the two get married. When Cristina describes her new life with Juan Antonio to Vicky, Vicky becomes secretly jealous, and after a few other awkward moments, she realizes she is unsatisfied in her married life and is still attracted to Juan Antonio. Learning that Judy is similarly unhappy in her marriage, she confides to her, and Judy, who sees her younger self in Vicky, decides to bring Juan Antonio and Vicky together. Meanwhile, Cristina becomes restless and at some point decides to leave Juan Antonio and María Elena; without her, their relationship quickly falls apart again.  As the summer winds to a close, Judy arranges for Juan Antonio and Vicky to meet at a party. Juan Antonio begs Vicky to meet him again privately before leaving Spain, which she finally accepts, lying to Doug in the process. At his home, Juan Antonio seduces and wins Vicky over again, but they are interrupted by María Elena who bursts in with a gun, firing wildly as Juan Antonio tries to calm her. Vicky gets shot in the hand in the process, and leaves, shouting they are insane and she could never live like this. She confesses the entire story to Cristina, who never realized how Vicky felt about Juan Antonio, and wishes she could have helped her. Doug, Vicky and Cristina return to the United States; Doug never learns what truly happened, Vicky goes back to her married life, and Cristina is back where she started, still unsure of what she wants from life or love.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cast.", "content": "Spanish actor Joan Pera, who dubbed Allen's voice in his previous films, makes a cameo appearance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "In 2007, controversy arose in Catalonia (Spain) because the film was partially funded with public money; Barcelona's city hall provided one million euro and the Generalitat de Catalunya (Government of Catalonia) half a million, or ten percent of the film's budget.  This was the third time Johansson and Allen worked together, following \"Match Point\" (2005) and \"Scoop\" (2006). This also marked the second time Johansson and Hall worked together, the first time being in \"The Prestige\" (2006).  The film featured several paintings by Catalan artist and included several examples of the work of architect Antoni Gaudí, including his Park Güell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": ", the film grossed $96 million worldwide; in relation to its $15 million budget, it is one of Allen's most profitable films.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reviews.", "content": "\"Vicky Cristina Barcelona\" garnered the best reviews Allen received since his Academy Award-nominated 2005 film \"Match Point\" (also starring Johansson), particularly for Cruz's performance. The film has an approval rating of 81% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 208 reviews, with an average score of 6.93/10. The site's consensus reads: \"A beguiling tragicomedy, \"Vicky Cristina Barcelona\" charms with beautiful views of the Spanish city and a marvelously well-matched cast\".  Scott Tobias wrote in \"The A.V. Club\" that it was \"a witty and ambiguous movie that's simultaneously intoxicating and suffused with sadness and doubt\". Richard Roeper suggested that Cruz should receive an Academy Award nomination for her role. Mick LaSalle of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" praised the film as \"the work of a confident and mature artist\", referring to Allen. Manohla Dargis of \"The New York Times\" wrote \"Although \"Vicky Cristina\" trips along winningly, carried by the beauty of its locations and stars — and all the gauzy romanticism those enchanted places and people imply — it reverberates with implacable melancholy, a sense of loss.\" Richard Corliss ended his review of the film with \"The movie has neither the sardonic heft of Max Ophüls's \"La Ronde\" nor the emotional precision of Ingmar Bergman's \"Smiles of a Summer Night\", two films that also dance the change-partners gavotte. But \"Vicky Cristina Barcelona\" is so engaging so much of the time that it feels like a modest rejuvenation: evidence that a summer in Spain can do wonders for a writer-director who may not have outlived his prime.\" S. Williams of \"Momzone\" magazine singled out Johansson's performance for praise, writing, \"Johansson's acting is syrup: fluid and sweet.\" Ian Freer of \"Empire\" gave the film 4 out of 5, and wrote \"within Allen's recent output, Vicky Cristina is a highlight. See it for beautiful locales, an ambivalent look at human relationships and a clutch of great performances, especially from Cruz.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Top ten lists.", "content": "The film appeared on many critics' top-ten lists of the best films of 2008.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vicky Cristina Barcelona is a 2008 romantic comedy-drama film written and directed by Woody Allen. The plot centers on two American women, Vicky and Cristina, who spend a summer in Barcelona, where they meet an artist, Juan Antonio, who is attracted to both of them while still enamored of his mentally and emotionally unstable ex-wife María Elena. The film was shot in Spain in Barcelona, Avilés and Oviedo, and was Allen's fourth consecutive film shot outside the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976540}
{"src_title": "Gottlieb Hering", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hering was born and raised in Warmbronn, a district in the town of Leonberg. After finishing his schooling, Hering worked on a farm near his home. From 1907 to 1909, he served in the 20th (2nd Württemberg) Uhlans \"King William I\" regiment, and then voluntarily stayed on for another three years. Hering then joined the Heilbronn police in 1912. In 1914, Hering married and had one son.  During the First World War, Hering was called to serve in the machine gun company of Grenadier Regiment 123 in 1915, with which he fought on the Western Front in northern France until the armistice in 1918. He attained the rank of sergeant. For his war services he was awarded the Iron Cross First Class. After the First World War, Hering briefly rejoined the \"Schutzpolizei\" in Heilbronn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Police and SS career.", "content": "Hering began his police career in 1919 as a detective (sergeant) in the criminal police (\"Kriminalpolizei\", or \"Kripo\") in Göppingen, near Stuttgart, making officer rank by 1929. In 1920, Hering had joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany. During the Weimar Republic era he initiated vigorous actions against the NSDAP, SA and SS and consequently was called a \"Nazi-eater\". By the 1933 Nazi Seizure of Power (\"Machtergreifung\"), Nazi Party members vehemently demanded Hering's dismissal from the police. However, Hering had known Nazi Christian Wirth from official contexts since 1912, and while working in the \"Kripo\" in Stuttgart, the two became acquaintances, so that Hering was able to continue working despite the violent protests of local SA and SS men. In May 1933 Hering finally joined the NSDAP. In 1934 he was appointed head of the Göppingen \"Kripo\" and then continued his career in 1939 in Stuttgart-Schwenningen. After the outbreak of World War II, Hering, along with other senior \"Kripo\" officers, was transferred to Gotenhafen (Gdynia) in December 1939. He was appointed with the task of resettling Volksdeutsche to the General Government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Action T4.", "content": "Beginning in late 1940, Hering held various functions within the Action T4 \"euthanasia\" program. Having completed the order at Gdynia, he was transferred to work first at Sonnenstein Euthanasia Centre. Hering served as an assistant supervisor (as did Fritz Tauscher) to a police officer by the name of Schemel. After Sonnenstein, Hering became the office manager at Hartheim Euthanasia Centre. He also worked in the special registry offices of Bernburg and Hadamar euthanasia centres.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operation Reinhard.", "content": "After Action T4, Hering was posted briefly to the \"Sicherheitsdienst\" in Prague in June 1942, and was then transferred to Operation Reinhard in Lublin, Poland. He replaced Christian Wirth as commandant of Bełżec extermination camp at the end of August 1942. He served as the camp's commandant until its closure in.  Rudolf Reder, one of the very few survivors of Bełżec, wrote of Hering's role in the killing of Jews.  Tadeusz Misiewicz, a Pole who lived in the village of Bełżec and worked at the train station, testified about Hering (file No.: Ds. 1604/45 – Zamość. Dated 15 October 1945 / Belzec-OKBZ):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career and death.", "content": "After the termination of Operation Reinhard and the closure of Belzec in June 1943, Hering remained the commander of the Poniatowa concentration camp reassigned as subcamp of Majdanek from the forced labor camp supporting the German war effort. On 3–4 November 1943, German police killed the remaining Jews at Poniatowa during Aktion Erntefest (). Hering then joined fellow SS men from the Operation Reinhard staff in Trieste, Italy. On 9 October 1945, Hering died of mysterious complications in the waiting room of St. Catherine's Hospital in Stetten im Remstal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gottlieb Hering (2 June 1887 – 9 October 1945) was an SS commander of Nazi Germany. He served in Action T4 and later as the second and last commandant of Bełżec extermination camp during Operation Reinhard. Hering directly perpetrated the genocide of Jews and other peoples during The Holocaust.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976541}
{"src_title": "Claire Holt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Holt was born in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. At the age of 1 Year she suffers from ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder). While growing up, she became a black belt in Tae Kwon Do and played water polo and volleyball.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 2006, Holt won the role of Emma Gilbert in the Network Ten children's television series \"\". The show has earned a Logie Award and Nickelodeon Australia Kids' Choice Award. While the series was renewed for a third season, Holt left the show after series two after signing on for the sequel to the 2007 film \"The Messengers\", titled \"\". She was replaced by Indiana Evans. Filming took place in Sofia throughout 2008. Starring alongside Norman Reedus and Heather Stephens, the film was released 21 July 2009 straight-to-DVD.  In addition to television and film roles, Holt has appeared in advertisements for Dreamworld, Sizzler, and Queensland Lifesaving. BuddyTV ranked her number 55 on its TV's 100 Sexiest Women of 2011 list.  In August 2011, Holt was confirmed to be in the TV series \"The Vampire Diaries\" as Rebekah Mikaelson. On 13 January 2013, The CW announced that Holt had joined the cast for the backdoor pilot of \"The Vampire Diaries\" spin-off \"The Originals\", where she reprised her role as Rebekah Mikaelson. She exited the show as a series regular in the sixteenth episode of the first season, which aired in the U.S. on 11 March 2014. Holt returned to her role in the season one finale on 13 May 2014, and continued to periodically guest star on the series until its finale on 1 August 2018.  In 2014, Holt was linked to CBS' \"Supergirl\", though she chose not to pursue it. She starred in NBC \"event series\" \"Aquarius\" as Charmain Tully. In 2016, she was cast in the romantic comedy film \"The Divorce Party\", playing the role of Susan.  In 2017, Holt had a starring role, Kayla, in the ABC thriller drama television pilot \"Doomsday\". Also that year, Holt starred as Kate in the underwater survival thriller film \"47 Meters Down\", opposite Mandy Moore and Matthew Modine, which was released in theaters on 16 June 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In July 2015, Holt became engaged to longtime boyfriend, television producer Matthew Kaplan. The two were married in April 2016. On 27 April 2017, Kaplan filed for divorce from Holt, citing \"irreconcilable differences\". Holt subsequently filed in response on 2 May 2017, also asking for her name to be changed from Kaplan back to Holt.  On 3 December 2017, Holt announced her engagement to real estate executive Andrew Joblon. On 4 March 2018, Holt revealed on Instagram that she had suffered a miscarriage. Holt and Joblon were married on 18 August 2018. On 11 October 2018, Holt announced on Instagram that she was pregnant, and revealed on 19 November that she was expecting a son. On 28 March 2019, Holt gave birth to her son, James Holt Joblon. On 3 April 2020, Holt announced on Instagram that she was expecting her second child, and revealed on 16 April 2020, that she was expecting a girl.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Claire Lily Holt (born 11 June 1988) is an Australian-American actress, known for her roles as Emma Gilbert in \"\", Samara Cook in \"Pretty Little Liars\", Rebekah Mikaelson in \"The Vampire Diaries\", and its spinoff series \"The Originals\" and Kate in the 2017 survival horror film, \"47 Meters Down\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976542}
{"src_title": "Stalin Monument (Prague)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The monument was located on a huge concrete pedestal, which can still be visited in Letná Park. It was the largest group statue in Europe, measuring high and long. The sculptor was Otakar Švec, who killed himself a few days before the unveiling.  The process of de-Stalinization began shortly after the unveiling of the monument. The monument, therefore, became an increasing source of embarrassment to the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, and was taken down with of explosives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later use of site.", "content": "In 1990, pirate radio station Radio Stalin operated from a bomb shelter beneath the statue's plinth. The same shelter was also the home of Prague's first rock club in the early 1990s. Since 1991, the marble pedestal has been used as the base of a giant kinetic sculpture of a metronome. In 1996, the pedestal was briefly used as a base for a statue of Michael Jackson as a promotional stunt for the start of his HIStory World Tour. A billboard promoting Civic Democratic Party leader Václav Klaus was erected on the site during the Czech parliamentary elections of 1998 but was removed soon after due to high winds.  A green plaque below the metronome reads:  Metronome Letenské sady The Metronome, the work of sculptor Vratislav Karel Novák, was erected in 1991 atop the massive stone plinth that originally served as the base for the monument to Soviet leader Josef Vissarionovich Stalin. Work began on Prague's Stalin monument towards the end of 1949, and in May 1955, it was finally unveiled. The largest group sculpture in Europe during its existence, the monument had a reinforced-concrete structure faced with 235 granite blocks, weighing 17,000 tonnes and costing 140 million crowns to complete. The gigantic composition, by sculptor Otakar Švec and the architects Jiří and Vlasta <nowiki>[</nowiki>his wife<nowiki>]</nowiki> Štursa, did not tower for long over the medieval centre of Prague: in connection with Soviet criticism of Stalin's \"cult of personality,\" the work was dynamited and removed towards the end of 1962. The City of Prague has been considering several options for redevelopment of the site for years, including a plan to build an aquarium. The remaining socle is a popular meeting point for skateboarders.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stalin's Monument was a granite statue honoring Joseph Stalin in Prague, Czechoslovakia. It was unveiled on 1 May 1955 after more than years of work, and was the world's largest representation of Stalin. The sculpture was demolished in 1962.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976543}
{"src_title": "Roza Otunbayeva", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Roza Otunbayeva was born in Frunze (now Bishkek), Kyrgyz SSR, USSR into the family of Isak Otunbayev, a member of the Supreme Court of Kyrgyz SSR (1967–1992), and Salika Daniyarova, Teacher. She graduated from the Philosophy Faculty of Moscow State University in 1972 and went on to teach as Senior Teacher and then as Head of the Philosophy Department at Kyrgyz State National University for six years (1975–1981). In 1975 she became Candidate of Sciences after defending her dissertation, \"Critique of falsification of Marxist-Leninist dialectic by the philosophers of Frankfurt school\". Roza Otunbayeva is a divorced mother of two children. She is fluent in Russian, English, German and French in addition to Kyrgyz. She can also understand a little Chinese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1981, she began her political career as the Communist Party's Second Secretary of the Lenin raion council (\"raikom\") of Frunze (now Bishkek). From 1983 to 1986 Ms. Otunbayeva served as the Secretary of the City Communist Party Committee in Frunze (now Bishkek). In 1986 she was appointed the Deputy to the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, and the same time the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1989 she was appointed as the Executive Secretary and later as the Chairwoman of the USSR UNESCO National Committee, and she also became member of the USSR Foreign Ministry's Board. In 1989–1992 she served as the Vice-President of the UNESCO Executive Council. By 1992, the now independent Kyrgyzstan was led by Askar Akayev, who chose her to be Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister, positions she held until later that year when she became her country's first ambassador to the US and Canada (1992–1994). In May 1994 she was called back to her original post of Kyrgyz Minister of Foreign Affairs, remaining there for three years. From 1997 to 2002, she served as the first Kyrgyz ambassador to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. From 2002 to 2004, she was recruited Deputy Special Representative of the UN Secretary General in the Peacekeeping Mission for Georgia. Upon her return to Kyrgyzstan in late 2004, Otunbayeva became politically active. In December 2004, she and three other opposition parliamentarians founded the Ata-Jurt (Fatherland) public movement in preparation for the February 2005 parliamentary elections.  From March to September 2005 Ms. Otunbayeva served as Acting Minister of Foreign Affairs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Tulip Revolution\".", "content": "Otunbayeva was one of the key leaders of the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan which led to the overthrow of President Akayev. Subsequently, she served for a few months as Acting Foreign Minister in the interim government of then prime minister (and acting president) Kurmanbek Bakiyev. After Bakiyev was elected President and Feliks Kulov became Prime Minister, Otunbayeva failed to receive the required parliamentary support to become Foreign Minister. She then ran unsuccessfully in a parliamentary by-election a few months later. Otunbayeva played a key role in the November 2006 protests that pressed successfully for a new democratic constitution.  She was the co-chairwoman of the country's Asaba (Flag) National Revival Party for a short time. In December 2007, Otunbayeva was elected to the Jogorku Kenesh – the Parliament of Kyrgyzstan – on the list of the Social Democratic Party of Kyrgyzstan. She served as the Leader of the Opposition SDP from 2008 to 2010. In 2009 she became the Leader of People's Front opposition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010 uprising and presidency.", "content": "On April 7, 2010, Otunbayeva was chosen by opposition leaders as head of the Interim Government of the Kyrgyz Republic, following widespread rioting in Bishkek and the ouster of President Kurmanbek Bakiyev.  Bakiyev fled the Jalal-Abad area as the riots became more violent. Unable to rally support, he resigned as president on April 10, 2010, and left the country for Kazakhstan. Nine days later he went to Minsk, Belarus, where he was given protected-exile status. On April 21 he recanted his resignation and declared that he was still president of Kyrgyzstan. Otunbayeva vowed to bring him to trial.  As interim president, Otunbayeva had four male deputies. Otunbayeva is considered to be unusual as there are few women in politics in Kyrgyzstan. Her first conversation after she came to power was with Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin. Otunbayeva declared that new elections would be called within six months and that she would act as president until then.  With violent protests in support of ousted President Kurmanbek Bakiyev continuing in Jalalabad, the home city of the former president, it was announced on May 19, 2010, by the interim government that elections would be delayed until 2011 and Otunbayeva was named as president. Following a referendum on the new Kyrgyz constitution, she was sworn in on July 3, 2010. Otunbayeva however was prohibited by the new constitution from running in the 2011 presidential election and her term ended on December 31, 2011. The referendum was supported by over 90% and changes the government from a Presidential republic to a Parliamentary republic. Parliamentary elections were held in October and the new parliament elected the Prime Minister and Cabinet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-Presidency.", "content": "In January 2012 Roza Otunbayeva has established the International Public Foundation \"Roza Otunbayeva Initiative\". The main objective of the Foundation is to implement programs and projects that will contribute to the social, political and economic development of the Kyrgyz Republic. During a 2016 speech by her successor at a military parade on Ala-Too Square for the 25th anniversary of Kyrgyzstan's independence, Otunbayeva walked off the stage after President Atamabayev repeatedly criticized her government. During a speech by Otunbayeva at the Middlebury Institute of International Studies in May 2018, she claimed that the young Kyrgyz generation values freedom above all, saying that they \"have been infected by freedom and it runs deep\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours and awards.", "content": "Roza Otunbayeva was listed as one of the 150 Most Influential Women in the World by \"Newsweek\"/\"Daily Beast\" 2011 Edition.  Otunbayeva has received France's \"Legion of Honour\" Award with the degree of Commander, as well as the highest order of Mongolia's \"Polar Star\" Award. She was awarded the Premio Minerva Medallion, which is presided over by the President of the Italian Republic, \"For occupying the highest institutional role in Kyrgyzstan, and for her international activities promoting democracy and peace\".  In 2011, Otunbayeva received an International Women of Courage Award, which is presented annually by the United States Department of State to women around the world who have shown leadership, courage, resourcefulness, and the willingness to sacrifice for others, especially while promoting women's rights. On December 13, 2012, the Eurasia Foundation (USA) awarded her with the 2012 Bill Maynes Award for demonstrating visionary leadership throughout Kyrgyzstan's constitutional transition and providing a lifelong example of public service.  Otunbayeva is a member of: She is an Honorary Professor at the: She is also an Honorary Professor at:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roza Isakovna Otunbayeva (Kyrgyz: Роза Исаковна (Исак кызы) Отунбаева, Roza İsaqovna (İsaq qızı) Otunbayeva; born August 23, 1950) is a Kyrgyz diplomat and politician who served as the President of Kyrgyzstan from 7 April 2010 until 1 December 2011. She was sworn in on July 3, 2010, after acting as interim leader following the 2010 April revolution which led to the ousting of President Kurmanbek Bakiyev. She previously served as Minister of Foreign Affairs and as head of the parliamentary caucus for the Social Democratic Party of Kyrgyzstan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976544}
{"src_title": "Darker than Black", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Ten years ago, a mysterious spatial anomaly now known as \"Heaven's Gate\" appeared in South America, shortly followed by the opening of \"Hell's Gate\" in Tokyo altering the sky and wreaking havoc on the landscape. The real stars disappeared, replaced by false stars. During this time, people possessing various special abilities—called \"Contractors\"—emerged, each capable of different supernatural feats. Each Contractor has a corresponding fake star, which reacts to their activities. As such, Contractors are usually identified by their star's Messier catalogue number. Kept secret from the masses, these individuals are known to murder in cold blood, smothering unnecessary emotions with logic and rationality. Their incredible abilities, however, are gained at the cost of their humanity; Contractors are thus named because of an involuntary compulsion to \"pay the price\" each time their power is used, which can range from eating particular foods or completing meaningless tasks, to self-harm or changing their bodies in peculiar ways. Various nations and organizations around the world train and utilize Contractors as spies and assassins, resulting in violent battles for valuable objects and information.  Following the disastrous Heaven's War, the United States lost its dominant position as a superpower to a mysterious organization named the Syndicate. The story revolves around a Chinese contractor codenamed \"Hei\" as he undertakes various espionage and assassination missions in Tokyo under the direction of the aforementioned Syndicate. It eventually reveals a plan of the Syndicate to erase the existence of contractors, and a resistance put up by contractors from the Syndicate itself and various espionage agencies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anime.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Season one.", "content": "\"Darker than Black\" was conceptualized by Tensai Okamura and produced by Bones and Aniplex. The series premiered on Tokyo Broadcasting System and Mainichi Broadcasting System's Thursday late night anime broadcasting timeslot, replacing the Sunrise series \"\" on April 5, 2007, and similar to \"Code Geass\" incorporated corporate sponsorship of Japan News Network partners Pizza Hut and Nifty, where episodes of the series was streamed every week during the series' broadcast run. It completed its initial run on September 27, 2007, and received its broadcasting satellite premiere on Animax from May 8, 2007 to October 23, 2007. The series was also aired in English on Animax Asia, Animax's English language networks in Southeast Asia and South Asia from December 2008 onwards. The series made its North American television debut when it started airing on the Funimation Channel September 6, 2010.  The series has been released in Japan by Aniplex across nine DVDs, each containing three episodes, except for the first DVD, which had only two. The ninth and final DVD included an original video animation, which expanded upon the romantic relationships between characters. The DVDs were released between July 25, 2007 and March 26, 2008 by Aniplex. FUNimation received the license for the series in Region 1 and has released one DVD compilation with two more coming in the future. The first English DVD was released on November 25, 2008 and the second and third DVDs were released on January 20, 2009 and March 10, 2009 respectively. Volume 4 was released on May 5, 2009 with Volume 5 released on June 23, 2009. Volume 6 was released on August 11, 2009 and is now available. In May 2010, Funimation released the entire first season in a complete box set; it was originally released in March, but was recalled due to a defective disk. The Blu-ray Box was released in Japan on September 30, 2009 with a guidebook with several unreleased music tracks not available in the OSTs. The opening themes are \"HOWLING\" by abingdon boys school (eps 1-14) and \"Kakusei Heroism ~The Hero Without A Name~\" by An Cafe (eps 15-23,25) and the ending themes are \"Tsukiakari\" by Rie fu (eps 1-14) and \"Dreams\" by HIGH and MIGHTY COLOR (eps 15-24).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Season two.", "content": "A document containing information about Bones staff and production details, was leaked onto the Japanese filesharing site uploader.jp, within the Microsoft Excel spreadsheet format, on July 2008. Among other details, including confidential contact information in regards to Bones staff members, it revealed that a second \"Darker than Black\" and \"Fullmetal Alchemist\" series was in production and were being directed by Tensai Okamura and Yasuhiro Irie respectively. This information regarding \"Fullmetal Alchemist\", which had never been previously released, was later proven to be true on January 2009. In an official statement posted on Bones' official website, co-founder and president Masahiko Minami claimed that the document was not released by the studio themselves but by an unnamed third-party. In a later statement, Minami also stated in regards to the two new series, \"It hasn't been decided yet. We are interested in doing them. As original science-fiction works, they were extremely fascinating. With these kinds of dramatic story lines, I feel that there's a lot we could do potentially.\" Six months later, however, the second series for \"Fullmetal Alchemist\" was confirmed to be in production with Yasuhiro Irie as director, thus confirming the document's validity. The second Darker than Black series was confirmed in the 12th issue of Square Enix's Young Gangan Magazine. In the 14th issue of Young Gangan, the title was revealed as. The sequel began airing in October 2009 and ended in December 2009. At Anime Expo 2010, Funimation Entertainment announced that they had licensed the second season. The opening theme is \"Tsukiakari no Michishirube\" (ツキアカリのミチシルベ; \"Guidepost of the Moonlight\") by Stereopony (eps 2-) and the ending theme is \"From Dusk Till Dawn\" by abingdon boys school.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "OVA.", "content": "These OVAs, also known as, are set in the time between the two series. Hei and Yin have left Tokyo and are on the run from the Syndicate. In the first episode, conflict ensues in Okinawa, where the agents from the Syndicate attempt to abduct Yin but are eventually unsuccessful. Hei and Yin then leave for Hong Kong. There are 4 OVAs in total, filling the gap with Hei and Yin left between season 1 and 2. The ending theme is \"DARKER THAN BLACK\" by Yasushi Ishii.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Manga.", "content": "A manga, illustrated by Nokiya, was serialized in Monthly Asuka. Naoshi Komi released the series to two \"tankōbon\" on August 8, 2007 and January 26, 2008 respectively. The series has been licensed for a North American release by Yen Press. A second manga, illustrated by Yuji Iwahara, the original character designer for the anime, finished serializing in Square Enix's Young Gangan seinen magazine under the title in March 2011. This is a separate one from the first and it is a new story taking place one year after the events of season 1 and it replaces the events of both the OVAs and season 2 completely.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "The original soundtrack was composed by Yoko Kanno in 2007 and contains a total of 20 tracks including the first opening and ending themes performed by Abingdon boys school and Rie fu. Other non-instrumental songs were written by Tim Jensen and performed by Mai Yamane (tracks 8, 10) and James Wendt (tracks 14, 19). It peaked at number 57 on the Oricon albums chart.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The series has received positive reviews, with praise directed at its use of noir themes and plot development compared to other action anime. The anime also was awarded Best Original Anime of The Year by GoGoplex, a popular magazine for teens. In the 2007 Japan Media Arts Festival, it was one of the jury's recommendations from the category \"Animation Division/Long Animation.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Darker than Black, also known as, is an anime television series created and directed by Tensai Okamura and animated by Bones. It premiered across Japan from April 5, 2007 on MBS, TBS, and its affiliated broadcast stations, with its satellite television premiere in Japan on Animax in May 2007. The music for the series is composed by Yoko Kanno. The series has also been adapted into two manga series, which are serialized in \"Monthly Asuka\" and in \"Young Gangan\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976545}
{"src_title": "SS Admiral Nakhimov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career: 1925–1945.", "content": "\"Berlin\" was built by Bremer Vulkan at Vegesack, Germany (Yard 614) and was completed in March 1925. She was launched on 25 March 1925, and commissioned on 17 September 1925. The ship was long, had four decks and a volume of. She originally operated the Bremen – Southampton – Cherbourg – New York City run for the North German Lloyd Line.  The ship's main route was between Bremerhaven, Southampton and New York, which she began on 26 September 1925 and operated until May 1939 when she was laid up in Bremerhaven for refitting. On 12 November 1928, \"Berlin\" rescued the passengers and crew of the liner, which sank off the coast of Virginia en route from New York City to Barbados. An estimated 113 people died in the sinking.  \"Berlin\" was chartered by the Nazis in 1939 as a Strength Through Joy (Kraft durch Freude, KdF) workers' cruising ship and was used as a hospital ship later on in World War II.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "\"Berlin\" was one of eight German ships commissioned as hospital ships (\"Lazarettschiffe\") during World War II. Most, if not all, of these ships also served in other capacities during the war after being decommissioned as hospital ships, mainly as accommodation or transport ships for military personnel. All German hospital ships were given alphabetic identifiers, \"Berlin\"s being 'A'. On 16 July 1939, \"Berlin\" began her conversion to hospital ship and entered service with the \"Kriegsmarine\" as Lazarettschiff A, Sanitätsamt Ost on 23 August 1939. The ship had berthing for 400 patients, with a crew of 165. Initially serving in Norwegian waters, she was identified as \"Field Post Number 07520\". By January 1945, \"Berlin\" was assigned to Operation Hannibal, the transport of refugees and soldiers from the Eastern Baltic. On 31 January 1945, while forming up in convoy to head east, \"Berlin\" struck a mine off Swinemünde, and was put in tow for Kiel. She then hit another mine and was beached (23.53 hr, at position 54°02.6 N/14°19 E, in shallow waters). There was one fatality. All usable equipment was salvaged by 5 February 1945, and the ship was abandoned.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soviet service.", "content": "She was refloated and salvaged by the Soviets in 1949 and renamed \"Admiral Nakhimov\" after Admiral Pavel Nakhimov, a 19th-century Russian naval commander who played a prominent role in the Crimean War. After her conversion, her size was increased to. She entered passenger service for the Black Sea Steamship Company in 1957. In 1962, during the Cuban Missile Crisis, the ship was used to transport soldiers to Cuba.  During the peak summer travel season, \"Admiral Nakhimov\" operated cruises on the Black Sea between Odessa and Batumi, a six-day round trip. She carried an average of 1,000 people per voyage. She was the flagship of the Black Sea passenger fleet for several years until more modern liners entered service.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sinking.", "content": "At 10:00 p.m. Moscow Time on 31 August 1986, \"Admiral Nakhimov\" sailed from Novorossiysk en route to Sochi, its next stop. There were 888 passengers and 346 crew members aboard. Most of the passengers were Ukrainian, with others from Russia, Moldova, the Baltic republics and Central Asia. The captain of the ship was Vadim Markov.  Just minutes into the voyage, the ship's pilot noticed that the large bulk carrier \"Pyotr Vasev\" was on a collision course with \"Admiral Nakhimov\". \"Pyotr Vasev\" was a Japanese-built, 18,604-ton freighter recently acquired by the Soviet Union, and was carrying a cargo of oats and barley from Canada. The pilot radioed a warning to \"Pyotr Vasev\", and the freighter responded, \"Don't worry. We will pass clear of each other. We will take care of everything.\"  Despite the message, Captain Viktor Tkachenko of \"Pyotr Vasev\" did nothing to slow his ship or change course. Convinced that the freighter would pass without incident, Captain Markov of \"Admiral Nakhimov\" retired to his cabin, leaving his second mate Alexander Chudnovsky in charge. From 11:00 p.m., Chudnovsky radioed \"Pyotr Vasev\" several times, asking about her course and her further actions. Chudnovsky changed the ship's course 10 degrees portside. At 11:10 p.m., Chundovsky cried on VHF to the freighter, \"Immediately reverse full astern!\" When it was clear that the freighter was headed directly for the ship, \"Pyotr Vasyov\"s engines were thrown in reverse. \"Admiral Nakhimov\" turned hard to port, but it was too late.  At 11:12 p.m., \"Admiral Nakhimov\" was struck by \"Pyotr Vasev\" from the port at Novorossiysk and from shore, at While many passengers had gone to bed by this time, some were on deck listening and dancing to music. They could only watch helplessly as the freighter rammed into the starboard side of the ship at a speed of about. \"Admiral Nakhimov\" continued forward with the freighter's bow in its side, ripping a hole in the hull between the engine and boiler rooms.  \"Admiral Nakhimov\" immediately took on a list on her starboard side, and her lights went out upon impact. After a few seconds, the emergency diesel generator powered on, but the lights went out again two minutes later, plunging the sinking ship into darkness. People below decks found themselves lost in the dark and rapidly canting hallways.  There was no time to launch the lifeboats. Hundreds of people dived into the oily water, clinging to lifejackets, barrels and pieces of debris.  \"Admiral Nakhimov\" sank in only eight minutes. Rescue ships began arriving just 10 minutes after the ship went down. \"Pyotr Vasev\" was not badly damaged, and assisted in the rescue effort. Sixty-four rescue ships and 20 helicopters rushed to the scene, and 836 people were pulled from the water. Some people were so slick with fuel oil that they could not keep hold of the hands of their rescuers. Sailors had to jump into the water to save people.  \"Admiral Nakhimov\" lacked proper ventilation, which was the reason all 90 windows in the cabins were open during the accident. The bulkheads that would have prevented the ship from sinking were removed during the conversion.  Passengers and crew had little time to escape, and 423 of the 1,234 on board perished. Sixty-four of those killed were crew members and 359 were passengers.  The event was not reported in the news for forty eight hours. The survivors were only allowed to send telegrams saying \"Alive and well in Novorossiysk.\"  The wreck of \"Admiral Nakhimov\" lies on its starboard side in of water in Tsemes Bay off Novorossiysk.  \"Pyotr Vasev\" was renamed and operated under other flags until 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Investigation.", "content": "The Soviet government formed a commission of inquiry to investigate the disaster. It determined that both Captain Markov of \"Admiral Nakhimov\" and Captain Tkachenko of \"Pyotr Vasev\" had violated navigational safety rules. Despite repeated orders to let \"Admiral Nakhimov\" pass, Tkachenko refused to slow his ship and only reported the accident 40 minutes after it occurred. Captain Markov was absent from the bridge. The inquiry took place in 1987 in Odessa. Both Captains Markov and Tkachenko were found guilty of criminal negligence and sentenced to 15 years in prison. Both were released in 1992.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "SS \"Admiral Nakhimov (), launched in March 1925 and originally named SS \"Berlin, was a passenger liner of the German Weimar Republic later converted to a hospital ship, then a Soviet passenger ship. On 31 August 1986, \"Admiral Nakhimov\" collided with the large bulk carrier \"Pyotr Vasev\" in the Tsemes Bay, near the port of Novorossiysk, Russian SFSR, and quickly sank. In total, 423 of the 1,234 people on board died.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976546}
{"src_title": "Cannabis sativa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plant physiology.", "content": "The flowers of \"Cannabis sativa\" are unisexual and plants are most often either male or female. It is a short-day flowering plant, with staminate (male) plants usually taller and less robust than pistillate (female or male) plants. The flowers of the female plant are arranged in racemes and can produce hundreds of seeds. Male plants shed their pollen and die several weeks prior to seed ripening on the female plants. Under typical conditions with a light period of 12 to 14 hours both sexes are produced in equal numbers because of heritable X and Y chromosomes. Although genetic factors dispose a plant to become male or female, environmental factors including the diurnal light cycle can alter sexual expression. Naturally occurring monoecious plants, with both male and female parts, are either sterile or fertile but artificially induced \"hermaphrodites\" can have fully functional reproductive organs. \"Feminized\" seed sold by many commercial seed suppliers are derived from artificially \"hermaphroditic\" females that lack the male gene, or by treating the plants with hormones or silver thiosulfate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacology.", "content": "Although the main psychoactive constituent of \"Cannabis\" is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the plant is known to contain more than 500 compounds, among them at least 113 cannabinoids; however, most of these \"minor\" cannabinoids are only produced in trace amounts. Besides THC, another cannabinoid produced in high concentrations by some plants is cannabidiol (CBD), which is not psychoactive but has recently been shown to block the effect of THC in the nervous system. Differences in the chemical composition of \"Cannabis\" varieties may produce different effects in humans. Synthetic THC, called dronabinol, does not contain cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), or other cannabinoids, which is one reason why its pharmacological effects may differ significantly from those of natural \"Cannabis\" preparations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemical constituents.", "content": "\"Beside cannabinoids, Cannabis\" chemical constituents include about 120 compounds responsible for its characteristic aroma. These are mainly volatile terpenes and sesquiterpenes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Difference between \"C. sativa\" and \"C. indica\".", "content": "Human intervention has produced variation within the species and some authorities only recognize one species in the genus that has had divergent selective pressure to either produce plants with more fiber or plants with greater THC content. Large variability exists within either species, and there is an expanding discussion whether the existing paradigm used to differentiate species adequately represents the variability found within the genus \"Cannabis\". There are five chemotaxonomic types of \"Cannabis\": one with high levels of THC, one which is more fibrous and has higher levels of CBD, one that is an intermediate between the two, another one with high levels of cannabigerol (CBG), and the last one almost without cannabinoids.  \"Cannabis\" strains with relatively high CBD:THC ratios are less likely to induce anxiety than vice versa. This may be due to CBD's antagonistic effects at the cannabinoid receptors, compared to THC's partial agonist effect. CBD is also a 5-HT receptor (serotonin) agonist, which may also contribute to an anxiolytic-content effect. The effects of \"sativa\" are well known for its cerebral high, while \"indica\" is well known for its sedative effects which some prefer for night time use. Both types are used as medical cannabis. \"Indica\" plants are normally shorter and stockier than \"sativas\". \"Indicas\" have broader, deeply serrated leaves and a compact and dense flower cluster.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Common uses.", "content": "\"Cannabis sativa\" seeds are chiefly used to make hempseed oil which can be used for cooking, lamps, lacquers, or paints. They can also be used as caged-bird feed, as they provide a source of nutrients for most animals. The flowers and fruits (and to a lesser extent the leaves, stems, and seeds) contain psychoactive chemical compounds known as cannabinoids that are consumed for recreational, medicinal, and spiritual purposes. When so used, preparations of flowers and fruits (called marijuana) and leaves and preparations derived from resinous extract (e.g., hashish) are consumed by smoking, vaporising, and oral ingestion. Historically, tinctures, teas, and ointments have also been common preparations. In traditional medicine of India in particular \"C. sativa\" has been used as hallucinogenic, hypnotic, sedative, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory agent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "A \"Cannabis\" plant in the vegetative growth phase of its life requires more than 12–13 hours of light per day to stay vegetative. Flowering usually occurs when darkness equals at least 12 hours per day. The flowering cycle can last anywhere between nine and fifteen weeks, depending on the strain and environmental conditions. When the production of psychoactive cannabinoids is sought, female plants are grown separately from male plants to induce parthenocarpy in the female plant's fruits (popularly called \"'sin semilla' which is Spanish for 'without seed'\" ) and increase the production of cannabinoid-rich resin.  In soil, the optimum pH for the plant is 6.3 to 6.8. In hydroponic growing, the nutrient solution is best at 5.2 to 5.8, making \"Cannabis\" well-suited to hydroponics because this pH range is hostile to most bacteria and fungi.  Tissue culture multiplication has become important in producing medically important clones, while seed production remains the generally preferred means of multiplication. Sativa plants have narrow leaves and grow best in warm environments. They do, however, take longer to flower than their Indica counterparts, and they grow taller than the Indica cannabis strains as well.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "Broadly, there are three main cultivar groups of cannabis that are cultivated today:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cannabis sativa is an annual herbaceous flowering plant indigenous to eastern Asia but now of cosmopolitan distribution due to widespread cultivation. It has been cultivated throughout recorded history, used as a source of industrial fiber, seed oil, food, recreation, religious and spiritual moods and medicine. Each part of the plant is harvested differently, depending on the purpose of its use. The species was first classified by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. The word \"sativa\" means things that are cultivated.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976547}
{"src_title": "Richard Henkes", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Richard Henkes was born in mid-1900 in Ruppach-Goldhausen as one of eight children to a stonemason.  His father often worked abroad as a stonemason so religious instruction to the eight children fell to their mother who used to sprinkle each of them with anointed water each night before the children went to bed. His teacher Hans gave Henkes good reports when he was at school. On one occasion a Pallottine priest who served in the Cameroon missions came to the parish where he spoke of his work. This enthralled Henkes who began desiring joining the missions himself.  Henkes entered the Pallottines in Limburg in 1919 not long after he completed his studies (passing his Abitur) under them which had begun earlier in Vallendar in 1912. He felt homesick when he moved to Vallendar but his friends there provided him with enough support to continue on with his studies. Henkes' spiritual director at this time was the Servant of God Joseph Kentenich. In 1918 he passed his exams in Montabaur before being summoned at that time to Griesheim and Darmstadt for service; he returned to Vallendar in late 1918.  Between his first vows in 1921 and his ordination he suffered from a spiritual crisis that he later resolved. He received his ordination to the priesthood on 6 June 1925 in Limburg from the local bishop Augustinus Kilian. Henkes became a teacher following his sacerdotal ordination and taught in Pallottine and Schoenstatt schools from 1926. From 1931 he served in Katscher and Frankenstein as well as in Branitz to teach and minister to the faithful. He became a noted preacher in the pulpit but was also known amongst girls and religious sisters as a noted retreat-master. His preaching never faltered when the Nazis were present during his sermons to observe him since he had been known for making criticisms against Nazism and the actions that the regime did. He criticized the Nazis for their killing disabled people and condemned murder and other atrocities.  Sometime around 1927 he began to demonstrate signs of exhaustion and so was sent to recuperate and regain his strength. But he was later sent to a hospital for evaluation in which doctors told him to rest. Henkes refused this which irritated his doctors who believed Henkes' excessive work would aggravate his condition. He was later diagnosed with tuberculosis for the lungs and was sent to recover in a sanatorium. His provincial superior wanted to send him to South Africa since he believed that the favorable climate would prove beneficial to Henkes' health. The doctors advised against his transfer due to the seriousness of his condition. In 1928 he recovered enough to the point that he could resume teaching.  The Nazis arrested Henkes on 7 March 1937 in Roppach following a sermon he made in which he denounced the Nazi regime. Henkes was to be hauled before a special court in Breslau but was released. But this did not make him exempt from future suspicion or observation. But he did collaborate to some extent with the German Resistance though had an indirect role in it. He continued his strong denouncements of the Nazis to a point that often concerned his superiors who worried for the schools that Henkes was teaching in. This was not due to his teaching methods or views on Nazism. But it was rather because his strong denouncements could jeopardize the schools themselves. The Nazis soon had enough of his critical statements and so arrested him on 8 April 1943 in Branitz for abusing the pulpit to make politicized statements. Henkes was imprisoned first in Ratibor and then on 10 July 1943 moved to the Dachau concentration camp where he was forced to do manual labour on the S.S. plantation. In the camp he befriended the future cardinal Josef Beran. The latter taught Henkes the basics of the Czech language since Henkes wanted to master it in order to use it to speak with Czech people.  In the second-half of 1944 he served as a canteen-keeper for the inmates in Block XVII. Henkes volunteered in December 1944 to work with patients in Block XVII who had contracted an acute disease. He became infected with the disease himself due to prolonged exposure to the ill. Henkes died around eight weeks or so later in the camp. His remains were cremated but his ashes were smuggled out in secret so as to receive a proper burial on 7 June 1945 in Limburg; his ashes were then transferred in 1990 to another location in Limburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beatification.", "content": "The order's General Chapter in Rome in 1947 expressed their favor in launching a beatification process for Henkes and several other priests slain during the war. But the beatification and canonization of the order's founder Vincenzo Pallotti caused the order to almost forget about Henkes' potential cause due to the order's work with the Pallotti cause. In 1980 former inmates from Dachau who knew Henkes met with Pope John Paul II in Fulda (during the pope's apostolic visit) and mentioned Henkes to him; that same group of priests in 1995 applied to the Bishop of Limburg Franz Kamphaus and asked for the cause to be opened. But the Pallottines themselves had not made a decision on the cause but decided to approve it due to later developments and support. The Bishop of Plzeň (in the Czech Republic) sent a letter on 17 January 2001 to the Pallottines indicating his support to the cause if it were to be opened.  The formal petition to the Limburg diocese was accepted as was a formal application made to the Congregation for the Causes of Saints. The latter department launched the beatification cause on 4 September 2002 in the decree declaring \"nihil obstat\" and titling Henkes as a Servant of God. The diocesan process was launched in Limburg on 25 May 2003 and concluded later on 23 January 2007. The investigation was handed over to the C.C.S. in Rome who validated the process on 13 March 2009 and later received the 680-page Positio dossier for assessment. Historians approved the dossier on 19 November 2013 as did theologians sometime during 2017. The C.C.S. members approved it as well later on 11 December 2018. Pope Francis confirmed on 21 December 2018 that Henkes would be beatified; it was celebrated in the Limburg Cathedral on 15 September 2019 with Cardinal Kurt Koch presiding over the celebration on the pope's behalf.  The current postulator for this cause is the Pallottine priest Jan Korycki.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Henkes (26 May 1900 - 22 February 1945) was a German Roman Catholic priest and professed member from the Pallottines. Henkes served as a teacher but was best known for his preaching abilities in the pulpit where he made strong-worded condemnations of Nazism and the actions the Nazis were said to have made. Henkes offered indirect assistance to the German Resistance during World War II and was one of the more vocal German priests to condemn Nazism. This often worried his superiors who believed that Henkes placed his schools at great risk. He was critical of the regime's murder of the disabled and other atrocities which forced the S.S. to arrest him. His first arrest in 1938 saw him released but his second arrest in 1943 saw him sent to the Dachau concentration camp. It was during that time that he befriended Josef Beran (future cardinal) who taught him the Czech language.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976548}
{"src_title": "Iosif Shklovsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Shklovsky was born in Hlukhiv, a city in the Ukrainian part of the Russian Empire, into a poor Ukrainian Jewish family. After graduating from the seven-year secondary school, he worked as a foreman on building Baikal Amur Mainline. In 1933 Shklovsky entered the Physico-Mathematical Faculty of the Moscow State University.  There he studied until 1938, when he took a Postgraduate Course at the Astrophysics Department of the Sternberg State Astronomical Institute and remained working in the Institute until the end of his life. He died in Moscow, aged 68.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "He specialized in theoretical astrophysics and radio astronomy, as well as the Sun's corona, supernovae, and cosmic rays and their origins. He showed, in 1946, that the radio-wave radiation from the Sun emanates from the ionized layers of its corona, and he developed a mathematical method for discriminating between thermal and nonthermal radio waves in the Milky Way. He is noted especially for his suggestion that the radiation from the Crab Nebula is due to synchrotron radiation, in which unusually energetic electrons twist through magnetic fields at speeds close to that of light. Shklovsky proposed that cosmic rays from supernova explosions within 300 light years of the sun could have been responsible for some of the mass extinctions of life on earth.  In 1959 Shklovsky examined the orbital motion of Mars's inner satellite Phobos. He concluded that its orbit was decaying, and noted that if this decay was attributed to friction with the Martian atmosphere, then the satellite must have an exceptionally low density. In this context he voiced a suggestion that Phobos might be hollow, and possibly of artificial origin. This interpretation has since been refuted by more detailed study, but the apparent suggestion of extraterrestrial involvement caught the public imagination, though there is some disagreement as to how seriously Shklovsky intended the idea to be taken. However, Shklovsky and Carl Sagan argued for serious consideration of \"paleocontact\" with extraterrestrials in the early historical era, and for examination of myths and religious lore for evidence of such contact.  His 1962 book, Вселенная, жизнь, разум (\"Universe, Life, Intelligence\"), was expanded upon and reissued in 1966 with American astronomer Carl Sagan as co-author under the title \"Intelligent Life in the Universe\" (1966). This was the first comprehensive discussion of this field. Discussing the biological as well as astronomical issues of the subject, its unique format, alternating paragraphs written by Shklovsky and Sagan, demonstrated the deep mutual regard between the two and allowed them to express their views without compromise.  In 1967, before the discovery of pulsars, Shklovsky examined the X-ray and optical observations of Scorpius X-1 and correctly concluded that the radiation comes from an accreting neutron star.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quotes.", "content": "In the September 1965 issue of Soviet Life, he made the following statement regarding prospects for the future of humanity:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "His memoir, \"Five Billion Vodka Bottles to the Moon: Tales of a Soviet Scientist,\" was published posthumously in 1991 by W.W. Norton & Co.  In \"Five Billion Vodka Bottles to the Moon\", Shklovsky recalled his visit to Philip Morrison, who in 1959 had co-authored with Cornell University colleague Giuseppe Cocconi the paper in Nature magazine which marks the beginning of the modern search for extraterrestrial life, and their discussion of such issues. Bitter over Soviet anti-semitism, of the five pioneer investigators of the field, Cocconi, Morrison, Cornell University's Frank Drake (of the 1961 Project Ozma and the Drake equation), Sagan, and Shklovsky, Shklovsky was quite aware of sharing his Jewish identity with Sagan. Indeed, Sagan's Jewish heritage was also Ukrainian Jewish.  He was known for his sharp wit and extreme likability. Colleagues in the astronomy department at the University of California, Berkeley, remember fondly his visit there in the 1970s. Well known for his \"Intelligent Life in the Universe\", he was asked by a graduate student if UFO sightings are as common in the Soviet Union as in the United States. \"No,\" he replied. \"In this area the Americans are far more advanced than us.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Iosif Samuilovich Shklovsky (; sometimes transliterated \"Josif, Josif, Shklovskii, Shklovskij\") (1 July 1916 – 3 March 1985) was a Soviet astronomer and astrophysicist. He is remembered for work in theoretical astrophysics and other topics, as well as for his 1962 book on extraterrestrial life, the revised and expanded version of which was co-authored by American astronomer Carl Sagan in 1966 as \"Intelligent Life in the Universe\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976549}
{"src_title": "Mikkel Bødker", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Bødker was brought up in the highly regarded youth hockey program of Rødovre SIK. In 2005, at the age of 15, he moved to Frölunda HC in Sweden, where he played on Frölunda's junior team. He had an impressive 2006–07 season with 49 points (19 goals and 30 assists) in 39 games. The team won the national junior championships and Bødker also made his debut with the men's team in the Swedish Elite League.  After the season, Bødker was drafted by the Kitchener Rangers in the 2007 CHL Import Draft and he joined the team for the 2007–08 season. He had a successful first season in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL), where he played on the Rangers' second line. He scored 29 goals and 44 assists for a total of 73 points in 62 regular season games. In the playoffs, he enjoyed even more success, with 35 points in 20 games en route to helping the Rangers winning the OHL playoff championship. In the Memorial Cup, he had six points in five games as the Rangers finished runner-up, losing in the finals to the Western Hockey League (WHL)'s Spokane Chiefs.  Bødker scored his first NHL goal on 12 October 2008, against Jean-Sébastien Giguère of the Anaheim Ducks. Bødker also played in the NHL YoungStars Game in 2009 at the year's All-Star weekend festivities in Montreal, Quebec.  In the 2012 Stanley Cup playoffs, Bødker had an impressive showing, scoring two straight overtime-winning goals in Games 3 and 4 of the first round series against the Chicago Blackhawks. The Coyotes would go on to a franchise-record-setting playoff run to the Western Conference Finals, where the team ultimately lost to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Los Angeles Kings in five games. Bødker scored four goals and four assists during the Coyotes' playoff run. On 15 October 2014, Bødker, scored his first career NHL hat-trick against the Edmonton Oilers to lead the Coyotes to the 7–4 victory.  Following the 2014–15 NHL season Bødker became a restricted free agent under the NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement. The Arizona Coyotes made him a qualifying offer to retain his NHL rights and, on 5 July 2015, Bødker filed for Salary Arbitration.  In the 2015–16 season Bødker became the first player ever to record two hat tricks in one season against the Ottawa Senators. His first came against the Senators in Ottawa on 24 October 2015 in a 4–1 win. His second hat trick against the Senators came on 28 November 2015 in Arizona in a 4–3 win.  On 29 February 2016, Bødker was traded to the Colorado Avalanche in exchange for Alex Tanguay, Conner Bleackley and prospect Kyle Wood, to assist the Avalanche in their playoff pursuit. Ultimately though, Colorado would not qualify for the post-season.  With the Avalanche unable to come to terms with Bødker, he left as a free agent in the off-season in signing a four-year $16 million contract with Stanley Cup finalists, the San Jose Sharks on 1 July 2016.  On 19 June 2018, he was traded by the Sharks alongside Julius Bergman and a sixth-round pick of the 2020 NHL Entry Draft to the Ottawa Senators in exchange for Mike Hoffman, Cody Donaghey and a fifth-round pick in the 2020 Draft.  On May 19, 2020, Bødker agreed to a two-year deal with HC Lugano of the National League (NL), beginning in the 2020–21 season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Bødker's older brother Mads is a former defenceman with SønderjyskE Ishockey in the Danish league Metal Ligaen and a regular player with the Danish national team. The two brothers teamed up on the Danish junior national team at the 2007 Division I World Junior Championships and helped Denmark gain promotion to the top division for the first time. Playing against opponents up to two years older, Mikkel Bødker scored one goal in five games.  Bødker again played for Denmark at the 2008 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. He finished second in team scoring behind Lars Eller, notching two goals and four assists in six games.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mikkel Bødker (surname alternately spelled Boedker; born 16 December 1989), is a Danish professional ice hockey right winger currently playing for HC Lugano of the National League (NL). He was selected eighth overall by the Phoenix Coyotes in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft, making him the highest-ever drafted Danish player. He also features on the cover of the video game \"NHL 10\" in Denmark and Norway.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976550}
{"src_title": "Zvečan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The town of Zvečan is located near Mitrovica. It was mentioned for the first time in connection with the border clashes between the Serbs and Byzantines between 1091 and 1094. There is also an inscription that Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja, after the victory over the Byzantines in 1170, ordered that a prayer for the successful outcome of the battle be held in the church of St George at Zvečan.  In the 13th and 14th centuries Zvečan was one of the royal residences of the Serbian court. Queen Theodora died there in December 1322, and nine years later her husband, Stefan Uroš III was imprisoned and strangled there.  First, the Musić, then the Vojinović noble family, held the fortified city and region during the Serbian Empire of Uroš V (r. 1355–1371). As imperial power collapsed Zvečan was in a disputed zone being held by Miloš Pović in 1370 but claimed by Nikola Altomanović.  In 1389, after the Battle of Kosovo, it was integrated into the Ottoman Empire and later became part of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar.  From 1878 to 1908 it, along with the rest of the Sanjak, was administered by the Austro-Hungarian Empire as a result of the Congress of Berlin. But in 1908 it was returned to Turkey.  On the highest spot, i.e., the Upper Town, there are remains of St George's church, cistern and the main octagonal tower. The ramparts of this part of the fort are reinforced by massive towers. The main entrance to the town was on the western side.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "According to the 2011 estimations by the Government of Kosovo, Zubin Potok has 1,838 households and 7,481 inhabitants. In 2015 report by OSCE, the population of Zvečan municipality stands at 16,650 inhabitants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnic groups.", "content": "The majority of Zvečan municipality is composed of Kosovo Serbs with around 16,000 inhabitants (95.1%). Also, there are 500 Kosovo Albanians and 300 inhabitants of other ethnicity. About 3,750 Kosovo Serbs are located in the municipality as Internally displaced persons (IDPs) as well as 250 refugees from Croatia. Most of Kosovo Albanians live in the villages of Boletin (Boljetin), Lipë (Lipa) and Zhazhë (Žaža).  The ethnic composition of the municipality of Zvečan, including IDPs:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The largest employer in Zvečan is the lead and zinc melting factory “Trepča”. Its large smokestack is with 306 meters the tallest structure in Kosovo. Due to the serious environmental pollution from the factory, however, UN and KFOR shut it down and the only ongoing operation is alloy production for batteries and battery recycling. Once employing up to 4,000, the very low operations of “Trepča” has had a devastating effect on the local economy. Today, in the municipality only about 500 people are working at 60 small private companies and 150 shops.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture and education.", "content": "The Faculty of Arts, part of the University of Priština at Mitrovica, is situated at Zvečan.  Zvečan has hosted annually two international music festivals: The \"North City, Jazz & Blues Festival\", and international rock festival \"Overdrive\", as well as international art colony \"Sokolica\" and children song festival \"Cvrkuti sa Ibra\" (\"Chirrups from the Ibar River\").  The Zvečan Fortress and Sokolica Monastery, both from the Middle Ages, have been located in the Zvečan area.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zvečan () or Zveçan (), is a town and municipality located in the Mitrovica District in Kosovo. As of 2015, it has a population of 16,650 inhabitants. It covers an area of, and consists of a town and 35 villages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976551}
{"src_title": "Fridtjof Nansen-class frigate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The frigates were originally intended as a replacement for the aging s, with a primary focus on anti-submarine warfare (ASW). Eventually, the need for a robust anti-aircraft defense as well as the possibility of incorporating the Naval Strike Missile surface-to-surface missile produced by Norwegian company Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace led to a more multi-role design. The selection of Navantia as prime contractor led to the design being very similar to the Spanish Navy's s, including the incorporation of Lockheed Martin's AEGIS combat system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Improvements.", "content": "The \"Fridtjof Nansen\"-class frigates are larger, and have more personnel and equipment than the \"Oslo\"-class frigates. Compared to the \"Oslo\"-class vessels, the new vessels are 35 meters longer, nine meters taller and two meters deeper below water. They are also five meters broader and have three times the water displacement of the old ships. The frigates also operates six new NFH NH90 helicopters, with the role as an extended \"arm\" of the frigates' ASW and ASuW capabilities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service history.", "content": "On 26 February 2009, the Norwegian government decided to deploy \"Fridtjof Nansen\" to the Gulf of Aden, thereby participating in the ongoing Operation Atalanta, the European Union's counter-piracy campaign in Somalia. \"Fridtjof Nansen\" joined the campaign in August 2009.  \"Fridtjof Nansen\"s engagement in Operation Atalanta was carried out without a permanently stationed helicopter. Mainly due to delays in delivery of the new NH-90, the ship was equipped with two fast RHIBs for its onboard contingent of maritime special operations forces (Marinejegerkommandoen).  In November 2009 she became involved in a firefight with suspected pirates after being attacked while inspecting a fishing vessel.  In December 2013 HNoMS \"Helge Ingstad\" and the Danish support ship were sent to the Syrian port of Latakia to escort the Norwegian registered RoRo cargo ship and the Danish cargo ship, which transported Syrian chemical weapons to Italy where they were handed over to a United States Navy ship for destruction in international waters.  In 2018, while returning from participation in Exercise \"Trident Juncture\", \"Helge Ingstad\" was involved in a collision with a Maltese-registered oil tanker, \"Sola TS\", that severely damaged the frigate and caused a severe list that placed it in serious danger of sinking in spite of its position. The frigate was successfully beached to prevent it sinking and allow the crew to be evacuated. In the early hours of 13 November the vessel partially sank with only smaller sections of the superstructure remaining above water. The vessel was recovered but with the cost of repair prohibitive it has been decommissioned and will be scrapped.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ships in class.", "content": "The ships are named after explorers Fridtjof Nansen, Roald Amundsen, Otto Sverdrup, Helge Ingstad and Thor Heyerdahl.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Fridtjof Nansen\"-class frigates are a class of frigates that are the main surface combatant units of the Royal Norwegian Navy. The ships are named after famous, with the lead ship of the class bearing the name of Fridtjof Nansen, the Norwegian scientist, explorer and humanitarian. Five ships were ordered from Spanish shipbuilder Bazan (now Navantia). The total projected cost for all five ships is (about USD ). As of November 2018, four are in active service and one has sunk and has been decommissioned.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976552}
{"src_title": "Urban Terror", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"Urban Terror\" started out in 1998 as a planned map pack for \"Quake III Arena\", in which real world environments would be featured. It expanded from this idea to a full total conversion featuring realistic weapons and gameplay similar to \"Action Quake 2\". Development group \"Silicon Ice Development\" was formed in spring 2000 and was made of several international developers, many whom were familiar with modifying Quake III Engine games; hence progress was made quickly. When its first version, beta 1.0, was released at QuakeCon 2000, \"Urban Terror\" was the realism mod with the most features and graphics completed.  Frozensand began development on Urban Terror HD in 2009 and was set to release an alpha version in 2010 but soon abandoned the project and switched engines from idtech3 to Unreal Engine 4 due to licensing complications of idtech3.  The most recent version, 4.3.4, was released on June 21, 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Urban Terror\" is billed by FrozenSand as a \"Hollywood tactical shooter.\" It blends elements from games such as \"Quake III Arena\", \"Unreal Tournament\" and \"Counter-Strike\". The realism in the mod is introduced through a number of changes: The number of weapons and other gear that can be carried is limited. Damage is also more realistic than in \"Quake III Arena\", based on dividing the player target into discrete areas.  Numerous game modes are featured, including classic first-person shooter modes such as Team Deathmatch, Capture the Flag, and Last Man Standing. Additionally, \"Urban Terror\" has a nonviolent \"jump mode,\" in which players utilize the game's unique mechanics to progress through movement-based \"jump maps\" of varying difficulties.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Urban Terror is a freeware multiplayer first-person shooter video game developed by FrozenSand. Originally a total conversion of id Software's \"Quake III Arena\", FrozenSand released \"Urban Terror\" as a free standalone game in 2007 utilizing ioquake3 as a game engine. While the game engine is licensed under the open-source GPL, \"Urban Terror\"'s game code is closed source and its assets are freeware but not open content.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976553}
{"src_title": "Turkana Boy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Adolescence and maturity.", "content": "Although the specimen is largely considered male due to the shape of the pelvis, the sex is ultimately indeterminate due to its prepubescent age. Estimates of the age at death depend on whether the maturity stage of the teeth or skeleton is used, and whether that maturity is compared to that of modern humans or to chimpanzees. A key factor is that, while modern humans have a marked adolescent growth spurt, chimpanzees do not. While initial research assumed a modern human type of growth, more recent evidence from other fossils suggests this was less present in early \"Homo\". This affects the estimation of both the age and the likely stature of the specimen as a fully grown adult.  Alan Walker and Richard Leakey in 1993 estimated the boy to have been about 11–12 years old based on known rates of bone maturity. Walker and Leakey (1993) said that dental dating often gives a younger age than a person's actual age.  Christopher Dean (M. C. Dean) of University College London, in a \"Nova\" special, estimated that the Turkana Boy was 8 years old at death.  Ronda Graves and colleagues in 2010 concluded that he would \"have grown an additional five to 14 cm before reaching adulthood\" and that \"if, at death, he was eight to ten years of age, [he would have been] tall, and growing faster than a modern human but slower than a chimpanzee. According to this scenario, KNM-WT 15000 would have attained an adult stature ranging between and.\" Moreover, that \"according to our preferred models of growth and development, [his] growth in stature [would have been] completed by 12 years of age (4 years after death), so that the majority of growth has already occurred\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "The specimen comprises 108 bones, making it the most complete early human skeleton discovered. The skeleton is about tall. In adulthood, Turkana Boy might have reached tall and massed. The pelvis is narrower than in \"Homo sapiens\", which is most likely for more efficient upright walking. This further indicates a fully terrestrial bipedalism, which is unlike older hominin species that show a combined feature of bipedalism and tree climbing. The Boy was relatively tall, which increased his body surface area that would enhance heat dissipation and prevent heat stress under the hot sun.  The overall KNM-WT 15000 skeleton still had features (such as a low sloping forehead, strong brow ridges, and the absence of a chin) not seen in \"H. sapiens\". However, there are significant defining characters, such as bigger brain size (880 cc). The arms and legs are slightly longer indicating effective bipedality. The nose is projecting like those of humans rather than the open flat nose seen in apes. Body hair may also have been thinner (most likely naked) and possibly with increased sweat glands to hasten cooling. The skin also was most probably much darker with abundant melanin, as it was necessary to cope with the direct tropical sun rays in the African savannah.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vocal capabilities.", "content": "The fossil skeleton and other fossil evidence, such as Acheulean stone tools, prompt the majority of scientists to conclude that \"Homo ergaster\" and \"Homo erectus\" – unlike their more primitive ancestors – became efficient hunters. The social structure would probably have become more complex with a larger brain volume; the Broca's area of the brain allows speech and is noted by a slight slant on the cranium. Turkana Boy's thoracic vertebrae are narrower than in \"Homo sapiens\". This would have allowed him less motor control over the thoracic muscles that are used in modern humans to modify respiration to enable the sequencing upon single exhalations of complex vocalisations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disease.", "content": "It was suspected that Turkana Boy suffered from a congenital disorder, either of dwarfism or scoliosis. This was because the rib bones appeared asymmetrical to the spine and the reason was attributed to skeletal dysplasia. However, in 2013, a study showed that when the rib bones were carefully rearranged, they became symmetrical against the spine, and that an unusual structure of the vertebrae was characteristic of the early hominins. However, the fossil definitely showed lumbar disc herniation, an injury implicated with the specimen's death. The specimen also had a diseased mandible.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Turkana Boy, also called Nariokotome Boy, is the name given to fossil KNM-WT 15000, a nearly complete skeleton of a \"Homo ergaster\" (alternatively referred to as African \"Homo erectus\") youth who lived at c. 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago. This specimen is the most complete early human skeleton ever found. It was discovered in 1984 by Kamoya Kimeu on the bank of the Nariokotome River near Lake Turkana in Kenya.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976554}
{"src_title": "That Obscure Object of Desire", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "A dysfunctional and sometimes violent romance happens between Mathieu (Fernando Rey), a middle-aged, wealthy Frenchman, and a young, impoverished, and beautiful flamenco dancer from Seville, Conchita, played by Carole Bouquet and Ángela Molina. The two actresses each appear unpredictably in separate scenes, and differ not only physically, but temperamentally as well.  Most of the film is a flashback recalled by Mathieu. The movie opens with Mathieu travelling by train from Seville to Paris. He is trying to distance himself from his young girlfriend Conchita. As Mathieu's train is ready to depart, he finds that a bruised and bandaged Conchita is pursuing him. From the train he pours a bucket of water over her head. He believes this will deter her, but she sneaks aboard.  Mathieu's fellow compartment passengers witness his rude act. These include a mother and her young daughter, a judge who is coincidentally a friend of Mathieu's cousin, and a psychologist who is a dwarf. They inquire about his motivation for such an act, and he then explains the history of his tumultuous relationship with Conchita. The story is set against a backdrop of terrorist bombings and shootings by left-wing groups.  Conchita, who claims to be 18 but looks older, has vowed to remain a virgin until marriage. She tantalizes Mathieu with sexual promises, but never allows him to satisfy his sexual desire. At one point she goes to bed with him wearing a tightly laced canvas corset, which he cannot untie, making it impossible to have sexual intercourse. Conchita's antics cause the couple to break up and reunite repeatedly, each time frustrating and confusing Mathieu.  Eventually, Mathieu finds Conchita dancing nude for tourists in a Seville nightclub. At first he becomes enraged. Later, however, he forgives her and buys her a house. In a climactic scene, soon after moving into the house, Conchita refuses to let Mathieu in at the gate, tells him that she hates him, and that kissing and touching him make her sick. Then, to prove her independence, she appears to initiate sexual intercourse with a young man in plain view of Mathieu, although he walks away without witnessing the act. Later that night he is held up at gunpoint as his car is hijacked.  After this, Conchita attempts to reconcile with Mathieu, insisting that the sex was fake and that her \"lover\" is in reality a homosexual friend. However, during her explanation, Mathieu beats her (she then says \"Now I'm sure you love me\"), causing her bandaged and bruised state seen earlier in the film.  Just as the fellow train passengers seem satisfied with this story, Conchita reappears from hiding and dumps a bucket of water on Mathieu. However, the couple apparently reconcile yet again when the train reaches its destination. After leaving the train, they walk arm in arm, enjoying the streets of Madrid.  Later in a mall in Paris, loudspeakers announce that a strange alliance of extremist groups intends to sow chaos and confusion in society through terrorist attacks. The announcement adds that several right-wing groups plan to counter-attack. As the couple continues their walk, they pass a seamstress in a shop window mending a bloody nightgown. They begin arguing just as a bomb explodes, apparently claiming their lives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casting.", "content": "\"That Obscure Object of Desire\" is most notable for its use of two actresses, Carole Bouquet and Ángela Molina, in the single role of Conchita; the actresses switch roles in alternate scenes and sometimes even in the middle of scenes. In his autobiography, \"My Last Sigh\" (1983), Buñuel explains (pp. 46–47) the decision to use two actresses to play Conchita:  The book does not identify the actress who had caused the \"tempestuous argument,\" though Buñuel makes it clear (p. 250) that she was neither Carole Bouquet nor Angela Molina.  In \"Luis Buñuel: The Complete Films\" (2005), editors Bill Krohn and Paul Duncan identify the actress as Maria Schneider, writing (pp. 177–78) the following in regard to the idea of using two actresses to play Conchita:  Specifically regarding Buñuel's employment of two actresses to play a single character, most critics were charmed, as exemplified by then New York Times film critic Vincent Canby's review, \"Conchita is so changeable that Buñuel has cast two lovely new actresses to play her—Carole Bouquet, who looks a little like a young Rita Hayworth, as the coolly enigmatic Conchita, and Angela Molina as the earthy, flamenco-dancing Conchita [...] the Conchita who goes into the bathroom to change, changes not only her clothes. Miss Bouquet goes in but Miss Molina comes out. [...] Miss Bouquet and Miss Molina are enchanting — I don't think Buñuel has ever before been so successful with neophyte actresses.\"  Other films that employ two or more actors to perform a single character include Todd Solondz's \"Palindromes\", wherein eight different actors of different ages, races, and genders play a 13-year-old girl named Aviva during the course of the film; Terry Gilliam's \"The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus\", where similarly a production issue - in this case the death of Heath Ledger during production - led to Johnny Depp, Colin Farrell and Jude Law stepping in to play his character's 'imaginary world' scenes; and Canadian filmmaker B. P. Paquette's \"Perspective\", wherein each of the three lead actors continually rotate the three characters they play, not only within the same scene, but sometimes during the same dialogue exchange.  Also of note is Spanish actor Fernando Rey who frequently worked with Buñuel in his later years. He plays Mathieu, but his voice is dubbed by the French actor Michel Piccoli.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Responses.", "content": "The film was not financially successful, but it became a critical favorite, garnering Best Foreign Language Film nominations at both the Golden Globe Awards and the Academy Awards (where it was also nominated for Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium) but failing to win at either. The critics associations were slightly more generous, with the National Board of Review and the Los Angeles Film Critics Association both giving it the Best Foreign Language Film awards in 1977. Luis Buñuel won Best Director at the National Board of Review and National Society of Film Critics awards. He was also nominated at the French César Awards.  Many contemporary critics have declared the film a masterpiece. The film holds a 100% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 8.96/10 among 29 critics. The site's consensus reads: \"\"That Obscure Object of Desire\" is a frequently unsettling treatise on the quixotic nature of lust and love\". In the British Film Institute's 2012 \"Sight & Sound\" poll, three critics and two directors ranked it one of the ten greatest films ever made.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "That Obscure Object of Desire (; ) is a 1977 comedy-drama film directed by Luis Buñuel, based on the 1898 novel \"The Woman and the Puppet\" by Pierre Louÿs. It was Buñuel's final directorial effort before his death in July 1983. Set in Spain and France against the backdrop of a terrorist insurgency, the film conveys the story told through a series of flashbacks by an aging Frenchman, Mathieu (played by Fernando Rey), who recounts falling in love with a beautiful young Spanish woman, Conchita (played interchangeably by two actresses, Carole Bouquet and Ángela Molina), who repeatedly frustrates his romantic and sexual desires.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976555}
{"src_title": "Archduke Joseph August of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "August was born at Alcsút, Kingdom of Hungary. On 15 November 1893, in Munich, he married Princess Augusta Maria Louise of Bavaria (1877–1964), daughter of Prince Leopold of Bavaria (1846–1930) and his wife Archduchess Gisela of Austria (1856–1932).  Archduke Joseph August became thus from 1893 \"grandson-in-law\" to Emperor Francis Joseph. His wife's mother, Archduchess Gisela, was the eldest surviving daughter of Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph and Empress Elisabeth (\"Sisi\"). The young couple's children were born in their great-grandfather's lifetime.  They had six children:  Joseph August began his military career in 1890 when he was commissioned into the 1st Infantry Regiment as a Leutnant. He was soon promoted to Oberleutnant and was transferred to 72nd Infantry Regiment in 1893. He was transferred to Dragoon Regiment #6 in 1894 and then transferred to the 1st Honvéd Hussars by the Kaiser and promoted to the rank of Major. He took command of this regiment in 1904 and then went on to command 79th Honvéd infantry brigade in 1908 then finally the 31st infantry division at Budapest in 1911.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "August was highly decorated before World War I broke out. Some of his awards include The Bronze Military Merit Medal, Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Joseph, The Marianer Cross of the Deutscher Ritterorden, The Order of the Black Eagle, The 1st Class of the Order of the Red Eagle, The Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, the Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, and the Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Cyril and Methodius.  In 1914 he was involved in combat in the Galician theatre and took command of the VII Corps and was involved in fighting in the Carpathian Mountains. After Italy became involved in the war he was transferred to the Carinthian border and involved in fighting the Isonzo army. August remained on this front until the 9th battle of the Isonzo in 1916 a period in which once again he was highly decorated. August was highly liked by his troops, especially those of Hungarian nationality.  In November 1916, August was put in command of the Heeresfront fighting against Russian and Romanian forces. In January 1918 he was put in command of the 6th Army in the Southern theatre and that July took over the South Tyrolean Army Group, which was the 10th and 11th Armies. Finally, on 26 October 1918, he was sent to the Balkan theatre to take command of the Heeresgruppe Kövess, which had lost Serbia, Albania and Montenegro by then. He was the last person to be appointed a \"Feldmarschall\" (Field Marshal) of the Austro-Hungarian Army on 24 October 1918, as an attempt by his cousin, Emperor Karl, to calm Hungarian nationalists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post war.", "content": "On 27 October 1918 Emperor Karl made August the \"Homo Regius\" of Hungary, but August asked to be released from his oath of allegiance from the Kaiser. He then began negotiations and appointed Graf János Hadik to build a new national government. However the Aster Revolution broke out on 31 October 1918, deterring his plans. In November, the socialist Hungarian Democratic Republic was proclaimed, only to be replaced a few months later by the communist Hungarian Soviet Republic. This revolution was to fail: the popular August survived unharmed, and on 7 August became head of state of Hungary once again, officially as regent \"(Reichsverweser)\" for Karl. He appointed István Friedrich as Prime Minister. When it became apparent that the Allies would not recognize a Habsburg as Hungary's head of state, the archduke was forced to resign on 23 August 1919. In 1920 the Archduke became the first knight of the Hungarian Order of Vitéz, in 1927 he became a member of the newly established House of Lords. He later became an honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and was its president from 1936-1944. He fled Hungary for the United States in 1944 but later returned to Germany. He died in 1962 at Rain near Straubing.  His eldest son Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria had predeceased him, dying in 1957.  Thus Joseph August's main heir was his eldest grandson Archduke Joseph Árpád of Austria (1933-2017), the eldest son of Joseph Francis and his wife Princess Anna of Saxony. Joseph Árpád married Princess Maria of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg, and had children in Joseph August's lifetime. His surviving eldest son is Archduke Joseph Karl (born 1960).  Joseph August's granddaughter Archduchess Ilona of Austria (b. 1927) married George Alexander, Duke of Mecklenburg. Her son George Borwin, Duke of Mecklenburg is the current head of the House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduke Joseph August Viktor Klemens Maria of Austria, Prince of Hungary and Bohemia (9 August 1872 – 6 July 1962) was a \"Feldmarschall\" (Field Marshal) of the Austro-Hungarian Army and for a short period head of state of Hungary. He was a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, the eldest son of Archduke Joseph Karl of Austria (1833–1905) and his wife Princess Clotilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1846–1927). Joseph August's grandfather had been Palatine Joseph of Hungary (1776–1847), Palatine and Viceroy of Hungary, a younger son of Emperor Leopold II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976556}
{"src_title": "Languedoc-Roussillon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Toponymy.", "content": "The first part of the name of the province of Languedoc-Roussillon comes from the French (\"language of \"). In southern France, the word for \"yes\" was the Occitan language word. Prior to the 16th century, the central area of France was referred to as, there the word for \"yes\" was in Old French, later becoming. These old place names referred to the areas where Occitan and Old French were spoken. The Edict of Villers-Cotterets made French the official national language in 1539. Roussillon was the name of the medieval County of Roussillon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The region is made up of the following historical provinces:  Llívia is a town of Cerdanya, province of Girona, Catalonia, Spain, that forms a Spanish exclave surrounded by French territory (department of Pyrénées-Orientales).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "At the regional elections in March 2004, the socialist mayor of Montpellier Georges Frêche, defeated its center-right president. Since then, Georges Frêche has embarked on a complete overhaul of the region and its institutions. The flag of the region, which displayed the cross of Languedoc as well as the Flag of Roussillon (the \"Senyera\"), was changed for a new flag with no reference to the old provinces, except in terms of the colors (red and yellow), which are the colors of both Languedoc and all the territories from the former Crown of Aragon.  Georges Frêche also wanted to change the name of the region, wishing to erase its duality (Languedoc vs. Roussillon) and strengthen its unity. Thus, he wanted to rename the region \"Septimanie\" (Septimania). Septimania was the name created by the Romans at the end of the Roman Empire for the coastal area corresponding quite well to present day Languedoc-Roussillon (including Roussillon, but not including Gévaudan), and used in the early Middle Ages for the area. This name, however, has not been in use since the 9th century, and it sounded quite odd to French people. Strong opposition of the population led to Georges Frêche giving up on his idea. He declared that he still believed in it but could not go ahead without a mandate.  Catalan nationalists in Roussillon would like the Pyrénées-Orientales department to secede from Languedoc-Roussillon and become a region in its own right, under the proposed name of \"Catalunya Nord\" (Northern Catalonia), as part of the Països Catalans (Catalan Countries), a new country. This idea has minimal popular support.  On the other hand, there are some who would like to merge the Languedoc-Roussillon and Midi-Pyrénées regions, thus reunifying the old province of Languedoc, and creating a large region. It seems probable that Georges Frêche, with his idea of a \"Septimanie\" region, would not support such plans, although political leaders in Béziers, Narbonne, and especially Nîmes, would probably support such a merger, hostile as they are to Montpellier, which was chosen as the capital of Languedoc-Roussillon instead of their own city, and which they accuse of hegemony.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language.", "content": "Prior to the 20th century, Occitan was the language spoken in Languedoc, and Catalan was the language spoken in Roussillon. Both have been under pressure from French. In 2004, research conducted by the Government of Catalonia showed that 65% of adults over the age of 15 in Roussilon could understand Catalan whereas 37% stated they were able to speak it.  In recent years there have been attempts at reviving of both languages, including Catalan-medium schooling through the La Bressola schools.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "Occitan literature – still sometimes called Provençal literature – is a body of texts written in Occitan in what is nowadays the South of France. It originated in the poetry of the eleventh- and twelfth- century troubadours, and inspired the rise of vernacular literature throughout medieval Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Aimeric de Peguilhan, Giraut de Bornelh and Bertran de Born were major influences in troubadour composition, in the High Middle Ages. The troubadour tradition is considered to have originated in the region.  The Romantic music composer Déodat de Séverac was born in the region, and, following his schooling in Paris, returned to the region to compose. He sought to incorporate the music indigenous to the area in his compositions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wine.", "content": "The Languedoc-Roussillon region is dominated by of vineyards, three times the combined area of the vineyards in Bordeaux and the region has been an important winemaking centre for several centuries. Grapevines are said to have existed in the South of France since the Pliocene period - before the existence of \"Homo sapiens\". The first vineyards of Gaul developed around two towns: Béziers and Narbonne. The Mediterranean climate and plentiful land with soil ranging from rocky sand to thick clay was very suitable for the production of wine, and it is estimated that one in ten bottles of the world's wine was produced in this region during the 20th century (Robinson 1999:395). Despite this enormous quantity, the area's significance was often overlooked by scholarly publications and commercial journals, largely because very little of the wine being produced was classified under an appellation contrôlée until the 1980s (Joseph 2005:190).  Several entrepreneurs such as Robert Skalli and James Herrick drastically changed the face of the region, planting more commercially viable grape varieties and pushing for new AOC classifications. While the AOC system has origins in the 15th century, the Languedoc-Roussillon has some appellations like the Cabardès which have existed by law only since 1999 (Joseph 2005:190).  The region is the largest contributor to the European Union's glut (dominance of supply over demand) of wine known as the wine lake.  The Languedoc-Roussillon region has adopted a marque to help market its products, in particular, but not limited to, wine. The \" 'Sud de France' \"(\"Southern France\") marque was adopted in 2006 to help customers abroad not familiar with the Appellation system to recognise those wines that originated in the L-R area, but the marque is also used for other products, including cheeses, olive oils and pies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "Languedoc-Roussillon has been a major centre of Rugby league in France since the sport was introduced to the country in the 1930s. The region is also home of the rugby union teams AS Béziers Hérault, RC Narbonne and USA Perpignan.  Montpellier is home to Montpellier HSC, which was founded in 1974 and plays in the Ligue 1, the French top division. It won the French Championship after the 2011/12 season. Home matches are played at the Stade La Mosson, named after the area where it is located, with a capacity of 31,250. It was built in 1998.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Languedoc-Roussillon (; ; ) is a former administrative region of France. On 1 January 2016, it joined with the region of Midi-Pyrénées to become Occitanie. It comprises five departments, and borders the other French regions of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Rhône-Alpes, Auvergne, Midi-Pyrénées on the one side, and Spain, Andorra and the Mediterranean Sea on the other side. It is the southernmost region of mainland France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976557}
{"src_title": "Théâtre de la Gaîté (rue Papin)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "19th century.", "content": "Jacques Offenbach was the director of the Théâtre de la Gaîté from 1873 to 1874. His opéra-bouffe-féerie \"Le roi Carotte\" was first performed here in 1872 and his \"opéra-féerie\" \"Le voyage dans la lune\" in 1875. The opera \"Le timbre d'argent\" by Camille Saint-Saëns was premiered here in 1877, at which time the theatre was briefly known as the Théâtre National Lyrique.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "20th century.", "content": "Serge Diaghilev's Ballets Russes danced at the theatre in 1921, 1923, and 1925. The 1921 performances included the ballerina Lydia Lopokova in the title role of Igor Stravinsky's \"The Firebird\", and the company gave premieres of Prokofiev's \"Chout\" (17 May 1921) and Stravinsky's \"Les noces\" (13 June 1923).  Beginning on 15 November 1932 Franz Lehár's \"The Land of Smiles\" was first performed in France. It was given in a French adaptation by André Mauprey and Jean Marietti with the title \"Le pays du sourire\". The Dutch tenor Willy Thunis, who did not speak a word of French, sang Sou-Chong. The production received its 1,000th performance on 17 April 1939.  During the Second World War, the theatre was looted during the occupation. The large chandelier installed by Offenbach disappeared, as well the Emperor's golden coach, which had been stored in the service quarters.  After the war Henri Montjoye (né Barbero) took over the theatre, and after his death in 1950, his widow, the soprano Germaine Roger, became the theatre's director. Numerous successes were put on. The 2-act operetta \"Andalousie\" by Albert Willemetz and with music by had a 12-month run that began on 25 October 1947. The 2-act \"Colorado\" by Claude Dufresne, billed as an \"opérette à grand spectacle\" with music by Jacques-Henry Rys and lyrics by, starred the bass Armand Mestral (who alternated with Michel Dens) in the role of Jim Bullit, the tenor Lou Pizzara as Ricardo Diaz, the soprano Claude Chenard as Katharina Sanders, and Maurice Baquet as the little saloon pianist. The show opened on 16 December 1950 and ran for 11 months. It was revived at the theatre beginning on 12 February 1959 with Mestral and Baquet reprising their roles and Bernard Alvi as Ricardo and Andrée Grandjean as Katharina. It later went on tour and received provincial productions up into the 1990s. \"Visa pour l'amour\", a vehicle for two of Paris's biggest musical comedy stars, the tenor Luis Mariano and the comedian Annie Cordy, was a 2-act \"opérette gaie\" with music by Lopez and a book by Vincy. It premiered in December 1961 and received around 600 performances.  In the 1970s the \"Carré Silvia-Monfort\" presented contemporary theatre, and some singers and a circus school, the Cirque Gruss, who offered their spectacles in the facing square, based themselves here for a time, and converted the attic of the theatre into stables for elephants.  In the early 1980s the dome of the main auditorium was threatening to collapse and was reinforced with concrete. In 1989 much of the theatre was demolished and transformed into an amusement park,, by Jean Chalopin. The main auditorium, originally holding 1800, and the orchestra pit, apparently large enough for 60 musicians, were among the parts of the building lost at this time. The venture was a failure and closed in 1991. Manuelle Gautrand, the architect who was in charge of the later restoration of the surviving parts of the theatre as well as the reconstruction and modernization of the demolished interior spaces, described the scene as follows: \"The historical foyer and the lobby had been stripped of their original style and had been redecorated with vulgar colors and statues\", and the amusement park itself was \"an incredible accumulation of monumental sets, combining pieced together dragons, rockets from the 80s, the world of Barbie, treasure hunts among the Incas.... A sort of 'low tech Disneyland' in the centre of Paris\".  In December 2003 restoration work began, and in December 2010 La Gaîté Lyrique was re-opened as a digital arts and modern music centre.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In 1862 during Haussmann's modernization of Paris the Théâtre de la Gaîté of the boulevard du Temple was relocated to the rue Papin across from the Square des Arts et Métiers. The new theatre, built in an Italian style to designs of the architects Jacques-Ignace Hittorff and Alphonse Cusin, opened on 3 September.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976558}
{"src_title": "City walls of Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gaulish enclosure.", "content": "Before its occupation by the Romans, Lutetia lacked proper defenses and was therefore partially demolished at the beginning of the Roman occupation. The first wall of Paris was probably built by the Gauls on the river Seine, although its exact location is unknown. In his \"Commentaries on the Gallic War\", Julius Caesar wrote: \"\"Id est oppidum Parisiorum, quod positum est in insula fluminis Sequanae\"\", indicating that Lutetia (former name of Paris, the town of the tribe of Parisii) was a fortified camp on an island. The relationship between this island and the Île de la Cité has not been demonstrated, and excavations have not uncovered anything earlier than Augustus. This is also unclear due to the discovery in 2003 of the remains of a city on a site now occupied by Nanterre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallo-Roman wall.", "content": "Lutetia developed on the left bank of the Seine during Roman times, and to a lesser extent on the Île de la Cité. The right bank was uninhabitable mostly due to marshes. During the first barbarian invasions in 285, the people of Lutetia abandoned the left bank and took refuge on the Île de la Cité and destroyed the bridges. The eastern half of the island was protected by a wall, constructed of rocks collected from the Arènes de Lutèce.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First medieval wall.", "content": "Traces of an enclosure at the corner of the rue de l'Arbre-Sec and the rue de Rivoli were discovered in 2009 during excavations made by (INRAP), the French National Institute for Preventive Archaeological Research. This confirmed the probable existence of an enclosure around the centre of Paris on the right bank around the tenth century. This is most likely the result of a Viking siege in 885 and was constructed by either Odo of France, or Robert I of France. The fortification had a 12 by 3 meter wide ditch and was likely to have been supported by a wooden fence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wall of Philippe Auguste.", "content": "The Wall of Philippe Auguste was built between 1190 and 1213, enclosing 253 hectares on both sides of the river Seine. Many elements were later incorporated into private buildings or into the Wall of Charles V. Paris grew very fast during this period and soon extended from the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève to the roads leading to the abbey of Saint-Denis. A new wall was thus begun in 1190, on the order of Philip Augustus, but paid for by the city. This new wall was eight feet thick, protected by wide and deep ditches, and had five hundred towers.  It ran from the current location of the Pont des Arts, approached the porte Saint-Honoré, opened at the porte Coquillière, reached the porte Saint-Denis, porte Mauconseil, porte Babette, came to rue Vielle-du-Temple, the rue des Francs-Bourgeois, to the porte Baudoyer and the quai des Célestins. On the south side this wall picked up at the Palais de la Tournelle, opened at the porte Saint-Victor, porte Bordet, porte Saint-Jacques, Porte Saint-Michel, porte des Corderliers, near the cour de la Commerce, the porte de Buci, and ended at the Tour de Nesle, the Nesle tower.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wall of Charles V.", "content": "The Wall of Charles V was built from 1356 to 1383, during the reign of Charles V and his son and successor Charles VI. The area enclosed on the right bank increased and included the mansions of the Marais and the Templar enclosure. The area enclosed on the left bank remained the same as with the Wall of Philippe Auguste. The new city limits totaled 439 hectares across the two banks. During the construction of the Wall of Louis XIII, this wall was partly incorporated into the new wall and partly destroyed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Louis XIII Wall (also known as the \"yellow ditches wall\").", "content": "The Louis XIII Wall was designed by Jacques Lemercier and built between 1633 and 1636. It enlarged the Charles V Wall over the western part of the right bank (now the First and Second Arrondissements).  From 1670 onwards, Louis XIV believed that as a result of his conquests, Paris had been made a secure city. He ordered the wall destroyed and replaced it with the future grands boulevards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wall of the Farmers-General.", "content": "The Wall of the Farmers-General was built in the years between 1784 and 1791 under the direction of Claude Nicolas Ledoux and at the request of the Ferme Générale. It enclosed 3402 hectares, including the village of Austerlitz which was incorporated into Paris in 1818.  This wall was later replaced by a second belt of boulevards: Charonne, Ménilmontant, Belleville, La Villette, La Chapelle, Clichy, Batignolles, Courcelles, avenue de Wagram and Iena, streets Benjamin Franklin and Alboni, boulevard de Grenelle, Garibaldi, Pasteur, Montparnasse, Edgar Quinet, Raspail, Saint-Jacques, Auguste Blanqui, Vincent Auriol, Bercy and Picpus. Unlike previous walls, the goal of this wall was not to defend Paris, but to force the payment of taxes on goods entering the capital. It was destroyed when Paris was extended up to the Thiers Wall in 1860.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thiers Wall.", "content": "The Thiers Wall was constructed from 1841 to 1844 after a law enacted by Adolphe Thiers. It covered 7802 hectares, along the current-day boulevards des Maréchaux and a glacis extending to the location of today's Boulevard Périphérique. It was demolished between 1919 and 1929.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Walls of Paris (\"enceintes de Paris\" or \"murs de Paris\" in French), refers to the city walls that surrounded Paris as it grew from ancient times until the 20th century, built primarily to defend the city. Several successive city walls were built, with the exception of 1670, when Louis XIV ordered the demolition of the Louis XIII Wall, through 1785, when construction began on the Wall of the Farmers-General. The city walls of Paris include:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976559}
{"src_title": "Otto Förschner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Förschner was born in the town of Dürrenzimmern (today part of Nördlingen), Bavaria on November 4, 1902, and was raised on a farm owned by his family. In 1922, he enlisted in the Reichsheer, and would remain a soldier for the next twelve years. Following his departure from the army in 1934, he became a member of the SS, and was assigned to its military-wing, the \"SS-Verfügungstruppe\", the organization that would eventually become the Waffen-SS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "SS career.", "content": "Between April 1934 and December 1936, Förschner attended the SS training camp at Bad Tölz, and became a member of the Nazi Party in 1937. During the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, he served as an officer with the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking. After being wounded in action and declared medically unfit for combat duty, Förschner was transferred to the SS-Totenkopfverbände, taking over as Schutzhaftlagerführer of the Buchenwald concentration camp in the spring of 1942.  In September 1943, Förschner was given command over the newly built concentration camp of Mittelbau-Dora, which at this time functioned as a sub-camp of the much larger Buchenwald. The purpose of Mittelbau-Dora was to provide slave-laborers from among its inmate population to the nearby V-weapons production facility of Mittelwerk. In addition to his position as commandant at Dora, Förschner was also technically the managing director of Mittelwerk GmbH, the front company created by the German government for V-weapons production. He would hold this post until April 1944, when he was replaced by Georg Rickhey.  Förschner had a contentious relationship with the various Nazi security services (the SD and the Gestapo) that operated in and around Mittelbau-Dora. His leadership was regularly criticized by them as being too \"soft\" on both the camp's prisoners and personnel. Of particular concern for them was Förschner's practice of selecting prisoner functionaries almost exclusively from among the camp's German-Communist inmates. Förschner's reputation in the Nazi party was badly damaged in November 1944, when many of the prisoner functionaries he had appointed were rounded up by the Gestapo and revealed to have been involved in resistance activities inside the camp, most notably the sabotage of V-weapons during the production process. After it was revealed that Förschner had failed to report a bonus payment of 10,000 Reichmarks he had received from Mittelwerk GmbH, he was dismissed as commander of Mittelbau-Dora in February 1945, and replaced by former Auschwitz commandant Richard Baer.  After being relieved of command at Mittelbau-Dora, Förschner was transferred to Dachau, where he served briefly as commandant of the sub-camp of Kaufering.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial and conviction.", "content": "In April 1945, Förschner was taken prisoner by the US Army. He was a defendant in the Dachau concentration camp trial, in which he was indicted for war crimes stemming from his tenure at Kaufering. Namely, Förschner was charged with responsibility for the brutal conditions which prevailed in the camp and his role in the management of prisoner executions.  He was convicted by a US military tribunal and sentenced to death, along with 35 other co-defendants, on December 13, 1945. He was hanged in Landsberg prison on May 28, 1946.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otto Förschner (November 4, 1902 – May 28, 1946) was a German SS commander and a Nazi concentration camp official. He served as commandant of the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp and the Kaufering concentration camp in the Dachau camp system. He was indicted for his crimes, found guilty, and hanged in May 1946.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976560}
{"src_title": "Indian pangolin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Indian pangolin is a solitary, shy, slow-moving, nocturnal mammal. It is about long from head to tail, the tail usually being long, and weighs. Females are generally smaller than the males and have one pair of mammae. The pangolin possesses a cone-shaped head with small, dark eyes, and a long muzzle with a nose pad similar in color, or darker than, its pinkish-brown skin. It has powerful limbs, tipped with sharp, clawed digits. The pangolin has no teeth, but has strong stomach muscles to aid in digestion. The most noticeable characteristic of the pangolin is its massive, scaled armour, which covers its upper face and its whole body with the exception of the belly and the inside of the legs. These protective scales are rigid and made of keratin. It has 160–200 scales in total, about 40–46% of which are located on the tail. Scales are long, wide, and weigh. The skin and scales make up about one-fourth to one-third of the total body mass of this species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The Indian pangolin has been recorded from various forest types, including Sri Lankan rainforest and plains to middle hill levels. The animal can be found in grasslands and secondary forests, and is well adapted to desert regions as it is believed to have a tolerance to dry areas, but prefers more barren, hilly regions. This pangolin species may also sometimes reach high elevations, and has been sighted in Sri Lanka at 1100 meters and in the Nilgiri mountains in India at 2300 meters. It prefers soft and semi-sandy soil conditions suitable for digging burrows.  Pangolin burrows fall into one of two categories: feeding and living burrows. Feeding burrows are smaller than living burrows (though their sizes vary depending on the abundance of prey) and are created more frequently during the spring, when there is a greater availability of prey. Living burrows are wider, deeper, and more circular, and are occupied for a longer time than feeding burrows, as they are mainly used to sleep and rest during the day. After a few months, the pangolin abandons the burrow and digs a new one close to a food source. However, it is not uncommon for the pangolin to shift back to an old burrow.  Unlike its African counterpart, the Indian pangolin does not climb trees, but it does value the presence of trees, herbs, and shrubs in its habitat because it is easier to dig burrows around them. Features that promote an abundance of ants and termites (grasses, bare grounds, bases of trees, shrubs, roots, leaf litter, fallen logs and elephant feces) are often present in pangolin habitats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "The Indian pangolin is nocturnal and mostly active intermittently between 17:00 and 05:00 hr. The peak period of activity was observed between 20:00–21:00 hr in captive individuals with some one individual variation.  In Sri Lankan rainforests, it may be more arboreal, using its claws and prehensile tails as supports to readjust fore legs as they climb. It digs burrows in the ground, at depths of 1.5–6 m; these are frequently under large rocks and the entrance is often hidden with soil. When in danger, it rolls up with its tail pressed tightly against face and belly to help protect itself. Longevity of this animal in captivity can exceed 19 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "The Indian pangolin is an almost exclusive insectivore and principally subsists on ants and termites, which it catches with a specially adapted long, sticky tongue. It is specialised to feed on ants and termites, but also forages for beetles and cockroaches. It feeds on the eggs, larvae, and adults of its prey, but eggs are the preferred choice. In the Potohar region of the Punjab province, the majority of its diet was found to consist of two types of ants, \"Camponotus confuci\" and \"Camponotus compressus\". Other matter such as plant matter, stones, sand, and clay are consumed as well and in concert with strong stomach muscles aid in breaking down the food in the stomach. The Indian pangolin is nocturnal and uses its well-developed sense of smell to locate ant nests or termite mounds and other food sources. Foraging mostly takes place on the ground but may include arboreal ants, as seen in the rainforest canopy of Sri Lanka. Pangolins tear apart and dig into mounds by using the three centre claws on their forefeet, throwing loose soil backwards with their hind feet. When feeding, the rostral part of the pangolin's tongue is quickly inserted and withdrawn to capture prey. This movement is also used for drinking. Red weaver ants (\"Oecophylla smaragdina\") with their eggs are best accepted by the Indian pangolins in captivity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Few details are known about the breeding behaviour of the Indian pangolin. During the animal's mating period, females and males may share the same burrow and show some diurnal activities. Males have testes in a fold of the skin located in their groin areas. The female's embryo develops in one of the uterine horns. The gestation period lasts 65–70 days; the placenta is diffuse and not deciduate. Usually, a single young is born, but twins have been reported in this species. The young weigh 235–400 g at birth and measure roughly 30 cm. The newborn animals have open eyes, and soft scales with protruding hairs between them. The mother pangolin carries her young on her tail. When the mother and young are disturbed, the young pangolin is held against its mother's belly and protected by the mother's tail.  Successful reproduction by Indian pangolins has been reported from several zoos, including Calcutta Zoo, Oklahoma Zoo, and Nandankanan Zoological Park. Pangolins were found to not show any significant morphological changes during pregnancy. Births in captivity have been reported throughout the year except for May and June. At birth a baby pangolin weighed 235 g and measured 30 cm in total length, including 12.5 cm of tail. A three-day-old Indian pangolin born at Oklahoma Zoo measured 310 mm from tip to tip with a 125 mm tail.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "The Indian pangolin is threatened by poaching for its meat and scales, which are used and consumed by local people, but are also increasingly traded internationally. Various parts of the pangolin are valued as sources of food and medicine. The scales are used as an aphrodisiac, or made into rings or charms. The skins are used to manufacture leather goods, including boots and shoes. The majority of hunting is carried out by nomads and trained local hunters. Indian pangolin body parts have been trafficked for consumption in China since at least the early 2000s. Pangolins are the most heavily trafficked protected mammals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The Indian pangolin is listed on CITES Appendix I since January 2017 and is protected in all range countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural significance.", "content": "Within its range it is variously known as \"khawlyaa manjar\" (”खवल्या मांजर\" in Marathi), \"saal khapri\" (Chhattisgarhi), \"bon-rou\" (Assamese: বন-ৰৌ), పొలుశు పంది or నీల చేప (Telugu), \"eenampechi\" (\"ഈനാംപേച്ചി\" in Malayalam), \"azhungu\" or \"alangu\" ('அலங்கு' in Tamil), \"bajrakapta\" ('ବଜ୍ରକାପ୍ତା' in Odia), \"kaballewa\" (Sinhala), and \"chippu handi\" (\"ಚಿಪ್ಪು ಹಂದಿ\" in Kannada).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Indian pangolin (\"Manis crassicaudata\"), also called thick-tailed pangolin and scaly anteater is a pangolin native to the Indian subcontinent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976561}
{"src_title": "Siberian Traps", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The term \"trap\" has been used in geology since 1785–1795 for such rock formations. It is derived from the Swedish word for stairs (\"trappa\") and refers to the step-like hills forming the landscape of the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation.", "content": "The source of the Siberian Traps basaltic rock has been attributed to a mantle plume, which rose until it impacted against the bottom of the Earth's crust, producing volcanic eruptions through the Siberian Craton. It has been suggested that, as the Earth's lithospheric plates moved over the mantle plume (the Iceland plume), the plume produced the Siberian Traps in the Permian and Triassic periods, later going on to produce volcanic activity on the floor of the Arctic Ocean in the Jurassic and Cretaceous, and then generating volcanic activity in Iceland. Other plate tectonic causes have also been suggested. Another possible cause may be the impact that formed the Wilkes Land crater in Antarctica, which is estimated to have occurred around the same time and been nearly antipodal to the traps.  The main source of rock in this formation is basalt, but both mafic and felsic rocks are present, so this formation is officially called a Flood Basalt Province. The inclusion of mafic and felsic rock indicates multiple other eruptions that occurred and coincided with the one-million-year-long eruption that created the majority of the basaltic layers. The traps are divided into sections based on their chemical, stratigraphical, and petrographical composition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impact on prehistoric life.", "content": "One of the major questions is whether the Siberian Traps were directly responsible for the Permian–Triassic mass extinction event that occurred 250 million years ago, or if they were themselves caused by some other, larger event, such as an asteroid impact. A recent hypothesis put forward is that the volcanism triggered the growth of \"Methanosarcina\", a microbe that then spewed enormous amounts of methane into Earth's atmosphere, ultimately altering the Earth's carbon cycle based on observations such as a significant increase of inorganic carbon reservoirs in marine environments.  This extinction event, also called the Great Dying, affected all life on Earth, and is estimated to have killed about 96% of all species living at the time. Some of the disastrous events that impacted the Earth continued to repeat themselves on Earth five to six million years after the initial extinction occurred. Over time a small portion of the life that survived the extinction was able to repopulate and expand starting with low trophic levels (local communities) until the higher trophic levels (large habitats) were able to be re-established. Calculations of sea water temperature from \"δ\"O measurements indicate that at the peak of the extinction, the Earth underwent lethally hot global warming, in which equatorial ocean temperatures exceeded. It took roughly eight to nine million years for any diverse ecosystem to be re-established; however, new classes of animals were established after the extinction that did not exist beforehand.  Palaeontological evidence further indicates that the global distribution of tetrapods vanished, with very rare exceptions in the region of Pangaea that is today Utah, between latitudes bounded by approximately 40°S to 30°N. The tetrapod gap of equatorial Pangaea coincides with an end-Permian to Middle Triassic global \"coal gap\" that indicates the loss of peat swamps. Peat formation, a product of high plant productivity, was reestablished only in the Anisian stage of the Triassic, and even then only in high southern latitudes, although gymnosperm forests appeared earlier (in the Early Spathian), but again only in northern and southern higher latitudes. In equatorial Pangaea, the establishment of conifer-dominated forests was not until the end of the Spathian, and the first coals at these latitudes did not appear until the Carnian, around 15 million years after their end-Permian disappearance. These signals suggest equatorial temperatures exceeded their thermal tolerance for many marine vertebrates at least during two thermal maxima, whereas terrestrial equatorial temperatures were sufficiently severe to suppress plant and animal abundance during most of the Early Triassic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dating.", "content": "The volcanism that occurred in the Siberian Traps resulted in copious amounts of magma being ejected from the Earth's crust—leaving permanent traces of rock from the same time period of the mass extinction that is able to be examined today. More specifically, zircon is found in some of the volcanic rocks. To further the accuracy of the age of the zircon, several varying aged pieces of zircon were organized into a timeline based on when they crystallized. The CA-TIMS technique, a chemical abrasion age-dating technique that eliminates variability in accuracy due to lead depletion in zircon over time, was then used to accurately determine the age of the zircons found in the Siberian Traps. Eliminating the variability due to lead, the CA-TIMS age-dating technique allowed uranium within the zircon to be the centre focus in linking the volcanism in the Siberian Traps that resulted in high amounts of magmatic material with the Permian–Triassic mass extinction.  To further the connection between the Permian–Triassic extinction event, other disastrous events occurred around the same time period, such as sea level changes, meteor impacts and volcanism. Specifically focusing on volcanism, rock samples from the Siberian Traps and other southern regions were obtained and compared. Basalts and gabbro samples from several southern regions close to and from the Siberian Traps were dated based on argon isotope 40 and argon isotope 39 age-dating methods. Feldspar and biotite was specifically used to focus on the samples age and duration of the presence magma from the volcanic event in the Siberian Traps. The majority of the basalt and gabbro samples dated to 250 million years ago, covered a surface area of five million square kilometres on the Siberian Traps and occurred within a short period of time with rapid rock solidification/cooling. Studies confirmed that samples of gabbro and basalt from the same time period of the Permian–Triassic event from the other southern regions also matched the age of samples within the Siberian Traps. This confirms the assumption of the linkage between the age of volcanic rocks within the Siberian Traps, along with rock samples from other southern regions to the Permian–Triassic mass extinction event.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mineral deposits.", "content": "The giant Norilsk-Talnakh nickel–copper–palladium deposit formed within the magma conduits in the most complete part of the Siberian Traps. It has been linked to the Permian–Triassic extinction event, which occurred approximately 251.4 million years ago, based on large amounts of nickel and other elements found in rock beds that were laid down after the extinction occurred. The method used to correlate the extinction event with the surplus amount of nickel located in the Siberian Traps, is by comparing the timeline of the magmatism within the traps and the timeline of the extinction itself. Before the linkage between magmatism and the extinction event was discovered, it was hypothesized that the mass extinction and volcanism occurred at the same time due to the linkages in rock composition.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Siberian Traps (, ) is a large region of volcanic rock, known as a large igneous province, in Siberia, Russia. The massive eruptive event that formed the traps is one of the largest known volcanic events in the last years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976562}
{"src_title": "Lev Chernyi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life, philosophy and imprisonment.", "content": "Chernyi was born Pavel Dimitrievich Turchaninov () to an army colonel father. A \"déclassé intellectual\" whom anarchist historian Paul Avrich compares with Volin, Chernyi advocated a Nietzschean overthrow of the values of bourgeois Russian society, and rejected the voluntary communes of anarcho-communist Peter Kropotkin as a threat to the freedom of the individual. Chernyi advocated the \"free association of independent individuals\" in a book titled \"Associational Anarchism\" and published in 1907. Scholars including Avrich and Allan Antliff have interpreted this vision of society to have been greatly influenced by the individualist anarchists Max Stirner, and Benjamin Tucker. Subsequent to the book's publication, Chernyi was imprisoned in Siberia under the Russian Czarist regime for his revolutionary activities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Return to Moscow and opposition to the Bolsheviks.", "content": "On his return from Siberia in 1917, Chernyi enjoyed great popularity among Moscow workers as a lecturer, and was at this time one of Russia's leading individualist anarchists and one of anarchism's main ideologues. He was the Secretary and leading theorist of the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups, which was formed in March 1917 after the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and was primarily concerned with disseminating propaganda to Moscow's poorer classes.  A personal acquaintance of Lev Kamenev and other leading Bolsheviks, Chernyi denounced the nascent Russian Soviet Republic at a rally on March 5, 1918, declaring that for anarchists, the socialist state was as much an enemy as its bourgeois predecessor and promising to \"paralyze the governmental mechanism\". A vociferous advocate of seizing private homes, Chernyi agitated against the state in the pages of \"Anarkhiia\", the anarchist weekly newspaper, proposing increasingly detailed means of decentralized production and \"complete absence of internal power structures\". In the spring of 1918, the anarchist groups within the Moscow Federation formed armed detachments in reaction to the growing repression of all resistance and free expression. These were the Black Guards, precursors to the anarchist Black Army which fought the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War. On the night of April 11, the Cheka (Soviet secret police) raided a building occupied by the Moscow Federation, with the official aim of arresting and charging \"robber bands\" in the anarchist ranks. They were met with armed resistance by the Black Guards and in the ensuing battle, approximately forty anarchists were killed or wounded and about five hundred were imprisoned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arrest and execution.", "content": "Having helped establish an underground group in 1918, Chernyi joined another group called the Underground Anarchists the following year. The organization, which had been founded by Kazimir Kovalevich and Piotr Sobalev, published two issues of an incendiary broadsheet denouncing the Communist dictatorship as the worst tyranny in human history. On September 25, 1919, together with a number of leftist social revolutionaries, the Underground Anarchists bombed the headquarters of the Moscow Committee of the Communist Party during a plenary meeting. Twelve Communists were killed and fifty-five others were wounded, including eminent Bolshevik theorist and \"Pravda\" editor Nikolai Bukharin. Chernyi was detained along with Fanya Baron on a counterfeiting charge. In August 1921, the Moscow \"Izvestia\" published an official report announcing that ten \"anarchist bandits\", among them Chernyi, had been shot without hearing or trial. However, historian of anarchism Paul Avrich contends that Chernyi was executed in September of that year rather than August. Although he was not personally involved in the bombing of the Communist Party headquarters, Chernyi was, because of his association with the Underground Anarchists, a likely candidate for a frameup. The Communists refused to turn over his body to his family for burial, and rumors persisted that he had in fact died of torture.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lev Chernyi (; died September 21, 1921) was a Russian individualist anarchist theorist, activist and poet, and a leading figure of the Third Russian Revolution. In 1917, Chernyi was released from his political imprisonment by the Imperial Russian regime, and swiftly became one of the leading figures in Russian anarchism. After strongly denouncing the new Bolshevik government in various anarchist publications and joining several underground resistance movements, Chernyi was arrested by the Cheka on a charge of counterfeiting and in 1921 was executed without trial.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976563}
{"src_title": "Sunda pangolin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "In the past, this species has included the closely related Palawan pangolin (\"M. culionensis\"), as both are in the subgenus \"Paramanis\". It is closely related to the Chinese pangolin, although the Malayan species is larger, lighter in colour, and has shorter fore claws.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The skin of the Sunda pangolin's feet is granular, although pads are found on its front feet. It has thick and powerful claws to dig into the soils in search of ant nests or to tear into termite mounds. The Sunda pangolin has poor eyesight, but a highly developed sense of smell. Lacking teeth, its long, sticky tongue serves to collect ants and termites. Its body is covered by rows of scales and fibrous hair. The head-body length of this pangolin can measure 40–65 cm, tail length is 35–56 cm, and its weight is up to 10 kg. Males are larger than females.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "Pangolins give birth annually to one or two offspring. They breed in the autumn, and females give birth in the winter burrow. Den preference has been known to shift at this time to favor mature forest tree hollows. Presumably, these hollows offer more fortification and stability for the decreased mobility that comes with birthing and caring for young. The amount of time the mother will spend at any one of these dens will increase during parental care periods. Parental care is given for about three months. In these three months, the range of the mother Pangolin drastically decreases as she travels and forages with her offspring. Only a few weeks before the offspring becomes fully independent, the mother and her young can display brief spikes in diurnal activity. Pangolins are sometimes found in pairs, but normally they are solitary, nocturnal, and behave timidly. They protect their soft underparts by rolling into balls when they feel threatened. They are strong diggers and make burrows lined with vegetation for insulation near termite mounds and ant nests.  Sunda pangolins have low immunity, making them sensitive to fluctuations in temperature.  The Sunda pangolin's main predators are humans, tigers, and the clouded leopard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "Pangolins as a genus are among the most heavily poached and exploited protected animals. Like other pangolin species, the Sunda pangolin is hunted for its skin, scales, and meat, used in clothing manufacture and traditional medicine. Scales are made into rings as charms against rheumatic fever, and meat is eaten by indigenous peoples. Despite enjoying protected status almost everywhere in its range, illegal international trade, largely driven by Chinese buyers, has led to rapidly decreasing population numbers. The Sunda pangolin is currently considered to be critically endangered.  As of 2016, all pangolin species, including the Sunda pangolin, are listed by CITES in its Appendix I, which prohibits international trade in wild-caught specimens or their body parts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Potential zoonosis.", "content": "A metagenomic study published in 2019 previously revealed that SARS-CoV, the strain of the virus that causes SARS, was the most widely distributed coronavirus among a sample of Sunda pangolins. On 7 February 2020, it was announced that researchers from Guangzhou had discovered a pangolin sample with a viral nucleic acid sequence \"99% identical\" to SARS-CoV-2. When released, the results clarified that \"the receptor-binding domain of the S protein of the newly discovered Pangolin-CoV is virtually identical to that of 2019-nCoV, with one amino acid difference.\" Pangolins are protected under Chinese law, but their poaching and trading for use in traditional Chinese medicine remains common.  Microbiologists and geneticists in Texas have independently found evidence of reassortment in coronaviruses suggesting involvement of pangolins in the origin of SARS-CoV-2. However, pangolin coronaviruses found to date only share at most 92% of their whole genomes with SARS-CoV-2, making them less similar than RaTG13 to SARS-CoV-2. This is insufficient to prove pangolins to be the intermediate host; in comparison, the SARS virus responsible for the 2002–2004 outbreak shared 99.8% of its genome with a known civet coronavirus.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sunda pangolin (\"Manis javanica\"), also known as the Malayan or Javan pangolin, is a species of pangolin. It is found throughout Southeast Asia, including Brunei, Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Laos, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Myanmar and Vietnam. It prefers forested habitats (primary, secondary, and scrub forest) and plantations (rubber, palm oil). A large part of its life is spent in trees.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976564}
{"src_title": "Principality of Bulgaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In 1396 the Bulgarian–Ottoman Wars ended with the fall of the Bulgarian Empire, due to the Ottoman invasion of the Balkans and its own internal divisions. Under Ottoman rule, the Bulgarian nobility was destroyed and the national consciousness suppressed. The Bulgarian National Revival, emerging in the late 18th century, revived Bulgarian identity and stoked the idea of creating a new Bulgarian state. Numerous revolutionary movements and uprisings against the Ottomans occurred alongside similar movements in the rest of the Balkans, culminating in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 to 1878.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treaty of Berlin.", "content": "The Treaty of San Stefano of March 3, 1878 proposed a Bulgarian state, which comprised the geographical regions of Moesia, Thrace and Macedonia. Based on that date Bulgarians celebrate Bulgaria's national day each year.  Fearing the establishment of a large Russian client state on the Balkans, the other great powers, however, were not willing to agree to the treaty. As a result, the Treaty of Berlin (1878), under the supervision of Otto von Bismarck of Germany and Benjamin Disraeli of United Kingdom, revised the earlier treaty, and scaled back the proposed Bulgarian state.  A widely autonomous Principality of Bulgaria was created, between the Danube and the Stara Planina range, with its seat at the old Bulgarian capital of Veliko Turnovo, and including Sofia. This state was to be under nominal Ottoman sovereignty but was to be ruled by a prince elected by a congress of Bulgarian notables and approved by the Powers. They insisted that the Prince could not be a Russian, but in a compromise Prince Alexander of Battenberg, a nephew of Tsar Alexander II, was chosen. An autonomous Ottoman province under the name of Eastern Rumelia was created south of the Stara Planina range, whereas Macedonia was returned under the sovereignty of the Sultan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "19th century.", "content": "The Bulgarians adopted an advanced democratic constitution, and power soon passed to the Liberal Party led by Stefan Stambolov. Prince Alexander had conservative leanings, and at first opposed Stambolov's policies, but by 1885 he had become sufficiently sympathetic to his new country to change his mind, and supported the Liberals. He also supported the Unification of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, which was brought about by a coup in Plovdiv in September 1885. The Powers did not intervene because of the power struggles between them. Shortly after, Serbia declared war on Bulgaria in the hope of grabbing territory while the Bulgarians were distracted. The Bulgarians defeated them at Slivnitsa, pushed the Serbian army into Serbia and succeeded to re-conquer the seized by the Berlin Treaty Bulgarian populated towns of Pirot and Vranya, but they were given back to Serbia with the Treaty of Bucharest in 1886.  These events made Alexander very popular in Bulgaria, but Russia was increasingly dissatisfied at the liberal tendencies under his reign. In August 1886 they fomented a coup, in the course of which Alexander was forced to abdicate and was exiled to Russia. Stambolov, however, acted quickly and the participants in the coup were forced to flee the country. Stambolov tried to reinstate Alexander, but strong Russian opposition forced the prince to abdicate again. In July 1887 the Bulgarians elected Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha as their new Prince. Ferdinand was the \"Austrian candidate\" and the Russians refused to recognise him. Ferdinand initially worked with Stambolov, but by 1894 their relationship worsened. Stambolov resigned and was assassinated in July 1895. Ferdinand then decided to restore relations with Russia, which meant returning to a conservative policy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "20th century.", "content": "There was a substantial Bulgarian population still living under Ottoman rule, particularly in Macedonia. To complicate matters, Serbia and Greece too made claims over parts of Macedonia, while Serbia, as a Slavic nation, also considered Macedonians as belonging to Serbian nation. Thus began a five-sided struggle for control of these areas which lasted until World War I. In 1903 there was a Bulgarian insurrection in Ottoman Macedonia and war seemed likely. In 1908 Ferdinand used the struggles between the Great Powers to declare Bulgaria a fully independent kingdom, with himself as Tsar, which he did on 5 October (though celebrated on 22 September, as Bulgaria remained officially on the Julian calendar until 1916) in the Holy Forty Martyrs Church, Veliko Tarnovo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising.", "content": "The main external political problem confronting Bulgaria throughout the period up to World War I was the fate of Macedonia and Eastern Thrace. At the end of 19th century the Internal Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization was founded and began the preparation of an armed uprising in the regions still occupied by the Ottoman Turks. Relying in part on nationwide support on the part of the Principality of Bulgaria, IMARO got down to organizing a network of committees in Macedonia and Thrace. In August 1903 a mass armed uprising, known in history as the Ilinden-Preobrajenie, broke out in Macedonia and Thrace. Its aim was to liberate those regions, or at least to draw the attention of the Great Powers and make them advocate for the improvement of the living conditions for the population through legal and economic reforms. After three months of fierce battles the Ottoman army crushed the uprising using much cruelty against the civilian population.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Principality of Bulgaria (, \"Knyazhestvo Balgariya\") was a \"de facto\" independent, and \"de jure\" vassal state under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. It was established by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976565}
{"src_title": "Alfred Bucherer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "He studied from 1884 until 1899 at the University of Hannover, the Johns Hopkins University, the University of Strassburg, the University of Leipzig, and the University of Bonn. In Bonn he habilitated in 1899 and taught there until 1923.  In 1903 Bucherer published the first German-language book to be completely based on vector calculus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theory of relativity.", "content": "Like Henri Poincaré (1895, 1900), Bucherer (1903b) believed in the validity of the Principle of relativity, i.e. that all descriptions of electrodynamic effects should only contain the relative motion of bodies, not of the aether. However, he went a step further and even assumed the physical non-existence of the aether. Based on those ideas he developed a theory in 1906, which also included the assumption that the geometry of space is riemannian. But the theory was vaguely formulated and in 1908 Walther Ritz showed that Bucherer's theory leads to wrong conclusions with respect to electrodynamics. And contrary to Albert Einstein, he didn't connect his rejection of the aether with the relativity of space and time.  In 1904 he developed a theory of electrons in which the electrons contract in the line of motion and expand perpendicular to it. Independently of him Paul Langevin developed a very similar model in 1905. The Bucherer-Langevin model was an alternative to the electron models of:  All three models predicted an increase of the electron mass if their velocities are approaching the speed of light. The Bucherer-Langevin model was quickly abandoned, so some experimentalists tried to distinguish between Abraham's theory and the Lorentz-Einstein theory by experiment. This was done by Walter Kaufmann (1901–1905) who believed that his experiments confirmed Abraham's theory, and disproved the Lorentz-Einstein theory. But in 1908 Bucherer conducted some experiments as well, and obtained results which seem to confirm the Lorentz-Einstein theory and the principle of relativity. With exceptions like Adolf Bestelmeyer with whom Bucherer had a polemical dispute, Bucherer's experiments were regarded as decisive. But it was shown in 1938 that all those experiments of Kaufmann, Bucherer, Neumann etc. showed only a qualitative increase in mass, but were too imprecise to distinguish between the different models. This lasted until 1940, when similar experimental equipments were sufficiently accurate to confirm the Lorentz-Einstein formula, see Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments and Tests of relativistic energy and momentum.  Bucherer (1906) was the first who used — during some critical remarks on Einstein's theory — the expression \"Einsteinian relativity theory / theory of relativity\" (\"Einsteinsche Relativitätstheorie\"). This was based on Max Planck's term \"relative theory\" for the Lorentz-Einstein theory. And in 1908 Bucherer himself rejected his own version of the relativity principle, and accepted the \"Lorentz-Einstein theory\".  Later (1923, 1924), Bucherer criticized general relativity in some papers. However, this criticism was rejected because Bucherer misinterpreted Einstein's equivalence hypothesis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfred Heinrich Bucherer (* 9 July 1863 in Cologne; † 16 April 1927 in Bonn) was a German physicist, who is known for his experiments on relativistic mass. He also was the first who used the phrase \"theory of relativity\" for Einstein's theory of special relativity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976566}
{"src_title": "Battle of the Caucasus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Order of battle.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wehrmacht.", "content": "Army Group A - General Field Marshal (\"Generalfeldmarschall\") Wilhelm List", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "German operations.", "content": "Operation Edelweiss, named after the mountain flower, was a German plan to gain control over the Caucasus and capture the oil fields of Baku during the Soviet-German War. The operation was authorised by Hitler on 23 July 1942. The main forces included Army Group A commanded by Wilhelm List, 1st Panzer Army (Ewald von Kleist), 4th Panzer Army (Colonel-General Hermann Hoth), 17th Army (Colonel-General Richard Ruoff), part of the Luftflotte 4 (Generalfeldmarschall Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen) and the 3rd Romanian Army (General Petre Dumitrescu). Army Group A was supported to the east by Army Group B commanded by Fedor von Bock and by the remaining 4th Air Fleet aircraft (1,000 aircraft in all). The land forces, accompanied by 15,000 oil industry workers, included 167,000 troopers, 4,540 guns and 1,130 tanks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparations.", "content": "Several oil firms such as \"German Oil on Caucasus\", \"Ost-Öl\" and \"Karpaten-Öl\" had been established in Germany. They were awarded an exclusive 99-year lease to exploit the Caucasian oil fields. For this purpose, a large number of pipes—which later proved useful to Soviet oil industry workers—were delivered. A special economic inspection \"A\", headed by Lieutenant-General Nidenfuhr was created. Bombing of the oil fields was forbidden. To defend them from destruction by Soviet units under the command of Nikolai Baibakov and Semyon Budyonny, an SS guard regiment and a Cossack regiment were formed. The head of the Abwehr developed Operation \"Schamil\", which called for landing in the Grozny, Malgobek and Maikop regions. They would be supported by the local fifth column.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Events.", "content": "After neutralizing the Soviet counter-attack in the Izyum-Barvenkovsk direction the German Army Group A rapidly attacked towards the Caucasus. When Rostov-on-Don, nicknamed \"The Gates of Caucasus,\" fell on 23 July 1942, the tank units of Ewald von Kleist moved towards the Caucasian Mountain Range. The \"Edelweiss\" division commander, Hubert Lanz, decided to advance through the gorges of rivers of the Kuban River basin and by crossing the Marukhskiy Pass (Maly Zelenchuk River), Teberda, Uchkulan reach the Klukhorskiy Pass, and simultaneously through the Khotyu-tau Pass block the upper reaches of the Baksan River and the Donguz-Orun and Becho passes.  Concurrently with the outflanking maneuvers, the Caucasian Mountain Range was supposed to be crossed through such passes as Sancharo, Klukhorskiy and Marukhskiy to reach Kutaisi, Zugdidi, Sukhumi and the Soviet Georgian capital city of Tbilisi. The units of the 4th German Mountain Division, manned with Tyroleans, were active in this thrust. They succeeded in advancing 30 km toward Sukhumi. To attack from the Kuban region, capture the passes that led to Elbrus, and cover the \"Edelweiss\" flank, a vanguard detachment of 150 men commanded by Captain (Hauptmann) Heinz Groth, was formed. From the Old Karachay through the Khurzuk aul and the Ullu-kam Gorge the detachment reached the Khotyu-tau Pass, which had not been defended by the Soviet troops. Khotyu-tau gained a new name — \"The Pass of General Konrad\".  The starting point of the operation on the Krasnodar-Pyatigorsk-Maikop line was reached on 10 August 1942. On 16 August the battalion commanded by von Hirschfeld made a feint and reached the Kadar Gorge. On 21 August troops from the 1st Mountain Division planted the flag of Nazi Germany on the summit of Mount Elbrus, the highest peak in both the Caucasus and Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soviet operations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1941.", "content": "There were no military operations in the region in 1941. But the region was affected by warfare elsewhere in the Soviet Union.  In his memoirs, Soviet Transcaucasian Front commander Ivan Tiulenev recounts how thousands of civilians attempted to flee from Ukraine to the comparatively safe Caspian ports, such as Makhachkala and Baku. The Caucasus area became a new area of industry when 226 factories were evacuated there during the industrial evacuations undertaken by the Soviet Union in 1941. After the Grozny to Kiev line was captured during Axis advances, a new link between Moscow and Transcaucasia was established with the construction of the new railway line running from Baku to Orsk (via Astrakhan), bypassing the front line at Grozny, while a shipping line was maintained over the Caspian Sea through the town of Krasnovodsk in Turkmenistan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1942.", "content": "In 1942, the German Army launched Operation Edelweiss which was aimed at advancing to the oil field of Azerbaijan. The German offensive slowed as it entered the mountains in the southern Caucasus and did not reach all of its 1942 objectives. After the Soviet breakthroughs in the region around Stalingrad, the German forces in the Caucasus were put on the defensive.  Soviet military operations included", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1943.", "content": "In early 1943, the Germans began to withdraw and consolidate their positions in the region due to setbacks elsewhere. They established a defensive line (Kuban bridgehead) in the Taman Peninsula from which they hoped to eventually launch new operations in the Caucasus. The fighting remained reasonably static until September 1943 when the Germans ordered fresh withdrawals which effectively ended the period of fighting in the Caucasus.  Soviet Operations in 1943 consisted of the following.  The key military base of Novorossiysk was retaken in September, 1943.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1944.", "content": "During the Winter Spring Campaign of 1944 (1 January - 31 May), the Soviet army was able to launch an invasion of the Crimea from the Caucasus, which was fully recaptured by 12 May 1944.  Operations included:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Battle of the Caucasus is a name given to a series of Axis and Soviet operations in the Caucasus area on the Eastern Front of World War II. On 25 July 1942, German troops captured Rostov-on-Don, Russia, opening the Caucasus region of the southern Soviet Union, and the oil fields beyond at Maikop, Grozny, and ultimately Baku, to the Germans. Two days prior, Adolf Hitler issued a directive to launch such an operation into the Caucasus region, to be named Operation Edelweiß. German forces were compelled to withdraw from the area that winter as Operation Little Saturn threatened to cut them off.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976567}
{"src_title": "Serious game", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The use of games in educational circles has been practiced since at least the twentieth century. Use of paper-based educational games became popular in the 1960s and 1970s, but waned under the Back to Basics teaching movement. (The Back to Basics teaching movement is a change in teaching style that started in the 1970s when students were scoring poorly on standardized tests and exploring too many electives. This movement wanted to focus students on reading, writing and arithmetic and intensify the curriculum.)  The early 2000s saw a surge in different types of educational games, especially those designed for the younger learner. Many of these games were not computer-based but took on the model of other traditional gaming systems both in the console and hand-held formats. In 1999, LeapFrog Enterprises introduced the LeapPad, which combined an interactive book with a cartridge and allowed kids to play games and interact with a paper-based book. Based on the popularity of traditional hand-held gaming systems like Nintendo's Game Boy, they also introduced their hand-held gaming system called the Leapster in 2003. This system was cartridge-based and integrated arcade–style games with educational content.  Also in the 2000s, educational games saw an expanse into sustainable development with titles such as Learning Sustainable Development in 2000 and Climate Challenge in 2006.  By 2010, serious games had evolved to incorporate actual economies like \"Second Life\", in which users can create actual businesses that provide virtual commodities and services for Linden dollars, which are exchangeable for US currency. In 2015, Project Discovery was launched as a serious game. Project Discovery was launched as a vehicle by which geneticists and astronomers with the University of Geneva could access the cataloging efforts of the gaming public via a mini-game contained within the \"Eve Online\" massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG). Players acting as citizen scientists categorize and assess actual genetic samples or astronomical data. This data was then utilized and warehoused by researchers. Any data flagged as atypical was further investigated by scientists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Application Areas.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "On the one hand, the health sector includes digital games for the professional area of doctor training, e.g. to train an operation or to impart specialist knowledge, and on the other hand they address the private end user who uses them, for example, as motivation tools for a healthier lifestyle, nutrition or for rehabilitation purposes. In addition, Serious Games can be used as a training measure for patients who acquire knowledge about their clinical pictures and possible therapy options.  On 15 June 2020, the Food and Drug Administration approved the first video game treatment, a game for children aged 8–12 with certain types of ADHD called \"EndeavorRx\". It can be downloaded with a prescription onto a mobile device, and is intended for use in tandem with other treatments. Patients play it for 30 minutes a day, 5 days a week, over a month-long treatment plan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exercise therapy.", "content": "These include serious games that animate the player to sport and movement. For example, hand-eye coordination and upper body muscles can be trained using \"Wii Sports\", regardless of age and physical disabilities, alone or with others. Even simple Jump-'n'-Run games can have an educational purpose, depending on the user. They are partly used in rehabilitation therapies to restore the user's finger mobility, reaction speed and eye-finger coordination.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics, culture and advertising.", "content": "Persuasive games are developed for advertisers, policy makers, news organizations and cultural institutions. They are politically and socially motivated games that serve social communication. They cover areas such as politics, religion, environment, urban planning and tourism. The aim is to lead to create a demand for product due to a generated positive exposure to the product in the game or introduce new ways of thinking through experience. \"See also: business simulation game\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Security.", "content": "Serious games in the field of security are aimed at disaster control, the defense sector and recruitment. Public, private and municipal institutions, such as fire brigades, police, Federal Agency for Technical Relief (Technisches Hilfswerk - Germany THW), DRK as well as crisis centres and NGOs benefit from them. Scenarios such as natural disasters, acts of terrorism, danger prevention and emergency care are simulated. Challenges such as acting under time and pressure to succeed can thus be realistically tested with fewer resources and costs. This area formed the second focal point. An example of serious games from this sector is the \"Emergency\" game series or the possibility to explore the response of communities in a game in disaster management. Psychological effect that exist in real life-threatening situation are not realistic in a serious game but the training in a serious game and exposure to the requirements and constraints in disaster management can prepare to a better response of the teams in a real disaster management case and lead to an improved risk mitigation strategies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military games.", "content": "Games like America's Army are training simulations that are used in the training and recruitment of soldiers. The games try to represent warfare as realistically as possible in order to familiarize users with the dangers, strategies, weapons, tactics and vehicles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recruitment games.", "content": "This type of serious games is intended to bring the user closer to tasks that would otherwise be less in the limelight. Companies try to present and profile themselves through such games in order to attract apprentices and applicants. Future tasks will be presented and carried out in a large context, for example \"TechForce\", in which various technical areas are combined into an end product with the aim of winning a race.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Product creation games.", "content": "The aim here is to give the user an understanding of a company's products. The user can test the products in a simulation under real conditions and convince himself of their functionality. Technical basics, handling and security risks can be taught to the user.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adult education.", "content": "Real simulations and simulation games provide the user with the opportunity to gain experience. Actions generated from knowledge can be tested here according to the trial and error principle. Theoretical knowledge can either be acquired beforehand or imparted during the game, which can then be tested in a virtual practice. There is an educational policy interest in the professionalisation of such offers. With the research project NetEnquiry, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research supports a corresponding research project for education and training, implemented here with the focus on mobile learning.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Youth education.", "content": "The user is given tasks and missions that they can only solve with the knowledge that they will gradually discover during the game. The theoretical aspects of the game are always taught in small quantities at the right time to be able to solve the next task and thus test the theoretical approaches in practice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Art Games.", "content": "An \"art game\" uses the medium of computer games to create interactive and multimedia art. For the first time, the term was described scientifically in 2002 to emphasize games that attach more importance to art than to game mechanics. Mostly they convince by a special aesthetics and atmosphere and use the interactivity for creativity and the thought stimulation of the player. Art created by or through computer games is also called Art Game.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A serious game or applied game is a game designed for a primary purpose other than pure entertainment. The \"serious\" adjective is generally prepended to refer to video games used by industries like defense, education, scientific exploration, health care, emergency management, city planning, engineering, and politics. Serious games are a subgenre of serious storytelling, where storytelling is applied \"outside the context of entertainment, where the narration progresses as a sequence of patterns impressive in quality... and is part of a thoughtful progress\". The idea shares aspects with simulation generally, including flight simulation and medical simulation, but explicitly emphasizes the added pedagogical value of fun and competition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976568}
{"src_title": "Brooks Orpik", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Orpik was born in San Francisco, California, a few months after the U.S. \"Miracle on Ice\" win over the Soviet Union in Lake Placid, New York, in 1980. Due to this, he was named after American Olympic head coach Herb Brooks. Orpik (as well as his brother Andrew) grew up in Amherst, New York. Orpik attended the Nichols School in Buffalo and Thayer Academy in Braintree, Massachusetts.  He is married to Erin Orpik, with whom he has two daughters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collegiate.", "content": "Orpik played three seasons at Boston College for the Eagles ice hockey team, winning the Hockey East playoff championship in 1999 and 2001, as well as the NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship in 2001. His younger brother Andrew was also a hockey player, playing for Boston College and having a brief minor league career.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Years with the Penguins.", "content": "Orpik was drafted in the first round, 18th overall, of the 2000 NHL Entry Draft by the Pittsburgh Penguins. He began his professional career with the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins of the American Hockey League (AHL) during the 2001–02 season. He made his NHL debut during the 2002–03 season, playing in six games and recording no points. After earning a permanent roster spot on the team the next year, Orpik played in 79 games, registering one goal, nine assists and 127 penalty minutes. On March 4, 2006, Orpik boarded Carolina Hurricanes forward Erik Cole, fracturing a vertebra in Cole's neck. Orpik was suspended three games for the illegal hit. Cole did not return until Game 6 of the 2006 Stanley Cup Finals.  In the summer of 2008, Orpik signed a new six-year, $22.5 million contract with the Penguins. In October 2008, he was named an alternate captain (interim while Sergei Gonchar was injured) of the Penguins, along with Evgeni Malkin, behind captain Sidney Crosby. On June 12, 2009, Orpik and the Penguins became Stanley Cup champions by defeating the Detroit Red Wings in Game 7 of the 2009 Stanley Cup Finals. He was the first native of California to win the Stanley Cup.  On December 17, 2011, Orpik recorded his 100th career point by earning an assist on Evgeni Malkin's goal on Ryan Miller at Consol Energy Center in Pittsburgh.  On May 11, 2013, Orpik scored the game-winning goal in overtime of Game 6 to eliminate the New York Islanders and advance Pittsburgh to the second round of the 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs; it was his first career Stanley Cup playoff goal.  On December 7, 2013, Orpik hit Boston Bruins forward Loui Eriksson, resulting in a concussion to the latter. While Orpik lay on the ice due to a confrontation with a Bruins player, Shawn Thornton delivered a punch that concussed Orpik; Thornton was suspended 15 games for the incident.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Washington Capitals.", "content": "On July 1, 2014, the Washington Capitals signed Orpik to a five-year, $27.5 million contract as an unrestricted free agent.  In Game 2 of Washington's 2016 playoff series against the Pittsburgh Penguins, Orpik delivered an illegal and late hit to Pittsburgh defenseman Olli Määttä, making contact with Määttä's head. Orpik was suspended three games for the late hit and Määttä returned a few games later to finish, and help win, the series.  On April 23, 2018, during his fourth season with the Capitals, in 2017–18, Orpik was Washington's nomination for the King Clancy Memorial Trophy as a player who best exemplifies leadership qualities and gives back to his community. In the 2018 playoffs, on May 30, 2018, Orpik scored the game-winning goal in Game 2 of the 2018 Stanley Cup Finals against the Vegas Golden Knights. It was also the first time Orpik had scored a goal since February 20, 2016. On June 7, 2018, Orpik and the Capitals went on to win the Stanley Cup against the Golden Knights in five games. This was the first Stanley Cup for the Capitals and the second finals victory for Orpik.  On June 22, 2018, less than three weeks after winning the Stanley Cup for the second time, and due to salary cap considerations, Orpik was traded by the Capitals to the Colorado Avalanche (alongside goaltender Philipp Grubauer) in exchange for Colorado's second-round pick in the 2018 NHL Entry Draft. He was immediately informed by Avalanche general manager Joe Sakic that he would be moved to a preferred destination or bought-out from the remaining year of the five-year contract he had initially signed with Washington. He was placed on unconditional waivers the following day and on June 24, he was released to free agency. On July 24, he signed a one-year, $1 million contract to return to Washington.  Orpik scored the overtime game-winning goal in Game 2 of Washington's opening round 2019 playoff series against the Carolina Hurricanes, giving the Capitals a 2–0 series lead. This would be Orpik's last NHL goal. Despite this, the Capitals attempt at a Cup repeat would fall short as the Hurricanes went onto eliminate the Capitals in seven games.  On June 25, 2019, Orpik announced his retirement from professional hockey. Soon after retiring, the Capitals hired Orpik as a Player Development coach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "In 1999, Orpik competed for the United States in the World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Stockholm.  In 2009, Orpik was invited to the USA Hockey orientation camp, from August 17 to 19, in preparation for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. Orpik was ultimately selected to the American team, which finished with a silver medal finish behind Canada.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Brooks Orpik (born September 26, 1980) is an American former professional ice hockey defenseman who played for the Pittsburgh Penguins and the Washington Capitals of the National Hockey League (NHL). Orpik is a two-time Stanley Cup champion, winning with the Penguins in 2009 and with the Capitals in 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976569}
{"src_title": "Post-Keynesian economics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Introduction.", "content": "The term \"post-Keynesian\" was first used to refer to a distinct school of economic thought by Eichner and Kregel (1975) and by the establishment of the \"Journal of Post Keynesian Economics\" in 1978. Prior to 1975, and occasionally in more recent work, \"post-Keynesian\" could simply mean economics carried out after 1936, the date of Keynes's \"General Theory\".  Post-Keynesian economists are united in maintaining that Keynes' theory is seriously misrepresented by the two other principal Keynesian schools: neo-Keynesian economics, which was orthodox in the 1950s and 60s, and new Keynesian economics, which together with various strands of neoclassical economics has been dominant in mainstream macroeconomics since the 1980s. Post-Keynesian economics can be seen as an attempt to rebuild economic theory in the light of Keynes' ideas and insights. However, even in the early years, post-Keynesians such as Joan Robinson sought to distance themselves from Keynes and much current post-Keynesian thought cannot be found in Keynes. Some post-Keynesians took a more progressive view than Keynes himself, with greater emphases on worker-friendly policies and redistribution. Robinson, Paul Davidson and Hyman Minsky emphasized the effects on the economy of practical differences between different types of investments, in contrast to Keynes' more abstract treatment.  The theoretical foundation of post-Keynesian economics is the principle of effective demand, that demand matters in the long as well as the short run, so that a competitive market economy has no natural or automatic tendency towards full employment. Contrary to the views of new Keynesian economists working in the neoclassical tradition, post-Keynesians do not accept that the theoretical basis of the market's failure to provide full employment is rigid or sticky prices or wages. Post-Keynesians typically reject the IS–LM model of John Hicks, which is very influential in neo-Keynesian economics.  The contribution of post-Keynesian economics has extended beyond the theory of aggregate employment to theories of income distribution, growth, trade and development in which money demand plays a key role, whereas in neoclassical economics these are determined by the forces of technology, preferences and endowment. In the field of monetary theory, post-Keynesian economists were among the first to emphasise that money supply responds to the demand for bank credit, so that a central bank cannot control the quantity of money, but only manage the interest rate by managing the quantity of monetary reserves.  This view has largely been incorporated into monetary policy, which now targets the interest rate as an instrument, rather than the quantity of money. In the field of finance, Hyman Minsky put forward a theory of financial crisis based on financial fragility, which has received renewed attention.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Strands.", "content": "There are a number of strands to post-Keynesian theory with different emphases. Joan Robinson regarded Michał Kalecki’s theory of effective demand to be superior to Keynes’ theories. Kalecki's theory is based on a class division between workers and capitalists and imperfect competition. Robinson also led the critique of the use of aggregate production functions based on homogeneous capital – the Cambridge capital controversy – winning the argument but not the battle. The writings of Piero Sraffa were a significant influence on the post-Keynesian position in this debate, though Sraffa and his neo-Ricardian followers drew more inspiration from David Ricardo than Keynes. Much of Nicholas Kaldor’s work was based on the ideas of increasing returns to scale, path dependency, and the key differences between the primary and industrial sectors.  Paul Davidson follows Keynes closely in placing time and uncertainty at the centre of theory, from which flow the nature of money and of a monetary economy. Monetary circuit theory, originally developed in continental Europe, places particular emphasis on the distinctive role of money as means of payment. Each of these strands continues to see further development by later generations of economists.  Modern Monetary Theory is a relatively recent offshoot influenced by the macroeconomic modelling of Wynne Godley and Hyman Minsky's ideas on the labour market, as well as chartalism and functional finance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current work.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Journals.", "content": "Much post-Keynesian research is published in the \"Review of Keynesian Economics\" (ROKE), the \"Journal of Post Keynesian Economics\" (founded by Sidney Weintraub and Paul Davidson), the \"Cambridge Journal of Economics\", the \"Review of Political Economy\", and the \"Journal of Economic Issues\" (JEI).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "There is also a United Kingdom academic association, the Post Keynesian Economics Society (PKES). This was previously called the Post Keynesian Economics Study Group (PKSG) but changed its name in 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "In the United States, there are several universities with a post-Keynesian bent:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Canada.", "content": "In Canada, post-Keynesians can be found at the University of Ottawa and Laurentian University.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "In Germany, post-Keynesianism is very strong at the Berlin School of Economics and Law and its master's degree course: International Economics [M.A.]. Many German Post-Keynesians are organized in the Forum Macroeconomics and Macroeconomic Policies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "University of Newcastle.", "content": "The University of Newcastle in New South Wales, Australia, houses the Centre of Full Employment and Equity (CofFEE), an active educational, research and collaborative organisation whose focus is on policies \"restoring full employment\" and achieving an economy that delivers \"equitable outcomes for all\". CofFEE's work is on post-Keynesian macroeconomics, labour economics, regional development and monetary economics. Research conducted by CofFEE is aimed at developing a model for new global economy that achieves full employment without the consequences imposed by the dominant neoliberal economic policies.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Major post-Keynesian economists.", "content": "Major post-Keynesian economists of the first and second generations after Keynes include:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Post-Keynesian economics is a school of economic thought with its origins in \"The General Theory\" of John Maynard Keynes, with subsequent development influenced to a large degree by Michał Kalecki, Joan Robinson, Nicholas Kaldor, Sidney Weintraub, Paul Davidson, Piero Sraffa and Jan Kregel. Historian Robert Skidelsky argues that the post-Keynesian school has remained closest to the spirit of Keynes' original work. It is a heterodox approach to economics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976570}
{"src_title": "Ulf Samuelsson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Samuelsson was selected 67th overall by the Hartford Whalers in the 1982 NHL Entry Draft. In February, 1987, Samuelsson played in the \"Rendez-vous '87\" series as a member of the NHL All-Stars. The two game series between the NHL All-Stars and the Soviet national team took place in Quebec City and replaced the NHL's mid-season all-star game for the 1986-87 season.  He was traded to the Pittsburgh Penguins along with Ron Francis in 1991 and was a member of Pittsburgh's Stanley Cup winning team in 1991 and 1992. He scored the 1991 Stanley Cup-winning goal in game six of the finals against the Minnesota North Stars, at 2:00 of the first period in what became an 8–0 blowout victory for Pittsburgh.  In a game versus the Boston Bruins during the 1991 Stanley Cup Playoffs, Samuelsson hit Bruins' star forward Cam Neely with a body check that injured Neely and caused him to develop a condition called myositis ossificans, which ultimately ended his career.  As a member of the New York Rangers in 1995, Samuelsson was famously knocked unconscious by a sucker punch to the face from Tie Domi of the Toronto Maple Leafs. Domi received an eight-game suspension and a fine for the incident, described by some as one of the cheapest shots in NHL history. Domi insisted that Samuelsson provoked the punch by repeatedly calling him \"dummy\".  Samuelsson played 1,080 career NHL games, scoring 57 goals and 275 assists for 332 points. He accumulated 2,453 penalty minutes over the course of his career.  During the Nagano Olympics, he was ejected from the Swedish team when it was discovered that he had requested and received US citizenship. His Swedish citizenship was revoked and he was not allowed to play. The entire ordeal was listed as the seventy-second most important international story by the IIHF in their centennial celebrations in 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Samuelsson is a resident of Scottsdale, Arizona. Samuelsson's sons, Philip and Henrik are professional hockey players. His daughter, Victoria, played hockey at Penn State University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "On May 2, 2011, Samuelsson accepted the head coaching position of Modo Hockey, a position he held for two seasons.  On May 31, 2016, it was announced that Samuelsson accepted a head coach position with the Charlotte Checkers of the American Hockey League. In 2017 Samuelsson was hired as an assistant coach with the Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League. On November 6, 2018 he was fired along with head coach Joel Quenneville.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ulf Bo Samuelsson (born March 26, 1964) is a retired Swedish-American professional ice hockey defenceman who currently serves as head coach of Leksands IF of the Swedish Hockey League (SHL). He played several seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) with the Hartford Whalers, Pittsburgh Penguins, New York Rangers, Detroit Red Wings, and Philadelphia Flyers. During his playing career Samuelsson was viewed by NHL stars as \"the most hated man in hockey\"; he was described to the New York Times as \"the lowest form of human being\" and someone whose play is all about \"trying to hurt you and knock you out of the game\". He was a two-time Stanley Cup champion as a member of the Penguins in 1991 and 1992.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976571}
{"src_title": "David Krejčí", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Krejčí was drafted by the Boston Bruins in the third round, 63rd overall, of the 2004 NHL Entry Draft. He was drafted out of Czech junior leagues, having played for HC Kladno. Following his selection, he moved to North America to play major junior hockey in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL) for the Gatineau Olympiques for two seasons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "Krejčí turned professional in 2006–07, playing for the Bruins' American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Providence Bruins. He played in his first NHL game on 30 January 2007 in a 7–1 loss against the Buffalo Sabres, but suffered a concussion from Buffalo's Adam Mair during his third shift. He recorded just 2:07 minutes of ice time. Krejčí played increasingly with Boston the following season, appearing in 56 NHL games to go with 25 games for Providence. On 19 February 2008, Krejčí was involved in a shootout tie-breaker round, in a Bruins road game against the Carolina Hurricanes, and scored to help the Bruins take the shootout 2–1. Krejčí's shootout tally would not register as his first NHL goal, as shootout goals do not count towards a player's statistical totals. Krejčí scored his first official NHL goal one week later on 26 February against Martin Gerber of the Ottawa Senators, the second Bruins' goal in a 4–0 home shutout. He finished his rookie NHL season with 6 goals and 27 points.  During the 2008–09 season, Krejčí scored his first NHL hat-trick on 18 December 2008 against the Toronto Maple Leafs. He registered his first two goals against starter Vesa Toskala and his third against Curtis Joseph in an 8–5 Bruins win. About the midpoint of that season, NESN's play-by-play TV announcer Jack Edwards for televised Bruins games gave Krejčí the nickname \"\"The Matrix\"\", due to his ability to slow down the pace of a game through his skating style and abilities on the ice. Before a game on 2 April 2009, Krejčí was named the winner of the Boston Bruins' 2009 Seventh Player Award. The award is given annually to the player who \"goes beyond the call of duty and exceeds all expectations\" throughout the course of the season. During the game, Krejčí assisted on a goal by Milan Lucic, the 2008 winner of the Seventh Player Award, in a 2–1 home ice victory over the Ottawa Senators. He completed his second NHL season with a then-career-high 73 points in 82 games to go with a league-high +37 plus-minus rating. On 2 June 2009, he signed a multi-year contract extension with the Bruins, reportedly a three-year contract paying an average of $3.75 million per year.  At the beginning of November 2009, Krejčí was noticeably ill; on 5 November 2009, it was confirmed that Krejčí had been diagnosed with the H1N1 virus, which sidelined him for a period of time.  On 5 May 2010, during the 2010 Stanley Cup playoffs, Krejčí dislocated his wrist less than five minutes into a game when he was checked at the Bruins' blue line by Philadelphia Flyers' centre Mike Richards. Surgery was needed and was performed following the game at Union Memorial Hospital in Baltimore, and Krejčí missed the remainder of the playoffs.  On 25 May 2011, in Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Finals against the Tampa Bay Lightning, Krejčí recorded his second NHL career hat-trick. He was the first Bruin to record a playoff hat-trick since Cam Neely, two decades prior. On 15 June, Krejčí and the Bruins won the team's first Stanley Cup in 39 years after defeating the Vancouver Canucks 4–0 in Game 7 of the Finals. Krejčí finished the 2011 playoffs with a playoff-leading 12 goals, 23 points and 4 game-winning goals.  On 1 March 2012, in a game against the New Jersey Devils, Krejčí scored his third career hat-trick, scoring in the first, third and overtime period in a 4–3 win. In Game 4 of the 2013 opening round playoffs against the Toronto Maple Leafs, Krejčí scored a hat-trick, including the game-winning goal in overtime.  On 1 October 2013, Krejčí was named an alternate captain of the Bruins. On 25 October 2013, he scored a game-winning goal with 0.8 seconds left against the San Jose Sharks and goaltender Antti Niemi.  On 3 September 2014, Krejčí signed a six-year contract extension with the Bruins. During a road game on 20 February 2015 against the St. Louis Blues, Krejčí suffered a partial tear of his MCL in his left knee, forcing him off the ice for 4–6 weeks for a recovery.  During the Bruins' home game against the Toronto Maple Leafs on 8 December 2018, Krejčí became the tenth-highest scoring Bruins' player of all-time (surpassing Cam Neely) when he recorded a goal and an assist in a 6–3 Bruins' win, bringing his points total to 592. Three days later, on 11 December, Krejčí played his 800th NHL game, recording three assists in a Bruins' 4–3 home win over the Arizona Coyotes. Just one week later, on 20 December, Krejčí recorded his 600th career NHL point after scoring the Bruins' third goal in a 4–1 home ice defeat of the Anaheim Ducks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "After the Bruins' 2007–08 season ended, Krejčí was named to the Czech national team on 26 April 2008, for the 2008 IIHF World Championships. He was named to the Czech national team for the 2010 Winter Olympics, playing centre on a line with wingers Tomáš Fleischmann and Martin Erat to open the Games.  Following the Bruins' defeat to the Tampa Bay Lightning in the second round of the 2018 playoffs, Krejčí was invited to participate at the 2018 IIHF World Championship.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "David Krejčí (, born 28 April 1986) is a Czech professional ice hockey centre and alternate captain for the Boston Bruins of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was part of the Bruins' Stanley Cup win in 2011 and led the NHL in points during the 2011 and 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs. He was named to the Czech national team for the 2010 and 2014 Olympic teams.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976572}
{"src_title": "Philip IV, Count of Nassau-Weilburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Philip IV was the son of Philip III of Nassau-Weilburg and his third wife Amalie of Isenburg-Büdingen.  Philip IV and his older half-brother Albert of Nassau-Weilburg were educated in the Protestant faith by Kasper Goltwurm at Neuweilburg Castle. Philip later studied at the University of Jena, where he was rector for a while.  On 4 October 1559 his father died. Philip and Albert inherited the County of Nassau-Weilburg. As Philip was only sixteen years old, John III of Nassau-Saarbrücken, the senior member of the Walram line of the House of Nassau took up the guardianship. Initially, the brothers Albert and Philip ruled together. However, the huge debt they had inherited from their father curtailed their ability to act. Nevertheless, they managed to slowly improve their fiscal situation. On 15 May 1561, the brothers split their inheritance for the first time. Albert received the castle and district of Weilburg, while Philip received Castle and district of Neuweilnau. The largest part of their territory and the father's the debt, however, remained common property. Philip moved into Neuweilnau Castle, which had already served his father as a residence. Between 1564 and 1566, he significantly expanded the castle.  Philip belonged to the Wetterau Association of Imperial Counts, in which Albert took a leading role. In 1567 and 1568, Philip met with William the Silent several times. He participated in the preparation of the Dutch War of Independence against Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba. However, the attack on the Netherlands in 1568, failed.  In 1570 John III of Nassau-Saarbrücken wrote a last will and testament, appointing the half-brothers Albert and Philip as his heirs. John had no male offspring and wanted to ensure that the counties of Saarbrücken, Saarland and Ottweiler were preserved by the Walram line of the House of Nassau in accordance with the inheritance treaty of 1491. As early as 1571 Philip took over the regency over parts of John's estate. He moved his residence from Neuweilnau to Saarbrücken. In the same year Albert and Philip divided the part of the county in Weilburg they had shared earlier. They also closed several treaties with the Landgraviate of Hesse, dividing territories shared by Nassau and Hesse.  Just one year later, in 1572, Philip managed to secularize the St. Mary Abbey in Rosenthal. The Nassau family had a close relationship with the abbey. Their ancestor Adolf of Nassau, the only member of the family to be elected King of Germany, had been temporarily buried there.  In 1572, Philip had Wanborn Castle, a 12th-century structure in the vicinity of Saarbrücken, torn down and a Renaissance style hunting lodge with four wings named constructed on the spot. This lodge was destroyed during the Thirty Years' War; only a vaulted cellar remains. The hunting castle was later built there; the remains of this castle now form the center of a nature preserve.  John III died in 1574 and the Catholic counties of Saarbrücken, Saarland and Ottweiler fell to Albert and Philip of the Weilburg branch of the House of Nassau. They divided this inheritance: Philip received Saarbrüchen, Saarwerden and the Lordship of Stauf; Albert received Ottweiler, the districts of Homburg and Kirchheim and the Lordships of Lahr and Mahlberg in the Black Forest.  Their inheritance of Saarbrücken was challenged from various quarters. Duke Charles III of Lorraine, demanded the county Saarwerden back as a completed fief. However, Albert as the Senior member of the Walram line of Nassau, managed to let Nassau law prevail before the Supreme Court of Appeal. The dispute went on for years and threatened several times to escalate to a militarily level. This was the main reason that Philip moved his main residence to Saarbrücken. His newly built \"summer house at Saarbrücken\", which forms the basis of today's Saarbrücken Castle, served as his residence.  The Elector Palatine, Frederick III also claimed parts of the inheritance. Here too, the House of Nassau managed to prevail on the essential points. Several large treaties were closed, in which the exact rights and boundaries of the Nassau and Palatinate territories were defined. On the first of January 1575 Philip introduced the Reformation in his territories, after the example of Hesse. The court chaplain at Saarbrücken, Gebhart Beilstein from Wetzlar, was tasked with the implementation. Catholic priests were converted to the new faith or removed from office; church property was confiscated; schools were established and patronage was acquired. The celebration of \"pagan\" feasts, such as St. John's Eve, and dancing on Sundays, were prohibited by law. Philip issued an extensive Church Order. His implementation of the Reformation intensified his disputes with the Duchy of Lorraine, which was still Catholic.  Philip III. died on 12 March 1602 in Saarbrücken. He was buried in the traditional crypt of the house of Nassau-Saarbrücken, in the Collegiate Church (now the Evangelical Church) in St. Arnual (now part of Saarbrücken). As Philip had no sons, his territories were inherited by his nephew Louis II of Nassau-Weilburg, who then held all the territories of the Walram line of Nassau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and issue.", "content": "Philip married his first wife Erika of Manderscheid-Blankenheim on 9 April 1563. They had only child:  After the Erika's death in 1581, Philip married on 3 October 1583 Elisabeth of Nassau-Dillenburg, a daughter of John VI \"the elder\" of Dillenburg. After Philip's death, Elizabeth married Ernest Wolfgang of Isenburg-Büdingen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philip IV of Nassau-Weilburg, also known as Philip III of Nassau-Saarbrücken (14 October 1542 in Weilburg – 12 March 1602 in Saarbrücken) was Count of Nassau-Weilburg from 1559 until his death and since 1574 also Count of Nassau-Saarbrücken. Both possessions belonged to the Walram line of the House of Nassau. In Weilburg, he was the fourth count named Philip, but only the third in Saarbrücken, because his father, Philip III of Nassau-Weilburg never held Nassau-Saarbrücken.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976573}
{"src_title": "Jesús Huerta de Soto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and career.", "content": "Huerta de Soto received a bachelor's degree in economics in 1978 and a PhD in economics in 1992, from Complutense University. His MBA in actuarial science is from Stanford University, 1985. In 2000 he became a full professor of Political Economy at Universidad Rey Juan Carlos in Madrid. Since 2007 he is director of the Austrian Economics Master Program \"Master Economía de la Escuela Austríaca\" at the Rey Juan Carlos University.  Huerta de Soto was Editor of seven volumes of the Spanish language version of the University of Chicago Press's \"The Collected Works of F.A. Hayek\". In that capacity, he was responsible for bibliographies, footnotes, introductions, and hiring translators. He is a member of the editorial board of \"New Perspectives on Political Economy\" and on the advisory editorial board of the \"Journal of Markets and Morality\". Huerta de Soto is a Senior Fellow of the Ludwig von Mises Institute and is on the editorial board of its \"Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics\". He was formerly a Trustee of the Madrid Institute for Advanced Studies (IMDEA) in social sciences and was a vice-president and director of the Mont Pelerin Society from 2000 to 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economic views.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classical liberalism.", "content": "An anarcho-capitalist, Huerta argues that classical liberalism and their ideal is theoretically impossible; he also notes that classical liberals have failed to limit the power of the state.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "General equilibrium theory.", "content": "Economist Leland B. Yeager has cited Huerta de Soto as an example of scorn in economics. Yeager states that Soto scorns general equilibrium theory, citing a passage in which Soto refers to the \"pernicious analysis\" of price equilibrium at \"the intersection of mysterious curves or functions lacking any real existence...even in the minds of the actors involved.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Austrian business cycle and full reserve banking.", "content": "Huerta de Soto advocates full-reserve banking, a system in which 100% reserve requirements for banks would prevent any expansion of credit.  In 2006, Huerta de Soto wrote an 876-page book on the subject, published in English by the Mises Institute as \"Money, Bank Credit, and Economic Cycles\". Samuel Gregg reviewed the book writing that \"[t]he sheer length of this text will demand much time and concentration of readers wishing to fully absorb its insights. Certainly there is an element of repetition at different points. This tends, however, to reflect De Soto's determination to demonstrate that the moral, legal, and economic dimensions of money, credit, and banking cannot be artificially separated from each other without risking the loss of a sound understanding of the subject.\" In the journal New Perspectives on Political Economy, Ludwig van den Hauwe suggested that \"[e]ven if it may be difficult at this time to gauge in any precise manner the effect the book will have on the economics profession at large, there can be no doubt the book is destined to become a classic, both by virtue of the subject matters that are treated and in virtue of the manner in which they are treated: thoroughly and authoritatively.\"  Larry J. Sechrest's review of Huerta de Soto's book, also published by the Mises Institute, stated that the author attempted to provide \"final and decisive proof\" that fractional reserve banking is incompatible with private property rights, morality, and a stable economy. Sechrest wrote that although Huerta de Soto presented a painstaking investigation of legal theory, banking history, business cycles, and medieval theological doctrine, a great deal of it is irrelevant to the book's thesis. Sechrest concludes \"Above all, Huerta de Soto refuses to even consider the possibility that banks' customers may have been quite willing to face some risk exposure in exchange for the benefits 100 percent reserve banks are unable to provide\" and believes that \"any departure from 100 percent reserve banking is automatically taken to be evidence of malfeasance by bankers, even when there is no clear data on the details of the contractual relations negotiated by depositors.\"  In his chapter on \"Attempts to Legally Justify Fractional-Reserve Banking\", Huerta de Soto considers the possibility \"that a certain group of bank customers (or for the sake of argument, all of them) enter into a deposit contract aware and fully accepting that banks will invest (or loan, etc.) a large portion of the money they deposit\". In this case, argues Huerta de Soto, \"the supposed authorization from the depositors lacks legal validity\" because few lay-persons understand the instability inherent in fractional-reserve banking: they believe their deposit is guaranteed, which Huerta de Soto considers a (near universal) misconception. As evidence of the true wishes of depositors, he cites the riots that resulted when banks suspended payments during the 1998–2002 Argentine great depression.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Money and banking.", "content": "Andre Azevedo Alves and Jose Moreira state that Huerta de Soto has written the \"most complete and integrated analysis of the theories of banking\" of the School of Salamanca.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "In a review for the Mises Institute's \"Review of Austrian Economics\", Institute Associated Scholar Leland B. Yeager called the book \"the most thorough treatment in print of Austrian ideas on banking and the business cycle\". Mises Institute Senior Fellow and former United States representative Ron Paul endorsed Huerta de Soto's view that fractional reserve banking is the cause of financial instability. An Institute of Economic Affairs review described \"The Theory of Dynamic Efficiency\" as \"A major new collection in the field of Austrian economics\" and called Huerta de Soto \"a leading Spanish scholar\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Journals.", "content": "For a list of articles published in Spanish, English, and other languages, see the Huerta de Soto website.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jesús Huerta de Soto Ballester (born December 23, 1956) is a Spanish economist of the Austrian School. He is a professor in the Department of Applied Economics at King Juan Carlos University of Madrid, Spain and a Senior Fellow at the Ludwig von Mises Institute.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976574}
{"src_title": "Rijksmuseum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "18th century.", "content": "In 1795, the Batavian Republic was proclaimed. The Minister of Finance Isaac Gogel argued that a national museum, following the French example of The Louvre, would serve the national interest. On 19 November 1798, the government decided to found the museum.  On 31 May 1800, the National Art Gallery (Dutch: \"Nationale Kunst-Galerij\"), precursor of the Rijksmuseum, opened in Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. The museum exhibited around 200 paintings and historic objects from the collections of the Dutch stadtholders.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "19th century.", "content": "In 1805, the National Art Gallery moved within The Hague to the Prince William V Gallery, on the Buitenhof.  In 1806, the Kingdom of Holland was established by Napoleon Bonaparte. On the orders of king Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon, the museum moved to Amsterdam in 1808. The paintings owned by that city, such as \"The Night Watch\" by Rembrandt, became part of the collection. In 1809, the museum opened in the Royal Palace in Amsterdam.  In 1817, the museum moved to the Trippenhuis. The Trippenhuis turned out to be unsuitable as a museum. In 1820, the historical objects were moved to the Mauritshuis in The Hague and in 1838, the 19th-century paintings \"\"of living masters\"\" were moved to King Louis Bonaparte's former summer palace Paviljoen Welgelegen in Haarlem.  In 1863, there was a design contest for a new building for the Rijksmuseum, but none of the submissions was considered to be of sufficient quality. Pierre Cuypers also participated in the contest and his submission reached the second place.  In 1876, a new contest was held and this time Pierre Cuypers won. The design was a combination of gothic and renaissance elements. The construction began on 1 October 1876. On both the inside and the outside, the building was richly decorated with references to Dutch art history. Another contest was held for these decorations. The winners were B. van Hove and J.F. Vermeylen for the sculptures, G. Sturm for the tile tableaus and painting and W.F. Dixon for the stained glass. The museum was opened at its new location on 13 July 1885.  In 1890, a new building was added a short distance to the south-west of the Rijksmuseum. As the building was made out of fragments of demolished buildings, the building offers an overview of the history of Dutch architecture and has come to be known informally as the 'fragment building'. It is also known as the'south wing' and is currently (in 2013) branded the \"Philips Wing\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th century.", "content": "In 1906, the hall for the \"Night Watch\" was rebuilt. In the interior more changes were made between the 1920s and 1950s - most multi-coloured wall decorations were painted over. In the 1960s exposition rooms and several floors were built into the two courtyards. The building had some minor renovations and restorations in 1984, 1995–1996 and 2000.  A renovation of the south wing of the museum, also known as the 'fragment building' or 'Philips Wing', was completed in 1996, the same year that the museum held its first major photography exhibition featuring its extensive collection of 19th-century photos.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "21st century.", "content": "In December 2003, the main building of the museum closed for a major renovation. During this renovation, about 400 objects from the collection were on display in the 'fragment building', including Rembrandt's \"The Night Watch\" and other 17th-century masterpieces.  The restoration and renovation of the Rijksmuseum are based on a design by Spanish architects Antonio Cruz and Antonio Ortiz. Many of the old interior decorations were restored and the floors in the courtyards were removed. The renovation would have initially taken five years, but was delayed and eventually took almost ten years to complete. The renovation cost € 375 million.  The reconstruction of the building was completed on 16 July 2012. In March 2013, the museum's main pieces of art were moved back from the 'fragment building' (Philips Wing) to the main building. \"The Night Watch\" returned to the Night Watch Room, at the end of the Hall of Fame. On 13 April 2013, the main building was reopened by Queen Beatrix. On 1 November 2014, the Philips Wing reopened with the exhibition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Building.", "content": "The building of the Rijksmuseum was designed by Pierre Cuypers and opened in 1885. It consists of two squares with an atrium in each centre. In the central axis is a tunnel with the entrances at ground level and the Gallery of Honour at the first floor. The building also contains a library. The fragment building, branded Philips wing, contains building fragments that show the history of architecture in the Netherlands. The Rijksmuseum is a \"rijksmonument\" (national heritage site) since 1970 and was listed in the Top 100 Dutch heritage sites in 1990. The Asian pavilion was designed by Cruz y Ortiz and opened in 2013.  According to Muriel Huisman, Project Architect for the Rijksmuseum's renovation, \"Cruz y Ortiz always like to look for synergy between old and new, and we try not to explain things with our architecture.” With the Rijks, “there’s no cut between old and new; we’ve tried to merge it. We did this by looking for materials that were true to the original building, resulting in a kind of silent architecture.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collection.", "content": "The collection of the Rijksmuseum consists of 1 million objects and is dedicated to arts, crafts, and history from the years 1200 to 2000. Around 8,000 objects are currently on display in the museum.  The collection contains more than 2,000 paintings from the Dutch Golden Age by notable painters such as Jacob van Ruisdael, Frans Hals, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Rembrandt, and Rembrandt's pupils.  The museum also has a small Asian collection which is on display in the Asian pavilion.  It also displays the stern of HMS \"Royal Charles\" which was captured in the Raid on the Medway, and the Hartog plate.  In 2012, the museum took the unusual step of making some 125,000 high-resolution images available for download via its Rijksstudio webplatform, with plans to add another 40,000 images per year until the entire collection of one million works is available, according to Taco Dibbits, director of collections.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Number of visitors.", "content": "The 20th-century visitor record of 1,412,000 was reached in the year 1975.  In the 1990s and early 2000s, the Rijksmuseum was annually visited by 0.9 to 1.3 million people. On 7 December 2003, the main building of the museum was closed for a renovation until 13 April 2013. In the preceding decade, the number of visitors had slightly decreased to 0.8 to 1.1 million people. The museum says after the renovation, the museum's capacity is 1.5 to 2.0 million visitors annually. Within eight months since the reopening in 2013, the museum was visited by 2 million people.  The museum had 2.2 million visitors in 2013 and reached an all-time record of 2.47 million visitors in 2014. The museum was the most visited museum in the Netherlands and the 19th most visited art museum in the world in 2013 and 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Library.", "content": "The Rijksmuseum Research Library is part of the Rijksmuseum, and is the best and the largest public art history research library in The Netherlands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restaurant.", "content": "Rijks, stylized as RIJKS®, is a restaurant with 140 seats in the Philips Wing. Joris Bijdendijk has been the chef de cuisine since the opening in 2014. The restaurant was awarded a Michelin star in 2017.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Rijksmuseum (; ) is a Dutch national museum dedicated to arts and history in Amsterdam. The museum is located at the Museum Square in the borough Amsterdam South, close to the Van Gogh Museum, the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, and the Concertgebouw.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976575}
{"src_title": "Margaret Rhea Seddon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Seddon was born in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, where she attended St Rose of Lima Catholic School and graduated from Central High School in 1965. She received a bachelor of arts degree in physiology from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1970, and a doctorate of medicine from the University of Tennessee College of Medicine in 1973. While at the University of California, Seddon was a member of Sigma Kappa sorority.  After medical school, Seddon completed a surgical internship and 3 years of a general surgery residency in Memphis with a particular interest in nutrition in surgery patients. Between the period of her internship and residency, she served as an Emergency Department physician at a number of hospitals in Mississippi and Tennessee, and served in this capacity in the Houston area in her spare time. Seddon has also performed clinical research into the effects of radiation therapy on nutrition in cancer patients.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NASA experience.", "content": "Selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in January 1978, Seddon became an astronaut in August 1979. Her work at NASA was in a variety of areas, including Orbiter and payload software, Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory, Flight Data File, Shuttle medical kit and checklist, launch and landing rescue helicopter physician, support crew member for STS-6, crew equipment, membership on NASA's Aerospace Medical Advisory Committee, Technical Assistant to the Director of Flight Crew Operations, and Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) in the Mission Control Center.  She was Assistant to the Director of Flight Crew Operations for Shuttle/Mir Payloads. A three-flight veteran with over 722 hours in space, Seddon was a mission specialist on STS-51D (1985) and STS-40 (1991), and was the payload commander on STS-58 (1993). In September 1996, she was detailed by NASA to Vanderbilt University Medical School in Nashville, Tennessee. She assisted in the preparation of cardiovascular experiments which flew aboard on the Neurolab Spacelab flight in April 1998. Seddon retired from NASA in November 1997. She is now the assistant Chief Medical Officer of the Vanderbilt Medical Group in Nashville, Tennessee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Space flights.", "content": "STS-51-D (), April 12–19, 1985, was launched from and returned to land at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The crew deployed ANIK-C for Telesat of Canada, and Syncom IV-3 for the U.S. Navy. A malfunction in the Syncom spacecraft resulted in the first unscheduled spacewalk, rendezvous and proximity operations for the Space Shuttle in an attempt to activate the satellite using the Remote Manipulator System. Taking her Sigma Kappa sorority badge into space Seddon logged 168 hours in 109 Earth orbits, and used her surgical skills to operate a bone saw to help build homemade repair tools for the satellite. STS-40 () Spacelab Life Sciences (SLS-1), June 5–14, 1991, a dedicated space and life sciences mission was launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and returned to land at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the nine-day mission the crew performed experiments which explored how humans, animals and cells respond to microgravity and re-adapt to Earth's gravity on return. Other payloads included experiments designed to investigate materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation, and tests of hardware proposed for the Space Station Freedom Health Maintenance Facility. Mission completed in 146 orbits of the Earth, and logged her an additional 218 hours in space.  STS-58 (), Spacelab Life Sciences-2 (SLS-2), flew October 18 to November 1, 1993. Seddon was the Payload Commander on this life science research mission which received NASA management recognition as the most successful and efficient Spacelab flown to date. During the fourteen-day flight the seven-person crew performed neurovestibular, cardiovascular, cardiopulmonary, metabolic, and musculoskeletal medical experiments on themselves and 48 rats, expanding our knowledge of human and animal physiology both on earth and in space flight. In addition, the crew performed 10 engineering tests aboard the Orbiter Columbia and 9 Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project experiments. The mission was accomplished in 225 orbits of the Earth in over 336 hours.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "She is married to former astronaut Robert L. Gibson of Cooperstown, New York, with whom she has three children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "In 2015, Seddon was inducted into the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Margaret Rhea Seddon (born November 8, 1947) is a physician and retired NASA astronaut. After being selected as part of the first group of astronauts to include women, she flew on three Space Shuttle flights: as mission specialist for STS-51-D and STS-40, and as payload commander for STS-58. Both before and after her career in the astronaut program, she has been active in the medical community in Tennessee, Mississippi and Texas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976576}
{"src_title": "Arnold Genthe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Arnold Genthe was born in Berlin, Prussia, to Luise Zober and Hermann Genthe, a professor of Latin and Greek at the Graues Kloster (Grey Monastery) in Berlin. Genthe followed in his father's footsteps, becoming a classically trained scholar; he received a doctorate in philology in 1894 from the University of Jena, where he knew artist Adolf Menzel, his mother's cousin.  After emigrating to San Francisco in 1895 to work as a tutor for the son of Baron and Baroness J. Henrich von Schroeder, he taught himself photography. He was intrigued by the Chinese section of the city and photographed its inhabitants, from children to drug addicts, Due to his subjects' possible fear of his camera or their reluctance to have pictures taken, Genthe sometimes hid his camera. He also sometimes removed evidence of Western culture from these pictures, cropping or erasing as needed. About 200 of his Chinatown pictures survive, and these comprise the only known photographic depictions of the area before the 1906 earthquake.  After local magazines published some of his photographs in the late 1890s, he opened a portrait studio. He knew some of the city's wealthy matrons, and as his reputation grew, his clientele included Nance O'Neil, Sarah Bernhardt, Nora May French, and Jack London. In 1904 he traveled to Western Europe and Tangier with the famous watercolorist, Francis McComas.  In 1906, the San Francisco earthquake and fire destroyed Genthe's studio, but he rebuilt. His photograph of the earthquake's aftermath, \"Looking Down Sacramento Street, San Francisco, April 18, 1906\", is his most famous photograph.  Within a short time, Genthe joined the art colony in Carmel-by-the-Sea, where he fraternized with the literary elite, including George Sterling, Jack London, Harry Leon Wilson, Ambrose Bierce, and Mary Austin. Here he was able to pursue his work in color photography. Of his new residence, he wrote, \"The cypresses and rocks of Point Lobos, the always varying sunsets and the intriguing shadows of the sand dunes offered a rich field for color experiments.\" Although his stay in Carmel was relatively short (1905–07), he was appointed in 1907 to the Board of Directors of the Art Gallery in Monterey’s luxury Hotel Del Monte, where he insured that the work of important regional art photographers, such as Laura Adams Armer and Anne Brigman, was displayed with his own prints. By the spring of 1907 he had established his residence and studio at 3209 Clay Street in San Francisco, where he continued to enjoy membership in the celebrated Bohemian Club, attend prominent society functions, display his own work, and pen newspaper reviews of photo and art exhibitions.  In 1911 he moved to New York City, where he remained until his death of a heart attack in 1942. He worked primarily in portraiture, and Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and John D. Rockefeller all sat for him. His photos of Greta Garbo were credited with boosting her career. He also photographed dancers, including Anna Pavlova, Isadora Duncan, Audrey Munson and Ruth St. Denis, and his photos were featured in the 1916 book, \"The Book of the Dance\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Autochromes.", "content": "Genthe was an early adopter of the autochrome color photography process. He began experimenting with the process in 1905 in Carmel, California. He claimed credit for the first exhibition of color photographs in America; later scholars determined this is not accurate, but he was undoubtedly one of the earliest. His subjects included portraits, artistic nudes, and landscapes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genthe's cat.", "content": "Genthe owned a cat called Buzzer. Buzzer often appeared in portraitures with Genthe's subjects, most notably Broadway actresses to whom the cat warmed. One such sitting in autochrome was with actress Ann Murdock.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arnold Genthe (8 January 1869 – 9 August 1942) was a German-American photographer, best known for his photographs of San Francisco's Chinatown, the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, and his portraits of noted people, from politicians and socialites to literary figures and entertainment celebrities.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976577}
{"src_title": "An Antarctic Mystery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Volume 1.", "content": "The story is set in 1839, eleven years after the events in \"Arthur Gordon Pym\", one year after the publication of that book.  The narrator is a wealthy American Jeorling, who has entertained himself with private studies of the wildlife on the Kerguelen Islands and is now looking for a passage back to the United States. \"Halbrane\" is one of the first ships to arrive at Kerguelen, and its captain Len Guy somewhat reluctantly agrees to have Jeorling as a passenger as far as Tristan da Cunha.  Underway, they meet a stray iceberg with a dead body on it, which turns out to be a sailor from \"Jane\". A note found with him indicates that he and several others including \"Jane's\" captain William Guy had survived the assassination attempt at Tsalal and are still alive.  Guy, who had talked to Jeorling earlier about the subject of Pym, reveals himself to be the brother of William Guy. He decides to try to come to the rescue of \"Jane\"s crew. After taking on provisions on Tristan da Cunha and the Falklands, they head South with Jeorling still on board. They also take aboard another mysterious sailor named Hunt who is eager to join the search for undisclosed reasons.  Extraordinarily mild weather allows the \"Halbrane\" to make good progress, and they break the pack ice barrier, which surrounds an ice-free Antarctic ocean, early in summer. They find first Bennet's islet, where \"Jane\" had made a stop, and finally Tsalal. But the island is completely devastated, apparently by a recent massive earthquake, and deserted. They find the remains of Tsalal's natives, who apparently died long \"before\" the earthquake, and the collar of Pym's dog, Tiger, but no trace of \"Jane\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Volume 2.", "content": "At this point, Hunt is revealed to be Dirk Peters. On their travel south of Tsalal, he and Pym had become separated, and only Peters made it safely back to the States where he, not Pym, instigated the publication of their voyage. Pym's diary, in Peters' possession, had apparently been significantly embellished by Poe. Upon returning home, Peters took on a new identity, because he was too ashamed of having resorted to cannibalism on the wreck of \"Grampus\".  Guy and Peters decide to push further south, much to the chagrin of a part of the crew led by one seaman Hearne, who feels they should abandon the rescue attempt and head home before the onset of winter. Not much later, in a freak accident, \"Halbrane\" is thrown upon an iceberg and subsequently lost. The crew makes it safely onto the iceberg, but with only one small boat left, it is doomed to drift on. The iceberg drifts even past the South Pole, before the whole party is cast ashore on a hitherto unknown land mass still within the pack ice barrier. Hearne and his fellows steal the last remaining boat, trying to make it to the open sea on their own, and making the situation even bleaker for those left behind who now face the prospect of wintering in the Antarctic.  They are lucky, however, as shortly thereafter they see a small boat of aboriginal style drifting by. Peters is the first to react as he swims out toward the boat and secures it. But Peters finds more: In the boat, there are captain William Guy and the three surviving seamen of his crew, semiconscious and close to death by starvation. Peters brings them ashore, and the men from \"Halbrane\" nurse them back to life.  William Guy then recounts their story. Shortly after the explosion of \"Jane\" (and presumably the departure of Pym's company), Tiger appeared again. Rabid, he bit and infected the natives who quickly fell victim to the new disease. Those who could fled to the neighboring islands, where they perished later in the course of the earthquake.  Up to this point, William Guy and his men had lived fairly comfortably on Tsalal, which was now their own, but after the earthquake found their position untenable and made a desperate attempt in the boat to escape north. The combined crews of \"Halbrane\" and \"Jane\" decide to try to make it north in their newly acquired boat. They make good progress, until they notice the appearance of strong magnetic forces. They find the source of it, the Ice Sphinx: A huge mountain magnetically \"charged\" by the particle streams that get focused on the poles through Earth's magnetic field.  Here, they find the remains of Hearne's team, which came to grief when the Ice Sphinx's immense magnetic forces attracted their iron tools and boat components to it and smashed them on its rocks. The boat of Joerling and the others only escaped destruction because, being built by the natives, it contained no iron parts.  At the foot of the Sphinx, they also find the body of Pym, who came to death the same way. Peters dies from grief on the same spot. The others embark again in their boat, and finally reach the open ocean and are rescued.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "An Antarctic Mystery (, \"The Sphinx of the Ice Fields\") is a two-volume novel by Jules Verne. Written in 1897, it is a response to Edgar Allan Poe's 1838 novel \"The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket\". It follows the adventures of the narrator and his journey from the Kerguelen Islands aboard \"Halbrane\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976578}
{"src_title": "Blake Wheeler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amateur.", "content": "Wheeler attended Breck School his freshman year through his junior year. There, during his junior year, Wheeler had his breakout season, putting up a state-high 45 goals and 55 assists in 2003–04. He led his team to a Class A State Hockey Championship that season, and scored a hat trick in the final game.  Wheeler opted to play his senior year in the United States Hockey League (USHL) with the Green Bay Gamblers. After playing one season with the Gamblers, Wheeler attended the University of Minnesota. In 2005–06, his freshman year with the Minnesota Golden Gophers, he recorded 23 points in 39 games, playing alongside future Boston Bruins teammate Phil Kessel.  In the 2007 WCHA Final Five tournament, Wheeler recorded a hat trick in a 4–2 win in the semifinal game against the University of Wisconsin–Madison. In the championship game, Wheeler scored the game-winning goal in a 3–2 overtime win against the North Dakota Fighting Sioux. The play was featured on ESPN's \"SportsCenter\" and quickly gained notoriety for its similarity to the game-winning goal in the 1979 NCAA Championship Game, scored by Minnesota's Neal Broten, also against North Dakota. Wheeler was named the tournament MVP.  Early in the 2007–08 season, following injuries to Ryan Stoa and Mike Howe, Wheeler was named an alternate captain for the Golden Gophers and recorded 35 points in 44 games. At the end of the season, four years after he was drafted, Wheeler had yet to come to a contract agreement with the Coyotes. Given the option, Wheeler elected to become an unrestricted free agent despite a maximum entry-level contract offer from the club.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Boston Bruins (2008–2011).", "content": "After the Phoenix Coyotes were not able to come to terms with Wheeler, on July 1, 2008, Wheeler signed an entry-level contract with the Boston Bruins. The Coyotes received a compensatory second-round pick as a result of his signing elsewhere. On October 7, the Bruins made their final cuts for the 2008–09 season and Wheeler remained with the NHL club. Two days later, on October 9, Wheeler scored his first NHL goal, in his NHL debut, against goaltender Peter Budaj of the Colorado Avalanche. Wheeler then collected his first NHL hat trick the next month on November 6, against the Toronto Maple Leafs.  Being named to the 2009 NHL YoungStars Game to represent the rookies, he earned Game MVP honors after a four-goal effort to beat the sophomores 9–5. After being hit by a puck in practice during the 2009 pre-season, Blake added a visor to his helmet.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Atlanta Thrashers/Winnipeg Jets (2011–present).", "content": "On February 18, 2011, Wheeler, along with Mark Stuart, was traded by Boston to the Atlanta Thrashers for Boris Valábik and Rich Peverley. On July 18, 2011, Wheeler signed a two-year, $5.1 million deal after the Thrashers were relocated and renamed the Winnipeg Jets. In the inaugural 2011–12 season with the Jets, he led the team in scoring with a career-high 64 points in 80 games. With the 2012–13 season delayed due to the NHL lockout and in order to keep game shape, Wheeler signed in Europe with EHC München of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL) in Germany on October 28, 2012.  In July 2013, Wheeler avoided arbitration by signing a contract for six years, $33.6 million, which carried an annual cap hit of $5.6 million per season. He became the third-highest paid Jets player behind defensemen Tobias Enström and Dustin Byfuglien, and he was signed through to the 2018–19 season. On August 31, 2016, Wheeler was named the captain of the Jets. Wheeler was named to his first NHL All-Star game on January 10, 2018, for the 2018 NHL All-Star Game, finished the regular season with a career best 91 points and lead the league in assists with 68, tied with Claude Giroux. On April 24, 2018, Wheeler was named a finalist for the Mark Messier Leadership Award.  On September 4, 2018, Wheeler signed a five-year, $41.25 million contract extension with the Jets.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Blake James Wheeler (born August 31, 1986) is an American professional ice hockey right winger and captain of the Winnipeg Jets of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was drafted by the Phoenix Coyotes in the first round, fifth overall, in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft. Wheeler was born in Plymouth, Minnesota, but grew up in Robbinsdale, Minnesota. After failing to come to terms on a contract with the Phoenix Coyotes, he signed with the Boston Bruins as a free agent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976579}
{"src_title": "Alfred Naujocks", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Naujocks was born in Kiel and attended the University of Kiel, where he studied engineering. In 1931, after an incomplete apprenticeship as a precision mechanic, he joined the SS. A well known amateur boxer, he was frequently in brawls with the communists. He then signed on as a low-ranking driver for the Sicherheitsdienst SD-Regional Command East, Berlin in 1934, but was soon entrusted with special assignments such as murder. He led an undercover attack on an anti-Nazi radio station in the village of Slapy in Czechoslovakia on 23 January 1935. Black Front activist Rudolf Formis was killed in the incident; Naujocks confessed to the murder in 1944 while in American custody. By the Autumn of 1937, Naujocks had been promoted to \"Hauptsturmführer\" (captain) and by 1938 had been promoted again, to \"Sturmbannführer\" (major).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "On 10 August 1939, Reinhard Heydrich informed Naujocks of his mission to lead a small group of German operatives to seize the Gleiwitz radio station. Three weeks later, on the night of 31 August, Naujocks led the attack on the German radio station at Gleiwitz, one of twenty-one similar concentrated attacks which the German government quickly attributed to the Poles. Once inside the radio station, a short anti-German message in Polish was broadcast (the precise content of the message is now uncertain). Shots were fired in the studio and a corpse left on the floor near the microphone.  To add documented proof of this attack, the SD operatives placed fictitious Polish troops (corpses of prisoners from the Dachau concentration camp who had been dressed in Polish uniforms provided by the Abwehr, killed by lethal injection, and then shot for the sake of appearances) around the attacked radio station for selected members of the press to see at the site of the incident. These attacks, but not exclusively the Gleiwitz incident, formed Hitler's justification to the Reichstag regarding the necessary \"pacification\" of Poland, thereby igniting the Second World War in Europe.  More recently, author and researcher Jak Mallmann-Showell's investigation has suggested that Naujocks's claims as to his actions at the Gleiwitz radio station may have been a fabrication to curry special handling by the Allies after the war. Mallmann-Showell discerned that Naujocks is the sole source for details of his personal actions on the night of 31 August 1939. He also avers that the Poles may have accessed the site to obtain Enigma machine secrets for the allies.  Later, on 9 November 1939, Naujocks (along with Walter Schellenberg) participated in the Venlo incident, which saw the capture in the Netherlands of two British SIS agents, Captain Sigismund Payne Best and Major Richard Henry Stevens.  In early 1940, Naujocks was put in charge of the counterfeiting unit of the SD charged with forging British bank notes under Operation Andreas. By late 1940 Naujocks had been removed from his position after he fell out of favor with Heydrich.  In 1941, he was dismissed from the SD after disputing one of Reinhard Heydrich's orders. He was demoted and had to serve in the Waffen-SS on the Eastern Front. In 1943, due to ill health, he was sent to the West, where he served as an economic administrator the following year for German troops in Belgium, while involving himself in the deaths of several Belgian underground and Danish resistance members.  After his promotion to \"Obersturmführer\" (first lieutenant) he participated in sabotage and terrorist actions against the Danish population from December 1943 until autumn 1944, as the leader of the \"Peter Group\", including the murder of Lutheran pastor Kaj Munk. Later leadership passed to SS-Hauptsturmführer Otto Alexander Friedrich Schwerdt (SS-Jagdverbände). Circa November 1944, Naujocks turned himself over to American forces, who subsequently placed him in detention as a possible war criminal by the end of the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "At the Nuremberg Trials, Naujocks declared the attack against German Radio Tower in Gleiwitz was under orders from Heinrich Müller, the head of Gestapo and his superior, Reinhard Heydrich. After the war, he escaped from custody before his trial for war crimes, and lived in hiding into the 1960s. He worked as a businessman in Hamburg, where he eventually sold his story to the media as \"The Man who Started the War\". He was alleged to have been involved in running ODESSA, together with Otto Skorzeny, who handled contracts with the Spanish government, supplying passports and arranging for funds. Naujocks and his associates handled former Nazi war criminals going to Latin America, being responsible for their reception and protection there. Naujocks died of a heart attack in Hamburg on 4 April 1966, aged 54.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alfred Helmut Naujocks (20 September 1911 – 4 April 1966), alias \"Hans Müller\", \"Alfred Bonsen\", and \"Rudolf Möbert\", was a German SS functionary during the Third Reich. He took part in the staged Gleiwitz incident, a False flag intended to provide the justification for the attack on Poland by Nazi Germany, starting the Second World War in Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976580}
{"src_title": "Eddie Redmayne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Redmayne was born on 6 January 1982 in the London borough of Westminster. His mother, Patricia (née Burke), runs a relocation business, and his father, Richard Redmayne, is a businessman in corporate finance. His paternal great-grandfather was Sir Richard Redmayne, a civil and mining engineer. He has an older brother, a younger brother, and an older half-brother and half-sister. From the age of 10, Redmayne attended Jackie Palmer Stage School, where he found his love for acting and singing, alongside fellow star James Corden.  He attended Eaton House, Colet Court, and then Eton College, where he was in the same year as Prince William. He went on to read History of Art at Trinity College, Cambridge, from where he graduated with 2:1 Honours in 2003. Despite being colourblind, Redmayne wrote his dissertation on Yves Klein's signature colour, International Klein Blue, which he is able to see with vibrancy. While at Cambridge, Redmayne was a member of the University Pitt Club.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modelling.", "content": "Prior to becoming a full-time actor, Redmayne modelled for Burberry in 2008 with Alex Pettyfer, and in 2012 with Cara Delevingne. In the September 2012 issue of \"Vanity Fair\", he was featured on its annual International Best Dressed List. In 2015, he was named number one in GQ's 50 best dressed British men.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stage.", "content": "Redmayne made his professional stage debut as Viola in \"Twelfth Night\", for Shakespeare's Globe at the Middle Temple Hall in 2002. He won the award for Outstanding Newcomer at the 50th \"Evening Standard\" Theatre Awards in 2004, for his performance in Edward Albee's \"The Goat, or Who Is Sylvia?\", and the award for Best Newcomer at the Critics' Circle Theatre Awards in 2005. Later stage credits include \"Now or Later\" by Christopher Shinn at the Royal Court Theatre. The show ran from 3 September to 1 November 2008.  In 2009, Redmayne appeared in John Logan's new play \"Red\" at the Donmar Warehouse in London, for which he won the 2010 Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. He reprised his role in \"Red\" at the John Golden Theatre on Broadway, in a 15-week run from 11 March to 27 June 2010, and won the 2010 Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Play. He portrayed King Richard II in \"Richard II\" directed by Michael Grandage, at the Donmar Warehouse from 6 December 2011 to 4 February 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Film and television.", "content": "Redmayne made his screen debut in 1998 in an episode of \"Animal Ark\". His television credits include the BBC miniseries \"Tess of the d'Urbervilles\", the miniseries \"The Pillars of the Earth\", and the two-part miniseries \"Birdsong\".  Redmayne was cast in his first feature film \"Like Minds\" (2006) after being spotted by casting director Lucy Bevan performing in a play called \"Goats\". Redmayne has appeared in films such as \"The Good Shepherd\" (2006), \"Savage Grace\" (2007), \"Powder Blue\" (2008), \"The Other Boleyn Girl\" (2008), \"Glorious 39\" (2009), and \"Hick\" (2011). He starred as Osmund in Christopher Smith's supernatural gothic chiller film \"Black Death\" (2010). His 2008 Sundance drama film \"The Yellow Handkerchief\" was released on 26 February 2010 by Samuel Goldwyn Films.  In 2011 he starred as filmmaker Colin Clark in the drama film \"My Week with Marilyn\". He took on the role of Marius Pontmercy for the 2012 musical film \"Les Misérables\".  In 2014, he starred as Stephen Hawking in \"The Theory of Everything\", a role for which he won the Academy Award, BAFTA, Golden Globe, and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actor, depicting the debilitating challenges of ALS.  In early 2015, Redmayne appeared in the Wachowski siblings' film, \"Jupiter Ascending\" as Balem Abrasax. The film was widely panned, including his performance, for which he won the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor. Redmayne also presented the 2015 documentary War Art with Eddie Redmayne, made as part of the ITV's Perspectives programme. Redmayne guest starred as Ryan the tank engine in \"Thomas & Friends\" movie special \"Sodor's Legend of the Lost Treasure.\"  That same year, Redmayne starred in the biographical drama \"The Danish Girl\", directed by Academy Award-winning director Tom Hooper. In the film, released in the United Kingdom on 1 January 2016, Redmayne portrayed transgender pioneer Lili Elbe, a casting that was the subject of some controversy from the transgender community. However, Redmayne's performance was met with critical acclaim; in January 2016, he earned his second nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor in consecutive years. Redmayne later acknowledged the criticism towards his casting in a 2018 interview, stressing the importance of casting transgender actors playing trans roles.  In 2016, Redmayne starred as Newt Scamander in the film adaptation of \"Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them\", the first of a series within the Wizarding World of the \"Harry Potter\" film series, with a screenplay by J. K. Rowling. In 2018, Redmayne starred in the stop-motion animated film \"Early Man\", and reprised his role as Newt Scamander in \"\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Redmayne married Hannah Bagshawe on 15 December 2014. They have a daughter born in 2016 and a son born in 2018.  Redmayne was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2015 Birthday Honours for services to drama. In August 2014, he was appointed ambassador of film education charity Into Film.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edward John David Redmayne (; born 6 January 1982) is an English actor. Redmayne is the recipient of various accolades including; an Academy Award, a Tony Award and a BAFTA Award.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976581}
{"src_title": "Moravian-Silesian Beskids", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "The mountains were created during the Alpine Orogeny in the Cenozoic. Geologically, they consist mainly of flysch deposits. In the north, they steeply rise nearly over a rather flat landscape; in the south, they slowly merge with the Javorníky. In the south-west, they are separated from the Vsetínské vrchy by the Rožnovská Bečva valley; in the north-east, the Jablunkov Pass separates them from the Silesian Beskids.  The highest point is Lysá hora mountain at, which is one of the rainiest places in the Czech Republic with around of precipitation a year. Many legends are bound to Radhošť Mountain,, which is one of the most visited places in the mountains together with the nearby Pustevny resort.  Smrk, with a height of, is the second highest summit of the range. Its northern slope steeply rises from the surrounding lowlands and is separated from the rest of the mountains by the deep Ostravice River (in the east) and Čeladenka (in the west) river valleys; in the south, it merges in the lower Zadní hory (i.e. \"Rear mountains\") area.  The Moravian-Silesian Beskids create the largest part of the Beskydy Landscape Protected Area ( or for short). The mountains are 80% forested, though mainly by plantations of spruce which were in some parts severely damaged by emissions from the Ostrava industrial region. Originally, the mountains were covered by mixed forest with dominant beech which are preserved in many places. Recently, permanent occurrence of all three large Central European carnivores – lynx, bear and wolf – have been confirmed in the area.  There are many popular holiday resorts for both winter and summer activities, with centers in the towns under the mountains (Frýdlant nad Ostravicí, Frenštát pod Radhoštěm, Rožnov pod Radhoštěm) and also in smaller resorts, hamlets and chalets throughout the mountains, especially on the ridges. Parts of two euroregions, the Beskydy/Beskidy and Těšínské Slezsko/Śląsk Cieszyński, reach into the Moravian-Silesian Beskids.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Moravian–Silesian Beskids (Czech:, Slovak: \"Moravsko-sliezske Beskydy\") is a mountain range in the Czech Republic with a small part reaching to Slovakia. It lies on the historical division between Moravia and Silesia, hence the name. It is part of the Western Beskids, which is in turn part of the Outer Western Carpathians.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976582}
{"src_title": "Eleanor of England, Countess of Leicester", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "At the time of Eleanor's birth at Gloucester, King John's London was in the hands of French forces, John had been forced to sign the Magna Carta and Queen Isabella was in shame. Eleanor never met her father, as he died at Newark Castle when she was barely a year old. The French, led by Prince Louis the Lion, the future Louis VIII, were marching through the south. The only lands loyal to her brother, King Henry III of England, were in the Midlands and southwest. The barons ruled the north, but they united with the royalists under William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, who protected the young king Henry, and Louis was defeated.  Before William Marshal died in 1219 Eleanor was promised to his son, also named William. They were married on 23 April 1224 at New Temple Church in London. The younger William was 34 and Eleanor only nine. He died in London on 6 April 1231, days before their seventh anniversary. There were no children of this marriage.  Eleanor had brought a dowry of 10 manors and 200 pounds per year to this marriage. According to the law of the time, widows were allowed to retain one third of the estates of the marriage. However, her brother-in-law Richard took all of the estates and sold many, including her dowry, to pay William's debts. Eleanor strove for many years to try and recover her lost property.  The widowed Eleanor swore a holy oath of chastity in the presence of Edmund Rich, Archbishop of Canterbury.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Simon de Montfort.", "content": "Seven years later, she met Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester. According to Matthew Paris, Simon was attracted to Eleanor's beauty and elegance as well as her wealth and high birth. They fell in love and married secretly on 7 January 1238 at the King's chapel in Westminster Palace. Her brother King Henry later alleged that he only allowed the marriage because Simon had seduced Eleanor. The marriage was controversial because of the oath Eleanor had sworn several years before to remain chaste. Because of this, Simon made a pilgrimage to Rome seeking papal approval for their union. Simon and Eleanor had seven children:  During the Second Barons' War, Simon de Montfort's victory at the Battle of Lewes in 1264 led to him becoming de facto ruler of England. He tried to set up a reformed government, including the first parliament elected by citizens of the towns, but was unable to retain the support of the other barons. Several switched sides to the royalist cause; Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham on 4 August 1265, where he was killed along with his son. Eleanor fled to exile in France where she became a nun at Montargis Abbey, a nunnery founded by her deceased husband's sister Amicia, who remained there as abbess. There she died on 13 April 1275, and was buried there. She was well treated by Henry, retained her incomes, and her proctors were allowed to pursue her litigation concerning the Leicester inheritance in the English courts; her will and testament were executed without hindrance.  Through her son Guy, Eleanor was an ancestor of Elizabeth Woodville, queen consort of Edward IV.  Eleanor's daughter, Eleanor de Montfort, was married, at Worcester in 1278, to Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales. She would die giving birth to their only child, Gwenllian of Wales. After the conquest of Wales, Gwenllian was imprisoned by Edward I of England, her mother's first cousin, at Sempringham priory, where she died 1337.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fiction.", "content": "Eleanor appears as a major character in Sharon Kay Penman's novel \"Falls the Shadow\", where she is called Nell.  Eleanor is the main character in Virginia Henley's historical romance \"The Dragon and the Jewel\", which tells of her life from just before her marriage to William Marshal to right before the Battle of Lewes in 1264. Her romance and marriage to Simon de Montfort are much romanticized in this novel, especially since in real life Simon is killed the year following the Battle of Lewes and the pair had already had all 7 of their children; in the book, Eleanor and Simon have only just had their first two sons. Eleanor makes a second appearance in Henley's \"The Marriage Prize\". Her role in the book is that of the legal guardian to her niece, Rosamond Marshal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eleanor of England (also called Eleanor Plantagenet and Eleanor of Leicester) (1215 – 13 April 1275) was the youngest child of John, King of England and Isabella of Angoulême.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976583}
{"src_title": "Shahr-e Sukhteh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Archaeology.", "content": "Covering an area of 151 hectares, Shahr-e Sukhteh was one of the world’s largest cities at the dawn of the urban era. In the western part of the site is a vast graveyard, measuring 25 ha. It contains between 25,000 and 40,000 ancient graves.  The settlement appeared around 3200 BCE. The city had four stages of civilization and was burnt down three times before being abandoned in 1800 BCE. The site was discovered and investigated by Aurel Stein in the early 1900s.  Beginning in 1967, the site was excavated by the Istituto italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) team led by Maurizio Tosi. That work continued until 1978. After a gap, work at the site was resumed by the Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization team led by SMS Sajjadi. New discoveries are reported from time to time.  Most of the material discovered is dated to the period of c. 2700-2300 BCE. The discoveries indicate that the city was a hub of trading routes that connected Mesopotamia and Iran with the Central Asian and Indian civilizations, and as far away as China.  During the Period I, Shahr-e Sukhteh already shows close connections with the sites in southern Turkmenistan, with the Kandahar region of Afghanistan, the Quetta valley, and the Bampur valley in Iran. Also, there are the connections with the Proto-Elamite cities of Ḵuzestān and Fārs. During Period II, Shahr-e Sukhteh was also in contact with the pre-Harappan centers of the Indus valley, and the contacts with the Bampur valley continued.  Shahdad is another related big site that is being excavated. Some 900 Bronze Age sites have been documented in the Sistan Basin, the desert area between Afghanistan and Pakistan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Helmand and Jiroft cultures.", "content": "The Helmand culture of western Afghanistan was a Bronze Age culture of the 3rd millennium BCE. Scholars link it with the Shahr-i Sokhta, Mundigak, and Bampur sites.  This civilization flourished between 2500 and 1900 BCE, and may have coincided with the great flourishing of the Indus Valley Civilization. This was also the final phase of Periods III and IV of Shahr-i Sokhta, and the last part of Mundigak Period IV.  Thus, the Jiroft and Helmand cultures are closely related. The Jiroft culture flourished in the eastern Iran, and the Helmand culture in western Afghanistan at the same time. In fact, they may represent the same cultural area. The Mehrgarh culture, on the other hand, is far earlier.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Shahr-e Sukhteh (, meaning \"[The] Burnt City\"), also spelled as \"Shahr-e Sūkhté\" and \"Shahr-i Sōkhta\", is an archaeological site of a sizable Bronze Age urban settlement, associated with the Jiroft culture. It is located in Sistan and Baluchistan Province, the southeastern part of Iran, on the bank of the Helmand River, near the Zahedan-Zabol road. It was placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in June 2014.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976584}
{"src_title": "Augusta Leigh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Augusta's mother died soon after her birth. Her grandmother, Lady Holderness, raised Augusta for a few years, but died when Augusta was still a young girl, and the child divided her time among relatives and friends.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Augusta later married her cousin, Lt. Colonel George Leigh (1771–1850), son of General Charles Leigh (1748–1815) and his wife, Frances Byron, her paternal aunt. She had seven children by him. Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, noted the wedding with disdain in his diary: \"Poor Augusta Leigh marries today! Poor thing! I pity her connecting herself with such a Family, and such a fool! However she has nobody to blame but herself.\" The marriage turned out unhappily, because he fell into dissolution and gambled away all his money. At the end, he left his wife and children nothing but debts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lord Byron.", "content": "Augusta's half-brother, George Lord Byron, did not meet her until he went to Harrow School, and even then only very rarely. From 1804 onward, however, she wrote to him regularly and became his confidante, especially in his quarrels with his mother. Their correspondence ceased for two years after Byron had gone abroad, and was not resumed until she sent him a letter expressing her sympathy on the death of his mother, Catherine in 1811.  Not having been brought up together, they were almost like strangers to each other. But they got on well together and appear to have fallen in love with each other. When Byron's marriage collapsed and he sailed away from England never to return, rumours of incest, a very serious and scandalous offence, were rife.  There is some evidence to support the incest accusation. Augusta Leigh's third daughter, born in spring of 1814, was christened Elizabeth Medora Leigh. A few days after the birth, Byron went to his sister's house Swynford Paddocks in Cambridgeshire to see the child, and wrote, in a letter to his confidante, Lady Melbourne: \"Oh! but it is 'worth while', I can't tell you why, and it is \"not\" an \"\"Ape\"\", and if it is, that must be my fault; however, I will positively reform. You must however allow that it is utterly impossible I can ever be half so well liked else-where, and I have been all my life trying to make someone love me and never got the sort I preferred before.\" \"Ape\" alludes to the fear that the child would be born deformed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "One of Augusta's daughters, Georgiana, married a cousin, Henry Trevanion in 1826, apparently at her mother's instigation; they had three daughters. Trevanion, who may also have had a relationship with Augusta herself, left Georgiana in 1829–30 for her younger sister Elizabeth Medora, who had been staying with them; Medora and Trevanion lived together for several years in France, before finally separating in the 1840s, Medora going on to marry a French soldier.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poetic references.", "content": "Augusta is also the subject of Byron's \"Epistle to Augusta\" (1816) and \"Stanzas to Augusta\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Augusta Maria Leigh (\"née\" Byron; 26 January 1783 – 12 October 1851) was the only daughter of John \"Mad Jack\" Byron, the poet Lord Byron's father, by his first wife, Amelia, née Darcy (Lady Conyers in her own right and the divorced wife of Francis, Marquis of Carmarthen).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976585}
{"src_title": "Great Mosque of Mecca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Great Mosque contends with the Mosque of the Companions in the Eritrean city of Massawa and Quba Mosque in Medina as the oldest mosque. According to one set of views, Islam as a religion preceded Prophet Muhammad, representing previous prophets such as Abraham. Abraham is credited with having built the \"Kaaba\" in Mecca, and consequently its sanctuary, which according to this view is seen as the first mosque that ever existed. According to another set of views, Islam started during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century CE, and so did architectural components such as the mosque. In that case, either the Mosque of the Companions or Quba Mosque would be the first mosque that was built in the history of Islam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Era of Abraham and Ishmael.", "content": "According to the Quran, Abraham together with his son Ishmael raised the foundations of a house, which has been identified by commentators as the \"Kaaba\". God showed Abraham the exact site, very near to what is now the Well of Zamzam, where Abraham and Ishmael began work on the construction of the \"Kaaba\". After Abraham had built the \"Kaaba\", an angel brought to him the Black Stone, a celestial stone that, according to tradition, had fallen from Heaven on the nearby hill Abu Qubays. The Black Stone is believed to be the only remnant of the original structure made by Abraham.  After placing the Black Stone in the Eastern corner of the Kaaba, Abraham received a revelation, in which God told the aged prophet that he should now go and proclaim the pilgrimage to mankind, so that men may come both from Arabia and from lands far away, on camel and on foot.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Era of Muhammad.", "content": "Upon Muhammad's victorious return to Mecca in 630 CE, he and his cousin, Ali Ibn Abi Talib, broke the idols in and around the Kaaba, similar to what, according to the Quran, Abraham did in his homeland. Thus ended polytheistic use of the Kaaba, and began monotheistic rule over it and its sanctuary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Umayyad era.", "content": "The first major renovation to the mosque took place in 692 on the orders of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan. Before this renovation, which included the mosque's outer walls being raised and decoration added to the ceiling, the mosque was a small open area with the Kaaba at the center. By the end of the 8th century, the mosque's old wooden columns had been replaced with marble columns and the wings of the prayer hall had been extended on both sides along with the addition of a minaret on the orders of Al-Walid I. The spread of Islam in the Middle East and the influx of pilgrims required an almost complete rebuilding of the site which included adding more marble and three more minarets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ottoman era.", "content": "In 1570, Sultan Selim II commissioned the chief architect Mimar Sinan to renovate the mosque. This renovation resulted in the replacement of the flat roof with domes decorated with calligraphy internally, and the placement of new support columns which are acknowledged as the earliest architectural features of the present mosque. These features are the oldest surviving parts of the building.  During heavy rains and flash floods in 1621 and 1629, the walls of the Kaaba and the mosque suffered extensive damage. In 1629, during the reign of Sultan Murad IV, the mosque was renovated. In the renovation of the mosque, a new stone arcade was added, three more minarets (bringing the total to seven) were built, and the marble flooring was retiled. This was the unaltered state of the mosque for nearly three centuries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Saudi era.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First Saudi expansion.", "content": "The first major renovation under the Saudi kings was done between 1955 and 1973. In this renovation, four more minarets were added, the ceiling was refurnished, and the floor was replaced with artificial stone and marble. The Mas'a gallery (As-Safa and Al-Marwah) is included in the Mosque, via roofing and enclosures. During this renovation many of the historical features built by the Ottomans, particularly the support columns, were demolished.  On 20 November 1979, the Great Mosque was seized by extremist insurgents who called for the overthrow of the Saudi dynasty. They took hostages and in the ensuing siege hundreds were killed. These events came as a shock to the Islamic world, as violence is strictly forbidden within the mosque.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Second Saudi expansion.", "content": "The second Saudi renovations under King Fahd, added a new wing and an outdoor prayer area to the mosque. The new wing, which is also for prayers, is reached through the King Fahd Gate. This extension was performed between 1982 and 1988.  1988 to 2005 saw the building of more minarets, the erecting of a King's residence overlooking the mosque and more prayer area in and around the mosque itself. These developments took place simultaneously with those in Arafat, Mina and Muzdalifah. This extension also added 18 more gates, three domes corresponding in position to each gate and the installation of nearly 500 marble columns. Other modern developments added heated floors, air conditioning, escalators and a drainage system.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Third Saudi expansion.", "content": "In 2008, the Saudi government under King Abdullah Ibn Abdulaziz announced an expansion of the mosque, involving the expropriation of land to the north and northwest of the mosque covering. At that time, the mosque covered an area of including indoor and outdoor praying spaces. 40 billion riyals (US$10.6 billion) was allocated for the expansion project.  In August 2011, the government under King Abdullah announced further details of the expansion. It would cover an area of and accommodate 1.2 million worshippers, including a multi-level extension on the north side of the complex, new stairways and tunnels, a gate named after King Abdullah, and two minarets, bringing the total number of minarets to eleven. The circumambulation areas (Mataf) around the Kaaba would be expanded and all closed spaces receive air conditioning. After completion, it would raise the mosque's capacity from 770,000 to over 2.5 million worshippers. his successor King Salman launched five megaprojects as part of the overall King Abdullah Expansion Project in July 2015, covering an area of. The project was carried out by the Saudi Binladin Group.  On 11 September 2015, at least 111 people died and 394 were injured when a crane collapsed onto the mosque. Construction work was suspended after the incident, and remained on hold due to financial issues during the 2010s oil glut. Development was eventually restarted two years later in September 2017.  On 5 March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the mosque was closed at night and the Umrah pilgrimage was suspended to limit attendance at the mosque.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "List of former Imams and Mu'adhins.", "content": "Imams:  Mu'adhins:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pilgrimage.", "content": "The Great Mosque is the main setting for the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages that occur in the month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the Islamic calendar and at any time of the year, respectively. The Hajj pilgrimage is one of the Pillars of Islam, required of all able-bodied Muslims who can afford the trip. In recent times, over 5 million Muslims perform the Hajj every year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Destruction of heritage sites.", "content": "There has been some controversy that the expansion projects of the mosque and Mecca itself are causing harm to early Islamic heritage. Many ancient buildings, some more than a thousand years old, have been demolished to make room for the expansion. Some examples are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Great Mosque of Mecca, commonly known as al-Masjid al-Ḥarām (), is a mosque that surrounds the Kaaba in the city of Mecca, in the Hejazi region of Saudi Arabia. It is a site of pilgrimage for the Hajj, which every Muslim must do at least once in their lives if able, and is also the main phase for the ʿUmrah, the lesser pilgrimage that can be undertaken any time of the year. The rites of both pilgrimages include circumambulating the Kaaba within the mosque. The Great Mosque includes other important significant sites, including the Black Stone, the Zamzam Well, Maqam Ibrahim, and the hills of Safa and Marwa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976586}
{"src_title": "Albert von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Born in Lemberg (now Lviv) on 5 September 1861 as the second son of Alexander von Mensdorff-Pouilly, Prince von Dietrichstein zu Nikolsburg, a former Austro-Hungarian politician, and his wife Alexandrine (\"née\" Countess von Dietrichstein-Proskau und Leslie), heiress of the Princes Dietrichstein. The Mensdorff-Pouilly family originated from Lorraine in France and had fled the French revolution in 1790.  Count von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein entered the Austro-Hungarian foreign service in 1884 and was assigned as an attaché to the embassy in Paris and transferred to London in 1889. His family connections with the British court, derived through the marriage of his grandfather Count Emmanuel von Mensdorff-Pouilly with Queen Victoria's aunt, Princess Sophie of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and his father had been a godson and friend of Queen Victoria's husband, the Prince Consort. On 6 May 1904, he presented his credentials as Ambassador of the Dual Monarchy at the Court of St. James's, a promotion over the heads of many of his seniors that had come at the request of his second cousin King Edward VII. Considered both an effective and popular diplomat in London's aristocratic circles, his friendship with King Edward VII and his successor George V gave him an entrée to the British court unrivalled by any other diplomat. This contributed to the secure and friendly diplomatic relations between Austria-Hungary and Great Britain before the war. However, his alleged Anglophilia also brought him a certain mistrust in some circles in Vienna, including Archduke Franz Ferdinand. In the critical negotiations during the July Crisis of 1914, he supported the attempts to avert the danger and correspondence has shown that he was not kept fully informed of his capital's intentions. War against Austria-Hungary was declared by the United Kingdom on 12 August, whereafter Count von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein left London.  During World War I, Mensdorff-Pouilly was entrusted with several diplomatic missions directed towards the restoration of peace. The most famous one was the meeting with General Jan Smuts in Geneva in December 1917. However, these negotiations proved as fruitless as those which he conducted with the representatives of the Triple Entente in the last days of the Habsburg Monarchy.  In 1917, Mensdorff-Pouilly was appointed to the Upper House (\"Herrenhaus\") and in the following year he was a favourite of the court to replace Count Ottokar Czernin as foreign minister, but he was judged too Anglophile by Berlin.  Although the count retired from active service in 1919, he was appointed the first chief delegate of the Republic of Austria to the League of Nations in 1920. In this capacity, he negotiated the Geneva Protocols in 1922 on a loan for the economic and financial reconstruction of Austria.  Count von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein died in Vienna on 15 June 1945.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Foreign decorations", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albert Viktor Julius Joseph Michael Graf von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein (5 September 1861 – 15 June 1945) was an Austro-Hungarian diplomat who served as Ambassador to London at the outbreak of World War I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976587}
{"src_title": "L'homme armé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The origins of the popularity of the song and the importance of the armed man are the subject of various theories. Some have suggested that the 'armed man' represents St Michael the Archangel. The composer Johannes Regis ( – ) seems to have intended that allusion in his \"Dum sacrum mysterium/Missa l'homme armé\" is based upon the melody, which incorporates various additional trope texts and cantus firmus plainchants in honour of St Michael the Archangel. Others have suggested it merely represents the name of a popular tavern (Maison L'Homme Arme) near Du Fay's rooms in Cambrai. It may also represent the arming for a new crusade against the Turks. There is ample evidence to indicate that it held special significance for the Order of the Golden Fleece. It is useful to note that the first appearance of the song was exactly contemporaneous with the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks (1453), an event which had a huge psychological effect in Europe; composers such as Guillaume Du Fay composed laments for the occasion. Yet another possibility is that all three theories are true, given the feeling of urgency, pervasive in central and northern Europe at the time, in organizing a military opposition to the recently victorious Ottomans.  Another recently proposed theory for the origin of the tune is that it is a stylised combination of a street cry and a trumpet call, and may have originated as early as the late 14th century, or perhaps early 15th, due to its use of the major prolation, which was the most common metre at the time. Richard Taruskin noted that the tune was a special favourite of Charles the Bold and suggested that it may have been composed for him (or, at very least, that he had identified himself with the titular man at arms). This however has come to be refuted by several key researchers who show it was used before Charles the Bold's ascension to Duke of Burgundy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in the Latin Mass.", "content": "\"L'homme armé\" is especially well remembered today because it was so widely used by Renaissance composers as a cantus firmus for the Latin Mass. It was probably used for this purpose more than any other secular song: over 40 settings are known. Many composers of the Renaissance set at least one mass on this melody; the two settings by Josquin, the \"Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales\", and the \"Missa L'homme armé sexti toni\" are among the best known. Other composers who wrote more than one setting include Matthaeus Pipelare, Pierre de La Rue, Cristóbal de Morales, Guillaume Du Fay and Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. A cycle of six settings, all anonymous but probably by the same composer, survives in a Neapolitan manuscript which was supposedly a gift to Beatrice of Aragon of some of the favorite music of Charles the Bold. While the practice of writing masses on the tune lasted into the seventeenth century, including a late setting by Carissimi, the majority of mass settings of \"L'homme armé\", approximately 30, are from the period between 1450 and 1510.  One of the earliest datable uses of the melody itself was in the combinative chanson \"Il sera pour vous conbatu/L'homme armé\" ascribed to Robert Morton, which now is believed probably to date from around 1463, owing to historical references in the text. Another possibly earlier version of the tune is an anonymous three-voice setting from the Mellon Chansonnier, which also cannot be precisely dated. In 1523 Pietro Aron, in his treatise \"Thoscanello\" suggested that Antoine Busnois was the composer of the tune; while tantalizing, since the tune is stylistically consistent with Busnois, there is no other source to corroborate Aron, and he was writing approximately 70 years after the first appearance of the melody. Taruskin has argued that Busnois wrote the earliest known mass on the melody, but this is disputed, many scholars preferring to see the older Guillaume Du Fay as the creator of the first \"L'homme armé\" Mass. Other composers whose settings of the tune may date from the 1450s include Guillaume Faugues, Johannes Regis, and Johannes Ockeghem.  The tune is singularly well-adapted to contrapuntal treatment. The phrases are clearly delineated, and there are several obvious ways to construct canons. It is also unusually easy to recognize within a contrapuntal texture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern treatments.", "content": "Composers still occasionally turn to this song for spiritual or thematic inspiration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"L'homme armé\" (French for \"\"the armed man\"\") is a Burgundian School secular song from the time of the Late Middle Ages. Set in Dorian mode, it was the most popular tune used for musical settings of the Ordinary of the Mass: over 40 separate compositions entitled \"Missa L'homme armé\" survive from the period.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976588}
{"src_title": "Senate of the Republic (Italy)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition.", "content": "The Senate consists of 315 elected members, and six senators for life. The elected senators must be over 40 years of age and are elected by Italian citizens aged 25 or older.  The Senate (except for six senators who represent Italians residing abroad and the senators for life) is elected on a regional basis. The 309 senators are assigned to each region proportionally according to their population. However, Article 57 of the Constitution provides that no region can have fewer than seven senators representing it, except for the Aosta Valley (which has one) and Molise (which has two).  The senators for life are composed of former Presidents of the Italian Republic who hold office \"ex officio\", and up to five citizens who are appointed by the President \"for outstanding merits in the social, scientific, artistic or literary field\". The current life senators are:  The current term of the Senate is five years, except for senators for life that hold their office for their lifetime. Until a Constitutional change on February 9, 1963, the Senate was elected for six-year terms. The Senate may be dissolved before the expiration of its normal term by the President of the Republic (e.g. when no government can obtain a majority).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Electoral system and election of the Senate.", "content": "According to article 58 of the Italian constitution, people aged more than 25 years are enabled to vote for the Senate.  The electoral system is a parallel voting system, with 37% of seats allocated using first-past-the-post voting (FPTP) and 63% using proportional representation, allocated with the largest remainder method, with one round of voting.  For Italian residents, each house members are elected by single ballots, including the constituency candidate and his/her supporting party lists. In each single-member constituency the deputy/senator is elected on a plurality basis, while the seats in multi-member constituencies will be allocated nationally. In order to be calculated in single-member constituency results, parties need to obtain at least 1% of the national vote. In order to receive seats in multi-member constituencies, parties need to obtain at least 3% of the national vote. Elects from multi-member constituencies will come from closed lists. The single voting paper, containing both first-past-the-post candidates and the party lists, shows the names of the candidates to single-member constituencies and, in close conjunction with them, the symbols of the linked lists for the proportional part, each one with a list of the relative candidates.  The voter can cast their vote in three different ways:  A small, variable number of senators for life are also members of the Senate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reform proposal.", "content": "In 2016, Italian Parliament passed a constitutional law that \"effectively abolishes the Senate as an elected chamber and sharply restricts its ability to veto legislation\". The law was rejected on 4 December 2016 by a referendum, leaving the Senate unchanged.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Membership.", "content": "The current membership of the Senate of the Republic, following the latest political elections of 4 March 2018:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidents.", "content": "Under the current Constitution, the Senate must hold its first sitting no later than 20 days after a general election. That session, presided by the oldest senator, proceeds to elect the President of the Senate for the following parliamentary period. On the first two attempts at voting, an absolute majority of all senators is needed; if a third round is needed, a candidate can be elected by an absolute majority of the senators present and voting. If this third round fails to produce a winner, a final ballot is held between the two senators with the highest votes in the previous ballot. In the case of a tie, the elder senator is deemed the winner.  In addition to overseeing the business of the chamber, chairing and regulating debates, deciding whether motions and bills are admissible, representing the Senate, etc., the President of the Senate stands in for the President of the Republic when the latter is unable to perform the duties of the office; in this case the Senate is headed by a vice president.  The current President of the Senate is Maria Elisabetta Alberti Casellati.  Recent Presidents of the Italian Senate:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Palazzo Madama.", "content": "Since 1871, the Senate has met in Palazzo Madama in Rome, an old patrician palace completed in 1505 for the Medici family. The palace takes its name from \"Madama\" Margherita of Austria, daughter of Charles V and wife of Alessandro de' Medici. After the extinction of the Medici, the palace was handed over to the House of Lorraine. and, later, it was sold to Papal Government.  Later, in 1755, Pope Benedict XIV (whose coat of arms still dominates the main entrance) ordered major restructuring, entrusting the work to Luigi Hostini. In the following years there were installed the court offices and police headquarters. In 1849, Pius IX moved the Ministries of Finances and of the Public Debt here, as well as the Papal Post Offices. After the conquest of Rome by the newly formed Kingdom of Italy, the palace was chosen to become the seat of the \"Senato del Regno\" (Senate of the Kingdom).  Palazzo Madama and the adjacent buildings underwent further restructuring and adaptation in the first decades of the 20th century. A radical transformation which involved, among other things, the modernization of the hemicycle, the full remaking of the prospectus on Via San Salvatore and Via Dogana Vecchia, and the establishment of a connection with the adjacent Palazzo Carpegna. The latter, owned by the Senate, was entirely rebuilt in an advanced position compared to its original position. The small church of San Salvatore in Thermis, dating to the 6th century, which stood in the street to the left of the palace, was first closed, expropriated and later razed for security reasons.  The current façade was built in the mid-1650s by both Cigoli and Paolo Maruccelli. The latter added the ornate cornice and whimsical decorative urns on the roof. Among the rooms one of the most significant (and perhaps the most impressive from the political point of view) is the \"Sala Maccari,\" which takes its name from Cesare Maccari, the artist who decorated it in 1880 and created the frescoes, among which stands out as one that depicts Cicero makes his indictment of Catiline, who listens, isolated from their seats.  The chamber where the Senate met for the first time on 27 November 1871 was designed by Luigi Gabet. A plaque on the wall behind the speaker's chair commemorates the king's address to Parliament when first convened in the new seat of government: Above this has been placed a plaque bearing the inscription: To the viewers' left stand the flags of the Italian Republic (with a ribbon embroidered with the words SENATO DELLA REPUBBLICA) and the European Union.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Senate of the Republic () or Senate () is a house of the bicameral Italian Parliament (the other being the Chamber of Deputies). The two houses together form a perfect bicameral system, meaning they perform identical functions, but do so separately. Pursuant to Articles 57, 58, and 59 of the Italian Constitution, the Senate has a variable number of members, of which 309 are elected from Italian constituencies, 6 from Italian citizens living abroad, and a small number (currently 6) are senators for life (\"senatori a vita\"), either appointed or \"ex officio\". It was established in its current form on 8 May 1948, but previously existed during the Kingdom of Italy as \"Senato del Regno\" (Senate of the Kingdom), itself a continuation of the \"Senato Subalpino\" (Subalpine Senate) of Sardinia established on 8 May 1848. Members of the Senate are styled \"Senator\" or \"The Honourable Senator\" (Italian: \"Onorevole Senatore\") and they meet at Palazzo Madama, Rome.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976589}
{"src_title": "Compiègne Wagon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Compiègne Wagon was built in 1914 in Saint-Denis as dining car No. 2419D. It was used throughout the First World War in that capacity for Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits, the company best known for operating the Orient Express. In August 1918, the wagon was commandeered by the French Army and converted into the office and mobile headquarters of Ferdinand Foch, the Supreme Allied Commander, who began using it in October 1918.  On 8 November 1918, Foch and representatives from the Allied Powers and the German Empire signed the armistice in the then-called \"Wagon of Compiègne\". This agreement was the final ceasefire which ended fighting in the First World War; the other Central Powers had already reached agreements with the Allied Powers to end hostilities. The car was later returned to Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits and briefly resumed service as a dining car. In September 1919, it was donated to the Musée de l'Armée, in Paris. The wagon was on display in the Musée's Cour des Invalides from 1921 to 1927.  At the request of the Mayor of Compiègne, and with the support of the American Arthur Henry Fleming, the car was restored and returned to Compiègne. It was housed in a specially created museum building as part of the \"Glade of the Armistice\" historic monument, with the car a few meters from the exact site of the signing ceremony  During World War II, Hitler ordered that the wagon be moved to exactly the same location for the signing of the second \"armistice at Compiègne\", on 22 June 1940; this time with Germany victorious. The carriage was moved out of its protective building and returned to the signing-place, which was several metres away and had been marked out as part of the monument. Subsequently, the wagon was taken to Berlin and displayed a week later at the Berlin Cathedral. In 1944 the wagon was sent to Thuringia, in central Germany. Then it moved to Ruhla and later Gotha Crawinkel, near a huge tunnel system. There it was destroyed in March 1945 by the SS with fire and/or dynamite, in the face of the advancing U.S. Army. However, some SS veterans and civilian eyewitnesses claim that the wagon had been destroyed by air attack near Ohrdruf while still in Thuringia in April 1944. Even so, it is generally believed the wagon was destroyed in 1945 by the SS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Replica.", "content": "Today's historical wagon is an exact copy of the original one. In 1950, French manufacturer Wagons-Lits, the company that ran the Orient Express, donated a car from the same series to the museum — 2439D is identical to its ravaged twin, from its polished wooden finishes to its studded, leather-bound chairs. This car had also been part of Foch's private train during the 1918 signing. At the 1950 ceremony, it was renumbered No. 2419D. It is parked beside the display of the original car's remains: a few fragments of bronze decoration and two access ramps.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Compiègne Wagon was the train carriage in which both the Armistice of 11 November 1918 and Armistice of 22 June 1940 were signed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976590}
{"src_title": "Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Born at Ham House, Petersham, Surrey, he was the second son of Archibald Campbell, 10th Earl and 1st Duke of Argyll (1658–1703) and his wife Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Sir Lionel Talmash of Helmingham, Suffolk. He was the first cousin once removed of Lord William Campbell.  He was educated at Eton College and later at the University of Glasgow and then Utrecht University, where he studied civil law. He was appointed Lord High Treasurer of Scotland by Queen Anne in 1705.  He supported his brother, John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll (on many topics, most notably the Act of Union), earning him the title of Earl of Ilay in 1706. Following the treaty of union he was elected as one of the sixteen Scottish peers to sit in the House of Lords.  His military career, which was less successful than his brother's, was somewhat distinguished. He obtained the Colonelcy of the newly formed 36th Regiment of Foot in 1709 (until 1710) and assisted his brother at the 1715 Battle of Sheriffmuir.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political power.", "content": "In 1711 he was appointed to the Privy Council. Many called him the \"most powerful man in Scotland\", at least until the era of Henry Dundas. Prime Minister Robert Walpole gave Campbell control over the royal patronage in Scotland. That became his base of power; he used it to control the votes of the other Scottish peers in the election of 16 representative peers to the British Parliament in London. Lord Ilay played a critical role in establishing The Faculty of Medicine at the University of Edinburgh in 1726.  He was one of the founders of the Royal Bank of Scotland in 1727, and acted as the bank's first governor. His portrait has appeared on the front of all Royal Bank of Scotland banknotes, and as a watermark on the notes, since they were redesigned in 1987. The portrait is based on a painting by Allan Ramsay, in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duke of Argyll.", "content": "He succeeded his brother to the title of Duke of Argyll in October 1743. He worked on Inveraray Castle, his brother's estate, which was finished in the 1750s; however, he never lived in it, and he died in 1761. He is buried at Kilmun Parish Church.  He was married to Anne Whitfield about 1712, but had no legitimate male issue at his death. In his will, he left his English property to his mistress Ann (née Shireburn) Williams. His titles passed to his cousin, the son of his father's brother John Campbell of Mamore.  The Duke established an estate at Whitton Park, Whitton in Middlesex in 1722 on land that had been enclosed some years earlier from Hounslow Heath. The Duke was an enthusiastic gardener and he imported large numbers of exotic species of plants and trees for his estate. He was nicknamed the 'Treemonger' by Horace Walpole. On his death, many of these, including mature trees, were moved by his nephew, John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, to the Princess of Wales' new garden at Kew. This later became Kew Gardens and some of the Duke's trees are still to be seen there to this day. The Duke of Argyll's Tea Tree is an imported shrub named after him which has become established in hedgerows in some parts of England.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, 1st Earl of Ilay (June 1682 – 15 April 1761) was a Scottish nobleman, politician, lawyer, businessman, and soldier. He was known as Lord Archibald Campbell from 1703 to 1706, and as the Earl of Ilay from 1706 until 1743, when he succeeded to the dukedom. He was the dominant political leader in Scotland in his day, and was involved in many civic projects.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976591}
{"src_title": "Jacques-Louis Lions", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "After being part of the French Résistance in 1943 and 1944, J.-L. Lions entered the École Normale Supérieure in 1947. He was a professor of mathematics at the Université of Nancy, the Faculty of Sciences of Paris, and the École polytechnique.  In 1966 he sent an invitation to Gury Marchuk, the soviet mathematician to visit Paris. This was hand delivered by General De Gaulle during his visit to Akademgorodok in June of that year.  He joined the prestigious Collège de France as well as the French Academy of Sciences in 1973. In 1979, he was appointed director of the Institut National de la Recherche en Informatique et Automatique (INRIA), where he taught and promoted the use of numerical simulations using finite elements integration. Throughout his career, Lions insisted on the use of mathematics in industry, with a particular involvement in the French space program, as well as in domains such as energy and the environment. This eventually led him to be appointed director of the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) from 1984 to 1992.  Lions was elected President of the International Mathematical Union in 1991 and also received the Japan Prize and the Harvey Prize that same year. In 1992, the University of Houston awarded him an honorary doctoral degree. He was elected president of the French Academy of Sciences in 1996 and was also a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) and numerous other foreign academies.  He has left a considerable body of work, among this more than 400 scientific articles, 20 volumes of mathematics that were translated into English and Russian, and major contributions to several collective works, including the 4000 pages of the monumental \"Mathematical analysis and numerical methods for science and technology\" (in collaboration with Robert Dautray), as well as the \"Handbook of numerical analysis\" in 7 volumes (with Philippe G. Ciarlet).  His son Pierre-Louis Lions is also a well-known mathematician who was awarded a Fields Medal in 1994. Both father and son have received honorary doctorates from Heriot-Watt University in 1986 and 1995 respectively.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacques-Louis Lions (; 3 May 1928 – 17 May 2001) was a French mathematician who made contributions to the theory of partial differential equations and to stochastic control, among other areas. He received the SIAM's John von Neumann Lecture prize in 1986 and numerous other distinctions. Lions is listed as an ISI highly cited researcher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976592}
{"src_title": "Showtek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The brothers Wouter Janssen () and Sjoerd Janssen () began their musical career in electronic music, specifically in techno music in 2001 and subsequently moved to hardstyle in 2003. At that time, Wouter usually produced hard trance under the stage name of Walt, and Sjoerd hardstyle as Duro. They released their first album, \"Today Is Tomorrow\" in 2007 under their independent label Dutch Master Works. The album was well received in the Dutch music charts, reaching 68th place, and received a score of 95/100 on Partyflock. In 2009, their second album, \"Analogue Players in a Digital World\", was unveiled at the Amsterdam Dance Event in the Netherlands and circulated by the Central Station Records. The album was well received by the press, which also allows them access to rewards. The duo uses multiple aliases including but not limited to; Dutch Masters, Headliner, Lowrider, Unibass, DJ Duro, Walt, Walt Janssen, Mr. Puta, Boys Will Be Boys and Alan Misael. In 2011, the group collaborated on the album \"Kiss from the Past\" by Allure, one of the musical projects of Dutch producer Tiësto. In 2012, they collaborated with Tiësto again on the singles \"Miami / Chasing Summers\" included in the album \"\", and on a single titled \"Hell Yeah!\". In 2012, the Showtek brothers began a series of collaborations, a project called Crazy Collabs, with producers from some of the other genres in dance music. Before the official announcement of their collaboration, they co-produced an EP with Tiësto and Angger Dimas entitled \"We Rock\" as Boys Will Be Boys. They have also worked with Tiësto, Hardwell, Justin Prime, Bassjackers, Ookay, MAKJ, and Noisecontrollers. Showtek also co-produced the upcoming single of Chris Brown entitled \"Nobody's Perfect\" with Lukas Hilbert and David Jost. Showtek has their own podcast, which is available through their website and iTunes.  In December 2013, the duo recently founded their own label \"Skink\", which is licensed to Spinnin Records but isn't a sub-label. The song \"We Like To Party\" by Showtek was the first title to be released under the new label.  In 2014, they collaborate with Vassy and David Guetta for the single \"Bad\", which was listed for 239 weeks on 19 different music charts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Singles.", "content": "Notes", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Showtek is a Dutch electronic dance music duo consisting of two brothers from Eindhoven, Sjoerd (born April 6, 1984) and Wouter Janssen (born August 30, 1982). The duo regularly manages to reach the top of multiple music charts and work with artists such as Tiësto, Chris Brown and David Guetta. Showtek was ranked 17th in the Top 100 DJs list of 2014 but by the magazine's 2016 list, they had dropped to 96th. The brothers, who have been musically active since 2001, also offer podcasts on their own radio show on the music streaming service iTunes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976593}
{"src_title": "Spanish Sahara", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Spanish occupation.", "content": "At the Berlin Conference (1884-1885), the European powers were establishing the rules for setting up zones of influence or protection in Africa, and Spain declared 'a protectorate of the African coast' from Cape Blanc to Cape Bojador on 26 December 1884. It officially informed the other powers in writing on 14 January 1885. It began establishing trading posts and a military presence. In July 1885, King Alfonso XII appointed Emilio Bonelli commissioner of the Río de Oro with civil and military authority. On 6 April 1887, the area was incorporated into the Captaincy General of the Canary Islands for military purposes. In the summer of 1886, under the sponsorship of the Spanish Society of Commercial Geography (\"\"), Julio Cervera Baviera, Felipe Rizzo (1823–1908) and Francisco Quiroga (1853–1894) traversed the territory, which was called Río de Oro, and made topographical and astronomical observations. At the time, geographers had not mapped the territory and its features were not widely known. Their trek is considered the first scientific expedition in that part of the Sahara.  On entering the territory in 1884, Spanish forces were immediately challenged by stiff resistance from the indigenous Sahrawi tribes, Saharan Arabs who lived in many oases and coastal villages. The indigenous people worked mainly in fishing and camel herding, and speak the Hassaniya language, a Bedouin Arabic dialect. A rebellion in 1904 was led by the powerful Smara-based \"marabout\", Shaykh Ma al-'Aynayn, was put down by France in 1910, which ruled neighbouring Algeria. This was followed by a wave of uprisings under Ma al-Aynayn's sons, grandsons and other political leaders.  In 1886, Spain signed the Treaty of Idjil, by which the Emirate of Adrar ceded the land of the colony to Spain. This treaty was of no legal value, since the Emir had no claim to the territory, the Spanish 'invented' a claim which the Emir could, with no harm to himself, immediately cede.  There is some dispute and ambiguity about whether the territory was under Moroccan royal sovereignty at the time when the Spanish claimed it in 1884, According to the two sixteenth-century treaties, quoted by the historian Romeu (Vol. 1): the Treaty of Alcaçovas and the Treaty of Cintra, between Spain and Portugal, they recognize that the authority of Morocco extended beyond Cabo Bojador, Then there is the treaty between Morocco and Spain of 1 March 1767. This treaty, according to Article 18 of which Sherifian sovereignty extended beyond the Wad Noun, Le., further south into the neighbouring region of Sakiet El Hamra, this is further establish in the Anglo-Moroccan Agreement of 13 March 1895 that Moroccan territory extends to Cabo Bojador, including Sakiet El Hamra. The International Court of Justice found in their Advisory opinion on Western Sahara of 1975 they were legal ties of allegiance Bay'ah between this territory and the Kingdom of Morocco but they didn't extend to sovereignty over the territory.  The borders of the territory were not clearly defined until treaties between Spain and France in the early 20th century. Spanish Sahara was created from the Spanish territories of Río de Oro and Saguia el-Hamra in 1924. It was not part of the areas known as Spanish Morocco and was administered separately.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "Given such tribal uprisings, Spain found it difficult to control parts of the territory's large hinterland until 1934. After gaining independence in 1956, Morocco laid claim to Spanish Sahara as part of its historic pre-colonial territory. In 1957, the Moroccan Army of Liberation nearly occupied the small territory of Ifni, north of Spanish Sahara, during the Ifni War. The Spanish sent a regiment of paratroopers from the nearby Canary Islands and repelled the attacks. With the assistance of the French, Spain soon re-established control in the area through \"Operaciones Teide-Ecoubillon\" (Spanish name) / \"Opérations Ecouvillon\" (French name).  It tried to suppress resistance politically. It forced some of the previously nomadic inhabitants of Spanish Sahara to settle in certain areas, and the rate of urbanisation was increased. In 1958, Spain united the territories of Saguia el Hamra and Río de Oro to form the overseas province of Spanish Sahara, while ceding the province of the Cape Juby Strip (which included Villa Bens) in the same year to Morocco.  In the 1960s, Morocco continued to claim Spanish Sahara. It gained agreement by the United Nations to add the territory to the list of territories to be decolonised. In 1969, Spain returned Ifni to Morocco, but continued to retain Spanish Sahara.  In 1967, Spanish rule was challenged by the \"Harakat Tahrir\", a protest movement secretly organised by the Royal Moroccan Government. Spain suppressed the 1970 Zemla Intifada.  In 1973, the Polisario Front was formed in a revival of militant Sahrawi nationalism. The Front's guerrilla army grew rapidly, and Spain lost effective control over most of the territory by early 1975. Its effort to found a political rival, the \"Partido de Unión Nacional Saharaui\" (PUNS), met with little success. Spain proceeded to co-opt tribal leaders by setting up the \"Djema'a\", a political institution loosely based on traditional Sahrawi tribal leaders. The \"Djema'a\" members were hand-picked by the authorities, but given privileges in return for rubber-stamping Madrid's decisions.  In the winter of 1975, just before the death of its long-time leader Generalissimo Francisco Franco, Spain was confronted with an intensive campaign of territorial demands from Morocco and, to a lesser extent, from Mauritania. These culminated in the \"Marcha Verde\" ('Green March'). After negotiating the Madrid Accords with Morocco and Mauritania, Spain withdrew its forces and settlers from the territory.  Morocco and Mauritania took control of the region. Mauritania later surrendered its claim after fighting an unsuccessful war against the Polisario Front. Morocco began fighting the Polisario Front, and after sixteen years, the UN negotiated a cease-fire in 1991. Today, the sovereignty of the territory remains in dispute. And referendum had not been possible to date due to dispute over who can vote", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Present status.", "content": "The United Nations considers the former Spanish Sahara a non-self-governing territory, with Spain as the former administrative power and, since the 1970s, Morocco as the current administrative power.  UN peace efforts have been directed at holding a referendum on independence among the Sahrawi population, but this has not yet taken place. The African Union (AU) and more than 80 governments consider the territory to be the sovereign (albeit occupied) state of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), with a government-in-exile backed by the Polisario Front.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Spanish Sahara (; \"As-Sahrā'a Al-Isbānīyah\"), officially the Province of the Sahara, was the name used for the modern territory of Western Sahara when it was occupied and ruled by Spain between 1884 and 1975. It had been one of the most recent acquisitions of the Spanish Empire as well as one of its last remaining holdings, which had once extended from the Americas to the Spanish East Indies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976594}
{"src_title": "Anatoli Papanov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early and war years.", "content": "Anatoli Papanov was born in Vyazma, Smolensk Governorate (modern-day Smolensk Oblast, Russia) into a mixed Russian-Polish family. His father Dmitry Filippovich Papanov (1897—1982) was a retired soldier who served as a railway guard and an amateur actor at the local theatre founded by Nikolai Plotnikov, where Anatoli and his sister also performed as children. His mother Elena Boleslavovna Roskovskaya (1901—1973) was a Polish milliner who secretly converted from Roman Catholicism to Russian Orthodoxy. Anatoli himself was raised in Orthodox traditions.  In 1930 the family moved to Moscow. As a schoolboy Papanov attended drama courses, then went on to work as a caster at a factory, simultaneously performing in a popular theatre studio for factory workers organized by Vakhtangov Theatre actors led by Vasili Kuza whom Papanov later considered his first teacher. During the late 1930s he made a number of uncredited appearances in movies, such as a sailor in \"Lenin in October\" (1937) or a passerby in \"The Foundling\" (1939).  In 1941, after the invasion of the Soviet Union, Papanov joined the Red Army and left for the front line. As a senior sergeant he headed an anti-aircraft warfare platoon. In June 1942, he was badly wounded by an explosion and lost two toes on his right foot. He spent six months in a military hospital and was sent home as disabled, and for the next several years he could only walk with a cane. In 1985 he was awarded the 1st class Order of the Patriotic War.  Despite his injury, in 1943 Papanov entrolled as a student in the acting faculty of the State Institute of Theatre Arts, taking courses with Vasili Orlov. During his studies he met his future wife, a fellow student Nadezhda Yurievna Karatayeva (born 1924), who had also served in the war as a nurse on a hospital train. They married on 20 May 1945, ten days after the end of the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theatre.", "content": "In 1946, after graduating from the State Institute, Papanov left for Klaipėda, Lithuanian SSR, along with other students. There, they founded a Klaipėda Russian Drama Theatre, where he performed for several years. In 1948 Andrey Goncharov suggested he join the Moscow Satire Theatre, where he continued to act up until his death, performing in about 50 plays.  Among his popular roles were Alexander Koreiko in \"The Little Golden Calf\" (1958), Kisa Vorobyaninov in \"The Twelve Chairs\" (1960, both based on the novels by Ilf and Petrov), Vasily Tyorkin in Aleksandr Tvardovsky's \"Tyorkin in the Other World\" (1966), Anton Antonovich in Nikolai Gogol's \"The Government Inspector\" (1972), Nikolai Shubin in Grigori Gorin's and Arkady Arkanov's \"Little Comedies of the Big House\" (1973), Pavel Famusov in Alexander Griboyedov's \"Woe from Wit\" (1976), Roman Khludov in Mikhail Bulgakov's \"Flight\" (1977), Leonid Gayev in Anton Chekhov's \"The Cherry Orchard\" (1984), and others.  Apart from performing, Papanov also taught acting at the State Institute of Theatre Arts, and in 1986 he staged his first and last play, \"The Last Ones\" by Maxim Gorky. Being a devout Christian, Papanov wanted to end it with a prayer. To avoid possible censorship, he used a radio record of Feodor Chaliapin performing a prayer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cinema.", "content": "During the 1960s, Papanov began regularly appearing in films. He performed leading roles in the comedies \"Come Tomorrow, Please...\" (1962), directed by Yevgeny Tashkov, and \"Children of Don Quixote\" (1965), directed by Yevgeny Karelov, and appeared in several comedies by Eldar Ryazanov, including \"Nowhere Man\" (1961), where he played four roles at once. It didn't bring him any fame, though, as the movie was heavily criticized upon release and quickly banned for 25 years straight.  Papanov became very famous, however, after his work as General Serpilin in Aleksandr Stolper's war drama \"The Alive and the Dead\" (1964). For this role he was awarded the Vasilyev Brothers State Prize of the RSFSR and the main prize at the First All-Union Film Festival, and Konstantin Simonov personally lauded his work.  In 1966, Eldar Ryazanov released \"Beware of the Car, in\" which Papanov appeared alongside his friend Andrei Mironov, with Mironov as a modern-day black marketeer, and Papanov as his father-in-law, a war veteran who mocked him all the way through. Its popularity led Leonid Gaidai to cast them in his 1968 comedy \"The Diamond Arm\" as the main antagonists, a pair of smugglers who tried to get their hands on the hero's \"diamond arm\". The film was seen by 76.7 million people on the year of release, becoming the third most popular Soviet movie of all time. In 1971, Gaidai also tried both actors for the leading parts in his adaptation of \"The Twelve Chairs\", but decided otherwise. In 1976, Mark Zakharov directed his own TV adaptation of the book and eventually cast both actors in the leading roles, reuniting them for the last time.  Papanov was also highly sought-after by animation directors. His distinguishing growling voice suited all kind of beasts such as Shere Khan from The Adventures of Mowgli (1967), a Soviet adaptation of \"The Jungle Book\". His most popular characters, though, were wolves, especially after he voiced the Wolf character in the top-rated animated series \"Well, Just You Wait!\" (1969—1986), which has been considered his best role, overshadowing all of his other work, to his great displeasure.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death and memory.", "content": "Papanov suffered from chronic heart failure. In 1987, he performed his last role in the tragic drama \"Cold Summer of 1953\". After work on the movie was finished, Papanov returned from Karelia to his Moscow flat and decided to take a shower although the hot water was off that day. He died in the bath from heart attack. Just eleven days later, his long-time friend and co-star Andrei Mironov would die from a cerebral hemorrhage.  Papanov was buried in Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow. He was survived by his wife, actress Nadezhda Karatayeva who also performed at the Moscow Satire Theatre, and their daughter Elena Papanova, a theatre and film actress.  In 2012 a monument in memory of Papanov was opened in his native Vyazma.  One of the streets in Mikhaylovsk, Stavropol Krai is named after the actor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anatoli Dmitrievich Papanov (; 31 October 1922 — 5 August 1987) was a Soviet stage, film and voice actor, drama teacher, and theatre director at the Moscow Satire Theatre where he served for almost 40 years. A prominent character actor, Papanov is mostly remembered for his comedy roles in a duo with his friend Andrei Mironov, although he had many dramatic roles as well. As a voice actor he contributed to over hundred cartoons. He was named People's Artist of the USSR in 1973 and awarded the USSR State Prize posthumously.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976595}
{"src_title": "Sąjūdis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical background.", "content": "In the mid-1980s, Lithuania's Communist Party leadership hesitated to embrace Gorbachev's perestroika and glasnost. The death of Petras Griškevičius, first secretary of the Communist Party of Lithuania, in 1987 was merely followed by the appointment of another rigid communist, Ringaudas Songaila. However, encouraged by the rhetoric of Mikhail Gorbachev, noting the strengthening position of Solidarity in Poland and encouraged by the Pope and the U.S. Government, Baltic independence activists began to hold public demonstrations in Riga, Tallinn, and Vilnius.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation.", "content": "At a meeting at the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences on 3 June 1988, communist and non-communist intellectuals formed Sąjūdis Initiative Group (Lithuanian: \"Sąjūdžio iniciatyvinė grupė\") to organise a movement to support Gorbachev's program of glasnost, democratisation, and perestroika. The group composed of 35 members, mostly artists. 17 of the group members were also communist party members. Its goal was to organise the Sąjūdis Reform Movement, which became known subsequently simply as Sąjūdis.  On 24 June 1988, the first massive gathering organised by Sąjūdis took place. There delegates to the 19th All-Union Conference of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union were instructed about Sąjūdis goals. About 100,000 people in Vingis Park greeted the delegates when they came back in July. Another massive event took place on 23 August 1988, when about 250,000 people gathered to protest against the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact and its secret protocol.  On 19 June 1988 the first issue of samizdat newspaper \"Sąjūdis News\" (Lithuanian: \"Sąjūdžio žinios\") was published. In September Sąjūdis published a legal newspaper, \"Atgimimas\" (English: \"rebirth\"). In total about 150 different newspapers were printed supporting Sąjūdis.  As stated in the first issues “Atgimimas”, Sąjūdis was perceived as the reformist initiative by the intellectual authorities with a goal to start the national awakening.  In October 1988, Sąjūdis held its founding conference in Vilnius. It elected 35-member council. Most its members were members of the initiative group. Vytautas Landsbergis, a professor of musicology who was not a member of the communist party, became the council's chairman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "The movement supported Gorbachev's policies, but at the same time promoted Lithuanian national issues such as restoration of the Lithuanian language as the official language. Its demands included the revelation of truth about the Stalinist years, protection of the environment, the halt to construction on a third nuclear reactor at the Ignalina nuclear power plant, and disclosure of the secret protocols of the Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact, signed in 1939.  Sąjūdis used mass meetings to advance its goals. At first, Communist Party leaders shunned these meetings, but by mid-1988 their participation became a political necessity. A Sąjūdis rally on 24 June 1988, was attended by Algirdas Brazauskas, then party secretary for industrial affairs. In October 1988, Brazauskas was appointed first secretary of the communist party to replace Songaila. Communist leaders threatened to crack down on Sąjūdis, but backed down in the face of mass protests. Sąjūdis candidates fared well in elections to the Congress of People's Deputies, the newly created Soviet legislative body. Their candidates won in 36 of the 40 districts in which they ran.  In February 1989 Sąjūdis declared that Lithuania had been forcibly annexed by the Soviet Union and that the group's ultimate goal was to achieve independence. Lithuanian sovereignty was proclaimed in May 1989, and Lithuania's incorporation into the Soviet Union was declared illegal.  On 23 August 1989, the 50th anniversary of the signing of the Nazi–Soviet Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, a 600-kilometre, two-million-strong human chain reaching from Tallinn to Vilnius focused international attention on the aspirations of the Baltic nations. This demonstration and the coordinated efforts of the three nations became known as The Baltic Way.  In December the Communist Party of Lithuania seceded from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and agreed to give up its monopoly on power. In February 1990 Sąjūdis representatives won an absolute majority (101 seats out of 141) in the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR. Vytautas Landsbergis was elected chairman of the Supreme Council. This led to the declaration of independence on 11 March 1990.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After independence.", "content": "Today, Sąjūdis is still active in Lithuania, but it has lost almost all its influence. With gained independence, reform communists and Vilnius liberal intellectuals left Sąjūdis about a month later, one of the reasons being a growing nationalist rhetoric. As a result, the movement, still led by its founder V. Landsbergis, mostly included members from Kaunas-faction who were inclined to “differentiate the local population into two clear groups, “patriots” and “communists.” The popularity of Sąjūdis lessened as it failed to maintain unity among people with different political beliefs and was ineffective in coping with the economic crisis.  Moreover, Sąjūdis lost the major support from the rural regions of Lithuania as they proposed agricultural and land reforms without the input and against the interests of most kolkhoz employees and workers.  The Democratic Labour Party (DLP; the former Communist Party of Lithuania) was victorious in the Seimas elections of November 1992.  Much of the group, including Landsbergis, formed the core of the Homeland Union, now the largest centre-right party in Lithuania.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sąjūdis (, \"Movement\"), initially known as the Reform Movement of Lithuania (), is the political organisation which led the struggle for Lithuanian independence in the late 1980s and early 1990s. It was established on 3 June 1988, and was led by Vytautas Landsbergis. Its goal was to seek the return of independent status for Lithuania.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976596}
{"src_title": "2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Preparation.", "content": "The IAAF announced on March 25, 2007 at an IAAF Council meeting in Mombasa, Kenya that it had received bids from Turkey and Qatar to host the 2010 IAAF World Indoor Championships. In November 2007 at an IAAF Council meeting in Monaco, Doha was selected to host the 2010 edition, but due to the quality of the Istanbul bid, the Turkish city was chosen to host the following edition of the competition in 2012. It will be the first time that Turkey has hosted a major global athletics event. Previously, the highest level events that the country had hosted included the Athletics at the 2005 Summer Universiade and lower-level sections of the European Cup/European Team Championships.  The events took place at the 7,450-seater Ataköy Athletics Arena, which was constructed especially for the event in the Ataköy neighborhood of Bakırköy next to the Sinan Erdem Dome. The initial bid featured the Dome as the host stadium, but the venue was later changed as the Sinan Erdem Dome was host to the 2010 FIBA World Championship in the months before the event. The construction of the Ataköy Arena was behind schedule, leading to the cancellation of some tester events, meaning that the Turkish Indoor Championships in late January was the first competition to be held there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Men.", "content": "2008 | 2010 | 2012 | 2014 | 2016", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Women.", "content": "2008 | 2010 | 2012 | 2014 | 2016", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gallery from the games.", "content": "Photos from the games in Istanbul:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athletics was the 14th edition of the global-level indoor track and field competition and was held between March 9–11, 2012 at the Ataköy Athletics Arena in Istanbul, Turkey. It was the first of four IAAF World Athletics Series events in 2012, which includes the World Race Walking Cup, the World Junior Championships and the World Half Marathon Championships.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976597}
{"src_title": "Lucy Hale", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hale was born in Memphis, Tennessee, to Julie Knight and Preston Hale. She was named after one of her great-grandmothers. Her mother is a registered nurse. She has an older sister, Maggie, a step-sister, Kirby, and a step-brother Wes. Hale was homeschooled as a child. During her childhood, she took acting and singing lessons. In August 2012, Hale revealed she had suffered from an eating disorder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"American Juniors\".", "content": "In 2003, Hale first appeared on television as a contestant in the Fox reality show \"American Juniors\". On July 30, 2003, Hale finished in fourth place and part of a group of the same name formed with the top 5 finishers (Chauncey Matthews, Danielle White and Tori & Taylor Thompson) but the group disbanded in 2005, after their self-titled studio album's lackluster sales.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Performances on \"American Juniors\".", "content": "Hale performed the following songs on the show:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Acting.", "content": "Hale moved to Los Angeles at age 15 in the hopes of getting a record deal. Shortly after, she started auditioning and received a minor role on \"Drake & Josh\" and other guest roles on shows such as \"Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide\", \"The O.C.\", \"Private Practice\" and \"Ruby & the Rockits\". She appeared in two episodes on both television shows \"Wizards of Waverly Place\" as Miranda Hampson and \"How I Met Your Mother\" as Katie Scherbatsky.  In 2007, Hale appeared in NBC's short-lived series \"Bionic Woman\", a re-imagining from the 1976 series of the same name. Hale plays Becca Sommers, the younger sister of the title character Jaime Sommers (played by Michelle Ryan). The character was originally portrayed by Mae Whitman in the unaired pilot episode, after which Whitman departed the series.  In August 2008, Hale made her big screen debut in \"The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2\" portraying Effie Kaligaris, the younger sister of Lena Kaligaris (played by Alexis Bledel). One month later, Hale starred in The CW series \"Privileged\" as Rose Baker, with co-stars JoAnna Garcia and Ashley Newbrough. The series is based on the book \"How to Teach Filthy Rich Girls\" by Zoey Dean and was cancelled by the network due to low ratings. Hale had auditioned for the two characters in the first two \"The Twilight Saga\" films, both were lost to Ashley Greene as Alice Cullen in \"Twilight\" and Dakota Fanning as Jane Volturi in \"\". In 2009, Hale appeared in two films, the comedy-drama \"Sorority Wars\" and the mystery-thriller \"Fear Island\". In October 2009, Hale was cast as Aria Montgomery in \"Pretty Little Liars\", based on the book series of the same name by Sara Shepard. The television series lasted seven seasons from 2010 to 2017, with Hale's performance being praised by critics. She also received a number of awards and nominations.  In January 2010, Hale appeared as the singer Phoebe Nichols and her identical body double Vanessa Patton in the \"\" episode \"Show Stopper\". In 2011, Hale had a cameo role as Sherrie in the slasher film \"Scream 4\". Later, Hale was cast as the aspiring singer Katie Gibbs in \"\", the third installment of \"A Cinderella Story\" series and was released on direct to video in September 2011.  Hale hosted an episode of MTV's \"Punk'd\" aired on April 26, 2012, where she successfully pranked with \"Pretty Little Liars\" co-star Ian Harding, Vanessa Hudgens and Josh Hutcherson. The same year, Hale played the voice of Periwinkle, a twin sister of Tinker Bell (voiced by Mae Whitman) in the animated Disney film \"Secret of the Wings\". On June 11, 2013, Hale announced that she is the new Ambassador of the beauty brand Mark Girl.  Hale was co-hosted for the television event shows, the Teen Choice Awards (with Darren Criss in 2013 and David Dobrik in 2019) and the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards Pre-Show with Sway Calloway. Hale served as a correspondent in New Orleans and co-hosted with Ryan Seacrest in Times Square for \"Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve\" (2016–present).  In 2018, Hale was cast in The CW comedy-drama series \"Life Sentence\" as Stella Abbott, a woman who finds out that her terminal cancer is cured. The series which only lasted one season. The same year, Hale starred in three films, \"Truth or Dare\", \"Dude\" and \"The Unicorn\". On March 11, 2019, Hale was cast as the title character in \"Katy Keene\", based on the Archie Comics character, the series premiered February 6, 2020 on The CW. In 2020, Hale starred as Melanie Cole in the supernatural horror film \"Fantasy Island\".  Hale is set to appear in upcoming projects such as the romantic comedy films \"The Hating Game\" with Robbie Amell and \"A Nice Girl Like You\", which she also served as co-producer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Hale described music as her \"first love\". Her early musical influences were Shania Twain and Faith Hill, but what ignited her interest in pursuing music was Britney Spears' \"...Baby One More Time\". Kristian Bush of country band Sugarland said: \"She sounds like Carrie Underwood—strong with a blues side and a pop side to it. And a lot like Faith Hill.\" She recorded songs for. Throughout her career, Hale made appearances of music videos with artists: Foy Vance's \"She Burns\", Chase Jordan's \"Lose Control (Take a Sip)\" and Jackson Harris' \"Come Back Down to Earth\". Hale also served as a backup singer for artist Carly Pearce. She was referenced with the 2010 song \"Lucy Hale\" by music group Lost Orchards.  In June 2012, Hale announced that she had signed a record deal with Hollywood Records (co-partnership with DMG Nashville). On February 18, 2014, Hale's debut studio album was announced to be called \"Road Between\", released on June 3, 2014. In 2015, Hale collaborated with Rascal Flatts, performed a cover of \"Let It Go\" from another Disney animated film \"Frozen\" and was featured on the compilation album \"We Love Disney\". Later, Hale recorded two songs \"Mistletoe\" and \"You're Here\" on the Christmas album \"A Hollywood Christmas\", released on December 8, 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Songwriting credits.", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Karen Lucille Hale (born June 14, 1989), known professionally as Lucy Kate Hale, is an American actress, singer, and television personality. She is best known for her roles as Aria Montgomery in the Freeform series \"Pretty Little Liars\" (2010–2017), and Katy Keene in The CW series \"Katy Keene\" (2020–present). Some other notable roles in television played by Hale include Becca Sommers in \"Bionic Woman\" (2007), Rose Baker in \"Privileged\" (2008–2009) and Stella Abbott in \"Life Sentence\" (2018). Hale has also appeared in films such as \"The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2\" (2008), \"Sorority Wars\" (2009), \"\" and \"Scream 4\" (both 2011), \"Truth or Dare\" and \"Dude\" (both 2018), and \"Fantasy Island\" (2020).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976598}
{"src_title": "Technical textile", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "Technical textiles can be divided into many categories, depending on their end use. The classification system developed by Techtextil, Messe Frankfurt Exhibition GmbH, is widely used in Europe, North America and Asia. Techtextil specifies 12 application areas: Agrotech, Buildtech, Clothtech, Geotech, Hometech, Indutech, Medtech, Mobiltech, Oekotech, Packtech, Protech, and Sporttech, Architech (Architectural textile), Military textiles, Autotech (Automobile textiles), Smartech (Smart Textiles), Wearable computers,. These are sometimes spelled Agrotex, Buildtex, Clothtex, Geotex, Hometex, Indutex, Medtex, Mobiltex, Oekotex (Ecotex), Packtex, Protex and Sportex\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buildtech (Construction Textiles).", "content": "Construction textiles are used in: construction concrete reinforcement, façade foundation systems, interior construction, insulations, proofing materials, air conditioning, noise prevention, visual protection, protection against the sun, building safety.  An interesting and aesthetic appealing application is the use of textile membranes for roof construction. This area is also referred to as textile architecture. PVC coated high tenacity PES, teflon coated glass fibre fabrics or silicone coated PES are used for their low creep properties. Splendid examples of such construction are found in football stadia, airports and hotels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clothtech (Clothing Textiles).", "content": "Technical textiles for clothing applications. Especially in the finishing process where fabric is treated under pressure and high temperature the technical textile supports the fabric for smooth processing. This is usually the blend of polyester, modal, viscose, nylon, etc.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Geotech (Geotextiles).", "content": "These are used in reinforcement of embankments or in construction work. The fabrics in geo textiles are permeable fabrics and are used with soils having ability to separate, filter, protect or drain. The application areas include civil engineering, earth and road construction, dam engineering, soil sealing and in drainage systems. The fabric used in it must have good strength, durability, low moisture absorption and thickness. Mostly nonwoven and woven fabrics are used in it. Synthetic fibers like glass, polypropylene and acrylic fibers are used to prevent cracking of the concrete, plastic and other building materials. Polypropylene and polyester are used in geo textiles and dry/liquid filtration due to their compatibility.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hometech (Domestic Textiles).", "content": "Textiles used in a domestic environment - interior decoration and furniture, carpeting, protection against the sun, cushion materials, fireproofing, pillows, floor and wall coverings, textile reinforced structures/fittings.  In the contract market such as for large area buildings, ships, caravans, busses,... fire retardant materials are used. Fire retardant properties are obtained either through the use of inherent fire retardant fibres such as modacryl or through the application of a coating with fire retardant additives (bromide of phosphorus compounds).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Indutech (Industrial Textiles).", "content": "Textiles used for chemical and electrical applications and textiles related to mechanical engineering. Silk-screen printing, filtration, plasma screens, propulsion technology, lifting/conveying equipment, sound-proofing elements, melting processes, roller covers, grinding technology, insulations, seals, fuel cell.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lifting textiles.", "content": "Technical textiles for Lifting applications. Used in process of lifting heavy goods. The textile produced is strongly woven with High tenacity yarns and the fabric is treated with heat and high temperature controlling its elongations. This is usually made of High tenacity polyester and Nylon however HMPE yarns as Dyneema are also used.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Mobiltech (Textiles used in transport; automotive and aerospace).", "content": "These textiles are used in the construction of automobiles, railways, ships, aircraft and spacecraft. Examples are Truck covers (PVC coated PES fabrics), car trunk coverings (often needle felts), lashing belts for cargo tie downs, seat covers (knitted materials), seat belts, non-wovens for cabin air filtration (also covered in indutech), airbags, parachutes, boats (inflatable), air balloons.  These textiles are used in automobiles, ships and aircraft. Many coated and reinforced textiles are used in materials for engines such as air ducts, timing belts, air filters, non-wovens for engine sound isolation... A number of materials are also used in the interior of cars. The most obvious are seat covers, safety belts and airbags but one can find textiles also for the sealing. Nylon gives strength and its bursting strength being high is used as air bags in cars.  Carbon composites are mostly used in the manufacture of aeroplane parts while carbon fibre is used for making higher end tyres. High tensile polyester is used for making air balloons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Oekotech or Ecotech (Ecological Protection Textile).", "content": "New applications for textiles in environmental protection applications - floor sealing, erosion protection, air cleaning, prevention of water pollution, water cleaning, waste treatment/recycling, depositing area construction, product extraction, domestic water sewerage plants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Packtech (Packaging textiles).", "content": "Packaging, silos, containers, bags, lashing straps, canvas covers, marquee tents.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Protech (protective textiles).", "content": "The main target of the technical protective fabrics is to improve people safety in their workplaces. A technical protective fabric can save a worker's life, that's why, most of them are mainly used to manufacture PPE (personal protective equipment). The demand of these fabrics is growing around the world thank to the sensibilitization of the society, requiring more safety at work. There are some organizations around the world (ASTM and ISO) which describe the requirements and regulations, to fulfill by a fabric, to be considered as a technical protective fabric. The aim of a technical protective fabric isn't fashion, they are designed to have extra values in protection, against some hazards.  Nowadays it can be found in the market, technical fabrics which protect of:  These fabrics are made of different kind of fibers, because every blend apports different technical characteristics to the fabric:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sportech (Sports textiles).", "content": "Shoes, sports equipment, flying and sailing sports, climbing, angling, cycling, winter and summer sports, indoor sport it can vary from anything including sports bags.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Specific areas of application.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conveyor belts.", "content": "For industrial applications and in power transmission, technical textiles are used in conveyor belts. Carcass is a fabric inside the conveyor belt, which is responsible for the strength and stretch properties of the belt. This carcass is made with layers of woven fabrics bonded together.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electronics in textiles.", "content": "It has been heard that soon textiles will be merged with electronics in all areas. In future wearable computers would be launched, these will not be like advance wrist watches etc., they will contain IC s in fabric to develop fabric keyboards and other wearable computer devices. These types of products are known as Interactive electronic textiles (IET). Research to support IET development is being conducted in many universities. Growing consumer interest in mobile, electronic devices will initiate the demand for IET products.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A technical textile is a textile product manufactured for non-aesthetic purposes, where function is the primary criterion. Technical textiles include textiles for automotive applications, medical textiles (e.g., implants), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection), and protective clothing (e.g., heat and radiation protection for fire fighter clothing, molten metal protection for welders, stab protection and bulletproof vests, and spacesuits).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976599}
{"src_title": "Annapurna Massif", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The mountain is named after Annapurna, the Hindu goddess of food and nourishment, who is said to reside there. The name Annapurna is derived from the Sanskrit-language words \"purna\" (\"filled\") and \"anna\" (\"food\"), and can be translated as \"everlasting food\". Many streams descending from the slopes of the Annapurna Massif provide water for the agricultural fields and pastures located at lower altitudes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The Annapurna massif contains six prominent peaks over elevation:  Less prominent and other peaks in the Annapurna Himal include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climbing expeditions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Annapurna I.", "content": "Annapurna I was the first peak to be climbed. Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal, of the French Annapurna expedition led by Herzog (including Lionel Terray, Gaston Rébuffat, Marcel Ichac, Jean Couzy, Marcel Schatz, Jacques Oudot, Francis de Noyelle), reached the summit on 3 June 1950. Ichac made a documentary of the expedition, called \"Victoire sur l'Annapurna\". Its summit was the highest summit attained for three years, until the first successful ascent of Mount Everest (although higher non-summit points - at least - had already been attained on Everest in the 1920s).  The south face of Annapurna was first climbed in 1970 by Don Whillans and Dougal Haston also without using supplementary oxygen, members of a British expedition led by Chris Bonington that included the alpinist Ian Clough, who was killed by a falling serac during the descent. They were, however, beaten to the second ascent of Annapurna by a matter of days by a British Army expedition led by Colonel Henry Day.  In 1978, the American Women's Himalayan Expedition, a team led by Arlene Blum, became the first United States team to climb Annapurna I. The first summit team, composed of Vera Komarkova and Irene Miller, and Sherpas Mingma Tsering and Chewang Ringjing, reached the top at 3:30 pm on 15 October 1978. The second summit team, Alison Chadwick-Onyszkiewicz and Vera Watson, died during this climb.  In 1981 Polish expedition Zakopane Alpine Club set a new route on Annapurna I Central (8051 m). Maciej Berbeka and Bogusław Probulski reached the summit on 23 May 1981. The route called Zakopiańczyków Way was recognized as the best achievement of the Himalayan season in 1981.  On 3 February 1987, Polish climbers Jerzy Kukuczka and Artur Hajzer made the first winter ascent of Annapurna I.  The first solo ascent of the south face was made in October 2007 by Slovenian climber Tomaž Humar; he climbed to the Roc Noir and then to Annapurna East (8,047m).  On 8 and 9 October 2013 Swiss climber Ueli Steck soloed the Lafaille route on the main and highest part of the face; this was his third attempt on the route and has been called \"one of the most impressive Himalayan climbs in history\", with Steck taking 28 hours to make the trip from Base Camp to summit and back again.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fatality rate.", "content": "Annapurna I has the greatest fatality rate of all the 14 eight-thousanders: as of March 2012, there have been 52 deaths during ascents, 191 successful ascents, and nine deaths upon descent. The ratio of 34 deaths per 100 safe returns on Annapurna I is followed by 29 for K2 and 21 for Nanga Parbat. Climbers killed on the peak include Britons Ian Clough in 1970 and Alex MacIntyre in 1982, Frenchman in 1992, Kazakh Russian Anatoli Boukreev in 1997, Spaniard Iñaki Ochoa in 2008, and Korean Park Young-seok in 2011.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Other peaks.", "content": "Gangapurna was first climbed May 6, 1965, by a German expedition led by Günther Hauser, via the East Ridge. The summit party comprised 11 members of the expedition.  Annapurna South (also known as Annapurna Dakshin, or Moditse) was first climbed in 1964 by a Japanese expedition, via the North Ridge. The summit party comprised S. Uyeo and Mingma Tsering.  Hiunchuli (6,441 m/21,126 ft) is a satellite peak extending east from Annapurna South, Hiunchuli was first climbed in 1971 by an expedition led by U.S. Peace Corps Volunteer Craig Anderson.  Mount Machhapuchchhre (), named after its resemblance to a fish-tail, is another important peak, though it just misses the 7,000 metre mark. Mount Machhapuchchhre and Hiunchuli are prominently visible from the valley of Pokhara. These peaks are the \"gates\" to the Annapurna Sanctuary leading to the south face of Annapurna I. Mount Machhapuchchhre was climbed in 1957 (except the final 50 metres for its local religious sanctity) by Wilfrid Noyce and A. D. M. Cox. Since then it has been off limits.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trekking.", "content": "The Annapurna Conservation Area (7,629 km2) is a well known trekking region. There are three major trekking routes in the Annapurna region: the \"Jomson Trek\" to Jomsom and Muktinath (increasingly disturbed by a road-building project); the \"Annapurna Sanctuary\" route to Annapurna base camp; and the \"Annapurna Circuit\", which circles the Annapurna Himal itself and includes the Jomsom route. The town of Pokhara usually serves as a starting point for these treks, and is also a good starting place for other short treks of one to four days, such as routes to Ghorepani or Ghandruk.  The Mustang district, a former kingdom bordering Tibet, is also geographically a part of the Annapurna region, but treks to upper Mustang are subject to special restrictions. Mustang is also increasingly becoming popular for mountain biking because of the construction of roads undertaken by the Nepali government in the region.  About two-thirds of all trekkers in Nepal visit the Annapurna region. The area is easily accessible, guest houses in the hills are plentiful, and treks here offer incredibly diverse scenery, with both high mountains and lowland villages. Also, because the entire area is inhabited, trekking in the region offers unique cultural exposure and experience. Trekkers are required to purchase a special permit for trekking from the Nepal Immigration Office, with the permit generally being valid for ten days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2014 trekking disaster.", "content": "In October 2014, at least 43 people were killed, and some 175 injured, as a result of snowstorms and avalanches on and around Annapurna, including trekkers from Nepal, Israel, Canada, India, Slovakia and Poland. Between 10 and 50 people were thought likely to be missing. It was believed that about 100 trekkers had left a guest house at, to climb to the top of Thorong La pass and then descend.  The authorities were criticized for not giving sufficient warning of the approaching bad weather. By 18 October, some 289 people were reported as having been rescued. An official from the Nepal Ministry of Tourism said on 18 October that helicopters were looking for survivors and bodies in snowy areas at up to, and were trying to reach 22 hikers stranded at Thorong La. The incident was said to be Nepal's worst-ever trekking disaster.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Annapurna (; Sanskrit, Nepali, Newar: अन्नपूर्णा) is a massif in the Himalayas in north-central Nepal that includes one peak over, thirteen peaks over, and sixteen more over. The massif is long, and is bounded by the Kali Gandaki Gorge on the west, the Marshyangdi River on the north and east, and by Pokhara Valley on the south. At the western end, the massif encloses a high basin called the Annapurna Sanctuary. The highest peak of the massif, Annapurna I Main, is the tenth highest mountain in the world at above sea level. Maurice Herzog led a French expedition to its summit through the north face in 1950, making it the first of the eight-thousanders to be climbed and the only 8,000 meter-peak to be conquered on the first try.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976600}
{"src_title": "Colonnata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Colonnata's history dates back to its settlement, around 40 BC. It was built for the housing of slaves used in quarrying marble after Rome decided to replace expensive imported Greek marble with local (Luni) marble.  The name of the settlement is believed derived from the Latin word \"columna\", indicating the place where columns of marble were extracted to be sent to Rome, but the origin of the name could also be the Latin \"collis\" (\"hill\") or \"columen\" ( \"top\").  The quarries may also have been used by the Ligurian Apuani tribe, who were perhaps also used later as quarrying experts. Evidence of mining activity dating back to the 6th century BC has been found at \"Fossa Carbonera\", Fantiscritti.  Based on a stone found in 1810 bearing the names of the consuls of the years 16 - 22 AD, it appears that the settlement was run by settlers and a magistrate, all of servile origin, who oversaw the work.  Additional records date back only to the 13th century, while the church of the village is believed to date back to the 12th century. It's possible, however, that in the Middle Ages Colonnata was used as a defensive stronghold for those who controlled these areas after the Roman Empire (the Byzantines, the Goths and Lombards).  The village is still mainly supported by mining. The breeding of pigs, promoted by the abundance of chestnut trees, was introduced to Colonnata, perhaps by the Lombards. Over time, this industry evolved, in particular processing freshly slaughtered meat, which was used as bread spread by the quarrymen, thus starting the traditional production of the famous pork fat delicacy, Lardo di Colonnata.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location and quarrying.", "content": "Colonnata is located in the Apuan Alps (mounts Maggiore, Spallone and Sagro), and is accessible by the road that passes through the villages of Vezzala and Bedizzano.  The village is surrounded by quarries in an area known as \"Gioia Calagio\", which includes the Gioia Pit, which produces the arabescato and bardiglio varieties of veined marble. The quarry was also used in ancient times, as evidenced by the finds of coins, inscriptions engraved directly on the rock, and a relief of the Roman tutelary deity Silvanus.  The largest Roman quarrying site yet discovered was one kilometre south at Fossacava.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Places of interest.", "content": "The village has maintained some of its historic features, such as the use of marble in murals, doorways, doorjambs, windows and other architectural features. Also to be seen are the north gate into the town, which belonged to the medieval city walls now gone; a yard paved in marble located at the far south end of town; the Piazza Palestro, which leads to a modern sculpture dedicated to \"Cristo dei Cavatori\" (\"Christ of the Quarrymen\"); and the stone bell tower with a view and a clock.  The sixteenth-century San Bartolomeo parish church has a marble interior, including a main altar in white marble, side altars in multi-coloured marble, a marble relief depicting the Assumption of Mary into heaven among the saints, preserved fragments of an ancon from the altar of Saints Andrew, Bartholomew and Peter, and a 17th-century marble crucifix attributed to a pupil of Michelangelo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Colonnata is an Italian ancient village and a hamlet (\"frazione\") of the \"comune\" of Carrara, (Massa-Carrara, Tuscany). It is situated in the Apuan Alps, and is known worldwide for the pork fat delicacy Lardo di Colonnata, and for its marble quarries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976601}
{"src_title": "JLL (company)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Operations.", "content": "JLL is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, and it is the second-largest public brokerage firm in the world. The company has approximately 91,000 employees in 80 countries, as of 2019.  Services include sales and leasing, property management, project management, and development. In 2014, the organization shortened its name to JLL for marketing purposes, while the legal name remained Jones Lang LaSalle Incorporated.  Former company president Christian Ulbrich succeeded Colin Dyer as CEO in October 2016. Stephanie Plaines was the CFO, as of March 2019. Sheila Penrose has served as board chairperson since 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The company began as the result of a 1999 merger of Jones Lang Wootton and LaSalle Partners. Jones Lang Wootton was a London auctioneer that originated in the 1700s. By 1976, Jones Lang Wootton expanded into the United States real estate market in New York City. The company had 4,000 employees in 33 countries around the time of the merger with LaSalle Partners.  William Sanders founded real estate company International Development Corp in 1966 in El Paso, Texas. Sanders renamed the company LaSalle Partners in 1968 and relocated to Chicago, Illinois. The company first offered investment banking, investment management, and land services. By 1997, LaSalle had grown into three business divisions, Management Services, Corporate and Financial Services, and Investment Management, with ten U.S. corporate offices and seven international offices. LaSalle Partners made an initial public offering in 1996.  LaSalle Partners and Jones Lang Wootton merged to form Jones Lang LaSalle (JLL) in 1999 in a $435 million deal.  JLL purchased The Staubach Company in 2008. Roger Staubach served as executive chairman of JLL from 2008 until he retired in 2018. JLL merged with UK-based King Sturge in a £197 million deal in 2011. The combined business, with 2,700 employees and 43 offices, created the largest property agent in the UK, as reported by \"The Telegraph\" in 2011. The company acquired UK-based Guardian Property Asset Management in 2015. LaSalle Investment Management, a subsidiary of JLL, managed $58 billion in real estate investments for institutional and retail clients, as of 2016. JLL had acquired 80 companies and established 100 offices worldwide by 2016.  The company expanded from commercial real estate services to include property technology or \"proptech\", with the 2017 launch of its JLL Spark division. In early 2018, the division acquired Stessa, a portfolio management company. In June 2018, JLL Spark created a $100 million venture fund to invest in real estate start-ups, such as a technology to link office users with co-working spaces.  JLL announced the acquisition of HFF in a deal worth $2 billion in March 2019. The acquisition was completed in July 2019 and worth $1.8 billion.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jones Lang LaSalle Incorporated (JLL) is an American commercial real estate services company. The company also provides investment management services worldwide, including services to institutional and retail investors, and to high-net-worth individuals. It is the second-largest company of its kind in the world. The company is ranked 189th on the Fortune 500.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976602}
{"src_title": "Bubble chamber", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Function and use.", "content": "The bubble chamber is similar to a cloud chamber, both in application and in basic principle. It is normally made by filling a large cylinder with a liquid heated to just below its boiling point. As particles enter the chamber, a piston suddenly decreases its pressure, and the liquid enters into a superheated, metastable phase. Charged particles create an ionization track, around which the liquid vaporizes, forming microscopic bubbles. Bubble density around a track is proportional to a particle's energy loss.  Bubbles grow in size as the chamber expands, until they are large enough to be seen or photographed. Several cameras are mounted around it, allowing a three-dimensional image of an event to be captured. Bubble chambers with resolutions down to a few micrometers (μm) have been operated.  The entire chamber is subject to a constant magnetic field, which causes charged particles to travel in helical paths whose radius is determined by their charge-to-mass ratios and their velocities. Since the magnitude of the charge of all known charged, long-lived subatomic particles is the same as that of an electron, their radius of curvature must be proportional to their momentum. Thus, by measuring their radius of curvature, their momentum can be determined.  Notable discoveries made by bubble chamber include the discovery of weak neutral currents at Gargamelle in 1973, which established the soundness of the electroweak theory and led to the discovery of the W and Z bosons in 1983 (at the UA1 and UA2 experiments). Recently, bubble chambers have been used in research on weakly interacting massive particles (WIMP)s, at SIMPLE, COUPP, PICASSO and more recently, PICO.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Drawbacks.", "content": "Although bubble chambers were very successful in the past, they are of limited use in modern very-high-energy experiments for a variety of reasons:  Due to these issues, bubble chambers have largely been replaced by wire chambers, which allow particle energies to be measured at the same time. Another alternative technique is the spark chamber.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A bubble chamber is a vessel filled with a superheated transparent liquid (most often liquid hydrogen) used to detect electrically charged particles moving through it. It was invented in 1952 by Donald A. Glaser, for which he was awarded the 1960 Nobel Prize in Physics. Supposedly, Glaser was inspired by the bubbles in a glass of beer; however, in a 2006 talk, he refuted this story, although saying that while beer was not the inspiration for the bubble chamber, he did experiments using beer to fill early prototypes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976603}
{"src_title": "Franz Stofel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Stärfl was born in Hamburg, Germany in 1915.  From October 1934 to 1935 he served in the Reichswehr, but he decided a greater opportunity to be a professional soldier was to be found in the SS, which he joined in April 1936. As a result, became assigned to the SS-Totenkopfverbände (SS-TV) at Dachau concentration camp. From March 1939 to January 1944 Stärfl headed small work details in the warehouse area of Dachau. In mid-January 1944 he transferred to the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp complex, and from August 1944 served as Kommandoführer (Detachment Commander) for the construction of a satellite camp in Kleinbodungen. From 3 October 1944 to early April 1945 he was leader of the Kleinbodungen subcamp. It consisted of about 620 foreign prisoners forced to work in the Mittelwerk, a missile construction facility for the V-2 missile.  Near the end of the war, as the United States 9th Army approached Mittelbau-Dora, Stärfl was ordered by SS-Obersturmführer Franz Hössler to evacuate Kleinbodungen on 4 April 1945. The next day, 610 prisoners were led outside the camp by Stärfels, his deputy Wilhelm Dörr, and 45 SS-men to the nearest town of Herzberg to be \"evacuated\" by rail. Stärfl forced the prisoners on a death march to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. By 10 April 1945, after some prisoners had managed to escape, the evacuation transport came to the village of Groß Hehlen north of Celle, near the front lines. Four or five prisoners were shot while trying to escape or slow down the march. On 11 April 1945, the remaining 590 prisoners arrived at Bergen-Belsen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conviction and execution.", "content": "On 15 April 1945, the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp was liberated by British troops, where they found 60,000 survivors and 10,000 dead bodies. The SS camp personnel were detained and forced to carry away all the corpses and bury them in mass graves. Stärfl was then arrested by British military personnel and interrogated. In the Belsen Trial, held between 17 September and 17 November 1945, he was indicted for the murders of prisoners during the death march. Stärfl was convicted on 17 November 1945 and sentenced to death. He was hanged on 13 December 1945 in Hameln prison.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franz Stärfl, alias Xaver Stärfel, alias Franz Stofel, (5 October 1915 – 13 December 1945) was a Nazi German SS-Hauptscharführer and camp commander of the Kleinbodungen subcamp of Mittelbau-Dora during World War II. Arrested by the Allies and convicted of war crimes in the Belsen Trial, Stärfl was executed by hanging at in 1945.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976604}
{"src_title": "Wilhelm Dörr (Nazi)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Wilhelm Dörr was born in the town of Merenberg, Hesse on February 9, 1921 and raised in Emmerichenhain (Rennerod) where he worked primarily as a farmhand. Dörr was a member of the Hitler Youth from 1932 to 1939 and volunteered for the Waffen-SS in December 1940 after being rejected for service by the Wehrmacht. While training to become a combat engineer in Dresden in October 1941 he became seriously ill with rheumatism and was confined to a hospital for several months. Following his recovery, Dörr was reassigned to the \"SS-Totenkopfverbände\" in the summer of 1942. He went on to serve as a guard at the Sachsenhausen concentration camp until December 1943.  In January 1944 Dörr was transferred to the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp where he initially functioned as \"Blockführer\" (Block Leader) in the central camp complex before being appointed as deputy to \"Hauptscharführer\" Franz Stofel, commander of the sub-camp of Kleinbodungen, in September 1944.  At Kleinbodungen, Dörr helped manage roughly 620 camp inmates used as slave-laborers in Mittelwerk, the armaments production facility used to manufacture Germany’s V-2 ballistic missiles. When US troops appeared poised to capture Mittelbau-Dora and its environs in April 1945, the evacuation of the camp was ordered. Dörr was one of 45 SS men who led a brutal death march of hundreds of Kleinbodungen inmates to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in Lower Saxony. During the journey the SS conducted numerous summary executions of prisoners who attempted to escape or otherwise slowed the progress of the march.  Four days after Dörr and his group arrived at Bergen-Belsen the camp was liberated by British troops. He was arrested and indicted for the atrocities which had occurred during the death march from Mittelbau-Dora. Dörr was tried along with 45 other alleged war criminals before a British military court in Lüneburg as part of the so-called Belsen Trial. He pleaded not guilty to the charges but was nevertheless convicted and sentenced to death. Dörr was executed by hanging in on 13 December 1945. His executioner was Albert Pierrepoint, aided by an assistant.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wilhelm Dörr (9 February 1921 – 13 December 1945) was a German SS-\"Oberscharführer\" and concentration camp officer. He served as a guard at the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp and as deputy commander of the sub-camp of Kleinbodungen. Following World War II he was convicted of war crimes by British occupation authorities in the Belsen Trial and executed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976605}
{"src_title": "Princess Louise of Denmark (1726–1756)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Louise was described by foreign diplomats as a lively person, not well suited to the rigid and religious court of her parents. The relations between her and her parents were not good because of their differing personalities. She disliked the strict customs at court; her father complained about her \"rebellious nature\" in a letter to his friend Count Christian Günther Stolberg. Louise's name is recorded to have played a major role in the delicate diplomatic game that was driven in Christian VI's final years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scandal and marriage.", "content": "Initially attentions were drawn to get her married soon with George II of Great Britain's younger son, the Duke of Cumberland but this plan were abandoned following Christian VI's attempt to make her Queen of Sweden during the election of the heir to the vacant Swedish throne in 1742–43 through an engagement with the Prince of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld who acted as France's candidate or the prince of Mecklenburg who were also considered as a suitable option. However, none of these plans came to fruition, amidst the tension between the Danish-Norwegian state and Sweden, Holstein-Gottorp's candidate Adolf Frederick got elected King in 1743 by the Swedish Riksdag, it was a serious topic that a marriage between her and Adolf Frederick would be conducive to an alliance between the two kingdoms, but it was stranded on Christian VI's unwise unwillingness to see his daughter married to a Gottorpian prince.  Under her brother Frederick V's reign in 1749, Louise had an affair—and possibly a child—with a valet de chambre from the noble Danish family Ahlefeldt, who was afterwards sentenced to imprisonment for his audacity in Munkholm Fortress. Later that year, she was hastily married to Ernest Frederick III, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen, with a large dowry to hasten the wedding and calm down the scandal. They married in the Hirschholm Palace, north of Copenhagen, on 1 October 1749.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Duchess of Saxe-Hildburghausen.", "content": "As duchess of Saxe-Hildburghausen, she hosted a court known for its formal etiquette, great costs and many parties; she was described as proud and with \"royal expenses\" in her way of living, amusing herself with ballets, masquerades, balls, hunting and gambling, driving through the streets with a carriage (or, in winters, with a sleigh) of gold and silver.  In December 1755 she gave birth to a daughter, who died after a month: Princess Frederica Sophie Juliane Caroline (5 December 1755 – 10 January 1756).  Louise died on 8 August 1756.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Louise of Denmark and Norway (19 October 1726 – 8 August 1756) was a Danish and Norwegian princess, the daughter of King Christian VI of Denmark and his wife Sophie Magdalene of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. Following her marriage to Ernest Frederick III, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen, she became Duchess of Saxe-Hildburghausen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976606}
{"src_title": "Stéphane Mbia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rennes.", "content": "Born in Yaoundé, Mbia made his debut for the Rennes first team during the 2005–06 season, going on to make a handful of appearances over the campaign. The Cameroonian scored his first Ligue 1 goal in November 2006 against the incumbent French champions Lyon.  On 18 April 2007, Mbia was abused by Lyon player Milan Baroš. This led to disciplinary action being taken against Baroš by the French Football Federation, who banned the striker for three matches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marseille.", "content": "On 14 July 2009, Mbia completed his £10.4 million move to Marseille from Rennes, going on to play a vital role in Marseille's victorious Ligue 1 campaign that season, starting off as a defensive midfielder but later making the transition to the role of centre back alongside former Charlton Athletic player Souleymane Diawara. His redeployment at centre back was a success and he went on to play the rest of the season in this position, where he was considered to be one of the best performers in Didier Deschamps' talented squad, as he formed a formidable defensive partnership with Diawara.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Queens Park Rangers.", "content": "On 31 August 2012 Mbia signed a two-year deal with English Premier League club Queens Park Rangers, signing for an undisclosed fee, with Joey Barton heading in the opposite direction on a season-long loan.  On 27 October 2012, Mbia was sent off seventeen minutes from the end of only his fourth league appearance for QPR, a 1–0 defeat to Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium. He was dismissed in the 79th minute for violent conduct after kicking Gunners defender Thomas Vermaelen in retaliation to a strong challenge that had left Mbia floored. He received the standard three-match ban from the FA, and became ineligible for QPR's league games against Reading, Stoke City and Southampton. On 6 May 2013, Mbia tweeted to Joey Barton, asking him if he would like to switch seats with him at Marseille in hinting that he wanted to leave Queen Park Rangers after they were relegated from the Premier League. In July 2013 Mbia scored his first goal for the club in a pre-season friendly against Southend United and expressed desire to stay at QPR.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sevilla.", "content": "On 26 August 2013, Mbia was loaned out to Spanish La Liga club Sevilla FC for the rest of the season. Mbia made his Sevilla debut on 1 September, providing an assist for Kevin Gameiro's first goal in a 2–2 draw with Málaga CF. On 27 October, Mbia provided assists for both Ivan Rakitić and Jairo Samperio as Sevilla overcame 10-man Osasuna 2–1. His first goal in La Liga came in the Seville derby against Real Betis on 24 November, heading in Sevilla's second goal in a 4–0 win.  Mbia scored with a back-heel in the first leg of their Europa League semi-final against compatriots Valencia CF on 24 April 2014 in a 2–0 home win. In the second leg on 1 May, he scored the winning away goal with a header in the fourth minute of added time to take Sevilla into the final. Sevilla subsequently won the final in a shootout against Benfica at the Juventus Stadium in Turin on 14 May, with Mbia converting his penalty kick after the match had ended 0—0. On 3 June, Mbia was selected in the 18-man Europa League \"Team of the Year\" along with teammates Ivan Rakitić, Nicolás Pareja and Beto. At the LFP Awards, he was a nominee for the league's best African player, alongside the Granada CF duo of Yacine Brahimi and Youssef El-Arabi.  On 31 August 2014, Mbia rejoined Sevilla on permanent basis. He scored his first goal of the new season on 18 September, heading in a cross from Gerard Deulofeu as Sevilla started the defense of their Europa League title with a 2–0 win over Feyenoord. Mbia netted a brace as Sevilla earned a comfortable 4–1 victory over Deportivo de La Coruña at the Ramon Sanchez Pizjuan stadium on 5 October.  On 27 May 2015, Mbia started for Sevilla in the 2015 UEFA Europa League Final defeat of FC Dnipro at Poland's National Stadium, thus retaining their Europa League crown, and qualifying the team for next season's Champions League", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "On 2 July 2015, Mbia joined Trabzonspor on a free transfer, signing a three-year deal.  On 29 January 2016, Mbia signed for Chinese Super League club Hebei China Fortune. In March 2018, he left the club by mutual consent.  In August 2018, Mbia joined Ligue 1 side Toulouse FC on a season-long contract. He left the club in January 2019.  On 3 February 2019, Mbia returned to China to join top-flight newcomers Wuhan Zall. A year later, he moved across the league to Shanghai Greenland Shenhua.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Mbia has played international football at junior level for Cameroon. He was part of the Cameroon squad that competed in the 2003 FIFA U-17 World Championship in Finland, where his side were eliminated at the group stage.  He made his debut for the full Cameroon national team in 2005. He was part of the squad which were runners up at the 2008 Africa Cup of Nations in Ghana, where he scored twice in a 3–2 win against Tunisia in the quarter-finals.  Mbia was part of the Cameroon squad for the 2008 Olympics in China, playing in all four of his team's matches, and scoring once against Honduras. Mbia was also selected to represent Cameroon at the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations in Angola and the World Cup in South Africa.  On 2 June 2014, Mbia was included by Cameroon manager Volker Finke in the final 23-man squad for the World Cup in Brazil. The team were eliminated after losing all of their group games amidst a bonuses dispute that led to Mbia replacing Samuel Eto'o as captain of the national team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Mbia is the older brother of footballer Franck Etoundi, who was also a Cameroonian international.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Rennes  Marseille  Sevilla", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Stéphane Mbia Etoundi (born 20 May 1986) is a Cameroonian professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder or defender for Chinese club Shanghai Greenland Shenhua.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976607}
{"src_title": "Peter Beard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Peter Beard was born in 1938 in New York, the son of Roseanne (Hoard) and Anson McCook Beard, heir to a railroad fortune. He was raised in New York City, Alabama, and Islip, Long Island. Beard began keeping diaries as a young boy and making photographs, as an extension of the diaries, at the age of 12. A graduate of Pomfret School, he entered Yale University in 1957, with the intention of pursuing pre-med studies, only to switch his major to art history. At Yale, he was tapped into the secret society Scroll and Key. His mentors at Yale included Josef Albers, Richard Lindner and Vincent Scully. Beard graduated with a B.A. in 1961.  Inspired by earlier work such as Karen Blixen (pen name Isak Dinesen)'s \"Out of Africa\", Beard traveled to Kenya upon graduation. Working at Tsavo National Park, he photographed and documented the demise of 35,000 elephants and other wildlife, later to become the subject of his first book, \"The End of the Game\". During this time, Beard acquired Hog Ranch, a property near the Ngong Hills adjacent to the coffee farm owned by Blixen, which would become his lifelong home-base in East Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art.", "content": "Beard's photographs of Africa, African animals and journals that often integrate his photographs have been widely shown and published since the 1970s. Each of his works is unique, a combination of his photography with elements derived from his daily diary-keeping, a practice he continued until his death in 2020. These volumes contain newspaper clippings, dried leaves, insects, old sepia-toned photos, transcribed telephone messages, marginalia in India ink, photographs of women, quotes, found objects, and the like; these become incorporated, with original drawings and collage by Beard. Certain of his works incorporate animal blood, sometimes Beard's own blood (in sparing quantities), a painting medium the artist favored.  He was a photographer for magazines including Vogue and Elle.  The Peter Beard Studio and Archive was started by Peter and Nejma Beard, and is the primary source for artwork by Peter Beard. The Archive maintains a repository of published and unpublished written and visual material relating to the artist's life, work, projects, travels, exhibitions, and relations with his cohort.  Beard's first exhibition was at the Blum Helman Gallery, New York City, in 1975. Landmark museum exhibitions have been held at the International Center of Photography, New York City, in 1977, and the Centre national de la photographie, Paris, in 1997. Gallery exhibitions followed in Berlin, London, Toronto, Madrid, Milan, Tokyo and Vienna. Beard's work is included in private collections throughout the world.  In 2017, Beard was sued by actor David Spade, who purchased one of his works. Spade tried to resell a Peter Beard photograph that he had purchased from dealer Peter Tunney, but the unsigned work could not be authenticated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Beard was one of three sons born to Roseanne Hoar Beard and Anson McCook Beard, Jr. A great-grandfather, Canadian-born James Jerome Hill, was founder of the Great Northern Railway in the United States in the late 19th/early 20th centuries. Having made his fortune in the railroad business, James Jerome Hill was a great patron of the arts. All of his heirs were exposed to and owned great collections, presumably having a strong influence on Beard's interests in the arts and beauty.  He married three times. His first wife was Mary \"Minnie\" Olivia Cochran Cushing (later Mrs James J. Coleman Jr.), a society figure, granddaughter of artist Howard Gardiner Cushing, and a former assistant to the fashion designer Oscar de la Renta. They married in 1967 in Newport, Rhode Island and divorced three years later.  Next he was married to Cheryl Tiegs (formerly married to Stanley John Dragoti), the fashion model, from 1981 to 1984.  His last wife was Nejma Khanum, a daughter of a judge of the Supreme Court of Kenya, whom he married in Montauk in 1986. The couple had one child, a daughter, Zara (born 1988), for whom his book, \"Zara's Tales,\" was written.  In 1996, he was charged by an elephant and gored in the right leg. After arriving at the hospital without a pulse, he was revived, and survived.  Beard befriended and in some cases collaborated with many artists, including Andy Warhol, Andrew Wyeth, Francis Bacon, Karen Blixen, Truman Capote, Richard Lindner, and Salvador Dalí. He also photographed many other well-known people. He appeared in Adolfas Mekas's film, \"Hallulujah the Hills\", in 1963, at the first New York Film Festival.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On the afternoon of March 31, 2020 Beard, who was suffering from dementia and ill health after a stroke, wandered away from his Montauk, Long Island home. Despite exhaustive searches he was not found.  On April 19 Beard's body was found by a hunter in a densely wooded area in Camp Hero State Park in Montauk Point, New York. As of April 20 a cause of death had not been determined.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Hill Beard (January 22, 1938 – March/April 2020) was an American artist, photographer, diarist, and writer who lived and worked in New York City, Montauk and Kenya. His photographs of Africa, African animals and the journals that often integrated his photographs, have been widely shown and published since the 1960s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976608}
{"src_title": "Valeč (Karlovy Vary District)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first written mention of the village dates from 1358, when it was confiscated during the war by the Citbor brothers and Benes. Other owners of the estate during the Middle Ages: Zeman of Stebni, holding estates in nearby Ješek; Jan Hammer of Stebni 1368; Boreš of Oseka 1371; Beneš Buskovic from 1377 to 1416; and the masters of Doupov Nevlas and Jan 1416; Sezema of Doupov 1454; and Jan Doupov of 1487.  The village was given municipal rights December 1514, upon a request by Władysław II Jagiełło. In 1570 Christopher Štampach of Štampach bought Valeč. Václav Štampach of Štampach then built a Renaissance castle, whose appearance today is not known. After Václav Štampach joined the Estates Uprising and in 1622 left the country, the castle was confiscated. However in 1623, Valeč was bought by Barbora Štampachová of Poutnov.  The castle underwent significant change in the time of Prince Johann Christoph Kager at the turn of the 17th and 18th century. In this period, the Renaissance castle was converted to a square two-story baroque castle, led by architects Francesco Barelli, Antonio Bianno Rossa and after his death, John Christopher Tyll. He also laid out the castle garden, equipped it with theater, cascading fountain and sculptures by the renowned Matthias Bernard Braun. Near the castle is the Church of the Holy Trinity built by architect GA Biana Rossou between the years 1710-1728. In its courtyard is also located the Holy Trinity Column by KM Kanka created in 1725.  In the 18th century Valeč was occupied by Jan Ferdinand Kager of Globen beginning in 1721, and then Jan Antonín Pegen of Perga, the Czech Austrian Minister. Although he only owned it for a year, he heavily indebted the estate through costly remodeling.  The castle underwent several modifications in the Neo-Renaissance and Neo-Baroque style. That is credited mainly to Earl Vincent de Thurn - Valssasin between 1895 and 1896. In 1937, Jan Larisch - Mönnich purchased Valeč, repairing the roof and cracks in the walls, and installing central heating. In 1945, based on the Beneš decrees, the palace was confiscated and handed over to the management of the organization of political prisoners. In 1947 the Ministry of Agriculture allocated it to the Central Directorate of State Forests and Farms and it was then used as a home for Korean children and from the early fifties as a children's home. After a fire on 2 April 1976, the regional conservation center in Plzeň took over management of the palace. Reconstruction of the building, began in the 1990s and continues to today.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The village of Valeč () is located in the Karlovy Vary district in the north-west of the Czech Republic. In 2006 there were 407 inhabitants, however according to the 2016 census the village had 346 inhabitants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976609}
{"src_title": "Leningrad affair", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Preamble.", "content": "Moscow and Leningrad were two competing power centers in the Soviet Union. Researchers argue that the motivation behind the cases was Joseph Stalin's fear of competition from the younger and popular Leningrad leaders – who had been fêted as heroes following the city's siege. Stalin's desire to keep power was combined with his deep distrust of anyone from Leningrad from the time of Stalin's involvement in the Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, execution of Grigory Zinoviev and the Right Opposition. Among Stalin's competitors from Leningrad who were also assassinated were two former leaders of the city: Sergei Kirov and Leon Trotsky; whose appointed subordinates continued to work in the city government for years after they left office. During the siege of Leningrad, the city leaders were relatively autonomous from Moscow. Survivors of the siege became national heroes, and leaders of Leningrad again gained much clout in the Soviet central government in Moscow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Events.", "content": "In January 1949 Pyotr Popkov, Alexey Kuznetsov and Nikolai Voznesensky organised a Leningrad Trade Fair to boost the post-war economy and support the survivors of the Siege of Leningrad with goods and services from other regions of the Soviet Union. The fair was attacked by official Soviet propaganda, and was falsely portrayed as a scheme to use the federal budget from Moscow for business development in Leningrad, although the budget and economics of such a trade fair were normal and legitimate and approved by State Planning Commission and the government of the USSR. Other accusations included that Kuznetsov, Popkov and others tried to re-establish Leningrad's historic and political importance as a former capital of Russia, thus competing with the Moscow-centered communist government. The initial accuser was Georgy Malenkov, Stalin's first deputy. Then formal accusations were formulated by the Communist Party and signed by Malenkov, Khrushchev and Lavrentiy Beria. Over two thousand people from the Leningrad city government and regional authorities were arrested. Also arrested were many industrial managers, scientists and university professors. The city and regional authorities in Leningrad were swiftly occupied by pro-Stalin communists transplanted from Moscow. Several important politicians were arrested in Moscow and other cities across the Soviet Union.  As a result of the first prosecution, on 30 September 1950, Nikolai Voznesensky (chairman of Gosplan), Mikhail Rodionov (Chairman of the RSFSR Council of Ministers), Alexey Kuznetsov, Pyotr Popkov, Ya. F. Kapustin and P. G. Lazutin were sentenced to death on false accusations of embezzlement of the Soviet State budget for \"unapproved business in Leningrad\", which was labeled as anti-Soviet treason.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Executions.", "content": "The verdict was announced behind closed doors after midnight and the six main defendants, including the mayor of the city, were executed by shooting on 1 October 1950. Stalin's government had reinstated the death penalty in the Soviet Union on 12 January 1950; it had previously been repealed in 1947. It was applied to the accused retroactively. Over 200 Leningrad officials were sentenced to prison terms from 10 to 25 years. Their families were stripped of rights to live and work in any major city, thus limiting their lives to Siberia. About 2,000 of Leningrad's public figures were removed from their positions and exiled from their city, thus losing their homes and other property. All of them were repressed, together with their relatives. Respected intellectuals, scientists, writers and educators, many of whom were pillars of the city's community, were exiled or imprisoned in the Gulag prison camps. Intellectuals were harshly persecuted for the slightest signs of dissent, such as Nikolai Punin, who was killed in a prison camp for expressing his dislike of Soviet propaganda and \"tasteless\" Lenin portraits.  The Leningrad affair was organised and supervised by Malenkov and Beria. Executions and purges were done by Viktor Abakumov and the MGB. Graves of executed leaders of Leningrad were never marked and their exact locations are still unknown.  All of the accused were later rehabilitated during the Khrushchev Thaw, many of them posthumously.  Alexei Kosygin, the future Chairman of the Council of Ministers, survived but his political career was hampered for some time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Leningrad affair, or Leningrad case (, \"\"Leningrad delo\"\"), was a series of criminal cases fabricated in the late 1940s–early 1950s by Joseph Stalin in order to accuse a number of prominent politicians and members of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union of treason and intention to create an anti-Soviet organisation based in Leningrad.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976610}
{"src_title": "Borneo shark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy and phylogeny.", "content": "Dutch ichthyologist Pieter Bleeker originally described the Borneo shark as \"Carcharias (Prionodon) borneensis\" in an 1858 issue of the scientific journal \"Acta Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Indo-Neêrlandicae\". He based his account on a newborn male long, caught off Singkawang in western Kalimantan, Borneo. Later authors have recognized this species as belonging to the genus \"Carcharhinus\". Before 2004, only five specimens of the Borneo shark were known, all of them immature and collected before 1937. In April and May 2004, researchers from Universiti Malaysia Sabah discovered a number of additional specimens while surveying the fishery resources of Sabah and Sarawak.  The evolutionary relationships of the Borneo shark are uncertain. Jack Garrick, in his 1982 morphological study, did not place it close to any other member of the genus. Leonard Compagno in 1988 tentatively grouped it with the smalltail shark (\"C. porosus\"), blackspot shark (\"C. sealei\"), spottail shark (\"C. sorrah\"), creek whaler (\"C. fitzroyensis\"), whitecheek shark (\"C. dussumieri\"), hardnose shark (\"C. macloti\"), and Pondicherry shark (\"C. hemiodon\"). The Borneo shark resembles the sharpnose sharks (\"Rhizoprionodon\") in certain traits, for example the enlarged pores by its mouth. Nevertheless, other aspects of its morphology firmly place it within \"Carcharhinus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The Borneo shark is slim-bodied, with a long, pointed snout and oblique, slit-like nostrils preceded by narrow, nipple-shaped flaps of skin. The eyes are rather large and circular, and equipped with nictitating membranes. The corners of the sizable mouth bear short, indistinct furrows, and immediately above are a series of enlarged pores that are unique within the genus. There are 25–26 upper and 23–25 lower tooth rows. The upper teeth have a single, narrow, oblique cusp with strongly serrated edges, and large cusplets on the trailing side. The lower teeth are similar, but tend to be more slender and finely serrated. The five pairs of gill slits are short.  The pectoral fins are short, pointed, and falcate (sickle-shaped), while the pelvic fins are small and triangular with a nearly straight trailing margin. The first dorsal fin is fairly large and triangular, with a blunt apex sloping down to a sinuous trailing margin; its origin lies over the free rear tips of the pectoral fins. The second dorsal fin is small and low, and originates over the middle of the anal fin base. There is no ridge between the dorsal fins. The caudal peduncle bears a deep, crescent-shaped pit at the origin of the upper caudal fin lobe. The asymmetrical caudal fin has a well-developed lower lobe and a longer, narrow upper lobe with a strong ventral notch near the tip. The dermal denticles are small and overlapping, each with three horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth. This species is slate-gray above, darkening towards the tips of the dorsal fins and upper caudal fin lobe; some specimens have irregular rows of small, white blotches, which may be an artifact of handling. The underside is white, which extends onto the flanks as a vague pale band. There are faint, lighter edges on the pectoral, pelvic, and anal fin trailing margins. The largest known specimen measures long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "All recent specimens of the Borneo shark have been collected solely from fishery landing sites at Mukah in Sarawak, despite thorough surveys across the rest of Borneo (including at the locality of the type specimen). Thus, its range may now be restricted to shallow, inshore waters in northwestern Borneo. Of the five earlier specimens, four came from Borneo and one from Zhoushan Island in China, hinting at a wider historical distribution. This species was also recorded from Borongan in the Philippines in 1895, and Java in 1933; these records cannot be substantiated and there have been no subsequent sightings from these areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology and ecology.", "content": "Bony fishes are probably the main food of the Borneo shark. It is viviparous like other requiem sharks, with the developing embryos provisioned by the mother through a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac. The litter size is six, and the pups are born at close to long. From the available specimens, the length at sexual maturity can be surmised to be under in males and under in females.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human interactions.", "content": "The International Union for Conservation of Nature last assessed the Borneo shark as Endangered, based on 2005 data that do not include the recent specimens from Mukah. Previously, several fishery surveys within its supposed historical range had failed to find it. The Borneo shark's conservation status remains precarious given its very small range in waters subjected to intensive artisanal and commercial fishing. It is caught by line gear and used for meat, though it has minimal commercial significance.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Borneo shark (\"Carcharhinus borneensis\") is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae. Extremely rare, it is known only from inshore waters around Mukah in northwestern Borneo, though it may once have been more widely distributed. A small, gray shark reaching in length, this species is the only member of its genus with a row of enlarged pores above the corners of its mouth. It has a slender body with a long, pointed snout and a low second dorsal fin placed posterior to the anal fin origin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976611}
{"src_title": "Segway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Independent company.", "content": "The Segway PT (referred to at the time as the Segway HT) was developed from the self-balancing iBOT wheelchair which was initially developed at University of Plymouth, in conjunction with BAE Systems and Sumitomo Precision Products. Segway's first patent was filed in 1994 and granted in 1997 followed by others including one submitted in June 1999 and granted in October 2001.  The invention, development, and financing of the Segway was the subject of a book, and a leak of information prior to publication of the book and the launch of the product led to excited speculation about the device and its importance. John Doerr speculated that it would be more important than the Internet. \"South Park\" devoted an episode to making fun of the hype before the product was released. Steve Jobs was quoted as saying that it was \"as big a deal as the PC\", (but later retracted that saying that it \"sucked\", presumably referring to \"the design\" but commenting about the boutique price, asking, \"You're \"sure\" your market is upscale consumers for transportation?\") The device was unveiled on 3 December 2001, following months of public speculation, in Bryant Park, New York City, on the ABC News morning program \"Good Morning America\" with the first units delivered to customers in early 2002.  The original Segway models featured three speed settings:, with faster turning, and. Steering of early versions was controlled using a twist grip that varied the speeds of the two motors. The range of the p-Series was on a fully charged nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery with a recharge time of 4–6 hours. In September 2003, the Segway PT was recalled, because if users ignored repeated low battery warnings on the PTs, it could ultimately lead them to fall. With a software patch to version 12.0, the PT would automatically slow down and stop in response to detecting low battery power.  In August 2006 Segway discontinued all previous models and introduced the i2 and x2 products which were steered by leaning the handlebars to the right or left, had a maximum speed of from a pair of Brushless DC electric motors with regenerative braking and a range of up to, depending on terrain, riding style and state of the batteries. Recharging took 8–10 hours. The i2 and x2 also introduced the wireless InfoKey which could show mileage and a trip odometer, and put the Segway into Security mode, which locked the wheels and set off an alarm if it was moved, and could also be used to turn on the PT from up to away.  Versions of the product prior to 2011 included (in order of release):  In March 2014, Segway announced third generation designs, including the i2 SE and x2 SE sport, new LeanSteer frame and powerbase designs, with integrated lighting.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subsidiary of Ninebot.", "content": "Ninebot Inc., a Beijing-based transportation robotics startup and a Segway rival, acquired Segway in April 2015 having raised $80M from Xiaomi and Sequoia Capital.  In June 2016 the company launched the Segway miniPRO, a smaller self-balancing scooter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "the following self-balancing scooters are available from Segway (For other Segway products see Segway Inc.):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technology.", "content": "The dynamics of the Segway PT are similar to a classic control problem, the inverted pendulum. It uses brushless DC electric motors in each wheel powered by lithium-ion batteries with balance achieved using tilt sensors, and gyroscopic sensors developed by BAE Systems' Advanced Technology Centre. The wheels are driven forward or backward as needed to return its pitch to upright.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "In 2011 the Segway i2 was being marketed to the emergency medical services community. The special police forces trained to protect the public during the 2008 Summer Olympics used the Segway for mobility. In 2018, the police of Stockholm adopted segways as permanent transportation method for the patrollers of the old town.  The Segway miniPro is also available to be used as the mobility section of a robot.  Disability Rights Advocates for Technology promoted the use of the Segway PT on sidewalks as an Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) issue. Segway Inc. cannot however market these devices in the US as medical devices (as per agreement with Johnson & Johnson with regard to the iBOT, a self-balancing wheelchair).  The maximum speed of the Segway PT is. The product is capable of covering on a fully charged lithium-ion battery, depending on terrain, riding style, and the condition of the batteries. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission does not have Segway-specific recommendations but does say that bicycle helmets are adequate for \"low-speed, motor-assisted\" scooters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Segway PT (originally Segway HT) is a two-wheeled, self-balancing personal transporter manufactured by Segway Inc. It was invented by Dean Kamen and brought to market in 2001. \"HT\" is an initialism for \"human transporter\" and \"PT\" for \"personal transporter\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976612}
{"src_title": "International Motor Insurance Card System", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Green card system.", "content": "Around 300000 motor accidents a year were covered in Europe by the Green Card system during the year 2004 according to a survey.  In 2016, the Green card system counts around 377666 international accidents within the green card area.  At the origin, the green card system was checked while crossing the border. However, inside the single market the green card is no more checked at the cross of internal borders. Insurance for motorized vehicles remains mandatory within the European union. Within the European union, some countries (such as France and Belgium ) have kept the Green card as their national/domestic system of insurance, which make the green card a compulsory requirement in those nations.  The Green Card is usually issued when the insurance policy starts; but in some cases the Green Card is only issued later, upon request.  Insurers do not make people pay to have a Green Card, but intermediaries, including insurance brokers, are allowed in the UK to charge an administration fee.  The Council of Bureaux (CoBx) maintains an international motor insurance card system in and around Europe where the certificate issued is known by the name \"Green card\". In 1949 the system was established in the framework of UNECE. At later stage the EU and EFTA were involved and reflecting the deepening of the links with them the CoBx secretariat was relocated from London to Brussels in 2006.  In each member state of the Green Card System the insurance companies established a Green Card Bureaux operating with the recognition and approval of the government and the activities of the Green Card Bureaux are established by law or regulation in each of the countries participating in the system. Each Green Card Bureau has two functions:  There are three types of Green card member states as per the Multilateral Agreement:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Membership and geographic limits.", "content": "The Green Card System is primarily a European system. It presently includes most, but not all European countries, and some of their neighbors, in most cases bordering the Mediterranean Sea. The position of the CoBx is that the Green card system could be joined by the countries \"west of the Urals and the Caspian Sea and countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea\", but this rule is not followed strictly as Iran and Iraq fall outside of the area as described.  Additionally, insurance companies or national bureaux of some countries participate in the Green card system through foreign national bureaux:  Former member states:  According to recommendation of the Management Committee of CoBx it is strongly recommended that the geographical scope of the Green card System should be restricted to the following additional states, in accordance with the European and Mediterranean rule: Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Georgia and possibly upon further consideration Armenia. Instead of expansion further than that, it is recommended to examine arrangements of cooperation with other motor insurance systems. In 2012 it was decided to add Kazakhstan to the list of potential members since part of it lies west of the Urals.  Countries that are currently candidates for membership are:  In 2008 the Economic Cooperation Organization asked the CoBx for cooperation and since some of its members are outside the geographical scope of the Green card system, it was suggested that the ECO members would establish their regional motor insurance system - the White card system. At the same time there are discussion whether the scope of the Green card system should be expanded to all UNECE members or to abandon geographical limitations in exchange for criteria based on the density of trade exchanged by road between the candidate country and the existing members of the System.  In 2011 Kosovo submitted application for membership, but it was concluded that the conditions of vehicle license plate international recognition and UN membership are not fulfilled.  The UNECE Afro-Eurasian members states currently outside the Green card system are: Armenia (candidate), Georgia (candidate), Kazakhstan (potential candidate), Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.  Other states, falling within the defined geographical scope of the Green card system (or participating in cooperation activities in the Mediterranean region such as the EMP and/or the UfM), but not participating are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Orange card system.", "content": "The Orange card system is established between most of the members of the Arab League and is applicable primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.  Participants are: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco (Green card member), Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia (Green card member), United Arab Emirates and Yemen.  The non-participating AL members are: Comoros, Djibouti and Palestine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blue card system.", "content": "The Blue card system is established between the members of the ASEAN and is applicable in South East Asia.  Participants are: Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. [Singapore?].", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pink card system.", "content": "The Pink card system is established between the members of the CEMAC and is applicable in Central Africa.  Participants are: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brown card system.", "content": "The Brown card system is established between most of the members of the ECOWAS and is applicable in Western Africa.  Participants are: Benin, Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo.  The non-participating ECOWAS member is Cabo Verde.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Yellow card system.", "content": "The Yellow card system is established between most of the members of the COMESA and is applicable primarily in Eastern Africa.  Participants are: Burundi, DR Congo, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.  The non-participating COMESA members are: Comoros, Egypt (Orange card member), Eswatini, Libya (Orange card member), Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, Somalia (Orange card member), and Tunisia (Green and Orange card member).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "White card system.", "content": "There is a proposal for the establishment of White card system between the members of the ECO, if the Green Card system territorial scope could not be expanded to include all of them.  Participants are: Afghanistan, Azerbaijan (Green card member), Iran (Green card member), Kazakhstan (Green card potential candidate), Kyrgyzstan (UNECE member), Pakistan, Tajikistan (UNECE member), Turkey (Green card member), Turkmenistan (UNECE member), Uzbekistan (UNECE member).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An International Motor Insurance Card System is an arrangement between authorities and insurance organizations of multiple states to ensure that victims of road traffic accidents do not suffer from the fact that injuries or damage sustained by them were caused by a visiting motorist rather than a motorist resident in the same country.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976613}
{"src_title": "Marcel Schmelzer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Schmelzer was born in Magdeburg, Saxony-Anhalt. He started his professional career with Borussia Dortmund, making his first appearance on 9 August 2008, in the German Cup first-round match against Rot-Weiss Essen. His first league appearance came in the following week, as he played the final twenty minutes of a 3–2 win at Bayer Leverkusen. Schmelzer had his best season for Borussia Dortmund in the 2010–11 season, where he managed to play every minute of the season for the team who went on to win the Bundesliga that year.  The following season, Schmelzer, who missed the beginning of the Bundesliga due to injury, enjoyed yet another trophy as he helped Dortmund win another Bundesliga title. In addition to being the left back for the team for the entire season, Schmelzer also helped Dortmund secure the DFB Pokal with a 5–2 win against Bayern Munich, making it 3 titles in 2 years.  On 11 January 2013, Schmelzer extended his contract with Borussia, which will keep him at the club until 2017.  On 27 July 2013, Schmelzer won the 2013 DFL-Supercup with Dortmund 4–2 against rivals Bayern Munich.  On 25 April 2016, Marcel Schmelzer yet again extended his contract with BVB. He agreed on a five-year deal which will keep him with the black and yellows through 2021.  After the departure of Mats Hummels, Schmelzer was named a candidate to be the new captain. On 14 August 2016, Schmelzer captained his first match against league champions Bayern Munich during the 2–0 defeat of the DFL-Supercup.  On 31 May 2020, he scored his first goal in seven years in a 6–1 win against Paderborn, coming off the bench for Moroccan right-back Achraf Hakimi. Later that day, fans voted him as Man of the Match on the club's official Instagram account.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Schmelzer was called up by the U21 team for the 2009 European Championship, being used regularly, although not as a starter, he played the final five minutes in the final, a 4–0 success against England.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marcel Schmelzer (; born 22 January 1988) is a German professional footballer who plays for Borussia Dortmund as a left back, serving as captain from 2016 to 2018. He has been capped by Germany at international level. A one-club man, Schmelzer has spent his entire professional career at Dortmund.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976614}
{"src_title": "Kansas Territory", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Missouri Territory.", "content": "From June 4, 1812 until August 10, 1821 the area that would become Kansas Territory 33 years later was part of the Missouri Territory. When Missouri was granted statehood in 1821 the area became unorganized territory and contained little to no permanent white settlement with the exception of Fort Leavenworth. The Fort was established in 1827 by Henry Leavenworth with the 3rd U.S Infantry from St. Louis, Missouri; it is the first permanent European settlement in Kansas. The fort was established as the westernmost outpost of the American military to protect trade along the Santa Fe Trail from Native Americans. The trade came from the East, by land using the Boone's Lick Road, or by water via the Missouri River. This area, called the Boonslick, was located due east in west-central Missouri and was settled by Upland Southerners from Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee as early as 1812. Its slave-holding population would contrast with settlers from New England who would eventually arrive in the 1850s. The land that would become Kansas Territory was considered to be infertile by 19th century American pioneers. It was called the Great American Desert, for it lacked trees and was dryer than land eastward. Technically, it was part of the vast grasslands that make up the North American Great Plains and supported giant herds of American bison. After the invention of the steel plow and more sophisticated irrigation methods the thick prairie soil would be broken for agriculture. By the 1850s immigration pressure was increasing and organization into a Territory was desired.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kansas–Nebraska Act.", "content": "Kansas Territory was established on May 30, 1854 by the Kansas–Nebraska Act. This act established both the Nebraska Territory and Kansas Territory. The most momentous provision of the Act in effect repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and allowed the settlers of Kansas Territory to determine by popular sovereignty whether Kansas would be a free state or a slave state.  The Act contained thirty-seven sections. The provisions relating to Kansas Territory were embodied in the last eighteen sections. Some of the more notable sections were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Eastern emigration.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pro-slavery settlers.", "content": "Within a few days after the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act, hundreds of Missourians crossed into the adjacent territory, selected a section of land, and then united with fellow-adventurers in a meeting or meetings, intending to establish a pro-slavery preemption upon all this region.  As early as June 10, 1854, the Missourians held a meeting at Salt Creek Valley, a trading post west from Fort Leavenworth, at which a \"Squatter's Claim Association\" was organized. They said they were in favor of making Kansas a slave state if it should require half the citizens of Missouri, musket in hand, to emigrate there. According to these emigrants, abolitionists would do well not to stop in Kansas Territory, but keep on up the Missouri River until they reach Nebraska Territory, which was anticipated to be a free state. Before the first arrival of Free-State emigrants from the northern and eastern States, nearly every desirable location along the Missouri River had been claimed by men from western Missouri, by virtue of the preemption laws.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Free staters.", "content": "During the long debate that preceded the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, it had become the settled opinion at the North that the only remaining means whereby the territory might yet be rescued from the grasp of the slave power, was in its immediate occupancy and settlement by anti-slavery emigrants from the free states in sufficient numbers to establish free institutions within its borders. The desire to facilitate the colonization of the Territory took practical shape while the bill was still under debate in the United States Congress. The largest organization created for this purpose was the New England Emigrant Aid Company, organized by Eli Thayer.  Emigration from the free states (including Iowa, Ohio, and other Midwestern and New England states), flowed into the territory beginning in 1854. These emigrants were known as Free-Staters. Because Missourians had claimed much of the land closest to the border, the Free-Staters were forced to establish settlements further into Kansas Territory. Among these were Lawrence, Topeka, and Manhattan.  To protect themselves against the encroachments of non-residents, the \"Actual Settlers' Association of Kansas Territory\" was formed. This association held a meeting on August 12, 1854, the object being the adoption of some regulations that should afford protection to the Free-State settlers, under laws not unlike those adopted by the pro-slavery squatters in the border region east.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First Territorial appointments.", "content": "The first territorial appointments, looking to the inauguration of a local government, under the provisions of the organic law, were made in June and July 1854. The officers appointed by President Pierce, whose appointments were confirmed by the United States Senate, and who entered upon the duties of their officer. The first governor was Andrew Horatio Reeder (of Easton, Pennsylvania) was appointed June 29, 1854 and removed July 28, 1858.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Election of Territorial Legislature.", "content": "On March 30, 1855 \"Border Ruffians\" from Missouri entered Kansas during the territory's first legislative election and voted in a pro-slavery Territorial Legislature. Antislavery candidates prevailed in one election district, the future Riley County.  The first session of the legislature was held in Pawnee, Kansas (within the boundary of modern-day Fort Riley) at the request of Governor Reeder. The two-story stone building still stands and is open to the public as the First Territorial Capitol of Kansas. The building remained as the seat of the legislature for five days from July 2–6, 1855, then moved nearer Missouri to the Shawnee Methodist Mission.  In the election of 1857, free-staters out-voted the pro-slavery settlers in the territory, which meant that the territorial legislature fell into free-state hands. Then, on October 4, 1859, the Wyandotte Constitution was approved in a referendum by a vote of 10,421 to 5,530, and after its approval by the U.S. Congress, Kansas was admitted as a free state on January 29, 1861, shortly after the Southern legislators, who would never have permitted a new free state, had walked out. The last legislative act of the Territorial Legislature was the approval of the charter for the College of the Sisters of Bethany. This was February 2, 1861—four days after James Buchanan signed the act of Congress that officially brought Kansas into the Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bleeding Kansas.", "content": "James H. Lane joined the Free-State movement in 1855 and became president of the Topeka Constitutional Convention, which met from October 23 to November 11, 1855. He was later a leader of \"Jayhawkers.\" The first Free-state mass-meeting was in Lawrence on the evening of June 8, 1855; it was stated that persons from Missouri had invaded and had stolen elections to the legislature of the territory.  It was claimed that some Missourians had used violence toward the persons and property of the inhabitants of the Kansas Territory. It was agreed that Kansas should be a free State and that the stolen election was a gross outrage on the elective franchise and rights of freemen and a violation of the principles of popular sovereignty. Those attending did not feel bound to obey any law of illegitimate legislature enacted and opposed the establishment of slavery. The convention reserved the right to invoke the aid of the Federal government against the lawless course of the slavery propaganda in the territory.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Territory of Kansas was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from May 30, 1854, until January 29, 1861, when the eastern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the free state of Kansas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976615}
{"src_title": "Progressive Party of Working People", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "It was founded in 1926 with the name Communist Party of Cyprus (CPC). The communist party set as its aim not only the struggle against exploitation, but also the independence of Cyprus from British rule. The party became illegal in 1931 when the British colonial government imposed restrictions on civil rights following a nationalist riot. In 1941, leading members of the underground communist party and others founded AKEL. In the first municipal elections in 1943 (before that mayors were appointed) AKEL candidates became mayors of Limassol (Ploutis Servas) and Famagusta (Adam Adamantos).  List of general secretaries:  Unlike its predecessor, AKEL was not against Enosis. Instead, AKEL supported a gradual process, starting off with a constitution and self-government, while Cyprus would remain a colony, leading to self-determination and Enosis. After the failure of the consultative assembly in 1949 to grant a constitution acceptable to the Cypriot members, AKEL changed line, supporting immediate Enosis with no intermediate stages.  During the late 1950s, AKEL was opposed to the violent tactics followed by the anti-British resistance movement of EOKA. EOKA accused AKEL of being collaborators with the British, even though AKEL had also been illegal since 1955. Several AKEL members were assassinated by EOKA at the time for being \"traitors\", including AKEL supporter Savas Menikou, who was stoned to death. AKEL denounced EOKA's leadership as being anti-communist, as its leader George Grivas had fought against the communist side during the Greek Civil War. Grivas later founded EOKA B, which supported the 1974 coup d'état following his death.  About 1958, the Turkish Cypriot nationalist organization TMT started forcing Turkish Cypriots members of AKEL to leave. Editor of a workers' newspaper Fazıl Önder was killed and the head of the Turkish bureau of PEO (AKEL's trade union) Ahmet Sadi moved to the UK to save his life.  In the first presidential elections for independent Cyprus, AKEL backed Ioannis Kliridis (father of Glafkos Klerides) against Makarios III. The last Turkish Cypriot to be a member of the central committee of AKEL, Derviş Ali Kavazoğlu, was killed by TMT in 1965.  In the mid 1960s the U.S. State Department estimated the party membership to be approximately 10,000 (3.25% of the working age population).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recent history.", "content": "At the legislative elections on 27 May 2001, the party won 34.7% of the popular vote and 20 out of 56 seats. After this election, AKEL's General Secretary, Dimitris Christofias, was elected as President of the House of Representatives, serving in that post until 2006. His election was supported by AKEL, Movement for Social Democracy (EDEK), and the Democratic Party (DIKO).  AKEL is a member of the European United Left - Nordic Green Left political group in the European Parliament, and it is considered to be moderately eurosceptic. Cyprus joined the EU in 2004, and in the 2004 European parliament election, AKEL elected two members (Adamos Adamou and Kyriacos Triantaphyllides).  AKEL remained the largest political party in the 2006 legislative elections; however, the party lost two seats, winning 18 seats with 31.31% of the vote.  In the second round presidential election held on 24 February 2008, Dimitris Christofias, General Secretary of AKEL, was elected President of Cyprus. Christofias won 53.36% of the vote against his right-wing opponent Ioannis Kasoulidis' 46.64%.  On 21 January 2009, Andros Kyprianou was elected general secretary of the party with 54.3% in the central committee election.  In the 2009 election to the European Parliament, AKEL received 34.9% of the votes, and again elected two out of Cyprus' six members (Kyriacos Triantaphyllides and Takis Hadjigeorgiou). In the 2014 election, they held their two seats with a reduced 27% of the vote.  In the 22 May 2011 legislative election AKEL received 32.67% of the votes, and elected 19 out of the 56 members of parliament.  In an interview with Athens News Agency, party leader Andros Kyprianou said that AKEL was considering Cyprus' exit from the eurozone, saying, \"It is an option on the table\", but that it will require \"study and planning\".  In the 2013 presidential election, the AKEL candidate Stavros Malas lost by a margin of 42.52% to 57.48%.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Youth.", "content": "The party's youth wing is the United Democratic Youth Organisation, which was founded in 1959.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Progressive Party of Working People (, \"Anorthotikó Kómma Ergazómenou Laoú\" (AKEL); ) is a Marxist–Leninist, communist political party in Cyprus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976616}
{"src_title": "Church of Our Lady before Týn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the 11th century, this area was occupied by a Romanesque church, which was built there for foreign merchants coming to the nearby Týn Courtyard. Later it was replaced by an early Gothic Church of Our Lady before Týn in 1256. Construction of the present church began in the 14th century in the late Gothic style under the influence of Matthias of Arras and later Peter Parler. By the beginning of the 15th century, construction was almost complete; only the towers, the gable and roof were missing. The church was controlled by Hussites for two centuries, including John of Rokycan, future archbishop of Prague, who became the church's vicar in 1427. The building was completed in the 1450s, while the gable and northern tower were completed shortly thereafter during the reign of George of Poděbrady (1453–1471). His sculpture was placed on the gable, below a huge golden chalice, the symbol of the Hussites. The southern tower was not completed until 1511, under architect Matěj Rejsek.  After the lost Battle of White Mountain (1620) began the era of harsh recatholicisation (part of the Counter-Reformation). Consequently, the sculptures of \"heretic king\" George of Poděbrady and the chalice were removed in 1626 and replaced by a sculpture of the Virgin Mary, with a giant halo made from by melting down the chalice. In 1679 the church was struck by lightning, and the subsequent fire heavily damaged the old vault, which was later replaced by a lower Baroque vault.  Renovation works carried out in 1876–1895 were later reversed during extensive exterior renovation works in the years 1973–1995. Interior renovation is still in progress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The northern portal is a wonderful example of Gothic sculpture from the Parler workshop, with a relief depicting the Crucifixion. The main entrance is located on the church's western face, through a narrow passage between the houses in front of the church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The strikingly vertical, basilically arranged three-aisled Gothic church contains a pair of Gothic prismatic towers in the west. In the east, the church is terminated by a short presbytery of one rectangular field, polygonal closed by four sides of the octagon. The side aisles are finished with deep polygonal chapels with five sides of the octagon. The side aisles are vaulted with five cross-ribbed vaults on an almost square floor plan, which is joined by one cross rib vault in the tower. The nave and the presbytery are then vaulted by six rectangular, wide-ranging fields of compressed Baroque arches with triangular sections. The side aisles have retained the original Gothic ribbed vault. The church is illuminated by a number of cantilevered Gothic windows with stone tracery. The church is accessible by four Gothic portals. The northern portal has a relief in the tympanum depicting three scenes from Christ’s Passion in multi- figured compositions. High-quality sculptural work is one of the most important monuments of Gothic sculpture of the pre- Hussite period in our country. The pair of towers is topped with richly decorated cantilevered Late Gothic octagonal helmets, which are complemented by a gallery, four corner turrets, and even more brilliantly halfway through another four decorative turrets. There is a Gothic gable containing the Baroque relief of the Madonna, that is surrounded by richly decorated rows of finials, in between the towers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Furnishing.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gothic.", "content": "The original medieval furnishing have been preserved in the interior:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Baroque.", "content": "The church’s furniture is mostly Baroque. The Baroque furnishings, made by woodcarvings of early Baroque altars, are eye catching as well as the valuable pipe organ by Jan J. Mundt from 1670-1673 that is one of the three oldest preserved pipe organs in Prague. From 1691, the musicologist Tomáš Baltazar Janovka worked there as organist for fifty years. The main altar from 1649 with a titular painting of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary is also very valuable. The painting was by one of the prominent Czech Baroque artist, Karel Škréta, the painter of several other side altar canvases. In the church can be found works of other Baroque masters: sculptors Jan Jiří Bendl and Ignác František Weiss (altar sculptures), Jan Heidelberger (sculpture of St. Francis de Paul in the northern nave), painters M. Strasser (Finding the Holy Cross, moved from the main altar), Jan Jiří Heinsch (the painting of St. Joseph in the north aisle, the altarpiece of the Family Tree Of Jesse), Michael Václav Halbax (the painting of Saints Crispin and Crispinian), Petr Brandl (The arrival of St. Wenceslas at the Reichstag). From the Renaissance and the Baroque periods, an exceptionally interesting collection of carved tombstones and epitaphs has been preserved, including the 1601 tombstone of astronomer Tycho Brahe, which is located at the first southern pillar of the nave.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Church of Mother of God before Týn (in Czech \"Kostel Matky Boží před Týnem\", also \"Týnský chrám\" (\"Týn Church\") or just \"Týn\"), often translated as Church of Our Lady before Týn, is a Gothic church and a dominant feature of the Old Town of Prague, Czech Republic. It has been the main church of this part of the city since the 14th century. The church's two towers are 80 m high, and each tower's spire is topped by eight smaller spires in two layers of four.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976617}
{"src_title": "Princess Marie of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (1808–1877)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Youth.", "content": "Princess Marie was the eldest daughter of Prince, and later Grand Duke, Charles Frederick of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and his wife, Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna, who was the sister of Emperor Alexander I of Russia. Her father was a shy man, whose favourite reading material were fairy tales until the end of his life. Her mother, by contrast, was \"one of the most significant women of her time\", according to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Marie and her younger sister Augusta, who became German Empress, received a comprehensive education, which focused on the courtly ceremonial duties they were to have as adults. This education included painting lessons by the court painter Louise Seidler and music lessons by the court conductor Johann Nepomuk Hummel.  Marie grew up at the court in Weimar, which was considered one of the most liberal in Germany. Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach adopted a constitution in 1816. The court was very receptive towards literature and other art forms, due to the influence of the late Duchess Anna Amalia, who had died in 1807. Goethe had been managing the court theater in Weimar until 1817 and remained a welcome guest at the ducal court afterwards.  Marie's grandfather, Duke Charles August was raised to \"Grand Duke\" in 1815, due to the influence of the Tsar and his own attitude at the Congress of Vienna. This allowed Marie to use the style \"Royal Highness\". Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach also achieved a considerable territorial expansion during the Congress of Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Negotiating a marriage.", "content": "Marie was 16 years old when she first met her future husband, Prince Charles of Prussia, in Frankfurt an der Oder in 1824. He was the third son of King Frederick William III of Prussia and Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna and her two daughters were travelling to Russia and had arranged to meet her brother, Grand Duke, and later Tsar, Nicholas, and his wife Alexandra Feodorovna in Frankfurt. When they arrived in Frankfurt, they were welcomed by Prince Charles and his brother William I.  King Frederick William III was in favour of Charles marrying Marie and immediately contacted the courts in Saint Petersburg and Weimar to negotiate a marriage arrangement. At the time, Maria Feodorovna, the mother of the Tsar, was still the authority in family matters. Neither she, nor Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna, gave the response that Frederick William III had hoped for. Both courts were hoping that Marie could marry an heir to the throne, albeit a throne of a smaller country. The third son of a king was not quite what they had in mind.  The Russians proposed that Marie could marry William and his younger brother Charles would marry her younger sister Augusta. This would be a better fit in terms of age and would certainly satisfy the court in Weimar, and William liked Marie more than he did Augusta. Frederick William III, however, saw nothing in this proposal, which completely ignored the feelings of his sons.  Things were further complicated by William's being in love with Princess Elisa Radziwill. Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna tried to defame \"Ms. Radziwiłł\" with every means available. Outwardly, she did not want to base her daughter's marriage on the ruins of William's happiness. She hoped that William would marry Elisa morganatically, not have a legitimate heir, and the Prussian throne would be inherited by the heirs of Charles and Marie. So she would not actually have been very happy if William were to break off his relationship with Elisa and marry a lady of his own rank and have legitimate heirs. An ally in her quest to paint Elisa as lower nobility was Grand Duke George of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, brother of Charles and William's late mother Queen Louise.  Negotiations had already lasted more than two years when Maria Feodorovna managed to persuade her daughter to agree to a marriage between Charles and Marie, without putting any conditions on William.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Two marriages.", "content": "On 26 May 1827, Princess Marie married Prince Charles of Prussia in Charlottenburg (now part of Berlin). Their son, Frederich Charles, was born 10 months later. Marie's sister Augusta and Charles' brother Wilhelm (William) gave in to dynastic pressure and married two years later. Their marriage, however, was complex and privately happy one. William regarded his wife as an \"outstanding personality\", but also as less charming than her older sister; he wrote \"the Princess is nice and clever, but she leaves me cold.\". Augusta, on the other hand, did at first like her husband and was full of hope for a happy marriage. She was aware of his unrequited love of Elisa Radziwiłł, but she was able to replace her in ways.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Charles and Marie had three children:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Court life.", "content": "Marie's younger sister Augusta was married to the then Crown Prince Wilhelm (William) of Prussia. Marie consequently had lower status, being married to a mere Prince. She and her husband always resented their inferior position at court. While Charles took out his frustrations on womanizing and political schemes, Marie vied with Augusta over clothes, wigs, and jewels. Charles and Marie ran a fashionable household, surrounding themselves with high society, unlike the sober Wilhelm and intellectual Augusta.  Marie loathed both her sister and her successor Victoria, Princess Royal (married to the then Crown Prince Frederick). As Victoria was British, most of the vehemently anti-British court was in agreement with Marie that it would have been better had the marriage never occurred. In one letter, Victoria wrote her mother Queen Victoria stating that she overheard Marie being told by her sister-in-law the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin how \"she never ceased regretting that there is an Englishwoman in the family\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life in Berlin and Glienicke.", "content": "From 1829, the young family lived in their winter residence \"Prince Charles Palace\" at Wilhelmplatz No. 8–9 in Berlin, which had been rebuilt according to a design by Karl Friedrich Schinkel.  In 1824, Prince Charles had purchased a country house in today's \"Volkspark Glienicke\". Between 1824 and 1826, it was rebuilt by Karl Friedrich Schinkel and became Glienicke Palace. This was Charles' and Marie's favourite residence. They added a casino, and the, which was decorated with antique mosaics from Carthage. In 1835, the rotunda was added and, in the following years, the park was extended.  In 1859, Charles purchased Jagdschloss Glienicke for his son Frederick Charles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second Schleswig War.", "content": "On 7 December 1865, King William I appointed Princess Marie as Royal Colonel of the First Westphalian Field Regiment No. 7, in recognition of the regiment's achievements during the Second Schleswig War, against Denmark in 1864. Her son Frederick Charles was a General of the cavalry during this war and had commanded the Prussian troops during the decisive Battle of Dybbøl.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Marie died on 18 January 1877 in Berlin, at the age of 69. Her husband had a vault constructed under the church of Ss. Peter and Paul in the Glienicke park. On his own death in 1883, he was buried beside her.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Marie of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (3 February 1808 in Weimar – 18 January 1877 in Berlin) was a princess of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, by birth, and, by marriage, a princess of Prussia. She was the daughter of Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976618}
{"src_title": "Elisabeth of Wied", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "Born at in Neuwied, she was the daughter of Hermann, Prince of Wied, and his wife Princess Marie of Nassau.  Elisabeth had artistic leanings; her childhood featured seances and visits to the local asylum for the mentally ill.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "As a young girl, sixteen-year-old Elisabeth was considered as a possible bride for the heir apparent to the British throne, the future King Edward VII. His mother, Queen Victoria, strongly favored her as a prospective daughter-in-law, and urged her daughter Victoria to look further into her. Elisabeth was spending the social season at the Berlin court, where her family hoped she would be tamed into a docile, marriageable princess. Vicky responded, \"I do not think her at all distinguée looking—certainly the opposite to Bertie's usual taste\", whereas the tall and slender Alexandra of Denmark was \"just the style Bertie admires\". Bertie was also shown photographs of Elisabeth, but professed himself unmoved and declined to give them a second glance. In the end, Alexandra was selected for Bertie.  Elisabeth first met Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen in Berlin in 1861. In 1869, Karl, who was now Prince Carol of Romania, traveled to Germany in search of a suitable consort. He was reunited with Elisabeth, and the two were married on 15 November 1869 in Neuwied. Their only child, a daughter, Maria, died in 1874 at age three — an event from which Elisabeth never recovered. She was crowned Queen of Romania in 1881 after Romania was proclaimed a kingdom.  In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, also known as the Romanian War of Independence, she devoted herself to the care of the wounded, and founded the Decoration of the Cross of Queen Elisabeth to reward distinguished service in such work. She fostered the higher education of women in Romania, and established societies for various charitable objects. She was the 835th Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa. She died at Curtea de Argeș or Bucharest. She founded the National Society for the Blind and was the first royal patron of the Romanian Red Cross.  Early distinguished by her excellence as a pianist, organist and singer, she also showed considerable ability in painting and illuminating; but a lively poetic imagination led her to the path of literature, and more especially to poetry, folk-lore and ballads. In addition to numerous original works she put into literary form many of the legends current among the Romanian peasantry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary activity.", "content": "As \"Carmen Sylva\", she wrote with facility in German, Romanian, French and English. A few of her voluminous writings, which include poems, plays, novels, short stories, essays, collections of aphorisms, etc., may be singled out for special mention:  Several of the works of \"Carmen Sylva\" were written in collaboration with Mite Kremnitz, one of her maids of honor; these were published between 1881 and 1888, in some cases under the pseudonyms Dito et Idem. These include:  Among the translations made by \"Carmen Sylva\" include:  \"The Bard of the Dimbovitza\" was first published in 1891, and was soon reissued and expanded. Translations from the original works of \"Carmen Sylva\" have appeared in all the principal languages of Europe and in Armenian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Văcărescu Affair.", "content": "In 1881, due to the lack of heirs to the Romanian throne, King Carol I adopted his nephew, Ferdinand. Ferdinand, a complete stranger in his new home, started to get close to one of Elisabeth's ladies in waiting, Elena Văcărescu. Elisabeth, very close to Elena herself, encouraged the romance, although she was perfectly aware of the fact that a marriage between the two was forbidden by the Romanian constitution.  The result of this was the exile of both Elisabeth (in Neuwied) and Elena (in Paris), as well as a trip by Ferdinand through Europe in search of a suitable bride, whom he eventually found in Queen Victoria's granddaughter, Princess Marie of Edinburgh. The affair helped reinforce Elisabeth's image as a dreamer and eccentric.  Quite unusually for a queen, Elisabeth of Wied was personally of the opinion that a republican form of government was preferable to monarchy—an opinion which she expressed forthrightly in her diary, though she did not make it public at the time:I must sympathize with the Social Democrats, especially in view of the inaction and corruption of the nobles. These \"little people\", after all, want only what nature confers: equality. The Republican form of government is the only rational one. I can never understand the foolish people, the fact that they continue to tolerate us.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pauline Elisabeth Ottilie Luise of Wied (29 December 18432 March 1916) was the Queen of Romania as the wife of King Carol I, widely known by her literary name of Carmen Sylva.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976619}
{"src_title": "2008–09 KHL season", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "League business.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NHL player transfer.", "content": "KHL teams signed several players from the NHL, including Jaromír Jágr, Alexander Radulov, Ray Emery, Sergei Brylin, Ladislav Nagy, Jozef Stümpel, Marcel Hossa, Ben Clymer, Alexei Zhitnik, Bryan Berard and Chris Simon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dispute.", "content": "A dispute between the two leagues over some of these signings was supposed to have been resolved by an agreement signed on July 10, whereby each league would honor the contracts of the other, but the signing of Alexander Radulov was made public one day after the agreement (though it was actually signed two days prior to the agreement taking effect), leading to an investigation by the International Ice Hockey Federation.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Finances.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ownership.", "content": "On a deal dated October 30, Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works bought 11.76% of the KHL.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Salary cap.", "content": "The league has implemented a salary cap.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Economic trouble.", "content": "Metallurg Novokuznetsk has so far experienced difficulty financing its operations, largely due to the global financial crisis of 2008. Team sponsor Evraz Group is rumoured to be cutting funding. There is a possibility the team will cease operations by New Years.  HC MVD has experienced delays in paying players, while Khimik Voskresensk has run itself into debt. Metallurg Magnitogorsk has been forced to cut staff expenditures by 30%. Avangard Omsk owner Roman Abramovich has promised to continue financial support so long as the team maintains good results. Other teams experiencing financial limitations are Vityaz Chekhov, Atlant Moscow Oblast, Lokomotiv Yaroslavl, HC CSKA Moscow.  As far as the league is concerned it has devised a \"crisis package\" for dealing with the economic turmoil. Cuts will be made to non-salary expenditures, such as pre-game activity, training camps, and elimination of pre-season tournaments. Mid-level player salaries may also be rolled back. Divisional re-alignment will also take place for the 2009–10 season to cut down on travel costs.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Inaugural All-Star Game.", "content": "The inaugural KHL All-Star Game took place on January 10, 2009. Each team consisted of ten forwards, five defensemen, and two goaltenders. The starting rosters were voted upon on the KHL.ru website and decided by December 22. The secondary lines and goaltenders were to be voted upon by the media, and announced December 26, with the following players and reserves announced by January 8. The game took place in Moscow's Red Square, with Team Jágr (International All-Stars) defeating Team Yashin (Russian All-Stars) 7–6.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regular season.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death of Alexei Cherepanov.", "content": "On October 13, 2008 during a match between Avangard Omsk and Vityaz Chekhov, forward Alexei Cherepanov died due to a heart condition.  On December 29, 2008, Russian investigators revealed that he suffered from myocarditis, a condition where not enough blood gets to the heart, and that he should not have been playing professional hockey. The federal Investigative Committee also announced that a chemical analysis of Cherepanov's blood and urine samples allowed experts to conclude \"that for several months Alexei Cherepanov engaged in doping\". Official sources have stated the banned substance taken was nikethamide, a stimulant, and that it had been taken 3 hours prior to the game in which he died.  Omsk club director Mikhail Denisov has since been fired, whereas the league Disciplinary Committee has since removed Omsk's doctors from that role with the club, and has suspended Avangard general manager Anatoly Bardin and team president Konstantin Potapov. The KHL Disciplinary Committee met on this matter on January 5, and also suspended Chekhov's team president.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "League standings.", "content": "Final standings.  Points have been awarded as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scoring leaders.", "content": "\"GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; +/– = Plus-minus; PIM = Penalty minutes\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Playoffs.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playoff leaders.", "content": "Goaltenders: minimum 5 games played", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scoring leaders.", "content": "Source: khl.ru \"GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; +/– = Plus-minus; PIM = Penalty minutes\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Leading goaltenders.", "content": "Source: khl.ru</small> \"GP = Games played; Min = Minutes played; W = Wins; L = Losses; GA = Goals against; SO = Shutouts; SV% = Save percentage; GAA = Goals against average\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Players of the Month.", "content": "Best KHL players of each month.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "KHL Awards.", "content": "On 15 May 2009, the KHL held their first award ceremony. A total of 23 different awards were handed out to teams, players, officials and media. The most important trophies are listed in the table below.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2008–09 KHL season was the inaugural season of the Kontinental Hockey League. It started on September 2, 2008, and finished on April 12, 2009. 24 teams each played 56 games.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976620}
{"src_title": "Adam Ondra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ondra started climbing at the age of six; his parents are climbers and they shared their passion with him.  In 1999 (at age six) at Rovinj in Croatia Ondra easily climbed a route with bolts every half meter. Soon he became famous in climbing magazines, as his achievements quickly grew more and more notable:  In 2007 and 2008 he won the IFSC Youth World Championship, category Youth B.  In 2009, at age sixteen, Ondra competed for the first time in the Lead Climbing World Cup, winning ahead of Spanish Patxi Usobiaga and Japanese Sachi Amma.  In 2010, he also won the Bouldering World Cup, ahead of Austrian Kilian Fischhuber and Japanese Tsukuru Hori, and becoming the first athlete in history to win both the disciplines (lead and bouldering).  On March 2011, during a trip in Spain, Ondra became the second person ever to have onsighted after Patxi Usobiaga. In only a few days he onsighted five routes (two of which were on the same day).  On October 4, 2012, Ondra redpointed \"Change\", in the Hanshelleren Cave, Flatanger, Norway. It was the first route to receive a proposed grade of.  On October 29, 2012, Ondra flashed one of the Red River Gorge's hardest routes, \"Southern Smoke Direct\", suggesting the grade of. On November 1, he onsighted \"Pure Imagination\" and \"The Golden Ticket\", both 9a, suggesting the grade of 8c+.  On February 7, 2013, Ondra sent \"La Dura Dura\", in Oliana, Catalonia, Spain, his second after \"Change\". He worked on this project with Chris Sharma and the first ascent took Ondra nine weeks of work.  On February 9, 2013, just two days after \"La Dura Dura\", Ondra succeeded in the second ascent of the \"Fight or flight\", first climbed by Sharma in 2011.  On July 9, 2013, Ondra realized the second onsight in history after Alexander Megos, with the ascent of \"Cabane au Canada\" in Rawyl, Switzerland.  On November 21, 2016, Ondra completed the second free ascent of \"The Dawn Wall\", a multi-pitch route at \"El Capitan\" in Yosemite Valley, California. The route is widely regarded as the hardest big wall in the world. Ondra was also the first person to lead every pitch. The first free ascent was completed by Tommy Caldwell and Kevin Jorgeson in January 2015. They needed 19 days to complete the route (after 5 years to learn the moves), while Ondra needed only 8 days (after 3 weeks to learn the moves).  On April 23, 2017, he set a new highpoint of the Black Diamond Project in Stockholm, Sweden believed to be the hardest indoor sport route in the world.  On September 3, 2017, after about 4 years of trials, Ondra climbed \"Silence\", in the Hanshelleren Cave (Flatanger, Norway). At that point, the route was unclimbed and widely considered to be the most difficult project in the world, together with \"Le blond\", a route which is still unclimbed, bolted by Chris Sharma in Oliana (ESP). \"Silence\" was the first route to receive a proposed grade of. The route was previously known as \"Project Hard\".  On February 10, 2018, Ondra realized the first flash of a confirmed 9a+ route with his ascent of \"Super Crackinette\" in Saint-Léger du Ventoux, France. The route was first climbed by Alexander Megos after 3 days of work in 2016.  On November 12, 2018, Ondra onsighted \"Just do it\" (Smith Rock, Oregon, USA), a historic 8c+ route bolted by Alan Watts in 1989 and first ascended in 1992 by Jean-Baptiste Tribout. At that time, \"Just do it\" was considered the hardest route in the USA. It is a long slab (140 feet, 18 bolts) with many tricky moves and small holds hardly visible from the ground. This kind of classic route is considered to be particularly difficult to onsight, by both Adam Ondra and Alan Watts.  As of 2019, Ondra is working towards qualifying for the 2020 Summer Olympics. He failed to qualify at the 2019 IFSC Climbing World Championships as he was disqualified for accidentally toeing a bolt during the lead climbing portion of the combined event. However, at the olympic qualifying event in Toulouse later that year, he managed to secure his selection for the olympic games even though he fell ill after making it through to the finals of the event.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rankings.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climbing World Championships.", "content": "Youth Adult", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Single-pitch routes.", "content": "The table below shows the large number of routes graded or more ascended by Adam Ondra in about 16 years, from August 2, 2002 (when he redpointed his first 8a) to November 10, 2018. The total number is 1554, of which 1 was at and 725 were onsighted, including 3 onsights at and 1 flash at.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Boulder problems.", "content": "Ondra won the bouldering gathering Melloblocco in 2008, 2009 2010 and 2011.  He climbed 293 boulder problems between and. Namely:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adam Ondra (born February 5, 1993) is a Czech professional rock climber, specializing in lead climbing and bouldering. Described in 2013 as a prodigy and the leading climber of his generation, Ondra is the only male athlete to have won World Championship titles in both disciplines in the same year (2014). He holds an analogous record in the World Cup, being the only male athlete to have won the World Cup series in both disciplines (lead climbing in 2009, 2015 and 2019, and bouldering in 2010).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976621}
{"src_title": "Light cone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Details.", "content": "If one imagines the light confined to a two-dimensional plane, the light from the flash spreads out in a circle after the event E occurs, and if we graph the growing circle with the vertical axis of the graph representing time, the result is a cone, known as the future light cone. The past light cone behaves like the future light cone in reverse, a circle which contracts in radius at the speed of light until it converges to a point at the exact position and time of the event E. In reality, there are three space dimensions, so the light would actually form an expanding or contracting sphere in three-dimensional (3D) space rather than a circle in 2D, and the light cone would actually be a four-dimensional version of a cone whose cross-sections form 3D spheres (analogous to a normal three-dimensional cone whose cross-sections form 2D circles), but the concept is easier to visualize with the number of spatial dimensions reduced from three to two.  This view of special relativity was first proposed by Albert Einstein's former professor Hermann Minkowski and is known as Minkowski space. The purpose was to create an invariant spacetime for all observers. To uphold causality, Minkowski restricted spacetime to non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry.  Because signals and other causal influences cannot travel faster than light (see special relativity), the light cone plays an essential role in defining the concept of causality: for a given event E, the set of events that lie on or inside the past light cone of E would also be the set of all events that could send a signal that would have time to reach E and influence it in some way. For example, at a time ten years before E, if we consider the set of all events in the past light cone of E which occur at that time, the result would be a sphere (2D: disk) with a radius of ten light-years centered on the position where E will occur. So, any point on or inside the sphere could send a signal moving at the speed of light or slower that would have time to influence the event E, while points outside the sphere at that moment would not be able to have any causal influence on E. Likewise, the set of events that lie on or inside the \"future\" light cone of E would also be the set of events that could receive a signal sent out from the position and time of E, so the future light cone contains all the events that could potentially be causally influenced by E. Events which lie neither in the past or future light cone of E cannot influence or be influenced by E in relativity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematical construction.", "content": "In special relativity, a light cone (or null cone) is the surface describing the temporal evolution of a flash of light in Minkowski spacetime. This can be visualized in 3-space if the two horizontal axes are chosen to be spatial dimensions, while the vertical axis is time.  The light cone is constructed as follows. Taking as event \"p\" a flash of light (light pulse) at time \"t\", all events that can be reached by this pulse from \"p\" form the future light cone of \"p\", while those events that can send a light pulse to \"p\" form the past light cone of \"p\".  Given an event \"E\", the light cone classifies all events in spacetime into 5 distinct categories:  The above classifications hold true in any frame of reference; that is, an event judged to be in the light cone by one observer, will also be judged to be in the same light cone by all other observers, no matter their frame of reference. This is why the concept is so powerful.  The above refers to an event occurring at a specific location and at a specific time. To say that one event cannot affect another means that light cannot get from the location of one to the other \"in a given amount of time\". Light from each event will ultimately make it to the \"former\" location of the other, but \"after\" those events have occurred.  As time progresses, the future light cone of a given event will eventually grow to encompass more and more locations (in other words, the 3D sphere that represents the cross-section of the 4D light cone at a particular moment in time becomes larger at later times). However, if we imagine running time backwards from a given event, the event's past light cone would likewise encompass more and more locations at earlier and earlier times. The farther locations will be at later times: for example, if we are considering the past light cone of an event which takes place on Earth today, a star 10,000 light years away would only be inside the past light cone at times 10,000 years or more in the past. The past light cone of an event on present-day Earth, at its very edges, includes very distant objects (every object in the observable universe), but only as they looked long ago, when the Universe was young.  Two events at different locations, at the same time (according to a specific frame of reference), are always outside each other's past and future light cones; light cannot travel instantaneously. Other observers might see the events happening at different times and at different locations, but one way or another, the two events will likewise be seen to be outside each other's cones.  If using a system of units where the speed of light in vacuum is defined as exactly 1, for example if space is measured in light-seconds and time is measured in seconds, then, provided the time axis is drawn orthogonally to the spatial axes, as the cone bisects the time and space axes, it will show a slope of 45°, because light travels a distance of one light-second in vacuum during one second. Since special relativity requires the speed of light to be equal in every inertial frame, all observers must arrive at the same angle of 45° for their light cones. Commonly a Minkowski diagram is used to illustrate this property of Lorentz transformations. Elsewhere, an integral part of light cones is the region of spacetime outside the light cone at a given event (a point in spacetime). Events that are elsewhere from each other are mutually unobservable, and cannot be causally connected.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In general relativity.", "content": "In flat spacetime, the future light cone of an event is the boundary of its causal future and its past light cone is the boundary of its causal past.  In a curved spacetime, assuming spacetime is globally hyperbolic, it is still true that the future light cone of an event includes the boundary of its causal future (and similarly for the past). However gravitational lensing can cause part of the light cone to fold in on itself, in such a way that part of the cone is strictly inside the causal future (or past), and not on the boundary.  Light cones also cannot all be tilted so that they are 'parallel'; this reflects the fact that the spacetime is curved and is essentially different from Minkowski space. In vacuum regions (those points of spacetime free of matter), this inability to tilt all the light cones so that they are all parallel is reflected in the non-vanishing of the Weyl tensor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In special and general relativity, a light cone is the path that a flash of light, emanating from a single event (localized to a single point in space and a single moment in time) and traveling in all directions, would take through spacetime.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976622}
{"src_title": "Odessa Opera and Ballet Theater", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Saint Petersburg architect Thomas de Thomon designed the first opera theatre, it opened on 10 February 1810. This last theatre is in almost exactly the same spot as the first theatre 200 years ago. The main entrance with its colonnade faced the sea. There was no foyer.  In 1831, Michael Vorontsov, governor-general of Russian empire, Novorossia kray (currently part of Ukraine) decided to assign the old instituted quarantine fees to the Odessa Theatre. Historian Charles King explains that one of the medical inspectors in Odessa was also the owner of the Odessa Theatre. When ticket sales were low, he would announce the discovery of an infection among newly arrived passengers and ordered them to be quarantined at their own cost. The expenses of the lazaretto, where the passengers that stayed would be used to hire a major performer for the theatre.  On the night of 2 January 1873, the building was gutted by fire.  A fund raising campaign began immediately. The city announced an international contest for the best theatre design. Forty designs were submitted, but none was chosen. Finally, the project was drafted along the lines of Dresden Semperoper built in 1878, with its nontraditional foyer following the curvatures of auditorium.  Two Viennese architects, Ferdinand Fellner and Hermann Helmer began to construct the larger replacement in 1883. The foundation stone was laid on 16 September 1884. On 1 October 1887 the theatre was completed, costing 1,300,000 rubles to build. It was named the Odessa City Theatre.  The theatre was the first building in Odessa to employ the Edison Company with electric illumination.  To keep theatre patrons comfortable in the summers, workers would lower waggonloads of ice and straw down a 35-foot shaft, then would carry it through a tunnel to a basement beneath the hall, where cool air rose up from vents beneath the seats.  In 1925, the building was burnt again in a fire. Fire team localized the burning, but the stage and orchestra pit were destroyed. During the fire of 1925, original curtain of the theater stage burned, which was never restored.  There is a story that, when the Odessa people learned that the construction cost 1.3 million gold rubles, they gasped, but when they saw the new theatre, they gasped again, this time in admiration.  In August 1941, when the Romanian army was dangerously close to Odessa, the command of the Odessa defensive area appointed a special anti-aircraft unit, which was given the task of protecting the theater building from bombing. On the roofs of the houses adjacent to the theater, guns were installed that shot all 73 days of the city defending. During World War II, Nikita Khrushchev, concerned about the condition of the city, visited Odessa immediately after it was liberated. Khrushchev reported that only one corner of the building had been damaged by an enemy shell.  The theatre was remodelled in the 1960s.  The theatre sits upon shifting ground and is in danger of collapse. The first cracks in the foundation appeared almost as soon as the theatre opened. The theatre's eastern half sagged almost seven inches in its first three years, and the six walls began to tilt. Gleb Dranov, a former opera singer who sang at the theatre for 25 years, and who worked five years as a geologist, is helping repair the building.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The building's façade is decorated in the Italian baroque style. In the niches are the busts of Mikhail Glinka, Nikolai Gogol, Alexandr Griboyedov and Alexander Pushkin. The large hall was modelled after the style of Louis XVI, and is richly decorated with gilded stucco figures and designs. The architects provided the foyer with twenty-four exits, to avoid tragedy in the case of a fire. On the side of the theatre is a lawn with fresh flowers and shrubs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "People.", "content": "The famous Russian singer Feodor Chaliapin gave many concerts at the Odessa Opera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Odessa National Academic Theatre of Opera and Ballet () is the oldest theatre in Odessa, Ukraine. The Theatre and the Potemkin Stairs are the most famous edifices in Odessa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976623}
{"src_title": "Don McCullin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "McCullin grew up in Finsbury Park, North London, but he was evacuated to a farm in Somerset during the Blitz. He is slightly dyslexic but displayed a talent for drawing at the Secondary Modern School he attended. He won a scholarship to Hammersmith School of Arts and Crafts but, following the death of his father, he left school at the age of 15, without qualifications, for a catering job on the railways. He was then called up for National Service with the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1953.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photojournalism.", "content": "During McCullin's period of National Service in the RAF he was posted to the Canal Zone during the 1956 Suez Crisis, where he worked as a photographer's assistant. He failed the written theory paper to become a photographer in the RAF and spent his service in the darkroom. During this period McCullin bought his first camera, a Rolleicord for £30 when stationed in Nairobi, Kenya. On return to Britain, shortage of funds led to his pawning the camera and his mother used her money to redeem the pledge.  In 1958 he took a photograph of a local London gang posing in a bombed out building. He was persuaded by his colleagues to take his photograph of \"The Guvnors\", as the gang was known, to \"The Observer\", who published it, setting him on his path as a photographer. Between 1966 and 1984, he worked as an overseas correspondent for the \"Sunday Times Magazine\", recording ecological and man-made catastrophes such as wars, amongst them Biafra in 1968, and victims of the African AIDS epidemic. His hard-hitting coverage of the Vietnam War and the Northern Ireland conflict is particularly highly regarded.  He also took the photographs of Maryon Park in London which were used in Michelangelo Antonioni's film \"Blowup\", In 1968, his Nikon camera stopped a bullet intended for him. Also in 1968, on 28 July, he was invited to photograph the Beatles, then at the height of their fame and in the midst of recording \"The White Album\". These sessions, made at several London locations, have become known as \"The Mad Day Out\". They contain many well known images of the band, including the gatefold sleeve picture from the Red and Blue compilations, where the Beatles mingled with the crowd seen through railings. The photographs from this day were published in the 2010 book \"A Day in the Life of the Beatles\".  In 1982 the British Government refused to grant McCullin a press pass to cover the Falklands War, claiming the boat was full. At the time he believed it was because the Thatcher government felt his images might be too disturbing politically.  He is the author of a number of books, including \"The Palestinians\" (with Jonathan Dimbleby, 1980), \"Beirut: A City in Crisis\" (1983) and \"Don McCullin in Africa\" (2005). His book, \"Shaped by War\" (2010) was published to accompany a retrospective exhibition at the Imperial War Museum North, Salford, England in 2010 and then at the Victoria Art Gallery, Bath and the Imperial War Museum, London. His most recent publication is \"Southern Frontiers: A Journey Across the Roman Empire\", a poetic and contemplative study of selected Roman and pre-Roman ruins in North Africa and the Middle East.  In 2012, a documentary film of his life titled \"McCullin\" and directed by David Morris and Jacqui Morris was released. The film was nominated for two BAFTA awards. In later years, McCullin has turned to landscape, still-life works and commissioned portraits. In November 2015 McCullin was named the Photo London Master of Photography for 2016, at the launch of \"Photo London\", an art fair due to open at Somerset House in May 2016. A special exhibition dedicated to his work is to be commissioned. When asked about the rise of digital photography, he said: \"Digital photography can be a totally lying experience – you can move what you want, the whole thing can’t be trusted really\".  Filmed in February 2018 and broadcast the following May, the BBC Four documentary \"The Road To Palmyra\" saw McCullin visit Syria with historian Dan Cruickshank to see the devastation left by the conflict on the UNESCO listed site of Palmyra. Discussing his trip with the \"Radio Times\" he spoke of his approach to entering war zones: \"I have risked my life endless times, and ended up in hospital with all kinds of burns and shell wounds. I have those reptile eyes that see behind and in front of me. I’m constantly trying to stay alive. I’m aware of warfare, of hidden mines.\"  Despite his reputation as a war photographer, McCullin has said that Alfred Stieglitz was a key influence on his work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Living in Somerset, he is married and has five children from his marriages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "McCullin's work is held in the following permanent collection:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sir Donald McCullin, CBE, Hon FRPS (born 9 October 1935), is a British photojournalist, particularly recognized for his war photography and images of urban strife. His career, which began in 1959, has specialised in examining the underside of society, and his photographs have depicted the unemployed, downtrodden and the impoverished.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976624}
{"src_title": "Anna Atkins", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Atkins was born in Tunbridge, Kent, England in 1799. Her mother, Hester Anne Children, \"didn't recover from the effects of childbirth\" and died in 1800. Anna was close to her father John George Children, a renowned chemist, mineralogist, and zoologist. Anna \"received an unusually scientific education for a woman of her time.\" Her detailed engravings of shells were used to illustrate her father's translation of Lamarck's \"Genera of Shells\".  In 1825 she married John Pelly Atkins, a London West India merchant, and moved to Halstead Place, the Atkins family home in Halstead, near Sevenoaks, Kent. They had no children. Atkins pursued her interests in botany by collecting dried plants, which were probably used as photograms later. She was elected a member of the London Botanical Society in 1839.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photography.", "content": "John George Children and John Pelly Atkins were friends of William Henry Fox Talbot. Anna Atkins learned directly from Talbot about two of his inventions related to photography: the \"photogenic drawing\" technique (in which an object is placed on light-sensitized paper which is exposed to the sun to produce an image) and calotypes.  Atkins was known to have had access to a camera by 1841. Some sources claim that Atkins was the first female photographer. Other sources name Constance Fox Talbot as the first female photographer. As no camera-based photographs by Anna Atkins nor any photographs by Constance Talbot survive, the issue may never be resolved.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions\".", "content": "Sir John Herschel, a friend of Atkins and Children, invented the cyanotype photographic process in 1842. Within a year, Atkins applied the process to algae (specifically, seaweed) by making cyanotype photograms that were contact printed \"by placing the unmounted dried-algae original directly on the cyanotype paper\". Atkins self-published her photograms in the first installment of \"Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions\" in October 1843. She planned to provide illustrations to William Harvey’s Manual of British Algae which had been published in 1841. Although privately published, with a limited number of copies, and with handwritten text, \"Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions\" is considered the first book illustrated with photographic images.  Eight months later, in June 1844, the first fascicle of William Henry Fox Talbot's \"The Pencil of Nature\" was released; that book was the \"first photographically illustrated book to be commercially published\" or \"the first commercially published book illustrated with photographs\".  Atkins produced a total of three volumes of \"Photographs of British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions\" between 1843 and 1853. Only 17 copies of the book are known to exist, in various states of completeness. Copies are now held by the following institutions, among others:  Because of the book's rarity and historical importance, it is quite expensive. One copy of the book with 411 plates in three volumes sold for £133,500 at auction in 1996. Another copy with 382 prints in two volumes which was owned by scientist Robert Hunt (1807–1887) sold for £229,250 at auction in 2004.  In 2018, the New York Public Library opened an exhibition on Atkins' life and work, featuring various versions of \"Photographs of British Algae\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and work.", "content": "In addition to \"Photographs of British Algae\", Atkins published five fictional novels between 1852 and 1863. These included \"The Perils of Fashion\", \"Murder will Out: a story of real life\", and \"A Page from the Peerage\".  In the 1850s, Atkins collaborated with Anne Dixon (1799–1864), who was \"like a sister\" to her, to produce at least three presentation albums of cyanotype photograms:  Atkins retained the algae, ferns and other plants that she used in her work and in 1865 donated the collection to the British Museum.  She died at Halstead Place in 1871 of \"paralysis, rheumatism, and exhaustion\" at the age of 72.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "On 16 March 2015, Internet search engine Google commemorated Atkins's 216th birthday by placing a Google Doodle image of bluish leaf shapes on a darker background on its search page to represent her cyanoprint work.  Atkins work was a major feature in the \"New Realities Photography in the Nineteenth Century\" exhibition held in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, June – September 2017.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna Atkins (née Children; 16 March 1799 – 9 June 1871) was an English botanist and photographer. She is often considered the first person to publish a book illustrated with photographic images. Some sources claim that she was the first woman to create a photograph.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976625}
{"src_title": "Habitat 67", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Safdie's design for Habitat 67 began as a thesis project for his architecture program at McGill University. It was \"highly recognized\" at the institution, though Safdie cites its failure to win the Pilkington Prize, an award for the best thesis at Canadian schools of architecture, as early evidence of its controversial nature. After leaving to work with Louis Kahn in Philadelphia, Safdie was approached by Sandy van Ginkel, his former thesis advisor, to develop the master plan for Expo 67, the world's fair that was set to take place in Montreal during 1967. Safdie decided to propose his thesis as one of the pavilions and began developing his plan. After the plans were approved in Ottawa by Mitchell Sharp, the federal cabinet minister responsible for the exhibition, and Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson, Safdie was given the blessing of the Expo 67 Director of Installations, Edward Churchill, to leave the planning committee in order to work on the building project as an independent architect. Safdie was awarded the project in spite of his relative youth and inexperience, an opportunity he later described as \"a fairy tale, an amazing fairy tale.\"  The development was financed by the federal government, but is now owned by its tenants, who formed a limited partnership that purchased the building from the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation in 1985. Safdie still owns a penthouse apartment in the building.  Safdie's penthouse as well as a tour of a building are available via guided tours.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concept and design.", "content": "Habitat 67 comprises 354 identical, prefabricated concrete forms arranged in various combinations, reaching up to 12 stories in height. Together these units create 146 residences of varying sizes and configurations, each formed from one to eight linked concrete units. The complex originally contained 158 apartments, but several apartments have since been joined to create larger units, reducing the total number. Each unit is connected to at least one private terrace, which can range from approximately in size.  The development was designed to integrate the benefits of suburban homes—namely gardens, fresh air, privacy, and multilevelled environments—with the economics and density of a modern urban apartment building. It was believed to illustrate the new lifestyle people would live in increasingly crowded cities around the world. Safdie's goal for the project to be affordable housing largely failed: demand for the building's units has made them more expensive than originally envisioned. In addition, the existing structure was originally meant to only be the first phase of a much larger complex, but the high per-unit cost of approximately C$140,000 (C$22,120,000 for all 158) prevented that possibility.  August Eduard Komendant (October 2, 1906 – September 14, 1992) was an Estonian-American structural engineer and a pioneer in the field of prestressed concrete. Komendant served as structural engineer for architect Moshe Safdie on the Habitat 67 project in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.  The theme of Expo 67 was \"Man and his World\", taken from Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's memoir \"Terre des hommes\" (literally \"land of men\", though it was published under the title \"Wind, Sand and Stars\"). Housing was also one of the main themes of Expo 67. Habitat 67 then became a thematic pavilion visited by thousands of visitors who came from around the world, and during the expo also served as the temporary residence of the many dignitaries visiting Montreal.  In March 2012, Habitat 67 won an online Lego Architecture poll and is a candidate to be added to the list of famous buildings that inspire a special replica Lego set. Lego bricks were actually used in the initial planning for Habitat; according to Safdie's firm, \"initial models of the project were built using Lego bricks and subsequent iterations were also built with Lego bricks\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "As one of the major symbols of Expo 67, which was attended by over 50 million people during the 6 months it was open, Habitat 67 gained worldwide acclaim as a \"fantastic experiment\" and \"architectural wonder\". This experiment was and is regarded as both a success and failure—it \"redefined urban living\" and has since become \"a very successful co-op\", but at the same time ultimately failed to revolutionize affordable housing or launch a wave of prefabricated, modular development as Safdie had envisioned. Despite its problems, however, Habitat's fame and success \"made [Safdie's] reputation\" and helped launch his career; Safdie has now designed over 75 buildings and master plans around the world.  Even now, decades after Habitat, much of Safdie's work still holds to the concepts that were so fundamental to its design, especially the themes of reimagining high-density housing and improving social integration through architecture that have become \"synonymous\" with his work.  In 2017, Canada Post issued a commemorative stamp for the 50th anniversary of Expo 67 featuring the structure.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "HABITAT 67, or simply Habitat, is a model community and housing complex in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, designed by Israeli-Canadian architect Moshe Safdie. It was originally conceived as his master's thesis in architecture at McGill University and then built as a pavilion for Expo 67, the World's Fair held from April to October 1967. It is located at 2600 Avenue Pierre-Dupuy on the Marc-Drouin Quay next to the Saint Lawrence River. Habitat 67 is widely considered an architectural landmark and one of the most recognizable buildings in both Montreal and Canada.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976626}
{"src_title": "Émile Henry (anarchist)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Excerpts of Henry's address to the jury.", "content": "I became an anarchist only recently. It was no longer ago than around mid-1891 that I threw myself into the revolutionary movement. Previously, I had lived in circles wholly permeated with the established morality. I had been accustomed to respecting and even cherishing the principles of the nation, family, authority and property.  But those educating the present generation all too often forget one thing – that life, indiscreet with its struggles and setbacks, its injustices and iniquities, sees to it that the scales are removed from the eyes of the ignorant and that they are opened to reality. Which was the case with me, as it is with everyone. I had been told that this life was easy and largely open to intelligent, vagarious people, and experience showed me that only cynics and lackeys can get a good seat at the banquet.  I had been told that society’s institutions were founded on justice and equality, and all around me I could see nothing but lies and treachery. Everyday I was disabused further. Everywhere I went, I witnessed the same pain in some, the same delights in others. It did not take me long to realize that the same great words that I had been raised to venerate: honor, devotion, duty were merely a mask hiding the most shameful turpitude.  The factory-owner amassing a huge fortune on the back of the labor of his workers who lacked everything was an upright gentleman. The deputy, the minister whose hands were forever outstretched for bribes were committed to the public good. The officer testing his new model rifle on seven-year-old children had done his duty well, and in open parliament the premier offered him his congratulation. Everything I could see turned my stomach and my mind fastened on criticism of social organization. The criticism has been voiced too often to need rehearsing by me. Suffice it say that I turned into an enemy of a society which I held to be criminal.  Momentarily attracted by socialism, I wasted no time in distancing myself from that party. My love of liberty was too great, my regard for individual initiative too great, my repudiation for feathering one’s nest too definite for me to enlist in the numbered army of the fourth estate. Also, I saw that, essentially, socialism changes the established order not one jot. It retains the authoritarian principle, and this principle, despite what supposed free-thinkers may say about it, is nothing but an ancient relic of the belief in a higher power.  (...)In the merciless war that we have declared on the bourgeoisie, we ask no mercy. We mete out death and we must face it. For that reason I await your verdict with indifference. I know that mine will not be the last head you will sever (...) You will add more names to the bloody roll call of our dead.  Hanged in Chicago, beheaded in Germany, garroted in Xerez, shot in Barcelona, guillotined in Montbrison and in Paris, our dead are many; but you have not been able to destroy anarchy. Its roots go deep: its spouts from the bosom of a rotten society that is falling apart; it is a violent backlash against the established order; it stands for the aspirations to equality and liberty which have entered the lists against the current authoritarianism. It is everywhere. That is what makes it indomitable, and it will end by defeating you and killing you.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Émile Henry (26 September 1872 in Barcelona – 21 May 1894 in Paris, France) was a French anarchist, who on 12 February 1894 detonated a bomb at the Café Terminus in the Parisian Gare Saint-Lazare killing one person and wounding twenty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976627}
{"src_title": "Euronext Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Operations.", "content": "It operates the MATIF futures exchange, which trades futures and options on interest rate products and commodities, and MONEP, equity and index futures and options. All products are traded electronically on the NSC system adopted by all of the Euronext members. Transactions are cleared through LCH.Clearnet. Cash settlement is T+2. Trading hours are 9 am to 5:30 pm CET, Monday to Friday.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure and indices.", "content": "The French equities market is divided into three sections. The Premier Marché, formerly called the Official List, includes large French and foreign companies, and most Bond issues. The Second Marché, lists medium-sized companies, while nouveau marché lists fast-growing start up companies seeking capital to finance expansion, linked to Euro.nm, the European equity growth market. A fourth market, Marché Libre, is nonregulated, administered by Euronext Paris for transactions in securities not listed on the other three markets.  Euronext Paris calculates a family of indices. The CAC 40 is the exchange's benchmark, disseminated in real time. Its components are included in the broader SBF 120 Index, a benchmark for investment funds. The SBF 250 index, a benchmark for the long-term performance of equity portfolios, includes all of the SBF 120; it is structured by sector. The MIDCAC index includes 100 of the most liquid medium-size stocks on the Premier Marché and Nouveau Marché calculated on the basis of opening and closing prices, while the Second Marché index focuses on that market. Both indices are benchmarks for funds. The Nouveau Marché Index represents stocks in the growth market. The SBF-FCI index is based on a selection of convertible bonds that represent at least 70% of the total capitalization of this market, calculated twice daily. For derivatives, MONEP trades short-term and long-term stock options and futures and options on a family of Dow Jones indices. MATIF's products include commodity future and options on European rapeseed and futures on rapeseed meal, European rapeseed oil, milling wheat, corn and sunflower seeds; interest rate futures and options on the Euro notional bond, five-year Euro and three-month PIBOR (Paris Interbank Offered Rate), and futures on the 30-year Eurobond and two-year E-note, and index futures on the CAC 40.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Key figures.", "content": "For the fiscal year ending December 2004, Euronext Paris recorded sales of US $522 million, a −12.9% decrease in sales from 2003.  Euronext Paris has a US $2.9 trillion total market capitalization of listed companies and average daily trading value of its combined markets of approximately US $102 billion/€77 billion (as of 28 February 2007).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Euronext Paris is France's securities market, formerly known as the Paris Bourse, which merged with the Amsterdam, Lisbon, and Brussels exchanges in September 2000 to form Euronext NV, which is the second largest exchange in Europe behind the United Kingdom's London Stock Exchange Group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976628}
{"src_title": "Martin P4M Mercator", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "Work began on the Model 219 in 1944, as a replacement for the PB4Y Privateer long-range patrol bomber, optimised for long range minelaying missions, with the first flight being on 20 October 1946. A large and complicated aircraft, it was powered by two Pratt & Whitney R4360 Wasp Major 28-cylinder radial engines. To give a boost during takeoff and combat, two Allison J33 turbojets were fitted in the rear of the two enlarged engine nacelles, the intakes being beneath and behind the radial engines. The jets, like those on most other piston/jet hybrids, burned gasoline instead of jet fuel which eliminated the need for separate fuel tanks.  A tricycle undercarriage was fitted, with the nosewheel retracting forwards. The single-wheel main legs retracted into coverless fairings in the wings, so that the sides of the wheels could be seen even when retracted. The wings themselves, unusually, had a different airfoil cross-section on the inner wings than the outer.  Heavy defensive armament was fitted, with two 20 mm (.79 in) cannon in an Emerson nose turret and a Martin tail turret, and two 0.5 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in a Martin dorsal turret. The bomb bay was, like British practice, long and shallow rather than the short and deep bay popular in American bombers. This gave greater flexibility in payload, including long torpedoes, bombs, mines, depth charges or extended-range fuel tanks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The US Navy chose the smaller, simpler, cheaper and better performing P2V Neptune for the maritime patrol requirement, but nineteen aircraft were ordered in 1947 for high-speed minelaying purposes. The P4M entered service with Patrol Squadron 21 (VP-21) in 1950, the squadron deploying to NAS Port Lyautey in French Morocco. It remained in use with VP-21 until February 1953.  From 1951, the 18 surviving production P4Ms were modified for the electronic reconnaissance (or SIGINT, for \"signals intelligence\") mission as the P4M-1Q, to replace the PB4Y-2 Privateer. The crew was increased to 14 and later 16 to operate all the surveillance gear, and the aircraft was fitted with a large number of different antennae.  Starting in October 1951, electronic surveillance missions were flown from U.S. Naval Station Sangley Point in the Philippines, later from Naval Air Station Iwakuni, Japan, and Naval Air Station Atsugi, Japan, by a secretive unit that eventually gained the designation Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron One (VQ-1). Long missions were flown along the coast (about 30 NM offshore) of Vietnam, China, North Korea and the eastern Soviet Union, and were of a highly secret nature; the aircraft sometimes masqueraded as regular P2V Neptunes in radio communications, and often flew with false serial numbers (Bureau Numbers) painted under the tail. Operational missions were always flown at night, during the dark with the moon when possible, and with no external running lights.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Losses.", "content": "The Mercators were replaced by the EA-3B Skywarrior, which, being carrier-based, had a greater degree of flexibility and the larger Lockheed WV-2Q Warning Star. Final withdrawal from service was in 1960 after which all of the remaining P4Ms were scrapped.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Martin P4M Mercator was a maritime reconnaissance aircraft built by the Glenn L. Martin Company. The Mercator was an unsuccessful contender for a United States Navy requirement for a long-range maritime patrol bomber, with the Lockheed P2V Neptune chosen instead. It saw a limited life as a long-range electronic reconnaissance aircraft. Its most unusual feature was that it was powered by a combination of piston engines and turbojets, the latter being in the rear of the engine nacelles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976629}
{"src_title": "Markdown", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "John Gruber created the Markdown language in 2004 in collaboration with Aaron Swartz on the syntax, with the goal of enabling people \"to write using an easy-to-read and easy-to-write plain text format, optionally convert it to structurally valid XHTML (or HTML)\".  Its key design goal is \"readability\" – that the language be readable as-is, without looking like it has been marked up with tags or formatting instructions, unlike text formatted with a markup language, such as Rich Text Format (RTF) or HTML, which have obvious tags and formatting instructions. To this end, its main inspiration is the existing conventions for marking up plain text in email, though it also draws from earlier markup languages, notably setext, Textile, and reStructuredText.  Gruber wrote a Perl script,, which converts marked-up text input to valid, well-formed XHTML or HTML and replaces angle brackets \" \" and ampersands \" with their corresponding character entity references. It can be used as a standalone script, as a plugin for Blosxom or Movable Type, or as a text filter for BBEdit.  Markdown has since been re-implemented by others e.g. in a Perl module available on CPAN (), and in a variety of other programming languages. It is distributed under a BSD-style license and is included with, or available as a plugin for, several content-management systems.  Sites like GitHub, Bitbucket, Reddit, Diaspora, Stack Exchange, OpenStreetMap, and SourceForge use variants of Markdown to facilitate discussion between users.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standardization.", "content": "Markdown has been characterised by an informal specification and a reference implementation for conversion to HTML. Over time, many Markdown implementations have appeared. People developed these mostly driven by the need for additional features on top of the base syntax—such as tables, footnotes, definition lists (technically HTML description lists), and Markdown inside HTML blocks. The behavior of some of these diverges from the reference implementation. At the same time, a number of ambiguities in the informal specification have attracted attention. These issues spurred the creation of tools such as Babelmark to compare the output of various implementations, and an effort by some developers of Markdown parsers for standardisation. However, Gruber has argued that complete standardization would be mistaken: \"Different sites (and people) have different needs. No one syntax would make all happy.\"  In March 2016 two relevant informational Internet RFCs were published:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CommonMark.", "content": "From 2012, a group of people, including Jeff Atwood and John MacFarlane, launched what Atwood characterized as a standardization effort. A community website now aims to \"document various tools and resources available to document authors and developers, as well as implementors of the various markdown implementations\". In September 2014, Gruber objected to the usage of \"Markdown\" in the name of this effort and it was rebranded as a new dialect named CommonMark. CommonMark.org published several versions of a specification, reference implementation, and test suite, and \"[plans] to announce a finalized 1.0 spec and test suite in 2019.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "GitHub Flavored Markdown (GFM).", "content": "In 2017, GitHub released a formal specification of their GitHub Flavored Markdown (GFM) that is based on CommonMark. It is a strict superset of CommonMark, following its specification exactly except for \"tables, strikethrough, autolinks and task lists,\" which GFM adds as extensions. GitHub also changed the parser used on their sites accordingly, which required that some documents be changed. For instance, GFM now requires that the hash symbol that creates a heading be separated from the heading text by a space character.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Markdown Extra.", "content": "Markdown Extra is a lightweight markup language based on Markdown implemented in PHP (originally), Python and Ruby. It adds features not available with plain Markdown syntax. Markdown Extra is supported in some content management systems such as, for example, Drupal and TYPO3.  In MediaWiki, it is implemented in the currently unmaintained parser function extension  Markdown Extra adds the following features to Markdown:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Implementations.", "content": "Implementations of Markdown are available for over a dozen programming languages; in addition, many platforms and frameworks support Markdown. For example, Markdown plugins exist for every major blogging platform.  While Markdown is a minimal markup language and is read and edited with a normal text editor, there are specially designed editors that preview the files with styles, which are available for all major platforms. Many general purpose text and code editors have syntax highlighting plugins for Markdown built into them or available as optional download. Editors may feature a side-by-side preview window or render the code directly in a WYSIWYG fashion.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Markdown is a lightweight markup language with plain-text-formatting syntax, created in 2004 by John Gruber with Aaron Swartz. Markdown is often used to format readme files, for writing messages in online discussion forums, and to create rich text using a plain text editor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976630}
{"src_title": "Asset management", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "By industry.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Financial asset management.", "content": "The most common usage of the term \"asset manager\" refers to investment management, the sector of the financial services industry that manages investment funds and segregated client accounts. Asset management is part of a financial company which employs experts who manage money and handle the investments of clients. From studying the client's assets to planning and looking after the investments, all things are looked after by the asset managers and recommendations are provided based on the financial health of each client.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Physical and Infrastructure asset management.", "content": "Infrastructure asset management is the combination of management, financial, economic, engineering, and other practices applied to physical assets with the objective of providing the best value level of service for the costs involved. It includes the management of the entire life cycle—including design, construction, commissioning, operating, maintaining, repairing, modifying, replacing and decommissioning/disposal—of physical and infrastructure assets. Operation and maintenance of assets in a constrained budget environment require a prioritization scheme. As a way of illustration, the recent development of renewable energy has seen the rise of effective asset managers involved in the management of solar systems (solar park, rooftops, and windmills). These teams often collaborate with financial asset managers in order to offer turnkey solutions to investors. Infrastructure asset management became very important in most of the developed countries in the 21st century, since their infrastructure network was almost completed in the 20th century and they have to manage to operate and maintain them cost-effectively. Software asset management is one kind of infrastructure asset management.  The International Organization for Standardization published its management system standard for asset management in 2014. The ISO 55000 series provides terminology, requirements, and guidance for implementing, maintaining and improving an effective asset management system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Enterprise asset management.", "content": "Enterprise asset management (EAM) systems are asset \"information\" systems that support the management of an organization's assets. An EAM includes an asset registry (inventory of assets and their attributes) combined with a computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) and other modules (such as inventory or materials management). Assets that are geographically distributed, interconnected or networked, are often also represented through the use of geographic information systems (GIS).  GIS-centric asset registry standardizes data and improves interoperability, providing users the capability to reuse, coordinate, and share information in an efficient and effective manner. A GIS platform combined with information of both the \"hard\" and \"soft\" assets helps to remove the traditional silos of departmental functions. While the hard assets are the typical physical assets or infrastructure assets, the soft assets might include permits, licenses, brands, patents, right-of-ways, and other entitlements or valued items.  The EAM system is only one of the 'enables' to good asset management. Asset managers need to make informed decisions in order to fulfill their organizational goals, this requires good asset information but also leadership, clarity of strategic priorities, competencies, inter-departmental collaboration and communications, workforce, and supply chain engagement, risk and change management systems, performance monitoring and continual improvement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public asset management.", "content": "Public asset management expands the definition of enterprise asset management (EAM) by incorporating the management of all things of value to a municipal jurisdiction and its citizens' expectations. An example in which public asset management is used is land-use development and planning.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Intellectual and non-physical asset management.", "content": "Increasingly both consumers and organizations use assets, e.g. software, music, books, etc. where the user's rights are constrained by a license agreement. An asset management system would identify the constraints upon such licenses, e.g. a time period. If, for example, one licenses software, often the license is for a given period of time. Adobe and Microsoft both offer time-based software licenses. In both the corporate and consumer worlds, there is a distinction between software ownership and the updating of software. One may own a version of the software, but not newer versions of the software. Cellular phones are often not updated by vendors, in an attempt to force a purchase of newer hardware. Large companies such as Oracle, that license software to clients distinguish between the right to use and the right to receive maintenance/support.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Asset management refers to systematic approach to the governance and realization of value from the things that a group or entity is responsible for, over their whole life cycles. It may apply both to tangible assets (physical objects such as buildings or equipment) and to intangible assets (such as human capital, intellectual property, goodwill or financial assets). Asset management is a systematic process of developing, operating, maintaining, upgrading, and disposing of assets in the most cost-effective manner (including all costs, risks and performance attributes).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976631}
{"src_title": "Count Otto von Czernin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Born in Dimokur (Dymokury) on 27 August 1875 into an ancient Bohemian noble family (the Czernin family), he was a younger brother of Ottokar, also a diplomat who would become Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister during World War I. He married Lucy Beckett (1884–1979), daughter of Ernest Beckett, 2nd Baron Grimthorpe, in London in 1903. The marriage produced three sons, but they divorced shortly after the outbreak of the war in 1914. In 1939, he married Maria Lisa Pfeiffer (1899–1983) in Bratislava.  Following studies at the Diplomatic Academy, Count von Czernin entered the Austro-Hungarian foreign service and was first dispatched to London and in 1904 to Rome. He was considered a disciple of Foreign Minister Count Lexa von Aehrenthal, whose activist expansionary policies he supported during the Bosnian annexation crisis in 1908.  Before the war, Count von Czernin served as a Counselor to the Embassy in St. Petersburg and served as Chargé d'Affaires during the first weeks of the July Crisis as the Ambassador Count von Szapáry was absent due to the illness of his wife. He was therefore in charge of dealing directly with Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov until Count Szapáry returned to the Russian capital in mid-July.  Following the outbreak of war, Count von Czernin returned to Vienna and was employed by the Imperial and Royal Army. On 24 January 1917, he was dispatched to Sofia as Minister replacing Count von Széchényi who had been there only a few months. In Sofia, he wielded significant influence over Bulgarian policy-making during the last months of the war. Considered an able diplomat and judged by some as superior to his older brother, he left his post on 4 November 1918.  After the war, Count von Czernin resigned from public service and sought to ward off expropriations of his Bohemian estates in Czechoslovakia. In the 1930s, he expressed some sympathies with the Nazi Party, although his son, Manfred (who had remained with his mother in England), was a RAF pilot during World War II. Following World War II, he joined Otto von Habsburg's cause for a unified Europe.  Count von Czernin died in Salzburg on 14 June 1962.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Otto Rudolf Theobald Ottokar Maria Graf Czernin von und zu Chudenitz (; 27 August 1875 – 14 June 1962) was an Austro-Hungarian diplomat during the time of World War I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976632}
{"src_title": "Teresa Stolz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Teresa Stolz was born Tereza Stolzová (Tereza is sometimes seen in diminutive versions such as \"Teresina\", \"Teresie\" or \"Terezie\") in Kostelec nad Labem in the Austrian Empire in 1834. This is now in the Czech Republic. She studied under Josef Neruda then at the Prague Conservatoire under Giovanni Battista Gardigiani.  She was expelled from the Conservatoire in October 1851 but continued her study with Vojtěch Čaboun. She moved to Trieste to be with her brother, and where she studied with Luigi Ricci (who had conducted the 1848 premiere of Giuseppe Verdi's \"Il corsaro\" and later became her brother-in-law).  She made her debut in Tiflis in 1857 and also appeared in Odessa, Constantinople, Nice, Granada and other places. In 1864 she went to Italy, where she was a pupil of Francesco Lamperti in Milan. She made her European debut in Turin in 1864. She appeared regularly at La Scala, Milan, between 1865 and 1877. She created the role of Leonora in the revised version of Verdi's \"La forza del destino\" in Milan on 27 February 1869. She was the first to sing the title role of \"Aida\" in Italy (La Scala, 8 February 1872; also its European premiere). Verdi did not attend the world premiere in Cairo the previous December, and considered the Milan performance, in which he was heavily involved at every stage, to be its real premiere.  Stolz was also the soprano soloist at the premiere of Verdi's \"Requiem\" on 22 May 1874. She also appeared in the \"Requiem\" under Verdi's direction at the Royal Albert Hall in London in 1875. She reprised \"Aida\" under Verdi in Vienna in 1875 and in Paris in 1876. Other roles included the title roles in Donizetti's \"Lucrezia Borgia\", Bellini's \"Norma\", and Verdi's \"Giovanna d'Arco\"; Mathilde in Rossini's \"Guillaume Tell\", Alice in Meyerbeer's \"Robert le diable\", Amelia in \"Un ballo in maschera\", Gilda in \"Rigoletto\" and Desdemona in \"Otello\". Her career took her to such places such as Moscow, St Petersburg, Cairo, the major Italian opera houses, as well as Vienna, Paris and London.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private life.", "content": "She was the mistress and later the fiancée of the conductor and composer Angelo Mariani. That relationship ended around 1871 but there were a number of complicating factors that led up to it. Mariani had formerly been a good friend of Verdi's, but they parted company in 1871 after Mariani's indecision when he was asked by Verdi to conduct the premiere of \"Aida\" in Cairo. Stolz was accused of having an affair with Verdi, but whether this charge is true cannot be said with certainty. Verdi did spend an unusual amount of time working with her leading up to the Milan premiere of \"Aida\" in 1872. Mariani died of cancer in 1873. On 4 September 1875, a Florence newspaper, the \"Rivista indipendente\", published the first of five articles with intimate details of her private life, and accused her of immoral relations with both the late Mariani and with Verdi.  What can be said with confidence is that Stolz's break with Mariani came with the encouragement of both Verdi and his second wife Giuseppina Strepponi, the supposedly wronged party, who had herself previously referred in her letters to the \"continual deception\" of Stolz. It was a very complicated affair, made even more complicated by the publication of supposed letters by Strepponi which referred to \"my dear friend Teresina... who has always behaved as a faithful friend should\". These letters are now known to be forgeries; and the exact truth of the matter has been debated ever since. Stolz became Verdi's companion after Strepponi's death in 1897,  She died in Milan in 1902, the year after Verdi, and is buried there. A hall in Kostelec is named after her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "She had identical twin elder sisters, Francesca (Fanny) and Ludmila (Lidia), both singers. They both lived openly with her former teacher, the conductor and composer Luigi Ricci, who married Ludmila, but maintained a relationship with Francesca. By Ludmila, Ricci had a daughter Adelaide (Lella) Ricci, who was also a singer. Lella (Teresa's niece) became pregnant (possibly to Bedřich Smetana), but had an abortion and died as a result of complications, aged 21.  By Francesca, Luigi Ricci had a son, also Luigi Ricci (Teresa's nephew), who was a conductor and composer. He inherited Teresa Stolz's estate, and changed his name to Luigi Ricci-Stolz.  Her grand-nephew through a different part of the Stolz line was the composer Robert Stolz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Teresa Stolz (born 2 June 1834, Elbekosteletz (Czech: Kostelec nad Labem), Bohemia – died 23 August 1902, Milan) was a Bohemian soprano, long resident in Italy, who was associated with significant premieres of the works of Giuseppe Verdi, and may have been his mistress. She has been described as \"the Verdian dramatic soprano par excellence, powerful, passionate in utterance, but dignified in manner and secure in tone and control\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976633}
{"src_title": "Clara Rockmore", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Clara Reisenberg was born in Vilnius, then in the Russian Empire, to a family of Lithuanian Jews. She had two elder sisters, Anna and Nadia. Early in her childhood she emerged as a violin prodigy. At the age of four, she became the youngest ever student at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, where she studied under the prominent violinist Leopold Auer. After the October Revolution the family moved back to Vilnius, and then to Warsaw, before obtaining visas and leaving for the United States in 1921.  In America, Rockmore enrolled at the Curtis Institute of Music. As a teenager, tendinitis affected her bow arm, attributed to childhood malnutrition, and resulted in her giving up the violin. However, after meeting fellow immigrant Léon Theremin and being introduced to his electronic instrument, the theremin, she became its most prominent player. She performed widely and helped Theremin to refine his instrument.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Rockmore made orchestral appearances in New York and Philadelphia and went on coast-to-coast tours with Paul Robeson, but it was not until 1977 that she released a commercial recording called \"The Art of the Theremin\". The album, which was produced by Bob Moog and Shirleigh Moog, featured Rockmore's theremin playing with piano accompaniment by her sister Nadia. Rockmore’s approach to theremin playing emphasized physical and emotional control.  As she described it herself in an interview: \"You must not only hit a note, but you must hit the center of it. You cannot register any of your internal emotion at all. You cannot shake your head, for instance, or sway back and forth on your feet. That would change your tone.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life and death.", "content": "Although Léon Theremin had proposed to her once, she married attorney Robert Rockmore, and thereafter used his name professionally. They had no children.  She died in New York City on May 10, 1998, aged 87. Although her health had been in rapid decline for almost a year, she declared her determination to live to see the birth of her great-grandniece, who was born just two days before her death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contributions to the theremin.", "content": "Rockmore's classical training gave her an advantage over the many other theremin performers of the time. The intonation control she acquired as a violinist and her innate absolute pitch were both helpful in playing the instrument.  She had extremely precise, rapid control of her movements, important in playing an instrument that depends on the performer's motion and proximity rather than touch. She developed a unique technique for playing the instrument, including a fingering system that allowed her to perform accurately fast passages and large note leaps without the more familiar portamento, or glide, on theremin.  She also discovered that she could achieve a steadier tone and control the vibrato by keeping the tips of her right-hand thumb and forefinger in contact.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Developmental influence.", "content": "Rockmore saw limitations of the original instrument and helped to develop the theremin to fulfill her needs. Working together with Léon Theremin her suggestions and changes included increasing the sensitivity of the theremin's volume control to facilitate rapid staccato, lowering the profile of the instrument so the performer is more visible, increasing the sensitivity of the pitch antenna, and increasing range from three octaves to five.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public influence.", "content": "By the time Rockmore was playing large scale public concerts, such as New York City's Town Hall in 1938, she was becoming increasingly known for impressing critics with her artistry of the theremin during a time in which much of the general public had come to rather negative conclusions of what was possible on the instrument.  These performances with world class orchestras were also critical in establishing “electronic and experimental music as a viable art form in the public imagination.”  Clara owned an RCA theremin given to her and substantially modified by Theremin. Through his modifications, the instrument's normal 5 to 5.5 octave playable range was expanded by 1.5 octaves. Theremin made several other customizations including improvements to tonal quality and its responsiveness to hand movements. The tubes are also customized and labeled in Theremin's own writing.  This instrument was later restored by Robert Moog in October 1998; it can be viewed at the Clara Rockmore exhibit in the Artist's Gallery of the Musical Instruments Museum in Phoenix, Arizona and is on long-term loan to the museum by Peter Sherman of the Reisenberg family.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clara Reisenberg Rockmore (9 March 1911 – 10 May 1998) was a classical violin prodigy and a virtuoso performer of the theremin, an electronic musical instrument. She was the sister of pianist Nadia Reisenberg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976634}
{"src_title": "Ceratopsidae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Paleobiology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "Fossil deposits dominated by large numbers of ceratopsids from individual species suggest that these animals were at least somewhat social. However, the exact nature of ceratopsid social behavior has historically been controversial. In 1997, Lehman argued that the aggregations of many individuals preserved in bonebeds originated as local \"infestations\" and compared them to similar modern occurrences in crocodiles and tortoises. Other authors, such as Scott D. Sampson, interpret these deposits as the remains of large \"socially complex\" herds. Modern animals with mating signals as prominent as the horns and frills of ceratopsians tend to form these kinds of large, intricate associations. Sampson found in previous work that the centrosaurine ceratopsids did not achieve fully developed mating signals until nearly fully grown. He finds commonality between the slow growth of mating signals in centrosaurines and the extended adolescence of animals whose social structures are ranked hierarchies founded on age-related differences. In these sorts of groups young males are typically sexually mature for several years before actually beginning to breed, when their mating signals are most fully developed. Females, by contrast do not have such an extended adolescence.  Other researchers who support the idea of ceratopsid herding have speculated that these associations were seasonal. This hypothesis portrays ceratopsids as living in small groups near the coasts during the rainy season and inland with the onset of the dry season. Support for the idea that ceratopsids formed herds inland comes from the greater abundance of bonebeds in inland deposits than coastal ones. The migration of ceratopsids away from the coasts may have represented a move to their nesting grounds. Many African herding animals engage in this kind of seasonal herding today. Herds would also have afforded some level of protection from the chief predators of ceratopsids, tyrannosaurids.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Ceratopsids were adapted to processing high-fiber plant material with their highly derived dental batteries and advanced dentition. They may have utilized fermentation to break down plant material with a gut microflora. Mallon et al. (2013) examined herbivore coexistence on the island continent of Laramidia, during the Late Cretaceous. It was concluded that ceratopsids were generally restricted to feeding on vegetation at, or below, the height of 1 meter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Physiology.", "content": "Ceratopsians probably had the \"low mass-specific metabolic rat[e]\" typical of large bodied animals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sexual dimorphism.", "content": "According to Scott D. Sampson, if ceratopsids were to have sexual dimorphism modern ecological analogues suggest it would be in their mating signals like horns and frills. No convincing evidence for sexual dimorphism in body size or mating signals is known in ceratopsids, although was present in the more primitive ceratopsian \"Protoceratops andrewsi\" whose sexes were distinguishable based on frill and nasal prominence size. This is consistent with other known tetrapod groups where midsized animals tended to exhibit markedly more sexual dimorphism than larger ones. However, if there were sexually dimorphic traits they may have been soft tissue variations like colorations or dewlaps that would not have been preserved as fossils.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Scott D. Sampson has compared the evolution of ceratopsids to that of some mammal groups: both were rapid from a geological perspective and precipitated the simultaneous evolution of large body size, derived feeding structures, and \"varied hornlike organs.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paleoecology.", "content": "The chief predators of ceratopsids were tyrannosaurids.  There is evidence for an aggressive interaction between a \"Triceratops\" and a \"Tyrannosaurus\" in the form of partially healed tyrannosaur tooth marks on a \"Triceratops\" brow horn and squamosal (a bone of the neck frill); the bitten horn is also broken, with new bone growth after the break. It is not known what the exact nature of the interaction was, though: either animal could have been the aggressor. Since the \"Triceratops\" wounds healed, it is most likely that the \"Triceratops\" survived the encounter and managed to overcome the \"Tyrannosaurus\". Paleontologist Peter Dodson estimates that in a battle against a bull \"Triceratops\", the \"Triceratops\" had the upper hand and would successfully defend itself by inflicting fatal wounds to the \"Tyrannosaurus\" using its sharp horns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The clade Ceratopsidae was in 1998 defined by Paul Sereno as the group including the last common ancestor of \"Pachyrhinosaurus\" and \"Triceratops\"; and all its descendants. In 2004, it was by Peter Dodson defined to include \"Triceratops\", \"Centrosaurus\", and all descendants of their most recent common ancestor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ceratopsidae (sometimes spelled Ceratopidae) is a family of marginocephalian dinosaurs including \"Triceratops\", \"Centrosaurus\", and \"Styracosaurus\". All known species were quadrupedal herbivores from the Upper Cretaceous, mainly of Western North America and are characterized by beaks, rows of shearing teeth in the back of the jaw, and elaborate nasal horns and a thin parietal-squamosal shelf that extends back and up into a frill. The group is divided into two subfamilies. The Chasmosaurinae are generally characterized by long, triangular frills and well-developed brow horns. The Centrosaurinae had well-developed nasal horns or nasal bosses, shorter and more rectangular frills, and elaborate spines on the back of the frill.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976635}
{"src_title": "Maria Skobtsova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born to an aristocratic family in 1891 in Riga, Latvia, then part of the Russian Empire. She was given the name Elizaveta Pilenko. Her father died when she was a teenager, and she embraced atheism. In 1906 her mother moved the family to St. Petersburg, where she became involved in radical intellectual circles. In 1910 she married a Bolshevik by the name of Dmitriy Kuz'min-Karavaev. During this period of her life she was actively involved in literary circles and wrote much poetry. Her first book, Scythian Shards (Скифские черепки), was a collection of poetry from this period. By 1913 her marriage to Dimitriy had ended and the latter subsequently became Eastern Orthodox.  Through a look at the humanity of Christ — \"He also died. He sweated blood. They struck his face\" — she began to be drawn back into Christianity. She moved—now with her daughter, Gaiana—to the south of Russia where her religious devotion increased.  Furious at Leon Trotsky for closing the Socialist-Revolutionary Party Congress, she planned his assassination, but was dissuaded by colleagues, who sent her to Anapa. In 1918, after the Bolshevik Revolution, she was elected deputy mayor of Anapa in Southern Russia. When the anti-communist White Army took control of Anapa, the mayor fled and she became mayor of the town. The White Army put her on trial for being a Bolshevik. However, the judge was a former teacher of hers, Daniel Skobtsov, and she was acquitted. Soon the two fell in love and were married.  Soon, the political tide was turning again. In order to avoid danger, Elizaveta, Daniel, Gaiana, and Elizaveta's mother Sophia fled the country. Elizaveta was pregnant with her second child. They traveled first to Georgia (where her son Yuri was born) and then to Yugoslavia (where her daughter Anastasia was born). Finally they arrived in Paris in 1923. Soon Elizaveta was dedicating herself to theological studies and social work.  In 1926, Anastasia died of influenza. Gaiana was sent away to Belgium to boarding school. Soon, Daniel and Elizaveta's marriage was falling apart. Yuri ended up living with Daniel, and Elizaveta moved into central Paris to work more directly with those who were most in need.  Her bishop encouraged her to take vows as a nun, something she did only with the assurance that she would not have to live in a monastery, secluded from the world. In 1932, with Daniel Skobtov's permission, an ecclesiastical divorce was granted, and she took monastic vows. She took the religious name \"Maria\". Her confessor was Father Sergei Bulgakov. Later, Fr. Dmitri Klepinin would be sent to be the chaplain of the house.  Mother Maria made a rented house in Paris her \"convent\". It was a place with an open door for refugees, the needy and the lonely. It also soon became a center for intellectual and theological discussion. In Mother Maria these two elements — service to the poor and theology — went hand-in-hand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "After the Fall of France in 1940, Jews began approaching the house asking for baptismal certificates, which Father Dimitri would provide them. Many Jews came to stay with them. They provided shelter and helped many to flee the country. Eventually the house was closed down. Mother Maria, Fr. Dimitri, Yuri and Sophia were all arrested by the Gestapo. Fr. Dimitri and Yuri both died at the Dora concentration camp.  Mother Maria was sent to the Ravensbrück concentration camp. On Holy Saturday, 1945, she was sent to the Gas Chamber. According to eyewitnesses, she voluntarily took the place of another who had been chosen for execution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Canonization.", "content": "Mother Maria was glorified (canonized a saint) by act of the Holy Synod of the Ecumenical Patriarchate on 16 January 2004. The glorification of Mother Maria, together with Fr. Dimitri, Yuri, and Ilya Fondaminsky took place at the Cathedral of Saint Alexander Nevsky in Paris on 1 and 2 May 2004. Their feast day is 20 July.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Her life is dramatized in a Soviet film starring Lyudmila Kasatkina.  According to Metropolitan Anthony (Bloom) of Sourozh: \"Mother Maria is a saint of our day and for our day; a woman of flesh and blood possessed by the love of God, who stood face to face with the problems of this century.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example of poetry.", "content": "In July, 1942, when the order requiring Jews to wear the yellow star was published, she wrote a poem entitled \"Israel\":", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Skobtsova (20 [8 Old Calendar] December 1891 in Riga – 31 March 1945 in Ravensbrück concentration camp, Germany), known as \"Mother Maria\" (), Saint Mary (or Mother Maria) of Paris, born \"Elizaveta Yurievna Pilenko\" (), \"Kuzmina-Karavayeva\" () by her first marriage, \"Skobtsova\" () by her second marriage, was a Russian noblewoman, poet, nun, and member of the French Resistance during World War II. She has been canonized a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976636}
{"src_title": "Tomáš Pekhart", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Born in Sušice, Czechoslovakia, he began his career with his hometown club TJ Sušice and also played for TJ Klatovy before joining Slavia Prague in 2003. Pekhart played and scored in the final of the UEFA Under-17 Championship in Luxembourg for his country against Russia.  Pekhart joined Tottenham Hotspur during the summer of 2006.  In August 2008, Pekhart joined Championship side Southampton on loan until January 2009. He made his first league appearance as a substitute on 14 September, away against Queens Park Rangers which Southampton lost 4–1. He scored his only league goal for Southampton in a 2–2 home draw against Ipswich. He returned to Spurs in January 2009 and on transfer deadline day Pekhart returned to his old club Slavia Prague on a year long loan until January 2010.  On 12 January 2010, FK Jablonec confirmed the signing of Pekhart on a three-and-a-half-year deal for an undisclosed fee. However, after just half of the following season, he moved on loan to fellow Gambrinus liga side Sparta Prague as part of a deal with 1. FC Nürnberg, who he joined on 1 July 2011.  On 28 August 2014, Pekhart signed a three-year deal with the German second league side FC Ingolstadt 04.  Pekhart moved to AEK Athens on 1 February 2016. On 4 February 2016, he made his debut with the club, in an away 1–1 draw against Iraklis at Kaftanzoglio Stadium.  On 21 July 2017, Pekhart signed with Hapoel Be'er Sheva for three years. On 13 August of the following year, he agreed to a two-year deal with Segunda División side UD Las Palmas.  On 10 February 2020, Pekhart agreed to a two and a half year deal with Ekstraklasa side Legia Warsaw.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Pekhart has represented his country at youth international level. In 2007, he represented his country in the FIFA Under-20 World Cup in Canada as the youngest player in the squad having just turned 18. He played in all seven matches of the tournament, including the final against Argentina in which the Czechs finished runners up after Mauro Zárate scored the winning goal four minutes from full-time for Argentina.  He made his debut for the Czech Republic on 22 May 2010 in a match against Turkey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honors.", "content": "Czech Republic U17", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tomáš Pekhart (born 26 May 1989) is a Czech professional footballer who plays as a forward for Polish club Legia Warsaw. He has represented the Czech Republic at both junior and senior level.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976637}
{"src_title": "Emden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The exact founding date of Emden is unknown, but it has existed at least since the 8th century. Older names for Emden are Amuthon, Embda, Emda, Embden and Embderland. Town privilege and the town's coat of arms, the \"Engelke up de Muer\" (The Little Angel on the Wall) was granted by Emperor Maximilian I in 1495.  In the 16th century, Emden briefly became an important centre for the Protestant Reformation under the rule of Countess Anna von Oldenburg who was determined to find a religious \"third way\" between Lutheranism and Catholicism. In 1542 she invited the Polish noble John Laski (or \"Joahannes a Lasco\") to become pastor of a Protestant church at Emden; and for 7 years he continued to spread the new religion around the area of East Frisia. However, in 1549 following pressure from the Emperor Charles V, the Countess was forced to ask Laski to leave for England and the experiment came to an end. Nevertheless, the legacy was important for the reformation in the Netherlands.  At the end of the 16th century Emden experienced a period of great prosperity. Due to the Spanish blockade of Flemish and Brabant ports at the start of the Dutch Revolt, Emden became the most important transshipment port on the North Sea. Thousands of Protestant refugees came from Flanders and the Duchy of Brabant to the Protestant city Emden to escape persecution by the Spanish rulers of the Low Countries. During this period, the predominantly Calvinist Emden came into conflict with the Lutheran counts of East Friesland. The Emden Revolution in 1595 resulted in Emden becoming a distinct city-state. With the support of the Dutch Republic, Emden became a free government city under the protection of the Dutch Republic. The Brabantian dialect became the official language of trade and civil administration.  Emden was a very rich city during the 17th century, due to large numbers of Dutch and Flemish immigrants such as Diederik Jansz. Graeff. It was a centre of reformed Protestantism at that time. The political theorist Johannes Althusius served as Syndic from 1604 to 1638.  In 1744 Emden was annexed by Prussia. In 1752 Frederick the Great chartered the Emden Company to trade with Canton, but the company was ruined when Emden was captured by French forces in 1757 during the Seven Years' War. [The city was recaptured by Anglo-German forces in 1758 and for the rest of the conflict was used as a major supply base by the British to support the ongoing war in Westphalia.  During the Napoleonic French era, Emden and the surrounding lands of East Frisia were part of the short-lived Kingdom of Holland.  Industrialization started at around 1870, with a paper mill and a somewhat bigger shipyard. At the end of the 19th century, a big canal, the Dortmund-Ems Canal was constructed, which connected Emden with the Ruhr area. This made Emden the \"seaport of the Ruhr area\", which lasted until the 1970s. Coal from the south was transported to the North Sea port, and imported iron ore was shipped via the canal towards Rhine and the Ruhr. The last iron ore freighter was moored in the port of Emden in 1986.  In 1903, a large shipyard (\"Nordseewerke\", \"North Sea Works\") was founded and was in operation until 2010.  The city centre was almost completely wiped out as a result of Allied bombing raids during the Second World War, destroying nearly all historic buildings. The RAF first bombed Emden on 31 March 1940. The most severe bombing took place on 6 September 1944, when roughly 80 percent of all houses in the city centre were destroyed. In the collective memory of the city, this date still plays an important role. The shipyard area was largely untouched – the British targeted the civilian areas, apparently in response to the bombing of Coventry by the \"Luftwaffe\". The reconstructed city was opened on 6 September 1962, exactly 18 years after the bombing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The main industries in Emden are automobile production and shipbuilding. Volkswagen runs a large production plant which builds the Volkswagen Passat car and which employs around 10,000 people. Emden harbor is also one of the three main ports for car shipping in Europe (together with Zeebrugge in Belgium and Bremerhaven in Germany). More than 850,000 cars were imported and exported in 2005. The \"Nordseewerke\" shipyard, a subsidiary of ThyssenKrupp, employs around 1,400 dockers and specializes in conventional submarines. It also produces different kinds of cargo ships as well as ships for special purposes such as icebreakers, dredgers and other ships of that type.  Another important economic sector is tourism, mainly as a day trip destination for tourists staying in the surrounding villages on the North Sea coastline.  A university of applied sciences (\"Fachhochschule\") was opened in 1973. At present, around 4.240 students are enrolled, most of them studying for technical degrees.  The airline Ostfriesische Lufttransport has its headquarters in Emden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "The highest playing association football club is BSV Kickers Emden. The capacity of the stadium is 7,200, due to safety objections of the German Football Association. In 1994, some 12,000 spectators followed a match against the reserves squad of Hamburger SV, which remains the record. In that season, Kickers Emden finished top of the 3rd League, but were not promoted to the Second League as they lost the promotion round.  Since Emden is not only located close to the North Sea, but also to the river Ems and various small rivers and canals, boat sports are very popular among inhabitants and tourists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ships and places named after the city.", "content": "Three German light cruisers were named after the city, two of which served in World War I and the third in World War II. Today, the fifth navy ship named after the city is in service.  A deep sea spot in the Pacific Ocean close to the Philippines is named after the first ship, and is therefore called \"Emdentief\" in German. The spot (10,400 m deep) was sounded in the 1920s (in 1920, 1923 or 1928—sources vary).  In addition, the village of Emden, Illinois in the United States was named after Jacob Emden due to the large number of emigrants from Emden to the village in northwestern Logan County, Illinois. Another namesake city in the USA is the unincorporated town of Embden, North Dakota (the b added to correct the pronunciation).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "Emden is twinned with:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emden () is an independent city and seaport in Lower Saxony in the northwest of Germany, on the river Ems. It is the main city of the region of East Frisia and, in 2011, had a total population of 51,528.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976638}
{"src_title": "George Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Lord Spencer was born at Wimbledon Park, London, the son of John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer, and his wife Margaret Georgiana Poyntz, daughter of Stephen Poyntz, and was baptised there on 16 October 1758. His godparents were King George II, the Earl Cowper (his grandmother's second husband) and his great-aunt the Dowager Viscountess Bateman. His sister Lady Georgiana Spencer married the Duke of Devonshire and became a famed Whig hostess. He was educated at Harrow School from 1770 to 1775 and he won the school's \"Silver Arrow\" (an archery prize) in 1771. He then attended Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1776 to 1778 and graduated with a Master of Arts. He acceded to the earldom upon the death of his father in 1783.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Lord Spencer was Whig Member of Parliament for Northampton from 1780 to 1782 and Whig MP for Surrey from 1782 to 1783. He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1794 and served under William Pitt the Younger as Lord Privy Seal in 1794 and as First Lord of the Admiralty from 1794 to 1801. He was later Home Secretary from 1806 to 1807 under Lord Grenville in the Ministry of All the Talents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other public positions.", "content": "Lord Spencer was also High Steward of St Albans from 1783 to 1807, Mayor of St Albans in 1790, President of the Royal Institution from 1813 to 1825 and Commissioner of the Public Records in 1831. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1780 and a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1785. He was appointed to the Order of the Garter in 1799. On 18 February 1793, he was appointed a deputy lieutenant of Northamptonshire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Book collecting.", "content": "Spencer was known for his interest in literature and particularly in early examples of printing. He was the instigator and first President of the Roxburghe Club (an exclusive bibliophilic club), founded in 1812.  His collection of tens of thousands of volumes, which included the most nearly complete collection of Aldine editions ever brought together, was put up for sale in 1892 and acquired by Enriqueta Rylands for the John Rylands Library and it was catalogued by Alice Margaret Cooke. The manuscripts of Spencer's collection are relatively few; one of them has pasted into it the St Christopher blockprint dated 1423. From 1789 to 1818 Earl Spencer employed Tomaso d'Ocheda, an Italian, as his librarian; d'Ocheda had until 1789 been the librarian of Pierre-Antoine Bolongaro-Crevenna.  When Napoleon was in the process of the secularization of religious houses in southern Germany, Spencer used local British agent and Benedictine monk, Alexander Horn, to acquire many of their rare books and manuscripts.  The Rev. Thomas Frognall Dibdin was a Church of England clergyman and bibliographer. The first of his numerous bibliographical works was his \"Introduction to the Knowledge of Editions of the Classics\" (1802), which brought him under the notice of Earl Spencer, to whom he owed much important aid in his bibliographical pursuits. The rich library at Althorp was thrown open to him; he spent much of his time in it, and in 1814–1815 published his \"Bibliotheca Spenceriana\". As the library was not open to the general public, the information given in the \"Bibliotheca\" was found very useful, but since its author was unable even to read the characters in which the books he described were written, the work was marred by the errors which more or less characterize all his productions. In 1818 Dibdin was commissioned by Earl Spencer to purchase books for him on the continent, an expedition described in his sumptuous \"Bibliographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque Tour in France and Germany\" (1821). He was also the author of \"Aedes Althorpianae\", an account of Althorp giving many details of Earl Spencer's library.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Spencer married Lady Lavinia Bingham (1762–1831), daughter of Charles Bingham, 1st Earl of Lucan, on 6 March 1781. They had nine children:  Lady Spencer died in June 1831, aged 68. Lord Spencer survived her by three years and died in November 1834, aged 76, at Althorp, and was buried in the nearby village of Great Brington on 19 November of that year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spencer jacket.", "content": "The Spencer, a type of short jacket from which the UK military mess jacket is derived, is named for George Spencer, reportedly because he had a tail-coat adapted after its tails were burned by coals from a fire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George John Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer, (1 September 1758 – 10 November 1834), styled Viscount Althorp from 1765 to 1783, was a British Whig politician. He served as Home Secretary from 1806 to 1807 in the Ministry of All the Talents. He was the 3rd paternal great grandfather of Diana, Princess of Wales.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976639}
{"src_title": "Hallam Tennyson, 2nd Baron Tennyson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hallam Tennyson was born in Chapel House, a house his father was renting in Twickenham, Surrey. His parents were Emily (née Sellwood) and Alfred Tennyson. Tennyson's early childhood was spent at Farringford House on the Isle of Wight, which his father began renting in 1853 and bought in 1856. He was educated at Marlborough College and Trinity College, Cambridge. Tennyson's career aspirations ended when his parents' age and ill-health obliged him to leave Cambridge to become their personal secretary. The idea of going into politics was also abandoned.  It was partly for Hallam's benefit that Alfred Tennyson accepted a peerage in 1884, the year Hallam married Audrey Boyle (after being disappointed in his love for Mary Gladstone, daughter of William Ewart Gladstone). On his father's death in 1892, he inherited the title Baron Tennyson, and also the role of official biographer. His \"Tennyson: a Memoir\" was published in 1897.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governor of South Australia.", "content": "Like his famous father, Tennyson was an ardent imperialist, and in 1883 he had become a council member of the Imperial Federation League, a lobby group set up to support the imperialist ideas of the Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain. It was this connection, as well as the Tennyson name, that led Chamberlain to offer Tennyson the position of Governor of South Australia in 1899. He was still in this position in May 1902, when the Governor-General of Australia, the Earl of Hopetoun, suddenly announced his intention to resign.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governor-General of Australia.", "content": "Tennyson was the senior state governor at the time of Hopetoun's announcement, and thus became Administrator of the Government upon his departure from Australia on 17 July 1902. There were some doubts about his ability to fill the job on a permanent basis since he had little experience of politics. But he had made a good impression in Australia through his modesty and frugality, unlike the ostentatiously imperious Hopetoun. In January 1903 he accepted the post for, at his own suggestion, a one-year appointment only.  The new Governor-General was popular and got on with Australians far better than his predecessor had done. But problems arose through the ambiguity of his position. The Prime Minister, Alfred Deakin, insisted that the Governor-General's official secretary must be appointed and paid by the Australian government. The British government objected (privately) because this would mean that the Governor-General could not carry out what was seen in London as his broader role in supervising the Australian government. Tennyson shared this view.  As a result, relations between Deakin and Tennyson grew tense. Deakin correctly suspected that Tennyson was reporting on him to London and trying to interfere on matters of policy, such as the naval agreement between Britain and Australia. For this reason Deakin did not encourage Tennyson to seek an extension of his one-year term. None of this was known to the public and Tennyson left Australia in January 1904 to universal expressions of approval.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "Tennyson spent the rest of his life at Farringford, serving as deputy Governor of the Isle of Wight from 1913. His wife died in 1916, and in 1918 he re-married to Mary Emily (May) Prinsep (1853–1931). She was the daughter of Charles Robert Prinsep, born in India and later the owner of a large nutmeg plantation in Singapore. Tennyson was May Prinsep's second husband; her first husband was Andrew Hichens. The National Portrait Gallery has eight photographs of May Prinsep, taken by her relation Julia Margaret Cameron on the Isle of Wight.  Tennyson bequeathed many of his father's notebooks to Trinity College in 1924. Tennyson died at Farringford in December 1928.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hallam Tennyson, 2nd Baron Tennyson, (11 August 1852 – 2 December 1928) was a British aristocrat who served as the second Governor-General of Australia, in office from 1903 to 1904. He was previously Governor of South Australia from 1899 to 1902.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976640}
{"src_title": "Place Dauphine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Place Dauphine was laid out in 1607–10, when the Place Royale was still under construction. It was among the earliest city-planning projects of Henri IV, and was on a site created from part of the western garden of the walled enclave known as the Palais de la Cité (because the Capetian kings had lived there long ago, before the Louvre was built). There had been a pavilion, the Maison des Etuves, located in the garden's western wall which overlooked two riverine islets, scarcely more than mudbanks at the time. One islet was incorporated into filled land which extended the Île de la Cité to the west to form the middle section, the \"terre-plein\", of the Pont Neuf (completed in 1606) and, on the downstream side of the bridge, a platform supporting an equestrian statue of Henri IV (installed in 1614). The second islet was removed. The Place Dauphine was to occupy the western part of the garden and the vacant land which had been created between it and the bridge.  Approximately 3 acres of land was conveyed to on 10 March 1607 with instructions to execute a project according to a general plan in which the houses would adhere to a specified and repetitious facade. The development consisted of two components: a triangular square and a row of houses across from the base of the triangle on the eastern side of the rue de Harlay, with returns extending further east along the quais. There were two entrances to the square: one in the middle of the eastern range and the second at the western point, opening onto the Pont Neuf. The western (\"downstream\") gateway was formed by paired pavilions facing the bridge and the statue of Henri IV on its other side.  The last of the houses to be constructed (at the southeast corner of the square) was finished in 1616. Originally all were built with more or less the specified facades, which were similar to those at the Place Royale, although the houses were more modest. Each repeating unit comprised on the ground floor two arcaded shopfronts dressed with stone between which a narrow door opened into a passage to an interior court with a steep staircase leading to two residential floors above. These were faced with brick and limestone quoins, chaînes, and tablets. At the top was an attic floor with a steep slate roof and dormers, similar to the Place Royale, except that each range at the Place Dauphine was covered by a single roof, and the dormers \"gave no hint of separate houses\". In fact, behind the facades, the houses themselves, built by separate buyers, varied with regard to plan and area.  Since its construction, almost all of the houses surrounding the square have been raised in height, given new facades, rebuilt, or replaced with imitations of the originals. Only two retain their original appearance, those flanking the entrance facing the Pont Neuf. In 1792 during the Revolution the Place Dauphine was renamed Place Thionville, a name it retained until 1814. The former eastern range, heavily damaged by fire during the fighting of the Paris Commune of 1871, was swept aside to open the view toward the Palais de Justice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metro station.", "content": "The Place Dauphine is:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes  Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Place Dauphine is a public square located near the western end of the Île de la Cité in the first arrondissement of Paris. It was initiated by Henry IV in 1607, the second of his projects for public squares in Paris, the first being the Place Royale (now the Place des Vosges). He named it for his son, the Dauphin of France and future Louis XIII, who had been born in 1601. From the \"square\", actually triangular in shape, one can access the middle of the Pont Neuf, a bridge which connects the left and right banks of the Seine by passing over the Île de la Cité. A street called, since 1948, Rue Henri-Robert, forty metres long, connects the Place Dauphine and the bridge. Where they meet, there are two other named places, the Place du Pont-Neuf and the Square du Vert-Galant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976641}
{"src_title": "Camp Rock", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Mitchie Torres (Demi Lovato) is a young musician aspiring to be a singer. Mitchie wants to go to a summer music camp named \"Camp Rock\". Since her family cannot afford the tuition, Mitchie's mother, Connie Torres (Maria Canals-Barrera), arranges to cater food for the camp, thus allowing Mitchie to attend. In return, Mitchie must help her mother out in the kitchen.  Meanwhile, Shane Gray (Joe Jonas), the spoiled and arrogant lead singer of the popular music trio Connect 3, has been assigned to be in charge of dance classes for one month at Camp Rock by his bandmates Nate Gray (Nick Jonas) and Jason Gray (Kevin Jonas) and is forced to record a song with the winner of Final Jam. Shane overhears Mitchie singing and falls in love with her voice, but Mitchie leaves before Shane can figure out it was her, causing him to obsess over finding the mysterious singer.  During Opening Jam, Mitchie learns that many of the campers have notable roots and is embarrassed that she was only able to come to the camp because of her mother's catering service. She convinces Tess Tyler (Meaghan Martin), a girl known for her famous mother and her popularity, and her friends, Peggy (Jasmine Richards) and Ella (Anna Maria Perez de Tagle), that her mother is the president of Hot Tunes TV China. Tess, impressed, invites Mitchie to bunk with her group.  When Mitchie overhears Shane's new song, she compliments him. Shane, doubtful that his record label and his fans would accept the song, begins to fall for Mitchie. In the cafeteria, Tess and Caitlyn begin to throw spaghetti at each other and Mitchie gets in the middle of the fight. Brown (Daniel Fathers), the owner of the camp, breaks the fight up, and Tess frames Caitlyn for the incident. Brown punishes Caitlyn by having her work in the kitchen and Mitchie, who is worried that Caitlyn will learn her secret, does not defend her.  When Mitchie accidentally enters the kitchen while Caitlyn is working, Caitlyn learns about Mitchie's secret. At Pajama Jam, Mitchie supports Caitlyn when Tess attempts to upstage her show. Mitchie and Caitlyn reconcile.  Shane spreads the word that he is searching for a girl with \"the voice\". When Tess sees Mitchie and Shane rowing together, she becomes jealous and, after finding out about Mitchie's secret, tells the entire camp. Shane says that Mitchie deceived him to get close to him just because he is famous.  Tess learns that Mitchie is the girl Shane is looking for. In order to get rid of Mitchie, on the eve of Final Jam, Tess frames Mitchie and Caitlyn for stealing her charm bracelet. Brown bans them from all camp activities until the end of Final Jam.  At Final Jam, Brown announces that the winner of Final Jam, as decided by the judges, Connect 3, will not only win a trophy, but a chance to record with Shane. Peggy and Ella lose their patience with Tess, stand up to her, and leave her group. Ella performs \"Hasta La Vista\" with Barron (Jordan Francis) and Sander (Roshon Fegan). Tess realizes her mom is attending and starts to perform \"2 Stars\", however she stumbles when her mom has to take a call during her performance. Peggy reveals her real name is Margaret Dupree and performs \"Here I Am\". Tess apologizes to Peggy and Ella. As Brown announces the end of Final Jam, the spotlights turn on, and he allows Mitchie to perform, saying he was hoping they would catch on: as their performance was not in the lineup and was technically after \"the end of Final Jam\". Mitchie starts to perform \"This Is Me\", Shane realizes Mitchie was the voice from before, and he soon joins in. Backstage, Tess tells Mitchie and Caitlyn she told Brown that they didn't steal her bracelet, and Mitchie and Shane reconcile. Peggy is announced as the winner of Final Jam. The entire camp sing \"We Rock\". Caitlyn shows Mitchie, Tess, Peggy, and Ella the recording studio she built in her garage, and they perform \"Our Time Is Here\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "\"Camp Rock\" was filmed between September and October 2007 at YMCA Camp Wanakita in Haliburton, Ontario, and Kilcoo Camp in Minden, Ontario.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The \"Camp Rock\" soundtrack was released on June 17, 2008 by Walt Disney Records and was performed by the film's cast. It debuted at #3 on the \"Billboard\" 200 album charts, selling over 188,000 units in its first week. The album was certified Platinum by the RIAA and sold over 1,257,000 copies to date. In Brazil, the album was certified Platinum by the ABPD and sold over 60,000 copies until 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ratings.", "content": "\"Camp Rock\" premiered on the Disney Channel on June 20, 2008, with 8.86 million viewers. Its June 21 showing on ABC had 3.47 million viewers, and its June 22 showing on ABC Family had 3.73 million viewers.  Its Disney Channel Italy premiere received 1.14 million viewers in September 2008.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "The DVD and Blu-ray release for the film, titled \"Camp Rock: Extended Rock Star Edition\", was released on August 19, 2008. It was released in November in other countries. It was released on December 1, 2008, in the UK only on DVD.  Both the DVD and Blu-ray release contain the following bonus features.  There were some hidden bonus features throughout parts of the \"Camp Rock: Extended Rock Star Edition\" DVD. According to the \"Camp Rock\" section of movieman'sguide, there is another easter egg, but it is possibly untrue. In their words, \"...and a short easter egg in the Music Video part of the disc (keep pressing down until you see a Pink Guitar)\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Merchandise.", "content": "Merchandise of the film is sold at Target, Claires, and Limited Too. They include clothing (such as pajamas, T-shirts, and underwear), bags (tote bags, backpacks, etc.), bedding collection, toys, and dolls of the characters. Play Along Toys, so far, has only released dolls of Mitchie and Shane. On May 13, 2008, Disney published \"Camp Rock: The Junior Novel\", by Lucy Ruggles, the novelization of the film. Target retail stores sell \"special editions\" of the novel, hardcover books that include photos.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Camp Rock is a 2008 Disney Channel Original Movie directed by Matthew Diamond and starring Demi Lovato, Joe Jonas, Meaghan Martin, Maria Canals-Barrera, Daniel Fathers, and Alyson Stoner. It is about Mitchie (Demi Lovato), a young girl aspiring to be a singer, and her time at Camp Rock, a summer music camp, where she will discover friends, adversaries, romance, and her voice.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976642}
{"src_title": "Bateau-Lavoir", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Formerly a ballroom and piano factory, Bateau Lavoir was squatted and divided into 20 small workshops in 1889. Distributed along a corridor, small rooms were linked without heating and with a single point of water. The name \"Le Bateau-Lavoir\" was coined by French poet Max Jacob. The building was dark and dirty, almost seeming to be scrap pile rather than a dwelling. On stormy days, it swayed and creaked, reminding people of washing-boats on the Seine River, hence the name.  The building stands on a small cobblestone square that was known as Place Ravignan. In 1911, it was rechristened Place Émile Goudeau for Émile Goudeau (1849–1906), a popular novelist, poet, and journalist who founded Les Hydropathes, a renowned and famous literary club. The square now has a Wallace fountain and is planted with horse chestnut trees.  Maxime Maufra (1863–1918) was the first noted artist to take up residence in Bateau-Lavoir, around 1890. Kees van Dongen and Pablo Picasso took up residence between 1900 and 1904. After 1904 more artists and writers moved in, including Otto van Rees, Amedeo Modigliani, Pierre Mac Orlan, Juan Gris, André Salmon, Pablo Gargallo, Max Jacob and Pierre Reverdy.  It became an unofficial club that included artists Henri Matisse, Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy, Marie Laurencin, Modigliani, Jean-Paul Laurens, Maurice Utrillo, Jacques Lipchitz, María Blanchard, Jean Metzinger and Louis Marcoussis; writers Guillaume Apollinaire, Alfred Jarry, Jean Cocteau, Gustave Coquiot, Cremnitz (Maurice Chevrier), Paul Fort, André Warnod, Raymond Radiguet, and Gertrude Stein; actors Charles Dullin, Harry Baur, and Gaston Modot; and art dealers Ambroise Vollard,, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, and Berthe Weill.  While residing at the Bateau-Lavoir Picasso painted works such as \"Garçon à la pipe\" (\"Boy with a Pipe\") in 1905, and one of his most noted works, \"Les Demoiselles d'Avignon\" in 1907, considered by art historians as a proto-Cubist painting (the precursor of a movement that became known as Cubism).  Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, creative artists living at the Bateau-Lavoir and in the neighbourhood began moving elsewhere, mainly to Montparnasse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable events.", "content": "In 1908, a celebration banquet for Henri Rousseau was organised in Picasso's studio in the Bateau-Lavoir.  One night, Amedeo Modigliani destroyed a number of his friends' paintings while in an alcoholic rage in the Bateau-Lavoir, according to memoirs of his daughter, Jeanne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The Le Bateau-Lavoir is a featured setting in the 2018 season of \"Genius\", which focuses on the life and art of Pablo Picasso.  It is also featured in the 1995 Eric Rohmer film \"Les Rendez-vous de Paris\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bateau-Lavoir (\"Washhouse Boat\") is the nickname of a building in the Montmartre district of the 18th arrondissement of Paris that is famous in art history as the residence and meeting place for a group of outstanding early 20th-century artists, men of letters, theatre people, and art dealers. It is located at No. 13 Rue Ravignan at Place Emile Goudeau, just below the Place du Tertre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976643}
{"src_title": "Charge (physics)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Abstract definition.", "content": "Abstractly, a charge is any generator of a continuous symmetry of the physical system under study. When a physical system has a symmetry of some sort, Noether's theorem implies the existence of a conserved current. The thing that \"flows\" in the current is the \"charge\", the charge is the generator of the (local) symmetry group. This charge is sometimes called the Noether charge.  Thus, for example, the electric charge is the generator of the U(1) symmetry of electromagnetism. The conserved current is the electric current.  In the case of local, dynamical symmetries, associated with every charge is a gauge field; when quantized, the gauge field becomes a gauge boson. The charges of the theory \"radiate\" the gauge field. Thus, for example, the gauge field of electromagnetism is the electromagnetic field; and the gauge boson is the photon.  The word \"charge\" is often used as a synonym for both the generator of a symmetry, and the conserved quantum number (eigenvalue) of the generator. Thus, letting the upper-case letter \"Q\" refer to the generator, one has that the generator commutes with the Hamiltonian [\"Q\", \"H\"] = 0. Commutation implies that the eigenvalues (lower-case) \"q\" are time-invariant: = 0.  So, for example, when the symmetry group is a Lie group, then the charge operators correspond to the simple roots of the root system of the Lie algebra; the discreteness of the root system accounting for the quantization of the charge. The simple roots are used, as all the other roots can be obtained as linear combinations of these. The general roots are often called raising and lowering operators, or ladder operators.  The charge quantum numbers then correspond to the weights of the highest-weight modules of a given representation of the Lie algebra. So, for example, when a particle in a quantum field theory belongs to a symmetry, then it transforms according to a particular representation of that symmetry; the charge quantum number is then the weight of the representation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples.", "content": "Various charge quantum numbers have been introduced by theories of particle physics. These include the charges of the Standard Model:  Charges of approximate symmetries:  Hypothetical charges of extensions to the Standard Model:  In supersymmetry:  In conformal field theory:  In gravitation:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charge conjugation.", "content": "In the formalism of particle theories, charge-like quantum numbers can sometimes be inverted by means of a charge conjugation operator called C. Charge conjugation simply means that a given symmetry group occurs in two inequivalent (but still isomorphic) group representations. It is usually the case that the two charge-conjugate representations are complex conjugate fundamental representations of the Lie group. Their product then forms the adjoint representation of the group.  Thus, a common example is that the product of two charge-conjugate fundamental representations of SL(2,C) (the spinors) forms the adjoint rep of the Lorentz group SO(3,1); abstractly, one writes  That is, the product of two (Lorentz) spinors is a (Lorentz) vector and a (Lorentz) scalar. Note that the complex Lie algebra sl(2,C) has a compact real form su(2) (in fact, all Lie algebras have a unique compact real form). The same decomposition holds for the compact form as well: the product of two spinors in su(2) being a vector in the rotation group O(3) and a singlet. The decomposition is given by the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients.  A similar phenomenon occurs in the compact group SU(3), where there are two charge-conjugate but inequivalent fundamental representations, dubbed formula_4 and formula_5, the number 3 denoting the dimension of the representation, and with the quarks transforming under formula_4 and the antiquarks transforming under formula_5. The Kronecker product of the two gives  That is, an eight-dimensional representation, the octet of the eight-fold way, and a singlet. The decomposition of such products of representations into direct sums of irreducible representations can in general be written as  for representations formula_10. The dimensions of the representations obey the \"dimension sum rule\":  Here, formula_12 is the dimension of the representation formula_10, and the integers formula_14 being the Littlewood–Richardson coefficients. The decomposition of the representations is again given by the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients, this time in the general Lie-algebra setting.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In physics, a charge is any of many different quantities, such as the electric charge in electromagnetism or the color charge in quantum chromodynamics. Charges correspond to the time-invariant generators of a symmetry group, and specifically, to the generators that commute with the Hamiltonian. Charges are often denoted by the letter \"Q\", and so the invariance of the charge corresponds to the vanishing commutator formula_1, where H is the Hamiltonian. Thus, charges are associated with conserved quantum numbers; these are the eigenvalues \"q\" of the generator \"Q\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976644}
{"src_title": "North American T-2 Buckeye", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The first version of the aircraft entered service in 1959 as the T2J-1. It was redesignated the T-2A in 1962 under the joint aircraft designation system. The two-seat trainer was powered by one Westinghouse J34-WE-46/48 turbojet. The aircraft was subsequently redesigned, and the single engine was replaced with two Pratt & Whitney J60-P-6 turbojets in the T-2B. The T-2C was fitted with two thrust General Electric J85-GE-4 turbojets. The T-2D and T-2E were export versions for the Venezuelan Air Force and Hellenic Air Force, respectively. The T-2 Buckeye (along with the TF-9J Cougar) replaced the T2V-1/T-1A SeaStar, though the T-1 continued in some uses into the 1970s.  The Buckeye was designed as a low-cost, multistage trainer. Its straight wing was similar to that used on the FJ-1 Fury and its cockpit controls were similar to the propeller-driven T-28C Trojan. The T-2's performance was between that of the U.S. Air Force's Cessna T-37 Tweet and the U.S. Navy's TA-4J Skyhawk. While it had no built-in armament, the T-2 could accommodate two.50-inch gun pods, practice bombs, or 2.75-inch rockets beneath the wings.  All T-2 Buckeyes were manufactured by North American at Air Force Plant 85, located just south of Port Columbus Airport in Columbus, Ohio. A total of 609 aircraft were built during the production run. The name Buckeye refers to the state tree of Ohio, as well as the mascot of The Ohio State University.  Every jet-qualified Naval Aviator and virtually every Naval Flight Officer from the late 1950s until 2004 received training in the T-2 Buckeye, a length of service spanning four decades. The aircraft first exited the Naval Aviator strike pipeline (where it saw its final carrier landings) in 2004, and the Naval Flight Officer tactical jet pipeline in 2008. In the Naval Aviator strike pipeline syllabus and the Naval Flight Officer strike and strike fighter pipeline syllabi, the T-2 has been replaced by the near-sonic McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk (the U.S. Navy version of the BAE Systems Hawk), which is more comparable to other high-performance, subsonic trainers, or the supersonic U.S. Air Force Northrop T-38 Talon. More recently, the T-2 has been used as a director aircraft for aerial drones. Several T-2 Buckeyes, although still retaining their USN markings, are now registered as civilian-owned aircraft with FAA \"N\" numbers; they regularly appear at airshows.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The North American T-2 Buckeye was the United States Navy's intermediate training aircraft, intended to introduce U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps student naval aviators and student naval flight officers to jets. It entered service in 1959, and was replaced by the McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk in 2008.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976645}
{"src_title": "Server Name Indication", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background of the problem.", "content": "When making a TLS connection, the client requests a digital certificate from the web server. Once the server sends the certificate, the client examines it and compares the name it was trying to connect to with the name(s) included in the certificate. If a match occurs, the connection proceeds as normal. If a match is not found, the user may be warned of the discrepancy and the connection may abort as the mismatch may indicate an attempted man-in-the-middle attack. However, some applications allow the user to bypass the warning to proceed with the connection, with the user taking on the responsibility of trusting the certificate and, by extension, the connection.  However it may be difficult — or even impossible, due to lack of a full list of all names in advance — to obtain a single certificate that covers all names a server will be responsible for. A server that is responsible for multiple hostnames is likely to need to present a different certificate for each name (or small group of names). Since 2005, CAcert has run experiments on different methods of using TLS on virtual servers. Most of the experiments are unsatisfactory and impractical. For example, it is possible to use \"subjectAltName\" to contain multiple domains controlled by one person in a single certificate. Such \"unified communications certificates\" must be reissued every time the list of domains changes.  Name-based virtual hosting allows multiple DNS hostnames to be hosted by a single server (usually a web server) on the same IP address. To achieve this, the server uses a hostname presented by the client as part of the protocol (for HTTP the name is presented in the host header). However, when using HTTPS, the TLS handshake happens before the server sees any HTTP headers. Therefore, it is not possible for the server to use the information in the HTTP host header to decide which certificate to present and as such only names covered by the same certificate can be served from the same IP address.  In practice, this means that an HTTPS server can only serve one domain (or small group of domains) per IP address for secured and efficient browsing. Assigning a separate IP address for each site increases the cost of hosting, since requests for IP addresses must be justified to the regional Internet registry and IPv4 addresses are now exhausted. The result is that many websites are effectively constrained from using secure communications over IPv4. IPv6 address space is not exhausted, so websites served using IPv6 are unaffected by this issue.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "How SNI fixes the problem.", "content": "SNI addresses this issue by having the client send the name of the virtual domain as part of the TLS negotiation's ClientHello message. This enables the server to select the correct virtual domain early and present the browser with the certificate containing the correct name. Therefore, with clients and servers that implement SNI, a server with a single IP address can serve a group of domain names for which it is impractical to get a common certificate.  SNI was added to the IETF's Internet RFCs in June 2003 through RFC 3546, \"Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions\". The latest version of the standard is RFC 6066.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Security implications (ESNI).", "content": "The desired hostname is not encrypted, so an eavesdropper can see which site is being requested. This helps security companies provide a filtering feature and governments implement censorship. While domain fronting was used as a workaround, now both Google and AWS have taken action to disallow this - and it's therefore becoming less of an alternative.  As of mid 2018, an upgrade called Encrypted SNI (ESNI) is being rolled out in an \"experimental phase\" to address this risk of domain eavesdropping.  Support for ESNI was incorporated into Firefox Nightly in October 2018. While the mainline Firefox browser supports ESNI, it requires using DNS-over-HTTPS to be enabled.  In March 2020, ESNI was renamed to ECHO (Encrypted Client Hello); it went on to be renamed once again to ECH in May 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "In 2004, a patch for adding TLS/SNI into OpenSSL was created by the EdelKey project. In 2006, this patch was then ported to the development branch of OpenSSL, and in 2007 it was back-ported to OpenSSL 0.9.8 (first released in 0.9.8f).  For an application program to implement SNI, the TLS library it uses must implement it and the application must pass the hostname to the TLS library. Further complicating matters, the TLS library may either be included in the application program or be a component of the underlying operating system. Because of this, some browsers implement SNI when running on any operating system, while others implement it only when running on certain operating systems.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Server Name Indication (SNI) is an extension to the Transport Layer Security (TLS) computer networking protocol by which a client indicates which hostname it is attempting to connect to at the start of the handshaking process. This allows a server to present multiple certificates on the same IP address and TCP port number and hence allows multiple secure (HTTPS) websites (or any other service over TLS) to be served by the same IP address without requiring all those sites to use the same certificate. It is the conceptual equivalent to HTTP/1.1 name-based virtual hosting, but for HTTPS. The desired hostname is not encrypted in the original SNI extension, so an eavesdropper can see which site is being requested.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976646}
{"src_title": "Edeka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The cooperative was founded in 1898 as the E.d.K. (\"Einkaufsgenossenschaft der Kolonialwarenhändler im Halleschen Torbezirk zu Berlin\", \"Purchasing Cooperative of Colonial Goods Retailers in the Hallesches Tor district of Berlin\"). In 1911, it was renamed as Edeka - a phonetic expansion of the previous abbreviation. The Edekabank was founded in 1914 and, from 1923, central billing was introduced.  After the Second World War, the reconstruction of the store network was led from the new Hamburg central offices. In 1972, the cooperatives changed structure and formed twelve regional companies, the umbrella corporation and the Edekabank converting from a cooperative to a public limited company.  In 2001, the Edeka own brand \"Gut & Günstig\" was founded.  Christmas 2015 the company attracted worldwide attention with the highly sentimental TV commercial \"#heimkommen\", about a lonely grandfather desperate to reunite with his family for Christmas. Intended only for the German public, it reached over 43 million views worldwide on YouTube by December 18, 2015, and became a cultural phenomenon, with nearly 62 million views by June 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brand names.", "content": "Operational names of these stores include: Stores not operating under the Edeka brand, but belonging to the group nonetheless:  It also has holdings in Denmark.  Edeka also operates a number of companies providing related services, for example the \"Edekabank\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "A 2019 Mother's Day online commercial showing a series of clips of fathers interacting with their children incompetently, followed by shots of caring mothers with their children, and the punchline \"Mum, thank you for not being dad,\" was criticized widely for its clichéd portrayal of the roles of mothers and fathers.  Stevie Schmiedel, a gender researcher and founder of the German branch of the feminist lobby organization \"Pinkstinks,\" which campaigns against sexism in advertising, commented: \"Maybe the advertisers really thought they were doing something good for women on Mother's Day. But everything went wrong. The commercial is pseudo-progressive. It divides and intensifies the fight between the sexes. A poisoned Mother's Day present.\"  Edeka was officially reprimanded by the \"Deutscher Werberat\", the German advertising standards regulator, for breaching advertising standards by \"reinforcing 1950's gender stereotypes,\" and while \"ironic exaggeration is permissible, gender stereotyping is not.\" The authority also cited the large number of complaints and the debate about the commercial on social media, saying this showed that viewers either did not understand that it was meant to be ironical, or that they felt the ironic use of stereotypes was not acceptable to them.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Edeka Group is the largest German supermarket corporation, holding a market share of 20.3%. Founded in 1898, it consists today of several cooperatives of independent supermarkets all operating under the umbrella organisation \"Edeka Zentrale AG & Co KG\", with headquarters in Hamburg. There are approximately 4,100 stores with the Edeka nameplate that range from small corner stores to hypermarkets. On November 16, 2007, Edeka reached an agreement with Tengelmann (known as A&P in the US) to purchase a 70% majority stake in Tengelmann's \"Plus\" discounter store division, which was then merged into Edeka's \"Netto\" brand, with some 4,200 stores by 2018. Under all brands the company operated a total of 13,646 stores at the end of 2017.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976647}
{"src_title": "Gideon Hausner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Hausner was born in Lemberg, then the capital of Galicia, a province of Austria-Hungary (now Ukraine), to Polish-Jewish economist rabbi and Zionist Bernard Hausner, who was later member of Polish Sejm (parliament). He immigrated to Mandatory Palestine from Poland in 1927, when his father took the post of Economic Advisor to the Polish Government first in Haifa and later in Tel-Aviv. Hausner attended high school in Tel Aviv before studying philosophy at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and then law at the Jerusalem Law School. He spoke Polish, Hebrew, Yiddish, English and German.  He was a member of the Haganah, during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War he served in the Etzioni Brigade. After the conflict he worked as a military prosecutor, and then as president of the military court.  In 1960, he was appointed Attorney General, but resigned from the post in 1963 and pursued a career in politics. He was elected to the Knesset in 1965 as a member of the Independent Liberals, having previously been active in the Progressive Party (the Independent Liberals were a breakaway group of mostly Progressive Party members following the party's merger into Gahal). He was re-elected in 1969 and 1973, and resigned from the Knesset upon being appointed a Minister without Portfolio in 1974 as part of Golda Meir's cabinet. Re-elected in 1977 as the only member of the party, he lost his seat in the 1981 elections when the party failed to cross the electoral threshold.  He was also the chairman of the council of Yad Vashem (1969–1989).  He was married with Judith, they had two children: Tamar and Amos, His daughter is Tami Raveh-Hausner, chairwoman of HaHadashot 12, she is married to advocate Yehuda Raveh.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gideon Hausner (, 26 September 1915 – 15 November 1990) was an Israeli jurist and politician. Between 1960 and 1963, he served as Attorney General and was later elected to the Knesset and served in the cabinet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976648}
{"src_title": "2009–10 UEFA Champions League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 76 teams participated in the 2009–10 Champions League, from 52 UEFA associations (Liechtenstein organises no domestic league competition). Associations are allocated places according to their 2008 UEFA country coefficient, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2003–04 to 2007–08.  Below is the qualification scheme for the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Since the winners of the 2008–09 UEFA Champions League, Barcelona, obtained a place in the group stage through their domestic league placing, the reserved title holder spot in the group stage was effectively vacated. To compensate:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "League positions of the previous season shown in parentheses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "All draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless stated otherwise.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying phase.", "content": "In a new system for the Champions League, there are two separate qualifying tournaments. The Champions Path (which start from the first qualifying round) is for clubs which won their domestic league and did not automatically qualify for the group stage, while the Non-Champions Path (which start from the third qualifying round) is for clubs which did not win their domestic league and did not automatically qualify for the group stage.  In the qualifying phase and the play-off round, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis.  The draw for the first and second qualifying rounds, conducted by UEFA President Michel Platini and UEFA General Secretary David Taylor, was held on 22 June 2009, and the draw for the third qualifying round, conducted by UEFA Competitions Director Giorgio Marchetti and Head of Club Competitions Michael Heselschwerdt, was held on 17 July 2009. For the draws, clubs were separated into seeded and unseeded teams based on their club coefficient. Because the draws for the second and third qualifying rounds took place before the previous round was completed, the teams were seeded assuming the seeded side in the previous round would be victorious.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 30 June and 1 July, and the second legs were played on 7 and 8 July 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 14 and 15 July, and the second legs were played on 21 and 22 July 2009.  Partizan's 8–0 win over Rhyl in the second leg equalled the record for the largest margin of victory in the current Champions League format. , the second leg between Stabæk and Tirana was under investigation by UEFA and German authorities for possible match-fixing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: one for champions and one for non-champions. The first legs were played on 28 and 29 July, and the second legs were played on 4 and 5 August 2009. The losing teams in both sections entered the play-off round of the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "An extra qualifying round, the play-off round, was introduced from this season. The teams were split into two separate sections: one for champions and one for non-champions. The draw for the play-off round, conducted by UEFA General Secretary David Taylor and UEFA Competitions Director Giorgio Marchetti, was held on 7 August 2009. For the draw, clubs were separated into seeded and unseeded teams based on their club coefficient. The first legs were played on 18 and 19 August, and the second legs were played on 25 and 26 August 2009. The losing teams in both sections entered the group stage of the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The draw for the group stage was held at the Grimaldi Forum in Monaco on 27 August 2009. A total of 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four. Teams were divided into four pots, based on their club coefficient. Clubs from the same pot or the same association cannot be drawn into the same group.  In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away. The matchdays were 15–16 September, 29–30 September, 20–21 October, 3–4 November, 24–25 November, and 8–9 December 2009. The top two in each group advanced to the knockout phase, and the third-placed teams entered the round of 32 of the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League.  Based on Article 7.06 in the UEFA regulations, if two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following criteria are applied to determine the rankings:  AZ, Wolfsburg, Standard Liège, Zürich, APOEL, Rubin Kazan, Unirea Urziceni and Debrecen made their debut in the group stage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final.  The draw for the round of 16 was held on 18 December 2009, conducted by UEFA General Secretary Gianni Infantino and Giorgio Marchetti, the UEFA Director of Competitions. The eight group winners, which would play the second leg at home, were drawn against the eight group runners-up, with the restriction that teams from the same group or the same association cannot be drawn with each other.  The draws for the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final (to determine the \"home\" team) was held on 19 March 2010, conducted by Gianni Infantino and Emilio Butragueño, the ambassador for the final in Madrid. From the quarter-finals onwards, there were no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association may be drawn with each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "Starting from this season, the matches in the round of 16 were held over four weeks, instead of the previous two weeks. The first legs were played on 16, 17, 23 and 24 February, and the second legs were played on 9, 10, 16 and 17 March 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 30 and 31 March, and the second legs were played on 6 and 7 April 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 20 and 21 April, and the second legs were played on 27 and 28 April 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final of the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League was played at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid on 22 May 2010, between Germany's Bayern Munich and Italy's Internazionale. The stadium, home of Real Madrid, has hosted three previous European Cup finals, in 1957, 1969 and 1980. It was the first time that a UEFA Champions League final has been played on a Saturday night. England's Howard Webb was appointed to referee the Final. The two clubs competing in the Final had each won their domestic league and cup competitions, meaning that the winner became only the sixth club in Europe to have achieved a continental treble, and the first such club from their respective countries. It was also the second consecutive treble, following that of Barcelona in the previous season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2009–10 UEFA Champions League was the 55th season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 18th under the current UEFA Champions League format. The final was played on 22 May 2010, at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, home of Real Madrid, in Madrid, Spain. The final was won by Italian club Inter Milan, who beat German side Bayern Munich 2–0. Internazionale went on to represent Europe in the 2010 FIFA Club World Cup, beating Congolese side TP Mazembe 3–0 in the final, and played in the 2010 UEFA Super Cup against Europa League winners Atlético Madrid, losing 2–0.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976649}
{"src_title": "2009–10 UEFA Europa League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 192 teams from 53 UEFA associations participated in the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League. Associations are allocated places according to their 2008 UEFA country coefficient, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2003–04 to 2007–08.  Below is the qualification scheme for the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Since the winners of the 2008–09 UEFA Cup, Shakhtar Donetsk, qualified for the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League through domestic performance, the title holder spot reserved for them in the group stage was vacated. As this was the first edition of the Europa League, it was initially unknown whether UEFA would simply disregard the vacant title holder spot and rearrange entries so that one more team would qualify from the play-off round, or replace the title holders' group stage place with that of the top-ranked association's cup winner and move teams from lower rounds appropriately, as the regulations are unclear on this matter. The former set-up was confirmed by UEFA's official list of participants, published on 16 June 2009. As a result, the following changes to the default allocation system were made to compensate for the vacant title holder spot in the group stage:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Redistribution rules.", "content": "A Europa League place is vacated when a team qualify for both the Champions League and the Europa League, or qualify for the Europa League by more than one method. When a place is vacated, it is redistributed within the national association by the following rules:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "The labels in the parentheses show how each team qualified for the place of its starting round:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "All draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless stated otherwise.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying phase.", "content": "In the qualifying phase and the play-off round, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis.  The draw for the first and second qualifying rounds, conducted by UEFA President Michel Platini and UEFA General Secretary David Taylor, was held on 22 June 2009, and the draw for the third qualifying round, conducted by UEFA Competitions Director Giorgio Marchetti and Head of Club Competitions Michael Heselschwerdt, was held on 17 July 2009. For the draws, clubs were separated into seeded and unseeded teams based on their club coefficient. Because the draws for the second and third qualifying rounds took place before the previous round was completed, the teams were seeded assuming the seeded side in the previous round would be victorious.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 2 July, and the second legs were played on 9 July 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 14 and 16 July, and the second legs were played on 23 July 2009.  Both the first and second legs between Bnei Yehuda and Dinaburg and between Rapid Wien and Vllaznia were under investigation by UEFA and German authorities for possible match-fixing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 28 and 30 July, and the second legs were played on 4 and 6 August 2009.  The first leg between Fenerbahçe and Budapest Honvéd and the second leg between Interblock Ljubljana and Metalurh Donetsk were under investigation by UEFA and German authorities for possible match-fixing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The draw for the play-off round, conducted by UEFA General Secretary David Taylor and UEFA Competitions Director Giorgio Marchetti, was held on 7 August 2009. For the draw, clubs were separated into seeded and unseeded teams based on their club coefficient. The first legs were played on 20 August, and the second legs were played on 25 and 27 August 2009.  Note 1: The match was abandoned at 0–2 in the 88th minute after one Dinamo București fan entered the playing field and other fans invaded the running track around the pitch. The UEFA Control and Disciplinary Body awarded a default 0–3 defeat against Dinamo during an emergency meeting on 25 August. After advancing to the group stage, Dinamo were punished by having their first two home matches in the group stage played behind closed doors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The draw for the group stage was held at the Grimaldi Forum in Monaco on 28 August 2009. A total of 48 teams were drawn into twelve groups of four. Teams were divided into four pots, based on their club coefficient. Clubs from the same pot or the same association cannot be drawn into the same group.  In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away. The matchdays were 17 September, 1 October, 22 October, 5 November, 2–3 December, and 16–17 December 2009. The top two in each group advanced to the knockout phase. If two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following criteria are applied to determine the rankings:  During this stage of the tournament, matches featured five on-field officials – with two additional officials monitoring play around the penalty area as part of a FIFA-sanctioned experiment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final.  The draw for the round of 32 and round of 16 was held on 18 December 2009, conducted by UEFA General Secretary Gianni Infantino and UEFA Director of Competitions Giorgio Marchetti. In the round of 32, the group winners and the four better third-placed teams from the Champions League group stage, which would play the second leg at home, were drawn against the group runners-up and the other four third-placed Champions League teams, with the restriction that teams from the same group or the same association cannot be drawn with each other. In the round of 16, there were no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association may be drawn with each other.  The draw for the quarter-finals, semi-finals, and final (to determine the \"home\" team) was held on 19 March 2010, conducted by UEFA competitions director Giorgio Marchetti and the ambassador for the Hamburg final, Uwe Seeler. Same as the round of 16, there were no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association may be drawn with each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bracket.", "content": "<section begin=bracket />", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 32.", "content": "The first legs were played on 16 and 18 February, and the second legs were played on 23 and 25 February 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "The first legs were played on 11 March, and the second legs were played on 18 March 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 1 April, and the second legs were played on 8 April 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 22 April, and the second legs were played on 29 April 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final of the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League was played at the HSH Nordbank Arena in Hamburg, Germany, on 12 May 2010. This was the second time the home stadium of Hamburger SV hosted a UEFA final, the first being the second leg of the 1982 UEFA Cup Final. Due to UEFA rules banning corporate sponsorship outside the confederation, the stadium was referred to by UEFA as \"Hamburg Arena\". The match was won by Atlético Madrid.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Top scorers and assists (excluding qualifying rounds and play-off round):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2009–10 UEFA Europa League was the first season of the UEFA Europa League, Europe's secondary club football tournament organised by UEFA. The competition was previously known as the UEFA Cup, which had been in existence for 38 years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976650}
{"src_title": "RS-68", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "One of the main goals of the RS-68 program was to produce a simple engine that would be cost-effective when used for a single launch. To achieve this, the RS-68 has 80% fewer parts than the multi-launch Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME). The adverse consequences of this simplicity were a significantly lower thrust-to-weight ratio and a 10% lower specific impulse compared to the SSME. The benefit of this simplicity is the RS-68's reduced construction cost.  An RS-68 is part of each Delta IV Common Booster Core. The largest of the launch vehicles, the Delta IV Heavy, uses three CBCs mounted together.  At its maximum 102% thrust, the engine produces in a vacuum and at sea level. The engine's mass is. With this thrust, the engine has a thrust-to-weight ratio of 51.2 and a specific impulse of in a vacuum and at sea level. The RS-68 is gimbaled hydraulically and is capable of throttling between 58% and 102% thrust.  The RS-68A is an updated version of the RS-68, with increased specific impulse and thrust (to over at sea level). The first launch on June 29, 2012, from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station used three RS-68A engines mounted in a Delta IV Heavy rocket.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proposed uses.", "content": "In 2006, NASA announced an intention to use five RS-68 engines instead of SSMEs on the planned Ares V. NASA chose the RS-68 because of its lower cost, about $20 million per engine including the cost of NASA's upgrades. The upgrades included a different ablative nozzle to accommodate a longer burn, a shorter start sequence, hardware changes to limit free hydrogen at ignition, and a reduction in the amount of helium used during countdown and flight. Thrust and specific impulse increases would occur under a separate upgrade program for the Delta IV rocket. Later, the Ares V was changed to use six RS-68 engines, designated the RS-68B. Ares V was dropped as part of the cancellation of the Constellation program in 2010. NASA's current successor heavy-lift vehicle, the Space Launch System, will use four RS-25 engines instead.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Human-rating.", "content": "In 2008, it was reported that the RS-68 needs over 200 changes to receive a human-rating certification. NASA has stated that those changes include health monitoring, removal of the fuel-rich environment at liftoff, and improving the robustness of its subsystems.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Aerojet Rocketdyne RS-68 (Rocket System 68) is a liquid-fuel rocket engine that uses liquid hydrogen (LH2) and liquid oxygen (LOX) as propellants in a gas-generator power cycle. It is the largest hydrogen-fueled rocket engine ever flown.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976651}
{"src_title": "Mariam Baouardy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Baouardy was born on 5 January 1846 (the eve of Epiphany) in the Galilean village of Hurfiesh, later moved to I’billin, in Palestine during the Ottoman Empire, to Giries (George) Baouardy and his wife, Mariam Chahine. Mariam was their 13th child and first daughter, and none of her preceding brothers had survived infancy. She was born after the couple made a pilgrimage on foot to Bethlehem, some 70 miles away, out of desperation after the loss of their children. When they were later blessed with the birth of a daughter, they named her after the Virgin Mary, out of gratitude. She was joined by a new brother, Boulos, two years later.  Baouardy was not yet three years old when both her parents died from an illness in 1848, only a few days apart. The siblings were then each taken in by relatives on different sides of her family living in different villages, she was taken by a paternal uncle who lived in the same village, and her brother went to live with a maternal aunt. The brother and sister would never see one another again. She was raised in a loving home in comfortable circumstances. As a child she had a marked spirit of religious fervor, and at the age of five began to fast on Saturdays in honor of the Blessed Virgin.  When Baouardy was eight, her uncle and his wife moved to Alexandria, Egypt, to improve their situation. Five years later, in 1858 when she was aged 13, in keeping with tradition, she was engaged by her uncle to his wife's brother, who lived in Cairo. The night before the wedding, she had a religious experience in which she felt called not to marry but to offer her life to God. Upon being told this the following morning, her uncle flew into a rage and beat her severely. Despite this, and the subsequent ill treatment she began to experience from her uncle, she stayed firm in her decision.  Nonetheless, Baouardy felt depressed and alone. She wrote her brother, then living in Nazareth, asking him to visit her. The young male servant she asked to deliver the letter drew out of her the cause for her sadness. Upon learning of this, he attempted to woo her for himself, inviting her to convert to Islam. She rejected his proposal, which caused the young man to fly into a rage, in which he drew a knife and cut her throat. He then dumped her body in a nearby alley.  Baouardy then experienced what she was convinced was a miracle. As she related later, a \"nun dressed in blue\" brought her to a grotto which she could never identify, stitched her wounds, and took care of her. Her voice was affected for the rest of her life as a result of the cut, which a French doctor later measured as being 10 cm. (nearly 4 inches) wide. After being cared for by this mysterious figure for a month, she recovered enough to leave and find work as a domestic servant in the home of an Arab Christian family in the city.  After a year, Baourardy decided to try to meet her brother and traveled by caravan to Jerusalem. There she felt inspired to make a vow of perpetual virginity at the Holy Sepulchre. She then took a boat in Jaffa with the intention of heading to Acre. Due to poor weather, however, the boat had to stop at Beirut. Taking this as a sign from God, she disembarked and found work as a maid. After working there she suddenly became blind, a condition that lasted for 40 days, when just as suddenly she recovered her vision. Not long after that, she had a serious fall which seemed to leave her for dead. Her employer cared for her for a month until she recovered, completely healed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "France and Carmel.", "content": "In May 1863 a generous patron made it possible for Baouardy to move to Marseille, France, where she became the cook for an Arab family. While there, she felt called to enter a religious order. Rejected by the first groups to which she sought admission, in May 1865 she was accepted as a postulant by the Congregation of the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition, who had communities in the Holy Land and already had several Palestinian candidates. It was at this point that she received the stigmata of Christ.  During the last month of this period of candidacy, the Mistress of novices, Mother Honorine who had drawn Baouardy's life story from her, was replaced by Mother Veronica of the Passion. After two years as a postulant, Baouardy was up for a vote by the community regarding her admission to the congregation. To her dismay, she was rejected by the sisters charged with making the decision.  At that point, Mother Veronica had just received permission to transfer to the Discalced Carmelite monastery at Pau to prepare for her forming a new congregation of Religious Sisters serving in India, the Sisters of the Apostolic Carmel. She invited Baouardy to go with her, writing to the prioress of that community and recommending that they accept the young Arab woman. The prioress accepted Mother Veronica's advice and, in June 1867, both women went together to Pau, where they received the Carmelite religious habit and Baourdy was given the religious name of Mary of Jesus Crucified.  In 1870, Baouardy went with the first group of Carmelite Apostolic Sisters to Mangalore, India. She served there for two years before returning to Pau. It was there she made her profession of solemn vows as a member of the Order in November 1871. In September 1875 she helped to found a new monastery in Bethlehem, the first of the Order in that region, where she lived until her death. During her whole life, she experienced periods of religious ecstasy frequently throughout the day.  In April 1878 Baouardy played an important role in the identification of the Biblical Emmaus thanks to a private revelation. She died on 26 August 1878 in Bethlehem, from cancer which had developed in her bones as a result of the fall she had while working in the monastery, which led to gangrene that spread to her lungs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "The cause of canonization started on 18 May 1927 and would culminate with the decree of heroic virtue on 27 November 1981. Baouardy was beatified by Pope John Paul II on 13 November 1983 and was canonized on 17 May 2015 by Pope Francis. She became the second Greek Catholic to be canonized a saint of the Catholic Church, the first being Josaphat Kuntsevych in 1867.  In I'billin a kindergarten, the Miriam Bawardi Elementary School and a junior high school are named after Baouardy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mariam Baouardy (, or Mary of Jesus Crucified, 5 January 1846 – 26 August 1878), was a Discalced Carmelite nun of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church. Born to Greek Catholic Palestinian parents from the town of Hurfiesh in the upper Galilee, she was known for her service to the poor. In addition, she became a Christian mystic who suffered the stigmata, and has been canonized by the Catholic Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976652}
{"src_title": "Alex Gaskarth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crew Fighters (2002–2003).", "content": "As a teenager, Gaskarth was part of a cover band named Crew Fighters. Soon after, he met Jack Barakat, who persuaded him to form and join All Time Low. All Time Low began doing covers of songs by Blink-182 and Green Day. Subsequently, the formation of the band was completed by Zack Merrick (bass, backing vocals) and Rian Dawson (drums, percussion), who also left Crew Fighters to join All Time Low.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "All Time Low (2003–present).", "content": "Gaskarth started playing music with bandmate Jack Barakat in eighth grade. In ninth grade, they acquired Zack Merrick and Rian Dawson, forming All Time Low in 2003. They signed to Emerald Moon Records in 2004 while still in high school and released their debut EP, \"The Three Words to Remember in Dealing with the End\". In 2005, they released their debut studio album \"The Party Scene\".  In 2006 the band signed with Hopeless Records. In 2007, they released a Platinum single \"Dear Maria, Count Me In\" and in 2008 it was certified 4x Platinum by Billboard. They also released their second studio album \"So Wrong, It's Right\" in 2007. In 2009, All Time Low released their third studio album \"Nothing Personal\" which debuted number 4 in Billboard 200. In 2010 the band released two CD/DVD packages, \"MTV Unplugged\" and the documentary/live concert \"Straight to DVD\".  In 2011, the band signed with Interscope Records and released their fourth studio album \"Dirty Work\". In early 2012, the band re-signed with Hopeless Records and released their fifth studio album \"Don't Panic\". On 7 April 2015, All Time Low released their sixth studio album \"Future Hearts\" which reached number 2 on Billboard Hot 200 Albums Chart with 75,000 copies sold in its first week, and number 1 in the U.K official Album Charts with 19,400 copies being sold. In 2016, \"Straight to DVD 2: Past Present and Future Hearts\" was released. This is a sequel to \"Straight to DVD\", documenting the past four years of the band as well as another live concert. In 2017, the band released a new song entitled \"Dirty Laundry\" and also reveals that they had left Hopeless Records and has signed with Fueled by Ramen one year prior. On 2 June 2017 the band released its seventh studio album \"Last Young Renegade\". In the summer of 2018, the band released two new singles, \"Everything Is Fine\" and \"Birthday\".  Gaskarth has written songs for/with other bands such as 5 Seconds of Summer, McBusted, and Simple Plan. He has also been a host of the podcast Full Frontal with bandmate Jack Barakat since 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Simple Creatures (2019–present).", "content": "On 24 January 2019, Gaskarth announced he was forming a new group with Mark Hoppus of Blink-182 called Simple Creatures. A debut song named \"Drug\" was released with news of an upcoming EP slated for March. A single named \"Strange Love\" was also released.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Instruments.", "content": "During 2004–2008, Gaskarth used a variety of Gibson SG-X's. Around mid-2013, Gaskarth used a variety of custom-made Paul Reed Smith guitars, most notable the Mira. He stated in a Reddit AMA that he abandoned the instruments due to difficulties replacing parts while overseas. Gaskarth currently uses Fender guitars, most notable the Mustang 90 models, although he has been seen using Telecasters, as well as some of their acoustic models. Gaskarth has also been seen using Gibson electric guitars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Gaskarth graduated from Dulaney High School in 2006. Gaskarth has two older half-sisters, Jillian and Helen, and had a half-brother, Tom, who died when Gaskarth was 12 due to alcohol poisoning. In memory of him, Gaskarth got a rose tattoo on his left hand, and wrote the song \"Lullabies\".  Gaskarth married his longtime girlfriend Lisa Ruocco on 9 April 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vocal style.", "content": "Gaskarth has a tenor vocal style. His vocal range is from A2 to C#5.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As lead artist.", "content": "All Time Low Simple Creatures", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alexander William Gaskarth (born December 14, 1987) is an English singer, songwriter, guitarist, musician and actor. He is best known as the lead vocalist, rhythm guitarist, and primary songwriter for the American rock band All Time Low since its formation in 2003. Alex also hosted the 2015 and 2016 Alternative Press Music Awards along with bandmate Jack Barakat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976653}
{"src_title": "Pyrus communis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The cultivated European pear (\"P. communis\" subsp. \"communis\") is thought to be descended from two subspecies of wild pears, categorized as \"P. communis\" subsp.\" pyraster\" (syn. \"P. pyraster\") and \"P. communis\" subsp. \"caucasica\" (syn. \"P. caucasica\"), which are interfertile with domesticated pears. Archeological evidence shows these pears \"were collected from the wild long before their introduction into cultivation\", according to Zohary and Hopf. Although they point to finds of pears in sites in Neolithic and Bronze Age European sites, \"reliable information on pear cultivation first appears in the works of the Greek and the Roman writers.\" Theophrastus, Cato the Elder, and Pliny the Elder all present information about the cultivation and grafting of pears.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "European pear trees are not quite as hardy as apples, but nearly so. However, they do require some winter chilling to produce fruit. A number of Lepidoptera caterpillars feed on pear tree leaves.  For best and most consistent quality, European pears are picked when the fruit matures, but before they are ripe. Fruit allowed to ripen on the tree often drops before it can be picked, and in any event will be hard to pick without bruising. Pears store (and ship) well in their mature but unripe state if kept cold, and can be ripened later, a process called bletting. Some varieties, such as Beurre d'Anjou, ripen only with exposure to cold.  Fermented pear juice is called perry. In Britain, the place name \"Perry\" can indicate the historical presence of pear trees.  Relatively few cultivars of European or Asian pears are widely grown worldwide. Only about 20-25 European and 10-20 Asian cultivars represent virtually all the pears of commerce. Almost all European cultivars were chance seedlings or selections originating in western Europe, mostly France. The Asian cultivars all originated in Japan and China. 'Bartlett' (Williams) is the most common pear cultivar in the world, representing about 75% of US pear production.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major cultivars.", "content": "In the United States, 95% of reported pear production in 2004 came from four cultivars:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Selected European pear cultivars.", "content": "Those marked have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Pyrus communis, known as the European pear or common pear, is a species of pear native to central and eastern Europe and southwest Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976654}
{"src_title": "Ernest Fenollosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Fenollosa was born in 1853 as the son of Manuel Francisco Ciriaco Fenollosa, a Spanish pianist, and Mary Silsbee. He attended public schools in his hometown of Salem, Massachusetts before studying philosophy and sociology at Harvard College, where he graduated in 1874.  He studied for a year at the art school of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, during which time he married Elizabeth Goodhue Millett. In 1878 he was invited to Japan by American zoologist and Orientalist Edward S. Morse. Fenollosa taught political economy and philosophy at the Imperial University at Tokyo. There he also studied ancient temples, shrines and art treasures with his assistant, Okakura Kakuzō.  During his time in Japan, Fenollosa helped create the \"nihonga\" (Japanese) style of painting with Japanese artists Kanō Hōgai (1828–1888) and Hashimoto Gahō (1835–1908). In May 1882 he delivered a lecture on \"An Explanation of the Truth of Art\", which was widely circulated and quoted.  After eight years at the University, Fenollosa helped found the Tokyo School of Fine Arts and the Tokyo Imperial Museum. He served as director of the latter in 1888. In this period, he helped to draft the text of a law for the preservation of temples and shrines and their art treasures.  Deeply influenced by living in Japan, Fenollosa converted to Buddhism; he was given the name Teishin. He was also granted the name Kano Eitan Masanobu, placing him in the lineage of the Kanō school, who had served as painters to the Tokugawa shoguns. While resident in Japan, Fenollosa conducted the first inventory of Japan's national treasures. This resulted in the discovery of ancient Chinese scrolls, which had been brought to Japan by traveling monks centuries earlier. He was able to rescue many Buddhist artifacts that would otherwise have been destroyed under the Haibutsu kishaku movement. For these achievements, the Emperor Meiji of Japan decorated Fenollosa with the Order of the Rising Sun and the Order of the Sacred Treasures.  Fenollosa amassed a large personal collection of Japanese art during his stay in Japan. In 1886, he sold his art collection to Boston physician Charles Goddard Weld (1857–1911) on the condition that it go to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. In 1890 he returned to Boston to serve as curator of the department of Oriental Art. There Fenollosa was asked to choose Japanese art for display at the 1893 World Columbian Exposition in Chicago. He also organized Boston's first exhibition of Chinese painting in 1894. In 1896, he published \"Masters of Ukiyoe\", a historical account of Japanese paintings and ukiyo-e prints exhibited at the New York Fine Arts Building.  But he divorced his wife. His immediate remarriage in 1895 to writer Mary McNeill Scott (1865–1954) outraged Boston society. Fenollosa was dismissed from the Museum in 1896.  He returned to Japan in 1897 to accept a position as Professor of English Literature at the Tokyo Higher Normal School at Tokyo. Lafcadio Hearn considered Fenollosa a friend; and Hearn almost believed that he visited the professor's home too often.  In 1900, Fenollosa returned to the United States to write and lecture on Asia. His 1912 work in two volumes concentrates on art before 1800. He offers Hokusai's prints as a window of beauty after Japanese art had become too modern for his own taste: \"Hokusai is a great designer, as Kipling and Whitman are great poets. He has been called the Dickens of Japan.\" Arthur Wesley Dow said of Fenollosa that \"he was gifted with a brilliant mind of great analytical power, this with a rare appreciation gave him an insight into the nature of fine art such as few ever attain\".  After his death in London in 1908, Fenollosa's widow entrusted his unpublished notes on Chinese poetry and Japanese Noh drama to noted American poet Ezra Pound, Together with William Butler Yeats, Pound used them to stimulate the growing interest in Far Eastern literature among modernist writers. Pound subsequently finished Fenollosa's work with the aid of Arthur Waley, the noted British sinologist.  Fenollosa's body was cremated in London. By his request, his ashes were returned for burial to the Hōmyō-in chapel of Mii-dera (where he had been tonsured), high above Lake Biwa. His tombstone was paid for by the Tokyo School of Fine Arts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "At a Harvard lecture of 2011, Benjamin Elman refers to the \"Epochs of the Chinese and Japanese Art\" (1912) where Fenollosa compares \"degeneration\" of the late imperial Chinese art to that which befell the high antique art of Europe in Byzantium (\"the poorest of the Byzantine mosaics\"; \"the only hope for the hopeless is to perceive itself to be hopeless\"). According to Elman, Fenollosa's perception was influenced by the political and military defeats of the Qing empire.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernest Francisco Fenollosa (February 18, 1853 – September 21, 1908) was an American art historian of Japanese art, professor of philosophy and political economy at Tokyo Imperial University. An important educator during the modernization of Japan during the Meiji Era, Fenollosa was an enthusiastic Orientalist who did much to preserve traditional Japanese art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976655}
{"src_title": "2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Bid process.", "content": "Five potential bid groups formally submitted their bids before the March 31, 2006, deadline and made their final presentations to the selection committee in Calgary on April 18, 2006:  On May 3, 2006, Hockey Canada and the Canadian Hockey League announced that Ottawa was chosen to host the 2009 tournament.  All times local (EST/UTC−5)  All times local (EST/UTC−5)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Top division.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relegation round.", "content": "The results from matches between teams from the same group in the preliminary round are carried forward to this round.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Schedule.", "content": "All times local (EST/UTC−5)  \" and are relegated to Division I for the 2010 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division I tournament. Group A was played in Herisau, Switzerland between December 14 and December 20, 2008. Group B was played in Aalborg, Denmark between December 15 and December 21, 2008:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "\" is promoted to the Top Division and is relegated to Division II for the 2010 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "\" is promoted to the Top Division and is relegated to Division II for the 2010 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division II tournament. Group A was played in Miercurea-Ciuc, Romania between December 15 and December 21, 2008. Group B was played in Logroño, Spain between January 10 and January 15, 2009:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "\" was promoted to Division I for the 2010 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": ", having been relegated to Division III in 2008, was returned to Division II after forfeited due to finances.  \" was promoted to Division I for the 2010 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "The Division III tournament was to have been played in North Korea, but was cancelled. The division was scheduled to include the following:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2009 IIHF World U20 Championship, commonly referred to as the 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships (\"2009 WJHC\"), was the 33rd edition of the Ice Hockey World Junior Championship and was hosted in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Games were held at the Ottawa Civic Centre and Scotiabank Place. The tournament set a record for WJC attendance at 453,282. Canada won the gold medal for a record-tying fifth consecutive time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976656}
{"src_title": "Phoebe Tonkin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Tonkin was born in Sydney, Australia. When she was four, she attended dance courses in classical ballet, hip hop, contemporary dance, and tap dance. At the age of 12, Tonkin began courses at the Australian Theatre for Young People (ATYP) at the Wharf Theatre. Tonkin graduated from Queenwood School for Girls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In December 2005, Tonkin was cast in the role of Cleo Sertori on the Australian children’s television series \"\" which follows the lives of three teenage girls who turn into mermaids. Tonkin improved on her swimming abilities during the pre-production of the series. The series premiered on 7 July 2006 on Network Ten and has since gone on to be aired to a worldwide audience of more than 250 million. To promote the series she and her co-stars presented the best band award at the Nickelodeon UK Kids' Choice Awards in October 2007. In 2008, Tonkin was nominated for \"Best Lead Actress in a Television Series\" at the prestigious Australian Film Institute Awards. The series ran for three seasons with the series finale airing on 16 April 2010.  Tonkin has also appeared on fellow Australian television shows \"Packed to the Rafters\" and \"Home and Away\". In September 2010, Tonkin made her film debut starring in the Australian action ensemble film \"Tomorrow, When the War Began\". In the film, which revolves around a group of teenagers waging a guerrilla war against an invading foreign power in their fictional hometown of Wirrawee, she played the role of the rich and uptight Fiona Maxwell. In December 2010, a sequel was announced with Tonkin expected to return, though production of a sequel never came to fruition.  In January 2011, Tonkin moved to Los Angeles to pursue an international acting career. She was cast in March 2011 as Faye Chamberlain on The CW supernatural drama series \"The Secret Circle\" which premiered on 15 September 2011 to over 3.5 million viewers. The series follows a group of young witches who are a part of a secret coven. For her performance, Tonkin has received critical acclaim, with critics referring to her as the break-out star of the series; she was featured on \"Variety\" list of \"new faces to watch\" and named one of 2011's break-out TV stars by \"E! Online\". \"The Secret Circle\", however, had only one full season as it was cancelled on 11 May 2012.  In August 2010, Tonkin was cast in the 3D horror film \"Bait 3D\". Filming took place on Australia's Gold Coast and follows a group of strangers who are trapped in a supermarket after a freak tsunami with a pack of great white sharks. She joined her \"HO: Just Add Water\" co-star Cariba Heine in this film. The film was expected to be released in Australia in September 2012. In August 2012, Tonkin joined the cast of The CW television series, \"The Vampire Diaries\", in the recurring role of Hayley, a friend of Tyler. She joined her co-star from \"\", Claire Holt, who portrays Rebekah Mikaelson on the show.  On 11 January 2013, The CW confirmed that a spin-off series to \"The Vampire Diaries\" was in the works, titled \"The Originals\". The series revolves around the Original Vampire family members, and Tonkin would \"be heavily featured in the prospective pilot\" of the series. The CW confirmed on 13 February that Claire Holt would also join the cast of \"The Originals\", marking the third time Tonkin and Holt have starred together on a show.  On 15 May 2017, SBS announced that Tonkin had been cast in their new four part drama \"Safe Harbour\" about a group of Australians who come across a boat of refugees whilst sailing on vacation. Tonkin revealed the name of her character to be \"Olivia\" on Instagram. In 2018, she appeared on an episode of \"The Affair\" as Delphine, the protégé of an art gallery owner who had an affair with Cole's father.  After expressing a desire to continue working in Australia in interviews, it was announced on 20 August 2018 that Tonkin was cast in \"Bloom\", to be aired by streaming platform Stan, as a younger version of the character Gwen Reid, the elder version of which will be portrayed by Jacki Weaver.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other projects.", "content": "Tonkin has appeared in a number of advertisements which include Vauxhall Motors and was previously signed to Chic Management. Her modelling career includes shoots for \"Girlfriend\", \"Teen Vogue\", \"Elle Australia\", \"Complex\", \"Miss Vogue\", \"Vogue Australia\", \"Dolly\" and Free People.  Tonkin appeared in the music video for Miles Fisher's 2011 single \"Don't Let Go\".  In 2012, Tonkin opened a website about health with friend Teresa Palmer called \"Your Zen Life\". In June 2015, Tonkin announced she was stepping down from her involvement in the site due to work commitments.  Tonkin has appeared as the face of New York-based stylist Ilona Hamer's swimwear line \"Matteau Swim\" from 2015 to 2017 completing 3 seasons with the brand. She also helped launch the lifestyle clothing line for Witchery in 2015.  In September 2017, Tonkin appeared in the ad campaign \"Journey To The Wild Side\" for Smythson to promote their latest product range.  In May 2018, Tonkin appeared in Jenni Kayne's #findyouruniform fashion campaign alongside Lara Bingle and TyLynn Nguyen.  In addition to attending Chanel events and taking part in several photoshoots in the brand's clothing, Tonkin is a Chanel brand ambassador. For the April 2018 issue of Vogue Australia, Tonkin underwent another photoshoot in partnership with Chanel makeup director Lucia Pica. She was revealed in September 2018 as one of nine women taking part in a digital campaign for Chanel's Gabrielle line of products.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phoebe Jane Elizabeth Tonkin (born 12 July 1989) is an Australian actress and model. She is best known for portraying Cleo Sertori in \"\", Fiona Maxwell in \"Tomorrow, When the War Began\", Faye Chamberlain in \"The Secret Circle\", and Hayley Marshall in The CW series \"The Vampire Diaries\" and its spin-off series \"The Originals.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976657}
{"src_title": "Årstabroarna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Eastern Årsta Bridge.", "content": "The eastern bridge, the older of the two and still often referred to as Årstabron (\"The Årsta Bridge\"), is still in operation almost 80 years after its inauguration in 1929. When projected in the early 1920s, an agreement between the state and the city stipulated the arterial railway passing through the city had to be made independent of the sea route passing beneath it. It was therefore decided that the railway should be relocated to a bridge passing over Årsta holmar, with a horizontal clearance of 26 metres ensured by a bascule bridge over the northern passage, and a truss arch bridge (The truss is the old one) over the southern passage offering a span of 100 metres.  In front of a reworked agreement in 1925, the city, intending to add an iron roadway passing above the present railway, required the bridge to be reinforced accordingly, and additionally it was decided the planned bascule bridge should be replaced by a lift bridge. The plans were carried through and the bridge opened in 1929.  The bridge, on its completion the longest bridge in Sweden, was designed be the architect Cyrillus Johansson (1884–1959) and the engineers Ernst Nilsson (1874–1946) and Salomon Kasarnowsky (1887–1960). It has often been compared to a classical Roman aqueduct, and is today declared a historical landmark.  Possible ways of adding car lanes atop the bridge were discussed on several different occasions during the remainder of the 20th century, the most elaborate plans, in 1960, being to have a motorway, called \"Tantoleden\", connect Ringvägen and Årsta by building a new bridge on the west side of the old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Western Årsta Bridge.", "content": "A western bridge, designed by Sir Norman Foster (1935-), 833 metres long and 19,5 metres wide, was finally inaugurated in 2005. Along with the new bridge a new commuter train station, Årstaberg, was created south of the bridges. Twice the width of the old, thus permitting an elevated pathway next to the railway, the pillars of the new bridge are not only much more slender, but also reduced to ten, less than half of the old. Preceded by two decades of fiery debate, as Foster had the bridge painted in falu red, a traditional deep red colour, the bridge was nicknamed falukorven (a Swedish sausage) by its critics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Årstabroarna () are two parallel railway viaducts in central Stockholm, Sweden. Passing over the watercourse of Årstaviken and the islets Årsta holmar, they connect the major island Södermalm to the southern mainland district Årsta.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976658}
{"src_title": "Plum pox", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historic background.", "content": "The disease symptoms were first seen in Bulgaria around 1916-1917, thus the name of \"sharka\" - from Bulgarian \"шарка\", meaning \"pox\". In 1933, the virus origin was described by Dimitar Atanasov. The disease developed and spread in several European countries, and may have largely wiped out the ancient landrace variously called Pozegaca, Quetsche or German prune.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "The plum pox virus is a linear single stranded RNA virus. There are nine strains of plum pox virus: PPV-D, PPV-M, PPV-EA, PPV-C, PPV-Rec (Recombinant), PPV-W, PPV-T, PPV-CR, and PPV-An. PPV-M isolates are more aggressive in peach, are aphid vectored more efficiently, and spread more rapidly in an orchard. PPV-M has been reported to be seed transmitted, the other PPV strains are known not be transmitted through seeds. Both PPV strains M and D infest peach, plum, and apricot. PPV-C infects sweet and tart cherry naturally and is the only strain known to do so, it has infected other \"Prunus\" hosts experimentally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pathology.", "content": "Several species of aphid transmit the virus including the plum-thistle aphid (\"Brachycaudus cardui\"), the plum leaf curl aphid (\"Brachycaudus helichrysi\") and the green peach aphid (\"Myzus persicae\"). Winged aphids can transmit plum pox within an orchard, and over short distances (200–300 meters) to trees in nearby orchards. Unlike some other viruses, like barley yellow dwarf virus, PPV is not persistent in the aphid and is transferred from the mouthparts of the aphid between plants. Long distance spread usually occurs as a result of the movement of infected nursery stock or propagative materials. Once a plant is infected the virus is systemic and occurs in the cytoplasm of cells from all parts of the plant.  When a host tree is infected by plum pox, the infection eventually results in severely reduced fruit production, and the fruit that is produced is often misshapen and blemished. The presence of plum pox can also enhance the effects of other endemic viruses infecting various species of the genus \"Prunus\", such as prune dwarf virus, Prunus necrotic (browning) ringspot virus, and apple chlorotic (yellowing) leaf spot virus, resulting in still greater economic losses.  In peach, infected trees may exhibit color-breaking symptoms in the blossoms. This appears as darker pink stripes on the flower petals and can be useful for early season surveys. Symptoms can be present in young leaves in the spring and /or on developing fruit. Some trees show no symptoms on leaves or fruit.  Not all infection in \"Prunus\" are characterized by a ring symptom on leaves. Several cultivars show yellowing line patterns and blotches, or necrotic ring symptoms on expanded leaves. Leaf distortion has also been observed. Infected fruit can develop yellow rings or blotches, or brown rings, and some plum and apricot fruit can be severely deformed and bumpy. The seed of many infected apricots and some plums show rings.  Many non-\"Prunus\" species, in at least nine plant families, have been infected artificially with one or more strains of the plum pox virus, and in some cases found naturally infected in the field. The maintenance of the virus in non-\"Prunus\" species complicates disease management.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management.", "content": "No cure or treatment is known for the disease once a tree becomes infected. Infected trees must be destroyed. Once the disease becomes established, control and prevention measures for plum pox include field surveys, use of certified nursery materials, control of aphids, and elimination of infected trees in nurseries and orchards.  Sources of resistance exist in \"Prunus\", but are not common. A team of scientists from the United States and France has genetically engineered a plum pox-resistant plum called C5, and the resistance can be transferred through hybridization to other plum trees. The transgenic plum expresses a plum pox virus coat protein, the plant produces the coat protein mRNA and it is processed by a system called post transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS), which functions like the plants' immune system and is mechanistically similar to RNAi. C5 provides a unique source of germplasm for future breeding programs worldwide. Similar success has not yet occurred in attempt to genetically modify other \"Prunus\" species, although these efforts are ongoing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "In the fall of 1999, plum pox strain PPV-D was detected in an Adams County, Pennsylvania orchard. This was the first time that plum pox had been found in North America. The infected areas in Pennsylvania have been quarantined to prevent the spread of the disease, and infected trees have been destroyed.  Since this time, as a result of random surveying done in 2000, detection has also occurred in Nova Scotia and in Southern Ontario, particularly in the Niagara Region. Like the United States infection, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency has put into effect quarantine zones throughout Southern Ontario in a bid to prevent the spread of PPV. The virus has yet to be found in other areas of Canada which contain susceptible trees despite intense surveying. The Canadian plum pox eradication initiative has involved large numbers of samples tested for the plum pox virus. Samples are tested through a technology known as enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The University of Guelph - Laboratory Services Division has performed over 4,000,000 tests in the past 7 years in support of this initiative.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Host preference of the major strains of Plum pox virus—Opinions based on regional and world-wide sequence data N Sihelská Journal of Integrative Agriculture 16(3):510 Elsevier 2017 2095-3119", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Plum pox, also known as sharka, is the most devastating viral disease of stone fruit from the genus \"Prunus\". The disease is caused by the plum pox virus (PPV), and the different strains may infect a variety of stone fruit species including peaches, apricots, plums, nectarine, almonds, and sweet and tart cherries. Wild and ornamental species of \"Prunus\" may also become infected by some strains of the virus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976659}
{"src_title": "Le vieux fusil", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In Montauban in 1944, during the German retreat from France, Julien Dandieu is an aging, embittered surgeon in the local hospital. Frightened by the German army entering Montauban, Dandieu asks his friend Francois to drive his wife and his daughter to the remote village where he owns a chateau. One week later, Dandieu sets off to meet them for the weekend, but the Germans have now occupied the village. He finds that all the villagers have been herded into the church and shot. In the château, now occupied by the Germans, he finds his daughter shot and his wife immolated by a flame-thrower.  Dandieu decides to kill as many Germans as possible to avenge his family. He takes an old shotgun he used as a child while hunting with his father and sabotages the chateau's bridge before he starts to kill them one by one, taking advantage of his knowledge of the secret passages within the chateau. Trapped inside the castle, the Germans begin to think they are surrounded by many partisans and do not realise that he is, in fact, the only one. When a Resistance detachment drops by, Dandieu refuses their offer to help him and continues his vendetta on his own. Eventually, with no more cartridges for the shotgun, he collects the flame-thrower which killed his beloved wife and uses it to kill the leading SS officer as he, the last survivor, is about to commit suicide.  Alerted by the partisans, the inhabitants of a nearby village and a company of American soldiers arrive to collect the dead. Dandieu is picked up by Francois, but has suffered a nervous breakdown following the aftermath of the slaughter, behaving as if his family was still alive. The film ends with a flashback to one of his happier days now gone, where he and his family had undertaken a bike tour.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Le vieux fusil (English title: The Old Gun or Vengeance One by One) is a 1975 French-German film directed by Robert Enrico, and starring Philippe Noiret, Romy Schneider and Jean Bouise. It won the 1976 César Award for Best Film, Best Actor and Best Music, and was nominated for best director, supporting actor, writing, cinematography, editing and sound. The film is based on the Massacre of Oradour-sur-Glane in 1944.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976660}
{"src_title": "Saussurea costus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "The plant is cultivated as a medicinal plant. Its growing region occurs mainly within India-Himachal Pradesh, Jammu-Kashmir- its native place of origin. A study by Parmaret. al. 2012 explored the effect of altitude on seed germination and survival percentage, proving that high altitudes favoured high survival and seed germination percentages. This is why they thrive so abundantly in the Himalayan Region which is very mountainous. Cultivation is primarily focused upon the roots of the plants. Most of the roots are exported to China and Japan and as they serve as a big commodity for commerce in Kashmir. However, this type of trade is now being controlled by the state due to it being over-exploited. This plant has been greatly over-collected and recently was placed on the CITES I list of endangered species making it now illegal to dig them up for export.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "It is usually found at elevations of asl in India; including the Himalayas, Kashmir, Jammu, Western Ghats, and the Kishenganga Valley. Its typical flowering season spans from July to August, with the seeds ripening from August to September. The plant can be grown in a wide variety of soils, ranging from light sandy, medium to heavy clay soils that are acid, neutral or basic, alkaline soils, preferring soils that are moist. The amount of sunlight the plant thrives upon can vary from semi-shaded (light woodland) areas or areas with no shade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "\"Saussurea costus\" is a classified as a perennial, with a typical growth of tall by wide. It has long lyrate leaves and heads of purple florets. The leaves take the shape of being auricled at base, with jagged, toothed patterns running down the sides of the leaves and are an average of long. The roots of the plant are stout and can travel up to in length.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spice.", "content": "As a spice, Pliny described it as having a \"burning taste and an exquisite scent\", but being \"otherwise useless\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient Judaism.", "content": "The root of \"Saussurea costus\" is mentioned in rabbinical writings as \"kosht\" (), reflecting its arrowhead shape. It was used in the Ketoret, the consecrated incense described in the Hebrew Bible and Talmud. It was offered on a specialized incense altar in the Tabernacle, and in the First and Second Jerusalem Temples. The Ketoret was an important component of the Temple service in Jerusalem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ancient Rome.", "content": "Known in Greek as \"kostos\" or \"kostarin\" and in Latin as \"costum\", it was used as a spice in classical Rome and Byzantinium, when it was used to flavor wine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Britain.", "content": "Costus was used as a spice in medieval England, for example as an ingredient in a greensauce described by Alexander Neckam in the 12th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Islam.", "content": "It was recommended by prophet Muhammad in \"Hadith sahih\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "China.", "content": "In traditional Chinese medicine, the root is one of the 50 fundamental herbs. It has the name (, meaning “wood aroma”). It forms a main ingredient in the Chinese pastille rods known as joss sticks. It is also used as incense.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "India.", "content": "In Ayurveda, the name Kushta refers to an ancient Vedic plant god mentioned in the Atharvaveda as a remedy for taxman, the archetypal disease of excess or jvara (fever). In ancient India, Kushta was considered to be a divine plant derived from heavenly sources, growing high in the Himalayas, considered to be the brother of the divine Soma. In Ayurveda, Kushta is a rasayana for Vata, helping to normalize and strengthen digestion, cleanse the body of toxic accumulations, enhance fertility, and reduce pain. Its dried powder is the principal ingredient in an ointment for ulcers; it is also a hair wash.  Costus rhizome is used for curing woolen cloth in hill area of Uttarakhand.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other common uses.", "content": "An essential oil obtained from the roots is used in perfumery, incenses, and in hair rinses. It has a strong lingering scent that has the scent of violets at first, yet changes to a more unpleasant goat-like smell as it ages. The common form of the roots can be either found as an essential oil, a ground powder, or as a dried stick. Another use for the plant is within incense sticks. These sticks can be created from these roots by grinding the roots into a powder and then forming the stick structure. As well, the dried sticks are commonly found cut up into thin slices to be used as lightings for shrines or as tonics for hot baths.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trade.", "content": "The species was determined “readily available” in the markets of Calcutta, Delhi, Mumbai, Amritsar, and Haridwar by a survey conducted by TRAFFIC India in 1997 and is considered one of the most common medicinal plants traded in Delhi. \"S. costus\" is so readily available and abundant that very large quantities can be procured on demand within markets and stores with their main customers being large and small pharmaceutical companies. According to CITES trade data, China and India are the main exporters of the product itself with Hong Kong following close behind as a noted re-exporter. China was the first documented trader of \"S. costus\", with trade records dating back to 1981 and 1982. \"S. costus\" is the only Appendix I species which is significantly traded internationally for medicinal purposes. The species was included in Appendix II as early as 1975 and increased list placement in Appendix I with effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plant endangerment.", "content": "\"S. costus\" is one of the most threatened medicinal plants of Kashmir Himalaya. This species is threatened due to the unregulated collection, over-exploitation, illegal trade, and loss of habitat. Habitat loss continues due to road construction and military establishments in many of the cultivation areas, decreasing its yield globally. Habitat destruction in the form of recreational activities and urbanization is as well limiting its ability to be cultivated, again decreasing global yield of this product. Another influence heavily affecting the survival rate of this species is the uncontrolled grazing of yak. The biggest threat, however, comes from the usage of the plant for its medicinal properties. It is listed as “endangered” by the Red data book of Indian plants. In another study, a camp workshop held in Lucknow assessed the plant as \"Critically Endangered new\" nationally in India, holding a population decline of 70% in the last 10 years. Another CAMP workshop for northern India assessed it as \"Critically Endangered new\" in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Conservation efforts do exist to control the rate of depletion of the species. The legislations of Jammu and Kashmir have enforced a special Act, The Kuth Act, in 1978 for the regulation of trade of \"S. costus\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saussurea costus, commonly known as costus, kuth, or putchuk, is a species of thistle in the genus \"Saussurea\" native to India. Essential oils extracted from the root have been used in traditional medicine and in perfumes since ancient times. Saussurea Costus falls within the Kingdom: Plantae, Phylum: Tracheophyta, Class: Magnoliopsida, Order: Asterales, Family: Compositae. The genus Saussurea belongs to Asteraceae which comprises about 300 species in the world (Bremer, 1994) of which 61 species are found in India. Aucklandia, also known as costus or \"Mu Xiang\", is the root of the plant \"Saussurea costus\". The root of the plant is the key part used for medicinal or homeopathic purposes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976661}
{"src_title": "Huun-Huur-Tu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The khöömei quartet Kunggurtug (, ) was founded in 1992 by Kaigal-ool Khovalyg, brothers Alexander and Sayan Bapa, and Albert Kuvezin. Khovalyg had been involved in the khöömei scene since 1979. Not long afterwards, the group changed its name to Huun-Huur-Tu, meaning \"sunbeams\" (literally \"sun propeller\"). The focus of their music was traditional Tuvan folk songs, frequently featuring imagery of the Tuvan steppe or of horses.  The ensemble released its first album, \"60 Horses In My Herd\", the following year. The album was recorded at studios in London and Mill Valley, California. By the time recording began for the follow-up, Kuvezin had left the group to form the more rock-oriented Yat-Kha. Kuvezin was replaced by Anatoli Kuular, who had previously worked with Khovalyg and Kongar-ool Ondar as part of the Tuva Ensemble. The new line-up recorded \"The Orphan's Lament\" in New York City and Moscow, and released it in 1994.  In 1995, Alexander Bapa, who had produced the first two albums, departed the group to pursue production as a full-time career. He was replaced by Alexei Saryglar, formerly a member of the Russian state ensemble Siberian Souvenir. A third album, \"If I'd Been Born An Eagle\", recorded in the Netherlands, followed in 1997. This time, in addition to the traditional folk music, the group performed some rather more contemporary Tuvan songs, from the latter half of the 20th century.  In early 1999, the group released its fourth album, \"Where Young Grass Grows\". For the first time on a Huun-Huur-Tu album, non-Tuvan instruments (except for the guitar) were featured, including harp, tabla, Scottish smallpipe (performed by Martyn Bennett) and synthesiser. The album also features two excerpts of recordings made of Kaigal-ool and Anatoli singing whilst riding horseback on the Tuvan grasslands.  Huun-Huur-Tu participated in the 2000 BBC Music Live event, performing the opening and closing songs for a live, early morning broadcast from Snape Maltings. The following year, the group released their first live album.  In 2003, Kuular quit the group and was replaced by Andrey Mongush, an experienced teacher of khöömei and Tuvan instruments. Mongush's tenure with the group was short and in 2005 he was replaced by Radik Tülüsh, formerly of Yat-Kha fame.  Huun-Huur-Tu signed with Beijing management company Stallion Era in March 2015 and has since been to China for several performances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collaboration.", "content": "Since the group's inception, Huun Huur Tu has collaborated with musicians from many genres, such as Frank Zappa, Johnny \"Guitar\" Watson, the Kodo drummers, The Moscow Art Trio, the Kronos Quartet, The Chieftains and Bulgarian women's singing group, Angelite. Their recording \"Eternal\" is a collaborative effort with underground electronic musician, Carmen Rizzo. Huun Huur Tu appeared on three songs on \"Bahamut\", the debut of New York-based blues group Hazmat Modine. In January 2010, Hazmat Modine also announced plans to record with Huun Huur Tu again.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "\"Huun-Huur-Tu\"s Radik Tyulyush's song \"Osku Urug\" is featured in the American television series Season 3 \"Fargo\" episode, \"The Law of Vacant Places.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "Solo releases  With The Bulgarian Voices - Angelite & Sergey Starostin:  With The Bulgarian Voices - Angelite & Moscow Art Trio:  With various electronic artists (remixes):  With Malerija (remix album):  With Samsonov:  With Sainkho Namtchylak:  With Carmen Rizzo:  With Vladimir Martynov (chamber orchestra Opus Posth, singer Mikhail Stepanitch & choir Mlada):  Collaborations:  With Marcel Vanthilt:  With Kronos Quartet: 18. \"Uleg-Khem\" Trad. Tuvan arr. Steve Mackey (3:15)  With Hazmat Modine:  2. \"It Calls Me\" (Featuring Huun-Huur-Tu) Schuman (3:10)  8. \"Everybody Loves You\" (Featuring Huun-Huur-Tu) Schuman (6:16)  14. \"Man Trouble\" (Featuring Huun-Huur-Tu) Jaybird Coleman / Traditional (11:11)  With Ross Daly:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Huun-Huur-Tu (, ;, ; ) are a music group from Tuva, a Russian federative republic situated on the Mongolia–Russia border.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976662}
{"src_title": "Legend", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology and origin.", "content": "\"Legend\" is a loanword from Old French that entered English usage circa 1340. The Old French noun \"legende\" derives from the Medieval Latin \"legenda\". In its early English-language usage, the word indicated a narrative of an event. The word \"legendary\" was originally a noun (introduced in the 1510s) meaning a collection or corpus of legends. This word changed to \"legendry\", and \"legendary\" became the adjectival form.  By 1613, English-speaking Protestants began to use the word when they wished to imply that an event (especially the story of any saint not acknowledged in John Foxe's \"Actes and Monuments\") was fictitious. Thus, \"legend\" gained its modern connotations of \"undocumented\" and \"spurious\", which distinguish it from the meaning of \"chronicle\".  In 1866, Jacob Grimm described the fairy tale as \"poetic, legend historic.\" Early scholars such as Friedrich Ranke and Will Erich Peuckert followed Grimm's example in focussing solely on the literary narrative, an approach that was enriched particularly after the 1960s, by addressing questions of performance and the anthropological and psychological insights provided in considering legends' social context. Questions of categorising legends, in hopes of compiling a content-based series of categories on the line of the Aarne–Thompson folktale index, provoked a search for a broader new synthesis.  In an early attempt at defining some basic questions operative in examining folk tales, in 1925 characterised the folk legend as \"a popular narrative with an objectively untrue imaginary content\" a dismissive position that was subsequently largely abandoned.  Compared to the highly structured folktale, legend is comparatively amorphous, Helmut de Boor noted in 1928. The narrative content of legend is in realistic mode, rather than the wry irony of folktale; Wilhelm Heiske remarked on the similarity of motifs in legend and folktale and concluded that, in spite of its realistic mode, legend is not more historical than folktale.  In \"Einleitung in der Geschichtswissenschaft\" (1928), Ernst Bernheim asserted that a legend is simply a longstanding rumour. Gordon Allport credited the staying-power of some rumours to the persistent cultural state-of-mind that they embody and capsulise; thus \"Urban legends\" are a feature of rumour. When Willian Jansen suggested that legends that disappear quickly were \"short-term legends\" and the persistent ones be termed \"long-term legends\", the distinction between legend and rumour was effectively obliterated, Tangherlini concluded.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Christian \"legenda\".", "content": "In the narrow Christian sense, \"legenda\" (\"things to be read [on a certain day, in church]\") were hagiographical accounts, often collected in a legendary. Because saints' lives are often included in many miracle stories, \"legend\", in a wider sense, came to refer to any story that is set in a historical context but that contains supernatural, divine or fantastic elements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related concepts.", "content": "Hippolyte Delehaye distinguished legend from myth: \"The \"legend\", on the other hand, has, of necessity, some historical or topographical connection. It refers imaginary events to some real personage, or it localizes romantic stories in some definite spot.\"  From the moment a legend is retold as fiction, its authentic legendary qualities begin to fade and recede: in \"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow\", Washington Irving transformed a local Hudson River Valley legend into a literary anecdote with \"Gothic\" overtones, which actually tended to diminish its character as genuine legend.  Stories that exceed the boundaries of \"realism\" are called \"fables\". For example, the talking animal formula of Aesop identifies his brief stories as fables, not legends. The parable of the Prodigal Son would be a legend if it were told as having actually happened to a specific son of a historical father. If it included a donkey that gave sage advice to the Prodigal Son it would be a fable.  Legend may be transmitted orally, passed on person-to-person, or, in the original sense, through written text. Jacob de Voragine's \"Legenda Aurea\" or \"The Golden Legend\" comprises a series of \"vitae\" or instructive biographical narratives, tied to the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church. They are presented as lives of the saints, but the profusion of miraculous happenings and above all their uncritical context are characteristics of hagiography. The \"Legenda\" was intended to inspire extemporized homilies and sermons appropriate to the saint of the day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Urban legend.", "content": "Urban legends are a modern genre of folklore that is rooted in local popular culture, usually comprising fictional stories that are often presented as true, with macabre or humorous elements. These legends can be used for entertainment purposes, as well as semi-serious explanations for seemingly-mysterious events, such as disappearances and strange objects.  The term \"urban legend,\" as used by folklorists, has appeared in print since at least 1968. Jan Harold Brunvand, professor of English at the University of Utah, introduced the term to the general public in a series of popular books published beginning in 1981. Brunvand used his collection of legends, \"The Vanishing Hitchhiker: American Urban Legends & Their Meanings\" (1981) to make two points: first, that legends and folklore do not occur exclusively in so-called primitive or traditional societies, and second, that one could learn much about urban and modern culture by studying such tales.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A legend is a genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions perceived or believed both by teller and listeners to have taken place within human history. Narratives in this genre may demonstrate human values, and possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude. Legend, for its active and passive participants, includes no happenings that are outside the realm of \"possibility,\" but may include miracles. Legends may be transformed over time, in order to keep them fresh, vital, and realistic. Many legends operate within the realm of uncertainty, never being entirely believed by the participants, but also never being resolutely doubted.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976663}
{"src_title": "Welcome to the Sticks", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Philippe Abrams is the manager of the French post office (\"La Poste\") branch in Salon-de-Provence, Bouches-du-Rhône, in southern France. He is married to Julie, whose negative character makes his life miserable. Philippe does everything to get a job at an office on the Mediterranean coast to make her happy. As this desirable position will only be granted to a disabled person, Abrams pretends that he is – and is found out by the management. As punishment, he is banished for two years to Bergues, a town near Dunkirk in northern France. Northern France – and the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region in particular – is considered \"the sticks\" – a cold and rainy place inhabited by unsophisticated \"ch'tis\" who speak a strange dialect (called \"\"ch'ti\"\" in local parlance, and \"\"cheutimi\"\" in the South). He has to spend his first night at the home of Antoine, a member of his staff. Philippe initially dislikes Antoine for his obnoxious behaviour and because he initially thinks Antoine is gay but, later he finds out that he secretly has a crush on Annabelle, one of the workers at the post office. However, Antoine and Philippe later become best friends.  To Philippe's surprise, Bergues proves to be a charming place teeming with warm, friendly people and co-workers. Soon, he is completely won over, eating smelly Maroilles cheese; talking to virtually every local (by delivering their mail, and accepting the recipients' invitation for a drink); playing at the beach; playing the carillon at the bell tower together, drinking beer like a local, going to an RC Lens football match and so forth. He tries to describe the happy turn of events to his wife who has remained in the South with their young son, but she does not believe him. This inspires Philippe to tell her what she wants to believe; that his life is wretched there.  Everything goes fine until Julie decides to join him in the North to relieve his gloom. Philippe is forced to confess to his new friends and colleagues that he has described them as barbarians to his wife. First, they are angry, but they then decide to help him by behaving as such to cover for his lies and to scare Julie so she will depart quickly. Also they let her stay in the old mining village near Bergues, pretending it is the main town. Julie has a very bad weekend, but decides she will move to Bergues to stay with Philippe, to be supportive.  Just when she's ready to go back south, she discovers that she has been tricked when a local tells Julie that the actual town of Bergues is several kilometers away. When Philippe finds Julie at his real Bergues home, he tells her the truth about the happiness and friendship that the town has brought him. Julie is disappointed at first, but after realising her husband is happy, she decides to move north to be with him.  Meanwhile, Antoine and Annabelle had been dating for over a year, but had broken up due to Antoine's passiveness towards his overbearing mother. Despite their split, Antoine still has feelings for Annabelle, who now has a new boyfriend. Upon learning this, Antoine cheers himself up by drinking alcohol during his work hours and behaves in an erratic manner. When Philippe urges Antoine to take courage and be assertive, Antoine finally confesses to his mother that he loves Annabelle and is planning to move to a new place with her. Unexpectedly, his mother is happy about it – she has waited all these years for Antoine to stand up for himself. As a result, Antoine proposes to Annabelle by the bell tower when it is playing a Stevie Wonder song. Annabelle accepts, and they get married.  Three years later, Philippe receives a transfer to move south. Accepting the offer, Philippe and his family move south. Just as he is about to say goodbye, he is reduced to tears, proving Antoine's theory on the Ch'tis proverb (\"A visitor brays [cries] twice up north; once on his arrival and once at his departure\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The film received generally positive reviews, with 5 out of 7 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes being positive. The film has grossed US$192,928,551 in the box office in France alone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remakes.", "content": "An Italian remake, \"Benvenuti al Sud\" (\"Welcome to the South\"), was produced and released by Medusa Film in 2010. The plot was similar to the original: Alberto (Claudio Bisio), the manager of a Poste Italiane office in Lombardy is banished for two years to Castellabate, a small town in Campania. Dany Boon appeared in a cameo. Unlike the French original, the Italian franchise led to a sequel: \"Benvenuti al Nord\" (\"Welcome to the North\"; 2012).  In 2017, the Dutch remake \"Weg van jou\" (a play on words that both means 'away from you' and'smitten with you') ran in Dutch theatres. In this remake, city slicker Evi gets relocated from metropolitan and cosmopolitan Rotterdam to the rural Dutch province of Zeeland. In Zeeland, while away from her stuck-up boyfriend, she gets smitten with a local man.  Negotiations regarding a proposed English version of the film were officially abandoned in 2015. As early as 2008, Will Smith was negotiating with Dany Boon regarding a remake; the US film was to be called \"Welcome to the Sticks\". While few other details were revealed, there were suggestions that the plot would revolve around a multinational company, rather than US Mail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The CD soundtrack, including the scores of \"La Maison du Bonheur\" and \"Nothing to Declare\", were all composed by Philippe Rombi.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Welcome to the Sticks ( ) is a 2008 French comedy film directed and co-written by Dany Boon and starring Kad Merad and Boon himself. The film is the highest-grossing film of all time at the box office in France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976664}
{"src_title": "Patrick Sharp", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Junior and college.", "content": "Sharp began his hockey career in Thunder Bay, Ontario, playing first for the Thunder Bay Kings program then for the former Thunder Bay Flyers of the United States Hockey League (USHL). From there, he continued his hockey career in the college ranks with the University of Vermont, before the Philadelphia Flyers selected him in the third round, 95th overall, of the 2001 NHL Entry Draft.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philadelphia Flyers.", "content": "After completing two years with Vermont, Sharp made his NHL debut in 2003–04, splitting the season between the Flyers and their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Philadelphia Phantoms, recording seven points (5 goals, 2 assists) in 41 regular season games with the Flyers, and 29 points (15 goals, 14 assists) in 35 games for the Phantoms. Due to the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Sharp spent the entire following season in the AHL with the Phantoms, registering 23 goals and 29 assists (52 points) in 75 regular-season games and eight goals and 13 assists (21 points) in 21 playoff games en route to a Calder Cup championship.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Chicago Blackhawks.", "content": "Midway through the 2005–06 season, on December 5, 2005, Sharp was traded by the Flyers (along with Éric Meloche) to the Chicago Blackhawks in exchange for Matt Ellison and a third-round pick in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft. He finished the season with a combined 31 points between the two teams. Sharp emerged with the Blackhawks in 2007–08, recording career-highs of 36 goals, 26 assists and 62 points. He led the Blackhawks in power play goals (9), shorthanded goals (7) and game-winning goals (7). Near the half-way mark for the season, on January 17, 2008, Sharp signed a new, four-year contract with the Blackhawks lasting through to the end of the 2011–12 season.  At the start of the 2008–09 season, on October 8, 2008, Sharp was named an alternate captain for the Blackhawks, along with Duncan Keith. Despite being limited by injuries, Sharp helped the Blackhawks form a highly offensive and young core led by second-year forwards Jonathan Toews, Patrick Kane and newly acquired defenceman Brian Campbell. He finished the season with 44 points in 61 games. He added 11 points in the 2009 playoffs as the Blackhawks were eliminated in the Western Conference Finals by the Detroit Red Wings. On June 9, 2010, Sharp won the Stanley Cup with Chicago over the Philadelphia Flyers, his former team. He contributed 11 goals and 11 assists during Chicago's 2010 playoff run.  On January 30, 2011, Sharp was named the Most Valuable Player in the 2011 NHL All-Star Game, earning one goal and two assists in the game. On August 3, 2011, he signed a new five-year contract with Chicago worth $29.5 million, which came into effect for the 2012–13 season and carried an annual salary cap hit of $5.9 million. On September 12, 2011, Sharp underwent an emergency appendectomy after experiencing abdominal discomfort. Team physician Dr. Michael Terry anticipated that Sharp would have a full recovery in about three-to-four weeks.  On November 25, 2011, in a 6–5 win against the Anaheim Ducks, Sharp scored his second career NHL hat-trick. Jonathan Toews, who himself had a career-high five-point game, recorded the primary assists on all three of Sharp's goals. Sharp would finish the season with 33 goals and 36 assists. He scored one goal during the Blackhawks' first round exit to the Phoenix Coyotes in the 2012 playoffs.  During the 2012–13 NHL lockout, Sharp remained in Chicago, while many of his teammates started playing for European leagues. He spent time with his then nine-month-old daughter, and was involved in Gillette's \"My City is My Gym\" fitness program as a spokesperson. During the shortened NHL season, when play resumed in 2013, Sharp played 28 games, recording 6 goals and 14 assists and a plus-minus rating of +8. On December 27, 2013, in a 7–2 win against the Colorado Avalanche, Sharp scored his third career NHL hat-trick. Four games after, in a 5–3 win against the New Jersey Devils on January 3, 2014, he scored his fourth NHL hat-trick. On January 7, 2014, he was named to the Canadian Olympic team for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi.  He would win his third Stanley Cup championship with the Blackhawks in 2015. He scored five goals with 10 assists during the playoffs.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Dallas Stars.", "content": "On July 10, 2015, due to salary cap issues, Sharp and Blackhawks defenceman Stephen Johns were traded to the Dallas Stars in exchange for Trevor Daley and Ryan Garbutt.  On December 22, 2015, in the first matchup against his former Blackhawks, he tallied a two-point performance, adding a goal and an assist in a 4–0 victory. He played in 76 games in his first year in Dallas, recording 20 goals and 35 assists.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Return to Chicago.", "content": "On July 1, 2017, Sharp signed a one-year contract with the Chicago Blackhawks for the 2017–18 season. Sharp accepted a pay cut, earning a $800,000 base salary with $200,000 in potential bonuses, to return to Chicago. The Blackhawks named Sharp an alternate captain for their final home game of the season and honored him after the game. Sharp announced his intention to retire after his final game, commenting, \"I think I've known what I wanted to do for a long period of time here, and it's never easy... But I think I'm just ready to take that next step in my life — and looking forward to it.\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Post-retirement.", "content": "In October 2018, Sharp joined NBC Sports Chicago as a studio analyst.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Sharp was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, to Ian and Ruth Ann Sharp. He has an older brother, Chris, who currently lives in Calgary, Alberta. Relocating several times in his life, Patrick left his native Manitoba and relocated to Calgary as a child and then moved to Thunder Bay in 1990 at age nine. Patrick lived in Thunder Bay for the rest of his childhood. He was educated and attended local public schools in Calgary and Thunder Bay before settling in Burlington, Vermont, in the United States, to attend the University of Vermont. Patrick's parents remain in Thunder Bay and live on Lake Superior. In December 2009, Patrick was inaccurately announced as \"Chicago's Sexiest Athlete\" by Victoria's Secret, which then named Derrick Rose of the Chicago Bulls the winner, citing an \"internal error\".  Patrick was married in July 2010 to his longtime girlfriend Abby, whom he met while attending college in Vermont. Their wedding was held in Watch Hill, Rhode Island. Sharp's Blackhawks teammate Patrick Kane was among those in attendance. The couple's first daughter was born in December 2011, and their second daughter was born in October 2013. In early 2011, Sharp was featured on the cover of \"Chicago\" magazine in its \"50 Most Beautiful Chicagoans\" story.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Patrick Sharp (born December 27, 1981) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player who played 15 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Philadelphia Flyers, Chicago Blackhawks and Dallas Stars. After his retirement as a player, Sharp joined NBC Sports as an analyst.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976665}
{"src_title": "Kevin Großkreutz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Großkreutz began his career with the Dortmund clubs DJK Rot-Weiß Obereving, VfL Kemminghausen and FC Merkur 07. In 2002, he joined Borussia Dortmund, where he played until he moved to Rot Weiss Ahlen. Promoted to first team in 2006, he led the club to promotion to the 2. Bundesliga in 2008. He scored 12 goals and was named in the German sports magazine's \"kicker\" XI of the year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Borussia Dortmund.", "content": "He opened his account with Dortmund on 5 December 2009 in a 4–0 victory over 1. FC Nürnberg. Sven Bender provided him with a diagonal pass that Großkreutz tucked past Alexander Stephan in goal to give Dortmund a 1–0 lead on eight minutes.  Großkreutz opened his goalscoring account for the new season on 22 September 2010, finishing a nice play as Dortmund thrashed 1. FC Kaiserslautern 5–0. In the following round of fixtures, Dortmund faced promoted side FC St. Pauli at the Millerntor-Stadion in Hamburg. Großkreutz scored two goals on either side of a Shinji Kagawa strike as Dortmund won 3–1 with Großkreutz being named man of the match. On 29 November 2010, Großkreutz signed a four-year contract extension to stay with Dortmund until July 2014. He was involved in all three goals on 14 January 2011, scoring two and providing an assist for Mario Götze, as Dortmund defeated Bayer Leverkusen 3–1 at the BayArena. Großkreutz had a phenomenal second season with Dortmund, netting eight goals and managing seven assists as \"die Borussen\" lifted the Bundesliga title.  Großkreutz figured in Borussia Dortmund's 4–2 victory over Bayern Munich on 27 July 2013, at BVB's Signal Iduna Park, Dortmund to lift the 2013 DFL-Supercup.  On 11 December 2013, Großkreutz scored the winning goal away to Marseille in a 2–1 UEFA Champions League win to qualify Dortmund for the knockout phase.  From April to August 2015, Großkreutz was demoted to Borussia Dortmund II, for whom he played 6 times in lower divisions. In September 2015 he was sold to Galatasaray. However, the deal was not completed before the closure of the transfer window.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Galatasaray.", "content": "On 2 September 2015, it was announced by FIFA that Galatasaray had failed to submit the relevant documentation for Großkreutz before the transfer window closed. FIFA dismissed the case, because the signed documentations were not submitted on time by Galatasaray. FIFA have refused to sanction Großkreutz's proposed move from Borussia Dortmund to Galatasaray, therefore the player was not eligible to play any matches until 1 January 2016. Großkreutz signed a 3-year contract worth an average of an approx. €1.6 million per season, plus €20,000 per match bonus. Dortmund received a €1.5 million transfer fee and an extra €250,000 if Galatasaray qualified for the UEFA Champions League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "VfB Stuttgart.", "content": "On 6 January 2016, having not made a single competitive appearance for Galatasaray, Großkreutz returned to Germany to join VfB Stuttgart for an approx. €2.2 million.  On 3 March 2017, the contract of Großkreutz was mutually terminated hours after he got into a bar fight. Großkreutz said in a statement on the club website that he \"made a mistake\" and he wants \"nothing to do with football for the time being.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "SV Darmstadt 98.", "content": "In April 2017, one month after his departure from VfB Stuttgart, Großkreutz signed with 2. Bundesliga club SV Darmstadt 98 for the 2017–18 season until 2019. He gave his pre-season debut in a warm-up fixture against SG Modau on 23 June 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "KFC Uerdingen 05.", "content": "On 5 July 2018, Großkreutz joined KFC Uerdingen 05.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Großkreutz made his full international debut in a friendly match against Malta on 13 May 2010, helping set up striker Cacau for one of his two goals in a 3–0 win. He next appeared for Germany as a starter against Sweden in a 0–0 draw on 18 November 2010.  In June 2014, he was named in Germany's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Germany went on to win the tournament, though Großkreutz did not make any appearance during the competition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Großkreutz has been a lifelong Borussia Dortmund supporter, growing up and living in the Dortmund area until his move away from the club.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Borussia Dortmund", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Germany", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kevin Großkreutz (; born 19 July 1988) is a German professional footballer who plays as a right back and winger for KFC Uerdingen 05. Großkreutz began his career as a left winger. More recently, he has played as a right back, although he still sometimes appears as a winger on either side of the pitch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976666}
{"src_title": "Game (hunting)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Game or quarry is any animal hunted for its meat or for sport.  The term \"game\" arises in medieval hunting terminology by the late 13th century and is particular to English, the word derived from the generic Old English \"gamen\" (Germanic \"*gamanan\") \"joy, amusement, sport, merriment\".  \"Quarry\" in the generic meaning is early modern (first recorded 1610), in the more specific sense \"bird targeted in falconry\" late 14th and 15th centuries as \"quirre\" \"entrails of deer placed on the hide and given to the hunting-dogs as a reward\", from Old French \"cuiriee\" \"spoil, quarry\" (ultimately Latin \"corium\" \"hide\"), but influenced by \"corée\" \"viscera, entrails\" (Late Latin \"*corata\" \"entrails\", from \"cor\" \"heart\").  Wild game meat (usually considered to include animals harvested from game reserves) is generally considered to be superior in nutrient density and usually has lower fat content than meat procured through contemporary farming methods, while the cost in time and money to procure wild game is much higher.  Small game includes small animals, such as rabbits, pheasants, geese or ducks. Large game includes animals like deer, moose, and bear. \"Big game\" is a term sometimes used interchangeably with large game although in other contexts it refers to large, typically African, mammals (specifically \"big five game\" or \"dangerous game\") which are hunted mainly for trophies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "By continent and region.", "content": "The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world. This is influenced by climate, animal diversity, local taste and locally accepted views about what can or cannot be legitimately hunted. Sometimes a distinction is also made between varieties and species of a particular animal, such as wild turkey and domestic turkey. Fish caught for sport are referred to as game fish. The flesh of the animal, when butchered for consumption is often described as having a \"gamey\" flavour. This difference in taste can be attributed to the wild diet of the animal, which usually results in a lower fat content compared to domestic farm raised animals.  In some countries, game is classified, including legal classification with respect to licences required, as either \"small game\" or \"large game\". A single small game licence may cover all small game species and be subject to yearly bag limits. Large game are often subject to individual licensing where a separate licence is required for each individual animal taken (tags).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Africa.", "content": "In some parts of Africa, wild animals hunted for their meat are called bushmeat; see that article for more detailed information on how this operates within the economy (for personal consumption and for money) and the law (including overexploitation and illegal imports). Animals hunted for bushmeat include, but are not limited to: Some of these animals are endangered or otherwise protected, and thus it is illegal to hunt them.  In Africa, animals hunted for their pelts or ivory are sometimes referred to as the \"big game\".  Also see the legal definition of game in Swaziland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "South Africa.", "content": "South Africa is a famous destination for game hunting, with its large biodiversity and therefore rather impressive variety of game species. Many creatures have returned to former areas from which they were once taken from as a result of being killed for big-game hunting. Species of creatures commonly hunted include:  South Africa also has 62 species of gamebirds, including guineafowl, francolin, partridge, quail, sandgrouse, duck, geese, snipe, bustard and korhaan. Some of these species are no longer hunted, and of the 44 indigenous gamebirds that can potentially be utilised in South Africa, only three, namely the yellow-throated sandgrouse, Delegorgue's pigeon and the African pygmy goose warrant special protection. Of the remaining 41 species, 24 have shown an increase in numbers and distribution range in the last 25 years or so. The status of 14 species appears unchanged, with insufficient information being available for the remaining three species. The gamebirds of South Africa where the population status in 2005 was secure or growing are listed below:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Oceania.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "In Australia, game includes:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "New Zealand.", "content": "Game in New Zealand includes:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "North America.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Canada and the United States.", "content": "In the U.S. and Canada, white-tailed deer are the most commonly hunted big game. Other game species include:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Asia.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "People's Republic of China.", "content": "In the PRC there is a special cuisine category called ye wei, which includes animals in the wild.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Europe.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "In the UK game is defined in law by the Game Act 1831. It is illegal to shoot game on Sundays or at night. Other (non-game birds) that are hunted for food in the UK are specified under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. UK law defines game as including:  Deer are not included in the definition, but similar controls provided to those in the Game Act apply to deer (from the Deer Act 1991). Deer hunted in the UK are:  Other animals which are hunted in the UK include:  Capercaillie are not currently hunted in the UK because of a recent decline in numbers and conservation projects towards their recovery. The ban is generally considered voluntary on private lands, and few birds live away from RSPB or Forestry Commission land allegedly.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Iceland.", "content": "In Iceland game includes:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Nordic countries.", "content": "Game in Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Finland includes:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "Game meat is typically taken from a wild animal that has been shot with a gun or bow. Hunters must be absolutely certain of their target before shooting and should make every effort to get the animal down as quickly and painlessly as possible. Once obtained, game meat must be processed to avoid spoiling. The method of processing varies by game species and size. Small game and fowl may simply be carried home to be butchered. Large game such as deer is quickly field-dressed by removing the viscera in the field, while very large animals like moose may be partially butchered in the field because of the difficulty of removing them intact from their habitat. Commercial processors often handle deer taken during deer seasons, sometimes even at supermarket meat counters. Otherwise the hunter handles butchering. The carcass is kept cool to minimize spoilage.  Traditionally, game meat was hung until \"high\" or \"gamey\", that is, approaching a state of decomposition. However, this adds to the risk of contamination. Small game can be processed essentially intact, after gutting and skinning or defeathering (by species). Small animals are ready for cooking, although they may be disjointed first. Large game must be processed by techniques commonly practiced by commercial butchers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cooking.", "content": "Generally game is cooked in the same ways as farmed meat. Because some game meat is leaner than store-bought beef, overcooking is a common mishap which can be avoided if properly prepared. It is sometimes grilled or cooked longer or by slow cooking or moist-heat methods to make it more tender, since some game tends to be tougher than farm-raised meat. Other methods of tenderizing include marinating as in the dish Hasenpfeffer, cooking in a game pie or as a stew such as burgoo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "The Norwegian Food Safety Authority considers that children, pregnant women, fertile-aged women, and people with high blood pressure should not consume game shot with lead-based ammunition more than once a month. Children who often eat such game might develop a slightly lower IQ, as lead influences the development of the central nervous system.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Game or quarry is any animal hunted for sport or for food, or the meat of those animals. The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976667}
{"src_title": "Chefchaouen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The city was founded in 1471 as a small \"kasbah\" (fortress) by Moulay Ali ibn Rashid al-Alami, a descendant of Abd as-Salam al-Alami and Idris I, and through them, of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Al-Alami founded the city to fight the Portuguese invasions of northern Morocco. Along with the Ghomara tribes of the region, many Moriscos and Jews settled here after the Spanish Reconquista in medieval times. In 1920, the Spanish seized Chaouen to form part of Spanish Morocco. Spanish troops imprisoned Abd el-Krim el-Khattabi in the kasbah from 1916 to 1917, after he talked with the German consul Dr. Walter Zechlin (1879–1962).  In September 1925, in the middle of the Rif War, a rogue squadron of American volunteer pilots, including veterans of World War I, bombarded civilians in Chaouen. Colonel Charles Michael Sweeney had proposed the idea to French Prime Minister Paul Painlevé, who \"warmly welcomed the Colonel’s request.\"  After al-Khattabi was defeated with the help of the French, he was deported to Réunion in 1926. Spain returned the city after the independence of Morocco in 1956.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "Chefchaouen – or Chaouen, as it is often called by Moroccans – is a popular tourist destination because of its proximity to Tangier and the Spanish enclave of Ceuta. There are approximately two hundred hotels catering to the summer influx of European tourists. One distinction possessed by Chefchaouen is its blue-rinsed houses and buildings.  Chefchaouen is a popular shopping destination as well, as it offers many native handicrafts that are not available elsewhere in Morocco, such as wool garments and woven blankets. The goat cheese native to the area is also popular with tourists.  The countryside around it has a reputation for being a prolific source of kief. The Chefchaouen region is one of the main producers of cannabis in Morocco. A nearby attraction is the Kef Toghobeit Cave, one of the deepest caves in Africa.  Chefchaouen's blue walls are a popular subject of interest. There are several theories as to why the walls were painted blue. One popular theory is that the blue keeps mosquitos away. The blue is said to symbolize the sky and heaven, and serve as a reminder to lead a spiritual life. However, according to some locals, the walls were mandated to be painted blue simply to attract tourists at some point in the 1970s.  The growing tourist industry is geared especially towards Spanish tourists, who are numerous during great Catholic feasts like Semana Santa and Christmas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Places of worship.", "content": "The city's oldest and historically most important mosque is the Great Mosque located at Place Uta Hammam at the heart of the medina. On a hill overlooking the town to the east there is also a disaffected mosque built by the Spanish in the 1920s, now a popular lookout point.  Also of great historical and religious importance to the city is the mausoleum dedicated to the patron saint of northern Morocco's Jebalah region, Moulay Abdessalam Ben Mshish al-Alami. His tomb and the village surrounding it is roughly 50 kilometers northwest of from Chefchaouen on the old road to Larache.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The beauty of Chefchaouen's mountainous surroundings are enhanced by the contrast of the brightly painted medina (old town). It is this beauty and the relaxed atmosphere of the town that makes Chefchaouen very attractive to visitors.  The main square in the medina is lined with cafes and filled to the brim with locals and tourist mingling easily. Another reason why backpackers love Chefchaouen is the easy availability of drugs. Tourism in Chaouen is driven by its reputation as center of the marijuana plantations region in north Morocco. During the summer approximately 200 hotels cater to the influx of European tourists.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chefchaouen ('(pronounced IPA: ); \"Ashawen\"), also known as Chaouen, is a city in northwest Morocco. It is the chief town of the province of the same name, and is noted for its buildings in shades of blue. Chefchaouen is situated just inland from Tangier and Tétouan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976668}
{"src_title": "Soraya Arnelas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Arnelas was born in Valencia de Alcántara, Cáceres, Spain on 13 September 1982. At the age of 11, she left for Madrid. She wanted to study drama but soon started working as a flight attendant for Iberworld, where she travelled around the world. Apart from her native Spanish, she is also fluent in English and Portuguese.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2005: \"Operación Triunfo\" and \"Corazón De Fuego\".", "content": "Soraya participated in the fourth series of the Spanish television series \"Operación Triunfo\" in 2005 where she came second overall. Her début album \"Corazón De Fuego\" was released on 5 December 2005 produced by Kike Santander. The album got Platinum status.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2006: \"Ochenta's\".", "content": "On 21 November 2006, Soraya released her second album, \"Ochenta's\". It was her first English language album. The first single was a cover of the Italian singer RAF's song \"Self Control\". The remainder of the album was a mixture of 1980s cover versions and new songs. The song reached Gold Status in the \"Promusicae Digital Songs\" charts and peaked at number 1 on the Spanish \"Cadena 100\". The second single from \"Ochenta's\" was a cover of Spagna's \"Call Me\". \"Ochenta's\" was one of the most successful albums of 2007 in Spain and achieved platinum after many weeks charting in the top ten albums chart.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2007: \"Dolce Vita\".", "content": "Soraya released another album with more covers of 1980s hits titled \"Dolce Vita\". The lead single was \"La Dolce Vita\". The album includes covers of 1980s hits, including Kylie Minogue's \"I Should Be So Lucky\", Cyndi Lauper's \"Girls Just Want to Have Fun\", Eurythmics's \"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)\", Modern Talking's \"You're My Heart, You're My Soul\" and the lead single, \"Dolce Vita\", a cover from the Italian singer Ryan Paris. The album shot straight inside the Spanish Top 5 Albums Chart, peaking at No.5, and getting Gold certification in the following weeks.  The album was released in the United Kingdom via iTunes UK and 7digital.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2008: \"Sin Miedo\".", "content": "\"Sin Miedo\" was Soraya's fourth released album. Leaving the 1980s covers behind, this album contains 12 original tracks; nine in Spanish and three in English. The album was produced by International DJ DJ Sammy and includes a duo with Kate Ryan (the song \"Caminaré\").</ref> The first single of the album was \"Sin miedo\" (Without fear).  The album debuted on the Spanish Albums Chart at a low #21, becoming her worst position for a studio album. The album has spent 22 weeks on chart so far. However, the album saw a Top 40 reentry at #32 thanks to a brand new edition of \"Sin Miedo\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009: Eurovision and other television projects.", "content": "By the end of 2008, she submitted one of the songs from her latest album, \"Sin Miedo\", \"La noche es para mí\" to the Spanish preselection for the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 in Russia, being considered the early favourite to represent the country. She was finally chosen to represent Spain on 28 February 2009. Soraya's Eurovision team consisted of a Swedish songwriting team. She heavily promoted in Sweden in the months leading up to the contest. Being an automatic finalist representing Spain, she performed in the 25th position on Final night, finishing second to last. However, juries and televoters did not vote for the song, and it finished in the twenty fourth place. Arnelas referred to the score as a punishment from Europe, for Radio Television Española's late airing of the second semi-final where Spanish televoters and jury members were to vote.  Previously to her Eurovision experience, she participated in the reality talent contest \"La Batalla de los Coros\", the Spanish version of Clash of the Choirs.  After visiting more than 20 cities, Soraya ended her \"Sin Miedo Spanish Tour 2009\" on 13 September 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010: \"Dreamer\".", "content": "After leaving her label Vale Music / Universal in late 2010, Soraya signed a record deal with Sony Music to record her fifth studio album \"Dreamer\". The first single to be released from this album was \"Live Your Dreams\", an electronic-dance-pop song, produced by French DJ Antoine Clamaran. The video for the song was filmed in Paris on March and was released on June 2010.  The single peaked at #8 on the French Club Chart, while it peaked at #13 on the airplay chart and #47 in the download chart. The CD-Single debuted and peaked at #11 in the French Singles Chart, staying a total of 7 weeks into the Top15. It also reached #20 at the Russian Airplay Chart. This was Soraya's first entry in both France and Russian charts. In Belgium it peaked at #51. While in Poland the song reached #16 in the airplay chart. In Spain, the song was #18 in the airplay chart.  The album was released on September 28, 2010 in Spain, reaching number 1 on iTunes the same day it was released. The album peaked at #8 on the Spanish Albums Chart. \"Dreamer\" supposed the return of Soraya to the Top10, achieving more success than its predecessor so far. The promotion of the album was supported by a tour through some European countries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013: \"Con Fuego\" & \"Universe In Me\".", "content": "On 19 February Soraya released an electronic/dance track in co-operation with Aqeel. This was the first song she released along with her own company label, Valentia Records. The song topped the iTunes Spanish Chart, it also made a top thirty (#29) official debut in PROMUSICAE only with downloads but a top ten (#7) in the physical singles chart due to the CD Single release.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Since 2012, Soraya is in a relationship with male model Miguel Ángel Herrera. Soraya gave birth to the couple's first child, Manuela Grace, on 24 February 2017.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Soraya Arnelas Rubiales (born 13 September 1982), better known by her stage name Soraya, is a Spanish singer. Soraya represented Spain at the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 in Moscow, Russia with the song \"La noche es para mí\" finishing 23rd with 23 points.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976669}
{"src_title": "Ashley Greene", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Greene was born in Jacksonville, Florida. She is the daughter of Michele (née Tatum), who works in insurance, and Joe Greene, a former U.S. Marine who now owns his own concrete business. She grew up in Middleburg and Jacksonville, and went to University Christian School before transferring to Wolfson High School when she was in tenth grade. She moved to Los Angeles, California, at the age of 17 to pursue an acting career. Greene has an older brother named Joe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "She initially planned to become a model, but was told that she was not tall enough at to be a fashion model and should instead focus on acting in commercials. After taking commercial and acting class, she fell in love with acting and realized that she preferred it over modeling. Greene graduated from high school early and moved to Los Angeles to pursue an acting career.  Early in her career, she appeared as a guest on such television programs, as \"Punk'd\" and \"Crossing Jordan\". Greene's big break came in 2008, when she was cast as Alice Cullen in \"The Twilight Saga\" series of films, based on the novel series of the same name by Stephenie Meyer. The series consists of the films \"Twilight\", \"\", \"\", \"\", and \"\", which were respectively released in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012.  Greene portrayed Michelle Burkham in the drama film \"Skateland\", which premiered at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival.  She reunited with her \"Twilight\" co-star Kellan Lutz in the movie \"A Warrior's Heart\" (2011), and also starred in thriller film \"Summer's Blood\" (2009) and the Dark Castle Entertainment horror film \"The Apparition\" (2012).  In 2013, Greene starred in the historical film \"CBGB\" about the former Manhattan music club with the same name.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Greene became engaged to Australian-Lebanese television announcer Paul Khoury in December 2016. They were married on July 6, 2018 at San Jose, California.  Greene is a good friend of her \"Twilight\" co-stars, particularly Kellan Lutz and Jackson Rathbone, whom she knew before filming of the series began. Greene has stated that she grew up watching football and is a Florida Gators fan. She was also seen attending a Green Bay Packers game against the New York Giants with then-boyfriend Joe Jonas and Jessica Szohr at Lambeau Field in 2010. In 2009, nude self-portraits of Greene were leaked onto the internet. Her attorneys threatened to sue various websites that published the pictures.  Appearing nude in a bodypainted bikini, Greene posed for SoBe advertisements that ran in the 2010 issue of the \"Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Edition\". In 2010, Greene received \"The Style Icon Award\" at \"Hollywood Life\"s Young Hollywood Awards, as well as an award from the PETA foundation for representing Avon and their no testing on animals policy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ashley Michele Greene (born February 21, 1987) is an American actress and model. She is known for playing Alice Cullen in the film adaptations of Stephenie Meyer's \"Twilight\" novels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976670}
{"src_title": "Ken Klee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Klee was born in Indianapolis, Indiana. The son of a project engineer whose job required frequent moves, he spent portions of his childhood in Indianapolis, Denver, Colorado, and Kansas City, Missouri, before moving to Toronto and the St. Michael's Buzzers on a hockey scholarship as a 17-year-old.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Klee was drafted 177th overall by the Washington Capitals in the 1990 NHL Entry Draft. Klee would not play for the Capitals until the 1994–95 season, but it did not take him long to become a regular on the squad. Klee played with the Capitals until the end of the 2002–03 season. Klee had played in Washington for 9 seasons, and played in 604 games (regular season and playoffs) when he then became a free agent and signed with the Toronto Maple Leafs on September 27, 2003.  In Klee's first season in Toronto, he registered career highs in assists (25) and points (29) despite missing 16 games. On March 8, 2006, a day before the NHL's trading deadline, Klee was traded by the struggling Maple Leafs to the New Jersey Devils in exchange for winger Alexander Suglobov. On July 24, 2006, Klee signed a one-year contract with the Colorado Avalanche as a free agent for the 2006–07 season. Klee finished the season leading the Avalanche with a plus/minus of 18. On July 2, 2007, Klee signed a two-year contract with the Atlanta Thrashers.  On September 26, 2008 into the final year of his contract with the Thrashers, Klee was dealt along with Brad Larsen and Chad Painchaud to the Anaheim Ducks for defenseman Mathieu Schneider. After starting the 2008–09 season with the Ducks, Klee was claimed off re-entry waivers by the Phoenix Coyotes on October 28, 2008. After playing out the season with the Coyotes and becoming a free agent, Klee unofficially announced his retirement.  Though not known as a goal scorer, 13 of his 55 career goals were game-winning goals, the highest percentage in NHL history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Klee represent United States at the 1991 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships and senior level at the 1992 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships, 1997 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships and also at the 2004 World Cup of Hockey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "Klee was the head coach for the U.S. squad that finished second during his first Four Nations Cup in 2014 (2-0-1-1). That season, he also guided the U.S. Women's Under-22 Select Team to a first-place finish during his first campaign behind the bench for the U.S. in the 2014 Under-22 Series, defeating Canada in all three games. Klee led the U.S. Women's National Team to the gold medal at the 2015 IIHF Women's World Championship in Malmo, Sweden. He also guided the U.S. to a first-place finish at the 2015 Under-22 Series, defeating Canada two games to one.  Serving in the same capacity at the 2015 Four Nations Cup in Sundsvall, Sweden, Klee led the U.S. to an undefeated record (3-1-0-0) and first championship title since 2012. The tournament marks the seventh consecutive event that Klee has been at the helm of Team USA and the third time he has been behind the bench at the Four Nations Cup. He now owns an 18-3-1-2 record overall.  Klee was the head coach of the U.S. Women's National Team for the 2016 Four Nations Cup in Vierumaki, Finland from Oct. 29 – Nov. 6. Klee then served as head coach of the U.S. Women's National Team at the 2016 International Ice Hockey Federation Women's World Championship in Kamloops, British Columbia. He led the U.S. to an undefeated record (4-1-0-0, W-OTW-OTL-L) and gold-medal.  Having left the women's national team, on July 18, 2017, Klee was hired as an assistant coach with the Syracuse Crunch of the American Hockey League.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kenneth William Robert Klee (born April 24, 1971) is an American former professional ice hockey defenseman who played most notably with the Washington Capitals in the National Hockey League (NHL).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976671}
{"src_title": "Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor, BWV 582", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The autograph manuscript of BWV 582 is currently considered lost; the work, as is typical for pieces by Bach and his contemporaries, is known only through a number of copies. There is some evidence that the original was notated in organ tablature. It is not known precisely when Bach composed the work, but the available sources point to the period between 1706 and 1713. It is possible that BWV 582 was composed in Arnstadt soon after Bach's return from Lübeck (where he may have studied Buxtehude's ostinato works).  The first half of the passacaglia's ostinato, which also serves as the fugue's main subject, was most probably taken from a short work by the French composer André Raison, \"Christe: Trio en passacaille\" from \"Messe du deuxieme ton\" of the \"Premier livre d'orgue\". It is possible that the second half of the ostinato was also taken from Raison, the bass line of \"Christe: Trio en chaconne\" of \"Messe du sixieme ton\" of the same publication is very similar. See \"Example 1\" for Bach's and Raison's themes.  However, some scholars dispute Raison's influence. Bach's work shares some features with north German ostinato works, most notably Buxtehude's two chaconnes (BuxWV 159 and 160) and a passacaglia (BuxWV 161), and there is clear influence of Pachelbel's chaconnes in several variations and the overall structure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passacaglia.", "content": "The passacaglia is in time, which is typical of the form. Bach's ostinato comprises eight bars, which is unusual but not unheard of: an ostinato of the same length is used, for example, in Johann Krieger's organ passacaglia. The opening of the piece, which consists of the ostinato stated in the pedal with no accompaniment from the manuals, is slightly more unusual, although this idea also occurs elsewhere, and may even have been used by Buxtehude.  There are 20 variations in BWV 582/1. The first begins with a typical C minor \"affekt\", \"a painful longing\" according to Spitta, similar to the beginning of Buxtehude's \"Chaconne in C minor\", BuxWV 159. Numerous attempts have been made to figure out an overarching symmetrical structure of the work, but scholars have yet to agree on a single interpretation. Particularly important attempts were made by Christoph Wolff and. Some scholars have speculated that there is a symbolic component to the structure of the work: for instance, Martin Radulescu argues that BWV 582/1 is \"in the form of a cross\".  There is agreement among most scholars that the Passacaglia builds up until its climax in variation twelve. This is followed by three quiet variations, forming a short intermezzo, and then the remaining five variations end the work.  Bach performer and scholar Marie-Claire Alain suggested that the 21 variations are broken down into 7 groups of 3 similar variations, each opening with a quotation from a Lutheran chorale, treated similarly to the Orgel-Büchlein written at a similar time:  Alain also points out that the numbers (21 repetitions of the Passacaglia ground and 12 statements of the fugue subjects) are inversions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fugue.", "content": "The passacaglia is followed, without break, by a double fugue. The first half of the passacaglia ostinato is used as the first subject; a transformed version of the second half is used as the second subject. Both are heard simultaneously in the beginning of the fugue. A countersubject enters immediately afterwards and is then used throughout the piece. When the three subjects appear simultaneously, they never do so in the same combination of voices twice; this therefore is a permutation fugue, possibly inspired by Johann Adam Reincken's works.  As the fugue progresses, Bach ventures into major keys (E and B) and the time between the statements increases from 1–3 bars to 7–13.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transcriptions.", "content": "The passacaglia has been transcribed for orchestra by Leopold Stokowski, Ottorino Respighi, René Leibowitz, Eugene Ormandy, Sir Andrew Davis and Tomasz Golka and for piano by numerous composer/pianists including Eugen d'Albert, Georgy Catoire, Max Reger (in a version for 2 pianos), Fazil Say, Krystian Zimerman and Awadagin Pratt. It has also been arranged for a brass quintet by Neil Balm and performed by The Canadian Brass. A transcription for viol consort was recorded by the UK group Fretwork in 2005. In 2006, the passacaglia was transcribed for handbells by Kevin McChesney and recorded by Cast of Bronze from Dallas, Texas. The passacaglia was also transcribed by Donald Hunsberger for the Eastman Wind Ensemble (symphonic wind ensemble) and for the Eastman Trombone Choir (trombone octet). In 2009, the work was transcribed for string quartet by Nicholas Kitchen for performance by the Borromeo String Quartet.  In Stokowski's orchestral transcription the whole of the coda is slow and fortissimo without the possibility of a final massive rallentando. He made six commercial recordings of it between 1928 and 1972.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Sources  \"Notes\"'", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor (BWV 582) is an organ piece by Johann Sebastian Bach. Presumably composed early in Bach's career, it is one of his most important and well-known works, and an important influence on 19th and 20th century passacaglias: Robert Schumann described the variations of the passacaglia as \"intertwined so ingeniously that one can never cease to be amazed.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976672}
{"src_title": "4 World Trade Center", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Original building (1975–2001).", "content": "The original 4 World Trade Center was a 9-story low-rise office building completed in 1975 that was 118 ft (36 m) tall, and located in the southeast corner of the World Trade Center site. The first tenants moved into the building in January 1977. The building's major tenants were Deutsche Bank (Floor 4, 5, and 6) and the New York Board of Trade (Floors 7, 8, and 9). The building's side facing Liberty Street housed the entrance to The Mall at the World Trade Center on the basement concourse level of the WTC. It was practically destroyed as a result of the collapse of the South Tower during the September 11 attacks and its remains were later demolished to make way for the construction of the new skyscrapers: Four World Trade Center and Three World Trade Center. 4 World Trade Center was home to five commodities exchanges on what was at the time one of the world's largest trading floors (featured in the Eddie Murphy movie \"Trading Places\"). Following the destruction of the building during 9/11, rescuers and surveyors exploring the building's basement discovered large amounts of gold and silver bullion in the vault; a sizeable amount of coins that had been stored there by the Bank of Nova Scotia were purchased in 2002 as cleanup efforts began by Lee S. Minshull of California, who then submitted the coins to PCGS for grading; these coins bear unique labels on their holders, and have since entered the hands of collectors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current building.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Groundbreaking took place in 2008. The building reached street level in November 2009. The safety cocoon was installed December 2010. The first glass was installed May 2011. In November 2010, three PureCell fuel cells were delivered at the World Trade Center site which together will provide about 30% of the tower's power. The structural engineer for the building is Leslie E. Robertson Associates, New York City.  On February 16, 2012, one of the building's construction crane cables snapped while lifting steel, causing the steel to fall 40 stories from the building, landing on a flat bed truck. No injuries were reported. Construction on the building eventually resumed after the accident.  On June 25, 2012, steel topped out at floor 72. Structural steel and concrete completed by June 1, 2013, followed by the removal of construction fencing in September 2013 and the building's opening on November 13, 2013. Cost of construction of 4 World Trade Center was US$1.67 billion, funded by insurance funds and Liberty bonds. The first tenants to move in were two government agencies, and, the building is 62% leased.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Layout and occupancy.", "content": "The above-ground portion of the building dedicated for retail use (which consists of the ground floor, the three floors immediately above the ground floor as well as the two floors below ground), accommodates offices using two distinct floor shapes. From floors 7 through 46, the typical floor space is 36,350 square feet (3,376 square meters) in the shape of a parallelogram (which is designed to echo the configuration of the site). From floors 48 through 63 the floor space is 28,000 sq ft (2,600 square meters) in the shape of a trapezoid, shaped so that it opens toward the tip of Manhattan Island and also triangulated to face One World Trade Center. The tower includes five levels of mechanical floors. The New York Power Authority selected UTC Power to provide 12 PureCell Model 400 fuel cells that will be used to provide electricity, water and heat. According to the developer, the systems combined will rank as one of the largest installations of fuel cells in the world. The upper floors of the building have no interior columns.  The PANYNJ is headquartered in 4 World Trade Center, leasing approximately in 4 World Trade Center for its new headquarters. PANYNJ was formerly headquartered at 1 World Trade Center in the first World Trade Center complex before it was destroyed. Afterwards the PANYNJ moved into 225 Park Avenue South in Midtown Manhattan, before returning to the World Trade Center in 2015.  The lower levels of the building are used by retail businesses, including Eataly, and connects via an underground \"retail and transportation concourse\" to the PATH's World Trade Center station and the New York City Subway's WTC Cortlandt station. The city of New York also plans to lease of space, which is not in use yet, in the completed building. A February 2017 announcement by Spotify that it would lease floors 62 through 72 for its United States headquarters, along with a subsequent expansion announcement that July, brought 4 World Trade Center to full occupancy. SportsNet New York, carrier of New York Mets broadcasts, moved its headquarters from 1271 Avenue of the Americas to an facility in 4 WTC.  The building's elevators are supplied by Schindler, and are the second fastest in North America at 9 m/s (1800 fpm).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "4 World Trade Center (also known by its street address, 150 Greenwich Street) is a skyscraper that is part of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. It is located on the southeast corner of the World Trade Center site, where the original nine-story 4 World Trade Center stood. Pritzker Prize-winning architect Fumihiko Maki was awarded the contract to design the building. It houses the headquarters of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976673}
{"src_title": "San Silvestro in Capite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The original church was built in the 8th century by the Popes Paul I and Stephen III, atop ruins of a pagan temple dedicated to Sol Invictus, to house venerated relics of early Christian saints who were buried in the catacombs. The church was rebuilt and the campanile with Romanesque arcades added in 1198 during the papacy of Innocent III, while in the 13th century the church was donated to the Poor Clares.  It was rebuilt by the architects Francesco Capriani da Volterra and Carlo Maderno during 1591–1601, and subsequently restored in 1681. The relics of Pope Sylvester I, Pope Stephen I and Pope Dionysius were exhumed and re-enshrined beneath the high altar when the new church was consecrated in 1601. The church also contains the relics of Tarcisius.  The church of San Silvestro was granted to the English Catholics by Pope Leo XIII in 1890, and is now served by Irish Pallottine Fathers. Mass is thus regularly celebrated in the English language. The church is the National Church in Rome of Great Britain, although the structures of the Catholic Church continue to be organized separately for England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Scottish national church in Rome, Sant'Andrea degli Scozzesi, was deconsecrated in 1962.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The church has an atrium and narthex, which isolates the church from the busy square outside. There are fragments of early Christian sculpture, many with inscriptions, embedded in the walls of the atrium.  The facade has an unusual giant order topped with four baroque statues (1703): \"San Silvestro\" by Lorenzo Ouone, \"Saint Stephen\" by Michelangelo Borgognone, \"Saint Clare\" by Giuseppe Mazzoni and \"Saint Francis\" by Vincenzo Felice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "It is believed that the high altar, which predates the present church, was influenced by the style of Michelangelo. The interior is rich in marble, gilding, and artistic decoration. The nave has an \"Assumption with Saints\" frescoed (1680) by Giacinto Brandi. The main altar carved ciborium or canopy (1667) by Carlo Rainaldi. The cupola was frescoed (1605) by Cristoforo Roncalli. A \"Martyrdom of San Stephan I\" and a \"Messengers of Constantine call on San Silvestro\" (1610) were frescoed in the apse by Orazio Borgianni. In the baptistry apse, there is a \"Baptism of Constantine\" by Ludovico Gimignani. The transept has a \"History of San Silvestro\" (1690) also by Gimignani, and a \"Madonna with Child\" by Baccio Ciarpi.  In the first chapel to the right is a \"Madonna with Child & Saint Anthony of Padua & Stephen I\" and other saints (1695) by Giuseppe Chiari. In the second chapel is a \"Saint Francis receives stigmata\" (1610) by Orazio Gentileschi accompanied by paintings of the life of the saint by Luigi Garzi. In the third, a \"Pentecost\" by Giuseppe Ghezzi. The left transept has a \"Madonna & Child\" by Terenzio Terenzi. In the third chapel on the left is a fresco of the \"Immaculate Conception\" by Gimignani. On the walls are an \"Adoration by the Magi\" and \"Visitation\" by the Milanese il Morrazzone. In the second chapel is a \"Pope San Marcello has a vision of the Sacred Family\" and a \"Transit and Glory of San Giuseppe\" by Gimignani. In the first chapel are canvases of the \"Passion\" (1695) by Francesco Trevisani.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Convent.", "content": "A convent, dedicated to Pope Sylvester I and Pope Stephen I, was built adjacent to the church. The nuns remained in that convent until 1876 when they were dispossessed. The convent has recently been renovated and continues to serve as the main Post Office of Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of Cardinal-Priests since 1517.", "content": "List of the cardinal titulars of the church", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Basilica of Saint Sylvester the First, also known as (, ), is a Roman Catholic minor basilica and titular church in Rome dedicated to Pope Sylvester I. It is located on the Piazza San Silvestro, at the corner of Via del Gambero and the Via della Mercede, and stands adjacent to the central Post Office.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976674}
{"src_title": "Six Dharmas of Naropa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Six Yogas or Six Dharmas?", "content": "Peter Alan Roberts notes that the proper terminology is \"six Dharmas of Nāropa\", not \"six yogas of Nāropa\":", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "The six dharmas are a synthesis or collection of the completion stage practices of several tantras. In the Kagyu traditions by which the six dharmas were first brought to Tibet, abhiṣeka into at least one Anuttarayoga Tantra system (generally Cakrasaṃvara and/or Vajrayogini/Vajravarāhi Tantras) and practice of its utpatti-krama are the bases for practice of the six dharmas; there is no particular empowerment for the six dharmas themselves. The six dharmas are ordered and progressive, each subsequent set of practices builds on previous attainments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Six Dharmas.", "content": "Though variously classified in up to ten dharmas, the six dharmas generally conform to the following list:  These next three are considered the main practices of the completion stage (, S: ) in the anuttarayoga tantra.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alternate Formulations.", "content": "Other dharmas, sometimes grouped with those above, or set as auxiliary practices, include:  As Nāropa is regarded as a Kagyu lineage holder, the six meditative practices are strongly associated with the Kagyu lineages of Vajrayana Buddhism. The teachings of Tilopa (988-1069 CE) are the earliest known work on the six dharmas. Tilopa is said to have received the teachings directly from Cakrasaṃvara. Nāropa learned the techniques from Tilopa. Nāropa's student Marpa taught the Tibetan Milarepa, renowned for his yogic skills. Milarepa in turn taught Gampopa. Gampopa's student, Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Karmapa Lama, attained enlightenment while practicing the six dharmas. The Karmapa, the first figure in Tibetan Buddhism whose reincarnation was officially recognized, has been strongly associated in certain tulkus with particular yogic attributes.  Many Gelugpa practitioners including Dalai Lamas are expert in the six dharmas of Nāropa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Physical exercises.", "content": "Before engaging in the actual practices of the Six Dharmas, one begins by doing the \"six exercises of Naropa\". Trülkhor (Tibetan \"'khrul-'khor\")", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Meditation on the body as an empty shell.", "content": "Here the body is envisioned as being entirely without substance, appearing in the mind like a rainbow in the sky. This meditation and the physical exercises should be practiced in conjunction with one another.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stages of meditating upon the actual path.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inner Heat.", "content": "Visualizing the channels, Visualizing the mantric syllables and engaging in the vase breathing technique. This gives rise to five signs: like a mirage, like a wisp of smoke, like the flickering of fireflies, like a glowing butter lamp, and like a sky free of clouds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Four Blisses.", "content": "Bliss at the throat chakra, supreme bliss at the heart chakra, inexpressible bliss or special bliss at the navel chakra, and innate bliss at the secret place, tip of the jewel.  This is accomplished by relying on two conditions; the internal condition of meditating on inner heat yoga and the external condition of relying upon a \"karmamudrā\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "The Types of Karmamudrās.", "content": "The above are usually termed the 'four handseals' with only the last one called \"mahamudra\". There are various lists, usually some combination of the following: Action Mudra (\"Karmamudra\"), Wisdom Mudra (\"Jnanamudra\"), Phenomena Mudra (\"Dharmamudra\"), Pledge Mudra (\"Samayamudra\"), and Great Mudra (\"Mahamudra\"). An action mudra is a woman, phenomena mudra is all appearance, commitment or pledge mudra is \"tummo\", wisdom mudra is the meditation deity, and non-duality is the great mudra.  While many of the traditional lists of types of consorts to seek out for joint practice to gain spiritual attainments are written for males and from a male point of view, there are some rare instructions for these sadhanas and for consort choice from the point of view of female practitioners.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Pure illusory Body.", "content": "Meditations on all appearances as illusory, dream illusions, and \"bardo\" experience.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Actual Clear Light.", "content": "The four emptinesses lead to the experience of clear light during the waking period and during sleep. The four emptinesses are: Emptiness, Very Empty, Great Emptiness, and Utter Emptiness. They are associated with external and internal signs of the appearance of mirage, smoke, fireflies, butterlamp, cloudless sky; and whiteness, redness, blackness, and the clear light of early dawn which resembles a mixture of sunlight and moonlight, respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Union of Clear Light and Illusory Body.", "content": "Actualizing the results. The state of a Buddha Vajradhāra.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transference of Consciousness.", "content": "The branches of that path. There are two ways to practice the transference of consciousness: with a support and without a support.  Separating the body and the mind without a support is achieved through the emptiness of great conceptlessness whereby the mind is not attached to the body and the body is not attached to the mind.  Separating the body and the mind with a support, on the other hand, requires one to imagine the mind as a substance. With awareness one draws the mind up the central channel and then with force expels the mind into the space of the sky.  There are two methods to separate a body and a mind with support: transference in stages, and transference all at once at the time of death.  Transference in stages involves dissolving the sufferings of the six realms into a bindu which ascends the body and travels upwards in the central channel.  Starting under the sole of the feet, each point radiates colored light. Feet: black-hell, joining yellow-hungry-ghosts together at the secret place. At the navel: gray-animals. At the heart: green-human. At the throat: red-demigods, and at the crown: white-gods.  Once the bindu has reached the crown, it has the nature of five colors, corresponding to the last five stages (black is not counted). This bindu then leaves the central channel through the crown and comes to rest inside the heart of a deity that is one cubit above in space.  The mind is rested in equipoise in this state.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Related traditions.", "content": "The six dharmas of Niguma are almost identical to the six dharmas of Nāropa. Niguma who was an enlightened dakini, a Vajrayana teacher, one of the founders of the Shangpa Kagyu Buddhist lineage, and, depending on the sources, either the sister or spiritual consort of Nāropa. The second Dalai Lama, Gendun Gyatso has compiled a work on these yogas. Niguma transmitted her teachings to yogini Sukhasiddhī and then to Khyungpu Neldjor, the founder of the Shangpa Kagyu lineage. A translator and teacher in the lineage, Lama Sarah Harding, has published a book about Niguma and the core role her teachings such as the six dharmas of Niguma have played in the development of the Shangpa Kagyu lineage.  In the lineage of Machig Labdron, the practice of Mahamudra Chöd begins with The Yoga of the Transference of Consciousness.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Six Dharmas of Nāropa (), also called the Six Yogas of Nāropa, are a set of advanced Tibetan Buddhist tantric practices and a meditation sādhanā compiled in and around the time of the Indian monk and mystic Nāropa (1016-1100 CE) and conveyed to his student Marpa Lotsawa. The six dharmas were intended in part to help in the attainment of Buddhahood in an accelerated manner.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976675}
{"src_title": "Ivan's Childhood", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The film is mainly set at the front during World War II, where the Soviet army is fighting the invading German Wehrmacht. The film features a non-linear plot with frequent flashbacks.  After a brief dream sequence, Ivan Bondarev, a 12-year-old Russian boy, wakes up and crosses a war-torn landscape to a swamp, then swims across a river. On the other side, he is seized by Russian soldiers and brought to the young Lieutenant Galtsev, who interrogates him. The boy insists that he call \"Number 51 at Headquarters\" and report his presence. Galtsev is reluctant, but when he eventually makes the call, he is told by Lieutenant-Colonel Gryaznov to give the boy pencil and paper to make his report, which will be given the highest priority, and to treat him well. Through a series of dream sequences and conversations between different characters, it is revealed that Ivan’s mother and sister (and probably his father, a border guard) have been killed by German soldiers. He got away and joined a group of partisans. When the group was surrounded, they put him on a plane. After the escape, he was sent to a boarding school, but he ran away and joined an army unit under the command of Gryaznov.  Burning for revenge, Ivan insists on fighting on the front line. Taking advantage of his small size, he is successful on reconnaissance missions. Gryaznov and the other soldiers grow fond of him and want to send him to a military school. They give up their idea when Ivan tries to run away and rejoin the partisans. He is determined to avenge the death of his family and others, such as those killed at the Maly Trostenets extermination camp (which he mentions that he has seen).  A subplot involves Captain Kholin and his aggressive advances towards a pretty army nurse, Masha, and Galtsev's own undeclared and probably shared feelings for her. Much of the film is set in a room where the officers await orders and talk, while Ivan awaits his next mission. On the walls are scratched the last messages of doomed prisoners of the Germans.  Finally, Kholin and Galtsev ferry Ivan across the river late at night. He disappears through the swampy forest. The others return to the other shore after cutting down the bodies of two Soviet scouts hanged by the Germans.  The final scenes then switch to Berlin under Soviet occupation after the fall of the Third Reich. Captain Kholin has been killed in action. Galtsev finds a document showing that Ivan was caught and hanged by the Germans. As Galtsev enters the execution room, a final flashback of Ivan's childhood shows the young boy running across a beach after a little girl in happier times. The final image is of a dead tree on the beach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "\"Ivan's Childhood\" was Tarkovsky's first feature film, shot two years after his diploma film \"The Steamroller and the Violin\". The film is based on the 1957 short story \"Ivan\" () by Vladimir Bogomolov, which was translated into more than twenty languages. It drew the attention of the screenwriter Mikhail Papava, who changed the story line and made Ivan more of a hero. Papava called his screenplay \"Second Life\" (, ). In this screenplay Ivan is not executed, but sent to the concentration camp Majdanek, from where he is freed by the advancing Soviet army. The final scene of this screenplay shows Ivan meeting one of the officers of the army unit in a train compartment. Bogomolov, unsatisfied with this ending, intervened and the screenplay was changed to reflect the source material.  Mosfilm gave the screenplay to the young film director Eduard Abalov. Shooting was aborted and the film project was terminated in December 1960, since the first version of the film drew heavy criticism from the arts council, and the quality was deemed unsatisfactory and unusable. In June 1961 the film project was given to Tarkovsky, who had applied for it after being told about \"Ivan's Childhood\" by cinematographer Vadim Yusov. Work on the film resumed in the same month. The film was shot for the most part near Kanev at the Dnieper River.  Tarkovsky continued his collaboration with cinematographer Vadim Yusov, who was the cameraman in Tarkovsky's diploma film \"The Steamroller and the Violin\". Nikolai Burlyayev had played a role in Andrei Konchalovsky's student film \"The Boy and the Pigeon\". Konchalovsky was a friend and fellow student of Tarkovsky at the State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK), and thus Burlyayev was also cast for the role of Ivan. He had to pass several screen tests, but according to Burlyayev it is unclear whether anyone else auditioned for the role. Burlyayev would later play Boriska in Tarkovsky's second feature, \"Andrei Rublev\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Responses.", "content": "\"Ivan's Childhood\" was one of Tarkovsky's most commercially successful films, selling 16.7 million tickets in the Soviet Union. Tarkovsky himself was displeased with some aspects of the film; in his book \"Sculpting in Time\", he writes at length about subtle changes to certain scenes that he regrets not implementing.  However, the film received numerous awards and international acclaim on its release, winning the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival. It attracted the attention of many intellectuals, including Ingmar Bergman who said, \"My discovery of Tarkovsky's first film was like a miracle. Suddenly, I found myself standing at the door of a room the keys of which had, until then, never been given to me. It was a room I had always wanted to enter and where he was moving freely and fully at ease.\"  Jean-Paul Sartre wrote an article on the film, defending it against a highly critical article in the Italian newspaper \"L'Unita\" written by Alberto Moravia and saying that it was one of the most beautiful films he had ever seen. In a later interview, Tarkovsky (who did not consider the film to be among his best work) admitted to agreeing with Moravia's criticisms at the time, finding Sartre's defense \"too philosophical and speculative\". Filmmakers Sergei Parajanov and Krzysztof Kieślowski praised the film and cited it as an influence on their work.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film restoration.", "content": "In 2016 the film was digitally restored. The newest version was highly praised by \"The Independent\" who called it \"The most lyrical war movie ever made pristinely restored\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ivan's Childhood (), sometimes released as My Name Is Ivan in the US, is a 1962 Soviet war drama film and the first feature film directed by Andrei Tarkovsky. Co-written by Mikhail Papava and an uncredited Tarkovsky, it is based on Vladimir Bogomolov's 1957 short story \"Ivan\" (). The film features child actor Nikolai Burlyayev along with Valentin Zubkov, Evgeny Zharikov, Stepan Krylov, Nikolai Grinko, and Tarkovsky's wife Irma Raush.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976676}
{"src_title": "Princess Amalie of Saxony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Princess Amalie was the eldest child of Prince Maximilian of Saxony and Princess Carolina of Parma. She was named after her maternal grandmother, Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma. She was also the granddaughter of Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony; niece of Frederick Augustus I, King of Saxony and Anthony, King of Saxony; sister of Frederick Augustus II, King of Saxony and John, King of Saxony; and aunt of Albert, King of Saxony and George, King of Saxony.  She lived her entire life in Pillnitz Castle near Dresden, Germany. She was a well-educated and intellectually curious woman who composed chamber music, opera, and sacred music, sang, wrote comedies, and played the harpsichord. Married to Franciscus de Merendonque in 1817  Amalie was a young girl during the time of the Napoleonic wars and had to flee from her castle several times. She and her family were forced to sleep on straw wherever they could find shelter. She met Napoleon several times and held a negative opinion of him. When Napoleon observed that she was angry with him because he warred against her family, but that she should and would accustom herself to the situation, she firmly replied that there were some things that can't be accustomed to.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Amalie studied music with Joseph Schuster, Vincenzo Rastrelli, Johann Miksch, Franz Anton Schubert and Carl Maria von Weber. She began writing music in 1811 and composed numerous operas, popular among the Dresden elite. She published her musical works under the pseudonym A. Serena. Her most popular compositions were her comedic operas. She portrayed her characters with innovation and color. Weber found her \"highly talented.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dramatics.", "content": "In 1829/30, she published two dramas under the name of Amalie Heiter. Among her subsequent dramatic works, which were noted for a love of humanity and virtue, her comedies \"Der Onkel\" (“The Uncle”) and \"Die Fürstenbraut\" (“The Prince's bride”) became very popular. The latter was performed in Paris under the title \"Une femme charmante\" (“A charming woman,” 1840). Others of her plays were also adapted to the French stage. A complete edition of her dramatic works was published in Dresden, for the benefit of the women's association, under the title of \"Originalbeiträge zur deutschen Schaubühne\" (“Original contributions to the German stage,” 6 vols., 1837–42). A 3rd edition of the 1st volume appeared in 1858, and a French version of it (\"Comédies\") at Paris in 1841. Six of her dramas were translated into English by Jameson (London, 1846), and six others were translated anonymously (1848).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Amalie Marie Friederike Auguste (10 August 1794 – 18 September 1870), Princess of Saxony, full name Maria Amalia Friederike Augusta Karolina Ludovica Josepha Aloysia Anna Nepomucena Philippina Vincentia Franziska de Paula Franziska de Chantal, was a German composer writing under the pen name \"A. Serena\", and a dramatist under the name \"Amalie Heiter\". She was the daughter of Prince Maximilian of Saxony and Princess Carolina of Parma.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976677}
{"src_title": "Guatemalan black howler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Guatemalan black howler is the largest of the howler monkey species and one of the largest of the New World monkeys. Guatemalan black howler males are larger than those of any other Central American monkey species. On average, males weigh and females weigh. The body is between in length, excluding the tail. The tail is between long. Adults of both sexes have long, black hair and a prehensile tail, while infants have brown fur. Males over four months old have white scrotums.  The Guatemalan black howler shares several adaptations with other species of howler monkey that allow it to pursue a folivorous diet (mostly leaves). Its molars have high shearing crests, to help it eat the leaves, and the male of the species has an enlarged hyoid bone near the vocal cords. This hyoid bone amplifies the male howler's calls, allowing it to locate other males without expending much energy, which is important, since leaves are a low-energy food. Howling occurs primarily at dawn and at dusk.  The Guatemalan black howler is diurnal and arboreal. It lives in groups of generally one or two adult males, with a ratio of about 1.3 females for every male. Groups generally have between two and 10 members, including juveniles, but groups as large as 16 members have been studied. The home range is between 3 and 25 hectares. Population density can exceed 250 monkeys per square kilometer in the Community Baboon Sanctuary in Belize.  The Guatemalan black howler's diet includes mostly leaves and fruit. Flowers also make up a small part of the diet. The breadnut tree can provide as much as 86% of the monkey's diet during some seasons.  As with other howler monkey species, the majority of the Guatemalan black howler's day is spent resting. Eating makes up about a quarter of the day, moving about 10% of the day, and the remainder of the day is spent in socializing and other activities.  Females reach sexual maturity at four, and males reach sexual maturity between six and eight years old. Males leave their natal group upon reaching sexual maturity, but females generally remain with their natal group. They can live up to 20 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "The species is considered to be endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature because the species population is expected to decline by up to 60% over the next 30 years. Threats to the species include habitat loss, hunting, and capture as pets.  The Guatemalan black howler belongs to the New World monkey family Atelidae, which contains howler monkeys, spider monkeys, woolly monkeys and muriquis. It is a member of the howler monkey genus \"Alouatta\". No subspecies are recognized.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sympatry.", "content": "The Guatemalan black howler is sympatric with the mantled howler along the edges of its range in Mexico and Guatemala near the Yucatan Peninsula. One theory for how this sympatry occurred and why the Guatemalan black howler has such a restricted range is the ancestors of the Guatemalan black howler and the Central American squirrel monkey migrated to Central America from South America during the late Miocene or Pliocene. However, passage through the Isthmus of Panama then closed for a period due to rising sea levels, and later opened up to another wave of migration about two million years ago. These later migrants, ancestors to modern populations of white-headed capuchins, mantled howlers and Geoffroy's spider monkeys, out-competed the earlier migrants, leading to the restricted range of the Guatemalan black howler (and the Central American squirrel monkey).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Guatemalan black howler, or Yucatan black howler, (\"Alouatta pigra\") is a species of howler monkey, a type of New World monkey, from Central America. It is found in Belize, Guatemala and Mexico, in and near the Yucatan Peninsula. It lives in evergreen, semideciduous and lowland rain forests. It is also known as the baboon in Belize, although it is not closely related to the baboons in Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976678}
{"src_title": "Thomas Denman, 3rd Baron Denman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and military career.", "content": "Denman was born in London on 16 November 1874, the son of Richard Denman and the former Helen Mary McMicking. His father was the grandson of Thomas Denman, 1st Baron Denman, who was Lord Chief Justice from 1832 to 1850. Denman was the second of three children, and the oldest son. His younger brother, Sir Richard Denman, was also a Liberal Party politician.  Denman's parents divorced in 1878. His father did not remarry, and died in 1883 when his son was eight. However, his mother remarried twice – in 1879 to James Walker (annulled due to desertion), and then in 1888 to Henry Primrose (a civil servant and cousin of Lord Rosebery).  In 1894, aged 19, Denman succeeded his great-uncle as Baron Denman; he took his seat in the House of Lords on his 21st birthday. He intended a military career and was a graduate of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. Denman began his career in the Royal Scots, where he was promoted to lieutenant on 4 March 1896, but resigned in May 1899 and was placed in the Reserve. Returning to active service following the outbreak of the Second Boer War, he was on 3 February 1900 commissioned as a lieutenant of the 11th Battalion, Imperial Yeomanry, and left Liverpool for South Africa on the SS \"Cymric\" in March 1900. He was promoted to captain in the battalion on 18 July 1900, and the following year was appointed a captain in the Middlesex (Duke of Cambridge's Hussars) Imperial Yeomanry, followed by a promotion to major on 30 April 1902.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Denman had little money until 1903, when he married Gertrude Pearson, daughter of the wealthy industrialist Weetman Pearson (later Viscount Cowdray). He was then able to devote his time to public life and served in the Liberal administrations of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman and H. H. Asquith as a Lord-in-waiting (government whip in the House of Lords) from 1905 to 1907 and as Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms (government chief whip in the House of Lords) between 1907 and 1911. He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1907. In 1909, he was appointed to the Royal Victorian Order as a Knight Commander. In 1911, Lord Harcourt, the Colonial Secretary, offered Denman the post of Governor-General of Australia, apparently to get him out of domestic politics. In the 1911 Coronation Honours, Lord Denman was appointed to the Order of St Michael and St George as a Knight Grand Cross.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governor-General.", "content": "The Denmans arrived in Melbourne on 31 July 1911. They found Andrew Fisher's Labor government firmly in control. As the most politically liberal Governor-General yet appointed, he got on well with the Labor ministers, and his modesty and generosity with his father-in-law's money made him popular with the public. In October 1912, the New South Wales Premier, James McGowen \"evicted\" him from Government House, Sydney. On 12 March 1913, he inaugurated the site of the future national capital and Lady Denman formally announced its name, Canberra. On 12 March 2013, his great-nephew, the 6th Baron Denman and his wife attended celebrations in Canberra commemorating the centenary of the naming of the city.  But Denman found that he had less real political influence than any previous Governor-General. As Australia, along with the other dominions, achieved political maturity, its Prime Minister communicated directly with his British counterpart, cutting the Colonial Secretary and the Governor-General out of the loop. The appointment of an Australian High Commissioner in London further reduced the Governor-General's diplomatic role.  In May 1913 the Labor government was unexpectedly defeated at a general election by Joseph Cook's Liberals. But Labor retained control of the Senate and was determined to frustrate Cook's government at every turn. By early 1914 it was clear that a constitutional crisis was developing. Denman was in poor healththat he was allergic to Australia's national flower, the wattle, did not helpand his marriage was suffering from his wife's unhappiness at being so far from home. He felt he lacked the strength to deal with the political situation, and in May 1914 he resigned.  The Denman Glacier in eastern Antarctica was named after Denman by Sir Douglas Mawson. It had been discovered by the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911–14.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "With the outbreak of the Great War, Denman commanded a Yeomanry regiment from 1914 until 1915. He was appointed Honorary Colonel of the 2nd Cavalry Divisional Signals (Middlesex Yeomanry) on 11 April 1923. He remained loyal to Asquith and the Liberals and so did not hold office again, leading a quiet life until his death in Hove, Sussex, 22 days after that of his wife. He was succeeded in the barony by his son, Thomas Denman, 4th Baron Denman.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas Denman, 3rd Baron Denman, (16 November 1874 – 24 June 1954), was a British aristocrat and politician who served as the fifth Governor-General of Australia, in office from 1911 to 1914.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976679}
{"src_title": "Ethyl acrylate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production.", "content": "Ethyl acrylate is produced by acid-catalysed esterification of acrylic acid, which in turn is produced by oxidation of propylene. It may also be prepared from acetylene, carbon monoxide and ethanol by a Reppe reaction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions and uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Precursor to polymers and other monomers.", "content": "Ethyl acrylate is used in the production of polymers including resins, plastics, rubber, and denture material.  Ethyl acrylate is a reactant for homologous alkyl acrylates (acrylic esters) by transesterification with higher alcohols through acidic or basic catalysis. In that way speciality acrylates are made accessible, e.g. 2-ethylhexyl acrylate (from 2-ethylhexanol) used for pressure-sensitive adhesives, cyclohexyl acrylate (from cyclohexanol) used for automotive clear lacquers, 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate (from ethylene glycol) which is crosslinkable with diisocyanates to form gels used with long-chain acrylates (from C18+ alcohols) as comonomer for comb polymers for reduction of the solidification point of paraffin oils and 2-dimethylaminoethyl acrylate (from dimethylaminoethanol) for the preparation of flocculants for sewage clarification and paper production.  As a reactive monomer, ethyl acrylate is used in homopolymers and copolymers with e.g. ethene, acrylic acid and its salts, amides and esters, methacrylates, acrylonitrile, maleic esters, vinyl acetate, vinyl chloride, vinylidene chloride, styrene, butadiene and unsaturated polyesters. Copolymers of acrylic acid ethyl ester with ethene (EPA/ethylene-ethyl acrylate copolymers) are suitable as adhesives and polymer additives, just like ethene vinyl acetate copolymers. Copolymers with acrylic acid increase the cleaning effect of liquid detergents, copolymers with methacrylic acid are used as gastric juices tablet covers (Eudragit®).  The large number of possible comonomer units and their combination in copolymers and terpolymers with ethyl acrylate allows the realization of different properties of the acrylate copolymers in a variety of applications in paints and adhesives, paper, textile and leather auxiliaries together with cosmetic and pharmaceutical products.  Owing to its tendency to polymerize, samples typically contain an inhibitor such as hydroquinone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As Michael acceptor and HX acceptor.", "content": "Ethyl acrylate reacts with amines catalyzed by Lewis acids in a Michael addition to β-alanine derivatives in high yields:  The nucleophilic addition at ethyl acrylate as an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound is a frequent strategy in the synthesis of pharmaceutical intermediates. Examples are the hypnotic glutethimide or the vasodilator vincamin (obsolete by now) or more recent therapeutics such as the COPD agent cilomilast or the nootropic leteprinim.  Ethyl 3-bromopropionate is prepared by hydrobromination of ethyl acrylate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dienophile.", "content": "With dienes, ethyl acrylate reacts as a good dienophile in Diels–Alder reactions e.g. with buta-1,3-diene in a [4+2] cycloaddition reaction to give a cyclohexene carboxylic acid ester in a high yield.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Natural occurrence.", "content": "Ethyl acrylate is also used as a flavoring agent. It has been found as a volatile component in pineapples and Beaufort cheese and is a secondary component in vanilla flavor obtained from heat extraction of vanilla in amounts of up to 1 ppm. In such high concentrations it negatively affects the extracted aroma.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "The International Agency for Research on Cancer stated, \"Overall evaluation, ethyl acrylate is possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B).\" The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states, \"Human studies on occupational exposure to ethyl acrylate... have suggested a relationship between exposure to the chemical(s) and colorectal cancer, but the evidence is conflicting and inconclusive. In a study by the National Toxicology Program (NTP), increased incidences of squamous cell papillomas and carcinomas of the forestomach were observed in rats and mice exposed via gavage (experimentally placing the chemical in the stomach). However, the NTP recently determined that these data were not relevant to human carcinogenicity since humans do not have a forestomach, and removed ethyl acrylate from its list of carcinogens.\" (Occupational exposure generally involves exposure that occurs regularly, over an extended period of time.)  It is toxic in large doses, with an LD50 (rats, oral) of 1020 mg/kg, and day to day continuous exposure to 5 ppm is considered safe. As of October 2018, the FDA withdrew authorization for its use as a synthetic flavoring substance in food, without regard to its continuing stance that this substance does not pose a risk to public health under the conditions of its intended use.  One favorable safety aspect is that ethyl acrylate has good warning properties; the odor threshold is much lower than any level of health concern. In other words, the bad odor warns people of ethyl acrylate's presence long before the concentration reaches a level capable of creating a serious health risk. Reports of the exact levels vary somewhat, but, for example, the U.S. E.P.A. reports an odor threshold of 0.0012 parts per million (ppm), but the E.P.A.'s lowest level of health concern, the Acute Exposure Guideline Level-1 (AEGL-1) is 8.3 ppm, which is almost 7000 times the odor threshold.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ethyl acrylate is an organic compound with the formula CHCHCOCHCH. It is the ethyl ester of acrylic acid. It is a colourless liquid with a characteristic acrid odor. It is mainly produced for paints, textiles, and non-woven fibers. It is also a reagent in the synthesis of various pharmaceutical intermediates.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976680}
{"src_title": "Metamorphic facies", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historic definition.", "content": "The name \"facies\" was first used for specific sedimentary environments in sedimentary rocks by Swiss geologist Amanz Gressly in 1838. Analogous with these sedimentary facies a number of metamorphic facies were proposed in 1920 by Finnish petrologist Pentti Eskola. Eskola's classification was refined by New-Zealand geologist Francis John Turner throughout his career. A classic work of Turner's was the book he published in 1948 titled \"Mineralogical and Structural Evolution of Metamorphic Rocks\". Turner continued to work in the field, refining the metamorphic facies classifications through the end of his career in the early 1970s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Underlying principles.", "content": "The different metamorphic facies are defined by the mineralogical composition of a rock. When the temperature or pressure in a rock body change, the rock can cross into a different facies and some minerals become stable while others become unstable or metastable. Whether minerals really react depends on the reaction kinetics, the activation energy of the reaction and how much fluid is present in the rock.  The minerals in a metamorphic rock and their age relations can be studied by optical microscopy or scanning electron microscopy of thin sections of the rock. Apart from the metamorphic facies of a rock, a whole terrane can be described by the abbreviations LT, MT, HT, LP, MP, HP (from low, medium or high; pressure or temperature). Since the 1980s the term UHP (ultra high pressure) has been used for rocks that experienced extreme pressures.  Which minerals grow in a rock is also dependent upon the original composition of the protolith (the original rock before metamorphosis). Carbonate rocks have a different composition than a basalt lava, the minerals that can grow in them are different too. Therefore, a metapsammite and a metapelite will have different mineralogical compositions even though they are in the same metamorphic facies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Index minerals.", "content": "Every metamorphic facies has some index minerals by which it can be recognized. That does not mean these minerals will necessarily be visible with the naked eye, or even exist in the rock; if the rock does not have the right chemical composition, they will not crystallize.  Very typical index minerals are the polymorphs of aluminosilicate (AlSiO, all are nesosilicates). Andalusite is stable at low pressure, kyanite is stable at high pressure but relatively low temperature and sillimanite is stable at high temperature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mineral Assemblages.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zeolite facies.", "content": "The zeolite facies is the metamorphic facies with the lowest metamorphic grade. At lower temperature and pressure processes in the rock are called diagenesis. The facies is named for zeolites, strongly hydrated tectosilicates. It can have the following mineral assemblages:  In meta-igneous rocks and greywackes:  In metapelites:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prehnite-pumpellyite-facies.", "content": "The prehnite-pumpellyite facies is a little higher in pressure and temperature than the zeolite facies. It is named for the minerals prehnite (a Ca-Al-phyllosilicate) and pumpellyite (a sorosilicate). The prehnite-pumpellyite is characterized by the mineral assemblages:  In meta-igneous rocks and greywackes:  In metapelites:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Greenschist facies.", "content": "The greenschist facies is at low pressure and temperature. The facies is named for the typical schistose texture of the rocks and green colour of the minerals chlorite, epidote and actinolite. Characteristic mineral assemblages are:  In metabasites:  In metagreywackes:  In metapelites:  In Si-rich dolomite rocks:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Amphibolite-facies.", "content": "The amphibolite facies is a facies of medium pressure and average to high temperature. It is named after amphiboles that form under such circumstances. It has the following mineral assemblages:  In metabasites:  In metapelites:  In Si-dolostones:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Granulite facies.", "content": "The granulite facies is the highest grade of metamorphism at medium pressure. The depth at which it occurs is not constant. A characteristic mineral for this facies and the pyroxene-hornblende facies is orthopyroxene. The granulite facies is characterized by the following mineral assemblages:  In metabasites:  In metapelites:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ultra-High Temperature Facies.", "content": "See: Ultra-high-temperature metamorphism", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Blueschist facies.", "content": "The blueschist facies is at relatively low temperature but high pressure, such as occurs in rocks in a subduction zone. The facies is named after the schistose character of the rocks and the blue minerals glaucophane and lawsonite. The blueschist facies forms the following mineral assemblages:  In metabasites:  In metagreywackes:  In metapelites:  In carbonate-rocks (marbles):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eclogite facies.", "content": "The eclogite facies is the facies at the highest pressure and high temperature. It is named for the metabasic rock eclogite. The eclogite facies has the mineral assemblages:  In metabasites:  In metagranodiorite:  In metapelites:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Albite-epidote-hornfels facies.", "content": "The albite-epidote-hornfels facies is a facies at low pressure and relatively low temperatures. It is named for the two minerals albite and epidote, though they are also stable in other facies. Hornfels is a rock formed by contact metamorphism, a process that characteristically involves high temperatures but low pressures/depths. This facies is characterized by the following minerals:  In metabasites:  In metapelites:  In CALCAREOUS ASSEMBLAGE: Calcite + talc + quartz", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hornblende-hornfels facies.", "content": "The hornblende-hornfels facies is a facies with the same low pressures but slightly higher temperatures as the albite-epidote facies. Though it is named for the mineral hornblende, the appearance of that mineral is not constrained to this facies. The hornblende-hornfels facies has the following mineral assemblages:  In metabasites:  In metapelites:  In KO-poor sediments or meta-igneous rocks:  In Si-rich dolostones:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pyroxene-hornfels facies.", "content": "The pyroxene-hornfels facies is the contact-metamorphic facies with the highest temperatures and is, like the granulite facies, characterized by the mineral orthopyroxene. It is characterized by the following mineral assemblages:  In metabasites:  In metapelites: (If the temperature is below 750 °C there will be andalusite instead of sillimanite)  In carbonate rocks:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sanidinite facies.", "content": "The sanidinite facies is a rare facies of extremely high temperatures and low pressure. It can only be reached under certain contact-metamorphic circumstances. Due to the high temperature the rock experiences partial melting and glass is formed. This facies is named for the mineral sanidine. It is characterized by the following mineral assemblages:  In metapelites:  In carbonates:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tectonic Setting.", "content": "Ecologites and blueschists are associated with subduction zones. Granulites are associated with volcanic arcs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A metamorphic facies is a set of mineral assemblages in metamorphic rocks formed under similar pressures and temperatures. The assemblage is typical of what is formed in conditions corresponding to an area on the two dimensional graph of temperature vs. pressure (See diagram in Figure 1). Rocks which contain certain minerals can therefore be linked to certain tectonic settings, times and places in the geological history of the area. The boundaries between facies (and corresponding areas on the temperature v. pressure graph) are wide because they are gradational and approximate. The area on the graph corresponding to rock formation at the lowest values of temperature and pressure is the range of formation of sedimentary rocks, as opposed to metamorphic rocks, in a process called diagenesis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976681}
{"src_title": "John Baird, 1st Viscount Stonehaven", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Baird was born in Chelsea, London, son of Sir Alexander Baird, 1st Baronet, and wife The Hon. Annette Maria, daughter of Lawrence Palk, 1st Baron Haldon.  He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, but left university without graduating. He was commissioned in the Lanarkshire Yeomanry (later the Scottish Horse). In 1894 he served as an \"aide-de-camp\" to the Governor of New South Wales, then entered the diplomatic service. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1904 and retired from the Diplomatic Service in 1908.  He was a Deputy Lieutenant for Kincardineshire from 5 January 1900.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career 1910–1924.", "content": "Baird was elected to the House of Commons for Rugby in the January 1910 general election as a Conservative, and was private secretary to the Leader of the Conservative Party, Bonar Law, between 1911 and 1916. He also fought in the First World War where he was mentioned in despatches and awarded the Distinguished Service Order. He entered David Lloyd George's coalition government as Parliamentary Secretary to the Air Board in December 1916, an office that was renamed Parliamentary Secretary to the Air Council in November 1917. In January 1919 he became Joint Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Munitions. Already in April 1919 he was made Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, which he remained until the coalition government fell in October 1922.  Bonar Law became Prime Minister the same month, and appointed Baird Minister of Transport and First Commissioner of Works. He was sworn of the Privy Council a few days later. In the November 1922 general election, he was returned for Ayr Burghs. He continued as First Commissioner of Works and Minister of Transport also when Stanley Baldwin became Prime Minister in May 1923 and held them until January 1924, when Ramsay MacDonald's Labour government took office.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governor-General of Australia.", "content": "In December, after the Conservatives returned to power, he accepted the position of Governor-General of Australia offered to him by Australian Prime Minister Stanley Bruce, who opted for Baird partly because of his political experience and partly because he was a more modest figure than the aristocratic alternatives. In June 1925 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Stonehaven, of Ury in the County of Kincardine, and appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG).  Lord Stonehaven arrived in Australia in October 1925. He quickly established good relations with Bruce, with whom he had much in common. But, like his predecessor, he found that Australian Prime Ministers no longer wanted a Governor-General acting as an Imperial overseer, or as a representative of the British government, but merely as discreet figureheads. The 1926 Imperial Conference in London recognised the \"de facto\" independence of the Dominions, and ended the role of the Governors-General as diplomats and as channels of communication between governments. From now on the Governor-General's sole role was to be a personal representative of the Crown.  There were other changes during Stonehaven's term. In May 1927 he formally opened the first meeting of the Australian Parliament in the newly built Parliament House in Canberra, and the Governor-General was at last given a permanent residence, Government House, Canberra, commonly known by the previous name of the house, \"Yarralumla\". This meant an end to travelling between government houses in Sydney and Melbourne and made the post of Governor-General less expensive. At the same time, the advent of aviation, of which Stonehaven was a keen exponent, made travelling around Australia much easier.  For most of Stonehaven's term Bruce seemed firmly entrenched in office, but in September 1929 he was unexpectedly defeated on the floor of the House of Representatives, and asked Stonehaven for a dissolution. Although the Parliament was only a year old, Stonehaven agreed at once: the days when Governors-General exercised a discretion in this area had passed.  Bruce's party was defeated at the October election, and Bruce also lost his own seat. The Labor leader, James Scullin, took office in January 1930. Stonehaven's relations with Scullin were correct but not friendly, since his political sympathies lay elsewhere. It was probably fortunate for him that his term expired before the crises of the Scullin government began. Stonehaven left Australia on 2 October 1930, at which point his successor had not been determined; Lord Somers, the Governor of Victoria, took over as Administrator of the Commonwealth until a permanent successor, Sir Isaac Isaacs, took office in January 1931.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Freemasonry.", "content": "Stonehaven was a freemason. During his term as Governor-General (1925–1930), he was also Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of New South Wales.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "On his return to Britain he was appointed Chairman of the Conservative Party in 1931, a post he held until 1936. In 1938 he was further honoured when he was made Viscount Stonehaven, of Ury in the County of Kincardine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Stonehaven married Lady Ethel Sydney Keith-Falconer, daughter of the 9th Earl of Kintore, in 1905. They had two sons and three daughters. Lord Stonehaven died of hypertensive cardiac disease at Ury House, Stonehaven, Scotland, in August 1941, aged 67, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Ian. The Viscountess Stonehaven succeeded her elder brother as eleventh Countess of Kintore in 1966. She died in September 1974, one day after her 100th birthday.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sir John Lawrence Baird of Urie, 1st Viscount Stonehaven, 2nd Baronet, 3rd of Ury, (27 April 1874 – 20 August 1941) was a British politician who served as the eighth Governor-General of Australia, in office from 1925 to 1930. He had previously been a government minister under David Lloyd George, Bonar Law, and Stanley Baldwin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976682}
{"src_title": "William Sidney, 1st Viscount De L'Isle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sidney was the younger of two children, and the only son, of William Sidney, 5th Baron De L'Isle and Dudley (19 August 1859 – 18 June 1945) and his wife, Winifred Agneta Yorke Bevan (d. 11 February 1959). He was a descendant of King William IV by his mistress Dorothea Jordan. He was educated at Eton College and Magdalene College, Cambridge and became a chartered accountant. In 1929 he joined the Grenadier Guards Reserve of Officers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Lord De L'Isle married Hon Jacqueline Corrine Yvonne Vereker (20 October 1914 – 15 November 1962), daughter of Field Marshal John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort, on 8 June 1940. The couple had five children:  After his wife's death, he married the widowed Lady Glanusk (\"née\" Margaret Shoubridge) on 24 March 1966 in Paris. They had no children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War service.", "content": "During the Second World War, Sidney fought in the Battle of France and the Italian Campaign. While serving as a company commander in the 5th Battalion, Grenadier Guards (itself part of 24th Guards Brigade of the British 1st Infantry Division), he led a handful of men in the defence of the Anzio beachhead in February 1944, for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross. Sidney led a successful attack which drove German troops of the 147th Grenadier Regiment out of a gully. Later he led another counter-attack and dashed forward, engaging the Germans with his tommy gun at point-blank range, forcing a withdrawal. When the attack was renewed, Sidney and one guardsman were wounded and another killed, but he would not consent to have his wounds dressed until the Germans had been beaten off and the battalion's position had been consolidated. During this time, although extremely weak from loss of blood, he continued to encourage and inspire his men.  In later life, when asked where he had been shot, he would jocularly respond that he was shot in Italy. This was to conceal that he had been shot in the buttocks. The ribbon for the medal was made from one of his father-in-law Lord Gort's uniforms and was awarded by General Sir Harold Alexander, commanding the Allied Armies in Italy, on 3 March 1944 in Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political life.", "content": "At a by-election in October 1944, he was elected unopposed to the House of Commons as Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) for Chelsea. His father died in June 1945 and he succeeded as 6th Baron De L'Isle and Dudley, requiring translation to the House of Lords. He thus retired from the House of Commons prior to the July 1945 general election.  In 1951 he was appointed Secretary of State for Air under Winston Churchill and held that office until 1955. During this time he visited Australia, travelling to Woomera to examine weapons research and meeting the Prime Minister, Robert Menzies. In 1956 he was created Viscount De L'Isle, of Penshurst in the County of Kent.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governor-General.", "content": "Following the death in office of Lord Dunrossil in February 1961, Prime Minister Robert Menzies recommended De L'Isle as his military honours, aristocratic background, and political experience apparently made him, according to one author, Menzies' \"vision of ideal governor-general material\". De L'Isle was sworn in on 3 August 1961. He continued Dunrossil's revival of the full ceremonial vice-regal uniform, but would be the last governor-general to do so. De L'Isle faced no constitutional issues during his time in office; the Official Secretary throughout his term was Murray Tyrrell.  De L'Isle was the first governor-general since William McKell (1947–1953) to have children living at Yarralumla, and this made him popular with the general public. However, his wife fell ill in his first year of office, and died on 16 November 1962, aged 48. Despite this, he chose to continue in office until the expiry of Dunrossil's original five-year term in 1965. Two of his daughters, Catherine and Anne, acted as official hostess in place of their mother.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "By the time of his retirement in 1965, public opinion was strongly in favour of an Australian Governor-General, although this was not a reflection on his performance in the role. His continuing interest in Australia was shown by several visits after his retirement, the last for Australia's bicentenary in 1988 when he presented a bronze statue, which now stands in the grounds of Government House in Canberra.  In 1975 he co-founded what is now called The Freedom Association, a free-market campaign group opposed to the post-war consensus that played a prominent role in the Grunwick Dispute.  Viscount De L'Isle died in Kent on 5 April 1991 and was buried in the Sidney family vault at St John the Baptist, Penshurst. He was the last surviving Victoria Cross recipient who had been a member of both Houses of Parliament. He was succeeded in his titles by his only son, Philip.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Styles and honours.", "content": "In 1965 De L'Isle succeeded his kinsman as ninth Baronet of Castle Goring.  He was appointed Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter (KG) on 23 April 1968, becoming one of only two men ever to have held both of the highest orders of gallantry and chivalry – Victoria Cross and Knight of the Garter (the other being Field Marshal the Lord Roberts).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William Philip Sidney, 1st Viscount De L'Isle, (23 May 1909 – 5 April 1991), known as The Lord De L'Isle and Dudley between 1945 and 1956, was a British Army officer, politician and Victoria Cross recipient who served as the 15th Governor-General of Australia, in office from 1961 to 1965. He was the last non-Australian to hold the position.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976683}
{"src_title": "Linnaeus's two-toed sloth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Phylogeny.", "content": "Sloths belong to the order Pilosa, which also includes anteaters. They belong to the super order Xenarthra, which includes the Cingulata. Xenarthra are edentate or toothless. They lack incisors and have a large reduction in number of teeth with only four to five sets remaining including canines.  Modern sloths are divided into two families based on the number of toes on their front feet, Megalonychidae and Bradypodidae. Linnaeus's two-toed sloth and Hoffmann's two-toed sloth (\"Choloepus hoffmanni\") belong to the family Megalonychidae, which included extinct ground sloths.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Morphology.", "content": "\"Choloepus didactylus\" are larger than three-toed sloths. They have longer hair, bigger eyes, and their back and front legs are more equal in length. Their ears, hind feet and head are generally larger than Bradypodidae. They do however have a shorter tail. Their shoulder height, the height from the shoulder blade to the tips of the claw is longer than three-toed sloths, indicating longer arms.  The species has relatively few teeth; it has four to five sets including canines and lacks incisors. The teeth lack enamel, consisting only of two layers ever-growing dentin. Supernumerary teeth have occasionally been observed, but this has been reported in almost all mammalian orders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"C. didactylus\" is a solitary, nocturnal and arboreal animal, found in rainforests. The two-toed sloth falls prey to wild cats such as the ocelot and jaguar as well as large birds of prey such as the harpy and crested eagles. Predation mainly occurs when the sloth descends to the ground in order to defecate or change trees. Anacondas have also been known to hunt sloths. It is able to swim, making it possible to cross rivers and creeks, but maybe also making it more available to a predator like an anaconda.  Two-toed sloths live in ever-wet tropical rainforests that are hot and humid. They tend to live in areas where there is a lot of vine growth so they can easily travel from tree to tree in the canopies of the forests. They mainly eat leaves, but there is lacking data on the extent of their diet due to their nocturnal lifestyle and camouflage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Linnaeus's two-toed sloth (\"Choloepus didactylus\"), also known as the southern two-toed sloth, unau, or Linne's two-toed sloth is a species of sloth from South America, found in Venezuela, the Guyanas, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil north of the Amazon River. There is now evidence suggesting the species' range expands into Bolivia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976684}
{"src_title": "Detroit street circuit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formula One.", "content": "Created largely in an effort to improve the city's international image, the race meant that the United States would host three Grands Prix in the 1982 season, the only nation in F1 history to do so. (The other two US races, Long Beach and Las Vegas, had been added to the schedule for similar purposes.) The inaugural Detroit Grand Prix saw John Watson claim victory after starting in 17th place, the lowest grid position for an eventual race winner on a street circuit. (Watson would break his own record at Long Beach the next year by winning from 22nd place.)  The Detroit street circuit's place in Formula One history was assured when Michele Alboreto won the 1983 race driving a Tyrrell 011. This was the last of 155 Grand Prix wins for the 3.0L Cosworth DFV V8 engine, dating back to its debut at the 1967 Dutch Grand Prix in the hands of dual World Champion Jim Clark. It was also the last of 23 Formula One race wins for Tyrrell, who had won their first Grand Prix at the 1971 Spanish Grand Prix with that year's World Champion Jackie Stewart driving the Tyrrell 003.  The race soon gained a reputation for being horrendously demanding and gruelling, with the very bumpy track often breaking up badly under the consistently hot weather. It was perhaps the single hardest race on both car and driver in Formula One during the 1980s, often producing races of attrition in which a large number of cars would retire due to mechanical breakage or contact with the narrow concrete walls. Brakes and gearboxes in particular were tested to their breaking points - the drivers had to brake hard more than 20 times per lap and change gear around 50 to 60 times in one lap (cars still had manual gearboxes in those days), for 62 laps usually lasting around 1 minute and 45 seconds. At least half the field retired in each race; it was thus considered an achievement if a driver could even finish the race, let alone win it.  The 1984 race, won by reigning World Champion Nelson Piquet, tied an F1 road course record by featuring 20 retirements. Shortly after the race, impurities were found in the water injection system of Martin Brundle's Tyrrell, causing him to be stripped of his 2nd-place finish and Tyrrell (by then the only team still using the naturally-aspirated DFV) to be disqualified from the entire 1984 season. The race's five classified finishers (discounting Brundle) is beaten only by the 1966 Monaco Grand Prix.  By 1985, Detroit was the sole American venue on the F1 calendar - Las Vegas had been dropped after 1982, Long Beach switched to Champ Car for 1984, and a new event in Dallas only lasted one year after the heat and deteriorating track conditions almost saw it cancelled on the morning of the race. That year saw Ayrton Senna take pole position, and he went on to enjoy substantial success at the circuit, winning the 1986, 1987, and 1988 races there, as well as taking further pole positions in 1986 and 1988.  The track was only moderately received by the drivers, and was disliked especially by world champions Alain Prost and Nelson Piquet. Despite his open dislike of the track, Prost did finish second in 1988, and third in 1986 and 1987 (all for McLaren). Piquet, who generally disliked street circuits (with the exception of the faster and more open Adelaide circuit in Australia), won at Detroit in 1984 and came second to Senna in 1987. Embarrassingly, Piquet hit the wall during practice for the 1988 race when he spun his Lotus-Honda into the wall coming out of turn 1. At the time, the Lotus had been carrying an onboard camera for some recorded laps.  The 1988 race, similar to the failed Dallas event, was extremely hot, and the circuit broke up very badly due to the intense heat and humidity. After the race, the drivers were far more vocal in their criticism of the track, with race winner Senna comparing driving on the crumbled surface to driving in heavy rain. 1988 subsequently proved to be the last F1 race in Detroit, as the sport's governing body FISA ruled that its temporary pit area wasn't up to the required standard for a World Championship race. The United States Grand Prix moved to another street circuit in Phoenix, Arizona, while the Detroit event became a CART race.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trans-Am.", "content": "Starting in 1984, the SCCA Trans-Am Series held a support race during the Grand Prix weekend. The Motor City 100 was often regarded as one of the most important events of the Trans-Am schedule due to the increased television and sponsor exposure, made possible by the international broadcast of the Grand Prix. The Trans-Am race wasn't popular with the Formula One drivers though with the heavy and powerful Trans-Am cars with their huge rear wheels having a tendency to break up the track, already in a suspect state thanks to the heat of the summer when the races were scheduled. This often made the Grands Prix a more difficult prospect due to drivers having to go offline on to the 'dirty' part of the road to avoid problem areas on the track surface.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CART.", "content": "Three CART races were held on the track which was altered slightly with the removal of the unpopular chicane immediately prior to the pits. Emerson Fittipaldi won the first and last races and Michael Andretti won the second race; Andretti also won pole position for each Detroit race. The final race featured an unusual lack of attrition as nearly 3/4 of the drivers finished.  The race was not economically viable for the city, so the venue was changed to a temporary course on Belle Isle for the 1992 season. That event lasted until 2001 as a CART event and was briefly revived for the 2007 and 2008 American Le Mans Series and IndyCar Series seasons, and then again from 2012 onwards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The streets of Detroit, in the U.S. state of Michigan hosted Formula One racing, and later CART racing, between the 1982 and 1991 seasons. The street circuit (course) was set up near the Renaissance Center and the Cobo Arena, also including a small part of the M-1 highway, also known as Woodward Avenue. It is a flat circuit, with elevation ranging from 176 to 184 metres above sea level.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976685}
{"src_title": "Grand Princess", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "\"Grand Princess\" was the first of the s, and has a different decor scheme to her sister ships, using darker woods, and the interior decor is more similar to the smaller ships. When \"Grand Princess\" was launched, she featured in the Princess Cruises brochures as a \"Sun\"-class ship; it was only with the subsequent launch of that the \"Grand\" class appeared in brochures.  She is the sister ship of and \"Golden Princess\". \"Grand Princess\" was the setting for a task in the second series of the UK version of the reality TV show \"The Apprentice\".  \"Grand Princess\" has a large theater, a large central performance lounge, and an aft show lounge.  On 19 July 2009, the ship was drydocked for 14 days for refurbishments such as boosting Grand Princess’s energy and environmental efficiency.  In May 2011, \"Grand Princess\" completed the most extensive dry-dock in Princess Cruises history that included a refit and removal of the passengers lounge from her stern. This resolved her tendency to sail bow high, and has improved her fuel economy by about 3–4%. The bow high tendency was peculiar to \"Grand Princess\", and does not affect any of the other Grand-class ships (or the derivative classes) as unlike \"Grand Princess\" they have aluminium upper decks. In March 2019, \"Grand Princess\" underwent another dry-dock refurbishment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ports of call.", "content": "As of August 2019, \"Grand Princess\" is based year-round in San Francisco, California, sailing on itineraries for Alaska, Hawaii, the Mexican Riviera, and the California coast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Incidents.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2017 whale incident.", "content": "On 9 August 2017, a dead humpback whale was found stuck on the bow of the ship after it docked in Ketchikan, Alaska. Princess Cruises issued a statement that said \"It is unknown how or when this happened as the ship felt no impact. It is also unknown, at this time, whether the whale was alive or already deceased before becoming lodged on the bow.\" It was the second time in two years that a whale had been carried into an Alaska port on the bow of a cruise ship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2020 coronavirus pandemic.", "content": "The Princess-owned \"Grand\"-class ship,, had experienced an outbreak of the disease in February 2020, and had been quarantined for nearly a month in Yokohama, Japan; at least 712 out of the 3,711 passengers and crew had contracted the virus, and seven of them had died.  In March 2020, it was reported that two passengers on the Grand Princess's cruise to Mexico of 11–21 February 2020 had contracted the COVID-19 coronavirus disease and one of them had died. The announcement came as the ship approached San Francisco with 3,533 passengers aboard (2,422 guests and 1,111 crew members, with 54 nationalities), some of whom were reporting symptoms consistent with the disease, and the ship was held offshore by authorities for quarantine and testing of some of the passengers and crew.  On 5–6 March 2020, while the ship was near the coast of California, the California National Guard's 129th Rescue Wing dropped off and retrieved coronavirus tests. As of 6 March, 46 people on the ship had been tested, and 21 tested positive, including 19 crew and 2 passengers. Among the other 25, one test was inconclusive and the other tests were negative. \"Grand Princess\" was allowed to dock on 9 March in the industrial Port of Oakland, and some of the passengers were gradually disembarked, starting with those in acute need of medical treatment. Crew members have been held on the ship for quarantine and treatment, and all disembarking passengers are being tested for the coronavirus and transferred by planes or buses to various military bases in California, Texas, and Georgia for quarantine, while a handful who were treated at hospitals and released were moved to various hotels. On 10 March, Canada flew its citizen passengers to the CFB Trenton military base in Ontario for quarantine there. On 11 March, it was reported that one of the repatriated Canadians had tested positive for the virus after disembarking. On 16 March 2020, \"Grand Princess\" undocked from the Port of Oakland.  On 1 April 2020, a crew member became the third person to die besides the two male passengers. While under quarantine, the ship was anchored in San Francisco Bay for almost three weeks. As of 28 April 2020, 7 people died.  Of the 1,103 passengers who elected to be tested, 103 tested positive, 699 tested negative, and the remaining results were pending, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) said. Nearly two-thirds of the passengers quarantined at Travis Air Force Base refused to take the test, with some passengers stating that federal officials had discouraged them from doing so, and others admitting that they did not want to be tested because they wanted to be released from quarantine.  On 7 April 2020, \"Grand Princess\" docked at Pier 35 in San Francisco for supplies before leaving San Francisco the next evening.  As of 20 April 2020, neither Princess Cruises, nor the CDC, nor the HHS appeared to have made any subsequent test results public. In addition, some passengers complained about waiting for weeks without getting test results back, and some passengers have not been tested at all even though they showed symptoms upon disembarkation, despite Vice President Mike Pence's earlier claim that all passengers would be tested.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lawsuits.", "content": "At least a dozen lawsuits have been filed by passengers of \"Grand Princess\" against companies responsible for the cruise ship.  On 9 March 2020, a lawsuit was filed against Princess Cruise Lines by a Floridian couple that were passengers still aboard \"Grand Princess\" at the time. The lawsuit alleged that Princess Cruise Lines did not screen passengers appropriately for the virus prior to boarding and that the cruise line did not warn passengers that symptoms of the virus had been observed on passengers of the previous voyage.  On 8 April 2020, a lawsuit was filed against Princess Cruise Lines, Fairline Shipping International Corporation, and Carnival Corporation by nine Northern Californians who were passengers of the Hawaii cruise. The lawsuit alleged that the defendants did not screen passengers appropriately, did not disinfect the ship properly, and did not quarantine passengers until around 5 March 2020. The lawsuit also alleged that the defendants did not inform passengers that coronavirus symptoms had been reported by passengers on the previous voyage, that passengers from the previous voyage who stayed aboard the ship for the Hawaii cruise had been exposed to the virus, and that a former passenger had died. One of the plaintiffs was infected by the virus and hospitalized at an ICU.  On 13 April 2020, a lawsuit was filed against Princess Cruise Lines by the widow of a retired Dallas firefighter who was a passenger that died of the virus. The lawsuit alleged that Princess Cruise Lines did not warn the couple that an outbreak on board the ship had sickened passengers during its previous voyage.  On 4 May 2020, a lawsuit was filed against Princess Cruise Lines and Carnival Corporation by the son of a retired Lehigh County steel worker who was a passenger that died of the virus. The lawsuit alleged that passengers were not informed that passengers on the previous voyage had exhibited symptoms consistent with the virus and that there were crew members aboard that had been exposed to the virus.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Grand Princess is a cruise ship owned by Princess Cruises. It was built in 1998 by Fincantieri Cantieri Navali Italiani in Monfalcone, Italy, with yard number 5956, at a cost of approximately US$450 million. She was the largest and most expensive passenger ship ever built at the time. \"Grand Princess\" was the flagship in the Princess Cruises fleet until the new took that title in June 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976686}
{"src_title": "Ondřej Pavelec", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Junior.", "content": "Pavelec was drafted in the first round of the 2005 CHL Import Draft by the Cape Breton Screaming Eagles of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL). He was also drafted by the NHL's Atlanta Thrashers in the second round, 41st overall, at the 2005 NHL Entry Draft. He played two seasons with the Screaming Eagles and helped them to a semi-final finish in the 2006–07 season.  Pavelec was a First Team All-Star in each of his two seasons with Cape Breton, and won the Jacques Plante Memorial Trophy for best goals against average (GAA) in both years, making him only the fourth player to repeat as Jacques Plante Trophy winner and the first in 20 years to do so (Robert Desjardins was the last). As a rookie, took home the Raymond Lagacé Trophy and RDS Trophy, awarded to top defensive rookie and rookie of the year, respectively. His numbers were remarkably consistent over the two seasons, as he recorded GAAs of 2.51 in 2005–06 and 2.52 in 2006–07, with save percentages of.929 and.908, respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "Pavelec signed a professional contract with the Atlanta Thrashers in 2007, joining their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Chicago Wolves. On 18 May 2007, Pavelec shut-out the Toronto Marlies 5–0 in the AHL's Western Conference Finals. Pavelec helped Wolves win the Calder Cup in the 2007–08 season.  After starting nine games for Chicago in the 2008–09 season, Pavelec was recalled to the NHL after Thrashers starter Kari Lehtonen suffered an injury. Pavelec played his first NHL game on 20 October 2007, then made his first NHL start, and recorded his first NHL win, against the Tampa Bay Lightning on 3 November 2007. He was playing with Atlanta since being called up on 1 November 2008, until he was reassigned to the Wolves on 19 December 2008. He later returned to the Thrashers.  Due to the 2012–13 NHL lockout, Pavelec returned to his native Czech Republic, where he was expected to join HC Oceláři Třinec. However, he signed with Bílí Tygři Liberec instead, where he joined fellow NHLer Ladislav Šmíd. During the 2014–15 season, Pavelec set a Winnipeg Jets franchise record by recording three shutouts in a row, going 187:05 without allowing a goal. He was instrumental in helping the team qualify for their first ever Stanley Cup playoffs since the franchise relocated from Atlanta to Winnipeg in 2011.  Pavelec was placed on waivers by the Jets on 10 October 2016 and was subsequently sent down to the Manitoba Moose of the AHL. The Jets recalled Pavelec on 17 January 2017, and he played his first game of the 2016–17 season on 18 January 2017.  On 1 July 2017, having left the Thrashers/Jets as a free agent after ten professional seasons with the franchise, Pavelec signed a one-year, $1.3 million contract with the New York Rangers.  On 20 September 2018, Pavelec announced his retirement after an 11-year career.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "On-ice collapse.", "content": "On 8 October 2010, Pavelec collapsed and lost consciousness during a game against the Washington Capitals while there was a break in play at 2:25 into the first period. He was taken off the ice on a stretcher and taken to the hospital.  He regained consciousness while at the hospital and was in stable condition, and apparently was concerned about the score in the game, which the Thrashers won 4–2. It was determined after testing by doctors that the cause of his collapse was neurocardiogenic syncope, a type of fainting spell, and that he received a concussion and lost consciousness after his head hit the ice. He was released from the hospital on 11 October 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Pavelec led the Czech Republic under-17 team to a second-place finish in the 2004 Junior World Cup, and the under-18 squad to a fourth-place finish at the U-18 World Junior Cup. He was also the starting goalie for the Czech Republic junior team at the 2006 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Vancouver, Kelowna and Kamloops, British Columbia.  Pavelec then played for the senior Czech team at the 2010 World Championships, helping capture a gold medal. He also competed in the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Sochi, respectively. In between the two Olympic tournaments, he helped lead the Czechs to a bronze medal at the 2011 World Championships.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ondřej Pavelec (; born 31 August 1987) is a Czech former professional ice hockey goaltender. Drafted in the second round, 41st overall, by the Atlanta Thrashers in 2005, he stayed with the team as they became the Winnipeg Jets in 2011, and played his final season with the New York Rangers. During the 2012–13 NHL lockout, Pavelec played for Bílí Tygři Liberec of the Czech Extraliga (ELH) and Pelicans of the Finnish SM-liiga.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976687}
{"src_title": "Ipomoea purpurea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Like all morning glories the plant entwines itself around structures, growing to a height of tall. The leaves are heart-shaped and the stems are covered with brown hairs. The flowers are trumpet-shaped, predominantly blue to purple or white, and diameter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The plant is predisposed to moist and rich soil, but can be found growing in a wide array of soil types. It is naturalized throughout warm temperate and subtropical regions of the world. Although it is often considered a noxious weed, \"Ipomoea purpurea\" is also grown for its beautiful purple and white flowers and has many cultivars. Common cultivars include \"I. purpurea\" 'Crimson Rambler' (red-violet blossoms with white throats), 'Grandpa Ott's,' 'Kniola's Black Knight,' and 'Star of Yelta' (blossoms in varying shades of deep purple with white or pale pink throats) and 'Milky Way' (white blossoms with mauve accents).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The triangular seeds have some history of use as a psychedelic; they, like \"Ipomoea tricolor\" may contain LSA. Effects are reported to be somewhat similar to those of LSD.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flower color.", "content": "Acylated cyanidin glycosides can be isolated from violet-blue flowers of \"I. purpurea\". These anthocyanins were all based on cyanidin 3-sophoroside-5-glucoside, acylated with caffeic acid and/or p-coumaric acid.  Acylated pelargonidin glycosides can be isolated from the red-purple flowers of \"I. purpurea\". The acylated anthocyanins were all based on pelargonidin 3-sophoroside-5-glucoside, acylated with caffeic acid and/or glucosylcaffeic acid.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxic treatments.", "content": "Commercial morning glory seeds are commonly treated with toxic methylmercury which serves as a preservative and a cumulative neurotoxic poison that is considered useful by some to discourage recreational use of them. There is no legal requirement in the United States to disclose to buyers that seeds have been treated with a toxic heavy metal compound. According to the book Substances of Abuse, in addition to methylmercury, the seeds are commonly coated with a chemical that cannot be removed with washing that is designed to cause unpleasant physical symptoms such as nausea and abdominal pain. The book states that this chemical is also toxic.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ipomoea purpurea, the common morning-glory, tall morning-glory, or purple morning glory, is a species in the genus \"Ipomoea\", native to Mexico and Central America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976688}
{"src_title": "Wadie Haddad", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years and education.", "content": "Haddad was born to Palestinian Christian (Greek Orthodox) parents in Safed, Palestine, in 1927. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War his family's home was destroyed and his family fled to Lebanon. He studied medicine at the American University of Beirut, where he met fellow Palestinian refugee, George Habash, who was also a medical student. Together they helped found the Arab Nationalist Movement (ANM), a pan-Arabist and Arab socialist group aiming to create the State of Palestine and unite the Arab countries.  After graduating, he relocated with Habash (a pediatrician) to Amman, Jordan, where they established a clinic. He worked with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA) in 1956, but due to his Palestinian nationalist activism he was arrested by the Jordanian authorities in 1957. In 1961, he managed to escape to Syria. Haddad argued for armed struggle against Israel from 1963 onwards, and succeeded in militarizing the ANM.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in PFLP.", "content": "After the 1967 Six-Day War, the Palestinian wing of the ANM transformed into a socialist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), under the leadership of Habash. Haddad became the leader of the military wing of the group, involved in organizing attacks on Israeli targets. He helped plan the first PFLP aircraft hijacking in 1968, when an Israeli El Al plane was hijacked. He argued for and organized hijackings, despite criticism against the PFLP from within the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).  The Dawson's Field hijackings of 1970, when PFLP members including Leila Khaled brought three passenger jets to Jordan, helped provoke the bloody fighting of Black September. After the expulsion of the PLO factions from Jordan, Haddad was subjected to harsh criticism from the PFLP, which was in turn under pressure from the rest of the PLO. Haddad was ordered not to attack targets outside of Israel, but he continued operations under the name of Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – External Operations (PFLP-EO). Haddad was expelled from the organization PFLP in 1973.  He also employed the services of Ilich Ramírez Sánchez, better known as \"Carlos the Jackal\", whom he had met in 1970 and trained in guerrilla warfare techniques. Haddad decided to expel Sánchez from his team after Sánchez had been accused of refusing to kill two hostages, and possibly stealing ransom money, following the 1975 assault on the OPEC conference in Vienna. Haddad organized the Entebbe hijacking in June 1976.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Haddad died on 28 March 1978 in the German Democratic Republic, supposedly from leukemia. According to the book \"Striking Back\", published by Aaron J. Klein in 2006, Haddad was eliminated by the Mossad, which had sent the chocolate-loving Haddad Belgian chocolates coated with a slow-acting and undetectable poison which caused him to die several months later.  According to a 2018 book by Ronen Bergman, Mossad killed Haddad by poisoning his toothpaste.  What remained of the PFLP-EO dissolved after his death, but in the process inaugurated the 15 May Organization and the PFLP-SC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "KGB agent.", "content": "According to Vasili Mitrokhin, a senior KGB archivist who defected to the UK in 1992, in early 1970 Haddad was recruited by the KGB as an agent, codenamed NATIONALIST. Thereafter, in deep secrecy the Soviets helped to fund and arm the PFLP. The KGB had warning of its major operations and almost certainly sanctioned the most significant, such as the September 1970 hijackings. Haddad remained a highly valued agent till his death in 1978.  A letter by KGB chairman Yuri Andropov to Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet leader and head of the Communist Party, about the covert transfer of arms to the PFLP refers to Haddad as a \"trusted KGB intelligence agent\". It and two other highly classified documents from the CPSU Central Committee archive were located and secretly copied by Vladimir Bukovsky in 1992.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wadie Haddad (; 1927 – 28 March 1978), also known as Abu Hani, was a Palestinian leader of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine's armed wing. He was responsible for organizing several civilian airplane hijackings in support of the Palestinian cause in the 1960s and 1970s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976689}
{"src_title": "West Russian Volunteer Army", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Western Russian Volunteer Army, unlike the pro-Entente Volunteer Army, was supported and in fact created by Germany. The Compiègne Armistice, article 12, stipulated that German troops were to remain in the Baltic provinces to help fight Bolshevik advances and were to withdraw once the Allies determined the situation was under control. The order to withdraw was given after the Treaty of Versailles was signed in June 1919.  However, only a small portion of the Freikorps in the Baltic retired; the rest stayed under the leadership of General Rüdiger von der Goltz. To avoid casting blame on Germany and infuriating the Allies, he withdrew into the background and merged his troops with the \"Special Russian Corps\", led by Cossack General Pavel Bermont-Avalov. The two generals recruited about 50,000 men: mostly Freikorps, Baltic Germans, as well as some Russian POWs captured by Germany in World War I and then released on the promise that they would help fight against the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War. The Army declared that it joined the forces of Aleksandr Kolchak and marched to attack Bolsheviks, but their real goal was to sustain German power in the Baltic region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Confrontation with the Republics of Latvia and Lithuania.", "content": "The political situation in Baltic region continued to deteriorate. A new government in Lithuania refused to allow White Russians to pass troops through and establish a military base. After initially supporting the White Russians the Weimar government, under pressure from the Entente, banned the transfer of German soldiers to the Russians and ordered the Reichswehr to block the East Prussian border to block Freikorp's supplies. General von der Goltz was finally recalled on October 4th.  In this circumstances Bermondt-Avalov launched an offensive using Freikorps in attempt to force the Republic of Latvia to negotiate. With the support of British naval artillery and Estonian Panzerzug, a Latvian counter-offensive followed in November, which forced Bermondt's army to withdraw. Mitau was also lost in loss-making fights.  In October 1919, the West Russian Volunteer Army attacked the newly independent states of Lithuania and Latvia, to which Germany had granted independence. It briefly occupied the west bank of the Daugava river in Riga and the government of Kārlis Ulmanis had to request military assistance from Lithuania and Estonia. The Estonians sent two armoured trains to aid the Latvians (according to some explanations, in exchange for Latvia ceding the island of Ruhnu and its territorial waters to Estonia) while the Lithuanians were engaged in battles with the Bolsheviks and could only issue diplomatic protests. The Latvians also received assistance from the guns of a British Royal Navy destroyer, HMS \"Vanoc\", in Riga harbour.  In November, the Latvian army managed to drive the Bermont-Avalov forces into Lithuanian territory. Mitau was also lost. Finally, the West Russian Volunteer Army suffered heavy defeats by the Lithuanians near Radviliškis, a major railway centre.  Upon defeat Bermondt-Avalov fled to Denmark. The German Freikorps were handed over to the German Lieutenant General von Eberhardt, successor of the Goltz as commander of the VI Reserve Corps in Allenstein. After the involvement of the Entente military mission, General Eberhardt was able to organize evacuation of the remaining German Freikorps via Lithuania to East Prussia. This was completed by mid-December 1919.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Army.", "content": "The Army uniforms of the West Russian Volunteer Army were provided by Germany and decorated with Russian distinctive signs, in particular the shoulder legs according to the model of the Russian Imperial Army and a Orthodox cross worn on the left sleeve.  The army included:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The West Russian Volunteer Army or Bermontians was an army in the Baltic provinces of the former Russian Empire during the Russian Civil War in 1918–20.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976690}
{"src_title": "Lod Airport massacre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Attack.", "content": "At 10 p.m. the attackers arrived at the airport aboard an Air France flight from Rome. Dressed conservatively and carrying slim violin cases, they attracted little attention. As they entered the waiting area, they opened up their violin cases and extracted Czech vz. 58 assault rifles with the butt stocks removed. They began to fire indiscriminately at airport staff and visitors, which included a group of pilgrims from Puerto Rico, and tossed grenades as they changed magazines. Yasuda was accidentally shot dead by one of the other attackers, and Okudaira moved from the airport building into the landing area, firing at passengers disembarking from an El Al aircraft before being killed by one of his own grenades, either due to accidental premature explosion or as a suicide. Okamoto was shot by security, brought to the ground by an El Al employee, and arrested as he attempted to leave the terminal. Whether the attackers were responsible for killing all of the victims has been disputed, as some victims may have been caught in the crossfire of the attackers and airport security.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fatalities.", "content": "A total of 26 people were killed during the attack:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The Japanese public initially reacted with disbelief to initial reports that the perpetrators of the massacre were Japanese until a Japanese embassy official sent to the hospital confirmed that Okamoto was a Japanese national. Okamoto told the diplomat that he had nothing personal against the Israeli people, but that he had to do what he did because \"It was my duty as a soldier of the revolution.\" Okamoto was tried by an Israeli military tribunal and sentenced to life imprisonment in June 1972. During his trial, he actively undermined his own defense, and in particular protested his lawyer's requests for a psychiatric evaluation, but managed to avoid the death penalty by pleading guilty. Okamoto served only 13 years of his prison sentence. He was released in 1985 with more than 1,000 other prisoners in an exchange for captured Israeli soldiers. He settled in Lebanon's Bekaa Valley. He was arrested in 1997 for passport forgery and visa violations, but in 2000 was granted political refugee status in Lebanon. He is still wanted by the Japanese government. Four other JRA members arrested at the same time were extradited to Japan.  Wadie Haddad, the primary organizer of the attack, was assassinated by Mossad in early 1978.  In June 2006, Senate Project (PS) 1535, a legislative initiative by Puerto Rico Senator José Garriga Picó, was approved by unanimous vote of both houses of the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico, making every May 30 \"Lod Massacre Remembrance Day\". On August 2, 2006, the Governor of Puerto Rico, Aníbal Acevedo Vilá, signed it into law as Law 144. The purpose of Lod Massacre Remembrance Day is to commemorate those events, to honor both those murdered and those who survived, and to educate the Puerto Rican public against terrorism. On May 30, 2007, the 35th anniversary of the massacre, the event was officially memorialized in Puerto Rico.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "North Korea trial.", "content": "In 2008, the eight surviving children of Carmelo Calderón Molina, who was killed in the attack, and Pablo Tirado, the son of Pablo Tirado Ayala, who was wounded, filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico. They sued the government of North Korea for providing material support to the PFLP-EO and the JRA and for planning the attack. The plaintiffs claimed a right to sue the North Korean government based on the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976. Preliminary hearings to examine evidence began on December 2, 2009, with district judge Francisco Besosa presiding. The North Korean government did not respond to the lawsuit and had no representatives present. The victims' families were represented by attorneys from the Shurat HaDin Israel Law Center, including its founder, Nitsana Darshan-Leitner.  In July 2010, the U.S. court ordered North Korea to pay US$378 million to families as compensation for the terror attack.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Lod Airport massacre was a terrorist attack that occurred on May 30, 1972, in which three members of the Japanese Red Army recruited by the Palestinian group called the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-External Operations (PFLP-EO), attacked Lod Airport (now Ben Gurion International Airport) near Tel Aviv, killing 26 people and injuring 80 others. Two of the attackers were killed, while a third, Kōzō Okamoto, was captured after being wounded.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976691}
{"src_title": "2012 European Men's Handball Championship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The EHF decided that Serbia would host the tournament in the cities of Belgrade, Niš, Novi Sad and Vršac. Germany and France were the other applicants for the championship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification.", "content": "The 2012 Championship was the second for which the new qualification system was used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Referees.", "content": "On 12 September 2011, 12 couples were announced in Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "The draw was held on 15 June 2011 in Belgrade at 12:00 local time. The seeding was announced on 13 June 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The match schedule was released and confirmed on 18 April 2011. Four teams were selected to play in the four venue cities, Serbia in Belgrade, Macedonia at Niš, Hungary at Novi Sad and Croatia in Vršac. The playing schedule was announced on 1 July.  \"All times are UTC+1.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "Venue: Pionir Hall, Belgrade", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "Venue: Čair Sports Center, Niš", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group C.", "content": "Venue: Spens Sports Center, Novi Sad", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group D.", "content": "Venue: Millennium Centar, Vršac", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Main round.", "content": "Group stage results between teams that qualified for the main round were carried over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group I.", "content": "Venue: Belgrade Arena, Belgrade", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Initial standing and matches.", "content": "(A) and (B) indicates from which group the teams came; in the main round they were playing only against teams from the other group. By three victories and the misfortune of among others Germany, Denmark qualified for the semifinals together with the host, Serbia. Notable results were Denmark's last second win against Macedonia and Poland's turnaround of first-half 9-20 result to win second half by the same numbers to equalize against Sweden.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Group II.", "content": "Venue: Spens Sports Center, Novi Sad", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Initial standing and matches.", "content": "(C) and (D) above indicates from which group the teams came, in the main round they are only playing against teams from the other group.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Knockout stage.", "content": "Venue: Belgrade Arena, Belgrade", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final was played at the Belgrade Arena between the host-nation Serbia and Denmark, and was seen by 19,800 spectators. The teams played a match against each other in the group stage of the tournament, when Serbia defeated Denmark 24–22. Serbia's coach Veselin Vuković could not rely on Žarko Šešum, whose left eye was injured after he was hit with a bottle on the halftime break of the semi-final match against Croatia.  The match started with tough play by both teams and low scoring. Denmark claimed the lead in the early phase of the match and controlled the period. Serbia's attacks were ineffective, and goalkeeper Darko Stanić made several saves. The Danes made fewer mistakes in the attacks and Anders Eggert scored important goals in the counter-attacks. Denmark led at halftime 9–7.  Early in the second half Denmark took an 11–7 lead, but then the Serbian players halted the opponent's run with a better play in defence, except for Mikkel Hansen who scored with his powerful shots in the critical moments of the game. The Danes were having the lead all the time with a margin of 1–4 goals and thanks to the saves of their goalkeeper Niklas Landin Jacobsen prevented the Serbians to level the result. The last minutes of the game were played with many mistakes on both sides, but Hansen scored the decisive goal for peerless lead 21–18 with 20 seconds to go. Serbia scored until the end making it 21–19 in favor of Denmark at the end. This was the second title for Denmark after they have previously won the European Championship in 2008.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ranking and statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final ranking.", "content": "The final ranking for places 7 to 16 was determined by the team's group stage record. In case the ranking would have been relevant for Olympic qualification, there would have been a placement match for 7th and 9th place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Riots.", "content": "On 24 January 2012, after the match between Croatia and France, Serbian hooligans attacked Croatian fans in several locations in Vojvodina, northern Serbia. In Novi Sad, Croatian supporters were heading home after the game, when they ran into a road block and some 50 masked men assaulted them with stones, bricks and axes, smashing windscreens. The attack left several supporters injured and one of them hospitalized. In Ruma, about south from Novi Sad, a Croatian van was set on fire and one of the passengers stabbed with a knife.  A day later the unrest continued and many cars were damaged, torched, or burnt out throughout Novi Sad. The Croatian Foreign Ministry officially complained to Serbian Ambassador Stanimir Vukicevic over the attacks; Vukicevic expressed regret and stated that the Serbian police was already taking the necessary steps. Thirteen people were arrested in connection with the incident, including Ivan Ključovski and Jovan Bajić, leaders of a fan group from Novi Sad, and a member of the Obraz right-wing organization. After questioning, all of them remained in custody for a month.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Serbia–Croatia semifinal.", "content": "Serbia and Croatia met in the semi-final of the tournament, which caused further concern on both sides. About 5,000 policemen were deployed to ensure the security of the fans, while in Croatia some tourist agencies cancelled trips for the match and the Croatian Handball Federation (Hrvatski rukometni savez, HRS) also recommended not to go to Serbia as the supporters' safety might not be guaranteed. Spokesman Zlatko Skrinjar also added that the HRS had planned to organize trips for the event, however, they changed their mind due to the incidents in the preceding days. On the Croatian-Serbian border, joint checkpoints were set up to prevent hooligans and other groups who have no ticket for the match to enter Serbia, and to escort the fans with tickets from the border to Belgrade.  The police reported that there were no incidents during the match, which was eventually won by the Serbians 26–22, however, a bottle actually meant for Croatian playmaker Ivano Balić and coach Slavko Goluža hit Serbian back player Žarko Šešum, severely injuring his eye. Šešum's eye suffered significant bleeding. After the trauma he had only minimal vision on the affected eye, but the risk of permanent sight loss was reportedly averted. Morten Stig Christensen, Secretary of the Danish Handball Federation, Serbia's opponent in the final said that he was \"severely shocked\" by the incident and so were the people from the European Handball Federation with whom he spoke. Christensen also added that he was shocked that although there were more than five thousand security personnel at the stadium, the hooligans still managed to sneak in Roman candles and laser lights.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2012 EHF European Men's Handball Championship was the tenth edition of the men's continental handball tournament, which was held in Serbia between 15–29 January 2012. Sixteen teams qualified for the event, including host nation Serbia, defending champion France and fourteen national teams through the qualifying tournament. The teams were split into four groups of 4, with the top 3 teams of each group advancing to the main round, carrying the points won against other qualified opponents. Going to the main round with no points, Denmark ended up winning the championship after defeating Serbia in the final with a scoreline of 21–19.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976692}
{"src_title": "Battle of Muret", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Simon IV de Montfort was the leader of the Albigensian Crusade to destroy the Cathar heresy and incidentally to join the Languedoc to the crown of France. He invaded Toulouse and exiled its count, Raymond VI. Count Raymond sought assistance from his brother-in-law, King Peter II of Aragon, who felt threatened by de Montfort's conquests in Languedoc (which de Montfort pledged to the crown of France). He decided to cross the Pyrenees and deal with Montfort at Muret.  On 10 September, Peter's army arrived at Muret, and was joined by a Toulousian militia. He chose to position his army so their right flank was protected by the Saudrune River, and the left protected by a marsh. He left the militia to assault the walls of the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Armies.", "content": "Simon de Montfort led an army of 1,000–1,700 French Crusaders, including a small contingent of knights brought by his ally, the Viscount of Corbeil. Montfort had 900 cavalry, of which 260 were knights. His 300–700 infantry stayed behind at Muret to hold the town and tie down the Toulousain militia.  Peter of Aragon had brought 800 to 1,000 Aragonese cavalry, joined by a militia of 2,000–4,000 infantry from Toulouse and cavalry from the counts of Comminges and Foix. Peter's combined forces possibly numbered 2,000 cavalry and 2,000–4,000 infantry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "Montfort led his knights and horse sergeants out of the walled town and divided his cavalry army into three lines, with his half-brother William of Barres commanding the first line and Montfort himself commanding the third for purposes of tactical command and control. King Peter had arranged his men in the same formation, with the Count of Foix commanding the first line and the King disguising himself in a borrowed suit of armor in the second line. Once deployed, Peter's army remained stationary and waited for the Crusaders' approach.  Crossing a stream, William of Barres' cavalry rode for the center of the Count of Foix's line, with the second Crusader line following him. The coalition's first line was crushed by the impetus of the charge and the Crusaders broke through to the second. At the same time, Montfort maneuvered his unit to outflank the coalition cavalry from the left and crashed into them. Confused and disorganized, the coalition cavalrymen began to retreat.  King Peter may have been killed in the initial clash or the Crusaders may have headed for his standard in the second line during the battle, seeking to kill him. According to one contemporary account, he shouted \"Here is your King!\", but was not heard. Knowledge of his death contributed to the rout of his army.  Montfort's first two lines pursued the defeated coalition cavalry, while Montfort himself rallied his third line and kept them in reserve in case the pursuers encountered resistance. This proved unnecessary, as the fleeing cavalrymen put up no such effort.  Montfort then returned to the besieged Muret. The militia from Toulouse renewed their assault on the city. When they saw the Crusader horsemen returning and learned that King Peter of Aragon had been killed they broke and fled their fortified camp toward the Garonne River, but were slaughtered in the rout.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "This would be the last major battle of the Albigensian Crusade, which did not officially end until the 1229 Treaty of Paris. In addition, with de Montfort's victory as well as the death of King Peter, the ambitions of Aragon in Languedoc were effectively ended.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "At the Battle of Muret on 12 September 1213 the Crusader army of Simon IV de Montfort defeated the joined forces of Raymond VI and of Peter II of Aragon, at Muret near Toulouse.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976693}
{"src_title": "Yan Fu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "On January 8, 1854, Yan Fu was born in what is modern day Fuzhou, Fujian Province to a respectable scholar-gentry family in the trade of Chinese medicine. In his early years, Yan Fu’s father greatly encouraged Yan Fu to obtain a high education and prepare for the Imperial examination. However, the death of his father in 1866 caused an abrupt change to these plans. A year later, Yan Fu entered the Fujian Arsenal Academy () in Fuzhou, a Western school where he studied a variety of subjects including English, arithmetic, geometry, algebra, trigonometry, physics, chemistry, astrology and navigation. This was a turning point in young Yan Fu’s life as he was able to experience first-hand contact with Western science, thus inspiring the enthusiasm that carried him through the rest of his career.  After graduating with high honors in 1871, Yan Fu went on to spend the next five years at sea. He first served aboard the training ship \"Jianwei\" () and later on the battle cruiser \"Yangwu\" (). In 1877–79 he studied at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, England. During his years there, he became acquainted with China’s first ambassador Guo Songtao, and despite their age difference and status gap developed a strong friendship. Benjamin Schwartz mentions in his biography that \"they often spent whole days and nights discussing differences and similarities in Chinese and Western thought and political institutions\".  His return to China, however, did not bring him the immediate success he was hoping for. Though he was unable to pass the Imperial Civil Service Examination, he was able to obtain a teaching position at the Fujian Arsenal Academy and then Beiyang Naval Officers' School () at Tianjin. During this time, Yan Fu succumbed to the opium addiction that had sprung up in China. It was not until after the Chinese defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95, fought for control of Korea) that Yan Fu became famous. He is celebrated for his translations, including Thomas Huxley's \"Evolution and Ethics\", Adam Smith's \"The Wealth of Nations\", John Stuart Mill's \"On Liberty\" and Herbert Spencer's \"Study of Sociology\". Yan critiqued the ideas of Darwin and others, offering his own interpretations. The ideas of \"natural selection\" and \"survival of the fittest\" were introduced to Chinese readers through Huxley's work. The former idea was famously rendered by Yan Fu into Chinese as \"tiānzé\" ().  Yan Fu served as an editor of the newspaper \"Guowen Bao\". He became politically active, and in 1895, he was involved in the Gongche Shangshu movement, which opposed the Treaty of Shimonoseki ending the First Sino-Japanese War. In 1909 he was given an honorary \"Jinshi\" degree. In 1912 he became the first principal of National Peking University (now Peking University). Today the university holds an annual academic conference in his honor.  He became a royalist and conservative who supported Yuan Shikai () and Zhang Xun () to proclaim themselves emperor in his later life. He also participated the foundation of Chouanhui (), an organization which supported restoring monarchy. He laughed at \"New Literature Revolutionaries\" such as Hu Shih ().  On October 27, 1921, after returning to his home in Fuzhou only a year earlier to recuperate from his recurring asthma, Yan Fu died at the age of 67.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translation theory.", "content": "Yan stated in the preface to his translation of \"Evolution and Ethics\" (天演論) that \"there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance\" (譯事三難:信達雅). He did not set them as general standards for translation and did not say that they were independent of each other. However, since the publication of that work, the phrase \"faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance\" has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation and has become a cliché in Chinese academic circles, giving rise to numerous debates and theses. Some scholars argue that this dictum actually derived from Scottish theoretician of translation, Alexander Fraser Tytler.  Though Yan Fu's classical prose did its best to meet the standards of \"faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance\", there were those who criticized his works for not being accessible to the younger generations. In particular, a famous liberal from the May Fourth Movement, Cai Yuanpei, stated in an article written in 1924: \"...[Yan Fu's translations]...seem to be old-fashioned and his literary style is difficult to comprehend, but the standard with which he selected books and the way he translated them are very admirable even today\". Other critiques of his work arose as Chinese scholars became more aware of Western learning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translated works.", "content": "Yan Fu was one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. Previous translation efforts had been focused mainly on religion and technology. Yan Fu was also one of the first scholars to have personal experiences in Western culture, whereas many prior scholars were students in Japan who then translated Western works from Japanese to Chinese. Yan Fu also played an important role in the standardization of science terminology in China during his time serving as the Head of the State Terminology Bureau.  In 1895 he published \"Zhibao\" 直報, a Chinese newspaper founded in Tianjin by the German Constantin von Hannecken (1854-1925), which contains several of his most famous essays:  Later, from 1898 to 1909, Yan Fu went on to translate the following major works of Western liberal thought:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yan Fu (, IPA: ; courtesy name: Ji Dao, 幾道; 8 January 1854 — 27 October 1921) was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin's \"natural selection\", to China in the late 19th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976694}
{"src_title": "Dave Bolland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Bolland was born in 1986 in Etobicoke, a district of Toronto, Ontario, and lived in the Mimico neighbourhood. He started playing hockey at the local arena, Mimico Arena, where he played for the Queensway Canadiens. He then played minor hockey for the Toronto Red Wings in the Greater Toronto Hockey League (GTHL) from 2000 until 2002. The Redwings would go on to win the OHL All Ontario Bantam Championship with Bolland recording four points in the championship game. He played in the 2000 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Toronto Red Wings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Junior.", "content": "While playing for the Toronto Red Wings, Bolland was selected in the first round, eighth overall, of the 2002 Ontario Hockey League Priority Selection by the London Knights. Bolland made his OHL debut with the Knights during the 2002–03 season, where he played 63 games, scoring seven goals and adding 10 assists. During his sophomore OHL season (2003–04), Bolland increased his offensive contributions to the Knights, scoring 37 goals and adding 30 assists, while being named the club's Most Improved Player. Bolland represented the Western Conference at the 2004 OHL All-Star Game and was also chosen to participate in the 2004 CHL Top Prospects Game. Heading into the 2004 NHL Entry Draft, Bolland was the eighth ranked North American skater by the NHL's Central Scouting Bureau. Bolland was selected by the Chicago Blackhawks in the second round, 32nd overall, of the 2004 NHL Entry Draft.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "Bolland made his NHL debut versus the Vancouver Canucks on October 25, 2006. Bolland started the 2007–08 season with the Rockford IceHogs of the AHL, though spent the majority of his second professional season with the Blackhawks. He recorded his first NHL point on October 31, 2007, against the Dallas Stars and scored his first NHL goal on December 16 against the Florida Panthers. Bolland scored a game-winning overtime goal against the Toronto Maple Leafs on November 22, 2008. On May 22, 2009, Bolland had two assists for the Blackhawks in the first 10 minutes of the 2009 Western Conference Finals against the Detroit Red Wings. On June 9, 2010, Bolland became a Stanley Cup champion when the Blackhawks defeated the Philadelphia Flyers and won the Stanley Cup, ending their 49-year drought. On June 24, 2013, Bolland scored the game-winning goal in the final minute of Game 6 of the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals over the Boston Bruins, leading the Blackhawks to their second Stanley Cup title in four years.  During the 2013 NHL Entry Draft, the Blackhawks traded Bolland to the Toronto Maple Leafs for three Toronto draft picks: a second-round 2013 pick (Carl Dahlström, selected 51st overall), a fourth-round 2013 pick previously acquired from the Anaheim Ducks (Fredrik Bergvik, selected 117th overall) and a fourth-round pick in the 2014 NHL Entry Draft (Frederik Olofsson, selected 98th overall).  Following one season played with the Maple Leafs, Bolland was unable to agree to a new contract with the team, and on July 1, 2014, the Florida Panthers signed Bolland as an unrestricted free agent for a five-year, $27.5 million contract.  After the 2015–16 season, having largely been unable to perform to contract expectations in two unproductive years with the Panthers, Bolland was traded along with prospect Lawson Crouse to the Arizona Coyotes in exchange for a conditional 3rd round pick in the 2017 NHL Entry Draft (used to select Max Gildon) and a conditional 2nd round pick in the 2018 NHL Entry Draft (used to select Serron Noel) on August 25, 2016.  Bolland last played an NHL game on December 12, 2015, in a 3-1 loss to the Boston Bruins, and has yet to play again due to a back injury.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "David D. Bolland (born June 5, 1986) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player. Bolland earned the nickname \"\"'The Rat\"\"' for his ability to get under the skin of opponents, similar to the play of Ken Linseman, the first player to have the nickname. Bolland was drafted by the Chicago Blackhawks in the second round (32nd overall) of the 2004 NHL Entry Draft. Prior to joining the Blackhawks full-time, Bolland played in the American Hockey League (AHL) for the Norfolk Admirals and Rockford IceHogs. While playing junior hockey in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL), Bolland helped the London Knights capture the 2005 Memorial Cup. He also competed at the 2006 World Junior Championships, where he helped Canada capture the gold medal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976695}
{"src_title": "David Douglas Duncan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood and education.", "content": "Duncan was born in Kansas City, Missouri, where his childhood was marked by interest in the outdoors, helping him earn the rank of Eagle Scout in the Boy Scouts at a relatively young age. A lantern-slide presentation by big-game hunter and physician Richard L. Sutton, Sr., M.D., at Duncan's elementary school in Kansas City inspired an early interest in photography and world travel. Duncan briefly attended the University of Arizona, where he studied archaeology. While in Tucson, he inadvertently photographed John Dillinger trying to get into a hotel. Duncan eventually continued his education at the University of Miami, where he graduated in 1938, having studied zoology and Spanish. It was in Miami that his interest in photojournalism began in earnest. He worked as picture editor and photographer of the university paper.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "His career as a photojournalist began when he took photographs of a hotel fire in Tucson, Arizona, while he was then studying archaeology at nearby University of Arizona. His photos included one of a hotel guest who made repeated attempts to go back into the burning building for his suitcase. That photo proved to be newsworthy when the guest turned out to have been notorious bank robber John Dillinger and the suitcase to have contained the proceeds of a bank robbery in which he had shot a police officer. Unfortunately, after the film was turned over to the \"Tucson Citizen\", it was lost forever, and the photos were never printed.  After college, Duncan began to freelance, selling his work to journals such as \"The Kansas City Star\", \"Life\" and the \"National Geographic Magazine\".  After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Duncan joined the Marine Corps, earned an officer's commission, and became a combat photographer. After brief postings in California and Hawaii, he was sent to the South Pacific on assignment when the United States entered World War II. As a 2nd lieutenant, he initially served with Marine Aircraft Group 23 and was later assigned to photograph operations of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command. Though combat photographers are often close to the action, they rarely fight. However, in a brief engagement at Bougainville Island, Duncan found himself fighting against the Japanese. Duncan also covered the Battle of Okinawa, and was on board the USS \"Missouri\" for the Japanese surrender.  Duncan's wartime photographs were so impressive that after the war he was hired by \"Life\" to join its staff at the urging of J.R. Eyerman, \"Life\" chief photographer. During his time with \"Life\", Duncan covered many events, including the end of the British Raj in India and conflicts in Turkey, Eastern Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.  Perhaps his most famous photographs were taken during the Korean War. He compiled many of these into a book, \"This Is War!\", (1951), with the proceeds going to widows and children of Marines who had been killed in the conflict. Duncan is considered the most prominent combat photographer of the Korean War.  His photo and talk with Marines in the Battle of Chosin Reservoir are notable:  “I asked him, ‘If I were God, what would you want for Christmas?’” Duncan says. “He just looked up into the sky and said, ‘Give me tomorrow.’”  Out of the Vietnam War, Duncan eventually compiled two additional books, \"I Protest! (1968)\" and \"War Without Heroes (1970)\". Here, Duncan abandoned impartiality and challenged the US government's handling of the war.  Aside from his combat photographs, Duncan is also known for his photographs taken informally at the homes of Pablo Picasso and his second wife Jacqueline Roque, initiated in 1956 on the suggestion of fellow photographer Robert Capa. He published seven books of photographs of Picasso in all. Duncan became a close friend of Picasso and was the only person allowed to photograph many of Picasso's private paintings. Duncan lived in Castellaras, France, close to Mougins, where Picasso spent the last 12 years of his life.  Duncan greatly assisted Nippon Kogaku (Nikon) during its early years, and in 1965 he was presented with the 200,000th Nikon F built in recognition for his use and popularization of their camera.  In 1966 he published \"Yankee Nomad,\" a visual autobiography that collected representative photographs from throughout his career. In 2003 this was revised and published under the title of \"Photo Nomad\".  Duncan photographed both the 1968 Democratic and Republican national conventions, and published photographs from those conventions in a coffee-table book titled \"Self-Portrait U.S.A.\" in 1969.  Duncan traveled extensively in the Middle East, having been stationed there ten years after World War II for \"Life Magazine\". He later published \"The World of Allah\" in 1982.  He turned 100 in January 2016 and died in June 2018 in Grasse, France, aged 102.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "David Douglas Duncan (January 23, 1916 – June 7, 2018) was an American photojournalist, known for his dramatic combat photographs, as well as for his extensive domestic photography of Pablo Picasso and his wife Jacqueline.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976696}
{"src_title": "Scott Clemmensen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "A native of Urbandale, Iowa, Clemmensen was drafted by the New Jersey Devils in the 8th round, 215th overall, in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft after playing high school hockey with the Des Moines Capitals of the MHSHL, and then junior hockey with the Des Moines Buccaneers of the United States Hockey League (USHL). Upon being drafted, Clemmensen went on to play college hockey with the Boston College Eagles from 1997–2001, and won the NCAA National Championship with them as a senior. He played in four consecutive NCAA tournaments, reaching the Frozen Four all four years and the title game 3 of the 4 times. To this day, he holds the NCAA record for most career wins in the tournament, with 10 victories.  Turning pro in the 2001–02 season, Clemmensen made his NHL debut in New Jersey's season opener vs. the Washington Capitols and played in two games for the Devils, while playing the majority of his professional rookie season with the Albany River Rats of the American Hockey League (AHL), the Devils' minor league affiliate. He remained for the following three seasons in Albany, competing with fellow Devils' goaltending prospect Ari Ahonen for starts. In 2003–04, Clemmensen was called up and appeared in four games for the Devils, posting a 1.01 goals against average (GAA). He received his first NHL start against the Pittsburgh Penguins on January 20, 2004, winning 3–0. In doing so, Clemmensen became the first player in the history of the National Hockey League to have been born in the state of Iowa.  Following the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Clemmensen became Martin Brodeur's permanent backup, appearing in 13 games (starting in 9) and posting a 3.35 GAA for the 2005–06 season. The following year, Clemmensen appeared in six games in relief of Brodeur, recording a 3.14 GAA. In the off-season, he became a free agent and after the Devils signed Kevin Weekes to back up Brodeur, Clemmensen signed a one-year, two-way contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs on July 6, 2007. He played the majority of the 2007–08 season splitting starts with Maple Leafs Justin Pogge with the Toronto Marlies of the AHL, while appearing in three games for the Maple Leafs. He made his first start with the Maple Leafs on January 1, 2008, as the result of an injury to starter Vesa Toskala, and recorded a 4–3 shootout win against the Tampa Bay Lightning. Going into the 2007 Calder Cup playoffs back with the Marlies, Clemmensen assumed the starting role over Pogge and helped the club to the Western Conference semi-finals against the Chicago Wolves, where they were eliminated in five games. On July 10, 2008, Clemmensen returned to the New Jersey Devils, signing a one-year contract. He started the 2008–09 season with New Jersey's new AHL affiliate, the Lowell Devils. However, when Brodeur suffered a major injury early in the season, Clemmensen was called up to backup second-string goalie Kevin Weekes. However, as Weekes struggled in his early starts following Brodeur's injury, Clemmensen took over and started the majority of the games in Brodeur's absence. On February 25, 2009, Brodeur was taken off the injured reserve and Clemmensen was sent back to the Lowell Devils. In 40 games, Clemmensen posted a 25-13-1 record and two shutouts. His 25 wins are the highest total by a goaltender besides Brodeur in franchise history, while his 2.39 GAA and.917 save percentage were statistically in the league's top ten. He was awarded the Devils' Unsung Hero Award, as voted by his teammates, and was also selected as the Devils' nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, awarded for perseverance and sportsmanship. He was not, however, retained as one of the league's three finalists. In April 2009, Clemmensen was called up once again, this time to backup Brodeur for the 2009 playoffs after an injury to Weekes.  Clemmensen signed with the Florida Panthers on July 1, 2009. On November 3, 2011, the Panthers loaned Clemmensen, who suffered a knee injury in the pre-season, to the San Antonio Rampage of the American Hockey League for conditioning purposes.  On July 1, 2014, Clemmensen returned to his original club, the New Jersey Devils as a free agent on a one-year contract. On June 30, 2015, Clemmensen ended his professional career but remained with the Devils in accepting a development goaltending coach role.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "On May 1, 2009, Clemmensen was selected to represent Team USA at the 2009 IIHF World Championships as the starting goalie. He also played for Team USA in the 2010 IIHF World Championships, posting two consecutive shutouts: a 10-0 win over Kazakhstan, which he shared with Ben Bishop, and a 4-0 victory against France.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Scott Lee Clemmensen (born July 23, 1977) is an American former professional ice hockey goaltender, who played with the New Jersey Devils, Toronto Maple Leafs and the Florida Panthers in the National Hockey League (NHL).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976697}
{"src_title": "Alois Eliáš", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "Antonin Eliáš graduated in geodesy from the Czech Technical University in 1911. Working for a private company as a land surveyor he was sent to Bosnia to work on the construction of a railway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "After the declaration of war on Serbia Eliáš was obliged to join the Austro-Hungarian Army, and was sent with the Prague 28th Infantry Regiment to the Russian Front. After only a few days at the front Eliáš was taken prisoner on 28 August 1914 in Galicia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Czechoslovak legions in France.", "content": "In 1917 Eliáš learnt of the existence of Czechoslovak Legions and joined them. The Czechoslovak Legions were volunteer armed forces fighting with the Entente Powers during World War I (France, Britain, Italy, Russia). Their goal was to win the Allies' support for independence, in which they were ultimately successful.  Eliáš was later dispatched to France, where he studied at the officer school at St Maixent, and was later assigned to the 21st Czechoslovak Regiment as a platoon commander.  In the autumn of 1918 he took part in battles at Terron and on the Aisne. For his bravery and command skills, he was awarded the French Croix de Guerre (Cross of War) and a made a member of the Legion of Honour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Creation of Czechoslovakia.", "content": "His studies in France significantly accelerated Eliáš' career after the war. In Prague Eliáš became a general staff officer, later being promoted to Brigadier General.  As a military expert he was a member of the Czechoslovak delegation at the Disarmament Conference in Geneva. In 1936 he was promoted to General of Division (the second highest army rank) and became commander of the Vth Army Corps in Trenčín.  During the Second Czechoslovak Republic he was appointed Minister of Transportation and member of the Supreme State Defence Council of Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prime Minister.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appointment.", "content": "The first government under the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was only provisional, serving as a successor to the government of the Second Czechoslovak Republic during the German occupation of Czechoslovakia. Its replacement was discussed at the end of April 1939, with President Emil Hácha thinking Alois Eliáš would be a good choice for prime minister, because the popularity he had acquired during his earlier military career would legitimise the puppet regime. Eliáš had served with the Czechoslovak Legion in France during World War I, and attained the rank of general. Although somewhat dubious, some historians (who?) have written that Hácha hoped Eliáš's former contacts with Reichsprotektor Konstantin von Neurath could influence the Reichsprotektor on the desirability of Eliáš as Prime Minister.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "On 11 May 1939, Eliáš proposed that Jews would be deprived of Protectorate citizenship and subject to various discriminatory measures.  Eliáš maintained contacts with the Czechoslovak government-in-exile led by President Edvard Beneš. His situation started to deteriorate after a wave of arrests of resistance members in 1940. Among Eliáš' close contacts, the government minister fled to London, while the Lord Mayor of Prague,, who was well informed about Eliáš's activities in support of families of exiled and arrested Czechs and secret messengers and contacts with Czech president Edvard Beneš in exile, was arrested and later executed. By January 1941, the Gestapo had accumulated damning evidence of Eliáš' involvement in the resistance. SS and Police Leader Karl Hermann Frank called for his arrest, but was unsuccessful in having Eliáš removed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Sandwich Affair.", "content": "In early September 1941, Alois Eliáš lost patience with several collaborationist journalists. Eliáš officially invited them to the Office of the Government, planning to poison them. With the help of his urologist Miloš Klika, sandwiches were laced with botulism toxin, tuberculosis-causing Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and typhus-causing Rickettsia bacteria. On 18 September 1941 the invited journalists ate the poisoned sandwiches. Karel Lažnovský, the pro-Nazi editor of the journal \"České slovo\", was the only fatality. Other journalists, including Jaroslav Křemen and Emanuel Vajtauer, fell ill. Although Eliáš handled the sandwiches, he did not fall ill. Though the Sandwich affair was investigated by the Gestapo, Eliáš was not charged and remained in office.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arrest and execution.", "content": "On 27 September 1941, two days before the appointment of Heydrich as the new Reich Protektor (German governor of Czech Lands), Eliáš was arrested, put on trial and sentenced to death. Eliáš was executed at the Kobylisy Shooting Range on 19 June 1942. During Eliáš' time on death row, Heydrich himself was assassinated by the Czech resistance.  It was over 60 years later that prime minister Eliáš was given a state funeral with full honours on 7 May 2006 and was buried at the National Monument in Vitkov in Prague.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alois Eliáš (29 September 1890 in Prague – 19 June 1942 at Kobylisy Shooting Range, Prague) was a Czech General and politician. He served as Prime Minister of the puppet government of the German-occupied Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia from 27 April 1939 to 27 September 1941, but maintained contact with the government-in-exile. Because of his participation in the anti-Nazi resistance, he was the only head of government to be murdered by the Nazis during the war.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976698}
{"src_title": "Maarten Gerritsz Vries", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "De Vries expedition.", "content": "The two ships, the \"Castricum\" under De Vries and the \"Breskens\" under Hendrick Cornelisz Schaep left Batavia, the capital of Dutch Java, in February 1643. After a stop in Ternate in the Moluccas they continued their journey on April 4. On May 20 the two ships lost touch with each other in a storm, while off Hachijo Shima, an island some 290 km south of Edo, which, due to this setback, was christened \"Ongeluckich\", or \"Unlucky\", Island by the Dutch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Breskens\" in Yamada.", "content": "The \"Breskens\" arrived in a promising bay and was received friendly by the population of Yamada on Tohoku, Japan. Six weeks later the \"Breskens\" again sailed to Yamada, probably while they had a good time. In the evening they organized a party with a samurai and most probably some Japanese women. (It is not known what exactly happened, because the diary got lost in 1692, after Nicolaes Witsen received it.) The next day, July 29, ten members of the crew, including the captain were invited by the women to come to a farm where they would receive fresh vegetables and fish. The unarmed crew was offered sake and rice, but captured, and sent to Morioka and Edo for interrogation. The Japanese feared Portuguese / Spanish Jesuits had come to land. As a result, bakufu officials were extremely anxious about the problem of coastal defenses. However, after it was understood that the crew were Dutch merchants and not Catholics, the problem to be solved became one of deciding by which procedure the Dutch should be released. After Jan van Elserac had arrived the \"shōgun\" Tokugawa Iemitsu sent them in December to Deshima. The crew had to wait nine months for the next ship to Taiwan while the \"Breskens\" had left Honshu already at the end of July (without a captain) searching for the Gold and Silver Islands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Castricum\" going north.", "content": "In the summer of 1643, the \"Castricum\" sailed by the southern Kuril Islands, visiting Kunashir, Iturup (which they named \"Staten Island\", although nowadays this name is only used to refer to Staten Island, in New York City), and Urup, where they met with the Ainu, and which they named \"Company Island\" and claimed for the Netherlands.  The \"Castricum\" passed between the islands of Iturup and Urup, the strait between the islands being later named Vries Strait after its discoverer, and entered the Sea of Okhotsk.  The Dutch sailed north, without encountering any land, until being driven south-west toward the northern shores of Hokkaido. Then they sailed north again, discovering Cape Aniva (the southeastern tip of Sakhalin Island), Gulf of Patience (where they indeed had to be patient, waiting for the fog to clear), and Cape Patience east of it.  After another excursion, now east into the Pacific, the \"Castricum\" returned to Japanese waters and managed to meet with the \"Breskens\" off Kyushu. The two ships sailed to Fort Zeelandia (Taiwan) and returned to Batavia in mid-December 1643.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battles of La Naval de Manila.", "content": "Maarten Gerritsz Vries died on board from disease after leading an unsuccessful attempt to invade the Philippines.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maarten Gerritszoon Vries, or Fries, also referred to as de Vries, (18 February 1589, Harlingen, Netherlands – late 1647, at sea near Manila) was a 17th-century Dutch cartographer and explorer, the first Western European to leave an account of his visit to Ezo, Sakhalin, Kuril Islands and the Sea of Okhotsk.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976699}
{"src_title": "Jim Paek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Paek was the first player of Korean descent to play hockey in the NHL. Paek was drafted by the Pittsburgh Penguins in the ninth round, 170th overall, in the 1985 NHL Entry Draft. Before joining the NHL in 1990–91, he played three seasons for the Oshawa Generals (1984–85 to 1986–87) of the OHL and three seasons with the Muskegon Lumberjacks (1987–88 to 1989–90) of the IHL. Paek also played 48 games for the Canadian National Team in 1990–91.  Paek's NHL career began with the Penguins in 1990–91. Upon entering the league, he became the first Korean-born hockey player to ever play in the NHL and since he was part of the Penguins' Stanley Cup run of 1990–91, he became the first player of Korean descent to have his name engraved on the Cup. His Penguins sweater now hangs in the Hockey Hall of Fame honouring this feat.  After four seasons and two Stanley Cups in Pittsburgh, Paek was traded mid-season to the Los Angeles Kings in 1993–94 as part of the deal that brought Tomas Sandström to the Penguins. After only 18 regular season games as a King, he moved on, signing with the Ottawa Senators for the 1994–95 NHL season.  After only 29 games with the Ottawa Senators in 1994–95, he left the NHL and began play in the International Hockey League. In the IHL, he played for the Houston Aeros, winning the league championship Turner Cup in 1999, Minnesota Moose, Manitoba Moose, and Cleveland Lumberjacks. His next stop was Great Britain, where he joined the Nottingham Panthers of the British Ice Hockey Superleague. With the exception of 40 games in 2001–02 with the Anchorage Aces of the West Coast Hockey League, he played out the rest of his career with the Panthers, retiring after the 2002–03 season.  In five NHL seasons, Paek played 217 regular season games, recording five goals, and 29 assists. He also racked up 155 penalty minutes. Paek played in 27 playoff games, recording one goal, four assists, and eight penalty minutes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "After retiring from play, Paek coached the Orlando Seals of the World Hockey Association 2, guiding the club to a 27–25–5 in 2003–04, and coaching in the league's all-star game.  In 2004, Paek served as an assistant coach for the St. Edward High School, leading the team to an Ohio state championship. While coaching at St. Edward, he also served as a co-coach of the Cleveland Panthers bantam minor squad, leading them to an Eastern Elite Amateur Hockey League title.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Grand Rapids Griffins.", "content": "On 11 August, 2005, Paek was named the assistant head coach for the Grand Rapids Griffins of the American Hockey League (AHL). Paek helped guide the Griffins to their first Calder Cup in 2013, the American Hockey League's regular season championship in 2005-06, and a cumulative record of 357–272–33–46 (0.560) during his nine seasons. Paek was the longest-tenured coach in franchise history, having served as the assistant coach for nine seasons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "On July 23, 2014, it was announced that Paek accepted a position as the director of hockey for the Korea Ice Hockey Association (KIHA), and head coach of the South Korean national team. Under Paek's leadership, South Korea earned its first-ever Olympic hockey qualification to the 2018 Winter Olympics, held on home soil in Pyeongchang.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Paek was born in Seoul but grew up in Canada after moving there at age one, playing hockey in Toronto. As a youth, he played in the 1980 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Toronto Marlboros minor ice hockey team.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jim Paek (, born April 7, 1967) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player, who is currently the director of hockey for the Korea Ice Hockey Association and head coach of the South Korean national team. Paek played in the National Hockey League (NHL) from 1990–91 to 1994–95, and won the Stanley Cup twice, in 1991 and 1992 with the Pittsburgh Penguins. He is both the first Korean-born hockey player to play in the NHL, and to have his name engraved on the Stanley Cup.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976700}
{"src_title": "Félix Fénéon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Fénéon was a prominent literary stylist, art critic, and anarchist born in Turin, Italy in 1861. He was later raised in Burgundy, presumably because his father was a travelling salesman. After placing first in the competitive exams for jobs, Fénéon moved to Paris to work for the War Office where he achieved the rank of chief clerk. During his time in the war office he edited many works, including those of Rimbaud and Lautréamont, as well as helped to advance the fledgling pointillist movement under Georges Seurat. He was also a regular at Mallarmé's salons on Tuesday evenings as well as active in anarchist circles. Fénéon, ironically, worked 13 years at the War Office while remaining heavily active in supporting anarchist circles and movements. In March 1892 French police talked about Fénéon as an 'active Anarchist', and they had him shadowed. In 1894 Fénéon was arrested on suspicion of conspiracy because of an anarchist bombing of the Foyot restaurant, a popular haunt of politicians. He was also suspected of connection with the assassination of the French President, Sadi Carnot, by an Italian anarchist He and twenty-nine others were arrested under charges of conspiracy in what became known as the Trial of the Thirty. Fénéon was acquitted with many of the original thirty. However, the trial was a high point in publicity for Fénéon, normally behind the scenes, as he championed his wit to the amusement of the jury. Of the courtroom scene, Julian Barnes writes, \"When the presiding judge put it to him that he had been spotted talking to a known anarchist behind a gas lamp, he replied coolly: Can you tell me, Monsieur le Président, which side of a gas lamp is its behind?\"  After the trial, Fénéon became even more elusive. In 1890, the Neo-Impressionist Paul Signac asked to produce a portrait of the lauded critic. Fénéon refused several times before agreeing, on the condition that Signac produced a full face effigy. Signac naturally refused, painting instead a famous profile of Fénéon with his characteristic goatee, a picture that largely became a symbol of the movement, spawning many variations. Fénéon, though displeased, hung the picture on his wall until Signac's death 45 years later.  Aside from \"Novels in Three Lines\" that first appeared as clippings in the Parisian \"Le Matins\" in 1906 and later as a collection, only because his mistress Camille Pateel had collected them in an album, Fénéon published only a 43-page monograph in \"Les Impressionists\" (1886). When asked to produce \"Les Nouvelles en Trois Lignes\" as a collection, Fénéon famously replied with an angry \"I aspire only to silence\". As Luc Sante points out, Fénéon, one might say, is invisibly famous, having affected so much without being recognizable to many. Fénéon's lawyer Thadée Natanson offered him a post at \"La Revue Blanche\" after the trial and his subsequent expulsion from the War Office; he worked for that magazine until 1903. In that time, he went on to promote the works of Seurat and Signac through the magazine. He organized the first retrospective of Seurat's work in 1900. Seurat is known for a number of works, most significantly \"La Grande Jatte\". Hajo Düchting, the author of \"Seurat, The Master of Pointillism\" notes that \"Actually he (Fénéon) was the only critic who proved capable of articulating an appreciation of Seurat's picture, and the new method of painting it exemplified, in words notable for their objective tone\".  After \"La Revue Blanche\" failed, Fénéon went to work for the liberal paper \"Le Matin\", where he anonymously composed daily news \"filler\", what the French call \"faits-divers\" or \"sundry events\", of three lines each. His authorship was not revealed until the 1940s. In these he captured the complex subtleties of French daily life. The following examples highlight the wit of such a critic of the mundane:  After his post at \"Le Matin \", Fénéon directed the Galerie Bernheim-Jeune and became increasingly involved with Neo-Impressionism, especially the art of Georges Seurat. He was the director of the gallery from 1906 to 1925. Before his retirement from the gallery, he is reported to have told a friend that he was \"ready for idleness\", and then he abruptly quit at the age of 63.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Félix Fénéon (22 June 1861 – 29 February 1944) was a French anarchist and art critic during the late 19th century. He coined the term \"Neo-Impressionism\" in 1886 to identify a group of artists led by Georges Seurat, and ardently promoted them.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976701}
{"src_title": "East Thrace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "East Thrace includes all in the eastern part of the historical region of Thrace. The area includes all the territories of the Turkish provinces of Edirne, Tekirdağ and Kırklareli, as well as those territories on the European continent of the provinces of Çanakkale and Istanbul. The land borders of East Thrace were defined by the Treaty of Constantinople (1913) and the Bulgarian-Ottoman convention (1915), and were reaffirmed by the Treaty of Lausanne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Due to the moderating effect of the surrounding seas, the climate tends to be Mediterranean in character. It can descend to about 12°C and can rise to about 32°C, similar to Asian Turkey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "East Thrace has an area of 23,764 km (3 percent of Turkey's land area), slightly smaller than Sardinia, and a population of about 11 million people or about 14 percent of the total Turkish population (in 2015); the population density is around 430 people/km, compared to about 80 people/km for Asiatic Turkey, which is also called Anatolia or Asia Minor. However, densities are skewed by the metropolis of Istanbul. The two continents are separated by the Dardanelles, the Bosphorus (collectively known as the Turkish Straits) and the Sea of Marmara, a route of about 361 km. The southernmost part of Eastern Thrace is called the Gallipoli peninsula. European Turkey is bordered on the west by Greece for 212 km and on the north by Bulgaria for 269 km, with the Aegean Sea to the south-west and the Black Sea to the north-east.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "East Thrace was the setting for several important events in history and legend, including:  The mass killings and displacement of Thracian Bulgarians in 1913 and the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey ethnically cleansed the Orthodox populations.  Prior to that the distribution of ethnoreligious groups in the local \"sanjaks\" was as follows: The Muslim \"millet\" was recorded as Turkish, while the church members of the Ecumenical Patriarchate were recorded as Greek.  In the past century, modern East Thrace was the main component of the territory of the Adrianople Vilayet, which excluded the Constantinople Vilayet, but included West Thrace and parts of the Rhodopes and Sakar. A publication from December 21, 1912 in the Belgian magazine \"Ons Volk Ontwaakt\" (‘Our Nation Awakes’) estimated 1,006,500 inhabitants in the vilayet:  21st century East Thrace constitutes what remains of Turkish Rumelia, which once stretched as far north as Hungary and as far west as Bosnia. Rumelia was lost piecemeal from 1699 onwards, until in 1912 the bulk of it was lost in the First Balkan War. Some small regains were made during the Second Balkan War, giving East Thrace the political borders visible today.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "East Thrace or Eastern Thrace ( or simply \"Trakya\";, \"Anatoliki Thraki\";, \"Iztochna Trakiya\"), also known as Turkish Thrace or European Turkey, is the part of Turkey that is geographically part of Southeast Europe. It accounts for 3% of Turkey's land area but comprises 14% of its total population. The rest of much of the country is located on the Anatolian Peninsula as well as the Armenian Highlands, geographically in Western Asia. The largest city of the region is Istanbul, which straddles the Bosporus strait between Europe and Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976702}
{"src_title": "Adam Wenceslaus, Duke of Cieszyn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "After his father's death in 1579, Adam Wenceslaus inherited the Duchy of Cieszyn; but because he was a minor at that time, the regency was held by his mother and the Dukes George II of Brzeg and Karl II of Ziębice. This triple regency continued until 1586, when the Dowager Duchess Sidonia Katharina remarried with the Hungarian nobleman Imre III Forgach, \"Obergespan\" [Count] of Trenčín (17 February) and the eldest regent, Duke George II of Brzeg, died (7 May). Despite her new marriage, Sidonia Katharina retained her influence in Cieszyn. Duke Karl II of Ziębice ruled since them as sole regent.  In 1586 Cieszyn Silesia suffered a very serious epidemic of plague who caused the death of several residents of the Duchy. One year later, in 1587, Cieszyn became in the center of the fight between Piastów other scourge for example, in 1587 the area became a duchy terrain fighting between the Archduke Maximilian III of Austria and Jan Zamoyski during the War of the Polish Succession.  In view of the continuing threats, in 1587 Adam Wenceslaus was sent in 1587 to the Electoral court in Saxony. There, the young Duke received a careful education, particularly in the military affairs. It was only in 1595 when he returned to Cieszyn, and, because, he was legally an adult, he began his independent government.  Since the beginning of his personal rule, Adam Wenceslaus took part in the wars with Turks and also declared political sympathies towards to the Emperor Rudolf II; this resulted in the need to build, in the southern part of the Duchy, some defensive fortifications. This case has special significance during the emergence of Bocskai during 1604–1606, when the Hungarian anti-Habsburg army almost defeated the Cieszyn troops.  In 1609 Adam Wenceslaus was in the middle of the conflict between Emperor Rudolf II and his brother Archduke Matthias. The Duke of Cieszyn stood at the side of the former. Finally, Rudolf II gave his brother the Bohemian crown, which placed to Adam Wenceslaus in a particularly awkward situation, who had submitted in 1611 when he had to paid homage to the new King in Wrocław.  For other reasons, the year of 1611 had a significant importance in Adam Wenceslaus's life. His time in Saxony made him a determined Protestant and in several times he issued decrees aimed at promotion of Lutheranism in Cieszyn (for example, in 1598 the Duke decreed a privilege, under which his successors were obligated to stimulate the Lutheran faith among his subjects and built churches with this purpose). However, some of his relatives, who like him where educated in the Electoral court, opted for converted to Catholicism. Adam Wenceslaus had a total variation in his Protestant politics—in accordance with the principle of \"\"cuius regio, eius religio\"\"—and started the fight with the Church, followed the evangelical spirit of the Counter-Reformation (one of the first decisions of Adam Wenceslaus after his conversion to the Catholic faith was the cancellation of the Privilege of 1598). This caused hard resistance between the nobility and burghers; however, a large part of the population also shifted to Roman Catholicism. Soon after, the Duke restored to the expelled Catholic religious orders (like the Dominicans and Franciscans) their former monasteries. The exact reasons for the Duke of Cieszyn's conversion are unknown, but this was probably in order to amended his relations with his sovereign, King Matthias of Bohemia, since 1612 also Holy Roman Emperor. However, Adam Wenceslaus wasn't a fervent Catholic and didn't force the part of the Cieszyn population who remained Protestant to shift to the Catholic faith.  This radical step in fact improved the Duke's relations with Emperor Matthias, who on 6 February 1617 appointed Adam Wenceslaus as Landeshauptmann General of Silesia.  The rule of Adam Wenceslaus over Cieszyn proved to be less favorable. The constant trips, expensive military expeditions, and finally the change of faith, led the Duchy in the imminent bankruptcy. Two examples of his expensive lifestyle were the trip to Wrocław to paid homage to the King Matthias—his suite, composed by 285 people, were richly furnished by him—and in 1614, after a vote for his miraculous conversion, Adam Wenceslaus went on a pilgrimage to Kalwaria Zebrzydowska. This trip, according to contemporary sources, was not religious: the Duke's only desire was to show his wealth. At the end, his debts were often paid by the towns and chivalry.  Adam Wenceslaus died on 13 July 1617 in Brandys, a Cieszyn suburb, and was buried in the Dominican church of Cieszyn. In 1617 Adam Bysiński from Bysina, heir of Iłownica, accused three Cieszyn noblemen to poisoned Adam Wenceslaus: Erazm Rudzki, speaker of the Chancellor, Waclaw Pelhrzim from Trzenkowice (von Pelchrzim), a Judge court, and Piotr Gurecki from Kornice on Jaworzu. On 21 December 1622 both parties concluded an agreement, and the allegations of Bysiński were dismissed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "On 17 September 1595 Adam Wenceslaus married with Elisabeth (d. 19 November 1601), daughter of Gotthard Kettler, Duke of Courland. They had five children:  In addition to his legitimate offspring, he had an illegitimate son, born from his relationship with \"Margareta Kostlachówna\" (ca. 1584 – Cieszyn, 3 January 1617):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adam Wenceslaus of Cieszyn (,, ; 12 December 1574 – 13 July 1617), was a Duke of Cieszyn from 1579 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976703}
{"src_title": "Elizabeth Lucretia, Duchess of Cieszyn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Originally raised in the Lutheran faith, in 1611 she converted to the Catholicism, together with her whole family.  On 13 July 1617 her father, Adam Wenceslaus, died and was succeeded by his only surviving son, Frederick William. On 23 April 1618 Elizabeth Lucretia was married against her will with the also ex-Lutheran Gundakar of Liechtenstein, a widower almost twenty years her senior. Gundakar was a younger brother of Karl I, Duke of Opava (Troppau) and Krnov (Jägerndorf), one of the members of the Regency council who ruled the Duchy of Cieszyn during Frederick William's absence; however, this arrangement was short-lived, and the de facto rule was held by Elizabeth Lucretia, even after Frederick William returned to Cieszyn and assumed the effective government in 1624, because the Duke almost immediately after his return made a trip with the Emperor to the Netherlands. During this journey, Frederick William became suddenly ill and died on 19 August 1625 in Köln, unmarried and without legitimate issue.  Initially, Emperor Ferdinand II tried to join Cieszyn to his domains, using his rights as King of Bohemia; but the end, he accepted Elizabeth Lucretia as reigning Duchess, by right of the Privilege granted by King Władysław II Jagiellon to Duke Casimir II of Cieszyn in 1498, under which was secured the female succession over Cieszyn until the fourth generation.  During her reign, Cieszyn passed through one of the most difficult periods in his history. It was the Thirty Years' War, during which Cieszyn was regularly plundered by foreign forces (during 1626-1627 by Danish troops of Ernst von Mansfeld, during 1642-1643 and 1645-1647 by Swedish troops under the commands of Colonel Rochowa and General Königsmarck, respectively), both in terms of infrastructure and finances. In addition plague and hunger also affected the Duchy and many citizens died. Eventually, this led to Cieszyn being economically and demographically destroyed for the next 100 years. Elizabeth Lucretia's life was seriously threatened on several occasions: for example, in 1642, when she had to find refuge in Jablunkov and in 1645, when she escaped to Kęty, after the Swedish forces took the capital (which capitulated only in 1646). Only the Peace of Westphalia on 24 October 1648 finally established the peace in her domains.  The marriage of the Duchess with Gundakar of Liechtenstein proved to be unsuccessful, despite the fact that they had three children together. In 1626 they were formally separated, and remained in this way until her death.  Elizabeth Lucretia died on 19 May 1653 and was buried in the Ducal crypt in the Dominican church in Cieszyn.  After her death, the Duchy of Cieszyn reverted to the Bohemian Crown as a completed fiefdom and was onward ruled directly by the Bohemian kings, then members of the House of Habsburg. Subsequently, Habsburg dynasty bore the title until the fall of the Empire and the liquidation of the Duchy of Cieszyn in 1918.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Elizabeth and Gundakar had three children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elizabeth Lucretia of Cieszyn (; ; ); 1 June 1599 – 19 May 1653), was a reigning Duchess of Cieszyn (Teschen, Těšín) from 1625 until her death. Born as the third child and second daughter of Adam Wenceslaus, Duke of Cieszyn (by his wife Elisabeth, daughter of Gotthard Kettler, Duke of Courland), she was the last ruler of Cieszyn from the Polish Piast dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976704}
{"src_title": "Bolesław I, Duke of Cieszyn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "In 1405 Bolesław's father entrusted him with direct rule over Bytom and Siewierz and the government of the Duchy of Cieszyn. A year later (1406), the murder of his brother Przemysław originated a break in relations between Bolesław and his father. Shortly after, Bolesław married Margareta, the sister of John II the Iron, Duke of Racibórz, who was the instigator of Przemysław's death. According to Jan Długosz, his father, Duke Przemysław I Noszak strongly opposed this union, and even threatened to disinherit Bolesław if he maintained contact with the Přemyslid Dukes of Opava and Racibórz. The early death of Margareta shortly after the wedding contributed to the reconciliation between Bolesław and his father, which was formally signed on 7 September 1407.  After his father's death in 1410, Bolesław inherited Cieszyn, Toszek, Strzelin and half of both Głogów and Ścinawa. Also, he was named regent of the Duchy of Oświęcim on behalf of his nephew Casimir, only son of Bolesław's brother.  Bolesław's second marriage in 1412 to Euphemia (called also Ofka), daughter of Duke Siemowit IV of Masovia, was probably suggested by King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland (Euphemia's maternal uncle), who saw the opportunity to make close bonds between Upper Silesia and Kraków. However, Bolesław and Euphemia were related in the third degree of consanguinity, so a Papal dispensation was needed, which was granted on 27 January 1412. The wedding took place some months later, on 20 November.  His alliance with Jagiełło quickly brought him results, as in 1414 Bolesław took an active part in the Polish-Teutonic War at the King's side. However, he didn't appear in the Congress of Wrocław in 1420, where King Sigismund of Bohemia (future Holy Roman Emperor), as a mediator between the Teutonic Order and the King of Poland, had issued an unfavorable ruling to the Polish King.  In 1414 Bolesław decided to transfer to his nephew Casimir full government over Oświęcim, Gliwice and Toszek. However, Casimir's ambitions erupted in a conflict between him and Bolesław, which ended two years later, on 11 November 1416, when (following the mediation of Duke Henry IX of Lubin), the Duke of Cieszyn give the town of Strzelin and 300 fines as payment to Casimir. Bolesław retained the rest of his lands.  Although the Duchy of Cieszyn was under the rule of the Kingdom of Bohemia, Bolesław didn't support the House of Luxembourg in its struggle for the Bohemian crown, but maintained good relations with Kraków and the Bohemian townspeople. In 1422, despite the Bohemian-Polish dispute, Bolesław was a guest at the court of King Władysław II Jagiełło, and took part in the coronation of his wife, Queen Sophia of Halshany.  During the last years of his reign, Bolesław supported Bohemian side during the Hussite Wars, but didn't participate in the war itself.  In internal politics, he supported the development of the towns. He ceded several rights to some towns, for example Bytom (where in 1412 he give the right to inheritance to the burgers), Frýdek and Bielsko. This was also partly motivated by the lack of money in the duchies' budget.  Bolesław died on 6 May 1431 and was buried in the Dominican church in Cieszyn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and Issue.", "content": "On 1 January 1406, Bolesław married firstly Margareta (b. 1380 - d. bef. 7 September 1407), daughter of Duke John I of Opava-Ratibor. They had no children.  On 20 November 1412, Bolesław married secondly Euphemia (Ofka) (b. 1395/98 - d. bef. 17 September 1447), daughter of Duke Siemowit IV of Masovia. They had five children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bolesław I of Cieszyn (,, ) ( – 6 May 1431) was a Duke of half of Bytom and Siewierz from 1405, Duke of Cieszyn and half of both Głogów and Ścinawa from 1410, and Duke of Toszek and Strzelin during 1410–1414.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976705}
{"src_title": "Mieszko I, Duke of Cieszyn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Little is known about the early years of Mieszko I's life. His first documented mention was on 21 October 1258, when he appears together with his father and two younger brothers in the consent of the foundation of a Cistercian abbey in Rudy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Duke of Racibórz.", "content": "After his father's death in 1282, and according to the custom during the fragmentation of Poland, Mieszko and his brothers divided the Duchy of Opole-Racibórz between them: Mieszko and his youngest brother Przemysław received together the district of Racibórz as co-rulers. The other two brothers, Casimir and Bolko I, received Opole. Because Przemysław was still a minor at that time, Mieszko ruled alone until he attained his majority, in 1284.  In 1285 Mieszko politically supported the Bishop of Wrocław, Thomas II Zaremba against Henry IV Probus, providing shelter to the Bishop in Raciborz. His politics against Henry IV were reinforced when the Duke of Wrocław repudiated his wife Constance —sister of Mieszko— and sent her back to her homeland. Another consequence of Mieszko's politics was an armed expedition of Henry IV in 1287 against Racibórz, who was sieged. Then Mieszko was forced to refuse his help to the Bishop.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Duke of Cieszyn.", "content": "In 1290 the division was made of the Duchy of Racibórz: Przemysław retained Racibórz and Mieszko obtained the rule over the districts of Cieszyn, Oświęcim and Zator. The first time that he signed himself as Duke of Cieszyn was on 1 January 1290.  In internal politics he pursued vigorous policies. Mieszko carried out intensive colonizing policies and founded many settlements. He also gave city rights to several towns: Cieszyn, Oświęcim (in 1291), Bielsko, Skoczów and Fryštát. On 10 November 1292 he granted the city rights to Zator.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Struggles for the Throne of Kraków.", "content": "Mieszko refused to support any of the Piast pretenders to the Polish throne (Henry IV Probus, Przemysł II and Władysław I the Elbow-high). Instead he stood alongside King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia. On 17 January 1291 the formal agreement was signed in Olomouc which formed the alliance between the Bohemian Kingdom, Mieszko and his two brothers Casimir and Przemysław. Mieszko eventually swore homage to King Wenceslaus II, although the exact date was still debatable; the most accepted date by historians was 11 August 1292.  Despite his alliance, Mieszko didn't take an active part in Wenceslaus II's campaign against Władysław I the Elbow-high in 1292; however, he put his army at the King's disposal and later took part in the Battle of Siewierz. Mieszko was present at the coronation of Wenceslaus II as King of Poland in Gniezno in 1300. After the death of Wenceslaus II in 1305, Mieszko continued to support the Přemyslid dynasty in the person of Wenceslaus III, son and successor of Wenceslaus II.  On 5 October 1305, Mieszko obtained his major victory when his daughter Viola Elisabeth married King Wenceslaus III. This union was a chance for Mieszko to make himself one of the most powerful figures in Bohemia, and he even began some attempts to obtain the Polish crown.  However, Mieszko's promising career ended suddenly with the murder of Wenceslaus III (Olomouc, 4 August 1306). Viola Elisabeth never bore Wenceslaus III any children and the Přemyslid dynasty became extinct.  After 1306 the political activity of Mieszko almost disappeared. Is unknown why this happened, because at that time he was only around fifty-years-old and was still considered young enough. The government of the Duchy was increasingly absorbed by his sons Wladyslaw and Kazimierz. The only sign of his political activities during this time was the lease of the Czech city of Kęty to the Bishop of Kraków, Jan Muskata, a strong opposer to the rule of Władysław I the Elbow-high in Greater Poland. However, in contrast to his brother Bolko I, Mieszko didn't support the Rebellion of wójt Albert in 1311.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Donations to the Church.", "content": "Mieszko was known for his generosity to the church. Thanks to him, the construction was completed of the Dominican convent at Oświęcim (shortly after 1283). Also, he financially assisted the monastery of Czarnowąsy near Opole and in the Dominican of Cieszyn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Mieszko's exact date of death is unknown. Diplomatic sources suggest that he died in 1314 or in the first half of 1315, before 27 June. He was probably buried in the Dominican church in Cieszyn. In 1931 the Polish painter and sculptor Jan Raszka made a sculpture of Mieszko I in Cieszyn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "According to some sources, Mieszko's wife died around 1303, but her name is unknown. The Obituary of the Church of St. Vincent in Wrocław showed the existence of a certain \"Grzymisława, Duchess of Opole\" (\"Grimizlaua ducissa Opuliensis\") who was buried there around 13 September 1286. Her parentage is also unknown, but her name suggests a Russian origin, probably member of the Rurikids. Her title suggests that she may have been the wife of Mieszko I or the first wife of Bolko I (Mieszko I's brother), or maybe a completely different person.  Also, the exact date of their marriage was uncertain, but after a further reconstructions of their children's birth dates, was placed between 1275 and 1280. They had three children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mieszko I of Cieszyn (,, ; also known as Mieszko I of Opole; 1252/56 – by 27 June 1315), was a Duke of Racibórz during 1282–1290 (with his brother as co-ruler) and the first Duke of Cieszyn since 1290 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976706}
{"src_title": "Quantum eraser experiment", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The experiment.", "content": "This experiment involves an apparatus with two main sections. After two entangled photons are created, each is directed into its own section of the apparatus. Anything done to learn the path of the entangled partner of the photon being examined in the double-slit part of the apparatus will influence the second photon, and vice versa. The advantage of manipulating the entangled partners of the photons in the double-slit part of the experimental apparatus is that experimenters can destroy or restore the interference pattern in the latter without changing anything in that part of the apparatus. Experimenters do so by manipulating the entangled photon, and they can do so before or after its partner has passed through the slits and other elements of experimental apparatus between the photon emitter and the detection screen. Under conditions where the double-slit part of the experiment has been set up to prevent the appearance of interference phenomena (because there is definitive \"which path\" information present), the quantum eraser can be used to effectively erase that information. In doing so, the experimenter restores interference without altering the double-slit part of the experimental apparatus.  A variation of this experiment, delayed choice quantum eraser, allows the decision whether to measure or destroy the \"which path\" information to be delayed until after the entangled particle partner (the one going through the slits) has either interfered with itself or not. In delayed-choice experiments quantum effects can mimic an influence of future actions on past events. However, the temporal order of measurement actions is not relevant.  First, a photon is shot through a specialized nonlinear optical device: a beta barium borate (BBO) crystal. This crystal converts the single photon into two entangled photons of lower frequency, a process known as spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC). These entangled photons follow separate paths. One photon goes directly to a detector, while the second photon passes through the double-slit mask to a second detector. Both detectors are connected to a coincidence circuit, ensuring that only entangled photon pairs are counted. A stepper motor moves the second detector to scan across the target area, producing an intensity map. This configuration yields the familiar interference pattern. Next, a circular polarizer is placed in front of each slit in the double-slit mask, producing clockwise circular polarization in light passing through one slit, and counter-clockwise circular polarization in the other slit (see Figure 1). This polarization is measured at the detector, thus \"marking\" the photons and destroying the interference pattern (see Fresnel–Arago laws).  Finally, a linear polarizer is introduced in the path of the first photon of the entangled pair, giving this photon a diagonal polarization (see Figure 2). Entanglement ensures a complementary diagonal polarization in its partner, which passes through the double-slit mask. This alters the effect of the circular polarizers: each will produce a mix of clockwise and counter-clockwise polarized light. Thus the second detector can no longer determine which path was taken, and the interference fringes are restored.  A double slit with rotating polarizers can also be accounted for by considering the light to be a classical wave. However this experiment uses entangled photons, which are not compatible with classical mechanics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other applications.", "content": "Quantum erasure technology can be used to increase the resolution of advanced microscopes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Common Misconception.", "content": "A very common misunderstanding about this experiment is that it may be used to instantaneously communicate information between two detectors. It is important to understand the role of the coincidence detector in this experimental setup. The linear polarizer in the top path is effectively filtering out half the entangled photons, and via the coincidence detector, is filtering out the corresponding photons in the bottom path. The coincidence detector can only function by comparing data from both sensors, making it impossible to use this setup for instant communication.  In other words, only a small percentage of the light passing through the BBO crystal is split into entangled pairs. The vast majority of photons passing through the crystal are not split, and must be removed from the final data set as unwanted noise. Since there is no way for the detectors to measure whether or not a photon had been part of an entangled pair, that decision is made by looking at the timing, and filtering out any photons that are not picked up at the same time as their 'twin' at the other detector. Thus, when a pair of entangled photons is created, but one of the two is blocked by a polarizer and lost, the remaining photon will be filtered out of the data set as if it was one of the many non-entangled photons. When viewed this way, it is not surprising that making changes to the upper path can have an impact to measurements taken on the lower path, as the two measurements are being compared and used to filter the data.  Note that in the final state of this experimental setup, measurements on the lower path always show a smeared out pattern on the raw data. Seeing an interference pattern is only possible by filtering the data with the coincidence detector and only looking at photons that were 1/2 of an entangled pair.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In quantum mechanics, the quantum eraser experiment is an interferometer experiment that demonstrates several fundamental aspects of quantum mechanics, including quantum entanglement and complementarity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976707}
{"src_title": "Yellow-footed rock-wallaby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The yellow-footed rock-wallaby is grey to fawn-grey above and light-coloured below with a black mid-dorsal stripe from the crown of the head to the centre of the back. There is a distinct white cheek stripe, with ears ranging in colour from orange to grey-brown. The forearms and hind legs are bright yellow to rich orange to a light orange-brown. The tail is orange-brown irregularly ringed with dark brown and golden-brown, with the colour of the tip variable from dark brown to white. The head and body length is 480–650 mm (usually 600 mm), with tail length 570–700 mm (usually 690 mm), and weight 6–11 kg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "This species of rock-wallaby is found in western New South Wales, eastern South Australia and isolated portions of Queensland. It is not typically found near human habitation, instead preferring rough terrain and rock outcroppings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "There are two recognised subspecies. There are no observable differences between the two subspecies, but genetic analysis of DNA samples from the different populations found them to be genetically distinct. The genetic divergence between the subspecies is greater than that between some other rock-wallaby species, reinforcing the subspecies status.  The two subspecies are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"P. x. xanthopus\".", "content": "\"P. x. xanthopus\" is listed as vulnerable under the \"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999\" by the Australian government. Colonies persist in South Australia, within the Gawler Ranges, the Flinders Ranges and the Olary Ranges. The population is SA is estimated at around 2,000 to 6,500 animals, with great uncertainty and likely large fluctuations. Due to conservation efforts by sanctuaries in the Flinders Ranges and pastoralists in the Olary Ranges, populations there have increased in recent years.  In NSW, colonies have been found at three sites in the Gap Range and seven sites in the Coturaundee Range, with a population of between 170 and 215 animals. Threats include competition from introduced herbivores (in particular feral goats and rabbits), predation by foxes and feral cats, isolation of populations, and habitat destruction through mineral exploration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"P. x. celeris\".", "content": "\"P. x. celeris\" is listed as vulnerable under the \"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999\" by the Australian government. It has a restricted distribution in the rocky ranges of central-western Queensland. Threats include fox predation, competition with domestic and wild introduced species (particularly goats and cattle), climate change, reduced access to water sources, habitat loss and fragmentation, and increase in bushfires. The population of \"P. x. celeris\" was roughly estimated to be 5,000-10,000 individuals in 1993, but is now considered unknown.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "Previously the species has been killed in large numbers for its pelt, primarily through the period between the 1880s and 1920s.  The yellow-footed rock-wallaby was originally known and described from specimens from South Australia. The species was subsequently discovered in New South Wales (and Queensland) where it was first recorded in 1964 in the Coturaundee Ranges, now part of Mutawintji National Park. The two small mountain ranges in the far west of the state are still the only known places where the species survives in New South Wales.  In 1968, the Arkaroola Wilderness Sanctuary was established on the 610 square kilometre Arkaroola pastoral lease, with a specific goal of protecting the Yellow Footed Rock Wallaby. Conservation activities include extensive fox baiting, and the control of feral cats and goats, as well as occasional hand-rearing of abandoned joeys  In 1979, the Foundation for National Parks & Wildlife purchased 100 square kilometres of this land, which then became Coturaundee Nature Reserve, for the conservation and protection of the yellow-footed rock-wallaby. Further funds were allocated to fox and goat eradication. Annual surveys of the area, which is now part of Mutawintji National Park, indicate that the population is now recovering, seemingly having grown progressively since 1995, with at least one large fluctuation due to rainfall changes noted. The recovery strategy that saved the yellow-footed rock-wallaby initially served as a model to preserve other rock-wallabies including the brush-tailed rock-wallaby from extinction.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The yellow-footed rock-wallaby (\"Petrogale xanthopus\"), formerly known as the ring-tailed wallaby, is a member of the macropod family (the marsupial family that includes the kangaroos, wallabies, tree-kangaroos, and wallaroos).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976708}
{"src_title": "Minsk Ghetto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Soviet census of 1926 showed 53,700 Jews living in Minsk (constituting close to 41% of the city's inhabitants).  The ghetto was created soon after the German invasion of the Soviet Union and capture of the city of Minsk, capital of the Belorussian SSR, on 28 June 1941. On the fifth day after the occupation, 2,000 Jewish intelligentsia were massacred by the Germans; from then on, murders of Jews became a common occurrence. About 20,000 Jews were murdered within the first few months of the German occupation, mostly by the Einsatzgruppen squads.  On 17 July 1941 the German occupational authority, the Reichskommissariat Ostland, was created. On 20 July, the Minsk Ghetto was established. A Jewish Council (Judenrat) was established as well. The total population of the ghetto was about 80,000 (over 100,000 according to some sources), of which about 50,000 were pre-war inhabitants, and the remainder (30,000 or more) were refugees and Jews forcibly resettled by the Germans from nearby settlements.  In November 1941 a second ghetto was established in Minsk for Jews deported from the West, known as Ghetto Hamburg, which adjoined the main Minsk ghetto. Above the entrance to this separate ghetto was a sign: \"Sonderghetto\" (Special Ghetto). Every night the Gestapo would murder 70–80 of the new arrivals. This ghetto was divided into five sections, according to the places from which the inhabitants came: Hamburg, Frankfurt, Berlin, the Rhineland, Bremen, and Vienna. Most of the Jews in this ghetto were from Germany and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia; at its height it had about 35,000 residents. Little contact was permitted between the inhabitants of the two ghettos.  As in many other ghettos, Jews were forced to work in factories or other German-run operations. Ghetto inhabitants lived in extremely poor conditions, with insufficient stocks of food and medical supplies.  On 2 March 1942, the ghetto's nursery or orphanage was \"liquidated\"; the children were buried alive in a pit after the murderers had tossed them candy: At that moment, several SS officers, among them Wilhelm Kube, arrived, whereupon Kube, immaculate in his uniform, threw handfuls of sweets to the shrieking children. All the children perished in the sand. In March 1942, approximately 5,000 Jews were killed nearby where \"The Pit\" memorial to the Minsk ghetto now stands. On 31 March, the Germans raided the ghetto to arrest Resistance leaders and much of the ghetto, including the synagogue, was burned.  By August fewer than 9,000 Jews were left in the ghetto according to German official documents. The ghetto was liquidated on 21 October 1943, with many Minsk Jews perishing in the Sobibor extermination camp. Several thousand were massacred at Maly Trostenets extermination camp (before the war, Maly Trostenets was a village a few miles to the east of Minsk). By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Resistance.", "content": "The Minsk Ghetto is notable for its large scale resistance organization, which cooperated closely with Soviet partisans. About 10,000 Jews were able to escape the ghetto and join partisan groups in the nearby forests. Barbara Epstein estimates that perhaps half of them survived, and notes that all together, perhaps as many as 30,000 people tried to escape the Minsk Ghetto to join the partisans (but 20,000 of them could have died along the way).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Minsk Ghetto was created soon after the German invasion of the Soviet Union. It was one of the largest in Belorussian SSR, and the largest in the German-occupied territory of the Soviet Union. It housed close to 100,000 Jews, most of whom perished in The Holocaust.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976709}
{"src_title": "Strategic dominance", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Terminology.", "content": "When a player tries to choose the \"best\" strategy among a multitude of options, that player may compare two strategies A and B to see which one is better. The result of the comparison is one of: This notion can be generalized beyond the comparison of two strategies.  Strategy: A complete contingent plan for a player in the game. A complete contingent plan is a full specification of a player's behavior, describing each action a player would take at every possible decision point. Because information sets represent points in a game where a player must make a decision, a player's strategy describes what that player will do at each information set.  Rationality: The assumption that each player acts to in a way that is designed to bring about what he or she most prefers given probabilities of various outcomes; von Neumann and Morgenstern showed that if these preferences satisfy certain conditions, this is mathematically equivalent to maximizing a payoff. A straightforward example of maximizing payoff is that of monetary gain, but for the purpose of a game theory analysis, this payoff can take any form. Be it a cash reward, minimization of exertion or discomfort, promoting justice, spread of ones genes, or amassing overall “utility” - the assumption of rationality states that players will always act in the way that best satisfies their ordering from best to worst of various possible outcomes.  Common Knowledge: The assumption that each player has knowledge of the game, knows the rules and payoffs associated with each course of action, and realizes that every other player has this same level of understanding. This is the premise that allows a player to make a value judgment on the actions of another player, backed by the assumption of rationality, into consideration when selecting an action.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dominance and Nash equilibria.", "content": "If a strictly dominant strategy exists for one player in a game, that player will play that strategy in each of the game's Nash equilibria. If both players have a strictly dominant strategy, the game has only one unique Nash equilibrium. However, that Nash equilibrium is not necessarily \"efficient\", meaning that there may be non-equilibrium outcomes of the game that would be better for both players. The classic game used to illustrate this is the Prisoner's Dilemma.  Strictly dominated strategies cannot be a part of a Nash equilibrium, and as such, it is irrational for any player to play them. On the other hand, weakly dominated strategies may be part of Nash equilibria. For instance, consider the payoff matrix pictured at the right.  Strategy \"C\" weakly dominates strategy \"D.\" Consider playing \"C\": If one's opponent plays \"C,\" one gets 1; if one's opponent plays \"D,\" one gets 0. Compare this to \"D,\" where one gets 0 regardless. Since in one case, one does better by playing \"C\" instead of \"D\" and never does worse, \"C\" weakly dominates \"D\". Despite this, is a Nash equilibrium. Suppose both players choose \"D\". Neither player will do any better by unilaterally deviating—if a player switches to playing \"C,\" they will still get 0. This satisfies the requirements of a Nash equilibrium. Suppose both players choose C. Neither player will do better by unilaterally deviating—if a player switches to playing D, they will get 0. This also satisfies the requirements of a Nash equilibrium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Iterated elimination of strictly dominated strategies (IESDS).", "content": "The iterated elimination (or deletion) of dominated strategies (also denominated as IESDS or IDSDS) is one common technique for solving games that involves iteratively removing dominated strategies. In the first step, at most one dominated strategy is removed from the strategy space of each of the players since no rational player would ever play these strategies. This results in a new, smaller game. Some strategies—that were not dominated before—may be dominated in the smaller game. The first step is repeated, creating a new even smaller game, and so on. The process stops when no dominated strategy is found for any player. This process is valid since it is assumed that rationality among players is common knowledge, that is, each player knows that the rest of the players are rational, and each player knows that the rest of the players know that he knows that the rest of the players are rational, and so on ad infinitum (see Aumann, 1976).  There are two versions of this process. One version involves only eliminating strictly dominated strategies. If, after completing this process, there is only one strategy for each player remaining, that strategy set is the unique Nash equilibrium.  Strict Dominance Deletion Step-by-Step Example:  Another version involves eliminating both strictly and weakly dominated strategies. If, at the end of the process, there is a single strategy for each player, this strategy set is also a Nash equilibrium. However, unlike the first process, elimination of weakly dominated strategies may eliminate some Nash equilibria. As a result, the Nash equilibrium found by eliminating weakly dominated strategies may not be the \"only\" Nash equilibrium. (In some games, if we remove weakly dominated strategies in a different order, we may end up with a different Nash equilibrium.)  Weak Dominance Deletion Step-by-Step Example:  In any case, if by iterated elimination of dominated strategies there is only one strategy left for each player, the game is called a dominance-solvable game.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In game theory, strategic dominance (commonly called simply dominance) occurs when one strategy is better than another strategy for one player, no matter how that player's opponents may play. Many simple games can be solved using dominance. The opposite, intransitivity, occurs in games where one strategy may be better or worse than another strategy for one player, depending on how the player's opponents may play.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976710}
{"src_title": "Panzerschreck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The \"Panzerschreck\" development was initially based on the American bazooka, captured in Tunisia, February 1943. The \"Panzerschreck\" was larger and heavier than its American counterpart - the \"Panzerschreck\" had an 88 mm calibre, compared to the 60 mm calibre of the bazooka - which meant that it could penetrate thicker armor, but also produced more smoke when firing.  Calibre 88 mm was selected as the existing RPzB. Gr. 4312 for \"8.8 cm Raketenwerfer 43\" was reused for \"Panzerschreck\". Warhead and fuzing was carried over, but the rocket motor's housing needed lengthening from to to accommodate the longer rocket motor. \"Raketenwerfer 43\" had percussion firing, whereas for the \"Panzerschreck\" an electrical priming was selected, forming standard grenade RPzB. Gr. 4322. Other munitions were developed, including drill dummy, practice live rocket with inert warhead and standard grenade with improved contact system.  The earliest production model of the RPzB 54 was long and weighed about when empty. Unlike the rockets used in American bazookas which extinguished before leaving the tube, the RPzB rockets kept burning for about after exiting the tube. Users were instructed to wear heavy gloves, a protective poncho and a gas mask without a filter to protect them from the heat of the backblast when the weapon was fired. Improvised shields were made to protect the user and in February 1944, the RPzB 54 was fitted with an official blast shield to protect the operator which made the weapon heavier, weighing empty. Small numbers of the shortened \"RPzB 54/1\" were later produced. It had an improved rocket, a shorter barrel, and a range increased to about.  Firing the RPzB generated a copious amounts of smoke both in front of and behind the weapon. Because of the weapon's tube and smoke produced, official documentation named the weapon the \"Ofenrohr\" (\"stove pipe\"). This also meant that anti-tank teams were revealed once they fired, making them targets and, therefore, required them to shift positions after firing. This type of system also made it problematic to fire the weapon from inside closed spaces (such as bunkers or houses), filling the room with toxic smoke and revealing the firing location immediately.  Late war German tactical doctrine called for \"Panzerschreck\" and/or \"Panzerfaust\" teams to set up in staggered trenches no further than apart. In this way, attacking armor would face anti-tank fire from multiple directions at a distance of no more than. Anti-tank teams were instructed to aim for the thinner side or rear armor whenever possible. Allied armored units frequently attempted to add improvised protection to their tanks, e.g., sandbags, spare track units, logs and so on to protect against HEAT rounds. Another defense was to rig metal mesh and netting around the tank, resembling the German \"Schürzen\" auxiliary plates. In practice about 1 meter of air gap were required to substantially reduce the penetrating capability of RPzB, thus skirts and sandbags were virtually entirely ineffective against RPzB and Panzerfaust.  In 1944, Germany provided the \"Panzerschreck\" to Finland, which used it to great effect against Soviet armour. The Finnish name for the weapon was \"Panssarikauhu\" (literal translation of the German name).  The Italian Social Republic and Hungary also used the \"Panzerschreck\". Several Italian units became known as skilled anti-tank hunters and the Hungarians used the \"Panzerschreck\" extensively during Operation Spring Awakening.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance.", "content": "Penetration measured against Face-Hardened Armor (FHA), Rolled Homogeneous Armor (RHA).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Panzerschreck (lit. \"tank fright\", \"tank's fright\" or \"tank's bane\") was the popular name for the \"Raketenpanzerbüchse \" 54 (\"Rocket Anti-armor Rifle model 54\" abbreviated to RPzB 54), an 88 mm reusable anti-tank rocket launcher developed by Nazi Germany in World War II. Another earlier, official common name was \"Ofenrohr\" (\"stove pipe\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976711}
{"src_title": "Siege of Przemyśl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In August 1914, Russian armies moved against both German East Prussia and Austria-Hungary's largest province of Eastern Galicia, straddling the present-day Poland/Ukraine border. Its advance into Germany was soon repulsed but its Galician campaign was more successful. General Nikolai Ivanov overwhelmed the Austro-Hungarian forces under Conrad von Hötzendorf during the Battle of Galicia, and the whole Austrian front fell back over to the Carpathian Mountains. The fortress at Przemyśl was the only Austrian post that held out and by 28 September, was completely behind Russian lines. The Russians were now in a position to threaten the German industrial region of Silesia, making the defense of Przemyśl of importance to the Germans as well as the Austro-Hungarians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First siege.", "content": "On 24 September, General Radko Dimitriev, commander of the Russian Third Army began the siege of the fortress. Dimitriev was without sufficient siege artillery when he began the investment and instead of waiting for the Russian high command to send him the artillery pieces, Dimitriev ordered a full-scale assault on the fortress before an Austrian relief force could be sent. For three days the Russians attacked and accomplished nothing at the cost of 40,000 casualties. While this was under way General Paul von Hindenburg launched an offensive against Warsaw in the north. In conjunction with the German attack on Warsaw, General Svetozar Boroevic von Bojna led a relief force towards Przemyśl. On 11 October, Dimitriev lifted the siege and withdrew across the San River. Conrad von Hötzendorf had hopes that a combined assault from Boroevic's army and the Przemyśl garrison would inflict a severe blow on the Russians.  A month and a half on from the time when the Russians encircled the town, German troops helped the Habsburg troops to break the encirclement. Civilians were ordered to leave at once – in part to relieve the severe food shortage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second siege.", "content": "By 31 October, Hindenburg had been defeated at the Battle of the Vistula River and withdrew from his assault on Warsaw. This caused Boroevic to pull back from the River San line, and abandon von Hötzendorf's proposed offensive against Russia. On November 9 the Russians resumed the siege of Przemyśl. Radko Dimitriev's force was withdrawn from the Przemyśl sector and moved north. The Russian Eleventh Army under General Andrei Nikolaevich Selivanov took up the siege operations. Selivanov did not order any frontal assaults as Dimitriev had, and instead settled to starve the garrison into submission. By mid-December 1914, the Russians were pounding the fortress with ceaseless artillery fire seeking to compel the town's surrender. During the winter 1914–1915 the Habsburg armies continued to fight their way to the fortress. Months of fighting resulted in great losses, largely from frostbite and disease, but relieving forces failed to reach the garrison at Przemysl.  In February 1915, Boroevic led another relief effort towards Przemyśl. By the end of February, all relief efforts having been defeated von Hötzendorf informed Hermann Kusmanek von Burgneustädten that no further efforts would be made. Selivanov was given sufficient artillery to reduce the fortress. The Russians overran the northern defenses on 13 March. An improvised line of defense held up the Russian attacks long enough for Kusmanek to destroy anything left in the city that could be of use to the Russians once captured. On March 19 Kusmanek ordered an attempt to break out but his sallies were repulsed and he was forced to retreat back into the city. With nothing useful left within the city, Kusmanek had no choice but to surrender. On 22 March, the remaining garrison of 117,000 surrendered to the Russians. Among the captured were nine generals, ninety-three senior staff officers, and 2500 other officers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life in Przemyśl under siege.", "content": "Diaries and notebooks kept by various people in the town have survived. The diary of Josef Tomann, an Austrian recruited into military service as a junior doctor, reveals the results of the activities of garrison officers: \"The hospitals have been recruiting teenage girls as nurses. They get 120 crowns a month and free meals. They are, with very few exceptions, utterly useless. Their main job is to satisfy the lust of the gentlemen officers and, rather shamefully, of a number of doctors, too [-] New officers are coming in almost daily with cases of syphilis, gonorrhea and soft chancre. The poor girls and women feel so flattered when they get chatted up by one of these pestilent pigs in their spotless uniforms, with their shiny boots and buttons.\" Other accounts reveal the pervasive presence of starvation and disease, including cholera, and the diary of Helena Jablonska, a middle-aged, quite wealthy Polish woman, reveals class and anti-semitic and racial tensions in the town; \" The Jewish women in basements rip you off the worst\", and on March 18, 1915 – \"The Jews are taking their shop signs down in a hurry, so that no one can tell who owns what. [-] They've all got so rich off the backs of those poor soldiers, and now of course they all want to run away!\" Once the Russians arrived in March the fate of the Jews worsened and she noted: \"The Cossacks waited until the Jews set off to the synagogue for their prayers before setting upon them with whips. There is such lamenting and despair. Some Jews are hiding in cellars, but they'll get to them there too.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mail communications.", "content": "Airmail flights from Przemyśl during both sieges when airmail postcards, mostly military mail, were flown from the besieged city on twenty-seven flights. Following a forced landing, mail from one flight was confiscated by the Russians and sent to Saint Petersburg for postal censorship and onward transmission. Balloon mail, on some manned but mainly unmanned paper balloons, was also carried out of the city. Pigeon mail was also used to send messages out of the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "The fall of Przemyśl led many to believe that Russia would now launch a major offensive into Hungary. This anticipated offensive never came, but the loss of Przemyśl was a serious blow to Austro-Hungarian morale. A further blow to Austria-Hungary was the fact that Przemyśl was only supposed to be garrisoned by 50,000, yet over 110,000 Austro-Hungarians surrendered with the fortress, a much more significant loss. The Russians held Przemyśl until the summer of 1915 when the Gorlice-Tarnow Offensive pushed back the Russian front in Galicia. Przemysl stayed in Austro-Hungarian hands until October 1918, at which point Eastern Galicia left the Austro-Hungarian Empire and became part of the newly created independent state of Poland. The Austro-Hungarian army never recovered from its losses in the winter of 1914–1915 and the Habsburgs would rely henceforth on German assistance both in their sector of the Eastern Front and in the Balkans.  Meanwhile Austro-Hungarian attempts to relieve the fortress ended catastrophically as the poorly supplied and outnumbered imperial forces attempted offensive after offensive through the Carpathian Mountains. Casualties for January to April 1915, in the Carpathians, were officially reported as 800,000, mostly due to weather and disease rather than combat. Russian casualties were nearly as high, but easier to replace, and balanced out more by the surrender of 117,000 Austro-Hungarian troops at the end of the siege. All told, the siege and the attempts to relieve it cost the Austro-Hungarian army over a million casualties and inflicted on it significant damage from which it would never recover.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Siege of Przemyśl was the longest siege of the First World War, and a crushing defeat for Austria-Hungary against Russian attackers. Przemyśl (German: \"Premissel\") was a fortress town on the River San and a Galician stronghold. The investment of Przemyśl began on 16 September 1914, and was briefly suspended on 11 October, due to an Austro-Hungarian offensive. The siege resumed again on 9 November, and the Austro-Hungarian garrison surrendered on 22 March 1915, after holding out for a total of 133 days.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976712}
{"src_title": "Vladimir-Suzdal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rostov principality.", "content": "The first notable administrators in the Rostov region presumably were the sons of Vladimir the Great, Boris and Gleb, and later Yaroslav the Wise. The principality occupied a vast territory in the northeast of Kievan Rus', approximately bounded by the Volga, Oka, and Northern Dvina rivers. Until the decline of Kievan Rus' in the 12th-13th centuries the territory was also commonly called Zalesie, literally depicting a region \"beyond woodland\". Scarce historical information exists for the area during that time. The foundation of the city of Rostov has been lost in the span of time. According to the archeologist, who specializes in the history of the region, the Rostov land until the 10th century was already under the control of Rostov city, while Sarskoye Gorodishche was a tribal center of the native Merya people.  In the 10th century an eparchy was established in Rostov. One of the first known princes was Yaroslav the Wise and later Boris Vladimirovich. At that time Rostov was the major center of the Eastern Orthodox Christianity in the region dominated mostly by shamanism. Until the 11th century Rostov was often associated with the Great Novgorod. Evidently the spread of Eastern Orthodox Christianity to the lands of the Great Perm was successfully conducted from Rostov. Rostov was the regional capital, including other important towns included Suzdal, Yaroslavl, and Belozersk.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rostov-Suzdal.", "content": "Vladimir Monomakh, son of the Grand Prince of Vsevolod I, inherited the rights to the principality in 1093. As the Grand Prince of Kiev he appointed his son George I to rule the northeastern lands and in 1125 moved its capital from Rostov to Suzdal, after which the Principality was referred to as Rostov-Suzdal. During the 11th and 12th centuries when southern parts of Rus' were systematically raided by Turkic nomads, their inhabitants began to migrate northward. In the formerly wooded areas, known as Zalesye, many new settlements were established. The foundations of Pereslavl, Kostroma, Dmitrov, Moscow, Yuriev-Polsky, Uglich, Tver, Dubna, and many others were assigned (either by chronicle or popular legend) to George I, whose sobriquet (\"the Long-Armed\") alludes to his dexterity in manipulating the politics of far-away Kiev. Sometime in 1108 Monomakh strengthened and rebuilt the town of Vladimir on the Klyazma River, 31 km south of Suzdal. During the rule of George I the principality gained military strength, and in the Suzdal-Ryazan war of 1146 it conquered the Ryazan Principality. Later in the 1150s Yuri occupied Kiev a couple of times as well. From that time the lands of the northeastern Rus' played an important role in the politics of Kievan Rus'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rise of Vladimir.", "content": "George's son Andrew the Pious significantly increased Vladimir's power at the expense of the nearby princely states, which he treated with contempt. After burning down Kiev, then the metropolitan seat of Rus', in 1169, he enthroned his younger brother. For Andrew, his capital of Vladimir was a far greater concern, as he embellished it with white stone churches and monasteries. Prince Andrew was murdered by boyars in his suburban residence at Bogolyubovo in 1174.  After a brief interregnum, Andrew's brother Vsevolod III secured the throne. He continued most of his brother's policies and once again subjugated Kiev in 1203. Vsevolod's chief enemies, however, were the Southern Ryazan Principality, which appeared to stir discord in the princely family, and the mighty Turkic state of Volga Bulgaria, which bordered Vladimir-Suzdal to the east. After several military campaigns, Ryazan was burnt to the ground, and the Bulgars were forced to pay tribute.  Vsevolod's death in 1212 precipitated a serious dynastic conflict. His eldest son Konstantin gained the support of powerful Rostovan boyars and Mstislav the Bold of Kiev and expelled the lawful heir, his brother George, from Vladimir to Rostov. George managed to return to the capital six years later, upon Konstantin's death. George proved to be a shrewd ruler who decisively defeated Volga Bulgaria and installed his brother Yaroslav in Novgorod. His reign, however, ended when the Mongol hordes under Batu Khan took and burnt Vladimir in 1238. Thereupon they proceeded to devastate other major cities of Vladimir-Suzdal during the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mongol yoke.", "content": "None of the cities of the principality managed to regain the power of the Great Kievan Rus' after the Mongol invasion. Vladimir became a vassal of the Mongol Empire, later succeeded by the Golden Horde, with the Grand Prince appointed by the Great Khan. Even the popular Alexander Nevsky of Pereslavl had to go to the Khan's capital in Karakorum in order to be installed as the Grand Prince in Vladimir. As many factions strove for power, the principality rapidly disintegrated into eleven tiny states: Moscow, Tver, Pereslavl, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Belozersk, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Starodub-upon-Klyazma, and Yuriev-Polsky. All of them nominally acknowledged the suzerainty of the Grand Prince of Vladimir, but his effective authority became progressively weaker.  By the end of the century, only three cities — Moscow, Tver, and Nizhny Novgorod — still contended for the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir. Once installed, however, they chose to remain in their own cities rather than moving to Vladimir. The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually came to eclipse its rivals. When the metropolitan of Kievan Rus' moved his chair from Vladimir to Moscow in 1325, it became clear that Moscow had effectively succeeded Vladimir as the chief centre of power in the north-east remnant of Kievan Rus'.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vladimir-Suzdal (, \"Vladimirsko-Suzdal'skaya\"), also Vladimir-Suzdalian Rus', formally known as the Grand Duchy of Vladimir (1157–1331) (; ), was one of the major principalities that succeeded Kievan Rus' in the late 12th century, centered in Vladimir-on-Klyazma. With time the principality grew into a grand duchy divided into several smaller principalities. After being conquered by the Mongol Empire, the principality became a self-governed state headed by its own nobility. A governorship of principality, however, was prescribed by a Khan declaration (jarlig) issued from the Golden Horde to a noble family of any of smaller principalities.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976713}
{"src_title": "Martyrs (2008 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 1971, a young girl, Lucie Jurin, escapes from a disused slaughterhouse where she has been imprisoned and tortured for more than a year. The perpetrators and their motivations remain a mystery. Lucie is placed in an orphanage, where she is befriended by a young girl named Anna Assaoui, who quickly discovers that Lucie believes that she is constantly being terrorized by a ghoulish creature—a disfigured, emaciated woman. Even so, Anna comforts Lucie every time she has a nightmare.  Fifteen years later, Lucie bursts into the home of an apparently normal family, the Belfonds - Gabrielle, her husband, and their children Antoine and Marie - and kills them all with a shotgun. Elsewhere, Anna waits for Lucie. Although Anna knows that Lucie believes the Belfonds are the people responsible for her childhood abuse, she is horrified when Lucie tells her that she has killed them. Upon arriving at the house, Anna discovers that Gabrielle is still alive and tries to help her escape, but Lucie bludgeons Gabrielle to death. Lucie is again attacked by the scarred creature, but Anna sees only Lucie hurting herself; the 'creature' is nothing more than a psychological manifestation of Lucie's guilt for leaving behind another girl who was also tortured with her as a child. Lucie, realizing that her insanity will never leave her, commits suicide.  The next day, Anna, still at the family's house, telephones her mother, from whom she has been estranged; their conversation implies that Anna suffered abuse from her parents as a child. Suddenly, Anna hears some noises and discovers a secret underground chamber in the living room. Imprisoned within is a horribly tortured young woman named Sarah, proving that Lucie was right about the family. Anna helps Sarah escape, but a group of strangers arrive and gun Sarah down. Captured, Anna meets their leader, an elderly lady referred to as Mademoiselle, who explains that she belongs to a secret philosophical society seeking to discover the secrets of the afterlife through the creation of \"martyrs\". Their experiments inflict systematic acts of torture upon young women in the belief that their suffering will result in a transcendental insight into the world beyond this one. Mademoiselle also believes the world is divided into victims (people who can't tolerate tortures and fall into madness, like Lucie and Sarah) and martyrs (people who \"accept\" tortures and transcend).  Anna becomes the group's latest subject. After a period of being brutally beaten and degraded, she hallucinates a conversation with Lucie and is later told she has progressed further than any other test subject and reached the \"final stage.\" She is flayed alive and survives the procedure, entering a state that is \"euphoric\" and likened to achieving transcendence. Mademoiselle arrives eagerly and Anna whispers into her ear.  Members of the society gather at the house to learn of the insights Anna shared with Mademoiselle. As Mademoiselle and her assistant wait for the others to arrive, he asks Mademoiselle if what Anna said to her was clear. Mademoiselle replies yes, and asks him in turn if he can imagine what comes after death. When he says no, Mademoiselle instructs him to \"keep doubting,\" then abruptly produces a handgun and kills herself with it.  The film ends with a shot of Anna on the table, in a catatonic state.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Pascal Laugier said that \"the film was rejected by all the big French studios, by a lot of actresses, too. [...] The film was really supported by Canal+, the only television channel in France that still finances some unusual projects\". He also comments that the main difficulty other than the technical issues such as special effects was to keep the actresses crying all the time, and that was too demanding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The film was categorized as a new example of new era French horror films akin to \"Inside\" with regard to the level of violence it depicts. The review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives a score of 59% based on 34 reviews from critics, and a weighted average of 5.96 out of 10. The website's critical consensus states, \"A real polarising movie, this Gallic torture-porn is graphic, brutal, nasty and gruesome and not to everyone's taste.\" Todd Brown at Twitch called it \"without a doubt the single most divisive film to screen in the Cannes Marché Du Film this year,\" while Ryan Rotten at \"shocktillyoudrop.com\" said that the film \"is the new yard stick against which all forms of extreme genre films should be measured against.\" In the early 2010s, \"Time Out\" conducted a poll with several authors, directors, actors and critics who have worked within the horror genre to vote for their top horror films. \"Martyrs\" placed at number 31 on their top 100 list.  The French \"Commission de classification des œuvres cinématographiques\" rated the film 18+ (unsuitable for children under 18 or forbidden in cinemas for persons under 18), which the producers of the film appealed. As a last resort, the French Society of Film Directors (SRF) asked the French ministry of culture to examine the decision, remarking that \"this is the first time a French genre film has been threatened with such a rating\". The Union of Film Journalists adopted the same position as the SRF, claiming censorship. The Minister of Culture Christine Albanel eventually asked the Commission of Classification to change its rating, which was done in July 2008. \"Martyrs\" was finally rated 16+.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remake.", "content": "In 2008 original director Pascal Laugier confirmed in an interview that he was in the middle of negotiating the rights for \"Martyrs\" to be remade in the United States. It was to be directed by Daniel Stamm, director of \"The Last Exorcism\", and written by Mark L. Smith, writer of \"Vacancy\" as well as from the producers of \"Twilight\". The producer of the film said he would like \"Twilight\" actress Kristen Stewart for the film, though her presence in the film was later denied by Stamm. Stamm said \"[The original film] is very nihilistic. The American approach [that I'm looking at] would go through all that darkness but then give a glimmer of hope. You don't have to shoot yourself when it's over.\" In a 2014 interview, Stamm revealed he had left the project after the budget had been reduced, stating, \"I think they're now back to making the movie for like $1 million, really low budget, which I think you could almost do, it's just there's this philosophy in Hollywood that you can never go back budget-wise. As a filmmaker you are judged by that. And then there's also this concept I was unaware of called plateauing, where if you're a filmmaker who makes two movies in the same budget bracket, that becomes your thing. You are the guy for the $3 million movie, and then that's all you do. And so my agents wouldn't let me do the $1 million movie, because then that's it for you, you'll supposedly never get that bigger budget\".  In February 2015 the new production companies Blumhouse Productions and The Safran Company announced that the movie was already filmed and that the Goetz Brothers, Michael and Kevin, had directed. In the leads stars Bailey Noble, Troian Bellisario, Kate Burton and Blake Robbins. It was panned by critics, and currently has a 7% rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a 19/100 on Metacritic, indicating \"overwhelming dislike\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Martyrs is a 2008 horror film written and directed by Pascal Laugier and starring Morjana Alaoui and Mylène Jampanoï. It premiered at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival at the Marché du Film, and was released theatrically in France on 3 September 2008.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976714}
{"src_title": "Norfolk Terrier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "The Norfolk Terrier has a wire-haired coat which, according to the various national kennel clubs' breed standards, can be \"all shades of red, wheaten, black and tan, or grizzle.\"  They are the smallest of the working terriers. They are active and compact, free moving, with good substance and bone. Good substance means good spring of rib and bone that matches the body such that the dog can be a very agile ratter or earth-dog.  Norfolk terriers are moderately proportioned dogs. A too heavy dog would not be agile. A too refined dog would make it a toy breed. Norfolks generally have more reach and drive and a stronger rear angulation, hence cover more ground than their Norwich cousins. Norfolk have good side gait owed to their balanced angulation front and rear and their slightly longer length of back.  The ideal height is at the withers and weight is about.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "Norfolks are described as fearless, but can have an independent streak. They, along with Norwich Terriers and Border Terriers, have the softest temperaments of the Terrier Group. Norfolks work in packs and must get along with other dogs. As companions, they love people and children and do make good pets. Their activity level is generally reflective of the pace of their environment. This breed should not be kept or live outside since they thrive on human contact.  Generally, Norfolks are not given to digging but, like any dog, will dig out of boredom when left alone for too long a period. Norfolks are not yappers and are not particularly vocal; however, they will bark when appropriate given their watch-dog tendencies. They generally cohabit well with other household pets when introduced as a puppy. Outdoors, they are natural hunters with a strong prey drive for small vermin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Working style.", "content": "Norfolks were originally bred as barn dogs to rid the barn of vermin. Some literature suggest that they were also occasionally used on the hunt to bolt animals of equal size from their den.  To some extent they are still used in that capacity in continental Europe. Norfolks are pack animals and hence expected to get along with other dogs while working or in the home. As a pack dog, they take turns working their prey. They are fearless and their courage is incredible. Today, of course, they are household companions and must have an agreeable disposition for living with people.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "The life expectancy of a Norfolk Terrier is 8–14 years, with some growing as old as 17 years. Norfolks do have incidences of mitral valve disease, luxating patellas, and incorrect bites (where the teeth do not align with the breed standard, i.e. overshot or undershot). Norfolks most often have shallow hip sockets and many breedlines are dysplastic. There has never been a Norfolk Terrier recognized by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) as having \"excellent\" rated hips. Therefore, responsible breeders are testing for hip dysplasia. Breeders that do not radiograph hips and have them evaluated by either OFA or PennHip, cannot answer questions regarding hip dysplasia in their breeding program.  Norfolks generally have medium to small litters. Responsible breeders only breed healthy dogs who are of good temperament, good pedigree lineage and best reflect the breed standard. The demand for Norfolk is far greater than the supply. The environment in which they are raised directly impacts the temperament of the puppy for its lifetime.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Care.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grooming.", "content": "These breeds have a double coat: a harsh, wiry topcoat and a soft, warm undercoat. Ideally, the coat is combed daily with a steel \"greyhound\" comb, but all that is really necessary for grooming a companion dog is a good combing once a week to remove the loose, dead hairs and prevent matting. As a minimum, the coat is hand stripped once in the Fall and once in the Spring. Clipping or cutting ruins the coat's colours and harsh texture. A Norfolk Terrier can be washed with a dog shampoo when it's dirty. The breed is considered largely hypoallergenic, although they do shed minimally year-round.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In the 1880s, British sportsmen developed a working terrier of East Anglia in eastern England. The Norwich Terrier and later the drop-eared variety now known as the Norfolk Terrier, were believed to have been developed by crossing local terrier-like dogs, small, short-legged Irish Terrier breeds and the small red terriers used by the Gypsy ratters of Norfolk (the county in which Norwich the city exists).  They were first called the Cantab Terrier when they became fashionable for students to keep in their rooms at Cambridge University in England. Later, they were called the Trumpington Terrier, after Trumpington Street where the breed was further developed at a livery stable. Then, just prior to World War I, a prominent Irish horse rider Frank Jones sold quantities of the short-legged terriers to the United States, so there they were called Jones Terriers. It was Jones who designated the terriers were from Norwich.  In 1932, the Norwich was granted acceptance into the English Kennel Club and the first written standard was created. The American Kennel Club registered the first Norwich Terrier in 1936. In 1964, The Kennel Club reclassified the drop-ear variety as it its own breed, the Norfolk Terrier, and the prick-eared variety retained the name Norwich Terrier. The American Kennel Club and Canadian Kennel Club both recognized the division of the Norwich Terrier breed in 1979. The Norfolk Terrier was recognized by the United Kennel Club in 1979. After many generations, these two breeds have developed as two distinct breeds both in physical looks and in temperament. Of note, there is literature that suggests that the Norfolk and Norwich were always two distinct breeds and the original mistake was classifying them as one.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Citations  Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Norfolk Terrier is a British breed of dog. Prior to gaining recognition as an independent breed in 1964, it was a variety of the Norwich Terrier, distinguished from the \"prick eared\" Norwich by its \"drop ears\" (or folded ears). Together, the Norfolk and Norwich Terriers are the smallest of the working terriers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976715}
{"src_title": "Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Buildings.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abbey.", "content": "Until 1792, the buildings belonged to the Royal, which was built in the 17th century. The abbess always came from the high French nobility and here received the personalities of the kingdom. The institution had a particularly aristocratic slant, as is shown by its renovation by Louis XIV of France in the 17th and 18th centuries. The present state of the palais Saint-Pierre is largely down to these renovations, which included the construction of the baroque refectory and monumental honour-staircase, said to be by Thomas Blanchet. Since then, the refectory has been renovated and now serves as the reception for group visits, as well as housing two monumental paintings on the subject of dining, \"The Multiplication of the Loaves\" and \"The Last Supper\", both by Pierre-Louis Cretey. The rest of its current layout was designed by Nicolas Bidaut and Simon Guillaume and is made up of sculptures.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Palais du commerce et des Arts.", "content": "The expulsion of the nuns and the destruction of the église Saint-Saturnin date to the French Revolution, though the abbey's other church (the église Saint-Pierre) still exists and now houses 19th and 20th century sculptures. After the Revolution, the remaining buildings housed the Palais du Commerce et des Arts, at first made up of works confiscated from the clergy and nobility but later becoming more multi-disciplinary. For example, it gained archaeology and natural history collections and those of the Académie des Sciences et des Lettres. The imperial drawing school was created in 1805 in the Palais du Commerce et des Arts to provide Lyon's silk factories with designers, giving birth to the famous Lyon School. In 1860, the Chambre de Commerce left the Palais Saint-Pierre and the establishment became the Palais des Arts. From 1875, the museum's collections underwent a major expansion and had to be expanded — the staircase by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes dates to this era.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Musée des Beaux-Arts.", "content": "The collections were opened up considerably at the start of the 20th century, leading to the Palais des Arts becoming the Musée des Beaux-Arts. The building acquired its present layout in the mid-1990s after the completion of several restoration projects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paintings.", "content": "The paintings department has European 14th- to mid-20th-century paintings. They are arranged chronologically and by major schools in 35 rooms. The collection features :", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sculptures.", "content": "Most of the collection is displayed in two sections: on the ground floor are Medieval and Renaissance sculptures and stuccos of the old baroque refectory; and in the abbey's church are sculptures from the 19th and early 20th centuries.  At the heart of the abbey, the former cloister is now a municipal garden, right in the centre of the town, on the peninsula. It is decorated with several 19th century statues:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Antiquities.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Egypt.", "content": "Ancient Egypt is the main theme of the museum's antiquities department, due to the historic importance of egyptology in Lyon, encouraged by men like Victor Loret, whose family gave over 1000 objects to the museum in 1954. From 1895, the musée du Louvre provided nearly 400 objects (unguent vases, funerary figurines etc.) to form the foundation of the department; other objects (canopic vases, jewellery, material from Antinoöpolis) were added later to complement this initial donation, and were augmented in 1936 by objects from the artisans' village of Deir el-Medina.  The highlights of the collection are its display of sarcophaguses and the gates of Ptolemy III and Ptolemy IV from the temple of Medamud dug by the Lyons archaeologist Alexandre Varille in 1939 and donated by the French Institute of Oriental Archeology of Cairo. The remaining objects shed light on everyday life in ancient Egypt.  The collection has 600 works displayed in 9 rooms, in a thematic and chronological sequence:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Near East and Middle East.", "content": "One room contains cylinder seals, clay tablets and bas-reliefs from the Sumerian, Assyrian and Babylonian civilisations, as well as Luristan bronzes, ceramics and statuettes from Cyprus and a fine collection of Syrian objects (including an anthropoid sarcophagus and a marble bas-relief).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Ancient Greece and Italy.", "content": "A single room is devoted to the main work in this department, the 6th century BC marble kore from the Acropolis of Athens. A second room is dedicated to ancient Greece, containing a series of Attic vases in black-figure or red-figure, bronzes and terracotta Tanagra figurines. Finally, a small room is devoted to Magna Graecia, with many ceramics and bronze helmets.  Roman sculpture is also presented across several rooms - marble statues (a torso of Venus, a child on a cockerel, statues of draped figures etc.) and also small bronze figurines of Gods from the Roman Pantheon such as Mercury, Venus, Mars etc.  The Gallo-Roman collections of the city of Lyon, previously presented at the Museum of Fine Arts and the Antiquarium, were transferred in 1975 at the Lugdunum museum on the hill of Fourvière near the Roman theatre and Odeon.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Objets d’Art.", "content": "This department's collection ranges from the Middle Ages to the 20th century and includes:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Coins and medals.", "content": "Lyon's \"médaillier\" is the second largest one in France after that in Paris, with nearly 50,000 coins, medals, seals and other objects. It is known at a European level and has held a prominent place in the numismatic world from its beginnings in the 19th century to recent discoveries of the treasuries of the Terreaux and the Célestins.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Graphic arts.", "content": "This department was created at the start of the 19th century and includes works on paper - drawings, prints, engravings, watercolours etc. - based on line rather than colour. In all it more than 8,000 works, including ones by Filippino Lippi, Parmigianino, Fra Bartolomeo, Leonetto Cappiello, Nicolas Poussin, François Boucher, Ingres, Théodore Géricault, Eugène Delacroix, Camille Corot, Honoré Daumier, Odilon Redon, Puvis de Chavannes, Edgar Degas, Henri Matisse, Fernand Léger and a remarkable study by Albrecht Dürer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Magazine.", "content": "On the initiative of René Jullian, in 1952 the \"Bulletin des musées lyonnais\" was created, and 8 years later changed its name to \"Bulletin des musées et monuments Lyonnais\". In 2003 it changed to an annual publication and again changed its name, to \"Cahiers du musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon (French: \"Musée des beaux-arts de Lyon\") is a municipal museum of fine arts in the French city of Lyon. Located near Place des Terreaux, it is housed in a former Benedictine convent which was active during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was restored between 1988 and 1998, remaining open to visitors throughout this time despite the restoration works. Its collections range from ancient Egyptian antiquities to the Modern art period, making the museum one of the most important in Europe. It also hosts important exhibitions of art, for example the exhibitions of works by Georges Braque and Henri Laurens in the second half of 2005, and another on the work of Théodore Géricault from April to July 2006. It is one of the largest art museums in France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976716}
{"src_title": "Savva Mamontov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Business career.", "content": "He was a son of the wealthy merchant and industrialist Ivan Feodorovich Mamontov and Maria Tikhonovna (Lakhitina). In 1841, the family moved to Moscow. From 1852, he studied in St. Petersburg, and later at the Moscow University. In 1862 his father sent him to Baku to engage in business with the elder Mamontov's Trans-Caspian Trade Partnership.  In 1864, Savva visited Italy where he began to take lessons in singing. There he was introduced to the daughter of Moscow merchant Grigory Sapozhnikov, 17-year-old Elizabeth, who subsequently became his wife. The wedding took place in 1865 at the Kireevo estate, near Khimki, just northwest of Moscow.  Upon his father's death in 1869, he succeeded to his share in the Moscow-Yaroslavl Railway, and at the recommendation of his father's friend, Fedor Vasilyevich Chizhov, he was elected a director of the company. In 1872 he was elected its chairman.  The extension of the railway from Sergyev Posad to Yaroslavl, begun in 1868, was opened for traffic on 18 February (2 March N.S.) 1870. A narrow-gauge branch from Uroch station to Vologda was opened on 20 June (2 July) 1872, followed by the Alexandrov-Karabanovo branch in 1877 and the Yaroslavl-Kostroma line in 1887. Mamontov also supervised the construction of the Donetsk Coal Railway, which connected a network of sparsely populated mining villages with the port of Mariupol, between 1875 and 1878.  The Moscow-Yaroslavl system was greatly expanded in the 1890s. The Yeremoino-Sereda line was opened in 1893, followed by Mytishchi-Shchyolkovo line in 1895. Also in 1895, the railway purchased the Shuysko-Ivanovskay and Yermolino-Seredskaya lines from the Shuysko-Ivanovskaya Railway. In 1896 the Alexandrov-Kirzhach and Belkovo-Yuryev-Polsky-Ivanovo-Teykovo lines were opened, followed by the Nerekhta-Sereda line in 1898.  The biggested expansion, especially in terms of future importance, was the construction of the Yaroslavl-Archangelsk line between 1894 and 1897. It was formally opened on 17 (29) November 1897, although difficulties with the swampy ground delayed full service on the line till 1898.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patron of the arts.", "content": "In 1870, Mamontov purchased the Abramtsevo Estate, located north of Moscow, and founded there an artists' colony which included most of the best Russian artists of the beginning of the 20th century, such as Konstantin Korovin, Rafail Levitsky, Mikhail Nesterov, Ilya Repin, Vasily Polenov, Valentin Serov, Mikhail Vrubel, the brothers Vasnetsov, sculptors Viktor Hartmann and Mark Antokolsky, as well as various others. The colony of artists who were hosted there during the 1870s and 1880s sought to recapture the quality and spirit of medieval Russian art. Several workshops were set up there to produce handmade furniture, ceramic tiles, and silks imbued with traditional Russian imagery and themes.  Mamontov also patronised the Russian Private Opera which discovered the great Russian bass, Chaliapin, and supported the Russian opera composers, Pyotr Tchaikovsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Alexander Borodin, Modest Musorgsky, and many others. Drama and opera on Russian folklore themes (e.g., Rimsky-Korsakov's \"The Snow Maiden\") were produced at Abramtsevo by the likes of Konstantin Stanislavsky, with sets contributed by the brothers Vasnetsov, Mikhail Vrubel, and other distinguished artists. \"The Russian Private Opera\" was Mamontov's main contribution to the arts. Mamontov acted as a stage director, a conductor and a teacher of singing. The success of the \"Private Opera\" in the provinces was followed by a triumph in Moscow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Downfall.", "content": "Mamontov's world came crashing down when, in 1899, an audit revealed that his factories had been improved since 1890 with funds from the railway, a course of action that was contrary to law. He was compelled to resign as chairman of the railway on 30 July (11 August) 1899. (The railway company was taken over by the Imperial Ministry of Treasury on 1 (14) April 1900.) Unable to pay his creditors, he began to sell off assets to raise funds, but this course was brought to an abrupt end on 11 (23) September 1899 when he was arrested and lodged in the Tagansky prison in Moscow. Mamontov was unjustly accused of embezzlement; he was released from custody early in 1900, and at his trial in June 1900, defended by F.N. Plevako, he was acquitted. Acquittal did not avert his financial ruin, for on 7 (20) July 1900 he was declared insolvent by the Moscow District Court, and his property was sold at public auction.  Savva Ivanovich Mamontov died in Abramtsevo after a long illness on 6 April 1918.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular Culture and Media.", "content": "Third Eye Blind's song \"Monotov's Private Opera\" from the album \"Ursa Major\" is inspired by Mamontov's private opera.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Savva Ivanovich Mamontov (, ; 3 October 1841 (15 October N.S.), Yalutorovsk – 6 April 1918, Moscow) was a Russian industrialist, merchant, entrepreneur and patron of the arts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976717}
{"src_title": "Functional linguistics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Functional analysis.", "content": "Functional analysis is the examination of how linguistic elements function on different layers of linguistic structure, and how the levels interact with each other. Functions exist on all levels of grammar, even in phonology, where the phoneme has the function of distinguishing between lexical material.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Functional explanation.", "content": "In functional explanation, a linguistic structure is explained with an appeal to its function. Functional linguistics takes as its starting point the notion that communication is the primary function of language. Therefore, general phonological, morphosyntactic and semantic phenomena are thought of as being motivated by the needs of people to communicate successfully with each other. Thus, functional linguistics takes the perspective that the organisation of language reflects its functional value.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The concept of economy is metaphorically transferred from a social or economical context to a linguistic level. It is considered as a regulating force in language maintenance. Controlling the impact of language change or internal and external conflicts of the system, the economy principle means that systemic coherence is maintained without increasing energy cost. This is why all human languages, no matter how different they are, have high functional value as based on a compromise between the competing motivations of speaker-easiness (simplicity or \"inertia\") versus hearer-easiness (clarity or \"energeia\").  The principle of economy was elaborated by the French structural–functional linguist André Martinet. Martinet's concept is similar to Zipf's principle of least effort; although the idea had been discussed by various linguists in the late 19th and early 20th century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Information structure.", "content": "Some key adaptations of functional explanation are found in the study of information structure. Based on earlier linguists' work, Prague Circle linguists Vilém Mathesius, Jan Firbas and others elaborated the concept of theme–rheme relations (topic and comment) to study pragmatic concepts such as sentence focus, and givenness of information, to successfully explain word-order variation. The method has been used widely in linguistics to uncover word-order patterns in the languages of the world. Its importance, however, is limited to within-language variation, with no apparent explanation of cross-linguistic word order tendencies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Functional principles.", "content": "Several principles from pragmatics have been proposed as functional explanations of linguistic structures, often in a typological perspective.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Frameworks.", "content": "There are several distinct grammatical frameworks that employ a functional approach.  Dik characterises the functional approach as follows:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Functional linguistics is the approach to the study of language that sees functionality of language and its elements to be the key to understanding linguistic processes and structures. Functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, it is reasonable to assume that its structures are best analyzed and understood with reference to the functions they carry out. Functional theories of grammar belong to structural and humanistic linguistics. They take into account the context where linguistic elements are used and study the way they are instrumentally useful or functional in the given environment. This means that functional theories of grammar tend to pay attention to the way language is actually used in communicative context. The formal relations between linguistic elements are assumed to be functionally-motivated.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976718}
{"src_title": "Georgia Guidestones", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In June 1979, a man using the pseudonym Robert C. Christian approached the Elberton Granite Finishing Company on behalf of \"a small group of loyal Americans\", and commissioned the structure. Christian explained that the stones would function as a compass, calendar, and clock, and should be capable of withstanding catastrophic events. Joe Fendley of Elberton Granite assumed that Christian was \"a nut\" and attempted to discourage him by giving a quote several times higher than any project the company had taken, explaining that the guidestones would require additional tools and consultants. Christian accepted the quote. When arranging payment, Christian explained that he represented a group which had been planning the guidestones for 20 years, and which intended to remain anonymous.  Christian delivered a scale model of the guidestones and ten pages of specifications. The five-acre land was apparently purchased by Christian on October 1, 1979, from farm owner Wayne Mullinex. Mullinex and his children were given lifetime cattle grazing rights on the guidestones site. The monument was unveiled on March 22, 1980, before an audience variously described as 100 or 400 people. Christian later transferred ownership of the land and the guidestones to Elbert County.  In 2008, the stones were defaced with polyurethane paint and graffiti with slogans such as \"Death to the new world order\". \"Wired\" magazine called the defacement \"the first serious act of vandalism in the guidestones' history\". In September 2014, an employee of the Elbert County maintenance department contacted the Federal Bureau of Investigation when the stones were vandalized with graffiti including the phrase \"I Am Isis, goddess of love\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inscriptions.", "content": "A message consisting of a set of ten guidelines or principles is engraved on the Georgia Guidestones in eight different languages, one language on each face of the four large upright stones. Moving clockwise around the structure from due north, these languages are: English, Spanish, Swahili, Hindi, Hebrew, Arabic, Traditional Chinese, and Russian.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Explanatory tablet.", "content": "A few feet to the west of the monument, an additional granite ledger has been set level with the ground. This tablet identifies the structure and the languages used on it, lists various facts about the size, weight, and astronomical features of the stones, the date it was installed, and the sponsors of the project. It also speaks of a time capsule buried under the tablet, but spaces on the stone reserved for filling in the dates on which the capsule was buried and is to be opened have not been inscribed, so it is uncertain if the time capsule was put in place.  The complete text of the explanatory tablet is detailed below. The tablet is somewhat inconsistent with respect to punctuation, and misspells the word \"pseudonym\". The original spelling, punctuation, and line breaks in the text have been preserved in the transcription which follows (letter case is not). At the top center of the tablet is written:  Immediately below this is the outline of a square, inside which is written:  Around the edges of the square are written translations to four ancient languages, one per edge. Starting from the top and proceeding clockwise, they are: Babylonian (in cuneiform script), Classical Greek, Sanskrit and Ancient Egyptian (in hieroglyphs).  On the left side of the tablet is the following column of text:  The words appear as shown under the time capsule heading; no dates are engraved.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical data.", "content": "On the right side of the tablet is the following column of text (metric conversions added):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Guidestone languages.", "content": "Below the two columns of text is written the caption \"GUIDESTONE LANGUAGES\", with a diagram of the granite slab layout beneath it. The names of eight modern languages are inscribed along the long edges of the projecting rectangles, one per edge. Starting from due north and moving clockwise around so that the upper edge of the northeast rectangle is listed first, they are English, Spanish, Swahili, Hindi, Hebrew, Arabic, Chinese, and Russian. At the bottom center of the tablet is the following text:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Astronomical features.", "content": "The four outer stones are oriented to mark the limits of the 18.6 year lunar declination cycle. The center column features a hole drilled at an angle from one side to the other, through which can be seen the North Star, a star whose position changes only very gradually over time. The same pillar has a slot carved through it which is aligned with the Sun's solstices and equinoxes. A in (22 mm) aperture in the capstone allows a ray of sun to pass through at noon each day, shining a beam on the center stone indicating the day of the year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interpretations.", "content": "Yoko Ono praised the inscribed messages as \"a stirring call to rational thinking\", while \"Wired\" stated that unspecified opponents have labeled them as the \"Ten Commandments of the Antichrist\".  The guidestones have become a subject of interest for conspiracy theorists. One of them, an activist named Mark Dice, demanded that the guidestones \"be smashed into a million pieces, and then the rubble used for a construction project\", claiming that the guidestones are of \"a deep Satanic origin\", and that R. C. Christian belongs to \"a Luciferian secret society\" related to the \"New World Order\". At the unveiling of the monument, a local minister proclaimed that he believed the monument was \"for sun worshipers, for cult worship and for devil worship\". Others have suggested that the stones were commissioned by the Rosicrucians, with conspiracy theorist Jay Weidner observing that the pseudonym of the man who commissioned the stones – \"R. C. Christian\" – resembles Rose Cross Christian, or Christian Rosenkreuz, the founder of the Rosicrucian Order. Alex Jones's film \"Endgame: Blueprint for Global Enslavement\" proposes that the guidestones are a harbinger of self-appointed elites who intend on exterminating most of the world's population.  The most widely agreed-upon interpretation of the stones is that they describe the basic concepts required to rebuild a devastated civilization. Author Brad Meltzer notes that the stones were built in 1979 at the height of the Cold War, and thus argues that they may have been intended as a message to the possible survivors of a nuclear World War III. The engraved suggestion to keep humanity's population below 500 million could have been made under the assumption that war had already reduced humanity below this number.  The guidestones were briefly shown and discussed in the 1986 documentary film \"Sherman's March\", and were featured extensively in a 2012 episode of \"Mysteries at the Museum\", a \"Monumental Mysteries Special\" featuring Don Wildman.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Georgia Guidestones are a granite monument erected in 1980 in Elbert County, Georgia, in the United States. A set of 10 guidelines is inscribed on the structure in eight modern languages and a shorter message is inscribed at the top of the structure in four ancient language scripts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976719}
{"src_title": "7-Zip", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formats.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "7z.", "content": "By default, 7-Zip creates 7z-format archives with a codice_1 file extension. Each archive can contain multiple directories and files. As a \"container\" format, security or size reduction are achieved using a stacked combination of filters. These can consist of pre-processors, compression algorithms, and encryption filters.  The core 7z compression uses a variety of algorithms, the most common of which are bzip2, PPMd, LZMA2, and LZMA. Developed by Pavlov, LZMA is a relatively new system, making its debut as part of the 7z format. LZMA uses an LZ-based sliding dictionary of up to 4 GB in size, backed by a range coder.  The native 7z file format is open and modular. File names are stored as Unicode.  In 2011, TopTenReviews found that the 7z compression was at least 17% better than ZIP, and 7-Zip's own site has since 2002 reported that while compression ratio results are very dependent upon the data used for the tests, \"Usually, 7-Zip compresses to 7z format 30–70% better than to zip format, and 7-Zip compresses to zip format 2–10% better than most other zip-compatible programs.\"  The 7z file format specification is distributed with the program's source code, in the \"doc\" subdirectory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Others.", "content": "7-Zip supports a number of other compression and non-compression archive formats (both for packing and unpacking), including ZIP, gzip, bzip2, xz, tar, and WIM. The utility also supports unpacking APM, ar, ARJ, chm, cpio, deb, FLV, JAR, LHA/LZH, LZMA, MSLZ, Office Open XML, onepkg, RAR, RPM, smzip, SWF, XAR, and Z archives and cramfs, DMG, FAT, HFS, ISO, MBR, NTFS, SquashFS, UDF, and VHD disk images. 7-Zip supports the ZIPX format for unpacking only. It has had this support since at least version 9.20, which was released in late 2010.  7-Zip can open some MSI files, allowing access to the meta-files within along with the main contents. Some Microsoft CAB (LZX compression) and NSIS (LZMA) installer formats can be opened. Similarly, some Microsoft executable programs (.EXEs) that are self-extracting archives or otherwise contain archived content (e.g., some setup files) may be opened as archives.  When compressing ZIP or gzip files, 7-Zip uses its own DEFLATE encoder, which may achieve higher compression, but at lower speed, than the more common zlib DEFLATE implementation. The 7-Zip deflate encoder implementation is available separately as part of the AdvanceCOMP suite of tools.  The decompression engine for RAR archives was developed using freely available source code of the unRAR program, which has a licensing restriction against creation of a RAR compressor. 7-Zip v15.06 and later support extraction of files in the RAR5 format. Some backup systems use formats supported by archiving programs such as 7-Zip; e.g., some Android backups are in codice_2 format, and can be extracted by archivers such as 7-Zip.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "File manager.", "content": "7-Zip comes with a file manager along with the standard archiver tools. The file manager has a toolbar with options to create an archive, extract an archive, test an archive to detect errors, copy, move, and delete files, and open a file properties menu exclusive to 7-Zip. The file manager, by default, displays hidden files because it does not follow Windows Explorer's policies. The tabs show name, modification time, original and compressed sizes, attributes, and comments (4DOS codice_3 format).  When going up one directory on the root, all drives, removable or internal appear. Going up again shows a list with four options:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "7-Zip supports:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "Two command-line versions are provided: 7z.exe, using external libraries; and a standalone executable 7za.exe, containing built-in modules, but with compression/decompression support limited to 7z, ZIP, gzip, bzip2, Z and tar formats. A 64-bit version is available, with support for large memory maps, leading to faster compression. All versions support multi-threading.  The 7za.exe version of 7-Zip is available for Unix-like operating systems (including Linux, FreeBSD, and macOS), FreeDOS, OpenVMS, AmigaOS 4, and MorphOS under the \"p7zip\" project.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Software development kit.", "content": "7-Zip has a LZMA SDK which was originally dual-licensed under both the GNU LGPL and Common Public License, with an additional special exception for linked binaries. On December 2, 2008, the SDK was placed by Igor Pavlov in the public domain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Security.", "content": "On older versions self-extracting archives were vulnerable to arbitrary code execution through DLL hijacking: they load and run a DLL named UXTheme.dll, if it is in the same folder as the executable file. 7-Zip 16.03 Release notes say that the installer and SFX modules have added protection against DLL preloading attack.  Versions of 7-Zip prior to 18.05 contain an arbitrary code execution vulnerability in the module for extracting files from RAR archives (), a vulnerability that was fixed on 30 April 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception and usage.", "content": "Snapfiles.com in 2012 rated 7-Zip 4.5 stars out of 5, noting, \"[its] interface and additional features are fairly basic, but the compression ratio is outstanding\".  On TechRepublic in 2009, Justin James found the detailed settings for Windows File Manager integration were \"appreciated\" and called the compression-decompression benchmark utility \"neat\". And though the archive dialog has settings that \"will confound most users\", he concluded: \"7-Zip fits a nice niche in between the built-in Windows capabilities and the features of the paid products, and it is able to handle a large variety of file formats in the process.\"  Between 2002 and 2016, 7-Zip was downloaded 410 million times from SourceForge alone.  The software has received awards. In 2007, SourceForge granted it community choice awards for \"Technical Design\" and for \"Best Project\". In 2013, 7-Zip received Tom's Hardware Elite award due to superiority in speed and compression ratio.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "7-Zip is a free and open-source file archiver, a utility used to place groups of files within compressed containers known as \"archives\". It is developed by Igor Pavlov and was first released in 1999. 7-Zip uses its own 7z archive format, but can read and write several other archive formats. The program can be used from a command-line interface as the command p7zip, or through a graphical user interface that also features shell integration. Most of the 7-Zip source code is under the GNU LGPL license; the unRAR code, however, is under the GNU LGPL with an \"unRAR restriction\", which states that developers are not permitted to use the code to reverse-engineer the RAR compression algorithm.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976720}
{"src_title": "Denis Mukwege", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Mukwege is the third of nine children born to a Pentecostal minister and his wife. He almost died at birth due to an infection but was saved by the Swedish Pentecostal missionary and midwife Majken Bergman. He studied medicine because he wanted to heal the sick people for whom his father prayed, after seeing the complications of childbirth experienced by women in the Congo who had no access to specialist healthcare.  After graduating with a medical degree from the University of Burundi in 1983, Mukwege worked as a pediatrician in the rural Lemera Hospital near Bukavu. However, after seeing women patients who due to the absence of proper care often suffered pain, genital lesions, and obstetric fistula after giving birth, he studied gynaecology and obstetrics at the University of Angers, France, obtaining his master's and completing his medical residency in 1989. His education was mainly financed by the Swedish Pentecostal mission.  On 24 September 2015, he earned a PhD from Université libre de Bruxelles for his thesis on traumatic fistulas in the Eastern Region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After returning from studying in Belgium, Mukwege continued working in the Lemera Hospital. After the First Congo War began, he returned to Bukavu due to violent incidents, and founded the Panzi Hospital in 1999. Its construction was mainly financed by Swedish Christian aid organizations and the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. It has continued to enjoy support from the Swedish Pentecostal Mission's development cooperation organization PMU.  Since its foundation, Panzi Hospital has treated more than 82,000 patients with complex gynecological damage and trauma, an estimated 60 percent of injuries has been caused by sexual violence. Most of the patients of that time were coming from conflict zones. Mukwege has described how his patients arrived at the hospital sometimes naked, usually in horrific condition. When he observed that genital damaging was being used as a weapon of war in the conflict of the late 1990s between different armed groups, Mukwege devoted himself to reconstructive surgery to help female victims of sexual violence. The German Institute for Medical Mission (DIFAEM) has been supporting Mukwege's work with funds and medicines.  In 2008, the non-profit Panzi Foundation DRC was created in order to support the work of Panzi Hospital with \"legal assistance, psycho-social support and socio-economic programmes.\" A Panzi Foundation USA was later founded to promote fundraising in the United States of America, and encourage investment in the Panzi Hospital and Foundations. In 2016 the Mukwege Foundation was created, to promote the aims of the Panzi Hospital and Foundations worldwide and \"advocate for an end to wartime sexual violence everywhere.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United Nations speech.", "content": "In September 2012, Mukwege gave a speech at the United Nations where he condemned the mass rape occurring in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and criticized the Congolese government and other countries \"for not doing enough to stop what he called 'an unjust war that has used violence against women and rape as a strategy of war.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Assassination attempt and return.", "content": "On 25 October 2012, four armed men attacked his residence while he was not home, held his daughters hostage, and waited for his return to assassinate him. Upon his return, his guard intervened and was shot dead by the assassins. They missed Mukwege as he dropped to the ground during the shooting. After the assassination attempt, Mukwege went into exile in Europe and the Panzi Hospital reported that his absence has had a \"devastating effect\" on its daily operations.  He returned to Bukavu on 14 January 2013, where the population received him with a warm welcome over the 20 miles from Kavumu Airport to the city, especially from his patients, who had raised funds to pay for his return ticket by selling pineapples and onions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other activities.", "content": "At 13 years of age, Mukwege took the decision to follow in his father's footsteps and become a Pentecostal minister, which was a transformative experience for him. He later said: \"I started to speak in tongues. My whole being was filled with heat and a certainty that I was not alone. The experience was so overwhelming that I knew my life was forever changed by that moment.\" Apart from working as a doctor, he partly ministers in a Pentecostal church in Bukavu with 700 members. Mukwege has repeatedly named his faith in Jesus Christ as a primary motivation for his work at Panzi.  The Panzi Hospital is being run by the Congolese Pentecostal movement CEPAC and has been continuously supported by the Swedish Pentecostal movement. In 2015, Mukwege was invited to speak at Nyhemsveckan, the annual Pentecostal conference in central Sweden. He then said:  From this place, people have been praying for my beloved country and tonight it is a privilege for me to stand here as a fruit of your prayers. My congregation belongs to the Congolese Pentecostal Movement Cepac, and with about one million members it is a fruit of your prayers. The Panzi hospital is a fruit of your prayers.  The church must be based on prayer. The Bible tells us to be thankful and thus, I want to be a representative for all those who received the blessings from your efforts in my country and elsewhere, saying thank you from the bottom of my heart.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Denis Mukwege (; born 1 March 1955) is a Congolese gynecologist and Pentecostal pastor. He founded and works in Panzi Hospital in Bukavu, where he specializes in the treatment of women who have been raped by armed rebels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976721}
{"src_title": "Karl Tersztyánszky von Nádas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Tersztyánszky was born in Skalica in the Austro-Hungarian Empire on 29 October 1854. He graduated from the Theresian Military Academy in Vienna in 1877 and was commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Army. Afterwards the dragoon officer went to war school, served in the general staff and held various cavalry commands. While his stubborn, cantankerous and hot-headed behaviour often got him into trouble he nonetheless was frequently commended by his superiors and enjoyed the patronage of the heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (until his assassination in 1914) and Chief of Staff Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. In 1913 Tersztyánszky was promoted to the rank of General der Kavallerie.  When World War I began Tersztyánszky, commanding IV Corps, served as part of 2nd Army in the Balkans theatre. Later that year the unit was transferred to the Eastern Front to fight in Galicia and Poland. In late spring 1915 he was given command of the short-lived Army Group \"Tersztyánszky\", which soon became the 3rd Army, in Serbia.However, later that year he lost command after clashing with Hungarian Prime Minister István Tisza.  Tersztyánszky had to wait until mid 1916 for a new assignment, now as a recently promoted Generaloberst. He got command of the 4th Army during the Brusilov Offensive, back on the Eastern Front. He took the place of Archduke Joseph Ferdinand of Austria who had been dismissed on insistence of German general Alexander von Linsingen for failures during said campaign. In 1917 Tersztyánszky was relieved once more after clashing with von Linsingen, and was to lead 3rd Army again. However he was removed from command for a final time when unable to hold the lines during the Kerensky Offensive.  Tersztyánszky then served on a ceremonial post as commander of the Imperial and Royal Mounted Lifeguard Squadron. He finally retired in December 1918 after the war had ended; and lived in Vienna until he died there on 7 March 1921.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decorations.", "content": "Among his decorations and recognitions were:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karl Tersztyánszky von Nádas (28 October 1854 – 7 March 1921), alternatively written Tersztyánszky de Nádas, was an Austro-Hungarian general who served in World War I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976722}
{"src_title": "Battle of Chora", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "Oruzgan province, along with neighboring Kandahar and Helmand provinces in southern Afghanistan, is part of the Taliban's traditional Pashtun tribal stronghold. In Oruzgan, NATO's ISAF mission took over authority for Afghanistan from the US-led coalition in August 2006, resulting in 1,400 Dutch soldiers replacing some 150 US troops at the Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) in Oruzgan's provincial capital, Tarin Kowt, and other bases. In addition to co-located Afghan battalions, there was an Australian element under Dutch command and contributions from other NATO allies. Oruzgan is 2/3 the size of the Netherlands, but the Dutch presence has been challenged with providing security to areas it patrols regularly. When faced with the security challenge, the Dutch reverted to an \"inkspot policy\" whereby they focused their attention only on Oruzgan's three population centres, leaving other areas to Taliban control.  Dutch activities included setting up checkpoints, some of which were near the town of Chora. At the time, there were 100 Afghan police in Chora.  Dutch troops were working in Chora on projects such as a school, a mosque and a bridge, following up on civilian construction projects initiated by the US. 60 Dutch troops were deployed in Chora.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "June 15.", "content": "On Friday evening June 15 there was some shooting near Chora. In the morning of that day, a Dutch convoy in Tarin Kowt was attacked by a suicide bomber, killing a Dutch soldier, Timo Smeehuijzen and several Afghan civilians.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "June 16.", "content": "A U.S. A-10 Thunderbolt II spotted a group of 60 persons moving toward Chora. Dutch troops at Chora were informed, but the A-10 did not engage the group, due to uncertainty over their identity and intentions.  Shortly after, three Afghan police posts (Kala Kala, Nyazi and Sarab), on the road linking Chora to Tarin Kowt came under coordinated attack by a large number of Taliban fighters (the Dutch press claim \"800\" men, although this number seems impossibly large and cannot be verified). Dutch troops in Chora moved to support the Kala Kala and Nyazi Afghan police posts.  The Taliban captured Sarab police post, killing two brothers of the commander of the post. They also cut off the hands of the wife of a captured policeman who was forced to watch her mutilation before being beheaded himself. That afternoon, the Dutch withdrew from the Kala Kala and Nyazi checkpoints, allowing the Taliban to capture these posts as well.  The Dutch troops reassembled near the Chora district building and contacted their commander, Colonel Hans van Griensven in Camp Holland near Tarin Kowt, for instructions. Griensven ordered them to stay and fight.  ISAF aircraft provided support and attacked the Taliban, scouts reported that 30 Taliban volunteers led by individuals nicknamed Kaka and Sadam, were gathered inside a farm at the village of Qual Eh-Ye-Ragh. An Apache helicopter fired two Hellfire-missiles at the farm, killing the Taliban and civilians inside.  Rozi Khan, a local tribal militia leader with shifting loyalties (who was himself killed during October 2008 fighting in the area), offered 150-200 of his fighters to support the defense of Chora. The Dutch and Chora village leaders accepted Khan's offer reluctantly as the village leaders had to arm Khan's fighters (aware that Khan might later change sides again and turn the weapons on them). A group of Dutch and Australian troops at Camp Holland near Tarin Kowt moved to Chora, commanded by LTC Rob Querido. The Australian troops deployed in Baluchi valley, between Tarin Kowt and Chora, to secure the key road.  Also on Saturday June 16 US Staff Sergeant Roy P. Lewsader was killed when his vehicle was struck by a rocket-propelled grenade in Tarin Kowt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "June 17–18.", "content": "On Sunday June 17 and Monday June 18 Dutch reinforcements arrived from Kamp Holland and a second Dutch base in Deh Rahwod, increasing the number of Dutch troops at Chora to 500. 50 Afghan Army reinforcements also arrived in Chinook helicopters. Taliban fighters, who had gained control of most of the residential areas, forced civilians to fight with them or face execution. The Taliban also used civilian homes as shelter, but were still attacked by NATO aircraft, causing civilian casualties. As the fighting continued, many Taliban fighters were killed.  At one time, six Dutch F-16s were in the air, engaging ground targets assigned by the infantry.  On the night of Sunday, June 17 to the morning of Monday, June 18, during the loading of an 81-mm mortar, which was deployed in the courtyard of the Chora district government building, a round exploded inside the launch tube, killing Dutch Sergeant-Major Jos Leunissen and wounding three other Dutch soldiers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "June 19.", "content": "At 9:30 am, NATO briefly withdrew the aircraft supporting the fighting at Chora, but air support was restored at 9:40 when Col. van Griensven reportedly threatened to withdraw the six Dutch F-16s from NATO command.  At 10:00 Dutch and Afghan troops, together with Rozi Khan's militia, made a push called \"Operation Troy\", in which they recaptured the three lost checkpoints.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Chora took place in and around the town of Chora (3,000 inhabitants), in Afghanistan's Orūzgān Province, during June 15–19, 2007. The fighting was between ISAF and Afghan forces on one side and Taliban forces on the other, for the control of the Chora District centre, regarded by the Taliban as a tactical target because it provides ground access from unsecured Gizab district in the north to the provincial capital of Tarin Kowt. According to some press reports, the fighting was the largest Taliban offensive of 2007 in Afghanistan, and resulted in the death of one American, two Dutch and 16 Afghan soldiers, as well as approximately 58 civilians and 71 Taliban fighters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976723}
{"src_title": "Jamie Campbell Bower", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bower was born in London. His mother, Anne Elizabeth (née Roseberry), is a music manager, and his father, David Bower, works for the Gibson Guitar Corporation. His maternal great-great-great-great-grandfather was Sir John Campbell, of Airds, Lieutenant Governor of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. He attended Bedales School, a co-educational independent school in Hampshire, and is a former member of the National Youth Music Theatre and the National Youth Theatre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Bower began his professional career when his friend Laura Michelle Kelly, recommended him to her agent. He was a part-time model with Select Model Management in London. He played Rocker in the film \"RocknRolla\" and Jack in \"Winter in Wartime\". He starred in the 2009 remake of the series \"The Prisoner\" as Number 11–12.  Also in 2009, he played the vampire Caius Volturi in the film \"\" and both \"Twilight: Breaking Dawn\" films. He appeared as the younger Gellert Grindelwald, the dark wizard defeated by Albus Dumbledore, in the 2010 \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1\". He played King Arthur in the 2011 television series \"Camelot\". In 2010, he starred in the music video for \"Young (Belane)\" by The Xcerts.  In 2012, Bower appeared in the music video for \"Never Let Me Go\" by Florence + The Machine. He played Jace Wayland in \"\", the film adaption of \"The Mortal Instruments\" series, by Cassandra Clare. In December 2013, he joined the cast of Burberry's Campaign Stars for spring/summer 2014.  In June 2015, Bower began playing the role of Joe, in the new West End musical \"Bend It Like Beckham\".  He is the frontman for the band Counterfeit, which released its first album in March 2017 and had a US Tour in 2017.  In July 2017, he was on the TNT original series, \"Will\".  As of January 2019, Bower was announced to star in the prelude series to \"Game of Thrones\" Bloodmoon. In October 2019, it was announced that HBO had decided to not move forward with Bloodmoon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In February 2010, Bower was confirmed to be dating actress Bonnie Wright whom he had met on the set of \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1\". In April 2011, they confirmed their engagement. On 30 June 2012, they amicably ended their engagement.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "James Metcalfe Campbell Bower (born 22 November 1988) is an English actor, singer, and model. He is best known for his roles as Anthony Hope in \"\", Caius in \"The Twilight Saga\", the young Gellert Grindelwald in \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1\" and \"\", Jace Wayland in \"\" and playwright Kit Marlowe in the short-lived series \"Will\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976724}
{"src_title": "Gustav Krukenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Krukenberg was born in Bonn, the son of a professor at Bonn University; his mother was the daughter of the archeologist Alexander Conze. He gained a doctorate in law and joined the army in 1907. He married in 1912. During World War I, he served as an ordnance officer and adjutant and was promoted to \"Hauptmann\" in 1918. After the war, in 1920 he served in the Civil Service as the private secretary to the Foreign minister and was briefly a director for a German company in industry from 1924 to 1925. In 1926 Krukenberg went to Paris as part of a German delegation and spend the next 5 years there. He joined the Nazi Party in April 1932 and he worked at the propaganda ministry after Adolf Hitler came to power and became a member of the \"Allgemeine SS\" in 1934.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "With the outbreak of World War II Krukenberg re-joined the army as a major and served on the General Staff in Paris. In December 1943 he transferred from the army, in which he had reached the rank of \"Oberstleutnant\" (Lt. colonel), to the Waffen-SS. He joined with the equivalent rank of \"Obersturmbannführer\". Krukenberg was promoted three more times, obtaining the rank of \"Brigadeführer\" in 1944. A fluent French speaker, he was officially appointed the commander of the SS Division Charlemagne in February 1945. The division was formed out of the remnants of the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism (LVF) and French \"Sturmbrigade\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Berlin 1945.", "content": "On the night of 23/24 April 1945, Krukenberg received a call from Army Group Vistula headquarters. He was summoned to bring the remains of his division to help with the defence of Berlin. Krukenberg roused his men and informed them of the situation. He asked for volunteers to go to Berlin. Although the majority wanted to go, Krukenberg and \"Hauptsturmführer\" Henri Joseph Fenet only chose as many volunteers as they could provide transportation. The group made a long detour to avoid advance columns of the Red Army and entered Berlin at 2200 hrs on 24 April 1945.  On 25 April, Krukenberg was appointed by General Helmuth Weidling as the commander of (Berlin) Defence Sector C, which included the SS Division Nordland, whose previous commander Joachim Ziegler was relieved of his command the same day. The arrival of the French SS men bolstered the \"Nordland\" Division whose \"Norge\" and \"Danmark\" regiments had been decimated in the fighting against the Soviet Red Army.  By 26 April, with Neukölln heavily penetrated by Soviet combat groups, Krukenberg prepared fallback positions for Sector C defenders around Hermannplatz. He moved his headquarters into the opera house. As the \"Nordland\" Division withdrew towards Hermannplatz, the Frenchmen under Fenet and some attached Hitler Youth destroyed fourteen Soviet tanks; one machine gun position by the Halensee bridge managed to hold up Soviet forces for 48 hours.  After an appeal by Krukenberg, General Weidling agreed to allow the re-deployment of the \"Nordland\" Division as one unit and not scattered in its employment. Weidling created two sub-sections of Sector \"Z\"; the Western Sub-sector would be commanded by Oberleutant Seifert. His command post was in the Air Ministry Building. The Eastern Sub-sector would be commanded by Krukenberg where most of the remains of the \"Nordland\" were already fighting. The demarcation line was the Wilhelmstrasse. Forced to fall back on 27 April, Krukenberg's \"Nordland\" headquarters was a carriage in the \"Stadtmitte\" U-Bahn station in Defence sector Z (Central District). Of the 108 Soviet tanks destroyed in the centre district, Frenchmen under Krukenberg's overall command accounted for \"about half\" of them. On 29 April 1945 Krukenberg awarded one of the last Knight's Crosses of the war to \"Unterscharführer\" Eugène Vaulot for his combat actions.  It is widely believed that on 1 May, Krukenberg attempted to stem the Soviet advance by ordering sappers to blow up the S-Bahn tunnel under the Landwehr canal, causing 25 kilometres of S-Bahn and U-Bahn tunnels to flood, which led to many casualties. But according to author A. Stephan Hamilton, it is far more probable that the massive bombardment of the city by hundreds of tons of shells and rockets by the Soviets caused the damage and flooding of the tunnels. As the Germans made extensive use of the underground (U-Bahn) for redeployment of troops, makeshift hospitals and as a place to take refuge from the constant shelling, it seems highly doubtful that Krukenberg ordered the destruction of the U-bahn tunnels.  After Hitler's death, Krukenberg assembled most of his escort made up of French SS for a breakout. They joined up with Ziegler and a larger group of \"Nordland\" troops. They crossed the Spree just before dawn. Near the \"Gesundbrunnen U-Bahn\" station they came under heavy fire from Red Army troops. Ziegler was gravely wounded and died on 2 May. Later, Krukenberg made it to Dahlem where he hid out in an apartment for a week before surrendering to Red Army troops. He was tried, convicted and sentenced to prison by a Soviet court. He was released from prison after serving 11 years and returned to Germany. Krukenberg died on 23 October 1980.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gustav Krukenberg (8 March 1888 – 23 October 1980) was a high-ranking member of the Waffen-SS and commander of the SS Charlemagne Division and the remains of the SS Division Nordland during the Battle of Berlin in April 1945. After Krukenberg surrendered to Soviet Red Army troops, he was tried, convicted and sentenced to prison by a Soviet court. He was released from prison after serving 11 years and died on 23 October 1980 in Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976725}
{"src_title": "Sapsan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction history.", "content": "On 18 May 2006, Siemens and Russian Railways signed a €276 million order for eight high-speed trains with a 30-year service contract worth around €300 million.  The trains were ordered to connect Moscow with Saint Petersburg and later Nizhny Novgorod at a speed of up to. They are derived from the German ICE 3 train but with bodies widened by to to suit Russia's wide loading gauge. Four of the trains (EVS2) are equipped for both 3 kV DC and operation. The total length of each ten-car train is, carrying up to 600 passengers.  Development and construction was carried out by Siemens at Erlangen and Krefeld in Germany. In August 2009, it was announced that the fifth \"Sapsan\" had been delivered to Russia, of the eight that were planned.  Four single-voltage (\"EVS1\", 3 kV DC powered, trainsets 5-8) trains entered passenger service at the end of 2009 on the Moscow – St Petersburg route, with the dual-system trains (EVS2, trainsets 1-4) entering service on the Nizhny Novgorod route on 30 July 2010.  \"Sapsan\" set records for the fastest train in Russia on 2 May 2009, travelling at and on 7 May 2009, travelling at.  On 19 December 2011, a €600 million order for an additional twenty trainsets including eight EVS2 sets was signed in order to facilitate an increased number of services on existing lines and the expansion of new service elsewhere in the system. The second-batch EVS1 sets (trainsets 9-20) will be same details as the first-batch EVS1 sets, but the second-batch EVS2 sets (trainsets 21 onward) will have retractable steps to suit for low platforms, unlike the first-batch EVS2 sets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "Since entering service in December 2009, it has been Russian Railways' only profitable passenger service, with an occupancy rate of 84.5%. According to the timetable valid from 30 October 2011, the direct train from Moscow to St Petersburg without intermediate stops needs three hours 40 minutes, the train from Moscow to Nizhniy Novgorod 3 hours an 55 minutes.  Introduction of \"Sapsan\" initially provoked cancelling of affordable daytime trains between Moscow and St Petersburg. Since the end of 2012, Moscow – St Petersburg daytime trains other than \"Sapsan\" were running again.  There were a series of stone throwing attacks against \"Sapsan\" trains. Possible reasons including cancelling of commuter trains, disruption of local transportation in rural areas, and accidents because of poor safety for pedestrians have been suggested. New bridge crossings were built, platforms along the railway were reconstructed and additional track was completed in 2015. New \"Lastochka\" commuter trains were introduced on the Moscow – Tver and St Petersburg – Bologoye routes. Local trains in the rural areas were saved.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Route.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Moscow – Saint Petersburg route.", "content": "The first and the only (since 2015) route for \"Sapsan\" trains.  Moscow (Leningradsky railway terminal) – Tver\" (770A, 772A, 776A, 756A, 768A, 780A)\" – Vyshny Volochyok\" (756A, 760A, 768A, 772A, 780A)\" – Bologoye\" (754A, 758A, 770A, 778A)\" – Uglovka\" (754A, 776A, 778A)\" – Okulovka\" (754A, 758A, 778A)\" – Chudovo\" (754A, 770A, 778A)\" – Saint Petersburg (Moskovsky railway terminal)  There are no \"Sapsan\" trains stopping at all stations on the route. The fastest ones do not stop between Moscow and Saint Petersburg at all. Numbers of the trains which stop at intermediate stations are listed above. Such measures were implemented to increase speed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Moscow – Nizhny Novgorod route.", "content": "Former route of \"Sapsan\" trains. Since 2015, new Talgo \"Strizh\" train was introduced. All the \"Sapsans\" were directed to Moscow – St Petersburg route. Talgo trains are also high speed but more suitable for this route.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Saint Petersburg – Nizhny Novgorod route.", "content": "On 1 March 2018, Russian Railways reopened the discontinued Saint Petersburg – Moscow – Nizhny Novgorod route which allows passengers to take an 8 hour 11 minute journey without a train change in Moscow.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tickets.", "content": "On 1 July 2012, the Russian Railways company introduced a new tariff system for \"Sapsan\" trains which dynamically prices tickets based on two factors:  The new rates range from 0.8 to 1.2 times the base rate for the day. It is possible to see the final price of a ticket for a specific date during the booking process.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sapsan (, known as Velaro RUS EVS) is a Russian gauge high speed electric express train. The train is a Siemens Velaro model, known as the Siemens Velaro RUS.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976726}
{"src_title": "Theater am Kärntnertor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The theater was built in 1709 to designs by Antonio Beduzzi on a site near the former Kärntnertor, on the grounds of the present Hotel Sacher. The expenses of building the theater were borne by the City of Vienna, and was intended (as Eva Badura-Skoda notes) to be \"frequented by the Viennese population of all classes.\" However, at the command of the Emperor, the first performances were of Italian opera, an elite form of entertainment. In 1711 the theater was redirected to its original purpose when it was placed under the direction of, who put on a variety of entertainments, often embodying a German version of the Italian commedia dell'arte. The theater was managed by Stranitzky's widow after his death.  In 1728 the court artists Borosini and Selliers, who had performed intermezzi in both German and Italian, became the Kärntnertortheater's directors. From 1742 to 1750 the theatre was leased to Selliers alone. In 1752, however, Maria Theresa withdrew the imperial privilege, placing the theater under the direct scrutiny of the magistrates of Vienna.  The first theatre burned in 1761 and was rebuilt by the court architect Nicolò Pacassi; two years later it reopened, again under protective privilege, as the ', \"Imperial and Royal Court Theater of Vienna\". From the early nineteenth century ballets were added to the repertory, as well as Italian and German operas. From 1811 to 1814 Ignaz Franz Castelli served as \"Hoftheaterdichter\", \"poet of the court theater\". From 1821 the Italian impresario Domenico Barbaia added the theatre to the string of theatres under his management, and presented Italian operas. Beginning in 1861 the Vienna Court Opera House (now the Vienna State Opera) was built on the adjoining grounds; it was completed in 1869 and in 1870 the former theatre was razed, making way for the apartment building that became the Hotel Sacher. Gerhard Bronner's cabaret showcase used the name'(New Theatre at the Kärntnertor) from 1959 to 1973 before adopting its present name; it is located on the next block at 4 Walfischgasse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First performances of operas and other works.", "content": "During its heyday several composers conducted the theatre orchestra, including the young Franz Lachner and Ferdinando Paer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes  Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "' or'(English: Carinthian Gate Theatre) was a prestigious theatre in Vienna during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Its official title was \"\", the \"Imperial and Royal Court Theater of Vienna\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976727}
{"src_title": "Wirtschaftswunder", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "West Germany.", "content": "The fundamental reason for the quick economic recovery of West Germany can be found in the ordoliberal growth model. West Germany had a skilled workforce and a high technological level in 1946, but its capital stock had largely been destroyed during and after the war. This small capital stock was compounded by the difficulty in converting the German economy to the production of civilian goods, as well as rampant monetary and regulatory problems, leading to an unusually low economic output during the first post-war years.  These initial problems were overcome by the time of the currency reform of 1948, which replaced the Reichsmark with the Deutsche Mark as legal tender, halting rampant inflation. This act to strengthen the West German economy had been explicitly forbidden during the two years that JCS 1067 was in effect. JCS 1067 had directed the U.S. forces of occupation in West Germany to \"take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany\".  At the same time, the government, following Erhard's advice, cut taxes sharply on moderate incomes. Walter Heller, a young economist with the U.S. occupation forces who was later to become chairman of President Kennedy's Council of Economic Advisers, wrote in 1949 that to \"remove the repressive effect of extremely high rates, Military Government Law No. 64 cut a wide swath across the German tax system at the time of the currency reform.\" Individual income tax rates, in particular, fell dramatically. Previously the tax rate on any income over 6,000 Deutschmark had been 95 percent. After tax reform, this 95 percent rate applied only to annual incomes above 250,000 Deutschmark. For the West German with an annual income of about 2,400 Deutschmark in 1950, the marginal tax rate fell from 85 percent to 18 percent. The Allied dismantling of the West German coal and steel industries decided at the Potsdam Conference was virtually completed by 1950; equipment had then been removed from 706 manufacturing plants in the west and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6,700,000 tons. Although the industrially important Saarland with its rich coal fields was returned to West Germany in 1957, it remained economically integrated in a customs union with France until 1959 and France extracted coal from the area until 1981.  West Germany proceeded quickly after 1948 to rebuild its capital stock and thus to increase its economic output at stunning rates. The very high capital investment rate thanks to low consumption and a very small need for replacement capital investments (due to the still small capital stock) drove this recovery during the 1950s. Living standards also rose steadily, with the purchasing power of wages increasing by 73% from 1950 to 1960. As noted by the British journalist Terence Prittie in the early Sixties:  Productivity growth in West Germany enabled most workers to obtain significant improvements in their living standards and'security of life.' In addition, as noted by David Eversley,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reparations.", "content": "In addition to the physical barriers that had to be overcome for the West German economic recovery, there were also intellectual challenges. The Allies confiscated intellectual property of great value, all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies.  Immediately after the German surrender and for the next two years, the U.S. pursued a vigorous program to harvest all technological and scientific know-how as well as all patents in Germany. John Gimbel's book \"\"Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany\"\" concludes the \"intellectual reparations\" taken by the U.S. and the UK amounted to close to $10 billion.  During the more than two years this policy was in place, new industrial research in Germany was hampered because it was unprotected and freely available to overseas competitors, encouraged by occupation authorities to access all records and facilities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marshall Plan.", "content": "Meanwhile, thousands of the best German researchers and engineers were working in the Soviet Union and in the U.S. See Operation Osoaviakhim, Operation Paperclip.  The Marshall Plan was only extended to Western Germany after it was realized the suppression of its economy was holding back the recovery of other European countries and was not the main force behind the \"Wirtschaftswunder\". Although, it likely greatly contributed to Germany's overall economic recovery. Furthermore, often overlooked is the effect of the \"unofficial contributions\" of 150,000 U.S. occupation troops, earning as much as 4 Deutschmark to the dollar. These marks were spent within West Germany to buy food, luxury items, beer and cars, as well as entertaining the locals and for prostitutes. During exercises such numbers of soldiers would swell to over 250,000. Nonetheless, the amount of monetary aid, which was mainly in the form of loans, about $1.4 billion, was greatly overshadowed by the amount the Germans had to pay back as war reparations and by the charges the Allies made on the Germans for the ongoing cost of the occupation, about $2.4 billion per year. In 1953 it was decided that Germany would repay $1.1 billion of the aid it had received. The last repayment was made in June 1971.  The demands of the Korean War in 1950–53 led to a global shortage of goods that helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of West German products. At the time West Germany had a large pool of skilled labour, partly as a result of the deportations and migrations which affected up to 16.5 million Germans. This helped West Germany to more than double the value of its exports during and shortly after the war. Apart from these factors, hard work and long hours at full capacity among the population in the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s and extra labour supplied by thousands of \"Gastarbeiter\" (\"guest workers\", since the late 1950s) provided a vital base for the sustainment of the economic upturn with additional workforce.  From the late 1950s onwards, West Germany had one of the world's strongest economies. The East German economy also showed strong growth, but not as much as in West Germany, due to the bureaucratic system, emigration of working-age East Germans to West Germany and continued reparations to the USSR in terms of resources. Unemployment hit a record low of 0.7–0.8% in 1961–1966 and 1970–1971.  Ludwig Erhard, who served as Minister of the Economy in Chancellor Adenauer's cabinet from 1949 until 1963 and would later rise to Chancellor himself, is often associated with the West German \"Wirtschaftswunder\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Austria.", "content": "Austria was also included in the Marshall Plan and can thus be included in any consideration of the \"Wirtschaftswunder\". Through the nationalisation of key industries (VOEST, AMAG, Steyr-Puch) and yet more long working hours, full economic capacity was reached. Using West Germany as a guide, the currency was stabilised when the Schilling was reintroduced in place of the Reichsmark. This economic policy was known in journalistic circles as the \"Raab-Kamitz-Kurs\", named after Julius Raab, Austrian chancellor from 1953, and his Finance Minister Reinhard Kamitz similar to the West German \"Adenauer-Erhard-Kurs\".  By state major projects such as the Kaprun hydroelectric plant or the West Autobahn, unemployment fell and social peace was ensured. In the 1950s the first \"Gastarbeiter\" from Southern Italy and Greece arrived in the country, as more manual labour was required to maintain the economic upswing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The term Wirtschaftswunder (, \"economic miracle\"), also known as the Miracle on the Rhine, describes the rapid reconstruction and development of the economies of West Germany and Austria after World War II (adopting an ordoliberalism-based social market economy). The expression referring to this phenomenon was first used by \"The Times\" in 1950.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976728}
{"src_title": "James Anderson (Freemason)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was the brother of Adam Anderson, (1692–1765); James was born about 1680, in Aberdeen, where he was educated, and probably took the degrees of M.A. and D.D. In 1710 he was appointed minister of the Presbyterian church in Swallow Street, London, whence he was transferred, in 1734, to a similar charge in Lisle Street, Leicester Fields. According to the \"Gentleman's Magazine,\" he is said to have been \"well known among the people of that persuasion resident in London as Bishop Anderson\", and he is described as \"a learned but imprudent man, who lost a considerable part of his property in the fatal year 1720\". Several of his sermons were printed. One of them, \"No King-Killers\", preached in 1715, on the anniversary of the execution of Charles I, was a zealous defence of the conduct of the Presbyterians during the civil wars, and reached a second edition. Anderson was a freemason, and when, in 1721, on the revival of freemasonry in England, the grand lodge determined to produce an authoritative digest of the \"Constitutions\" of the fraternity, the task was assigned to him (Entick's edition (1747) of the \"Constitutions,\" p. 194 et seq.). It was as a grand warden of the lodge that he presented to it, on completing his task, \"The Constitutions of the Free-Masons; containing the History, Charges, Regulations, &c. of that Most Ancient and Right Worshipful Fraternity. For the Use of the Lodges. London. In the year of Masonry 5723, Anno Domini 1723.\" This work, which passed through several editions, was long recognised by the English freemasons to be the standard code on its subject, and was translated into German. An American facsimile of the first edition of 1723 was issued at New York City in 1855, and there are reprints of the same edition in Cox's \"Old Constitutions belonging to the Freemasons of England and Ireland\" (1871) and in the first volume of Kenning's \"Masonic Archæological Library\" (1878). Anderson also contributed to masonic literature \"A Defence of Masonry, occasioned by a pamphlet called “Masonry Dissected”\" (1738?), which was translated into German, and is reprinted in \"Golden Remains of the Early Masonic Writers\" by George Oliver (1847).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Freemasonry.", "content": "Anderson was a Freemason, the Master of a Masonic lodge, and a Grand Warden of the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster. He was commissioned in September 1721 by the Grand Lodge to write a history of the Free-Masons, and it was published in 1723 as \"The Constitutions of the Free-Masons.\" Anderson's name does not appear on the title page, but his authorship is declared in an appendix.  Anderson's work, although of the first importance to the history of freemasonry, is unfortunately marred by a number of extravagant claims which are simply incredible. Indeed, it was shown at the tercentenary conference of the respected Quatuor Coronati research Lodge at Queens' College, Cambridge, that Anderson's history of the founding of the Grand Lodge is doubtful, since the public houses mentioned could probably not have accommodated the meetings that he claims were held in 1717. Anderson's account must be broadly accurate, having been widely published within six years of the events described, but it may have been backdated by two or three years, perhaps to aggrandise some brethren as Past Grand Officers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "The work by which Anderson is chiefly remembered appeared in 1732, \"Royal Genealogies; or, the Genealogical Tables of Emperors, Kings, and Princes, from Adam to these times.\" Professedly based on \"Genealogische Tabellen\" of Johann Hübner, it was largely supplemented by Anderson's industry. While the earlier sections of the work are of little historical value, the later are often of use in relation to the genealogies of continental dynasties and houses. The volume closes with a synopsis of the English peerage, and in the preface the author intimated his readiness, if adequately encouraged, \"to delineate and dispose at full length the genealogies of all the peers and great gentry of the Britannic isles\".  Anderson's last work, which he was commissioned to undertake by the first Earl of Egmont and his son from materials furnished by them, bore the title, \"A Genealogical History of the House of Yvery, in its different branches of Yvery, Lovel, Perceval, and Gournay\"; but the first volume alone was completed when Anderson died on 25 May 1739, and a second volume, subsequently published, was due to another pen (see \"To the Reader\" in vol. ii). The work was soon withdrawn from circulation on account of some disparaging remarks in it on the condition of the English peerage and on the character of the Irish people. It was re-issued, however, without the offensive passages, in 1742 (see \"Notes and Queries,\" 1st series, iv.158, and \"Letters of Horace Walpole\" (1857), i.107 n., and ii.145). Much of the genealogical matter in the book has been pronounced to be mythical (Drummond's \"Histories of Noble British Families\" (1846), art. ‘Percival’). Another work of Anderson's, \"News from Elysium, or Dialogues of the Dead, between Leopold, Roman Emperor, and Louis XIV, King of France,\" was published shortly after his death in 1739.  The \"Constitutions\" was edited and reprinted by Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia in 1734, becoming the first Masonic book printed in America. An electronic edition of that work is online. A second London edition, much expanded, appeared in 1738. The work was translated into many languages, including Dutch (1736), German (1741), and French (1745).  His other published works include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dr. James Anderson (c. 1679/1680 – 1739) was a Scottish writer and minister born and educated in Aberdeen, Scotland. He was ordained a minister in the Church of Scotland in 1707 and moved to London, where he ministered to the Glass House Street congregation until 1710, to the Presbyterian church in Swallow Street until 1734, and at Lisle Street Chapel until his death. He is reported to have lost a large sum of money in the South Sea Company crash of 1720. Anderson is best known for his association with Freemasonry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976729}
{"src_title": "Block diagram", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Usage.", "content": "As an example, a block diagram of a radio is not expected to show each and every connection and dial and switch, but the schematic diagram is. The schematic diagram of a radio does not show the width of each connection in the printed circuit board, but the layout does.  To make an analogy to the map making world, a block diagram is similar to a highway map of an entire nation. The major cities (functions) are listed but the minor county roads and city streets are not. When troubleshooting, this high level map is useful in narrowing down and isolating where a problem or fault is.  Block diagrams rely on the principle of the black box where the contents are hidden from view either to avoid being distracted by the details or because the details are not known. We know what goes in, we know what goes out, but we can't see how the box does its work.  In electrical engineering, a design will often begin as a very high level block diagram, becoming more and more detailed block diagrams as the design progresses, finally ending in block diagrams detailed enough that each individual block can be easily implemented (at which point the block diagram is also a schematic diagram). This is known as top down design. Geometric shapes are often used in the diagram to aid interpretation and clarify meaning of the process or model. The geometric shapes are connected by lines to indicate association and direction/order of traversal. Each engineering discipline has their own meaning for each shape. Block diagrams are used in every discipline of engineering. They are also a valuable source of concept building and educationally beneficial in non-engineering disciplines.  In process control, block diagrams are a visual language for describing actions in a complex system in which blocks are black boxes that represent mathematical or logical operations that occur in sequence from left to right and top to bottom, but not the physical entities, such as processors or relays, that perform those operations. It is possible to create such block diagrams and implement their functionality with specialized programmable logic controller (PLC) programming languages.  In biology there is an increasing use of engineering principles, techniques of analysis and methods of diagramming. There is some similarity between the block diagram and what is called Systems Biology Graphical Notation. As it is there is use made in systems biology of the block diagram technique harnessed by control engineering where the latter itself is an application of control theory. An example of this is the function block diagram, one of five programming languages defined in part 3 of the IEC 61131 (see IEC 61131-3) standard that is highly formalized (see formal system), with strict rules for how diagrams are to be built. Directed lines are used to connect input variables to block inputs, and block outputs to output variables and inputs of other blocks.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A block diagram is a diagram of a system in which the principal parts or functions are represented by blocks connected by lines that show the relationships of the blocks. They are heavily used in engineering in hardware design, electronic design, software design, and process flow diagrams.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976730}
{"src_title": "Grete Stern", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "The daughter of Frida Hochberger and Louis Stern, Grete Stern was born on 9 May 1904 in Elberfeld, Germany. She often visited family in England and attended primary school there. After reaching adulthood, from 1923 to 1925 she studied graphic arts at the Kunstgewerbeschule, Stuttgart, but after a short term working in the field she was inspired by the photography of Edward Weston and Paul Outerbridge to change her focus to photography. Relocating to Berlin, she took private lessons from Walter Peterhans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1930 Stern and Ellen Rosenberg Auerbach founded \"ringl+pit\", a critically acclaimed, prize-winning Berlin based photography and design studio. They used equipment purchased from Peterhans and became well known for innovative work in advertising. The name \"ringl+pit\" is after their childhood nicknames (Ringl for Grete, Pit for Ellen).  Intermittently between April 1930 and March 1933, Stern continued her studies with Peterhans at the Bauhaus photography workshop in Dessau, where she met the Argentinian photographer Horacio Coppola. In 1933 the political climate of Nazi Germany led her to emigrate with her brother to England, where Stern set up a new studio, soon to resume her collaboration there with Auerbach.  Stern first traveled to Argentina in the company of her new husband, Horacio Coppola in 1935. The newlyweds mounted an exhibition in Buenos Aires at, which according to the magazine, was the first modern photography exhibition in Argentina. In 1958, she became a citizen of Argentina. In 1948 Stern began working for \"Idilio\", an illustrated women's magazine, targeted specifically at lower/lower-middle class women. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Stern created \"Los Sueños\" as illustrations for the woman's magazine \"Idilio\" and its column \"El psicoanálisis te ayudará\" (Psychoanalysis Will Help You). Readers were encouraged to submit their dreams to be analyzed by the 'experts' as an aid for its readers to dins \"self-knowledge and self-aid that would help them succeed in love, family and work\". Each week, one dream would be selected, analyzed in depth by the expert, Richard Rest, and then illustrated by Stern through photomontage. Stern created about 150 of these photomontages, of which only 46 survive in negatives. Stern's photomontages are surreal interpretations of the readers' dreams that often subtly pushed back on the traditional values and concepts in \"Idilio\" magazine by inserting feminist critique of Argentinian gender roles and the psychoanalytic project in her images. The Idilio series has often been compared to Francisco Goya's \"Sueños\" drawings, a series of preliminary drawings for his later body of work, \"Los Caprichos\"; they have also been directly compared to \"Los Caprichos\" themselves.  Stern provided photographs for the magazine and served for a stint as a photography teacher in Resistencia at the National University of the Northeast in 1959 and continued to teach until 1985.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In 1985, she retired from photography, but lived another 14 years until 1999, dying in Buenos Aires on 24 December at the age of 95.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 1995 documentarian Juan Mandelbaum made a documentary about Studio Ringl + Pit, which was reviewed in the \"New York Times\" In 2005 her work was the subject of an exhibition at New York's Museum of Modern Art called \"From Bauhaus to Buenos Aires: Grete Stern and Horatio Coppola.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "Stern's work is held in the following permanent collections:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Grete Stern (9 May 1904 – 24 December 1999) was a German-Argentine photographer. Like her husband Horacio Coppola, she helped modernize the visual arts in Argentina, and presented the first exhibition of modern photographic art in Buenos Aires, in 1935.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976731}
{"src_title": "Brian Molko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Molko was born in Brussels, Belgium, to an American father of Italian heritage and a Scottish mother. He has an older brother named Stuart. Molko's family moved frequently during his childhood; the family lived in Dundee, Liberia, Lebanon, the village of Longeau in Belgium, before eventually settling in the town of Sandweiler, in Luxembourg.  Although Molko was brought up in a strict household that disapproved of artistic expression (his father wanted him to become a banker), he rebelled by assuming an androgynous image, wearing nail polish, lipstick, and eyeliner, and listening to punk music. He initially attended the European School of Luxembourg (ESL), but left because he was bullied. He completed his secondary education at the American International School of Luxembourg (AISL), before studying drama at Goldsmiths College in London.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Although Molko and Placebo co-founder Stefan Olsdal had both attended the American International School of Luxembourg (AISL), they had not been friends. When Molko was living in London, he ran into Olsdal at South Kensington tube station and invited him to one of his gigs he played with Steve Hewitt in a group called Ashtray Heart.  Along with Hewitt and Olsdal, Molko had a role in the 1998 film \"Velvet Goldmine\", for which Placebo performed the T. Rex song \"20th Century Boy\". He played Malcolm, a singer of the fictional glam rock band, \"The Flaming Creatures\", who resembled the early Alice Cooper band.  During Placebo's live performances Molko has played a number of instruments, including guitar, bass guitar, keyboards, harmonica and saxophone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Molko is bisexual. He has a son, who was born in 2005.  Molko has been open about his use of recreational drugs: in a 1997 interview with \"Kerrang!\" magazine he admitted that heroin was \"probably the only drug on this planet I haven't tried\". However, he later admitted to using heroin as well. Pharmaceutical drugs are also referenced, as evidenced by the band's name as well as the album \"Meds\" and its title track. Molko admitted in 2003 that many of his initial excesses were due to his mental health issues; he was officially diagnosed with major depressive disorder in his late twenties. He claimed in 2016 that he gave up drugs completely after the recording and release of \"Meds\".  In December 2012 Molko received an Honorary Fellowship from Goldsmiths College, University of London.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collaborations.", "content": "He has performed, as a guest vocalist and with other artists on Placebo's records, on tracks by:  Molko wrote the English lyrics to \"Pink Water 3\", a song by Indochine from the album \"Alice & June\", released in 2005.  Molko was friends with David Bowie; Bowie sang on Placebo's \"Without You I'm Nothing\" and on the \"20th Century Boy\" cover live.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Molko uses a variety of guitars. In the \"Sleeping With Ghosts\" era, he used Gibson SGs (\"The Bitter End\", \"Every You Every Me\", \"Plasticine\", \"Black-Eyed\", \"Without You I'm Nothing\", \"Special K\", \"Bulletproof Cupid\", \"Soulmates/Sleeping With Ghosts\", \"Special Needs\", \"This Picture\"), Fender Jaguars (\"Allergic\", \"Nancy Boy\", \"Bionic\", \"Centrefolds\"), a Fender Thinline Telecaster (\"Taste in Men\"), a Fender Jazzmaster (\"Pure Morning\"), and a Fender Bass VI (\"Slave to the Wage\"). For amplification he used a Marshall 6100LM.  Through the \"Meds\" tour, he used Gretsch Duo Jets (\"Infra-Red\", \"Because I Want You\", \"Song to Say Goodbye\", \"One of a Kind\", \"The Bitter End\", \"Running Up that Hill\", \"Special K\"), Gibson SGs (\"Special Needs\", \"Every You Every Me\", \"Black-Eyed\", \"Without You I'm Nothing\"), a Fender Jaguar (\"Drag\", \"Nancy Boy\", \"I Know\"), a Fender Thinline Telecaster (\"Twenty Years\", \"Taste in Men\"), and a Gibson Chet Atkins SST (\"Meds\"). His amplifier was a Fender Twin Reverb.  In the \"Battle for the Sun\" tour, he still used Gretsch Duo Jets (\"Devil in the Details\", \"Come Undone\", \"Follow The Cops Back Home\"), a Gibson SG (\"Bright Lights\"), Fender Cyclone (\"Ashtray Heart\", \"The Never-Ending Why\", \"Breathe Underwater\", \"Teenage Angst\"), a Gibson Les Paul (\"For What It's Worth\", \"Speak in Tongues\", \"Julien\", \"Meds\"), a Fender Telecaster Thinline (\"Kitty Litter\"), and a Fender Toronado (\"Battle for the Sun\"). His pedalboard consisted of a Boss TU-2 chromatic tuner, Electro Harmonix Holy Grail reverb, MXR Phase 90 phaser, two Electro Harmonix Hot Tubes distortion units, Boss DD-3 delay, MXR Distortion + booster, MG Monovibe chorus/vibrato, Electro Harmonix No. 1 Echo delay and a Radial Loopbone effect chain switcher.  In 2010, he signed an endorsement contract to use Orange amps.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Brian Molko (born 10 December 1972) is a Belgian-born British-American musician and songwriter who is the lead vocalist and guitarist of the band Placebo. He is known in particular for his distinctive nasal, high-pitched vocals, feminine/androgynous appearance, aggressive guitar style and unique tunings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976732}
{"src_title": "Anastasia Baburova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Anastasia Baburova was the only child of her parents Eduard Fyodorovich Baburov and Larisa Ivanovna Baburova who were both professors at the Sevastopol National Technical University.  In 2000, she began studying at the Management-Faculty of the Black Sea branch of the Moscow State University in Sevastopol. Together with her mother she became a Russian citizen in the year 2000. She went to Moscow in 2001 and became a student in international law at the Moscow State Institute of International Relations. In 2003, she married a fellow journalistic student, Alexander Frolov, whom she met in 2000 during her studies in Sevastopol. In 2004, Baburova became a journalist student at the Moscow State University. Along with her studies, she worked as a freelance journalist for \"Vechernyaya Moskva\", \"Rossiyskaya Gazeta\" and \"Izvestia\". In the summer of 2007, Baburova and Frolov divorced.  Beginning in October 2008, she investigated (as a freelance-journalist) Russian Neo-Nazi Groups for \"Novaya Gazeta\".  Besides Russian and Ukrainian, which she considered her native languages, she also spoke English and French.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activity.", "content": "Baburova's political activity may be traced back to her having witnessed an attack by neo-Nazis on a foreigner, after which she wrote in her diary, \"It is difficult to look in the eyes of a Korean student, who has only just been stuck in the temple by two juvenile thugs... they waved 'Sieg Heil' towards the tram and ran off.\"  Baburova was active in the anarchist environmentalist movement. She participated in the activities of ecological camps, in social fora, including the Fifth European Social Forum in Malmö 2008, organised the 'Anti-capitalism 2008' festival, demonstrated widely, and was involved in anti-fascist activities more generally.  In July 2008, Baburova participated in a demonstration against the felling of the Khimki Forest. For her involvement in another protest against the eviction of former pork factory workers from the Moscow factory, 'Smena' and impoverished CIS immigrants she would spend a night in prison. The day before her murder, Anastasia appeared at the anarcho-communist unity event 'Autonomous Action'. Earlier she had written an article on behalf of the journal 'Avtonom'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Journalistic activity.", "content": "Throughout 2008, Anastasia Baburova worked on the editorial team of the Russian newspaper, \"Izvestia\", and had had dozens of articles published by both \"Izvestia\" and \"Financial News\", particularly on finance. In December 2008, she resigned from this post over the political course of the newspaper, which, according to the British weekly newspaper \"The Economist\", may be characterised by \"nationalism, spinelessness and cynicism\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and investigation.", "content": "Baburova became the fourth \"Novaya Gazeta\" journalist to be killed since 2000.  At first it was reported that Baburova had been wounded in an attempt to detain Markelov's killer, but later Russian law enforcement authorities declared that Baburova was shot in the back of her head. Baburova died a few hours after the attack at a Moscow hospital.  Then President of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko sent her parents a condolence telegram on 23 January 2009. Russian President Dmitry Medvedev gave his condolences 6 days later.  On 26 January 2009, Baburova was buried in the central city cemetery of her home town of Sevastopol.  In November 2009, Russian authorities declared the end of the criminal investigation. The murder suspects were 29-year-old Nikita Tikhonov and his girlfriend, 24-year-old Eugenia Khasis, members of a radical neo-Nazi nationalistic group. According to investigators, Tikhonov was the one who committed the murder, while Khasis reported to him, by cell phone, the movements of Markelov and Baburova right before the assault. The motive of the murder was revenge for Markelov's prior work as a lawyer in the interests of anti-Russian activists. The murder suspects were arrested, and were reported to have confessed. In May 2011, Tikhonov was sentenced to life imprisonment, and Khasis was sentenced to 18 years in prison.  According to Russian military analyst Pavel Felgenhauer, the details of the murder indicate involvement of Russian state security services. He stated:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anastasia Baburova ( \"Anastasia Eduardovna Baburova\", \"Anastasia Eduardivna Baburova\"; 30 November 1983 – 19 January 2009) was a journalist for \"Novaya Gazeta\" and a student of journalism at Moscow State University. She was born in Sevastopol, Ukrainian SSR.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976733}
{"src_title": "Military science fiction", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Traditional military values of bravery, sacrifice, sense of duty, and camaraderie are emphasized, and the action is usually described from the point of view of a soldier. Typically, the technology is more advanced than that of the present and described in detail. In some stories, however, technology is fairly static, and weapons that would be familiar to present-day soldiers are used, but other aspects of society have changed. For example, women may be accepted as equal partners for combat roles. In many military science fiction stories, technological advances are often basic to plot developments. Some works draw heavy parallels to human history and the fact that scientific breakthroughs or new doctrine can severely change the outcome of battles and the way war is fought. Many works explore how progress or changes to the aforementioned affect military doctrine and also how the protagonists and antagonists reflect on and adapt to these changes.  Several subsets of military science fiction overlap with space opera, concentrating on large-scale space battles with futuristic weapons. At one extreme, the genre is used to speculate about future wars involving space travel, or the effects of such a war on humans; at the other, it consists of the use of military fiction plots with some superficial science fiction trappings. The term \"military space opera\" is occasionally used to denote this subgenre, as used for example by critic Sylvia Kelso when describing Lois McMaster Bujold's Vorkosigan Saga. Another example of military space opera would be the Battlestar Galactica franchise and Robert A. Heinlein's 1959 novel \"Starship Troopers\".  The key distinction of military science fiction from space opera is that the principal characters in a space opera are not military personnel, but civilians or paramilitary. Military science fiction also does not necessarily always include an outer space or multi-planetary setting like space opera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Precursors for military science fiction can be found in \"future war\" stories dating back at least to George Chesney's story \"The Battle of Dorking\" (1871). Other works of fiction followed, including H.G. Wells's \"The Land Ironclads\". Eventually, as science fiction became an established and separate genre, military science fiction established itself as a subgenre. One such work is H. Beam Piper's \"Uller Uprising\" (1952) (based on the events of the Sepoy Mutiny). Robert A. Heinlein's \"Starship Troopers\" (1959) is another work of military SF, along with Gordon Dickson's \"Dorsai\" (1960), and these are thought to be mostly responsible for popularizing this subgenre's popularity among young readers of the time.  The Vietnam War resulted in veterans with combat experience deciding to write science fiction, including Joe Haldeman and David Drake. Throughout the 1970s, works such as Haldeman's \"The Forever War\" and Drake's \"Hammer's Slammers\" helped increase the popularity of the genre. Short stories also were popular, collected in books like \"Combat SF\", edited by Gordon R. Dickson. This anthology includes one of the first Hammer's Slammers stories as well as one of the BOLO stories by Keith Laumer and one of the Berserker stories by Fred Saberhagen. This anthology seems to have been the first time SF-stories specifically dealing with war as a subject were collected and marketed as such. The series of anthologies with the group title \"There Will be War\" edited by Pournelle and John F. Carr (nine volumes from 1983 through 1990) helped keep the category active, and encouraged new writers to add to it.  A special twist was introduced in Harry Turtledove's \"Worldwar series\" depicting an alternate history in which WWII is disrupted by extraterrestrials invading Earth in 1942, forcing humans to stop fighting each other and unite against this common enemy. Turtledove depicts the tactics and strategy of this new course of the war in great detail, showing how American, British, Soviet and German soldiers and Jewish guerrillas (some of them historical figures) deal with this extraordinary new situation, as well as providing a not unsympathetic detailed point of view of individual invader warriors. In the war situation posited by Turtledove, the invaders have superior arms, but the gap is not too wide for the humans to bridge. For example, the invaders have more advanced tanks, but the German Wehrmacht's tank crews facing them - a major theme in the series - are more skilled and far more experienced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Viewpoints.", "content": "A number of authors have presented stories with political messages of varying types as major or minor themes of their works.  David Drake has often written of the horrors and futility of war. He has said, in the afterwords of several of his \"Hammer's Slammers\" books (1979 and later), that one of his reasons for writing is to educate those people who have not experienced war, but who might have to make the decision to start or endorse a war (as policy makers or as voters) about what war is really like, and what the powers and limits of the military as an instrument of policy are.  David Weber has said that:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Military science fiction is a subgenre of science fiction that features the use of science fiction technology, mainly weapons, for military purposes and usually principal characters that are members of a military organization involved in military activity, usually during a war; occurring sometimes in outer space or on a different planet or planets. It exists in literature, comics, film, and video games.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976734}
{"src_title": "Vagus nerve stimulation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medical use.", "content": "VNS devices are used to treat drug-resistant epilepsy and treatment-resistant major depressive disorder (TR-MDD). Specifically, it is used for treatment-resistant focal epilepsy. As of 2017 the efficacy of VNS for TR-MDD was unclear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adverse events.", "content": "For the treatment of epilepsy generally the left vagus nerve is stimulated at mid-cervical region. The adverse effects of this stimulation include cardiac arrest, bradycardia, voice alteration and hoarseness, cough, shortness of breath, pain, a tingling sensation, nausea, and headache; difficulty swallowing has also been reported as common, as well as sleepiness.  In randomized controlled trials for epilepsy conducted in the United States, one-third of the subjects had some type of an increase in seizures, with 17 percent having greater than a 25 percent increase, some had 100 percent increase or more.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanism of action.", "content": "As of 2017 little was understood about exactly how vagal nerve stimulation modulates mood and seizure control.  The vagus is the tenth cranial nerve and arises from the medulla; it carries both afferent and efferent fibers. The afferent vagal fibers connect to the nucleus of the solitary tract which in turn projects connections to other locations in the central nervous system. Proposed mechanisms include an anti-inflammatory effect, as well as changes in monoamines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Devices and procedures.", "content": "The device consists of a generator the size of a matchbox that is implanted under the skin below the person’s collarbone. Lead wires from the generator are tunnelled up to the patient’s neck and wrapped around the left vagus nerve at the carotid sheath, where it delivers electrical impulses to the nerve.  Implantation of the VNS device is usually done as an out-patient procedure. The procedure goes as follows: an incision is made in the upper left chest and the generator is implanted into a little \"pouch\" on the left chest under the collarbone. A second incision is made in the neck, so that the surgeon can access the vagus nerve. The surgeon then wraps the leads around the left branch of the vagus nerve, and connects the electrodes to the generator. Once successfully implanted, the generator sends electric impulses to the vagus nerve at regular intervals. The left vagus nerve is stimulated rather than the right because the right plays a role in cardiac function such that stimulating it could have negative cardiac effects. The \"dose\" administered by the device then needs to be set, which is done via a magnetic wand; the parameters adjusted include current, frequency, pulse width, and duty cycle.  \"Wearable\" devices are being tested and developed that involve transcutaneous stimulation and do not require surgery. Electrical impulses are targeted at the aurical (ear), at points where branches of the vagus nerve have cutaneous representation; such devices had been tested in clinical trials for treatment resistant major depressive disorder as of 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 1997, the US Food and Drug Administration's neurological devices panel met to consider approval of an implanted vagus nerve stimulator (VNS) for epilepsy, requested by Cyberonics (which was subsequently renamed to LivaNova).  The FDA approved an implanted VNS for TR-MDD in 2005.  In April 2017, the FDA cleared marketing of a handheld noninvasive vagus nerve stimulator, called \"gammaCore\" and made by ElectroCore LLC, for episodic cluster headaches, under the de novo pathway. In January 2018, the FDA cleared a new use of that device, for the treatment of migraine pain in adults under a 510(k) based on the de novo clearance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "Although the use of VNS for TRD has been endorsed by the American Psychiatric Association, the FDA's approval of VNS for TRD remains controversial. According to Dr. A. John Rush, vice chairman for research in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, results of the VNS pilot study showed that 40 percent of the treated patients displayed at least a 50 percent or greater improvement in their condition, according to the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale. Many other studies concur that VNS is indeed efficacious in treating depression. However, these findings do not take into account improvements over time in patients without the device. In the only randomized controlled trial VNS failed to perform any better when turned on than in otherwise similar implanted patients whose device was not turned on.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "Because the vagus nerve is associated with many different functions and brain regions, clinical research has been done to determine its usefulness in treating other illnesses, including various anxiety disorders, obesity, alcohol addiction, chronic heart failure, prevention of arrhythmias that can cause sudden cardiac death, autoimmune disorders, and several chronic pain conditions.  VNS has also been studied in small trials of people with neurodevelopmental disorders, generally who also have had epilepsy, including Landau-Kleffner syndrome, Rett syndrome, and autism spectrum disorders. VNS is being studied as of 2018 as a treatment for migraines and fibromyalgia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transcutaneous.", "content": "As of 2015 VNS devices were being developed that were not implanted, but rather transmitted signals through the skin, known as transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS). Electrical impulses are targeted at the auricle of the ear at points where branches of the vagus nerve are close to the surface. It is non-invasive and based on the rationale that there is vagus nerve distribution on the surface of the ear. tVNS is being studied for stroke and the treatment of depression.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a medical treatment that involves delivering electrical impulses to the vagus nerve. It is used as an add-on treatment for certain types of intractable epilepsy and treatment-resistant depression. Frequent side effects include coughing and shortness of breath. Serious side effects may include trouble talking and cardiac arrest.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976735}
{"src_title": "Kremlin Senate", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Building.", "content": "The Kremlin Senate is located in the northern part of the Kremlin grounds, between the Kremlin Arsenal and the former, now demolished, Kremlin Presidium (the site of which is planned to be a park). It is shaped like an isosceles triangle with each side approximately in length, and with one side directly adjacent to the Kremlin Wall parallel to Red Square. The building has three floors and is painted in the same yellow color as many other administrative buildings within the Moscow Kremlin.  The triangular structure has an inner courtyard, and is divided by hallways into a central pentahedral portion and two side trihedral portions. In the middle of the main façade is an arched passage fashioned like a triumphal arch leading to the inner yard. Inside is Rotunda Hall (diameter, internal height), once called \"The Pantheon of Russia\". Its green dome, carrying the state flag as seen from the Red Square, would later become a Soviet propaganda icon. However, originally it carried a statue of St. George, then a statue of Justice (destroyed by French troops in 1812). The exterior styling of the building is an unusual mix of Doric and Ionic order columns.  Inside the building, the large “Catherine Hall” is designed as a parade room, where especially important ceremonies are held. This is a circular hall, with a 24.7 meter diameter under extensive bas-relief ornamentation depicting Catherine as the Greek goddess Minerva.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Governing Senate was an institution created by Tsar Peter the Great in 1711. It had six departments, four of which were in St Petersburg and two of which were in Moscow. Empress Catherine the Great had been a frequent guest in Moscow at the time when the city, neglected by past monarchs, did not have enough state offices. She ordered the construction of a building to house the Moscow branches of the Governing Senate, namely the national judiciary administration and the seat of elected administration for the Moscow region. The new building was designed by Matvey Kazakov who had participated in the design of the Moscow Arsenal, and construction was started in 1776 by Karl Blank on a large triangular property in the north-east of the Moscow Kremlin, following a 1775 draft by Kazakov. The site once housed the Trubetskoy family palace and at least three churches. In 1779 Blank was demoted, and Kazakov took the lead. He envisaged Governing Senate as a “Temple of Law”, and designed the structure in a Neoclassical style characterized by symmetry and rigour. The building was completed in 1787, with interior work continuing to 1790.  Kazakov's building cost 759,000 roubles. According to Ivan Kondratiev, Catherine was so impressed by the building that she gave Kazakov her gloves, saying \"I'll pay your bills later, for now - this is a token for your wife\". She indeed repaid Kazakov with diamonds, promotion and a pension. The building later served as a model for several other official buildings in other Russian cities in the late 18th and 19th centuries.  Later, in line with legal reforms of Catherine's successors, the building lost its national functions and became the seat of Moscow Regional Court (Здание Московских судебных установлений) and several other state offices.  In 1905, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich Romanov, the military governor of Moscow, was assassinated just outside the Moscow Senate by Ivan Kalyayev. This was commemorated by a, designed by Victor Vasnetsov in 1908. In 1918, the monument was destroyed by the Bolshevik administration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "After the 1917 Russian Revolution and relocation of the capital to Moscow, the Kremlin Senate served as the seat of the Soviet government, including the Politburo. Vladimir Lenin had his study and private apartment on the third floor in 1918-1922. Later, the Senate housed Joseph Stalin's study and conference hall. Stalin maintained a small service apartment within the Kremlin Senate, although he chose not to live within the Senate building as his main residence. In 1955, Lenin's apartments were opened to public access; however, in 1994, all exhibits of this museum were relocated to Gorki Leninskiye and the Senate closed its doors to the public again. From 1946 through the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Council of People's Commissars, later known as the Council of Ministers and as the Cabinet of Ministers, was based in this building.  In 1994-1998, Senate building was converted to house the Russian presidential administration. An indiscriminate reconstruction from scratch destroyed Kazakov's interiors. Preservation advocate Alexei Komech reported from the site: \"... crushed walls, ripped air ducts and piles of 200 year old bricks remind me of wandering around ruins of Berlin's Reich Chancellery in 1946\". Present-day photographs also show that the builders destroyed and paved the chestnut garden that used to grace the Senate's courtyard in the 1970s.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Kremlin Senate () is a building within the grounds of the Moscow Kremlin in Russia. Initially constructed from 1776 to 1787, it originally housed the Moscow branch of the Governing Senate, the highest judiciary and legislative office of Imperial Russia. Currently, it houses the Russian presidential administration and is a highly secured and restricted area closed to the public. At present, only the southern corner façade, opposite the Tsar Cannon can be viewed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976736}
{"src_title": "Dan Meridor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Jerusalem towards the end of the Mandate era, Meridor is the son of Eliyahu Meridor, a longtime political associate of Menachem Begin in the Irgun and Herut (which he represented in the Knesset), and Ra'anana Meridor, an associate professor of Classics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.  He served in the armored corps and then studied law at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, gaining an LL.B. He then worked as an attorney at the Tel Aviv law firm of Haim Zadok & Co..", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "After serving as Cabinet Secretary between 1982 and 1984 (under Begin and Yitzhak Shamir), Meridor ran for the Knesset in the Likud list for the 1984 election. As a freshman member, he was appointed chairman of two legislative subcommittees. He was re-elected in 1988, and was appointed Minister of Justice in Shamir's unity government of 1988–90 and in Shamir's Likud government of 1990–92. He retained his seat in the 1992 and 1996 elections, and was appointed Minister of Finance by Binyamin Netanyahu in 1996.  After successive clashes with Netanyahu, Meridor left the cabinet in June 1997. His public image suffered during that period, when he was compared to Hamlet (for his indecisiveness) and to a fraidy cat on a popular TV show, \"Hartzufim\".  In 1998, together with several other Likud and Labor Party members, he co-founded \"Israel in the Centre\", which later became the Centre Party. He was elected as a Centre Party MK in the 1999 elections, and was appointed chairman of the Knesset's Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee. After Ariel Sharon became Prime Minister in 2001, Meridor was made a Minister without Portfolio. During his time in the Knesset he also served as the Knesset observer to the Council of Europe.  Meridor lost his seat following the 2003 elections.  After leaving the Knesset, Meridor served as international chair of the Jerusalem Foundation. He took part in the Winograd Commission that investigated Israel's actions in the 2006 Lebanon War.  In the run-up to the 2006 elections, Meridor received offers by Labor and Yisrael Beiteinu, but he seemed to harbor hopes of being called to Kadima's list. However, his inclusion was vetoed by Ariel Sharon's sons, Gilad and Omri Sharon. He later rejoined Likud, and won seventeenth place on the party's list for the 2009 elections. He returned to the Knesset after the party won 27 seats. In the Netanyahu cabinet formed after that election, Meridor was appointed Minister of Intelligence and Atomic Energy, and Deputy Prime Minister.  Meridor ran in the Likud primaries for the 2013 elections, but he failed to win a realistic place on the Likud list.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Meridor's father was Eliyahu Meridor, a member of the Knesset.  Meridor's wife Liora is a senior economist, who held several posts in the Bank of Israel, the private sector, and government-sponsored panels. They have four children. Their son Shaul Meridor is the deputy director of the Allocation Branch at the Ministry of Finance.  Dan Meridor has three younger siblings. Haggit Hurvitz is Head of Pediatrics at the Bikur Holim Hospital. Avital Darmon is Director of the Applied Research Initiative in Education. Sallai Meridor was Chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel and the World Zionist Organization from 1999–2005, and was appointed as Israeli ambassador to the United States in 2006.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dan Meridor (, born 23 April 1947) is an Israeli politician and minister. A longtime member of the Likud party, in the late 1990s he became one of the founders of the Centre Party. He rejoined Likud a decade later, and returned to the Knesset following the 2009 elections. Meridor served at various times as Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, Minister of Justice and Minister of Intelligence and Atomic Energy in the Israeli Cabinet. In 2014, Meridor succeeded Avi Primor as president of the Israel Council on Foreign Relations, an institute of international affairs which operates under the auspices of the World Jewish Congress.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976737}
{"src_title": "Pinchas Rosen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Felix Pinchas Rosenblüth (later Rosen) was born in Berlin, Germany. He was brought up in Messingwerk Finow and attended the Wilhelms Gymnasium in Eberswalde from 1892 to 1904. In 1905 he left to study law at the universities of Freiburg and Berlin, graduating in 1908. He served in the Imperial German Army in World War I. Always active in Zionist circles, Rosen was Chairman of the Zionist Federation of Germany from 1920–1923, and eventually migrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1926 where he practiced as a lawyer and helped create the Central European Immigrants Association.  Rosen was married three times, first to Annie Lesser with whom he had two children, Hans and Dina, who with their mother settled in London in 1933 and whom Rosen visited regularly until the end of his life. In 1935 he married Hadassah Calvary with whom he had a daughter, Rivka, who died in 1942 aged seven; Hadassah died of cancer in 1945. In 1950 he married Johanna Rosenfeld (born Ettlinger) who also predeceased him. Through his second and third wives he gained four step sons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1942 Rosen founded the New Aliyah Party, and was elected to the Assembly of Representatives on its list in 1944. In 1948 he was among the signatories of the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, which he helped create. (In 2019 Israel's Supreme Court ruled that drafts of the declaration, commissioned by Rosen from fellow-lawyer Mordechai Beham, were of national importance and State, not private, property.)  In the 1949 elections, the New Aliyah Party became the Progressive Party, winning Rosen a seat in the Knesset. In 1950, when David Ben-Gurion was unable to form a coalition, the President gave the task to Rosen, as head of the Progressive Party. Rosen handed the reins to Mapai, recognizing its indispensability.  Rosen became the country's first Minister of Justice, an office to which he brought a strong reputation for intellect and probity. He retained his seat and Ministerial position in the 1951, 1955 and 1959 elections. Soon after the 1959 election the Progressive Party merged with the General Zionists to form the Liberal Party.  The new party won the third largest number of seats in the 1961 elections but was not invited into the coalition, and Rosen lost his ministerial position. In order to consolidate opposition to Mapai's hegemony within Israeli politics, the Liberal Party merged with Herut to form Gahal. Rosen, however, was unhappy with the merger, and led a breakaway of seven MKs to found the Independent Liberals. He was elected to the sixth Knesset but resigned from the Knesset on December 23, 1968, and retired from politics. His departure from the political stage was greeted by one newspaper as, \"The end of the aristocracy\" and in another by a cartoon captioned: \"Another Channukah miracle!... An MK resigns because of age.\"  Rosen was a long-term friend of David Ben-Gurion who broke with Rosen after the Lavon affair, a botched Israeli sabotage operation in Egypt, in which Rosen sided with Lavon who had been (almost certainly falsely) accused of masterminding the mission, after which it is said Ben-Gurion refused to talk to Rosen again.  On his death Pinhas Rosen received a state funeral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "In 1973, Rosen was awarded the Israel Prize, in jurisprudence.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pinchas Rosen (, born Felix Rosenblüth, 1 May 1887 – 3 May 1978) was an Israeli statesman, and the country's first Minister of Justice, serving three times during 1948–51, 1952–56, and 1956–61. He was also leader of the Independent Liberals during the 1960s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976738}
{"src_title": "Gilo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography.", "content": "Gilo is located on a hilltop in southwestern East Jerusalem separated from Beit Jala by a deep gorge. The Tunnels Highway to Gush Etzion runs underneath it on the east, and the settlement of Har Gilo is visible on the adjacent peak. Beit Safafa and Sharafat are located north of Gilo, while Bethlehem is to the South.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biblical era.", "content": "A site dating to the period of Israelite settlement during Iron Age I (1200 – 1000 BCE) was identified and excavated at the modern site of Gilo. The site revealed a small planned settlement with dwellings along the perimeter of the site, together with pottery dating to the twelfth century BC. The southern part of the Iron Age site at Gilo is believed to be one of the earliest Israelite sites from this period. The site was surrounded by a defensive wall and divided into large yards, possibly sheep pens, with houses at the edges. Buildings at the site are amongst the earliest examples of the pillared four room house characteristic of Iron Age Israelite architecture, featuring a courtyard divided by stone pillars, a rectangular back room and rooms along the courtyard. The foundations of a structure built of large stones were also uncovered, possibly a fortified defense tower.  The biblical town of Giloh is mentioned in the Book of Joshua (Joshua 15:51) and the Book of Samuel (II Sam 15:12). Some scholars believe that biblical Giloh was located in the central Hebron Hills, whereas the name of the modern settlement was chosen because of its proximity to Beit Jala, possibly a corruption of Giloh. During the construction of the modern suburb of Gilo, archaeologists discovered a fortress and agricultural implements from the period of the First Temple period above the shopping center on Rehov Haganenet. Between Givat Canada and Gilo Park, they unearthed the remains of a farm and graves from the Second Temple period. Roman and Byzantine remains have also been found at various sites.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern era.", "content": "According to ARIJ, Israel confiscated land from several Palestinian villages/towns in order to construct Gilo:  During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Egyptian army positioned its artillery at Gilo, heavily shelling West Jerusalem. An attempt to advance on Jerusalem from Gilo was beaten back in a fierce battle. Kibbutz Ramat Rachel, located just north-east of Gilo, changed hands three times, ultimately remaining part of Israel, but Gilo remained on the side of the Green Line held by the Kingdom of Jordan until 1967.  In 1970, the Israeli government expropriated 12,300 dunams of land to build Ring Neighborhoods around Jerusalem on land conquered in the Six-Day War.  Gilo was established in 1973. According to some sources, the land belonged to the Palestinian villages of Sharafat, Beit Jala and Beit Safafa. With its expansion over the years, Gilo has formed a wedge between Jerusalem and Beit Jala-Bethlehem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demography.", "content": "In 2017, Gilo had a population of 30,900. From its inception, Gilo has provided housing to new Jewish immigrants from around the world. Many of those who spent their first months in the country at the immigrant hostel in Gilo, including those from Iran, Syria, France and South America, chose to remain in the neighborhood. Since the large influx of Soviet Jews in the 1990s, Gilo has absorbed 15% of all immigrants of that wave settling in Jerusalem. The immigrant hostel is now the site of an urban kibbutz, Beit Yisrael. Gilo is a mixed community of religious and secular Jews, although more Haredi families are moving in.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Schools and institutions.", "content": "Beit Or (Home of Light), a hostel for autistic young adults, opened in Gilo in March 2008. The Ilan home for handicapped adults is located in Gilo. Gilo has 35 synagogues. In 2009, the Gilo community center, one of the largest in the country, introduced a new hybrid water heating system that saves energy and greatly reduces pollution. Park Gilo has a large adventure playground for children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Settlement debate.", "content": "Because Gilo is located beyond the 1949 Green Line, on land occupied since the Six-Day War, the United Nations, the European Union and Japan refer to it as an illegal settlement.  Israel disputes this, and considers it a neighborhood of Jerusalem. In an interview with the Jerusalem Post, Gilo community council director Yaffa Shitrit, invited the world \"to come and see the neighborhood of Gilo and to understand the geography. We're not a settlement, we're part of the city of Jerusalem, we're a neighborhood like Katamon.\" Palestinians regard it as occupied territory and make no distinction between Gilo and the West Bank settlements.  Plans to expand Gilo have drawn criticism from the United States and United Kingdom. Israel maintains that it has the right to build freely in Gilo because the neighborhood is within (expanded) Jerusalem municipal borders and not a West Bank settlement. In 2009, the Jerusalem Planning Committee approved construction of 900 new housing units in Gilo, sparking a fresh round of global criticism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arab-Israeli conflict.", "content": "From 2000, Beit Jala, a predominantly Palestinian Christian town, was used as a base by Fatah's Tanzim gunmen to launch sniper and mortar attacks against Gilo. The Israeli government built a concrete barrier and installed bulletproof windows in the homes and schools on the periphery of Gilo, facing Beit Jala. The attacks on Gilo subsided after Operation Defensive Shield, with the rate slowing to three incidents of gunfire that year. On August 15, 2010, following years of relative quiet, the IDF started dismantling the concrete barrier, nearly a decade after its construction.  Seventeen of the 19 passengers killed in the Patt Junction bus bombing were residents of Gilo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gilo () is an Israeli settlement in south-western East Jerusalem, with a population of 30,000, mostly Jewish inhabitants. Although it is located within the Jerusalem Municipality, it is widely considered a settlement, because as one of the five Ring Neighborhoods built by Israel surrounding Jerusalem, it was built on land in the West Bank that was occupied by and effectively annexed to Israel following the 1967 Six-Day War and 1980 Jerusalem Law.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976739}
{"src_title": "Warsaw Old Town", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Old Town was established in the 13th century. Initially surrounded by an earthwork rampart, prior to 1339 it was fortified with brick city walls. The town originally grew up around the castle of the Dukes of Mazovia that later became the Royal Castle. The Market Square (\"Rynek Starego Miasta\") was laid out sometime in the late 13th or early 14th century, along the main road linking the castle with the New Town to the north.  Until 1817 the Old Town's most notable feature was the Town Hall built before 1429. In 1701 the square was rebuilt by Tylman Gamerski, and in 1817 the Town Hall was demolished. Since the 19th century, the four sides of the Market Square have borne the names of four notable Poles who once lived on the respective sides: Ignacy Zakrzewski (south), Hugo Kołłątaj (west), Jan Dekert (north) and Franciszek Barss (east).  In the early 1910s Warsaw Old Town was the home of the prominent Yiddish writer Alter Kacyzne, who later depicted life there in his 1929 novel \"שטאַרקע און שוואַכע\" (Shtarke un Shvache, \"The Strong and the Weak\"). As depicted in the novel, the Old Town at that time was a slum neighborhood, with poor families - some Jewish, other Christian - living very crowded in subdivided tenements which had once been aristocrats' palaces. Parts of it were bohemian, with painters and artists having their studios, while some streets were a Red-light district housing brothels.  In 1918 the Royal Castle once again became the seat of Poland's highest authorities: the President of Poland and his chancellery. In the late 1930s, during the mayoralty of Stefan Starzyński, the municipal authorities began refurbishing the Old Town and restoring it to its former glory. The Barbican and the Old Town Market Place were partly restored. These efforts, however, were brought to an end by the outbreak of World War II.  During the Invasion of Poland (1939), much of the district was badly damaged by the German Luftwaffe, which targeted the city's residential areas and historic landmarks in a campaign of terror bombing. Following the Siege of Warsaw, parts of the Old Town were rebuilt, but immediately after the Warsaw Uprising (August–October 1944) what had been left standing was systematically blown up by the German Army. A statue commemorating the Uprising, \"the Little Insurgent,\" now stands on the Old Town's medieval city wall.  After World War II, the Old Town was meticulously rebuilt. In an effort at anastylosis, as many as possible of the original bricks were reused. However, the reconstruction was not always accurate to prewar Warsaw, sometimes deference being given to an earlier period, an attempt being made to improve on the original, or an authentic-looking facade being made to cover a more modern building. The rubble was sifted for reusable decorative elements, which were reinserted into their original places. Bernardo Bellotto's 18th-century \"vedute\", as well as pre-World War II architecture students' drawings, were used as essential sources in the reconstruction effort; however, Bellotto's drawings had not been entirely immune to artistic licence and embellishment, and in some cases this was transferred to the reconstructed buildings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Squares.", "content": "The Old Town Market Place (\"Rynek Starego Miasta\"), which dates back to the end of the 13th century, is the true heart of the Old Town, and until the end of the 18th century it was the heart of all of Warsaw. Here the representatives of guilds and merchants met in the Town Hall (built before 1429, pulled down in 1817), and fairs and the occasional execution were held. The houses around it represented the Gothic style until the great fire of 1607, after which they were rebuilt in late-Renaissance style.  Castle Square (\"plac Zamkowy\") is a visitor's first view of the reconstructed Old Town, when approaching from the more modern center of Warsaw. It is an impressive sight, dominated by Zygmunt's Column, which towers above the beautiful Old Town houses. Enclosed between the Old Town and the Royal Castle, Castle Square is steeped in history. Here was the gateway leading into the city called the Kraków Gate (\"Brama Krakowska\"). It was developed in the 14th century and continued to be a defensive area for the kings. The square was in its glory in the 17th century when Warsaw became the country's capital and it was here in 1644 that King Władysław IV erected the column to glorify his father Sigismund III Vasa, who is best known for moving the capital of Poland from Kraków to Warsaw. The Museum of Warsaw is also located there.  Canon Square (\"plac Kanonia\"), behind St. John's Cathedral, is a small triangular square. Its name comes from the 17th-century tenement houses which belonged to the canons of the Warsaw chapter. Some of these canons were quite famous, like Stanisław Staszic who was the co-author of the Constitution of May 3, 1791. Formerly, it was a parochial cemetery, of which there remains a Baroque figure of Our Lady from the 18th century. In the middle of the square, is the bronze bell of Warsaw, that Grand Crown Treasurer Jan Mikołaj Daniłowicz, founded in 1646 for the Jesuit Church in Jarosław. The bell was cast in 1646 by Daniel Tym - the designer of the Zygmunt's Column. Where the Canon Square meets the Royal Square is a covered passage built for Queen Anna Jagiellon in the late 16th century and extended in the 1620s after Michał Piekarski's failed 1620 attempt to assassinate King Sigismund III Vasa as he was entering the Cathedral. Also the thinnest house in Warsaw is located there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition.", "content": "In 1980, Warsaw's Old Town was placed on the UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites as \"an outstanding example of a near-total reconstruction of a span of history covering the 13th to the 20th century.  The site is also one of Poland's official national Historic Monuments (\"Pomnik historii\"), as designated September 16, 1994. Its listing is maintained by the National Heritage Board of Poland.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Warsaw Old Town ( and colloquially as \"Starówka\") is the oldest part of Warsaw, the capital city of Poland. It is bounded by the \"Wybrzeże Gdańskie\" (Gdańsk Boulevards), along with the bank of the Vistula river, \"Grodzka\", \"Mostowa\" and \"Podwale\" Streets. It is one of the most prominent tourist attractions in Warsaw. The heart of the area is the Old Town Market Place, rich in restaurants, cafés and shops. Surrounding streets feature medieval architecture such as the city walls, St. John's Cathedral and the Barbican which links the Old Town with Warsaw New Town.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976740}
{"src_title": "2011 World Men's Handball Championship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "List of qualified teams.", "content": "Bahrain and Chile qualified for their first ever handball World Championship. Austria qualified for the first time since 1993, which, coincidentally, was also hosted by Sweden.  The following 24 teams qualified for the final tournament:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Draw.", "content": "The draw was held on 9 July 2010 at the Scandinavium at Gothenburg, Sweden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Squads.", "content": "Each nation had to submit a squad of 16 players.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Match officials.", "content": "On 25 October 2010, the match officials for the tournament were confirmed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary round.", "content": "Twenty-four participating teams were placed in the following four groups. After playing a round-robin, the top three teams in each group advanced to the Main Round. The last three teams in each group played placement matches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tie-breaking criteria.", "content": "For the three game group stage of this tournament, where two or more teams in a group tied on an equal number of points, the finishing positions will be determined by the following tie-breaking criteria in the following order", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Main round.", "content": "The top three teams of every preliminary group advanced to the Main round. Every team kept the points from preliminary round matches against teams who also advanced. In the main round every team had 3 games against the opponents they did not face in the preliminary round. The top two of every group advanced to the Semifinals, the other teams played placement matches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final round (Kristianstad/Malmö).", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final was played at a sold-out Malmö Arena in Malmö between France and Denmark, and was followed by 12,462 spectators. In addition, the match was aired on both major Danish public television channels DR1 and TV 2 with 2,670,000 viewers, making it the most watched sport event in Denmark ever.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First half.", "content": "The French team started the match with a 2–0 lead, and maintained a lead until the 17th minute, where Denmark started a 3–0 run and equalised at 9–9 with a penalty shot by Anders Eggert. On the next attack, Mikkel Hansen received the Danes' first two-minute suspension, allowing France to open another three-goal lead. The half time score was 15–12 in favor of France.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Second half.", "content": "The second half started with France maintaining a lead of at least two goals in the first 15 minutes. But a couple of saves in a row by the well-tempered Niklas Landin Jacobsen, meant that Mikkel Hansen could equalise to 24–24 with 11 minutes to play. Still, France took the lead once again, but with five minutes remaining and the French lead at 29–27, Jérôme Fernandez was penalized with a 2-minute suspension. Denmark took advantage, scoring two goals and making it 29–29 with 3:30 remaining. In the last minute, the French found themselves one goal ahead, 31–30. The Danish coach Ulrik Wilbek used a team timeout with 25 seconds to go to prepare the team for the last attack. Three seconds were left, when the Dane Bo Spellerberg scored from left back a positional shot in the bottom of the goal for 31–31, deferring the match to overtime.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Overtime.", "content": "In the 64th minute, the Danes recorded their first lead in the match when scoring 33–32, but within the next minute the French scored two goals overturning the result. The first half of the overtime ended with a French lead of 34–33.  The second half of overtime began with veteran Lars Christiansen scoring a penalty and evening the score at 34–34. The French took the lead from there, though, and secured the win at 36–34 when Thierry Omeyer saved a Mikkel Hansen 9m shot with just over one minute to go. Michael Guigou scored the last goal of the game with one second to go to the final score 37–35. The match ended 37–35 in favor of France. Nikola Karabatić and Mikkel Hansen, both scored 10 goals in the final, with Karabatić chosen the MVP of the championship, and Hansen the best goalscorer.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "The 2011 World Men's Handball Championship, the 22nd event hosted by the International Handball Federation, was held in Sweden from 13–30 January, 2011. All matches were played in Malmö, Lund, Kristianstad, Gothenburg, Skövde, Jönköping, Linköping and Norrköping.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976741}
{"src_title": "Rába (company)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The company was founded by local investor groups in Győr in 1896.  In 1899, the Rába had started to export to foreign countries : it supplied railway passenger carriages to Egypt, the East Indies, Southern Africa, city tramcars to Amsterdam and Antwerp. The carriages of the London underground railway were constructed and manufactured in the Rába company. The London Underground Railway ordered 30 multiple-unit trains, 66 passenger cars for multiple-unit trains and bogies. In 1904, the production of the first petrol engine powered trucks started. In 1914, the company started to produce its first passenger automobiles: The RÁBA Alpha. The steward's office ordered a special RÁBA Grand for the personal use of Emperor Charles I of Austria.  Rába's trucks originally used cabins supplied by West German MAN, but from 1980 on DAF's F241 cabin was used. A few Roman cabs (of MAN origins) were also supplied from Romania in return for engines. Rába's engine mainstay was itself of MAN origins, with the old D21 inline-six diesel massaged up to with the help of turbocharging and intercooling.  In the 1980s, Rába built no more than about 2,000 trucks per year, although it was Hungary's third biggest employer. Being an important provider to Hungarocamion, a publicly operated international trucking firm, helped raise their international profile. In 1985, Rába's business mostly consisted of engine and axle manufacturing, with only 15% of turnover being represented by trucks. Of these trucks, however, nearly 90 per cent were exported, with the lion's share going to Yugoslavia. In 1986, Rába introduced a more powerful, diesel engine (D11TLL) in order to help their trucks compete internationally and to meet Hungarocamion's needs. The new engine range was loosely based on the earlier MAN units, but were now of 11.05 litres, and were developed together with the Linz Institute of Graz, Austria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The RÁBA Automotive Group (), commonly known as Rába, is a Hungarian public limited company, listed on the Budapest Stock Exchange. Rába engineers, manufactures and customizes automotive components, specialty vehicles and axles for commercial vehicles, agri-machinery and earth-movers. The Rába has been building axles as well as complete vehicles since 1902. The company has three strategic business units. The company is headquartered in Győr, employing more than 2000 people.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976742}
{"src_title": "The Man from Earth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Professor John Oldman is packing his belongings onto his truck, preparing to move to a new home. His colleagues show up to give him an impromptu farewell party: Harry, a biologist; Edith, an art history professor and devout Christian; Dan, an anthropologist; Sandy, a historian who is in (unrequited) love with John; Art, an archaeologist; and his younger student Linda.  As John's colleagues press him to explain the reason for his departure, he picks up from a reference to Magdalenian cultures by Dan and slowly, and somewhat reluctantly, reveals that he is a prehistoric caveman himself from that precise period. He states that he has lived for more than 14 millennia, and that he relocates every ten years to keep others from realizing that he does not age. He begins his tale under the guise of a possible science-fiction story, but eventually stops speaking in hypotheticals and begins answering questions from a first-person perspective. His colleagues refuse to believe his story but accept it as a working hypothesis in order to glean his true intentions. John relates he was a Sumerian for 2000 years, later a Babylonian, and eventually went East to become a disciple of the Buddha. He claims to have had a chance to sail with Columbus (admitting that at the time he still believed the earth was flat) and to have befriended Van Gogh (one of whose original paintings he apparently owns, a gift from the artist himself).  In the course of the conversation, each guest questions John's story based on knowledge from their own academic specialty. Harry struggles with how biology could allow for the possibility of a human being living for so long. Art, arguably the most skeptical of the group, questions prehistory. He exclaims that John's answers, although correct, could have come from any textbook; John rejoins that, like any human, his memory is imperfect and he only sees events from his own narrow, hence not omniscient, perspective. Dr. Will Gruber, a psychiatry professor who arrives at Art's request later that afternoon, questions if John feels guilt for outliving everyone he has ever known and loved. He then threatens John with a gun (later revealed to have been unloaded) before temporarily leaving. John then learns from Harry that Will's wife had died the previous day after a long illness.  The discussion veers to religion, and John mentions that he does not follow any. Even though he does not necessarily believe in an omnipotent God, he does not discount the possibility of such a being's existence. Pressed by the group, John reluctantly reveals that in trying to take the Buddha's teachings to the west, into the eastern Roman Empire, he became the inspiration for the Jesus story. After this revelation, emotions in the room run high. Edith (the representative \"true believer\" of the group) begins crying. Will demands that John end his tale and give the group a sense of closure by admitting it was all a hoax, and threatens to have John involuntarily committed for psychiatric evaluation should he refuse to do so. John appears to ruminate over his response before finally \"confessing\" to everyone that his story was a prank.  John's friends leave the party with various reactions: Edith is relieved; Harry and Dan indicate an open mind; Art never wants to see John again; Will still believes John needs professional help; Sandy and Linda clearly believe John. After everyone else but Will and Sandy have left, Will overhears John and Sandy's conversation, which suggests the story could be true after all. John mentions some of the pseudonyms he has used over the years, and Will realizes one was his father's name. He asks John questions that only a very close acquaintance could answer. When John answers them correctly, Will has an emotional breakdown, suffers a heart attack, and dies in their arms. After the body has been taken away, Sandy realizes that (if the story is true) this is the first time John has seen one of his grown children die. John wordlessly gets in his truck and starts to drive to an unknown destination. Having apparently reconsidered, he then stops and waits for Sandy, who walks over to the truck and departs with him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cast.", "content": "In order of appearance:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The story is Jerome Bixby's last work, which he completed on his deathbed in April 1998. Bixby dictated the last of his screenplay to his son, screenwriter Emerson Bixby. After Jerome Bixby's death, the script was given to Richard Schenkman to direct on a budget of just US$200,000 (). The film was shot in 8 days after a week of rehearsals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release and marketing.", "content": "The film screened at the San Diego Comic-Con Film Festival in July 2007, and premiered theatrically in Hemet, California, and Pitman, New Jersey, in October 2007. It was released on DVD in North America by Anchor Bay Entertainment on November 13, 2007, and became available for digital rental and sale at iTunes on September 22, 2009. It won the grand prize for Best Screenplay and first place for Best Feature at the Rhode Island Film Festival in August 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publicity through filesharing.", "content": "In 2007, producer Eric D. Wilkinson publicly thanked users of BitTorrent who distributed the film without express permission, saying that it lifted the profile of the film far beyond the financier's expectations; he encouraged fans to purchase the DVD or donate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "IGN gave it an 8 out of 10, calling it \"intellectual sci-fi\".  DVD Verdict criticized the heavy-handed ending, saying that one's opinion of the film would be shaped by views on religion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "The film has been nominated for and won numerous awards.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "All original music for the film was performed by Mark Hinton Stewart.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Play.", "content": "In 2012, Richard Schenkman adapted the film to a play, which received positive reviews.  In 2013, the theater play was staged in Greece.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequels.", "content": "A sequel, \"\", was released in 2017. Filming had begun on June 2, 2016, ending on June 16. The producers have stated on Facebook that it could be the first in a series.  This followed two previous attempts at producing sequels. A Kickstarter campaign to crowdfund a sequel named \"The Man From Earth II: Man From Earth Millennium\" was announced in September 2013, but it was not able to collect the minimum-required supporting by October 2013.  Another attempt was made to crowdfund a series, \"Man From Earth: The Series\", based on the film. The second crowd-funding effort completed successfully in August 2014.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Man from Earth is a 2007 American drama science fiction film written by Jerome Bixby and directed by Richard Schenkman. It stars David Lee Smith as John Oldman, the protagonist. The screenplay was conceived by Jerome Bixby in the early 1960s and completed on his deathbed in April 1998.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976743}
{"src_title": "Maison de la Radio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "After World War II, the French government had organised the state-owned radio and television channels into a single body, Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française (RTF). However its offices and studios were spread out over forty different locations in Paris. In 1952 the decision was made to construct a central headquarters which would house all the offices and studios in one location. The government acquired a 38,000 square meter tract of land in the 16th arrondissement on the banks of the Seine for the future building. Previously the site of a gasworks which had been decommissioned in 1928, and then a stadium, the location was considered ideal because of its proximity to the Eiffel Tower and its radio transmitters. A competition was held in 1953 to choose the architect. The winner from the 26 entrants was Henry Bernard who had won the Prix de Rome in architecture in 1938 and had participated in the post-war reconstruction of Caen.  The final model of the Maison was exhibited in March 1959 at the newly opened Center of New Industries and Technologies. The building was completed four years later and officially inaugurated by Charles de Gaulle on 14 December 1963.In his speech de Gaulle emphasised the importance of broadcasting and of the building itself as a symbol of France's grandeur and modernity: Radio is a human activity, in other words a collective activity. It is undoubtedly nourished by the skill of individuals. But to be valid, it needs the combined effort of teams. And this is why this complex and imposing, but unitary and circular building is a sign of the organization, concentration and cohesion that are necessary for its audience and its influence. At the end of 1974, French television and radio were split into two separate organizations. The building became the headquarters of Radio France exclusively and known as \"Maison de la Radio\".  In March 2003 the Paris Prefect of Police ordered the evacuation of the central tower because it no longer met fire-safety regulations. The 368 personnel who worked in the tower were transferred to another building on Rue du Général-Mangin. However, by this time the entire building was in need of major upgrading, repair, and refurbishment and a debate ensued as to whether it would be more appropriate and economical to build a completely new headquarters for Radio France. In the end it was decided to renovate the existing building with most of its personnel and broadcasting stations operating there during the project despite the extra costs this would entail. The process began in 2004 when an international competition was announced for the contract to design and carry out the renovation. In October 2005 the contract as awarded to Architecture-Studio and work began shortly thereafter. The initial budget for the work was €384 million, revised upwards in 2007 by €33 million to include an underground car park and a new organ for the main auditorium. The building was re-opened to the public in November 2014 with a gala concert by Radio France's two orchestras, the Orchestre philharmonique de Radio France and the Orchestre national de France, in the Maison's newly constructed Grand Auditorium. In 2016, the renovated Studio 104 reopened with a concert featuring both classical music and performances by Eddy Mitchell and Agnes Obel. However, final touches to the building and its landscaping would continue into 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In film.", "content": "Jean-Luc Godard's 1965 dystopian science fiction film \"Alphaville\" was partially shot at Maison de la Radio. Goddard used no special props or futuristic sets. Instead, the film used recently built modernist glass and concrete buildings such as the Maison and the CNIT that in 1965 were still considered new and strange architectural designs.  Nicolas Philibert's documentary film \"\", shot over a six-month period in 2011, won Best Documentary at the 2014 \"Étoiles d'or du cinéma français\" awards and was nominated for Best Documentary in the César Awards that same year.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maison de la Radio is the headquarters of Radio France. It is located in the 16th arrondissement of Paris near the Eiffel Tower. Built in the shape of huge ring 500 meters in circumference, with a central utility tower, the building houses the administrative offices, broadcasting studios, and performance spaces for all of Radio France's national stations and its four permanent ensembles—Orchestre philharmonique de Radio France, Orchestre national de France, Chœur de Radio France and Maîtrise de Radio France. The building was designed by Henry Bernard and completed in 1963. It underwent a major renovation beginning in 2005 and began reopening to the public in 2014 with the inauguration of its new auditorium.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976744}
{"src_title": "Mammad Amin Rasulzadeh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born at Novxanı, near Baku, Mammad Amin Rasulzade received his education at the Russian-Muslim Secondary School and then at the Technical College in Baku. In his years of study he created \"\"Muslim Youth Organisation Musavat\",\" first secret organisation in Azerbaijan's contemporary history, and beginning from 1903 Rasulzade began writing articles in various opposition newspapers and magazines. At that time, his anti-monarchist platform and his demands for the national autonomy of Azerbaijan, aligned him with Social Democrats and future Communists. In 1904 he founded the first Muslim social-democrat organisation \"Hummet\" and became editor-in-chief of its newspapers, \"Takamul\" (1906–1907) and \"Yoldash\" (1907). Rasulzade also published many articles in non-partisan newspapers such as ', \"Irshad\", and the journal '. His dramatic play titled \"The Lights in the Darkness\" was staged in Baku in 1908.  Rasulzade and his co-workers were representatives of the Azerbaijani intelligentsia. Most of them, including Rasulzade himself, had been members of the Baku organization of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party (Bolsheviks) in 1905. A photograph is extant in Soviet archives, showing Rasulzade with Prokopius Dzhaparidze and Meshadi Azizbekov, Bolsheviks who later became famous as two of the 26 Baku Commissars shot during the civil war. During the First Russian Revolution (1905–1907), Rasulzade actively participated in revolutionary developments. As the story goes, it was Rasulzade who saved young Joseph Stalin in 1905 in Baku, when police were searching for the latter as an active instigator of riots.  In 1909, under the persecution from Tsarist authorities, Rasulzade fled Baku to participate in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1911. While in Iran, Rasulzade edited \"Iran-e Azad\" newspaper, became one of the founders of Democrat Party of Persia and began publishing its newspaper \"Irān-e Now\" which means \"New Iran\" and which has been described as \"the greatest, most important and best known of the Persian newspapers, and the first to appear in the large size usual in Europe\". In 1911, Rasulzade also published his book \"\"Saadet-e bashar\"\" (\"Happiness of Mankind\") in defense of the revolution.  After Russian troops entered Iran in 1911 and, in cooperation with British, assisted Qajar Court to put an end to Iranian Constitutional Revolution, Rasulzade fled to Istanbul, then capital of Ottoman Empire. Here, in the wake of Young Turk Revolution, Rasulzade founded a journal called \"Türk Yurdu\" (\"The Land of Turks\"), in which he published his famous article \"İran Türkleri\" about the Iranian Turks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Musavat Party and Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.", "content": "After the Amnesty Act of 1913, dedicated to the 300th anniversary of the Romanov dynasty, Rasulzade returned to Baku, left the Hummet party he was previously member of, and joined the then secret Musavat (Equality) party in 1913, established in 1911, which initially promoted pan-Islamist, pan-Turkist and Socialist ideas, or more precisely Pan-Islamism yet with affinity for greater cultural bonds with the Turkic world, and which eventually became Azerbaijani nationalist party, and quickly became its chief. In 1915 he started to publish the party's newspaper \"\"Açıq Söz\"\" (Open word) which lasted till 1918. When the February Revolution happened, Musavat together with other secret political parties in the Russian Empire, were quickly legalized and became a leading party of Caucasian Muslims after it merged with Party of Turkic Federalists headed by Nasib Yusifbeyli. The October revolution in 1917 lead to the secession of Transcaucasia from Russia and Rasulzade became head of Muslim faction in the Seym, the parliament of the Transcaucasian Federation. After the dissolution of the Transcaucasian Federation, the Muslim faction re-organized into the Azerbaijani National Council, whose head Rasulzade was unanimously elected in May 1918.  On 28 May 1918 the Azerbaijani National Council, headed by Rasulzade, declared an independent Azerbaijan Republic. Rasulzade also initiated the establishment of Baku State University together with Rashid Khan Gaplanov, minister of education with the funding of oil baron Haji Zeynalabdin Taghiyev in 1919. Rasulzade taught Ottoman literature at the University. After the collapse of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in April 1920, Rasulzade left Baku and went into hiding in the mountainous village of Lahıc, Ismailli to direct the resistance to Sovietization. But in August 1920, after the Soviet Russian army crushed the rebellions of Ganja, Karabakh, Zagatala and Lankaran, led by ex-officers of the Azerbaijani National Army, Rasulzade was arrested and brought to Baku. It was only due to an earlier rescue of Joseph Stalin, as Rasulzade hid Stalin from the police, that Rasulzade was released and transferred from Azerbaijan to Russia. For the next two years, Rasulzade worked as the press representative at the Commissariat on Nations in Moscow. He was seconded to Saint Petersburg in 1922 from where he escaped to Finland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile.", "content": "For the rest of his life, Rasulzade lived in exile first in Turkey. Between 1923 and 1927, he was an editor-in-chief of the magazine called \"New Caucasus\" (\"\"Yeni Qafqasya\"\") which was suspended by the Kemalist government by the request of Moscow. Rasulzade continued to publish various articles, newspapers, and magazines from 1928 till 1931 in Turkey. However, the 1931 suppression of the emigre publications coincided with Rasulzade's expulsion from Turkey, and some saw it as the result of caving in to Soviet pressure. In exile Rasulzade published a pamphlet titled \"O Pantiurkizme v sviazi s kavkazskoi problemoi\" (\"О Пантюркизме в связи с кавказской проблемой\", Pan-Turkism with regard to the caucasian problem), in which he firmly stated his view: Pan-Turkism was a cultural movement rather than a political program. Thus, he went to Poland in 1938, where he met his wife, Vanda, niece of Polish statesman Józef Piłsudski, then to Romania in 1940. Finally, after World War II, he went back to Ankara, Turkey in 1947, where he participated in the politics of the marginal Pan Turkic movement. Due to sensitivity of his presence in either Turkey or Iran, and being often exiled, Rasulzade \"cherished bad memories of both Iran and Turkey\". In his appeal to Azerbaijani people in 1953 through Voice of America, he stressed his hope that one day it will become independent again. He died in 1955, a broken man according to Thomas Goltz, and was buried in Cebeci Asri cemetery in Ankara.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and honors.", "content": "Rasulzade was commemorated by many memorials throughout Azerbaijan, such as Baku State University, which was named after his honor. Rasulzade was depicted on the obverse of the Azerbaijani 1000 manat banknote of 1993-2006.  The Mehmet Emin Resulzade Anatolian High School was named after him and is a public high school at Ankara, Turkey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major works.", "content": "Rasulzades works include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mammad Amin Rasulzade (, ), ( 31 January 1884 – 6 March 1955) was an Azerbaijani statesman, scholar, public figure and the head of the Azerbaijani National Council. His expression \"\"Bir kərə yüksələn bayraq, bir daha enməz!\"\" (\"The flag once raised will never fall!\") became the motto of the independence movement in Azerbaijan in the 20th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976745}
{"src_title": "New Anticapitalist Party", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Founding conference.", "content": "At the founding conference (6 to 8 February 2009), 630 delegates voted on a series of documents, which had gone through a long process of amendment and re-amendment in local and regional assemblies.  However, a number of contentious issues within the party – especially those relating to secularism, religion and islamophobia – were left open for further debate, leading to a number of difficulties and a tendency to devote considerable time and energy on internal debates, rather than activity.  The party's name was originally intended to be temporary; a vote on the name was held at the founding congress, where NPA won over \"Revolutionary Anticapitalist Party\" (\"Parti anticapitaliste révolutionnaire\") with 53% of the vote.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "Besancenot has stated that it has no single leader and is instead run collectively, being represented by elected spokespersons.  The basic structure of the party is the local committee, which organises local activities. A National Political Council decides on general policy. Delegates to the Council are elected at the congress on a proportional basis, ensuring the representation of different tendencies or 'platforms'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideals.", "content": "The party's stated aim is to \"build a new socialist, democratic perspective for the twenty-first century\".  Olivier Besancenot has said that the party will be \"the left that fights anticapitalist, internationalist, antiracist, ecologist, feminist struggles, opposing all forms of discrimination\". The LCR's distinctive identification with Trotskyism will not be continued by the NPA.  Unlike in previous LCR documents, although feminism is very present, patriarchy theory is not mentioned. Such issues as the withdrawal of French troops from Afghanistan, a rise in the minimum wage and public services, however, are accepted by all members of the NPA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alliances and splits.", "content": "Debate continues within the NPA about what sort of alliances with other groups are acceptable. The majority of militants emphasize the dangers of allying with forces which are likely to end up in joint local or national governments with the Socialist Party (PS). A minority believes there is work to be done in wide alliances with antiliberal parties of the left, such as the Party of the Left (PG).  In January 2009, the NPA signed a joint declaration with several other parties of the left, calling for the building of the January 29 national strike. A minority (16%) claimed that such unity in the strike movements means sufficient basis can be found for joint slates at the European elections, while the majority made a sharp distinction between alliances for social movements and electoral alliances. The party received 4.98% of the vote in the European election.  Discussions were held in the course of 2009 with other parties to the left of the PS, concerning the possibility of joint slates for the regional elections in 2010. Finally, the NPA presented independent lists in a majority of regions, but joined the Left Front in three regions, and the Left Party in two others.  Since its foundation, the NPA has suffered a number of breakaways, and by the beginning of 2015 total membership had declined to 2,100, compared with 9,200 at the time of its Founding Conference in February 2009. In addition to the loss of individual members, three organised groups have left the party in order to join the Left Front: Gauche Unitaire in 2009, Convergences et Alternative in 2011 and the largest of the three, Anticapitalist left (Gauche Anticapitaliste) in July 2012.  In addition, failure to reach the required level of support in the presidential and parliamentary elections has deprived the party of state funding, leading to a financial crisis. As a result of these setbacks, the NPA is engaged in an internal debate with the aim of refounding the party and reforming its internal structures. However, the NPA continues to be active in various social movements. It produces a weekly newspaper, \"Tout est à nous!\" (originating as a slogan to be chanted on demonstrations, the name roughly translates as 'Everything belongs to us!') and a monthly magazine of the same name.  In December 2013, the Revolutionary Marxists faction in the Fourth International declared the Anticapitalism and Revolution current in the NPA and criticized the reformist orientation of the party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "The party became the target of criticism after Ilham Moussaïd, a Muslim woman wearing a hijab, became a candidate for 2010 regional elections. Supporters of the party were noted to chant slogans against Islamophobia and the party's move was considered by some as \"radical pragmatism\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The New Anticapitalist Party (, abbreviated NPA) is a far-left French political party founded in February 2009. The party launched with 9,200 members and was intended to unify the fractured movements of the French radical Left, and attract new activists drawing on the combined strength of far-left parties in presidential elections in 2002, where they achieved 10.44% of the vote. (Being 7% in 2007 and 13% in 2012).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976746}
{"src_title": "Jade Ewen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ewen was born and brought up in Plaistow, London, the child of Trevor and Carol Ewen. Her mother is Jamaican while her father is of Italian descent and was raised in Scotland. Trevor is blind and partially deaf, while Carol is partially blind. Because of her parents' disabilities, Ewen is a caregiver to both of her parents as well as her two younger siblings, Shereen and Kiel. Ewen started singing and taking dance classes before she was even four. She attended New City Primary School then Brampton Manor Academy before transferring to the Sylvia Young Theatre School (SYTS) after receiving a scholarship. While a student at SYTS, she appeared in the television productions \"The Bill\", \"Casualty\", \"Mr. Harvey Lights a Candle\" and \"The Ghost Hunter\". At the age of ten, Ewen went to an open audition for \"The Lion King\". She was offered the part of Young Nala.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2002–09: Early career and Eurovision.", "content": "Ewen appeared in the children's dance DVD, \"How To Dance\". She was briefly featured in the video for Busted's \"What I Go to School For\". From 2003 to 2004 she appeared in the Australian series \"Out There\". In 2005, Ewen became a member of the girl group Trinity Stone, which signed with Sony BMG. The group disbanded in 2007. She later recorded with rapper Kwamé, who was impressed with her work on MySpace. She released a digital single, \"Got You\", in 2008 under Kwame's Make Noise label. Ewen co-wrote the song \"A Little Bit\" for the girl group Booty Luv, as well as the song \"Let Me Be Me\" for Jessica Mauboy. In early 2009, Ewen acted in the first episode of the series \"Myths\".  In January 2009, Ewen was approached for and participated in the process to select the UK representative for the Eurovision Song Contest 2009. She was selected to represent the UK with her performance of the song \"It's My Time\", composed by Andrew Lloyd Webber, who accompanied her on piano. Ewen finished in fifth place at Eurovision, the highest placing for the UK since 2002. Having already signed with Polydor Records before the Eurovision selection, Ewen began working on her debut album.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009–11: Sugababes and solo projects.", "content": "In September 2009, Ewen joined the group Sugababes as the replacement for Keisha Buchanan. While her single, \"My Man\", had been released the week she joined the trio, promotional activities for it were cancelled. Nonetheless, it debuted at number 35 on the UK Singles Chart. In an interview with the BBC, Ewen confirmed her commitment to the Sugababes was her main priority and that her solo album had been put on hold. Ewen did not meet the members of the Sugababes until two days before the video shoot for their single \"About a Girl\" in Los Angeles, having been flown there without being notified that she would be replacing Buchanan. \"About a Girl\" debuted at number eight in the UK. \"Sweet 7\" was released in early 2010 after multiple delays during 2009, and charted at number 14 on the UK Albums Chart. The second single to feature Ewen's vocals, \"Wear My Kiss\", peaked at number 7 in the UK.  The Sugababes began recording an eighth studio album in April 2010. In late 2010, Ewen became the face of Miss Ultimo lingerie. In 2011, the group and their management, Crown Talent & Media Group, left their record label of ten years, Island Records, for a new three-album distribution deal with Sony Music's RCA Records. Crown Talent & Media Group was the acting record label. A promotional single under the new label, \"Freedom\", was released for free on 25 September 2011. In November 2011, Ewen flew to Australia to appear on \"I'm a Celebrity, Get Me Out of Here Now!\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013–present: Broadway and television work.", "content": "On 2 January 2013, Ewen was revealed as one of the celebrity contestants in ITV's new diving show \"Splash!\". She was the first to be eliminated from the competition, and later revealed she only did the show for the money. On 15 March 2013, Ewen confirmed that Sugababes would record new music at some point during 2013, stating: \"I think we will probably come back together again at the end of the year. There will definitely be more recording but, there is no release date anytime soon.\" In June 2013, Ewen was featured on the Lost Witness track \"Fly\". On 1 August 2013, she revealed the Sugababes were no longer recording in the studio together, stating the group was \"pretty much done\" and confirming that she had started work on her debut solo album.  In April 2015, Ewen was taking to the stage in the Musical Godspell. The show concluded in May.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stage.", "content": "In summer 2014, Ewen played the supporting role of Clara in the Regent's Park Open Air Theatre production of Porgy and Bess. The musical opened to 4 and 5 star reviews, with The Guardian writing of Jade's performance, \"Jade Ewen brings a moving simplicity to Clara, who follows her heart and pays the price.\" In April 2015, Jade was due to have a lead role in \"Godspell\" at the Hackney Empire, before moving on to a 28-venue national tour. Ewen had to drop out due to ill health, saying she was \"saddened\" to withdraw. In September 2015, it was announced that Jade would be joining the cast of \"In the Heights\" in its West End transfer, in the role of Vanessa. The musical received positive reviews. In November 2015 it was announced that she would play the role of Princess Jasmine in the musical \"Aladdin\" at the Prince Edward Theatre., which she performed until shortly before the musical's closure in 2019.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jade Louise Ewen (born 24 January 1988) is a British singer, songwriter, actress and a former member of the girl group Sugababes. Ewen began her singing career in a girl group named Trinity Stone, which signed with Sony BMG in 2005 but disbanded in 2007 without releasing an album. In 2009, after winning the right, she represented the United Kingdom in the 2009 Eurovision Song Contest by performing the Andrew Lloyd Webber / Diane Warren penned \"It's My Time\". She finished in fifth place, making her the most successful British Eurovision act since 2002.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976747}
{"src_title": "Roman Neustädter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Neustädter's mother is ethnic Russian. Neustädter's ancestors in the paternal line were ethnic Germans who lived on territories of Russian Empire and later, USSR. Following World War II, ethnic Germans were forcibly relocated by the Soviet government. Neustädter's family was relocated into Central Asia. He is the son of Peter Neustädter, a former Kyrgyz-born Kazakhstani footballer for Mainz 05 and former manager of Mainz 05 II. He was born in Dnipropetrovsk, Ukrainian SSR, while his father was playing for Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk. He was raised by his mother and grandparents in Kyrgyzstan, while his father was still an active football player. Due to his heritage and birth, he was eligible to play for Germany, Ukraine, Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in international competitions.  On 30 May 2016, Neustädter was granted Russian citizenship, having received his new Russian passport at the Russian Consulate in Bonn.  He is fluent in German, Russian, and English, by speaking three languages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club career.", "content": "Neustädter began his career in 1. FSV Mainz 05's youth team, before being promoted to Mainz 05 II in July 2006. After playing in Mainz's first team during the 2008–09 season, he signed a three-year contract with Borussia Mönchengladbach. With \"die Fohlen\", Neustädter enjoyed a particularly successful 2011–12 season, finishing fourth and qualifying for the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League.  At the end of the 2011–12 season, Neustädter left Mönchengladbach and joined Schalke 04 on a free transfer, signing a four-year contract running until 30 June 2016.  In July 2016, after turning down a new contract at Schalke, Neustädter signed a three-year deal at Fenerbahçe S.K. of Turkey.  On 9 August 2019, he signed a one-year contract with Russian club FC Dynamo Moscow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Neustädter played twice for Germany U-20, making his debut as a substitute against Italy U-20 on 9 April 2008. He scored a goal against Switzerland U-20 on 22 April 2008.  The Football Federation of Ukraine has expressed interest in calling up Neustädter for their national team. Neustädter, who was born in Ukrainian SSR, has indicated that he would be likely to accept a call-up if asked. He would first require to obtain a Ukrainian passport in order to be eligible for national team duties.  On 9 November 2012, Neustädter was called up for the Germany squad to face the Netherlands in a friendly match five days later. He made his debut for Germany in this match as a late substitute for Schalke team-mate Lewis Holtby.  In January 2016, Neustädter met with members of the Russian Football Union in order to be able to possibly play for the Russia national team in the future. On 21 May 2016, he was called up to represent Russia at UEFA Euro 2016. On 1 June 2016, Neustädter made his debut for Russia, in a 2–1 friendly loss to the Czech Republic, as a 64th-minute substitute. He started Russia's first two games during the final tournament in France, where Russia failed to proceed through the group stage.  On 11 May 2018, he was included in Russia's extended 2018 FIFA World Cup squad. He was, however, not included into the final World Cup squad.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International goals.", "content": "(Russia score listed first, score column indicates score after each Neustädter goal)", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Roman Petrovich Neustädter (; born 18 February 1988) is a Russian professional footballer who plays for Dynamo Moscow in the Russian Premier League. Ethnically German and born in the Soviet Union, Neustädter played for Germany at various youth levels, then being capped twice by the Germany national football team in 2012 and 2013. He switched allegiance to Russia in 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976748}
{"src_title": "Nginx", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Popularity.", "content": "According to Netcraft's November 2016 Web Server Survey, Nginx was found to be the second-most widely used web server across all \"active\" sites (18 percent of surveyed sites) and for the top million busiest sites (28 percent of surveyed sites). According to W3Techs, it was used by 38 percent of the top 1 million websites, 50 percent of the top 100,000 websites, and by 57 percent of the top 10,000 websites. According to BuiltWith, it is used on 38 percent of the top 10,000 websites, and its growth within the top 10k, 100k and 1 million segments increased. A 2018 survey of Docker usage found that Nginx was the most commonly deployed technology in Docker containers. Wikipedia uses Nginx as its SSL termination proxy. In OpenBSD version 5.2 (November 2012), Nginx became part of the OpenBSD base system, providing an alternative to the system's fork of Apache 1.3, which it was intended to replace, but later in version 5.6 (November 2014) it was removed in favor of Apache with OpenBSD's own httpd(8).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "Nginx can be deployed to serve dynamic HTTP content on the network using FastCGI, SCGI handlers for scripts, WSGI application servers or Phusion Passenger modules, and it can serve as a software load balancer.  Nginx uses an asynchronous event-driven approach, rather than threads, to handle requests. Nginx's modular event-driven architecture can provide more predictable performance under high loads.  Nginx default configuration file is codice_1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mail proxy features.", "content": "Other features include upgrading executable and configuration without client connections loss, and a module-based architecture with both core and third-party module support.  The paid Plus product includes additional features such as advanced load balancing and access to an expanded suite of metrics for performance monitoring.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nginx vs Nginx Plus.", "content": "There are two versions of Nginx: OSS Nginx and Nginx Plus. Nginx Plus offers additional features not included in OSS Nginx, such as active health checks, session persistence based on cookies, DNS-service-discovery integration, Cache Purging API, AppDynamic, Datalog, Dynatrace New Relic plug-ins, Active-Active HA with config sync, Key-Value Store, on-the-fly with zero downtime updates upstream configurations, and key‐value stores using Nginx Plus API and web application firewall (WAF) dynamic module.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nginx vs Apache.", "content": "Nginx was written with an explicit goal of outperforming the Apache web server. Out of the box, serving static files, Nginx uses much less memory than Apache, and can handle roughly four times as many requests per second. However, this performance boost comes at a cost of decreased flexibility, such as the ability to override systemwide access settings on a per-file basis (Apache accomplishes this with an.htaccess file, while Nginx has no such feature built in).  Nginx also has a reputation of being harder to install and configure than Apache. Formerly, adding third-party modules to Nginx required recompiling the application from source with the modules statically linked. This was partially overcome in version 1.9.11 on February 2016, with the addition of dynamic module loading. However, the modules still must be compiled at the same time as Nginx, and not all modules are compatible with this system; some require the older static linking process.  Nginx is generally considered to be less stable on Windows Server than it is on Linux, while Apache has equal support for both.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nginx Unit.", "content": "Nginx Unit is an open-source web application server, released in 2017 by NGINX, Inc. to target multi-language microservices-based applications. The initial release supported applications written in Go, PHP, and Python. By version 1.11.0, the support was extended to Java, Node.js, Perl, and Ruby applications; other features include dynamic configuration, request routing, and load balancing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Igor Sysoev began development of Nginx in 2002. Originally, Nginx was developed to solve the C10k problem, and to fill the needs of multiple websites including the Rambler search engine and portal, for which it was serving 500 million requests per day by September 2008.  Nginx Inc. was founded in July 2011 by Sysoev and Maxim Konovalov to provide commercial products and support for the software.  The company's principal place of business is San Francisco, California, while legally incorporated in British Virgin Islands.  In October 2011, Nginx, Inc. raised $3 million from BV Capital, Runa Capital, and MSD Capital, Michael Dell's venture fund.  The company announced commercial support options for companies using Nginx in production. Nginx offered commercial support in February 2012, and paid Nginx Plus subscription in August 2013.Support packages focus on installation, configuration, performance improvement, etc. Support includes proactive notifications about major changes, security patches, updates and patches.  Nginx, Inc. also offers consulting services to assist customers in custom configuration or adding additional features.  In October 2013, Nginx, Inc. raised a $10 million series B investment round led by New Enterprise Associates. That round included previous investors, as well as Aaron Levie, CEO and founder of Box.com. In December 2014, Nginx raised a $20 million series B1 round led by New Enterprise Associates, with participation from e.ventures (formerly \"BV Capital\"), Runa Capital, Index Ventures and Nginx's own CEO Gus Robertson.  In October 2017, Nginx, Inc. announced general available Nginx Amplify SaaS providing monitoring and analytics capabilities for Nginx.  In September 2017, Nginx announced an API management tool, NGINX Controller, which would build off of their API Gateway, NGINX Plus.  In June 2018, Nginx, Inc. raised $43 million in Series C Funding in a round led by Goldman Sachs \"to Accelerate Application Modernization and Digital Transformation for Enterprises\".  On 11 March 2019, F5 Networks acquired Nginx, Inc. for US$670 million.  On 12 December 2019, it was reported that the Moscow offices of Nginx Inc. had been raided by police, and that Sysoev and Konovalov had been detained. The raid was conducted under a search warrant connected to a copyright claim over Nginx by Rambler—which asserts that it owns all rights to the code because it was written while he was an employee of the company.. On 16 December 2019, Russian state lender Sberbank, which owns 46.5 percent of Rambler, called an extraordinary meeting of Rambler's board of directors asking Rambler's management team to request Russian law enforcement agencies cease pursuit of the criminal case, and begin talks with Nginx and with F5.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nginx (pronounced \"engine X\", ) (stylized as NGINX or nginx or NginX) is a web server which can also be used as a reverse proxy, load balancer, mail proxy and HTTP cache. The software was created by Igor Sysoev and first publicly released in 2004. A company of the same name was founded in 2011 to provide support and \"Nginx plus\" paid software.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976749}
{"src_title": "Red slender loris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The ears are less prominent in \"L. tardigradus tardigradus\" compared to \"Loris lydekkerianus\". The ears of \"L. tardigradus nycticeboides\" are almost invisible.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "This small, slender primate is distinguished by large forward-facing eyes used for precise depth perception, long slender limbs, a well-developed index finger, the absence of tail, and large prominent ears, which are thin, rounded and hairless at the edges. The soft dense fur is reddish-brown color on the back, and the underside is whitish-grey with a sprinkling of silver hair. Its body length on average is, with an average weight of a mere. This loris has a four-way grip on each foot. The big toe opposes the other 4 toes for a pincer-like grip on branches and food. It has a dark face mask with central pale stripe, much like the slow lorises.  \"L. tardigradus tardigradus\" is reddish brown in the back and creamy yellow below, while \"L. tardigradus nycticeboides\" is dark brown dorsally and very light brown in upperparts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "The red slender loris favors lowland rainforests (up to 700 m in altitude), tropical rainforests and inter-monsoon forests of the south western wet-zone of Sri Lanka. Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve harbors one of few remaining red slender loris populations, and is considered a biodiversity hotspot. The most common plant species eaten was \"Humboldtia laurifolia\", occurring at 676 trees/ha, with overall density at 1077 trees/ha. \"Humboldtia laurifolia\" is vulnerable and has a mutualistic relationship with ants, providing abundant food for lorises. Reports from the 1960s suggest that it once also occurred in the coastal zone, however it is now thought to be extinct there.  The red slender loris differ from its close relative the gray slender loris in its frequent use of rapid arboreal locomotion. It forms small social groups, containing adults of both sexes as well as young animals. This species is among the most social of the nocturnal primates. During daylight hours the animals sleep in groups in branch tangles, or curled up on a branch with their heads between their legs. The groups also undertake mutual grooming and play at wrestling. The adults typically hunt separately during the night. They are primarily insectivorous but also eat bird eggs, berries, leaves, buds and occasionally invertebrates as well as geckos and lizards. To maximize protein and nutrient uptake they consume every part of their prey, including the scales and bones. They make nests out of leaves or find hollows of trees or a similar secure place to live in.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Females are dominant. The female reaches her sexual maturity at 10 months and is receptive to the male twice a year. This species mates while hanging upside down from branches; individuals in captivity will not breed if no suitable branch is available. The gestation period is 166–169 days after which the female will bear 1–2 young which feed from her for 6–7 months. The lifespan of this species is believed to be around 15–18 years in the wild.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "This slender loris is an endangered species. Habitat destruction is a major threat. It is widely trapped and killed for use in supposed remedies for eye diseases and get killed by snakes, dogs, and some fish. Other threats include: electrocution on live wires, road accidents and the pet trade.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The red slender loris was identified as one of the top-10 \"focal species\" in 2007 by the Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) project.  One early success has been the rediscovery of the virtually unknown Horton Plains slender loris (\"Loris tardigradus nycticeboides\"). Originally documented in 1937, there have only been four known encounters in the past 72 years, and for more than 60 years until 2002 the sub-species had been believed to be extinct. The sub-species was rediscovered in 2002 by a team led by Anna Nekaris in Horton Plains National Park. The late 2009 capture by a team working under the Zoological Society of London's EDGE programme has resulted in the first detailed physical examination of the Horton Plains sub-species and the first-ever photographs of it. The limited available evidence suggests there may be only about 100 animals still existing, which would make it among the top five most-threatened primates worldwide.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The red slender loris (\"Loris tardigradus\") is a small, nocturnal strepsirrhine primate native to the rainforests of Sri Lanka. This is #6 of the 10 focal species and #22 of the 100 EDGE mammal species worldwide considered the most evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered. Two subspecies have been identified, \"L. t. tardigradus\" and \"L. t. nycticeboides\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976750}
{"src_title": "Stendhal syndrome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The affliction is named after 19th-century French author Stendhal (pseudonym of Marie-Henri Beyle), who described his experience with the phenomenon during his 1817 visit to Florence in his book \"Naples and Florence: A Journey from Milan to Reggio\". When he visited the Basilica of Santa Croce, where Niccolò Machiavelli, Michelangelo and Galileo Galilei are buried, he was overcome with profound emotion. Stendhal wrote:  Although psychologists have long debated whether Stendhal syndrome exists, the apparent effects on some individuals are severe enough to warrant medical attention. The staff at Florence's Santa Maria Nuova hospital are accustomed to tourists suffering from dizzy spells or disorientation after viewing the statue of David, the artworks of the Uffizi Gallery, and other historic relics of the Tuscan city.  Though there are numerous accounts of people fainting while taking in Florentine art, dating from the early 19th century on, the syndrome was only named in 1979, when it was described by Italian psychiatrist Graziella Magherini, who observed over a hundred similar cases among tourists in Florence. There exists no scientific evidence to define Stendhal syndrome as a specific psychiatric disorder; however, there is evidence that the same cerebral areas involved in emotional responses are activated during exposure to art. The syndrome is not listed as a recognised condition in the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\".  A more recent account of the Stendhal syndrome was in 2018, where a visitor to the Uffizi Gallery in Florence suffered a heart attack while admiring Sandro Botticelli's \"The Birth of Venus\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stendhal syndrome, Stendhal's syndrome or Florence syndrome is a psychosomatic condition involving rapid heartbeat, fainting, confusion and even hallucinations, allegedly occurring when individuals become exposed to objects or phenomena of great beauty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976751}
{"src_title": "Ulfberht swords", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The swords are at the transitional point between the Viking sword and the high medieval knightly sword. Most have blades of Oakeshott type X. They are also the starting point of the much more varied high medieval tradition of blade inscriptions. The reverse sides of the blades are inlaid with a geometric pattern, usually a braid pattern between vertical strokes. There are also numerous blades which have this type of geometric pattern but no \"Vlfberht\" inscription.  Ulfberht swords were made during a period when European swords were still predominantly pattern welded (\"false Damascus\"), but with larger blooms of steel gradually becoming available, so that higher quality swords made after AD 1000 are increasingly likely to have crucible steel blades. The group of Ulfberht swords includes a wide spectrum of steel and production methods. One example from a 10th-century grave in Nemilany, Moravia, has a pattern welded core with welded-on hardened cutting edges. Another example appears to have been made from high-quality hypoeutectoid steel possibly imported from Central Asia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Number and distribution.", "content": "Total of 170 Ulfberht swords are known from Europe, most numerously in Northern Europe. Most of them, 44 swords, are known from Norway and second most, 31 swords, from Finland. However, the exact number of swords found is debatable because of the fragmentary condition of some examples, and because some inscriptions appear to be loose references to the Ulfberht type instead of actual specimens.  The prevalence of Ulfberht swords in the archaeological record of Northern Europe does not imply that such swords were more widely used there than in Francia; the pagan practice of placing weapons in warrior graves greatly favours the archaeological record in such regions of Europe that were still pagan (and indeed most of the Ulfberht swords found in Norway are from warrior graves), while sword finds in from continental Europe and England after the 7th century are mostly limited to stray finds, e.g. in riverbeds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dating.", "content": "The original Ulfberht sword type dates to the 9th or 10th century, but swords with the Ulfberht inscription continued to be made at least until the end of the Viking Age in the 11th century. A notable late example found in Eastern Germany, dated to the 11th or possibly early 12th century, represents the only specimen that combines the \"Vlfberht\" signature with a Christian \"in nomine domini\" inscription (\"+IINIOMINEDMN\"). As a given name, \"Wulfbert\" (Old High German \"Wolfbert, Wolfbrecht, Wolfpert, Wolfperht, Vulpert\") is recorded from the 8th to 10th centuries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "The most likely place of origination of Ulberht swords is in the Rhineland region (i.e. in Austrasia, the core region of the Frankish realm, later part of the Franconian stem duchy). A Frankish origin of the original swords has long been assumed because of the form of the personal name \"Ulfberht\"; a sword found in Lower Saxony in 2012 used lead in its hilt which has reportedly been analysed as originating in the Taunus region, reinforcing the hypothesis of Frankish manufacture of the Ulfberht swords. but were clearly sought-after, prestigious artefacts in Viking Age Scandinavia. Three specimens were found as far afield as Volga Bulgaria (at the time part of the Volga trade route).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ulfberht swords are about 170 medieval swords found in Europe, dated to the 9th to 11th centuries, with blades inlaid with the inscription \"+VLFBERH+T or +VLFBERHT+\". That word is a Frankish personal name that became the basis of a trademark of sorts, used by multiple bladesmiths for several centuries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976752}
{"src_title": "Boulevards of Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The \"grands boulevards\".", "content": "The \"Grands Boulevards\" are essentially 'the best' of the Parisian boulevards. They correspond to the \"Nouveau Cours\" built between 1668 and 1705 in place of the dismantled Louis XIII wall. The boulevards of Louis XIV were conceived by Pierre Bullet to link the Porte Saint-Antoine (situated where the Place de la Bastille now stands) to the Porte Saint-Honoré (situated where the Place de la Madeleine now stands).  Which exactly are classed amongst the Grands Boulevards is somewhat unclear. Many Parisians would automatically include Boulevard Haussmann amongst them, as the large department stores (Printemps and Galeries Lafayette) draw promenaders in the \"boulevardier spirit\". However, strictly speaking, \"les Grands Boulevards\" would only include the Boulevard Beaumarchais, Filles-du-Calvaire, Temple, Saint-Martin, Saint-Denis, Bonne-Nouvelle, Poissonnière, Montmartre, Italiens, Capucines and the Madeleine boulevards.  Parisians made the boulevards into promenades which have remained popular through the ages and changes in the city. They were the setting for Maupassant's \"Bel Ami\"; Fred Astaire took to the boulevards in \"Funny Face\" (1957). The later opening of other trunk roads, namely Boulevard Richard-Lenoir, Boulevard Haussmann, and Avenue de la République, has somewhat reduced the visibility of the Grand Boulevards and the Louis XIII wall in the Paris topography.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"\"Boulevard du Crime\"\".", "content": "The idea of the boulevard as a centre for leisure asserted itself during the 18th century, when numerous théâtres de la foire set up near the Porte Saint-Martin. The boulevard du Temple became affectionately known as \"\"boulevard du Crime\"\" during Bourbon Restoration, an allusion to the criminal acts portrayed there by stage actors. According to the \"Almanach des Spectacles\", \"Tautin was stabbed 16,302 times, Marti poisoned 11,000 times, Fresnoy set on fire 27,000 times in countless ways..., Mademoiselle Adèle Dupuis was seduced, kidnapped or drowned 75,000 times\".  Although the \"boulevard du Crime\" fell victim to Haussmann's transformation, the \"boulevardier\" spirit lives on in \"théâtre de boulevard\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Haussmannian boulevards.", "content": "From 1784 to 1791, Ledoux built the Wall of the Farmers-General, with boulevards running along its exterior. This wall built to collect the octroi, a tax on goods entering the city which was hated by Parisians. It was demolished approximately between 1789 and 1860. Although it was almost completely razed by Haussman in 1860 as part of his transformation of Paris, some parts remain. The surviving boulevards were subject to urban planners' failed attempts in the 1950s to transform them into urban freeways. Haussmann's renovation of Paris brought the boulevard to the heart of Paris, whereas they had hitherto been limited to uninhabited or sparsely inhabited zones. Le boulevard, whose initial function was to go around the capital, became structural urban thoroughfares.  The boulevards from Haussmann and before now define Paris, with uniform façades and overhanging balconies stretching along them. These are immediately recognisable, and are under the strict control of Paris' urban planners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The \"boulevards des Maréchaux\".", "content": "The demolition of the \"Thiers wall\" during the 1920s allowed for the creation of a third ring of boulevards surrounding the city. These boulevards were named after the Marshals of the Empire, and, in consequence, they are called the \"Boulevards des Maréchaux\" (Boulevards of the Marshals). They run just inside the city limits.  In addition, the Boulevard périphérique, the beltway surrounding Paris, was built on the site of the ruins of the Thiers wall, a short distance 'outboard' from the boulevards of the marshals. However, it is more like a motorway than a boulevard. Paris Tramway Line 3 has been running along the \"Boulevards des Maréchaux\" since December 2006.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Boulevards of Paris are boulevards which form an important part of the urban landscape of Paris. The boulevards were constructed in several phases by central government initiative as infrastructure improvements, but are very much associated with strolling and leisurely enjoyment in the minds of Parisians.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976753}
{"src_title": "Paris Fire Brigade", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Founded in 1793 as the \"Corps des gardes-pompes de la ville de Paris\" and following the 23-hour Austrian Embassy Fire in 1810 became a military organisation by imperial decree of Emperor Napoléon. On 18 September 1811, it became the \"Bataillon de sapeurs-pompiers de Paris\" and was expanded to the \"Régiment de sapeurs-pompiers de Paris\" in 1867. On 1 March 1967 became the \"Brigade des sapeurs-pompiers de Paris\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selection and training.", "content": "The operational personnel (\"hommes du rang\" i.e. privates) are usually engaged for five years. They must have French nationality, be between 18 and 25 years old, have a clean criminal record and have at least a vocational training \"CAP\" certificate. The selection is three days long, with sports tests, psychomotor tests, medical examination, etc.  Training takes place in the Instruction Grouping (\"Groupement d'instruction\", GI), at the fort of Villeneuve-Saint-Georges. The first period lasts two months, with the first aid and first responder training, and basic military instruction (including shooting). They then undertake practical training of four months in an operational fire company (\"compagnie d'incendie\"); this includes taking part in personal assistance and utility safety operations. The last stage of training is a further two months at the Instruction Grouping. Upon completing training, the firefighter joins a fire company.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Resources.", "content": "The BSPP consists of 8,550 personnel with 81 stations and facilities who conduct 1200 operations daily.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organisation.", "content": "The brigade is commanded by a Brigade General as part of the French Army's engineering arm. The brigade commander directly controls the Information and Public Relations Bureau, and who is assisted a Colonel-Adjutant, a General Council called a Cabinet and a Chief of Staff who controls the following Bureaus: and three Assistant Chiefs of Staff:  Operational staff are divided into three geographic groups, as well as a training group and a services group. The geographic groups are: Each of the geographic groups consists of 8 fire companies and a few special units that are not part of a company (including ambulance units). Each company in turn consists of 2-4 fire stations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First fire group (\"Premier groupement d'incendie\").", "content": "The First fire group of the Paris Fire Brigade covers northeast Paris and Seine-Saint-Denis and is based in the 18th arrondissement of Paris. It consists of the following companies: Additional units include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second fire group (\"Deuxième groupement d'incendie\").", "content": "The Second Fire Group of the Paris Fire Brigade covers Southeast Paris and Val-de-Marne and is based in the 13th arrondissement of Paris. It consists of the following companies: Additional units include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third fire group (\"Troisième groupement d'incendie\").", "content": "The Third Fire Group of the Paris Fire Brigade covers Western Paris and Hauts-de-Seine and is based in Courbevoie, Hauts-de-Seine. It consists of the following companies: Additional units include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Training Group (\"Groupement d'instruction\").", "content": "The Training Group of the Paris Fire Brigade provides education and training to all Paris firefighters. It consists of the following:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Special services.", "content": "Controlled by Headquarters", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Frequency of operations.", "content": "The BSPP performs about 1200 interventions per day. During 2001: There are 6.16 million inhabitants in the BSPP zone (1999). This represents:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ceremonial duties.", "content": "Traditionally, the Paris Fire Brigade parades twice during the Bastille Day military parade: once on foot, and a second time with its vehicles. During the parade members are armed with the FAMAS, the famous French bullpup-style assault rifle, reminding them of their membership in the armed forces.  Evening dance parties are held at fire stations on (or near to) Bastille Day. These are known as a \"Bal des pompiers\" (firefighters' ball).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Paris Fire Brigade (French: \"Brigade des sapeurs-pompiers de Paris\", BSPP) is a French Army unit which serves as the primary fire and rescue service for Paris, the city's inner suburbs and certain sites of national strategic importance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976754}
{"src_title": "School of Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early artists.", "content": "Before World War I, a group of expatriates in Paris created art in the styles of Post-Impressionism, Cubism and Fauvism. The group included artists like Pablo Picasso, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani and Piet Mondrian. Associated French artists included Pierre Bonnard, Henri Matisse, Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes. Picasso and Matisse have been described as the twin leaders (\"chefs d’école\") of the school before the war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After World War I.", "content": "The term \"School of Paris\" was used in 1925 by to refer to the many foreign-born artists who had migrated to Paris. The term soon gained currency, often as a derogatory label by critics who saw the foreign artists—many of whom were Jewish—as a threat to the purity of French art. Art critic Louis Vauxcelles, noted for coining the terms \"Fauvism\" and \"Cubism\" (also meant disparagingly), called immigrant artists unwashed \"Slavs disguised as representatives of French art\". Waldemar George, himself a French Jew, in 1931 lamented that the School of Paris name \"allows any artist to pretend he is French...it refers to French tradition but instead annihilates it.\"  School of Paris artists were progressively marginalized. Beginning in 1935 art publications no longer wrote about Chagall, just magazines for Jewish audiences, and by June 1940 when the Vichy government took power, School of Paris artists could no longer exhibit in Paris at all.  The artists working in Paris between World War I and World War II experimented with various styles including Cubism, Orphism, Surrealism and Dada. Foreign and French artists working in Paris included Jean Arp, Joan Miró, Constantin Brâncuși, Raoul Dufy, Tsuguharu Foujita, artists from Belarus like Michel Kikoine, Pinchus Kremegne, the Lithuanian Jacques Lipchitz, the Polish artists Marek Szwarc and Morice Lipsi and others such as Russian-born prince Alexis Arapoff.  A significant subset, the Jewish artists, came to be known as the Jewish School of Paris or the School of Montparnasse. The \"core members were almost all Jews, and the resentment expressed toward them by French critics in the 1930s was unquestionably fueled by anti-Semitism.\" One account points to the 1924 Salon des Indépendants, which decided to separate the works of French-born artists from those by immigrants; in response critic referred to them as the School of Paris. Jewish members of the group included Emmanuel Mané-Katz, Chaim Soutine, Adolphe Féder, Chagall, Yitzhak Frenkel Frenel, Moïse Kisling, Maxa Nordau and Shimshon Holzman.  The artists of the Jewish School of Paris were stylistically diverse. Some, like Louis Marcoussis, worked in a cubist style, but most tended toward expression of mood rather than an emphasis on formal structure. Their paintings often feature thickly brushed or troweled impasto. The Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme has works from School of Paris artists including Pascin, Kikoine, Soutine, Orloff and Lipschitz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After World War II.", "content": "In the aftermath of the war, \"nationalistic and anti-Semitic attitudes were discredited, and the term took on a more general use denoting both foreign and French artists in Paris\". But although the \"Jewish problem\" trope continued to surface in public discourse, art critics ceased making ethnic distinctions in using the term. While in the early 20th century French art critics contrasted The School of Paris and the École de France, after World War II the question was School of Paris vs School of New York.  Post-World War II (\"Après-guerre\"), the term \"School of Paris\" often referred to tachisme, and lyrical abstraction, a European parallel to American Abstract Expressionism. These artists are also related to CoBrA. Important proponents were Jean Dubuffet, Pierre Soulages, Jean-Michel Coulon, Nicolas de Staël, Hans Hartung, Serge Poliakoff, Bram van Velde, Georges Mathieu, Jean Messagier and Zoran Mušič, among others. Many of their exhibitions took place at the Galerie de France in Paris, and then at the Salon de Mai where a group of them exhibited until the 1970s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musicians.", "content": "In the same period, the School of Paris name was also extended to an informal association of classical composers, émigrés from Central and Eastern Europe to who met at the Café Du Dôme in Montparnasse. They included Alexandre Tansman, Alexander Tcherepnin, Bohuslav Martinů and Tibor Harsányi. Unlike Les Six, another group of Montparnasse musicians at this time, the musical school of Paris was a loosely-knit group that did not adhere to any particular stylistic orientation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "School of Paris () refers to the French and émigré artists who worked in Paris in the first half of the 20th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976755}
{"src_title": "Hamilton Grange National Memorial", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "Alexander Hamilton was born and raised in the West Indies and came to New York in 1772 at age 17 to study at King's College (now Columbia University). During his career, Hamilton was a military officer, lawyer, member of the United States Constitutional Convention, American political philosopher, war hero, initiator and author of the majority of the pivotal and influential \"The Federalist Papers\", and the first United States Secretary of the Treasury.  Hamilton commissioned architect John McComb Jr. to design a country home on Hamilton's estate in upper Manhattan. The two-story frame Federal style house was completed in 1802, just two years before Hamilton's death resulting from his duel with Aaron Burr on July 11, 1804. The estate was named \"The Grange\" after Hamilton's grandfather's own holdings in Scotland. The Grange was the only home Hamilton ever owned, and he traveled there by stagecoach from his law office several times a week, and fussed over the landscaping, including a circle of thirteen sweet gum trees symbolizing the thirteen original states. The house remained in his family for 30 years after his death. The Grange might have also been Hamilton's rivalrous answer to Jefferson's Monticello.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First relocation.", "content": "By 1889, much of the congregation of St. Luke's Episcopal Church in Greenwich Village had moved uptown. The Grange was in foreclosure and (since its northern corner partially extended into what would become the south side of 143rd Street between Amsterdam and Convent Avenues) had been condemned for destruction in order to allow for the implementation of the Manhattan street grid, then just reaching that area of Harlem. The church acquired the house and moved it a half-block east and about two blocks south, conforming to the new street pattern, to what became 287 Convent Avenue. The original porches and other features were removed for the move. The interior staircase was reoriented and retrofitted to accommodate a makeshift entrance on the side of the house that faced the street, and the original grand Federal-style entrance was boarded up.  St. Luke's used the house for services and subsequently between 1892 and 1895 erected a Richardsonian Romanesque building on the site that wrapped around the house slightly; thus when a six-story apartment building was built in about 1910 flush on the opposite side, the house was tightly enclosed and many of its features hidden. The American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society bought the Grange in 1924 and turned it into a public museum in 1933. Furniture and decorative objects associated with the Hamilton family were displayed.  The Grange was designated a National Historic Landmark in December 1960. The private National Park Foundation purchased the house and property and transferred it to the National Park Service. Congress authorized the National Memorial on April 27, 1962, requiring that it be relocated and then the house restored to appear as Hamilton knew it in 1802–1804, which is considered its period of historic significance. It was at the time determined that the claustrophobic Convent Avenue setting was inappropriate and that the country house should be viewed as a freestanding building. However, the house was not relocated earlier because of overwhelming local opposition to options offered that required moving it out of the neighborhood. The Grange was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second relocation.", "content": "On May 9, 2006, the Hamilton Grange Memorial was closed to the public to allow for extensive architectural and structural investigations as part of a long term plan to move the house to nearby St. Nicholas Park. The park location was judged a more appropriate setting for display that would permit restoration of features lost in the 1889 move. The new location would also keep the house in the neighborhood and within the boundary of Hamilton's original estate.  Work in St. Nicholas Park for tree removal and foundation construction began in February 2008. The actual move of the Grange began with elevation of the building in one piece over the loggia of St. Luke's Church and onto Convent Avenue. Over several weeks it was gradually raised on hydraulic jacks, and more than 7,000 pieces of wood cribbing were inserted under the foundation. It was then moved on rollers along steel beams to wooden stilts of matching height erected in the middle of Convent Avenue, between West 141st and 142nd Streets, which held the entire house approximately ten feet off the ground while traffic was routed around it. These stilts were then slowly disassembled to leave the house resting on dollies, where it received interior bracing and was wrapped in two miles of chains. Finally on June 7, 2008, it completed its journey by being rolled one block south on Convent Avenue and then one block east on 141st Street (down a 6% grade) to the new St. Nicholas Park location. The \"New York Times\"s David W. Dunlap calculated its speed over the 500 feet at.04 mph. The six-hour event was a popular neighborhood attraction covered extensively in the press. The house was secured to its new foundation, original porches were rebuilt and the original main entrance doorway and main staircase within the entry foyer were restored using original materials recovered from elsewhere in the house. Landscaping around the Grange's new home includes among the tree plantings 13 sweet gum trees as in Hamilton's original garden, a stone wall, a circular rose garden planted in front to Hamilton's own specifications, and paths.  The Grange re-opened to the general public on September 17, 2011. A ceremony was held with Hamilton descendants in attendance and tours of the restored interiors took place through the day. In the renovated house, a visitor's center is located in the entirely newly constructed ground floor, where the kitchen, laundry and servants' rooms would have been. The Grange now has a security detail and possible video monitoring during the evening hours. At its new location, it is next to the City College of the City University of New York campus.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hamilton Grange National Memorial, also known as The Grange or the Hamilton Grange Mansion, is a National Park Service site in St. Nicholas Park, Manhattan, New York City, that preserves the relocated home of U.S. Founding Father Alexander Hamilton. The mansion holds a restoration of the interior rooms and an interactive exhibit on the newly constructed ground floor for visitors. The Hamilton Heights subsection of Harlem derived its name from Hamilton's 32-acre estate there.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976756}
{"src_title": "Coat of arms of Prussia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Kingdom of Prussia.", "content": "<onlyinclude>  On 27 January 1701, King Frederick I changed his arms as prince-elector of Brandenburg. The older arms of the electors of Brandenburg depicted a red eagle on a white background. Henceforth, the Prussian eagle, now royally crowned and with 'FR' (\"Fridericus Rex\", \"King Frederick\") on its breast, was placed in an escutcheon on the shield with 25 quarters instead of the electoral scepter. All the helmets made way for one royal crown.  The wild men – figures from Germanic and Celtic mythology representing the 'Lord of the Beasts' or 'Green Man' – that held the arms of Prussia are probably taken from the arms of Pomerania or Denmark. They are also to be found as supporters of the arms of Braunschweig, Königsberg, and the Dutch towns of Anloo, Beilen, Bergen op Zoom, Groede, Havelte,'s-Hertogenbosch, Oosterhesselen, Sleen, Sneek, Vries and Zuidwolde. A wild man and a wild woman have held the shield of the principality of Schwarzburg in Thuringia and the city of Antwerp since the beginning of the 16th century. Two wild men and a wild woman have been included in the seal of Bergen op Zoom since 1365.  A decree from 11 February 1701 placed a crown on the Prussian escutcheon. The king ordained that the whole should be placed on a royal pavilion after the French and Danish examples.  When William III, Prince of Orange and King of England, died on 19 March 1702, the king ordered the arms of the principality placed on his shield. This was to support his claim as heir general, although the Frisian branch of the House of Orange-Nassau claimed it as well.  In 1708 Frederick announced that he would place the quarters of the dukes of Mecklenburg in the Prussian arms to stress his rights to Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz if their ducal lines were to die out. Although Mecklenburg-Strelitz protested, Emperor Joseph I gave permission to Frederick in October 1712. This design was twice officially altered but was not fundamentally changed since.  The electoral scepter had its own shield under the electoral cap. Around the shield, with 36 quarters (including Veere-Vlissingen and Breda), appeared the Order of the Black Eagle with a crowned helmet resting on top. The wild men held banners of Prussia and Brandenburg and behind the pavilion rose a Prussian banner after the example of the French \"Oriflamme\". The motto \"Gott mit uns\" (\"God with us\") appeared on the pedestal.  Already during the reign of Frederick I there is a notable difference between the 'Gothic' representation of the Prussian eagle in the arms and the more naturally depicted and often flying eagle on most coins and military standards.  Frederick William I followed his father on the throne on 25 February 1713. According to Ströhl he gave the eagle a scepter and orb. He made an arrangement with the Frisian Nassaus over the title to the Principality of Orange, although it was occupied by France. Besides the arms of Orange, he officially added Veere and Vlissingen on 29 July 1732. The king also added East Frisia to his arms, claiming it in case the prince would die without heir. A fourth escutcheon appeared among the 36 quarters.  Frederick II became king on 31 May 1740. He laid claim to the duchy of Silesia after the death of Emperor Charles VI and declared war on Charles' daughter and heir, Maria Theresa of Austria, thereby starting the Silesian Wars.  Frederick II was followed by his nephew, Frederick William II, on 17 August 1786. Frederick William II inherited the Franconian cadet branches (Ansbach and Bayreuth) of the House of Hohenzollern in 1791. For reasons of economy, however, the official seals were unchanged.  Frederick William III took the throne on 16 November 1797 and changed the arms on 3 July 1804. The reorganisation of Germany by Napoleon I of France made alterations necessary. A new escutcheon was created for Silesia and the shield held 42 quarters. The Order of the Red Eagle of the Franconian line was also added around the shield.  After the fall of Napoleon, Prussia gained extensive territories on the Rhine and in Saxony. New arms were therefore decreed on 9 January 1817. The number of quarters rose to 48, including the horse of Westphalia and Lower Saxony. The number of escutcheons was reduced to four: the black eagle of Prussia, the red eagle of Brandenburg instead of the scepter, the burgravate of Nuremberg (though ceded to Bavaria), and Hohenzollern proper.  The so-called'middle arms' were then issued: a shield with the same four escutcheons and ten quarters for Silesia, Rhineland, Posen, Saxony, Pomerania, Magdeburg, Jülich-Cleves-Berg, and Westphalia. This was encircled by the Order of the Black Eagle and held by two wild men with clubs.  The small arms already in use on coins of the 1790s were legitimized as well.  On 7 December 1849, the Swabian lines of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen were annexed by Frederick William IV, who had followed his father on 7 July 1840.  Frederick William IV was followed by his brother William I on 2 January 1861. He changed the arms on 11 January 1864 by combining the escutcheons of Nuremberg and Hohenzollern. After the Second Schleswig War of 1864 and the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prussia annexed Schleswig, Holstein, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), and Nassau. King William I of Prussia became William I, German Emperor on 18 January 1871 during the unification of Germany. The Kingdom of Prussia became the predominant state in the newly created German Empire.  William decreed new arms on 16 August 1873. The number of quarters was again 48 with three escutcheons. Added were the collars of the Order of the House of Hohenzollern and the Order of the Prussian Crown. The motto was placed on the dome of the pavilion.  The middle arms of 1873 show more clearly the changes by the additions of Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, and Hesse-Kassel and the removals of Magdeburg and Cleves-Jülich-Berg.  The Hohenzollern family uses the motto \"Nihil Sine Deo\" (). The family coat of arms, first adopted in 1192, began as a simple shield quarterly sable and argent. A century later, in 1317, Frederick IV, Burgrave of Nuremberg, added the head and shoulders of a hound as a crest. Later quartering reflected heiresses’ marriages into the family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Free State of Prussia.", "content": "With the fall of the House of Hohenzollern in 1918, the Kingdom of Prussia was succeeded by the Free State of Prussia within the Weimar Republic. The new Prussian arms depicted a single black eagle, displayed in a more natural than heraldic style. While part of Nazi Germany, the free state's arms depicted a single black eagle, more stylized than before but not in a heraldic manner, with a swastika and the phrase beginning in 1933. The of 1935 removed all effective power from the Prussian government. </onlyinclude>", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dissolution of Prussia.", "content": "In 1947, following World War II, the state of Prussia was dissolved by the Allies, thus rendering its arms defunct.  A black eagle on white is present in the arms of Saxony-Anhalt, which corresponds to what was Prussian Saxony.  A black eagle on red is present in the arms of Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship in Poland, which corresponds to what was southern East Prussia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The state of Prussia developed from the State of the Teutonic Order. The original flag of the Teutonic Knights had been a black cross on a white flag. Emperor Frederick II in 1229 granted them the right to use the black Eagle of the Holy Roman Empire. This \"Prussian Eagle\" remained the coats of arms of the successive Prussian states until 1947.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976757}
{"src_title": "Populus tremuloides", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The quaking or trembling of the leaves that is referred to in the common names is due to the flexible flattened petioles. The specific epithet, \"tremuloides\", evokes this trembling behavior and can be literally translated as \"like \"(Populus) tremula\"\", the European trembling aspen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Quaking aspen is a tall, fast growing tree, usually at maturity, with a trunk in diameter; records are in height and in diameter.  The bark is relatively smooth, colored greenish-white to gray, and is marked by thick black horizontal scars and prominent black knots. Parallel vertical scars are tell-tale signs of elk, which strip off aspen bark with their front teeth.  The leaves on mature trees are nearly round, in diameter with small rounded teeth, and a long, flattened petiole. Young trees and root sprouts have much larger ( long) nearly triangular leaves.  Some species of \"Populus\" have petioles flattened partially along their length, while the aspens and some other poplars have them flattened from side to side along the entire length of the petiole.  Aspens are dioecious, with separate male and female clones. The flowers are catkins long, produced in early spring before the leaves. The fruit is a pendulous string of capsules, each capsule containing about ten minute seeds embedded in cottony fluff, which aids wind dispersal of the seeds when they are mature in early summer. Trees as young as 2–3 years old may begin seed production, but significant output begins starting at 10 years of age. Best seed production is obtained between the ages of 50 and 70 years.  Quaking aspen grows more slowly in the dry conditions of western North America than it does in the more humid east and also lives longer—ages of 100–120 years are typical in the west with some individuals living 200 years. In the east, stands decay faster, sometimes in 60 years or less depending on the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Quaking aspen occurs across Canada in all provinces and territories, with the possible exception of Nunavut. In the United States, it can be found as far north as the northern foothills of the Brooks Range in Alaska, where road margins and gravel pads provide islands of well-drained habitat in a region where soils are often waterlogged due to underlying permafrost. It occurs at low elevations as far south as northern Nebraska and central Indiana. In the western United States, this tree rarely survives at elevations lower than due to hot summers experienced below that elevation, and is generally found at. It grows at high altitudes as far south as Guanajuato, Mexico.  Quaking aspen grows in a wide variety of climatic conditions. January and July average temperatures range from and in the Alaska Interior to and in Fort Wayne, Indiana. Average annual precipitation ranges from in Gander, Newfoundland and Labrador to as little as in the Alaska Interior. The southern limit of the species' range roughly follows the mean July isotherm.  Shrub-like dwarf clones exist in marginal environments too cold and dry to be hospitable to full-size trees, for example at the species' upper elevation limits in the White Mountains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Quaking aspen propagates itself primarily through root sprouts, and extensive clonal colonies are common. Each colony is its own clone, and all trees in the clone have identical characteristics and share a single root structure. A clone may turn color earlier or later in the fall than its neighbouring aspen clones. Fall colors are usually bright tones of yellow; in some areas, red blushes may be occasionally seen. As all trees in a given clonal colony are considered part of the same organism, one clonal colony, named Pando, is considered the heaviest and oldest living organism at six million kilograms and perhaps 80,000 years old. Aspens do produce seeds, but seldom grow from them. Pollination is inhibited by the fact that aspens are either male or female, and large stands are usually all clones of the same sex. Even if pollinated, the small seeds (three million per pound) are only viable a short time as they lack a stored food source or a protective coating.  The buds and bark supply food for snowshoe hares, moose, black bears, cottontail rabbits, porcupines, deer, grouse, and mountain beavers. The shoots are eaten by sheep, goats, and cattle. Elks are known to browse the trees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dieback.", "content": "Beginning in the 1990s, North American scientists noticed an increase in dead or dying aspen trees. As this accelerated in 2004, a debate over causes began. No insect, disease, or environmental condition has yet been definitively identified as a cause. Trees adjacent to one another are often stricken or not. In other instances, entire groves have died.  Many areas of the Western US have experienced increased diebacks which are often attributed to ungulate grazing and wildfire suppression. At high altitudes where grasses can be rare, ungulates can browse young aspen sprouts and prevent those young trees from reaching maturity. As a result, some aspen groves close to cattle or other grazing animals, such as deer or elk, have very few young trees and can be invaded by conifers, which are not typically browsed. Another possible deterrent to aspen regeneration is widespread wildfire suppression. Aspens are vigorous resprouters and even though the above-ground portion of the organism may die in a wild-fire, the roots, which are often protected from lethal temperatures during a fire, will sprout new trees soon after a fire. Disturbances such as fires seem to be a necessary ecological event in order for aspens to compete with conifers, which tend to replace aspens over long, disturbance-free intervals. The current dieback in the American West may have roots in the strict fire suppression policy in the United States. On the other hand, the widespread decimation of conifer forests by the mountain pine beetle may provide increased opportunities for aspen groves to proliferate under the right conditions.  Because of vegetative regeneration by aspen, where an entire group of trees are essentially clones, there is a concern that something that hits one will eventually kill all of the trees, presuming they share the same vulnerability. A conference was held in Utah in September 2006 to share notes and consider investigative methodology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Grouse and quail eat the winter buds. Mammals such as beavers and rabbits eat the bark, foliage, and buds. Game animals, sheep, and goats browse the foliage.  Aspen bark contains a substance that was extracted by indigenous North Americans and European settlers of the western U.S. as a quinine substitute.  Like other poplars, aspens make poor fuel wood, as they dry slowly, rot quickly, and do not give off much heat. Yet they are still widely used in campgrounds because they are cheap and plentiful and not widely used in building lumber. Pioneers in the North American west used them to create log cabins and dugouts, though they were not the preferred species.  The leaves of the quaking aspen and other species in the genus \"Populus\" serve as food for caterpillars of various moths and butterflies.  In Canada, quaking aspen wood is used mainly for pulp products such as books, newsprint, and fine printing paper. It is especially good for panel products such as oriented strand board and waferboard. It is light in weight and is used for furniture, boxes and crates, core stock in plywood, and wall panels.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Populus tremuloides is a deciduous tree native to cooler areas of North America, one of several species referred to by the common name aspen. It is commonly called quaking aspen, trembling aspen, American aspen, mountain or golden aspen, trembling poplar, white poplar, and popple, as well as others. The trees have tall trunks, up to 25 meters (82 feet) tall, with smooth pale bark, scarred with black. The glossy green leaves, dull beneath, become golden to yellow, rarely red, in autumn. The species often propagates through its roots to form large clonal groves originating from a shared root system. These roots are not rhizomes, as new growth develops from adventitious buds on the parent root system (the ortet).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976758}
{"src_title": "École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts in Paris is the original of a series of Écoles des beaux-arts in French regional centers. Since its founding in 1648, the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture has had a school, France's elite institution of instruction in the arts. Its program was structured around a series of anonymous competitions that culminated in the \"grand prix de l'Académie Royale\", more familiar as the Grand Prix de Rome, for its winner was awarded a bourse and a place at the French Academy in Rome. During his stay in Rome, a \"pensionnaire\" was expected to send regular \"envois\" of his developing work back to Paris. Contestants for the \"Prix\" were assigned a theme from the literature of Classical Antiquity; their individual identities were kept secret to avoid any scandal of favoritism. With his final admission into the Académie, the new member had to present his fellow academicians a \"morceau de réception\", a painting or sculpture that demonstrated his learning, intelligence, and proficiency in his art. Jacques-Louis David's \"Andromache Mourning Hector\" was his reception offering in 1783; today it is in the collections of the Louvre Museum.  In 1793, during the French Revolution, the Académie Royale and the grand prix de l'Académie Royale were abolished, but only a few years later, in 1797, the Prix de Rome was re-established. Each year throughout the nineteenth century, the winner of the Prix de Rome was granted five years of study at the Villa Medici, after which the painter or sculptor could fully expect to embark on a successful official career.  The program resulted in the accumulation of some great collections at the Académie, one of the finest collections of French drawings, many of them sent as \"envoies\" from Rome, as well as the paintings and sculptures, usually the winners, of the competitions, or \"salons\". Lesser competitions, known as the \"petits concours\", took themes like history composition (which resulted in many sketches illustrating instructive moments from antiquity), expressions of the emotions, and full and half-figure painting.  In its role as a teaching institution, the École assembled a large collection of Italian and French etchings and engravings, dating from the 16th through the 18th century. Such prints published the composition of paintings to a wide audience. The print collection was first made available to students outside the Académie in 1864.  Today, studies include: painting, installation, graphic arts, photography, sculpture, digital media and video. ENSBA provides the highest level of training in contemporary art production. Throughout history, many world-renowned artists have either taught or studied at this institution. The faculty is made up of recognized international artists. Theoretical courses permitting diverse approaches to the history of the arts complement studio work, which is supported by technical training and access to technical bases. The ENSBA media center provides students with rich documentation on art, and organizes conferences, seminars, and debates throughout the year. The School buildings have architectural interest and house prestigious historical collections and an extensive fine arts library. The school publishes a dozen texts per year on different collections, and holds exhibitions ranging from the school's excellent collection of old-master drawings to the most up to date contemporary works, in the Quai Malaquais space and the Chapel throughout the year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "The school owns circa 450,000 items divided between artworks and historical books, making it one of the largest public art collections in France. The collection encompasses many types of artistic productions, from painting and sculpture to etching, furniture or decorated books and from all the periods of art history. Many pieces of the collection are artworks created by students of the School throughout its history but former students and scholars also contributed to enlarge the holdings with many gifts and donations to the institution. The collection consists in approximatively 2,000 paintings (including pictures by Nicolas Poussin, Anthony van Dyck, Hyacinthe Rigaud, Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Hubert Robert and Ingres), 600 pieces of decorative arts, 600 architectural elements, nearly 15,000 medals, 3,700 sculptures, 20,000 drawings including works by Paolo Veronese, Primaticcio, Jacques Bellange, Michelangelo, Charles Le Brun, Nicolas Poussin, Claude Gellée, Dürer, Rembrandt, Ingres, François Boucher or Pierre Alechinsky, 45,000 architectural drawings, 100,000 etchings and engravings, 70,000 photographs (mainly form the period 1850–1914), 65,000 books dating from the 15th to the 20th century (3,500 for the 15th and 16th centuries), and 1,000 handwritten pieces of archive (letters, inventories, notes...) and also 390 important fragments or complete illuminated manuscripts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Palais des Beaux-Arts.", "content": "The physical setting of the school stands on about two hectares in the Saint-Germain-des-Prés section of Paris. The main entrance at 14 Rue Bonaparte is flanked by colossal carved heads of Pierre Paul Puget and Nicolas Poussin (done in 1838 by Michel-Louis Victor Mercier).  Before 1816, Beaux-Arts students were taught elsewhere. This land had been the convent of the Petits Augustins, then the site of Alexandre Lenoir's collection of architectural fragments from across France, the \"Musée national des Monuments Français\", assembled here as a result of the destruction of churches and noble chateaux during the revolution.  In 1830, architect Félix Duban, a former student and winner of the Grand Prix de Rome, began a transformation of the site by demolishing a few existing houses, moving back the convent's cloister on the right to produce a symmetrical courtyard, and designing the largest central building, the Palais des Études. Duban simply incorporated many of Lenoir's historical fragments, notably the portal of the 1548 Château d'Anet, and in the courtyard a facade from the Château de Gaillon, since removed and returned to its original site in 1977. In other ways Duban meant the entire complex as an open-air encyclopedia for artists and architects. The Palais des Études building features elaborate frescoes, the stairwells demonstrate various wall finishes, and the courtyard (glassed over by Duban in 1863) once held classical statuary and full-size copies of the columns of the Parthenon for study.  The core of the complex is a semi-circular award theater within the Palais, the Hémicycle d'Honneur, where the prizes were awarded. Duban commissioned Paul Delaroche to produce a great mural, 27 metres long, to represent seventy-five great artists of all ages, in conversation, assembled in groups. In the middle are three thrones occupied by the creators of the Parthenon: sculptor Phidias, architect Ictinus, and painter Apelles, symbolizing the unity of these arts. The mural took Delaroche three and a half years to complete, and it still stands as a powerful expression of the Beaux-Arts collaborative ideal. Duban continued to expand and improve the complex for decades. Other major buildings include the 1820 Bâtiment des Loges, the modified cloister now called the Cour des Mûriers, the 1862 Bâtiment des Expositions which extended the campus to the Quai Malaquias, the Hôtel de Chimay built circa 1750 and acquired by the school in 1884, and a block of studios constructed circa 1945 in concrete by Auguste Perret.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts (; ENSBA) is a fine arts grand school of PSL Research University in Paris, France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976759}
{"src_title": "365 Crete earthquake", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geological evidence.", "content": "Recent (2001) geological studies view the 365 Crete earthquake in connection with a clustering of major seismic activity in the Eastern Mediterranean between the fourth and sixth centuries which may have reflected a reactivation of all major plate boundaries in the region. The earthquake is thought to be responsible for an uplift of of the island of Crete, which is estimated to correspond to a seismic moment of, or 8.6 on the moment magnitude scale. An earthquake of such a size exceeds all modern ones known to have affected the region.  Carbon dating shows that corals on the coast of Crete were lifted and clear of the water in one massive push. This indicates that the tsunami of 365 was generated by an earthquake in a steep fault in the Hellenic Trench near Crete. Scientists estimate that such a large uplift is only likely to occur once in 5,000 years; however, the other segments of the fault could slip on a similar scale—and this could happen every 800 years or so. It is uncertain whether \"one of the contiguous patches might slip in the future.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary evidence.", "content": "Historians continue to debate the question whether ancient sources refer to a single catastrophic earthquake in 365, or whether they represent a historical amalgamation of a number of earthquakes occurring between 350 and 450. The interpretation of the surviving literary evidence is complicated by the tendency of late antique writers to describe natural disasters as divine responses or warnings to political and religious events. In particular, the virulent antagonism between rising Christianity and paganism at the time led contemporary writers to distort the evidence. Thus, the Sophist Libanius and the church historian Sozomenus appear to conflate the great earthquake of 365 with other lesser ones to present it as either divine sorrow or wrath—depending on their viewpoint—for the death of Emperor Julian, who had tried to restore the pagan religion two years earlier.  On the whole, however, the relatively numerous references to earthquakes in a time which is otherwise characterized by a paucity of historical records strengthens the case for a period of heightened seismic activity. Kourion on Cyprus, for example, is known to have been hit then by five strong earthquakes within a period of eighty years, leading to its permanent destruction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archeology.", "content": "Archeological evidence for the particularly devastating effect of the 365 earthquake is provided by a survey of excavations which document the destruction of most late antiquity towns and cities in the Eastern and Southern Mediterranean around 365.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tsunami.", "content": "The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus described in detail the tsunami that hit Alexandria and other places in the early hours of 21 July 365. His account is particularly noteworthy for clearly distinguishing the three main phases of a tsunami, namely an initial earthquake, the sudden retreat of the sea and an ensuing gigantic wave rolling inland:  The tsunami in 365 was so devastating that the anniversary of the disaster was still commemorated annually at the end of the sixth century in Alexandria as a \"day of horror\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "Effects of the earthquake visible in the ancient remains:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Literary discussion on sources and providentialist tendencies  Geological discussion", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 365 Crete earthquake occurred at about sunrise on 21 July 365 in the Eastern Mediterranean, with an assumed epicentre near Crete. Geologists today estimate the undersea earthquake to have been a magnitude 8.0 or higher. It caused widespread destruction in central and southern Greece, northern Libya, Egypt, Cyprus, Sicily, and Spain. On Crete, nearly all towns were destroyed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976760}
{"src_title": "FM-2030", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "The son of an Iranian diplomat, he travelled widely as a child, living in 17 countries by age 11; then, as a young man, he represented Iran as a basketball player at the 1948 Olympic Games in London. He then started his college education at the University of California, Berkeley, but later transferred to the University of California, Los Angeles, where he graduated in 1952. Afterwards, he served on the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine from 1952 to 1954.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name change.", "content": "In the mid-1970s F.M. Esfandiary legally changed his name to FM-2030 for two main reasons. Firstly, to reflect the hope and belief that he would live to celebrate his 100th birthday in 2030; secondly, and more importantly, to break free of the widespread practice of naming conventions that he saw as rooted in a collectivist mentality, and existing only as a relic of humankind's tribalistic past. He viewed traditional names as almost always stamping a label of collective identity – varying from gender to nationality – on the individual, thereby existing as prima facie elements of thought processes in the human cultural fabric, that tended to degenerate into stereotyping, factionalism, and discrimination. In his own words, \"Conventional names define a person's past: ancestry, ethnicity, nationality, religion. I am not who I was ten years ago and certainly not who I will be in twenty years. [...] The name 2030 reflects my conviction that the years around 2030 will be a magical time. In 2030 we will be ageless and everyone will have an excellent chance to live forever. 2030 is a dream and a goal.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He was a lifelong vegetarian and said he would not eat anything that had a mother. FM-2030 once said, \"I am a 21st century person who was accidentally launched in the 20th. I have a deep nostalgia for the future.\" He taught at The New School, University of California, Los Angeles, and Florida International University. He worked as a corporate consultant for Lockheed and J. C. Penney. He was also an atheist. FM-2030 was, in his own words, a follower of \"upwing\" politics, in which he meant that he endorsed universal progress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On July 8, 2000, FM-2030 died from pancreatic cancer and was placed in cryonic suspension at the Alcor Life Extension Foundation in Scottsdale, Arizona, where his body remains today. He did not yet have remote standby arrangements, so no Alcor team member was present at his death, but FM-2030 was the first person to be vitrified, rather than simply frozen as previous cryonics patients had been. FM-2030 was survived by four sisters and one brother.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "FM-2030 (originally born as Fereidoun M. Esfandiary (); October 15, 1930 – July 8, 2000) was a Belgian-born Iranian-American author, teacher, transhumanist philosopher, futurist, consultant and athlete.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976761}
{"src_title": "Corvin Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Corvin Castle was laid out in 1446, when construction began on the orders of Voivode of Transylvania John Hunyadi (, ) who wanted to transform the former keep built by Charles I of Hungary. The castle was originally given to John Hunyadi's father, Voyk (Vajk), by Sigismund of Luxembourg, king of Hungary and Croatia, as severance in 1409. It was also in 1446 that John Hunyadi was elected as the regent-governor by the Diet.  Built in a Renaissance-Gothic style and constructed over the site of an older fortification on a rock above the smaller Zlaști River, the castle is a large and imposing structure with tall towers, bastions, an inner courtyard, diversely coloured roofs, and myriads of windows and balconies adorned with stone carvings. The castle also features a double wall for enhanced fortification and is flanked by both rectangular and circular towers, an architectural innovation for the period's Transylvanian architecture. Some of the towers (the Capistrano Tower, the Deserted Tower and the Drummers' Tower) were used as prisons. The Buzdugan Tower (a type of mace after which it was named) was solely built for defensive purposes and it had its exterior decorated with geometric motifs. The rectangular shaped towers have large openings to accommodate larger weapons.  The castle has three large areas: the Knight's Hall, the Diet Hall and the circular stairway. The halls are rectangular in shape and are decorated with marble. The Diet Hall was used for ceremonies or formal receptions whilst the Knight's Hall was used for feasts. In 1456, John Hunyadi died and work on the castle stagnated. Starting with 1458, new commissions were being undergone to construct the Matia Wing of the castle. In 1480, work was completely stopped on the castle and it was recognised as being one of the biggest and most impressive buildings in Eastern Europe.  The 16th century did not bring any improvements to the castle, but during the 17th century new additions were made, for aesthetic and military purposes. Aesthetically, the new Large Palace was built facing the town. A two level building, it hosted living chamber and a large living area. For military purposes, two new towers were constructed: the White Tower and the Artillery Tower. Also, the external yard was added, used for administration and storage.  The current castle is the result of a fanciful restoration campaign undertaken after a disastrous fire and many decades of total neglect. It has been noted that modern \"architects projected to it their own wistful interpretations of how a great Gothic castle should look\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "As one of the most important properties of John Hunyadi, the castle was transformed during his reign. It became a sumptuous home, not only a strategically enforced point. With the passing of the years, the masters of the castle had modified its look, adding towers, halls and guest rooms. The gallery and the keep - the last defense tower (called \"Neboisa\" which means \"Don't be afraid\" in Serbo-Croatian language), which remained unchanged from John Hunyadi's time, and the Capistrano Tower (named after the saint, Franciscan friar from the Battle of Belgrade in 1456) are some of the most significant parts of the construction. Other significant parts of the building are the Knights' Hall (a great reception hall), the Club Tower, the White bastion, which served as a food storage room, and the Diet Hall, on whose walls medallions are painted (among them there are the portraits of Matei Basarab, ruler from Wallachia, and Vasile Lupu, ruler of Moldavia). In the wing of the castle called the Mantle, a painting can be seen which portrays the legend of the raven from which the name of the descendants of John Hunyadi, Corvinus came.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legends.", "content": "Tourists are told that it was the place where Vlad the Impaler, Prince of Wallachia, was held prisoner by John Hunyadi, Hungary's military leader and regent during the King's minority. Later, Vlad III entered a political alliance with John Hunyadi, although the latter was responsible for the execution of his father, Vlad II Dracul. Because of these links, the Hunedoara Castle is sometimes mentioned as a source of inspiration for Castle Dracula in Bram Stoker's 1897 horror novel \"Dracula\". In fact, Stoker neither knew about Vlad's alliance with Hunyadi, nor about Hunyadi's castle. Instead, Stoker's own handwritten research notes confirm that the novelist imagined Castle Dracula to be situated on an empty top in the Transylvanian Călimani Mountains near the former border with Moldavia.  In the castle yard, near the 15th-century chapel, there is a well 30 meters deep. According to the legend, this fountain was dug by 3 Turkish prisoners to whom liberty was promised if they reached water. After 15 years they completed the well, but their captors did not keep their promise. It is said that the inscription on a wall of the well means \"you have water, but not soul\". Specialists, however, have translated the inscription as \"he who wrote this inscription is Hasan, who lives as slave of the giaours, in the fortress near the church\".  In October 2001, Corvin Castle was featured in an episode of Fox Family Channel's \"Scariest Places on Earth\", where a family was sent overnight alone with cameras.  In February 2007, Corvin Castle played host to the British paranormal television program \"Most Haunted Live!\" for a three-night live investigation into the spirits reported to be haunting the castle. Results were inconclusive.  In 2013, the television show \"Ghost Adventures\" filmed an episode at the castle as part of their Halloween special. The castle has been also featured in the video game Age of Empires II HD The Forgotten as a civilization wonder.  The final action sequence (climax) for the 2015 Bollywood movie \"Singh Is Bling \" starring Akshay Kumar was shot at the castle.  In 2016, beginning in April, scenes for \"\" were filmed at the castle for months. In 2018, the castle was used as the \"Cârța Monastery\" in the horror movie \"The Nun\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Corvin Castle, also known as Hunyadi Castle or Hunedoara Castle (Romanian: \"Castelul Huniazilor\" or \"Castelul Corvinilor;\" Hungarian: \"Vajdahunyadi vár\"), is a Gothic-Renaissance castle in Hunedoara, Romania. It is one of the largest castles in Europe and figures in a list of the Seven Wonders of Romania.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976762}
{"src_title": "Verpa bohemica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy, phylogeny, and naming.", "content": "The species was first described in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist Julius Vincenz von Krombholz in 1828, under the name \"Morchella bohemica\". The German naturalist Joseph Schröter transferred it to the genus \"Verpa\" in 1893. \"Ptychoverpa bohemica\" is a synonym that was published by Frenchman Jean Louis Émile Boudier in his 1907 treatise on the Discomycetes of Europe; the name is still occasionally used, especially in European publications. Boudier believed that the large, curved ascospores and the rare and short paraphyses were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species. \"Ptychoverpa\" has also been classified as a section of \"Verpa\". The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked. The species was first discovered in Canada by Alfred Brooker Klugh shortly before 1910 where it was referred to by another synonym, \"Morchella bispora\".  The specific epithet \"bohemica\" refers to Bohemia (now a part of the Czech Republic), where Krombholz originally collected the species. The mushroom is commonly known as the \"early morel\", \"early false morel\", or the \"wrinkled thimble-cap\". \"Ptychoverpa\" is derived from the Ancient Greek \"ptyx\" (genitive form \"ptychos\"), meaning \"fold\", layer\", or \"plate\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The cap of this fungus (known technically as an apothecium) is in diameter by long, with a conical or bell shape. It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together (\"anastomose\") in a vein-like network. The cap is attached to the stem at the top only—hanging from the top of the stipe, with the lobed edge free from the stem—and varies in color from yellowish brown to reddish brown; the underside of the cap is pale. The stem is long by thick, cream-white in color, and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top. Although the stem is initially loosely stuffed with cottony hyphae, it eventually becomes hollow in maturity; overall, the mushroom is rather fragile. The spore deposit is yellow, and the flesh is white.  Relative to other typical mushroom species, the spores of \"V. bohemica\" are huge, typically measuring 60–80 by 15–18 μm. They are elliptical, smooth, sometimes curved, and appear hyaline (translucent) to yellowish. The spores, which number two (more rarely three) per ascus are characteristic for this species. The smooth, elliptical asci measure 275–350 μm long by 16–23 μm wide. The British-Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald Buller determined that the asci are heliotropic—they bend toward light. As he noted, \"I cut transverse sections though their pilei, examined these sections under the microscope, and at once perceived that in all the hymenial grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their opercula must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit-bodies developed.\" This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces, thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind. The paraphyses are thick and club-shaped, with diameters of 7–8 μm at their tips.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "In Russia \"Verpa bohemica\" is a commercial species. It is usually sold frozen. No clinical cases have been registered within the Russian Federation concerning intoxications to this mushroom up to date. Despite that, the edibility of this species has been source of different opinions. Although \"Verpa bohemica\" is eaten by many, consumption of large amounts in a single sitting, or on successive days, has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals. Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination, similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species \"Gyromitra esculenta\". The responsible toxin in \"G. esculenta\" is gyromitrin; it was suspected that \"V. bohemica\" may be able to synthesize low levels of the toxin, however, no experiments on \"V. bohemica\" have concluded that it contains any level of gyromitrin. Over-consumption of the mushroom has been reported to have induced a coma. Those who do wish to eat this species are often advised to parboil with copious quantities of water (discarding the water before consumption), to dry the specimens before eating, or, if eating for the first time, to restrict consumption to small portions to test their tolerance. Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems. Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary, ranging from \"strong but not on a par with true morels\", to \"pleasant\", to \"not distinctive\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "The closely related species \"Verpa conica\" typically has a smooth cap, although specimens with wrinkled caps are known. \"V. conica\" may be distinguished microscopically by its eight-spored asci. Its North American range extends much further south than \"V. bohemica\". Another similar group of species are the \"half-free\" morels, \"Morchella semilibera\" and others, which have a honeycombed cap that is attached to the stalk for about half of its length, and with ridges that are darker than the pits. Additionally, a cross-sectioned stem of a specimen of \"M. semilibera\" is hollow, while \"V. bohemica\" usually has cottony wisps in the stem, and \"M. semilibera\" usually has vertical perforations near the base, while \"V. bohemica\" lacks them. \"Verpa bohemica\" may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ecology, habitat and distribution.", "content": "The fruit bodies of \"V. bohemica\" grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring, often before the appearance of the morel, and throughout the morel season. It is often found along riverbanks, near cottonwoods, willows and aspens, often buried in plant litter. The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight. Its minimum growth temperature is, with an optimum of, and a maximum of about. A study of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios indicated that \"Verpa bohemica\" is saprobic, that is, obtaining nutrients from decomposing organic matter. It has been suggested, however, that the fungus is mycorrhizal for at least part of its life cycle. The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America; its range extends south to the Great Lakes in the Midwestern United States, and south to northern California on the West Coast. In Europe, the fungus is widely distributed, and has been collected from Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Norway, Poland, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the Ukraine. In Asia, it has been recorded from India and Turkey.  A 10-year study of the distribution, time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in Iowa showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring, appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on deciduous trees. Narrow-head morels (\"Morchella angusticeps\") fruit next, followed by the yellow or white morels (\"Morchella esculenta\"), then lastly \"Morchella crassipes\". The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding dipterans (flies), including \"Porricondyla media\", \"Pegomya geniculata\", and \"Trichocera annulata\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family Morchellaceae. Commonly known as the early morel (or early false morel) or the wrinkled thimble-cap, it is one of several species known informally as a \"false morel\". The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble-shaped cap— in diameter by long—that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain-like convolutions. The cap hangs from the top of a lighter-colored, brittle stem that measures up to long by thick. Microscopically, the mushroom is distinguished by its large spores, typically 60–80 by 15–18 μm, and the presence of only two spores per ascus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976763}
{"src_title": "John II, Duke of Opava-Ratibor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was a son of Duke John I of Opava-Ratibor. John I had been the sole heir of the Duchy of Racibórz in 1365 and had founded the Opava-Ratibor branch of the family. When the Duchy of Opava was divided in 1377, John I had received the Duchies of Krnov and Bruntál. John II's mother was Anna, the daughter of Henry V of Głogów-Żagań.  After John I's death, his possession were divided by his sons, John II and Nicholas IV. Nicholas IV, the younger brother, received a share of Bruntál. As Nicholas IV was still a minor, John acted as his regent until 1385. When Nicholas IV died (between 1405 and 1407), John II inherited his share of Bruntál. John II sold the Duchy of Krnov, which had been separated from Opava in 1377, to Władysław II of Opole in 1384. John I had pledged Mikołów and the Duchy of Pless to Władysław II; John II redeemed these possessions.  In 1387, John II founded the city of Bieruń and appointed a certain Cussowitz as bailiff over Bieruń. In 1391, he gave the villages of Imielin, Kosztowy and Chełm Śląski on the eastern border of his duchy to the Bishop of Krakow. This implied that these villages were no longer part of Silesia. The village of Halemba near Ruda Śląska developed from an iron works founded by his brother Nicholas IV in 1394. In 1394, John II founded another iron works, named, on the spot of the deserted village of Bogucice. At the end of the 16th century, this settlement developed into the city of Katowice.  In 1389, the bishops of Wrocław and Olomouc and the Dukes of Legnica, Oleśnica, Głogów, Opava and Teschen formed and alliance for mutual protection and to preserve the public peace. John II did not sign this Treaty of Hotzenplotz, because he was a supporter of Margrave Prokop of Moravia.  John II was high steward of King Wenceslaus IV and this made him one of the most powerful men in the Kingdom of Bohemia. He also held the post of Burgrave of Karlštejn. In 1397, John II and other noble councillors accused Wenceslaus IV of neglecting his duties as King of the Romans and asked him to summon an Imperial Diet. The accusations were dealt with by Wenceslaus's councillors and favourites Stefan Poduška von Martinic, Stefan of Opočno, Burkhard Strnad of Janovice and the Prior of the Order of St. John, Marquard of Strakonice. When these men stood in the way of further demands by John and his companions, he invited them to a banquet at the Karlštejn Castle on 11 June 1397. There, he attacked them with the words \"You, gentlemen, have advised our Lord, the King, not to take care of our German land, because all you want is for him to become King of the Germans\". He then killed them. In the same year, Jobst of Moravia had to pledge the counties of Kłodzko and Ząbkowice Śląskie to King Wenceslaus, who sold his pledge to John II.  After Wenceslaus's stepbrother Sigismund besieged Ratibor in 1400, John II used the occasion of a meeting between Kings Wenceslaus IV and King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland in Wrocław in 1404 to create an alliance against Hungary. After Wenceslaus's death, John II supported his successor, King Sigismund, and paid him homage in Wrocław in 1420 during the Imperial Diet. Rebellious Bohemians sent envoys to Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania, to offer him the Bohemian crown. When they traveled through Ratibor on 21 September 1421, they were arrested by the citizens and John II handed them over to King Sigismund. The Hussites retaliated by invading Ratibor. Sigismund rewarded Sigismund by transferring the rights to Krnov back to John II, who had to redeem Krnov from Duke Louis II of Brieg.  John II died in 1424 and was buried in the church of the Dominicans in Ratibor. It was not until 1427 that his sons agreed to divide his possessions: his son Wenceslaus received the City and Duchy of Racibórz, Nicholas received Krnov, Bruntál, Pszczyna, Rybnik and Baborów.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "On 16 January 1407, John II married the Lithuanian Princess Helena of Lithuania, daughter of Dymitr Korybut and a niece of King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland. In 1407, she received as her wittum, the amts of Pszczyna, Bieruń and Mikołów. In 1412, he added the Waldhufendorf villages south of Żory. After John's death, she used the title \"Baroness of Pszczyna\" from 1424 to 1449.  They had three children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John II, Duke of Opava-Ratibor (also known as \"John II of Troppau\" or \"John the Iron\"; or ; after 1365 – 1424) was Duke of Opava-Racibórz (Ratibor), Krnov and Bruntál. From 1388 to 1397, he was also governor of Kłodzko and Ząbkowice Śląskie and from 1397 to 1422 pledge lord of Kłodzko and Ząbkowice Śląskie. He was a member of the Opava branch of the Přemyslid dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976764}
{"src_title": "Berry paradox", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Consider the expression:  Since there are only twenty-six letters in the English alphabet, there are finitely many phrases of under sixty letters, and hence finitely many positive integers that are defined by phrases of under sixty letters. Since there are infinitely many positive integers, this means that there are positive integers that cannot be defined by phrases of under sixty letters. If there are positive integers that satisfy a given property, then there is a \"smallest\" positive integer that satisfies that property; therefore, there is a smallest positive integer satisfying the property \"not definable in under sixty letters\". This is the integer to which the above expression refers. But the above expression is only fifty-seven letters long, therefore it \"is\" definable in under sixty letters, and is \"not\" the smallest positive integer not definable in under sixty letters, and is \"not\" defined by this expression. This is a paradox: there must be an integer defined by this expression, but since the expression is self-contradictory (any integer it defines is definable in under sixty letters), there cannot be any integer defined by it.  Perhaps another helpful analogy to Berry's Paradox would be the phrase, \"indescribable feeling\". If the feeling is indeed indescribable, then no description of the feeling would be true. But if the word \"indescribable\" communicates something about the feeling, then it may be considered a description: this is self-contradictory.  Mathematician and computer scientist Gregory J. Chaitin in \"The Unknowable\" (1999) adds this comment: \"Well, the Mexican mathematical historian Alejandro Garcidiego has taken the trouble to find that letter [of Berry's from which Russell penned his remarks], and it is rather a different paradox. Berry’s letter actually talks about the first ordinal that can’t be named in a finite number of words. According to Cantor’s theory such an ordinal must exist, but we’ve just named it in a finite number of words, which is a contradiction.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Resolution.", "content": "The Berry paradox as formulated above arises because of systematic ambiguity in the word \"definable\". In other formulations of the Berry paradox, such as one that instead reads: \"...not nameable in less...\" the term \"nameable\" is also one that has this systematic ambiguity. Terms of this kind give rise to vicious circle fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal. To resolve one of these paradoxes means to pinpoint exactly where our use of language went wrong and to provide restrictions on the use of language which may avoid them.  This family of paradoxes can be resolved by incorporating stratifications of meaning in language. Terms with systematic ambiguity may be written with subscripts denoting that one level of meaning is considered a higher priority than another in their interpretation. \"The number not nameable in less than eleven words\" may be nameable in less than eleven words under this scheme.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formal analogues.", "content": "Using programs or proofs of bounded lengths, it is possible to construct an analogue of the Berry expression in a formal mathematical language, as has been done by Gregory Chaitin. Though the formal analogue does not lead to a logical contradiction, it does prove certain impossibility results.  George Boolos (1989) built on a formalized version of Berry's paradox to prove Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem in a new and much simpler way. The basic idea of his proof is that a proposition that holds of \"x\" if and only if \"x\" = \"n\" for some natural number \"n\" can be called a \"definition\" for \"n\", and that the set {(\"n\", \"k\"): \"n\" has a definition that is \"k\" symbols long} can be shown to be representable (using Gödel numbers). Then the proposition \"\"m\" is the first number not definable in less than \"k\" symbols\" can be formalized and shown to be a definition in the sense just stated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with Kolmogorov complexity.", "content": "It is not possible in general to unambiguously define what is the minimal number of symbols required to describe a given string (given a specific description mechanism). In this context, the terms \"string\" and \"number\" may be used interchangeably, since a number is actually a string of symbols, e.g. an English word (like the word \"eleven\" used in the paradox) while, on the other hand, it is possible to refer to any word with a number, e.g. by the number of its position in a given dictionary or by suitable encoding. Some long strings can be described exactly using fewer symbols than those required by their full representation, as is often achieved using data compression. The complexity of a given string is then defined as the minimal length that a description requires in order to (unambiguously) refer to the full representation of that string.  The Kolmogorov complexity is defined using formal languages, or Turing machines which avoids ambiguities about which string results from a given description. It can be proven that the Kolmogorov complexity is not computable. The proof by contradiction shows that if it were possible to compute the Kolmogorov complexity, then it would also be possible to systematically generate paradoxes similar to this one, i.e. descriptions shorter than what the complexity of the described string implies. That is to say, the definition of the Berry number is paradoxical because it is not actually possible to compute how many words are required to define a number, and we know that such computation is not possible because of the paradox.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Berry paradox is a self-referential paradox arising from an expression like \"The smallest positive integer not definable in under sixty letters\" (a phrase with fifty-seven letters). Bertrand Russell, the first to discuss the paradox in print, attributed it to G. G. Berry (1867–1928), a junior librarian at Oxford's Bodleian library.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976765}
{"src_title": "2010–11 UEFA Europa League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 194 teams from 53 UEFA associations participated in the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League. Associations were allocated places according to their 2009 UEFA country coefficient, which took into account their performance in European competitions from 2004–05 to 2008–09.  Below is the qualification scheme for the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The winners of the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League, Atlético Madrid, were guaranteed a place in the group stage as the title holder, since they did not qualify for the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League. However, they also qualified for the Europa League third qualifying round through domestic performance, as they were the runners-up of the 2009–10 Copa del Rey to Champions League-qualified Sevilla. As a result, this place in the third qualifying round was vacated, which in turn led to the following changes to the default allocation system in order to compensate for this vacant spot:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Redistribution rules.", "content": "A Europa League place is vacated when a team qualifies for both the Champions League and the Europa League, or qualifies for the Europa League by more than one method. When a place is vacated, it is redistributed within the national association by the following rules:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "The labels in the parentheses show how each team qualified for the place of its starting round:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "All draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless stated otherwise.  Matches in the qualifying, play-off, and knockout rounds may also be played on Tuesdays or Wednesdays instead of the regular Thursdays due to scheduling conflicts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "The draws for the qualifying rounds, the play-off round and the group stage are all seeded based on the 2010 UEFA club coefficients. The coefficients are calculated on the basis of a combination of 20% of the value of the respective national association's coefficient for the period from 2005–06 to 2009–10 inclusive and the clubs' individual performances in the UEFA club competitions during the same period. Clubs are ordered by their coefficients and then divided into pots as required.  In the draws for the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, the teams are divided evenly into one seeded and one unseeded pot, based on their club coefficients. A seeded team is drawn against an unseeded team, with the order of legs in each tie also being decided randomly. Due to the limited time between matches, the draws for the second and third qualifying rounds take place before the results of the previous round are known. The seeding in each draw is carried out under the assumption that all of the highest-ranked clubs of the previous round are victorious. If a lower-ranked club is victorious, it simply takes the place of its defeated opponent in the next round. Prior to these draws, UEFA may form \"groups\" in accordance with the principles set by the Club Competitions Committee, but they are purely for convenience of the draw and do not resemble any real groupings in the sense of the competition, while ensuring that teams from the same association not drawn against each other.  In the draw for the group stage, the 48 teams are split into four pots of twelve teams, based on their club coefficients, with the title holder (if participating) automatically placed into Pot 1. Each group contains one team from each pot, but teams from the same association cannot be drawn into the same group.  In the draw for the first knockout stage, the twelve group winners and the four better third-placed teams from the Champions League group stage (based on their match record in the group stage) are seeded, and the twelve group runners-up and the other four third-placed teams from the Champions League group stage are unseeded. A seeded team is drawn against an unseeded team, with the seeded team hosting the second leg. Teams from the same group or the same association cannot be drawn against each other.  In the draws for the round of 16 onwards, there are no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association may be drawn with each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying rounds.", "content": "In the qualifying and play-off rounds, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis.  The draw for the first two qualifying rounds was made on 21 June 2010, while the draw for the third qualifying round was made on 16 July 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 1 July, and the second legs were played on 8 July 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 15 July, and the second legs were played on 22 and 23 July 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 27 and 29 July, and the second legs were played on 3 and 5 August 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The draw for the play-off round was held on 6 August 2010. The first legs were played on 17 and 19 August, and the second legs were played on 24 and 26 August 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The 48 clubs were drawn into twelve groups of four on 27 August 2010 in Monaco. In each group, teams play against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The matchdays are 16 September, 30 September, 21 October, 4 November, 1–2 December, and 15–16 December 2010. The group winners and runners-up advance to the round of 32, where they are joined by the eight third-placed teams from the group stage of the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League.  If two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following criteria are applied to determine the rankings (in descending order):  Following a trial at last year's UEFA Europa League, UEFA have announced that in both this year's and the 2011–12 competition, two extra officials would be used – with one on each goal line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final.  The draw for the round of 32 and round of 16 was held on 17 December 2010. The draws for the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final (to determine the \"home\" team) were held on 18 March 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bracket.", "content": "<section begin=bracket />", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 32.", "content": "The first legs were played on 15 and 17 February, and the second legs were played on 22, 23 and 24 February 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "The first legs were played on 10 March, and the second legs were played on 17 March 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 7 April, and the second legs were played on 14 April 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 28 April, and the second legs were played on 5 May 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final was played on 18 May 2011 at Aviva Stadium in Dublin, Republic of Ireland. Due to UEFA rules against corporate sponsorship outside the federation, for the final the stadium was referred to as the \"Dublin Arena\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Top goalscorers.", "content": "The top scorers from the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League (excluding qualifying rounds and play-off round) are as follows:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2010–11 UEFA Europa League was the second season of the UEFA Europa League, Europe's secondary club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 40th edition overall including its predecessor, the UEFA Cup. It began on 1 July 2010, with the first qualifying round matches, and concluded on 18 May 2011, with the final at the Aviva Stadium in Dublin, Republic of Ireland, between Porto and first-time finalists Braga. This was the first all-Portuguese final of a European competition and only the third time that two Portuguese teams faced each other in Europe, following Braga's elimination of Benfica in the semi-finals. Porto defeated Braga 1–0, with a goal from the competition's top goalscorer Radamel Falcao, and won their second title in the competition, after victory in the 2002–03 UEFA Cup. Atletico Madrid were the defending champions but were eliminated in group stage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976766}
{"src_title": "Duchy of Krnov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The province had been established in 1269 on lands which until then had been part of the Bohemian Margraviate of Moravia, when King Ottokar II of Bohemia vested his natural son Nicholas I with Opava. Together with the adjacent Duchy of Racibórz, it was under the direct rule of a cadet branch of the royal Přemyslid dynasty—unlike most other Silesian duchies ruled by the Silesian Piasts, who nevertheless in large part also had become Bohemian vassals in 1327. Nicholas retained Opava after the last Přemyslid ruler of Bohemia, King Wenceslaus III, was killed in 1306. In the following struggle for the Bohemian throne, he backed the claims of the Luxembourg candidate John the Blind, who in turn enfeoffed his son and successor Nicholas II with the Duchy of Opava in 1318. In 1337, Nicholas II also received the neighbouring Duchy of Racibórz upon the death of the last Piast duke Leszek.  When Duke Nicholas II died in 1365, his eldest son John I inherited the Duchy of Racibórz, while the Duchy of Opava from 1367 was ruled jointly by him and his younger brothers Nicholas III, Wenceslaus I and Přemek I. When in 1377 the brothers finally divided their Opava heritage, the eldest, John I, received the newly established Duchy of Krnov together with the Bruntál estates. Upon his death in 1380/82, Racibórz, Krnov and Bruntál were inherited by his elder son John II \"the Iron\".  In 1384, Duke John II sold Krnov to the Piast duke Władysław of Opole, who ceded it to the Luxembourg margrave Jobst of Moravia in 1390. After Jobst had died in 1411, his cousin Emperor Sigismund pawned Krnov to the Piast duke Louis II of Brieg, but in 1422 again ceded it to John II, who could redeem the pledge. Two years later, the duchy was inherited by his sons Wenceslaus II and Nicholas V, who ruled jointly until 1437, when Nicholas received Krnov together with Bruntál, Pless, Rybnik, Loslau, and Sohrau. Upon his death in 1452, Krnov and Loslau fell to his elder son John IV, while Rybnik, Sohrau and Pless fell to his younger brother Wenceslaus III.  The Přemyslid dukes finally lost Krnov during the Bohemian–Hungarian War in 1474 to Matthias Corvinus, then anti-king of Bohemia, who had John IV captured and arrested. After John's death in 1483, his sister Barbara, consort of Duke Jan IV of Oświęcim, tried to regain the duchy; however, Vladislav II Jagiellon, having prevailed as Bohemian king, had no intention to return the seized duchy but enfeoffed his chancellor Johann von Schellenberg with Krnov instead. An agreement was reached in 1492, when Barbara's daughter Helena married Schellenberg's son George.  In 1523, George of Schellenberg had to sell Krnov to the Hohenzollern margrave George of Brandenburg-Ansbach, who could rely on the Hungarian inheritance of his consort Beatrice de Frangepan, widow of Matthias Corvinus. From 1532 the margrave ruled over all Upper Silesia, when he also inherited the Duchy of Opole and Racibórz from the Piast duke Jan II the Good. He had Krnov Castle rebuilt and introduced the Protestant Reformation in Silesia, having the local Teutonic Knights, Franciscans and Minorites expelled. The increasing power of the Protestant House of Hohenzollern in the Silesian crown lands was suspiciously eyed by Ferdinand I of Habsburg, Bohemian king since 1526. Nevertheless, George as well as his son Margrave George Frederick, who ruled from 1543, were able to keep the duchy. The conflict aggravated when George Frederick died childless in 1603 and bequested Krnov to his cousin Elector Joachim III Frederick of Brandenburg, who gave it to his son Johann Georg in 1607. The Habsburg rulers regarded the duchy a reverted fief and after the Bohemian Revolt and the 1620 Battle of White Mountain Emperor Ferdinand II confiscated the Hohenzollern possessions in his Bohemian lands. Ferdinand's loyal supporter Prince Karl I of Liechtenstein, Duke of Opava since 1613, received Krnov. Both duchies were merged in 1623 and subjected to Counter-Reformation. The House of Hohenzollern never withdrew the claims and more than one hundred years later, the Krnov and Racibórz possessions were a pretext for the Prussian king Frederick the Great to start the First Silesian War, ending with the annexation of most of Silesia according to the Treaty of Breslau in 1742. While a small northern part was merged into the now Prussian Duchy of Opole, the bulk of Krnov remained with the Bohemian Crown as part of Austrian Silesia. Re-organised as the Krnov District (\"Krnovský kraj\") from 1751, it was finally dissolved after the 1848 Revolution, when Austrian Silesia was raised to the status of a Cisleithanian crown land.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Duchy of Krnov (,, ) or Duchy of Jägerndorf () was one of the Duchies of Silesia, which in 1377 emerged from the Duchy of Troppau (Opava), itself a fief of the Bohemian Crown. Its capital was at Krnov in the present-day Czech Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976767}
{"src_title": "William, Duke of Opava", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "His parents were Przemko I, Duke of Opava (d. 1433) and his second wife, Catherine of Münsterberg (d. 1422).  His father died in 1433, leaving five sons. The oldest brother, Wenceslaus II took up the guardianship for his younger half-brothers William, Ernest and Przemko II, while Wenceslaus's younger brother Nicholas IV styled himself Lord of Zlaté Hory. Although their father had stipulated in his will that they should rule the ducht jointly, the brothers divided their inheritance around 1435. William and Ernest received shares of Opava; the Duchy of Głubczyce was split off for Wenceslas. The youngest brother, Przemko II, was destined for an ecclesiastical career and did not receive a share of the duchy. The duchy was now so fragmented that the revenue did not cover the Duke's cost of living. William saw no option but to become a robber baron.  Hynek Krušina of Lichtenburg acquired the Duchy of Münsterberg in 1440. The Estates, however, rejected him as their sovereign. After length negotiations, they elected William of Opava as their new Duke. William's claim to Münsterberg was based on two relationships: hiw mother had been the sister of John I, the last Duke of Münsterberg from the Piast dynasty, and he was married to Salome, a daughter of Půta III of Častolovice, who had been the lawful pledge lord of Münsterberg until he died in 1434. William accepted his election and changed from a robber baron into a defender of the peace. Together with Dukes NIcholas V (d. 1452) of Krnov, Przemyslaus II of Cieszyn and Henry IX of Żagań-Głogów he fought as captain of Wrocław against highway robbers and robber barons.  In 1443, he formed an alliance with Archbishop Conrad of Wrocław and the Dukes of Wrocław, Jawor and Legnica against Hynek Krušina of Lichtenburg. Although Hynek had never given up his claims on Münsterberg, the dispute was resolved in 1444 and the Duchy of Münsterberg was granted to William, except the district of Ząbkowice Śląskie. The citizens of that district had fought on Hynek's side during the conflict and Hynek was allowed to retain the district.  In 1451, William transferred his ownership of Münsterberg to his brother Ernest, in exchange for a 1/3 share in the ownership of the Duchy of Opava. Since William had received another 1/3 share when his father's inheritance had been divided in 1435, he now owned 2/3 of Opava.  William died in 1452. His brother Ernest took up the guardianship of William's children. As their guardian, he sold William's 2/3 share of Opava to Duke Bolko V of Opole, in or after 1454. On 8 March 1456, Ernest sold the Duchy of Münsterberg to George of Poděbrady, who would be elected King of Bohemia in 1458. George purchased the 1/3 share of Opava after Bolko's death from the latter's brother Nicholas I and in 1464, he purchased the other 2/3 in Opole in 1464 from John II, thereby considerable increasing his political and economic influence in Silesia.  William of Troppau died in 1452. He was buried in the Holy Spirit Church in Opava.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "William was married with Salome, a daughter of the East Bohemian nobleman Půta III of Častolovice and his wife, Anna, the daughter of Albert of Koldice. They had the following children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Duke William of Opava (; – 15 August 1452) was a member of Opava branch of the Bohemian Přemyslid dynasty. He was Duke of Opava from 1433 to 1452 and Duke of Münsterberg from 1443 to 1452.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976768}
{"src_title": "Nicholas II, Duke of Opava", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Nicholas II of Opava was a member of the Opava branch of the Bohemian noble Přemyslovci family. His parents were Duke Nicholas I of Opava, who had held Opava since 1269, and Adelheid of Habsburg, a niece of King Rudolf I. He was a supporter of King John of Luxembourg of Bohemia, who gave him Opava as a fief in 1318 and at the same time raised it to an independent duchy. He moved the ducal residence from Hradec nad Moravicí () to Opava (). Also in 1318, he married with Anna, the only sister of Duke Leszek of Ratibór. Since Leszek left no offspring, the Duchy of Ratibór reverted to the Bohemian Crown after Leszek death in 1336. King John gave it to his loyal vassal Nicholas II in 1337. With his dual power base in Opava and Ratibór, Nicholas became one of the most powerful princes in the upper Oder area. With the acquisition by Nicholas, Ratibór came under a foreign ruler and due to the personal union, Opava became more oriented towards Silesia. In 1337, the princes of Opole also claimed Ratibór; King John sold them the Moravian town of Prudnik () instead. In a document dated 1350, Nicholas II is mentioned as Burgrave of Kłodzko. In 1355 he had to give up Koźle and Gliwice, which had been transferred to Duke Leszek.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Nicholas was married three times. Around 1318 he married Anna of Racibórz (died around 1340), a daughter of Duke Przemysław of Racibórz. Several children resulted from this marriage:  After Anna's death, Nicholas married in May 1342 to Hedwig (died 1359), a daughter of Duke Konrad I of Oleśnica (died 1366). From this marriage, he had a son  In 1360, Nicholas married his third wife, Jutta (died after 1378), a daughter of the Duke Boleslaw II of Opole-Falkenberg. This marriage produced three more children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicholas II of Opava (also: \"Nicholas II of Troppau\", \"Nicholas II of Ratibór\"; ; 1288 – 8 December 1365) was Duke of Opava () from 1318 to 1365 and Duke of Ratibór from 1337 to 1365 and Burgrave of Kladsko () from 1350 to 1365 and also chamberlain of the Kingdom of Bohemia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976769}
{"src_title": "Djoser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Twinkies were invented in Schiller Park, Illinois, on April 6, 1930, by James Alexander Dewar, a Canadian-born baker for the Continental Baking Company. Realizing that several machines used to make cream-filled strawberry shortcake sat idle when strawberries were out of season, Dewar conceived a snack cake filled with banana cream, which he dubbed the Twinkie. Ritchy Koph said he came up with the name when he saw a billboard in St. Louis for \"Twinkle Toe Shoes.\" During World War II, bananas were rationed and the company was forced to switch to vanilla cream. This change proved popular, and banana-cream Twinkies were not widely re-introduced. The original flavor was occasionally found in limited time only promotions, but the company used vanilla cream for most Twinkies. In 1988, Fruit and Cream Twinkies were introduced with a strawberry filling swirled into the cream. The product was soon dropped. Vanilla's dominance over banana flavoring was challenged in 2005, following a month-long promotion of the movie \"King Kong\". Hostess saw its Twinkie sales rise 20 percent during the promotion, and in 2007 restored the banana-cream Twinkie to its snack lineup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hostess bankruptcy.", "content": "On January 11, 2012, parent company Hostess filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Twinkie sales for the year,, were 36 million packages, down almost 20% from a year earlier. Hostess said customers had migrated to healthier foods. On November 16, 2012, Hostess officially announced that it \"will be winding down operations and has filed a motion with the U.S. Bankruptcy Court seeking permission to close its business and sell its assets, including its iconic brands and facilities.\" Bakery operations were suspended at all plants. On November 19, 2012, Hostess and the Bakers Union agreed to mediation, delaying the shutdown for two days. On November 21, 2012, U.S. bankruptcy judge Robert Drain approved Hostess' request to shut down, ending Twinkie production in the United States.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return of Twinkies to U.S. market.", "content": "On March 18, 2013, it was reported that Twinkies would return to store shelves in May of that year. Twinkies, along with other Hostess Brands, were purchased out of bankruptcy by Apollo Global Management and Metropoulos & Co for $410 million. Twinkies returned to U.S. shelves on July 15, 2013. Apollo subsequently sold Hostess for $2.3 billion.  Before Hostess Brands filed for bankruptcy, Twinkies were reduced in size. They now contain and have a mass of 38.5 grams, while the original Twinkies contained and had a mass of 42.5 grams. The new Twinkies also have a longer shelf life of 45 days, which was also a change made before bankruptcy, compared to the 26 days of the original Twinkies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twinkie defense.", "content": "\"Twinkie defense\" is a derisive label for an improbable legal defense. It is not a recognized legal defense in jurisprudence, but a catch-all term coined by reporters during their coverage of the trial of defendant Dan White for the murders of San Francisco city Supervisor Harvey Milk and Mayor George Moscone. White's defense was that he suffered diminished capacity as a result of his depression. His change in diet from healthful food to Twinkies and other sugary foods was said to be a symptom of depression. Contrary to common belief, White's attorneys did not argue that the Twinkies were the cause of White's actions, but that their consumption was symptomatic of his underlying depression.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theological Twinkie.", "content": "Jeffrey R. Holland, a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), used the expression \"theological Twinkie\" at the Church's General Conference in April 1998, in reference to teaching methods that may be pleasing or entertaining, but lack sufficient spiritual and doctrinal substance. In his words: \"Are we really nurturing our youth and our new members in a way that will sustain them when the stresses of life appear? Or are we giving them a kind of theological Twinkie—spiritually empty calories?\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shelf life.", "content": "A common urban legend claims that Twinkies have an infinite shelf life, and can last unspoiled for a relatively long time of ten, fifty, or one hundred years due to the chemicals used in their production.  The third episode of \"Family Guy\"s second season entitled \"Da Boom\" follows the Griffin family after a nuclear holocaust occurs, due to Y2K on New Year's Eve. The family then travels in search of food, and eventually decide to establish a town around a Twinkie factory.  Another homage to the Twinkie's shelf life myth was shown in the 2016 animated film \"Sausage Party\", where a Twinkie is amongst the \"Non-Perishable\" foods.  The 2012 Super Bowl Chevy Silverado Apocalypse commercial also gives a nod to the Twinkie's reputed durability.  In reality, Twinkies are on the shelf for a short time; a company executive told \"The New York Times\" in 2000 that the \"Twinkie is on the shelf no more than 7 to 10 days.\"The maximum shelf life was reported to have been 26 days, until the addition of stronger preservatives made beginning in 2012 increased it to 45 days.The 2009 apocalypse horror-comedy \"Zombieland\", which features a search for the last remaining Twinkies in a running gag, acknowledges this by having the character Tallahassee (played by Woody Harrelson) explain that Twinkies do, in fact, have an expiration date. In the second episode of \"The Umbrella Academy\", the character called number 5 (played by Aidan Gallagher) states that the infinite shelf life is a lie.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twinkie diet.", "content": "In 2010, Kansas State University professor Mark Haub went on a \"convenience store\" diet consisting mainly of Twinkies, Oreos, and Doritos in an attempt to demonstrate to his students \"...that in weight loss, pure calorie counting is what matters most, not the nutritional value of the food.\" He lost over a two-month period, returning his body mass index (BMI) to within normal range.In addition to Twinkies, Haub ate Little Debbie snack cakes, cereals, cookies, brownies, Doritos, Oreos and other kinds of high calorie, low-nutrition foods that are usually found at convenience stores. However, despite calling it the \"Twinkie diet\", Haub also consumed a multivitamin, a protein shake and fresh vegetables along with the Twinkies, Oreos, and Doritos. Some protein shakes contain 80 grams protein per serving, almost equivalent to eating three 6-oz steaks per day.Besides the protein shake and multivitamin, Haub also ate nutritionally dense whole milk, carrots, and vitamin fortified cereal.This contradicts representations by other media outlets stating that Haub \"only\" ate junk food.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Djoser (also read as Djeser and Zoser) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty during the Old Kingdom and the founder of this epoch. He is also known by his Hellenized names Tosorthros (from Manetho) and Sesorthos (from Eusebius). He was the son of king Khasekhemwy and queen Nimaathap, but whether he also was the direct throne successor is still unclear. Most Ramesside Kinglists name a king \"Nebka\" before him, but since there are still difficulties in connecting that name with contemporary Horus names, some Egyptologists question the received throne sequence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976770}
{"src_title": "Tyrrell P34", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "For the mid-1970s, F1 stipulated that the maximum width of the front wing was 1.5 m. Considering the needed room for the driver's feet, the steering mechanism, suspension and the normal front tyre size, this meant the front tyres projected above and out to the sides of the wing. P34's basic concept was to use a tyre that would be small enough to fit entirely behind the wing. This would have two effects; one would be to lower overall drag and thus improve speed on straights and the other was to clean up overall aerodynamics so the rear wing would receive cleaner airflow.  However, given the space limitations such a tyre would have to be quite small, eventually settling on a diameter. This had too small a contact patch to offer reasonable cornering performance, which led to the use of four wheels instead of two. Adding more wheels also had the advantage of offering more total brake area. The downside was increased complexity of the steering system and a physically larger suspension system. The steering complexity was solved by connecting only the front pair of wheels to the steering wheel and connecting the rear set to the front with a bell crank. Initially considered to be a problem area, Joel Rosinsky later declared that \"The steering is so gentle and absolutely free of reaction that you might have thought it was power-assisted!\"  The new design was unveiled at the Heathrow Hotel in late September 1975. The car was initially kept under a tarpaulin with hoops over the wheels that make it look conventional, leading to astonishment when the tarp was pulled off. Some in the audience were convinced the design was a publicity stunt. The car first took to the track at Silverstone on 8 October 1975, and after more tests, Tyrrell decided to build two more examples with a slightly longer wheelbase to race in the 1976 season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Race history.", "content": "The stretched versions first ran in the Spanish GP in, and proved to be very competitive. Both Jody Scheckter and Patrick Depailler produced good results with the car, but while Depailler praised the car continually, Scheckter was unimpressed. The P34's golden moment came in the Swedish Grand Prix. Scheckter and Depailler finished first and second, and to date Scheckter is the only driver ever to win a race in a six-wheeled car. The car seemed to be particularly good down the straights and through long corners, like at Anderstorp, Watkins Glen, Mosport Park, Fuji and the Österreichring, but it struggled on bumpy circuits like Brands Hatch, Jarama and the Nürburgring where the grip was actually variable because depending on the contours or bumps on the track one of the front small tires would touch the road, but the one in front or behind it on the same side would not. Scheckter left the team at the end of the season, insisting that the six-wheeler was \"a piece of junk!\"  For 1977, Scheckter was replaced by Ronnie Peterson, and the P34 was redesigned for cleaner aerodynamics, and some redesign was done on Peterson's car to accommodate his height. The P34B was wider and heavier than before, and, although Peterson was able to string some promising results from the P34B, as was Depailler, it was clear the car was not as good as before. Tyrrell blamed the problems on the increased weight, now over the F1 minimum. This placed more strain on the brakes and made it struggle through the corners. Others have blamed Goodyear's failure to properly develop the small front tyres. Late in the season an attempt to address the handling was made by increasing the track of the front suspension, but this moved the tyres out from their original hidden position, essentially eliminating the whole advantage to the concept.  In November 1977, Tyrrell introduced his car for the 1978 season, and it had a conventional layout. He commented \"In the meantime, we have closed the book on our six-wheeled project, and I am sure the cars will become something of a collector's piece\". Tyrrell kept the frame that Scheckter won on, and sold the rest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "More recently the P34 has been a popular sight at historic racing events, proving competitive once more. This was made possible when the Avon tyre company agreed to manufacture bespoke 10-inch tyres for Simon Bull, the owner of chassis No. 6. In 1999 and 2000 the resurrected P34 competed at a number of British and European circuits as an entrant in the FIA Thoroughbred Grand Prix series. Driven by Martin Stretton, the car won the TGP series outright in 2000, the sister car repeating that success in 2008 in the hands of Mauro Pane; this example is today part of a private collection in Italy. Stretton also achieved numerous pole positions and class wins at the Grand Prix Historique de Monaco. The P34 has also been seen a number of times at the Goodwood Festival of Speed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other six-wheeled Formula One cars.", "content": "While the Tyrrell P34 is the most widely known six-wheeled F1 car, it was not the only one. The March Engineering, Williams and Scuderia Ferrari teams also built experimental six-wheeled F1 chassis, however all of these had four wheels at the back rather than at the front like the P34. The Williams FW07D and FW08B, and the March 2-4-0, had tandem rear wheels, which reduced drag by using the smaller front wheels and tyres in place of the typical larger rear wheels. The Ferrari 312T6 featured the four rear wheels on a single axle. This was similar to how Auto Union increased traction with its Type-D Grand Prix cars in the 1930s. Despite extensive testing, neither the March, Williams, nor the Ferrari, were ever raced. In 1983 the FIA prohibited cars with four driven wheels from competing. Later, the Formula 1 regulations required four as the maximum number of wheels allowed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complete Formula One World Championship results.", "content": "<nowiki>*</nowiki> 13 points in scored using the Tyrrell 007", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In media.", "content": "The Tyrrell P34 was featured in the cartoon \"The Transformers\" as the vehicle converted into the Decepticon Stunticon known as Drag Strip. The car was depicted as still being active in automotive races despite the episode where it was stolen being produced and set in the mid-eighties, and sported a yellow livery with red accents.  The race car also made an appearance in the first episode of the 1993 anime series \"Moldiver\" and the 2013 film, \"Rush\".  Lupin is seen racing a version of the car in season 1 episode 11 of \"Lupin the Third Part II\" - \"Bet on the Monaco Grand Prix (Who's Vroomin Who?)\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "3. Aversa, P. 2013. Case Study: Innovation needs supplier support. Financial Times: 12.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tyrrell P34 (Project 34), commonly known as the \"six-wheeler\", was a Formula One (F1) race car designed by Derek Gardner, Tyrrell's chief designer. The car used four specially manufactured 10-inch diameter (254 mm) wheels and tyres at the front, with two ordinary-sized wheels at the back. Along with the Brabham BT46B \"fancar\" developed in, the six-wheeled Tyrrell was one of the most radical entries ever to succeed in F1 competition and has been called the most recognizable design in the history of world motorsports.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976771}
{"src_title": "The Tank Museum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The writer Rudyard Kipling visited Bovington in 1923 and, after viewing the damaged tanks that had been salvaged at the end of the First World War, recommended a museum should be set up. Accordingly a shed was established to house the collection but was not opened to the general public until 1947.  George Forty, who was appointed Director of the Museum in 1982, expanded and modernized the collection. He retired in 1993 after which he received an OBE. The museum established its own YouTube channel to teach about the tanks in January 2010. David Fletcher, who had been an historian at the museum since 1982, retired in 2012 and was also appointed an MBE \"for his services to the history of armoured warfare\".  As well as containing the majority of the museum's World War I tanks this hall tells the story of men who crewed the first tanks between 1916 and 1918.  This hall now explores the rise of the tank and the role of the cavalry on the Western Front.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibition halls.", "content": "This hall displays the biggest section, with tanks from most nations involved in the conflict.  This hall contains the Battlegroup Afghanistan exhibition. The men of the Royal Armoured Corps who have been involved in some of the fiercest fighting since World War Two.  This hall explores the design & technology that goes into making tanks and AFVs. There is a mock production line of Centurions, as well as prototype and experimental vehicles.  This hall holds some of the most important tanks and AFVs in history, with a supporting collection housed in a multimedia exhibition. It follows the story of the tank, from its invention in 1915 through the 20th century and into the future.  The Vehicle Conservation Centre provides cover for more of the collection and puts on view vehicles that had previously not been seen by the public.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tank Museum (previously The Bovington Tank Museum) is a collection of armoured fighting vehicles at Bovington Camp in Dorset, South West England. It is about north of the village of Wool and west of the major port of Poole. The collection traces the history of the tank. With almost 300 vehicles on exhibition from 26 countries it is the largest collection of tanks and the third largest collection of armoured vehicles in the world. It includes Tiger 131, the only working example of a German Tiger I tank, and a British First World War Mark I, the world's oldest surviving combat tank. It is the museum of the Royal Tank Regiment and the Royal Armoured Corps and is a registered charity.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976772}
{"src_title": "AS-101", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Boilerplate Apollo.", "content": "The first five launches of the Saturn I had carried Jupiter-C nosecones, a proven design which allowed engineers to focus on development of the rocket. To verify the launch aerodynamics of the CSM, AS-101 carried BP-13, a boilerplate spacecraft that weighed and duplicated the size and shape of the CSM, and a dummy LES tower. A flight-weight command module (CM) weighed around. The boilerplate spacecraft was instrumented with 116 sensors reading strain, pressure, and acceleration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flight.", "content": "It took three attempts to launch the rocket from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 37B. The first attempt was scrubbed after the liquid oxygen damaged a wire mesh screen during a test, causing fuel contamination. The second attempt was scrubbed after the rocket's guidance system overheated due to failure of an air conditioning compressor.  The vehicle finally lifted off on May 28, 1964. There had been several delays during the count as liquid oxygen vapors obscured an optical window in the SA-6's instrument unit, so that a ground-based theodolite could not see it. This theodolite was required by the countdown computer in order for launch to proceed. Engineers deemed it non-critical and reprogrammed the computer, allowing the launch to proceed.  The ascent was normal up to 116.9 seconds after liftoff, at which point engine number eight shut off early. This was not planned, as it had been on SA-4 as a test, but the rocket compensated perfectly by burning the remaining fuel in the other seven engines for 2.7 seconds longer than planned. The first stage separated and the second stage ignited. Ten seconds later, the launch escape system was jettisoned as planned. Also jettisoned from the first stage were eight film cameras that observed separation of the stages.  The second stage cut off at 624.5 seconds after launch (1.26 seconds earlier than predicted), with the stage and boilerplate spacecraft in a by orbit. It continued to transmit data for four orbits, after which the batteries failed. The vehicle made a total of 54 orbits, re-entering the atmosphere east of Kanton Island in the Pacific Ocean on June 1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engine failure cause.", "content": "Engineers were quick to find the cause of the failure of engine number eight. The teeth on one of the gears in the turbopump were stripped off. This did not cause any delays in the next launches as engineers had already decided that the gear design was inferior and were planning to change it for the next launch. This was the only problem encountered with an H-1 engine during a flight.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "AS-101 (also designated SA-6) was the sixth flight of the Saturn I launch vehicle, which carried the first boilerplate Apollo spacecraft into low Earth orbit. The test took place on May 28, 1964, lasting for four orbits (about six hours). The spacecraft and its upper stage completed a total of 54 orbits before reentering the atmosphere and crashing in the Pacific Ocean on June 1, 1964.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976773}
{"src_title": "AS-102", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Objectives.", "content": "AS-102 was designed to repeat the flight of AS-101. It would once again carry a boilerplate Apollo command and service module. The only difference from Boilerplate 13 carried on AS-101 was that on Boilerplate 15, one of the simulated reaction control system thruster quads (attitude control thrusters) was instrumented to record launch temperatures and vibrations. Another major difference on AS-102 was that the launch escape system (LES) tower would be jettisoned using the launch escape and pitch control motors. The mission used Apollo boilerplate BP-15.  AS-102 was the first time a Saturn rocket carried a programmable guidance computer. Previous launches had used an onboard \"black box\" that was preprogrammed. On AS-102 it would be possible to reprogram the computer during flight so that any anomalous behavior could potentially be corrected.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flight.", "content": "In early July, a small crack in engine number six was found. This meant removing the engine, the first time that the ground crew had to do this with a Saturn rocket. It was then decided to return all eight engines to the manufacturer, which meant a job that would take about ten hours because of the large number of tubes, hoses and wires that connected each engine to the rocket. The replacement delayed the launch by about two weeks, followed by another delay of several days because of Hurricanes Cleo and Dora.  Launch was on 18 September from Cape Kennedy, Florida just before noon local time. The first stage burned for 147.7 seconds, with separation 0.8 seconds later. The second stage ignited 1.7 seconds later, and the LES jettisoned at 160.2 seconds after launch. It burned until +621.1 seconds with the stage and boilerplate in a 212.66 by 226.50 km orbit.  The flight met all its objectives. The spacecraft continued to transmit telemetry for five orbits and was tracked until re-entry on its 59th orbit over the Indian Ocean.  The only anomalous event on the flight was the failure to recover the eight film-camera pods. They had landed downrange of the expected area, where Hurricane Gladys ruled out a continued search. However, two of the pods did wash ashore two months later. The pods were covered with barnacles, but the film inside was undamaged.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "AS-102 (also designated SA-7) was the seventh flight of the Saturn I launch vehicle, which carried the boilerplate Apollo spacecraft BP-15 into low Earth orbit. The test took place on September 18, 1964, lasting for five orbits (about seven and a half hours). The spacecraft and its upper stage completed 59 orbits before reentering the atmosphere and crashing in the Indian Ocean on September 22, 1964.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976774}
{"src_title": "AS-104", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Objectives.", "content": "The primary mission objective was to demonstrate the launch vehicle iterative guidance mode and evaluation of system accuracy. The launch trajectory was similar to that of mission AS-103.  The Saturn launch vehicle (SA-8) and payload were similar to those of mission AS-103 except that a single reaction control engine assembly was mounted on the boilerplate service module (BP-26) and the assembly was instrumented to acquire additional data on launch environment temperatures. This assembly also differed from the one on the AS-101 mission in that two of the four engines were of a prototype configuration instead of all engines being simulated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Launch.", "content": "This was the first nighttime launch in the Saturn I series. A built-in 35 minute hold was used to ensure that launch time coincided with the opening of the launch window.  AS-104 was launched from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 37B at 02:35:01 a.m. EST (07:35:01 GMT) on May 25. 1965, The launch was normal and the payload was inserted into orbit approximately 10.6 minutes after lift-off. The total mass placed in orbit, including the spacecraft, Pegasus B, adapter, instrument unit, and S-IV stage, was 34,113 pounds (15,473 kg). The perigee and apogee were 314.0 and 464.1 miles (505 and 747 km), respectively; the orbital inclination was 31.78'. The 1397 kilogram (3080-pound) Pegasus 2 satellite was also carried to orbit by SA-8, being stowed inside the boilerplate's service module, and remaining attached to the S-IV stage.  The actual trajectory was close to the one predicted, and the spacecraft was separated 806 seconds after lift-off. Several minor malfunctions occurred in the S-I stage propulsion system; however, all mission objectives were achieved.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "AS-104 was the fourth orbital test of a boilerplate Apollo spacecraft, and the second flight of the Pegasus micrometeroid detection satellite. It was launched by SA-8, the ninth Saturn I carrier rocket.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976775}
{"src_title": "Petr Kellner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Studies.", "content": "Petr Kellner graduated from the University of Economics, Prague Faculty of Industrial Economics, in 1986.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After the Velvet Revolution he worked for the Czech company Impromat, an importer and seller of Ricoh photocopiers. While working for that company, he met Milan Maděryč and Milan Vinkler.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Investment fund PPF.", "content": "In 1991, after the announcement of Czechoslovak voucher privatization, he founded the investment fund PPF (První privatizační fond) with Milan Vinkler and state-owned glassworks Sklo Union. In 1992, PPF investiční společnost a.s. was established and the funds’ names were changed from privatisation to investment. The funds were very successful and purchased stock of more than 200 corporations with nominal value 5 billion CZK.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Česká pojišťovna.", "content": "In 1995 and 1996, PPF bought a 20% stake in the largest Czech insurance company, Česká pojišťovna and started to manage it. In 2000, PPF bought 31.5% stake of Česká pojišťovna from IPB for 2.85 billion CZK. The transaction with IPB ended up with IPB paying to PPF 1.6 billion CZK penalty, making the real purchasing cost of the stake 1.25 billion CZK. Later PPF acquired more shares and became the dominant (93%) owner in 2001, when PPF bought large stakes of shares from Komerční banka and the Czech state. With help of these profitable transactions, the last investors from voucher privatization were bought out and Petr Kellner became the dominant owner of PPF Group.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Assicurazioni Generali.", "content": "In 2007, PPF Group signed a contract with Assicurazioni Generali to create a joint venture between PPF Group’s insurance arm and Assicurazioni Generali's corporations in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan. According to sources PPF Group will own 49% of that company from the start, and Generali will pay €1.1 billion to the PPF Group for its stake. Petr Kellner became member of the Board of Directors of Generali. Kellner himself later bought 2.02% stake in Assicurazioni Generali.  In 2013 Kellner's PPF sold their remaining shares in the Generali PPF Holding (GPH) to Generali for €2.5 billion, who became sole owner effective at year end of 2014. As of 2015 Kellner is no longer a member of the Generali Board.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wealth.", "content": "As of 2013, Kellner owned 98.93% of the PPF investment and financial group. In 2006, \"Forbes\" estimated PPF's net worth at US $3 billion and listed Kellner as 224th wealthiest man in the world. In 2007, he moved up to 119th with US$6 billion and then in 2008 to 91st with US$9.3 billion. In 2009 he was 76th with US$6 billion and in 2010 89th with US$7.6 billion. Kellner's 2015 position on the \"Forbes\" list was 137th with an estimated wealth of US$9.2 billion (2015). He was estimated to have a net worth of $11.4 billion according to \"Forbes\" list of billionaires, making him the wealthiest person in the Czech Republic and the 102nd richest person in the world as of 10 August 2016. In March 2016, his net worth was $10.9 billion.  However, the above figures were criticized as overestimated by some Czech economic media. Their estimates were considerably lower, CZK 60–75 billion (approx. US$4 billion) according to the weekly \"Týden\", or even less than CZK 50 billion (app. US$3 billion) according to journalist Miroslav Motejlek.  In 2018, Petr Kellner ranked #88 on the Forbes World's Billionaires list, with wealth listed at US $15.5 billion.  In 2010 he bought a Boeing 737-700BBJ as his business airplane. He lives in an extensive residence in the village of Podkozí near Prague, but he owns a number of other real estates in various countries. He also owns one of the largest collections of photographs taken by Josef Sudek.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Petr Kellner (born 20 May 1964) is a Czech billionaire businessman. In 2018, Kellner ranked #88 on the \"Forbes\" World's billionaires list, with an estimated net worth of US$15.5 billion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976776}
{"src_title": "Gisi Fleischmann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Fleischmann worked for a number of Jewish organizations. She founded the Slovakia chapter of the Women's International Zionist Organization and served on the executive committee of Histadrut in Slovakia. She was also a representative of the Joint Distribution Committee.  On 4 September 1939, her brother, the lawyer Gustav Fischer, was beaten to death in Bratislava. His wife, Lili, committed suicide shortly thereafter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Holocaust.", "content": "At Rabbi Weissmandl's initiative, the Working Group was also responsible for the ambitious but ill-fated Europa Plan which would have seen large numbers of European Jews rescued from the Nazi and Fascist murderers. An agreement was negotiated with the Nazis in late 1942 and one to two million dollars ransom was required to stop most transports. The Germans asked for a 10% down payment. As part of Gisi Fleischmann's duties, she met several times in Hungary with Jewish leaders, and also attempted to enlist support from, the Swiss representative of the JOINT (Joint Distribution Committee), and Hechalutz representatives in order to raise money to pay the ransom. Nothing came of it, reportedly because Sally Mayer was unwilling to provide the down-payment since currency transfer to Nazis was illegal. Another opinion is that Heinrich Himmler intervened in August 1943. Unfortunately, the down payment was never made.  The Working Group also played a central role in the distribution of the Auschwitz Report in spring of 1944 written by Slovakian Jews Rudolf Vrba and Alfred Wetzler. Rabbi Weissmandl's version ultimately reached George Mantello in Switzerland via Budapest. He immediately published the report's summary. That triggered a major Swiss grass-roots protest in the Swiss press, churches and streets. It was a major factor leading to President Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and others threatening Hungary's regent Horthy with post-war retribution if he did not immediately stop the transports. This significantly influenced Horthy to stop the transports. At the time, about 12,000 Jews per day were transported from Hungary to Auschwitz. Consequently, Raoul Wallenberg was able to go to Budapest, where he and diplomats like Carl Lutz, Angelo Rotta, and others rescued large numbers of Jews.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Following the Slovak National Uprising of August - October 1944, the Germans invaded Slovakia and deported the remaining Jews. The Working Group was unable to bribe or negotiate with the German military authorities, and a massive roundup on the night of 28 September caught 1,800 Jews in Bratislava, including most of the Working Group's leadership. Fleischmann was not arrested, and continued to help Jews until she was deported on the last transport to Auschwitz on 17 October. Designated \"return unwanted,\" she was probably murdered upon arrival.  Gideon Hausner, prosecutor at the Eichmann trial, said that \"Fleischmann's name deserves to be immortalized in the annals of our people, and her memory should be bequeathed to further generations as a radiant example of heroism and of boundless devotion.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gisi Fleischmann (; 21 January 1892 – 18 October 1944) was a Zionist activist and the leader of the Bratislava Working Group, one of the best known Jewish rescue groups during the Holocaust. Fleischmann was arrested on 15 October 1944 and was murdered in the Auschwitz concentration camp three days later.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976777}
{"src_title": "IRIS-T", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the 1980s, NATO countries signed a Memorandum of Agreement that the United States would develop a medium-range air-to-air missile to replace the AIM-7 Sparrow, while the UK and Germany would develop a short-range air-to-air missile to replace the AIM-9 Sidewinder. The US design developed as the AIM-120 AMRAAM, while the UK-German design developed as the AIM-132 ASRAAM.  The roots of the ASRAAM dated back to 1968 when development began on the Hawker Siddeley SRAAM ('Taildog'), but this project ended in 1974 with no production orders. This work was dusted off for the UK/German effort, with the Germans providing a new seeker, and the UK providing most of the remaining components. In the intervening time, the need for high maneuverability was downgraded in favor of greater range.  After German reunification in 1990, Germany found itself with large stockpiles of the Soviet Vympel R-73 missiles (NATO reporting name: \"AA-11 Archer\") carried by the MiG-29 Fulcrum and concluded that the AA-11's capabilities had been noticeably underestimated. In particular, it was found to be both far more maneuverable, and far more capable in terms of seeker acquisition and tracking than the latest AIM-9 Sidewinder. In 1990 Germany withdrew from the ASRAAM project, while the UK resolved to find another seeker and develop ASRAAM according to the original requirements.  In late 1990, the US partnership expressed similar concerns and embarked on an upgrade to the existing Sidewinder design to provide increased maneuverability and IRCCM (infrared \"counter\" counter measures) performance, i.e. measures to counter infrared countermeasures (IRCM). This program was designated AIM-9X.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Missile characteristics.", "content": "In comparison to the AIM-9L Sidewinder, the IRIS-T has higher ECM-resistance and flare suppression. Improvements in target discrimination not only allows for 5 to 8 times longer head-on firing range than the AIM-9L. It can also engage targets behind the launching aircraft, the latter made possible by the extreme close-in agility allowing turns of 60 \"g\" at a rate of 60°/s via thrust vectoring.  The Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNoAF) has tested a new air-to-surface capability developed by Diehl BGT Defence for the IRIS-T. A proof of concept test firing to acquire, track, and engage a target representing a small fast attack boat was conducted in Norway in September 2016, where the IRIS-T missile was launched from an RNoAF F-16AM multirole aircraft. For the air-to-surface role, the missile retains the same standard IRIS-T AAM hardware configuration, including the HE warhead and IIR guidance package, with only an updated software insertion required to deliver the additional ground attack capability. This basic air-to-ground capability provides the ability to acquire, track and engage individual ground targets like boats/ships, small buildings and vehicles.  In addition, the IRIS-T has the unique ability, in comparison to other similar missiles such as the AIM-9X, to target and shoot down other air-to-air and surface-to-air missiles. In fact, a surface launched variant of the IRIS-T the IRIS-T SL actually has even further enhanced capabilities capable of destroying aircraft, helicopters, cruise missiles, air-to-surface missiles, anti-ship missiles, anti-radar rockets and large-calibre rockets. It also has high probability of a killing shot against UAVs and other small maneuvering threats at very-short and medium-range distances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development partners.", "content": "In 1995, Germany announced the IRIS-T development program, in collaboration with Greece, Italy, Norway, Sweden and Canada. Canada later dropped out, while in 2003 Spain joined as a partner for procurement. The German Air Force took first delivery of the missile on 5 December 2005.  Workshare arrangements for IRIS-T development are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "IDAS.", "content": "The IDAS variant is a navalized version of the missile, is also being developed for the new Type 212A submarine of the German Navy. IDAS is supposed to engage air threats, small or medium surface vessels or near land targets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "IRIS-T SL.", "content": "Within the MEADS program, the German Air Force plans to integrate a surface-launched (SL) radar-guided version of the missile, called IRIS-T SL. It has a pointed nose, unlike the regular IRIS-T. The IRIS-T SL qualification tests were completed during January 2015 at the Denel Overberg Test Range in South Africa. It is built in two variants IRIS-T SLS (short-range) and IRIS-T SLM (medium-range).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "SAM Version.", "content": "The Swedish Army is fielding a ground launched version of the IRIS-T, designated RBS 98, to replace the RBS 70 missile system. Four missiles are carried on a special version of a Bv 410 tracked, armored vehicle.  The Norwegian Army has decided to acquire a \"Mobile Ground Based Air Defence System\" in a direct acquisition with Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace. The deliveries are planned for 2018 to 2021 and the system will reuse NASAMS command and control and its network solutions, to create a \"highly mobile, short-range air defence system\". The project includes six modified M113 vehicles carrying IRIS-T-missiles.  A version with a Lockheed Martin command and control station and SAAB Giraffe 4A AESA radar was shown at IDEX 2019 under the name Falcon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Air-to-ground.", "content": "For the air-to-surface role, the only difference from air-to-air version is an updated software insertion required to deliver the additional ground attack capability. Tested by Royal Norwegian Air Force.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operators.", "content": "The following operators are listed and defined as of July 2008.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The IRIS-T (Infra Red Imaging System Tail/Thrust Vector-Controlled) is a German-led program to develop a short-range infrared homing air-to-air missile to replace the AIM-9 Sidewinder found in some NATO member countries. Any aircraft capable of firing the Sidewinder is also capable of launching the IRIS-T.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976778}
{"src_title": "Thaddeus Bulgarin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Bulgarin was born into a noble Polish family near Minsk, Belarus (then Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth). His father, one of Kosciuszko's associates, was exiled to Siberia for having assassinated a Russian general. Bulgarin was educated in a St. Petersburg military school, took part in the Battle of Friedland but was arrested for theft soon afterwards. While his regiment was stationed in Finland, Bulgarin deserted to Warsaw, but on the way was drafted to the Grande Armée. He fought under Napoleon's banners in the Peninsular War and the 1812 Lithuanian campaign. In 1812 Bulgarin was taken prisoner in Battle of Berezina and transported to Prussia. There is a 6-year lapse in his biography after that.  In 1820, Bulgarin travelled from Warsaw to St. Petersburg, where he published a critical review of Polish literature and started editing \"The Northern Archive\". He also made friends with the playwright Alexander Griboyedov and the philologist Nicholas Gretsch. The latter helped him to edit the newspaper \"Northern Bee\" (1825–39), the literary journal \"Fatherland's Son\" (1825–59), and other reactionary periodicals.  Bulgarin's unscrupulous manners made him the most odious journalist in Russia. Alexander Pushkin, in particular, ridiculed him in a number of epigrams, changing his name to Figlyarin (from a Russian word for \"clown\"). Bulgarin retorted with epigrams, in which Pushkin's name was rendered as Chushkin (from the Russian word for \"nonsense\").  Inspired by Sir Walter Scott, Bulgarin wrote the Vejeeghen (Vyzhigin) series of historical novels, which used to be popular in Russia and abroad. He followed these with two sententious novels \"Dmitry the Pretender\" (1830), about the False Dmitry, and \"Mazepa\" (1834) about Ivan Mazepa. In 1837 he published under his own name a lengthy description of Imperial Russia, although much of the work was actually by, then a Ph.D. student at Dorpat University.  Some of Bulgarin's stories are science fiction: \"Probable Tall-Tales\" is a far future story about the 29th century; \"Improbable Tall-Tales\" is a fantastic voyage into hollow Earth; \"The Adventures of Mitrofanushka on the Moon\" is a satire.  After Nicholas I's death, Bulgarin retired from the department of stud farms, in which he had been serving for many years, and withdrew to his manor in Karlova (\"Karlowa\" in German) a suburb of Tartu at the time, but now incorporated within the city.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thaddeus Venediktovich Bulgarin (; Polish Jan Tadeusz Krzysztof Bułharyn, – ), was a Russian writer, journalist and publisher of Polish, Bulgarian and Albanian ancestry. In addition to his newspaper work, he rejuvenated the Russian novel, and published the first theatrical almanac in Russian. During his life, his novels were translated and published in English, French, German, Swedish, Polish, and Czech. He served as a soldier under Napoleon, and in later life as an agent of the Czar's secret police. As a writer his self-imposed mission was to popularize the authoritarian policies of Alexander I and Nicholas I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976779}
{"src_title": "Jason Chimera", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Chimera played his junior career in the WHL, for Medicine Hat and Brandon. He was selected 121st overall in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft by his hometown team, the Edmonton Oilers, mostly because of his outstanding skating. Chimera played three seasons on the Hamilton Bulldogs, which at that point was the Oilers' farm team in the American Hockey League. In his final season, he was named to the AHL First All-Star team.  Chimera played two seasons for Edmonton before being traded to the Phoenix Coyotes for draft choices. Because of the NHL lockout, he did not play the following season and went to play in Italy for Mastini Varese. Chimera was subsequently dealt to the Columbus Blue Jackets, without playing a game in Phoenix, as part of a trade for Geoff Sanderson.  With the Blue Jackets, Chimera predominantly played left wing on the team's third line. He was usually centered by Manny Malhotra and spent significant time playing alongside right wingers such as Dan Fritsche and Trevor Letowski. However, Chimera began the 2008–09 season as the veteran presence on a line with rookies Derick Brassard and Jakub Voracek.  He was a member of the 2007 Canadian IIHF World Championship team that won gold in a 4–2 win against Finland in Moscow.  Chimera was traded to the Washington Capitals on December 28, 2009 for Chris Clark and Milan Jurčina. Chimera was re-signed a two-year contract extension with the Capitals on September 29, 2011.  Chimera was re-signed a two-year contract extension with the Capitals on November 8, 2013.  On July 1, 2016, Chimera signed a two-year deal as a free agent with the New York Islanders. During the subsequent season, Chimera played in his 1,000th game.  In the 2017–18 season, his final season under contract with the Islanders, Chimera was dealt at the trade deadline to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for Chris Wagner on February 26, 2018.  While with the Capitals, Chimera was nicknamed “the Ice Cheetah” for his speed on the ice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jason Chimera (; born May 2, 1979) is a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger who is currently an unrestricted free agent. He most recently played for the Anaheim Ducks of the National Hockey League (NHL).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976780}
{"src_title": "Costel Pantilimon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Bacău, Pantilimon started his career at Aerostar Bacău and got his share of limelight at the Romania national under-19 team before transferring to Politehnica Timișoara on 1 February 2006, his 19th birthday.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politehnica Timișoara.", "content": "Initially, Pantilimon was Timișoara's second-choice goalkeeper, behind Marius Popa. In May 2008, however, the owner of the club, Marian Iancu, transferred Popa to the second team, and Pantilimon took the pole position. He made his debut in the Romanian Liga 1 against Dinamo București, in March 2007.  In a match against Ceahlăul on 17 October 2009, Pantilimon captained the team for the first time, since Dan Alexa, Gigel Bucur and Arman Karamyan and his brother Artavazd were all on the bench.  Pantilimon was part of the Timișoara team that defeated UEFA Cup winners Shakhtar Donetsk in the qualifying rounds of the 2009–10 Champions League campaign. He played all 90 minutes of each leg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manchester City.", "content": "On 11 August 2011, Pantilimon joined Manchester City on a one-year loan deal from Politehnica Timișoara to act as cover for Joe Hart following the departure of Shay Given.  Pantilimon's first start was a League Cup win against holders Birmingham City on 21 September 2011. His next match was on 26 October, against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the same competition, where City fielded a second-string team, although still comprehensively won 5–2. Pantilimon got his next Manchester City start during the 1–0 League Cup quarter-final win against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium. In the Arsenal match, he was named Man of the Match, making two saves in the first half. He started the third round of the FA Cup against Manchester United at the City of Manchester Stadium on 8 January 2012, saving Wayne Rooney's penalty but was unable to save the follow up; Manchester City lost the game 3–2.  Pantilimon's loan deal was made permanent for a fee in the region of £3 million. He was contracted to City until 2016. During the 2012–13 FA Cup, he kept four clean sheets in a row and managed an outstanding performance against Chelsea in the semi-final, conceding just one goal in five matches. In response to this performance, then City manager Roberto Mancini immediately promised that the Romanian would keep his place when the team return to Wembley Stadium to face Wigan Athletic on 11 May. However, he was a substitute in the final, with Joe Hart starting; Manchester City lost to Wigan 1–0. It was later revealed that Mancini had promised on the eve of the FA Cup Final that the Romanian would play, but then deputed the goalkeeping coach on match day morning to say there had been a change of plan.  Pantilimon was given his first start of the 2013–14 season for City in the Football League Cup third-round match at home to Wigan on 24 September 2013, which City won 5–0; manager Manuel Pellegrini praised him for keeping a clean sheet. Five weeks later, Pantilimon was also selected to start in the next League Cup match away to Newcastle United on 30 October; once again, he conceded no goals, as City won 2–0 and progressed to the last eight of the competition. Three days later, he made his Premier League debut at home to Norwich City, keeping his third clean sheet in a row in an emphatic 7–0 victory. On 7 November 2013, he started in Champions League game against CSKA Moscow that ended in City winning 5–2. He started his second Premier League game on 10 November 2013 away against Sunderland that ended in a 0–1 defeat.  On 2 March 2014, Pantilimon started for Manchester City in the 2014 League Cup Final at Wembley Stadium. The team won 3–1 against Sunderland with goals from Yaya Touré, Samir Nasri and Jesús Navas.  Overall, Pantilimon made seven appearances during the 2013–14 Premier League season, keeping three clean sheets as Manchester City won a second league title in three years. He was also the team's first-choice goalkeeper for their League Cup and FA Cup matches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sunderland.", "content": "On 16 June 2014, Pantilimon joined Sunderland on a free transfer from Manchester City. On 27 August, he made his first appearance for the club in the second round of the League Cup second round against Birmingham City, keeping a clean sheet in a 3–0 win at St Andrew's. Pantilimon started the season as back-up for Vito Mannone, but after poor performances in an 8–0 loss to Southampton and a 2–0 loss to Arsenal, the Italian was subsequently dropped and Pantilimon made his Premier League debut for Sunderland in a 3–1 win at Crystal Palace on 3 November 2014, thus becoming the club's first choice keeper for the rest of the season. He started the next season as first choice before losing his place to Mannone, eventually dropping to third choice behind Jordan Pickford.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Watford.", "content": "On 19 January 2016, Pantilimon joined Premier League rivals Watford on a three-and-a-half-year deal, for an undisclosed fee. He made his first appearance for the Hornets on 30 January in their FA Cup Fourth Round victory at Nottingham Forest. He also started the game in the Fifth Round against Leeds United. He kept clean sheets in both games. He made his Premier League debut for the Hornets in a forgettable 6–1 defeat at Liverpool on 6 November 2016, after Heurelho Gomes was injured during the first half.  On 1 September 2017, Pantilimon joined La Liga club Deportivo La Coruña on a one-year loan from Watford, lasting until 20 May 2018. The long-term absence of first-choice keeper Rubén, who suffered a hand injury in training, prompted the signing. Pantilimon made his debut for the Galicians against Real Betis on 16 September. The following week, Pantilimon picked up his first clean sheet, coming in a 1–0 win over Alavés.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nottingham Forest.", "content": "On 31 January 2018, Pantilimon left Spain to return to England and sign on loan for EFL Championship side Nottingham Forest until the end of the 2017–18 season. He made his full début away at Fulham on 3 February. He made his home début against Hull City the following week, saving a penalty from Jon Toral. He made the English Football League's Team of the Week after producing a clean sheet at Burton Albion when Forest were reduced to ten men for much of the match on 17 February.  On 3 July 2018, Pantilimon signed a three-year deal with Forest.  On 30 January 2020, Pantilimon was loaned to Cypriot First Division side Omonia for the remainder of the season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Pantilimon is a former Romania under-21 international. He made his debut for the senior Romania national team on 19 November 2008, in a friendly against Georgia. On 31 May 2016, Pantilimon was included in the final 23-man squad for UEFA Euro 2016, but did not appear in all matches in this tournament; Romanian coach Anghel Iordănescu used Ciprian Tătărușanu as the nation's first-choice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Pantilimon is a hearing child of two deaf parents. He married Andreea Berbece in 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Manchester City", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Costel Fane Pantilimon (; born 1 February 1987) is a Romanian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Omonia on loan from English club Nottingham Forest and the Romania national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976781}
{"src_title": "Paris Police Prefecture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Jurisdiction.", "content": "The jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police was initially the Seine \"département\". Its jurisdiction also included the communes (municipalities) of Saint-Cloud, Sèvres, Meudon, and Enghien-les-Bains, which were located in the Seine-et-Oise \"département\". These four communes were added in the 19th century to the jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police in order to ensure special protection of the imperial/royal residences located there.  The Seine \"département\" was disbanded in 1968 and the jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police is now the city of Paris (which is both a commune and a \"département\") and the three surrounding \"départements\" of Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, Val-de-Marne. This territory made up of four \"départements\" is larger than the pre-1968 Seine \"département\".  The Prefecture of Police also has limited jurisdiction over the whole Île-de-France \"région\" for the coordination of law enforcement, including combatting cybercrime. The Prefect of Police, acting as Prefect of the Defense Zone of Paris (\"Préfet de la Zone de Défense de Paris\"), is in charge of planning non-military defense measures to keep public order, guarantee the security of public services, and organize rescue operations (in case of natural disaster) for the whole Île-de-France \"région\" (which is made up of eight \"départements\", the four inner ones being the regular jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police, and the four outer ones being outside of its regular jurisdiction). As such, he coordinates the work of the departmental \"préfets\" of Île-de-France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nomination and missions.", "content": "Headed by a prefect titled The \"Prefect of Police\", who (as are all prefects) is named by the President in the Council of Ministers, and operates under the Minister of the Interior, commands the Prefecture which is responsible for the following:  The Prefect of Police can issue \"arrêtés\" (local writs) defining rules pertaining to his field of competency. For instance, the rules of operation and security of Paris public parks are issued as joint arrêtés from the Mayor of Paris and the Prefect of Police.  Until 1977, Paris had indeed no elected mayor and the police was essentially in the hands of the \"préfet de police\". However, the powers of the mayor of Paris were increased at the expense of those of the \"Préfet de Police\" in 2002, notably for traffic and parking decisions (the \"préfet\" retains the responsibility on main thoroughfares such as the Avenue des Champs-Élysées, and on any street during the organization of demonstrations).  There is also a prefect of Paris, prefect for the Île-de-France region, whose services handle some tasks not devoted to the Police Prefect, such as certain classes of building permits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "The PP is headed by a politically appointed prefect who is assisted by the \"prevote\", who is the senior police officer of the force. The Prefecture of Police is divided into three sub-prefectures headed by prefects due to their importance.  Because the Police Prefecture provides some services that are normally provided by city governments, its funding partially comes from the City of Paris and other city governments within its jurisdiction.  In addition to forces from the National Police, the Police Prefecture has traffic wardens or crossing guards who enforce parking rules; it has recently added some wardens that direct traffic at crossroads and other similar duties, known as \"circulation\", with specific uniforms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prefect and Director of the Cabinet.", "content": "Consists of the Cabinet (staff) itself, the Gendarmerie Nationale Liaison Office, and 6 Local Directorates: and other agencies:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prefect and Secretary-General for the Administration of the Police.", "content": "with four Administrative Directorates:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prefect and Secretary-General for the Zone of Defence.", "content": "with two agencies:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of lieutenant generals and prefects of police.", "content": "Before the French Revolution, the head of the Paris Police was the \"lieutenant général de police\", whose office was created in March 1667 when the first modern police force in the world was set up by the government of King Louis XIV to police the city of Paris. The office vanished at the start of the French Revolution and police was vested in the hands of the Paris Commune. Reorganized by Napoléon Bonaparte in 1800, the Paris Police has been headed by the \"préfet de police\" since that time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lieutenant generals of police.", "content": "Source: Centre historique des Archives nationales, Série Y, Châtelet de Paris, on page 38 of the PDF.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prefects of police.", "content": "Sources: \"La Grande Encyclopédie\", volume 27, page 95, published in 1900. See scan of the full text at Gallica:. / List of Prefects of Paris on rulers.org:. / Archives of \"Le Monde\":.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Paris Police Prefecture () is the unit of the French Ministry of the Interior that provides police, emergency services, and various administrative services to the population of the city of Paris and the surrounding three suburban \"départements\" of Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, and Val-de-Marne. It is headed by the Prefect of Police (\"Préfet de police\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976782}
{"src_title": "Iveta Radičová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Radičová was born in Bratislava on 7 December 1956. She has one daughter and is the widow of Stano Radič, a famous Slovak comedian and actor who died in 2005. In addition to her native Slovak, Radičová speaks Russian fluently and has good knowledge of English, German and Polish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic career.", "content": "Radičová began her academic career studying sociology at the Comenius University in Bratislava, earning a PhD at the Slovak Academy of Sciences in 1981. Radičová worked as a sociologist at the Academy from 1979–1989, coordinating a research team for family policies. In 1990, she pursued postdoctoral studies for a year at the University of Oxford. Upon her return to Slovakia in 1991, Radičová founded the Center for Analysis of Social Policy, one of Slovakia's first NGOs, and served as its executive director until 2005. During this period, Radičová also lectured in the departments of sociology, political science, and social work at Comenius University. In 2005, she was named a Professor of Sociology by the Faculty of Philosophy at Comenius University, making her Slovakia's first female professor of sociology. In Spring 2013, she returned to Oxford, as a Visiting Fellow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Radičová began her political career in 1990 as a member of the Public Against Violence movement, serving as a spokesperson of the party until 1992. She later participated in Slovak part of Civic Democratic Party. She served as its Spokesperson. She had never become its member and never held any position in the party.  From 2005 to 2006, she served as Minister of Labour, Social Affairs and Family in the center-right government of Prime Minister Mikuláš Dzurinda. Radičová was then elected as a member of the Parliament of Slovakia on the party list of Dzurinda's liberal-conservative Slovak Democratic and Christian Union-Democratic Party (SDKU-DS) in the 2006 parliamentary election.  Following the 2006 election, the SDKU-DS went into opposition. Radičová officially became a member of SDKU-DS following the election and was subsequently elected as deputy chairman of the party. Radičová also served as deputy chairman of the parliamentary committee on social affairs and housing.  In 2009, Radičová was selected as the SDKU-DS's candidate in the 2009 presidential election and was also endorsed by the conservative Christian Democratic Movement (KDH) and the Party of the Hungarian Coalition (SMK-MKP). In the first round of the election held on 21 March, Radičová received a surprisingly strong 38.05% of the vote and came in second place to incumbent President Ivan Gašparovič, who failed to receive a majority of the vote. Radičová was defeated by Gašparovič in the second round of the election held on 4 April, receiving 44.47% of the vote. She is the second woman to advance to the second round of a presidential election in Slovak history.  Shortly after her loss in the presidential election, Radičová encountered controversy after casting a parliamentary vote for an absent party colleague in violation of parliamentary rules. As a result of the controversy, Radičová resigned her seat in parliament on 23 April 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime Minister.", "content": "In early 2010, Radičová was selected as head of the SDKU-DS list for the next parliamentary election via a primary election, defeating former Finance Minister Ivan Mikloš. During the election campaign her party ran on a platform of fiscal discipline and pledged to reinvigorate the economy after it suffered a 4.7% decline in 2009.  In the election on 12 June 2010, the SDKU-DS came in a distant second place with 15.42% of the vote, far behind the center-left Smer party of Prime Minister Robert Fico, which received 34.79% of the votes. However, Fico's coalition partners, the ultra-nationalist Slovak National Party and the national-conservative HZDS, performed poorly, with HZDS failing to win any seats in parliament. After Fico proved unable to form a new government, Radičová, as leader of the largest opposition party, was asked to form a government by President Gašparovič on 23 June 2010. Radičová was installed as Slovakia's first female prime minister on 8 July 2010, heading a coalition government of the liberal Freedom and Solidarity (SaS), the Christian Democratic Movement (KDH), the ethnic Hungarian Most–Híd party, and Radičová's SDKU-DS. Between them, this center-right coalition had 79 out of 150 seats.  Radičová pledged that her new government would cut state spending to reduce the budget deficit, while steering clear of tax rises. She stated, \"We are ready to take responsibility over the country at a time when it is coping with the impact of a deep economic crisis and the irresponsible decisions of our political predecessors.\" She also said that Slovakia's guarantee of 4.5 billion euros to the EU stabilization fund was exorbitant, but she also stated that she will not block approval of the scheme within the EU, though she sought to renegotiate her country's contribution to it. Her new government sought, through coalition partner Most-Hid, to rebuild links with Hungary that were badly damaged by the adoption of contentious language and citizenship laws.  Radičová lost a vote of confidence in the parliament on 11 October 2011 after dispute on eurozone bailout leading to the fall of her government. An early election was held on 10 March 2012. Radičová did not submit herself as a candidate again. In 2013, she published \"Krajina hrubých čiar\" [Country of Full Stops], a book on her experience as Prime Minister.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Iveta Radičová (; born 7 December 1956) served as the first woman Prime Minister of Slovakia from 2010 to 2012. She led a coalition government, in which she also briefly held the post of Minister of Defence in the last five months of the coalition. Previously she had served as Minister of Labour from 2005 to 2006 in the second Dzurinda government.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976783}
{"src_title": "AV nodal reentrant tachycardia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "The main symptom of AVNRT is the sudden development of rapid regular palpitations. These palpitations may be associated with a fluttering sensation in the neck, caused by near-simultaneous contraction of the atria and ventricles against a closed tricuspid valve leading to the pressure or atrial contraction being transmitted backwards into the venous system. The rapid heart rate may lead to feelings of anxiety, and may therefore be mistaken for panic attacks. In some cases, the onset of the fast heart is associated with a brief drop in blood pressure. When this happens, someone may experience dizziness or rarely lose consciousness (faint). Someone with underlying coronary artery disease (narrowing of the arteries of the heart by atherosclerosis) who has a very rapid heart rate may experience chest pain similar to angina; this pain is band- or pressure-like around the chest and often radiates to the left arm and angle of the left jaw.  Symptoms often occur without any specific trigger, although some find that their palpitations often occur after lifting heavy items or bending forwards. The onset of palpitations is sudden, with the acceleration of the heart rate occurring within a single beat, and may be preceded by a feeling of the heart skipping a beat. The heart may continue to race for minutes or hours, but the eventual termination of the arrhythmia is as rapid as its onset.  During AVNRT the heart rate is typically between 140 and 280 beats per minute. Close inspection of the neck may reveal pulsation of the jugular vein in the form of \"cannon A-waves\" as the right atrium contracts against a closed tricuspid valve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanisms.", "content": "The fundamental mechanism of AVNRT is a re-entrant circuit within the atrioventricular node. This can take several forms. \"Typical\", \"common\", or \"slow-fast\" AVNRT uses the slow AV nodal pathway to conduct towards the ventricle (the anterograde limb of the circuit) and the fast AV nodal pathway to conduct to the atria (the retrograde limb). The re-entrant circuit can be reversed such that the fast AV nodal pathway is the anterograde limb and the slow AV nodal pathway is the retrograde limb, referred to as \"atypical\", \"uncommon\", or \"fast-slow\" AVNRT. Atypical AVNRT may also use the slow AV nodal pathway as the anterograde limb and left atrial fibres that approach the AV node from the left side of the inter-atrial septum as the retrograde limb, and is sometimes referred to as \"slow-slow\" AVNRT.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Typical AVNRT.", "content": "In typical AVNRT, the anterograde conduction is via the slow pathway and the retrograde conduction is via the fast pathway (\"slow-fast\" AVNRT).  Because the retrograde conduction is via the fast pathway, stimulation of the atria (which produces the inverted P wave) occurs very soon after stimulation of the ventricles (which causes the QRS complex). As a result, the time from the QRS complex to the P wave (the RP interval) is short, less than 50% of the time between consecutive QRS complexes. The RP interval is often so short that the inverted P waves may not be seen on the surface electrocardiogram (ECG) as they are buried within or immediately after the QRS complexes, appearing as a \"pseudo R prime\" wave in lead V or a \"pseudo S\" wave in the inferior leads.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Atypical AVNRT.", "content": "In atypical AVNRT, the anterograde conduction is via the fast pathway and the retrograde conduction is via the slow pathway (\"fast-slow\" AVNRT).  Multiple slow pathways can exist so that both anterograde and retrograde conduction are over slow pathways. (\"slow-slow\" AVNRT).  Because the retrograde conduction is via the slow pathway, stimulation of the atria will be delayed by the slow conduction tissue and will typically produce an inverted P wave that falls after the QRS complex on the surface ECG.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "If the symptoms are present while the person is receiving medical care (e.g., in an emergency department), an ECG may show typical changes that confirm the diagnosis. If the palpitations are recurrent, a doctor may request a Holter monitor (portable, wearable ECG recorder). Again, this will show the diagnosis if the recorder is attached at the time of the symptoms. In rare cases, disabling but infrequent episodes of palpitations may require the insertion of a small device under the skin that continuously record heart activity (an implantable loop recorder). All these ECG-based technologies also enable the distinction between AVNRT and other abnormal fast heart rhythms such as atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, sinus tachycardia, ventricular tachycardia and tachyarrhythmias related to Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, all of which may have symptoms that are similar to AVNRT.  Blood tests commonly performed in people with palpitations are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Treatments for AVNRT aim to terminate episodes of tachycardia, and to prevent further episodes from occurring in the future. These treatments include physical manoeuvres, medication, and invasive procedures such as ablation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arrhythmia termination.", "content": "An episode of supraventricular tachycardia due to AVNRT can be terminated by any action that transiently blocks the AV node. Some of those with AVNRT may be able to stop their attack by using physical manoeuvres that increase the activity of the vagus nerve on the heart, specifically on the atrioventricular node. These manoeuvres include carotid sinus massage (pressure on the carotid sinus in the neck) and the Valsalva manoeuvre (increasing the pressure in the chest by attempting to exhale against a closed airway by bearing down or holding one's breath). Medications that slow or briefly halt electrical conduction through the AV node can terminate AVNRT, including adenosine, beta blockers, or non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers (such as verapamil or diltiazem). Both adenosine and beta blockers may cause tightening of the airways, and are therefore used with caution in people who are known to have asthma. Less commonly used drugs for this purpose include antiarrhythmic drugs such as flecainide or amiodarone.  If the fast heart rate is poorly tolerated (e.g. the development of heart failure symptoms, low blood pressure or coma) then AVNRT can be terminated electrically using a cardioversion. In this procedure, after administering a strong sedative or general anaesthetic, an electric shock is applied to the heart to restore a normal rhythm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arrhythmia prevention.", "content": "While preventative treatment may be very helpful at stopping the unpleasant symptoms associated with AVNRT, as this arrhythmia is a benign condition, preventative treatment is not essential. Some of those who choose not to have further treatment will eventually become asymptomatic. Those who wish to have further treatment can choose to take long term antiarrhythmic medication. The first line drugs are calcium channel antagonists and beta blockers, with second line agents including flecainide, amiodarone, and occasionally digoxin. These drugs are moderately effective at preventing further episodes but need to be taken long term.  Alternatively, an invasive procedure called an electrophysiology (EP) study and catheter ablation can be used to confirm the diagnosis and potentially offer a cure. This procedure involves introducing wires or catheters into the heart through a vein in the leg. The tip of one of these catheters can be used to heat or freeze the slow pathway of the AV node, destroying its ability to conduct electrical impulses, and preventing AVNRT. The risks and benefits are weighed up before this is performed. Catheter ablation of the slow pathway, if successfully carried out, can potentially cure AVNRT with success rates of >95%, balanced against a small risk of complications including damaging the AV node and subsequently requiring a pacemaker.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "AV-nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is a type of abnormal fast heart rhythm. It is a type of supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), meaning that it originates from a location within the heart above the bundle of His. AV nodal reentrant tachycardia is the most common regular supraventricular tachycardia. It is more common in women than men (approximately 75% of cases occur in females). The main symptom is palpitations. Treatment may be with specific physical maneuvers, medications, or, rarely, synchronized cardioversion. Frequent attacks may require radiofrequency ablation, in which the abnormally conducting tissue in the heart is destroyed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976784}
{"src_title": "Cupcake", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The earliest extant description of what is now often called a cupcake was in 1796, when a recipe for \"a light cake to bake in small cups\" was written in \"American Cookery\" by Amelia Simmons. The earliest extant documentation of the term \"cupcake\" itself was in \"Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats\" in 1828 in Eliza Leslie's \"Receipts\" cookbook.  In the early 19th century, there were two different uses for the term \"cup cake\" or \"cupcake\". In previous centuries, before muffin tins were widely available, the cakes were often baked in individual pottery cups, ramekins, or molds and took their name from the cups they were baked in. This is the use of the name that has remained, and the name of \"cupcake\" is now given to any small, round cake that is about the size of a teacup. While English fairy cakes vary in size more than American cupcake, they are traditionally smaller and are rarely topped with elaborate icing.  The other kind of \"cup cake\" referred to a cake whose ingredients were measured by volume, using a standard-sized cup, instead of being weighed. Recipes whose ingredients were measured using a standard-sized cup could also be baked in cups; however, they were more commonly baked in tins as layers or loaves. In later years, when the use of volume measurements was firmly established in home kitchens, these recipes became known as \"1234 cakes\" or \"quarter cakes\", so called because they are made up of four ingredients: one cup of butter, two cups of sugar, three cups of flour, and four eggs. They are plain yellow cakes, somewhat less rich and less expensive than pound cake, due to using about half as much butter and eggs compared to pound cake.  The names of these two major classes of cakes were intended to signal the method to the baker; \"cup cake\" uses a volume measurement, and \"pound cake\" uses a weight measurement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recipes.", "content": "A standard cupcake uses the same basic ingredients as standard-sized cakes: butter, sugar, eggs, and flour. Nearly any recipe that is suitable for a layer cake can be used to bake cupcakes. The cake batter used for cupcakes may be flavored or have other ingredients stirred in, such as raisins, berries, nuts, or chocolate chips.  Because their small size is more efficient for heat conduction, cupcakes bake much faster than a normal layered cake. During baking, the volume of the batter initially increases due to the production of carbon dioxide, then decreases upon cooling due to the release of leavening gases.  Cupcakes may be topped with frosting or other cake decorations. They may be filled with frosting, fruit, or pastry cream. For bakers making a small number of filled cupcakes, this is usually accomplished by using a spoon or knife to scoop a small hole in the top of the cupcake. Another method is to just insert the pastry bag in the middle of the cupcake. In commercial bakeries, the filling may be injected using a syringe. Elaborately decorated cupcakes may be made for special occasions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pans and liners.", "content": "Originally, cupcakes were baked in heavy pottery cups. Some bakers still use individual ramekins, small coffee mugs, large tea cups, or other small ovenproof pottery-type dishes for baking cupcakes.  Cupcakes are usually baked in muffin tins. These pans are most often made from metal, with or without a non-stick surface, and generally have six or twelve depressions or \"cups\". They may also be made from stoneware, silicone rubber, or other materials. A standard size cup is in diameter and holds about, although pans for both miniature and jumbo size cupcakes exist. Specialty pans may offer many different sizes and shapes. Individual patty cases, or cupcake liners, may be used in baking. These are typically round sheets of thin paper pressed into a round, fluted cup shape. Liners can facilitate the easy removal of the cupcake from the tin after baking, keep the cupcake more moist, and reduce the effort needed to clean the pan. The use of liners is also considered a more sanitary option when cupcakes are being passed from hand to hand. Like cupcake pans, several sizes of paper liners are available, from miniature to jumbo.  In addition to paper, cupcake liners may be made from very thin aluminum foil or, in a non-disposable version, silicone rubber. Because they can stand up on their own, foil and silicone liners can also be used on a flat baking sheet, which makes them popular among people who do not have a specialized muffin tin. Some of the largest paper liners are not fluted and are made out of thicker paper, often rolled at the top edge for additional strength, so that they can also stand independently for baking without a cupcake tin. Some bakers use two or three thin paper liners, nested together, to simulate the strength of a single foil cup.  Liners, which are also called \"paper cases\", come in a variety of sizes. Slightly different sizes are considered \"standard\" in different countries. Miniature cases are commonly in diameter at the base and tall. Standard-size cases range from in diameter at the base and are tall. Australian and Swedish bakers are accustomed to taller paper cases with a larger diameter at the top than American and British bakers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shops.", "content": "In the early 21st century, a trend for cupcake shops, which are specialized bakeries that sell little or nothing except cupcakes, developed in the United States, playing off of the sense of nostalgia evoked by the cakes. In New York City, cupcake shops like Magnolia Bakery gained publicity in their appearances on popular television shows like HBO's \"Sex and the City\".  Crumbs Bake Shop, a publicly traded business running the largest cupcake shop chain in the U.S., reached its peak stock price in 2011. Declining sales, due to competition from locally owned mom-and-pop specialty stores as well as increased competition from grocery stores, caused a sharp decline in the company's prospects and stock price in 2013.  Georgetown Cupcake was the first cupcakery to open in Washington, D.C. The cupcake shop gained widespread publicity after the 2010 premier of TLC's \"DC Cupcakes\", a six-part reality show about the shop and its owners, sisters Sophie LaMontagne and Katherine Kallinis.  Based in Beverly Hills, California, Sprinkles Cupcakes is owned by Candace Nelson, who is also a star judge on the Food Network's \"Cupcake Wars\", and her husband, Charles Nelson. Sprinkles is the first cupcake shop to debut a cupcake ATM, which could hold up to 350 cupcakes at one time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "Cupcakes are sometimes used to celebrate and illustrate specific events or themes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A cupcake (also British English: fairy cake; Hiberno-English: bun; Australian English: fairy cake or patty cake) is a small cake designed to serve one person, which may be baked in a small thin paper or aluminum cup. As with larger cakes, icing and other cake decorations such as fruit and candy may be applied.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976785}
{"src_title": "Model M keyboard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Model M keyboard was designed to be more cost effective than the Model F keyboard it replaced. Production of model M keyboards began in 1985, and they were often bundled with new IBM computers. They were produced at IBM plants in Lexington, Kentucky, Greenock, Scotland, and Guadalajara, Mexico. The most common variant is the IBM Enhanced Keyboard identified by IBM assembly part number 1391401, the U.S. English layout keyboard bundled with the IBM Personal System/2. Until around 1993, most Model Ms included a sturdy, coiled, detachable cable, with either an AT (pre-1987) or PS/2 connector, in 5- and 10-foot lengths (1.5 and 3 metres). From about 1994 onwards, flat non-detachable cables were used to reduce manufacturing costs; however, IBM retained its 101-key layout, never implementing the Microsoft Windows keys common on other keyboards from that time. Unicomp later designed a 104-key Model M with Windows keys.  On March 27, 1991, IBM divested a number of its hardware manufacturing operations, including keyboard production, forming Lexmark International. Lexmark continued manufacturing model M keyboards in the United States, United Kingdom, and Mexico, with IBM being Lexmark's major customer. Many of these keyboards are identified by IBM assembly part numbers 52G9658, 52G9700, 71G4644, 82G2383, and 42H1292, which were bundled with IBM PS/ValuePoint and IBM PC Series. Because of pricing pressures, these keyboards were manufactured with a new, lower-cost design, including lighter plastic, an integrated cable, and a single color for key legends.  A five-year agreement obligating IBM to purchase nearly all of its keyboards from Lexmark expired on March 27, 1996. Lexmark exited the keyboard business, selling related assets to IBM and Maxi Switch. When Lexmark discontinued keyboard production in April 1996, IBM continued producing buckling-spring model M keyboards in Scotland until 1999. Maxi Switch purchased assets for rubber-dome keyboards and the Lexmark Select-Ease Keyboard (model M15), including a buckling-spring switch patent. Maxi Switch continued to manufacture the IBM Enhanced Keyboard with TrackPoint II (model M13) in Mexico until 1998. Some of Lexmark's keyboard manufacturing assets were also sold to a group of Lexmark employees, who formed Unicomp. Unicomp still manufactures its version of the Model M (similar to part number 42H1292 but first renamed 42H1292U and subsequently the \"Customizer\"), as well as other configurations including updated 104- and 105-key layouts; a Unix layout (where the Ctrl and Caps Lock keys and Esc and tilde keys are transposed); models with integrated pointing sticks or trackballs; and POS-specific models such as those with built-in magstripe readers. Although current Unicomp models may still be purchased, original production models retain their value well among collectors and computer enthusiasts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variations.", "content": "The Model M's numerous variations (referred to as \"part numbers\") incorporated alternative features and/or colors. One of the most popular variants is the Space Saving Keyboard, which integrates the number pad into the keyboard's main section, substantially reducing its width.  IBM released the standard and Space Saving Model M's in an alternative 'gray/pebble' colour for use with their Industrial computers; this darker color was designed to conceal discoloration from handling in production environments. Other variable features include a grounded spacebar and, on some later models, drainage holes to deter damage from spilled drinks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The variant most commonly referred to as \"Model M\" is Part No. 1391401, on which many other variants were based. This model, known as the Enhanced Keyboard, included IBM's patented buckling spring design and swappable keycaps.  The Model M's design has been widely praised as durable and reliable, and has remained basically the same since the 1980s, while virtually all other computing hardware, from PCs to monitors to mice, has changed dramatically. The M's sturdy design, including its heavy steel backplate and strong plastic frame, has allowed even the most abused examples to survive for years.  The Model M's buckling spring key design gives it a unique feel and sound. Unlike more common and cheaper dome switch designs, buckling springs give users unmistakable tactile and auditory feedback. Because of its more defined touch, some users report they can type faster and more accurately on the Model M than on other keyboards.  The Model M is also less susceptible to dirt and wear. Dirt can interfere with the proper operation of most other keyboard technologies; however, the buckling spring switch's design is such that any dirt that falls between the keys is unlikely to enter the switch mechanism, which is covered by the key. Even if dirt were to enter a mechanism, a large amount would be necessary to prevent it from operating.  Until the late 4th-generation variants, most Model M's have a 1.25\" slotted, circular speaker grille in their bottom surfaces. Relatively few contain an actual speaker, however, which was useful only for sounding beep codes on older terminal systems. The most common p/n's with speakers are 1394540 and 51G872, made for RS/6000 UNIX workstations.  There are some drawbacks to the Model M design:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Identification.", "content": "All Model M keyboards made by IBM and Lexmark have an ID label on the underside indicating the assembly part number, individual serial number, and manufacturing date. The general period in which a Model M was made can also often be distinguished by the type of logo \"badge\" above its keys. The first model Ms (part numbers 1390120 or 1390131) have a square aluminum logo badge in the top right corner. Part number 1391401, and most variants based on it, has a gray IBM logo in a recessed oval at the board's upper left. Later IBM-made Model Ms, and variants subsequently made by Lexmark in the early 1990s (part numbers 1370477, 52G9658, 52G9700, 59G7980, 92G7453, 82G2383, 42H1292, etc.), have a similar oval badge area with a blue logo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features by part number.", "content": "Logo position legend:  Click [show] to display the table's contents.  Note: Manufacture dates are approximate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Model M designates a group of computer keyboards designed and manufactured by IBM starting in 1984, and later by Lexmark International, Maxi Switch, and Unicomp. The keyboard's many variations have their own distinct characteristics, with the vast majority having a buckling-spring key design and swappable keycaps. Model M keyboards have been praised by computer enthusiasts and frequent typists due to their durability and consistency, and the tactile and auditory feedback they provide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976786}
{"src_title": "Isaac Herzog", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Isaac (also spelled as Yitzhak) Herzog, aka \"Bougie\", is the son of General Chaim Herzog, who served two terms as the Sixth President of Israel from 1983 to 1993, and Aura Ambache, founder of the Council for a Beautiful Israel. His paternal grandfather, Rabbi Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog, was the first Chief Rabbi of Ireland from 1922 to 1935 and Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel from 1936 to 1959.  Herzog's father was born in Ireland and his mother was born in Egypt; their families were of Eastern European Jewish descent (from Poland, Russia, and Lithuania). He has two brothers and a sister.  Herzog was born in Tel Aviv. When his father served as Permanent Representative of Israel to the United Nations for three years, Herzog lived in New York and attended the Ramaz School. In the following years, while also studying in high school, Herzog gained an advanced academic education at Cornell University and New York University.  When he returned to Israel at the end of 1978, he enlisted in the IDF and served as a major officer in Unit 8200 of the Intelligence Corps.  Herzog studied law at Tel Aviv University. He worked at a law firm founded by his father, Herzog, Fox & Ne'eman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Although he did not win a seat in the 1999 elections, Herzog served as the Government Secretary in Ehud Barak's cabinet until 2001 when Barak was defeated by Ariel Sharon in a special election for Prime Minister. In 1999, he was also investigated in the \"Amutot Barak\" scandal (a scandal involving allegations that the party funding law was violated), but maintained his silence. The Attorney General, therefore, decided to close the case against him due to lack of evidence. From 2000 until 2003, he served as chairman of the Israel Anti-Drug Authority.  Herzog won a seat in the 2003 election as a member of the Labor Party, and was appointed Minister of Housing and Building at his request when Labor joined Ariel Sharon's coalition government on 10 January 2005. However, on 23 November 2005, he resigned from his cabinet post along with the rest of the party.  Prior to the 2006 elections, Herzog won second place on Labor's list in the party's primaries. He was initially appointed Minister of Tourism in Ehud Olmert's Kadima-led coalition, but was reassigned to the Social Affairs ministry in March 2007 after Yisrael Beiteinu was awarded the Tourism Ministry following their late entry to the governing coalition, and was also appointed Minister of the Diaspora, Society and the Fight Against Antisemitism. He was again second on the party's list for the 2009 elections. Following the election, he was appointed Minister of Welfare & Social Services and Minister of the Diaspora, Society, and the Fight Against Antisemitism. In January 2009 he was appointed by PM Ehud Olmert as the Israel Government Coordinator for the provision of humanitarian aid to the population of Gaza. He later resigned from the cabinet after Ehud Barak left the Labor Party to establish Independence in January 2011.  In 2011 Herzog was an unsuccessful candidate for the Labor Party leadership. He finished third in the primaries that year, after Shelly Yachimovich and Amir Peretz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opposition leader.", "content": "On 22 November 2013 Herzog was elected leader of the Labor Party, defeating incumbent Shelly Yachimovich by 58.5% to 41.5%. In doing so, he became Leader of the Opposition. Whereas Yachimovich focused first on socioeconomic issues, Herzog prioritizes security and resolution of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.  Ten days after the election, Herzog met with Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas to pledge his support for the two-state solution.  Herzog has reportedly reached out to Shas leader Aryeh Deri to increase cooperation between the two opposition factions. In June 2014, Herzog criticized PM Benjamin Netanyahu for failing to engage the international community, failing to present a proposal for peace with Palestinians, and failure to work effectively with the President of the United States, Barack Obama. Herzog declared that Netanyahu's \"loathing and hostility for Barack Obama\" was one of his greatest failures, since it put Israel's security at risk.  With the governing coalition dissolving and new elections expected in March 2015, Herzog called on Hatnua and Kadima parties to join his Labor Party in forming a new coalition. In an interview with YNET, he stated, \"I am capable of replacing Netanyahu. I will do everything in order to establish a bloc before the elections.\" Shortly thereafter, Herzog and Tzipi Livni, who was justice minister and is head of a centrist faction, announced they would campaign on a joint slate in the upcoming election in an effort to keep Netanyahu, leader of the Likud Party, from securing a fourth term as prime minister. The joint list was named Zionist Union, winning 24 seats to Likud's 30 in the 2015 election, making it the largest Opposition faction.  In July 2017, Herzog was eliminated in the first round of the Labor party primaries. Avi Gabbay went on to win the leadership elections, however Herzog remained official leader of the opposition in the Knesset as Gabay was not an elected MK. However, after being elected chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel, Herzog resigned as Leader of the Opposition and from the Knesset. Tzipi Livni succeeded him as Leader of the Opposition, whilst Robert Tiviaev replaced him in the Knesset.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chairman of the Jewish Agency.", "content": "In June 2018 Herzog was unanimously elected chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel. Herzog marked bridging the gap between the Jewish people and the State of Israel as one of his objectives. In an interview on Ynet news, Herzog stated that he views intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews as a plague to which there must be a solution. On October 24, 2018, Herzog led a resolution to reaffirm the Jewish Agency's Board of Governors' commitment to the principles of a democratic Israel as emerging from the Declaration of Independence. Following the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting, Herzog expressed his concern from the rising anti-Semitism all over the world. In the International Holocaust Remembrance Day ceremony at the European Parliament in Brussels he urged the leaders of European countries to fight anti-Semitism and to adopt the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance’s definition of anti-Semitism. In March 2019 the Jewish Agency became the first public institution in Israel to help employees finance surrogacy services abroad so that they can become parents (this includes gay and single parents).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Herzog is married to Michal, a lawyer, and has three sons. He resides in his childhood home in the Tzahala neighborhood of Tel Aviv.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Isaac 'Bougie' Herzog (; born 22 September 1960) is an Israeli politician. He served as a member of the Knesset between 2003 and 2018 and held several ministerial posts, including Minister of Welfare and Social Services (2007–11). Formerly the chairman of the Labor Party, he served as the opposition leader from 2013 until 2018. In June 2018 he was elected Chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel and his term began on August 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976787}
{"src_title": "Catarrhini", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The technical distinction between the New World platyrrhines and Old World catarrhines is the shape of their noses. The platyrrhines (from Ancient Greek \"platu-\", \"flat\", and \"rhin-\", \"nose\") have nostrils which face sideways. The catarrhines (from Ancient Greek \"kata-\", \"down\", and \"rhin-\", \"nose\") have nostrils that face downwards. Catarrhines also never have prehensile tails, and have flat fingernails and toenails, a tubular ectotympanic (ear bone), and eight, not 12, premolars, giving them a dental formula of:, indicating 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, and 3 molars on each side of the upper and lower jaws.  Most catarrhine species show considerable sexual dimorphism and do not form a pair bond. Most, but not all, species live in social groups. Like the platyrrhines, the catarrhines are generally diurnal, and have grasping hands and (with the exception of bipedal humans) grasping feet.  The apes – in both traditional and phylogenic nomenclature – are exclusively catarrhine species. In traditional usage, ape describes any tailless, larger, and more typically ground-dwelling species of catarrhine. \"Ape\" may be found as part of the common name of such species, such as the Barbary ape. In phylogenic usage, the term ape applies only to the superfamily Hominoidea. This grouping comprises the two families Hylobatidae, the lesser apes or gibbons, and Hominidae, the great apes, including orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, humans, and related extinct genera, such as the prehuman australopithecines and the giant orangutan relative \"Gigantopithecus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification and evolution.", "content": "According to Schrago & Russo, New World monkeys split from their Old World kin about 35 million years ago (Mya). They use the major catarrhine division between cercopithecoids and hominoids of about 25 Mya (which they argue is strongly supported by the fossil evidence), as a calibration point, and from this also calculate the gibbons separating from the great apes (including humans) about 15-19 Mya.  According to Begun and Harrison, the Catarrhini split from their New World monkey kin about 44 - 40 Mya, with the first catarrhines appearing in Africa and Arabia, and not appearing in Eurasia (outside Arabia) until 18-17 Mya.  The distinction between apes and monkeys is complicated by the traditional paraphyly of monkeys: Apes emerged as a sister group of Old World monkeys in the catarrhines, which are a sister group of New World monkeys. Therefore, cladistically, apes, catarrhines and related contemporary extinct groups such as Parapithecidae are monkeys as well, for any consistent definition of \"monkey\". \"Old World Monkey\" may also legitimately be taken to be meant to include all the catarrhines, including apes and extinct species such as \"Aegyptopithecus\", in which case the apes, Cercopithecoidea and \"Aegyptopithecus\" emerged within the Old World Monkeys.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cladogram.", "content": "Below is a cladogram with extinct species in which the crown Catharrhini, which emerged in the Propliopithecoidea. Also, Saadanioidea is sister of the Cercopithecoidea rather than of the Crown Catarrhini here. It is indicated how many million years ago (Mya) the clades diverged into newer clades. The Platyrrhini may have emerged in e.g. the Oligopithecidae.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Catarrhini or catarrhine monkeys or Old World anthropoids are the sister group to the New World monkeys, the Platyrrhini. The Platyrrhini emerged within \"monkeys\" by migration to South America from Afro-Arabia (the Old World), likely by ocean. With respect to the ones that stayed behind, Geoffroy in 1812 grouped the apes (hominoidea) and the Cercopithecoidea together and established the name Catarrhini, \"Old World monkeys\", or \"singes de l'Ancien continent\". Darwin in the late 19th century imagined correctly that apes were the sister to the Cercopithecoidea. There has been some resistance to directly designate apes (and thus humans) as monkeys despite the scientific evidence, so \"Old World monkey\" may be taken to mean the Cercopithecoidea or the Catarrhini. That apes are monkeys was already realized by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in the 18th century. The apes are further divided into the lesser apes or gibbons and the great apes, consisting of the orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans. The Catarrhini are all native to Africa and Asia. Members of this parvorder are called catarrhines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976788}
{"src_title": "Hal David", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "David was born in New York City, a son of Austrian Jewish immigrants Lina (née Goldberg) and Gedalier David, who owned a delicatessen in Brooklyn, and younger brother of American lyricist and songwriter Mack David.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "He is credited with popular music lyrics, beginning in the 1940s with material written for bandleader Sammy Kaye and for Guy Lombardo. He worked with Morty Nevins of The Three Suns on four songs for the feature film \"Two Gals and a Guy\" (1951), starring Janis Paige and Robert Alda.  In 1957, David met composer Burt Bacharach at Famous Music in the Brill Building in New York. The two teamed up and wrote their first hit \"The Story of My Life\", recorded by Marty Robbins in 1957. Subsequently, in the 1960s and early 1970s Bacharach and David wrote some of the most enduring songs in American popular music, many for Dionne Warwick but also for The Carpenters, Dusty Springfield, B. J. Thomas, Gene Pitney, Tom Jones, Jackie DeShannon and others.  In the UK, a version of \"The Story of My Life\" recorded by Michael Holliday reached #1 in 1958 before being replaced by Perry Como's \"Magic Moments\", the first time any songwriter had consecutive #1 hits in the UK Singles Chart.  Bacharach and David hits included \"Alfie\", \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\", \"This Guy's in Love with You\", \"I'll Never Fall in Love Again\", \"Do You Know the Way to San Jose\", \"Walk On By\", \"What the World Needs Now Is Love\", \"I Say a Little Prayer\", \"(There's) Always Something There to Remind Me\", \"One Less Bell to Answer\" and \"Anyone Who Had a Heart\".  The duo's film work includes the Oscar-nominated title songs for \"What's New Pussycat?\" and \"Alfie\", \"The Look of Love\", from \"Casino Royale\"; and the Oscar-winning \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\" from \"Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid\". In addition, \"Don't Make Me Over\", \"(They Long to Be) Close to You\" and \"Walk On By\" have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.  David's work with other composers includes Albert Hammond for Willie Nelson and Julio Iglesias's \"To All the Girls I've Loved Before\"; Sarah Vaughan's \"Broken Hearted Melody\", with Sherman Edwards; the 1962 Joanie Sommers hit \"Johnny Get Angry\" also with Edwards; and \"99 Miles From L.A.\" with Albert Hammond, recorded by Hammond and later Art Garfunkel. With Paul Hampton, David co-wrote the country standard \"Sea of Heartbreak\", a hit for Don Gibson and others.  David contributed lyrics to three James Bond film themes: in addition to \"The Look of Love\" from \"Casino Royale\" with Bacharach, he wrote \"We Have All the Time in the World\", with John Barry and sung by Louis Armstrong for the 1969 film \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\", and in 1979, \"Moonraker\", also with Barry, sung by Bond regular Shirley Bassey for the film of the same name.  David and Bacharach were awarded the 2011 Gershwin Prize for Popular Song, bestowed by the Library of Congress, the first time a songwriting team was given the honor. David was recuperating from an illness and was unable to attend the Washington D.C. presentation ceremony in May 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "David died in the morning hours of September 1, 2012, of a stroke. He was 91. He had two sons Jim David and Craig David with his first wife Anne (died 1987). He married his second wife Eunice and had three grandchildren.  He is interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills) beside his first wife, Anne, who died in 1987.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Harold Lane David (May 25, 1921 – September 1, 2012) was an American lyricist. He grew up in Brooklyn, New York City. He was best known for his collaborations with composer Burt Bacharach and his association with Dionne Warwick.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976789}
{"src_title": "Daniel Carcillo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "After being drafted 73rd overall in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft by the Pittsburgh Penguins, Carcillo was traded to the Phoenix Coyotes in exchange for Georges Laraque on February 27, 2007. During the 2007–08 regular season, he led the NHL with 324 penalty minutes.  Carcillo was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers on March 4, 2009, in exchange for Scottie Upshall and a 2011 second-round draft pick. His first goal as a Flyer came in Game 4 of the first round of the 2009 Stanley Cup playoffs against Pittsburgh.  Carcillo signed a one-year contract with the Chicago Blackhawks on July 1, 2011. Carcillo's season came to an early end on January 2, 2012, in a game between the Blackhawks and the Edmonton Oilers. In that game, Carcillo was assessed a five-minute major penalty and a game misconduct for boarding and attempting to injure Oilers defenceman Tom Gilbert. Both Carcillo and Gilbert were injured on the play, and Carcillo was suspended for seven games. Carcillo, however, tore the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in his left knee on the play, and underwent surgery four days later, costing him the rest of the season. On March 12, 2012, Carcillo signed a two-year contract extension with the Blackhawks through to the 2013–14 season.  Carcillo was traded to the Los Angeles Kings on July 16, 2013, in exchange for a conditional sixth-round draft pick. He was then traded to the New York Rangers on January 4, 2014, for a conditional seventh-round draft pick in 2014. On May 23, 2014, Carcillo was automatically suspended ten games during the 2014 playoffs for using physical force against a linesman while being escorted to the penalty box. On June 3, 2014, Carcillo's suspension on appeal was reduced from ten games to six by NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman.  On September 4, 2014, the Pittsburgh Penguins signed Carcillo to a professional tryout contract in order to attend their 2014 training camp. He subsequently failed to make the team and was released. On October 3, 2014, Carcillo was added to the Chicago Blackhawks' training camp roster. He agreed to a one-year, one-way contract at the league minimum of $550,000 for his second stint with the club.  On January 16, 2015, Carcillo injured Winnipeg Jets' forward Mathieu Perreault while delivering a cross-check from behind after the play had been stopped. Perreault left the game and the NHL's Department of Player Safety issued Carcillo a six-game suspension and a fine of $40,243.92 for the hit. The incident marked the twelfth time Carcillo had been fined or suspended in nine NHL seasons. The Blackhawks won 2015 Stanley Cup, and although Carcillo did not make an appearance for the Blackhawks in the 2015 Stanley Cup playoffs, his name was still engraved on the Stanley Cup.  Carcillo's reckless style of play earned him the nickname \"Car Bomb\".  On September 17, 2015, Carcillo announced his retirement from professional hockey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Carcillo was the host of a music-focused 2011 radio program entitled \"The Bomb Shelter\" on WGN Radio 720 in Chicago.  Carcillo has admitted to battling alcohol and substance abuse problems throughout his professional career. Upon joining the Blackhawks, Carcillo became friends with Steve Montador, who was also trying to overcome a substance abuse problem. Montador helped Carcillo battle his alcohol and substance dependencies, but was forced to leave the NHL after sustaining a concussion in 2012. Carcillo remained friends with Montador until the latter's unexpected death in 2015. Montador's death deeply impacted Carcillo, who was also recovering from a concussion. He called for the NHL community to play a larger role in the lives of former players that have suffered concussions. After winning the Stanley Cup in 2015, Carcillo retired from playing professional hockey and established the 'Chapter 5 Foundation', which is dedicated to helping players who are struggling with post-concussion syndrome, anxiety, or depression.  In November 2018, Carcillo indicated that as a rookie of the 2002-03 Sarnia Sting, he and other rookies were subjected to several forms of severe hazing, which crossed over into physical and sexual assault. Carcillo's accusations were corroborated by several other former Sting teammates, who joined him in a class-action lawsuit against the Canadian Hockey League in 2020.  Carcillo lives in Chicago with his wife and son.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Daniel Carcillo (born January 28, 1985) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey left winger. He most recently played under contract to the Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL). His on-ice reputation has led to him being nicknamed \"Car Bomb\". Carcillo won a Stanley Cup as a member of the 2013 and 2015 Blackhawks. After retiring from the NHL in 2015, Carcillo created a non-profit organization that assists former NHL-players who are suffering from post-concussion syndrome and mental health issues.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976790}
{"src_title": "Michal Neuvirth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Junior.", "content": "After being drafted into the NHL by the Capitals, Neuvirth began a two-year major junior career in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL). He began with the Plymouth Whalers in 2006–07 before being traded on 13 November 2007, to the Windsor Spitfires, along with defenceman Tom Kane and a fourth-round draft pick in 2009 in exchange for defenceman Michal Jordán, goaltender Matt Hackett, a 2008 second-round draft pick and a third-round pick in 2009. After spending less than half a season with the Spitfires, he was traded yet again on 8 January 2008, to the Oshawa Generals along with Ryan Baldwin for forward Justin Shugg, goaltender Jakub Kovář and second-round picks in 2008 and 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Washington Capitals.", "content": "Neuvirth turned pro in 2008–09 with the South Carolina Stingrays, the Capitals' ECHL affiliate. During his short stint with the Stingrays, he was named to the 2009 ECHL All-Star Game for the American Conference. He was called up to the Hershey Bears of the American Hockey League (AHL) during the season and, before long, received his first NHL call-up to the Capitals when starting goaltender Semyon Varlamov was sidelined due to injury. He made his NHL debut on 14 February 2009, against the Tampa Bay Lightning. Making 31 saves, including a breakaway glove save on Vincent Lecavalier, Neuvirth backstopped the Capitals to a 5–1 victory for his first NHL win. He then played in his Capitals home debut on 26 February against the Atlanta Thrashers, recording another win with a 21-save effort. He finished the season appearing in five games total for the Capitals with a 2–1 record and 3.00 goals against average (GAA).  After being returned to the Bears, Neuvirth helped his team to the 2009 Calder Cup finals. He recorded a shutout in Game 3 for the Bears to take a 2–1 series lead against the Manitoba Moose. Neuvirth then went on with the Hershey Bears to win the 2009 Calder Cup, earning MVP honors after his Game 6 win. Neuvirth went 16–6 in the playoffs and finished the post-season with a 1.92 GAA, topping Frédéric Cassivi's previous AHL playoff best of 2.10 GAA.  After helping the Bears to the back-to-back Calder Cups in 2010, Neuvirth was named the starting goaltender of the Capitals' season opener on 8 October against Atlanta, in which he made 27 saves in a 4–2 loss. Neuvirth would go on to beat out Semyon Varlamov for the starting position for the entire season. Despite a solid season as Washington's starter and an adequate playoff performance, Washington would demote Neuvirth to backup goaltender status to make way for Tomáš Vokoun, trading away incumbent backup Varlamov to the Colorado Avalanche in the process. Vokoun's run as Washington's starter only lasted one season, however, and he was injured before the playoffs began. Unfortunately for Neuvirth, he himself was also injured, allowing third goaltender Braden Holtby to start Game 1 of the first round series against the Boston Bruins. Even though Neuvirth managed to return to health in time for Game 3, Holtby went on to start for the duration of Washington's playoff run in 2012. In the off-season, Vokoun left to take the backup goaltender job with the Pittsburgh Penguins. New Capitals head coach Adam Oates then confirmed Holtby as the new starting goaltender of the Washington Capitals during training camp, but failed to rule out Neuvirth reclaiming the starter's role if he were to outplay Holtby.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Buffalo Sabres.", "content": "On 5 March 2014, Neuvirth was traded by the Capitals, along with Rostislav Klesla, to the Buffalo Sabres in exchange for Jaroslav Halák and a third round pick. Neuvirth closed out the season with an (0-2-0) record. The next season, Neuvirth posted a record of (6-17-3).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "New York Islanders.", "content": "Almost one year later, on 2 March 2015, Neuvirth was traded by the Sabres to the New York Islanders in exchange for Chad Johnson and a third-round draft pick. Neuvirth recorded a (1-3-1) record with the Islanders.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Philadelphia Flyers.", "content": "On 1 July 2015, Neuvirth signed a two-year contract as a free agent with the Philadelphia Flyers, to serve as a backup to Steve Mason.  On 1 April 2017, Neuvirth suddenly collapsed on the ice during a game against the New Jersey Devils while there was a stoppage in play at 7:37 of the first period. He was rushed to a nearby hospital after being taken off the ice on a stretcher. Backup goaltender Anthony Stolarz replaced Neuvirth for the rest of the game, which the Flyers won 3–0. The Flyers announced the next afternoon he had been released from the hospital and all tests were normal.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "After four seasons under contract with the Flyers, Neuvirth left as a free agent following an injury-plagued 2018–19 season. Unable to secure an NHL contract, Neuvirth agreed to an invitation to attend the Toronto Maple Leafs' training camp on a professional tryout (PTO) contract on 22 July 2019.  On 24 September, Toronto released Neuvirth from his PTO contract. As a free agent, Neuvirth sat out the majority of the season before signing a one-year contract in returning to the Czech Republic for the remainder of the year with hometown club, HC Sparta Praha of the ELH, on 23 January 2020.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Neuvirth married Monika Hybnerova in June 2014, but the couple divorced in July 2015.  On 29 May 2018, Neuvirth married Czech musician Karolina Gudasová, the sister of former Philadelphia Flyers teammate Radko Gudas. He and Karolina have two children together, daughter Emilka (b. 2017) and son Marko (b. 2018).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Michal Neuvirth (; born 23 March 1988) is a Czech professional ice hockey goaltender who is currently under contract with HC Sparta Praha of the Czech Extraliga (ELH). He previously played for the Washington Capitals, New York Islanders, Buffalo Sabres, and Philadelphia Flyers. He was selected 34th overall by the Washington Capitals in the second round of the 2006 NHL Entry Draft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976791}
{"src_title": "Lac Alaotra bamboo lemur", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The classification of the\" bandro\" is disputed, with some classifying it as a subspecies of \"Hapalemur griseus\", while others see it as a separate species. Current genetic data do not support species status. Mitochondrial DNA sequences from the two populations \"H. g. griseus\" and \"H. g. alaotrensis\" are interspersed with each other on the phylogenetic tree. Moreover, average genetic distances between the two subspecies are within the range of within-taxon comparisons and not in the range of between-taxon comparisons. A final assessment of species \"versus\" subspecies status requires filling in gaps in sampling and the use of nuclear loci. GenBank, the universal repository for genetic sequence information, has not accepted the species status of the Aloatran lemur and lists it as a subspecies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The tail and body of the Lac Alaotra bamboo lemur are both 40 cm on average, and it weighs between 1.1 and 1.4 kg, with males slightly larger than females. Its dense, woolly fur is a gray-brown on the back, lighter gray on the face and chest, and chestnut brown on the head and neck.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "This lemur is the only primate specifically adapted to living in papyrus reeds. Unlike other bamboo lemurs, the Lac Alaotra bamboo lemur does not eat bamboo; instead, it feeds on the stems of papyrus reeds, shoots of the grass \"Phragmites communis\", and two other species of grasses (\"Echinochloa crus-galli\" and \"Leersia hexandra\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Status.", "content": "The population of Lac Alaotra bamboo lemur is declining as suitable habitat around the lake is being destroyed and converted to rice fields. Other threats include the burning of the marshland and hunting of the lemurs for food and the pet trade. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated this lemur as being \"critically endangered\", but a new 42,478 hectare protected area was created around the lake in 2007 which should provide some protection for the lemurs. The Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust has a Lac Alaotra bamboo lemur conservation program, and some captive breeding is being done in zoos. The species is listed in CITES Appendix I.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Lac Alaotra bamboo lemur (\"Hapalemur alaotrensis\"), also known as the Lac Alaotra gentle lemur, Alaotran bamboo lemur, Alaotran gentle lemur, Alaotra reed lemur, or locally as the \"\", is a bamboo lemur. It is endemic to the reed beds in and around Lac Alaotra, in northeast Madagascar. It is about long, with a similar length tail, and is a brownish-gray colour. It is the only bamboo lemur to live in and feed on papyrus reeds, and other reeds and grasses, and some authorities argue that it should be regarded as a subspecies of the eastern lesser bamboo lemur (\"Hapalemur griseus\"). The population of this lemur has been declining because of habitat destruction and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated it as being \"critically endangered\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976792}
{"src_title": "Bernheim-Jeune", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1901, Alexandre Bernheim, with his sons, Josse (1870-1941), and Gaston (1870-1953), organized the first important exhibition of Vincent van Gogh paintings in Paris with the help of art critic Julien Leclercq.  In 1906, \"Bernheim-Jeune frères\" started presenting works by Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard, Paul Cézanne, Henri-Edmond Cross, Kees van Dongen, Henri Matisse, Le Douanier Rousseau, Raoul Dufy, Maurice de Vlaminck, Amedeo Modigliani, Maurice Utrillo and Georges Dufrénoy.  From 1906 to 1925, art critic Félix Fénéon was the director of the gallery and was instrumental in bringing in the art of Georges Seurat and Umberto Boccioni. The gallery became one of the centers of the artistic avant-garde. In 1906, the gallery also began publishing monographs; its first release was devoted to the paintings of Eugène Carrière. In 1919 it also launched a bimonthly bulletin about artistic life.  In 1922, an exhibition brought together works by Alice Halicka, Auguste Herbin, Pierre Hodé, Moïse Kisling, Marie Laurencin, Henri Lebasque, Fernand Léger and Henri Matisse.  During the German occupation, its property was seized by the Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce or ERR. In 1941 their gallery was sequestered, paintings confiscated and their buildings sold. Like other art dealers such as Paul Rosenberg, Bernheim had to labor for several decades to recover some of the paintings, the task made more difficult as two record ledgers had disappeared from the gallery during the looting. In 1940 sensing that they, of Jewish background, would be targeted by the Nazis, the Bernheim-Jeune family had sent 30 or so impressionist and post-impressionist paintings to the Château de Rastignac in Dordogne for safekeeping. On March 30 1944, fleeing Nazi Schutzstaffel (SS) forces set fire to the château, after five truckloads of items were removed; the paintings may have been destroyed.  After the death in 2012 of Michel Dauberville, descendant of Bernheim, his cousin Guy-Patrice Dauberville, also an expert in modern paintings and a Bonnard and Renoir specialist, started heading Bernheim-Jeune.  The gallery now exhibits painters and sculptors in the tradition of the École de Paris and artists such as Jean Carzou, Shelomo Selinger or Pollès.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery closing.", "content": "In 2018, the Bernheim-Jeune website announced the gallery would be closing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bernheim-Jeune gallery is one of the oldest art galleries in Paris. Opened on Rue Laffitte in 1863 by Alexandre Bernheim (1839-1915), friend of Delacroix, Corot and Courbet, it changed location a few times before settling on Avenue Matignon. It is still managed by members of the same family. The gallery promoted realists, Barbizon school paintings and, in 1874, the first impressionist and later post-impressionist painters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976793}
{"src_title": "Jan Fischer (politician)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and education.", "content": "Jan Fischer was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia. His father was a researcher at the Institute of Mathematics of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences specialising in mathematical and statistical applications in genetics, selective growing and medicine. His mother was also a statistician. His father, a Holocaust survivor, was Jewish, and his mother was Catholic. Raised in an interfaith household, Fischer identifies with Judaism.  Fischer graduated from the University of Economics, Prague in 1974 in statistics and econometrics. He completed postgraduate studies there in 1985, earning his Candidate of Sciences degree in economic statistics. He was a member of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia from 1980 till the collapse of the Communist regime in 1989.  Jan Fischer is married for the second time to his former secretary and has 3 children. His eldest son Jakub (born 1978) is an Associate Professor of statistics and vice-dean at the Faculty of Informatics and Statistics of the University of Economics, Prague.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Immediately after graduation, Fischer joined the Federal Statistical Office. In 1990 he became its vice-chairman and held this position until the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, becoming the first vice-president of the newly established Czech Statistical Office. Since the beginning of the 1990s he led the team tallying the elections in the Czech Republic results. He appeared to be groomed to replace the long-time president Edvard Outrata who retired in August 1999; however the Social-Democratic government brought in an outsider Marie Bohatá from the academia. She fired Fischer in September 2000, whereupon he became Production Director of Taylor Nelson Sofres Factum. In 2001 he participated in an International Monetary Fund mission exploring possibilities of establishing a statistical bureau in East Timor. Since March 2002 he was a chief of research institutes at the Faculty of Informatics and Statistics of the University of Economics, Prague. After Bohatá resigned due to a scandal with a huge error in foreign trade balance, Fischer was appointed president of the Czech Statistical Office on 24 April 2003.  He is a member of the Czech Statistical Society, the Scientific Council and Board of Trustees and a Scientific Board of the Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem. Since April 2011, he is also a member of the board of Bruegel, the European think tank for international economics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prime Minister.", "content": "After the vote of no confidence of Mirek Topolánek's centre-right government in March 2009, in the middle of Czech Presidency of the European Union, Fischer was proposed to be the Prime Minister in April. He was nominated by Civic Democratic Party as independent. His government, nominated by both the Czech major parties (Topolánek's Civic Democratic Party and Czech Social Democratic Party) was inaugurated on 8 May 2009 on the understanding that the early election would be in October; however unexpected development in the Constitutional Court and House of Deputies postponed them to May 2010. Fischer decided to remain in the government, where he proved very popular, until then although the parties offered him a post in the European Commission.  He was a patron of the conference \"Crimes of the Communist Regimes\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Candidate for President.", "content": "In February 2012, Jan Fischer announced his candidacy for the presidential election of January 2013. He was, according to polls, the favourite of the election, along with former Prime Minister Miloš Zeman. However, he lost in the first round to Zeman and the Foreign Minister Karel Schwarzenberg. Prior to the election, he was criticised for his former membership in the Communist Party.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jan Fischer (; born 2 January 1951) is a Czech politician who served as Prime Minister of the Czech Republic from May 2009 to July 2010, heading a caretaker government. Later he was Minister of Finance from July 2013 to January 2014 in another interim government of Jiří Rusnok.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976794}
{"src_title": "Vasily Blokhin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Blokhin, born into a peasant family on 7 January 1895, served in the Imperial Russian Army during World War I, and joined the Soviet state security agency Cheka in March 1921. Though records are scant, he was evidently noted for both his pugnaciousness and his mastery of what Joseph Stalin termed \"chernaya rabota\" (\"wetwork\", or literally, \"black work\"): assassinations, torture, intimidation, and executions conducted clandestinely. Once he gained Stalin's attention, he was quickly promoted and within six years was appointed the head of the purposefully created Kommandatura Branch of the Administrative Executive Department of the NKVD. This branch was a company-sized element created by Stalin specifically for wetwork. Headquartered at the Lubyanka in Moscow, its members were all approved by Stalin and took their orders directly from him, a fact that ensured the unit's longevity despite three bloody purges of the NKVD.  As senior executioner, Blokhin had the official title of commandant of the internal prison at the Lubyanka, which allowed him to carry out his duties with a minimum of scrutiny and no official paperwork. Although most of the estimated 828,000 NKVD executions conducted in Stalin's lifetime were performed by local Chekists in concert with NKVD troikas, mass executions were overseen by specialist executioners from the \"Kommandantura\". In addition to overseeing the mass executions, Blokhin personally pulled the trigger in all of the individual high-profile executions conducted in the Soviet Union during his tenure, including those of the Old Bolsheviks convicted at the Moscow Show Trials; Marshal of the Soviet Union Mikhail Tukhachevsky (convicted at a secret trial); and two of the three fallen NKVD Chiefs (Genrikh Yagoda in 1938 and Nikolai Yezhov in 1940) he had once served. He was awarded the Badge of Honor for his service in 1937.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in the Katyn massacre.", "content": "Blokhin's most infamous act was the April 1940 execution by shooting of about 7,000 Polish prisoners interned in the Ostashkov prisoner of war camp in the Katyn forest. The majority were military and police officers who had been captured following the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939. The event's infamy also stems from the Stalin regime's orchestration of the murders, and the subsequent Soviet propaganda campaign which blamed Nazi Germany for the massacres.  In 1990, as part of Glasnost, Mikhail Gorbachev gave the Polish government the files on the massacres at Katyn, Starobelsk and Kalinin (now Tver), revealing Stalin's involvement. Based on the 4 April secret order from Stalin to NKVD Chief Lavrentiy Beria (as well as NKVD Order No 00485, which still applied), the executions were carried out over 28 consecutive nights at the specially constructed basement execution chamber at the NKVD headquarters in Kalinin, and were assigned, by name, directly to Blokhin, making him the official executioner of the NKVD.  Blokhin initially decided on an ambitious quota of 300 executions per night; and engineered an efficient system in which the prisoners were individually led to a small antechamber—which had been painted red and was known as the \"Leninist room\"—for a brief and cursory positive identification, before being handcuffed and led into the execution room next door. The room was specially designed with padded walls for soundproofing, a sloping concrete floor with a drain and hose, and a log wall for the prisoners to stand against. Blokhin would stand waiting behind the door in his executioner garb: a leather butcher's apron, leather hat, and shoulder-length leather gloves. Then, without a hearing, the reading of a sentence or any other formalities, each prisoner was brought in and restrained by guards while Blokhin shot him once in the base of the skull with a German Walther Model 2.25 ACP pistol. He had brought a briefcase full of his own Walther pistols, since he did not trust the reliability of the standard-issue Soviet TT-30 for the frequent, heavy use he intended. The use of a German pocket pistol, which was commonly carried by German police and intelligence agents, also provided plausible deniability of the executions if the bodies were discovered later.  An estimated 30 local NKVD agents, guards and drivers were pressed into service to escort prisoners to the basement, confirm identification, then remove the bodies and hose down the blood after each execution. Although some of the executions were carried out by Senior Lieutenant of State Security Andrei Rubanov, Blokhin was the primary executioner and, true to his reputation, liked to work continuously and rapidly without interruption. In keeping with NKVD policy and the overall \"wet\" nature of the operation, the executions were conducted at night, starting at dark and continuing until just prior to dawn. The bodies were continuously loaded onto covered flat-bed trucks through a back door in the execution chamber and trucked, twice a night, to Mednoye, where Blokhin had arranged for a bulldozer and two NKVD drivers to dispose of bodies at an unfenced site. Each night, 24–25 trenches were dug, measuring in length, to hold that night's corpses, and each trench was covered over before dawn.  Blokhin and his team worked without pause for 10 hours each night, with Blokhin executing an average of one prisoner every three minutes. At the end of the night, Blokhin provided vodka to all his men. On 27 April 1940, Blokhin secretly received the Order of the Red Banner and a modest monthly pay premium as a reward from Joseph Stalin for his \"skill and organization in the effective carrying out of special tasks\". His count of 7,000 shot in 28 days remains the most organized and protracted mass murder by a single individual on record, and saw him being named the Guinness World Record holder for 'Most Prolific Executioner' in 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement and death.", "content": "Blokhin was forcibly retired in 1953 following Stalin's death that March. However, his \"irreproachable service\" was publicly noted by Beria at the time of his departure. After Beria's fall from power in June of the same year, Blokhin's rank was stripped from him in the de-Stalinization campaigns of Nikita Khrushchev. He reportedly sank into alcoholism and serious mental illness, and died on 3 February 1955, with the official cause of death listed as \"suicide\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Blokhin was married to Natalia Aleksandrovna Blokhina (1901–1967), and had a son, Nikolai Vasilievich Baranov (1916–1998).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vasily Mikhailovich Blokhin (; 7 January 1895 – 3 February 1955) was a Soviet Russian Major-General who served as the chief executioner of the Stalinist NKVD under the administrations of Genrikh Yagoda, Nikolai Yezhov, and Lavrentiy Beria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976795}
{"src_title": "2011 IIHF Women's World Championship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Top Division.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary Round.", "content": "All times local (CEST/UTC+2)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relegation series.", "content": "\"Best of three.\"  All times local (CEST/UTC+2)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scoring leaders.", "content": "List shows the top 10 skaters sorted by points, then goals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leading goaltenders.", "content": "Only the top five goaltenders, based on save percentage, who have played 40% of their team's minutes are included in this list.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division I tournament which was held in Ravensburg, Germany, from April 11 to April 16. The winner of the group was promoted to the Top Division for the 2012 championships, while the last-placed team in the group was relegated to Division II.  On March 29, 2011 Japan withdrew from the tournament due to the 2011 Japan earthquake. They retained their position in 2012's Division I, and the 5th placed team was relegated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division II tournament which was held in Caen, France. The winner of the group, Czech Republic was promoted to Division I for the 2012 championships, while the last-placed team in the group, North Korea was relegated to Division III. Prior to the start of the tournament the North Korean national team announced they would withdraw, citing financial reasons. All games against them were counted as a forfeit, with a score of 5–0 for the opposing team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division III tournament which was held in Newcastle, Australia. The winner of the group, Netherlands was promoted to Division II for the 2012 championships, while the last-placed team in the group, Belgium was relegated to Division IV.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division IV.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division IV tournament which was held in Reykjavík, Iceland, from March 29 to April 4.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division V.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division V tournament which was held in Sofia, Bulgaria, from March 14 to March 20.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2011 IIHF World Women's Championships was held in April 2011 in Zürich and Winterthur, Switzerland. This was the 13th women's championship run by the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). The United States were the defending champions and defended their title, capturing their third straight gold medal by defeating Canada 3–2 in overtime on a goal by Hilary Knight. IIHF council member Monique Scheier-Schneider presided over the events.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976796}
{"src_title": "Miroslav Kalousek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He studied chemistry at the Institute of Chemical Technology in Prague and then worked at the Ministry of Defense where he was responsible for the budget and acquisitions from 1993 to 1998.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1998, Kalousek was elected as MP on the ticket of the Christian Democrats, the party he led from 2003 until his departure in 2006.  The 2006 parliamentary election resulted in a situation where no party or coalition of parties was able to form a viable government. Over a period of many months a number of alternatives were negotiated with no result. On 24 August 2006 Kalousek unexpectedly accepted an offer from Jiří Paroubek to start negotiations on a minority government of KDU-ČSL and the Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) which would be supported by the Communists. The presidium of the party expressed no objections. Such negotiations were in conflict with the pre-election promises and the vocal anti-communist stance of the party and its electorate. On 25 August 2006 mass protests by KDU-ČSL members, regional organisations and members of parliament went public. The party group in Brno (the biggest regional organisation) rejected the negotiated solution and asked for the resignation of Kalousek and of the whole presidium of KDU-ČSL. Other organisations made similar demands. Some members of parliament declared that they would refuse to support such a government. On the evening of the same day the country-wide committee of KDU-ČSL refused the proposal by an overwhelming majority and Kalousek resigned. He has claimed his negotiation with Jiří Paroubek was part of a plan to prevent a government coalition of ČSSD and the Civic Democratic Party (ODS), which otherwise seemed to be the most likely scenario. That goal in fact came to pass when ODS refused to participate in a \"grand coalition\" and created its own government with minority support in the Parliament.  In 2007, Kalousek was appointed as a Finance Minister in the cabinet of Prime Minister Mirek Topolánek, a position he held until 2009 when Topolánek's cabinet lost a vote of no-confidence.  In 2009, Kalousek and Karel Schwarzenberg co-founded a pro-European, center-right and conservative political party, TOP 09, that found success in the 2010 legislative election and the party formed a coalition government with the Civic Democrats (ODS) and Public Affairs (VV), a move that secured the Ministry of Finance for Kalousek for the second time.  Kalousek was re-elected as MP in the 2013 legislative election but lost the post of Finance Minister. In 2015, he was elected as Leader of TOP 09, succeeding Karel Schwarzenberg.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Miroslav Kalousek (born 17 December 1960) is a Czech politician, former leader of KDU-ČSL and TOP 09, and has been a member of the Chamber of Deputies (MP) since 1998. He served twice as Finance Minister in the cabinets of Mirek Topolánek and then again from 2010 to 2013 in the government of Petr Nečas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976797}
{"src_title": "Wawel Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Interior.", "content": "The Cathedral comprises a nave with aisles, transepts with aisles, a choir with double aisles, and an apse with ambulatory and radiating chapels. The main altar, located in the apse, was founded about 1650 by Bishop Piotr Gembicki and created by Giovanni Battista Gisleni. The altar painting of \"Crucified Christ\" by Marcin Blechowski is from the 17th century. Over the main altar stands a tall canopy of black marble supported by four pillars, designed by Giovanni Battista Trevano and Matteo Castelli between 1626 and 1629. Underneath the canopy is placed a silver coffin of national patron Stanislaus of Szczepanów (also Stanisław Szczepanowski) created between 1669-1671 after the previous one (donated in 1512 by King Sigismund I the Old) was stolen by the Swedes in 1655.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sigismund's Chapel.", "content": "Sigismund's Chapel, or Zygmunt Chapel (\"\"Kaplica Zygmuntowska\"\"), adjoining the southern wall of the cathedral, is one of the most notable pieces of architecture in Kraków and perhaps \"the purest example of Renaissance architecture outside Italy.\" Financed by Sigismund I the Old, it was built between 1517 and 1533 by Bartolommeo Berrecci, a Florentine Renaissance architect, who spent most of his career in Poland.  A square-based chapel with a golden dome, it houses the tombs of its founder and those of his children, King Sigismund II Augustus and Anna Jagiellon (Jagiellonka).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Royal chapels and crypts.", "content": "The Wawel Cathedral has been the main burial site for Polish monarchs since the 14th century. As such, it has been significantly extended and altered over time as individual rulers have added multiple burial chapels. The crypts beneath the Wawel Cathedral hold the tombs of Polish kings, national heroes, generals and revolutionaries, including rulers of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth such as: Jan III Sobieski and his consort Marie Casimire (Maria Kazimiera); the remains of Tadeusz Kościuszko, the leader of a Polish national insurrection and Brigadier General in the American Revolutionary War; Władysław Sikorski, Prime Minister of the Polish Government in Exile and Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Armed Forces; Marshal Józef Piłsudski, founder of the Second Polish Republic. Pope John Paul II celebrated his first mass in St. Leonard's Crypt. He considered being buried at the Wawel Cathedral also at one point in time, while some of the people of Poland had hoped that, following ancient custom, his heart would be brought there and kept alongside the remains of the great Polish rulers. (John Paul II was buried under St. Peter's Basilica, a papal burial site since antiquity, instead.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crypt of National Poets.", "content": "Here are buried the national bards: Adam Mickiewicz (laid to rest there in 1890) and Juliusz Słowacki (1927).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Royal Archcathedral Basilica of Saints Stanislaus and Wenceslaus on the Wawel Hill (), also known as the Wawel Cathedral (), is a Roman Catholic church and cathedral of the Archdiocese of Kraków, located on Wawel Hill in Kraków, Poland. More than 900 years old, it is the Polish national sanctuary and traditionally has served as coronation site of the Polish monarchs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976798}
{"src_title": "House of Metternich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The family originated as a cadet branch of the lords of Hemmerich (which today is a district of Bornheim, near Bonn). The head of the family rose to have the position of hereditary chamberlain of the Elector of Cologne. This branch of the family drew its name from the village of Metternich in Weilerswist beginning in the 13th century.  By the 16th century, the family had seven distinct branches:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metternich-Burscheid.", "content": "Dieter von Metternich acquired Zievel by marriage in 1494, and came to be ruler of Burscheid. His son, also named Dieter von Metternich (died 1600) styled himself Lord of Mersch and Esch-sur-Sûre. His grandson, Wolfgang Heinrich von Metternich (died 1699) acquired Dodenburg, Neckar, Steinbach, and Densborn. Wolfgang Heinrich von Metternich's brother Lothar Friedrich von Metternich-Burscheid was Elector of Mainz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metternich-Chursdorf.", "content": "A second line of the family, founded by Johann Reinhard \"Freiherr\" von Metternich, came to rule Chursdorf. This branch of the family converted to the Protestant faith. Johann Reinhard Freiherr von Metternich's son Ernst von Metternich, made a \"Graf\" in 1697, was a soldier in the service of Frederick I of Prussia and a member of the privy council of Brandenburg-Prussia. Ernst von Metternich was involved in the diplomacy that saw Frederick I granted the title King in Prussia, in Prussia's acquisition of Neuchâtel, and in the negotiating of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Ernst von Metternich's brother was a member of the privy council of the Principality of Ansbach and in 1726 became Chancellor of Schwarzburg. He was also an author on questions of theosophy and alchemy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metternich-Winneburg-Beilstein.", "content": "In 1635, the family of the Elector of Trier, Lothar Johann Reinhard von Metternich (1515–1623), acquired the immediate Lordship of Beilstein, which made them free from any other overlord than the emperor, and began styling themselves as \"Freiherren\" von Metternich-Winneburg zu Beilstein. Their title was upgraded to \"Graf\" in 1679. Lothar Johann Reinhard von Metternich's nephews, Karl von Metternich and Emmerich von Metternich, were opposed to the policies of the Elector of Trier Philipp Christoph von Sötern.  In 1623–30, the Imperial Quartermaster General, Lothar von Metternich, and his brother Wilhelm purchased the lordships of Lázně Kynžvart and the village of Metternich near Koblenz. Wilhelm's eldest son, Karl Heinrich von Metternich-Winneburg, was Elector of Mainz and Prince-Bishop of Worms in 1679. The younger son, Philip Emmerich von Metternich (d. 1698), was raised to the rank of \"Graf\".  The last Count of Metternich-Winneburg was Franz Georg Karl von Metternich-Winneburg-Beilstein, who lost the ancestral lordship to France by the 1801 Treaty of Lunéville. In compensation, Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, gave him the secularized Ochsenhausen Abbey and raised him to the rank of \"Fürst\" in 1803. Their immediate territories were mediatized by Württemberg in 1806.  His son, Klemens von Metternich, worked in the service of the Austrian Empire; he was a major diplomat at the Congress of Vienna and was Minister-President of Austria from 1821 to 1848. He acquired Schloss Johannisberg in the Rheingau. Klemens' eldest surviving son, Richard von Metternich, was a diplomat and married his half-niece, Pauline Sándor de Szlavnicza (she was the daughter of Richard's half-sister, Leonore).  Richard and Pauline von Metternich had three daughters, but no sons, so upon the death of Richard, the title of \"Fürst\" passed to Richard's half-brother, Paul von Metternich (1834–1906). The title then passed to his son, Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (1869–1930). His son, Paul Alfons von Metternich-Winneburg (1917–1992), was the president of ADAC. He was the last male Metternich, and the title of Fürst became extinct with his death. The situation had forced him to sell his family estate Schloss Johannisberg, with its famous winery, to the Oetker family in 1974.  The family name however passed to Franz Albrecht Metternich-Sándor (1920–2009), whose mother was a descendant of Klemens von Metternich and who had been adopted by his aunt, Clementine von Metternich-Sándor (1870–1963). Franz Albrecht Metternich-Sándor, the son of Victor III, Duke of Ratibor and Prince of Corvey (a branch of the princely house of Hohenlohe) inherited his father's titles. Franz Albrecht's eldest son is Viktor Metternich-Sándor (born 1964), who has headed the ducal House of Ratibor and Corvey since his father's death.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Metternich is a German noble family originating in the Rhineland. The most prominent member was Prince Klemens von Metternich, who was the dominant figure at the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815). The family belonged to the high nobility.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976799}
{"src_title": "Italian Islands of the Aegean", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Dodecanese, except Kastellorizo, were occupied by Italy during the Italo-Turkish War of 1912. Italy had agreed to return the islands to the Ottoman Empire according to the Treaty of Ouchy in 1912; however the vagueness of the text allowed a provisional Italian administration of the islands, and Turkey eventually renounced all claims on the Dodecanese with Article 15 of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.  The provisional Italian regime on the islands, titled \"Rhodes and the Dodecanese\" (\"Rodi e Dodecaneso\"), was originally in the hands of military governors, until the appointment on 7 August 1920 of Count Carlo Senni as the Viceroy of the Dodecanese (\"Reggente del Dodecaneso\"). Following the end of World War I, Italy agreed twice, in the Venizelos–Tittoni agreement of 1919 and the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920, to cede the islands to Greece except for Rhodes, which would enjoy extensive autonomy. Due to the Greek embroilment and defeat in the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–22, these agreements were never implemented.  Kastellorizo was temporarily occupied by France in 1915 and came under Italian control in 1921. The Dodecanese islands were formally annexed by Fascist Italy, as the \"Possedimenti Italiani dell'Egeo\" in 1923, following an agreement between Mussolini and Kemal Ataturk.  Italian interest in the Dodecanese was rooted in strategic purposes, and the islands were intended to further the Empire's long range imperial policy. The islands of Leros and Patmos were used as bases for the Royal Italian Navy.  In 1932 was signed the Convention between Italy and Turkey for some smaller islets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administrative policies.", "content": "Starting in 1923, civil governors replaced the military commanders. The Italian politics towards the native population had two phases: while governor Mario Lago, a liberal diplomat, favoured peaceful coexistence among the different ethnic groups and the Italians, choosing a soft strategy of integration, his successor, Cesare Maria De Vecchi, embarked on a forced Italianization campaign of the islands. Lago delegated land for Italian settlers and encouraged intermarriage with local Greeks. In 1929, scholarships at the University of Pisa for Dodecanesian students were promoted to disseminate Italian culture and language among the local professional class.  The only sector where Lago was unaccommodating was religion: The Italian authorities also tried to limit the power of the Greek Orthodox Church without success by trying to set up an autonomous Dodecanesian church. Fascist youth organizations such as Opera Nazionale Balilla were introduced on the islands, and the Italianization of names was encouraged by the Italian authorities. The juridic state of the islands was an intermediate one (\"possedimento\") between a colony and a part of the motherland: due to that, local islanders did not receive full citizenship and were not required to serve in the Italian armed forces.  Under the governorship of De Vecchi (1936–40), a staunch and hard liner Fascist, the Italianization efforts became very strong. The Italian language became compulsory in education and the public life, with Greek being only an optional subject in schools. While under Lago the inhabitants were allowed to elect their own mayors, in 1937 the fascist system was set up to the islands, with newly appointed \"podestà\"s for each municipality (\"comune\") in 1938, Italian Racial Laws were introduced to the islands along with a series of decrees equalizing local legislation with Italian law..  De Vecchi also linked Rodi to Italy with a regular air service since the late 1930s. The \"Aero Espresso Italiana\" (AEI) had flight from Brindisi to Athens and Rodi with flying boats (AEI used mainly the \"Savoia 55\", but also the \"Macchi 24bis\")", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Italian settlement efforts.", "content": "Efforts to bring Italian settlers to the islands were not notably successful. By 1936, Italians in the Dodecanese numbered 16,711, most of them living on Rhodes and Leros. Italians of Rhodes and Kos were farmers involved in setting up new agricultural settlements, while Italians of Leros were generally employed by the army and lived at its facilities in the new Italian-built model town of Portolago (modern Lakki).  De Vecchi also linked Rodi to Italy with a regular air service since the late 1930s. The \"Aero Espresso Italiana\" (AEI) had flight from Brindisi to Athens and Rodi with flying boats (AEI used mainly the \"Savoia 55\", but also the \"Macchi 24bis\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public works.", "content": "Mussolini wanted to transform the islands into showcases of the Italian colonial empire, and undertook a series of massive public works in the archipelago. New roads, monumental buildings in accordance with fascist architecture and waterworks were constructed, sometimes using forced Greek labor.  Many examples of Italian architecture can still be found on the islands: A few among them are:  The Italians also surveyed the islands for the first time in history, and began to introduce mass-scale tourism to Rhodes and Kos. However, the smaller islands were mostly neglected by the improvement efforts and were left underdeveloped.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Archeology.", "content": "Mussolini stated that Rhodes had merely returned to its ancestral home after being annexed by Italy, as the Dodecanese had been an important part of the Roman Empire. Major Italian archaeological efforts from the 1930s onward were intended to discover Roman antiquities and thus strengthen the Italian claim on the islands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Planned expansion.", "content": "After the Battle of Greece, Fascist authorities pushed for the incorporation of the Cyclades and Sporades into Italy's Aegean possession, but the Germans were opposed to any territorial reduction of the puppet Hellenic State. As the Cyclades were already under Italian occupation, the preparation for outright annexation was continued despite German opposition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "End of Italian influence.", "content": "After the Italian capitulation of September 1943, the islands briefly became a battleground between the Germans, British and the Italians (the Dodecanese Campaign). The Germans prevailed, and although they were driven out of mainland Greece in 1944, the Dodecanese remained occupied until the end of the war in 1945. During the German occupation, the Dodecanese remained under the nominal sovereignty of the Italian Social Republic, but were \"de facto\" subject to the German military command. After the end of World War II, the islands came under provisional British administration.  In the Treaty of Peace in 1947, the islands were ceded to Greece.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Italian Islands of the Aegean (; ) were a group of twelve major islands (the Dodecanese) in the southeastern Aegean Sea, that — together with the surrounding islets — were ruled by the Kingdom of Italy from 1912 to 1943 and the Italian Social Republic (under German occupation) from 1943 to 1945. When the Kingdom of Italy was restored, they remained under formal Italian possession (under British occupation) until they were ceded to Greece in 1947.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976800}
{"src_title": "Princess Wilhelmine Ernestine of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Her aunt, Electress Sophia of Hanover, arranged a marriage between Wilhelmina Ernestine and Sophia's nephew Charles, heir to the Electorate of the Palatinate. The negotiations of the marriage started in 1669. Wilhelmina Ernestine was betrothed at Sophie Amalienborg Palace in Denmark in the presence of Charles on 24 June 1671. On 14 August, Wilhelmina Ernestine left Denmark with a large Danish retinue for Heidelberg, where the wedding ceremony was conducted on 20 September 1671.  Wilhelmina Ernestine was granted a large dowry from Denmark, and she also received the towns of Germersheim and Oppenheim from her father-in-law, Elector Charles I Louis. During the Scanian War between Denmark and Sweden in 1679, Wilhelmine Ernestine loaned funds to her brother to finance the war.  The marriage was very unhappy. Charles had been forced by his father to marry her against his will and disliked the marriage from the beginning. Her shy behavior and physical appearance - she was said to have been somewhat crippled - only widened the distance between them. Wilhelmina Ernestine is not noted to have had any particular interests, she preferred solitude and a reclusive quiet life style in contrast to the active social life preferred by Charles, and she reportedly offended him by her pride over her royal status. By 1677, Charles' dislike made his father consider serious plans of a divorce, although these plans were never realized. They had no children.  On 28 August 1680, they became Elector and Electress of the Palatinate. Charles' reign was marked by his dependency on favorites. The Elector died 26 May 1685. As a widow, she lived with her sister, Dowager Electress Anna Sophie of Saxony, at Castle Lichtenburg in Saxony.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wilhelmine Ernestine of Denmark and Norway (; 20 or 21 June 1650 – 22 or 23 April 1706) was an Electress of the Palatinate. She was the third of five daughters of King Frederick III of Denmark and Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976801}
{"src_title": "Carlos Gorostiza", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Carlos Gorostiza Rodríguez was born to Basque Argentine parents in the upscale Buenos Aires borough of Palermo. He and an older brother enjoyed a happy early childhood until, in 1926, their father, Fermín Gorostiza (among the first Argentines to receive a pilot's licence) abandoned the family.  His mother took up employment with a clothing designer, and her two sons, who entered the labour force as children, gradually recovered from the setback. In 1931, she remarried and had a daughter, María Esther, who went on to become a moderately successful actress under the pseudonym Analía Gadé.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Gorostiza's Spanish-born stepfather, a playwright, introduced Carlos to the theatre. In 1943, he debuted his first work, a puppet show, \"La clave encantada\" (\"The enchanted key\"). The show's success allowed him to open a puppet theatre, \"La Estrella Grande\". He began frequenting the Máscara Theatre, where he began a successful run as Creon in their productions of the classic Greek tragedy, \"Antigone\". Encouraged by friends, he presented his first play at the Máscara Theatre in 1949, \"El puente\" (\"The Bridge\").  Capturing the tension between different social classes in Buenos Aires, the realist \"El puente\" drew partly on his own childhood experiences with his mother's fallen social status and secured his reputation in Buenos Aires. Produced in a professional version by director Armando Discépolo at the prestigious Argentine Theatre, \"El puente\" was adapted into a film version, which Gorostiza directed in 1950.  Following \"El puente\" success, Gorostiza returned to theatre direction, though without the draw of spectators he had earlier enjoyed. Turning to work as a publicist for an ad agency whose chief customer was a laundry soap maker, his fame returned somewhat as a screenwriter for Julio Saraceni's drama \"Marta Ferrari\" (1954) and when his play \"El pan de la locura\" (The bread of madness) was produced at Buenos Aires' famed Cervantes Theatre to acclaim in 1958. The tragedy won him the coveted Municipal Prize, an award that earned him an invitation to the Central University of Venezuela Drama School in 1960, where he taught and co-wrote \"Los Caobos\" (The mahogany trees) with Juana Sujo. Returning to Argentina in 1964, he continued his academic experience as professor of drama at the University of Buenos Aires. In 1966, he writes and stages the play \"The neighbors\", based on the Kitty Genovese murder from the perspective of the inactive spectators of the near buildings.  Devoting himself mostly to teaching, Gorostiza produced only two new plays in the next decade. A novel published early in 1976 (\"Los cuartos oscuros\" – The voting booths) yielded him a National Grand Prize for Literature. This, his first novel, coincided with the military coup that would usher in the most brutal Argentine dictatorship of the 20th century; shortly thereafter, Gorostiza lost his tenure at the University of Buenos Aires. Cautious but undeterred, Gorostiza published a second novel, \"Los hermanos queridos\" (Dear brothers), in 1978. A subtle criticism of the era's climate of fear, it earned him another Municipal Grand Prize and National Grand Prize.  A certain loosening of censorship in 1980 led his fellow playwright Osvaldo Dragún to form a partnership with Gorostiza, writer Roberto Cossa, actor Pepe Soriano and others in an Argentine Open Theatre in the hope of encouraging a further return of the freedom of expression whose absence had led so many other cultural figures to leave Argentina since 1975. Converting a shuttered spark plug factory in the Balvanera district of Buenos Aires to the Picadero Theatre, they premiered a festival of their collective new works (including Gorostiza's \"El acompañamiento\" – The entourage) to acclaim on July 28, 1981. This success was marred by the theatre's fire bombing a week later, still an \"unsolved mystery\" (the Picadero reopened in 2001).  The return to democracy imminently following the Falklands War and economic collapse at the hand of the dictators' economists, Gorostiza produced \"Killing Time\" and \"A Fire to Put Out\" in 1982, plays which earned him an Argentores Prize.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foray into politics.", "content": "Elections called for October 1983 drew Gorostiza to a progressive UCR candidate, Raúl Alfonsín. Facing a close contest with Peronist candidate Ítalo Lúder and with elections but three months away, the UCR nominee was given a simple slogan by the former publicist: the alliterative \"Ahora, Alfonsín!\" Facing a harried timetable and with his candidate unable to break out in the polls, Gorostiza was struck by President Reynaldo Bignone's snide dismissal of the historic elections as a \"democratic way out,\" whereby he created ads appealing for votes for \"more than a democratic way out...a way into life.\" Alfonsín won the 1983 election by a surprising 12-point margin, carrying majorities in Lower House of Congress.  Appointed Secretary of Culture by President Alfonsín upon taking office on December 10, he rescinded the National Film Rating Entity and devoted his time to the post, helping encourage a strong recovery in the theatre and cinema of Argentina amid continuing economic malaise and budgetary scarcity. Frustrated by the post's limitations, he resigned amicably in 1986. He was replaced by Marcos Aguinis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later work.", "content": "Gorostiza returned to writing, publishing a novella, collaborating on an acclaimed 1989 documentary of the Open Theatre and penning a nostalgic look at his brief time with his barnstorming natural father, \"Aeroplanos\", which won him another Argentores Prize. Turning increasingly to the past, his sentimental 1994 play \"Rear Patio\" and 1999 historical novel \"Vuelan las Palomas\" (Pigeons fly) were less-well received, though Gorostiza retained his loyal following. His existentialist 2001 novel \"Good People\" was followed in 2004 by another tale of his own childhood curiosity, \"The Masked Marauder\". Gorostiza debuted his long-awaited \"El alma de papá\" (Dad's soul) in 2008. Starring Open Theatre colleague Jorge Rivera López in the title role, it continues Gorostiza's distinction as the dean of Argentine realist playwrights.  His works continued to be shown into his 90s, with four in rotation on the Buenos Aires theatre circuit in 2015. He died at the age of 96 in Buenos Aires on 19 July 2016. A vigil was held in the Teatro Nacional Cervantes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Carlos Gorostiza Rodríguez (; June 7, 1920 – July 19, 2016) was an Argentine playwright, theatre director, and novelist. His seminal work \"El puente\" debuted in 1949 and he garnered numerous awards for his proceeding works. He later was Secretary of Culture between 1983-86.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976802}
{"src_title": "Charles, Prince of Viana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "His mother was the daughter and heiress of Charles III, King of Navarre. Both his grandfather Charles and his mother, who ruled over Navarre from 1425 to 1441, had bequeathed this kingdom to Charles, whose right had also been recognized by the Cortes; but when Blanche died in 1441 her husband John seized the kingdom to the exclusion of his son.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "The Prince of Viana was married in Olite (Navarre) on 30 September 1439, taking as his wife Agnes of Cleves (1422–1446), the daughter of Adolph I, Duke of Cleves and Mary of Burgundy; sister of Philip III \"the Good\", Duke of Burgundy. Agnes died, childless, on 6 April 1448, eight years after her marriage to Charles, aged only about twenty-six. After her death, the prince took a mistress, Brianda de Vaca, and by her had an illegitimate son, born about 1449. He wished to remarry, and a possibility which was canvassed was a match with Isabella of Scotland (1426–1494), the widow of Francis I, Duke of Brittany, after he died on 18 July 1450, but this was opposed by Charles VII of France. A match was then agreed between Charles and the Infanta Catherine of Portugal (1436–1463), daughter of King Edward I, but the marriage was delayed and had not taken place when Charles died in 1461. Charles left three illegitimate children by three different mistresses:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clashes with his father.", "content": "The ill feeling between father and son was increased when in 1447 John took for his second wife Juana Enriquez, a Castilian noblewoman (of a bastard cadet line from Castilian kings), who soon bore him a son, afterwards Ferdinand II of Aragon, and who regarded her stepson as an interloper. When Joanna began to interfere in the internal affairs of Navarre, a civil war broke out, and in 1452 Charles, although aided by King John II of Castile, was defeated and taken prisoner. Released upon promising not to take the kingly title until after his father's death, the prince, again unsuccessful in an appeal to arms, took refuge in Naples with King Alfonso V of Aragon. In 1458 Alfonso died and John became king of Aragon, while Charles was offered the crowns of Naples and Sicily. He declined these proposals, and having been reconciled with his father returned to Navarre in 1459. Aspiring to marry Isabella of Castile, he was then thrown into prison by his father, and the Catalans rose in his favor. This insurrection soon became general and John was obliged to yield. He released his son, and recognized him as perpetual governor of Catalonia, and heir to the kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Soon afterwards, however, on 23 September 1461, the prince died at Barcelona, not without a suspicion that he had been poisoned by his stepmother, Joanna Enriquez.  Charles was a cultured and amiable prince, fond of music and literature. He translated Aristotle's \"Ethics\" into Aragonese, a work first published at Zaragoza in 1509, and wrote a chronicle of the kings of Navarre, \"Cronica de los reyes de Navarra.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles, Prince of Viana () (29 May 1421 – 23 September 1461), sometimes called Charles IV of Navarre, was the son of King John II of Aragon and Queen Blanche I of Navarre.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976803}
{"src_title": "Mary Anderson (inventor)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Mary Anderson was born in Greene County, Alabama, at the start of Reconstruction in 1866. In 1889 she moved with her widowed mother and sister to the booming town of Birmingham, Alabama. There is no known information about Anderson's parent's and she also never married.  In Birmingham, she built the Fairmont Apartments on Highland Avenue soon after settling in. By 1893, Mary Anderson had moved west to Fresno, California until 1898 where she then operated a cattle ranch and vineyard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Windshield wipers.", "content": "In a visit to New York City in the winter of 1903, in a trolley car on a frosty day, Anderson observed that a trolley car driver struggled to see past the windows because of the falling sleet. When she returned to Alabama she hired a designer for a hand-operated device to keep a windshield clear and had a local company produce a working model. She applied for, and in 1903 was granted, a 17-year patent for a windshield wiper. Her device consisted of a lever inside the vehicle that controlled a rubber blade on the outside of the windshield. The lever could be operated to cause the spring-loaded arm to move back and forth across the windshield. A counterweight was used to ensure contact between the wiper and the window. Similar devices had been made earlier, but Anderson's was the first to be effective.  In 1905 Anderson tried to sell the rights to her invention through a noted Canadian firm, but they rejected her application saying \"we do not consider it to be of such commercial value as would warrant our undertaking its sale.\" After the patent expired in 1920 and the automobile manufacturing business grew exponentially, windshield wipers using Anderson's basic design became standard equipment. In 1922, Cadillac became the first car manufacturer to adopt them as standard equipment.  In 1922, driving became more popular and there was nothing yet on personal operated vehicles to clean their windshield. Cadillac thought they should take Anderson's invention on street cars and apply it to their own motor operated vehicles. So they did, Cadillac began to put windshield wipers on their personal vehicles. The wipers were not an add on piece to the car that you would have to pay extra instead they were a piece of the car that did not require the customer to pay more. Every other car company thought Cadillac and Anderson's ideas were very smart so they would take the idea and apply it to their own cars(NIHF). Now in 2020 Anderson's invention has come a long way and is a requirement on everyones car. People rely on the windshield wipers in order to stay safe on the road in rainy and snowy conditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Anderson resided in Birmingham, where she continued to manage the Fairmont Apartments until her death at the age of 87. At the time of her death she was the oldest member of South Highland Presbyterian Church. She died at her summer home in Monteagle, Tennessee. Her funeral was conducted by Dr. Frank A Mathes at South Highland and she was buried at Elmwood Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Anderson's invention of the windshield wiper is mentioned in Season 17, Episode 19: \"Girls Just Want to Have Sums,\" of the cartoon \"The Simpsons\", during a debate between Marge Simpson and her husband and son, Homer and Bart, about gender equality:  Anderson's windshield wiper invention is also briefly mentioned on the British panel/quiz show; QI (Quite Interesting); Season 10, Episode 16 - \"Just the Job\".  \"When was the windshield wiper invented?\" was the Weather Channel \"Question of the Day\" for July 6, 2016.  NPR's Morning Edition produced a profile, including an interview with her great-great-niece into her legacy and societal context on July 25, 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 2011 she was inducted into the International Inventors Hall of Fame.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mary Elizabeth Anderson (February 19, 1866 – June 27, 1953) was an American real estate developer, rancher, viticulturist and inventor of the windshield wiper blade. On November 10, 1903 Anderson was granted her first patent for an automatic car window cleaning device controlled from inside the car, called the windshield wiper.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976804}
{"src_title": "Omnium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The omnium was re-introduced into the World Championships as a five race track cycling format for men in 2007 and for women in 2009. The omnium was changed in 2010 by the UCI to include the elimination race and the distances of the events were lengthened to favour endurance cyclists.  The omnium replaced the individual pursuit, the points race, and the individual time trial at the Summer Olympic Games beginning in 2012. The change received some criticism from cyclist Rebecca Romero, who was left unable to defend her Olympic title.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current omnium.", "content": "From June 2014 until the end of 2016, the omnium as defined by the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) consisted of the following six events held over 2 days:  For the first five events, each winner was awarded 40 points, each second place 38 points, each third place 36, etc. Riders ranked 21st and below will each be awarded 1 point. In the Points Race, riders add to and lose points from their totals based on laps gained and lost, and points won in sprints.  After the 2016 season, the three timed events - the sprint time trial, flying lap and individual pursuit were all removed from the event, a tempo race added, and the event shortened to a single day. The points race as final race format remains with minor modifications.  The winner of the Omnium is the rider who has obtained the highest total of points.  In the event of a tie in the final ranking, the places in the final sprint of the last event, the Points Race, breaks the tie.  A rider must have completed every event in the omnium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Road racing omnium.", "content": "A road race omnium consists of a time trial, a criterium, and a mass-start road race - typically held across a weekend or other 2-3 day period. Points are awarded to the top finishers at each event and totaled at the end of the event. The overall winner for the event is chosen based on the number of accumulated points. Often, organizers will stipulate that riders must complete each event in order to qualify for the overall prize.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An omnium (from Latin: of all, belonging to all) is a multiple race event in track cycling. Historically the omnium has had a variety of formats. In recent years, road racing has also adopted the term to describe multi-day races that feature the three primary road race events (time trial, mass start and criterium).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976805}
{"src_title": "Kaya Scodelario", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Scodelario was born Kaya Rose Humphrey in Haywards Heath, West Sussex, England. Her mother, Katia Scodelario, is a Brazilian from Itu, São Paulo, who moved to England in 1990; Scodelario's surname comes from her mother's Italian grandfather. Her father, Roger Humphrey (died 22 November 2010), was British. Scodelario's parents divorced when she was a child and she was raised in London by her mother, subsequently adopting her surname and becoming fluent in Portuguese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2007–2009: \"Skins\".", "content": "In 2007, at the age of 14 and with no acting experience, Scodelario was cast in the first series of \"Skins\" as Effy Stonem. At the auditions, Scodelario became discouraged as she felt she was too young, but a producer told her to stay and she was asked to read for the part. While Scodelario's role in the first series had minimal speaking lines, her character developed considerably during 2008. She eventually became the central character in the 2009 and 2010 series after the cast had been replaced with a new generation of characters. This made Effy one of the only characters to appear from series 1 all the way through to series 4. Filming began in July and Scodelario said that 18 November 2009 was her last day of filming the series and that she would miss being on the show.  Scodelario left after the fourth series, making way for the third generation of characters. Her performance was praised by critics, and she was nominated twice for Best Actress at the \"TV Quick\" Awards, in 2009 and 2010. In the episode \"Fire\", one of three parts of the seventh (and final) season of \"Skins\", Scodelario reprised the role of Effy. It is a two-part depiction of her life as an adult, lasting two hours. She claims \"Fire\" is \"more like a movie\" and that she could relate to Effy's struggle to change from a teenager into an adult.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009–2012: Film projects.", "content": "Scodelario made her film debut in the science fiction-thriller film \"Moon\", which premiered at the 2009 Sundance Film Festival, receiving positive reviews. In her second film, \"Shank\", she plays a teenager, Tasha. The film was released on 26 March 2010. In addition, she appeared in the 2010 remake of \"Clash of the Titans\" as Peshet.  In April 2010, Scodelario confirmed her casting as Cathy in an adaptation of \"Wuthering Heights\" directed by Andrea Arnold. The film premiered at the Venice Film Festival in September 2011 to generally positive reviews, and Scodelario was hailed as a \"heart-wrenching revelation\". \"Wuthering Heights\" also played at several other international film festivals, including the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival, the London Film Festival, and the 2012 Sundance Film Festival.  In 2011, she signed on to play Sally Weaver in a British thriller, \"Twenty8k\". The film was released in September 2012. In late June, Scodelario announced that she had signed on to star in \"Now Is Good\" with Dakota Fanning. The film is based on Jenny Downham's novel \"Before I Die\", about a teenage girl with leukaemia who makes a list of things to do before she dies. She portrays Zoey, the protagonist's best friend. In late September 2011, Scodelario filmed a television serial for BBC One, \"True Love\", an improvised series comprising five stand-alone episodes, each covering a different love-related dilemma. She is cast in the third storyline as Karen, the love interest of her teacher, portrayed by Billie Piper.  In January 2012, Scodelario made her first American film, \"The Truth About Emanuel\", in Los Angeles. She stars as the title character, Emanuel, a troubled 17-year-old girl who babysits her new neighbour Linda's \"baby\", which is actually a very lifelike doll. It had a limited Release on 10 January 2014. In April 2012, Scodelario shot a cameo appearance for the film \"Spike Island\". She also participated in an advertising campaign for Korean jewelry brand J. Estina. In 2013 she starred in the four-part Channel 4 drama series \"Southcliffe\", which tells the story of a fictional English town devastated by a spate of shootings, exploring the tragedy through the eyes of a journalist and those close to the victims.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013–2018: \"The Maze Runner\" series.", "content": "She signed on to the film franchise \"The Maze Runner\" in April 2013 as the lead female character, Teresa, in the first film, based on the novel of the same name by James Dashner released in September 2014, and its sequel, \"\", released in September 2015. She starred in lead roles in the home-invasion thriller \"Tiger House\" in 2015 and the film adaptation of \"The Kings Daughter\", however after production wrapped in 2014 this film is still yet to be released. She also had a starring role in the sequel \"\", released on 26 May 2017.  Scodelario reprised the role of Teresa in \".\" The film was set for release on 17 February 2017, but after her co-star Dylan O'Brien was injured on set, the film was pushed back to 26 January 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2019–present: Further roles and return to TV.", "content": "The year 2019 brought new projects for Scodelario. The first, released in May 2019, was \"Extremely Wicked, Shockingly Evil and Vile\", about serial killer Ted Bundy, where she portrays his wife Carole Ann Boone. The second has Scodelario play the lead in Alexandre Aja's latest horror film, \"Crawl\", which was filmed in Belgrade, and released in July 2019, to positive reviews. Scodelario then signed up to lead a new Netflix series, an edgy figure skating drama called \"Spinning Out\" in 2019. In Spring 2019, Scodelario became the face of Cartier's new jewelry line, Clash de Cartier, and filmed the latest Agatha Christie miniseries adaptation, \"The Pale Horse\", for Amazon and BBC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Scodelario dated her \"Skins\" co-star Jack O'Connell for about a year before they split up in June 2009, remaining good friends.  Scodelario married actor Benjamin Walker in December 2015; they began dating during the filming of \"The King's Daughter\" in early 2014. They have one son. Actor Daniel Kaluuya is her son's godfather.  She was voted 13th in the UK edition of FHM's 100 World's Sexiest Women 2010. Scodelario revealed she has dyslexia in 2010.  In October 2017, as part of the #MeToo movement, Scodelario revealed that she had been sexually assaulted thirteen years prior by somebody who is protected by \"family members\" in Brazil.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kaya Rose Scodelario-Davis (\"née\" Humphrey; 13 March 1992) is an English actress. She is best known for her roles as Effy Stonem on the E4 teen drama \"Skins\" (2007–2010, 2013), and Teresa in \"The Maze Runner\" film series (2014–2018). Other roles include Catherine Earnshaw in Andrea Arnold's \"Wuthering Heights\" (2011), Carol Ann Boone in \"Extremely Wicked, Shockingly Evil and Vile\" (2019), and Katarina Baker in Netflix’s Original \"Spinning Out\" (2020).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976806}
{"src_title": "SS Atlantic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"Atlantic\" was built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast in 1870, and was the second ship built for the newly born White Star Line. She was powered by a steam engine producing driving a single propeller, along with four masts rigged for sail. She sailed for New York City on her maiden voyage on 8 June 1871.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disaster.", "content": "On 20 March 1873 \"Atlantic\" departed on her 19th voyage from Liverpool with 952 people on board, of whom 835 were passengers, 2 of whom were babies born during the voyage, and 14 stowaways. En route, because of heavy seas and strong headwinds slowing their progress, Captain Williams became concerned that they would run out of coal for the boilers before reaching New York. They in fact had more than enough remaining fuel, but the ship's engineer had been purposefully under-reporting coal reserves to increase the margin for error in favor of safety. Thus convinced they were short of coal—and unable to hoist sail as a backup because of the strong headwind—the captain decided to divert to Halifax, Nova Scotia, to refuel.  During the approach to Halifax on the evening of 31 March, the captain and third officer were on the bridge until midnight while \"Atlantic\" made her way through a storm, proceeding at for the entrance of Halifax harbour, experiencing intermittent visibility and heavy seas. Unbeknownst to the crew or passengers, winds and currents had put \"Atlantic\" approximately off-course to the west of Halifax Harbour. Because almost none of the crew had ever been to Halifax before, they were unaware of the dangers of the approach; no one took soundings, posted a masthead lookout, reduced speed, or woke the captain as they approached the unfamiliar coast. They did not spot the Sambro Lighthouse, the large landfall lighthouse which warns mariners of the rocky shoals to the west of the harbour entrance. As the night wore on without any sight of the lighthouse, the helmsman—the only crew member familiar with Halifax—became convinced that something was wrong, and relayed his concerns to the officers on duty, but was ultimately ignored.  At 3:15 a.m. local time on 1 April 1873, \"Atlantic\" struck an underwater rock off Marr's Head, Meagher's Island (now Mars Head, Mars Island), Nova Scotia. All 10 lifeboats were lowered by the crew but were all washed away or smashed as the ship quickly filled with water and partially capsized. Survivors were forced to swim or climb ropes first to a wave-swept rock and then to a barren shore. Residents of the tiny fishing village of Lower Prospect and Terence Bay soon arrived to rescue and shelter the survivors, but at least 535 people died, leaving only 371 survivors. The ship's manifest indicates that of the 952 aboard, 156 were women and 189 were children (including two who had been born during the voyage). All women and all children perished except for one twelve-year-old boy, John Hindley. Ten crew members were lost, while 131 survived. This was the worst civilian loss of life in the North Atlantic until the wreck of \"La Bourgogne\" on 2 July 1898. The Canadian government inquiry concluded with the statement, \"the conduct of Captain Williams in the management of his ship during the twelve or fourteen hours preceding the disaster, was so gravely at variance with what ought to have been the conduct of a man placed in his responsible position.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recovery of the dead.", "content": "Recovery and burial of the large numbers of victims took weeks. Divers were paid rewards for recovering the many bodies trapped within the hull. According to one newspaper account, a body of one of the crew members was discovered to be that of a woman disguised as a man. \"She was about twenty or twenty-five years old and had served as a common sailor for three voyages, and her sex was never known until the body was washed ashore and prepared for burial. She is described as having been a great favorite with all her shipmates, and one of the crew, speaking of her, remarked: 'I didn't know Bill was a woman. He used to take his grog as regular as any of us, and was always begging or stealing tobacco. He was a good fellow, though, and I am sorry he was a woman.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "SS \"Atlantic\" was the second liner commissioned by White Star ( being first) but carried the notoriety of being the first White Star Line steamer to sink. (The company had previously lost the clipper in Dublin Bay in 1854.) Other White Star Line ships lost in the North Atlantic include in 1893, in 1909, and \"Titanic\" in 1912.  Today, most of the ship lies heavily fragmented under of water. Artifacts recovered from several salvage operations are on display at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax, Nova Scotia and also at the SS Atlantic Heritage Park and Interpretation Centre, in Terence Bay, Nova Scotia. A monument to the wreck is located at the mass grave near the interpretation centre in the Terence Bay Anglican Cemetery, while a smaller monument marks a second mass grave at the Catholic cemetery.  When the 1929 film \"Atlantic\" was released, everyone knew it was a thinly disguised story about the sinking of the \"Titanic\" in 1912. Though this film was based on a stage play it also was made only seventeen years after the actual \"Titanic\" sinking and the public, especially survivors and their families, felt uncomfortable with a direct reference to \"Titanic\". The producers of the film decided to release the movie under the title \"Atlantic\", apparently unaware of the previous White Star Line disaster.  P.G. Wodehouse wrote a story in 1921 called \"The Girl On The Boat\" in which six chapters of the romance take place on a White Star liner he named \"Atlantic\", crossing from New York to Southampton. As the real \"Atlantic\" disaster had occurred 48 years before the story and 8 years before he was born, it is unlikely that he knew about it.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SS \"Atlantic\" was a transatlantic ocean liner of the White Star Line that operated between Liverpool, United Kingdom, and New York City, United States. During the ship's 19th voyage, on 1 April 1873, she struck rocks and sank off the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada, killing at least 535 people. It remained the deadliest civilian maritime disaster in the North Atlantic Ocean until the sinking of on 2 July 1898 and the greatest disaster for the White Star Line prior to the loss of in April 1912.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976807}
{"src_title": "Jasna Góra Monastery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Jasna Góra Monastery was founded in 1382 by Pauline monks who came from Hungary at the invitation of Władysław, Duke of Opole. The monastery has been a pilgrimage destination for hundreds of years, and it contains an important icon of the Virgin Mary. The icon, depicting the Mother of God with the Christ Child, is known as the Black Madonna of Częstochowa or Our Lady of Częstochowa, which is widely venerated and credited with many miracles. Among these, it is credited with miraculously saving the Jasna Góra monastery during the Siege of Jasna Góra that took place at the time of The Deluge, a 17th-century Swedish invasion. The event stimulated the Polish resistance. The Poles could not immediately change the course of the war, but, after an alliance with the Crimean Khanate, they repulsed the Swedes. Shortly thereafter, in the cathedral of Lwów (Lviv), on April 1, 1656, Jan Kazimierz, the King of Poland, solemnly pronounced his vow to consecrate the country to the protection of the Mother of God and proclaimed Her the Patron and Queen of the lands in his kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Walking pilgrimages.", "content": "Every year since the Middle Ages, thousands of Poles go in pilgrim groups to visit Jasna Góra. In 2011, it was estimated that 3.2 million pilgrims from 80 countries around the world went to the shrine. Around 830,000 pilgrims took part in 228 pilgrimages organized in different places across Poland, 143, 983 of which reached the monastery on foot. The average distance for a pilgrim group to travel is about, made in 11 days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monastic etiquette.", "content": "There are typically numerous pilgrims and tourists at Jasna Góra Monastery, and the volume of excited voices can be high. However, upon entering the Monastery, it is expected etiquette for visitors to be silent or as quiet as possible out of respect. Often, there is a long line of people who wait to approach the shrine of the Black Madonna of Częstochowa. Upon arriving at the location of the shrine where one would pass in front of the icon of Our Lady, it is expected and a sign of respect for pilgrims to drop to their knees, and traverse the anterior of the shrine on their knees.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Jasna Góra Monastery (, \"Luminous Mount\",, ) in Częstochowa, Poland, is a famous Polish shrine to the Virgin Mary and one of the country's places of pilgrimage. The image of the Black Madonna of Częstochowa, also known as Our Lady of Częstochowa, to which miraculous powers are attributed, is one of Jasna Góra's most precious treasures. Among the monastery's other treasures and artifacts of interest is the medal from the 1983 Nobel Peace Prize received by Lech Wałęsa, the former Polish president and trade-union organizer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976808}
{"src_title": "Papyrus 45", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Condition of the manuscript.", "content": "The manuscript is heavily damaged and fragmented. The papyrus was bound in a codex, which may have consisted of 220 pages, however only 30 survive (two of Matthew, six of Mark, seven of Luke, two of John, and 13 of Acts). All of the pages have lacunae, with very few lines complete. The leaves of Matthew and John are the smallest. The original pages were roughly 10 inches by 8 inches. Unlike many of the other surviving manuscripts from the 3rd century which usually contained just the Gospels, or just the Catholic letters, or just the Pauline epistles, this manuscript possibly contained more than one grouping of New Testament texts. This hypothesis is attributed to the use of gatherings of two leaves, a single-quire that most other codices had.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Textual character.", "content": "Because of the extent of the damage, determining the text's type has been difficult for scholars. The manuscript was obtained by Alfred Chester Beatty in the first half of the 20th century, and published in \"The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri, Descriptions and Texts of Twelve Manuscripts on Papyrus of the Greek Bible\" by Frederic G. Kenyon in 1933. In this work, Kenyon identified the text of the Gospel of Mark in formula_1 as Caesarean, following the definition of Burnett Hillman Streeter. Hollis Huston criticized Kenyon's transcription of various partially surviving words, and concluded that chapters 6 and 11 of Mark in formula_1 could not neatly fit into one text-type, especially not Caesarean, because the manuscript predates the distinctive texts for each type from the 4th and 5th centuries.  formula_1 has a great number of singular readings. On the origin of these singular readings, E. C. Colwell comments:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Text-type.", "content": "formula_1 has a relatively close statistical relationship with Codex Washingtonianus in Mark, however, and to a lesser extent Family 13. Citing Larry Hurtado's study, \"Text-Critical Methodology and the Pre-Caesarean Text: Codex W in the Gospel of Mark,\" Eldon Jay Epp has agreed that there is no connection to a Caesarean or pre-Caesarean text in Mark. There is also not a strong connection to the Neutral text of Codex Vaticanus, the Western text of Codex Bezae, and the Byzantine text of the textus receptus. Another hypothesis is that formula_1 comes from the Alexandrian tradition, but has many readings intended to \"improve\" the text stylistically, and a number of harmonizations. While still difficult to place historically in a category of texts, most scholars today agree that the text is not Caesarean, contrary to Kenyon.  The textual character of the manuscript varies from book to book. In Mark, multivariate analysis of apparatus data from the UBS \"Greek New Testament\" (4th ed.) places formula_1 in a group which includes W (for chapters 5-16), Θ, Family 1, 28, 205, 565; the Sinaitic Syriac, Armenian, and Georgian versions; and Origen's quotations. This group corresponds to what Streeter called an \"Eastern type\" of the text. In Luke, an eleven-way PAM partition based on Greek manuscript data associated with the INTF's \"Parallel Pericopes\" volume places the manuscript in a group with C (04), L (019), Ξ (040), 33, 892, and 1241. In Acts it is closest to the Alexandrian text.  It is calculated that the codex omitted the Pericope Adulterae (John 7:53-8:11).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable readings.", "content": "Mark 6:40  Mark 6:44  Mark 6:45  Mark 8:12  Mark 8:15  Mark 8:35  Mark 9:27  Luke 6:48  Luke 11:33  Luke 11:44  Luke 11:54  Luke 12:9  Luke 12:47  John 11:7  John 11:25  John 11:51  Acts 5:37  Acts 8:18  Acts 9:17  Acts 9:21  Acts 9:38  Acts 10:10  Acts 10:13  Acts 10:16  Acts 10:33  Acts 11:12  Acts 13:48  Acts 13:49  Acts 15:20  Acts 15:40  Acts 16:32  Acts 17:13", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Papyrus 45 (formula_1 or \"P. Chester Beatty\" I) is an early New Testament manuscript which is a part of the Chester Beatty Papyri. It has been paleographically dated to the early 3rd century CE. It contains the texts of Matthew 20-21 and 25-26; Mark 4-9 and 11-12; Luke 6-7 and 9-14; John 4-5 and 10-11; and Acts 4-17. The manuscript is currently housed at the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, Ireland, except for one leaf containing Matt. 25:41-26:39 which is at the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna (\"Pap. Vindob. G.\" 31974).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976809}
{"src_title": "Grand Duchy of Oldenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first known count of Oldenburg was Elimar I (d. 1108). Elimar's descendants appear as vassals, though sometimes rebellious ones, of the dukes of Saxony; but they attained the dignity of princes of the empire when the emperor Frederick I dismembered the Saxon duchy in 1180. At this time, the county of Delmenhorst formed part of the dominions of the counts of Oldenburg, but afterwards it was on several occasions separated from them to form an appanage for younger branches of the family. This was the case between 1262 and 1447, between 1463 and 1547, and between 1577 and 1617.  During the early part of the 13th century, the counts carried on a series of wars with independent, or semi-independent, Frisian princes to the north and west of the county, which resulted in a gradual expansion of the Oldenburgian territory. The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen and the bishop of Münster were also frequently at war with the counts of Oldenburg.  In 1440, Christian succeeded his father Dietrich, called \"\", as Count of Oldenburg. In 1448 Christian was elected king of Denmark as Christian I, partly based on his maternal descent from previous Danish kings. Although far away from the Danish borders, Oldenburg was now a Danish exclave. The control over the town was left to the king's brothers, who established a short reign of tyranny.  In 1450, Christian became king of Norway and in 1457, king of Sweden. In 1460, he inherited the Duchy of Schleswig and the County of Holstein, an event of high importance for the future history of Oldenburg. In 1454, he handed over Oldenburg to his brother Gerhard (about 1430–99), a wild prince, who was constantly at war with the prince-bishop of Bremen and other neighbors. In 1483, Gerhard was compelled to abdicate in favor of his sons, and he died while on pilgrimage in Spain.  Early in the 16th century, Oldenburg was again enlarged at the expense of the Frisians. Lutheranism was introduced into the county by Anthony I (1505–73, r. from 1529), who also suppressed the monasteries; however, he remained loyal to Emperor Charles V during the Schmalkaldic War, and was able thus to increase his territories, obtaining Delmenhorst in 1547. One of Anthony's brothers, Christopher (about 1506–60), won some reputation as a soldier.  Anthony's grandson, Anthony Günther (1583–1667), who succeeded in 1603, considered himself the wisest prince who had yet ruled Oldenburg. Jever had been acquired before he became count, but in 1624 he added Kniphausen and Varel to his lands, with which in 1647 Delmenhorst was finally united. By his neutrality during the Thirty Years' War and by donating valuable horses to the warlord, the Count of Tilly, Anthony Günther secured for his dominions an immunity from the terrible devastations to which nearly all the other states of Germany were exposed. He also obtained from the emperor the right to levy tolls on vessels passing along the Weser, a lucrative grant which soon formed a material addition to his resources. In 1607 he erected a Renaissance schloss. After the death of Anthony Günther, Oldenburg fell again under Danish authority.  In 1773, Christian VII of Denmark surrendered Oldenburg to Catherine the Great in exchange for her son and heir Paul's share in the condominial royal-ducal government of the Duchy of Holstein and his claims to the ducal share in the government of the Duchy of Schleswig; Oldenburg went to Frederick August, Administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Lübeck, the representative of a younger branch of the family, and in 1777 the county was raised to the rank of a duchy. The duke's son William, who succeeded his father in 1785, was a man of weak intellect, and his cousin Peter, Administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Lübeck, acted as regent and eventually, in 1823, inherited the throne, holding the Prince-Bishopric of Lübeck and Oldenburg in personal union.  By the German Mediatisation of 1803, Oldenburg acquired the Oldenburg Münsterland and the Prince-Bishopric of Lübeck. Between 1810 and 1814, Oldenburg was occupied by Napoleonic France. Its annexation into the French Empire, in 1810, was one of the causes for the diplomatic rift between former allies France and Russia, a dispute that would lead to war in 1812 and eventually to Napoleon's downfall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The European Revolutions.", "content": "Oldenburg did not entirely escape from the Revolutions of 1848 that swept across Europe, but no serious disturbances took place therein. In 1849 Augustus granted a constitution of a very liberal character to his subjects. Hitherto his country had been ruled in the spirit of enlightened despotism which had been strengthened by the absence of a privileged class of nobles, the comparative independence of the peasantry, and the importance of the towns; thus a certain amount of friction was inevitable. In 1852 some modifications were introduced into the constitution, yet it remained one of the most progressive in the German Confederation. Important alterations were made in the administrative system in 1855 and again in 1868, and government oversight on church affairs was ordered by a law of 1863. In 1863, Peter II, who had ruled since the death of his father Augustus in 1853, seemed inclined to press a claim to the vacant duchy of Schleswig and duchy of Holstein, but ultimately in 1867 he abandoned this in favor of the Kingdom of Prussia and received some slight compensation. In 1866 he had sided with this power against the Austrian Empire and had joined the North German Confederation, and in 1871 the grand duchy became a state of the German Empire.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Grand Duchy of Oldenburg () (also known as Holstein-Oldenburg) was a grand duchy within the German Confederation, North German Confederation and German Empire which consisted of three widely separated territories: Oldenburg, Eutin and Birkenfeld. It ranked tenth among the German states and had one vote in the Bundesrat and three members in the Reichstag.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976810}
{"src_title": "Cyril Vasiľ", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Vasiľ was born in Košice, Slovakia, on 10 April 1965. From 1982 to 1987 he attended the Faculty of Theology of Cyril and Methodius in Bratislava. He was ordained priest for the Slovak Greek Catholic Church in 1987. In 1989 he obtained the licentiate in canon law at the Pontifical Oriental Institute in Rome. On 15 October 1990 he entered the Society of Jesus and in 2001 made his solemn profession. In 1994 he obtained a doctorate in Eastern Canon Law at the Pontifical Oriental Institute.  In 2002 he was elected Dean and pro-rector of the Faculty of Eastern Canon Law at the Pontifical Oriental Institute; in May 2007 he was selected rector. He was the first member of the Slovak Greek Catholic Church to hold that post.  He was a Consultor to the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, and the Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Migrants and Itinerants. He was appointed an expert to the 2005 Synod of Bishops on the Eucharist. He was also a professor in the Pontifical Gregorian University, the Theological Faculty of the University of Bratislava and the University of Trnava. In 2003 he was appointed Spiritual Director of the Union Internationale des Guides et Scouts d′Europe. He served as Spiritual Director of this traditional faith-based scouting organization until 2007.  On 7 May 2009, Pope Benedict XVI appointed him Titular Archbishop of Ptolemais in Libya and Secretary of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches. He received his episcopal consecration on 14 June 2009 from Slavomir Miklovš, Bishop Emeritus of Križevci, Croatia.  On 21 January 2010 he was named a consultor to the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity.  On 20 January 2020, he was named Apostolic administrator \"sede plena\" of the Slovak Catholic Eparchy of Košice, following a private audience with Pope Francis on 18 January.  He is the author of numerous books and articles and has worked with Vatican Radio.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cyril Vasiľ S.J. (born 10 April 1965) is a Slovak Jesuit who has been a prelate of the Slovak Greek Catholic Church since Pope Francis named him Apostolic Administrator of the Slovak Catholic Eparchy of Košice on 20 January 2020. He has been professor and Rector of the Pontifical Oriental Institute, a titular archbishop since 2009, and Secretary of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches from 2009 to 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976811}
{"src_title": "Georg Christian, Fürst von Lobkowitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born as a son of Ferdinand August Leopold, 3rd Prince of Lobkowicz and Duke of Sagan (1655–1715) and his second wife, Marie Anna Wilhelmine von Baden-Baden and Hochberg. In his adult age he fought under Prince Eugene of Savoy against the French in the War of the Spanish Succession and later against the Turks during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–1718. He succeeded Piccolomini after his death in Prishtina, Kosoov, but Johann increased taxes and failed to maintaining good relations and the Albanian and Serb forces went joined the Ottomans.  Since 1717 he commanded his own cuirassier regiment. In 1732 became Governor of Sicily (the island was for a short time a part of Habsburg realm). On November 28, 1739 was made a Knight in the Order of the Golden Fleece. In 1741 he attained the rank of field marshal.  During the War of the Austrian Succession, he fought successfully the French (under the command of \"Maréchal\" de Belle-Isle) and Bavarians between Prague and Munich; through the actions of his troops he managed to close and besiege de Belle-Isle men in Prague. Later, he was appointed as the Governor of the Duchy of Milan (1743–45). Subsequently, he became the commander-in-chief of the Habsburg forces in Italy, where he lost the Battle of Velletri (1744) against the army of King Charles III of Spain.  In 1745 composer Christoph Willibald Gluck accepted an invitation to become house composer at London's King's Theatre, travelling to England possibly in the company of Georg Christian, but more likely with his younger cousin, Ferdinand Philipp, 6th Prince Lobkowitz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Johann Georg Christian married Countess Henriette von Waldstein-Wartenburg (1702–1780) in Prague on 11 March 1717. They had 10 children. Two of their sons were killed in battle; two other sons, Joseph Maria Karl (1724–1802) and August Joseph Anton (1729–1803), served in the Austrian military and diplomatic corps and became Knights in the Order of the Golden Fleece and one, Ferdinand-Maria, Prince of Lobkowicz (1726-1795), became bishop of Ghent. Johann Georg Christian, Fürst von Lobkowitz: married to Henriette von Waldstein-Wartenburg.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann Georg Christian, Prince of Lobkowitz (; August 10, 1686 in Prague – October 4, 1755 in Vienna), was an Austrian \"Generalfeldmarschall\" (field marshal). He was a member of the old Bohemian noble family of Lobkowicz, of which family he established a cadet branch, the Hořín-Mělník line.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976812}
{"src_title": "Antti Niemi (ice hockey)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Niemi played junior-level hockey for Kiekko-Vantaa from 1998 until 2005, where he also worked part-time as a Zamboni driver and later had his number retired. He turned pro with the Pelicans of the Finnish SM-liiga in 2005, playing three seasons with the team. In November 2007, Niemi debuted for the Finnish national team. He then signed with the Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL) as an undrafted free agent in 2008. Assigned to Chicago's minor league affiliate, the Rockford IceHogs, Niemi spent the majority of the 2008–09 season in the American Hockey League (AHL), alternating starts with Corey Crawford. In February 2009, he was called up to the Blackhawks as an injury replacement. He made his NHL debut on 27 February, playing one period in a 5–4 overtime loss to the Pittsburgh Penguins. Niemi recorded his first NHL start and win several days later on 1 March, a 4–2 victory versus the Los Angeles Kings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stanley Cup season with Chicago.", "content": "The following season, Niemi made the Blackhawks lineup out of training camp. The Blackhawks began their season with a back-to-back season opening series against the Florida Panthers, held in Niemi's native Finland in the city of Helsinki. The first game of the season opener was held 2 October 2009. Niemi started the second game, held on 3 October. In that game, Niemi stopped all 23 shots he faced against the Panthers to earn his first NHL shutout.  Compiling a very respectable record of 26–7–4 during the regular season, Niemi was named the Blackhawks' starting goaltender for the playoffs near the end of the 2009–10 NHL regular season and prior to the 2010 Stanley Cup playoffs, replacing Cristobal Huet. During game two of the opening series, Niemi recorded a shutout victory against the Nashville Predators at United Center, making him the first Blackhawks goaltender since Ed Belfour in 1996 to record a post-season shutout.  On 22 April 2010, Niemi stopped 33 shots to record his second shutout of the post-season, making him the first Chicago goaltender since Tony Esposito in 1974 to record two shutouts in one playoff series. On 16 May 2010, Niemi made 44 saves in a 2–1 victory over the San Jose Sharks in Game 2 of the Western Conference Final. Chicago ended up sweeping the series against San Jose in four games.  In only his second Stanley Cup Finals game, Niemi made 32 saves, earning the Player of the Game honors from the NHL. On 9 June 2010, Niemi led the Blackhawks to a Stanley Cup championship with a 4–3 overtime win over the Philadelphia Flyers. Niemi was the third Finnish goaltender to make it to the Stanley Cup Finals and the first ever to win the Cup.  Niemi filed for arbitration during the off-season, and was eventually awarded $2.75 million. Chicago officially walked away from the deal on 2 August due to salary cap restraints and signed veteran goaltender Marty Turco from the Dallas Stars for $1.3 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "San Jose Sharks.", "content": "On 2 September 2010, Niemi officially signed a one-year, $2 million contract with the San Jose Sharks. He made 30 saves in his first regular season victory with the Sharks, a 3–2 win over the Columbus Blue Jackets. After a poor start to the season, Niemi was platooned with fellow Finnish netminder Antero Niittymäki, but strong play in the month of February, which saw him go 14–2–1 with a 1.91 goals against average (GAA) and.924 save percentage, cemented him as the Sharks' starting goaltender. On 1 March 2011, Niemi signed a four-year contract extension with San Jose worth $15.2 million. His nickname with the Sharks was \"Nemo.\"  In October 2012, Niemi signed a one-month contract with Pelicans in Finland during the 2012–13 NHL lockout. In the 2012–13 season, Niemi led the Sharks in GAA with 2.16, while leading the NHL in minutes played with 2,581, tied for the League lead with 24 wins in 43 starts, along with finishing third in the NHL with 1,127 saves. On 8 May 2013, Niemi was nominated for the Vezina Trophy, but ultimately lost out to Sergei Bobrovsky of the Columbus Blue Jackets. With his prowess in the shootout throughout the season \"The Hockey News\" awarded Niemi the Gilles Villemure Award as the Best Shootout Goalie.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dallas Stars.", "content": "On 27 June 2015, the second day of the 2015 NHL Entry Draft, Niemi's rights were traded to the Dallas Stars in exchange for the 193rd pick in the 2015 draft. The Stars signed Niemi, forming a partnership with fellow Finnish starting goaltender Kari Lehtonen, on a three-year deal worth $13.5 million on 29 June. On 8 October 2015, Niemi started the first game of the season for the Dallas Stars instead of longtime starter Lehtonen, posting a 37 save shutout and picking up two assists in the 3–0 Dallas Stars victory over the Pittsburgh Penguins. Niemi and Lehtonen would alternate regularly for the entire season. In the playoffs, Lehtonen was given the first chance as the starting goaltender before Niemi started a few games as well.  Niemi would continue to alternate with Lehtonen to begin his second season with the Stars in the 2016–17 season. However, Niemi struggled mightily and was relegated to the backup role. Despite winning 12 games, Niemi placed last in the league amongst recorded goaltenders in goals against average and second to last in save percentage. With the Stars missing the post-season and with the acquisition of goaltender Ben Bishop, Niemi was placed on waivers to be bought out from the remaining year of his contract on 26 June 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pittsburgh Penguins and Florida Panthers.", "content": "On 1 July 2017, Niemi signed a one-year contract with the Pittsburgh Penguins worth $700,000 for the 2017–18 season. Niemi started three games for the Penguins, during which he allowed 16 goals and recorded a 7.5 goals against average. He was placed on waivers on 23 October.  On 24 October, Niemi was claimed off waivers by the Florida Panthers after being waived the previous day. After featuring in just two winless games with the Panthers, and with the return to health of Roberto Luongo, he was placed on waivers once again on 13 November.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Montreal Canadiens.", "content": "On 14 November, Niemi was claimed off waivers by the Montreal Canadiens, and became their official backup on 4 January 2018 after the team traded Al Montoya to the Edmonton Oilers.  Niemi posted a 7–5–4 record and a.929 save percentage in 19 total games with the Canadiens. This career resurgence earned him the Montreal chapter of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association's nomination for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy and a one-year, $950,000 contract extension with the Canadiens. On 15 January 2019, Niemi set a franchise record for most saves in a regular season home game, stopping 52 shots in a 5–1 win over the Panthers, besting the previous mark of 49 saves shared by Jeff Hackett and Carey Price.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jokerit.", "content": "As an impending free agent from the Canadiens following the 2018–19 season, Niemi ended his 11-year NHL career, returning to Finland in signing a one-year contract with Jokerit of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL), on 5 June 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Niemi won a bronze medal at the 2014 Winter Olympics. He dressed as the backup goaltender for four of Finland's six games, but he did not see any ice time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Antti Niemi (; born 29 August 1983) is a Finnish professional ice hockey goaltender for Jokerit of the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976813}
{"src_title": "Axel Witsel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Standard Liège.", "content": "On 17 September 2006, a 17-year-old Witsel made his debut with Standard Liège during a competitive game against FC Brussels when he replaced Steven Defour in the 89th minute. Eleven days later, he made his European debut as a substitute.  During the 2007–08 season, at 18 years of age, he was a key member in the squad of Standard Liège, winners of the Belgian League title that year. During this year, he formed a very young midfield together with other Belgian talents Defour and Marouane Fellaini. In the following season, he scored the winning goal from the penalty spot in a two-legged playoff to decide the championship.  On 30 August 2009, Witsel sparked controversy when he broke Marcin Wasilewski's leg by stamping on his ankle during the match between Anderlecht and Standard. Following the tackle, Witsel protested the red card, claiming that it was an accident without intent, before being sent off the pitch. He soon apologised, but was the subject of criticism from several media outlets and numerous death threats from angry Anderlecht and Poland fans. The initial ban until 23 November by the Belgian Football Association, was later reduced on appeal to eight matches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Benfica.", "content": "Witsel signed for Portuguese club Benfica on a five-year deal on 13 July 2011, including a €40 million buyout clause. Witsel scored twice in the 3–1 win against FC Twente, in the Champions League play-off second leg, on 24 August 2011, sending Benfica to the group stages with a 5–3 aggregate victory. He scored the opening goal in a 4–1 thrashing of Vitória de Guimarães in the Taça da Liga on 9 January 2012. He then assisted Nolito in a 4–1 league defeat of Vitória de Setúbal. Witsel scored his fourth goal against Santa Clara on 18 January in a Taça da Liga match. Benfica reached the final on 14 April against Gil Vicente and Witsel was awarded the Man of the Match award as Benfica claimed their fourth Taça da Liga title with a 2–1 victory.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zenit Saint Petersburg.", "content": "On 3 September 2012, Witsel signed for Zenit Saint Petersburg for €40 million, after signing a five-year contract. Witsel made his debut in the Russian Premier League on 14 September, replacing Konstantin Zyryanov in the 70th minute as Zenit fell 2–0 to Terek Grozny. He scored his first two goals for the club on 30 November when Zenit brushed aside Spartak Moscow 4–2 at the Luzhniki Stadium. Witsel scored Zenit's winner against Terek Grozny on 30 March 2013, an eighth-minute strike, as his side cruised to a 3–0 league victory. In Zenit's first match of the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League group stage on 16 September 2014, Witsel scored Zenit's second goal in a 2–0 away victory over former club Benfica. After finishing third in their Champions League group, Zenit were parachuted into the Europa League knockout phase; in the first leg of their Round of 16 clash against Torino on 12 March 2015, Witsel scored on a rebound as Zenit defeated the Italian club 2–0. On 26 April, Witsel scored the game's only goal in the seventeenth minute as Zenit defeated Arsenal Tula in a league match at the Petrovsky Stadium. On Sunday 17 May, Witsel played the full 90 minutes as Zenit drew 1–1 with FC Ufa, earning the point they needed to secure the Premier League crown, the club's fourth overall and Witsel's first with Zenit. In the 2015 Russian Super Cup on 12 July 2015, Witsel converted his penalty shot in a 4–2 penalty shoot-out victory over FC Lokomotiv Moscow after the match had finished 1–1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tianjin Quanjian.", "content": "On 3 January 2017, Zenit officially announced that Witsel has moved to Chinese club Tianjin Quanjian.  On 4 March 2017, Witsel made his debut for Quanjian in a 2–0 loss to Guangzhou R&F. A week later he scored the club's first ever goal in the Chinese Super League during a 1–1 draw with Shanghai Greenland Shenhua.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Borussia Dortmund.", "content": "On 6 August 2018, Witsel signed for Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund and agreed a four-year contract which lasts until 30 June 2022. On 21 August, he scored an equalizing goal in the stoppage time to make it 1–1 after coming on as a substitute on his debut for the club against SpVgg Greuther Fürth in the DFB-Pokal first round match and later his side went on to win the match in the extra time with a 2-1 victory. Witsel scored his first Bundesliga goal on his league debut for the club with an overhead kick in a 4–1 victory over RB Leipzig on 26 August.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Prior to making his international debut for the senior side, he played for the under-21 side in 2007 earning nine caps as well as helping his side reach the semi-finals of the 2007 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship.  On 26 March 2008, Witsel made his international debut during a friendly game against Morocco. The match resulted in a 1–4 loss, but Witsel scored his first goal for Belgium. Witsel's first goal in an competitive international match came a day short of three years after the Morocco goal, in the sixth minute against Austria in Group A of the UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying process, and his second would come in the second half. However, Belgian hopes of qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 were dashed on 11 October 2011, by defeat to Germany coupled with Turkey's victory over Azerbaijan.  On 13 May 2014, Witsel was named in Belgium's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He started in midfield in the team's first game of the tournament, a 2–1 win against Algeria in Belo Horizonte.  Witsel also featured in the Belgian squad at UEFA Euro 2016, announced on 31 May 2016. He scored his first tournament goal during the Championships, in a Group E match against the Republic of Ireland. He scored twice in 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification, both in wide victories over Gibraltar. Manager Roberto Martínez named him in the squad for the final tournament in Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In June 2015, Witsel married his longtime Romanian girlfriend, Rafaella, with whom he has two children. He is of Martiniquais descent through his father.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Standard Liège  Benfica  Zenit  Borussia Dortmund", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Belgium", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Axel Laurent Angel Lambert Witsel (born 12 January 1989) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays for German club Borussia Dortmund. During his play for the Belgium national team, he came into the first team as a right-winger, and can also play attacking midfielder, though his natural position is as a central midfielder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976814}
{"src_title": "Floor Jansen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After Forever (1997–2009).", "content": "Jansen was sixteen when she joined Apocalypse (later known as After Forever) in 1997. Three years later the band released its first album, \"Prison of Desire\". Her ability to sing both classical and rock music has made her reasonably popular in the metal scene. She took sole charge of After Forever's lyrics and vocal melodies since the departure of Mark Jansen (no relation) in 2002. Prior to this, up until the \"Decipher\" (2001) album, the two would write together. Before becoming a full-time musician, she worked as a singing teacher. Because of the burnout that After Forever bandmate Sander Gommans underwent, the band took a year off starting in January 2008 but ultimately decided to call it quits in February 2009. Jansen posted on her website, that while After Forever was on hold (and since then disbanded), she would use this opportunity to start writing music with Jørn Viggo Lofstad (Pagan's Mind, Jørn Lande) for a new musical project; the two would not be able to make the project come to fruition at the time due to their respective busy schedules, but would eventually reunite in 2017 to give birth to the project as Northward. On 16 June 2009, Jansen announced through her MySpace site, that she had started a new metal band, which has put the project called Sinh with Lofstad on hold.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "ReVamp (2009–2016).", "content": "On 17 October 2009, Jansen announced via MySpace, that the name of her new band was ReVamp. ReVamp's first album was produced with After Forever keyboardist Joost van den Broek, bass player Jaap Melman (formerly of Dreadlock Pussy) and guitarist Waldemar Sorychta (Grip Inc., Voodoocult, Eyes of Eden and Despair) as songwriters and producers. The final line-up of ReVamp featured keyboardist Ruben Wijga, bass player Jaap Melman, guitarists Jord Otto and Arjan Rijnen and drummer Matthias Landes. In August 2011, Van Canto announced on Facebook, that ReVamp would no longer participate in their \"Out of the Dark\" tour, as Jansen suffered a burnout herself.  In late 2011, Jansen joined her former bandmate in After Forever Mark Jansen for his band MaYan's Latin American tour, performing in São Paulo. In 2012, Jansen joined Adrenaline Mob on stage in Bochum and Weert. ReVamp's second album, \"Wild Card,\" was released in 2013.  ReVamp announced its breakup in September 2016, citing Floor Jansen's inability to deliver 100% to both ReVamp and Nightwish.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nightwish (2012–present).", "content": "After Nightwish's previous lead vocalist Anette Olzon parted ways with the band, Jansen acted as Nightwish's live lead vocalist for the remainder of the \"Imaginaerum World Tour\" in 2012. She was at her sister's wedding when she received the call to replace Olzon. Her first show with the band was in Seattle in October. When commenting on the experience, she said:  On 9 October 2013, Jansen was announced as Olzon's permanent replacement in the band, following an invitation she received from the band in a hotel bar. In 2015, Nightwish released their first studio album featuring Jansen as the lead vocalist, \"Endless Forms Most Beautiful\", followed by a world tour. Out of this tour came the live album \"Vehicle of Spirit\". Soon after the tour's completion, Nightwish released the compilation album \"Decades\" on 9 March 2018 and announced yet another world tour.  The second studio album with Jansen as lead vocalist, \"\", was released on April 10, 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other works.", "content": "Three albums by the Dutch composer and multi-instrumentalist Arjen Anthony Lucassen's project Ayreon include guest vocals from Jansen: she sang backing vocals on \"My House on Mars\" from the album \"\", played the character of Forever (referred to as Ω) on seven songs from the album \"01011001\", and was featured as a character named The Biologist on the album \"The Source\". She is also a member of Lucassen's heavy metal supergroup Star One, and was featured on the studio albums \"Space Metal\" and \"Victims of the Modern Age\". She was also featured in the 2018 live album \"Ayreon Universe – The Best of Ayreon Live\".  On 9 December 2013, she was also announced as the main vocalist, playing the lead role, for the second full-length album of former Stratovarius guitarist Timo Tolkki's metal opera act Avalon. The album, \"Angels of the Apocalypse\", was released on 16 May 2014. She has also been a guest for the metal band Nightmare.  On 22 February 2018, Northward, a hard rock project by Jansen and Pagan's Mind guitarist Jørn Viggo Lofstad, was unveiled. The two created the project in 2007, writing an entire album worth of music in 2008 but being unable to record previously due to their busy schedules; they ultimately reunited in 2017 to finally record the album, which was released on 19 October 2018 under their signed label Nuclear Blast. The album features a duet between Jansen and her sister Irene.  In 2019, Jansen participated in the Dutch TV-show \"Beste Zangers\" (\"Best Singers\"). During all episodes she impressed her fellow singers, but also the TV-audience with her voice. In the last episode she partnered with classical singer Henk Poort to perform \"Phantom of the Opera\". The single of that performance reached the number one position in Dutch charts. That performance generated so much attention that she decided to plan a solo tour in the Netherlands. All venues were sold out. She also won the \"Popprijs 2019\" - a prestigious Dutch award for the artist or band with an important contribution to Dutch pop music in the past year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "As a child, she wanted to be a biologist; coincidentally, she played the character \"The Biologist\" in the Ayreon album \"The Source\".  On 18 September 2016, it was announced, that Jansen and her husband Hannes Van Dahl, drummer of Sabaton, were expecting their first child. On 15 March 2017, Jansen announced via Instagram that she gave birth to a baby girl, Freja.  Jansen is vegetarian.  In 2018, a new species of beetle was discovered by scientist Andreas Weigel. It was named after Jansen, dubbing it \"Tmesisternus floorjansenae\". This makes Floor Jansen the second Nightwish member to be a namesake for a newly discovered species, as a new kind of fungus gnat was discovered back in 2017 by Finnish biologist Jukka Salmela, who named the species after Tuomas Holopainen. Jansen herself announced the news on Facebook.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Singing style.", "content": "Jansen can sing from classical to belting and raspy vocals like screaming and death growls. She is a soprano.  Jansen started studying music at the Dutch Rock Academy in 1999, entering the Conservatorium Tilburg three years later. She studied musical theatre and a year of opera. After After Forever split up she started teaching performing in her own course called \"Wanna be a Star?!\"  She used to play the guitar, piano and flute and has completed several years of music studies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Floor Jansen (; born 21 February 1981) is a Dutch singer, songwriter, and vocal coach. She is currently the lead vocalist of Finnish symphonic metal band Nightwish.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976815}
{"src_title": "Multiple sclerosis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the cattle.", "content": "Genetic analyses show that the Texas Longhorn originated from an Iberian taurine lineage descending from the domestication of the wild aurochs in the Middle East and with some admixture with the European Aurochs, and later (while in America) was crossed with \"indicine\" cattle, descending from the domestication of aurochs in India, 85% and 15%, respectively by proportion.  The Texas Longhorns are direct descendants of the first cattle introduced to the New World. The ancestral cattle were brought by colonizer Christopher Columbus in 1493 to the Caribbean island that would become Hispaniola, to supply food to colonists. Between 1493 and 1512, Spanish colonists brought additional cattle in subsequent expeditions. The cattle consisted of three different breeds; \"Barrenda\", \"Retinto\" and \"Grande Pieto\".  Over the next two centuries the Spanish used the cattle in Mexico and gradually moved them north to accompany their settlement. They reached the area that would become known as Texas near the end of the 17th century. The cattle escaped or were turned loose on the open range, where they remained mostly feral for the next two centuries. Over several generations, descendants of these cattle developed to have high feed- and drought-stress tolerance, and other \"hardy\" characteristics that have gained Longhorns their high reputation as livestock.  Early Anglo-American settlers in east Texas, then part of Mexico, obtained feral Mexican cattle from the borderland between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. They bred them to their own eastern cattle. The result was a tough, rangy animal with long legs and long horns, extending up to seven feet. The interbreeding produced changes in color of the breed. The varieties of color ranged from bluish-grey, and various yellowish hues, to browns, black, ruddy and white, both cleanly bright and dirty-speckled.  Portuguese cattle breeds, such as Alentejana and Mertolenga, are the closest existing relatives of Texas Longhorns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decline and revival.", "content": "As Texas became more densely settled through increased migration after it was annexed by the US, the frontier was developed for crop farms and ranch lands. The leaner beef of the Texas Longhorn was not as attractive in an era where tallow was highly prized. The breed's ability to survive on the poor vegetation of the open range was not as important as the range was enclosed.  Other breeds demonstrated traits more highly valued by the modern rancher, such as the ability to gain weight quickly for marketing as beef. The Texas Longhorn stock slowly dwindled, but in 1927 the breed was saved from near extinction by enthusiasts from the United States Forest Service. They collected a small herd of stock to breed on the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge in Lawton, Oklahoma. The breed also received significant attention after a Texas Longhorn named \"Bevo\" was adopted as the mascot of The University of Texas at Austin in 1917. The animal's image became commonly associated with the school's sports teams, known as the Texas Longhorns.  A few years later, J. Frank Dobie and others gathered small herds to keep in Texas state parks. Oilman Sid W. Richardson helped finance the project. The Longhorns were cared for largely as curiosities, but the stock's longevity, resistance to disease, and ability to thrive on marginal pastures resulted in a revival of the breed as beef stock and for their link to Texas history. In 1995 the Texas Legislature designated the Texas Longhorn as the state mammal (large).  In the 21st century, Texas Longhorns from elite bloodlines can sell for $40,000 or more at auction. The record of $380,000 on March 18, 2017, was for a cow, 3S Danica, and heifer calf at side, during the Legacy XIII sale in Fort Worth, Texas. Commercial ranchers cross-breed Texas Longhorns with other breeds for increasing hybrid vigor and easy calving characteristics. Smaller birth weights reduce dystocia for first-calf heifers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease in which the insulating covers of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord are damaged. This damage disrupts the ability of parts of the nervous system to transmit signals, resulting in a range of signs and symptoms, including physical, mental, and sometimes psychiatric problems. Specific symptoms can include double vision, blindness in one eye, muscle weakness and trouble with sensation or coordination. MS takes several forms, with new symptoms either occurring in isolated attacks (relapsing forms) or building up over time (progressive forms). Between attacks, symptoms may disappear completely; however, permanent neurological problems often remain, especially with the advancement of the disease. While the cause is unclear, the underlying mechanism is thought to be either destruction by the immune system or failure of the myelin-producing cells. Proposed causes for this include genetics and environmental factors such as being triggered by a viral infection. MS is usually diagnosed based on the presenting signs and symptoms and the results of supporting medical tests. There is no known cure for multiple sclerosis. Treatments attempt to improve function after an attack and prevent new attacks. Medications used to treat MS, while modestly effective, can have side effects and be poorly tolerated. Physical therapy can help with people's ability to function. Many people pursue alternative treatments, despite a lack of evidence of benefit. The long-term outcome is difficult to predict, with good outcomes more often seen in women, those who develop the disease early in life, those with a relapsing course and those who initially experienced few attacks. Life expectancy is on average 5 to 10 years lower than that of the unaffected population. Multiple sclerosis is the most common immune-mediated disorder affecting the central nervous system. In 2015, about 2.3 million people were affected globally, with rates varying widely in different regions and among different populations. In that year, about 18,900 people died from MS, up from 12,000 in 1990. The disease usually begins between the ages of 20 and 50 and is twice as common in women as in men. MS was first described in 1868 by French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot. The name \"multiple sclerosis\" refers to the numerous glial scars (or sclerae – essentially plaques or lesions) that develop on the white matter of the brain and spinal cord. A number of new treatments and diagnostic methods are under development.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976816}
{"src_title": "Julius Ringel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Julius Ringel was born in Völkermarkt in the Austrian state of Carinthia. In 1905, he was admitted to a military school in Vienna, graduating on 18 August 1909.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service in the Austro-Hungarian and Austrian Armies.", "content": "Following his education, Fähnrich Ringel was assigned to the k.u.k. \"Landwehr Infanterie-Regiment 4\" (a mountain infantry unit) and a year later, he was promoted to Leutnant. During World War I, Ringel saw action in Galicia and the Italian Alps where he was taken prisoner of war in 1918. Upon his return to the newly formed Republic of German Austria, Ringel fought against the troops of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia occupying Carinthia. Following the Carinthian Plebiscite and the creation of the First Austrian Republic, Ringel was transferred to the Austrian Federal Army where he rose to the rank Lieutenant Colonel in 1932.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service in the Wehrmacht.", "content": "As an avid supporter of the Nazi Party, Ringel strongly encouraged the union of Austria with the German Reich and after the Anschluss enthusiastically joined the Wehrmacht with the 3rd Mountain Division. On 1 February 1939, Ringel was promoted to colonel. When World War II began, he was assigned to the 268th Infantry Division as a regimental commander and he took part in the campaign in the West.  On 7 June 1940, Ringel returned to the 3rd Mountain Division, becoming its commander on 14 July 1940. In October, he was promoted to Major General and appointed commander of the newly established 5th Mountain Division. The division saw its first action in the spring of 1941 in the Balkans Campaign and took part in the operations codenamed Marita and Merkur aimed to capture mainland Greece and Crete. For his leadership during these operations Ringel was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 13 June 1941. The operation in Crete was still underway when Ringel ordered his mountaineers to carry out reprisals against civilians who fought the invading Germans.  In November 1941, Ringel's division was posted back to Germany for rest and reorganization. In March 1942 it was sent to the Eastern Front southeast of Leningrad, to take part in the operations against the Soviet Volkhov Front. For his actions, Ringel was promoted to Lieutenant General and in October 1943 received the Oak Leaves to his Knight's Cross. Ringel's division was transferred to Italy in December 1943 to man the Winter Line near the town of Cassino. Four months later, he was appointed commander of the LXIX Army Corps in Croatia. In June, Ringel was promoted to the General of the mountain troops and put in charge of the Military District Salzburg (\"Wehrkreis XVIII (Salzburg)\") from which the Army Corps Ringel was formed. He held this appointment until the end of the war. He died in Bayerisch Gmain in 1967.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theft of Aegean Antiquities.", "content": "After Crete fell, Ringel stole several Minoan, Classical and Hellenistic artifacts from Villa Ariadne in Knossos and offered them to the University of Graz in Austria. Twenty six of these objects were repatriated to Greece in 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "<BR", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Julius 'Papa' Ringel (16 November 1889 – 11 February 1967) was an Austrian general in the armed forces of Nazi Germany during World War II. He fought in the Western and Eastern fronts, as well as the Balkan Campaign. Ringel commanded the 3rd Mountain Division, 5th Mountain Division, LXIX Corps, Wehrkreis XI and the Army Corps Ringel. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976817}
{"src_title": "Cygnus (spacecraft)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "With Rocketplane Kistler unable to meet funding obligations for its K-1 launch vehicle under the terms of the COTS agreement, NASA decided on 18 October 2007 to terminate its contract with Rocketplane Kistler and re-award its contract after a competition. On 19 February 2008, the NASA announced that it had chosen Orbital Sciences as the new winner. On 23 December 2008, NASA awarded Orbital Sciences a $1.9 billion contract under the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) program. Under this contract, Orbital Sciences will deliver up to 20 tons of cargo to the ISS through 2016 in eight Cygnus spacecraft flights.  By April 2010, Orbital had displayed a full-scale model of the Cygnus cargo delivery spacecraft at the National Space Symposium (NSS) in Colorado Springs, CO.  Launched on an Antares (renamed from Taurus II) medium-class launch vehicle or Atlas V, the first Cygnus flight was originally planned to occur in December 2010.· The Cygnus demonstration mission was successfully launched on 18 September 2013. On 12 January 2014, the first scheduled Cygnus resupply mission arrived at the space station; the capsule carried Christmas presents and fresh fruit for the astronauts. Its arrival was delayed, first by the need to repair the station, and then by frigid weather at the launch site and solar flares that forced postponements.·  With the December 2015 launch of Orb CRS-4 on Atlas V, the Enhanced version made its debut. While it was planned from the beginning to fly on the fifth mission, the Orb CRS-3 failure and subsequent move to Atlas V meant a delay. On the other hand, the lessons learned on packing and the extra capabilities of the Atlas allowed payload to be increased to.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The Cygnus spacecraft consists of two basic components: the Pressurized Cargo Module (PCM) and the Service Module (SM). The PCM is manufactured by Thales Alenia Space in Turin, (Italy). The initial PCMs have an empty mass of 1,500 kg and a volume of 18 m·. The service module is built by Orbital ATK and is based on their GEOStar and LEOStar spacecraft buses as well as components from the development of the Dawn spacecraft. It has a gross mass of 1,800 kg with propulsion provided by thrusters using the hypergolic propellants hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide and is capable of producing up to 4 kW of electrical power via two gallium arsenide solar arrays. On 12 November 2009, Dutch Space announced it will provide the solar arrays for the initial Cygnus spacecraft. The fourth and all subsequent Cygnus spacecraft are planned to be of the \"Enhanced\" variant, as the standard variant has been retired. These will use a stretched 1,800-kilogram (empty weight) PCM which increases the interior volume to 27 m and the service module will use Orbital ATK Ultraflex solar arrays which will provide the same amount of power as the previous solar arrays but at a lower mass.· A new upper stage built by Orbital ATK, the Castor 30XL, will be used in conjunction with the enhanced Cygnus; because of the more powerful upper stage and the lighter solar arrays, the payload that Cygnus can deliver to the ISS will be increased by 700 kg.  During nominal CRS missions, Cygnus maneuvers close to the International Space Station, where the Canadarm2 robotic arm grapples the spacecraft and berths it to a Common Berthing Mechanism on the Harmony module in a similar fashion to the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle and the other American CRS vehicle, the SpaceX Dragon. For typical missions, Cygnus is planned to remain berthed for about 30 days.· Cygnus does not provide return capability, but can be loaded with obsolete equipment and trash for destructive reentry similar to the Russian Progress vehicles.  A formerly planned variant of Cygnus would have replaced the PCM with the Unpressurized Cargo Module (UCM), based on NASA's ExPRESS Logistics Carrier, and would have been used to transport unpressurized cargo, such as ISS Orbital Replacement Units.· Another proposed variant would have replaced the PCM with the Return Cargo Module (RCM), which would have allowed Cygnus to return cargo to Earth.·", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CRS-2 Versions.", "content": "On 10 April 2014, NASA announced to potential bidders new requirements (CRS-2) for the delivery and disposal of pressurized and unpressurized cargo to and from the International Space Station. To meet NASA's requirements for the CRS-2 contract, Orbital ATK put together a bid that included three different variants of its Cygnus spacecraft to meet the various requirements outlined in the CRS-2 contract. Orbital was awarded a CRS-2 logistics contract on 14 January 2016.  The first version would be the Enhanced Cygnus upgraded to carry 10% to 15% more pressurized cargo than the current CRS-1 Cygnus version.  The second version would be a larger Pressurized Cargo Module (PCM) that would use an Atlas V rocket. This would deliver the largest pressurized cargo volume to ISS.  The third version would be an Unpressurized Cargo Module (UCM), based on NASA's ExPRESS Logistics Carrier. The unpressurized Cygnus would look different than its pressurized counterparts, with a cargo carrier taking the place of the PCM. The unpressurized Cygnus would berth to the Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM), just like the current cargo vehicles to US Operating Segment (USOS).  In essence, what Orbital ATK proposed for their CRS-2 contract was an Antares-based Cygnus design and an Atlas-based Cygnus to take advantage of both vehicle lifting capabilities – placing the smaller Cygnus on Antares and the larger Cygnus with more cargo on an Atlas V.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lunar Gateway module variant.", "content": "In August 2019, NASA decided to sole source its design for the Minimal Habitation Module of the Lunar Gateway to Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems, which offered a minimalist design based directly on the Enhanced Cygnus as well as a larger 7-meter (22.9 feet) by 4.4-meter (14.4 feet) design also based on the Cygnus. The module would be launched and placed in lunar orbit in early 2024, and would host the crew of Artemis 3 and the commercial lunar lander by the end of the year. The weight constraints would likely require launch aboard an Atlas V, Delta IV Heavy, or Vulcan rocket.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Missions.", "content": "\"List includes only currently manifested missions. Eight missions are currently planned to be launched from Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport Launch Pad 0A on Antares, while two are planned to be launched on Atlas V rocket from Cape Canaveral SLC-41.\"  The PCM of each mission thus far has been named after a deceased NASA person (mostly astronauts).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cygnus spacecraft is an expendable American cargo spacecraft developed by Orbital Sciences Corporation and now manufactured and launched by Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems as part of NASA's Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) program. It is launched by Northrop Grumman's Antares rocket or ULA's Atlas V and is designed to transport supplies to the International Space Station (ISS) following the retirement of the American Space Shuttle. Since August 2000, ISS resupply missions have been regularly flown by the Russian Progress spacecraft, as well as by the European Automated Transfer Vehicle, and the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle. With the Cygnus spacecraft and the SpaceX Dragon, NASA seeks to increase its partnerships with domestic commercial aviation and aeronautics industry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976818}
{"src_title": "Magdalena Álvarez", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Pre-political life.", "content": "Álvarez holds a doctorate in Economic and Business Science from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, and taught Economics at the Spanish National Open University between 1977 and 1990; at the Escuela de Prácticas Jurídicas in Málaga (1981–1989); and at the Instituto de Estudios Fiscales (1981–1989).  In 1979 she joined the Spanish Tax Inspectorate, holding various roles within the Ministry of Finance and afterwards in the AEAT, the Spanish Revenue Service.  She was Chief Inspector of the Tax delegation to Málaga from 1987–1989, Director of Regional Economic Incentives (1989–1993) a Director of the Department of Financial Inspection of the National Tax Inspectorate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political life and judicial case.", "content": "Álvarez was an MP in the Andalusian parliament for the province of Málaga, and in August 1994 she was named Minister of the Economy and Revenue for the Junta de Andalucía, becoming a member of the second cabinet of Manuel Chaves.  During her time as a minister, neither of her two budgets were approved by the Parliament.  In 1996, after the regional elections, she was confirmed in her post by Chaves, subsequently focusing on the payment of Andalucía's public debt and autonomous finance.  In the subsequent elections, in March 2000, Chaves kept her as head of the Ministry of Economy and Revenue for the sixth Andaluz Parliament.  In the Spanish General Election of 2004, she was number one on the Socialist list for the Chamber of Deputies for the Province of Mâlaga, while supporting José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero in his successful bid to become Prime Minister of Spain.  Just before those elections, in January, Álvarez – married and the mother of one daughter – was elected president of the Socialist Political Conference committee. After this election, she was named as Minister of Public Works.  She was re-elected in 2008 as MP for the Province of Málaga, continuing as Minister of Public Works until April 2009 when she was substituted by José Blanco.  On 2 July 2013 Alvarez was formally charged by Judge Alaya in the ERE case in Andalusia, due to a consistent pattern of alleged misappropriation of public funds between 2001 and 2010 under the leadership of the PSOE. In March 2014 the judge imposed Ms Alvarez a civil bail of 29 million Euros and proceeded to seize several properties and 6 bank accounts when she was unable to provide the guarantee.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Magdalena Álvarez Arza is a Spanish Politician, who from 2004 to 2009 served as Minister of Public Works (Fomento). She was born in San Fernando, in the Province of Cádiz, on 15 February 1952. She is an MP for the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) for Málaga Province. Previously, she was the Minister for the Economy in the Junta de Andalucía.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976819}
{"src_title": "Paderborn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Paderborn was founded as a bishopric by Charlemagne in 795, although its official history began in 777 when Charlemagne built a castle near the Pader springs. In 799 Pope Leo III fled his enemies in Rome and reached Paderborn, where he met Charlemagne, and stayed there for three months. It was during this time that it was decided that Charlemagne would be crowned emperor. Charlemagne reinstated Leo in Rome in 800 and was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by Leo in return. In 836, St. Liborius became the patron saint of Paderborn after his bones were moved there from Le Mans by Bishop Badurad. St. Liborius is commemorated in Paderborn every year in July with the Liborifest.  The bishop of Paderborn, Meinwerk, became a Prince of the Empire in 1100. The bishop had several large buildings built, and the area became a place for the emperors to stay. The city was taken by Prussia in 1802, then by the French vassal state Kingdom of Westphalia from 1807 to 1813 and then returned to Prussia.  Native Friedrich Sertürner, a pharmacist's apprentice in Paderborn, was the first to isolate morphine from opium in 1804.  In 1930, the See of Paderborn was promoted to archdiocese.  During World War II, Paderborn was bombed by Allied aircraft in 1944 and 1945, resulting in 85% destruction, including many of the historic buildings. It was seized by the US 3rd Armored Division after a pitched battle 31 March - 1 April 1945, in which tanks and flamethrowers were used during combined mechanized-infantry assaults against the city's southwestern, southern and southeastern approaches.  After the city was reconstructed in the 1940s and 1950s, Paderborn became a major industrial seat in Westphalia. The British Army has retained a significant presence in the area, and uses the nearby Sennelager Training Area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Paderborn is situated at the source of the river \"Pader\", approximately east of Lippstadt and approximately south of Bielefeld on the Pader. The hills of the Eggegebirge are located east of the city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subdivisions.", "content": "The city of Paderborn consists of the following \"Stadtteile\" (city sections):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demographics.", "content": "Paderborn has a population of over 144,000, of which approximately 10% are students at the local university. Additionally, about 10,000 members or relatives of members of the British armed forces live within Westfalen Garrison, but are not included in the nominal population size.  60% of the population are Catholics, 20% Lutherans and 20% members of other faiths or not religious.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Paderborn is the headquarters of the former Nixdorf Computer AG, which was acquired by Siemens in the early 1990s and known as Siemens-Nixdorf for about ten years. The company is now known as Diebold Nixdorf, which is still located in Paderborn, but Siemens retains a considerable presence in the city.  Many other information technology companies as well as industrial enterprises are located in Paderborn, too: Paderborn is also home of the \"Paderborner\" brewery, which has belonged to the Warsteiner group since 1990.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arts and culture.", "content": "Paderborn has the largest computer museum in the world, the \"\". From 2001 to 2005 it hosted the.  The town supports the Nordwestdeutsche Philharmonie for regular symphony concerts in the Paderhalle.  The city is known today for its exhibitions in three museums: the \"Kaiserpfalz\", The Diocesan Museum and the Art Museum - Städtische Galerie.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Town twinning.", "content": "Paderborn is a sister city with:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "Paderborn is nationally known as a center for American Sports. The local baseball team, the Paderborn Untouchables, has won many German championships. The local American Football team, the Paderborn Dolphins, has also enjoyed considerable success. In 2006 the Paderborn Baskets, the home basketball team of the city was promoted to the Bundesliga.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paderborn Baskets (basketball).", "content": "In the past, the Paderborn Baskets played multiple seasons in the Basketball Bundesliga. They reached the playoffs in the 2008–09 season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "SC Paderborn 07 (football).", "content": "SC Paderborn 07 is the most successful football club in Paderborn. They were promoted to the Bundesliga, Germany's top flight, in 2019 but relegated back to 2. Bundesliga at the end of the same season.  The club was formed out of the 1985 merger of FC Paderborn and TuS Schloß Neuhaus as TuS Paderborn-Neuhaus and took on its current, shorter name in 1997. The Neuhaus club was founded in 1907 as SV 07 Neuhaus which was joined by the local side TuS 1910 Sennelager to become TuS Schloss Neuhaus in 1970. The Neuhaus and Paderborn teams played as tier III sides for most of their histories, as has the unified club. Today Paderborn plays its home matches at the Benteler Arena. In 2014, SC Paderborn was promoted to the Bundesliga for the first time. They are now in the top flight again after a thrilling promotion campaign.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Infrastructure.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport.", "content": "Paderborn is located at the Autobahn A 33, which connects Paderborn to the Autobahn A 2 in the north and the Autobahn A 44 in the south.  The main station is a regular stop for the InterCity on the Hamm–Warburg line and several local trains.  The Paderborn Lippstadt Airport connects Paderborn to the bigger German airports and offers flights to many locations in Europe. There is a bus shuttle between the airport and the Paderborn main train station. General Aviation and gliders are based at Paderborn-Haxterberg (site of the world gliding championships in 1981).  In Paderborn there is a bus system served by the \"PaderSprinter\" for local buses and the \"Bahnbus Hochstift\" for regional buses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "Paderborn was once the oldest academic site in Westphalia. In 1614, the University of Paderborn was founded by the Jesuits but was closed in 1819. It was re-founded in 1972 as Universität-Gesamthochschule and transformed into a university in its own right in 2002. Today, it is attended by about 20,000 students.  There also are several theological and private academic institutes in Paderborn.  There are a number of grammar schools in the city, the most prominent of which are the and, along with others such as the Goerdeler-Gymnasium. There are also a few British primary schools such as John Buchan School, which is located in Sennelager and mainly educates children of British military personnel and the garrison's employees.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paderborn () is a city in eastern North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, capital of the Paderborn district. The name of the city derives from the river Pader and \"born\", an old German term for the source of a river. The river Pader originates in more than 200 springs near Paderborn Cathedral, where St. Liborius is buried.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976820}
{"src_title": "Karlštejn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Founded in 1348, the construction works were directed by the later Karlštejn burgrave Vitus of Bítov, but there are no records of the builder himself. Some historians speculate that Matthias of Arras may be credited with being the architect, but he had already died by 1352. It is likely that there was not a progressive and cunning architect, but a brilliant civil engineer who dexterously and with a necessary mathematical accuracy solved technically exigent problems that issued from the emperor's ideas and requests. Instead, Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV personally supervised the construction works and interior decoration. Construction was finished nearly twenty years later in 1365 when the \"heart\" of the treasury – the Chapel of the Holy Cross situated in the Great tower – was consecrated.  Following the outbreak of the Hussite Wars, the Imperial Regalia were evacuated in 1421 and brought via Hungary to Nuremberg. In 1422, during the siege of the castle, Hussite attackers used biological warfare when Prince Sigismund Korybut used catapults to throw dead (but not plague-infected) bodies and 2,000 carriage-loads of dung over the walls, apparently managing to spread infection among the defenders. Later, the Bohemian crown jewels were moved to the castle and were kept there for almost two centuries, with some short breaks. The castle underwent several reconstructions: in late Gothic style after 1480, in Renaissance style in the last quarter of the 16th century. In 1487, the big tower was damaged by fire and during the 16th century there were several adaptations. During the Thirty Years' War in 1619, the coronation jewels and the archive were brought to Prague, and in 1620, the castle was turned over to Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor. After having been conquered in 1648 by Swedes, it fell in disrepair. Finally, a neo-Gothic reconstruction was carried out by Josef Mocker between 1887 and 1899, giving the castle its present look.  The nearby village was founded during the construction of the castle and bore its name until it was renamed to Buda in the wake of the Hussite Wars. Renamed to Budňany in the 18th century, it was merged with Poučník and called Karlštejn (Beroun District). There is a golf club named after the castle nearby.  On a nearby hillside behind the castle, there is a marker erected and maintained by the Czech/Slovak mission of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. The marker signifies the place (known as \"Priest's Hill\") where Apostle John A. Widstoe, local members of the church, and American missionaries organised and dedicated the land of former Czechoslovakia for proselyting on July 24, 1929. The mission was closed during the communist era, and was reopened and rededicated in the 1990s by Apostle Russel M. Nelson. Every year on the 24th of July, all of the missionaries from the Czech Republic travel to the marker to celebrate the opening of the mission and to pray before returning to their proselyting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architectural description.", "content": "The castle was built upon a promontory from the south side of Kněží Hora hill, divided from it by a narrow sag. The first gate, a square, two-storey tower with a tall hip roof, stood above a moat at the western slope of the promontory. It was connected with the rampart traverse by means of a small portal. The traverse was protected by battlement and divided by a covered bastion in the middle. The second gate led to the Burgrave House (\"Purkrabství\") courtyard. Drawbridges closed both entrances. The Burgrave House formed the Karlštejn settlement, it was fortified with a two meters wide rampart, the Well Tower stood slightly lower. In the burgraviate's rampart a third gate was staved - the main entrance into the inner castle.  The core of the castle consisted of three parts placed on three levels-differentiated terraces; every level express different importance. On the lowest terrace there stood the Imperial Palace (\"Císařský palác\"), above it there was the Marian Tower (\"Mariánská věž\") and the Big Tower (\"Velká věž\") stood the highest. The Palace is a single-tract building, about wide and long, closed in the east by a semi-cylinder tower, had – aside of the cellar dug in the rock – the ground floor and two walled floors; the third floor under the roof was built from half-timbered work. The ground space is open to the courtyard, the rest was occupied by a granary. Three rooms form the first floor; largest is the central room, the so-called Knight Hall (\"Rytířský sál\"). The emperor inhabited the second floor of the palace; the floor was divided into four rooms by self-supporting partitions. A spiral staircase connected it with the third floor in which – according to the record from the 16th century – there was a residence of the \"empress with her female retinue\". The layout and equipment of the second and third floor was approximately the same: bedrooms on the eastern side, then the stateroom, a hall and the rooms in the west. The central area of the high and separately fortified Big Tower, with walls thick, is the Chapel of the Holy Cross (\"kaple sv. Kříže\"); it has no analogy in concept elsewhere in the world. In the safety of the chapel, behind four doors with nineteen locks to each key was guarded independently, the valuable documents of the state archive were kept along with the symbols of the state power – the Imperial Regalia, later the Czech Crown Jewels.  The Well Tower (\"Studniční věž\"), being the logistical centerpiece the castle could not function without, was the first part of the castle to be built. Miners were brought in from the mining town of Kutná Hora, however, water was not encountered even after the depth of the well was, well below the level of the nearby Berounka river. An underground channel was therefore excavated to bring in water from a nearby stream, yielding a water column of, sufficient to last for several months. The reservoir had to be manually refilled roughly twice a year by opening a floodgate. Considering the significant strategic weakness incurred to the castle by the lack of an independent water source, the existence of the underground channel was a state secret known only to the Emperor himself, and the burgrave. The only other persons aware of its existence were the miners, who were however allegedly massacred on their way from the castle after the construction, leaving no survivors.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karlštejn Castle (; ) is a large Gothic castle founded in 1348 by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor-elect and King of Bohemia. The castle served as a place for safekeeping the Imperial Regalia as well as the Bohemian crown jewels, holy relics, and other royal treasures. Located about southwest of Prague above the village of the same name, it is one of the most famous and most frequently visited castles in the Czech Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976821}
{"src_title": "Gmelina arborea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Gmelina arborea\" is a fast-growing tree, which grows on different localities and prefers moist fertile valleys with 750–4500 mm rainfall. It does not thrive on ill-drained soils and remains stunted on dry, sandy or poor soils; drought also reduces it to a shrubby form. The tree attains moderate to large heights of up to 30 m, with a girth of 1.2 to 4 m. It has a chlorophyll layer just under the outer bark, which is pale yellow on the outside and white inside.  \"Gmelina arborea\" wood is pale yellow to cream-coloured or pinkish-buff when fresh, turning yellowish brown on exposure and is soft to moderately hard, light to moderately heavy, lustrous when fresh, usually straight to irregular or rarely wavy grained and medium course textured. Flowering takes place during February to April when the tree is more or less leafless whereas fruiting starts from May onwards up to June. The fruit is up to 2.5 cm long, smooth, dark green, turning yellow when ripe and has a fruity smell.  This tree is commonly planted as a garden and an avenue tree; growing in villages along agricultural land and on village community lands and wastelands. It is light demander, tolerant of excessive drought, but moderately frost hardy. It has good capacity to recover from frost injury. Gamhar trees coppices very well with vigorous growth. Saplings and young plants need protection from deer and cattle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Gmelina arborea\" grows naturally throughout India, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and in southern provinces of China. It is found at altitudes from sea level to. Since the 1960s, it has been introduced extensively as fast-growing timber trees in Brazil, Gambia, Honduras, Ivory Coast, Malaysia, Malawi, Nigeria, the Philippines, and Sierra Leone. It is also planted in gardens and avenues.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Utilization of the species.", "content": "\"Gmelina arborea\" timber is reasonably strong for its weight. It is used in construction, furniture, carriages, sports, musical instruments and artificial limbs. Once seasoned, it is a very steady timber and moderately resistant to decay and ranges from very resistant to moderately resistant to termites. Its timber is highly esteemed for door and window panels, joinery and furniture especially for drawers, wardrobes, cupboards, kitchen and camp furniture, and musical instruments because of its light weight, stability and durability. It is also used for bentwood articles. In boat building it is used for decking and for oars. \"Gmelina arborea\" is a popular timber for picture and slate frames, turnery articles and various types of brush backs, brush handles and toys also for handles of chisels, files, saws, screw drivers, sickles etc. The wood is also used for manufacturing tea chests and general purpose plywood, blackboards, frame core and cross bands of flush door shutters. In the instrument industry gambhar timber is widely employed for the manufacture of drawing boards, plane tables, instrument boxes, thermometer scales and cheaper grade metric scales. It is also used in artificial limbs, carriages and bobbins. It is an approved timber for handles of tennis rackets, frames and reinforcements of carom boards and packing cases and crates. Gamhar is used in papermaking and in the matchwood industry too.  The Lion Throne, the most important, and last surviving, of the eight royal thrones of Myanmar, now in the National Museum in Yangon, is carved from \"Gmelina arborea\" wood.  \"Gmelina arborea\" leaves are considered good for cattle (crude protein – 11.9%) and are also used as a feed to eri-silkworm.  'Kumizh tree' when burnt yields the whitest possible ash; mention is made by certain 'rock art enthusiasts' that this ash is one of the ingredients in the semi-solid white ochre used to draw the very ancient 'cave paintings,' as old as 3,000 to 5,000 years or more; found in the dense forests of Tamil Nadu.  \"Gmelina arborea\" wood", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "Lignans, such as 6\" - bromo - isoarboreol, 4-hydroxysesamin, 4,8-dihydroxysesamin, 1,4-dihydroxysesamin (gummadiol), 2-piperonyl-3-hydroxymethyl-4-(α-hydroxy-3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-4-hydroxytetrahydrofuran and the 4-O-glucoside of 4-epigummadiol, can be isolated from the heartwood of \"Gmelina arborea\". The parent compounds are arboreol or gmelanone.  Umbelliferone 7-apiosylglucoside can be isolated from the root.  Five constituents, isolated from the heartwood of \"G. arborea\", (+)-7′-O-ethyl arboreol, (+)-paulownin, (+)-gmelinol, (+)-epieudesmin and (−)-β-sitosterol, show antifungal activity against \"Trametes versicolor\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gmelina arborea, (in English beechwood, gmelina, goomar teak, Kashmir tree, Malay beechwood, white teak, yamane ), locally known as gamhar, is a fast-growing deciduous tree in the family Lamiaceae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976822}
{"src_title": "Okhotny Ryad (Moscow Metro)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Okhotny Ryad station is located under what was originally the swamplands of the upper Neglinnaya River. Later two ancient churches stood on the site, and their graveyards were excavated during the construction of the station. The station opened as part of the original Metro line on 15 May 1935.  Okhotny Ryad has been renamed more times than any other Metro station. Planned to be called Okhotnoryadskaya, it was opened as Okhotny Ryad instead. The station was renamed Imeni Kaganovicha in honour of Lazar Kaganovich during the brief period between 25 November 1955 and 1957, when its original name was restored. The station's name was changed once more on 30 November 1961, to Prospekt Marksa (the station still contains a mosaic portrait of Karl Marx). Finally, on 5 June 1990, the original name was restored once more.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The construction of Okhotny Ryad presented a number of engineering challenges. The task of wedging a metro station into the narrow space between two major buildings, the Hotel Moskva that has been re-built, and what is now the State Duma building, at a depth of only without damaging their foundations was further complicated by the difficult soil conditions in the area, including numerous underground water channels. The station was built using a so-called \"German\" method in which the station walls were constructed above ground and then lowered into the construction site. This helped to brace the foundations of the nearby buildings during the subsequent construction of the station vault and pylons.  The station was originally planned to be a bi-vault design similar to many London Underground stations, but Lazar Kaganovich, who was in charge of the Moscow Metro project at the time, insisted that the station be changed to a tri-vault design after of tunnel had already been bored. A major setback occurred when accumulated rainwater broke through the vault before it had been completely sealed and flooded the station. Though no one was injured in the disaster, construction had to be halted while the damage was repaired.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interiors.", "content": "The architects, Yuri Revkovsky, N. Borov, and G. Zamskoy, employed a silvery marble from Italy for the finishing of the pylons, the only documented case where imported material was used in the Metro. The walls are faced with ceramic tile. The finishing of the station, which involved the installation of more than of marble, of plaster, and thousands of square metres of tile as well as lighting and decorations, was completed in just two weeks.  In 2004, Okhotny Ryad underwent a major renovation which included replacing the lighting elements inside the spheres and repainting the plaster from light beige to white. A further renovation took place in 2007/2008 when the old ceramic tiles were replaced by bright marble, though a small tiled section was retained. An average of 42,110 passengers per day enter the station through its vestibules with an additional 241,000 passengers entering via Teatralnaya.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Entrances.", "content": "The station has two subterranean vestibules, each linked with the platform via an escalator. During the construction of the vestibules, orders of the Moscow's party committee prohibited the obstruction of traffic, so \"American\" bridges had to be built over the pits of the future vestibules.  The eastern vestibule, through a mezzanine level is situated on the ground floor of a building situated on the corner of Bolshaya Dmitrovka street, Teatralny Drive, and Teatralnaya Square. The facade of this building was redesigned by Dmitry Chechulin and originally incorporated sculptures of athletes which were modeled after performers from the Moscow Circus. The original three N-type escalators were replaced by ET-5M units in 1997 (9.2 metres/30 ft high). The vestibule also acts as a transfer point to the Teatralnaya station.  The western vestibule's original N-type escalators were replaced in 1990 by the ET-5M series (also 9.2 metres/30 ft high). The vestibule's original entrance was built into the ground floor of Hotel Moskva, on the corner of Manezhnaya Square and Okhotny Ryad street. In 1959 the original structure was expanded with the first of many underground subway networks, and opened on 21 November. Dual descent entrances appeared on both corners of the Tverskaya Street, in front of the original entrance. The tunnel the continued along the facade of the Hotel Moskva, to offer entrance on both sides of the driveway between Manezhnaya Square and Revolution Square (closed to traffic only in 1990s). The final addition came in 1997 when a new underground mall was opened under the Manezhnaya Square, a direct access was made possible from the 1959 network. When the original Hotel Moskva was closed for demolition in 2004, the original entrance on its northwest corner was also demolished. It is unknown whether there are plans to restore it in the new building.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transfers.", "content": "Okhotny Ryad station is connected to Teatralnaya station of the Zamoskvoretskaya Line. Originally, when opened in 1938, transfer was only possible via the eastern vestibule. A direct transfer was under construction, but did not open until 30 December 1944. It features a long inclined tunnel that descends towards Teatranalaya. As the system grew, the original arrangement proved inadequate to handle the large passenger load and on 7 November 1974 a second transfer tunnel was opened.  Access to both transfer routes is done via escalators in the centre of the platform. The original two tandem N-type escalator pairs were replaced in 2001 by ET-5M series (8.3 metres high). In the mezzanine under the platform the northwards direction carries passenger to Teatralnaya, whilst the southern direction brings them from the station via the older 1940s transfer. Thus the escalators are also one way, with the western on descent and vice versa.  There is no direct transfer to Ploshchad Revolyutsii station of the Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya Line, which must be reached via Teatralnaya station.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Okhotny Ryad () is a station on the Sokolnicheskaya Line of the Moscow Metro. It is situated in the very centre of Moscow in the Tverskoy District, near the Kremlin, Manezhnaya Square and State Duma. It is named after a nearby street, which name literally means \"hunters' row\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976823}
{"src_title": "Natural killer T cell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nomenclature.", "content": "The term \"NK T cells\" was first used in mice to define a subset of T cells that expressed the natural killer (NK) cell-associated marker NK1.1 (CD161). It is now generally accepted that the term \"NKT cells\" refers to CD1d-restricted T cells, present in mice and humans, some of which coexpress a heavily biased, semi-invariant T-cell receptor and NK cell markers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Molecular characterization.", "content": "NKT cells are a subset of T cells that coexpress an αβ T-cell receptor, but also express a variety of molecular markers that are typically associated with NK cells, such as NK1.1. The best-known NKT cells differ from conventional αβ T cells in that their T-cell receptors are far more limited in diversity ('invariant' or 'type 1' NKT). They and other CD1d-restricted T cells ('type 2' NKT) recognize lipids and glycolipids presented by CD1d molecules, a member of the CD1 family of antigen-presenting molecules, rather than peptide-major histocompatibility complexes (MHCs). As such, NKT cells are important in recognizing glycolipids from organisms such as \"Mycobacterium\", which causes tuberculosis.  NKT cells include both NK1.1 and NK1.1, as well as CD4, CD4, CD8 and CD8 cells. Natural killer T cells can share other features with NK cells, as well, such as CD16 and CD56 expression and granzyme production.  Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells express high levels of and are dependent on the transcriptional regulator promyelocytic leukemia zinc finger for their development.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "Classification of natural killer T cells into three groups has been proposed:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invariant NKT (iNKT) cells.", "content": "The best-known subset of CD1d-dependent NKT cells expresses an invariant T-cell receptor (TCR) α chain. These are referred to as type I or invariant NKT cells (iNKT) cells. They are notable for their ability to respond rapidly to danger signals and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Once activated, they engage in effector functions, like NK transactivation, T cell activation and differentiation, B cell activation, dendritic cell activation and cross-presentation activity, and macrophage activation.  iNKT cells recognize lipid antigens presented by CD1d, a non-polymorphic major histocompatibility complex class I-like antigen presenting molecule. These cells are conserved between humans and mice. The highly conserved TCR is made of Va24-Ja18 paired with Vb11 in humans, which is specific for glycolipid antigens. The best known antigen of iNKT cells is alpha-galactosylceramide (αGalCer), which is a synthetic form of a chemical purified from the deep sea sponge \"Agelas mauritianus.\" iNKT cells develop in the thymus, and distribute to the periphery. They are most commonly found in the liver, but are also found in the thymus, spleen, peripheral blood, bone marrow and fat tissue. In comparison to mice, humans have fewer iNKT cells and have a wide variation in the amount of circulating iNKT cells.  Currently, there are five major distinct iNKT cell subsets. These subset cells produce a different set of cytokines once activated. The subtypes iNKT1, iNKT2 and iNKT17 mirror Th Cell subsets in cytokine production. In addition there are subtypes specialized in T follicular helper-like function and IL-10 dependent regulatory functions. Once activated iNKT cells can impact the type and strength of an immune response. They engage in cross talk with other immune cells, like dendritic cells, neutrophils and lymphocytes. Activation occurs by engagement with their invariant TCR. iNKT cells can also be indirectly activated through cytokine signaling.  While iNKT cells are not very numerous, their unique properties makes them an important regulatory cell that can influence how the immune system develops. They are known to play a role in chronic inflammatory diseases like autoimmune disease, asthma and metabolic syndrome. In human autoimmune diseases, their numbers are decreased in peripheral blood. It is not clear whether this is a cause or effect of the disease. Absence of microbe exposure in early development led to increased iNKT cells and immune morbidity in a mouse model.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Function.", "content": "Upon activation, NKT cells are able to produce large quantities of interferon gamma, IL-4, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, as well as multiple other cytokines and chemokines (such as IL-2, IL-13, IL-17, IL-21, and TNF-alpha).  NKT cells recognize protected microbial lipid agents which are presented by CD1d-expressing antigen presenting cells. This serves as a pathway for NKT cells to fight against infections and enhance the humoral immunity. The NKT cells provide support and help to B cells which act as a microbial defense and aid in targeting for B-cell vaccines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Significance.", "content": "NKT cells seem to be essential for several aspects of immunity because their dysfunction or deficiency has been shown to lead to the development of autoimmune diseases (such as diabetes or atherosclerosis) and cancers. NKT cells have recently been implicated in the disease progression of human asthma.  The clinical potential of NKT cells lies in the rapid release of cytokines (such as IL-2, IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, and IL-4) that promote or suppress different immune responses.  Most clinical trials with NKT cells have been performed with cytokine-induced killer cells (CIK).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Natural killer T (NKT) cells are a heterogeneous group of T cells that share properties of both T cells and natural killer cells. Many of these cells recognize the non-polymorphic CD1d molecule, an antigen-presenting molecule that binds self and foreign lipids and glycolipids. They constitute only approximately 0.1% of all peripheral blood T cells. Natural killer T cells should not be confused with natural killer cells.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976824}
{"src_title": "Love lock", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The history of love padlocks dates back at least 100 years to a melancholic Serbian tale of World War I, with an attribution for the bridge Most Ljubavi (lit. the \"Bridge of Love\") in the spa town of Vrnjačka Banja. A local schoolmistress named \"Nada\" fell in love with a Serbian officer named \"Relja\". After they committed to each other, Relja went to war in Greece, where he fell in love with a local woman from Corfu. As a consequence, Relja and Nada broke off their engagement. Nada never recovered from that devastating blow, and after some time she died due to heartbreak from her unfortunate love.  As young women from Vrnjačka Banja wanted to protect their own loves, they started writing down their names, with the names of their loved ones, on padlocks and affixing them to the railings of the bridge where Nada and Relja used to meet.  In the rest of Europe, love padlocks started appearing in the early 2000s as a ritual or epidemy. The reasons love padlocks started to appear vary between locations and in many instances are unclear. However, in Rome, the ritual of affixing love padlocks to the bridge Ponte Milvio can be attributed to the 2006 book by Italian author Federico Moccia, who made a film adaptation in 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable locations and controversies.", "content": "In many cities, love locking has been classified an act of vandalism. In several countries, the local authorities and owners of various landmarks have expressed concern often have the padlocks removed:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legends and superstitions.", "content": "On some locations the padlocks have been given almost legendary or superstitious character:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A love lock or love padlock is a padlock that sweethearts lock to a bridge, fence, gate, monument, or similar public fixture to symbolize their love. Typically the sweethearts' names or initials, and perhaps the date, are inscribed on the padlock, and its key is thrown away (often into a nearby river) to symbolize unbreakable love.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976825}
{"src_title": "NCIS: Los Angeles", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Premise.", "content": "\"NCIS: Los Angeles\" follows Special Agents Sam Hanna (LL Cool J) and G. Callen (Chris O'Donnell), undercover operatives assigned to the Office of Special Projects, a specialist branch of the Naval Criminal Investigative Service. Sam is a former member of SEAL Team Six and dedicated family man. Callen is a former foster child who became a \"legend\" under the watchful eye of Operations Manager Henrietta \"Hetty\" Lange (Linda Hunt). Over the course of the series, Sam, Callen, and Hetty, are supported by Special Agent Kensi Blye (Daniela Ruah), a hand-to-hand combat specialist, trained sniper and forensic whiz, and her partner-turned-husband Marty Deeks (Eric Christian Olsen), an LAPD liaison officer. Technical Operator Eric Beale (Barrett Foa), Assistant Director Owen Granger (Miguel Ferrer), and Intelligence Analyst Nell Jones (Renee Felice Smith) complete the team, while Operational Psychologist Nate Getz (Peter Cambor) and rookie agents Dominic Vail (Adam Jamal Craig) and Fatima Nazami (Medalion Rahimi) offer support under the watchful eye of Executive Assistant Director Pacific (EADPAC) Shay Mosley (Nia Long).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Special Agent G. Callen was initially a CIA operative created by Shane Brennan for a series that was never produced. After taking over show runner duties previously held by Donald P. Bellisario on \"NCIS\", he used the potential of a spin-off to bring his story to fruition.  Brennan intended for the series to hold a \"Miami Vice\"-esque vibe through its two co-leads, Callen and Agent Sam Hanna. However, the character of Lara Macy was written to serve as a parallel for Gibbs, the lead of the original NCIS team. Macy was portrayed by Louise Lombard in the backdoor pilot, but she was not featured in the actual spin-off, and Brennan was able to produce the show as he originally envisioned it.  The show was known as \"NCIS: Legend\" while in production ( in which the spin-off was introduced), and other names considered included \"OSP: Office of Special Projects\", \"NCIS: OSP\" and \"NCIS: Undercover\". Filming started in February 2009, with the characters being introduced in the two-part \"NCIS\" episode titled \"Legend\", the first part of which aired on April 28, 2009. This episode served as a backdoor pilot for the series, in a manner similar to the way \"NCIS\" was introduced by way of a two-part episode of \"JAG\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "\"\", the series' first episode, garnered 18.73 million viewers with a 4.4/11 share in the 18- to 49-year-old demographic and therefore won its timeslot. It was the second most watched show of the week, behind only the original \"NCIS\".  Reviews for the show have been mixed. It has a score of 59/100 on Metacritic. According to Mary McNamara of the \"Los Angeles Times\", \"The crime is intriguing and multifaceted, its resolution requiring a nice balance of street smarts and lots of gunfire. But as with the original \"NCIS\", the emphasis is on the characters of the team... Los Angeles, meanwhile, looks fabulous, a pleasing mixture of noir and gridlock, and there's an air of stability that's comforting in these uncertain times.\" The New York \"Daily News\" reviewer, David Hinckley, was more critical of the show saying that although \"It all adds up to an hour of decent entertainment, and there's room for enough character development to give \"NCIS: Los Angeles\" a personality of its own,... a premiere episode shouldn't feel even a little like something we've already seen.\"  Tom Shales of \"The Washington Post\" felt that, \"NCIS: Los Angeles gets the job done... It's a procedural that follows strictly the established procedure, but it has likable characters, dislikable bad guys and the occasional flabbergasting shot of L.A.\" Robert Bianco of \"USA Today\" summarized it as a \"serviceable hour that takes the NCIS formula—a light tone and a lot of banter wrapped around a fairly rudimentary investigatory plot—and transfers it to a special, undercover NCIS division in Los Angeles. Nothing more, but also nothing less.\" \"The Hollywood Reporter\" compared the show to \"The A-Team\" with \"the same lighthearted approach to life-or-death situations. Maybe the biggest change is that 'NCIS: L.A.' achieves its inevitably favorable outcomes with a little more intellect and a little less testosterone.\" \"IGN\" stated that although \"\"NCIS: Los Angeles\" doesn't exactly reinvent the police procedural... it's another above-average entry, aided by the fact that the people behind the show know what they're doing\" and ultimately gave the episode a 7.7/10.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ratings.", "content": "Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of \"NCIS: Los Angeles\" on CBS.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Potential spin-off.", "content": "On November 5, 2012, Deadline Hollywood reported the first news about a spin-off of \"NCIS: Los Angeles\" titled \"NCIS: Red\". The new characters were introduced during a of \"NCIS: Los Angeles\". The spin-off was to feature a team of mobile agents, who travel around the country to solve crimes. This would have been the second successive spin-off in the \"NCIS\" franchise. However, on May 15, 2013, CBS confirmed that \"NCIS: Red\" was officially passed on and would not be moving forward. Scott Grimes reprised his potential spinoff role as NCIS Red Agent Dave Flynn during the eighth season of \"NCIS: Los Angeles\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home video releases.", "content": "The first nine seasons have been released on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4, and Season 1 was released on Blu-ray Disc in Region A. The first season DVD release includes the two-part pilot episode that aired as part of the sixth season of \"NCIS\", which were also included on the Season 6 DVD of \"NCIS\". All releases are distributed by Paramount Home Entertainment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International broadcast.", "content": "In Asia, the series airs on AXN & ARY Digital. In the UK the series premieres its latest season first on Sky 1, with subsequent runs and repeats then also broadcast on Channel Five. In the Netherlands the series airs on NET5.\"NCIS: Los Angeles\" airs on Network Ten, ONE and TVH!TS (formerly TV1) As of December 2019, NCIS:LA airs on Fox Crime after TV H!TS was rebranded as Fox One in Australia. In Portugal the series airs on Fox. and on M6 in France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "In August 2016, Titan Books published \"NCIS Los Angeles: Extremis\", a novel by Jerome Preisler. Three months later, it was followed by \"NCIS Los Angeles: Bolthole\", written by Jeff Mariotte. Both books contain original stories featuring the characters from the show.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "NCIS: Los Angeles is an American action television series combining elements of the military drama and police procedural genres, which premiered on CBS on September 22, 2009. The series follows the exploits of the Los Angeles–based Office of Special Projects (OSP), an elite division of the Naval Criminal Investigative Service that specializes in undercover assignments. \"NCIS: Los Angeles\" is the first spin-off of the successful series \"NCIS\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976826}
{"src_title": "Shkodran Mustafi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Bad Hersfeld, Hesse, to an Albanian family originally from Gostivar, in the former Yugoslavia. Mustafi started his career in the youth system of local 1. FC Bebra, and had a stint with SV Rotenburg, before joining Hamburger SV's youth setup in 2006.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Everton.", "content": "In May 2009, Mustafi joined Everton, initially assigned to the Academy team. He later stated that \"Goodison Park feels like home\", after turning down offers from Manchester City and Newcastle United.  Mustafi made his competitive debut on 16 December 2009, replacing Tony Hibbert in the 75th minute of a 0–1 home loss against BATE Borisov, for the season's UEFA Europa League. He was also named on the bench for the Premier League matches against Arsenal and Manchester City in January. Mustafi only appeared on the bench nine times in the following two campaigns, but never played in any further matches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sampdoria.", "content": "In January 2012, Mustafi moved to Italian Serie B side U.C. Sampdoria, on a free transfer. Mustafi was released by Everton after he asked manager David Moyes to allow him to move on for more game time.  Mustafi made his \"Samp\" debut on 26 May 2012, starting and playing the full 90 minutes of a 1–3 loss at Varese. It was his maiden appearance in the competition, as Sampdoria returned to Serie A at first attempt. He made his debut in the Italian top flight on 11 November 2012, starting in a 0–2 loss at Palermo.  On 26 October of the following year he scored his first professional goal, netting the game's only against Atalanta at the \"Stadio Luigi Ferraris\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Valencia.", "content": "On 7 August 2014, Mustafi signed a five-year deal with La Liga's Valencia CF, for an undisclosed fee, rumoured to be €8 million. He debuted for his new team on 25 September, against Córdoba in an eventual 3–0 home win. A month later, he scored his first goal for the team, opening a 3–1 home win over Elche. In Valencia's next match on 2 November, against another regional rival, Villarreal, Mustafi scored a brace in a 3–1 away win to put Valencia into second place in the league.  On 3 March 2016, Mustafi received a straight red card in the first half of Valencia's 7–0 loss at FC Barcelona in the first leg of the Copa del Rey semi-final, after conceding a penalty with a foul on Lionel Messi. He then pleaded for the team's forgiveness by the \"Che\" supporters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arsenal.", "content": "On 30 August 2016, Mustafi joined English club Arsenal for an undisclosed fee, reported to be in excess of £35 million. He made his debut in Arsenal's 2–1 Premier League win over Southampton at the Emirates Stadium on 10 September. Mustafi beat Bacary Sagna's record unbeaten start of 17 games at the club in Arsenal's 3–3 draw against Bournemouth with his 18th game without defeat. On 22 January 2017, he scored his first goal for the club in a home 2–1 league win over Burnley. Because of illness, he missed Arsenal's 2–1 win over Chelsea in the 2017 FA Cup Final on 27 May.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Eligible to represent Germany, North Macedonia and Albania, Mustafi played for his country of birth at youth level; with the under-17 team he won the 2009 UEFA European Under-17 Championship.  Joachim Löw called up Mustafi to the German national squad for a friendly match against Chile in February 2014, he made his full international debut in a friendly match against Poland, playing the full 90 minutes of a goalless draw at the Volksparkstadion on 13 May 2014.  Mustafi was selected in Germany's 30-man provisional squad before the 2014 FIFA World Cup by Löw. After initially not making the squad for the finals, he was subsequently nominated as the replacement for the injured Marco Reus. He appeared as a substitute in Germany's opening World Cup game against Portugal, coming on in the 73rd minute in place of Mats Hummels to win his second cap. In the team's second match, he again came on as a substitute, replacing Jérôme Boateng at half time against Ghana. He was selected to start at right back in Germany's round of 16 match against Algeria, but was substituted in the 70th minute for Sami Khedira due to an injury in his left thigh. It was later confirmed by the DFB that Mustafi would take no further part in the World Cup due to the torn fibre muscle.  Mustafi was also called up for UEFA Euro 2016. In Germany's opening match against Ukraine in Lille, he headed a delivery from Toni Kroos to open a 2–0 win. He was also part of their squad that won the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup in Russia, but was omitted from the following year's World Cup in the same country due to a poor season with Arsenal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Mustafi is a practising Muslim. In July 2016, he married model Vjosa Kaba in Gostivar, and she gave birth to their daughter in July 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Arsenal  Germany U17  Germany", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Shkodran Mustafi (; born 17 April 1992) is a German professional footballer who plays as a centre back for English club Arsenal and the Germany national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976827}
{"src_title": "Elisabeth Dorothea of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Elisabeth Dorothea was the eldest daughter and eldest surviving child of Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha by his wife Elisabeth Sophie, the only daughter of John Philip, Duke of Saxe-Altenburg. Six years after her marriage, her father inherited the Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg and assumed new arms and titles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life in Darmstadt.", "content": "On 5 December 1666, Elisabeth Dorothea married Louis VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt at \"Schloss Friedenstein\" at Gotha. The groom was a close friend of her brother Prince Frederick and a widowed father of six children. She bore her husband eight further children, two daughters and six sons; one died in infancy and another was killed in battle ten months before her own death. Landgrave Louis VI died on 24 April 1678 and was succeeded by the eldest son of his first marriage, Louis VII, who reigned only 18 weeks and 4 days before dying of dysentery on 31 August 1678 in Gotha.  Like his father, Louis VII designated his stepmother as regent of Hesse-Darmstadt in his will. The Imperial Court (\"Reichskammergericht\") demanded that she reign jointly with a group of councillors led by Weiprecht of Gemmingen, but the politically wise and energetic Elisabeth prevented them from taking their oaths; this relegated them to the position of advisors and allowed her free rein. Darmstadt flourished under her rule.  On the death of William Christoph, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg in 1681, Elisabeth Dorothea successfully challenged the Homberg branch of the family over ownership of Bingenheim, claiming that the area rightfully belonged to the Darmstadt branch because it had been given to Princess Sophia Eleonora of Hesse-Darmstadt as a dowry when she married Landgrave William Christoph.  After her son attained his majority in 1688, she retired to her dower lands in Butzbach but offered her help in the government to her son, who refused. She died in Butzbach in 1709.  She kept a diary for some time before abandoning it in 1667. Although she left only 52 pages worth of entries, the diary is considered a valuable view into the world of the German courts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elisabeth Dorothea of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (8 January 1640 – 24 August 1709), was a German princess and a member of the House of Wettin in the Ernestine branch of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. By marriage she was Landgravine of Hesse-Darmstadt and Landgravine-Regent from 1678 to 1688.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976828}
{"src_title": "Heroin (The Velvet Underground song)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Writing and recording.", "content": "In an interview with WLIR in 1972, Reed said he wrote the lyrics while working for a record company.  \"Heroin\" was among a three-song set to be re-recorded, in May 1966 at TTG Studios in Hollywood, before being included on the final release of \"The Velvet Underground & Nico\" (along with \"I'm Waiting for the Man\" and \"Venus in Furs\"). This recording of the song would be the album's second longest track on the album at 7 minutes and 12 seconds; being eclipsed by \"European Son\" by only 30 seconds.  \"Heroin\" begins slowly with Reed's quiet, melodic guitar, Sterling Morrison's steady rhythm guitar and hypnotic drum patterns by Maureen Tucker, soon joined by John Cale's droning electric viola. The tempo increases gradually, mimicking the high the narrator receives from the drug, until a frantic crescendo, punctuated by Cale's shrieking viola and the more punctuated guitar strumming of Reed and Morrison. Tucker's drumming becomes hurried and louder. The song then slows to the original tempo, and repeats the same pattern before ending.  The song is based on D♭ and G♭ major chords. Like \"Sister Ray\", it features no bass guitar; Reed and Morrison use chords and arpeggios to create the song's trademark sound. \"Rolling Stone\" said \"It doesn't take much to make a great song,\" alluding to the song's use of merely two chords.  Tucker stopped drumming for several seconds at the 5:17 mark, before picking up the beat again. She explains:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternative versions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ludlow Street Loft, July 1965.", "content": "The earliest recorded version of \"Heroin\" was with Lou Reed, Sterling Morrison and John Cale at the band's Ludlow Street loft in July 1965. Unlike songs such as \"I'm Waiting for the Man\" and \"Venus in Furs\" which sound drastically different from their corresponding 1966 recordings on \"The Velvet Underground & Nico\", the '65 version of \"Heroin\" is nearly identical to the album version in structure. On the recording, Reed performs the song on an acoustic guitar. This version of the song can be found on the 1995 compilation album, \"Peel Slowly and See\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scepter Studios, April 1966.", "content": "The original take of \"Heroin\" that was intended for release on \"The Velvet Underground & Nico\" was at Scepter Studios in New York City, April 1966. This version of the song features slightly different lyrics and a more contained, less chaotic performance. Overall, the tempo of the song is at a steadier, quicker pace. It is about a minute shorter.  One notable difference in the lyrics is Lou Reed's opening — he sings \"I know just where I'm going\" rather than \"I \"don't\" know just where I'm going\" as on the final album recording. Reed was known to do this during subsequent performances of the song as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Velvet Underground and drugs.", "content": "\"Heroin\" (along with songs like \"I'm Waiting for the Man\" which dealt with similar subject matter) tied the Velvet Underground with drug use in the media. Some critics declared the band were glorifying the use of drugs such as heroin. However, members of the band (Reed, in particular) frequently denied any claims that the song was advocating use of the drug. Reed's lyrics, such as they are on the majority of \"The Velvet Underground & Nico\", were more meant to focus on providing an objective description of the topic without taking a moral stance.<ref name=\"33 1/3\"></ref> Critics were not the only ones who misunderstood the song's neutral tone; fans would sometimes approach the band members after a live performance and tell them they \"shot up to 'Heroin'\", a phenomenon that deeply disturbed Reed. As a result, Reed was somewhat hesitant to play the song with the band through much of the band's later career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Billy Idol version.", "content": "Billy Idol covered the song on his 1993 album \"Cyberpunk\". Billy Idol's cover interpreted the song as a fast-tempo dance track, which made use of sampling and techno beats. It also included the lyric \"Jesus died for somebody's sins / But not mine\", from Patti Smith's introduction to \"Gloria\", used under license from Linda Music Corporation. Idol mixed eleven versions of \"Heroin\", releasing them on various singles with some containing previous hits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it \"one of the worst covers ever recorded\" in his review of \"Cyberpunk\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "\"Heroin\" is a song by the Velvet Underground, released on their 1967 debut album \"The Velvet Underground & Nico\". Written by Lou Reed in 1964, the song, which overtly depicts heroin use and abuse, is one of the band's most celebrated compositions. Critic Mark Deming of Allmusic writes, \"While 'Heroin' hardly endorses drug use, it doesn't clearly condemn it, either, which made it all the more troubling in the eyes of many listeners.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976829}
{"src_title": "Joseph Augustine Di Noia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Born in the borough of the Bronx, part of New York City, Di Noia was baptized at the Capuchin-run Parish of the Immaculate Conception on Gun Hill Road.  Di Noia graduated with a bachelor's degree from Providence College in 1965 and entered the Dominican Province of St. Joseph. He went on to study philosophy at the order's faculty for philosophical formation at St. Stephen's Priory in Dover, Massachusetts, and then pursued his theological formation at the Dominican House of Studies in Washington, D.C. He was ordained on June 4, 1970, having earned a Master of Divinity and Bachelor of Sacred Theology degree in 1969. He went on to earn a Licentiate of Sacred Theology from the Dominican House of Studies in 1971 and a Ph.D. in religious studies from Yale University in 1980 with a dissertation entitled \"\"Catholic Theology of Religions and Interreligious Dialogue\"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Before beginning work on his doctorate at Yale, Di Noia served as an instructor of theology and assistant chaplain at Providence College from 1971–1974. After completing his doctorate, he returned to the Dominican House of Studies in 1980 and became a professor of systematic theology, a post he held until 1993. During his time there, he was also editor of \"The Thomist\" and was a founding director of the Intercultural Forum for Faith & Culture at the Saint John Paul II National Shrine.  From 1993 until 2001, Di Noia served as the executive director of the Secretiat for Doctrine & Pastoral Practices at the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, headquartered in Washington, D.C. Di Noia served on the International Theological Commission from 1997 until 2002 and received the title of Master of Sacred Theology from the Order of Preachers in 1998.  From 2001–2002 he served as a visiting professor at St. Joseph's Seminary in Yonkers, New York.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roman Curia assignments.", "content": "He began his career in the Roman Curia when Pope John Paul II appointed him Under Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on April 4, 2002.  On June 16, 2009, Pope Benedict XVI appointed him Secretary of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments and titular Archbishop of Oregon City. He received episcopal consecration on July 11, 2009, at the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C. Cardinal William Levada was the principal consecrator and Archbishops Donald Wuerl and Thomas C. Kelly, O.P. served as principal co–consecrators. When he was reassigned after just three years, he said he was \"flabbergasted\".  On June 26, 2012, Pope Benedict XVI appointed him Vice President of the Pontifical Commission \"Ecclesia Dei\", serving under his former superior, Cardinal William Levada, who was its president. The commission was charged with overseeing the talks between the Holy See and the followers of the late, excommunicated, traditionalist Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, principally members of the Society of Saint Pius X led by Bishop Bernard Fellay.  On September 21, 2013, Pope Francis named him Adjunct Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Augustine Di Noia (born July 10, 1943) is an American member of the Dominican Order who is a Roman Catholic archbishop and theologian. Since 2013 he has been Adjunct Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. He has held several other positions in the Roman Curia since 2002.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976830}
{"src_title": "Borage", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Borago officinalis\" grows to a height of, and is bristly or hairy all over the stems and leaves; the leaves are alternate, simple, and long. The flowers are complete, perfect with five narrow, triangular-pointed petals. Flowers are most often blue, although pink flowers are sometimes observed. White flowered types are also cultivated. The blue flower is genetically dominant over the white flower. The flowers arise along scorpioid cymes to form large floral displays with multiple flowers blooming simultaneously, suggesting that borage has a high degree of geitonogamy (intra-plant pollination). It has an indeterminate growth habit which may lead to prolific spreading. In temperate climates such as in the UK, its flowering season is relatively long, from June to September. In milder climates, borage will bloom continuously for most of the year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics and uses.", "content": "Traditionally borage was cultivated for culinary and medicinal uses, although today commercial cultivation is mainly as an oilseed. Borage is used as either a fresh vegetable or a dried herb. As a fresh vegetable, borage, with a cucumber-like taste, is often used in salads or as a garnish. The flower has a sweet honey-like taste and is often used to decorate desserts and cocktails, most commonly, frozen in ice cubes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food.", "content": "Vegetable use of borage is common in Germany, in the Spanish regions of Aragon and Navarre, in the Greek island of Crete and in the northern Italian region of Liguria. Although often used in soups, one of the better known German borage recipes is the Green Sauce (Grüne Soße) made in Frankfurt. In Liguria in Italy, borage (or \"Borragine\", it's Italian name) is commonly used as a filling of the traditional pasta ravioli and pansoti. It is used to flavour pickled gherkins in Poland and Russia. The flowers produce copious nectar which is used by honeybees to make a light and delicate honey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beverage.", "content": "Borage is traditionally used as a garnish in the Pimms Cup cocktail, but is nowadays often replaced by a long sliver of cucumber peel or by mint. It is also one of the key botanicals in Gilpin's Westmorland Extra Dry Gin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Phytochemistry.", "content": "The seeds contain 26-38% of borage seed oil, of which 17-28% is gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), the richest known source. The oil also contains the fatty acids palmitic acid (10-11%), stearic acid (3.5-4.5%), oleic acid (16-20%), linoleic acid (35-38%), eicosenoic acid (3.5-5.5%), erucic acid (1.5-3.5%), and nervonic acid (1.5%). The oil is often marketed as \"starflower oil\" or \"borage oil\" for use as a GLA supplement, although healthy adults will typically produce ample GLA from dietary linoleic acid.  The leaves contain small amounts (2-10 ppm of dried herb) of the liver-toxic Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) intermedine, lycopsamine, amabiline and supinine and the non-toxic saturated PA thesinine. PAs are also present in borage seed oil, but may be removed by processing. The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment has advised that honey from borage contains PAs, transferred to the honey through pollen collected at borage plants, and advise that commercial honey production could select for raw honey with limited PA content to prevent contamination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Herbal medicine.", "content": "Traditionally, \"Borago officinalis\" has been used in hyperactive gastrointestinal, respiratory and cardiovascular disorders, such as gastrointestinal (colic, cramps, diarrhea), airways (asthma, bronchitis), cardiovascular, (cardiotonic, antihypertensive and blood purifier), urinary (diuretic and kidney/bladder disorders).  One case of status epilepticus has been reported that was associated with borage oil ingestion.  A methanol extract of borage has shown strong amoebicidal activity \"in vitro\". The 50% inhibitory concentration () of the extract against \"Entamoeba histolytica\" was 33 μg/mL.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In history.", "content": "Pliny the Elder and Dioscorides say that borage was the \"Nepenthe\" mentioned in Homer, which caused forgetfulness when mixed with wine.  Francis Bacon thought that borage had \"an excellent spirit to repress the fuliginous vapour of dusky melancholie.\"  John Gerard's \"Herball\" mentions an old verse concerning the plant: \"Ego Borago, Gaudia semper ago (I, Borage, bring always joys)\". He states that", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Companion planting.", "content": "Borage is used in companion planting. It is said to protect or nurse legumes, spinach, brassicas, and even strawberries. It is also said to be a good companion plant to tomatoes because it confuses the mother moths of tomato hornworms or manduca looking for a place to lay their eggs. Claims that it improves tomato growth and makes them taste better remain unsubstantiated.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Borage (; Borago officinalis), also known as a starflower, is an annual herb in the flowering plant family Boraginaceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and has naturalized in many other locales. It grows satisfactorily in gardens in most of Europe such as Denmark, France, Germany, the UK climate, remaining in the garden from year to year by self-seeding. The leaves are edible and the plant is grown in gardens for that purpose in some parts of Europe. The plant is also commercially cultivated for borage seed oil extracted from its seeds. The plant contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids, some of which are hepatotoxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic (see below under Phytochemistry).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976831}
{"src_title": "Musée Nissim de Camondo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The mansion was built in 1911 by the Comte Moïse de Camondo, a banker, with architect René Sergent, to set off his collection of eighteenth-century French furniture and art objects. Its design was patterned upon the Petit Trianon at Versailles, though with modern conveniences. Both house and collections were bequeathed to Les Arts Décoratifs in honour of his son, Nissim de Camondo, killed in World War I, and opened as a museum in 1936. More tragedy followed a few years later when Moise’s daughter and her family were deported to Auschwitz, where they died.  Today, the house is maintained as if it were still a private home preserved in its original condition. Three floors are open to visitors: the lower ground floor (kitchens), upper ground floor (formal rooms), first floor (private apartments), and gardens.  The house's furnishings include needlepoint chairs and work by artisans of the Garde Meuble Royal (Royal Furniture Repository) such as Jean-François Oeben, Jean Henri Riesener, and Georges Jacob. Floors are furnished with Savonnerie carpets woven in 1678 for the Grande Galerie in the Louvre, and walls accented with tapestries (many Beauvais or Aubusson), and paintings including portraits by Élisabeth-Louise Vigée Le Brun, landscapes by Guardi and Hubert Robert and hunting scenes by Jean-Baptiste Oudry. Table setting are of particular interest, especially the Orloff silver dinner service commissioned by Catherine II of Russia from silversmith Jacques-Nicolas Roettiers in 1770, and the Buffon porcelain services made at Sèvres in the 1780s with a bird theme. Other notable objects include a bust by Jean-Antoine Houdon, bas-reliefs, Chinese vases, and crystal chandeliers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Musée Nissim de Camondo is an elegant house museum of French decorative arts located in the Hôtel Camondo, 63, rue de Monceau, at the edge of the Parc Monceau, in the 8th arrondissement of Paris, France. The nearest Paris Métro stops are Villiers or Monceau on Line 2.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976832}
{"src_title": "Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Townshend was the eldest son of Sir Horatio Townshend, 3rd Baronet, who was created Baron Townshend in 1661 and Viscount Townshend in 1682. The old Norfolk family of Townshend, to which he belonged, is descended from Sir Roger Townshend (d. 1493) of Raynham, who acted as legal advisor to the Paston family, and was made a justice of the common pleas in 1484. His descendant, another Sir Roger Townshend (c. 1543–1590), had a son Sir John Townshend (1564–1603), a soldier, whose son, Sir Roger Townshend (1588– 1637), was created a baronet in 1617. He was the father of Sir Horatio Townshend.  Born at Raynham Hall, Norfolk, Townshend succeeded to the peerages in December 1687, and was educated at Eton College and King's College, Cambridge. He had Tory sympathies when he took his seat in the House of Lords, but his views changed, and he began to take an active part in politics as a Whig. For a few years after the accession of Queen Anne he remained without office, but in November 1708 he was appointed Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard, having in the previous year been summoned to the Privy Council. He was ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary to the States-General from 1709 to 1711, taking part during these years in the negotiations which preceded the conclusion of the Treaty of Utrecht.  He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in April 1706.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secretary of State and other posts.", "content": "After his recall to England he was busily occupied in attacking the proceedings of the new Tory ministry. Townshend quickly won the favour of George I, and in September 1714, the new king selected him as Secretary of State for the Northern Department. The policy of Townshend and his colleagues, after they had crushed the Jacobite rising of 1715, both at home and abroad, was one of peace. The secretary disliked the interference of Britain in the war between Sweden and Denmark, and he promoted the conclusion of defensive alliances between Britain and the emperor and Britain and France.  In spite of these successes the influence of the Whigs was gradually undermined by the intrigues of Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland, and by the discontent of the Hanoverian favourites. In October 1716, Townshend's colleague, James Stanhope afterwards 1st Earl Stanhope, accompanied the king on his visit to Hanover, and while there he was seduced from his allegiance to his fellow ministers by Sunderland, George being led to believe that Townshend and his brother-in-law, Sir Robert Walpole, were caballing with the Prince of Wales, their intention being that the prince should supplant his father on the throne. Consequently, in December 1716 the secretary was dismissed and was made Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, but he only retained this post until the following April.  Early in 1720 a partial reconciliation took place between the parties of Stanhope and Townshend, and in June of this year the latter became Lord President of the Council, a post which he held until February 1721, when, after the death of Stanhope and the forced retirement of Sunderland, a result of the South Sea Bubble, he was again appointed secretary of state for the northern department, with Walpole as First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. The two remained in power during the remainder of the reign of George I the chief domestic events of the time being the impeachment of Bishop Atterbury, the pardon and partial restoration of Lord Bolingbroke, and the troubles in Ireland caused by the patent permitting Wood to coin halfpence.  Townshend secured the dismissal of his rival, Lord Carteret, afterwards Earl Granville, but soon differences arose between himself and Walpole, and he had some difficulty in steering a course through the troubled sea of European politics. Although disliking him, George II retained him in office, but the predominance in the ministry passed gradually but surely from him to Walpole. Townshend could not brook this. So long, to use Walpole's witty remark, as the firm was Townshend and Walpole all went well with it, but when the positions were reversed jealousies arose between the partners. Serious differences of opinion concerning the policy to be adopted towards Austria and in foreign politics generally led to a final rupture in 1730. Failing, owing to Walpole's interference, in his efforts to procure the dismissal of a colleague and his replacement by a personal friend, Townshend retired on 15 May 1730. His departure removed the final obstacle to the conclusion of an Anglo-Austrian Alliance which would become the centrepiece of British foreign policy until 1756.  According to historians Linda Frey and Marsha Frey:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Turnip\" Townshend.", "content": "His remaining years were passed at Raynham, where he interested himself in agriculture. He promoted adoption of the Norfolk four-course system, involving rotation of turnips, barley, clover, and wheat crops. He was an enthusiastic advocate of growing turnips as a field crop for livestock feed. As a result of his promotion of turnip-growing and his agricultural experiments at Raynham, he became known as \"Turnip Townshend\". (Alexander Pope mentions \"Townshend's turnips\" in \"Imitations of Horace, Epistle II\".) Townshend is often mentioned, together with Jethro Tull, Robert Bakewell, and others, as a major figure in England's \"Agricultural Revolution\", contributing to adoption of agricultural practices that led to the increase in Britain's population between 1700 and 1850.  He died at Raynham on 21 June 1738.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Townshend was twice married—first to Elizabeth Pelham (d. 1711), daughter of Thomas Pelham, 1st Baron Pelham of Laughton and his first wife Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Jones of Ramsbury Manor, Attorney General for England and Wales.  Children of Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend of Raynham and Hon. Elizabeth Pelham  Secondly, he was married to Dorothy Walpole (1686–1726), sister of Sir Robert Walpole, who is said to haunt Raynham as the Brown Lady of Raynham Hall.  Children of Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend of Raynham and Dorothy Townshend  He had nine sons, one of them died at a young age. The eldest son, Charles, the 3rd viscount (1700–1764), was called to the House of Lords in 1723. The second son, Thomas Townshend (1701–1780), was member of parliament for the University of Cambridge from 1727 to 1774; his only son, Thomas Townshend (1733–1800), who was created Baron Sydney in 1783 and Viscount Sydney in 1789, was a secretary of state and Leader of the House of Commons from July 1782 to April 1783, and from December 1783 to June 1789 again a secretary of state, Sydney in New South Wales being named after him; his grandson, John Robert Townshend (1805–1890), the 3rd viscount, was created Earl Sydney in 1874, the titles becoming extinct at his death. Charles Townshend's eldest son by his second wife was George Townshend (1715–1769), who after serving for many years in the navy, became an admiral in 1765. The younger son Edward (1719–1765) became Dean of Norwich  The third viscount had two sons, George, 1st Marquess Townshend, and Charles Townshend.  Townsend was the maternal grandfather of Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, (; 18 April 167421 June 1738) was an English Whig statesman. He served for a decade as Secretary of State for the Northern Department, 1714–1717, 1721–1730. He directed British foreign policy in close collaboration with his brother-in-law, prime minister Robert Walpole. He was often known as Turnip Townshend because of his strong interest in farming turnips and his role in the British Agricultural Revolution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976833}
{"src_title": "Cassandra Clare", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Clare was born Judith Rumelt to American parents in Tehran, Iran. Her parents are Elizabeth and Richard Rumelt, who are a business school professor and author, respectively. Her maternal grandfather was film producer Max Rosenberg. Clare is Jewish, and has described her family as \"not religious\".  As a child, Clare traveled frequently, spending time in Switzerland, England, and France. She returned to Los Angeles for high school, and from then on split her time between California and New York City, where she worked at various entertainment magazines and tabloids, including \"The Hollywood Reporter\".  While living in Los Angeles Clare began writing fan fiction using the name Cassandra Claire. \"The Draco Trilogy\", based on \"Harry Potter\", and \"The Very Secret Diaries\", based on \"The Lord of the Rings\", were popular. However, she deleted her fan fiction from the Internet shortly before her first novel, \"The City of Bones\", was published under the name Cassandra Clare.  She is also friends with author Holly Black, and their books occasionally overlap, Clare mentioning characters from Black's novels and vice versa, such as Val and Luis from Black's \"Valiant\".  Clare is also credited by her publisher with creating the \"\"City of Fallen Angels\" treatment\" where a tangible \"letter\" from one character to another is attached to the back of physical copies of a book. The goal is to spur print book sales. , Clare resides in Amherst, Massachusetts, with her husband, Joshua Lewis, and three cats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Mortal Instruments\" series.", "content": "In 2004, Clare started working on her first-published novel, \"City of Bones\", inspired by the urban landscape of Manhattan. \"City of Bones\" was released by Simon & Schuster in 2007 and is a contemporary fantasy story revolving around characters Clary Fray, Jace Wayland, and Simon Lewis, which became a \"The New York Times\" bestseller upon its release. \"City of Ashes\" and \"City of Glass\" completed the first trilogy. A subsequent second trilogy contained three more books: \"City of Fallen Angels\", \"City of Lost Souls\", and \"City of Heavenly Fire\".  There is a prequel trilogy called \"The Infernal Devices\", which is set in the same universe as \"The Mortal Instruments\", but set in the Victorian era. This consisting of three books: \"Clockwork Angel\", published on August 31, 2010, \"Clockwork Prince\", published on December 6, 2011, and \"Clockwork Princess\", published on March 19, 2013.  A fourth trilogy set in this universe was announced in 2012, to be collectively known as \"The Dark Artifices\". The new contemporary series is set in Los Angeles, and follow female shadowhunter Emma Carstairs, who was introduced in \"City of Heavenly Fire\". The first book, \"Lady Midnight\", was released in March 2016; the second, \"Lord of Shadows\" was released in April 2017; the third, \"Queen of Air and Darkness\" was released on December 4, 2018.  There are also two series of interconnected short stories set in this universe. The first is The Bane Chronicles, completed in 2014 and written with Sarah Rees Brennan and Maureen Johnson, and the second is the planned \"Tales from the Shadowhunter Academy\", written with Brennan and Johnson as well as Robin Wasserman.  The first book in \"The Mortal Instruments\" was made into a film, \"\" (2013), by Unique Features and Constantin Film. First-time writer Jessica Postigo wrote the screenplay. Lily Collins played Clary Fray and Jamie Campbell Bower played Jace Wayland.  After a disappointing box office performance, subsequent movies in the series were cancelled. A television adaptation of \"The Mortal Instruments\" called \"\" began airing in January 2016. It was canceled after the third season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Shadowhunter Chronicles\".", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Mortal Instruments\" Graphic Novels.", "content": "Art by Cassandra Jean.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "\"Infernal Devices\" Graphic Novels.", "content": "Art by HyeKyung Baek.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "\"The Eldest Curses\".", "content": "This series is co-written with Wesley Chu.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "\"The Magisterium\" series.", "content": "This series is written with Holly Black.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Judith Lewis (née Rumelt, born July 27, 1973), better known by her pen name Cassandra Clare, is an American author of young adult fiction, best known for her bestselling series \"\"The Mortal Instruments\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976834}
{"src_title": "Apache CouchDB", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"Couch\" is an acronym for \"cluster of unreliable commodity hardware\". The CouchDB project was created in April 2005 by Damien Katz, a former Lotus Notes developer at IBM. He self-funded the project for almost two years and released it as an open-source project under the GNU General Public License.  In February 2008, it became an Apache Incubator project and was offered under the Apache License instead. A few months after, it graduated to a top-level project. This led to the first stable version being released in July 2010.  In early 2012, Katz left the project to focus on Couchbase Server.  Since Katz's departure, the Apache CouchDB project has continued, releasing 1.2 in April 2012 and 1.3 in April 2013. In July 2013, the CouchDB community merged the codebase for BigCouch, Cloudant's clustered version of CouchDB, into the Apache project. The BigCouch clustering framework is included in the current release of Apache CouchDB.  Native clustering is supported at version 2.0.0. And the new Mango Query Server provides a simple JSON-based way to perform CouchDB queries without JavaScript or MapReduce.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Main features.", "content": "CouchDB also offers a built-in administration interface accessible via Web called Futon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use cases and production deployments.", "content": "Replication and synchronization capabilities of CouchDB make it ideal for using it in mobile devices, where network connection is not guaranteed, and the application must keep on working offline.  CouchDB is well suited for applications with accumulating, occasionally changing data, on which pre-defined queries are to be run and where versioning is important (CRM, CMS systems, by example). Master-master replication is an especially interesting feature, allowing easy multi-site deployments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Users.", "content": "Users of CouchDB include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Data manipulation: documents and views.", "content": "CouchDB manages a collection of JSON documents. The documents are organised via views. Views are defined with aggregate functions and filters are computed in parallel, much like MapReduce.  Views are generally stored in the database and their indexes updated continuously. CouchDB supports a view system using external socket servers and a JSON-based protocol. As a consequence, view servers have been developed in a variety of languages (JavaScript is the default, but there are also PHP, Ruby, Python and Erlang).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accessing data via HTTP.", "content": "Applications interact with CouchDB via HTTP. The following demonstrates a few examples using cURL, a command-line utility. These examples assume that CouchDB is running on localhost (127.0.0.1) on port 5984.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PouchDB.", "content": "The PouchDB is a Javascript implementation of CouchDB which is API compatible with it. So you can use CouchDB on the server side and Pouch in the application itself and once the application comes online you can sync both. This is especially useful for progressive web applications that rely on an offline first approach.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Open source components.", "content": "CouchDB includes a number of other open source projects as part of its default package.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Apache CouchDB is an open-source document-oriented NoSQL database, implemented in Erlang. CouchDB uses multiple formats and protocols to store, transfer, and process its data, it uses JSON to store data, JavaScript as its query language using MapReduce, and HTTP for an API.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976835}
{"src_title": "Alpine Wall", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Alpine line was similar in concept to other fortifications of the same era, including the Maginot Line of France, the Siegfried Line of Germany, and the National Redoubt of Switzerland.  Italy's land frontiers were in most places mountainous and easily defended, but in the years leading up to World War II, Italy's relations with its neighbours were uneasy. Even in its dealings with its German ally, Italy was concerned about German ambitions towards the province of South Tyrol, inhabited by a German majority.  Due to the rugged nature of the Alpine frontier, defences were confined to passes and observation posts in accessible locations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Work on the Alpine Wall began in 1931, intended to cover an arc from the Mediterranean coast at Ventimiglia in the west to Fiume on the Adriatic coast in the east. Three zones were designated at increasing distances from the frontier: Three types of fortifications were provided:  The work, which was carried out in secrecy using Italian labor, was a significant economic burden, resulting in 208 \"opere\" with 647 machine guns and fifty artillery pieces. Construction continued until 1942; a report by General Vittorio Ambrosio on 3 October 1942 recorded that 1,475 bunkers had been completed and 450 more were under construction. The forts were armed with a mixture of new weaponry and older equipment from World War I. Provisions were made to deal with the use of poison gas. Much of the armour was obtained from Germany in compensation for Italian military ventures on behalf of the Axis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Alpine Wall during World War II.", "content": "Little use was made of the Alpine Wall during World War II. During the Italian invasion of France in 1940, some western forts such as Fort Chaberton exchanged fire with their French counterparts of the Alpine Line. Chaberton was hit by French 280mm field mortars and suffered disabling damage. In addition, some Alpine Wall fortifications were used defensively by the Germans in 1944.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After World War II.", "content": "At the end of the conflict, some of the western fortifications were destroyed. In the east former Austro-Hungarian territories that Italy acquired with the London treaty of 1915 were in 1947 awarded to Yugoslavia. Consequently, the entire eastern part of the pre-WW2 fortifications were thus on the Yugoslav and are now on Slovenian territory. The 1947 Paris Peace Treaty forbade the construction or expansion of fortifications within twenty kilometers of the border.  However, with Italy's membership in NATO, construction began on a new defensive line from Austria to the Adriatic along the Yugoslavian border along the Natisone and Tagliamento rivers. The new line used tank turrets in a manner similar to German defences during the previous conflict, allowing 360 degree traverse and a high rate of fire. By 1976 this system was still considered useful in any conflict short of nuclear war.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Abandonment.", "content": "The end of the Cold War brought an end to the usefulness of the Alpine Wall. The emplacements were partially stripped and sealed in 1991-1992. Only some active fortifications have been preserved.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arrangement.", "content": "The fortifications were primarily constructed in the flanking heights of the valleys, with works within the valleys only where they were sufficiently wide. Anti-tank guns, artillery and machine guns were trained on prepared fields of fire, with observation stations at higher points. Shelters for infantry were located rearwards. A system of communications links and roads, or for higher locations, ropeways were provided for communication and supply.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fortifications.", "content": "The individual fortifications were typically built in rock on valley sides. Where this was not suitable, concrete was used for protection, with a minimum of openings and three to five metres of concrete thickness. Combat blocks were to the front, with ammunition rooms behind. Underground galleries connected the combat blocks and their support areas, such as the utility rooms, barracks, storage and command centres, with the main entry farthest to the rear. Combat areas were isolated from the rest of the structure by gas-tight doorways. Units built after 1939 were designed to operate independently, cut off from utilities and supplies.  Fortifications were camouflaged so that they appeared to blend with the surroundings, whether doors or embrasures were open or closed. Emergency escape routes were also provided.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "Armament typically included an anti-tank gun and a number of machine guns. Post-war units used tank turrets.  Usual armament included:  Fortifications were usually surrounded by minefields and barbed wire. Where feasible, an anti-tank ditch was provided.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Guardia alla Frontiera.", "content": "The Vallo Alpino was mainly defended by the 21,000 strong \"Guardia alla Frontiera\" (G.A.F.), a special Italian Corp created in 1937. They defended the of northern Italian frontiers with the so-called \"Vallo Alpino Occidentale\" ( with France), \"Vallo Alpino Settentrionale\" ( with Switzerland and with Austria) and \"Vallo Alpino Orientale\" ( with Yugoslavia).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Alpine Wall (\"Vallo Alpino\") was an Italian system of fortifications along the of Italy's northern frontier. Built in the years leading up to World War II at the direction of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, the defensive line faced France, Switzerland, Austria, and Yugoslavia. It was defended by the \"Guardia alla Frontiera\" (GaF), Italian special troops.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976836}
{"src_title": "Battle of La Rothière", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "On the 25 January 1814, Blücher entered Nancy, and, moving rapidly up the valley of the Moselle, was in communication with the Austrian advanced guard near La Rothière on the afternoon of the 28 January.  On 29 January Napoleon attacked the Prussians. Blücher's headquarters were surprised and he himself nearly captured by a sudden rush of French troops (Battle of Brienne). Learning at the same time that the French Emperor in person was at hand, Blücher accordingly fell back a few miles next morning to a strong position covering the exits from the Bar-sur-Aube defile.  The Austrian advance guard joined the Prussians and together they decided to accept battle—indeed they had no alternative, as the roads in rear were so choked with traffic that retreat was out of the question.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Order of battle.", "content": "The French army counted about 45,000 men in 57 battalions and 62 squadrons, supported by 128 artillery pieces. The Imperial Guard was commanded by General of Division Philibert Jean-Baptiste Curial. Marshal Claude Perrin Victor led the II Corps with three infantry divisions under Generals of Division François Antoine Teste, Jean Corbineau, and Georges Mouton. General of Division Emmanuel Grouchy led the cavalry.  On the Coalition side, Prince Scherbatov led the Russian 6th Corps, General-Leutnant Zakhar Dmitrievich Olsufiev directed the Russian 9th Corps, Count Liewen III commanded the Russian 11th Corps, Feldzeugmeister Ignaz Gyulai led the Austrian 3rd Corps, Crown Prince Frederick William of Württemberg directed the 4th Corps, General der Kavallerie Karl Philipp von Wrede commanded the Austro-Bavarian 5th Corps, and there were several independent cavalry divisions.  The multinational coalition forces used white shoulder bands to distinguish friends from foes during the battle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "About noon the 2 February Napoleon attacked, but the weather was terrible, and the ground so heavy that his favourite artillery, the mainstay of his whole system of warfare, was useless and in the drifts of snow which at intervals swept across the field, the columns lost their direction and many were severely handled by the Cossacks. At nightfall the fighting ceased and the French retired to Lesmont, leaving Marmont behind to observe Coalition movements.  Historian Digby Smith stated that French losses numbered 4,600 killed and wounded. The Coalition captured an additional 1,000 soldiers and 73 guns. The large loss of artillery was partly due to Coalition cavalry superiority and partly due to the soggy condition of the ground, which made it difficult to withdraw the pieces. The Coalition lost between 6,000 and 7,000 casualties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "From Lesmont, the French moved to Troyes. Owing to the state of the roads, more perhaps to the extraordinary lethargy which always characterized Schwarzenberg's headquarters, no pursuit was attempted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of La Rothière was fought on the 1st of February 1814 between the French Empire and allied army of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and German States previously allies with France. The French were led by Emperor Napoleon and the coalition army was under the command of Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. The battle took place in severe weather conditions (wet snowstorm). The French were defeated but managed to hold until they could retreat under cover of darkness.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976837}
{"src_title": "Bursaspor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foundation and early years.", "content": "The club was founded on 1 June 1963 after Acar İdman Yurdu, Akınspor, İstiklal, Pınarspor and Çelikspor were merged to form a single club; Bursaspor. Green and white were chosen as the club colours, and the club entered the 2. Lig in 1963–64. Their first match took place on 21 September 1963 against İzmir Demirspor in İzmir. Bursaspor were promoted to the Süper Lig after winning the 1966–67 2. Lig. They won 19 of their 30 matches, finishing with 45 points, eight ahead of second placed Samsunspor. They were relegated to the 2. Lig in 1985–86 and were relegated again in 1986–87 season, but their relegations were revoked due to winning the Turkish Cup in 1986 and a Turkish Council of State verdict in 1987. Their most recent relegation came in 2004. They gained promotion back into the Süper Lig after winning the First League on 16 May 2006. Bursaspor won their first major cup in 1971, beating Fenerbahçe 1–0 after extra time in the now-defunct Prime Minister's Cup. Because Fenerbahçe had won the league and cup in 1973–74, Bursaspor, as 1974 Turkish Cup runners up, were given a place in the 1974-75 European Cup Winners' Cup. Bursaspor reached the quarter-finals, beating Finn Harps and Dundee United, before falling to eventual champions Dynamo Kyiv. The club's first Turkish Cup win came in 1986 when they defeated Altay 2–0 in the finals. The club therefore qualified for the 1986–87 European Cup Winners' Cup, losing to eventual champions Ajax in the first round.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The league title.", "content": "The 2009–10 season began successful and by the midpoint of the season, in December 2009; gameweek 17, the club were sitting in the top spot in the Süper Lig table. The first half of the season saw a 1–0 home victory against Istanbul giants Galatasaray, and also a 2–3 win away at Beşiktaş. In late 2009, Sağlam was linked with the vacant Turkey managerial position after Terim's resignation, but he refused to comment on the speculation. Guus Hiddink eventually took up the position. The latter part of the season saw a 6–0 win over mid–table İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor, the largest win in the league to date this season, and also a 2–3 away win against Fenerbahçe after winning from two goals down. Bursaspor again reached the quarter-finals of the Turkish Cup and again they lost on aggregate to Fenerbahçe, this time crashing out 4–3 due to an injury time winner from Fener. In April 2010 Bursaspor sat at the top of the table after being in the top three for the past few months. With eight games left to play Bursaspor were five points clear at the top. Five weeks before the end of the season, Bursaspor fell to second place in the Süper Lig. They maintained pressure on Fenerbahçe who had overtaken them. Going into the final game of the season, Bursaspor were just one point behind Fener, and needed to better their results against defending champions Beşiktaş. Knowing that the match against Beşiktaş could prove decisive. With Fenerbahçe held to a 1–1 home draw against Trabzonspor, and Bursaspor beating Beşiktaş 2–1, the Bursaspor were crowned champions, by just a single point. They are only the second club outside the \"\"Istanbul Big Three\"\" who have won the league. Trabzonspor were the other team, who last won in 1983–84. Before winning its first Süper Lig title in 2009–10, Bursaspor had never finished inside the top three. The club won its first title in Ertuğrul Sağlam's first full season as manager of the club. Pablo Batalla and Ozan İpek were the club's joint top scorers with eight goals apiece. Bursaspor were drawn against Rangers, Valencia and Manchester United in the group stages of the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League. In its away match against Rangers, Bursaspor decided not to don their home kit to avoid provoking Rangers' fans, as their kit heavily resembles that of Rangers' rivals, Celtic. Bursaspor is the fourth football club in Turkey to start a dedicated television channel (Bursaspor TV).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Colours and badge.", "content": "Bursaspor's club badge includes the club name, foundation year, and the crescent moon and star from the Turkish flag. As a tribute to the club's origins, the badge also includes five stars, each a different colour – black, red, yellow, green, and navy blue. This represents the colours used by the clubs that made up Bursaspor; Acar İdman Yurdu–black, Akınspor–red, İstiklal–yellow, Pınarspor–green, Çelikspor–navy blue. Bursaspor's kit: Green shirts with white trim, green shorts, green socks. Away: Green and white hooped shirts, white shorts, green and white hooped socks. Alternate: Amber shirts with black trim, claret shorts, amber socks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stadium.", "content": "Bursaspor plays its home matches at Timsah Arena. Built in 2015, the stadium currently seats 43,761 spectators. The field measures 68 by 105 meters, and is covered with natural grass. Between 1979 and 2015 the club played at the Bursa Atatürk Stadium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Supporters.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fans.", "content": "The club's main fan base is known as \"Teksas\" (Texas) and \"Legend Teksas\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Special relationship with Ankaragücü.", "content": "In the early 1990s Bursaspor's ultra group Teksas had a leader called Abdulkerim Bayraktar. He went to study in Ankara, and whilst in the city he started attending Ankaragücü games and started building ties between the two clubs. In 1993 however, his life was cut short during his military service when he was killed by terrorists. This tragic event bought Bursaspor and Ankaragücü even closer together. During the first game after his death, Bursaspor organised a tribute to him, and the events which happened next cemented the brotherhood between these two teams. A large group of Ankaragücü supporters made their way onto the pitch and unveiled a large banner reading 'Our brother Abdul will never die, he lives on in our hearts'. The two supporter groups united and hundreds of Ankaragücü ultras attended his funeral. From that day on, Bursaspor supporters would chant Ankaragücü's name in the 6th minute of every home game, 06 being significant due to 06 being Ankara's city code. Ankaragücü supporters in return chant Bursaspor's name during the 16th minute, 16 being Bursa's city code. When the two sides play, the supporters sit together; it is one of the rare occasions in which ultras from opposing teams watch a game together in a mixed environment. They bring BursAnkara scarfs (a merger of the two cities' names) to the games and create an atmosphere full of mutual respect.  Karlsruhe progressed to the Semi-finals after winning a penalty shoot-out 6–5.<br>", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "European history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Matches.", "content": "Chikhura progressed to the third qualifying round after winning a penalty shoot-out 4–1.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Players.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "U21 players.", "content": "Only professional players and/or players with first team numbers are listed.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Bursaspor Kulübü Derneği (), commonly known as Bursaspor, is a Turkish sports club located in the city of Bursa. Formed in 1963, the club colours are green and white, with home kits usually featuring both colours in a striped pattern.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976838}
{"src_title": "TOP 09", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The party was founded on 11 June 2009 by Miroslav Kalousek who left the Christian and Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party. Karel Schwarzenberg, who had previously served as Minister of Foreign Affairs in the second Topolánek cabinet from January 2007 to March 2009, having been nominated by the Green Party for the post, and who had been elected to the Senate in 2004 as nominee of the Freedom Union – Democratic Union (US-DEU) and Civic Democratic Alliance (ODA) parties, became the party's first leader. In the 2010 parliament elections on 28–29 May 2010, TOP 09 received 16.7% of the vote and 41 seats, becoming the third largest party. The party joined the new coalition government, the Nečas cabinet, with the Civic Democratic Party (ODS) and Public Affairs (VV).  In September 2010 TOP09 applied to join the European People's Party. Karel Schwarzenberg has already officially participated in two EPP summits (15 September and 16 December 2010). On 10 February 2011 TOP 09 has officially been granted permission to join the EPP.  In the 2013 legislative election on 25–26 October 2013, TOP 09 won 12% of the vote and 26 seats. The party entered opposition to the Sobotka cabinet.  In the 2014 European elections on 24 and 25 May 2014, TOP 09 reached second place nationally with 15.95% of the vote, electing 4 MEPs.  Karel Schwarzenberg left the position of leader in 2015. He was replaced by Miroslav Kalousek afterwards.  In March 2016, Karel Tureček left the party and joined ANO 2011 which left TOP 09 with 25 MPs. In May 2016, Pavol Lukša, one of founders of TOP 09, left the party and established the new party Good Choice.  TOP 09 was heavily defeated in 2016 regional elections. The party has gained only 19 seat and 3.4% of votes. Miroslav Kalousek then considered resignation but decided to stay.  In January 2017, TOP 09 introduced its new program called Vision 2030. TOP 09 wants to adopt Euro, implement electronical voting and increase health standard to the level of Germany. TOP 09 also wants to shorten week work time to 4 days. Miroslav Kalousek said that he believes that TOP 09 will get over 10% in upcoming legislative election even though recent opinion polls indicated that TOP 09 might not reach 5% threshold.  Ahead of 2017 parliamentary elections, TOP 09 was endorsed by The Czech Crown, Conservative Party, Club of Committed Non-Party Members and Liberal-Environmental Party. The party eventually received 5.3% of votes being marginalised to 7 seats. Jiří Pospíšil became the new leader after the election.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideology.", "content": "TOP 09 has been noted for its support of fiscal conservatism and is considered pro-European Union, being strongly in favour of European integration. These two stances create a basic common ground of the party, as it is otherwise divided in two ideological wings: social conservative and social liberal. On 12 July 2017, TOP 09 and Liberal-Environmental Party agreed to participate in the 2017 Czech legislative election together.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Election results.", "content": "Below are charts of the results that the TOP09 has secured in the Chamber of Deputies, Senate, European Parliament, and regional assemblies at each election.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "TOP 09 (name derived from \"Tradice Odpovědnost Prosperita\", meaning \"Tradition Responsibility Prosperity\") is a liberal-conservative political party in the Czech Republic, led by Markéta Pekarová Adamová. TOP 09 holds 7 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and has three MEPs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976839}
{"src_title": "Yaroslava Shvedova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2007–2008.", "content": "In February 2007, she unexpectedly reached the final of the Sony Ericsson International in Bangalore, beating home-crowd favourite and No. 2 seed Sania Mirza in the quarterfinals. In the final, she defeated top-seeded defending champion Mara Santangelo in straight sets, to win her first WTA Tour title. This win caused her to be in the top 100 for the first", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009.", "content": "In 2009, Shvedova qualified for the main draw of Roland Garros, defeating Americans Shenay Perry in the first qualifying round and Angela Haynes, in the second. She then beat Elena Baltacha in the final qualifying round to enter the main draw. She beat Kaia Kanepi and advanced to the third round after defeating Arantxa Rus, also a qualifier, in the", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010.", "content": "Shvedova experienced a good run at the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami. She gained direct entry into the main draw and won a tight first-round match against wild card Ajla Tomljanović. She then defeated 23rd seed Sabine Lisicki in the second round after she retired whilst trailing 3–6, 1–0. In the third round, Shvedova advanced against unseeded Andrea Petkovic by winning another close match. She fell to sixth seed Agnieszka Radwańska in the fourth round in straight sets.  At the Barcelona Ladies Open, Shvedova defeated Anabel Medina Garrigues in the first round before upsetting fourth-seeded Maria Kirilenko in the second. Next, she defeated Iveta Benešová before falling to eventual tournament and 2010 French Open champion Francesca Schiavone in the semifinals.  Shvedova enjoyed arguably her best career result at the 2010 French Open. There, she advanced to the quarterfinals in the singles competition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011.", "content": "Shvedova began her season representing Kazakhstan at the 2011 Hopman Cup. She lost her first match to Ana Ivanovic in two sets. During her match against Ivanovic, Shvedova injured her right knee which caused her to pull out of the Hopman Cup. Shvedova also missed the Australian Open due to the same right knee injury.  Shvedova returned from injury in February to play at Dubai where she lost in the first round to Zhang Shuai. Shvedova went to play at the Qatar Ladies Open. Seeded fifth for qualifying, she was defeated in the first round of qualifying by wild card Elena Vesnina. In March, she traveled to Indian Wells to compete at the BNP", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012.", "content": "Shvedova started the year playing qualifying at the Australian Open. She lost in the first round of qualifying to Bibiane Schoofs in a marathon three-set match.  She then rebounded, qualifying into the main draw at Copa Sony Ericsson Colsanitas defeating Raluca Olaru and Leticia Costas. In the main draw, Shvedova reached the quarterfinals where she fell to Tímea Babos. Receiving a wild card to play at the Monterrey Open, she beat countrywoman Sesil Karatantcheva in the first round. She lost to Mandy Minella in the second round in three sets. At the Abierto Mexicano Telcel, Shvedova retired due to a left thigh injury in the final round of qualifying to top seed Edina Gallovits-Hall. Seeded fourth at the $25K event in Irapuato, she reached the final where she lost", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013.", "content": "Shvedova began her year at the ASB Classic. Seeded sixth, she defeated Lara Arruabarrena in the first round, but lost in the second round to Elena Vesnina. In doubles, Shvedova and her partner Julia Görges both reached the final, but they lost to Cara Black/Anastasia Rodionova. Seeded fourth at the Moorilla Hobart International, Shvedova was defeated in the second round to eventual champion Elena Vesnina. Seeded twenty-eighth at the Australian Open, Shvedova lost in the first round to Annika Beck.  Seeded second at the first edition of the Brasil Tennis Cup, Shvedova was defeated in the first", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014.", "content": "Shvedova began the year at the Brisbane International. As the top seed for qualifying, she lost in the second round of qualifying to Anastasia Rodionova. Seeded 12th in qualifying at the Apia International Sydney, Shvedova was defeated in the final round of qualifying by fifth seed Christina McHale. At the Australian Open, she lost in the first round to 13th seed Sloane Stephens.  At the first edition of the Rio Open, Shvedova lost in the first round to Patricia Mayr-Achleitner. At the Brasil Tennis Cup, Shvedova reached the semifinals with wins over", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2015.", "content": "Shvedova began her 2015 year by playing qualifying at the Brisbane International. Shvedova qualified for the main draw defeating Paula Ormaechea, Paula Kania, and Maryna Zanevska. In the first round, she beat Sabine Lisicki. In the second round, she lost to top seed and eventual champion Maria Sharapova. At the Apia International Sydney, Shvedova was defeated in the first round of qualifying to Kateřina Siniaková. Ranked sixty-six at the Australian Open, Shvedova upset sixteenth seed Lucie Šafářová in a first-round thriller. She then beat Monica Puig in the second round. In the third round, Shvedova lost to twenty-first seed Peng Shuai.  At the Miami Open, Shvedova lost in the first round", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016.", "content": "Shvedova started the year by playing qualifying at the Shenzhen Open. She made it to the main draw defeating Vera Dushevina and Çağla Büyükakçay. In the first round, she lost to Anett Kontaveit. In Sydney at the Apia International Sydney, Shvedova retired during her first round of qualifying match to Sesil Karatantcheva. Ranked seventy at the Australian Open, Shvedova won her first-round match over Tsvetana Pironkova. In the second round, she lost to fifteenth seed Madison Keys.  Shvedova qualified for the Dubai Tennis Championships beating Zarina Diyas, Wang Yafan, and Denisa Allertová. In the first round, she stunned seventh seed Roberta Vinci. In the second round, she was defeated by eventual champion Sara", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017.", "content": "Shvedova withdrew from the Shenzhen Open due to a left foot injury. She started her year playing in Sydney at the Apia International Sydney. She lost in the first round of qualifying to Naomi Broady. At the Australian Open, Shvedova was defeated in the first round by twenty-seventh seed Irina-Camelia Begu.  After the Australian Open, Shvedova competed at the St. Petersburg Ladies' Trophy. She lost in the first round to Russian wildcard Natalia Vikhlyantseva. At the Dubai Tennis Championships, Shvedova was defeated in the first round by Monica Puig. In March, Shvedova played at the BNP Paribas Open where she lost in the first round to American qualifier Varvara Lepchenko. At the Miami", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2020.", "content": "Following ankle surgery and childbirth, Shvedova began entering events again using a protected", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Playing style.", "content": "Shvedova is noted for her powerful serve, groundstrokes, and proficient net play.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Shvedova was born to Russian father Vyacheslav and Bashkir mother Nurzia, who used to be a professional runner (winner of the International Association of Ultra Runners 100 km World Championships, 1992). Shvedova has one brother. She began playing tennis at age 8 when her father introduced her to the sport in Chernogolovka (Moscow region). Shvedova changed her nationality from Russian to Kazakhstani in 2008 as part of the country's attempts to boost its sporting profile. Shvedova gave birth to twins in October 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yaroslava Vyacheslavovna Shvedova (, born 12 September 1987) is a tennis player who was born in Russia and who represented Kazakhstan.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976840}
{"src_title": "Robert Hausmann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Robert Hausmann was born in Rottleberode, Harz, in present-day Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. His paternal grandfather, Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann (1782-1859) was a Professor of Mineralogy at the University of Göttingen, and his father Friedrich Ludolf Hausmann (1810-1880) was also involved in mining in the mineral-rich Harz mountains. The Hausmann family had played a prominent role in civic and cultural life of the city of Hanover since the eighteenth century. Robert's great-uncle Bernhard (1784-1873) was an important art collector and amateur violinist whose memoirs, \"Erinnerungen aus dem 80 jährigen Leben eines hannoverschen Burgers Hannover\" (1873) provide a detailed account of his many activities during an eventful period in Hanover's history.  Robert entered the Gymnasium in Brunswick at age eight in 1861, where his cello studies proceeded under Theodor Müller, the cellist of the Müller Quartet, one of the earliest professional string quartets in Germany. In 1869 he was one of the first pupils of the Berlin Hochschule für Musik,where he studied under Müller's nephew Wilhelm Müller, under the general guidance of the violinist Joseph Joachim. Joachim introduced him to the great Italian cellist and teacher Carlo Alfredo Piatti (1822-1901), who taught him in London in 1871 and also at his estate at Cadenabbia on Lake Como, Italy.  He then joined the string quartet of Count Hochberg in Silesia from 1871 to 1876, when he was appointed instructor of cello at the Berlin Hochschule. He became principal instructor on the retirement of Wilhelm Müller in 1879, and was named Professor in 1884. From 1879 until Joseph Joachim's death in 1907 he was the cellist of the Joachim Quartet, alongside Joachim himself (1st violin), Henrich De Ahna (until his death in 1892), replaced by Karel Halíř (2nd violin) and Emanuel Wirth (viola). He was always a very active chamber music player, renowned in Germany, in Europe more generally, and in London. Hausmann performed in Britain almost every year, beginning in 1876, until a month before his death.  In 1879-80, Charles Villiers Stanford wrote a Cello Concerto in D minor for Robert Hausmann. This followed Hausmann's premiering in England Stanford's Cello Sonata, Op. 9, in 1879. It was the first significant British cello sonata. In 1881 Hausmann premiered Max Bruch's \"Kol Nidrei\", Op. 47, which was dedicated to him. Bruch wrote this in response to a longstanding request from Hausmann to write a piece for cello and orchestra to match those he had written for violin and orchestra. Bruch also consulted Hausmann about bowings and other technical aspects. Bruch's \"Canzone in B-flat\", Op. 55, and \"Vier Stücke\", Op. 70, are also dedicated to Hausmann.  Hausmann's most significant association was with Johannes Brahms. After they first played together in 1883, he was a frequent guest among Brahms's circle of friends who had private performances in their homes. The Cello Sonata No. 2 in F major, Op. 99, was both dedicated to and premiered by him in Vienna, with the composer at the piano (14 November 1886). He also popularized the Cello Sonata No. 1 in E minor, Op. 38. In November 1891 he participated in the first private performance, in Meiningen, of the Clarinet Trio in A minor, Op. 114, with Richard Mühlfeld on clarinet and Brahms on piano. The following month they had a triumph with the public premiere in Berlin. In March 1892 he introduced the work to London, with Mühlfeld and Fanny Davies. Further, Hausmann was part of the Berlin premieres of Brahms's Piano Trio in C minor Op. 101, the Quintet in G Major, Op. 111, and the Clarinet Quintet, Op. 115.  Most importantly, Hausmann and Joseph Joachim were the two soloists for whom Brahms wrote the Double Concerto in A minor, op. 102, his last orchestral work. Brahms worked with both of them on the piece before its premiere in Wiesbaden on 18 October 1887. The critic Eduard Hanslick wrote that Hausmann was \"in no way inferior to Joachim.\" As part of the Joachim Quartet, Hausmann championed all of Brahms's chamber music for strings, which were regularly featured on the Quartet's Berlin concert series for over thirty years. Besides the Quartet, Hausmann was a founding member of a piano trio group, made up of his colleagues at the Hochschule, Heinrich de Ahna (with Emanuel Wirth replacing de Ahna after he died in 1892) and the pianist Heinrich Barth. They started a subscription concert series in Berlin that lasted from 1878 until 1907. Their concert season was similar to the Quartet’s, starting in October and ending in March. Their first years of playing were in the Singakademie. However, in 1889 they started playing \"popular chamber music evenings\" in the much larger Philharmonie, where they usually filled the 2000-plus seats.  In 1894 Hausmann married Helene von Maybach, daughter of the Prussian Minister of Commerce Albert von Maybach. They had two children: Luise (b. 1895) and Friedrich Georg (b. 1900), who also became a musician.  Hausmann published editions of the Bach Cello Suites and the Mendelssohn Cello Sonatas and \"Variations Concertantes\" in D major, Op. 17; he also made cello and piano arrangements of Schumann's \"Märchenbilder\", Op. 113 (originally for viola and piano), and the Cello Concerto by Bernhard Molique.  His students included Friedrich Koch (teacher of Boris Blacher and Paul Kletzki), Wallingford Riegger, Philipp Roth, Percy Such, Hugo Dechert, Otto Lüdemann, Lucy Campbell, Arthur Williams, and others.  He played a fine Stradivarius cello from 1724, which is still known as the \"Hausmann\" Strad. He acquired it from his great uncle's son, the cello virtuoso and chamber music specialist who had settled in Great Britain George Hausmann (1814-1860). It was later owned by the Russian master Edmund Kurtz (principal cello of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra).  Robert Hausmann died in Vienna in January 1909, aged 56, after playing a recital of Beethoven's Cello Sonatas with Marie Baumeyer in Graz the previous evening. Donald Tovey had played chamber music with Joachim and Hausmann during their last years, and his \"Elegiac Variations\" for cello and piano, Op. 10, were written in memory of Hausmann.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Hausmann (13 August 185218 January 1909) was a notable 19th-century German cellist who premiered important works by Johannes Brahms (including the Double Concerto) and Max Bruch (including \"Kol Nidrei\"). He was the cellist for the Joachim Quartet and taught at the Berlin Königliche Hochschule für Müsik.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976841}
{"src_title": "Hyphen War", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The official name of the country during the last 30 years of Communist rule was \"Czechoslovak Socialist Republic\" (in Czech and in Slovak, or \"ČSSR\"). In December 1989—a month after the Velvet Revolution—President Václav Havel announced that the word \"Socialist\" would be dropped from the country's official name. Conventional wisdom suggested that it would be known as simply the \"Czechoslovak Republic\"—its official name from 1920 to 1938 and from 1945 to 1960. However, Slovak politicians felt this diminished Slovakia's equal stature, and demanded that the country's name be spelled with a hyphen (i.e. \"Czecho-Slovak Republic\"), as it was spelled from Czecho-slovak independence in 1918 until 1920, and again in 1938 and 1939. President Havel then changed his proposal to \"Republic of Czecho-Slovakia\" — a proposal that did not sit well with Czech politicians who saw reminders of the 1938 Munich Agreement, in which Nazi Germany annexed a part of that territory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Resolution.", "content": "As a compromise, on 29 March 1990 the Czechoslovak parliament resolved that the country's long name was to be the \"Czechoslovak Federative Republic,\" explicitly acknowledging that the country was a federation. The name was to be spelled without a hyphen in Czech (), but with a hyphen in Slovak (). An informal agreement on the Slovak long-form name was to be codified in a future law on state symbols.  This solution was found to be unsatisfactory, and less than a month later, on 20 April 1990, the parliament changed the name again, to the \"Czech and Slovak Federative Republic\" (,, or \"ČSFR\"). This law explicitly listed the long-form names in both languages and stated they were equal.  The compromise required even more linguistic wrangling than first appears. Generally, only the first word of a country's name is capitalized in Czech and Slovak. Capitalizing all of the words eliminated issues of prestige around the capitalization of \"\".  Although the Slovaks were demanding a hyphen (Czech, Slovak: ), the Czechs called it a dash (Czech, Slovak: ). Although there is a clear difference between a hyphen and a dash in Czech and Slovak spelling (a hyphen is used to mark a connection between two words, while a dash is used in other cases), both Czechs and Slovaks usually use the term for both. Nonetheless, English language media generally refer to the conflict as the \"Hyphen War\".  While the Hyphen War was not really deserving of the name \"war\", it demonstrated that there were differences between Czechs and Slovaks regarding the identity of their shared country. Over the following two years, more substantial disputes arose between the two halves of the federation. In 1992, Czech and Slovak politicians agreed to split the country into the two states of the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic—the so-called Velvet Divorce—which became effective on 1 January 1993.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hyphen war (; ) was the conflict over what to call Czechoslovakia after the fall of the Communist government in 1989.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976842}
{"src_title": "Presidency of Yugoslavia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Constitutional powers.", "content": "According to the 1974 Constitution, the Presidency had following powers:  The Presidency had eight members elected by parliaments of each republic and autonomous province and proclaimed by the Federal Assembly of the SFRY, the ninth member was president of the Presidium of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. This ex officio membership of the LCY leader was abolished by the constitutional changes in autumn 1988. The mandate of the Presidency lasted five years so the nine-member Presidency was elected in total four times - in 1974, 1979, 1984 and 1989.  Until 1980 most of powers of the Presidency (and control over the country in general) were in fact exercised by Josip Broz Tito, who was president of the republic for life. After his death in May 1980, his office stayed vacant and the Presidency began to function according to the constitution.  Sometimes, the Presidency held its sessions in an extended composition. Besides the members of the actual Presidency, in such sessions took part following officials: chairman of the Federal Assembly, chairman and vice-chairman of the Federal Executive Council (the government), federal secretaries (ministers) of defense, interior and foreign affairs, chairman of the Federal Conference of the Socialist Alliance of Working People of Yugoslavia and chairmen of the Presidencies of the Yugoslav republics and autonomous provinces. The extended Presidency wasn't grounded in the Constitution and couldn't itself adopt any decisions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-Tito period.", "content": "Tito, as a president of the republic, was ex officio chairman of the Presidency. After his death a new chairman of the Presidency was elected every year. The order of rotating of the members on the leading position was agreed in advance, so this annual election was a pure formality. The rotating system jammed only in May 1991 - Stipe Mesić, representative of Franjo Tuđman's new Croatian government in the Presidency, was about to become the chairman but wasn't elected due to opposition of a half of the Presidency controlled by Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević. The top state office of the disintegrating federation remained vacant until 1 July when Mesić was finally elected. Only one year after Tito's death, Yugoslav leaders had to face violent riots in Kosovo. On 2 April 1981 the Presidency under chairmanship of Cvijetin Mijatović declared a state of emergency in Priština and Kosovska Mitrovica, which lasted one week. The Presidency declared the state of emergency again, that time on the whole territory of Kosovo, on 27 February 1989 under chairmanship of Raif Dizdarević, when even more serious disorders in Kosovo broke out. For the third time in post-Tito Yugoslavia, the state of emergency in Kosovo was imposed by the Presidency in February 1990.  The composition of the last Presidency elected in May 1989 reflected both approach of political pluralism in some parts of the federation and the beginning of agony in Yugoslavia: In summer 1991 Mesić and Drnovšek, regarding their republics independent, ceased to attend sessions of the Presidency. They were followed by Bogićević and Vasil Tupurkovski from Macedonia, so that the Presidency de facto ceased to exist, although the members from Serbia, her provinces (Kosovo and Vojvodina) and Montenegro continued to hold sessions until 1992.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Presidency of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (, Председништво СФРЈ; ; Slovene: \"Predsedstvo SFRJ\"; ), also known as the Presidium, was the collective head of state of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It was established in 1971 according to amendments to the 1963 Constitution and reorganized by the 1974 Constitution. Up to 1974, the Presidency had 23 members – three from each republic, two from each autonomous province and President Josip Broz Tito. In 1974 the Presidency was reduced to 9 members – one from each republic and autonomous province and, until 1988, President of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia \"ex officio\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976843}
{"src_title": "Beth Ditto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Ditto grew up in a poor family in Arkansas in the southern United States, with her mother, various stepfathers, and six siblingstwo older brothers, an older sister, two younger brothers and a younger sister. She grew up Southern Baptist and Pentecostal, but is now an atheist. At age 13, she moved out of her mother's house and went to live with her aunt. She moved to Olympia, Washington in 1999; then to Portland, Oregon in 2003, where she lives as of 2014. At 18, she discovered bands like Nirvana, Pearl Jam, The Raincoats and Siouxsie and the Banshees.  She fronted the band Gossip from its formation in 1999 until its dissolution in 2016. In addition, she has been involved in other musical projects. In 2008, she contributed vocals to the Crisis charity single \"Consequences\", a collaboration between various artists. In 2009, she sang on Simian Mobile Disco's track \"Cruel Intentions\" for their album of collaborations \"Temporary Pleasure\". In 2011, she released her own 4-track \"Beth Ditto EP\", produced by James Ford and Jas Shaw of Simian Mobile Disco, on the re-launched Deconstruction Records. She sang on Blondie's \"A Rose by Any Name\" from their 2013 album \"Ghosts of Download\". Harrod Horatia, writing in \"The Telegraph\", has said, \"Where the stripped-down three-piece Gossip play propulsive, garage band blues, Ditto's own stuff is melancholic, soulful dance music, inspired by 'Eighties disco soul jams' that she loves, and the up-tempo pop-R&B of \"I Wanna Dance With Somebody\"-era Whitney Houston.\"  Ditto, who is openly lesbian, is well known for her outspoken support of both lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT), and feminist causes. She has been an advocate for large women being body-positive and has been regularly photographed as an editorial model. She is known for her stage dances and her unique and revealing image. She classes herself as a punk, and thus neither uses deodorant nor shaves under her armpits, having once remarked, \"I think punks usually smell.\" She has cited Cyndi Lauper and Boy George as overall influences and Grace Jones and Peggy Moffitt as her beauty icons. She also stated: \"Artists I love, like Siouxsie Sioux and Patti Smith, have such radically different ways of embodying femininity, but they're both amazing punk women. The true heart of feminism isn't about meeting other people's expectations around your body or your gender.\" She considers her favorite song to be \"Oh Bondage Up Yours!\" by X-Ray Spex. She courted mild controversy in 2006 when she claimed to have eaten squirrels as a child.  In 2007–2008, Ditto contributed a fortnightly advice column on body image to \"The Guardian\" newspaper entitled 'What would Beth Ditto do?'.  In 2007 she was featured posed nude on the front cover of music magazine \"NME\". Germaine Greer, writing in \"The Guardian\", said the magazine had \"enough courage to put the coolest woman on the planet on the cover\" whilst acknowledging its limits. Greer also praised Ditto for her motives, saying her \"intention is to force acceptance of her body type, tall and, and by this strategy to challenge the conventional imagery of women\". In February 2009 bi-annual British style magazine \"Love\" featured Ditto posed nude on the front cover of its premiere issue, with prominent public advertising. Emily Hill, writing in \"The Guardian\", was cynical of \"Love\" magazine's intentions, writing that \"Beth Ditto on Love magazine is not evidence of fashion's new acceptance, but a diversion before emaciated normality returns\".  Ditto launched her first plus-size collection for women's clothing retailer Evans on July 9, 2009, in collaboration with head of design Lisa Marie Peacock. Ditto provided sketches and drew inspiration from her favourite vintage and charity shop clothes as well as bands like Blondie, The Slits and Grace Jones, and Art Deco movements. Her second collection for Evans launched in 2010 with just over 20 individual items. Marianne Kirby, writing in \"The Guardian\", said the \"collection struck a nerve with its iconic pieces\" and that it was an \"international success\".  She opened (modeled) and closed the Jean Paul Gaultier spring 2011 fashion show during Paris Fashion Week in October 2010.  In June 2012 Ditto collaborated with MAC Cosmetics to create a make up collection.  Ditto released her memoir in 2012 called \"Coal to Diamonds\", which she co-wrote with Michelle Tea. It was positively reviewed in \"The Guardian\" and \"NME\".  In July 2013, Ditto married her girlfriend and best friend since she was 18, Kristin Ogata, in Maui, Hawaii. Both were outfitted entirely in white for the occasion; Ditto wore a gown by Jean Paul Gaultier and went barefoot while Ogata wore a jacket, a shirt, shorts, and shoes.  In December 2014, seventeen months after the two first walked down the aisle in a wedding, the couple legally married in their home state of Oregon, having to wait until same-sex marriage became legal there to make their marriage official.  Ditto confirmed the split of the band Gossip to pursue a career in fashion and her solo career in 2016.  In an interview in March 2018, Ditto announced that she and her wife had split and she was dating musician Ted Kwo. Earlier that month, she addressed how her relationship with Kwo, who is an openly transgender man, has urged her to consider the privileges of being perceived as a straight woman. In particular, she spoke about the sharp difference in how she was treated when she was with Ogata: “I was always really afraid, I was always really protective. Straight privilege is real.\"  In 2018, Ditto made her film acting debut in Gus Van Sant's \"Don't Worry, He Won't Get Far on Foot\". The following year she was cast in \"On Becoming a God in Central Florida\", a Showtime series starring Kirsten Dunst.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mary Beth Patterson (born February 19, 1981), known by her stage name Beth Ditto, is an American singer-songwriter and actress most notable for her work with the indie rock band Gossip. Her voice has been compared to Etta James, Janis Joplin and Tina Turner. She disbanded Gossip to pursue a career in fashion, and has since started a solo career.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976844}
{"src_title": "Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation for the 8th European Parliament.", "content": "Following the 2014 European parliament elections, the Europe of Freedom and Democracy (EFD) group faced difficulties reforming for the 8th European Parliament, with various member parties and MEPs of the previous term's EFD either defecting to different parliamentary groups or failing to be re-elected.  On 4 June 2014, the Danish People's Party (Denmark) and Finns Party (Finland) were admitted into the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) and therefore were no longer attached to the EFD.  On 12 June 2014, the Five Star Movement (M5S) of Italy, having been rejected by the Greens/EFA and Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe groups, offered its activists a limited-choice online referendum to choose a European Parliament group for the party, in which 78% of participating activists voted for the EFD.  On 16 June 2014, Dutch MEP Bas Belder of the Reformed Political Party (SGP) moved from the EFD to the ECR group.  The EFD group was reformed on 18 June 2014 with MEPs from existing member parties: the UK Independence Party (United Kingdom) and the Order and Justice (Lithuania), in addition to new affiliates: the Five Star Movement, the Sweden Democrats (Sweden), the Party of Free Citizens (Czech Republic), the Latvian Farmers Union (Latvia) and a French independent MEP, formerly of the National Front.  On 24 June 2014, the EFD group name was revised to Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy (EFDD), and David Borrelli of the Five Star Movement was chosen as the group's co-president.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Events during 8th European Parliament.", "content": "On 16 October 2014, it was announced that Iveta Grigule MEP from the Latvian Farmers' Union defected from EFDD to the ALDE group, resulting in the collapse of the group because it was no longer composed of representatives from at least a quarter of the EU's Member States. The criterion was restored on 20 October, with one Polish MEP, Robert Iwaszkiewicz from Congress of the New Right (KNP), joining the group, although the other party's MEPs remained Non-Inscrits.  On 24 January 2015, Amjad Bashir was suspended from UKIP pending a party investigation into financial fraud: Bashir defected to the Conservative Party within an hour of his suspension. On 20 March 2015, Janice Atkinson was suspended from UKIP and later expelled on 23 March for alleged financial fraud. Atkinson joined the Europe of Nations and Freedom (ENF) group at its launch on 15 June 2015.  In April 2015, Valentinas Mazuronis left Order and Justice and joined the ranks of Labour Party, also leaving the EFDD.  On 8 April 2016, Alternative for Germany (AfD) MEP Beatrix von Storch left the ECR group to join EFDD.  On 24 October 2016, Steven Woolfe left the group to sit as Non-Inscrits, followed by Diane James on 20 November 2016.  On 9 January 2017, the Five Star Movement voted in an online referendum to leave EFDD in order to join the ALDE group; however, they were rejected by ALDE later the same day. In the aftermath, two MEPs left the group, with Marco Affronte defected to the Greens/EFA group, and Marco Zanni to the ENL group. Other Five Star Movement MEPs pulled out of switching parliamentary group after threatened by party leader Beppe Grillo with a fine of €250,000.  In October 2017, with change in the French National Front, Florian Philippot, president of the \"Patriotes\", Sophie Montel and Mireille d'Ornano join the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy group.  On 13 February 2018, former group co-president David Borrelli left the M5S and moved to Non-Inscrits.  On 3 July 2018, the 2 Sweden Democrats MEPs moved to ECR group.  In December 2018, Farage and multiple other MEPs left UKIP in protest over Gerard Batten's leadership. Batten in turn left the EFDD and then withdrew the remaining further 6 UKIP MEPs.  In April 2019, group leader Nigel Farage launched the Brexit Party, which he and ten of the other former UKIP MEPs in the group joined, along with one UKIP MEP from the Europe of Nations and Freedom group.  On the 26 June 2019 it was reported that the EFDD had failed to register for the 9th European Parliament, making them no longer an official political group.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Membership.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "8th European Parliament, 2014.", "content": "At foundation, the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy had 48 elected members as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "8th European Parliament, 2019.", "content": "In 2019 the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy had 42 members of the European Parliament along with other affiliated parties as followed:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political positions.", "content": "The bloc's primary goal was the reduction in the powers of, or even the dissolution of, the European Union. Nigel Farage, the bloc's president, was also the leader of the UK Independence Party and latterly the Brexit Party, both of which advocated for the immediate withdrawal of the UK from the European Union.  During the European Parliament debate about Catalan independence referendum in 2017, the EFDD, by the voice of Ray Finch considered that European Union should have made some intervention against Spain to protect Catalan independence. He considered that this referendum led to human rights abuses. According to him, people should have the right to vote even when the referendum is illegal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy (EFDD or EFD2) was a Eurosceptic and populist political group in the European Parliament. The EFDD group was a continuation for the Eighth European Parliament of the Europe of Freedom and Democracy (EFD) group that existed during the Seventh European Parliament, with significant changes to group membership.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976845}
{"src_title": "Prague groschen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Coin.", "content": "It is a silver coin with on the obverse the legend \"DEI GRATIA REX BOEMIE\" (\"By the grace of God the King of Bohemia\") and on the reverse \"GROSSI PRAGENSES\" (\"Prague groschen\"). The weight of the coin varies between 3.5 and 3.7 g with a fineness of 933/1000 of silver.  The groschen was subdivided into twelve \"parvus\" (\"small\") coins with a Bohemian heraldic lion sign on the obverse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Minting of this coin started around 1300 after silver mines had been discovered in Kutná Hora during the reign of the Bohemian king Wenceslaus II. King Wenceslaus II invited the Italian lawyer Gozzius of Orvieto to create a mining code \"Ius regale montanorum\" which was also partly a reform of the coinage. This, and the high amount of silver found in Kutná hora resulted in the implementation of Prague groschen. Because of the high amount of silver used in the coin it became one of the most popular of the early Groschen-type coins in medieval Europe.  In documents of the era, like the Peace of Thorn (1411), large amounts of money often were given in more convenient of Prague groschen, which equals to = 5 dozen = 1⁄2 small gross = 60.  After the opening of new silver mines in Jáchymov (\"Joachimsthal\") the Thaler, in the Bohemia known as \"tolar\", came in use. In 1547, minting of Prague groschen was discontinued by Ferdinand I.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The inspiration came from France where groschen were used since 1266, and replaced old coins called \"denar\". The name came from the Latin \"denarius grossus\" ().", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Prague groschen (,,, ) was a groschen-type silver coin that was issued by Wenceslaus II of Bohemia since 1300 in the Kingdom of Bohemia and became very common throughout Medieval Central Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976846}
{"src_title": "Digenes Akritas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Manuscript.", "content": "The Digenes Akrites is an extensive narrative text, although it is not in a pure epic-heroic style. No fewer than six manuscripts have been found dedicated to stories about him. The oldest two are el Escorial (or E, 1867 lines) and Grottaferrata versions (or G, 3749 lines), from the names of the libraries in which the respective manuscripts are held. While the form (or forms) in which it has survived is not the product of oral composition, it has nevertheless retained a considerable number of features of its oral origins. The common core of the two versions preserved in the E and G manuscripts goes back to the twelfth century. The text of E appears to be closer to the original composition while G represents a version that is heavily marked by learned reworking. Both texts give enchanting descriptions of the life of the martial societies of the border regions of the empire, while in the figure of Digenes are concentrated the legends that had accumulated around local heroes. El Escorial version is the superior of the two in respect of the power and immediacy of the battle scenes and austerity of style. The epic descriptions of the mounted knights and battles are marked by drama, a swift pace and lively visual detail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Storyline.", "content": "The Arab–Byzantine wars that lasted from the seventh century to the early 11th century provide the context for Byzantine heroic poetry written in Medieval Greek. The \"Akritai\" of the Byzantine Empire of this period were a military class responsible for safeguarding the frontier regions of the imperial territory from external enemies and freebooting adventurers who operated on the fringes of the empire. The work comprises two parts.  In the first, the \"Lay of the Emir\", which bears more obviously the characteristics of epic poetry, an Arab amir invades Cappadocia and carries off the daughter of a Byzantine general. The emir agrees to convert to Christianity for the sake of the daughter and resettles in the Byzantine Empire ( \"Romanía\", the lands of the Ρωμηοί \"Romioi\") together with his people. The issue of their union is a son, Digenes Akritas.  The second part of the work relates the development of the young hero and his superhuman feats of bravery and strength. As a boy, he goes hunting with his father and kills two bears unarmed, strangling the first to death and breaking the second one's spine. He also tears a hind in half with his bare hands, and slays a lion in the same manner. Like his father, he carries off the daughter of another Byzantine general and then marries her; he kills a dragon; he takes on the so-called \"apelátai\" (), a group of bandits, and then defeats their three leaders in single combat. No one, not even the amazingly strong female warrior Maximu, with whom he commits the sin of adultery, can match him. Having defeated all his enemies Digenes builds a luxurious palace by the Euphrates, where he ends his days peacefully. Cypriot legend has it that he grabbed hold of the Pentadaktylos (\"Five Fingers\") mountain range north of Nicosia in order to leap to Anatolia. The mountain range, as the name suggests, resembles five knuckles sprouting from the ground.  The tale of Digenes continued to be read and enjoyed in later centuries, as the text survives in various versions dating to as late as the 17th century. The epic tale of Digenes Akritas corresponds in many ways to a cycle of much shorter Acritic songs, particularly from Anatolia, Cyprus and Crete, some of which survive until the present day. In the later tradition Digenes is eventually defeated only by Death, in the figure of Thanatos/Charon, after fierce single combat on \"the marble threshing floors\". Thanatos had reportedly already wrestled with Heracles. The Greek-Canadian composer Christos Hatzis has used this text as the basis for a portion of his \"Constantinople\".  The story of Digenes Akritas, defeated by Death personally, was used as a basis of a Russian bylina (a folk ballad) about Anika the Warrior.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Form.", "content": "The \"Digenes Akritas\" is written in Early Demotic Greek and is composed in fifteen syllable blank verse. Rhyming occurs rarely.  The poem does not diverge from the standard political verse of popular Byzantine literature. Each line holds its own and every hemistich is carefully balanced. The poem flows, is cadential, with no cacophonies with very scarce sound repetitions.  Below is an excerpt from the translation of the Escorial manuscript, lines 32-55, by E. M. Jeffreys (pp. 240–3):", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Digenes Akrites (, ), known in folksongs as Digenes Akritas (, ) and also transliterated as Digenis Acritis, is the most famous of the Acritic Songs. The epic details the life of the hero, Basil (Βασίλειος), whose epithet \"Digenes Akritas\" (\"Two Blood Border Lord\" or \"Twain-born Borderer\") refers to his mixed Byzantine-Cappadocian Greek and Arab blood. The first part of the epic details the lives of his parents, how they met, and how his father, an Emir, converted to Christianity after abducting and marrying Digenes' mother. The remainder of the epic discusses, often from a first-person point of view, Basil's acts of heroism on the Byzantine border.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976847}
{"src_title": "David Storl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Storl first became involved in athletics as a child when his grandfather suggested he join the local club, VfL Rochlitzer Berg. Initially a decathlon specialist, the death of his personal coach in 2006 led him to focus exclusively on the shot put and discus throwing events. At the age of 16, he won the gold medal at the 2007 World Youth Championships with a personal best and German under-18 record throw of 21.40 metres (using the lighter 5 kg shot for youths).  The following year he competed with the 6 kg junior implement and won the shot put title at the 2008 World Junior Championships in Athletics with a mark of 21.08 m, which made him the fourth-best junior of all time. In 2009, he began using the full senior weight (7.26 kg) in the indoor season and achieved a best of 19.48 m. Returning to the junior 6 kg shot in the outdoor season, he became the first ever junior athlete to throw beyond 22 metres in Mannheim, setting consecutive world junior records of 22.18 m and then 22.34 m. A month later he increased this mark to 22.73 m in Osterode (putting some distance between himself and the Edis Elkasevic's former record of 21.96 m), and went on to win the 2009 European Junior title with a championships record of 22.40 m. Having placed third at the 2009 German Athletics Championships and achieved the senior international \"A\" standard with a personal best throw of 20.43 m, he was selected for the 2009 World Championships in Athletics in Berlin. He ended his first senior international appearance in 15th place in the qualifying rounds.  The 2010 season was his first as a senior athlete and he was runner-up at the Indoor and Outdoor German Championships. At the 2010 IAAF World Indoor Championships, he came seventh while compatriot Ralf Bartels won the bronze. Storl represented Germany at the 2010 European Athletics Championships and managed fourth place. That year he achieved senior personal bests of 20.77 m both outdoors and indoors. He defeated Bartels to win the German indoor title in 2011, but the places were reversed at the 2011 European Athletics Indoor Championships, although Storl's silver medal was his first major senior medal.  He surpassed the 21-metre mark in Gothenburg in June with a throw of 21.03 m and topped the podium at both the 2011 European Team Championships and 2011 European Athletics U23 Championships, setting championship records of 20.81 m and 20.45 m in the process. With Bartels not competing, Storl won his first outdoor senior national title in July. He added to his best mark with a throw of 21.05 m at the Weltklasse hinterm Deich meeting.  On 12 August 2014, Storl won his second successive European Athletics Championships gold medal with a throw of 21.42m.  Storl surpassed the 22-metre mark on 9 July 2015 in Lausanne with a winning throw of 22.20m, making it his new personal best.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "David Storl (born 27 July 1990) is a German track and field athlete who specialises in the shot put. He was successful on the youth and junior athletics circuit, winning gold medals at the World Youth Championships and World Junior Championships. Storl won his first senior medal, a silver, at the 2011 European Athletics Indoor Championships.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976848}
{"src_title": "Emilia Galotti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Set in Italy, \"Emilia Galotti\" tells the story of a virtuous young woman of the bourgeoisie. The absolutist prince of Guastalla, Hettore Gonzaga, becomes obsessed with the idea of making Emilia his lover after their first meeting. He thus gives his conniving Chamberlain, Marinelli, the right to do anything in his power to delay the previously arranged marriage between Emilia and Count Appiani. Marinelli then hires criminals who shortly thereafter murder the count on his way to the wedding. Emilia is quickly brought to safety in the prince's nearby summer residence. Unlike her mother Claudia, Emilia does not yet recognise the true implications of the scheme. A few moments later, Countess Orsina, the prince's former mistress, comes to the residence as well. Out of frustration over her harsh rejection by the prince, she attempts to convince Odoardo, Emilia's father, to avenge Count Appiani by stabbing the prince to death. Odoardo, however, hesitates in agreeing to this proposal and decides to leave the revenge in the hands of God. Emilia, who must remain under the protection of the prince due to another intrigue on Marinelli's behalf, attempts to convince her father to kill her in order to maintain her dignity in light of the prince's exertions to seduce her. The father agrees and stabs her, but immediately feels appalled by his deed. In the end Odoardo leaves the matter to the prince. He subsequently decides that Marinelli is responsible for the catastrophe and has him banned from his court. Ultimately, Emilia's father recognises God as the absolute authority.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theme.", "content": "Lessing's work of course comprises an attack against the nobility and its powers. Lessing depicts aristocrats as having unfair powers in society and as ruining the happiness of the emerging middle class. With the play, Lessing directs criticism at the tyranny of the reigning class.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Music historian Charles Burney, arriving in Vienna in 1772, attended a performance of \"Emilia Galotti\". \"I should suppose this play to have been well acted; there were energy and passion, and many speeches were much applauded.\" But the Englishman was surprised by the \"impious oaths and execrations\" of the script: \"The interlocutors curse, swear, and call names, in a gross and outrageous manner. I know not, perhaps, the exact ideas annexed by the Germans to the following expressions, of \"Mein Gott,\" \"Gott verdamm ihn,\" etc., but they shocked my ears very frequently.\" Still, Burney was impressed by the piece: \"There is an original wildness in the conduct and sentiments of this piece which renders it very interesting.\"  In Arthur Schopenhauer's \"The Art of Literature\", he criticised \"Emilia Galotti\" as a play with a \"positively revolting\" end.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In literature.", "content": "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe refers to \"Emilia Galotti\" in his novel \"The Sorrows of Young Werther\" (\"Die Leiden des jungen Werthers\"), which was published in 1774.  The detail of \"Emilia Galotti\"'s presence in the room, like many of the details of \"Werther\", was taken from the 1772 suicide of Goethe's acquaintance Karl Wilhelm Jerusalem.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Emilia Galotti is a play in five acts by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781), which premiered on 8 March 1772 in Brunswick (\"Braunschweig\" in German). The work is a classic example of German \"bürgerliches Trauerspiel\" (bourgeois tragedy). Other works in this category include Schiller's \"Kabale und Liebe\" and Hebbel's \"Maria Magdalene\". The story is based upon the Roman myth of Verginia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976849}
{"src_title": "Hor-Aha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Identity.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The commonly used name \"Hor-Aha\" is a rendering of the pharaoh's Horus-name, an element of the royal titulary associated with the god Horus, and is more fully given as \"Horus-Aha\" meaning \"Horus the Fighter\".  The Greek historian Manetho's record \"Aegyptiaca\" (translating to History of Egypt) lists his Greek name as Athothis, or \"Athotís\".  For the Early Dynastic Period, the archaeological record refers to the pharaohs by their Horus-names, while the historical record, as evidenced in the Turin and Abydos king lists, uses an alternative royal titulary, the \"nebty\"-name. The different titular elements of a pharaoh's name were often used in isolation, for brevity's sake, although the choice varied according to circumstance and period.  Mainstream Egyptological consensus follows the findings of Petrie in reconciling the two records and connects Hor-Aha (archaeological) with the \"nebty\"-name \"Ity\" (historical). The same process has led to the identification of the historical Menes (a \"nebty\"-name) with Narmer (a Horus-name) evidenced in the archaeological record (both figures are credited with the unification of Egypt and as the first pharaoh of Dynasty I) as the predecessor of Hor-Aha (the second pharaoh).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theories.", "content": "There has been some controversy about Hor-Aha. Some believe him to be the same individual as the legendary Menes and that he was the one to unify all of Egypt. Others claim he was the son of Narmer, the pharaoh who unified Egypt. Narmer and Menes may have been one pharaoh, referred to with more than one name. Regardless, considerable historical evidence from the period points to Narmer as the pharaoh who first unified Egypt (\"see Narmer Palette\") and to Hor-Aha as his son and heir.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Successor to Narmer.", "content": "Seal impressions discovered by G. Dreyer in the Umm El Qa'ab from Den and Qa'a burials identify Hor-Aha as the second pharaoh of the first dynasty. His predecessor Narmer had united Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom, \"Upper and Lower Egypt\". Hor-Aha probably ascended the throne in the mid 31st century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interior policy.", "content": "Hor-Aha seems to have conducted many religious activities. A visit to a shrine of the goddess Neith is recorded on several tablets from his reign. The sanctuary of Neith he visited was located in the north-west of the Nile Delta at Sais. Furthermore, the first known representation of the sacred \"Henu\"-bark of the god Seker was found engraved on a year tablet dating from his reign. Vessel inscriptions, labels and sealings from the graves of Hor-Aha and Queen Neithhotep suggest that this queen died during the reign of Aha. He arranged for her burial in a magnificent mastaba excavated by Jacques de Morgan. Queen Neithhotep is plausibly Aha's mother The selection of the cemetery of Naqada as the resting place of Neithhotep is a strong indication that she came from this province. This, in turn, supports the view that Narmer married a member of the ancient royal line of Naqada to strengthen the domination of the Thinite kings over the region. However, in January 2016, a rock inscription has demonstrated that Neithhotep was actually a queen regent early during the reign of Djer, Hor-Aha's successor. Therefore, the cemetery evidence above only proves that Neithhotep did live during the reign of Hor-Aha but succeeded him into Djer's reign.  Most importantly, the oldest mastaba at the North Saqqara necropolis of Memphis dates to his reign. The mastaba belongs to an elite member of the administration who may have been a relative of Hor-Aha, as was customary at the time. This is a strong indication of the growing importance of Memphis during Aha's reign.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economic development.", "content": "Few artifacts remain of Hor-Aha's reign. However, the finely executed copper-axe heads, faience vessel fragments, ivory box and inscribed white marbles all testify to the flourishing of craftsmanship during Aha's time in power.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Activities outside Egypt.", "content": "Inscription on an ivory tablet from Abydos suggests that Hor-Aha led an expedition against the Nubians. On a year tablet, a year is explicitly called 'Year of smiting of Ta-Sety' (i.e. Nubia).  During Hor-Aha's reign, trade with the Southern Levant seems to have been on the decline. Contrary to his predecessor Narmer, Hor-Aha is not attested outside of the Nile Valley. This may point to a gradual replacement of long-distance trade between Egypt and its eastern neighbors by a more direct exploitation of the local resources by the Egyptians. Vessel fragment analysis from an Egyptian outpost at En Besor suggests that it was active during Hor-Aha's reign. Other Egyptian settlements are known to have been active at the time as well (Byblos and along the Lebanese coast). Finally, Hor-Aha's tomb yielded vessel fragments from the Southern Levant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Hor-Aha's chief wife was Benerib, whose name was \"written alongside his on a number of [historical] pieces, in particular, from tomb B14 at Abydos, Egypt\". Tomb B14 is located directly adjacent to Hor-Aha's sepulchre. Hor-Aha also had another wife, Khenthap, with whom he became father of Djer. She is mentioned as Djer's mother on the Cairo Annals Stone.  Hor-Aha's mother is believed to be Neithhotep. She is also believed to be wife of the late Narmer and possibly remarries one of Hor-Aha's top three Grand Viziers by the name of Rekhit after the death of Narmer. The massive Naqada tomb Neithhotep was believed to be buried has 10 inscriptions of her in it. The same tomb also has 15 inscriptions to Rekhit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tomb.", "content": "The tomb of Hor-Aha is located in the necropolis of the kings of the 1st Dynasty at Abydos, known as the Umm el-Qa'ab. It comprises three large chambers (designated B10, B15, and B19), which are directly adjacent to Narmer's tomb. The chambers are rectangular, directly dug in the desert floor, their walls lined with mud bricks. The tombs of Narmer and Ka had only two adjacent chambers, while the tomb of Hor-Aha comprises three substantially larger yet separated chambers. The reason for this architecture is that it was difficult at that time to build large ceilings above the chambers, as timber for these structures often had to be imported from Palestine.  A striking innovation of Hor-Aha's tomb is that members of the royal household were buried with the pharaoh, the earliest known retainer sacrifices in Egypt. It is unclear if they were killed or committed suicide. Among those buried were servants, dwarfs, women and even dogs. A total of 36 subsidiary burials were laid out in three parallel rows north-east of Hor-Aha's main chambers. As a symbol of royalty Hor-Aha was even given a group of young lions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hor-Aha (or Aha or Horus Aha) is considered the second pharaoh of the First Dynasty of Egypt by some Egyptologists, others consider him the first one and corresponding to Menes. He lived around the 31st century BC and is thought to have had a long reign.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976850}
{"src_title": "Directive (European Union)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Justification.", "content": "There are justifications for using a directive rather than a regulation: (i) it complies with the EU's desire for \"subsidiarity\"; (ii) it acknowledges that different member States have different legal systems, legal traditions and legal processes; and (iii) each Member State has leeway to choose its own statutory wording, rather than accepting the Brussels' official \"Eurospeak\" terminology.  So, for example, while EU Directive 2009/20/EC (which simply requires all vessels visiting EU ports to have P&I cover) could have been done perfectly well as a regulation (without bothering Member States to implement the directive), the desire for subsidiarity was paramount and thus a directive was the chosen vehicle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal basis.", "content": "The legal basis for the enactment of directives is Article 288 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (formerly Article 249 TEC).  The Council can delegate legislative authority to the Commission and, depending on the area and the appropriate legislative procedure, both institutions can seek to make laws. There are Council directives and Commission directives. Article 288 does not clearly distinguish between legislative acts and administrative acts, as is normally done in national legal systems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal effect.", "content": "Directives are binding only on the member states to whom they are addressed, which can be just one member state or a group of them. In general, however, with the exception of directives related to the Common Agricultural Policy, directives are addressed to all member states.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "When adopted, directives give member states a timetable for the implementation of the intended outcome. Occasionally, the laws of a member state may already comply with this outcome, and the state involved would be required only to keep its laws in place. More commonly, member states are required to make changes to their laws (commonly referred to as transposition) in order for the directive to be implemented correctly. This is done in approximately 99% of the cases. If a member state fails to pass the required national legislation, or if the national legislation does not adequately comply with the requirements of the directive, the European Commission may initiate legal action against the member state in the European Court of Justice. This may also happen when a member state has transposed a directive in theory but has failed to abide by its provisions in practice.  Britain passed a statutory instrument, the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1994, to implement the EU Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Directive 1993. For reasons that are not clear, the 1994 SI was deemed inadequate and was repealed and replaced by the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999. The Consumer Rights Act 2015, a major UK statute consolidating consumer rights, then abolished the 1999 SI; so presumably the 2015 Act complies with the 1993 EU directive, which remains extant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Direct effect.", "content": "Even though directives were not originally thought to be binding before they were implemented by member states, the European Court of Justice developed the doctrine of direct effect where unimplemented or badly implemented directives can actually have direct legal force. In the important case of Francovich v. Italy, the ECJ extended the principle of \"Van Gend en Loos\" to provide that Member States who failed to implement a directive could incur liability to pay damages to individuals and companies who had been adversely affected by such non-implementation.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A directive is a legal act of the European Union which requires member states to achieve a particular result without dictating the means of achieving that result. It can be distinguished from regulations, which are self-executing and do not require any implementing measures. Directives normally leave member states with a certain amount of leeway as to the exact rules to be adopted. Directives can be adopted by means of a variety of legislative procedures depending on their subject matter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976851}
{"src_title": "Lars Eller", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "St. Louis Blues.", "content": "During the 2007 NHL Entry Draft, Eller was selected thirteenth overall by the St. Louis Blues, the highest ranking for a Danish born and trained player in NHL history until friend and former teammate Mikkel Bødker was selected number eight overall by the Arizona Coyotes in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft. (Danish-born Jan Popiel was drafted tenth overall in the 1964 NHL Amateur Draft but grew up in and became a citizen of Canada before making his pro debut.)  Eller spent part of the 2007–08 season with Borås in the HockeyAllsvenskan, on loan from Frölunda.  Eller moved to North America for the 2009–10 season. His preseason was spoiled by mononucleosis and, as a result, he started the season playing for the Peoria Rivermen in the American Hockey League (AHL). He was called up by the St. Louis and made his NHL debut on 5 November 2009 in a game against the Calgary Flames in which the Blues lost 2–1. He scored the Blues' lone goal, beating Miikka Kiprusoff off of a deflection and had three shots on goal in 9:42 minutes of ice time. Eller appeared in five NHL games before returning to Peoria, finishing the season with seven games for the Blues.  With the Rivermen, Eller was named AHL Rookie of the Month for March 2010 and was also selected for the 2009–10 AHL All-Rookie Team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Montreal Canadiens.", "content": "On 17 June 2010, Eller was traded by the Blues to the Montreal Canadiens, along with Ian Schultz, in exchange for goaltender Jaroslav Halák. On 24 November 2010, Eller scored his first goal with the Canadiens, wristing one past Los Angeles Kings goaltender Jonathan Bernier.  On 4 January 2012, Eller scored 4 goals and an assist in a 7–3 victory against the Winnipeg Jets, his first career hat trick. He was the first Montreal Canadien to score 4 goals in one game since Jan Bulis in 2006. During the 2012–13 NHL lockout, Eller signed a temporary contract with Finnish top-flight club, JYP Jyväskylä. He recorded 5 goals and 10 assists in 15 games. On 2 May 2013, an open ice check from Ottawa Senators' defenseman Eric Gryba knocked Eller unconscious during a playoff game at the Bell Centre. He was later diagnosed with a concussion, along with dental and facial fractures. On 24 July 2014, Eller signed a four-year, $13 million contract extension with the Canadiens.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Washington Capitals.", "content": "After six seasons, Eller's tenure with the Canadiens came to an end at the 2016 NHL Entry Draft, as he was traded to the Washington Capitals in exchange for two second-round picks in 2017 and 2018 on 24 June 2016. On 10 February 2018, Eller signed a five-year, $17.5 million contract extension with the Capitals.  On 7 June 2018 Eller won his first Stanley Cup when the Capitals defeated the first-year Vegas Golden Knights in five games. Eller scored the Cup-clinching goal, and finished the playoffs with seven goals and 18 points in 24 games. He became the first NHL player born in Denmark to win a Stanley Cup.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Lars Eller grew up in Rødovre, Denmark. His father, Olaf Eller, is a former Danish international ice hockey player and former coach of several teams in the Superisligaen, as well as Troja/Ljungby in Sweden. Olaf Eller is also a color commentator for Danish TV 2 Sport for the IIHF World Championships and occasionally for games in the AL-Bank Ligaen. He is also head coach of Esbjerg IK. His younger brother Mads (born 25 June 1995) played one season for the Adirondack Thunder of the ECHL, and had also played junior hockey for Frölunda HC and represented Denmark at the 2012 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. Their half brother Michael Smidt has also represented the Danish national team and played all his career in Denmark - including 17 seasons for the Rødovre Mighty Bulls where he also was captain for six seasons before he retired in 2014. Eller and his wife, Julie, have one daughter.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lars Fosgaard Eller (born 8 May 1989) is a Danish professional ice hockey player for the Washington Capitals of the National Hockey League (NHL). Nicknamed \"the Tiger\", he was drafted by the St. Louis Blues in the first round, 13th overall in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft. He later joined the Montreal Canadiens, where he played six seasons before being traded to the Capitals in 2016. He became the first person born in Denmark to win the Stanley Cup when the Capitals won in 2018, notably scoring the Stanley Cup-winning goal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976852}
{"src_title": "Azariah dei Rossi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "\"Me'or Enayim\".", "content": "He is known chiefly for his book \"Me'or Enayim\" (Hebrew, Light of the Eyes) in which he used critical methods to test the literal truth of the Aggadah, the non legalistic and narrative portions of the Talmud. His views were sharply criticised by Judah Loew ben Bezalel (the Maharal of Prague) in the latter's \"Be'er ha-Golah\".  Dei Rossi's great work, \"Me'or Enayim\" (\"Light of the Eyes\") (Mantua, 1573-75; Berlin, 1794; Vienna, 1829; Vilna, 1863-66), includes the two works already mentioned and a third entitled \"Imre Binah.\" The latter is divided into four parts; the first part contains a survey of the Jews at the time of the Second Temple, narrates the origin of the Septuagint, points out the contradictions between some of the beliefs of the Talmudists and the proved results of scientific research, records the origin of the Jewish colonies in Alexandria and Cyrene, chronicles the wars of Simon bar Kokhba against the Romans, etc. Dei Rossi quotes from the writings of Philo, whose orthodoxy he questions. He criticizes him for having allegorized Biblical narratives of facts, and points out that the Alexandrian philosopher never gives the traditional interpretation of the Biblical text. (However, he also offers a possible defense of Philo, and reserves a final judgment.)  In the second part Dei Rossi criticizes a number of the assertions of the Talmudists (some of the criticisms were already extant and many of his criticisms were repeated by later commentators), and gives explanations of various aggadic passages which can not be taken literally (as, for instance, the aggadah which attributes the death of Titus to a gnat which entered his brain while he was returning to Rome). The third part is devoted to a study of Jewish chronology and translations from the writings of Philo, Josephus, and others, with commentaries. The fourth part deals with Jewish archeology, describing the shapes of the priestly garments and the glory of the Second Temple, and giving the history of Queen Helen and her two sons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attitude of his contemporaries.", "content": "Dei Rossi's followed the burgeoning scientific method of inquiry in his work and did not rely solely upon tradition. But this way of dealing with subjects which the multitude reverenced as sacred called forth many criticisms on the part of his contemporaries. Prominent among his critics were Moses Provençal of Mantua (to whom Dei Rossi had submitted his work in manuscript), Isaac Finzi of Pesaro, and David Provençal, who endeavored to defend Philo. Dei Rossi appended to some copies of the \"Me'or Enayim\" an answer to the criticisms of Moses Provençal, and a dissertation entitled \"Tzedek Olamim,\" in which latter he refuted the arguments of Isaac Finzi. Later he wrote a special work entitled \"Matzref la-Kesef\" (published by Hirsch Filipowski at Edinburgh, 1854, and included by Zunz in the Vilna edition of the \"Me'or\"), in which he defended his \"Yeme 'Olam\" against its critics. Dei Rossi, however, also had to contend with those who considered his \"Me'or 'Enayim\" as a heretical work. Joseph Caro commissioned Elisha Gallico to draw up a decree to be distributed among all Jews, ordering that the \"Me'or 'Enayim\" be burned. But, Joseph Caro dying before it was ready for him to sign, the decree was not promulgated, and the rabbis of Mantua contented themselves with forbidding the reading of the work by Jews under twenty-five years of age.  The \"Me'or 'Enayim\" attracted the attention of many Christian Hebraists, who translated parts of it into Latin.  Dei Rossi was the author of a collection of poems (Venice, n.d.), among which are several of a liturgical character.  Joseph Jacobs and Isaac Broydé, \"Ross, Azariah ben Moses dei\". \"Jewish Encyclopedia\" (Funk and Wagnalls, 1901–1906) cite the following bibliography:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Azariah ben Moses dei Rossi (Hebrew: עזריה מן האדומים) was an Italian-Jewish physician and scholar. He was born at Mantua in 1511; and died in 1578. He was descended from an old Jewish family which, according to a tradition, was brought by Titus from Jerusalem. He was known among Jews as Azariah min-Ha'adumim (Azariah of the Red Family), a play on his name as well as a possible allusion to the fact that he lived in Catholic Italy, Rome being regarded as a spiritual heir of Esau (Edom, from Hebrew \"`-d-m\", red). Combining an insatiable desire for learning with remarkable mental power, Dei Rossi early in life became exceptionally proficient in Hebrew, Latin, and Italian literature. He studied simultaneously medicine, archeology, history, Greek and Roman antiquities, and Christian ecclesiastical history. When about the age of thirty he married and settled for a time at Ferrara. Later he was found at Ancona, Bologna, Sabbionetta, and again at Ferrara. In 1570 a terrible earthquake visited the last-named city and caused the death of about 200 persons. The house in which Dei Rossi lived was partly destroyed; but it happened that at the moment he and his wife were in their daughter's room, which remained uninjured. During the disturbances consequent upon the earthquake Dei Rossi lived in an outlying village, where he was thrown into association with a Christian scholar, who asked him if there existed a Hebrew translation of the \"Letter of Aristeas\". Dei Rossi answered in the negative, but in twenty days he prepared the desired translation, which he entitled \"Hadrat Zekenim.\" His account of the earthquake, written shortly after, is entitled \"Kol Elohim\"; he regarded the earthquake as a visitation of God, and not merely as a natural phenomenon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976853}
{"src_title": "Giovanni Agnelli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "The son of Edoardo Agnelli and Aniceta Frisetti, he was born in 1866 in Villar Perosa, a small town near Pinerolo, Piedmont, still the main home and burial place of the Agnelli family. His father, mayor of Villar Perosa, died at age 40, when Giovanni was just five. He studied at the Collegio San Giuseppe in Turin; then embarked on a military career until 1893 when he returned to Villar Perosa, where he followed in his father's footsteps and became mayor in 1895 which he held until his death. Agnelli heard about the invention of the (then) new horseless carriage and immediately saw an opportunity for using his engineering and entrepreneurial skills. In 1898, he met Count Emanuele Cacherano of Bricherasio, who was looking for investors for his horseless carriage project; Agnelli sensed the opportunity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business career.", "content": "On 11 July 1899, Agnelli was part of the group of founding members of the Fabbrica Italiana di Automobili Torino, which became Fiat; he paid $400 for his share in 1899, worth around $11,500 in today's prices. One year later, he was the managing director of the new company and became the chairman in 1920. The first Fiat plant opened in 1900 with 35 staff making 24 cars. The company was known from the beginning for the talent and creativity of its engineering staff. By 1903, Fiat made a small profit and produced 135 cars growing to 1,149 cars by 1906. The company then went public selling shares via the Milan stock exchange. Agnelli began purchasing all the shares he could to add to his holdings. During this time, he overcame scandals and labour problems.  During World War I, Agnelli became involved with the financier Riccardo Gualino in transport of US aid to Europe in 1917. They invested in two enterprises in the United States; the Marine & Commerce Corporation of America exported coal and the International Shipbuilding Company made motorized vessels. These companies failed when the war ended, since they were structured to meet wartime demand, but had returned large profits to their owners.  Agnelli and Gualino made an attempt early in 1918 to take over Credito Italiano. They did not succeed, but joined the board of directors of the bank. Agnelli was vice-president of Gualino's SNIA from 1917 to 1926. In the early 1920s, SNIA began to manufacture artificial textile fibers.  In 1920, Gualino and Agnelli participated in recapitalization of the private bank Jean de Fernex and bought a third of the shares of Alfredo Frassati, publisher of \"La Stampa\". Gualino and Agnelli were also involved in a proposal to link Milan, Genoa and Turin with a high-speed railway and in various projects in cement and automobiles. Their partnership broke up around 1926 due to Gualino's investments in the French automobile industry.  After World War I, Fiat jumped from 30th to third place among Italian industrial companies. The first Ford factory was opened four years after Fiat was founded. In 1906, the first Fiat car dealer in the U.S. was established at a location in Manhattan on Broadway. Agnelli was appointed a Senator in 1923, and filled several other prestigious positions between the two wars. He remained focused and propelled Fiat to the international arena. He was still active with Fiat at the start of the Second World War, and died soon after it ended in 1945 at age 79.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giovanni Agnelli (13 August 1866 – 16 December 1945) was an Italian businessman, who founded Fiat car manufacturing in 1899.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976854}
{"src_title": "Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Marie Louise was one of seventeen children born to Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, by his wife and cousin, Princess Maria Amalia of Courland. Two of her siblings included King Frederick I of Sweden and William VIII, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Princess of Orange.", "content": "On 26 April 1709, Marie Louise was married to John William Friso, Prince of Orange. He was the eldest surviving son of Henry Casimir II, Prince of Nassau-Dietz, and Henriëtte Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau; he had inherited his title in 1702 from the childless William III, Prince of Orange, due to his descent from both William the Silent and Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange.  The events behind their betrothal began after John William was almost killed by cannon fire and roundshot on two different occasions. His mother, Henriette Amalia, perhaps realizing how vulnerable her son was, quickly began looking for a suitable bride to ensure an heir. In the end, the choice came down to two German princesses. She apparently informed him that he should think of the choice as between two chairs, and that he should choose the most comfortable of the two. John duly traveled to Hesse-Kassel and became engaged to the 20-year-old Marie Louise within a week. He did not even bother meeting the other candidate. The main factor in this decision was probably that Marie Louise's father was a trusted general under the well-respected Duke of Marlborough. In addition, marriage to a daughter of the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel would also have served to strengthen John William's place among the other ruling houses.  Marie Louise was not considered attractive, as her features were heavy and her face was dominated by a large nose. She was however very charming, and greeted those of all ranks with natural friendliness and sincere concern for their well being. They had two children before his untimely death by drowning on 14 July 1711, the youngest of whom was born after his death. \"William\" Charles Henry Friso's birth was met with great relief by the Frisians, and he automatically inherited the title Prince of Orange.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First Regency.", "content": "Since her husband died while she was pregnant, her son William immediately became Prince of Orange upon his birth six weeks later. Marie Louise served as regent for her son from 1711 until he reached his majority in 1731. This regency was granted despite her inexperience with the affairs of her adopted country. Although she did not have any experience, Marie Louise successfully withstood a series of natural disasters, which included a sequence of bad harvests and severe winters from 1712 to 1716. At the time of her marriage, Marie Louise quickly earned the affection of the Dutch population. She was known as a woman of intelligence and sensitivity, and was often fondly referred to as \"Marijke Meu\". She also dealt with a major problem concerning shipworms – parasites that upon arriving on ships from the Far East, proceeded to devour wooden sections of the vital, protective dykes. These damages threatened to collapse the entire dyke system, which would have destroyed vast amounts of land used for farming in the Dutch province of Friesland. The money needed to prevent such an occurrence from happening was hard to raise however; tax obligations to the Hague from this province were seldom realistically reviewed. In order to end the looming starvation, Marie Louise traveled to the Hague and pleaded in person before the States-General for help. She apparently spoke so eloquently that she returned home with not only a remittance on taxation, but also with a sizable detachment of soldiers to help repair the dykes.  After a 1736 visit, Marie Louise maintained a correspondence, in \"abominable French,\" with religious and social reformer Count Nikolaus Ludwig of Zinzendorf and Pottendorf. A deeply religious woman, she provided sanctuary to persecuted Protestants fleeing the Catholic Habsburgs. Despite her son's objections, Marie Louise allowed a group of Moravians to settle in the barony of IJsselstein, of which she was baroness.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traits and relationship with children.", "content": "After her husband died, Marie Louise found herself a 23-year-old widow residing in a foreign country. She became inherently pessimistic and agonized over the affairs of her children. This pessimistic trait passed onto her daughter Amalia as well, causing her to be melancholy and withdrawn her whole life. Her son William inherited her heavy Germanic looks, rather than \"the finely etched ascetic looks which his father had shared with William III\". William was sickly as a child, and was rigidly disciplined and educated by Marie Louise with great care in the city of Leeuwarden.  Marie Louise had a good relationship with her son, so that by the time of his coming of age in 1729, she was invited to take equal part in the celebrations. In his youth, she sent him daily letters reminding him to do such things as brush his teeth and get plenty of sleep; he duly responded to each letter patiently.  Marie Louise was described to be frugal, especially in comparison to the excesses of her mother-in-law Henriette Amalia. Due to this frugality, she was able to give large sums to various charitable causes. On one occasion, a nobleman offered her lavish hospitality; she replied by asking if he did not feel guilty at using money he could have donated to the poor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Son's marriage.", "content": "Marie Louise's son William married Anne, Princess Royal, eldest daughter of George II of Great Britain, on 25 March 1734 at St James's Palace in London. Upon return of the wedding party to the Netherlands, William had written his mother, warning her that Anne was allowed precedence over Marie Louise because she was his wife and a king's daughter. This warning was hardly needed, as Marie Louise had eagerly exited Prinsenhof as soon as her son came of age, opting to live in an elegant but unpretentious house in Harlingen. She had long displayed her disinterest in royal technicalities and the royal lifestyle. She welcomed her son and his new wife upon their arrival, but then returned to her quiet house, taking no part in their ceremonious entry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second Regency.", "content": "From 1759 until her death in 1765, Marie Louise also served as regent for her young grandson William V, Prince of Orange, after the previous regent (his mother and Marie Louise's daughter-in-law, Anne) died. Marie Louise was succeeded as regent by Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg and her granddaughter Princess Caroline of Nassau-Weilburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Marie Louise died on 9 April 1765 in Leeuwarden, the capital city of the Dutch province of Friesland. She outlived her son William by 14 years.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel (7 February 1688 – 9 April 1765) was a Dutch regent, Princess of Orange by marriage to John William Friso, Prince of Orange, and regent of the Netherlands during the minority of her son and her grandson. She was a daughter of Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, and Maria Amalia of Courland. She and her husband are the most recent common ancestors of all currently reigning monarchs in Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976855}
{"src_title": "Bryan Bickell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bryan Bickell was born to Bill and Anne Bickell. He was raised in Orono, Ontario with an older sister, Ashley. In addition to hockey, Bickell was also interested in playing baseball during his youth. He was an outfielder and pitcher for the Kendal Royals, where he was scouted by the New York Yankees. Bickell ultimately choose to focus his career on hockey, and traveled to Ottawa to play for the Ottawa 67's. Bickell had several jobs prior to becoming a full-time hockey player. He worked as a construction worker and as a clubhouse assistant to the Ottawa Senators, where he cleaned laundry and performed custodian duties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amateur career.", "content": "Bickell grew up playing minor ice hockey with the Orono Leafs program, before playing AAA for the Central Ontario Wolves. He played in the 2000 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Toronto Red Wings.  For his Bantam season, Bickell was moved to the Toronto Red Wings of the GTHL for one season before being drafted in the second round (36th overall) in the 2002 OHL Priority Selection by the Ottawa 67's. Bickell was a member of the Bantam All-Ontario champions Toronto Red Wings with future Chicago Blackhawk teammate Dave Bolland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional career.", "content": "The Blackhawks drafted Bickell in the second round of the 2004 NHL Entry Draft with the 41st overall pick. After signing a three-year entry-level contract in 2006, Bickell left the Ontario Hockey League to play for the Norfolk Admirals of the American Hockey League (AHL) during the 2006–07 season. Bickell later made his NHL debut on April 5, 2007, where he scored his first goal against the Detroit Red Wings.  Bickell spent the majority of the next three seasons playing in the AHL. The Blackhawks recalled him for the 2010 Stanley Cup playoffs. Bickell appeared in four post-season games with one assist and a plus-3 rating. Bickell and the Blackhawks defeated the Philadelphia Flyers in the 2010 Stanley Cup Finals. Bickell received a ring from the Blackhawks, but his name was not inscribed on the Cup. Bickell became a mainstay on the Blackhawks during the 2010–11 season. In his first full year in the NHL, Bickell recorded a career-high 17 goals and 20 assists in 78 appearances. His offensive production dropped during the 2011–12 campaign, where he only tallied nine goals and 15 assists.  Bickell was highly productive during the 2013 Stanley Cup Playoffs. He scored nine goals and eight assists during the post-season. He recorded the game-tying goal during Game 6 of the Stanley Cup Final. The Blackhawks later scored the go-ahead goal 17 seconds later to win the Stanley Cup. The Blackhawks awarded Bickell's strong post-season performance with a four-year, $16 million contract.  Bickell tallied 14 goals and 14 assists during the regular season while appearing in 80 regular season games in the 2014-15 NHL season. His production declined in the postseason, where he recorded only five assists. Bickell was scratched from the team's lineup for two games of the 2015 Stanley Cup Finals due to health-related issues. The Blackhawks defeated the Tampa Bay Lightning in six games, giving Bickell his third Stanley Cup.  The Blackhawks unsuccessfully attempted to trade Bickell prior to the 2015–16 NHL season. The team initially waived Bickell but reinserted him into their roster as the season started. Bickell was unable to consistently perform due to health-related issues and spent much of the season with the Rockford IceHogs of the American Hockey League. Bickell skated in 25 games for the Blackhawks and recorded two assists. He played in 47 contests for the IceHogs where he scored 15 goals and 16 assists.  During the 2016 off-season, Bickell's $4-million salary cap-hit posed a serious problem to the Blackhawks, who were struggling to stay below the NHL's salary cap. The team again shopped Bickell to other teams, but few teams seemed to be interested in him and his $4 million cap hit. The Blackhawks eventually traded Bickell along with Teuvo Teräväinen at the 2016 NHL Entry Draft to the Carolina Hurricanes in exchange for a 2016 second-round pick (originally acquired from the NY Rangers – used to select Artur Kayumov) and a 2017 third-round pick. The Hurricanes also agreed to accept Bickell's cap-hit and remaining contract. Bickell scored one goal in seven games for the Hurricanes, before experiencing health issues again. The Hurricanes announced that Bickell had been diagnosed with multiple sclerosis and placed him on injured reserve on November 12.  Bickell began practicing with the Hurricanes again in January 2017. The Hurricanes assigned him to the Charlotte Checkers for conditioning on February 24. Bickell returned to the Hurricanes on April 5 and skated in his first NHL game since leaving for MS treatment in November. Bickell played the final game of his career on April 9, scoring the only shootout goal of his career in the Hurricanes' 4−3 win against the Flyers. He concluded his NHL career with 66 goals and 70 assists over 395 NHL games. He also tallied 20 goals and 19 assists in 75 postseason games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "Bickell announced his retirement on April 8, 2017. He played his final game on April 9 against the Philadelphia Flyers. The NHL honored Bickell's career at the 2017 NHL Awards ceremony and commended him for showing perseverance while battling multiple sclerosis. On October 4, Bickell signed a ceremonial one-day contract with the Blackhawks to retire with the team. The Blackhawks honored Bickell at the United Center before their 2017–18 season opener on October 5.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health issues.", "content": "Bickell began experiencing symptoms of vertigo that forced him to miss two games during the 2015 Stanley Cup Finals. He initially believed the ailment was caused by an infected tooth. Bickell's agent later commented that Bickell was suffering from vestibular issues, which hindered his performance during the 2015–16 Chicago Blackhawks season. In November 2016, Bickell began experiencing an unexplained pain in his shoulder and leg that caused him to miss multiple games. Doctors later diagnosed Bickell with multiple sclerosis. Bickell commented on his health by stating, \"Since the 2015 playoffs, I've been struggling to understand what was going on with my body. Again during the past few weeks, it felt like something wasn't right.\" Ron Francis, the Hurricanes' general manager, stated that Bickell would take an indefinite amount of time off from hockey to receive treatment for his condition. While Bickell ultimately returned to Hurricanes towards the end of the 2016–17 season, he announced he would retire from playing hockey to focus on his MS treatment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "On August 3, 2013, Bickell married his longtime girlfriend, Amanda Caskenette. They have two daughters, Kinslee and Makayla. Bickell and his wife established the \"Bryan & Amanda Bickell Foundation\", which helps rescue abused pit bulls.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bryan Bickell (born March 9, 1986) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey player who played for the Chicago Blackhawks and the Carolina Hurricanes of the National Hockey League (NHL). He won the Stanley Cup with the Chicago Blackhawks in 2013 and 2015, and played in four early playoff games during the team's run to the 2010 Stanley Cup championship. Bickell spent nearly 10 years with the Blackhawks organization before being traded to the Hurricanes before the season. He was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis later that year and retired from playing hockey at the end of the season.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976856}
{"src_title": "Tuta absoluta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biology.", "content": "The larva feeds voraciously upon tomato plants, producing large galleries in leaves, burrowing in stalks, and consuming apical buds and green and ripe fruits. It is capable of causing a yield loss of 100%.  Tomato is the main host plant, but \"T. absoluta\" also attacks other crop plants of the nightshade family, including potato, eggplant, pepino, pepper and tobacco. It is known from many solanaceous weeds, including \"Datura stramonium\", \"Lycium chilense\", and \"Solanum nigrum\".  The adult moth has a wingspan around one centimeter. In favorable weather conditions eight to ten generations can occur in a single year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Global spread.", "content": "This moth was first known as a tomato pest in many South American countries. In 2006, it was identified in Spain. The following year it was detected in France, Italy, Greece, Malta, Morocco, Algeria and Libya. In 2009 it was first reported from Turkey. The advance of \"T. absoluta\" continued to the east to reach Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Iraq and Iran. Further advances southward reached Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman and the rest of the Persian Gulf states. In Africa, \"T. absoluta\" moved from Egypt to reach Sudan, South Sudan and Ethiopia from the east and to reach the Senegal from the west. It was reported in Nigeria and Zambia in 2016. An up-to-date global distribution map is available on the \"Tuta absoluta\" information network.In India, Maharashtra state tomato cultivation more affect in Nov.2016. Recently, this pest has been identified from several districts of Nepal It is now severely infested in Myanmar, especially in tropical tomato growing areas such as Mandalay, Sagaing, Monywa.( April, 2017)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management.", "content": "Some populations of \"T. absoluta\" have developed resistance to organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticides. Newer compounds such as spinosad, imidacloprid, and \"Bacillus thuringiensis\" have demonstrated some efficacy in controlling European outbreaks of this moth.  Experiments have revealed some promising agents of biological pest control for this moth, including \"Nabis pseudoferus\", a species of damsel bug.  The sex pheromone for \"T. absoluta\" has been identified by researchers at Cornell University and has been found to be highly attractive to male moths. Pheromone lures are used extensively throughout Europe, South America, North Africa and the Middle East for the monitoring and mass-trapping of \"T. absoluta\". The use of Pheromone products in combination with a yellow delta trap has been recorded in South Africa. This concept is used to monitor populations of \"T. absoluta\" in tomato orchards.  The combined use of pheromones as well as specific light frequency proved to be effective in suppressing the \"T. absoluta\" population and keeping it within the economic threshold as it disclosed by Russell IPM in a United Kingdom patent.  Also the use of electric mosquito traps give good results.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tuta absoluta is a species of moth in family Gelechiidae known by the common names tomato leafminer, tomato pinworm and South American tomato moth. It is well known as a serious pest of tomato crops in Europe, Africa, western Asia and South and Central America. \"T. absoluta\" was originally described in 1917 by Meyrick as \"Phthorimaea absoluta\", based on individuals collected from Huancayo (Peru). Later, the pest was reported as \"Gnorimoschema absoluta\", \"Scrobipalpula absoluta\" (Povolny), or \"Scrobipalpuloides absoluta\" (Povolny), but was finally described under the genus \"Tuta\" as \"T. absoluta\" by Povolny in 1994. Its life-cycle comprises four development stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Adults usually lay eggs on the underside of leaves or stems, and to a lesser extent on fruits. After hatching, young larvae penetrate leaves, aerial fruits (like tomato) or stems, on which they feed and develop. Pupae (length: 5–6 mm) are cylindrical in shape and greenish when just formed becoming darker in colour as they are near adult emergence. Adults are 6–7 mm in length and present filiform antennae and silver to grey scales. Black spots are present on anterior wings, and the females are wider and more voluminous than the males. The pest mainly presents nocturnal habits, and adults usually remain hidden during the day, showing greater morning-crepuscular activity with adults dispersing among crops by flying. Among a range of species within the Solanaceae, tomatoes (\"Lycopersicon esculentum\" Miller) appear to be the primary host of \"T. absoluta\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976857}
{"src_title": "David Kočí", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Kočí was drafted 146th overall in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft by the Pittsburgh Penguins. Kočí played in the WHL with the Prince George Cougars in the 2000-01 season before turning professional for the 2001-02 season.  Kočí spent the next five years with the Penguins minor-league affiliates, between the Wheeling Nailers of the ECHL and Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins of the AHL. Prior to the 2006-07 season, Kočí signed with the Chicago Blackhawks on July 17, 2006.  Kočí was assigned to the Blackhawks affiliate, the Norfolk Admirals, but made his NHL debut on March 10, 2007, against the Phoenix Coyotes, and amassed 32 penalty minutes in three fights. He lost his first fight to Josh Gratton, but managed to get a rematch in which he fared much better. He fought defenceman Nick Boynton as well. By the end of the 2006–07 season, David played in nine games and collected 88 penalty minutes.  During the Blackhawks' loss to the Boston Bruins on October 25, 2007, Kočí got into one of the nastiest hockey brawls in recent hockey memory with Bruins defenceman Zdeno Chára. Kočí, who had broken his nose several days before, and Chára started punching each other; blood started to spatter from Kočí's nose. The Blackhawks placed Kočí on injured reserve and he missed about two weeks.  On July 1, 2008, Kočí signed with the Tampa Bay Lightning to a one-year deal. During the 2008–09 season, on October 21, 2008, David was claimed off waivers by St. Louis Blues after only playing one game for Tampa Bay. Kočí then returned to the Lightning after he was placed on waivers after 4 games with the Blues. Kočí scored his first NHL goal in a 3-2 defeat against the Montreal Canadiens on March 26, 2009. The puck was actually tapped in by a Canadiens player but credit was given to him.  On July 1, 2009, Kočí signed a one-year contract with the Colorado Avalanche. He scored his first goal with the Avalanche, and second career goal, when he unintentionally deflected in a Brett Clark shot in a 3-2 victory over the Calgary Flames on October 28, 2009. On December 15, 2009, during a 6-1 defeat to the Washington Capitals, Kočí raised ire after he was ejected from the game after a major boarding penalty on Capitals defenseman Mike Green. He was subsequently fined by the NHL. Kočí recorded 11 Fighting Majors before suffering a broken hand in a fight against D.J. King of the St. Louis Blues on February 8, 2010. He finished the 2009–10 season with a career-high 43 games and was re-signed to a one-year contract by the Avalanche on June 2, 2010.  A free agent, on September 1, 2011, Koci was invited to the Winnipeg Jets training Camp before he was released prior to the 2011–12 season on September 30, 2011. In returning to his native Czech Republic, he linked up with his former youth club, HC Sparta Praha, and made his long-awaited Czech Extraliga debut. In leading Sparta with 132 penalty minutes, Koci also contributed with 5 assists, to earn a one-year extension with the club on May 21, 2012.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "David Kočí (born May 12, 1981) is a Czech former professional ice hockey player who is currently coaching within HC Sparta Praha in the Czech Extraliga. He previously played in the National Hockey League with the Chicago Blackhawks, Tampa Bay Lightning, St. Louis Blues and the Colorado Avalanche.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976858}
{"src_title": "Mirza Khazar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "In July 1973, Mirza Khazar completed his graduation at the law faculty at the Azerbaijan State University. From August 1973 to January 1974, he worked as a lawyer in Sumgait. In June 1974, he immigrated to Israel and attended special courses for lawyers from the USSR at Tel-Aviv University. From June 1975 to January 1976, he served in the Israel Defense Forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bible translation.", "content": "The first Azerbaijani translation by Mirza Farrukh and Feliks Zaręba was the Gospel of Matthew, published in 1842 in London by Basel Missionary Society. The complete New Testament was fully translated and published in 1878 in London and the Old Testament in 1891.  At the request of the Stockholm Institute for Bible Translation, Mirza Khazar translated the Bible – the New Testament and Old Testament – into the Azerbaijani language. Mirza Khazar started translation of the entire Bible in 1975 and finished in 1984. In 1982, the Institute for Bible Translation in Stockholm, Sweden, released Mirza Khazar's new modern Azerbaijani language translation of the New Testament, which currently is used in Azerbaijan. The first edition was printed in Zagreb, Croatia. Mirza Khazar's translation of the New Testament was reprinted five times in subsequent years. Mirza Khazar completed translation of the Old Testament in 1984, but the translation has not been printed yet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "From August 1976 to October 1985, Mirza Khazar worked as deputy editor-in-chief of the Azerbaijani Service of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty in Munich, Germany. In October 1985, he was invited to Washington, D.C. to be editor-in-chief of the Azerbaijani Service of Radio Voice of America. In February 1987, Mirza Khazar returned to Munich to lead the Azerbaijani Service at Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, and he worked there until September 2003. In January 2004, he founded the Voice of Mirza Khazar (Mirzə Xəzərin Səsi) newspaper in Baku. Mirza Khazar, and he ran the online newspaper The Voice of Mirza Khazar in three languages: Azerbaijani, English, and Russian. From September to October 2005, Mirza Khazar was host of Azadlig TV (Freedom TV), the first independent station to broadcast from a foreign country to Azerbaijan. In December 2005, he launched an Internet radio program, The Voice of Mirza Khazar, where visitors can listen to prerecorded audio items.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Papers.", "content": "Mirza Khazar's articles pertaining to the political and economic situation in Azerbaijan and other former Soviet states were published in Azerbaijan, Turkey, Czech Republic, and other countries. Mirza Khazar's \"The Formation of the Popular Front in Azerbaijan\" (December 28, 1988) was the first research paper about attempts of local intellectuals and patriots to launch a national-democratic movement in Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijani Popular Front was created officially in 1989. In August 1989, his \"Birlik Society in the Azerbaijani Democratic Movement\" was published.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1990 Black January.", "content": "During the Black January crackdown, the Soviets managed to suppress all efforts to disseminate news from Azerbaijan to the local population and the international community. On the eve of the Soviet military invasion in Baku, an energy supply source to Azerbaijani TV and State Radio was blown up by intelligence officers in order to cut off the population from any source of information. TV and radio was silent and all print media was banned. But Mirza Khazar and his staff at Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty succeeded in broadcasting daily reports from Baku, making it the only source of news to Azerbaijanis within and outside of the country for several days. The Kremlin leadership tried hard to keep the outside world and the population inside Azerbaijan unaware of the military invasion, but Mirza Khazar and his staff foiled this attempt. Thanks to Mirza Khazar and his staff at Radio Liberty, Azerbaijanis in and outside Azerbaijan, as well as the international community, learned about the Soviet invasion and gained a chance to organize protest actions. Shocked by this \"surprising\" development, the government of the USSR complained officially to the United States about Radio Liberty's coverage of the military invasion of Azerbaijan. The January 20, 1990 broadcasts turned Mirza Khazar into a legend among Azerbaijanis in and outside Azerbaijan. Melahet Agacankizi, a well-known Azerbaijani poet and writer, described Mirza Khazar's appearance on radio at the time of the Soviet military invasion as follows: \"On January 20, Mirza Khazar with his God-given divine voice, gave hope to the dying Azerbaijani people.\" His distinctive voice and his name are familiar to Azerbaijanis inside and outside Azerbaijan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "The first book by Mirza Khazar \"Verba Volant, Scripta Manent\" (\"Words fly away, written words remain\") appeared in Munich, Germany in 2013. The second book \"Factum est Factum\" (\"Facts are Facts\") was printed at the end of December 2014. Both books are available online on the internet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Mirza Khazar's name was included into the book \"100 Great Azerbaijanis\", prepared by the prominent Azerbaijani researcher and writer Alisa Nijat and published in Baku in 1999. In 1990, The Popular Front of Azerbaijan awarded Mirza Khazar the Mammed Amin Rasulzade prize for his role in the national-democratic movement in Azerbaijan. Mammed Amin Rasulzade was one of the founders of the first independent Azerbaijani Republic in 1918. Sabir Rustamkhanly, a prominent Azerbaijani writer and politician, called Mirza Khazar \"a symbol of our national struggle\" in his interview with the newspaper \"Cumhuriyet\" in September 2003.  Mirza Khazar lived in Munich, Germany for a long time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mirza Karim oglu Mikayilov (), known as Mirza Khazar (, 29 October 1947 – 31 January 2020), was an eminent Azerbaijani author, political analyst, anchorman, radio journalist, publisher, and translator. Mirza Khazar was a Mountain Jew. He also was known as Mirza Michaeli. Mirza Khazar died on January 31, 2020 in Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976859}
{"src_title": "Nebelung", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The American foundation of this cat breed was laid by the cats Siegfried (1984) and Brunhilde (1985). Cora Cobb, the owner of Siegfried and Brunhilde, was very impressed by the beauty of her blue-grey cats. Siegfried and Brunhilde looked like a Russian Blue but with a semi-long coat. To find out if it was possible to start a new breed with these cats, Cora got in touch with the geneticist of the American Cat Association. This geneticist, Solveig Pfleuger, said that the breed was best defined as semi-long haired Russian Blue. Supported by Pfleuger, Cobb wrote the breeding standard according to the Russian Blue, but with a difference: its coat length.  Russian Blue breeders from The International Cat Association (TICA), however, objected to this, and the breed standard was thus revised to describe a unique breed, resembling blue-grey cats that had been imported from Russia in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.  TICA was the first association to recognize the Nebelung and provides the breed standard. The goal of the Nebelung breeding program is to produce a blue cat with the same type as those early Russian imports and to combine this type with a thick shimmering coat of medium length. The body and tail are long, the ears large in proportion to the head, and the eyes range in color from yellowish green to green. Size is medium and the body well-muscled. The coat is medium long on the body and longer on the tail, with lighter colored guard hairs. The overall appearance is long, sturdy and well muscled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Nebelung around the globe.", "content": "The Nebelung is a rather new breed, with breeders in America, Canada, Russia, and Europe. In addition to TICA, the Nebelung is recognized by the American Cat Fanciers Association (ACFA), the World Cat Federation (WCF), Livre Officiel des Origines Félines (LOOF), and independent cat associations in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany. The breed's availability is still rather limited.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical characteristics.", "content": "Nebelung cats are characterized by a long, graceful neck and body, long legs, long coat, and long tail. Slightly oval eyes are a vivid green color, or sometimes a yellow-green. Large, pointed ears sit atop a modified wedge-shaped head that is more pointed than rounded. The overall appearance is of a long, sturdy, well-muscled cat. The soft double coat feels fine and silky; it is gray in color and is tipped with silver. Males and, to a lesser extent, females have a ruff around the neck. The fur on the tail is longer than that on the body. Tufts of fur are found behind the ears and in-between the toes, and the hind legs sport pantaloons. The adult coat reaches its full development when the cat is approximately two years old. Life span of a Nebelung is 16+ years. A Nebelung weighs between 3.5 kg (7.11 lbs) for female and 6.5 kg (14.5 lbs) for male sterilized.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Behavioral characteristics.", "content": "Nebelung cats are lively, playful, affectionate, good-natured, and intelligent. The cat's mild-mannered state and personality may not always reflect the relatively high level of intelligence often found in the breed. In spite of the fact that it is an active cat, it can live very well indoors. Nebelungs prefer their own families and often keep a distance from strangers. They tend to bond with a select few humans and stay loving and devoted throughout their lives. It is, however, a cat that gladly accepts company of its people or of another cat. Nebelungs are very good communicators and will remind their owners of problems. This happens often since Nebelungs can be very picky about things such as litter cleanliness and food type. Many owners of the Nebelung cats say that they can act more like dogs at times, being extremely loyal to their owner and family. At times a Nebelung may choose or bond with a specific person within a family group more so than others. They will still enjoy the company of others within the social group but will tend to spend most of their time with said chosen person. They are also known for being easily leash trained with use of a proper harness. It enjoys sitting in a lap and being petted, and will follow its favorite person devotedly from room to room. This is a cat that likes routine, and may require a little time to adjust to changes in the household. Early socialization can help it become more adaptable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The Nebelung was featured on the Animal Planet show \"Cats 101\". The character Hairball in the movie \"Pound Puppies and the Legend of Big Paw\" was a Nebelung voiced by Frank Welker.  The Nebelung is one of the animals which can be given as a Patronus in answer to the user's personality test on Pottermore.  In the movie Garden State (film), a Nebelung is featured in a scene with Zack Braff, Peter Sarsgaard and Jean Smart.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nebelung is a rare pedigree breed of domestic cat. Nebelungs have long bodies, wide-set green eyes, long and dense fur, and mild dispositions. The name Nebelung — apparently a portmanteau of the German word \"Nebel\" ('mist' or 'fog'), and the name of a medieval Germanic saga, \"Nibelungen-Lied\" — is perhaps derived from the cat's distinctive silky blue-grey coat and from the breed's progenitors, who were named after the two major figures in the \"Nibelungen-Lied\", the German warrior Siegfried and the Icelandic queen Brunhilde.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976860}
{"src_title": "Oenothera", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The species vary in size from small alpine plants 10 centimeters tall, such as \"O. acaulis\" from Chile, to vigorous lowland species growing to 3 meters, such as \"O. stubbei\" from Mexico. The leaves form a basal rosette at ground level and spiral up to the flowering stems. The blades are dentate or deeply lobed (pinnatifid). The flowers of many species open in the evening, hence the name \"evening primrose\". They may open in under a minute. Most species have yellow flowers, but some have white, purple, pink, or red. Most native desert species are white. \"Oenothera caespitosa\", a species of western North America, produces white flowers that turn pink with age. One of the most distinctive features of the flower is the stigma, which has four branches in an X shape.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Oenothera\" flowers are pollinated by insects, such as moths and bees. Like many other members of the Onagraceae, however, the pollen grains are loosely held together by viscin threads, so only insects that are morphologically specialized to gather this pollen can effectively pollinate the flowers. Bees with typical scopa cannot hold it. Also, the flowers open at a time when most bee species are inactive, so the bees which visit \"Oenothera\" are generally vespertine temporal specialists: bees that forage in the evening. The seeds ripen from late summer to fall.  \"Oenothera\" are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the large white-lined sphinx. The flower moths \"Schinia felicitata\" and \"S. florida\" both feed exclusively on the genus, and the former is limited to \"O. deltoides\".  In the wild, some species of evening primrose act as primary colonizers, quickly appearing in recently cleared areas. They germinate in disturbed soils, and can be found in habitat types such as dunes, roadsides, railway embankments, and waste areas. They are often casual and are eventually out competed by other species.  Based on observations of evening primroses (\"Oenothera drummondii\"), a study discovered that within minutes of sensing the sound waves of nearby bee wings through flower petals, the concentration of the sugar in the plant's nectar was increased by an average of 20 percent. Experiments were also conducted on flowers with the petals removed. No change in nectar production was noted, indicating that it is indeed the flowers that have the job of the ears.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "The genus \"Oenothera\" may have originated in Mexico and Central America, and spread farther north in North America and into South America. With the advent of international travel, species are now found in most temperate regions of the world. In Europe alone there are about 70 introduced species of \"Oenothera\". During the Pleistocene era a succession of ice ages swept down across North America, with intervening warm periods. This occurred four times, and the genus experienced four separate waves of colonization, each hybridizing with the survivors of previous waves. This formed the present-day subsection \"Euoenothera\". The group is genetically and morphologically diverse and the species are largely interfertile, so the species boundaries have been disputed amongst taxonomists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "The pattern of repeated colonizations resulted in a unique genetic conformation in the \"Euoenothera\" whereby the chromosomes at meiosis can form circles rather than pairs. This is the result of several reciprocal translocations between chromosomes such that the pairing occurs only at the tips. This phenomenon apparently has non-Mendelian genetic consequences; with this mode of chromosome segregation and a system of balanced-lethal genes, genetic recombination is prevented and the plants display the hybrid vigor of heterosis. This resulted in the evolution of many sympatric races in North America east of the Rocky Mountains. Analysis of the cytology of these races and of artificial hybrids between them increased understanding of the genetic and geographic evolution of the \"Euoenothera\". This subject was a major area of genetic research during the first half of the 20th century.  The appearance of sudden changes in \"Oenothera lamarckiana\" led the pioneering geneticist Hugo de Vries to propose the theory of mutationism (\"Mutationstheorie\") in 1901. This asserted that speciation was driven by sudden large mutations able to produce new varieties in a single step. The understanding that the observed changes in hybrids of the plant were caused by chromosome duplications (polyploidy) rather than gene mutation did not come until much later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "Evening primroses were originally assigned to the genus \"Onagra\", which gave the family Onagraceae its name. \"Onagra\" (meaning \"(food of) onager\") was first used in botany in 1587, and in English in Philip Miller's 1754 \"Gardeners Dictionary: Abridged\". The modern name \"Oenothera\" was published by Carolus Linnaeus in his \"Systema Naturae\". Its etymology is uncertain, but is believed to be derived from the Greek words ονος θηρας (\"onos theras\"), meaning \"donkey catcher\", or οινος θηρας (\"oinos theras\"), meaning \"wine seeker\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evidence of medical effects.", "content": "Evening primrose is a soothing remedy for coughs associated with colds. It has also been used for mental depression, its effectiveness perhaps due to a stimulating effect on the liver, spleen, digestive apparatus. It can also be made into an ointment useful for rashes and other skin irritations. The entire plant is edible.  Evening Primrose is astringent and sedative. The drug extracted from this plant... has been tested in various directions, and has been employed with success in the teatment of gastro-intestinal disorders of a functional origin, asthma and whooping cough. It has proved of service in dyspepsia, torpor of the liver, and in certain female complaints, such as pelvic fullness.  There is very little evidence for any effectiveness of primrose oil as a cancer treatment according to the American Cancer Society, and \"neither GLA nor other GLA-rich supplements (such as evening primrose oil) have been convincingly shown to be useful in preventing or treating any other health conditions.\" A Cochrane meta-analysis published in April, 2013, found evening primrose oil capsules and borage oil to be ineffective for eczema.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "A number of perennial members of the genus are commonly cultivated and used in landscaping in the southwestern United States. Popular species include tufted evening primrose (\"Oenothera caespitosa\"), Mexican evening primrose (\"Oenothera berlanderii\"), and Saltillo evening primrose (\"Oenothera stubbei\").  Annual evening primroses are also popular ornamental plants in gardens. Many are fairly drought-resistant.  The first plants to arrive in Europe reached Padua from Virginia in 1614 and were described by the English botanist John Goodyer in 1621. Some species are now also naturalized in parts of Europe and Asia, and can be grown as far north as 65°N in Finland. The UK National Council for the Conservation of Plants and Gardens, based at Wisley, maintains an \"Oenothera\" collection as part of its National Collections scheme.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Oenothera is a genus of about 145 species of herbaceous flowering plants native to the Americas. It is the type genus of the family Onagraceae. Common names include evening primrose, suncups, and sundrops. They are not closely related to the true primroses (genus \"Primula\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976861}
{"src_title": "Syzygium malaccense", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "\"Syzygium malaccense\" has a number of English common names. It is known as a Malay rose apple, or simply Malay apple, mountain apple, rose apple, Otaheite apple, pink satin-ash and pommerac (derived from \"pomme Malac\", meaning \"Malayan apple\" in French). Despite the fact that it is sometimes called the otaheite cashew, it is not related to cashew. While cashew nuts (but not cashew fruits) may trigger allergic reactions, rose apple fruit has not been observed to do so.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The combination of tree, flowers and fruit has been praised as the most beautiful of the genus \"Syzygium\". The fruit is oblong-shaped and dark red in color, although some varieties have white or pink skins. The flesh is white and surrounds a large seed. Its taste is bland but refreshing. Jam is prepared by stewing the flesh with brown sugar and ginger.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Malay apple is a strictly tropical tree and will be damaged by freezing temperatures. It thrives in humid climates with an annual rainfall of or more. It can grow at a variety of altitudes, from sea level up to. The tree can grow to in height. It flowers in early summer, bearing fruit three months afterward. In Costa Rica, it flowers earlier, with ripe fruit in April. Coffee growers use the species to both divert birds and provide shade.  In Hawaii, \"Syzygium malaccense\" is called mountain apple. When the Polynesians reached the Hawaiian Islands, they brought plants and animals that were important to them. The mountain apple was one of these \"canoe plants,\" arriving 1000–1700 years ago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nutrition.", "content": "The mountain apple is an edible fruit that can be consumed when raw and ripe. In Puerto Rico, the Malay apple is used to make wines, in Hawai'i, the fruits are consumed the same way a Pacific Northwest apple is eaten. Indonesians consume the flowers of the tree in salads and in Guyana the skin of the mountain apple is cooked down to make a syrup. A mountain apple has a white fleshy fruit that has a similar texture to a pear but less sweet than an apple. Below is a chart with more nutrition information derived from Malay apples found in Hawai'i, El Salvador, and Ghana. Due to the high water content, the Mountain Apple is lower in calories than a Gala apple or a Fuji apple and contains a moderate amount of vitamins and minerals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 1793, Captain William Bligh was commissioned to procure edible fruits from the Pacific Islands for Jamaica, including this species.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Syzygium malaccense is a species of flowering tree native to Malesia and Australia. It is one of the species cultivated since prehistoric times by the Austronesian peoples. They were carried and introduced deliberately to Remote Oceania as canoe plants. In modern times, it has been introduced throughout the tropics, including many Caribbean countries and territories.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976862}
{"src_title": "Katzenjammer (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2005–07: Formation.", "content": "The members of Katzenjammer met in 2004 while studying at a private music school in Oslo. The band was formed in 2007 while listening to Anne Marit Bergheim perform the song \"Wading in Deeper\" on the piano. They were brought together by a common feeling of being \"the outcasts at the school.\" Katzenjammer felt that their music school didn't encourage originality, but \"only wanted to teach what had been done.\"  The band is named after the Katzenjammer Kids, the oldest comic strip continually in syndication. They chose this comic strip because they noticed that they resembled the characters in it. The term Katzenjammer is a German loanword that literally means \"lament of a cat\", and is used in Norway to describe low-grade music and instrumentation (which in Germany would be called \"Katzenmusik\" - \"music by cats\").", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009–10: \"Le Pop\".", "content": "In 2008, Katzenjammer were chosen as one of the finalists in NRK's yearly \"Urørt\" competition for unsigned artists. They finished in third place with the song \"A Bar in Amsterdam\". That year they also performed at the Scandinavian music convention by:Larm in Oslo, gaining them national exposure.  Katzenjammer's debut album \"Le Pop\" was released in September 2008. The album was a mixture of different musical styles including pop, dark cabaret, country and bluegrass. Its songs were composed by the band's friend Mats Rybø, while the music was arranged by Katzenjammer on their fifteen shared instruments.  \"Le Pop\" was well received by music critics, and was described as \"engrossing and appealing\". It reached number nine on the Norwegian albums chart and number seventy-one in the Netherlands. In 2008, \"Le Pop\" was nominated for a Spellemannprisen award for Best Debut Album of the Year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011–2013: \"A Kiss Before You Go\".", "content": "\"A Kiss Before You Go\", Katzenjammer's second album, was released in September 2011. The album's lyrics and visual direction were inspired by the French film \"The City of Lost Children\", a maritime fantasy adventure.  \"A Kiss Before You Go\" debuted at number seven on the German albums chart, and was certified gold. In Norway, the album reached number six. The album received positive reviews from critics, who found it to be \"utterly delightful\" and \"close to brilliance.\" The lead single, \"I Will Dance (When I Walk Away)\", was a minor hit in Germany, peaking at number thirty-two on the singles chart.  In May 2012, Katzenjammer released \"\", their first live album. Recorded at Große Freiheit 36 during the Hamburg, Germany dates of their 2011 tour, it was released in both CD and DVD formats. In 2013 they also contributed to the book \"Think like a rockstar\" Tenk som en rockestjerne, written by Ståle Økland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014–2016: \"Rockland\" and Sveen's departure.", "content": "On April 14, 2014, the band stated on their Facebook page that they were in studio recording their new album. On November 18, 2014, the first single, Lady Grey, was released with a lyric video on YouTube. On January 5, 2015, the music video for \"Lady Grey\" was released via \"Clash Magazine\". The new album \"Rockland\" was released on January 16, 2015, via Vertigo and Universal Music.  On 3 January 2016, Sveen announced her departure from the band via her Facebook account.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Katzenjammer was an English-language Norwegian band from Oslo, formed in 2005. The band consists of Anne Marit Bergheim, Solveig Heilo and Turid Jørgensen. Former band member Marianne Sveen left the band in the beginning of 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976863}
{"src_title": "Kevin A. Ford", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Ford was born July 7, 1960, in Portland, Indiana and considers Montpelier, Indiana his hometown. He graduated from Blackford High School, Hartford City, Indiana in 1978. He received his Bachelor of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Notre Dame in 1982, a Master of Science degree in International Relations from Troy State University in 1989, a Master of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Florida in 1994, and a Ph.D. in Astronautical Engineering from the U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology in 1997. He has attended the U.S. Air Force Squadron Officer School, the Air Command and Staff College Associate Program, and the Air War College.  He is a distinguished graduate of Detachment 225, Reserve Officer Training Corps, 1982. He also graduated with distinction from Undergraduate Pilot Training at Columbus AFB in 1984 and from the United States Air Force Test Pilot School in 1990.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Ford was commissioned as a second lieutenant in 1982 and completed primary Air Force jet training at Columbus Air Force Base, Mississippi in 1984. He trained in the F-15 Eagle and was assigned to the 22nd Tactical Fighter Squadron, Bitburg Air Base, Germany, from 1984–1987, and then to the 57th Fighter Interceptor Squadron at Keflavik Naval Air Station, Iceland until 1989, intercepting and escorting 18 Soviet combat aircraft over the North Atlantic. After spending 1990 as a student at the United States Air Force Test Pilot School, Edwards Air Force Base, California, Ford flew flight test missions in the F-16 Fighting Falcon with the 3247th Test Squadron at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida from 1991–1994. Test experience there included multiple F-16 flutter missions, development of the ALE-47 Countermeasures Dispenser System, multiple safe separation, ballistics, and fuse tests, and air-to-air missile development testing, including the first AMRAAM shot from the F-16 Air Defense Fighter variant. Following a three-year assignment to pursue full-time studies as a doctoral candidate at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, he was assigned to the Air Force Test Pilot School where he served as the Director of Plans and Programs, taught academics, and instructed students on flight test techniques in the F-15, F-16, and gliders. Ford has 3500 flying hours and holds FAA commercial certificates for airplanes, helicopters, and gliders. He is a certificated flight instructor in airplanes and gliders. Ford retired from the Air Force in June 2008 as a Colonel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "NASA career.", "content": "Selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in July 2000, Ford reported for training in August 2000. Following the completion of two years of training and evaluation, he was assigned technical duties in the Astronaut Office Advanced Vehicles Branch, working advanced exploration issues, and to the Space Shuttle Branch, working on the development and test of the Shuttle Cockpit Avionics Upgrade. He served as Director of Operations at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia from January 2004 to January 2005. At the 2007 Grand Prix of Houston, Ford got to ride the Minardi F1 two-seater race car, driven by Zsolt Baumgartner. Ford was launched as the pilot of the STS-128 on August 28, 2009. After his first flight, Colonel Ford trained for and works space missions as a Space Station CAPCOM in the Mission Control Center. On October 23, 2012 Ford was again launched into space as part of Expedition 33 aboard Soyuz TMA-06M. Ford became commander of Expedition 34 on November 18, 2012 with the departure from the ISS of the Soyuz TMA-05M spacecraft, which returned the Expedition 33 crew to Earth. He, along with the crew of Soyuz TMA-06M, returned to Earth on March 16, 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and decorations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other achievements.", "content": "1998 David B. Barnes Outstanding Flight Instructor Award, U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kevin Anthony Ford (born July 7, 1960) is a retired United States Air Force Colonel and a NASA astronaut. Ford has received a number of special honors and awards, some of which are the Air Force Meritorious Service Medal, Air Force Commendation Medal, Aerial Achievement Medal and the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal. Ford has also logged more than 5,000 flying hours and also holds FAA commercial certificates for airplanes, helicopters and gliders. Ford has served in many roles at NASA since his selection in July 2000. The roles include as a Capsule Communicator or CAPCOM. He was also the Director Of Operations at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia from January 2004 to January 2005. He was pilot of STS-128 and Flight Engineer 2 of Soyuz TMA-06M from October 23, 2012 to March 16, 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976864}
{"src_title": "Andreas Mogensen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born in Copenhagen. In Denmark he worked as an engineer in the R&D department of Vestas Wind Systems. He has worked in Germany as an attitude and orbit control system and guidance, navigation & control engineer for HE Space Operations associated with the SWARM mission. His position when he was selected by ESA was Aerospace Engineering at Surrey Space Centre, University of Surrey. He currently lives in Austin, Texas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "During his career Mogensen has also spent time in Thailand, Singapore, Portugal, Congo, and the United States. His pastimes include rugby, mountaineering and diving.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In ESA.", "content": "Mogensen was selected to become the first Danish astronaut by the European Space Agency in May 2009. He completed initial training and became a member of the European Astronaut Corps in November 2010.  On June 10, 2014, NASA announced that Mogensen would serve as an aquanaut aboard the Aquarius underwater laboratory during the undersea exploration mission, which began on September 7, 2014 and lasted seven days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Iriss.", "content": "Mogensen's mission to the ISS was called \"iriss\". The mission name was chosen from suggestions received from across Europe. \"iriss\" had two logos, one to highlight the overall mission and one for the educational outreach activities.  On September 2, 2015, Mogensen was launched with Soyuz TMA-18M to ISS, and landed with Soyuz TMA-16M ten days later. He was travelling with another visiting flight engineer, Aidyn Aimbetov. Among the items Andreas brought along were LEGO figures and a poster for Copenhagen Suborbitals.  Because of the short mission duration, Mogensen worked up to 9.5-hour days instead of the 8-hour workdays that are normal on the station. His missions included remote control of a robot on Earth, and filming Red Sprites and Blue Jets lightnings above thunderclouds, directed from Earth. He also tried a new kind of Skinsuit to alleviate back-pain astronauts feel due to the lengthening of their spine and used augmented reality goggles during his maintenance tasks.  Mogensen left the station on September 11, 2015. Sergey Volkov was the ascent pilot (TMA-18M) and Gennady Padalka was the descent pilot (TMA-16M). The crew landed at 00:51 UTC on September 12, 2015, just over three hours after departing the ISS.  Mogensen received the Danish Royal Medal of Recompense for his efforts.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Andreas Enevold Mogensen (born November 2, 1976) is a Danish engineer and astronaut. He was the first Dane to fly in space as part of the \"iriss\" programme.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976865}
{"src_title": "Leptospermum scoparium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is a prolific scrub-type tree and is often one of the first species to regenerate on cleared land. It is typically a shrub growing to tall, but can grow into a moderately sized tree, up to or so in height. It is evergreen, with dense branching and small leaves long and broad, with a short spine tip. The flowers are white, occasionally pink, (rarely up to ) in diameter, with five petals. The wood is tough and hard.  This species is often confused with the related species kānuka (\"Kunzea ericoides\") – the easiest way to tell the difference between the two species in the field is to feel their foliage – mānuka leaves are prickly, while kānuka leaves are soft. Alternatively, the seed capsules of mānuka are large ( in diameter) and often remain on the plant year round, whereas the seed capsules of kānuka are much smaller ( in diameter) and are not present for much of the year.  The Latin specific epithet \"scoparium\" means “like broom”, referring to Northern Hemisphere genera such as \"Genista\" and \"Cytisus\" which it superficially resembles, but to which it is only distantly related.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History and habitat.", "content": "Evidence suggests that \"L. scoparium\" originated in Australia before the onset of the Miocene aridity, and moved as a result of long distance dispersal events from eastern Australia to New Zealand sometime during the last 20 million years. Cyclones and other wind activity are most likely responsible for transporting seeds long distances. Supporters of this claim cite evidence that the genus \"Leptospermum\" arose under conditions where frequent forest fires were common (i.e. in Australia, and not temperate New Zealand), because they possess fire-adaptive traits like serotiny and storage lignotubers. It has been postulated that on arrival in New Zealand, \"L. scoparium\" became established in limited edaphically suitable areas until the arrival of the Polynesian people, whose fire and forest-clearing brought about the low-nutrient-status soils for which it was preadapted in its homeland. It is now more common in New Zealand than it is in Australia. It is found throughout New Zealand, but is particularly common on the drier east coasts of the North and South Islands, and in Australia in Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pests and diseases.", "content": "The adult mānuka beetle (\"Pyronota festiva\") and its larvae feed on \"L. scoparium\" in New Zealand.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pollinators.", "content": "Various pollinators are known to visit \"L. scoparium\", some examples include \"Melangyna novaezelandiae\", \"Hylaeus\", and Honeybees.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Continued evolution.", "content": "\"Leptospermum scoparium\" is in the process of evolutionary differentiation as a result of its isolation from fellow members of the \"Leptospermum\" genus. New studies demonstrate a loss of lignotubers among populations of \"Leptospermum scoparium\" located in relatively fire-free zones of New Zealand's South Island, while Australian and Tasmanian populations retain their lignotubers along with stronger manifestations of serotiny. Australian populations of \"Leptospermum scoparium\" are shown to be chemically distinct from their New Zealand counterparts, with significantly higher levels of cinteole and monoterpines. Chemotypical variations also exist between different populations within New Zealand, leading some to suggest that \"L. scoparium\" be divided into three subspecies: those with high pinenes, high triketones, and high sesquiterpenes. Recently, however, new research suggests that plant-to-plant variation far outstrips the variation seen between geographically isolated manuka sites, at least with regard to nectar chemistry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Names.", "content": "Tea tree,'and'are common names for this species. \"Jelly bush\" is also used in Australia to describe similar honey from \"Leptospermum polygalifolium\". Tea tree arose because Captain Cook used the leaves to make a 'tea' drink.  Mānuka is a Māori word from New Zealand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Numerous cultivars have been developed for garden use, of which the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-  Many more cultivars are available in New Zealand but often the plant performs better in cultivation overseas. This is because in its homeland it is subject to attack by scale insects that secrete a honeydew on which grows a sooty mold that eventually debilitates the plant. Because of this, attempts have been made, with limited commercial success, to cross the showy New Zealand cultivars with mold-resistant Australian \"Leptospermum\" species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The wood was often used for tool handles. Mānuka sawdust imparts a delicious flavour when used for smoking meats and fish. It is cultivated in New Zealand for mānuka honey, produced when honeybees gather the nectar from its flowers, and for the pharmaceutical industry. It is also used for carving. An essential oil, for which many medicinal claims are made, is produced by steam distillation of its leaves. Manuka, as it is called by most New Zealanders, was used in pre-European times by Maori, and still is. A decoction of the leaves was drunk for urinary complaints and as a febrifuge (an agent for reducing fever). The steam from leaves boiled in water was inhaled for head colds. A decoction was prepared from the leaves and bark and the warm liquid was rubbed on stiff muscles and aching joints. The emollient white gum, called pai Manuka, was given to nursing babies and also used to treat scalds and burns. Chewing the bark is said to have a relaxing effect and it enhances sleep.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parakeets and parasites.", "content": "Kakariki parakeets (\"Cyanoramphus\") use the leaves and bark of mānuka and kānuka to rid themselves of parasites. Apart from ingesting the material, they also chew it, mix it with preen gland oil and apply it to their feathers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leptospermum scoparium, commonly called mānuka, manuka, manuka myrtle, New Zealand teatree, broom tea-tree, or just tea tree, is a species of flowering plant in the myrtle family Myrtaceae, native to south-east Australia and New Zealand (including the Chatham Islands).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976866}
{"src_title": "2004 Sri Lanka tsunami train wreck", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Train.", "content": "Train #50 \"Matara Express\" was a regular train operating between the cities of Colombo and Galle. The route runs along the southwestern coast of Sri Lanka, and at Telwatta, only about inland from the sea. On Sunday, 26 December 2004, during both the Buddhist full moon holiday and the Christmas holiday weekend, it left Colombo's Fort Station shortly after 6:50 A.M. with over 1,500 paid passengers and an unknown number of unpaid passengers including the ones with travel passes (called Seasons) and government travel permits.  The train was pulled by locomotive #591 \"Manitoba\", a Sri Lanka Railways class M2a built in 1956 by General Motors Diesel of Canada as a model G12.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attempts to stop the train.", "content": "Sri Lanka's seismic monitoring station at Pallekele registered the earthquake within minutes but did not consider it possible for a tsunami to reach the island. When tsunami reports first reached the dispatching office in Maradana, officials were able to halt eight trains running on the Coastal Line, but were unable to reach the \"Matara Express\".  Efforts to halt the train at Ambalangoda failed because all station personnel were assisting with the train, and no one was available to answer the phone until after the train had departed. Attempts to reach personnel at stations further south failed as they had fled or been killed by the waves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tsunami waves strike the crowded train.", "content": "At 9:30 A.M., in the village of Peraliya, near Telwatta, the beach saw the first of the gigantic waves thrown up by the earthquake. The train came to a halt as water surged around it, and an alarm sounded to alert the population about the increase in the water level. Hundreds of locals, believing the train to be secure on the rails, climbed onto the top of the cars to avoid being swept away. Others stood behind the train, hoping it would shield them from the force of the water. The first wave flooded the carriages and caused panic amongst the passengers. Ten minutes later a huge wave picked the train up and smashed it against the trees and houses which lined the track, crushing those seeking shelter behind it.  The eight carriages were so packed with people that the doors could not be opened while they filled with water, drowning almost everyone inside as the water washed over the wreckage several more times. The passengers on top of the train were thrown clear of the uprooted carriages, and most drowned or were crushed by debris. Locomotive #591 \"Manitoba\" was carried 100 metres (328 feet), coming to rest in a swamp. Both engineer Janaka Fernando and assistant Sivaloganathan died at their posts. Estimates based on the state of the shoreline and a high-water mark on a nearby building place the tsunami 7.5 to 9 meters (24 to 29 feet) above sea level and 2 to 3 meters (6 to 9 feet) higher than the top of the train.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casualties.", "content": "Due to the huge scale of the tsunami disaster, the local authorities were unable to cope with the devastation, and emergency services and the military were so overwhelmed that immediate rescue was not possible. In fact, the Sri Lankan authorities had no idea where the train was for several hours, until it was spotted by an army helicopter around 4:00 PM. The local emergency services were destroyed, and it was a long time before help arrived. Dozens of people badly injured in the disaster died in the wreckage during the day, and many bodies were not retrieved for over a week. Some families descended on the area determined to find their relatives themselves. A forensic team from Colombo photographed and fingerprinted the unclaimed bodies at Batapola Hospital so the records could be stored and looked at after the bodies were buried.  According to the Sri Lankan authorities, only about 150 people on the train survived. The estimated death toll was at least 1,700 people, and probably over 2,000, although only approximately 900 bodies were recovered, as many were swept out to sea or taken away by relatives. The town of Peraliya was also destroyed, losing hundreds of citizens and all but ten buildings to the waves. Venerable Baddegama Samitha, a Buddhist monk, helped perform funeral rites along with his students. More than 200 of the bodies retrieved were not identified or claimed, and were buried three days later in a Buddhist ceremony near the torn railway line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The first anniversary ceremonies were held among the rebuilt town alongside the repaired railway, which still operates a Colombo to Galle service, employing the same guard, W. Karunatilaka, who was on the train and survived the disaster. Locomotive #591 \"Manitoba\" and two of the damaged carriages were salvaged and rebuilt. A wave was added to the locomotive's paint job as a memorial. The rebuilt locomotive and carriages returned to Peraliya on 26 December 2008, and every year since, to take part in a religious ceremony and a memorial, held to remember those who lost their lives.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2004 Sri Lanka tsunami-rail disaster is the largest single rail disaster in world history by death toll, with probably 1,700 fatalities or more. It occurred when a crowded passenger train was destroyed on a coastal railway in Sri Lanka by a tsunami which followed the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The tsunami subsequently caused over 30,000 reported deaths and billions of rupees in property damage in the coastal areas of Sri Lanka.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976867}
{"src_title": "Vanessa Bell", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Vanessa Stephen was the elder daughter of Sir Leslie Stephen and Julia Prinsep Duckworth. The family, including her sister Virginia, brothers Thoby (1880–1906) and Adrian (1883–1948), and half-brothers George and Gerald Duckworth, lived at 22 Hyde Park Gate, Westminster, London. She was educated at home in languages, mathematics and history, and took drawing lessons from Ebenezer Cook before she attended Sir Arthur Cope's art school in 1896. She then studied painting at the Royal Academy in 1901.  Later in life, she alleged that during her childhood she had been sexually molested by her half-brothers, George and Gerald Duckworth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private life.", "content": "After the deaths of her mother in 1895 and her father in 1904, Vanessa sold 22 Hyde Park Gate and moved to Bloomsbury with Virginia and brothers Thoby and Adrian, where they met and began socialising with the artists, writers and intellectuals who would come to form the Bloomsbury Group. The Bloomsbury Group's first Thursday evening meetings began at Bell's house in Gordon Square. Attendees included: Lytton Strachey, Desmond MacCarthy, and later on, Maynard Keynes, Leonard Woolf, Roger Fry, and Duncan Grant.  She married Clive Bell in 1907 and they had two sons, Julian (who died in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War at the age of 29) and Quentin. The couple had an open marriage, both taking lovers throughout their lives. Bell had affairs with art critic Roger Fry and with the painter Duncan Grant, with whom she had a daughter, Angelica in 1918, whom Clive Bell raised as his own child.  Vanessa, Clive, Duncan Grant and Duncan's lover David Garnett moved to the Sussex countryside shortly before the outbreak of the First World War, and settled at Charleston Farmhouse near Firle, East Sussex, where she and Grant painted and worked on commissions for the Omega Workshops established by Roger Fry. Her first solo exhibition was at the Omega Workshops in 1916. On April 7, 1961, Bell died from a brief illness at Charleston, Firle and was buried in the Firle Parish Churchyard. When Duncan Grant died in 1978, he was buried next to her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art.", "content": "In 1906, when Bell started to think of herself as an artist, she formed the Friday Club to create a place in London that was more favourable to painting. Vanessa was encouraged by the Post-Impressionist exhibitions organised by Roger Fry, and she copied their bright colours and bold forms in her artworks. In 1914, she turned to Abstraction.  Bell rejected the examples of Victorian narrative painting and rejected a discourse on the ideal and aberrant qualities of femininity. She also designed book jackets for all of her sister Virginia's books that were published by Virginia and Leonard Woolf's publishing company, the Hogarth Press.  Bell is one of the most celebrated painters of the Bloomsbury group. She exhibited in London and Paris during her lifetime, and has been praised for innovative works and for her contributions to design.  Bell's paintings include \"Studland Beach\" (1912), \"The Tub\" (1918), \"Interior with Two Women\" (1932), and portraits of her sister Virginia Woolf (three in 1912), Aldous Huxley (1929–1930), and David Garnett (1916). Bell also worked with Duncan Grant to create murals for Berwick Church in Sussex (1940–42).  In 1932, Bell and Grant were commissioned to produce a dinner service for Kenneth Clark. With oversight from Kenneth's wife Jane Clark, they produced the Famous Women Dinner Service: 50 plates painted with portraits of notable women throughout history. The collection eventually passed on to a private collector, and passed out of public view until 2017. The full collection was exhibited in London in early 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibitions.", "content": "In 1916, Bell's first solo exhibition was held in the Omega Workshop in London, a prominent place for exhibitions which supported young artists and introduced design work to the public. Bell became the director of the Omega Workshop around 1912.  \"Iceland Poppies\" (1908) was exhibited at the New English Art Club in the summer of 1909. It was praised by Walter Sickert and marks Bell's artistic maturity.  \"Designs for a Screen: Figures by a Lake\" (1912), gouache on board, was influenced by Nabis paintings by Édouard Vuillard and Maurice Denis and might have been a part of Bell's exhibit Design for Screen, which was shown at the Friday Club Exhibition in February 1912.  \"Design for Overmantel Mural\" (1913), oil on paper, depicts herself and Molly MacCarthy naked in Bell's studio at 46 Gordon Square.  \"Street Corner Conversation\" (also created in 1913) features four individuals in conversation amidst massive geometrical forms.  \"Summer Camp\" (1913), oil on board, illustrates a summer camp organized at Brandon on the Norfolk-Suffolk border near Thetford.  \"By the Estuary\" (1915), oil on canvas, is a modestly scaled landscape showing her fondness for clarity of design in which segments of contrasting color harmonize.  \"Nude with Poppies\" (1916), oil on canvas, is a preliminary design for a headboard which Bell painted for Mary Hutchinson.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Media portrayal.", "content": "Bell was portrayed by Janet McTeer in the 1995 Dora Carrington biopic \"Carrington\", and by Miranda Richardson in the 2002 film \"The Hours\".  Bell is the subject of Susan Sellers' 2010 novel \"Vanessa and Virginia\" and of Priya Parmar's 2014 novel \"Vanessa and Her Sister\". In 2015 she was portrayed by Phoebe Fox and Eve Best in the BBC mini-series \"Life in Squares\".  Bell was portrayed by Emerald Fennell in the 2018 film \"Vita and Virginia\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vanessa Bell (née Stephen; 30 May 1879 – 7 April 1961) was an English painter and interior designer, a member of the Bloomsbury Group and the sister of Virginia Woolf.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976868}
{"src_title": "Demodex folliculorum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Anatomy.", "content": "\"D. folliculorum\" is adapted to live inside hair follicles, and therefore is thin and worm-like, with short legs. As an adult, \"D.folliculorum\" measures long. Adults have four pairs of legs, larvae and nymphs have only three pairs. \"D.folliculorum\" has a rudimentary gut, and no anus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction and life cycle.", "content": "The entire life cycle of \"D.folliculorum\" takes 14–16 days. Adult mites copulate at the top of the hair follicle, near the skin surface. Eggs are deposited in the sebaceous gland inside the hair follicle. The heart-shaped egg is long, and hatches into a six-legged larva. It takes seven days for the larva to develop into a mature adult, with two intervening nymph stages. The adult lives for 4–6 days.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Demodex folliculorum\" prefers areas where sebum production is high, and is typically found in hair follicles on the human face, generally in greater numbers around the cheeks, nose, and forehead, but also elsewhere on the face, eyelids and ears. The mites may also be found on other parts of the body, such as the chest and buttocks.  Within the hair follicle, \"D. folliculorum\" is found above the sebaceous gland, positioned head downwards, with the end of abdomen often protruding from the hair follicle. Infested follicles usually contain 2–6 mites, but greater numbers can occur.  In one hour, \"D. folliculorum\" can travel ; the mites usually travel at night.  The mites are obligate commensals of humans, and can only live on the skin; they soon dry out and die if they leave the host. Higher numbers of \"D.folliculorum\" are found in the spring and summer than at other times of the year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with humans.", "content": "\"D. folliculorum\" are not found on newborn babies, but are acquired shortly after birth, most likely due to maternal contact. Few mites are found on children under ten years of age, but nearly all elderly people are infested. The increasing population over time may be due to a small initial infestation gradually growing over time, or may be because levels of the mite's food, sebum, increase with age.  High numbers of \"D. folliculorum\" are associated with blepharitis and acne rosacea. The exact mechanism by which the mites cause disease is unknown; they may physically block the hair follicle, carry disease-causing bacteria, or, after death, their bodies may cause either a delayed hypersensitivity response, or an innate immune response. There is controversy over whether high numbers of \"D. folliculorum\" cause rosacea, or whether the skin environment caused by rosacea is more hospitable to mites than normal skin, allowing them to flourish. Populations of \"D. folliculorum\" are also increased in people with immunosuppression.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first report of \"Demodex folliculorum\" was made by German scientist Jakob Henle in 1841, but his presentation to the Natural Sciences Society of Zurich, reported in a local newspaper, attracted little attention at the time. In 1842, German dermatologist Gustav Simon gave a full report of the appearance of \"Demodex folliculorum\", naming it \"Acarus folliculorum\". The following year, 1843, the genus was named \"Demodex\" by English scientist Richard Owen. From Simon's initial description of \"D.folliculorum\" onwards, two forms were recognized, a long form and a short form. In 1963, it was suggested that these long and short forms were two subspecies of \"D.folliculorum\", and that the smaller mite be named \"Demodex brevis\", with the larger mite retaining the name \"D. folliculorum\". It was not until 1972 that the existence of two separate species was confirmed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Demodex folliculorum is a microscopic mite that can only survive on the skin of humans. Most people have \"D.folliculorum\" on their skin. Usually, the mites do not cause any harm, and are therefore considered an example of commensalism rather than parasitism. If \"D.folliculorum\" does cause disease, this is known as demodicosis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976869}
{"src_title": "Basic Element (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Peter Thelenius and Cesar Zamini began the group in 1992, searched for a singer through the employment office and found Zetma. In 1993, they made a record deal with EMI Records, thus releasing their first single \"Move Me\". In 1994, \"Move Me\" was followed up by hits like \"The Promise Man\", reaching number 1 in the Swedish charts.  In 1995, Zetma left the band (because of her pregnancy) and Saunet Sparell replaced her. The new album \"The Ultimate Ride\" (including the singles \"The Ride\" and \"The Fiddle\") was released. Also, Peter and Caesar started to have disagreements about the band's future, this causing Cesar to leaving the band. Peter has since then continued with the band itself. The group's third album (\"Star Tracks\") sounded more like 1970s disco. Then Sparell left because she thought that Thelenius only cared about being famous, and so the project was put on ice. In 1997, Peter released a solo album (\"Trust Then Pain\") under the name \"Petrus\". In 1998, Basic Element returned with a new album (which included the original Eurodance sound) with Marie Fredriksson (not to be confused with the singer of Roxette) as the new singer.  From 1999, the two members went on a hiatus, but in 2005, the group returned with a remake of their 1995 hit \"This Must Be a Dream\" and with Mathias Olofson as a new member of the band. In February 2006, they released a new single called \"Raise the Gain\" with a slightly different sound. On 7 February 2007, the group released its comeback album \"The Empire Strikes Back\". Later in 2007, Marie Fredriksson left the group and was replaced by Andrea Myrander as the singer and Jonas Wesslander as the rapper. In 2008, the album \"The Truth\" was released. The band also released a new song called \"Got U Screaming\" (2010). In January 2011, it was announced on the group's home page that Andrea Myrander had officially left. A few months later, in May 2011, a new single called \"Turn Me On\" was announced during a concert. It was posted on YouTube on 27 May.  In April 2012 Basic Element signed a deal with the Swedish record label Family Tree and on 24 April, a song called \"Shades\" (featuring Max C and Taz) was posted on YouTube. It was announced that it will be released as a single in June. The group is still lacking a female singer and the songs thus only features male vocals. The single also marks a change of style as it differs significantly from the other material released after their 2005 comeback. A YouTube commenter described it as a mixture of Avicii, Swedish House Mafia and \"We Found Love\" by Rihanna and Calvin Harris. Vocalist Max C was featured on Swedish House Mafia member Axwell’s single \"I Found You\". Basic Element will also be the opening act for Avicii on the yearly \"Russens dag\" event at Tusenfryd, Norway.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Basic Element is a Swedish Eurodance hip-hop group formed in 1992. The group returned in 2005 and is still releasing new material.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976870}
{"src_title": "Lucien Goldmann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Goldmann was born in Bucharest, Romania, but grew up in Botoşani.  He studied law at the University of Bucharest and the University of Vienna under the Austromarxist jurist Max Adler. In 1934, he went to the University of Paris to study political economy, literature, and philosophy. He moved to Switzerland in November 1942, where he was placed in a refugee camp until 1943. Through Jean Piaget's intervention, he was subsequently given a scholarship to the University of Zurich, where he completed his PhD in philosophy in 1945 with a thesis entitled \"Mensch, Gemeinschaft und Welt in der Philosophie Immanuel Kants\" (\"Man, Community and world in the Philosophy of Immanuel Kant\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "While many Parisian leftists staunchly upheld Marxism's \"scientificity\" in the 1950s and 1960s, Lucien Goldmann insisted that Marxism was by then in severe crisis and had to reinvent itself radically if it were to survive. He rejected the traditional Marxist view of the proletariat and contested the structural Marxist movement. In fact, the popularity of such trends on the Left Bank was one reason why Goldmann's own name and work were eclipsed — this despite the acclaim of thinkers as diverse as Jean Piaget and Alasdair MacIntyre, who called him \"the finest and most intelligent Marxist of the age.\"  He refused to portray his aspirations for humanity's future as an inexorable unfolding of history's laws, but saw them rather as a wager akin to Blaise Pascal's in the existence of God. \"Risk\", Goldmann wrote in his classic study of Pascal's \"Pensées\" and Jean Racine's Phèdre, \"is possibility of failure, hope of success, and the synthesis of the three in a faith which is a wager are the essential constituent elements of the human condition\". He called his work \"dialectical\" and \"humanist.\"  He sought to synthesize the genetic epistemology of Piaget with the Marxism of György Lukács; he was the founder of the theory of genetic structuralism which he developed in the 1960s.  Lucien Goldmann was a humanist socialist, disciple of György Lukács, his sociology of literature in an important critic of structuralism.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lucien Goldmann (; July 20, 1913 – October 8, 1970) was a French philosopher and sociologist of Jewish-Romanian origin. A professor at the EHESS in Paris, he was a Marxist theorist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976871}
{"src_title": "Metapedia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Swedish Metapedia was founded in 2006 by Anders Lagerström (born October 14, 1977), a neo-Nazi publisher from Linköping, Sweden.  Swedish historian Rasmus Fleischer wrote that:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Content.", "content": "The site has more than 7,000 articles in English; topics covered include European history, Norse mythology, and white nationalist music. \"The Register\" states, \"a good percentage of Metapedia's content seems to be dedicated to Woden, the White Order of Thule, runes, and other subject matter which would undoubtedly have found favour with Aryan hocus-pocus aficionado Heinrich Himmler.\" \"Crítica de la Argentina\" says Metapedia has glowing descriptions of Adolf Hitler and other Nazi figures. Daniel Goldhagen describes it as seeking \"to create (currently in 18 languages) an anti-Semitic informational universe.\"  According to the North Rhine-Westphalian Office for the Protection of the Constitution, Metapedia's articles are characterized by historical negationism and lauding Nazi Germany. For this reason, the German Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons () started an indexing process, which would consider as to whether Metapedia is \"harmful to young people\".  In early 2007, within half a year of the launching of the original Swedish edition, Metapedia received much Swedish media attention for its similarity to Wikipedia and some of its contents, in particular for its positive characterization of many Nazi German personalities, for cataloguing Jews in Swedish media, and for characterizing Swedish companies as either \"Swedish-owned\" or \"Jewish-owned\". This led to an investigation by the Chancellor of Justice () to decide whether the site should be prosecuted for inciting hatred or for violating the Swedish Privacy Law (). After reviewing the site's contents, the Chancellor of Justice decided to terminate investigations, since nothing had been found that violated the Freedom of Speech Act () or the Privacy Law. In January 2009, in a response to further attention given to the site, the Swedish Chancellor of Justice opined that Metapedia presented a positive image of Adolf Hitler, but decided not to restart an investigation since this was not illegal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "Metapedia runs on MediaWiki, a free and open-source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database.  Metapedia is headed by Lagerström and Lennart Berg, who also runs the supporting NFSE Media AB.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Metapedia is an online wiki-based encyclopedia which contains authoritarian far-right, white nationalist, white supremacist, anti-feminist, homophobic, Islamophobic, antisemitic, Holocaust-denying, and neo-Nazi points of view. The site describes itself as focusing on European culture, art, science, philosophy, and politics. It was founded in 2006, initially in a Swedish-language version, by Swedish neo-Nazi publisher Anders Lagerström, who currently heads the project together with Lennart Berg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976872}
{"src_title": "Neuss", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient Rome.", "content": "Neuss was founded by the Romans in 16 BC as a military fortification (\"castrum\") with the current city to the north of the castrum, at the confluence of the rivers Rhine and Erft, with the name of Novaesium.  Legio XVI Gallica (\"Gallic 16th Legion\") of the Roman army was stationed here in 43-70 AD. It was disbanded after surrendering during the Batavian rebellion (AD 70).  Later a civil settlement was founded in the area of today's centre of the town during the 1st century AD. Novaesium, together with Trier (\"Augusta Treverorum\"), is one of the three oldest Roman settlements in Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Middle Ages.", "content": "Neuss grew during the Middle Ages because of its prime location on several routes, by the crossing of the great Rhine valley, and with its harbour and ferry. During the 10th century, the remains of the martyr and tribune Saint Quirinus, not to be confused with the Roman god Quirinus, had been relocated to Neuss. This resulted in pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Quirinus even from countries beyond the borders of the Holy Roman Empire. Neuss was first documented as a town in 1138.  One of the main events in the town's history is the siege of the town in 1474–75 by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, that lasted for nearly a year. The citizens of Neuss withstood the siege and were therefore rewarded by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III. The town was granted the right to mint its own coins and to carry the imperial coat of arms, the imperial eagle and the crown, in the town's own coat of arms. Neuss became a member of the Hanseatic League, although it was never accepted by the other members of the League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Early modernity.", "content": "In 1586, more than two-thirds of the city was destroyed by fire, and several wars during the reign of King Louis XIV of France resulted in worsening finances for Neuss. Its importance as a place for trading declined rapidly, and from the mid-17th century onwards, Neuss became a place only important for its agriculture.  Until the late 18th century, Neuss belonged to the Electorate of Cologne. From 1794 to 1814, Neuss was part of France during the reign of Napoleon. In 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars, Neuss became part of the Kingdom of Prussia, and was reorganized as a district with the municipalities of Neuss, Dormagen, Nettesheim, Nievenheim, Rommerskirchen and Zons. The town had a population of 6,333 at that time. It was part of the Prussian Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg (1815–22) and its successor, the Rhine Province (1822–1946).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "19th century – present.", "content": "Neuss regained its economic power in the 19th century, with expansion of the harbour in 1835, and increasing industrial activity. The city's boundaries were expanded in 1881. Neuss became part of the new state of North Rhine-Westphalia in 1946.  In 1968 the spelling of the name was changed from \"Neuß\" to \"Neuss\". In 1975 the town of Neuss and the district of Grevenbroich were joined to form the district of Rhein-Kreis Neuss with a population of 440,000 and its seat of government in Neuss. Neuss is also home to Toshiba's European headquarters.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "One sports club is Neusser Schlittschuh-Klub. Their sections are figure skating, ice stock sport and, as the only club in Germany, bandy. With the lack of a large ice surface, the variety rink bandy is practiced. There are also two football clubs in the city of Neuss, VfR Neuss Football Club, and DJK Novesia Neuss. There is also a fieldhockey club, HTC Schwarz-Weiss Neuss, and TC Blau-Weiss Neuss, a famous tennis club where Nadal began his career. And an American Football Club, the Neuss Frogs. Besides Neuss owns an all-weather racecourse called \"Galopprennbahn Neuss\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Neuss (; spelled \"Neuß\" until 1968; Limburgish: \"Nüss\"; Latin: \"Novaesium\") is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located on the west bank of the Rhine opposite Düsseldorf. Neuss is the largest city within the Rhein-Kreis Neuss district. It is primarily known for its historic Roman sites, as well as the annual Neusser Bürger-Schützenfest. Neuss and Trier share the title of \"Germany's oldest city\"; and in 1984 Neuss celebrated the 2000th anniversary of its founding in 16 BCE.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976873}
{"src_title": "Ruth Beitia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Beitia first broke the Spanish record in 1998, jumping 1.89 m. She raised the record progressively up to 2.02 m, the current Spanish record, which she achieved on 4 August 2007. She is the first, and thus far, only Spanish woman to have jumped higher than two metres.  Beitia's first senior international appearance was at the 2002 European Athletics Championships in Munich, where she finished 11th. At the 2003 World Championships in Paris, she also finished 11th. At the 2004 Athens Olympics she failed to reach the finals. In 2005, she won the silver medal at the 2005 European Indoor Championships in Madrid but at the world championships at Helsinki 2005 she failed to reach the finals. In 2006, she won the bronze medal at the World Indoor Athletics Championships in Moscow.  In 2009, she won the silver medal at the 2009 European Athletics Indoor Championships in Turin. At the 2009 World Championships in Athletics in Berlin, she placed fifth. In 2012, she won the gold medal at the European Championships in Helsinki and at the 2012 London Olympics she was fourth, after which she retired from competition.  After a few months, disappointed by her failure to win an olympic medal, Beitia came back from retirement. She won the gold medal at the 2013 European Athletics Indoor Championships in Gothenburg. Then she would become European champion twice more, in 2014 at Zürich and in 2016 at Amsterdam. Finally, she won gold at the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games, with a height of 1.97m. This was the lowest winning height at the Olympics since the 1980 Summer Olympic Games, when Italian Sara Simeoni also cleared 1.97m.  Beitia ended in 12th place in the 2017 World Championships in Athletics and received the IAAF Fair Play Award for her behaviour during the competition.  She announced her retirement from competition in October 2017, following a rheumatoid arthritis process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 2008, Beitia was named chair of the Regional Executive Committee of the local branch of the People's Party (PP), serving in that capacity until 2012.  In 2011, she was ninth on the closed list of the PP for the election to the Parliament of Cantabria; the PP won 20 seats and she was duly elected. During her first term, she was named First Parliamentary Secretary, presiding over committee meetings and other gatherings of leading parliamentary officials.  In the 2015 election, the PP lost its absolute majority and did not form the next government; however, she advanced her place on the list to sixth and was re-elected.  In September 2018, Beitia was appointed a member of the national PP's executive board by leader Pablo Casado, serving as Secretary of Sport.  In January 2019, the PP announced her advance on the list for the 2019 election to first place, thus becoming the party's candidate for President of Cantabria. Nevertheless, a few days after Beitia stepped down and informed Casado of her decision to \"leave politics due to strictly personal and family reasons\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ruth Beitia Vila (; born 1 April 1979) is a retired high jumper who is currently the reigning Olympic champion in the women's high jump. She was also a politician in the Partido Popular and a member of the Parliament of Cantabria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976874}
{"src_title": "Georg Stumme", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Second World War.", "content": "Stumme fought in the First World War and stayed with the after the war. After the Nazis came to power in 1933 he was promoted to (Colonel) in 1933 and (Major-General) in 1936. Stumme became commander of 2nd Light Division, which was formed on 10 November 1938.  Stumme had achieved the rank of by the beginning of the war, and he commanded the 2nd Light Division in the Invasion of Poland in 1939. After the unit was converted into the 7th Panzer Division on 18 October 1939, he relinquished command of the 7th Panzer Division to Erwin Rommel in 1940, and was appointed as commander of XL. on 15 February 1940, which became XL Corps (motorized) in September 1940. He led this corps in the 1940 Ardennes campaign, being promoted to on 1 June 1940. Shortly thereafter he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for bravery during the Battle of France.  Stumme was sent to Bulgaria and participated in the attacks on Yugoslavia and Greece. Stumme led the attack of the right flank of the12th Army. His two divisions drove west separately into Yugoslavia and then wheeled south, meeting at Monastir on 9 April. He then participated in the invasion of Greece. He was promoted to.  In Operation Barbarossa Stumme served under Field Marshal Fedor von Bock. Stumme commanded the capture of Mozhaisk. He then participated in (Case Blue) to lead the advance of the 6th Army with his renamed XL..  In June 1942 some German plans were captured by Soviet forces. Hitler blamed Stumme and ordered that he be court-martialled. He was relieved of command on 21 July 1942, was found guilty and was sentenced to five years imprisonment but Bock secured his release. Ulrich von Hassell called it a case of \"the grotesque game of tin soldiers which Hitler plays with the generals\" in his diary and commented: \"Stumme, commanding general of a tank corps, was sentenced to five years' imprisonment because [of the actions of a divisional staff officer]. He was immediately pardoned, with Göring promising him a new command and is now being sent to Africa as a substitute for Rommel. An unmilitary, un-Prussian farce\".  Stumme joined the in Egypt in September 1942, which was confronting the British at El Alamein. Rommel had been relieved due to illness and exhaustion. Stumme arrived on 19 September to be briefed a few days before Rommel departed. He took overall command of (combined German and Italian forces), with Ritter von Thoma replacing the wounded Walther Nehring as commander of the.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle of El Alamein and death.", "content": "Stumme \"faithfully followed the plan left by Rommel\" for responding to the expected attack. His letters to his superiors indicate he was not optimistic and agreed with Rommel that the only real prospect of success lay in keeping the enemy wrongfooted with attacks, for which he did not have the resources. Just over a month after his arrival the British began their attack on 23 October with a massive bombardment. Stumme prohibited the use of German artillery ammunition to bombard the British forward assembly areas, where the troops were vulnerable, preferring to keep his limited resources in reserve. Reinhard Stumpf called this \"a grave mistake that enabled the British to form up for the attack in relative peace\".  Unlike Rommel, Stumme travelled without the protection of an escort and radio car. On 24 October Stumme and Colonel Andreas Büchting, his chief signals officer, drove to the front to review the situation. On the way to the command post, the car came into the open and was attacked. Büchting was killed by a shot in the head. Stumme jumped out of the car and apparently was holding onto the side while the driver drove out of range. He was found dead along the track the next day, with no wound that could be seen. He was known to have high blood pressure and it was thought he had died of a heart attack. He was replaced as commander of with the return of Rommel, while the was commanded by Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assessments.", "content": "Stumme has been described as a \"competent but pleasure-loving general\", who cultivated a convivial relationship with his officers, unlike the hard-driving Rommel. One of his officers, Friedrich von Stauffenberg, said that Stumme created a \"congenial\" atmosphere while maintaining a \"crack, well-officered division\". According to Mark M. Boatner,  Rommel had suggested that Heinz Guderian should replace him in North Africa but Guderian was out of favor and his request was refused. Stumme was given the command instead and Rommel had confidence in him as a commander.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Georg Stumme (29 July 1886 – 24 October 1942) was a general in the of Nazi Germany during the Second World War who briefly commanded the Axis forces at the beginning of the Second Battle of El Alamein, and was killed during the Defence of Outpost Snipe. He had taken part in the Battle of France, the invasion of Yugoslavia and Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, the highest award in the military and paramilitary forces of Nazi Germany during the war.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976875}
{"src_title": "Princess Maria Ferdinanda of Saxony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Maria Ferdinanda was born to Maximilian, Crown Prince of Saxony and his first wife Princess Caroline of Parma on 27 April 1796. She was their second eldest daughter. As her mother died in 1804, her father remarried in 1825 to Princess Maria Luisa Carlota of Parma, but this marriage would produce no new siblings. Her father died in 1838, having renounced his rights to the succession of Saxony in favor of his eldest son.  Maria Ferdinanda had seven siblings, most of whom married well. Her older sister was Princess Amalie, a notable composer. Her next younger brother would become Frederick Augustus II of Saxony in 1836. Her next brother was Prince Klemens, who would die at the age of 24. Her next three siblings (Maria Anna, John, and Maria Josepha Amalia) would become by birth or marriage Grand Duchess of Tuscany, King of Saxony, and Queen of Spain respectively.  In 1817, Maria Ferdinanda accompanied her younger sister Princess Maria Anna of Saxony to Florence, where she was going to marry the future Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany. The two were very close, so that Maria Anna was too scared to go without Maria Ferdinanda's company. The couple duly married. Something decidedly unexpected occurred however. Maria Ferdinanda caught the eye of Leopold's elderly father Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 6 May 1821, Maria Ferdinanda was married to Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany in Florence. She was his second wife, and he was twenty-seven years older. She was his first cousin once removed as well as a first cousin once removed of his first wife Princess Luisa of Naples. Ferdinand may have desired this second marriage because the succession was in doubt: though his only son had recently married Maria Ferdinanda’s sister Maria Anna, he was considered sickly. No children were born of this marriage.  As Maria Ferdinanda's younger sister Princess Maria Anna of Saxony was married to Ferdinand's son Leopold, Maria Ferdinanda thus became her own sister's step-mother-in-law.  Ferdinand died in 1824 in Florence, causing his son Leopold, and Leopold's wife Maria Anna, to succeed as Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Tuscany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1859, the Tuscan royal family lost their claims to the throne during the Italian Unification. The royal family left the Palazzo Pitti in Florence for the Austrian court of Emperor Francis Joseph and Empress Elisabeth in Vienna. Maria Ferdinanda lived mainly from then on in Schlackenwerth, but was often a guest of her brother King John of Saxony in Dresden. She had an especially close relationship with her sister Amalie. Maria Ferdinanda was a bearer of the royal Order of the Noble Ladies of Maria Luisa, an order founded by Queen Maria Louisa of Spain.  Maria Ferdinanda remained a widow for forty-one years, finally dying on 3 January 1865. She was buried in the Imperial Crypt, Vienna.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Styles and titles.", "content": "Upon birth, her official title was \"Her Highness Maria Ferdinande Amalia Xaveria Theresia Josepha Anna Nepomucena Aloysia Johanna Vincentia Ignatia Dominica Franziska de Paula Franziska de Chantal, Duchess in Saxony\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Maria Ferdinanda of Saxony (27 April 1796 – 3 January 1865) was a daughter of Maximilian, Crown Prince of Saxony and his first wife Princess Carolina of Parma. She was by marriage Grand Duchess of Tuscany from 1821 to 1824.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976876}
{"src_title": "Independence Day (United States)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the thirteen colonies from Great Britain in 1776 actually occurred on July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia declaring the United States independent from Great Britain's rule. After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author. Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail:  Adams's prediction was off by two days. From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much-publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress.  Historians have long disputed whether members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all later wrote that they had signed it on that day. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed.  By a remarkable coincidence, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, the only two signatories of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as presidents of the United States, both died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration, Jefferson even mentioning the fact. (Only one other signatory, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, survived them, dying in 1832.) Although not a signatory of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as president, also died on July 4, 1831. He was the third President who died on the anniversary of independence. Calvin Coolidge, the 30th president, was born on July 4, 1872; so far he is the only U.S. president to have been born on Independence Day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Customs.", "content": "Independence Day is a national holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors. According to, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (such as the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on this day to appear at a public event to praise the nation's heritage, laws, history, society, and people.  Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue; many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, a long weekend to gather with relatives or friends. Decorations (\"e.g.\", streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag. Parades are often held in the morning, before family get-togethers, while fireworks displays occur in the evening after dark at such places as parks, fairgrounds, or town squares.  The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating bonfires as their centerpiece. In New England, towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks. They were lit at nightfall to usher in the celebration. The highest were in Salem, Massachusetts, with pyramids composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels. These made the tallest bonfires ever recorded. The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries and is still practiced in some New England towns.  Independence Day fireworks are often accompanied by patriotic songs such as the national anthem, \"The Star-Spangled Banner\"; \"God Bless America\"; \"America the Beautiful\"; \"My Country, 'Tis of Thee\"; \"This Land Is Your Land\"; \"Stars and Stripes Forever\"; and, regionally, \"Yankee Doodle\" in northeastern states and \"Dixie\" in southern states. Some of the lyrics recall images of the Revolutionary War or the War of 1812. Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show. Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed. In addition, local and regional weather conditions may dictate whether the sale or use of fireworks in an area will be allowed. Some local or regional firework sales are limited or prohibited because of dry weather or other specific concerns. On these occasions the public may be prohibited from purchasing or discharging fireworks, but professional displays (such as those at sports events) may still take place, if certain safety precautions have been taken.  A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a \"salute to the union,\" is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base.  New York City has the largest fireworks display in the country sponsored by Macy's, with more than 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded in 2009. It generally holds displays in the East River. Other major displays are in Seattle on Lake Union; in San Diego over Mission Bay; in Boston on the Charles River; in Philadelphia over the Philadelphia Museum of Art; in San Francisco over the San Francisco Bay; and on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.  During the annual Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival, Detroit, Michigan hosts one of the largest fireworks displays in North America, over the Detroit River, to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with Windsor, Ontario's celebration of Canada Day.  The first week of July is typically one of the busiest United States travel periods of the year, as many people use what is often a three-day holiday weekend for extended vacation trips.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "In 1852, Frederick Douglass gave a speech now called \"What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?\", at a time when slavery was still legal in Southern states, and free African-Americans elsewhere still faced discrimination and brutality. Douglass found the celebration of \"justice, liberty, prosperity and independence\" offensive to enslaved people who had none of those things. The Declaration of Independence famously asserts that \"all men are created equal, but commentator Arielle Gray recommends that those celebrating the holiday consider how the freedom promised by the phrase \"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness\" was not granted to African Americans denied citizenship and equal protection before the Fourteen Amendment, immigrants denied admission under the Chinese Exclusion Act, Japanese Americans interned during World War II, and children detained under the Trump administration family separation policy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other countries.", "content": "The Philippines celebrates July 4 as its Republic Day to commemorate that day in 1946 when it ceased to be a U.S. territory and the United States officially recognized Philippine Independence. July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962. In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day. Rebild National Park in Denmark is said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Independence Day (colloquially the Fourth of July or July 4th) is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the Declaration of Independence of the United States, on July 4, 1776. The Continental Congress declared that the thirteen American colonies were no longer subject (and subordinate) to the monarch of Britain, King George III, and were now united, free, and independent states. The Congress had voted to declare independence two days earlier, on July 2, but it was not declared until July 4.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976877}
{"src_title": "Coffea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cultivation and use.", "content": "There are over 120 species of \"Coffea\", which is grown from seed. The two most popular are \"Coffea arabica\" (commonly known simply as \"Arabica\"), which accounts for 60–80% of the world's coffee production, and \"Coffea canephora\" (known as \"Robusta\"), which accounts for about 20–40%. \" C. arabica\" is preferred for its sweeter taste, while \"C. canephora\" has a higher caffeine content. \"C. arabica\" has its origins in the highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau of Sudan, and was the result of a hybrid between \"C. canephora\" and \"C. eugenoides\".  The trees produce edible red or purple fruits, known sometimes erroneously as \"cherries\", which are described either as epigynous berries or as indehiscent drupes. These contain two seeds, called \"coffee beans\", though they are not true beans. In about 5–10% of any crop of coffee fruits, only a single bean is found. Called a peaberry, it is smaller and rounder than a normal coffee bean.  When grown in the tropics, coffee is a vigorous bush or small tree that usually grows to a height of. Most commonly cultivated coffee species grow best at high elevations, but do not tolerate freezing temperatures.  The tree of \"Coffea arabica\" will grow fruits after three to five years, producing for an average of 50 to 60 years, although up to 100 is possible. The white flowers are highly scented. The fruit takes about 9 months to ripen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "The caffeine in coffee \"beans\" serves as a toxic substance protecting the seeds of the plant, a form of natural plant defense against herbivory. Caffeine simultaneously attracts pollinators, specifically honeybees, by creating an olfactory memory that signals bees to return to the plant's flowers. Not all \"Coffea\" species contain caffeine, in fact the earliest species either had little to no caffeine content. Caffeine has evolved independently in multiple lineages of \"Coffea\" in Africa, perhaps in response to high pest predation in the humid environments of West-Central Africa. Caffeine has also evolved independently in the more distantly related genera \"Theobroma\" (cacao) and \"Camellia\" (tea). This suggests that caffeine production is an adaptive trait in coffee and plant evolution. Fruits and leaves also contain caffeine, and can be used to make a tea. (See: Coffee cherry tea and Coffee-leaf tea) The fruit is also used in many brands of soft drink as well as pre-packaged teas.  Several insect pests affect coffee production, including the coffee borer beetle (\"Hypothenemus hampei\") and the coffee leafminer (\"Leucoptera caffeina\").  Coffee is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, \"Dalcera abrasa\", turnip moth and some members of the genus \"Endoclita\", including \"E. damor\" and \"E. malabaricus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "New species of \"Coffea\" are still being identified in the 2000s. In 2008 and 2009, researchers from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew named seven from the mountains of northern Madagascar, including \"C. ambongensis\", \"C. boinensis\", \"C. labatii\", \"C. pterocarpa\", \"C. bissetiae,\" and \"C. namorokensis.\"  In 2008, two new species were discovered in Cameroon. \"Coffea charrieriana\", which is caffeine-free, and \"Coffea anthonyi\". By crossing the new species with other known coffees, two new features might be introduced to cultivated coffee plants: beans without caffeine and self-pollination.  In 2011, \"Coffea\" absorbed the twenty species of the former genus \"Psilanthus\" due to the morphological and genetic similarities between the two genera. Historically, the two have been considered distinct genera due to differences in the length of the corolla tube and the anther arrangement: \"Coffea\" with a short corolla tube and exserted style and anthers; \"Psilanthus\" with a long corolla tube and included anthers. However, these characteristics were not present in all species of either respective genus, making the two genera overwhelmingly similar in both morphology and genetic sequence. This transfer expanded \"Coffea\" from 104 species to 124, and extended its native distribution to tropical Asia and Australasia.  In 2014, the coffee genome was published, with more than 25,000 genes identified. This revealed that coffee plants make caffeine using a different set of genes from those found in tea, cacao and other such plants.  In 2017, a robust and almost fully resolved phylogeny of the entire genus was published. In addition to resolving the relationships of \"Coffea\" species, this study's results suggest Africa or Asia as the likely ancestral origin of Coffea and point to several independent radiations across Africa, Asia, and the Western Indian Ocean Islands.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Coffea is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. \"Coffea\" species are shrubs or small trees native to tropical and southern Africa and tropical Asia. The seeds of some species, called coffee beans, are used to flavor various beverages and products. The fruits, like the seeds, contain a large amount of caffeine, and have a distinct sweet taste and are often juiced. The plant ranks as one of the world's most valuable and widely traded commodity crops and is an important export product of several countries, including those in Central and South America, the Caribbean and Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976878}
{"src_title": "Council of Five Hundred", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Role and function.", "content": "The Council of Five Hundred was established under the Constitution of Year III which was adopted by a referendum on 24 September 1795, and constituted after the first elections which were held from 12–21 October 1795. Voting rights were restricted to citizens owning property bringing in income equal to 150 days of work. Each member elected had to be at least 30 years old, meet residency qualifications and pay taxes. To prevent them coming under the pressure of the sans-culottes and the Paris mob, the constitution allowed the Council of the Five Hundred to meet in closed session. A third of them would be replaced annually.  Besides functioning as a legislative body, the Council of Five Hundred proposed the list out of which the Ancients chose five Directors, who jointly held executive power. The Council of Five Hundred had their own distinctive official uniform, with robes, cape and hat, just as did the Council of Ancients and the Directors. Under the Thermidorean constitution, as Boissy d'Anglas put it, the Council of Five Hundred was to be the imagination of the Republic, and the Council of Ancients its reason.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Elections of 1797.", "content": "In the elections of April 1797, there were a number of voting irregularities a very low turnout, resulting in a strong showing for Royalist tendencies. A number of the newly elected deputies formed the Club de Clichy in the Council. Jean-Charles Pichegru, widely assumed to be a monarchist, was elected President of the Council of Five Hundred. After documentation of Pichegru's treasonous activities was supplied by Napoleon Bonaparte, the Directors accused the entire body of plotting against the Revolution and moved quickly to annul the elections and arrest the royalists in what was known as the Coup of 18 Fructidor.  To support the coup, General Lazare Hoche, then commander of the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse, arrived in the capital with his troops, while Napoleon sent an army under Pierre Augereau. Deputies were arrested and 53 were exiled to Cayenne in French Guiana. Since death from tropical disease was likely, it was referred to as the \"dry guillotine\". The 42 opposition newspapers were closed. The chambers were purged, and elections were partly cancelled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Elections of 1798.", "content": "The elections of April 1798 were heavily manipulated. The Council of the Five Hundred passed a law on 8 May barring 106 recently elected deputies from taking their seats, all of whom were of a left-wing persuasion. Elections in 48 departments were annulled. Nevertheless, left-wing opinion grew in strength in the Council in 1799, and on 18 June 1799, the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients forced the resignations of the most anti-Jacobin Directors, Merlin de Douai, La Révellière-Lépeaux and Treilhard in the co-called 'Coup of 30 Prairial VII'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coup of 18th Brumaire Year VIII.", "content": "In October 1799 Napoleon's brother Lucien Bonaparte was appointed President of the Council of Five Hundred. Soon afterwards, in the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon led a group of grenadiers who drove the Council from its chambers and installed him as leader of France as its First Consul. This ended the Council of Five Hundred, the Council of Ancients and the Directory.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Council of Five Hundred (Conseil des Cinq-Cents), or simply the Five Hundred, was the lower house of the legislature of France under the Constitution of the Year III. It existed during the period commonly known (from the name of the executive branch during this time) as the Directory (\"Directoire\"), from 26 October 1795 until 9 November 1799: roughly the second half of the period generally referred to as the French Revolution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976879}
{"src_title": "David Raziel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born David Rozenson in Smarhon’ (now in Grodno Region, Belarus), Vilnius in the Russian Empire, Raziel immigrated with his family in 1914 at the age of three to Ottoman Palestine, when his father was invited to teach at Tachkemoni, a religious school in Tel Aviv. During World War I, the family was exiled to Egypt by the Turks due to their Russian citizenship. They returned to Mandatory Palestine in 1923.  In 1928, Raziel completed studies at the Tachkemoni high school, and studied for several years at Yeshivat Mercaz HaRav in Jerusalem. He was regular study partner with Rabbi Zvi Yehuda Kook, son and ideological successor to the Rosh Yeshiva and Chief Rabbi of Israel, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook.  When the 1929 Hebron massacre broke out, he joined the Haganah in Jerusalem, where he was studying philosophy and mathematics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. When the Irgun was established, he was one of its first members, and displayed outstanding military skills.  In 1937 he was appointed by the Irgun as the first Commander of Jerusalem District and a year later, \"Commander in Chief\" of the Irgun. His term as leader was especially marked by violence against Arabs, including a sequence of marketplace bombings. Most of those attacks were in response to Arab violence. Raziel worked with Avraham Stern and Efraim Ilin.  On 17 May 1941 he was sent, with three of his comrades, including Ya'akov Meridor, to Iraq on behalf of the British army to help defeat the Rashid Ali al-Gaylani pro-Axis revolt in the Anglo-Iraqi War. On 20 May a Luftwaffe plane strafed the car in which he was travelling near Habbaniyah, killing him and a British officer. Meridor returned to Palestine and took over command of the Irgun.  In 1955 his remains were exhumed and transferred to Cyprus, and again in 1961 to Jerusalem's Mount Herzl military cemetery. His sister, Esther Raziel-Naor, was later a member of the Knesset for Herut, the party founded by Irgun leader Menachem Begin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemoration.", "content": "Ramat Raziel, a moshav in the Judaean Mountains, is named after Raziel, as well as many streets in Israel bearing his name in commemoration. The Israel postal service issued a stamp in his honor. There is a high-school in Herzliya named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "David Raziel (; 19 November 1910 – 20 May 1941) was a leader of the Zionist underground in British Mandatory Palestine and one of the founders of the Irgun.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976880}
{"src_title": "Sanakht", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Identity.", "content": "Sanakht's identity and position in the Third Dynasty is not entirely clear and remains the subject of debate. While Sanakht's existence is attested by seal fragments from mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf and a graffito, his position as the founder of the Third Dynasty, as recorded by Manetho and the Turin Canon, has been seriously undermined by recent archaeological discoveries at Abydos. These discoveries establish that it was likely Djoser who helped bury—and thus succeed—Khasekhemwy, rather than Sanakht. This is determined from seals bearing Djoser's name found at the entrance to the latter's tomb.  Proponents of the theory that Sanakht was nonetheless the founder of the dynasty object that the presence of Djoser's seals in Khasekhemwy's tomb only shows that Djoser conducted cultural rituals in honor of this king, and does not necessarily imply that Djoser was Khasekhemwy's immediate successor. Sanakht could then have married Queen Nimaethap, with Nimaethap being the daughter of Khasekhemwy rather than his wife. Together with Sanakht, they could be the parents of Djoser. Alternatively, some have considered Sanakht to be Djoser's elder brother.  Presently, the dominant theory is that Sanakht's reign dates to the later Third Dynasty, after Djoser. Egyptologists Toby Wilkinson, Stephan Seidlmayer, Kenneth Kitchen and Rainer Stadelmann equate Sanakht with \"Nebka\", a name appearing in Ramesside king lists. In support of this theory is a clay seal fragment on which the lower part of a cartouche appears. In this cartouche Wilkinson, Seidlmayer and Stadelmann see traces of a \"Ka\"-sign, the end of the name \"Nebka\". Likewise, Dietrich Wildung favors equating Nebka with Sanakht, although he questions the validity of the seal as evidence given that it is too badly damaged to read the inscription within the cartouche as \"Nebka\" with any certainty.  John D. Degreef, Nabil Swelim and Wolfgang Helck are against equating Nebka with Sanakht. They refer to the fact that the name \"Nebka\" is not attested on any monument nor in any document dating to before Djoser. Instead, Nabil Swelim identifies Nebka with the Horus name Khaba. He further identifies Sanakht with a king \"Mesochris\" mentioned by Manetho, regarding this as a Hellenized form of the throne name of Sanakht. He dated Sanakht's reign to between the seventh and eighth king of the Third Dynasty.  Jürgen von Beckerath, Wolfgang Helck, Dietrich Wildung and Peter Kaplony proposed that Sanakht's Horus name is that of the shadowy \"Horus Sa\", seeing the name \"Sa\" as a short form of \"Sanakht\". From this, Wolfgang Helck holds that Sanakht's Nisut-Biti name was Weneg. King Weneg however, is widely held to have ruled during the Second Dynasty and Helck's theory has been greeted with skepticism.  Sanakht's name was once read \"Hen Nekht\" by Egyptologists such as Ernest Wallis Budge. Today, this reading is not in use anymore; the up-to-date reading is \"Sanakht\" or (seldomly) \"Nakht-Sa\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reign.", "content": "The exact duration of Sanakht's time on the throne is unknown. Unlike Djoser, few relics survive from his reign, which casts serious doubts on the traditional figure of 18 years of reign for this king, as given by both Manetho and the Turin Canon. It must be stressed that the Turin Canon and Manetho were more than one and two thousand years removed from the time of Egypt's Third Dynasty, and would be expected to contain some inaccurate or unreliable data. The Turin Canon, for instance, was transcribed on papyri that dates to the reign of the New Kingdom king, Ramesses II, who ruled Egypt from 1279-1213 BC.  Very little is known of Sanakht's activities during his reign. The presence of reliefs depicting him in the Sinai at Wadi Maghareh together with those of Djoser and Sekhemkhet suggest an important Egyptian presence there at the time of the Third Dynasty. Expeditions were launched to that location for the procurement of mineral resources, in particular turquoise.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tomb.", "content": "The location of Sanakht's tomb is not known with certainty. It was long thought that Sanakht's tomb was the large mastaba K2 at Beit Khallaf, as excavations there yielded relief fragments bearing his name. However, some Egyptologists now regard this mastaba as the burial of a high official, prince or queen rather than that of a pharaoh, while others continue to support the first hypothesis.  In the mastaba were found the skeletal remains of a man over tall. According to Charles S. Myers, this stature was considerably taller than the average of prehistoric and later Egyptians. The specimen's skull was very large and capacious. Although his cranial index was unusually broad and almost brachycephalic, the proportions of his long bones were tropically adapted like those of most other ancient Egyptians; especially those from the predynastic period. His overall cranial features, however, were closer to those of dynastic period Egyptian skulls.  Consequently, the mastaba has been associated with an anecdote related by Manetho in which he tells of a late Second Dynasty king, called \"Sesochris\", who he describes as being particularly tall. The Egyptologist Wolfgang Helck proposed another hypothesis; namely, that Sanakht's tomb is an unfinished structure west of the pyramid of Djoser.  While the case of Sanakht has often appeared in the medical literature as a potential case of pituitary disease, no definitive consensus has existed for many years on whether it was acromegaly or gigantism. In 2017 palaeopathologist Francesco M. Galassi and Egyptologist Michael E. Habicht from Zurich University's Institute of Evolutionary Medicine coordinated an international team of researchers to reassess this case. Their conclusion was that the alleged remains of Sanakht are clearly the oldest known case of gigantism in the world.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sanakht (also read as Hor-Sanakht) was an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) of the Third Dynasty during the Old Kingdom. His chronological position is highly uncertain, and it is also unclear under which Hellenized name the ancient historian Manetho could have listed him. Many Egyptologists connect Sanakht with the Ramesside cartouche name \"Nebka\". However, this remains disputed because no further royal title of that king has ever been found; either in contemporary source or later ones. There are two relief fragments depicting Sanakht originally from the Wadi Maghareh on the Sinai Peninsula.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976881}
{"src_title": "Operation Nachshon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "By the end of March 1948, Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni's troops were preventing supply convoys from reaching Jerusalem. The city was besieged and the Jewish population was forced to adhere to a rationing system. On 31 March a 60 vehicle Jewish convoy was ambushed at Khulda and forced to turn back with the loss of five vehicles and 17 dead. Yishuv leader David Ben-Gurion decided to launch Nachshon in order to open up the city and provide supplies to the Jewish residents. Although initially intended as a one-shot affair, Nachshon later proved to be the first operation in the implementation of Plan Dalet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The operation.", "content": "The operation was named after the Biblical figure Nachshon Ben Aminadav, who was the first to wade into the Red Sea when the Hebrews escaped from slavery in Egypt. The operation was commanded by Shimon Avidan.  The first orders were given on 2 April 1948. A telegraph confirming the beginning of the operation, was released on 5 April, with the operation starting that same night. It lasted until 20 April. 1,500 men from the Givati and Harel brigades took control of the road to Jerusalem, allowing three of four convoys to get to the city.  The operation was a military success. All the Arab villages that blocked the route were either taken or destroyed, and the Jewish forces were victorious in all their engagements. Nonetheless, not all the objectives of the operation were achieved, as only 1,800 tonnes of the 3,000 envisaged were transported to the town, and two months of severe rationing had to be assumed.  Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni was killed during the night of 7–8 April, in the middle of the battles taking place in Al-Qastal. The loss of the charismatic Palestinian leader 'disrupted the Arab strategy and organisation in the area of Jerusalem.' His successor, Emil Ghuri, changed tactics: instead of provoking a series of ambushes throughout the route, he had a huge road block erected at Bab-el-Oued, and Jerusalem was once again isolated as a consequence.  During Operation Nachshon the Haganah wanted to attack the strategic village of Abu Gosh but this was opposed by the Stern Gang whose local commanders were on good terms with the mukhtar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Operation Nachshon exposed the poor military organisation of the Palestinian paramilitary groups. Due to lack of logistics, particularly food and ammunition, they were incapable of maintaining engagements that were more than a few hours away from their permanent bases.  Faced with these events, the Arab Higher Committee asked Alan Cunningham to allow the return of the Mufti, the only person capable of redressing the situation. Despite obtaining permission, the Mufti did not get to Jerusalem. His declining prestige cleared the way for the expansion of the influence of the Arab Liberation Army and of Fawzi al-Qawuqji in the Jerusalem area.  Between 15 and 20 April, three convoys, totalling over 700 lorries were able to reach Jewish Jerusalem. The Arabs, however, managed to block the road immediately thereafter. Operation Nachshon was therefore followed by Operation Harel, and immediately thereafter Operation Yevusi. Further operations in the Jerusalem region, Operation Maccabi and Operation Kilshon, took place in May.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Palestinian communities captured during Operation Nachshon.", "content": "Sources:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Operation Nachshon (, \"Mivtza Nahshon\") was a Jewish military operation during the 1948 war. Lasting from 5–16 April 1948, its objective was to break the Siege of Jerusalem by opening the Tel-Aviv – Jerusalem road blockaded by Palestinian Arabs and to supply food and weapons to the isolated Jewish community of Jerusalem. The operation was also known as \"The operation to take control of the Jerusalem road,\", following which participating units later broke-off to form the Harel Brigade.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976882}
{"src_title": "War Merit Cross", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "This award was created by Adolf Hitler in October 1939 as a successor to the non-combatant Iron Cross which was used in earlier wars (similar medal but with a different ribbon). The award was graded in the same manner as the Iron Cross: \"War Merit Cross Second Class\", \"War Merit Cross First Class\", and \"Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross\". The award had two variants: \"with swords\" given to soldiers for exceptional service \"not in direct connection with combat\", and \"without swords\" given to civilians for meritorious service in \"furtherance of the war effort\". Recipients had to have the lower grade of the award before getting the next level.  The wearing of Nazi era decorations was banned in Germany after the war, as was any display of the swastika. Veterans awarded the War Merit Cross were therefore unable to wear it, either in uniform or - publicly - on civilian dress. In 1957 the Federal Republic of Germany authorised alternative 'de-nazified' replacement versions of World War II period war decorations. These could be worn both on \"Bundeswehr\" uniform and in civilian dress. The new version of the War Merit Cross replaced the swastika on the obverse central disc of the cross with the date \"1939\" (as on the reverse disc of the original version), the reverse disc being blank. The wearing of Nazi era decorations in any form continued to be banned in the German Democratic Republic until German reunification in 1990.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criteria.", "content": "The ribbon of the War Merit Cross was in red-white-black-white-red; that was, the red and black colors being reversed from the ribbon of the World War II version of the Iron Cross. The ribbon for the War Merit Medal was similar, but with a narrow vertical red strip in the center of the black field. Soldiers who earned the War Merit Cross 2nd Class with Swords wore a small crossed-swords device on the ribbon. The War Merit Cross 1st Class was a pin-backed medal worn on the pocket of the tunic (like the Iron Cross 1st Class). The ribbon of the War Merit Cross 2nd Class could be worn like the ribbon of the Iron Cross 2nd Class (through the second buttonhole). Nonetheless combat soldiers tended to hold the War Merit Cross in low regard, referring to its wearers as being in 'Iron Cross Training'. The Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross was a neck order and worn the same way as the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross.  There was one extra grade of the War Merit Cross, which was created at the suggestion of Albert Speer: \"The Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross in Gold\" (), but this was never officially placed on the list of national awards as it came about in late 1944 and there was no time to officially promulgate the award before the war ended. The Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross in Gold (without swords) was awarded 'on paper' to two recipients on 20 April 1945: Franz Hahne and Karl-Otto Saur.  The Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross was considered to be ranked higher than the German Cross in silver, but below the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross. A total of 118 awards of the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross with swords, and 137 awards without swords were awarded. Considering the relative rarity of the award compared with the grades of the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross, it took on \"extra meaning\" it did not necessarily deserve, as it ranked below the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross. For example, \"Reichsmarschall\" Hermann Göring made a concerted effort to get Hitler to award him this order, much to Hitler's annoyance. In response, Hitler outlined a series of criteria governing the awarding of this decoration and the philosophy of such awards, and directed that \"prominent party comrades\" were not to be awarded with the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross (or similar decorations), and withdrew the proposed awards of this order to Gauleiter Erich Koch and Herbert Backe. Directing his comments at Göring personally, Hitler ordered that such attempts to gain this award be stopped. Also, six persons received two Knights Cross' of the War Merit Cross (each one with and without Swords): Walter Brugmann, Julius Dorpmüller, Karl-Otto Saur, Albin Sawatzki, Walter Schreiber, and Walter Rohlandt. Closely related to the War Merit Cross was the War Merit Medal (), designated on 19 August 1940 for civilians to recognize outstanding service in the war effort. It was usually awarded to those workers in factories who significantly exceeded work quotas. The War Merit Medal was awarded to Germans and non-Germans, to men and women. An estimated 4.9 million medals were awarded by the end of the war in Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In the movie \"Inglourious Basterds\", SS Colonel Hans Landa (Christoph Waltz) is shown wearing the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross with Swords while in dress uniform. In the film \"Enemy at the Gates\", Major Konig (Ed Harris) mentions that his son was posthumously awarded the War Merit Cross. In Where Eagles Dare, Clint Eastwood, masquerading as an Alpenkorps lieutanant, is shown wearing the War Merit Cross First Class with Swords on his uniform tunic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The War Merit Cross () was a federal decoration of Germany during World War II. By the end of the conflict it was issued in four degrees and had an equivalent civil award. A \"de-Nazified\" version of the War Merit Cross was reissued in 1957 by the \"Bundeswehr\" for its veterans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976883}
{"src_title": "Mont Pelerin Society", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Aims.", "content": "In its \"Statement of Aims\" on 8 April 1947, the scholars were worried about the dangers faced by civilization, stating the following: The group also stated that it is \"difficult to imagine a society in which freedom may be effectively preserved\" without the \"diffused power and initiative\" associated with \"private property and the competitive market\" and found it desirable inter alia to study the following matters:  The group \"seeks to establish no meticulous and hampering orthodoxy\", \"conduct propaganda\" or align with some party. It aims to facilitate \"the exchange of views [...] to contribute to the preservation and improvement of the free society\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The MPS was created on 10 April 1947 at a conference organized by Friedrich Hayek. Originally, it was to be named the Acton-Tocqueville Society. After Frank Knight protested against naming the group after two \"Roman Catholic aristocrats\" and Ludwig von Mises expressed concern that the mistakes made by Acton and Tocqueville would be connected with the society, the decision was made to name it after Mont Pèlerin, the Swiss resort where it convened.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 1947, thirty-nine scholars, mostly economists with some historians and philosophers, were invited by Friedrich Hayek to meet to discuss the state and possible fate of classical liberalism, his goal being an organization which would resist interventionism and promote his conception of classical liberalism. He wanted to discuss how to combat the \"state ascendancy and Marxist or Keynesian planning [that was] sweeping the globe\". The first meeting took place in the Hotel du Parc in the Swiss village of Mont Pèlerin, near the city of Vevey, Switzerland. Funding for the conference came from various sources including the William Volker Fund thanks to Harold Luhnow and the Bank of England owing to the help of Alfred Suenson-Taylor. William Rappard, a Swiss academic, diplomat and founder of the Graduate Institute of International Studies, addressed the society's inaugural meeting. In his \"Opening Address to a Conference at Mont Pelerin\", Hayek mentioned \"two men with whom I had most fully discussed the plan for this meeting both have not lived to see its realisation\", namely Henry Simons (who trained Milton Friedman, a future president of the MPS, at the University of Chicago) and John Clapham, a British economic historian.  The MPS aimed to \"facilitate an exchange of ideas between like-minded scholars in the hope of strengthening the principles and practice of a free society and to study the workings, virtues, and defects of market-oriented economic systems\". The MPS has continued to meet regularly, the General Meeting every two years and the regional meetings annually. The current president of the MPS is Pedro Schwartz Giron. It has close ties to the network of think tanks sponsored in part by the Atlas Economic Research Foundation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "Hayek stressed that the society was to be a scholarly community arguing against collectivism while not engaging in public relations or propaganda. The society has become part of an international think tank movement and Hayek used it as a forum to encourage members such as Antony Fisher to pursue the think tank route. Fisher has established the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) in London during 1955, the Manhattan Institute for Policy Research in New York City in 1977 and the Atlas Economic Research Foundation in 1981. Now known as the Atlas Network, they support a wide network of think tanks, including the Fraser Institute.  Prominent MPS members who advanced to policy positions included the late Chancellor Ludwig Erhard of West Germany, President Luigi Einaudi of Italy, Chairman Arthur F. Burns of the Federal Reserve Board and Secretary of State George Shultz. Among prominent contemporary political figures, former President Václav Klaus of the Czech Republic and acting politicians, such as Prime Minister Ranil Wickremasinghe of Sri Lanka, former Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe of the United Kingdom, former Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs and Minister of Defence Antonio Martino, Chilean Finance Minister Carlos Cáceres and former New Zealand Finance Minister Ruth Richardson, are all MPS members. Of 76 economic advisers on Ronald Reagan's 1980 campaign staff, 22 were MPS members.  Several leading journalists, including Pulitzer Prize-winning columnist Walter Lippmann, former radical Max Eastman (then roving editor at \"Reader's Digest\"), John Chamberlain (former editorial writer for \"Life\" magazine), Henry Hazlitt (former financial editor of \"The New York Times\" and columnist for \"Newsweek\"), John Davenport (holder of editorial posts at \"Fortune\" and \"Barron's\") and Felix Morley (Pulitzer Prize-winning editor at \"The Washington Post\"), have also been members. Members of the MPS have also been well represented on the Committee for the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel.  Eight MPS members, Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman, George Stigler, Maurice Allais, James M. Buchanan, Ronald Coase, Gary Becker and Vernon Smith have won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Graeme Maxton and Jørgen Randers note that it is no surprise that so many MPS members have won a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences because the MPS helped to create that award, specifically to legitimize free-market economic thinking.  In the \"2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report\" (Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program, University of Pennsylvania), the MPS is noted as having the 9th (out of 55) \"Best Think Tank Conference\".  In 2018, the Swiss blockchain banking Fintech company Mt Pelerin has named itself after the Mont Pelerin Society as an hommage to the values that the organization advocates.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Past presidents.", "content": "Numerous notable economists have served as president of the MPS:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mont Pelerin Society (MPS) is an international neoliberal organization composed of economists, philosophers, historians, intellectuals and business leaders. The members see the MPS as an effort to interpret in modern terms the fundamental principles of economic society as expressed by classical Western economists, political scientists and philosophers. Its founders included Friedrich Hayek, Frank Knight, Karl Popper, Ludwig von Mises, George Stigler and Milton Friedman. The society advocates freedom of expression, free market economic policies and the political values of an open society. Further, the society seeks to discover ways in which free enterprise can replace many functions currently provided by government entities.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976884}
{"src_title": "Les UX", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "With its start in September 1981, the founders of the group stole plans of the many underground passageways and tunnels for which Paris is famous. Using this information as a base,  the group of anonymous artists and citizens have since restored much of Paris's underground infrastructure, including the Pantheon clock which chimed for the first time in many years after its repair. The group is also responsible for over a dozen other projects, including those which the French government have not chosen to do or for which they lack funds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organisation.", "content": "The organization is divided into teams: an all-female team (the Mouse House) specializing in infiltration, a team running an internal messaging system and coded radio network, a team providing a database, a team organizing underground shows, a team doing photography, and a team (Untergunther) doing restoration.  Untergunther's membership includes architects and historians. In October 2007, they received attention for a project, assisted by professional clockmaker Jean-Baptiste Viot, to clandestinely restore the famous clock in the Panthéon. Never caught, upon completion they announced their work at a meeting with the administrator of the Panthéon, who called the police.  La Mexicaine De Perforation (The Mexican Consolidated Drilling Authority) is another subdivision of the \"UX\" which provides clandestine artistic events.  In September 2004, French police discovered an underground movie theatre run by La Mexicaine De Perforation. The makeshift theatre contained a movie screen, a well stocked bar, and a kitchen. Telephones and electricity were brought in from an unknown location. Movie titles ranging from 1950s classics to modern thrillers were also discovered. When the police returned for a formal investigation, all the equipment had disappeared — all that was left was a note on the floor reading, \"Ne cherchez pas\" (\"Do not search\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Official reaction.", "content": "Parisian authorities oppose the group's actions and have started a police unit to track the group through the sewers and catacombs of Paris in an attempt to apprehend and charge its members.  Charges were brought against the four Untergunther restorers of the Pantheon clock, but at trial, after 20 minutes' deliberation, the judge ruled in their favor. One of the government's prosecutors referred to the charges as \"stupid\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The UX (short for \"Urban eXperiment\") is an underground organization that improves hidden corners of Paris. Their work includes restoring the Pantheon clock, building a cinema – complete with a bar and a restaurant – in a section of the Paris Catacombs underneath the Trocadéro, restoring medieval crypts, and staging plays and readings in monuments after dark. The group's membership is largely secret, but its spokespeople include Lazar Kunstmann.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976885}
{"src_title": "Russian cruiser Almaz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "\"Almaz\" had her first keel plate laid down at the Baltic Shipyard on 25 September 1902, in the presence of Tsar Nicholai II, Grand Duke Konstantin and King George I of Greece. She was launched on 2 July 1902, and completed in December that year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service history.", "content": "\"Almaz\" was commissioned into the Baltic Fleet in 1903. At the start of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), she was assigned to the Baltic Fleet, and was subsequently transferred to the Second Pacific Squadron, which transited the Suez Canal under the command of Admiral Dmitry von Fölkersam. On 28 May 1905, with most of the ships in the Russian fleet destroyed or captured at the Battle of Tsushima, \"Almaz\" was the only major ship to reach Vladivostok after the battle. She returned to the Baltic Fleet after the war, serving as an aviso and temporarily as an imperial yacht in 1908. In 1911, after repairs, she was transferred to the Black Sea Fleet and at the start of World War I was rebuilt as a seaplane tender in 1914, carrying four seaplanes. She was at the Battle of Cape Sarych on 5 November 1914.  However, the crew of \"Almaz\" revolted in early 1918, joining the Rumcherod against the authority of the Ukrainian People's Republic and supporting the Odessa Soviet Republic. The ship became the center of a “people marine military tribunal”, where many officers of the former Imperial Russian Navy were imprisoned, tortured and executed. In September 1918, while docked as Sevastopol, \"Almaz\" was captured by the White movement forces. In 1920 she was interned at Bizerta with the remainder of Wrangel's fleet.  On 29 October 1924, she was turned over to the Soviet Union by France, and was subsequently sold to a French firm for scrap in 1934.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Almaz (; literally \"Diamond\") was a 2nd-class cruiser in the Imperial Russian Navy, built by Baltic Shipyard in Saint Petersburg, Russia, as a yacht for Viceroy Yevgeni Alekseyev,", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976886}
{"src_title": "American Pastoral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Causes.", "content": "Hypoventilation may be caused by:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medications.", "content": "As a side effect of medicines or recreational drugs, hypoventilation may become potentially life-threatening. Many different central nervous system (CNS) depressant drugs such as ethanol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, GHB, sedatives, and opioids produce respiratory depression when taken in large or excessive doses, or mixed with other depressants. Strong opiates (such as fentanyl, heroin, and morphine), barbiturates, and certain benzodiazepines (short acting ones and alprazolam) are known for depressing respiration. In an overdose, an individual may cease breathing entirely (go into respiratory arrest) which is rapidly fatal without treatment. Opioids, in overdose or combined with other depressants, are notorious for such fatalities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "Respiratory stimulants such as nikethamide were traditionally used to counteract respiratory depression from CNS depressant overdose, but offered limited effectiveness. A new respiratory stimulant drug called BIMU8 is being investigated which seems to be significantly more effective and may be useful for counteracting the respiratory depression produced by opiates and similar drugs without offsetting their therapeutic effects.  If the respiratory depression occurs from opioid overdose, usually an opioid antagonist, most likely naloxone, will be administered. This will rapidly reverse the respiratory depression unless complicated by other depressants. However an opioid antagonist may also precipitate an opioid withdrawal syndrome in chronic users. Mechanical ventilation may still be necessary during initial resuscitation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Associated conditions.", "content": "Disorders like congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) and ROHHAD (rapid-onset obesity, hypothalamic dysfunction, hypoventilation, with autonomic dysregulation) are recognized as conditions that are associated with hypoventilation. CCHS may be a significant factor in some cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), often termed \"cot death\" or \"crib death\".  The opposite condition is hyperventilation (too much ventilation), resulting in low carbon dioxide levels (hypocapnia), rather than hypercapnia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "American Pastoral is a Philip Roth novel published in 1997 concerning Seymour \"Swede\" Levov, a successful Jewish American businessman and former high school star athlete from Newark, New Jersey. Levov's happy and conventional upper middle class life is ruined by the domestic social and political turmoil of the 1960s during the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson, which in the novel is described as a manifestation of the \"indigenous American berserk\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976887}
{"src_title": "Czechs in Ukraine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Between 1868 and 1880, almost 16,000 Czechs left Austria-Hungary for the Russian Empire. The reasons for their departure were the difficult living conditions in the Czech lands, and the rumors of prosperity in the Russian realm, where there was a large amount of unused agricultural land. After the collapse of the Polish January Uprising against Russian rule (Volhynia was part of Poland prior to the Second and Third Partition of Poland, carried out in 1793 and 1795, respectively), harsh reprisals against the Poles followed. The Russian government imposed taxes on Polish landed gentry or even confiscated Polish estates. The local government in the region attracted new immigrants with a number of advantages, such as the right to purchase their own land for low prices, and the establishment of manufacturing businesses. Also, they gave the migrants the right to national education, self-government and religious freedom. Immigrants were exempt for 20 years from tax, and exonerated from military duty.  The bulk of the Czechs settled in the region of Volhynia. Some villages were set up in flat meadows, while others were located near existing Ukrainian villages. Local Czech names for the villages they lived in were formed from the original name of the village, which was supplemented with the word \"Czech\" (eg České Noviny, Český Malín, Český Boratín, Český Straklov, etc.) Apart from agriculture, Czech immigrants began to engage in other activities, such as industry, trade and crafts. The income for most ethnic Czechs had its foundations in the engineering, breweries, mills, cement plants, etc. In their communities, schools, churches, and libraries were founded, and because of this, cultural and social life flourished. Czech immigrants have made a major contribution to increasing the economic and cultural level in the built-up areas.  Outside Volhynia, in 1905 the Czechs founded the village of Bohemka, nowadays part of the Mykolaiv Oblast.  After the outbreak of World War I, Volhynian Czechs fought as members of the Russian army in the so-called Czech League, which later became the birthplace of the Czech legions in Russia to come.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interwar period.", "content": "After the Soviet-Polish War, which ended in 1921 with the defeat of the Red Army, Volhynia was divided. The western half was recovered by Poland, while the eastern part became part of the newly established Soviet Union. While the Czech villages on the Polish side gradually renewed and modernized, the populations of the villages in Ukraine became victims of the violent national policy of the Soviet government. They limited Czech education, culture and religion. Many lost their property, and were violently forced out of their homes by kolkhozs. Representatives mainly touched upon the Czech intelligentsia, but did not escape any component of the population. Many Volhynian Czechs were sentenced to death, or were virtually so in the gulags - which happened to many minorities at the time. In 1938, a complete ban on teaching in or about the Czech language was issued.  Volhynian Czechs were the largest group of the Czechs in interbellum Poland. One of their main centers was Kvasyliv. In the 1930s, as a result of Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts, Czechs also experienced trouble in Poland, where anti-Czech propaganda was distributed by the government. This resulted in the demands of the Polish population to liquidate Czech education, or to withdraw land from Czech peasants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "When the Soviet Union occupied eastern Poland in 1939, the two parts of Volhynia were reunited. However, it was occupied by Nazi Germany in 1941. In July 1942, the first Czechoslovak Independent Field Battalion was formed. In 1943, the 1st Czechoslovak Independent Brigade was established, which numbered 3,517 soldiers. Volhynian men who fought in the ranks of the Red Army, but also those who were in Soviet captivity, reported themselves to these troops. Some of them even left to fight with Czech units in Western Europe, as many escaped Polish troops did as well. The situation of Volhynian Czechs living in villages under the German occupation administration has not changed much. The Soviet republics were replaced by violence by the Ukrainian Nationalist Organization, but especially by the SS, who burned several villages and massacred the local population. On July 13, 1943, the Germans burned village of Český Malín to the ground, with people including the elderly, women and children being burned alive in the buildings. In total, there were 374 Czech citizens. In the autumn of the same year, the Nazis were murdered by another Czech village, Sergiyevka-Mikna. In March 1944 the Czechs to the resort Volyňských Rovno relocated to the First Czechoslovak Independent Brigade, which recruited former compatriots. 12,000 Volhynian Czechs entered the troops, including six hundred women. Thanks to this, the First Czechoslovak Army Corps, which had passed the battle route to Prague, became the brigade.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "May 1945 and the following years.", "content": "After the liberation of Czechoslovakia, the Volhynian Czechs who were members of the Czechoslovak brigades remained. After the war, the door of re-emigration for Volhynian Czechs to Czechoslovakia opened on the basis of an interstate agreement between the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic and the Soviet Union. The first transport was welcomed in Žatec at the beginning of 1947, when Czechoslovakia began to come not only to those who lived in the USSR but also to those who returned from forced labor on the former territory of the Third Reich. In total, there were approximately 40,000 people. Most of them were settled in territories from which the Sudeten Germans had been expelled. Many Volhynian Czechs gave information about life in the Soviet Union, and warned about the setting up of kolkhozes, etc. After Czechoslovakia became a formally communist nation in 1948, Ukrainian Czech truth-sayers were persecuted. Some Volhynian Czechs remained in the Soviet Union even after the end of the Second World War. Of those who did not emigrate, a great majority were in inter-ethnic marriages - which thus did not allow them to leave. Mostly, they were women with ethnic Ukrainian husbands. Some others stayed of their own choice.  During the Soviet era, they were one of the most affected groups by the Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster in 1986. At the end of the 1980s, ten thousand Czechs lived in Ukraine. At the beginning of the 90s Czechoslovakia invited these remaining Czechs to return to the Czech Republic, which in 1993 almost 2,000 people did, and other people came to the Czech Republic in later years. As of today, Volhynian Czechs are still migrating.  In 2014, after the revolution in Ukraine and the occupation of Crimea by Russia, some of the Volhynian Czechs from the Zhytomyr region expressed their interest in returning to their native homeland.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Czechs in Ukraine, often known as Volhynian Czechs (Czech: \"Volyňští Češi\"), are ethnic Czechs or their descendants settled mostly in the Volhynia region of Ukraine, in the second half of the 19th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976888}
{"src_title": "Petr Buzek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Prior to his selection at the 1995 NHL Entry Draft, Buzek was involved in a serious car collision in 1995 after falling asleep at the wheel and colliding with a tree. He broke both his legs, nose and wrist, shattered his right kneecap, fractured his left cheekbone and cracked his forehead. After numerous operations, he had a metal plate and ten screws inserted into his left leg, a plate and seven screws inserted into right ankle, two screws in his right knee and two screws in his left wrist. The accident dropped his stock considerably as he was projected as a top 10 pick, before he was drafted in the third round by the Dallas Stars.  Buzek played three seasons with the Michigan K-Wings of the International Hockey League, during which he also appeared in four games with the Stars. Buzek joined the Atlanta Thrashers in the 1999 NHL Expansion Draft, and was named to the 2000 All-Star Game as the Thrashers' first-ever representative.  Despite his success in their inaugural season, Buzek appeared in only 14 more games with the Thrashers in the next two seasons before being traded to the Calgary Flames, along with a draft pick, in exchange for Jeff Cowan and Kurtis Foster. Buzek appeared in 76 games in a season and a half with the Flames.  Buzek returned to the Czech Republic for the 2003–04 season, playing for HC Sparta Praha. The next season, he played for HC Jihlava and then moved to HC Litvínov before moving to the Slovak Extraliga to play for HC Slovan Bratislava. On October 18, 2005, Buzek announced his retirement from hockey, citing personal reasons for his decision.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Petr Buzek (born April 26, 1977) is a Czech former ice hockey defenceman. He was drafted in the third round, 63rd overall, by the Dallas Stars in the 1995 NHL Entry Draft. After five seasons in the NHL, he returned to the Czech Extraliga in 2003 until his retirement in 2005.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976889}
{"src_title": "George Rudolf of Liegnitz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "George Rudolf was born in Ohlau, the third but second surviving son of Joachim Frederick of Brieg, Duke of Liegnitz-Brieg (Legnica-Brzeg) and Anna Maria of Anhalt, daughter of Joachim Ernest, Prince of Anhalt. At the death of their father in 1602, George Rudolf and his older brother John Christian were minors, and their mother, the Dowager Duchess Anna Maria, became regent. After her death in 1605, the regency was taken by the paternal aunt of the young Dukes (the only surviving sibling of the late Joachim Frederick), Elisabeth Magdalena of Brieg and her husband, Karl II of Poděbrady, Duke of Münsterberg-Oels (Ziębice-Oleśnica). In 1609 John Christian became an adult and handled the government and George Rudolf's guardianship. When in 1612 George Rudolf became of age, the brothers divided their domains, Georg Rudolf ruling over \"Liegnitz\" (present-day Legnica, Wołów, Złotoryja, Grodźca, Lubin, Prochowice, Wińsko, Wąsosz, Ryczeń and Rudna and from 1616 on Chojnów) and John Christian over \"Brieg\" (present-day Brzeg, Oława, Strzelin, Niemcza, Kluczbork and Byczyna).  Following the example of his brother, George Rudolf converted to Calvinism in 1614. During the Thirty Years' War, he was exiled for fifteen years (1633–1648) as a result of the occupation of his land by the Habsburg Imperial army, though he nominally retained the government.  George Rudolf, as a ruler, was thoroughly educated and supported the development of culture and science. In particular, he is known as the creator of the famous \"Biblioteca Rudolphina\". In his court were reunited prominent scholars, poets and composers such as Martin Opitz and Friedrich von Logau, who often found asylum and protection at his court. He also promoted musical education; the Duke trained in composing competitions during a stay in Frankfurt, and collected prints and manuscripts of music works. During this time, he met one of the most prominent composers of his era, Heinrich Schütz, who dedicated to George Rudolf his collection of religious songs \"Cantiones sacrae\". Some surviving compositions by George Rudolf were recorded by Ars Nova on the CD \"Rudolphina - Legnica Treasures\" under direction of the Polish musician Jacek Urbaniak.  In Dessau on 4 November 1614, George Rudolf married his first cousin Sophie Elisabeth (10 February 1589 - 9 February 1622), daughter of his maternal uncle John George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau. His second marriage (on 25 November 1624) was to another first cousin: Elisabeth Magdalena (29 May 1599 - 4 November 1631), daughter of aforementioned Duke Karl II and George Rudolf's paternal aunt Elisabeth Magdalena of Brieg. Both marriages were childless. Twice widowed, George Rudolf remained single for the next twenty-two years, until his death at Breslau. His lands were inherited by his nephews George III, Louis IV and Christian, the three only surviving sons of the first (and only equal) marriage of his brother John Christian, who had died in 1639.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George Rudolf of Liegnitz (; ) (22 January 1595 – 14 January 1653) was duke of Liegnitz-Wohlau (present-day Legnica-Wołów) from 1602 to 1653. A humanist, patron of arts, composer and poet, he was also Upper Governor of Silesia during 1621-1628 and from 1641 onwards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976890}
{"src_title": "Matt Hendricks", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amateur.", "content": "Hendricks was drafted out of high school, 131st overall, in the fourth round of the 2000 NHL Entry Draft by the Nashville Predators. He played his prep hockey at Blaine High School in Blaine, Minnesota, an integral piece of the Blaine Bengals 2000 Class AA State Championship team where they defeated the Duluth East Greyhounds 6–0 in the final. Hendricks accumulated 110 points in 43 games during his prep career, and was later named a finalist for the 2000 Mr. Hockey Award. The \"St. Paul Pioneer Press\" named Hendricks, along with teammates Brandon Bochenski and Matt Moore, to the second team of the All-State Boys hockey team.  Hendricks was drafted by the United States Hockey League (USHL)'s Lincoln Stars during the 2000 USHL Winter Draft, but instead began his collegiate career in the NCAA with St. Cloud State University of the Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA). Hendricks commenced play for the St. Cloud State Huskies as a true freshman during the 2000–01 season. In 2002–03, Hendricks led the Huskies in goals (18) as a junior.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "Immediately after his senior year with the Huskies, Hendricks made his professional debut with the Nashville Predators' top minor league affiliate, the Milwaukee Admirals of the American Hockey League (AHL), to end the 2003–04 season. After turning down a contract offer with the Predators, Hendricks became a free agent and signed with the Florida Everblades of the ECHL.  During his time with the Everblades in the 2004–05 season, Hendricks also signed a professional try-out agreement with the AHL's Lowell Lock Monsters, appearing in 15 games. He spent the 2005–06 season with the Rochester Americans before moving onto the Hershey Bears for the 2006–07 campaign.  Hendricks enjoyed a successful season in 2006–07, helping Hershey to the Calder Cup Finals, adding 12 points in 19 playoff contests. He was then signed by the Boston Bruins to a two-year contract on the July 9, 2007. He was assigned to Boston's AHL affiliate, the Providence Bruins, where he scored a career-high 52 points in the 2007–08 season.  On June 24, 2008, Hendricks was traded by the Bruins to the Colorado Avalanche in exchange for defenseman Johnny Boychuk. The Avalanche subsequently assigned him to their AHL affiliate, the Lake Erie Monsters, for the 2008–09 season until he was recalled to Colorado on March 9, 2009. He made his NHL debut with the Avalanche the next day, on March 10, 2009, in a 3–0 loss to the Atlanta Thrashers.  For the 2009–10 season, Hendricks made the Avalanche's opening night roster out of the organization's training camp. On October 10, 2009, he scored his first career NHL goal in a 4–3 loss against Cristobal Huet of the Chicago Blackhawks. Hendricks finished his first full NHL season with nine goals and 16 points in 56 games while also earning the Avalanche's nomination for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, awarded annually to the \"National Hockey League player who best exemplifies the qualities of, sportsmanship, and dedication to hockey.\"  On September 27, 2010, Hendricks signed a one-year contract with the Washington Capitals after attending the team's training camp on a try-out basis. He signed with Washington based on his desire to play under the tutelage of then-Head Coach Bruce Boudreau, with whom he had previously played for with the Hershey Bears in 2006–07. Hendricks made his 2010–11 season debut with the Capitals on October 8, 2010, in a 4–2 defeat to the Atlanta Thrashers. He notched his first point, an assist, with Washington in his third game on October 11, 2010, against the Ottawa Senators. He scored his first goal as a Capital on October 27, 2010, the eventual game-winner, against Cam Ward of the Carolina Hurricanes in a 3–0 win.  On February 23, 2011, Hendricks signed a two-year, $1.65 million contract extension with Washington. Hendricks was a Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy nominee for the second year in a row after the Capitals named him their nominee in April 2011, though he was not one of the three finalists for the award.  Unable to agree on a new contract with the Capitals, Hendricks was signed as a free agent to a four-year contract to return to the organization that originally drafted him, the Nashville Predators, on July 5, 2013.  In the 2013–14 season, Hendricks struggled to meet the expectations of his new contract with the Predators, producing just four points in 44 games at the midpoint of the season. On January 15, 2014, he was traded to the Edmonton Oilers in exchange for goaltender Devan Dubnyk. In his second season with the Oilers, in 2014–15, his first full campaign in Edmonton, Hendricks rebounded offensively with 16 points in 71 games. In adding a veteran presence to the youthful Oilers, Hendricks' work ethic was rewarded in the form of a third nomination for the Masterton Memorial Trophy.  On August 27, 2017, Hendricks signed a one-year, $700,000 contract with the Winnipeg Jets. In the 2017–18 season, Hendricks totalled 8 goals and 13 points in 60 games with the Winnipeg Jets. He ranked second amongst Winnipeg forwards in shorthanded time on ice and ranked fifth on the team in hits. He appeared in 5 playoff games with the Jets, used in a fourth-line role.  Hendricks left the Jets after one season and on July 1, 2018, he signed as a free agent with his hometown team, the Minnesota Wild, on a one-year, $700,000 contract for the 2018–19 season. Hendricks registered 2 assists in the 22 games he was dressed before he was traded back to the Winnipeg Jets at the trade deadline for a 7th round draft pick in 2020.  On June 25, 2019, Hendricks ended his 15 year playing career, accepting a position in player development for the Minnesota Wild.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "At completion of the 2014–15 season with the Oilers, at the age of 33, Hendricks was selected to play in his first international tournament after earning a place on Team USA for the 2015 World Championships in Prague, Czech Republic. As a veteran presence on the American squad, he was announced as team captain on eve of the tournament. In the opening game of the Championships, on May 1, 2015, Hendricks marked his international debut against Finland by scoring two goals in a 5–1 victory. Hendricks would lead Team USA to claim top position after the round robin stage and finished the Tournament with 3 points in 10 games, to help claim a Bronze medal against host country the Czech Republic on May 17, 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Hendricks grew up in Blaine, Minnesota, son to an American Marine and a Swedish mother. In his spare time he enjoys playing golf.  Hendricks and his wife Kimberly have twins, a boy and a girl, born November 10, 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Matthew James Hendricks (born June 17, 1981) is an American former professional ice hockey left winger who played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Colorado Avalanche, Washington Capitals, Nashville Predators, Edmonton Oilers, Winnipeg Jets and the Minnesota Wild. He was drafted 131st overall by the Predators in 2000, though he didn't play for the organization until signing as a free agent for the 2013–14 season.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976891}
{"src_title": "Marmalade", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "The Romans learned from the Greeks that quinces slowly cooked with honey would \"set\" when cool. The \"Apicius\" gives a recipe for preserving whole quinces, stems and leaves attached, in a bath of honey diluted with defrutum—Roman marmalade. Preserves of quince and lemon appear—along with rose, apple, plum and pear—in the \"Book of ceremonies\" of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII \"\".  Medieval quince preserves, which went by the French name ', produced in a clear version and a fruit pulp version, began to lose their medieval seasoning of spices in the 16th century. In the 17th century, La Varenne provided recipes for both thick and clear '.  In 1524, Henry VIII received a \"box of marmalade\" from Mr Hull of Exeter. As it was in a box, this was probably \"\", a solid quince paste from Portugal, still made and sold in southern Europe. Its Portuguese origins can be detected in the remarks in letters to Lord Lisle, from William Grett, 12 May 1534, \"I have sent to your lordship a box of marmaladoo, and another unto my good lady your wife\" and from Richard Lee, 14 December 1536, \"He most heartily thanketh her Ladyship for her marmalado\". It was a favorite treat of Anne Boleyn and her ladies in waiting.  The English recipe book of Eliza Cholmondeley, dated from 1677 and held at the Chester Record Office in the Cheshire county archivists, has one of the earliest marmalade recipes (\"Marmelet of Oranges\") which produced a firm, thick dark paste. The Scots are credited with developing marmalade as a spread, with Scottish recipes in the 18th century using more water to produce a less solid preserve.  The first printed recipe for orange marmalade, though without the chunks typically used now, was in Mary Kettilby's 1714 cookery book, \"A Collection of above Three Hundred Receipts\" (pages 78–79). Kettilby called for whole oranges, lemon juice and sugar, with the acid in the lemon juice helping to create the pectin set of marmalade, by boiling the lemon and orange juice with the pulp. Kettilby then directs: \"boil the whole pretty fast 'till it will jelly\" – the first known use of the word \"jelly\" in marmalade making. Kettilby then instructs that the mixture is then poured into glasses, covered and left until set. As the acid would create a jelly, this meant that the mixture could be pulled from the heat before it had turned to a paste, keeping the marmalade much brighter and the appearance more translucent, as in modern-day marmalade.  The Scots moved marmalade to the breakfast table, and in the 19th century the English followed the Scottish example and abandoned the eating of marmalade in the evening. Marmalade's place in British life appears in literature. James Boswell remarks that he and Samuel Johnson were offered it at breakfast in Scotland in 1773. When American writer Louisa May Alcott visited Britain in the 1800s, she described \"a choice pot of marmalade and a slice of cold ham\" as \"essentials of English table comfort\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Marmalade\" first appeared in the English language in 1480, borrowed from French which, in turn, came from the Galician-Portuguese word. According to José Pedro Machado’s, the oldest known document where this Portuguese word is to be found is Gil Vicente’s play \"Comédia de Rubena\", written in 1521:  The extension of \"marmalade\" in the English language to refer to a preserve made from citrus fruits occurred in the 17th century, when citrus first began to be plentiful enough in England for the usage to become common.  Greek'sweet apple', from 'honey' + 'apple, round fruit', became Portuguese 'quince'.  In Portuguese, is a preserve made from quinces, quince cheese.  There is an apocryphal story that Mary, Queen of Scots, ate it when she had a headache, and that the name is derived from her maids' whisper of ('Mary is ill'). In reality, the word's origin has nothing to do with Mary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International usage.", "content": "In much of Europe and Latin America, cognates for the English term \"marmalade\" are still used as a generic term for pulpy preserves of all fruits, whereas in Britain it refers solely to preserves typically of citrus peel, such as from grapefruit, orange or lemon. The name originated in the 16th century from Middle French and Portuguese, where applied to quince jam.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legal definitions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Canadian regulations.", "content": "Under the Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870), marmalade is a standardized food and defined as a food of jelly-like composition that consists of at least 65% water-soluble solids. The regulations permit the use of pH adjusting agents to prevent the marmalade from dehydration, antifoaming agents to prevent blemishes on surface coatings and enable efficient filling of containers, and an acid ingredient to compensate for the natural acidity of the citrus fruit used. If pectin is added, the marmalade must contain at least 27% of peel, pulp, or juice of citrus fruit. Class II preservatives may also be used.  The Canadian Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870) specify that pineapple or fig marmalade must be of jelly-like consistency, achieved by boiling the pulp of juice of the fruit with water, and a sweetening ingredient. Pineapple or fig marmalade should contain at least 45% of the named fruit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "European regulation.", "content": "Since 1979, the EU directive 79/693/CEE define marmalade as a jam made from citrus fruits. The directive was replaced on 20/12/2001 by the ruling 32001L0113.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dundee marmalade.", "content": "The Scottish city of Dundee has a long association with marmalade. James Keiller and his wife Janet ran a small sweet and preserves shop in the Seagate area of Dundee. In 1797, they opened a factory to produce \"Dundee Marmalade\", a preserve distinguished by thick chunks of bitter Seville orange rind. The business prospered, and remains a signature marmalade producer today.  According to a Scottish legend, the creation of orange marmalade in Dundee occurred by accident. The legend tells of a ship carrying a cargo of oranges that broke down in the port, resulting in some ingenious locals making marmalade out of the cargo. However, this legend was \"decisively disproved by food historians\", according to a \"New York Times\" report.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In children's literature.", "content": "Paddington Bear is known for his liking of marmalade, particularly in sandwiches, and kept it in his briefcase wherever he went. Paddington Bear is now used on the label of the smaller peel (\"shred\") and clearer/milder Robertson's \"Golden Shred\" marmalade, in place of the previous icon, \"Golliwog\", which is considered racially offensive. The 2014 movie \"Paddington\" led to a slight increase in marmalade sales in the UK.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marmalade is a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. The well-known version is made from bitter orange, but it is also made from lemons, limes, grapefruits, mandarins, sweet oranges, bergamots, and other citrus fruits, or a combination.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976892}
{"src_title": "The Cranes Are Flying", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "Fyodor Ivanovich is a doctor who lives with his son, Boris; his daughter, Irina; his mother; and his nephew, Mark. The film centers on Boris's girlfriend, Veronika, during World War II. The character of Veronika represents Soviet women and civil society during the aforementioned war and in its aftermath.  The call to war sounds, and the country responds with great patriotic fervor. Boris volunteers to defend his homeland from the attackers, much to Veronika's sadness. He is killed in a swamp, while saving the life of Stepan, a fellow soldier. However, he is listed as missing in action; neither Veronika nor his family learn that he has been killed.  The German blitzkrieg then begins; people take refuge in the subway system underneath the city. During one attack, Veronika's parents refuse to leave their apartment; when Veronika returns, she finds that the building has been bombed. The entire apartment is gone and there is no sign of her parents. Fyodor Ivanovich invites Veronika to live with his family. Mark, who has been pursuing Veronika, is put in charge of keeping her company to lift her spirits. He is obviously in love with her, but she continually rejects him, waiting for Boris to return. However, during one bombing raid Veronika refuses to go down to the shelter and is left alone with Mark. This scene is left ambiguous, but it is implied that Mark rapes Veronika. She is then shamed into marrying him, while the rest of the family believes that she has betrayed Boris.  The family is relocated with many other Russians to the East of the country to escape the German offensive. They live in a temporary community where Fyodor Ivanovich, Irina, and Veronika work in a military hospital. Mark spends his time partying and playing music; he and Veronika are both clearly unhappy in their marriage. One of the soldiers in the hospital becomes hysterical when he receives a letter saying that his girlfriend has left him; Fyodor Ivanovich admonishes the soldier to forget about her, since women who cannot wait for their men to return are not worth grieving. Veronika overhears the speech and becomes very upset, since she appears to be such a woman.  Distraught, Veronika brings herself to a bridge and intends to jump in front of a rapidly approaching train. Just before she falls, she turns around and sees a young boy who is on the verge of getting hit by a car. She pulls the boy off the road, to which she learns that he is missing his mother and that his name, coincidentally, is Boris. Veronika decides to informally adopt the boy, and takes him back to the communal home.  Fyodor Ivanovich discovers that Mark's deferral from conscription was not because he was considered too talented to be drafted, as he had claimed, but because he bribed an official in Fyodor Ivanovich's name. Fyodor Ivanovich suddenly realizes that Mark has betrayed not only Russia, but the family as well, and has taken advantage of Veronika. Fyodor Ivanovich confronts Mark and kicks him out of the house, while Veronika is invited to stay and is forgiven by the family for \"betraying\" Boris.  A soldier in Boris's platoon comes in search of Boris's family to tell them the news about his death. Veronika refuses to believe it, saying that Boris's friend Stepan, who volunteered with Boris, will know what happened to him. At the end of the war, when the soldiers return and during a large street celebration, Veronika finds Stepan and learns that Boris is indeed dead. Stepan sadly gives her a bouquet of flowers, and Veronika stumbles in tears through the celebrating crowd. After Stepan makes a rousing speech asserting that those who died in the war will never be forgotten, Veronika goes from grieving to handing out the flowers in her bouquet to the returning soldiers, while seeing again in the sky the cranes flying.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception and influence.", "content": "As film scholar Josephine Woll observes, the protagonist Veronika was instrumental in shaping the post-Stalinist Soviet movies by heralding more complicated, multi-dimensional celluloid heroines, as well as focusing on the impact of war on common people. It was not only Soviet audiences that accepted and sympathized with Veronika‘s story. The lead actress of \"Cranes\", the beautiful Tatiana Samoilova, who was frequently identified with her role, took Europe by storm. Following the film's victory at the Cannes Film Festival in 1958, where it earned the event‘s prestigious Grand Prize, the world celebrated the film‘s main protagonist, and critics hailed the production for its stunning cinematography, acting, direction, and editing. Woll notes that the French \"Liberation\" commentator, for example, approvingly contrasted Samoilova‘s purity and authenticity with that Western female icon, Brigitte Bardot. Samoilova even remembered receiving a watch from her East German fans during a festival there; the gift featured the inscription: \"Finally we see on the Soviet screen a face, not a mask.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cranes Are Flying (, translit. \"Letyat zhuravli\") is a 1957 Soviet film about World War II. It depicts the cruelty of war and the damage suffered to the Soviet psyche as a result of World War II (known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War). It was directed at Mosfilm by the Georgian-born Soviet director Mikhail Kalatozov in 1957 and stars Aleksey Batalov and Tatiana Samoilova. It was adapted by Viktor Rozov from his play. It won the \"Palme d'Or\" at the 1958 Cannes Film Festival, the only Soviet film to win that award, although \"The Turning Point\" (1946) was one of eleven films awarded that year's Grand Prix, the predecessor of the \"Palme d'Or\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976893}
{"src_title": "Jeffree Star", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Star was born in Los Angeles County, California, and raised in Orange County, California. His father, Jeffrey L. Steininger, committed suicide when Star was six years old and he was subsequently raised solely by his mother, Marra Shubyann Lindstrom Steininger. As a child, Star alleges he began regularly experimenting with his mother's makeup and convinced her to let him wear it to school when he was in junior high. He moved to Los Angeles following his graduation from high school, supporting himself with various makeup, modeling and music jobs. He later recalled spending his time on weekends using a fake ID to attend Hollywood clubs where celebrities would hire him for makeup work at their homes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "MySpace.", "content": "Star used popular social networking website MySpace to further both his music as well as fashion design career. He also used MySpace for blogging about his life, while making social commentary on \"self-image and confidence,\" fame, beauty, and life. Star had built up a fan base on several websites but convinced many to join him on MySpace, giving his profile a large number of followers from the beginning. His MySpace photoshoots would frequently get over 50,000 comments when posted. Star also gained fame as one of the most popular independent artists, with the daily rankings placing him in the top tier on MySpace.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music career.", "content": "Star's music career as an electronica and pop vocalist began when he befriended Peaches' drummer Samantha Maloney, who encouraged him to make music. During the summer of 2007, Star was advertised as a part of the True Colors Tour 2007, which traveled through 15 cities in the United States and Canada. The tour, sponsored by the LGBT Logo channel, began on June 8, 2007, to coincide with Pride month.  Star released his first and only studio album \"Beauty Killer\" in 2009, which peaked at number 7 on the US \"Billboard\" Top Electronic Albums chart. The album included songs such as \"Lollipop Luxury\" featuring Nicki Minaj. He embarked on several world tours to promote his music. In 2010, he signed to Konvict Muzik—whose founder Akon described Star as \"the next Lady Gaga\"—with plans to release a second album. However, it was never released and Star abruptly left the music industry in 2013 under unclear circumstances. He later described signing to Akon's record label as \"the biggest mistake I've ever made.\"  He appeared in the second version of Kesha's music video for her single \"Take It Off\" in 2010. Star has worked with several other musical performers, including Blood on the Dance Floor, Deuce, Millionaires, and Larry Tee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jeffree Star Cosmetics.", "content": "In 2014, Star founded his e-commerce makeup brand, Jeffree Star Cosmetics. In a five-part docuseries by Shane Dawson, Star stated that the end of his music career had left him essentially bankrupt, and that he had used his remaining savings to start his makeup brand. Star began promoting the brand through videos published on YouTube, leading to the success of his YouTube channel, with 15 million subscribers and over 1.7 billion views as of June 2019. \"Bustle\" magazine described Star as \"a musician and onetime MySpace celeb that reinvented himself in the YouTube makeup tutorial space.\" His first cosmetics release was a collection of velour liquid lipsticks, which were followed by highlighter palettes, lip scrubs, eyeshadow palettes, clothing, and accessories, such as mirrors and make up bags. The first East Coast location to carry the cosmetics line was a Morphe Cosmetics store at the Westfield Garden State Plaza in Paramus, New Jersey on August 11, 2018. Star has since launched several new collections, such as the \"Blue Blood\" eyeshadow palette, which sold out within the day of its release in March 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "Jeffree Star's quarrels with other media personalities are well documented. These included conversations with tattoo artist Kat Von D, who accused Star of \"drug use, racism, and bullying\"; Kylie Jenner, whose products were criticized negatively by Star; Kim Kardashian; and Jerrod Blandino, co-founder of Too Faced Cosmetics.  Star was accused of racism due to derogatory remarks about minorities. He later apologized for the remarks. A satirical skit between Star and a drag queen was posted on MySpace, in which Star states he wants to throw battery acid on a black woman to lighten her skin so it will match her foundation. Star has used racial slurs on multiple occasions.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jeffree Star (born Jeffrey Lynn Steininger Jr.; November 15, 1985) is an American entrepreneur and singer, and the founder and owner of Jeffree Star Cosmetics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976894}
{"src_title": "Evangelos Venizelos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Evangelos Venizelos was born in Thessaloniki on 1 January 1957. He is unrelated to his famous namesake, Eleftherios Venizelos. He is married to Lila A. Bakatselou and has a daughter. He was an undergraduate at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki from 1974 through 1978 and completed postgraduate studies at Panthéon-Assas University in France. In 1980, he received his PhD in Law from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.  Besides his mother tongue Greek, he speaks French and English.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Venizelos is the author of a number of books, monographs and papers, including most recently \"Agenda 16\" ( in 2007, a collection of writings about the future of the university system in Greece, including some articles previously published on the web. Other writings have dealt with current political issues and the media, foreign policy, and developmental policy. His recent works focus more on political theory and cultural issues. He strongly opposes the clash of civilizations theory, and has written extensively about the Greek \"civilization of civilizations\" (Venizelos, 2001).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "As a student, Venizelos served on the Central Council of the Student Union of the University of Thessaloniki (FEAPT) in 1977, and the National Student Union of Greece (EFEE) in 1975.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Member of Parliament.", "content": "Venizelos was elected as a PASOK MP in the Thessaloniki A constituency in the general elections of 1993, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2007 and 2009. He has been a member of the parliamentary committee for the Revision of the Constitution, on which he was spokesman for the majority party in the parliaments elected in 1993, 1996, 2000, 2004 and 2007. He was also a member of the Standing Committees on National Defence and Foreign Affairs, on Public Administration, Public Order and Justice and on European Affairs.  In parliament, Venizelos currently serves on the Special Permanent Committee on Institutions and Transparency and on the Special Permanent Committee on monitoring the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights.  In addition to his role in parliament, Venizelos has been serving as member of the Greek delegation to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe since 2016. A member of the Socialists, Democrats and Greens Group, he serves on the Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights; its Sub-Committee on the implementation of judgments of the European Court of Human Rights; the Committee on Rules of Procedure, Immunities and Institutional Affairs; and Committee on the Election of Judges to the European Court of Human Rights.  He has been a member of the PASOK Central Committee since 1990. In the past he was a member of the PASOK Executive Bureau.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Member of the Government.", "content": "Venizelos has held the following government posts:  After the legislative elections of 2007, in which PASOK was soundly defeated, Venizelos announced his candidacy for the leadership of the party. In the leadership election, held on 11 November 2007, Venizelos was defeated by incumbent party leader George Papandreou, receiving 38.18% of the vote against 55.91% for Papandreou.  When named by Papandreou to the finance and deputy PM positions in June 2011, Venizelos said \"'I am leaving defense today to go to the real battle' to reduce Europe’s biggest debt load – almost 1 1/2 times the size of its economy.\" David Marsh of London and Oxford Capital Markets in \"MarketWatch\" wrote that both \"German parliamentarians who voted solidly earlier this month to involve private-sector creditors in the next bail-out package\", which Angela Merkel has now dropped as a precondition, and \"Greece’s politicians and people, who must bow to further austerity as the price for fresh external support\", were central as \"the stage now shifts to further players in the theatre of Greek affairs.\" And \"[n]obody knows whether the burly new Finance Minister Evangelos Venizelos will put in a starring role or turn out merely as a transitory figure.\"  On 1 June 2019 Venizelos left PASOK and KINAL in protest against the political line of the new leader Fofi Gennimata.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "Venizelos was active in the Macedonia naming dispute, when elements in Greece opposed the use of the name \"Macedonia\" by the newly independent neighbouring Republic of Macedonia. Columnist Mark Dragoumis of Athens News opined that, \"[i]n February 1994, as minister of information, [Venizelos] was instrumental in convincing the ailing Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou to impose that idiotic 'embargo' on the country later named FYROM.\" Dragoumis maintained that Venizelos' motivation was to gain \"nationalist votes in his Thessaloniki constituency\".  Dragoumis also criticised Venizelos for helping pass a law – \"in order to boost [his] popularity among Greek republicans\" – to impose a requirement on King Constantine II, former king of the Hellenes, and his family if they wanted to be granted Greek nationality. The requirement was to submit a declaration that they \"unreservedly respected the 1975 Constitution and accepted and recognised the Hellenic Republic\". The columnist termed it a \"silly precondition – reminiscent of the 'declarations of repentance' that Greek leftists were obliged to sign under pressure during the civil war and after\". Ultimately, the law proved irrelevant once Greece signed the Schengen Agreement allowing the ex-king to travel to Greece via Italy without having to pass through Greek immigration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Evangelos Venizelos (, ; born 1 January 1957) is a Greek academic and politician who was Deputy Prime Minister of Greece and Minister for Foreign Affairs from 25 June 2013 to 27 January 2015. Previously, he was Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Finance of Greece from 17 June 2011 to 21 March 2012. He is a member of the Hellenic Parliament for the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) for the first electoral district of Thessaloniki.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976895}
{"src_title": "Apitherapy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "References to medical properties of bee products can be found in Chinese, Korean, Russian, Egyptian and Greek traditional medicine practices. Apitherapy has been practiced since the times of Hippocrates and Galen. The more modern study of apitherapy, specifically using bee venom, was initiated by Austrian physician in his 1888 article \"About a Peculiar Connection Between the Bee stings and Rheumatism.\" More recent alternative medicine practice is attributed to the Hungarian physician Bodog F. Beck who coined the term \"bee venom therapy\" in 1935, and to beekeeper Charles Mraz (1905–1999) in the latter half of the twentieth century. In 1957, the USSR Ministry of Health sanctioned use of bee venom to treat certain ailments by approval of Nikolay Artemov's \"Instruction for Bee Sting Venom Apitherapy.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health claims.", "content": "Apitherapy is promoted as alternative medicine for several uses, but its health claims are not supported by scientific evidence. Bee venom or other honeybee products are ineffective for the treatment or prevention of cancer.  In general, evidence for using honey in wound treatment is of such low quality that firm conclusions cannot be drawn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Risks.", "content": "Adverse reactions to bee venom therapy are frequent. Frequent exposure to the venom can also lead to arthropathy. In sensitized persons, venom compounds can act as allergens, causing a spectrum of allergic reactions that can range from mild, local swelling to severe systemic reactions, anaphylactic shock, or even death.  In March 2018 it was reported that a 55-year-old woman died after receiving \"live bee acupuncture\", suffering a severe anaphylactic episode which the apitherapy practitioner did not respond to by administering adrenaline. While stabilized by ambulance personnel on the way to the hospital, she died a few weeks later from complications resulting in multiple organ failure. Live bee acupuncture therapy is “unsafe and unadvisable,” according to researchers who studied the case.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Apitherapy is a branch of alternative medicine that uses honey bee products, including honey, pollen, propolis, royal jelly and bee venom. Proponents of apitherapy make claims for its health benefits which are unsupported by evidence-based medicine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976896}
{"src_title": "Des Moines-class cruiser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Derived from the heavy cruisers, they were larger, had an improved machinery layout, and carried a new design of auto-loading, rapid-fire 8\"/55 gun (the Mk16). The improved Mk16 guns of the main battery were the first auto-loading 8\" guns fielded by the US Navy, and allowed a much higher rate of fire than earlier designs, capable of sustaining eight shots per minute per barrel, or about twice what previous heavy cruisers could. The auto-loading mechanism could function at any elevation, giving even these large-caliber guns some anti-aircraft ability. While the secondary battery of six twin 5\"/38 Mk12 DP guns was essentially unchanged from the and \"Baltimore\"-class cruisers, the \"Des Moines\" class carried a stronger battery of small-caliber anti-aircraft guns, including 12 twin 3-inch/50 Mk27 and later Mk33 guns, that were considered superior to the earlier ships' quad-mounted 40mm Bofors against then current airborne threats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Twelve ships of the class were programmed, but only three ships were completed:,, and, with USS \"Dallas\" (CA-140) canceled when she was approximately 28 percent complete.  Their speed made them valuable to escort carrier groups and they were useful in showing the flag in goodwill visits. The first two were decommissioned in 1961 and 1959, respectively, but \"Newport News\" remained in commission until 1975, serving for a long period (1962–1968) as United States Second Fleet flagship, and providing valuable gunfire support off Vietnam from 1967 to 1973. The ship's missions included shelling military targets close to the North Vietnam shoreline, and destroying shore batteries with her counterbattery fire. In August 1972 she raided Haiphong harbor at night with other US Navy ships to knock out coastal defences and other high-value targets including SAM sites and Cat Bi airfield.  \"Newport News\" had the distinction of being the last active all-gun cruiser (serving 25.5 years continuously) and the first completely air-conditioned surface ship in the U.S. Navy. \"Salem\" is a museum ship in Quincy, Massachusetts. \"Newport News\" was laid up at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard and scrapped in 1993, and \"Des Moines\" was scrapped in 2006–2007. \"Dallas\" (CA-140) and eight other ships (CA-141 through CA-143 and CA-149 through CA-153) were canceled at the end of World War II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Des Moines\"-class cruisers were a trio of very large U.S. Navy heavy cruisers commissioned in 1948 and 1949. They were the last of the all-gun heavy cruisers, exceeded in size in the American navy only by the s that straddled the line between heavy cruiser and battlecruiser. Two were decommissioned by 1961, but one,, served until 1975. is a museum ship in Quincy, Massachusetts; the other two ships were scrapped.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976897}
{"src_title": "Maroš Šefčovič", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and studies.", "content": "Born in Bratislava, Šefčovič originally enrolled at the University of Economics in his hometown in 1984, but left the university after one year in order to pursue a degree in Russia at Moscow State Institute of International Relations, where he studied from 1985 to 1990.  In June 1987, Šefčovič became a candidate for membership in the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. After the two-year candidacy period during which he had to secure three approvals from other party members and which he embraced to \"deepen his knowledge of Marxism–Leninism\", he filed an application for party membership in May 1989. The party approved his application on 1 June 1989 and he became an official member.  In 2000, he obtained a PhD in international law at Comenius University in Bratislava. The subject of his dissertation thesis was \"Sources of the EU law and respective legislative procedures\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomatic career.", "content": "Šefčovič is a former Slovak diplomat, who has served in Zimbabwe, Canada, and as Slovak ambassador to Israel (1999–2002). He was also Permanent Representative of the Slovak Republic to the European Union (2004–2009).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "European Commission.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009–2010: European Commissioner for Education, Training, Culture and Youth.", "content": "Šefčovič replaced Ján Figeľ as European Commissioner for Education, Training, Culture and Youth on 1 October 2009.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2010–2014: Vice-President of the European Commission for Interinstitutional Relations and Administration.", "content": "Šefčovič's responsibilities included the administration of the Commission and management of some of the Commission's Internal Services; in particular consolidation of administrative reform, personnel and administration, European Schools and security. From 19 April 2014 to 25 May 2014, José Manuel Barroso was an Acting Commissioner in Šefčovič's stead while he was on electoral campaign leave for the 2014 elections to the European Parliament.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2014–2019: Vice-President of the European Commission for Energy Union.", "content": "Šefčovič was appointed Vice-President of the European Commission for Energy Union in 2014. In July 2015, he brokered an agreement between fifteen countries from central, eastern and southeast Europe to speed up the building of gas links, improve security of supply, reduce their reliance on Russia and develop a fully integrated energy market.  When digital single market Andrus Ansip stepped down from the European Commission to take up his seat in the European Parliament following the 2019 elections, the Commission's President Jean-Claude Juncker announced that Ansip's portfolio would be transferred to Šefčovič.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2019–present: Vice-President of the European Commission for Interinstitutional Relations and Foresight.", "content": "In September 2019 newly elected President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen nominated Šefčovič as Vice President for interinstitutional relations and foresight.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2019 Slovak presidential campaign.", "content": "On 18 January 2019, Šefčovič announced that he would stand as a candidate in the 2019 Slovak presidential race, with support of the Smer–SD party.  In the first round of the election held on 16 March, Šefčovič received 18.66% of the vote and came in second place after Zuzana Čaputová, who received 40.57% of votes. They both qualified for the second round run-off, which took place on 30 March. Šefčovič was defeated by Čaputová, receiving 41.59% of the vote versus 58.41% of votes for his opponent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political positions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "LGBT stance and other social issues.", "content": "During his presidential campaign, Šefčovič repeatedly spoke against legislative changes which would improve the status of LGBT rights in Slovakia, strongly opposing both civil partnerships and same-sex adoptions. He dubbed his opponent Čaputová (who is in favour of both) as a candidate who is forcing a \"new ultraliberal agenda\" on Slovakia, comparing the second round of elections to a referendum on such an agenda, which he considered to be \"in exact contradiction to traditional Christian values\". He also stated that \"we can not support any further steps towards civil unions or same-sex adoptions because these would go precisely against our traditional Christian values\", calling this stance as his \"very natural position\" due to his Christianity. According to his opinion, discussions about \"such experiments bring great unrest to society\".  Šefčovič supported and welcomed the position of the Slovak parliament and government not to ratify the Istanbul Convention (aimed against violence against women and domestic violence), citing his concerns about so-called \"gender ideology\". Refusal to ratify the convention in his opinion confirmed that \"Slovakia is built on respect to traditional values\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International relations and foreign policy.", "content": "Šefčovič also criticised his opponent Čaputová for her opinions on the migrant crisis and related policies. He emphasised the importance of a speedy deportation policy, so that \"people who do not have any business here are sent to their home countries as quickly as possible\". Furthermore, he pointed out that \"it has to be Slovaks who decide who comes to our country\". Šefčovič has criticized Angela Merkel's actions in this area, labeling her \"latest decisions which opened door to mass migration\" as something that was not \"thought-out very well\".  Šefčovič criticised the current president of Slovakia Andrej Kiska and said that he has caused \"international isolation of Slovakia\".  In the matter of Russia–EU relations, Šefčovič emphasised that he does not consider Russia to by any kind of threat. He also criticised imposed sanctions, stating that people are suffering from them.  When asked about Venezuelan presidential crisis, Šefčovič refused to identify either Nicolás Maduro or Juan Guaidó as legitimate president, stating that \"leaning on one or the other side might worsen the situation\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "European Union.", "content": "Šefčovič rejects the idea of EU federalization, saying he is \"against creating European superstate,\" and considers the tax policy, autonomous migration policy, and family law issues to be \"red lines\" which should not be crossed by the European Union.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Šefčovič is married to Dr. Helena Šefčovičová, with whom he has 3 children: Helena, Martina, and Maroš. Šefčovič gave a TEDx talk at TEDxYouth@EEB3 in 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maroš Šefčovič (; born 24 July 1966) is a Slovak diplomat and politician who has been member of the European Commission since 2009. He also stood for the office in the 2019 Slovak presidential election, which he lost against Zuzana Čaputová.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976898}
{"src_title": "SS Naronic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"Naronic\" was launched on May 26, 1892, completed on 11 July 1892 and departed for her maiden voyage on 15 July 1892, sailing from Liverpool to New York. The 470 ft, twin screw steamship was designed as a freighter with the addition of limited passenger quarters to handle the increased traffic that White Star was experiencing on its non-New York routes. After her first run, \"Naronic\" made five more sailings without incident, before departing on what was to be her final voyage on February 11, 1893 under the command of Captain William Roberts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disappearance.", "content": "For this voyage to New York, \"Naronic\" had a crew of 50, plus 24 cattlemen to attend to the ship's primary cargo, livestock. After leaving Liverpool, she stopped briefly at Point Lynas, Anglesey, North Wales, to put her pilot ashore before heading west into heavy seas, never to be seen again.  \"Naronic\" had no wireless telegraph with which to send a distress call (it would be another five years before the Marconi Company opened their factory that produced the system the RMS \"Titanic\" used to send her distress signals), so whatever problem she encountered, her crew was on their own. The only knowledge we have of the incident comes from two sources.  The British steamer SS \"Coventry\" reported seeing two of \"Naronic\"'s empty lifeboats; the first lifeboat, found at 2:00 am on 4 March, was capsized and the second, found at 2:00 pm, was swamped. The first of these was found 19 miles (some sources put this at 90 miles) from the site where the White Star Line's \"Titanic\" would later meet a similar fate.  The second source of information are four bottles with messages inside, which were recovered later, that claimed to have been written while \"Naronic\" was sinking. Two of the bottles were found in the United States, one on March 3 in Bay Ridge, Brooklyn, New York, and one in Ocean View, Virginia, on March 30. A third bottle was found in June 1893 in the Irish Channel, and the fourth was found on September 18 in the River Mersey near the ship's point of departure, Liverpool. While all four specifically mention \"Naronic\" sinking, the second bottle found contained the most detailed message:  It was signed \"John Olsen, Cattleman\"; however, there was no one with this name listed on the ship's manifest, the closest being John O'Hara and John Watson. A similar situation exists with the first bottle found, in that the signature, \"L. Winsel\", is also not on the manifest. The messages in the other two bottles are unsigned. Because of this, the reliability of the bottles as genuine testaments to the ship's fate has been questioned and the Court of Inquiry into the incident did not accept the bottled notes as genuine. If the messages were legitimate, the ship sank sometime after 3:20 a.m on February 19, 1893.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SS Naronic was a steamship built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast for the White Star Line. The ship was lost at sea after leaving Liverpool on February 11, 1893 bound for New York, with the loss of all 74 people on board. The ship's fate is a mystery that remains unsolved to this day.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976899}
{"src_title": "Mariano Melgarejo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Melgarejo was born on April 13, 1820 in the Department of Cochabamba, being the illegitimate son of a Spanish-Bolivian and a Quechua Indian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career and presidency.", "content": "A career military officer from the department of Cochabamba, Melgarejo slowly climbed the hierarchy of the armed forces, aided by his sycophancy, willingness to participate in rebellions, and feats of personal valor. Having participated in an 1854 military revolt against long-time dictator Manuel Isidoro Belzu, Melgarejo was tried for treason but pardoned, as he had begged for his life and blamed alcohol for his participation in the ill-fated coup. Belzú would come to rue having spared Melgarejo's life. General Melgarejo originally supported the Linares dictatorship (1857–61) and then fought on the side of the rebellious General José Maria de Achá, who became President in 1861. Predictably, in December 1864 he rose up against Achá and, prevailing against both the forces of Achá and former President Belzú (then struggling to return to power himself), proclaimed himself President of Bolivia. As Belzú continued to control part of the country and army, Melgarejo sought him and, by most accounts, murdered him personally. As legend had it, at the time a pro-Belzú crowd was reunited in Bolivia's central square, opposite the Palace of Government, chanting \"vivas\" to the former President. At that point, Melgarejo emerged onto a balcony with Belzú's corpse and proclaimed \"Belzú is dead. Who lives now?\" To which the crowd is said to have replied – perhaps predictably – \"Long Live Melgarejo!\"  Having installed himself in the Government Palace, Melgarejo proceeded to rule with more incompetence than any Bolivian leader in his time. He ruthlessly suppressed the opposition and assaulted the traditional rights of the country's indigenous population. Melgarejo worked on behalf of a new mining elite in Bolivia, during a period of resurgent silver production and investment from Chile, Peru, North America, England and European capitalists (Klein, 136). His \"sexenio\" is among the most tragic in the history of Bolivia, both for his repression and his foolish give-away of lands and concessions to Chile. Hardly erudite in the arts of statecraft, he relied on his obsequious civilian aide, Mariano Donato Muñoz, especially when it came to foreign policy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coup d'état and death.", "content": "Melgarejo eventually galvanized the opposition in a concerted effort to rid the country of his tyranny. On January 15, 1871, he was toppled by the Commander of the Army, General Agustín Morales. Having fled to exile in Lima, Peru, the ex-President was assassinated in November 23 of the same year by his lover's enraged brother, Aurelio Sánchez.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Mariano Melgarejo's almost foolhardy valor and brutal obduracy are the stuff of legend, as are the tall-tales, still in circulation (some after his death) of things he supposedly did or did not do. Melgarejo was said to have given a vast amount of land to Brazil (Treaty of Ayacucho), for what he described as a magnificent white horse. The stories tell that a Brazilian minister presented Melgarejo with a white horse and other gifts, and to show his appreciation Melgarejo pulled out a map of Bolivia, traced the horse's hoof and gave that land away to the Brazilian government. This and other incidents, such as the seizure and sale of communal land on the Altiplano (Bolivian high plateau) to the highest bidder, deprived virtually all Indians of their land within a few decades. It is also said that in 1870 when Germany invaded France, he ordered one of his top generals to send most of his army to help defend Paris, a city he was fascinated by for its tales of sophistication and elegance, but also a city he could not even locate on a map. His General said it was impossible; it would take forever, as they would have to cross the Atlantic Ocean. Infuriated, Melgarejo said \"Don't be stupid! We will take a short cut through the brush!\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Manuel Mariano Melgarejo Valencia (13 April 1820 – 23 November 1871) was President of Bolivia, from December 28, 1864, to January 15, 1871.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976900}
{"src_title": "Pedobear", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The bear character originates from the popular bulletin board system (BBS) website \"2channel\" in Japan, where it was introduced, in the form of Shift_JIS art, as \"\" (\"Kumā\"), an interjection of the word 熊 (\"Kuma\") meaning \"bear\" in Japanese. Unlike Pedobear, \"Kumā\" has no sexual connotations, pedophilic or otherwise.  Although initially appearing as a single line: various posts modified it until reaching the final form as multi-line art:  Eventually, posting Kuma Shift_JIS art evolved into a response to \"fishing\" posts submitted as \"bait\" to attract people (fishing for attention), which is why the bear is depicted as literally running into the forum to get the bait.  The Kuma character was adopted by 4chan and quickly became a meme there, especially on the /b/ board. On 2ch, Kuma was often depicted in images sleeping with children, and this was promptly exploited on 4chan to create the Pedobear persona. Soon it gained its representation as an image rather than text art, and started being superimposed in pictures depicting children (especially if these pictures could be interpreted as sexually suggestive, such as when involving swimsuits, underwear or child beauty pageants). Another common use of the character was to mock or otherwise signal the posting of borderline child erotica content, sometimes with references to the FBI or Chris Hansen, the host of the TV show \"To Catch a Predator\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mainstream media.", "content": "Pedobear eventually became known outside 4chan as it was referenced by newspapers and prominent websites. In the media it was frequently claimed to be a mascot of child sex offenders, which is contested by meme catalogs who note that its intent is actually to mock pedophiles.  Pedobear was used in a CollegeHumor video parodying the film \"Doubt\".  On 3 July 2009, Canadian artist Michael R. Barrick created two composite images depicting Pedobear grouped together with the mascots of 2010 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games. One is based on the official art, and the other is based on fanart created by Angela Melick. This image was then mistakenly used by other media, most notably the Polish newspaper \"Gazeta Olsztyńska\" for a 4 February 2010 front-page story about the Olympics in Vancouver.  On 24 July 2009, a column in the far-right Taki's Magazine by conservative commentator Pat Buchanan about the early months of Barack Obama's presidency included an image of Pedobear, which generated considerable reaction from non-political commentators.  Other uses of Pedobear include an iStockphoto wallpaper, a cover of the auto magazine \"Import Tuner\", and a flyer of a costume store in Portland, Oregon which accidentally featured a Pedobear-like figure. The incident in Portland was covered by a local news station, which provided a detailed history of Pedobear, and even interviewed Cheezburger Network's CEO Ben Huh about Pedobear's cultural significance.  In September 2010 cosplay participants dressed as the character were accused of being pedophiles, after the San Luis Obispo County Sheriff's Department issued a warning that Pedobear was a sign of the presence of pedophiles and other people with inappropriate sexual behavior, and suggested that Pedobear was a kind of mascot among pedophiles. Law enforcement officials in San Diego later sent a warning to local media, warning parents that the image can indicate the presence of pedophiles. It also issued a bulletin:  Gawker later reported that it had spoken to the San Luis Obispo Sheriff's Department, and that the department knew it was an \"Internet joke\", despite the fact that they had referred to pedophiles adopting it as a mascot. Two local television stations, KSBY and KCOY-TV, passed on the warning to their viewers. In Tulsa, Oklahoma, Sgt. John Adams of the Tulsa Police Department Child Exploitation Unit falsely told local television stations KOKI-TV and KOTV that the person wearing the costume was a registered sex offender, a claim which was later retracted.  In December 2010, Big Fish Games published a flash game called \"Teddy Bear's Christmas\" featuring Pedobear as the main character. The game was later removed.  On March 22, 2011, the blog Urlesque posted a photograph of a coupon book advertisement for \"CP Distributor\", a computer repair business in Polk County, Florida, that prominently featured the Pedobear image. \"CP\" in a Pedobear context normally stands for child porn.  In July 2011, a Pedobear iPhone application, released a few weeks earlier on June 25, was removed from Apple's App Store. It contained a series of dance moves and background music, with the mascot branded as \"Cuddle Bear\".  On December 15, 2011, a citywide alert was issued by the Pierre Police Department after images of Pedobear had been sighted in certain parts of the city.  In March 2012, a primary school in Christchurch, New Zealand, was notified by the public of the meaning of a student-created poster portraying Pedobear in a classroom window. The poster was left displayed to the public for some time.  On July 19, 2012, the Nestlé food company took down the inaugural Instagram photo from its Kit Kat chocolate bar's Facebook page because it featured a person dressed as a bear that some Internet users quickly pointed out resembled the Pedobear cartoon. Nestlé itself had produced the image, and officials claimed they were completely unaware of the Pedobear meme.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pedobear is an Internet meme that became popular through the imageboard 4chan. As the name suggests (\"pedo\" being short for \"pedophile\"), it is portrayed as a pedophilic cartoon bear. It is a concept used to mock pedophiles or people who have any sexual interest in children or \"jailbait\". The bear image has been likened to bait used to lure children or as a mascot for pedophiles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976901}
{"src_title": "Bolko III of Münsterberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "A minor at the time of his father's early death in 1358, Bolko III and his younger brother Henry I were placed under the regency of their mother, the Dowager Duchess Agnes. By 1360, Bolko III was able to rule by himself and take the guardianship of his brother, who in fact never participated actively in the government of the Duchy.  Bolko III followed the politics of both his father and grandfather, and sold most parts of his domains. In order to secure his marriage with the daughter of Duke Bolesław of Bytom, Euphemia, Bolko III was forced to pledge his main city of Münsterberg. However, thanks to this union, Bolko III could take possession over Gleiwitz in 1369; but four years later, in 1373, he sold the district to Konrad II the Gray, Duke of Oels (Oleśnica).  In 1379 Bolko III also sold the town of Kanth (Kąty Wrocławskie) to Konrad II the Gray, by the amount of 4,000 fines. Six years later, in 1385, he sold Strehlen (Strzelin) to Przemyslaus I Noszak, Duke of Cieszyn.  In 1368, after the death of Bolko II the Small without issue, Bolko III claimed his succession as the next male relative. However, without resources to pressed his claims, he finally renounced to all his pretensions on 28 January 1370 for a monetary compensation.  Bolko III was a faithful vassal of Emperor Charles IV, in whose court he spent some time. His contact with the House of Luxembourg permitted him to hold during 1396–1400 the post of Court Judge, under the reign of Charles IV's son, King Wenceslaus IV.  Bolko III died on 13 June 1410 and was buried in the (Henryków).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In 1369 Bolko III married with Euphemia (born c. 1350/52 – died 26 August 1411), daughter of Duke Bolesław of Bytom and widow of Duke Wenceslaus of Falkenberg. They had eight children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bolko III of Münsterberg ( – 13 June 1410) was a Duke of Münsterberg (Ziębice) from 1358 until his death, and ruler over Gleiwitz (Gliwice) during 1369–1373.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976902}
{"src_title": "Amphion-class submarine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development and service.", "content": "The \"Amphion\" class were ordered by the British Admiralty in 1943, upon the realisation that the new Pacific theatre of war following the attack on Pearl Harbor needed a new type of submarine. They were originally designed to replace the S-class and T-class submarines, which were too slow and unable to dive deep enough to be suited to Pacific waters during World War II. They were essentially the same size as the T class, arranged for fast, simple construction and to utilize much of the materials and equipment set aside for the T boats. They had a high, flared bow for excellent sea performance and had effective air conditioning, essential for Far East submarine operations. They were operated by a crew of between 60 and 68.  Originally, 46 submarines were ordered, but only 18 were launched (10 by Vickers-Armstrong in Barrow-in-Furness) and 16 commissioned, the other two hulls being used for crush testing. The class was designed for quick construction, using an entirely welded hull which could be fabricated in sections, a technique new to Britain but standard for Nazi Germany's U-boats. Each submarine took about 8 months from keel-laying to launching, compared with around 15 months for the earlier T class, but only two of the boats were completed before the end of the war:, launched in August 1944, and in January 1945; neither saw action.  The \"Amphion\" class was one of only two new British submarine designs produced during World War II, the other being the X-craft 4-man submarines. Wartime experience had shown that submarines had to operate further from the United Kingdom and with larger patrol areas than had been foreseen—in the Far East and Mediterranean for example—so the faster and slightly larger A class was designed to have a longer range than the T class, with accommodation suitable for longer missions.  After World War II various modifications were made to these Overseas Patrol Submarines, as they were known. A snort mast based on the \"schnorkel\" used by U-boats during the war, a radar which could be used from periscope depth, and a night periscope were added to the A- and surviving T-class submarines.  In response to the start of the Cold War in the early 1950s their target changed from surface ships to Soviet submarines. In January 1948 the primary operational function of the British submarine fleet was announced to be interception of Soviet submarines slipping out of their bases in Northern Russia, potentially to attack British and Allied merchant vessels. The following April Assistant Chief of Naval Staff Rear-Admiral Geoffrey Oliver circulated a paper in which he proposed that British submarines take a more offensive role, attacking Soviet submarines off the Northern Russian coast and mining the waters in the area. With the dramatically reduced surface fleet, he commented that this was one of the few methods the Royal Navy had for \"getting to the enemy on his home ground\".  The A and T classes were refitted for their new role between 1955 and 1960 with a complete rebuild of the forward and after hull section, lengthening and streamlining of the upper decks and conning towers, removal of deck guns to improve underwater speed and noise, removal of external torpedo tubes, and greatly improved sonar. When was lost in 1951 all the \"Amphion\" class were briefly confined to port pending investigation into her loss.  During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation in the mid-1960s, some \"Amphion\"-class submarines were fitted with a QF 4-inch Mk XXIII gun to counter blockade running junks. They were the last British submarines to carry a deck gun.  The \"Amphion\" class served the Royal Navy for almost three decades as the backbone of the Royal Naval Submarine Service, and was gradually replaced with the \"Porpoise\" and patrol classes that began to be phased in during 1958. The last operational \"Amphion\"-class boat,, was decommissioned in 1974.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Boats.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Built at HM Dockyard, Plymouth.", "content": "These were the two vessels which were launched but not completed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cancelled orders.", "content": "In 1945, besides the two vessels at Devonport, the following orders were cancelled:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Amphion\" class (also known as the \"A\" class and Acheron\" class) of British diesel-electric submarines were designed for use in the Pacific War. Only two were completed before the end of hostilities, but following modernisation in the 1950s, they continued to serve in the Royal Navy into the 1970s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976903}
{"src_title": "Franklin D. Roosevelt (Paris Métro)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally, the stations on the two lines were separate. The Line 1 station opened as part of the first stage of the line between Porte de Vincennes and Porte Maillot on 19 July 1900 and was called Marbeuf. It was named after the Rue Marbeuf, which in turn was named after the Marquise de Marbeuf, who had developed the area in the 1770s and was guillotined during the Reign of Terror.  The Line 9 station opened when the line was extended from Trocadéro to Saint-Augustin on 27 May 1923 and was called Rond-Point des Champs-Élysées or just Rond-Point. On 6 October 1942 a connection between the two stations was opened and the new station was renamed Marbeuf–Rond-Point des Champs-Élysées (or more often Champs-Élysées–Marbeuf). This new station became Franklin D. Roosevelt station in 1946 when the nearby Avenue Victor-Emmanuel III was renamed Franklin D. Roosevelt Avenue, in honour of Franklin D. Roosevelt who had been an ally of France during World War II, as opposed to Victor Emmanuel III, the king of Italy who, although allied with France during the First World War, had fought against France as king of Fascist Italy during the Second World War.  The station was renovated after the Second World War and the work introduced a new artistic technique known as \"gemmail\", which is often called \"block glass\" or \"glass brick\" in English. Sometimes it is also called a \"station musée\" (station-museum). While one can find some of the glass brick along the platform for Line 9, more of it can be found in along the platform serving Line 1. The inauguration of the finished station involved a large ceremony on the night of 1 March 1957, with two ramps equipped with tables of food for the invited guests.  As part of the automation project on Line 1, the Line 1 platforms were completely renovated in 2008.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Franklin D. Roosevelt ( ) is a station of the Paris Métro serving both Line 1 and Line 9. With more than 12 million passengers annually, Franklin D. Roosevelt is the fourteenth busiest station in the Paris Métro system.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976904}
{"src_title": "Sejong City", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "Sejong was named in honor of King Sejong the Great, the fourth king of the Joseon Dynasty and creator of the Korean alphabet, Hangul. The city was formed by combining Yeongi County, the county of South Chungcheong Province from which the majority of the city's territory was ceded, and other counties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 2003, then-President Roh Moo-hyun sought to relocate the national capital of South Korea from the metropolitan city of Seoul to a new multifunctional administrative city in the centre of the country. The goal was to reduce the influence and dominance of Seoul on national governance and economics, whilst promoting the regional development of other areas of the country. According to the former Interior Minister Maeng Hyung-gyu in 2012, \"Sejong is a symbol of the country’s efforts toward more balanced regional development,\" helping to decongest Seoul and spur investment in the country’s central region.  In October 2004, the Constitutional Court dealt a setback to President Roh's plans, ruling that the capital must remain in Seoul in response to a complaint filed by the main opposition, the conservative Grand National Party (now Liberty Korea Party). As such, the Roh administration was forced to modify the project to relocate the majority of government ministries and institutions to Sejong, which would become a special administrative city instead of a new capital. The revised plan was approved by the National Assembly in March 2005. Challenges to the new plan were rejected by the Constitutional Court in November 2005.  When the Grand National Party retook the presidential office in 2008, then-President Lee Myung-bak opposed the idea of moving government agencies, claiming that it would hurt Seoul’s global competitiveness and result in inefficiency. Following Lee's directions, plans were made to make Sejong an industrial, science and education hub instead. This plan was opposed by many, including Roh’s allies and some members of the ruling Grand National Party, including Lee’s arch-rival and eventual successor, Park Geun-hye. Defeat in the mid-2010 local elections forced Lee to present his proposal to the National Assembly where it was voted down.  In July 2012, Sejong Special Autonomous City was created by combining all of Yeongi County, three townships of Gongju and one township of Cheongwon County.  In April 2013, the government of Putrajaya, Malaysia signed a letter of intent (LOI) with the government of Sejong City to mark cooperation between the two cities.  As of 2014, 36 central government offices, including nine ministries, and 16 state-run organisations have moved to the city. However, many other government agencies still reside in Seoul and in government complexes in other cities.  Sejong was specifically designed to be a \"smart city\", and is sometimes referred to as Sejong smart city. It is the leading smart city in Korea, and is often held up as the standard for other cities experimenting with the development of smart city infrastructure.  By 2019, there was disagreement among experts as to whether Sejong had \"lived up to expectations....Sejong uses its new development to market itself as an alternative to Seoul, offering luxury living at a fraction of the cost. It boasts shiny state-of-the-art condominiums, ample public green space and smart and sustainable city tech, like automated trash collection and zero-waste food disposal, electric car charging and sharing stations, solar-powered buildings, interactive digital signage, closed-circuit television security and fine dust emergency alerts. [It] has sparked criticism that the new city is not only too lackluster to draw residents away from Seoul, but also difficult to access and poorly designed.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Sejong is surrounded by the two provinces of Chungcheongnam-do, and Chungcheongbuk-do, as well as the metropolitan city of Daejeon. It is about south from Seoul.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cityscape.", "content": "As of 2012 much of the city was under construction. The residential area, by 2012, had several high-rises built for transferees. At that time the residential area was cordoned off from much of the under-development governmental area and had some restaurants, six schools, and one grocery store.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Administrative divisions.", "content": "The 9 haengjeong-dong and Jochiwon-eup is the city main urban center. Sejong is divided into 9 \"haengjeong-dong\" (administrative neighborhood), 1 \"eup\" (town) and 9 \"myeon\" (townships).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Population and demographics.", "content": "The city aimed to have a population of 200,000 in 2012, 300,000 by 2020 and 500,000 by 2030. As of 2017, Sejong had a population of 281,120. , Sejong had a higher proportion of children compared to the South Korean average.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government and infrastructure.", "content": "The South Korean government plans to move 36 government ministries and agencies to Sejong City.  Government Complex Sejong is located in Sejong City. The complex, on a plot of land, has seven stories and one basement. Construction began in November 2011 in what was South Chungcheong Province, and the complex was completed on November 16, 2013. The ceremony to mark the movement of several government agencies to the complex occurred on December 23, 2013.  Government Complex Sejong includes the head offices of:  Several MOLIT agencies, the Korea Office of Civil Aviation (KOCA), the Korean Maritime Safety Tribunal (KMST), and the Aviation and Railway Accident Investigation Board (ARAIB), have their headquarters in Government Complex Sejong.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Educational facilities.", "content": "Universities  Senior high schools", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Air.", "content": "Sejong is served by Cheongju International Airport in Cheongju, the nearest airport to Sejong.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National railway.", "content": "Sejong is centrally located on Gyeongbu Line operated by Korail. It's a 90-minute journey on the Mugunghwa-ho to Seoul and trains run approximately every 30 minutes. Located just outside Jochiwon-eup limits in Osong, Cheongwon has a KTX station named Osong Station which is a Korea Train Express bullet train that frequently travels. Osong station opened in 2010. There has also been some debate concerning opening another KTX station within the new Sejong City close to the bus terminal to the south.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Daejeon subway Line 1.", "content": "In April 2019, a feasibility study was completed and approved an extension of Daejeon Metro Line 1 from Banseok station in Daejeon, accessing the southern bus terminal in Sejong, and ending at the Government Complex Sejong. Of the five new stations that are set to open over the new 14 km of tracks, four of which will be in Sejong. Opening is tentatively set for 2029.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The 2015 tvN television series \"Let's Eat 2\" was based in Sejong. During the month of April, various Sejong Spring Festival festivals will be held in various places in the city such as cherry blossoms, peach blossoms, and flower arrangements. Open the 7th cherry blossom festival. On the 14th, we will hold the 'Daehwangang and Ewha Rangwang Hanmadang' on the theme of peach blossoms and flower blossoms. The 2018 Peace Spring Flower Festival of the Sejong Restoration Center will be held under the sponsorship of the Jochiwon, Peach Festival Promotion Committee. It was prepared as a five-sensory satisfaction program to enjoy and enjoy nature such as peach flower, pear flower, rape blossom, and to escape from the performance-oriented festival method.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sejong (; ), officially the Sejong Special Self-Governing City (), is a special self-governing city and \"de facto\" administrative capital of South Korea.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976905}
{"src_title": "The Flight Before Christmas (2008 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Niko, a young reindeer, is told by Oona, his mother, that his father is one of the \"Flying Forces\", Santa's flying reindeer. For years, Niko has dreamed of joining his father in the Flying Forces, but he himself is unable to fly and even has a fear of heights. While trying to fly with the encouragement of Julius, a flying squirrel, the other young reindeer teased Niko. To avoid further teasing, Niko and his friend Saga leave their protected valley so Niko can practice without any disruptions. However, they are spotted by wolves and flee back to the herd in panic, but wind up luring the wolf pack to the valley. As the herd flees, Saga's father, the herd's leader battles and defeats a wolf, but is wounded in the process. Later, Niko overhears others talking of how his actions have damaged the herd, and decides to leave the herd in an attempt to find his father and Santa's Fell.  When Niko is discovered missing, Julius chooses to look for Niko, since he can search without leaving a trail as fresh snow is falling. Once he finds him, Julius is unable to convince Niko to return to the herd, and reluctantly joins him in the search for Santa's secret location. Meanwhile, Essie, a lost pet poodle, stumbles upon the wolf pack and is about to be eaten, but suggests to Black Wolf, the alpha wolf, the idea of killing Santa's reindeer. Essie is considered Black Wolf's good luck charm for this idea and is spared, but is also forced to join the pack. Niko and Julius discover Wilma, a weasel, stuck in a small tree branch and rescue her. She reluctantly joins Niko and Julius, believing she is indebted to them. Julius and Niko later get separated in a sudden blizzard and Niko wakes up under a pile of snow, unnoticed by the nearby wolf pack. Niko overhears Black Wolf resolving to kill Santa as well and take his place so he could also eat children.  When Niko is discovered, he flees and finds Julius, but the two are cornered between rock cliffs. Wilma saves them by triggering an avalanche with her singing, then guides Niko and Julius to safety. She then continues to follow them, since she knows the way to Santa's home due to having previously worked there as a singer. Eventually, Niko tries to cross a dangerous river by flying with Wilma's help, but fails and falls once he looks down. Thinking they are dead, the wolves head for Santa's home. At the same time, Julius and Wilma save Niko from going over a high waterfall.  While waiting for Niko to recover, Julius recounts how his real family was taken by wolves, and says that he has viewed Niko like a son now. Once they arrive at Santa's place, Niko is almost hit by the Flying Forces while standing on the runway. Niko tells them of Black Wolf's plan, but they doubt a wolf would discover Santa's secret valley. As they celebrate at their bar before heading out on Christmas Eve, Wilma sings them a song that asks them the identity of Niko's father. None of the reindeer respond, but they decide to do a \"flying test\" to see if Niko has the genetics to fly and thus prove if his claim is true. Upon realizing the potential danger of this, Julius yells at Niko while he is in midflight, so he falls again but is saved by Dasher. After this, the wolves find their way into the valley and the scared reindeer lose their power of flight. Black Wolf chooses to pursue Niko and corners him up a tall tree.  Meanwhile, as the other reindeer are cornered on the runway by the other wolves, Julius convinces the reindeer that they can fly, allowing them to save Niko using the sleigh. Black Wolf latches onto the sleigh, but Julius dislodges the part he is holding on to. In order to save Julius from falling as well, Niko jumps off the sleigh, only to realize that he can finally fly, and successfully saves Julius as Black Wolf falls to his death. Niko, backed up by the Flying Forces, send the wolves fleeing when they realize Black Wolf's death. Prancer, congratulating Niko on his bravery, reveals that he is his father. Afterwards, Niko meets Santa, who invites him to join the Flying Forces. However, after Julius leaves to update Niko's mother and the herd on his well-being, Niko chooses to stay with his mother and Julius, but intends to visit Prancer. Niko and Julius then take the herd to a new valley.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The animation took place in three countries; initial animation production and effects were produced in Finland, Germany and Denmark. Rendering and Lighting took place in Finland, and much of the post-production was carried out in Ireland. The American version of the film re-casts Norm Macdonald as Julius and Emma Roberts as Wilma.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The Flight Before Christmas currently only has one review at Rotten Tomatoes, not enough to give it an aggregated score. The review, which is from Common Sense Media, gives the film 3 out of 5 stars, and the disclaimer: \"Wolves will scare younger kids in this holiday feature.\" However, it is implied that the film has received mostly mixed reviews by critics and audiences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray in most European territories, and was released as a direct-to-video film in North America on DVD.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The original score was composed by Stephen McKeon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequel.", "content": "The sequel, \"\" was first released on 12 October 2012 in Finland. The sequel follows Niko, who must deal with his mother getting remarried and gaining a stepbrother named Jonni. When Jonni is kidnapped by eagles, Niko flies off to rescue him. He is joined by an old, near-blind reindeer named Tobias, the former leader of the Flying Forces. But also standing in Niko's way is White Wolf, Black Wolf's sister, who leads the eagles and wants revenge on Niko for her brother's death.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Flight Before Christmas (, aka Niko & The Way to the Stars) is a 2008 computer animated Christmas film directed by Michael Hegner and Kari Juusonen. It revolves around a young reindeer named Niko who must overcome his fear of flying by heading to Santa Claus' fell to save him and his fleet of flying reindeer from a pack of wolves. The film was a Finnish production with co-producers in Denmark, Germany and Ireland. It was produced by Anima Vitae, Animaker Oy, A. Film A/S, Ulysses Films, and Magma Films. The animation was produced in Finland, Germany and Denmark, with post-production carried out in Ireland. A 45-minute television edit in American English, was produced in the United States for CBS under the title The Flight Before Christmas. A sequel, \"\" was released in October 2012 in Finland. It is one of the most expensive Finnish films.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976906}
{"src_title": "Ciprian Tătărușanu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Bucharest, Tătărușanu began his football career with local Juventus București. He later joined Gloria Bistrița, making his first division debut in a 1–0 away victory over Unirea Urziceni on 23 May 2007.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Steaua București.", "content": "In May 2008, it was announced that 22-year-old Tătărușanu was transferred to FC Steaua București for a fee of €1.5 million. He spent the following season on loan at Gloria Bistrița, as the \"Roș-albaștrii\" already had a first-choice goalkeeper in the person of Róbinson Zapata.  Tătărușanu made his European debut on 16 July 2009, in a 2–0 UEFA Europa League victory against Hungarian side Újpest. On 2 August, he played his first Liga I game for Steaua in a 2–0 win over Ceahlăul Piatra Neamț. On 19 August 2010, he helped his team progress further to the Europa League group stage after saving two shots at a penalty shootout against Swiss club Grasshopper.  In June 2011, it was reported that Napoli made a €3 million bid for the transfer of Tătărușanu, but the offer was rejected. During his spell in the capital, he amassed competitive totals of 187 games and won four domestic trophies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fiorentina.", "content": "Tătărușanu refused to renew his contract with Steaua București and left the club on Bosman ruling, subsequently signing a five-year deal with Italian team Fiorentina on 9 June 2014. He made his debut for the \"Viola\" on 18 September, in a 3–0 UEFA Europa League group stage victory over French side Guingamp.  He recorded seven appearances in the competition, including a 1–1 round of 32 draw against Tottenham Hotspur. On 6 January 2015, he played his first Serie A match, a 0–1 loss to Parma. Tătărușanu was then chosen in the starting eleven for eight consecutive games, until a 1–1 draw with Torino. He made his last appearance of the 2014–15 season in the final league fixture, a 3–0 win over Chievo.  Following the departure of Neto to Juventus in July 2015, Tătărușanu became the undisputed first-choice goalkeeper for Fiorentina, with his good display earning him the \"Gazeta Sporturilor\"'s 2015 Romanian Footballer of the Year award.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nantes.", "content": "In late July 2017, Tătărușanu was transferred by French club FC Nantes for an undisclosed fee. He made his competitive debut on 12 August in a 0–1 defeat to Marseille, being named man of the match for his performance. On 20 December 2017, he finished second behind Constantin Budescu in the 2017 Romanian Footballer of the Year award.  Tătărușanu amassed 37 appearances in his first campaign with \"the Canaries\", all in the Ligue 1, and managed to keep twelve clean sheets. In early April 2019, he saved two penalty kicks in successive matches; the first in a 0–3 Coupe de France loss to Paris Saint-Germain, and the second in a 0–1 league loss to Toulouse.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lyon.", "content": "On 13 June 2019, Tătărușanu joined Olympique Lyonnais as a free agent. A backup option to regular starter Anthony Lopes, he only recorded his debut on 18 December that year, in a Coupe de la Ligue 4–1 win against Toulouse.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "In August 2009, Tătărușanu was selected by manager Răzvan Lucescu in Romania's squad for a match against Hungary. His full international debut came in a 1–1 draw against Italy, on 17 November 2010.He is a bronze medalist Cyprus International Football Tournament 2011  Tătărușanu was picked for the preliminary 28-man UEFA Euro 2016 squad and eventually made it to the final list. He played in all three matches of the eventual group-stage exit, including the opener against hosts France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Steaua București", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anton Ciprian Tătărușanu (; born 9 February 1986) is a Romanian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for French club Lyon and the Romania national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976907}
{"src_title": "Úrsula Micaela Morata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Born into a well-to-do family, Morata was the youngest of thirteen brothers and sisters. Her father, Marco Aurelio Morata e Iscaya, was an Italian knight from Savoy. Her mother, Juana Garibaldo, from Madrid, was also of Italian ancestry. They died within three days of each other in 1632, when Morata was three years old. She was left in the care of her elder sister, Sebastiana. When she was four years old, she had her first mystical experience during an attack of smallpox that brought her to the brink of death. In her own words,  Thus began her spiritual apprenticeship, in which she acquired the dominant ideas of the time as regards prayer, fasting and mortification, receiving through these practices other mystical experiences.  Thanks to her sister, she learned to read and to write, an uncommon practice at the time, especially for women.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years as a nun.", "content": "In 1647, she took her religious vows in the convent of the Capuchin Poor Clares of Murcia, adopting the name Micaela.  When plague ravaged Murcia in 1648, Sister Ursula Micaela nursed the sick. In 1651 and 1653 the river Segura overflowed, forcing the community of nuns to abandon their convent and take refuge on Monte de los Ermitas. During this period, Sister Ursula Micaela experienced the dark night of the soul, a stage of spiritual crisis described by many mystics. In 1652, she was ordered by her confessor to write her autobiography.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spiritual progress.", "content": "In 1653, at the end of her dark night of the soul, she experienced transverberation of the heart in a manner similar to Saint Teresa of Ávila:  Sister Ursula Micaela had various supernatural experiences also found in other mystics: visions, locutions, miracles, extrasensory perception, etc. She was especially noted for bilocation, which even took her to other nations, and prophecy, which made her an oracle to whom people turned for advice, including Charles II of Spain and John of Austria the Younger, with both of whom she maintained a correspondence.  In 1661, she was elected counselor and secretary of her religious community.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Convent in Alicante.", "content": "In 1669, the first steps were taken to establish a convent of the Capuchin Poor Clares in the city of Alicante. The difficulties were many, and the foundation did not take place until 1672. The first residence was provisional, in a house not really appropriate for communitarian life. For that reason, work began on the construction of a convent and church, financed by donations from the people of Alicante and John of Austria the Younger, and under the protection of Charles II. The work was not completed until 1682. The convent received the title of Triumphs of the Blessed Sacrament, a name inspired by one of Sister Ursula's visions.  Sister Ursula Micaela held the office of vicaress (\"vicaria\" or deputy abbess) of the convent until 1699, when she was elected abbess, an office she held until her death. These later experiences are not recorded in her \"Autobiography\", since she left off writing it in 1684.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and cause for beatification.", "content": "After two years of painful illness, she died on 9 January 1703, at the age of 75. The fame of her sanctity and the social prestige she had acquired resulted in her body lying in state in the church for six days. The body remained incorrupt, warm and supple, for which reason it was not interred. In 1742, Juan Elías Gómez de Terán, Bishop of Orihuela, finding it still intact, ordered that it be placed in a coffer without being buried. Thus the body has been conserved until the present time, still remaining incorrupt and supple.  Sister Ursula Micaela's reputation for sanctity led José de la Torre y Orumbella, Bishop of Orihuela-Alicante, to initiate an examination of her life and virtues in 1703 with a view to beatification. As a result of fires in the archives during the War of the Spanish Succession and the Spanish Civil War, the resulting documents were lost. However, her autobiography, 24 letters, and some other testimonies regarding her life survive. A diocesan inquiry for her beatification was opened by Rafael Palmero Ramos, Bishop of Orihuela-Alicante, on 11 October 2006 and concluded on 11 June 2009.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ursula Micaela Morata (Cartagena, Spain, 21 October 1628 - Alicante, Spain, 9 January 1703) was a nun, mystic, and founder of the convent of the Capuchin Poor Clares in Alicante, Spain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976908}
{"src_title": "Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Thomas of Brotherton was born 1 June 1300 at the manor house at Brotherton, Yorkshire, while his mother was on her way to Cawood, where her confinement was scheduled to take place. According to Hilton, Margaret was staying at Pontefract Castle and was following a hunt when she went into labour. The chronicler William Rishanger records that during the difficult delivery his mother prayed, as was the custom at the time, to Thomas Becket, and Thomas of Brotherton was thus named after the saint and his place of birth.  King Edward I hastened to the queen and the newborn baby and had Thomas presented with two cradles. His brother Edmund of Woodstock was born in the year after that. They were overseen by wet nurses until they were six years old. Like their parents, they learned to play chess and to ride horses. They were visited by nobles and their half-sister Mary of Woodstock, who was a nun. Their mother often accompanied their father on his campaigns to Scotland, but kept herself well-informed on their well-being.  Thomas's father died when he was 7 years old. Thomas's half-brother Edward, became king of England, as \"King Edward II\", and Thomas was heir presumptive until his nephew, the future King Edward III, was born in 1312. The Earldom of Cornwall had been intended for Thomas, but his brother the King instead bestowed it upon his favourite, Piers Gaveston, in 1306. When Thomas was 10 years old, King Edward II assigned to him and his brother Edmund, the estates of Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk, who had died without heirs in 1306.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1312, Thomas was titled \"Earl of Norfolk\" by Edward II, and on 10 February 1316 he was created Earl Marshal. While his brother was away fighting in Scotland, he was left Keeper of England. He was known for his hot and violent temper. He was one of the many victims of the unchecked greed of the king's new favourite, Hugh Despenser the Younger and his father Hugh Despenser the Elder, who stole some of the young earl's lands.  He allied himself with Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer when they invaded England in 1326, and stood as one of the judges in the trials against both Despensers. When his nephew Edward III reached his majority and took the government into his own hands Thomas, who had helped with the deposition, became one of his principal advisors. It was in the capacity of Lord Marshal that he commanded the right wing of the English army at the Battle of Halidon Hill on 19 July 1333.  Thomas died about 20 September 1338, and was buried in the choir of the Abbey of Bury St Edmunds. As he had no surviving sons, Thomas was succeeded by his daughter, Margaret, as Countess of Norfolk. She was later created Duchess of Norfolk for life in 1397.  As a son of Edward I of England, Thomas was entitled to bear the coat of arms of the Kingdom of England, differenced by a \"label argent of three points\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and issue.", "content": "Thomas married firstly, before 8 January 1326, Alice de Hales (d. before 12 October 1330), daughter of Sir Roger de Hales of Hales Hall in Loddon in Roughton, Norfolk, a coroner, by his wife, Alice, by whom he had a son and two daughters:  Thomas's wife Alice died by October 1330, when a chantry was founded for her soul in Bosham, Sussex.  Thomas married secondly, before 4 April 1336, Mary de Brewes (died 11 June 1362), widow of Sir Ralph de Cobham, (died 5 February 1326), and daughter of Sir Peter de Brewes (died before 7 February 1312) of Tetbury, Gloucestershire, by Agnes de Clifford (died before 1332), by whom he had no surviving issue.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk (1 June 13004 August 1338), was the fifth son of King Edward I of England (1272–1307), and the eldest child by his second wife, Margaret of France, the daughter of King Philip III of France. He was, therefore, a younger half-brother of King Edward II (1307–1327) and a full brother of Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent. He occupied the office of Earl Marshal of England.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976909}
{"src_title": "Margaret of Brandenburg, Duchess of Pomerania", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Margaret was the youngest daughter of the Elector Joachim I of Brandenburg (1484–1535) from his marriage to Elisabeth (1485–1555), daughter of King John of Denmark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duchess of Pomerania.", "content": "She married her first husband on 23 January 1530 in Berlin Duke George I of Pomerania (1493–1531). She brought a dowry of into the marriage, enabling George I to transfer a jointure consisting of the districts of Barth, Damgarten, Tribsees, Grimsby and Klempenow to her. The marriage had apparently been agreed during negotiations at Grimnitz Castle about the constitutional relationship between Brandenburg and Pomerania. George I died a year after the marriage and Margaret enjoyed the revenue from het wittum for only three years. She was quite unpopular in Pomerania and when Prince John IV of Anhalt asked for her hand, her stepson Philip I, Duke of Pomerania had to levy a special tax to pay her dowry and redeem her jointure.  Margaret and George had a posthumous child, a girl named Georgia. Georgia went with her mother to Anhalt, but returned to Pomerania when she was eight years old. Margaret succeeded in tough negotiations with her stepson, Philip I, to delay her return until May 1543.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Princess of Anhalt.", "content": "Her second husband was on 15 February 1534 in Dessau prince John V of Anhalt-Zerbst (1504–1551). Her marriage to John soon proved unhappy. Margaret fled from her husband to her wittum, Roßlau Castle. Martin Luther tried to mediate between John and Margaret. He visited her at Roßlau Castle and blamed her for leaving her husband \"cheekily\". This started a fierce war of words. Luther later reported: \"I must have told her clearly enough, until I was attracting her wrath\".  John eventually accused Margaret of marital infidelity and imprisoned her in 1550. John's personal physician was tortured to make him confess a relationship with the princess, but he did not budge. She managed to escape from her prison and after a number of adventures arrived half-naked and robbed at the court of her cousin King Christian III of Denmark in Copenhagen.  Later, she lived for a while with her sister Elisabeth, who advised her to protect herself by marrying for a third time. Elisabeth held her sister to be unreliable and unstable and warned her son-in-law Albert not to take in Margaret. Albert took her in anyway, and after his death George Frederick I, the administrator of Prussia, took care of her, because her own children refused to support her.  By the end of her life, she led an unsettled existence in the Pomeranian-Polish border region and is said to have married a simple farmer. It is also alleged that she contacted her daughter Georgia during her pregnancy and even visited her in Schlochau under a false identity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriages and issue.", "content": "From her first marriage to George I, she had a daughter:  From her second marriage to John V, she had the following children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Margaret of Brandenburg (1511 – after 3 November 1577) was a Princess of Brandenburg by birth and by marrying first a duke of Pomerania and later a prince of Anhalt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976910}
{"src_title": "System 6", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Main features.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "MacroMaker.", "content": "MacroMaker is a utility introduced in System 6. When enabled, it allows users to record mouse and keyboard input as macros. MacroMaker has a unique user interface, which aims to look and act like a tape recorder. MacroMaker was criticized for its lack of features when compared to Microsoft's AutoMac III, which was already available commercially. As MacroMaker only records the locations of mouse-clicks inside windows and not what is being clicked or exactly when, it can not be used to automate more sophisticated programs. The pre-recorded clicks miss buttons if they had moved or failed to appear upon playback. Another limitation is that it records the start and end locations of mouse movements but not the precise path of the movements, and its macros do not handle situations that require the macro to wait for a period of time before or after an action. MacroMaker is not compatible with System 7, in which the successive AppleScript was introduced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Multitasking.", "content": "Cooperative multitasking made its Macintosh debut in March 1985 with a program called Switcher by Andy Hertzfeld, which allows the user to launch multiple applications and switch between them. Many programs and features do not function correctly with Switcher, and it does not share the screen between applications simultaneously. It is not included with the operating system, but was available from Apple as a separate purchase. Both System 5 and System 6 have a feature called MultiFinder instead, which is much more mature and widely used in System 6. MultiFinder can be enabled or disabled, with a reboot. If disabled, the Finder quits when the user launches another application, thus freeing RAM for it. If enabled, the system behaves as in the currently familiar multitasking tradition, with the desktop and windows of other applications in the screen's background.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hardware support.", "content": "System 6 includes support for the Apple ImageWriter LQ and PostScript laser printers. New software drivers allows the ImageWriter LQ to be used on AppleTalk local area networks and supports use of tabloid, or B, size paper (). System 6 includes QuickerGraf (originally called QuickerDraw), a piece of system software used to accelerate the drawing of color screen images on the Macintosh II. It was licensed to Apple and Radius Inc by its programmer, Andy Hertzfeld.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Limitations.", "content": "System 6's Apple menu cannot be used to launch applications. The current application icon in the upper right-hand corner of the menu bar cycles between open applications; it is not a menu. System 6 supports 24 bits of addressable RAM (random access memory), which allows a maximum of 8 megabytes of RAM with no provision for virtual memory. These limitations were fixed in System 7. The version of the HFS file system in System 6 also has a volume size limit; it supports up to 2 gigabytes (GB) and 65,536 files on a volume. System 7.5 increases the limit to 4 GB.  The Trash (known as the \"Wastebasket\" in British versions) empties when the Finder terminates. If MultiFinder is not running, this occurs as soon as an application launches. Icons on the desktop in System 6 are not organized into a single folder, as in later operating systems. Instead, the system records whether each file is on the desktop or not. This is inefficient and confusing, as the user cannot browse to the desktop in applications besides the Finder, even within the standard Open and Save As dialog boxes. Furthermore, these dialogs are primitive, mostly unchanged since 1984. The lack of aliases, shortcuts to files, is another limitation of file management on System 6. Custom file and folder icons are not supported. These problems were all remedied in System 7.  A maximum of 15 desk accessories may be installed at one time, including the Chooser, Scrapbook, and Control Panel. System 6 uses the Control Panel desk accessory to access all the installed control panels, which imposes severe user interface limitations. Desk Accessories cannot be installed or removed within the Finder; this requires the Font/DA Mover utility. System 7 also fixed this. Control panels, however, are contained in separate files.  Few methods exist for interface personalization. The Finder allows each icon to be assigned a color, but the desktop background is limited to an 8x8 pixel color tiled pattern (color patterns were introduced in System 5), and standard window frames are all black and white. However, many \"INIT\" extension files exist to add color and customization. System 7 allows the user to change the color and various other aspects of the user interface. By 1989, the System 6 user interface was in need of a change. In comparison to the NeXTSTEP operating system of the time, System 6 does not make use of sound, and its user interface presented several limitations in file management and the way windows are displayed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The initial releases of System 6 are unstable; many third party software developers did not receive copies before its release, resulting in widespread compatibility problems. The contemporary versions of many common software programs such as Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Works and 4th Dimension are not fully compatible with System 6. There are also software bugs in the Color Manager, Script Manager, and Sound Manager extension files. Apple announced that 66 bugs were fixed when the 6.0.1 update was released in September 1988. However, a major bug involving text spacing of screen fonts was found in 6.0.1 after distribution began. This led to the quick release of 6.0.2, which solves this problem. Some customers waited longer until moving to System 6 because of the poor reputation already gained.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compatibility.", "content": "System 6 was officially supported by Apple for many different machines, some of which were shipped with System 6. Some unsupported Macintosh computers can run System 6 with limitations.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "System 6 (also referred to as System Software 6) is a graphical user interface-based operating system for Macintosh computers. It was released in 1988 by Apple Computer, Inc. and is part of the classic Mac OS series of operating systems. System 6 was included with all new Macintosh computers until it was succeeded by System 7 in 1991. The boxed version of System 6 cost $49 when introduced. System 6 is classed as a monolithic operating system. It features an improved MultiFinder, which allows for co-operative multitasking.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976911}
{"src_title": "Sunda clouded leopard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Sunda clouded leopard is overall grayish yellow or gray hue. It has a double midline on the back and is marked with small irregular cloud-like patterns on shoulders. These cloud markings have frequent spots inside and form two or more rows that are arranged vertically from the back on the flanks. It has a stocky build and weighs around. Its canine teeth are long, which, in proportion to the skull length, are longer than those of any other living cat. Its tail can grow to be as long as its body, aiding balance.  It can purr as its hyoid bone is ossified. Its pupils contract to vertical slits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The Sunda clouded leopard is restricted to the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. In Borneo, it occurs in lowland rainforest, and at lower density in logged forest below. In Sumatra, it appears to be more abundant in hilly, montane areas. It is unknown if it still occurs on the Batu Islands close to Sumatra.  Between March and August 2005, tracks of clouded leopards were recorded during field research in the Tabin Wildlife Reserve in Sabah. The population size in the research area was estimated to be five individuals, based on a capture-recapture analysis of four confirmed animals differentiated by their tracks. The density was estimated at eight to 17 individuals per. The population in Sabah is roughly estimated at 1,500–3,200 individuals, with only 275–585 of them living in totally protected reserves that are large enough to hold a long-term viable population of more than 50 individuals. Density outside protected areas in Sabah is probably much lower, estimated at one individual per.  In Sumatra, it was recorded in Kerinci Seblat, Gunung Leuser and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Parks. It occurs most probably in much lower densities than on Borneo. One explanation for this lower density of about 1.29 individuals per might be that on Sumatra it is sympatric with the Sumatran tiger, whereas on Borneo it is the largest carnivore.  Clouded leopard fossils were excavated on Java, where it perhaps became extinct in the Holocene.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behaviour.", "content": "The habits of the Sunda clouded leopard are largely unknown because of the animal's secretive nature. It is assumed that it is generally solitary. It hunts mainly on the ground and uses its climbing skills to hide from dangers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy and evolution.", "content": "\"Felis diardi\" was the scientific name proposed by Georges Cuvier in 1823 in honour of Pierre-Médard Diard, who sent a skin and a drawing from Java to National Museum of Natural History, France. It was subordinated as a clouded leopard subspecies by Reginald Innes Pocock in 1917.  Results of molecular genetic analysis of hair samples from mainland and Sunda clouded leopards showed differences in mtDNA, nuclear DNA sequences, and microsatellite and cytogenetic variation. This indicates that they diverged between 2 and 0.9 million years ago; their last common ancestor probably crossed a now submerged land bridge to reach Borneo and Sumatra. Results of a morphometric analysis of the pelages of 57 clouded leopards sampled throughout the genus' wide geographical range indicated that the two morphological groups differ primarily in the size of their cloud markings. The genus \"Neofelis\" was therefore reclassified as comprising two distinct species:  Molecular, craniomandibular and dental analysis indicates distinction of the Sunda clouded leopard in two subspecies with separate evolutionary histories: Both populations are estimated to have diverged during the Middle to Late Pleistocene. This split corresponds roughly with the catastrophic super-eruption of the Toba Volcano in Sumatra 69,000–77,000 years ago. A probable scenario is that Sunda clouded leopards from Borneo recolonized Sumatra during periods of low sea levels in the Pleistocene, and were later separated from their source population by rising sea levels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats.", "content": "Sunda clouded leopards being strongly arboreal are forest-dependent, and are increasingly threatened by habitat destruction following deforestation in Indonesia as well as in Malaysia.  Since the early 1970s, much of the forest cover has been cleared in southern Sumatra, in particular lowland tropical evergreen forest. Fragmentation of forest stands and agricultural encroachments have rendered wildlife particularly vulnerable to human pressure. Borneo has one of the world's highest deforestation rates. While in the mid-1980s forests still covered nearly three quarters of the island, by 2005 only 52% of Borneo was still forested. Both forests and land make way for human settlement. Illegal trade in wildlife is a widely spread practice.  The population status of Sunda clouded leopards in Sumatra and Borneo has been estimated to decrease due to forest loss, forest conversion, illegal logging, encroachment, and possibly hunting. In Borneo, forest fires pose an additional threat, particularly in Kaltim and in the Sebangau National Park.  There have been reports of poaching of Sunda clouded leopards in Brunei's Belait District where locals are selling their pelts at a lucrative price.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "\"Neofelis diardi\" is listed on CITES Appendix I, and is fully protected in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei. Sunda clouded leopards occur in most protected areas along the Sumatran mountain spine and in most protected areas on Borneo.  Since November 2006, the Bornean Wild Cat and Clouded Leopard Project based in the Danum Valley Conservation Area and the Tabin Wildlife Reserve aims to study the behaviour and ecology of the five species of Bornean wild cat — bay cat, flat-headed cat, marbled cat, leopard cat, and Sunda clouded leopard — and their prey, with a focus on the clouded leopard; investigate the effects of habitat alteration; increase awareness of the Bornean wild cats and their conservation needs, using the clouded leopard as a flagship species; and investigate threats to the Bornean wild cats from hunting and trade in Sabah.  The Sunda clouded leopard is one of the focal cats of the project \"Conservation of Carnivores in Sabah\" based in northeastern Borneo since July 2008. The project team evaluates the consequences of different forms of forest exploitation for the abundance and density of felids in three commercially used forest reserves. They intend to assess the conservation needs of these felids and develop species specific conservation action plans together with other researchers and all local stakeholders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Names.", "content": "The scientific name of the genus \"Neofelis\" is a composite of the Greek word νεο- meaning \"new, fresh, strange\", and the Latin word \"feles\" meaning \"cat\", so it literally means \"new cat.\"  The Indonesian name for the clouded leopard \"rimau-dahan\" means \"tree tiger\" or \"branch tiger\". In Sarawak, it is known as \"entulu\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Older newspaper articles still online:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sunda clouded leopard (\"Neofelis diardi\") is a medium-sized wild cat native to Borneo and Sumatra. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2015, as the total effective population probably consists of fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, with a decreasing population trend. On both Sunda islands, it is threatened by deforestation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976912}
{"src_title": "Kurt Seligmann", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Born in Basel in 1900, the son of a furniture department store owner, his parents were not in favor of Seligmann's artistic aspirations but eventually relented. After studying at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Geneva and spending several years working in his father's business in Basel, Seligmann left for Paris where he met with his friends from Geneva, sculptor Alberto Giacometti and art critic Pierre Courthion. During this time, he also met Ivy Langton. Through Giacometti he met Hans Arp and Jean Helion, who admired his sinister bio-morphic paintings and invited him to join their group, Abstraction-Creation Art Non-Figuratif.  In the mid-1930s his work began to take on a more baroque aspect, as he animated the prancing figures in his paintings and etchings with festoons of ribbons, drapery, and heraldic paraphernalia. Around 1935, Seligmann met and married Arlette Paraf, granddaughter of the founder of the Wildenstein Gallery. Together they traveled extensively, first around the world during a year-long honey-moon trip in 1936 and then to North America and British Columbia in 1938, to explore American ethnographic art. In 1937, Seligmann was accepted as a member of the Surrealist group in Paris by André Breton, who collected his work and included him in Surrealist exhibitions.  At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, Seligmann arrived in New York for an exhibition of his work at the Karl Nierendorf Gallery. Once there, however, with Surrealist artists being targeted by Nazis, he began to aid those in France and bring them to safety. The correspondence he maintained during this period is preserved in a collection at the Beinicke Rare Book Library at Yale University.  Seligmann's art continued to evolve and reached maturity during the 1940s in the United States. Beginning in 1940, he and Arlette lived at the Beaux Arts Building at Fortieth Street in Manhattan, and later they acquired a farm north of the city in the hamlet of Sugar Loaf, New York (in Orange County). Seligmann befriended many American artists as well as the art historian, Meyer Schapiro. With Schapiro as author, in 1944 he produced a limited edition set of six etchings illustrating the Myth of Oedipus. In 1948, a book called \"The History of Magic\" was published under his name by Pantheon Books. After the war, his work began to be exhibited widely and acquired by museums throughout the United States and Europe.  Seligmann taught at various colleges in New York City, particularly at Brooklyn College, from which he retired in 1958. The changing nature of the New York art world, as it embraced Abstract Expressionism, caused his work to be relegated to art history and perceived as passé. Due to illness, he gave up his Manhattan apartment and retired to his farm, where he died of an accidentally self-inflicted gunshot wound in January 1962.  Shortly before his death in 1992, his widow, Arlette Seligmann, bequeathed the entire Seligmann estate to the \"Orange Country Citizens Foundation\", a private nonprofit corporation dedicated to the preservation of Orange County, New York. The foundation now serves as Seligmann's official estate and uses the Seligmann's farm as their office. The U.S. copyright representative for the Orange County Citizen's Foundation and the estate of Kurt Seligmann is the Artists Rights Society. At the request of the Orange County Citizens Foundation, artist, Jonathan Talbot, undertook the restoration of the etching press formerly owned by Kurt Seligmann, which is located on the Seligmann property in Sugar Loaf. The project is expected to be completed by August 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kurt Leopold Seligmann (1900–1962) was a Swiss-American Surrealist painter and engraver. He was known for his fantastic imagery of medieval troubadors and knights in macabre rituals and inspired by the carnival held annually in his native Basel, Switzerland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976913}
{"src_title": "Heinrich Boere", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Boere was born in Eschweiler, Germany, to a Dutch father and a German mother, but his parents moved to Maastricht when he was two years old. He volunteered for the Waffen-SS in September 1940, only months after the German occupation of the Netherlands. In June 1941 at the age of 19 he left to fight on the Eastern Front including, in 1942, service in the Caucasus. In December 1942, he contracted pyelonephritis and was sent back to Maastricht.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War crimes.", "content": "In 1943, Boere became a member of a 15-man Waffen-SS squad of Dutch volunteers, the \"Sonderkommando\" \"Feldmeijer\", who were given the task of killing members of the Dutch resistance and anti-German citizens in retaliation for acts of resistance against the Nazi occupation of their country. Following attacks on German occupation forces and Dutch collaborators, the SS and Police Leader for the Netherlands, Hanns Albin Rauter, ordered the \"Sonderkommando\" to retaliate by assassinating civilians presumed to be in some way connected to the resistance. This operation, codenamed \"Silbertanne\" (Silver Fir), was responsible for probably 54 known killings, three of which Boere admitted to committing.  Boere’s first killing was committed in July 1944 when he and fellow SS member Jacobus Petrus Besteman received orders from the local Sicherheitsdienst (Security Service) office in Breda to murder a pharmacist named Fritz Hubert Ernst Bicknese, father of twelve. Wearing civilian clothes, Boere and Besteman walked into Bicknese’s pharmacy and asked him his identity. Upon a positive reply, Boere fired three shots into Bicknese’s upper body, then Besteman fired several more shots as Bicknese lay on the floor.  In September 1944, on a Sunday, Boere and Hendrik Kromhout arrived in Voorschoten at the home of Teun de Groot, a bicycle-shop owner and father of five children, who hid fugitives in his shop and was an acquaintance of anti-Nazi activists. As De Groot, still in his pyjamas, fumbled with his wallet to show his ID papers, Boere and Kromhout shot him. They then went to the apartment of Frans Willem Kusters, forced him into their car, and drove out of town. The pair then falsely claimed that they had a flat tire, stopped the vehicle and shot Kusters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war years.", "content": "In the immediate post-war years, Boere spent two years in an Allied prisoner-of-war camp, where he was interrogated and admitted to the three killings. After release from the PoW camp, Boere initially went into hiding out of fear of being sentenced to a lengthy prison sentence, but managed to flee to Germany. In 1949, a Dutch court sentenced Boere to death \"in absentia\" for the three murders, for supporting the enemy, and for serving in the army of the enemy. According to Dutch law, the last automatically leads to the loss of Dutch citizenship. Boere claimed German citizenship on the basis of a so-called \"Führererlass\", a law promulgated by Hitler providing all SS-members with German citizenship. This law remained in force during the 1950s and 1960s in Germany, but was later annulled under pressure from the European Union. From that point on, Boere was stateless, which was confirmed during the trial against him that started in October 2009. The German government refused to extradite him. West Germany was responsible for prosecuting war criminals, but Boere was never brought to trial there.  The Dutch government repeatedly sought Boere’s extradition. In 1983, a German court refused the Dutch request to hand Boere over to the Dutch authorities on the grounds that Boere might have German citizenship, and Germany, at that time, did not permit extraditing its own nationals. In 2007, a court in Aachen ruled that Boere could serve his sentence in Germany, but an appeals court in Cologne overturned the ruling, saying that the 1949 conviction was invalid because Boere was unable to present a defense. Boere’s case attracted a great deal of public attention and, in 2007, the opposition in the Dutch parliament brought the case up with the Dutch Ministry of Justice. Boere was listed by the Simon Wiesenthal Center as a Nazi war criminal-at-large. Besteman, Boere’s partner in the Bicknese slaying, served time in prison in the Netherlands for his war crimes.  On 14 April 2008 the state prosecution in Dortmund announced it was preparing to file charges against Boere. On 8 January 2009, the State Court of Aachen ruled that Boere was medically unfit and did not have to stand trial in the case.  The Provincial Court of Appeal in Cologne ruled on 7 July 2009, that Boere was fit for trial, overturning the lower court's ruling. Following a judicial review by the German Constitutional Court, the court decided not to accept Boere's appeal and ruled further that Boere was indeed fit to stand trial. However, according to the court he would be under medical supervision, being provided with a doctor for the length of the trial. The trial started on 28 October 2009, at Aachen's regional court.  In 2009, Boere lived in an old-age home in his birth town of Eschweiler, Germany. He was not taken into custody for the trial against him. In an interview with \"Der Spiegel\", he said, \"I'm not interested in what happened back then.\" In a documentary by Dutch journalists Rob van Olm and Jan Louter, who were the first to bring Boere to the attention of the public, Boere did admit to some feeling of remorse and stated he has confessed his crimes to a priest, and prayed for his victims. On 23 March 2010 in Aachen, Germany, he was sentenced to life in prison. His defence, that he would have been shot had he disobeyed orders (sometimes known as the 'Nuremberg Defense'), was rejected. Following the ruling of the court, his solicitors announced that they would appeal the judgment.  After his appeal was rejected, Boere began serving his life sentence on 16 December 2011 at the age of 90. Boere died on 1 December 2013 while in prison custody at Fröndenberg.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heinrich Boere (27 September 1921 – 1 December 2013) was a convicted German-Dutch war criminal and former member of the Waffen-SS. He was on the Simon Wiesenthal Center's list of most wanted Nazi war criminals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976914}
{"src_title": "Ján Móry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Móry was born in Banská Bystrica (Besztercebánya). From 1902 to 1910 he studied at gymnasium in Banská Bystrica, in the years 1910 - 1912, he studied at the University of Trading in Budapest. He studied piano with Scheinberger in Banská Bystrica, composition with Dobó in Budapest and from 1921 to 1925 with Herman Büchel in Berlin. Until 1921, he led the family business in Banská Bystrica which he sold to his siblings Klimos. The longest post he had was as an owner of the hotel in Štrbské Pleso. From 1947 to 1960, he was a director of Musical school in Spišská Nová Ves and finally he lived in Bratislava, where he died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "He was mostly known for his songs, operettas (\"Slnečná vdova\", \"Pre teba všetko\") and other stage works.  He gained incentives for the musical theory and experience from Viliam Figuš-Bystrý, with whom he met in Banská Bystrica and in Vysoké Tatry. He became known figure in the Slovak musical life as a creator of music entertainment in 1920s and 1930s. His songs, operettas, singspiels were played in addition to Slovakia and Czech republic also in Germany. Most of his operettas are in the nature of salon conversational plays where are applied typical Móry songs and duets, dances and overtures. He is the author of many scenic works, chamber and orchestral compositions.  In Banská Bystrica, he founded the sports club BAC with a strong football team. His succession is deposited in the Literary and music museum in Banská Bystrica.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ján Móry (or Johann Mory) (10 July 1892 – 5 May 1978) was a Slovak composer and pedagogue also known under pseudonym H. Tschirmer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976915}
{"src_title": "Claus Spahn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Vita.", "content": "Spahn studied History of theatre, German language and literature, Philosophy, and History of art at the University of Cologne. He received his doctorate ('Dr. Phil.') in 1969 for his dissertation \"The history of the theatre of the Ruhr region up to 1933\". He worked as a TV journalist for the WDR from 1969 to 2005. He produced numerous series, portraits and documentaries in the field of cultural and educational policy.  He became known both nationally and internationally through chess programmes. Between 1983 and 2005, he presented the annual live broadcast Chess of the Grandmasters (\"Schach der Großmeister\"), where players including Garry Kasparov, Anatoly Karpov, Viswanathan Anand and Vladimir Kramnik competed for the TV Cup.  It was on his initiative and under his direction that the WDR regularly reported on the Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Series / Films.", "content": "The series written and produced by Spahn included \"Keine Angst vorm Fliegen\" (\"Don't be afraid to fly\") and \"Der Elternführerschein\" (\"The driving licence for parents\"). Together with Lida Winiewicz, Spahn wrote the 12-part TV serial \"Wenn die Liebe hinfällt\" (\"When love ends\"). He was awarded the \"Medal of German Cancer Aid\" for \"Niemand soll der Nächste sein!\" (\"Nobody should be the next\"). In 1979, Spahn received the \"German Industrial Film Prize\" for the TV series \"Computer können nicht vergessen!\" (\"Computers can't forget\") in connection with the Federal Data Protection Act. Under the title and with the TV production \"Don't be afraid to fly\", Spahn and Rainer Pieritz founded seminars to allay the fear of flying in Germany. As author and director, Spahn produced two impressive portraits on Carl Djerassi, the chemist, author, art collector and \"Father of the pill\", and Otto Erich Deutsch, the Schubert researcher (\"Deutsch Catalog\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Claus Spahn was awarded the \"Ehrenteller des Deutschen Schachbundes\" (\"Commemorative Plate of the German Chess Federation\") in 1992. He received the \"Deutscher Schachpreis\" (\"German Chess Award\") of the German Chess Federation on two occasions (1983/2001) for his commitment to the sport of chess, as well as the Medal of the European Chess Union (ECU) and the of the World Chess Federation FIDE in 2002.  In 2001, he was awarded the \"Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\" by Federal President Johannes Rau for his many years of outstanding journalistic and editorial work.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Claus Spahn (born 15 May 1940 in Bottrop, Germany) is a former TV programme editor of Germany's Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR) broadcasting corporation, a presenter, producer and author. He was awarded the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany in 2001.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976916}
{"src_title": "National Library of Poland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Organizational structure.", "content": "There are three general sections:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The National Library's history has origins in the 18th century (Załuski Library) including items from the collections of John III Sobieski which were obtained from his grand daughter Maria Karolina Sobieska, Duchess of Bouillon. However, the Załuski collection was confiscated by troops of Russian tsarina Catherine II in the aftermath of the second Partition of Poland and sent to Saint Petersburg, where the books formed the mass of the Imperial Public Library on its formation in 1795. Parts of the collection were damaged or destroyed as they were mishandled while being removed from the library and transported to Russia, and many were stolen. According to the historian Joachim Lelewel, the Zaluskis' books, \"could be bought at Grodno by the basket\".  Because of that, when Poland regained her independence in 1918, there was no central institution to serve in the capacity of a national library. On 24 February 1928, by the decree of president Ignacy Mościcki, the National Library was created in its modern form. It was opened in 1930 and initially had 200 thousand volumes. Its first Director General was Stefan Demby, succeeded in 1934 by Stefan Vrtel-Wierczyński. The collections of the library were rapidly extended. For instance, in 1932 president Mościcki donated all of the books and manuscripts from the Wilanów Palace Museum to the library, some 40 thousand volumes and 20 thousand pictures from the collection of Stanisław Kostka Potocki.  Initially the National Library lacked a seat of its own. Because of that, the collections had to be accommodated in several places. The main reading room was located in the newly built library building of the Warsaw School of Economics. In 1935 the Potocki Palace in Warsaw became home for the special collections. A new, purpose-built building for the library was planned in what is now the Pole Mokotowskie, in a planned monumental \"Government District\". However, its construction was hampered by the outbreak of World War II.  Before World War II, the library collections consisted of:  In 1940 the Nazi occupants changed the National Library into Municipal Library of Warsaw and divided it as follows:  In 1944 the special collections were set ablaze by the Nazi occupants as a part of repressions after the Warsaw Uprising. This caused the destruction of 80,000 early printed books, including priceless 16th–18th century Polonica, 26,000 manuscripts, 2,500 incunables, 100,000 drawings and engravings, 50,000 pieces of sheet music and theatre materials. It is estimated that out of over six million volumes in Warsaw's major libraries in 1939, 3.6 million volumes were lost during World War II, a large part of them belonging to the National Library.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "Today the collections of the National Library are one of the largest in the country. Among 7,900,000 volumes (2004) held in the library are 160,000 objects printed before 1801, over 26,000 manuscripts (including 6,887 music manuscripts), over 114,000 music prints and 400,000 drawings. The library collections also include photographs and other iconographic documents, more than 101,000 atlases and maps, over 2,000,000 ephemera, as well as over 2,000,000 books and about 800,000 copies of journals from the 19th to 21st centuries. Notable items in the collection include 151 leaves of the \"Codex Suprasliensis\", which was inscribed in UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 2007 in recognition for its supranational and supraregional significance.  In 2012 the library signed an agreement to add 1.3 million Polish library records to WorldCat.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The National Library of Poland () is the central Polish library, subject directly to the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of the Republic of Poland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976917}
{"src_title": "Kata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Kata originally were teaching and training methods by which successful combat techniques were preserved and passed on. Practising kata allowed a company of persons to engage in a struggle using a systematic approaches, rather by practising in a repetitive manner the learner develops the ability to execute those techniques and movements in a natural, reflex-like manner. Systematic practice does not mean permanently rigid. The goal is to internalize the movements and techniques of a kata so they can be executed and adapted under different circumstances, without thought or hesitation. A novice's actions will look uneven and difficult, while a master's appear simple and smooth.  \"Kata\" is a loanword in English, from the 1950s in reference to the judo kata due to Jigoro Kano, and from the 1970s also of karate kata; but the word has come to be used as a generic term for \"forms\" in martial arts in general, or even figuratively applied to other fields.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Japanese martial arts.", "content": "In Japanese martial arts practice, kata is often seen as an essential partner to \"randori\" training with one complementing the other. However, the actual type and frequency of kata versus \"randori\" training varies from art to art. In iaido, solo kata using the Japanese sword (katana) comprises almost all of the training. Whereas in judo, kata training is de-emphasized and usually only prepared for dan grading.  In kenjutsu, paired kata at the beginners level can appear to be stilted. At higher levels serious injury is prevented only by a high sensitivity of both participants to important concepts being taught and trained for. These include timing and distance, with the kata practised at realistic speed. This adjustability of kata training is found in other Japanese arts with roles of attacker and defender often interchanging within the sequence. Many martial arts use kata for public demonstrations and in competitions, awarding points for such aspects of technique as style, balance, timing, and verisimilitude (appearance of being real).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Karate.", "content": "The most popular image associated with kata is that of a karate practitioner performing a series of punches and kicks in the air. The kata are executed as a specified series of approximately 20 to 70 moves, generally with stepping and turning, while attempting to maintain perfect form. There are perhaps 100 kata across the various forms of karate, each with many minor variations. The number of moves in a kata may be referred to in the name of the kata, e.g., \"Gojū Shiho\", which means \"54 steps.\" The number of moves may also have links with Buddhist spirituality. The number 108 is significant in Buddhism & Hinduism, and kata with 54, 36, or 27 moves (divisors of 108) are common. The practitioner is generally counselled to visualize the enemy attacks, and his responses, as actually occurring, and \"karateka\" are often told to \"read\" a kata, to explain the imagined events. Kata can contain techniques beyond the superficially obvious ones. The study of the meaning of the movements is referred to as the bunkai, meaning analysis, of the kata.  One explanation of the use of kata is as a reference guide for a set of moves. Not to be used following that \"set\" pattern but to keep the movements \"filed\". After learning these kata, this set of learned skills can then be used in a sparring scenario (particularly without points). The main objective here is to try out different combinations of techniques in a safe environment to ultimately find out how to defeat your opponent.  Recently, with the spread of Extreme Martial arts or XMA, a style of kata called CMX kata has formed. These kata are performed in tournaments and include gymnastics related elements, such as backflips, cartwheels, and splits. These kata can also be performed with weapons such as the Bo staff.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Judo.", "content": "Judo has several kata, mostly created in the late 19th century by Kano Jigoro, the founder of judo. The judo kata involve two participants. Judo kata preserve a number of techniques that are not permitted in competition or in \"randori\", including punches, kicks, and the use of the katana and other weapons. The study of kata is usually begun typically at around the green belt level. The most commonly studied judo kata is Nage-no-kata, which consists of fifteen throwing techniques. The Katame-no-kata is composed of pinning techniques, chokes, and joint locks. Kime-no-kata is a long kata consisting of self-defense techniques against both unarmed attacks, and attacks with swords and knives.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Non-Japanese martial arts.", "content": "While the Japanese term is most well known in the English language, forms are by no means exclusive to Japan. They have been recorded in China as early as the Tang dynasty, and are referred to in Mandarin as \"taolu\".  South and Southeast Asian martial arts incorporate both preset and freestyle forms. In silat these are referred to as \"jurus\" and \"tari\" respectively. Malay folklore credits the introduction of forms to the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma.  In such as taekwondo and Tang Soo Do, the word \"hyung\" or \"hyeong\" is usually employed, though in some cases other words are used. The International Taekwon-Do Federation uses the word \"tul\", while the World Taekwondo Federation uses the word \"poomsae\" or simply the English translations \"pattern\" or \"form.\" Taekwondo patterns have multiple variations including \"Palgwe\" and the more popular \"Taeguk\" forms used by the WTF. Forms are included in certain taekwondo competitions and are a key element of gradings.  In Sanskrit, forms are known either as \"yudhan\" (combat form) or \"pentra\" (tactical deployment). Other Asian martial arts refer to forms by various terms specific to their respective languages, such as the Burmese word \"aka\", the Vietnamese \"quyen\" and the Kashmiri \"khawankay\".  In the Historical European martial arts and their modern reconstructions, there are forms, plays, drills and flourishes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outside martial arts.", "content": "More recently kata has come to be used in English in a more general or figurative sense, referring to any basic form, routine, or pattern of behavior that is practised to various levels of mastery.  In Japanese language \"kata\" (though written as 方) is a frequently-used suffix meaning “way of doing,” with emphasis on the form and order of the process. Other meanings are “training method” and “formal exercise.” The goal of a painter's practising, for example, is to merge his consciousness with his brush; the potter's with his clay; the garden designer's with the materials of the garden. Once such mastery is achieved, the theory goes, the doing of a thing perfectly is as easy as thinking it.  Kata is a term used by some programmers in the Software Craftsmanship movement. Computer programmers who call themselves \"Software Craftsmen\" will write 'Kata' - small snippets of code that they write in one sitting, sometimes repeatedly, often daily, in order to build muscle memory and practise their craft.  One of the things that characterize an organization's culture is its kata – its routines of thinking and practice. Edgar Schein suggests an organization's culture helps it cope with its environment, and one meaning of \"kata\" is, \"a way to keep two things in sync or harmony with one another.\" A task for leaders and managers is to create and maintain the organizational culture through consistent role modeling, teaching, and coaching, which is in many ways analogous to how kata are taught in the martial arts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kata is a Japanese word (型 or 形) meaning literally \"form\" referring to a detailed choreographed pattern of martial arts movements made to be practised alone, and also within groups and in unison when training. It is practised in Japanese martial arts as a way to memorize and perfect the movements being executed. Korean martial arts with Japanese influence (hapkido, Tang Soo Do) use the derived term \"hyeong\" (hanja: 形) and also the term \"pumsae\" (hanja: 品勢 hangeul: 품새).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976918}
{"src_title": "Vasa Museum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "From the beginning of 1961 to 1988, \"Vasa\" was housed in a temporary structure called Wasavarvet (\"The Vasa Shipyard\") where she was treated with polyethylene glycol. Visitors could only view the ship from two levels and the maximum distance was only 5 m (17 ft). In 1981, the Swedish government decided that a permanent \"Vasa\" museum was to be constructed and a competition for the design of the museum building was organized. A total of 384 architects sent in models of their ideas and the final winners were Marianne Jakobbäck and Göran Månsson with \"Ask\" (\"box\"). The construction of the new building began on and around the dry dock of the old naval yard with an inauguration ceremony hosted by Prince Bertil on 2 November 1987. \"Vasa\" was towed into the flooded dry dock under the new building in December 1987, and during the summer of 1989, when visitors were allowed onto the construction site, 228,000 people visited the half-finished museum. The museum was officially opened on 15 June 1990. So far, \"Vasa\" has been seen by over 25 million people. In 2017, the museum had a total of 1,495,760 visitors.  The main hall contains the ship itself, and various exhibits related to the archaeological findings of the ships and early 17th-century Sweden. \"Vasa\" has been fitted with the lower sections of all three masts, a new bowsprit, winter rigging, and has had certain parts that were missing or heavily damaged replaced. The replacement parts have not been treated or painted and are therefore clearly visible against the original material that has been darkened after three centuries under water.  The new museum is dominated by a large copper roof with stylized masts that represent the actual height of \"Vasa\" when she was fully rigged. Parts of the building are covered in wooden panels painted in dark red, blue, tar black, ochre yellow and dark green. The interior is similarly decorated, with large sections of bare, unpainted concrete, including the entire ceiling. Inside the museum the ship can be seen from six levels, from her keel to the very top of the sterncastle. Around the ship are numerous exhibits and models portraying the construction, sinking, location and recovery of the ship. There are also exhibits that expand on the history of Sweden in the 17th century, providing background information for why the ship was built. A movie theatre shows a film in alternating languages on the recovery of the \"Vasa\".  The museum is in the process of publishing an 8-volume archaeological report to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the salvage. \"Vasa I: The Archaeology of a Swedish Warship of 1628\" was published at the end of 2006. Subsequent volumes will be published annually.  The museum also features four other museum ships moored in the harbour outside: the ice breaker \"Sankt Erik\" (launched 1915), the lightvessel \"Finngrundet\" (1903), the torpedo boat \"Spica\" (1966) and the rescue boat \"Bernhard Ingelsson\" (1944).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vasa Museum () is a maritime museum in Stockholm, Sweden. Located on the island of Djurgården, the museum displays the only almost fully intact 17th century ship that has ever been salvaged, the 64-gun warship \"Vasa\" that sank on her maiden voyage in 1628. The Vasa Museum opened in 1990 and, according to the official web site, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. Together with other museums such as the Stockholm Maritime Museum, it belongs to the Swedish National Maritime Museums (SNMM).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976919}
{"src_title": "Wismar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The name of the settlement was first recorded in the 12th century and it was of Slavic origin. It comes from a personal Slavic name \"Wyszemir\". Wismar was part of the Western Slavic Obotrites territory.  Wismar received its civic rights in 1229, and came into the possession of Mecklenburg in 1301. In 1259 it had entered a pact with Lübeck and Rostock, in order to defend itself against the numerous Baltic sea pirates. This developed into the Hanseatic League. During the 13th and 14th centuries it was a flourishing Hanseatic town, with important woollen factories. Though a plague carried off 2,000 of the inhabitants in 1376, the town seems to have remained tolerably prosperous until the 16th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Under Swedish rule.", "content": "Under the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 Wismar passed into the possession of Sweden. Through Wismar and the other dominions in the Holy Roman Empire, the Swedish monarchs in their roles as princes, or \"Reichsfürsten\", took part in the Imperial Diets. From 1653 it was the seat of the highest court for that part of Sweden. In 1803 Sweden pledged both the town and lordship to Mecklenburg-Schwerin for 1,258,000 Riksdaler, reserving, however, the right of redemption after 100 years. In view of this contingent right of Sweden, Wismar was not represented at the diet of Mecklenburg-Schwerin until 1897. In 1903 Sweden finally renounced its claims on the town. Wismar still retains a few relics of its old privileges, including the right to fly its own flag.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th century.", "content": "At the turn of the 19th century the most important manufacturing industries of Wismar were iron, machinery, paper, roofing-felt and asphalt. There was also considerable trade, especially by sea, in exports including grain, oil-seeds and butter, and the imports coal, timber and iron. The harbour was deep enough to admit vessels of 5 meters (16.4 feet) draught, permitting sizeable steamers to unload at its quays. Wismar was the home to the Dornier aircraft plant, and to railway rolling-stock factories.  In World War II Wismar was heavily damaged by Allied air raids. At the end of the war in Europe, as the line of contact between Soviet and other Allied armies formed, Wismar was captured by the British 6th Airborne Division's 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion on 2 May 1945. This prevented further Soviet advance into north Germany and Denmark. On 7 May 1945 Field Marshal Montgomery and Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky met in Wismar. On 1 July 1945, due to the occupation zone agreements of the Yalta Conference making Wismar a part of the Soviet Zone of Germany, the British troops departed and Soviet troops took over.  During the period of the German Democratic Republic (\"Deutsche Demokratische Republik\"), from 1949 to 1990, Wismar was developed as a port and shipbuilding city, becoming East Germany's second-largest port, after Rostock. Although the DDR government pledged to restore churches that had been heavily bomb-damaged during the war, this commitment was for the most part not fulfilled.  After German reunification in 1990, churches and other historic buildings in the city's \"Altstadt\" were restored, and the old towns of Wismar and Stralsund, some 100 miles to the east, were listed as UNESCO world heritage sites. In 2011, Wismar became the capital of the \"Landkreis\" (district) of Nordwestmecklenburg (Northwest Mecklenburg).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Main sights.", "content": "The centre of the old town is the huge Market Place, one of the largest in northern Germany (10,000 square metres), surrounded by elegant buildings with styles ranging from 14th-century North German Gothic to 19th-century Romanesque revival to Art Nouveau. The square's focal point is the \"Wasserkunst\", an elaborate wrought-iron fountain imported from Holland in 1602. The northern side of the square is occupied by the Town Hall, built in neoclassical style in 1817–1819. Another notable building in the square is a Brick Gothic \"Bürgerhaus\" (patrician's home) called the \"Alter Schwede\" (The Old Swede), erected around 1380.  St. George's Church, the third so-named edifice on the site, dates from 1404. It had escaped major damage during most of World War II, but was heavily damaged by \"Blockbuster bombs\" dropped by the British Royal Air Force on 14 April 1945, three weeks before the end of the war. After German reunification, reconstruction costing some 40 million euros was completed in 2010.  The 80 m high tower church of St. Mary's Church (the \"Marienkirche\") is the only remainder of the original Brick Gothic edifice, built in the first half of the 13th century. It suffered heavy damage in World War II, and was partially razed in 1960 by the East German government.  The church of St. Nicholas (\"Nikolaikirche\"), built in 1381–1460, with very lofty vaulting, together with the Marienkirche, are regarded as good examples of the influence exercised in these northern provinces by the large church of St Mary in Lübeck. The \"Fürstenhof\", at one time a ducal residence, and later occupied by the municipal authorities, is a richly decorated specimen of the Italian early Renaissance style. Built in 1552–1565, it was restored in 1877–1879. The \"Old School\", dating from about 1300, has been restored. The town hall, rebuilt in 1829, contains a collection of pictures. The main gallery for fine arts is the Municipal Gallery \"Baumhaus\" located in the old harbour area of Wismar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Nordic Yards Wismar is a shipbuilder located in Wismar and shipbuilding has existed since 1946 at the site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International relations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Twin towns – sister cities.", "content": "Wismar is twinned with:  In addition, since 1991 there is a friendship with Halden in Norway.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Wismar () is a port and Hanseatic city in Northern Germany on the Baltic Sea, in the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. It is located about east of Lübeck and north of Schwerin, and is part of the Hamburg Metropolitan Region. Its natural harbour, located in the Bay of Wismar, is protected by a promontory. The population was 42,219 in 2013. It is the capital of the district of Nordwestmecklenburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976920}
{"src_title": "Lothair I", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and reign.", "content": "Lothair was born in 795, to Louis the Pious and Ermengarde of Hesbaye. His father was the son of the reigning Emperor, Charlemagne. Little is known of Lothair's early life, which was probably passed at the court of his grandfather Charlemagne. In 814, the elderly emperor died, and left his sole surviving legitimate son Louis the Pious as successor to his vast empire. The next year, Lothair would be sent to govern Bavaria for his father, the new emperor. In 817, Louis the Pious drew up his \"Ordinatio Imperii\". In this, Louis designated Lothair as his principal heir and ordered that Lothair would be the overlord of Louis' younger sons Pippin of Aquitaine (who was 20) and Louis the German (who was 13), as well as his nephew (Lothair's cousin) Bernard of Italy. Lothair would also inherit their lands if they were to die childless. Lothair, aged 22, was then crowned joint emperor by his father at Aachen. At the same time, Aquitaine and Bavaria were granted to his brothers Pippin and Louis, respectively, as subsidiary kingdoms. Following the death of Bernard by Louis the Pious, Lothair also received the Kingdom of Italy. In 821, Lothair married Ermengarde (d. 851), daughter of Hugh the Count of Tours.  In 822, he assumed the government of Italy, and at Easter, 5 April 823, he was crowned emperor again by Pope Paschal I, this time at Rome. In November 824, Lothair promulgated a statute, the \"Constitutio Romana\", concerning the relations of pope and emperor, which reserved the supreme power to the secular potentate, and he afterwards issued various ordinances for the good government of Italy.  On Lothair's return to his father's court, his stepmother Judith won his consent to her plan for securing a kingdom for her son Charles, a scheme which was carried out in 829, when the young prince was given Alemannia as king. Lothair, however, soon changed his attitude and spent the succeeding decade in constant strife over the division of the Empire with his father. He was alternately master of the Empire, and banished and confined to Italy, at one time taking up arms in alliance with his brothers and at another fighting against them, whilst the bounds of his appointed kingdom were in turn extended and reduced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breaking kingdom.", "content": "The first rebellion began in 830. All three brothers fought their father, whom they deposed. In 831, their father was reinstated and he deprived Lothair of his imperial title and gave Italy to Charles. The second rebellion was instigated by Angilbert II, Archbishop of Milan, in 833, and again Louis was deposed in 834. Lothair, through the loyalty of the Lombards and later reconciliations, retained Italy and the imperial position through all remaining divisions of the Empire by his father.  When Louis the Pious was dying in 840, he sent the imperial insignia to Lothair, who, disregarding the various partitions, claimed the whole of the Empire. He was 45 years old when his father died. Negotiations with his brother Louis the German and his half-brother Charles, both of whom resisted this claim, were followed by an alliance of the younger brothers against Lothair. A decisive battle was fought at Fontenay-en-Puisaye on 25 June 841, when, in spite of his and his allied nephew Pepin II of Aquitaine's personal gallantry, Lothair was defeated and fled to Aachen. With fresh troops he began a war of plunder, but the forces of his brothers were too strong, and taking with him such treasure as he could collect, he abandoned his capital to them. He met with the leaders of the \"Stellinga\" in Speyer and promised them his support in return for theirs, but Louis and then the native Saxon nobility put down the \"Stellinga\" in the next years.  Peace negotiations began, and in June 842 the brothers met on an island in the Saône. They agreed to an arrangement which developed, after much difficulty and delay, into the Treaty of Verdun, signed in August 843. By this, Lothair received the imperial title as well as northern Italy and a long stretch of territory from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, essentially along the valleys of the Rhine and the Rhône; this territory includes the regions Lorraine, Alsace, Burgundy, and Provence. He soon ceded Italy to his eldest son, Louis, and remained in his new kingdom, engaging in alternate quarrels and reconciliations with his brothers and in futile efforts to defend his lands from the attacks of the Northmen (as Vikings were known in Frankish writings) and the Saracens (as those loyal to the various Fatimids, Umayyads and Abbasides are known in Frankish writings).  In 845 the count of Arles, Fulcrad, led a rebellion in Provence. The emperor put it down and the count joined him in an expedition against the Saracens in Italy in 846.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and aftermath.", "content": "In 855 he became seriously ill, and despairing of recovery renounced the throne, divided his lands among his three sons, and on 23 September entered the monastery of Prüm, where he died six days later. He was buried at Prüm, where his remains were found in 1860. It was at Prüm that Lothair was most commemorated.  The same year, Lothair's kingdom was divided between his three sons in a deal called the Treaty of Prüm: the eldest, Louis II, received Italy and the title of emperor; the second, Lothair II, received Lotharingia; the youngest, Charles, received Provence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "He married Ermengarde of Tours in 821, who died in 851.  One illegitimate child is known.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lothair I or Lothar I (Dutch and Medieval Latin: \"Lotharius\"; German: \"Lothar\"; French: \"Lothaire\"; Italian: \"Lotario\") (795 – 29 September 855) was emperor (817–855, co-ruling with his father until 840), and the governor of Bavaria (815–817), King of Italy (818–855) and Middle Francia (840–855).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976921}
{"src_title": "Nina Dobrev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Dobrev was born Nikolina Kamenova Dobreva in Sofia, Bulgaria, and moved to Canada at age two, where she was raised in Toronto, Ontario. She has an older brother, Aleksandar Dobrev. Her father, Kamen Dobrev, is a computer specialist and her mother, Michaela Dobreva (née Radeva), is an artist.  Dobrev attended Vradenburg Junior Public School and J. B. Tyrrell Sr. Public School, where she started ballet and jazz classes and competed in rhythmic gymnastics. She took acting classes at Armstrong Acting Studios in Toronto. Dobrev subsequently attended the arts program at Wexford Collegiate School for the Arts in Scarborough until her graduating year.  Dobrev entered post-secondary studies at Ryerson University in Toronto, majoring in Sociology, though her pursuit of an acting career prevented her from graduating.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Dobrev's first major acting role was as Mia on the teen drama television series \"\", a role she played for three seasons starting in 2006. She appeared in several feature films in the mid-2000s, including \"Fugitive Pieces\" and \"Away from Her\". Dobrev also headlined a number of television films, including Sci Fi Channel's \"Never Cry Werewolf\", MTV's The American Mall, and two Lifetime original movies. In 2007 she appeared in the music video of \"You Got That Light\" performed by Wade Allain-Marcus and David Baum.  Dobrev left \"Degrassi\" in 2009 to star in The CW's supernatural drama series \"The Vampire Diaries\", a television adaptation of the book series of the same name, playing the lead role of Elena Gilbert. Dobrev recurrently played a 500-year-old doppelgänger vampire named Katherine Pierce. She played the Petrova dopplegänger progenitor Amara, also known as the world's first immortal, in season 5. She crossed over to \"The Vampire Diaries\" spinoff \"The Originals\", as doppelgänger character Tatia, in an episode in 2014. In April 2015, Dobrev announced via Instagram that she would be leaving \"The Vampire Diaries\" after portraying Elena for six seasons. In January 2017, it was announced that Dobrev would return as Elena and Katherine in \"The Vampire Diaries\" series finale.  Dobrev had a minor role in the erotic thriller \"Chloe\", theatrically released by Sony Pictures Classics on March 26, 2010. The film had enjoyed commercial success and became director Atom Egoyan's biggest moneymaker ever. She also had a small role in the 2011 film \"The Roommate\". In April 2011, Dobrev was cast as Candace Kelmeckis in the film adaptation of \"The Perks of Being a Wallflower\", alongside Logan Lerman, Emma Watson, and Paul Rudd. In August 2014, she starred alongside Jake Johnson and Damon Wayans Jr. in the 20th Century Fox comedy \"Let's Be Cops\".  Dobrev played the role of Vicki Summers in the 2015 horror comedy film \"The Final Girls\". In September 2015, Dobrev was cast in the film \"Arrivals\", opposite Asa Butterfield and Maisie Williams, portraying the role of flight attendant Izzy; the film was later retitled \"Departures\", and was scheduled to go into production in April 2017. The same year, she was cast in the romantic comedy \"Crash Pad\", alongside Domhnall Gleeson and Christina Applegate, which began filming in Vancouver in fall 2015.  In 2017, Dobrev co-starred as weapons specialist Becky Clearidge in the action film sequel \"\", opposite Vin Diesel and Samuel L. Jackson; the film was released January 20. Also that year, Dobrev co-starred as Marlo in the film remake \"Flatliners\", opposite Ellen Page.  In March 2018, Dobrev was cast in the role of Clem in the comedy \"Fam\", a CBS television pilot that was picked up to series in May 2018. The sitcom premiered January 10, 2019. On May 10, 2019, the series was cancelled after one season. Dobrev starred as Chloe in the Roger Avary thriller \"Lucky Day\", released 2019. In 2019, she joined the cast of the film \"Run This Town\", which was released in March 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Dobrev speaks English, French and Bulgarian. While filming \"The Vampire Diaries\", Dobrev lived in Atlanta, but moved to Los Angeles after leaving the series in 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activism and charity.", "content": "Dobrev is an enthusiastic volunteer and uses her reputation to support many charitable causes, including Puma’s 2011 non-profit \"Project Pink\" which supports numerous breast cancer charities and \"Hunger Bites\" organization that is dedicated to reducing hunger in 27 districts across Pennsylvania. Dobrev is also recognized for her long term involvement with WE movement, a Canadian-based charity which empowers youth to be agents of change. Dobrev took part in a Me to We volunteer trip to Kenya to help build a school. She has hosted We Day event in Toronto back in 2011 and made an appearance on stage at WE Day California 2019. Other social and charity issues Dobrev has been involved with include communities in Schools, school supplies, Elton John AIDS Foundation and \"Rape Foundation\" which gives comprehensive care to rape victims and sexually abused children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikolina Kamenova Dobreva (, ; born January 9, 1989), known professionally as Nina Dobrev ( ), is a Canadian actress and model. Her first acting role was as Mia Jones in the drama series \"\". She later became known for portraying Elena Gilbert and Katherine Pierce on The CW's supernatural drama series \"The Vampire Diaries\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976922}
{"src_title": "Machinarium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "The goal of \"Machinarium\" is to solve a series of puzzles and brain teasers. The puzzles are linked together by an overworld consisting of a traditional \"point and click\" adventure story. The overworld's most radical departure is that only objects within the player character's reach can be clicked on.  \"Machinarium\" is notable in that it contains no dialogue, spoken or written, and apart from a few tutorial prompts on the first screen, is devoid of understandable language entirely. The game instead uses a system of animated thought bubbles. Easter egg backstory scenes in the same format can only be revealed by idling in certain areas.  The game employs a two-tier hint system. Once per level, the player can receive a hint, which becomes increasingly vague as the game progresses. \"Machinarium\" also comes with a walkthrough, that can be accessed at any time by playing a minigame. As with dialogue, the walkthrough is not in written or spoken form, but instead a series of sketches describing the puzzle at hand and its solution. However, the walkthrough only reveals what must be done in that area, and not how that puzzle relates to the game chronology.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "\"Machinarium\" opens with an overview of the eponymous city as a disposal flier launches from the pinnacle of its highest tower. The player character, a robot called Josef (named after Josef Čapek, the creator of the word \"robot\" and brother to Karel Čapek) is dumped on a scrapheap, where he re-assembles himself and sets off for the city. Entering the city, he discovers a plot by the Black Cap Brotherhood, his three criminal antagonists, to blow up the city's tower. He is himself then discovered and locked up. After breaking out of prison, Josef aids the citizens of the city, as he discovers the mischief which the Brotherhood has been working. Shortly after flooding the Brotherhood's room (leaving them helpless), Josef locates his girlfriend Berta, who has been locked up and forced to cook. Unable to free her, he works his way to the top of the tower. After he foils the Black Cap Brotherhood's plot by disarming the bomb taped to the tower, Josef reaches the highest room, in which the story began. A huge-headed robot, the \"head\" of the city, sits in the middle of the room, incapacitated and gibbering. Josef recalls how the three of them lived happily until the Black Cap Brotherhood zapped this friend, leaving him disabled, and kidnapped Berta. When a garbage sucker arrived to dispose of the Black Cap thug, it apprehended Josef instead. After this revelation, Josef restores his friend to sanity, dumps the Brotherhood down a drain, and frees Berta. The two of them climb back to the tower, wave goodbye to their friend, and fly off into the sunset. In the final closing scene, their vehicle suffers a collision and falls, and they are seen being carried away separately by two fliers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "\"Machinarium\" was developed over a period of three years, by seven Czech developers, who financed the project with their own savings. The marketing budget for the game was $1,000.  The game was in development for the Xbox 360 platform for a period of six months; however, Microsoft, whom the developers had approached to publish the title on Xbox Live Arcade, ultimately decided not to do so. Microsoft does not allow games to be released on Xbox Live Arcade without a publisher attached to the title, and the developers were reluctant to approach a third party to publish the game, as this would mean that profits for the developers from sales over Xbox Live Arcade would be greatly reduced. Subsequently, Amanita Design approached Sony, whose policies do allow for self-publishing on the PlayStation Network platform, and have submitted the game to them for approval, in order to release the game on the PlayStation Network.  In 2011 it was mentioned that a sequel to \"Machinarium\" \"is possible\" but something the team has yet to fully consider. \"We don't look far through the future\", said Jakub Dvorský.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "\"Machinarium\" was well-received on release; on the critic aggregate sites GameRankings and Metacritic, the game has an average score of 85% and 85/100, respectively.  In 2008, it won the Aesthetics award at IndieCade (the International Festival of Independent Games). It won the Excellence in Visual Art award at the 12th Annual Independent Games Festival and the Best Soundtrack award from PC Gamer in 2009. It was nominated for an Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction award by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences and a Milthon award in the 'Best Indie Game' category at the Paris Game Festival.  Gaming site Kotaku named it a runner-up for \"PC Game of the Year 2009\" alongside \"Torchlight\", losing to winner \"\". Gamasutra, Gamerview and the Turkish site of Tom's Hardware all selected \"Machinarium\" as the 'Best Indie Game' of 2009. AceGamez named \"Machinarium\" the 'Best Traditional Adventure Game' of 2009.  In 2011, Adventure Gamers named \"Machinarium\" the 17th-best adventure game ever released.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pirate amnesty.", "content": "On 5 August 2010, Amanita Design announced that according to their estimates, only 5–15% of \"Machinarium\" players had actually paid for the game. In an effort to increase sales, the game's price was lowered from the regular $20 to $5 until 12 August as an incentive for pirates to purchase the game legally. The campaign was later extended until 16 August, resulting in 20,000 game copies sold over the whole amnesty period.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sales.", "content": "\"Machinarium\" has sold over 4 million units from which 49% is for PC, 44% mobile devices and 7% consoles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Editions.", "content": "\"Machinarium\" was released in several physical and digital formats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other media.", "content": "Josef has been featured as a playable character in the platform game \"Super Meat Boy\", and makes a cameo in the puzzle game ilomilo.  Josef was also included in the Video Game Character alphabet, created by Fabian Gonzalez.  Josef also made a cameo in Amanita Design's second full-scale game, \"Botanicula\".  \"Machinarium\" and its soundtrack inspired the poem \"The Machingeon\", written by Andrew Galan and published in Establishment Magazine Issue 1.  Josef is included in the \"Good Friends\" Character DLC pack for \"Runner2\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Machinarium is a puzzle point-and-click adventure game developed by Amanita Design. It was released on 16 October 2009 for Microsoft Windows, OS X, Linux, on 8 September 2011 for iPad 2 on the App Store, on 21 November 2011 for BlackBerry PlayBook, on 10 May 2012 for Android, on 6 September 2012 on PlayStation 3's PlayStation Network in Europe, on 9 October 2012 in North America and on 18 October 2012 in Asia, and was also released for PlayStation Vita on 26 March 2013 in North America, on 1 May 2013 in Europe and on 7 May 2013 in Asia. Demos for Windows, Mac and Linux were made available on 30 September 2009. A future release for the Wii's WiiWare service was cancelled due to WiiWare's 40MB limit.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976923}
{"src_title": "Sante Geronimo Caserio", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Sante Caserio was a Lombardy-born son of a peasant family, who had many brothers and sisters. His father was a boatman and named him Geronimo in honor of the Apache leader. His father died of pellagra, at the time a common disease among farmers whose poor diet was often almost exclusively corn. At ten years old, Sante Caserio left the family home and went to Milan, where he got a job as an apprentice baker and had his first contacts with anarchists.  In Milan he joined a small group called \"On Foot\" (at the time signifying \"without money\"). Pietro Gori, referring to Caserio, remembered him as a generous person. Among the workers and unemployed, he divided bread and anarchist pamphlets he printed with his meager salary. In 1892 he was sentenced to eight months in prison for distributing anarchist leaflets. Identified and singled out during a public demonstration, he was forced to flee from Italy at the age of 18. Declared a deserter, he first went to Switzerland and sought a job as a baker in Vienne. He then moved to Lyon on July 21, 1893 where he worked as a messenger.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trial and execution.", "content": "At his trial, Caserio described the assassination in detail: He also stated to those in attendance:Well, if the rulers can use against us rifles, shackles and prisons, we must, we anarchists to defend our lives, we must stick to our principles? No. On the contrary, our response to the rulers will be dynamite, pump, stiletto, dagger. In short, we must do everything possible to destroy the bourgeoisie and the government. You who are representatives of bourgeois companies, if you want my head, you can take it!He never attempted to deny his actions or ask the judges for mercy. He was offered the opportunity to plead insane, in exchange for giving the names of some of his accomplices, but he refused. He told the police \"Caserio is a baker, never an informer.\" The Board of Pardons decided against all appeals for clemency on 14 August. Caserio was executed by guillotine in Lyon at precisely 5am, 16 August 1894. In front of the guillotine, he exclaimed \"\"Coraggio cugini—evviva l'anarchia!\"\" (\"Courage, cousins—long live anarchy!\") His death mask is now in possession of Jean-Marie Le Pen, the former leader of the French party National Front.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sante Geronimo Caserio (; 8 September 187316 August 1894) was an Italian anarchist and the assassin of Marie François Sadi Carnot, President of the French Third Republic. Caserio was born in Motta Visconti, Lombardy. On 24 June 1894, he fatally stabbed President Carnot after a banquet, to avenge Auguste Vaillant and Émile Henry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976924}
{"src_title": "George Eastman Museum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Rochester estate of George Eastman (1854–1932) was bequeathed upon his death to the University of Rochester. University presidents (first Benjamin Rush Rhees, then Alan Valentine) occupied Eastman's mansion as a residence for ten years. In 1948, the university transferred the property to the museum and the Georgian Revival Style mansion was adapted to serve the museum's operations.  George Eastman House was chartered as a museum in 1947. From the outset, the museum's mission has been to collect, preserve, and present the history of photography and film. The museum opened its doors on November 9, 1949, displaying its core collections in the former public rooms of Eastman's house. In October 2015, the museum changed its name from \"George Eastman House\" to the \"George Eastman Museum\".  The museum's original collections included the Medicus collection of Civil War photographs by Alexander Gardner, Eastman Kodak Company's historical collection, and the massive Gabriel Cromer collection of nineteenth-century French photography. The Eastman Museum has received donations of entire archives, corporate and individual collections, and the estates of leading photographers, as well as thousands of motion pictures and massive holdings of cinematic ephemera.  By 1984, the museum's holdings were considered by many to be among the world's finest, but with the collections growing at a rapid pace, the museum was increasingly burdened by its own success. Additional space became critical to store and study the increasing number of collected objects. The museum's expansion facility opened to the public in January 1989.  In 1999, the George Eastman Museum launched the Mellon Advanced Residency Program in Photograph Conservation, made possible with grant support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. The program trained top photograph archivists and conservators from around the world.  In 1996, the museum opened the Louis B. Mayer Conservation Center in nearby Chili. One of only four film conservation centers in the United States (as of March 2006), the facility houses the museum's rare 35 mm prints made on cellulose nitrate. That same year, the Eastman House launched the first school of film preservation in the United States to teach restoration, preservation, and archiving of motion pictures. The L. Jeffrey Selznick School of Film Preservation was founded with support from The Louis B. Mayer Foundation.  George Eastman Museum has organized numerous groundbreaking exhibitions, including \"New Topographics: Photographs of a Man-Altered Landscape\" in 1975.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governance.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Directors.", "content": "The current director of the George Eastman Museum is Bruce Barnes who was appointed in September 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Board of Trustees.", "content": "The George Eastman Museum is headed by a board of trustees. Kevin Gavagan is the current chair of board.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Finances.", "content": "The George Eastman Museum's annual budget is approximately $10 million. As of December 2014, its endowment exceeded $35 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "The museum's holdings comprise more than 400,000 photographs and negatives dating from the invention of photography to the present day; 28,000 motion picture films; three million other cinematic objects, including letters, scripts, musical scores, lobby cards, posters, film stills, and celebrity portraits; more than 16,000 objects of photographic and cinematographic technology; an internationally renowned research collection of books, periodicals, and other materials on photography and moving images; and George Eastman's home furnishings and decorative arts, personal and business correspondence, private library, photographs, negatives, films, and related personal items.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photography collection.", "content": "The photography collection embraces numerous landmark processes, objects of great rarity, and monuments of art history that trace the evolution of the medium as a technology, as a means of scientific and historical documentation, and as one of the most potent and accessible means of personal expression of the modern era. More than 14,000 photographers are represented in the collection, including virtually all the major figures in the history of the medium. The collection includes original vintage works produced by nearly every process and printing medium employed. Notable holdings include:  The museum's collection includes works by leading contemporary artists, including Andy Warhol, Candida Höfer, David Levinthal, Cindy Sherman, Adam Fuss, Vik Muniz, Gillian Wearing, Ori Gersht, Mickalene Thomas, Chris McCaw, and Matthew Brandt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Moving image collection.", "content": "The George Eastman Museum Motion Picture Collection is one of the major moving image archives in the United States. It was established in 1949 by the first curator of film, James Card (1915–2000) who helped to build the George Eastman Museum as a leading force in the field with holdings of over 25,000 titles and a collection of stills, posters and papers with over 3 million artifacts. The George Eastman Museum's collection includes the complete moving-image works of William Kentridge.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "George Eastman Legacy Collection.", "content": "This collection includes George Eastman's house and the George Eastman Archive and Study Center. Opened in April 1999, the George Eastman Archive and Study Center contains Eastman's personal possessions and documents pertaining to Kodak's early history. It has over half a million items within its climate controlled vault. The archive is accessible from the second floor of the house. Items within the house itself include fragments of Eastman's coffin, a mounted elephant head, and an Aeolian pipe organ.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "George Eastman Awards.", "content": "The George Eastman Museum established the George Eastman Award for distinguished contribution to the art of film in 1955 as the first award given by an American film archive and museum to honor artistic work of enduring value.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "George Eastman's Estate.", "content": "George Eastman built his residence at 900 East Avenue between 1902 and 1905. He created a unique urban estate complete with of working farm land, formal gardens, greenhouses, stables, barns, pastures, and a, 50-room Colonial Revival mansion with a fireproof structure made of reinforced concrete.  Eastman's house presented a neoclassical Georgian Revival facade of decorative craftsmanship. Beneath this exterior were such modern conveniences as an electrical generator, an internal telephone system with 21 stations, a built-in vacuum cleaning system, a central clock network, an elevator, and a great Aeolian pipe organ. Eastman used the house as a center of the city's rich musical life from 1905 until his death in 1932.  The estate was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1966.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The George Eastman Museum, the world's oldest museum dedicated to photography and one of the world's oldest film archives, opened to the public in 1949 in Rochester, New York.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976925}
{"src_title": "Jacques Fesch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Fesch's father was a wealthy banker of Belgian origin, an artist and atheist, distant from his son. Jacques was a young aimless dreamer. Brought up a Roman Catholic, he abandoned religion by the age of 17, after his parents divorced. He was expelled from school for laziness and misconduct. At 21, he married his pregnant girlfriend Pierrette in a civil ceremony. He gave up a position at his father's bank, lived the life of a playboy, left his wife and their daughter, and fathered an illegitimate son with another woman. Disillusioned with his life, he dreamed of escaping to sail around the South Pacific Ocean, but his parents refused to pay for a boat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crime.", "content": "On 24 February 1954, to fund the purchase of a boat, he went to rob Alexandre Silberstein, a money changer, of gold coins. Silberstein was struck but not unconscious, and raised the alarm. Fesch fled, losing his glasses, and shot wildly at Jean Vergne, a pursuing police officer, killing him. Minutes later he was arrested. Murdering a police officer was a heinous crime and public opinion, inflamed by newspaper reports, was strongly in favour of his execution. The Cour d'assises of Paris condemned him to death on 6 April 1957.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious conversion.", "content": "At first Fesch was indifferent to his plight and mocked his lawyer's Catholic faith whom he nicknamed : \"the panther of God\". However, after a year in prison, he experienced a profound religious conversion, became very pious, and bitterly regretted his crime. He corresponded regularly with his family, notably his brother and stepmother, and kept a spiritual journal. He accepted his punishment serenely and was reconciled to his wife the night before his execution. His last journal entry was \"In five hours, I will see Jesus!\". An appeal for clemency to President René Coty failed, and he was guillotined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "After his death his wife and daughter honoured his memory as an example of redemption. At first he was excoriated by the public, but with the work of Soeur Véronique, a Carmelite nun, and Father Augustin-Michel Lemonnier, the family effected publication of his writings, and from the 1970s these served as an inspiration to many.  On September 21, 1987 the Archbishop of Paris, Cardinal Jean-Marie Lustiger, opened a diocesan inquiry into his life; the cause for his beatification was formally opened in 1993. This has proved controversial, with those who feel his early crimes make him unfitting as a role model opposed to those who emphasize the hope of his final conversion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Theatrical plays about Fesch.", "content": "The story of Jacques Fesch remains relatively unknown in France. However, inspired by the true events of this \"murderer turned Christian,\" the students of Ss Cyril and Method High School in Nitra, Slovakia, under the direction of Maria Marthe Galová, wrote and performed a theatrical play, \"Spomeň si na mňa\" (Remember Me), which is based on the life and conversion of Jacques.The play premiered on March 11, 2018, in the Andrej Bagar Theatre, Nitra.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacques Fesch (April 6, 1930, Saint-Germain-en-Laye – October 1, 1957, La Santé Prison, Paris) was the murderer of a French police officer, who became such a devout Roman Catholic while in prison awaiting execution that he has been proposed for beatification.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976926}
{"src_title": "Epinephelus marginatus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Epinephelus marginatus\" is a very large, oval-bodied and large-headed fish with a wide mouth which has a protruding lower jaw. The head and upper body are coloured dark reddish brown or greyish, usually with yellowish gold countershading on the ventral surfaces; the base colour is marked by a vertical series of irregular pale greenish yellow or silvery grey or whitish blotching which is normally rather conspicuous on the body and head; the black maxillary streak varies in its markedness; dark brown median fins; distal edges of the anal and caudal fins and also often pectoral fins have narrow white terminal bands; the pelvic fins are black towards their tips while the pectoral fins are dark reddish-brown or grey; the margin of spiny dorsal fin and basal part of the pectoral fins are often golden yellow in colour. There are eleven spines and 13-16 soft rays in the dorsal fin. This species can grow up to 150 cm in standard length but is more often 90 cm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Epinephelus marginatus\" has two disjunct distribution centres, the main one is in the eastern Atlantic from the west coast of Iberia south along the western coast of Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, extending east into the south-western Indian Ocean, as far as southern Mozambique, with doubtful records from Madagascar and possibly Oman. It is found throughout the Mediterranean too. The second population occurs in the south western Atlantic off the coast of South America in southern Brazil, Uruguay and northern Argentina. In the eastern Atlantic it is not normally found further north than Portugal but there have been rare records from the Bay of Biscay and in the English Channel as far north as northern France, Great Britain and Ireland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "\"Epinephelus marginatus\" is demersal, normally found in and around rocky reefs from surface waters down to as much as 300 metres in depth. It often occurs in the vicinity of beds of \"Poseidonia\" sea grass. Juveniles are generally found more inshore than the adult fish, even being found in rock pools. Where they are protected, in marine nature reserves and no take zones, both adults and juveniles occur in shallow waters, but the depths at which juveniles are found is always shallower than the preferred depths of adults.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "\"Epinephelus marginatus\" adults are solitary and territorial, preferring areas with a rocky substrate but both adults and juveniles will enter brackish waters, such as estuaries. Their main food is molluscs, crustaceans and octopii but as they grow larger other fish form an increasingly important part of their diet, with reef fish being preferred.  \"E. marginatus\" is a protogynous hermaphrodite, meaning that all fish begin adult life as females but as they grow larger and older they develop into males. They attain sexual maturity at quite a late age, females begin to breed when they are around five years of age, and then between their 9th and 16th years they change into males, most commonly at 12. The fish start to transform into males at a length of 65 cm, although most change sex when they are between 80 and 90 cm in total length. In some populations the presence of large female fish suggests that not all females change sex. During the breeding season small clusters of a few tens of individuals form at specific spawning sites, an exception to their normally solitary existence. Known sites where \"E. marginatus\" traditionally gather to spawn include the Medes Islands Marine Reserve in Spain, off Lampedusa in Italy and Port-Cros National Park in France, all in the Mediterranean; fishermen in Brazil suspect there are aggregations off the coast of Santa Catarina but so far none has been definitely found. In the Mediterranean spawning lasts from June to September, mating is polygynous and the spawning clusters normally have seven females to each male. Off Brazil \"E. marginatus\" reproduces in the early summer, between November and December. While spawning, the dominant males set up territories and aggressively defend them from neighbouring males and smaller females. They are reported to live for up to 50 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fishing.", "content": "\"Epinephelus marginatus\" is a popular food fish and is caught across its range by commercial fishermen while large adult fish are targeted as trophies by spear-fishing, and is readily taken by anglers. The slow growth rate of this species and its particular mode of reproduction make it vulnerable to over-exploitation, for example the targeting of large males by spear fishers may skew the sex ratio even further and affect reproductive productivity. There have been attempts to grow and breed this fish in aquaculture in Italy.  In some countries the dusky grouper is considered a delicacy. Referring to its preference among restaurant guests, the Spanish say 'De la mar el mero y de la tierra el carnero' (From the sea the dusky grouper, from the land the lamb).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "\"Epinephelus marginatus\" catch declined by 88% in seven countries between 1990–2001, these countries forming a significant part of its overall distribution. In other regions, such as West Africa, where this species is heavily exploited, there is little data about the status of this fish. For these reasons, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed E. marginatus as being Vulnerable, citing a suspected reduction in the population size reduction in excess 50% over the last three generations and where the causes of the decline continue. Conservation measures have included a spearfishing ban for ten years in France and bag limits in South Africa. In addition, a number of Marine Protected Areas have been established to protect the habitat of \"E. marginatus\". In Turkey recommended actions have included no take zones along the Aegean and Mediterranean Sea coasts and a total fisheries ban for a minimum of 3–5 years.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Epinephelus marginatus, the dusky grouper, the yellowbelly rock cod or yellowbelly grouper, is the best known grouper of the Mediterranean Sea and North Africa coast.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976927}
{"src_title": "Padel (sport)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The sport was invented in Acapulco, Mexico, by Enrique Corcuera in 1969. It is currently most popular in Spain, Mexico and Andorra as well as Hispanic American countries such as Argentina, although it is now beginning to spread rapidly across Europe and other continents.  Padel Pro Tour (PPT) was the professional padel circuit which was created in 2005 as a result of the agreement between a group of organizers of matches of padel and Association of Professional Players of Pádel (AJPP) and the Spanish Feminine Association of Pádel (AFEP). Nowadays, the most important padel circuit is World Padel Tour (WPT), which started in Spain though it has already reached international expansion. In 2014 WPT has traveled to Portugal, Argentina and Dubai.  The sport's popularity along the Costa del Sol in southern Spain and the Algarve in southern Portugal has exposed it to a large number of British visitors, leading to an increased popularity of the sport in the UK and a launch of the UK Padel Federation in 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States of America.", "content": "The US Padel Association was founded in Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1993 and opened two courts in the Chattanooga area. The American Paddle Association was formed in 1995 and built its first courts at a private club in Houston, Texas for exhibition games. The first public courts opened in Miami, Florida in 2009, and several clubs have opened nearby, as well as in Los Angeles, since then.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Singapore.", "content": "In 2014, the Swiss Club in Singapore opened the first padel court in Singapore.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Egypt.", "content": "In 2014, Mohamed Atef, Mohamed Saada, and Amir El Samahy introduced the sport to the country with the collaboration of technicians from Spain. The first court was built in Katameya Heights in New Cairo. More courts have been built since and the sport has gained in popularity since its introduction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The court.", "content": "Padel rules states that the playing field should be a rectangle wide and long (with a 0.5% tolerance), enclosed by walls. At the middle of the playing field there will be a net dividing the court in two, the net has a maximum height of 88 cm in the center raising to at sides (with a tolerance).  The back walls should be high covering the entire back of the field and the side walls should be high and long ending on another wall high and long (known as step-type, see picture). The diagonal-type side wall is also accepted, instead of a step, it runs as straight line between the two heights of the side wall. The rest of the court is closed using a metallic mesh also high, the wall closed sides can also have a metallic mesh up to tall.  The service lines are placed before the back wall and there will be also another line in middle that divides the central rectangle in half. All lines have a width and should be clearly visible.  The minimum height between the playing field and an obstacle (for e.g. the ceiling) is.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Padel is a racquet sport. It is different from the sport known in the US and Canada as paddle tennis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976928}
{"src_title": "Small Münsterländer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance.", "content": "Males should stand between, and females should stand between at the withers. The weight ranges between with the males being the larger of the two. Strong and harmonious build of medium size, showing balanced proportions with a lot of quality and elegance. In upright posture the dog displays flowing outlines with a horizontally carried, well flagged tail. The dog should appear to be strong and balanced with a distinguished head. Its front legs are well feathered, the hind legs with breeches. The coat should be medium length, glossy, dense, and straight or slightly wavy. The dog's movement should be graceful and far reaching.  The coloration of the dog is large patches of brown on a ticked or solid white background.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperament.", "content": "Small Münsterländers are extremely intelligent, trainable, and attentive but require gentle and patient training. Coupled with their intelligence, if they determine an owner to be inconsistent or indecisive, the owner might find that the dog will challenge the owner. For training, both voice and hand signals are used, and a Small Münsterländer will routinely look back to check in with the hunter for silent signals at intervals when on hold or pointing. They have a very strong prey drive and enjoy rewarding their owner with productive hunts. They thrive with hunting or comparable challenging exercise for an hour or more every day. They are strong swimmers, especially when compared to other short-haired hunting breeds.  Lack of regular and sufficient exercise and mental challenge will likely result in unwanted behavior, which is common in highly intelligent, driven breeds. The Small Münsterländer is a happy, affectionate family pet when in the house, while remaining a keenly focused, even driven, hunter-pointer-retriever when in the field. They are not suited to life in a kennel because of their sociable nature and need to interact with people – they need to live in the home of their family. Small Münsterländers will pick an individual person to bond most closely with, typically the one who hunts with the dog, but will revel in the company of the rest of the family as well. When raised with other pets in the household, such as cats, they can coexist happily though they may enjoy a game of chase and point. Unfamiliar small animals outdoors will not be tolerated in the same way.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "Due to the breed organizations, responsible kennels, and owners having a strong commitment to the health of the breed, breed programs are overwhelmingly very selective in breeding dogs that are OFA/Penn Hip, CERF, and temperament clear. As a result, instances of congenital diseases and conditions are extremely low and any dog clearly showing physical or behavioral abnormalities shall be disqualified from the breeding program. The breed is robustly healthy with rare issues save dry skin in colder climates and water in its ears after swimming.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Originally a dog bred exclusively for noble families and to work with their families' falconers before guns were used in bird and small game hunting, ancestors of the Small Münsterländer (formerly the Kleiner Münsterländer Vorstehhund) had to work in upland areas to flush prey for the falcon, then allow the falcon to keep the prey until the falconer could retrieve it while the dog pointed at the catch. To this day the Small Münsterländer has excellent close searching and pointing drive. All privileges and immunities of the German nobility as a legally defined class were abolished on August 11, 1919 with the promulgation of the Weimar Constitution, recognising all Germans as equal before the laws of their country. With wider availability of guns and land use for commoners, hunting became more popular, and the breed was further developed as a retriever that worked equally well in the field and water. The breed is considered to be uniquely effective in working as a team with the huntsman in all phases of the hunt, akin to the close cooperation between a sheep herder and Border Collie. It is an elite hunter within the versatile hunting dog arena and is trained to retrieve, hunt, and track the following: woodcock, rail, grouse, dove, partridge, chukar, quail, pheasant, duck, goose, rabbit, deer and fox. The Small Münsterländer is not a far-ranging dog, usually hunting close in heavier cover and ranging 100-150 yards in light cover, all in an effort to maintain the hunting partnership with its owner.  The Small Münsterländer is one of the four oldest versatile breeds and the longhaired versatile hunting dogs evolved from the Small Münsterländer and Flat-Coated Retriever. The Small Münsterländer is thought to be well over 500 years old, originating from the Munster region of Germany but not related to the Large Münsterländer, and documentation of ancestors around the 13th and 14th centuries. By the 1800s the breed had fallen into obscurity. Small Munsterlanders were little known, kept by a few families on farms around Munster. For a half century the few dogs that were bred were primarily companions, and used when hunting to feed the family rather than for sport. It developed a local reputation as the dog to have when a hunter's success or failure determined whether his family would have enough to eat. At the end of the 19th century, a concerted effort was made to re-establish the breed from the remaining lines in the Munster region. The fortunate outcome of the companion phase in the Small Münsterländer history was its excellent in-home personality. Cultural and wildlife use changes slowly put an end to the \"bread hunting\" and was replaced by recreational hunting. With the advance in firearms, falconry too became outmoded. At the turn of the century, Edmund Lons, brother of the famous hunting and nature poet Hermann Lons, discovered Small Münsterländers in two towns in Lower Saxony. Lons obtained dogs from two lines. One line consisted of fine boned, agile, lively and intelligent dogs, well known for their \"track sound\" on the trail. Dogs of the other line were slow in search, of strong build, and excellent in their use of nose. The background and breeding of these dogs could be traced for several generations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International popularity.", "content": "The Small Münsterländer is a rare breed in the United States, numbering around 2000, and demand from hunters outstrips the number of available dogs, so breeders typically give preference to hunters. They are especially hard to come by for non-hunters there and regardless are required to have their dog tested in the field and adhere to maintaining an updated health profile. They are more numerous in Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the Czech Republic and are bred, trained and tested to high standards to maintain the superior versatility.  Due to very low prevalence and high standards of the breed organizations, kennels and owners having a strong commitment to the health of the breed, breed programs are overwhelmingly very selective in breeding dogs and are required to maintain OFA/Penn Hip, CERF and temperament clear. As a result, instances of congenital diseases and conditions are extremely low.  In the United Kingdom, the breed is rarer still. Recognized by The Kennel Club as an imported breed in 2006, they are still to be established in the hunting community.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Small Münsterländer (also SM or Kleiner Münsterländer) is a versatile hunting-pointing-retrieving dog breed that reached its current form in the area around Münster, Germany. The Large Münsterländer is from the same area, but was developed from different breeding stock and is not related as the names would suggest. Small Münsterländers bear a resemblance to both spaniels and setters but are more versatile while hunting on land and water. The Small Münsterländer is recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale under Group 7, Section 1.2, Continental Pointing Dogs of Spaniel type, by the American Kennel Club as a Foundation Stock Service breed, and by The Kennel Club and the United Kennel Club as a gun dog. It is related to the Epagneul Français and the Drentsche Patrijshond.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976929}
{"src_title": "Sri Lankan leopard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "The Sri Lankan leopard has a tawny or rusty yellow coat with dark spots and close-set rosettes, which are smaller than in Indian leopards. Seven females measured in the early 20th century averaged a weight of and had a mean head-to-body-length of with a long tail, the largest being with a long tail; 11 males averaged, the largest being, and measured with a long tail, the largest being with a long tail.  According to a BBC article, the Sri Lankan leopard has evolved to become a rather large leopard subspecies with very large males reaching almost, due to the fact that it is an apex predator without competition by other large wild cat species in the country.  Melanistic leopards are rare in this subspecies. Only four records exist, from Mawuldeniya, Pitadeniya and Nallathanniya. In October 2019, the Department of Wildlife Conservation recorded live footage of melanistic individuals for the first time, reportedly documenting four different animals – one female, one male, and two cubs. Previously, three individuals were killed by snare traps in the Sinharaja conservation area, one of which is stuffed and displayed at the Giritale Wildlife Museum. On 26 May 2020, another wounded leopard was found and rescued at the Lakshapana Estate in Nallathanniya, Hatton. Later, it was transported to the Randenigala Veterinary Hospital for treatment. Then the animal was transferred to Elephant Transit Home in Udawalawa, where it died while receiving treatments. The snare had heavily injured its neck.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The Sri Lankan leopard used to occur in all habitats throughout the island. These habitat types can be broadly categorized into: In Sri Lanka's central hills, leopards have been recorded in forest patches, tea estates, grasslands, home gardens, pine and eucalyptus plantations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behaviour.", "content": "A study in Yala National Park indicates that Sri Lankan leopards are not any more social than other leopard subspecies. They are solitary hunters, with the exception of females with young. Both sexes live in overlapping territories with the ranges of males overlapping the smaller ranges of several females, as well as overlapping the ranges of neighbouring males. They prefer hunting at night, but are also active during dawn and dusk, and daytime hours. They rarely haul their kills into trees, which is likely due to the lack of competition and the relative abundance of prey. Since the leopard is the apex predator in Sri Lanka, it does not need to protect its prey. In 2001 to 2002, adult resident leopard density was estimated at 17.9 individuals per in Block I of Yala National Park in Sri Lanka's southeastern coastal arid zone. This block encompasses, contains coastal plains and permanent human-made and natural waterholes, which combined allow for a very high density of prey species.  The Sri Lankan leopard hunts by silently stalking its prey, until it is within striking distance where it unleashes a burst of speed to quickly pursue and pounce on its victim. The prey is usually dispatched with a single bite to the throat. Like most cats, it is pragmatic in its choice of diet which can include small mammals, birds, reptiles as well as larger animals. Axis or spotted deer make up the majority of its diet in the dry zone. The animal also preys on sambar, barking deer, wild boar and monkeys.  There appears to be no birth season or peak, with births scattered across months. A litter usually consists of two to four cubs.  The leopard is sympatric with the Sri Lankan sloth bear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The survival of the Sri Lankan leopard is threatened due to habitat loss and fragmentation primarily with some levels of direct poaching and direct and indirect human-leopard related leopard deaths.  Further research into the Sri Lankan leopard is needed for any conservation measure to be effective. The Leopard Project under the Wilderness and Wildlife Conservation Trust (WWCT) is working closely with the Government of Sri Lanka to ensure this occurs. The Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society will also undertake some studies. The WWCT is engaged throughout the island with targeted work ongoing in the central hills region where fragmentation of the leopard's habitat is rapidly occurring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In captivity.", "content": "As of December 2011, there are 75 captive Sri Lankan leopards in zoos worldwide. Within the European Endangered Species Programme 27 male, 29 female and 8 unsexed individuals are kept.  The EEP breeding program is managed by Zoo Cerza, France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural significance.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local names.", "content": "The leopard is colloquially known as \"kotiya\" () and \"chiruthai\" (). \"Panthera pardus kotiya\" is the kotiyā proper.  In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the word 'kotiya' was being frequently incorrectly translated into English as \"tiger\" in Sri Lankan media due to incorrect information that was received from the then head of the Wildlife Department in Sri Lanka. He allegedly said that \"there are no kotiyas (tigers) in Sri Lanka but diviyās\", misinterpreting \"P. p. kotiya\" as \"diviyā\". The word \"diviyā\" refers to small wild cats such as \"Handun Diviyā\" or \"Kola Diviyā\". Both names are used interchangeably for the fishing cat and the rusty-spotted cat. Traditional Sinhala idioms such as 'a change in the jungle will not change the spots of a \"kotiyā\"', confirms the traditional use of 'kotiyā' to refer to the leopard and not to the tiger.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "As a symbol.", "content": "The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (Tamil Tigers) were colloquially known to the Sinhala-speaking community as 'Koti', the plural form of 'Kotiyā'. The Tamil Tigers have chosen the Sri Lankan leopard as the national animal of the aspired state of Tamil Eelam, and the Chola Tiger as its flag. A soccer team which is called the Tamil Eelam national football team which plays on ConIFA has the Sri Lankan leopard on their emblem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Leopard subspecies: African leopard Arabian leopard Anatolian leopard Persian leopard Indian leopard Indochinese leopard Javan leopard Amur leopard \"Panthera pardus spelaea\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sri Lankan leopard (\"Panthera pardus kotiya\") is a leopard subspecies endemic to Sri Lanka. It was first described in 1956 by the Sri Lankan zoologist Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976930}
{"src_title": "Lycium chinense", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Wolfberry species are deciduous woody shrubs, growing high, somewhat shorter than \"L. barbarum\". The stems are highly branched. Branches are pale gray, slender, curved or pendulous, with thorns long.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Leaves.", "content": "\"Lycium chinense\" leaves form on the shoot either solitary in an alternating arrangement or in bundles of 2 to 4. Their shape may be ovate, rombic, lanceolate, or linear-lanceolate, usually long and wide (but up to long and wide in cultivated plants).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowers.", "content": "The flowers grow in groups of one to three in the leaf axils, with pedicels long. The bell-shaped or tubular calyx (eventually ruptured by the growing berry) splits halfway into short, triangular, densely ciliate lobes. The corollae is a tube that splits into lavender or light purple petals, wide with five or six lobes longer than the tube, with short hairs at the edge. The stamens are structured with filaments longer than the anthers, slightly shorter or longer than the corolla, with a villous ring slightly above the base and the adjacent corolla tube. The anthers are longitudinally dehiscent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fruit and seeds.", "content": "\"Lycium chinense\" produces a bright orange-red berry, whose shape is ovoid or oblong, long and 5 to 8 mm wide (but up to long and wide in cultivation). It contains compressed yellow seeds, from 2.5 to 3 mm wide, with a curved embryo; their number varies widely based on cultivar and fruit size, from 10 to 60. The berries ripen from July to October in the Northern Hemisphere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disease.", "content": "It can be parasitized by the oomycete species Peronospora lycii.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "The fruits may be infused with hot water to make goji tea. The plant has been used for centuries in traditional Chinese medicine for treating various disorders, although there is no high-quality clinical evidence that consuming it has any effect on health or disease.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The fruit composition is similar to that of \"L. barbarum\". Polysaccharides, carotenoids and flavonoids are the typical constituents. Rutin is the main flavonoid. The main carotenoid is zeaxanthin dipalmitate (49% of the carotenoid fraction). The fruit contains zeaxanthin, β-carotene, two cerebrosides, and three pyrrole derivatives.  Dozens of secondary metabolites have been isolated and identified from the roots, root bark and leaves, including cyclic peptides, alkaloids, and flavonoids. Citric acid is the major nonvolatile organic acid in the leaves followed by oxalic acid.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lycium chinense is one of two species of boxthorn shrub in the family Solanaceae. Along with \"Lycium barbarum\", it produces the goji berry (\"wolfberry\"). Two varieties are recognized, \"L. chinense\" var. \"chinense\" and \"L. chinense\" var. \"potaninii\". It is also known as Chinese boxthorn, Chinese matrimony-vine, Chinese teaplant, Chinese wolfberry, wolfberry, and Chinese desert-thorn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976931}
{"src_title": "SimulationX", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the mid 1980s, VEB Mikromat in Dresden developed a program for DOS to design controlled feed axis systems and to perform hydraulic calculations. In 1993, ITI GmbH, founded by former Mikromat employees in 1990, introduced a simulation tool for Microsoft Windows designed for dynamic calculations of drive systems: ITI-SIM 1. With the release of ITI-SIM 2 in 1995, the software also allowed for fluid simulations. In 2002, the newly developed application SimulationX, based on the object-oriented description language Modelica, was introduced to the market. By the year 2007, ITI-SIM (then in version 3.8) had been completely replaced by SimulationX.  Since the beginning of 2016, ITI belongs to the ESI Group and now operates under the name ESI ITI GmbH.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modeling and Functionality.", "content": "Simulation models are created on the basis of a discrete network approach. That means the system is broken down into logical parts which are linked through specific connections. These sub-systems are represented by preconfigured or custom model elements organized in domain-specific and custom model libraries. The sub-models are then parameterized and connected with each other. Models can be created either through the graphical user interface or by using Modelica command lines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Libraries.", "content": "Model libraries can be obtained as modular packages from the software producer. There are various libraries available with basic models for the corresponding physical domains as well as libraries with advanced models for specific applications and industries. Depending on the objective, the user can choose from 1D, 2D and 3D model elements with respect to the modeling, simulation and parameterization requirements. Modelica-based third-party and custom-built libraries can also be integrated into SimulationX.  SimulationX libraries include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modelica.", "content": "SimulationX supports the Modelica modeling language to simulate individually created, realistic (sub-)models. Models of the Modelica Standard Library or the ones purely based on the Modelica language definition can be executed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interfaces.", "content": "SimulationX provides open, comprehensive CAx-interfaces to external programs for different purposes and applications, e.g. CAE (VehicleSim (CarSim, BikeSim, TruckSim)), CAD (Solid Edge, Unigraphics / NX, SolidWorks, Creo Elements/Pro, Autodesk Inventor, CATIA V5), CAM, Computer-aided optimization (e.g. Isight, modeFRONTIER, Optimus, optiSLang, OptiY), FEA/FEM (Abaqus, Ansys, COMSOL Multiphysics, MSC Nastran), CFD. Co-Simulation provides a general interface which can be used to link SimulationX to CAE tools with predefined setups for particular realizations (MSC.Adams, SIMPACK, MATLAB/Simulink, Fluent, Cadmould etc.). The coupling ensures the data exchange between the tools and the simulation software. Tools for a holistic structural and system analysis (equilibrium computation, natural frequencies, vibration modes, input-output analysis) and for linking a simulation model to the databases are available. A COM interface allows communication between SimulationX and other Windows applications for user-defined batch runs, embedded simulation, parameter studies, or optimizations.  Code-Export features support the generation of C source code for seamless model integration, Hardware-in-the-loop (HiL) applications and Rapid Control Prototyping, Functional Mock-up Virtual Machine. Throughout all stages of modern system design processes, engineers and scientists can work with a variety of seamlessly integrated tools. The connection of SimulationX to real-time testing and simulation platforms such as LabVIEW, NI VeriStand, dSPACE, ETAS LABCAR, and SCALE-RT heavily increases the productivity in the design cycle and shortens time-to-market of new products.  SimulationX supports the creation and import of Functional Mock-up Units defined by the Functional Mock-up Interface standard (development started by the MODELISAR project). Standardized interfaces facilitate the platform-independent exchange of simulation models and increase the flexibility in the connection of external simulation tools and models.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industry usage.", "content": "SimulationX is used for designing, modeling and analyzing the dynamic behavior of complex mechatronic systems as well as for virtual tests in many industries, research and education including the automotive sector, railway and shipbuilding, heavy machinery and mining, power generation and building technology, aerospace and defense, mechanical engineering, medical engineering, oil and gas, precision instruments and home appliances as well as consumer electronics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic usage.", "content": "SimulationX is widely used in education and research worldwide.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SimulationX is a CAE software application running on Microsoft Windows for the physical simulation of technical systems developed and sold by ESI ITI GmbH in Dresden, Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976932}
{"src_title": "Email encryption", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Encryption protocols.", "content": "With the original design of email protocol, the communication between email servers was plain text, which posed a huge security risk. Over the years, various mechanisms have been proposed to encrypt the communication between email servers. Encryption may occur at the transport level (aka \"hop by hop\") or end-to-end. Transport layer encryption is often easier to set up and use; end-to-end encryption provides stronger defenses, but can be more difficult to set up and use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transport-level encryption.", "content": "One of the most commonly used email encryption extensions is STARTTLS. It is a TLS (SSL) layer over the plaintext communication, allowing email servers to upgrade their plaintext communication to encrypted communication. Assuming that the email servers on both the sender and the recipient side support encrypted communication, an eavesdropper snooping on the communication between the mail servers cannot use a sniffer to see the email contents. Similar STARTTLS extensions exist for the communication between an email client and the email server (see IMAP4 and POP3, as stated by RFC 2595). STARTTLS may be used regardless of whether the email's contents are encrypted using another protocol.  The encrypted message is revealed to, and can be altered by, intermediate email relays. In other words, the encryption takes place between individual SMTP relays, not between the sender and the recipient. This has both good and bad consequences. A key positive trait of transport layer encryption is that users do not need to do or change anything; the encryption automatically occurs when they send email. In addition, since receiving organizations can decrypt the email without cooperation of the end user, receiving organizations can run virus scanners and spam filters before delivering the email to the recipient. However, it also means that the receiving organization and anyone who breaks into that organization's email system (unless further steps are taken) can easily read or modify the email. If the receiving organization is considered a threat, then end-to-end encryption is necessary.  The Electronic Frontier Foundation encourages the use of STARTTLS, and has launched the 'STARTTLS Everywhere' initiative to \"make it simple and easy for everyone to help ensure their communications (over email) aren’t vulnerable to mass surveillance.\" Support for STARTTLS has become quite common; Google reports that on GMail 90% of incoming email and 90% of outgoing email was encrypted using STARTTLS by 2018-07-24.  Mandatory certificate verification is historically not viable for Internet mail delivery without additional information, because many certificates are not verifiable and few want email delivery to fail in that case. As a result, most email that is delivered over TLS uses only opportunistic encryption. DANE is a proposed standard that makes an incremental transition to verified encryption for Internet mail delivery possible. The STARTTLS Everywhere project uses an alternative approach: they support a “preload list” of email servers that have promised to support STARTTLS, which can help detect and prevent downgrade attacks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "End-to-end encryption.", "content": "In end-to-end encryption, the data is encrypted and decrypted only at the end points. In other words, an email sent with end-to-end encryption would be encrypted at the source, unreadable to service providers like Gmail in transit, and then decrypted at its endpoint. Crucially, the email would only be decrypted for the end user on their computer and would remain in encrypted, unreadable form to an email service like Gmail, which wouldn't have the keys available to decrypt it. Some email services integrate end-to-end encryption automatically.  Notable protocols for end-to-end email encryption include:  OpenPGP is a data encryption standard that allows end-users to encrypt the email contents. There are various software and email-client plugins that allow users to encrypt the message using the recipient's public key before sending it. At its core, OpenPGP uses a Public Key Cryptography scheme where each email address is associated with a public/private key pair.  OpenPGP provides a way for the end users to encrypt the email without any support from the server and be sure that only the intended recipient can read it. However, there are usability issues with OpenPGP — it requires users to set up public/private key pairs and make the public keys available widely. Also, it protects only the content of the email, and not metadata — an untrusted party can still observe who sent an email to whom. A general downside of end to end encryption schemes—where the server does not have decryption keys—is that it makes server side search almost impossible, thus impacting usability.  The content of an email can also be end-to-end encrypted by putting it in an encrypted file (using any kind of file encryption tool) and sending that encrypted file as an email attachment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Demonstrations.", "content": "The Signed and Encrypted Email Over The Internet demonstration has shown that organizations can collaborate effectively using secure email. Previous barriers to adoption were overcome, including the use of a PKI bridge to provide a scalable public key infrastructure (PKI) and the use of network security guards checking encrypted content passing in and out of corporate network boundaries to avoid encryption being used to hide malware introduction and information leakage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Setting up and using email encryption.", "content": "Transport layer encryption using STARTTLS must be set up by the receiving organization. This is typically straightforward; a valid certificate must be obtained and STARTTLS must be enabled on the receiving organization's email server. To prevent downgrade attacks organizations can send their domain to the 'STARTTLS Policy List'  Most full-featured email clients provide native support for S/MIME secure email (digital signing and message encryption using certificates). Other encryption options include PGP and GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG). Free and commercial software (desktop application, webmail and add-ons) are available as well.  While PGP can protect messages, it can also be hard to use in the correct way. Researchers at Carnegie Mellon University published a paper in 1999 showing that most people couldn't figure out how to sign and encrypt messages using the current version of PGP. Eight years later, another group of Carnegie Mellon researchers published a follow-up paper saying that, although a newer version of PGP made it easy to decrypt messages, most people still struggled with encrypting and signing messages, finding and verifying other people's public encryption keys, and sharing their own keys.  Because encryption can be difficult for users, security and compliance managers at companies and government agencies automate the process for employees and executives by using encryption appliances and services that automate encryption. Instead of relying on voluntary co-operation, automated encryption, based on defined policies, takes the decision and the process out of the users' hands. Emails are routed through a gateway appliance that has been configured to ensure compliance with regulatory and security policies. Emails that require it are automatically encrypted and sent.  If the recipient works at an organization that uses the same encryption gateway appliance, emails are automatically decrypted, making the process transparent to the user. Recipients who are not behind an encryption gateway then need to take an extra step, either procuring the public key, or logging into an online portal to retrieve the message.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Encrypted email providers.", "content": "Since 2000, the number of available encrypted email providers has increased significantly. Notable providers include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Email encryption is encryption of email messages to protect the content from being read by entities other than the intended recipients. Email encryption may also include authentication.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976933}
{"src_title": "Nation (Paris Métro and RER)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The station is under and around Place de la Nation – each stopping point oriented along an east–west axis.  The station of line 1 is in a curve, under the southern part of the square, enclosed between the loop stations of lines 2 and 6.  The terminus of line 2 forms a loop under the square. The arrival on the loop is under Avenue de Taillebourg, and the departure under Avenue du Trône, Place des Antilles and Boulevard de Charonne. The station is located southwest of the loop and has two tracks framing a large central platform.  The terminus of line 6 also forms a loop, with the arrival under Avenue du Bel-Air and the departure under Avenue Dorian, Rue de Picpus and Avenue de Saint-Mandé. The trains run along the loop during peak hours but turn back towards Avenue du Bel-Air during off-peak hours (the Dorian-Picpus tunnel then serving as a garage).  The station of line 9, also in a curve, is set lower than the others, under the northern part of the square, between Boulevard Voltaire and Avenue de Taillebourg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The station serves as the eastern terminus of both Paris Métro Line 2 and Paris Métro Line 6. The Line 1 station opened as part of the first stage of the line between Porte de Vincennes and Porte Maillot on 19 July 1900. The Line 2 platforms opened when the line was extended from Bagnolet (now Alexandre Dumas) on 2 April 1903. The Line 6 platforms opened when the line was extended from Place d'Italie to Nation on 1 March 1909. The Line 9 platforms opened when the first stage of the line was extended from Richelieu – Drouot to Porte de Montreuil on 10 December 1933. On 12 December 1969, the RER station was opened as a new Paris terminus for the Ligne de Vincennes, replacing the old Gare de La Bastille. On 8 December 1977 the central section of line A opened from \"Nation\" to Auber.  It is named after the Place de la Nation, named in honour of Bastille Day in 1880. Previously it was called the Place du Trône, where guillotines were set up during the French Revolution.  From the 1960s to 2010, the decorative style \"Mouton-Duvernet\" was applied to the platforms of lines 2, 6 and 9 with some specificities. The tiles of line 6 have particular patterns, while those of lines 2 and 9 are bevelled and in two shades of orange, colour randomly distributed on the walls and the tympans. The lighting strips are fitted with metal blades on line 2, while they are typical of the \"Mouton\" style on lines 6 and 9. On the latter, the name of the station is written in capital letters on projecting backlit panels, while the'shell' seats, characteristic of the \"Motte\" style, are white. This stopping point is the only one to have lost its decoration since the renovation of the station, implemented within the framework of the RATP \"Renouveau du métro\" program.  In the 1990s, the platforms of line 1 were renovated in red \"Ouï-dire\" style.  As part of line 1's automation works, the platforms of this line were raised on the weekend of 12 to 13 September 2009, then fitted with platform doors in April 2011.  In 2019, 8.834,660 travelers entered this station which placed it at the 22nd position of the metro stations for its usage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passenger services.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Access.", "content": "This station has six entrances, some of which are shared with the RER. Each leads to the side medians, between the roundabout and the circular path serving the buildings in the square.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Platforms.", "content": "The station of line 1, in curve, is of standard configuration. It has two platforms separated by the tracks of the metro and the vault is elliptical. The decoration is red \" Ouï-dire\" style. The lighting canopies, of the same color, are supported by a curved support in the shape of a scythe. The direct lighting is white while the indirect lighting, projected on the vault, is multicolored. The white ceramic tiles are flat and cover the walls, the vault (diagonally), the tympans and some of the hallways. The advertising frames are white and cylindrical and the platforms are fitted with silver \"sit-stand\" benches as well as platform screen doors.  The station of line 2, also in a curve, is equipped with a central platform framed by two tracks, with the southern one being bordered by a 'dead platform' protected by a fence and partially used as a connecting passage, which connects with the platform in the direction of La Défense station from the line 1 station adjoining it. Established flush with the walls, its ceiling consists of a metal deck, whose beams, silver in color, are supported by vertical walls. The decoration is in the \"Mouton-Duvernet\" style, but with an orange beveled tiling on the walls and the outlets of connecting corridors with line 1, a feature that was also found in the station of line 9 before its renovation; in addition, they are aligned horizontally and vertically. The lighting canopies are specific, fitted with metal blades. The advertising frames are also metallic and the'shell' seats, characteristic of the \"Motte\" style, are blue.  The station on line 6, like that on line 2, has two tracks framing an island platform. However, it is the only one that is not curved and the vault is elliptical. The decoration is a particular variation of the \"Mouton\" style with two characteristic lighting canopies, walls covered with tiles, with unique patterns on the network, aligned horizontally and vertically, as well as a vault painted white. The surrounds of the staircase hoppers are treated with the same tiling for some or with a flat white tiling also aligned horizontally and vertically for others. The advertising frames are metallic and gray, and the platform is equipped with a few white \"Motte\" style seats.  Like that of line 1, the station of line 9 is curved and has a classic layout under an elliptical vault. Its decoration is of the style used for most metro stations. The lighting canopies are white and rounded in the \"Gaudin\" style of the revival of the \"renouveau du métro des années 2000\", and the bevelled white ceramic tiles cover the walls, the vault and the tympans. The advertising frames are in white ceramics and the seats, in \"Akiko\" style, are green. The western part of the platform, in the direction of Mairie de Montreuil, has the distinction of displaying coats of arms of the two French departments of the Antilles: Guadeloupe and Martinique, thus illustrating the subtitle attributed to the platforms of line 9 only.  For each stopping point, the name of the station is written in Parisine font on enamelled plates.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other services.", "content": "The station is connected with line RER A served by the Gare de Nation. This line connects the western and eastern suburbs of Paris.  It is also served:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "The entrance to the metro is the setting for the outcome of Abdellatif Kechiche's film \"Poetical Refugee\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future project.", "content": "Ultimately, the station could be connected to the T3a tram line or the T3b tram line, which would be extended from Porte de Vincennes, which would allow users of these lines to benefit from metro lines 2, 6 and 9 as well as with RER A.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nation () is a station in the Paris Métro and of Île-de-France's regional high-speed RER. It serves Line 1, Line 2, Line 6 and Line 9 of the Paris Métro and RER A. It takes its name from its location at the Place de la Nation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976934}
{"src_title": "Charles Michel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Charles Michel was born in Namur, Wallonia, on 21 December 1975. He is the son of Louis Michel, a former European Commissioner, and Martine Pierre.  Michel began his political career at the age of 16 when he joined the Young Liberal Reformers of Jodoigne (\"Jeunes Réformateurs Libéraux de Jodoigne\"), affiliated to the MR. In 1994, at the age of 18, he was elected provincial councilor in Walloon Brabant. He graduated in law at the Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) and the University of Amsterdam in 1998, after which he became lawyer at the Brussels Bar. He is fluent in Dutch and English in addition to his native French.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early political career.", "content": "Michel was elected to the federal Chamber of Representatives in 1999, representing Walloon Brabant, a stronghold of the liberal MR.  In 2000, he became Minister of Home Affairs in the Walloon Government aged 25, making him the youngest regional minister in Belgian history. At the local level, he was elected city councillor in Wavre in 2000, and in 2006 became mayor of the city.  In December 2007, Michel became the Minister of Development Cooperation in the Verhofstadt III Government and subsequently in the Leterme I, Van Rompuy I and Leterme II governments.  After poor results in the 2009 regional elections, Michel was part of a group demanding the MR leader Didier Reynders resign. After the party suffered further losses in the 2010 federal election, Reynders resigned, and Michel announced his candidacy to replace him. In January 2011, he was elected President of MR, and resigned from the cabinet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime Minister of Belgium.", "content": "After the 2014 federal election, Michel became co-formateur in the ensuing coalition negotiations. Initially, CD&V Leader Kris Peeters was expected to be Prime Minister. However CD&V also insisted on Marianne Thyssen being appointed as European Commissioner, and Michel's MR refused to allow the two most important political posts to be held by a single party.  Ultimately, the parties agreed to appoint Thyssen as European Commissioner, with an understanding that the prime ministership would go to either MR or OVLD. As Michel was serving as co-formateur, he quickly won internal support from other parties to lead the next government. On 7 October 2014, an overall agreement was reached between the four parties to form a new government, with Michel proposed as Prime Minister, and Peeters as one of four Deputy Prime Ministers. Michel became the youngest Belgian Prime Minister, and was only the second Francophone liberal to become Prime Minister.  In December 2018, a political crisis emerged over whether to sign the Global Compact for Migration. Michel's coalition partner N-VA, which originally supported the Compact, reversed course to oppose it whereas the other three parties continued to support it. Michel subsequently announced the formation of a minority government, with CD&V, MR and OVLD backing the compact. On 18 December, he presented his government's resignation to the King. The King accepted Michel's resignation on 21 December after consulting party leaders. He remained in office as caretaker Prime Minister during the 2019 federal election, and the ensuing coalition negotiations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President of the European Council.", "content": "On 2 July 2019, Michel was elected President of the European Council, one of the most prominent leadership positions of the European Union.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Michel (; born 21 December 1975) is a Belgian politician serving as President of the European Council since 2019. He previously served as Prime Minister of Belgium between 2014 and 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976935}
{"src_title": "Bolko V the Hussite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "At a young age, Bolko V was sent to the University of Prague, where he learned of the social and religious views of Jan Hus. Soon after (probably before 1417) he returned to Upper Silesia and ca. 1418 married with Elizabeth (d. aft. 2 September 1452), daughter of Wincenty Granowski (d. ca. 1410) by his wife Elisabeth of Pilica, who had recently become Queen of Poland after her marriage to King Władysław II Jagiełło. The wedding with the King's stepdaughter brought to the Dukes of Opole the immense wealth of the Pilica family and the alliance with the royal court at Wawel Castle.  In 1422 Bolko V was named by his father as co-ruler of the Duchy of Opole, and two years later (1424), thanks to the resignation of both his father and uncle Bernard, he became the independent ruler over Głogówek and Prudnik.  In 1428 Silesia was invaded by Hussite troops. In the capital of his domains, Głogówek, Bolko V decided at first to fight against them. However, almost immediately, the young Duke, at that time in Gliwice, not only decided to admit the Hussites into his city in order to avoid the destruction of his duchy, but also took the occasion to enrich himself with the secularization of the local churches (one of his first decisions was the cancellation of the building of a Kolegiata in Głogówek, which began by orders of Bolko IV). After a solemn oath, Bolko V vowed to support the Hussites, and he sent his army to help them. The cooperation with the Hussites was not just material, but also ideological. One aim of the duke was the policy of a gradual Germanization of Silesia, and the national teachings of Jan Hus fit in with this purpose. Later in that year, Bolko V took over all the goods of the Church in his Duchy.  In 1429 with the Hussites involved on other fronts, Bolko V acquired for himself the neighboring Duchy of Nysa, which belonged to the Bishopric of Wrocław. In the following year, together with his allies, he forced Polish troops to retreat to Jasna Góra, which become the new Silesian-Poland frontier. He also tried to obtain some lands from the Dukes of Brzeg: Namysłów (who could defend himself thanks to the help of the citizens of Wrocław) and Kluczbork (which was taken by him). In the following years Bolko V became the ruler of almost all Upper Silesia and parts of Lower Silesia. In his conquests, Bolko V could count on the support of his closest relatives, his father Bolko IV and his uncle Bernard. His luck turned against him on 13 May 1433, in connection with his defeat at the Battle of Trzebnica against Duke Nicholas V of Karniów. Despite this, Bolko V managed to maintain until his death the majority of Church goods obtained after the secularization. For this, in 1443 he was excommunicated.  During 1444–1452 Bolko V led a fight against the Bishop of Kraków, Zbigniew Oleśnicki, over the buying of the Duchy of Siewierz. This war resulted in significant destruction on the Silesian-Lesser Poland frontier. The Emperor Frederick III feared a complete collapse of the Silesian states. The dispute only ended in 1452 during the Polish Sejm in Piotrków, where Bolko V even offered the Polish King Casimir IV financial assistance for a war against the Teutonic Order in exchange for the district of Wieluń as a lien (the proposal wasn't accepted).  Prior to that, in 1450 Bolko V's uncle Bernard, lacking male descendants, decided to give most of his estate to him, including the Duchies of Strzelce and Niemodlin. Five years later (1455), Bolko V received Olesno after the death of Bernard.  In 1451, Bolko V divorced his wife Elizabeth Granowska after almost thirty-three years of marriage. This union only produced a son, Wenceslaus (b. 1433 – d. bef. 14 March 1453), whose early death was a terrible blow to Bolko V. He never recovered from the loss.  On 27 June 1451, Bolko V married for the second time, to Hedwig (d. aft. 1 February 1461), daughter of Hincze Beess of Kujawy, a member of the local nobility. This union was childless.  Bolko V died on 29 May 1460 in his favorite residence, Głogówek, and was buried in the local Franciscan church. Without surviving male heirs, he was succeeded in all his domains by his only surviving brother, Nicholas I.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bolko V the Hussite () (ca. 1400 – 29 May 1460) was a Duke of Opole between 1422–1424 (as a co-ruler with his father), ruler over Głogówek and Prudnik since 1424, Duke of Strzelce and Niemodlin from 1450 and ruler over Olesno since 1455.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976936}
{"src_title": "Anna German", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Anna German was a Polish and Russian-language singer She was born in Urgench, a city with a population of 22,000 in northwestern Uzbekistan in Central Asia, then Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, Soviet Union. Her mother, Irma Martens, was the descendant of Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonites invited to Russia by Catherine II. Her accountant father, Eugen (Eugeniusz) Hörmann (in Russian, Герман), was also of a Russian-German pastor family and born during travel in Łódź (Czarist Russian Empire) now Poland. Eugen Hörmann's father, Anna's grandfather, Friedrich Hörmann, who had studied theology at Lodz, was in 1929 incarcerated in Gulag Plesetsk by Communists for being a priest, where he died. In 1937, during the NKVD's anti-German operation, Eugen Hörmann was arrested in Urgench on false charges of spying, and executed (officially, sentenced to ten years in prison). Thereafter, Anna and her mother and grandmother survived in the Kemerovo Region of Siberia, as well as in Tashkent, and later in the Kyrgyz and Kazakh SSRs.  In 1946, her mother (who had married Herman Gerner, a Ludowe Wojsko Polskie soldier) was able to take the family to Silesia, first Nowa Ruda and then Wrocław in 1949.  Anna quickly learned Polish and several other languages and grew up hiding her family heritage. She graduated from the Geological Institute of Wroclaw University. During her university years, she began her music career at the Kalambur theater. Anna finally became successful when she won the 1964 II Festival of Polish Songs in Opole with her song \"Tańczące Eurydyki\". One year later, she won first prize in the international song contest in Sopot.  Anna performed in the Marché international de l'édition musicale in Cannes, as well as on the stages of Belgium, Germany, United States, Canada and Australia.  She also sang in Russian, English, Italian, Spanish, Latin, German and Mongolian. In 2001, six of her Polish albums were reissued on CDs. In recent years, many compilation albums of her songs have also been released in both Russia and Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career in Italy.", "content": "In December 1966, German in Milan signed a contract with a small firm CDI to release the records, thus becoming the first performer from behind the \"iron curtain\", which was recorded in Italy. In Italy, Anna German has performed at the festival in San Remo, starred in a television show, a recorded programme with the singer Domenico Modugno, performed at the festival of Neapolitan songs in Sorrento and received the award \"Oscar della simpatia\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Car accident and treatment.", "content": "On 27 August 1967, while in Italy, on the road between Forlì and Milan, Anna German was involved in a severe car accident. At high speed, the car driven by the impresario of the singer crashed into a concrete fence. Anna was thrown from the car through the windshield. She suffered multiple fractures, internal injuries. The results of the investigation revealed that the driver of the car – her manager Renato Serio – fell asleep at the wheel. He escaped with a fracture of the hand and feet.  After the accident, German had not regained consciousness. After the plaster was taken off, the singer still lay in a hospital bed for half a year. Then it took her a few months to relearn to sit and walk.  Later in the 1960s, she released the autobiographical book \"Come Back to Sorrento?\"(\"Wróć do Sorrento?\"), dedicated to the Italian period of her career. The book's circulation was 30,000 copies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "On 23 March 1972, she married Zbigniew Tucholski. Their son,, was born on 27 November 1975. In the last years of her life, she composed some church songs. She died of osteosarcoma in 1982, and was buried at Warsaw Evangelical cemetery.  Anna loved to cook Oriental dishes. Her favorite foods were boiled potatoes with herring, pickles, pies with cabbage, black tea with lemon, and oatmeal cookies. She did not consume alcohol.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anna Wiktoria German-Tucholska (14 February 1936 – 25 August 1982) was Polish singer, immensely popular in Poland and in the Soviet Union in the 1960s–1970s. She released over a dozen music albums with songs in Polish, as well as several albums with Russian repertoire. Throughout her music career, she recorded songs in seven languages: Polish, Russian, German, Italian, Spanish, English and Latin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976937}
{"src_title": "Nicholas II of Niemodlin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "After his father's death in 1476, Nicholas II inherited Opole, Brzeg, Strzelce and Niemodlin together with his older brothers Louis and Jan II the Good as co-rulers. However, soon Louis died and Nicholas II maintained the co-government with Jan II. It is unknown the exact date of the division of the duchy between the surviving brothers, and even if this division really existed; however indirect sources inferred that Nicholas II became in the independent ruler of Niemodlin shortly after Louis's death, maybe only as a formal rule. In any case, most of the inheritance (included Opole) was retained by Jan II. The now Duke of Niemodlin supported his brother in his politics: in 1477 the brothers bought Prudnik to Duke Konrad X of Oleśnica, in 1494 they acquired Gliwice and in 1495 Toszek. The only territorial loss was in 1481, when the Duke Frederick I of Legnica purchased Brzeg (pledged by his father in 1450) by the amounts of 8,500 fines and 1,500 ducats.  In foreign politics, Nicholas II sought to strike a balance between the powerful King of Hungary Matthias Corvinus and competitor and eventual co-ruler in the Bohemian Kingdom, Władysław II Jagiellon. Ultimately, however, the aggressive politics towards the Hungarian ruler in favor of the Polish candidate caused his imprisonment in 1487 in Koźle. Nicholas II regained his freedom only after the payment of 15,000 Hungarian złoty as a ransom. Despite the participation of the Dukes of Opole in the Sejm reunited in Nuremberg later in that year, the relations with the Hungarian Kingdom remained tense until the death of Matthias Corvinus in 1490.  In June 1497, in order to end the disputes between the Duchies of Opole and Cieszyn, a meeting was arranged in Nysa (were also discuss the issue of the Turkish risk over the Hungary). At the convention assisted, among others, Nicholas II, Duke Casimir II of Cieszyn, Wiktoryn of Poděbrady and his brother Henry I, Duke of Ziębice and the Bishop of Wrocław, Jan IV Roth. During the conversations, on 26 June, the tragedy occurred. For unknown reasons (although some sources believed that the reason was the fear of the growing importance of Duke Casimir II over Nicholas I's sons) Nicholas II tried to stab both Duke Casimir II and Bishop Jan IV Roth. After the attacks, with the help of the servants and nobles, failed, Nicholas II tried to avoid the responsibility of the Town Hall and found refuge in the nearby church of St. Jakob, where he asked for sanctuary, but was taken by force from the altar and put in a dungeon. The nobles reunited (who included the victims of the Duke of Niemodlin) long wondered what to do with the prisoner; at the end, they decided to apply against him the common law of Nysa, despite of the fact that the Duke of Niemodlin was a royal prince. The attempts to obtain his freedom (which included the offer to pay the huge sum of 100,000 Hungarian złoty) gave no results, thanks to the clear opposition of the Duke of Cieszyn (at that time also Starost General of Silesia), who obtain the heaviest sentence for Nicholas II: the death. All the process was performed in the German language, which Nicholas II apparently didn't know (there is some evidence that he and his brother Jan II only knew the Polish and Czech languages). The Duke of Niemodlin was only allowed to write a letter to his brother, in which he left him all his domains. The court ruling that the sentence would take place almost immediately in order to avoid the reaction of the Opole citizens and the Duke's brother. Nicholas II was beheaded by a sword cut in the Nysa market on 27 June 1497. According to the tradition, his last words were: \"\"Nysa! Nysa! You punish me because my ancestors had given you to the Church, and now you force me to paid the price?\"\".  Nicholas II never married or had children. According to his last wish, he was buried in the Franciscan church in Opole. On his tombstone was written the epitaph: \"Here lies who fell for his true principles and give courageously his neck under the sword\".  At the news of the execution of his brother, Jan II started to collect a good army and began the preparations of a brutally retaliatory expedition against the Duchy of Cieszyn; however, the war ultimately didn't occur as a result of the diplomatic moves of King Władysław II Jagiellon, and saved Silesia from the civil war.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicholas II of Niemodlin (; – 27 June 1497), was a Duke of Opole-Brzeg-Strzelce-Niemodlin in 1476 (as co-ruler of his father) and sole Duke of Niemodlin from 1476 until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976938}
{"src_title": "Did You Hear About the Morgans?", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "A successful Manhattan couple, lawyer Paul Michael Morgan (Hugh Grant) and estate agent Meryl Judith Morgan (Sarah Jessica Parker), are separated due to Paul's infidelity. After dinner one night, Meryl and Paul witness the murder of one of Meryl's real estate clients. As a result, they become targets of contract killer Vincent (Michael Kelly) and must enter the Witness Protection Program.  Paul and Meryl are relocated to the small town of Ray, Wyoming and placed temporarily under the protection of husband and wife/sheriff and deputy, Clay and Emma Wheeler (Sam Elliott and Mary Steenburgen). For their own safety, they are permitted no outside contact via telephone or e-mail. They have trouble adjusting to small-town life, but after a perilous encounter with a bear and awkward attempts at shooting rifles, chopping wood, and horseback riding, they eventually adjust and begin assisting the local citizens professionally. Meanwhile, neither of their assistants back in New York City know their whereabouts. Vincent plants a bug at Meryl's office and in her assistant Jackie's (Elisabeth Moss) purse, hoping to gain information, which is eventually successful.  Jackie attempts to call Meryl but Paul's assistant Adam (Jesse Liebman) stops her by kissing her, which she responds to by tasering him then apologizing and offering him to take her on a date the next day. Paul and Meryl go on a \"date\" in town and begin to reconcile, but then Paul is heartbroken when he learns that Meryl had a one-night stand with one of their acquaintances during their separation. The next day, with Vincent in town unbeknownst to them, the Morgans anticipate leaving Ray for a permanent hiding place. The Wheelers invite them to a rodeo, but the Morgans are at loggerheads, so they decline. Leaving the Morgans without any form of security, the Wheelers leave for the rodeo. Vincent tries to attack the house but is accosted by a bear, which gives the Morgans time to escape. They flee on horseback to the rodeo to seek help. Vincent follows them to the rodeo, they spot him and hide in a bull suit. However, they end up in the ring with a bull, which then charges them, injuring Meryl. Meryl, unable to walk, stays hidden from Vincent while Paul impulsively confronts him with a canister of bear repellent spray. Paul accidentally sprays himself in the face, alerting Vincent who then holds Paul at gun-point. The Morgans are rescued by the Wheelers and their new friends from the town.  Six months later, Jackie and Adam are in a committed relationship while Paul and Meryl have repaired their marriage. They have an adopted baby girl from China, named Rae in honor of the Wyoming town, and Meryl is pregnant with their biological child living happily together in New York City.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Filming for \"Did You Hear About the Morgans\" took place over 25 days in May and June in 2009. The film was shot in New York City; Santa Fe, New Mexico; and Roy, New Mexico.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 12% based on reviews from 120 critics, with an average rating of 3.43/10. The site's consensus states \"It gets a certain amount of mileage out of the inherent likability of its stars, but with an unfunny script and a lack of onscreen chemistry, \"Did You Hear About the Morgans?\" falls flat.\" On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 27 out of 100, based on 28 reviews, indicating \"generally unfavorable reviews\". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade \"B-\" on scale of A to F.  John Anderson of \"Variety magazine\" wrote: \"the charm of the film is that it resists turning people into cliches and lets Parker and Grant work their particular magic -- before they get to Wyoming, their performances are as stressed out as their characters, and while it's a dubious conceit that going cowboy is a cure-all, they put the notion across as convincingly as possible.\" Sarah Jessica Parker was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award as Worst Actress for her performance, but lost to Sandra Bullock for \"All About Steve\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "In its first opening weekend, the film opened at #4 in the United States box office earning $6,616,571. With a budget of $58 million, \"Did You Hear About the Morgans?\" grossed only $29.5 million domestically at the box office. It did a little better internationally, earning an additional $56 million, for a total of $85 million worldwide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "\"Did You Hear About the Morgans?\" was released on DVD and Blu-ray on March 16, 2010.  The DVD features:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Did You Hear About the Morgans? is a 2009 American romantic comedy thriller film directed and written by Marc Lawrence. Hugh Grant and Sarah Jessica Parker portray the film's protagonists, Paul and Meryl Morgan, a recently separated New York power couple on the verge of divorce until they witness the murder of Meryl's client. They are forced to enter into temporary witness protection, given new identities, and relocated to a small Wyoming town (the fictional Ray, Wyoming, 45 minutes out of Cody). Supporting roles are played by Sam Elliott, Mary Steenburgen, Elisabeth Moss, and Wilford Brimley. It is the second collaboration of Grant and Parker, following the 1996 film \"Extreme Measures\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976939}
{"src_title": "Liferay", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Liferay's original product, Liferay Portal, was created in 2000 by chief software architect Brian Chan to provide an enterprise portal solution for non-profit organizations. In 2004, the company was incorporated under the name Liferay, Inc. and formalized its Germany subsidiary Liferay GmbH. In 2007, the company opened a new Asian headquarters in Dalian, China, and the Spanish subsidiary Liferay SL. In March 2009, the company opened a new office in Bangalore, India. To date Liferay has 22 offices worldwide with over 250 partners and 180,000 open source community members.  Sun Microsystems and Liferay signed a technology-sharing agreement during May 2008. Sun Microsystems rebranded the offering GlassFish Web Space Server. ZDNet further describes the relationship in the May 2008 article \"Sun and Liferay launch web-presentation platform\". In 2010 Sun was acquired by Oracle and the GlassFish Web Space Server was not included in their portal roadmap, with all prospects turned over to Liferay, Inc.  In April 2013, Liferay partnered with TIBCO Software to offer a series of Liferay enterprise Connectivity Adapters (eC Adapters) that use TIBCO ActiveMatrix BusinessWorks with the intention of easing integration of Liferay Portal with multiple systems.  In May 2016, the company introduced Liferay Digital Experience Platform, an expansion of the original Liferay Portal, to offer additional functionality such as engagement metrics.  In July 2018, Liferay released two new products: a B2B focused digital commerce solution named Liferay Commerce, and a cloud analytics software called Liferay Analytics Cloud.  In December 2019, collaborative editing of documents was fully introduced in Liferay with the integration of OnlyOffice editors via the integration app.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Liferay, Inc., is an open-source company that provides free documentation and paid professional service to users of its software. Mainly focused on enterprise portal technology, the company has its headquarters in Diamond Bar, California, United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976940}
{"src_title": "Robert Buckley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Buckley was born in Claremont in Los Angeles County, California. He earned a degree in economics from the University of California, San Diego, graduating in 2003. As a college student, Buckley appeared as a contestant on \"The Price Is Right\". After working for a year as an economic consultant, he moved back to Los Angeles to pursue a career in acting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 2006, Buckley made his acting debut as a series regular on the MyNetworkTV primetime telenovela \"Fashion House\", playing the role of Michael Bauer. Buckley then made his feature film debut in the horror \"When a Killer Calls\", released in February 2006. He subsequently joined the cast of another MyNetworkTV telenovela, portraying the role of Matthew Wakefield in \"American Heiress\". In 2007, Buckley guest starred on an episode of \"Ghost Whisperer\". Also in 2007, he was cast in the recurring role of Kirby Atwood on NBC's comedy-drama series \"Lipstick Jungle\".  The following year, Buckley signed on to play surf instructor Kyle Hamilton in the Lifetime film \"Flirting with Forty\", alongside Heather Locklear. He then co-starred as Nik in the horror comedy \"Killer Movie\", alongside Kaley Cuoco, Leighton Meester, and Paul Wesley, which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in April 2008. In 2009, The CW announced that Buckley would appear in a two-episode guest arc on the comedy-drama series \"Privileged\" as David Besser.  In June 2009, it was announced that Buckley had signed to star as a series regular on The CW's teen drama series \"One Tree Hill\". He played the role of sports agent Clay Evans and remained with \"One Tree Hill\" until the series' ending in April 2012. In February 2010, Buckley was reported to be in the running for the title role in Marvel's \"\", but the part ultimately went to Chris Evans.  From 2012 to 2013, Buckley starred in the short-lived horror drama series \"666 Park Avenue\", portraying struggling playwright Brian Leonard who moves into a haunted building with his wife. In 2013, he was cast in a two-episode guest arc on season three of The CW's comedy-drama series \"Hart of Dixie\". The following year, he co-starred in the \"Veronica Mars\" web spin-off series \"Play It Again, Dick\", featuring Ryan Hansen in the central role. In 2015, he began starring as Major Lilywhite on The CW's comedy-drama horror series \"iZombie\". In June 2016, Buckley was cast to star in the first episode of the Hulu anthology series \"Dimension 404\", alongside Lea Michele and Joel McHale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In May 2018, Buckley married actress Jenny Wade.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Robert Earl Buckley (born May 2, 1981) is an American actor, known for his roles as Kirby Atwood on NBC's comedy-drama series \"Lipstick Jungle\" and Clay Evans on The CW's teen drama series \"One Tree Hill\". Buckley also starred as Brian Leonard on ABC's horror drama series \"666 Park Avenue\" and portrayed Major Lillywhite on The CW's comedy-drama series \"iZombie\" from 2015 until 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976941}
{"src_title": "Karel Hašler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Hašler studied to be a glove-maker, but he became intererested in theatre at a young age and occasionally performed with amateur theatre ensembles. In 1897, following his debut at the \"Aréna Theatre\" he left home and successively joined various travelling theatre companies. In 1902 he became a member of the Slovenian theatre in Ljubljana, but soon moved back to Prague, where he joined the National Theatre ensemble. In the National Theatre, he asserted himself in conversational plays. In addition to that, he also attempted to apply his singing abilities. Around 1908, he started composing his own music, and at the same time he began to incline to cabaret activities. Gradually he became a director and head of various Prague cabarets, such as \"Lucerna\" (1910–1915, 1918–1923), \"Rokoko\" (1915–1918) and \"Karlín Variety Theatre\" (1924–1929). In 1908, he married a sister of pianist and composer Rudolf Friml.  During World War I he also began to appear in silent films, as an actor, director and author. In 1914, he made a comedy \"České hrady a zámky\" (Czech Castles), based on his own script. The film was intended as an introduction for the play \"Pán bez kvartýru\" (A Man Without Flat). He appeared also in the comedy \"Ahasver\" and in other silent films.  Among his most successful film roles were the lawyer and deputy Uher in the drama film \"Batalion\" (The Battalion, 1927) by Přemysl Pražský, and the organist in \"Varhaník u sv. Víta\" (Organist at St. Vitus Cathedral, 1929) by Martin Frič. The coming era of the sound film in 1930s enabled Hašler to utilize his singing skills. In his first sound film role \"Písničkář\" (Balladeer, 1932) by Svatopluk Innemann he sang patriotic songs \"Svoboda\" (Freedom) and \"Ta naše písnička česká\" (Our Czech song), among others. In 1942, in his last film role, he played himself in \"Za tichých nocí\" (In the Quiet Nights), made by his son Gina Hašler. From 1932 to 1941 Hašler played in more than 13 films. In September 1941, during production of the film \"Městečko na dlani\", based on the script by Jan Drda, he was arrested by the Gestapo and sent to the Mauthausen concentration camp. The main reason for his arrest was his patriotic songs. In Mauthausen he was tortured to death.  In the post-war Communist Czechoslovakia he was officially ignored for political reasons, because many of his songs hailed Tomáš Masaryk and Czechoslovak Legionnaires, and mocked interbellum communists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remembrance.", "content": "A popular Czech herbal-menthol hard candy was called \"\" after him. They have been known since early 1900s. Now the trademark is owned by Nestle.  \"\"Hašlerky\"\" is a recognizable type of songs, written by Hašler and of similar character.  Czech astronomer Lenka Kotková (née L. Šarounová) named asteroid 37939 Hašler after him.  In 2008, Czech directors Marek Jícha and Josef Lustig made a documentary \"Písničkář, který nezemřel\" (The Immortal Balladeer of Prague) describing the fate of Hašler's illegitimate son Thomas Hasler.  On the occasion of Hašler's 130th anniversary (2009) a monument by sculptor Stanislav Hanzík was unveiled at the.  In 2013 the band Patrola Šlapeto recorded a CD and DVD with 23 Hašler's songs based on original recordings found in musical archives. While there have been plenty recordings of Hasler's songs, this was the first in 80 years recording of the original tunes. Karel Hašlers artistic output consists mainly of songs. He created more than 300 compositions, many of which became popular \"folk songs\". With his engaged patriotic approach he helped to strengthen the national consciousness of Czech people during times of danger and oppression. Following his death in the concentration camp, his songs became a symbol of national resistance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Selected songs  Actor:  Writer:  Composer:  Music Department:  Director:  Soundtrack:  Producer:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Karel Hašler (31 October 1879 in Prague – 22 December 1941 in Mauthausen) was a Czech songwriter, actor, lyricist, film and theatre director, composer, writer, dramatist, screenwriter and cabaretier. He was murdered in the Mauthausen concentration camp.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976942}
{"src_title": "Zuzana Hejnová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Junior.", "content": "In 2003, Hejnová competed at the 2003 World Youth Championships in Athletics at Sherbrooke, Canada and won the gold medal in the 400 metre hurdles with a time of 57.54. A year later, she returned at Grosseto, Italy at the 2004 World Junior Championships. This time she won the silver with a time of 57.44 in the 400 m hurdles, defeated by the Russian, Ekaterina Kostetskaya, who won gold by a large margin at 55.55 seconds.  Her current personal bests are 14.11 in the 100m achieved at Ostrava on 3 September 2005; 13.77 in the 100 metres hurdles at Stará Boleslav on 13 June 2003; 53.04 in the 400 m at Kladno on 28 June 2008; and 54.90 in the 400 m hurdles recorded at Monaco on 28 July 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2008.", "content": "In early March 2008 Hejnová competed in the 400 metres at the 2008 IAAF World Indoor Championships and reached the semi finals but did not qualify to reach the final. She did however, reach the final with the Czech relay team in the 4 × 400 metres relay in a team which included her, Zuzana Bergrová, Denisa Ščerbová, and Jitka Bartoničková. They finished 4th, with a time of 3:34.53, but were over 5 seconds slower than the Americans who took bronze with a time of 3:29.30.  On 21 June 2008, she competed for the Czech Republic at the 2008 European Cup in Athletics.  Hejnová competed in the 400 metres hurdles at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. She qualified for the second round with the thirteenth fastest overall time of 55.91 seconds and for the final with 55.17. In the final she finished seventh with 54.97, only one hundredth behind her personal best at the time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011.", "content": "She won the 400 metres hurdles at the European Team Championships with a new national record of 53.87 seconds. On 8 July 2011 she improved her national record to 53.29 seconds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012.", "content": "Hejnová won the first round of the Women's 400 m Hurdles at the 2012 Summer Olympics. On 8 August 2012 Hejnová won the bronze medal in the finals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013.", "content": "Hejnová won Diamond League races over 400 m Hurdles in Shanghai (53.79), Eugene (53.70), Oslo (53.60), Paris (53.23 NR), and London (53.07 NR). Hejnová also won races in Des Moines (54.41), Prague (54.55) and Ostrava (53.32). Hejnová secured maximum points for Czech Republic in the European Team Championships First League in Dublin by winning the 400 m in 51.90 seconds. On 15 August 2013 in Moscow, she became World Champion over 400 m Hurdles with a new Czech record (52.83 NR).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Zuzana Hejnová (; born 19 December 1986) is a Czech athlete. She competes in the 100 metres, the 100 metres hurdles, the 400 metres and the 400 metres hurdles, and also the heptathlon. She is a two-time World Champion in the 400 metres hurdles, winning in 2013 and 2015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976943}
{"src_title": "Mauritania Railway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The line was a success and provided a major portion of Mauritania's GDP; as a result the line was nationalised in 1974. Following Mauritania's annexation of southern Western Sahara in 1976, the line came under constant attack by Polisario militia, effectively putting the line out of use and thereby crippling Mauritania's economy. This played a major role in prompting the army to overthrow Mauritanian president Moktar Ould Daddah in 1978, followed by a withdrawal from Western Sahara the following year. With the line now secure, repairs were conducted and trains starting using it once again in the early 1980s. This railway is unique for its usage of the Soviet type coupler SA-3, which is quite rare in non ex-Soviet countries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traffic.", "content": "Trains on the railway are up to in length, making them among the longest and heaviest in the world. They consist of 3 or 4 diesel-electric EMD locomotives, 200 to 210 cars each carrying up to 84 tons of iron ore, and 2-3 service cars. The total traffic averages 16.6 million tons per year.  Passengers are also occasionally transported by train; these services are managed by an SNIM subsidiary, the société d'Assainissement, de Travaux, de Transport et de Maintenance (abb. ATTM). Passenger cars are sometimes attached to freight trains, but more often passengers simply ride atop the ore hopper cars freely. Passengers include locals, merchants, and rarely some tourists. Conditions for these passengers are incredibly harsh with daytime temperatures exceeding 40°C and death from falls being common.  In January 2019, the railway resumed tourism after a ten year hiatus; part of the track ran through a forbidden tourist area. One of the stops on the tourist route is an iron mine. The tourist route is typically operated by a locomotive carrying two passenger carriages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Locomotives.", "content": "In October 2010, SNIM ordered six EMD SD-70ACS locomotives, with special modifications for operating in high temperatures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Glencore Xstrata.", "content": "In 2014, the mining company Glencore paid $1 billion for 18 years of access to SNIM's rail and port infrastructure, which would be connected to branch lines to new iron mines at Askaf and Guelb El Aouj. The deal would have saved the company the cost of constructing their own tracks and facilities. However, Glencore backed out of the project just one year later after the price of iron ore tumbled nearly 40%.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mauritania Railway is the national railway of Mauritania. Construction of the line began in 1960, with it opening in 1963.. It consists of a single, railway line linking the iron mining centre of Zouerate with the port of Nouadhibou, via Fderik and Choum. The state agency \"Société Nationale Industrielle et Minière\" (National Mining and Industrial Company, SNIM) controls the railway line.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976944}
{"src_title": "Albi Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The present cathedral was preceded by other buildings. The first dated from the fourth century and in 666 was destroyed by fire. The second is recorded in 920 by the name of Saint Cecilia, the present-day patroness of musicians. It was replaced in the thirteenth century by a Gothic cathedral in stone.  The Southern French Gothic cathedral was constructed in brick between 1282 and 1480 in the wake of the crusade against Catharism, a heterodox non-trinitarian dualist movement with an episcopal see at Albi around 1165 AD. Pope Innocent III initiated a crusade to extinguish Catharism in southern France, with great loss of life. In the aftermath of the crusade, the cathedral's dominant presence and fortress-like exterior made of brick were intended to demonstrate the authority of the Catholic Church, to protect its sanctuary by thick walls, and to convey a sense of poverty in response to Catharism. The instigator of the cathedral's construction was Bernard de Castanet, Catholic Bishop of Albi and Inquisitor of Languedoc. Work on the nave was completed about 1330.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "The cathedral is built in the Southern French Gothic style. As suitable building stone is not found locally, the structure is built almost entirely of brick. Notable architectural features include the bell-tower (added in 1492), which stands tall, and the doorway by Dominique de Florence (added circa 1392). The nave is the widest Gothic example in France at. The interior lacks aisles which are replaced by rows of small chapels between brick internal buttresses, making Albi a hall church. Compared with regular Gothic, the buttresses are almost entirely submerged in the mass of the church. The principal entry is on the south side through an elaborate porch entered by a fortified stair, rather than through the west front, as is traditional in France.  The side chapels in the nave received overhead galleries in the 15th century, diminishing their impact.  The elaborate interior stands in stark contrast to the cathedral's military exterior. The central \"chœur\", reserved for members of the clergy, is surrounded by a roodscreen with detailed filigree stone work and a group of polychrome statues. Below the organ, a fresco of the \"Last Judgement\", attributed to unknown Flemish painters, originally covered nearly 200 m (the central area was later removed). The frescoes on the enormous vaulted ceiling comprise the largest and oldest ensemble of Italian Renaissance painting in France.  The cathedral organ, the work of Christophe Moucherel, dates from the 18th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cathedral Basilica of Saint Cecilia (French: \"Basilique Cathédrale Sainte-Cécile d'Albi\"), also known as Albi Cathedral, is the most important Catholic building in Albi, France and is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Albi. First built as a fortress in the aftermath of the Albigensian Crusade; begun in 1282 and under construction for 200 years, it is claimed to be the largest brick building in the world.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976945}
{"src_title": "Sylvie Meis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Netherlands.", "content": "Sylvie Meis is partly of Dutch East Indies origin. She graduated from the University of West Brabant () Aged 18, she decided that she wanted to be a model and was cast for various shoots by casting agencies. After becoming interested in television, she gained popularity through assignments at FoxKids and music station TMF. She hosts several events at TMF, such as presenting the annual TMF-awards, and conducting interviews with international artists such as Britney Spears and Kylie Minogue. In addition, she features in video clips and the Dutch TV-series \"\". She also introduced the \"Pure by Sylvie\" jewellery line to the Dutch market. Thereafter, she hosted the 2008 FIFA World Player of the Year award ceremony.  After being elected the Netherlands' Sexiest Female in 2003, she started a relationship with then Ajax footballer Rafael van der Vaart. Due in part to the fame from their individual careers, they soon became the Netherlands' most famous \"football couple\". Their fame grew after their marriage on 10 June 2005 and live coverage of the wedding on SBS6, a Dutch television channel, with the broadcast gaining high ratings in the Netherlands; Sylvie took Rafael's last name, van der Vaart.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Germany.", "content": "Meis and her then husband moved to Germany when he left Ajax to play for Bundesliga football club Hamburger SV. After her husband's 2008 transfer to Real Madrid, the van der Vaarts moved to Spain. Between 2008 and 2011, she was a judge on \"Das Supertalent\", the German version of Simon Cowell's \"Got Talent\" series. In 2010 she took part in the third season of the German equivalent of Strictly Come Dancing, called \"Let's Dance\". On 17 April 2010, Meis replaced the usual \"Deutschland sucht den Superstar\" judge Nina Eichinger for the final of the 7th season, after the latter was stuck in Los Angeles following flight restrictions as a result of the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull. Between 2011 and 2017 Meis has been hosting the show \"Let's Dance\" together with Daniel Hartwich. In 2018 she was replaced by former participant Viktoria Swarovski and instead returned to \"Das Supertalent\" as a judge. Following in the footsteps of famous entertainers such as Johannes Heesters and Rudi Carell, Meis is one of the most successful Dutch personalities active in Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Meis is of partly Indo-European descent, her father being Dutch-Indonesian, her mother being Belgian.  Meis was in a relationship with footballer Rafael van der Vaart from 2003. On 10 June 2005, Sylvie married Rafael and on 28 May 2006, their son Damián Rafael was born. Some of the media described the couple as the \"new Beckhams\" but both of them denied the claims saying that they prefer to just live a normal life.  On 16 June 2009, she announced that she had been diagnosed with breast cancer, and had undergone surgery in May 2009. She finished post-op chemotherapy and is cancer free. In the summer of 2009, Real Madrid wanted to sell Rafael van der Vaart, but the player decided to stay in Madrid because Sylvie was undergoing cancer treatments there. A year later, upon his move to England, Rafael stated \"\"She had a very serious illness and it is true that she had to be treated at the Clínica Quirón. Last season, they wanted me to leave but I couldn't leave for that reason. Now she is well and the only thing that happened was that Madrid wanted to sell and I wanted to get back to enjoying playing football, and Tottenham are a great team that are going to give me the football opportunities that I need.\"\"  In 2010, Sylvie admitted to having cheated on her husband, stating that Van der Vaart found out through emails that she was having an affair with a KLM airline pilot which she believed was the beginning of the end of their marriage. On 2 January 2013, Sylvie acknowledged their separation after he had struck her in front of their guests. Their divorce was finalized in December 2013. On 12 April 2017, she became engaged to Charbel Aouad but the couple separated in October 2017.  She is fluent in English, Dutch, and German.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plastic surgery controversy.", "content": "In may 2019 the German media has wondered what happened to the face from Sylvie Meis at a basketball contest from Hamburg Towers. The German media, the German Bild magazine and fans could not recognise her appearance and face from her old former self.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Television and media appearances.", "content": "Sylvie Meis has made several television appearances worldwide including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sylvie Françoise Meis (born 13 April 1978) is a Dutch television personality and model. She is also popular in Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976946}
{"src_title": "Agoudas Hakehilos Synagogue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The synagogue was commissioned by the \"Agoudas Hakehilos\" (אֲגֻדָּת־הַקְּהִלּוֹת, union of the communities), society composed of Orthodox Jews of primarily Russian origin, headed by Joseph Landau. Its erection is a testament to the massive wave of immigration from Eastern Europe that took place at the turn of the 20th century. Funded by this wealthy Polish-Russian group it did not cost the Parisian community a \"centime\". They intended to provide a spacious and modernized place for Jews accustomed to the intimate and often squalid \"shtiblakh\".  The construction of the Synagogue started in 1913 and was completed the following year, with the official inauguration taking place on 7 June 1914; nevertheless the Synagogue had been already active for services since October 1913. The opening ceremony was not attended by any of the representants of the Central Consistory, instead famous polish Hazzan Gershon Sirota was present at the event.  During the year in 1934 a gas explosion destroyed the main hall which was rebuilt right after. On the evening of Yom Kippur in 1941, the building was dynamited along with six other Parisian synagogues by collaborators of the nazi occupants; however the bomb did not go off and the building was preserved. On the night between 2 and 3 October of the same year, the synagogue was damaged following an attack organised by far-right association Mouvement Social Révolutionnaire. It was partially restored afterwards, but the main entrance was altered from its original appearance.  The building was registered as a \"monument historique\" by the French authorities on July 4, 1989. The synagogue is fully functional today with the Rabbi being Rav Moredekhai Rottenberg, the son of the late Rav Haim Yaakov Rottenberg, known as the \"Rouv\". The synagogue is now open to the public.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The synagogue is Guimard's last major project before World War I and the only religious building he designed. Built on a narrow stripe of land between older houses, the synagogue is developed in height, with the elongated windows and continuous columns of its façade emphasizing its verticality. The interior is vertically arranged as well, with two levels of galleries on each side of the nave, to deal with the lack of width.  Guimard made use of reinforced concrete for the structure and for the exterior he chose white stone. Light enters through a number of windows in the façade, but much of the natural lighting is provided by the large glass window of the back wall. Skylights originally were also present, but were covered when the roof was renovated; they are still visible from the interior.  The furnishings (luminaires, chandeliers, brackets, and benches) as well as the stylized vegetal decorations made of staff and the cast iron railings are all creations of Guimard and they display the same motifs that characterize the exteriors. The triangle is a recurring symbol in the ornamentation and triangles were also present over the entrances, but were substituted by a single Star of David during a restoration of the façade.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Agoudas Hakehilos Synagogue (אֲגֻדָּת־הַקְּהִלּוֹת, Union of the communities), at 10 rue Pavée, in the 4th arrondissement of Paris (Le Marais quarter), commonly referred to at the Pavée synagogue, rue Pavée synagogue, or Guimard synagogue, was designed by Art Nouveau architect Hector Guimard and erected between 1913 and 1914.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976947}
{"src_title": "Synagogue de Nazareth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1810, the Ashkenazi Jews of Paris, had two synagogues, one on rue Sainte-Avoye (today: rue du Temple) and another on rue du Chaulme (today: rue des Archives). Expelled from the synagogue on Saint-Avoye by the landlord in 1818, the community bought a plot of land in 1819 situated between 14 rue Neuve-Saint-Laurent (today: rue du Vertbois) and 15 rue Notre-Dame-de-Nazareth. After having received permission from the King, Louis XVIII through the ordinance of 29 June 1819, the Assembly of the Jews of Paris, construction began under the direction of architect Sandrié de Jouy, and ended in 1822. The synagogue was built to accommodate a congregation of several hundred worshipers, including galleries for women. The synagogue on rue du Chaume was closed the following year.  Very rapidly faults began to emerge in construction, and in 1848, the building was in danger of collapsing. The police closed it in 1850 and it was destroyed. A new synagogue designed by the architect Thierry (1810–1890) was built on the site funded by donations from Baron James de Rothschild and was inaugurated in 1852.  The synagogue contains an organ, quite common among French Jews since Chief Rabbi Salomon Ulmann published a responsa in its favour. The actress Rachel was a member of the congregation. The composer Jacques Offenbach, after having arrived in Paris, was appointed, with his brother, to train and manage the choir \"de la formation et de la direction du chœur\" for six months from December 1833. It followed an Alsacien rite, and was the residence of the Chief Rabbis of France and of Paris until the construction of the Grand Synagogue (on rue de la Victoire) in 1875.  The French composer Ernest Cahen played the Cavaillé-Coll organ of the synagogue.  During the Second World War, in 1941 the synagogue was damaged by French collaborators. The chief rabbi of the synagogue, Joseph Saks and his wife were arrested and deported during the Holocaust. Due to the influx of North African Jews from migration, the synagogue changed to follow the Sephardi rite.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Synagogue de Nazareth is situated on the Rue Notre-Dame-de-Nazareth, in the 3rd arrondissement of Paris, and is the oldest of the 'great' synagogues of Paris. It is normally known as \"Synagogue Nazareth\" rather than \"Synagogue de la rue Nazareth\", its official name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976948}
{"src_title": "Grand Synagogue of Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The architect was Alfred-Philibert Aldrophe (1834–1895) who also built the Versailles Synagogue and that of Enghien-les-Bains. Building commenced in 1867 and the Synagogue was inaugurated in 1874, and opened to the general public in 1875, built in the classical style, but embellished with Byzantine frills.  The inscription in Hebrew at the entrance is a verse from Genesis 28,17 : \"This is none other than the House of God, the very gateway to Heaven\", the same as is found on the entrance to the synagogue of Reims and that of Bar-le-Duc.  The interior has a number of religious inscriptions above the doors. In the choir pulpit is written in French the names of the prophets. Above the Torah Ark is engraved with the words \"ה 'ניסי\" (\"The Lord-is-my-banner\" Ex 17:15)  It also includes a series of 12 stained glass windows symbolising the Tribes of Israel.  The choir is separated from the assembly by a balustrade and the bimah.  Every year, the Sunday before Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year), there takes place a ceremony in remembrance of the Martyrs of the Deportation, which is televised on France 2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Miscellaneous.", "content": "On April 21, 1890, Alfred Dreyfus married Lucie Hadamard in the synagogue. The ceremony was officiated by the Chief Rabbi of France, Zadoc Kahn, a future 'Dreyfusard' who advocated for Dreyfus' freedom.  In 1955, (also written \"Meir\" Jaïs) became the first Sephardic chief rabbi of Paris and thus head of the Grand Synagogue.  The French organist Ernest Cahen played the Merklin organ of the synagogue.  In November 2013, French baritone David Serero performed a concert there.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Grand Synagogue of Paris, generally known as Synagogue de la Victoire or Grande Synagogue de la Victoire, is situated at 44, Rue de la Victoire, in the 9th arrondissement. It also serves as the official seat of the chief rabbi of Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976949}
{"src_title": "Nancy Huston", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Huston was born in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, the city in which she lived until age fifteen, at which time her family moved to Wilton, New Hampshire, where she attended High Mowing School. She studied at Sarah Lawrence College in New York City, where she was given the opportunity to spend a year of her studies in Paris. Arriving in Paris in 1973, Huston obtained a master's degree from the École des hautes études en sciences sociales, writing a thesis on swear words under the supervision of Roland Barthes.  After many years of marriage to Tzvetan Todorov, with whom she had two children, Huston now shares her life with Swiss painter Guy Oberson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Because French was a language acquired at school and university, Huston found that the combination of her eventual command of the language and her distance from it as a non-native speaker helped her to find her literary voice. Since 1980, Huston has published over 45 books of fiction and non-fiction, including theatre and children's books. Some of her publications are self-translations of previously published works. Essentially she writes in French and subsequently self-translates into English but \"Plainsong\" (1993) was written first in English and then self-translated to French as \"Cantique des plaines\" (1993) – it was, however, the French version which first found a publisher.  She has 25 fiction publications, of which 13 are original fiction and 11 are self-translations.  In her fiction, only \"Trois fois septembre\" (1989), \"Visages de l'aube\" (2001) and \"Infrarouge\" (2010), as well as her three children's books, have not been published in English. She has also published two plays but has not yet translated either.  She has 14 non-fiction publications, of which 12 are original publications and two are self-translations. The other ten non-fiction publications have not yet been self-translated.  While Huston's often controversial works of non-fiction have been well-received, her fiction has earned her the most critical acclaim. Her first novel, \"Les variations Goldberg\" (1981), was awarded the Prix Contrepoint and was shortlisted for the Prix Femina. She translated this novel into English as \"The Goldberg Variations\" (1996).  Her next major award came in 1993 when she was received the Canadian Governor General's Award for Fiction in French for \"Cantique des Plaines\" (1993). This was initially contested as it was a translation of \"Plainsong\" (1993), but Huston demonstrated that it was an adaptation and kept the prize. A subsequent novel, \"La virevolte\" (1994), won the Prix \"L\" and the Prix Louis-Hémon. It was published in English in 1996 as \"Slow Emergencies\".  Huston's novel, \"Instruments des ténèbres\", has been her most successful novel yet, being shortlisted for the Prix Femina, and the Governor General's Award. It was awarded the Prix Goncourt des Lycéens, as well as both the Prix des lectrices (Elle Québec) and the Prix du livre Inter in 1997.  In 1998, she was nominated for a Governor General's Award for her novel \"L'Empreinte de l'ange\". The next year she was nominated for a Governor General's Award for translating the work into English as \"The Mark of the Angel\".  In 1999, she appeared in the film \"Set Me Free (Emporte-moi)\", also collaborating on the screenplay.  Her works have been translated into many languages from Chinese to Russian.  In 2005, she was made an Officer of the Order of Canada, and she received the Prix Femina in 2006 for the novel \"Lignes de faille\" and which, as \"Fault Lines\", has been published by Atlantic Books and is shortlisted for the 2008 Orange Prize.  Her latest novel is \"Infrarouge\" (2010).  In 2007, she received an honorary doctorate from the University of Liège.  In 2010, she received an honorary doctorate from the University of Ottawa.  In 2012, she won the Literary Review's Bad Sex in Fiction Award for her novel, \"Infrared\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nancy Louise Huston, OC (born September 16, 1953) is a Canadian-born novelist and essayist who writes primarily in French and translates her own works into English.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976950}
{"src_title": "Nathan Yellin-Mor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Nathan Friedman-Yellin was born in Grodno in the Russian Empire (now Belarus). He studied engineering at the Warsaw Polytechnic. He was active in Betar and Irgun in Poland.  Between 1938 and 1939 he was the coeditor, along with Avraham Stern (Yair), of \"Di Tat\" (\"The Action \"), the Irgun's newspaper in Poland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zionist activism.", "content": "He immigrated clandestinely to the British Mandate of Palestine and joined Lehi, a Jewish paramilitary group, Lohamei Herut Yisrael (Hebrew acronym LHI - in English, Fighters for the Freedom of Israel; derogatorily called by the British the \"Stern gang\"). In December 1941, Yair Stern assigned Yellin-Mor to travel to Turkey and the Balkans to recruit Jews living there for the underground in Palestine. He was arrested near Aleppo, Syria and brought back to Palestine, where he was put into detention by the British first at the Mizrah detention camp and then transferred to Latrun. There Yellin-Mor masterminded digging a 74 meters long tunnel, and together with 19 comrades, escaped in 1943. After Stern's murder, he became a member of the Lehi's guiding triumvirate, with Israel Eldad as chief of Lehi's propaganda and Yitzhak Shamir as chief of operations. Yellin-Mor was in charge of Lehi's political activities.  He was one of the planners of the assassination of Lord Moyne. He saw the struggle against the British in an international context, and advocated collaboration with other anti-colonialist forces, including Palestinian and other Arab forces. After the Deir Yassin massacre, he privately confronted Eldad. After the assassination in September 1948 of United Nations mediator Count Folke Bernadotte, he was arrested along with Lehi member Matityahu Shmuelevitch and charged with leadership of a terrorist organization. They were found guilty on January 25, 1949, the day on which Yellin-Mor was elected to the Knesset. On February 10, 1949, Yellin-Mor was sentenced to 8 years imprisonment. Though the court was confident that Lehi was responsible for Bernadotte's death, it did not find sufficient evidence that the murder had been sanctioned by the Lehi leadership. The court offered to release the defendants if they agreed to certain conditions that included forswearing underground activity and submitting to police supervision, but they rejected the offer. However the Provisional State Council soon authorised their pardon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1948 Yellin-Mor formed a political party, the Fighters List, and was elected to the first Knesset. He served from 1949 to 1951 and was a member of the Internal Affairs committee.  In 1949, he denounced the Partition of Palestine as \"bartering with the territory of the homeland\" and opposed the Palestinian right of return. Later, he moved increasingly to the left, in a return to the pro-Soviet position of some Lehi militants in the 1940s, by advocating a pro-Soviet foreign policy. In 1956 he helped found the group Semitic Action, whose journal \"Etgar\" (\"Challenge\") he edited.  In his later years, he dedicated himself to working for reconciliation with the Palestinians, promoting negotiations with the Palestine Liberation Organisation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nathan Yellin-Mor(, Nathan Friedman-Yellin; 1913 – 19 February 1980) was a Revisionist Zionist activist, Lehi leader and Israeli politician. In later years, he became a leader of the Israeli peace camp, a pacifist who supported negotiations with the Palestine Liberation Organization and concessions in the Israeli-Arab conflict.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976951}
{"src_title": "The Garden of Rama", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The book picks up the story nine months after the end of \"Rama II\". The book follows the story of three astronauts from the expedition in \"Rama II\" who were trapped aboard the cylindrical alien spacecraft, Rama II, heading out towards deep space. Along the journey, five children were born. Simone Tiasso Wakefield, Catharine Colin Wakefield, Eleanor Joan Wakefield, Benjamin Ryan O'Toole and Patrick Erin O'Toole, were born by Nicole des Jardins from her relationships with Richard Wakefield and Michael O'Toole. These children later become major characters in \"Rama Revealed\". After a twelve-year journey, they arrive in the vicinity of the star Sirius, where all eight rendezvous with a Raman Node.  At the Node they are subjected to physiological tests for a year while Rama is refurbished, and they are eventually sent back to the solar system, this time to collect two thousand more representatives of humanity. An Earth agency, known as the ISA, receives the message from Rama requesting two thousand humans. Upon its reception, the message is kept secret and, under the guise of a new Martian colony, the ISA starts acquiring its payload. The ISA selects a handful of their own representatives; meanwhile, they selectively gather convicts and promise them freedom if they are chosen to be a colonist. The payload is subdivided into three ships: the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria (names based on Christopher Columbus's ships Niña, Pinta, and Santa María) that arrive sequentially at Rama. At this point the colonists believe everything is a hoax (despite the colossal size of Rama) created by the ISA. With that discontent as the tone upon their arrival, Rama III heads back to deep space with its new payload.  Soon an aggressive group of humans, led by a mob boss, seizes control of the human colony and begins a war of annihilation and propaganda against one of the other races occupying the massive spacecraft. The original astronauts and their children find themselves powerless to prevent the genocide. However, the aggressive behavior of the human species does not go unnoticed: Another species, unknown to the humans, observe their behavior and start considering a possible counterattack.  Meanwhile, Rama III determines that total escalation of the conflict is imminent and transmits an emergency signal to its ancient constructors. The book ends with a cliffhanger, on the eve of the execution of one of the original astronauts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Books in the series.", "content": "Gentry Lee also wrote two further novels set in the same Rama Universe.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Garden of Rama is a 1991 novel by Gentry Lee and Arthur C. Clarke. It is the third book in the four-book \"Rama\" series: \"Rendezvous with Rama\", \"Rama II\", \"The Garden of Rama\", and \"Rama Revealed\", and follows on from where \"Rama II\" left off.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976952}
{"src_title": "William Henry Smith (1825–1891)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and business career.", "content": "Smith was born in London, the son of William Henry Smith (1792–1865). He was educated at Tavistock Grammar School before joining the business with his father in 1846, at which time the firm became W H Smith & Son. Smith and his father took advantage of the by opening newsstands on railway stations, starting with Euston in 1848.  In 1850 the firm opened depots in Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool. The business became a household name (W H Smith), and Smith used the success of the firm as a springboard into politics.  He was elected in February 1878 a Fellow of the Royal Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1868, Smith was elected Member of Parliament for Westminster as a Conservative after an initial attempt to get into Parliament as a \"Liberal Conservative\" in 1865 as a supporter of Palmerston. In 1874 Smith was appointed Financial Secretary to the Treasury when Disraeli returned as Prime Minister. In 1877, he became First Lord of the Admiralty. It has been claimed that Smith's appointment was the inspiration for the character of Sir Joseph Porter, KCB, in Gilbert and Sullivan's 1878 comic opera, \"H.M.S. Pinafore\".  Gilbert had written to Sullivan in December 1877, \"The fact that the First Lord in the opera is a \"Radical\" of the most pronounced type will do away with any suspicion that W. H. Smith is intended.\" However, the character was seen as a reflection on Smith and even Disraeli was overheard to refer to his First Lord as \"Pinafore Smith\". It has been suggested that the Pinafore character was as much based on Smith's controversial predecessor as First Lord, Hugh Childers, as on Smith himself. Smith held this office for three years until the Liberals returned to power.  In 1885, a redistribution of seats led to Smith now standing for the Strand division in Westminster, and he served as Chief Secretary for Ireland for a short period in the following year. He was twice Secretary of State for War, the first time during Lord Salisbury's brief ministry between 1885 and 1886, and the second when the Conservatives won the 1886 General Election. He succeeded this appointment in 1887 as First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Commons, and became Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports in 1891.  He died shortly afterwards at Walmer Castle, and his widow was created Viscountess Hambleden in his honour, taking the title from the village close to the Smiths' country house of Greenlands, near Henley-on-Thames. One of the few ministers personally close to Lord Salisbury (apart from the latter's nephew, Arthur Balfour), Smith was dubbed \"Old Morality\" due to his austere manner and conduct.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Smith married Emily, daughter of Frederick Dawes Danvers, in 1858. They had two sons and four daughters:  He died in October 1891, aged 66. The following month his widow was raised to the peerage in his honour as Viscountess Hambleden, of Hambleden in the County of Buckingham. She died in August 1913 and was succeeded by her and Smith's only surviving son, Frederick.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William Henry Smith, FRS (24 June 1825 – 6 October 1891) was an English bookseller and newsagent of the family firm W H Smith, who expanded the firm and introduced the practice of selling books and newspapers at railway stations. He was elected a Member of Parliament in 1868 and rose to the position of First Lord of the Admiralty less than ten years thereafter. Because of his lack of naval experience, he was perceived as a model for the character Sir Joseph Porter in \"H.M.S. Pinafore\". In the mid-1880s, he was twice Secretary of State for War, and later First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Commons, among other posts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976953}
{"src_title": "Sandman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Representation in traditional folklore.", "content": "The Sandman is a traditional character in many children's stories and books. In Scandinavian folklore, he is said to sprinkle sand or dust on or into the eyes of children at night to bring on sleep and dreams. The grit or \"sleep\" (rheum) in one's eyes upon waking is the supposed result of the Sandman's work the previous night.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776–1822) wrote a short story in 1816 titled \"Der Sandmann\", which showed how sinister such a character could be made. According to the protagonist's nurse, he threw sand in the eyes of children who wouldn't sleep, with the result of those eyes falling out and being collected by the Sandman, who then takes the eyes to his nest on the Moon and uses them to feed his children. The protagonist of the story grows to associate this nightmarish creature with the genuinely sinister figure of his father's associate, Coppelius. In Romanian folklore there is a similar character, Moș Ene (Ene the Elder). Hoffmanns version of the sandman is also similar to the French Canadian character known as the (seven o’clock guy), who, in some versions, throws sand in children’s eyes to blind them so he may capture them. Contrarily to the sandman, his bag is the place where he traps children who don’t go to bed. Hans Christian Andersen's 1841 folk tale \"Ole Lukøje\" introduced the Sandman, named Ole Lukøje, by relating dreams he gave to a young boy in a week through his magical technique of sprinkling dust in the eyes of the children. \"Ole\" is a common Danish first name and \"Lukøje\" means \"close eye\". Andersen wrote: In Norway and Sweden, he is called John or Jon Blund, and in Dutch and Afrikaans, a language spoken in Southern Africa and related to Dutch, he is referred to as \"Klaas Vaak\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Television.", "content": "The East German stop motion children's television programme \"Unser Sandmännchen\" (\"Our Little Sandman\"), based on Hans Christian Andersen's Ole Lukøje character and the story by E. T. A. Hoffmann has been broadcast since 1959, along with a West German version which was discontinued after reunification. Santa Claus-franchised sandman appears as a legendary councilman  In the 1990s, Nilus the Sandman aired on English-Speaking Canadian Television", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Comics.", "content": "Fantasy writer Neil Gaiman wrote a 75-part comic book series called \"The Sandman\" for Vertigo Comics. The original series ran from 1989 to 1996. It tells the story of Dream of the Endless, who rules over the world of dreams. He is an anthropomorphic personification of dreams known to various characters throughout the series as Morpheus, Oneiros, the Shaper of Form, Lord of the Dreaming, the Dream King, Dream-Sneak, the Cat of Dreams, Murphy, Kai'ckul, and Lord L'Zoril. He possesses three symbols of office: a helm, an amulet known as the Dreamstone, and a sand pouch.  A comics adaption of the above mentioned German TV show \"Unser Sandmännchen\" has also been published. Most notably on the back pages of FF Dabei focusing on Pittiplatsch and his friends.  The manga, JoJo's Bizarre Adventure, also features a character called Sandman. This however is not the regular interpretation of Sandman, but a human who is running in the Steel Ball Run race.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Songs based on the figure of the Sandman include the 1950s classic \"Mr. Sandman\", Roy Orbison's \"In Dreams\" in which the singer is put to sleep by \"A candy-colored clown they call the sandman\" to dream of his lost love, and Metallica's \"Enter Sandman\" whose lyrics \"juxtapose childhood bedtime rituals and nightmarish imagery\", and originally included a reference to crib death. The Sandman also appears in the version of the lullaby \"Morningtown Ride\" recorded by The Seekers. and is mentioned briefly in the song “Headfirst Slide Into Cooperstown On A Bad Bet” by Fall Out Boy. British singer-songwriter Graham Nash makes a small reference to Sandman in the song \"Sleep song\" in his latest stanza:  \"[...] Then I will wait till  The sandman  Has done with you [...]  Also Finland Heavy Metal band Lordi that creates Mr. Lordi have song Blood Red Sandman  The single \"Mr. Sandman\" was released by SYML in 2017.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Sandman is a mythical character in Western and Northern European folklore who puts people to sleep and encourages and inspires beautiful dreams by sprinkling magical sand onto their eyes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976954}
{"src_title": "Josef von Smola (1764–1820)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He joined the army as an artillery gunner in 1780. He was awarded the rank of lieutenant in 1786. In the war against the Turks, he significantly participated in the siege of the towns of Sabac and Belgrade. He became famous for fundamental improvement in artillery organization in Flanders in 1790. In 1792 he took part in the crusade against France, among others, in the battle of Jemappes. In 1793 he took charge of Archduke Charles horse battery command. Subsequently, he won at the battle of Neerwiden and he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa for this victory.  He was badly wounded at the battle of Fleurus in 1794. He was promoted to first lieutenant in 1796 for key help during the defence of Ehrenbreitstein Fortress. He was badly wounded at Meßkirch for the second time in 1800. Then he continued as Major in the Czech Legion. In 1805 he battled in Italy. In 1809 he led the 3rd Army Corps already as colonel in Regensburg. He was awarded the second Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa, this time the Commander's one, and promoted to major general.  He was not, however, only a commander, but also an engineer and an author of many innovations in the artillery. One of the famous ones was, for example, wall gun-mounting in 1807.  He was married to Mary Smola, Baroness of Häring (1771–1807). His two sons Josef von Smola Jr. and Karl von Smola were also officers. The last living descendants being Miloslav von Smola (* 29 August 1949 in Prague) and Miloslav von Smola (* 6 January 1986 in Prague), both currently living in the Czech Republic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josef Freiherr von Smola (12 June 1764 in Teplice – 29 November 1820 in Vienna) was a (commissioned) officer and holder of the Knight's and Commander's Crosses of the Order of Maria Theresa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976955}
{"src_title": "Pinus lambertiana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Growth.", "content": "The Sugar Pine is the tallest and largest \"Pinus\" species, commonly growing to tall, exceptionally to tall, with a trunk diameter of, exceptionally. The tallest recorded specimen is tall, is located in Yosemite National Park, and was discovered in 2015. The second tallest recorded was \"Yosemite Giant\", an tall specimen in Yosemite National Park, which died from a bark beetle attack in 2007. The tallest, known, living specimens today grow in southern Oregon and Yosemite National Park: one in Umpqua National Forest is tall and another in Siskiyou National Forest is tall. Yosemite National Park also has the third tallest, measured to tall as of June 2013; the Rim Fire affected this specimen, but it survived.  \"Pinus lambertiana\" is a member of the white pine group (\"Pinus\" subgenus \"Strobus\") and, like all members of that group, the leaves (\"needles\") grow in fascicles (\"bundles\") of five, with a deciduous sheath. They are long. Sugar pine is notable for having the longest cones of any conifer, mostly long, exceptionally to long, although the cones of the Coulter pine are more massive. The seeds are long, with a long wing that aids their dispersal by wind. Sugar pine never grows in pure stands, always in a mixed forest and is shade tolerant in youth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The sugar pine occurs in the mountains of Oregon and California in the western United States, and Baja California in northwestern Mexico; specifically the Cascade Range, Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, and Sierra San Pedro Martir.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "White pine blister rust.", "content": "The sugar pine has been severely affected by the white pine blister rust (\"Cronartium ribicola\"), a fungus that was accidentally introduced from Europe in 1909. A high proportion of sugar pines have been killed by the blister rust, particularly in the northern part of the species' range that has experienced the rust for a longer period of time. The rust has also destroyed much of the Western white pine and whitebark pine throughout their ranges. The U.S. Forest Service has a program (see link below) for developing rust-resistant sugar pine and western white pine. Seedlings of these trees have been introduced into the wild. The Sugar Pine Foundation in the Lake Tahoe Basin has been successful in finding resistant sugar pine seed trees and has demonstrated that it is important for the public to assist the U.S. Forest Service in restoring this species. However, blister rust is much less common in California, and sugar, Western white and whitebark pines still survive in great numbers there.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "Naturalist John Muir considered sugar pine to be the \"king of the conifers\". The common name comes from the sweet resin, which Native Americans used as a sweetener. John Muir found it preferable to maple sugar. It is also known as the great sugar pine. The scientific name was assigned by David Douglas in honor of Aylmer Bourke Lambert.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "According to David Douglas, Native Americans ate the sweetish seeds. Native Americans also ate the sweet sap, but in small quantities due to its laxative properties.  The odorless wood is also preferred for packing fruit, as well as storing drugs and other goods. Its straight grain also makes it a useful organ pipe material.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Folklore.", "content": "In the Achomawi creation myth, Annikadel, the creator, makes one of the 'First People' by intentionally dropping a sugar pine seed in a place where it can grow. One of the descendants in this ancestry is Sugarpine-Cone man, who has a handsome son named Ahsoballache.  After Ahsoballache marries the daughter of To'kis the Chipmunk-woman, his grandfather insists that the new couple have a child. To this end, the grandfather breaks open a scale from a sugar pine cone, and secretly instructs Ahsoballache to immerse the scale's contents in spring water, then hide them inside a covered basket. Ahsoballache performs the tasks that night; at the next dawn, he and his wife discover the infant Edechewe near their bed.  The Washo language has a word for sugar pine,, and also a word for \"sugar pine sugar\",.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pinus lambertiana (commonly known as the sugar pine or sugar cone pine) is the tallest and most massive pine tree, and has the longest cones of any conifer. The species name \"lambertiana\" was given by the British botanist David Douglas, who named the tree in honour of the English botanist, Aylmer Bourke Lambert. It is native to the mountains of the Pacific coast of North America, from Oregon through California to Baja California.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976956}
{"src_title": "Covenant of Mayors", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Covenant of Mayors Signatories.", "content": "European local authorities of all sizes – from small villages to capitals and major metropolitan areas – are eligible to sign up as Covenant of Mayors Signatories.  Cities, towns and other urban areas have a crucial role to play in mitigating climate change, as they consume three quarter of the energy produced in the European Union and are responsible for a similar share of emissions. Local authorities are also in a position to change citizens' behaviour and address climate and energy questions in a comprehensive manner, notably by conciliating public and private interests and by integrating sustainable energy issues into overall local development goals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formal undertakings.", "content": "To meet the reduction targets they set themselves, signatories commit to a series of steps and accept to report and be monitored on their actions. Within predefined time frames, they formally undertake to fulfil the following:  To comply with the crucial necessity of mobilising local stakeholders in the development of the Sustainable Energy Action Plans, signatories also undertake to:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sustainable Energy Action Plans.", "content": "To reach and try to exceed the European Union energy and climate objectives, Covenant of Mayors signatories commit to develop a Sustainable Energy Action Plan (SEAP), within a year following their adhesion to the initiative. This action plan, approved by the municipal council, outlines the activities and measures foreseen by signatories to fulfil their commitments, with corresponding time frames and assigned responsibilities.  Various technical and methodological supporting materials (including the \"SEAP Guidebook\" and template, reports on existing methodologies and tools, etc.) offer practical guidance and clear recommendations on the whole SEAP development process. Based on the practical experiences of local authorities and developed in close co-operation with the European Commission Joint Research Centre, this support package provides Covenant signatories with key principles and a clear step-by-step approach. All documents are downloadable on the www.eumayors.eu website library.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coordination and support.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Covenant Coordinators and Supporters.", "content": "Covenant Signatories do not always possess the adequate tools and resources to prepare a Baseline Emission Inventory, draft the related Sustainable Energy Action Plan and finance the actions featured in the latter. In light of this, provinces, regions, networks and groupings of municipalities have a crucial role to play in helping signatories honour their commitments.  Covenant Coordinators are public authorities from different government levels (national, regional, provincial) which provide strategic guidance to signatories, as well as financial and technical support in the development and implementation of their Sustainable Energy Action Plans. The Commission distinguishes between \"Territorial Coordinators\", which are sub-national decentralised authorities – including provinces, regions and public groupings of municipalities -, and \"National Coordinators\", which include national public bodies – such as national energy agencies and ministries of energy.  Covenant Supporters are European, national and regional networks and associations of local authorities which leverage their lobbying, communication and networking activities to promote the Covenant of Mayors initiative and support the commitments of its signatories.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Covenant of Mayors Office.", "content": "Promotional, technical and administrative assistance is provided on a daily basis to Covenant signatories and stakeholders by the Covenant of Mayors Office (CoMO), managed by a consortium of local and regional authorities' networks, led by Energy Cities and composed of CEMR, Climate Alliance, Eurocities and FEDARENE. Funded by the European Commission, the CoMO is responsible for the overall co-ordination of the initiative.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Institutions of the European Union.", "content": "To support the elaboration and implementation the signatories' Sustainable Energy Action Plans, the European Commission has contributed to the development of financial facilities particularly targeting Covenant of Mayors signatories, among which the European Local Energy Assistance (ELENA) facility, set up in co-operation with the European Investment Bank, for large-scale projects, and ELENA-KfW which, established in partnership with the German Group KfW, offers a complementary approach to mobilise sustainable investments of small and medium-sized municipalities.  Alongside the European Commission, the Covenant benefits from full institutional support, including from the Committee of the Regions, which has supported the initiative since its inception; the European Parliament, where the two first signing ceremonies were held; and the European Investment Bank, which assists local authorities in unlocking their investment potentials.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Joint Research Centre.", "content": "The Joint Research Centre of the European Commission is responsible for providing technical and scientific support to the initiative. It works in close collaboration with the Covenant of Mayors Office to equip signatories with clear technical guidelines and templates to assist delivery of their Covenant of Mayors commitments, as well as to monitor implementation and results.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Covenant of Mayors is a European co-operation movement involving local and regional authorities. Signatories of the Covenant of Mayors voluntarily commit to increasing energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy sources on their territories. By their commitment, they support the European Union 20% reduction objective to be reached by 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976957}
{"src_title": "Exposition Universelle (1867)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Conception.", "content": "In 1864, Napoleon III decreed that an international exposition should be held in Paris in 1867. A commission was appointed with Prince Jerome Napoleon as president, under whose direction the preliminary work began. The site chosen for the Exposition Universelle of 1867 was the Champ de Mars, the great military parade ground of Paris, which covered an area of 119 acres (48 ha) and to which was added the island of Billancourt, of 52 acres (21 ha). The principal building was rectangular in shape with rounded ends, having a length of 1608 feet (490 m) and a width of 1247 feet (380 m), and in the center was a pavilion surmounted by a dome and surrounded by a garden, 545 feet (166 m) long and 184 feet (56 m) wide, with a gallery built completely around it. In addition to the main building, there were nearly 100 smaller buildings on the grounds. Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, Ernest Renan, and Theophile Gautier all wrote publications to promote the event.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibits.", "content": "There were 50,226 exhibitors, of whom 15,055 were from France and her colonies, 6176 from Great Britain and Ireland, 703 from the United States and a small contingent from Canada. The funds for the construction and maintenance of the exposition consisted of grants of $1,165,020 from the French government, a like amount from the city of Paris, and about $2,000,000 from public subscription, making a total of $5,883,400; while the receipts were estimated to have been but $2,822,900, thus leaving a deficit, which, however, was offset by the subscriptions from the government and the city of Paris, so that the final report was made to show a gain.  In the \"gallery of Labour History\" Jacques Boucher de Perthes, exposes one of the first prehistoric tools whose authenticity has been recognized with the accuracy of these theories.  The exhibition also included two prototypes of the much acclaimed and prize-winning hydrochronometer invented in 1867 by Gian Battista Embriaco, O.P. (Ceriana 1829 - Rome 1903), professor at the College of St. Thomas in Rome.  Among the horological exhibits, stood out a monumental model, an elaborate conical pendulum clock crafted by two of France's most important artisans of the second half of the 19th century—renowned clockmaker E. Farcot and sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Be Belleuse. Farcot exhibited several units, one of them it is currently in the Roosevelt Hotel in New Orleans. Its base, which features the clock's face and inner mechanical movements, is carved from solid onyx marble. Atop the base, a bronze sculpture depicting a robed female figure holds a scepter. Rotating soundlessly from the female subject's hand, the scepter provides consistent motion that adds to the clock's sense of grandeur and mystery. From its base to the top of the bronze figure stands at nearly 10 feet tall. Farcot, the most well-known of the French conical clock-makers, established himself in 1860 and mastered his craft over a period of 30 years, helping to popularize the unique pendulum escapement, the mechanism which controls the motion of the inner wheels. Carrier de Belleuse was one of the most important and renowned sculptors of the 19th century, as well as the teacher of Auguste Rodin. In 1857, his bronze sculptures grabbed the attention of Napoleon III, and he was commissioned for several important national works, including his most famous piece, Torchere, which still flanks the staircase of the Paris Opera House.  One of the Egyptian exhibits was designed by Auguste Mariette, and featured ancient Egyptian monuments. The Suez Canal Company had an exhibit within the Egyptian exhibits, which it used to sell bonds for funding.  The German manufacturer Krupp displayed a 50-ton cannon made of steel.  Americans displayed their latest telegraph technology and both Cyrus Field and Samuel Morse provided speeches.  The exposition was formally opened on 1 April and closed on 31 October 1867, and was visited by 9,238,967 persons, including exhibitors and employees. This exposition was the greatest up to its time of all international expositions, both with respect to its extent and to the scope of its plan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "For the first time Japan presented art pieces to the world in a national pavilion, especially pieces from the Satsuma and Saga clans in Kyushu. Vincent van Gogh and other artists of the post-impressionism movement of the late 19th century were part of the European art craze inspired by the displays seen here, and wrote often of the Japanese woodcut prints \"that one sees everywhere, landscapes and figures.\" Not only was Van Gogh a collector of the new art brought to Europe from a newly opened Japan, but many other French artists from the late 19th century were also influenced by the Japanese artistic world-view, to develop into Japonism.  The Paris street near Champs de Mars, Rue de L'Exposition was named in hommage to this 1867 universal exhibition.  Jules Verne visited the exhibition in 1867, his take on the newly publicized discovery of electricity inspiring him heavily in his writing of \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea\".  A famous revival of the ballet \"Le Corsaire\" was staged by the Ballet Master Joseph Mazilier in honor of the exhibition at the Théâtre Impérial de l ́Opéra on 21 October 1867.  The World Rowing Championships were held on the Seine River in July and was won by the underdog Canadian team from Saint John, New Brunswick which was quickly dubbed by the media as \"The Paris Crew\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The International Exposition of 1867 (), was the second world's fair to be held in Paris, from 1 April to 3 November 1867. A number of nations were represented at the fair. Following a decree of Emperor Napoleon III, the exposition was prepared as early as 1864, in the midst of the renovation of Paris, marking the culmination of the Second French Empire. Visitors included Tsar Alexander II of Russia, a brother of the emperor of Japan, King William and Otto von Bismarck of Prussia, Prince Metternich and Franz Josef of Austria, Ottoman Sultan Abdülaziz, and the Khedive of Egypt Isma'il.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976958}
{"src_title": "Strabismus surgery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Types.", "content": "Strabismus surgery is a one-day procedure. The patient spends only a few hours in the hospital with minimal preoperative preparation. The average duration of the surgery is variable. After surgery, the patient should expect soreness and redness. In cases of re-operations, more pain is expected. Resection of the muscles is more painful in the post operative period than recession. It also leaves redness that lasts longer and may cause some vomiting in the early post operative period.  The surgeon will provide the patient with a cover for his or her eyes that prevents light from entering. It is advisable for the patient to wear this, since stimulus to the eye (\"e.g.,\" light, rolling of eyes) will cause discomfort.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Outcomes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alignment and functional changes.", "content": "Over- and undercorrection: Surgical intervention can result in the eyes being entirely aligned (orthophoria) or nearly so, or it can result in an over- or undercorrection that may necessitate further treatment or another surgical intervention. The likelihood that the eyes will stay aligned over the longer term is higher if the patient is able to achieve some degree of binocular fusion after surgery than if not. In a study on infantile esotropia patients who had either small-angle (8 diopters) esotropia or small-angle exotropia of the same size six months after the intervention, it was found that those who had the small-angle esotropia were more likely to have aligned eyes five years after the intervention than those with small-angle exotropia. There is tentative evidence that children with infantile esotropia patients achieve better binocular vision post-operatively if the surgical treatment is performed early (\"see:\" Infantile esotropia#Surgery).  Other deviations: Strabismus surgery for oblique muscle disorders may result in consecutive misalignment of the eyes. First of all, dissociated vertical deviation may occur. There are indications that the severity of this deviation may be lower if a child is operated at a very young age. Secondly, strabismus surgery may also result in subjective and objective cyclodeviation, possibly resulting in cyclotropia and rotational double vision (cyclodiplopia) if the visual system cannot compensate for it.  For pure horizontal rectus muscle surgeries, it is known that vertical deviations, A and V patterns and cyclotropia can be anticipated or avoided by taking certain surgical precautions.  Functional considerations: A frequent outcome of strabismus surgery is consecutive microtropia (also known as monofixation syndrome).  Functional improvements and further benefits: For a long time it was thought that adult patients with long-standing strabismus could achieve only cosmetic improvement; in recent years there have been cases in which sensory fusion has occurred also in this type of patients provided that postoperative motor alignment is very high. In case of pre-operative inward squint the correction expands the binocular visual field of the patient, improving peripheral vision. Furthermore, the restoration of ocular alignment can bring about psychosocial and economic benefits to the patient (see also: Psychosocial effects of strabismus).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complications.", "content": "Diplopia occurs rather frequently in the first few weeks following surgery.  Complications that occur rarely or very rarely following surgery include: eye infection, hemorrhage in case of scleral perforation, muscle slip or detachment, or even loss of vision.  Eye muscle surgery gives rises to scarring (fibrosis); if scarring is extensive, it may be seen as raised and red tissue on the white of the eye. Fibrosis can be reduced by use of mitomycin C during surgery.  A relatively new method, primarily devised by Swiss ophthalmologist Daniel Mojon, is minimally invasive strabismus surgery (MISS)which has the potential to reduce the risk of complications and lead to faster visual rehabilitation and wound healing. Done under the operating microscope, the incisions into the conjunctiva are much smaller than in conventional strabismus surgery. A study published in 2017 documented fewer conjunctival and eyelid swelling complications in the immediate postoperative period after MISS with long-term results being similar between both groups. MISS can be used to perform all types of strabismus surgery, namely rectus muscle recessions, resections, transpositions, and plications even in the presence of limited motility.  Very rarely, potentially life-threatening complications may occur during strabismus surgery due to the oculocardiac reflex.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Strabismus surgery (also: \"extraocular muscle surgery\", \"eye muscle surgery\", or \"eye alignment surgery\") is surgery on the extraocular muscles to correct strabismus, the misalignment of the eyes. With approximately 1.2 million procedures each year, extraocular muscle surgery is the third most common eye surgery in the United States. The earliest successful strabismus surgery intervention is known to have been performed on 26 October 1839 by Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach on a 7-year-old esotropic child; a few earlier attempts had been performed in 1818 by William Gibson of Baltimore, a general surgeon and professor at the University of Maryland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976959}
{"src_title": "Grading in education", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Yale University historian George W. Pierson writes: \"According to tradition the first grades issued at Yale (and possibly the first in the country) were given out in the year 1785, when President Ezra Stiles, after examining 58 Seniors, recorded in his diary that there were 'Twenty \"Optimi\", sixteen second \"Optimi\", twelve \"Inferiores\" (\"Boni\"), ten \"Pejores\".'\" Bob Marlin argues that the concept of grading students' work quantitatively was developed by a tutor named William Farish and first implemented by the University of Cambridge in 1792. That assertion has been questioned by Christopher Stray, who finds the evidence for Farish as the inventor of the numerical mark to be unpersuasive. Stray's article also explains the complex relationship between the mode of examination (oral or written) and the varying philosophies of education these modes imply to both the teacher and the student. As a technology, grading both shapes and reflects many fundamental areas of educational theory and practice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grading systems by country.", "content": "Most nations have their own grading system, and different institutions in a single nation can vary in their grading systems as well. However, several international standards for grading have arisen recently, such as the European Baccalaureate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "England and Wales.", "content": "In the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) exam taken by secondary school students in England and Wales, grades generally range from 9 (highest) to 1 (lowest). These replaced earlier A, B, C... grading. However, in GCSE Science, Mathematics Statistics, and any Modern Foreign Language, there are two tiers (higher and foundation). In the higher tier, grades 9 to 4 can be achieved, while in the foundation tier, only grades 5 to 1 can be awarded. The new 9–1 qualifications saw some more subjects such as English language and English literature go 'tierless,’ with the same paper covering all levels of demand. Generally, a 4 or above would be considered a pass and a 3 or below would be considered a fail by most institutions: for Mathematics and English Language and English Literature, and possibly Science, this would require a resit.  If a candidate does not score highly enough to get a grade 1, their results slip will have the letter U for \"ungraded\", meaning no grade was secured. Other letters such as X also exist in special circumstances.  In Wales, the grading is still from A* (highest) to G (lowest) with U a fail.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "Most colleges and universities in the United States award a letter grade A (best), B, C, D, or F (fail) for each class taken (potentially with + or - modifiers). These letter grades are then used to calculate a GPA from 0 to 4.0 using a formula, where 4.0 is the best. The average GPA is 3.3 at private institutions and 3.0 at public institutions.  Various colleges, such as Evergreen State College and Hampshire College, do not use traditional grades. Brown University, an Ivy League school, does not calculate grade point averages, and all classes can be taken on a pass/fail basis. Additionally, several high schools have decided to forgo grades. A notable example is Saint Ann's School in Brooklyn, which was ranked by the Wall Street Journal as the number one high school in the country for having the highest percentage of graduating seniors enroll in Ivy League and several other highly selective colleges.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "GPA in the United States job market.", "content": "According to a study published in 2014, a one-point increase in high-school GPA translated to an 11.85% increase in annual earnings for men and 13.77% for women in the United States.  College students often wonder how much weight GPA carries in their employment prospects. In many fields, work experience (such as internships) gained during one's time in college are the most important factors that employers consider. Other factors include choice of major, volunteering, choice of extracurricular activities, relevance of coursework, GPA, and the reputation of one's college. The relative importance of these factors do vary between professions, but for a graduate's first job out of college, GPA is often quite high on the list of factors that employers consider. There is also criticism about using grades as an indicator in employment. Armstrong (2012) claimed that the relationship between grades and job performance is low and becoming lower in recent studies. Grade inflation at American colleges over recent decades has also played a role in the devaluation of grades.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "India.", "content": "Different educational boards use different metrics in awarding grades to students, along with the marks obtained in most cases. The Indian education system does follow a CGPA grading scale, however, it is different from the international GPA scale used by schools abroad, like in the US, Canada, and Australia. International students from schools who follow a different CGPA grading scale may be confused when they switch to a new system such as Percentage. Students can easily convert CGPA to Percentage by multiplying CGPA with 9.5", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nepal.", "content": "In Nepal, grading systems are of two types. In SEE Board, the grade point is calculated on the basis of range of marks obtained by students. For instance; Two students who score 86 and 89 respectively out of 100 full marks, then they are both included under A grade. While in NEB (National Examination Board), the grade points are awarded according to the actual marks obtained by the student but not according to range. For calculating GPA, the average of ranges of marks obtained is taken in SEE while, only average of marks is taken in NEB. This process is irreversible in case of SEE if someone wants to convert GPA to Percentage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CBSE.", "content": "The national CBSE uses \"positional\" grades to indicate a student's position with respect to the rest of their peers in that subject, and hence the cutoffs required to obtain a grade will differ with year and subject; however, the percentage of students receiving them will roughly be the same.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Grading in education is the process of applying standardized measurements of varying levels of achievement in a course. Grades can be assigned as letters (for example, A through F), as a range (for example, 1 to 6), as a percentage, or as a number out of a possible total (for example, out of 20).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976960}
{"src_title": "Blackbird (Beatles song)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "McCartney explained on \"Chaos and Creation at Abbey Road\", aired in 2005, that the guitar accompaniment for \"Blackbird\" was inspired by Johann Sebastian Bach's \"Bourrée in E minor\", a well-known lute piece, often played on the classical guitar. As teenagers, he and George Harrison tried to learn \"Bourrée\" as a \"show off\" piece. The \"Bourrée\" is distinguished by melody and bass notes played simultaneously on the upper and lower strings. McCartney adapted a segment of the \"Bourrée\" (reharmonised into the original's relative major key of G) as the opening of \"Blackbird\", and carried the musical idea throughout the song.  The first night his future wife Linda Eastman stayed at his home, McCartney played \"Blackbird\" for the fans camped outside his house. The fingerpicking technique that McCartney uses in the song was taught to him by folk singer Donovan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Meaning and interpretation.", "content": "Since composing \"Blackbird\" in 1968, McCartney has given various statements regarding both his inspiration for the song and its meaning. In one of these scenarios, he has said he was inspired by hearing the call of a blackbird one morning when the Beatles were studying Transcendental Meditation in Rishikesh, India. In another, he recalls writing it in Scotland as a response to racial tensions escalating in the United States during the spring of 1968.  In May 2002, following a show in Dallas, Texas, McCartney discussed the song with KCRW DJ Chris Douridas, saying:  I had been doing some [poetry readings] in the last year or so because I've got a poetry book out called \"Blackbird Singing\", and when I would read \"Blackbird\", I would always try and think of some explanation to tell the people... So, I was doing explanations, and I actually just remembered why I'd written \"Blackbird\", you know, that I'd been, I was in Scotland playing on my guitar, and I remembered this whole idea of \"you were only waiting for this moment to arise\" was about, you know, the black people's struggle in the southern states, and I was using the symbolism of a blackbird. It's not really about a blackbird whose wings are broken, you know, it's a bit more symbolic.  In 2018, McCartney further elaborated on the song's meaning, explaining that \"blackbird\" should be interpreted as \"black girl\", in the context of the civil rights troubles in southern 1960s US.  A third scenario came from the recollection of his stepmother, Angie McCartney. She said that McCartney wrote it for her elderly mother, Edith Stopforth, who was staying at Jim McCartney's house while recovering from a long illness. Angie recalled that McCartney visited the house and sat at Edith's bedside, where Edith told him that she would listen to a bird singing at night.  The lyrics have invited similarly varied interpretations – as a nature song, a message in support of the Black Power movement, or a love song. Writing in the 1990s, Ian MacDonald dismissed the idea that \"Blackbird\" was intended as \"a metaphor for the black civil rights struggle\". Noting instead the composition's romantic qualities, MacDonald said that the early-morning bird song \"translates... into a succinct metaphor for awakening on a deeper level\". However, during an informal rehearsal at EMI Studios on 22 November 1968, before he and Donovan took part in a Mary Hopkin recording session, McCartney played \"Blackbird\", telling Donovan that he wrote it after having \"read something in the paper about the riots\" and that he meant the black \"bird\" to symbolise a black woman.  Along with McCartney's \"Helter Skelter\", \"Blackbird\" was one of several White Album songs that Charles Manson interpreted as the Beatles' prophecy of an apocalyptic race war that would lead to him and his \"Family\" of followers ruling the US on countercultural principles. Manson interpreted the lyrics' repetition of the word \"rise\" as a call to black Americans to wage war on their white counterparts, and instructed his followers to commit a series of murders in Los Angeles in August 1969 to trigger such a conflict.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition and recording.", "content": "The song was recorded on 11 June 1968 at EMI's Abbey Road Studios in London, with George Martin as the producer and Geoff Emerick as the audio engineer. It is a solo performance with McCartney playing a Martin D 28 acoustic guitar. The track includes recordings of a male Common blackbird singing in the background.  Only three sounds were recorded: McCartney's voice, his Martin D-28 acoustic guitar, and a tapping that keeps time on the left channel. This tapping \"has been incorrectly identified as a metronome in the past\", according to engineer Geoff Emerick, who says it is actually the sound of Paul tapping his foot. McCartney also said the same in The Beatles' \"Anthology\" documentary. Emerick recalls as being mic'd up separately. Footage included in the bonus content on disc two of the 2009 remaster of the album shows McCartney tapping both his feet alternately while performing the song.  The mono version contains bird sounds different from the stereo recording, and was originally issued on a mono incarnation of \"The Beatles\" (it has since been issued worldwide as part of \"The Beatles in Mono\" CD box set). The song appears on \"Love\" with \"Yesterday\", billed as \"Blackbird/Yesterday\". \"Blackbird\" provides an introduction to \"Yesterday\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Live performances.", "content": "In 1973, McCartney included the song, along with the Beatles track \"Michelle\", as part of his acoustic medley in the television special \"James Paul McCartney\". Starting with his 1975–76 world tour with the band Wings, McCartney has performed \"Blackbird\" on every one of his concert tours. A solo performance of the song, followed by \"Yesterday\", appears on Wings' 1976 live album \"Wings Over America\".  McCartney also included \"Blackbird\" in his set at the Party at the Palace concert in June 2002. In 2009, McCartney performed the song at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, commenting prior to singing it on how it had been written in response to the Civil Rights Movement, and added, \"It's so great to realise so many civil rights issues have been overcome.\"  A live version appears in the multi-CD collection \"Good Evening New York City\", which was released in 2009 and recorded inside the American stadium Citi Field.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Coinciding with the 50th anniversary of its release, Jacob Stolworthy of \"The Independent\" listed \"Blackbird\" at number five in his ranking of the White Album's 30 tracks. He said that its \"beautiful calmness\" was at odds with the growing racial tensions that allegedly inspired the song, and concluded: \"For many, it's the apotheosis of McCartney's career and remains a standout in his solo live shows.\" Although the 1985 Mr. Mister song, \"Broken Wings\" contains an identical lyric, \"Take these broken wings and learn to fly\", Mr. Mister member Richard Page has described this as \"a mindless unintentional reference\" attributable to songwriter John Lang being inspired by the Kahlil Gibran book, \"The Broken Wing\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cover versions.", "content": "According to music journalist John Elmes of \"The Independent\", \"Blackbird\" was one of the top ten most recorded songs of all time up to December 2008. Among the most notable examples are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Blackbird\" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1968 double album \"The Beatles\" (also known as \"the White Album\"). It was written by Paul McCartney and credited to Lennon–McCartney, and performed as a solo piece by McCartney. When discussing the song, McCartney has said that the lyrics were inspired by hearing the call of a blackbird in Rishikesh, India, and alternatively by the unfortunate state of race relations in the United States in the 1960s.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976961}
{"src_title": "Snake River Plain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geology.", "content": "The Snake River Plain can be divided into three sections: western, central, and eastern. The western Snake River Plain is a large tectonic graben or rift valley filled with several kilometers of lacustrine (lake) sediments; the sediments are underlain by rhyolite and basalt, and overlain by basalt. The western plain began to form around 11–12 Ma with the eruption of rhyolite lavas and ignimbrites. The western plain is not parallel to North American Plate motion and lies at a high angle to the central and eastern Snake River Plains. Its morphology is similar to other volcanic plateaus such as the Chilcotin Group in south-central British Columbia, Canada.  The eastern Snake River Plain traces the path of the North American Plate over the Yellowstone hotspot, now centered in Yellowstone National Park. The eastern plain is a topographic depression that cuts across Basin and Range mountain structures, more or less parallel to North American Plate motion. It is underlain almost entirely by basalt erupted from large shield volcanoes. Beneath the basalts are rhyolite lavas and ignimbrites that erupted as the lithosphere passed over the hotspot.  The central Snake River plain is similar to the eastern plain but differs by having thick sections of interbedded lacustrine (lake) and fluvial (stream) sediments, including the Hagerman fossil beds.  Island Park and Yellowstone Calderas formed as the result of enormous rhyolite ignimbrite eruptions, with single eruptions producing up to of ash. Henry's Fork Caldera, measuring by, may be the largest symmetrical caldera in the world. The caldera formed when a dome of magma built up and then drained away. The center of the dome collapsed, leaving a caldera. Henry's Fork Caldera lies within the older and larger Island Park Caldera, which is by. Younger volcanoes that erupted after passing over the hotspot covered the plain with young basalt lava flows in places, including Craters of the Moon National Monument.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effects on climate.", "content": "The Snake River Plain has a significant effect on the climate of Yellowstone National Park and the adjacent areas to the south and west of Yellowstone. Over time, the Yellowstone hotspot left a wide channel through the Rocky Mountains. This channel is in line with the gap between the Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada. The result is a moisture channel extending from the Pacific Ocean to Yellowstone. Moisture from the Pacific Ocean streams onshore in the form of clouds and humid air. It passes through the gap between the Sierra and Cascades and into the Snake River Plain where it is channeled through most of the Rocky Mountains with no high plateaus or mountain ranges to impede its progress. It finally encounters upslope conditions at the head of the Snake River Valley at Ashton, Idaho; at Island Park, Idaho; at the Teton Range east of Driggs, Idaho; and at the Yellowstone Plateau of Yellowstone National Park where the channeled moisture precipitates out as rain and snow. The result is a localized climate on the eastern side of the Rockies that is akin to a climate on the west slope of the Cascades or the northern Sierras. The head of the Snake River Valley, the Tetons, and the Yellowstone Plateau receive much more precipitation than other areas of the region, and the area is known for being wet, green, having many streams, and having abundant snow in winter.  Although the topography of the Plain has largely gone unchanged for several million years, this region's climate has not been so constant. Current climatic conditions began to characterize the region in the early Pleistocene (approximately 2.5 million years ago). However, the arid climate of today was born from the gradual dissipation of a climate defined by greater moisture and narrower ranges of annual temperatures.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Snake River Plain is a geologic feature located primarily within the U.S. state of Idaho. It stretches about westward from northwest of the state of Wyoming to the Idaho-Oregon border. The plain is a wide, flat bow-shaped depression and covers about a quarter of Idaho. Three major volcanic buttes dot the plain east of Arco, the largest being Big Southern Butte.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976962}
{"src_title": "Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe-Lauenburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Anna Maria Franziska was born on 13 June 1673. She was the second child of the reigning duke of Saxe-Lauenburg and Maria Hedwig of Sulzbach, who died when Anna Maria was nine years-old.  With the death of her father Duke Julius Francis on 30 September 1689 the Lauenburg line of the House of Ascania was extinct in the male line. However, female succession was possible by the Saxe-Lauenburgian laws. So the legal female heir to the throne, Duchess Anna Maria Franziska, and her sister Sibylle of Saxe-Lauenburg fought for the succession of the former, the elder of them. Also Julius Francis' cousin, Eleonore Charlotte of Saxe-Lauenburg-Franzhagen, claimed the succession. Their weakness was abused by Duke George William of the neighbouring Brunswick-Lunenburgian Principality of Lunenburg-Celle, who invaded Saxe-Lauenburg with his troops, thus inhibiting Anna Maria's ascension as Duchess regnant.  Also other monarchies claimed the succession, evoking a conflict further involving the neighbouring duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and of Danish Holstein, as well as the five Ascanian-ruled Principalities of Anhalt, the Electorate of Saxony, which had succeeded the Saxe-Wittenbergian Ascanians in 1422, Sweden and Brandenburg. The conflict was finally settled on 9 October 1693 (\"Hamburger Vergleich\"), definitely ousting the dispossessed Anna Maria and her sister. Both sisters never gave up the claim.  Emperor Leopold I rejected Celle's succession and thus retained the Saxe-Lauenburgian exclave of Hadeln, which was out of Celle's reach, in his custody. Only in 1728 his son Emperor Charles VI enfeoffed George II of Great Britain with Saxe-Lauenburg, finally legitimising the de facto takeover by his grandfather in 1689 and 1693. In 1731 George II also gained Hadeln from imperial custody.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First marriage.", "content": "Anna Maria married Philipp Willhelm August of the Palatinate-Neuburg. The wedding took place in Bohemia, at the castle of Roudnice (Raudnitz) on 29 October 1690. He was the eighth son of Philip William, Elector Palatine. They had two children together, one survived to adulthood:  Philipp Wilhelm died on 5 April 1693.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "Cosimo III de' Medici coaxed his son into marrying Anna Maria Franziska for dynastic purposes, she was very wealthy, and brought a possible claim to the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg through her father. The Medici family need an heir, Gian Gastone's brother, Ferdinando, had not produced a child. They were married on 2 July 1697 by the Bishop of Osnabruck at Düsseldorf but they lived in the Kingdom of Bohemia, at chateaux of Ploskovice (Ploschkowitz) and Zákupy (Reichstadt).  The new Princess of Tuscany had sprawling estates in the region. At the time of their marriage, contemporaries described the princess as \"appalling and immensely fat\". Anna Maria Franziska dominated her weak husband, which drove him into the arms of alcohol. He deplored her behaviour, \"capriciousness, peevish faces and sharp words\". Gian Gastone stayed with his wife for a mere ten months, before fleeing to Prague. The princess refused to leave Reichstadt, despite her husband's constant protestations. She believed that the Medici were in the habit of murdering their consorts.  The Grand Duke attempted to force his daughter-in-law to move back to Tuscany with Gian Gastone. He asked the Pope, Clement XI, to send the Archbishop of Prague to reproach her, and convince her to fulfil her wifely obligations. She replied that there was no point because Gian Gastone was \"absolutely impotent\". He left without her in 1708. Ferdinando, the heir to the collapsing grand duchy, died in 1713. Therefore, she became the Grand Princess of Tuscany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Gian Gastone became Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1723, and, she, the Grand Duchess. Her husband continued to live in Florence, Tuscany's capital, and never saw his wife again. Gian Gastone lived a frivolous life there, staying up all night and waking up in the afternoon. As Grand Duchess, Anna Maria Franziska kept to her life of solitude at her castle, where she talked to the horses in the stables. Gian Gastone died in 1737. As the Medici had no male heir, Francis Stephen of Lorraine (later Holy Roman Emperor) ascended the grand ducal throne. She died in 1741.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe-Lauenburg (13 June 1672 – 15 October 1741) was the legal Duchess of Saxe-Lauenburg in the eyes of the Holy Roman Emperor, the overlord of Saxe-Lauenburg, from 1689 until 1728; however, because her distant cousin George William, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, conquered the duchy by force in 1689, she exercised no control over the territory, instead living in her manors in Bohemia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976963}
{"src_title": "Le violoneux", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "The triumphant premiere was at the Théâtre des Bouffes Parisiens in the Champs-Elysées, Paris, on 31 August 1855, making a star of Schneider in her first role for Offenbach, to whom she had been introduced by Berthelier (with whom she was having an affair).  \"Le violoneux\" was part of a command performance given in April 1860 for the Emperor at the Théâtre-Italien, along with \"Orphée aux enfers\" and \"Le musicien de l’avenir\". Offenbach went to Vienna in 1861 to conduct performances of \"Le mariage aux lanternes\" and \"Le violoneux\" at the Theater am Franz-Josefs-Kai.  H. B. Farnie adapted the opera into English as \"Breaking the Spell\", which premiered at the Lyceum Theatre, London on 2 May 1870 and was revived in London in 1891 and 1904. It was played on tour for five months in 1878 by the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company as a curtain raiser to \"The Sorcerer\" by Gilbert and Sullivan.  The Opéra-Comique in Paris staged the work in 1901 with Jeanne Tiphaine as Reinette, Lucien Fugère as Père Mathieu and Ernest Carbonne as Pierre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "The scene is a village square in Brittany.  Reinette asks Père Mathieu to help Pierre who is terrified as he has been conscripted in the army and can only get out of it if he pays 2,000 francs. His uncle has refused to help him with the money and sent him packing. Pierre is not happy when his sweetheart Reinette suggests approaching Mathieu, the village fiddler for he believes him to be a magician. Père Mathieu inherited the violin from his father along with the mysterious command to break the instrument in pieces if ever Mathieu is in an emergency, which he has yet to do. When Mathieu plays a song he bewitches Pierre; who when it is over runs off. Alone with Mathieu, Rienette threatens to run after Pierre and become a cantinière.  Alone, Reinette embraces the old fiddle – the livelihood of her guardian. Pierre catches her doing this and angrily smashes the instrument. Among the broken pieces, it reveals its mystery: a letter, from Reinette’s father stating that Mathieu is the rightful owner of the castle of Kerdrel. Matthieu offers the money for Pierre to avoid conscription and marry Reinette and tears up the letter. Pierre offers to repair the violin, and Matthieu says he will remain a poor fiddler.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Le violoneux is a one-act operetta (« légende bretonne » - Breton legend) by Jacques Offenbach to a French libretto by Eugène Mestépès and Émile Chevalet, first performed in 1855.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976964}
{"src_title": "Cronartium ribicola", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Hosts and symptoms.", "content": "As is common among rusts, the life cycle of \"Cronartium ribicola\" includes two host species and goes through five spore stages, this is termed heteroecious. In the specific case of \"Cronartium ribicola\", the aecial host of this pathogen is the white pine (\"Pinus\" subgenus \"Strobus\", family Pinaceae) and the telial hosts are those of the genus \"Ribes\", specifically currants and gooseberries. Species of both telial and aecial hosts have varying levels of resistance or immunity to infection.  On the aecial host, the first signs of \"C. ribicola\" are yellow or red spots on the \"Pinus\" needles, but these are small and can be difficult to see; more visible symptoms on the aecial host includes perennial cankers which appear on the branches within two years of infection. Looking at the infected plant as a whole, the \"Pinus\" will appear chlorotic, and stunted with dead branches or tops that turn a bright red color.  On the other hand, the telial host, \"Ribes,\" can contract yellowish chlorotic leaf spots, but is otherwise not significantly impacted. The signs of \"C. ribicola\" on \"Ribes\", come in the form of the pathogen itself as orange pustules on the underside of the leaf.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environment.", "content": "Environmentally, \"Cronartium ribicola\" prefers cooler temperatures coupled with moist conditions in low-lying areas, especially during the late summer and early fall. The low temperatures and humidity are an essential part of the pathogen's spore germination and dispersal requirements. The combination of cooler temperatures and a high humidity create an environment at which dew can easily form. The free water helps loosen spores adhered to a leaf’s surface and promotes spore germination.  At a microclimate scale, lower trees hidden below the canopy exist in a lower temperature and moister environment, and as a result, these young trees are more susceptible to \"C. ribicola\" than the older, taller trees that create the canopy, which consequently have more access to the warm, dry sun. This collection of environmental characteristics are common in the Northern Hemisphere, causing many areas in the United States to be labeled at hazard zones for the genus \"Pinus\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disease management.", "content": "Historically, tactics such as alternate host removal and planting restrictions in hazard zones, as well as quarantines made legal by the 1912 Plant Quarantine Act. Removal of \"Ribes\" used to be practiced in full force, which heavily affected blackcurrant production in the United States, however through a combination of the pathogen’s hardiness and ability to travel airborne for nine hundred feet, as well as the \"Ribes\" ability to regrow from an extremely small root portion, researchers have focused their efforts on creating new cultural practices to lower the abundance of \"C. ribicola\". Since then researchers have come up with multiple new methods to curb the spread of the infection.  For example, careful topological selection of plot sites for the white pine would greatly reduce the germination of spores. These plots would include land with characteristics such as well-drained soil such as that on a high-sloped area, spots that are well aerated, and face the south for dryness and warmth. This would remove the wet, damp environment that is crucial for the germination of the spores on the \"Pinus\".  Once plantation spots have been chosen, pruning and inspection practices have been adapted as a monitored cultural practice. Inspections for blister rusts begin in May about six years after the trees are planted. This time period is when obvious symptoms of \"C. ribicola\" begin to appear, such as red needles. Infected branches will be pruned to a certain height that is dependent on a rate of infection determined by researchers; generally pruning is required for \"Pinus\" trees up to anywhere between nine and eighteen feet. Pathological pruning, in which all lower branches are pruned regardless of signs or symptoms of infection, may reduce disease instance in white pine tree stands.  Furthermore, genetic hybridization testing has been conducted for more than half a century in order to find resistance among strains of the species, and have since successfully introduced resistance into the eastern white pine", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cronartium ribicola is a species of rust fungus in the family Cronartiaceae that causes the disease white pine blister rust. Other names include: (French), (German), (Spanish).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976965}
{"src_title": "Link building", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Link types.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Editorial link.", "content": "Editorial links are the links not acquired from paying money, asking, trading or exchanging. These links are attracted because of the good content and marketing strategies of a website. These are the links that the website owner does not need to ask for as they are naturally given by other website owners.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resource link.", "content": "Resource links are a category of links, which can be either one-way or two-way, usually referenced as \"Resources\" or \"Information\" in navbars, but sometimes, especially in the early, less compartmentalized years of the Web, simply called \"links\". Basically, they are hyperlinks to a website or a specific web page containing content believed to be beneficial, useful and relevant to visitors of the site establishing the link.  In recent years, resource links have grown in importance because most major search engines have made it plain that—in Google's words—\"quantity, quality, and relevance of links count towards your rating\".  Search engines measure a website’s value and relevance by analyzing the links to the site from other websites. The resulting “link popularity” is a measure of the number and quality of links to a website. It is an integral part of a website’s ranking in search engines. Search engines examine each of the links to a particular website to determine its value. Although every link to a website is a vote in its favor, not all votes are counted equally. A website with similar subject matter to the website receiving the inbound link carries more weight than an unrelated site, and a well-regarded website (such as a university) has higher link quality than an unknown or disreputable website.  The text of links helps search engines categorize a website. The engines' insistence on resource links being relevant and beneficial developed because many artificial link building methods were employed solely to spam search engines, i.e. to \"fool\" the engines' algorithms into awarding the sites employing these unethical devices undeservedly high page ranks and/or return positions.  Despite Google cautioning site developers to avoid \"'free-for-all' links, link popularity schemes, or submitting a site to thousands of search engines these are typically useless exercises that don't affect the ranking a site in the results of the major search engines\", most major engines have deployed technology designed to \"red flag\" and potentially penalize sites employing such practices.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Acquired link.", "content": "These are the links acquired by the website owner through payment or distribution. They are also known as organically obtained links. Such links include link advertisements, paid linking, article distribution, directory links and comments on forums, blogs, articles and other interactive forms of social media.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reciprocal link.", "content": "A reciprocal link is a mutual link between two objects, commonly between two websites, to ensure mutual traffic. For example, Alice and Bob have websites. If Bob's website links to Alice's website and Alice's website links to Bob's website, the websites are reciprocally linked. Website owners often submit their sites to reciprocal link exchange directories in order to achieve higher rankings in the search engines. Reciprocal linking between websites is no longer an important part of the search engine optimization process. In 2005, with their Jagger 2 update, Google stopped giving credit to reciprocal links as it does not indicate genuine link popularity.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Blog and forum comments.", "content": "User-generated content such as blog and forum comments with links can drive valuable referral traffic if it's well-thought-out and pertains to the discussion of the post on the blog. However, these links almost always contain the nofollow or the newer ugc attribute which signal that Google shouldn't take these into its ranking considerations.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Directory link.", "content": "Website directories are lists of links to websites which are sorted into categories. Website owners can submit their site to many of these directories. Some directories accept payment for listing in their directory while others are free.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Social bookmarking.", "content": "Social bookmarking is a way of saving and categorizing web pages in a public location on the web. Because bookmarks have anchor text and are shared and stored publicly, they are scanned by search engine crawlers and have search engine optimization value.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Image linking.", "content": "Image linking is a way of submitting images, such as infographics, to image directories and linking them back to a specific URL.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Guest blogging.", "content": "Also known as guest posting, is a popular SEO technique that consists of writing a piece of content for another website with the goal of getting more visibility and possibly link back to the author's website. According to Google, such links are considered unnatural and should be generally containing the nofollow attribute.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Black hat link building.", "content": "In early incarnations, when Google's algorithm relied on incoming links as an indicator of website success, Black Hat SEOs manipulated website rankings by creating link-building schemes, such as building subsidiary websites to send links to a primary website. With an abundance of incoming links, the prime website outranked many reputable sites. However, the conflicts of being devalued by major search engines while building links could be caused by web owners using other black hat strategies. Black hat link building refers explicitly to the process of acquiring as many links as possible with minimal effort.  The Penguin algorithm was created to eliminate this type of abuse. At the time, Google clarified its definition of a \"bad\" link: “Any links intended to manipulate a site’s ranking in Google search results may be considered part of a link scheme.”  With Penguin, it wasn't the quantity of links that improved your site but the \"quality.\" Since then\",\" Google's web spam team has attempted to prevent the manipulation of their search results through link building. Major brands including J.C. Penney, BMW, \"Forbes\", Overstock.com, and many others have received severe penalties to their search rankings for employing spammy and non-user friendly link building tactics.  In October 5, 2014 Google launched a new algorithm update Penguin 3.0 to penalize those sites who use black hat link building tactics to build unnatural links to manipulate search engines. The update affected 0.3% English Language queries all over the world.  Black hat SEO could also be referred to as Spamdexing, which utilizes other black SEO strategies and link building tactics. Some black hat link building strategies include getting unqualified links from and participating in Link farm, link schemes and Doorway page. Black Hat SEO could also refer to \"negative SEO,\" the practice of deliberately harming another website's performance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "White hat link building.", "content": "White hat link building strategies are those strategies that add value to end users, abide by Google's term of service and produce good results that could be sustained for a long time. White hat link building strategies focus on producing high-quality as well as relevant links to the website. Although more difficult to acquire, white hat link building tactics are widely implemented by website owners because such kind of strategies are not only beneficial to their websites' long-term developments but also good to the overall online environment.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the field of search engine optimization (SEO), link building describes actions aimed at increasing the number and quality of inbound links to a webpage with the goal of increasing the search engine rankings of that page or website. Briefly, link building is the process of establishing relevant hyperlinks (usually called links) to a website from external sites. Link building can increase the number of high-quality links pointing to a website, in turn increasing the likelihood of the website ranking highly in search engine results. Link building is also a proven marketing tactic for increasing brand awareness.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976966}
{"src_title": "Wing Chun", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Wing Chun favors a relatively high, narrow stance with the elbows close to the body. Within the stance, arms are generally positioned across the vitals of the centerline with hands in a vertical \"wu sau\" (\"protecting hand\" position). This style positions the practitioner to make readily placed blocks and fast-moving blows to vital striking points down the center of the body; neck, chest, belly and groin. Shifting or turning within a stance is done on the heels, balls, or middle (K1 or Kidney 1 point) of the foot, depending on lineage. Some Wing Chun styles discourage the use of high kicks because this risks counter-attacks to the groin. The practice of \"settling\" one's opponent to brace them more effectively against the ground helps one deliver as much force as possible to them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relaxation.", "content": "Softness (via relaxation) and performance of techniques in a relaxed manner, and by training the physical, mental, breathing, energy and force in a relaxed manner to develop Chi \"soft wholesome force\", is fundamental to Wing Chun. On \"softness\" in Wing Chun, Ip Man during an interview said:  Wing Chun is in some sense a \"soft\" school of martial arts. However, if one equates that work as weak or without strength, then they are dead wrong. Chi Sau in Wing Chun is to maintain one's flexibility and softness, all the while keeping in the strength to fight back, much like the flexible nature of bamboo\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Forms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Most Common Forms.", "content": "The most common system of forms in Wing Chun consists of three empty hand forms, two weapon forms, and a wooden dummy form.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Empty hand.", "content": "See also Glossary of Wing Chun terms", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Other Forms.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Empty Hand.", "content": "Both the Wai Yan (Weng Chun) and Nguyễn Tế-Công branches use different curricula of empty hand forms. The Tam Yeung and Fung Sang lineages both trace their origins to Leung Jan's retirement to his native village of Gu Lao, where he taught a curriculum of San Sik.  The Siu Lim Tau of Wing Chun is one long form that includes movements that are comparative to a combination of Siu Lim Tau, Chum Kiu, and Biu Ji of other families. The other major forms of the style are: Jeui Da (), Fa Kyun (), Jin Jeung (), Jin Kyun (), Jeui Kyun (), Sap Saam Sau (), and Chi Sau Lung ().  Also, a few family styles of Wing-Chun (especially those coming from the Hung Syun Hei Baan () have an advanced combination form called Saam Baai Fat () which includes many flow/leak techniques from all of the first'standard' 7 forms. Old phonetics in Cantonese; \"Hung Sun Hay Ban Tong\" Red Boat Opera Organization/Troop has a branch in Girard, Ohio ran by Si-Fu Mark Lee Pringle. They are one of the few schools that teach the full 8-form curriculum including Yoo-Choy( old phonetics ) family-style of 'Saam Baai Fut' 3 Bows to Buddha.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Wooden Dummy.", "content": "The Star Dummy consists of three poles that are embedded into the ground in a triangle with each pole an arms span apart. The associated form consists of kicking the poles using the various kicks found in Wing Chun: front kick, front kick with foot pointed out using broad area of foot and knee rotation to outside, and side kick.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Weapons.", "content": "The Yuen Kay Shan / branch also historically trained throwing darts (Biu).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "San Sik.", "content": "San Sik (Chinese: 散式; Cantonese Yale: Sáan Sīk; pinyin: Sǎn Shì; literally: 'Casual Style') are compact in structure. They can be loosely grouped into three broad categories:  1. Focus on building body structure through basic punching, standing, turning, and stepping drills. 2. Fundamental arm cycles and changes, firmly ingraining the cardinal tools for interception and adaptation. 3. Sensitivity training and combination techniques.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sensitivity Training.", "content": "Wing Chun includes several sensitivity drills designed to train and obtain specific responses. Although they can be practiced or expressed in a combat form, they should not be confused with actual sparring or fighting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chi Sau.", "content": "Chi Sau () is a term for the principle and drills used for the development of automatic reflexes upon contact and the idea of \"sticking\" to the opponent (also known as \"sensitivity training\"). In reality, the intention is not to \"stick\" to your opponent at all costs, but rather to protect your centerline while simultaneously attacking your opponent's centerline. In Wing Chun, this is practiced by two practitioners maintaining contact with each other's forearms while executing techniques, thereby training each other to sense changes in body mechanics, pressure, momentum and \"feel\". The increased sensitivity gained from this drill helps a practitioner attack and counter an opponent's movements precisely, quickly, and with appropriate techniques.  Chi Sau additionally refers to methods of rolling hands drills (). Luk Sau participants push and \"roll\" their forearms against each other in a single circle while trying to remain in relaxed form. The aim is to feel force, test resistance, and find defensive gaps. Other branches have a version of this practice where each arm rolls in small, separate circles. Luk Sau is most notably taught within the Pan Nam branch of Wing Chun where both the larger rolling drills as well as the smaller, separate-hand circle drills are taught.  Some lineages, such as Ip Man and Jiu Wan, begin Chi Sau drills with one-armed sets called Daan Chi Sau () which help the novice student to get the feel of the exercise. In Daan Chi Sau each practitioner uses one hand from the same side as they face each other.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chi Geuk.", "content": "Chi Geuk () is the lower-body equivalent of the upper body's Chi Sau training, aimed on developing awareness in the lower body and obtaining relaxation of the legs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Donnie Yen played the role of Wing Chun Grandmaster Ip Man in the 2008 movie \"Ip Man\", which was a box office success, and in its sequels \"Ip Man 2\", \"Ip Man 3,\" and \"Ip Man 4\". Max Zhang (Zhang Jin) who played the role of Cheung Tin Chi in \"Ip Man 3\" starred in a spin-off and direct sequel movie called \"\", which follows the events after the end of \"Ip Man 3\".  Stephen Amell on the CW show \"Arrow\" has incorporated Wing Chun into his fighting style; his character practices on a Muk Yan Jong (wooden dummy).  When creating characters to represent real-world martial arts, the developers of the fighting game \"Tekken 7\" wanted to introduce a new fighter utilizing Wing Chun. With the consultation and motion capture of techniques from a student of Ip Man's nephew, the character Leroy Smith, an elderly African-American Wing Chun practitioner, was added to the game as downloadable content in December 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wing Chun Kuen (), usually called Wing Chun (詠春), is a concept-based traditional Southern Chinese Kung fu (wushu) style and a form of self-defense, that requires quick arm movements and strong legs to defeat opponents. Softness (via relaxation) and performance of techniques in a relaxed manner is fundamental to Wing Chun. According to legend, it was created by Ng Mui, an abbess who taught it to her student Yim Wing-chun as a means to defend herself against unwanted advances. The martial art is named after her. According to Ip Man, \"Chi Sau in Wing Chun is to maintain one's feeling of opponents movement by staying relaxed all the while keeping in the strength to fight back, much like the flexible nature of bamboo\". Notable practitioners of Wing Chun include Yuen Kay Shan, Ip Man, Ip Chun, Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan, and Donnie Yen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976967}
{"src_title": "Discipline (King Crimson album)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and composition.", "content": "\"Matte Kudasai\" () literally means \"please wait\". The original release of \"Discipline\" featured only one version of \"Matte Kudasai\", with a guitar part by Robert Fripp that was removed from the track on a subsequent release of the album. The latest versions of the album to be released contains both versions of the song – track 3, \"Matte Kudasai\", without Robert Fripp's original guitar part; and track 8, \"Matte Kudasai (alternative version)\", with the guitar part included.  The lyrics of \"Indiscipline\" were based on a letter written to Adrian Belew by his then-wife Margaret, concerning a painting that she had made.  \"Thela Hun Ginjeet\" is an anagram of \"heat in the jungle\". When it was first performed live, some of its lyrics were improvised around an illicit recording made by Robert Fripp of his neighbours having a vicious argument when he was living in New York; this recording is featured on the track \"NY3\" on Fripp's solo album \"Exposure\". While the track was being recorded for the \"Discipline\" album, Adrian Belew, walking around Notting Hill Gate in London with a tape recorder looking for inspiration, was harassed first by a gang and then by the police. On returning to the studio, he gave a distraught account to his bandmates of what had just happened to him. This account was recorded by Fripp, without Belew's knowledge, as well and is featured on the \"Discipline\" version of the track (as well as almost all live versions), in place of those earlier lyrics that were based on Fripp's New York recording.  \"The Sheltering Sky\" is named after and partially inspired by the 1949 novel of the same name by Paul Bowles. Bowles is often associated with the Beat generation, which would be an inspiration for King Crimson's subsequent studio album \"Beat\".  Live versions of \"Elephant Talk\", \"Indiscipline\", and \"Thela Hun Ginjeet\" included partial vocal improvisation during spoken-word parts. One such example can be found in the 13 August 1982 performance, which, as of 12 August 2014, was still available for download in both MP3 and FLAC formats from DGM.  The back cover features the statement, \"Discipline is never an end in itself, only a means to an end\". The original front cover features a variation on a copyrighted Celtic knot design by George Bain. As it was found to be used without Bain's permission, it was replaced on later releases by a knotwork designed by Steve Ball on commission from Robert Fripp. Ball's design is also used as the logo of Discipline Global Mobile, the music label founded by Fripp, which has become the label for King Crimson, Fripp, and associated artists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Discipline\" reached number 41 in the UK Albums Chart and received mixed to positive reviews. John Piccarella's review in \"Rolling Stone\" praised the talent and artistry of the four musicians of King Crimson, particularly Belew and Fripp's \"visionary approach to guitar playing\", but criticized the \"arty content\" of the album itself, concluding \"Here's hoping that, unlike every other King Crimson lineup, this band of virtuosos stays together long enough to transform all of their experiments into innovations.\" Robert Christgau described the album as \"not bad--the Heads meet the League of Gentlemen.\"  Greg Prato's retrospective review in AllMusic gave his approval of the album, particularly applauding the unexpectedly successful combinations of Fripp and Belew's disparate playing styles. According to him, \"the pairing of these two originals worked out magically.\"  \"Pitchfork\" ranked it at number 56 in their list of the \"Top 100 Albums of the 1980s\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Track listing.", "content": "All songs written by Adrian Belew, Bill Bruford, Robert Fripp and Tony Levin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personnel.", "content": "Technical", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Discipline is the eighth studio album by English progressive rock band King Crimson, released on September 22, 1981 by E.G. Records in the United Kingdom and by Warner Bros. Records in the United States. This album was King Crimson's first album following a seven-year hiatus. Only founder Robert Fripp and later addition Bill Bruford remained from previous incarnations. The rest of the band were American musicians Adrian Belew (guitar, lead vocals) and Tony Levin (bass guitar, Chapman Stick, backing vocals). The album resulted in a more updated 1980s new wave-oriented sound.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976968}
{"src_title": "Help! (song)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition.", "content": "The documentary series \"The Beatles Anthology\" revealed that Lennon wrote the lyrics of the song to express his stress after the Beatles' quick rise to success. \"I was fat and depressed and I \"was\" crying out for 'Help, Lennon told \"Playboy\". Writer Ian MacDonald describes the song as the first crack in the protective shell Lennon had built around his emotions during the Beatles' rise to fame, and an important milestone in his songwriting style.  In the 1970 \"Rolling Stone\" \"Lennon Remembers\" interviews, Lennon said that the song was one of his favourites among the Beatles songs he wrote. In these interviews, Lennon said he felt that \"Help!\" and \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" were his most honest, genuine Beatles songs and not just songs \"written to order\". According to Lennon's cousin and boyhood friend Stanley Parkes, \"Help!\" was written after Lennon \"came in from the studio one night. 'God,' he said, 'they've changed the title of the film: it's going to be called 'Help!' now. So I've had to write a new song with the title called 'Help!'.\"  According to McCartney, he was called in \"to complete it\", providing the \"countermelody\" arrangement, on 4 April 1965 at Lennon's house in Weybridge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recording.", "content": "The Beatles recorded \"Help!\" in 12 takes on 13 April 1965 using four-track equipment. The first nine takes concentrated on the instrumental backing. The descending lead guitar riff that precedes each verse proved to be difficult, so by take 4 it was decided to postpone it for an overdub. To guide the later overdub by George Harrison, Lennon thumped the beat on his acoustic guitar body, which can be heard in the final stereo mix. Lead and backing vocals were recorded twice onto take 9, along with a tambourine. A reduction mix was applied to the two vocal tracks, taking three attempts (takes 10 to 12), freeing up a track for the lead guitar overdub. This was the group's first use of two 4-track machines for \"bouncing\".  The vocals were re-recorded for the film during a session on 24 May 1965 at CTS Studios, a facility specializing in post-synchronisation. In addition to attempting a better vocal performance, the session might have been done to eliminate the tambourine (which had been on the same track as the vocals) since no tambourine appeared in the film sequence. With the new vocals, a mono mix was created at CTS Studios which was used for the film soundtrack. Mixes for record releases were prepared on 18 June. For the mono version, Martin decided to use a mix of the opening chorus of take 12 edited to the remainder of the CTS film mix. Because all instruments were combined on a single track for the CTS session, it could not be used for a stereo mix, so the stereo mix was made from take 12.  This film version of the song was only heard on the original VHS releases of the movie, later replaced by the stereo mixes. A true release was never issued. New mixes were created for releases of the \"Help!\" CD (1987), the \"Love\" album (2006), and the \"Help!\" DVD (2007).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Releases.", "content": "\"Help!\" went to number 1 on both the UK and US singles charts in late summer 1965. It was the fourth of six number 1 singles in a row on the American charts: \"I Feel Fine\", \"Eight Days a Week\", \"Ticket to Ride\", \"Help!\", \"Yesterday\" and \"We Can Work It Out\". At the following year's Ivor Novello Awards, \"Help!\" was named as the second best-selling single of 1965, behind \"We Can Work It Out\". \"Help!\" was nominated in four categories at the 1966 Grammy Awards but failed to win in any of them.  The song appears on the \"Help!\" LP, the US \"Help!\" soundtrack, \"1962–1966\", the \"\" soundtrack, \"1\", \"Love\", and \"The Capitol Albums, Volume 2\". The mono version (with different vocals and no tambourine) was included on the Beatles' \"Rarities\" LP and in \"The Beatles in Mono\" collection. The American soundtrack album included a James Bond-type introduction to the song, followed by a caesura just before the opening lyric. No such introduction appeared on the British soundtrack album, nor was it included in the released single in either country.  Although Lennon was proud of \"Help!\" and the honesty it conveyed, he expressed regret that the Beatles had recorded it at such a fast tempo in the interests of giving the track more commercial appeal. Music critic Dave Marsh refuted this idea, saying: \"'Help!' isn't a compromise; it's bursting with vitality... [Lennon] sounds triumphant, because he's found a group of kindred spirits who are offering the very spiritual assistance and emotional support for which he's begging. Paul's echoing harmonies, Ringo's jaunty drums, the boom of George's guitar speak to the heart of Lennon's passion, and though they cannot cure the wound, at least they add a note of reassurance that he's not alone with his pain.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Promotional films.", "content": "The Beatles filmed the title performance for the movie \"Help!\" on 22 April 1965. The same footage (without the darts and credits seen in the film sequence) was used as a clip to promote the release of the single. It was shown starting in July 1965 on programmes such as \"Top of the Pops\" and \"Thank Your Lucky Stars\". They made another promotional clip of \"Help!\" on 23 November 1965 for inclusion in the year-end recap special of \"Top of the Pops\". Directed by Joseph McGrath, the black-and-white clip shows the group miming to the song while sitting astride a workbench. Starr holds an umbrella overhead throughout the song, which becomes useful as fake snow falls during the final verse. The November 1965 promo was included in the Beatles' 2015 video compilation \"1\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Live performances.", "content": "The Beatles performed \"Help!\" live on the 1 August 1965 broadcast of \"Blackpool Night Out\", which was included in the \"Anthology 2\" album and shown during \"The Beatles Anthology\" documentary. On 14 August, the group recorded a live performance of \"Help!\" and five other songs for \"The Ed Sullivan Show\", broadcast the following month; the show is available on the DVD \"The 4 Complete Ed Sullivan Shows Starring The Beatles\".  \"Help!\" was included in the set list for The Beatles' 1965 US tour. The 15 August performance at Shea Stadium was seen in the 1966 documentary \"The Beatles at Shea Stadium\", although the audio for the song was re-recorded prior to release. The group's 29 August performance at the Hollywood Bowl was chosen for the 1977 album \"The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl\". The final live concert performances of \"Help!\" took place on The Beatles' 1965 UK tour in December.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charts and certifications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Weekly charts.", "content": "The song reached number one in several other countries in 1965 according to charts listed in \"Billboard's\" \"Hits of the World\" feature at the time: Australia, Hong Kong, New Zealand, and Sweden.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "\"Help!\" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles that served as the title song for the 1965 film and its soundtrack album. It was released as a single in July 1965, and was number one for three weeks in the United States and the United Kingdom.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976969}
{"src_title": "Groove metal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Groove metal is heavily influenced by thrash metal. Unlike thrash metal, groove metal focuses more on heaviness while thrash metal often focuses more on speed. Groove metal places emphasis on heavy guitar riffs with usually syncopated rhythms, with the riffs sometimes being somewhat similar to death metal riffs. Guitars are generally down-tuned. Vocals in groove metal usually are yelling, growling, screaming, or very raspy singing. Although groove metal has a big emphasis on guitar riffs, guitar solos are still very common in groove metal. While thrash metal usually has fast tempos, groove metal usually has slower tempos, but fast tempos can be featured in groove metal. Groove metal is also often influenced by traditional heavy metal and blues-inspired heavy metal bands such as Black Sabbath.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Texas heavy metal band Pantera's 1990 album \"Cowboys from Hell\" is considered the first groove metal album. With this album, Pantera moved away from their glam metal years and became a groove metal band, starting the groove metal genre. Pantera continued releasing other influential albums through the 1990s. The band released their album \"Vulgar Display of Power\" in 1992 and, with this album, their music became heavier. Pantera's 1994 album \"Far Beyond Driven\" peaked at number 1 on the \"Billboard\" 200, selling in 186,000 copies its first week of release. Pantera's albums often would quickly get certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and eventually would get certified platinum. Pantera's album \"Vulgar Display of Power\" is the band's best-selling album, being eventually certified 2x platinum. In 1993, Brazilian thrash metal band Sepultura released \"Chaos A.D.\" and, with this album, the band began using fewer elements of thrash metal. With \"Chaos A.D.\", Sepultura became a groove metal band. Sepultura released their most popular album \"Roots\" in 1996. \"Roots\" was a groove metal and nu metal album. The album received criticism from fans because the album was very different from older Sepultura albums like \"Beneath the Remains\". In 1992, thrash metal band Exhorder moved to the groove metal genre with their album \"The Law\". In the 1990s, several other groove metal bands appeared, including Skinlab, Pissing Razors, Machine Head, Prong, Grip Inc., and White Zombie.  Machine Head released their debut album \"Burn My Eyes\" in 1994. The album helped the band achieve underground success, with the album selling 145,240 copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan. White Zombie achieved mainstream success in the mid 1990s. In October 1993 and February 1994, the band's album \"\" was certified gold and platinum by the RIAA, respectively. The album was certified 2x platinum by the RIAA in July 1998. The album peaked at number 2 on the Heatseekers Albums chart in 1993. White Zombie's music videos were featured on \"Beavis & Butthead\" and this helped the band sell more albums. White Zombie's 1995 album \"\" achieved mainstream success. The album peaked at number 6 on the \"Billboard\" 200, selling 104,000 copies in its first week of release. \"Astro Creep: 2000\" was certified 2x platinum by the RIAA. White Zombie's song \"More Human Than Human\" achieved mainstream success in the mid 1990s. It peaked at number 53 on the Radio Songs chart on June 17, 1995. On that day, \"More Human Than Human\" peaked at number 7 on the Alternative Songs chart. On June 10, 1995, the song peaked at number 10 on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart. \"More Human Than Human\" was played very frequently on MTV and won the Best Metal/Hard Rock Video award at the 1995 MTV Video Music Awards.  In the 2000s, many more groove metal bands emerged, including Five Finger Death Punch, Damageplan, Lamb of God, Chimaira, Hellyeah, and Throwdown. Damageplan formed after the breakup of Pantera, with Pantera members Dimebag Darrell and Vinnie Paul Abbott being members of Damageplan. Damageplan released one album in 2004 called \"New Found Power\". In December 2004, when the band performed live, guitarist Dimebag Darrell was shot dead by a man named Nathan Gale. After this incident, Damageplan broke up. Dimebag Darrell's brother Vinnie Paul Abbott then became the drummer for Hellyeah in 2006 and remained until his passing in 2018. Lamb of God became popular among heavy metal fans in the mid-2000s along with the metalcore bands that were achieving success at the time. Five Finger Death Punch emerged in the 2000s and achieved moderate success in the 2010s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence on other genres.", "content": "Groove metal bands like Pantera, White Zombie, Prong, and Sepultura were all big influences on nu metal. Nu metal was a genre that began in the mid-1990s and became mainstream in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Nu metal artists like Kid Rock, Korn, Godsmack, Limp Bizkit, Linkin Park, Papa Roach, Staind, Crazy Town, Slipknot, Drowning Pool, P.O.D., Disturbed, and System of a Down all achieved mainstream success.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Groove metal is a subgenre of heavy metal music that began in the early 1990s. The genre achieved mainstream success in the 1990s and continued having some more success in the 2000s. Inspired by thrash metal and traditional heavy metal, groove metal features raspy singing and screaming, down-tuned guitars, heavy guitar riffs, and syncopated rhythms. Unlike thrash metal, groove metal is usually slower and also uses elements of traditional heavy metal. Pantera are often considered the pioneers of groove metal, and groove metal expanded in the 1990s with bands like White Zombie, Machine Head, Skinlab, and Sepultura. The genre continued in the 2000s with bands like Lamb of God, DevilDriver, Damageplan, Five Finger Death Punch and Hellyeah.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976970}
{"src_title": "Vincent Enyeama", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Enyimba International.", "content": "During his spell with Enyimba International F.C., he won the CAF Champions League twice, with one noteworthy distinction: He was always substituted before penalty shootouts. \"I don't know why I was substituted before penalties, but it worked,\" he said in an interview in 2006. \"In Israel I stopped many penalties and now everyone knows that I can handle penalties.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bnei Yehuda.", "content": "After three seasons with Enyimba International F.C. and one with Iwuanyanwu Nationale (now known as Heartland F.C.), Enyeama moved to small Israeli club Bnei Yehuda Tel Aviv. In his first season, the team qualified for the final of the Israel State Cup and, having finished fourth in the Israeli Premier League, for the 2006 UEFA Cup competition as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hapoel Tel Aviv.", "content": "Enyeama signed for Hapoel Tel Aviv in 2007. Hapoel endured a poor season in 2007/2008, but Enyeama helped the team avoid relegation and reach the state cup final.  During the 2008–09 season, Enyeama became Hapoel's penalty kicker, won the \"Player of The Year\" award, and just missed leading Hapoel to the league title.  In the 2009–10 season, Hapoel won the league and cup double, with Enyeama featuring prominently. He scored a goal in the Cup Final, but missed a penalty in the last fixture of the year, which Hapoel eventually won by scoring in the 92nd minute, thereby capturing the league title.  On 18 August 2010, he scored his first goal of the 2010–11 season with a penalty against Red Bull Salzburg in the Champions League qualifiers.  Enyeama played well on the Champions League Group Stage, especially against Lyon and Schalke 04. Hapoel also won the Israeli cup again.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lille.", "content": "In June 2011 Enyeama moved to French side Lille for an undisclosed fee on a three-year contract. He made his debut on 18 October 2011 against Inter Milan in the 2012 UEFA Champions League group stage, where Inter managed a 1–0 victory.  In August 2012 Enyeama agreed a one-year loan deal with Maccabi Tel Aviv and was presented to the media by Maccabi's Sports Director Jordi Cruyff at 8 August 2012. He appeared in 27 Israeli Premier League fixtures and Maccabi went on to win the championship title.  During the 2013–14 Ligue 1 season, club manager René Girard picked Enyeama as his first-choice goalkeeper ahead of Steeve Elana, who had previously been the first-choice goalkeeper under Rudi Garcia. With the help of his two centre-backs, Marko Baša and Simon Kjær, Enyeama kept 11 consecutive clean sheets in Ligue 1 matches during the first half of the season. On 8 December 2013, Enyeama finally conceded a goal after playing 1,062 minutes of Ligue 1 football in an away match against Bordeaux, during which he was beaten by Landry N'Guémo's deflected strike in the 27th minute. He thus came within 114 minutes of equalling Gaëtan Huard's Ligue 1 goalkeeping record, set in 1993, of playing 1,176 minutes without conceding a goal.  In the 2017–18 season Enyeama did not make a league appearance having been left out of the first team due to \"a disagreement between the player and the club's management\". He joined the first team's pre-season training in July 2018.  He was released by mutual consent on 31 August 2018. In January 2019 he said he was keen to play again, and in July 2019 he went on trial with French club Dijon. Despite not being offered a contract by Dijon he expressed gratitude to the club.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "After making his debut for the Nigeria national football team against Kenya in May 2002, Enyeama was selected for the 2002 FIFA World Cup as a cover for Ike Shorunmu. He made his competitive debut in that tournament, keeping a clean sheet against England in the third group match. Since the retirement of Shorunmu, he has been the first-choice goalkeeper for the national team, helping the Super Eagles to third-place finishes in the 2004, 2006, 2010 Africa Cup of Nations tournaments, and captaining the team to victory of in the 2013 edition. He has also participated in the 2010 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, and the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup.  In the 2006 Africa Cup of Nations, Enyeama stopped three kicks in the quarter-final penalty shootout against Tunisia, but could not prevent a loss to Ivory Coast in the semi-final. In the 2010 tournament, he was again Nigeria's shootout hero at the quarter-final stage, saving from Zambia's Thomas Nyrienda and scoring the winning kick himself.  Enyeama made his second FIFA World Cup appearance in the 2010 tournament in South Africa. He was named man of the match in Nigeria's first game of the tournament, a defiant display that restricted Argentina to a 1–0 win. Enyeama, who was playing his 56th international for the Super Eagles, made six fine saves against the two-time world champions, four of them from Lionel Messi. Argentine coach Diego Maradona praised him as the reason Messi was not able to score a goal. Enyeama was also awarded man of the match in the team's next fixture, a 2–1 loss to Greece, but was at fault for Vasilis Torosidis' winning goal.  At the 2013 Africa Cup of Nations, Enyeama deputised for regular captain Joseph Yobo, who stayed on the bench for most of the competition. On 10 February, Enyeama led Nigeria to its third continental victory, keeping a clean sheet in a 1–0 defeat of Burkina Faso in the 2013 Africa Cup of Nations Final. He was named to the team of the tournament as first choice goalkeeper, conceding only four goals in six matches.  In June 2014, Enyeama was named in Nigeria's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In the Super Eagles' first fixture, he kept the second FIFA World Cup clean sheet of his career as Nigeria drew 0–0 with Iran. He subsequently recorded a second consecutive shutout in the fixture against Bosnia and Herzegovina, a 1–0 win which gave Nigeria its first win at the tournament since the 1998 edition. He conceded three goals in the last match of the first round against Argentina, a game which ended in a 3–2 defeat for Nigeria, placing them second in the group and thus qualifying them for the second round for the first time in 16 years.  On 26 March 2015, Enyeama won his 100th cap for Nigeria in a 1–0 loss to Uganda. He retired from international football on 8 October 2015 but later reinstated himself in October 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "A Christian from Ika Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, Enyeama is married and a father of three. In 2004, he was involved in a car accident in Uyo, Akwa Ibom State southern Nigeria, in which two motorcycle passengers were killed. The driver of the car in which Enyeama was travelling was left in critical condition. Despite the severity of the accident, Enyeama suffered only bruises after the car somersaulted twice as it swerved to avoid the motorbike.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Enyimba International F.C.  Hapoel Tel-Aviv  Maccabi Tel-Aviv", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Nigeria", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vincent Enyeama (born 29 August 1982) is a Nigerian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper. He was also a member of the Nigerian national team from 2002 until October 2015, serving as its captain from 2013 until his retirement from international football. With 101 caps, he is Nigeria's most capped player of all time. He has also won 7 Ballon D’or, the highest ever by a single player.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976971}
{"src_title": "Nikki Yanofsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Recordings.", "content": "Yanofsky recorded the Ella Fitzgerald song \"Air Mail Special\" for Verve Records and it was released in June 2007 on the album \"\". Produced by Tommy LiPuma, this track made Yanofsky the youngest singer to record for Verve. She then recorded \"Gotta Go My Own Way\" in English and French for the movie \"High School Musical 2\".  She collaborated with Herbie Hancock and will.i.am on a crossover version of the swing era hit \"Stompin' at the Savoy\". It was released on Kareem Abdul-Jabbar's audio book, \"On the Shoulders of Giants\".  In September 2008, Yanofsky released her first full-length album, a live CD/DVD concert package entitled \"Ella...Of Thee I Swing\". She earned two Juno Award nominations in 2009: New Artist of the Year and Vocal Jazz Album of the Year. She also won Favourite Jazz Artist at the 2009 Canadian Independent Music Awards.  Songwriters Stephan Moccio and Alan Frew chose Yanofsky to sing CTV's broadcast theme for the 2010 Winter Olympics, \"I Believe\", which reached number one on the Canadian Hot 100 on the week of February 27, 2010. This made her the first Canadian artist to have a number one song on that chart. The song was certified \"Quadruple Platinum\" for digital downloads in April 2010.  In 2010, Yanofsky recorded her first studio album, \"Nikki\", with Phil Ramone. Along with the album-release of \"I Believe\", it included some of Yanofsky's first original works, collaborating with Jesse Harris, Ron Sexsmith and Feist. \"Nikki\" was released in April 2010 by Decca Records and was supported by an international tour. It earned a Juno nomination for \"Vocal Jazz Album of the Year\" and won Yanofsky the WAVE Smooth Jazz Award for \"Female Vocalist of the Year\".  For Ganz's October 2010 Webkinz Pet of the Month song, Yanofsky recorded a version of the Webkinz World song \"I Dream in Pink\".  A 2011 jazz recording of popular Disney songs entitled \"Everybody Wants to Be a Cat: Disney Jazz, Volume 1\" included a version of the song \"It's a Small World\" sung by Yanofsky. Other jazz artists on the album included Esperanza Spalding, Roy Hargrove, Dave Brubeck, Joshua Redman, and Alfredo Rodriguez.  Yanofsky's second studio album, \"Little Secret\", was released in Canada in May 2014. The album was executive produced by Quincy Jones.  In 2015 Yanofsky began collaborating with Wyclef Jean on her new album and EP. Her \"Solid Gold EP\" was released in Canada on September 30, 2016.  In August 2018, Nikki Yanofsky started teasing on her Instagram for an upcoming music video. Nikki Yanofsky has worked with Herbie Hancock, Will.i.am, Elton John and now working with her favourite artist and mentor Quincy Jones. \"Big Mouth\" was released on September 14, 2018.  In July 2020, Yanofsky will release her fourth studio album \"Turn Down the Sound\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stage.", "content": "Yanofsky began her professional singing career by performing at the 2006 Montreal International Jazz Festival. Only 12 at the time, this performance made her the youngest performer ever to headline at the festival. She has returned each year since, including a special outdoor performance for the festival's 30th Anniversary in 2009 and a performance with l'Orchestre Métropolitain in 2011. Her other Canadian festival performances include Toronto (Luminato and Downtown), Ottawa (Jazz and Blues), Vancouver, Victoria, Quebec, Edmonton, Saskatoon, and Fredericton. Her international festival appearances include two visits to The Jamaica Jazz and Blues Festival, several European festivals including the North Sea Jazz Festival and the Montreux Jazz Festival as well as the Ginza International Jazz Festival in Japan at Kabuki-za.  On February 8, 2008, Yanofsky's 14th birthday, she kicked off a multi-city tour with Marvin Hamlisch at Carnegie Hall. In November 2008, she made her Canadian orchestral debut with the Edmonton Symphony Orchestra, and has gone on to sing with the Vancouver Symphony, the Edmonton Symphony and the Calgary Philharmonic.  With Herbie Hancock on piano, Yanofsky sang \"On A Clear Day You Can See Forever\" at the 2011 MusiCares Person of the Year awards honouring Barbra Streisand.  On April 13, 2013, Yanofsky and Stevie Wonder sang \"Let the Good Times Roll\" at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas. The event honoured the joint 80th birthday celebration of Quincy Jones and Sir Michael Caine.  The Little Secret Tour began on June 21, 2013, promoting Yanofsky's album, \"Little Secret\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Charitable works.", "content": "In 2008, Yanofsky received the Outstanding Youth in Philanthropy award from the Quebec Chapter of The Association of Fundraising Professionals. In the course of her career, she has helped raise over $10 million for local, national and international charities. She is currently associated with The Montreal Children's Hospital, The Children's Wish Foundation, and MusiCounts. She has also lent her voice to oneXone, Leave Out Violence Everywhere (L.O.V.E.), and ORT.  Yanofsky sang a solo part in the remake of K'naan's song \"Wavin' Flag\" performed by Young Artists for Haiti. This song was certified platinum for digital downloads in April 2010, and all of the proceeds from the single went to charities.  In October 2010, Yanofsky was awarded the first ever Allan Slaight Award by Canada's Walk of Fame. This award is presented annually to a young Canadian who is making a positive impact in the fields of music, film, literature, visual or performing arts, sports, innovation or philanthropy.  In June 2012, Yanofsky created the Nikki Yanofsky/Audio-Technica Scholarships at McGill University in Montreal. The funding was derived from an honorarium she had received for her performance at the 50th anniversary of Audio-Technica, a professional audio equipment company.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Yanofsky was born and raised in a \"close-knit Jewish family\" in Montreal. Her parents are Elyssa (née Rosenthal) and Richard Yanofsky. Yanofsky has two older brothers, Michael and Andrew. She graduated from St. George's School of Montreal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Singles.", "content": "Collective", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nicole Rachel \"Nikki\" Yanofsky (born February 8, 1994) is a jazz-pop singer from Montreal, Quebec. She sang the CTV Olympic broadcast theme song, \"I Believe\", which is also theme song of the 2010 Winter Olympic Games. She also performed at the opening and closing ceremonies for the Olympics and at the opening ceremony of the 2010 Winter Paralympic Games.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976972}
{"src_title": "SS Megantic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "The Dominion Line steamship company operated liners on the Liverpool-Canada route in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Their ships had become outdated, so in 1907 two new liners were ordered from Harland and Wolff, SS \"Albany\" and SS \"Alberta\". However, while they were being built they were transferred to the White Star Line and with them the White Star Line itself entered the Canadian passenger trade.  \"Albany\" was renamed \"Megantic\", after Lac-Mégantic in Québec, and the Alberta became \"Laurentic\". At the time, the two ships were the largest built to date for Canadian service and were used as a form of a full-scale experiment to decide on the machinery for the RMS \"Olympic\" and her sisters. \"Megantic\" being a conventional twin propeller ship with quadruple expansion engines while \"Laurentic\", with the same hull and boiler power, was given three propellers and 2 four cylinder triple expansion engines and a center low pressure steam turbine design. \"Megantic\" was launched on 10 December 1908 and made her maiden voyage from Liverpool to Montréal on 17 June 1909. She remained on that route until the Great War, when she was briefly placed on White Star's Liverpool-New York City service until being called into service as a troopship in 1915. She was attacked in 1917 by the German submarine,, but managed to escape unharmed. She was returned to White Star in December 1918 and after a refit in 1919 to enlarge her 1st class accommodation, returned to the Canadian service from Liverpool. She had another refit in 1924 and after 1928 operated from London and Southampton. Off-season, \"Megantic\" was often used for cruising from New York to the Caribbean and in the 1930s, for economy cruises.  After his arrest by Scotland Yard onboard the SS \"Montrose\" on the waters of the St-Lawrence in Canada, Dr. Hawley Harvey Crippen and his female accomplice Ethel Le Neve were returned to England on the \"Megantic\". Crippen was hanged for murder in 1910, but Le Neve was acquitted and died in 1967.  \"Megantic\" made her last Atlantic crossing in May 1931 and was then laid up until 1933, when she was sold for scrapping in Osaka.  \"Megantic\" had a gross tonnage of 14,878 and a net of 9,183 tons. The deadweight was 8,790 tons and load displacement on a draft of 27 ft. 6 in. was 20,470 tons. The overall length was about 570 ft.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SS \"Mégantic\" was an ocean liner built by Harland and Wolff, of Belfast, and operated by the White Star Line. The liner was launched in 1908 and was. The ship was attacked by a German U-boat during World War I, but survived. \"Mégantic\" was taken out of service in 1931 and scrapped in 1933.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976973}
{"src_title": "Angel of Death (Slayer song)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition and origins.", "content": "Slayer guitarist Jeff Hanneman wrote \"Angel of Death\" after reading books about Nazi physician Josef Mengele while on tour with the band. He said that he remembered \"stopping someplace where I bought two books on Mengele. I thought, 'This has gotta be some sick shit.' So when it came time to do the record, that stuff was still in my head—that's where the lyrics to 'Angel of Death' came from.\"  The lyrics are written both from Mengele's point of view and from that of a detached observer condemning his actions. They detail Mengele's surgical experiments on patients at the Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. Mengele's explorations were conducted on such groups as dwarfs and twins, and included both physical and psychological examinations. Among the tests he performed that are mentioned in \"Angel of Death\" are experimental surgeries performed without anesthesia, transfusion of blood between twins, isolation endurance, gassing, injections with lethal germs, sex change operations, the removal of organs and limbs, and abacination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "The lyrics of \"Angel of Death\" delayed the release of \"Reign in Blood\". The band were signed to Def Jam Records, whose distributor, Columbia Records, refused to release the album due to its subject matter and artwork, which they believed were \"too graphic\". \"Reign in Blood\" was eventually distributed by Geffen Records on October 7, 1986. However, due to the controversy, \"Reign in Blood\" did not appear on Geffen Records' official release schedule.  \"Angel of Death\" caused outrage among Holocaust survivors, as well as their families and the general public. The controversy led to accusations of Nazi sympathizing which have followed Slayer throughout their career. People took Hanneman's interest in Nazi history and his collection of Nazi medals, his most prized item being a German Knight's Cross, as evidence of sympathizing. Hanneman objected, stating: According to guitarist Kerry King: \"Yeah, 'Slayer are Nazis, fascists, Communists'—all that fun shit. And of course we got the most flak for it in Germany. I was always like, 'Read the lyrics and tell me what's offensive about it. Can you see it as a documentary, or do you think Slayer's preaching fucking World War II?' People get this thought in their heads—especially in Europe—and you'll never talk them out of it.\" The song drew accusations of racism, which the band has denied. The band members are often asked about the accusations in interviews, and have stated numerous times that they do not condone racism and are merely interested in the subject. Hanneman also wrote \"SS-3\", a song about senior SS commander Reinhard Heydrich, which appeared on the band's 1994 album \"Divine Intervention\". The song \"Jihad\" from their 2006 album \"Christ Illusion\" has drawn comparison to \"Angel of Death\". \"Jihad\" deals with the September 11, 2001, attacks, and is told from a terrorist's perspective. Araya expected the subject matter to create a similar backlash to that of \"Angel of Death\", although it did not materialise, in part, he believes, due to people's view that the song is \"just Slayer being Slayer\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and structure.", "content": "At 4 minutes and 51 seconds, \"Angel of Death\" is the longest track on the album, which is 29 minutes in total. It is one of the most structurally conventional songs on the album, featuring prominent verses and choruses, which most of the songs eschew. Araya's vocal performance begins with a piercing, wordless scream. \"[G]uitarists Kerry King and Jeff Hanneman deliver their intricate riffs [and] drummer Dave Lombardo performs some of the most powerful drumming ever recorded\" at 210 beats per minute.  When drummer Lombardo left Slayer in 1992, they recruited a full-time replacement in Forbidden drummer Paul Bostaph. Bostaph made one mistake out of the nine songs the band trialled him with, on \"Angel of Death\". Before the \"big double bass part\" there is a lead section, which Bostaph could not understand, as he had to learn from live records recorded with Lombardo. Bostaph could not tell how many revolutions the guitar riff goes before the bass sequence. The band members told him there were eight, \"perfecting\" the song afterwards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Although \"Angel of Death\" did not chart, it was highly praised by critics reviewing \"Reign in Blood\". Clay Jarvas of \"Stylus Magazine\" observed how the song \"smokes the asses of any band playing fast and/or heavy today. Lyrically outlining the horrors to come, while musically laying the groundwork for the rest of the record: fast, lean and filthy.\" Adrien Begrand of \"PopMatters\" remarked that \"There's no better song to kick things off than the masterful 'Angel of Death', one of the most monumental songs in metal history.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Angel of Death\" is the opening track on the American thrash metal band Slayer's 1986 album \"Reign in Blood\". The lyrics and music were written by guitarist Jeff Hanneman. They detail the Nazi physician Josef Mengele's human experiments at the Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976974}
{"src_title": "Ilya Yashin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Until 2008 he was the leader of the Yabloko party's youth wing, organizing mass protests and speaking to the media about their causes. However, when he became an active member of Solidarnost, Yabloko expelled him for \"causing political damage\".  Yashin is known for making passionate speeches at opposition rallies. He is an active participant in the Strategy-31 campaign for freedom of assembly. In 2005, he spoke against the Nashi movement, which supports President Vladimir Putin.  On December 31, 2010 Yashin was arrested for demonstrating in Moscow at another rally for Strategy-31. He was taken to a police station and detained for fifteen days. He claims evidence was then fabricated against him by the police. Amnesty International declared him a prisoner of conscience, along with Boris Nemtsov and.  Following the alleged kidnapping and torture of opposition activist Leonid Razvozzhayev, from Kiev, Ukraine, Yashin was arrested on October 27, 2012 along with Sergei Udaltsov and Alexei Navalny while attempting to join a Moscow protest on Razvozzhayev's behalf. The three were charged with violating public order, for which they could be fined up to 30,000 rubles (US$1,000) or given 50 hours of community service.  On February 23, 2016 Yashin, despite harassment by police and hecklers, presented a report criticizing Chechen leader Ramzan Kadyrov, labeling him a danger to Russian national security and called for his resignation. The report highlighted Kadyrov's encouragement of violence against opposition activists and federal law enforcement officials, his luxurious lifestyle and corruption, and the building of a personal army.  On September 10, 2017 Yashin was elected a municipal deputy of the Krasnoselsky district of Moscow. The Solidarnost team won 7 out of 10 seats in this district (the United Russia won the other 3). On September 25, 2017 he took the office. On October 7, 2017 Ilya Yashin was elected a chairman of the council of deputies of Krasnoselsky municipal district of Moscow.  On April 11, 2018 Yashin announced his intention to run for Moscow mayor's office and beat the incumbent Sergey Sobyanin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ilya Valeryevich Yashin (, born June 29, 1983 in Moscow) is a Russian political figure and local government representative. Chairman of the Council of deputies of the municipal district Krasnoselsky of the city Moscow, head of the municipality Krasnoselsky since 7 October 2017.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976975}
{"src_title": "Orlando Zapata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Orlando Zapata was the second son of a family of five brothers based in Banes, where he lived with his mother, a washerwoman by profession, and his stepfather. Looking for a better future, he emigrated to Havana, where he came into contact with former political prisoner Enri Saumell Peña, with whom he began in political activism. He was a member of the Republican Alternative Movement.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Imprisonment.", "content": "Zapata was arrested on December 6, 2002 by agents of the Cuban police on charges of contempt, for which he was imprisoned for over three months. On March 20, 2003, 13 days after he was freed, he was arrested for a second time during a crackdown on dissidents and sent to the Kilo 7 prison in Camagüey. At the time of his arrest, he was participating in a hunger strike organized by the Assembly to Promote a Civil Society, taking place at the home of Marta Beatriz Roque Cabello. The hunger strike was meant as a petition for the release of several comrades.  He was charged with contempt, public disorder, and disobedience and sentenced to 36 years in prison after several judicial processes. As a result, Amnesty International recognized him as a prisoner of conscience, \"imprisoned solely for having peacefully exercised [his] rights to freedom of expression, association and assembly\". The socialist \"Monthly Review\", in contrast, expressed skepticism of Amnesty's statement, alleging that Zapata was arrested and convicted several times on charges of fraud, firearm possession, and assault with a machete.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hunger strike and death.", "content": "On either December 2 or 3, 2009, Zapata began a hunger strike as a protest against the Cuban government for having denied him the choice of wearing white dissident clothes instead of the designated prisoner uniform, as well as denouncing the living conditions of other prisoners. As part of his claim, Zapata was asking for conditions comparable to those that Fidel Castro had while incarcerated after his 1953 attack against the Moncada Barracks. For their part, the Cuban government stated he refused food because authorities wouldn't put a TV set, a stove and a phone in his cell.  During the hunger strike Zapata refused to eat any food other than his mother's, who visited him every three months. According to the U.S.-based opposition group Cuban Democratic Directorate, prison authorities then denied Zapata water, which led to his deteriorated health and ultimately kidney failure.  Zapata persisted in the hunger strike and was admitted to the Camagüey Hospital at an unspecified date, where he was given fluids intravenously against his will. On February 16, 2010 his condition worsened and he was transferred to Hermanos Ameijeiras Hospital in Havana, where he ultimately died on February 23, 2010 at approximately 3:30 pm EST.  It was the first time that an opponent of the Cuban government died during a hunger strike since the 1972 death of Pedro Luis Boitel.  On March 16, 2010 an open letter condemning the Cuban government for the unjust incarceration of Orlando Zapata Tamayo and asking for the release of other political prisoners was posted in an internet blog. In less than a week the letter had obtained over 30,000 signatures. Among the signatories are prominent intellectuals from both the left and right of the political spectrum.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions to death.", "content": "President Raúl Castro took the \"unprecedented step\" of expressing public regret about the death of Zapata. During his remarks, he said Zapata was treated by top doctors and denied he was tortured. Cuban state television also aired a report where doctors who treated Zapata, said they tried to get him to eat, with Dr. María Ester Hernández stating:  Cuban state newspapers, meanwhile, described Zapata as a \"common criminal falsely elevated to martyr status.\"  The U.S. State Department stated that it was \"deeply saddened\" by Zapata's death, while the European Union called on Cuba to release its remaining political prisoners. Spain issued a statement remembering Zapata as a \"human rights defender\", while France expressed \"dismay\" and stated that its government had been lobbying Cuba on Zapata's behalf. The incident was seen as a significant setback for the thawing of Spanish-Cuban and U.S.-Cuban relations, with one analyst describing it as \"the nail in the coffin of Spain's efforts to improve EU-Cuba ties\".  On 23 February 2012, the Ladies in White met at the former home of deceased leader Laura Pollan to commemorate the second anniversary of Zapata's death. They were protested by a group of government supporters in coordination with security agents, who chanted \"Down with the worms!\" and \"Long Live Raúl!\"  Russian Historian Yuri Doykov dedicated his book to Orlando Zapata", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Orlando Zapata Tamayo (May 15, 1967 – February 23, 2010) was a Cuban mason, plumber, and political activist and prisoner who died after fasting for more than 80 days. His death received international attention, and was viewed as a significant setback in Cuba's relationship with the U.S. and the EU.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976976}
{"src_title": "2010 Hungarian parliamentary election", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Fidesz's landslide victory was a result of massive dissatisfaction with and voting in protest against MSZP, the Hungarian Socialist Party, which had been in government since 2002, and it was one event and its consequences especially that provoked resentment: in 2006 Ferenc Gyurcsány, the contemporary Prime Minister of Hungary, delegated by MSZP, made a private speech in front of MSZP party members, in which he, although generally outlining a direction to a new beginning and a moral paradigm change in day-to-day policy making, admitted to having been lying to the general public in different matters through a prolonged time during the campaign running up to the previous election, which had resulted among others in his reelection. This speech surfaced in the press in the Autumn of 2006, and resulted in nationwide protests.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Polls.", "content": "As polls showed both MDF and SZDSZ would be unlikely to make it into parliament on their own, they have agreed to a limited electoral cooperation. In March 2010, polls also showed that the Hungarian parliament after the election was likely to be completely dominated by Fidesz polling at 53–67% that month, followed by either the ruling Hungarian Socialist Party at 12–22% or newcomer Jobbik (Movement for a Better Hungary) at 11–18%.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "Following the EU elections of 2009, trends showed the rise of right-wing parties and particularly the far right. In this vein, the foreign media cited ominous trends concerning the election results. Fidesz Member of Parliament Oszkár Molnár said that: \"I love Hungary, I love Hungarians, and I prefer Hungarian interests to global financial capital, or Jewish capital, if you like, which wants to devour the whole world, but especially Hungary.\" He later said that, it was only a response to a Shimon Peres speech in which Peres said that his country aims to \"colonise\" Hungary when he spoke of Israel's investments abroad, Peres said that Israel was \"buying out Manhattan, Poland, Hungary...\" Jobbik leader, Gábor Vona, also stirred up controversy with allegations of chauvinism by saying \"Hungary is for Hungarians\" and must be defended against \"foreign speculators\". Molnar also claimed that the language of instruction in Jerusalem schools was Hungarian and they were \"learning the language of their future homeland\". His party at the time, Fidesz, did not denounce his statement but simply said it was \"embarrassing\". Adding that he would not even consider ousting Molnar from his party or parliamentary faction, as the remark \"did not violate the party's bylaws\". However, in 2010 he was excluded from the Fidesz, due to these remarks. Instead of him, a Lebanese-origin doctor, Pierre Daher became the Fidesz candidate. Molnár also claimed that pregnant Roma women deliberately try to induce birth defects so they can give birth to \"fools to receive higher family subsidies. I have checked this and it’s true; they hit their bellies with a rubber hammer so that they’ll give birth to handicapped kids.\" In 2011, he denounced Roma women at the Hungarian police authorities.  Another Fidesz parliamentarian, Ilona Ékes, wrote to the police to ban a gay pride event in Budapest, saying that homosexuality was a mental illness and demonstrators would scandalise people, as they did in previous years, when homosexual activists imitated sexual intercourse on stage and other activists were allegedly blasphemous. According to Ékes, the demonstrations would harm youngsters, whose school season was to start on the same day.  A Hungarian analyst was cited as saying Fidesz tolerates such provocative rhetoric from its members because of fears they would vote for Jobbik instead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign interference.", "content": "Former Jobbik MEP Krisztina Morvai wrote an open letter to Eleni Tsakopoulos Kounalakis, the United States ambassador, after her controversial visit to the headquarters of the principal three parties other than Jobbik, while not visiting that of Jobbik, on the night of the election.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Turnout.", "content": "\"All times are CEST.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post-election controversies.", "content": "Four Jobbik MPs—Gábor Staudt, Gergő Balla, Zsolt Endrésik and Péter Schön—were removed from their committees because they had failed a vetting procedure that asked whether any MP's maintain contact with groups that engage in \"activities that deny the basic principles of a state governed by the rule of law.\" Staudt, a co-founder of the \"Magyar Gárda Society\"—that was banned in 2007—had been on the national security committee, while the other three were on the defence and law enforcement committees. Staudt reacted in saying he found the result to be unconstitutional, and that he would file a criminal report with the interior minister against Defence of the Constitution Office director general László Balajti. The four would, however, continue to be MPs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Parliamentary elections were held in Hungary on 11 and 25 April 2010 to choose MPs for the National Assembly. They were the sixth free elections since the end of communist era. 386 members of parliament were elected in a combined system of party lists and electoral constituencies. The electoral law does not allow all adult citizens to stand for being elected unless they can validate 500 signatures of other citizens supporting their candidacy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976977}
{"src_title": "Planet of the Apes (novel)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In a frame story, a rich couple sailing alone in space, Jinn and Phyllis, rescue and translate a manuscript from a floating bottle. The manuscript was written by journalist Ulysse Mérou, who in 2500 was invited by wealthy Professor Antelle to accompany him and his disciple, physician Arthur Levain, to Betelgeuse. Because they travel close to the speed of light, time dilation causes centuries to pass on Earth during their two years in transit. They land their shuttle on a temperate, lushly forested planet which they name \"Soror\" (Latin for \"sister\"). They can breathe the air, drink the water and eat the fruit. Attracted by a woman whom they call Nova, they swim below a scenic waterfall. She is frightened by their pet chimpanzee, Hector, and strangles it. Her tribe, who exhibit the behavior of dumb animals, wreck the newcomers' clothing and shuttle.  Gorillas, fully dressed as hunters, attack the tribe with firearms. Many are killed, including Arthur. Ulysse is captured with the survivors and brought to a city populated by apes. Ape clothing matches that of 20th century Earth humans, except that the apes wear gloves instead of shoes on their prehensile feet. The apes smoke tobacco, photograph their hunting trophies, drink through straws and appear utterly civilized. Their society is divided into three strata: aggressive gorilla police and military, conservative orangutan politicians and religious authorities, and liberal chimpanzee scientists.  In an urban biological research facility, Ulysse recognizes conditioning methods being used on captured humans. He is mated with Nova. Curious chimpanzee researcher Zira takes an interest in his geometric drawings and his ability to speak a few simian words. With help from Zira's fiancé, Cornélius, Ulysse makes a speech in front of several thousand apes. He is granted freedom and is given tailored clothing. Antelle reverts to primitive humanity in the zoo and is moved to the laboratory for safety, where he is mated to a young female.  Cornélius, an archaeologist, excavates an ancient human city. An unconscious human lab subject recites from racial memory the events that led to the fall of human civilization: humans tamed apes and eventually used them as servants. As apes learned to talk, a cerebral laziness took hold of the humans. Apes gradually took over human homes, driving the humans into camps outside of the cities. In the final memory, apes attacked the last human camp, carrying only whips.  Nova bears Ulysse a son, Sirius, who walks and talks at three months. Fearing for their lives, they take the place of the human test subjects in a space flight experiment. Because all humans look alike to apes, they are able to escape without notice and they rendezvous with the orbiting ship. Ulysse programs the ship back to Earth. As they fly over Paris, Orly Airport and the Eiffel Tower look the same. When they land, however, they are greeted by a field officer in a Jeep who is a gorilla. It is subsequently revealed, via the frame story, that Jinn and Phyllis are actually civilized chimpanzees, and they discard Ulysse's story as sheer fantasy because they find the idea of intelligent humans unbelievable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication history.", "content": "The novel was published in France in 1963 by Éditions Julliard.  The first English language version, with a translation by Xan Fielding, was published in the United States by Vanguard Press in June 1963 under the title \"Planet of the Apes\".  In January 1964, it was published in the United Kingdom as \"Monkey Planet\" by Secker & Warburg of London, then re-issued as \"Planet of the Apes\" in August 1973 to tie it in to the film franchise it inspired.  The first paperback edition was published in the US in March 1964 by Signet / New American Library.  In May 1964, \"Saga: The Magazine For Men\" printed an abridged version of the novel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The novel inspired a media franchise comprising nine films, two television series (one animated) and several comic books.  The first film was \"Planet of the Apes\" (1968), a science fiction feature film directed by Franklin J. Schaffner from a screenplay by Michael Wilson & Rod Serling and starring Charlton Heston. The film was a critical and commercial success, spawning four sequels on a one film a year basis between 1970 and 1973.  A second adaptation of the book was released in 2001 directed by Tim Burton as a loose remake of the 1968 film of the same name. A series reboot with a new production team called \"Rise of the Planet of the Apes\" was released in 2011 to critical and commercial success. It was the first in a new series of films.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "La Planète des singes, known in English as Planet of the Apes in the US and Monkey Planet in the UK, is a 1963 science fiction novel by French author Pierre Boulle. It was adapted into the 1968 film \"Planet of the Apes\", launching the \"Planet of the Apes\" media franchise.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976978}
{"src_title": "Louis Désiré Blanquart-Evrard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "He was born and raised in Lille where he studied chemistry with Charles Frédéric Kuhlmann and miniature painting on porcelain. After Louis Daguerre solved the problem of long exposure time and introduced daguerreotypy, a practical photographic process, to the general public in 1839, Blanquart-Evrard developed interest in photography. He studied the \"calotype\", salt-print negative process, and in 1847 became the first person to publish on negative/positive paper photo process in France. He developed a method of bathing the paper in solutions of potassium iodide and silver nitrate rather than brushing these chemical baths on the surface. In January 1847, he presented his research on stabilizing the photo prints by floating them in the silver solution to the French Academy of Sciences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Imprimerie Photographique.", "content": "In 1850, he developed and introduced the albumen paper printing technique, which became the staple process of the soon to be popular \"carte de visite\" type of photo prints. In September 1851 in Lille, France, with Hippolyte Fockedey, he started the \"Imprimerie Photographique de Lille\", which was the first large scale printing company to employ a large number of employees. Blanquart-Évrard introduced to public the work of many pioneering European photographers, such as Édouard Loydreau (1820-1905), Charles Marville (1813-1879), Ernest Benecke (1817-1894), Thomas Sutton (1819-1875), and Maxime Du Camp (1822-1894). In the 1850s he became known for publishing John Stewart's views of the Pyrenees and Auguste Saltzmann's views of Jerusalem. However, the calotype process that he adopted and improved had the disadvantage of leaving a blank white sky and dark foreground, which led to artist manipulating and using multiple negatives to add clouds to the sky and make the foreground more distinct. The problem with these manipulations was that often the clouds were taken in the morning and the foreground was taken in the afternoon. Also, due to technology deficiency, photo prints were fading with time and Blanquart-Evrard's business venture had to close in 1855, losing in competition with lithographs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition.", "content": "In 1860s, Blanquart-Evrard published several influential essays and books, including, \"On the intervention of art in photography\" and \"La photographie: ses origines, ses progrès, ses transformations\" where he described the first three decades of the progress of photography and formulated important for the future development of photography as a fine art theoretical and aesthetic ideas. He is now considered as a major figure of the 1850s, a \"golden decade\" in the development of photography.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Louis Désiré Blanquart-Evrard (2 August 1802 – 28 April 1872) was a French inventor, photographer and photo publisher. Being a cloth merchant by trade, in the 1840s he developed interest in photography and focused on technical and economical issues of mass production of photo prints.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976979}
{"src_title": "Porsche 918 Spyder", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Specifications.", "content": "The 918 Spyder is powered by a naturally aspirated V8 engine built on the same architecture as the one used in the RS Spyder Le Mans Prototype racing car without any engine belts.  The engine weighs according to Porsche and delivers at 8,700 rpm and of maximum torque at 6,700 rpm. This is supplemented by two electric motors delivering an additional. One electric motor drives the rear wheels in parallel with the engine and also serves as the main generator. This motor and engine deliver power to the rear axle via a 7-speed gearbox coupled to Porsche's own PDK double-clutch system. The front electric motor directly drives the front axle; an electric clutch decouples the motor when not in use. The total system delivers and of torque. Porsche provided official performance figures of 0- in 2.6 seconds, 0- in 7.2 seconds, 0- in 19.9 seconds and a top speed of.  Those numbers were surpassed in independent tests which yielded 2.5 seconds for 0-100 km/h, 7.0 seconds for 0-200 km/h, 19.1 seconds for 0-300 km/h, a top speed of and 17.75 seconds for the standing kilometer reaching a speed of.  In \"Car and Driver\"‘s independent test of the Porsche 918 they achieved 0–60 mph in 2.2 seconds, 0–100 mph in 4.9 seconds, 0–180 mph in 17.5 seconds, and the quarter mile in 9.8 seconds. In \"Motor Trend\"'s independent test the Porsche 918 set a production-car track record at Willow Springs Raceway. With a time of 2.4 seconds it was the fastest car to 60 mph that they had ever tested. It stopped from 60 mph in, and broke Motor Trend's figure 8 record at 22.2 seconds.  The energy storage system is a 312-cell, liquid-cooled 6.8 kWh lithium-ion battery positioned behind the passenger cell. In addition to a plug-in charge port at the passenger-side B pillar, the batteries are also charged by regenerative braking and by excess output from the engine when the car is coasting. emissions are 79 g/km and fuel consumption is under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under its five-cycle tests rated the 2015 model year Porsche 918 Spyder energy consumption in all-electric mode at 50 kWh per 100 miles, which translates into a combined city/highway fuel economy of. When powered only by the gasoline engine, EPA's official combined city/highway fuel economy is.  The 4.6 litre V8 petrol engine can recharge an empty battery on about two litres of fuel. The supplied Porsche Universal Charger requires seven hours to charge the battery on a typical 110 volt household AC socket or two hours on a dedicated Charging Dock installed with a 240 volt industrial supply. An optional DC Speed Charging Station can restore the battery to full capacity in 25 minutes.  The 918 Spyder offers five different running modes: E-Drive allows the car to run under battery power alone, using the rear electric motor and front motor, giving a range of for the concept model. The official U.S. EPA all-electric range is. The total range with a full tank of gasoline and a fully charged battery is according to EPA tests. Under the E-Drive mode the car can attain a maximum speed of. Two hybrid modes (Hybrid, and Race) use both the engine and electric motors to provide the desired levels of economy and performance. In Race mode a push-to-pass button initiates the Hot Lap setting, which delivers additional electrical power. The chassis is a carbon-fibre-reinforced plastic monocoque and the brakes used are electromechanical brakes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sales and production.", "content": "The production version was unveiled at the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show. The 918 Spyder was produced in a limited series and it was developed in Weissach and assembled in Zuffenhausen for the 2014 model year. Production for the 2014 model year started on 18 September 2013<nowiki>,</nowiki> with deliveries scheduled to begin in December 2013. Sales in the United States began in June 2014. Pricing for the 918 Spyder started at ~ ( or ). According to its battery size, the 918 Spyder was eligible to a federal tax credit of up to.  Production ended in June 2015 as scheduled.  The country with the most orders is the United States with 297 units, followed by China and Germany with approximately 100 orders each, and Canada ordering 35 units.  According to JATO Dynamics, a total of 105 units have been registered worldwide during the first nine months of 2014. The United States is the leading market with 202 units delivered up to May 2015., a total of 9 units were registered in Switzerland, 6 in the Netherlands, 5 units in Canada, 4 in Sweden, 3 in Brazil and 1 in South Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "RSR.", "content": "At the 2011 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Porsche unveiled the RSR racing variant of the 918 Spyder. Instead of using plug-in hybrid technology, power for the two electric motors is provided by a flywheel accumulator KERS system that sits beside the driver in the passenger compartment. The V8 is a further development of the direct injection engine from the RS Spyder race car developing at 10,300 rpm. The electric motors each provide an additional, giving a peak power output of. The six speed gearbox is a development of the unit from the RS Spyder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nürburgring lap time record.", "content": "In September 2013 a 918 fitted with the optional 'Weissach Package' set a Nürburgring lap time of 6:57 on the road course, reducing the previous record by 14 seconds, and making it the first series production street-legal car to break the 7-minute barrier.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Porsche 918 Spyder is a limited-production mid-engine plug-in hybrid sports car manufactured by German automobile manufacturer Porsche. The 918 Spyder is powered by a naturally aspirated V8 engine, developing at 8,700 rpm, with two electric motors delivering an additional for a combined output of and of torque. The 918 Spyder's 6.8 kWh lithium-ion battery pack delivers an all-electric range of under the US Environmental Protection Agency's five-cycle tests.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976980}
{"src_title": "Hardangervidda National Park", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Geography and geology.", "content": "The plateau is the largest peneplain (eroded plain) in Europe, covering an area of about at an average elevation of. The highest point on the plateau is at the top of the Hardangerjøkulen glacier, which reaches a height of.  The landscape of the Hardangervidda is characterised by barren, treeless moorland interrupted by numerous pools, lakes, rivers and streams. There are significant differences between the west side, which is dominated by rocky terrain and expanses of bare rock, and the east side, which is much flatter and more heavily vegetated. The climate also varies between the two sides: it is considerably wetter on the west side than on the east, with over per year recorded in some parts. The prominent peak of Hårteigen is visible across much of the plateau.  Much of the Hardangervidda's geology is extremely ancient. The rolling fells of the Hardangervidda are the remnants of mountains that were worn down by the action of glaciers during the ice ages. The bedrock is mainly of Precambrian and Cambro-Silurian origin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "The whole of the Hardangervidda is above the tree line. Its alpine climate enables the presence of many species of arctic animals and plants further south than anywhere else in Europe. Its wild reindeer herds are among the largest in the world, with some 15,000 animals recorded in 1996 and around 8,000 in 2008. They migrate across the plateau during the year, moving from their winter grazing lands on the east side of the Hardangervidda, where they graze on lichen, to their breeding grounds in the more fertile west of the plateau.  The varying climate of the plateau has a marked effect on the flora, which is richer on the wetter west side than in the drier east; much of the plateau is covered by coarse grasses, mosses (especially sphagnum) and lichens.  In the Holocene climatic optimum (Stone Age) 9000 – 5000 years ago, the regional climate was warmer, and large parts of Hardangervidda were wooded; pine logs can still be found preserved in bogs well above today's treeline. With the predicted warming, Hardangervidda could again be largely wooded ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visitor centres.", "content": "The national park has two visitor centres: the Hardangervidda Natursenter (Nature Centre) in the village of Øvre Eidfjord in Eidfjord municipality, and the Hardangervidda Nasjonalparksenter (National Park Centre) at Skinnarbu in Tinn municipality which is located near the lake Møsvatnet, the town of Rjukan, and the mountain village of Rauland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Human settlement.", "content": "The Hardangervidda has been occupied for thousands of years; several hundred nomadic Stone Age settlements have been found in the area, most likely related to the migration of the reindeer. Ancient trails cross the plateau, linking western and eastern Norway. One example is the \"Nordmannsslepa\" linking Eidfjord and Veggli in the Numedal valley with Hol and Uvdal. It is still a key transit route between Oslo and Bergen. The Bergen Line and the main Highway 7 cross the plateau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "Hardangervidda is accessible all year round. June/July to September/October is great for hiking, fishing, wildlife viewing, cycling, horseback riding, canoeing, hunting and other summer activities. Hiking is the easiest and best way to experience Hardangervidda national park. The Norwegian Trekking Association offers a network of hiking paths and cabins connecting Hardangervidda from Haukeliseter and Mogen in the south to Finse in the north, Rjukan and Geilo in the east and Eidfjord and Odda in the west.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accidents.", "content": "At night on 26 August 2016, 323 wild reindeers, including 70 calves, were killed by lightning during a storm, when they stood in the grasses of the Hardangervidda plateau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In filming.", "content": "Part of the second episode of \"The Future is Wild\" was filmed here.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hardangervidda National Park (, ), at, is Norway's largest national park. It spans from Numedal and Uvdal in the east and Røvelseggi and Ullensvang in the west across the Hardanger mountain plateau (Hardangervidda). Designated as a national park in 1981, today it serves as a popular tourist destination for activities such as hiking, climbing, fishing, and cross-country skiing. The Norwegian Mountain Touring Association (DNT) maintains a comprehensive network of huts and paths across Hardangervidda. The Bergen Line and the main Highway 7 cross the plateau. The park lies in Viken, Vestland, and Vestfold og Telemark counties.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976981}
{"src_title": "Podyjí National Park", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Legal status.", "content": "Podyjí National Park is one of the four national parks of the Czech Republic. It has an area of and buffer zone of. It was formally declared a national park 1 July 1991 by government order no. 164/1991. BirdLife International (IBA) has included this park under its criteria C6 covering a larger area of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "Podyjí National Park lies in an elevation range of. Its habitats include forest, grassland, arable land, shrubland, rocky areas and inland wetlands. The park is drained by the Dyje River, which flows for a length of through the park in a thickly-forested valley within the Českomoravská vrchovina uplands. The river valley's depth measures up. Land use has been established for nature conservation and research, forestry and agriculture. Park trails lead to the castle ruins of Nový Hrádek, Hardegg Castle, and Vranov nad Dyjí Chateau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Wildlife.", "content": "The park's valley is home to 77 species of plants, which include oak woods (acidophilous and temperate type), hornbeam, beech, and alder. Some of the perennial flowering species are \"cyclamen\", \"mulleins\", and \"pasque flower\". The upper plateau, which was denuded by logging and converted to cultivable land, contains grasslands. Along the river beds, reed-beds or willow shrubs are noted. Eighteen species of orchids have been recorded.  152 species of bird have been recorded in the park. The IBA trigger species recorded are Syrian woodpecker \"(Dendrocopos syriacus)\" and Barred warbler \"(Sylvia nisoria)\". The faunal species recorded consist of 65 species of mammals. There are seven species of reptiles, which include a tree snake and green lizard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Viticulture.", "content": "(or Hora Šobes, English: \"Šobes Hill\"), one of the oldest and most renowned vineyard tracks in the Czech Republic, is situated in the park. In 2014, the company \"Znovín Znojmo\" who owns 70% of the vineyards at Šobes, started efforts to place the area on the list of UNESCO World Natural Heritage Site. Šobes contains approximately 12 hectares of vineyards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Podyjí National Park () is a national park in the South Moravian Region of the Czech Republic. Adjacent to Austria's Thayatal National Park on the border, together they are referred to as the Inter-National park. Podyjí is one of the Czech Republic's four national parks. It protects near-natural forests along the deep Dyje River valley. The well-preserved state of the biome of the park is cited as being unique in Central Europe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976982}
{"src_title": "SS Zeeland (1900)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "In July 1899, the Red Star Line announced plans for the construction of four large steamers. Two ships, and \"Zeeland\" at John Brown & Company of Clydebank in Scotland, and two others, and, were to be built at William Cramp & Sons in Philadelphia. After being launched on 24 November 1900, \"Zeeland\" made her maiden voyage from Antwerp to New York on 13 April 1901, sailing under the British flag.  \"Zeeland\" began regular service on the Antwerp–New York route sailing opposite of \"Vaderland\", and when they were completed in 1902, \"Kroonland\" and \"Finland\". In April 1910, \"Zeeland\" was chartered to the White Star Line for service between Liverpool and Boston, where she remained until September 1911. The following month, \"Zeeland\" was returned to the Antwerp–New York service for Red Star. In July 1912 the liner was reflagged as a Belgian ship; she remained on the same route, and continued sailing for the Red Star Line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I.", "content": "After the August 1914 outbreak of World War I, \"Zeeland\" was reflagged as a British ship, and sailed from Liverpool to New York in September. Shifting to the White Star-Dominion Line, \"Zeeland\" first sailed from Liverpool to Quebec and Montreal in November, and from Liverpool to Halifax and Portland in December and January 1915. In early 1915, \"Zeeland\", though her name was Dutch, was renamed to the less German-sounding SS \"Northland\". Sailing for the International Navigation Company, the liner continued on the Liverpool–Halifax–Portland service through June before returning to the Liverpool–Quebec–Montreal route.  After a period when she was taken up as a British troop ship, under the name HMT \"Northland\", the liner returned for service under the White Star-Dominion Line in August 1916. In April 1917, \"Northland\" began Liverpool–Halifax service, eventually making seven roundtrips on that route.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Late career.", "content": "In February 1919, SS \"Northland\" began sailing from Liverpool to Philadelphia for the American Line through June 1919. After a refurbishment, the liner was returned to her former name, \"Zeeland\"; to the Red Star Line; and to Antwerp–New York service (with intermediate stops in Southampton) in August 1920. In April 1923, \"Zeeland\" was converted to cabin- and third-class passenger service only. \"Zeeland\" began her last Red Star voyage on 8 October 1926. Transferred to the Atlantic Transport Line in 1927, the liner was renamed SS \"Minnesota\" and began tourist service between London and New York in April. After making her last voyage in September 1929, \"Minnesota\" was sold and scrapped at Thos W Ward Inverkeithing in 1930.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SS \"Zeeland was a British and Belgian ocean liner of the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM). She was a sister ship to and a near sister ship to and of the same company. Although her name was Dutch, it was changed during World War I to the less German-sounding SS \"Northland. She served for a time as a British troop ship under the name HMT \"Northland. Reverting to \"Zeeland\" after the war, the ship was renamed SS \"Minnesota late in her career. \"Zeeland\" sailed primarily for IMM's Red Star Line for most of her early career, but also sailed under charter for the White Star Line (later White Star-Dominion), the International Navigation Company, the American Line, and the Atlantic Transport Line, all IMM subsidiary lines.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976983}
{"src_title": "Anne Conway (philosopher)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Anne Finch was born to Sir Heneage Finch (who had held the posts of the Recorder of London and Speaker of the House of Commons under Charles I) and his second wife, Elizabeth (daughter of William Cradock of Staffordshire). Her father died the week before her birth. She was the youngest child. Her early education was by tutors and included Latin, to which she later added Greek and Hebrew. Her half-brother, John Finch, who encouraged her interests in philosophy and theology, introduced Anne to the Cambridge Platonist Henry More, who was one of John's tutors at Christ's College, Cambridge. This led to a lifelong correspondence and close friendship between them on the subject of René Descartes' philosophy, over the course of which Anne grew from More's informal pupil to his intellectual equal. More said of her that he had \"scarce ever met with any Person, Man or Woman, of better Natural parts than Lady Conway\" (quoted in Richard Ward's \"The Life of Henry More\" (1710) p. 193), and that \"in the knowledge of things as well Natural and Divine, you have not onely out-gone all of your own Sex, but even of that other also.\" Conway grew up in the house now known as Kensington Palace, which her family owned at the time.  In 1651, she married Edward Conway, later 1st Earl of Conway, and in the following year More dedicated his book \"Antidote against Atheism\" to her. In 1658, Anne gave birth to her only child, Heneage Edward Conway, who died of smallpox just two years later. Her husband was also interested in philosophy and had himself been tutored by More, but she went far beyond him in both the depth of her thought and the variety of her interests. She became interested in the Lurianic Kabbalah, and then in Quakerism, to which she converted in 1677. In England at that time the Quakers were generally disliked and feared, and suffered persecution and even imprisonment. Conway's decision to convert, to make her house a centre for Quaker activity, and to proselytise actively was thus particularly bold and courageous.  Her life from the age of twelve (when she suffered a period of fever) was marked by the recurrence of severe migraines. These meant that she was often incapacitated by pain, and she spent much time under medical supervision and searching for a cure (at one point even having her jugular veins opened). She had medical consults from Dr. Thomas Willis. Conway was famously treated by many of the great physicians of her time, but none of the treatments had any effect. She died in 1679 at the age of forty-seven.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Principles of the Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy\".", "content": "The text itself was probably written in 1677 and shows the influence of Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont. The text was first published in Latin translation by van Helmont in Amsterdam in 1690 as \"Principia philosophiae antiquissimae et recentissimae\". An English edition appeared in 1692. The \"Principles\" develops Conway's monistic view of the world as created from one substance. Conway is critical of the Cartesian idea that bodies are constituted of dead matter, of Henry More's concept of the soul in his \"Antidote Against Atheism,\" and of dualist theories of the relationship between the body and spirit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anne Conway (also known as Viscountess Conway; \"née\" Finch; 14 December 1631 – 23 February 1679) was an English philosopher whose work, in the tradition of the Cambridge Platonists, was an influence on Gottfried Leibniz. Conway's thought is a deeply original form of rationalist philosophy, with hallmarks of gynocentric concerns and patterns that lead some to think of it as unique among seventeenth-century systems.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976984}
{"src_title": "Petr Nečas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Private life and education.", "content": "Nečas was born in Uherské Hradiště, Czech Republic, on 19November 1964. He attended gymnasium in Uherské Hradiště from 1979 to 1983. He graduated from the Faculty of Science at the University of J.E. Purkyně in Brno in 1988.  Nečas met his future wife, Radka Nečasová, at school when he was18. In 2013, he filed for divorce and not long after married his former chief of staff, Jana Nagyová.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Peter Nečas studied plasma physics. Before he was elected to the Czech Parliament he worked as a research and development engineer in the semiconductor industry, dealing with plasma processes. From 1988 to 1992, he worked as developer for Tesla Rožnov. He became a member of the Civic Democratic Party (ODS) in 1991 and was named deputy defence minister in 1995. One year later he was elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies. From 4 September 2006 to 8 May 2009 Nečas was Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Labour and Social Affairs.  In March 2010, he replaced Mirek Topolánek as leader of the party. The Civic Democratic Party came second in the 2010 Czech legislative election and shortly after Nečas announced his intention to stand for the post of party chairman.  In 2011 Nečas supported European organizations signing an agreement on the establishment of the Platform of European Memory and Conscience for studies on the totalitarian past. On this occasion, Nečas highlighted that all four countries of the Visegrad Group have gone through two totalitarian regimes in their modern history. “This must not be forgotten, because it was a period of fighting for freedom,” he said, adding: “Our nations deserve the truth about their past and I believe that the establishment of this Platform will help to find the truth about this history.”  In 2012 as Prime Minister Petr Nečas urged all Czechs to avoid drinking \"any alcohol whose origin is uncertain\" due to a fatal methanol poisoning affair in the Czech Republic which caused more than 40 casualties, including several cases of people being blinded.  In 2013 Nečas supported Israel with the Czech Republic's vote at the United Nations. Due to an historical affinity, Nečas claimed, \"We've got a special feeling for Israel's situation—that of a small nation surrounded by enemies.\"  In June 2013, the Police Unit for Combating Organized Crime and the Chief Public Prosecutor's Office in Olomouc organized a raid against organized crime. It involved several high-ranking state officials and politicians, including Jana Nagyova, the then chief of staff of Prime Minister Nečas. Initially Nečas refused to resign but he finally did so on 17 June. In February 2014, the police charged him with bribery.  Nečas left politics in 2013. He started to work for SPGroup. He also became a tutor at CEVRO Institute. In June 2017, Nečas became an adviser to Pavel Sehnal, leader of the newly established Civic Democratic Alliance. Sehnal stated that the party would stand Nečas in elections if he didn't have to face charges from the time of his premiership.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Petr Nečas (born 19 November 1964; ) is a Czech former politician who served as 9th Prime Minister of the Czech Republic and Leader of the Civic Democratic Party from 2010 to 2013, and as Member of the Chamber of Deputies (MP) from 1993 to 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976985}
{"src_title": "Korowai people", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Language.", "content": "The Korowai language belongs to the Awyu–Dumut family (southeastern Papua) and is part of the Trans–New Guinea phylum. A dictionary and grammar book have been produced by a Dutch missionary linguist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Living.", "content": "It has been claimed that the majority of the Korowai clans live in tree houses on their isolated territory, but the BBC revealed in 2018 that the Korowai had constructed the tree houses \"for the benefit of overseas programme makers\" and did not actually live in them. Since 1980 some have moved into the recently opened villages of Yaniruma at the Becking River banks (Kombai–Korowai area), Mu, and Mbasman (Korowai–Citak area). In 1987, a village was opened in Manggél, in Yafufla (1988), Mabül at the banks of the Eilanden River (1989), and Khaiflambolüp (1998). The village absenteeism rate is still high, because of the relatively long distance between the settlements and the food (sago) resources. The Korowai appear to now smoke tobacco but not to drink alcohol.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "The Korowai are hunter-gatherers and horticulturalists who practice shifting cultivation. They have excellent hunting and fishing skills. Information about Korowai trade patterns is scant. The Korowai have a few gender-specific activities, such as the preparation of sago and the performance of religious ceremonies in which only the male adults are involved.  Some Korowai have since the early 1990s generated moderate cash income by working with tour companies selling tours into the Korowai region. Within the tourist industry, opportunities are limited to hosting tour groups in villages for tourist-sponsored sago feasts, carrying luggage, and performing traditional displays.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kinship.", "content": "The patriclan is the central unit with respect to social, economic, and political organization. Kinship terminology follows the Omaha I pattern (Lounsbury), knowing a central opposition between cross and parallel relationships. In Korowai society the forms of institutional levirate and predominance of avuncular relationships are found, as well as a kind of affinal avoidance relationships. Marriage is exogamous and polygynous. Preference is given to a conjugal relationship with the (classificatory) mother's mother's brother's daughter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social life.", "content": "Leadership structures are based on personal qualities of big men, rather than on institution. Interclan warfare occurs mainly because of witchcraft and sorcery-related conflicts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious life.", "content": "The Korowai universe is filled with all kinds of spirits, some more personal of character than others. Reverence is paid especially to the red headed creator god Gimigi. The Korowai ascribe an important role in their daily lives of honoring their \"One God\", with one being used as the concept of a prime deity from whom all others either descend or to whom all others pay homage. Once in a lifetime, a Korowai clan must organize a sago grub festival in order to stimulate prosperity and fertility in a ritual fashion. In times of trouble they sacrifice domesticated pigs to the spirits of the ancestors. The Korowai have an extraordinary and rich oral tradition: myths, folktales, (magical) sayings and charms, and totem traditions. With respect to death and afterlife the Korowai believe in the existence of a reciprocal type of reincarnation: those who died can be sent back at any time to the land of the living, by their kinsmen in the land of the dead, in order to reincarnate in a newly born infant of their own clan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contact with Westerners.", "content": "The first documented contact by Western scientists with members of a band of western Korowai (or eastern Citak) took place on March 17–18, 1974. The expedition was co-led by anthropologist Peter Van Arsdale (now at the University of Denver), geographer Robert Mitton, and community developer Mark (Dennis) Grundhoefer. Thirty men were encountered on the south bank of the Upper Eilanden River, approximately 12 miles east of its junction with the Kolff River and 10 miles north of the Becking River. A basic word list was generated and observations were recorded regarding such things as fire making techniques.  In the late 1970s, a few Christian (Dutch Protestant) missionaries began to live among the Korowai. Dea Sudarman, an Indonesian anthropologist, made several documentary films on the Korowai for Japanese television in the 1980s. In 1993, a film crew documented an anthropological study in the Dayo village area by the Smithsonian Institution of Korowai treehouse construction and the practice of cannibalism as a form of criminal justice. This resulted in the film \"Lords of the Garden\". In 1996 a local Christian community was established, the members of it mainly originating from the neighbouring Kombai people. For a long time the Korowai have been considered exceptionally resistant to religious conversion; however, by the end of the 1990s the first converts to Christianity were baptized. In the autumn of 2003, a small team of Bible translators from Wycliffe/SIL moved to Yaniruma.  In May 2006, tour-guide Paul Raffaele led an Australian \"60 Minutes\" crew to report on the people. After a few days' filming, the crew were allegedly approached by a man who claimed his 6-year old nephew Wa-Wa had been accused of being a khakua (witch doctor), and was in danger of being cannibalised. The \"60 Minutes\" crew declined to offer assistance. Paul Raffaele approached the rival Seven Network, who agreed to send a \"Today Tonight\" crew to remove Wa-Wa from the area. Before being able to gain access to them, the crew were deported by Indonesian authorities at the Papuan capital of Jayapura over visa issues.  The 2007 BBC documentary \"First Contact\", presented by Mark Anstice, features footage from his 1999 encounter with members of the Korowai people, and describes how they were disturbed upon seeing a \"white ghost\", whose presence indicated the end of the world was nigh.  In January–February 2011, the BBC documentary \"Human Planet\" commissioned the Korowai building of a treehouse 35m high.  In August 2019, the \"Best Ever Food Review Show\" channel on Youtube made contact with the Korowai people in which they ate various foods of the culture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cannibalism claims.", "content": "The Korowai have been reported to practice ritual cannibalism up to the present day. Anthropologists suspect that cannibalism is no longer practiced by the Korowai clans that have had frequent contact with outsiders. Recent reports suggest that certain clans have been coaxed into encouraging tourism by perpetuating the myth that cannibalism is still an active practice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "The distinctive high stilt architecture of the Korowai houses, well above flood-water levels, is a form of defensive fortification – to disrupt rival clans from capturing people (especially women and children) for slavery or cannibalism. The height and girth of the common ironwood stilts also serves to protect the house from arson attacks in which huts are set alight and the inhabitants smoked out.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Korowai, also called the Kolufo, are the people who live in South eastern West Papua in the Indonesian province of Papua, close to the border with Papua New Guinea. They number about 3,000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976986}
{"src_title": "Gabriela Koukalová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Koukalová began her biathlon career in 2005. In 2007 Koukalová became a member of the national team, and in 2008 she took part in the Biathlon Junior World Championship. Her first experience at the international level was not very good: Koukalová's shooting accuracy and ski speed were at that time not as strong as many of her peers, and her best result at the 2008 Junior Worlds was a 22nd place. Nevertheless, her coaches gave her a chance to take part in further international competitions, including the IBU Cup in the 2008/09 season. Her performances improved: Koukalová, despite some difficulties in shooting, became better than Olga Vilukhina and helped the Czech women's relay team to win a gold at the 2009 Junior World Championships.  Koukalová made her debut on the Biathlon World Cup in December 2009. Her coaches subsequently made the decision to move her back down to the IBU Cup, but her period at that level was relatively brief after she regularly took good results and won a silver medal in the sprint at the 2011 European Championships. She was selected to represent the Czech Republic in the World Cup and at the 2010 Winter Olympics.  Her first significant success was in December 2011: in a World Cup mixed relay in Austria she helped to secure the Czech team second place. During the 2012–13 season she took four wins in the Biathlon World Cup. She added three more wins in the 2013–14 World Cup season. At the 2014 Winter Olympics, she finished fourth in both the 10 km pursuit and 15 km individual before winning silver medals in both the 12.5 km mass start and mixed relay (together with Veronika Vítková, Jaroslav Soukup and Ondřej Moravec).  At the World Championships 2015 in Kontiolahti Koukalová took her first world championship title in the mixed relay as a member of the successful Czech team. In the sprint race she took 18th place with three penalties, but in the pursuit she was able to climb to fifth place. In the individual race Soukalova won a silver medal, which became her second medal at these World Championships. At the final World Cup meeting of the season in Khanty-Mansiysk Soukalova managed to win a silver medal in the mass start. In the final overall World Cup rankings for 2014/15, she finished in sixth place with 752 points.  In the 2015/2016 season Koukalová put in strong performances: at the fifth round of the World Cup on 4 January 2016, even two missed targets did not prevent her from making the podium. Gabriela showed good consistency, finishing no lower than 11th place during the season, and continued to lead the World Cup standings. In the 12.5 km mass start on 16 January 2016 she won and got her tenth victory in the Biathlon World Cup. She also helped to win a silver for the team in the 4x6 km relay on 24 January 2016, and took a third place in the mass start in Canada on 6 February 2016. In the US at Presque Isle on 11 February 2016 in sprint she got the best result showing a perfect accuracy and an excellent performance. The following days brought two gold medals in the 10 km pursuit and 4x6 km relay. Despite some poorer results in Norway, Koukalová took a better result in the sprint in Khanty-Mansiysk in Russia on 17 March 2016 clinching her the small Crystal Globe in the sprint with a total of 413 points. On the next day in the pursuit she got a fourth place, but with very good level both in speed and shooting. She also took a second small Crystal Globe in the mass start with 241 points. She led the standings in the 2015/2016 World Cup from start to finish, and won the overall Crystal Globe on 20 March 2016 with a final score of 1074 points.  The 2016/2017 season started in Östersund, Sweden on 27 November 2016, where she and her teammates took 7th place in the mixed relay. The 15 km race on 30 November 2016 brought a 17th place, but later on, on 3 December 2016, she took third place in the 7.5 km sprint, and the next day she showed even better results - winning the pursuit, showing an excellent performance both in skiing and shooting. The next medal (first place) was taken in a mass start race on December 18, 2016.  On 21 December 2017 she became the first biathlete to be named Czech Sportsperson of the Year. Due to a leg injury she did not start in the 2017/2018 season, and later revealed that she will possibly not return to the World Cup ever again. On 28 May 2019 she announced her retirement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "She is the daughter of Gabriela Svobodová, a former cross-country skier, who won an Olympic silver medal in the 4 x 5 km relay at Sarajevo in 1984. Later, her mother helps as a personal trainer.  Koukalová is married to a Czech professional badminton player Petr Koukal. They married on 13 May 2016, in the historic unfinished church in Panenský Týnec. In April 2018 she published her autobiography \"Jiná\", in which she revealed a long history of eating disorders", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biathlon results.", "content": "All results are sourced from the International Biathlon Union.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gabriela Koukalová, née Soukalová (, born 1 November 1989) is a former Czech biathlete. She won two Olympic silver medals at the 2014 Sochi Games and she is a two-time World Championship winner, gold medalist at the 2015 Kontiolahti in mixed relay and gold medalist at 2017 Hochfilzen in 7.5 km sprint. In the 2015/2016 World Cup season she was overall champion, and she has also taken six discipline Crystal Globes: the 2013/2014 individual title, the 2015/2016 sprint, pursuit and mass-start titles, and the 2016/17 sprint and mass start titles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976987}
{"src_title": "Fox Maule-Ramsay, 11th Earl of Dalhousie", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Dalhousie was the eldest son of William Maule, 1st Baron Panmure, and a grandson of George Ramsay, 8th Earl of Dalhousie. Christened Fox as a compliment to Charles James Fox, the great Whig, he served for a term in the Army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1835 he entered the House of Commons as member for Perthshire. In the ministry of Lord Melbourne (1835–1841), Maule was Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, and under Lord John Russell, he was Secretary at War from July 1846 to January 1852, when for two or three weeks he was President of the Board of Control.  In April 1852, he succeeded his father as 2nd Baron Panmure. In February 1855, he joined Lord Palmerston's cabinet, filling the new office of Secretary of State for War. Lord Panmure held this office until February 1858. He was at the War Office during the concluding period of the Crimean War, and met a good deal of criticism. He was Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland from 1853 until his death.  Always interested in church matters, Dalhousie was a prominent supporter of the Free Church of Scotland after it split from the Church of Scotland in the disruption of 1843. In December 1860, he succeeded his kinsman, the 1st Marquess of Dalhousie, as 11th Earl of Dalhousie. He shortly afterwards changed his surname to \"Maule-Ramsay\" (his father had changed his surname to \"Maule\" from the family's patronymic \"Ramsay\" before being created Baron Panmure).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Freemasonry.", "content": "Maule was appointed Senior Grand Warden of the United Grand Lodge of England in 1832, and later (as Lord Panmure) Deputy Grand Master in 1857. He was elected Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Scotland in 1867. In 1860, Panmure Lodge (now No. 723) was warranted, being named after the then Deputy Grand Master.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Lord Dalhousie married the Hon. Montague, daughter of George Abercromby, 2nd Baron Abercromby, in 1831. They had no children. She died in November 1853, aged 46. Lord Dalhousie died July 1874, aged 73. On his death, the barony of Panmure became extinct, but the earldom of Dalhousie (and its subsidiary titles) passed to his cousin, George Ramsay.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fox Maule-Ramsay, 11th Earl of Dalhousie, (22 April 18016 July 1874), known as Fox Maule before 1852, as The Lord Panmure between 1852 and 1860, was a British politician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976988}
{"src_title": "Australopithecus sediba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Discovery.", "content": "The first specimen of \"A. sediba\" was found by paleoanthropologist Lee Berger's nine-year-old son, Matthew, on August 15, 2008. While exploring near his father's dig site in the dolomitic hills north of Johannesburg, on the Malapa Nature Reserve, Matthew stumbled upon a fossilized bone. The boy alerted his father to the find, who could not believe what he saw—a hominid clavicle. Upon turning the block over, \"sticking out of the back of the rock was a mandible with a tooth, a canine, sticking out. And I almost died\", he later recalled. The fossil turned out to belong to a juvenile male, whose skull was discovered in March 2009 by Berger's team. The find was announced to the public on April 8, 2010.  Also found at the Malapa archeological site were a variety of animal fossils, including saber-toothed cats, mongooses, and antelopes. Berger and geologist Paul Dirks speculated that the animals might have fallen into a deep \"death-trap\", perhaps lured by the scent of water. The bodies may have then been swept into a pool of water with a sandy bottom and rich with lime, allowing the remains to become fossilized.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossils.", "content": "MH1 is disarticulated and 34% complete if skeletal elements known to be in an unprepared block are included (59.6% if small elements are excluded) while MH2 is 45.6% complete (again 59.6% excluding small elements) and exhibits partial articulation.  The fossil was dated using a combination of palaeomagnetism and uranium–lead (U-Pb) dating which showed that the fossils are no older than ~2.0 Ma. The presence of animal species which became extinct at ~1.5 Ma indicates the deposit is no younger than 1.5 Ma. The sediments have a 'normal' magnetic polarity and the only major period between 2.0 and 1.5 Ma when this occurred is the Olduvai sub-Chron between 1.95 and 1.78 Ma. Accordingly, the fossils were originally dated to ~1.95 Ma. Recent dating of a capping flowstone demonstrated this was not possible and the normal magnetic polarity sediments have since been correlated to the 3,000-year-long Pre-Olduvai event at ~1.977 Ma.  The conditions in which the individuals were buried and fossilized were extraordinary, permitting the extraction of plant phytoliths from dental plaque. Based on this, it seems that \"Australopithecus sediba\" may have lived in savannas but ate fruit and other foods from the forest, similar to the behavior of modern-day savanna chimpanzees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Morphology and interpretations.", "content": "Because of the wide range of mosaic features exhibited in both cranial and post-cranial morphology, the authors suggest that \"A. sediba\" may be a transitional species between the southern African \"A. africanus\" (the Taung Child, Mrs. Ples) and either \"Homo habilis\" or even the later \"H. erectus\" (Turkana boy, Java man, Peking man).  The cranial capacity of MH1, which has been estimated to be at 95% of adult capacity (420 cm), is at the higher end of the range for \"A. africanus\" and far from the lower range of early \"Homo\" (631 cm), but the mandible and tooth size are quite gracile and similar to what one would expect to find in \"H. erectus\"; so similar are these features that, if found in isolation without other skeletal remains, they could be classified as \"Homo\" based on tooth and mandible size. However, the cusp spacing is more like \"Australopithecus\".  Regardless of whether \"A. sediba\" is a direct ancestor of early \"Homo\" or not, our understanding of the range of variation in early hominins has been greatly increased with the finding of these new specimens.  \"Australopithecus sediba\" compared to its ancestor species \"A. africanus\" on the whole is described by Berger et al. as more derived towards \"Homo\" than \"A. garhi\", especially showing a number of synapomorphies taken to anticipate the reorganization of the pelvis in \"H. erectus\", associated with \"more energetically efficient walking and running\". The femur and tibia are fragmentary, but the foot combines an advanced anklebone combined with a primitive heel. Its cranial capacity is estimated at around, about one-third of that of modern humans (). \"A. sediba\" had a surprisingly modern hand, whose precision grip suggests it might have been another tool-making \"Australopithecus\". Evidence of the precision gripping and stone tool production can be seen from Homo-like features such as having a long thumb and short fingers. The nearly complete wrist and hand of an adult female from Malapa, South Africa presents Australopithecus-like features, such as a strong flexor apparatus associated with arboreal locomotion.  A well-preserved and articulated ankle of \"A. sediba\" is mostly humanlike in form and function and possesses some evidence for a humanlike arch and Achilles tendon. However, \"A. sediba\" is apelike in possessing a more gracile calcaneal body and a more robust medial malleolus than expected. This shows that \"A. sediba\" may have practiced a unique combination of bipedalism and arboreality.  As opposed to the authors of the initial description, who interpreted both fossils as a possible transitional species between \"Australopithecus\" and \"Homo\", other palaeoanthropologists are reluctant to do so. In an accompanying news article published with the initial descriptions in 2010, detractors of the idea that \"A. sediba\" might be ancestral to the genus \"Homo\" (e.g. Tim White and Ron Clarke) suggest that the fossils could be a late southern African branch of \"Australopithecus\", coexisting with already existing members of the genus \"Homo\".  This interpretation is based on the observation that the lower jaw, discovered by Friedemann Schrenk, of a 2.5-million-year-old fossil attributed to \"H. rudolfensis\" is the second-oldest-known fossil ascribed to the genus \"Homo\" behind LD 350-1. This specimen is thus presumed to be older than the \"Australopithecus sediba\" fossils. These critics continue to ascribe to \"A. africanus\" the status of precursor to the genus \"Homo\". Criticism has been raised about the authors of the initial description's conclusions in a news report in the journal \"Nature\", suggesting that the authors failed to take into account the wealth of variation within \"A. africanus\" when defining the finds as an independent species.  Additionally, the basing of the description of the species largely on the skeleton of a juvenile specimen has been subject to criticism, given that there is no certain way of saying to what extent adults would differ from juvenile specimens. More recent reviews appear to have accepted the specific status of \"A. sediba\" as an independent species from \"A. africanus\" and other early hominins. Moreover, the use of juvenile specimens as type specimens has been a common practice in palaeoanthropology: the type specimens of \"Homo habilis\" and \"Australopithecus africanus\" are themselves juvenile specimens.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Australopithecus sediba is a species of \"Australopithecus\" of the early Pleistocene, identified based on fossil remains dated to about 2 million years ago. Morphologically, \"A. sediba\" is distinct from but still closely related to both \"Homo habilis\" and \"Australopithecus africanus\". It is therefore of interest as a candidate for a transitional species in the emergence of the \"Homo\" (human) genus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976989}
{"src_title": "Edith Frank", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Edith was the youngest of four children, having been born into a German Jewish family in Aachen, Germany. Her father, Abraham Holländer (1860–1928) was a successful businessman in industrial equipment who was prominent in the Aachen Jewish community together with Edith's mother, Rosa Stern (1866–1942). The ancestors of the Holländer family lived in Amsterdam at the start of the 18th century, emigrating from the Netherlands to Germany around 1800. Edith's last name, \"Holländer\", is German for \"Dutchman\" (literally: \"Hollander\"). Edith had two older brothers, Julius and Walter, and an older sister, Bettina. Bettina died at the age of 16 due to appendicitis when Edith was just 14. Both Julius and Walter made it to the United States, surviving afterwards. The Holländer family adhered to Jewish dietary laws and was considered to be religious. Nevertheless, Edith attended the Evangelical Higher Girls’ School and passed her school-leaving exams (Abitur) in 1916. Afterwards, she worked for the family company. In her free time, she read copiously, played tennis, went swimming and had a large circle of friends.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "She met Otto Frank in 1924 and they married on his 36th birthday, 12 May 1925, at Aachen's synagogue. They had two daughters born in Frankfurt, Margot, born 16 February 1926, followed by Anne, born 12 June 1929.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Immigration.", "content": "The rise of Antisemitism and the introduction of discriminatory laws in Germany forced the family to emigrate to Amsterdam in 1933, where Otto established a branch of his spice and pectin distribution company. Edith found emigration to the Netherlands difficult. The family lived in confined conditions and she struggled with the new language. She remained in contact with her family and friends in Germany, but also made new friends in Amsterdam, most of them German refugees. Edith was an open-minded woman who educated her daughters in a modern way. Her older brothers Walter (1897–1968) and Julius (1894–1967) escaped to the United States after 1938, and Rosa Holländer-Stern left Aachen in 1939 to join the Frank family in Amsterdam, where she passed in January 1942.  Anne Frank's cousin Bernhard (\"Buddy\") Elias has said that \"Edith never felt well in Holland. Edith was \"German\", and she missed Germany. She did not learn Dutch very well. She did not feel at home in Amsterdam.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Persecution and death.", "content": "In 1940, the Nazis invaded the Netherlands and began their persecution of the country's Jews. Edith's children were removed from their schools, and her husband had to turn over his business to his Dutch colleagues Johannes Kleiman and Victor Kugler, who helped the family when they went into hiding at the company premises in 1942.  The two-year period the Frank family spent in hiding with four other people (their neighbours Hermann van Pels, his wife Auguste Van Pels and his son Peter Van Pels, and Miep Gies's dentist Fritz Pfeffer) was famously chronicled in Anne Frank's posthumously published diary. In her diary, the adolescent Anne frequently writes about the disagreements, conflicts, mutual lack of understanding, and the pessimism of her mother, which she wants to disassociate herself from. However, she repeatedly also describes her mother as an understanding and loyal woman who stands up for her daughters and protects them against verbal attacks from the other inhabitants. The diary ended three days before they were anonymously betrayed and arrested on 4 August 1944. After detainment in the Gestapo headquarters on the Euterpestraat and three days in prison on the Amstelveenweg, Edith and those with whom she had been in hiding were transported to the Westerbork concentration camp. From there, they were deported to Auschwitz concentration camp on 3 September 1944, on the last train to be dispatched from Westerbork to Auschwitz.  Edith and her daughters were separated from Otto upon arrival, and they never saw him again. Edith looked for ways of keeping her children alive. Survivors later described them as an inseparable trio. On 30 October, another selection separated Edith from Anne and Margot. Edith was selected for the gas chambers, and her daughters were transported to Bergen-Belsen. Edith escaped with a friend to another section of the camp, where she remained through the winter. While here she hid every scrap of food she got and saved it for her daughters. Because she refused to eat any of the food she was saving for her daughters, she died from starvation on 6 January 1945, three weeks before the Red Army liberated the camp and 10 days before her 45th birthday. Her daughters outlived her by one month.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Her daughter's diary.", "content": "When Otto Frank decided to edit his daughter's diary for publication, he was sure that his wife had come in for particular criticism because of her often difficult relationship with Anne, and he deleted some of the more heated comments out of respect for his wife and other residents of the Secret Annex. Nevertheless, Anne's portrait of an unsympathetic and sarcastic mother was duplicated in the dramatizations of the book. Anne's portrayal of her mother was countered by the memories of those who had known her as a modest, distant woman who tried to treat her adolescent children as her equals. Anne died of typhus a few months before the Second World War ended.  In 1999, the discovery of previously unknown pages excised by Otto showed that Anne had discerned that, although Edith very much loved Otto, Otto — though very devoted to Edith — was not \"in love\" with her; and that this understanding was leading Anne to develop a new sense of empathy for her mother's situation. By the time Edith and her daughters were in Auschwitz, Bloeme Evers-Emden, an Auschwitz survivor interviewed by Willy Lindwer in \"The Last Seven Months of Anne Frank\" (page 129), observed that \"they were always together, mother and daughters. It is certain that they gave each other a great deal of support. All the things a teenager might think of her mother were no longer of any significance.\"  After their arrest and transfer to camp Westerbork the relationship between Anne and her mother improved as can be seen from a letter sent by Otto Frank to his cousin Milly on 16 November 1945:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edith Frank (née Holländer; 16 January 1900 – 6 January 1945) was the mother of Holocaust diarist Anne Frank, and her older sister Margot. She was a prisoner during the Holocaust at Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp, where she died from starvation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976990}
{"src_title": "SS Laurentic (1927)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "The construction of this ship is peculiar in several respects. In fact, it was the only time in sixty years that White Star Line ordered from the shipyard Harland & Wolff on the basis of a defined budget. The \"Laurentic\" thus appeared to be a ship at a discount, an unusual fact in the history of the company. The very origin of the construction was rather nebulous, since she was built with the hull number 470, while the \"Doric\", put into service in 1923 (four years before her), had the hull number 573. This would suggest that the decision to build the \"Laurentic\" was made in the early 1920s and that the construction sites retained the cumbersome unfinished structure for more than five years, but the cause of the delay is unknown. Not only did it have a profile similar to that of the \"Doric\", the \" Laurentic \" also stood out for its archaism: she was still propelled by coal when most of the newer ships were fueled by oil, and its propulsion is similar to the one used by the first \"Laurentic\" in 1909. She used two quadruple expansion engines powering sided propellers and a low pressure turbine for the central propeller. The construction was delayed by the 1926 United Kingdom general strike. The ship was eventually launched without a ceremony on 16 June 1927. She was completed five months later on 1 November, after which she left Belfast for Liverpool with representatives of the company and shipyards on board.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passenger career.", "content": "On 31 December 1927, she began her maiden voyage, sailing from Liverpool and cruising around the Mediterranean before returning to Liverpool on 17 April 1928. On 27 April 1928, the ship was transferred to the Liverpool - Quebec - Montreal route and remained there for most of her commercial career but also occasionally cruised the Mediterranean. In January 1931, it was expected that the ship be transferred to a Mediterranean cruise but the Great Depression made the service unprofitable.  The \"Laurentic\" had two collisions during her career. The first occurred on 3 October 1932 with \"Lurigethen\" of the HE Moss Line. Both vessels remained afloat following the collision. An inquiry later determined that the crews of the \"Laurentic\" was responsible for the accident. The second occurred on 18 August 1935 with \"Napier Star\" of the Blue Star Line, leaving six dead among the crew of \"Laurentic\".  On 25 February 1934, she made her last crossing on a regular line for the White Star between Boston, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Halifax, and Liverpool. She was then assigned to cruises. In March of that year, she transported 700 pilgrims from Dublin to Rome for the Easter celebrations. Many unnecessary ships were sold in the following years, but the \"Laurentic\" was retained and temporarily assigned to the Montreal route before returning to cruising.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military service and sinking.", "content": "The White Star Line and Cunard Line merged in 1934, without affecting the career of the ship. The ship was docked in December 1935 and served the following September as troop transport bound for Palestine. In this capacity, she made her last trip for the White Star Line in December of that year. In 1937 she took part in the Coronation Naval Review at Spithead carrying government guests. In 1939, with the start of the Second World War, \"Laurentic\" was requisitioned as HMS \"Laurentic\" and converted into an auxiliary cruiser, losing her recasting part of the superstructure aft. On 3 November 1940, the \"Laurentic\" responded to a call for help from a ship that had been torpedoed by a U-boat. Arriving at the scene, she was targeted by two torpedoes from \"U-99\" commanded by Otto Kretschmer, however these torpedoes missed, but after four hours, she was struck by a two further torpedoes which sent her to the bottom, killing 49 of 416 people aboard. She was the last White Star vessel to sink and one of the final four White Star vessels along with \"Georgic\", \"Britannic\" and \"Nomadic\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The second SS \"Laurentic\" was an 18,724-ton ocean liner built in 1927 by Harland and Wolff, Belfast, for the White Star Line. She served on the Canadian route from 1927 to 1936. After the merger of the White Star Line with Cunard Line, the ship was mainly used for cruise service. After December 1935, however, she was laid up unused in Liverpool. In August 1939, she was requisitioned and converted into an auxiliary cruiser for the Royal Navy for service in the Second World War. The \"Laurentic\" was torpedoed by the on 3 November 1940 off Bloody Foreland, County Donegal, Ireland during a rescue mission for another ship that had been torpedoed and sunk, but she remained afloat. After two more torpedoes smashed into the \"Laurentic\", she foundered, taking the lives of 49 people.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976991}
{"src_title": "St Nedelya Church assault", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Preparation.", "content": "After the failure of the September Uprising in 1923 and the prohibition of the BCP by the Bulgarian Supreme Court of Appeal on 2 April 1924, the Communist Party found itself in a difficult situation. The government arrested many activists and the organization's very existence was under threat. A Special Punitive Group was established as part of the Central Committee of the BCP, including Yako Dorosiev, Captain Ivan Minkov and Vulko (or Valko) Chervenkov. The Military Organization (MO) of the BCP, led by Minkov and Major Kosta Yankov, set up small isolated groups (\"шесторки\", \"\"shestorki\"\") that carried out individual attacks. This, however, did not prevent the police from discovering and destroying the illegal structures of the BCP with relative ease.  Later, in December 1924, the organization recruited Petar Zadgorski, a sexton at the church. Dimitar Hadzhidimitrov and Dimitar Zlatarev, head of the MO armaments section, suggested that Police Director Vladimir Nachev be assassinated and a large-scale assault be carried out during his funeral service. In this way they hoped to eliminate a large number of key figures in the police hierarchy and thus lessen the pressure that the authorities exerted on the BCP. The idea was welcomed by Stanke Dimitrov, Secretary of the Central Committee, who discussed it with Georgi Dimitrov and Vasil Kolarov, General Secretary of the Comintern, in early 1925. Nevertheless, they did not approve the proposal, as they thought such an action should first be preceded by preparations for a large-scale uprising that would follow the attack.  Meanwhile, the government continued to increase its pressure on the BCP. Following the killing of Valcho Ivanov, an influential functionary, on 11 February 1925, an amendment to the Law for the Protection of the State which increased the power of the authorities was introduced on 10 March. Yako Dorosiev, head of the MO, was then assassinated on 26 March. These events threatened the physical survival of the BCP leaders and angered the MO leadership. They announced that they were ready to put their plan into practice despite the Comintern's disapproval. It has been theorized that the assailants acted with the support of Soviet services, but there is no documentary evidence to support this hypothesis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Execution of plan.", "content": "The MO management assigned one of its groups to the task, led by Petar Abadzhiev, who himself recruited the sexton, Petar Zadgorski. With his help, Abadzhiev and Asen Pavlov carried in a total of 25 kg of explosives to the attic of St Nedelya Church over the course of a couple of weeks. The explosives were mounted in a package above one of the columns of the main dome, situated by the south entrance to the building. The plan was to detonate the bomb by a 15 m-long cord that would allow the assailants a chance to escape.  Due to the strengthened guard at Vladimir Nachev's funeral service, the MO chose another victim whose funeral would be used as bait for the assault. At 8 pm on 14 April General Konstantin Georgiev, a deputy of the ruling Democratic Alliance, was assassinated by Atanas Todovichin in front of a Sofia church while heading there for the evening service with his granddaughter.  The funeral service of General Georgiev was set for 16 April, Holy Thursday. In order to increase the toll, the organizers sent forged invitations on behalf of the Association of Reserve Officers. At 7 am on the 16th, Zadgorski led Nikola Petrov to the roof, where Petrov would detonate the bomb on Zadgorski's signal. The funeral procession entered the church at 3 pm that afternoon. The service was conducted by Bishop Stefan, the future Bulgarian Exarch. The coffin was initially placed right next to the column that was to be blown up, but then moved forward due to the large number of people that came to attend the ceremony. In accordance with the MO group's plan, when the congregation had gathered and the service began, Zadgorski gave Nikola Petrov a signal to detonate, after which the two left the building at around 3:20. The explosion demolished the main dome of the church, burying many people inside. The blast indoors caused further damage. 150 people died during the explosion and another 500 were injured. By chance, all government members survived. The monarch, Tsar Boris III, was not in the church, as he was attending the funerals of those killed in the attempt on his own life in the Arabakonak pass in Stara Planina. Among the victims were General Kalin Naydenov (Minister of War during World War I); Stefan Nerezov, commander of the Bulgarian Army at Dojran; General Ivan Popov, General Grigor Kyurkchiev, then-Mayor of Sofia Paskal Paskalev, as well as another governor, the chief of police, and three deputies. 25 women and children were also killed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Direct consequences.", "content": "The evening after the terrorist attack, martial law was declared. The attack caused a wave of violent repressions organized by the Military Union with the government's tacit approval. During the following two weeks, approximately 450 people were executed without trial, including poet Geo Milev and journalist Yosif Herbst. (A mass grave of those killed in 1925 was discovered in the 1950s during the construction of a dam, and Milev's corpse was identified by his glass eye - he had lost an eye in World War I.) Many other communists were heavily judged for taking part in the organization. The MO leaders Kosta Yankov and Ivan Minkov were among those assassinated. A few of the organizers of the attack, such as Zlatarev, Petar Abadzhiev and Nikola Petrov, managed to escape to the Soviet Union through Yugoslavia. Abandoned by his party, Zadgorski surrendered to the police and made a confession.  The assault trial took place before a military court in Sofia between 1-11 May 1925. Zadgorski, Lieutenant-Colonel Georgi Koev, who unsuccessfully attempted to hide Minkov, and Marko Fridman, an MO section leader, were all sentenced to death. Stanke Dimitrov, Petar Abadzhiev, Dimitar Grancharov, Nikolay Petrini and Hristo Kosovski received capital punishment by default, with the last three of those having already been killed in the previous weeks. Marko Fridman, the highest-ranked individual of those accused, confessed that the organization was financed and supplied with weaponry from the Soviet Union, but pinned the ultimate responsibility for the attack on Yankov and Minkov, who, according to Fridman, acted without the BCP management's agreement.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The St Nedelya Church assault was a terrorist attack on St Nedelya Church in Sofia, Bulgaria. It was carried out on 16 April 1925, when a group of the Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP) blew up the church's roof during the funeral service of General Konstantin Georgiev, who had been killed in a previous communist assault on 14 April. 200 people, mainly from the country's political and military elite, were killed in the attack and around 500 were injured.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976992}
{"src_title": "Battle of Baecula", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "According to Polybius, after Scipio’s surprise attack and capture of Carthago Nova, the three Carthaginian armies in Iberia remained separated, and their generals at odds with each other, thus giving the Romans a chance to deal with them one by one.  Early in 208 BC, Scipio, with 30,000 Roman and Italian troops and 10,000 Spanish auxiliaries, moved against Hasdrubal Barca, whose 30,000-strong force had wintered at Baecula, on the upper reaches of the river Baetis (modern day Guadalquivir).  On learning of the Roman approach, Hasdrubal shifted his camp to a strong defensive position — a high and steep plateau south of Baecula, protected by ravines on the flanks and the river to the front and rear. Moreover, the plateau was formed into two steps, on which Hasdrubal posted his light troops on the lower one and his main camp behind.  After his arrival, Scipio was at first uncertain as to how to attack such a formidable position, but concerned that the other two Carthaginian armies might take advantage of his inaction and join with Hasdrubal, he took action on the third day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "Before his main attack, Scipio sent one detachment to block the entrance to the valley separating the two armies and one to the road leading north to Baecula, thus providing security to his main force, while harassing any Carthaginian attempt to retreat.  After these preliminary deployments were done, the Roman light troops advanced against their Carthaginian counterparts on the first step. Despite the steep slope, and under a shower of missile attack, the Romans had little difficulty driving back the Carthaginian light troops once they got into hand-to-hand combat.  After reinforcing his leading force, Scipio derived a pincer attack on the flanks of the Carthaginian main camp by ordering Gaius Laelius to lead half of the remaining heavy foot to the right of the enemy position, and he himself scaling the left.  Hasdrubal, meanwhile, was under the impression that the Roman attack was only a skirmish (Scipio had hidden his main army in camp until the final attack) and failed to properly deploy his main force, thus his ill-prepared army was caught on three sides by the Romans.  Despite being trapped, Hasdrubal was able to retreat unmolested with his elephants, main baggage train, and some of his Carthaginian troops. It appeared that his main losses in the battle were the majority of his light troops and Iberian allies. This was largely due to the legionnaires' choice to plunder the Carthaginian camp rather than pursue Hasdrubal with any earnestness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "After the battle, Hasdrubal led his depleted (and mainly Gallic) army over the western passes of the Pyrenees into Gaul, and subsequently into Italy in an attempt to join his brother Hannibal.  Scipio's failure to stop Hasdrubal's march to Italy was criticized by the Roman Senate. Scipio did not exploit his victory at Baecula to drive out the Carthaginians from Iberia, instead choosing to withdraw to his base at Tarraco. He secured alliances with many of the Iberian tribes, who switched sides after the Roman successes at Carthago Nova and Baecula.  Carthaginian reinforcements landed in Iberia in 207 BC, and would soon launch a final attempt to recover their losses at the Battle of Ilipa in 206 BC.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Baecula was a major field battle in Iberia during the Second Punic War. Roman Republican and Iberian auxiliary forces under the command of Scipio Africanus routed the Carthaginian army of Hasdrubal Barca.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976993}
{"src_title": "The Imp of the Perverse (short story)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The narrator explains at length his theory on \"The Imp of the Perverse\", which he believes causes people to commit acts against their self-interest. This essay-like discussion is presented objectively, though the narrator admits that he is \"one of the many uncounted victims of the Imp of the Perverse\". He then explains how his conviction for murder was the result of this.  The narrator begins his story by explaining how he murdered a man using a candle that emitted a poisonous vapor: The victim enjoyed reading in bed at night and, using the candle for illumination, dies in his poorly ventilated room. No evidence is left behind, causing the coroner to believe the man's death is an act of God. The narrator inherits the man's estate and, knowing he can never be caught, enjoys the benefits of his murderous act for many years.  The narrator remains unsuspected, though he occasionally reassures himself by repeating under his breath, \"I am safe\". One day, he notes that he will remain safe only if he is not foolish enough to openly confess. In saying so, however, he begins to question if he is capable of confessing, and is beginning to feel overpowered by a sudden urge to confess to the murder. He fearfully runs through the streets, arousing suspicion. When finally stopped, he feels struck by some \"invisible fiend\". He reveals his secret with \"distinct enunciation\", though in such a hurry as if afraid of being interrupted. He is quickly tried and convicted of murder and sentenced to death by hanging.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "\"The Imp of the Perverse\" begins as an essay rather than as a work of fiction, a format that Poe previously used in \"The Premature Burial\". It is, therefore, less about plot and more about theory. As Poe describes this theory: The work theorizes that all people have self-destructive tendencies, including the narrator. The narrator's ultimate confession as a murderer is not inspired by any feelings of guilt but, instead, from an overwhelming desire to publicize his actions despite knowing that he should not.  Poe's theory of the Imp of the Perverse may also be an early notion of the subconscious and repression which would not be fully theorized until Sigmund Freud.  Many of Poe's characters display a failure to resist the Imp of the Perverse—including the murderer in \"The Black Cat\" and the narrator in \"The Tell-Tale Heart\". The opposite of this impulse is seen in Poe's character C. Auguste Dupin who exhibits reason and deep analysis. One of the earliest examples, which predates \"The Imp of the Perverse\", was in Poe's novel \"The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket\". In one scene, the title character is overcome by an overwhelming desire to let himself fall off a steep cliff.  Additionally, scholars and critics suggest that Poe had his own Imp of the Perverse. Poe biographer Jeffrey Meyers suggested that Poe wrote it to justify his own actions of self-torment and self-destruction. James M. Hutchisson says that the work reflects Poe's jealousy and sense of betrayal that led to his public feud with Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and New England literary culture; the so-called \"Longfellow War\" was occurring at the same time Poe wrote \"The Imp of the Perverse\". Three months after the story was published, Poe lashed out against Boston's literary circle by trying to hoax them by reading his obscure poem \"Al Aaraaf\" at a lecture. Biographer Daniel Stashower suggests Poe's purposeful attempt to provoke his audience and alienate himself further was inspired by his Imp of the Perverse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication history.", "content": "\"The Imp of the Perverse\" was first published in the July 1845 issue of \"Graham's Magazine\". A slightly revised version appeared in the Boston-based gift book \"May-Flower\" for 1846.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "Poe reported in the \"Broadway Journal\" in December 1845 that the \"Nassau Monthly\" at Princeton College harshly criticized \"The Imp of the Perverse\". Calling it a \"humbug\", the reviewer noted that the author's line of reasoning about this philosophical idea was difficult to follow. \"He chases from the wilderness of phrenology into that of transcendentalism, then into that of metaphysics generally; then through many weary pages into the open field of inductive philosophy, where he at last corners the poor thing, and then most unmercifully pokes it to death with a long stick.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"The Imp of the Perverse\" is a short story by 19th-century American author and critic Edgar Allan Poe. Beginning as an essay, it discusses the narrator's self-destructive impulses, embodied as the symbolic metaphor of The Imp of the Perverse. The narrator describes this spirit as the agent that tempts a person to do things \"merely because we feel we should \"not\".\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976994}
{"src_title": "Eleanor Holland, Countess of Salisbury", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Lady Eleanor Holland was born in 1386 in Upholland, Lancashire, England, one of the ten children of Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent and Lady Alice FitzAlan, sister of Richard Fitzalan, 11th Earl of Arundel. Eleanor's eldest sister, Lady Alianore Holland, Countess of March who married Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March shared the same name. They were named after their maternal grandmother. Eleanor's father was a uterine half-brother of King Richard II. Her eldest brother Thomas Holland, 1st Duke of Surrey was beheaded in 1400 by a mob of angry citizens at Cirencester for his role in the Epiphany Rising, which was aimed against the life of King Henry IV of England, who had usurped the throne of King Richard. Thomas's heir to the earldom of Kent was her second eldest brother Edmund Holland, to whom Eleanor became co-heiress.  Her paternal grandparents were Thomas Holland, 1st Earl of Kent and Joan of Kent, who was the mother of King Richard by her second marriage to Edward, the Black Prince; and her maternal grandparents were Richard Fitzalan, 10th Earl of Arundel and Eleanor of Lancaster.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Lady Eleanor married Sir Thomas Montagu, son of John Montagu, 3rd Earl of Salisbury and Maud Francis, on 23 May 1399, as his first wife. She was about thirteen years old at the time of her marriage. Thomas would later become one of the most important commanders in the Hundred Years War. Eleanor did not assume the title of Countess of Salisbury until 14 June 1409, when the title, Earl of Salisbury, was nominally restored to Thomas. An attainder had been placed on his father's title and estates following his execution for his participation in the Epiphany Rising in 1400 alongside Eleanor's brother, Thomas. Eleanor's uncle John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter had also been part of the conspiracy but he had escaped the mob only to be captured in Essex and decapitated on the orders of her maternal aunt Joan Fitzalan, mother-in-law of King Henry IV.  Thomas and Eleanor made their home at Bisham Manor in Berkshire. Together they had one daughter:  Eleanor died on an unknown date sometime after 1413. She was buried in Bisham Priory.  Thomas married secondly before 1424, Alice Chaucer, granddaughter of the noted author Geoffrey Chaucer, but their marriage was childless. He was mortally wounded on 27 October 1428 at the Siege of Orléans and died several days later on 3 November.  Alice, the daughter of Thomas and Eleanor, succeeded her father as \"suo jure\" 5th Countess of Salisbury. Through Alice, Eleanor was the grandmother of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick and great-grandmother of Cecily Bonville, who became one of the wealthiest English heiresses in the 15th century. Eleanor was also the great-great-great-grandmother of queen consort Catherine Parr, the sixth and final wife of King Henry VIII.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eleanor Holland, Countess of Salisbury (1386- after 1413), was an English noblewoman, the daughter of Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent, a half-brother of King Richard II of England. She was the first wife of Thomas Montagu, 4th Earl of Salisbury. One of her brothers was Edmund Holland, 4th Earl of Kent, to whom she was co-heiress. She is not to be confused with her eldest sister Alianore Holland, Countess of March who bore the same name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976995}
{"src_title": "Marcos Alonso (footballer, born 1990)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Real Madrid.", "content": "Born in Madrid, Alonso joined Real Madrid's youth academy as a child, going on to represent every youth side in the following years. In 2008, he reached Real Madrid Castilla which competed in Segunda División B, and first appeared for the reserve team on 22 February 2008, playing the entire match in a 0–1 home loss against AD Alcorcón.  On 11 December 2009, Alonso was first summoned by the main squad – coached by Manuel Pellegrini – for a La Liga match at Valencia CF. Eventually, he did not make the final list of 18, and his debut arrived on 4 April of the following year as he came on as a substitute for Gonzalo Higuaín in the 90th minute of a 2–0 win away to Racing de Santander.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bolton Wanderers.", "content": "Alonso joined Bolton Wanderers of the Premier League for an undisclosed fee, on 27 July 2010. He made his competitive debut for the club in a League Cup 1–0 away win against Southampton on 24 August; his first league appearance arrived on 1 January 2011, starting for suspended Paul Robinson in a 1–2 away loss to Liverpool at Anfield.  Alonso scored his first goal for Bolton on 31 March 2012, netting the second in an eventual 3–2 success away to Wolverhampton Wanderers. At the end of the 2012–13 season, he was voted \"The Bolton News\" player of the year, winning 37% of the vote: Marc Iles wrote, \"...this has been a break-out season for the former Real Madrid starlet. Alonso has grown in stature and become a consistent performer at full-back – chipping in with some important goals too.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fiorentina.", "content": "In May 2013, Alonso signed for Italian side ACF Fiorentina on a three-year deal, despite being offered a new contract by Bolton manager Dougie Freedman. On 30 December, after the player had made nine official appearances, Sunderland boss Gus Poyet announced that he would join on 1 January 2014, on loan until the end of the campaign.  Alonso played his first match with Sunderland on 7 January 2014, featuring the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 home win over Manchester United for the League Cup semi-final first leg and being given the man of the match award by Sky Sports. He played in the final of the competition on 2 March, not being able to prevent a 3–1 loss against Manchester City; he contributed with 20 appearances all competitions comprised, helping his team retain their top flight status.  Upon his return from loan, Alonso became a regular, amassing over 70 appearances in his final two seasons in purple. On 19 March 2015 he scored his first goal for the \"Viola\", in a 3–0 win away to fellow Italians A.S. Roma for the round of 16 of the UEFA Europa League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chelsea.", "content": "On 30 August 2016, after 85 appearances and five goals overall with Fiorentina, Alonso completed his move back to England after signing a five-year contract with Chelsea worth around £24 million. He made his debut on 20 September, playing the full 120 minutes in a 4–2 win away to Leicester City for the EFL Cup, and four days later he first appeared in the league in a 0–3 away defeat to Arsenal, coming off the bench for Cesc Fàbregas in the 55th minute.  Alonso scored his first goal for the club on 5 November 2016, in a 5–0 victory over Everton at Stamford Bridge. He added two more at the King Power Stadium, in a 3–0 win against Leicester on 14 January 2017.  In April 2018, Alonso came under extensive criticism for seemingly purposely digging his trainer studs into Shane Long's leg during a tackle in a league game against Southampton. He was not reprimanded in any way by referee Mike Dean – who came under similar criticism – but was later charged with violent conduct by The Football Association, and later issued a three-match ban.  Alonso opened his goal account of the 2018–19 season on 18 August 2018, scoring the 3–2 winner in the 81st minute of the home fixture against Arsenal.  Alonso scored the only goal against Newcastle United at home on 19 October 2019, giving Chelsea a narrow 1–0 win. It was his first goal of the 2019–20 season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "On 16 March 2018, Alonso received his first call-up for the Spanish national team for friendlies against Germany and Argentina later that month. He debuted against the latter on the 27th in a 6–1 win at the Wanda Metropolitano where he replaced Jordi Alba with 11 minutes left, making the Alonso's the first Spanish family to have three generations of internationals and seventh worldwide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Alonso's grandfather, Marcos Alonso Imaz, played with Real Madrid's first team for eight years. His father, Marcos Alonso Peña, played several seasons in Spain's top flight, most notably for Atlético Madrid and FC Barcelona, and both represented Spain at senior level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Drunk-driving incident.", "content": "On 3 May 2011, Alonso was arrested following his involvement in a car accident in Madrid. He was the driver of a car that collided with a wall, killing one of the passengers, a 22-year-old woman, having been driving at 112.8 km/h (70 mph) in wet conditions in a 50 km/h (30 mph) zone, with a blood alcohol level of 0.93 mg per millilitre of blood. He faced 21 months in prison when sentenced in February 2016, but his punishment was changed to a €61,000 fine and a driving ban of three years and four months, which had already been spent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Sunderland  Chelsea  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marcos Alonso Mendoza (; born 28 December 1990) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a left back or a wing back for club Chelsea and the Spain national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976996}
{"src_title": "Latrodectus mactans", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Latrodectus mactans\" was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775, placing it in the genus \"Aranea\". It was transferred to the genus \"Latrodectus\" in 1837 by Charles Walckenaer and is currently placed in the family Theridiidae of the order Araneae. The species is closely related to \"Latrodectus hesperus\" (western black widow) and \"Latrodectus variolus\" (northern black widow). Members of the three species are often confused with the genus \"Steatoda\", the false widows. Prior to 1970, when the current taxonomic divisions for North American black widows were set forth by Kaston, all three varieties were classified as a single species, \"L. mactans\". As a result, there exist numerous references which claim that \"black widow\" (without any geographic modifier) applies to \"L. mactans\" alone. Common usage of the term \"black widow\" makes no distinction between the three species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The body length (excluding legs) of the mature female is, for males. Legs are long in proportion to body. Females are shiny and black in color, with a red marking in the shape of an hourglass on the ventral (under) side of her very rounded abdomen. There is much variation in female size, particularly in egg-carrying (gravid) females. The abdomen of a gravid female can be more than in diameter. Many female widows also have an orange or red patch just above the spinnerets on the top of the abdomen. Juveniles have a distinctly different appearance from the adults; the abdomen is grayish to black with white stripes running across it and is spotted with yellow and orange. Males are either purple, or closer to the appearance of the juveniles in color.  The web of the black widow spider is a three-dimensional tangled cobweb of exceptionally strong silk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "The southern widow is primarily found in (and is indigenous to) the southeastern United States, ranging as far north as Ohio and as far west as Texas. The northern black widow \"(L. variolus)\" is found primarily in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada, though its range overlaps with that of \"L. mactans\". In Canada, black widows range in the southern parts of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec and Ontario. In the Dominican Republic it is found throughout the whole country. \"Latrodectus mactans\", along with \"Latrodectus hesperus\" and \"Latrodectus geometricus\" (the \"brown widow spider\"), is established in the Hawaiian Islands (USA). One pathway of entry into Hawaii for at least one of these black widow species is imported produce (which is also considered an important potential pathway for widow spiders elsewhere).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "When a male is mature, he spins a sperm web, deposits semen on it, and charges his palpal bulbs with the sperm. Black widow spiders reproduce sexually when the male inserts his palpal bulbs into the female's spermathecal openings. The female deposits her eggs in a globular silken container in which they remain camouflaged and guarded. A female black widow spider can produce four to nine egg sacs in one summer, each containing about 100–400 eggs. Usually, eggs incubate for twenty to thirty days. It is rare for more than a hundred to survive this process. On average, thirty will survive through the first molting, because of cannibalism, lack of food, or lack of proper shelter. It takes two to four months for black widow spiders to mature enough to breed, however full maturation typically takes six to nine months. The females can live for up to three years, while a male's lifespan is about three to four months. The female may eat the male after mating.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prey.", "content": "Black widow spiders typically prey on a variety of insects, but they do feed on woodlice, diplopods, and chilopods when they are young, and occasionally other arachnids. The spider's web is even strong enough to catch animals as large as mice. When the prey is entangled by the web, \"Latrodectus mactans\" quickly comes out of its retreat, wraps the prey securely in its strong web, then bites and envenoms its prey. The venom takes about ten minutes to take effect; in the meantime, the prey is held tightly by the spider. When movements of the prey cease, digestive enzymes are released into the wound. The black widow spider then carries its prey back to its retreat before feeding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natural enemies.", "content": "There are various parasites and predators of widow spiders in North America, though apparently none of these have ever been evaluated in terms of augmentation programs for improved biocontrol. Parasites of the egg sacs include the flightless scelionid wasp \"Baeus latrodecti\", and members of the chloropid fly genus \"Pseudogaurax\". Predators of the adult spiders include a few wasps, most notably the blue mud dauber, \"Chalybion californicum\", and the spider wasp \"Tastiotenia festiva\". Other species including Mantis or Centipede also will occasionally and opportunistically take widows as prey, but the preceding all exhibit some significant specific preference for \"Latrodectus\".  Furthermore, in 2012, researchers published a paper suggesting that the black widow's close relative, the brown widow, may be competing for territory with, and ultimately displacing black widows in Southern California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicology.", "content": "Although the reputation of these spiders is notorious and their venom does affect humans, only mature females are capable of envenomation in humans; their chelicerae—the hollow, needle-like mouthparts that inject venom—are, at approximately 1 mm., or.04 in., long enough to inject venom into humans, unlike those of the much smaller males. The actual amount injected, even by a mature female, is variable. The venom injected by the female black widow is known as alpha-latrotoxin which binds to receptors at the neuromuscular motor end plate of both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, resulting in increased synaptic concentration of catecholamines. The symptoms are caused by lymphatic absorption and vascular dissemination of the neurotoxin. The symptoms that result from a black widow spider bite are collectively known as \"latrodectism.\" Deaths in healthy adults from \"Latrodectus\" bites are exceedingly rare, with no deaths despite two thousand bites yearly, and studies within the past several decades have been unable to confirm any fatalities from this or any of the other U.S. species of \"Latrodectus\" (e.g. zero fatalities among 23,409 documented \"Latrodectus\" bites from 2000 through 2008). On the other hand, the geographical range of the widow spiders is vast. Epidemics of mostly European Widow spider bites had been recorded from 1850 to 1950, and during that time period, deaths were reported from 2/1000 to 50/1000 bites. Deaths from the Western Black Widow had been reported as 50/1000 in the 1920s. At that same time, antivenom was introduced. The LD-50 of \"L. mactans\" venom has been measured in mice as 1.39 mg/kg, and separately as 1.30 mg/kg (with a confidence interval of 1.20–2.70). In 1933, Allan Blair famously allowed himself to be bitten by the spider in order to investigate the toxicity of its venom in humans and as a means of convincing skeptics at the time who thought that the spider's venom might not be dangerous to humans.  There are a number of active components in the venom:  The venom is neurotoxic.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Latrodectus mactans, known as southern black widow or simply black widow, and the shoe-button spider, is a venomous species of spider in the genus \"Latrodectus\". The females are well known for their distinctive black and red coloring and for the fact that they will occasionally eat their mate after reproduction. The species is native to North America. The venom is seldom fatal to healthy humans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976997}
{"src_title": "L. J. Smith (author)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Smith was born in Orange County, California. Her reported date of birth varies, with sources noting as early as 1958 or 1959 or as late as 1965. As a child, she grew up in Villa Park, California and attended Villa Park High School. It was here that her high school English teacher, Zoe Gibbs, gave Smith the confidence to write.  Smith studied experimental psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara. She later attended San Francisco State University to obtain teaching credentials.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Smith began her career as an elementary school teacher, but left in 1989 after three years to pursue writing.  Smith has said that she realized she wanted to be a writer sometime between kindergarten and first grade, \"when a teacher praised a horrible poem I'd written\", and she began writing in earnest in elementary school.  Her first book, \"The Night of the Solstice\", written during high school and college, was published by MacMillan in 1987, followed by \"Heart of Valor\" in 1990. They sold poorly, as they were labeled for 9 to 11-year-olds and not for young adults, as Smith wanted.  \"The Vampire Diaries\" series was commissioned by Elise Donner, editor of \"Alloy Entertainment\" in 1990: Smith immediately wrote the scene when Elena, Bonnie and Meredith are decorating the gym and the heroine meets Damon (scene later included in the first novel), while, as for the other characters, she adapted those of \"The Garden of Earthly Delights\", an adult book she was writing. She chose the setting of \"The Vampire Diaries\" in Virginia because she has family there and was inspired by the small towns and lifestyles.  Three trilogies followed: \"The Secret Circle\" (1992), \"The Forbidden Game\" (1994) and \"Dark Visions\" (1995). The first installment of \"Night World\" series was published in 1996, followed by eight more over the next two years. In 1998, Smith began a decade-long hiatus from writing, returning in 2008 with a new website and a series of new short stories. \"The Vampire Diaries\" series was reissued in 2007, followed by reprintings of \"The Secret Circle\" trilogy and \"Night World\" series in 2008–2009. \"The Night of the Solstice\" and \"Heart of Valor\" were also reissued in 2008. Three new \"Vampire Diaries\" installments were published in 2009 and 2010. The series was later adapted into a TV series (\"The Vampire Diaries\") in 2009, as well as \"The Secret Circle\", which became a TV series of the same name in 2011.  The final volume of \"The Vampire Diaries\" written entirely by Smith (\"The Return: Midnight\") was released in March 2011. Smith submitted a draft of the next installment (\"The Hunters: Phantom\"), but after a dispute regarding a pivotal plot twist, her involvement was terminated by the publisher and the episode was revised by a ghostwriter. Subsequent \"Vampire Diaries\" installments have also been ghostwritten. She was also replaced on \"The Secret Circle\" series, by ghostwriter Aubrey Clark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Smith previously resided in Concord, California in 1991 and still resides in Northern California with her dog. In 1998, Smith took a decade-long hiatus from writing to take care of her sister's children when her brother-in-law was diagnosed with metastatic melanoma. During this time, her mother died from lung cancer. In late 2015, Smith was diagnosed with granulomatosis with polyangiitis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Night World Series.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Short Stories.", "content": "Published on Lisa Jane Smith official website.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "\"The Vampire Diaries\" Universe.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Short Stories.", "content": "Published on Lisa Jane Smith's official website.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Cuts from \"The Return: Shadow Souls\".", "content": "Published on Lisa Jane Smith's official website.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "\"The Vampire Diaries\": Evensong.", "content": "\"Note: These books were published as fanfiction on Kindle Worlds after Smith's publisher hired other authors to continue the series after \"The Return: Midnight\". They pick up after the ending of said book. And while they do represent the original author's intended continuation, they are not considered official canon to the main \"Vampire Diaries\" series due to their status.\"", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Lisa Jane Smith is an American author of young adult fiction best known for her best-selling series \"The Vampire Diaries\", which has been turned into a successful television show. Her books, particularly \"The Vampire Diaries\" and \"Night World\", have been in the \"New York Times\" Best Seller list and have been nominated for five awards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976998}
{"src_title": "Streetwear", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Streetwear style is generally accepted to have been born out of the Los Angeles surf culture and eventually later the New York City hip hop culture of the late 1970s and early 1980s.  Early streetwear in the 1970s and 1980s also took inspiration from the DIY aesthetic of punk, Japanese street fashion, new wave, heavy metal and hip hop, co-opting established legacy sportswear and workwear fashion brands such as Schott NYC, Dr. Martens, Kangol, Fila and Adidas.  In the late 1980s, surfboard designer Shawn Stussy began selling printed T-shirts featuring the same trademark signature he placed on his custom surfboards. Initially selling the items from his own car, Stussy expanded sales to boutiques once popularity increased. Then as sales peaked, Stüssy moved into exclusive sales to create product scarcity, which firmed up the ultimate baseline definition of streetwear: T-shirts and exclusivity.\"  In the early 1990s, burgeoning record labels associated with popular hip hop acts like Tommy Boy Records, Def Jam Recordings, and Delicious Vinyl began selling branded merchandise embroidered onto letterman jackets and workwear jackets made by companies like Carhartt.  In the mid to late 90s, influences included skateboarding and gangsta rap. Professional American sports franchises having a big impact on the scene, especially the New York Yankees, Los Angeles Raiders and Chicago Bulls caps and jackets, with their production of oversized team jerseys, as well as boots from The Timberland Company and the latest shoe design releases from Nike, Inc..  Brand launches by the chief executives of record companies followed, with Russell Simmons of Def Jam launching his Phat Farm label, Sean Combs of Bad Boy with Sean John, and Jay-Z and Damon Dash of Roc-a-Fella Records launching Rocawear. Rap superstar 50 Cent a few years later launched his G-Unit clothing label, with the sneaker rights given to Reebok.  In the 2000s, the advent of \"bling\" culture saw established luxury brands make inroads into the market, with Burberry, Gucci and Fendi making appearances in hip hop videos and films. The most popular shoe of the era was the Nike Air Force 1, immortalized in the song by Nelly, then the fashion clothing manufacturers began to follow the streetwear companies co-opting the idea of very limited edition capsule collections, now known as \"drops\", using social media and product scarcity as marketing tools.  In the 2010s, some streetwear brands were now coveted as much as the most historically elite fashion brands. \"Complex Magazine\" named Stüssy, Supreme, and A Bathing Ape as the top streetwear brands, and many went on to collaborate on prized high fashion capsule collections such as Supreme x Louis Vuitton, Fila x Fendi, A Bathing Ape x Commes des Garcons, and Stussy x Dior.  In 2018, Wikipedia released two sets of long sleeve streetwear T shirts, in collaboration with LA-based brand Advisory Board Crystals and rapper Lil Wayne, with all profits going to the Wikimedia Foundation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contemporary.", "content": "Common sportswear worn in contemporary street styles include hoodies, bomber jackets, tennis-style skirts, track pants, leggings, and sneakers. Some of these are a revival of 1990s hip-hop fashion, which also favoured bomber jackets and baseball caps.  Contemporary streetwear is usually influenced by the generic sporty twists and sleek athletic lines. In earlier stages of sportswear fashion, femininity was usually expressed with the lines becoming cleaner, and silhouettes becoming minimal. Later, bold volumes in sportswear started to develop, hi-tech fabrics and old-school approaches were used in styling. In general, relaxed silhouettes, clean shapes, little embellishments, and an overall sophisticated feel would be observed in the looks of the trend.  Contemporary streetwear has also become much more influential in the world of haute couture influencing and in turn being influenced by runway shows by prominent designers. Raf Simons has made a large impact on streetwear stylings as it has evolved over the years, this might be attributed by the designers influence in hip hop and popular culture. Other designers such as Demna Gvasalia, creative director of Vetements and Balenciaga, have also had an impact in recent years championing trends such as the chunky sneaker and the oversized hoodie, which have slowly become streetwear staples.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Luxury sportswear.", "content": "The decline of formal wear led to the rise of streetwear fashion. High-end and luxury brands began to develop \"luxury sportswear\", for example Alexander Wang, Gucci, and DKNY. Among this type of \"luxury sportswear\", luxe fabrics were used to produce their sportswear fashion for a high contrast on the sporty silhouette. Fabrics like silk organza, washed satin, leather, neoprene, and wool crepe were used to produce the \"luxury sportswear\". These types of fabrics may help experiment a garment with texture, and may assist in capturing a modern-sports spirit of the season.  Details of the designs in \"luxury sportswear\" looks are pulled directly from actual active wear. The two words, \"luxury\" and \"minimalism\" were first used together for sportswear in fashion, to interpret a fresh sports look which is sleek and clean, but bearing recognizable athletic influences.  Common mix-and-match combination of \"luxury sportswear\" on streetwear are track pants under basketball shorts, with bold patterns and sumptuous fabrics for men; and light colored pencil skirts, with bomber jackets and sleek tops, cut in satin or tweed, for women.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Seasonal sportswear.", "content": "Sportswear in streetwear designs changes according to season and temperature.  In winter, sports silhouette tends to turn slouchier and volumes are exaggerated. Solid fabrics such as fur, velvet, wool and leather become predominant, and quilted detailing on windbreakers, sporty skirts and vests can be seen. A typical winter look might be a voluminous sweatshirt with satin boxer shorts, or a brocade bomber jacket worn on top of a laid-back dress featuring mesh detailing.  In summer, the look is usually light-weight and simple, with a combination of crop tops, sleek dresses, gym-shorts, and tank-tops.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hypebeast culture.", "content": "\"Hypebeast\" (occasionally \"hype beast\") culture is a colloquial term that at first was considered a derogatory term until Kevin Ma, the founder of the original Hypebeast fashion blog, re-appropriated it to be used as the name of his fashion blog, \"Hypebeast\". Even after Ma's fashion blog expanded to a world-famous website, hypebeast still had some negative connotation. Even though many hypebeasts will refer to themselves as such, taking it as a term of endearment (much like the evolution of the term otaku in Japanese popular culture circles) others still believe in the negative connotation.  With a growing trend of prominent brand names and logos on clothing, there has been a development of \"hypebeast culture\" connected to streetwear as of the mid-2000s. Hypebeasts are defined as buying clothes and accessories simply to impress others. This trend is inspired by a 1990s fashion for clothing covered in brand names and logos. Hypebeasts usually wear a variety of name brands at once to boast their affluence and display popular trends.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sneaker culture.", "content": "Sneakers in streetwear accompanies a wide range of footwear. Sneaker culture is an important part of streetwear.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Streetwear is a style of casual clothing which became global in the 1990s. It grew from California surfskate culture, and eventually New York hip hop fashion to encompass elements of sportswear, punk and Japanese street fashion. Eventually haute couture became an influence. It commonly centers on \"casual, comfortable pieces such as jeans, T-shirts, baseball caps, and sneakers\", and exclusivity through intentional product scarcity. Enthusiasts follow particular brands and try to obtain limited edition releases.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4976999}
{"src_title": "Federico Barocci", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and training.", "content": "He was born at Urbino, Duchy of Urbino, and received his earliest apprenticeship with his father, Ambrogio Barocci, a sculptor of some local eminence. He was then apprenticed with the painter Battista Franco in Urbino. He accompanied his uncle, Bartolomeo Genga to Pesaro, then in 1548 to Rome, where he was worked in the pre-eminent studio of the day, that of the Mannerist painters, Taddeo and Federico Zuccari.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mature work in Rome and Urbino.", "content": "After passing four years at Rome, he returned to his native city, where his first work of art was a \"St. Margaret\" executed for the Confraternity of the Holy Sacrament. He was invited back to Rome by Pope Pius IV to assist in the decoration of the Vatican Belvedere Palace at Rome, where he painted the \"Virgin Mary and infant, with several Saints\" and a ceiling in fresco, representing the \"Annunciation\".  During this second sojourn, while completing the decorations for the Vatican, Barocci fell ill with intestinal complaints. He suspected that a salad which he had eaten had been poisoned by jealous rivals. Fearing his illness was terminal, he left Rome in 1563; four years later he was said to experience a partial remission after prayers to the Virgin. Barocci henceforth often complained of frail health, though he remained productive for nearly four decades more. While he is described by contemporaries as personally somewhat morose and hypochondriacal, his paintings are lively and brilliant. Although he continued to have major altarpiece commissions from afar, he never returned to Rome, and was mainly patronized in his native city by Francesco Maria II della Rovere, duke of Urbino. The Ducal Palace can be seen in the background of his paintings, rendered in a forced perspective that seems a holdover from Mannerism. While Barocci was removed from Rome, the fulcrum of artistic fame and influence, he continued to innovate in his style. At some point he may have seen colored chalk/pastel drawings by Correggio, but Barocci's remarkable pastel studies are the earliest examples of the technique to survive. In pastels and in oil sketches (another technique he pioneered) Barocci's soft, opalescent renderings evoke the ethereal. Such studies were part of a complex process Barocci used to complete his altarpieces. An organized series of steps leading up to the final product ensured its speed and success in execution. Barocci did innumerable sketches: gestural, compositional, figural studies (using models), lighting studies (using clay models), perspective studies, color studies, nature studies, etc. Today, over 2,000 drawings by him are extant. Every detail of his subsequent cartoons for canvases was worked out in this way. A good example is his famed \"Madonna del Popolo\" (Uffizi). It is a vortex of color and vitality, made possible by the great variety of people, poses, perspectives, natural details, colors, lighting and atmospheric effects. There are many surviving drawings for the \"Madonna del Popolo\", from initial sketches to color studies of heads, to the final full size cartoon. Despite this painstaking process, Barocci's genius kept the brushstrokes passionate and liberated, and a spiritual light seems to flicker as a jewel across faces, hands, drapery, and sky. Barocci's embrace of the Counter Reformation would shape his long and fruitful career. By 1566, he joined a lay order of Capuchins, an offshoot of Franciscans. He may have been influenced by Saint Philip Neri, whose Oratorians sought to reconnect the spiritual realm with the lives of everyday people. Neri, who was somewhat ambivalent about the accumulating richness of his Santa Maria in Vallicella, commissioned two completed works from Barocci, the pre-eminent artist of these large pious altarpieces: \"The Visitation\" (1583-6) and \"Presentation of the Virgin\" (1593–94). Neri is said to have been moved to ecstasy by Barocci's accomplishment in the former painting, which shows the Virgin and Elizabeth greeting each other.  In Urbino, where he painted a \"Descent from the Cross\" for the cathedral of San Lorenzo at Perugia. He again visited Rome during the papacy of Gregory XIII when he painted two admirable pictures for the Chiesa Nuova, representing the \"Visitation of the Virgin Mary to Elisabeth\" and the \" Presentation in the Temple\", and for the Chiesa della Minerva, a \"Last Supper\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical assessment and legacy.", "content": "The artist biographer Giovanni Bellori, the Baroque equivalent of Giorgio Vasari, considered Barocci to be among the finest painters of his time. Barocci's emotive brushwork was not lost on Peter Paul Rubens when he was in Italy. Rubens is known to have made a sketch of his dramatic \"Martyrdom of St Vitale\", in which the martyr's undulating flesh is the eye of another whirlwind of figures, gestures, and drama. Also, Rubens' \"The Martyrdom of St Livinus\" seems to owe much to Barocci, from the putto with the pointing palm frond to the presence of dogs in the lower right corner. Among the painters and artists who worked under Barocci are Antonio Cimatori (Visacci), Ventura Mazza, Antonio Viviani (il Sordo di Urbino), Giovanni Andrea Urbani, Alessandro Vitali, and finally Felice and Vincenzo Pellegrini. Barocci also had many who followed or were strongly influenced by his style, including Nicolo Martinelli (il Trometta), Giovanni Battista Lombardelli, Domenico Malpiedi, Cesare & Basilio Maggeri, Filippo Bellini, Giovanni Laurentini (Arrigoni), Giorgio Picchi, Giovanni Giacomo Pandolfi, Pietro Paolo Tamburini, Terenzio d’Urbino (\"il Rondolino\"), Giulio Cesare Begni, Benedetto Marini, Girolamo Cialdieri, Giovanni Battista Urbinelli, Alfonso Patanazzi, Gian Ortensio Bertuzzi, Cesare Franchi (il Pollino), Silla Piccinini, Benedetto Bandiera, Matteuccio Salvucci, Simeone Ciburri, Pietro Rancanelli, Onofrio Marini, Alessandro Brunelli, and Francesco Baldelli.  Barocci's swirling composition and the focus on the emotional and spiritual are elements that foreshadow the Baroque of Rubens. But even in Federico's Proto-Baroque \"Beata Michelina\" can see the makings of Bernini's High Baroque masterpiece \"Ecstasy of St Theresa\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Federico Barocci (c. 1535 in Urbino – 1612 in Urbino) was an Italian Renaissance painter and printmaker. His original name was Federico Fiori, and he was nicknamed Il Baroccio. His work was highly esteemed and influential, and foreshadows the Baroque of Rubens.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977000}
{"src_title": "Furutaka-class cruiser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The \"Furutaka\"-class cruisers were the first heavy cruisers in the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), also referred to as \"A class\" cruisers by the IJN. Like the cruiser, their design was the work of Constructor Captain Yuzuru Hiraga, assisted by Lt. Cmdr. Kikuo Fujimoto.  Designed to beat the U.S. and the British s, they were as fast as the \"Omaha\"s (and nearly 4 knots faster than the \"Hawkins\" class), while firing a heavier broadside, and carrying a larger torpedo battery than either one.  Their flush deck resulted in both weight savings and increased strength by allowing the hull's longitudinal members to be continuous. As with \"Yūbari\", the design featured side and deck armour integrated into the ship's structure, saving additional weight.  Despite the weight-saving efforts, as built \"Kako\" was more than 900 tons heavier than her design weight. As a result, draft was increased by more than 1 metre, subsequently reducing top speed, and the height of the belt armour above the waterline. The portholes of the lowest-level crew quarters were near enough to the waterline that they needed to be closed when the ships were at sea, reducing ventilation and making the living spaces less habitable.  They were the first of the IJN cruisers to feature a substantial bridge, with 6 distinct levels, providing support for navigation, fire control, communication and command.  Due to the high freeboard of these ships, mounting the torpedo tubes on the main deck would have caused the torpedoes to enter the water at too steep an angle. Instead, they were mounted on the middle deck in 3 pairs of fixed tubes on each side. Captain Hiraga argued against this kind of mounting, concerned that during battle either a direct hit or fires could detonate the torpedoes, causing severe damage, as indeed happened with of this class during World War II; additionally, the cruisers,,, and, all of which featured similar arrangements, would all be sunk or severely damaged by their own exploding torpedoes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modernization.", "content": "Japanese naval strategists since the early 20th century had planned for a defensive war in the Pacific, with the U.S. Navy as their main opponent. To take advantage of their superior long-range torpedoes, and offset the numerical superiority the U.S. Navy enjoyed, they extensively trained their crews in night torpedo tactics. In 1930, the Naval General Staff, further concerned by the limitations on the size of their navy by the London Naval Treaty won approval for an extensive modernization program of the \"A class\" cruisers. Planned upgrades to the ships included the latest weapons, protection, fire control systems, and communication equipment.  From 1931 to 1933 the two ships had their 4 original anti-aircraft guns replaced by improved 12 cm high-angle electro-hydraulically operated guns, with directors and range finders for them. The original airplane takeoff platform was replaced with a catapult for a reconnaissance seaplane.  They were substantially rebuilt in 1936-1937 (\"Kako\") and 1937-1939 (\"Furutaka\") as follows: The 6 single main battery was replaced by 3 twin turrets housing the /50-cal guns. Light anti-aircraft protection was augmented with 8 25 mm automatic cannons in 4 twin mounts. The 6 pairs (3 per side) of fixed torpedo tubes mounted on the middle deck were replaced with 2 quadruple mounts using the powerful Type 93 torpedo, located on the upper deck, one on each side of the catapult.  The bridge structure was completely rebuilt to accommodate the latest rangefinders and fire control equipment for the main battery, antiaircraft and torpedoes. Platforms were redesigned for aircraft spotters.  The twelve original mixed-fuel boilers were replaced by 10 large oil-fired units, along with a redesign of all the boiler rooms, and replacement of coal bunkers with fuel-oil tanks.  All of the new equipment resulted in increased electrical power requirements, so 3 more generators were added to increase power output from 315 kW to 885 kW.  These modifications added 560 tons to the ships. To prevent the draft from increasing even more, and to improve stability, bulges were added, simultaneously enhancing antitorpedo protection. As a result, the ships' beam was increased to.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The were a class of two heavy cruisers which saw service with the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. Both vessels of this class were sunk in 1942.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977001}
{"src_title": "Sabal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Species.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prehistoric taxa.", "content": "Extinct species within this genus include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "These plants lived from the Cretaceous to Quaternary (from 66 million to 12 thousand years ago). Fossils have been found in United States, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and France. Leaf fossils of Sabal lamanonis have been recovered from rhyodacite tuff of Lower Miocene age in Southern Slovakia near the town of Lučenec.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phylogenetic work in \"Sabal\" (1990s – present).", "content": "The name \"Sabal\" was first applied to members of the group by Adanson in the 18th century. Previous names that this genus was associated with include \"Corypha\", \"Chamaerops\", \"Rhapis\". This section highlights important phylogenetic work done within the genus \"Sabal.\"  In 1990, Scott Zona outlined key morphological and anatomical characters that he used to analyze species relationships of \"Sabal.\" Through this analysis of characters, Zona produced a cladogram that portrays evolutionary relationships amongst 15 species of \"Sabal\". Based on the distribution of species within his cladogram, Zona recognized four distinct clades. The clades within his study include (Clade 1) \"Sabal minor; (\"Clade 2) \"Sabal bermudana, Sabal palmetto, Sabal miamiensis,\" and \"Sabal etonia;\" (Clade 3) \"Sabal maritima, Sabal domingensis, Sabal causiarum, Sabal maurittiformis, Sabal yapa, Sabal mexicana,\" and \"Sabal guatemalensis;\" (Clade 4) \"Sabal uresana, Sabal rosei, and Sabal pumos\". These clades associate closely with geographic distributions. All of the species within Clade 3 occur in the Greater Antilles and southern Mexico, where species that occur in the Greater Antilles are more closely related to each other than those that occur in southern Mexico. Although Clade 4 also occurs in Mexico, these species occur on the west coast where they are geographically separated from the Mexican species within the southern part of the country. The remaining two clades, Clade 1 and Clade 2 predominantly occur in the southeastern United States although \"S. palmetto\" and \"S. minor\" are also known from Cuba and the Bahamas \"(S. palmetto)\" and northern Mexico \"(S. minor).\" \"Sabal bermudana\" is only known from the Bermuda Islands.  In 2016 Heyduk, Trapnell, Barrett, and Leebens-Mack conducted a new study on \"Sabal\" that analyzed molecular (e.g. nuclear, plastid) data from 15 species of the group. This study incorporated plastid and nuclear sequence data that together were used to estimate the relatedness between the species of \"Sabal.\" The results of the study show species relationships to be different from the distribution of Zona's cladogram. Within the framework of this study, a major difference between the results of Zona and this study is the placement of \"Clade 4\" (\"Sabal uresana, Sabal rosei, and Sabal pumos\") which split and integrate these species throughout the phylogeny of \"Sabal.\" The largest of the clades identified by Zona, \"Clade 3\" is disrupted significantly as it is split into multiple clades. Although \"Sabal causiarum\" and \"S. domingensis\" retain their relationship as sister species, they are included in a clade that also includes \"S. maritima\" and \"S. rosei.\" Despite the these disruptions in placement between these two studies, the overall integrity of \"Clade 1\" and \"Clade 2\" is in congruence with the clades established from the molecular data.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pollinators and parasitoids.", "content": "\"Sabal\" species are used as food sources by several species of birds including \"Mimus polyglottos, Turdus migratorius, Dendroica coronata, Corvus ossifragus,\" and \"Drycopus pileatus\", \"Caryobruchus\", and various species of hymenoptera. Bears (\"Ursus americanus)\" and racoons are also known to feed on fruit of various species of \"Sabal. Sabal palmetto\" is recorded to have its own lichen, \"Arthonia rubrocincta,\" that only occurs on the leaf bases of the Cabbage Palm (\"Sabal palmetto\"). In Europe, the introduced Lepidopteran species \"Paysandisia archon\" has become a prominent pest whose larvae are known to feed on some of the cultivated species of \"Sabal.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Arborescent species are often transplanted from natural stands into urban landscapes and are rarely grown in nurseries due to slow growth. Several species are cultivated as ornamental plants and because several species are relatively cold-hardy, can be grown farther north than most other palms. The central bud of \"Sabal\" \"palmetto\" is edible and, when cooked, is known as'swamp cabbage'. Mature fronds are used as thatch and for weaving mats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolic use.", "content": "A silhouette of a palmetto (\"S. palmetto\") appears on the official flag of South Carolina.  Two images of \"S. palmetto\" appear on the Florida state seal.  \"Sabal palmetto\" is the state tree of both Florida and South Carolina.  \"S. palmetto\" has been used as a sign of freedom and independence in the Southern United States since the beginning of the Revolutionary War and especially during secession in the American Civil War.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sabal is a genus of palms (or fan-palms) endemic to the New World. Currently, there are 17 recognized species of \"Sabal\", including one hybrid species. The species are native to the subtropical and tropical regions of the Americas, from the Gulf Coast/South Atlantic states in the Southeastern United States, south through the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central America to Colombia and Venezuela. Members of this genus are typically identified by the leaves which originate from a bare, unarmed petiole in a fan-like structure. All members of this genus have a costa (or midrib) that extends into the leaf blade. This midrib can vary in length; and it is due to this variation that leaf blades of certain species of \"Sabal\" are strongly curved or strongly costapalmate (as in \"Sabal palmetto\" and \"Sabal etonia\") or weakly curved (almost flattened), weakly costapalmate, (as in \"Sabal minor\"). Like many other palms, the fruit of \"Sabal\" are drupe, that typically change from green to black when mature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977002}
{"src_title": "Ernő Goldfinger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Goldfinger was born in Budapest to a Jewish family. The family business was forestry and saw-mills, which led Goldfinger to consider a career in engineering until he became interested in architecture after reading Hermann Muthesius's \"Das englische Haus\", a description of English domestic architecture around the turn of the twentieth century. He continued to recommend the book for most of his life.  Goldfinger moved to Paris in 1921, after the defeat and collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1923 he went to study at the École nationale supérieure des beaux arts in the atelier of Léon Jaussely, and in the following years got to know many other Paris-based architects, including Auguste Perret, Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier. In 1929, before finishing his studies, Goldfinger established a partnership and worked on a number of interior designs and an extension to a holiday home at Le Touquet.  He was strongly influenced by the publication of Le Corbusier's \"Vers une architecture\", and became a fervent admirer of Le Corbusier's former mentor, Auguste Perret, an expert in designing reinforced concrete structures and an inspiration for Goldfinger when designing his own home. In the early 1930s Goldfinger met and married Ursula Blackwell, heiress to the Crosse & Blackwell fortune. The remainder of his career would be based in the UK.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modernist in London.", "content": "In 1934, Ernő and Ursula Goldfinger moved to a flat in Highpoint I, London. Before World War II, Goldfinger built three houses (including his own) at 1–3 Willow Road in Hampstead, North London, and another at Broxted, Essex. His own house, 2 Willow Road, is now in the care of the National Trust.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post World War II.", "content": "After the war, Goldfinger was commissioned to build new offices for the \"Daily Worker\" newspaper and the headquarters of the British Communist Party. In the 1950s, he designed two London primary schools from prefabricated pre-cast concrete with brick infill for the London County Council in Putney. A cottage forming part of Brandlehow School, was demolished by a rogue developer who was prosecuted in 2008, and is being rebuilt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rise of the high rise.", "content": "In an attempt to solve the huge shortage of housing in the country following World War II, in which nearly 4 million houses had been destroyed or damaged, the British Government began to see high-rise buildings as a solution, and Goldfinger rose to prominence in England as a designer of tower blocks.  Among his most notable buildings of the period were the 27-floor Balfron Tower and the adjacent eleven-storey Carradale House in Poplar which served as models for the similar 31-floor Trellick Tower in Kensal Town (started 1968, completed 1972). These three buildings are notable examples of Brutalist architecture.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Goldfinger was known as a humourless man given to notorious rages. He sometimes fired his assistants if they were inappropriately jocular, and once forcibly ejected two prospective clients for imposing restrictions on his design.  A discussion on a golf course about Ernő with Goldfinger's cousin prompted Ian Fleming to name the James Bond adversary and villain Auric Goldfinger after Ernő (Fleming had previously been among the objectors to the pre-war demolition of the cottages in Hampstead that were removed to make way for Goldfinger's house at 2 Willow Road). Goldfinger consulted his lawyers when \"Goldfinger\" was published in 1959, which prompted Fleming to threaten to rename the character 'Goldprick', but eventually decided not to sue; Fleming's publishers agreed to pay his costs and gave him six free copies of the book.  Goldfinger died on 15 November 1987, at the age of 85, and was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium where his ashes remain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Although Goldfinger enjoyed living in his own buildings, they were unpopular among both the public and many post-modernist architects. Towards the end of the 20th century Goldfinger's work became more appreciated. Trellick Tower is now a Grade II* listed building and has become something of a design icon, appearing on T-shirts, paintings and in the lyrics of the song Best Days by Blur. The few privately owned flats within fetch high prices at sale. Balfron Tower and Carradale House are also listed Grade II, while an adjacent building by Goldfinger's studio, the 14-storey Glenkerry House, is run as a housing co-operative and is regarded as a model for management of buildings of the type.  In 2000, Ernő Goldfinger's estate endowed a sum of money to foster links between Hungary and the United Kingdom by sponsoring young Hungarian architectural students to study, travel or work in the UK. Their intention was to honour Ernő's achievements, his commitment to his profession, and his lifelong support for his compatriots. The RIBA Goldfinger Travel Scholarships have been awarded since 2002.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ernő Goldfinger (11 September 1902 – 15 November 1987) was a Hungarian-born architect and designer of furniture. He moved to the United Kingdom in the 1930s, and became a key member of the Modernist architectural movement. He is most prominently remembered for designing residential tower blocks, some of which are now listed buildings.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977003}
{"src_title": "Esther Duflo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Duflo was born in 1972 in Paris, the daughter of pediatrician Violaine Duflo and mathematics professor Michel Duflo. During Duflo's childhood, her mother often participated in medical humanitarian projects.  After studying in the B/L program of Lycée Henri-IV's Classes préparatoires, Duflo began her undergraduate studies at École normale supérieure in Paris, planning to study history, her interest since childhood. In her second year, she began considering a career in the civil service or politics. She spent ten months in Moscow starting in 1993. She taught French and worked on a history thesis that described how the Soviet Union \"had used the big construction sites, like the Stalingrad tractor factory, for propaganda, and how propaganda requirements changed the actual shape of the projects.\" In Moscow, she also worked as a research assistant for a French economist connected to the Central Bank of Russia and, separately, for Jeffrey Sachs, an American economist, who was advising the Russian Minister of Finance. The experiences at these research posts led her to conclude that \"economics had potential as a lever of action in the world\" and she could satisfy academic ambitions while doing \"things that mattered\".  She finished her degree in history and economics at École Normale Supérieure in 1994 and received a master's degree from DELTA, now the Paris School of Economics, jointly with the School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences (EHESS) of the Université Paris Sciences et Lettres (PSL) and the École Normale Supérieure, in 1995. Subsequently, she completed a PhD in economics at MIT in 1999, under the joint supervision of Abhijit Banerjee and Joshua Angrist. Her PhD dissertation focused on effects of a natural experiment involving an Indonesian school-expansion program in the 1970s, and it provided conclusive evidence that in a developing country, more education resulted in higher wages. Upon completing her PhD, she was appointed assistant professor of economics at MIT and has been at MIT ever since, aside from a leave at Princeton University in 2001–2002, and at the Paris School of Economics in 2007 and 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After earning her PhD in 1999, Duflo became an assistant professor at MIT. She was promoted to associate professor (with tenure) in 2002, at 29, making her among the youngest faculty members to be awarded tenure, and to full professor in 2003.  Duflo and Abhijit Banerjee have taken a special interest in India since 1997. In 2003, she conducted a trial experiment on teacher absenteeism in 120 schools run by a non-profit group. By encouraging the teachers to photograph themselves with their students each day, she was able to reduce their absenteeism.  In 2003, she co-founded Poverty Action Lab at MIT, which has since conducted over 200 empirical development experiments and trained development practitioners to run randomized controlled trials. The lab has branches in Chennai, India and at the Paris School of Economics. In 2006, together with several colleagues, Duflo conducted another experiment in India. It showed that taped speeches by women were more readily accepted in villages that had experienced women leaders. Duflo became increasingly convinced that communities supporting women candidates could expect economic benefits, but she experienced difficulty in convincing her peers. Focused on assessing developments addressing social welfare, in 2008, she received the Frontier of Knowledge award for development cooperation. Duflo entered the public sphere in 2013, when she sat on the new Global Development Committee, which advised former US President Barack Obama on issues regarding development aid in poor countries.  Duflo is an NBER research associate, a board member of the Bureau for Research and Economic Analysis of Development (BREAD), and director of the Center for Economic and Policy Research's development economics program, where she serves as both a board member and a director.  She was the founding editor of the \"American Economic Journal: Applied Economics\", editor of \"The American Economic Review\", and a co-editor of \"The Review of Economics and Statistics\" and the \"Journal of Development Economics\". Also, she is a member of the editorial committee of the \"Annual Review of Economics\" and a member of the Human Capital Research Programme within the International Growth Centre.  She writes a monthly column for \"Libération\", a French daily newspaper.  She was the main speaker at the first \"Bocconi Lecture\" of Bocconi University in 2010, followed in 2011 by Caroline Hoxby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Duflo is married to MIT professor Abhijit Banerjee; the couple have two children. Banerjee was a joint supervisor of Duflo's PhD in economics at MIT in 1999.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "In April 2011, Duflo released her book \"Poor Economics\", co-authored with Banerjee. It documents their 15 years of experience in conducting randomized control trials to alleviate poverty. The book has received critical acclaim. Nobel laureate Amartya Sen called it \"a marvelously insightful book by the two outstanding researchers on the real nature of poverty.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Papers.", "content": "Duflo has published numerous papers, receiving 6,200 citations in 2017. Most of them have appeared in the top five economic journals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nobel prize in economic sciences.", "content": "Esther Duflo was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2019 along with her two co-researchers Abhijit Banerjee and Michael Kremer \"for their experimental approach to alleviating global poverty\". Duflo is the youngest person (at age 46) and the second woman to win this award (after Elinor Ostrom in 2009).  The press release from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences noted: \"Their experimental research methods now entirely dominate development economics.\" The Nobel committee commented:  Responding by telephone to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Duflo explained that she received the prize \"at an extremely opportune and important time\" and hoped that it would \"inspire many, many other women to continue working and many other men to give them the respect that they deserve, like every single human being.\" She also revealed that she wanted to use the award as a \"megaphone\" in her fighting efforts to tackle poverty and to improve children's education.  French President Emmanuel Macron offered his congratulations: \"Esther Duflo's magnificent Nobel Prize is a reminder that French economists are currently among the best in the world and shows that research in that field can have concrete impact on human welfare.\"  Much of the discussion related to the prize shared by Duflo and her co-laureates focused on their influential use of randomized controlled trials in designing their experiments. Summarizing the research approach which she had utilized along with Banerjee and Kremer, Duflo said simply, \"Our goal is to make sure that the fight against poverty is based on scientific evidence.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Esther Duflo, FBA (; born 25 October 1972) is a French–American economist who is the Abdul Latif Jameel Professor of Poverty Alleviation and Development Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). She is the co-founder and co-director of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab, which was established in 2003. She shared the 2019 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Abhijit Banerjee and Michael Kremer, \"for their experimental approach to alleviating global poverty\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977004}
{"src_title": "Hohenberg family", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Establishment and history.", "content": "The House of Hohenberg was established by imperial decree of Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria when, upon the couple's marriage in 1900, he created Francis Ferdinand's wife \"Fürstin von Hohenberg\" (Princess of Hohenberg) in her own right with the style of \"Durchlaucht\" (Serene Highness) and the specification that this name and title should also be borne by her descendants.  In 1909, the Emperor raised Sophie to the more senior title of \"Herzogin von Hohenberg\" (Duchess of Hohenberg) with the superior style of \"Hoheit\" (Highness). Since that title had been granted \"ad personam\", it expired upon Sophie's assassination in 1914.  In 1917, Emperor Charles of Austria granted the eldest son of Francis Ferdinand and Sophie the title of duke with the style of \"Highness\". The other members of the family retained the titles of prince and princesses with the lesser style of \"Serene Highness\". Thus, Maximilian became the first Duke of Hohenberg, with the dukedom being hereditary according to primogeniture in the male line. Following the collapse of the monarchy, the Austrian nobility, along with hereditary titles and such nobiliary particles as \"von\", were abolished by law in 1919.  In 1938, several members of the family who were opposed to Adolf Hitler were arrested by the Nazis and sent to Dachau concentration camp, most notably Maximilian and his brother Ernst. The former head of the family, Georg, was ambassador of the Republic of Austria to the Holy See during part of the pontificate of Pope John Paul II. He was also a Knight of the Golden Fleece.  Members of the Hohenberg family are not only descended from, and married into, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, but are also related through marriage to several other European dynasties, including the Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg and the Princely Family of Liechtenstein. They also descend from King George II of Great Britain through his daughter Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange and are therefore distantly related to the British Royal Family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Residences.", "content": "The Hohenberg family still owns Artstetten Castle in Lower Austria, and parts of this castle are open to the public for visits. Former residences of the family include Konopiště château in Bohemia.  Artstetten Castle was selected to provide the main theme for an Austrian 10 euro commemorative coin, minted on 13 October 2004. The reverse shows the entrance to the crypt of the Hohenberg family. There are two portraits on the left, showing Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Line of succession to the ducal title.", "content": "The line of succession to the title of Duke of Hohenberg is as follows:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hohenberg is an Austrian noble family that descends from Countess Sophie Chotek (1868–1914), who in 1900 married Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Este (1863–1914), the heir presumptive to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. As their marriage was a morganatic one, none of their children were in the line of succession to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Still, they represent the senior agnatic line of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977005}
{"src_title": "Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Mitchie Torres (Demi Lovato) returns to Camp Rock for another summer year along with her friends and the members of the band Connect 3: Mitchie's love interest, Shane Gray (Joe Jonas), Nate Gray (Nick Jonas), and Jason Gray (Kevin Jonas). Along the way, she and her mother, Connie Torres (Maria Canals-Barrera), notice that a new camp, Camp Star, has opened across the lake. Mitchie and her friends also notice that there are fewer campers than last year and attempt to lift everyone's spirits at the Opening Jam. Camp Star sends parachutes to Camp Rock with chocolates, graham crackers, and marshmallows, inviting them to a bonfire at their camp, but Brown Cesario is less than enthusiastic, as Camp Star's founder is Axel Turner (Daniel Kash), whom he kicked out of his band. Mitchie and the rest of the campers arrive at Camp Star, as the bonfire starts, Camp Star begins to perform. As their performance ends, Dana Turner (Chloe Bridges)'s bracelet flies from her hand and hits Nate in the eye. Axel then offers the Camp Rock counselors jobs at Camp Star, doubling their salary, and encourages the Camp Rock campers to move to Camp Star. Only a few campers switch, including Tess, but many counselors move to Camp Star. Nate returns Dana's bracelet after the bonfire and the two bond. Dana also reveals she is Axel's daughter. Left with no staff, Brown is forced to close Camp Rock, but Mitchie persuades everyone to not give up, and she and her friends take on the newly vacant counseling roles.  Although things are tough at first, Mitchie and the rest of the counselors eventually settle into their roles. Upset that they were outperformed during their visit, they revisit Camp Star, and the two camps face off. Axel sees the showdown and suggests broadcasting their competition on television and letting the public decide who's the best; Mitchie is reluctant at first, but she eventually agrees after some persuasion from her friends. However, Brown is angry about joining the competition, now called \"Camp Wars\", and tells Connie that Camp Rock cannot win and everyone will start sending their kids to Camp Star after they lose. Overhearing their conversation, Mitchie makes everyone focus only on winning the competition, which frustrates the other campers and Shane, who only returned to Camp Rock to spend more time with her. To improve everyone's spirits, Shane, Jason, and the junior campers start a water balloon fight, much to Mitchie's dismay. That night, Mitchie and Shane get in a fight about their priorities.  The next day, Mitchie wakes up to find everyone rehearsing for \"Camp Wars\", thanks to Shane. Shane and his brothers motivate everyone to work harder. Mitchie and Shane reconcile and spend the day together, but Nate has trouble trying to tell Dana how he feels. Shane and Jason suggest to sing, and Nate goes to Camp Star to serenade her, gaining her affection before being caught by Axel. As the night of \"Camp Wars\" begins, Camp Star performs. After, Brown finds out that Axel has been encouraging the public to vote for Camp Star through text messaging and tweeting and that it would be a miracle if Camp Rock won. All the members of Camp Rock then perform together, accompanied by a video montage of their summer, but Camp Star wins \"Camp Wars\". Back at Camp Rock, everyone gathers at the bonfire for one last time before leaving, but many members of Camp Star, including Tess and Dana, come to join Camp Rock, ensuring they have enough campers to continue for another summer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The film was shot in Toronto, Ontario, from September 3, 2009, to October 16, 2009, filming the scenes at the French River, Camp Kilcoo, The Kingbridge Centre, and Earl Bales Park.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 63% based on 5 reviews and an average of 6.1/10. Jennifer Armstrong from \"Entertainment Weekly\" enjoyed the film and called the performance of Demi Lovato \"dependently appealing\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ratings.", "content": "The film garnered 7.9 million viewers on its premiere night, the most for a movie on cable television in 2010 and the most any cable program that week (August 30 - September 5).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on September 7, 2010, in the United States and Canada and was later available worldwide. It includes the Extended Edition, the special feature Rock Along Edition, and the Combo Pack.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Video game.", "content": "A video game based on the film, \"Disney's Camp Rock: The Final Jam\", was developed and published by Disney Interactive Studios. It was released in North America on August 31, 2010, Europe on September 17, 2010, and Australia on September 30, 2010.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam is a 2010 Disney Channel Original Movie and the sequel to the 2008 film \"Camp Rock\". The film stars Demi Lovato, the Jonas Brothers (Joe, Nick and Kevin), Meaghan Martin, Maria Canals-Barrera, Daniel Fathers, and Alyson Stoner, as well as newcomers Daniel Kash, Matthew \"Mdot\" Finley, and Chloe Bridges. In the film, a new rival summer music camp, Camp Star, appears and attracts everyone's attention, which could mean the end of Camp Rock.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977006}
{"src_title": "Woman Holding a Balance", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Theme.", "content": "In the painting, Vermeer has depicted, what discreetly appears to be a young pregnant woman holding an empty balance before a table on which stands an open jewelry box, the pearls and gold within spilling over. A blue cloth rests in the left foreground, beneath a mirror, and a window to the left — unseen save its golden curtain — provides light. Behind the woman is a painting of the Last Judgment featuring Christ with raised, outstretched hands. The woman may have been modeled on Vermeer's wife, Catharina Vermeer.  According to Robert Huerta in \"Vermeer and Plato: Painting the Ideal\" (2005), the image has been variously \"interpreted as a vanitas painting, as a representation of divine truth or justice, as a religious meditative aid, and as an incitement to lead a balanced, thoughtful life.\" Some viewers have imagined the woman is weighing her valuables, while others compare her actions to Christ's, reading parable into the pearls. Some art critics, including John Michael Montias who describes her as \"symbolically weighing unborn souls\", have seen the woman as a figure of Mary. To some critics who perceive her as measuring her valuables, the juxtaposition with the final judgement suggests that the woman should be focusing on the treasures of Heaven rather than those of Earth. In this perspective, the mirror on the wall may reinforce and reflect the vanity of her pursuits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Completed in 1662 or 1663, the painting was previously called \"Woman Weighing Gold\" before microscopic evaluation confirms that the balance in her hands is empty. The painting was among the large collection of Vermeer works sold on May 16, 1696 in Amsterdam from the estate of Jacob Dissius (1653–1695). It received 155 guilders, considerably above the prices fetched at the time for his \"Girl Asleep at a Table\" (62) and \"The Officer and the Laughing Girl\" (approximately 44), but somewhat below \"The Milkmaid\" (177).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Painting materials.", "content": "The first pigment analysis of this painting by Hermann Kühn revealed the use of ultramarine for the blue tablecloth and lead white for the grey wall. The pigment in the bright yellow curtain was identified as indian yellow. The subsequent technical investigations of the painting by Robert L. Feller (1974) and M.E. Gifford (1994) have shown that the painting had been extended by approximately five centimetre on every side at a much later date. The sample investigated by H. Kühn in 1968 was unfortunately taken from this extension. The proper pigment of the yellow curtain is lead-tin-yellow. The full pigment analysis according to the latest data is illustrated at Colourlex.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Woman Holding a Balance (Dutch: \"Vrouw met weegschaal\"), also called Woman Testing a Balance, is an oil painting by Dutch Golden Age artist Johannes Vermeer, now in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977007}
{"src_title": "Izet Hajrović", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Hajrović started playing football at local clubs, FC Birr and FC Windisch, before joining Grasshopper's youth academy in 2000. He made his professional debut against Luzern on 3 October 2009 at the age of 18. On 19 September 2010, he scored his first professional goals, a brace, in a Swiss Cup game.  On 17 September 2011, also in a cup game, he scored his first professional hat-trick.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Galatasaray.", "content": "On 7 January 2014, Hajrović was transferred to Turkish club Galatasaray for a fee of €3.5 million. He made his competitive debut for the club against Bursaspor on 2 February. He scored his first goal for Galatasaray in a cup win over Tokatspor. Three weeks later, Hajrović debuted in UEFA Champions League against Chelsea. Hajrović won his first trophy with the club on 7 May, by beating Eskişehirspor in Turkish Cup final.  After filing a complaint to FIFA that he received no payments from Galatasaray, he was given the right to move on free transfer elsewhere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Werder Bremen.", "content": "On 10 July 2014, Hajrović signed a four-year contract with German team Werder Bremen. On his competitive debut for the team, he opened the scoring against FV Illertissen in DFB-Pokal game. He made his league debut a week later against Hertha BSC. He scored his first league goal on 26 April 2015 against Paderborn 07.  On 31 August 2015, Hajrović was sent on a season-long loan to Spanish outfit Eibar.  Upon returning from loan spell, Hajrović managed to secure first-team spot at Werder Bremen once again. However, on 3 December 2016, he suffered a severe knee injury, which was diagnosed as anterior cruciate ligament tear and ruled him out for the remainder of season.  Hajrović returned to the pitch on 16 September 2017, over nine months after the injury.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dinamo Zagreb.", "content": "On 31 January 2018, Hajrović joined Croatian side Dinamo Zagreb on a contract until June 2019. He made his official debut in a comfortable away victory over Osijek on 10 February. On 4 April, he scored his first goal for Dinamo Zagreb, in a cup tie against Rijeka. Hajrović won his first trophy with the club on 13 May, when they were crowned league champions.  On 2 February 2019, Hajrović scored a brace against Rudeš, which were his first league goals for the team.  In July 2019, he extended his deal until June 2021.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "After representing Switzerland at youth levels, Hajrović made his senior international debut on 14 November 2012, in a friendly match against Tunisia. However, in June 2013, he decided that in the future he would play for Bosnia and Herzegovina.  In August 2013, Hajrović's request to change his sport citizenship from Swiss to Bosnian was approved by FIFA. Later that month, he received his first senior call-up, for 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Slovakia, home and away. He debuted in the home game on 6 September, which ended in an unexpected loss. Just four days later, in the away game, Hajrović scored his first goal for Bosnia and Herzegovina, coming on from the bench in the 77th minute of the game. His very first contact with the ball after just a few seconds on the pitch resulted in a goal from long range, which brought Bosnia a crucial victory.  In June 2014, Hajrović was named in Bosnia and Herzegovina's squad for 2014 FIFA World Cup, country's first major competition. He made his competition debut in the opening group match on 15 June, which ended in narrow loss to Argentina at the Maracanã Stadium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Hajrović's younger brother Sead is also a professional footballer. They played together in Grasshopper, before Sead joined Arsenal in July 2009.  His parents are Bosniaks from Bijelo Polje, Montenegro, but they relocated to Sarajevo in 1980, after which they moved to Switzerland in 1987.  Hajrović married his long-time girlfriend Lejla in May 2014.  He is a practicing Muslim; along with international teammates Ibrahim Šehić, Muhamed Bešić, Armin Hodžić, Sead Kolašinac, Edin Višća and Ervin Zukanović he visited a mosque in Zenica during national team concentration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Grasshopper  Galatasaray  Dinamo Zagreb", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Izet Hajrović (; born 4 August 1991) is a Bosnian professional footballer who plays as a winger for 1. HNL club Dinamo Zagreb and the Bosnia and Herzegovina national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977008}
{"src_title": "Charles, Margrave of Burgau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Charles of Burgau pursued a military career. He unsuccessfully led a Spanish regiment in the war against the Netherlands and was then deployed in the Long War against the Ottoman Empire. Here, he recorded some successes — at the expense of his soldiers, who were hungry and unpaid; some of them deserted — and was promoted to Field Marshal.  His father died in 1595. Since Charles was born from a morganatic marriage, he was not entitled to inherit the archduchy. He was, however, amply compensated financially and given some territories. His most important possession was the Margraviate of Burgau. He also held the Landgraviate of Nellenburg and the County of Hohenberg. Contemporary sources describe his magnificent court at his residence, Günzburg Castle.  Charles was not popular among his subjects, whom he forbade to drink wheat beer. Nor was he popular among the noble residents of his margraviate, who included the Bishop of Augsburg, the Counts of Fugger and the free imperial cities of Ulm and Augsburg, and with whom he had conflict about tax increases and about their sovereign rights.  In 1615 or 1616, he founded a Capuchin monastery in Günzburg. In 1617, he expelled the Jews from Günzburg; they were ordered to leave the city within a year.  Charles died on 30 October 1618. In 1619, his body was transferred to the church of the Capuchin monastery in Günzburg. His widow as also buried there, in 1627. When the monastery was demolished in 1806, both bodies were transferred to St. Martin's church in Günzburg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "In 1601, Charles married Sibylle (26 August 1557 – 1627), the daughter of Duke William of Jülich-Cleves-Berg. This marriage remained childless, and after Charles's death, his possessions fell back to the main line of the House of Habsburg.  However, Charles had several children from extramarital affairs:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles, Margrave of Burgau, also known as \"Charles of Austria\", (22 November 1560 at Křivoklát Castle in Bohemia – 30 October 1618 in Überlingen), was the son of Archduke Ferdinand II of Austria and his first morganatic marriage to Philippine Welser. He was the brother of Andrew of Austria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977009}
{"src_title": "Guerlain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The House of Guerlain was owned and managed by members of the Guerlain family from its inception in 1828 to 1994. It was acquired in 1994 by the LVMH group, a French multinational investment corporation specializing in luxury brands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beginning.", "content": "The House of Guerlain was founded in 1828, when Pierre-François Pascal Guerlain opened his perfume store at 42, rue de Rivoli in Paris. As both the founder and first perfumer of the house, Pierre-François composed and manufactured custom fragrances with the help of his two sons, Aimé and Gabriel. Through continued success and the patronage of members in high society, Guerlain opened its flagship store at 15, rue de la Paix in 1840, and put its mark on the Parisian fashion scene.  The success of the house under Pierre-François peaked in 1853 with the creation of \"Eau de Cologne Impériale\" for French Emperor Napoleon III and his Spanish-French wife Empress Eugénie. This perfume earned Pierre-François the prestigious title of being His Majesty's Official Perfumer. Guerlain went on to create perfumes for Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and Queen Isabella II of Spain, among other royalty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second generation.", "content": "With the death of Pierre-François in 1864, the house was left to his sons Aimé Guerlain and Gabriel Guerlain. The roles of perfumer and manager were divided between the two brothers, with Gabriel managing and further expanding the house, and Aimé becoming the master perfumer. The House of Guerlain thus began a long tradition whereby the position of master perfumer was handed down through the Guerlain family.  As Guerlain's second generation in-house perfumer, Aimé was the creator of many classic compositions, including \"Fleur d'Italie\" (1884), \"Rococo\" (1887) and \"Eau de Cologne du Coq\" (1894). However, many would argue that his greatest composition was 1889's \"Jicky\", the first fragrance described as a \"parfum\" rather than an eau de cologne, and among the first to use synthetic ingredients alongside natural extracts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third generation.", "content": "The business was handed down to the sons of Gabriel Guerlain: Jacques Guerlain and Pierre Guerlain. Jacques, Aimé's nephew, became Guerlain's third master perfumer; he was the author of many of Guerlain's most famous classics, which are still held in high esteem in the modern perfume industry. Many of his perfumes are still sold and marketed today. Among Jacques Guerlain's most important creations are \"Mouchoir de Monsieur \"(1904), \"Après L'Ondée \"(1906), \"L'Heure Bleue\" (1912), \"Mitsouko\" (1919), Guerlain's flagship fragrance \"Shalimar\" (1925), and \"Vol de Nuit\" (1933). Jacques composed his final perfume, \"Ode\" (1955), with the assistance of his grandson, the then-18-year-old Jean-Paul Guerlain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fourth generation.", "content": "Jean-Paul Guerlain was the last family master perfumer. He created Guerlain's classic men's fragrances \"Vétiver\" (1959) and \"Habit Rouge\" (1965). He also created \"Chant d'Arômes\" (1962), \"Chamade\" (1969), \"Nahéma\" (1979), \"Jardins de Bagatelle\" (1983), and \"Samsara\" (1989), as well as \"Héritage\" and \"Coriolan\" in the 1990s. Jean-Paul Guerlain retired in 2002, but continued to serve as advisor to his successor until 2010, when he was terminated after making a racist remark on French television regarding the inspiration for his scent Samsara. With no heir from within the Guerlain family to take over, the role of master perfumer is no longer tied to family succession.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Purchase by the LVMH Group.", "content": "In a decision widely seen as a break with tradition, the Guerlain family sold the company to the luxury goods conglomerate Moët Hennessy Louis Vuitton (LVMH) in 1994. Though Jean-Paul Guerlain remained as an in-house perfumer until 2002, other perfumers were brought in after 1994 to compose perfumes for Guerlain, and Jean-Paul had to submit his compositions against those of others. Fans of the house viewed the LVMH purchase as a step towards the cheapening and commercialization of the legendary firm's legacy. Most were unhappy with the first post-LVMH release, the 1996 sweet mimosa floral \"Champs-Elysées\", composed by Olivier Cresp, whose entry was selected over that of Jean-Paul Guerlain.  Among the outside perfumers to compose perfumes for the firm after 1994 was Mathilde Laurent, who worked for Guerlain at the end of the 1990s and in the early 2000s. She composed \"Aqua Allegorica Pamplelune\" (1999) and \"Shalimar Light\" (2003, reattributed to Jean-Paul Guerlain and relaunched in 2004 following reformulation). Maurice Roucel, a perfumer of Symrise, composed \"L'Instant de Guerlain\" (2004) and \"Insolence\" (2006). As the niece of Jean-Jacques Guerlain, some thought Patricia de Nicolaï would have been a candidate for the position of Guerlain's in-house perfumer, though the presence of a glass ceiling in the company prevented her selection for position.  In May 2008, Thierry Wasser was named the in-house perfumer for Guerlain. Wasser, a Swiss perfumer who used to work for Firmenich, created \"Iris Ganache\" (2007) and \"Quand Vient la Pluie\" (2007) for Guerlain before his appointment the following year. Jean-Paul Guerlain stayed on in an advisory consultant role, both for fragrance design and ingredients. Wasser will work closely with Sylvaine Delacourte, Guerlain's Artistic Director. In 2010, the LVMH Group cut ties with Jean-Paul Guerlain as their consultant due to his racist comments on French television.  Russian model Natalia Vodianova has been the face of Guerlain campaigns since 2008. Vodianova began advertising \"Shalimar\" to celebrate the perfume house's 180th birthday. For the Fall 2013 makeup collection, Olivier Echaudemaison, Guerlian's Creative Director of Makeup since 2000 commented \"Every season we fantasize with Natalia's image and invent for her a new role. For us, it is not just a model, which advertises cosmetics, but above all, a great actress\". In October 2011, the company named Malaysian actress Michelle Yeoh as a new spokesmodel. Yeoh is an ambassador for the Orchidée Impériale line of skincare.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "Guerlain's creations have long influenced the trends of perfumery with fragrances such as \"Jicky\", \"Shalimar\", and \"Vétiver\". Guerlain is among the few older houses (such as Caron) that exist solely to produce and market perfumes. Many brands in the perfume industry, such as Chanel and Jean Patou are in fact divisions of fashion houses or multinational conglomerates that license the brand name. Alongside its fragrances, today Guerlain has expanded to offer a large range of makeup and skincare. Guerlain products are available across the world at serviced counters within department stores, and at beauty stores such as fellow LMVH brand Sephora. Guerlain also maintains thirteen international beauty and spa 'boutiques', five within France (two being in Paris).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Perfumes.", "content": "Since its foundation in 1828, Guerlain has created over 300 fragrances. These include:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Guerlain () is a French perfume, cosmetics and skincare house, which is among the oldest in the world. Many traditional Guerlain fragrances are characterized by a common olfactory accord known as the \"Guerlinade\". The house was founded in Paris in 1828 by the perfumer Pierre-François Pascal Guerlain. It was run by the Guerlain family until 1994, when it was bought by the French multinational company LVMH. Its flagship store is 68, Avenue des Champs-Elysées in Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977010}
{"src_title": "Nikolai Ogarkov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The revolution in military affairs.", "content": "Ogarkov was a strong advocate of reconstructing the huge, unwieldy Soviet military machine into a smaller, more compact strike force based around advanced technology. In a candid exchange with an American journalist in 1982, he had admitted that \"Soviet technology is a generation or two behind America. In your country, even small children play with computers. We do not even have them in every office of the Defense Ministry. And for reasons you well know, we cannot easily make computers available in our society. Economic reforms are sorely needed, but they will most likely also entail political reforms.\" This openness was in sharp contrast with the anti-American rhetoric he displayed during the aftermath of the KAL-007 shootdown. Aside from Ogarkov's belief that fundamental changes needed to be made to the Soviet socioeconomic status quo, he also ran afoul of army officers who believed in a more traditional World War II style of warfare. In a 1984 article in the army newspaper \"Krasnaya Zvezda\", Ogarkov outlined his vision for modernizing the Soviet military.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ogarkov's ousting.", "content": "Ogarkov was fired by the Politburo on 6 September 1984 in both his capacity of Chief of the General Staff and First Deputy Minister of Defense, and was replaced by Sergey Akhromeyev.  The political analyst Ilya Zemtsov has argued that Ogarkov's removal was the result of Grigory Romanov's failed ambitions to succeed Konstantin Chernenko as General Secretary. According to Zemtsov, Romanov had been trying to force a crisis of succession where his control of the armed forces, via his good relations to Ogarkov, would have tipped a split within the Politburo to his favor. Furthermore, the Politburo was worried about Ogarkov's rapid ascension: Ogarkov had already weakened the power of the Main Political Administration, the organisation tasked with keeping the military under party control, and he had gained access to the Defense Council, though not as a voting member. Romanov, who was preparing for a diplomatic mission, could not protect Ogarkov from being dismissed from his positions for \"unpartylike tendencies\".  Raymond L. Garthoff has written that although \"the reasons for Ogarkov's abrupt removal are not known, there is little question that they concerned matters of defense allocation\". Contrary to Zemtsov, Garthoff argued that \"There is no indication that Ogarkov was involved in factional political infighting\".  Ogarkov was soon after made commander of a newly created Western theater of war command.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "In 2003, a regional museum was opened in Molokovo. The museum is named after Ogarkov and presents expositions about his life.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nikolai Vasilyevich Ogarkov (; 30 October 1917 in the village of Molokovo, Tver Governorate – 23 January 1994, Moscow) was a prominent Soviet military personality. He was promoted to Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1977. Between 1977 and 1984, he was Chief of the General Staff of the USSR. He became widely known in the West when he became the Soviet military's spokesman following the shootdown of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 near Moneron Island in September 1983. He was dismissed as Chief of the General Staff on 6 September 1984.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977011}
{"src_title": "Actimel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Actimel was invented in the 1980s when the first steps to developing a fermented milk based on Lactobacillus casei Danone were taken.  But it wasn’t until 1994 when it was commercially-launched in Belgium. The word Actimel is derived from the Flemish “Active melk” which translates simply as Active Milk.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific basis.", "content": "Claimed benefits range from reducing the incidence of diarrhea and rhinitis reduction for young children, to improvement of the immune function in adults and seniors  A 2007 study published by the \"British Medical Journal\" suggests that the product could help avoid antibiotic–associated diarrhoea and limit \"Clostridium difficile colitis\" infections in elderly patients.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Debates surrounding health claims on probiotic foods.", "content": "On 23 January 2008, a proposed class action was filed in California, accusing Danone Co. Inc. of false advertising in their marketing of yogurt containing probiotic bacteria (Danactive & Activia), alleging that the claimed health benefits have never been proven. The company has denied this accusation.  Foodwatch claims that Danone \"makes a mountain out of a molehill\" in suggesting that Actimel protects from cold and boosts health. Foodwatch believes that the company sells a commodity product as a niche product using branding.  The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) is an independent regulator for advertisements, sales promotion and direct marketing in the UK. According to \"Spiegel Online\" one TV spot from Actimel was blocked by the ASA in 2006 and one in 2008. In the first case the ASA upheld a complaint that the advert misleadingly implied that children given Actimel would be prevented from catching bacterial infections. Meanwhile in the second case complaints about the use of the phrase \"Actimel is scientifically proven and you can see that proof for yourself on our website\" were upheld as only summaries of, or references to, these studies were present on the website and the full content was not available. A TV advert which stated that Actimel was \"scientifically-proven to help support your kids' defences\" was banned by the Advertising Standards Authority.  Alexa Meyer, from the Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Vienna, Austria, comparing probiotic drinks and normal yogurt, found no significant difference in the effect of Actimel and normal yogurt with living bacteria. The nutritional researcher recommends getting enough sleep, washing hands often and eating a daily bowl of yogurt. She says this would activate more active germ-fighting white blood cells, enhancing the immune system, probably due to the presence of Lactobacillus bulgaricus, from any normal yogurt, which is half the price of Actimel.  The equivalence of yogurts is supported by Berthold Koletzko from the University of Munich, Metabolic Diseases and Nutrition, Munich, Germany in case of diarrhoea advises parents to give their children yogurt with living bacteria. It does not necessarily need to be Actimel, but may also be other yogurts. A measurable health benefit linked to the presence of live Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii sp. Bulgaricus in yogurt was reported by Koletzko and colleagues in 2005. In this review Koletzko and colleagues say that it was clearly demonstrated that yogurt containing viable bacteria improves lactose digestion and eliminates symptoms of lactose intolerance, and clearly fulfill the current concept of probiotics.  The net \"all-cause\" effects of yogurts have also been questioned; its 6 September 2009 issue, \"Nature\" featured an article by Didier Raoult who claimed that \"probiotic-enriched\" yogurt beverages may have contributed to the increase in obesity over the past 20 years.  Within the 27 countries of the European Union, a new health claims regulation was put in place by the European Commission as of 1 July 2007. In Canada, a similar regulation is currently in the works at Health Canada.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Actimel (known as DanActive in the United States and Canada) is a 'probiotic' yogurt-type drink produced by the French company Danone.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977012}
{"src_title": "Battle of the Upper Baetis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "After the defeat of Hasdrubal Barca in the Battle of Dertosa in the spring of 215 BC, the Romans had secured their bases north of the Ebro. They then proceeded to win over some Iberian tribes in the region. Both the Romans and Carthaginians faced and put down Iberian tribal revolts. The Scipios received no reinforcement from Italy, where Hannibal had the Romans hard pressed. Due to a lack of support from Rome, the Scipios mounted no decisive operations against the Carthaginians in 214–213 BC. In 215 BC, the brothers complained about the lack of Roman supplies and finance for their army. The Roman Senate responded by sending private companies to supply their forces. Two of these merchants, Pomponius and Postumius, turned out to be criminals who cheated the Scipios of their money. In 214 BC, Rome suffered a financial crisis as a result of the strains of war, increasing the Scipios' funding troubles. Despite the lack of any reinforcement or renewed funding, the Scipios went over to the offensive in 212 BC, re-capturing Saguntum, which had been lost to Hannibal in 219 BC.  Meanwhile, Hasdrubal had been reinforced by two armies, led respectively by his younger brother, Mago Barca, and Hasdrubal Gisco. According to Livy, the Romans fought multiple battles against the Carthaginians south of the Ebro from 215–214 BC, at Iliturgi, Munda, and Orongi. Livy's chronology is confused and contradicted by Polybius, who explicitly states that the Scipio brothers did not venture south of the Ebro until 212 BC. As a result, most historians consider these engagements to be ahistorical.  The Scipios had persuaded Syphax, a Numidian king, to open hostilities against Carthage with an army that had been trained by Statorius, a Roman centurion, in 213 or 212 BC. On the whole, the situation in Iberia was stable enough for Hasdrubal Barca to shift his attention to Africa in 213/212 BC in order to put down this rebellion. Hasdrubal Barca returned to Iberia in late 212 BC, bringing with him 3,000 Numidians under Masinissa, the future king of Numidia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prelude.", "content": "In 212 BC, the Scipio brothers captured Castulo, a major mining town and the home of Hannibal's wife Imilce. They then wintered at Castulo and Ilugia.  The brothers hired 20,000 Celt-Iberian mercenaries to reinforce their army of 20,000 Romans. The Romans strength had been reduced by losses sustained against the Carthaginians and Iberian tribes since 218 BC and the need to garrison the main Roman base at Tarraco. Observing that the Carthaginian armies were deployed separately from each other, with Hasdrubal Barca's army near Amtorgis; and, further to the west, Mago Barca with 13,500 men alongside Hasdrubal Gisco's army, the Scipio brothers decided to divide their forces. Publius Scipio led Roman and allied soldiers to attack Mago Barca near Castulo, while Gnaeus Scipio took one-third of the Roman army in Spain and the mercenaries to attack Hasdrubal Barca. This stratagem would lead to two battles, the Battle of Castulo and the Battle of Ilorca, which took place within a few days of each other.  Gnaeus Scipio arrived at his objective first. However, Hasdrubal Barca had already ordered the armies of Indibilis and Mandonius (Iberian chieftains friendly to the Carthaginians) and Hasdrubal Gisco to join Mago near Castulo. Hasdrubal Barca held his ground against Gnaeus Scipio, staying within his fortified camp, then managed to bribe the Celt-Iberian mercenaries to desert Gnaeus Scipio. This led to Hasdrubal's army outnumbering that of Gnaeus Scipio. Hasdrubal bided his time, avoiding any battles with the Romans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle of Castulo.", "content": "As Publius Scipio neared Castulo, he was harassed day and night by the Numidian light cavalry under Masinissa. When informed that Indibilis was moving across his line of retreat with 7,500 Iberians, Publius Scipio decided not to face Mago but to attack the Iberian chieftain, fearing that he would be surrounded by Carthaginian forces. Leaving 2,000 soldiers in his camp under the legate Tiberius Fonteus, he marched out that night to launch an attack on the Iberians and, hopefully, evade Masinissa's cavalry. Scipio marched throughout the night and caught Indibilis and his men by surprise in the early morning; and, with a numerical superiority, began to gain the upper hand in the ensuing action. However, the Iberians managed to hold off the Romans in the confused night battle just long enough for Masinissa to arrive.  With the Numidian horse attacking from the flank, the Roman assault on the Iberians began to slacken. When Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco arrived with their combined armies, the Romans finally, after a grim struggle, broke and fled, leaving Publius Scipio and most of their comrades dead on the field. Mago gave the Numidians enough time to loot the dead before force marching the army towards Hasdrubal Barca's position. A handful of Roman survivors managed to reach their camp.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle of Ilorca.", "content": "Gnaeus Scipio had lost the advantage of numbers with the desertion of the mercenaries. Although unaware of Publius Scipio's fate, Gnaeus decided to withdraw towards northern Iberia after Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco arrived with their armies. The Romans moved out of their camp, leaving their camp fires burning, and made for the Ebro at night. The Numidians located them the following day; their attacks forced the Romans to take position for the night on a hilltop near Ilorca. The main Carthaginian army, which now comprised the forces of Hasdrubal Barca, Hasdrubal Gisco, and Mago, arrived during the night. In desperation, the Romans tried to create a defensive wall with baggage and saddles, as the ground was too stony for digging. The Carthaginians easily overran this, and Gnaeus was killed in the fighting; most of his army was destroyed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The Roman fugitives fled north of the Ebro, where they eventually gathered a hodge-podge army of 8,000–9,000 soldiers. The Carthaginian commanders made no coordinated attempts to wipe out these survivors and then send help to Hannibal Barca. In late 211 BC, Rome sent 13,100 troops under Claudius Nero to reinforce its forces in Iberia. Nero scored no spectacular victories and the Carthaginians did not launch a coordinated assault on the Romans in Iberia. With the arrival of Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, the son of Publius Scipio, with another 10,000 troops in 210 BC, the Carthaginians would come to regret their earlier inaction when engaged in the Battle of Cartagena in 209 BC.  With the Carthaginian armies in Iberia failing to eliminate the Romans, Hannibal would not get any reinforcements from Iberia during the crucial year of 211 BC, when the Romans were besieging Capua.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of the Upper Baetis was a double battle, comprising the battles of \"Castulo\" and \"Ilorca\", fought in 211 BC during the Second Punic War between a Carthaginian force led by Hasdrubal Barca (Hannibal's brother) and a Roman force led by Publius Cornelius Scipio and his brother Gnaeus. The immediate result was a Carthaginian victory in which both Roman brothers were killed. Before this defeat, the brothers had spent seven years (218BC - 211BC) campaigning in Hispania, which had limited the resources available to Hannibal, who was simultaneously fighting the Romans in Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977013}
{"src_title": "Erich Abraham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Abraham was born in Marienburg, East Prussia in 1895. He volunteered for military service after the outbreak of World War I and the following year was commissioned as a \"Leutnant der Reserve\". He was demobilised in 1920 as an honorary \"Oberleutnant\", and joined the police. He returned to military service in 1935 in the rank of \"Major\". He commanded an infantry battalion in the 105th Infantry Regiment in 1936–39, being promoted to \"Oberstleutnant\" in 1938. In 1939, he was transferred to the 266th Infantry Regiment, again commanding a battalion for a year. In 1940 he was appointed as the commanding officer of the 230th Infantry Regiment, and in 1941 was promoted to \"Oberst\", continuing in command of that regiment until 1942. During his time in command of the 230th Infantry Regiment, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.  On 17 February 1943 he was appointed to command the 76th Infantry Division which was being rebuilt in France after the original division had been destroyed at Stalingrad. He was promoted to \"Generalmajor\" on 1 June 1943, after which he led the division initially to Italy before being moved to Army Group South on the Eastern Front during the winter of 1943–44. On 1 January 1944, Abraham was promoted to \"Generalleutnant\". He continued to command the division in heavy fighting and during the withdrawal in the face of the Red Army Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive, and other than for a short time in July–August, commanded the division until October 1944. While commanding the division, he was awarded the Oak Leaves to his Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. Later that year he was appointed to command LXIII Corps. In March 1945 he was promoted to \"General der Infanterie\". Captured at the end of the war, he was released in August 1947. After release he lived in Wiesbaden, West Germany. He died in 1971.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Erich Abraham (27 March 1895 – 7 March 1971) was a general in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany who command the 76th Infantry Division then the LXIII Corps on the Western Front during World War II. He was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977014}
{"src_title": "Prahlad Jani", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Prahlad Jani was born on 13 August 1929 in Charada village in British India (now in Mehsana district, Gujarat, India). According to Jani, he left his home in Gujarat at the age of seven, and went to live in the jungle.  At the age of 12, Jani underwent a spiritual experience and became a follower of the Hindu goddess Amba. From that time, he chose to dress as a female devotee of Amba, wearing a red sari-like garment, jewellery and crimson flowers in his shoulder-length hair. Jani was commonly known as \"Mataji\" (\"[a manifestation of] The Great Mother\"). Jani believed that the Goddess provided him with water which dropped down through a hole in his palate, which allowed him to live without food or drink.  Since the 1970s, Jani had lived as a hermit in a cave in the forest in Gujarat. He died on 26 May 2020 at his native Charada. He was given samadhi in his ashram at Gabbar Hill near Ambaji on 28 May 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Investigations.", "content": "Two observational studies and one imaging study of Jani have been conducted. The observational studies were one in 2003 and one in 2010, both involving Dr. Sudhir Shah, a neurologist at the Sterling Hospitals in Ahmedabad, India, who had studied people claiming to have exceptional abilities, including other fasters such as Hira Ratan Manek. In both cases the investigators confirmed Jani's ability to survive healthily without food and water during the testing periods, although neither study was submitted to a scientific journal. When questioned six days into the 2010 experiment, the DRDO spokesperson announced that the study's findings would be \"confidential\" until results were established. Uninvolved doctors and other critics have questioned the validity of the studies and stated their belief that, although people can survive for days without food or water, it is not possible to survive for years, especially since glucose, a substrate critical to brain function, is not provided.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2003 tests.", "content": "In 2003, Dr. Sudhir Shah and other physicians at Sterling Hospitals, Ahmedabad, India observed Jani for 10 days. He stayed in a sealed room. Doctors said that he passed no urine or stool during the observation, but that urine appeared to form in the bladder. A hospital spokesperson said that Jani was physically normal, but noted that a hole in the palate was an abnormal condition. The fact that Jani's weight dropped slightly during the 10 days has cast some doubt on his claim to go indefinitely without food.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010 tests.", "content": "From 22 April until 6 May 2010, Prahlad Jani was again observed and tested by Dr Sudhir Shah and a team of 35 researchers from the Indian Defence Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences (DIPAS), as well as other organizations. The director of DIPAS said that the results of the observations could \"tremendously benefit mankind\", as well as \"soldiers, victims of calamities and astronauts\", all of whom may have to survive without food or water for long durations. The tests were again conducted at Sterling Hospitals. Professor Anil Gupta of SRISTI, involved in monitoring the tests, described the team as being \"intrigued\" by Jani's kriyas apparently allowing him to control his body's physiological functions.  The team studied Jani with daily clinical examinations, blood tests, and scans. Round-the-clock surveillance was reportedly followed using multiple CCTV cameras and personal observation. The researchers say that Jani was taken out of the sealed room for tests and exposure to sun under continuous video recording.  After fifteen days of observation during which he reportedly did not eat, drink or go to the toilet, all medical tests on Jani were reported as normal. The doctors reported that although the amount of liquid in Jani's bladder fluctuated and that Jani appeared \"able to generate urine in his bladder\", he did not pass urine. Based on Jani's reported levels of leptin and ghrelin, two appetite-related hormones, DRDO researchers posited that Jani may be demonstrating an extreme form of adaptation to starvation and water restriction. DIPAS stated in 2010 that further studies were planned, including investigations into how metabolic waste material is eliminated from Jani's body, from where he gets his energy for sustenance, and how he maintains his hydration status.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017 Brain Imaging Study.", "content": "Independent of DRDO studies, IIT Madras team has conducted an imaging study in 2017. They have collected Jani's brain images and measured the size of Pineal and Pituitary glands. The result of the imaging study shows that the size of Jani's Pineal and Pituitary glands are of the same order of a 10 year old boy. The study results have been published in scientific journals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Dr. Michael Van Rooyen, director of the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, dismissed the observation results as \"impossible\", observing that the bodies of profoundly malnourished people quickly consume their own body's resources, resulting in renal/liver failure, tachycardia and heart strain. A spokeswoman for the American Dietetic Association stated that, \"The bottom line is that even fasting for more than a day can be dangerous. You need food to function.\" Nutrition researcher Peter Clifton also disagreed with study results, accusing the research team of \"cheating\" by allowing Jani to gargle and bathe, and stating that a human of average weight would die after \"15 to 20 days\" without water. People who avoid food and water to emulate mystical figures often die. Sanal Edamaruku characterized the experiment as a farce for allowing Jani to move out of the CCTV cameras' field of view, claiming that video footage showed Jani was allowed to receive devotees and to leave the sealed test room for sunbathing. Edamaruku also said that the gargling and bathing activities were insufficiently monitored. Edamaruku was denied access to the site where the tests were conducted in both 2003 and 2010, and accuses Jani of having \"influential protectors\" responsible for denying him permission to inspect the project during its operation, despite having been invited to join the test during a live television broadcast. The Indian Rationalist Association observed that individuals making similar claims in the past have been exposed as frauds. In 2010, the prominent scientific sceptic James Randi criticized the studies performed by the Indian government, citing insufficient scrutiny of the subject. He also proposed that if Prahlad Jani could prove his claims, he would receive the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge prize.  In September 2010, Dr. Shah announced that scientists from Austria and Germany had offered to visit India to carry out further research on Jani, and scientists from the United States had also offered to join the research. Jani has expressed interest in cooperating in further investigations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Television, video and public appearances.", "content": "In 2006, The Discovery Channel aired a documentary called \"The Boy with Divine Powers\" featuring a five-minute interview with Jani and Shah. In 2010, the Independent Television Network (ITN) posted an article and video featuring Prahlad Jani, commenting on the 2010 tests. In 2010 Prahlad Jani was featured in an Austrian documentary \"Am Anfang war das Licht\" (English title \"In the Beginning There Was Light\").  In October 2010, the Italian television station Rai 2 broadcast a program named \"Voyager\" which presented an extensive report on Prahlad Jani and the tests.  In October 2011 Jani was the \"param pujya\" (master of ceremony) in a large shobha yatra performed near Gandhinagar. 1000 of goddess Durga were chanted.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prahlad Jani, also known as Mataji or Chunriwala Mataji, (13 August 1929 ― 26 May 2020) was an Indian breatharian monk who claimed to have lived without food and water since 1940. He said that the goddess Amba sustained him. However, the findings of the investigations on him have been kept confidential and viewed with skepticism. He made several media and public appearances.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977015}
{"src_title": "Jacob Cornelisz van Oostsanen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Little is known about Jacob Cornelisz van Oostsanen's life. Historians rely mostly on the biographical sketch of him written by Karel van Mander, the archives of Amsterdam, and the archives of Egmond Abbey, a Benedictine monastery that commissioned works by him. His name indicates he was from Oostzaan, North Holland, east of the river Zaan, north of Amsterdam. His family managed land in that area. A good impression of life there in those times can be had by a visit to the Zaanse Schans. His entire family were painters. Cornelis Buys I, also known as Master of Alkmaar, was his brother, as was Cornelis Buys II. His sons Cornelis Jacobz and Dirk Jacobsz became portrait painters, as did his grandsons Cornelis Anthonisz and Jacob Dirksz.  As birth or baptism dates have been lost, all of their birth dates have been approximated from other archival evidence such as death dates of other family members. Similar to the archival evidence surrounding Frans Hals, the first known commissions for Jacob Cornelisz were from when he was at least 35 years of age. It is assumed that he worked in a painters's workshop before that, and judging from his close copies of Haarlem painting techniques, this was possibly in Haarlem.  He bought his first house in Amsterdam in 1500, in the Kalverstraat. Twenty years later he bought the neighboring house. For this reason he is sometimes called Jacob Cornelisz van Amsterdam. His wife is called a widow in archives for the first time in 1533. The last payments made to him according to the Egmond Abbey archives were in 1526–1528 for a retable (lost during the troubles of the Protestant Reformation).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In his earlier years Jacob Cornelisz was under the influence of Haarlem painter Geertgen tot Sint Jans. The colors and techniques suggest that he learned his craft in Haarlem. His later influence then became painter Albrecht Dürer. He may have gone to visit him in Antwerp in the 1520s. The painting patterns of his earlier works suggest he was trained as a woodcut designer or goldsmith. One of his first works was Christ as a gardener..  There are about 200 known woodcuts and 27 paintings by Cornelisz. His prints are traditional north Netherlandish small-scale book illustrations. Writings are used to present the narrative with actions placed in the foreground.  Throughout his artistic career Cornelisz's painting style changed. At first he started as a late Gothic craftsman under the influence of the Haarlem school and then ended with a style presented by the painting \"Saul and the Witch of Endor\". In this particular painting the details are simple, elongated proportions and a looser stroke of paint. Though he excelled as a technical painter, he was not a good leader. He progressed at presenting contemporary trends in subject-matter and style.  Cornelisz's symbolism was also conservative as well. He painted mostly sacred themes with traditional iconography in old and new combinations in response to an event, such as the Reformation. Some of his works such as \"Christ as the Man of Sorrows\" (1510) were used by biblical humanists and the Amsterdam oligraphy, who wanted to defend Catholic orthodoxy against the claims of early Reformers. The painting represented Roman Catholic beliefs in an easily understood format. Other paintings such as \"The Nativity\" (1512) and \"Saul and the Witch of Endor\" were visually similar to what the Catholic essays patrons were writing.  Later in his life Jacob Cornelisz van Oostsanen ran a workshop with pupils, like his son Dirk Jacobsz and Jan van Scorel did after him. In the workshop, his assistants helped him design book illustrations, woodcuts and stained-glass windows. After 1526 Jacob produced only one known painting, \"Self Portrait\" (1533). Scholars were led to believe this was the year of his death, but according to Dutch historian I. H van Eeghen there was a seven-year gap between paintings, which was unusual. She suggested it could have been his son that produced the \"Self Portrait\" (1533).  Some regard him as the last of the Flemish painters not to show an Italian influence.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacob Cornelisz van Oostsanen (before 1470 – 1533) was a Northern Netherlandish designer of woodcuts and painter. He was one of the first important artists working in Amsterdam, at a time when it was a flourishing provincial town.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977016}
{"src_title": "Orel (spacecraft)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Previously, ESA officials had inquired whether they could be part of the Constellation Program of the United States, with NASA focused on its Orion spacecraft, but they had received a negative response. Consequently, Europe decided to join the Russians to co-develop a new-generation crewed spacecraft. ESA insisted on a joint design rather than the Russian-designed Kliper, and as a result the joint Russian/European CSTS project came into being. CSTS had completed an initial study phase, which lasted for 18 months from September 2006 to spring 2008, before the project was shut down before an ESA member state conference in November 2008. ESA decided to use some technology of the CSTS project from its Automated Transfer Vehicle.  The Russian space agency, Roskosmos, had repeatedly received proposals from Moscow-based Khrunichev enterprise to develop a new-generation crewed spacecraft based on the TKS spacecraft that would be launched on the new Angara launch Vehicle. Citing the requirement to start work on a new crewed spacecraft, Russia decided to go forward with the project by itself. By the first quarter of 2009, Roskosmos had finalized its requirements for the next-generation crewed spacecraft and had received proposals from both RKK Energia and Khrunichev enterprise. This was the actual beginning of the PPTS project. The agency was finally ready to name the prime developer of the vehicle. Formally, only two organizations which were practically capable of developing crewed space vehicles competed in the government tender to build the new spacecraft—RKK Energia in Korolev and Moscow-based Khrunichev enterprise.  Although Roskosmos has remained tight-lipped about the project, a number of Russian officials made statements hinting about various stages of the project. On January 21, 2009, the head of Roskosmos, Anatoly Perminov, told Rossiyskaya Gazeta, a Russian newspaper, that Russia would likely proceed with independent development of the next-generation crewed spacecraft. According to Perminov, the agency and its main research and certification center—TsNIIMash—had already conducted an expanded meeting of the Scientific and Technical Council, NTS, examining follow-on transport systems, including the next-generation crewed ship. It would be followed by a government tender to select a developer for the new vehicle. Perminov further indicated that the new spacecraft would be expected to enter service within a time frame of the Orion spacecraft, but a more detailed development plan would be ready with the preliminary design of the vehicle in the middle of 2010.  In the first quarter of 2009, Roskosmos released requirements which were used in the development of the Technical Assignment to the industry working on the PPTS project. The preliminary development of the project was expected to take place from March 2009 until June 2010 at an estimated cost of around 800,000,000 rubles ($24 million). The work apparently covered only an Earth-orbiting version of the spacecraft, while laying the foundation for later lunar-orbiting spacecraft, or even a Mars-bound crew vehicle.  The agency's general requirements asked the industry to develop a vehicle of \"foreign\" standards in its technical capabilities and cost, while at the same time using existing technologies as much as possible.  In November 2019, it was announced that the first test flight was scheduled for 2023, and the first crewed flight for 2025.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary design.", "content": "Roskosmos has envisioned several versions of the spacecraft, configurable for low Earth orbit, lunar, and uncrewed missions.  Information on the proposed spacecraft released in 2009 indicated that the Earth-orbiting version of the ship would have a mass of 12 tonnes and carry a crew of six, along with no less than 500 kg of cargo. It would be able to fly 30-day-long autonomous missions, or a year-long mission, while docked to the ISS in the orbit, with the inclination 51.6 degrees, and to the future Russian space station launched from Vostochny into a 51.8-degree orbit.  The lunar version would weigh 16.5 tonnes, have four seats, and be capable of delivering and bringing back 100 kg of cargo. It would be able to fly 14-day missions to orbit around the Moon, or stay docked to the proposed Russian Lunar Orbital Station for up to 200 days.  The uncrewed cargo version of the vehicle would be required to carry no less than 2,000 kg to Earth orbit, and return at least 500 kg back to the planet's surface.  As of March 2009, Roskosmos made the requirement for crew capsule landing accuracy to 10 kilometers, while directing the developers to continue work on various modes of high-precision landing. Emergency escape and landing capabilities were mandated for every phase of the mission and were to provide for the survivability of the crew until the arrival of the rescue and recovery teams.  The vehicle, like Soyuz, would be wingless and be able to conduct fully automated and manual docking, and have sufficient propulsion capabilities during transport missions to dock and re-dock with orbital assets and then provide for the reentry and safe return of the vehicle to Earth. The reentry capsule design requirement specified that only environmentally safe propellants could be used during the atmospheric phase of the flight. Roskosmos reserved the option of making the crew module of the spacecraft reusable, reckoning that a cone-shaped capsule could possibly fly up to 10 missions during a 15-year lifespan.  It has been suggested that the vehicle may use only rocket thrusters to slow itself down during its landing, unlike the Soyuz reentry module which relies on a parachute to slow its descent, and uses solid propellant motors only to soften its touchdown.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Launch vehicle.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rus-M.", "content": "A formal industry-wide tender for the development of the crewed launch vehicle to launch PPTS was initiated at the beginning of 2009. Although the agency delayed the announcement of the winner, many unofficial sources in Russia maintained that TsSKB Progress, based in Samara and KB Mashinostroenia, would lead the development of the new rocket. It was believed that the launch vehicle, named Rus-M, would feature a common core stage and a variable number of boosters, each equipped with powerful RD-180 engines, burning a mix of liquid oxygen and kerosene. The engine was originally developed by Moscow-based NPO Energomash for the US Atlas V rocket and its performance to date has been impressive. The second stage was expected to sport a pair of RD-0124 engines, currently in use on the Soyuz-2 rocket. Thus, both stages would have been equipped with existing engines, greatly reducing the cost and the risk to the overall project. In October 2011, it was announced that the Rus-M program was being canceled.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Angara.", "content": "In July 2012, it was reported that the Angara A5 will be used as the new launch vehicle for Orel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Irtysh / Soyuz-5.", "content": "Russian space officials have dropped plans to launch the next-generation spacecraft on the modified version of the Angara-5 rocket and instead opted for the yet-to-be developed Soyuz-5 booster recently conceived within the Feniks and Sunkar projects.  In April 2017, the head of RKK Energia Vladimir Solntsev told the official TASS news agency that the Soyuz-5 rocket would be a preferable launch vehicle for the PTK/Federatsiya new-generation transport spacecraft to the Angara-5P rocket due to the lower cost. In 2018, Soyuz-5 was renamed as Irtysh, the first launch is planned in 2022.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Orel () or Oryol, formerly Federation (), and PPTS (), is a project by Roscosmos to develop a new-generation, partially reusable crewed spacecraft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977017}
{"src_title": "Friedl Dicker-Brandeis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Frederika Dicker was born in Vienna on 30 July 1898. She married Pavel Brandeis in 1936 and used the hyphenated surname after that. Dicker-Brandeis was a student of Johannes Itten at his private school in Vienna, and later followed Itten to study and teach at the Weimar Bauhaus. She was involved in the textile design, printmaking, bookbinding, and typography workshops there from 1919-1923. After leaving the Bauhaus, she worked as an artist and textile designer in Berlin, Prague, and Hronov. Dicker-Brandeis wrote to a friend in 1940:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In World War II.", "content": "Dicker-Brandeis and her husband were deported to the Terezín \"model ghetto\" on December 17, 1942. During her time at Terezín, she gave art lessons and lectures. She helped to organize secret education classes for the children of Terezín. She saw drawing and art as a way for the children to understand their emotions and their environment. In this capacity, she was giving art therapy.  At Terezin, she persisted in pursuing her goal — \"\"to rouse the desire towards creative work.\"\"  In September 1944, Brandeis was transported to Auschwitz; Dicker-Brandeis volunteered for the next transport to join him. But before she was taken away, she gave to Raja Engländerova, the chief tutor of Girls' Home L 410, two suitcases with 4,500 drawings.  F. Dicker-Brandeis was murdered in Birkenau on 9 October 1944. Her husband Pavel, survived.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "After the war, Willy Groag, the director of the Girls' home L 410 brought the suitcases with children's drawings to the Jewish Community in Prague. From the nearly 660 authors of the drawings, 550 were killed in the Holocaust. The drawings are now in the Jewish Museum in Prague's collection, with some on display in the Pinkas Synagogue in Prague.  In 1999, a Friedl Dicker-Brandeis exhibition, organized by the Simon Wiesenthal Center and curated by Elena Makarova of Israel, opened in Vienna. The exhibition was shown in Czech Republic, Germany, Sweden, France, USA, and Japan. Tokyo Fuji Art Museum founder Daisaku Ikeda, who was instrumental in bringing the exhibit to Japan, commented:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frederika \"Friedl\" Dicker-Brandeis (30 July 1898 Vienna – 9 October 1944 Auschwitz-Birkenau), was an Austrian artist and educator murdered by the Nazis in the Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977018}
{"src_title": "Siege of Saguntum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Hannibal's plans.", "content": "After Hannibal was made supreme commander of Iberia (221 BC) at the age of 26, he spent two years refining his plans and completing his preparations to secure power in the Mediterranean. The Romans did nothing against him though they received ample warning of Hannibal's preparations. The Romans even went so far as turning their attention to the Illyrians who had begun to revolt. Because of this, the Romans did not react when news reached them that Hannibal was besieging Saguntum. The capture of Saguntum was essential to Hannibal's plan. The city was one of the most fortified in the area and it would have been a poor move to leave such a stronghold in the hands of the enemy. Hannibal was also looking for plunder to pay his mercenaries, who were mostly from Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. Finally, the money could be spent on dealing with his political opponents in Carthage.  Some historians doubt whether Hannibal attacked Saguntum deliberately or whether he was provoked by the Saguntines, who had Rome's support. Since most of the remaining ancient sources covering this period are pro-Roman, one cannot rule out the possibility that Rome encouraged Saguntum to defy Hannibal. However, Rome failed to support their ally during the siege of Saguntum. This might be due to the fact that Rome's legions were occupied elsewhere or might have been a calculated move to have a casus belli against Carthage. Hannibal's alleged hatred of Rome and all Romans might also have been an idea of Roman propaganda to justify the second and eventually the third Punic war.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Siege.", "content": "During Hannibal's assault on Saguntum, he suffered some losses due to the extensive fortifications and the tenacity of the defending Saguntines, but his troops stormed and destroyed the city's defenses one at a time. Hannibal was even severely wounded by a javelin, and fighting was stopped for a few weeks while he recovered.  The Saguntines turned to Rome for aid, but none was sent. In 218 BC, after enduring eight months of siege, the Saguntines' last defenses were finally overrun. Hannibal offered to spare the population on condition that they were \"willing to depart from Saguntum, unarmed, each with two garments\". When they declined the offer and began to sabotage the town's wealth and possessions, every adult was put to death.  This marked the beginning of the Second Punic War. Hannibal now had a base of operations from which he could supply his forces with food and extra troops.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "After the siege, Hannibal attempted to gain the support of the Carthaginian Senate. The Senate (controlled by a relatively pro-Roman faction led by Hanno the Great) often did not agree with Hannibal's aggressive means of warfare, and never gave complete and unconditional support to him, even when he was on the verge of absolute victory only five miles from Rome. In this episode, however, Hannibal was able to gain limited support which permitted him to move to New Carthage where he gathered his men and informed them of his ambitious intentions. Hannibal briefly undertook a religious pilgrimage before beginning his march toward the Pyrenees, the Alps, and Rome itself. The next phase of the war was marked by extraordinary Carthaginian victories at Trebia, Lake Trasimene, and the Battle of Cannae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "At the end of the 1st century AD the siege of Saguntum was described in much detail by the Latin author Silius Italicus in his epic poem \"Punica\". In his verses several Saguntine leaders and heroes stand out (Sicoris, Murrus, Theron), as well as a Libyan warrior princess fighting for Carthage (Asbyte), but very few historians give the tale any credit as a historical source.  In 1727 the English dramatist Philip Frowde wrote a tragedy entitled \"The Fall of Saguntum\" which was based on Silius' poem.  The death metal band Ex Deo has a song called \"Hispania (The Siege of Saguntum)\" on their album \"The Immortal Wars\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Siege of Saguntum was a battle which took place in 219 BC between the Carthaginians and the Saguntines at the town of Saguntum, near the modern town of Sagunto in the province of Valencia, Spain. The battle is mainly remembered today because it triggered one of the most important wars of antiquity, the Second Punic War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977019}
{"src_title": "1987 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Punch-up in Piestany.", "content": "With 6:07 left in the second period of the final game of the tournament between Canada and the Soviet Union, Pavel Kostichkin took a two-handed slash at Theoren Fleury, sparking a fight between the two; the USSR's Evgeny Davydov left the bench to assist Valeri Zelepukin in the fight, who was already playing the game with a separated shoulder, and was being pummeled by Canadian forward Mike Keane. Davydov's intervention sparked one of the most infamous bench-clearing brawls in international hockey history.  The officials, unable to break up the brawl, walked off the ice and tournament officials eventually tried shutting off the arena lights, but the brawl lasted for 20 minutes before the International Ice Hockey Federation declared the contest null and void. An emergency meeting was held following the brawl that ended with the delegates voting 7–1 to eject both teams from the tournament, with the sole dissenter being Canadian Dennis McDonald. The Canadian team, disgusted at what they perceived to be a conspiracy against them, chose to leave rather than stay for the end-of-tournament dinner, from which the Soviet team were banned.  While the Soviets were out of medal contention, Canada was playing for the gold medal, and were leading 4–2 at the time of the brawl (they needed to win by at least five goals to claim the gold). Even had they lost the game, they were assured at least the bronze medal. Afterwards, Soviet hockey official Anatoly Kastriukov claimed that the hostilities were fueled by a Canadian trainer who he alleged had punched one of the Soviet assistant coaches in the stomach. Some Canadians maintained that the Soviets had started the brawl by leaving their bench first, and had deliberately done so with the intention of getting Canada ejected. Soviet administrator Yuri Korolev expressed regret that the incident occurred but did not admit any guilt. He felt that the game should have been finished instead of both teams being disqualified from the tournament.  The ejections of the Canadian and Soviet teams had the retroactive effect of making the Finland-Czechoslovakia game (played earlier the same day) the gold medal game, while the Sweden-United States game became the bronze medal contest, and the Poland-Switzerland game determined who placed fifth. The loser of the latter game (Switzerland) was relegated, just as they would have been had the brawl not occurred. Poland avoided relegation despite giving up 80 goals in 7 games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final standings.", "content": "\" was relegated to Pool B for the 1988 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pool B.", "content": "Took place from March 15 to 21 in Rouen France. Two groups of four played round robins, the top two and bottom two from the respective groups met up in two final round robins to determine placement. Teams did not replay opponents they were grouped with previously, their scores were carried forward to the final rounds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final Round.", "content": "\"West Germany was promoted to Pool A for 1988.\"  \"Italy was Demoted to Pool C for 1988.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool C.", "content": "Pool C was played in Esbjerg, Denmark from March 16 to 22.  \"Yugoslavia was promoted to Pool B for 1988.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1987 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships (\"1987 WJHC\") was the 11th edition of the Ice Hockey World Junior Championship and was held in Piešťany, Trenčín, Nitra, and Topoľčany, Czechoslovakia (now Slovakia). Finland captured its first World Junior gold medal, Czechoslovakia took silver, and Sweden the bronze. The tournament is most remembered, however, for how the medals were allocated (and Canada ended up with no medal); see the next section for more details.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977020}
{"src_title": "The Alchemyst: The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Title character.", "content": "The \"Alchemyst\" refers to the historical character of Nicholas Flamel, a French scrivener and manuscript seller. Flamel developed a posthumous reputation for being an alchemist and for his search for the philosopher's stone and immortality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "Sophie and Josh Newman are 15-year-old twins who are working at their summer jobs in The Coffee Cup in San Francisco (Sophie works at The Coffee Cup, Josh works at the bookstore on the other side of the street) when a mysterious man, John Dee, comes into the bookstore for a book, the \"Codex\" – or \"Book of Abraham the Mage\". Josh witnesses both Nick and Perry using magic. He discovers that Nick is not an ordinary bookseller, but is the medieval and the legendary alchemist, Nicholas Flamel, being kept alive by making the elixir of life (a secret from the \"Codex\") for him and his wife, Perenelle. Dee also uses magic and takes the \"Codex\" by force while Josh is holding it – resulting in two pages being left behind; \"The Final Summoning\" pages that Dee needs to raise the Dark Elders, the beings whom Dee serves, and who have kept him immortal for several hundred years. Both Flamels need the \"Codex\" to make the elixir of life, or they will age rapidly and die within a month. Also, if they do not retrieve the \"Codex\", Dee will summon the Dark Elders to destroy the world and return to an age in which humans are but slaves and food.  Flamel quickly takes Sophie and Josh to a hideout to enlist the aid of Scathach, a powerful Next Generation Elder. There, they are forced to run, threatened by rats sent by Dee, which is thwarted by Flamel and Scathach. Chased again almost immediately by tens of thousands of birds, Flamel then leads the twins and Scathach to secure the aid of Hekate, a powerful three-faced Elder, who can awaken the twins' magical potential. Dee discovers this, and enlists the aid of Bastet and the Morrigan. The trio mount a massive assault on Hekate's shadowrealm, to destroy Yggdrasill – the world tree – that is the heart of Hekate's power.  While Yggdrasill is attacked, Hekate awakens Sophie's magic abilities but does not have time to awaken Josh, as the tree has been set on fire by Dee. While she rushes to defend her home, Scathach, Flamel, and the twins attempt to escape the shadowrealm. While escaping, they encounter Dee and witness the power of the ancient Ice Elemental sword, Excalibur. They see Dee transform a wereboar into pure ice, then shatter the statue. Scathach remarks that she thought that Excalibur had been lost when Artorius died.  The twins, Scathach, and Flamel escape the shadowrealm, shortly before the destruction of Hekate, Yggdrasill, and the entire shadowrealm. As they escape, Dee uses Excalibur to freeze the tree, and Hekate, whose life and power is linked to it, transforms to ice as well. As this occurs, Dee is informed that the Flamels and Scathach have escaped with the twins. In his rage, he shatters Yggdrasill, which crushes Hekate into dust, killing her. Flamel, Scathach, and the twins travel to Scathach's grandmother, the Witch of Endor (also called \"The Mistress of Air\"), who teaches Sophie her magical secrets quickly by giving the girl all the witch's knowledge and the power to know how to use air magic.  While they are there, Dee has found out that a prophecy in the \"Codex\" speaks of Sophie and Josh. He tempts Josh to join him while using necromancy to raise thousands of corpses to assault the Elders, Flamel, and Sophie. Josh almost agrees, but at the last moment, he realizes he will lose Sophie if he agrees. Dee brings all the dead in a nearby cemetery alive and they start to attack them, Josh hits Dee with their Hummer, distracting Dee long enough to escape with Scathach, Sophie and Nicholas Flamel by using a leygate (a teleportation device where two or more lines of energy, ley lines, cross each other) to go to Paris which is Nicholas Flamel's old home. The book ends when Dee surprises them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Special editions and cover variations.", "content": "On 5 August 2010 in the UK, \"The Alchemyst\", was re-released featuring an alternate cover.  \"The Alchemyst\" was released as part of a special edition boxed 3 book set called \"The First Codex\" in the US on 28 September 2020", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Audio book.", "content": "\"The Alchemyst\" is also available as an unabridged audiobook. It was released by the Listening Library on 22 May 2007 and narrated by Denis O'Hare. The audiobook ISBN numbers are: (UK), (US).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Online games.", "content": "The first related online game to be launched was \"The Codex Master\". The object is to get money and guess a secret code composed of a sequence of coloured orbs by inputting various sequences and using logic. When a sequence is entered, indicators show when the player has the right colour and also when a colour is in the right or wrong position to enable them to apply logic and guess the correct sequence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film adaptation.", "content": "Film rights for the book were originally sold to New Line Cinema and Mark Burnett Productions. The film is currently in pre-production. This was reported at IMDb. According to \"The Hollywood Reporter\", the writer hired to pen the script was Eric Bress, who has written scripts for the television show, \"Kyle XY\". It was reported that the producer would be Mark Burnett and that he bought the rights to the book in an auction months before it was published.  In November 2009 it was announced in \"Variety Magazine\" that Lorenzo di Bonaventura had bought the film rights to the series. Michael Scott and Barry Krost will be the executive producers. The script writer has yet to be announced. On 20 June 2012 it was announced that the Australian company AMPCO Films had optioned the film. Michael Scott will write the screenplay. Production is due to start in early 2013 and filming will take place in Australia and New Zealand. Dick Cook Studios had boarded the production of the film by October 2019 with expectations that the film would start production as its second project in early 2021.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequels.", "content": "The series continues in the sequel \"\" which was released in the UK on 5 June 2008 and on 24 June 2008 in the US. The third book \"\" was released on 26 May 2009 in the US and the fourth book was released on 25 June 2009 in the UK \"\" followed with its US release on 25 May 2010. The fifth book, \"\" was released on 24 May 2011 in America. The final book in the series,\"\", was released 24 May 2012.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Alchemyst: The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel (often shortened to The Alchemyst) is the first installment in the six volume fantasy novel series, \"The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel\". It was written by Irish author Michael Scott and published in May 2007. \"The Alchemyst\" has been translated into 20 languages, and is available in 37 countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977021}
{"src_title": "Trolleybuses in Solingen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first trolleybus was brought into service on 19 June 1952. The network was a conversion of the previous tram services. Conversion from tramway was completed on 2 December 1959. Extensions to the system were opened in 1981–82 – Schlagbaum to Hasselstraße () and Höhscheid to Brockenberg () respectively – and in 1993 from Aufderhöhe to Mangenberg/Graf-Wilhem-Platz ().  The mid-1990s saw plans to replace the trolleybuses with diesel buses, but this was never pursued; trolleybuses being preferred over diesel vehicles because of superior acceleration and better suitability for the hilly terrain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Network.", "content": ", 6 lines are in operation. The older lines (681–684) are served every ten minutes, and the newer lines (685–686, opened 22 August 1993) run every half-hour, although they are duplicated by each other for the majority of their route. Routes 681 and 682 interchange with the city's principal railway station – Solingen Hbf – which lies in the western suburbs. Line 683 – at, by far the network's longest – also connects to the Wuppertal Schwebebahn at Vohwinkel, the northern end of the route and the western terminus of the Schwebebahn. The southern extent of 683 is the town of Burg an der Wupper, which contains Schloss Burg (Burg Castle). Burg is also home to the world's only trolleybus turntable, owing to lack of space to provide a full turning circle. This precludes the use of articulated vehicles like on the rest of the network. Until November 2009 this turntable was in regular use for line 683. Since November 2009 line 683 has been extended to Burger Bahnhof. On the new section, the buses use their diesel engine instead of electricity, as no overhead wires were constructed here.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fleet.", "content": "the fleet stands at 49 vehicles: 15 articulated Berkhof buses (2001/2), 20 articulated Van Hool buses (2002/3), and 14 three-axle MAN buses (1986-7). The latter are due for replacement during 2008. The power supply is 600 V DC.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Solingen trolleybus system (), also known locally as the \"Stangentaxi\", serves the city of Solingen, in the federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977022}
{"src_title": "Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Formation.", "content": "It was founded in 1937 under the command of SS-Obergruppenführer Werner Lorenz as a state office of the Nazi Party. Its headquarters were on Unter den Linden, Berlin (this changed to Keithstraße in 1943 due to Allied Bombing). VoMi's primary task was the resettlement of German peoples outside Germany. Between 1939 and 1942, VoMi had resettled half a million ethnic Germans into the newly occupied territories of the Reich under the slogan \"Heim ins Reich\" (). These territories included the Reichsgaus of the German Reich; these included Wartheland (Posen) and Danzig-West Prussia (Danzig).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "RKFDV.", "content": "On October 7, 1939, two days after Poland had been overrun, Adolf Hitler appointed the \"Reichsführer-SS\" Heinrich Himmler to the new role of Reich Commissioner for the Consolidation of German Nationhood \"( - RKFDV\"). This position authorized the SS to plan, initiate, and control the pace of Germanization, settlement and population transfer projects in occupied Poland, and later, after the invasion of the Soviet Union, in occupied Russia.  In 1941 the VoMi was upgraded to an SS Main Office (\"Hauptamt\") with control over all VoMi personnel and field offices. In June 1941 VOMI was absorbed into the office of the Reich Commissioner for the Strengthening of German Ethnic Stock (RKFDV) run by Himmler. The RKFDV, as an SS-controlled organization, had the authority to say who was German, where ethnic Germans could live, and what populations should be cleared or annihilated in order to make room for the German settlers. As RKFDV chief, Himmler authorized the \"SS-Einsatzgruppen\" (mobile death squads) and other SS police units to round up and kill Jews, Slavs and Roma.  In June 1942 Himmler put all VoMi personnel under the jurisdiction of the SS Police and Courts. With Hitler's blessing, Himmler now had complete control over VoMi, \"ethnic Germans outside Imperial Germany\" policy and \"living space\" programs. Although VoMi remained technically an office of the Nazi Party until the end of the Second World War, it was under the control of the SS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organization.", "content": "The \"RKFDV-VOMi\" was organized into 11 departments (1942):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Amt I: Führungsamt\".", "content": "This department, unlike other VoMi Amts, contained only SS personnel. It contained SS legal officers and a Waffen-SS unit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Amt II: Organisation und Personal\".", "content": "This was managed by an SD officer. It dealt with SS and non-SS personnel within the Volksdeutsche. In the later period of the war, Amt II's importance increased as it was responsible for allocating Volksdeutsche to the Reich Labor Service.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Amt III: Finanzen, Wirtschaft und Vermögensverwaltung\".", "content": "It was responsible for financing VoMi projects and distributing funds to Volksdeutsche. It was the only department that remained under complete control of the Nazi State and not the Allgemeine SS.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Amt IV: Informationen\".", "content": "This department documented and reported all VoMi activity and resettlement projects. It worked closely with Joseph Goebbels' Ministry of Information. Amt IV also published information journals for the German settlers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Amt V: Deutschtumserziehung\".", "content": "This provided cultural and educational services to help Volksdeutsche assimilate to German ways.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Amt VI: Sicherung Deutschen Volkstums im Reich\".", "content": "This office looked after the welfare of ethnic Germans that had been allowed to settle within the borders of Germany. It also assessed potential candidates for settlement grading them on their ethnicity, politics and skills. However, Amt VI, although tasked with the welfare of Volksdeutsche, worked closely with the Gestapo and the SD of the RSHA.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Amt VII: Sicherung Deutschen Volkstums in den neuen Ostgebieten\".", "content": "It had a similar role as Amt VI but looked after the welfare of ethnic Germans in Eastern Europe, such as in occupied Poland, Czechoslovakia and Russia. It had field offices in Krakow, Riga and Kiev.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Amt VIII: Kultur und Wissenschaft\".", "content": "This section was engaged in collating and archiving the cultural history of resettled Volksdeutsche. The department also acted as a curator for artifacts, treasure and documents belonging to ethnic Germans.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Amt IX: Politische Führung Deutscher Volksgruppen\".", "content": "The SS considered this to be the most important department within VoMi as it provided the political leadership for ethnic Germans within the Third Reich and occupied Europe. Amt IX had several sub divisions, these included domestic affairs, relations between ethnic Germans and the Nazi Party, affairs between foreign states and the Third Reich regarding ethnic Germans and liaisons with the Nazi Foreign Ministry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Amt X: Führung der Wirtschaft in den Deutschen Volksgruppen\".", "content": "This office established agriculture, work projects, banking and credit for the Volksdeutsche. During the Second World War its main role was the exploitation of the ethnic Germans in the interest of the Third Reich.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Amt XI: Umsiedlung\".", "content": "This department was primarily responsible for handling the massive \"germanisation\" operation to settle Volksdeutsche throughout Germany and Occupied Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Role in the Holocaust.", "content": "A VoMi unit, \"Sonderkommando R (Russland)\", institutional successor to \"Einsatzgruppe D\" in the Transnistria area, carried out numerous massacres of Jews during the first half of 1942. The victims were deportees from Rumanian-controlled territory, it being Marshal Ion Antonescu's policy to racially \"cleanse\" the Rumanian nation. His preferred technique was to expel them to German-controlled territory and have the responsible SS/ Police units exterminate them. Many of these Jews were passed back and forth for weeks before a mix of Sk-R units and ethnic German Selbstschutz militia killed them.  Most of these murders occurred in the County (Judetul) of Berezovca, where ethnic Germans, distributed among 40 or so villages, made up 40% of the population. Sk-R was commanded by SS-Standartenfuher Horst Hoffmeyer, a senior VoMi officer. His HQ was in Landau, located west of the River Bug. Apparently, the unit was divided into seven local offices, three of which were:  Liebl's unit, for example, was responsible for the massacre of 1,200 Jews at Suha Verba in early June 1942.  Slightly more detail on this can be found in Andrej Angrick's paper in Yad Vashem Studies XXVI (1998), pp 232–234. Perhaps oddly, Radu Ioanid's \"The Holocaust in Romania: The Destruction of Jews and Gypsies Under the Antonescu Regime, 1940-1944\" does not cover Sk-R, nor does Valdis O. Lumen's book dedicated to VoMi.  \"SS-Obergruppenführer\" August Frank was an official of the \"SS-Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt\" () who was responsible for the administration of the Nazi concentration camps.  Frank was responsible for taking the property from Jews murdered in Aktion Reinhard in 1942. After the war, a memorandum prepared by Frank on September 26, 1942 detailed instructions on dealing with this ill-gotten wealth; which even included collecting the underwear of victims. It ordered that the property should be sent to the VoMi offices in Lodz, Poland.  The memorandum refuted claims that organizations like VoMi had no knowledge that Jews were being murdered en masse in the extermination camps. The note is also an example of the use of the Nazi euphemism \"evacuation\" for Jews that were being murdered in The Holocaust.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle or VoMi (Coordination Center for Ethnic Germans) was an NSDAP agency in Nazi Germany founded to manage the interests of the ethnic Germans (population of German ethnicity living outside the borders of the Reich).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977023}
{"src_title": "International political economy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "Political economy was synonymous with economics until the nineteenth century when they began to diverge. Early political economists included John Maynard Keynes, Karl Marx, and Roger Moore.  According to International Relations scholar Chris Brown, University of Warwick professor, Susan Strange, was \"almost single-handedly responsible for creating international political economy as a field of study.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issues in IPE.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International Finance.", "content": "International Trade and Finance is a major topic in IPE. Economics, as some may claim, has been viewed as dawning with the \"Smithian\" revolution against Mercantilism.  The liberal view point generally has been strong in Western academia since it was first articulated by Smith in the eighteenth century. Only during the 1940s to early 1970s did an alternative system, Keynesianism, command wide support in universities. Keynes was concerned chiefly with domestic macroeconomic policy. The Keynesian consensus was challenged by Friedrich Hayek and later Milton Friedman and other scholars out of Chicago as early as the 1950s, and by the 1970s, Keynes' influence on public discourse and economic policy making had somewhat faded.  After World War II the Bretton Woods system was established, reflecting the political orientation described as Embedded liberalism. In 1971 President Richard Nixon ended the convertibility of gold that had been established under the IMF in the Bretton Woods system. Interim agreements followed. Nonetheless, until 2008 the trend has been for increasing liberalization of both international trade and finance. From later 2008 world leaders have also been increasingly calling for a New Bretton Woods System.  Topics such as the International Monetary Fund, Financial Crises (see Financial crisis of 2007–2008 and 1997 Asian financial crisis), exchange rates, Foreign Direct Investment, Multinational Corporations receive much attention in IPE.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International Trade.", "content": "IPE studies International trade theory such as the Heckscher–Ohlin model and Ricardian economics. Global trade, strategic trade theory, trade wars, the national balance of payment and trade deficits are topics that IPE scholars are interested in.  The mercantilist view largely characterised policies pursued by state actors from the emergence of the modern economy in the fifteenth century up to the mid-twentieth century. Sovereign states would compete with each other to accumulate billion either by achieving trade surpluses or by conquest. This wealth could then be used to finance investment in infrastructure and to enhance military capability.  The post Washington consensus view regards international trade as a win-win phenomenon where firms should be allowed to collaborate or compete depending on market forces. After WWII a notable success story for the developmentalist approach was found in South America where high levels of growth and equity were achieved partly as a result of policies originating from Raul Prebisch and economists he trained, who were assigned to governments around the continent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Development Studies.", "content": "IPE is also concerned with development economics and explaining how and why countries develop.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "American vs. British IPE.", "content": "Benjamin Cohen provides a detailed intellectual history of IPE identifying American and British camps. The Americans are positivist and attempt to develop intermediate level theories that are supported by some form of quantitative evidence. British IPE is more \"interpretivist\" and looks for \"grand theories\". They use very different standards of empirical work. Cohen sees benefits in both approaches. A special edition of \"New Political Economy\" has been issued on The ‘British School' of IPE and a special edition of the \"Review of International Political Economy\" (RIPE) on American IPE.  One forum for this was the \"2008 Warwick RIPE Debate: ‘American’ versus ‘British’ IPE\" where Cohen, Mark Blyth, Richard Higgott, and Matthew Watson followed up the recent exchange in RIPE. Higgott and Watson in particular, queried the appropriateness of Cohen's categories. The contemporary view is that IPE is composed of niche groups for research while teaching follows a common tradition with distinct leanings towards explanations that favor economic theory or political and sociological insights.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "International political economy (IPE), also known as global political economy (GPE), refers to either economics or an interdisciplinary academic discipline that analyzes economics, politics and international relations. When it is used to refer to the latter, it usually focuses on political economy and economics, although it may also draw on a few other distinct academic schools, notably political science, also sociology, history, and cultural studies. IPE is most closely linked to the fields of macroeconomics, international business, international development and development economics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977024}
{"src_title": "Hattrick (video game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "Gameplay revolves around managing a football team, tasking the player with buying and selling players, setting the team's lineup, or expanding the arena to the perfect size, with each player having a team of their own. Many different types of teams exist within \"Hattrick\", with team types generally shaped by the training program set up by the player, as well as the formations played. Each included country has a league, which is divided into series. The series below the main divisions are also groups, where teams play each other in two legs, the number of sets and groups are defined according to the number of users in the country. Each included country also has a national cup that is played by all teams through a knockout system. The winners of the top division and cup of each country gain spots in the Hattrick Masters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "In April 2012, Hattrick Holdings was purchased by Zattikka, a casual gaming developer based in the United Kingdom, as part of its strategy to acquire established but \"under-exploited\" online games. As a preparation for the sale to Zattikka, the developers declared that they won't improve core features of the game for the foreseeable future (postponing the announced new staff system for instance), but instead focus on improving the experience for newbies coming into the game, as well as attracting new members and adding things (like hattrick gears) that users can pay for. The philosophy to not be able to pay for success still stands. In August 2013 the old owner group of \"Hattrick\" (which includes HT-Johan and HT-Daniel) reached an agreement with Zattikka to buy back the game.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Hattrick\" has been studied academically, for example being used in a University of Helsinki case study into whether online simulation games, such as \"Hattrick\", could be used as a business model for online betting and gambling businesses. The conclusion was \"\"Online gambling on simulated sport events is a very interesting proposition with good prospects in the future; further research and piloting projects are however needed before one can give any conclusive answer to the actual future value of such services.\"\"  It has also been used as the basis for a Lund University academic paper, \"\"Time Extraction from Real-time Generated Football Reports\"\", presented at the Nordic Conference of Computational Linguistics in Tartu, Estonia in 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Hattrick was launched on August 30th of 1997. In the beginning, Swedish was the only language available. In early 2000, the game development company Hattrick Extralives is founded. After that, Hattrick is also available in English.  In May 2001, the company presented Hattrick Supporter, a premium service that would be the main source of income for the company.  In February 2008, Hattrick launched a board game called Match of the Season. In 2011, Hattrick was voted like the Most Favourite Simulation Game of 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hattrick is a browser-based massively multiplayer online football management simulation video game developed in Sweden and started in 1997. Currently the game contains 133 different countries plus the Hattrick International (only for HT-Supporters), each with its own league pyramid, and 53 different language versions. As of December 2018, the community of the game has about 230,000 users worldwide, each with their own team. The number peaked in February 2009 with almost one million users. \"Hattrick\" has arranged 69 seasons as far as December 2018 (each of which lasts about four months).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977025}
{"src_title": "Francesco de' Rossi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Salviati was born in Florence. He apprenticed under Giuliano Bugiardini, Baccio Bandinelli, Raffaele Brescianino, and finally Andrea del Sarto in 1529–30. In 1531 he traveled to Rome, where he met another Bandinelli pupil, Giorgio Vasari, and helped to complete the frescoes on the \"Life of John the Baptist\" in the Palazzo Salviati for the Cardinal Giovanni Salviati. It is from his attachment to this household that he took on the surname.  He frescoed an \"Annunciation\" in San Francesco a Ripa (1533–35). His mature style has mannerist contortions and crowded scenes similar to the output of Giulio Romano. In 1538 he joined Jacopino del Conte in completing a fresco of the \"Visitation\" for the \"Oratory of San Giovanni Decollato\", a Florentine fraternity ministering to persons who had been condemned to execution.  Salviati painted in Bologna in 1540 alongside Vasari, and stayed for a brief time in Venice, where he frescoed decorations for the Palazzo Grimani di Santa Maria Formosa in antique style. During this period his style shows the influences of Parmigianino. His many portrait paintings can sometimes be confused for Bronzino.  In 1543 Salviati returned to Florence. Working for Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, he completed a fresco decoration eulogizing the Medici family (\"Triumph of Camillus\" in the \"Sala dell'Udienza\" of the Palazzo Vecchio, 1543–45). He also designed tapestry cartoons for the recently established \"Arazzeria\", including \"Ecce homo\", \"Resurrection\", and \"Joseph explains the Pharaoh's dreams\". The latter commission was awarded after a competition, which pitted him against contemporary Florentine Mannerists, Bronzino and Pontormo. He painted a \"Deposition\" altarpiece for Santa Croce in 1547–48. This theme, one which became a master oeuvre topic for Late-Renaissance artists, is handled in a crowded complex fashion.  He often travelled to Rome between 1548 and 1563, to complete various fresco series, such as \"Wedding of Canae\" in the Oratory of the Piceni, a \"Birth of John the Baptist\" in the Oratory of \"San Giovanni Decollato\", in the Palazzo della Cancelleria (Pallium Cappella), in the Palazzo Sacchetti (\"History of David\"), and in Palazzo Farnese.  He died in Rome.  The Cleveland Museum of Art, the Courtauld Institute of Art (London), the Getty Museum, Harvard University Art Museums, the Hermitage Museum, the Honolulu Museum of Art, the Liechtenstein Museum (Vienna), the Louvre, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Museo Poldi Pezzoli (Milan), Museum der bildenden Künste (Leipzig), the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the National Gallery of Art (Washington D.C.), Pinacoteca di Brera (Milan), Ringling Museum of Art (Florida), the Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, and the Saint Louis Art Museum are among the public collections holding paintings by Francesco de' Rossi.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Francesco de' Rossi (1510–1563) was an Italian Mannerist painter who lived and worked mainly in Florence, but also produced several works in Rome. He is known by many names, prominently the adopted name Francesco Salviati or as Il Salviati, but also \"Francesco Rossi\" and \"Cecchino del Salviati\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977026}
{"src_title": "Juraj Kucka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Kucka made his Corgoň Liga debut for Ružomberok on 11 March 2007. He played six games in his first season. Overall, Kucka played 49 games and scored eight goals for Ružomberok. Czech manager Michal Bílek, coaching Ružomberok in 2008, recommended Kucka for Sparta Praha. In January 2009, he has signed a three-year contract for Sparta. In 2009–10 season he won the champions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genoa.", "content": "On 6 January 2011, he signed a four-and-a-half-year contract for €3.55 million transfer fee with Genoa (later extended one more year to 30 June 2016). He made his debut in the Coppa Italia match against Inter Milan on 12 January 2011. He was voted man of the match by Genoa fans after 1–1 draw against AC Milan on 6 February 2011. Kucka proved immediately to fit fine in the squad, showing a remarkable physical strength and good technical skills, resulting the second best player of Genoa. He scored his first goal for Genoa in a 2–1 away win against Lazio Rome on 18 September 2011.  On 31 August 2011, the last day of transfer window, Inter Milan and Genoa came to an agreement to swap co-ownerships of Juraj Kucka (€8 million) and Emiliano Viviano (€5 million). In June 2012 Kucka returned to Genoa where he spent 2011–12 season on loan for just €6.5 million, co-currently Samuele Longo returned to Inter for €7 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Milan.", "content": "On 28 August 2015, Kucka was signed by AC Milan for €3 million transfer fee. However, Milan also paid an unknown parties an additional €1 million. He made his debut on 29 August 2015 in a 2–1 home win against Empoli, and scored his first Milan goal on 9 January 2016 to equalize against AS Rome in a 1–1 draw.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trabzonspor.", "content": "On 7 July 2017, Kucka was signed by Trabzonspor on a three-year contract worth €2.25 million a season, for a transfer fee of €5 million. He became a third Slovak player to join Trabzonspor in 2016–17 period, after Matúš Bero and Ján Ďurica. The trio was later joined by left-back Tomáš Hubočan, on a loan from Olympique Marseille. By the start of 2018–19 season, Kucka was the only remaining Slovak in the team. In total, Kucka scored 3 goals in 38 competitive games for Trabzonspor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Parma.", "content": "Kucka returned to Italy on 14 January 2019, when he joined Parma. He commented that he intended to score more goals in Parma and improve from where he left of, when he left Italy a year and a half ago.  He debuted for Parma in his first opportunity, when he came on as a substitute for Alessandro Deiola in the 73rd minute of a Serie A away fixture against Udinese. Parma won the game 2–1 by goals of Roberto Inglese and Gervinho.  In his third appearance for Parma, Kucka got his first two assists with the side. On 2 February, he assisted Barillà in the 64th minute and Ivorian international Gervinho in the 74th minute. Parma had managed to upset Juventus away, who were at the top of the league table, by coming back from a two-goal margin twice, to tie the game 3–3. Kucka played 86 minutes of the game.  He scored his first goal after the return to Italy in his fifth match, on 16 February 2019 against Cagliari after an assist from Massimo Gobbi, setting the score to 1–0 for Parma. However two second-half goals by Leonardo Pavoletti meant Parma lost the game 1–2.  Parma completed the season 14th with 41 points, three points above the relegation zone. Kucka scored a total of 4 goals, connecting one each against Genoa, Chievo Verona and Sampdoria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Kucka, a former Slovakia under-21 player, made his senior international debut in a friendly match against Liechtenstein on 19 November 2008. Slovakia manager Vladimír Weiss called him up for the 2010 World Cup despite the fact that Kucka had not played in any qualification matches. He played in three games at the World Cup: against New Zealand, Italy and The Netherlands.  Kucka was called up to the squad for the Euro 2016 tournament in France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Sparta Prague  Milan", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Juraj Kucka (; born 26 February 1987) is a Slovak footballer who plays as a midfielder for Italian top division club Parma and the Slovak national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977027}
{"src_title": "Juniperus oxycedrus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Juniperus oxycedrus\" is very variable in shape, forming a spreading shrub tall to a small erect tree tall. It has needle-like leaves in whorls of three; the leaves are green, long and broad, with a double white stomatal band (split by a green midrib) on the inner surface. It is usually dioecious, with separate male and female plants. The seed cones are berry-like, green ripening in 18 months to orange-red with a variable pink waxy coating; they are spherical, diameter, and have three or six fused scales in 1-2 whorls, three of the scales with a single seed. The seeds are dispersed when birds eat the cones, digesting the fleshy scales and passing the hard seeds in their droppings. The pollen cones are yellow, long, and fall soon after shedding their pollen in late winter or early spring.  As to be expected from the wide range, \"J. oxycedrus\" is very variable. One recent study splits it into three species, though other authorities do not accept this:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies.", "content": "An additional variety or subspecies \"J. oxycedrus\" var. \"badia\" H.Gay (syn. \"J. oxycedrus\" subsp. \"badia\" (H.Gay) Debeaux) is distinguished on the basis of larger cones ( diameter), tinged purple when mature; it is described from northern Algeria, and also reported from Portugal and Spain.  A further species \"Juniperus macrocarpa\", confined to Mediterranean coastal sands, is more distinct but has also often been treated as a subspecies of Prickly Juniper, as \"J. oxycedrus\" subsp. \"macrocarpa\"; it differs in the broader leaves wide, and larger cones diameter.  Other close relatives of \"J. oxycedrus\" include \"Juniperus brevifolia\" on the Azores, \"Juniperus cedrus\" on the Canary Islands and \"Juniperus formosana\" in eastern Asia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Cade oil is the essential oil obtained through destructive distillation of the wood of this shrub. It is a dark, aromatic oil with a strong smoky smell which is used in some cosmetics and (traditional) skin treatment drugs, as well as incense. Cade oil has, on rare occasions, caused severe allergic reactions in infants.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Juniperus oxycedrus, vernacularly called Cade, cade juniper, prickly juniper, prickly cedar, or sharp cedar, is a species of juniper, native across the Mediterranean region from Morocco and Portugal, north to southern France, east to westernmost Iran, and south to Lebanon and Israel, growing on a variety of rocky sites from sea level up to 1600 m elevation. The specific epithet \"oxycedrus\" means \"sharp cedar\" and this species may have been the original cedar or \"cedrus\" of the ancient Greeks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977028}
{"src_title": "Mariam Thresia Chiramel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Thresia Chiramel Mankidiyan was born in Puthenchira in Irinjalakuda Revenue Division of Thrissur district on 26 April 1876 as the third of five children of Thoma and Thanda and was later baptized on 3 May 1876 at the church of Saint Mary; she was named in honor of Teresa of Ávila. Her paternal uncle Antony Chiramel Mankidiyan was her godfather and his wife Anna was the godmother. Her family was once rich though became poor when her grandfather married off seven daughters after selling property for each costly dowry; this led to her brothers and her father taking up drinking. Her mother was her father's second wife; her father's first wife Mariamkutty died during childbirth in 1872. She had two sisters and two brothers and were in exact order: Porinchu, Mariamkutty, Ouseph and Ittianam – she was born in between Mariamkutty and Ouseph.  In 1884 her mother tried in vain to dissuade the pious girl from her severe fasts and night vigils. Her mother died on 2 March 1888 after blessing her children who gathered at her deathbed. Her mother's death marked the conclusion of her studies and she instead dedicated herself to contemplation in her local parish church. She made a private vow to remain chaste in 1886. In 1891 she hatched a scheme to sneak from home to lead a life of penance in the hills but soon decided against this and instead returned home. Since 1904 she desired to be called \"Mariam\" under the belief she had a vision from the Blessed Virgin Mary in which she was instructed to add it to her name. From 1902 to 1905 she was subjected to several exorcisms from Venerable Joseph Vithayathil – under the orders of the local bishop – and from 1902 it was Vithayathil who became her spiritual director until her death.  In 1903 she requested Mar John Menachery – the Archbishop of Thrissur – to build a house of retreat but it was turned down. This happened after she had formed a group with three other friends and engaged in apostolic work with poor families. Menachery instead suggested she make an effort to join a religious congregation and encouraged her to join the new Congregation of the Franciscan Clarists but left since she didn't feel called to it. Mankidiyan later accepted the mar's request in 1912 to join the Carmelites at Ollur and was there since November 26, 1912 until she left on 27 January 1913 because she did not feel drawn to them either. In 1913 she set up a house at Puthenchira and on 14 May 1914 founded the Congregation of the Holy Family to which she was professed in and vested in its habit; she was the first superior of the order.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stigmata.", "content": "She was said to have had a range of spiritual experiences such as receiving the stigmata and hid this from public view; she first had this in 1905 though became more visible on 27 January 1909. She also purportedly suffered a series of demonic attacks.  In 1926 a falling object struck her on the leg and the wound soon festered. Mankidiyan was admitted to the local hospital though doctors deemed her condition fatal and she was moved by bullock cart back to her convent where on 7 June 1926 she received the final sacraments and the Viaticum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "She died at 10 PM on 8 June 1926 from her leg wound that her diabetes exacerbated. Her final words were: \"Jesus, Mary and Joseph; I give you my heart and my soul\" – she then closed her eyes and died. On the morning of her death she was laid on the floor on a mat at her request with her spiritual director and fellow religious huddled around her. Her funeral was celebrated on 9 June and in accordance with her wishes her remains were not washed prior to her funeral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Canonization.", "content": "The beatification process opened in Irinjalakuda on 12 July 1982 after the Congregation for the Causes of Saints (C.C.S.) titled her as a Servant of God and issued the official \"nihil obstat\" (nothing against) to the cause while the cognitional process opened on 14 May 1983 and concluded its business on 24 September 1983; the C.C.S. later validated the process after its conclusion in Rome on 8 November 1985 and received the Positio dossier from the postulation a decade later in 1997.  The board of historians met to assess the cause and to determine if historical obstacles existed before issuing their approval for the cause on 27 May 1997 at which point the theologians approved it on 9 October 1998 as did the C.C.S. on 19 April 1999. Pope John Paul II named the late religious as Venerable on 28 June 1999 after he confirmed that she had lived a life of heroic virtue. The investigation of the miracle required for beatification was held in the Trichur eparchy from 28 April 1992 to 26 July 1993 and was validated on 22 January 1999 before receiving the approval of the medical board on 16 November 1999. Theologians then voiced their own approval on 5 January 2000. The miracle was that of the cure of one Mathew D. Pellissery, who was born in 1956 with congenital club feet. He could barely walk with great difficulty on the sides of his feet until he was fourteen. After 33 days of fasting and prayer by the whole family, invoking the help of Mariam Thresia, his right foot was straightened during sleep on the night of 21 August 1970. Similarly after 39 days of fasting and prayer his left foot was also straightened overnight during sleep on 28 August 1971. Since then, Mathew has been able to walk normally. This double healing was declared inexplicable in terms of medical science by as many as nine doctors in India and Italy and thus met the last canonical requirement for her beatification. It was declared a miracle obtained through the intercession of Mariam Thresia by the C.C.S. on 18 January 2000 before the Pope himself issued final approval on it on 27 January 2000. John Paul II beatified Mariam Thresia on 9 April 2000 in Saint Peter's Square. Mathew Pellissery was present there during the beatification ceremony at St. Peter's Square.  The second miracle – and the one needed for her canonization – was investigated in the diocese of its origin and later received the formal validation of the C.C.S. in Rome on 24 June 2014. The miraculous healing of the child Christopher received approval from the medical board in Rome in March 2018 and theologians later confirmed it in October 2018. Pope Francis approved this miracle on 12 February 2019 which cleared her for canonization; it was celebrated on 13 October 2019.  The postulator for this cause was the Jesuit priest George Nedungatt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "\"Vaazhthappetta Mariam Thresia: Kudumbangalude Madhyastha\" directed by Sibi Yogyaveedan on Shalom won the award for the best teleserial at Kerala State television awards for 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"\" Mariam Thresia (born Thresia Chiramel Mankidiyan; 26 April 1876 – 8 June 1926) was an Indian Syro-Malabar Catholic professed religious and the founder of the Congregation of the Holy Family. Thresia Mankidiyan became known for receiving frequent visions and ecstasies as well as even receiving the stigmata which she kept well-guarded. She had been involved in apostolic work her entire life and pushed for strict adherence to the rule of her order amongst her fellow religious.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977029}
{"src_title": "2010 FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Host.", "content": "Finals hosts Italy. The tournament was held in ten Italy cities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification.", "content": "The regional qualification stage determined the 24 teams that would compete in the championship competition. Two spots were guaranteed to the host country Italy and 2006 champions Brazil. Regional governing bodies were allocated the remaining 22 spots. Africa was granted three, Asia and Oceania four, Europe eight, North America five and South America two places. Qualification competitions took place ranging from January to August 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pools composition.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First round.", "content": "Teams were seeded in the first two positions of each pool following the serpentine system according to their FIVB World Ranking as of 28 July 2009. FIVB reserved the right to seed the hosts as head of pool A regardless of the World Ranking. All teams not seeded were drawn to take other available positions in the remaining lines, following the World Ranking. The draw was held in Rome, Italy on 28 October 2009. Rankings are shown in brackets except the hosts who ranked 6th.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First round.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pool A.", "content": "Pool A featured host country Italy, as well as Egypt, Japan and Iran. Italy defeated all three teams, while the remaining teams each finished with a 1–2 record. Iran were eliminated by virtue of scoring the fewest points during the three-game schedule.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool B.", "content": "Pool B featured reigning champions Brazil, as well as Cuba, Spain and Tunisia. Cuba won all three of their matches. Tunisia were defeated in every match and eliminated from the competition. Brazil and Cuba would face each other again in the tournament final, where Brazil would repeat as world champions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool C.", "content": "Pool C featured Russia, Puerto Rico, Cameroon and Australia. Russia won all their matches, while Australia were eliminated after going 0–3.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool D.", "content": "Pool D featured the United States, Argentina, Mexico and Venezuela. Venezuela were eliminated after not winning a single set.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool E.", "content": "Pool E featured France, Czech Republic, Bulgaria and China. China were eliminated after not winning a match.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool F.", "content": "Pool F featured Poland, who won the silver medal in the last edition. The pool also featured Serbia, Germany and Canada.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second round.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pool G.", "content": "Pool G featured host Italy, as well as Germany and Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico were eliminated after losing both matches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool H.", "content": "Pool H featured Serbia, Cuba and Mexico. Mexico were eliminated after being defeated in both matches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool I.", "content": "Pool I featured Spain, Russia and Egypt. Egypt were eliminated after not winning a match.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool L.", "content": "Pool L featured the Czech Republic, United States and Cameroon. Cameroon did not win a match and were eliminated from the competition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool M.", "content": "Pool M featured Argentina, France and Japan. Japan did not win a match and were eliminated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool N.", "content": "Pool N featured Bulgaria, Brazil and Poland. Bulgaria swept eventual champion Brazil in three sets. Poland did not win a match and were eliminated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third round.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pool O.", "content": "In Pool O, Italy moved on to the semifinal match, the USA advanced to the fifth to eighth bracket and France moved on to the ninth to twelfth place competition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool P.", "content": "Pool P saw Serbia advance to the semifinal. Russia advanced to the fifth to eighth bracket and Argentina to the ninth to twelfth place event.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool Q.", "content": "In Pool Q, Cuba advanced to the semifinal. Bulgaria moved on to the fifth to eighth place bracket and Spain to the ninth to twelfth.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pool R.", "content": "In Pool R, Brazil advanced to the semifinal. Germany to the fifth to eighth bracket and the Czech Republic to the ninth to twelfth bracket.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final round.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final four.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "3rd place match.", "content": "In the bronze medal match, Serbia defeated hosts Italy, three sets to one. It was the country's first medal since they were runners-up in 1998 (then as Yugoslavia).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final was a rematch of Brazil and Cuba, who had met earlier in the first round with Cuba winning 3 sets to 2 in an upset. The final was a different story however, with Brazil winning easily in straight sets 25–22, 25–14, 25–22; one Xinhua journalist called it a 'practice match' for Brazil. Brazil took advantage of a large number of Cuban mistakes, perhaps resulting from the young age of the Cuban team. Leandro Vissotto led Brazil in points with 19 and closed the match with a spike. The match was played before a crowd of 11,605 which included a number of Brazilian football stars based in Italy.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Marketing.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Symbol.", "content": "Volly was the name chosen by Internet users and students of the 10 host cities of the World Championship (Ancona, Catania, Florence, Milan, Modena, Reggio Calabria, Rome, Turin, Trieste and Verona), after months of voting. The second most popular name for the mascot was \"Fly,\" while \"Mimmo,\" \"Italo\" and \"Gump\" finished further down the list.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2010 FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship was held in Italy from 25 September to 10 October 2010. The tournament featured 24 teams to determine the world champions in men's volleyball. In addition to 2006 champion Brazil and host nation Italy, 22 teams qualified for the tournament by means of continental and regional competitions. The matches took place in ten venues across ten Italian cities, with the final being held at the PalaLottomatica, Rome.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977030}
{"src_title": "Aryl halide", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Preparation.", "content": "The two main preparatory routes to aryl halides are direct halogenation and via diazonium salts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Direct halogenation.", "content": "In the Friedel-Crafts halogenation, Lewis acids serve as catalysts. Many metal chlorides are used, examples include iron(III) chloride or aluminium chloride. The most important aryl halide, chlorobenzene is produced by this route. Monochlorination of benzene is always accompanied by formation of the dichlorobenzene derivatives.  Arenes with electron donating groups react with halogens even in the absence of Lewis acids. For example, phenols and anilines react quickly with chlorine and bromine water to give multiple halogenated products. The decolouration of bromine water by electron-rich arenes is used in the bromine test.  Direct halogenation of arenes are possible in the presence of light or at high temperature. For alkylbenzene derivatives, the alkyl positions tend to be halogenated first in the free radical halogenation. To halogenate the ring, Lewis acids are required, and light should be excluded to avoid the competing reaction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sandmeyer, Balz-Schiemann and Gattermann reactions.", "content": "The second main route is the Sandmeyer reaction. Anilines (aryl amines) are converted to their diazonium salts using nitrous acid. For example, copper(I) chloride converts diazonium salts to the aryl chloride. Nitrogen gas is the leaving group, which makes this reaction very favorable. The similar Schiemann reaction uses the tetrafluoroborate anion as the fluoride donor. Gatterman reaction can also be used to convert diazonium salt to chlorobenzene or bromobenzene by using copper powder instead of copper chloride or copper bromide. But this must be done in the presence of HCl and HBr respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Halogenation in nature.", "content": "Aryl halides occur widely in nature, most commonly produced by marine organisms that utilize the chloride and bromide in ocean waters. Chlorinated and brominated aromatic compounds are also numerous, e.g. derivatives of tyrosine, tryptophan, and various pyrrole derivatives. Some of these naturally occurring aryl halides exhibit useful medicinal properties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Structural trends.", "content": "The C-X distances for aryl halides follow the expected trend. These distances for fluorobenzene, chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, and methyl 4-iodobenzoate are 135.6(4), 173.90(23), 189.8(1), and 209.9 pm, respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Substitution.", "content": "Unlike typical alkyl halides, aryl halides do not participate in conventional S2 reactions, as the backside attack required for an S2 reaction is impossible, owing to the planar structure of the aryl group. S1 reactions are theoretically possible, but not generally observed, as the formation of the aryl cation is not energetically favourable.  However, aryl halides with electron-withdrawing groups in the \"ortho\" and \"para\" positions, can undergo SAr reactions. For example, 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene can react with water in basic solution to give a phenol:  Unlike in most other substitution reactions, fluoride is the best leaving group, and iodide the worst, due to the fluoride's high electronegativity allowing better stabilization of rate-determining transition state that leads to the negatively charged Meisenheimer intermediate. Work in 2016 has proposed that a concerted displacement mechanism (akin to a frontside S2 displacement) is possible in the case of a fluoride displacement of an activated oxygen leaving group. In this mechanism, the Meisenheimer 'intermediate' is in fact only a transition state, rather than a true intermediate. A 2018 paper indicates that this situation may actually be rather common, occurring in systems that were previously assumed to proceed via SAr mechanisms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Benzyne.", "content": "Aryl halides are capable of doing reactions via the benzyne mechanism, involving sodium amide in liquid ammonia. For example, chlorobenzene can be converted to aniline under these conditions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Organometallic reagent formation.", "content": "Aryl halides react with metals, generally lithium or magnesium, to give more reactive derivatives that behave as sources of aryl anions.  Direct formation of Grignard reagents, by adding the magnesium to the aryl halide in an ethereal solution, works well if the aromatic ring is not significantly deactivated by electron-withdrawing groups.  Compounds such as para-bromonitrobenzene cannot form stable Grignards directly, as their aromatic rings are too deactivated. If such a Grignard is needed, it's usually made by magnesium-halogen exchange involving isopropyl magnesium chloride at -78 °C. This reaction takes place because the pK of the aromatic protons is much lower—generally around 45, while that of the aliphatic alkane exceeds 50. The Grignards made using this procedure are generally used immediately, to avoid decomposition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other reactions.", "content": "The halides can be displaced by strong nucleophiles via reactions involving radical anions. Alternatively aryl halides, especially the bromides and iodides, undergo oxidative addition, and thus are subject to Buchwald–Hartwig amination-type reactions.  Chlorobenzene was once the precursor to phenol, which is now made by oxidation of cumene. At high temperatures, aryl groups react with ammonia to give anilines.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Biodegradation.", "content": "\"Rhodococcus phenolicus\" is a bacterium species able to degrade dichlorobenzene as sole carbon sources.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "The aryl halides produced on the largest scale are chlorobenzene and the isomers of dichlorobenzene. One major but discontinued application was the use of chlorobenzene as a solvent for dispersing the herbicide Lasso. Overall, production of aryl chlorides (also naphthyl derivatives) has been declining since the 1980s, in part due to environmental concerns. Triphenylphosphine is produced from chlorobenzene:  Aryl bromides are widely used as fire-retardants. The most prominent member is tetrabromobisphenol-A, which is prepared by direct bromination of the diphenol.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In organic chemistry, an aryl halide (also known as haloarene or halogenoarene) is an aromatic compound in which one or more hydrogen atoms directly bonded to an aromatic ring are replaced by a halide. The haloarene are different from haloalkanes because they exhibit many differences in methods of preparation and properties. The most important members are the aryl chlorides, but the class of compounds is so broad that many derivatives enjoy niche applications", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977031}
{"src_title": "European Consumer Centres Network", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The European Consumer Centres Network was established in January 2005 by the European Commission and national governments. As a result of the enlargement of the European Union, the ECC-Net has expanded to include: Bulgaria and Romania in 2007, and Croatia in 2013. Today, there are 30 European Consumer Centres: 28 in the EU Member States, one in Norway, one in Iceland. The ECC-Net originated from two former existing consumer information and protection networks: The Network for the extrajudicial settlement of consumer disputes (EEJ-Net) and the Euroguichet Network.  The EEJ-Net was established in 2001 to help consumers to solve cross-border disputes with traders providing defective goods and services, by guiding them to alternative dispute resolution mechanisms (ADR). The Euroguichets were founded in 1992 at the European Commission's initiative with the objective to inform consumers about the opportunities of the European Single Market and about their rights as consumers in Europe. Moreover, the Euroguichets helped consumers encountering problems with cross-border transactions. The Euroguichets also acted as interfaces between consumers and the European Commission. The European Consumer Centres Network took over the duties of both organisations: It helps consumers to solve cross-border disputes and informs them about their rights in Europe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "The European Consumer Centres Network:  All services provided by the ECC-Net are free of charge for consumers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operation.", "content": "An example  A Spanish consumer orders a smartphone from an Italian trader. The smartphone arrives but it does not work properly: the consumer contacts the trader but is left without a reply. He promptly calls his national ECC, in this case the ECC Spain for further assistance. ECC Spain shares the case with ECC Italy. ECC Italy contacts the trader, the conflict is resolved and the consumer is reimbursed.  How does the ECC-Net help?  More than two thirds of disputes are solved in favor of the consumer. If no solution can be found, the ECCs help consumers to find an appropriate Alternative Dispute Resolution body or inform them about other possibilities, e. g. Small Claim Procedure, European Payment Order to solve the problem.  The ECC-Net cannot help: Additionally, the ECCs cannot represent the consumer in court nor enforce the law to apply sanctions on traders.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "For further statistics, see the official ECC-Net website.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "An effective European consumer policy aims at safeguarding consumer's rights through legislation: this includes offering help and advice in order to solve disputes with traders based in another EU-country, Iceland or Norway in an amicable way. Well-informed consumers may take full advantage of the European Single Market through lower prices, better conditions, and a wider range of products, both online and in person.  The European Consumer Centres Network was established to provide consumers with clear information about their rights and to assist them to effectively solving a consumer issue; this improves consumers' confidence in the European Single Market and helps to enforce economic potential for growth.  Given the rapid increase in online consumerism, the role of the ECC-Net in solving cross-border e-commercial disputes - without going to court - has grown substantially. Therefore, the role of the ECC-Net will continue to expand in regards to the European Digital Single Market.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European Consumer Centres Network (ECC-Net) is an EU-wide network. There is a national contact point called European Consumer Centre (ECC) in all 28 EU Member States, in Iceland and Norway. ECCs provide consumers with information about the opportunities and risks of the European Single Market and also regarding cross-border consumer topics, such as travel, various services, and the purchase of goods and services. The ECC-Net is staffed by legal experts who assist consumers free of charge to solve any dispute that may arise with enterprises based in another EU country, Norway, or Iceland. The ECCs are co-financed by the European Commission and national governments aiming to protect consumer rights and ensure that every EU citizen may take full advantage of the European Single Market. Depending on the formal structure some ECCs are hosted by non-governmental organizations (NGOs), governmental bodies, or independent organizations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977032}
{"src_title": "Henrietta Catherine Agnes of Anhalt-Dessau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Agnes, also called \"Agnese\", was a daughter of Prince Leopold II Maximilian of Anhalt-Dessau (1700–1751) from his marriage to Gisela Agnes (1722–1751), daughter of Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Köthen. At the age of six months, she was made a canoness in Herford Abbey; this should provide her for life. She developed a particularly close relationship with her sisters Maria Leopoldine and Casimire. She followed them to Detmold, when they married there. As the oldest sister, Agnes took over the duties of representation at the court in Dessau, until her brother Leopold III married. She then returned to Detmold. After both her sisters had died, she moved to Herford Abbey in 1769, where she became the Dean.  She married on 26 October 1779 at Bosfeld House in Rheda-Wiedenbrück with Baron Johann Jost of Loën, Lord of Cappeln and Tecklenburg (1737–1803), son of Johann Michael von Loën. Johann Jost's mother was a first cousin of Catharina Elisabeth Goethe, the mother of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. From 1795, Agnes and John Jost lived in Dessau and had a keen interest in the social life of the city. They were in close contact with their Goethe relatives. After a visit, she wrote in 1796: \" In Dessau, the memory of earlier times delighted us: the Loën family proved to be comfortable, trusting relatives and we could remembered our earliest days and hours together in Frankfurt\".  Agnes's son Frederick later became Marshal of the Court at the court in Dessau, her daughter Agnes was the wife of Count Heinrich Ernst Leopold of Seherr-Thoß.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henrietta Catherine Agnes of Anhalt-Dessau (born 5 June 1744 in Dessau; died: 15 December 1799 in Dessau) was a princess of Anhalt-Dessau by birth, Dean of Herford Abbey and by marriage Baroness of Loën.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977033}
{"src_title": "Vladimir Tarasenko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russia.", "content": "Tarasenko made his professional debut with Sibir Novosibirsk in 2008–09, scoring seven goals and ten points in 38 games and was the runner up in voting for Rookie of the Year in the KHL's inaugural season. He was released to play with the Russian junior team at the 2009 IIHF World U18 Championships, where he scored eight goals in seven games and was named a tournament all-star as Russia won silver. Tarasenko returned to Sibir in 2009–10 as the seventh-youngest player in the League. He again represented Russia at the 2010 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships, finishing third in team scoring with five points in six games.  International Scouting Services (ISS) ranked Tarasenko as the top-ranked European skater, and fourth overall, in its mid-term rankings ahead of the 2010 NHL Entry Draft. Described by scouts as strong and mobile with no glaring weaknesses, Tarasenko had expressed interest in playing in the NHL, though his father, also his coach with Sibir, believed it was important that his son remain in Russia. Tarasenko was ultimately drafted by St. Louis Blues in the first round, 16th overall, at the 2010 Draft with the pick obtained via a trade from the Ottawa Senators St. Louis had acquired in exchange for David Rundblad.  On 13 January 2012, Tarasenko was traded to SKA Saint Petersburg in exchange for Vyacheslav Solodukhin. On 2 June 2012, Tarasenko announced that he would be moving to North America to play in the NHL for the St. Louis Blues rather than staying and playing in the KHL. As a result of the 2012–13 NHL lockout that cancelled a large part of the NHL regular season, however, Tarasenko instead returned to SKA to begin 2012–13. He credited the decision in part to a desire to play with Ilya Kovalchuk, the captain of the team who also joined as a result of the lockout.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "St. Louis Blues.", "content": "Once the lockout ended, Tarasenko began the shortened, 48-game 2012–13 season with the Blues. He scored his first and second career NHL goals on the first two shots of his league debut on 19 January 2013, against Jimmy Howard of the Detroit Red Wings in a 6–0 blowout. On 4 February, Tarasenko was named the NHL's Rookie of the Month for January after scoring five goals and four assists (nine points). He ultimately finished his first NHL season with eight goals and 11 assists in 38 games.  On 19 March 2014, towards the conclusion of the 2013–14 season, Tarasenko underwent successful surgery to repair a hand injury sustained in a 4–1 Blues win over the Nashville Predators. He was expected to miss the remainder of the regular season, but made a quick recovery, returning to play in the 2014 Stanley Cup playoffs where he scored four goals in the series against the Chicago Blackhawks.  On 28 October 2014, during the 2014–15 season, Tarasenko recorded his first career NHL hat-trick against Kari Lehtonen of the Dallas Stars and was later named the NHL's First Star of the Week after scoring five goals and one assist during the week. Tarasenko finished the regular season leading the Blues in both goals (37) and points (73), also finishing fifth in the league in goals and ninth in total points. On 18 April 2015, Tarasenko scored his first career Stanley Cup playoff hat-trick against Devan Dubnyk of the Minnesota Wild in Game 2 of St. Louis' Western Conference Quarterfinals matchup. In the series, he scored six goals and one assist (seven points), though the Blues ultimately fell to the Wild in six games. On 7 July 2015, during the subsequent off-season, Tarasenko, as a restricted free agent, signed an eight-year, $60 million contract with St. Louis at an annual average value of $7.5 million. Tarasenko is known for his very accurate and unique wrist shot, which has earned him a reputation as one of the most dangerous goal scorers in the NHL. He is one of two players to score at least 30 goals in each of the last five seasons, along with fellow-Russian Alexander Ovechkin of the Washington Capitals.  On 12 June 2019, Tarasenko won the Stanley Cup with the Blues in 2019, St. Louis' first Stanley Cup in their 52-year franchise history. During the Blues' 2019 playoff run, Tarasenko recorded 11 goals, the second-highest total among Blues players and the third-highest among all players in the playoffs. In game 5 of the 2019 Western Conference Final against the San Jose Sharks, Tarasenko became the first player in Blues playoff history to score a goal on a penalty shot.  On 24 October 2019, during a 5–2 win over the Los Angeles Kings, Tarasenko was forced to leave the game after getting tangled up with Kings defenceman Sean Walker. Four days later, it was announced that Tarasenko would require shoulder surgery and be sidelined at least five months.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Internationally, Tarasenko has played for the Russian junior team three times, winning a silver medal at the 2009 IIHF World U18 Championships, sixth place at the 2010 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships and captained Russia to a gold medal at the 2011 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. At the senior level, Tarasenko has also played for Russia at the 2011 IIHF World Championship and was a member of the Russian national team for the 2014 Winter Olympics held in his native Russia, at the Sochi Olympics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Tarasenko's father, Andrei, is a former Russian league scoring champion and Olympian who competed at the 1994 Winter Olympics.  Tarasenko married his wife, Yana, on July 1, 2015. The couple have three children: Mark, Aleksandr (born May 17, 2016), and Artem (born June 6, 2019). Mark is his stepson.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vladimir Andreyevich Tarasenko (; born 13 December 1991) is a Russian professional ice hockey right winger and alternate captain for the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League (NHL). Prior to playing in the NHL, he played in the system of Sibir Novosibirsk organization, first playing for the senior team in the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) in 2008–09. He spent a total of three seasons with Novosibirsk before being traded to SKA Saint Petersburg in 2012. Tarasenko was selected in the first round, 16th overall, in the 2010 NHL Entry Draft by the Blues, joining the team for the 2012–13 season. Since then, he has been one of St. Louis' leading scorers and has played in three NHL All-Star Games. Tarasenko won the Stanley Cup as a member of the Blues in 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977034}
{"src_title": "Dixit (card game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "Each player starts the game with six random cards. Players then take turns being the storyteller. The player whose turn it is to be storyteller looks at the six images in his or her hand. From one of these, he or she makes up a sentence or phrase that might describe it and says it out loud (without showing the card to the other players).  Each other player then selects from among their own six cards the one that best matches the sentence given by the storyteller. Then, each player gives their selected card to the storyteller, without showing it to the others. The storyteller shuffles his or her chosen card with the cards received from the other players, and all cards are then dealt face up. The players (except for the storyteller) then secretly guess which picture was the storyteller's, using numbered voting chips.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scoring.", "content": "The original rules were revised after publication.  If all players find the storyteller's card  If no players find the storyteller's card  If at least 1 player, but not all players have found the storyteller's card  In the original rules, the winner is the first player to reach 30 points. In the revised rules, the winner is the player with the most points when the last card is drawn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other editions.", "content": "An iOS app for Dixit was released in 2011.  Dixit has several expansion packs including:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Dixit has received highly positive reviews and over 30 awards and nominations. BGL described it as a card game that \"allows creativity and imagination to run riot\", whereas Shut Up & Sit Down referred to it \"one of those very special game ideas that makes the most of the human brain while also keeping its rules to a minimum\". Father Geek noted that Dixit is \"one of those rare games that can be played with a mixed age and skill group with little to no difficulty\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dixit is a card game created by Jean-Louis Roubira, illustrated by Marie Cardouat, and published by Libellud. Using a deck of cards illustrated with dreamlike images, players select cards that match a title suggested by the \"storyteller\", and attempt to guess which card the \"storyteller\" selected. The game was introduced in 2008. \"Dixit\" won the 2010 Spiel des Jahres award.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977035}
{"src_title": "Mutsuki-class destroyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "With the imposition of the Washington Naval Treaty limiting the number and size of capital warships, increased emphasis was placed by the Imperial Japanese Navy on the quantity and firepower of its destroyer fleet to counter what was perceived to be the growing threat from the United States Navy. The \"Mutsuki\"-class destroyers were an improved version of the \"Kamikaze\" class destroyers and were ordered under the 1923 fiscal budget.  Along with the \"Minekaze\" and \"Kamikaze\" classes, the \"Mutsuki\"-class ships formed the backbone of Japanese destroyer formations throughout the twenties and thirties. The \"Minekaze\" and \"Kamikaze\" classes were withdrawn from front line service and reassigned to secondary duties towards the end of the 1930s, but the \"Mutsuki\"s were retained as first line destroyers due to their range and their more powerful torpedo armament. All saw combat during World War II, and none survived the war.  Initially, the \"Mutsuki\"-class ships had only hull numbers due to the projected large number of warships the Japanese navy expected to build through the Eight-eight fleet plan. This proved to be extremely unpopular with the crews and was a constant source of confusion in communications. In August 1928, names were assigned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The \"Mutsuki\"-class destroyers were based on the same hull design as the previous \"Kamikaze\" class, except with a double curvature configuration of the bow, a feature to improve seaworthiness which became a standard in all later Japanese destroyers.  The engines utilized four Kampon boilers running two-shaft geared turbines at 38,500 shp, yielding a rated speed of, although subsequently modifications increased displacement, and correspondingly reduced speed to 33 knots.  After the Fourth Fleet Incident of September 1935, during which many ships in the Imperial Japanese Navy were damaged by a typhoon while on training exercises, weaknesses in the \"Mutsuki\"-class were addressed by retrofitting with a strengthened, more compact, bridge, with raked smokestacks, and with redesigned watertight shields on the torpedo mounts. With these new shields torpedoes could be worked in all weather conditions, thus extending the useful life of the class. In 1942, had a boiler removed and her aft stack was reduced in size – she was the only ship of the class so modified. had a similar reduction to her forward funnel; again, she was the only ship of the class so adapted. Between September 1942 and December 1943, had her stern modified to facilitate the launching and recovery of landing barges. She was the only ship of the class to be modified as a destroyer transport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "The \"Mutsuki\"-class destroyers were built with the same main battery as the \"Kamikaze\"-class, consisting of four Type 3 120 mm 45 caliber naval guns in single open mounts, exposed to the weather except for a small shield. These were located one forward, one aft, and two amidships, and two Type 92 7.7 mm anti-aircraft machine guns, one on either side of the bridge. However, the main difference from the \"Kamikaze\" was the use of two triple torpedo tubes instead of the previous three double launchers. The newly developed Type 8 torpedoes had greater range and larger warhead than previous torpedoes in the Japanese inventory, but were soon superseded by the famous Type 93 \"Long Lance\" oxygen-propelled torpedoes during World War II. Also, for the first time on a Japanese destroyer, a reload was carried for each tube. The \"Mutsuki\"-class was also equipped with two Type 81 depth charge launchers in the stern, with a total of 18 depth charges.  After the start of the Pacific War, anti-aircraft capabilities were enhanced at the expense of surface warfare capabilities and speed. However, there was no standard modification for the class during the war. Some ships immediately received Type 93 13 mm AA Guns mounted in front of the bridge and abaft the aft stack. From 1941-42, many ships lost one or two of their aft guns in favor of up to ten Type 96 25mm AA Guns.  Of the surviving members of the class in 1943, four had their aft bank of torpedo tubes removed to reduce weight and to permit storage of cargo. The three ships that survived into late 1944 (,, and ), had their suite of anti-aircraft guns increased to 16 and 22 Type 96 guns in single and dual mounts. \"Satsuki\" was fitted with a Type 13 radar in February 1944.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The \"Mutsuki\" class formed the 5th and 6th Destroyer Squadrons. \"Mutsuki\" and \"Kisaragi\" participated in the Battle of Wake Island at the start of the war, during which time \"Kisaragi\" was lost due to aircraft bombardment. The remaining eleven vessels participated in the invasions of the Philippines and Netherlands East Indies. In the subsequent Solomon Islands campaign surviving ships were exposed to considerable danger as fast transports in “Tokyo Express” missions in trying to re-supply island garrisons. \"Mutsuki\", \"Nagatsuki,\" \"Kikuzuki\", \"Mikazuki\" and \"Mochizuki\" were lost due to air attack in various battles in the Solomons.  Surviving vessels participated in the New Guinea campaign, mostly in the role of “Tokyo Express” transports. \"Yayoi\" was lost in an air attack off New Guinea and \"Fumizuki\" in Operation Hailstone at Truk. In the final stages of the war, \"Uzuki\" was lost to US PT-boats, \"Satsuki\" and \"Yūzuki\" to air attacks and \"Minazuki\" to submarine torpedoes in the Philippines.  None of the \"Mutsuki\"-class destroyers survived the war.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The were a class of twelve destroyers of the Imperial Japanese Navy. All were given traditional poetic names of the months of the year by the Lunar calendar or phases of the moon. Some authors consider the and \"Mutsuki\"-class destroyers to be extensions of the earlier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977036}
{"src_title": "Porte Maillot (Paris Métro)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first station called \"Porte Maillot\" opened in 1900 and was the terminus of Line 1, and was therefore a loop, allowing trains to turn around without reversing. Like Porte Dauphine and Porte de Vincennes, it was arranged with a central waiting area and tracks on either side, with two tunnels. The station was replaced with a new station a short distance to the west with the extension of Line 1 to Pont de Neuilly in 1937.  The new line dives down and passes under the old loop. In 1992 this old station was turned into a reception area by the RATP, now the \"Espace Maillot\". The new platforms were built 105 metres long to accommodate 7-car trains in the future, a plan which has never been realised.  Since 1988 and the opening of the northern branch of the C Branch of the RER, this station has served the Neuilly – Porte Maillot station of the RER C. The two stations are connected by a long corridor.  The RER A passes beneath the station, but does not stop. An extension of RER E through Port Maillot from Gare d'Haussmann – Saint-Lazare to La Défense and then towards Mantes-la-Jolie is under consideration.  Work is currently underway, but nearing completion to convert \"Espace Maillot\" into a light maintenance facility for the new MP 05 rolling stock, which are fully automated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The Porte Maillot is an entrance to the Bois de Boulogne, and is located between the avenue Charles de Gaulle of Neuilly-sur-Seine and the avenue de la Grande Armée of Paris.  The Palais des congrès can be accessed directly via the corridor between the metro and RER stations.  The roof over the tracks between the RER station and the Pereire station has been converted into a walkway for pedestrians.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Porte Maillot () is a station on Paris Métro Line 1 and as \"Neuilly – Porte Maillot\" on the RER C. The station replaces another station of the same name, the original terminus of Line 1, which was demolished and moved in 1936.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977037}
{"src_title": "Châtelet (Paris Métro)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The station was opened on 6 August 1900, three weeks after trains began running on the original section of line 1 between Porte de Vincennes and Porte Maillot on 19 July 1900. The line 4 platforms were opened on 21 April 1908 as part of the original section of the line from Porte de Clignancourt to \"Châtelet\". It was the southern terminus of line 4 until the opening of the connecting section of the line under the Seine to Raspail on 9 January 1910.  The line 7 platforms were opened on 16 April 1926 as part of the line's extension from Palais Royal to Pont Marie with the name \"Pont Notre-Dame-Pont au Change\". It had no direct connection with \"Châtelet\". On 15 April 1934 a connecting corridor was opened to the platforms of lines 1 and 4 and the line 7 station was renamed. The line 11 platforms were opened near the line 7 platforms on 28 April 1935 as part of the original section of the line from \"Châtelet\" to Porte des Lilas.  On 9 December 1977 the Châtelet – Les Halles RER station was opened with a connecting corridor with a moving walkway to \"Châtelet\". The line 14 platforms were opened near the line 1 and 4 platforms on 15 October 1998 as part of the original section of the line from Madeleine to Bibliothèque François Mitterrand. On 7 and 8 March 2009 the line 1 platforms were restored during the automation of line 1, including the installation of platform screen doors.  It is named after the Place du Châtelet, which is named after the Grand Châtelet, a castle over the northern approach to the old Pont au Change over the Seine to the Île de la Cité, which was demolished by Napoléon in 1802. \"Châtelet\" is a medieval French term for \"barbican\", a small castle that commands (overlooks) a bridge or defile.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Châtelet () is a station of the Paris Métro and of Île-de-France's regional high-speed RER in the centre of medieval Paris and the 1st arrondissement and 4th arrondissement. It serves lines line A, line B, and line D of the RER and serves lines 1, 4, 7, 11, and 14 of the Paris Métro and is the southern terminus of Paris Métro Line 11. The station is made up of two parts connected by a long corridor: Lines 7 and 11 under the Place du Châtelet and the Quai de Gesvre (site of the original medieval river port of Paris), next to the Seine; Lines 1, 4 and 14 towards Rue Saint-Denis and the Rue de Rivoli.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977038}
{"src_title": "Setos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ethnic history.", "content": "Before A.D. 600 the whole of Setomaa was within the vast northern Finnic lands of the indigenous Finno-Ugric peoples. The first significant event that separated Setos from Estonians was forced conversion of the latter into Catholicism in the 13th century, while Setos who lived in Novgorod Land remained pagans. In the 15th century Setos were converted into Orthodox Christianity but kept their vernacular beliefs. Later elements of Catholic culture were brought to the Setos by Estonian colonists, while in Estonia itself they nearly disappeared after the Lutheran reformation in Estonia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The border issue.", "content": "In 1920, with the peace treaty of Tartu, the area Setomaa (Setoland) was ceded to the newly created Republic of Estonia and it was included into Petseri County. As a result of World War II, the Republic of Estonia was forcibly annexed to the Soviet Union. And on August 15, 1944 the border between the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic was revised by Moscow authorities to what it is now. The issue became topical as the Republic of Estonia was restored in the borders of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991 and a national border was established soon afterwards. The establishment of the border brought about the division of Setomaa between two countries for the first time in history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seto leelo.", "content": "In 2009, the Setos' polyphonic style of folk singing, called leelo, was added to the UNESCO list of intangible cultural heritage. Seto leelo is usually performed by women, dressed in traditional clothing. During the Seto Kingdom Day celebration, the winning lead singer of a leelo group is awarded the title of \"Mother of Song\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Representative organisations.", "content": "The Seto Congress, a body comprising representatives of Seto villages and organisations, is regularly convened every three years and elects a permanent Council of Elders.  The Society for Seto Congress was a member of the European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages. The Setomaa federation of municipalities in Estonia (\"Setomaa Valdade Liit\", comprising the communes of Mikitämäe, Värska, Meremäe and Misso) publishes the newspaper \"Setomaa\", partly in the Seto language, partly in Estonian.  Also, every year the Seto choose a steward of King Peko (\"sootska\" or \"ülebtsootska\") for the so-called Kingdom of Setomaa at the annual celebration of the Day of the Kingdom (\"Seto Kuningriigi päiv\"), a local festival that rotates among the bigger Seto villages. The office is largely ceremonial and has been held by local activists, politicians, entrepreneurs and scholars. The tradition was initiated by Paul Hagu, an ethnic Seto and a researcher of Seto folk songs and traditional vocal polyphony (Leelo) at the University of Tartu.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Setos (, \"setoq\",, \"setud\") are an indigenous Finno-Ugric ethnic and linguistic minority in south-eastern Estonia and north-western Russia. Setos are mostly Seto-speaking Orthodox Christians of Estonian nationality. The Seto language (like Finnish and Estonian) belongs to the Finnic group of the Uralic languages. The Setos seek greater recognition, rather than having their language considered a dialect of Estonian. Along with Orthodox Christianity, vernacular traditional folk religion is widely practiced and supported by Setos.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977039}
{"src_title": "Gare de Lyon (Paris Métro)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Line 1.", "content": "The line 1 station was one of the eight original stations opened as part of the first section of line 1 between Porte de Vincennes and Porte Maillot on 19 July 1900. It was built with a length of 100 metres instead of the 75-metre length used for the stations of the line before their extension during the rebuilding of the line for rubber-tyre operation. The station was built cut and cover and is covered by a 23.90-metre-wide metal deck, which supports the streets above. It originally had four lines flanking two 6-metre-wide platforms in order to accommodate the proposed circular line (then called \"Line 2\"), although this was never completed. From 1 August 1906 the northern terminus of Line 5 was temporarily located at the spare platforms, requiring a reversal at Quai de la Rapée. On 17 December 1906 Line 5 was extended to Jacques Bonsergent and the section between \"Quai de la Rapée\" and \"Gare de Lyon\" was closed. The route of the closed line and the spare platforms at \"Gare de Lyon\" were used as part of a 60 cm (24 in) gauge railway, known as the \"Voie des Finances\", operated by the Ministry of Finance to move currency from 1937 to 1957.  The Line 1 platforms were raised during the weekend of 18 and 19 July 2009 as part of the automation of Line 1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Line 14.", "content": "The station of Line 14 was opened on 15 October 1998. It is located south of the Gare de Lyon in the Rue de Bercy, next to the stations of RER lines A and D. It has two lines on either side of a large central platform. Between the eastbound lane from Olympiades and the RATP headquarters is an exotic garden.  The Board of Directors of the Syndicat des transports d'Île-de-France decided on 27 May 2009 to provide funding in 2010 for a third access in the middle of the platform to facilitate movement within the busy and relatively narrow station. This new access will join the existing bridge over the tracks, which currently provides access to the RER, but is not used to access Line 14. This would separate the flow of arriving and departing passengers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gare de Lyon () is a station on lines 1 and 14 of the Paris Métro. It is connected to the Gare de Lyon mainline rail and RER stations within one complex and is the third-busiest station on the network with 30.91 million entering passengers in 2004, made up of 15.78m on line 1 and 15.13m on line 14.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977040}
{"src_title": "Gare de l'Est (Paris Métro)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The metro station consisting of three lines is located in front of the Gare de l'Est at the intersection of Rue du 8-Mai-1945 and Boulevard de Strasbourg, Line 4 follows a north/south axis and Lines 5 and 7 follow an east / west axis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The station was opened on 15 November 1907 as part of the extension of line 5 from \"Lancry\" (now Jacques Bonsergent) to Gare du Nord. The line 4 platforms were opened on 21 April 1908 as part of the first section of the line from Châtelet to Porte de Clignancourt. The line 7 platforms were opened on 5 November 1910 as part of the first section of the line from Opéra to Porte de la Villette. Lines 5 and 7 are parallel, running as four tracks with an island platform with two side platforms. Line 4 runs under 5 and 7 perpendicularly.  The station bears the name of Gare de l'Est, the station under which it is built. Its full name is Gare de l'Est-Verdun, named after the Avenue de Verdun nearby. The name Verdun is in memory of World War I's Battle of Verdun to which French soldiers were sent from the railway station.  From September 2006 to June 2007, Gare de l'Est and its metro station underwent a major renovation thanks to the \"Gares en mouvement\" and \"Un métro + beau\" projects, to accommodate a more beautiful and modern station the LGV Est line. On the platforms of Lines 5 and 7, orange tiles and blue paint gave way to traditional white tiles. The lights were also replaced, and the latest model of \"smiley\" style seating had been installed. Finally, the \"Parisine\" typeface replaced the \"Motte\" typeface, symbolizing the end of work on the platform. The new standard signage was installed throughout the station.  Only slight changes occurred on the platforms of Line 4. Apart from the replacement of the orange \"Motte\" tiles at the ends of the platforms and the passage of a layer of paint on the damaged tile of the vault.  In 2018, it was the fifth busiest metro station in the network, with 21,432,041 million passengers passing through the train station.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passenger services.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Access.", "content": "The station has eight accesses:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bus and RER connections.", "content": "The station is served by Lines 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46, 56, 91 and the OpenTour tourist line of the RATP Bus Network and, at night, by Lines N01, N02, N13, N14, N41, N42, N43, N44, N45, N140, N141, N142, N143, N144 and N145 of the Noctilian network.  As the name suggests, the metro station is connected to the train station Gare de Paris-Est. The maps for metro Line 7 indicate a connection with the RER E at the Gare de Magenta, although it is necessary to use the public road to reach it. This connection does not appear on the plans of Lines 4 and 5, a direct connection with the RER E can be made at the nearby Gare du Nord.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gare de l'Est-Verdun () is a station of the Paris Métro, serving Lines 4, 5, and 7 is located in the 10th arrondissement in Paris, France. It is the fifth busiest station on the network.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977041}
{"src_title": "Gare du Nord (Paris Métro)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "On 15 November 1907, Line 5 was extended from Gare d'Orléans (now known as Gare d'Austerlitz) to Gare du Nord where the station was built on a reversing loop. On 21 April 1908, Line 4 was opened from Châtelet to Porte de Clignancourt through Gare du Nord.  On 5 October 1942, the old Line 5 station was closed and replaced with a through station on 12 October 1942, in preparation for the extension to Église de Pantin. The part of the old loop that was not destroyed during the building of RER B in the 1970s, together with connecting lines to Line 2 and Line 4 under the Boulevard de Magenta and Rue de Dunkerque, are now used for driver training (USFRT). The length of platforms on Line 4 were extended from 75 metres to 90 metres in the 1960s during the upgrading of the line for rubber-tyre operations.  On 10 December 1981, the RER B station at Gare du Nord opened. The RER D station opened on 27 September 1987 with the rest of the line, while Gare de Magenta on the RER E line opened on 14 July 1999. The Church of Saint-Vincent-de-Paul is located nearby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passenger services.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Access.", "content": "Access to the station, designed in 1900 by the architect Hector Guimard of the \"Compagnie Générale du Métropolitain de Paris\", has been listed as a historic monument since 29 May 1978.  It has four entrances:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Platforms.", "content": "The stations of the two lines are of a standard configuration: they include two platforms flanking two tracks under an elliptical vault. However, the Line 4 station also has a later extension, recognizable by its much higher ceiling and mezzanine.  The platforms of Line 5 are decorated in the \"Andreu-Motte\" style: the fittings are orange, but the tiles are white and beveled. The advertising frames are metallic and the name of the station is indicated on enamelled plates, in Parisine font. Line 4 platforms are under construction and platform screen doors are being installed from September 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bus and RER connections.", "content": "From the station, it is possible, thanks to underground links, to reach the RER B and RER D lines, the Gare de Magenta of the RER E and the La Chapelle of the Line 2.  The station is served by lines 26, 31, 35, 38, 39, 43, 45, 46, 48, 54, 56, 91, 302 and the OpenTour tourist line of the RATP Bus Network and, at night, by lines N01, N02, N14, N43, N44, N140 and N143 of the Noctilien network.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gare du Nord () is a station on Line 4 and Line 5 of the Paris Métro. It is the busiest station in the system (not including RER stations), with 48 million entrances a year. It is connected to the SNCF railway station Gare du Nord (literally, \"North Station\", until 1938 run by the well-known company Chemins de Fer du Nord), which is served by RER B, RER D and Transilien Nord commuter trains as well as interurban trains to northern France, Eurostar trains to London and Thalys trains to Brussels, Amsterdam and Cologne. The station is also connected to the La Chapelle Métro station on Line 2 and to the Magenta RER station on RER E.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977042}
{"src_title": "Henry Seymour Conway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and education.", "content": "Conway was the second son of Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Baron Conway (whose elder brother Popham Seymour-Conway had inherited the Conway estates) by his third wife, Charlotte Seymour-Conway (née Shorter). He entered Eton College in 1732 and from that time enjoyed a close friendship with his cousin Horace Walpole.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early army career.", "content": "Conway joined the Molesworth's Regiment of Dragoons on 27 June 1737 as a lieutenant. He was transferred to the 1st Foot Guards and was promoted to captain on 14 February 1741 and to captain-lieutenant (the equivalent of lieutenant colonel) on 10 May 1742.  During the War of Austrian Succession he served on the staff of Field Marshal George Wade at Dettingen in June 1743 and on the staff of the Duke of Cumberland at the Fontenoy in May 1745. Appointed colonel of the 48th Foot on 6 April 1746, he took part in Culloden later that month during the Jacobite Rebellion. His next battle, in July 1747, was at Lauffeld, in which he narrowly escaped death, being captured by the French but released on parole a few days later. In July 1749, he transferred from the 48th Foot to the 34th Foot, and served with his regiment in the garrison of Menorca in 1751.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early political career.", "content": "Conway was elected unopposed to the Irish Parliament in 1741 for Antrim County, and to the British Parliament for Higham Ferrers in December 1741 on the recommendation of Sir Robert Walpole. He was elected in 1747 for Penryn and for St Mawes in 1754, both in the Boscawen interest. He was promoted to major-general on 12 March 1755.  In April 1755, he was unexpectedly appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland by William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington, the new Lord Lieutenant. He then finally took his seat for County Antrim in the Irish House of Commons in October 1755. It was hoped that he would resolve the conflict in Irish politics between the Speaker, Henry Boyle on the one side and George Stone, Archbishop of Armagh and John Ponsonby: ultimately, he reached a compromise, acceptable to the British Ministry, in which Boyle was bought off with an earldom and John Ponsonby became Speaker. He became a Groom of the Bedchamber in April 1757 to both George II and George III (until 1764).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seven Years War.", "content": "Conway was the British military second in command on the Rochefort expedition in 1757, and repeatedly advocated an attack on Fort Fouras, but his colleagues would only agree a night attack (which failed). Ultimately the expedition returned to Portsmouth having achieved nothing. Though Mordaunt (the commander in chief) was acquitted by his court-martial, the affair damaged both their reputations. In his displeasure, George II refused to employ Conway on the 1758 campaigns. He was not employed again until the next reign, except that he was sent to sign a cartel for an exchange of prisoners at Sluys in 1759. On 21 April 1759 he became colonel of the 1st The Royal Dragoons and on 25 August 1759 he was promoted to lieutenant general.  In 1761, he served in Germany as deputy to John Manners, Marquess of Granby, the British commander in the army led by Ferdinand of Brunswick. At the Battle of Villinghausen in July 1761 he commanded a corps which was at the centre of the line and not attacked. He was also present at the Battle of Wilhelmsthal in June 1762, and captured the castle of Waldeck the following month. After peace preliminaries were signed at Fontainebleau in November, he supervised the embarkation of British troops from Europe, returning to England in March.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later political career.", "content": "Conway was re-elected to the House of Commons in April 1761, this time for Thetford and on 4 July 1761 he became a member of the Privy Council. As a senior member of the Rockingham faction of the Whigs, he opposed the King's legal actions against the reformist John Wilkes in 1763 which resulted in his dismissal in 1764 as a Groom of the Bedchamber and as Colonel of the 1st Royal Dragoons. This led to the publication of accusation and counter-accusation in pamphlets, as it was feared that the government intended to purge the army of its political opponents.  He entered office with Lord Rockingham as Secretary of State for the Southern Department in July 1765 before switching to the Northern Department in May 1766, serving until January 1768, when he became a Minister without Portfolio. In these offices, Conway sought to urge a moderate policy towards the American colonies, being the principal supporter of the repeal of the Stamp Act, and opposing the taxation policies of Chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Return to the Army.", "content": "Following his resignation in January 1768, Conway returned to the military, and was made a full general on 26 May 1772 and Governor of Jersey on 22 October 1772. He remained an important figure in the Commons, opposing the British attempt to suppress the American Revolt. He was rewarded with a cabinet position and the office of Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in the new Rockingham ministry in March 1782. His political career came to an end in 1784 when he lost his seat in parliament due to his opposition to the new government of William Pitt and he focused thereafter on his military responsibilities retaining his post as Commander-in Chief until his complete retirement in January 1793. He was promoted to field marshal on 18 October 1793 and died, at his home, Park Place at Remenham in Berkshire, on 9 July 1795.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "On 19 December 1747 he married Caroline, the widow of Charles Bruce, 4th Earl of Elgin and 3rd Earl of Ailesbury, and daughter of Lieutenant-General John Campbell, later the 4th Duke of Argyll. They had one daughter, the sculptor Anne Seymour Damer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Field Marshal Henry Seymour Conway (1721 – 9 July 1795) was a British general and statesman. A brother of the 1st Marquess of Hertford, and cousin of Horace Walpole, he began his military career in the War of the Austrian Succession. He held various political offices including Chief Secretary for Ireland, Secretary of State for the Southern Department, Leader of the House of Commons and Secretary of State for the Northern Department. He eventually rose to the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Forces.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977043}
{"src_title": "Montparnasse – Bienvenüe (Paris Métro)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The stations of Lines 4 and 12 are located to the north under the Boulevard du Montparnasse while those of Lines 6 and 13 are south under Boulevard de Vaugirard and l'Avenue du Maine respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "On 24 April 1906 the station opened as Montparnasse station in the Avenue du Maine at the southern end of the old Gare Montparnasse (at the site currently occupied by the Tour Montparnasse, before the station was moved south of the Avenue du Maine in the 1960s) with the opening of the extension of Line 2 Sud from Passy to Place d'Italie. On 14 October 1907 Line 2 Sud became part of Line 5. On 11 March 1910 the Montparnasse station was renamed Avenue du Maine and on 30 June 1933 it was again renamed, to Bienvenüe in honour of the principal engineer of the Paris Métro, Fulgence Bienvenüe (accounting for the unusual diaeresis in the station's name). On 12 October 1942 the section of Line 5 between Étoile and Place d'Italie, including Bienvenüe, was transferred from Line 5 to Line 6 in order to separate the underground and elevated sections of the Métro (because the latter were more vulnerable to air attack during World War II).  The Line 4 platforms opened as Montparnasse in the Boulevard du Montparnasse, near the main entrance of the old Gare Montparnasse (on its northern side) on 9 January 1910 as part of the connecting section of the line under the Seine between Châtelet and Raspail. The Line 12 platforms were opened in the Boulevard du Montparnasse on 5 November 1910 as part of the first section of the Nord-Sud Company's Line C from Porte de Versailles to Notre-Dame-de-Lorette. This line was taken over by the Compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris and was renamed Line 12 on 27 March 1931. In 1913 a connection was opened between the platforms of Lines 4 and Line 12 situated on the Boulevard du Montparnasse, both called Montparnasse.  The Line 13 platforms opened in the Avenue du Maine as Bienvenüe on 21 January 1937 as part of the original Line 14 between there and Porte de Vanves, and were connected to the Line 5 platforms. This line became part of Line 13 on 9 November 1976.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Connecting the southern and northern stations.", "content": "At the end of the 1930s, a long corridor was built to connect the Montparnasse and Bienvenüe stations. Accordingly, the stations' names were fused to create Montparnasse-Bienvenüe on 6 October 1942. This long corridor is now equipped with moving walkways to facilitate access between the two parts of the station. The old Bienvenüe station serves lines 6 and 13, while the old Montparnasse station serves lines 4 and 12.  In 2002, in an experimental move, the RATP installed a moving walkway that moved at 12 km/h, which was then termed the \"fastest in the world.\" (The speed has however since been reduced to 9 km/h). The first several metres consist of metal rollers that accelerate passengers as they hold onto the handrail, because it would be dangerous to step directly onto the fast-moving conveyor. However, RATP announced in May 2009 that they would replace the walkway with an ordinary one in March 2011 in response to 'numerous customer complaints concerning safety and unreliability'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Barrière du Maine.", "content": "The southern part of the station in the Avenue du Maine was the location of the \"Barrière du Maine\", a gate built for the collection of taxation as part of the Wall of the Farmers-General; the gate was built between 1784 and 1788 and demolished in the nineteenth century.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Passenger services.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Access.", "content": "The station has seven entrances:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Platforms.", "content": "The platforms of Line 6 are decorated in the \"Mouton\" style with orange tiles and orange luminous lighting strips. Those of Line 12 are in the \"Ouï-dire\" style with green lighting strips and \"Motte\" seats, white flat tiles and white cylindrical advertising frames. The platforms of Line 13 are built in the \"Andreu-Motte\" style with green lightning strips and green tiled benches, tympanum's and openings. Green \"Motte\" seats are married with the original CMP decoration (white bevelled tiled walls, the name in faience and honey colour advertising frames). These platforms are equipped with platform screen doors. In 2017, the platforms of Line 4 were under construction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bus connections.", "content": "The station is served:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nearby.", "content": "Nearby are the Montparnasse district, the Tour Montparnasse office tower, the Musée Bourdelle (art museum), the Montparnasse Cemetery, the Musée de La Poste (postal museum) and the Jardin Atlantique (a rooftop garden on the roof of the Gare Montparnasse rail terminal).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Montparnasse – Bienvenüe () is a station of the Paris Métro which is a transfer point between Line 4, Line 6, Line 12 and Line 13. The fourth busiest station on the Métro system, it is located in Montparnasse at the intersection of the 6th, 14th and 15th arrondissements.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977044}
{"src_title": "Place d'Italie (Paris Métro)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The Place d'Italie was the site of the \"Barrière d'Italie\", a gate of in the Wall of the Farmers-General, built to enforce tax collections on goods entering Paris between 1784 and 1791, where the old Roman road towards Lyon and Rome began. The station is situated at the crossing of five large Parisian streets: the \"Avenue d'Italie\", the \"Boulevard Auguste Blanqui\", the \"Avenue des Gobelins\", the \"Boulevard de l'Hôpital\", and the \"Boulevard Vincent Auriol\". It was the starting point of the road connecting Paris to Italy, the current N7.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first platforms opened as part of the former Line 2 South on 24 April 1906, when it was extended from Passy. On 17 December 1906, \"Line 2 South\" was extended to Lancry. On 14 October 1907 \"Line 2 South\" was incorporated into Line 5. On 1 March 1909, Line 6 was opened from Place d'Italie to Nation.  The Line 7 platforms opened on 15 February 1930 as part of a planned section of line Line 7, which was temporarily operated as part of Line 10 until the completion of the under-Seine crossing of line 7 from Pont de Sully to Place Monge. The station was integrated into line 7 on 26 April 1931. On 12 October 1942, the \"Place d'Italie\" Étoile section was transferred from line 5 to line 6 in order to separate the underground and elevated sections of the metro (because the latter were more vulnerable to air attack). As a result, Line 5, rather than Line 6, terminated at \"Place d'Italie\".  Like one-third of the stations in the network between 1974 and 1984, the three stopping points were modernized by adopting the decorative style \"Andreu-Motte\", in yellow for line 5, blue for line 6 and green for line 7. However, the wharf of line 5 will be later removed its yellow tiled bench seat, which was surmounted by seats \"Motte\" features resembling its hue.  From 25 June to 2 September 2007, the platforms of Line 5 were closed to allow a modification of the track plan with the aim of reusing the loop of Italy, to increase the frequency of the line. the terminus was then temporarily shifted to the neighboring Campo-Formio metro station.  As part of the RATP's \"Renouveau du métro\" program, the corridors of the station were renovated from 31 March 2008. In the mid-2010s, the Line 7 station, in turn, underwent a minor modernization with green tiled benches replaced with contemporary seats of the same color.  From 25 November to 11 December 2015, the platforms of station 6 (as well as the exterior of an MP 73 train) were decorated in a Star Wars theme, during the theatrical release, Star Wars, Episode VII: The Awakening of the Force. At the end of 2016, its blue checked banquettes were replaced by contemporary seats of the same color.  In 2018, 11,508,361 travelers entered this station which places it at the 13th position of the metro stations for its attendance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passenger services.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Access.", "content": "There are four access points to Place d'Italie station:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Platforms.", "content": "Each stopping point has an elliptical vault and an \"Andreu-Motte\" style decoration, but the characteristic benches and seats have been gradually removed over the years.  The terminus of Line 5 is in the form of a curved station with two lanes framing a central platform. The \"Motte\" style is only represented by two yellow luminous strips, while the platform has a few white \"sit-stand\" bars. Bevelled white ceramic tiles cover the walls, vault and tympans. The advertising frames are metallic and the name of the station is written in capital letters on enamelled plates.  The platforms of Line 6 are of standard configuration. Two in number, they are separated by the metro tracks in the center. The decoration is materialized by two blue luminous strips and tympans treated in blue flat tiling, except to the right of the access outlets. The latter are covered with white beveled tiles, as are the walls and the vault. The advertising frames are metallic and the name of the station is written on enamelled plates, with an unusual font for the Paris metro. The seats are \"Akiko\" style blue.  The Line 7 station is also available. It has two green light luminous and \"Akiko\" seats of the same color. Bevelled white ceramic tiles cover the piers, the vault, the tympanums and the outlets of the corridors. The advertising frames are a faience honey color and the name of the station is also faience in the style of the original CMP.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bus connections.", "content": "The station is served by Lines 27, 47, 57, 59, 61, 64, 67 and 83 of the RATP Bus Network. At night, it is served by lines N15, N22, N31 and N144 of the Noctilien network.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Place d'Italie (, literally \"\"Italy Square\"\") is a rapid transit station of the Paris Métro located in the heart of the 13th arrondissement of Paris, at the Place d'Italie. It is the southern terminus of Line 5 and is also served by Line 6 and Line 7.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977045}
{"src_title": "Gotha G.V", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "Operational use of the Gotha G.IV demonstrated that the incorporation of the fuel tanks into the engine nacelles was a mistake. In a crash landing the tanks could rupture and spill fuel onto the hot engines. This posed a serious problem because landing accidents caused 75% of operational losses. In response Gothaer produced the G.V, which housed its fuel tanks inside the fuselage. The smaller engine nacelles were mounted on struts above the lower wing.  The Gotha G.V pilot seat was offset to port, with the fuel tanks immediately behind. This blocked the connecting walkway that previously on earlier machines allowed crew members to move between the three gun stations. All bombs were carried externally in this model.  The base variant of G.V offered no performance improvement over the G.IV. The G.V was up to 450 kg (990 lb) heavier than the G.IV due to additional equipment and the use of insufficiently seasoned timber. The Mercedes D.IVa engines could not produce the rated 190 kW (260 hp) due to inferior quality of fuel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gotha tunnel.", "content": "The Gotha included an important innovation in the form of a \"gun tunnel\", whereby the underside of the rear fuselage was arched, early versions allowing placement of a rearward-facing machine gun, protecting against attack from below, removing the blind spot. Later versions expanded the tunnel to remove the lower gun, providing a slot in the upper fuselage that allowed the rear gunner to remain stationary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The G.V entered service in August 1917. For the performance reasons aforementioned, it generally could not operate at altitudes as high as the G.IV.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "G.Va.", "content": "In February 1918, Gother tested a compound tail unit with biplane horizontal stabilizers and twin rudders. The new tail unit, known as the \"Kastensteuerung\", improved the aircraft's marginal directional control on one engine. The resulting G.Va subvariant incorporated the new tail, as well as a slightly shorter forward fuselage with an auxiliary nose landing gear. All 25 G.Va aircraft were delivered to \"Bogohl\" 3, the new designation for the former \"Kagohl\" 3.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "G.Vb.", "content": "Carried an increased payload comparing to the earlier G.Va, and operated at a maximum takeoff weight of 4,550 kg (10,030 lb). To reduce the danger of flipping over during landing, Gothaer introduced the \"Stossfahrgestell\" (\"shock landing gear\"), a tandem two-bogie main landing gear. The \"Stossfahrgestell\" proved so good that it was fitted to all G.Vs in \"Bogohl\" 3. Some G.Vb aircraft also had Flettner servo tabs on the ailerons to reduce control forces.  \"Idflieg\" ordered 80 G.Vb aircraft, the first being delivered to \"Bogohl\" 3 in June 1918. By the Armistice, all 80 aircraft were built but the last batch did not reach the front and was delivered direct to the Allied special commission.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Gotha G.V was a heavy bomber used by the \"Luftstreitkräfte\" (Imperial German Air Service) during World War I. Designed for long-range service, the Gotha G.V was used principally as a night bomber.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977046}
{"src_title": "Bernard Rappaz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "In the 1990s, Rappaz began to fight for the liberalization of the hemp trade and consumption. In November 2008 he was found guilty in Martigny Court for hemp grown between 1996 and 2001, violating the controlled substances law and committing money laundering. The police had seized about 50 tons of hemp with him. During the trial, he confessed to having sold five tons and made a total of about five million francs (= approx. 3.5 million euro). He also made claims about \"healing powers of marijuana\". Rappaz was sentenced to six years in jail. The state's attorney had asked for ten years.  On March 20, 2010, he was imprisoned in Sion. He joined in a hunger strike to protest against what he considered unlawful criminal proceedings against him. He was transferred to the prison wing of \"Inselspital\" (University Hospital of Bern). The Conseil d'État Esther Waeber-Kalbermatten ordered a force feeding for the first grant in July 2010. On July 21, the Valais authorities gave him house arrest at his residence in Saxon. For the time being, he ended his hunger strike.  On August 26, 2010, in the Federal Court a public consultation of the judgment dismissed the appeal of Rappaz when his request for a reduced sentence was rejected. decided that the conditions for an interruption of the penitentiary system were not given it. if necessary a force-feeding could be arranged by the prison authority, unless a permanent injury or death of the criminal inmates could not otherwise be averted. Affiliated Rappaz was transferred to jail, where he again joined in a hunger strike. A further appeal against the denial of detention under breakage after 77 days of a hunger strike refused the Valais cantonal court on November 11, 2010.  On November 18, 2010, a pardon was rejected by members of the Pennine great Council in an election.  According to media reports from the 23rd December 2010 Rappaz has decided to end his hunger strike (at times with salt, vitamins and sugared tea) after 120 days to December 24. This was on the advice of the European Court of Human Rights, that he had turned down, after he failed at all domestic instances. The Court had rejected Rappaz' demand for immediate action and requires him to break his hunger strike during the procedure.  In May 2011, Rappaz was sentenced to an additional term of imprisonment of one year without probation. The Court found him of money laundering, of violating the Narcotics Law and document forgery. Rappaz' defender announced appeal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bernard Rappaz (born 18 February 1953) is a former Swiss farmer from Valais. He was known for his production of cannabis and was nicknamed \"Hanfbauer\" (hemp farmer).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977047}
{"src_title": "2011–12 UEFA Champions League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 76 teams participated in the 2011–12 Champions League from 52 UEFA associations (Liechtenstein organises no domestic league competition). Associations are allocated places according to their 2010 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2005–06 to 2009–10.  Below is the qualification scheme for the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Since the winners of the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League, Barcelona, obtained a place in the group stage through their domestic league placing, the reserved title holder spot in the group stage was effectively vacated. To compensate:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "League positions of the previous season shown in parentheses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "All draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless stated otherwise.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying rounds.", "content": "In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2011 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association cannot be drawn against each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The draw for the first and second qualifying rounds was held on 20 June 2011. The first legs were played on 28 June, and the second legs were played on 5 and 6 July 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 12 and 13 July, and the second legs were played on 19 and 20 July 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The draw for the third qualifying round was held on 15 July 2011. The first legs were played on 26 and 27 July, and the second legs were played on 2 and 3 August 2011.  The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: one for champions (called the Champions Route) and one for non-champions (called the League Route). The losing teams in both sections entered the play-off round of the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The draw for the play-off round was held on 5 August 2011. The first legs were played on 16 and 17 August, and the second legs were played on 23 and 24 August 2011.  The play-off round was split into two separate sections: one for champions (called the Champions Route) and one for non-champions (called the League Route). The losing teams in both sections entered the group stage of the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The group stage features 32 teams, which were allocated into pots based on their 2011 UEFA club coefficients (except the title holders, Barcelona, who were placed in Pot 1 automatically), and then drawn into eight groups of four. Teams from the same association cannot be drawn against each other. The draw was held on 25 August 2011 in Monaco.  In each group, teams play against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The matchdays are 13–14 September, 27–28 September, 18–19 October, 1–2 November, 22–23 November, and 6–7 December 2011. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 16, while the third-placed teams entered the round of 32 of the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League.  If two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following criteria are applied to determine the rankings (in descending order):  The 32 teams contain eleven former winners of the European Cup/Champions League (40 titles combined), and five teams (Manchester City, Napoli, Trabzonspor, Viktoria Plzeň and Oțelul Galați) which made their début appearance in the group stage. Eighteen UEFA member associations are represented in this group stage: England and Spain by four clubs, Italy, Germany and France by three, Russia and Portugal by two, while eleven associations are represented by one club, which are all domestic champions except Trabzonspor, which replaced Fenerbahçe due to match-fixing allegations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final. The draw for the round of 16 was held on 16 December 2011. The draws for the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final (to determine the \"home\" team) were held on 16 March 2012. Both draws were assisted by German footballer Paul Breitner, the ambassador for the 2012 final.  In the draw for the round of 16, the eight group winners were seeded, and the eight group runners-up were unseeded. The seeded teams were drawn against the unseeded teams, with the seeded team hosting the second leg. Teams from the same group or the same association could not be drawn against each other. In the draws for the quarter-finals onwards, there are no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association may be drawn with each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "The first legs were played on 14, 15, 21 and 22 February, and the second legs were played on 6, 7, 13 and 14 March 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 27 and 28 March, and the second legs were played on 3 and 4 April 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 17 and 18 April, and the second legs were played on 24 and 25 April 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final was played on 19 May 2012 at the Allianz Arena in Munich, Germany.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2011–12 UEFA Champions League was the 57th season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 20th season in its current Champions League format. As part of a trial that started in the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League, two extra officials – one behind each goal – were used in all matches of the competition from the play-off round.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977048}
{"src_title": "Halaf culture", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "Previously, the Syrian plains were not considered as the homeland of Halaf culture, and the Halafians were seen either as hill people who descended from the nearby mountains of southeastern Anatolia, or herdsmen from northern Iraq. However, those views changed with the recent archaeology conducted since 1986 by Peter Akkermans, which have produced new insights and perspectives about the rise of Halaf culture. A formerly unknown transitional culture between the pre-Halaf Neolithic's era and Halaf's era was uncovered in the Balikh valley, at Tell Sabi Abyad (the Mound of the White Boy).  Currently, eleven occupational layers have been unearthed in Sabi Abyad. Levels from 11 to 7 are considered \"pre-Halaf\"; from 6 to 4, transitional; and from 3 to 1, \"early Halaf\". No hiatus in occupation is observed except between levels 11 and 10. The new archaeology demonstrated that Halaf culture was not sudden and was not the result of foreign people, but rather a continuous process of indigenous cultural changes in northern Syria, that spread to the other regions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Although no Halaf settlement has been extensively excavated some buildings have been excavated: the tholoi of Tell Arpachiyah, circular domed structures approached through long rectangular anterooms. Only a few of these structures were ever excavated. They were constructed of mud-brick sometimes on stone foundations and may have been for ritual use (one contained a large number of female figurines). Other circular buildings were probably just houses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Halaf pottery.", "content": "The best known, most characteristic pottery of Tell Halaf, called Halaf ware, produced by specialist potters, can be painted, sometimes using more than two colors (called polychrome) with geometric and animal motifs. Other types of Halaf pottery are known, including unpainted, cooking ware and ware with burnished surfaces. There are many theories about why the distinctive pottery style developed.  The theory is that the pottery came about due to regional copying and that it was exchanged as a prestige item between local elites is now disputed. The polychrome painted Halaf pottery has been proposed to be a \"trade pottery\"—pottery produced for export—however, the predominance of locally produced painted pottery in all areas of Halaf sites including potters settlement questions that theory.  Halaf pottery has been found in other parts of northern Mesopotamia, such as at Nineveh and Tepe Gawra, Chagar Bazar and at many sites in Anatolia (Turkey) suggesting that it was widely used in the region. In addition, the Halaf communities made female figurines of partially baked clay and stone and stamp seals of stone, (see also Impression seal). The seals are thought to mark the development of concepts of personal property, as similar seals were used for this purpose in later times. The Halaf people used tools made of stone and clay. Copper was also known, but was not used for tools.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stamp seals.", "content": "The Halaf culture saw the earliest known appearance of stamp seals in the Near East. They featured essentially geometric patterns.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Economy.", "content": "Dryland farming was practiced by the population. This type of farming was based on exploiting natural rainfall without the help of irrigation, in a similar practice to that still practiced today by the Hopi people of Arizona. Emmer wheat, two-rowed barley and flax were grown. They kept cattle, sheep and goats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Halaf's end (Northern Ubaid).", "content": "Halaf culture ended by 5000 BC after entering the so-called Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period. Many Halafians settlements were abandoned, and the remaining ones showed Ubaidian characters. The new period is named Northern Ubaid to distinguish it from the proper Ubaid in southern Mesopotamia, and two explanations were presented for the transformation. The first maintain an invasion and a replacement of the Halafians by the Ubaidians, however, there is no hiatus between the Halaf and northern Ubaid which exclude the invasion theory. The most plausible theory is a Halafian adoption of the Ubaid culture, which is supported by most scholars including Oates, Breniquet and Akkermans.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Halaf culture is a prehistoric period which lasted between about 6100 BC and 5100 BC. The period is a continuous development out of the earlier Pottery Neolithic and is located primarily in the fertile valley of the Khabur River (Nahr al-Khabur), of south-eastern Turkey, Syria, and northern Iraq, although Halaf-influenced material is found throughout Greater Mesopotamia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977049}
{"src_title": "2011–12 UEFA Europa League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 194 teams from 53 UEFA associations participated in the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League. Associations are allocated places according to their 2010 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2005–06 to 2009–10.  Below is the qualification scheme for the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Since the winners of the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League, Porto, qualified for the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League through domestic performance, the title holder spot reserved for them in the group stage was vacated. As a result, the following changes to the default allocation system were made to compensate for the vacant title holder spot in the group stage:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Redistribution rules.", "content": "A Europa League place is vacated when a team qualifies for both the Champions League and the Europa League, or qualifies for the Europa League by more than one method. When a place is vacated, it is redistributed within the national association by the following rules:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "The labels in the parentheses show how each team qualified for the place of its starting round:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "All draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless stated otherwise.  Matches in the qualifying, play-off, and knockout rounds may also be played on Tuesdays or Wednesdays instead of the regular Thursdays due to scheduling conflicts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying rounds.", "content": "In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2011 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association cannot be drawn against each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The draw for the first and second qualifying rounds was held on 20 June 2011. The first legs were played on 30 June, and the second legs were played on 7 July 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 14 July, and the second legs were played on 21 July 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The draw for the third qualifying round was held on 15 July 2011. The first legs were played on 26 and 28 July, and the second legs were played on 4 August 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The draw for the play-off round was held on 5 August 2011. The first legs were played on 18 August, and the second legs were played on 25 August 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The group stage features 48 teams, which were allocated into pots based on their 2011 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into twelve groups of four. Teams from the same association cannot be drawn against each other. The draw was held on 26 August 2011 in Monaco.  In each group, teams play against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The matchdays are 15 September, 29 September, 20 October, 3 November, 30 November – 1 December, and 14–15 December 2011. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 32, where they were joined by the 8 third-placed teams from the group stage of the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League.  If two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following criteria are applied to determine the rankings (in descending order):  A total of 24 national associations are represented in this group stage (including Scotland after Celtic were reinstated into the Europa League over Sion), with England having the most teams, with four.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final. The draw for the round of 32 and round of 16 was held on 16 December 2011. The draws for the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final (to determine the \"home\" team) were held on 16 March 2012. Both draws were assisted by Romanian footballer Miodrag Belodedici, the ambassador for the 2012 final.  In the draw for the round of 32, the twelve group winners and the four better third-placed teams from the Champions League group stage (based on their match record in the group stage) are seeded, and the twelve group runners-up and the other four third-placed teams from the Champions League group stage are unseeded. A seeded team is drawn against an unseeded team, with the seeded team hosting the second leg. Teams from the same group or the same association cannot be drawn against each other. In the draws for the round of 16 onwards, there are no seedings, and teams from the same group or the same association may be drawn with each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bracket.", "content": "<section begin=bracket />", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 32.", "content": "The first legs were played on 14 and 16 February, and the second legs were played on 22 and 23 February 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "The first legs were played on 8 March, and the second legs were played on 15 March 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 29 March, and the second legs on 5 April 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 19 April, and the second legs were played on 26 April 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The 2012 UEFA Europa League Final was played on 9 May 2012 at the Arena Națională in Bucharest, Romania.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Excluding qualifying rounds and play-off round.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2011–12 UEFA Europa League was the third season of the UEFA Europa League, Europe's secondary club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 41st edition overall including its predecessor, the UEFA Cup. It began on 30 June 2011 with the first legs of the first qualifying round, and ended on 9 May 2012 with the final held at Arena Națională in Bucharest, Romania. As part of a trial that started in the 2009–10 UEFA Europa League, two extra officials – one on each goal line – were used in all matches of the competition from the group stage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977050}
{"src_title": "Wang Yangming", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and times.", "content": "He was born Wang Shouren () in Yuyao, Zhejiang Province, to a scholarly family with a tradition of bureaucratic service. His father, Wang Hua, was first (\"Zhuangyuan\", 狀元) in the Imperial Examination of 1481, and rose to become the vice-minister of the Ministry of Rites, but was later demoted and subsequently expelled from government service due to having offended Liu Jin, a eunuch.  Wang earned the \"juren\" degree in 1492 and the \"jinshi\" degree in 1499. He later served as an executive assistant in various government departments until banishment for offending a eunuch in 1506. However, his professional career resumed when he became the Governor of Jiangxi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military exploits.", "content": "Wang became a successful general and was known for the strict discipline he imposed on his troops. In 1517 and 1518, he was dispatched in response to petitions to suppress peasant revolts in Jiangxi, Fujian and Guangdong. Concerned with the destruction that came with war, he petitioned the court to allow amnesty, and successfully destroyed rebel military forces.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Suppressing the Prince of Ning.", "content": "In 1519 AD, while he was governor of Jiangxi province and on his way to suppress the revolts in Fujian, Wang was suddenly faced with the Prince of Ning rebellion, led by Zhu Chenhao the fourth Prince of Ning. Given that the prince's base in Nanchang allowed him to sail down the Yangtze River and capture the southern capital of Nanjing, Wang actively prepared for battle to prevent that possibility, while engaging in deception to convince the prince that armies were moving to surround him. The prince, deceived by this, hesitated and gave time for Nanjing to be reinforced. Eventually, forced to engage governmental forces, the Prince of Ning was defeated and captured.  In this campaign, Wang also made one of the earliest references to using the \"fo-lang-ji\" in battle, a breech loading culverin cannon imported from the newly arrived Portuguese venturers to China. As governor of Jiangxi he also built schools, rehabilitated the rebels, and reconstructed what was lost by the enemy during the revolt. Though he was made an earl, he was ostracized for opposing Zhu Xi.  Thirty-eight years after his death, he was given the titles Marquis and Completion of Culture. In 1584 he was offered sacrifice in the Confucian Temple, the highest honour for a scholar.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Philosophy.", "content": "Wang was the leading figure in the Neo-Confucian School of heart, founded by 陸九淵 Lu Jiuyuan of Southern Song. This school championed an interpretation of Mencius, a Classical Confucian who became the focus of later interpretation, that unified knowledge with action. Their rival school, the School of Principle (\"Li\") treated gaining knowledge as a kind of preparation or cultivation that, when completed, could guide action.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Innate knowing.", "content": "Out of Cheng-Zhu's Neo-Confucianism that was mainstream at the time, Wang Yangming developed the idea of \"innate knowing\", arguing that every person knows from birth the difference between good and evil. Wang claimed that such knowledge is intuitive and not rational. These revolutionizing ideas of Wang Yangming would later inspire prominent Japanese thinkers like Motoori Norinaga, who argued that because of the Shinto deities, Japanese people alone had the intuitive ability to distinguish good and evil without complex rationalization. His school of thought (\"Ōyōmei-gaku\" in Japanese, \"Ō\" stands for the surname \"Wang\", \"yōmei\" stands for \"Yangming\", \"gaku\" stands for \"school of learning\") also greatly influenced the Japanese samurai ethic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Integration of Knowledge and Action.", "content": "Wang's rejection of the pure investigation of knowledge comes from the then traditional view of Chinese belief that once one gained knowledge, one had a duty to put that knowledge into action. This presupposed two possibilities:  Wang rejected both of these which allowed him to develop his philosophy of action. Wang believed that only through simultaneous action could one gain knowledge and denied all other ways of gaining it. To him, there was no way to use knowledge after gaining it because he believed that knowledge and action were unified as one. Any knowledge that had been gained \"then put\" into action was considered delusion or false.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mind and the world.", "content": "He held that objects do not exist entirely apart from the mind because the mind shapes them. He believed that it is not the world that shapes the mind, but the mind that gives reason to the world. Therefore, the mind alone is the source of all reason. He understood this to be an inner light, an innate moral goodness and understanding of what is good.  In order to eliminate selfish desires that cloud the mind's understanding of goodness, one can practice his type of meditation often called \"tranquil repose\" or \"sitting still\" ( 靜坐 \"jingzuo\"). This is similar to the practice of Chan (Zen) meditation in Buddhism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Others.", "content": "The local government in Wang's hometown, Yuyao, Zhejiang Province, named a middle school after his honorific name.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wang Shouren (26 October 1472 – 9 January 1529), courtesy name Bo'an, was a Chinese calligrapher, military general, philosopher, politician, and writer during the Ming dynasty. After Zhu Xi, he is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker, with interpretations of Confucianism that denied the rationalist dualism of the orthodox philosophy of Zhu Xi. Wang was known as Yangming Xiansheng and/or Yangming Zi in literary circles; both mean \"Master Yangming\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977051}
{"src_title": "Ferrara Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Construction of the present building began in the 12th century, when the city was being extended towards the left bank of the Po River; the new cathedral was consecrated in 1135. The former cathedral, also dedicated to Saint George, still stands on the right bank of the river outside the city walls and is now known as St George's Basilica Outside the Walls (\"San Giorgio fuori le mura\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The original Romanesque design is manifest in the façade, which resembles those of Modena and Parma Cathedrals: it is in white marble, with three cusps and a series of loggias, small arcades and rose windows, statues and numerous bas-reliefs. On the right side is a statue of Alberto d'Este, while on the side is a bronze bust of Pope Clement VIII, over an inscription in memory of his capture of the city.  In the centre of the façade is a porch, supported by two columns with Atlases seated on lions at the bases. It is decorated with a \"Last Judgement\" by an unknown master and a loggia with a Madonna and Child (a late Gothic addition). The portal is the work of the sculptor, a pupil of Wiligelmus. The lunette shows Saint George, patron saint of Ferrara, slaying the dragon; scenes from the Life of Christ appear on the lintel. The jambs framing the entrance are embellished with figures depicting the Annunciation and the four prophets who foretold the coming of Christ. According to a now-destroyed inscription, Nicholaus was responsible for the design of the original building. The two side portals on the west front are also his work, as is the lower loggia here and on the south side of the building. A second portal by Nicholaus with additions by Benedetto Antelami was present on the south side, but it was demolished during the 18th-century restorations. Some of the sculptures which decorated it are now on the piazza in front of the building (the supporting griffins), in the narthex and in the Cathedral Museum. The portal was used by pilgrims on their way to Rome. Also on the southern side is the unfinished Renaissance bell tower, in white and pink marble, attributed to Leon Battista Alberti and built in 1451-1493. The apse, in brickwork, has arches and marble capitals, and was designed by the Ferrarese architect Biagio Rossetti.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The interior, entirely remade in Baroque style after a fire in the 18th century, has a nave and two aisles. It houses bronze statues of the Crucifixion, by Niccolò Baroncelli, and of Saints George and Maurelius, by Domenico Alfani (15th century), as well as a \"Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence\" by Guercino (17th century). In the side chapels are a \"Madonna Enthroned with Saints\" by Il Garofalo, an \"Incoronation of the Virgin\" by Francesco Francia and a \"Virgin in Glory with Saints Barbara and Catherine\" by Bastianino, who also painted the \"Last Judgement\" in the apse choir (1577-1581).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museum.", "content": "The Cathedral Museum, housed in the former church of San Romano across the square, houses two works by Cosmè Tura (\"Annunciation\" and \"St. George and the Dragon\"), the \"Madonna della melagrana\" by Jacopo della Quercia and eight tapestries with stories of the two patron saints of Ferrara based on cartoons by Garofalo and Camillo Filippi.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ferrara Cathedral (, \"Duomo di Ferrara\") is a Roman Catholic cathedral and minor basilica in Ferrara, Northern Italy. Dedicated to Saint George, the patron saint of the city, it is the seat of the Archbishop of Ferrara and the largest religious building in the city.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977052}
{"src_title": "Extended real number line", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Motivation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Limits.", "content": "It is often useful to describe the behavior of a function formula_2, as either the argument formula_3 or the function value formula_2 gets \"infinitely large\" in some sense. For example, consider the function  The graph of this function has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. Geometrically, when moving increasingly farther to the right along the formula_3-axis, the value of formula_7 approaches 0. This limiting behavior is similar to the limit of a function at a real number, except that there is no real number to which formula_3 approaches.  By adjoining the elements formula_9 and formula_10 to formula_11, it enables a formulation of a \"limit at infinity\", with topological properties similar to those for formula_11.  To make things completely formal, the Cauchy sequences definition of formula_11 allows defining formula_9 as the set of all sequences formula_15 of rational numbers, such that every formula_16 is associated with a corresponding formula_17 for which formula_18 for all formula_19. The definition of formula_10 can be constructed similarly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Measure and integration.", "content": "In measure theory, it is often useful to allow sets that have infinite measure and integrals whose value may be infinite.  Such measures arise naturally out of calculus. For example, in assigning a measure to formula_11 that agrees with the usual length of intervals, this measure must be larger than any finite real number. Also, when considering improper integrals, such as  the value \"infinity\" arises. Finally, it is often useful to consider the limit of a sequence of functions, such as  Without allowing functions to take on infinite values, such essential results as the monotone convergence theorem and the dominated convergence theorem would not make sense.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Order and topological properties.", "content": "The affinely extended real number system can be turned into a totally ordered set, by defining formula_24 for all formula_25. With this order topology, formula_26 has the desirable property of compactness: every subset of formula_26 has a supremum and an infimum (the infimum of the empty set is formula_28 and its supremum is formula_10). Moreover, with this topology, formula_26 is homeomorphic to the unit interval formula_31. Thus the topology is metrizable, corresponding (for a given homeomorphism) to the ordinary metric on this interval. There is no metric that is an extension of the ordinary metric on formula_11.  In this topology, a set formula_33 is a neighborhood of formula_9, if and only if it contains a set formula_35 for some real number formula_25. The notion of the neighborhood of formula_10 can be defined similarly. Using this characterization of extended-real neighborhoods, the specially defined limits for formula_3 tending to formula_9 and formula_10, and the specially defined concepts of limits equal to formula_9 and formula_10, reduce to the general topological definition of limits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arithmetic operations.", "content": "The arithmetic operations of formula_11 can be partially extended to formula_44 as follows:  For exponentiation, see Exponentiation#Limits of powers. Here, \"formula_46\" means both \"formula_47\" and \"formula_48\", while \"formula_49\" means both \"formula_50\" and  The expressions formula_51 and formula_52 (called indeterminate forms) are usually left undefined. These rules are modeled on the laws for infinite limits. However, in the context of probability or measure theory, formula_53 is often defined as formula_54.  When dealing with both positive and negative extended real numbers, the expression formula_55 is usually left undefined, because, although it is true that for every real nonzero sequence formula_56 that converges to formula_54, the reciprocal sequence formula_58 is eventually contained in every neighborhood of formula_59, it is \"not\" true that the sequence formula_58 must itself converge to either formula_10 or formula_62. Said another way, if a continuous function formula_56 achieves a zero at a certain value formula_64, then it need not be the case that formula_58 tends to either formula_10 or formula_62 in the limit as formula_3 tends to formula_64. This is the case for the limits of the identity function formula_70 when formula_3 tends to 0, and of formula_72 (for the latter function, neither formula_10 nor formula_62 is a limit of formula_75 even if only positive values of are considered).  However, in contexts where only non-negative values are considered, it is often convenient to define formula_76. For example, when working with power series, the radius of convergence of a power series with coefficients formula_77 is often defined as the reciprocal of the limit-supremum of the sequence formula_78. Thus, if one allows formula_55 to take the value formula_9, then one can use this formula regardless of whether the limit-supremum is formula_54 or not.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Algebraic properties.", "content": "With these definitions, formula_44 is not even a semigroup, let alone a group, a ring or a field as in the case of formula_11. However, it has several convenient properties:  In general, all laws of arithmetic are valid in formula_44—as long as all occurring expressions are defined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Miscellaneous.", "content": "Several functions can be continuously extended to formula_44 by taking limits. For instance, one may define the extremal points of the following functions as follow:formula_105  Some singularities may additionally be removed. For example, the function formula_106 can be continuously extended to formula_44 (under \"some\" definitions of continuity), by setting the value to formula_9 for formula_109, and formula_54 for formula_111 and formula_112. On the other hand, the function formula_113 can \"not\" be continuously extended, because the function approaches formula_10 as formula_3 approaches formula_54 from below, and formula_9 as formula_3 approaches formula_54 from above.  A similar but different real-line system, the projectively extended real line, does not distinguish between formula_9 and formula_10 (i.e., infinity is unsigned). As a result, a function may have limit formula_62 on the projectively extended real line, while in the affinely extended real number system, only the absolute value of the function has a limit, e.g. in the case of the function formula_113 at formula_109. On the other hand  correspond on the projectively extended real line to only a limit from the right and one from the left, respectively, with the full limit only existing when the two are equal. Thus, the functions formula_127 and formula_128 cannot be made continuous at formula_129 on the projectively extended real line.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, the affinely extended real number system is obtained from the real number system by adding two elements: and (read as positive infinity and negative infinity respectively), where the infinities are treated as actual numbers. It is useful in describing the algebra on infinities and the various limiting behaviors in calculus and mathematical analysis, especially in the theory of measure and integration. The affinely extended real number system is denoted formula_1 or or.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977053}
{"src_title": "Saintpaulia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Saintpaulias, which grow from 6–15 cm tall, can be anywhere from 6–30 cm wide. The leaves are rounded to oval, 2.5–8.5 cm long with a 2–10 cm petiole, finely hairy, and have a fleshy texture. The flowers are 2–3 cm in diameter, with a five-lobed velvety corolla (\"petals\"), and grow in clusters of 3–10 or more on slender stalks called peduncles. Wild species can have violet, purple, pale blue, or white flowers.  The plants get their common name \"African violet\" from their superficial resemblance to true violets (\"Viola\", family Violaceae).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The section was initially regarded as a separate genus. Baron Walter von Saint Paul-Illaire (1860–1940) was the district commissioner of Tanga province when he discovered the plant in Tanganyika (now Tanzania) in Africa in 1892 and sent seeds back to his father, an amateur botanist in Germany. The genus was named for Saint Paul-Illaire and his father. Two British plant enthusiasts, Sir John Kirk and the Reverend W.E. Taylor, had earlier collected and submitted specimens to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1884 and 1887 respectively, but the quality of specimens was insufficient to permit scientific description at that time. The genus \"Saintpaulia\", and original species \"S. ionantha\", were scientifically described by H. Wendland in 1893.  Revisions of the genus by B.L. Burtt expanded the genus to approximately 20 species. Following studies which showed most of the species to be very poorly differentiated, both genetically and morphologically, the number of species was reduced to six in a 2006 treatment, with the majority of former species reduced to subspecies under \"S. ionantha\". In 2009, 9 species, 8 subspecies, and 2 varieties were recognized.  A molecular phylogenetic study in 2015 confirmed previous studies showing that species placed in \"Saintpaulia\" were deeply embedded within the genus \"Streptocarpus\", supporting the transfer of all \"Saintpaulia\" species to \"Streptocarpus\" in 2012. Former \"Saintpaulia\" species did form a monophyletic group, and were placed in section \"Saintpaulia\" of \"Streptocarpus\" subgenus \"Streptocarpella\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "All the species previously placed in the genus \"Saintpaulia\" are now placed in \"Streptocarpus\" in section \"Saintpaulia\". Ten species are recognized,.  Formerly recognized \"Saintpaulia\" species and infraspecies are listed below with their accepted name in \"Streptocarpus\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Saintpaulias are native to eastern tropical Africa. There is a concentration of species in the Nguru mountains of Tanzania.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Saintpaulias are widely cultivated as house plants. Until recently, only a few of these species have been used in breeding programs for the hybrids available in the market; most available as house plants are cultivars derived from \"Streptocarpus ionanthus\" (syn. \"S. kewensis\"). A wider range of species is now being looked at as sources of genes to introduce into modern cultivars.  The African Violet Society of America is the International Cultivar Registration Authority for the section and its cultivars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sizes.", "content": "Plants can be classified as one of several sizes based on its above-ground diameter. Although the size per category is not set in stone, these are a general guideline.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperature.", "content": "Saintpaulias are highly sensitive to temperature changes, especially rapid leaf cooling. Spilling cold water on African violet leaves causes discoloration. This is thought to be because rapid leaf cooling causes cell vacuole collapse in the palisade mesophyll cells.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Propagation.", "content": "African violets are commonly propagated asexually. Plants can be divided into smaller daughter plants or even grown from leaf cuttings. Growing African violets from seed is rare and most commercially available plants are produced from cuttings and tissue culture.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Flowering.", "content": "The African violet is a day-neutral plant regarding flower development.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "African violets have long been associated with mothers and motherhood. For this reason they have been a traditional gift to mothers in many cultures around the world. African violets are also associated with Easter and Valentine's Day.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Streptocarpus\" sect. \"Saintpaulia is a section within \"Streptocarpus\" subgenus \"Streptocarpella\" consisting of about ten species of herbaceous perennial flowering plants in the family Gesneriaceae, native to Tanzania and adjacent southeastern Kenya in eastern tropical Africa. The section was previously treated as a separate genus, but molecular phylogenetic studies showed that it was nested within the genus \"Streptocarpus\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977054}
{"src_title": "Khodynka Tragedy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Events.", "content": "Nicholas II and his wife Alexandra were crowned Emperor and Empress of Russia on. Four days later, a banquet was going to be held for the people at Khodynka Field. In the area of one town square, theatres, 150 buffets for distribution of gifts, and 20 pubs were built for the celebrations. Near the celebration square was a field that had a ravine and many gullies. On the evening of 29 May, people who had heard rumours of coronation gifts began to gather in anticipation. The gifts which everybody was to receive were a bread roll, a piece of sausage, pretzels, gingerbread and a commemorative cup.  At about 6 o'clock in the morning of the celebration day, several thousand people (estimates reached 500,000) were already gathered on the field. Rumours spread among the people that there was not enough beer or pretzels for everybody, and that the enamel cups contained a gold coin. A police force of 1,800 men failed to maintain civil order, and in a catastrophic crowd crush and resulting panic to flee the scene, 1,389 people were trampled to death, and roughly 1,300 were injured. Most of the victims were trapped in the ditch and were trampled or suffocated there. Despite the tragedy, the program of festivities continued as planned elsewhere on the large field, with many people unaware of what had happened. The Emperor and Empress made an appearance in front of the crowds on the balcony of the Tsar's Pavilion in the middle of the field around 2 p.m. By that time the traces of the incident had been cleaned up.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Emperor Nicholas and Empress Alexandra were informed of the tragedy, but not immediately. A festive ball had been scheduled that night at the French embassy to Russia. Nicholas, under the circumstances, thought it best not to attend. His uncles, however, still wielded influence at court, and considered it worse for him not to attend, and to offend the French, than for him to appear callous towards the Russian people. Nicholas, therefore, attended the ball regardless. The next day, the Emperor and his new bride visited hospitalized victims of the stampede.  The government distributed a large amount of aid to the families of the dead, and a number of minor officials were dismissed. The negligence and the tone-deaf response of the imperial authorities, however, caused further public indignation in Russia. The Emperor's uncle, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, then Governor-General of Moscow, became known as \"the Prince of Khodynka\" and the Emperor received the nickname of \"Nicholas the Bloody\". The fact that the court had declared mourning over the death of Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria a few days prior, but there was none over the deaths of 1,300 ordinary Russians, sent the wrong message.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Khodynka Tragedy () was a human stampede that occurred on, on Khodynka Field in Moscow, Russia during the festivities after the coronation of the last Emperor of Russia, Nicholas II, which resulted in the deaths of 1,389 people.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977055}
{"src_title": "Caliban (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Caliban was formed in Essen, Germany in 1997 under the name \"Never Again\". After six months of playing together, the band recorded their first two songs for a demo, which were never released. The songs were sent to several record labels, and Lifeforce Records was the first to offer the band a record deal. The band's first self-titled EP came out in the summer of 1998. To promote it, Caliban played many shows all over Europe and a few support shows for bands including Morning Again, Earth Crisis and Cro-Mags.  After their European tour in 1999, Caliban entered the studio to record their first full-length entitled \"A Small Boy and a Grey Heaven\". The CD received favorable reviews in many big magazines and many smaller hardcore and metal zines. They also released the first part of a split-CD with Heaven Shall Burn, named \"The Split Program\".  \"Vent\" came out in April 2001. \"Vent\" was released by Imperium Records and by Howling-Bull Records in Japan. Shortly after the release, Caliban was offered the opportunity to tour Japan to play the Beast-Feast 2001 in the Yokohama Arena, sharing stage with bands including Slayer, Pantera, Machine Head, Biohazard and Morbid Angel. The Japan trip was followed by a U.S. tour with Bloodjinn, which was interrupted by the September 11, 2001 attacks.  In August 2002, Caliban recorded their third official release \"Shadow Hearts\". This record was more melodic and harmonic than its predecessors. In 2004 the band got a record deal with Roadrunner Records in Europe (Abacus Recordings in the US) and started to record their fourth Album \"The Opposite from Within\" alongside producer Anders Fridén, who is known for fronting In Flames.  In July 2005, the band released the second part of their split-CD with their friends from Heaven Shall Burn, called \"The Split Program II\". The band released their fifth album called \"The Undying Darkness\" in February 2006 and toured with All Shall Perish, Bleeding Through and I Killed The Prom Queen for the \"Darkness over Europe\" tour.  In 2007, Caliban recorded their album \"The Awakening\" with producer Benny Richter and it was released in Germany on May 25. The album reached 36 in the German charts.  In 2009, the band toured with German band Kreator on the \"Chaos Over Europe Tour\". They also signed a worldwide contract with Century Media Records. They released their new album, \"Say Hello to Tragedy\", on August 24, 2009. This album - just like \"The Awakening\" - reached 36th place on the German media charts. In October and November they toured Europe on the \"Beastfest European Tour 2009\" with Suicide Silence, German friend-band Maroon and American acts Emmure and After the Burial.  Caliban entered the studio in February and recorded a cover EP titled \"Coverfield\", released in May 2011. The album consists of 4 songs, although more songs were recorded and may be released later. In mid August, the band entered the studio to finish writing and recording a new full-length album to be released in early 2012. At the beginning of September the band posted a message on their official site, saying that the songwriting is complete and that 12 songs were made. The new album titled \"I Am Nemesis\" was released on February 3.  Stormbringer Magazin of Germany Caliban is writing and recording a new full-length album for January 2014. The band released \"Ghost Empire\" on 24 January 2014 via Century Media Records. On February 2014, Caliban entered the German Media Control Charts at #7 for this album. In the beginning of 2015 they toured with Bury Tomorrow, Dream On, Dreamer and Any Given Day.  Caliban then released the album, Gravity, in the spring of 2016, and via social media teased an upcoming project in 2017, with a possible release date of 2018.  On April 6, 2018 Caliban released their latest album, entitled \"Elements\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Band members.", "content": "Current members Former members Timeline", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Caliban are a German metalcore band from Essen. They have released eleven studio albums to-date, and two split albums with Heaven Shall Burn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977056}
{"src_title": "Ouroboros", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical representations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancient Egypt.", "content": "The first known appearance of the ouroboros motif is in the Enigmatic Book of the Netherworld, an ancient Egyptian funerary text in KV62, the tomb of Tutankhamun, in the 14th century BC. The text concerns the actions of the god Ra and his union with Osiris in the underworld. The ouroboros is depicted twice on the figure: holding their tails in their mouths, one encircling the head and upper chest, the other surrounding the feet of a large figure, which may represent the unified Ra-Osiris (Osiris born again as Ra). Both serpents are manifestations of the deity Mehen, who in other funerary texts protects Ra in his underworld journey. The whole divine figure represents the beginning and the end of time.  The ouroboros appears elsewhere in Egyptian sources, where, like many Egyptian serpent deities, it represents the formless disorder that surrounds the orderly world and is involved in that world's periodic renewal. The symbol persisted in Egypt into Roman times, when it frequently appeared on magical talismans, sometimes in combination with other magical emblems. The 4th-century AD Latin commentator Servius was aware of the Egyptian use of the symbol, noting that the image of a snake biting its tail represents the cyclical nature of the year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alchemy and Gnosticism.", "content": "The famous ouroboros drawing from the early alchemical text, \"The Chrysopoeia of Cleopatra\" (), probably originally dating to third century Alexandria but first known in a tenth century copy, encloses the words \"hen to pan\" (), \"the all is one\". Its black and white halves may perhaps represent a Gnostic duality of existence, analogous to the Taoist yin and yang symbol. The chrysopoeia ouroboros of Cleopatra the Alchemist is one of the oldest images of the ouroboros to be linked with the legendary \"opus\" of the alchemists, the philosopher's stone.  An aim of alchemists and adepts, described as \"individual self-perfection through physical transmutation and spiritual transcendence\", was familiar to the alchemist and physician Sir Thomas Browne. It focused on the eternal unity of all things as well as the cycle of birth and death (from which the alchemist sought release and liberation). In his \"A Letter to a Friend\", a medical treatise full of case-histories and witty speculations upon the human condition, he wrote:  In Gnosticism, a serpent biting its tail symbolized eternity and the soul of the world. The Gnostic \"Pistis Sophia\" (c. 400 AD) describes the ouroboros as a twelve-part dragon surrounding the world with its tail in its mouth.  A 15th-century alchemical manuscript, \"The Aurora Consurgens\", features the ouroboros, where it is used amongst symbols of the sun, moon, and mercury.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The \"world serpent\" in mythology.", "content": "In Norse mythology, the ouroboros appears as the serpent Jörmungandr, one of the three children of Loki and Angrboda, which grew so large that it could encircle the world and grasp its tail in its teeth. In the legends of Ragnar Lodbrok, such as \"Ragnarssona þáttr\", the Geatish king Herraud gives a small lindworm as a gift to his daughter Þóra Town-Hart after which it grows into a large serpent which encircles the girl's bower and bites itself in the tail. The serpent is slain by Ragnar Lodbrok who marries Þóra. Ragnar later has a son with another woman named Kráka and this son is born with the image of a white snake in one eye. This snake encircled the iris and bit itself in the tail, and the son was named Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye.  It is a common belief among indigenous people of the tropical lowlands of South America that waters at the edge of the world-disc are encircled by a snake, often an anaconda, biting its own tail.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Symbol of Birth, death and rebirth.", "content": "The Ouroboro symbol is a common sight on 17th and 18th century gravestones. Varying from region to region some have legs and even torso like bodies while others are carved in a bracelet like circle. They appear alongside the Hourglass, skulls, bible and cherubs that are so common in depictions of mortality of this era. And like those other symbols they disappeared from gravestones in the 19th century Gothic revival.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Connection to Indian thought.", "content": "In the \"Aitareya Brahmana\", a Vedic text of the early 1st millennium BCE, the nature of the Vedic rituals is compared to \"a snake biting its own tail.\"  Ouroboros symbolism has been used to describe the Kundalini. According to the medieval \"Yoga-kundalini Upanishad\", \"The divine power, Kundalini, shines like the stem of a young lotus; like a snake, coiled round upon herself she holds her tail in her mouth and lies resting half asleep as the base of the body\" (1.82).  Storl (2004) also refers to the ouroboros image in reference to the \"cycle of samsara\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern references.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jungian psychology.", "content": "Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung saw the ouroboros as an archetype and the basic mandala of alchemy. Jung also defined the relationship of the ouroboros to alchemy:  The Jungian psychologist Erich Neumann writes of it as a representation of the pre-ego \"dawn state\", depicting the undifferentiated infancy experience of both mankind and the individual child.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kekulé's dream.", "content": "The German organic chemist August Kekulé described the eureka moment when he realized the structure of benzene, after he saw a vision of Ouroboros:  I was sitting, writing at my text-book; but the work did not progress; my thoughts were elsewhere. I turned my chair to the fire and dozed. Again the atoms were gamboling before my eyes. This time the smaller groups kept modestly in the background. My mental eye, rendered more acute by the repeated visions of the kind, could now distinguish larger structures of manifold conformation: long rows, sometimes more closely fitted together; all twining and twisting in snake-like motion. But look! What was that? One of the snakes had seized hold of its own tail, and the form whirled mockingly before my eyes. As if by a flash of lightning I awoke; and this time also I spent the rest of the night in working out the consequences of the hypothesis.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cosmos.", "content": "Martin Rees used the ouroboros to illustrate the various scales of the universe, ranging from 10 cm (subatomic) at the tail, up to 10 cm (supragalactic) at the head. Rees stressed \"the intimate links between the microworld and the cosmos, symbolised by the \"ouraborus\"\", as tail and head meet to complete the circle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armadillo girdled lizard.", "content": "The genus of the armadillo girdled lizard, \"Ouroborus cataphractus\", takes its name from the animal's defensive posture: curling into a ball and holding its own tail in its mouth.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The ouroboros or uroboros (,, ) is an ancient symbol depicting a serpent or dragon eating its own tail. Originating in ancient Egyptian iconography, the ouroboros entered western tradition via Greek magical tradition and was adopted as a symbol in Gnosticism and Hermeticism and most notably in alchemy. The term derives from, from (\"oura\"), \"tail\" + (\"bora\"), \"food\", from (\"bibrōskō\"), \"I eat\". The \"ouroboros\" is often interpreted as a symbol for eternal cyclic renewal or a cycle of life, death, and rebirth. The skin-sloughing process of snakes symbolizes the transmigration of souls, the snake biting its own tail is a fertility symbol. The tail of the snake is a phallic symbol, the mouth is a yonic or womb-like symbol.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977057}
{"src_title": "Anne Henriette of Bavaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Anne was born in Paris the second of the three daughters of Prince Palatine Edward. Her mother was Anna Gonzaga, a well known Parisian political hostess and sister of the Queen of Poland.  At the age of fifteen, she was engaged to Henri Jules, Duke of Enghien, the only surviving child of the famous military commander the \"Grand Condé\". The Grand Condé was the most senior \"Prince du Sang\" at the French court (\"First Prince of the Blood\"). Henri Jules was his heir and prior to his succession to the purely honorary title of Prince of Condé, was styled the Duke of Enghien and was addressed \"Monsieur le Duc\". The marriage ceremony took place at the Palais du Louvre on 11 December 1663 with Louis XIV of France and the rest of the royal family in attendance. At this time, Anne became \"Madame la Duchesse\", as Duchess of Enghien. At the death of her father-in-law in 1684, Anne took on the style of \"Madame la Princesse\". She was also known as \"Anne, princesse Palatine\".  Anne and Henri Jules had ten children. Henri Jules, who suffered from clinical lycanthropy, was greatly supported by his wife. Anne is described as very pious, generous, and charitable, and was praised by many at court for her very supportive nature towards her husband. Despite that her husband, who was prone to great rages, would often beat his quiet wife, even in the presence of other courtiers. Of her many children, five survived infancy. Four of those went on to marry.  Her mother was instrumental in helping bring about a marriage between her niece by marriage, Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate and the brother of Louis XIV, Philippe, Duke of Orléans in 1671. Elisabeth Charlotte was Anne's first cousin, their fathers being brothers. In 1708, when her cousin Charles IV, Duke of Mantua died, being his heiress, Anne Henriette became the Princess of Arches in her own right. Charles IV was the last Duke of Mantua. The next year, Anne's husband died in Paris on 1 April 1709, aged 65, making her son, Louis, the next Prince of Condé.  Louis died the next year and his son Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon became the next holder of the title. Anne also owned the Château du Raincy which was sold to the House of Orléans in 1769. She died in Paris at the age of 74, having outlived her husband and all but two of her children, namely the Princess of Conti and the Duchess of Maine. On her death, the principality of Arches became extinct; the title was claimed by her son, the Prince of Condé and her nephew, the son of her sister, Louise Marie of Bavaria. She was buried at the Carmel du Faubourg Saint-Jacques in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Anne was the princess for whom the Rue Palatine was named - the road in the 6th arrondissement of Paris where she had lived in the Petit Luxembourg, next to the Luxembourg Palace in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Anne had ten children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anne of the Palatinate known in France as Anne of Bavaria, Princess Palatine (Anne Henriette Julie; 13 March 1648 – 23 February 1723) was a Princess of the Palatinate and Countess Palatine of Simmern by birth and was the wife of Henri Jules de Bourbon eldest son of \"Louis, Grand Condé\". Following her father-in-law's death, her husband succeeded as Prince of Condé, a purely honorary title, but one of the highest ranking in France. She was also the \"Princesse of Arches and Charleville\" in her own right from 1708.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977058}
{"src_title": "Repower (Swiss company)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "For more than 100 years, Repower has been one of the largest providers of electricity in Switzerland. Founded in 1904 as \"Kraftwerke Brusio AG\", the same year the company started construction of its first power plant − at the time the largest high-pressure hydropower installation in Europe − in Campocologno in the Poschiavo region of Canton Graubünden, Switzerland. Proximity to the Italian border precipitated the company's involvement in international projects and business activities. In 2000, Kraftwerke Brusio AG (Poschiavo), \"AG Bündner Kraftwerke\" (Klosters) and \"Rhätische Werke für Elektrizität AG\" (Thusis) merged to create the \"Rätia Energie AG\" group, which was subsequently joined by \"aurax ag\" (Ilanz) in 2004. In 2002 the group embarked on business in Italy. In 2010, Rätia Energie AG was renamed Repower AG.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Shareholder structure.", "content": "The company's shareholders are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Financial highlights.", "content": "Repower prepares its accounts in Swiss francs. Its 2019 results were announced on 7 April 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Executive board.", "content": "The executive board comprises the following members:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Offices.", "content": "In Switzerland the group has offices in Bever, Küblis, Ilanz, Landquart, Poschiavo and Zurich. In Italy it operates out of an office in Milan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Generation.", "content": "Repower has its own generation assets in Switzerland, Italy and Germany, producing electricity on the basis of different technologies: hydro, thermal and wind. In 2018 the group's own installations generated around 1.66 TWh of electricity. In addition to this, the company has long term contracts with nuclear power plants in Switzerland and France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Thermal power plants.", "content": "Repower has a 61% interest in SET S.p.A. (Milan), which operates the Teverola combined cycle gas power plant in the Italian province of Caserta. This 400 MW installation went into operation at the end of 2006.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nuclear power.", "content": "Repower has long term contracts with nuclear power plants in Switzerland and France, representing an installed capacity of around 50 MW.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Renewable energy.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hydropower.", "content": "The group operates 15 of its own hydropower plants in Canton Graubünden, Switzerland. It also has interests and drawing rights in other plants. The company's installed hydropower capacity totals 405 MW.  Some of these hydropower facilities generate naturemade star certified green power. The naturemade star label is awarded by the Association for Environmentally Sound Energy (VUE).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Wind.", "content": "In Italy the group operates a wind farm in Corleto Perticara (9.3 MW), and in Lucera (26 MW) and holds an interest in another wind farm in Giunchetto on Sicily (Repower's interest: 11.6 MW). In Germany the Repower subsidiary Repartner Produktions AG owns two wind farms, in Prettin (10 MW) and Lübbenau (16 MW).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Trading.", "content": "Repower generates around two thirds of its energy turnover in trading; in 2018 this came to around 12 terawatt hours. Repower operates on the most important European energy exchanges from trading floors located in Poschiavo (Switzerland) and Milan (Italy). The group sees itself as an asset-based trader, trading electricity, gas and carbon certificates. On the physical side of the business Repower delivers electricity – part of which is generated by Repower itself, part of which is bought in from outside – to wholesale customers, usually via the high-voltage grid. The company also deals in certificates to deliver environmental value-added to larger end-consumers, independently of the grid. At the wholesale level the group delivers standard products such as base, peak and off-peak, as well as profiles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transmission.", "content": "Repower has played a significant role in increasing cross-border capacity between northern and southern Europe by building the international Bernina Line (380 kV/220 kV), commissioned in 2005 and transferred to the Swiss national grid operator Swissgrid at the beginning of 2013.  In October 2009, Repower joined forces with Edison and the municipality of Tirano to inaugurate the first A/C merchant line in Europe. It runs underground for its entire length between Tirano (Italy) and Campocologno (Switzerland). This 150 kV merchant line increases cross-border transport capacity by 150 MW, helping assure a secure energy supply in Italy and Switzerland. Currently a new 220 kV merchant line between Val Bregaglia (Switzerland) and Italy is being planned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sales and distribution.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Switzerland.", "content": "Repower is the leading supplier of electricity in Southeast Switzerland. Its customers range from private households to industrial, commercial and public sector consumers and downstream municipal utilities. Repower's supply area includes municipalities in the Engadine, Prättigau, Rhine Valley and Surselva areas of Graubünden. Via municipal utilities it supplies customers in the Upper Engadine, Münstertal, Poschiavo Valley, Rhine Valley and Surselva. Repower's customers in Switzerland can choose between different products. The standard product, Aquapower, comes from Swiss hydropower plants. The two renewable products, Purepower (100% Graubünden green power) and Solarpower (100% Graubünden solar power) are both naturemade starcertified, fulfilling stringent environmental quality criteria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Italy.", "content": "In Italy, Repower is one of the biggest suppliers of electricity and gas to small and medium-sized enterprises and public institutions. The company serves around 27,000 customers in Italy with electricity, and supplies an additional 12,000 customers with gas. The range includes green power (VerdeDentro), electric mobility solutions (Palina) and energy efficiency consulting services (eFFettiva).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Repower (until May 2010 \"Rätia Energie AG\") is an international energy utility with its operational headquarters in Poschiavo (Canton Graubünden, Switzerland). The company's history goes back more than 100 years. Its key markets include Switzerland and Italy. The group operates along the entire value chain, from generation and trading to sales.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977059}
{"src_title": "Athletics at the 2012 Summer Olympics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Competition schedule.", "content": "The venue for the track and field events was the Olympic Stadium while the walks and the marathons started and finished on The Mall. In the tables below, M stands for \"morning\" and A for \"afternoon\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medal summary.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medal table.", "content": "Note: \"Three competitors tied for bronze in the men's high jump event.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Records.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World and Olympic records.", "content": "A total of four world records in athletics and eleven Olympic records were broken during the competition. This was fewer than were set at the Beijing Olympics (5 world, 17 Olympic records) but greater than the number set at the 2004 Games in Athens (2 world, 10 Olympic records).  China's Chen Ding was the first Olympic record breaker, improving the men's 20 km walk record. All three Olympic walk records were broken in London as Sergey Kirdyapkin bettered the Olympic 50 km walk time and Elena Lashmanova set a new world record in the women's 20 km walk.  Usain Bolt was the first track athlete to improve an Olympic record as he defended his 100 m title with a run of 9.63 s. He later joined the Jamaican 4 × 100 metres relay team (featuring Nesta Carter, Michael Frater and Yohan Blake) to set a world record time of 36.84 s. The women's 4 × 100 metres relay event also saw a world record: an American team of Tianna Madison, Allyson Felix, Bianca Knight and Carmelita Jeter ran 40.82 seconds to take half a second off a record which had stood for nearly 27 years. Further women's Olympic records were set by Ethiopia's Tiki Gelana in the marathon and Sally Pearson in the 100 metres hurdles.  David Rudisha improved his own 800 metres world record to 1:40.91 minutes, becoming the first man to break that record at the Olympics since Ralph Doubell did so at the 1968 Games. Renaud Lavillenie was the only man to break a field event record, as he cleared an Olympic best of 5.97 m to win the pole vault competition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Doping.", "content": "Prior to the Olympic competition, several prominent athletes were ruled out of the competition due to failed tests. World indoor medallists Dimitrios Chondrokoukis, Debbie Dunn, and Mariem Alaoui Selsouli were withdrawn from their Olympic teams in July for doping, as was 2004 Olympic medallist Zoltán Kővágó. At the Olympic competition, Tameka Williams admitted to taking a banned stimulant and was removed from the games. Ivan Tsikhan did not compete in the hammer throw as a re-test of his sample from the 2004 Athens Olympics, where he won silver, was positive. Hassan Hirt, Amine Laâlou, Marina Marghieva, Diego Palomeque, and defending 50 km walk champion Alex Schwazer were also suspended before taking part in their events.  Syrian hurdler Ghfran Almouhamad became the first track-and-field athlete to be suspended following a positive in-competition doping sample. Nadzeya Astapchuk was stripped of the women's shot put title after her sample came back positive for the banned anabolic agent metenolone. Karin Melis Mey was withdrawn before the long jump final when an earlier failed doping test was confirmed.  Multiple medalists were found guilty of doping after the Olympics. Russia has the most (9) medals stripped.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The athletics competitions at the 2012 Olympic Games in London were held during the last 10 days of the Games, on 3–12 August. Track and field events took place at the Olympic Stadium in east London. The road events, however, started and finished on The Mall in central London.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977060}
{"src_title": "Dance Academy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "\"Dance Academy\" is narrated mainly from the perspective of Tara Webster (Xenia Goodwin), a newly accepted first year student at the National Academy of Dance in Sydney, which also doubles as a Year 10-12 high school for the dancers. Throughout the series, she learns to better her ballet technique, as well as learn contemporary ballet and hip-hop dance; while creating lifelong friendships and experiencing many hardships. In the first series, Tara soon befriends fellow students Kat (Alicia Banit) and Ethan Karamakov (Tim Pocock), Sammy Lieberman (Tom Green), Abigail Armstrong (Dena Kaplan) and Christian Reed (Jordan Rodrigues), as well as eventually getting to know her teacher Ms. Raine (Tara Morice).  Series two saw Tara return to the Academy for her second year with the hope of representing Australia in an international ballet competition, the Prix de Fonteyn. This series introduced characters Grace Whitney (Isabel Durant), Ben Tickle (Thomas Lacey), Ollie Lloyd (Keiynan Lonsdale), and Saskia Duncan (Brooke Harman), and saw the characters' reaction to the untimely death of Sammy.  Series three followed the characters as third years at the Academy, competing for a contract with the dance company to become principal dancers. After the temporary contracts have been established, the third years go on tour for \"Romeo and Juliet\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "\"Dance Academy\" is produced by Joanna Werner's film company Werner Films Productions in association with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Screen Australia, Film Victoria, Film New South Wales and ZDF for Germany., airing rights to \"Dance Academy\" have been sold to 180 territories, airing on every continent except Antarctica.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casting and filming.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Series one.", "content": "Casting for series one began in early 2009 in Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney. All cast members had to be skilled in drama and dancing and had to cope with Australia's best choreographers. Filming began on 13 July 2009 and wrapped up in early November. The series premiere was originally planned for a mid-2010 premiere on ABC3, however, like \"Dead Gorgeous\", the premiere was pushed to ABC1 on 31 May 2010 and ABC3 on 6 June 2010. The first series premiered on Germany's ZDF on 26 September 2010.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Series two.", "content": "Production of series two was officially green-lit by ABC and ZDF on 2 July 2010. Casting calls were issued on 14 September 2010, and principal photography in Sydney took place between 31 January and 4 August 2011. Series two premiered on ABC3 on 12 March 2012 and ran for 26 episodes, airing each week from Monday through Thursday, ending on 24 April.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Series three.", "content": "Screen Australia approved investment funding for a third series of 13 episodes on 5 December 2011. Filming began 27 August 2012, ended filming 27 November 2012. On 5 June 2013, Alicia Banit and Thomas Lacey appeared on ABC3's \"Studio 3\" to announce the series 3 premiere on 8 July 2013.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Online streaming.", "content": "The show is available on streaming sites, including Hulu.com and Netflix.com. Entire episodes of all three seasons are also available, for free, on the show's official YouTube channel, however it is not available in Australia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "DVD releases.", "content": "The Australian Broadcasting Corporation has released all episodes from series one through three on DVD—with series one and two across four volumes and series three over two—as well as series collections and a complete series one to three compilation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "ABC Books has released seven paperback novels, each based on a particular episode and from the perspective of a single character. The books are published by ABC Books and HarperCollins Australia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film: \"Dance Academy: The Movie\".", "content": "On 22 April 2015, a feature film adaption of \"Dance Academy\" was announced along with other feature film projects to have received funding from Screen Australia. The film is a sequel to the television series, set 18 months after the events of series three, and follows Tara's journey as she pursues her dream to become a ballerina star. Pre-production for the film, then titled \"Dance Academy: The Comeback\", began on 17 April 2016. Shooting for the film began on 29 May 2016, and wrapped on 22 July. The official trailer for the film was released on 25 December 2016. The film, retitled \"Dance Academy: The Movie\", was released by StudioCanal to Australian cinemas on 6 April 2017. It was released internationally on Netflix under the title \"Dance Academy: The Comeback\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dance Academy is an Australian teen-oriented television drama produced by Werner Film Productions in association with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and ZDF. Series one premiered on 31 May 2010, and series two began airing on 12 March 2012. Series three premiered on ABC3 on 8 July 2013 in Australia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977061}
{"src_title": "Kolë Idromeno", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life.", "content": "Kolë Idromeno was of Cham origin and was born on 15 August 1860 in Shkodër. His father, Arsen Idromeno, was originally a Cham Albanian from Arta but resided most of his lifetime in Shkodër, where he worked as a building contractor and married the local resident Roza Saraçi. In his hometown Shkodër, Pjetër Marubi, a close friend of the family, gave Kolë lessons on photography and started at the age of eleven to paint his first paintings with watercolors. With the compulsion and support of Marubi, he moved to Venice and stayed for some months at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia, the academy of fine arts. Afterwards, he worked in the studio of an Italian painter.  After his studies in Venice, he started to travel around Europe and decided to move back to his hometown in 1878. There, he engaged himself in a number of different activities, working as in the fields of architecture, sculpture, photography, painting, composing, scenic design and engineering.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Kolë Idromeno is considered as the founder of Realism in the country and the most important painter of the Albanian Renaissance, which started in the 19th century. He is referred as Michelangelo of Albania. Idromeno established a very active photographic studio and was the first artist to show motion pictures in country in 1912. In addition, he had kept up a correspondence with the Lumière brothers in Paris. In 1923, Idromeno was the initiator of the first art exhibition in Shkodër and was represented in the first national art exhibition in Tirana in 1931. Until 1896, Idromeno painted mainly paintings with religious themes. Afterwards, he painted probably the first Albanian secular and realistic pictures with illustrating historical events and everyday motifs such as festivals and costumes such as \"Dasma Shkodrane\". He followed to paint various landscapes, \"Oborri i Shtëpisë Shkodrane\", and became the first landscape painter of modern Albanian art. His most famous work is \"Motra Tone\", which shows his sister Tona. This artwork is sometimes referred to as Albanian Mona Lisa. His works were represented in international exhibitions for example in Budapest, Austria–Hungary (1900) and New York City, United States (1939).  One of his best work, not very popular, is the portrait Gjergj Kastriot Skënderbeu painted in 1889. Its owner it is uncertain and the painting has never been in public. As an architect, Idromeno has carved his name into many well-known objects in Shkodra. The list includes Kafja e Madhe, the St. Stephen's Cathedral, Church of Shirokë, first electrical station of the town, Radovan Building, the Prefecture Building, Mosque of Parrucë and most of the residences of villas along the main boulevard in the northern historical district of Shkodra.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nikoll Idromeno (; 15 August 186012 December 1939), better known as Kolë Idromeno, was an Albanian painter, sculptor, architect, photographer, cinematographer, composer and engineer during the Albanian Renaissance in the nineteenth century. He is widely regarded as a precursor of both realism and landscape art in Albania.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977062}
{"src_title": "David Woodard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "Woodard was educated privately and at The New School for Social Research and University of California, Santa Barbara.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nueva Germania.", "content": "In 2003 Woodard was elected councilman in Juniper Hills (Los Angeles County), California. In this capacity he proposed a sister city relationship with Nueva Germania, Paraguay. To advance his plan, Woodard traveled to the erstwhile vegetarian/feminist utopia and met with its municipal leadership. Following an initial visit, he chose not to pursue the relationship but had found in the community an object of study for later writings. What particularly interests him are the proto-transhumanist ideas of speculative planner Richard Wagner and Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, who along with her husband Bernhard Förster founded and lived in the colony between 1886 and 1889.  In 2004, acknowledging sustainable aspects of Nueva Germania's founding ideals, Woodard composed the choral anthem \"Our Jungle Holy Land\".  From 2004 to 2006 Woodard led numerous expeditions to Nueva Germania, winning support from then U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney. In 2011 Woodard granted Swiss writer Christian Kracht permission to publish their sizable personal correspondence, largely concerning Nueva Germania, under Leibniz University Hannover imprint. Of the, \"FAZ\" relates, \"[The authors] obliterate the boundary between life and art.\" \"Der Spiegel\" posits that \"Five Years\" constitutes \"the spiritual preparatory work\" of Kracht's subsequent novel \"Imperium\".  According to Andrew McCann, Woodard embarked on \"a trip to what is left of the place, where descendants of original settlers live under drastically reduced circumstances\" and was moved to \"advance the cultural profile of the community, and to build a miniature Bayreuth opera house on the site of what was once Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche's family residence.\" In recent years Nueva Germania has tempered into a more genial destination, with bed and breakfasts and a makeshift historical museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dreamachine.", "content": "From 1989 to 2007 Woodard built replicas of the Dreamachine, a stroboscopic device created by Brion Gysin and Ian Sommerville which involves a slotted cylinder, made of copper or paper, rotating around an electrical lamp. When observed with closed eyes, the machine can trigger mental states that are comparable to substance intoxication or dreaming. Agreeing to contribute a Dreamachine to William S. Burroughs' 1996 LACMA visual retrospective \"Ports of Entry\", Woodard befriended the elderly author and presented him with a paper \"Bohemian model\" Dreamachine for his 83rd and final birthday. Sotheby's auctioned the former machine to a private collector in 2002, and the latter machine remains on extended loan from Burroughs' estate to the Spencer Museum of Art in Lawrence, Kansas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "David Woodard (, ; born April 6, 1964) is an American conductor and writer. During the 1990s he coined the term \"prequiem\", a portmanteau of preemptive and requiem, to describe his Buddhist practice of composing dedicated music to be rendered during or slightly before the death of its subject.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977063}
{"src_title": "Douglas BTD Destroyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "On 20 June 1941, the United States Navy placed an order with the Douglas Aircraft Company for two prototypes of a new two-seat dive bomber to replace both the Douglas SBD Dauntless and the new Curtiss SB2C Helldiver, designated XSB2D-1. The resulting aircraft, designed by a team led by Ed Heinemann, was a large single-engined mid-winged monoplane. It had a laminar flow gull-wing, and unusually for a carrier-based aircraft of the time, a tricycle undercarriage. It was fitted with a bomb bay and underwing racks for up to 4,200 lb (1,900 kg) of bombs, while defensive armament consisted of two wing-mounted 20 mm (0.79 in) cannon and two remote-controlled turrets, each with two.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns.  The prototype first flew on 8 April 1943, demonstrating excellent performance, being much faster and carrying nearly double the bombload of the Helldiver, and orders for 358 SB2D-1s quickly followed. The U.S. Navy changed its requirements, however, wanting single-seat carrier-based torpedo/dive bombers without defensive turrets, and Douglas reworked the SB2D by removing the turrets and second crewman, while adding more fuel and armor, while wing racks could carry not just one but two torpedoes, producing the BTD-1 Destroyer. The orders for SB2Ds were converted to BTD-1s, with the first BTD flying on 5 March 1944.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first production BTD-1s were completed in June 1944. By the time Japan surrendered in August 1945, only 28 aircraft had been delivered, and production was cancelled, along with other aircraft types that had been designed from the start as single-seaters, such as the Martin AM Mauler. None saw combat action. In any event, Heinemann and his team were already working on developing the single-seat BT2D that became the Douglas A-1 Skyraider.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surviving aircraft.", "content": "BTD-1 Destroyer, Bureau Number \"4959\", is under restoration for display at the Wings of Eagles Discovery Center, Elmira-Corning Regional Airport, Elmira, New York. This aircraft had long been in the Florence Air & Missile Museum collection until the museum's closing in 1997. In September 2015 the aircraft was relocated to the Hixson Flight Museum in Rome, Georgia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Douglas BTD Destroyer is an American dive/torpedo bomber developed for the United States Navy during World War II. A small number had been delivered before the end of the war, but none saw combat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977064}
{"src_title": "Reeves's pheasant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Males measure long and weigh. The male is brightly plumaged with a scaled golden white and red body plumage, grey legs, brown iris and bare red skin around the eye. The head is white with a black narrow band across its eyes. The male has an extremely long silvery white tail barred with chestnut brown. This pheasant is mentioned in the 2008 edition of \"Guinness World Records\" for having the longest natural tail feather of any bird species; a record formerly held by the crested argus pheasant. The tail can measure up to long.  Females measure long and weigh. They are brown with a blackish crown, a buff face and greyish brown barred tail feathers. The females are about the same size as a male common pheasant.  There are no known subspecies, but there is some variation in plumage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The Reeves's pheasant is endemic to evergreen forests of central and eastern China. Where introduced, they also inhabit farmland close to woodlands. The tail of the male bird grows approximately every year.  They have been introduced for sport and ornamental purposes to the United States, Czech Republic, France and the United Kingdom. In the latter three countries, they have built up small breeding populations, and are still released on a small scale for shooting, often alongside common pheasants.  Due to ongoing habitat loss, and overhunting for food and its tail plumes, the Reeves's pheasant is evaluated as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. There are thought to be only around 2000 birds remaining in the wild.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "The Reeves's pheasant is a hardy bird and is able to tolerate both hot and cold weather. They prefer higher ground for nesting. The female lays a clutch of 7–14 eggs in April or May; the incubation period is 24–25 days. Reeves's pheasants are often aggressive towards humans, animals, and other pheasants, particularly during the breeding season.  Their call is unlike other game birds in that it is a musical warble, sounding more passerine than a galliform bird. Their diet is vegetable matter, including seeds and cereals. They are fairly common in aviculture.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Reeves's pheasant (\"Syrmaticus reevesii\") is a large pheasant within the genus \"Syrmaticus\". It is endemic to China. It is named after the British naturalist John Reeves, who first introduced live specimens to Europe in 1831.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977065}
{"src_title": "John Joubert (serial killer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Joubert's parents divorced when he was six years old, and he went to live with his mother in Lawrence, Massachusetts. He was not allowed to visit his father and grew to hate his controlling mother. In 1974, she moved the family to Portland, Maine. He attended Cheverus High School.  When he was 13, he stabbed a young girl with a pencil and felt sexually stimulated when she cried in pain. The next day, he took a razor blade and slashed another girl as he biked past her. He was never caught for either attack. In another incident, he beat and nearly strangled another boy. He relished the power of bullying, and began to stab or slash others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Murders.", "content": "In the city of Portland, Maine, on August 22, 1982, 11-year-old Richard \"Ricky\" Stetson had gone jogging. When he had not returned by dark, his parents called the police. The next day, a motorist saw the boy's body on the side of the I-295. It appeared that an attempt had been made to undress him, and he was stabbed and strangled. A suspect was arrested for the murder, but his teeth did not match a bite mark on Stetson's body, so he was released after a year and a half in custody. No additional leads were presented until January 1984.  Danny Joe Eberle disappeared while delivering the \"Omaha World-Herald\" newspaper on Sunday, September 18, 1983, in Bellevue, Nebraska. His brother, who also delivered the newspaper, had not seen him, but did remember being followed by a white man in a tan car on previous days. It was found that Eberle had delivered just three of the 70 newspapers on his route. At his fourth delivery, his bicycle was discovered along with the rest of the newspapers. There appeared to be no sign of a struggle. Joubert would later describe how he had approached Eberle, drew a knife and then covered the boy's mouth with his hand. He then instructed the boy to follow him and took him to his truck. He then took him to a gravel road outside of town.  After a three-day search, his body was finally discovered about four miles (6 km) from where his bike had been found. He had been stripped to his underwear and had his feet and hands bound and mouth taped with surgical tape. He had been stabbed nine times. As a kidnapping, the crime came under the jurisdiction of the federal government of the United States, so the FBI was called in.  The investigation followed several leads, including a young man who was arrested for molesting two young boys about a week after the crime. He failed a polygraph test and had a false but did not fit the profile the FBI had created for the murderer. He was released due to a lack of evidence. Other known pedophiles in the area were also questioned, but the case went cold due to a scarcity of evidence.  On December 2, Christopher Walden disappeared in Papillion, Nebraska, about three miles (five km) from where Eberle's body was found. Witnesses again said they saw a white man in a tan car. Joubert said that he had driven up to Walden as he walked, showed him the sheath of his knife and ordered him into the car. After driving to some railways lines out of town, he ordered Walden to strip to his underwear, which he did. But then Walden refused to lie down. After a brief struggle, Joubert overpowered and then stabbed him. Joubert cut Walden's throat, so deep that he had almost been decapitated. Walden's body was found two days later five miles (eight km) from the town. Although the crimes were similar there were differences. Walden had not been bound, had been concealed better, and was thought to have been killed immediately after being abducted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arrest.", "content": "On January 11, 1984, a preschool teacher in the area of the murders called police to say that she had seen a young man driving in the area. There are conflicting stories as to what occurred — whether the car was loitering or just driving around. When the driver saw the teacher writing down his license plate, he stopped and threatened her before fleeing. The car was not tan, but was traced and found to be rented by John Joubert, an enlisted radar technician from Offutt Air Force Base. It turned out that his own car, a tan Nova sedan, was being repaired.  A search warrant was issued, and rope consistent with that used to bind Danny Joe Eberle was found in his dorm room. The FBI found that the unusual rope had been made for the United States military in South Korea. Under interrogation, Joubert admitted getting it from the scoutmaster in the troop in which he was an assistant.  Robert K. Ressler, the FBI's head profiler at the time, had immediate access to the information about the two boys in Nebraska and worked up a hypothetical description which matched Joubert in every regard. While presenting the case of the two Nebraska boys to a training class at the FBI academy at Quantico, a police officer from Portland, Maine, noted the similarities to a case in his jurisdiction which took place while Joubert had lived there prior to joining the Air Force. Bitemark comparisons proved that Joubert was responsible for the Maine killing in addition to those in Nebraska. Ressler and the Maine investigators came to believe that Joubert joined the military to get away from Maine after the murder of the Stetson boy.  Further investigation in Maine revealed two crimes between the pencil stabbing of the nine-year-old girl in 1979 and the murder of Stetson in 1982. In 1980, Ressler's investigation revealed that Joubert had slashed a nine-year-old boy and a female teacher in her mid-twenties who both \"had been cut rather badly, and were lucky to be alive.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trials and appeals.", "content": "Joubert then confessed to killing the two boys and, on January 12, was charged with their murders. After initially pleading not guilty, he changed his plea to guilty. There were several psychiatric evaluations performed on Joubert. One characterised him as having obsessive-compulsive disorder and sadistic tendencies, and suffering from schizoid personality disorder. He was found to have not been psychotic at the time of the crimes. A panel of three judges sentenced him to death for both counts. Joubert was also sentenced to life imprisonment in Maine (which did not have the death penalty) in 1990 for the murder of Ricky Stetson after Joubert's teeth were found to match the bite mark.  In 1995, Joubert filed a writ of habeas corpus to the United States federal courts over the death sentences. His lawyers argued that the aggravating factor of \"exceptional depravity\" was unconstitutionally vague. The court agreed and the state of Nebraska appealed to the United States District Court for the District of Nebraska. They overturned the appeal, saying that he had shown sadistic behavior by torturing Eberle and Walden.  Joubert was executed on July 17, 1996, by the state of Nebraska via the electric chair.  As part of appeals on the Nebraska Supreme Court over whether the electric chair in Nebraska is a cruel and unusual punishment, it was revealed that during his execution Joubert incurred a four-inch brain blister on the top of his head and blistering on both sides of his head above his ears.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "\"Footnotes\" \"General references\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John J. Joubert (July 2, 1963 – July 17, 1996) was a serial killer executed in Nebraska. He had been convicted of the murders of three boys in Maine and Nebraska.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977066}
{"src_title": "Zaz (singer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Her mother was a Spanish teacher, and her father worked for an electric company. In 1985, she entered the Conservatoire de Tours with her sister and her brother, attending courses from the ages of 7 to 11. She studied music theory, specifically the violin, piano, guitar, and choral singing. In 1994, she moved to Bordeaux. In 1995, she took singing lessons and played sports for a year in Bordeaux. In 2000, she won a scholarship from the regional council, which allowed her to join a school of modern music, the CIAM (Centre for Musical Activities and Information) of Bordeaux. Her musical influences included 'Four Seasons' by Vivaldi, jazz singers such as Ella Fitzgerald, and other singers such as Enrico Macias, Bobby McFerrin, and Richard Bona, as well as African, Latin, and Cuban rhythms. In 2006, she moved to Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Singing career.", "content": "In 2001, she started her singing career in the blues band \"Fifty Fingers\". She sang in musical groups in Angoulême, especially in a jazz quintet. She became one of the four singers of Izar-Adatz (Basque for \"Shooting Star\"), a variety band which consisted of sixteen people with whom she toured for two years, especially in the Midi-Pyrenees and the Basque Country. She worked in the studio as a backing singer in Toulouse and performed with many singers, including Maeso, Art Mengo, Vladimir Max, Jean-Pierre Mader, and Serge Guerao.  In 2011, Zaz won an EBBA Award. Every year the European Border Breakers Awards (EBBA) recognize the success of ten emerging artists or groups who reached audiences outside their own countries with their first internationally released album in the past year.  In May 2010, French magazine \"Télérama\" announced: \"Rumor has swelled in recent weeks: Zaz is an extraordinary voice, and she will be the revelation of the summer!\". On 10 May 2010, Zaz released her first album. It contains songs she wrote (\"Trop sensible\") and co-composed (\"Les passants\", \"Le long de la route\", \"Prends garde à ta langue\", \"J'aime à nouveau\", \"Ni oui ni non\"). Kerredine Soltani produced the album on the label \"Play On\" and wrote and composed the hit single \"Je veux\". The pop singer Raphaël Haroche wrote her songs \"Éblouie par la nuit\", \"Port Coton\" and \"La fée\". In 2010, she signed a contract for her tours with Caramba and publisher Sony ATV. She was invited to make several television appearances (such as \"Taratata\" or \"Chabada\") and was featured in several programs on the radio. On Sunday 6 October 2013, Zaz appeared on BBC One's \"The Andrew Marr Show\" in London and sang \"Je veux\" live.  Zaz then toured France (Paris, La Rochelle, Montauban, Saint-Ouen, Chateauroux, Landerneau, Fécamp...), performed at the Francofolies of Montreal (Canada), and sang in Monthey (Switzerland), Brussels, Berlin, and Milan. In autumn Zaz topped the charts in Belgium, Switzerland, and Austria. Matthieu Baligand, her manager and producer at Caramba Entertainment, explained to \"Libération\": \"We talk a lot of her right now and people are waiting her at the turn... Despite the demand, it seems preferable to do her first tour in fifty small places which will render her credible. Zaz is a popular, intuitive artist, who is familiar with music, who can sing, but doing a quality show is something else (...).\" In November 2010, the debut album \"Zaz\" became double platinum and she was awarded \"Revelation Song\" by the Académie Charles Cros. Zaz also won the European Border Breakers Award: she was named the French artist most played abroad in 2010. According to a survey published by \"L'Internaute\", Zaz was the most popular French singer in the 2010 ranking.  She is also featured on the song \"Cœur Volant\" for the soundtrack of the 2011 film, \"Hugo\". Her live CD and DVD \"Zaz live tour Sans Tsu Tsou\" was revealed.  Her song \"Eblouie Par La Nuit\" was featured in the 2013 American neo-noir crime thriller, \"Dead Man Down\".  In 2012, Zaz went on tour and held concerts in various countries around the world including Japan, Canada, Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Slovenia, Czech Republic (Colours of Ostrava), Croatia, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Turkey, among other countries.  With her album \"Paris\" she won the 2015 Echo award for best international female rock/pop artist.  In 2016, Zaz was invited to perform in Zacatecas City, Mexico as part of the Festival Cultural Zacatecas.  In September 2018, Zaz released \"Qué vendrá\", the first track from an upcoming album titled \"Effet miroir\" (\"Mirror Effect\"). The track's title and chorus are in Spanish.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philanthropy.", "content": "In 2011, she joined the Les Enfoirés charity ensemble. Zaz created the project Zazimut to \"develop and promote projects for a society more respectful of life in all its forms\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Isabelle Geffroy (born 1 May 1980 in Tours, France), better known by the nickname Zaz, is a French singer-songwriter who mixes jazzy styles, French variety, soul and acoustic. She is famous for her hit \"Je veux\", from her first album, \"Zaz\", released on 10 May 2010.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977067}
{"src_title": "The Wild One", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The Black Rebels Motorcycle Club (BRMC), a gang led by Johnny Strabler, rides into Carbonville, California, during a motorcycle race and causes trouble. A member of the gang, Pidgeon, steals the second-place trophy (the first place one being too large to hide) and presents it to Johnny. Stewards and policemen order them to leave.  The bikers head to Wrightsville, which only has one elderly, conciliatory lawman, Chief Harry Bleeker, to maintain order. The residents are uneasy, but mostly willing to put up with their visitors. When their antics cause Art Kleiner to swerve and crash his car, he demands that something be done, but Harry is reluctant to act, a weakness that is not lost on the interlopers. This accident results in the gang having to stay longer in town, as one member injured himself falling off his motorcycle. Although the young men become more and more boisterous, their custom is enthusiastically welcomed by Harry's brother Frank who runs the local cafe-bar, employing Harry's daughter, Kathie, and the elderly Jimmy.  At Frank's cafe, Johnny meets Kathie and asks her out to a dance being held that night. Kathie politely turns him down, but Johnny's dark, brooding personality visibly intrigues her. When Mildred, another local girl, asks him, \"What are you rebelling against, Johnny?\", he answers \"Whaddaya got?\" Johnny is attracted to Kathie and decides to stay awhile. However, when he learns that she is the policeman's daughter, he changes his mind. A rival biker gang arrives and their leader, Chino, bears a grudge against Johnny. Chino reveals the two groups used to be one large gang before Johnny split it up. When Chino takes Johnny's trophy, the two start fighting and Johnny wins.  Meanwhile, local Charlie Thomas stubbornly tries to drive through, he hits a parked motorcycle and injures Meatball, one of Chino's bikers. Chino pulls Charlie out and leads both gangs to overturn his car. Harry intervenes and starts arresting Chino and Charlie, but when other townspeople remind Harry that Charlie would cause problems for him in the future, he only takes Chino to the station. Later that night some members of the rival biker gang harass Dorothy, the telephone switchboard operator into leaving, thereby disrupting the townspeople's communication, while the BRMC abducts Charlie and puts him in the same jail cell as Chino, who is too drunk to leave with the gang.  Later, as both gangs wreck the town and intimidate the inhabitants, some bikers led by Gringo chase and surround Kathie, but Johnny rescues her and takes her on a long ride in the countryside. Frightened at first, Kathie comes to see that Johnny is genuinely attracted to her and means her no harm. When she opens up to him and asks to go with him, he rejects her. Crying, she runs away. Johnny drives off to search for her. Art sees and misinterprets this as an attack. The townspeople have had enough. Johnny's supposed assault on Kathie is the last straw. Vigilantes led by Charlie chase and catch Johnny and beat him mercilessly, but he escapes on his motorcycle when Harry confronts the mob. The mob give chase, but Johnny is hit by a thrown tire iron and falls. His riderless motorcycle strikes and kills Jimmy.  Sheriff Stew Singer arrives with his deputies and restores order. Johnny is initially arrested for Jimmy's death, with Kathie pleading on his behalf. Seeing this, Art and Frank step forward and testify that Johnny was not responsible for the tragedy, with Johnny being unable to thank them. The motorcyclists are ordered to leave the county, albeit paying for all damage. However, Johnny returns alone to Wrightsville, and re-visits the cafe to say goodbye to Kathie one final time. He first tries to hide his humiliation and acts as though he's leaving after getting a cup of coffee, but then he returns, genuinely smiles, and gives her the stolen trophy as a gift.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cast.", "content": "Uncredited Roles", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "\"The Wild One\" was originally released on VHS and Betamax tape formats and later on DVD. In the United States a DVD was released in November 1998 by Sony Pictures. In 2013 Sony Pictures first released it on Blu-ray in Germany with special features including an introduction by Karen Kramer (Stanley Kramer's wife) and three featurettes titled \"Hollister, California: Bikers. Booze and the Big Picture\", \"Brando: An Icon is Born\" and \"Stanley Kramer: A Man's Search for Truth\". A U.S. and Canadian Blu-ray was released in 2015 by Mill Creek Entertainment with no extra features. The film was released in the United Kingdom on May 22, 2017 by Powerhouse Films with a few of the previous extras ported over. The new features include an audio commentary with film historian Jeanine Basinger, a 25-minute \"The Wild One and the BBFC\" featurette, \"The Wild One on Super 8\", an i mage gallery and theatrical trailer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "\"The Wild One\" was generally well received by film critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 78% critics have given the film a positive response based on 23 reviews, with a rating average of 7.06/10. Dave Kehr of the \"Chicago Reader\" wrote: \"Legions of Brando impersonators have turned his performance in this seminal 1954 motorcycle movie into self-parody, but it's still a sleazy good time.\" \"Variety\" noted that the film \"is long on suspense, brutality and sadism... All performances are highly competent.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "In the United Kingdom, the film was banned by the British Board of Film Censors for fourteen years, though there were some screenings in film societies where local councils overturned the BBFC’s decision. On November 21, 1967, the film received an 'X' certificate and was first seen by the general UK public at the 59 Club in Paddington, London in 1968.  According to the book, \"Triumph Motorcycle In America\", Triumph motorcycle's then-importers, Johnson Motors, objected to the prominent use of Triumph motorcycles in the film. However, later, Gil Stratton Jr, who played \"Mouse\" in the film, advertised Triumph motorcycles in the 1960s when he was a famous TV sports announcer., the manufacturers were publicly identifying Brando as a celebrity who had helped to \"cement the Triumph legend\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Accolades.", "content": "The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The persona of Johnny as portrayed by Brando became an influential image in the 1950s. His character wears long sideburns, a Perfecto-style motorcycle jacket and a tilted cap; he rides a 1950 Triumph Thunderbird 6T. His haircut helped to inspire a craze for sideburns, followed by James Dean and Elvis Presley, among others. Some butch gays began to imitate Brando by wearing black leather jackets, a black leather cap, black leather boots and jeans and, if they could afford it, by also riding motorcycles.  Presley also used Johnny's image as a model for his role in \"Jailhouse Rock\".  James Dean bought a Triumph TR5 Trophy motorcycle to mimic Brando's own Triumph Thunderbird 6T motorcycle that he used in the film.  One story maintains that The Beatles took their name from the girlfriends of the rival motorcycle club, referred to as \"Beetles\", as referenced in \"The Beatles Anthology\" (though as aforementioned, the film was banned in Britain until 1967).  The name of American band Black Rebel Motorcycle Club was inspired by the film.  The exchange between Mildred and Johnny is repeated in \"The Simpsons\" episode \"Separate Vocations\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Wild One is a 1953 American film noir crime film directed by László Benedek and produced by Stanley Kramer. It is most noted for the character of Johnny Strabler (Marlon Brando), whose persona became a cultural icon of the 1950s. \"The Wild One\" is considered to be the original outlaw biker film, and the first to examine American outlaw motorcycle gang violence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977068}
{"src_title": "Aos Sí", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In Gaelic folklore.", "content": "In many Gaelic tales, the \"aos sí\" are later, literary versions of the Tuatha Dé Danann (\"People of the Goddess Danu\")—the deities and deified ancestors of Irish mythology. Some sources describe them as the survivors of the Tuatha Dé Danann who retreated into the Otherworld when fleeing the mortal Sons of Míl Espáine who, like many other early invaders of Ireland, came from Iberia. As part of the terms of their surrender to the Milesians, the Tuatha Dé Danann agreed to retreat and dwell underground. (In later interpretations, each tribe of the Tuatha Dé Danann was given its own mound.) Geoffrey Keating, an Irish historian of the early 17th century, equates Iberia with the Land of the Dead, providing a possible connection to the \"aos sí.\"  In folk belief and practice, the \"aos sí\" are often appeased with offerings, and care is taken to avoid angering or insulting them. Often they are not named directly, but rather spoken of as \"The Good Neighbors\", \"The Fair Folk\", or simply \"The Folk\". The most common names for them, \"aos sí\", \"aes sídhe\", \"daoine sídhe\" (singular \"duine sídhe\") and \"daoine sìth\" mean, literally, \"people of the mounds\" (referring to the \"sídhe\"). The \"aos sí\" are generally described as stunningly beautiful, though they can also be terrible and hideous.  \"Aos sí\" are seen as fierce guardians of their abodes—whether a fairy hill, a fairy ring, a special tree (often a hawthorn) or a particular loch or wood. It is believed that infringing on these spaces will cause the \"aos sí\" to retaliate in an effort to remove the people or objects that invaded their homes. Many of these tales contribute to the changeling myth in west European folklore, with the \"aos sí\" kidnapping trespassers or replacing their children with changelings as a punishment for transgressing. The \"aos sí\" are often connected to certain times of year and hours; as the Gaelic Otherworld is believed to come closer to the mortal world at the times of dusk and dawn, the \"aos sí\" correspondingly become easier to encounter. Some festivals such as Samhain, Beltane and Midsummer are also associated with the \"aos sí.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The sídhe.", "content": "\"Sídhe\" are the hills or tumuli that dot the Irish landscape. In modern Irish the word is \"sí\"; in Scottish Gaelic, \"sìth\"; in Old Irish \"síde\" and the singular is \"síd\". In a number of later, English-language texts, the word \"sídhe\" is incorrectly used both for the mounds and the people of the mounds. However \"sidh\" in older texts refers specifically to \"the palaces, courts, halls or residences\" of the otherworldly beings that supposedly inhabit them. The fact that many of these \"sídhe\" have been found to be ancient burial mounds has contributed to the theory that the \"aos sí\" were the pre-Celtic occupants of Ireland.  Others present these stories as mythology deriving from Greek cultural influence, deriving arguments mainly from Hesiod's \"Works and Days\", which portrays the basic moral foundation and plantation techniques of the citizens of Greece and describes the races of men, created by the Greek deities. However, many of these views have been deemed unlikely, and the influence can be explained by the similar moral foundations stemming from the two cultures' Indo-European background.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Types.", "content": "The banshee or \"bean sídhe\" (from ), which means \"woman of the \"sídhe\"\", has come to indicate any supernatural woman of Ireland who announces a coming death by wailing and keening. Her counterpart in Scottish mythology is the \"bean sìth\" (sometimes spelled \"bean-sìdh\"). Other varieties of \"aos sí\" and \"daoine sìth\" include the Scottish \"bean nighe\": the washerwoman who is seen washing the bloody clothing or armour of the person who is doomed to die; the \"leanan sídhe\": the \"fairy lover\"; the \"cat sìth\": a fairy cat; and the \"Cù Sìth\": fairy dog.  The \"sluagh sídhe\"—\"the fairy host\"—is sometimes depicted in Irish and Scottish lore as a crowd of airborne spirits, perhaps the cursed, evil or restless dead. The \"siabhra\" (anglicised as \"sheevra\"), may be a type of these lesser spirits, prone to evil and mischief. However, an Ulster folk song also uses \"sheevra\" simply to mean \"spirit\" or \"fairy\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Creideamh Sí\".", "content": "'is Irish for the \"Fairy Faith\", a collection of beliefs and practices observed by those who wish to keep good relationships with the'and avoid angering them. The custom of offering milk and traditional foods—such as baked goods, apples or berries—to the'have survived through the Christian era into the present day in parts of Ireland, Scotland and the diaspora. Those who maintain some degree of belief in the'also are aware to leave their sacred places alone and protect them from damage through road or housing construction.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The (; older form ) is the Irish term for a supernatural race in Irish mythology and Scottish mythology (where it is usually spelled Sìth, but pronounced the same), comparable to the fairies or elves.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977069}
{"src_title": "Spartium", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "This species is native to the Mediterranean in southern Europe, southwest Asia and northwest Africa, where it is found in sunny sites, usually on dry, sandy soils.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"S. junceum\" is a vigorous, deciduous shrub growing to tall, rarely, with main stems up to thick, rarely. It has thick, somewhat succulent grey-green rush-like shoots with very sparse small deciduous leaves 1 to 3 cm long and up to 4 mm broad. The leaves are of little importance to the plant, with much of the photosynthesis occurring in the green shoots (a water-conserving strategy in its dry climate). The leaves fall away early. In late spring and summer shoots are covered in profuse fragrant yellow pea-like flowers 1 to 2 cm across. In late summer, the legumes (seed pods) mature black and reach long. They burst open, often with an audible crack, spreading seed from the parent plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasive species.", "content": "\"Spartium junceum\" has been widely introduced into other areas, and is regarded as a noxious invasive species in places with a Mediterranean climate such as California and Oregon, Hawaii, central Chile, southeastern Australia, the Western Cape in South Africa and the Canary Islands and Azores. It was first introduced to California as an ornamental plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The plant is used as an ornamental plant in gardens and in landscape plantings. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.  In Bolivia and Peru, the plant is known as retama, (not to be confused with the genus \"Retama\") and has become very well established in some areas. It is one of the most common ornamental plants, often seen growing along sidewalks in La Paz.  \"Retama\" has made its way into the ethnobotany of the indigenous Aymara and Quechua cultures.  The plant is also used as a flavoring, and for its essential oil, known as genet absolute. Its fibers have been used for cloth and it produces a yellow dye.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Nomina dubia\".", "content": "The status of the following species is unresolved:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Spartium junceum, the Spanish broom, rush broom or weaver's broom, is a species of flowering plant in the family Fabaceae.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977070}
{"src_title": "Avi Dichter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Avraham (Avi) Dichter was born in Ashkelon. His parents were Holocaust survivors. As an adolescent, he joined the Hashomer Hatzair youth movement. After graduating high school, he served in an elite unit of the Israel Defense Forces, Sayeret Matkal, under then Commander Ehud Barak. Upon completing his military service, Dichter joined Shin Bet, Israel's internal security service. In 1986, he earned a BA in Social Science from Bar-Ilan University. He also has an MBA from Tel Aviv University.  In 1973, he married Ilana Wallerstein, a teacher and artist who he had met in high school. They have three children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Internal security career.", "content": "Dichter began his career in Shin Bet as a sky marshal for El Al. After becoming proficient in Arabic and completing field intelligence courses, he began working in the Shin Bet's Southern District, specifically the Gaza Strip. In 1992, he was appointed director for the region. Aiming to improve the Shin Bet's protection capabilities, Dichter was appointed Director of the Security and Protection Division. In 1999, he became Deputy Director of Shin Bet. In 2000, he was promoted to director.  During his tenure, the Palestinians launched the Second Intifada. Under Dichter's leadership, Shin Bet changed its modus operandi and restructured its mission and duties to serve at the forefront of Israel's security and counter-terrorism efforts. The organisation spearheaded counter-insurgency and intelligence operations deep inside the West Bank and Gaza Strip, thereby reducing the number of attacks against Israel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In September 2005, Dichter left office and became a research fellow at the Brookings Institution in Washington, D.C. Several months later, he returned to Israel and announced his foray into politics with the newly established Kadima. He was elected to the Knesset on the party's list in 2006, and on May 4 that year was sworn in as the Minister of Internal Security. In this role, he oversaw Israel's law enforcement system including Israel's Police Force and Prison Service.  As Minister of Public Security, Dichter made several reforms in the fields under the auspices of the ministry. These included budgetary and organizational reform, the building of a Witness Protection Program, and the formation of a national crime fighting unit (Lahav 433) similar to the United States' FBI. In 2007, Dichter canceled a trip to the UK over concerns that he would be arrested for war crimes.  After Ehud Olmert resigned as party leader, Dichter entered the leadership election. However, he came fourth with only 6.5% of the vote. He retained his seat in the 2009 elections after being placed ninth on the party's list, but lost his cabinet portfolio as the Likud-led coalition formed the government.  In \"Matar v. Dichter\", the Center for Constitutional Rights filed a federal class action lawsuit against Dichter on behalf of the Palestinians killed or injured in a 2002 \"targeted killing\" air strike in Gaza. It charged him with extrajudicial killing, war crimes and other gross human rights violations. On 16 April 2009, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit dismissed the case citing Dichter's immunity under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA). In March 2009, Dichter banned a series of Palestinian Authority-sponsored events billed as the 2009 Arab Capital of Culture planned for Jerusalem, Nazareth and other parts of the country. Dichter said they violated the Israeli–Palestinian treaty barring PA events on Israel territory. Nazareth Mayor Ramiz Jeraisi criticized the move as anti-Arab. Eight events were cancelled and twenty organizers and participants were detained.  On 3 August 2011, Dichter and 39 other Knesset members signed the proposed.  In August 2012, announced that he was leaving the Knesset and joining the Israeli cabinet to replace Home Front Defense Minister Matan Vilnai, who resigned to become Israel's ambassador to China. Dichter was replaced by Kadima's Ahmed Dabbah.  In November 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, Dichter said: \"We have no other choice; Israel must perform a reformatting of Gaza, and rearrange it, as we did in Judea and Samaria during Operation Defensive Shield.\" Dichter's call has been echoed in the Israeli press, but bashed by critics of Israel's policy. In a Russia Today article, this was paraphrased as a call to \"wipe [Gaza] clean with bombs.\" In his 2014 poem \"The Children of Gaza & the Profits from their Genocide\", English poet Heathcote Williams took this paraphrase literally.  Dichter featured in the 2012 documentary film \"The Gatekeepers\" and discussed the main events of his tenure in Shin Bet.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Avi Dichter (, ; born 14 December 1952) is an Israeli politician and the current Chairman of the Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee. A former Minister of Internal Security and Shin Bet director, he resigned from the Knesset and left Kadima in August 2012 in order to become Minister of Home Front Defense, a position he vacated in March 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977071}
{"src_title": "British cuisine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Romano-British agriculture, highly fertile soils and advanced animal breeding produced a wide variety of very high quality foods for indigenous Romano-British people. Anglo-Saxon England developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques and the Norman conquest reintroduced exotic spices and continental influences back into Great Britain in the Middle Ages as maritime Britain became a major player in the transcontinental spice trade for many centuries after. Following the Protestant Reformation in the 16th and 17th centuries \"plain and robust\" food remained the mainstay of the British diet, reflecting tastes which are still shared with neighbouring north European countries and traditional North American Cuisine. In the 18th and 19th centuries, as the Colonial British Empire began to be influenced by India's elaborate food tradition of \"strong, penetrating spices and herbs\". The United Kingdom developed a worldwide reputation for the quality of British beef and pedigree bulls were exported to form the bloodline of major modern beef herds in the New World. Developments in plant breeding produced a multiplicity of fruit and vegetable varieties, with British disease-resistant rootstocks still used globally for fruits such as apples.  During the World Wars of the 20th century difficulties of food supply were countered by official measures, which included rationing. The problem was worse in WWII, and the Ministry of Food was established to address the problems (see Rationing in the United Kingdom). Due to the economic problems following the war, rationing continued for some years, and in some aspects was more strict than during wartime. Rationing was not fully lifted until almost a decade after war ended in Europe, so that a whole generation was raised without access to many previously common ingredients. These policies, put in place by the British government during wartime periods of the 20th century, are often blamed for the decline of British cuisine in the 20th century.  The last half of the 20th century saw an increase in the availability of a greater range of good quality fresh products and greater willingness by many sections of the British population to vary their diets and select dishes from other cultures such as those of Italy and India.  Efforts have been made to re-introduce pre-20th-century recipes. Ingredients not native to the islands, particularly herbs and spices, are frequently added to traditional dishes (echoing the highly spiced nature of much British food in the medieval era).  Much of Modern British cooking also draws heavily on influences from Mediterranean, and more recently, Middle Eastern, South Asian, East Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines. The traditional influence of northern and central European cuisines is significant but fading.  The mid-20th-century British style of cooking emerged as a response to the depressing food rationing that persisted for several years after the Second World War, along with restrictions on foreign currency exchange, making travel difficult. A hunger for exotic cooking was satisfied by writers such as Elizabeth David, who from 1950 produced evocative books, starting with \"A Book of Mediterranean Food\", whose ingredients were then often impossible to find in Britain. By the 1960s foreign holidays, and foreign-style restaurants in Britain, further widened the popularity of foreign cuisine. Recent modern British cuisine has been influenced and popularised by TV chefs, all also writing books, such as Fanny Cradock, Clement Freud, Robert Carrier, Keith Floyd, Gary Rhodes, Delia Smith, Gordon Ramsay, Ainsley Harriott, Nigella Lawson, Simon Hopkinson, Nigel Slater and Jamie Oliver, alongside \"The Food Programme\", made by BBC Radio 4.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Christmas dinner.", "content": "Since appearing in Christmas dinner tables in England in the late 16th century, the turkey has become more popular, with Christmas pudding served for dessert. The 16th-century English navigator William Strickland is credited with introducing the turkey into England, and 16th-century farmer Thomas Tusser noted that in 1573 turkeys were eaten at Christmas dinner. Roast turkey is often accompanied with roast beef or ham, and is served with stuffing, gravy, roast potatoes, mashed potatoes and vegetables. In addition to Christmas pudding, trifle, mince pies, Christmas cake or a yule log are also popular desserts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anglo-Indian cuisine.", "content": "Some Anglo-Indian dishes derive from traditional British cuisine, such as roast beef, modified by the addition of Indian-style spices, such as cloves and red chillies. Fish and meat are often cooked in curry form with Indian vegetables. Anglo-Indian food often involves use of coconut, yogurt, and almonds. Roasts and curries, rice dishes, and breads all have a distinctive flavour.  Signs of curry's popularity in Britain slowly became evident by the later 1960s and 1970s, when some establishments that originally catered almost exclusively to Indians gradually observed a diversifying clientele.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "English cuisine.", "content": "English cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with England. It has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from North America, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration.  Some traditional meals, such as bread and cheese, roasted and stewed meats, meat and game pies, boiled vegetables and broths, and freshwater and saltwater fish have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookbook, the \"Forme of Cury\", contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of Richard II.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Northern Irish cuisine.", "content": "The cuisine of Northern Ireland is largely similar to that of the rest of the island of Ireland. In this region, the Ulster Fry is particularly popular.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scottish cuisine.", "content": "Scottish cuisine is the specific set of cooking traditions and practices associated with Scotland. It shares much with English cuisine, but has distinctive attributes and recipes of its own. Traditional Scottish dishes such as haggis and shortbread exist alongside international foodstuffs brought about by migration. Scotland is known for the high quality of its beef, lamb, potatoes, oats, and sea foods. In addition to foodstuffs, Scotland produces a variety of whiskies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Welsh cuisine.", "content": "Welsh cuisine has influenced, and been influenced by, other British cuisine. Although both beef and dairy cattle are raised widely, especially in Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire, Wales is best known for its sheep, and thus lamb is the meat traditionally associated with Welsh cooking.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "British cuisine is the heritage of cooking traditions and practices associated with the United Kingdom. Although Britain has a rich indigenous culinary tradition, its colonial history has profoundly enriched its native cooking traditions. British cuisine absorbed the cultural influences of its post-colonial territories – in particular those of South Asia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977072}
{"src_title": "Joseph Solomon Delmedigo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Works.", "content": "\"Elim\" (1629, published by Menasseh ben Israel, Amsterdam) is written in Hebrew, in response to 12 general and 70 specific religious and scientific questions sent to Delmedigo by a Karaite Jew, Zerach ben Natan from Troki (Lithuania). The format of the book is taken from the number of fountains and palm trees at Elim in the Sinai Peninsula, as given in Numbers, xxxiii, 9: since there are 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim, Delmedigo divided his book into twelve major problems and seventy minor problems. The book, however, was heavily censored, so only four of the original twelve major problems appeared in the published work. The subjects discussed include astronomy, physics, mathematics, medicine, and music theory. In the area of music, Delmedigo discusses the physics of music including string resonance, intervals and their proportions, consonance and dissonance. Delmedigo argued that the Jews did not take part in the Scientific Revolution because of Ashkenazi exclusive intellectual interest in the Talmud, whereas the Sepharadim and the Karaites were more interested in natural philosophy and philosophy in general. He called the Jews to reclaim their prominence in philosophy and to incorporate into the non-Jewish surrounding via the exploration of natural sciences.  Some parts of the book were as follows:  He also wrote a defense of the Kabbalah called \"Matzreif LaChachma\" (Heb. מצרף לחכמה) against the attack upon it by his great grandfather Eliyahu Delmedigo. In the preface of the book the publisher writes that the author himself admitted once that when he was young (18 years old when he went to study in the university of Padua) he used to mock the Kabbalah and fiercely opposed those who studied it, but when he turned twenty seven he had a change of heart when he met two great philosophers, R' Yaakov ibn Nachmias and R' Shlomo Aravi, who were also firm adherents of the Kabbalah and they showed him how closely it resembles the philosophy of Plato, since then there was a renewed spirit within him.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descendants.", "content": "Some of Delmedigo's descendants settled in Byelorussia and took on the Surname Gorodinsky (after the town of Gorodin). A member of this family, Mordechai Gorodinsky (later hebraized to Nachmani) was one of the founders of the Israeli city of Rehovot.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Solomon Delmedigo (or Del Medigo), also known as Yashar Mi-Qandia () (16 June 1591 – 16 October 1655), was a rabbi, author, physician, mathematician, and music theorist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977073}
{"src_title": "Kakuji Kakuta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Kakuta was a native of rural Minamikanbara, Niigata Prefecture, Japan. He graduated from the 39th class of the Imperial Japanese Navy Academy, scoring 45th out of a class of 145 cadets in 1911. He served as midshipman on the cruiser and battlecruiser. On commissioning as ensign, he was assigned to the cruiser. Later, as a lieutenant, he served on the battleship and the cruiser during World War I. He then served on the battleship, destroyer \"Yanagi\", and was chief gunner on the cruisers and.  Kakuta was appointed as equipment officer on the cruiser in 1923. He then attended the 23rd class of the Naval Staff College, and was promoted to lieutenant commander upon graduation. In 1926, he served as chief gunner on the cruiser and subsequently in a number of staff positions. His first command was the cruiser, beginning on 10 March 1934. He subsequently commanded cruisers \"Furutaka\" and, and battleships and. He was promoted to rear admiral on 15 November 1939.  At the start of the Pacific War in December 1941, Kakuta was in command of Carrier Division 4, consisting of the aircraft carrier, which provided air support for landings of Japanese forces in the Philippines. Kakuta also participated in the Indian Ocean Raid against British bases in India and Ceylon in early 1942.  During the Battle of Midway in June 1942, Kakuta commanded a task force consisting of carriers \"Ryūjō\" and that conducted air raids against Dutch Harbor as part of the initial stages of the Aleutian Islands Campaign.  Later, as commander of the Second Carrier Striking Force that included aircraft units assigned to carriers \"Jun'yō\" and, Kakuta directed aircraft operations against U.S. naval forces during the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal.  Kakuta was promoted to vice admiral on 1 November 1942. Following the death of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, the new Commander in Chief of the Combined Fleet, Mineichi Koga, restructured the Imperial Japanese Navy around the American carrier task force concept. On 1 July 1943, Kakuta was assigned command of the First Air Fleet which included all land-based naval aircraft units located throughout the Philippines and Japanese-held islands in the central Pacific. However, the squadrons suffered massive aircraft and personnel losses from American carrier raids in February 1944. Under Kakuta's direction from his headquarters on Tinian, many of the remaining aircraft units participated in the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, but were unable to play a decisive role, suffering further heavy losses.  Kakuta was the senior military officer on the island during the Battle of Tinian although he was not directly responsible for the defenses. As the Americans closed in on Tinian, Kakuta and his staff made repeated efforts to escape in rubber boats at prearranged rendezvous with a Japanese submarine. After several failed attempts, Kakuta and his staff withdrew to a cave on the east coast of Tinian and were never seen again. It is presumed that Kakuta committed suicide soon after the Americans landed and that his body was buried in a secret location by members of his staff.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": ", was an admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. He is noted for his role in commanding Japanese naval aviation units in the Pacific War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977074}
{"src_title": "Ein Feldlager in Schlesien", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Shortly after Meyerbeer arrived in Berlin in 1842 the opera house was destroyed by a fire. Meyerbeer was invited to compose a brand new work for the festive occasion of the reopening of the opera house. The reigning Prussian king at the time was Frederick William IV, of the house of Hohenzollern. What better theme for this opera than a work celebrating the king's famous ancestor, Frederick the Great? But there was one problem; members of the ruling Hohenzollern family could not be depicted on stage. Therefore, Frederick, whilst the nominal subject of the opera, remains unseen, but is, however, heard playing the flute in the background.  The selection of the librettist was a political issue. Meyerbeer wanted his trusted librettist Eugène Scribe, but the idea of a Frenchman writing the libretto for what was to be the Prussian national opera was unacceptable. The king wanted Ludwig Rellstab, a critic who was Meyerbeer's enemy, in the hopes that this would reconcile the two men. Meyerbeer, an astute diplomat, found a solution: Scribe was to provide the text, in secret, agreeing never to claim ownership, and Rellstab would translate it. Thus, the libretto was credited to the latter, and it was only recently that its true author was discovered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casting.", "content": "There was to be one other problem. The leading soprano role, that of Vielka, was composed for the big soprano \"icon\" of the period: Jenny Lind, who was already on the threshold of becoming world-famous. Meyerbeer had heard her in Paris, been very favorably impressed, and decided to engage her for Berlin. But she was in Stockholm during some of the rehearsals, and Leopoldine Tuczek, the company's regular coloratura, and Lind's understudy as Vielka, had been singing the part. The latter felt entitled to the role; Meyerbeer was overruled by the Intendant of the opera house, Karl Theodor von Küstner, and it was given to Tuczek. Lind accepted the situation gracefully, and, eight days later, on 15 December, made a triumphant Berlin debut. In the meantime, the lukewarm success of \"Feldlager\" was partly blamed on Tuczek, and the opera was withdrawn after five performances.  Lind's success as \"Norma\" in Berlin was such that she was signed to a new contract, and finally sang Vielka in early January. According to Schultz's biography of Lind, the success was so great that \"when it was announced that Jenny would appear a second time in \"Feldlager\", there was such a demand for tickets that the manager raised the price of admission. The opera was repeated over and over. There was never a night that the theater could not have been filled two or three times, and four clerks were kept busy answering letters and filling the request for tickets.\"  Following the opening at the Berlin Hofoper on 7 December 1844, \"Ein Feldlager in Schlesien\" was given in that city fairly regularly until 1891, but it apparently was never considered for export to other cities in its original version. This is probably due to its nature as a work glorifying the Prussian royal family, which made it highly suitable for Berlin audiences, especially on state occasions, but much less so for other European capitals, or even other German cities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act 1.", "content": "\"Chamber in Saldorf's house\"  King Frederick, fleeing from Hungarian soldiers led by Captain Tronk, meets the flute-player Conrad, who is in love with the gypsy Vielka. With the assistance of the retired officer Saldorf, his daughter Therese and Vielka, Conrad is passed off as the king and vice versa. The plan is successful and the king flees.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 2.", "content": "\"Prussian camp\"  Soldiers chant patriotic songs praising their respective branches' service for king and country. Suddenly, they hear a rumour accusing Saldorf of having betrayed the king. The loyal soldiers hence want to lynch the alleged traitor, but finally, Frederick appears, thus rescuing him.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 3.", "content": "\"Sanssouci Castle\"  Vielka and Konrad are received by the king and ought to tell him what they desire as a reward. When they learn that Leopold, Saldorf's son, is accused of being a traitor, they only ask for mercy which is granted. Finally, a military march resounds, and Vielka, who can now marry Conrad, prophesies the future greatness of Prussia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Vielka\".", "content": "The director of the Viennese Theater an der Wien, Pokorny, requested permission for a production of \"Feldlager\" with Jenny Lind. This presented a problem due to the historical rivalry between the Hohenzollern and Habsburg dynasties. The libretto was therefore rewritten, at first by Rellstab, later by Birch-Pfeiffer. In the new version, \"Vielka\", the King became a duke, and Saldorf a General. Whilst the first two acts are similar in plot to \"Feldlager\", the last act is set in the castle of Count Aubitz and has a very different plot line. There is a complex series of disguises, mistaken identities, and attacks on the life of the duke, in one of which Vielka intercepts a bullet and is killed. In her final aria she has a vision of heaven. This version was premiered in Vienna on 18 February 1847. Lind took over the role of Vielka at the fourth performance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Feldlager\" came halfway between the first and the last two of Meyerbeer's four big five-act grand operas. It was his first attempt in some 30 years to compose a less serious work, or \"Singspiel\". In it, especially in the first and third acts, it is possible to see the influence of lighter composers, particularly Auber and Flotow. But much of the second act, especially the finale, is pure Meyerbeer of the grand operas. It has even been suggested that the triple march is reminiscent of the gathering of the cantons in \"William Tell\". Meyerbeer had come up with a similar idea years before, when first the Egyptians and then the Crusaders march onto the scene in the finale of Act I of \"Il crociato in Egitto\".  The big hits of the opera were Jenny Lind's air with two flutes in the third act, and the finale of the second act, which featured the famous triple march. The work was to be given in Berlin a total of 67 times, the last performance taking place in 1891. After Jenny Lind left, Tuczek reassumed the role, with many other important prima donnas, including Pauline Lucca, following in her footsteps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"L'étoile du nord\".", "content": "The opera underwent a further transformation in 1854 as \"L'étoile du nord\" (q.v.)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes  Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ein Feldlager in Schlesien (\"A Camp in Silesia\") is a Singspiel in three acts by Giacomo Meyerbeer with a German-language libretto by Ludwig Rellstab after Eugène Scribe's \"Le camp de Silésie\". It was first performed at the Hofoper, Berlin, on 7 December 1844; a version with a revised libretto by Charlotte Birch-Pfeiffer, titled \"Vielka\", opened in Vienna on 18 February 1847. Much material from the opera was later reused for Meyerbeer's opéra comique \"L'étoile du nord\" (1854).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977075}
{"src_title": "Battle of Tinian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "A two-prong attack through the Central Pacific and the Philippines was adopted at the 1943 Cairo Conference. Operation Granite II, was a U.S. Navy devised strategy of island hopping, calling for the seizure of Saipan, Tinian and Guam. The Gilbert and Marshall Islands had been seized by the summer of 1944, while some Japanese garrisons were left to starve. Following the conclusion of the Battle of Saipan on 9 July, the US began preparations for attacking nearby Tinian.  Tinian was part of Japan's South Seas Mandate. By June 1944, it had a population of 15,700 Japanese civilians, including 2,700 ethnic Koreans and 22 ethnic Chamorro.  The Japanese defending the island, the 50th Infantry Regiment, which was originally part of 29th Division, were commanded by Colonel Kiyochi Ogata. On May 12, 1943, there were also 2,349 Marines of the 3rd Special Forces Unit (第 3 特別 根 地 隊, Dai-3 Tokubetsu Konkyochitai) and 950 marines of the 56th Naval Guards, who had been transferred there from Truk. These soldiers were under the command of Kaigun-Taisa Goichi Oya. The naval forces took over the defense of the airfields, as they belonged to the facilities of naval aviation. The Japanese naval troops also took over all the heavy artillery guns around the airfields and the 39 heavy anti-aircraft guns, which were set up directly around the slopes. In addition, there were construction crews, flight technicians and staff, so that a total of about 4,110 soldiers of various units defended the airfields. Vice-Admiral Kakuji Kakuta, commander of First Air Fleet, was headquartered in Manila, but was on Tinian on an inspection tour when the invasion started. Kakuta exercised no command authority over the army troops on the island, and also the naval troops were not subject to his direct command.  The US naval bombardment commenced on 16 July, with three battleships, five cruisers and sixteen destroyers. The battleship and the destroyer were both hit by 150mm Japanese shore batteries. \"Colorado\" was hit 22 times, killing 43 men and wounding 198. \"Norman Scott\" was hit six times, killing the captain, Seymore Owens, and 18 of his seamen, plus wounding 47.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "The 4th Marine Division landed on 24 July 1944, supported by naval bombardment and marine artillery firing across the strait from Saipan. With the help of Seabee ingenuity the Marines were able to land along the Northwest coast with its two small beaches and low coral.. The rest of the island had coral cliffs up to 15 feet in height at the water's edge negating any assault plans. Commodore Paul J. Halloran (CEC) CB theater commander provided drawings of a conceptual landing ramp for the 18th and 121st CBs to fabricate. They mounted steel beams salvaged from Saipan's abandoned sugar mill on LVT-2s to create portable assault ramps. If they worked they would allow the Marines to outflank Tinian's prepared defenses. General Harry Schmidt was skeptical and ordered that the ramps be put through a 100-vehicle use test. The Seabee creation was named a Doodlebug. It worked exactly as the Marines had hoped. A successful feint for the major settlement of Tinian Town diverted defenders from the actual landing site on the north of the island. The feint withstood a series of night counterattacks supported by tanks, and the 2nd Marine Division landed the next day. Another piece of Seabee handiwork was brought across from Saipan: the 24 \"Satan\" mechanized flamethrowers that General Holland Smith USMC had requested from the Army's CWS Flame Tank Group in Hawaii. The terrain on Tinian was much more conducive to their use than Saipan. Saipan and Tinian served as a training grounds for the tank crews and proving grounds for the Corps.  The weather worsened on 28 July, damaging the pontoon causeways, and interrupting the unloading of supplies. By 29 July, the Americans had captured half the island, and on 30 July, the 4th Marine Division occupied Tinian Town and Airfield No. 4.  Japanese remnants made a final stand in the caves and ravines of a limestone ridge on the south portion of the island, making probes and counterattacks into the Marine line. Resistance continued through 3 August, with some civilians murdered by the Japanese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "By 10 August 1944, 13,000 Japanese civilians were interned, but up to 4,000 were dead through suicide, murdered by Japanese troops, or killed in combat. The garrison on Aguijan Island off the southwest cape of Tinian, commanded by Lieutenant Kinichi Yamada, held out until the end of the war, surrendering on 4 September 1945. The last holdout on Tinian, Murata Susumu, was captured in 1953.  After the battle, Tinian became an important base for further Allied operations in the Pacific campaign. Camps were built for 50,000 troops. Fifteen thousand Seabees turned the island into the busiest airfield of the war, with six runways for attacks by United States Army Air Forces B-29 Superfortress bombers on enemy targets in the Philippines, the Ryukyu Islands, and mainland Japan, including the March 9/10 1945 \"Operation Meetinghouse\" firebombing of Tokyo and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. North Field was built over Airfields No. 1 and 3, and became operational in February 1945, while West Field was built over Airfield No. 2, and became operational in March 1945.  Four 1,000-bed hospitals (110,111,112,113) were planned and located in preparation for the invasion of Japan. None were actually built, as the Japanese surrendered after the atomic bombs were dropped, which thus ended the need for the hospitals.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Tinian was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on the island of Tinian in the Mariana Islands from 24 July until 1 August 1944. The 8,000-man Japanese garrison was eliminated, and the island joined Saipan and Guam as a base for the Twentieth Air Force.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977076}
{"src_title": "Sophie Hedwig of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Sophia Hedwig was the eldest child of the Duke Julius of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1528-1589) from his marriage to Hedwig (1540-1602), the daughter of Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg. Her parents provided her with a comprehensive and thorough education and started marriage negotiations when she was young.  She married as a 16-year-old on 20 October 1577 in Wolgast to Duke Ernst Ludwig of Pommern-Wolgast (1545-1592). Her father sent Lutheran theologicians to the court at Wolgast, who tried to move the court to accept the Formula of Concord as the authoritative formulation of the Lutheran creed. The court did not accept this formula. Ernst Ludwig ordered structural changes to Wolgast Castle, replacing the medieval northeast wing by a new residential wing. Like her mother, Sophia Hedwig was described as high spirited. She took care of the poor and the needy and was not deterred by a plague epidemic.  Ernst Ludwig died in 1592, after 15 years of marriage. In addition to her jointure, the castle and district of Loitz, he left her Ludwigsburg estate near Greifswald, which he had already given to her in 1586, and the Jamitsow estate at the Peenestrom. She soon swapped the latter for the Zerpenzyn estate, opposite the city of Loitz. She change the name Zerpenzyn to Sophienhof (\"Sophie's Court\") in 1594. Her children moved with her to her widow seat at Loitz. She wrote a hymn to commemorate her husband's death. It was published by Ambrosius Lobwasser. Between 1597 and 1601, she accompanied her son, who was introduced into the business of government by his guardian and regent Duke Bogislaw XIII.  During her husband's lifetime, Sophia Hedwig had rebuilt the castle at Loitz as a renaissance château. After his death, she embellished it further. She also remodeled and extended the St. Mary's Church in Loitz. The château has since been demolished and no trace of it remains. Some of her contributions to the church, however, are still there, among them the ducal seats, a double portrait of herself and her husband, and numerous coats of arms of their ancestors.  Her husband also gave her an estate in Dersin near Loissin, where she built a castle named \"Schloss Ludwigsburg\", after her husband. Loitz and Ludwigsburg remained her dowager residences until her death.  When the inventory of her court was taken in 1593, an \"Amtshauptmann\" was present, as were a treasurer, a comptroller, a \"Hofmeister\", a governess, a lady-in-waiting and several chamber staff, kitchen staff, cellar staff and stable hands.  Sophia Hedwig was described as interested in economic processes, but also as wasteful and overbearing. She is considered one of the more influential duchesses in Pomerania. Her son survived her by nearly six years; he died in the turmoil of the Thirty Years' War. The war delayed her funeral by almost two years. She was buried in the ducal crypt in the St. Peter's Church in Wolgast. Her tomb was restored a few years ago, as were the tombs of her son, her husband and her in-laws.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "From her marriage, Sophia Hedwig had three children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sophie or Sophia Hedwig of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1 December 1561 at Hessen Castle – 30 January 1631 in Loitz) was a princess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel by birth and by marriage a Duchess of Pomerania-Wolgast.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977077}
{"src_title": "Equestrian at the 2012 Summer Olympics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Events.", "content": "Medals were awarded in the following competitions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification.", "content": "Each event has its own qualification rules, but generally rely on FEI rankings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dressage qualification.", "content": "For the team competition there was a total of 11 quota spots available. Three team spots were awarded at the 2010 FEI World Equestrian Games. In addition 7 team spots were awarded at regional competitions (Europe: 3, America: 2, Asia: 2). In addition, should a country have qualified 3 athletes in the individual competition, they also qualify as a team and were allowed to compete in the team competition.  For the individual competition, 50 spots were allocated as follows: 33 to the athletes who qualified from the teams above. In addition, the highest ranked rider from each of seven geographic regions qualified. The top ten riders based on FEI ranking who did not qualify otherwise were given spots as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jumping qualification.", "content": "A country may send up to four riders if it qualified for the team competition. Similar to dressage, teams of four riders were qualified at either the World Equestrian Games (WEG) or through a regional competition. The WEG awarded five spots, the regions six (America: two, Europe: two, Asia: two), and the hosts (Great Britain). For the individual competition there was a total of 75 spots allocated as follows: 45 from the above teams the rest regional or through rankings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eventing qualification.", "content": "A country may send up to five riders if it qualified for the team competition. Similar to dressage, teams of five riders were qualified at either the WEG, a regional competition, or through a composite spot. The WEG awarded five spots, the regions seven (America: three, Europe: three, Middle East & Africa: one), the hosts (Great Britain). For the individual competition there was a total of 75 spots allocated as follows: 55 from the above teams, 7 through regional competitions and 13 through the world rankings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Competition format.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Show jumping.", "content": "Five rounds are ridden to determine individual medals. Riders placing first through 60th (including ties for 60th place) advance to the second round. The top 45 riders of round 2, including ties for 45th, advance to the third round. The top 35 riders of the third round progress to the 4th round, but only up to three riders per team (so if a country has four riders in the top 35, one of those is not allowed to compete for individual medals).  In the fourth round (individual final round A), the slate is wiped clean and all riders begin with zero faults. The top 20 riders in round 4 advance to round 5 (individual final round B), and ride another course. The faults for individual final round A and B and added together to determine individual medals.  The team competition completes three rounds to determine medals. It runs concurrently with the individual competition (riders running over the same course) so team riders are also competing for individual medals. The first round for team competition is the round 2 course for individual medals. The top eight teams from the first team round advance to the second team round (which is the same course as the individual round 3). The scores for these eight countries over team rounds 1 and 2 are combined, and medals are awarded based on those scores.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dressage.", "content": "Teams are made up of three riders, all of whom are also competing concurrently for individual medals. Additionally, countries who can not make a full team may send riders to compete for individual medals.  All riders compete in the Grand Prix, which serves as the first round of both the individual and team medals. The top seven teams (included those tied for 7th) advance to the Grand Prix Special, which is a slightly more rigorous test. The combined scores for those teams in both the Grand Prix and the Special determine the team medals, with the team with the highest score winning gold.  Riders completing the Grand Prix test (first qualifying round of the individual competition) may move on to the Grand Prix Special (second qualifying round for the individual competition) if their team is in the top seven (21 riders total). Additionally, the top 11 riders who do not qualify with a team may also advance to the Special to ride for individual medals. The top 18 riders from the Special move on to the third individual round, the freestyle. Each rider designs their own test for the freestyle, which must be set to music and has several compulsory movements. Riders can tailor a test to their horses' strengths, as well as incorporate movements that are more difficult than those required in the Grand Prix or the Special (such as a pirouette in piaffe) in order to increase their scores. Individual medals are assigned based on scores in the freestyle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eventing.", "content": "Competitions for team and individual medals ran concurrently. Riders performed a dressage test, a cross-country round, and a jumping round. Team medals were then awarded by adding together the best three scores from a country's team, out of a maximum of five team members, from all three phases, the team with the lowest number of penalty points winning the gold. The top 25 individual scores after the first show jumping round performed a second, final, show jumping round to determine individual medals, with up to 3 riders in the individual running per team. Therefore, those competing for individual spots completed one dressage test and cross-country round, and two jumping rounds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Officials.", "content": "Appointment of officials is as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medal summary.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gallery.", "content": "Gallery of some of the gold medalists in the equestrian events:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The equestrian events at the 2012 Olympic Games in London were held between 28 July and 9 August at Greenwich Park. Medals were awarded in three disciplines for both individual and team competitions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977078}
{"src_title": "Banzai charge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The banzai charge is considered to be one method of, a suicide attack, or suicide before being captured by the enemy such as \"seppuku\". The origin of the term is a classical Chinese phrase in the 7th-century \"Book of Northern Qi\", which states \"\", \"A true man would [rather] be the shattered jewel, ashamed to be the intact tile.\" Among the rules there existed a code of honor that was later used by Japanese military governments.  With the revolutionary change in the Meiji Restoration and frequent wars against China and Russia, the militarist government of Japan adopted the concepts of Bushido to condition the country's population to be ideologically obedient to the emperor. Impressed with how samurai were trained to commit suicide when a great humiliation was about to befall them, the government educated troops that it was a greater humiliation to surrender to the enemy than to die. The suicide of Saigō Takamori, the leader of old samurai during the Meiji Restoration, also inspired the nation to idealize and romanticize death in battle and to consider suicide an honorable final action.  During the Siege of Port Arthur human wave attacks were conducted on Russian artillery and machine guns by the Japanese which ended up becoming suicidal. Since the Japanese suffered massive casualties in the attacks, one description of the aftermath was that \"[a] thick, unbroken mass of corpses covered the cold earth like a coverlet\".  In the 1930s, the Japanese found this type of attack to be effective in China. It became an accepted military tactic in the Japanese army where numerically weaker Japanese forces, using their superior training and bayonets, were able to defeat larger Chinese forces. The Japanese here did not face massed automatic weapons but rather the bolt action rifle of the Chinese, which could not fire as rapidly as a machine gun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In World War II.", "content": "During the war period, the Japanese militarist government disseminated propaganda that romanticized suicide attacks, using one of the virtues of Bushido as the basis for the campaign. The Japanese government presented war as purifying, with death defined as a duty. By the end of 1944, the government announced the last protocol, unofficially named, implying the will of sacrificing the entire Japanese population of 100 million, if necessary, for the purpose of resisting opposition forces.  During the U.S. raid on Makin Island, on August 17, 1942, the U.S. Marine Raiders attacking the island initially spotted and then killed Japanese machine gunners. The Japanese defenders then launched a banzai charge with bayonets and swords, but were stopped by American firepower. The pattern was repeated in further attacks, with similar results.  During the Guadalcanal campaign, on August 21, 1942, Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki led 800 soldiers in a direct attack on the American line guarding Henderson Field in the Battle of the Tenaru. After small-scale combat engagement in the jungle, Ichiki's army mounted a banzai charge on the enemy; however, against an organized American defense line, most of the Japanese soldiers were killed and Ichiki subsequently committed suicide.  On May 29, 1943, during the Battle of Attu, the beleaguered Japanese soldiers led by Colonel Yasuyo Yamasaki in Attu Island, Alaska, launched a massive banzai charge through American lines near Massacre Bay and were quickly wiped out all night despite intense fighting. At the end of the battle, only 29 remained of the Japanese force that had numbered roughly 2,600, while the Americans lost 549 combatants out of the 15,000.  The largest banzai charge of the war took place during the Battle of Saipan. General Yoshitsugu Saitō gathered almost 4,300 Japanese soldiers, walking wounded and some civilians, many unarmed and ordered the charge. On July 7, 1944, it slammed directly into the Army's 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 105th Infantry Regiment, who would lose almost 2,000 men in the 15 hour pitched battle. In the end, U.S. Army and Marine lines would hold, and almost all the Japanese soldiers taking part in the charge would be killed.  Banzai charges were always of dubious effectiveness. In the early stages of the Pacific War, a sudden banzai charge might overwhelm small groups of enemy soldiers unprepared for such an attack. However, by the end of the war, a banzai charge's participants suffered horrendous losses while inflicting little damage in return, particularly if launched against an organized defense with strong firepower, such as automatic weapons, machine guns and semi-automatic rifles. At best, they were conducted by groups of the last surviving soldiers when the main battle was already lost, as a last resort or as an alternative to surrender. At worst, they threw away valuable resources in men and arms in suicidal attacks which only hastened defeat.  Some Japanese commanders, such as General Tadamichi Kuribayashi, recognized the futility and waste of such attacks and expressly forbade their men from carrying them out. Indeed, the Americans were surprised that the Japanese did not employ banzai charges at the Battle of Iwo Jima.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A banzai charge is the term used by the Allied forces to refer to Japanese human wave attacks and swarming mounted by infantry units. This term came from the Japanese cry, shortened to banzai, specifically referring to a tactic used by Japanese soldiers during the Pacific War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977079}
{"src_title": "Castellers de la Vila de Gràcia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Castle making is nothing new in Gràcia, and there are historical references which date this tradition back to the last quarter of the 19th century until the first thirty years of the 20th century. Around 1890, a \"colla\" was created by immigrant peasants who had left Tarragona because of the phylloxera, and was called Xiquets de Gràcia. Possibly, these new Gracia neighbours found in the Vila de Gràcia, which by then was still a small town, the ideal atmosphere to make human castles and become a local \"colla\". It is known and documented that this \"colla\" began its activities at least since the 1880s until the year 1900, 1910 and in the second decade of the 20th century. Most performances were executed during the Festa Major de Gràcia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The beginnings.", "content": "The story of the Castellers de la Vila de Gràcia begins in the early 1990s, when a group of youngsters related to the network of neighbourhood associations in Gràcia began to talk about the possibility of founding a Castle making colla in the neighbourhood. This idea began to take shape when they decided to celebrate their first meeting in October 1996, and news began to spread that there was a \"colla castellera\" in the making. The first rehearsal was on November 23 of that same year at the Plaça del Sol, and it gathered around thirty people.  The first public performance of the new colla was in February 1997, on occasion of the Diada Castellera de Santa Eulàlia on Placa de Sant Jaume de Barcelona, where they constructed two pillars of 4 ( One person per story, 4 stories; this is considered as the most simple construction of the whole repertoire) The first performance in Plaça de la Vila de Gràcia, which is considered as the colla's square, was delivered on March 4, 1997. This actuation gathered around sixty castellers, who unloaded several basic constructions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The first castles.", "content": "The official introduction of the new colla into the casteller world was on May 4, 1997, sponsored by the Castellers de Terrasa, the Castellers de Sants and the Castellers de Sant Andreu de la Barca, the Catellers de la Vila de Gràcia unloaded their first six story high castles. This first season had its ups and downs, although the efforts made throughout the year finally bore fruit with the achievement of a seven stories high castle, the 4 de 7, unloaded in order to celebrate their anniversary on November 23.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The transition from castles of 7 to castles of 8.", "content": "Throughout the following years, the Colla de Gràcia evolved and became a colla de 7 until October 6, 2002, when during the XIX Tarragona castle making contest, they achieved their first 4 de 8 after unloading their first 2 de 7 on the previous round. Ever since that year, the Castellers de la Vila de Gràcia have unloaded a 4 de 8 every year, and have started to gain their place as a colla de 8 and as one of the best 15-20 \"colles\" of the current casteller world.  Since their first months of existence, the Colla of Gràcia has had its own team of grallers, which has evolved into a learning center for all of those interested in learning how to play the gralla (a traditional Catalan oboe) in the different activities held by the castellers.  On 1999, the Castellers de la Vida de Gràcia received the Barcelona's Honour Medal, and they are also members of the Colles de Cultura Popular de Gràcia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rehearsals.", "content": "The Castellers de la Vila de Gràcia have rehearsed in different spots in the neighbourhood, among which we can mention l ́Escola Josep Maria Jujol, L ́Artesá de Gràcia and the Antiga Escola OSI and in the Escola Reina Escola Reina School, were they rehearsed for 10 years (from 2002 to 2012). Since 2012 they have their own training place, Espai Cultural Albert Musons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other activities.", "content": "Since the year 1998, the Castellers de la Vila de Gràcia broadcast the casteller radio program \"Tercos amunt!\" on Ràdio Gràcia. This radio program is still being broadcast currently. On 2010 \"Tercos amunt!\" received the Premi Vila de Gràcia to the best communication initiative.  Until the year 2004, they published a magazine called \"L ́espadat\" which came out every three months.  But the most important extracurricular activity taken on by the castellers de la Vila de Gràcia, is the ornamentation of the Plaça de la Vila for the festivities of la Festa Major de Gràcia since the year 2001.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Participation in the tarragona casteller contest.", "content": "The Castellers de la Vila de Gràcia have participated on seven occasions in the Tarragona Casteller Contest. Below are all the contests where the Colla has participated, the castles unloaded and, between parenthesis and in bold lettering, the final position on the ranking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Castellers de la Vila de Gràcia in the world.", "content": "Performances held outside the Països Catalans  Performances held within the Països Catalans (outside Catalonia)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The cap de colla.", "content": "The \"Cap de Colla\" is the highest technical responsible of the colles castelleres.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Castellers de la Vila de Gràcia (), created in 1996, are a \"colla castellera\", based in Vila de Gràcia that makes human castles. They made their first public presentation in 1997 supported by the groups Castellers de Terrassa, the Castellers de Sants and the Castellers de Sant Andreu de la Barca. The colour of their shirts is navy blue.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977080}
{"src_title": "Land Forces of the National People's Army", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Organisation.", "content": "The LaSK had a peacetime organisation since 1972 under the command of the \"Kommando Landstreitkraefte\" (Kdo. LaSK). Its largest formations between 1956 and 1990 were the Military Districts III and V, which generally consisted of three active divisions each, plus training-, combat support and logistic units. The 1st Motor Rifle Division was additionally attached to the Military District V, but was designated to leave that formation in wartime to play a key role in the assault on West-Berlin. The 6th Motor Rifle Division existed only for two years (1956-1958) as an active formation.  While the two districts held the bulk of the GDR ́s land forces, additional artillery- and support elements, as well as the paratroopers of the 40th Paratrooper Battalion (upgraded to the 40th Air Assault Regiment in 1986) were under direct command of the \"Kdo. LaSK\".  In wartime both military districts would have been transformed into armies. The 3rd Army in the South, reinforced by the GDR 6th, 10th, and 17th reserve divisions, and the 5th Army in the North, reinforced by the Soviet 94th Guards Motor Rifle Division and the 138th and 221st independent tank regiments of the Red Army. Both armies would have been commanded by the Soviet high-command, while the \"Kommando Landstreitkräfte\" was to focus on the military supply chain, medical services, internal security and assist in the capture of West-Berlin.  The order of battle of the ground forces (1980–90):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military District V (North).", "content": "The headquarters of the northern district was in Neubrandenburg.  1st Motor Rifle Division (Potsdam)  8th Motor Rifle Division (Schwerin)  9th \"Panzer\" Division (Eggesin)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military District III (South).", "content": "The headquarters of the southern district was in Leipzig.  4th Motor Rifle Division (Erfurt)  7th \"Panzer\" Division in (Dresden)  11th Motor Rifle Division (Halle)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second line divisions.", "content": "In the event of a full-scale mobilisation, the six regular divisions of the NVA would have been supplemented by three mobilisation divisions and two reserve divisions. All five divisions would be mobilised on M+2. The cadre of each mobilisation/reserve division remained on hand as the regular staff of training centers/non-commissioned officer (NCO) schools. The five second line divisions were the 6th Motor Rifle Division (Königswartha), the 10th Motor Rifle Division (Ronneburg), the 17th Motor Rifle Division (HQ Petersroda), the 19th Motor Rifle Division (HQ Wulkow, which was not based on a training centre), and the 20th Motor Rifle Division (HQ Bredenfelde).  Mobilisation Divisions - command of the Military District III of land forces (Leipzig)  6th Motor Rifle Division (Königswartha)  10th Motor Rifle Division (Ronneburg)  17th Motor Rifle Division (Petersroda)  Reserve divisions - command of the Military District V of land forces (Neubrandenburg)  19th Motor Rifle Division (Wulkow)  20th Motor Rifle Division (Bredenfelde)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other units.", "content": "The \"Kommando Landstreitkräfte\" also contained some specially trained units - like the 40th Paratrooper Battalion (later the 40th Air Assault Regiment \"Willi Sänger\"). The structure and equipment was mostly of Soviet design, and the NVA operated in close collaboration with the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany. There were also reports of a special NVA diversionary battalion in south Germany equipped with M-48s and M-113s, able to cause confusion amongst NATO forces if war came (thus emulating and improving on the example of Otto Skorzeny's 150th \"Panzer\" Brigade during the Ardennes Offensive). However more recent reports throw doubt on the existence of any such unit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Types of units.", "content": "Divisions Regiments Battalions Detachments", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Small Arms: Armoured Vehicles:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Land Forces of the National People's Army (German: \"Landstreitkräfte der Nationalen Volksarmee\" - LaSK), was the ground-based military branch of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) National People's Army (NPA). The Land Forces Command, located at Geltow was established on 1 December 1972 as a management body created for the land forces. The NPA itself was created on March 1, 1956 from the \"Kasernierte Volkspolizei\" (Barracked People's Police).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977081}
{"src_title": "Oriol Romeu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Barcelona.", "content": "Born in Ulldecona, Tarragona, Catalonia, Romeu started his career at local CF Ulldecona. He arrived in FC Barcelona's youth academy in 2004, from neighbours RCD Espanyol, and progressed through the club's youth academy until breaking into the reserve team. Manager Pep Guardiola handed him his first appearance for the senior side in a friendly against Kuwaiti team Kazma Sporting Club, and subsequently included him in the squad for the 2009 FIFA Club World Cup which took place in Abu Dhabi.  Romeu was included in the nineteen-man Barcelona squad on 13 August 2010, due to the need to rest some of Barça's Spanish internationals. He was to face Sevilla in the first leg of the season's Spanish Supercup. He made his official competitive debut in that game, playing the full ninety minutes in the 1–3 away loss.  Romeu made his first La Liga appearance on 15 May 2011, playing the last ten minutes of a 0–0 home draw against Deportivo de La Coruña in the place of another club youth graduate, Jonathan dos Santos.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chelsea.", "content": "Reports began to link Romeu with a move to Chelsea on 22 July 2011. The following day he agreed terms for his transfer, pending a medical or personal terms as he was away on international duty at the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup. On 4 August the English club announced the completion of the transfer, with the player signing a four-year contract in a deal worth €5 million – the deal also gave Barcelona first refusal via a buy back option should Chelsea deem him surplus to requirements, seeing Barcelona pay €10 million in 2012 or €15 million in 2013 to bring him back to the Camp Nou; he was given the number 6 shirt for the new campaign.  Romeu made his official debut for Chelsea on 10 September 2011, being brought on as a substitute in the 79th minute of the 2–1 away win against Sunderland. He received his first start on the 21st, in a 0–0 draw (penalty shootout win) against Fulham for the season's Football League Cup.  Romeu's first UEFA Champions League appearance came on 19 October 2011, playing the full 90 minutes in a 5–0 group stage home win against K.R.C. Genk. His first start in the Premier League was against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 26 November, putting in a solid performance in a 3–0 home win.  In December 2011, Chelsea issued a statement regarding the deal surrounding Romeu's buy back clause with Barcelona. The statement highlighted that the \"Blaugrana\" did not have an automatic buy back clause as first suggested, only having first refusal on any deal if the Blues wanted to sell him in the future.  On 25 September 2012 Romeu scored his first goal for Chelsea, taking a penalty in a 6–0 win against Wolves at Stamford Bridge for the season's League Cup. Manager Roberto Di Matteo stated that the departures of Yossi Benayoun, Michael Essien and Raul Meireles would mean more playing opportunities for the Spaniard; however, on 11 December, he suffered a knee injury in a game against Sunderland, being sidelined for the rest of the season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loan to Valencia.", "content": "On 12 July 2013, Romeu returned to Spain and joined Valencia in a season-long loan deal. He made his debut for the club on 15 September, in a 3–1 defeat at Real Betis. In February, during training Romeu suffered another knee injury that kept him out of action for a month. During his time with Valencia, Romeu played a total of 18 games.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Loan to Stuttgart.", "content": "On 17 July 2014, Romeu signed a new contract with Chelsea, keeping him at the club until 2017. On 4 August, however, he was loaned to VfB Stuttgart from Germany. On 24 August 2014, Romeu made his debut for Stuttgart against Borussia Mönchengladbach which ended in a 1–1 draw.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Southampton.", "content": "On 13 August 2015, Romeu joined Southampton for £5 million on a three-year deal. He made his debut two days later, as a half-time substitute for Dušan Tadić in a 3–0 home defeat to Everton, earning a booking after three minutes for a foul on James McCarthy. He scored his first goal for the Saints – and first in a professional league – on 5 December, equalising for a 1–1 draw against Aston Villa at St Mary's Stadium.  After missing only one league game all season for Claude Puel's Saints, Romeu signed a new four-and-a-half-year deal on 24 January 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "He participated in the 2008 UEFA European Under-17 Football Championship with Spain, playing four matches and helping his country to eventual victory in the tournament.  After making his professional début for Barça in 2009, Romeu became a mainstay in the under-19 and under-20 national teams, featuring heavily in the 2010 UEFA Under-19 Championship elite qualification round.  He was part of the Spanish squad which was eliminated from its group at the 2012 Olympics, coming on as a substitute in their first match and starting the last.  In March 2019, Romeu was called up by Catalonia for a friendly against Venezuela.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Barcelona  Chelsea  Southampton", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Spain U17", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Oriol Romeu Vidal (; born 24 September 1991) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for English club Southampton.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977082}
{"src_title": "John Pratt, 1st Marquess Camden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "John Jeffreys Pratt was born at Lincoln's Inn Fields, London, the only son of the barrister Charles Pratt, KC (a son of Sir John Pratt, a former Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench), and Elizabeth, daughter of Nicholas Jeffreys, of The Priory, Brecknockshire. He was baptised on the day Halley's Comet appeared. In 1765, his father (by then Sir Charles Pratt, having been appointed Chief Justice of the Common Pleas in 1762) was created Baron Camden, at which point he became The Hon. John Pratt. He was educated at the University of Cambridge (Trinity College).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1780, Pratt was elected Member of Parliament for Bath and obtained the position of Teller of the Exchequer the same year, a lucrative office which he kept until his death, although after 1812 he refused to receive the large income arising from it. He served under Lord Shelburne as Lord of the Admiralty between 1782 and 1783 and in the same post under William Pitt the Younger between 1783 and 1789, as well as a Lord of the Treasury between 1789 and 1792.  In 1786, his father was created Earl Camden, at which point he became known by one of his father's subsidiary titles as Viscount Bayham.  In 1793, Bayham was sworn of the Privy Council. In 1794 he succeeded his father as 2nd Earl Camden, and the following year he was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland by Pitt.  Disliked in Ireland as an opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation and as the exponent of an unpopular policy, Camden's term of office was one of turbulence, culminating in the rebellion of 1798; his refusal to reprieve the United Irishman William Orr, convicted of treason on the word of one witness of dubious credit, aroused great public indignation.  Immediately after the suppression of the rising Camden resigned. In 1804 he became Secretary of State for War and the Colonies under Pitt, and in 1805 Lord President of the Council, an office he retained until 1806. He was again Lord President from 1807 to 1812, after which date he remained for some time in the cabinet without office. In 1812 he was created Earl of Brecknock and Marquess Camden.  The enforced resignation from the Cabinet of Lord Castlereagh, the stepson of his sister Frances, to whom he had always been personally close, in September 1809, led to a series of bitter family quarrels, when it became clear that Camden had known for months of the plan to dismiss Castlereagh, but had given him no warning. Castlereagh himself regarded Camden as \"a weak friend\", not an enemy, and they were eventually reconciled. Other members of the Stewart family, however, never forgave Camden for what they regarded as his disloyalty.  Camden was also Lord Lieutenant of Kent between 1808 and 1840 and Chancellor of Cambridge University between 1834 and 1840. He was made a Knight of the Garter in 1799 and elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1802.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Camden married Frances, daughter of William Molesworth, in 1785. She died at Bayham Abbey, Sussex, in July 1829. Lord Camden survived her by eleven years and died at Seale, Surrey, on 8 October 1840, aged 81. He was succeeded by his only son, George.  The family owned and lived in a house located at 22 Arlington Street in St. James's, a district of the City of Westminster in central London, which is adjoining the Ritz Hotel. In the year of his death, he sold the house to Major Henry Somerset, 7th Duke of Beaufort.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "John Jeffreys Pratt, 1st Marquess Camden, (11 February 17598 October 1840), styled Viscount Bayham from 1786 to 1794 and known as The Earl Camden from 1794 to 1812, was a British politician. He served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland between 1795 and 1798 and as Secretary of State for War and the Colonies between 1804 and 1805.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977083}
{"src_title": "Przemysław Tytoń", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Born in Zamość, Tytoń played for Górnik Łęczna until the end of the 2006–07 season when the Polish first-league club was relegated to the third division because of corruption. His application to be released from his contract was granted by the PZPN, following which he signed a five-year contract with Roda JC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Roda JC.", "content": "His Eredivisie debut came on 29 March 2008 in a goalless draw against Heracles Almelo. However, he did not make any appearances the following season.  In January 2010, Tytoń became the club's first choice goalkeeper, taking over from Bram Castro. He had shoulder surgery at the end of March 2011.  After 2010–11 Eredivisie season, Tytoń was listed as the second best goalkeeper, only behind Maarten Stekelenburg. He had an offer from Belgian champion KRC Genk, but did not accept it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PSV.", "content": "On 16 August 2011, it was announced that PSV Eindhoven had taken Tytoń on a one-year loan, with an option to buy at the end of the season. On 20 January 2012 it was announced that PSV has signed Tytoń for an extra four years.  On 18 September 2011, Tytoń suffered a serious concussion when he collided with a teammate during the match between PSV and Ajax and was subsequently carried out on a stretcher, with the game delayed for 15 minutes. There was no serious damage so he was discharged from hospital the next day. In the Europa League match against FC Rapid București (2–1) Tyton was back in goal for PSV.  Tytoń rapidly gained a strong form in goal for PSV after his injury and replaced former first choice goalkeeper Andreas Isaksson by the time Phillip Cocu had been announced as caretaker manager after Fred Rutten in March 2012. Among many strong matches, he especially displayed his talent in the 2011–12 KNVB Beker semi final against SC Heerenveen where PSV advanced to the final on a 3–1 victory. Tytoń at times almost single-handedly kept the opposition from producing a comeback and saved a penalty from the 2011–12 Eredivise topscorer Bas Dost. He followingly became known as the \"Penalty Killer\" among media and fans.  He featured in the KNVB Beker final on 8 April 2012, where PSV beat Heracles Almelo 3–0.  At the start of the 2012–13 season, Tytoń received the number 1 shirt at PSV after the departure of Isaksson. He began the season as the first choice goalkeeper, ahead of the new signing Boy Waterman. However, after five league games, Tytoń was demoted to the bench as Waterman was preferred as the first choice goalkeeper by the new manager Dick Advocaat.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Elche (loan).", "content": "On 4 July 2014, Tytoń joined La Liga side Elche on a one-year loan deal.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "VfB Stuttgart.", "content": "For the 2015–16 season Tytoń moved to VfB Stuttgart.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deportivo La Coruña.", "content": "On 30 June 2016, Tytoń signed a three-year deal with Deportivo de La Coruña, returning to Spain one year after leaving Elche.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "FC Cincinnati.", "content": "On 13 December 2018, Tytoń joined Major League Soccer side FC Cincinnati ahead of their inaugural 2019 MLS season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "On 29 May 2010, he debuted for the Poland national football team in a 0–0 draw against Finland.  On 11 August 2010, he played in the second half against Cameroon. He conceded two goals.  Tytoń was selected in Poland's squad for UEFA Euro 2012 as a second choice goalkeeper behind Wojciech Szczęsny after Łukasz Fabiański was ruled out for the competition due to injury. On the 68th minute in the opening match against Greece, Szczęsny was given a straight red card after giving away a penalty. Tytoń came on as a substitute to replace him and saved the penalty taken by Greek captain Giorgos Karagounis. The game ended in a 1–1 draw. He became the first goalkeeper in history of the European Championships to save a penalty after coming on. After the match, Tytoń said saving the penalty was \"like a dream\": \"“It felt like a dream, I was aware that now was my chance. I really wanted to help the team. Thank God I saved the penalty.”\" Tytoń continued on as Poland's starting goalkeeper for the next two matches, even beyond Szczęsny's return from the red card suspension.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Przemysław Tytoń (; born 4 January 1987) is a Polish footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for FC Cincinnati in Major League Soccer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977084}
{"src_title": "Enzo Sereni", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sereni was born in Rome. His father was physician to the King of Italy. He grew up in a traditional Jewish Italian household but became a Zionist as a teenager and was one of the first Italian Zionists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Zionist activity.", "content": "After obtaining his PhD in philosophy from the University of Rome, he emigrated to Mandate Palestine in 1927. He worked in orange groves in Rehovot and soon helped found kibbutz Givat Brenner. As an enthusiastic socialist, Sereni was also active in the Histadrut trade union. He was a pacifist who advocated co-existence with the Arabs and integration of Jewish and Arab society.  Sereni was sent to Europe in 1931–1934 to help bring people to Palestine through the Youth Aliyah, and was arrested briefly by the Gestapo. He helped to organize the Hechalutz movement in Nazi Germany and was also involved in helping to smuggle money and people out of Germany. Sereni was also sent to the United States to help organize the Zionist movement there.  During World War II, he joined the British Army, and was involved in disseminating anti-fascist propaganda in Egypt. The British sent him to Iraq, and Sereni spent part of his time organizing clandestine aliyah. In 1942, Sereni became one of the first Jewish emissaries from Palestine to Iraq and visited Sandur, a Jewish village in northern Iraq and described it in detail. The village was located an hour and a half's drive from Mosul, in a valley between two walls of rock. It was completely green and \"full of gardens of fruit, pears, grapes, plums, pomegranates, apples.\" Sereni got in trouble with his British superior officers for his Zionist views and was imprisoned briefly for forging passports.  Sereni then helped organize the Jewish parachute unit of the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) that sent agents into occupied Europe. Of about 250 volunteer trainees, about 110 were selected for training, and 33 were actually parachuted into Europe, including Sereni, despite his relatively advanced age. On 15 May 1944 he was parachuted into Northern Italy but was captured immediately. According to records, he was shot in Dachau concentration camp on 18 November 1944. Other famous martyrs who parachuted into Europe with this unit include Hannah Szenes and Haviva Reik. Kibbutz Netzer Sereni is named after him, as are many streets throughout Israel.  Sereni wrote several books and numerous articles.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Enzo Sereni (17 April 190518 November 1944) was an Italian Zionist, co-founder of kibbutz Givat Brenner, celebrated intellectual, advocate of Jewish-Arab co-existence and a Jewish Brigade officer who was parachuted into Nazi-occupied Italy in World War II, captured by the Germans and executed in Dachau concentration camp.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977085}
{"src_title": "Nacer Chadli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Apeldoorn.", "content": "Chadli played his youth football at JS Thier-à-Liège, Standard Liège and MVV Maastricht. In the summer of 2007, he was contracted by Dutch second division club AGOVV Apeldoorn, who scouted him at MVV's youth academy. Here he was considered an emerging talent. While Chadli was being tested by AGOVV, he went under the alias \"Kaliffe\", because technical manager Ted van Leeuwen was afraid other clubs would show their interest. Chadli scored his first goal in professional football for AGOVV in a match against FC Volendam.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Twente.", "content": "In the summer of 2010, Chadli signed with FC Twente, and in the ensuing season became a first team player for the then reigning Eredivisie champions. His first Eredivisie goal was the winning one away at title rivals PSV. He made his European and Champions League debut in a 2–2 home draw against Internazionale on 14 September in the competition's group stage. On 29 September, he scored his first Champions League goal away at Tottenham Hotspur (4–1), and on 2 November scored his second at Werder Bremen in a 0–2 away victory. He later scored again in the Champions League against Tottenham from a free-kick on 7 December, the goal securing a draw for Twente at home, 3–3.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tottenham Hotspur.", "content": "On 21 July 2013, Tottenham Hotspur agreed a deal with Twente to sign Chadli for a transfer fee of £7 million. The club confirmed that subject to agreement of personal terms and a medical, Chadli would join the Spurs squad for pre-season training in Hong Kong. On 23 July, the club confirmed that Chadli had joined the squad which was participating in training sessions prior to the club taking part in the 2013 Premier League Asia Trophy. Chadli finally agreed terms on 26 July and became an official Tottenham player, later making his Spurs debut in a 5–2 friendly defeat to AS Monaco on 3 August. He made his Premier League debut on 18 August, the first match of the 2013–14 season, against Crystal Palace in a 1–0 win, then scored his first Premier League goal on 12 February 2014, a 0–4 win away to Newcastle United.  On 24 August 2014, the second matchday of the 2014–15 season, Chadli scored twice as Tottenham defeated Queens Park Rangers 4–0 at home. This was the start of a run of good form for Chadli, who went on to score several goals, including one against Tottenham's North London rivals Arsenal. The run of form, however, was cut short by injury, and before he could return to form, tragedy struck his family after his father died. Chadli slowly returned to form, scoring two goals in two matches against Newcastle United and Southampton, respectively, in late April to take his season total to 12, ten in the Premier League. Chadli increased his tally to 11 Premier League goals by rounding the goalkeeper in a 2–0 victory against Hull City on 16 May 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "West Bromwich Albion.", "content": "On 29 August 2016, West Bromwich Albion agreed a deal with Tottenham Hotspur to sign Chadli for a club-record transfer fee of £13 million. He made his debut in a 1–0 defeat to Bournemouth. Chadli scored twice and got two assists on his home debut, only his second league appearance for the club which ended as a 4–2 win over West Ham United.  In 2017–18, Chadli was troubled by recurring thigh injuries and made only three appearances by the end of April in a West Bromwich Albion side that was eventually relegated. Totalling five appearances, he scored once, a free kick in a 1–1 draw at Leicester City on 16 October 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Monaco.", "content": "On 30 August 2018, Monaco announced the signing of Chadli on a three-year deal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anderlecht (loan).", "content": "On 11 August 2019, Chadli joined Anderlecht on a season-long loan from Monaco.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "A dual citizen of Belgium and Morocco, Chadli was thus able to represent either nation. He made his debut for Morocco side on 17 November 2010, in a 1–1 friendly draw against Northern Ireland at Windsor Park, and was named man of the match. On 28 January 2011, however, he announced his intention to represent Belgium at the international level, which was permitted because he had not yet played in a competitive match for Morocco. He made his debut for the Belgian squad for a 9 February friendly match against Finland.  Chadli has played as a striker for the Belgian national team, scoring his first international goal in a UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier against Azerbaijan in the King Baudouin Stadium in Brussels on 29 March 2011.  On 26 May 2014, Chadli scored what would have been his third international goal in a pre-2014 World Cup friendly against Luxembourg. The match, however, was later recognised invalid as coach Marc Wilmots had made seven substitutions instead of the permitted six.  On 13 May 2014, Chadli was named to Belgium's squad for the 2014 World Cup. He started in midfield but was substituted at half time for Dries Mertens in the team's first game of the tournament, a 2–1 win over Algeria in Belo Horizonte.  In May 2018 he was named to Belgium’s preliminary squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia.  On 2 July 2018, Chadli came off the bench to score the winning goal in injury time to lift Belgium to a 3–2 victory over Japan in the round of 16 of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The goal is chosen by the BBC panel as goal of the tournament in the 2018 World Cup.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Chadli is a versatile midfielder who can play as an attacking midfielder, in a number 10 role, or as a winger on either flank. He is comfortable on both feet and has a good shot at his disposal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Twente  Tottenham Hotspur", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Belgium", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nacer Chadli (; born 2 August 1989) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a winger for Anderlecht, on loan from Monaco, and the Belgium national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977086}
{"src_title": "Bombardment of Ellwood", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Following the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, seven Japanese submarines patrolled the American West Coast. They sank two merchant ships and damaged six more, skirmishing twice with U.S. Navy air or sea forces. By the end of December, the submarines had all returned to friendly waters to resupply. However, several had gone to Kwajalein, and would pay a return visit to American waters. One of these was the Imperial Japanese Navy submarine. The \"I-17\" displaced when submerged and was long. Her armament included six torpedo tubes and 17 torpedoes, plus a 14-cm deck gun. She carried 101 officers and men, captained by Commander Kozo Nishino.  The Japanese government, concerned about President Roosevelt's radio speech scheduled for February 23, 1942, ordered a Japanese submarine to shell the California coast on that day. A naval reserve officer, Nishino had commanded a pre-war merchant ship that sailed through the Santa Barbara Channel. His ship had once stopped at the Ellwood Oil Field to take on a cargo of oil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bombardment.", "content": "About 1900 (7:00 pm) on 23 February 1942, the \"I-17\" came to a stop opposite the Ellwood field. Nishino ordered his deck gun cleared for action. Its crew took aim at a Richfield aviation fuel tank just beyond the beach. The Japanese opened fire about 15 minutes later, the first rounds landing near a storage facility. The oil field's workmen had mostly returned home, but a skeleton crew on duty heard the rounds hit. They took it to be an internal explosion, until one man spotted the \"I-17\" in the distance. An oiler named G. Brown later told reporters that the enemy submarine looked so big to him he thought it must be a cruiser or a destroyer, until he realized that just one gun was firing.  Nishino soon ordered his men to aim at the second storage tank. Brown and the others called the police, as the Japanese shells continued to fall around them.  Firing in the dark on a submarine buffeted by waves, it was inevitable that many rounds would miss their target. One round passed over Wheeler's Inn, whose owner Laurence Wheeler promptly called the Santa Barbara County Sheriff's Office. A deputy sheriff assured him that warplanes were already on their way, but none ever arrived. The Japanese shells destroyed a derrick and a pump house, while the Ellwood Pier and a catwalk suffered minor damage. After 20 minutes, the gunners ceased fire and the submarine sailed away. Estimates of the number of explosive shells fired ranged from a minimum of 12 to as many as 25. Even though he caused only light damage, Nishino had achieved his purpose, which was to spread fear along the American west coast.  Reverend Arthur Basham of Montecito called the police to claim he had seen the enemy submarine from his home. He said the \"I-17\" turned south towards Los Angeles, apparently flashing signal lights to someone on shore. In reality, the \"I-17\" had sailed west, returning to Japan in safety.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The reports of Nishino's attack caused hundreds to flee inland; many feared that the event was a prelude to a full-scale attack on the West Coast of the United States. Since several people in Santa Barbara claimed to have seen \"signal lights\", a blackout was ordered for the rest of the night. The baseless claims of \"signals\" were used to justify Franklin D. Roosevelt's controversial internment of Japanese Americans, which began just one week later.  One night after the Elwood attack, the Battle of Los Angeles took place. In response to claimed sightings of \"enemy aircraft\", anti-aircraft batteries opened fire all across the city, causing panic among its residents.  Japanese submarines continued to conduct occasional attacks against allied shipping off the U.S. coast during the rest of the war. Sent to American waters in hopes of targeting warships, the submarines managed to sink only a handful of merchant ships, besides conducting a few minor attacks on shore targets. These consisted of a bombardment of Fort Stevens on the Columbia River, an attack on a Canadian lighthouse on Vancouver Island, and two air raids launched from a submarine in an attempt to start forest fires in southwest Oregon.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bombardment of Ellwood during World War II was a naval attack by a Japanese submarine against United States coastal targets near Santa Barbara, California. Though damage was minimal, the event was key in triggering the West Coast invasion scare and influenced the decision to intern Japanese-Americans. The event also marked the first shelling of the North American mainland during the conflict.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977087}
{"src_title": "Péter Palotás", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Palotás spent all his playing career at MTK Budapest FC. However, during this time, the club changed their name several times. In 1949, when Hungary became a communist state, MTK were taken over by the secret police, the ÁVH and subsequently the club became known as \"Textiles SE\". They then became \"Bástya SE\", then \"Vörös Lobogó SE\" and then finally back to MTK. Despite this turmoil, the 1950s proved a successful era for club and it was while at MTK that Palotás, together with Nándor Hidegkuti and coach Márton Bukovi, pioneered the \"deep lying centre-forward\" position. With a team that also included Mihály Lantos and József Zakariás, MTK and Palotás won three Hungarian League titles, a Hungarian Cup and a Mitropa Cup. In 1955, as \"Vörös Lobogó SE\", they also played in the first ever European Cup. On 7 September 1955 at the \"Népstadion\", Palotás scored a hat-trick as they beat RSC Anderlecht 6-3 in the first leg of the first round. This was the first ever hat-trick scored in a European Cup game. He scored again in the second-leg as \"Vörös Lobogó SE\" won 4-1. During the quarter-finals against Stade Reims he scored a further two goals as they lost 8-6 on aggregate and he finished the competition with a total of six goals scored.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Between 1950 and 1956, Palotás won 24 caps and scored 18 goals for Hungary. He scored twice on his debut on 24 September 1950 in a 12-0 win against Albania. In 1952 Palotás scored four goals as he helped Hungary become Olympic Champions. This included two in a 3-0 win against Italy on 21 July. He also played in the final against Yugoslavia on 2 August 1952. On 17 May 1953, he helped Hungary clinch the Central European International Cup when he played in a 3-0 win against Italy at the \"Stadio Olimpico\".  Although teammates at MTK, Palotás and Nándor Hidegkuti were rivals for a place in the national side. By 1953 Hidegkuti had established himself as the first choice \"deep lying centre-forward\" for Hungary and as a result Palotás missed out on the two prestige friendlies against England. He travelled to England for the first game but remained on the bench. Despite this setback he continued to play regularly for Hungary until 1956. During the 1954 FIFA World Cup he scored twice in the group stage 9-0 win against South Korea and also played in the semi-final against Uruguay. On 19 May 1955 he scored a hat-trick against Finland before playing his last game for Hungary on 9 June 1956 against Portugal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Péter Palotás (27 June 1929 – 17 May 1967), born as Péter Poteleczky, was a Hungarian footballer who played as a forward for MTK Budapest FC and Hungary. During the 1950s he was a fringe member of the team known as the \"Mighty Magyars\" and played alongside the likes of Ferenc Puskás, Zoltán Czibor, Sándor Kocsis, Nándor Hidegkuti and József Bozsik. Palotás was an early pioneer of the \"deep lying centre-forward\" role and in 1955 he scored the first ever hat-trick in a European Cup game. In 1959 he retired as a player due to a heart condition. The same condition led to his death on 17 May 1967.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977088}
{"src_title": "Pavel Rotmistrov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Pre-War.", "content": "Rotmistrov joined the Red Army in 1919, and served during the Russian Civil War, during which he was involved in the suppression of the Kronstadt Rebellion and in the Polish Soviet War. He commanded a platoon and later rifle company in 31st Rifle Regiment of 11th Rifle Division. In 1928 he entered Frunze Military Academy. From 1937 to 1940 he was an instructor at the Moscow Higher Military Academy. In May 1941 he became Chief of Staff of the 3rd Mechanised Corps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second World War.", "content": "He commanded 5th Guards Tank Army in the Battle of Prokhorovka during the Battle of Kursk, and in Operation Bagration. The unit under his command, the 5th Guards Tank Army engaged in a brutal tank battle near Prokhorovka against the attacking Waffen SS divisions \"Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler,\" \"Das Reich\" and \"Totenkopf\" almost in a point-blank range of 100-200 meters. As the German advance was noticed, spearheaded by the three most elite Waffen SS divisions towards Prokhorovka advancing in force, Rotmistrov ordered direct counter-attack from the army that was prepared to go by radioing \"Steel, Steel, Steel\" against the Germans to get close to them as possible to make up for the better guns the German tanks had. In the ensuing battle, a close-quarter open field tank battle ensued so that most shots from both sides were a direct hit. The distance between the forces was such that tanks were shooting each other from left and right one after another and close enough to ram the German tanks to disable their relatively powerful guns from turning.  As the battle ended, significant losses were reported from the 5th Guards Tank Army. He was removed from command following Bagration and became deputy head of armored troops at the General Staff. The manner in which he conducted the battle including the heavy losses the 5th Guards Tank Army took was not unnoticed by Joseph Stalin that he planned to have Rotimstrov court-martialed and sacked for the heavy losses. This did not occur since Aleksandr Vasilevsky interceded. It is possible that the high losses incurred by the 5th Guards Tank Army at the Battle of Minsk led to his removal from command. It is notable that he never held an active unit command again. He was promoted to colonel-general in October 1943 and became the first Marshal of Armoured Troops in February 1944.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-War.", "content": "Following the war he commanded the mechanized forces of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany, and he became an assistant minister of defense. He became the first Chief Marshal of Armoured Troops on 28 April 1962.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chief marshal of the armored troops Pavel Alexeyevich Rotmistrov (; 6 July 1901 in Skovorovo – 6 April 1982) was a Soviet military commander of armoured troops in the Red Army during and following World War II, known for leading the 5th Guards Tank Army at the Battle of Prokhorovka.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977089}
{"src_title": "Chang'e 2", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program is designed to be conducted in four phases of incremental technological advancement: The first is simply reaching lunar orbit, a task completed by Chang'e 1 in 2007 and Chang'e 2 in 2010. The second is landing and roving on the Moon, as Chang'e 3 did in 2013 and Chang'e 4 did in 2019. The third is collecting lunar samples from the near-side and sending them to Earth, a task for the future Chang'e 5 and Chang'e 6 missions. The fourth phase consists of development of a robotic research station near the Moon's south pole. The program aims to facilitate a crewed lunar landing in the 2030s and possibly build an outpost near the south pole.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "Chang'e 2 was the backup of the Chang'e 1 probe and it had been modified for its own mission. While Chang'e 1 operated in a 200-km orbit, Chang'e 2 flew at only 100 km, allowing for higher-resolution images and more precise science data. The probe also possessed a higher-resolution camera, being able to resolve features as small as across from orbit. According to Qian Huang of the Shanghai Astronomical Observatory and Yong-Chun Zheng of the NAOC, the spacecraft also had a shorter Earth-to-Moon cruise time of 5 days, rather than 12. The probe's launch rocket had two more boosters to accomplish this more direct route to the Moon. Furthermore, its laser altimeter's footprint was smaller than Chang'e 1's, achieving 5-meter vertical accuracy in its estimate of the Moon's radius. It also pulsed more frequently – five times per second rather than just once per second, as Chang'e 1's altimeter did. Additionally, the probe's main camera had a spatial resolution of, rather than. The total cost of the Chang'e 2 mission was approximately CN¥900 million ($125 million).  Late in the mission, Chang'e 2's orbit was lowered to an elliptical one, with the same apolune (100 km) as Chang'e 1, but with a perilune of only 15 km. Tracking for the mission was performed with an X-band radio capability, which was not available for Chang'e 1. Zheng remarked that \"the mission goals of Chang'e 2 were focused into the high resolution image for the future landing site of CE-3 lunar lander and rover. The success of Chang'e 2 provided an important technical basis for the successful implementation of China's future lunar exploration,\" and the \"Queqiao\" relay satellite was based on Chang'e 2 design.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission summary.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Launch.", "content": "Chang'e 2 was launched on 1 October 2010 at 10:59:57 UTC aboard a Long March 3C rocket from Xichang Satellite Launch Center in Xichang, Sichuan. The launch of the probe coincided with China's National Day on 1 October, in a symbolic celebration of the country's 61st communist anniversary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lunar mission.", "content": "The spacecraft entered an orbit with a perigee of 200 km and an apogee of 380,000 km, and separated from the carrier rocket as planned. It was the first time that a Chinese lunar probe directly entered an Earth-to-Moon transfer orbit without orbiting the Earth first. After the launch, Chang'e 2 arrived in its lunar orbit within 4 days and 16 hours. Later, the probe lowered its orbit to, with a perilune of. Chang'e 2 entered its 100 km working orbit on 9 October 2010 after three successful brakings. On 8 November 2010, the Chinese government announced the success of all of Chang'e 2's mission objectives, and published lunar surface images with a resolution of up to. In February 2012, the Chinese government released a complete lunar map constructed from Chang'e 2's data, claiming that it was the highest-resolution map of the entire Moon yet recorded. The full dataset, including the map with resolutions of 7, 20 and 50 m, and elevations model with resolutions of 20 and 50 m, is available for free download since April 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "L2 mission.", "content": "On 8 June 2011, Chang'e 2 completed its extended mission, and left lunar orbit for the Earth–Sun L2 Lagrangian point, to test the Chinese tracking and control network. The probe reached L2 on 25 August 2011 at 23:27 Beijing time (14:27 UTC) after a 77-day cruise, becoming the first object ever to reach the L2 point directly from lunar orbit, and travelling further than any previous Chinese space probe. The probe beamed its first batch of data from L2 in September 2011. Though it was expected to remain at L2 until the end of 2012, it departed on an extended mission in April 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "4179 Toutatis mission.", "content": "According to Ouyang Ziyuan's report to the 16th Conference of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chang'e 2 departed from L2 on 15 April 2012, and began a mission to the asteroid 4179 Toutatis. The flyby was successfully achieved on 13 December 2012 at 16:30:09 Beijing Time (08:30:09 GMT). Close-up images of the asteroid, with a resolution of up to per pixel, were later published online. The flyby was the first time an unmanned spacecraft had imaged the asteroid so closely. Chang'e-2 came as close as to Toutatis, and took pictures of the asteroid at a relative velocity of per second. China thus became the fourth space agency to conduct a successful mission to an asteroid, after NASA, ESA and JAXA.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deep-space journey.", "content": "As of 2016, Chang'e 2 has reached a distance of over 200 million km from Earth; potentially, it has enough fuel remaining to continue functioning up to a distance of 300 million km, according to the China Aerospace Corporation. The probe is being used to further verify China's deep-space tracking and control capabilities, Chang'e 2 will continue to fly, returning somewhere closer to Earth around 2029.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Chang'e 2 (; ) is a Chinese unmanned lunar probe that was launched on 1 October 2010. It was a follow-up to the Chang'e 1 lunar probe, which was launched in 2007. Chang'e 2 was part of the first phase of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program, and conducted research from a 100-km-high lunar orbit in preparation for the December 2013 soft landing by the Chang'e 3 lander and rover. Chang'e 2 was similar in design to Chang'e 1, although it featured some technical improvements, including a more advanced onboard camera. Like its predecessor, the probe was named after Chang'e, an ancient Chinese moon goddess.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977090}
{"src_title": "Chapel of the Resurrection, Brussels", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The history of the building goes back to the (\"Chapel of the Miraculous Sacrament\"), which was built on / in the city centre in 1455. Because of urban development measures, the chapel had to give way for the construction of Brussels-Central railway station. The original chapel and adjoining convent was scheduled for demolition and a duplicate was built on / by the expropriated Order Sisters of Perpetual Adoration. This new chapel was inaugurated on 14 October 1908. In 1974, the sisters decided to sell the convent—which comprised what is now the entire block—while the main building today accommodates a library and a visitors' centre of the European Commission. The chapel was sold to an international non-profit association constituted under Belgian law, which had been founded by members of the European institutions in order to maintain the chapel as a space for prayer and liturgy. Through donations and contributions of the Catholic Episcopal Conferences of Europe (COMECE), the Conference of European Churches (CEC), the Society of Jesus, the King Baudouin Foundation and numerous other institutions, the chapel was completely renovated and restructured in 1999–2000. On 25 September 2001, Archbishop Godfried Cardinal Daneels officially inaugurated the new church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "While the chapel's neo-Renaissance facade and its exterior remained unchanged, the interior was completely restructured and designed by Marionex Architects, Brussels. Today's building has four storeys: The visitor enters the chapel through a foyer (ground floor), which is used as a meeting and exhibition space. The basement contains a crypt, reserved for silent prayer and worship. The gold-plated cross is a work of the Belgian sculptor Philippe Denis. The liturgical main room is now located on the first floor and is accessible by an interior staircase and a lift.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Windows and organ.", "content": "Since the church has lost its full original height, new windows by the Viennese artist Thomas Reinhold were inserted. The side windows show the themes of Creation, Incarnation, the Burning Bush and Pentecost, whereas the window of the main facade represents the Resurrection. They windows produced by the factory of the Schlierbach convent in Upper Austria and financed by nine Austrian regions. On a side gallery, the chapel has an organ from the workshop Etienne Debaisieux, the instrument being a gift by the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD). In the floor above, the building accommodates a meeting hall and office rooms (not visible from outside).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pastoral approach and current functions.", "content": "The Chapel of the Resurrection is not a parish church. Due to its particular location in a business district and in close proximity to the European institutions (Council of the European Union, European Parliament, European Commission, etc.), it serves as a place of discussion, meeting and prayer linked to these work-places. Therefore, the chapel is opened mostly on weekdays. It offers a wide range of liturgical events, taking in consideration the diversity of confessions, languages and nationalities of this mainly within a mostly \"European\" public. On the first and third Sundays of each month a Finnish Lutheran communion service is held in the morning as part of the Finnish Seamen's Mission. A Catholic multilingual youth mass takes place every first and third Sunday of each month in the evening. Because of its proximity to the European Union's offices, the Chapel is well used by EU civil servants and is used for weddings, baptisms, and memorial services. The Chapel is conducted by a pastoral team of religious and lay volunteers. In addition to regular morning prayers (on weekdays), Catholic, Lutheran and Orthodox services are offered, usually at lunch time, in several languages, but mainly in English and French.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Chapel of the Resurrection (, ) or Chapel for Europe is a Roman Catholic church with an ecumenical vocation located in the heart of the Brussels' European Quarter (City of Brussels municipality), next to the former Convent Van Maerlant. A precursor of this church, which dated back to the 15th century, was situated in the city centre, but demolished in the course of urban development in 1907. Instead, a replica, externally true to the original, was built at its present location. In 2001, after substantial renovation, the church received its present name and took on its present ecumenical character. The pastoral responsibility for the chapel has been entrusted to the Society of Jesus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977091}
{"src_title": "Kingdom of Portugal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origins.", "content": "The Kingdom of Portugal finds its origins in the County of Portugal (1096–1139). The Portuguese County was a semi-autonomous county of the Kingdom of León. Independence from León took place in three stages:  Once Portugal was independent, D. Afonso I's descendants, members of the Portuguese House of Burgundy, would rule Portugal until 1383. Even after the change in royal houses, all the monarchs of Portugal were descended from Afonso I, one way or another, through both legitimate and illegitimate links.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fall of the Monarchy.", "content": "With the start of the 20th century, Republicanism grew in numbers and support in Lisbon among progressive politicians and the influential press. However a minority with regard to the rest of the country, this height of republicanism would benefit politically from the Lisbon Regicide on 1 February 1908. While returning from the Ducal Palace at Vila Viçosa, King Carlos I and the Prince Royal Luís Filipe were assassinated in the Terreiro do Paço, in Lisbon. With the death of the King and his heir, Carlos I's second son would become monarch as King Manuel II. Manuel's reign, however, would be short-lived, ending by force with the 5 October 1910 revolution, sending Manuel into exile in Great Britain and giving way to the Portuguese First Republic.  On 19 January 1919, the Monarchy of the North was proclaimed in Porto. The monarchy would be deposed a month later and no other monarchist counterrevolution in Portugal has happened since.  After the republican revolution in October 1910, the remaining colonies of the empire became overseas provinces of the Portuguese Republic until the late 20th century, when the last overseas territories of Portugal were handed over (most notably Portuguese Africa which included the overseas provinces of Angola and Mozambique in 1975, and finally Macau in 1999).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Kingdom of Portugal (, ) was a monarchy on the Iberian Peninsula and the predecessor of the modern Portuguese Republic. It was in existence from 1139 until 1910. After 1415, it was also known as the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves, and between 1815 and 1822, it was known as the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. The name is also often applied to the Portuguese Empire, the realm's extensive overseas colonies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977092}
{"src_title": "Satsuma-class battleship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The \"Satsuma\" class was ordered in late 1904 under the 1904 War Naval Supplementary Program during the Russo-Japanese War. Unlike the previous pre-dreadnought battleships, they were the first battleships ordered from Japanese shipyards, although the first ship in the class, \"Satsuma\", used many imported components.  They were originally intended to mount a dozen gun in four twin and four single-gun turrets, but the combination of a shortage of Japanese-built 12-inch guns and their additional expense caused the ships to be redesigned to carry four 12-inch and twelve guns, all in twin-gun turrets. The intended armament of these ships, laid down before, would have made them the first \"all big-gun\" battleships in the world had they been completed to their original design.  Probably reflecting extensive British technical assistance, the \"Satsuma\"-class ships greatly resembled an enlarged version of the British with the single-gun amidships intermediate turrets replaced by twin-gun turrets. With their heavy intermediate armament, the ships were considered to be semi-dreadnoughts, a transitional stage between pre-dreadnoughts with their light intermediate armament and dreadnoughts solely equipped with large guns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The construction of was delayed since she could not be laid down until the slipway occupied by the armored cruiser was freed by that ship's launching. The IJN took the opportunity provided by the delay to modify the ship to accommodate steam turbines and various other changes that generally increased her size. The changes were great enough that \"Aki\" is generally considered a half sister to \"Satsuma\". The crew ranged from 800 to 940 officers and enlisted men.  \"Satsuma\" had an overall length of, a beam of, and a normal draft of. She displaced at normal load. \"Aki\" was long overall, had a beam of, and the same draft as her half-sister. She displaced at normal load.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Propulsion.", "content": "\"Satsuma\" was powered by a pair of vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam generated by 20 Miyabara water-tube boilers using a mixture of coal and fuel oil. The engines were rated at a total of and were designed to reach a top speed of. During the ship's sea trials she reached from. \"Satsuma\" carried a maximum of of coal and of oil which allowed her to steam for at a speed of. Unlike her half-sister, she only had two funnels.  \"Aki\" was intended use the same type of engines as her sister, but the IJN decided fit her with a pair of Curtiss steam turbine sets after she was launched in 1907. The turbines each powered one propeller shaft using steam from 15 Miyabara boilers. The turbines were rated at a total of for a design speed of. The ship reached a top speed of during her sea trials from. She carried a maximum of of coal and of oil gave her the same range as her half sister.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "The ships were completed with four 45-caliber 12-inch 41st Year Type guns in two gun turrets, one each fore and aft of the superstructure. They fired armor-piercing (AP) shells at a muzzle velocity of ; this gave a maximum range of. The intermediate armament was much more numerous than in the preceding \"Katori\" class, with six twin-gun turrets equipped with 45-caliber Type 41 10-inch guns, three turrets on each side of the superstructure. The guns had a muzzle velocity of when firing shells.  The other major difference between the two ships was that \"Aki\"s secondary armament consisted of eight 45-caliber 6-inch (152 mm) 41st Year Type guns, mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull. The gun fired a AP shell at a muzzle velocity of. \"Satsuma\", in contrast, was equipped with a dozen quick-firing (QF) 40-caliber 4.7-inch (120 mm) 41st Year Type guns, mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull. The gun fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of.  The ships were also equipped with four (\"Satsuma\") or eight (\"Aki\") 40-caliber QF 12-pounder () 12-cwt guns and four 28-caliber QF 12-pounder guns. Both of these guns fired shells with muzzle velocities of and respectively. In addition, the battleships were fitted with five submerged torpedo tubes, two on each broadside and one in the stern.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armor.", "content": "The waterline main belt of the \"Satsuma\"-class vessels consisted of Krupp cemented armor that had a maximum thickness of amidships and tapered to a thickness of inches at the ends of the ship. A strake of armor protected the casemates. The barbettes for the main guns were thick. The armor of \"Satsuma\"s main gun turrets had a maximum thickness of inches and those of \"Aki\" were an inch thicker. The deck armor was thick and the conning tower was protected by six inches of armor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "The completion of the British battleship \"Dreadnought\" with her all big-gun-armament and steam turbines in 1906 meant that these ships were obsolete even before they were completed. The IJN recognized that fact when it drew up the first iteration of its Eight-Eight Fleet building plan for eight first-class battleships and eight battlecruisers in 1910 and did not include them.  \"Aki\" was refitting at Kure and \"Satsuma\" was assigned to the 1st Battleship Squadron when World War I began in August 1914. The latter served as Rear Admiral Tatsuo Matsumura's flagship in the Second South Seas Squadron as it seized the German possessions of the Caroline and the Palau Islands in October 1914. \"Satsuma\" rejoined the 1st Battleship Squadron in 1915, was refitted at Sasebo Naval Arsenal in 1916 and served with the 1st Squadron for the rest of the war. \"Aki\" was also assigned to the 1st Squadron upon the completion of her refit and remained with it until she was transferred to the 2nd Battleship Squadron in 1918.  In the years immediately following the end of the war, the United States, Britain, and Japan all launched huge naval construction programs. All three countries decided that a new naval arms race would be ill-advised, and so convened the Washington Naval Conference to discuss arms limitations, which produced the Washington Naval Treaty, signed in February 1922. Japan was well over the tonnage limits and all of her obsolete predreadnought and semi-dreadnought battleships had to be disposed of by the end of 1924. Both ships were disarmed at Yokosuka in 1922, stricken from the Navy List during 1923 and converted into target ships. \"Aki\" was sunk by the battlecruiser and the battleship in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1924; \"Satsuma\" was sunk by the battleships and five days later in the same area.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The was a pair of semi-dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) in the first decade of the 20th century. They were the first battleships to be built in Japan and marked a transitional stage between the pre-dreadnought and true dreadnought designs. They saw no combat during World War I, although led a squadron that occupied several German colonies in the Pacific Ocean in 1914. Both ships were disarmed and expended as targets in 1922–1924 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977093}
{"src_title": "Ajka alumina plant accident", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin of the mud.", "content": "The red mud involved in the accident is a waste product of the Bayer process, which refines bauxite into a form of aluminium oxide called alumina. The mud primarily contains non-aluminium compounds present in the bauxite ore and left as residues after its refining along with sodium hydroxide used to dissolve aluminium oxide. Iron(III) oxide, the compound from which the red colour originates, is the main component, but it also contains other compounds. The mud, which is highly alkaline when it is first produced, is stored in large open-air ponds; It is thought that there are about 30 million tonnes of red mud stored around the Ajkai Timföldgyár plant. According to a press release by MAL, the mud had the following chemical percentage make-up (which expresses the amounts of different elements, not necessarily the actual solids).  Unlike many other mine tailings, red mud does not contain very high levels of heavy metals, although still about seven times the levels in normal soil. Analyses of the mud at Kolontár on behalf of Greenpeace showed levels of chromium 660 mg/kg, arsenic 110 mg/kg and mercury 1.2 mg/kg. The Hungarian government has stated that the mud is \"not poisonous\", and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences stated that the heavy metal concentrations were not considered dangerous for the environment. In a different news article, the taskforce established to sample the red mud reported high levels of heavy metals in certain samples, but concluded no locations were \"dangerously high.\" The main damage caused by the accident first arose from the high pH of the mud, which was responsible for both severe chemical burns to humans and animals and killing specimens in the rivers and in the contaminated soils. However, after dissipation of acute effects by dilution and progressive carbonation of the sodium hydroxide by CO from the air, the chronic toxicity of heavy metal traces is expected to be limited by their low solubility and high sorption under slightly alkaline conditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effects.", "content": "The wave of mud flooded streets in Kolontár, where seven people were confirmed dead, and Devecser, where the flow was powerful enough to move cars and vans. The cause of death of the Kolontár victims has not been formally confirmed; a spokesman for the National Directorate General for Disaster Management (NDGDM, \"Országos Katasztrófavédelmi Főigazgatóság\") said that they had probably drowned. A further six people were still missing 24 hours after the accident.  The NDGDM said that the high-pH mud was considered hazardous and would cause an alkaline reaction on contact if not washed off with clean water. The mayor of Devecser said that 80–90 people had been taken to hospital with chemical burns. Péter Jakabos, a doctor in the hospital in Győr where many of the injured had been taken, said on Magyar Televízió that it might take days for the full extent of any burns to be realised. Magyar Alumínium (MAL) said that the mud was not considered to contain toxic elements according to EU standards. Initial measurements by the NDGDM showed the sludge to be extremely basic, with a pH value of 13.  The waste initially resulted in massive death to wildlife in and around the Marcal river. The spill reached the Danube on 7 October, prompting countries located further down the river (Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine) to develop emergency plans in response. The long term effects of the spill have been very minor.  On 11 October, the Hungarian government announced that the managing director of MAL had been arrested, to be charged with \"criminal negligence leading to a public catastrophe\". Also on the 11th, the government took control of MAL, appointing a commissioner to manage the company. The government planned to focus on compensation for the incident, job security, and identifying further locations at risk of accidents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Containment and cleanup.", "content": "Apart from the immediate effects of the wave of red mud, there was also concern for a possible contamination of Hungary's waterways. The Torna () river runs through the affected area, and emergency workers were pouring tonnes of plaster into the waterway to try to bind the sludge and prevent it from continuing downstream. The Torna joins the Marcal () river at Karakó, in Vas County; the Marcal joins the Rába river just above Győr, in Győr-Moson-Sopron County, while the Rába itself joins the Danube at Győr.  The day after the accident, Environmental State Secretary Zoltán Illés ordered the suspension of the alumina production at the plant and the reconstruction of the dam. The following day, the chairman of the company said in a radio interview that he would like to restart production over the weekend (5–6 days after the Monday accident); the plant reopened on 15 October, with full production expected to resume by the 19th.  The Hungarian government initially estimated that cleanup would take at least a year and cost tens of millions of dollars.  The Hungarian Government activated the EU Civil Protection Mechanism for urgent international assistance at 7:36PM on 7 October. The European Union Monitoring and Information Centre (MIC) communicated the request for expert assistance to the 30 participating countries (27 EU member states, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway).  The former director of the MAL plant, Zoltán Bakonyi, and 14 other employees were arrested over charges of negligence, violations of waste management and environmental pollution on 11 October 2010, but were acquitted of all charges in January 2016.  By 12 October, a secondary dam beyond the remainder of the original had been almost entirely completed, after being built to contain additional sludge that was expected to overflow after another portion of the original dam collapsed.  On 13 October, the government nationalized the company, the bill making this possible having been passed by the Parliament one day earlier.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An industrial accident at a caustic waste reservoir chain took place at the Ajkai Timföldgyár alumina plant in Ajka, Veszprém County, in western Hungary. On 4 October 2010, at 12:25 CEST (10:25 UTC), the northwestern corner of the dam of reservoir number 10 collapsed, freeing approximately one million cubic metres (35 million cubic feet) of liquid waste from red mud lakes. The mud was released as a wave, flooding several nearby localities, including the village of Kolontár and the town of Devecser. Ten people died, and 150 people were injured. About of land were initially affected. The spill reached the Danube on 7 October 2010.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977094}
{"src_title": "Caucasian War", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The war took place during the administrations of three successive Russian Tsars: Alexander I (reigned 1801–1825), Nicholas I (1825–1855), and Alexander II (1855–1881). The leading Russian commanders included Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov in 1816–1827, Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov in 1844–1853, and Aleksandr Baryatinskiy in 1853–1856. The writers Mikhail Lermontov and Leo Tolstoy, who gained much of his knowledge and experience of war for his book \"War and Peace\" from these encounters, took part in the hostilities. The Russian poet Alexander Pushkin referred to the war in his Byronic poem \"The Prisoner of the Caucasus\" (Russian: Кавказский пленник; \"Kavkazskij plennik\"), written in 1821. In general, the Russian armies that served in the Caucasian wars were very eclectic; as well as ethnic Russians from various parts of the Russian empire they included Cossacks, Armenians, Georgians, Caucasus Greeks, Ossetians, and even soldiers of Muslim background like Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Uyghurs, Turkmen and even some Caucasian Muslim tribes who sided with the Russians against fellow Muslims of Caucasus. Muslim soldiers of Imperial Russian Army had played some parts on religious discussion and wooing allies for Russia against their fellow Muslim brethren in the Caucasus.  The Russian invasion encountered fierce resistance. The first period of the invasion ended coincidentally with the death of Alexander I and the Decembrist Revolt in 1825. It achieved surprisingly little success, especially compared with the then recent Russian victory over the \"Grande Armée\" of Napoleon in 1812.  Between 1825 and 1833, little military activity took place in the Caucasus against the native North Caucasians as wars with Turkey (1828/1829) and with Persia (1826–1828) occupied the Russians. After considerable successes in both wars, Russia resumed fighting in the Caucasus against the various rebelling native ethnic groups in the North Caucasus, and that was the start of the Caucasian genocide committed by Russians, most of the terminated people were from the Circassian nation. Russian units again met resistance, notably led by Ghazi Mollah, Gamzat-bek, and Hadji Murad. Imam Shamil followed them. He led the mountaineers from 1834 until his capture by Dmitry Milyutin in 1859. In 1843, Shamil launched a sweeping offensive aimed at the Russian outposts in Avaria. On 28 August 1843, 10,000 men converged, from three different directions, on a Russian column in Untsukul, killing 486 men. In the next four weeks, Shamil captured every Russian outpost in Avaria except one, exacting over 2,000 casualties on the Russian defenders. He feigned an invasion north to capture a key chokepoint at the convergence of the Avar and Kazi-Kumukh rivers. In 1845, Shamil's forces achieved their most dramatic success when they withstood a major Russian offensive led by Prince Vorontsov.  During the Crimean War of 1853–1856, the Russians brokered a truce with Shamil, but hostilities resumed in 1855. Warfare in the Caucasus finally ended between 1856 and 1859, when a 250,000 strong army under General Baryatinsky broke the mountaineers' resistance.  The war in the Eastern part of the North Caucasus ended in 1859; the Russians captured Shamil, forced him to surrender, to swear allegiance to the Tsar, and then exiled him to Central Russia. However, the war in the Western part of the North Caucasus resumed with the Circassians (i.e. Adyghe, but the term is often used to include their Abkhaz–Abaza kin as well) resuming the fight. A manifesto of Tsar Alexander II declared hostilities at an end on June 2 (May 21 OS), 1864. Among post-war events, a tragic page in the history of the indigenous peoples of the North Caucasus (especially the Circassians), was Muhajirism, or population transfer of the Muslim population to the Ottoman Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Many Circassians forced to immigrate and leave their home to the Ottoman Empire and to a lesser degree Persia. The genocide of Terek Cossacks during the Civil war was a continuation of the genocide of Circassians, former allies of the Russian Empire who supported the Communists. Most of the historical Circassian territories were historically distributed amongst the allies of the Russian Empire, such as certain Vainakh and Turkic families. However, many of those new settlers were exiled by Stalin in 1944, and some of those lands was redistributed, this time, to Georgians and Ossetians. Though many of the exiled people have returned, many lands, granted to them by the Russian empire, are still inhabited by Ossetians. The Georgians left all the lands given to them as they did not consider it theirs since the land was not within Georgia itself, but in neighbouring Russia. This still generates tensions (East Prigorodny Conflict) in the former war theaters of the Caucasian war. Today, there are three titular Circassian republics in Russia: Adygea, Kabardino-Balkaria, and Karachayevo-Cherkessia. Other historical Circassian territories such as Krasnodar Krai, Stavropol Krai, and southwestern Rostov Oblast have much smaller communities of Circassians. The diaspora in Syria is repatriating Russia. Circassians from Kosovo also returned to Russia after the civil war in Kosovo.  According to one source, the population in Greater and Lesser Kabarda decreased from 350,000, before the war, to 50,000 by 1818. According to another version, in 1790 the population was 200,000 people and in 1830 30,000 people. As a percentage of the total population of the North Caucasus, the number of the remaining Circassian Circassians was 40% (1795), 30% (1835) and 25% (1858). Similarly: Chechens 9%, 10% and 8.5%; Avars 11%, 7% and 2%; Dargins 9.5%, 7.3% and 5.8%; Lezghins 4.4%, 3.6% and 3.9%.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Caucasian War (; \"Kavkazskaya vojna\") of 1817–1864 was an invasion of the Caucasus by the Russian Empire which resulted in Russia's annexation of the areas of the North Caucasus, and the ethnic cleansing of Circassians. It consisted of a series of military actions and atrocities waged by the Empire against the native peoples of the Caucasus including the Chechens, Adyghe, Abkhaz–Abaza, Ubykhs, Kumyks and Dagestanians as Russia sought to expand. Among the Muslims, resistance to the Russians was described as jihad.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977095}
{"src_title": "Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Theodore Svetoslav was the son of George Terter I by Maria. Soon after the accession of Ivan Asen III in 1279 his father divorced his mother in order to marry the sister of the new emperor. Maria and Theodore Svetoslav were sent to the Byzantine Empire as hostages, and settled in Nicaea.  The accession of George Terter I to the throne in 1280 did not alter matters, but in 1281 Theodore Svetoslav was betrothed (in absentia) to a daughter of the \"sebastokratōr\" John I Doukas of Thessaly, as part of a diplomatic alliance. The young bride-to-be arrived in Tărnovo, but never met her intended husband.  In 1284 George Terter I concluded a new treaty with Andronikos II Palaiologos, and retrieved his first wife, while Theodore Svetoslav at first remained a hostage. The same treaty required the breaking off of the alliance with Thessaly and Theodore Svetoslav's intended bride was also sent to Byzantium. It was only in 1285 that the Patriarch of Bulgaria Joakim III arrived in Constantinople and arranged for the release of Theodore Svetoslav, who was now supposed to marry a daughter of the high court official John Synadenos. We have no information whether this marriage materialized.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activities.", "content": "In Bulgaria Theodore Svetoslav was associated as co-emperor by his father, who issued coins representing them side by side. Nevertheless, after particularly devastating Mongol raids, George Terter I dispatched his son as hostage to Nogai Khan, the effective leader of the Mongol Golden Horde in about 1289. Perhaps in connection with the same events, Theodore Svetoslav's unnamed sister married Nogai's son Chaka. During part of his exile, Theodore Svetoslav became impoverished and sought to improve his fortunes by marrying the rich Euphrosyne, the god-daughter of Nogai's wife Euphrosyne Palaiologina, who was herself an illegitimate daughter of Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.  Theodore Svetoslav left obscurity in 1298 or 1299, when he accompanied his brother-in-law Chaka in an invasion of Bulgaria. The regency for Ivan II fled Tărnovo in 1299, and Theodore Svetoslav helped convince the Bulgarian nobility to accept Chaka as ruler. However, the armies of the khan of the Golden Horde Toqta entered Bulgaria in pursuit of his enemy Chaka, and Theodore Svetoslav promptly organized a plot, deposing Chaka and having him strangled in prison in 1300. Theodore Svetoslav now became emperor of Bulgaria and sent Chaka's severed head as a present to Toqta, who withdrew his armies from the country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Emperor of Bulgaria.", "content": "The reign of Theodore Svetoslav is connected with the internal stabilization and pacification of the country, the end of Mongol overlordship, the reassertion of relatively effective central control over outlying provinces, and the recovery of portions of Thrace lost to the Byzantine Empire since the wars against Ivaylo of Bulgaria.  Theodore Svetoslav pursued a ruthless course of action, punishing all who stood in his way, including his former benefactor, Patriarch Joachim III, who was accused of treason and executed. In the face of the new emperor's brutality, some noble factions sought to replace him with other claimants to the throne, backed by Andronikos II. A new claimant appeared in the person of the \"sebastokratōr\" Radoslav Voïsil or Vojsil, from Sredna Gora, a brother of the former emperor Smilets, who was defeated, and captured by Theodore Svetoslav's uncle, the \"despotēs\" Aldimir (Eltimir), at Krăn in about 1301. Another pretender was the former emperor Michael Asen II, who unsuccessfully tried to advance into Bulgaria with a Byzantine army in about 1302. Theodore Svetoslav exchanged thirteen high-ranking Byzantine officers captured on Radoslav's defeat for his father George Terter I, whom he settled in a life of luxury in an unidentified city.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansion.", "content": "As a consequence of his victories, Theodore Svetoslav felt secure enough to move on to the offensive by 1303 and captured the fortresses of northeastern Thrace, including Mesembria (Nesebăr), Anchialos (Pomorie), Sozopolis (Sozopol), and Agathopolis (Ahtopol) in 1304. The Byzantine counterattack failed at the battle of Skafida near Poros (Burgas), where the Co-emperor Michael IX Palaiologos was turned to flight. Nevertheless, the war continued, with Michael IX and Theodore Svetoslav taking turns pillaging each other's lands. In the following 1305 Theodore Svetoslav's uncle Aldimir appears to have entered into negotiations with the Byzantines, and Theodore Svetoslav annexed his uncle's lands. In 1306 Theodore Svetoslav gained the services of the rebellious Alan mercenaries to the Byzantines, whom he settled in Bulgaria, and made unsuccessful overtures to the mercenaries of the Catalan Company, who had also rebelled against their Byzantine employers. The war ended with a peace treaty in 1307, cemented with a marriage between the widowed Theodore Svetoslav and Theodora, a daughter of the Co-emperor Michael IX Palaiologos. Until the end of his life Theodore Svetoslav remained at peace with his neighbors. His reassertion of central control over outlying provinces such as Vidin was probably peaceful, and the sparsely documented recovery of the banate of Severin from the Kingdom of Hungary must have been achieved during the dynastic struggles in that country. In 1318 the Serbian King Stefan Uroš II Milutin visited Tărnovo, in spite of his earlier alliance with Andronikos II and his divorce from Theodore Svetoslav's sister Anna.  The only possible sign of new hostilities are two Mongol raids into Byzantine Thrace in 1320 and 1321, but these were probably executed with Bulgarian cooperation and are connected with the beginning of the civil war between Andronikos II Palaiologos and his grandson Andronikos III Palaiologos. In fact, Theodore Svetoslav sent military support to his brother-in-law Andronikos III, allegedly hoping to ensnare and capture his ally.  After a surprisingly successful reign (given the misadventures of his youth), Theodore Svetoslav died in early 1322, and was succeeded by his son George Terter II.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "By his first wife Euphrosyne (Efrosina), Theodore Svetoslav had one son, George Terter II, who succeeded as emperor of Bulgaria from 1322 to 1323. It is not known if he had children by his second wife Theodora Palaiologina, daughter of Emperor Michael IX Palaiologos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Terter Peak on Greenwich Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named for Tsar Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria.  Theodore Svetoslav's seal is depicted on the reverse of the Bulgarian 2 levs banknote, issued in 1999 and 2005.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Theodore Svetoslav (, \"Todor Svetoslav\" and also Теодор Светослав, \"Teodor Svetoslav\") ruled as emperor (tsar) of Bulgaria from 1300 to 1322. The date of his birth is unknown. He was a wise and capable ruler who brought stability and relative prosperity to the Bulgarian Empire after two decades of constant Mongol intervention in the internal issues of the Empire. Theodore Svetoslav's reign began with the return of Southern Bessarabia to Bulgaria and a few years later he managed to defeat the Byzantines and retake most of northern Thrace occupied by them during the crisis. After 1307 he led a peaceful policy towards all neighbours, which resulted in expanded trade and economy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977096}
{"src_title": "John Norris (Royal Navy officer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born of uncertain Irish parentage, Norris joined the Royal Navy as a captain's servant in 1680. Promoted to lieutenant in August 1689, he joined the third-rate HMS \"Edgar\" commanded by Cloudesley Shovell during the Nine Years' War. He transferred to the third-rate HMS \"Monck\" early in 1690 and served off the Coast of Ireland during the Williamite War in Ireland. Promoted to commander on 8 July 1690, he was given command of the fire ship HMS \"Pelican\" and took part in the Battle of Beachy Head in July 1690 in another action of the Nine Years' War. He transferred to the command of the fire ship HMS \"Spy\" in December 1691 and saw action again at the Battles of Barfleur and La Hogue in May 1692.  Promoted to captain on 13 January 1693, Norris was given command of the fifth-rate HMS \"Sheerness\" and fought at the Battle of Lagos in June 1693. He transferred to the command of the third-rate HMS \"Royal Oak\", then to the command of the third-rate HMS \"Sussex\" and then to the command of the second-rate HMS \"Russell\" and was deployed to the Mediterranean early in 1694. He transferred to the command of the fourth-rate HMS \"Carlisle\" and then to the command of the third-rate HMS \"Content\" in Spring 1695.  Norris was given command of a squadron sent to North America to protect British settlements on the banks of Hudson Bay in 1697. Although he developed a plan to recapture some territories in Newfoundland and Labrador taken by French forces the previous winter, he was prevented from implementing that plan when the local council overruled him and he received some criticism when he returned to England for his inaction. However he was defended by the Earl of Orford from potential dismissal, his successful career continued and he was given command of the fourth-rate HMS \"Winchester\" later in 1697. Investigations were restarted into his conduct in Newfoundland in early 1699 he was suspended from the navy in April 1699.  Norris was given command of the third-rate HMS \"Orford\" early in 1702 and served under Admiral Sir George Rooke at the Battle of Cádiz in August 1702 at an early stage of the War of the Spanish Succession. He went on to command the vanguard at the Battle of Malaga in August 1704. He was given command of the first-rate HMS \"Britannia\", flagship of Admiral Sir Cloudesley Shovell, in 1703 and then served under Admiral the Earl of Peterborough at the capture of Barcelona in October 1705. Following his return to England he was knighted on 5 November 1705.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Senior command.", "content": "Promoted to rear admiral on 10 March 1707, Norris became second-in-command of the Mediterranean Fleet, with his flag in the third rate HMS \"Torbay\". After taking part in the British defeat at the Battle of Toulon in July 1707 and, while sailing aboard his flagship HMS \"Torbay\", Norris was present during the great naval disaster off the Isles of Scilly in October 1707 when Shovell and four of his ships were lost, claiming the lives of nearly 2,000 sailors. Promoted to vice admiral on 26 January 1708, Norris transferred his flag to the third-rate HMS \"Ranelagh\". At the 1708 British general election, Norris was returned as Member of Parliament for Rye. He was a supporter of the Whig Junto, but whle on active service, made little contribution in Parliament. While still serving as second-in-command of the Mediterranean Fleet, he took personal charge a squadron deployed to the Baltic Sea to prevent Swedish grain arriving in France in 1709. Promoted to full admiral on 21 December 1709, he became Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet early in 1710.  Norris was returned again as MP for Rye at the 1710 British general election. The new Tory Administration relieved him of the Mediterranean command in October 1711 which allowed him to devote more time to Parliamentary business. He followed the progress of the war and took an interest in naval matters. He voted with the Whigs for the motion ‘No Peace without Spain’ on 7 December 1711 and against the French commerce bill on 18 June 1713. At the 1713 British general election, he was returned again as Whig MP for Rye, and voted against the expulsion of Richard Steele on 18 March 1714.  Norris was returned again for Rye at the 1715 British general election. With the new Whig Administration, he returned to active service. He was sent with a fleet to the Baltic Sea to support a coalition of naval forces from Russia, Denmark and Hanover taking in the Great Northern War. Tsar Peter took personal command of the coalition fleet and appointed Norris as his deputy in 1716: together they protected British and other allied merchant vessels from attack by warships of the Swedish Empire. Norris joined the Board of Admiralty led by the Earl of Berkeley in March 1718. In November 1718, following the death of Charles XII of Sweden, Britain switched sides and Norris returned to the region to protect British merchant shipping from attack by Russian raiders. Norris also acted as a commissioner in the negotiations leading to the Treaty of Nystad which ended the War in September 1721. At the 1722 British general election, he was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Portsmouth. and was advanced to Senior Naval Lord on the Admiralty Board in June 1727 but stood down as a Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty when the Walpole–Townshend Ministry fell in May 1730. Norris lost his post as Lord on the Admiralty in 1730, and lost his command to Sir Charles Wager in 1731. In Parliament he joined the opposition and voted against the Government on the army in 1732 and on the excise bill in 1733. At the beginning of 1734, the government came to terms and he was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet on 20 February 1734 and, with his flag in HMS \"Britannia\", he became commander-in-chief of a fleet sent to the Iberian Peninsula to protect Portugal from Spanish attack. He was returned as Member of Parliament for Rye again at the 1734 British general election. and was appointed Vice-Admiral of Great Britain in April 1739 and went on to be Commander-in-Chief of the Channel Fleet at the outset of the War of Jenkins' Ear in Autumn 1739.  In 1744 Norris was asked to defend Britain from an imminent French Invasion and in 1745 made Captain of Deal Castle. He was preparing for battle against the French fleet, when storms intervened scattering the invasion transports, with heavy loss of life, thereby ending the immediate threat of invasion. Norris retired from the navy later in the year.  Norris died at his country home, Hemsted Park in Kent, on 13 June 1749 and was buried at St George's Church in Benenden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In May 1699 Norris married Elizabeth Aylmer, daughter of Admiral Matthew Aylmer; they had five children (including Vice Admiral Henry Norris and Captain Richard Norris). His granddaughter was the art collector and amateur artist John Norris Hewett.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Admiral of the Fleet Sir John Norris (1670 or 167113 June 1749) was a Royal Navy officer and Whig politician. After serving as a junior officer during the Nine Years' War and the Williamite War in Ireland, he was given command of a squadron sent to North America to protect British settlements on the banks of Hudson Bay in 1697. Although he developed a plan to recapture some territories in Newfoundland and Labrador taken by French forces the previous winter, he was prevented from implementing that plan when the local council overruled him.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977097}
{"src_title": "Russula fragilis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Russula fragilis\" was first described as \"Agaricus fragilis\" by mycologist Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801, and later placed in the genus \"Russula\" by Elias Magnus Fries in 1838.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The cap is 2–5 cm (0.8–2 in) in diameter. It is very variable in colour, and can be dark purplish, with a dark, almost black centre, or may be various shades of olive-green, or violet-pink, or even pale yellow. The colour tends to fade quickly, and can become very pale. At first the cap shape is convex, but it later flattens. The cap skin peels to three quarters, and older specimens often have a furrowed margin. The fragile, white stipe is long for the size of the cap, and narrowly club-shaped. The gills are adnexed, and white giving a spore print of the same colour. They have distinctive nicks, or notches on their free edges, that can be seen under a hand lens, a very good diagnostic clue to species. The flesh is white and tastes very hot, with a fruity smell.  \"Russula betularum\" is frequently found with birch, and although usually paler can be mistaken for washed out specimens of \"R. fragilis\"; \"Russula gracillima\" is similar in appearance, and grows in the same locations, although neither species have nicks (serrations) on the gill edges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"Russula fragilis\" appears in late summer and autumn, usually growing in small groups. It is widespread in the northern temperate zones of Europe, Asia, and North America. It is probably mycorrhizal with a variety of trees, including birch and oak.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "This mushroom is inedible due to its very hot taste. Many hot tasting \"Russula\" species cause problems of a gastrointestinal nature when consumed, resulting in diarrhoea, and vomiting.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The inedible wild mushroom Russula fragilis, which goes by the common name of the fragile brittlegill, is a member of the genus \"Russula\", whose members are commonly known as brittlegills. It is a small, fragile, long stemmed, and variably coloured brittlegill, found in mixed forests, and woods in Europe, Asia, and North America.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977098}
{"src_title": "Domenico Bartolucci", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "At a very young age, Bartolucci entered the seminary in Florence, where he was recruited as a singer. Upon the death of his master Bagnoli, Bartolucci succeeded him as director of the Chapel of the Duomo of Florence. In those years he began to compose his first masses, motets, and organ music, as well as madrigals and chamber music.  At the end of 1942 Bartolucci went to Rome in order to deepen his knowledge of sacred music. Having served as Deputy Master of the St. John Lateran, in 1947 he was appointed Master of the Liberian Choir of St. Mary Major, succeeding Licinio Refice, absent. In 1952, on the advice of Lorenzo Perosi, he was appointed Deputy Master of the Sistine Chapel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bartolucci and the Sistine Chapel Choir.", "content": "When Perosi died in 1956, Pope Pius XII gave Bartolucci the position of permanent director of the Pontifical Sistine Chapel Choir. In 1997 Bartolucci was replaced at the helm of the Sistine Chapel by Msgr. Giuseppe Liberto, an event which aroused some controversy in the context of liturgical music. Among those most against the decision, motivated by Papal Master of Ceremonies Archbishop Piero Marini, was Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, who, after he became Pope Benedict XVI, recalled Bartolucci to direct a concert in the Sistine Chapel on 24 June 2006, in which he offered music from the repertoire of sacred polyphony of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina alongside his own compositions including the motet \"Oremus pro Pontifice Nostro Benedicto\" (\"Let us pray for our Pontiff Benedict\"), dedicated to the Pope.  The ensemble of the Pontifical Sistine Chapel Choir upon the death of Perosi was in poor condition. The situation was restored, however, thanks to the commitment of Bartolucci and personal interest of Pope John XXIII. In the forty years of Bartolucci's leadership, the choir balanced the obligation of papal liturgies with tours in various countries throughout the world, including Austria, France, Belgium, the Philippines, Australia, the United States, Turkey, Poland and Japan. In the years of the Second Vatican Council Bartolucci, against abandoning Latin, committed himself that the liturgical reform should not take a direction hostile to sacred music.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Activity as a composer.", "content": "Bartolucci was also dedicated to teaching and composition. He was a child prodigy, having composed his first Mass at age 12; his best known Mass is the \"Misa Jubilei,\" written in the Holy Year 1950. The body of his work already published fills more than forty volumes and includes Masses, motets, madrigals, hymns, symphonic, organ, and chamber music, and above all a series of oratorios for soloists, chorus, and orchestra. His three-act opera \"Brunelleschi\" is yet to be performed.  The concept of music for Bartolucci is based on naturalness and spontaneity. His reference points are Gregorian chant, Palestrina, and Verdi. Characteristic of Bartolucci's aesthetic conception is a respect for tradition, whose base lies in \"a considerable severity of song and a certain limpid and solid polyphony\", as he describes in the preface to his \"First Book of Motets\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Creation as cardinal.", "content": "On 20 October 2010, Pope Benedict XVI announced Monsignor Bartolucci's appointment to the College of Cardinals in the consistory scheduled for 20 November, recognising him for his service to the Church in the area of sacred ecclesiastical Catholic Church music (music used in the Catholic Church's principal liturgical celebrations, especially the Eucharist – the Mass, liturgical processions, rites such as marriages and funerals, and Eucharistic Adoration and Benediction). He was created Cardinal-Deacon of \"Santissimi Nomi di Gesù e Maria in Via Lata\", usually referred to as Gesù e Maria. At his elevation, Bartolucci became the fourth-oldest member of the College. Because he was over the age of 80, under the terms of Pope Paul VI's 1970 motu proprio \"Ingravescentem aetatem\", he was never eligible to vote in any future Papal conclave. Bartolucci was excused from the requirement that a cardinal be or become a bishop.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Bartolucci died on 11 November 2013, at the age of 96. His funeral Mass took place at St. Peter's Basilica on 13 November, and was led by Angelo Sodano, Dean of the College of Cardinals, with Pope Francis performing the final commendation. The Pope described Bartolucci as a \"dear and esteemed priest, illustrious composer, and musician, who exercised his long ministry particularly through sacred music, which is born of faith and expresses faith.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Domenico Bartolucci (7 May 1917 – 11 November 2013) was an Italian cardinal of the Catholic Church. He was the former director of the Sistine Chapel Choir and the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, and was recognized in the field of music both as a director and a prolific composer. Considered among the most authoritative interpreters of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Bartolucci led the Sistine Chapel Choir in performances worldwide, and also directed numerous concerts with the Choir of the Academy of Santa Cecilia, including a tour of the former Soviet Union.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977099}
{"src_title": "Guillermo Fariñas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Fariñas was born in Santa Clara. Fariñas's father, Guillermo Fariñas Key, had been part of the Cuban military forces, and fought in the Congo under Che Guevara in the 1960s. After completing ninth grade, he too began to study in the Camilo Cienfuegos military school, after which he went to Havana as a precadet in the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, where he studied intelligence and counterintelligence with the special forces. Fariñas formed part of the unit sent to guard the Peruvian embassy during the Mariel Boatlift.  Fariñas underwent special forces training with Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese trainers. In 1980 he was deployed to Angola, where he fought under Colonel Antonio Enrique Luzon. As a special forces soldier in the Commandos for Demolition, Penetration, and Sabotage, he participated in eleven missions into the UNITA rearguard, for which he received military decorations. He received two bullet wounds. In 1981 Fariñas went to the U.S.S.R. to Tambov where he studied at the Airborne Academy but, due to official negligence, suffered exposure to a chemical nerve agent that damaged his health to the point that he had to be discharged from the army.  In 1983 he began studying in the Department of Psychology in the \"Universidad Central de las Villas\". In 1986 he was nearly explled for being part of a Freudian group which was considered sympathetic to Perestroika and Glasnost. He graduated in 1988. Unable to become a psychology professor because he was considered politically unreliable, Fariñas began working as a clinical psychologist in Camajuaní. He was the Secretary General of the Young Communist League. When he opposed the execution of Arnaldo Ochoa Sánchez, he was expelled from his clinic and lost his membership in the Communist Youth League.  He was transferred to the José Martí Pediatric Hospital in Sancti Spíritus, where he established the mental health ward and adolescent clinic. Nevertheless, he was denied housing for not being politically reliable.  In 1993 he called on Fidel Castro in front of the foreign press to fulfill his promise to reopen the Pedro Borrás Pediatric Hospital in Havana. He was elected General Secretary of Healthcare Workers' Union.  In 1995, Fariñas was sent to the Valle Grande jail in Havana for 20 months. According to Fariñas, this was because he had denounced the corruption of the director of the hospital where he worked, a Central Committee member, to the National Revolutionary Police Force, and as a result was accused of various false crimes, including illegal possession of arms. State media, on the other hand, claim that he went to jail after physically attacking a woman, an official from the health institution where he worked as a psychologist. In 1997 he was condemned to a further 18 months of confinement, during which he undertook a strike on eating solid food. In 2002, he was attacked by a State Security agent and condemned to seven years of confinement, but after undertaking a fourteen-month hunger strike he was released.  In a 2007 interview with Harper's magazine (\"The Battle of Ideas\") Fariñas described State Security officers detaining him in Santa Clara, forcibly committing him to a psychiatric hospital ward overnight, and supervising his injection with unknown drugs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2006 hunger strike.", "content": "In 2006, Fariñas held a seven-month hunger strike to protest against the Internet censorship in Cuba, in particular the closure of the \"Ciber Cafe\" in Santa Clara by State Security forces. He ended it in Autumn 2006, due to severe health problems. His acts received worldwide attention and Reporters Without Borders awarded its cyber-freedom prize to Guillermo Fariñas in 2006. He also received the International Human Rights Award at Weimar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2010 hunger strike.", "content": "On February 26, 2010, Fariñas declared yet another hunger strike to protest the death of fellow dissident Orlando Zapata Tamayo. He has indicated that he will remain on strike until twenty-six other prisoners of conscience who are seriously ill are set free. In July he ended the protest after Raul Castro, the Cuban president, approved the release of 52 prisoners of conscience.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cuban government response.", "content": "The Cuban state newspaper \"Granma\" stated that Fariñas's legal troubles began \"because of a physical altercation with a female co-worker - not politics\" and described him as \"a paid agent of the United States\" and employee of the U.S. Interests Section.  On July 8, 2010, Fariñas ended his 134-day hunger strike Thursday, following signs the communist government is making good on its promise to release 52 political prisoners.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010 Sakharov Prize.", "content": "On 20 October 2010 Fariñas was awarded the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought by the European Parliament. In presenting the award the parliament commended Fariñas saying that he was a \"symbol of the fight for freedom of speech\". This marks the third time that the award has been made to Cuban dissidents.  In December 2010 the Cuban government denied Fariñas an exit visa necessary to travel to Strasbourg to accept the award. In response the European Parliament said that it would have an empty chair to represent him at the ceremony. Fariñas said, \"I believe that the Cuban government has shown over the years that it is behaving in an arrogant manner.\"  In 2013 the travel ban was lifted and Fariñas finally received his Prize.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2011 hunger strike.", "content": "On 3 June 2011, Fariñas declared his hunger strike to protest the Cuban authorities' response to fellow dissident Juan Wilfredo Soto García's death. Fariñas called for those responsible for the reported police beating three days before Soto died in a Santa Clara hospital to be brought to justice. He also demanded for the Cuban government to stop using violent means in its approach to non-violent opposition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2012 detention.", "content": "On 24 July 2012, he was one of dozens of activists arrested in Havana at the funeral of dissident Oswaldo Payá. Amnesty International and the U.S. criticized the arrests, with the White House describing them as \"a stark demonstration of the climate of repression in Cuba.\" The dissidents were freed the following day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2016 hunger strike.", "content": "In 2016 Fariñas and other members of the opposition organization \"Patriotic Union of Cuba\" (UPACU) protested against the increasingly violent repression of dissidents and activists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Fariñas has a wife, Clara, and a daughter.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Guillermo Fariñas Hernández (born 3 January 1962) (\"El Coco\") is a Cuban doctor of psychology, independent journalist and political dissident in Cuba. He has conducted 23 hunger strikes over the years to protest various elements of the Cuban government and spent more than 11 years in prison. He vowed that he would die in the struggle against censorship in Cuba.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977100}
{"src_title": "Arthur A. Denny", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Indiana, Illinois, and the way West.", "content": "Denny was born near Salem, Washington County, Indiana; by the time he was attending school his family had settled in Knox County, Illinois. His father, John Denny (1793–1875), fought in the western battles of the War of 1812 and later served in the Illinois state legislature, elected as a Whig. (He eventually traveled west with the Denny Party, but stayed on in Oregon's Willamette River Valley when Arthur and several others moved north to Puget Sound.) Denny did not have an easy childhood. He cared for his invalid mother while attending half-days in a log schoolhouse. He learned carpentry, taught school, studied surveying, and became a civil engineer and Knox County surveyor starting in 1843. In 1843, he married Mary Ann Boren; together they had six children: Louisa Catherine Frye, Margaret Leona Denny, Rolland Herschell Denny, Orion Orvil Denny, Arthur Wilson Denny, and Charles Latimer Denny.  In 1851, he led the Denny Party west. Leaving Illinois in April, they arrived in Portland, Oregon on August 23. In November, he sailed on to Puget Sound, arriving at Alki Point on Elliott Bay on November 13, 1851. It soon became clear that Alki was not the best spot for a settlement. The Denny Party relocated to the east shore of Elliott Bay, near what is now Pioneer Square, the original heart of what became the city of Seattle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "On February 15, 1852, Denny and others filed their claims. Denny soon established himself selling cargo on commission for ship captains.  On November 25, 1852, Denny was a delegate at the Monticello Convention that produced a petition to US Congress to split the Oregon Territory, creating the Washington Territory, which would later become the state of Washington.  In 1854 when he began a general merchandise partnership with Dexter Horton and David Phillips. In 1855, he volunteered to serve in the Indian War then taking place in Washington Territory. He served in several political offices. He was a county commissioner first for Thurston County (in what was then still part of the Oregon Territory), and then, after Washington became a separate territory, for King County, where Seattle is located.  He also served as Seattle's first postmaster and in the territorial House of Representatives for nine consecutive terms, including serving a term as speaker. From 1861 to 1865 he was registrar of the General Land Office. He served as territorial delegate to the thirty-ninth United States Congress.  Denny soon turned from politics to business. He returned to being a partner with Horton and Phillips, this time by taking a half interest in Dexter Horton and Co., the bank founded by Horton and Phillips in 1870, which would eventually become Seattle-First National Bank. He was president of the Seattle and Walla Walla Railroad Company and an investor in the Great Western Iron and Steel Company. Later in life, he was active in Society of Washington Pioneers and wrote a memoir, \"Pioneer Days in Puget Sound\".  Among his other achievements, he was involved in founding the University of Washington and donated much of the land for its original site. On the current U.W. campus, Denny Hall, the former administration building (built 1895) is named in his honor.  In 1962, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personality and politics.", "content": "Denny was an ascetic, a devout Christian (conservative in his religion to the point of opposing a divorce law), and a lifelong teetotaler. Indeed, he was teetotal to the point where he had the customers of his store buy their liquor direct from visiting ship captains so that he would not be involved in the transactions. He was a political conservative, and a cautious and conservative businessman and investor. Denny, in his memoir, described his decision to head north from Portland to Puget Sound as a \"desperate venture\". Lorraine McConaghy, historian at Seattle's Museum of History and Industry, agrees, but characterizes it further as \"the only one he ever undertook.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Women's suffrage.", "content": "Denny supported the right of women to vote, going so far as to introduce legislation in 1854 to allow white women of 18 years and older the right to vote. The resolution was voted down.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Argument over land.", "content": "This dour man is nonetheless remembered for at least one example of his wit. Also in his memoir, recounting his failure in 1853 to reach agreement with David Swinson \"Doc\" Maynard over what was intended to be a joint plat of the town of Seattle, he wrote, \"it was found that the doctor, who occasionally stimulated a little, had that day taken enough to cause him to feel that he was not only monarch of all he surveyed, but what Boren and I had surveyed as well.\"  It was later shown in a review done by a professional engineering firm on behalf of the city that it was in fact Denny that was wrong about the direction the streets should run and had actually violated the law in his plat of the city.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Arthur Armstrong Denny (June 20, 1822 – January 9, 1899) was one of the founders of Seattle, Washington, the acknowledged leader of the pioneer Denny Party, and later the city's wealthiest citizen and a 9-term member of the territorial legislature. Seattle's former Denny Hill was named after him; it was flattened in a series of regrading projects and its former site is now known as the Denny Regrade. The city's Denny Way, however, is named not after Arthur Denny, but after his younger brother David Denny.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977101}
{"src_title": "Troian Bellisario", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Troian Avery Bellisario was born and raised in Los Angeles. Her parents are producers Donald P. Bellisario and Deborah Pratt. Donald created \"Magnum, P.I.\", \"Quantum Leap\", and \"NCIS\", among other TV series. She has a younger brother, three half-sisters, two half-brothers and is a step-sister of actor Sean Murray and producer Chad W. Murray (step-brothers). Her father is of Italian and Serbian descent. Her mother is African American, and also has some French and English ancestry.  Bellisario attended Campbell Hall School in Studio City, California from kindergarten through twelfth grade, where she was the valedictorian of her class. After high school, Bellisario attended Vassar College for a couple months before taking a break for the sake of her mental health as she felt the institution only enhanced her need for perfection. She graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree from the University of Southern California in 2009.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Bellisario made her acting debut in the 1988 film \"Last Rites\" at the age of three. From 1990 to 2007, she guest starred on such television series as \"Quantum Leap\", \"Tequila and Bonetti\", \"JAG\", \"First Monday\" and \"NCIS\", television series that were produced by her father Donald P. Bellisario. In the \"NCIS\" episode \"Red Cell\" (Season 2, Episode 20) she played Sarah McGee, sister of Special Agent Timothy McGee, played by her real-life stepbrother Sean Murray.  In 1998, she co-starred with Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen in the film \"Billboard Dad\". Beginning in 2006, Bellisario began appearing in a number of independent short films namely, \"Unspoken\", \"Archer House\" and \"Intersect\". In November 2009, Bellisario was cast as Spencer Hastings in the TV series \"Pretty Little Liars\" based on the book series of the same name by Sara Shepard. In October 2011, Bellisario announced she was in the process of writing and creating her own film, which was successfully funded through Kickstarter on November 16, 2011. Filming ended in December 2011 and the film was officially completed by August 2012.  In 2014, she starred in the music video for The Head and the Heart's song \"Another Story\". Bellisario also starred in \"Immediately Afterlife\", a short film about two cult members who are the only survivors of their group's mass suicide, playing Bennett, alongside her \"Pretty Little Liars\" co-stars Shay Mitchell (Emily), Ian Harding (Ezra Fitz) and Nolan North (Peter Hastings). In 2015, she was cast in a leading role in the American remake of the French-Canadian film \"Martyrs\". In 2015, Bellisario and fiancée Patrick J. Adams filmed short film We Are Here in Haida Gwaii, which Bellisario wrote and starred in. In 2017, Bellisario starred in her feature film, Feed, which she also wrote and produced. The film was written based on Bellisario's own experiences with an eating disorder.  On April 7, 2016, it was announced that Bellisario would be directing Season 7, Episode 15 of \"Pretty Little Liars\". This made her one of the first in the cast, alongside Chad Lowe, to direct an episode on the series. In 2020, Bellisario appeared as the bride character Jenna Marshall from the episode \"Til Dex Do Us Part\" in \"Stumptown\".  In March 2020, Bellisario will play the lead role of Claire in the CBS political drama pilot \"Ways & Means\" which was written by Ed Redlich.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Bellisario started dating \"Suits\" star Patrick J. Adams after they met on the set of the play \"Equivocation\" in 2009. The couple briefly split, but after Adams' guest appearance as Hardy in \"Pretty Little Liars\", 2010, the two got back together. Since working on \"Equivocation\" and \"Pretty Little Liars\", the couple also worked together on the 2012 short film \"The Come Up\", on the USA series \"Suits\" in which Adams stars, and the short film \"We Are Here\". Bellisario and Adams married on December 10, 2016 in Santa Barbara, California. Bellisario was one of the guests at Meghan Markle’s wedding to Prince Harry at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle on May 19, 2018. In October 2018 Adams announced the birth of the couple's daughter.  Bellisario revealed in early January 2014 that she went through personal problems through high school, resulting in an eating disorder and self-harming problems. \"I was the youngest daughter, the perfect little girl,\" she said. \"My school was a very intense college prep school. So it was about wanting to please my father and mother and wanting to be perfect to everybody.\"  Bellisario delivered the USC School of Dramatic Arts (her alma mater) commencement speech in 2014. \"Once you start creating without anybody's permission, you own it. And because you learned it here, you know the power of a story. You'll never feel embarrassed when people ask you, 'What do you do?' You will look them in the eye and say, 'I tell stories.' And people will line up to work with you,\" Bellisario told the graduating class.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Troian Avery Bellisario (; born October 28, 1985) is an American actress. She is best known for starring as Spencer Hastings in the television series \"Pretty Little Liars\" (2010–2017).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977102}
{"src_title": "SS Justicia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "\"Statendam\" was built at Harland and Wolff in Belfast on the same building way which had built, beneath the Arrol Gantry. She was launched on 9 July 1914 but the First World War broke out only weeks later and fitting-out work stopped for a year. In 1915 the British government requisitioned \"Statendam\" for use as a troopship. The ship was at first given to the Cunard Line to manage because of the sinking of, and the ship was renamed \"Justicia\" (Latin for justice) because of their traditional ship suffix -ia. Cunard had difficulty in assembling a crew for \"Justicia\", so the ship was reassigned to the White Star Line, which had the crew of the sunken available. The ship’s grey hull was repainted in a dazzle camouflage scheme, and she went on to transport troops successfully.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Torpedoing.", "content": "On 19 July 1918 \"Justicia\" sailed unladen from Belfast to New York escorted by destroyers. While 23 miles south of Skerryvore, Scotland, she was torpedoed by the German Type III Coastal U-boat, under the command of Otto von Schrader. \"Justicia\" took on a list but the watertight doors were closed in time, temporarily preventing her from sinking. \"UB-64\" then fired two more torpedoes at \"Justicia\", striking her side. A fourth torpedo struck the wounded \"Justicia\" but she still remained afloat. The escorts were able to damage \"UB-64\", which departed the area, while radioing in \"Justicia\"s position. Most of the crew were evacuated, leaving only a small number on board. \"Justicia\"s engines were still operable and the tug took her in tow, in an attempt to beach the stricken ship at a suitable location near Lough Swilly.  The following day, found \"Justicia\" and fired two more torpedoes just after 9:00 am, which struck her amidships. By noon the remaining crew had been evacuated and the vessel rolled onto her starboard side and sank. 16 crew members were killed. In total, \"Justicia\" had been hit by six torpedoes. The destroyers,, and attacked with depth charges and sank \"UB-124\" with gunfire after she surfaced.  Today, the wreck of \"Justicia\" lies north-west of Malin Head, Ireland in waters 68 metres (223 ft) deep.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SS \"Justicia was a British troopship sunk during the First World War. She was laid down as SS \"Statendam, a 32,234 gross-ton ocean liner built for the Holland America Line by Harland and Wolff in Belfast. Before the ship was completed she was acquired by the British government and operated on behalf of the shipping controller by the White Star Line.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977103}
{"src_title": "Princess Anna of Montenegro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "Anna was born on August 18th, 1873 to Nicholas, Prince of Montenegro and his consort Milena Vukotić; on 28 August 1910, Nicholas would become King of Montenegro.  Anna's sisters were particularly noted for achieving marriages with powerful royal figures, causing their father, like the contemporary Christian IX of Denmark, to earn the sobriquet \"father-in-law of Europe\"; one source declared that these advantageous marriages \"had done more for [Montenegro] than all the brave deeds of this nation of warriors\". For instance, Princesses Zorka, Milica, Anastasia and Elena all made important marriages into the royal families of Serbia, Russia and Italy, respectively. Like all her sisters, Anna was educated in Russia at the expense of the Russian imperial family, and upon each of their marriages, were given dowries by the Russian emperor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "Anna met Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg at Cimiez, France, where the prince was a guest of the visiting Queen Victoria and Anna was visiting her sister Princess Milica of Montenegro and brother-in-law Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia. In La Turbie, a small party composed of Queen Victoria, Princess Alice of Battenberg, Prince Francis Joseph, Princess Anna, and others went on an afternoon drive together. While most of the party went to a booth to view a camera obscura, Anna and Francis Joseph broke away; soon afterwards, Francis Joseph's brother Prince Louis of Battenberg announced the engagement to Princess Anna.  The Battenberg family was the product of a morganatic marriage, and though it was a lesser status than other royalty, the family had close ties with the United Kingdom, as Prince Henry was married to Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom, Victoria's youngest daughter. The Battenbergs were well known for their good looks, charm, and perhaps most importantly, their lack of political controversy, which may have helped them secure favorable royal partners.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ceremony.", "content": "Anna and Francis gained the permission of Queen Victoria and the Russian court in order to marry. On 18 May 1897 in the presence of her entire family, Anna married Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg in both Eastern Orthodox and Protestant wedding ceremonies in Cetinje, Montenegro.  Francis was a colonel in the Bulgarian cavalry, where his older brother Alexander had been sovereign Prince of Bulgaria until 1886. Francis was well liked not only by Queen Victoria, but also by Nicholas II of Russia and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna; Nicholas is said to have given Anna one million rubles as a dowry. This Russian connection was likely the result of Anna's two sisters (Princess Milica of Montenegro and Princess Anastasia of Montenegro) being married to Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich and George Maximilianovich, 6th Duke of Leuchtenberg, respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Anna was said to be \"unusually beautiful\", vivacious, and tall, while Francis was handsome, likable, tall, and well-educated. The happily married couple had no children. Anna and Francis were very popular with their respective families.  The same year they married, Francis was rumored to have been chosen as governor-general of the politically turbulent island of Crete by Turkey and Greece.  Prior to World War I, Anna and her husband spent much of their time at Prinz Emils Garten in Darmstadt, but once the war began, they were advised by Francis' cousin Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse to stay out of Germany. When Italy joined the war, the couple found themselves to be permanent exiles, and consequently settled in Switzerland, where Francis pursued his academic studies. The couple had never been rich, but now their financial state was worse than ever; by August 1916, Francis was described as \"awfully bad off\". Throughout her life, Princess Anna anonymously wrote and published a large number of musical compositions that obtained a certain degree of commercial success. The royalties from these compositions provided a much-needed source of income for the couple. While working on an opera in 1899, Anna gained an interview of considerable length with the famous Italian composer Pietro Mascagni in the royal palace of Naples, as she wanted to consult him for musical advice. Anna's sister Crown Princess Elena of Italy helped her procure the meeting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Francis died on 31 July 1924 in Territet (near Montreux, Switzerland). Though she had never met him, his niece-in-law Edwina Mountbatten had continuously sent him an allowance during her lifetime, and continued to do so with his widow, sending Anna money until Edwina's own death in 1960.  In the British royal family's 1917 eradication of German titles and styles, the Battenbergs became known as Mountbattens – all except Prince Francis and Anna. Anna would continue to use the name Battenberg until her death, surpassing all others in the royal house. Anna died on 22 April 1971 in Montreux, Switzerland. For a number of years, she was Europe's oldest living princess.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Princess Anna of Montenegro (18 August 1873 – 22 April 1971) was the seventh child and sixth daughter of Nicholas I of Montenegro and his wife Milena Vukotić.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977104}
{"src_title": "Russian cruiser Novik", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "\"Novik\" was ordered as a part of a program to bolster the Russian Pacific Fleet with a 3000-ton class reconnaissance cruiser. Shipbuilders from several countries offered designs, and eventually the German shipbuilders Schichau-Werke, better known for its torpedo boats was selected. The new cruiser was launched on 2 August 1900 and her trials began on 2 May 1901. Some initial vibration problems were experienced with her screws, but testing was completed on 23 April 1902 with five test runs at an average speed of 25.08 knots. This made \"Novik\" one of the fastest cruisers in the world at the time, which so impressed the Russian naval leadership that a near copy was made in the Russian. On 15 May 1902, \"Novik\" was assigned to the Russian naval base at Kronstadt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service life (Russia).", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "On 14 September 1902, \"Novik\" departed Kronstadt for the Pacific, via the Kiel Canal, stopping at Brest (5 October), Cadiz, Naples and Piraeus, where she rendezvoused with the battleship. She departed Greece for Port Said on 11 December, but was forced to turn back due to severe weather, only transiting the Suez Canal on 20–21 December. Afterwards, she called on Jeddah, Djibouti, Aden, Colombo and Sabang, reaching Singapore on 28 February 1903, Manila, Shanghai and finally arriving at Port Arthur on 2 April 1903.  She was assigned to accompany the cruiser to Japan from 26–29 May 1903 on a diplomatic mission, conveying Russian Minister of War Aleksey Kuropatkin to Kobe and Nagasaki, returning to Port Arthur from 12–13 June. She was then sent to Vladivostok over overhaul and dry-dock inspection from 23 July. As with other ships in the Pacific Fleet, she received a new dark olive paint scheme. She returned to Port Arthur in early September.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Russo-Japanese War.", "content": "\"Novik\" suffered minor damage from an 8-inch shell, after she single-handedly pursued the attacking Japanese destroyers for nearly 30 miles on 9 February 1904, during the Battle of Port Arthur. Novik's commander, Captain Nikolai von Essen was one of the few ships in the Russian fleet to offer combat, and the only one to pursue the enemy, closing to within 3,000 yards of the Japanese squadron to deliver a torpedo, without effect. Novik's damage required nine days to repair. On 10 March 1904, Admiral Makarov sortied in \"Novik\" as his flagship, from Port Arthur, along with the cruiser \"Bayan\" to rescue one his destroyers, then in hot combat with a Japanese destroyer, just outside of shore battery range. After three attempts, withdrawing each time to within shore battery protection, coupled with the arrival of Japanese Armored Cruisers, the Russian destroyer finally sank, and Makarov and \"Novik\" returned to Port Arthur.  On 13 April 1904, a similar incident occurred, the Torpedo Boat Destroyer \"Strashni\" was fighting Japanese Torpedo Boat Destroyers, and was in sinking condition, when the Russian cruiser Bayan showed up, which quickly caused the enemy destroyers to leave the area. But the \"Bayan\" also knew that the retreating Japanese destroyers were headed to their own Armored Cruisers. \"Bayan\" picked up some survivors, then just outside of Port Arthur met with Admiral Makarov aboard his flagship Petropavlovsk, along with cruisers the \"Novik\", Askold, Diana, and the battleship \"Poltova\" just coming out of Port Arthur. Several minutes later the flagship struck three mines just outside the entrance to Port Arthur, and sank with great loss of life (including Admiral Makarov). The fleet then returned to the safe confines of Port Arthur.  On 23 June, \"Novik\" was again part of an unsuccessful attempted sortie from Port Arthur, this time under Makarov's successor, Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft.  On 10 August, the Russian fleet once more attempted to run the Japanese blockade of Port Arthur. In the resulting Battle of the Yellow Sea, most of the Russian ships returned to port but several managed to escape to be interned in various neutral ports. \"Novik\" was slightly damaged by three hits and two crewmen were killed. \"Novik\" reached the neutral German port of Tsingtao ; however, choosing to avoid internment, Commander von Schultz chose to outrace its Japanese pursuers around the Japanese home islands towards Vladivostok, hoping to join with the Russian cruiser squadron based there. \"Novik\" was pursued by the Japanese cruiser, which was later joined by. Spotted by a Japanese transport ship while coaling at Sakhalin, \"Novik\" was trapped in Aniva Bay, and forced into the battle of Korsakov by \"Tsushima\". Realizing that he was hopelessly outgunned and after sustaining five hits, three of them under the water line, von Schultz ordered \"Novik\" scuttled, intending to make salvage impossible.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Service life (Japan).", "content": "The Imperial Japanese Navy had been impressed with the speed of \"Novik\", and despite the considerable damage inflicted during the Battle of Korsakov (and the damage created by its own crew in attempting to scuttle the vessel), sent an engineering crew to salvage the vessel as a prize of war in August 1905. The operation took almost a year to accomplish. The wreck was repaired at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, and commissioned in the Imperial Japanese Navy as \"Suzuya\" on 20 August 1906. Her new name came from the Suzuya River in Karafuto, near where \"Novik\" was captured.  During the repair work, her original boilers were replaced by eight Miyabara boilers, her three smokestacks were reduced to two, her lateral engines were removed and power output was reduced to 6,000HP. \"Suzuya's\" bow and stern main guns were replaced with 120-mm guns and her four 120-mm guns amidships were replaced by 76-mm guns. She also retained her six 47mm Hotchkiss guns and two 37mm guns. All repairs were complete by December 1908, and she was officially designated as an \"aviso\" rather than as a cruiser. Indeed, she served with the IJN primarily for high speed reconnaissance and as a dispatch vessel; however, due to her battle damage and fewer boilers, the repaired vessel could only attain a maximum speed of, as opposed to in her original configuration. Furthermore, the development of wireless communications quickly made such dispatch vessels obsolete. \"Suzuya\" was re-classified as a second-class coastal defense vessel on 28 August 1912, and was declared obsolete and sold for scrap on 1 April 1913.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Novík (\"\") was a protected cruiser in the Imperial Russian Navy, built by Schichau shipyards in Elbing near Danzig, Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977105}
{"src_title": "Princess Maria Maximilianovna of Leuchtenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "Maria's father Maximilian de Beauharnais, 3rd Duke of Leuchtenberg had traveled to St. Petersburg, eventually winning the hand of Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna, Nicholas I's eldest daughter. Maximilian was subsequently bestowed with the style \"Imperial Highness\" and given the title \"Prince Romanowsky\".  As the daughter of a Russian grand duchess, Maria (\"Marusya\") and her siblings (Nicholas, Eugen, Eugenia, Sergei, and George) were always treated as grand dukes and duchesses, bearing the styles \"Imperial Highness\". After their father's death in 1852, their mother morganatically remarried to Count Grigori Stroganov two years later. As this union was kept secret from her father Emperor Nicholas I (and her brother Emperor Alexander II could not permit the union, preferring instead to feign ignorance), Grand Duchess Maria was forced into exile abroad. Alexander felt sympathy for his sister however, and paid special attention to her children from her first marriage, who lived in St. Petersburg without their mother.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1866 assassination attempt.", "content": "On 4 April 1866, Maria and her brother Nicholas were accompanying their uncle Alexander in St. Petersburg, when an assassination was attempted. Alexander stopped to put on an overcoat before climbing into his carriage, when a man quickly aimed a pistol at him; only the swift action of a man named Komissaroff, who knocked the man's hand up in the air, saved the emperor's life.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "There were various suitors for Maria's hand in marriage. Pyotr Andreyevich Shuvalov, a friend of Emperor Alexander II, dared to court his niece, only to be reprimanded most severely. On 11 February 1863 in the Grand Church of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, she married Prince Wilhelm of Baden. He was a younger son of Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden, and his wife, Princess Sophie of Sweden.  Upon learning of the marriage, United States President Abraham Lincoln sent a letter to Wilhelm's elder brother Frederick I, Grand Duke of Baden in which Lincoln stated: \"I participate in the satisfaction afforded by this happy event and pray Your Royal Highness to accept my sincere congratulations upon the occasion together with the assurances of my highest consideration\".  They had two children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After her marriage, Maria spent most of her time in Germany, paying only rare visits to Russia. As a new wife, Maria began her duties soon after marrying, for instance representing her husband's relative Grand Duchess Louise of Baden at the christening of the Prince of Leiningen's daughter. During the Franco-Prussian War, Wilhelm served with the Prussian army under the command of Wilhelm I. On 29 July, Maria and her husband stayed with Crown Prince Frederick, and according to the prince's memoirs, \"distracted us for the moment from the anxieties of the present\".  Prince Wilhelm died on 27 April 1897. After his death, Maria founded a new organization, called the \"German Anti-Immorality Association\". Its purpose was to suppress \"vice among the upper classes\". Maria, with the help of Grand Duchess Eleonore of Hesse and Queen Charlotte of Württemberg, set aside a fund meant to produce pamphlets persuading both female and male royal figures that their prominent roles in society meant they should be examples of moral purity. They also sent a missive to their family and friends asking them to \"abstain from immorality\" for one year.  Princess Maria remained widowed until her own death, on 16 February 1914 in St. Petersburg. As with the court of St. Petersburg, Maria's death cast the Berlin court into mourning, disrupting planned court festivities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles and honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "She received the following awards:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Princess Maria Maximilianovna of Leuchtenberg, also known as Princess Maria Romanovskya, Maria, Princess Romanovskaja, Maria Herzogin von Leuchtenberg or Marie Maximiliane (16 October 1841 – 16 February 1914) was the eldest daughter of Maximilian de Beauharnais, 3rd Duke of Leuchtenberg and his wife Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia. She married Prince Wilhelm of Baden. The couple's son, Prince \"Maximilian\" of Baden, was Germany's last Imperial chancellor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977106}
{"src_title": "Michael Sendivogius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Little is known of his early life: he was born in a noble family that was part of the Clan of Ostoja. His father sent him to study in university of Kraków but Sendivogius visited also most of the European countries and universities; he studied at Vienna, Altdorf, Leipzig and Cambridge. His acquaintances included John Dee and Edward Kelley. It was thanks to him that King Stefan Batory agreed to finance their experiments. In the 1590s he was active in Prague, at the famously open-minded court of Rudolf II. In Poland he appeared at the court of King Sigismund III Vasa around 1600, and quickly achieved great fame, as the Polish king was himself an alchemy enthusiast and even conducted experiments with Sendivogius. In Kraków's Wawel castle, the chamber where his experiments were performed is still intact. The more conservative Polish nobles soon came to dislike him for encouraging the king to expend vast sums of money on chemical experimentation. The more practical aspects of his work in Poland involved the design of mines and metal foundries. His widespread international contacts led to his employment as a diplomat from about 1600.  In his later years, Michael Sendivogius spent more time in Bohemia and Moravia (now in the Czech Republic), where he had been granted lands by the Habsburg emperor. Near the end of his life, he settled in Prague, in the court of Rudolf II, where he gained even more fame as a designer of metal mines and foundries. However the Thirty Years' War of 1618-48 had effectively ended the golden age of alchemy: the rich patrons now spent their money on financing war rather than chemical speculation, and he died in relative obscurity.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Daniel Stolcius in his \"Viridarium Chymicum\" (1624) praises Sendivogius as the author of twelve books. The most famous of these was his \"New Chemical Light\", published in 1604. Besides a relatively clear exposition of his theory on the existence of a 'food of life' in air, his books contain various scientific, pseudo-scientific and philosophical theories, and were repeatedly translated and widely read among such worthies as Isaac Newton into the 18th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sendivogius in fiction.", "content": "The first appearance of this character in fiction was in the 1845 book \"Sędziwoj\" by, a writer during the times of romanticism in Poland. In early 2000s he appeared in several books by the Polish writer Andrzej Pilipiuk (\"Kuzynki\" 2003, \"Księżniczka\" 2004, \"Dziedziczki\" 2005). Sendivogius is also a character in the novel of Gustav Meyrink (part of \"Goldmachergeschichten, August Scherl Verlag, Berlin 1925\"), a German author from Prague, Bohemia, who often wrote about alchemy and alchemists.  The Polish 19th-century realist painter Jan Matejko depicted Sendivogius demonstrating a transmutation of a base metal into gold before King Sigismund III Vasa.  He was also shown (thinly disguised) as the Alchemist Sendivogius in a Polish TV series in the 1980s.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michael Sendivogius (; ; 2 February 1566 – 1636) was a Polish alchemist, philosopher, and medical doctor. A pioneer of chemistry, he developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other chemical compounds. He discovered that air is not a single substance and contains a life-giving substance—later called oxygen—170 years before Scheele's discovery of the element. He correctly identified this 'food of life' with the gas (also oxygen) given off by heating nitre (saltpetre). This substance, the 'central nitre', had a central position in Sendivogius' schema of the universe.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977107}
{"src_title": "Teeworlds", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Teeworlds\" presents itself as a crossover between classic sprite-based shoot-em-up games of the arcade era and modern-day first-person shooters. It is played on two-dimensional, side-scrolling maps typical of the platformer genre, but uses FPS-style keyboard controls for moving, switching weapons and chatting. The game also sports a grappling hook and double jump mechanics for maneuvering. Grappling hooks can also be used to hook on other tees and pull them towards the player. Maps' landscape themes include: grass, cave, winter, desert, and jungle, which feature map elements such as spikes, pitfalls, and non-hook-able metal and rock in vanilla gametypes. \"Teeworlds\" works as a client-server system and the player can choose from a list of available game servers for multiplayer gaming.  The player maneuvers a \"Tee\", a ball-shaped 2D character, using the keyboard and aims and shoots at other players or objects using the mouse. Health and shields (acting as armor) are spread out along the map, which can be collected by players when needed. The only powerup in the game is a katana, which gives the player a better damage dealing and quickness for a short period of time. It changes the player's character to a ninja, enabling other players to notice he picked up the powerup.  There are weapons inspired by FPS games such as the \"Quake\" and \"Unreal\" series. Advanced weapons, such as the grenade-launcher, shotgun and laser, deal more damage than both the spawn weapons (Pistol) but only have limited ammunition. The grenade launcher is a powerful weapon with a quirk that allows players to shoot themselves up walls or higher in the air, enabling them to reach higher points in maps quicker, while harming the player himself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gametypes.", "content": "Currently, the official vanilla gametypes are:  There are also unofficial game types. There are many more unofficial gamemodes, but too many to list here.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In December 2007, the source code was made available to the public under the terms of a Zlib like license.  In March 2008 with the 0.4.0 release, the original name \"Teewars\" was changed to \"Teeworlds\" by the developers due to legal reasons.  Also in 2008, a non-commercial clause was added to the software license of Teeworlds which made it incompatible with the Free software definition and the Open source definition.  Since August 29, 2012, the creator and developer, Magnus Auvinen made development and forum moderation public to a community of selected volunteers.  With the 0.6.x release in 2011 the non-commercial clause was dropped what made Teeworlds free and open-source software again; additionally improved character encoding support with UTF-8 and introduced localization support for multiple languages was added. In August 2012 the game's content and assets were released under the Creative Commons license CC-SA 3.0.  Teeworlds was released on Steam on August 24, 2015.  The latest version 0.7.2 was released on 24 December 2018, and is under continued development on GitHub.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Because \"Teeworlds\" is open-source, a community actively develops it, using GitHub with the main developer known as Oy. \"Teeworlds\" is mainly programmed in the programming languages C and C++.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Code modifications.", "content": "As \"Teeworlds\" source code is being public, many fan programmers can create their own versions of the game (\"forks\"), which generally has a strong influence on the game and its further development. Many players are attracted to the endless possibilities of changing the game to suit their own benefits. Slightly modified game servers are accepted by the official game, as long as they broadcast that they are. Most of the modified server versions feature new gametypes. Modified game clients are commonly used by the community.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "User-created content.", "content": "The game includes a map editor, which is a simple tool to create own maps with. Many user created maps include their own tilesets that are downloaded with the maps from the game server \"Teeworlds\" uses simple image files for most of the games's graphical content. As a result, this content may be modified and extended. Customized game character skins can be seen by other clients, as long as the skins have the same name. \"Teeworlds\" can take screenshots and record demos that can then be viewed in the game. This has led to many \"Teeworlds\" videos on web platforms, such as YouTube.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Teeworlds\" has achieved broad usage in the open source game community, and it is available in many Linux distributions. Teeworlds itself lists 2.3 million players and 630 servers in July 2016. \"Teeworlds\" has been compared to the \"Worms\" series of turn-based strategy games, and was noted in several gaming news outlets over the years.  After the 2015 release on Steam, Steamspy reported in 2016 over 450,000 game installations and around 17,000 active players over the last two weeks.  Chip.de listed in July 2016 Teeworlds as most downloaded Jump and Run game per week from their site (1900 downloads), accumulating 700,000 downloads.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Teeworlds is a free, open-source sidescrolling multiplayer shooting game originally created by Swedish developer Magnus Auvinen and now maintained by the community. It features simple cartoon-themed graphics and physics and relies heavily on classic shooter weaponry and gameplay. Currently there are official versions for Microsoft Windows, Linux, Mac OS X and it has been available via digital distributor Steam since 2015. The source code is publicly available on github.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977108}
{"src_title": "Olga Ivinskaya", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ivinskaya, of German-Polish descent, was born in Tambov to a provincial high school teacher. In 1915, the family moved to Moscow. After graduating from the Editorial Workers Institute in Moscow in 1936, she worked as an editor at various literary magazines. She was an admirer of Pasternak since her adolescence, attending literary gatherings to listen to his poetry. She married twice: the first time to Ivan Emelianov in 1936, who hanged himself in 1939, having one daughter, Irina Emelianova; the second time in 1941 to Alexander Vinogradov (later killed in the war), producing one son, Dmitry Vinogradov.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with Pasternak.", "content": "She met Boris Pasternak in October 1946, in the editorial office of \"Novy Mir\", where she was in charge of the new authors department. She was romantically involved with him until his death, although he refused to leave his wife. Early in 1948, he asked her to leave \"Novy Mir\", as her position there was getting more difficult because of their relationship. She took up a role as his secretary instead.  Ivinskaya collaborated closely with Pasternak on translating poetry from foreign languages into Russian. While she was translating the Bengali language poet Rabindranath Tagore, Pasternak advised her, to \"1) bring out the theme of the poem, its subject matter, as clearly as possible; 2) tighten up the fluid, non-European form by rhyming internally, not at the end of the lines; 3) use loose, irregular meters, mostly ternary ones. You may allow yourself to use assonances.\". Later, while collaborating with him on a translation of the Czech language poet Vítězslav Nezval, Pasternak told Ivinskaya, \"Use the literal translation only for the \"meaning\", but do not borrow words as they stand from it: they are absurd and not always comprehensible. Don't translate everything, only what you can manage, and by this means try to make the translation more precise than the original—an absolute necessity in the case of such a confused, slipshod piece of work.\"  Pasternak acknowledged Ivinskaya as the inspiration for \"Doctor Zhivago\"'s heroine Lara. Many poems by Yuri Zhivago in the novel were addressed by Pasternak to Ivinskaya.  In October 1949, Ivinskaya was arrested as \"an accomplice to the spy\" and in July 1950 was sentenced by the Special Council of the NKVD to five years in the Gulag. That was seen as an attempt to press Pasternak to give up writings critical of the Soviet system. In a 1958 letter to a friend in West Germany, Pasternak wrote, \"She was put in jail on my account, as the person considered by the secret police to be closest to me, and they hoped that by means of a grueling interrogation and threats they could extract enough evidence from her to put me on trial. I owe my life and the fact that they did not touch me in those years to her heroism and endurance.\"  At that time of her arrest, Ivinskaya was pregnant by Pasternak and miscarried. She was released in 1953 after Stalin's death. \"Doctor Zhivago\" was published in Italy in 1957 by Feltrinelli, with Ivinskaya conducting all negotiations on Pasternak's behalf.  Ivinskaya was one of nine \"prisoners of conscience\" featured in \"Persecution 1961\", a book by Peter Benenson that helped launch Amnesty International. In it, Benenson lauded her for refusing to cooperate with authorities and for willingly suffering to protect Pasternak. However, after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the opening of Soviet archives, it became known that, like most torture victims, she had been induced to cooperate with the KGB.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final years.", "content": "After Pasternak's death in 1960, Ivinskaya was arrested for the second time, with her daughter, Irina Emelianova. She was accused of being Pasternak's link with Western publishers in dealing in hard currency for \"Doctor Zhivago\". The Soviet government quietly released them, Irina after one year, in 1962, and Ivinskaya in 1964. She served four years of an eight-year sentence, apparently to punish her for the relationship. In 1978, her memoirs were published in Paris in Russian and were translated in English under the title \"A Captive of Time\".  Ivinskaya was rehabilitated only under Gorbachev in 1988. All of Pasternak's letters to her and other manuscripts and documents had been seized by the KGB during her last arrest. She spent several years in litigation trying to regain them. However, those were blocked by his daughter-in-law, Natalya. The Supreme Court of Russia ended up ruling against her on the ground that \"there was no proof of ownership\" and \"papers should remain in the state archive\". She died in 1995 from cancer. A reporter on NTV compared Ivinskaya's role to that of other famous muses for Russian writers: \"As Pushkin would not be complete without Anna Kern, and Yesenin would be nothing without Isadora, so Pasternak would not be Pasternak without Olga Ivinskaya, who was his inspiration for 'Doctor Zhivago.' \". Her daughter, Irina Emelianova, who emigrated to France in 1985, published a book of memories of her mother's affair with Pasternak.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Olga Vsevolodovna Ivinskaya (; June 16, 1912, Tambov – September 8, 1995, Moscow) was a Russian poet and writer. She was friend and lover of Nobel Prize-winning writer Boris Pasternak during the last 13 years of his life and the inspiration for the character of Lara in his novel \"Doctor Zhivago\" (1957).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977109}
{"src_title": "Denisa Rosolová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Rosolová's main event is the long jump, but she also competes in heptathlon. Her best are 6.68 m in the long jump (July 2004 in Grosseto) and 5,828 points in the heptathlon (July 2006 in Tábor). Since 2001, she has been a member of AK SSK Vítkovice, an athletic club in Ostrava; her coach is Aleš Duda.  Rosolová took the silver medal in the long jump at the 2003 U17 World Championships in Sherbrooke and won the gold medal in the long jump at the 2004 World Junior Championships in Grosseto. She came 25th in the long jump at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. She also competed in the heptathlon at the 2006 European Championships in Gothenburg but had to pull out because of an ankle injury.  At the 2007 European Indoor Championships in Birmingham, Rosolová matched her Czech indoor long jump record of 6.64 m and came in third, beating Bianca Kappler by one centimetre and winning her first major senior medal. As of March 2007, she was several-time champion of the Czech Republic (one outdoor and three indoor titles in the long jump and one title in the heptathlon). In February 2008 she improved her own indoor national record in pentathlon to 4632 points. In 2012, Rosolová started to compete in the 400 m hurdles and in her first season, she almost beat Zuzana Hejnová's national record.  Rosolová won a bronze medal with the Czech 4x400 metres relay at the 2013 European Athletics Indoor Championships.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In November 2008 she married tennis player Lukáš Rosol. In 2011, they divorced. On 7 November 2017 Rosolová announced her pregnancy and end of athletic career. On 15 June 2019 she married athlete Adam Helcelet.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Denisa Helceletová, formerly Rosolová, née Ščerbová () (born 21 August 1986 in Karviná, Czechoslovakia) is a Czech former athlete who has won medals at the European Championships and European Indoor Championships.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977110}
{"src_title": "Buried (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 2006, Paul Conroy, an American civilian working in Iraq, wakes to find himself buried in a wooden coffin with only a Zippo lighter and a BlackBerry phone at hand. He starts to piece together what has happened to him. He remembers that he and several others were ambushed by terrorists. He was hit by a rock and passed out. He receives a call from his kidnapper, Jabir, demanding that he pay a ransom of $5 million by 9 PM or he will be left in the coffin to die.  Conroy calls the State Department, which tells him that due to the government policy of not negotiating with terrorists, it will not pay the ransom but will try to rescue him. They connect him with Dan Brenner, head of the Hostage Working Group, who tells Conroy they are doing their best to find him.  Jabir calls Conroy and demands he makes a ransom video, threatening to execute one of his colleagues who survived the attack. Conroy insists that no one will pay $5 million, so Jabir drops the amount to $1 million. Despite his compliance in making a video, the kidnappers execute his colleague and send him the video of it. Shortly afterward, distant explosions shake the area, damaging his coffin which begins to slowly fill with sand. Conroy continues sporadic phone calls with Brenner, skeptical of his promises of help. Brenner tells Conroy a man named Mark White was rescued from a similar situation three weeks previously and is home with his family.  Conroy receives a phone call from his employers who inform him that he has been fired from his job due to an alleged prohibited relationship with a colleague, so he and his family will not be entitled to any benefits or pension earned with the company. Brenner calls saying that the explosions that damaged his coffin earlier were in fact F-16 bombings and that his kidnappers may have been killed. Conroy begins to lose hope and makes a last will and testament in video form, giving his son his clothes and his wife his personal savings. Jabir calls demanding Conroy video record himself cutting off a finger, threatening Conroy's family back home if he refuses, saying that he had lost all of his own children. Conroy complies.  Shortly after making the video, the cell phone rings, and Conroy begins to hear digging and distorted voices. The voices become clearer, saying to open the coffin, and the coffin opens. It abruptly becomes obvious that he hallucinated the encounter.  Brenner calls and tells Conroy an insurgent has given details of where to find a man buried alive, and that they are driving out to rescue him. Conroy then receives a tearful call from his wife Linda, and he assures her that he is going to be okay. As sand continues to fill the coffin to dangerous levels, giving Conroy seconds left to live, Brenner calls and tells him that he and the rescue team have arrived at the burial site. Through the phone, digging is hard, but Conroy cannot hear any digging around him. The team digs up a coffin and opens it, but it turns out that the insurgent led them to Mark White's coffin, the man Brenner claimed had been rescued. Now knowing that he is not going to be saved, Conroy tries to calm himself down and accepts his fate. The sand finally fills his coffin and he suffocates as the light goes out and the screen goes black. The last thing we hear is Brenner repeating, \"I'm sorry, Paul, I'm so sorry,\" as the connection times out.  In a post-credits scene, a lighter illuminates the name \"Mark White\" on the lid of the coffin, written by Paul earlier.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The film was produced by Barcelona-based Versus Entertainment, in association with The Safran Company and Dark Trick Films.  It was shot in Barcelona over 16 days. Lead actor Ryan Reynolds stated that he suffered from claustrophobia while filming (much like the character he plays). The coffin he was in was gradually filled with sand as filming went on such that he was actually buried while shooting the film's climactic moments. Ryan described the last day of shooting as \"unlike anything I experienced in my life, and I never ever want to experience that again.\" The production crew had a team of paramedics waiting on standby. One of director Rodrigo Cortés' inspirations was the film \"Rope\" directed by Alfred Hitchcock.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "\"Buried\" premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2010. Lionsgate purchased the theatrical rights to the film and gave the film a limited theatrical release on September 24, 2010 and a wider release two weeks later on October 8, 2010. The film's first trailer premiered with \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\". The second trailer premiered at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International, and was attached with select prints of \"Dinner for Schmucks\", \"\", \"The Expendables\" and \"The Last Exorcism\".  The film won the best European feature film of the year award at the Strasbourg European Fantastic Film Festival in September 2010.  The film was presented at the Deauville American Film Festival, in competition, and the Toronto International Film Festival, out of competition, in September 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": ", the film holds an 87% approval rating on review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 156 reviews with an average rating of 7.3 out of 10. The site's consensus says: \"Wringing a seemingly impossible amount of gripping drama out of its claustrophobic premise, \"Buried\" is a nerve-wracking showcase for Ryan Reynolds's talent.\" Metacritic gives it a weighted average of 65/100 based on 29 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".  Film critic Roger Ebert awarded the film 3.5 out of 4 stars and wrote that \"Rodrigo Cortés, the Spanish filmmaker behind this diabolical, Hitchcock-influenced narrative stunt, makes merry mischief with camera angles and lighting\". Scott Mantz of \"Access Hollywood\" called it \"a brilliantly twisted suspense thriller that would have made Alfred Hitchcock proud.\" Chris Tilly at IGN gave the film a perfect 10 out of 10. Peter Travers of \"Rolling Stone\" awarded the film 2 out of 4 stars, commenting: \"Ninety minutes of being buried alive with Ryan Reynolds: Didn't we all suffer that in \"The Proposal\"?\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Buried is a 2010 English-language Spanish psychological thriller film directed by Rodrigo Cortés. It stars Ryan Reynolds and was written by Chris Sparling.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977111}
{"src_title": "The Child of the Cavern", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "Covering a time span of over ten years, this novel follows the fortunes of the mining community of Aberfoyle near Stirling, Scotland. Receiving a letter from an old colleague, mining engineer James Starr sets off for the old Aberfoyle mine, thought to have been mined out ten years earlier. Starr finds mine overman Simon Ford and his family living in a cottage deep inside the mine; he is astonished to find that Ford has made a discovery of the presence of a large vein of coal. Accompanying Simon Ford are his wife, Madge, and adult son, Harry.  From the outset, mysterious and unexplained happenings start to occur around the main characters, attributed initially to goblins and firemaidens.  Soon after the discovery of the new vein of coal, the community is revitalised with a whole town growing up around the underground lake called Loch Malcolm.  Suspicious of a malevolent force at work, Harry continues his explorations of the cavern system, where down a deep shaft, he discovers a young orphan girl named Nell. Over the course of the next few years Nell is adopted by Simon and Madge but reveals nothing of where she came from, only that she had never been out of the mine.  Eventually, when Harry and Nell announce their marriage, the mysterious occurrences come to a head. It becomes clear that all of the happenings have been caused by Silfax, another former employee of the mine, who along with his trained snowy owl has inhabited the mine since its closure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes.", "content": "James Starr, a respected member of the Royal Institution, like many of Verne's characters is a member of the academic \"aristocracy\" of the day.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Les Indes noires (literally The Black Indies) is a novel by the French writer Jules Verne, serialized in \"Le Temps\" in March and April 1877 and published immediately afterward by Pierre-Jules Hetzel. The first UK edition was published in October 1877 by Sampson Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington as The Child of the Cavern, or Strange Doings Underground. Other English titles for the novel include Black Diamonds and The Underground City.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977112}
{"src_title": "Pierre Restany", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Conceptions of New Realism / Nouveau Realisme.", "content": "In 1960 Pierre Restany created the idea and coined the term \"Nouveau Réalisme\" with Yves Klein during a group show in the Apollinaire gallery in Milan. It was an idea that united a group of French and Italian artists. Nouveau Realisme was the European answer to the American Neo-Dada of Fluxus and Pop Art. The group included Martial Raysse, Arman, Yves Klein, François Dufrene, Raymond Hains, Daniel Spoerri, Jean Tinguely, Jacques Villeglé - and was later joined by César, Mimmo Rotella, Niki de Saint Phalle and Christo.  Restany defined this group of artists as sharing \"new perceptual approaches to reality\". The first exhibition of the \"Nouveaux réalistes\" took place in November 1960 at the Paris Festival d'avant-garde. Their work was an attempt at reassessing the concept of art and the artist in the context of 20th-century consumer society by reasserting humanistic ideals in the face of industrial expansion. In 1961 he co-founded with Jeannine de Goldschmidt the Galerie J in Paris.  In 1963, Restany edited the art and architectural magazine Domus and divided his time between Montparnasse, Paris and Milan, eventually becoming a regular contributor to the magazine until 2003. In 1969 he was one of the curators of the São Paulo Biennial. In the early 1970s he took interest in the work of the Sociological art collective. In 1982 he co-founded the Domus Academy, the first postgraduate design school in Milan. From the early 1990s up to his death, Restany took a keen and growing interest in artists working in the areas of computer art, new media art, digital art and the world wide web. In 1984 he was appointed the editor of the visual art magazine \"D'Ars\". In 1992, he curated the travelling exhibition \"Art & Tabac\" (Rome, Vienna and Amsterdam). In 1999 he was nominated President of the Palais de Tokyo in Paris.  Pierre Restany died in Paris in 2003 and is buried in the Montparnasse Cemetery.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre Restany (24 June 1930 – 29 May 2003), was an internationally known French art critic and cultural philosopher. Restany was born in Amélie-les-Bains-Palalda, Pyrénées-Orientales, and spent his childhood in Casablanca. On returning to France in 1949 he attended the Lycée Henri-IV before studying at universities in France, Italy and Ireland. From their first meeting in 1955, Restany maintained a strong tie with Yves Klein (to whom is attributed Klein-blue).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977113}
{"src_title": "The Purchase of the North Pole", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In the year of 189-, an international auction is organized to define the sovereign rights to the part of the Arctic extending from the 84th parallel, the highest yet reached by man, to the North Pole. Several countries send their official delegates, but the auction is won by a representative from an anonymous United States buyer.  After the auction closes, the mysterious buyer is revealed to be Barbicane and Co., a company founded by Impey Barbicane, J.T. Maston and Captain Nicholl — the same members of the Baltimore Gun Club who, twenty years earlier, had traveled around the Moon inside a large cannon shell. The brave gunmen-astronauts had come out of their retirement with an even more ambitious engineering project: using the recoil of a huge cannon to remove the tilt of the Earth's axis — so that it would become perpendicular to the planet's orbit, like Jupiter's.  That change would bring an end to seasons, as day and night would be always equal and each place would have the same climate all year round. But the society's interest lay in another effect of the recoil: a displacement of the Earth's rotation axis, that would bring the lands around the North Pole, which they had secured in the auction, to latitude 67 north. Then the vast coal deposits that were conjectured to exist under the ice could be easily mined and sold. The technical feasibility of the plan had been confirmed by J. T. Maston's computations. The necessary capital had been provided by Ms. Evangelina Scorbitt, a wealthy widow and ardent Maston's admirer (whose more than scientific interest was lost on the obsessive engineer).  The cannon needed for that plan would be enormous, much larger than the huge \"Columbiad\" that had sent them to the Moon. Once the plan became public, the brilliant French engineer Alcide Pierdeux quickly computes the required force of the explosion. He then discovers that the recoil would buckle the Earth's crust; many countries (mostly in Asia) would be flooded, while others (including the United States) would gain new land.  Alcide's note sends the world into panic and rage, and authorities promptly rush to stop the project. However Barbicane and Nicholl had left America for destination unknown, to supervise the completion and firing of the monster gun. J. T. Maston is caught and jailed, but he is unwilling or unable to reveal the cannon's location. Frantic searches around the world fail to find it either.  The cannon in fact had been dug deep into the flanks of Mount Kilimanjaro, by a small army of workers provided by a local sultan who was an enthusiastic fan of the former Moon explorers. The projectile, a steel-braced chunk of rock weighing 180,000 tons, would exit the barrel at the fantastic speed of 2,800 kilometres per second — thanks to a new powerful explosive invented by Nicholl, which he had called \"melimelonite\".  The cannon is fired as planned, and the explosion causes huge damage in the immediate vicinity. However, the Earth's axis retains its tilt and position, and not the slightest tremor is felt in the rest of the world. Alcide, shortly before the cannon was fired, had discovered that J. T. Maston, while computing the size of the cannon, had made a calculation error — the first of his life. Indeed, he had accidentally erased three zeros from the blackboard when he was struck by lightning during a telephone call from Ms. Scorbitt. Because of that single mistake in the data, twelve zeros got omitted from the result. Because Maston's calculations were undoubtedly considered correct when they were discovered, this error was not discovered early enough. The cannon he designed was indeed far too small: a trillion of them would have had to be fired to achieve the intended effect.  Riduculed by the whole world and bearing the bitter resentment of his two associates, J. T. Maston went back into retirement vowing to never again make any mathematical calculations. But Ms. Scorbitt finally declared her feelings, and he gladly surrendered to marriage. Alcide gains worldwide recognition by revealing the cause of the failure of the operation to the public.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Purchase of the North Pole or Topsy-Turvy () is an adventure novel by Jules Verne, published in 1889. It is the third and last novel of the Baltimore Gun Club, first appearing in \"From the Earth to the Moon\", and later in \"Around the Moon\", featuring the same characters but set twenty years later.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977114}
{"src_title": "Nenê (footballer, born 1981)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Jundiaí, São Paulo, Nenê started playing professionally with local Paulista Futebol Clube at the age of 19. On 16 May 2002 he moved to Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras, on loan until December.  Nenê made his Série A debut on 11 August 2002, starting and scoring the first in a 1–1 home draw against Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense. He finished the year with five league goals, but his club suffered relegation for the first time in its history.  On 27 January 2003, Nenê signed for Santos FC still in the top division. Mainly a backup option to Robinho and Ricardo Oliveira, he still scored three goals during the team's Copa Libertadores run, and also appeared in both legs of the finals as a substitute.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spain.", "content": "In 2003–04, Nenê moved to Spain, first with RCD Mallorca – making his La Liga debut on 14 September 2003 in a 0–4 away loss against Athletic Bilbao– and then Deportivo Alavés. With the Basque side he put up two extraordinary individual seasons, with 21 goals in the league alone, playing his first year in the second division and achieving promotion.  After being relegated from the top level with Alavés in 2006, Nenê met the same fate with RC Celta de Vigo, again appearing in all 38 league games and totalling nearly 3,000 minutes of action for the Galicians.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Monaco.", "content": "On 22 August 2007, Nenê was transferred to AS Monaco FC for an undisclosed fee. A year later, having already started with the French, he joined RCD Espanyol in the last days of the summer transfer window on a one-year loan, with a buying option for the Catalans at the season's end, which was finally not activated.  Back with Monaco, Nenê began the new campaign in impressive scoring fashion, scoring nine goals in his first ten matches – this included a brace against US Boulogne in a 3–1 away victory, both from long-range free kicks, as he led the scoring charts for a lengthy period of time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Paris Saint-Germain.", "content": "On 11 July 2010, Nenê joined Paris Saint-Germain F.C. in a deal believed to be around €5.5 million. \"I'm very happy to have signed for Paris,\" the player told PSG's official website, adding: \"Like PSG, I'm hoping to have a big league season and to pull something off in the Europa League\". He scored in his first official appearance, a 3–1 home win against AS Saint-Étienne, adding two on 11 September against newly promoted AC Arles-Avignon (4–0, home). Halfway through the season he had already registered 13 goals, making him the third-highest scorer only behind Moussa Sow and Kevin Gameiro; his displays, free-kick ability and attacking flair earned him comparisons with Ronaldinho, a compatriot who played at the Parc des Princes earlier in the decade, but he only scored one more goal until the end of the campaign, with PSG finally finishing fourth.  In the summer of 2011, Paris Saint-Germain were purchased by Qatari investors and bought several new players, including Jérémy Menez with whom Nenê had played at Monaco. The Brazilian began the season hesitantly, struggling to accept that he had lost his star status in the team with the arrival of Javier Pastore. On 29 October, however, he scored two goals (both penalties) in a 4–2 home win against Stade Malherbe Caen, putting his team three points clear at the top of the table. Nenê scored his first hat-trick with PSG on 13 May 2012, netting all of the game's goals in the home fixture against Stade Rennais F.C. in only 18 minutes of play. He finished the campaign as the league's second top scorer, helping his side to the second place and direct qualification to the UEFA Champions League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Al-Gharafa.", "content": "On 15 January 2013, after having appeared in 112 official matches with PSG (but only nine in the league in the first half of the season), Nenê moved to Al-Gharafa SC in the Qatar Stars League. In March, he was suspended for nine games and fined €67,000 for fighting with Houssine Kharja, being eventually released in late January of the following year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "West Ham United.", "content": "On 18 February 2015, free agent Nenê signed for West Ham United until the end of the campaign. He made his debut ten days later in a 1–3 home defeat by Crystal Palace by coming on as a 61st minute substitute for Alex Song, and was released at the end of the season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "São Paulo.", "content": "On 26 January 2018, the 36-year-old Nenê agreed to a two-year contract with São Paulo FC. In an interview held the previous December, he claimed to have been a supporter of the club as a child. He scored his first goal for his new team on 7 February, in a 1–0 win over Clube Atlético Bragantino for the Campeonato Paulista.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fluminense.", "content": "After being released, on 15 July 2019 Nenê joined Fluminense FC until the end of the 2020 season. In the first two months of that year, he scored seven goals across all competitions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life / Sponsorship.", "content": "In October 2012 Nenê was named an ambassador for the game FIFA 13, alongside Karim Benzema and Lionel Messi. In 2010, he signed a deal with Adidas.  Each year, Nenê organised with fellow footballer Neymar a charity match in his hometown of Jundiaí, with the purpose of raising money for food for needy families.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Paulista  Paris Saint-Germain  Vasco da Gama  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anderson Luiz de Carvalho (born 19 July 1981), known as Nenê, is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays for Fluminense. A left winger, he is mostly known for his crossing and dribbling ability, also being a free kick specialist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977115}
{"src_title": "2011 World Women's Handball Championship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Venues.", "content": "The competition took place in the Brazilian state of São Paulo. It is the third women's World Championship organized outside of Europe, after South Korea in 1990 and China in 2009.  Initially, the matches had to take place in the state of Santa Catarina.  Four cities have been selected to host the matches:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification.", "content": "Eight European teams qualified for the World Championships through play-offs. The draw was made on 19 December. The first legs were played on 4/5 June with the second legs on 11/12 June.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group draw.", "content": "The draw was held on 2 July 2011 at 21:00 local time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "The seeding was announced on June 24.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "A provisional scheduled was released on June 24. Brazil played the opening game on December 2. On July 7 the venues for each preliminary round were announced by the IHF. The detailed match schedule was released on August 31. As all Handball world championships, the tie-breakers in case of point tie betwin two or more teams were: 1.Points in matches between tied teams 2. Goal difference in matches between tied teams 3. Goaldifference in all group matches 4. Most scored goals in all group matches, 5. Draw.  \"All times are local ().\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "Angola won the tie-break for second place due to a better record in matches between them, Montenegro and Iceland. In those direct encounters all three got 2 points but Angola's +2 goal difference beat Montenegro's +1 and Iceland's –3.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "President's Cup.", "content": "Fifth and sixth place finishers from the group compete in the President's Cup to determine the places 17 through 24.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ranking and awards.", "content": "No placement matches for places 9 to 16 were played, but as those places might be decisive for qualification to the Olympics, the regulations ranked those teams. The losing teams of the Round of 16 were ranked based on a their group stage record (points, goal-difference, goals scored) against teams placed 1st to 4th (those advancing to the Round of 16).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2011 World Women's Handball Championship, the 20th event hosted by the International Handball Federation, was held in Brazil from 2 to 18 December 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977116}
{"src_title": "Guido Maria Conforti", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Guido Maria Conforti was born in Casalora di Ravadese in the diocese and province of Parma, Italy, in 1865, the eighth of ten children of Rinaldo and Antonia Adorni Conforti. He attended an elementary school run by the De La Salle Brothers from 1872 and each day on his way to the school he would stop by the church of Santa Maria della Pace, his parish church, where he used to have conversations with the crucified Jesus Christ. This was when his vocation became apparent. He later recalled: \"I looked at Him and He looked at me and seemed to say so many things\".  Although his father would have preferred that he stay and manage the farm, Conforti enrolled in the seminary in Parma in November 1876. He began reading the works of Saint Francis Xavier which inspired a desire to be a missionary, but his requests to join the Society of Jesus or the Salesians of Saint John Bosco were denied. At the time, the rector of the seminary was Andrea Carlo Ferrari, future cardinal and Blessed. Ferrari became his mentor. Conforti was appointed vice-rector.  Conforti was ordained to the priesthood on 22 September 1888 at Fontanellato. Conforti then served as a professor at the local seminary. He became the Vicar-General of the Diocese of Parma on 7 March 1896.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Founder.", "content": "Conforti established the Xaverian Missionaries on 3 December 1895 and the organization received the approval of Pope Leo XIII on December 3, 1898. In 1899, he sent the order's first missionaries to China. Leo XIII appointed him Archbishop of Ravenna in May 1902 following the death of Cardinal Agostino Gaetano Riboldi. He was consecrated bishop on June 11th, 1902 at the Church of St. Paul outside the Walls in Rome. Conforti submitted his resignation due to his ill health in October 1904. On 14 November, he was made both the Coadjutor Bishop of Parma and Titular Archbishop of Stauropolis.  In 1907 he became Bishop of Parma, retaining his personal title of Archbishop. He traveled to all parishes via horseback or other means to inspect his diocese. He had a particular focus on religious education.  Conforti is said to have provided the initiative behind Pope Benedict XV's encyclical \"Maximum illud\", issued on 30 November 1919. That document is called the Magna Carta of modern Catholic missionary work.  He travelled to China in 1928 to visit the Xaverian Missionaries working there. He arrived in Shanghai on 26 October 1928 and met with his contacts to inspect their work.  Conforti returned to Parma and fell ill in October 1931. He died a month later and he was interred in Parma. His tomb was later relocated in 1942 and in 1996.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sainthood.", "content": "The cause of sainthood was introduced in Parma on 29 May 1959 under Pope John XXIII and the work done on a diocesan level culminated on 11 February 1982 with Conforti being declared Venerable by Pope John Paul II on account of his life of heroic virtue.  A tribunal for a miracle needed for his beatification opened and closed in 1993 and John Paul II recognized the healing as a miracle on 6 April 1995. It led to his beatification on 17 March 1996.  A second tribunal for a miracle needed for canonization opened on 4 October 2005 and closed on 16 November 2005 and Pope Benedict XVI signed the decree for the miracle on 10 December 2010, leading to his canonization on 23 October 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint Guido Maria Conforti (3 March 1865 – 5 November 1931) was a Roman Catholic Italian archbishop who founded the Xaverian Missionary Fathers on 3 December 1895. He was known to make frequent visits to his parishes and worked to support the religious education and religious involvement among the youth.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977117}
{"src_title": "Brest Fortress", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Brest fortress has sustained its original outline of a star shaped fortification since its construction in the early 19th century. The Citadel, the core of the fortress, was on the central island formed by the Bug River and the two branches of the Mukhavets River. The island was skirted by a ring of a two-storied barrack with 4 semi-towers. The 1.8 km long barrack comprised 500 rooms to accommodate 12,000 soldiers within thick walls built from super strong red bricks. Originally there were 4 gates to enter the Citadel. Today only Kholm Gate and Terespol Gate can be seen, most part of the barrack lies in ruins.  The Citadel was surrounded by 3 fortifications as bridgeheads, that were made up by branches of the Mukhavets River and moats (ditches), fortified by earthworks 10 m high with redbrick casemates inside. The 3 fortifications were named after two towns: Russian name for the city of Kobryn in Belarus, Terespol in Poland and Volyn, a historic region of Volhynia majorly located in Ukraine. The Kobrin Fortification was the biggest in the fortress, located in the northeastern part, shaped like a horseshoe, featured 4 fortification curtains, 3 detached ravelins and a lunette in the western part, East Fort and West Fort. The Terespol Fortification was the western bridgehead, featuring 4 detached lunettes. The Volyn Fortification was the southeastern bridgehead, featuring 2 fortification curtains with 2 detached ravelins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The construction of the Imperial Russian fortress started in 1833 based on draft of the Russian military engineer Karl Opperman in place of the old Ducal Lithuanian Brest Castle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "WWI.", "content": "After the fall of the forts at Kovno and Novogeorgievsk, the Russians abandoned Brest fortress, carrying away most of the munitions that were stockpiled there. The Germans entered the fort on August 26, 1915. In 1918, the fort was the location of the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which made peace between USSR and the Central Powers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "During WWII.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Defence of Brest Fortress.", "content": "At 04:15 (Moscow time) June 22, 1941 the German \"Wehrmacht\" attacked the Brest fortress with no warning. The attack started with an artillery barrage, including 600 mm mortars of the second battery of the Heavy Artillery Battalion 833 Nr. III (\"Thor\") and Nr. IV (\"Odin\"). The defenders were taken by surprise and initially failed to form a solid front. By 09:00 that day, the fortress was completely surrounded. The ensuing battle of Brest Fortress lasted for 7 days, during which lives lost about 2000 soldiers and officers defending the castle, and attackers losing nearly 430 soldiers and officers.  The last defended object in the fortress was taken by June 29. About 6,800 Soviet soldiers and commanders were captured.  According to Soviet sources, the battle lasted until 20 July, with no one surrendering to the Germans. This narrative became a testament to the resilience and courage of Red Army and Soviet people. A few Soviet soldiers did indeed hold out inside pockets of the fortress until as late as 23 July.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "August 1941.", "content": "During a journey to different parts of the Eastern front, Hitler and Mussolini visited the fortress on August 26, 1941. Strong security measures were in place.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War Memorial Complex.", "content": "In the late 1960s, the construction of the war memorial complex \"Brest Hero Fortress\" was started. The complex was opened on September 25, 1971. The memorial complex is a national place of grief and pride, a popular tourist attraction. It comprises the barracks, gunpowder bunkers, forts and other fortifications, the museum of the defence, located on the site of the old fortress, along with the new monumental structures: the Main Entrance, the Obelisk, the Main Monument, the sculpture \"Thirst\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World Heritage status.", "content": "This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on January 30, 2004, in the Cultural category. Preservation and development is being carried out by the Brest Fortress Development Foundation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Symbol of Brest city.", "content": "The Brest Fortress is used as a symbol of the Belarussian city of Brest.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Brest Fortress (, '; ), formerly known as Brest-Litoŭsk Fortress, is a 19th-century fortress in Brest in present-day Belarus. In 1965 the title \"Hero Fortress\" was given to the fortress to commemorate the defence of the frontier stronghold during the first week of the German-Soviet War of 1941-1945 when Axis forces invaded the Soviet Union with the launch of Operation Barbarossa on June 22, 1941. The title \"Hero Fortress\" corresponds to the title \"Hero City\" that the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union awarded to an eventual total of twelve Soviet cities.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977118}
{"src_title": "Venera 9", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Orbiter.", "content": "The orbiter entered Venus orbit on October 20, 1975. Its mission was to act as a communications relay for the lander and to explore cloud layers and atmospheric parameters with several instruments and experiments. It performed 17 survey missions from October 26, 1975 to December 25, 1975.  The orbiter consisted of a cylinder with two solar panel wings and a high gain parabolic antenna attached to the curved surface. A bell-shaped unit holding propulsion systems was attached to the bottom of the cylinder, and mounted on top was a sphere which held the lander.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orbiter design.", "content": "The instruments comprising the orbiter included:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lander.", "content": "The lander was encased in a spherical shell before landing to help protect it from the heat of entry as it slowed from 10.7 km/s to 150 m/s. This sphere was then separated with explosive bolts and a three-domed parachute was deployed which slowed the lander further to 50 m/s at an altitude of 63 km above the planet.  The descent through the cloud layer took about 20 minutes, during which time the lander took measurements of the atmosphere and radioed the information to the orbiter. To minimize lander damage in the hot atmosphere, the parachute was released at an altitude of 50 km, and the ring-shaped aerodynamic shield provided braking. The Venusian atmosphere is so dense near the surface that this shield provided a descent rate of 7 m/s as the lander touched down. The landing device, a hollow ring surrounding the lower part of the lander, was partly crushed upon touchdown to take up most of the landing impact.  On October 20, 1975, the lander spacecraft separated from the orbiter, and landing was made with the Sun near zenith at 05:13 UTC on October 22. \"Venera 9\" landed within a radius of, near Beta Regio, on a steep (20°) slope covered with boulders (suspected to be the slope of the tectonic rift valley, Aikhylu Chasma). The entry sphere weighed and the surface payload was.  It was the first spacecraft to return an image from the surface of another planet. Many of the instruments began working immediately after touchdown and the cameras were operational 2 minutes later. These instruments revealed a smooth surface with numerous stones. The lander measured a light level of 14,000 lux, similar to that of Earth in full daylight but no direct sunshine.  A system of circulating fluid was used to distribute the heat load. This system, plus pre-cooling prior to entry, permitted operation of the lander for 53 minutes after landing, at which time radio contact with the orbiter was lost as the orbiter moved out of radio range. During descent, heat dissipation and deceleration were accomplished sequentially by protective hemispheric shells, three parachutes, a disc-shaped drag brake, and a compressible, metal, doughnut-shaped landing cushion. The landing was about from the \"Venera 10\" landing site.  \"Venera 9\" measured clouds that were thick with bases at altitude. It also measured atmospheric chemicals including hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, bromine and iodine. Other measurements included surface pressure of about, temperature of, and surface light levels comparable to those at Earth mid-latitudes on a cloudy summer day. \"Venera 9\" was the first probe to send back black and white television pictures from the Venusian surface showing no shadows, no apparent dust in the air, and a variety of rocks which were not eroded. Planned 360-degree panoramic pictures could not be taken because one of two camera lens covers failed to come off, limiting pictures to 180 degrees. This failure recurred with \"Venera 10\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lander payload.", "content": "The lander payload was as follows:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Venera 9 ( meaning \"Venus 9\"), manufacturer's designation: 4V-1 No. 660, was a Soviet unmanned space mission to Venus. It consisted of an orbiter and a lander. It was launched on June 8, 1975, at 02:38:00 UTC and had a mass of. The orbiter was the first spacecraft to orbit Venus, while the lander was the first to return images from the surface of another planet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977119}
{"src_title": "Château de Sceaux", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The seigneurie of Sceaux appears in 15th century documents, but little remains above ground of the château built for the family Potier de Gesvres in 1597. Colbert turned to some of the premier royal architects and craftsmen to design a seat worthy of his station, the architect brothers Claude and Charles Perrault and Antoine Lepautre, and the \"premier peintre du roi\" Charles Le Brun.  Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquis de Seignelay, son of Colbert and minister of the Navy, inherited Sceaux in 1683. He added sculpture by François Girardon and Antoine Coysevox. His embellishments to the grounds extended the formal terraced layout, the bones of which remain, and excavated the Grand Canal, a kilometre in length, along the valley bottom. Le Nôtre laid out a main axis centered on the château and descending in a series of terraces to the valley bottom, then rising on the far side. The main axis is crossed by two grand secondary axes at right angles, one delineated by the \"allée de la Duchesse\" and the formal stone Cascade that flows down to fill an octagonal basin, the other the Grand Canal.  Jules Hardouin-Mansart built the Orangerie, which was inaugurated by the King at a fête in 1685. Sceaux was sold in 1699 to Louis' illegitimate son, the duc du Maine, whose wife, Anne, duchesse du Maine made it the setting for her glittering salon in the first decades of the eighteenth century, which reached its apogee in the \"Grandes Nuits\" of 1714-15, sixteen fêtes of music and opera-ballets that unfolded every two weeks and drew the best musicians of France, under the direction of Jean-Joseph Mouret. The salon at Sceaux attracted the young Voltaire. The duchesse du Maine had the pavilion of the Ménagerie built, to designs by Jacques de La Guépière, and gave it a garden setting, to the north of the château; only its foundations remain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demolition.", "content": "During the French Revolution the property was confiscated as a \"bien national\", its contents sold for the benefit of the nation, and the building bought by M. Lecomte, a merchant of Saint-Malo. Under the Consulat, the original château was demolished, but the pavilion of Aurore, the Orangerie, the stables, and outbuildings were preserved. Crops were grown on Le Nôtre's terraces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The restored castle.", "content": "The duc de Trévise, son of Napoleon's Maréchal Mortier, who had married the daughter of M. Lecomte, inherited the \"domaine\" and set to restoring the park and the pavilion and Orangerie. The gardens were restored, with parterres and gravel largely replaced by clipped lawns. In 1856-62 he erected the present smaller château in brick with stone quoins, designed to evoke the style of Louis XIII, designed by the architect Augustin Théophile Quantinet and built by Joseph-Michel Le Soufaché.  In 1922, the heiress of Trévise, princesse de Faucigny-Cystra, planned to give up Sceaux to real estate developers; through the efforts of the mayor Jean-Baptiste Bergeret de Frouville it was preserved and opened to the public of the town that had grown up around the park.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museum of Île de France.", "content": "Since 2010, the Petit Château contains the Musée de l'Île-de-France. This museum contains one of the largest collections of the painters of the School of Paris.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Château de Sceaux is a grand country house in Sceaux, Hauts-de-Seine, approximately six miles from the center of Paris, France. Located in a park laid out by André Le Nôtre, visitors can tour the house, outbuildings and gardens.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977120}
{"src_title": "SS Haverford", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Transatlantic Liner (1901–1915).", "content": "SS \"Haverford\" was constructed by John Brown & Company of Clydebank, Scotland and funded by Clement Griscom Director of the International Navigation Company.  The \"Haverford\" and her sister ship, SS \"Merion\" are identical in design and named after two suburbs on the Philadelphia Main Line just west of Pennsylvania's largest city. The ships were designed for a single passenger classification with accommodations called \"Second Cabin\" considered equal to first class on other ships. SS \"Haverford\" was launched on 4 May 1901, six months prior to SS \"Merion\".  After briefly serving the Southampton to New York route, \"Haverford\" was transferred to the Liverpool – Philadelphia route by 1903. The ship also occasionally was used by other lines in the International Mercantile Marine Company serving for the Red Star Line ( Antwerp-New York route) and Dominion Line (Liverpool-Halifax-Portland).  On 14 June 1906 an explosion occurred aboard \"Haverford\", killing 13 people at Liverpool docks. The explosion was attributed to explosive fumes produced by a load of 45 tons of Fels-Naptha soap in its cargo. The ship's owners attempted to sue the manufacturers of the soap, but the case was rejected by the United States District Court as adequate ventilation was not provided aboard the ship to deal with the known hazards of Naptha fumes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War One (1915–1920).", "content": "During World War I, \"Haverford\" was used as a transport ship for British troops, beginning in 1915. In 1917, the ship suffered heavy damage in a torpedo attack off the west coast of Ireland by the German U-boat,. In 1918, after a six-month hiatus for repairs, the ship was again attacked by a German submarine in the North Atlantic Ocean, surviving with far less damage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post World War One (1920–1925).", "content": "\"Haverford\" returned to passenger service on the Philadelphia-Liverpool route for the American Line, making its first voyage in June,1920. In Philadelphia, the ships docked at Pier 53, the site of the former Washington Avenue Immigration Station (1873–1915). After 1915, immigrants were processed onboard arriving ships. The \"Haverford\" was purchased by White Star Line in 1921 and retained the original ship name. This was unusual for White Star, as most purchased vessels' names were changed to a more typical White Star name, usually ending in \"\"-ic\"\". The ship was assigned to the Liverpool-Philadelphia route as well as the Hamburg-New York route. She experienced compound structural and electrical problems in 1924, relegating it to dry dock. After making her final voyage from Liverpool to Philadelphia, the \"Haverford\" was decommissioned in 1924 and moved to Italy, where she was scrapped in 1925.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SS \"Haverford\" was an American transatlantic liner commissioned in 1901 for the American Line. During World War One, \"Haverford\" was utilized as a troop transport vessel in the North Atlantic Ocean. Following the war, the White Star Line purchased and recommissioned the ship. She was decommissioned in 1924 and scrapped in 1925.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977121}
{"src_title": "Jimmy Bain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bain was born in Newtonmore, Badenoch and Strathspey, Highland, and played in several provincial amateur bands as a young teen. His parents and younger brothers relocated to Vancouver. By this point, he was playing professionally in \"Street Noise\". However, he did join his family for a brief stay in Canada. Before returning to Scotland, getting his band Harlot and then hitting the London music scene, Bain joined Harlot in early 1974, after turning down a job with The Babys.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Bain was asked to join Rainbow after Ritchie Blackmore had watched him performing at The Marquee in London. He recorded the studio album \"Rising\" with them and played on their following world tour. While on the tour, he played on Rainbow's first live album, \"On Stage\". In January 1977, Bain was sacked from the band. He then toured Europe with John Cale.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wild Horses.", "content": "In 1978, Bain formed a band called Wild Horses. Jimmy was the lead vocalist, songwriter, as well as bassist for the band, which also included ex-Thin Lizzy guitarist Brian Robertson, drummer Clive Edwards (Pat Travers, Uli Jon Roth's Electric Sun) and guitarist Neil Carter (who went on to UFO and Gary Moore). Wild Horses released two albums on EMI in Europe, \"Wild Horses\" (1980) and \"Stand Your Ground\" (1981), the latter featuring John Lockton (ex-The Next Band) in place of Carter, before Robertson and Edwards both left in June 1981. Robertson joined Motörhead the following year while Edwards joined former Whitesnake guitarist Bernie Marsden's S.O.S.  Bain regrouped Wild Horses as a five-piece with ex-Lautrec members Reuben Archer (vocals) and Laurence Archer (guitar), and The Next Band's Frank Noon (drums), but they disbanded shortly after. Jimmy then worked with the former Family main-man Roger Chapman, Roy Harper, Gary Moore, and Kate Bush (on 1982's \"The Dreaming\").  Bain co-wrote with his close friend Phil Lynott for the Lizzy man's two solo albums. A keyboard player as well as a bassist, he toured the material playing keyboards with Lynott's band. Their song, \"Old Town\" was re-recorded by The Corrs in 1999, and became a big hit worldwide.  He was secretly brought in by the German hard rockers Scorpions to play bass guitar on their 1984 album \"Love at First Sting\". The leader of the band, rhythm guitarist Rudolf Schenker, wanted him to join the Scorpions as full-time bassist, but their management wanted to keep the line-up German, so Francis Buchholz was brought back and Bain's bass tapes were deleted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dio.", "content": "In 1983, Bain linked up again with ex-Rainbow vocalist Ronnie James Dio for the band Dio. A central figure within Dio, Bain co-wrote \"Rainbow in the Dark\", \"Holy Diver\" and two additional songs which appear on their 1983 released first album, \"Holy Diver\". Bain co-wrote several other songs for the following albums, \"The Last in Line\" (1984), \"Sacred Heart\" (1985), \"Intermission\" (1986), \"Dream Evil\" (1987) and \"Killing the Dragon\" (2002).  In the mid-1980s, when the entertainment community became active in drawing attention to world charities, Bain founded Hear 'n Aid, a foundation in which he could involve the rock community to help eliminate world hunger. He also co-wrote the song, \"Stars,\" with Vivian Campbell and Ronnie James Dio, which became the Heavy Rock world's answer to \"We Are The World\". \"Stars\" provided a major contribution to the famine relief charity appeal. Bain donated all of his shares of the proceeds to one of his favourite charities, Children of the Night.  In autumn 1989, Bain formed a band with vocalist Mandy Lion called World War III, but after their 1990 eponymous debut album, the band floundered. Bain's solo project \"The Key\" utilised a far more melodic and commercial approach. Guitarist on the project was Tracy G, borrowed from Dio's band, who was also the guitarist for World War III. Ronnie James Dio's concept project \"Magica\" (2000) saw Bain's return to the Dio lineup, and he played on the albums \"Magica\" and \"Killing the Dragon\".  In 2005, Bain again joined forces with former Black Sabbath and Dio drummer, Vinny Appice, for two projects, The Hollywood All Starz and 3 Legged Dogg. While the Hollywood All Starz performed live concerts featuring greatest hits sets of the individual members, (Carlos Cavazo of Quiet Riot was another notable member of the band), 3 Legged Dogg produced a well received album of original material. In an interview with journalist, David Lee Wilson, Bain lamented Appice's ultimate choice to leave both these groups so that he could tour with Ronnie James Dio in the Black Sabbath offshoot, Heaven and Hell.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "Bain toured with Hollywood Allstarz, a supergroup featuring a number of 1980s metal stars. The group has included former members of Giuffria, Quiet Riot, and Lynch Mob. The band Last in Line was put together in 2013 comprising Bain, Viv Campbell, Vinny Appice, Claude Schnell and Andrew Freeman. That line-up (excluding singer Freeman) were the original songwriters and performers on the early classic Dio albums, and so intended to play gigs and to perform those songs. Bain was in court-mandated rehabilitation during the recording sessions for their album \"Heavy Crown\" with a curfew that ordered that he return daily before 10 p.m.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1979, Bain married Lady Sophia Crichton-Stewart, daughter of the 6th Marquess of Bute. They had one daughter, Samantha Ella Bain, born in 1981 (for whom Phil Lynott and John Sykes' song \"Samantha\" was written).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 23 January 2016, Jimmy Bain died while in his cabin on Def Leppard's \"Hysteria on the High Seas\" cruise. He was due to perform on the cruise with his group Last In Line the following day. The performance did not go ahead, and band members informed fans on the cruise that he had been battling pneumonia for some time. The cause of death was determined to be lung cancer. Bain had not been diagnosed with cancer and was aware only of his pneumonia. He is interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills), not far from his bandmate Ronnie James Dio.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "James Stewart Bain (19 December 1947 – 23 January 2016) was a Scottish musician, best known for playing bass guitar in the bands Rainbow and Dio. He also worked with Thin Lizzy frontman Phil Lynott, co-writing on his solo albums.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977122}
{"src_title": "Nana Mizuki", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Niihama, Ehime, Japan, she began to train singing enka when she was five years old. In 1993, she released a Compact Cassette single as Nana Kondō. However, she passed the audition of game \"Noël: La Neige\" and became a voice actress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Mizuki released an image song single titled \"Girl's Age\" under the name Chisato Kadokura in 1997. When she performed her first concert at the age of 20, she was scouted by the Japanese record label King Records. Her debut single as Nana Mizuki, \"Omoi\", was released on December 6, 2000. Her 2004 song \"Innocent Starter\" became her first Top 10 single and her 2005 single \"Eternal Blaze\" reached No. 2 position on Japanese Oricon weekly single charts.  Mizuki won the \"Best Musical Performance\" award by her song \"Justice to Believe\" in the first Seiyu Awards in 2007. Since her seventh album \"Ultimate Diamond\" debuted at the No. 1 position on Oricon weekly album charts during the week of June 15, 2009, she became the first voice actress to reach the No. 1 position on the Oricon weekly album or single charts since its creation in 1968. \"Ultimate Diamond\" sold over 74,000 copies in the first week. In addition, her 21st single, \"Phantom Minds\", became the first voice actress single to top the charts, debuting at the No. 1 position on the issue of Oricon weekly single charts dated January 25, 2010.  On November 23, 2009, NHK announced that Mizuki would take part in the 60th NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen of New Year's Eve. It was Mizuki's first time appearing on the show. Nana chose her song \"Shin'ai\" for her performance.  She is well known for voicing female characters who are very shy yet kind-hearted and gentle, and many of the characters she has voiced were initially very shy/soft-spoken (however, after interactions with other people, they gradually opened up (e.g. Fate Testarossa from \"Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha\", Nyamo from \"Love Hina\", Hinata Hyūga from \"Naruto\", Wrath from \"Fullmetal Alchemist (2003)\", and Tsubomi Hanasaki from \"Heartcatch Precure!\"). She's also well known for voicing females with romantic affection for protagonists, as six of her characters have romantic feelings for the main characters (Oboro from \"Basilisk\", Hinata Hyūga from \"Naruto\", Colette Brunel from \"Tales of Symphonia\", Tamao Tamamura from \"Shaman King\", Moka Akashiya from \"Rosario + Vampire\", and Fate Testarossa from \"Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha\"), some of her characters craved maternal attention (e.g. Fate Testarossa from Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha and its sequels A's and StrikerS, Wrath and Maria), and she was also part of the voice actress quartet \"Prits\", alongside Yumiko Kobayashi, Natsuko Kuwatani and Hisayo Mochizuki (all four voiced characters in the anime \"Sister Princess\"). Nana Mizuki voices Microsoft's Japanese Windows 7 unofficial \"OS-tan\" mascot, Nanami Madobe. The mascot's name uses some wordplay on Mizuki's own name as well as the operating system (\"\"Nana\"\" = \"\"seven\"\").  In the middle of February 2010, Mizuki became her hometown (Niihama, Ehime)'s First Tourism Ambassador. The news was broadcast during her Live Academy 2010, held in Kanagawa, Osaka, Aichi, Miyagi, Fukuoka, Ehime Prefecture Niihama Cultural Center's Hall. There were 7 lessons in total. In 2010, Mizuki won the Tomiyama Kei Award in the 4th Seiyu Awards for her news hook in the year 2009. In 2010, she also participated in 61st NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen singing \"Phantom Minds\", the single which had topped Oricon Charts.  On January 21, 2011, which was also her 31st birthday, she released her first autobiography, titled \"Shin Ai\", to commemorate the 10th anniversary of her singing career. Mizuki won Top Pop Artists award in Billboard Japan Music Awards 2010 on February 6, 2011, together with 4 other artists: AKB48, Nishino Kana, SID and Exile.  Mizuki has participated in the 60th (2009), 61st (2010), 62nd (2011), 63rd (2012), 64th (2013) and the 65th (2014) edition of the Kōhaku Uta Gassen produced by Japanese public broadcaster NHK. On December 3–4, 2011 she had a two-day concert at Tokyo Dome. She became the first voice actress and 8th Japanese female solo artists to hold a concert at Japan's largest concert hall. On March 3, 2012, Mizuki won Animation Artist of the Year 2011 award in Billboard Japan Music Awards 2011.  On November 10, 2013, Mizuki performed Preserved Roses, Kakumei Dualism and Heart of Sword -Yoakemae- in her first overseas performance as a guest performer for T.M.Revolution at Anime Festival Asia, Singapore, Valvrave night. On November 23–24, 2013, Mizuki held her first solo concert outside Japan, in Taiwan.  On January 21, 2014, she celebrated her 34th birthday. In March 2014, at the 64th Annual MEXT Art Encouragement Prizes Nana Mizuki was recognized as Rookie of the Year in the Popular Entertainment division.  She held her second overseas solo concert in Singapore (September 27, 2014) and Taiwan (October 4–5, 2014) entitled \"Nana Mizuki Live Flight 2014+\".  On September 22, 2016 she held a concert at Koshien Stadium, Japan's oldest stadium, established in 1924. She became the first voice actress and the first Japanese female solo artist to hold a concert at the venue.  In July 2017, Mizuki made her debut as a stage actress in a Japanese production of in the role of Carole King, which she double casted alongside Ayaka Hirahara.  On September 30, 2017, she was appointed as an opening act in the opening ceremony of 72nd National Sports Festival of Japan, held at Ningineer Stadium in Ehime, where she performed mini live concert in front of Emperor Akihito, Empress Michiko and approximate 20,000 attendees.  She held a 7-day long concert series at the Nippon Budokan in January 2018; the concert series ended on her 38th birthday on January 21.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dubbing roles.", "content": "† Year of original release‡ Year of Japanese release", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mizuki released her first single, \"Omoi\", under the King Records label on December 6, 2000. A year later, she released her debut album, \"Supersonic Girl\", on December 5, 2001. In the years that followed, Mizuki enjoyed modest success that concluded with the release of her single \"Innocent Starter\", which reached the top 10 Oricon singles chart, charting at No. 9. Since then, Mizuki's releases have charted steadily higher in Japan, establishing her as a successful singer in the country. On June 3, 2009, her album \"Ultimate Diamond\" reached #1, her first release to do so; while her single \"Phantom Minds\", released on January 13, 2010, also charted at #1. Mizuki is the first voice actress to top the weekly Oricon albums chart and the weekly Oricon singles chart since its inception in 1968.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977123}
{"src_title": "Niki Zimling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brøndby IF.", "content": "As a youngster he played for AB 740, Tårnby Boldklub, Fremad Amager and Kjøbenhavns Boldklub, before he moved to the youth team of Brøndby IF. He was included in Brøndby's senior squad in January 2003, and made his senior debut for Brøndby in April 2003, in a Danish Superliga game against Aalborg BK. In the next two years he played a total of 25 matches for the club and scored a single goal, and made three appearance in the Champions League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Esbjerg fB.", "content": "He moved on to Superliga rivals Esbjerg fB in summer 2005, and quickly established himself in Esbjerg's starting line-up. In his first season, Zimling was involved in the club's squad in the Danish Cup Final, which Esbjerg lost 1–0 against Randers. His second season was a big breakthrough for him as he scored ten goals in thirty-appearance and was a second top-scorer for the club, just behind Jesper Bech. Throughout his career at Esbjerg, he was linked with Ligue 1 side Stade Rennais and Bayer Leverkusen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Udinese.", "content": "When his contract expired in December 2008, he moved to Serie A team Udinese Calcio on a free transfer. The deal was announced in July 2008. After two months at Udinese, Zimling finally made his debut for the club, in a 2–0 loss against Genoa on 22 March 2009. In the final game of the season, he went on as a substitute in the 82nd minute and provided an assist for Odion Ighalo, who went on just three minutes later just after Zimling went on as a substitute, in a 6–2 win over Cagliari. In July 2009, Zimling went back to Denmark to finalize a possible transfer, but the deal never materialized and he stayed at Udine. However, his time at Udinese was 'forgettable' after his first-team opportunities were limited, due to emergence of midfield talent like Gökhan Inler, Gaetano D'Agostino, Christian Obodo and Fernando Tissone. In his full season at Udinese, Zimling would make one appearance in the league, in a 2–2 draw against Parma on the opening game of the season and never made appearance since.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "NEC.", "content": "In June 2010, Dutch club NEC announced that they had signed him on loan for the rest of the season. He made his debut, on the opening game of the season, in a 1–0 win over VVV-Venlo and provide assist, on his next appearance on 15 August 2010, by winning a penalty, allowing Björn Vleminckx to convert in a 5–3 win over Willem II. At NEC, Zimling established himself in the first team. Having not scored his first goal outside Denmark, Zimling finally scored his first goal – and scored again – in a 2–0 win over Excelsior on 13 February 2011 and scored again, the following week, in a 1–1 draw against Twente. Two weeks later, Zimling received a straight red card for a serious foul on an opposition player, which NEC lose heavily 5–1 against ADO Den Haag and would miss four games. Two weeks later, he scored again in a 3–1 loss against Groningen. At NEC, Zimling scored four in twenty-six appearance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Club Brugge.", "content": "On 27 May 2011, Zimling signed a four-year contract with Belgian football club Club Brugge, for a fee estimated to be around €500,000. On his move, Zimling says Club Brugge are a big club. Zimling made his competitive debut for the clubOn the opening game of the season, Zimling made his debut, in a 5–0 win over Westerlo. At Club Brugge, Zimling since established himself in the first team, making impressive performance. He scored his first goal, in the second round of Belgian, in a 4–4 draw against Gent, which gone through penalty shootout and Zimling converted the second penalty but lost 4–2 on penalties. Later in the season at the league play-offs, Zimling scored his first league goal for the club, on 1 May 2012, in a 2–0 win over Standard Liège. In his first season, Zimling not only made an impressive performance in the league, but also in the Europa League competition.  The following season, Zimling playing time was soon reduced after he damaged his calf muscle, which he will be out for a month. After a month out, Zimling made his return by scoring his first goal for the club in a 7–1 win over Beerschot on 9 December 2012. In his final month at the club, Zimling would make three more appearances.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mainz 05.", "content": "After two-years at Belgium, Zimling joined Bundesliga side Mainz 05 on a four-year contract, which will keep him until 2017 and the deal believed to be worth around £1.75million. A few days later, on 2 February 2013, he made his debut for the club, in a 3–0 loss against German giant Bayern Munich. Also, a few weeks later, on 23 February 2013, Zimling scored his first goal in a 1–1 draw against Wolfsburg.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "AFC Ajax.", "content": "On 1 September 2014, it was announced that Zimling was sent on loan to Dutch Eredivisie side Ajax until the end of the season, with an option to buy.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "FSV Frankfurt.", "content": "On 1 February 2016 it was confirmed, that Zimling was loaned out to FSV Frankfurt for the rest of the season due to lack of playing time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "He has represented Denmark 48 times for various national youth teams. He was selected for the Danish under-21 national team for the UEFA U-21 Championship 2006, and was named 2006 Danish \"under-21 Talent of the Year\".  On 20 November 2006, he was called up for the Denmark League XI national football team, for the trip to the United States, El Salvador and Honduras in January 2007, by national team manager Morten Olsen. He was also a part of the League XI team for their January 2008 tour. In February 2008, he made his senior Danish national team debut in a friendly game against Slovenia.  On 11 November 2010, after two and a half years waiting, he returned to the Danish national football team in a friendly against Czech Republic, earning his 2nd match. He was called up again when Denmark had to face Iceland, and played from the beginning because Christian Poulsen was in lack of match fitness. He played the rest of the qualification alongside his childhood friend William Kvist on the Danish midfield, as Denmark qualified for the UEFA Euro 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management career.", "content": "On 14 June 2019 it was confirmed, that Danish 1st Division club Kolding IF had hired Zimling as the clubs new sporting director.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Niki Dige Zimling (born 19 April 1985) is a retired Danish professional footballer and currently the sporting director of Kolding IF.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977124}
{"src_title": "Bangka Island massacre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Massacre.", "content": "On 12 February 1942 the royal yacht of Sarawak left Singapore just before the city fell to the Imperial Japanese Army. The ship carried many injured service personnel and 65 nurses of the Australian Army Nursing Service from the 2/13th Australian General Hospital, as well as civilian men, women and children. The ship was bombed by Japanese aircraft and sank. Two nurses were killed in the bombing; the rest were scattered among the rescue boats to wash up on different parts of Bangka Island. About 100 survivors reunited near Radji Beach at Bangka Island in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), including 22 of the original 65 nurses. Once it was discovered the Japanese held the island, an officer of the \"Vyner Brooke\" went to surrender the group to the authorities in Muntok. While he was away army matron Irene Melville Drummond, the most senior of the nurses, suggested the civilian women and children should leave for Muntok, which they did. The nurses stayed to care for the wounded. They set up a shelter with a large Red Cross sign on it.  At mid-morning the ship’s officer returned with about 20 Japanese soldiers. They ordered all the wounded men capable of walking to travel around a headland. The nurses heard a quick succession of shots before the Japanese soldiers came back, sat down in front of the women and cleaned their bayonets and rifles. A Japanese officer ordered the remaining 22 nurses and one civilian woman to walk into the surf. A machine gun was set up on the beach and when the women were waist deep, they were machine-gunned. All but Bullwinkel were killed. Wounded soldiers left on stretchers were then bayoneted and killed.  Shot in the diaphragm, Bullwinkel lay motionless in the water until the sound of troops had disappeared. She crawled into the bush and lay unconscious for several days. When she awoke, she encountered Private Patrick Kingsley, a wounded British soldier from the ship who had survived being bayoneted by the Japanese soldiers. She dressed his wounds and her own, then 12 days later they surrendered to the Japanese. Kingsley died before reaching a POW camp, but Bullwinkel spent three years in one.  Bullwinkel survived the war and gave evidence of the massacre at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal) in 1947.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evidence of sexual assault.", "content": "Recent evidence collected by historian Lynette Silver, broadcaster Tess Lawrence and biographer Barbara Angell, indicates that most of the nurses were raped before they were murdered. However, Bullwinkel was not permitted to speak about the rapes after the war, saying that she had been \"gagged\" by the Australian government. According to the Australian government, the perpetrators of the massacre remain unknown and \"escaped any punishment for their crime\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Commemoration.", "content": "In South Australia an annual commemoration known as the Bangka Day Memorial Service has been held at the Women's Memorial Playing Fields, St Mary's on the Sunday closest to 16 February since 1955. A plaque commemorating the South Australian Army Nursing Sisters who died, including Drummond and six others was erected at the site.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bangka Island massacre (also spelled Banka Island massacre) was committed during World War II in the Pacific, on Bangka Island, east of Sumatra in the Indonesian archipelago. On 16 February 1942, Imperial Japanese soldiers machine-gunned 22 Australian Army nurses and 60 Australian and British soldiers and crew members who had survived the sinking of by Japanese bombers. South Australian nurse Sister Lt Vivian Bullwinkel and two soldiers were the sole survivors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977125}
{"src_title": "Ninth Fort", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "At the end of the 19th century the city of Kaunas was fortified and by 1890 was encircled by eight forts and nine gun batteries. Construction of the Ninth Fort (its numerical designation having become its name) began in 1902 and was completed on the eve of World War I. From 1924 on, the Ninth Fort was used as the Kaunas City prison.  During the years of Soviet occupation, 1940–1941, the Ninth Fort was used by the NKVD to house political prisoners pending transfer to Gulag forced labor camps.  During the years of Nazi occupation, the Ninth Fort was put to use as a place of mass murder. 45,000 to 50,000 Jews, most from Kaunas and largely taken from the Kovno Ghetto, were transported to the Ninth Fort and killed by Nazis and Lithuanian collaborators in what became known as the Kaunas massacre.  Notable among the victims was Rabbi Elchonon Wasserman of Baranovitch. In addition, Jews from as far as France, Austria and Germany were brought to Kaunas during the course of Nazi occupation and executed in the Ninth Fort. In 1943, the Germans operated special Jewish squads to dig mass graves and burn the remaining corpses. One squad of 62 people managed to escape the fortress on the eve of 1944. That year, as the Soviets moved in, the Germans liquidated the ghetto and what had by then come to be known as the \"Fort of Death\". The prisoners were dispersed to other camps. After World War II, the Soviets again used the Ninth Fort as a prison for several years. From 1948 to 1958, farm organizations were managed from the Ninth Fort.  In 1958, a museum was established in the Ninth Fort. In 1959, an exhibition was prepared in four cells, telling of the Nazi war crimes carried out in Lithuania. In 1960, the discovery, cataloging, and forensic investigation of local mass murder sites began in an effort to gain knowledge regarding the scope of these crimes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Museum.", "content": "The Ninth Fort museum contains collections of historical artifacts related both to Soviet atrocities and the Nazi genocide, as well as materials related to the earlier history of Kaunas and Ninth Fort. Most exhibits are labelled in English.  The memorial to the victims of Nazism at the Ninth Fort in Kaunas, Lithuania, was designed by sculptor A. Ambraziunas. Erected in 1984, the monument is 105 feet (32 m) high. The mass burial place of the victims of the massacres carried out in the fort is a grass field, marked by a simple yet frankly worded memorial written in several languages. It reads, \"This is the place where Nazis and their assistants killed about 45,000 Jews from Lithuania and other European countries.\"  On April 11, 2011, the memorial to the victims of Nazism was vandalized — the memorial tombstones were knocked down, and white swastikas were spray-painted on the memorial. On the adjacent sidewalk, the words “Juden raus” (German: Jews Out) were inscribed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ninth Fort () is a stronghold in the northern part of Šilainiai elderate, Kaunas, Lithuania. It is a part of the Kaunas Fortress, which was constructed in the late 19th century. During the occupation of Kaunas and the rest of Lithuania by the Soviet Union, the fort was used as a prison and way-station for prisoners being transported to labour camps. After the occupation of Lithuania by Nazi Germany, the fort was used as a place of execution for Jews, captured Soviets, and others.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977126}
{"src_title": "Eilidh Doyle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Doyle was born in Perth, Scotland. As a youngster, she twice won the U13 Scottish Schools butterfly swimming title. One of her sisters is a writer, the other used to compete at triple jump and her brother is a footballer.  In 2009, Doyle significantly improved her personal best for the 400m hurdles from 56.84 to 55.32, to finish second at the European U23 Championships in Kaunus, Lithuania, behind fellow British athlete Perri Shakes-Drayton. She also qualified for that year's World Championships in Berlin, reaching the semi-finals. In 2010, she further improved to 55.16 at the London Diamond League in August. Then in October, she won a silver medal at the Commonwealth Games in Delhi in 55.62.  In 2012, Doyle ran below 55 seconds for the 400 metres hurdles for the first time, with 54.96 on 2 June in Geneva. Two weeks later, she earned Olympic selection, with 55.53 for second behind Shakes-Drayton at the Olympic trials. At the London Olympics, she reached the semi-finals, running 56.02.  Doyle won two medals at the 2013 European Indoor Championships in Gothenburg, with silver in the 400 metres behind teammate Perri Shakes-Drayton, breaking the Scottish indoor record in the process, with 51.45. She then added a gold in the 4x400 m relay. The British quartet of Christine Ohuruogu, Shana Cox, Doyle and Shakes-Drayton also improved the UK indoor record to 3:27.56. Outdoors, she broke the Scottish 400 metres hurdles record with 54.22 in Birmingham in June. Then in August, at the World Championships in Moscow, she ran 54.32 in her semi-final to reach the final. In the final she was fifth in 54.86. Alongside Cox, Margaret Adeoye and Ohuruogu, she won a bronze medal in the 4 x 400 metres relay.  Doyle captained the first ever Scotland team at the Glasgow International match in January 2014. As captain of the GB & NI team at the 2014 World Indoor Championships in Sopot, she won a bronze medal in the 4 x 400 metres relay. 2014 also saw Doyle secure her first 400 metres hurdles British title, and take victory at the first ever IAAF Diamond League meeting in Scotland, the Glasgow Grand Prix. in a European leading time of 54.39. Child also selected to captain the Scottish athletics team at the 2014 Commonwealth Games, won a silver medal in the 400 m hurdles behind Kaliese Spencer of Jamaica. Two weeks later, at the European Championships in Zürich, she won a gold medal in the 400 m hurdles, running 54.48. She became the first British woman to win the European 400 m hurdles title for 20 years, the previous British winner being Sally Gunnell in 1994.  In May 2016, Doyle won the 400 metres hurdles at the IAAF Diamond League meeting in Doha in a time of 54.53 seconds, competing for the first time under her married name. On 15 July 2016, she won the Diamond League meeting in Monaco, setting a new personal best of 54.09 seconds. At the 2016 Rio Olympics, she reached the final of the 400 metres hurdles, finishing eighth in 54.61, before going on to win a bronze medal in the 4 x 400 metres relay.  In July 2017, it was announced that Doyle had been elected by her team-mates as Captain for the GB Team at the 2017 World Athletics Championships in London. At the Championships she finished 8th in the final of the 400 m hurdles but would go on to win a silver in the 4×400 m relay. In winning the silver medal, Doyle surpassed Yvonne Murray as the most decorated Scottish athlete in Olympic World, European and Commonwealth competition.  In 2018, Doyle started the season of well winning a bronze medal at the 2018 IAAF World Indoor Championships in Birmingham. Then at the 2018 Commonwealth Games, Gold Coast, Australia she went on to win her 3rd Commonwealth Games silver medal with a time of 54.80 seconds. In July she was named in the GB squad for the 2018 European Athletics Championships to be held in Berlin in August, both as an individual in 400m hurdles and a member of the 400m relay squad.  In August 2019 Doyle announced that she would miss the rest of the season as she was due to have a baby in January 2020, althoughs he planned to return to athletics after the birth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Doyle has a degree in Physical Education from Edinburgh University and was formerly a full-time PE teacher at Perth Grammar School until she decided to focus further on her training, allowing her to relocate to Bath. Doyle is a supporter of Hearts FC where she has a season ticket. She wears a maroon and white wristband during all her races in support of the club. In October 2015 she married former 400 metre runner Brian Doyle.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eilidh Doyle (pronounced AY-lee ; née Child; born 20 February 1987) is a British track and field athlete who specialises in the 400 metres hurdles and the 4 x 400 metres relay. She represented Great Britain at the 2012 Olympic Games in London, and won an Olympic bronze medal in the 4 x 400 metres relay at the 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977127}
{"src_title": "Hôtel Beauharnais", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The premises are situated on the left bank of the Seine river, between the Palais Bourbon, the seat of the French National Assembly, in the west and the Musée d'Orsay in the east. The cour d'honneur is located on \"rue de Lille\" in the south, to the north, an English garden offers scenic views to the Seine and beyond up to the Tuileries Garden. The vast property is not accessible to the public.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The building was erected at the behest of Foreign Minister Colbert de Torcy (1665–1746), shortly before his dismissal by Regent Philippe of Orléans. Then named \"Hôtel de Torcy\", it served as Colbert's retirement home where he kept his extensive art collection and completed his memoirs.  After several changes of ownership and being plundered during the French Revolution, it passed to Eugène de Beauharnais, a stepson of Napoleon who became Viceroy of Italy and also aimed at the succession to the French throne. The building then received its present-day portico in an Egyptomanian style which was popular in the wake of the French campaign in Egypt. Opulently furnished with large-scale paintings by Hubert Robert, the spacious rooms fitted with Beauharnais' great demands. However, the Viceroy had little opportunity to reside at his Paris home. When Napoleon married the Habsburg archduchess Marie Louise in 1810, he used the Hôtel as a guest house for Beauharnais' father-in-law, King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria.  After the French defeat in the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna, the premises were first rented and finally purchased by Prussia under King Frederick William III in 1818 and became the seat of the Prussian legation. In 1862 Otto von Bismarck resided here, before his appointment as Minister president by King William I in September.  Following the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, it served as the embassy of the German Empire to the French Republic. Prince Chlodwig of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, ambassador from 1873, hosted extravagant ceremonies to improve Franco–German relations. The impressive architecture and premises inspired Karl Friedrich Schinkel and Leo von Klenze, as well as the painter Max Beckmann. In 1894 the theft of a letter addressed to the German military attaché Max von Schwartzkoppen at the embassy triggered the Dreyfus affair. The shooting of the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by 17-year-old Herschel Grynszpan in 1938 provided the Nazi authorities with the pretext for the antisemitic \"Kristallnacht\" pogrom.  During World War II, the building served as the Paris residence of Otto Abetz, German ambassador to Vichy France, until it was confiscated in 1944. Held by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, it was restored to West Germany in 1961 during the negotiations on the Élysée Treaty. As a new embassy then already was under construction on \"Avenue Franklin Delano Roosevelt\", the building solely served for representative purposes. Extensively renovated and re-opened as the ambassador's residence in 1968, the building's history has been documented by the German Forum for Art History Paris.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hôtel Beauharnais () is a historic hôtel particulier, a type of large French townhouse, in the 7th arrondissement of Paris. It was designed by architect Germain Boffrand. Its construction was completed in 1714. By 1803, the structure was purchased by Eugène de Beauharnais, who had it rebuilt in an Empire style. It has been listed as an official historical monument since July 25, 1951. Today it serves as the official residence of the German Ambassador to France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977128}
{"src_title": "Skálmöld", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Snæbjörn Ragnarsson and Björgvin Sigurðsson, who have been friends since childhood and have played together in various collectives, including death metal and punk bands, decided to start a new metal band, Skálmöld, formed in August 2009 in Reykjavík. The other band members had also been active in the Icelandic music scene. Initially, the band was intended to be merely a hobby, but the members soon decided to record an album before they were \"too old and tired\". After contacting most of the Icelandic labels—to no avail—the band was signed by the Faroese label Tutl in November 2010, which released the band's debut album \"Baldur\" in Iceland and the Faroe Islands. In April 2011, the band signed a record deal with Napalm Records; \"Baldur\" was re-released worldwide the following August.  The deal with Napalm gave Skálmöld a significant popularity boost. The band was invited to participate in the Wacken Open Air festival and the Heidenfest 2011 tour.  On April 13, 2012, Skálmöld began recording its second album, \"Börn Loka\", which was released in October the same year.  In November, 2013, Skálmöld played a series of concerts with the Iceland Symphony Orchestra at the Harpa concert hall in Reykjavík. A live album and accompanying video was released on December 17, 2013.  The next studio album was \"Með vættum\", released in 2014, which tells the story of a woman who encounters enemies in the north, east, south and west of Iceland, and is assisted by mythological beings. In 2016 Skálmöld released \"Vögguvísur Yggdrasils\", an album themed around the different worlds of Norse cosmology. It was followed by \"Sorgir\" in 2018, which tells four tragic stories, each from two different perspectives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical style.", "content": "From the beginning, Skálmöld's intention has been to combine the sounds of the traditional Icelandic music and metal. Initially, the band planned to use a lot of folk instruments, but soon decided to scale back and have three guitar players instead. The band's influences include such metal bands as Metallica, Iron Maiden, Anthrax, Slayer, Amon Amarth and Ensiferum, as well as Jón Leifs, the classical Icelandic composer. Skálmöld's lyrics, written by Snæbjörn entirely in Icelandic, are inspired by the Norse mythology and Icelandic sagas. Furthermore, the lyrics conform to some of the Old Norse poetic forms, including fornyrðislag and sléttubönd.  All the band members are members of the heathen organisation Ásatrúarfélagið. Jón Geir Jóhannsson explained the way they believe in the Norse gods: \"You shouldn't personify them. It's not people, it's stories that represent human nature. So yes, the ethics are there, but we don't believe in them as 'persons'.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Skálmöld () is a Viking / folk metal band from Reykjavík, Iceland, formed in August 2009. The band's name is literally translated as \"Age of Swords\" and also means \"lawlessness\", referring to the Age of the Sturlungs of Icelandic history, when a civil war broke out between the country's family clans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977129}
{"src_title": "Sidereal and tropical astrology", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Tropical traditions.", "content": "The tropical zodiac is thought to have been used by Western astrologers since about 100 BCE and does not correspond to the visible zodiac. Instead, it is defined based on seasons and their relationship to the cycles of the Sun. Seasons are defined as seen from the Northern Hemisphere and the March equinox has a fixed relationship to 0° of Aries, regardless of the astronomical position of the Sun with respect to constellations as seen from Earth. This means that during the March equinox, the Sun is always seen as being \"in\" Aries. Some schools of thought have emerged to account for seasons as seen from the Southern Hemisphere, where they are more or less in reverse. For instance, in the Northern Hemisphere, the March equinox occurs in the spring, whereas in the Southern Hemisphere, it occurs in the autumn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sidereal traditions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hindu astrology.", "content": "Traditional Hindu astrology, also known as Vedic astrology, uses a sidereal system of zodiac and accounts for the precession of the equinoxes using a system of correction called ayanamsa, which allows it to be more accurately reflective of current astronomical trends than the tropical zodiac. There are various types of ayanamsa that are in use, such as Lahiri Ayanamsa and Raman Ayanamsa.  In contrast to the tropical zodiac which has stuck with 0 degrees of Aries as the vernal point (the location of the Sun during the March equinox), the sidereal zodiac currently uses approximately 6 degrees of Pisces as the vernal point as per its corrective calculations, putting it almost a full sign (or about 24 degrees) behind the tropical zodiac. This also puts sidereal calculations of the position of the sun with respect to zodiacal constellations and equinoxes more accurately in keeping with current astronomical calculations of the sun's position with respect to the same. Walter Berg's astronomical zodiac, like the sidereal zodiac, lags nearly a full sign behind the tropical zodiac.  The tropical and the sidereal zodiacs were lined up together about 2,000 years ago. Vedic astrology is thought to have been in development from as far back as 5,000 B.C.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sidereal western astrology.", "content": "Western sidereal astrology also uses ayanamsa, with the Fagan/Bradley ayanamsa being the most prevalent.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shifted zodiac.", "content": "Cyril Fagan assumed the origin of the zodiac to be based on a major conjunction that occurred in 786 BC, when the vernal equinox lay somewhere in mid-Aries corresponding to a difference of some 39 degrees or days.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Astronomic zodiac.", "content": "A small number of sidereal astrologers do not take the astrological signs as an equal division of the ecliptic, but define their signs based on the actual width of the individual constellations. They also include constellations that are disregarded by the traditional zodiac, but are still in contact with the ecliptic.  Stephen Schmidt, in his 1970 book \"Astrology 14\", introduced a system with additional signs based on the constellations of Ophiuchus and Cetus.  In 1995, Walter Berg introduced his 13-sign zodiac, which has the additional sign of Ophiuchus. Berg's system was well received in Japan after his book was translated by radio host Mizui Kumi () in 1996.  For the purpose of determining the constellations in contact with the ecliptic, the constellation boundaries as defined by the International Astronomical Union in 1930 are used. For example, the Sun enters the IAU \"boundary\" of Aries on April 19 at the lower right corner, a position that is still rather closer to the \"body\" of Pisces than of Aries. The IAU defined the constellation boundaries without consideration of astrological purposes.  The dates the Sun passes through the 13 astronomical constellations of the ecliptic are listed below, accurate to the year 2011. The dates will progress by an increment of one day every 70.5 years. The corresponding tropical and sidereal dates are given as well.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "\"Sidereal\" and \"tropical\" are astrological terms used to describe two different definitions of a year. They are also used as terms for two systems of ecliptic coordinates used in astrology. Both divide the zodiac into twelve \"signs\" that are divided into 30° each (making a total of 360°) and named after constellations, but while the sidereal system defines the signs relative to the apparent gradual motion of fixed stars at about 1° westward every 72 years from Earth's perspective, the tropical zodiac fixes the Northern Hemisphere's vernal equinox point (the Sun's position at the March equinox) to 0° of Aries, without taking the precession of the equinoxes into account, and defines the rest of the zodiac from this point.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977130}
{"src_title": "Benjamin Mazar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Mazar was born in Ciechanowiec, Poland, then part of the Russian Empire. He was educated at Berlin University and Giessen University in Germany. At the age of 23, he immigrated to Mandatory Palestine and in 1943 joined the faculty of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, whose original campus at Mount Scopus was an enclave in the Jordanian sector of Jerusalem following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. In 1952 he became Rector of the university and later its president for eight years from 1953 to 1961, following Selig Brodetsky and succeeded by Giulio Racah.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeological career.", "content": "In 1936 Mazar started the excavations of Beth Shearim, the first archaeological excavation organized by a Jewish institution, and uncovered there the large Jewish catacombs dated to the 2nd-4th centuries CE, known as the burial place of the Jewish leader Rabbi Yehudah Hanasi, the compiler of the Mishnah. In 1948 he was the first archaeologist to receive a permit to dig in the new State of Israel, and explored the Philistine town of Tell Qasile in northern Tel Aviv. He later conducted excavations at Ein Gedi and between 1968 and 1978 directed the excavations south and south-west of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, including an area he described as the Ophel, uncovering extensive remains from the Iron Age through the Second Temple period and to Jerusalem's Islamic period.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tomb of Himyarites.", "content": "In 1937, Benjamin Mazar revealed at Beit She'arim a system of tombs belonging to the Jews of Ḥimyar (now southern Yemen) dating back to the 3rd century CE. The strength of ties between Yemenite Jewry and the Land of Israel can be learnt, of course, by the system of tombs at Beit She'arim dating back to the 3rd century. It is of great significance that Jews from Ḥimyar were being buried in what was then considered a prestigious place, near the tombs of the Sanhedrin. Those who had the financial means brought their dead to be buried in the Land of Israel, as it was considered an outstanding virtue for Jews not to be buried in foreign lands, but rather in the land of their forefathers. It is speculated that the Ḥimyarites, during their lifetime, were known and respected in the eyes of those who dwelt in the Land of Israel, seeing that one of them, whose name was Menaḥem, was coined the epithet \"qyl ḥmyr\" [prince of Ḥimyar], in the eight-character Ḥimyari ligature, while in the Greek inscription he was called \"Menae presbyteros\" (Menaḥem, the community's elder). The name of a woman in Greek letters, in its genitive form, Ενλογιαζ, was also engraved there, meaning either ‘virtue’, ‘blessing’, or ‘gratis’.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mazar family.", "content": "Benjamin Mazar's son Ory Mazar, grandchildren Eilat Mazar and Dan Mazar and nephew Amihai Mazar all played an important role in the study and dissemination of Israeli archaeology and historical knowledge. Eilat Mazar has been a frequent spokesperson for concerns regarding the archaeology of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem while Amihai Mazar was the recipient of the 2009 Israel Prize for Archaeology. Benjamin Mazar is the brother-in-law of Israel's second and only three-term President, Yitzhak Ben Zvi.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Benjamin Mazar (; born Binyamin Zeev Maisler, June 28, 1906 – September 9, 1995) was a pioneering Israeli historian, recognized as the \"dean\" of biblical archaeologists. He shared the national passion for the archaeology of Israel that also attracts considerable international interest due to the region's biblical links. He is known for his excavations at the most significant biblical site in Israel: south and south west of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. In 1932 he conducted the first archaeological excavation under Jewish auspices in Israel at Beit She'arim (the largest catacombs ever found in Israel) and in 1948 was the first archaeologist to receive a permit granted by the new State of Israel (Tell Qasile, 1948). Mazar was trained as an Assyriologist and was an expert on biblical history, authoring more than 100 publications on the subject. He developed the field of historical geography of Israel. For decades he served as the chairman of the Israel Exploration Society and of the Archaeological Council of Israel (which he founded as the authority responsible for all archaeological excavations and surveys in Israel). Between 1951 and 1977, Mazar served as Professor of Biblical History and Archaeology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 1952 he became Rector of the University and later its president for eight years commencing in 1953.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977131}
{"src_title": "2005 IIHF World U18 Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Championship results.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relegation round.", "content": "Note: The following matches from the preliminary round carry forward to the relegation round:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final round.", "content": "beat for the bronze medal 4–2.<br>", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final standings.", "content": "and are relegated to Division I for the 2006 IIHF World U18 Championships.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "Division I consisted of two separate tournaments. The Group A tournament was held between 3 and 9 April 2005 in Maribor, Slovenia and the Group B tournament was held between 2 and 8 April 2005 in Sosnowiec, Poland. Belarus and Norway won the Group A and Group B tournaments respectively and gained promotion to the Championship Division for the 2006 IIHF World U18 Championships. While Great Britain finished last in Group A and Italy last in Group B and were both relegated to Division II for 2006.  Group A Group B", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "Division II consisted of two separate tournaments. The Group A tournament was held between 14 and 20 March 2005 in Kohtla-Järve, Estonia and the Group B tournament was held between 21 and 27 March 2005 in Bucharest, Romania. South Korea and Hungary won the Group A and Group B tournaments respectively and gained promotion to Division I for the 2006 IIHF World U18 Championships. While South Africa finished last in Group A and Romania last in Group B and were both relegated to Division III for 2006.  Group A Group B", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "The Division III tournament was held between 7 and 13 March 2005 in Sofia, Bulgaria. Australia and Belgium finished first and second respectively and both gained promotion to Division II for the 2006 IIHF World U18 Championships.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division III Qualification.", "content": "The Division III Qualification tournament was held between 18 and 20 February 2005 in Ankara, Turkey. Turkey won the tournament and qualified for the Division III tournament after winning both of their games against Armenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2005 IIHF World U18 Championships were held in České Budějovice and Plzeň, Czech Republic. The championships began on April 14, 2005 and finished on April 24, 2005. Games were played at Budvar Arena in České Budějovice and ČEZ Aréna in Plzeň. The United States of America defeated Canada 5–1 in the final to claim the gold medal, while the Sweden defeated Czech Republic 4–2 to capture the bronze medal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977132}
{"src_title": "2009 IIHF World U18 Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Top Division.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relegation round.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "Note: The following matches from the preliminary round carry forward to the relegation round:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division I tournament. Group A was played in Minsk, Belarus between April 6 and April 12, 2009. Group B was played in Asiago, Italy between March 29 and April 5, 2009.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "\" is promoted to Top Division for the 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships.\" \" is relegated to Division II for the 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "\" is promoted to Top Division for the 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships.\" \" is relegated to Division II for the 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division II tournament. Group A was played in Maribor, Slovenia between March 22 and March 28, 2009. Group B was played in Narva, Estonia between March 16 and March 22, 2009:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "\" is promoted to Division I for the 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships.\" \" is relegated to Division III for the 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "\" is promoted to Division I for the 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships.\" \" is relegated to Division III for the 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "The following teams took part in the Division III tournament. Group A was played in Taipei, Chinese Taipei (Republic of China) between February 27 and March 5, 2009. Group B was played in Erzurum, Turkey between March 9 and March 15, 2009:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "\" is promoted to Division II for the 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "\" is promoted to Division II for the 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2009 IIHF World U18 Championships were held in Fargo, North Dakota and Moorhead, Minnesota, United States. The championships ran from April 9 to April 19, 2009. Games were played at the Urban Plains Center in Fargo and the Moorhead Sports Center in Moorhead. Fargo-Moorhead defeated Providence, Rhode Island and St. Cloud, Minnesota for the rights to host the event.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977133}
{"src_title": "2010 IIHF World U18 Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Top Division.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary Round.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Fixtures.", "content": "The Group A games took place in Bobruisk, Belarus, between April 13 and April 18.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Fixtures.", "content": "The Group B games took place in Minsk, Belarus, between April 13 and April 18.", "section_level": 4}, {"title": "Scoring leaders.", "content": "List shows the top skaters sorted by points, then goals.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Leading goaltenders.", "content": "Only the top five goaltenders, based on save percentage, who have played 40% of their team's minutes are included in this list.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "Group A was played in Herning, Denmark, between April 12 and April 18, 2010. Group B was played in Krynica-Zdrój, Poland, between April 11 and April 17, 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "\" was promoted to the Top Division for the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships. was relegated to Division II for the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "\" was promoted to the Top Division for the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships. was relegated to Division II for the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "Group A was played in Narva, Estonia, between March 13 and March 19, 2010. Group B was played in Kiev, Ukraine, between March 22 and March 28, 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "\" was promoted to Division I for the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships. was relegated to Division III for the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "\" was promoted to Division I for the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships. is relegated to Division III for the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "Group A was played in Erzurum, Turkey, between March 8 and March 14, 2010. Group B was played in Monterrey, Mexico, between March 14 and March 20, 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "\" was promoted to Division II for the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "\" was promoted to Division II for the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships was the 12th edition of the IIHF World U18 Championship. The tournament was held in Minsk and Babruysk, Belarus, between April 13 and April 23, 2010. Tournament games were played at the Minsk Sports Palace in Minsk and the Babruysk Arena in Babruysk. The United States won the gold medal for the second consecutive year with a 3–1 victory over Sweden in the championship game. The gold medal was the fifth for the United States since the tournament began in 1999; Sweden matched their best ever performance with a silver medal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977134}
{"src_title": "2011 IIHF World U18 Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Top Division.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary Round.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "All times local (CEST/UTC+2)", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "All times local (CEST/UTC+2)", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Relegation round.", "content": "The results from matches between teams from the same group in the preliminary round were carried forward to this round.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Schedule.", "content": "All times local (CEST/UTC+2)", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Scoring leaders.", "content": "List shows the top ten skaters sorted by points, then goals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leading goaltenders.", "content": "Only the top five goaltenders, based on save percentage, who have played 40% of their team's minutes are included in this list.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "Group A was played in Riga, Latvia between April 11 and April 17, 2011. Group B was played in Maribor, Slovenia between April 10 and April 16, 2011. On March 29, 2011 Japan withdrew from the tournament due to the 2011 Japan earthquake.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "Group A was played in Braşov, Romania between March 19 and March 25, 2011. Group B was played in Donetsk, Ukraine between March 27 and April 2, 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "Group A was played in Taipei, Chinese Taipei between April 11 and April 17, 2011. Group B was played in Mexico City, Mexico between March 13 and March 20, 2011. Prior to the start of the tournament, the Mongolian national team announced they would withdraw, citing financial reasons. All games against them are to be counted as a forfeit, with a score of 5–0 for the opposing team. Group A played a round-robin schedule followed by a classification round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "is promoted to the Division II for the 2012 IIHF World U18 Championships.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships was held in Crimmitschau and Dresden, Germany. The championships ran from April 14–24, 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977135}
{"src_title": "Jan IV of Oświęcim", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "At the time of his father's death in 1434 Jan IV was still a minor, so was placed under the care of his older brother Wenceslaus I.  In 1441, Wenceslaus I agreed to become a vassal of the King of Poland in exchange for the rights to govern the Duchy of Zator (it would be given to them in 1440 and in 1441 Wacław would officially become a vassal). This step was also followed by Jan IV and his brother Przemysław.  On 19 January 1445 was made the formal division of the Duchy between Casimir I's sons. Despite the fact that he was the youngest brother, Jan IV received Oświęcim, the capital of the Duchy, and the towns of Kęty, Żywiec and half of Gliwice.  Since the beginning of his reign Jan IV joined in adventurous politics with his Silesian cousin. One of his first decisions was not recognized the purchase of Siewierz by the Bishop of Kraków, Zbigniew Oleśnicki. This has led to increased tensions between him and the Polish nobles, even resulting in some border wars (common for that period in medieval Europe). The struggle for Siewierz lasted until 1447, when Jan IV finally accepted the ownership of the Bishop.  In 1448 it seemed that the Jan IV's anti-Polish politics were definitively ended when he signed a border agreement with Kingdom of Poland: however, soon their relations worsened. In 1452, and for unknown reasons, Duke Przemysław of Toszek attack Siewierz. The Polish troops, under the command of Piotr Szafraniec, used this as an excuse to attack Jan IV, and sieged his castle of Barwałd. The Duke of Oświęcim saved his lands only after the payment of 2,000 fines to Piotr Szafraniec. But Jan IV, after these humiliating conditions, refused to surrender, and with the plague over the Poland, he looted Polish borderlands, advanced over Lesser Poland and even approached Kraków, the Polish capital itself, on a daring raid.  The reaction of the Polish King wasn't long in coming. In 1453, a large Polish army under the command of the Starost Jan Szczekocki and the Chamberlain Jan Kuropatwa, invaded his Duchy in retribution. Unable to face the powerful Polish army, he was defeated and on 25 January he decided to capitulate. The Polish King gave him two choices: the vassalization or selling of the Duchy.  Despite his defeat, Jan IV didn't change his conduct and soon after he began the siege of Oświęcim, then under the hands of Jan z Czyżowa. This expedition was unsuccessful, so Jan IV withdrew to the Wolek Castle, from where he conducted trips to the Lesser Poland area.  Eventually, Jan IV accepted that he had lost all chances for victory, and in 1454 he finally agreed to sell his Duchy to the Kingdom of Poland for 20,000 groszes. The sale was confirmed in the act of homage made by the Duchy on 19 March 1454, during the festivities for the King's marriage with Elisabeth of Austria. The Act came into force on 11 October 1456, when King Casimir IV promised to Jan IV the payment of 21,000 pieces of gold and 4,300 fines.  Jan IV briefly joined the Prussian Confederation army as a mercenary during the Thirteen Years' War (one of the Polish-Teutonic Wars). However, the Polish king, Casimir IV Jagiellon, delayed the payment of the promised amount in 1454 and he returned to his homeland with mercenaries and allies from Prussia and located his base of operations in Myślenice, and began his efforts to recover his lost Duchy. Eventually, on 26 June 1458 in Bytom, the Polish King decided to pay him fully to stop the troubles (at the end, the King only gave him 11,000 pieces of gold and he would finish the payment only in 1462) and Jan IV retired from Myślenice, who was burned by the Polish troops.  In 1460, after the death of Bolko V the Hussite, Duke of Opole, Jan IV tried to claim his domains, but was defeated by Bolko V's brother, Nicholas I.  In 1462, with money from the Polish King, he bought Gliwice with its castle from his brother Przemysław, as well as nearby Ujazd from the Bishopric of Wrocław and he became the Duke of Gliwice in 1465.  In 1471, Jan IV and his brother Przemysław supported the election of Władysław Jagiellon as King of Bohemia, which resulted in the beginning of hostile relations with the other candidate for the throne, the Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus. On 27 February 1475 during a meeting in Racibórz, King Matthias arrested Jan IV, and only released him after he give up half of his lands and later. However, the King only secured the fidelity of Jan IV on 12 August 1479, when he paid homage to him in Olomouc.  In 1482, and for unknown reasons, Jan IV sold the rest of his lands in Gliwice; in 1484 he inherited Toszek after the death of his brother Przemysław, but almost immediately the land was confiscated by King Matthias, who claimed more dubious rights to them.  Little is known about Jan IV's last years. He probably retired to the Duchy of Karniów, inherited by his second wife in 1491. Jan IV died around 1496–1497 and was probably buried in Karniów.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and Issue.", "content": "By 30 December 1465, Jan IV married firstly with certain Katharina, whose origins are unknown.  Around 1475, Jan IV married secondly with Barbara (b. 1445 – d. 27 April 1510), daughter of Duke Nicholas V of Karniów. She succeeded in 1491 as Duchess of Karniów. They had one daughter:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jan IV of Oświęcim (; 1426/1430 – by 21 February 1497), was a Duke of Oświęcim during 1434–1456 (until 1445 with his brothers as co-rulers) and Duke of Gliwice from 1465 to 1482.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977136}
{"src_title": "Sun-synchronous orbit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Applications.", "content": "A Sun-synchronous orbit is useful for imaging, spy, and weather satellites, because every time that the satellite is overhead, the surface illumination angle on the planet underneath it will be nearly the same. This consistent lighting is a useful characteristic for satellites that image the Earth's surface in visible or infrared wavelengths, such as weather and spy satellites; and for other remote-sensing satellites, such as those carrying ocean and atmospheric remote-sensing instruments that require sunlight. For example, a satellite in Sun-synchronous orbit might ascend across the equator twelve times a day each time at approximately 15:00 mean local time.  Special cases of the Sun-synchronous orbit are the noon/midnight orbit, where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial latitudes is around noon or midnight, and the dawn/dusk orbit, where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial latitudes is around sunrise or sunset, so that the satellite rides the terminator between day and night. Riding the terminator is useful for active radar satellites, as the satellites' solar panels can always see the Sun, without being shadowed by the Earth. It is also useful for some satellites with passive instruments that need to limit the Sun's influence on the measurements, as it is possible to always point the instruments towards the night side of the Earth. The dawn/dusk orbit has been used for solar-observing scientific satellites such as Yohkoh, TRACE, Hinode and PROBA2, affording them a nearly continuous view of the Sun.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orbital precession.", "content": "A Sun-synchronous orbit is achieved by having the osculating orbital plane precess (rotate) approximately one degree eastward each day with respect to the celestial sphere to keep pace with the Earth's movement around the Sun. This precession is achieved by tuning the inclination to the altitude of the orbit (see Technical details) such that Earth's equatorial bulge, which perturbs inclined orbits, causes the orbital plane of the spacecraft to precess with the desired rate. The plane of the orbit is not fixed in space relative to the distant stars, but rotates slowly about the Earth's axis.  Typical Sun-synchronous orbits around Earth are about 600–800 km in altitude, with periods in the 96–100-minute range, and inclinations of around 98°. This is slightly retrograde compared to the direction of Earth's rotation: 0° represents an equatorial orbit, and 90° represents a polar orbit.  Sun-synchronous orbits can happen around other oblate planets, such as Mars. A satellite around the almost spherical Venus, for example, will need an outside push to maintain a Sun-synchronous orbit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical details.", "content": "The angular precession per orbit for an orbit around an oblate planet is given by where  An orbit will be Sun-synchronous when the precession rate equals the mean motion of the Earth about the Sun, which is 360° per sidereal year (), so we must set, where is the orbital period.  As the orbital period of a spacecraft is  where is the semi-major axis of the orbit and is the standard gravitational parameter of the planet ( for Earth); as for a circular or almost circular orbit, it follows that  or when is 360° per year,  As an example, for = (the spacecraft about 800 km over the Earth surface) one gets with this formula a Sun-synchronous inclination of 98.696°.  Note that according to this approximation equals −1 when the semi-major axis equals, which means that only smaller orbits can be Sun-synchronous. The period can be in the range from 88 minutes for a very low orbit ( =, = 96°) to 3.8 hours ( =, but this orbit would be equatorial with = 180°). A period longer than 3.8 hours may be possible by using an eccentric orbit with < but >.  If one wants a satellite to fly over some given spot on Earth every day at the same hour, it can do between 7 and 16 orbits per day, as shown in the following table. (The table has been calculated assuming the periods given. The orbital period that should be used is actually slightly longer. For instance, a retrograde equatorial orbit that passes over the same spot after 24 hours has a true period about ≈ 1.0027 times longer than the time between overpasses. For non-equatorial orbits the factor is closer to 1.) When one says that a Sun-synchronous orbit goes over a spot on the Earth at the same \"local time\" each time, this refers to mean solar time, not to apparent solar time. The Sun will not be in exactly the same position in the sky during the course of the year (see Equation of time and Analemma).  Sun-synchronous orbits are mostly selected for Earth observation satellites, with an altitude typically between 600 and over the Earth surface. Even if an orbit remains Sun-synchronous, however, other orbital parameters such as argument of periapsis and the orbital eccentricity will evolve, due to higher order perturbations in the Earth's gravitational field, the pressure of sunlight, and other causes. Earth observation satellites, in particular, prefer orbits with constant altitude when passing over the same spot. Careful selection of eccentricity and location of perigee reveals specific combinations where the perturbations largely cancel and hence the orbit is relatively stable – a frozen orbit. The ERS-1, ERS-2 and Envisat of European Space Agency, as well as the MetOp spacecraft of EUMETSATand RADARSAT-2 of the Canadian Space Agency, are all operated in such Sun-synchronous frozen orbits.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO, also called a heliosynchronous orbit) is a nearly polar orbit around a planet, in which the satellite passes over any given point of the planet's surface at the same local mean solar time. More technically, it is an orbit arranged so that it precesses through one complete revolution each year, so it always maintains the same relationship with the Sun.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977137}
{"src_title": "Trek–Segafredo (men's team)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2011.", "content": "The team was founded in 2011 under the name of Leopard Trek and officially stylized as LEOPARD TREK with Brian Nygaard and Kim Andersen as team managers. The Schleck brothers were under contract with the Danish team Saxo Bank managed by Bjarne Riis through the end of the 2010 season. Several other riders followed the Schleck brothers to the new team, including veterans Jens Voigt, Fabian Cancellara and Stuart O'Grady. Subsequent signings included sprinter Daniele Bennati, Davide Vigano and Joost Posthuma.  The team became active at the start of the 2011 cycling season. On 13 December 2010, Jakob Fuglsang revealed that the team would be called Team Leopard, in reference to the management company run by Nygaard. Trek, the bike supplier, confirmed shortly before the team was officially presented that they would be a co-title sponsor, giving the team a full name of \"Leopard Trek.\"  Team rider Wouter Weylandt died as a result of a high-speed, downhill crash during the 2011 Giro d'Italia. The remaining riders of Leopard Trek left the competition at the completion of the following day's stage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012.", "content": "For the 2012 season, the team was renamed RadioShack–Nissan–Trek. The reason is that the American ceased racing, and their former sponsors joined the Luxembourg Cycling Project. Johan Bruyneel along with several riders from moved to the new team. The lineup for 2012 was officially confirmed on 5 December 2011. The official UCI name for the team is RadioShack Nissan and it is registered in Luxembourg.  While the UCI ProTeam is now named RadioShack–Nissan–Trek, in December 2011 Leopard also launched a UCI Continental Team, consisting mainly of U23 riders, called Leopard-Trek.  On 17 July 2012, Fränk Schleck was removed from the 2012 Tour de France by the team during the second rest day after his A-sample returned traces of Xipamide. Team RadioShack–Nissan won the team classification of the Tour de France.  Johan Bruyneel stood down as General Manager on 12 October in the aftermath of the publication by the US Anti-Doping Agency of its \"reasoned decision\" on the Lance Armstrong doping case.  On 21 December 2012, Nissan announced that they would cease to sponsor the team, with immediate effect.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013.", "content": "During the 2013 Tour de France Team RadioShack-Leopard announced that they would not renew Fränk Schleck's contract, leaving him without a team. It also caused a serious and public rift between his brother Andy Schleck and team management, putting his future with the team into doubt.  In September 2013, Chris Horner beat Vincenzo Nibali to win the 2013 Vuelta a España becoming the oldest grand tour winner in history, winning two stages along the way.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014.", "content": "On 3 July, the team announced that Samsung would become a new minor sponsor of the team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2015.", "content": "On 16 December 2015, the team announced that Italian coffee brand Segafredo had committed to a three-year co-title sponsorship effective 1 January 2016, with the team changing name to Trek–Segafredo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016.", "content": "In April the team announced US software company CA Technologies would sponsor the team with immediate effect until the end of the 2017 season. In March 2017 the deal was extended through 2019.  For the 2017 season, the team announced the signings of Alberto Contador, John Degenkolb (until 2019), Koen de Kort (until 2018), Jarlinson Pantano, and Ivan Basso.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Doping.", "content": "On 27 June 2017 the UCI announced André Cardoso tested positive for erythropoietin in an out-of-competition control on 18 June and has been provisionally suspended. He had been due to support Alberto Contador in his bid for the 2017 Tour de France, with Haimar Zubeldia taking the empty roster place.  In April 2019, Cycling Anti-Doping Foundation confirmed that Jarlinson Pantano had returned an adverse analytical finding for EPO, in a doping test carried out on 26 February. Pantano was immediately suspended by the team.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Trek–Segafredo () is a professional road bicycle racing team at UCI WorldTeam level licensed in the United States. Formerly RadioShack–Nissan, in 2014, Trek took over the ownership of the team and its ProTeam License.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977138}
{"src_title": "2013 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Officials.", "content": "The IIHF selected 12 referees and 10 linesmen to work the 2013 IIHF Ice Hockey U20 World Championship  They were the following:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Top division.", "content": "Each round will be a round-robin tournament, where the teams play each other once within their group. The Preliminary Round is divided into two groups: Group A and Group B, which includes five teams each. From each group, the top three teams will qualify for the playoffs; the 1st-ranked teams earn a direct trip to the Semifinals, while the 2nd and 3rd-ranked teams qualify for the Quarterfinals. The 4th and 5th-ranked teams have to play in the Relegation Round, where the three best teams qualify for the Top Division tournament the following year, with the last-placed team being relegated to the Division I tournament the following year. In the Semifinals, the directly-qualified Semifinalists face the winners from the Quarterfinals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary round.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "All times local (UTC+6)", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "All times local (UTC+6)", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Relegation round.", "content": "The results from matches between teams from the same group in the preliminary round are carried forward to this round.  All times local (UTC+6)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medalists.", "content": "Source: 1 2 3", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division I A.", "content": "The Division I A tournament was played in Amiens, France, from 9 to 15 December 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I B.", "content": "The Division I B tournament was played in Donetsk, Ukraine, from 10 to 16 December 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division II A.", "content": "The Division II A tournament was played in Brașov, Romania, from 9 to 15 December 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II B.", "content": "The Division II B tournament was played in Belgrade, Serbia, from 12 to 18 January 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "The Division III tournament was played in Sofia, Bulgaria, from 14 to 20 January 2013.  <nowiki>*</nowiki> were disqualified and all their games were counted as 5-0 wins for their opponents.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2013 IIHF World U20 Championship (commonly known as the 2013 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships) was the 37th edition of the Ice Hockey World Junior Championship (WJC). It was hosted in Ufa, Russia. It began on December 26, 2012, and ended with the gold medal game played on January 5, 2013. The United States defeated defending-champion Sweden 3–1 to win their third title, their first one since 2010. American goalie John Gibson was named MVP of the tournament.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977139}
{"src_title": "2012 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Host city selection.", "content": "On February 1, 2008, Hockey Canada and the Canadian Hockey League announced that six groups had submitted letters of intent to bid to host the 2012 tournament: Calgary/Edmonton; Halifax, Nova Scotia; London/Windsor, Ontario; Saskatoon, Saskatchewan; Toronto; and Winnipeg. The London/Windsor, Halifax and Winnipeg bids withdrew before the application deadline, leaving three groups. Saskatoon was selected to host the 2010 tournament with Regina, Saskatchewan, leaving only the Calgary/Edmonton and Toronto bids for this tournament.  The Alberta bid, supported by the National Hockey League's Calgary Flames and Edmonton Oilers as well as the Western Hockey League's Calgary Hitmen and Edmonton Oil Kings, was selected to host the tournament on August 28, 2008. It will be the second time the tournament has been hosted in the province; Red Deer served as the primary host of the 1995 World Junior Championship, while some tournament games were played in both Calgary and Edmonton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attendance.", "content": "As part of their bid, the two cities projected that they would generate a tournament record attendance in excess of 475,000 fans and provide an economic benefit of $42 million to the province of Alberta. Following a reserved offering of 10- and 21-game ticket packs for Edmonton and Calgary games respectively to season ticket holders of the Oilers, Oil Kings, Flames and Hitmen, the tournament committee held a lottery to award the right to purchase the remaining seats. While the entry deadline was supposed to coincide with the conclusion of the 2011 tournament, organizers were flooded with so many entries that their website servers crashed. Organizers were overwhelmed by the response; over 187,000 entries were received for the draw.  Calling the demand unprecedented, Hockey Canada announced that the 17,000 ticket packages made available to lottery winners had sold out in a matter of days, a year in advance of the tournament. While organizers were pleased with the result, the way the lottery was handled has angered fans who won the right to purchase tickets but were unable to do so as no tickets were left when their turn to buy arrived.  Ultimately, a new attendance record was set, but not by the margin initially anticipated. The total of 455,342 fans was 2,060 fans more than the previous record of 453,282 from 2009. Though many more tickets were sold as part of tournament packages, the IIHF only counts actual paid spectators in attendance in its figures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Top division.", "content": "Each round was a round-robin tournament, where the teams played each other once within their group. The Preliminary Round was divided into two groups: Group A and Group B, which included five teams each. From each group, the top three teams qualified for the playoffs; the 1st-ranked teams earned a direct trip to the Semifinals, while the 2nd and 3rd-ranked teams qualified for the Quarterfinals. The 4th and 5th-ranked teams had to play in the Relegation Round, where the three best teams qualified for the Top Division tournament in 2013, with the last-placed team being relegated to the 2013 Division I tournament. In the Semifinals, the directly-qualified Semifinalists faced the winners from the Quarterfinals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary round.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "All round robin games held in Calgary, Alberta, at the Scotiabank Saddledome. All times local (MST/UTC−7)", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "All round robin games held in Edmonton, Alberta, at Rexall Place. All times local (MST/UTC−7)", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Relegation round.", "content": "The results from matches between teams from the same group in the preliminary round were carried forward to this round.  All times local (MST/UTC−7)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medalists.", "content": "Source:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gold medal celebration.", "content": "Sweden's gold medal win was their first since 1981, as well as their second gold medal in total. The gold medal was celebrated on January 7, 2012, in front of over 6,000 fans at Kungsträdgården in Stockholm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division I A.", "content": "The Division I A tournament was played in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, from 11 to 17 December 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I B.", "content": "The Division I B tournament was played in Tychy, Poland, from 12 to 18 December 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division II A.", "content": "The Division II A tournament was played in Donetsk, Ukraine, from 12 to 18 December 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II B.", "content": "The Division II B tournament was played in Tallinn, Estonia, from 10 to 16 December 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "The Division III tournament was played in Dunedin, New Zealand, from 16 to 22 January 2012. Although originally scheduled to participate, North Korea withdrew from the tournament for unspecified reasons.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2012 IIHF U20 World Championship (commonly known as the 2012 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships) was the 36th edition of the Ice Hockey World Junior Championship. It was hosted in Calgary and Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It began on December 26, 2011, and ended with the gold medal game played in Calgary on January 5, 2012. Sweden defeated defending-champion Russia 1–0 in overtime to win their first title in 31 years. Russian forward Evgeny Kuznetsov was named MVP of the tournament. Denmark was relegated to Division I and Germany was promoted to the 2013 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977140}
{"src_title": "2015 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Player eligibility.", "content": "A player is eligible to play in the 2015 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships if:  If a player who has never played in IIHF-organized competition wishes to switch national eligibility, he must have played in competitions for two consecutive years in the new country without playing in another country, as well as show his move to the new country's national association with an international transfer card. In case the player has previously played in IIHF-organized competition but wishes to switch national eligibility, he must have played in competitions for four consecutive years in the new country without playing in another country, he must show his move to the new country's national association with an international transfer card, as well as be a citizen of the new country. A player may only switch national eligibility once.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Top Division.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Officials.", "content": "The IIHF selected 12 referees and 10 linesmen to officiate during the tournament:  Referees  Linesmen", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "The four best ranked teams from each group of the preliminary round advance to the quarterfinals, while the last placed teams from each group played a relegation round in a best of three format to determine the relegated team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relegation round.", "content": "Note: was relegated for the 2016 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tournament awards.", "content": "Most Valuable Player  All-star team  IIHF best player awards", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final standings.", "content": "Note that due to the lack of playoff games for determining the spots 5–8, these spots were determined by the preliminary round records for each team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division I A.", "content": "The Division I A tournament was played in Asiago, Italy, from 14 to 20 December 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I B.", "content": "The Division I B tournament was played in Dunaújváros, Hungary, from 14 to 20 December 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division II A.", "content": "The Division II A tournament was played in Tallinn, Estonia, from 7 to 13 December 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II B.", "content": "The Division II B tournament was played in Jaca, Spain, from 13 to 19 December 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "The Division III tournament was played in Dunedin, New Zealand, from 20 to 25 January 2015.  On December 27, 2014 organizers announced that the Bulgarian Ice Hockey Federation withdrew their U20 team from the tournament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2015 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships was the 39th edition of Ice Hockey World Junior Championship, played from December 26, 2014 to January 5, 2015. It was co-hosted by Toronto, Ontario, and Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and organized by Hockey Canada, Hockey Quebec, the Ontario Hockey Federation, the Montreal Canadiens, Maple Leafs Sports and Entertainment and Evenko. Games were split between Air Canada Centre in Toronto and Bell Centre in Montreal, with Montreal hosting Group A matches and two quarter finals, and Toronto hosting Group B, along with the relegation games, two quarter finals, along with the semi-finals, bronze medal, and gold medal games.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977141}
{"src_title": "Shenyang J-15", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "China has sought to purchase Su-33s from Russia on several occasions—an unsuccessful offer was made as late as March 2009—but negotiations collapsed in 2006 after it was discovered that China had developed a modified version of the Sukhoi Su-27SK designated the Shenyang J-11B, in violation of intellectual property agreements. However, according to Chinese sources, the reason China withdrew from talks is that Russia wanted large amounts to re-open Su-33 production lines, insisting on a Chinese purchase of at least 50 Su-33s, towards which China was reluctant as it believed the aircraft would become outdated in a few years. China hence decided on an indigenous variant instead of continuing to assemble the licensed Su-27, or J-11.  J-15 program was officially started in 2006. The deputy general designer of J-15 is Wang Yongqing (王永庆).  The first J-15 prototype made its maiden flight on 31 August 2009, believed to be powered by Russian-supplied AL-31 turbofan engines. Video and still images of the flight were released in July 2010, showing the same basic airframe design as the Su-33.  On 6 May 2010 the aircraft conducted its first takeoff from a simulated ski-jump.  On 25 November 2012, the aircraft successfully performed its first takeoff and landing on China's first aircraft carrier \"Liaoning\".  A twin-seat variant made its maiden flight on 4 November 2012.  The initial WS-10 engines proved to be unreliable under oceanic conditions, and the early J-15s were fitted with Russian-made AL-31F. Several years later, WS-10 entered mass-production and late J-15 variants were gradually replacing their engines with modified WS-10.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "An article in the China Signpost believes the J-15 \"likely exceeds or matches the aerodynamic capabilities of virtually all fighter aircraft currently operated by regional militaries, with the exception of the U.S. F-22 Raptor\", alleging that the J-15 likely possesses a 10% superior thrust-to-weight ratio and a 25% lower wing loading than the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. However, one of the authors of that same article described the J-15 in another as no game changer; the reliance on ski-jump launches and lack of Chinese carrier based refueling capabilities are believed to greatly reduce its effective range. Hu Siyuan of the National Defense University PLA China has said that \"the current weak point of the J-15 is its Russia-made Al-31 engines which are less powerful than that of the American F-35 fighter\".  In September 2013, the Beijing-based Sina Military Network (SMN) criticized the capabilities of the J-15 as nothing more than a \"flopping fish\" incapable of flying from the \"Liaoning\" with heavy weapons, “effectively crippling its attack range and firepower,” an unusual move as it contradicted state-owned media reports praising the fighter. SMN reported the J-15 could operate from the carrier equipped with two YJ-83K anti-ship missiles, two short-range PL-8 air-to-air missiles, and four bombs, but a weapons load exceeding 12 tons would not get it off the ski jump, prohibiting it from carrying heavier munitions such as PL-12 medium-range air-to-air missiles, making it an unlikely match if hostile fighters are encountered when flying strike missions; furthermore, it can only carry two tons of weapons while fully fueled, limiting it to no more than two YJ-83Ks and two PL-8s.  The J-15's chief designer, Sun Cong of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, has said that the J-15 could match the F/A-18 in bomb load, combat radius and mobility. However, in a similar statement, he said more work was required in its electronics and combat systems. He also indicated the lack of mature domestically produced engines as a current weak spot. Rear Admiral Yin Zhuo stated that the aircraft's air combat capabilities were better than that of the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. However, he also stated that its ability to attack land and sea targets was slightly inferior to the F/A-18E/F; it is also stated that its electronic equipment meets the standards of those on a fifth generation fighter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "On 25 November 2012, Chinese media announced that two J-15s had made successful arrested landings on the aircraft carrier. The first pilot to land on \"Liaoning\" was named as Dai Mingmeng (戴明盟). Luo Yang, the aircraft's head of production and designer, died the same day. PLA Daily newspaper indicated the first five naval pilots including Dai conducted J-15 fighter landing and taking off. Test and training program officials confirmed the carrier-borne aircraft and special equipment for the landing flight had gone through strict tests, and fighter jets can be deployed on the carrier.  In December 2013 Chinese media reported that mass production of J-15s in full operational condition with combat markings had begun.  In January 2017, the carrier \"Liaoning\", having returned to the South China Sea after its first deployment into the western Pacific, conducted a series of take-off and landing drills with its force of embarked J-15 fighters.  In July 2018, Lieutenant General Zhang Honghe of the PLAAF stated that China is developing a new carrier-based aircraft that will replace the J-15 due to four crashes and numerous technical problems. One problem with the aircraft is that it is the heaviest carrier-borne fighter in current operation with an empty weight of 17,500 kg compared to the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet's 14,600 kg (though it is less than the F-14 Tomcat's weight of 19,800 kg). Weight problems are compounded when operating off \"Liaoning\", as its STOBAR launch and recovery method further limits payload capacity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Shenyang J-15 (Chinese: 歼-15), NATO reporting name: Flanker-X2, also known as \"Flying Shark\" (), is a 4th generation, twin-jet, all-weather, carrier-based fighter aircraft in development by the Shenyang Aircraft Corporation and the 601 Institute for the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy's aircraft carriers. It is developed from J-11B as well as from studying of a prototype of Su-33. An unfinished Su-33 prototype, the T-10K-3, was acquired from Ukraine in 2001 and is said to have been studied extensively, reverse engineered, with development on the J-15 beginning immediately afterward. While the J-15 appears to be structurally based on the prototype of Su-33, the indigenous fighter features Chinese technologies as well as avionics from the J-11B program. In February 2018, discussions about replacing the aircraft appeared in several Chinese media outlets including Xinhua and China's main military newspaper, discussing that it belongs to the 4th or 4.5 generation fighters. Thus, the J-15 is viewed as an interim carrier-based fighter until a 5th generation successor enters service, one that may be based on the J-20 or J-31.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977142}
{"src_title": "Siege of Breda (1624)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Reasons.", "content": "There were several motives for Spinola's siege of Breda. Because the Dutch regularly used the town as a base for raiding Spanish Brabant, the parts of Brabant under royal rule would be better protected if the city were conquered. In addition, neighbouring towns occupied by the States, such as Bergen op Zoom, would be easier to conquer with a foothold in Breda.  In 1590, Breda was captured from the Spanish using the stratagem with the peat boat. The conquest of a well-defended city like Breda would erase this disgrace. More importantly, Spinola personally felt that the failure of the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom (1622) was a blot on his reputation.  Furthermore, Spain wanted to have a strong position in potential peace negotiations. The conquest of Breda would enable Spain to put forward stronger demands concerning religious freedom for Catholics in the Republic and lifting the blockade of the Scheldt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Location.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vesting Breda.", "content": "Breda was one of the strongest cities in the defence of the Republic between the States of Holland and royal Brabant. The city was strategically located on a navigable river, Mark, and near several roads.  Henry III of Nassau, Lord of Breda from 1509 to 1538, had been commissioned by Charles V to travel through Europe. In Italy, he came into contact with modern defences. Thus, in 1531 he inspired the construction of the late medieval style walls of Breda. These were later replaced by modern fortifications. In 1587 and 1622, the defences were further expanded and updated.  The Breda fortress consisted of a very high earthen thoroughfare with 15 bastions and a moat. The canal was five feet deep and was provided with water from Mark. Access to the city was made possible by four brick gates. Crescent ravelins were applied in the ditches. Hornwork was placed on the gates and at the. Stakewall were built to complicate assault by horsemen and foot soldiers and simultaneously prevent desertion. The fortifications were in excellent condition and served as a state of the art example of fortification. Around Breda, forests formed an obstacle for the cavalry and artillery of any besieging army and the high water level of the Mark posed challenges to attacking infantry. The rivers Mark and and other streams also hampered besiegers. By using an near the Ginnekense gate, the area south of Breda could be put underwater if opened. The north side had a lock near Terheijden that functioned.  Because the States of Holland and West Friesland knew that the Spanish army might attempt to conquer Breda, they left the city with enough food, supplies, and weapons for an eight-month siege. The city council refused to store more food than was necessary for a nine-month siege. Nobody knew what tactics the Spanish army would apply. Therefore, the possibility of a direct assault was also considered. To prevent this, a State army was stationed near Breda with the aim of disrupting any direct assault on the city.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Garrison in Breda.", "content": "The garrison in Breda consisted of 17 companies in peacetime, each of which consisted of 65 men and 5 cavalry squadrons of 70 riders each. When it was probable that the city would become besieged, the squadrons were supplemented by another 30 riders each; the infantry was supplemented with 28 companies of 135 men. To save food, three squadrons were sent to Geertruidenberg shortly before a siege. The castle held approximately 100 civilians out of the 5,200 soldiers. The male inhabitants of Breda between 20 and 70 years, about 1,800 men, were armed to support the soldiers.  The governor of the city was Justin of Nassau, an illegitimate son of William I, Prince of Orange. His deputy was Dyrcx Cornelis van Oosterhout, but his role was insignificant during the siege.  In addition to the soldiers, others stayed in the city. Ordinary citizens, farmers, spouses and children of soldiers, came to the town to seek protection against the Spanish army. The soldiers' wives were responsible for cooking and washing for the soldiers and caring for the sick and wounded. The total number of inhabitants in the city is estimated at 13,111. They are believed to have been housed in about 1,200 homes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spanish Army.", "content": "Conflicting and incomplete data does not allow for an accurate calculation of the size of the Spanish army. On 30 September the number was probably around 40,000 soldiers and on about 2 May 1625, approximately 80,000 soldiers. 25,000 were encamped along the supply corridor, another 25,000 men were used for the containment of the city, and 30,000 served as general reserves.  According to the text on the map by Blaeu, “[This was] so large an army, as had not been seen in the Netherlands in living memory.”  The composition of the Spanish army was diverse, as shown in the table above. The army consisted primarily of infantry, with a small number of riders. Members of the infantry were equipped with either a rapier and a pike, or a rapier with a musket; members of the cavalry were equipped with either a lances and two pistols, or a musket and two pistols.  The infantry was mainly used for the lines to raise and to guard and defend against an army and State terror against sorties from the city. In the supply corridor, the foot soldiers deployed to protect the convoys. The cavalry was more mobile than the infantry and was therefore mainly used to inspect the area and to protect convoys.  The cannons could fire 10 shots per hour and were operated by gunners. The exact number of the Spanish guns is not precisely known, but there were certainly more than 30. Sappers engaged in building bridges, maintaining roads, and other activities.  The commander of the Spanish army was Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases, a known military strategist from Italy. His deputies were the regimental commanders Hendrik, count van den Bergh, who was also commander of the supply corridor, and John VIII, Count of Nassau-Siegen. Spinola was the commander of the reserve forces until 31 October when he was succeeded by Carlos Coloma.  Because of the vastness of Breda, Spinola had his troops divided into four compartments. The four subjects with commanders were:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In modern literature.", "content": "The siege of 1624–1625 is the subject of the 1998 novel \"El sol de Breda\" (\"The Sun Over Breda\") by the Spanish author Arturo Pérez-Reverte, as part of the \"Captain Alatriste\" series. The events of the siege – including both the gruelling fighting with the Dutch and the infighting among the Spanish, including a major mutiny by unpaid Spanish troops – are depicted from the point of view of a boy serving with the Spanish forces. The realistic depiction of war and soldiers' daily life seems influenced by the writer's own long experience as a war correspondent.  The siege appears in the film \"Alatriste\" adapted from the novel series.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The siege of Breda of 1624–25 occurred during the Eighty Years' War. The siege resulted in Breda, a Dutch fortified city, falling into the control of the Army of Flanders.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977143}
{"src_title": "Three (2010 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Hanna and Simon are in a long-term relationship which, though loving, has grown sexually unexciting. Soon after Simon's mother dies from overdosing on pills, after being diagnosed with advanced pancreatic cancer, he discovers that he has testicular cancer and must undergo surgery and chemotherapy. The night of his surgery, Hanna has a sexual encounter with a man called Adam, and Simon learns that he had fathered a child seventeen years earlier, although the woman opted for an abortion. Simon, who had assumed that either he or Hanna was infertile, is assured that he should still be able to have children after his surgery. During his recovery, Simon and Hanna decide to finally wed. Shortly beforehand, Simon encounters Adam at the pool and begins an affair with him as well.  The couple's separate affairs lead to greater happiness and sexual desire felt for one another. Adam, unaware that his two lovers are involved, develops feelings for them both. The affairs are divulged soon after Hanna discovers that she is pregnant; because she was sleeping with both Adam and Simon at the time of conception, she does not know the identity of the father. Now separated, both Hanna and Simon never contact Adam. Hanna moves to England, where she discovers that she is pregnant with twins. After she receives an invitation to an art gallery in Germany, she reconnects with Simon. The two admit that they have missed each other, but they also miss Adam. The film ends with the couple arriving at Adam's flat, where they coalesce into a happy spooning threesome.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Three () is a 2010 German drama film written, co-scored and directed by Tom Tykwer. The film was nominated for the Golden Lion at the 67th Venice International Film Festival.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977144}
{"src_title": "Symphony No. 1 (Dvořák)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the work.", "content": "Dvořák submitted the score for a competition in Germany, but never saw it again, and always believed it was destroyed or irretrievably lost. He later included the work in a list of early compositions he claimed to have destroyed.  However, in 1882, an unrelated person named Dr. Rudolf Dvořák, a 22-year-old Oriental scholar, came across the score in a second-hand bookshop in Leipzig, and bought it. At that time the composer Dvořák was not widely known: although he had written six symphonies, only one of them (No. 6) had been published and only three of them (Nos. 3, 5 and 6) had been performed. Rudolf Dvořák kept the score in his possession, telling nobody about it, not even the composer. He died 38 years later, in 1920, when it passed to his son. The son brought it to the attention of the musical world in 1923. Its authenticity was proven beyond doubt, but it did not receive its first performance until 4 October 1936 in Brno, and even then, in a somewhat edited form. The orchestra was conducted by Milan Sachs, who was a Czech but was most notable for his work in opera in Zagreb, Croatia (then part of Yugoslavia). Following the work's premiere, Hans Holländer wrote a review of the work. He noted that, although the writing was at times awkward, the orchestration was not. He noted that it seemed to be similar in style to Ludwig van Beethoven and Bedřich Smetana. The symphony was not published until 1961, and was the last of Dvořák's symphonies to be either performed or published. Unlike many other early compositions, Dvořák never had a chance to revise the symphony, and so it is \"particularly interesting as a very early Dvořák orchestral score in pristine condition\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Programmatic content.", "content": "The title \"The Bells of Zlonice\" does not appear in the score, although Dvořák is reputed to have referred to it this way in later years. While some argue that there is no programmatic content, it has been noted that several passages sound much like bells. It was originally conceived as a three-movement work, and the \"Allegretto\" was added later. The 658-measure first movement, marked \"Maestoso\" — \"Allegro\", is, in the original version, the longest movement of all his symphonic works, owing to a 278-measure repeated exposition section comprising 44 score pages, thereby requiring just under 19 minutes to perform uncut.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Form.", "content": "The work is in four movements:  A typical performance of the work has a duration of about fifty minutes: the movements are approximately 19, 13, 9, and 12 minutes long, respectively.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Instrumentation.", "content": "The work is scored for two flutes (one doubling piccolo), two oboes (one doubling English horn), two clarinets, two bassoons, four horns, two trumpets, three trombones, timpani, and strings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "The C minor symphony has been recorded various times, but the first recording complete and uncut was made in 1966 by the London Symphony Orchestra under István Kertész as part of his complete Dvořák cycle for Decca/London. Other notable recordings have been by Witold Rowicki, also with the London Symphony (Philips, 1970); the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra under Václav Neumann (Supraphon, 1987), the Berlin Philharmonic under Rafael Kubelík (DG, 1973); and the Royal Scottish National Orchestra under Neeme Järvi (Chandos, 1987).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Symphony No. 1 in C minor, B. 9, subtitled The Bells of Zlonice (), was composed by Antonín Dvořák during February and March 1865. The work is written in the early Romantic style, and was inspired by the works of Ludwig van Beethoven and Felix Mendelssohn. It was the only one of his symphonies that Dvořák never heard performed or had a chance to revise. The work was lost shortly after its composition, and did not come to light until 1923, almost 20 years after the composer's death. It did not receive its first performance until 1936.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977145}
{"src_title": "Four Pests Campaign", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Campaign.", "content": "The \"Four Pests\" campaign was introduced in 1958 by Mao Zedong, as a hygiene campaign aimed to eradicate the pests responsible for the transmission of pestilence and disease: the mosquitos responsible for malaria; the rodents that spread the plague; the pervasive airborne flies; and the sparrows – specifically the Eurasian tree sparrow – which ate grain seed and fruit. The government also declared that \"birds are public animals of capitalism\". According to some eyewitnesses, citizens would bang pots and pans so that sparrows would not have the chance to rest on tree branches and would fall dead from the sky. Sparrow nests were also destroyed, eggs were broken, and chicks were killed. In addition to these tactics, citizens also resorted to simply shooting the birds down from the sky. These mass attacks depleted the sparrow population, pushing it to near extinction. Furthermore, contests were held among enterprises, government agencies, and schools in cleanliness. Non-material rewards were given to those who handed in the largest number of rat tails, dead flies and mosquitoes, or dead sparrows.  At dawn one day last week, the slaughter of the sparrows in Peking began, continuing a campaign that has been going on in the countryside for months. The objection to the sparrows is that, like the rest of China's inhabitants, they are hungry. They are accused of pecking away at supplies in warehouses and in paddyfields at an officially estimated rate of four pounds of grain per sparrow per year. And so divisions of soldiers deployed through Peking streets, their footfalls muffled by rubber-soled sneakers. Students and civil servants in high-collared tunics, and schoolchildren carrying pots and pans, ladles and spoons, quietly took up their stations. The total force, according to Radio Peking, numbered 3,000,000.  Some sparrows found refuge in the extraterritorial premises of various diplomatic missions in China. The personnel of the Polish embassy in Beijing denied the Chinese request of entering the premises of the embassy to scare away the sparrows who were hiding there and as a result the embassy was surrounded by people with drums. After two days of constant drumming, the Poles had to use shovels to clear the embassy of dead sparrows.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effects.", "content": "By April 1960, Chinese leaders changed their opinion due to the influence of ornithologist Tso-hsin Cheng who pointed out that sparrows ate a large number of insects, as well as grains. Rather than being increased, rice yields after the campaign were substantially decreased. Mao ordered the end of the campaign against sparrows, replacing them with bed bugs, as the extermination of sparrows upset the ecological balance, and insects destroyed crops as a result of the absence of natural predators.  By this time, however, it was too late. With no sparrows to eat them, locust populations ballooned, swarming the country and compounding the ecological problems already caused by the Great Leap Forward, including widespread deforestation and misuse of poisons and pesticides. Ecological imbalance is credited with exacerbating the Great Chinese Famine, in which 15–45 million people died of starvation. The Chinese government eventually resorted to importing 250,000 sparrows from the Soviet Union to replenish their population.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revived campaign.", "content": "On June 19, 1998, a poster was spotted at Southwest Agricultural University in Chongqing, \"Get rid of the Four Pests\". Ninety-five percent of households were ordered to get rid of four pests. This time, sparrows were replaced with cockroaches. A similar campaign was spotted in the spring of 1998 in Beijing. Few people responded to these campaigns, as many already had the habit of killing the aforementioned pests, especially cockroaches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural influence.", "content": "In the TVB drama series \"Rosy Business\" (aired 2009 but set in mid-19th century China), a peasant came up with the idea of killing the sparrows to improve agricultural output. It was meant to be a prank used to trick the peasant owners into starvation and poverty.  In Episode 20 of the children's animated television series \"Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat\" (aired 2001–2002 but set in China around 1900), the mistress of the house declares that certain useless animals are banned from the compound. After the animals – the episode's eponymous birds, bees, and silkworms – are driven out, the family discovers the consequences. The mistress' fancy banquet is ruined by the lack of food and clothing, and she learns a valuable lesson.  The album \"Every Red Heart Shines Toward the Red Sun\" (2006) by the American post-rock band Red Sparowes tells, by way of its song titles, the story of the Great Sparrow Campaign.  The children's book \"Sparrow Girl\" (2009) by Sara Pennypacker tells the story of the Sparrow War.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Four Pests Campaign (), was one of the first actions taken in the Great Leap Forward in China from 1958 to 1962. The four pests to be eliminated were rats, flies, mosquitoes, and sparrows. The extermination of sparrows is also known as Smash Sparrows Campaign () or Eliminate Sparrows Campaign (), which resulted in severe ecological imbalance, being one of the causes of the Great Chinese Famine. In 1960, Mao Zedong ended the campaign against sparrows and redirected the fourth focus to bed bugs.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977146}
{"src_title": "Wojciech Bobowski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bobowski was born as a Pole in Bobowa near Gorlice. He was raised in a Protestant family and started a career as a church musician. At some point, he was taken as a worker by a Turkish Prince as his sister was married by an Ottoman sultan.  Because he had enjoyed musical training and was capable of reading and notating music, he was sold to the court of sultan Murad IV (and later Ibrahim I and Mehmed IV), where he converted to Islam and became known as \"Alī Ufqī\". At the court he served as an interpreter, treasurer and musician in the sultan's seraglio. He was also known to master sixteen languages, next to Polish and Turkish also Arabic, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, and Latin.  Around 1657, approximately 19–20 years after he was captured, when on a voyage to Egypt, he regained his liberty, after which he lived in Egypt for some time. It is also likely he traveled on a pilgrimage to Mecca. After he gained his freedom he became one of the most important dragomans in the Ottoman Empire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bible translation.", "content": "Bobowski, or now Ufki, having been raised as a Christian and now being a convert to Islam, became deeply interested in religious issues. He translated the Anglican catechism into Ottoman Turkish, and wrote an explanation of Islam in Latin, in an attempt to increase the mutual understandings of both cultures.  Bobowski's translation of the Bible into Turkish, known as the \"Kitabı Mukaddes\" (\"Holy Book\") has for long been the only complete Turkish Bible, and is considered one of his greatest achievements. In 2002, a new translation was published, but the 17th century translation, which has undergone some relatively minor revisions and is now written in the Latin alphabet, is still used by some.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Psalter.", "content": "Having been raised in a Protestant family, Bobowski was familiar with the singing of the Genevan Psalms. This experience has been a great influence on his composition of fourteen Turkish psalms.  In this small collection of psalms, known as \"Mezmurlar\" and released in 1665, Ali Ufki used original melodies from the Genevan Psalter, an early Calvinist hymnbook. He classified them using the Turkish modal system and translated the texts into the Ottoman Turkish. Because of certain features of French prosody, the Genevan melodies tend to be in asymmetrical meters, which makes them more similar to Middle Eastern music than much of other European music. Rhythmical intensity is likely one of the most important shared features, and their modal character facilitates their transformation into Turkish modes, as this can be done with only light changes in intonation. Ali Ufki’s versions of the psalms are relatively simple; with careful attention paid to ensuring words are easy to understand and music is only the background.  In 2005, the King's Singers together with Sarband released a CD titled \"Sacred Bridges\" which includes recordings of Psalms 5, 6, and 9 from Ali Ufki's psalter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Musical anthologies.", "content": "Among his achievements was the release of two manuscript anthologies of Ottoman music, known as \"Mecmûa-i Sâz ü Söz\" (\"Collection of Instrumental and Vocal Works\"). These anthologies contained both sacred and secular pieces, instrumental and vocal music, art music as well as traditional Turkish songs. Only two manuscript copies survive: in the British Library and the Bibliothèque Nationale. This work preserved for modern times several hundred classical Ottoman songs and instrumental pieces and is the first instance in which western staff notation was applied to Turkish music.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other works.", "content": "In 1666 Bobowski also wrote a grammar of the Ottoman Turkish language. He also translated works of Hugo Grotius and Comenius into that language.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Wojciech Bobowski or Ali Ufki (also Albertus Bobovius, Ali Bey, Santurî Ali Ufki; 1610–1675) was a Polish musician and dragoman in the Ottoman Empire. He translated the \"Bible\" into Ottoman Turkish, composed an Ottoman \"Psalter\", based on the Genevan metrical psalter, and wrote a grammar of the Ottoman Turkish language. His musical works are considered among the most important in 17th-century Ottoman music.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977147}
{"src_title": "Notre-Dame-de-la-Croix de Ménilmontant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Prior to the 19th century, the hamlet of Ménilmontant depended on the parish church of Saint-Jean-Baptiste de Belleville. Responding to population growth in the neighbourhood, the parish priest ordered the construction of a chapel in the rue de la Mare in 1823. In 1847 the chapel was designated a parish.  Construction of the present structure began in 1863, following the plans of Héret. Consecration occurred in 1869, though the building was yet incomplete.  During the Paris Commune, the church was appropriated as a political club. In a meeting held in the church on 6 May 1871, the Commune voted to execute the Archbishop of Paris and his fellow hostages.  The construction was completed in 1880.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grand Organ.", "content": "The organ was built by Aristide Cavaillé-Colle in 1872 to 74. The design of the church presented many difficulties that ultimately meant the organ was not completed as intended. In particular, the rose window required the organ cases to be split either side of the window. The presence of a bell mechanism further hindered construction of the organ. In the end, the intended positiv division was never built because it was impossible to route the key mechanism from the console to the pipes. In addition, the console had to be positioned facing the organ rather than facing the church. The third manual on the console was made to play the recit and grand orgue coupled together. When completed, the organ had 26 stops in total. The current organist is Frédéric Denis", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Notre-Dame-de-la-Croix de Ménilmontant (, meaning Our Lady of the Holy Cross of Ménilmontant) is a Roman Catholic parish church located in Ménilmontant, in the 20th arrondissement of Paris, France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977148}
{"src_title": "Madonna of Kłodzko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the painting.", "content": "The altarpiece for the Augustinian monastery in Kłodzko was commissioned before 1350 by Archbishop Arnošt of Pardubice, the monastery's founder, who spent his youth at the parish church there and, as a child, reputedly had a vision of the Virgin Mary. As archbishop he was the founder of the Marian cult in the Czech lands. He is buried in the Church of the Ascension of the Virgin Mary in Kłodzko. The original winged altarpiece, which included another four panels with painted scenes depicting the life of Christ (the \"Birth of Jesus\", the \"Circumcision\", the \"Flight to Egypt\" and the \"Twelve-year-old Christ in the Temple\") was seen and described by Bohuslav Balbín in his work \"Vita Venerabilis Arnesti primi archiepiscopi Pragensis\" of 1664. The monastery was taken over from the Augustinians by the Jesuits and until 1618 served as a Jesuit college. Although Kłodzko was besieged and damaged during the Thirty Years’ War, the altar was saved by the burgrave Johann Georg Semling and the Lutheran nobleman Adrian von Eckersdorf. After 1625 the altarpiece was the pride of the local parish church and in the 19th century it was situated in the royal grammar school in Kłodzko. From there, the painting of the enthroned Madonna was purchased in 1902 by the Berlin Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum. It now belongs to the Berlin-Dahlem State Museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "This monumental picture is 186 x 95 cm large and is tempera painted on stretched canvas over a poplar panel. It is a work that comes from the circle of the Master of the Vyšší Brod Altarpiece or his follower. The motif of the Enthroned Madonna surrounded by angels, the composition of space united by the perspective-based receding of lines, the dark-skinned complexion, the unusual size of the child and the fondness for precious fabrics all have their origin in northern Italy. At the same time, however, a series of details indicate a direct influence mediated by the Rhineland. The Madonna's crown of leaves and richly folded veil appear as archaic French models that emerged in Bohemian book painting as soon as the early 14th century. The architecture of the throne also relates to French ivory reliefs.  The soft modelling of the faces links this picture with the work of the Master of Vyšší Brod. The appearance of the Madonna and angels links it with the panel paintings The Adoration of the Magi, The Annunciation, The Resurrection and The Lamentation of the Vyšší Brod Altarpiece.  Both the \"Madonna of Veveří\" and the \"Strahov Madonna\" belong to the same period as the Kłodzko Madonna, while the artist who painted the Kaufmann Crucifixion also belonged to a broader circle perhaps linked by previous training in the workshop of the \"Master of the Klosterneuberg Altarpiece\".  Compared with the Vyšší Brod panels, the Kłodzko Madonna shows several important innovations, especially in the perspectival projection of the throne, the accentuating of spatial depth through the colour-based graduating of areas, the modelling of the high relief of the drapery and in the overall human warmth of the presentation from which the entire typology of Bohemian loving Madonnas was developed right through to the early 15th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Enthroned Madonna of Kłodzko (de: Glatzer Madonna) is a Bohemian panel painting dating from 1343-1344 that was originally the central part of a larger winged altarpiece. The altarpiece's donor was Archbishop Arnošt of Pardubice, who is portrayed in the bottom left-hand corner.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977149}
{"src_title": "Muhteşem Yüzyıl", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "At the age of 26, when his reign began, Sultan Süleyman sought to build an empire more powerful than Alexander the Great and to render the Ottomans invincible. Throughout his 46-year reign, his fame as the greatest warrior and ruler of his age spreads both to the East and West. With his companion Pargalı İbrahim, Süleyman achieves great victories, and makes his name known in the Muslim World. Süleyman called İbrahim his brother, friend and advisor. The television series shows Süleyman's consolidation of his power: Pargalı İbrahim being grand minister of state, reinforcing the rule of law throughout the empire, meeting foreign diplomats, and preparing for military campaigns, all set against the backdrop of the tension between Christian Europe and the Ottoman Empire.  The series also focuses on the relationships among the members of the imperial household, especially romantic entanglements and rivalries. The animosity between Hürrem Sultan and Mahidevran Sultan, mother of the Sultan's eldest son, and the role of Hafsa Sultan, the valide sultan; Hürrem's rise as Süleyman's favorite while pregnant with his son, her falling from favor several times and her eventual return to grace; Pargalı İbrahim's entanglement with Hatice Sultan, the Sultan's sister, and many others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spinoff.", "content": "The story begins 37 years after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent. It recounts the life of Mahpeyker Kösem Sultan, a female ruler of the Ottoman Empire through her sons and grandson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "The show generated controversy and complaints from some viewers, for what they referred to as a \"disrespectful\", \"indecent\" and \"hedonistic\" portrayal of the historical sultan. Turkey's Radio and Television Supreme Council, known as RTÜK, claimed they had received over 70,000 complaints about the show and warned Show TV to publicly apologise for wrongly exposing \"the privacy of a historical person\". The Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan condemned the show as \"an effort to show our history in a negative light to the younger generations.\" An MP for the governing Justice and Development Party, Oktay Saral, went further, threatening to outlaw the \"misrepresentation of historical figures\" in shows such as Muhteşem Yüzyıl. Small groups of Islamists and Nationalists protested the studio but the show remains successful with consistently high ratings.  Elif Batuman wrote in \"The New Yorker\": \"\"On the surface, 'Magnificent Century' looks like a quintessential product of the Erdoğan years. Thanks to Erdoğan's economic policies, Turkey has a thriving television industry, capable of staging elaborate period dramas, and a prosperous family-oriented middle class of observant Muslims eager to watch their own values reflected in a historical imperial setting. And, much as Erdoğan's foreign policy has promoted relations with former Ottoman lands, the show has conquered large audiences in Balkan, Caucasian, and Arab countries not known for their fond memory of Ottoman rule. Broadcast to more than two hundred million viewers in fifty-two countries, \"Magnificent Century\" has accomplished one of Erdoğan's main goals: Making a powerful, non-secularist, globally involved version of Turkey both plausible and appealing... And yet Erdoğan is not a fan. In late 2012, at the opening of a provincial airport he took a moment to condemn the show's depiction of Süleyman, as well as its directors and broadcasters, hinting at severe judicial repercussions.\"\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International popularity.", "content": "\"Muhteşem Yüzyıl\" is reported to have an international audience of 200 million viewers in over 50 countries.  The show is part of an ongoing revival of Turkish culture in the Balkans through imported TV shows from Turkey, such as \"Öyle Bir Geçer Zaman Ki\" (\"As time goes by\", number one TV show in Macedonia), or \"Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne?\" (\"What is Fatmagül's fault\"), which was top ranked TV show in Kosovo 2012. Serbian sociologist Ratko Bozovic explains the popularity by pointing at the traditional, patriarchal values of the Turkish shows, and the many cultural and linguistic similarities between Turkey and the Balkan countries: \"The mentality depicted in those shows has to do with a traditional understanding of morality that people in Serbia remember at some level.\" According to Bozovic, all Balkan countries have seen dramatic changes in terms of family life, and the Turkish shows help them recall value systems that now seem lost.  In Greece, the series has become quite popular. It has become so popular that Bishop Anthimos of Thessaloniki and the Golden Dawn party condemned the show and urged Greeks not to watch it. \"No one should watch \"Muhteşem Yüzyıl\", \"The Magnificent Century\",\" Anthimos said. He added, \"By watching the Turkish series we are telling them we have surrendered.\"  In the Republic of North Macedonia, Turkish series have become so popular, that the Macedonian parliament has moved to ban Turkish soaps to reduce the Turkish impact on Macedonian society. Turkish series will gradually be removed and replaced by national programs, according to a 2012 bill.  In Chile where the series is called \"El Sultán\" (The Sultan) it is aired since December 14 in Canal 13 on prime time with great success. The Spanish voice of Süleyman is the same as the one of Onur in the Turkish soap opera \"Las mil y una noches\". The series is part of a wave of Turkish soap operas that have become popular in Chilean TV. The series debuted right after the penultimate chapter of \"Los 80\", a popular historical family drama produced by Canal 13.  In Pakistan, the show was named \"میرا سلطان: داستان جلال و جمال\" (\"Mera Sultan: Dastan-e-Jalal-o-Jamal\"; lit. \"My Emperor: Story of Bravery and Love\") and it aired on channel Geo Kahani. Geo Kahani claims that it was the channel's most popular show and received the highest TRPs. However, the channel faced several controversies and serial got banned few times, but still completed the broadcast due to public pressure. The Pakistani drama industry was adversely affected by the popularity of Turkish dramas, and lead actor Halit Ergenç to win first ever International Icon Award in Pakistan's biggest awards show Lux Style Awards in 2017.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Muhteşem Yüzyıl (, ) is a Turkish historical fiction television series. Written by Meral Okay and Yılmaz Şahin, it is based on the life of Ottoman Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent, the longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and his wife Hürrem Sultan, a slave girl who became a Sultana. It also shines the light on the era known as the sultanate of women. It was originally broadcast on Show TV and then was transferred to Star TV.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977150}
{"src_title": "Shikishima-class battleship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and description.", "content": "Combat experience in the First Sino-Japanese War convinced the Imperial Japanese Navy of weaknesses in the Jeune Ecole naval philosophy, and Japan embarked on a program to modernize and expand its fleet. As with the earlier \"Fuji\"-class battleships, Japan lacked the technology and capability to construct its own battleships, and turned again to the United Kingdom. They were ordered as part of the Ten Year Naval Expansion Programme and paid for from the £30,000,000 indemnity paid by China after losing the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. The design of the \"Shikishima\" class was a modified and improved version of the s of the Royal Navy. They had the same armament and similar machinery as the \"Fuji\" class which was intended to allow them to work together as a homogenous group. The \"Shikishima\"-class ships had an overall length of, a beam of, and a normal draught of. They displaced at normal load. The hull had a double bottom and was subdivided into 261 watertight compartments. The crew numbered about 741 officers and ratings, although this increased to 849 when serving as a flagship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Propulsion.", "content": "The ships were powered by two Humphrys Tennant vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one propeller, using steam generated by 25 Belleville boilers. The engines were rated at, using forced draught, and designed to reach a top speed of although they proved to be faster during their sea trials. \"Shikishima\" reached a speed of using. The ships carried a maximum of of coal which allowed them to steam for at a speed of.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "The main battery of the \"Shikishima\" class consisted of the same four Elswick Ordnance Company 40-calibre twelve-inch guns as used in the \"Fuji\" class. They were mounted in twin-gun barbettes fore and aft of the superstructure that had armoured hoods to protect the guns and were usually called gun turrets. The hydraulically powered mountings could be loaded at all angles of traverse while the guns were loaded at a fixed angle of +13.5°. They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of.  Secondary armament of the \"Shikishima\" class consisted of fourteen 40-calibre Type 41 six-inch quick-firing guns mounted in casemates. Eight of these guns were positioned on the main deck on the side of the ship's hull and the other six guns were placed in the superstructure. They fired shells at a muzzle velocity of. Protection against torpedo boat attacks was provided by twenty QF 12-pounder 12 cwt guns and four 2.5-pounder Hotchkiss guns. The 12-pounders fired, projectiles at a muzzle velocity of. The ships were also equipped with four submerged 18-inch torpedo tubes, two on each broadside.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armour.", "content": "The waterline main belt of the \"Shikishima\"-class vessels consisted of Harvey armour high, of which was above the waterline at normal load, and had a maximum thickness of for the middle of the ship. It was only inches thick at the ends of the ship and was surmounted by a six-inch strake of armor that ran between the barbettes for 220 feet. The barbettes were thick, but reduced to at the level of the lower deck. The armour of the barbette hoods had a maximum thickness of while their roofs were three inches thick. Diagonal bulkheads thick connected the barbettes to the side armor, but the bulkheads were only six inches thick at the lower deck level. The casemates protecting the secondary armament were also six inches thick. The flat portion of the deck armour was thick and four inches thick where it sloped down to the bottom of the armour belt. This significantly improved the ships' protection as any shell that penetrated their vertical armour also had to penetrate the sloping deck before it could reach the machinery compartments or magazines. Outside the central armoured citadel, the sloped deck had a thickness of. The forward conning tower was protected by 14 inches of armour, but the aft conning tower only had three inches of armour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ships.", "content": "At the start of the Russo-Japanese War, \"Hatsuse\" and \"Shikishima\" were assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet. They participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 when Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the 1st Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur. Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the Russian ships with his secondary guns. Splitting his fire proved to be a bad idea as the Japanese and six-inch guns inflicted very little damage on the Russian ships who concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect. \"Hatsuse\" was hit twice during the battle, 10 men being killed and 17 wounded, but \"Shikishima\" was only hit once with 17 men wounded.  Both ships participated in the action of 13 April when Tōgō successfully lured out two battleships of the Pacific Squadron. When the Russians spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division, they turned back for Port Arthur and the battleship struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night. It sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded. Emboldened by his success, Tōgō resumed long-range bombardment missions, which prompted the Russians to lay more minefields.  On 14 May 1904, \"Hatsuse\", \"Shikishima\", and the battleship, the protected cruiser \"Kasagi\", and the dispatch boat put to sea to relieve the Japanese blockading force off Port Arthur. On the following morning, the squadron encountered a newly laid Russian minefield. \"Hatsuse\" struck one mine that disabled her steering and \"Yashima\" struck another when moving to assist \"Hatsuse\". \"Hatsuse\" struck another mine while drifting about a half-hour later that detonated one of her magazines and the ship sank in a little over a minute. The catastrophe claimed 496 crewmen although the escorting ships were able to rescue 336 men.  \"Shikishima\" was not hit during the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904, although a shell exploded prematurely in one of her 12-inch guns, disabling it. During the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905, she was hit nine times; the most serious of which penetrated beneath a six-inch gun, killing or wounding the entire gun crew. Again the ship had another 12-inch shell prematurely detonate in one of the forward guns, wrecking it completely. \"Shikishima\" was reclassified as a first-class coast defence ship in September 1921, and was used for training duties in various capacities until disarmed and reclassified as a transport in 1923. Her hulk continued to be used as a training ship until she was scrapped in 1948.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The was a two-ship class of pre-dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy in the late 1890s. As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself, they were designed and built in the UK. The ships participated in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, including the Battle of Port Arthur on the second day of the war. \"Hatsuse\" sank after striking two mines off Port Arthur in May 1904. \"Shikishima\" fought in the Battles of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima and was lightly damaged in the latter action, although shells prematurely exploded in the barrels of her main guns in each battle. The ship was reclassified as a coast defence ship in 1921 and served as a training ship for the rest of her career. She was disarmed and hulked in 1923 and finally broken up for scrap in 1948.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977151}
{"src_title": "The Robots of Dawn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "Detective Elijah Baley of Earth is training with his son and others to overcome their socially ingrained agoraphobia when he is told that the Spacer world of Aurora has requested him to investigate a crime: the destruction of the mind of R. Jander Panell, a humaniform robot identical to R. Daneel Olivaw, with a mental block. The robot's inventor, Han Fastolfe, has admitted that he is the only person with the skill to have done this, but denies having done so. Fastolfe is also a prominent member of the Auroran political faction that favors Earth; therefore, it is politically expedient that he be exonerated. En route to Aurora, Baley again is partnered with R. Daneel Olivaw, and introduced to R. Giskard Reventlov, a robot of an earlier model.  On Aurora, he interviews Gladia Delmarre, R. Jander's last owner, and discovers that Gladia had a sexual relationship with Jander, to the point of considering him husband in an emotional sense. Baley later interviews Fastolfe's estranged daughter, Vasilia Fastolfe (alias \"Vasilia Aliena\"), who claims that her father would do anything necessary to advance psychohistory, including the incapacitation of Jander and Gladia's heartbreak. Following that, Baley interviews Santirix Gremionis, an Auroran who, with both Gladia and Vasilia, committed the Auroran taboo of offering himself repeatedly (sexually) after rejection. Gremionis denies involvement in the murder, and says he has reported Baley to the Chairman (the executive of the Auroran Government) for slander; but realizes, upon questioning, that Vasilia arranged his infatuation with Gladia.  Next, Baley interviews Kelden Amadiro, Fastolfe's chief political rival and head of the Robotics Institute, who explains the Institute's political motivations: that they wish to see Aurora alone colonize the Galaxy, by means of humaniform robots which at present only Fastolfe can build. On the way from the interview with Amadiro, Baley's airfoil (a personal hovercraft) is forced to stop. The air compressor has been sabotaged. Baley, suspecting Amadiro, orders Daneel and Giskard to flee. When several robots catch up with the car and question Baley, Baley tells them that he ordered Daneel back to the Robotics Institute, and they leave. Baley flees the car into the thunderstorm outside, where his agoraphobia renders him unconscious. He is recovered by Gladia and Giskard, and taken to Gladia's house. At an earlier-arranged meeting with the Chairman, Fastolfe, and Amadiro, Baley accuses Amadiro of sabotaging the car so that he could keep him, helpless, in the Institute, and thus have a legitimate reason to have Daneel there as well, unsupervised. As Baley states, without Fastolfe's cooperation, the only way to obtain knowledge about humaniform robots is to reverse engineer Daneel by thorough questioning, which would have allowed Amadiro to learn the details of his workings.  While logically consistent, Baley's unsupported accusation cannot stand against a formal denial by an Auroran as prominent and respected as Amadiro. However, Baley then confronts Amadiro with the revelation that Amadiro knew of the relationship between Gladia and Jander, and moreover, of her considering him her husband; something quite unthinkable for a native Auroran. Amadiro says he may have heard it from someone, but cannot remember whom.  Baley then states that only one Auroran could have told Amadiro about the relationship: Jander himself. Then, he gives the solution to the mystery: that in Gladia's absence, Amadiro questioned and tested Jander via trimensional viewing (telepresence). Daneel was part of Fastolfe's establishment, and thus well guarded, but Jander was at the house of the much less skilled Gladia, thus questioning him for reverse engineering purposes was much easier. Gremionis was encouraged to court Gladia because they tended to take long walks together, allowing Amadiro more time for his testing. The sabotage to the car was intended to capture Daneel and complete the analysis.  When Baley states that these experiments might have accidentally led to Jander's deactivation, Amadiro snaps and states the experiments were completely harmless. Thus, he effectively admits he was working with Jander, which makes his situation hopeless. As a result, he is forced to compromise with Fastolfe's policies; Amadiro agrees with Earth's right to share in the galactic colonization, while Fastolfe gives the Institute his data about humaniform robot design. Baley, however, confronts Giskard, who admits that Vasilia unknowingly gave him telepathic abilities during experiments when she was a child. Using knowledge derived from Han Fastolfe's mind, Giskard shut down Jander, to thwart Amadiro's attempt to build humaniform robots. Giskard allows Baley to retain knowledge of his abilities, but prevents him (with the help of his telepathic abilities) from revealing the secret.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characters.", "content": "Below is a list of all the major and minor characters in the book, in order of appearance, with plot detail.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Robots of Dawn is a \"whodunit\" science fiction novel by American writer Isaac Asimov, first published in 1983. It is the third novel in Asimov's \"Robot\" series.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977152}
{"src_title": "Cosmo Duff-Gordon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "The son of Cosmo Lewis Duff-Gordon and the former Anna Maria Antrobus, Cosmo Duff-Gordon became the 5th Baronet of Halkin in 1896, his title stemming from a Royal licence conferred on his great-uncle in 1813 in recognition of his aid to the Crown during the Peninsular War. In 1772 his family had founded the Duff-Gordon sherry bodega in Spain, which still produces high-quality fortified wines. The Duff-Gordons were, by descent, a Scottish aristocratic family.  In 1900, Duff-Gordon married the celebrated London fashion designer \"Madame Lucile\" (née Lucy Christiana Sutherland, then Mrs. James Stuart Wallace). This was a slightly risqué union, as Lucy was a divorcee whose sister, Elinor Glyn, was a notorious romance novelist. As a sportsman, Duff-Gordon was most noted as a fencer, representing Great Britain at the 1906 Intercalated Games, winning silver in the team épée event. King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra were among distinguished spectators at one of the final bouts between Sir Cosmo and his German opponent Herr G. Casimir. Duff-Gordon served on the organizing committee at the 1908 Summer Olympics, appointed by Lord Desborough, chairman of the British Olympic Association. He was also a self-defence enthusiast who trained with champion Swiss wrestler Armand Cherpillod at the Bartitsu Club in London's Soho district. was a co-founder of the London Fencing League, a member of the Bath Club and the Royal Automobile Club. He was also a sheriff and magistrate in his native Kincardineshire, near Aberdeen, where his ancestral country estate Maryculter was located.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Titanic\" voyage.", "content": "Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon is best known for the circumstances in which he survived the sinking of the RMS \"Titanic\" in 1912, along with his wife and her secretary, Laura Mabel Francatelli. The three were among only 12 people who escaped in Lifeboat #1, which had a capacity of 40. The ladies had earlier turned down places in two other lifeboats for women and children because Lady Duff-Gordon refused to be separated from her husband.  Criticism after the disaster claimed Sir Cosmo boarded the lifeboat in violation of the \"women and children first\" policy and that, once the craft was afloat, he bribed its crew not to return to rescue people struggling in the water. Duff-Gordon denied the allegation that he disobeyed orders, maintaining there had been no women or children in the immediate vicinity when his boat was launched. (There is additional confirmation from other witnesses that First Officer William Murdoch allowed Sir Cosmo a place in the boat so he could join his wife.) Moreover, Sir Cosmo denied his offer of money to the lifeboat's crew was a bribe, and the British Board of Trade's inquiry into the disaster accepted his explanation that it was a charitable contribution for crew members who had lost not only their possessions but their jobs.  The inquiry nonetheless concluded that, if the lifeboat had returned to the wreck site, it might have been able to rescue others. Regarding the bribery allegation the report stated: \"The very gross charge against Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon that, having got into No. 1 boat he bribed the men in it to row away from the drowning people, is unfounded\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and legacy.", "content": "Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon continued in his social and sporting interests in Scotland and later in London, where he lived at 5, Alfred Place, South Kensington.  He was estranged from his wife from 1915 until his death, although they never divorced and remained friends. He died on 20 April 1931 of natural causes and is buried at Brookwood Cemetery, Woking, Surrey. His wife died exactly four years later, on 20 April 1935.  Sir Cosmo and Lady Duff-Gordon were portrayed by the actors Martin Jarvis and Rosalind Ayres, themselves a married couple, in the 1997 film \"Titanic\". In the 2012 ITV mini-series \"Titanic\" the couple was portrayed by Simon Paisley Day and Sylvestra Le Touzel.  In 2012 a box of documents and letters concerning the \"Titanic\" sinking belonging to the Duff-Gordons was rediscovered at the London office of Veale Wasbrough Vizards, the legal firm that merged with Tweedies, who represented the couple. Amongst the papers was a rebuttal of the evidence given against them at the Board of Trade inquiry, and an inventory of Lady Duff-Gordon's possessions that were lost, the total value listed as £3,208 3s 6d. In one letter Sir Cosmo complains: \"There seems to be a feeling of resentment against any English man being saved...The whole pleasure of having been saved is quite spoilt by the venomous attacks they made at first in the papers. This, I suppose, was because I refused to see any reporter.\"  Despite the official vindication by the Board of Trade inquiry, public suspicion that the Duff-Gordons had acted selfishly tainted the couple for the remainder of their lives.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sir Cosmo Edmund Duff-Gordon, 5th Baronet DL (22 July 1862 – 20 April 1931) was a prominent Scottish landowner and sportsman, best known for the controversy surrounding his escape from the sinking of the \"RMS Titanic\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977153}
{"src_title": "Yellow-legged gull", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "It is now generally accepted that the yellow-legged gull is a full species, but until recently there was much disagreement. For example, \"British Birds\" magazine split yellow-legged gull from herring gull in 1993 but included the Caspian gull in the former, but the BOU in Great Britain retained the yellow-legged gull as a subspecies of the herring gull until 2007. DNA research, however, suggests that yellow-legged gull is actually closest to the great black-backed gull \"L. marinus\" and Armenian gull \"L. armenicus\", while the Caspian gull is closer to herring gull and lesser black-backed gull \"L. fuscus\", rather than being each other's closest relatives.  There are two subspecies of the yellow-legged gull:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The breeding range is centred on the Mediterranean Sea. In North Africa it is common in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia and increasing in places. Recent breeding has occurred in Libya and Egypt. In the Middle East, a few breed in Israel and Syria with larger numbers in Cyprus and Turkey. In Europe there are colonies all along the Mediterranean coast, and also on the Atlantic islands and coasts north to Brittany and west to the Azores. It also breeds on the west side of the Black Sea; here it overlaps with the Caspian gull but there is a difference in habitat, with the yellow-legged gull preferring sea cliffs and Caspian gull on flatter shores. In recent decades birds have spread north into central and western Europe. One to four pairs have attempted to breed in southern England since 1995 (sometimes hybrid pairs with lesser black-backed gulls), though colonisation has been very slow.  Many birds remain in the same area all year round but others migrate to spend the winter in mild areas of western Europe or head south as far as Senegal, the Gambia and the Red Sea. There is also extensive northward post-breeding dispersal in the late summer, with numbers in southern England high from July to October. It is reported as a vagrant to northeastern North America and Nigeria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The yellow-legged gull is a large gull, though the size does vary, with the smallest females being scarcely larger than a common gull and the largest males being roughly the size of a great black-backed gull. They range in length from in total length, from in wingspan and from in weight. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is, the bill is and the tarsus is. Adults are externally similar to herring gulls but have yellow legs. They have a grey back, slightly darker than herring gulls but lighter than lesser black-backed gulls. They are much whiter-headed in autumn, and have more extensively black wing tips with few white spots, just as lesser black-backed. They have a red spot on the bill as adults, like the entire complex. There is a red ring around the eye like in the lesser black-backed gull but unlike in the herring gull which has a dark yellow ring.  First-year birds have a paler head, rump and underparts than those of the herring gull, more closely resembling first-year great black-backed gulls in plumage. They have a dark bill and eyes, pinkish grey legs, dark flight feathers and a well-defined black band on the tail. They become lighter in the underparts and lose the upperpart pattern subsequently. By their second winter, birds are essentially feathered like adults, save for the patterned feathers remaining on the wing coverts. However, their bill tips are black, their eyes still dark, and the legs are a light yellow flesh colour.  The call is a loud laugh which is deeper and more nasal than the call of the herring gull.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Like most \"Larus\" gulls, they are omnivores and opportunistic foragers. They will scavenge on rubbish tips and elsewhere, as well as seeking suitable prey in fields or on the coast, or robbing smaller gulls and other seabirds of their catches. Although urban populations are generally opportunistic scavengers, they can shift to a predatory diet if necessary; this was observed during the lockdown of Italy in 2020, when the lack of food scraps led the yellow-legged gulls of Rome to take prey as large as rats and rock pigeons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Yellow-legged gulls usually breed in colonies. Eggs, usually three, are laid from mid March to early May and are defended vigorously by this large gull. The nest is a sometimes sparse mound of vegetation built on the ground or on cliff ledges. In some places such as Gibraltar they have started nesting on buildings and even on trees. The eggs are incubated for 27–31 days and the young birds fledge after 35–40 days.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The yellow-legged gull (\"Larus michahellis\"), sometimes referred to as western yellow-legged gull (to distinguish it from eastern populations of yellow-legged large white-headed gulls), is a large gull of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, which has only recently achieved wide recognition as a distinct species. It was formerly treated as a subspecies of either the Caspian gull \"L. cachinnans\", or more broadly as a subspecies of the herring gull \"L. argentatus\". The genus name is from Latin \"Larus\" which appears to have referred to a gull or other large seabird, and the species name honours the German zoologist Karl Michahelles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977154}
{"src_title": "Lionel Logue", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and family.", "content": "Lionel George Logue was born in College Town, Adelaide, South Australia, the oldest of four children. His grandfather Edward Logue, originally from Dublin, in 1856 founded Logue's Brewery, a predecessor of the South Australian Brewing Company. His parents were George Edward Logue, an accountant at his grandfather's brewery who later managed the Burnside Hotel as well as Elephant and Castle Hotel, and Lavinia Rankin. Although not a Catholic himself, he was reportedly related to Michael Logue, who was the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.  He attended Prince Alfred College between 1889 and 1896. Unable to decide what to study, Logue came across Longfellow's \"The Song of Hiawatha\":  The poem's rhythm inspired Logue to put his interest in voices to good use. After leaving school at sixteen, he received elocution training from Edward Reeves. Reeves had moved to Adelaide in 1878 and taught elocution to his pupils by day and gave popular recitals to audiences in Victoria Hall by night. Logue worked for Reeves as a secretary and assistant teacher from 1902, while studying music at the University of Adelaide's Elder Conservatorium. While working for Reeves, Logue began to give recitals of his own for which he was praised for his \"clear, powerful voice.\"  After his father died on 17 November 1902, Logue set up his own practice as a teacher of elocution. By 1904, he had gained a good reputation and was receiving praise from the local newspapers. However, he decided to take a contract with an engineering firm some westward in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, installing an electricity supply at a gold mine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional career.", "content": "His professional career began in Perth, where, in addition to teaching elocution, acting, and public speaking, he put on plays and recitations, and also founded a club for public speakers. He was also involved with YMCA Perth and schools such as Methodist Ladies' College, Loreto Convent, Scotch College, Perth Technical School, and Claremont Teachers College.  In 1911, Logue and his wife set out on a tour of the world to study methods of public speaking. Later he developed treatments for Australian First World War war veterans who had shell shockinduced impaired speech. In addition to physical exercises, which helped with patients' breathing, Logue's distinctive therapy emphasised humour, patience, and \"superhuman sympathy\".  In 1924, Logue took his wife and three sons to England, ostensibly for a holiday. Once there, he took jobs teaching elocution at schools around London, and in 1926 he opened a speech-defect practice at 146 Harley Street. Logue used fees paid by wealthy clients to subsidise patients unable to pay. It was here that the Duke of Yorkthe future King George VIsought Logue's help. Logue became a founding fellow of the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists in 1944.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment of George VI.", "content": "As a speech therapist, Logue was self-taught and was initially dismissed by the medical establishment as a quack, but he worked with the Duke from the late 1920s into the mid-1940s.  Before ascending the throne as George VI, the Duke of York dreaded public speaking because of a severe stammer; his closing speech at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley on 31 October 1925 proved an ordeal for speaker and listeners alike. The Duke resolved to find some way to manage his stammer, and engaged Logue in 1926 after being introduced to him by Lord Stamfordham.  Diagnosing poor co-ordination between the Duke's larynx and thoracic diaphragm, Logue prescribed a daily hour of vocal exercises. Logue's treatment gave the Duke the confidence to relax and avoid tension-induced muscle spasms. As a result, he suffered only the occasional hesitancy in speech. By 1927, he was speaking confidently and managed his address at the opening of the Old Parliament House in Canberra without stammering.  Logue was often called over the years when the king was expected to make a speech. Their relationship was featured in a film, a play and a book.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "In 1944, King George VI appointed Logue a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO), elevating him from Member of the Order (MVO), which was conferred upon Logue at the time of George VI's Coronation.  King George VI died on 6 February 1952. On 26 February 1952, Logue wrote to the late king's wife, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother:  The Queen Mother replied: \"I think that I know perhaps better than anyone just how much you helped the King, not only with his speech, but through that his whole life and outlook on life. I shall always be deeply grateful to you for all you did for him.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Logue married Myrtle Gruenert, a 21-year-old clerk, at St George's Anglican Cathedral, Perth, on 20 March 1907. They had three sons, Valentine, Laurie, and Anthony—Valentine trained at King's College London and St George's Hospital and went on to become one of the most distinguished neurosurgeons of his generation.  Lionel Logue was a Freemason, initiated, passed, and raised in 1908, and became Worshipful Master in 1919; he was a member of St. George's Lodge (now J.D. Stevenson St. George's Lodge No.6, Western Australian Constitution).  He lived in a 25-room Victorian villa called Beechgrove in Sydenham from 1932 until 1947, now demolished and part of Sydenham Hill Wood.  Myrtle suddenly died from a heart attack in June 1945, and Logue died in London, on 12 April 1953. His funeral was held 17 April in Holy Trinity Brompton before his body was cremated. Representatives of Queen Elizabeth II and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother attended the funeral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "With Peter Conradi, Logue's grandson Mark wrote a book, \"\", about his grandfather's relationship with the king. In the 2010 British film \"The King's Speech\", written by David Seidler, Logue was played by Geoffrey Rush, his wife by Jennifer Ehle, and his patient by Colin Firth. In the West End stage adaptation of \"The King's Speech\" at Wyndham's Theatre, Australian actor Jonathan Hyde played Lionel Logue, and in the US stage premiere, Logue was played by James Frain.  Welsh actor Michael Elwyn played Logue in the 2002 television film \"Bertie and Elizabeth\". Derek Lawson portrayed Logue in the 2015 comedy \"A Royal Night Out\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lionel George Logue, CVO (26 February 1880 – 12 April 1953) was an Australian speech and language therapist and amateur stage actor who successfully treated King George VI for a pronounced stammer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977155}
{"src_title": "Jessica Lucas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Lucas was born and raised in Vancouver, British Columbia. Her father is a Black Canadian, and her mother is Euro-Canadian. She began acting at seven years old, and trained with the Children's Arts Theatre School in Toronto. She started her career appearing in stage productions, including local productions of \"Snow White & The Seven Dwarfs\", \"Grease\", \"Cinderella\", \"Mousetrap\" and \"Music Medley\".  In April 2017, Lucas announced her engagement to chef Alex Jermasek.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 2001 she joined the Canadian teen drama television series \"Edgemont\" as recurring character Bekka Lawrence, later becoming a series regular on the show, which she remained through the end of the show's run in 2005. She was also a series regular on another Canadian television series, YTV's short-lived \"2030 CE\" in 2002.  She guest starred in an episode of \"The L Word\" as Roxanne in 2004. She went on to appear as a series regular in the short-lived ABC teen drama series \"Life as We Know It\" as Sue; the series which ran for just one season. In 2006 she appeared in the film \"She's the Man\" and co-starred in \"The Covenant\". She was cast in another ABC television pilot, \"Secrets of a Small Town\", though it was not picked up to series.  In 2007, she joined the cast of \"\" playing the recurring character of Ronnie Lake. Despite appearing in four episodes, rumours were denied that she would be a permanent replacement for Sara Sidle. The character was written out of the series with no explanation. She also appeared in a made-for-television film \"Split Decision\".  In 2008, she guest starred as Kimberly MacIntyre in four episodes of The CW's \"90210\". She also starred in a leading role as Lily in J. J. Abrams \"Cloverfield\", which was a box office success and was well received by critics.  She was cast as Lisa in the film \"Amusement\" in 2006; the film was set to be released theatrically by New Line Cinema, but after a negative reaction it was released instead straight-to-DVD in 2009. The same year, Lucas was announced to have signed on as Riley Richmond, one of the lead roles in another CW television series \"Melrose Place\", a followup to the popular 1990s series of the same name.  Lucas was part of the main cast of the NBC sitcom \"Friends with Benefits\", which aired during the summer of 2011 before being cancelled. In 2011 she played Haley in \"\", where she showcased her singing talents as well as her acting skills.  In 2012 Lucas was cast as the lead character, Skye Yarrow, in the CW series \"Cult\", which was filmed in Spring 2012. In 2012 she was cast in a main role in the 2013 remake of the classic horror film \"The Evil Dead.  In 2014, Lucas appeared in \"Pompeii\" directed by Paul W. S. Anderson.  From 2015 to 2019, she has had a regular role in FOX's \"Gotham\" as Tabitha Galavan.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jessica Lucas (born September 24, 1985) is a Canadian actress and singer. She is known for her roles in television, such as \"Edgemont\", \"Melrose Place\", \"Cult\", and \"Gotham\", and in the films \"The Covenant\", \"Cloverfield\" and the 2013 \"Evil Dead\". She also starred in the music video for Coldplay's 2014 single \"True Love\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977156}
{"src_title": "Ashley Benson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ashley Benson was born December 18, 1989, to parents Shannon and Jeff Benson, and raised in Anaheim Hills, California. She has one older sister, Shaylene Benson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early work.", "content": "Benson began dancing competitively at age three, studying ballet, jazz, tap and hip hop. She began singing in choirs and musicals at a young age, performing a solo at her church at age four. When she was eight years old she signed with Ford Models, and appeared in a number of print ads.  Benson appeared on the daytime soap \"Days of Our Lives\" as Abigail Deveraux from 2004 to 2007.  Benson made her big screen debut with a bit part in the 2004 comedy \"13 Going on 30\". She starred as Carson in \"\" (2007), the fourth installment of the \"Bring It On\" franchise. The role required her to both overcome her fear of heights to perform the cheerleading stunts, and to end her contract with \"Days of our Lives\":  She recalled working on a film set instead of a soap opera set \"definitely weird\", because she would spend days working on one or two scenes, whereas on the \"Days of Our Lives\" set, she filmed two or three episodes a day. For \"Bring It On: In It to Win It\", she had to attend cheerleading practice, which was \"hard for [her], because [she is] afraid of heights.\" Nonetheless, she was \"glad\" to do her own stunts, even though she \"wasn't expecting it to be so hard.\"  In 2008, she appeared in the Lifetime original film \"\", where she played head cheerleader Brooke Tippit, a character loosely inspired by Karrissa Theret of the Fab Five. The film is based on a true story which took place at McKinney North High School in Texas. She became good friends with her onscreen mother Tatum O'Neal, from whom she learned about acting. Furthermore, she was excited to land a supporting role in \"Bart Got a Room\", which aired mainly on film festivals in 2008 before having a limited release in 2009, because it allowed her to work with William H. Macy. She also played a witch disguised as a cheerleader in a 2008 episode of The CW series \"Supernatural\".  In 2009, Benson starred in ABC's short-lived supernatural comedy television series \"Eastwick\". The show was based on John Updike's novel, \"The Witches of Eastwick\", and the 1987 film adaption of the same name. The series only lasted 13 episodes before ABC cancelled the series due to low ratings but has since gained a cult following.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Pretty Little Liars\".", "content": "In December 2009, Benson was cast as Hanna Marin in the ABC Family mystery-thriller teen drama series \"Pretty Little Liars\", based on the novel series by Sara Shepard. Hanna is the \"diva\" and \"It girl\" of the group, having taken Alison DiLaurentis' place as the most popular girl at Rosewood High in Alison's absence. The series premiered to 2.47 million viewers with Benson's performance being praised by critics. She also received a number of awards and nominations. Benson reprised the role in the spin-off series \"Ravenswood\" in two episodes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010–present.", "content": "In 2010, Benson starred in the television film \"Christmas Cupid\" alongside Christina Milian and Chad Michael Murray, which also aired on ABC Family. In January 2012, Benson was cast in the film \"Spring Breakers\", after Emma Roberts dropped out due to creative reasons. The film centers on four college students who are arrested and bailed out by a drug and arms dealer, who sends them out to do some dirty work on spring break. The film co-starred Selena Gomez, Vanessa Hudgens, and James Franco. Filming took place in March and April 2012, and the film was released in March 2013.  In the January 21, 2013, episode of the CBS sitcom \"How I Met Your Mother\", Benson appeared as Carly Whittaker, Barney Stinson's half-sister who dated Ted Mosby. That same month, Benson became the face of eveningwear designer Faviana.  She starred in the 2015 independent horror thriller film \"Ratter\", playing Emma Taylor, a girl who is stalked through her technological devices. That same year, she also appeared in \"Pixels\" as Lady Lisa, a fictional game character brought to life. In 2016, Benson appeared in the biographical comedy-drama film \"Elvis & Nixon\" as Margaret.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Benson was featured on \"Creep\" by G-Eazy, a cover version of the Radiohead song. She also appeared in the music videos for NLT's \"That Girl\", One Call's \"Black Light\", and Hot Chelle Rae's \"Honestly\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Benson was in a relationship with English model and actress Cara Delevingne from May 2018 to April 2020.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ashley Victoria Benson (born December 18, 1989) is an American actress and model. She is known for her role as Hanna Marin in the teen mystery-drama series \"Pretty Little Liars\" (2010–2017). Benson has starred in films, including \"\" (2007), \"Christmas Cupid\" (2010), \"Spring Breakers\" (2012), \"Ratter\" (2015), \"Chronically Metropolitan\" (2016), and \"Her Smell\" (2018).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977157}
{"src_title": "Abies guatemalensis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"A. guatemalensis\" is a conical tree growing 20 to 35 meters tall and 60 to 90 cm in girth. The branches grow largely horizontally. The bark is a blackish-brown and is divided into plates. The branchlets are reddish-brown to deep blackish-red and pubescent. The buds are globular-ovoid, resinous, and roughly 5 mm in length. The leaves are somewhat comb-like or nearly pectinate in arrangement. They are unequal and deep green above and waxy in texture underneath. They measure 1.5 to 5.5 cm long by 1.2 to 2 mm wide. Stomata are usually absent above, but appear in 8 to 10 lines below. They contain two marginal resin canals and the apex of the leaf is notched and emarginate. The female cones are oblong-cylindric and the apex is pointed to somewhat flattened. They are yellowish-brown in colour with a violet bloom and measure 8 to 11.5 cm long by 4 to 4.5 cm wide. The scales are oblong, or broader than long. The bracts are hidden, about one half the height of the scale and are cuneate-obovoid in shape. The seeds are a light brown nut to 9 mm in length with a wing to 1.5 cm long\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "There are two recognised varieties of \"A. guatemalensis\", namely:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"A. guatemalensis\" is listed as endangered by the IUCN due to timber exploitation and loss of habitat. It characteristically grows in deep fertile soils, which are desirable for agriculture by local inhabitants (especially for coffea plantations). It was reported as being a common tree up until the 1940s. Large populations may still remain in Honduras, but data is currently deficient. Some evidence suggests that the areas of each remaining stands in Guatemala (except for the forest of Los Altos de San Miguel Totonicapán) are usually no larger than 3 square kilometers. Furthermore, the cone crops are irregular and germination is typically poor. Among the remaining populations, the forest of Los Altos de San Miguel Totonicapán in Guatemala is said to harbor the largest and best-conserved stands by area of 52,000-acres (26,060 hectares), though these are also threatened by illegal logging. As a result of its status it has become illegal to harvest in some countries where it is native and it is listed in CITES Appendix I, making its international trade illegal. The Central American And Mexico Coniferous Resources Cooperative (CAMCORE) has also begun programmes to protect the tree in the wild.  In Mexico, \"A. guatemalensis\" is found on the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre del Sur and the southern Sierra Madre Occidental, in the states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Michoacan, Colima, Jalisco, Nayarit, and Zacatecas. Typical habitat is on volcanic soils between 1800 and 3700 meters elevation, in areas of cool, moist climate with oceanic influence.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abies guatemalensis, the Guatemalan fir or pinabete, is an evergreen tree native to Central America and is the southernmost member of the genus \"Abies\" being spread to the south lower than 14° N. Its range is from southern (less from western and central) Mexico in the north to Honduras and El Salvador in the south. It is a warm-loving and moisture-loving tree of the tropical mountain coniferous and mixed cloud forests of these countries. Guatemalan fir is an almost completely non-frost-resistant tree. Due to logging and loss of habitat, the tree is considered threatened and is protected in CITES Appendix I.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977158}
{"src_title": "Acyl chloride", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nomenclature.", "content": "Where the acyl chloride moiety takes priority, acyl chlorides are named by taking the name of the parent carboxylic acid, and substituting \"-yl chloride\" for \"-ic acid\". Thus: When other functional groups take priority, acyl chlorides are considered prefixes — \"chlorocarbonyl-\":", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Properties.", "content": "Lacking the ability to form hydrogen bonds, acid chlorides have lower boiling and melting points than similar carboxylic acids. For example, acetic acid boils at 118 °C, whereas acetyl chloride boils at 51 °C. Like most carbonyl compounds, infrared spectroscopy reveals a band near 1750 cm.  The simplest stable acyl chloride is ethanoyl chloride or acetyl chloride; methanoyl chloride (formyl chloride) is not stable at room temperature, although it can be prepared at –60 °C or below. Acyl chloride is not soluble in water. Instead, it decomposes in water.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synthesis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Industrial routes.", "content": "The industrial route to acetyl chloride involves the reaction of acetic anhydride with hydrogen chloride: Propionyl chloride is produced by chlorination of propionic acid with phosgene:  Benzoyl chloride is produced by the partial hydrolysis of benzotrichloride:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Laboratory methods.", "content": "In the laboratory, acyl chlorides are generally prepared in the same manner as alkyl chlorides, by replacing the corresponding hydroxy substituents with chlorides. Thus, carboxylic acids are treated with thionyl chloride (SOCl), phosphorus trichloride (PCl), or phosphorus pentachloride (PCl):  The reaction with thionyl chloride may be catalyzed by dimethylformamide. In this reaction, the sulfur dioxide (SO) and hydrogen chloride (HCl) generated are both gases that can leave the reaction vessel, driving the reaction forward. Excess thionyl chloride (b.p. 74.6 °C) is easily evaporated as well. The reaction mechanisms involving thionyl chloride and phosphorus pentachloride are similar; the mechanism with thionyl chloride is illustrative: Another method involves the use of oxalyl chloride: The reaction is catalysed by dimethylformamide (DMF), which reacts with oxalyl chloride in the first step to give the iminium intermediate.  The iminium intermediate reacts with the carboxylic acid, abstracting an oxide, and regenerating the DMF catalyst.  Finally, methods that do not form HCl are also known, such as the Appel reaction:  and the use of cyanuric chloride (CNCl):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nucleophilic reactions.", "content": "Acyl chlorides react with water yielding the carboxylic acid:  Acyl chlorides are used to prepare acid anhydrides, esters, and amides by reacting acid chlorides with: a salt of a carboxylic acid, an alcohol, or an amine, respectively. The use of a base, e.g. aqueous sodium hydroxide or pyridine, or excess amine (when preparing amides) is desirable to remove the hydrogen chloride byproduct, and to catalyze the reaction. While it is often possible to obtain esters or amides from the carboxylic acid with alcohols or amines, the reactions are reversible, often leading to low yields. In contrast, both reactions involved in preparing esters and amides via acyl chlorides (acyl chloride formation from carboxylic acid, followed by coupling with the alcohol or amine) are fast and irreversible. This makes the two-step route often preferable to the single step reaction with the carboxylic acid.  With carbon nucleophiles such as Grignard reagents, acyl chlorides generally react first to give the ketone and then with a second equivalent to the tertiary alcohol. A notable exception is the reaction of acyl halides with certain organocadmium reagents which stops at the ketone stage. The nucleophilic reaction with Gilman reagents (lithium diorganocopper compounds) also afford ketones, due to their lesser reactivity. Acid chlorides of aromatic acids are generally less reactive those of alkyl acids and thus somewhat more rigorous conditions are required for reaction.  Acyl chlorides are reduced by lithium aluminium hydride and diisobutylaluminium hydride to give primary alcohols. Lithium tri-tert-butoxyaluminium hydride, a bulky hydride donor, reduces acyl chlorides to aldehydes, as does the Rosenmund reduction using hydrogen gas over a poisoned palladium catalyst.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Electrophilic reactions.", "content": "With Lewis acid catalysts like ferric chloride or aluminium chloride, acyl chlorides participate in Friedel-Crafts acylations, to give aryl ketones: Because of the harsh conditions and the reactivity of the intermediates, this otherwise quite useful reaction tends to be messy, as well as environmentally unfriendly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hazards.", "content": "Low molecular weight acyl chlorides are often lachrymators, and they react violently with water, alcohols, and amines.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In organic chemistry, an acyl chloride (or acid chloride) is an organic compound with the functional group -COCl. Their formula is usually written RCOCl, where R is a side chain. They are reactive derivatives of carboxylic acids. A specific example of an acyl chloride is acetyl chloride, CHCOCl. Acyl chlorides are the most important subset of acyl halides.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977159}
{"src_title": "Latvian War of Independence", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Soviet offensive.", "content": "On 18 November 1918 the People's Council of Latvia proclaimed the Independence of the Republic of Latvia and created the Latvian Provisional Government headed by Kārlis Ulmanis.  On 1 December 1918 the newly proclaimed republic was invaded by Soviet Russia. Much of the invading army in Latvia consisted of Red Latvian Riflemen, which made the invasion easier. The Soviet offensive met little resistance.  In the north Alūksne was taken on 7 December, Valka on 18 December, and Cēsis on 23 December, in the south Daugavpils was taken on 9 December, and finally Pļaviņas on 17 December.  Riga was captured by the Red Army on 3 January 1919. By the end of January the Latvian Provisional Government and remaining German units had retreated all the way to Liepāja, but then the Red offensive stalled along the Venta river.  The Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic was officially proclaimed on 13 January with the political, economic, and military backing of Soviet Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Liberation of Kurzeme and the coup d'etat.", "content": "On 18 February, an agreement was signed between Latvia and Estonia, starting formation of the North Latvian Brigade led by Jorģis Zemitāns on Estonian territory.  On 3 March, the German and Latvian forces commenced a counterattack against the Red Latvian Riflemen. Tukums was recaptured from the Bolsheviks on 15 March, and Jelgava on 18 March.  On 16 April, the Baltic nobility organised a coup d'etat in Liepāja and a puppet government headed by Andrievs Niedra was established. The provisional national government took refuge aboard the steamship \"Saratov\" under British protection in Liepaja harbour.  On 22 May, Riga was recaptured by the Freikorps and an organised persecution of suspected Bolshevik supporters began, with an estimated 174 (according to the head of Rīga's Gendarmerie) to 4,000–5,000 people (according to local social democrats and communists) being shot. At the same time the Estonian Army including the North Latvian Brigade loyal to the Ulmanis government started a major offensive against the Soviets in north Latvia. By the middle of June the Soviet rule was reduced to the area surrounding Latgale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "German–Latvian conflict.", "content": "After the capture of Riga the German forces advanced north towards the Latvian city of Cēsis. The objective of the German forces had now clearly become the establishment of German supremacy in the Baltic by eliminating the Estonian military and Latvian national units, not the defeat of the Bolsheviks. The Estonian commander General Johan Laidoner insisted the Germans withdraw to a line south of the Gauja river. He also ordered the Estonian 3rd Division to seize the Gulbene railroad station.  On June 19, 1919, the Landeswehr and the Iron Division launched an attack to capture Cēsis. Initially, the Freikorps captured the town of Straupe and continued their advance toward the town of Limbaži. The Estonians launched a counterattack and drove the Freikorps out of the town. On June 21, the Estonians received reinforcements and immediately attacked the Landeswehr under Alfred Fletcher, who was forced to withdraw from an area to the northeast of Cēsis. The Iron Division attacked from Straupe towards Stalbe in an effort to relieve pressure on the Landeswehr. On the morning of June 23, the Germans began a general retreat toward Riga.  The Allies again insisted that the Germans withdraw their remaining troops from Latvia, and on July 3 intervened to impose an armistice between Estonia, Latvia, and the Landeswehr and Freikorps when the Latvians were about to march into Riga. By its terms the legitimate government of Ulmanis was to be restored, the Baltic German Landeswehr be placed under the command of the British officer Harold Alexander and the Iron Division to leave Latvia. The government of Ulmanis returned to Riga on 8 July 1919 and the Landeswehr became a component of the Latvian National Army.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bermondt offensive.", "content": "The Iron Division, however, did not leave Latvia. Instead Major created a German Legion from over a dozen Freikorps units and turned the units over to the West Russian Volunteer Army. In total, the Iron Division transferred over 14,000 men, 64 aircraft, 56 artillery pieces, and 156 machine guns. Six cavalry units and a field hospital were also transferred. The offensive by the reformed German Army was subsequently defeated by the Latvian Army, which received assistance from British and French warships and Estonian armoured trains.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Latvian War of Independence (), sometimes called the Latvia's freedom fights () or the Latvian War of Liberation (, \"War of Latvian Liberation\"), was a series of military conflicts in Latvia between 5 December 1918, after the newly proclaimed Republic of Latvia was invaded by Soviet Russia, and the signing of the Latvian-Soviet Riga Peace Treaty on 11 August 1920.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977160}
{"src_title": "Jerzy Giedroyc", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Giedroyć was born into a Polish-Lithuanian noble family, with the title of \"kniaź\", prince. His schooling in Moscow was interrupted by the October Revolution, when he returned home to Minsk. During the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921 his family left Minsk for Warsaw, where he finished the Jan Zamoyski gymnasium in 1924. He went on to study law and Ukrainian history and literature at the University of Warsaw. As a journalist and civil servant in interwar Poland, he maintained contacts with leading Ukrainians and urged the Roman Catholic Church to improve relations with the Greek Catholic Church to which most Ukrainians belonged, insisting that Poland's success as a national state depended on satisfying the aspirations of minorities so that minority nationalists would not have convincing arguments against Polish statehood. He thus took the side of Józef Piłsudski as against the National Democrats. In 1930 he took over as editor of the weekly \"Dzień Akademicki\" (\"Academic Day\") which he soon transformed into the biweekly \"Bunt Młodych\", renaming it \"Polityka\" in 1937. During World War II he served under General Władysław Anders in the Polish Army and kept up friendly contacts with representatives of other nationalities. After the war he moved to Paris, where he published and edited a leading Polish-émigré literary-political journal, \"Kultura\" (1947–2000), which promoted a peaceful settlement of Poland's eastern borders, and accepted the results of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and the Yalta Conference, the (Giedroyc-Mieroszewski doctrine), even though many Poles regarded these as betrayals of Poland. This helped to lay the groundwork for Poland's successful eastern policy after the fall of communism. His closest collaborator was Juliusz Mieroszewski, who provided the theoretical justification for Polish recognition of the borders with Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania (whose future independence he predicted long before it came about).  He died in Maisons-Laffitte, Yvelines, Île-de-France, France.  In 2006 the Polish Sejm declared the year 2006 as the \"Year of Jerzy Giedroyć.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jerzy Władysław Giedroyc (; 27 July 1906 – 14 September 2000) was a Polish writer and political activist and for many years editor of the highly influential Paris-based periodical, \"Kultura\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977161}
{"src_title": "Arnold van Keppel, 1st Earl of Albemarle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Arnold Joost van Keppel was born in Zutphen in the Dutch Republic about 1670 and was the heir of a junior branch of an ancient and noble family in Gelderland, and 12th in descent from Walter van Keppel, living in 1179. He achieved fame and wealth as the right-hand man of William III of Orange. He became page of honor to William III in his mid-teens, possibly as early as 1685. It has been claimed that he was William's lover, but no conclusive evidence has been discovered. Keppel accompanied William to England in the Glorious Revolution of 1688.  While some have suggested their association began when Keppel was only 16, others argue a later date, possibly at the time of a hunting accident when he is said to have attracted the king's attention by his uncomplaining demeanor upon breaking a leg. Public commentary on the relationship intensified in 1692 when Keppel began to receive grants of land from the king. He became Groom of the Bedchamber and Master of the Robes in 1695. In 1696, he was created the Viscount Bury in Lancashire, and the Baron Ashford of Ashford, Kent. On 10 February 1697, William made Van Keppel the Earl of Albemarle. In 1699, he was awarded the command of the First Life Guards.  In 1700, William gave Albemarle extensive lands in Ireland, but Parliament obliged the king to cancel this grant. William instead granted him £50,000. The same year he was created a Knight of the Garter. He served both with the English and Dutch troops, was major-general in 1697, colonel of several regiments and governor of's-Hertogenbosch.  Handsome and engaging, he rivaled Portland (whose jealousy he aroused in the royal favour), possessed William's full confidence, and accompanied him everywhere. In February 1702 William, then prostrated with his last illness, sent Albemarle to the Netherlands to arrange the coming campaign, and he only returned in time to receive William's last commissions on his deathbed, including being entrusted with the king's private papers.  After the death of William III, who bequeathed to him ƒ200,000 and the lordship of Bredevoort, Albemarle returned to the Netherlands, took his seat as a noble in the States-General, and became a general of cavalry in the Dutch army. He joined the forces of the allies in 1703 in the War of Spanish Succession, was present at the Battle of Ramillies in 1706, and at Oudenaarde in 1708, and distinguished himself at the siege of Lille. He commanded at the siege of Aire in 1710, led Marlborough's second line in 1711, and was general of the Dutch forces in 1712, being defeated at Denain after the withdrawal of Ormonde and the English forces and taken prisoner. He died on 30 May 1718, at the age of forty-eight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Albemarle married Geertruid Johanna Quirina, daughter of Adam van der Duyn, by whom he had :  Among his direct descendants are both wives of Prince Charles (Diana, Princess of Wales, and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall), and author Violet Trefusis, who was a daughter of Alice Keppel (Alice Frederica Keppel, née Edmonstone), royal mistress of Edward VII, George Keppel, son of the 7th Earl of Albemarle, and Sarah Ferguson, Duchess of York.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arnold Joost van Keppel, 1st Earl of Albemarle,, and lord of De Voorst in Guelders (Gelderland) (; baptized 30 January 167030 May 1718), was a Dutch military leader who fought for King William III of England and became the first Earl of Albemarle. He was the son of Oswald van Keppel and his wife Anna Geertruid van Lintelo. De Voorst is a large country house near Zutphen, financed by William III, and not unlike the royal palace Het Loo in Apeldoorn.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977162}
{"src_title": "Linda Maria Baros", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Literary works.", "content": "She made her debut in 1988 with a poem published in a literary review from Bucharest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poems of Linda Maria Baros in translation.", "content": "Linda Maria Baros' poems were published in over 25 countries, in anthologies and literary reviews, as, for example, \"Pleiades\" (United States of America) or \"Poetry Review\", \"Horizon Review\" (England).  Her poems have also been published in Canada, Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Mexico, Serbia, Macedonia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Albania, Croatia, Ukraine, Republic of Moldavia, Latvia, Morocco, Bangladesh, Iran, Japan, Finland etc.  In 2011, the \"Arthur Rimbaud\" Museum in France commissioned Canadian sculptor Michel Goulet to engrave some of Linda Maria Baros' lines of poetry on an objet d'art made of stainless steel.  Linda Maria Baros took part in over 500 poetry readings and in over 50 poetry festivals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Translations.", "content": "Over 30 books : she translated from Romanian into French poetry by Nichita Stănescu, Angela Marinescu, Marta Petreu, Ioan Es. Pop, Mircea Bârsila, Floarea Ţuţuianu, Magda Cârneci, Simona Popescu etc. From French/English/Spanish/Nederlands, she translated into Romanian poetry by Henri Michaux, Boris Vian, Guy Goffette, Collette Nys-Mazure, José Luis Reina Palazón, Maria Antonia Ortega, Jan H. Mysjkin or novels by Alphonse Daudet, Johanna Spyri, James Oliver Curwood etc.  She also published some anthologies of poetry:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reviews.", "content": "She collaborates with poetry, literary criticism and translations at the reviews: \"Poetry Review\", \"Horizon Review\" (England), \"Pleiades\", \"International Notebook of Poetry\" (USA), \"Contre-jour\", \"Langage & créativité\" (Canada), \"Po&sie\", \"Aujourd'hui poème\", \"NUNC\", \"Poésie 2003\", \"Europe\", \"Seine et Danube\", \"La Revue littéraire\", \"Pyro\", \"Confluences poétiques\", \"Ici & Là\", \"MIR\", \"La traductière\", \"Hauteurs\", \"Littérales\", \"Le Capital des mots\", \"Thauma\", \"L’Écho d’Orphée\", \"Le Bateau Fantôme\", \"La page blanche\", \"Levure Littéraire\" (France), \"Observator München\", \"Galateea\" (Germany), \"Bunker Hill\" (Netherlands), \"Alora, la bien cercada\", \"El Coloquio de los Perros\", \"ABC\" (Spain), \"Poëziekrant\", \"Deus ex machina\", \"Le Journal des Poètes\", \"Langue vive\", \"Revolver\" (Belgium), \"Scritture Migranti\", \"Formafluens\" (Italy), \"La Revue de Belles Lettres\" (Switzerland), \"Le Quotidien\", \"Tageblatt\", \"Le Jeudi\" (Luxembourg), \"Poetika\", \"Zlatna greda\", \"Književni list\", \"Gradina\" (Serbia), \"Lirikon 21\" (Slovenia), \"România literară\", \"Viata românească\", \"Luceafărul\", \"Adevărul literar si artitic\", \"Ziua literară\", \"Arges\", \"Calende\", \"Tribuna\", \"Familia\", \"Apostrof\", \"Astra\", \"Noua literatură\", \"Conta\", \"Arca\" (Romania), \"Électron libre\" (Morocco), \"Shirdanra\" (Bangladesh), \"Beagle\" (Japan) etc.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Schoolbooks.", "content": "The poem \"The Mine Horses\" was included into \"Limba si literatura română. Manual de clasa a XII-a\" (\"Romanian language and literature. 12th-grade schoolbook\"), Paralela 45 Publishing House, 2007, Bucharest, Romania.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anthologies.", "content": "Linda Maria Baros' poems were published in over 40 anthologies, as:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Linda Maria Baros (born 6 August 1981 in Bucharest) is a French-language poet, translator and literary critic, one of the most powerful new voices on today's poetry scene (the famous French literary award \"Prix Guillaume Apollinaire\" – 2007 and \"The Poetical Calling Prize\" – 2004). She lives in Paris, France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977163}
{"src_title": "Kyshtym disaster", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "After World War II, the Soviet Union lagged behind the U.S. in development of nuclear weapons, so it started a rapid research and development program to produce a sufficient amount of weapons-grade uranium and plutonium. The Mayak plant was built in haste between 1945 and 1948. Gaps in physicists’ knowledge about nuclear physics at the time made it difficult to judge the safety of many decisions. Environmental concerns were not taken seriously during the early development stage. Initially Mayak was dumping high-level radioactive waste into a nearby river, which flowed to the river Ob, flowing farther down to the Arctic Ocean. All six reactors were on Lake Kyzyltash and used an open-cycle cooling system, discharging contaminated water directly back into the lake. When Lake Kyzyltash quickly became contaminated, Lake Karachay was used for open-air storage, keeping the contamination a slight distance from the reactors but soon making Lake Karachay the \"most-polluted spot on Earth\".  A storage facility for liquid nuclear waste was added around 1953. It consisted of steel tanks mounted in a concrete base, underground. Because of the high level of radioactivity, the waste was heating itself through decay heat (though a chain reaction was not possible). For that reason, a cooler was built around each bank, containing 20 tanks. Facilities for monitoring operation of the coolers and the content of the tanks were inadequate. The accident involved waste which was from the sodium uranyl acetate process used by the early Soviet nuclear industry to recover plutonium from irradiated fuel; this is discussed by Foreman in his review on nuclear accidents. The acetate process is a special process which was never used in the West; the idea is to dissolve the fuel in nitric acid, alter the oxidation state of the plutonium, and then add acetic acid and base. This converts the uranium and plutonium into a solid acetate salt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Explosion.", "content": "In 1957 the cooling system in one of the tanks containing about 70–80 tons of liquid radioactive waste failed and was not repaired. The temperature in it started to rise, resulting in evaporation and a chemical explosion of the dried waste, consisting mainly of ammonium nitrate and acetates (see ammonium nitrate–fuel oil bomb). The explosion, on 29 September 1957, estimated to have had a force of about 70–100 tons of TNT, threw the 160-ton concrete lid high into the air. There were no immediate casualties as a result of the explosion, but it released an estimated 20 MCi (800 PBq) of radioactivity. Most of this contamination settled out near the site of the accident and contributed to the pollution of the Techa River, but a plume containing 2 MCi (80 PBq) of radionuclides spread out over hundreds of kilometers. Previously contaminated areas within the affected area include the Techa river, which had previously received 2.75 MCi (100 PBq) of deliberately dumped waste, and Lake Karachay, which had received 120 MCi (4,000 PBq).  In the next 10 to 11 hours, the radioactive cloud moved towards the north-east, reaching from the accident. The fallout of the cloud resulted in a long-term contamination of an area of more than, depending on what contamination level is considered significant, primarily with caesium-137 and strontium-90. This area is usually referred to as the East-Ural Radioactive Trace (EURT).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Because of the secrecy surrounding Mayak, the populations of affected areas were not initially informed of the accident. A week later (on 6 October 1957), an operation for evacuating 10,000 people from the affected area started, still without giving an explanation of the reasons for evacuation.  Vague reports of a \"catastrophic accident\" causing \"radioactive fallout over the Soviet and many neighboring states\" began appearing in the western press between 13 and 14 April 1958, and the first details emerged in the Viennese paper \"Die Presse\" on 17 March 1959. But it was only in 1976 (18 years after) that Soviet dissident Zhores Medvedev made the nature and extent of the disaster known to the world. In the absence of verifiable information, exaggerated accounts of the disaster were given. People \"grew hysterical with fear with the incidence of unknown'mysterious' diseases breaking out. Victims were seen with skin'sloughing off' their faces, hands, and other exposed parts of their bodies\". Medvedev's description of the disaster in the \"New Scientist\" was initially derided by Western nuclear industry sources, but the core of his story was soon confirmed by Professor Leo Tumerman, former head of the Biophysics Laboratory at the Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology in Moscow.  The true number of fatalities remains uncertain because radiation-induced cancer is clinically indistinguishable from any other cancer, and its incidence rate can be measured only through epidemiological studies. One book claims that \"in 1992, a study conducted by the Institute of Biophysics at the former Soviet Health Ministry in Chelyabinsk found that 8,015 people had died within the preceding 32 years as a result of the accident\". By contrast, only 6,000 death certificates have been found for residents of the Techa riverside between 1950 and 1982 from all causes of death, though perhaps the Soviet study considered a larger geographic area affected by the airborne plume. More recent epidemiological studies suggest that around 49 to 55 cancer deaths among riverside residents can be associated to radiation exposure. This would include the effects of all radioactive releases into the river, 98% of which happened long before the 1957 accident, but it would not include the effects of the airborne plume that was carried north-east. The area closest to the accident produced 66 diagnosed cases of chronic radiation syndrome, providing the bulk of the data about this condition. To reduce the spread of radioactive contamination after the accident, contaminated soil was excavated and stockpiled in fenced enclosures that were called \"graveyards of the earth\". The Soviet government in 1968 disguised the EURT area by creating the East Ural Nature Reserve, which prohibited any unauthorised access to the affected area.  According to Gyorgy, who invoked the Freedom of Information Act to gain access to the relevant Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) files, the CIA had known of the 1957 Mayak accident since 1959, but kept it secret to prevent adverse consequences for the fledgling American nuclear industry. Starting in 1989 the Soviet government gradually declassified documents pertaining to the disaster.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current situation.", "content": "The level of radiation in Ozyorsk, at about 0.1 mSv a year, is harmless, but the area of the EURT is still heavily contaminated with radioactivity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kyshtym disaster was a radioactive contamination accident that occurred on 29 September 1957 at Mayak, a plutonium production site in Russia for nuclear weapons and nuclear fuel reprocessing plant of the Soviet Union.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977164}
{"src_title": "Phyllanthus emblica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plant morphology and harvesting.", "content": "The tree is small to medium in size, reaching in height. The branchlets are not glabrous or finely pubescent, long, usually deciduous; the leaves are simple, subsessile and closely set along branchlets, light green, resembling pinnate leaves. The flowers are greenish-yellow. The fruit is nearly spherical, light greenish-yellow, quite smooth and hard on appearance, with six vertical stripes or furrows.  Ripening in autumn, the berries are harvested by hand after climbing to upper branches bearing the fruits. The taste of Indian emblic is sour, bitter and astringent, and it is quite fibrous.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buddhist symbolism.", "content": "In the Buddhist tradition, half an amalaka fruit was the final gift to the Buddhist sangha by the great Indian emperor Ashoka. This is illustrated in the Ashokavadana in the following verses: \"A great donor, the lord of men, the eminent Maurya Ashoka, has gone from being lord of Jambudvipa [the continent] to being lord of half a myrobalan\" (Strong, 1983, p. 99). In Theravada Buddhism, this plant is said to have been used as the tree for achieving enlightenment, or Bodhi, by the twenty first Buddha, named Phussa Buddha.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Traditional uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Culinary use.", "content": "Pratapgarh is one of the largest producers and suppliers of Indian gooseberries. In this region, the fruit is commonly pickled with salt, oil, and spices. The amla fruit is eaten raw or cooked into various dishes. In Pratapgarh, tender varieties are used to prepare \"dal\" (a lentil preparation), and \"amle ka murabbah\", a sweet dish made by soaking the berries in sugar syrup until they are candied. It is traditionally consumed after meals.  In the Batak area of Sumatra, Indonesia, the inner bark is used to impart an astringent, bitter taste to the broth of a traditional fish soup known as \"holat\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "In traditional Indian medicine, dried and fresh fruits of the plant are used. All parts of the plant are used in various Ayurvedic medicine herbal preparations, including the fruit, seed, leaves, root, bark and flowers. According to Ayurveda, amla fruit is sour (\"amla\") and astringent (\"kashaya\") in taste (\"rasa\"), with sweet (\"madhura\"), bitter (\"tikta\") and pungent (\"katu\") secondary tastes (\"anurasas\"). Its qualities (\"gunas\") are light (\"laghu\") and dry (\"ruksha\"), the postdigestive effect (\"vipaka\") is sweet (\"madhura\") and its energy (\"virya\") is cooling (\"shita\").  In Ayurvedic polyherbal formulations, Indian gooseberry is a common constituent, and most notably is the primary ingredient in an ancient herbal \"rasayana\" called \"Chyawanprash\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other uses.", "content": "Commonly used in inks, shampoos and hair oils, the high tannin content of Indian gooseberry fruit serves as a mordant for fixing dyes in fabrics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemical constituents.", "content": "These fruits are reputed to contain high amounts of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and have bitter taste that may derive from a high density of ellagitannins, such as emblicanin A (37%), emblicanin B (33%), punigluconin (12%), and pedunculagin (14%). Amla also contains punicafolin and phyllanemblinin A, phyllanemblin other polyphenols, such as flavonoids, kaempferol, ellagic acid, and gallic acid.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Phyllanthus emblica, also known as emblic, emblic myrobalan, myrobalan, Indian gooseberry, Malacca tree, or amla from Sanskrit amalaki is a deciduous tree of the family Phyllanthaceae. It has edible fruit, referred to by the same name.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977165}
{"src_title": "Laura Marano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Marano was born in Los Angeles, California. She is the daughter of college professor Damiano Marano and former actress Ellen Marano, who owns the Agoura Children's Theatre. Her father is of Italian descent. Marano was first introduced to acting at her mother's theatre. At age 5, Marano began expressing interest in acting professionally to her parents along with her older sister Vanessa, who is also an actress. However, her mother had trepidation about the idea of her daughters working in the tough industry of acting. She took them to one of the strictest talent agents in Abrams Talent Agency in hopes that they would be rejected and then lose interest. To her surprise, the agency wanted both Laura and Vanessa. From there, Marano began her career.  Marano attended traditional school while she worked, even when she booked a full-time job on \"Austin & Ally\", instead of doing school on set. \"I go to an actual high school and my friends and everybody there have been so supportive,\" said Marano. \"It's nice when I'm not working to go to that school and be surrounded by really supportive friends.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2003–2010: \"Without a Trace\" and \"Back to You\".", "content": "Marano's first acting role was when she was five years old. Since then, she worked for multiple productions at the Stage Door Theater. She has appeared in numerous commercials and had small roles on \"Ghost Whisperer\", \"Medical Investigation\", \"Huff\" and \"Joan of Arcadia\". Her bigger roles in television have been in \"Without a Trace\" and other shows. She played the child role of Keira Knightley's character in the film \"The Jacket\" and had a small flashback role in the film \"Superbad\". She was a regular cast member on the Fox game show, \"Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?\" and played the role of Gracie Carr on FOX's sitcom \"Back to You\". Marano has since appeared in several episodes of \"The Sarah Silverman Program\". Initially she was cast in the pilot episode, \"Batteries\", as the child version of Sarah Silverman, and the writers liked her so much they brought her back for a larger role as a girl Sarah coaches to win a beauty pageant (\"Not Without My Daughter\"). On the DVD commentary track, co-star Brian Posehn notes that Marano knew everyone else's lines better than they did. She also appeared in \"Dexter\" as the child version of Debra Morgan. She also played the child version of a character played by Diana Scarwid, Alice Shaw, sister of Angela Petrelli, on \"Heroes\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011–2016: \"Austin & Ally\" and radio.", "content": "In 2011, Marano starred as Ally Dawson on the Disney Channel series \"Austin & Ally\". In 2013, Marano recorded four solo songs and one duet with Ross Lynch for the soundtrack album \"\". \"Me and You\" debuted within the U.S. \"Billboard\" Kid Digital Songs chart at number thirteen before rising to the sixth spot, spending eleven weeks on the chart. \"Redial\" debuted at number nineteen before peaking at number eighteen, spending four weeks on the chart. Also in 2013, Marano recorded a duet with her \"Austin & Ally\" co-star Ross Lynch entitled \"I Love Christmas\" for Disney Channel's third holiday compilation album, \"Holidays Unwrapped\". On November 25, 2013, the song was released as a promotional single. On December 14, \"I Love Christmas\" debuted within the U.S. \"Billboard\" Holiday Digital Songs chart peaking at number fifty. Marano sings, dances, and writes songs. She hopes to perform in stage musicals in the future.  In 2014, Marano voiced as Rachel in four episodes of \"\". She also appeared as Hammu in \"Fish Hooks\" and as Fangs in \"Liv and Maddie\". Also in 2014, she appeared in a music video produced for British pop-rock group The Vamps and American singer Demi Lovato called \"Somebody to You\". In March 2015, Marano stated that she had signed a record deal with Universal's Big Machine Records. In the same year, Marano starred in Disney Channel's Original Movie, \"Bad Hair Day\". The film was first released on February 6, 2015 on Disney Channel and had its premiere broadcast in the US on February 13. She also starring as the young version of Amy in \"A Sort of Homecoming\", which tells the story of a girl who returns to her home town in Louisiana from her career in New York City upon request of her high school debate coach. In flashbacks, she recalls her senior year, the politics surrounding debate competitions. On January 10, 2016, \"Austin and Ally\" ended after four seasons.  On January 13, 2016, Marano debuted her own radio talk show on Radio Disney entitled \"For the Record with Laura Marano\". The weekly one-hour show chronicles Marano's journey as she launches her music career, featuring interviews with a guest star in each episode. The show also provides listeners tips on how one can pursue a career in music. The show has featured various guest stars including Nick Jonas, Ariana Grande, Meghan Trainor, OneRepublic, and Troye Sivan. The first episode of the show, which aired January 12, 2016, guest starred her co-stars of \"Austin & Ally\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016–present: Films and music.", "content": "On March 11, 2016, Marano released her debut single called \"Boombox\". The music video for the single released on April 4, 2016 and accumulated over 6 million views in a week. The video currently holds over 50 million views. It guest stars actor and comedian Ken Jeong, along with his daughter Zooey, and was directed by Cole Walliser. On April 30, 2016, Marano performed the single at the 2016 Radio Disney Music Awards, which aired on Disney Channel on May 1. Marano also performed the song on \"Today\" as Elvis Duran's Artist of the Month on May 31, 2016. Marano released her second single, \"La La\", on August 25, 2016. At the end of 2016, Big Machine Records made the decision to drop all of their pop artists, except for Taylor Swift. On May 18, 2017, it was announced that Marano had signed to Warner Bros. Records in 2017. In 2018, they parted ways, because the people who had signed her left Warner Bros.  On October 1, 2018, Marano announced in a Q&A video posted on her YouTube channel that she would be releasing new music as an independent artist. She named her own label Flip Phone Records, as Marano is known for not owning a smartphone and still using a flip phone. On October 5, 2018, she released the single \"Me\". In January 2019, she released the single \"Let Me Cry\" along with its music video. In February 2019, Marano performed at the Roxy Theatre in Los Angeles and released the single \"F.E.O.U.\". On March 8, 2019, she released her debut EP, \"Me\", featuring two unheard tracks and a new remix to \"F.E.O.U.\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philanthropy.", "content": "In August 2013, Marano was named the 2013 UNICEF's Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF Ambassador, which encouraged children to raise money on Halloween to help children around the world. About the campaign, Laura said \"I'm so excited to celebrate Halloween this year by encouraging kids to support UNICEF's lifesaving work. The Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF campaign is a fun, easy way for kids to learn about world issues and to help other kids who are less fortunate.\" In August 2014, Marano was ambassador for the Disney and Birds Eye Vegetables campaign 'Step up to the plate'. The campaign's goal is to encourage children in the United States to explore healthy foods such as vegetables.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Laura Marie Marano (born November 29, 1995) is an American actress and singer. She starred in the Disney Channel series \"Austin & Ally\" as Ally Dawson. Marano was one of the five original classmates in \"Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?\". She starred in \"Without a Trace\" for three seasons and also \"Back to You\", in both instances playing the daughter of the main characters. Marano starred in the indie film \"A Sort of Homecoming\". Marano also starred in the 2015 Disney Channel Original Movie \"Bad Hair Day\". In 2019 Marano starred in the Netflix original movie \"The Perfect Date\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977166}
{"src_title": "Type 96 25 mm AT/AA Gun", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and development.", "content": "In 1935 the Imperial Japanese Navy decided to replace the earlier 40 mm Vickers \"pom-pom\" guns with a 25 mm Hotchkiss design. A party of Japanese officers and engineers traveled to France to evaluate the design in 1935, and an order was placed for a number of guns and mounts for evaluation. Firing tests of these guns were conducted at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in 1935. The first few weapons were built in France under the designation “Type 94” and “Type 95”, with the mass production model produced at the Yokosuka Arsenal being designated “Type 96”.  The Japanese made a number of minor changes to the original Hotchkiss design and production process, changing some components from forgings to castings to simplify production, and replacing the simple conical flash suppressor with a Rheinmetall-type design. A submarine-mountable version of the gun which made extensive use of stainless steel was also produced.  The double-mount type was the first to enter service, with triple mounts following in 1941 and finally single mounts later in 1943.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The Type 96 25mm Gun is a simple air-cooled gas operated design. The barrel is a forging screwed into the breech mechanism. Additional support is provided to the breech end of the gun barrel by the finned cooling jacket. The barrel is changeable, requiring two men and special tools; the operation took a trained crew approximately five minutes. By adjusting the gas valve setting it was possible to vary the rate of fire between 200 and 260 rounds per minute, with 220 rounds per minute being the standard setting.  The gun mounts were normally provided with one of three gun sights:  Land mountings and all single mountings all used the single open-ring sight. The Type 95 sight was used on ship-based multiple mounts, in the case where the mount has a powered drive linked to a fire director it was used as a backup.  The Type 95 sight was originally designed with a maximum target speed of 600 kilometers per hour; however, experience showed that aircraft often exceeded this speed. To compensate for the problem, a ring was added to the sighting telescope to provide an additional offset for speeds up to 900 kilometers per hour.  The gun was normally used without a gun shield, although some multiple mounts on \"Yamato\"-class battleships were fitted with Ducol (High tensile steel) shields. Many ship-based mounts also had splinter shields.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ammunition.", "content": "The Type 96 cartridge case was a rimless type design with a deep extraction groove at the base. The projectiles fired by the weapon were slightly unusual in that they had two rotating bands. The forward band was slightly smaller in diameter than the rear band. It was believed that this was to reduce wear on the rifling near the chamber. The case of the cartridge was crimped around the rear rotating band. The complete round weighed approximately with the projectile weighing.  The propellant was 102 grams of single-perforated, graphited grains of nitrocellulose approximately 2 millimeters in diameter and between 2.5 and 4.5 millimeters in length.  Normally one tracer round was added every four or five rounds to aid laying.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Combat record.", "content": "The Type 96 was the standard Japanese medium anti-aircraft weapon of the Imperial Japanese Navy, being mounted aboard practically every ship in the fleet. The gun was also used in land bases in the Japanese Empire and in the Japanese overseas combat fronts. These weapons were also used as anti-tank guns in some defensive actions in Pacific theaters and against land objectives in southeast Asia/Chinese mainland during the Pacific War. The gun was used by the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War. It was also used by the Bougainville Revolutionary Army during the Bougainville Civil War which lasted from 1988-1998.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Effectiveness.", "content": "In interviews conducted by the U.S. Naval Technical Mission to Japan after the end of the war, Japanese military personnel said it was the most reliable Japanese anti-aircraft weapon, but second in effectiveness to the Type 98 anti-aircraft gun. The Type 96 was most effective when used at ranges of 1,000 meters or less. The Japanese military estimated that it required an average of 1,500 rounds to shoot down an aircraft at a height of 1,000 meters and a range of 2,000 meters, and that fire beyond that range was completely ineffective. Later in the war, when ammunition supply was restricted, firing was held until the targets were within 800 meters range, dropping this ratio to as low as seven rounds per aircraft.  The Type 96 was a mediocre weapon compared to its contemporaries in other navies. It was hampered by slow training and elevating speeds (even in power-operated triple mounts), excessive vibration and muzzle flash, and that the ammunition feed was via a 15-round fixed magazine, which necessitated ceasing fire every time the magazine had to be changed. According to \"US Naval Technical Mission to Japan report O-47(N)-2\", all magazines had to be loaded by hand as no specialized loading equipment was ever developed. Overall, it was more comparable to the 20mm Oerlikon, though vastly inferior to the 40mm Bofors weapons used by the US and allies in every respect except rate of fire (and only barely in that respect: the Bofors could put out a sustained 120 round/minute because of its constant-fire top-fed ammo clip design, whereas the 25mm's frequent ammo box changes lowered its nominal rate of fire to only half of its theoretical maximum of 260 rounds per minute).  The Japanese ranked in order of seriousness the problems with the gun as:  In \"Rapid Fire\", Anthony Williams writes that the intermediate calibre weapons (including the US Navy's 1.1\"/75 caliber gun 28×199mm L/75) were relatively unsuccessful during World War II: the mounts were much heavier and more complex than smaller calibre guns, but the shells lacked the range and hitting power of the larger 37 and 40 millimeter weapons. The Japanese viewed increasing the caliber of autocannons as the number one priority of research and development in the field.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The was an automatic cannon used by the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. A locally-built variant of the French Hotchkiss 25mm anti-aircraft gun, it was designed as a dual-purpose weapon for use against armored vehicles and aircraft, but was primarily used as an anti-aircraft gun in fixed mounts with one to three guns.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977167}
{"src_title": "Regional geography", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Basics.", "content": "Attention is paid to unique characteristics of a particular region such as natural elements, human elements, and regionalization which covers the techniques of delineating space into regions. Rooted in the tradition of the German-speaking countries, the two pillars of regional geography are the idiographic study of \"Länder\" or spatial individuals (specific places, countries, continents) and the typological study of \"Landschaften\" or spatial types (landscapes such as coastal regions, mountain regions, border regions, etc.).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Approach.", "content": "Regional geography is also a certain approach to geographical study, comparable to quantitative geography or critical geography. This approach prevailed during the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, a period when then regional geography paradigm was central within the geographical sciences. It was later criticised for its descriptiveness and the lack of theory. Strong criticism was leveled against it in particular during the 1950s and the quantitative revolution. Main critics were G. H. T. Kimble and Fred K. Schaefer. The regional geography paradigm has influenced many other geographical sciences, including economic geography and geomorphology. Regional geography is still taught in some universities as a study of the major regions of the world, such as Northern and Latin America, Europe, and Asia and their countries. In addition, the notion of a city-region approach to the study of geography, underlining urban-rural interactions, gained credence since the mid-1980s. Some geographers have also attempted to reintroduce a certain amount of regionalism since the 1980s. This involves a complex definition of regions and their interactions with other scales.  Regional geography was once used as a basis for the geomorphological works such as those of David Linton and Henri Baulig. Yet, according to Karna Lidmar-Bergström regional geography is since the 1990s not longer accepted by mainstream scholarship as a basis for geomorphological studies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable figures.", "content": "Notable figures in regional geography were Alfred Hettner in Germany, with his concept of chorology; Paul Vidal de la Blache in France, with the possibilism approach (possibilism being a softer notion than environmental determinism); and, in the United States, Richard Hartshorne with his concept of areal differentiation. The school of Carl O. Sauer, strongly influenced by Alfred Hettner and Paul Vidal de la Blache, is also seen as regional geography in its broadest sense.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Regional geography is a major branch of geography. It focuses on the interaction of different cultural and natural geofactors in a specific land or landscape, while its counterpart, systematic geography, concentrates on a specific geofactor at the global level.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977168}
{"src_title": "Sviatoslav Shevchuk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Priesthood.", "content": "Shevchuk was ordained as a priest on 26 June 1994. He is an alumnus of the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas \"Angelicum\" where he earned a Doctorate in theology in 1999. After completing his theological training Shevchuk served as rector of the seminary of Lviv.  From 2002 to 2005 he worked as head of the secretariat of Major Archbishop and Cardinal Lubomyr Husar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Episcopacy.", "content": "Shevchuk was appointed auxiliary bishop of the Eparchy of Santa María del Patrocinio en Buenos Aires on 14 January 2009 and consecrated by Archbishop Ihor Vozniak on 7 April 2009. On 10 April 2010, he was appointed Apostolic Administrator of the same diocese upon the retirement of Bishop Miguel Mykycej.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Major Archbishop.", "content": "On 23 March 2011, Shevchuk was elected Major Archbishop of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church to replace Lubomyr Husar, who had retired for health reasons. Pope Benedict XVI confirmed his selection on 25 March 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Enthronement.", "content": "Shevchuk was enthroned as Major Archbishop on 27 March 2011 in the UGCC's new mother church, the Patriarchal Cathedral of the Resurrection of Christ in Kiev, which was still under construction at the time. He was the first primate to be enthroned in Kiev in 400 years.  Representatives of all three main branches of Ukrainian Eastern Orthodoxy were present for his enthronement, including Metropolitan Mefodiy (UOAC), Metropolitan Volodymyr (UOC-MP), and Bishop (UOC-KP).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Visits to Canada.", "content": "On 31 May 2012, Sviatoslav held his first pastoral visit to Canada. He visited Edmonton after being met by Eparch David Motiuk and other clergy upon his arrival in Calgary. He attended events at St. Josaphat Cathedral and St. George Parish. On 2 June, the head of the UGCC celebrated the 100th anniversary of the establishment of the Parish of the Assumption of the Holy Mother of God in Calgary. He again returned to Canada later in 2012, and on Sunday, 9 September, after the participants took an oath the previous day, Shevchuk celebrated the Divine Liturgy to open a worldwide Ukrainian Catholic Synod of Bishops at Saints Volodymyr and Olha Cathedral in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. He visited Miller Comprehensive High School and stopped at St. Basil's Ukrainian Catholic Church and St. Athanasius Ukrainian Catholic Church, on 21 September 2012 in Regina, Saskatchewan. He stopped in Vancouver to mark the 100th anniversary of the first Canadian visit of a Ukrainian Catholic bishop.  In May 2014, he again visited Canada to mark the arrival of the Sheptytsky Institute within the University of St. Michael's College at the University of Toronto. In October 2016, he traveled to Ontario on the occasion of the consecration of the church of St. Elias the Prophet in Brampton.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Views.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "On the patriarchal title.", "content": "On 29 March 2011, Shevchuk said \"I'm departing with my bishops and all of the metropolitans of our church to Rome, because it's our duty to make a courtesy visit to the Holy Father (i.e., the Pope),\" he said at a press conference in Kyiv. The UGCC leader said that the UGCC Synod of Bishops had prepared a number of proposals for the Pope. \"We're really going to tell of how our church is developing and that each developing church [becomes] a patriarchate, because a patriarchate is a period in the completion of the development of a church,\" he said.  Cardinal Slipyj in the 1960s already petitioned for the patriarchal title. Instead, Pope Paul VI responded by devising the rank of \"Major Archbishop\", which grants all the prerogatives of an Eastern patriarch to the head of a self-governing church in full communion, just without the title itself. On 12 June 2012 Shevchuk was appointed a member of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "On his own election.", "content": "In April 2011, Shevchuk said while visiting Rome to meet Pope Benedict XVI, that he believes he was elected \"despite my age\". Ukrainian bishops from around the world, who met in a synod in late March to elect a new Major Archbishop for their church, were looking for a leader who could \"unite the church in Ukraine and outside Ukraine\", who could \"promote the unity of Christians in Ukraine and establish some sort of dialogue with the new Ukrainian government....The No. 1 priority for each head of a church is evangelization, preaching the Gospel of Jesus Christ in today's world....Of course, our church is growing, is developing its structures,... but we are conscious that the decision about the patriarchate belongs to the Holy Father and we would never press him. We respect his freedom.\" Shevchuk said his age is not really so shocking when one considers that the average age of his priests is about 35. \"In our tradition, we do have a married clergy, but a married clergy is not the main reason we have so many young priests\", he added.  On 22 June 2011 Shevchuk was appointed a member of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches to a five-year term.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "On meeting with the Russian Orthodox Patriarch.", "content": "When asked in April 2011 whether he would wish to meet the Russian Orthodox Patriarch Kirill, Shevchuk said that \"I would like very much to visit him and hold a personal meeting with him. I am convinced that in peacefully and openly communicating with each other, we can relieve any tension... I think that today, we should heal the wounds rather than irritate and deepen them. One can heal the wounds of our memory only with mutual forgiveness. Therefore, as for any of our brethren or neighbors who wounded us or were wounded by us, the best way to communicate is to be open in a brotherly dialogue, be open to the purification of our memory, to ask for forgiveness and to forgive.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Sviatoslav Shevchuk (; born 5 May 1970 in Stryi, Ukrainian SSR) has been the Major Archbishop of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC) since 25 March 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977169}
{"src_title": "Tsuga mertensiana", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Tsuga mertensiana\" is a large evergreen coniferous tree growing to tall, with exceptional specimens as tall as tall. They have a trunk diameter of up to. The bark is thin and square-cracked or furrowed, and gray in color. The crown is a neat, slender, conic shape in young trees with a tilted or drooping lead shoot, becoming cylindric in older trees. At all ages, it is distinguished by the slightly pendulous branchlet tips. The shoots are orange–brown, with dense pubescence about long. The leaves are needle-like, long and broad, soft, blunt-tipped, only slightly flattened in cross-section, pale glaucous blue-green above, and with two broad bands of bluish-white stomata below with only a narrow green midrib between the bands; they differ from those of any other species of hemlock in also having stomata on the upper surface, and are arranged spirally all around the shoot.  The cones are small (but much longer than those of any other species of hemlock), pendulous, cylindrical, long and broad when closed, opening to broad, superficially somewhat like a small spruce cone. They have thin, flexible scales long. The immature cones are dark purple (rarely green), maturing red–brown 5 to 7 months after pollination. The seeds are red–brown, long, with a slender, -long pale pink–brown wing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The geographic range of \"Tsuga mertensiana\" fairly closely matches that of \"Tsuga heterophylla\" (western hemlock), likewise mostly less than from the Pacific Ocean apart from a similar inland population in the Rocky Mountains in southeast British Columbia, northern Idaho and western Montana. The inland populations most likely established after deglaciation by remarkable long-distance dispersal of more than 200 km from the coast populations. Their ranges, however, differ in California, where western hemlock is restricted to the Coast Ranges and mountain hemlock is found in the Klamath Mountains and Sierra Nevada. Unlike western hemlock, mountain hemlock mostly grows at high altitudes except in the far north, from sea level to in Alaska, in the Cascades in Oregon, and in the Sierra Nevada.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "There are three taxa, two subspecies and a minor variety:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Mountain hemlock is usually found on cold, snowy subalpine sites where it grows slowly, sometimes attaining more than 800 years in age. Arborescent individuals that have narrowly conical crowns until old age (300 to 400 years) and shrubby krummholz on cold, windy sites near timberline add beauty to mountain landscapes. Areas occupied by mountain hemlock generally have a cool to cold maritime climate that includes mild to cold winters, a short, warm-to-cool growing season and moderate to high precipitation.  Best development of mountain hemlock is on loose, coarse-textured, well-drained soils with adequate moisture, and in British Columbia, on thick and very acidic organic matter and decayed wood. Adequate soil moisture appears to be especially important in California and Montana, where summer drought is most pronounced. Mountain hemlock will grow on most landforms, but individuals typically develop best in mixed stands of forest on sheltered slopes or in draws. From southern British Columbia south, the tree grows better on northerly exposures. The preference for relatively moist, cool sites evidently becomes a necessity as the climate becomes more continental in western Montana and more mediterranean in the central Sierra Nevada at these extremes of its range. In these locations, mountain hemlock typically grows in isolated populations in north-facing glens and cirque basins where snow collects and may remain well into summer.  Mountain hemlock is adapted to sites with long-lasting snowpacks. In the spring, mountain hemlocks emerging through of snow were transpiring, whereas nearby whitebark pines did not transpire until the soil beneath them was free of snow. Mountain hemlock is well adapted to cope with heavy snow and ice loads, with tough branches and the drooping branchlets shedding snow readily.  Mountain hemlock is tolerant of shade and other forms of competition. It is more tolerant than all its associates except Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, and Alaska cedar. Mountain hemlock is considered a minor climax species on most of its habitats; however, it pioneers on glacial moraines in British Columbia and Alaska. Pacific silver fir is a major climax species in many communities of the mountain hemlock forest in British Columbia and Washington and northern Oregon. Alaska cedar, western redcedar, and western hemlock are climax associates on some sites. Mountain hemlock is more commonly the major climax species in the mountain hemlock zone south of central Oregon where Pacific silver fir does not occur.  Mountain hemlock often succeeds lodgepole pine or subalpine fir when these species pioneer on drier sites. It also tends to replace Engelmann spruce when the two species occur together, possibly because hemlock is better able to withstand the allelopathic effects of spruce than are other associated species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Outside of its native range, mountain hemlock is grown as an ornamental tree. It is planted as a specimen tree in native plant landscapes in California, and particularly in gardens in northern Great Britain and Scandinavia, where it is appreciated for its blue–green color and tolerance of severe weather. Cultivation is limited by the very slow growth of young plants and its susceptibility to urban air pollution.  Several cultivars have been selected, mainly for intensely glaucous foliage color including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tsuga mertensiana, known as mountain hemlock, is a species of hemlock native to the west coast of North America, with its northwestern limit on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, and its southeastern limit in northern Tulare County, California. \"Mertensiana\" refers to Karl Heinrich Mertens (1796–1830), a German botanist who collected the first specimens as a member of a Russian expedition in 1826-1829.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977170}
{"src_title": "Lemonade Mouth (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "High school students Olivia White, Mohini \"Mo\" Banjaree, Charles \"Charlie\" Delgado, Stella Yamada, and Wendell \"Wen\" Gifford all meet after ending up in detention for different reasons. Miss Reznick, the music teacher supervising detention, leaves to argue with the principal Mr. Brenigan about his decision to move all extracurricular activities to the basement to make room for a new gymnasium. The five then tap out a beat and play instruments, and Olivia sings \"Turn Up the Music.\" Miss Reznick returns and says that they would make a great band, and encourages them to enter a music competition called \"Rising Star,\" in which a popular band, Mudslide Crush, planned to enter.  The following day, Stella sends a text message to the members stating that they need to meet. The group agrees to chat at Dante's Pizza where Stella reveals she signed the band up for Rising Star and the Halloween Bash.  The band forms with Olivia as lead vocalist, Stella as lead guitarist/backing vocalist, Mo as bassist/backing vocalist, Wen as keyboardist/keytarist/rapping vocalist, and Charlie as drummer. At school, Olivia gets cornered by Ray Beech, lead singer of Mudslide Crush. Stella spits lemonade on Ray in defense. Ray refers to Stella as \"Lemonade Mouth\", giving the band its name. The band later discovers the lemonade machine is being removed.  When Mo sees her boyfriend Scott Picket, the guitarist of Mudslide Crush, flirting with another girl, Jules, she leaves him. At the Halloween Bash, Lemonade Mouth performs \"Determinate.\" After the performance, Stella makes a speech opposing Brenigan's decisions and encouraging self-expression to the supportive crowd. Angered, Principal Brenigan forbids them from playing at school. The next day, the band sees posters and banners all around the school supporting Lemonade Mouth, raising their spirits. Mo sings \"She's So Gone\" at the regular gig they have. They also discover that \"Determinate\" is being played on the local radio. Shortly after, however, things go downhill: Mo gets sick, Charlie breaks his fingers, Wen injures his eye, and Olivia loses her voice, leaving only Stella, who doesn't have an injury.  Stella calls the band to the school, where she is protesting the removal of the lemonade machine. The group gets into a heated argument with the men removing the lemonade machine. Police arrive and they are brought to a holding cell to wait for their parents. They slowly come together singing \"Turn up the Music.\" The band agrees to perform at Rising Star, after contemplating quitting.  At Rising Star, Mudslide Crush performs \"Don't Ya Wish U Were Us.\" Lemonade Mouth unsuccessfully performs \"Determinate.\" The audience begins to sing \"Determinate\" in support of the band. Fed up with Ray, Scott leaves Mudslide Crush and joins Lemonade Mouth. Mo and Scott get back together, Charlie begins talking with a girl who likes him, Stella and her mother become close again, and Wen accepts his new stepmother.  At Wen's father's wedding, Stella recognizes the man sitting next to her as Mel, the owner of the lemonade company. He donates a music hall to the school, which Mr. Brenigan accepts. Olivia mails the entire story to her father, who is in prison. The film closes with Lemonade Mouth performing \"Breakthrough\" at Madison Square Garden, with Scott as their new rhythm guitarist.  The extended edition includes an interview with Moxie Morris on \"All Things Musical\", in which Mo and Scott's relationship is nearly exposed by Moxie in front of Mo's father, but is stopped by Olivia, who says that she and Wen are dating. The band then performs \"Livin On A High Wire\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cast.", "content": "Author Mark Peter Hughes makes a cameo appearance as an extra dressed as a bee at the Halloween Bash.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The movie was filmed in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The names of eight characters in the book were changed for the film; the character of \"Olivia Whitehead\" was changed to \"Olivia White\", \"Wendel Gifford\" was changed to \"Wendell Gifford\", \"Stella Penn\" was changed to \"Stella Yamada\", \"Mohini Banerjee\" was changed to \"Mohini Banjaree\", and \"Charlie Hirsh\" was changed to \"Charlie Delgado\". Casting was announced in August 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Family-oriented reviewers at Common Sense Media praised the film for its themes of honesty, empowerment, overcoming adversity, self-expression, standing up for what one believes in, and for its emphasis on the importance of the arts and of friendship and family. Other reviews were not so kind, with some critics claiming that \"Lemonade Mouth\" is a \"typically innocuous Disney Channel flick\" that is a \"hopelessly dumbed-down endeavor.\" The film holds a 6.7 rating, making \"Fair\" (based on 17 votes) on TV.com.  \"Lemonade Mouth\" was watched by 5.7 million viewers on its premiere night. ranking as the No. 1 TV Telecast among Kids 7–11 (2.3 million/9.4 rating) and Teens (2.1 million/8.5 rating), and cable's No. 1 original movie of 2011 among Total Viewers. With DVR viewing included, its total was 7.1 million viewers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcast.", "content": "A local premiere was held in the author Mark Peter Hughes's town of Wayland, Massachusetts. It was broadcast live by the town public access station, WayCAM.TV, by local students.  The cast from the film have performed on \"The View\", \"Good Morning America\", \"So Random!\" and UK's \"Daybreak\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The movie features ten original songs written by Aris Archontis, Maria Christensen, Ali Dee, Andy Dodd, Tom Leonard, Jeannie Lurie, Niclas Molinder, Chen Neeman, Joacim Persson, Lindy Robbins,Ebony Burks, Shridhar Solanki, Shane Stevens, Matthew Tishler, Bryan Todd, Reed Vertelney, Adam Watts, and Adam Hicks. Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack on April 12, 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cancelled sequel.", "content": "In 2011, the author of \"Lemonade Mouth\" said that he had been working on a sequel. Actor Blake Michael has said: \"It's all up to the fans, it's in their hands. If people enjoy it and they love it and they want more, they'll get it. I think Disney is just a great organization in general and they're always one step ahead of the game. So you never really know what's gonna happen.\" On June 15, 2011, it was announced during the 2011 Licensing International Expo that \"Lemonade Mouth 2\" was in the works.  On April 6, 2012, Chris Brochu announced on his Twitter account, that the sequel was no longer going into production. In interviews with Kidzworld Media and BSCKids in May 2012, Bridgit Mendler confirmed that a sequel would not be produced, noting that \"they tried to figure something out for a sequel, but everyone at Disney felt like the movie had completed its story in the first movie.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lemonade Mouth is a 2011 American teen musical drama television film, based on the 2007 novel of the same name by Mark Peter Hughes. The film was directed by Patricia Riggen and written by April Blair, and stars Bridgit Mendler, Adam Hicks, Naomi Scott, Hayley Kiyoko and Blake Michael. The Disney Channel Original Movie tells the story of five high school students who meet in detention and form a band to stand up for their beliefs and to overcome their individual and collective struggles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977171}
{"src_title": "Jérémy Mathieu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sochaux.", "content": "Born in Luxeuil-les-Bains, Haute-Saône, Mathieu started his career with the biggest club in his Franche-Comté region, FC Sochaux-Montbéliard. He made his Ligue 1 debut, during the 2002–03 season, in a league match against CS Sedan-Ardennes coming on as a late-match substitute. Despite being 18, he was inserted into the starting 11, and quickly provided an impact scoring his first professional goal in just his third league match in a 2–2 draw against Stade Rennais. He made 23 league appearances that season scoring four goals, which included an equalising goal against Paris Saint-Germain, and two game-winning goals against Nantes and Le Havre. His play, along with the team itself, was a main factor in the club finishing 5th and qualifying for the UEFA Cup.  Over the next two seasons, Mathieu continued his great form appearing in 63 league matches and scoring six league goals. He also performed well in Europe appearing in 14 matches and scoring two goals. He also helped Sochaux win the Coupe de la Ligue in 2004. His performances at Sochaux led to strong interest from Italian club Juventus, English clubs Newcastle United, Everton, and Southampton.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toulouse.", "content": "After announcing his desire to move to another club and only having one year left on his current deal, Sochaux agreed to listen to offers for the player. Eventually, he agreed to join Toulouse after agreeing to a four-year deal. He made his league debut for Toulouse against his former club Sochaux playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–0 victory. He continued this positive play appearing in 36 league matches and scoring two goals against AC Ajaccio and Troyes AC. The following season, he made 32 league appearances and score another two goals helping Toulouse qualify for the UEFA Champions League. However, both Mathieu and Toulouse had a horrible 2007–08 season with Mathieu fracturing a bone in his foot, which forced him to miss half the season, and Toulouse finishing just one spot short of relegation. This led to Mathieu pondering his future with the Midi-Pyrénées-based side.  Despite heavy interest from Italian side Roma and other Italian outfits, Toulouse refused to budge with efforts to get Mathieu to remain at the club. Mathieu responded by turning down a contract extension, which effectively allowed him to leave on a free transfer at the end of the 2008–09 season. Eventually it was agreed by Toulouse and Mathieu that the player would see out the season at Toulouse, after Toulouse turned down a €4.5 million move to Bordeaux.  Despite the ongoing transfer situation, Mathieu remained civil in regards to playing. He made 31 league appearances during the 2008–09 season, contributing to Toulouse's successful league campaign, as well as the team's success in the Coupe de France, where they were eliminated in the semi-finals by the eventual champions Guingamp.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Valencia.", "content": "On 10 June 2009, it was announced that Mathieu would be Unai Emery's first signing of the summer after Spanish club Valencia CF secured the left back on a three-year deal. The transfer came into effect on 1 July 2009. He made his debut for the club in a 2–0 win over Sevilla FC.  On 1 May 2014, Mathieu looked to have scored the goal to send Valencia through to the 2014 UEFA Europa League Final when he scored off of Ricardo Costa's lay-off, making the score 3−0 against Sevilla (3−2 on aggregate) but Stéphane Mbia scored a 94th-minute header to win the semi-final on away goals for the Andalusian side. Three days later, Mathieu headed in a corner to send Valencia into a 1−0 lead at the Santiago Bernabéu but Real Madrid battled back to secure a 2−2 draw as Valencia conceded another late stoppage time goal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Barcelona.", "content": "On 23 July 2014, Mathieu signed a contract with FC Barcelona for the next four seasons, with an optional season. The cost of the transfer was €20 million and the buyout clause was set at €50 million.  On 15 January 2015, he scored his first goal for \"Barça\" in a 4–0 Copa del Rey away win against Elche CF (9–0 on aggregate) after a spectacular direct free kick. Mathieu scored his first La Liga goal for the club against rivals Real Madrid in a 2–1 \"El Clásico\" win at Camp Nou on 22 March 2015. In the team's next fixture, Mathieu scored the only goal in a 1–0 win at Celta de Vigo, to keep his team four points clear at the top of the league.  In the 2015 UEFA Super Cup against Sevilla FC in Tbilisi, he conceded a penalty with a foul on Vitolo, which was converted by Kevin Gameiro as the opponents came from 1–4 down to take the game into extra time; Barcelona nonetheless triumphed 5–4.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sporting CP.", "content": "On 7 July 2017, Portuguese club Sporting CP announced the signing of Mathieu on a free transfer for two seasons. He scored his first goal for the club on his sixth appearance, in a 2-0 home win against Tondela. Upon his return to the Camp Nou, Mathieu netted an own goal for Sporting in a 2-0 loss in their final game of the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League groupstage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Mathieu has received caps with all of France's youth teams beginning with the U-15s. Though, he was a regular with the under-21 squad leading up to the 2006 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship, he was not selected to participate in the event. He received his first call-up to the senior squad for their friendly against Slovakia. However, he played with the second team, France B, who were playing Slovakia B.  He made his national team debut in a friendly against the United States at the Stade de France on 11 November 2011, playing the full 90 minutes.  Mathieu was named in France's squad for their hosting of UEFA Euro 2016, but dropped out with injury on 28 May, to be replaced by Samuel Umtiti.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "\"As of 4 June 2020\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Sochaux  Barcelona  Sporting CP", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jérémy Mathieu (; born 29 October 1983) is a French professional footballer who plays as a centre-back or a left-back for Portuguese club Sporting CP.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977172}
{"src_title": "Tahina spectabilis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The species, which produces countless flowers and (after fruiting) dies, is sufficiently different from other known palms to justify the creation of the monotypic genus Tahina, which is now included with three other genera in the tribe Chuniophoeniceae; the other members being found in the Arabian peninsula, Thailand and China. Fewer than one hundred individuals of the species are thought to exist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The palm is the largest of the 170 palm species native to Madagascar, having a trunk up to tall and leaves which are over in diameter.  \"Tahina spectabilis\" normally appears much like other palms. However, when it flowers, which John Dransfield of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew estimates as occurring after every 30 to 50 years, the stem tip grows a large inflorescence that bursts into branches of hundreds of flowers. The drain on nutrients this display entails results in the death of the organism within several months.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery.", "content": "The tahina palm was discovered by French cashew plantation manager Xavier Metz and his family, who were strolling through a remote northwestern region of Madagascar in 2007 when they came across a flowering individual and sent photos to the Kew Gardens for identification.  Its name is derived from \"Tahina\", a Malagasy word meaning \"to be protected\" or \"blessed\", being the given name of Anne-Tahina Metz, the daughter of its discoverer, while \"spectabilis\" means spectacular in Latin.  It was subsequently chosen as one of the top ten species discoveries of 2008 by the International Institute for Species Exploration.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tahina spectabilis, the tahina palm, is a species of gigantic palm that is found only in the Analalava District of northwestern Madagascar. It can grow tall and has leaves over across. An individual tree was discovered when in flower in 2007; it was first described the following year as a result of photographs being sent to Kew Gardens in the United Kingdom for identification. The palm is thought to live for up to fifty years before producing an enormous inflorescence and subsequently dying. Fewer than one hundred individuals of the species are thought to exist and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated it as \"critically endangered\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977173}
{"src_title": "Mark Johnson (ice hockey)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Amateur career.", "content": "As a teenager, Johnson attended James Madison Memorial High School, where he was on the hockey team. He then played for the University of Wisconsin–Madison ice hockey team for three years under his father, legendary coach Bob Johnson. In 1977, during his first year at the university, he helped the Badgers win the NCAA national championship. He was the first Badger to win the WCHA Rookie of the year. He went on to become the school's leading goal scorer and second all-time scorer. Johnson was also a two time All-American. His younger brother, Peter, also played at the university.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International and professional career.", "content": "Johnson made his international debut with the United States national team as an 18-year-old in 1976, when he played in 11 training games for the 1976 U.S. Olympic ice hockey team coached by his father. He represented the United States in 13 international tournaments (including the 1978, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1990 Ice Hockey World Championship tournaments and the 1981, 1984 and 1987 Canada Cup). He was a star player on the \"Miracle on Ice\" U.S. Olympic Hockey team at the 1980 Lake Placid winter games.  Playing for the United States against the Soviet Union, Johnson scored two of the four goals in the Team USA 4–3 victory. His first goal, scored with one second left in the game's first period, led to the Soviet coach taking out his goalie, Vladislav Tretiak, who was considered the best goalie in the world at the time; years later, when Johnson asked Soviet defenseman Slava Fetisov, now an NHL teammate, about the decision, he was simply told, \"Coach crazy\". He also scored in the third period to tie the game at 3–3. The team then defeated Finland to capture the gold medal, with Johnson assisting on the game-winning goal and scoring the insurance goal with less than four minutes remaining in the game. Johnson was named team MVP.  Johnson went on to play professional hockey in the NHL for the Pittsburgh Penguins, Minnesota North Stars, Hartford Whalers, St. Louis Blues, and New Jersey Devils. He played in the 1984 NHL All Star game as the Whalers representative and served as the Whalers' captain in 1983–85. He also played two seasons with Milan Saima SG in Italy and a final season in Austria before retiring in 1992. He briefly came out of retirement to play two games for Team USA in the 1998 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships qualifying tournament at the age of 41, where he helped Team USA retain its position in the World Championships' Pool A.  In 2010, thirty years after winning the Olympic gold medal as a player, Johnson coached the United States women's national ice hockey team, which won a silver medal in the Vancouver games.  On February 9, 2019, the University of Wisconsin retired #10 during a pre-game presentation at the Kohl Center. Johnson was the first player to have his number retired.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coaching career.", "content": "Johnson is the head coach of the University of Wisconsin–Madison women's ice hockey team, a position he has held since 2002. The team won its first NCAA national championship on March 26, 2006. They repeated as national champions in 2007, 2009, 2011, and 2019. Prior to coaching the women's team, Johnson was an assistant coach for the Wisconsin Badgers men's ice hockey team from 1996 until 2002.  Johnson has won the following championships as head coach: He served as an assistant coach for the American national men's hockey team in 2000 and 2002. On July 6, 2006, he was named head coach of the American women's team as part of a general reorganization of the program, leading the women's hockey team to a silver medal at the 2010 Olympics.  Johnson coached the Madison Monsters minor league hockey team during their inaugural 1995–96 season.  NCAA National Title Game Appearances", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Michael Cummings played Johnson in the 1981 TV movie \"Miracle on Ice\".  Johnson's son, Patrick Johnson, played for the men's hockey team at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He coaches his daughter, Mikayla, who plays for the women's hockey team at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. His other son, Chris Johnson, played for the men's hockey team at Augsburg College, and now serves as an assistant coach on the Augsburg men's hockey team. His other daughter, Megan, also plays hockey for the women's team at Augsburg College.  Eric Peter-Kaiser portrayed him in the 2004 Disney film \"Miracle\". Peter-Kaiser was playing college hockey for SUNY Potsdam when he got the part.  United States National Team Coach", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and achievements.", "content": "He was elected to the Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame in 2003.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mark Einar Johnson (born September 22, 1957) is an American ice hockey coach for the University of Wisconsin–Madison women's ice hockey team. He is a former NHL player who appeared in 669 NHL regular season games between 1980 and 1990. He also played for the gold medal-winning 1980 U.S. Olympic Hockey team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977174}
{"src_title": "Edward Russell, 1st Earl of Orford", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born the son of the Hon. Edward Russell, a younger son of the 4th Earl of Bedford and Penelope Russell (née Hill), daughter of Sir Moyses Hill of Hillsborough, County Down and widow of Sir William Brooke, Russell briefly attended St John's College, Cambridge and joined the Royal Navy in 1666. Promoted to lieutenant in 1671, he was appointed to the fourth-rate HMS \"Advice\" and then transferred to the third-rate HMS \"Rupert\" and saw action, when a combined British and French fleet was surprised and attacked by the Dutch, led by Admiral Michiel de Ruyter, at the Battle of Solebay off the Suffolk coast in May 1672, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War.  Promoted to captain on 10 June 1672, Russell was given command of the fifth-rate HMS \"Phoenix\" and then transferred to the command of the fourth-rate HMS \"Reserve\" in the Mediterranean, in operations against the Barbary pirates in February 1675, then to the command of the third-rate HMS \"Defiance\" in December 1677. He then moved to the third-rate HMS \"Swiftsure\" in March 1678 and then to the fourth-rate HMS \"Newcastle\" in August 1680. In 1683 he ceased to be employed, as all of the members of the Russell family had fallen into disfavour with the King, after the discovery of Lord Russell's connection with the Rye House Plot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Senior command.", "content": "Russell was one of the Immortal Seven, a group of English noblemen who issued the Invitation to William, a document asking William, Prince of Orange, to depose King James II in June 1688. Based in the Netherlands, he served as the prince's secretary during the planning of William's invasion of England and subsequent Glorious Revolution in November 1688.  Russell was elected Whig Member of Parliament for Launceston and appointed Treasurer of the Navy in 1689. Promoted directly to full admiral in May 1689, Russell took command in the Channel, with his flag in the second-rate HMS \"Duke\", in 1689 and enforced a blockade of France. Russell lived at Chippenham Park in Cambridgeshire from 1689 until his death. He re-modelled the manor house and greatly extended Chippenham Park, which still dominates the parish to the south of the village.  Russell was elected Member of Parliament for Portsmouth in the general election in March 1690. He conveyed Maria Anna of Neuburg, Charles II of Spain's future consort, from Flushing to Coruna in Spring 1690. He joined the Board of Admiralty led by the Earl of Pembroke, as Senior Naval Lord, in June 1690. Following the debacle at the Battle of Beachy Head in July 1690, Admiral the Earl of Torrington fell out of favour and Russell, having been promoted to Admiral of the Fleet, became Commander-in-Chief of the Navy in December 1690. He was fully engaged in providing naval support for the Williamite War in Ireland until the war ended in October 1691. In Autumn 1690, Russell blamed the Dutch for the failure of the allies to enforce the blockade of France and was forced to stand down as a Lord Commissioner in January 1691. Flying his flag in the first-rate HMS \"Britannia\", he was Commander-in-Chief of the Anglo-Dutch force that fought the French fleet at the Battle of Barfleur in May 1692, during the Nine Years' War. At about 10am the French Admiral the Comte de Tourville, with his flag in the French ship \"Soleil Royal\", attacked Russell's flagship but around 1pm, Tourville was forced to disengage with extensive damage to his rigging and sails. Russell then destroyed much of the French fleet, in a night attack at the Battle of La Hogue in June 1692.  Following a disagreement with the Earl of Nottingham, Russell resigned as Commander-in-Chief of the Navy in December 1692. Admirals Henry Killigrew, Ralph Delaval and Cloudesley Shovell were put in joint command of the fleet in January 1693. Following the disastrous attack on the Smyrna merchantmen at the Battle of Lagos in June 1693, all three admirals were dismissed from their joint command and Russell resumed command of the fleet in November 1693. Russell became First Lord of the Admiralty and Senior Naval Lord in the First Whig Junto in May 1694 and took a fleet out into the Mediterranean in June 1694, becoming the first English naval commander to spend the Winter at Cádiz (rather than sailing his squadron home in the autumn). He was elected Member of Parliament for Cambridgeshire in 1695 and was created Baron Shingay, Viscount Barfleur and Earl of Orford on 7 May 1697. He faced allegations of having misappropriated funds from the maintenance of the fleet, to spend on his private estates in 1698. The accusations went no further and he left office as First Lord of the Admiralty, as Treasurer of the Navy and as Senior Naval Lord, when the First Whig Junto fell from power in May 1699. He commissioned the building of Orford House at Ugley in Essex in 1700.  Russell returned to office as First Lord in the coalition Godolphin-Marlborough ministry in November 1709 but left his post when the Tory-dominated Harley ministry came to power in October 1710. He was appointed for a third time as First Lord in the Whig Townshend ministry in October 1714 and having been appointed Lord Lieutenant of Cambridgeshire on 27 September 1715, left his post again when that ministry left office in April 1717. He died at Covent Garden in London on 26 November 1727 and was buried in the Russell vault at St Michael's Church in Chenies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In November 1691, Russell married his cousin, Lady Margaret Russell, youngest daughter of the 5th Earl of Bedford (later the 1st Duke of Bedford); they had no children. They lived from the time of their marriage until Russell's death at 43 King Street, Covent Garden.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Admiral of the Fleet Edward Russell, 1st Earl of Orford, PC (1653 – 26 November 1727) was a Royal Navy officer and politician. After serving as a junior officer at the Battle of Solebay during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, he served as a captain in the Mediterranean in operations against the Barbary pirates.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977175}
{"src_title": "Markus Persson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Persson was born in Stockholm, Sweden, to a Finnish mother and a Swedish father on 1 June 1979. He lived in Edsbyn for the first seven years of his life before his family moved back to Stockholm. He began programming on his father's Commodore 128 home computer at the age of seven. Having experimented with various type-in programs he produced his first game at the age of eight, a text-based adventure game. Professionally he had worked as a game developer for King for over four years, until 2009. Afterwards he worked as a programmer for Jalbum. He is also one of the founders of \"Wurm Online\", though he no longer works on it. Outside of work, he has made seven games for competitions. He is the central figure of \"\", a documentary by 2 Player Productions about the rise of \"Minecraft\" and Mojang.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Persson is a member of the Swedish chapter of Mensa. On 13 August 2011, he married Elin Zetterstrand. On 15 August 2012, he announced that he was single again.  Persson has criticized both piracy and the stance of large game companies on piracy; additionally, he is a member of the Pirate Party of Sweden. He is an atheist and has donated to Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders). Under his direction, Mojang contributed a week to developing \"Catacomb Snatch\" for the Humble Indie Bundle; the $458,248 raised was donated to charity.  In December 2014, Persson purchased a home in Trousdale Estates, Beverly Hills, CA for $70 million, a record sales price for Beverly Hills at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Games.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Minecraft\".", "content": "Persson's most popular creation is the survival sandbox game \"Minecraft\", which was released on 18 November 2011. Persson left his job as a game developer to work on \"Minecraft\" full-time until completion. In early 2011, Mojang AB sold the one millionth copy of the game, several months later their second, and several more their third. Mojang hired several new staff members for the \"Minecraft\" team, while Persson passed the lead developer role to Jens Bergensten. A version for Android and iOS, the \"Pocket Edition\", has also been released. A console edition of \"Minecraft\" was released on 9 May 2012 for Xbox 360 and 17 December 2013 for PlayStation 3. The console edition features updates including a tutorial and skin packs. He has stopped working on \"Minecraft\" after a deal with Microsoft to sell Mojang for $2.5 billion. This brought his net worth to US$1.5 billion.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Caller's Bane\".", "content": "Persson and Jakob Porsér came up with the idea for \"Scrolls\" including elements from board games and collectible card games. Persson noted that he will not be actively involved in development of the game and that Porsér will be developing it. Persson revealed on his tumblr blog on 5 August 2011 that he was being sued by a Swedish law firm representing Bethesda Softworks over the trademarked name of \"Scrolls\", claiming that it conflicted with their \"The Elder Scrolls\" series of games. On 17 August 2011, Persson challenged Bethesda to a \"Quake 3\" tournament to decide the outcome of the naming dispute. On 27 September 2011, Persson confirmed that the lawsuit was going to court. ZeniMax Media, owner of Bethesda Softworks, announced the lawsuit's settlement in March 2012. The settlement allowed Mojang to continue using the Scrolls trademark.  It was later released as a free game titled \"Caller's Bane\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"0x10\".", "content": "Following the end to his involvement with \"Minecraft\", Persson began pre-production of an alternate reality space game set in the distant future in March 2012. On April Fools' Day, Mojang launched a satirical website for \"Mars Effect\" (parody of \"Mass Effect\"), citing the lawsuit with Bethesda as an inspiration. However, the gameplay elements remained true and on 4 April, Mojang revealed \"0x10\" (pronounced \"Ten to the C\") as a space sandbox title. Persson officially halted game production in August 2013. However, C418, the composer of the game's soundtrack (as well as that of \"Minecraft\"), released an album of the work he had made for the game.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ludum Dare entries.", "content": "Persson has also participated in several Ludum Dare 48-hour game making competitions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "Persson has received criticism for political and social opinions he expressed on Twitter, such as referring to feminism as a \"social disease\" and claiming that most feminists are \"overtly sexist against men.\" In June 2017, Persson faced criticism for referring to video game developer Zoë Quinn as a \"cunt\". Later in June 2017, he tweeted in support of a heterosexual pride day, calling opponents to the idea \"cunt\"s and suggesting that they \"deserve to be shot\". After facing community backlash, he deleted the tweets and walked back his statements, writing in one tweet, \"So yeah, it's about pride of daring to express, not about pride of being who you are. I get it now.\" In November 2017, Persson was criticized for posting a tweet that read, \"It's ok to be white.\" In follow-up tweets, he said he believed privilege is a \"made up metric\". In March 2019, he was criticized for calling transgender women mentally ill. These controversies led to the creation of the \"Hatsune Miku created \"Minecraft\"\" internet meme, which sprung up due to a viral tweet and was created by fans of the game in order to show support for \"Minecraft\" while distancing themselves from Persson.  A March 2019 \"Minecraft\" update silently removed references to Persson from the game's menu, though his name is still in the credits. Microsoft did not specify the exact reasons, but the timing of the removal led multiple news outlets to conclude it was related to the controversial tweets. Persson was not invited to be part of the \"Minecraft\" tenth anniversary event later that year, with Microsoft saying that his views \"do not reflect those of Microsoft or Mojang\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "\"\" features a unique item called the \"Notched Pickaxe\", named after Persson.  Persson made an appearance in the movie \"\".  In 2014, he joined alongside Arin Hanson, Brian Wecht and Dan Avidan to provide backing vocals for one of the tracks on their album \"Player Select\", titled \"Minecraft is for Everyone!\" which parodies \"Minecraft\".  Persson has been written about extensively by Linus Larsson and Daniel Goldberg in \"Minecraft\" and \"Minecraft, Second Edition\"; the English language translations have been published by Seven Stories Press.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Markus Alexej Persson (; born 1 June 1979), better known as Notch, is a Swedish video game programmer and designer. He is best known for creating the sandbox video game \"Minecraft\" and for founding the video game company Mojang in 2009.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977176}
{"src_title": "Hanuš Wihan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hanuš Wihan was born in Police nad Metují and studied with František Hegenbarth (1881–87) at the Prague Conservatory from the age of 13, finishing his studies with Karl Davydov at the St. Petersburg Conservatory. He became a teacher at the Mozarteum in Salzburg at 18. He joined the private orchestra of a Russian patron in Nice and Lugano, then went to Benjamin Bilse’s orchestra in Berlin (the forerunner of the Berlin Philharmonic) for a year, where the leader was his compatriot Karel Halíř; then to Prince Schwarzenburg’s orchestra in Sondershausen, where he became a close friend of Franz Liszt, and to the court orchestra in Munich, in which Franz Strauss was the first horn. He remained in Munich for eight years, joining the circles of Hans von Bülow, Richard Wagner (who hired him to play at the Bayreuth Festival) and Franz Strauss's son Richard. Richard Strauss dedicated is String Quartet in A, Op. 2 to Wihan and the other members of the Walter String Quartet (Benno Walter, Michael Steiger and Anton Thoms). who had given it its first performance. Strauss also dedicated to Wihan his Cello Sonata in F, Op. 6 (which Wihan premiered in Nuremberg on 8 December 1883). He also wrote the Romance for Cello and Orchestra for Wihan, but did not dedicate it to him; Wihan premiered it on 15 February 1884 in Baden-Baden.  By this time Hanuš Wihan was married to Dora (née Weis), a pianist from Dresden. Dora fell in love with Richard Strauss, who was five years younger than her. There is no evidence that the affair was consummated or was ever going to be, but Wihan was very jealous by nature and it led to Dora's and Hanuš's marriage breaking up. He then returned to his alma mater in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "He had a highly successful career as a virtuoso and teacher, succeeding his teacher Hegenbarth in 1888, and toured widely as a soloist and a chamber musician, particularly in Russia from 1894. Tchaikovsky heard him perform in a concert in Prague in 1888 and offered to help arrange some appearances in Russia. He also frequently sought advice from Karl Davydov, and maintained regular correspondence with both Davydov and Tchaikovsky.  In 1891 Hanuš Wihan formed the Bohemian String Quartet with violinists Karel Hoffmann and Josef Suk, and violist Oskar Nedbal – all pupils of Antonín Bennewitz – and his own cello pupil Otakar Berger. He did not play with them at first, but instilled in them his own ideas and managed their appearances. In 1892 the name Czech String Quartet was adopted. Wihan filled the void when Otakar Berger fell ill in 1893 and joined the ensemble permanently after Berger's death in 1897. The Quartet toured in many European countries, became strongly associated with Bedřich Smetana's String Quartet No. 1 in E minor \"From My Life\", and Sergei Taneyev in Russia was particularly impressed, played with them on various occasions, and dedicated his 4th String Quartet to them.  In 1892 Wihan went on a five-month tour of Czech towns with Antonín Dvořák and Ferdinand Lachner, during which Dvořák wrote the Rondo in G minor, which Wihan premiered in Chrudim. The trio also premiered Dvořák's Dumky Trio (1891).  Wihan had asked Dvořák to write a cello concerto for him, but the composer had always maintained a concerto was not the best way of displaying a cello's strengths, as it would be swamped by the orchestra. However, in 1894-95, Dvořák wrote the Cello Concerto in B minor in New York City, with Hanuš Wihan's playing in mind. Wihan made various suggestions for improvement, some of which Dvořák accepted. But he would not accept Wihan's suggested cadenza for the final movement as it clashed with his idea of the movement as a tribute to his seriously ill sister-in-law. It was intended that Wihan would perform the premiere of the work in London on 19 March 1896, but his contractual obligations with the Czech String Quartet clashed with the only possible date for the premiere. The soloist was the little-known Leo Stern. There was no truth to a rumour that the two men had any sort of falling out over the matter. Wihan did perform the concerto in The Hague (under Willem Mengelberg, or Dvořák), Amsterdam and Budapest (the last under the composer's baton), and he took part in the premiere of Dvořák's G major Quartet, Op. 106, that year. Dvořák's original score, before it was altered with Wihan's suggested changes, has been described as \"much more musical\", and this version has been performed from time to time.  Wihan had been playing with the Czech String Quartet for some years, and in the latter stages of his career he reduced his appearances as soloist and chamber musician and appeared with the Quartet exclusively. In 1906 Lionel Tertis worked with the Quartet, and noticed Wihan's habit of spitting on the floor during rehearsals. He retired in 1914, but arranged to be paid 20 per cent of the Quartet's earnings until his death. He was replaced in the Quartet by Ladislav Zelenka. In 1919, on the reorganization of the Prague Conservatory, he was appointed professor of chamber music and professor of the cello, and retained these posts until his death the following year. His pupils included Artur Krása, Otakar Berger, Jan Burian, Julius Junek, Rudolf Pavlata, Maximilian Škvor, and Bedřich Vaska.  He died aged 64 on 1 May 1920, the exact anniversary of Dvořák's death in 1904.  In 1985 the Wihan Quartet was established in memory of Hanuš Wihan by members of the Prague Academy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hanuš Wihan (5 June 1855 – 1 May 1920) was a renowned Czech cellist, considered the greatest of his time. He was strongly associated with the works of Antonín Dvořák, whose Cello Concerto in B minor, Rondo in G minor, and the short piece \"Silent Woods\" were all dedicated to him. He was the founder and later cellist of the Czech String Quartet, which was world-famous throughout its 40-year existence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977177}
{"src_title": "Wola massacre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Massacre.", "content": "The Warsaw Uprising broke out on 1 August 1944. During the first few days the Polish resistance managed to liberate most of Warsaw on the left bank of the river Vistula (an uprising also broke out in the district of Praga on the right bank but was quickly suppressed by the Germans). Two days after the start of the fighting, \"SS\" General Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski was placed in command of all German forces in Warsaw. Following direct orders from \"SS-Reichsfűhrer\" Heinrich Himmler to suppress the uprising without mercy, his strategy was to include the use of terror tactics against the inhabitants of Warsaw. No distinction would be made between insurrectionists and civilians as Himmler's orders explicitly stated that Warsaw was to be completely destroyed and that the civilian population was to be \"exterminated\".  Professor Timothy Snyder, of Yale University, wrote that \"the massacres in Wola had nothing in common with combat... the ratio of civilian to military dead was more than a thousand to one, even if military casualties on both sides are counted.\" On 5 August, three German battle groups started their advance toward the city centre from the western outskirts of the Wola district, along Wolska and Górczewska streets. The German forces consisted of units from the \"Wehrmacht\" and the SS Police Battalions, as well as the mostly Russian \"SS-Sturmbrigade RONA\" and the \"SS-Sturmbrigade Dirlewanger\", an infamous \"Waffen SS\" penal unit led by Oskar Dirlewanger. British historian Martin Windrow described Dirlewanger's unit as a \"terrifying rabble\" of \"cut-throats, [foreign] renegades, sadistic morons, and cashiered rejects from other units\". Shortly after their advance toward the centre of Warsaw began, the two lead battle groups — \"Kampfgruppe\" \"Rohr\" (led by Generalmajor Günter Rohr) and \"Kampfgruppe\" \"Reinefarth\" (led by Heinz Reinefarth) — were halted by heavy fire from Polish resistance fighters. Unable to proceed forward, some of the German troops began to go from house to house carrying out their orders to shoot all inhabitants. Many civilians were shot on the spot but some were killed after torture and sexual assault. Estimates vary, but Reinefarth himself has estimated that up to 10,000 civilians were killed in the Wola district on 5 August alone, the first day of the operation. Most of the victims were the elderly, women and children.  The majority of these atrocities were committed by troops under the command of \"SS-Oberführer\" Oskar Dirlewanger and \"SS-Brigadeführer\" Bronislav Kaminski. Research historian Martin Gilbert, from the University of Oxford, wrote: \"More than fifteen thousand Polish civilians had been murdered by German troops in Warsaw. At 5:30 that evening [August 5], General Erich von dem Bach gave the order for the execution of women and children to stop. But the killing continued of all Polish men who were captured, without anyone bothering to find out whether they were insurrectionists or not. Nor did either the Cossacks or the criminals in the Kaminsky and Dirlewanger brigades pay any attention to von dem Bach Zelewski's order: by rape, murder, torture and fire, they made their way through the suburbs of Wola and Ochota, killing in three days of slaughter a further thirty thousand civilians, including hundreds of patients in each of the hospitals in their path.\" On 5 August, the Zośka battalion of the Home Army had managed to liberate the Gęsiówka concentration camp and to take control of the strategically important surrounding area of the former Warsaw Ghetto with the aid of two captured Panther tanks belonging to a unit commanded by Wacław Micuta. Over the next few days of fighting this area became one of the main communication links between Wola and Warsaw's Old Town district, allowing insurrectionists and civilians to gradually withdraw from Wola ahead of the superior German forces that had been deployed against them.  On 7 August, the German ground forces were strengthened further. To enhance their effectiveness, the Germans began to use civilians as human shields when approaching positions held by the Polish resistance. These tactics combined with their superior numbers and firepower helped them to fight their way to Bankowy Square in the northern part of Warsaw's city centre and cut the Wola district in half.  German units burned down two local hospitals with some of the patients still inside. Hundreds of other patients and personnel were killed by indiscriminate gunfire and grenade attacks or selected and led away for executions. The greatest number of killings took place at the railway embankment on Górczewska Street and two large factories on Wolska Street — the Ursus Factory at Wolska 55 and the Franaszka Factory at Wolska 41/45 — as well as the Pfeiffer Factory at 57/59 Okopowa Street. At each of these four locations, thousands of people were systematically executed in mass shootings, having been previously rounded up in other places and taken there in groups.  Between 8 and 23 August the \"SS\" formed groups of men from the Wola district into the so-called \"Verbrennungskommando\" (\"burning detachment\"), who were forced to hide evidence of the massacre by burning the victims' bodies and homes. Most of the men put to work in such groups were later executed.  On 12 August, the order was given to stop the indiscriminate killing of Polish civilians in Wola. Erich von dem Bach issued a new directive stating that captured civilians were to be evacuated from the city and deported to concentration camps or to \"Arbeitslager\" labour camps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "No one belonging to the German forces who took part in the atrocities committed during the Warsaw Uprising was ever prosecuted for them after the end of the Second World War. The main perpetrators of the Wola massacre and similar massacres in the nearby Ochota district were Heinz Reinefarth and Oskar Dirlewanger. Dirlewanger, who presided over and personally participated in many of the worst acts of violence, was arrested on 1 June 1945 by French occupation troops while hiding under a false name near the town of Altshausen in Upper Swabia. He died on 7 June 1945 in a French prison camp at Altshausen, probably as a result of ill-treatment by his Polish guards. In 1945, Reinefarth was taken into custody by the British and American authorities but was never prosecuted for his actions in Warsaw, despite Polish requests for his extradition. After a West German court released him citing a lack of evidence, Reinefarth enjoyed a successful post-war career as a lawyer, becoming the mayor of Westerland, and a member of the \"Landtag\" parliament of Schleswig-Holstein. The West German government also gave the former SS-\"Obergruppenführer\" a general's pension before he died in 1979.  In May 2008, a list of several former \"SS Dirlewanger\" members who were still alive was compiled and published by the Warsaw Uprising Museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Wola massacre () was the systematic killing of between 40,000 and 50,000 Poles in the Wola suburb of Poland's capital city Warsaw by German Wehrmacht and fellow Axis collaborators in the Russian RONA forces during the early phase of the Warsaw Uprising. The massacre was ordered by Hitler who directed to kill \"anything that moves\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977178}
{"src_title": "OnlyOffice", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "The interface of OnlyOffice is divided into several modules: Documents, CRM, Projects, Mail, Community, Calendar and Talk.  The Documents module is a document management and sharing system for OnlyOffice files. The integrated audio and video player allows playing media from files stored in OnlyOffice.  The Projects module is developed for managing project stages: planning, team management and task delegation, monitoring and reporting. This module also includes Gantt charts for illustrating the projects stages and dependencies between tasks.  The CRM module allows maintaining client databases, transactions and potential sales, tasks, client relationship history. This module also provides online billing and sales reports.  The Mail module combines a mail server for creating own-domain mailboxes and mail aggregator for centralized management of multiple mailboxes.  The Calendar module allows planning and monitoring of personal and corporate events, task deadlines in Projects and CRM, sending and receiving invitations to events.  The Community module offers corporate social network features: polls, corporate blog and forums, news, orders and announcements, and a messenger.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technology.", "content": "It is technologically based on three components: Document Server, Community Server and Mail Server.  The Document server maintains text document, spreadsheet and presentation editors and is written in JavaScript using HTML5 Canvas element.  The Community server hosts all functional modules of OnlyOffice. It is written in ASP.NET for Windows and in Mono for Linux and distributions.  The Mail server represents set of components that allows creating corporate mailbox using default or custom domain names. Mail Server is based on the iRedMail package which consists of Postfix, Dovecot, SpamAssassin, ClamAV, OpenDKIM, Fail2ban.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Online editors.", "content": "OnlyOffice includes an online editing suite. It combines text, spreadsheet and presentation editors that include features similar to Microsoft desktop editors (Word, Excel and PowerPoint). Since version 5.0 of the editors the interface has been renewed with a tabbed toolbar. Editors allow co-editing, commenting and chatting in real time and provide such functions as Revision History and Mail Merge.  The beta version of OnlyOffice Online Editors predecessor, Teamlab Document Editor, was introduced at CeBIT 2012 in Hannover. The product was built using Canvas, a part of HTML5 that allows dynamic, scryptable rendering of 2D shapes and bitmap images.  The basic type of formats used in OnlyOffice document editors is OOXML (DOCX, XLSX, PPTX). Other types of supported formats (ODT, DOC, RTF, EPUB, MHT, HTML, HTM, ODS, XLS, CSV, ODP, PPT, DOTX, XLTX, POTX, OTT, OTS, OTP, and PDF-A) are processed with inner conversion to DOCX, XLSX or PPTX.  Functionality of the suite can be extended using plugins (side applications). Users can choose from the existing list of plugins or create their own applications using the provided API.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Desktop editors.", "content": "OnlyOffice Desktop is an offline version of OnlyOffice editing suite. Desktop application supports collaborative editing features when connected to the portal, Nextcloud or ownCloud. Application is offered free of charge for both personal and commercial usage.  Desktop editors are cross-platform available for Windows 10, 8.1, 8, 7, Vista, and XP (x32 and x64), Debian, Ubuntu and other Linux distributions based on RPM, Mac OS 10.10 and newer. Besides platform-specific versions there is also a portable option. OnlyOffice Desktop Editors are available for installation as a snap package and AppImage.  Editors are compatible with MS Office (OOXML) and OpenDocument (ODF) formats and support DOC, DOCX, ODT, RTF, TXT, PDF, HTML, EPUB, XPS, DjVu, XLS, XLSX, ODS, CSV, PPT, PPTX, ODP, DOTX, XLTX, POTX, OTT, OTS, OTP, and PDF-A.  Similarly to the online editing suite, the basic toolset of OnlyOffice Desktop can be upgraded using side plugins.  Desktop editors are distributed under AGPL v3 license for personal and commercial usage.  OnlyOffice editors are also available as mobile application for iOS and Android. The application is called ONLYOFFICE Documents.  In early 2019, OnlyOffice announced the launch of a developer preview of end-to-end encryption of documents (files themselves, online editing and collaboration) that involves blockchain technology and is included in the functionality of the desktop suite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reviews.", "content": "The product has been reviewed by TechRadar, CMSWiRE, LiveEnterprise, Techi.com, Business Insider, TechRepublic, Unixmen, NoobsLAB, PCMag, Linux.com, Softpedia, and FOSS Force  OnlyOffice Personal has been covered by TechCrunch, Liventerprise, and Gizmo's Freeware.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "OnlyOffice (formerly TeamLab), stylized as ONLYOFFICE, is a free software office suite developed by Ascensio System SIA, a company with headquarters in Riga, Latvia. It features online document editors, platform for document management, corporate communication, mail and project management tools.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977179}
{"src_title": "Chord Overstreet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Chord Overstreet was born in Nashville, Tennessee, to hairdresser Julie (née Miller) and country music singer-songwriter Paul Overstreet. He has an older brother, Nash Overstreet (born 1986), who plays guitar in the band Hot Chelle Rae, an older sister, Summer (born 1987), and three younger sisters, Harmony, Skye and Charity. He is of German, Irish, and English descent. He was named after the musical term of the same name. Overstreet was raised on a farm outside of Nashville. Encouraged by his parents to pursue music, he started playing the mandolin at an early age, and moved on to the drums, flute, piano, and guitar. He is also a songwriter. In his teenage years, Overstreet modeled for advertisements for Hollister, Famous Footwear and Gap.  In 2017, a couple of months after one of Overstreet’s closest friends died, he released one of his biggest songs ever, \"Hold On\". He explains that this song was challenging to write as he couldn’t maintain his mental state because he didn't imagine that one day she could commit suicide and leave him. “I was going through a lot in a tumultuous relationship at the time and had lost somebody close to me”.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2009–2015: Beginnings and \"Glee\".", "content": "Overstreet began to pursue his passion of performing after his high school graduation in 2007. After two unsuccessful years, Overstreet started his acting career on the web series \"Private\" as Josh Hollis. He was also featured in an episode of \"iCarly\" titled \"iSpeed Date\" and starred in the unaired pilot of \"No Ordinary Family\". His first film role was that of Teenage Boy in the 2009 thriller \"The Hole\", and he starred in the 2011 film \"A Warrior's Heart\" as Dupree, alongside Ashley Greene and Kellan Lutz. Overstreet played the character of Sam Evans, a transfer student and athlete, on the FOX comedy-drama television series \"Glee\". He landed the role after auditioning with the Commodores' song \"Easy\" and Gavin DeGraw's \"I Don't Want to Be\". He later sang \"Billionaire\" by Travie McCoy featuring Bruno Mars as a studio test, and eventually sang this in his debut episode titled \"Audition\". His cover of \"Billionaire\" was released as a single and charted at #15 in Ireland, #24 in Canada, #28 in the United States, and #34 in Australia. On April 21, 2011, the video for Hot Chelle Rae's \"Tonight Tonight\" was released on YouTube and featured a series of cameos of Overstreet alternately making out with a girl (whom he stole from the lead singer) on an office copier, DJing at a club, then playing guitar and mugging for the crowd with his brother, Hot Chelle Rae band member, Nash.  On July 1, 2011, TVLine's Michael Ausiello broke the news that Overstreet's contract option to become a series regular on \"Glee\" had not been picked up for season 3, but that he could possibly come back as an occasional guest star. In reaction to the announcement, fans launched a campaign to promote Overstreet's cover of \"Billionaire\" and various tags related to the actor, most notably \"#DontCutTheChord\", began trending on Twitter. The song made its way into the iTunes top 5 \"Glee\" charts during the campaign.  At the 2011 Comic-Con event, \"Glee\" co-creator Brad Falchuk reported that they had offered Overstreet a ten-episode deal with a possibility to become a series regular at mid-season, but that Overstreet had declined the option. Overstreet later stated to Ausiello during an interview that he had decided to leave the show to focus on his music career, explaining: \"They offered me the chance to come back for a few episodes, but there was nothing guaranteed so I decided to dive into the music thing.\" It was reported on October 18, 2011, and confirmed by series co-creator Ryan Murphy six days later, that Overstreet would be returning to \"Glee\" as a recurring character starting with the third season's eighth episode. On July 23, 2012, it was confirmed that Overstreet would be a series regular for the fourth season of \"Glee\", where he continued until the last season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2015–present: Music career.", "content": "Chord has cited James Taylor, David Gray, Jimmy Buffett, Bob Dylan, Paul Simon, and Hall & Oates as musicians that inspire him. On December 15, 2015, Overstreet signed a recording contract with Safehouse Records, a record label founded by Demi Lovato, Nick Jonas and Phil McIntyre. He was the first artist to be signed to the label. He opened for Lovato and Jonas on several tour dates of their Future Now Tour in summer 2016.  On August 26, 2016, Chord released his first official solo single, \"Homeland\", through Island Records and Safehouse Records. Digital Journal called it \"a fitting homage to his hometown\", giving the song a five star rating. A music video for the song premiered through Billboard on October 7, 2016. In a September 2016 interview with the Huffington Post, Overstreet revealed that he was working on an EP, yet to be released. In December 2016, he released a cover of \"All I Want For Christmas is a Real Good Tan\", written by Overstreet's father and originally recorded by Kenny Chesney. Overstreet released a new single, \"Hold On\", on February 3, 2017. The song peaked at number 31 on the Spotify Viral 50 chart and later earn platinum certification by RIAA. He released his first EP consisting of four tracks on May 12, 2017, entitled \"Tree House Tapes\".  In June 2017, he was picked as Elvis Duran's Artist of the Month and was featured on NBC's \"Today\" show broadcast nationally where he performed live his single \"Hold On\". He also performed the song on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on August 14, 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tours.", "content": "Co-headlining  Opening act", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chord Paul Overstreet (born February 17, 1989) is an American actor and musician. He is known for his role as Sam Evans on the Fox television series \"Glee\" (2009–2015).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977180}
{"src_title": "Tim Peake", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Peake was born in Chichester, West Sussex. He studied at the Chichester High School for Boys, leaving in 1990 to attend the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military and aeronautical.", "content": "Upon graduation from Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, Peake received a short-service commission as a second lieutenant in the Army Air Corps on 8 August 1992. He served as a platoon commander with the Royal Green Jackets, and was promoted to lieutenant on 8 August 1994. On 9 July 1997, he transferred to a regular commission, receiving a promotion to captain on 20 August.  Peake became a qualified helicopter pilot in 1994 and a qualified helicopter instructor in 1998, graduating from CFS(H) at the Defence Helicopter Flying School at RAF Shawbury in Shropshire. Promoted to major on 31 July 2004, he graduated from the Empire Test Pilots School in Wiltshire the following year, and was awarded the Westland's Trophy for best rotary wing student. He then served on Rotary Wing Test and Evaluation Squadron (RWTES) at MOD Boscombe Down completing trials on Apache helicopters.  Peake completed a BSc (Hons) in Flight Dynamics and Evaluation at the University of Portsmouth the following year. Peake left the army in 2009 after 17 years of service and over 3,000 flying hours to his credit, becoming a test pilot with AgustaWestland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In ESA.", "content": "Peake beat over 8,000 other applicants for one of the six places on the ESA's new astronaut training programme. The selection process included taking academic tests, fitness assessments and several interviews. Peake moved to Cologne with his family for the ESA training.  Peake was the first British or UK-born person to fly into space without a private contract (as did Helen Sharman, Mark Shuttleworth, and Richard Garriott) and/or foreign citizenship (held by astronauts Michael Foale, Gregory H. Johnson, Piers Sellers, Nicholas Patrick, Shuttleworth, and Garriott).  As part of his extensive astronaut training in 2011, Peake and five other astronauts joined an international mission, living in and exploring cave systems in Sardinia. This ESA CAVES mission enabled them to study how humans react to living in extreme conditions with complete isolation from the outside world. This expedition gave the team an idea of what they could expect and how they would cope in the confined space of the ISS.  On 16 April 2012, NASA announced that Peake would serve as an aquanaut aboard the Aquarius underwater laboratory during the undersea exploration mission, scheduled to begin on 11 June 2012 and last twelve days. The NEEMO 16 crew successfully \"splashed down\" at 11:05 am on 11 June. On the morning of 12 June, Peake and his crewmates officially became aquanauts, having spent over 24 hours underwater. The crew safely returned to the surface on 22 June.  During Expedition 44 Peake served as a backup astronaut for Soyuz TMA-17M spaceflight.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expedition 46/47.", "content": "Peake was launched to the space station (ISS), on 15 December 2015, for Expeditions 46 and 47. He launched successfully at 11:03 GMT from Baikonur Cosmodrome on board Soyuz TMA-19M. The official website dedicated to his mission is principia.org.uk.  During launch, as per tradition, each cosmonaut was allowed three songs to be played to them. Tim chose Queen's \"Don't Stop Me Now\", U2's \"Beautiful Day\" and Coldplay's \"A Sky Full of Stars\".  During docking, the Kurs docking navigation system failed, and a manual docking was performed by Yuri Malenchenko who was alongside Peake and Tim Kopra. This delayed docking with the ISS by 10 minutes. The Soyuz finally docked with the ISS at 17:33 GMT. Peake received messages of support from the Queen and Elton John, after the successful docking. His first meal at the ISS was a bacon sandwich and a cup of tea. A new year's message by Peake was broadcast by the BBC to celebrate 2016.  Peake supported a spacewalk by two American astronauts on 21 December 2015. He participated in the first spacewalk outside the ISS by a British astronaut on 15 January 2016. The purpose of the spacewalk was to replace a faulty sequential shunt unit on the station's solar arrays.  In February 2016, Peake presented Adele with a Global Success award at the Brit Awards in London.  On 24 April 2016, Peake ran the 2016 London Marathon from the ISS treadmill. Peake became the first man to run the marathon from space and the second person to run a marathon from space, after Sunita Williams, who ran the 2007 Boston Marathon from the ISS.  Peake was appointed Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in the 2016 Birthday Honours for services to space research and scientific education.  At a special meeting of the Chichester City Council on 17 February 2016, it was agreed unanimously to confer the Freedom of the City upon Peake with the appropriate ceremony after his return later in 2016.  On 18 June 2016, Peake returned to earth from the ISS aboard the descent module of the Soyuz spacecraft that had taken him to the space station in December 2015. The spacecraft landed on the Kazakh steppe in Kazakhstan almost south west of the major city of Karaganda, landing at 09.15 UTC. Peake had completed approximately 3000 orbits of the Earth and had covered a distance of 125 million kilometres (78 million miles).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International Space Station partnership and the Nobel Peace Prize.", "content": "At the UK National Student Space Conference in early 2014, Peake expressed his support for the initiative to award the International Space Station partnership the Nobel Peace Prize.  \"I was delighted to read about the International Space Station and the discussions about it being nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize because... it has been one of the most incredible international partnerships...[The ISS] really has brought many nations together through difficult times, and continues to do so.\"  Peake noted that with increasing constraints on space programs around the world, collaborative initiatives such as ISS will be necessary for future endeavours. \"I think [the ISS] really has to be the model for future space exploration because with budgets becoming more and more constrained, then, really one nation is not going to have the capability to expand exploration out into the solar system, to Mars and beyond. We are going to have to work together on projects.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Peake is married to Rebecca, with whom he has two sons, and enjoys climbing, falling, running, stopping and going to space.  When he was younger Peake was a Cub Scout and is now an ambassador for the Scout Association in the UK.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Major Timothy Nigel Peake (born 7 April 1972) is a British Army Air Corps officer, European Space Agency astronaut and a former International Space Station (ISS) crew member.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977181}
{"src_title": "Etemenanki", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Construction.", "content": "It is unclear when Etemenanki was originally constructed. Andrew R. George says that its builder may have reigned in the fourteenth, twelfth, eleventh or ninth century BC but argues that The reference to a ziqqurrat at Babylon in the Creation Epic (Enûma Eliš· VI 63: George 1992: 301–2) is more solid evidence,... for a Middle Assyrian piece of this poem survives to prove the long-held theory that it existed already in the second millennium BC. There is no reason to doubt that this ziqqurrat, described as \"ziqqurrat apsî elite\", \"the upper ziqqurrat of the Apsû\", was E-temenanki.  Babylon had been destroyed in 689 BCE by Sennacherib, who claims to have destroyed the Etemenanki. It took 88 years to restore the city; work was started by the Assyrian king Esarhaddon, and continued under Nabopolassar followed by his son Nebuchadnezzar II who rebuilt the ziggurat. The city's central feature was the temple of Marduk (Esagila), with which the Etemenanki ziggurat was associated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Descriptions.", "content": "A Neo-Babylonian royal inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II on a stele from Babylon, claimed to have been found in the 1917 excavation by Robert Koldewey, and of uncertain authenticity, reads: \"Etemenanki Zikkurat Babibli [Ziggurat of Babylon] I made it, the wonder of the people of the world, I raised its top to heaven, made doors for the gates, and I covered it with bitumen and bricks.\" The building is depicted in shallow relief, showing its high first stages with paired flights of steps, five further stepped stages and the temple that surmounted the structure. A floor plan is also shown, depicting the buttressed outer walls and the inner chambers surrounding the central \"cella\".  Foundation cylinders with inscriptions from Nabopolassar were found in the 1880s, two survive, one of which reads: In 2011 scholars discovered in the Schøyen Collection the oldest known representation of the Etemenanki. Carved on a black stone, the \"Tower of Babel Stele\", as it is known, dates to 604–562 BCE, the time of Nebuchadnezzar II.  The Etemenanki is described in a cuneiform tablet from Uruk from 229 BCE, a copy of an older text (now in the Louvre, Paris). Translated in 1876, it gives the height of the tower as seven stocks (91 meters) with a square base of 91 meters on each side. This mudbrick structure was confirmed by excavations conducted by Robert Koldewey after 1913. Large stairs were discovered at the south side of the building, where a triple gate connected it with the Esagila. A larger gate to the east connected the Etemenanki with the sacred procession road (now reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin).  Until the first translation of the Uruk tablet, details of Babylon's ziggurat were known only from Herodotus, who wrote in the mid-5th century BCE:  This \"Tower of Jupiter Belus\" is believed to refer to the Akkadian god Bel, whose name has been Hellenised by Herodotus to \"Zeus Belus\". It is likely that it corresponds to Etemenanki. Herodotus does not say that he visited Babylon or the ziggurat, however; the account contains multiple inaccuracies and is most likely second hand.  Etemenanki has been suggested as a possible inspiration to the biblical story of the Tower of Babel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final demolition.", "content": "In 331 BCE, Alexander the Great captured Babylon and ordered repairs to the Etemenanki; when he returned to the ancient city in 323 BCE, he noted that no progress had been made, and ordered his army to demolish the entire building, to prepare a final rebuilding. His death, however, prevented the reconstruction. The Babylonian Chronicles and Astronomical Diaries record several attempts to rebuild the Etemenanki, which were always preceded by removing the last debris of the original ziggurat. The \"Ruin of Esagila Chronicle\" mentions that the Seleucid crown prince Antiochus I decided to rebuild it and made a sacrifice in preparation. However, while there, he stumbled on the rubble and fell. He then angrily ordered his elephant drivers to destroy the last of the remains. There are no later references to the Etemenanki from antiquity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Etemenanki (Sumerian: \"temple of the foundation of heaven and earth\") was a ziggurat dedicated to Marduk in the ancient city of Babylon. Originally 91 meters in height, it now exists only in ruins about south of Baghdad.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977182}
{"src_title": "Fistulina hepatica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Details.", "content": "The shape resembles a large tongue, and it is rough-surfaced with a reddish-brown colour. The spores are released from minute pores on the creamy-white underside of the fruit body. A younger \"Fistulina hepatica\" is a pinkish-red colour, and it darkens with age. It bleeds a dull red juice when cut, with the cut flesh further resembling meat. It is edible and considered choice.  The underside of the fruiting body, from which the spores are ejected, is a mass of tubules. The genus name is a diminutive of the Latin word fistula and means \"small tube\", whilst the species name \"hepatica\" means \"liver-like\", referring to the consistency of the flesh.  The species is fairly common, and can often be found on oaks and sweet chestnut, from August to the end of autumn, on either living or dead wood. It has a tendency to impart a reddish-brown stain to the living wood of oaks, creating a desirable timber type. In Australia, it can be found growing from wounds on \"Eucalyptus\" trees. It causes a brown rot on the trees which it infects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to other fungi.", "content": "\"Fistulina\" is classified in the family Fistulinaceae; molecular studies suggest close relations to the \"agaric\" mushroom \"Schizophyllum\" in the Schizophyllaceae (in the \"schizophylloid\" clade), but in the separate sister \"fistulinoid\" clade. \"Fistulina\" is a cyphelloid genus, meaning that it is closely related to gilled fungi, but its fertile surface consists of smooth cup-shaped elements instead of gills. The underside (the hymenium) is a mass of tubules which represent a \"reduced\" form of the ancestral gills.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fistulina hepatica (beefsteak fungus, also known as beefsteak polypore, ox tongue, or tongue mushroom) is an unusual bracket fungus classified in the Agaricales, that is commonly seen in Britain, but can be found in North America, Australia, North Africa, Southern Africa and the rest of Europe. As its name suggests, it looks remarkably similar to a slab of raw meat. It has been used as a meat substitute in the past, and can still be found in some French markets. It has a sour, slightly acidic taste. For eating it must be collected young and it may be tough and need long cooking.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977183}
{"src_title": "Camilla Luddington", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Luddington was born in Ascot, Berkshire, and at age 11 began studying at the Italia Conti Academy in England. She moved to suburban Austin, Texas, United States when she was fourteen, and attended Westwood High School for one year.  She returned to England after one year, and completed her education at TASIS, The American International School in England, in July 2002.  When she was nineteen, Luddington enrolled in Susquehanna University in Pennsylvania. However, she had not visited the university before she arrived as a student, and after six months she left and transferred to the New York Film Academy.  In 2003, she was part of the school's first one-year acting class program. After training as an actor, Luddington then returned to England before moving to Los Angeles to pursue a career in acting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "Luddington had the lead role of Kate in \"\" (2011), then in 2013 she appeared in the film \"The Pact II\", in which she played a crime scene cleaner. In 2015, she joined the cast of \"The Healer\" as Cecilia, starring with Oliver Jackson-Cohen, Jonathan Pryce, and Jorge Garcia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Television.", "content": "Luddington has worked mainly in the United States. Luddington joined the cast of the Showtime comedy-drama series \"Californication\" for its fifth season, playing a nanny. She also joined the cast of season five of the HBO vampire drama \"True Blood\", as Claudette Crane, a faerie. In July 2012, Luddington joined the cast of the ABC medical drama \"Grey's Anatomy\" as Dr. Jo Wilson, in a recurring role. In June 2013 it was announced that she would be a series regular from season ten onward. In October 2012, Luddington appeared on a Hallowe'en special of E!'s popular fashion programme \"Fashion Police\", alongside a panel of Joan Rivers, Kelly Osbourne, George Kotsiopoulos, and Kris Jenner.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Tomb Raider\".", "content": "In June 2012, Crystal Dynamics confirmed Luddington would voice Lara Croft in the video game \"Tomb Raider\". Luddington originally went into the audition for Lara thinking she was auditioning for a project called \"Krypted\" with a character called Sara. In June 2014, it was revealed that a sequel was in production, titled \"Rise of the Tomb Raider\", and Luddington confirmed on her Twitter account that she would be returning to voice and motion capture Lara in the new game. Luddington also returned to reprise her role for \"Shadow of the Tomb Raider\", released in September 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "On 21 October 2016, Luddington announced that she was expecting a baby with fellow actor and boyfriend Matthew Alan. Their daughter, Hayden, was born in March 2017. Luddington announced the engagement on 17 January 2018. Luddington and Alan married on 17 August 2019. On 9 March 2020, Luddington announced her second pregnancy via Instagram.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Camilla Anne Luddington (born 15 December 1983) is a British-American actress, best known for her role as Jo Karev (Wilson) in the ABC Medical drama, \"Grey's Anatomy\". She is also known for playing Kate Middleton in the Lifetime film \"\" (2011) and as protagonist Lara Croft in the video games \"Tomb Raider\" (2013), \"Rise of the Tomb Raider\" (2015) and \"Shadow of the Tomb Raider\" (2018), for which she provided the voice and motion capture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977184}
{"src_title": "Redtail splitfin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Range and habitat.", "content": "The redtail splitfin comes from west-central Mexico in the Grande de Santiago River basin and waters near Compostela, Nayarit. It might also occur in the uppermost Ameca and Armería River basins, but the taxonomic position of these populations remains unclear. Two additional populations, one from an endorheic basin in the Etzatlán region and another from the Coahuayana River, were formerly included in this species, but in 2016 they were described as \"X. doadrioi\" and \"X. lyonsi\" respectively.  The redtail splitfin inhabits springs, pools, lakes, creeks and rivers, typically in places with little or no aquatic vegetation. It prefers shallow waters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The redtail splitfin is a deep-bodied fish, and males have a hump behind the head. The hump gets larger as the males get older. Adult males have a red-orange tail and tail-base. The upper part of the body and head are olive-brownish to dusky. A broad, poorly defined bluish-black band runs from the gill cover to the tail, but it virtually disappears on the mid-body region. The throat and belly or yellowish to whitish. Females lack the red-orange and are overall more plainly colored. Females are generally slightly larger than males. Females grow to 7 centimeters (2.8 inches) while males grow to 6 centimeters (2.4 inches).  Among goodeids, the distinct red-orange tail and tail-base is unique to the males of the redtail splitfin and its close relatives \"X. doadrioi\" and \"X. lyonsi\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "Male goodeids like the redtail splitfin have a notched anal fin that gives the fish the name \"splitfin\", instead of the gonopodium of poeciliids. This notched anal fin, or andropodium, is used to transmit sperm to the female. The female nourishes the unborn young via trophotaeniae, which function like an umbilical cord in mammals.  Females give birth about every 2 months to 10 to 50 fry. The newborn redtail splitfin fry are relatively large compared to most newborn livebearer fry, at about 15 millimeters (2/3 of an inch) long.  In the wild, both male and female redtail splitfins prefer to mate with fish of similar size. This limits the sexual advantage to males that grow especially large. This minimizes the sexual dimorphism in the size of the fish between males and females.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aquarium keeping.", "content": "The redtail splitfin is not a very common aquarium fish, but it is one of the most common goodeids to be kept in the aquarium. They are not very demanding in the aquarium, although they prefer hard, alkaline water. They can tolerate a wide range of water temperatures, from 15 to 30 degrees Celsius (59 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit). They accept a wide range of foods, but do require some vegetable matter in their diets. Although they are generally peaceful, they are known to occasionally nip the fins of fellow aquarium residents. This behavior can be reduced by keeping the redtail splitfin in schools.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The redtail splitfin, or redtail goodeid, (\"Xenotoca eiseni\") is a species of goodeid fish from the family Goodeidae and subfamily Goodeinae. Like other members of Goodeinae, the redtail splitfin is native to Mexico and a livebearer. However, the goodeid mating system differs in several ways from the more common livebearing fish from the family Poeciliidae that includes guppies and swordtails. While no goodeid species is a very popular aquarium fish, the redtail splitfin is one of the most popular. Only the male has the red-orange tail for which it is named. Its specific name honours the collector of the type, Gustav Eisen (1847-1940) who was Curator of Marine Invertebrates at the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, California.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977185}
{"src_title": "Matlockite", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The mineral, a lead fluorochloride (formula PbFCl), was discovered sometime around the early 1800s at Bage Mine at Bolehill near Matlock, together with specimens of phosgenite and anglesite. Although phosgenite was known at this time, it seems likely that matlockite itself remained unappreciated as a new mineral for some fifty years. It was given the name by Greg in 1851. The first mention of Matlockite may have been in Mawe's Mineralogy of Derbyshire in 1802 in which he gives a detailed description of phosgenite, which is then followed by a mention of a mineral he refers to as \"glass lead\" - a description which does rather equate to the appearance of matlockite. It is a light, translucent creamy-yellow colour, but heavy in weight having a density that is over 7.1.  A very large specimen 10 cm across, and originating from Derbyshire, exists in the collections of the American Museum of Natural History. A 7 cm specimen can be found in the collection of Derby Museum and Art Gallery.  Matlockite has been reported from a variety of locations since its discovery at the type locality of Derbyshire. The mineral is also found in Tiger, Arizona, Laurium in Greece, a mine near Essen in Germany and near Campiglia in Tuscany. Samples have also been found at locations in South Africa, Peru, Chile, Australia, Austria, France and Italy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The matlockite group.", "content": "The matlockite group consists of a number of minerals which share a similar crystal structure. The group includes bismuth, lead or calcium halides: bismoclite (BiO)Cl, daubréeite (BiO)(OH,Cl), laurionite PbCl(OH), paralaurionite PbCl(OH), rorisite CaFCl, zavaritskite (BiO)F and the eponymous matlockite.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Matlockite is a rare lead halide mineral, named after the town of Matlock in Derbyshire, England, where it was first discovered in a nearby mine. Matlockite (chemical formula: PbFCl) gives its name to the matlockite group which consists of rare minerals of a similar structure.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977186}
{"src_title": "Zentiva", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of Zentiva.", "content": "The roots of the Czech pharmaceutical company date back to 1488 with the Black Eagle Pharmacy (“U Černého Orla”) located in the Prague city center: Malá Strana. In 1857 pharmacy was bought by Benjamin & Karel Fragner (1824-1886). His expansion plans were started by his son Dr. Karel Fragner (1861-1926) and further expanded by Dr.Ing. Jiří Fragner (1900-1977). He, together with his brother, an architect Jaroslav Fragner, built and designed a new modern pharmaceutical factory in Dolní Měcholupy, which is now a part of Prague. Today Zentiva's headquarters are located on the original factory premises.  The factory “Benjamin Fragner” started to produced medicines in August 1930. Its profitability was set upon a solid bedrock of active substances, with which intensive Research and Development started. During World War II, after Czech universities were shut down following German-occupation, the Fragner factory became a refuge for many notable specialists. For example, one of the first successful isolation of penicillin (BF Mykoin 510) was achieved on this site.  In 1946 the company is nationalised by the Czech government and the factory and the pharmacy are split apart. The factory became part of SPOFA (United Pharmaceutical Enterprises) employing 750. It was the leading pharmaceutical site in post-war Czechoslovakia. In the early sixties, to satisfy the demand of growing need of dosage forms, the question of upgrading the site to further increase the manufactured amounts was raised. The upgrade was completed in 1979 and led to the construction of new modern production facilities.  Starting in 1989 the company went through a series of significant organisational and ownership changes. In 1993, the company's name is changed from Léčiva a.s. to Zentiva k.s. Later in 1998, Zentiva's management acquires a majority of shares and establishes a new focus on branded generic medicines. In 2003 a new corporate brand name was introduced: Zentiva CZ s.r.o.. In the same year, the leading pharmaceutical company from Slovakia (Slovakofarma) was added to Zentiva portfolio. In 2004, Zentiva is listed at the Prague and London Stock Exchanges. Zentiva also expanded to Poland and Russia and other markets of central and eastern Europe. Later in 2005: Sicomed (leading generic company in Romania nowadays Zentiva SA) was acquired and added to Zentiva portfolio.  In the beginning of 2007 Zentiva increased its activity in Hungary and acquired Eczacibaşi Generic Pharmaceuticals (leading Turkish manufacturer). The year 2008 marked the acquisition of Zentiva by the French holding Sanofi and decided to make it its European generics platform. Zentiva became then part of the Sanofi Generics Franchise.  In 2018, Advent International bought the European division of Sanofi's Generics business – Zentiva. Transaction of total worth 1,919 bn. €. Zentiva with the support of Advent International, one of the biggest equity funds, became independent.  Following the acquisition by Advent International, Zentiva entered in a fast-paced series of acquisition to build up its position in the Generic and OTC market, in and outside Europe. On April 2019, Zentiva acquired Creo Pharmaceuticals, a UK-based subsidiary of the US-based Amneal Pharmaceuticals since 2013. Followed, in May, by Solacium the Romania-based pharmaceutical company expanding both its Generics and OTC footprint..", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zentiva is a pharmaceutical company based in Prague, Czech Republic. The Company is developing, manufacturing and marketing a wide range of generic and OTC products.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977187}
{"src_title": "Matter (philosophy)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ancient Greek philosophy.", "content": "In ancient Greek philosophy, \"arche\" (ἀρχή) is the beginning or the first principle of the world. Thales of Miletus claimed that the first principle of all things is water. His theory was supported by the observation of moisture throughout the world and coincided with his theory that the earth floated on water.  Thales's theory was refuted by his pupil and successor, Anaximander. Anaximander noted that water could not be the arche because it could not give rise to its opposite, fire. Anaximander claimed that none of the elements (earth, fire, air, water) could be arche for the same reason. Instead, he proposed the existence of the apeiron, an indefinite substance from which all things are born and to which all things will return.  Anaximenes, Anaximander's pupil, advanced yet another theory. He returns to the elemental theory, but this time posits air, rather than water, as the arche. Anaximenes suggests that all is made from air through either rarefication or condensation (thinning or thickening). Rarefied, air becomes fire; condensed, it becomes first wind, then cloud, water, earth, and stone in order.  Pythagoras of Samos, a mathematician, mystic, and scientist, taught that number, rather than matter, constitutes the true nature of things. He seems to have influenced Socrates' ideal form.  Heraclitus held that all is flux. In such a system there is no need for or possibility of matter. Leucippus held that there exist indivisible particles, atoms, underlying existence.  Empedocles held that there are four elements, from which things are derived, Earth, Water, Fire and Air. Some added a fifth element, the Aether, from which the heavens were derived. Socrates accepted (or at least did not reject) that list, as seen from Plato's Timaeus, which identified the five elements with the Platonic solids. Earth was associated with the cube, air with the octahedron, water with the icosahedron, fire with the tetrahedron, and the heavens with the dodecahedron.  Aristotle, rejecting the atomic theory, instead analyzed the four terrestrial elements with the sense of touch:  He developed Socrates' ideal form into a theory which aimed to explain existence through the composition of matter and form. He conceived of matter as a passive possibility that something might be actualized by an active principle, a substantial form, giving it real existence. The theory of matter and form came to be known as Hylomorphism.  Aristotle's ideas had little impact on the ancient world. The rise of Stoicism represented the return to earlier ideas. Their categories were an attempt to explain all existence without reference to anything incorporeal.  Philo held that matter is the basis of evil.  Plotinus revived the ideas of Plato and Aristotle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Medieval philosophy.", "content": "Many Christians, such as Augustine of Hippo, accepted Plotinus as the greatest of the pagan philosophers. Parts of Plotinus' \"Six Enneads\" were translated into Arabic as the \"Theology of Aristotle\", leading to a blossoming of Aristotle's philosophy in the Islamic world. This Islamic version of Aristotle eventually reached the University of Paris and the attention of scholastic philosophy, and the work of Thomas Aquinas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern science.", "content": "From a philosophical viewpoint, the term \"matter\" still is used to distinguish the material aspects of the universe from those of the spirit. The rise of modern chemistry and physics marked a return to the atomic theories of Leucippus. Quantum physics and special relativity however, complicate the picture through the identification of matter and energy, particle and wave.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Matter is the substrate from which physical existence is derived, remaining more or less constant amid changes. The word \"matter\" is derived from the Latin word \"māteria\", meaning \"wood\", or “timber”, in the sense \"material\", as distinct from \"mind\" or \"form\". The image of wood came to Latin as a calque from the Greek philosophical usage of \"hyle\" (ὕλη).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977188}
{"src_title": "Open Source Ecology", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Marcin Jakubowski founded the group in 2003. In the final year of his doctoral thesis at the University of Wisconsin, he felt that his work was too closed off from the world's problems, and he wanted to go a different way. After graduation, he devoted himself entirely to OSE.  OSE made it to the world stage in 2011 when Jakubowski presented his Global Village Construction Set TED Talk. Soon, the GVCS won Make magazine's Green Project Contest. The Internet blogs Gizmodo and Grist produced detailed features on OSE. Jakubowski has since become a Shuttleworth Foundation Fellow (2012) and TED Senior Fellow (2012).  In December 2013, Marcin married Catarina Mota. She co-chaired the Open Hardware Summit 2012, served on the board of directors of the Open Source Hardware Association, taught as an adjunct faculty member at ITP-NYU, and was a fellow of the National Science and Technology Foundation of Portugal.  Catarina finished her PhD dissertation on the social impact of open and collaborative practices for the development of physical goods and technologies. She was a visiting scholar at ITP-NYU, Research Chair at the Open Source Hardware Association, TED Fellow, and member of NYC Resistor.  Open Source Ecology is also developing in Europe as OSE Europe.  In 2016, OSE and the Open Building Institute joined forces to make affordable, ecological housing widely accessible.< The initiative has prototyped the Seed Eco-Home – a 1400 square foot home with the help of 50 people in a 5-day period – demonstrating that OSE's Extreme Manufacturing techniques can be apply to rapid swarm builds of large structures. Materials for the Seed Eco-Home cost around US$30,000. Further, OBI has prototyped the Aquaponic Greenhouse – which was also built in 5 days with 50 people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Factor e Farm.", "content": "The Factor e Farm is the headquarters where the machines are prototyped and tested. The farm also serves as a prototype. Using the Open Source Ecology principles, Marcin and Catarina have built four prototype modules which comprise their home. An added greenhouse demonstrates how a family can grow vegetables and fish. Outside, there is also a large garden including fruit trees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current progress.", "content": "In 2020, OSE is planning its most ambitious collaborative design effort by hosting an Incentive Challenge on the HeroX platform - to produce a professional grade, open source, 3D printed cordless drill that can be manufactured in distributed locations around the world. This project is intended to provide a proof-of-concept for the efficiency of open source development applied to hardware - in addition to its proven success with software.  In 2019, OSE began running its Open Source Microfactory STEAM Camps.  In 2018, the project achieved 33% completion.  In 2014, 12 of the 50 machines were designed, blueprinted, and prototyped, with four of those reaching the documentation stage.  On October 2011 a Kickstarter fundraising campaign collected US$63,573 for project expenses and the construction of a training facility. The project has been funded by the Shuttleworth Foundation and is a semifinalist in the Focus Forward Film Festival.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of machines.", "content": "The Global Village Construction Set (GVCS) comprises 50 industrial machines:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "GVCS replication.", "content": "The first time the Global Village Construction Set product was created by another group was in October, 2011; Jason Smith with James Slade and his organization Creation Flame developed a functioning open source CEB press. A group in Baltimore, Maryland, and a group in Dallas, Texas also began manufacturing GVCS machines.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Open Source Ecology (OSE) is a network of farmers, engineers, architects and supporters, whose main goal is the eventual manufacturing of the Global Village Construction Set (GVCS). As described by Open Source Ecology \"the GVCS is an open technological platform that allows for the easy fabrication of the 50 types of industrial machines that it takes to build a small civilization with modern comforts\". Groups in Oberlin, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York and California are developing blueprints, and building prototypes in order to pass them on to Missouri. The devices are built and tested on the \"Factor e Farm\" in rural Missouri. Recently, 3D-Print reports OSE has been experimenting with RepRap 3-D printers as suggested by academics for sustainable development.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977189}
{"src_title": "Google I/O", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Announcements and highlights.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2008.", "content": "Major topics included:  Speakers included Marissa Mayer, David Glazer, Alex Martelli, Steve Souders, Dion Almaer, Mark Lucovsky, Guido van Rossum, Jeff Dean, Chris DiBona, Josh Bloch, Raffaello D'Andrea, Geoff Stearns", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009.", "content": "Major topics included:  Speakers included Aaron Boodman, Adam Feldman, Adam Schuck, Alex Moffat, Alon Levi, Andrew Bowers, Andrew Hatton, Anil Sabharwal, Arne Roomann-Kurrik, Ben Collins-Sussman, Jacob Lee, Jeff Fisher, Jeff Ragusa, Jeff Sharkey, Jeffrey Sambells, Jerome Mouton and Jesse Kocher  Attendees were given a HTC Magic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010.", "content": "Major topics included:  Speakers included Aaron Koblin, Aaron Koblin, Adam Graff, Adam Nash, Adam Powell, Adam Schuck, Alan Green, Albert Cheng, Albert Wenger, Alex Russell, Alfred Fuller, Amit Agarwal, Amit Kulkarni, Amit Manjhi, Amit Weinstein, Andres Sandholm, Angus Logan, Arne Roomann-Kurrik, Bart Locanthi, Ben Appleton, Ben Chang, Ben Collins-Sussman.  Attendees were given a HTC Evo 4G at the event. Prior to the event US attendees received a Motorola Droid while non-US attendees received a Nexus One.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011.", "content": "Major topics included:  Attendees were given a Samsung Galaxy Tab 10.1, Series 5 Chromebook and Verizon MiFi.  The after party was hosted by Jane's Addiction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012.", "content": "The I/O conference was extended from the usual two-day schedule to three days. There was no keynote on the final day. Attendees were given a Galaxy Nexus, Nexus 7, Nexus Q and Chromebox. The after party was hosted by Paul Oakenfold and Train.  Major topics included:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013.", "content": "Google I/O 2013 was held at the Moscone Center, San Francisco. The amount of time for all the $900 (or $300 for school students and faculty) tickets to sell out was 49 minutes, even when registrants had both Google+ and Wallet accounts by requirement. A fleet of remote-controlled blimps streamed a bird's-eye view of the event. Attendees were given a Chromebook Pixel. The after party was hosted by Billy Idol.  Major topics included:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014.", "content": "Major topics included:  Attendees were given a LG G Watch or Samsung Gear Live, Google Cardboard, and a Moto 360 was shipped to attendees after the event.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2015.", "content": "Major topics included:  Attendees were given an Nexus 9 tablet and an improved version of Google Cardboard", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016.", "content": "Sundar Pichai moved Google I/O to Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View, CA for the first time. Attendees were given sunglasses and sunscreen due to the amphitheater's outside conditions, however many attendees were sunburned so the talks were relatively short. There was no hardware giveaway.  Major topics included:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017.", "content": "Major topics included:  Attendees were given a Google Home and $700 in Google Cloud Platform Credits. The afterparty was hosted by LCD Soundsystem.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018.", "content": "Major topics included:  Attendees were given an Android Things kit and a Google Home Mini. The after party was hosted by Justice with Phantogram opening.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2019.", "content": "Major announcements:  The afterparty was hosted by The Flaming Lips. There was no hardware giveaway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2020.", "content": "The 2020 event was originally scheduled on May 12–14. Due to the coronavirus pandemic, the event was considered for alternative formats and eventually cancelled.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Google I/O (or simply I/O) is an annual developer conference held by Google in Mountain View, California. \"I/O\" stands for input/output, as well as the slogan \"Innovation in the Open\". The event's format is similar to Google Developer Day.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977190}
{"src_title": "Eugène Schneider", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Eugène Schneider was born on 29 March 1805 in Bidestroff, in the départment of Moselle, France. He was the brother of Adolphe Schneider (1802–45), who served as a Deputy from 1842 to 1845. His father died when he was young, and he took a modest job in a trading house in Reims, then in the bank of Baron François-Alexandre Seillière.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business career.", "content": "Schneider showed great aptitude for business, and at the age of 25 was appointed a director of the forges at Bazeilles.  In 1833, his brother was appointed managing director of Le Creuzot, and he was added as co-manager the same year. He made a powerful contribution to the prosperity of this establishment.  After his brother died Schneider became the sole director of Le Creuzot, and soon was a powerful industrialist.  In the crisis year of 1848 Charles de Wendel and Eugène Schneider saved the foundry at Fourchambault from bankruptcy by co-signing a huge bank loan.  Schneider obtained a monopoly in supplying arms to the French government, supplied the materials for government-encouraged railway construction. What would become the Comité des forges was founded in 1864. The Committee had the goals of managing relations between the industry and government, promoting exports and coordinating prices.  Eugène Schneider was the first President. There were ten members, each representing a region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "After his brother's death Eugène Schneider was elected General Counselor of Couches and Montcenis. He was elected Deputy of the 5th college of Saône-et-Loire (Autun) on 13 September 1845.  During the July Monarchy, Schneider was a deputy until 24 February 1848, sitting with the government majority.  During the French Second Republic Schneider ran unsuccessfully in 1848 for election to the Constituent Assembly, and again ran unsuccessfully in 1849 for election to the Legislative Assembly.  On 20 January 1851, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, President of the Republic, invited Schneider to join an interim cabinet as Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, which he kept until 10 April 1851. Schneider was then appointed Commander of the Legion of Honour.  Schneider supported the \"coup d'état\" of 2 December 1851 that launched the Second French Empire. He became a member of the consultative commission, and on 29 February 1852 was elected to the \"Corps législatif\" for the 2nd constituency of Saône-et-Loire, running as the official candidate.  He was reelected in turn of 22 June 1857, 1 June 1863 and 24 May 1869. Schneider was President of the Corps from 2 April 1867 to 4 September 1870.  When Jérôme David was reappointed Vice-President in June 1869, this was seen as a promise to the reactionary party, and Schneider submitted his resignation. He agreed to remain only at the personal request of the emperor.  He was a member of the \"Corps législatif\" until 4 September 1870, always sitting with the dynastic majority.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Schneider died on 27 November 1875 in Paris. He was buried in the San Charles church in Le Creusot (Saône-et-Loire).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "He is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Eugène Schneider (29 March 1805 – 27 November 1875) was a French industrialist and politician. In 1836, he co-founded the Schneider company with his brother, Adolphe Schneider. For many years he was a Deputy, and he was briefly Minister of Commerce and Agriculture in 1851.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977191}
{"src_title": "Crystal Reed", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Reed was born and raised in Detroit, to a family of Polish and Native American descent. She has one older brother named Corey. Reed was raised in a conservative Catholic family, though she has also stated that she attended a Baptist church growing up and did not enjoy it. \"I absolutely hated it and I knew that I would never fit in,\" Reed said.  She graduated from Roseville High School in 2003. Reed studied dance from an early age and was a dance captain in high school. She was an active member of her local community theatre and starred in the musicals \"Annie\", \"Fiddler on the Roof\" and \"Grease\". She attended Wayne State University and was a part of the Bachelor of Fine Arts program, but left the program when she questioned whether it was the right fit for her. \"I auditioned for the prestigious BFA conservatory program,\" she said. \"They were very strict about the methods of acting, very particular about how we do things and I started questioning whether or not it was the right place for me, and whether or not [one] truly needed a degree to be an artist.\" She moved to Chicago and appeared in a number of local productions. In December 2008, she moved to Hollywood to pursue a screen career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 2010, she guest starred in \"\", \"\", \"Rizzoli & Isles\" and \"The Hard Times of RJ Berger\".  She co-starred as Allison Argent, the female lead of the MTV series \"Teen Wolf\" that premiered in 2011. Before the third season of \"Teen Wolf\", Reed wanted to move on from the show, do different things and explore other areas of film creatively. She approached executive producer of the show, Jeff Davis, who supported her decision. Reed left the show in March 2014 in the form of Allison Argent's death at the end of Season 3. Reed also stated that her desire to leave the show had to do with the difference in age to her character. Reed was 29-years old playing a 17-year old by the end of season three. She appeared in the February 23, 2016 episode, \"The Maid of Gévaudan\" as the first Argent werewolf hunter Marie-Jeanne Valet. While promoting \"Gotham\", Reed said that she would love to be a part of a reboot or spin-off of \"Teen Wolf\".  Reed's film credits include \"Skyline\" opposite Donald Faison and Eric Balfour, and \"Crazy, Stupid, Love\" with Ryan Gosling, Emma Stone, Steve Carell and Julianne Moore.  Reed starred in the horror film \"Ghostland,\" written and directed by french filmmaker Pascal Laugier. The film was first released in France on March 14, 2018.  On July 22, 2017, Reed was cast in the fourth season of the Fox television series \"Gotham\" as Sofia Falcone, the daughter of Carmine Falcone. The fourth season of \"Gotham\" premiered on September 21, 2017. Reed's portrayal of Falcone is the first time the comic-book character has been in a television show or movie.  On September 6, 2018, it was reported that Reed had been cast in the lead of the DC Universe television series \"Swamp Thing\". Reed is set to portray as Abby Arcane, a smart and caring CDC Doctor who returns to her hometown in Louisiana and investigates what seems to be a deadly swamp-born virus but soon discovers that the swamp hold mystical and terrifying secrets. \"Swamp Thing\" premiered in May 31 of 2019.  On November 9, 2019, it was reported that Reed was cast in an Upcoming thriller film \"Escape the Field\" which will be directed by Emerson Moore. The film's release date is still unknown at this time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Reed married Peter John Nottoli in Roseville, Michigan, in 2008; she filed for divorce on September 12, 2011 and they divorced in Los Angeles County on May 31, 2012. Reed and Oliver Trevena started dating in June till September 2011. She was in a relationship with her \"Teen Wolf\" co-star Daniel Sharman from early 2012 until June 2013. In July 2013, Reed started dating television presenter Darren McMullen. During her relationship with McMullen she was rumored to have had a brief fling with actor Joshua Jackson in June 2016. McMullen and Reed broke up in early 2019.  Reed has said she moved out of her hometown because it \"was completely small-minded and not accepting of things that I'm accepting of.\" Reed campaigned for Hillary Clinton leading up to the 2016 United States Presidential Election.  Reed lists golf as one of her hobbies when she's not acting.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Crystal Marie Reed (born February 6, 1985) is an American actress. She came to prominence for portraying Allison Argent in the series \"Teen Wolf\" from 2011 to 2014. Reed departed from the series after the third season, but made a guest appearance in the fifth season as Allison's ancestor Marie-Jeanne Valet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977192}
{"src_title": "Pierre-Jules Hetzel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Chartres, Eure-et-Loir, Hetzel studied law in Strasbourg, and founded a publishing company in 1837. He was the publisher of Honoré de Balzac, whose \"Comédie humaine\" began to be appear in 1841, and of Victor Hugo and Émile Zola. In 1843, he founded the \"Nouveau magazine des enfants\" (\"New Children's Magazine\"). Hetzel was a well-known republican, and in 1848 he became chief of cabinet for Alphonse de Lamartine (then minister of Foreign Affairs), and afterward for the minister of the Navy. He went into self-imposed exile in Belgium after the coup d'état which ushered in the Second Empire, and there he continued his political and editorial activities, notably by clandestinely publishing Hugo's \"Les Châtiments\", a harsh pamphlet against the Second Empire.  When the political regime was changed in France, he returned home and published Proudhon and Baudelaire. An important edition of the tales by Charles Perrault, illustrated by Gustave Doré, dates from this period. He founded the \"Bibliothèque illustrée des Familles\" (\"The Family Illustrated Library\"), which was renamed to \"\" (\"Education and Entertainment Magazine\") in 1864. His goal was to have scientists, authors and illustrators collaborating to create educational works for the whole family.  Hetzel's fame comes mostly for his editions of the \"Voyages extraordinaires\" (\"Extraordinary Journeys\") by Jules Verne. The stories were originally published in biweekly chapters as a series in his \"Magasin\". Once all chapters of a story were printed there, the story would appear in book form. Typically this happened towards the end of the year so the books could be purchased as Christmas presents for older children. Originally, there were three editions: one economical, without illustrations; another one in small format, with a few illustrations; and a third one in a bigger in-octavo format and richly illustrated. It is the last edition that is now very popular among book collectors.  Hetzel discovered Jules Verne, but scholars still debate to what extent Hetzel \"made\" Verne, or if it was Verne who \"made\" Hetzel's publishing career. Each benefited from the other, and their relationship went beyond that of author and publisher.  Hetzel rejected Verne's 1863 manuscript for \"Paris in the Twentieth Century\" because he thought it presented a vision of the future that was far too negative and unbelievable for contemporary audiences, though to many present-day scholars the story was remarkably accurate in its predictions. Verne locked the manuscript away and no longer wrote futuristic, dystopian stories. \"Paris in the Twentieth Century\" was first published in France in 1994.  Hetzel was an atheist. Writing under the pseudonym P.-J. Stahl, he was the author of many stories for children and young people. He died in Monte Carlo in 1886. After Hetzel's death, the publishing business was directed by his son and was later purchased by Hachette in 1914.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "For more examples of the pictures featured in the books:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pierre-Jules Hetzel (January 15, 1814 – March 17, 1886) was a French editor and publisher. He is best known for his extraordinarily lavishly illustrated editions of Jules Verne's novels highly prized by collectors today.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977193}
{"src_title": "Kyphosis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Signs and symptoms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complications.", "content": "The risk of serious complications from spinal fusion surgery for kyphosis is estimated to be 5%, similar to the risks of surgery for scoliosis. Possible complications include inflammation of the soft tissue or deep inflammatory processes, breathing impairments, bleeding, and nerve injuries. According to the latest evidence, the actual rate of complications may be substantially higher. Even among those who do not suffer from serious complications, 5% of patients require reoperation within five years of the procedure, and in general it is not yet clear what one would expect from spine surgery during the long-term. Given that the signs and symptoms of spinal deformity cannot be changed by surgical intervention, surgery remains essentially a cosmetic choice. However, the cosmetic effects of surgery are not necessarily stable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification.", "content": "There are several kinds of kyphosis (ICD-10 codes are provided):", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Grading.", "content": "Kyphosis can be graded in severity by the Cobb angle. Also, \"sagittal balance\" can be measured. The sagittal balance is the horizontal distance between the center of C7 and the superior-posterior border of the endplate of S1 on a lateral radiograph.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Treatments.", "content": "A diagnosis of kyphosis is generally made through observation and measurement. Idiopathic causes, such as vertebral wedging or other abnormalities, can be confirmed through X-ray. Osteoporosis, a potential cause of kyphosis, can be confirmed with a bone density scan. Postural thoracic kyphosis can often be treated with posture reeducation and focused strengthening exercises. Idiopathic thoracic kyphosis due to vertebral wedging, fractures, or vertebral abnormalities is more difficult to manage, since assuming a correct posture may not be possible with structural changes in the vertebrae. Children who have not completed their growth may show long-lasting improvements with bracing. Exercises may be prescribed to alleviate discomfort associated with overstretched back muscles. A variety of gravity-assisted positions or gentle traction can minimize pain associated with nerve root impingement. Surgery may be recommended for severe idiopathic kyphosis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brace.", "content": "Body braces showed benefit in a randomised controlled trial.  The Milwaukee brace is one particular body brace that is often used to treat kyphosis in the US. Modern CAD/CAM braces are used in Europe to treat different types of kyphosis. These are much easier to wear and have better in-brace corrections than reported for the Milwaukee brace. Since there are different curve patterns (thoracic, thoracolumbar, and lumbar), different types of brace are in use, with different advantages and disadvantages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Physical therapy.", "content": "In Germany, a standard treatment for both Scheuermann's disease and lumbar kyphosis is the Schroth method, a system of physical therapy for scoliosis and related spinal deformities. It involves lying supine, placing a pillow under the scapular region and posteriorly stretching the cervical spine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Surgery.", "content": "Surgical treatment can be used in severe cases. In patients with progressive kyphotic deformity due to vertebral collapse, a procedure called a kyphoplasty may arrest the deformity and relieve the pain. Kyphoplasty is a minimally invasive procedure, requiring only a small opening in the skin. The main goal is to return the damaged vertebra as close as possible to its original height.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kyphosis is an abnormally excessive convex curvature of the spine as it occurs in the thoracic and sacral regions. Abnormal inward concave \"lordotic\" curving of the cervical and lumbar regions of the spine is called lordosis. It can result from degenerative disc disease; developmental abnormalities, most commonly Scheuermann's disease; osteoporosis with compression fractures of the vertebra; multiple myeloma; or trauma. A normal thoracic spine extends from the 1st thoracic to the 12th thoracic vertebra and should have a slight kyphotic angle, ranging from 20° to 45°. When the \"roundness\" of the upper spine increases past 45° it is called kyphosis or \"hyperkyphosis\". Scheuermann's kyphosis is the most classic form of hyperkyphosis and is the result of wedged vertebrae that develop during adolescence. The cause is not currently known and the condition appears to be multifactorial and is seen more frequently in males than females.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977194}
{"src_title": "Quercus marilandica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Habitat and distribution.", "content": "The blackjack oak grows in poor, thin, dry, rocky or sandy soils where few other woody plants can thrive, usually on low ground, from sea level up to approximately in altitude. Some say that it does not have the beautiful form of many oaks, but is nonetheless a valuable tree for growing in problem sites. Some say that the tree is \"tough but ugly\", but also underappreciated. At times the tree has even been actively eradicated to provide more room for trees deemed to be more commercially valuable.  It is sometimes an understory tree in pine stands on sandy knolls in the southeastern US. Along the coastal plain of New Jersey the probability of finding this species is increased in relatively sunny, open areas such as those near coastal salt marshes. It often occurs near scarlet and post oaks as well as pitch pine; understory companions include winged sumac, bracken, sweetfern, and bayberry, and can be found as far north as parts of Ohio and New York.  A variety, \"Quercus marilandica\" Münchhausen var. \"ashei\" Sudworth, grows in the western portions of its range – northern Texas, Oklahoma, and into southern Kansas. In this area, blackjack and post oak form a semi-savanna area composed of forested strips intermixed with prairie grass glades along the eastern edge of the southern Great Plains. This semi-savanna is known as the Cross Timbers. Scrub forms of \"Q. marilandica\" dominate on many chert glades along with \"Q.stellata\" in Arkansas's Ozark plateau.  Blackjack oak sometimes hybridizes with bear oak (\"Quercus ilicifolia\"), forming a hybrid known as \"Q.\" × \"brittonii\".  Blackjacks in the Cross Timbers can grow from high with a trunk diameter of, but seldom reach more than. The leaves are from in length and about the same width. Blackjack acorns provide food for both whitetail deer and wild turkey. Blackjacks may, however, cause tannic acid poisoning in cattle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "The wood is very dense and produces a hot flame when burned, which functions as an excellent source of heat for barbecues and wood-burning stoves. However, the wood is not desirable for wood fireplaces because the heat causes popping, thereby increasing the risk of house fires.  Traditionally blackjack wood is used as both a fuel and smoke wood for barbecue in Oklahoma.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Quercus marilandica, the blackjack oak, is a small oak, one of the red oak group \"Quercus\" sect. \"Lobatae\". It is native to the eastern and central United States, from Long Island to Florida, west as far as Texas, Oklahoma, and Nebraska. There are reports of a few isolated populations in southern Michigan, but these appear to represent introductions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977195}
{"src_title": "Megachile pluto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Wallace's giant bee is a black resin bee with well developed and large jaws. The species exhibits strong sexual dimorphism: females may reach a length of, with a wingspan of, but males only grow to about long. Only females have large jaws. \"M. pluto\" is believed to be the largest living bee species, and remains the largest extant bee species described. It is \"as long as an adult's thumb\". Wallace's giant bee is easily distinguished from other bees due to its large size and jaws, but also a notable white band on the abdomen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Wallace's giant bee has only been reported from three islands of the North Moluccas in Indonesia: Bacan, Halmahera and Tidore. Very little is known about its distribution and habitat requirements, although it is thought that it is restricted to primary lowland forests. The islands have become home to oil palm plantations that now occupy much of the former native habitat. This has caused the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to label this species as Vulnerable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery and rediscovery.", "content": "The species was originally collected by Alfred Russel Wallace in 1858, and given the common name \"Wallace's giant bee\"; it is also known as the \"giant mason bee\". It was thought to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 1981 by Adam C. Messer, an American entomologist, who found six nests on the island of Bacan and other nearby islands. The bee is among the 25 \"most wanted\" lost species that are the focus of Global Wildlife Conservation's \"Search for Lost Species\" initiative.  After 1981, the bee was not observed in the wild for the next 37 years. In 2018, two specimens were collected in Indonesia, one on Bacan in February and the other on Halmahera in September. They were subsequently sold on eBay, highlighting the lack of protection that is afforded to the rare species. In 2019, a single female was found by Clay Bolt, living in a termite nest in Indonesia. This specimen was filmed and photographed before being released.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Wallace's giant bees build communal nests inside active nests of the tree-dwelling termite \"Microcerotermes amboinensis\", which may have served to hide their existence even from island residents. The bee uses tree resin to build compartments inside the termite nest, which protects its galleries. Female bees leave their nests repeatedly to forage for resin, which comes frequently from \"Anisoptera thurifera\". The bee's large jaws assist in resin gathering: the female makes large balls of resin which are held between the jaws. The association of the bee with the termite may be obligate.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Megachile pluto, also known as Wallace's giant bee or raja ofu/rotu ofu (\"king/queen of the bees\" in Indonesian), is a very large Indonesian resin bee. It is the largest known living bee species. It was believed to be extinct until several specimens were discovered in 1981. There were no further confirmed sightings until two were collected and sold on eBay in 2018. A live female was found and filmed for the first time in 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977196}
{"src_title": "Engelbert Strauss", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the beginning August Strauss and his two sons, including Engelbert (*1908) traded in brooms and brushes that were manufactured in Kassel, a district of Biebergemünd. Due to its focus on manufacturing brooms (German \"Besen\") this district is still commonly called \"Besenkassel\".  In 1948 after the war Engelbert Strauss continued the family trading tradition and founded the company bearing his name. He expanded the product range to include work protection clothing. The first products were gloves, which still play a central role in the company’s portfolio.  In the 1960s the company switched to mail order business, and started its catalogue business in 1973. The product range was gradually expanded to include garments and shoes.  In 1994 a new 40,000 sqm building with a logistics centre was erected on the company grounds in Biebergemünd, around 50 km northeast of Frankfurt am Main.  The company’s new 50,000 sqm flagship store, was erected on the company grounds in Biebergemünd in 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General management.", "content": "Today, the third and fourth generation manages the family company jointly. Engelbert’s son, Norbert Strauss, and his two sons, Steffen and Henning Strauss, are the managing directors. The company employs 1,200 staff.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Engelbert Strauss was nominated ‘Top National Employer 2017’ in the category ‘Clothing, footwear and sports equipment’. Also, the company won the prize as ‘the most popular family business’ in the category textile company and 33rd out of 100 overall.  In 2015 the company was awarded the German Logistics Prize and in 2016 it was awarded the European Logistics Prize.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Dorfrocker a German music group from the Lower Franconian Kirchaich. Their music belongs to the \"Party Rock\" section and contains elements of folk music, rock music, hit song and country music. Dorfrocker have appeared in over 120 television shows, have played in over 1200 live concerts at home and abroad and have more than 150,000 Facebook fans. The group consists of the three brothers Tobias, Markus and Philipp Thomann, who perform at concerts together with their live band. In 2017 they were nominated for the ECHO in the category \"Folk Music\". Songs include Auf der Alm (2011), So kenn i di (2014) and Englebert Strauss (2019)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Engelbert Strauss GmbH & Co. KG, which is based in Biebergemünd, Hesse, Germany is a German brand manufacturer, mail order company and retailer that sells workwear, safety footwear and personal protective equipment.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977197}
{"src_title": "Leo Birinski", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Variations in his name.", "content": "Leo Birinski – surname after his mother, approx. from 1908 his civil and stage name.  Other variations in spelling and form: \"Leo G. Birinski, Leo Birinsky, Lev G. Birinski, Lev Birinskij, Lav Birinski, Birinszki Leó, Lev Birinszkij, Leon Birinski, etc.\"  Leo Gottesmann – surname after his father, used as his civil name until at least 1906.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "The circumstances of Birinski's early life are quite indefinite; different sources offer eight possibilities of his place and date of birth.  He was probably born on June 8, 1884, in Lysianka, Kiev Governorate, Russian Empire (in present-day Ukraine). He occasionally presented this information in official documents, and it is supported by some indirect evidence, although it is impossible to prove definitively because the local birth records for Lysianka were not preserved.  His father, Hersch Gottesmann, was born in Borschiv in eastern Galicia and was a salesman (he indicated \"Agent\" as his employment in registration forms).  His mother, Carna, born Berinska or Birinska, was a tenant's daughter from Lysianka. Birinski spent his childhood in Ukraine and Czernowitz, the capital city of the Austro-Hungarian province of Bukovina.  At the beginning of the 20th century (either in 1901 or 1904, according to the sources consulted), he moved to Vienna. He worked in a bookshop, turned to translating and started to write by himself. From his Viennese era come three of Birinski's plays: the tragedies \"Der Moloch\" (\"The Moloch\") and \"Raskolnikoff\" (after the novel \"Crime and Punishment\" by Dostoevsky), and his most successful comedy (or tragicomedy, according to Birinski) \"Narrentanz\" (\"Dance of Fools\"), written in 1912. In March 1920, the already-mentioned suicide rumour, caused by a mistaken identity with his younger namesake, Leon Gottesmann, was spread in the local newspapers. Although repeatedly denied, the report was included into several contemporary encyclopedias. In fact, in April 1921 Birinski left Vienna and moved to Berlin.  In Germany, Birinski probably married Jewish pianist Felicia Aschkenas, born probably in 1902 in Warsaw. He worked primarily for the movie industry, wrote many screenplays, and together with Paul Leni, directed the motion picture \"Das Wachsfigurenkabinett\". During his German era he demonstrably participated in the screenplays of thirteen films, e.g. \"Tragedy of Love\" with Marlene Dietrich, \"Varieté\" by Ewald André Dupont, and pictures by Gennaro Righelli. Birinski also wrote stage play \"Der heilige Teufel (Rasputin)\". Its German text was not found, just the later English version. Probably in September 1927 Birinski left for the USA; two years later, his wife followed him. They both identified themselves to the immigration officers by Nicaraguan passports. Birinski had even listed the city of Bluefields in Nicaragua as his birthplace. Most probably this was just a false identity.  In the United States, he continued his work as an author of motion picture stories and screenplays (he participated in the ten documented films). The first Birinski's American work was probably direction of \"Das große Glück\" – the German version of \"A Ship Comes In\" from 1928. Some of his pictures belong among the so-called \"major\" films of the period: e.g. \"Mata Hari\" with Greta Garbo or Mamoulian ́s movies \"The Song of Songs\", with Marlene Dietrich, and \"The Gay Desperado\". He once again tried the work of film director with \"Flirtation\" in 1934. The last known picture by Birinski was the spy comedy \"The Lady Has Plans\" in 1942. An adaptation for the radio series, Lux Radio Theater, was also created, and broadcast in April 1943 on the CBS radio network with Rita Hayworth and William Powell in the leads. Birinski also wrote several stage plays in the USA. On Broadway his play \"Nowhere Bound\" was presented in January 1935 at the Imperial Theatre, and \"The Day Will Come\" in September 1944 at the National Theatre. In addition to these works, a manuscript of a stage play \"The Holy Devil (Rasputin)\" was found among the papers left by Herman Bernstein (a journalist and writer who died in August 1935). This play was probably never performed or published.  The last seven years of Birinski's life are enfolded in mist again. According to the extant death certificate, Leo Birinski died on October 23, 1951 at Lincoln Hospital in The Bronx, New York City. The certificate includes almost no information about the deceased. It appears that Birinski died in poverty and probably entirely alone (without any relatives or heirs). He was buried at Potter's Field at Hart Island in a mass-grave (\"plot 45, section 2, no. 14\"). In 2009, Birinski's relatives living in Israel and United States were found.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "This article is partially based on a translation from the article in Czech Wikipedia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leo Birinski (June 8, 1884 – October 23, 1951) was a playwright, screenwriter and director. He worked in Austria-Hungary, Germany and in the United States. As a playwright in Europe he gained his biggest popularity in 1910 – 1917, then he was forgotten. From the 1920s to 1940s he worked mainly as a screenwriter, first in Germany, later in the United States, to which he emigrated in September 1927. In the United States he returned to writing the stage plays. He was writing in German and later on in the United States, in English. Until recently, only a minimal amount of information about his life was available. In addition there were many legends and rumours concerning Birinski's person, some of them even spread by himself. For example, the false report of his \"suicide\" in 1920 even found its way from the newspaper obituaries into encyclopedias.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977198}
{"src_title": "Castle Tioram", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Castle Tioram may date to the thirteenth- or fourteenth century. It appears to have originally been a principal stronghold of Clann Ruaidhrí. Eilean Tioram, the island the fortress sits upon, is first recorded in a charter of Cairistíona Nic Ruaidhrí, daughter of Ailéan mac Ruaidhrí. According to early modern tradition, preserved by the seventeenth-century \"Sleat History\", the castle was erected by Ailéan's granddaughter, Áine Nic Ruaidhrí. The castle certainly served as the seat of the latter's Clann Raghnaill descendants for centuries.  As such, Castle Tioram is the traditional seat of the Clanranald (Clann Raghnaill) branch of Clan Donald. The castle was seized by Government forces in around 1692 when the clan chief Allan Macdonald of Clanranald joined the Jacobite Court in France, despite having sworn allegiance to the British Crown. A small garrison was stationed in the castle until the Jacobite rising of 1715 when Allan recaptured and torched it, purportedly to keep it out of the hands of Hanoverian forces. It has been unoccupied since that time, although there are some accounts suggesting it was partially inhabited thereafter including for the storage of firearms from the De Tuillay in the 1745 Jacobite Uprising and Lady Grange's account of her kidnapping.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Restoration proposals.", "content": "The castle is now in extremely poor condition and in 1998 was closed to the public at the insistence of the present owner despite the objections of the Highland Council's archaeologist; the walls were in surprisingly good condition, requiring only minor repairs. However, a major structural collapse occurred at the north west curtain wall in 2000.  Proposals to restore the castle by the new owners, Anta Estates, were announced in 1997 and received planning consent from Highland Council. This included the creation of a clan centre/museum, domestic apartments, and some public access. However, Historic Scotland refused Scheduled Monument Consent; a decision upheld after a local public inquiry.  The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, now part of Historic Environment Scotland, holds a substantial archive of research information, drawings, and photographs lodged by the current owners.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eilean Tioram.", "content": "The castle can be reached on foot across the tidal causeway, but there is no access to the interior because of the risk of falling masonry. Eilean Tioram is one of 43 tidal islands that can be walked to from the mainland of Great Britain and one of 17 that can be walked to from the Scottish mainland.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Castle Tioram () (, meaning \"dry castle\") is a ruined castle that sits on the tidal island Eilean Tioram in Loch Moidart, Lochaber, Highland, Scotland. It is located west of Acharacle, approximately from Fort William. Though hidden from the sea, the castle controls access to Loch Shiel. It is also known to the locals as \"Dorlin Castle\". The castle is a scheduled monument.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977199}
{"src_title": "Battle of Rozgony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "After the senior line of the Árpád dynasty died out in 1301, the succession to the throne of the Kingdom of Hungary became contested by several foreign monarchs and other runners-up. One of them was Charles Robert of Anjou, the Pope's champion. Over several years Charles drove his foreign opponents out of the country and installed himself on the Hungarian throne. At that time Hungary was a confederation of small kingdoms, principalities, and dukedoms. However, his rule remained nominal in many parts of the Kingdom because several powerful magnates, local kings, dukes, and princes still did not recognize him as the supreme king. Initially, Charles's chief adversary was Máté Csák, who controlled several counties in western and northern parts of the Hungary. However, eventually he allied himself with the Aba family, which ruled the eastern Hungarian Kingdom.  In 1312, Charles besieged Sáros Castle, (now part of Slovakia - Šariš Castle) controlled by the Abas. After the Abas received additional reinforcement from Máté Csák (according to \"Chronicon Pictum\" almost Máté's entire force as well as 1,700 mercenary spearmen), Charles Robert of Anjou was forced to retreat to the loyal Szepes county (today the region of Spiš), whose Saxon inhabitants subsequently reinforced his own troops. The Abas benefited from the retreat. They decided to use the gathered opposition forces to attack the town of Kassa (today Košice) because of its strategic importance, and partially due to the fact that just few months before Charles had Amadeus Aba assassinated by the Kassa's German colonists. Charles marched on Kassa and engaged his adversaries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The battle.", "content": "The opposition forces abandoned the siege of Kassa and positioned their troops on a hill near the Tarca (Torysa River). Charles I of Hungary was forced to position his troops in flat agricultural land under that hill. Although the numbers are uncertain, the king's army consisted of his own men, an Italian unit of Knights Hospitaller, and a 1,000-men strong infantry unit of Zipser Saxons. Because of contradicting versions in contemporary chronicles, it is not clear to what extent the Aba family was helped by Máté Csák's forces.  The battle commenced when the rebels made a surprise attack during or just after the Mass in the king's camp. A bloody mêlée followed, causing heavy casualties among knights on both sides. At one point, even the king's battle standard was lost and Charles himself had to fight under the standard of the Knights Hospitaller. In the crucial moment of the battle, a reinforcement from Kassa came and saved the king's cause. The rebel army, after it lost its commanders in the battle, was routed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Some of the key leaders of the Aba (family) perished in the battle and part of their domain was divided between the King and his loyal followers. The loss of the key ally was also an important blow to Máté Csák. Although he managed to control much of his territories until his death in 1321, his power started to decline just after the battle and he could never again launch any major offensive against the king.  The immediate consequence was that Charles I of Hungary gained control over the northeastern part of the country. But the long-term consequences of the victory were even more important. The battle drastically reduced magnates' opposition against him. The King extended his power base and prestige. The position of Charles as King of Hungary was now secured militarily and resistance against his rule came to its end. However, the Angevin rule over Hungary lasted only 74 years and the Abas continued to play an important role in Hungary even during the Angevin administration.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "Official Websites:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Rozgony or Battle of Rozhanovce was fought between King Charles I of Hungary and the family of Palatine Amade Aba on 15 June 1312, on the Rozgony (today Rozhanovce) field. \"Chronicon Pictum\" described it as the \"most cruel battle since the Mongol invasion of Europe\". Despite many casualties on the King's side, his decisive victory brought an end to the Aba family's rule over the eastern Kingdom of Hungary, weakened his major domestic opponent Máté Csák III, and ultimately secured power for Charles I of Hungary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977200}
{"src_title": "Valdemar I of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood.", "content": "Valdemar was the son of Canute Lavard, Duke of Schleswig, the chivalrous and popular eldest son of King Eric I of Denmark. Valdemar's father was murdered by King Magnus I of Sweden days before the birth of Valdemar; his mother, Ingeborg of Kiev, daughter of Grand Prince Mstislav I of Kiev and Christina Ingesdotter of Sweden, named him after her grandfather, Grand Prince Vladimir Monomakh of Kiev.  As a possible contender to the throne, and with his rivals quickly gaining power, Valdemar was raised at Ringsted in the court of Danish nobleman Asser Rig of Fjenneslev (ca. 1080-1151). Asser was a member of the Hvide noble family and had been raised together with Valdemar's father Canute Lavard. Valdemar was raised together with Asser's sons, including Absalon (c. 1128–1201) who would become his trusted friend and minister. The other brother was Esbern Snare.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Struggle for the throne.", "content": "In 1146, when Valdemar was fifteen years old, King Eric III of Denmark abdicated and a civil war erupted. The pretenders to the throne were: Sweyn III Grathe, son of King Eric II of Denmark, the son of King Eric I; and Canute V, son of Magnus I of Sweden, the son of King Niels of Denmark, brother of King Erik I. Valdemar himself held Jutland, at least Schleswig, as his possession. The civil war lasted the better part of ten years.  In 1157, the three agreed to divide the country in three among themselves. Sweyn hosted a great banquet for Canute, Absalon, and Valdemar, during which he planned to dispose of all of them. Canute was killed, but Absalon and Valdemar escaped. Valdemar returned to Jutland. Sweyn quickly launched an invasion, only to be defeated by Valdemar in the Battle of Grathe Heath on 23 October 1157. He was killed during flight, supposedly by a group of peasants who stumbled upon him as he was fleeing from the battlefield. Valdemar, having outlived all his rival pretenders, became the sole king of Denmark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sole reign.", "content": "In 1158, Absalon was elected bishop of Roskilde, and King Valdemar I made him his chief advisor. The king reorganized and rebuilt war-torn Denmark. He built Sønderborg Castle as a fortified fortress, constructed on an islet in the Als Strait (\"Als Sund\") that later was connected to Als Island. At Absalon's instigation, he declared war upon the Wends who were raiding the Danish coasts. They inhabited Pomerania and the island of Rügen in the Baltic Sea. In 1168, the Wendish capital, Arkona, was taken, and the Wends became Christians and subject to Danish suzerainty. Danish influence had reached into Pomerania. In 1175, King Valdemar I built Vordingborg Castle as a defensive fortress and as a base from which to launch raids against the German coast.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Valdemar married Sophia of Minsk (c. 1141–1198), the daughter of Richeza of Poland, dowager queen of Sweden, from her marriage to Prince Volodar of Minsk. She was the half-sister of King Canute V of Denmark. Valdemar and Sophia had the following children:  After Valdemar's death, Sophia married Landgrave Louis III of Thuringia.  Valdemar also had a son, Christopher ( 1150-1173), with his lover, Tove. Christopher was duke of Jutland from 1170 until his death.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Valdemar I of Denmark (14 January 1131 – 12 May 1182), also known as Valdemar the Great (), was King of Denmark from 1146 until his death in 1182. The reign of King Valdemar I saw the rise of Denmark, which reached its zenith under his second son, and successor, King Valdemar II of Denmark.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977201}
{"src_title": "Tertiary", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Historical use of the term.", "content": "The term Tertiary was first used by Giovanni Arduino during the mid-18th century. He classified geologic time into primitive (or primary), secondary, and tertiary periods based on observations of geology in northern Italy. Later a fourth period, the Quaternary, was applied.  In the early development of the study of geology, the periods were thought by scriptural geologists to correspond to the Biblical narrative, the rocks of the Tertiary being thought to be associated with the Great Flood.  In 1828, Charles Lyell incorporated a Tertiary Period into his own, far more detailed system of classification. He subdivided the Tertiary Period into four epochs according to the percentage of fossil mollusks resembling modern species found in those strata. He used Greek names: Eocene, Miocene, Older Pliocene, and Newer Pliocene.  Although these divisions seemed adequate for the region to which the designations were originally applied (parts of the Alps and plains of Italy), when the same system was later extended to other parts of Europe and to America, it proved to be inapplicable. Therefore, the use of mollusks was abandoned from the definition and the epochs were renamed and redefined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern equivalents.", "content": "The Tertiary's time span lies between the Mesozoic Era and the Quaternary, although no longer recognized as a formal unit by the International Commission on Stratigraphy.  The span of the Tertiary is subdivided into the Paleocene Epoch (56–66 million years BP), the Eocene Epoch (33.9–56 million years BP), the Oligocene Epoch (23–33.9 million years BP), the Miocene Epoch (5.3–23 million years BP) and the Pliocene Epoch (2.6–5.3 million years BP), extending to the first stage of the Pleistocene Epoch, the Gelasian stage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tertiary ( ) is a widely used, but obsolete term for the geologic period from 66 million to 2.6 million years ago. The period began with the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, at the start of the Cenozoic Era, and extended to the beginning of the Quaternary glaciation at the end of the Pliocene Epoch. The time span covered by the Tertiary has no exact equivalent in the current geologic time system, but it is essentially the merged Paleogene and Neogene periods, which are informally called the Lower Tertiary and the Upper Tertiary, respectively.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977202}
{"src_title": "Zhang Jinghui", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Zhang Jinghui was born in Tai'an, southwest of Mukden, Liaoning Province. The area was a battlefield in the First Sino-Japanese War and he joined the Honghuzi irregular cavalry forces of the Manchurian warlord Zhang Zuolin at an early age. These forces were recruited as mercenaries by the Japanese during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05.  In the final years of the Qing dynasty, Zhang Zuolin was appointed Viceroy of Three Northeast Provinces with his base at Fengtian, and with the Xinhai Revolution managed to obtain recognition of his forces as part of the new Republic of China military. At that time he was appointed commander of the Beiyang Army’s 27th Infantry Brigade. However, with the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, the Beiyang Army split into several mutually hostile factions.  Zhang Jinghui deserted Zhang Zuolin to join Wu Peifu's Zhili clique. He later rejoined Zhang Zuolin and served as his Minister of War in the Beiyang Government from May 1926 to June 1927 and as Minister of Enterprises from June 1927 to June 1928. Within a year he was appointed governor of the Harbin and China Eastern Railway Special District in northern Manchuria. However, following the death of Zhang Zuolin in the Huanggutun Incident on 4 June 1928, Zhang Jinghui’s relations with his son and successor, Zhang Xueliang, deteriorated. Nevertheless, both men participated in a national unity conference called by Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai-shek in January 1929 in Nanjing.  However, the political balance was changed after the Mukden Incident and the successful invasion of Manchuria by the Japanese Kwantung Army in 1931. Zhang called a conference in his office on 27 September 1931 to organize an \"Emergency Committee of the Special District\", with the goal of achieving the secession of Manchuria from China. Following the expulsion of pro-Kuomintang Gen. Ma Zhanshan from Qiqihar, Zhang proclaimed his territory to be self-governing and was inaugurated as governor on 7 January 1932. Uncertain of the intentions of the Soviet Union to the north, and unable to withstand the Japanese military presence to the south, Zhang reached an agreement with the Japanese and accepted an appointment as governor of Heilongjiang Province in the new Japanese-run state of Manchukuo. His refusal, though, to leave his stronghold in Harbin to take up residence in Qiqihar created friction with the Kwangtung Army leadership. However, when Ma Zhanshan agreed to terms with the Japanese on 14 February 1932 in exchange for the post of Governor of Heilongjiang Province, Zhang was set aside. Ma revolted in April 1932 and Zhang took his place as Minister of Defense of the Empire of Manchukuo.  On 21 May 1935, Zhang succeeded Zheng Xiaoxu as Prime Minister of Manchukuo at the instigation of the Kwantung Army over the objections of Emperor Puyi. As Prime Minister of Manchukuo, Zhang preferred to take a passive figurehead role, allowing the Japanese advisors seconded from the Kwantung Army to handle all aspects of day-to-day administration while he spent his days copying Buddhist sutras. Reviled by modern Chinese historians for his pro-Japanese stance, and nicknamed “the Tofu Prime Minister” even in his lifetime, Zhang was recorded to have only once spoken out against the Japanese administration--to criticize the forced sale of lands to Japanese colonists. In 1943 he was the official delegate from Manchukuo to the Greater East Asia Conference held in Tokyo. That same year a false report was published in \" Time Magazine\" that Zhang had poisoned his family and killed his Japanese advisor and other members of the Manchukuo government before committing suicide.  Zhang held the position of Prime Minister until the collapse of Manchukuo following the Soviet Red Army's invasion of Manchuria in August 1945.  Following World War II he was held in custody by the Soviet Union in Siberia and extradited to the People's Republic of China in 1950, where he was imprisoned at the Fushun War Criminals Management Centre. He died of heart failure nine years later in 1959.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zhang Jinghui (Chang Ching-hui; ; Hepburn: \"Chō Keikei\"); (1871 – 1 November 1959) was a Chinese general and politician during the Warlord era. He is noted for his role in the Japanese puppet regime of Manchukuo in which he served as its second and final Prime Minister.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977203}
{"src_title": "Henry Peach Robinson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Robinson was the oldest of four children of John Robinson, a Ludlow schoolmaster, and his wife Eliza. He was educated at Horatio Russell's academy in Ludlow until he was thirteen, when he took a year's drawing tuition with Richard Penwarne before being apprenticed to a Ludlow bookseller and printer, Richard Jones.  While continuing to study art, his initial career was in bookselling, in 1850 working for the Bromsgrove bookseller Benjamin Maund, then in 1851 for the London-based Whittaker & Co. In 1852 he exhibited an oil painting, \"On the Teme Near Ludlow\", at the Royal Academy. That same year he began taking photographs, and five years later, following a meeting with the photographer Hugh Welch Diamond, decided to devote himself to that medium, in 1855 opening a studio in Leamington Spa, selling portraits.  In 1856, with Rejlander, he was a founding member of the Birmingham Photographic Society.  In 1859 he married Selina Grieves, daughter of a Ludlow chemist, John Edward Grieves.  In 1864, at the age of 34, Robinson was forced to give up his studio due to ill-health from exposure to toxic photographic chemicals. Gernsheim (1962) has shown that thereafter he preferred the easier'scissors and paste-pot' method of making his combination prints, rather than the more exacting darkroom method employed by Rejlander.  Relocating to London, Robinson kept up his involvement with the theoretical side of photography, writing the influential essay \"Pictorial Effect in Photography (1869), Being Hints on Composition and Chiaroscuro for Photographers\", published in 1868. Around this time his health had improved sufficiently to open a new studio in Tunbridge Wells with Nelson King Cherrill, and in 1870 he became vice-president of the Royal Photographic Society. He advocated strongly for photography to be regarded as an art form.  The partnership with Cherrill dissolved in 1875, Robinson continuing the business until his retirement in 1888. Following internal disputes within the Photographic Society, he resigned in 1891 to become one of the early members of the rival Linked Ring society, in which he was active until 1897, when he was also elected an honorary member of the Royal Photographic Society.  Robinson was an early supporter of the Photographic Convention of the United Kingdom and took part in this institution's long running debates about photography as an art form. He was invited to serve as the President of the PCUK in 1891 but, as he described later, 'I felt compelled to decline, knowing that I could not carry out the duties as they should be carried out, having a defect of voice which would not allow me to read my own address'. He was subsequently persuaded to serve as President in 1896, when his presidential speeches were read out by a colleague.  He died aged 70 and was buried in Tunbridge Wells in early 1901.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "He was one of the most prominent art photographers of his day. His third and the most famous composite picture, \"Fading Away\" (1858) was both popular and fashionably morbid. He was a follower of the pre-Raphaelites and was influenced by the aesthetic views of John Ruskin. In his Pre-Raphaelite phase he attempted to realize moments of timeless significance in a \"mediaeval\" setting, anticipating the work of Julia Margaret Cameron, Burne-Jones and the Symbolists. According to his letters, he was influenced by the paintings of J.M.W. Turner. He defended composite photography, asserting that the creation of combination photographs were as demanding of the photographer as paintings were of the artist. Robinson compared the making of\" Fading Away\" with Zeuxis' legendary combining of the best features of five young ladies from Crotona to produce his picture of Helena.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Robinson was author of a number of texts in which he promoted the photography as an art form, his books being widely used photographic reference material in the late 19th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry Peach Robinson (9 July 1830, Ludlow, Shropshire – 21 February 1901, Royal Tunbridge Wells, Kent) was an English pictorialist photographer best known for his pioneering combination printing - joining multiple negatives or prints to form a single image; an early example of photomontage. He joined vigorously in contemporary debates in the photographic press and associations about the legitimacy of 'art photography' and in particular the combining of separate images into one.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977204}
{"src_title": "Commius", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Ally of Caesar.", "content": "When Julius Caesar conquered the Atrebates in Gaul in 57 BC, as recounted in his \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\", he appointed Commius as king of the tribe. Before Caesar's first expedition to Britain in 55 BC, Commius was sent as Caesar's envoy to persuade the Britons not to resist him, as Caesar believed he would have influence on the island. However he was arrested as soon as he arrived. When the Britons failed to prevent Caesar from landing, Commius was handed over as part of the negotiations. Commius was able to provide a small detachment of cavalry from his tribe to help Caesar defeat further British attacks. During Caesar's second expedition to Britain Commius negotiated the surrender of the British leader Cassivellaunus. He remained Caesar's loyal client through the Gaulish revolts of 54 BC, and in return Caesar allowed the Atrebates to remain independent and exempt from tax, and in addition appointed Commius to rule the Morini.  However this loyalty was not to last, as related by Aulus Hirtius in the final book of the \"De Bello Gallico\", written after Caesar's death. While Caesar was in Cisalpine Gaul in the winter of 53, the legate Titus Labienus believed that Commius had been conspiring against the Romans with other Gaulish tribes. Labienus sent a tribune, Gaius Volusenus Quadratus, and some centurions to summon Commius to a sham meeting at which they would execute him for his treachery, but Commius escaped with a severe head wound. He vowed never again to associate with Romans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Enemy of Caesar.", "content": "In 52 BC the Atrebates joined the pan-Gaulish revolt led by Vercingetorix, and Commius was one of the leaders of the army that attempted to relieve Vercingetorix at the Siege of Alesia. After Vercingetorix was defeated Commius joined a revolt by the Bellovaci and persuaded some 500 Germans to support them, but this too was defeated and Commius sought refuge with his German allies.  In 51 BC he returned to his homeland with a small mounted war-band for a campaign of agitation and guerrilla warfare. That winter Mark Antony, a legionary legate at the time, ordered Volusenus to pursue him with cavalry, something Volusenus was more than happy to do. When the two groups of horsemen met Volusenus was victorious, but sustained a spear-wound to the thigh. Commius escaped and sued for peace through intermediaries. He offered hostages and promised he would live where he was told and no longer resist Caesar, on the condition that he never again had to meet a Roman. Antony granted his petition.  A 1st century AD source, Sextus Julius Frontinus's \"Strategemata\", tells how Commius fled to Britain with a group of followers with Caesar in pursuit. When he reached the English Channel the wind was in his favour but the tide was out, leaving the ships stranded on the flats. Commius ordered the sails raised anyway. Caesar, following from a distance, assumed they were afloat and called off the pursuit.  This suggests that the truce negotiated with Antony broke down and hostilities resumed between Commius and Caesar. However John Creighton suggests that Commius was sent to Britain as a condition of his truce with Antony - where better to ensure that he never again met a Roman? - and that Frontinus's anecdote either refers to an escape prior to the truce, or is historically unreliable, perhaps a legend Frontinus heard while governor of Britain (75 to 78 AD). Creighton argues that Commius was in fact set up as a friendly king in Britain by Caesar, and his reputation was rehabilitated by blaming his betrayal on Labienus (who deserted Caesar for Pompey in the civil war of 49 - 45 BC).  Commius's name appears on coins of post-conquest date in Gaul, paired with either Garmanos or Carsicios. This suggests he continued to have some power in Gaul in his absence, perhaps ruling through regents. Alternatively, Garmanos and Carsicios may have been Commius's sons who noted their father's name on their own coins.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "King in Britain.", "content": "By about 30 BC Commius had established himself as king of the Atrebates in Britain, and was issuing coins from Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester). It is possible that Commius and his followers founded this kingdom, although the fact that, when Caesar was unable to bring his cavalry to Britain in 55 BC, Commius was able to provide a small detachment of horsemen from his people, suggests that there were already Atrebates in Britain at this time. Coins marked with his name continued to be issued until about 20 BC, and some have suggested, based on the length of his \"floruit\", that there may have been two kings, father and son, of the same name. However, if Commius was a young man when appointed by Caesar he could very well have lived until 20 BC. Some coins of this period are stamped \"COM COMMIOS\", which, if interpreted as \"Commius son of Commius\", would seem to support the two kings theory.  Three later kings, Tincomarus, Eppillus and Verica, are named on their coins as sons of Commius. From about 25 BC Commius appears to have ruled in collaboration with Tincomarus. After his death Tincomarus appears to have ruled the northern part of the kingdom from Calleva, while Eppillus ruled the southern part from Noviomagus (Chichester). Eppillus became sole ruler ca. AD 7. Verica succeeded him about 15, and ruled until shortly before the Roman conquest of 43.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Name.", "content": "The name Commius (British \"*Combios\" 'cutter, smiter, killer') is thought to derive from the Celtic verb \"*kom·binati\" 'to cut, smite, kill' (Welsh \"cymynu\", Old Irish \"com·ben\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture and fiction.", "content": "French Nobel laureate Anatole France wrote a lengthy short story about the Romanization of Belgic Gaul from the point of view of Commius, whose name he recasts in Germanic form as Komm. The story, \"Komm of the Atrebates,\" appears in France's historical fiction collection \"Clio\" and can be read in English translation online.  Commius appeared in the 2001 French movie \"Vercingétorix.\"  Caesar (Masters of Rome #5) by Colleen McCullough. A minor character in the series but portrayed accurately to history within a historical fiction novel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Commius (Commios, Comius, Comnios) was a king of the Belgic nation of the Atrebates, initially in Gaul, then in Britain, in the 1st century BC.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977205}
{"src_title": "Foudre-class landing platform dock", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The \"Foudre\" class was designed to load a mechanized regiment aboard and act as its logistical support vessel once in theatre. Each ship of the class displaces 11,300 tonnes at standard load and 12,000 tonnes at full load. The vessels are long with a beam of and a draught of.  The \"Foudre\" class carry large stowage areas which can be used to ferry battle tanks and vehicles, a 52-ton elevating platform, a lateral ramp and a flight deck able to simultaneously operate several helicopters. Three rotations of such ships can ferry a whole armoured regiment with its 22 AMX-30 or Leclerc battle tanks, 44 AMX 10 RC heavy armoured cars, 22 \"véhicules de l'Avant Blindé\", 41 all-terrain light vehicles (including 16 MILAN anti-tank missile systems), 54 TRM 4000 trucks, 15 TRM 2000 light trucks, 5 fuel trucks, 2 tug trucks, 6 120 mm mortars, 67 towed containers and one beach carpeting system, overall 3300 tonnes.  The hull is built around a well deck which constitutes three-quarters of the length of the ship, and can accommodate up to eight landing craft. The landing craft can be put to sea by filling ballast tanks and lowering the ship, and opening the rear door.  The aeronautical installations allow all-weather operations of transport helicopters, intended to carry commandos. 4 Super-Puma or 2 Super-Frelon helicopters can be accommodated in the hangar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Propulsion.", "content": "The \"Foudre\" class is equipped with two SEMT Pielstick 16 PC 2.5 V400 diesels connected to two adjustable-blade propellers and one beam propeller. There is an auxiliary beam propeller (1,000 hp). This gives the ships a speed of and an effective range of at.  The electrical plant consists of five SACM-Unidiesel diesels alternators creating 4,250 kW (5 × 850 kW) of electrical power.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "Ships of the \"Foudre\" class are supplied with three surface-to-air Mistral systems for air defence. They are also equipped with three 30 mm Breda-Mauser guns and four 12.7 mm M2-HB Browing machine guns.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Service history.", "content": "In 1999, \"Siroco\" was deployed to East Timor as part of the International Force for East Timor.  In June 2010, French defence minister Hervé Morin offered \"Foudre\" to the Argentine Navy during his visit to Buenos Aires. Argentina had already declined the transfer of the in the past and is more interested in seeking French support for a locally built amphibious ship instead.  In October 2011 it was announced that Chile and France had finalized negotiations for sale of \"Foudre\" to Chile for around USD80 million.  In December 2011 \"Foudre\" entered service in the Chilean Navy as \"Sargento Aldea\". The 2013 French White Paper on Defence and National Security said that \"Siroco\" would be decommissioned, a decision confirmed in October 2014.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Foudre\"-class landing platform dock was a class of landing platform docks designed and used by the French Navy. The vessels have operated from 1990 until the present. In 2011 \"Foudre\" was sold to the Chilean Navy. \"Siroco\" was sold to the Brazilian Navy in 2015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977206}
{"src_title": "Kingdom of Iceland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins of Danish rule.", "content": "Because of the Kalmar Union, Iceland had been under the control of the Crown of Denmark since 1380, although formally it had been a Norwegian possession until 1814. In 1874, one thousand years after the first acknowledged settlement, Denmark granted Iceland home rule. The constitution, written the same year, was revised in 1903 and the extent of Iceland's home rule increased in 1904. A minister for Icelandic affairs, residing in Reykjavík, was made responsible to the \"Althing\", the Icelandic parliament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Establishment of the kingdom.", "content": "On 1 December 1918, the Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark, recognized Iceland as a fully sovereign state, an independent country in personal union with Denmark through a common monarch. The Kingdom of Iceland established its own flag and coat of arms and asked that Denmark represent its foreign affairs and defence interests on its behalf while retaining full control over its foreign affairs and defence. Iceland opened its first Embassy in 1920. The Act would be reviewed in 1940 and could be revoked three years later if agreement to continue it could not be reached.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II, British occupation and the establishment of the republic.", "content": "The German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940 severed communications between Iceland and Denmark. As a result, on 10 April, the Althing passed two resolutions investing the Icelandic cabinet with the power of head of state and declaring that Iceland would accept full responsibility for both foreign policy and coastal surveillance. A year later, on 15 May 1941 the Althing adopted a law creating the position of regent for Sveinn Björnsson in order to represent the monarchy. During the first year of World War II, Iceland strictly enforced a position of neutrality and took action against both British and German forces that violated it. On 10 May 1940, Operation \"Fork\" was launched by the United Kingdom when military forces sailed into Reykjavík harbour and began an invasion of Iceland. The government of Iceland issued a protest against what it called a \"flagrant violation\" of Icelandic neutrality. On the day of the invasion, Prime Minister Hermann Jónasson read a radio announcement instructing Icelanders to treat the British troops as guests. The Allied occupation of Iceland lasted until 1941 when the Government of Iceland asked the United States to take over its defence. The defence of Iceland was the United States' first participation in World War II.  At its peak, Britain had approximately 25,000 troops stationed in Iceland, all but eliminating unemployment in Reykjavík and other strategically important places. In July 1941, the \"Althingi\" adopted the American–Icelandic defence agreement, passing responsibility for Iceland's defence to the United States. As many as 40,000 American soldiers were then stationed on the island, outnumbering the native population of adult men. (Iceland's total native population during the war was approximately 120,000.)  Following a constitutional referendum in May 1944, Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944. Many Danes felt offended at its timing, as Denmark was still occupied by Germany. The king in Copenhagen, Christian X, nonetheless sent a message of congratulations to the Icelandic people.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Kingdom of Iceland (; ) was a sovereign and independent country with a constitutional and hereditary monarchy that was established by the Act of Union with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918. It lasted until 17 June 1944 when a national referendum established the Republic of Iceland in its place.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977207}
{"src_title": "Cecília Schelingová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Cecília Schelingová was born at Krivá na Orave as the tenth of eleven children to Pavol Scheling and Zuzana Pániková on 24 December 1916 and was baptized right after her birth.  Her initial studies spanned from 1922 until 1930 and her call to the religious life began to blossom in 1929 when the Sisters of Charity of the Holy Cross arrived in her hometown to educate there. On 6 July 1931 - with her mother going with her to the motherhouse - she requested to join the congregation but she could not pronounce her profession or join the order until she completed a nursing course as well as a radiological course that the order requested she do. The postulant then commenced her period of novitiate on 28 January 1936. She made her initial vows on 30 January 1937 while assuming the religious name of \"Zdenka\". She began to work at the hospital at Humenné from 1937 near modern Ukraine and then relocated to the hospital at Bratislava in 1942 where she worked in the radiological department. She made her solemn profession on 28 January 1943. In 1952 she began to serve in the x-ray area.  The communists soon assumed total power in the nation in 1948 and started their mass persecution of religious and priest alike with countless arrested and tortured with some sent in droves to the hospital for treatment. She aided the ailing priest Sandtner and celebrated forbidden Mass with him and managed to get him to remain in hospital when authorities deemed his condition to have improved instead of watching him being sent back to prison. In February 1952 she aided the politically-vocal condemned priest Stefan Kostial flee from his fate which would have been death in Siberia when she slipped sleeping pills into a guard's tea allowing the priest to flee; she organized this on 19 February - a day before the priest was to appear in court. Kostial had been jailed and then hospitalized after being tortured. On 29 February 1952 she attempted to aid three priests and three seminarians flee but she failed to do this and was instead arrested and tortured. Before her court appearance she lived in a cold and windowless cell. Schelingová was sentenced on 17 June 1952 to over a decade of imprisonment of a period that was defined as 1952 until 1964 and from that point to 1955 she was sent from prison to prison (such as in Bratislava and Brno) where she was often beaten and tortured. Torture saw her right breast torn apart from continual kicks and breast cancer soon set in as a result. She soon was admitted into a prison ward of the Prague hospital in 1954 where it was amputated without anesthesia. Helen Korda - a political prisoner who herself underwent an operation around the same time - agreed to look after the recovering Schelingová.  Apolónia Galis (d. 21 June 2003) visited her in prison with a guard present though secretly bought her cakes with vitamins contained in them in order to take care of her health. Government officials secured her release from prison on 16 April 1955 - a decade before her actual release date - so that she would not die on the government's watch. But police harassment saw her no longer welcome at the motherhouse of her order and from the hospital where she worked. It was Galis who lived in Trnava took her in. She was admitted into the Trnava hospital on 19 April 1955 and she remained there in ill health until her death.  Schelingová died at dawn on 31 July 1955 after she received the sacraments for the final time. Her remains were relocated in 1979 and then for the final time on 6 June 2003. On 6 April 1970 the regional Bratislava court ruled that the late nun was in fact innocent having received a \"false and artificial accusation\" that had been motivated for political purposes rather that in the pursuit of justice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beatification.", "content": "The beatification process commenced on 22 February 2000 after the Congregation for the Causes of Saints issued the official \"nihil obstat\" to the cause and titled the late religious as a Servant of God. This allowed for a diocesan process to open to investigate the life of the nun and it spanned from 18 September 2000 until its solemn closure on 12 January 2003 which led to the C.C.S. validating the process on 31 January 2003 in Rome; the C.C.S. then received the Positio dossier from the postulation in 2003.  Theologians discussed and approved the cause on 2 May 2003 while the C.C.S. themselves approved it as well on 3 June 2003. The pope approved the cause on 7 July 2003 and determined that - though not murdered - her persecution and her declining health after her prison time made her a martyr. She received beatification from Pope John Paul II on 14 September 2003 when the pope visited Slovakia. Her niece Marge Van Lierde - along with her husband and two children - attended the celebration and were seated in the eighth row.  The process for the miracle needed for her sainthood was investigated in the Archdiocese of Denver in the United States of America and Archbishop Samuel Joseph Aquila oversaw the start of the diocesan process on 16 October 2013 and its conclusion on 28 February 2016.  The current postulator assigned to this cause is the Rev. Ľudovít Pokojný.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cecília Schelingová (24 December 1916 – 31 July 1955), also known as Zdenka, was a Slovak Roman Catholic professed religious of the Congregation of the Sisters of Charity of the Holy Cross and a victim of communist persecution in the former Czechoslovakia. Schelingová worked for the most part in the hospital at Bratislava before her arrest and aided priests fleeing persecution from the totalitarian communist regime in her home nation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977208}
{"src_title": "Eleanor of Alburquerque", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Her father was Sancho Alfonso, 1st Count of Alburquerque, who was an illegitimate son of King Alfonso XI of Castile and his mistress Eleanor of Guzman, and a brother of King Henry II of Castile. Her mother was Infanta Beatrice, Countess of Alburquerque, who was daughter of Peter I of Portugal and Ines de Castro. Eleanor was born in Aldeadavila de la Ribera, now in National Park since 2002 of Arribes del Duero Natural Park, province of Salamanca.  Eleanor's brother was Ferdinand, 2nd Count of Alburquerque.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "Eleanor was originally betrothed to Frederick, illegitimate son of Henry II of Castile, however this engagement was broken off.  Upon the death of the sickly John I of Castile on October 9 of 1390 the Regency Council addressed the issue of the heir presumptive, Infante Henry at the time eleven years of age and his brother Infante Ferdinand, who was then ten years. It was agreed that Ferdinand could not marry before his brother Henry reached the age of fourteen. Then he would be granted the privileges and social policies majority.  Peter I of Castile was murdered in March 1369 by his bastard brother Henry. The representatives of the clergy, the nobility, the state of the gentry and merchants, as well as the authorized legal representatives of some Castillian cities agreed that Henry's grandson Infante Henry should marry the granddaughter of the murdered Peter, the English princess Catherine of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt. As the elder brother, Henry, fulfilled these requirements then so should his brother Infante Ferdinand, with a good wife who was honorable and rich.  It was then heard that Eleanor of Alburquerque was sixteen and old enough to marry. She expressed her agreement in marriage but could not take place as Ferdinand was not yet ten years old. She owned the towns of Haro, Briones, Vilforado, Ledesma with the five towns, Albuquerque, the Codesera, Azagala, Alconchel, Medellin, Alconétar and Villalon, a gift from John I of Castile. This made Eleanor a very attractive offer to Ferdinand.  In 1394, Eleanor and Ferdinand were married. They had seven children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1412, Ferdinand and Eleanor became King and Queen of Aragon after the Compromise of Caspe. However they reigned for only four years, when Ferdinand died in 1416, aged 36 years. Eleanor, who was then 42 years old, retired to Medina del Campo. In 1435 her sons, the princes of Aragon were taken prisoners of the Genoese after the naval battle of Ponza.  The Royal Palace of Medina del Campo, birthplace of her husband and her children, was transformed into the Convent of Santa María la Real. There, Eleanor witnessed her children fighting against the royalist party led by Álvaro de Luna. Eleonor lost some of her possessions as a benefit for the latter.  Eleanor died in Medina del Campo, province of Valladolid, in 1435. Her grave is in the Convent of Santa María la Real, in a simple grave on the floor. It has a tablet that is stone Toledo dark, with the Royal Arms carved on it.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Eleanor, 3rd Countess of Alburquerque (1374 – 16 December 1435) became Queen consort of Aragon by her marriage to Ferdinand I of Aragon. In Spanish, she is known as \"Leonor Urraca de Castilla, condesa de Alburquerque\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977209}
{"src_title": "Real-time bidding", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Privacy and security.", "content": "As this required collection and accumulation of very detailed behavioral data about the user for the purpose of the predictive function as well as fraud detection, which is then being traded between hundreds of entities, RTB is causing privacy concerns and attracting attention from privacy regulating bodies. According to UK's ICO report, companies involved in RTB \"were collecting and trading information such as race, sexuality, health status or political affiliation\" without consent from affected users. Simon McDougall of ICO reported, in June 2019, that \"sharing people’s data with potentially hundreds of companies, without properly assessing and addressing the risk of these counterparties, raises questions around the security and retention of this data.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "How it works.", "content": "A typical transaction begins with a user visiting a website. This triggers a bid request that can include various pieces of data such as the user's demographic information, browsing history, location, and the page being loaded. The request goes from the publisher to an ad exchange, which submits it and the accompanying data to multiple advertisers who automatically submit bids in real time to place their ads. Advertisers bid on each ad impression as it is served. The impression goes to the highest bidder and their ad is served on the page.  The bidding happens autonomously and advertisers set maximum bids and budgets for an advertising campaign. The criteria for bidding on particular types of consumers can be very complex, taking into account everything from very detailed behavioural profiles to conversion data. Probabilistic models can be used to determine the probability for a click or a conversion given the user history data (aka user journey). This probability can be used to determine the size of the bid for the respective advertising slot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Demand-side platforms.", "content": "Demand-side platforms (DSPs) give buyers direct RTB access to multiple sources of inventory. They typically streamline ad operations with applications that simplify workflow and reporting. DSPs are directed at advertisers. The technology that powers an ad exchange can also provide the foundation for a DSP, allowing for synergy between advertising campaigns.  The primary distinction between an ad network and a DSP is that DSPs have the technology to determine the value of an individual impression in real time (less than 100 milliseconds) based on what is known about a user's history.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Supply-side platforms.", "content": "Large publishers often manage multiple advertising networks and use supply-side platforms (SSPs) to manage advertising yield. Supply-side platforms utilize data generated from impression-level bidding to help tailor advertising campaigns. Applications to manage ad operations are also often bundled into SSPs. SSP technology is adapted from ad exchange technology.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Challenges with mobile implementation.", "content": "An individual's browser history is more difficult to determine on mobile devices. This is due to technical limitations that continue to make the type of targeting and tracking available on the desktop essentially impossible on smartphones and tablets. The lack of a universal cookie alternative for mobile web browsing also limits the growth and feasibility of programmatic ad buying. Mobile real time bidding also lacks universal standards.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Real-time bidding (RTB) is a means by which advertising inventory is bought and sold on a per-impression basis, via programmatic instantaneous auction, similar to financial markets. With real-time bidding, advertising buyers bid on an impression and, if the bid is won, the buyer's ad is instantly displayed on the publisher's site. Real-time bidding lets advertisers manage and optimize ads from multiple ad-networks by granting the user access to a multitude of different networks, allowing them to create and launch advertising campaigns, prioritize networks and allocate percentages of unsold inventory, known as backfill.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977210}
{"src_title": "Alex Honnold", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and work.", "content": "Honnold was born in Sacramento, California, the son of community college professors Dierdre Wolownick and Charles Forrest Honnold. His paternal roots are German and his maternal roots are Polish. He started climbing in a climbing gym at the age of 5 and was climbing \"many times a week\" by age 10. He participated in many national and international youth climbing championships as a teenager.  \"I was never, like, a bad climber [as a kid], but I had never been a great climber, either,\" he says. \"There were a lot of other climbers who were much, much stronger than me, who started as kids and were, like, instantly freakishly strong like they just have a natural gift. And that was never me. I just loved climbing, and I've been climbing all the time ever since, so I've naturally gotten better at it, but I've never been gifted.\"  After graduating from Mira Loma High School as part of the International Baccalaureate Programme in 2003, he enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley, to study civil engineering. His maternal grandfather died and his parents got divorced during his first year of college, and Honnold skipped many of his classes to boulder by himself at Indian Rock. He described the experience as \"heinous.... I didn't live in a dorm. We had a family friend who let me sublet his two-bedroom apartment in town. In my one year at Berkeley, I never met anybody. I never spoke to anybody.\"  He dropped out of Berkeley and spent time living at home and driving around California to go climbing. \"I'd wound up with my mom's old minivan, and that was my base,\" he said. \"I'd use it to drive to Joshua Tree to climb or I'd drive to LA to see my girlfriend. My orbit was tiny and really cheap. I destroyed that van fairly quickly; it died on me one day, and for the next year I lived just on my bicycle and in a tent.\"  In 2007, he bought a 2002 Ford Econoline E150 van, allowing him to focus on climbing and follow the weather.  According to a 2011 \"Alpinist\" profile: He gained mainstream recognition after his 2012 solo of the \"Regular Northwest Face of Half Dome\" was featured in the film \"Alone on the Wall\" and a subsequent \"60 Minutes\" interview.  In November 2011, Honnold and Hans Florine missed setting the record time on the Nose route on Yosemite's El Capitan by 45 seconds. At the time the record stood at 2:36:45, as set by Dean Potter & Sean Leary in November 2010. On June 17, 2012, the two set a new record of 2:23:46 (or 2:23:51) on that same route.  In November 2014, Clif Bar announced that they would no longer sponsor Honnold, along with four other climbers, mostly free soloists. \"We concluded that these forms of the sport are pushing boundaries and taking the element of risk to a place where we as a company are no longer willing to go,\" the company wrote in an open letter.  On June 3, 2017, he made the first free solo ascent of El Capitan, completing the 2,900-foot Freerider route (5.12d VI) in 3 hours and 56 minutes. The feat, described as \"one of the great athletic feats of any kind, ever\", was documented by climber and photographer Jimmy Chin and documentary filmmaker E. Chai Vasarhelyi, as the subject of the documentary \"Free Solo\". Among other awards, the film won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature (2018).  On June 6, 2018, Honnold teamed up with Tommy Caldwell to break the speed record for the Nose on El Capitan in Yosemite. They completed the approximately 3,000-foot route in 1:58:07, becoming the first climbers to complete the route in under two hours.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Honnold lived in a van for over a decade. \"I don't think 'van life' is particularly appealing,\" he says. \"It's not like I love living in a car, but I love living in all these places. I love being in Yosemite; I love being basically wherever the weather is good; I love being able to follow good conditions all over. And be relatively comfortable as I do it. And so that pretty much necessitates living in a car... If I could, like, miraculously teleport a house from place to place, I'd prefer to live in a nice comfortable house. Though, honestly, the van is kind of nice. I like having everything within arm's reach. When I stay in a hotel room – like, sometimes you get put up in a really classy hotel room, and it's really big, and you have to walk quite a ways to the bathroom, and you're like, 'Man, I wish I had my [pee] bottle.' Who wants to walk all the ways to the bathroom in the middle of the night when you could just lean over and grab your bottle and go?\" The van he lives in is custom-outfitted with a kitchenette and cabinets.  In 2017, Honnold bought a home in the Las Vegas area. \"I didn't have any furniture at first, so I lived in the van in the driveway for the first couple weeks. It felt more like home than an empty house did.\" Around the same time, he replaced the Ford Econoline van he had lived in since 2007 and put 200,000 miles on with a new 2016 Ram ProMaster, which he still lives and travels in for most of the year.  Honnold is a vegetarian, and he does not drink alcohol or use other drugs. He is an avid reader with interests in classic literature, environmentalism, and economics, and he describes himself as a militant, anti-religion atheist and a feminist.  Between climbs, he runs or hikes to maintain fitness.  Honnold met Sanni McCandless at a book signing in 2015; they became a couple soon after. Sanni and her relationship with Honnold feature prominently in \"Free Solo\". On December 25, 2019, Honnold announced, via social media, that he and McCandless are engaged.  Dierdre Wolownick, Alex Honnold's mother, is the oldest woman (at the age of 66) to climb El Capitan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philanthropy.", "content": "In 2012, Honnold started giving away one-third of his income to solar projects that increased energy access world-wide. Soon, this idea expanded to form the Honnold Foundation. The Honnold Foundation's mission is \"promoting solar energy for a more equitable world.\".  \"The Honnold Foundation envisions a world where all people have equal access to opportunity and live in balance with the environment. We [the foundation's team] believe in solar as a proven, environmentally sound solution to global energy poverty, and we award grants to bold and ethical organizations driving innovation in the solar industry.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "While Honnold is best known for his starring role in the Oscar-winning documentary \"Free Solo\", he has also appeared in a number of other films.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexander Honnold (born August 17, 1985) is an American rock climber best known for his free solo ascents of big walls. His 2017 accomplishment of free soloing El Capitan, in Yosemite National Park, is regarded by some as one of the greatest athletic achievements of all time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977211}
{"src_title": "Zumba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "Zumba was founded in 1998 by Pérez in Cali, Colombia. Pérez, an aerobics instructor, forgot to bring his regular music to his aerobics class. He happened to have cassette tapes of Latin dance music—salsa and merengue—and danced to them instead, which Pérez later taught as \"Rumbacize\". In 2001, Pérez partnered with Alberto Perlman and Alberto Aghion, and the trio released a series of fitness videos sold via infomercial. Insight Venture Partners and the Raine Group made an investment in 2012. The company expanded into class instruction and by 2015, according to Perlman, there were 14 million Zumba students in 186 countries.  The word \"Zumba\" is a neologism that was expressly created as a brand name. The original name was \"Rumbacize\", a combination of rumba (a Spanish word \"party\" and various dances) and Jazzercize.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Choreography.", "content": "Zumba choreography is composed using all or some of the sixteen core steps. There are four basic rhythms: salsa, reggaeton, merengue and cumbia, and each basic rhythm has four core steps.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classes.", "content": "Zumba classes are typically about an hour long and are taught by instructors licensed by Zumba Fitness, LLC. In one Zumba class, a person can burn up to 600 kcal, depending on the energy put forth. The music comes from the following dance styles: cumbia, salsa, merengue, mambo, flamenco, chachacha, reggaeton, soca, samba, hip hop music, axé music and tango. Zumba is one of the most versatile fitness workouts, as classes can be geared for any fitness level.  There are ten types of classes, for different levels of age and exertion.  Zumba instructors have the option to become ZINTM Members (Zumba Instructor Network members) to receive monthly music and bimonthly training DVDs to assist with the creation of music and choreography for their personal Zumba classes. By 2019, there are more than 100,000 Zumba instructors around the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Benefit.", "content": "Zumba is a total-body cardio and aerobic workout, which provides a large calorie consumption. A study shows that a person burns 300 to 900kcal with an hour-long Zumba exercise.  Because Zumba offers different options, proponents of the Zumba program claim that it is safe for all ages, meaning that anyone from age 0 to 100 can participate in this form of aerobic exercise. Some of the classes are specifically aimed at elderly people, to help them build strength, improve motion and posture, and socialize.  Besides its high calorie burning benefit, Zumba can help lower the risk of heart disease, reduce the blood pressure and bad cholesterol, and increase your good cholesterol.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legal status.", "content": "In June 2017, Zumba was banned in Iran for being un-Islamic. Shortly after, in August 2017, six people were arrested after being accused of 'trying to change lifestyles' by teaching Zumba.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Events.", "content": "The annual ZINcon takes place in the US, where Zumba instructors from all over the world are reunited and attend master classes, speciality training and a Zumba concert. In addition to the Annual Zumba Convention, Zumba also holds a number of shorter one-day Academies where instructors can meet and attend master classes and rhythm sessions. These events are held in cities globally. In January 2016, the first Zumba Cruise took place.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "In 2005, the Zumba Academy was launched to license instructors for teaching Zumba classes. Zumba sold DVDs via infomercials in 2002. More than 10 million DVDs have been sold. In July 2012, Zumba released the compilation album \"Zumba Fitness Dance Party\". In 2007 the company launched a clothing line called Zumba Wear. As of 2012, official apparel sales amounted to $10 million per year.  In 2010 Zumba released its first fitness video game on 30 November 2010., it had sold 3 million copies. The \"Zumba Fitness 2\" video game was released in November 2011. A similar game was released on the Xbox 360 as \"Zumba Fitness Rush\" in February 2012. \"Zumba Fitness Core\" was released in October 2012 for the Wii and Xbox 360. The game includes new features such as nutrition tips and ability to set personal goals. \"\" was released on 5 November 2013. It features a new World Tour mode that unlocks songs from seven global destinations as a player progresses, as well as authentic customs, local rhythms and native dance styles. The game was followed by \"Zumba Kids\" on 19 November 2013. All of the Zoë Mode-developed Zumba titles run on Epic Games' Unreal Engine 3. In November 2019, \"Zumba Burn It Up!\" was released by 505 Games, for the Nintendo Switch, the first Zumba game in 6 years. It will be released in Japan on June 18, 2020.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zumba is an exercise fitness program created by Colombian dancer and choreographer Alberto \"Beto\" Pérez during the 1990s. Zumba is a trademark owned by Zumba Fitness, LLC. The Brazilian pop singer Claudia Leitte has become the international ambassador to Zumba Fitness.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977212}
{"src_title": "Kevin Richardson (zookeeper)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kevin Richardson was born in the Nightingale Clinic in Johannesburg, South Africa, on the 8th of October, 1974. He spent his childhood in the neighbourhood of Orange Grove. His mother, Patricia, worked for Barclays Bank and was also born in South Africa. Richardson's father, who worked for a pharmaceutical company, was born in the United Kingdom and moved to South Africa from Reading, Berkshire. Kevin Richardson is the youngest of four children: he has an older brother and two sisters who are twins. His father died when Richardson was thirteen years old. When he was about sixteen, he met Stan Schmidt and began his career as a \"self-taught behaviourist.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Kevin Richardson owns and operates the Kevin Richardson Wildlife Sanctuary, located an hour northeast of Johannesburg, South Africa. Richardson is a firm opponent of \"canned hunting\", which is the hunting of lions locked within an enclosed location, making them easier to hunt and kill. To help combat this problematic epidemic, he has a strict no breeding policy at his sanctuary to reduce the likelihood of his lions being bought and sold for that very purpose.  One of the most intriguing aspects of Richardson's sanctuary is his relationship with his lions. Kevin is known for interacting with them within the confines of his sanctuary, and on long enrichment walks throughout the game reserve. Unlike other game reserves and sanctuaries, Richardson does not allow his guests to go on these lion walks with him, as he knows that while his lions are well behaved for him, they are still dangerous animals, and the wild nature within will always be there.  \"It comes as a shock to most people that lions are incredibly at risk with less than 20,000 left in the wild and numbers dropping year on year. Wild lions aside, captive lions suffer equally with three lions shot daily in a canned hunt – a practice which forms part of an elaborate economic cycle that capitalizes on the breeding of lions as if they were cattle. Well-meaning, but naïve tourists flock to South Africa each year to bottle feed or pet lion cubs believing they are contributing to the conservation of the species. This is a terrible deception and if a tourist facility is breeding lion cubs and allowing tourists to pet them – they are almost certainly part of the canned lion hunting network.\" --- Kevin Richardson, September 2019", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Facilities.", "content": "Richardson worked in a Lion Park in Broederstroom, a town 35 miles north of his hometown, Johannesburg, in South Africa. Whilst primarily specializing in lions, he has also interacted with hyenas and black panthers. The park, which was set up with the help of Rodney Fuhr, is and was built for the set of the movie White Lion. Richardson cares for thirty-nine lions at this facility. Currently, the facility is private, but there are plans in the future to open it to the public. However, the sanctuary is open for guided group tours and has a large volunteering program as of 2014.  As of 2015, the Kevin Richardson Wildlife Sanctuary relocated to Welgedacht Private Game Reserve near Pretoria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lion care.", "content": "He has slept next to, fed, and lived with lions. He has also worked with cheetahs, leopards, and hyenas. He prefers lions to any other big cat. His relationship with the animals, however, has not been an instant one. He has known all of the lions he works with since they were cubs. He still continues his bond with Tau and Napoleon, the lion brothers who were his introduction to big cats.  Despite his prior involvement in lion cub petting, Richardson rejects the traditional notion that lions should be mastered and dominated, preferring to develop a relationship over time, based on love and respect. \"A lion is not a possession; it's a sentient being, so you must pay attention and develop your bond like with any relationship.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dangers.", "content": "Richardson has been scratched, punctured and bitten but is not dissuaded by these dangers. In an interview, he mentions, \"Obviously one realizes the danger when working with animals of this calibre, I've weighed the pros and I've weighed the cons, and the pros far outweigh the cons.\" He warns about following in his footsteps, however. All the pictures of his adventures do not portray his years of experience and bonding. \"People like to take things out of context. They don't know the relationship I have with this lion.\" As a rule, Richardson only interacts with lions he has been with since their birth.  Richardson also differentiates his work from that of zoologists interacting with completely wild animals they have not raised, or that of trainers whose animals are required to perform on stage day after day.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "Richardson once worked as a lion handler for the lion park that featured in a 2014 segment of the CBS program \"60 Minutes\", which revealed that the Lion Park in Lanseria bred lions to ensure a supply of cubs year-round. When the lions reached maturity, they were shipped out to canned hunting operations because they were too dangerous to be near tourists.  Richardson left the park when he discovered the true intentions of the park owner, as he opposes canned hunting.<ref name=\"IOL/ National Geographic\"></ref>", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Works/publications.", "content": "Richardson has been featured in many documentaries, movies, and commercials. It was during his stint at the Lion Park that Michael Rosenberg decided to use Richardson in documentaries such as \"Dangerous Companions\" and \"In Search of a Legend\". \"Growing Up Hyena\" is a documentary in which Richardson sets out to change the misconception of the hyena as a feared and loathed scavenger. Richardson's work in the Okavango Delta and Lydenberg had brought forth the documentary concerning black leopards entitled \"In Search of a Legend\". Because of the frequency of filming, Richardson moved all of the animals to one facility at the Kingdom of the White Lion property.  Richardson's 2010 documentary is entitled \"White Lion: Home is a Journey\". The film is about a young white lion named, \"Letsatsi,\" who survives against all odds. This film is the first to star native lions instead of the regularly imported ones. Rodney Fuhr and his wife, Ilana, independently funded the movie and served as executive producers. The film was shot at the Kingdom of the White Lion, SA Lion Park, Nash's farm, Glen Afric, and Entabeni Game Reserve. The South African-based company Peru Productions Pty. Ltd.'s first feature film was \"White Lion\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kevin Rene Richardson (born 8 October 1974), known as \"The Lion Whisperer\", is a South African YouTube personality and self-taught sanctuary owner who works with African lions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977213}
{"src_title": "2012–13 UEFA Champions League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 76 teams from 52 of the 53 UEFA member associations participate in the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League (the exception being Liechtenstein, which do not organise a domestic league). The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients is used to determine the number of participating teams for each association: Since the winners of the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League, Chelsea, failed to qualify for the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League through their domestic league (finishing sixth in the Premier League), and because of the restriction that no association can have more than four teams playing in the Champions League, Chelsea's entry in the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League as title holders came at the expense of Tottenham Hotspur, the fourth-placed team of the 2011–12 Premier League (who entered the Europa League instead).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association ranking.", "content": "For the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League, the associations are allocated places according to their 2011 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2006–07 to 2010–11.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Tottenham Hotspur were due to enter the Champions League play-off round for non-champions, but instead entered the Europa League because Chelsea won the Champions League the previous season. As this spot in the play-off round was vacated, the following change to the default allocation system was made to compensate:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "League positions of the previous season, except Chelsea which only qualified as title holders, shown in parentheses.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "All draws were held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless stated otherwise.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying rounds.", "content": "In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2012 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The draws for the first and second qualifying rounds were held on 25 June 2012. The first legs were played on 3 July, and the second legs were played on 10 July 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 17 and 18 July, and the second legs were played on 24 and 25 July 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: one for champions (Champions Route) and one for non-champions (League Route). The losing teams in both sections entered the Europa League play-off round.  The draw for the third qualifying round was held on 20 July 2012. The first legs were played on 31 July and 1 August, and the second legs were played on 7 and 8 August 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The play-off round was split into two separate sections: one for champions (Champions Route) and one for non-champions (League Route). The losing teams in both sections entered the Europa League group stage.  The draw for the play-off round was held on 10 August 2012. The first legs were played on 21 and 22 August, and the second legs were played on 28 and 29 August 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The draw for the group stage was held in Monaco on 30 August 2012. The 32 teams were allocated into four pots based on their 2012 UEFA club coefficients, with the title holders, Chelsea, being placed in Pot 1 automatically. They were drawn into eight groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.  In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The matchdays were 18–19 September, 2–3 October, 23–24 October, 6–7 November, 20–21 November, and 4–5 December 2012. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 16, while the third-placed teams entered the Europa League round of 32.  A total of 17 national associations were represented in the group stage. Montpellier, Nordsjælland and Málaga made their debut appearances in the group stage.  \"See here for tiebreakers if two or more teams are equal on points\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams played against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final. The mechanism of the draws for each round is as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "The draw for the round of 16 was held on 20 December 2012. The first legs were played on 12, 13, 19 and 20 February, and the second legs were played on 5, 6, 12 and 13 March 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 15 March 2013. The first legs were played on 2 and 3 April, and the second legs were played on 9 and 10 April 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The draw for the semi-finals and final (to determine the \"home\" team for administrative purposes) was held on 12 April 2013. The first legs were played on 23 and 24 April, and the second legs were played on 30 April and 1 May 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final was played on 25 May 2013 at Wembley Stadium in London, England.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prize money.", "content": "For the 2012–13 season, UEFA awarded €2.1 million to each team in the play-off round. For reaching the group stage, UEFA awarded a base fee of €8.6 million. A win in the group was awarded €1 million and a draw was worth €500,000. In addition, UEFA paid teams reaching the first knockout round €3.5 million, each quarter-finalist €3.9 million, €4.9 million for each semi-finalist, €6.5 million for the runners-up and €10.5 million for the winners.  A large part of the distributed revenue from the UEFA Champions League is linked to the \"market pool\", the distribution of which is determined by the value of the television market in each country. For the 2012–13 season, Juventus, who were eliminated on quarter-finals, earned nearly €65.3 million in total of which €20.5 million was prize money, compared with the €55.0 million earned by Bayern Munich, who won the tournament and was awarded with €35.9 million of prize money.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2012–13 UEFA Champions League was the 58th season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 21st season since it was renamed from the European Champion Clubs' Cup to the UEFA Champions League.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977214}
{"src_title": "Frederic Baraga", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Frederic Baraga was born in the manor house at Mala Vas () no. 16 near the Carniolan village of Dobrnič, in what was then Lower Carniola, a province of the Duchy of Carniola in the Habsburg Monarchy. Today it is a part of the Municipality of Trebnje in Slovenia. Never using his first name, he was baptized Irenaeus Frederic.  He was the fourth of five children born to Janez Baraga and Marija Katarina Jožefa née Jenčič. Upon her father's death, his mother inherited an estate at Mala Vas, plus a substantial fortune. His mother died in 1808, and his father in 1812. Frederic spent his boyhood in the house of Jurij Dolinar, a lay professor at the diocesan seminary at Ljubljana.  Baraga grew up during the Napoleonic Wars, when France had taken over the Slovene Lands from the Austrian Empire for a time. As a result, the official language of instruction in his schools changed several times during his childhood between Slovenian and German. By the time he was nine, he was fluent in French as well. In addition, Latin and Greek were required subjects for all students. Thus, by age 16, Frederic Baraga was multilingual—a skill that would serve him well in later life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Priesthood.", "content": "Baraga attended law school at the University of Vienna, where he graduated in 1821. Influenced by Clement Mary Hofbauer, Baraga then entered the seminary in Ljubljana. At age 26, he was ordained a Roman Catholic priest on September 21, 1823 in the St. Nicholas' Cathedral by Augustin Johann Joseph Gruber, the Bishop of Ljubljana. As a young priest, he was assigned as an assistant first at St. Martin's near Kranj and later at Metlika in lower Carniola. Father Baraga was a staunch opponent of Jansenism. During this time, he wrote a spiritual book in Slovene entitled \"Dušna Paša\" (Spiritual Sustenance).  In 1830 Baraga answered the request of Bishop Edward Fenwick of Cincinnati for priests to aid in ministering to his growing flock, which included a large mission territory. He left his homeland on October 29, 1830 and arrived in New York on December 31. He arrived in Cincinnati, Ohio on January 18, 1831. During the winter and spring he worked among the German immigrants in the area. At the same time he studied the Ottawa language, a branch of the Algonquian languages. In May 1831 was sent to the Ottawa Indian mission at \"Arbre Croche\" (present-day Cross Village, Michigan) to finish his mastery of the language. In 1837, he published \"Otawa Anamie-Misinaigan,\" the first book written in the Ottawa language, which included a Catholic catechism and prayer book. After a brief stay at a mission in present-day Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 1835 Baraga moved north to minister to the Ojibway (Chippewa) Indians at La Pointe, Wisconsin, at a former Jesuit mission on Lake Superior.  In 1843 Baraga founded a mission at L'Anse, Michigan. During this time he earned the nickname \"the Snowshoe Priest\" because he would travel hundreds of miles each year on snowshoes during the harsh winters. He worked to protect the Indians from being forced to relocate, as well as publishing a dictionary and grammar of the Ojibway language. Although these works have important historical value, they are not recommended as basic resources for the language today.  Through the texts Baraga published in his missionary years, the Slovenes learned about aspects of Native American culture and the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bishop.", "content": "Baraga was elevated to bishop by Pope Pius IX and consecrated November 1, 1853, in Cincinnati at Saint Peter in Chains Cathedral by Archbishop John Purcell. He was the first bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Sault Sainte Marie, Michigan, now the Diocese of Marquette.  On July 27, 1852 he began to keep a diary, written in several languages (primarily German, but with English, French, Slovene, Chippewa, Latin, and Italian interspersed), preserving accounts of his missionary travels and his relationship with his sister Amalia. During this time, the area experienced a population explosion, as European immigrants were attracted to work in the copper and iron mines developed near Houghton, Ontonagon, and Marquette. This presented a challenge because he had few priests, and had to attend to the needs of immigrant miners and the Native Americans. Increased development and population encouraged the improvement of transportation on Lake Superior.  The only way to travel in winter was on snowshoes, which Baraga continued to do into his sixties. He was particularly challenged by the wide diversity of peoples in the region, which included the native inhabitants, ethnic French-Canadian settlers, and the new German and Irish immigrant miners. Difficulties in recruiting staff arose because of many languages; while Baraga spoke eight languages fluently, he had trouble recruiting priests who could do the same.  Baraga traveled twice to Europe to raise money for his diocese. On one trip he was presented a jeweled cross and episcopal ring by the Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. The bishop later sold these for his missions.  Baraga wrote numerous letters to the Society for the Propagation of the Faith describing his missionary activities. The Society published them widely as examples of its missions in North America, and they were instrumental in inspiring the priests John Neumann and Francis Xavier Pierz to come to the United States to work. In time, Baraga became renowned throughout Europe for his work. In his last ten years, his health gradually declined; he became intermittently deaf and suffered a series of strokes. In 1865 Baraga wrote to Pope Pius IX in support of the canonization of his former confessor, Clement Hofbauer. He died January 19, 1868 in Marquette, Michigan. He is buried there in the crypt beneath Cathedral of Saint Peter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and veneration.", "content": "Baraga was declared venerable by Pope Benedict XVI on May 10, 2012. His cause was opened in 1952 by Thomas Lawrence Noa, the diocese's eighth bishop, and the formal canonization process began in 1973. The diocese planned to relocate his remains to a more accessible new chapel for veneration in the upper portion of the cathedral. At the time of his veneration, the Vatican was investigating a possible miracle for beatification.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Irenaeus Frederic Baraga (June 29, 1797 – January 19, 1868; ) was a Slovenian Roman Catholic missionary to the United States and a grammarian of Native American languages. He became the first bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Marquette, Michigan, originally sited at Sault Sainte Marie, which he led for 15 years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977215}
{"src_title": "Slovak Paradise National Park", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Park creation and history.", "content": "The first protected reserve in the area of the Slovak Paradise was founded in 1890. The first protected plant was the edelweiss in 1936.  The name \"Slovenský raj\" first appeared in 1921 in the \"Krásy Slovenska\" magazine and replaced many names used until that period. On 21 August 1964 the first protected landscape area in Slovakia was established in the Slovak Paradise. The area was recategorized into a national park on 18 January 1988. In 2000 Dobšinská Ice Cave became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Parts of the park also belong to the Natura 2000 network since 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "The National Park is situated in the Banská Bystrica Region (district of Brezno), Prešov Region (district of Poprad) and Košice Region (districts of Rožňava and Spišská Nová Ves).  The Slovak Paradise creates the northern part of the Spiš-Gemer Karst (\"Spišsko-gemerský kras\"). It is bordered by the Low Tatras (\"Nízke Tatry\") in the west, central part of the Slovenské rudohorie Mountains in the south (Stolické vrchy and Volovské vrchy) and the Hornád basin (\"Hornádska kotlina\") in the north and north east.  Rivers and streams have formed many gorges, canyons, valleys, caves, and waterfalls in the Slovak Paradise, with the Hornád River being most important to the area. The core of the national park is a karst plateau cut into several smaller plateaux by deep rocky gorges. The most famous gorges are \"Veľký Sokol\", which is also the longest at 4.5 km, \"Suchá Belá\", \"Piecky\", and \"Kyseľ\", all of which have numerous waterfalls. \"Prielom Hornádu\" is the longest canyon at 11,7 km, and also contains the greatest diversity of species. The highest waterfall is \"Závojový vodopád\" (literally Veil Waterfall) at 70 m. The largest water reservoir is \"Palcmanská Maša\", finished in 1956, which covers an area of 0.85 km. It is used for swimming, water sports, fishing and other recreational activities.  The highest peak is Predná hoľa at 1,545 m AMSL. \"Havrania skala\" (literally Raven Rock) at 1,153 m offers a panoramic view. A rock shelf known as \"Tomášovský výhľad\" is popular with both climbers and visitors for its unique view situated at 680 m. The lowest point is at the Hornád's surface at 470 m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology.", "content": "The geological formation of the Slovenský raj mountains is rather complicated. The majority of the territory is built by two basic units. The small, western one is the Bebrava unit separated from the eastern, larger Northern Gemer unit by the Muráň fault. Both of them are comparatively homogeneous, as the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks such as dolomite and sandstone prevail. As they were built by carbonate rock prone to karstification, the character of the Slovenský raj mountains is that of a karstic plateau. The relatively flat and rather short mountains of the Slovenský raj mountains were lifted up in the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. This caused the local river network to erode and create narrow and deep valleys.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology and ecology.", "content": "The Slovak Paradise has the highest concentration of butterflies in Slovakia with 6.06 butterflies per km. \"Kopanecké lúky\" (literally Kopanecké meadows) contain exceptionally rich biodiversity in vascular plants with 75 species per m.  The National Park contains about 4,000 species of invertebrates, which include more than 2,100 species of butterflies, 400 species of bugs and 150 species of molluscs. Vertebrates are represented by about 200 species, of which 130 are protected. Forty species of mammals include the bear, fox, wolf, European wildcat, deer, boar, and marten. The National Park is home to 65 endangered species, including the saker falcon, European otter and European ground squirrel.  Forests cover 90% of the park. The most widespread trees are the beech, spruce, fir and pine. The park is home to 930 species of plants, of which 35 are protected. The park contains 6 endemic plants, which are exclusively native to it and 19 endemic plants exclusively native to the West Carpathians.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism.", "content": "The best known tourist centres and resorts are \"Čingov\" and \"Podlesok\" in the north, Dedinky in the south and the only tourist centre located inside the National Park, \"Kláštorisko\", with ruins of the Carthusian monastery. The most visited places in the park are the Dobšinská Ice Cave and the \"Suchá Belá\" Gorge.  The park offers about 300 km of hiking trails and several bike trails. One of the most visited routes is \"Prielom Hornádu\". In the northern part of the Slovak Paradise two main tourist centres of this region are situated: Čingov and Podlesok. They are connected by a 15 km long marked route, leading through the canyon along the Hornád river.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Slovak Paradise National Park () is one of the nine national parks in Slovakia, situated in East Slovakia. The National Park protects the area of the Slovak Paradise mountain range, which is located in the north of the Slovenské rudohorie Mountains (Slovak Ore Mountains).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977216}
{"src_title": "Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first seat of the Congregation from 1585–1622 was the church of Santa Maria ad Martires, better known as the Pantheon. Successive relocations were to the church of San Paolino alla Colonna (1622–52), Santa Cecilia in Trastevere (1652–61), San Nicola dei Cesarini (1661–1663), Chiesa della Maddalena (1663–85), and, finally, San Carlo ai Catinari in 1685. During the first century of existence, the Congregation was the workshop of a number of prominent musicians and composers of the day, including Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. The institution in that period was often in rivalry with the other important musical organization of Papal Rome of the day, the Sistine Choir. Rivalry centred on the rights to control access to the musical profession, to train musicians, and to publish music. The rivalry never really ended and can be said to have lasted through the entire existence of the Papal States, that is, until 1870, when the \"temporal power of the Church\" was ended by military action of the new nation state of Italy.  The early 18th century is considered to have been a particularly glorious time for the Accademia. Among names associated with the organization during that period are Arcangelo Corelli, Alessandro and Domenico Scarlatti, and Niccolò Jommelli. In 1716, Pope Clement XI decreed that all musicians practising their profession in Rome were required to become members of the Congregation. The Accademia suspended operations during the revolutionary period of the Napoleonic Wars but opened regularly again in 1822 a few years after the Restoration brought about by the Congress of Vienna.  The years between that reopening and the end of the Papal States in 1870 were ones of great change. The organization opened its membership to hitherto excluded categories, such as dancers, poets, music historians, musical instrument makers, and music publishers. In 1838, the Congregation of Santa Cecilia was officially proclaimed an Academy and then a Papal Academy. The list of active and honorary members of the Accademia during that period is formidable and includes Cherubini, Mercadante, Donizetti, Rossini, Paganini, Auber, Liszt, Mendelssohn, Berlioz, Gounod, and Meyerbeer. Among the crowned heads of Europe who were honorary members was Queen Victoria.  After the unification of Italy, the Accademia reestablished itself with the formation of a permanent symphony orchestra and choir, beginning in 1895. It went from being the seat of a Liceo musicale—a music \"high school\"—to being a full-blown conservatory; also, it hosts the \"Eleonora Duse\" Drama School, as well as a centre for experimental cinema. The most recent innovation has been the digitisation and cataloguing of centuries of musical documents—including an important collection of traditional music in the ethnomusicological archives—and their preservation and eventual display in the Accademia's multimedia library and archive also available to the public online. The Accademia also maintains a musical instruments museum (the MUSA).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia () is one of the oldest musical institutions in the world, founded by the papal bull \"Ratione congruit\", issued by Sixtus V in 1585, which invoked two saints prominent in Western musical history: Gregory the Great, for whom the Gregorian chant is named, and Saint Cecilia, the patron saint of music. Since 2005 it has been headquartered at the Renzo Piano designed Parco della Musica in Rome.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977217}
{"src_title": "Wayne Static", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Wayne was born in Muskegon, Michigan, to Richard and Darlene Wells.  He grew up in Shelby, Michigan before moving to Chicago, Illinois and California. He was three years old when he received his first toy guitar. His parents decided at age seven to get him his first real guitar, an S12 beginner model. He was given lessons, which paid off a year later when he won a talent contest playing \"Skip to My Lou\". He later played in his first band at the age of 12 and decided he wanted to be a musician. In high school, he played in a band for the dances with classmates. He attended Shelby High School and had summer jobs which included working as an asparagus picker and in a cherry canning factory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After moving to Chicago, Wells created the band Deep Blue Dream in 1987 with drummer Ken Jay, bass player Eric Harris and Billy Corgan; later of the Smashing Pumpkins. The group was short lived as they relocated to California. In California, Wells and Jay Formed Static-X along with Tony Campos on bass and Koichi Fukuda on guitar. It was at this point Wells adopted the name Wayne Static.  Static was recognizable for his unusual hairstyle; his hair was held up in a vertical position, a process that took about 20 minutes to complete (45 minutes, according to his mother). He was also known for his signature \"chintail\" beard.  Static announced in July 2007 that he would begin a side project, Pighammer, but in a December 2007 interview with Ultimate-Guitar.com, Static stated: \"The Pighammer thing will happen when I have time. At the moment though, Static-X will remain my main priority.\" Static appears on the cover of the 2009 Static-X release, \"Cult of Static\".  His solo album \"Pighammer\" was released on October 4, 2011. As part of his \"Pighammer\" solo-project, Static formed a new line-up consisting of Brent Ashley on bass, Sean Davidson on drums, and Ashes on guitar. In 2012, this line-up went under the name Static-X for the Noise Revolution tour. However, in October 2012, the remainder of the tour was cancelled due to Static requiring medical treatment.  In an interview done on November 26, 2013, it was confirmed that Static-X disbanded on June 2013. According to Static, the disputes between himself and the band's former bassist Tony Campos over the rights to the band name had gone too far, forcing him to disband the four-piece.  He had been set to play a co-headlining tour in the U.S. with Powerman 5000 in November 2014 with American Head Charge supporting them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Guitars.", "content": "Static installed a single Seymour Duncan SH-6B 'Distortion' humbucker in all his guitar's bridge positions; until switching to EMG 81's in 2012 after signing with Dean. His signature Epiphone, ESP LTD, and Dean guitars did not come with neck pickups as he did not use them.  Wayne used a Gibson Flying V from early in his career; seen in the videos up until 2003.  In 2004, Epiphone released a Wayne Static signature Flying V Guitar. “Special features on the Static model include a single volume control and one toggle switch for the two Epiphone USA pickups, no pickguard, Ebonal fingerboard with no inlays, black hardware, Plain Black satin finish and the Static-X logo on the headstock”.  In 2007, ESP produced the ESP Ltd Static-600 Wayne Static Signature Guitar. It featured an angular body Explorer shaped body, single Seymour Duncan Distortion humbucker and nickel diamond plate scratchplate covering the entire mahogany body, as seen in live photographs.  In 2009, ESP produced the ESP LTD Static-600V GMB as Wayne’s new signature guitar. It featured a Flying-V shaped body with diamond plate metal screwed the front of the body, black hardware and Static X logo at the 12th fret.  In 2012, Static joined Dean guitars and started playing custom ML Modifier. Until his death Static played Dean guitars as an endorsee. While Dean did not release a Static signature model, Dean did produce a series of custom models for Static; fitted with his standard single bridge humbucker and single volume control.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Amps.", "content": "For his live tone, Wayne used a simple Marshall MG100HDFX. The MG100HDFX was one of the cheapest solid state amps made by Marshall during Wayne’s touring time with Static X. On tour Wayne could easily and cheaply get a replacement if the amp broke. Amps breaking wasn’t a common problem as solid state amps like the MG100HDFX are less prone to breaking than tube amps, another reason for its selection.  Wayne's cabinet of choice was the Marshall 1960A.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Static was an atheist and pescatarian. After a brief courtship, he married adult film actress Tera Wray in Las Vegas on January 10, 2008. They lived in Joshua Tree, California. Static appeared as a mystery guest on an adult film Wray hosted called \"Radium Vol 2\".  On January 13, 2016, Static's widow, Tera Wray, died in her friend's Joshua Tree, California apartment from an apparent suicide. Her body was discovered January 14, 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Static died on November 1, 2014 in Landers, California, three days before his 49th birthday. He had consumed half of an oxycodone pill as well as alcohol that morning before going to bed with his wife Tera Wray. She woke up later that day to find that he had died in his sleep. His family issued a statement stating that rumors of his death being drug-related were false, noting that he and Wray had stopped using illicit drugs in 2009. An autopsy later confirmed that Static had died of multiple prescription drug toxicity, consisting of the painkillers oxycodone, hydromorphone, and the anti-anxiety medication alprazolam combined with alcohol, though the report also noted that years of past \"chronic prescription drug and alcohol abuse\" was a contributing factor. Former Static-X members Koichi Fukuda and Tony Campos paid tribute to Static. Static was cremated in California. A memorial rock show followed in Los Angeles, and a family service followed in Illinois.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wayne Richard Wells (November 4, 1965 – November 1, 2014), known professionally as Wayne Static, was an American musician, best known as the lead vocalist, guitarist, keyboardist and music sequencer for metal band Static-X. He released his only solo studio album, \"Pighammer\", on October 4, 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977218}
{"src_title": "2012–13 UEFA Europa League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 193 teams from 53 UEFA member associations participate in the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League. The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients is used to determine the number of participating teams for each association: The winners of the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League are given an additional entry as title holders if they do not qualify for the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League or Europa League through their domestic performance. However, this additional entry is not necessary for this season since the title holders qualified for European competitions through their domestic performance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association ranking.", "content": "For the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League, the associations are allocated places according to their 2011 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2006–07 to 2010–11.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Due to the following reasons, changes to the default allocation system had to be made: The following changes to the default allocation system were made to compensate for these vacated spots:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Redistribution rules.", "content": "A Europa League place is vacated when a team qualifies for both the Champions League and the Europa League, or qualifies for the Europa League by more than one method. When a place is vacated, it is redistributed within the national association by the following rules:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "The labels in the parentheses show how each team qualified for the place of its starting round:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "All draws are held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland unless stated otherwise.  Matches in the qualifying, play-off, and knockout rounds may also be played on Tuesdays or Wednesdays instead of the regular Thursdays due to scheduling conflicts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying rounds.", "content": "In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2012 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The draws for the first and second qualifying rounds were held on 25 June 2012. The first legs were played on 3 and 5 July, and the second legs were played on 10 and 12 July 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 19 July, and the second legs were played on 26 July 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The draw for the third qualifying rounds was held on 20 July 2012. The first legs were played on 2 August, and the second legs were played on 9 August 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The draw for the play-off round was held on 10 August 2012. The first legs were played on 22 and 23 August, and the second legs were played on 28 and 30 August 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The draw for the group stage was held in Monaco on 31 August 2012. The 48 teams were allocated into four pots based on their 2012 UEFA club coefficients, with the title holders, Atlético Madrid, being placed in Pot 1 automatically. They were drawn into twelve groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.  In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The matchdays were 20 September, 4 October, 25 October, 8 November, 22 November, and 6 December 2012. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 32, where they were joined by the eight third-placed teams from the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League group stage.  A total of 25 national associations were represented in the group stage.  \"See here for tiebreakers if two or more teams are equal on points.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams played against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final. The mechanism of the draws for each round is as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bracket.", "content": "<section begin=bracket />", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 32.", "content": "The draws for the round of 32 and round of 16 were held on 20 December 2012. The first legs were played on 14 February, and the second legs were played on 21 February 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "The first legs were played on 7 March, and the second legs were played on 14 March 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 15 March 2013. The first legs were played on 4 April, and the second legs were played on 11 April 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The draw for the semi-finals and final (to determine the \"home\" team for administrative purposes) was held on 12 April 2013. The first legs were played on 25 April, and the second legs were played on 2 May 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final was played on 15 May 2013 at the Amsterdam Arena in Amsterdam, Netherlands.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2012–13 UEFA Europa League was the 42nd season of Europe's secondary club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 4th season since it was renamed from the UEFA Cup to the UEFA Europa League.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977219}
{"src_title": "Mariya Lasitskene", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Lasitskene won her first international medal at the 2009 World Youth Championships in Athletics, where she cleared a personal best of 1.85 m to take the silver medal behind Italian Alessia Trost. She was also the silver medallist at the 2009 European Youth Olympic Festival and 2009 Gymnasiade.  In the inaugural 2010 Summer Youth Olympics, Lasitskene won a gold medal in the girls' high jump with a clearance of 1.89 m, ahead of Alessia Trost.  She started her 2011 season with a major scalp in the form of Yelena Slesarenko, who she defeated with an indoor best jump of 1.90 m. A greater effort soon followed on the Moravia High Jump Tour meet in Třinec, as she cleared 1.97 m to claim the world junior indoor best which Desislava Aleksandrova had held since 1994.  Lasitskene has also won an ex-aequo gold medal at the 2014 World Indoor Championships and a silver at the 2014 European Championships. At the 2015 European Indoor Championships she won gold as she did later at the 2015 World Championships with a personal best of 2.01 m.  Following her world championships win, she was considered a favorite to win the Olympic title at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. However, she was barred from competing when the CAS upheld their decision to ban the Russian Track and Field Federation from the Games for systematic doping. At a domestic competition she jumped a height of 2.00 m—a height that would've easily won gold in Rio. In April 2017, her application to compete as a neutral athlete until Russia is reinstated was accepted; this allows Lasitskene to resume competition despite the Federation's ban. Her first competition back was the third Diamond League in the series at Eugene. She won the women's high jump with a personal best and world leading height of 2.03 m.  She improved to 2.04 m on 11 June 2017 in Hengelo. On 6 July 2017 she set a new personal best at the Diamond League in Lausanne with a height of 2.06 m, a Diamond League record. She followed up her strong performances in the Diamond League competitions by defending her world title later in London on 12 August 2017 with a height of 2.03 m.  Lasitskene wrote on Instagram that she was “totally not surprised about this outcome” and planned to compete under a neutral flag. “The only thing that confuses us is that the athletes are alone in their struggle, and the leaders of our sport all this time have been protecting us only in words,” Lasitskene said.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Winning streak (45).", "content": "From 1 July 2016 to 30 June 2018 Lasitskene won 45 tournaments in a row. On 13 July 2018, the streak breaking was interrupted in Rabat, one of the IAAF Diamond League meetings, where she claimed bronze.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Lasitskene was awarded the rank of senior lieutenant after winning the 2017 Diamond League.  Russian sports journalist and Eurosport commentator of Lithuanian descent Vladas \"Tashev\" Lasitskas married Mariya on 17 March 2017. She then took her husband's family name.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mariya Aleksandrovna Lasitskene (; born 14 January 1993), née Kuchina, is a Russian athlete who specialises in the high jump. She won the gold medal at the 2015, 2017 and the 2019 World Championships.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977220}
{"src_title": "Nando de Colo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "De Colo was born in Sainte-Catherine-lès-Arras, France to parents who were both born and raised in Portugal. He attended Lycée Fernand Renaudeau in Cholet, and made his first appearance on the Cholet Under-20 team in 2004–05.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "De Colo made his professional debut during the 2006–07 season with Cholet Basket of the LNB Pro A. Under supervision of head coach Erman Kunter, he helped the team win the 2008 Semaine des As (French A Leaders Cup) and reach the finals of the 2008 French Cup and of the 2009 EuroChallenge.  On 1 June 2009, he parted ways with Cholet. On 25 June 2009, he was selected with the 53rd overall pick in the 2009 NBA draft by the San Antonio Spurs.  On 13 July 2009, he signed a three-year deal with Valencia of Spain. He went on to win the 2010 EuroCup title with Valencia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "San Antonio Spurs.", "content": "On 10 July 2012, De Colo announced he would not be re-signing with Valencia in order to play in the NBA. On 13 July 2012, he signed a two-year deal with the San Antonio Spurs. During his rookie and sophomore seasons, he had multiple assignments with the Austin Toros of the NBA D-League. de Colo reached the 2013 NBA Finals with the Spurs, but the team lost to the Miami Heat in seven games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toronto Raptors.", "content": "On 20 February 2014, De Colo was traded to the Toronto Raptors in exchange for Austin Daye.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "CSKA Moscow.", "content": "On 9 July 2014, De Colo signed a two-year deal (with the third year being optional) with the Russian club CSKA Moscow of the VTB United League. In May 2015, he was chosen to the All-EuroLeague Second Team, for his performances over the season.  In the 2014–15 season, CSKA Moscow managed to advance to the EuroLeague Final Four, for the fourth straight season, after eliminating Panathinaikos for the second straight season in the EuroLeague quarterfinals playoffs series, with a 3–1 series victory. However, in the EuroLeague Final Four's semi-final game, despite being dubbed by the media as an absolute favorite to advance to the Finals, CSKA once again lost to Olympiacos. The final score was 70–68, after a great Olympiacos comeback in the 4th quarter, which was led by Vassilis Spanoulis. CSKA Moscow eventually won the third place game, after defeating Fenerbahçe, by a score of 86–80. In his second EuroLeague season, De Colo averaged a career-high 14.4 points, 3.2 rebounds, and 3.1 assists per game, over 28 games played. On 21 May 2015, De Colo won the VTB United League MVP Award. CSKA Moscow finished the season by winning the VTB United League championship, after eliminating Khimki, with a 3–0 series sweep in the league's finals series.  On 3 May 2016, De Colo was awarded with the Alphonso Ford EuroLeague Top Scorer Trophy, an annual award given to the EuroLeague's top scorer of the season. Nine days later, he was named the EuroLeague MVP. On 15 May, CSKA won the EuroLeague title, and De Colo was named the EuroLeague Final Four MVP.  On 15 June 2016, De Colo signed a new three-year contract with CSKA. He was named the 2016 by Eurobasket.com.  In May 2018, he was named the All-EuroLeague First Team for the 2017–18 season. On June 9, 2018, he won his third VTB United League MVP award.  In the 2018–19 season, De Colo won his second EuroLeague title with CSKA after defeating Anadolu Efes in the championship game of the Final Four. Moscow also went on to win the VTB United League once again, making it his fifth league title.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fenerbahçe.", "content": "On July 6, 2019, de Colo signed with Fenerbahçe of the Turkish Basketball Super League and the EuroLeague, on a 2+1 deal. On October 19, 2019, de Colo set personal career-high with 39 points in a EuroLeague win over Baskonia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National team career.", "content": "De Colo is a regular member of the senior men's French national basketball team. He won a silver medal at the EuroBasket 2011 in Lithuania, a gold medal at the EuroBasket 2013 in Slovenia, and a bronze medal at the EuroBasket 2015 in France, where he also earned an All-Tournament Team selection.  De Colo played internationally at the 2012 London Olympics. He played a major role on the French team during the tournament, following the loss of Tony Parker to an injury, prior to the tournament. He also displayed strong offense and defense, as he scored seven points in their game against the United States.  He was the MVP of the 2016 Manila FIBA World Olympic Qualifying Tournament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nando de Colo (born 23 June 1987) is a French professional basketball player for Fenerbahçe of the Turkish Basketball Super League and the EuroLeague. Standing at a height of, he plays at the Point guard and Shooting guard positions. A four-time All-EuroLeague selection, he won the EuroLeague title in 2016 and 2019 with CSKA Moscow, earning both the EuroLeague MVP and Final Four MVP awards in the process.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977221}
{"src_title": "Archduke Felix of Austria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and exile.", "content": "Archduke Felix was born in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna the third son of the then heir presumptive to the throne of Austria-Hungary the Archduke Charles and his wife Zita of Bourbon-Parma. He was christened at Schönbrunn on 8 June 1916 in the presence of his great-grand uncle Emperor Franz Joseph while his godfather was his great-uncle King Frederick Augustus III of Saxony, brother of his grandmother Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony. On 21 November 1916 the Emperor Franz Joseph died and Felix's father succeeded as the new Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary.  Archduke Felix was less than three years old when Austria-Hungary collapsed following its defeat in the First World War. As a result, republics were declared in the now-separate countries Austria and Hungary which led to exile of the Imperial Family. Originally exiled in Switzerland the Imperial Family were taken to Portuguese island of Madeira in 1921 after Archduke Felix's father's failed attempts to claim the throne in the Kingdom of Hungary from the regent Miklós Horthy. On 1 April 1922 his father Emperor Charles died in Madeira.  In the autumn of 1937 Archduke Felix was permitted to return to Austria, entering the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt. He became the first Habsburg since the abolition of the monarchy to pursue a career as an officer in the Austrian Army. With the Anschluss approaching Archduke Felix, his sister Archduchess Adelheid and Archduke Eugen fled Austria crossing the border to Czechoslovakia.  During the Second World War while in the United States, Felix and his brother Carl Ludwig volunteered to serve in the 101st Infantry Battalion known as the \"Free Austria Battalion\". However the battalion was disbanded when a number of exiled Jewish volunteers who made up the majority of force ultimately declined to confirm their enlistment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Return to Austria.", "content": "Felix, unlike his brother Otto, always refused to renounce his rights to the Austrian throne and membership of the Habsburg family, saying that doing so would violate his human rights. As a result, he was banned from entering Austria except for a brief three-day stay in 1989 in order to attend his mother's funeral. On 10 March 1996, after Austria had joined the European Union and the concurrent dropping of staffed border checkpoints between Austria and other EU countries, he crossed into the country from Germany and held a press conference the next day to announce his illegal arrival. After his presence became known, he was warned by the Austrian government that he would face prosecution if he ever tried to enter the country illegally again. Ultimately, a deal was reached between Felix, his brother Carl Ludwig and the Austrian government whereby they declared their allegiance to the republic without any reference being made to their rights to the throne or to their membership in the Imperial Family.  In June 1998, in a joint action with his brother Carl Ludwig, Felix attempted to have the properties which were given to their ancestor Maria Theresa of Austria by her husband Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor restored to them after the properties had been taken from the Habsburg family by Adolf Hitler during the Anschluss.  Felix built up a number of successful businesses in Mexico and Brussels and worked as a marketing consultant.  During his time in exile Archduke Felix lived in Portugal, Belgium, Mexico and the United States. He lived in the \"colonia\" of San Ángel in Mexico City where he died 6 September 2011. He was interred in the family crypt in Muri Abbey, near Zürich. The abbey is a favoured burial place of the Habsburg dynasty, and also contains the remains of his wife and the hearts of his parents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "Felix was married civilly on 18 November 1952 at Beaulieu, France, and religiously a day later, to Princess and Duchess Anna-Eugénie of Arenberg (1925–1997).. Anna-Eugénie was the daughter of Prince and Duke Robert of Arenberg (himself the son of Prince and Duke Jean of Arenberg and of his wife and cousin Princess and Duchess Sophie of Arenberg) and of his wife, née Princess Gabrielle of Wrede (herself the daughter of Carl Philipp, 4th Prince of Wrede and of his wife, née Princess Anna of Lobkowicz). Anna-Eugénie was thus a first cousin of her sister-in-law, Princess Anna Gabriele of Wrede, second wife of Archduke Rudolph of Austria. They had seven children, and twenty-six grandchildren.  As they all lived in Mexico, and some still do, they are called by the Spanish equivalent to their names.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours and patronages.", "content": "Along with his brothers Otto and Rudolf, Archduke Felix was a patron for the revived Almanach de Gotha.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Archduke Felix of Austria (given names: \"Felix Friedrich August Maria vom Siege Franz Joseph Peter Karl Anton Robert Otto Pius Michael Benedikt Sebastian Ignatius Marcus d'Aviano\"; 31 May 1916 – 6 September 2011) was the last surviving child of the last Austrian Emperor Charles I and a member of the House of Habsburg. He was a younger brother of former Crown Prince Otto of Austria, who predeceased Felix by two months.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977222}
{"src_title": "Place de la Nation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ancien Regime.", "content": "To this day, Paris bears traces of the \"Mur des Fermiers généraux\", a wall built between 1784 and 1791, one of the several city walls built between the early Middle Ages and the mid 19th century well beyond the buildings of Paris in a campaign to encircle houses, gardens and monasteries for the purpose of controlling the flow of goods and to enable their taxation by the Farmers General.  The wall's construction left a vast grassy space of vines and market gardens as far as the medieval city wall and the walls of the gardens of the old village of Picpus, which contained large convents, schools and retreats. A throne was erected in this space on 26 July 1660 for the solemn arrival of Louis XIV and Maria Theresa of Spain following their wedding in Saint-Jean-de-Luz. This gave the square its original name of \"Square of the Throne\", Place du Trône.  Originally, the square accommodated two pavilions and two columns of the barrière du Trône designed by Claude Nicolas Ledoux and built for the barrier of octroi (for tax collection) which surrounded the entrance to the cours de Vincennes. The columns were surmounted by statues of Kings Philip II and Louis IX.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "French Revolution.", "content": "During the Revolution, the square was renamed Place du Trône-Renversé - Square of the Toppled Throne - on 10 August 1792. A guillotine was set up in the southern half of the square, near the Pavilion of Law built by Ledoux. Those guillotined there were buried in the nearby Picpus Cemetery and include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "19th century.", "content": "The central monument, \"The Triumph of the Republic\", is a bronze sculpture created by Aimé-Jules Dalou. It was erected to mark the centenary of the Revolution, at first in plaster in 1889 and then in bronze in 1899. The figure of Marianne, personifying the Republic, stands on a globe in a chariot pulled by lions and surrounded by various symbolic figures, and looks towards the Place de la Bastille. When the monument was erected, it was surrounded by a large pond. Additional sculptures of alligators, symbols for the threats to democracy, were removed during the Nazi occupation of Paris and melted down.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th century.", "content": "On 22 June 1963, the magazine \"Salut les copains\" organised a concert at Place de la Nation, featuring singers such as Johnny Hallyday, Richard Anthony, Eddy Mitchell and Frank Alamo. It attracted over 150,000 young people. The headline of the following day's issue of the journal \"Paris-Presse\" read, \"Salut les voyous!\". The photographer Jean-Marie Périer, who was a friend of many of the performers, photographed the concert. The Place de la Nation was the location of the Foire du Trône before the Pelouse de Reuilly.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Place de la Nation (formerly Place du Trône, subsequently Place du Trône-Renversé during the Revolution) is a circle on the eastern side of Paris, between Place de la Bastille and the Bois de Vincennes, on the border of the 11th and 12th arrondissements.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977223}
{"src_title": "Amanita vaginata", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The cap is in diameter and gray to grayish-brown in color; initially the cap is oval, then as it matures it becomes progressively conical, convex, and eventually flattened, sometimes with a small umbo (a rounded elevation in the center of the cap). The gills are white, free (not attached to the stem) to narrowly attached, moderately crowded together, and sometimes have a grayish tint; the lamellulae (small gills that run from the edge of the cap towards the stem) are truncate. The flesh is white and thin, and does not change color upon bruising or injury. The stem is long and thick. Unlike many other Amanitas with stems that are swollen at the base (bulbous), the thickness of the \"A. vaginata\" stem is roughly the same at both ends. The stem surface is covered with a finely powdered bloom (pruinose), especially near the top; faint longitudinal lines may be seen. The base of the stem is enclosed in a loose, sack-like volva that may discolor grayish or reddish brown. The spore print is white.  The variant \"A. vaginata\" var. \"alba\" is pure white, and has a volva that is either absent, or not constricted around the base of the stem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Microscopic features.", "content": "The spores are roughly spherical, 8–12 μm in diameter, thin-walled, and nonamyloid (that is, not absorbing iodine stain in Melzer's reagent). The pileipellis (cap cuticle) is composed of filamentous interwoven hyphae, 2–7 μm diameter, gelatinized. The spore-bearing cells, the basidia, are 36–52 by 4–13 μm, 4–sterigmate, without clamps. The volva is largely made of filamentous hyphae, 2–8 μm diameter, inflated cells broadly elliptic, elliptical, fusiform, to clavate, 40–85 by 10–35 μm, mostly terminal. The stem tissue is made up of filamentous hyphae with diameters of 2–6 μm; the inflated cells are terminal, club-shaped, longitudinally oriented, with dimensions of up to 289 by 31 μm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Similar species.", "content": "The tawny grisette (\"Amanita fulva\") was once thought to be a variety of \"A. vaginata\". In North America, \"A. vaginata\" is considered to be part of a species complex, that includes \"A. constricta\", \"A. pachycolea\" and \"A. protecta\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Edibility.", "content": "Although not poisonous, most authors advise against consumption due to the possibility of mistaking other poisonous species of \"Amanita\" for it. A guide noted that the species is usually regarded as edible but there are also record of intoxication because of the species. One field guide notes that cows enjoy eating this mushroom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and distribution.", "content": "A mycorrhizal species, \"Amanita vaginata\" grows singly or numerous in both coniferous and hardwood forests. It has also been noted to occur frequently in grassy areas at the edge of forests, unkempt lawns, and suburban area where the ground has been recently disturbed. A widely distributed and common species, it fruits from the spring to the fall.  This species is widely distributed in North America. It is also found in the Azores, Australia, and Scotland.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Amanita vaginata, commonly known as the grisette, is an edible mushroom in the fungus family Amanitaceae. Unlike many other \"Amanita\" mushrooms, \"A. vaginata\" lacks a ring on the stem. The cap is gray or brownish, in diameter, and has furrows around the edge that duplicate the gill pattern underneath. It has a widespread distribution in North America, and is thought to be part of a species complex that includes other similar-looking Amanitas.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977224}
{"src_title": "Play Dirty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "During the North African Campaign in the Second World War, Captain Douglas (Michael Caine) is a British Petroleum employee seconded to the Royal Engineers to oversee incoming fuel supplies for the British Eighth Army. Colonel Masters (Nigel Green) commands a special raiding unit composed of convicted criminals, and after a string of failures he is told by his commander, Brigadier Blore (Harry Andrews), that he must have a regular officer to lead a dangerous last-chance mission to destroy an Afrika Korps fuel depot, otherwise his unit will be disbanded. Despite Douglas's objections, he is chosen for his knowledge of oil pipelines and infrastructure. Douglas is then introduced to Cyril Leech (Nigel Davenport), a convicted criminal rescued from prison to lead Masters's operations in the field.  The next day, Douglas and Leech are provided with armed jeeps and lead six other men out into the desert disguised as an Italian Army patrol. They endure a long and arduous trek across the desert: encountering hostile tribesmen, sandstorms and a booby-trapped oasis, among other dangers. Unknown to Masters, Blore has sent a regular army raiding party with the same objective 2 days behind Masters. However these are wiped out in a German ambush. While Leech and his men are often insubordinate towards Douglas's command, they eventually reach their objective, only to discover that the depot is fake. Due to an injured man who needs medical care, Douglas capture a German ambulance in which they discover a German nurse. She operates on the injured man and tends to his care. At one point the criminal men try to rape the nurse but are prevented from doing so. They then head to a German-occupied port city, hoping to steal a boat and escape; Douglas sees the fuel depot there and convinces Leech that destroying it would aid their plan. Meanwhile, Masters is confronted by Blore with aerial photographs of the supposed depot intact — confirming the mission's failure. Having lost contact with the men for some time, Masters is ordered to leak intelligence on the team to the Germans; the British Army is now on the offensive, and it wishes to keep any enemy fuel depots intact for capture.  Under the cover of night, the men don German uniforms and sneak into the port depot to plant their explosives, but one of them sets off a trip flare and they are quickly surrounded; an officer on a loudspeaker calls each of them out by name, revealing Masters's betrayal. The men scatter as the depot is detonated; Leech and Douglas manage to slip away, while the rest are caught and killed. After taking shelter, Leech admits to Douglas that he is being kept alive only because Masters is paying him £2000 for his safe return.  The Eighth Army arrives the next morning; Douglas and Leech (still wearing their German uniforms) decide to surrender to the British. Unfortunately, a trigger-happy British soldier opens fire, killing them before they have a chance to speak.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "The film was originally titled \"Written in the Sand\"; it was announced in October 1967 with Michael Caine to star and René Clément to direct. Caine later said he made the film because of his relationship with producer Harry Saltzman and the fact he wanted to work with Clément.  The film was also known as \"Deadly Patrol\".  In February 1968 Richard Harris and Nigel Davenport signed to co-star, by which time the film had been re-named \"Play Dirty\". However Richard Harris ultimately did not appear in the film.  According to Andre DeToth, Lotte Colin did hardly any of the screenplay despite being credited. She was Saltzman's mother-in-law.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Filming.", "content": "The film was originally planned by Saltzman to be filmed in Israel. Saltzman asked Andre DeToth to scout the country for locations. De Toth said Clément wanted to film in Morocco or Algeria, but Saltzman refused to go to North Africa, and Clément refused to go to Israel. The film ended up being shot on location in the Tabernas Desert near Tabernas in Almería, Spain.  Richard Harris left his home in London for Spain on 16 February 1968. He said he was handed a script which was different from the one he had agreed to do when he signed on. He quit the film and sued the producers for payment of his salary, which was a reported £150,000.  After Nigel Davenport replaced Harris, and Nigel Green replaced Davenport, René Clément resigned as director, and executive producer André DeToth took over directing the film. DeToth said Clément \"wanted to make a 'poetry of war'\" while Saltzman \"wanted blazing guns and roaring tanks\".  Several other films were shooting in Almería at the same time, including \"Shalako\". Caine later said, \"There are six sand dunes in Almeria... We'd all come round the hill chasing Rommel's tanks - and there's horse shit all over the desert and a stagecoach in the other directions being chased by Indians. The other film units were forever wiping out tank tracks to get their westerns and we were forever shovelling up horse shit and wiping out hoof prints to get our El Alamein.\" Caine later said he had a clause in his contracts that any film on which he worked could not be made in Almería. \"It was that bad\".  DeToth later said that in making the film, \"I wanted to rub our noses in the mess we have created and how we shy away from our ability to clean it up... I wanted to disturb, to open closed eyes and scramble brains.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Novelization.", "content": "A novelization was published by Pan Books. The author used the pen name Zeno.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The film was a box office disappointment.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Play Dirty is a 1969 British war film starring Michael Caine, Nigel Davenport, Nigel Green and Harry Andrews. It was director Andre DeToth's last film, based on a screenplay by Melvyn Bragg and Lotte Colin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977225}
{"src_title": "Sigismondo d'India", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "D'India was probably born in Palermo, Sicily in 1582, though details of his life are lacking until around 1600. During the first decade of the 17th century he probably traveled widely in Italy, meeting composers, acquiring patrons at various aristocratic courts, and absorbing the musical styles at each locale. This was a time of transition in music history, as the polyphonic style of the late Renaissance was giving way to the widely diverse practices of the early Baroque, and d'India seems to have acquired an unusually broad grasp of the total stylistic practice in Italy: the expressive madrigal style of Marenzio, the grand polychoral work of the Venetian School, the conservative polyphonic tradition of the Roman School, the attempts to recover the music of the ancient world in monody and its larger vehicle, the newly developing opera, as well as the mannered, emotionally intense chromatic style of Carlo Gesualdo in Naples. D'India is known to have been in Florence, the birthplace of opera, as well as Mantua, where Monteverdi was working. In Naples he probably met Gesualdo, and by 1610 he was in Parma and Piacenza. The next year, 1611, he was hired by Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, to direct music in Turin, where he remained until 1623 ; these were the most productive years of his life, during which he amalgamated the disparate types of music he had heard and absorbed during the years 1600–1610 into a unified style.  After leaving Turin – apparently forced out by malicious gossip – he traveled around Italy for five months before settling for a time at the D'Este court in Modena (October 1623 to April 1624), and then moved to Rome; he seems to have died in Modena, although details on the end of his life are as sparse as they were for its beginning. A record exists of his being granted an appointment in Bavaria at the court of Maximilian I, although there is no evidence he went there; he may have died first.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "D'India's output consisted of music in most of the vocal forms of the time, including monodies, madrigals, and motets. His monodies, the most numerous and significant portion of his work, were of many types: arias, both through-composed and strophic, variations over ground basses, laments, madrigals in the monodic style, and others.  Stylistically, d'India's music has features in common with Monteverdi's music of the same period: expressive chromaticism, dissonances with unusual resolutions, and a keen sense of drama. Indeed, some of the longer monodies are effectively operatic scenes, though d'India did not write anything specifically called an \"opera.\"  His polyphonic madrigals often borrow textural ideas from Gesualdo, especially in juxtaposing slow, intensely chromatic music with light, almost delirious diatonic passages; in this regard d'India was one of Gesualdo's few successors (until the 20th century). Some of d'India's later music is unusual in showing aspects of the influence of almost \"all\" of the contemporary composers in Italy within a single piece.  Publications:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sigismondo d'India (c. 1582 – before 19 April 1629) was an Italian composer of the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras. He was one of the most accomplished contemporaries of Monteverdi, and wrote music in many of the same forms as the more famous composer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977226}
{"src_title": "Battle of Galicia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "When war came the Austro-Hungarian Chief-of-Staff Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf planned to launch an offensive into Russian Poland with his northern armies (the 1st and 4th). The Russians would far outnumber the Central Powers in the east (especially the Austro-Hungarian armies, which were Russia's primary target), Conrad believed that their best option was an early advance into southern Poland where the Russians would be concentrating their newly mobilized units.  Conrad knew that his German allies were committed to an offensive in the West to defeat the French in the first ten weeks of the war. Only the German 8th army would be in the East, where they would stand on the defensive in East Prussia. However, their alliance with the French obliged the Russians to attack the Germans promptly, so substantial Russian forces would be sent to invade East Prussia. The 1st and 4th Austro-Hungarian Armies would advance into Poland without direct German support. By 23 August 1914 Conrad's 1st, 3rd, and 4th Armies were concentrated in Galicia along a front of.  On 2 August Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich, a second cousin of Emperor Nicholas II who had made his career in the army, was made Commander-in-Chief. He had an excellent reputation for training troops, but had never commanded a field army and was staggered by his unexpected elevation. The Russian 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 8th Armies were assigned to Galicia. The Russian war plan called for Nikolai Ivanov, the Russian commander of the Southwest Front, to counter an anticipated Austro-Hungarian offensive thrusting eastward from Lemberg. The 3rd and 8th Armies would mount an offensive into eastern Galicia. The Russians could bring 260 trains a day to their front, compared to the Austro-Hungarian's 152.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battles.", "content": "The Austro-Hungarian 1st Army under Viktor Dankl was moving in the north towards Lublin. Dankl struck and drove back Baron Zaltsa's Russian Fourth Army in what would be known as the Battle of Kraśnik. Dankl's army was able to capture 6,000 prisoners. To the right of Dankl the Austro- Hungarian 4th Army, aiming at Cholm, drove back the Russian Fifth Army under Pavel Plehve in the Battle of Komarów, capturing 20,000 prisoners and inflicting heavy casualties. However, a planned Austrian enveloping movement around the Russian army failed. As the Russians were being driven back along the northern front, the Austrian 3rd Army and Army Group Kovess made a simultaneous advance against Ivanov's left wing. Along the southern front, Ivanov had the Russian Third Army under Nikolai Ruzsky and the Russian Eighth Army under Aleksei Brusilov. Brusilov and Ruszky routed the Austro-Hungarians so thoroughly that even though poor roads necessitated that the Russians halt for two days, the Austrians could not regroup to halt the Russian drive. This attack became known as the Battle of Gnila Lipa. With the entire 3rd Army and Kovess Group in full retreat, Conrad pulled forces away from the northern front which he believed had been sufficiently defeated. In fact, the Russians north of Lemberg were still a potential threat. Ivanov ordered Plehve's Fifth Army to attack and drove the Austrians back as they began to shift forces to the south in an engagement known as the Battle of Rava Ruska. The Austrian Second Army was quickly recalled from Serbia, but it was too late and the entire Austrian front collapsed in Galicia, and the Russians took control of Lemberg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "Holger Herwig estimates Austro-Hungarian losses of 100,000 dead, 220,000 wounded and 100,000 captured. According to Prit Buttar, the Austro-Hungarian army lost 324,000 men in Galicia, including 130,000 as prisoners, while the Russians lost 225,000 men, of which 40,000 were captured. Other authors estimate 400,000 Austro-Hungarian losses, or \"one-third of the Austro-Hungarian Army's combat effectives\", and 250,000 for the Russians.  The Russians had pushed the front 100 miles (160 kilometers) into the Carpathian Mountains, completely surrounded the Austrian fortress of Przemyśl and started a Siege of Przemyśl which lasted for over a hundred days. The battle severely damaged the Austro-Hungarian Army, destroyed a large portion of its trained officers, and crippled Austria. Though the Russians had been utterly crushed at the Battle of Tannenberg, their victory at Lemberg prevented that defeat from fully taking its toll on Russian public opinion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Order of battle.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russian forces.", "content": "Russian South-Western front. Commander-in-chief – Nikolai Ivanov, Chief of Staff – Mikhail Alekseyev", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Galicia, also known as the Battle of Lemberg, was a major battle between Russia and Austria-Hungary during the early stages of World War I in 1914. In the course of the battle, the Austro-Hungarian armies were severely defeated and forced out of Galicia, while the Russians captured Lemberg and, for approximately nine months, ruled Eastern Galicia until their defeat at Gorlice and Tarnów.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977227}
{"src_title": "Bassia scoparia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biology.", "content": "The seed of \"Bassia scoparia\" is dispersed by wind and water, and it is transported when the whole plant detaches and rolls on the wind as a tumbleweed. The seed does not persist in the soil seed bank, dying within about a year if it fails to germinate.  The species is a C plant, specifically of the NADP-ME type.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "This plant is grown as an ornamental for its red fall foliage. It has also been useful in erosion control on denuded soils. It has been suggested as an agent of phytoremediation, because it is a hyperaccumulator of chromium, lead, mercury, selenium, silver, zinc, and uranium. \"B. scoparia\" contains higher levels of protein and oxalate than most grasses and fodder plants, thus it also serves as a good forage crop for livestock. When grown as ornamental plant, it is a good choice as evergreen foliage plant for landscapes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Tonburi\".", "content": "In Japan the seeds are used a food garnish called (Japanese). Because its texture is similar to caviar, it has been called \"land caviar\", \"field caviar\", and \"mountain caviar\". It is a \"chinmi\", or delicacy, in Akita prefecture. The glossy, greenish black seeds are dried, boiled, soaked, and then rubbed by hand to remove the skin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Traditional medicine.", "content": "The seeds are used in traditional Chinese medicine to help regulate disorders such as hyperlipidemia, hypertension, obesity, and atherosclerosis. In a study of mice fed a high-fat diet, an extract of the seeds limited obesity. They contain momordin Ic, a triterpene saponin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Forage.", "content": "The plant is a moderately useful forage for livestock, especially on dry lands. However, its use is limited by its toxicity in large quantities. Livestock ingesting large amounts can experience weight loss, hyperbilirubinemia, photosensitization, and polyuria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Broom.", "content": "In Serbia, the plant is used to make brooms, which are produced by simply tying several dried plants together, using the branches as the broom head and the stems as the handle; this is convenient since the broom needs no separate handle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Systematics.", "content": "The species was first published in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus, who named it \"Chenopodium scoparium\". In 1809, it was placed in the genus \"Kochia\" by Heinrich Schrader. It was transferred to \"Bassia\" in 1978 by. \"Kochia\" was included in \"Bassia\" in 2011 following phylogenetic studies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bassia scoparia is a large annual herb in the family Amaranthaceae native to Eurasia. It has been introduced to many parts of North America, where it is found in grassland, prairie, and desert shrub ecosystems. Its common names include burningbush, ragweed, summer cypress, mock-cypress, kochia, belvedere, Mexican firebrush, and Mexican fireweed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977228}
{"src_title": "Alice Boughton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Alice Boughton was born in Brooklyn, New York, on 14 May 1866. Her parents were Frances Ayres and William H. Boughton, a lawyer in New York. She studied photography and became a well known portrait photographer in New York by the early 1900s. Outside of her art production she was active in Feminist and Socialist causes utilizing photography as a form of personal expression.  Being active in the Feminist scene Alice was a prominent member of the movement known as New Woman. Artwork made by women was considered to be inferior, and to help overcome that stereotype women became \"increasingly vocal and confident\" in promoting women's work, and thus became part of the emerging image of the educated, modern and freer \"New Woman\". Artists like Boughton then, \"played crucial roles in representing the New Woman, both by drawing images of the icon and exemplifying this emerging type through their own lives.\"  From at least 1920 until her death, Boughton shared her residences with artist and art teacher Ida C. Haskell (1861–1932). Haskell is known to have been an instructor at Pratt while Käsebier and Boughton studied there. When Boughton traveled to Europe in 1926, Haskell, her partner, accompanied her on the trip.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photography career.", "content": "In the 1880s, Boughton began studying art and photography at the Pratt School of Art and Design. It was there that she met fellow student Gertrude Käsebier, with whom she later studied in Paris. Käsebier also employed her an assistant in her studio, most likely at the same time Boughton was studying at Pratt.  In 1890, she opened her own portrait studio on East 23rd Street in New York, which she maintained for the next forty years. In 1904, she sent a letter to William Butler Yeats that listed a studio address on Madison Avenue, indicating that she established or used more than one studio for at least a brief period.  Around 1901, Boughton studied art in Rome and photography in Paris, where she worked in Käsebier’s summer studio. She won an honorable mention for her work at the Turin International Decorative and Fine Arts Exhibition in 1902.  Although Boughton became one of the most distinguished portrait photographers of New York during her time, she also dabbed in other areas of photography such as landscapes and child photography. She did many landscapes in this country and Europe including the famous Rockefeller estate Kykuit at Pocantico Hills, New York. Continually she produced studies of children, as well as female nudes in allegorical or natural settings. Among her more famous works are portraits of Eugene O'Neill, Albert Pinkham Ryder, George Arliss and Robert Louis Stevenson. Her portrait of Robert Louis Stevenson was an inspiration for John Singer Sargent's own portrait of the writer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with Stieglitz.", "content": "As Boughton's photography career grew she became noticed by famous photographers in her field, like Alfred Stieglitz. It is not known when she met Stieglitz, but it is clear he knew of and admired her work by 1902 when he included two of her works in the inaugural exhibition at his Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession in New York City. This relationship continued for many years as in 1906, Boughton was appointed by Stieglitz as a Fellow of the Photo-Secession. The Photo-Secession artists worked to \"secede\" from what they thought was the mainstream art of the time. The following year Stieglitz gave her, along with fellow photographers C. Yarnall Abbot and William B. Dyer, an exhibition at the Little Galleries. In 1909 she had six of her photographs and an essay called “Photography, A Medium of Expression” published in Stieglitz's journal \"Camera Work\" (No 26, April, 1909).  While Stieglitz was promoting and including her work in his exhibitions, Boughton was also receiving recognition for her photography from other major independent exhibitions around the world, including shows in London, Paris, Vienna, The Hague and New York.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "In 1931, Boughton closed her studio and discarded thousands of prints. She moved permanently to the home in Brookhaven, Long Island, that she shared with Haskell.  Boughton died of pneumonia on 21 June 1943.  Her works are in the permanent collections of the Museum of Modern Art, the British National Portrait Gallery, the George Eastman House, and other important museums.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work and publications.", "content": "A collection of her portraits, \"Photographing the Famous\", was published in 1928, and included such luminaries as William Butler Yeats, Julia Ward Howe, Henry James, Walter de la Mare, G. K. Chesterton, Maxim Gorky, John Burroughs, Ruth St. Denis, Eleonora Duse and Yvette Guilbert.  Her work was also published in \"Camera Work\" in 1909.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alice Boughton (14 May 1866 – 21 June 1943) was an early 20th-century American photographer known for her photographs of many literary and theatrical figures of her time. She was a Fellow of Alfred Stieglitz's Photo-Secession, a circle of photographers whose artistic efforts succeeded in raising photography to a fine art form.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977229}
{"src_title": "Cremona Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally built in Romanesque style, the cathedral has been restored and extended several times, with Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque elements. Construction began in 1107, but the works were damaged and halted after an earthquake in 1117. Construction resumed in 1129, and the building was probably finished in 1160-1170. The main altar, dedicated to the city's patron saints Archelaus and Himerius, was consecrated in 1196. The current façade was probably built in the 13th and the early 14th century. In the same period the arms of the transept were also added: the northern in 1288 and the southern in 1348.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The main façade, together with the adjoining baptistery, is one of the most important monuments of Romanesque art in Europe. It has a portico with a narthex in the middle, to which a Renaissance loggia with three niches was added in 1491. This is surmounted by a large rose window, flanked by two orders of \"loggette\" (\"small loggias\").  The portal is probably from the early 12th century. On its side are the figures of the Four Major Prophets, each bearing a roll with the text of their prophecies. The narthex was made by masters from Campione in the following century: it incorporates an older frieze portraying the Labours of the Months (late 12th century, inspired by that in the Baptistery of Parma). The four statues on the upper loggia, portraying the \"Madonna with Child\" and two bishops, are of the Tuscan school (1310). The columns of the narthex stand on two lions in Verona marble. The left one is holding a dragon, symbol of Evil, in his paws, while the right one is holding a bear, which in turn is biting a bird's neck.  On the façade are also two tombs: the more recent one (mid-14th century) is by Bonino da Campione.  The façade of the northern arm of the transept (late 13th century) also has a narthex; and its columns also have two lions at the base. It is characterized by a sequence of mullioned windows and rose windows. The façade of the southern arm of the transept dates from 1342, and is in brickwork, as is typical in Lombard Gothic architecture. Its structure is similar to the northern arm, but has slightly more detailed decoration.  The three apses are all surmounted by loggias with small columns, each having a human face stretching out from the capital. The central apse is much higher than the flanking ones.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The interior houses important works of art.  The oldest are the frescoes of the \"Stories of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph\" in the southern and northern transept vaults (late 14th-early 15th century). Also from the Renaissance are the arch of the \"Stories of the Martyrs Marius and Marta, Audifax and Habakkuk\", martyrs in Persia (best known as \"Arch of the Persian Martyrs\", 1482), and the relief of Saint Himerius (1481-1484), both works by Giovanni Antonio Amadeo. Also notable is the urn of Saints Marcellinus and Peter, sculpted mostly by Benedetto Briosco (1506-1513), in the crypt.  The wooden choir, with inlay work by Platina (1482-1490), and the contemporary large altar cross in silver and gold, by Ambrogio Pozzi and Agostino Sacchi (1478), in the right aisle of the northern transept, are also notable.  The most important figurative complex of the cathedral is the fresco decoration on the side walls of the nave (early 16th century), portraying the \"Life of Mary and Christ\". Different painters collaborated to its execution: the first was Boccaccio Boccaccino (with \"Annunciation to Joachim\" and \"Jesus with the Doctors\"), who, in 1506, had already painted a \"Redemeer with Cremona's Patron Saints\" in the apse vault. He was succeeded by Giovan Francesco Bembo (\"Epiphany\" and \"Presentation at the Temple\") and Altobello Melone (\"Flight to Egypt\", \"Massacre of the Innocents\" and the first four panels of the \"Passion of Christ\"), who both adopted a less classicist style. Next came Girolamo Romanino, author of the scenes from \"Jesus before Pilatus\" to \"Ecce Homo\", who painted some of his masterworks here.  The last scenes of the \"Passion\" were executed by Il Pordenone, who was also responsible of the large \"Crucifixion\" (1521), the \"Deposition\" (1521, counterfaçade) and the \"Schizzi Altarpiece\" (before 1523, on the first altar in the right aisles), the latter inspired by Giorgione's style. The complex was completed by Bernardino Gatti with the \"Resurrection\" (1529).  Other frescoes were added in the mid-16th century by Mannerist painters, including Gatti himself, Bernardino Campi and others. In the 17th century Il Genovesino added the \"Life of St. Roch\" in the northern transept.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cremona Cathedral (, \"Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta\"), dedicated to the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Cremona, Lombardy, northern Italy. It is the seat of the Bishop of Cremona. Its bell tower is the famous Torrazzo, symbol of the city and tallest pre-modern tower in Italy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977230}
{"src_title": "2014 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Format.", "content": "The main qualifying draw took place in Brazil on 30 July 2011. Initially it was announced that the AFC Competitions Committee decided to use the 2010 qualification format for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. The AFC published information in their calendar suggesting qualifiers would start on 8 October 2010 with the first leg of first round ties.  Therefore, for the 2010 finals, FIFA advised the AFC that 2014 qualifiers could not begin until after mid-2011. On 13 August 2010 the AFC announced a format for the qualifiers that was identical to the 2010 format even though the final number of qualifiers had not been determined. A final format, with the initial stages modified slightly from 2010, was announced in March 2011.  Qualification began with two sets of two-leg knock-out qualification rounds – the first held on 29 June and 2 July and 3 July 2011 and the second on 23 and 28 July – reducing the number of teams in the main draw to 20. As in the 2010 format, the third stage consisted of 5 groups of 4 teams (with matches held between September 2011 and February 2012) with the top 2 in each group advancing to 2 groups of 5 that will play a further group stage during 2012 and 2013. The top two teams in each group qualify for the 2014 finals directly, with the two third-placed teams playing-off for a chance to qualify via an intercontinental qualifying tie. A random draw determined that the final tie would be against the fifth-placed team from CONMEBOL qualification.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Entrants.", "content": "43 of the 46 AFC national teams entered qualification. A ranking list for the qualification rounds was released by AFC on 8 March 2011, with an updated list released due to the non-participation of Guam and Bhutan.  The rankings determined the round of qualification that teams began competition:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First round.", "content": "The first round consisted of eight home-and-away series, featuring the 16 lowest ranked teams in Asia. The winners of these series proceeded to the second round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "Teams were seeded into two pots – Pot 1 included teams ranked 28–35 and Pot 2 teams ranked 36–43.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Matches.", "content": "The first round draw of the Asian qualifiers took place on 30 March 2011 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The first legs were played on 29 June 2011 and the second legs were played on 2 and 3 July 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second round.", "content": "The second round consisted of fifteen home-and-away series, featuring the 8 winners from the first round and other 22 teams ranked 6–27. The winners of these series then proceeded to the third round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "Teams were seeded into two pots – Pot 1 included teams ranked 6–20 and Pot 2 teams ranked 21–27 along with the 8 first round winners.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Matches.", "content": "Ties were drawn at the same time as the first round. The first legs were played on 23 July 2011 and the second legs were played on 28 July 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third round.", "content": "The third round saw the 5 automatic qualifiers joined by the 15 winners from the second round. These teams were drawn into five groups of four teams, at the World Cup Preliminary Draw at the Marina da Glória in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on 30 July 2011. The matches were played from 2 September 2011 to 29 February 2012. The top two teams from each group advanced to the fourth round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "The July 2011 FIFA Ranking – released on 27 July – was used to seed the teams. (Rankings shown in brackets)  Note. Syria were replaced by Tajikistan in the third round on 19 August 2011 following the awarding of both second round matches to Tajikistan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fourth round.", "content": "The fourth round saw the group winners and runners-up from the third round play in two groups of five. The top two teams from each group advanced to the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, while the two third-placed teams advance to the fifth round. Japan, South Korea, Australia and Iran have qualified for the 2014 FIFA World Cup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "The draw for Round Four was held on 9 March 2012 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, with the teams seeded according to their March 2012 FIFA Ranking. The FIFA rankings used were released on 7 March 2012 and included all matches from the third round of Asian Qualifiers for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. The ten teams (shown below with their March 2012 FIFA Ranking in brackets) are split into five pots, with each group containing a team from each pot.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Groups.", "content": "The matches were played from 3 June 2012 to 18 June 2013.  As the competition partially overlapped with the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, which was held from 15 June 2013, the AFC decided that the match day will be adjusted for Japan, the representative of AFC for the Confederations Cup, placing them on Position 5 in their group in order not to play on 18 June 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fifth round.", "content": "The two teams who finished third in the fourth round groups (Jordan and Uzbekistan) played each other to determine the AFC participant in the intercontinental play-off.  The draw for the fifth round of the AFC qualifiers was held in Zürich on 19 March 2013 during meetings of the Organising Committee for the FIFA World Cup. The games took place on 6 and 10 September 2013. With the two teams still evenly matched at full-time in the second leg, Jordan eventually progressed to the intercontinental playoff after winning 9–8 on penalties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inter-confederation play-offs.", "content": "The fifth round winner, Jordan, played against CONMEBOL's fifth-placed team, Uruguay, in a home-and-away play-off. The winner of this play-off, Uruguay, qualified for the 2014 FIFA World Cup finals.  The first leg was played on 13 November 2013, and the second leg was played on 20 November 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualified teams.", "content": "The following four teams from AFC qualified for the final tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Goalscorers.", "content": "There were 429 goals scored in 150 games, for an average of 2.86 goals per game.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Asian Football Confederation (AFC) section of the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification saw 43 teams competing for 4 or 5 berths in the final tournament in Brazil. As in recent tournaments the AFC had four direct qualifiers for the finals tournament in addition to a further possible place via the intercontinental play-offs against CONMEBOL's fifth-placed team, which was chosen through a random draw, rather than being decided by FIFA beforehand as in previous tournaments (e.g., 2010 against a team from OFC, 2006 against a team from CONCACAF). Iran and South Korea from Group A, along with Australia and Japan from Group B won the 4 direct qualification positions, with Jordan defeating Uzbekistan in a play-off to see which team would face the 5th placed CONMEBOL team, Uruguay, for a place in the World Cup, eventually also failed to qualify for the competition.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977231}
{"src_title": "2014 FIFA World Cup qualification (OFC)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Format.", "content": "The initial format was scheduled to begin in August 2011 at the 2011 Pacific Games in Noumea, New Caledonia, where the men's football tournament was to double as the first stage of the OFC World Cup qualifying competition.  However, in June 2011 the format was amended, and the Pacific Games were no longer part of the qualification process. The new structure sees the four lowest ranked entrants play a single round-robin tournament from 22–26 November 2011 in Samoa. The top team in this tournament will then join the other seven teams in the 2012 OFC Nations Cup, with the four semi-finalists from that tournament will advance to Round Three. This stage was originally scheduled to be held in Fiji in June 2012, but on 14 March 2012 the hosting rights were stripped from Fiji as a result of an ongoing legal dispute involving OFC general secretary Tai Nicholas and Fijian authorities. The loss of the finals was confirmed by the Fiji Football Association on 16 March.  Round Three, consisting of a double round-robin held on a home-and-away basis, was scheduled to take place between 7 September 2012 and 26 March 2013. The Round Three winners will compete in the intercontinental play-offs with CONCACAF's fourth-placed team, which was chosen through a random draw, rather than being decided by FIFA beforehand as in previous tournaments (e.g., 2010 against a team from AFC, 2006 against a team from CONMEBOL).  An early proposal to allow the qualifying winner to the final group stage of AFC qualification was submitted by New Zealand Football to FIFA. This proposal, supported by OFC, would have replaced the intercontinental play-off that has been used in recent qualification tournaments, but was not adopted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Entrants.", "content": "The July 2011 FIFA Ranking is shown in brackets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First round.", "content": "Based on FIFA ranks and other sporting considerations, the first round featured American Samoa, Cook Islands, Samoa and Tonga and were played as a single round-robin tournament in Samoa from 22 to 26 November 2011. The winner of the group advanced to the second round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second round.", "content": "The winner of the first round joined the remaining seven OFC teams in the 2012 OFC Nations Cup. The four semi-finalists (the top two teams from each group in the group stage) advanced to the third round. The groups were drawn at the World Cup Preliminary Draw at the Marina da Glória in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on 30 July 2011.  The tournament was held in the Solomon Islands from 1 to 10 June 2012. Fiji had been the proposed host, but had their hosting rights revoked on 14 March 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "The teams were seeded into two pots of 4 based on the July 2011 FIFA World Rankings – with the first round winner automatically seeded eighth. Each group consisted of two teams from each pot.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Knockout stage.", "content": "The four semi-finalists in the 2012 OFC Nations Cup advanced to the third round of World Cup qualifying, despite the outcome of the final knockout rounds of the OFC Nations Cup itself. The final results of the OFC Nations cup knockout stage matches do count in other ways as part of the World Cup qualifying, with FIFA counting goalscorers in the qualifying statistics, and cards given may contribute to suspensions in the third round of World Cup qualifying.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third round.", "content": "The four remaining teams played a double round-robin between 7 September 2012 and 26 March 2013, with the top team advancing to the intercontinental play-off.  Note that – unlike the previously announced format – this means the team that advances to the intercontinental play-off may be different from the team that wins the OFC Nations Cup, and represents the OFC at the 2013 Confederations Cup.  The draw for the fixtures was conducted at OFC Headquarters in Auckland, New Zealand on 26 June 2012. The matches were scheduled to take place in the period from 7 September 2012 to 26 March 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inter-confederation play-offs.", "content": "The winner of the OFC qualification tournament, New Zealand, played against CONCACAF's fourth-placed team, Mexico, in a home-and-away play-off. Mexico, the winner of this play-off, qualified for the 2014 FIFA World Cup.  The first leg was played on 13 November 2013, and the second leg was played on 20 November 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Goalscorers.", "content": "There were 124 goals scored in 36 games, for an average of 3.44 goals per game.  Note: Statistics include goals scored in the knockout stage of the OFC Nations Cup as these matches are also considered by FIFA as part of the qualifiers.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The OFC qualification for the 2014 FIFA World Cup saw teams of the Oceania Football Confederation competing for a place in the finals held in Brazil.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977232}
{"src_title": "2014 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Format.", "content": "In March 2011, following news that CONCACAF would not receive four spots in the 2014 World Cup, officials within CONCACAF indicated that the first format proposed would be revised. Several days later, officials within CONCACAF announced the qualifying format they would present to FIFA. The proposed format, which was subsequently accepted by FIFA, consists of 4 stages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Entrants.", "content": "All 35 FIFA-affiliated national teams from CONCACAF entered qualification. The seeding – used to draw the first three rounds of the qualifiers – was based on the FIFA World Rankings of March 2011. (World rankings shown in parentheses)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Schedule.", "content": "The schedule of the competition was as follows.  The inter-confederation play-off between the fourth-placed team from CONCACAF (Mexico) and the winning team from OFC (New Zealand) was played between 13–20 November 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First round.", "content": "The first round of the CONCACAF qualifiers saw the bottom 10 teams being paired up into five home-and-away series, with the highest ranked team facing the lowest ranked team and so on. The winners of these series proceeded to the second round.  The matchups were announced by FIFA on 26 April 2011. Early indications were that the matches would be played on 3 and 7 June 2011; However, the matches were postponed to scattered days in June and July, between 15 June and 17 July. The 5 winners (in bold, below) advanced to the second round of the CONCACAF qualifiers: Belize, Dominican Republic, U.S. Virgin Islands, Saint Lucia, and the Bahamas.  The two wins for the U.S. Virgin Islands were their first two ever in World Cup play, with their only other win prior to this coming in 1998.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second round.", "content": "In the second round, the teams ranked 7–25 were joined by the 5 winners from the first round. These teams were drawn into six groups of four teams, at the World Cup Preliminary Draw at the Marina da Glória in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on 30 July 2011. The matches were played from 2 September to 15 November 2011.  The top team from each group advanced to the third round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "Teams were seeded into four pots – designated Pots 4 to 7 in the draw. Pot 4 included teams ranked 7–12, Pot 5 teams ranked 13–18, Pot 6 teams ranked 19–24, and Pot 7 the team ranked 25 along with the 5 first round winners.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Groups.", "content": "Note: Scores marked by are results awarded by FIFA.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third round.", "content": "The third round saw the top 6 seeds joined by the 6 group winners from the second round. These teams were drawn into three groups of four teams, at the World Cup Preliminary Draw at the Marina da Glória in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on 30 July 2011. These matches were played from 8 June to 16 October 2012.  The top two teams from each group advanced to the fourth round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "As the draw for the third round was held before the previous matches were held, only the six teams with byes to the round were known at the time of the draw. Teams were seeded into three pots, with Pot 1 containing the top 3 seeds, Pot 2 seeds 4 to 6, and Pot 3 the 6 group winners from the second round. Each third round group contains one team from Pot 1, one team from Pot 2 and two teams from Pot 3.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fourth round.", "content": "In the fourth round, the three group winners and three runners-up from the third round competed in a double round robin, including a home and away match against the other five teams between 6 February and 15 October 2013. The round is informally referred to as the 'Hexagonal' or just 'The Hex'. The draw for 'The Hex' was conducted by FIFA on 7 November 2012.  The top three teams qualified directly for the 2014 FIFA World Cup finals, while the fourth-placed team will play a home-away series against New Zealand, the winner of Oceania. Teams are ranked first by total points in all games, then, if tied, by best goal differential in all games, then by total goals in all games. If still tied, the same criteria are applied to games among the tied teams.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inter-confederation play-offs.", "content": "The winner of the OFC qualification tournament, New Zealand, played against CONCACAF's fourth-placed team, Mexico, in a home-and-away play-off. Mexico, the winner of this play-off, qualified for the 2014 FIFA World Cup.  The first leg was played on 13 November 2013 in Mexico, and the second leg was played on 20 November 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualified teams.", "content": "The following four teams from CONCACAF qualified for the final tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Goalscorers.", "content": "There were 444 goals scored over 144 games, for an average of 3.08 goals per game.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The CONCACAF qualification for the 2014 FIFA World Cup consisted of four rounds of competition, in which the 35 member nations competed for three automatic berths at the finals in Brazil.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977233}
{"src_title": "2012 Slovak parliamentary election", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "On 11 October 2011, the National Council of the Slovak Republic, the parliament of Slovakia, voted on whether to approve the expansion of the European Financial Stability Fund. As Slovakia was the last eurozone country to vote on the measure, prime minister Iveta Radičová of the Slovak Democratic and Christian Union – Democratic Party (SDKÚ) made it a vote of confidence. The motion was called on the grounds, according to the Freedom and Solidarity (SaS) party, that Slovakia, the second poorest eurozone country, should not bail out richer countries such as Greece in the interest of bank re-capitalisation. The motion then failed by 21 votes after SaS and Direction – Social Democracy (Smer–SD) abstained.  Smer-SD then came to an agreement with the governing coalition to support the measure in what party chairman and former prime minister Robert Fico called \"the most important document of this period.\" He also explained the first round rejection of the measure as \"saying 'no' to a rightist government, but we're saying 'yes' to the rescue fund.\" As per the agreement between the two parties, foreign minister Mikuláš Dzurinda (SDKÚ) said that, in return for Smer's support, a snap election would be called: \"We decided that as the first point of [Thursday's] parliamentary session, we will work on a proposal to shorten the voting period, with the goal of organising an election on 10 March. Immediately after [13 October or 14 October] we will debate proposals related to the EFSF.\" On 13 October, following pressure from the European Union, which was in turn warned by the United States and China to get its finances in order, the motion was passed by a vote of 114–30 with 3 abstentions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Campaign.", "content": "The number of competing political parties in the 2012 elections was the highest since the fall of communism in Slovakia in 1989. All participating parties had to register 90 days before the election and pay a fee of 16 596 euro (the fee is refunded to all parties who reach at least 2% of votes). All Slovak citizens are allowed to vote except for convicted felons in prison (only those, who were convicted for serious offenses), people declared ineligible to perform legal acts (legally insane) by court and citizens under 18 years of age.  Numerous political scandals overshadowed the economic issues which led to the fall of the previous government:  In the run-up to the elections the Gorilla scandal (secret recordings of leading politicians in 2005–2006 showing political corruption) shook the political scene.  The campaign before the election was openly criticised by numerous Slovak personalities as being the first one since the fall of communism in which political programmes were completely replaced by political scandals and attacks. An open declaration condemning the campaign was signed by 16 personalities, including economist Juraj Stern, actor Milan Lasica and sociologist Martin Bútora. The campaign officially started on 18 February and continued up to, and including, election day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opinion polls.", "content": "In January 2012 it became clear that the new centre-right party, Ordinary People, might enter parliament according to polls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conduct.", "content": "The day before the election, about 1,000 protesters in Bratislava, the national capital, protested against the corruption brought to light by the Gorilla scandal, which later turned violent.  Voting took place between 7:00 and 22:00 at 5,956 polling stations. \"The Slovak Spectator\" reported that former Slovak citizens who had been granted Hungarian citizenship were prevented from voting because of an amendment to the Citizenship Act in 2010 which mandated that those who acquire citizenship of another country automatically have their Slovak citizenship rescinded.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Although Direction won an absolute majority, Fico announced on election night that he would be willing to consult with other parties if they so wished. He also said that: \"The European Union can lean on \"Smer\" because we realise that Slovakia, as a small country living in Europe and wanting to live in Europe... desires to maintain the eurozone and the euro as a strong European currency.\" However, no other parties were willing to form coalition with Smer, leading Fico to form the first one-party government in Slovakia since 1993.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis.", "content": "\"The Economist\" called Fico \"one of Europe's most successful centre-left politicians\" after Smer-SD's win. It suggested that the \"big loser\" was the SDKÚ-DS' Dzurinda as a former prime minister \"barely squeaked\" into parliament and that, along with the SaS, were punished by voters for their failure to support the previous government's EU-backed Greek bailout. It further cited the high voter turnout (59.1) saying that Slovaks had \"matured politically\" for not abstaining or threatening to invalidate the poll, yet it still cited smaller protests that were \"rowdy.\" It pointed to the OLaNO's newcomer status as \"starry-eyed\" in attempting to \"harness voters' discontent\" and that as a result of the party's showing it would be \"breathing down KDH's neck.\" \"The Economist\" pointed out that this was the first time since the breakup of Czechoslovakia that any party had won an absolute majority, though Smer-SD fell seven seats short of the three-fifths majority needed to unilaterally amend the constitution.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Parliamentary elections were held in Slovakia on 10 March 2012 to elect the 150 members of the National Council. The elections followed the fall of Prime Minister Iveta Radičová's Slovak Democratic and Christian Union – Democratic Party-led coalition in October 2011 over a no confidence vote her government had lost because of its support for the European Financial Stability Fund. Amidst a major corruption scandal involving local center-right politicians, former Prime Minister Robert Fico's Direction – Social Democracy won an absolute majority of seats.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977234}
{"src_title": "2006 Czech legislative election", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Campaign.", "content": "Several weeks before the elections, police officer Jan Kubice, head of the squad for investigating organised crime, suggested that senior figures from the police and the government were trying to cover up their cooperation with organised crime. He was summoned before a parliament commission a few days before the election where he presented a document; the contents of the document were leaked immediately.  The document suggested that former Prime Minister Stanislav Gross had connections with the criminal underground and hinted that Prime Minister Jiří Paroubek was indirectly involved in a murder, dealt with the mafia and was a pedophile. It also contained information about minor officials, some of whom had already been imprisoned for bribery.  Paroubek and the others denied these claims and accused the opposition Civic Democratic Party of trying to manufacture a scandal to help them in the elections. After the elections, Paroubek said that the allegations cost his party, the Social Democratic Party, victory and that democracy was in as much danger as in 1948, when the Communists seized power. He raised the possibility of challenging the election result, though this did not happen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Electoral system.", "content": "The Chamber of Deputies consists of 200 members elected for a four-year term. Seats were allocated by proportional representation between those lists that gained over 5% of the national total of valid votes cast.  Party lists were presented in 14 regions, with votes cast for a list, although voters were allowed up to two preference votes for candidates on that list.  The Czech Republic has a parliamentary system of government, with ministers being responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. The Chamber is the most powerful organ of the state with power to override vetoes by the President and the Senate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "The election produced a deadlock, leaving the all the coalitions which were considered likely before the election (ODS-KDU-ČSL-Greens; ČSSD-KSČM; ČSSD-KDU-ČSL-Greens) with less than the 101 votes required to pass legislation or to pass a confidence vote for the new cabinet in the Chamber of Deputies (100, 100 and 93 votes, respectively). Remaining possibilities included a grand coalition of the Civic Democratic Party and the Social Democratic Party, which would command a large majority, totalling 155 seats against 45; a minority cabinet of either of the 100-vote coalitions, which would have negotiate with the opposition to get the majority required for a confidence vote or to pass any legislation; or fresh elections.  On 26 June, the Civic Democratic Party, KDU-ČSL and the Greens announced that they had agreed on a coalition.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Legislative elections were held in the Czech Republic on 2 and 3 June 2006 to elect the members of the Chamber of Deputies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977235}
{"src_title": "2008 Malaysian Grand Prix", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Report.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "The Grand Prix was contested by 22 drivers, in 11 teams of two. The teams, also known as \"constructors\", were Ferrari, McLaren-Mercedes, Renault, Honda, Force India, BMW Sauber, Toyota, Red Bull Racing, Williams, Toro Rosso and Super Aguri.  Prior to the race, McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton led the Drivers' Championship with 10 points, and BMW Sauber driver Nick Heidfeld was second with 8 points. Behind them in the Drivers' Championship, Nico Rosberg was third with 6 points in a Williams, and Fernando Alonso was fourth with 5 points in a Renault. Hamilton's teammate Heikki Kovalainen was fifth with 4 points. In the Constructors' Championship, McLaren–Mercedes were leading with 14 points, five points ahead of Williams, and BMW Sauber were third with 8 points.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Practice and qualifying.", "content": "Three practice sessions were held before the race; the first was held on Friday morning and the second on Friday afternoon. Both sessions lasted 1 hour and 30 minutes with weather conditions dry throughout. The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour. In the first session, Massa was fastest on a lap of 1:35.392, which was over a second faster than any of his rivals. Räikkönen ended up second, despite running out of fuel during the session, and Kovalainen ended up third, just under a tenth of a second slower than his fellow Finn. Also during the session, the Red Bull Racing machine of David Coulthard suffered a track rod failure on the curb of turn 12, and forced the team to show the FIA clarification that their car design was safe for the Grand Prix, under Article 2.3 of the 2008 Formula One Technical Regulations. Coulthard sat out the second practice session, which saw Hamilton top the timesheets with a lap of 1:35.055, beating Massa by 0.151 seconds, with Räikkönen a further two tenths back in third. In preparation for the qualifying session, many teams put their cars on soft tyres for the third practice session. The soft tyre gives better performance than the harder type of tyre but is less durable than the harder compound. Just like in Australia, the BMW of Heidfeld was fastest, setting a lap of 1:35.019, edging out the Ferraris of Räikkönen and Massa with Jarno Trulli's Toyota fourth, ending up just one-thousandth of a second behind Massa's time.  In qualifying, Massa earned his tenth career pole position, after recording a lap of 1:35.748 during the third and final session. He was joined on the front row by teammate Räikkönen, although the Finn's fastest time was more than half a second slower than that of Massa. Third and fourth had originally gone to the McLarens of Kovalainen and Hamilton, however post-qualifying, both drivers were demoted five places on the grid for dangerous driving; having completed their flying laps, the McLaren pair and other drivers slowed to conserve fuel on their in-laps, and impeded Nick Heidfeld of BMW Sauber and Fernando Alonso of Renault whilst they were both on flying laps. This led to a new rule being introduced for Bahrain giving drivers a set time to complete in-laps in. McLaren's misfortune was to the gain of the Toyota of Trulli, both victims of the impeding (Heidfeld and Alonso), Heidfeld's teammate Kubica and Webber's Red Bull machine. Timo Glock rounded out the top ten in his Toyota.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Race.", "content": "At the start Massa came across the track to prevent Räikkönen from overtaking him. Further back, Hamilton was able to move up to fifth and Webber up to fourth. Also on the first lap, Sébastien Bourdais spun out of the race. A crash between the Williams of Nico Rosberg and Glock's Toyota happened a few corners later, in which Rosberg destroyed the front wing of his Williams FW30 and forced Glock to retire from the race. On lap four, Alonso and Heidfeld overtook the Red Bull of David Coulthard for ninth and eighth respectively. Adrian Sutil was forced to retire two laps later when he ran off the track and onto the grass, with hydraulic problems.  By lap nine Hamilton was within two seconds of Webber and the Ferraris of Massa and Räikkönen had opened up a lead on the rest of the field. Both set new fastest lap times over the next four laps. Webber pitted on lap 16, Massa on lap 17 and Räikkönen on lap 18, coming out ahead of Massa. Hamilton pitted on lap 19 and the team had a problem getting his front right tyre off, forcing him to stop for almost twenty seconds, and in the process he lost around twelve seconds to the Ferraris, meaning he came out behind Webber in 11th.  Räikkönen took the lead for the first time when Kubica pitted on lap 21. He would open up a lead of almost four seconds in the next six laps. Hamilton was up to seventh by lap 26 but was still unable to overtake Webber. Hamilton was within half a second of him by lap 29 but this forced him to brake harder and lose time to the rest of the field. Massa spun out of the race on lap 31 getting trapped in the gravel. This gave Räikkönen a lead of over 20 seconds from the next driver Kubica. Hamilton finally overtook Webber on lap 40 when he pitted. Vettel's engine failed one lap later and he was forced to retire. Hamilton would stay ahead of Webber after his second pit stop on lap 44. He was now six seconds behind Trulli in fourth and began to close that margin in the closing laps.  Alonso in eighth now began closing in on Webber. Hamilton was within two seconds of Trulli with two laps to go but was unable to pass him before the end of the race. Räikkönen won the race by nearly twenty seconds from Kubica who had his best ever finish in second; Kovalainen came third. Nick Heidfeld and BMW Sauber earned their first fastest lap, giving Heidfeld a record in \"most races before first fastest lap\" with 134, surpassing the former record of 114 held by Thierry Boutsen.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2008 Malaysian Grand Prix (formally the X Petronas Malaysian Grand Prix) was a Formula One motor race held on 23 March 2008 at the Sepang International Circuit, Sepang, Malaysia. It was the 2nd race of the 2008 Formula One season. The 56-lap race was won by Kimi Räikkönen for the Ferrari team after starting from second position. Robert Kubica finished second in a BMW Sauber car, with Heikki Kovalainen third in a McLaren.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977236}
{"src_title": "Wi-Fi Direct", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Basic Wi-Fi.", "content": "Conventional Wi-Fi networks are typically based on the presence of controller devices known as wireless access points. These devices normally combine three primary functions: A typical Wi-Fi home network includes laptops, tablets and phones, devices like modern printers, music devices, and televisions. The majority of Wi-Fi networks are set up in \"infrastructure mode\", where the access point acts as a central hub to which Wi-Fi capable devices are connected. The devices do not communicate directly with each other (that is, in \"\"ad-hoc\" mode\"), but they go through the access point.  In contrast, Wi-Fi Direct devices are able to communicate with each other without requiring a dedicated wireless access point. The Wi-Fi Direct devices negotiate when they first connect to determine which device shall act as an access point.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Automated setup.", "content": "With the increase in the number and type of devices attaching to Wi-Fi systems, the basic model of a simple router with smart computers became increasingly strained. At the same time, the increasing sophistication of the hot spots presented setup problems for the users. To address these problems, there have been numerous attempts to simplify certain aspects of the setup task.  A common example is the Wi-Fi Protected Setup system included in most access points built since 2007 when the standard was introduced. Wi-Fi Protected Setup allows access points to be set up simply by entering a PIN or other identification into a connection screen, or in some cases, simply by pressing a button. The Protected Setup system uses this information to send data to a computer, handing it the information needed to complete the network setup and connect to the Internet. From the user's point of view, a single click replaces the multi-step, jargon-filled setup experience formerly required.  While the Protected Setup model works as intended, it was intended only to simplify the connection between the access point and the devices that would make use of its services, primarily accessing the Internet. It provides little help \"within\" a network - finding and setting up printer access from a computer for instance. To address those roles, a number of different protocols have developed, including Universal Plug and Play (UPnP), Devices Profile for Web Services (DPWS), and Zero Configuration Networking (ZeroConf). These protocols allow devices to seek out other devices within the network, query their capabilities, and provide some level of automatic setup.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wi-Fi.", "content": "Wi-Fi Direct has become a standard feature in smart phones and portable media players, and in feature phones as well. The process of adding Wi-Fi to smaller devices has accelerated, and it is now possible to find printers, cameras, scanners, and many other common devices with Wi-Fi in addition to other connections, like USB.  The widespread adoption of Wi-Fi in new classes of smaller devices made the need for ad hoc networking much more important. Even without a central Wi-Fi hub or router, it would be useful for a laptop computer to be able to wirelessly connect to a local printer. Although the ad hoc mode was created to address this sort of need, the lack of additional information for discovery makes it difficult to use in practice.  Although systems like UPnP and Bonjour provide many of the needed capabilities and are included in some devices, a single widely supported standard was lacking, and support within existing devices was far from universal. A guest using their smart phone would likely be able to find a hotspot and connect to the Internet with ease, perhaps using Protected Setup to do so. But, the same device would find that streaming music to a computer or printing a file might be difficult, or simply not supported between differing brands of hardware.  Wi-Fi Direct can provide a wireless connection to peripherals. Wireless mice, keyboards, remote controls, headsets, speakers, displays, and many other functions can be implemented with Wi-Fi Direct. This has begun with Wi-Fi mouse products, and Wi-Fi Direct remote controls that were shipping circa November 2012.  File sharing applications such as SHAREit on Android and BlackBerry 10 devices could use Wi-Fi Direct, with most Android version 4.1 (Jellybean), introduced in July 2012, and BlackBerry 10.2 supported. Android version 4.2 (Jellybean) included further refinements to Wi-Fi Direct including persistent permissions enabling two-way transfer of data between multiple devices.  The Miracast standard for the wireless connection of devices to displays is based on Wi-Fi direct.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Technical description.", "content": "Wi-Fi Direct essentially embeds a software access point (\"Soft AP\"), into any device that must support Direct. The soft AP provides a version of Wi-Fi Protected Setup with its push-button or PIN-based setup.  When a device enters the range of the Wi-Fi Direct host, it can connect to it, and then gather setup information using a Protected Setup-style transfer. Connection and setup is so simplified that it may replace Bluetooth in some situations.  Soft APs can be as simple or as complex as the role requires. A digital picture frame might provide only the most basic services needed to allow digital cameras to connect and upload images. A smart phone that allows data tethering might run a more complex soft AP that adds the ability to bridge to the Internet. The standard also includes WPA2 security and features to control access within corporate networks. Wi-Fi Direct-certified devices can connect one-to-one or one-to-many and not all connected products need to be Wi-Fi Direct-certified. One Wi-Fi Direct enabled device can connect to legacy Wi-Fi certified devices.  The Wi-Fi Direct certification program is developed and administered by the Wi-Fi Alliance, the industry group that owns the \"Wi-Fi\" trademark. The specification is available for purchase from the Wi-Fi Alliance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercialization.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Laptops.", "content": "Intel included Wi-Fi Direct on the Centrino 2 platform, in its My WiFi technology by 2008. Wi-Fi Direct devices can connect to a notebook computer that plays the role of a software Access Point (AP). The notebook computer can then provide Internet access to the Wi-Fi Direct-enabled devices without a Wi-Fi AP. Marvell Technology Group, Atheros, Broadcom, Intel, Ralink, and Realtek announced their first products in October 2010. Redpine Signals's chipset was Wi-Fi Direct certified in November of the same year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mobile devices.", "content": "Google announced Wi-Fi Direct support in Android 4.0 in October 2011. While some Android 2.3 devices like Samsung Galaxy S II have had this feature through proprietary operating system extensions developed by OEMs, the Galaxy Nexus (released November 2011) was the first Android device to ship with Google's implementation of this feature and an API for developers. Ozmo Devices, which developed integrated circuits (chips) designed for Wi-Fi Direct, was acquired by Atmel in 2012.  Wi-Fi Direct became available with the Blackberry 10.2 upgrade.  As of March 2016, no iPhone device implements Wi-Fi Direct; instead, iOS has its own proprietary feature, namely Apple's MultipeerConnectivity. This protocol and others are used in the feature AirDrop, used to transfer large files between Apple devices using a similar (but proprietary) technology to Wi-Fi Direct.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Game consoles.", "content": "The Xbox One, released in 2013, supports Wi-Fi Direct.  NVIDIA's SHIELD controller uses Wi-Fi Direct to connect to compatible devices. NVIDIA claims a reduction in latency and increase in throughput over competing Bluetooth controllers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Televisions.", "content": "In March 2016 Sony, LG, Philips and X.VISION have implemented Wi-Fi Direct on some of their televisions.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Wi-Fi Direct (formerly Wi-Fi Peer-to-Peer) is a Wi-Fi standard for peer-to-peer wireless connections that allows two devices to establish a direct Wi-Fi connection without an intermediary wireless access point, router, or Internet connection. Wi-Fi Direct is single-hop communication, rather than multihop communication like wireless/mobile ad hoc networks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977237}
{"src_title": "Philoctetes (Sophocles play)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "When Heracles was near his death, he wished to be burned on a funeral pyre while still alive. In the \"Philoctetes\", Sophocles references the myth in which no one but Philoctetes would light Heracles' funeral pyre, and in return for this favor Heracles gave Philoctetes his bow (seen in later texts, such as Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\"). Philoctetes left with the Greeks to participate in the Trojan War, but was bitten on the foot by a snake while walking on Chryse, a sacred ground. The bite caused him constant agony, and emitted a horrible smell. For this reason he was left by Odysseus and the Atreidai (sons of Atreus) on the desert island Lemnos.  Ten years pass, and the Greeks capture the Trojan seer Helenus, son of Priam. He foretells that they will need the master archer Philoctetes and the bow of Heracles to win the war. Odysseus sails back to Lemnos with Neoptolemus (son of Achilles) to get Philoctetes. The task is not easy, as Philoctetes bitterly hates Odysseus and the Greeks for leaving him there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "Sophocles' \"Philoctetes\" begins with their arrival on the island. Odysseus explains to Neoptolemus that he must perform a shameful action in order to garner future glory—to take Philoctetes by tricking him with a false story while Odysseus hides. Neoptolemus is portrayed as an honorable boy, and so it takes some persuading to get him to play this part. To gain Philoctetes' trust, Neoptolemus tricks Philoctetes into thinking he hates Odysseus as well. Neoptolemus does this by telling Philoctetes that Odysseus has his father's (Achilles) armor. He tells Philoctetes that this armor was his right by birth, and Odysseus would not give it up to him. After gaining Philoctetes' trust and offering him a ride home, Neoptolemus is allowed to look at the bow of Heracles.  Neoptolemus holds the bow while Philoctetes is going into an unbearable fit of pain in his foot. Feeling ashamed, Neoptolemus debates giving it back to him. Odysseus appears, and a series of arguments ensue. Eventually Neoptolemus' conscience gains the upper hand, and he returns the bow. After many threats made on both sides, Odysseus flees. Neoptolemus then tries to talk Philoctetes into coming to Troy by his own free will, but Philoctetes does not agree. In the end, Neoptolemus consents to take Philoctetes back to Greece, even though that will expose him to the anger of the army. This appears to be the conclusion of the play—however, as they are leaving, Heracles (now a deity) appears above them and tells Philoctetes that if he goes to Troy, he will be cured and the Greeks will win. Philoctetes willingly obeys him.  The play ends here. When Philoctetes later fights in Troy, his foot is healed, and he wins glory, killing many Trojans (including Paris).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes and ideas.", "content": "The concept of having a moral high ground is a key aspect in this play. The play makes the spectator question what morality means to each man. Furthermore, the play makes one question the struggle between what is right for the individual versus what is right for the group. It is possible that this struggle is irreconcilable. More specifically, one can see this struggle by looking at what has happened to Philoctetes versus what the Greeks need.  Another theme is that of trauma. Philoctetes suffers wounds that do not heal. Furthermore, Philoctetes' suffering is now what defines him, yet Neoptolemus pretends not to know Philoctetes at first. In other words, Philoctetes' suffering should at least make him known, but it is as if his story is dead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contemporary adaptations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The \"Theatre of War\" Project.", "content": "The story of Philoctetes, dealing with the wounded man and the interwoven relationships with others, has been frequently noted. In 2005 Bryan Doerries, writer and director, began a series of readings of the play in the New York City area, noting the reactions of the audience to the reading, especially related to the reactions of audience members to the interaction of the suffering soldier and the conflicted caregiver. The project revolves around presenting such readings, especially to audiences of medical professionals and students.  A number of readings were followed by a panel discussion about doctor-patient relationships, involving presenters in psychiatry, physicians, and military medical personnel.  The concept has also been extended to training of medical students, such as a presentation also in 2007 to the first year medical class at Weill Medical College of Cornell University.  In 2008, at a conference dedicated to finding new ways to help US Marines recover from post-traumatic stress and other disorders after serving in Iraq or Afghanistan, four New York actors presented a dramatic reading from \"Philoctetes\" and \"Ajax\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fictional adaptations.", "content": "New Amsterdam 2019 episode Good Soldiers", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Philoctetes (, \"Philoktētēs\"; English pronunciation:, stressed on the third syllable, \"-tet-\") is a play by Sophocles (Aeschylus and Euripides also each wrote a \"Philoctetes\" but theirs have not survived). The play was written during the Peloponnesian War. It is one of the seven extant tragedies by Sophocles. It was first performed at the City Dionysia in 409 BC, where it won first prize. The story takes place during the Trojan War (after the majority of the events of the \"Iliad\", but before the Trojan Horse). It describes the attempt by Neoptolemus and Odysseus to bring the disabled Philoctetes, the master archer, back to Troy from the island of Lemnos.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977238}
{"src_title": "The Audrey Hepburn Story", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The film opens with Hepburn acting in the title sequence from \"Breakfast at Tiffany's\" and reminiscing about her life up to that point. These include her experiences in early childhood, studying to be a ballerina, coming to grips with her parents' divorce, and life in Nazi-occupied Netherlands during World War II. She then settles in the United States where she succeeds in making it big as an actress. The film also looks at the men who woo her and her marriage to Mel Ferrer. The closing credits feature footage of the real Hepburn during one of the UNICEF missions she undertook in her later years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Producer Kimberly Rubin sought to make a film that explored Hepburn's life in detail, beginning with her childhood and World War II experiences up to her success on stage and in film. She halted the script after the birth of Hepburn's first child, however, due to the age of her lead actress, Jennifer Love Hewitt, who was 21 at the time of the filming. \"[W]e would not be able to successfully age her past 33\", Rubin explained. Hewitt had been recommended for the role by director Steven Robman, who had previously directed her in \"Party of Five\".  The $7 million production was filmed on location in Montreal between April 13 and May 29, 1999. Nearly 80 roles were cast. Canadian professionals involved with the film included Jean-Baptiste Tard, production design; Renée April, costume design; and Pierre Letarte, director of photography.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "Several versions of the film were aired. In the United States. It aired as a three-hour film on ABC on March 27, 2000, while in other countries a longer version was broadcast over two nights.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Critical reviews noted that the film overcame several potential pitfalls, including the usual insipidness of television movies and the difficulty of mounting a biopic of a revered actress who had died only seven years earlier. \"Entertainment Weekly\" wrote that Jennifer Love Hewitt had \"guts\" to take on the role, and called her \"excellent at conveying Hepburn's studied modesty\". While the review describes the other actors as \"a cast of impersonators who are mostly much worse than herself [Hewitt]\", it sums up the film as a \"corny, curious, but achingly sincere and fitfully enjoyable TV movie\".  \"Variety\" praised the performances of the two young actresses who played Hepburn as a youth, Sarah Hyland and Emmy Rossum, saying they gave \"depth and likability\" to Hepburn's character and gave Hewitt, who plays Hepburn as an adult, \"a ball that's already rolling\". This review commended Hewitt for her \"onscreen maturity\". The Apollo Guide called the screenplay \"a mildly pleasant surprise\" for a television film and praised Hewitt's performance for conveying the \"mannerisms and accent\" of Hepburn without taking on a full-blown impersonation. It reserved its greatest praise for Rossum's performance, which \"demonstrates both her [Hepburn's] heart and the development of her strength of character and explains, in part, why she was unique\". A Moviehole.com review agreed that Hewitt conveyed \"both the look, and the voice\" of Hepburn, but disliked the script for presenting such a large number of scenes in Hepburn's life rather than the \"most gripping\" ones.  Negative reviews focused on Hewitt's inability to portray Hepburn's physical qualities. According to \"The Baltimore Sun\" review: \"What's impossibly wrong with this film is that Hewitt has no physical grace while Hepburn was the very embodiment of it.... Director Steve Robman... has to use every trick from slow motion to shooting only legs and arms of body-doubles to make it look as though Hewitt could have been a ballerina\". \"Radio Times\" noted the incongruity of the \"buxom\" actress portraying the gamine Hepburn. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 20% based on reviews from 5 critics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Audrey Hepburn Story is a 2000 American biographical drama television film based on the life of actress and humanitarian Audrey Hepburn. Covering the years 1935 to the 1960s, it stars Jennifer Love Hewitt, who also produced the film. Emmy Rossum and Sarah Hyland appear as Hepburn in her early years. The film was shot in Montreal, Canada, and premiered on ABC on March 27, 2000.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977239}
{"src_title": "Adenia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "All \"Adenia\" are perennial plants, but there are many different forms, including herbs, vines, lianas, shrubs, and trees. Many are succulents and some are pachycauls. Some have fibrous root systems and some have tubers. \"Adenia\" can be found in a wide variety of habitat types, from dry African deserts to wet Southeast Asian rainforests. There are some 100 species in the genus.  \"Adenia\" have alternately arranged leaves borne on petioles. There are two glands located near the attachment of the blade to the petiole. Most species are dioecious. Inflorescences of a few to many flowers occur in the leaf axils. There is a stipe below the flower. The calyx of sepals around the base of the flower has five lobes. The five petals are usually smaller than the sepals and may be whitish or greenish. The male flower has five stamens. In the female flower these are reduced to staminodes. There are three styles tipped with stigmas that may be long-hairy to very woolly. The fruit is a red capsule. Each black seed has a fleshy aril.  \"Adenia\" species can be difficult to identify and distinguish. Individuals of a species can be variable. One plant can have leaves of varying shapes and sizes, and young and old specimens can have different leaf types. Some taxa are poorly represented in herbarium collections, leaving few examples to compare with new specimens. Records of some taxa lack descriptions of both flower types. Many species only flower for a few weeks, and during this time they may also lose their leaves. Succulent plants can be difficult to properly collect and preserve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Several species are used in traditional African medicine. Various parts of \"A. cissampeloides\" are used to treat many conditions, including gastrointestinal problems, inflammation, pain, fever, malaria, leprosy, scabies, cholera, anemia, bronchitis, sexually transmitted diseases, menorrhagia, and mental illness. It is used both as an abortifacient and to prevent miscarriage. \"A. dinklagei\" leaves are ingested to treat palpitations. The leaves of \"A. tricostata\" are used to treat fever. The leaves or leaf sap of \"A. bequaertii\" are taken to treat headache, mental illness, and possession. \"A. lobata\" stems are applied to sites of Guinea worm infection during extraction of the worm. It is also used as an enema and an aphrodisiac.  \"A. cissampeloides\" is used as a fish poison and arrow poison. The red-colored sap is used as a cosmetic. The stems can be made into rope. The crushed twigs or smoke from burning roots can be used to calm honeybees during honey harvest.  The leaves of \"A. cissampeloides\" are eaten as a vegetable in parts of Africa.  \"A. digitata\" is cultivated as an ornamental plant for its very large, distinctive aboveground tuber.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Many \"Adenia\" are poisonous. They contain lectins such as lanceolin, stenodactylin, and volkensin, which are toxic to cells. They cause apoptosis, hemagglutination, inhibition of protein synthesis, and depurination of ribosomes and DNA. Mouse experiments with small doses of lanceolin and stenodactylin, from \"A. lanceolata\" and \"A. stenodactyla\", respectively, revealed that they are \"amongst the most potent toxins of plant origin\".  The fruit of \"A. digitata\" has been used in Africa to commit homicide and suicide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diversity.", "content": "There are approximately 100 species in the genus.  Species include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Adenia is a genus of flowering plants in the passionflower family, Passifloraceae. It is distributed in the Old World tropics and subtropics. The centers of diversity are in Madagascar, eastern and western tropical Africa, and Southeast Asia. The genus name \"Adenia\" comes from \"aden\", reported as the Arabic name for the plant by Peter Forsskål, the author of the genus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977240}
{"src_title": "MAS (motorboat)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "World War I.", "content": "MAS were widely employed by \"Regia Marina\" during World War I in 1915–1918. Models used were directly derived from compact civilian motorboats, provided with petrol engines which were compact and reliable (characteristics which were not common at the time). They were used not only in the anti-submarine patrol role, but also for daring attacks against major units of the Austro-Hungarian Navy.  A significant success came in December 1917, when an MAS boat managed to sink the pre-dreadnought battleship in Trieste harbor. The greatest success of Italian MAS was the sinking of the Austro-Hungarian battleship off Pula on 10 June 1918 by a boat commanded by Luigi Rizzo. MAS boats later engaged in the Second Battle of Durazzo in October 1918.  The main Austrian fleet remained securely at anchor in the harbour at Pola (now Pula in Croatia), protected by several layers of defensive booms, impassable to conventional MAS boats. A special version, the \"Grillo\"-class tracked torpedo motorboat or (Jumping Boats) were designed, which featured a pair of spiked continuous tracks, intended to allow them to clamber over the booms which were supported by large timber baulks. The boats were powered by an electric motor for a silent approach and carried two torpedoes. Four were built; the first two were scuttled when their slow motors failed to get them to the harbour booms at Pola before daybreak and in a second operation, another boat made such a loud clattering noise climbing the booms that it was spotted and destroyed by gunfire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interwar Period and Spanish Civil War.", "content": "In 1926, four MAS boats were built for and purchased by the Royal Albanian Navy. They were named \"Tirana\", \"Saranda\", \"Durres\", and \"Vlorë\". During the Italian invasion of Albania they were seized and put into service by Italian forces. All survived World War II and in 1945 were returned to Albania. Four units were transferred to the Nationalist Navy during the Spanish Civil War in 1938: \"Sicilia\" (LT-18), ex \"MAS 100\"; \"Nápoles\" (LT-19), ex \"MAS 223\"; \"Cándido Pérez\" (LT-16), ex \"MAS 435\"; and \"Javier Quiroga\" (LT-17), ex \"MAS 436\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Italian MAS continued to be improved after the end of World War I, thanks to the availability of Isotta Fraschini engines. The MAS of World War II had a maximum speed of 45 knots, two 450 mm torpedoes and one machine gun. In 1940 there were 48 MAS 500-class units available. Older units were used in secondary theatres, such as the Italian East Africa. Notable war actions performed by MAS include the torpedoing of the Royal Navy C-class cruiser \"Capetown\" by \"MAS 213\" of the 21st MAS Squadron working within the Red Sea Flotilla off Massawa, Eritrea; and the failed attack on the harbour of Malta in January 1941, which caused the loss of two motorboats, one of them recovered by the British, put in service as a tender and renamed \"XMAS\". Five MAS were scuttled in Massawa in the first week of April 1941 as a part of the Italian plan for the wrecking of Massawa harbor in the face of the British advance. \"MAS 204\", \"206\", \"210\", \"213\", and \"216\" were sunk in the harbor; four of the boats were in need of mechanical repairs and could not be evacuated. On 24 July 1941, amid heavy fire from the escorts, \"MAS 532\" torpedoed and crippled the transport \"Sydney Star\", escorted by the destroyer HMS \"Cossack\" and part of the British convoy GM 1. The steamer managed to limp to Malta assisted by the destroyer HMAS \"Nestor\". On 1 December 1941, two Italian MAS boats engaged the Soviet icebreaker \"Anastas Mykoyan\", en route from the Dardanelles to Suez, with machine gun fire and forced it to run aground on the Turkish coast off Kastelorizo. Even though the Soviet vessel was refloated and reached Haifa for repairs the next day, the action compelled the Turkish government to intern eight Soviet ships set to repeat the same journey. \"MAS 554\", \"554\" and \"557\" sank three allied freighters on the night of 13 August 1942 off Cape Bon, in the course of Operation \"Pedestal\", for a total tonnage of 48,500 tons. On 29 August 1942, a smaller type of MAS boat, the MTSM, torpedoed the British destroyer \"Eridge\" off El Daba, Egypt, disabling it for the remainder of the war.  A flotilla of MAS served at German request as reinforcements in the Black Sea for the planned attack on Sevastopol in June 1942. The MAS squadron came under intense air attack from Soviet fighter-bombers and torpedo boats but performed well. They sank the 5,000-ton steamer \"Abkhazia\" and disabled the 10,000-ton transport \"Fabritius\", which was subsequently destroyed by \"Stuka\" dive-bombers. MAS boats destroyed troop barges and damaged Soviet warships. A MAS boat commander was killed in battle. One MAS was destroyed and three damaged by fighter-bombers in September 1942 during a heavy attack on Yalta. In the early hours of 3 August 1942, three MAS boats torpedoed and disabled the Soviet cruiser \"Molotov\" south-west of Kerch.  In May 1943, the seven MAS boats in the Black Sea were transferred to the \"Kriegsmarine\". In August that year, they were transferred to the Romanian Navy. These seven boats were wooden-hulled, each displacing 25 tons. Top speed amounted to 42 knots, generated by petrol engines powering two shafts. They were armed with one 13 mm heavy machine gun or one 20 mm anti-aircraft gun, 6 depth charges and two 350 mm torpedoes.  Another flotilla of four MAS, the XII Squadriglia MAS, was deployed to Lake Ladoga in April 1942 to support the siege of Leningrad. They sank a Soviet gunboat of the Bira class, a 1,300-ton cargo ship and several barges. Soviet sources say that the gunboat, the \"Selemdzha\", was only lightly damaged when the torpedo exploded in the lake's bottom, with two wounded on board.  After the signing of the Cassibile agreement, MAS boats sank the German torpedo boat \"TA11\" (ex French \"L'Iphigénie\") at Piombino, on 11 September 1943.  The obsolescence of small MAS became apparent during the conflict, and they were increasingly replaced by larger Yugoslavian E-boats built in Germany and by new improved versions, classified \"MS\" (\"Moto Siluranti\") by the \"Regia Marina\".  A type of anti-submarine craft based on the MAS design was developed by the Italian Navy in World War II. This was the \"vedetta anti sommergibile\", or \"VAS\", equipped with a good amount of anti-submarine warfare equipment given her small size.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural legacy.", "content": "The Italian poet Gabriele d'Annunzio, who employed MAS in some of his World War I adventures, used the MAS acronym for his Latin motto: \"Memento audere semper\" (\"remember always to dare\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Motoscafo armato silurante (torpedo-armed motorboat), commonly abbreviated as MAS was a class of fast torpedo-armed vessels used by the (Italian Royal Navy) during World War I and World War II. Originally, \"MAS\" referred to (armed motorboat SVAN, (Naval Automobile Society of Venice).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977241}
{"src_title": "Pentemont Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beauvais (1217–1672).", "content": "Philip of Dreux, the famed crusader bishop of Beauvais, wished to found a convent of the Cistercian order. In 1217 he set aside an orchard southwest of Beauvais, on which were traced out the plans for construction, as well as seven arpents (6-7 acres) of vines. Philip died before the project was completed and his successor, Bishop Milo of Nanteuil, raised the rest of the funds, and it was completed in 1218. Pope Gregory IX issued a bull from the Lateran Palace on the 8 June 1230 which sanctioned the new abbey and declared the funds raised for its endowment protected. The abbey took its name, meaning mountain slope, from its location at the foot of the Montagne de St-Symphorien.  In 1554 the abbey provided refuge to Charlotte I de Monceaux, the abbess of the neighboring Abbey of Saint-Paul, whose election as abbess was opposed by Henry II. She fled to Pentemont after the arrival of the king's soldiers at her own abbey. However, they followed her to Pentemont and demanded by force that she renounce her position, a request to which she was compelled to accede.  In 1671, after the abbey was damaged in a flood, and for economic and geographical reasons, the abbess Hélène de Tourville moved the abbey to Paris. At the time, the convent had twelve sisters. The previous building was demolished and returned to agricultural work as part of the Pentemont farm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Paris (1672–1790).", "content": "In Paris the abbey took up residence in a former convent, recently suppressed, of the Sisters of the Incarnate Word, located on Rue de Grenelle at the current site of the abbey. The sisters dedicated themselves to the education of young women and later added rooms in which women of good standing could find rest. The abbey quickly acquired a distinguished reputation and by the time of its dissolution in 1790 had revenues of 58,000 livres, a great sum for the era.  The final abbess, Marie III Catherine de Béthisy de Mézières, spent 45 years and a great deal of money rebuilding and expanding the abbey. A competition for plans for a reconstruction attracted multiple proposals including one from the royal architect, François II Franque, which drew praise from Denis Diderot in the \"Encyclopédie\" for its combination of grandeur and simplicity. The winning proposal, however, was from Pierre Contant d'Ivry.  The many famous students educated at the abbey included the noted abbess and princess Louise Adélaïde de Bourbon, and Louise d'Esparbès de Lussan, the mistress of the Count of Artois, the future Charles X of France. Thomas Jefferson's daughters Martha and Mary were both educated at the Pentemont Abbey while he was Minister to France. Their entry into the school was sponsored by the wife of the Marquis de Lafayette. The future first lady Abigail Adams was shocked that Jefferson would send his girls to a Catholic school but he assured her that there were many Protestants at the abbey. Conditions were austere for the students, despite the presence of three princesses, with no fires until the water froze and a prohibition on speaking outside of class and recreation. Her time at the school led Martha, nicknamed Patsy, to write a letter to her father expressing her desire to become a nun. Jefferson quickly removed his daughters from the care of the convent.  The abbey also provided elegant apartments to highborn women seeking independence from families or difficult marriages. The ladies were free to come and go as they liked, with constraints on the hours allowed outside the convent, often had their children and servants with them, and spent their evenings socializing and commiserating in the abbey's salons. One such resident was Joséphine de Beauharnais, the future Empress of France, during her separation from her first husband, Alexandre de Beauharnais. The court granted her temporary independence from her husband and required her to stay at Pentemont with her children at the expense of Alexandre. It is also speculated that James Smithson, the founder of the Smithsonian Institution, who was born in Paris the illegitimate son of the Duke of Northumberland, was born in the Pentemont Abbey, as it had strong connections to the Duke, whose illegitimate daughters it educated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "State Property (1790–2015).", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Military.", "content": "During the French Revolution, the Abbey was suppressed and its properties confiscated. The abbey's affairs were wound down in 1791-2, with its properties in Beauvais sold to pay off state debt. With the abbey now state property it came to serve first as home to the National Guard, then the Imperial Guard. In 1835, the building was expanded to Rue de Bellechasse which required the demolition of some parts of the original structure. Under the Second Empire the abbey served as the barracks of the Cent-gardes Squadron, an elite cavalry unit that provided personal protection for Napoleon III and the Tuileries Palace.  In the twentieth century, Pentemont Abbey housed the Ministry of War Pensions, Bonuses and Benefits. In 1937, a bunker was constructed underneath the Court of Honor including two stationary bicycles intended to provide electricity in case of power loss due to enemy bombardment. The courtyard has a war memorial that reads \"From veterans to their comrades who gave their lives for their country. In memoriam.\" It is also home to a number of commemorative plaques, including ones for André Maginot and Henri Frenay.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Protestant Church.", "content": "The chapel was used to store grain during the Revolution and later hay when the army took over the abbey. After the Concordat of 1801 provided formal recognition of the Reformed Church in France, it was decided that three former Catholic churches in Paris be turned over to Reformed congregations, Saint-Louis-du-Louvre, Sainte-Marie-des-Anges, and the chapel of the Pentemont Abbey.  In 1598, Protestant worship had been forbidden in Paris by the Edict of Nantes. In 1685, the Edict of Fontainebleau made non-Catholic services illegal in all of France. This inaugurated a long period of persecution for French Protestants though some in Paris were able to worship in the chapels of the Dutch and Swedish embassies. The handover of the chapel of the abbey as well as the other churches ushered in a new era of open Protestant worship in Paris.  The actual opening of the former abbey as a Reformed congregation was delayed by decades of bureaucratic obstacles as well as opposition during the Bourbon Restoration to turning over a former Catholic building to Protestant use. It was not until 1844 that architect Victor Baltard began work to convert the chapel into a Protestant church. He isolated the chapel from the rest of the building, added new doors in place of two of the previous windows, and converted the former choir to a nave. He also closed off the original entrance by adding a massive organ, built by Aristide Cavaillé-Coll and installed in 1846 for the opening of the church. The organ has undergone various modifications over the years including a restoration from 2011-14 to restore the remaining original elements. The church itself underwent restoration from 2005-2007 commissioned by the City of Paris and accomplished by Benjamin Mouton, the chief architect of historic monuments, and the firm Aubert-Labansat.  Source:", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Pentemont Abbey (, \"Pentemont\", \"Panthemont\" or \"Pantemont\") is a set of 18th and 19th century buildings at the corner of Rue de Grenelle and Rue de Bellechasse in the 7th arrondissement of Paris. The abbey was a Cistercian convent founded near Beauvais in 1217 and moved to its current site in Paris in 1672 at the behest of Louis XIV. A reconstruction of the abbey was initiated in 1745 by the Abbess Marie-Catherine Béthisy de Mézières and work was completed in 1783. In the late 18th century the abbey was one of the most prestigious educational institutions in Paris for daughters of the elite, including two of Thomas Jefferson's. The abbey also provided rooms for ladies of good standing who were in search of rest, including Joséphine de Beauharnais when the case of her separation from her first husband was heard.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977242}
{"src_title": "Dukan Diet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The Dukan diet is a high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet with four phases, each of which has specific rules.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In 1975, Pierre Dukan was a general practitioner in Paris when he was first confronted with a case of obesity. At the time, being overweight or obese was thought to be best treated by low calorie and small sized meals. Dukan thought of an alternative way to prevent patients from regaining their lost weight. He designed a new approach in 4 phases, including stabilisation and consolidation. After more than 20 years of research Pierre Dukan published his findings in 2000 in his book \"Je ne sais pas maigrir\" (\"I don't know how to get slimmer\") which became a best seller.  In July 2011, a French court ruled against Dukan in his attempt to sue rival nutritionist Jean-Michel Cohen for libel, after Cohen had criticised his method in the press.  In 2013, Dukan, then aged 72, was banned from practising as a GP in France for eight days for breaching medical ethics by prescribing a diet pill to one of his patients in the 1970s that was later pulled from the market.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related diets.", "content": "Pierre Dukan said the paleo diet was a copy of his weight loss strategy. The Paleolithic diet is claimed to be based on the human ancestral diet. Other similar diets include Ketogenic diet being low carb moderate protein and high fats and Atkins diet being low carb high protein and moderate fats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Promotion and media exposure.", "content": "Dukan has been promoting his diet since the 1970s; it gained a wider audience after the 2000 publication of his book, \"The Dukan Diet\", which has sold more than 7 million copies globally. The book was released in the United Kingdom in May 2010, and in the United States in April 2011.  The French magazine \"L'Express\"' list of the 20 top-selling non-fiction books for the week of 27 December 2010 ranked \"La méthode Dukan illustrée\" in 19th place.  Channel Four included the diet in the programme \"Will my crash diet kill me?\" on 26 January 2011.  The American spokesperson for the diet is culinary dietitian Gina Keatley.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The Dukan diet is categorized as a commercial fad diet and carries some risk of causing chronic kidney disease and worsened cardiovascular health. It is unclear whether it helps people lose weight or increase their glucose tolerance. Nephrolithiasis is a potential side effect of the diet that is of particular concern to people with a history of kidney stone formation.  The British Dietetic Association have named the Dukan Diet the number 1 \"diet to avoid\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Dukan Diet is a high-protein low-carbohydrate fad diet devised by Pierre Dukan. The diet is not nutritionally sound and it carries risks to kidney and cardiovascular health.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977243}
{"src_title": "Crime of aggression", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1998, at the Rome Conference that adopted the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (\"the Statute\"), the crime was included as one of the crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court (Article 5.1) and over which any State that becomes party to the Statute accepts the Court's jurisdiction (Article 12.1). However, participants to the Rome Conference could not agree on the definition of the crime nor on further conditions for the Court's exercise of jurisdiction; the Statute did not allow the Court to exercise such jurisdiction until these outstanding issues were solved (Article 5.2). At the 2010 Review Conference (\"the Conference\"), States Parties agreed by consensus to adopt resolution RC/Res.6 accepting the amendments to the Statute adding the definition of the crime and the conditions for the exercise of jurisdiction over this crime.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Definition.", "content": "Under the Statute, the definition of \"crime of aggression\" is stated as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exercise of jurisdiction.", "content": "Under the Statute, the conditions for the exercise of jurisdiction for the \"crime of aggression\" by the Court are as defined below. With these provisions, the Court may exercise its jurisdiction over the \"crime of aggression\" in one or all of the following ways.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Article 15 bis.", "content": "Exercise of jurisdiction over the crime of aggression (State referral, proprio motu)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Article 15 ter.", "content": "Exercise of jurisdiction over the crime of aggression (Security Council referral)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Activation of the Court's jurisdiction.", "content": "Since the amendments on the crime of aggression were adopted under Article 121.5, they enter into force for each ratifying State individually. In addition, the amendments require two further conditions to be fulfilled for the Court to exercise jurisdiction, both for state referrals and \"proprio motu\" investigations (15 bis) and for Security Council referrals (15 ter): At the 16th annual session of the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Treaty, it was decided to activate jurisdiction of the Crime of Aggression starting July 17, 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "States Parties to the Amendments.", "content": "As of 29 November 2017, thirty-four (34) State Parties have ratified or acceded to the amendments to the Rome Statute. On 8 May 2012, Liechtenstein ratified the Amendments on the crime of aggression to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court thereby becoming the first state to ratify the amendments. On 13 January 2013, the amendments were ratified by Luxembourg, the first current non-permanent member of the Security Council to do so. Luxembourg also became the first state to implement the amendments into domestic legislation. because it has revised its criminal code and its code of criminal procedure in February 2012. During the High-Level Week of the United Nations General Assembly from 25–26 September 2013, the amendments were also ratified by Andorra, Cyprus, Slovenia, and Uruguay, respectively. The states parties are shown in alphabetical order according to their official name within the Assembly of States Parties.  \"See\" Amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court for the list of states parties to the amendments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statements by states.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Liechtenstein.", "content": "Liechtenstein, which served the Presidency of the Review Conference, issued a statement upon ratification to the amendments:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Japan.", "content": "At the Review Conference, Japan issued two statements before and after the adoption of the amendments took place:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "In 2006, the House of Lords ruled in the case or \"R v Jones\" that the crime of aggression did not exist in English law as it applied within the United Kingdom.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "After its formal participation in the Review Conference as Observer, on 15 June 2010 the United States government held a special briefing on the Conference outlining what they deemed as accomplishments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Related provisions.", "content": "The following article(s) are related with the adopted amendments concerning the provision on \"crime of aggression\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Article 13.", "content": "Exercise of jurisdiction", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A crime of aggression is a specific type of crime where a person plans, initiates, or executes an act of aggression using state military force that violates the Charter of the United Nations. The act is judged as a violation based on its character, gravity, and scale.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977244}
{"src_title": "Cité de Carcassonne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Founded during the Gallo-Roman period, the citadel derives its reputation from its long double surrounding walls interspersed by 52 towers. The town has about 2,500 years of history and has been occupied in different ages by Romans, Visigoths, and Crusaders. At the beginning of its history it was a Gaulish settlement then in the 3rd century A.D., the Romans decided to transform it into a fortified town. The Roman defences were in place by 333 AD, when the town is described as a \"castellum\". The original walls were supported by between 34 and 40 towers, spaced from 18 to 30 metres apart along the curtain wall. Each tower was semicircular in plan and about 14 metres tall. There were probably 40 main entrances to the town.  The Gallo-Roman walls were rebuilt during the town's occupation by the Visigoths in the 5th and 6th centuries, but the original structure remained in place.  Bernard Aton IV Trencavel, vicomte of Albi, Nîmes, and Béziers, introduced a period of prosperity for the city with numerous construction projects. During this period, a new sect known as Catharism sprang up in Languedoc. In 1096, the vicomte of Trencavel authorized the construction of the basilica of Saint-Nazaire with the blessing of Pope Urban II. In 1107, the citizens rejected his sovereignty and called on Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona to remove him. However, with the help of Bertrand, Count of Toulouse, Bernard Aton regains control of the Cité. In 1120, there is a second revolt, but Bernard Aton re-establishes order a few years later. In 1130, he starts construction of a palace for himself and restoration of the Gallo-Roman fortifications. The Cité of Carcassonne is surrounded by a complete fortification for the first time..  At this time, the city has a large population of 3 to 4 thousand, including the residents of the two settlements below the walls of the Cité: the bourg Saint-Vincent on the north, and the bourg Saint-Michel south of the Narbon gate.  In 1208, Pope Innocent III calls on the barons of the north to mount a crusade against the Cathars, beginning the Albigensian Crusade. The Count of Toulouse, accused of heresy, and his principal vassal, the Vicomte of Trencavel, are the main target of this attack. On 1 August 1209, the Cité is besieged by the crusaders. Raimond-Roger Trencavel surrenders quickly on the 15th of August in exchange for the lives of the citizens. The town around the Cité is destroyed, and the citizens driven out. The vicomte dies of dysentery in his own chateau on 10 November 1209.  His lands are given to Simon de Montfort, the leader of the crusaders. When he dies in 1218 at the siege of Toulouse, his son, Amaury de Montfort, takes possession of the Cité, but is unable to maintain it. He cedes it to Louis VIII of France, but Raymond VII of Toulouse and the counts of Foix ally themselves against him. In 1224, Raimond II Trencavel retakes the Cité. However, Louis VIII launches another crusade in 1226. From that time forth, the Cité becomes a royal domain. A period of terror ensues, with numerous massacres and the Inquisition.  After 1226, an additional line of fortifications was added outside of the Roman walls. The town was finally annexed to the kingdom of France in 1247 A.D. It provided a strong French frontier between France and the Crown of Aragon. During this period, the inner, Roman walls were largely demolished and replaced, while the new outer walls were reinforced and extended to the south. The new towers built during this work were mainly circular, but two were square. Construction continued into the reign of King Philip IV in the early 14th century.  In 1659, after the Treaty of the Pyrenees, the province of Roussillon became a part of France, and the town lost its military significance. Fortifications were abandoned and the town became one of the economic centres of France, concentrating on the woolen textile industry.  In 1849 the French government decided that the city fortifications should be demolished. This decision was strongly opposed by the local people. Jean-Pierre Cros-Mayrevieille and Prosper Mérimée, an eminent archaeologist and historian, led a campaign to preserve the fortress as a historical monument. The government later reversed its decision and in 1853 restoration work began. The architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc was charged with renovating the fortress. Viollet-le-Duc's work was criticised during his lifetime as inappropriate to the climate and traditions of the region. After his death in 1879, the restoration work was continued by his pupil, Paul Boeswillwald, and later by the architect Nodet.  The citadel was restored at the end of the 19th century and in 1997 it was added to UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. An image of the historic city of Carcassonne appears on the emblem of local rugby league team, AS Carcassonne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The legend of Lady Carcas.", "content": "Lady Carcas is a legendary character from the city of Carcassonne. According to the legend, she is the wife of Ballak, the Muslim prince of Carcassonne, who was killed in action against Charlemagne. The latter, following the death of her husband, allegedly took charge of the city's defence against the Frankish army and repelled it. Princess Carcas first used a trick consisting of making fake soldiers, which she had manufactured and placed in each tower of the City. The siege lasted 5 years.  But by the beginning of the sixth year, food and water were becoming increasingly scarce. Lady Carcas wanted to make an inventory of all the reserves left. The city being Saracen, a part of the population being Muslim does not consume pork. The villagers brought him a pig and a bag of wheat. She then had the idea of feeding the pig with the sack of wheat and then rushing it from the highest tower of the City at the foot of the outer ramparts.  Charlemagne and his men, believing that the city was still overflowing with soldiers and food to the point of wasting a wheat-fed pig, raised the siege. Seeing Charlemagne's army leaving the plain in front of the City, Lady Carcas was filled with joy at the victory of her ploy and decided to ring all the city's bells. One of Charlemagne's men then shouted: \"Carcas is ringing! \", in french \"Carcas Sonne\" thus creating the name of the city.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cité de Carcassonne ( ) is a medieval citadel located in the French city of Carcassonne, in the department of Aude, Occitanie region. It is located on a hill on the right bank of the River Aude, in the south-east part of the city proper.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977245}
{"src_title": "Debt consolidation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Debt generally refers to money owed by one party, the debtor, to a second party, the creditor. It is generally subject to repayments of principal and interest. Interest is the fee charged by the creditor to the debtor, generally calculated as a percentage of the principal sum per year known as an interest rate and generally paid periodically at intervals, such as monthly. Debt can be secured with collateral or unsecured.  Although there is variation from country to country and even in regions within country, consumer debt is primarily made up of home loans, credit card debt and car loans. Household debt is the consumer debt of the adults in the household plus the mortgage, if applicable. In many countries, especially the United States and the United Kingdom, student loans can be a significant portion of debt but are usually regulated differently than other debt. The overall debt can reach the point where a debtor is in danger of bankruptcy, insolvency, or other fiscal emergency. Options available to overburdened debtors include credit counseling and personal bankruptcy.  Other consumer options include: Sometimes the solution includes some of each of these tactics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Process.", "content": "The bulk of the consumer debt, especially that with a high interest, is repaid by a new loan. Most debt consolidation loans are offered from lending institutions and secured as a second mortgage or home equity line of credit. These require the individual to put up a home as collateral and the loan to be less than the equity available.  The overall lower interest rate is an advantage that debt consolidation loan offers to consumers. Lenders have fixed costs to process payments and repayment can spread out over a larger period. However, such consolidation loans have costs: fees, interest, and \"points\" where one point equals to one percent of the amount borrowed. In some countries, these loans may provide certain tax advantages. Because they are secured, a lender can attempt to seize property if the borrower goes into default.  Personal loans comprise another form of debt consolidation loan. Individuals can issue debtors a personal loan that satisfies the outstanding debt and creates a new one on their own terms. These loans, often unsecured, are based on the personal relationship rather than collateral.  In United States, there are certain companies and private law firms, addressed as debt relief companies and/or debt consolidation companies, that provide professional debt consolidation services. A Consumer can approach them for debt help, and make only one monthly payment to them. This payment will then be disbursed, by these companies, among the various creditors, the consumer is indebted to. Many other countries, alongside United States, also have such professional services for the benefit of consumers, struggling with household debt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Student loan consolidation.", "content": "In the United States, student loans which are part of the Federal Direct Student Loan Program are consolidated somewhat differently from in the UK, as federal student loans are guaranteed by the U.S. government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "United States.", "content": "In a federal student loan consolidation, existing loans are purchased by the Department of Education. Upon consolidation, a fixed interest rate is set based on the then-current interest rate. Reconsolidating does not change that rate. If the student combines loans of different types and rates into one new consolidation loan, a weighted average calculation will establish the appropriate rate based on the then-current interest rates of the different loans being consolidated together.  Federal student loan consolidation is often referred to as refinancing, which is incorrect because the loan rates are not changed, merely locked in. Unlike private sector debt consolidation, student loan consolidation does not incur any fees for the borrower; private companies make money on student loan consolidation by reaping subsidies from the federal government.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "United Kingdom.", "content": "In the UK student loan entitlements are guaranteed, and are recovered using a means-tested system from the student's future income. Student loans in the UK can not be included in bankruptcy, but do not affect a person's credit rating because the repayments are deducted from salary at source by employers, similar to Income Tax and National Insurance contributions. Many students, however, struggle with commercial debt well after their courses have finished.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Australia.", "content": "Australia’s student loan system once had 35 years to pay back loans, but it’s currently 15. Those seriously delinquent on student loans face arrest at the border.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Japan.", "content": "In Japan, an increasing number of student loans are in arrears. This has caused the Asian nation to take harsher steps when it comes to lending determinations. In an effort to prevent future defaults, Japan has begun associating loan approvals to academic performance.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Debt consolidation is a form of debt refinancing that entails taking out one loan to pay off many others. This commonly refers to a personal finance process of individuals addressing high consumer debt, but occasionally it can also refer to a country's fiscal approach to consolidate corporate debt or Government debt. The process can secure a lower overall interest rate to the entire debt load and provide the convenience of servicing only one loan or debt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977246}
{"src_title": "Vladimir Burtsev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life (1862 - 1886).", "content": "Burtsev was born in Fort- Aleksandrovsky, in the Transcaspian Oblast of the Russian Empire (present-day Kazakhstan) to a military family. In 1882, he was expelled from Saint Petersburg State University and in 1885 from Kazan State University for taking part in student disturbances. As a member of Narodnaya Volya, he was imprisoned for two years (for about a year in the Peter and Paul Fortress) and in 1886 exiled to the Irkutsk region of Eastern Siberia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exile and publications (1888 - 1914).", "content": "In 1888 Burtsev managed to escape from exile and emigrate to Switzerland. In 1889 he co-founded magazine \"Svobodnaya Rossiya\" (Свободная Россия, \"Free Russia\") but it survived only three issues. \"In 1890... Burtsev, wanted by the czarist police, boarded a British boat bound from Constantinople to London. When the ship found itself surrounded by Turkish police vessels with Russians on board, the captain refused their demand to hand over the fugitive, announcing: “This is English territory. And I am a gentleman!”  In 1898, Burtsev was arrested by British police for advocating, in his magazine \"Narodovolets\" (Народоволец, \"Narodnaya Volya Comrade\"), the assassination of Nicholas II. Burtsev was found guilty and sentenced to 18 months at hard labour. On his release he went on to publish it in Switzerland, resulting in his permanent ban from that country.  In London, he published the two-volume book \"Za Sto Let (1800–1896)\" (За сто лет (1800–1896), \"For Hundred Years (1800–1896)\"). He founded and published six issues of \"Byloye\" (Былое, \"The Past\"), a historical magazine. After the Russian Revolution of 1905 Burtsev briefly returned illegally to Russia and founded the Russian version of the \"Byloye\" magazine. Upon his return to the West in 1907, Burtsev began publishing the magazine \"Obshcheye Delo\" (Общее дело, \"Common Cause\") which was a continuation of the foreign edition of \"Byloye\" beginning with the 7th issue.  By exposing numerous Tsarist agent provocateurs such as Yevno Azef, Burtsev gained fame as a counterintelligence expert and became known as \"the Sherlock Holmes of the Revolution\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War I and the Bolsheviks (1914 - 1921).", "content": "At the outset of World War I in 1914 he repatriated, was arrested at the border and again exiled to Siberia. Amnestied in 1915, he returned to Petrograd.  Burtsev strenuously opposed the Bolsheviks. In 1917 he accused Lenin and his comrades of being agents of Germany. In his article \"Either Us or the Germans and Those with Them\" (\"Russian Freedom\", July 7, 1917), he listed the major enemies of Russia:  On the day of the October revolution, he was arrested on orders of Leon Trotsky, which led some historians to count him as the first political prisoner in the USSR.  Despite their political differences and public disputes in the press, Maxim Gorky pleaded for Burtsev's release and in February 1918 he was indeed freed and left Soviet Russia. Burtsev spent the rest of his life as an emigre, first in Finland, then Sweden and later in France. During the Russian Civil War, he supported the White Movement of Admiral Kolchak and General Anton Denikin.  His numerous attempts to bring all anti-Bolshevik forces together under one ideological umbrella did not succeed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life and death (1921 - 1942).", "content": "In 1921 Burtsev co-founded and became chairman of the Russian National Committee.  In 1930s, Burtsev fought against fascism and antisemitism. In 1934–1935 he was a witness in the Berne Trial, exposing the Okhrana's role in creating the infamous fraud \"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion\". In 1938 in Paris he published a book \"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: A Proven Forgery\". Burtsev died in poverty in Paris in 1942 from a blood infection.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vladimir L'vovich Burtsev (; November 17, 1862August 21, 1942) was a revolutionary activist, scholar, publisher and editor of several Russian language periodicals. He became famous by exposing a great number of agents provocateurs, notably Yevno Azef in 1908. Because of his own revolutionary activities and his harsh criticism of the imperial regime, including personal criticism of emperor Nicholas II, he was imprisoned several times in various European countries. In the course of his life, Burtsev fought oppressive policies from Tsarism in Imperial Russia, followed by the Bolsheviks and later Adolf Hitler's National Socialism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977247}
{"src_title": "Hickstead (horse)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "In 2006, Hickstead was a member of the winning Nations Cup Team in Florida. He also placed third in the Aachen Grand Prix and won the Duke Energy Cup at Spruce Meadows.  In 2007 Hickstead and Eric Lamaze won the coveted $1Million CN International at the Spruce Meadows \"Masters\" Tournament in Calgary, Alberta (Canada). During that event, he also won a record four ATCO Power Queen Elizabeth II Cup titles.  At the 2007 Pan Am Games, Hickstead and Eric Lamaze won team silver and individual bronze medals.  In 2008, Hickstead and Eric Lamaze won Individual Gold and Team Silver for Canada at the Beijing Olympic Games. This was the first individual gold medal won in equestrian, and second overall gold won by Canada in Olympic history, the other being a team medal coming from the 1968 Olympics.  In 2010 Hickstead earned the title 'Best Horse in the World' at the Alltech FEI World Equestrian Games(WEG) in Lexington, Kentucky. After completing the \"extremely\" rare feat of logging four clear rounds with four different riders in the Rolex Top Four Final, Hickstead was named Best Horse of the discipline. Under the unique format of the Top Four Final, riders with the four highest scores throughout the competition exchange horses.  Hickstead and Lamaze were also the 2010 champions of the Rolex Grand Prix at the prestigious CHIO Aachen: World Equestrian Festival in Germany. In a competition where the top three combinations completed both rounds and the jump-off without faults, Hickstead raced to victory – finishing the jump-off in a time that was \"twenty four one hundredths of a second\" faster than that of the second place 'Carlina', ridden by Pius Schwizer of Switzerland.  In 2011 Eric Lamaze and Hickstead won the $1 million CN International for a second time. The pair was second in the 2011 FEI World Cup Jumping Final in Leipzig, Germany.  On November 6, 2011, at a competition in Verona, Italy, Hickstead collapsed shortly after finishing a round and died of an aortic rupture. At the time, he was paired with Lamaze, the number one rider in the world. Eric Lamaze had praised this horse in 2006:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hickstead (March 2, 1996 – November 6, 2011) was a stallion ridden by Canadian Eric Lamaze. With rider Lamaze, he was an Olympic gold and silver medalist in show jumping. Hickstead was owned by Torrey Pines and Ashland Stables Inc.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977248}
{"src_title": "Austro-Hungarian gulden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "The name \"Gulden\" was used on the pre-1867 Austrian banknotes and on the German language side of the post-1867 banknotes. In southern Germany, the word Gulden was the standard word for a major currency unit. The name \"Florin\" was used on Austrian coins and \"forint\" was used on the Hungarian language side of the post-1867 banknotes and on Hungarian coins. It comes from the city of Florence, Italy where the first florins were minted, from 1252 to 1533.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Until 1806, Austria was the leading state of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1754, the Conventionsthaler replaced the Reichsthaler as the currency of the Holy Roman Empire. The Gulden was defined as half of a Conventionsthaler, equivalent to of a Cologne mark of silver. The Gulden was subdivided into 60 Kreuzer. Following the winding up of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Gulden became the standard unit of account in the Habsburg lands and remained so until 1892.  In 1857, the Vereinsthaler was introduced across the German Confederation and Austria-Hungary, with a silver content of grams. This was slightly less than times the silver content of the Gulden. Consequently, Austria-Hungary adopted a new standard for the Gulden, containing two-thirds as much silver as the Vereinsthaler. This involved a debasement of the currency of 4.97%. Austria-Hungary also decimalized at the same time, resulting in a new currency system of 100 Kreuzer (krajczár) = 1 Gulden (forint) and Gulden = 1 Vereinsthaler.  In 1892 the Austro-Hungarian Gulden was replaced by the Krone, at a rate of 2 Krone (korona) = 1 Gulden. In 1946 the Hungarian Forint (magyar forint) was re-introduced and remains the official currency in Hungary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coins.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Austria.", "content": "Copper coins were initially issued in denominations of 1 \"Heller\" ( Kreuzer) up to 1 Kreuzer, with silver coins in denominations from 3 Kreuzer up to 1 Conventionsthaler. The Turkish and Napoleonic Wars led to token issues in various denominations. These included a 12 Kreuzer coin which only contained 6 Kreuzer worth of silver and was later overstruck to produce a 7 Kreuzer coin. In 1807, copper coins were issued in denominations of 15 and 30 Kreuzer by the Wiener Stadt Banco. These issues were tied in value to the bank's paper money (see below). The coinage returned to its prewar state after 1814.  When the Gulden was decimalized in 1857, new coins were issued in denominations of (actually written ), 1 and 4 Kreuzer in copper, with silver coins of 5, 10 and 20 Kreuzer,, 1 and 2 Florin and 1 and 2 Vereinsthaler and gold coins of 4 and 8 Florin or 10 and 20 francs. Vereinsthaler issues ceased in 1867. Vereinsthaler = Florins", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hungary.", "content": "Following the forint's introduction, Hungary issued relatively few coins compared to Austria, but the Kingdom of Hungary started minting its own golden coins called, depending on the language, florins/forints, zlatkas, Guldens, in 1329. The only copper coin was a \"poltura\" worth krajczár, whilst there were silver 3, 5, 10, 20 and 30 krajczár and and 1 Conventionsthaler. All issues ceased in 1794 and did not resume until 1830, when silver coins of 20 krajczár and above were issued. Only in 1868, following the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, did a full issue of coins for Hungary begin. Denominations were fewer than in Austria, with copper, 1 and 4 krajczár, silver 10 and 20 krajczár and 1 forint and gold 4 and 8 forint.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Paper money.", "content": "Between 1759 and 1811, the \"Wiener Stadt Banco\" issued paper money denominated in Gulden. However, the banknotes were not tied to the coinage and their values floated relative to one another. Although the notes did have a slight premium over coins early on, in later years, the notes fell in value relative to the coins until their value was fixed in 1811 at one fifth of their face value in coins. That year, the \"Priviligirte Vereinigte Einlösungs und Tilgungs Deputation\" (\"Privileged United Redemption and Repayment Deputation\") began issuing paper money valued at par with the coinage, followed by the \"Austrian National Note Bank\" in 1816 and the \"Privileged Austrian National Bank\" between 1825 and 1863. In 1858, new notes were issued denominated in \"Austrian Currency\" rather than \"Convention Currency\".  From 1866, the \"K. K. Staats Central Casse\" (\"Imperial and Royal State Central Cashier\") issued banknotes, followed from 1881 by the \"K. K. Reichs Central Casse\" which issued the last Gulden banknotes, dated 1888.  The banknotes after Ausgleich that were issued by the Austro-Hungarian Bank had their value that was guaranteed with gold as enacted in the Banking Act. State notes were issued by the treasury and had no such cover.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Gulden or forint (,,, ) was the currency of the lands of the House of Habsburg between 1754 and 1892 (known as the Austrian Empire from 1804 to 1867 and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy after 1867), when it was replaced by the krone/korona as part of the introduction of the gold standard. In Austria, the Gulden was initially divided into 60 Kreuzer (), and in Hungary, the forint was divided into 60 krajczár (). The currency was decimalized in 1857, using the same names for the unit and subunit.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977249}
{"src_title": "Bucerius Institute for Research of Contemporary German History and Society", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Research.", "content": "The Institute promotes research on the contemporary history and the social, cultural and political reality of Germany and works to foster greater familiarity and understanding of modern Germany among the academic community. It further facilitates academic exchange between Germany, Europe and Israel. The thematic and methodological variety of topics that the Institute's program has encompassed over the past decade has included identity, migration, integration, multiculturalism, citizenship and liberalism, \"race\", visual history and the history of science in a German, Israeli and European context. The Bucerius Institute aims to involve different disciplinary backgrounds and methodologies, historical periods and immediate geographical contexts to bring to the fore aspects of modern German and Jewish history that can reveal complex aspects of the convoluted history of contemporary Germany. The Institute has become an important source of information about specific developments in post-war Germany, and in Europe in general. This information is regularly used by students and scholars at the University of Haifa and the general public.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic and Public Activities.", "content": "The Institute annually organizes conferences, workshops and guest lectures, such as \"Queer experiences during the Third Reich and the Holocaust\" and \"Concepts of \"Race\" in the Humanities\", dealing with a broad range of topics within the fields of interest, and contributing in initiating scholarly discussions. In addition, outstanding German public figures such as Rita Süssmuth, Josef Joffe and Wolf Biermann lectured during special events at the Institute. Occasionally, the Institute arranges special events, such as film festivals and music shows, which attract a large audience from outside the University. In 2007, the Institute was part in the organization of a DEFA/GDR film festival relating to the topic \"German Cinema from behind the Iron Curtain\" and, in 2008, hosted a musical drama with the title \"The Myth and the Real Life of Marlene Dietrich\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scholarship and Academic Exchange.", "content": "The Bucerius Institute has an active exchange program for M.A. and Ph.D. students with grants and scholarships. Numerous visiting research scholars have given lectures and seminars under the Institute’s auspices. The Institute contributes towards the research of contemporary Germany in Israel and towards collaborations with scholars from both Israel and abroad. The Bucerius Institute has partnerships with several international research institutions, such as the Leo Baeck Institute, the German-Israeli Foundation (GIF) for Scientific Research and Development, the Simon Dubnow Institute for Jewish History and Culture, the Hamburg Institute for Social Research, the Institute for the History of the German Jews, the Research Group \"Didactics of Biology\" of the University of Jena, the various German party foundations in Israel, and other academic institutes in Germany and Israel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "In March 2005, the Bucerius Institute published \"Memory and Amnesia: The Holocaust in Germany\", edited by Gilad Margalit and Yfaat Weiss (in Hebrew). This volume represents the final product of a weekly workshop organized by the Bucerius Institute in 2001/2002 by leading researchers of the Holocaust in Israel, Germany, Europe and the United States. The workshop used historiography, literary genres and cinematography to analyze the master narratives of the victim, perpetrator and bystander in works dealing with the Holocaust. Furthermore, some essays from the conference \"Europe and Israel: What Next?\", regarding \"Remigration,\" have been included in the \"Leo Baeck Institute Year Book 2004\". In addition, the Institute published the results of its conference \"Deadly Neighbors\" in one issue of the journal \"Mittelweg 36. The Journal of the Hamburg Institute for Social Research.\"<br> There are numerous publications of associate members of the Institute dealing with the current history of Germany and the relationship between Jews and Non-Jews in Germany, Europe and Israel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bucerius Institute for Research of Contemporary German History and Society at the University of Haifa was established in 2001 by the ZEIT-Stiftung Ebelin und Gerd Bucerius and its chairman, Professor Dres. h.c. Manfred Lahnstein. The Institute is committed to the research of social and historical issues of contemporary Germany. The founder and first director of the Institute was Prof. Yfaat Weiss. Since 2008, Dr. Amos Morris-Reich has been the director of the Bucerius Institute.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977250}
{"src_title": "Hamadi Jebali", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life, education and professional life.", "content": "Born in Sousse in 1949,Jebali received his bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from the Tunis University and added a masters programme in photovoltaic engineering in Paris, France. As a specialist in solar energy and wind power, he founded his own enterprise in Sousse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political and journalistic activity.", "content": "In 1981 he became involved with Tunisia's Islamist movement, then called Movement of the Islamic Tendency. He was director and editor-in-chief of \"Al-Fajr\" (Dawn), the former weekly newspaper of the Islamist Ennahda Party. Moreover he served as longtime member of the party's executive council and remains secretary-general of Ennahda.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criminal prosecution and imprisonment.", "content": "In June 1990, \"Al-Fajr\" published an article by Rashid al-Ghannushi called \"The people of the State or the State of the People?\" Jebali was made responsible for the publication and received a suspended sentence and a 1,500 dinars fine for the offences of \"encouraging violation of the law\" and \"calling for insurrection\". In November 1990, the Islamist newspaper contained an essay by the lawyer Mohammed Nouri, entitled \"When will military courts, serving as special courts, be abolished?\" This time, a military court sentenced Hamadi Jebali to one year in prison for \"defamation of a judicial institution\".  In May 1992 the government claimed that it had detected plans for a coup d'état by Ennahda, which had allegedly plotted to kill President Ben Ali and establish an Islamic state. In August 1992, Jebali, along with 170 other sympathisers of Ennahda, was charged with \"attempted overthrow\". Jebali protested that he had no knowledge of the plot's existence, and asserted that he had been tortured, presenting marks on his body for evidence. The trial was classified as unfair by observers for Human Rights Watch, the Lawyer's Committee for Human Rights, and Amnesty International, the latter of which named Jebali a prisoner of conscience. Eventually, on 28 August 1992 Hamadi Jebali was sentenced to a prison term of 16 years for \"membership in an illegal organisation\" and \"attempted change of the nature of the state\". The Court of Cassation confirmed the verdict.  The conditions of his imprisonment were harsh. More than ten of the 15 years that Jebali spent, were in solitary confinement. Hamadi Jebali engaged in several hunger strikes to protest against the conditions and his conviction. Two of them lasted for 36 days each. In February 2006, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Tunisia's independence, Jebali was conditionally released.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-revolution and Prime Minister.", "content": "Following the Tunisian revolution in January 2011, Ennahda was legalised. Since then, Hamadi Jebali has been present in public as the party's secretary-general and spokesman. In May 2011, he went to Washington, D.C. in the US at the invitation of the Center for the Study of Islam and Democracy. He also met U.S. Senators John McCain and Joe Lieberman.  Ensuing Ennahda's success in the Constituent Assembly election on 23 October 2011, the party nominated him as its candidate for prime minister. Jebali is considered a proponent of the reformist wing of his party.  Interim President Moncef Marzouki appointed Jebali as Prime Minister of Tunisia on 14 December 2011. He presented his government on 20 December. He officially took office on 24 December.  On 19 February 2013, he resigned his office. The move followed his attempt to form a technocratic government following the assassination of Chokri Belaid and ensuing protests against the alleged Islamisation of the country. Ennahda, however, rejected his resignation insisting on a government of politicians and Jebali formally resigned after a meeting with President Moncef Marzouki saying it was in the best interests of the country. He said: \"I promised if my initiative did not succeed I would resign as head of the government, and this is what I am doing following my meeting with the president. Today there is a great disappointment among the people and we must regain their trust and this resignation is a first step.\" Party leader Rachid Ghannouchi then suggested a government of politicians and technocrats, while Jebali suggested that if he was tasked with forming a new government it would have to include non-partisan ministers and a variety of political representation that would lead to a new election. Unnamed opposition figures welcomed the resignation. The same day, Standard & Poor downgraded Tunisia's credit rating. However, the IMF said that it was still in talks for a US$1.78 billion loan to the country.  After urging his party without success to support the interim president Moncef Marzouki in the presidential election of 2014, he left Ennahda on 10 December 2014. In January 2015, he refused to join the new party of the losing presidential candidate Marzouki but did not rule out founding a party of his own.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hamadi Jebali (, \"\"; born 12 January 1949) is a Tunisian engineer, Islamist politician and journalist who was Prime Minister of Tunisia from December 2011 to March 2013. He was the Secretary-General of the Ennahda Movement, a moderate Islamist party in Tunisia, until he left his party in December 2014 in the course of the 2014 Tunisian presidential election.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977251}
{"src_title": "Schmallenberg orthobunyavirus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Molecular biology.", "content": "The genetic structure of Schmallenberg virus is typical for Bunyavirales viruses, which are a family of enveloped negative-sense single stranded RNA viruses with a genome split into three parts—Small (S), Medium (M) and Large (L). The L RNA segment encodes an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (L protein), the M RNA segment encodes two surface glycoproteins (Gc and Gn) and a nonstructural protein (NSm), while the S RNA segment encodes a nucleocapsid protein (N) and, in an alternative overlapping reading frame, a second nonstructural protein (NSs). The genomic RNA segments are encapsidated by copies of the N protein in the form of ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes. The N protein is the most abundant protein in virus particles and infected cells and, therefore, the main target in many serological and molecular diagnostics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Signs of disease.", "content": "The virus causes two different profiles of Schmallenberg: These disease signs have occurred during the period when the disease vectors (mosquitos, sandflies, midges) are active, during the summer and autumn of 2011, mainly affecting cattle. Congenital malformations in newborn sheep, goats and calves are the most obvious symptoms. In many cases, the dam apparently has not presented signs of illness. These cases have occurred from December 2011, especially in sheep. The major malformations observed were: scoliosis, hydrocephalus, arthrogryposis, hypoplasia of the cerebellum and an enlarged thymus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "Blood samples from live animals with suspicious symptoms are taken for analysis. Dead or aborted fetuses suspected of having the virus are sampled by taking a piece of the brain or spleen for analysis. The samples are tested with the RT-PCR for Schmallenberg virus that has been developed by the Friedrich-Loeffler Institute in Germany. A commercial kit is now available from AdiaVet which targets the L region of the tripartite ssRNA genome of the virus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cases in the United Kingdom.", "content": "The disease was confirmed as present in the UK on 22 January 2012, on being formally identified in four sheep farms in Norfolk, Suffolk and East Sussex. By 27 February 2012, the disease was reported in other counties in the south of England including the Isle of Wight, Wiltshire, West Berkshire, Gloucestershire, Hampshire and Cornwall. It is likely that it was carried to Eastern England by midges from mainland Europe, a possibility previously identified as a risk by Defra.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Import bans.", "content": "Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Egypt and Mexico have all suspended imports of live cattle and sheep, along with embryos and semen from affected countries.  United States ban import of bovine germplasm collected in EU countries after June 1, 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Schmallenberg orthobunyavirus, initially reported in October 2011 causes congenital malformations and stillbirths in cattle, sheep, goats, and possibly alpaca. It appears to be transmitted by midges (\"Culicoides\" spp.) which are likely to have been most active in causing the infection in the northern hemisphere summer and autumn of 2011, with animals subsequently giving birth from late 2011. Schmallenberg virus falls in the Simbu serogroup of Orthobunyaviruses; as of January 2013, it is considered to be most closely related to the Sathuperi and Douglas viruses.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977252}
{"src_title": "Interparliamentary EU Information Exchange", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and Role.", "content": "IPEX came about as the result of a recommendation made by the Conference of the Speakers of the European Union Parliaments in Rome in 2000. In accordance with the Guidelines for interparliamentary cooperation, agreed in The Hague in 2004, the official launch of the website took place in June 2006 during the EU Speakers Conference in Copenhagen. The website was later redesigned, launching its new format in 2011.  IPEX aims to support: the Speakers Conference; the Conference of Parliamentary Committees for Union Affairs of Parliaments of the European Union (COSAC); meetings of the specialized committees of the national Parliaments and of the European Parliament; interparliamentary meetings; and the liaison offices of the national parliaments in Brussels. IPEX is thus one of the major pillars of interparliamentary communication on European affairs, drawing together information from each of the national parliaments across the EU.  IPEX is intended to enable the national parliaments of EU Member States to cooperate more closely and coordinate their approaches to European affairs, whilst also seeking to make interparliamentary cooperation on EU matters accessible to European citizens. In this context, IPEX offers multilingual navigation and publishes fundamental texts and opinions of the national parliaments in English, French and other EU languages.  IPEX receives contributions from all national Parliaments of the Member States of the European Union, the national parliaments of the candidate countries and from the European Parliament. In order to promote interparliamentary cooperation, IPEX is open to COSAC and the European Centre for Parliamentary Research and Documentation (ECPRD).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organisation of IPEX.", "content": "According to the IPEX Guidelines, the IPEX Board is responsible for decisions concerning the development of IPEX. The Board is appointed on a yearly basis by the Secretaries General of the national Parliaments and the European Parliament on behalf of their Speakers.  IPEX is managed by the Central Support, the permanent IPEX information officer and a network of national IPEX Correspondents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features of IPEX.", "content": "IPEX features a database of national parliamentary scrutiny information, forums, and a news section. It is publicly accessible.  The website aims to provide the following:  IPEX also hosts the EU Speakers Conference website.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "IPEX, the InterParliamentary EU information eXchange, is a platform for the exchange of information between EU national parliaments as well as the European Parliament concerning issues related to the European Union, especially in light of the provisions of the Treaty of Lisbon. The Treaty of Lisbon explicitly sets out the role of the national parliaments in the Protocol on the role of national Parliaments in the European Union and in the Protocol on the application of the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977253}
{"src_title": "Tizen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Tizen project was formed by the Linux Foundation in 2011 as a successor to MeeGo, another Linux-based mobile operating system, with its main backer Intel joining Samsung Electronics, as well as Access Co., NEC Casio, NTT DoCoMo, Panasonic Mobile, SK Telecom, Telefónica, and Vodafone as commercial partners. Tizen would be designed to use HTML5 apps, and target mobile and embedded platforms such as netbooks, smartphones, tablets, smart TVs, and in-car entertainment systems. U.S. carrier Sprint Corporation (who was a backer of MeeGo) joined the Tizen Association in May 2012. On September 16, 2012, Automotive Grade Linux announced its intent to use Tizen as the basis of its reference distribution.  In January 2013, Samsung announced its intent to release multiple Tizen-based phones that year. In February 2013, Samsung merged its Bada operating system into Tizen.  In October 2013, the first Tizen tablet was shipped by Systena. The tablet was part of a development kit exclusive to Japan.  In 2014, Samsung released the Gear 2 smartwatch that used a Tizen-based operating system as opposed to Android.  On May 14, 2014, it was announced that Tizen would ship with Qt. This project was abandoned in January 2017.  On February 21, 2016, Samsung announced the Samsung Connect Auto, a connected car solution offering diagnostic, Wi-Fi, and other car-connected services. The device plugs directly into the OBD-II port underneath the steering wheel.  On November 16, 2016, Samsung said they would be collaborating with Microsoft to bring.NET Core support to Tizen.  According to Strategy Analytics research, approximately 21% of the smart TVs sold in 2018 run on the Tizen platform making it the most popular smart TV platform.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "On April 3, 2017, \"Vice\" reported on its \"Motherboard\" website that Amihai Neiderman, an Israeli security expert, has found more than 40 zero-day vulnerabilities in Tizen's code, allowing hackers to remotely access a wide variety of current Samsung products running Tizen, such as Smart TVs and mobile phones. After the article was published, Samsung, whom Neiderman tried to contact months before, reached out to him to inquire about his allegations.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tizen () is a Linux-based mobile operating system backed by the Linux Foundation but developed and used primarily by Samsung Electronics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977254}
{"src_title": "Bassin de la Villette", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The First Basin.", "content": "The first Bassin de la Villette is 699 metres long and 70 metres wide. It has served several functions.  Its original function was to serve as a reserve of drinking water for Parisians. Its secondary function, in association with the second basin, was to provide water for navigation on the canals of Saint-Denis and Saint-Martin.  At the beginning of the 19th century the first basin was surrounded by gardens where Parisians came to spend pleasant interludes (walking in summer, skating in winter). But the industrial era of the 1850s saw the disappearance of this aspect of recreation. Goods depots were built on the banks.  In 1832 Paris was hit by a great epidemic of cholera. Parisians using water from the Bassin de la Villette were less severely affected than those using water from the Seine (the Javel and Samaritaine steam pumps) because of waste waters being discharged into the river by the city - especially the waste of the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris, where there were many sick, which spanned the small arm of the river between the Ile de la Cité and the left bank.  In the late 19th century, commercial activities developed at the basin. In the same period the Moselle footbridge (13 metres high and a span of 85 metres) was built by Armand Moisant. It was decorated with a clock 3 metres in diameter. This bridge was replaced in 1966.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Second basin.", "content": "The Lifting bridge of the Rue de Crimée or Pont de Flandre, a lifting bridge weighing 85 tons built in 1885, separates the two basins. It allows traffic on the \"Rue de Crimée\" to cross the canal and connects the \"Quai de l'Oise\" on the north-west side to the \"Quai de la Marne\" on the south-east side. When the bridge is raised pedestrian traffic can still continue on a fixed elevated walkway. At the time of its construction it was the third largest lifting bridge to be built in France. It is now the last one in Paris and is registered as an historical monument.  The second basin measures 30 m wide and 730 m long. This basin, which is often prematurely named the \"Canal de l'Ourcq\", originally ran along the back of the old village of La Villette.  At its northern end is the \"roundabout of canals\" where the Bassin de la Villette converges with the Canal de l'Ourcq (which brings water for more than 100 km from the river Ourcq) and the Saint-Denis canal which, with a length of 6,647.50 m and a slope of 28.45 m, joins the Seine at Saint-Denis, as well as the small \"Darse du fond de Rouvray\" canal (a port for the canal ferry boats).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Warehouses.", "content": "There are two buildings at the end of the Bassin de la Villette that were built between 1845 and 1853 as commercial warehouses, but which had a certain utilitarian beauty.  They were known as \"general merchandise warehouses\" and they were first used to store grain and flour. Their design, execution, and placement were based on the urban plans originally conceived by Claude Nicolas Ledoux in the eighteenth century, and they operated in perfect symmetry at the Bassin de la Villette, one on the Quai de la Seine side, and one on the Quai de la Loire side.  Later, they gradually lost their original purpose and at the end of the 20th century were transformed into artists' studios and workshops, small offices, and other small enterprises.  In 1990 the building on the Quai de la Seine side was burned beyond repair. For security reasons the storehouse on the quai de la Loire side was also closed. These warehouses have now been replaced by the MK2 cinema complexes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "River transport and the economic role of the basin.", "content": "Intensive freight and port activity developed around the canals from the second quarter of the 19th century. In the last half of the same century there was a great deal of industrialization in Paris in the area of the present Seine-Saint-Denis. At the same time port traffic in the Bassin de la Villette was at its peak and equal to the port of Bordeaux.  During the 20th century this freight traffic experienced significant peaks mainly related to construction activity after the world wars. Steadily declining since the middle of the 20th century this traffic disappeared for the Bassin de La Villette and is currently at its lowest level in history for all Parisian canals (around 1 million tons in 2000).  At the same time tourism-related passengers from the Bassin de la Villette slowly began to increase.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cultural and leisure activities.", "content": "Barges are moored along the banks of the basin throughout the year offering cultural activities such as theatre, cinema, concerts, etc.  In summer the banks of the basin are used by fishermen, bowls players, and picnickers. On summer evenings it is not unusual for the left bank (exposed longer to the sun) to be occupied from one end to the other.  Every year in June is the festival of the basin. There are festive activities on both sides (concerts, mini-shows, exhibitions). The celebration ends with a big fireworks display from the bridge.  Since 2007 an extension of the Paris-Plages has taken possession of a large part of the quay of the Seine and offers taverns, restaurants, boat rides, children's play area, petanque, etc.  Rowing is practiced throughout the year on the water.  On the Quai de la Seine there are the Sup de Pub and Sup Career schools which are both INSEEC Business Schools.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bassin de la Villette (La Villette Basin) is the largest artificial lake in Paris. It was filled with water on 2 December 1808. Located in the 19th arrondissement of the capital, it links the Canal de l'Ourcq to the Canal Saint-Martin, and it represents one of the elements of the \"Réseau des Canaux Parisiens\" (Parisian Canal Network), a public-works authority operated by the city. The other components of the network are the Canal de l'Ourcq, the Canal Saint-Denis, the Canal Saint-Martin, and the Bassin de l'Arsenal. Together, these canals and basins extend roughly.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977255}
{"src_title": "2017 World Men's Handball Championship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Venues.", "content": "The championship was played at eight venues in Paris-Bercy, Rouen, Nantes, Metz, Albertville, Montpellier, Lille, and Brest. All the venue capacities are the capacity for handball events. 8 venues", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bidding process.", "content": "Denmark and France were bidding to host the 2017 Men's World Championships. The IHF Council awarded the Men’s and Women’s World Championships 2017 at their meeting on the fringes of the Women’s World Championships in São Paulo, Brazil on Thursday 15 December 2011.  Denmark was the co-host of the 1999 Women’s World Championship and host of the 1978 Men's World Championship. Denmark has also hosted the Women's EHF EURO twice and was awarded with the Men's EHF EURO 2014.  France hosted the Men's World Championships in 1970 and 2001 and was host of the 2007 Women's World Championship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification.", "content": "Twenty-four teams participated in the final tournament. France were automatically qualified as hosts. An additional automatic qualification spot was given to the defending champions, but because this was also France, the berth was given to the next best placed team from the last World Championship, losing finalists Qatar. The remaining 22 available places were for the best teams of each continental qualification tournament, the winners of an additional European qualification competition and an additional intercontinental qualification tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Draw.", "content": "The draw was held on 23 June 2016 at 14:00 in Paris, France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Referees.", "content": "16 referee pairs are selected:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary round.", "content": "The schedule was announced on 23 September 2015.  \"All times are local (UTC+1).\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final ranking.", "content": "For places 5–16 the criteria was the number of points gained against the teams ranked first to fourth in the preliminary round in their group.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "All-Star Team.", "content": "All-Star Team of the tournament:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2017 IHF World Men's Handball Championship was the 25th event hosted by the International Handball Federation. The event was held in France from 11 to 29 January 2017.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977256}
{"src_title": "Musée national des Monuments Français", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alexandre Lenoir.", "content": "In 1795, Alexandre Lenoir opened the Musée des monuments français to the public in the Petits Augustins convent, now the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, and served as its administrator for 30 years, but he had to restore most of its collections to their former private and public owners on the Bourbon Restoration in 1816. What remained would be partly moved to the Louvre in 1824 (in the galerie d'Angoulême under the generic term of musée de la sculpture française) and partly to the musée de Versailles in 1836.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Viollet-le-Duc.", "content": "The architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc suggested gathering reproductions of French sculpture and architecture at a single site in the palais du Trocadéro in 1879, in buildings left vacant after the Exposition universelle in 1878. His proposal was accepted on 4 November. Alexandre du Sommerard would be designated on 20 December to form the musée de la Sculpture comparée. The institution opened its four rooms to the public on 28 May 1882, three more in 1886 and finally its library and foundational documents in 1889.  The palais du Trocadéro, refaced and widened by a second gallery but deprived of its central hemispherical hall, under the direction of architect Jacques Carlu for the Exposition universelle of 1937, became the palais de Chaillot. Wholly redesigned, the museum became the musée des Monuments français. Very avant-garde in terms of its museographic conception and intellectual experimentation, notably through the efforts of the archaeologist Paul Deschamps, it had to close down due to an insufficient budget. In July 1995, a fire partially destroyed the building. Its planned reopening in 1998 was pushed back to 15 September 2007 in connection with the creation of the Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Today.", "content": "It occupies the aile Paris of the Palais de Chaillot and is made up of three galleries. The galerie Davioud (1878) and galerie Carlu (1937) form a gallery of plaster casts. The upper gallery serves as an exhibition space for modern and contemporary architectural models. Wall paintings and stained glass windows are located at the end of the modern and contemporary architecture gallery; they are shown on two levels. There is also a library as well as rooms for temporary exhibitions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collections.", "content": "It contains about 6,000 casts of sculptures of all periods including ancient Greece, Italy, Germany, and Switzerland, but with a strong emphasis on French sculptures of the Romanesque and Gothic periods. It also contains scale models of buildings, copies of architectural elements, sculpture, frescoes, and stained glass from French churches and châteaux, as well as a collection of about 200,000 photographs. Most copies were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.  Of particular interest is the Galerie Davioud, which displays casts of sculptures from the Strasbourg Cathedral (13th century), Bourges Cathedral (late 13th century), and the Notre-Dame de Reims. The museum also contains copies of elements from Angoulême Cathedral, Aulnay, Autun, Cluny, Conques, Jouarre, Moissac, Sainte-Marie-des-Dames at Saintes, Saint-Gilles-du-Gard, Saint-Trophime d'Arles, Saint-Génis-des-Fontaines, Saint-Sernin at Toulouse, and Notre-Dame du Port at Clermont-Ferrand.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Musée national des Monuments Français is today a museum of plaster casts of French monuments located in the Palais de Chaillot, 1, place du Trocadéro et du 11 Novembre, Paris, France. It now forms part of the Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine, and is open daily except Tuesday. An admission fee is charged.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977257}
{"src_title": "Bertrand Traoré", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chelsea.", "content": "In August 2010, it was reported that Traoré had joined the Chelsea Academy from French club Auxerre, rejecting Manchester United in the process.  In January 2011, however, Traoré had not yet signed for the club, and in January 2012 the club confirmed that Traoré was not and had never been a Chelsea player, but had appeared once for the club's youth team in a friendly as part of a six-week trial earlier in the season. On 17 July 2013, however, he made his debut, as a trialist, in a pre-season friendly against the Singha All Stars.  On 31 October 2013, Traoré officially signed a four-and-half-year contract with Chelsea. He signed a contract for Chelsea's senior team in December 2013, and completed the transfer on 1 January 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loan to Vitesse.", "content": "On 2 January 2014, Traoré signed on loan for Eredivisie side Vitesse. On 26 January, he made his debut, coming on in the 67th minute for fellow Chelsea loanee Lucas Piazon. On 29 March 2014, Traoré scored his first goal, against Heerenveen. He replaced Mike Havenaar after half-time; in the 67th minute, he scored Vitesse's second goal of the game which was assisted by fellow Chelsea loanee, Christian Atsu. On 6 April, Traoré scored his second goal of the season in a home match against Ajax which ended in a 1–1 draw. On 12 April, Traoré put Vitesse in the lead for the first time in the match against Cambuur, although Vitesse lost the game 4–3 in the end.  On 7 July 2014, it was confirmed that Traoré would stay at Vitesse on loan for the 2014–15 season. Traoré scored his first goal of the season in a 4–1 victory over Willem II on 18 October. While he primarily played on the right wing during his first loan to Vitesse, around December, Traoré made the switch from the right to being the lone striker up top leading up to him scoring on 14 December in a 1–1 draw against Groningen. In the following games, Traoré scored his first brace in a 4–0 win over Ajax in the KNVB Cup, then three days later scored his first league brace in a 3–0 win over Heracles.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2015–16 season: Promotion to first-team.", "content": "On 22 June 2015, Traoré received a work permit and therefore clearance to play for Chelsea for the 2015–16 season onwards. He was given the number 14 shirt, previously worn by André Schürrle. On 16 September, Traoré made his Chelsea debut in a 4–0 victory against Maccabi Tel Aviv in the UEFA Champions League group stage, coming on as a 77th-minute substitute for Ruben Loftus-Cheek. His Premier League debut came on 5 December, playing the final seven minutes of a 0–1 home loss to AFC Bournemouth.  Traoré scored four goals in five matches in early 2016. On 31 January 2016, Traoré scored his first Chelsea goal in a 5–1 victory at Milton Keynes Dons in the FA Cup, confirming the result five minutes after coming on in place of Diego Costa. Two weeks later, after again replacing Costa, he scored his first Premier League goal in a game of the same result against Newcastle United. On 5 March, with Costa rested ahead of a Champions League game, Traoré was given a start in a home Premier League match against Stoke City and scored from 20 yards to open a 1–1 draw, but his performance was described as \"mixed\" due to \"failing to control the ball in the box on a couple of occasions and being caught offside needlessly\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Loan to Ajax.", "content": "On 12 August 2016, Traoré signed a new three-year contract with Chelsea and joined Ajax on loan for the 2016–17 campaign, which reunited him with former Vitesse manager, Peter Bosz. On the following day, Traoré made his league debut off the bench, replacing Kasper Dolberg in a 2–2 home draw against Roda JC. On 16 August, Traoré made his first start in a Champions League play-off round against Rostov, a 1–1 draw.  On 15 September, Traoré scored his first Ajax goal in a Europa League group stage tie against Panathinaikos, scoring Ajax's equaliser in a 2–1 win. Just over a week later, he scored his first league goal in a 5–1 win over PEC Zwolle.  On 3 November 2016, Bosz criticised Traoré in an interview stating that there's \"nothing wrong with his attitude, but his form is not good\".  Traoré scored four goals in the 2016–17 UEFA Europa League, including two goals in the first leg of the semi-final against his future club Olympique Lyonnais. He played every minute of the final, with Ajax losing to Manchester United 2–0.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Lyon.", "content": "On 26 June 2017, Traoré signed for Ligue 1 side Olympique Lyonnais on a five-year contract for an initial transfer fee of €10 million (£8.8 million), plus potential add-ons. Chelsea reportedly inserted a buy-back clause into Traoré's contract and would receive 15 per cent of any profit made by Lyon on the fee should they sell Traoré in the future. Chelsea would also have first refusal should Traoré move again.  In his first season in France, Traoré formed an attacking trio with Mariano Díaz and Memphis Depay, all of whom reached double figures in league goals. He was sidelined with knee ligament injury from November 2017 until January, when he returned and scored a free kick for the reserve team in a 3–2 home loss to SC Schiltigheim in the fourth tier.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Traoré participated at the 2009 FIFA U-17 World Cup and 2011 African U-17 Championship, and helped Burkina Faso beat Rwanda 2–1 in the continental final.  At the age of 15, Traoré made his debut for the Burkina Faso senior national team on 3 September 2011, in a friendly match against Equatorial Guinea. He made his first appearance at an Africa Cup of Nations finals in the 2012 edition, becoming one of the youngest players to do so. He came on as a 66th-minute substitute for Narcisse Yaméogo in the 2–1 loss to Sudan in their final group stage match with Burkina Faso already eliminated from the tournament after losing their first two group stage matches.  Traoré scored his first goal for the senior national team on 14 August 2013, opening the scoring in a 2–1 friendly away win over Morocco. At the 2015 Africa Cup of Nations, he played all three of the team's games in another group stage exit, starting the first two.  Burkina Faso came third at the 2017 Africa Cup of Nations in Morocco. Traoré scored in a 2–0 win over Guinea-Bissau in Marrakesh, sending his country to the quarter-finals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Traoré's father, Feu Traoré Isaï, was also a footballer. He played for RC Bobo and also represented Burkina Faso at international level. Bertrand is the youngest of four children. The second-eldest, Alain, is also a footballer. After moving to Chelsea's academy, Traoré was educated at Whitgift School. He is a Muslim.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Burkina Faso U17 Burkina Faso", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Bertrand Isidore Traoré (born 6 September 1995) is a Burkinabé professional footballer who plays as a forward for Ligue 1 club Lyon and the Burkina Faso national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977258}
{"src_title": "Holy Trinity Column, Olomouc", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "According to the ICOMOS evaluation of this patrimony, \"the erection of Marian (plague) columns on town squares is an exclusively Baroque, post-Tridentine, phenomenon. Its iconographic basis lies in the Book of Revelation. The basic model is thought to have been the column in the Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, from 1614.  This monument for Olomouc was the culmination of work of several artists and master craftsmen, but it did not bring much fortune to them. The first to die during the work was Wenzel Render, a monumental mason and privileged imperial architect. He came first with the idea to build the column, enforced his will upon the city council, designed it, built the first stage and helped to finance it. His followers Franz Thoneck, Johann Wenzel Rokický and Augustin Scholtz also did not live long enough to see the column finished; it was completed by Johann Ignaz Rokický. The sculptural decoration was started by Phillip Sattler. After his death Andreas Zahner continued and made 18 sculptures and 9 reliefs in 7 years before he died as well. Goldsmith Simon Forstner, who made gilded copper sculptures of the Holy Trinity and of the Assumption of the Virgin, was somewhat luckier and managed to finish his brilliant work. However he lost his health when working on the sculptures and using toxic mercury compounds during the gilding process.  After the Holy Trinity Column was finished in 1754, it became a source of great pride for Olomouc, since all people participating in its creation were citizens of the town. The column was consecrated in a great celebration attended by Empress Maria Theresa and her husband Francis I.  Only four years later, when Olomouc was besieged by a Prussian army and the Holy Trinity Column was hit by shots from Prussian cannons several times, Olomouc citizens went in a procession to beg the Prussian general not to shoot at the monument. General James Keith complied with their wishes. The column was repaired soon after the war and a replica of a stone shot was half-buried in its stem on the place where it was hit to remind people of this event.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The column is dominated by gilded copper sculptures of the Holy Trinity accompanied by the Archangel Gabriel on the top and the Assumption of the Virgin beneath it.  The base of the column, in three levels, is surrounded by 18 more stone sculptures of saints and 14 reliefs in elaborate cartouches. At the uppermost stage are saints connected with Jesus’ earth life – his mother’s parents St. Anne and St. Joachim, his foster-father St. Joseph, and St. John the Baptist, who was preparing his coming – who are accompanied by St. Lawrence and St. Jerome, saints to whom the chapel in the Olomouc town hall was dedicated. Three reliefs represent the Three theological virtues Faith, Hope, and Love.  Below them, the second stage is dedicated to Moravian saints St. Cyril and St. Methodius (Czech \"Metoděj\"), who came to Great Moravia to spread Christianity in 863 (St. Methodius became Moravian Archbishop), St. Blaise, in whose name one of the main Olomouc churches is consecrated, and patrons of neighbouring Bohemia St. Adalbert of Prague (Czech \"Vojtěch\") and St. John of Nepomuk (Czech \"Jan Nepomucký\"), whose following was very strong there as well.  In the lowest stage one can see the figures of an Austrian patron St. Maurice and a Bohemian patron St. Wenceslas (Czech \"Václav\"), in whose names two important Olomouc churches were consecrated, another Austrian patron St. Florian, who was also viewed as a protector against various disasters, especially fire, St. John of Capistrano (Czech \"Jan Kapistránský\"), who used to preach in Olomouc, St. Anthony of Padua, a member of the Franciscan Order, which owned an important monastery in Olomouc, and St. Aloysius Gonzaga, a patron of students. His sculpture showed that Olomouc was very proud of its university.  Reliefs of all twelve apostles are placed among these sculptures.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "John Sarkander.", "content": "The last missing in this list of saints is St. John Sarkander (Czech \"Jan Sarkander\"), whose statue (holding a lily as a symbol of purity) is on the second stage. John Sarkander was a priest who was tortured to death in Olomouc prison in the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, because he, as the legend says, refused to break the seal of confession. The decision to place him here violated the tradition, since Sarkander had not been canonized and not even beatified in that time yet, which could have resulted in problems with the Holy See. However, his following was so strong here that the craftsmen decided to take the risk. Sarkander was beatified in 1859 and canonized in 1995 on the occasion of the visit of Pope John Paul II in Olomouc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inner chapel.", "content": "The column also houses a small chapel inside with reliefs depicting Cain's offering from his crop, Abel's offering of firstlings of his flock, Noah's first burnt offering after the Flood, Abraham's offering of Isaac and of a lamb, and Jesus' death. The cities of Jerusalem and Olomouc can be seen in the background of the last mentioned relief.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "Books in Czech language:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc, in the Czech Republic is a Baroque monument (Trinity column) that was built between 1716 to 1754. The main purpose was to celebrate the Catholic Church and faith, partly caused by feeling of gratitude for ending a plague, which struck Moravia (now in the Czech Republic) between 1713 and 1715. The column was also understood to be an expression of local patriotism, since all artists and master craftsmen working on this monument were Olomouc citizens, and almost all depicted saints were connected with the city of Olomouc in some way.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977259}
{"src_title": "Sylvia Earle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Earle was born in 1935 in the Gibbstown section of Greenwich Township, Gloucester County, New Jersey, to Alice Freas (Richie) Earle and Lewis Reade. Both her parents were enthusiastic about the outdoors and supportive of their daughter's early interests in the natural world. The family moved to Dunedin on the western coast of Florida during Earle's childhood. Earle received an associate degree from St. Petersburg Jr. College (1952), a Bachelor of Science degree from Florida State University (1955), a Master of Science (1956) and a Doctorate of Phycology (1966) from Duke University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Earle was the Curator of Phycology at the California Academy of Sciences (1979–1986) and a research associate at the University of California, Berkeley (1969–1981), Radcliffe Institute Scholar (1967–1969) and research fellow at Harvard University (1967–1981).  After receiving her Ph.D. in 1966, Earle spent a year as a research fellow at Harvard, then returned to Florida as the resident director of the Cape Haze Marine Laboratory. In 1969, she applied to join the Tektite Project, an installation fifty feet below the surface of the sea off the coast of the Virgin Islands which allowed scientists to live submersed in their area of study for up to several weeks. Although she had logged more than 1,000 research hours underwater, Earle was rejected from the program. The next year, she was selected to lead the first all-female team of aquanauts in Tektite II.  In 1979, she made an open-ocean JIM suit dive to the sea ocean floor near Oahu, setting a women's depth record of. In 1979 she also began her tenure as the Curator of Phycology at the California Academy of Sciences, where she served until 1986.  From 1980 to 1984, she served on the National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere.  In 1982 she and her later husband, Graham Hawkes, an engineer and submersible designer, founded Deep Ocean Engineering to design, operate, support and consult on piloted and robotic subsea systems. In 1985, the Deep Ocean Engineering team designed and built the \"Deep Rover\" research submarine, which operates down to. By 1986, \"Deep Rover\" had been tested and Earle joined the team conducting training off Lee Stocking Island in the Bahamas.  Earle left the company in 1990 to accept an appointment as Chief Scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, where she stayed until 1992. She was the first woman to hold that position. During this post, given her expertise on the impact of oil spills, Earle was called upon to lead several research trips during the Persian Gulf War in 1991 to determine the environmental damage caused by Iraq's destruction of Kuwaiti oil wells.  In 1992, Earle founded Deep Ocean Exploration and Research (DOER Marine) to further advance marine engineering. The company, now run by Earle's daughter Elizabeth; designs, builds, and operates equipment for deep-ocean environments.  Since 1998, Earle has been a National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence. She is sometimes called \"Her Deepness\" or \"The Sturgeon General\".  From 1998 to 2002, she led the Sustainable Seas Expeditions, a five-year program sponsored by the National Geographic Society and funded by the Richard and Rhoda Goldman Fund to study the United States National Marine Sanctuary. During this time, Earle was a leader of the Sustainable Seas Expeditions, council chair for the Harte Research Institute for the Gulf of Mexico Studies at Texas A&M-Corpus Christi, and chair of the Advisory Council for the Ocean in Google Earth. She also provided the DeepWorker 2000 submersible used to quantify the species of fish as well as the space resources utilized within the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary.  Earle founded Mission Blue (also known as the Sylvia Earle Alliance, Deep Search Foundation, and Deep Search) in 2009.  Given her past experience with the \"Exxon Valdez\" and \"Mega Borg\" oil spills, Earle was called to consult during the Deepwater Horizon Disaster in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. During this year she also gave a 14-minute speech in front of 3,500 delegates and United Nations ambassadors at The Hague International Model United Nations Conference.  In July 2012, Earle led an expedition to NOAA's Aquarius underwater laboratory, located off Key Largo, Florida. The expedition, entitled \"Celebrating 50 Years of Living Beneath The Sea\", commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of Jacques Cousteau's Conshelf I project and investigated coral reefs and ocean health. Mark Patterson co-led the expedition with Earle. Their aquanaut team also included underwater filmmaker D.J. Roller and oceanographer M. Dale Stokes.  Earle made a cameo appearance in the daily cartoon strip Sherman's Lagoon in the week starting September 17, 2012, to discuss the closing of the Aquarius Underwater Laboratory.  In May 2013, the Science Laureates of the United States Act of 2013 (H.R. 1891; 113th Congress) was introduced into Congress. Earle was listed by one commentator as a possible nominee for the position of Science Laureate, if the act were to pass.  In January 2018, the Seattle Aquarium granted its inaugural Lifetime Achievement Award to Earle and renamed the Seattle Aquarium Medal in her honor. The Aquarium's first Lifetime Achievement Award was awarded to Earle.  Alongside her work at Mission Blue, she also serves on several boards, including the Marine Conservation Institute.  With TED's support, she launched Mission Blue, which aims to establish marine protected areas (dubbed \"Hope Spots\") around the globe. Mission Blue's vision is to achieve 30% protection of the ocean by 2030, and more than two hundred organisations have supported them in this mission to date (2019). These supporters range from large, global companies to small, bespoke research teams.  With Mission Blue and its partners, Earle leads expeditions to Hope Spots around the globe. Past expeditions include Cuba in 2009, Belize in January 2010, the Galápagos Islands in April 2010, Costa Rica and the Central American Dome in early 2014 and the South African Coast in late 2014.  In August 2014, a Netflix exclusive documentary titled 'Mission Blue' was released. It focuses on Earle's life and career as her Mission Blue campaign to create a global network of marine protected areas.  The organization has continued to grow with Earle's work and the help of her team. As of 2020, Mission Blue has created 122 Hope Spots around the world. (2020).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Earle has authored more than 150 publications.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sylvia Alice Earle (née Reade; born August 30, 1935) is an American marine biologist, explorer, author, and lecturer. She has been a National Geographic explorer-in-residence since 1998. Earle was the first female chief scientist of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and was named by \"Time Magazine\" as its first Hero for the Planet in 1998. She is also part of the group Ocean Elders, which is dedicated to protecting the ocean and its wildlife.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977260}
{"src_title": "Václav Luks", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "Luks studied at the Pilsen Conservatoire in classes of French horn and piano and at the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague; in 1992, he resumed his studies at the Schola Cantorum Basiliensis in the studios of Jörg-Andreas Bötticher and Jesper Christensen (in the fields of historical keyboard instruments and historical performance practice), graduating as a soloist in 1997. During his studies in Basel and in the years that followed, he gave concerts in Europe and overseas as the principal horn player of the Akademie für Alte Musik in Berlin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Collegium 1704 and Collegium Vocale 1704.", "content": "Upon his return from abroad, Luks transformed a chamber ensemble which he founded during his studies into the Prague baroque orchestra Collegium 1704 and the affiliated vocal ensemble Collegium Vocale 1704: the most immediate impulse was the project Bach — Prague — 2005, initiated by Luks himself. Since 2007, the ensemble has been making regular guest appearances at festivals and concert halls all over Europe: the Salzburger Festspiele (2015, 2016, 2018), the Berliner Philharmonie, London’s Wigmore Hall, Vienna’s Theater an der Wien and Konzerthaus, the Lucerne Festival, BOZAR (Palais des Beaux-Arts) in Brussels, the Chopin Festival in Warsaw, Wratislavia Cantans, and the Elbphilharmonie, and it is an ensemble-in-residence at the festival Oude Muziek in Utrecht and at the Leipzig Bachfest. In 2008, Music Bridge Prague — Dresden began, bringing together the two cities’ wealth of cultural traditions. In 2012 Collegium 1704 started a concert series at the Rudolfinum in Prague. Since autumn 2015, the two cycles have been merged into a single concert season that continues to take place in parallel in Prague and Dresden. In 2019 Collegium Vocale 1704 launched a series of chamber choir concerts in Prague. The ensemble cooperates with prominent soloists, both Czech and international, including Magdalena Kožená, Bejun Mehta, Simona Houda-Šaturová, Martina Janková, Hana Blažíková, Karina Gauvin, Lisandro Abadie, and others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work with other ensembles.", "content": "In addition to his work with Collegium 1704, Václav Luks also collaborates with international ensembles including Camerata Salzburg, the Akademie für Alte Musik in Berlin, La Cetra Barockorchester Basel, and the Dresdner Kammerchor. Amongst his recent projects have been performances of Purcell’s opera \"Dido and Aeneas\" with Ensemble Pygmalion at the Festival d’Aix-en-Provence and a programme with works by Polish composers with the ensemble Orkiestra Historyczna. At a benefit concert for the restoration of the Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Paris, Václav Luks conducted the Orchestre nationale de France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teaching.", "content": "Between 1996 and 1999, Luks taught basso continuo at the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague, and in 2001–2003 he lectured at the Hochschule für Musik und Theater “Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy” in Leipzig. He has also worked with the Janáček Academy of Music in Brno and he is regularly invited to sit on juries of international competitions (Schmelzer-Wettbewerb Melk, Prague Spring 2012).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opera and theatre.", "content": "In 2009/2010, Collegium 1704 under Luks's baton performed Handel's \"Rinaldo\" at the National Theatre in Prague at Théâtre de Caen, Opéra de Rennes, and Grand Théâtre du Luxembourg. In 2013, they performed Josef Mysliveček’s opera \"L’olimpiade\" and the production was nominated for the 2014 International Opera Awards. In 2017, they followed with Antonio Vivaldi’s \"Arsilda, regina di Ponto\" in its modern-era world premiere, directed by David Radok - the premiere took place at the Slovak National Theatre in Bratislava and the production toured several European citites, including Opéra de Lille, Théâtre de la ville de Luxembourg, Théâtre de Caen, and Opéra Royale de Versailles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film projects.", "content": "In 2014 Collegium 1704 led by Luks collaborated with Bejun Mehta on a DVD of Gluck’s opera \"Orfeo ed Euridice\" with the stage director Ondřej Havelka, and with Rolando Villazón on the making of the BBC 2 documentary \"Mozart in Prague\". The ensemble took part in making the director Petr Václav’s upcoming epic film \"Il Boemo\" about the life of Josef Mysliveček, and previously in the director's documentary about Mysliveček, \"Confessions of the Vanished\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cooperation with radio stations.", "content": "Václav Luks works in cooperation with a number of broadcasting networks such as Deutschlandradio Berlin, Schweizer Radio DRS, the Austrian Broadcasting Company (ÖRF), and Radio France and with music publishers including Supraphon, Pan Classics, Zig-Zag Territoires, Arta, and Accent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Václav Luks (born 14 November 1970) is a Czech harpsichordist, horn player, conductor, musicologist and pedagogue, founder and artistic director of the Prague baroque orchestra Collegium 1704 and of the vocal ensemble Collegium Vocale 1704. He specialises in Baroque music, especially in the works of Jan Dismas Zelenka, Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel, and others. His activities have played an important role in reviving interest in the works of Czech composers including Zelenka and Josef Mysliveček.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977261}
{"src_title": "Cape porcupine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Cape porcupines are the largest rodents in Africa and also the world's largest porcupines. Cape porcupines seem to be the world's fourth heaviest living rodents, after the capybara and the Eurasian and North American beavers. They are similar in appearance to, and only slightly larger than, their close relatives, the crested porcupines, and can most easily be distinguished from them by the presence of a band of short white spines along the midline of the rump. Indian porcupines are almost the same size on average as well, being slightly heavier on average than crested porcupine but slightly lighter than Cape porcupines. Cape porcupines measure long from the head to the base of the tail, with the tail adding a further. They weigh from, with exceptionally large specimens weighing up to ; males and females are not significantly different in size. The average weight of males from Zimbabwe was and while the average for females there was while in the Orange river valley of South Africa males averaged and females averaged.  They are heavily built animals, with stocky bodies, short limbs, and an inconspicuous tail. The body is covered in long spines up to in length, interspersed with thicker, sharply pointed, defence quills up to long, and with bristly, blackish or brownish fur. The spines on the tail are hollow, and used to make a rattling sound to scare away predators. An erectile crest of long, bristly hairs runs from the top of the head down to the shoulders. The spines and quills cover the back and flanks of the animal, starting about a third of the way down the body, and continuing onto the tail. The quills have multiple bands of black and white along their length, and grow from regularly spaced grooves along the animal's body; each groove holding five to eight quills. The remainder of the animal, including the undersides, is covered with dark hair.  The eyes and ears are relatively small, and the mobile whiskers are short. The feet have five clawed toes, although the first toes on the forefeet are vestigial. Females have two pairs of teats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "Cape porcupines are found across the whole of southern and central Africa, to southern Kenya, Uganda, and Congo at the northern edge of their range. They inhabit a wide range of habitats, from sea level to, although they are only marginally present in dense forests and the driest of deserts, and are not found in swampland. There are no currently recognised subspecies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet and behaviour.", "content": "Cape porcupines eat mostly plant material: fruits, roots, tubers, bulbs, and bark. They have a long small intestine and large caecum, employing hindgut fermentation to break down the tough materials in their food. They have also been reported to gnaw on carrion and bones. They are often considered pests by local farmers, because they can feed on crops and damage trees. However, their debarking of trees may also play a role in the maintenance of local savannah ecosystems, helping to prevent the development of denser forested environments.  Cape porcupines are nocturnal and monogamous, typically living as mated pairs of adults, caring for any young together. Each pair may inhabit up to six burrows, jointly defending their shared territory, although they typically forage as individuals. Both sexes scent mark their territory, although males do so more frequently, and may play a more active role in its defence. The size of the home range varies depending on the local habitat and availability of food, but can range between at least.  When attacked, the porcupine freezes. If cornered, it turns vicious and charges to stab its attacker with its quills. Otherwise, the porcupine may retreat into its burrow, exposing only its quills and making it hard to dislodge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Cape porcupines mate throughout the year, although births are most common during the rainy season, between August and March. Unless a previous litter is lost, females typically give birth only once each year. Oestrus lasts for an average of nine days, during which a membrane across the vagina opens to allow insemination. After mating, a copulatory plug forms, which is expelled about 48 hours later.  Gestation lasts around 94 days, and results in the birth of a litter of up to three young, although over half of births are of singletons. Newborn young weigh, and initially have soft quills. Although they are born with their incisor teeth fully erupted, the remaining teeth begin to appear at 14 days, with the full set of adult teeth present by 25 months. They are weaned at around 100 days of age, and grow rapidly for the first twenty weeks, reaching the full adult size, and sexual maturity, at the end of their first year.  Relative to most other rodents, Cape porcupines are long-lived, surviving for ten years in the wild, or up to twenty years in captivity.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Cape porcupine (\"Hystrix africaeaustralis\") or South African porcupine, is a species of Old World porcupine native to central and southern Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977262}
{"src_title": "Quercus muehlenbergii", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Chinkapin oak is monoecious in flowering habit; flowers emerge in April to late May or early June. The staminate flowers are borne in catkins that develop from the leaf axils of the previous year, and the pistillate flowers develop from the axils of the current year's leaves. The fruit, an acorn or nut, is borne singly or in pairs, matures in 1 year, and ripens in September or October. About half of the acorn is enclosed in a thin cup and is chestnut brown to nearly black.  Chinkapin oak is closely related to the smaller but generally similar dwarf chinkapin oak (\"Quercus prinoides\"). Chinkapin oak is usually a tree, but occasionally shrubby, while dwarf chinkapin oak is a low-growing, clone-forming shrub. The two species generally occur in different habitats: chinquapin oak is typically found on calcareous soils and rocky slopes, while dwarf chinkapin oak is usually found on acidic substrates, primarily sand or sandy soils, and also dry shales.  Chinkapin oak is also sometimes confused with the related chestnut oak (\"Quercus montana\"), which it closely resembles. However, unlike the pointed teeth on the leaves of the chinkapin oak, chestnut oak leaves generally have rounded teeth. The two species have contrasting kinds of bark: chinkapin oak has a gray, flaky bark very similar to that of white oak (\"Q. alba\") but with a more yellow-brown cast to it (hence the occasional name yellow oak for this species), while chestnut oak has dark, solid, deeply ridged bark. The chinkapin oak also has smaller acorns than the chestnut oak or another similar species, the swamp chestnut oak (\"Q. michauxii\"), which have some of the largest acorns of any oaks.  Key characteristics of \"Quercus muehlenbergii\" include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification and nomenclature.", "content": "Since its recognition as a different species from the similar-appearing chestnut oak (\"Quercus prinus\"), \"Q. muehlenbergii\" has generally been regarded as a distinct species; no subspecies or varieties are currently recognized within it, although a few infraspecific variants had been accepted in the past.  The tree's scientific name honors Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst Muhlenberg (1753–1815), a Lutheran pastor and amateur botanist in Pennsylvania. In publishing the name \"Quercus mühlenbergii\", German-American botanist George Engelmann mistakenly used an umlaut in spelling Muhlenberg's name, even though Pennsylvania-born Muhlenberg himself did not use an umlaut in his name. Under the modern rules of botanical nomenclature, umlauts are transliterated, with \"ü\" becoming \"ue\", hence Engelmann's \"Quercus mühlenbergii\" is now presented as \"Quercus muehlenbergii\". In lack of evidence that Engelmann's use of the umlaut was an unintended error, and hence correctable, the \"muehlenbergii\" spelling is considered correct, although the more appropriate orthographic variant \"Quercus muhlenbergii\" is often seen.  The low-growing, cloning \"Q. prinoides\" (dwarf chinkapin oak) is similar to \"Q. muehlenbergii\" and has been confused with it in the past, but is now generally accepted as a distinct species. If the two are considered to be conspecific, the earlier-published name \"Quercus prinoides\" has priority over \"Q. muehlenbergii\", and the larger chinkapin oak can then be classified as \"Quercus prinoides \"var.\" acuminata\", with the dwarf chinkapin oak being \"Quercus prinoides \"var.\" prinoides\". \"Q. prinoides\" was named and described by the German botanist Karl (Carl) Ludwig Willdenow in 1801, in a German journal article by Muhlenberg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soil and topography.", "content": "Chinkapin oak is generally found on well-drained upland soils derived from limestone or where limestone outcrops occur. Occasionally it is found on well-drained limestone soils along streams. Chinkapin oak is generally found on soils that are weakly acid (pH about 6.5) to alkaline (above pH 7.0). It grows on both northerly and southerly aspects but is more common on the warmer southerly aspects. It is absent or rare at high elevations in the Appalachians.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Associated cover.", "content": "It is rarely a predominant tree, but it grows in association with many other species. It is a component of the forest cover type White Oak-Black Oak-Northern Red Oak (Society of American Foresters Type 52) and the Post Oak-Blackjack Oak (Type 40) (2).  It grows in association with white oak \"(Quercus alba),\" black oak (Q. velutina), northern red oak (Q. rubra), scarlet oak \"(Q. coccinea),\" sugar maple \"(Acer saccharum),\" red maple (A. rubrum), hickories (\"Carya\" spp.), black cherry \"(Prunus serotina),\" cucumbertree \"(Magnolia acuminata),\" white ash \"(Fraxinus americana),\" American basswood \"(Tilia americana),\" black walnut \"(Juglans nigra),\" butternut \"(J. cinerea),\" and yellow-poplar \"(Liriodendron tulipifera).\" American beech \"(Fagus grandifolia),\" shortleaf pine \"(\"Pinus echinata\"),\" pitch pine \"(P. rigida),\" Virginia pine \"(P. virginiana),\" Ozark chinkapin \"(Castanea ozarkensis),\" eastern redcedar \"(Juniperus virginiana),\" bluejack oak \"(Quercus incana),\" southern red oak \"(Q. falcata),\" blackgum \"(Nyssa sylvatica),\" and winged elm \"(Ulmus alata)\" also grow in association with chinkapin oak. In the Missouri Ozarks a redcedar-chinkapin oak association has been described.  The most common small tree and shrub species found in association with chinkapin oak include flowering dogwood \"(Cornus ),\" sassafras \"(Sassafras albidum),\" sourwood \"(Oxydendrum arboreum),\" eastern hophornbeam \"(Ostrya virginiana),\" \"Vaccinium\" spp., \"Viburnum\" spp., hawthorns \"(Crataegus\" spp.), and sumacs \"(Rhus\" spp.). The most common woody vines are wild grape \"(Vitis\" spp.) and greenbrier \"(Smilax\" spp.).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reaction to competition.", "content": "Chinkapin oak is classed as intolerant of shade. It withstands moderate shading when young but becomes more intolerant of shade with age. It is regarded as a climax species on dry, drought prone soils, especially those of limestone origin. On more moist sites it is subclimax to climax. It is often found as a component of the climax vegetation in stands on mesic sites with limestone soils. However, many oak-hickory stands on moist sites that contain chinkapin oak are succeeded by a climax forest including beech, maple, and ash.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Diseases and pests.", "content": "Severe wildfire kills chinkapin oak saplings and small pole-size trees, but these often resprout. However, fire scars serve as entry points for decay-causing fungi, and the resulting decay can cause serious losses.  Oak wilt (\"Bretziella fagacearum\"), a vascular disease, attacks chinkapin oak and usually kills the tree within two to four years. Other diseases that attack chinkapin oak include the cankers \"Strumella coryneoidea\" and \"Nectria galligena\", shoestring root rot (\"Armillarea mellea\"), anthracnose (\"Gnomonia veneta\"), and leaf blister (\"Taphrina\" spp.).  The most serious defoliating insects that attack chinkapin oak are the gypsy moth (\"Lymantria dispar\"), the orangestriped oakworm (\"Anisota senatoria\"), and the variable oakleaf caterpillar (\"Heterocampa manteo\"). Insects that bore into the bole and seriously degrade the products cut from infested trees include the carpenterworm (\"Prionoyxstus robiniae\"), little carpenterworm (\"P. macmurtrei\"), white oak borer (\"Goes tigrinus\"), Columbian timber beetle (\"Corthylus columbianus\"), oak timberworm (\"Arrhenodes minutus\"), and twolined chestnut borer (\"Agrilus bilineatus\"). The acorn weevils (\"Curculio\" spp.), larvae of moths (\"Valentinia glandulella\" and \"Melissopus latiferreanus\"), and gall forming cynipids (\"Callirhytis\" spp.) feed on the acorns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Like that of other white oak species, the wood of the chinkapin oak (\"Quercus muehlenbergii\") is a durable hardwood prized for many types of construction.  The chinquapin oak is especially known for its sweet and palatable acorns. Indeed, the nuts contained inside of the thin shell are among the sweetest of any oak, with an excellent taste even when eaten raw, providing an excellent source of food for both wildlife and people. The acorns are eaten by squirrels, mice, voles, chipmunks, deer, turkey, and other birds.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Quercus muehlenbergii, the chinkapin or chinquapin oak, is a deciduous species of tree in the white oak group (\"Quercus\" sect. \"Quercus\"). The species was often called \"Quercus acuminata\" in older literature. \"Quercus muehlenbergii\" (often misspelled as \"muhlenbergii\") is native to eastern and central North America. It ranges from Vermont to Minnesota, south to the Florida panhandle, and west to New Mexico in the United States. In Canada it is only found in southern Ontario, and in Mexico it ranges from Coahuila south to Hidalgo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977263}
{"src_title": "Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Somerset, born about January 1436, was the son of Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, and Eleanor, daughter of Richard Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick and widow of Thomas, fourteenth baron Roos of Hamlake. From 1443 to 1448 Henry was styled Earl of Mortain or Morteign, and from 1448 to 1455 Earl of Dorset. While still a youth he fought at the First Battle of St Albans (1455), where he was wounded and his father was killed; thereby he inherited the title of 3rd Duke of Somerset.  He was regarded as \"the hope of the [Lancastrian] party\", but he also inherited the \"enmities entailed upon him by his father's name\". He was brought to the council at Coventry, where in October 1456 an effort was made to reconcile the two parties; but the meeting was disturbed by quarrels between Somerset and Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, and by a brawl between Somerset's men and the town watch of Coventry. In 1457 Queen Margaret of Anjou suggested a marriage between Somerset and his cousin Joan, sister of James II of Scotland, but the proposal came to nothing. On 14 October of that year Somerset was made lieutenant of the Isle of Wight and warden of Carisbrooke Castle. Early in 1458 he took part in the council at London which again endeavoured to effect a political reconciliation, and it was agreed that Richard, Duke of York should pay the widowed Duchess of Somerset and her children an annual pension of five thousand marks as compensation for the death of the 2nd Duke. He then participated in The Love Day with the King, Queen and other leading nobles.  The truce, however, was hollow; Margaret continued to intrigue against York, and in October 1458 proposed that Somerset should be appointed captain of Calais in place of Warwick. War broke out in 1459, and Somerset nearly encountered Warwick at Coleshill just before the Battle of Blore Heath. After the defeat of the Yorkists at Ludford Bridge, he was on 9 October nominated captain of Calais. He crossed the Channel and was refused admittance to Calais by Warwick's adherents, but made himself master of the outlying fortress of Guisnes (appointing Andrew Trollope its bailiff). Somerset fought several skirmishes with the Yorkists between Calais and Guisnes until on 23 April 1460 he suffered a decisive reverse at the Battle of Newnham Bridge (called \"Pont de Neullay\" by the French).  During his absence the Yorkists had won the Battle of Northampton, but Somerset joined the Lancastrians at Pontefract in December 1460, captured a portion of the Yorkist forces at Worksop on 21 December, and won the Lancastrian victory at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December. He marched south with Margaret and fought at the Second Battle of St Albans (17 February 1461). This second victory was not followed up; the Lancastrians retired north, and on 29 March Edward IV won the Battle of Towton (29 March 1461). Somerset escaped from the battlefield, and in the following July was sent by Margaret to seek aid from Charles VII of France. Charles died before their arrival, but Louis XI summoned Somerset to Tours and sent him back in March 1462 laden with promises of support, but with very little else.  Somerset now began to consider making his peace with Edward IV. He had been attainted by parliament on 4 November 1461, and most of his lands had been granted to Edward's brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester and other Yorkists. On his return from France he took command of the Lancastrian forces in Scotland while Margaret went to France, and in the autumn of 1462 he was holding Bamburgh Castle for the Lancastrians. On 24 December, however, he surrendered the castle to Sir Ralph Percy and submitted to King Edward. The king took him to London, and treated him with marked favour. He received a general pardon on 10 March 1462/1463, and was restored to his dignities by act of the parliament which met on 29 April following.  Somerset, however, soon returned to his old allegiance. Early in 1464 he escaped from Holt Castle in North Wales, where he seems to have been kept in some sort of confinement, and after nearly being recaptured made his way to Margaret on the borders. The Lancastrians now made one more effort to recover the crown, but at the Battle of Hexham on 15 May 1464 they were utterly defeated by John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu. Somerset was captured in a barn at the site of what is now known as Dukes House, and beheaded shortly afterwards that same day. He was buried at Hexham Abbey. Parliament annulled the act restoring him to his dignities, which again became forfeit and were never restored. Somerset was unmarried, and his younger brother, Edmund Beaufort, was styled 4th Duke of Somerset by the Lancastrians.  In 1485, some twenty-one years after his death, Somerset, along with Jasper Tudor, had all acts of attainder against him annulled in the first Parliament of Henry VII, \"for their true and faithfull Allegeaunces and Services doune to the said blessed King Herrie [VI].\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Character.", "content": "Somerset was described by Chastellain as \"\"un très grand seigneur et un des plus beaulx josnes chevaliers qui fust au royaume anglais\"\" (\"A very great lord and one of the most handsome knights in the English kingdom\"). He was probably as competent as any of the Lancastrian leaders, but their military capacity was not great.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Illegitimate progeny.", "content": "By his mistress Joan Hill he had an illegitimate son:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Attribution", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset (26 January 143615 May 1464) was an important Lancastrian military commander during the English Wars of the Roses. He is sometimes numbered the 2nd Duke of Somerset, because the title was re-created for his father after his uncle died. He also held the subsidiary titles of 5th Earl of Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Dorset and 2nd Earl of Dorset.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977264}
{"src_title": "Elias Boudinot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Elias Boudinot was born in Philadelphia on May 2, 1740. His father, Elias Boudinot III, was a merchant and silversmith; he was a neighbor and friend of Benjamin Franklin. His mother, Mary Catherine Williams, was born in the British West Indies; her father was from Wales. Elias' paternal grandfather, Elie (sometimes called Elias) Boudinot, was the son of Jean Boudinot and Marie Suire of Marans, Aunis, France. They were a Huguenot (French Protestant) family who fled to New York about 1687 to avoid the religious persecutions of King Louis XIV.  Mary Catherine Williams and Elias Boudinot Sr. were married on August 8, 1729. Over the next twenty years, they had nine children. The first, John, was born in the British West Indies-Antigua. Of the others, only the younger Elias and his siblings Annis, Mary, and Elisha reached adulthood. Annis became one of the first published women poets in the Thirteen Colonies, and her work appeared in leading newspapers and magazines. Elisha Boudinot became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New Jersey.  After studying and being tutored at home, Elias Boudinot went to Princeton, New Jersey to read the law as a legal apprentice to Richard Stockton. An attorney, he had married Elias' older sister Annis Boudinot. Richard Stockton was later a signatory of the Declaration of Independence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1760, Boudinot was admitted to the bar, and began his practice in Elizabeth, New Jersey. He owned land adjacent to the road from Elizabethtown to Woodbridge Township, New Jersey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and family.", "content": "After getting established, on April 21, 1762, Boudinot married Hannah Stockton (1736–1808), Richard's younger sister. They had two children, Maria Boudinot, who died at age two, and Susan Vergereau Boudinot.  Susan married William Bradford, who became Chief Justice of Pennsylvania and Attorney General under George Washington. After her husband's death in 1795, Susan Boudinot Bradford returned to her parents' home to live. The young widow edited her father's papers. Now held by Princeton University, these provide significant insight into the events of the Revolutionary era.  In 1805, Elias, Hannah and Susan moved to a new home in Burlington, New Jersey. Hannah died a few years after their move, and Elias lived there for the remainder of his years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "In his later years, Boudinot invested and speculated in land. He owned large tracts in Ohio including most of Green Township in what is now the western suburbs of Cincinnati, where there is a street bearing his surname. At his death, he willed to the city of Philadelphia for parks and city needs. He was buried in the churchyard of St. Mary's Church, Burlington, New Jersey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Boudinot became a prominent lawyer and his practice prospered. As the revolution drew near, he aligned with the Whigs, and was elected to the New Jersey provincial assembly in 1775. In the early stages of the Revolutionary War, he was active in promoting enlistment; several times he loaned money to field commanders to purchase supplies. Boudinot helped support the activities of rebel spies. After the British occupation of New York City, spies were sent to Staten Island and Long Island, New York to observe and report on movements of specific British garrisons and regiments.  On May 5, 1777, General George Washington asked Boudinot to be appointed as commissary general for prisoners. Congress through the board of war concurred. Boudinot was commissioned as a colonel in the Continental Army for this work. He served until July 1778, when competing responsibilities forced him to resign. The commissary managed enemy prisoners, and also was responsible for supplying American prisoners who were held by the British.  In November 1777, the New Jersey legislature named Boudinot as one of their delegates to the Second Continental Congress. His duties as Commissary prevented his attendance, so in May 1778 he resigned. By early July he had been replaced and attended his first meeting of the Congress on July 7, 1778. As a delegate, he still continued his concerns for the welfare of prisoners of war. His first term ended that year.  In 1781, Boudinot returned to the Congress, for a term lasting through 1783. In November 1782, he was elected as President of the Continental Congress for a one-year term. The President of Congress was a mostly ceremonial position with no real authority, but the office did require him to handle a good deal of correspondence and sign official documents. On April 15, 1783 he signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace. When the United States (US) government was formed in 1789, Boudinot was elected from New Jersey to the US House of Representatives. He was elected to the second and third congresses as well, where he generally supported the administration. He refused to join the expansion of affiliated groups that formed formal political parties.  In 1794, he declined to serve another term, and left Congress in early 1795. In October 1795, President George Washington appointed him as Director of the United States Mint, a position he held through succeeding administrations until he retired in 1805.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later public service.", "content": "In addition to serving in political office, Elias supported many civic, religious, and educational causes during his life. Boudinot served as one of the trustees of the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) for nearly half a century, from 1772 until 1821. When the Continental Congress was forced to leave Philadelphia in 1783 while he was president, he moved the meetings to Princeton, where they met in the College's Nassau Hall.  On September 24, 1789, the House of Representatives voted to recommend the First Amendment of the newly drafted Constitution to the states for ratification. The next day, Congressman Boudinot proposed that the House and Senate jointly request of President Washington to proclaim a day of thanksgiving for \"the many signal favors of Almighty God.\" Boudinot said that he could not think of letting the session pass over without offering an opportunity to all the citizens of the United States of joining, with one voice, in returning to Almighty God their sincere thanks for the many blessings he had poured down upon them.  Boudinot was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814.  A devout Presbyterian, Boudinot supported missions and missionary work. He wrote \"The Age of Revelation\" in response to Thomas Paine's \"The Age of Reason.\" He was one of the founders of the American Bible Society, and after 1816 served as its President.  He argued for the rights of black and American Indian citizens, and sponsored students to the Board School for Indians in Connecticut. One of these, a young Cherokee named \"Gallegina Uwatie\", also known as \"Buck Watie\", stayed with him in Burlington on his way to the school. The two so impressed each other that \"Gallegina\" asked for and was given permission to adopt the statesman's name. Later known as Elias Boudinot, he was an editor of the \"Cherokee Phoenix\", the nation's first newspaper, which was published in Cherokee and English.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archival collections.", "content": "The Presbyterian Historical Society in Philadelphia has a collection of incoming correspondence and several legal agreements pertaining to land ownership related to Boudinot from 1777–1821 in its holdings. The correspondence dating from 1777–1778 almost exclusively deals with the trading and releasing of prisoners.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elias Boudinot ( ; May 2, 1740 – October 24, 1821) was a lawyer and statesman from Elizabeth, New Jersey who was a delegate to the Continental Congress (more accurately referred to as the Congress of the Confederation) and served as President of Congress from 1782 to 1783. He was elected as a U.S. Congressman for New Jersey following the American Revolutionary War. He was appointed by President George Washington as Director of the United States Mint, serving from 1795 until 1805.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977265}
{"src_title": "9GAG", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The website was co-founded in 2009–2010 by a group of 5 Hong Kong people: University of Hong Kong student Ray Chan, his brother Chris Chan, Derek Chan, Marco Fung and Brian Yu, with the intention of creating an alternative online platform to email on which users could easily share humorous photos or videos. In a 2012 interview, its CEO Ray Chan declined to explain the origins of the name \"9GAG\".  Starting the company under a \"Just for Fun\" mentality, 9GAG's co-founders began using 9GAG as a résumé-builder for the 500 Startups accelerator program. During the summer program, the 9GAG team worked on other startup ideas, including StartupQuote and Songboard.  In July 2012, 9GAG raised an additional US$2.8 million in funding from Silicon Valley-based venture capital, including True Ventures and Greycroft Partners. In August 2012, 9GAG received another US$2.8 million in funding from Silicon Valley venture capitalists, including True Ventures and Greycroft Partners, as well as individual investors like Christopher Sacca, Kevin Rose, and Naval Ravikant. This funding was able to support 9GAG's engineering team growth both in Hong Kong and in Silicon Valley. 9GAG is headquartered in Tsuen Wan, Hong Kong with offices in Mountain View, California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mobile app development.", "content": "9GAG has a mobile application on iOS, Android, Windows Phone 8, and BlackBerry 10.  In July 2012, 9GAG launched an app for iOS and Android. The mobile application serves as a streamlined version of the web-based content. In summer 2014 9GAG launched 9CHAT. 9GAG users are able to log into their account and write to others by sending them a message. 9CHAT also added support for the creation of groups in different sections. January 2015, 9GAG launched its first game called \"9GAG Redhead redemption\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Content and authorship.", "content": "9GAG users and admins may also re-post content (usually without any consent from its respective authors) from other websites (e.g. 4chan, Newgrounds, Reddit, SomethingAwful, FunnyJunk, YTMND, Instagram, etc.), replacing the source site's watermark with their own. In 2011, 9GAG and 4chan disputed authorship of internet memes published on both websites, whereby each company claimed the memes originated from their own website. As stated by 9GAG co-founder Ray Chan, \"9GAG does not create memes or rage comics, but helps spread them.\" In a 2015 \"Slate\" article, writer Amanda Hess described 9GAG's reposting of content from Instagram as part of an \"online ecosystem of joke stealing\".  In his 2014 article \"Building Identity and Building Bridges Between Cultures: The Case of 9gag\", the linguist Albin Wagener examined 446 posts found on 9GAG's main page; of these, 40 (8.97%) were clearly discriminatory Most of the discriminatory posts were misogynist (57.5%), followed by cultural discrimination (25%) and homophobia (12.5%). According to Wagener, 9GAG brings people together in an international context, but through masculine and heterosexual symbolism and the devaluation of other groups.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "9GAG is a Hong Kong–based online platform and social media website, which allows its users to upload and share \"user-generated content\" or other content from external social media websites. Since the platform for collections of Internet memes was launched on July 1, 2008, it has grown in popularity across the social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977266}
{"src_title": "Richard Madden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1986–2010: Early life and work.", "content": "Madden was born on 18 June 1986 in Elderslie, Renfrewshire, outside the city of Glasgow, where he was also raised alongside his two sisters. His mother, Pat, is a primary school teacher, and his father, Richard, worked as a firefighter. At age 11, Madden joined PACE Youth Theatre to help overcome his shyness. He was soon cast in his first role as young Andy in the film adaptation of Iain Banks' \"Complicity\", which was released in 2000. He was then cast in the lead role of Sebastian in the children's television series \"Barmy Aunt Boomerang\", which aired from 1999 until 2000. Madden later stated that he experienced bullying following his performance in \"Complicity\", especially in high school.  He later attended the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland, formerly the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama, in Glasgow, graduating in 2007. He worked with The Arches and the Glasgow Repertory Company during his studies; he also performed in Franz Xaver Kroetz's play \"Tom Fool\" at the Citizens Theatre. After receiving positive reviews, the \"Tom Fool\" production transferred to London, where Madden was spotted by a team from Shakespeare's Globe. In his final year at the conservatoire, he was cast as Romeo in a production of \"Romeo and Juliet\" at the modern Globe Theatre in London, after which the company embarked on a tour of the production during the summer of 2007. In her review of the production, Susan Elkin of \"The Stage\" highlighted Madden's \"gravelly Glaswegian, almost childlike Romeo\".  He played Callum McGregor in the Royal Shakespeare Company's production of Malorie Blackman's \"Noughts & Crosses\" in 2008. He then starred as Mark McNulty in the National Theatre of Scotland's production of \"Be Near Me\" in 2009, during which Warwick Thompson of \"Bloomberg\" noted Madden's performance to be \"especially good\". Susan Mansfield of \"The Scotsman\" reported that Madden has caught the eye of critics for his work and reported additional positive reviews of his work by \"The Daily Telegraph\" and \"The Observer.\" He later gained the lead role of Dean McKenzie in the 2009 BBC comedy-drama series \"Hope Springs\", followed by his roles as Ripley in the 2010 film \"Chatroom\", and as Theatre of Hate singer Kirk Brandon in the 2010 film \"Worried About the Boy\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011–present: Breakthrough.", "content": "Madden starred as Robb Stark in the HBO series \"Game of Thrones\", based upon the series of novels titled \"A Song of Ice and Fire\" by George R. R. Martin, from 2011 to 2013. Madden's performance in the series propelled him to prominence. During this period, Madden also starred in the Channel 4 comedy-drama series \"Sirens\" and in the BBC drama series \"Birdsong\". Madden first obtained his Screen Actors Guild (SAG) card for the 2014 miniseries \"Klondike\", in which he played Bill Haskell, a real-life adventurer who participated in the Klondike Gold Rush. He then portrayed the prince in the live action Disney film \"Cinderella\", which was released in March 2015. The film became a commercial and critical success, receiving positive reviews and grossing over $542 million.  Between 12 May and 13 August 2016, Madden appeared on stage in London's West End playing the part of Romeo in \"Romeo and Juliet\", where he was reunited with his \"Cinderella\" co-star Lily James, who played Juliet, and director Kenneth Branagh. Madden was replaced as Romeo in July 2016 after suffering an ankle injury. He then played the leading role of Cosimo de' Medici, the son of the founder of the Medici Bank during the Italian Renaissance, in the first season of the Italian-British television drama series, \"Medici\", subtitled \"Masters of Florence\". In the same year, he portrayed American pickpocket Michael Mason in the 2016 action film \"Bastille Day\", starring alongside Idris Elba.  In 2018, Madden garnered acclaim and recognition for his portrayal of Sergeant David Budd, a war veteran and Principal Protection Officer, in the BBC thriller series \"Bodyguard\". After achieving high levels of popularity in the UK, the show was released to a worldwide audience on Netflix in October 2018. His performance earned him a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama. The series went on to become the UK's most watched television drama since current records began. \"Bodyguard\" was also nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series, however, critics and viewers alike expressed disappointment over the fact that Madden did not receive an Emmy nomination for his performance, deeming it a snub. Following his performance in \"Bodyguard\", Madden starred in the Netflix romantic comedy film \"Ibiza\" alongside Gillian Jacobs, Vanessa Bayer and Phoebe Robinson. In 2019, Madden portrayed music manager John Reid in the Elton John biopic \"Rocketman\", which was released in May, and appeared as a lieutenant in Sam Mendes' war film \"1917\", which was released in December.  Madden will also star as Ikaris in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film \"The Eternals\", directed by Chloé Zhao, which is scheduled for a February 2021 release. He has also been cast in a leading role in an upcoming Amazon Studios \"multi-series\" titled \"Citadel\", executive produced by Anthony and Joe Russo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Public image.", "content": "Madden won Most Stylish Male at the Scottish Style Awards in October 2009 and was also named in \"Esquire\"s Hottest Stars for 2010. He was named one of Screen International's Stars of Tomorrow in 2011. In 2019, Madden was recognised with the \"GQ\" Men of the Year Award for Hugo Boss Most Stylish Man. He was also named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by \"Time\" magazine in the same year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Madden was previously in a relationship with English actress Jenna Coleman. As of May 2019, Madden split his time between his residence in London and Los Angeles. When asked about his romantic life during a \"New York Times\" interview, Madden stated: \"I just keep my personal life personal.\" In July 2019, he received an Honorary Doctorate of Drama from his alma mater, the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Madden (born 18 June 1986) is a Scottish film and television actor. Born and raised in Renfrewshire near Glasgow, Madden rose to prominence in 2011 for his portrayal of Robb Stark in the first three seasons of HBO's fantasy drama \"Game of Thrones\", for which he received the Screen International Award for Star of Tomorrow. In 2018, he gained acclaim for his performance as a war veteran and Principal Protection Officer in the BBC thriller series \"Bodyguard\", for which he won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977267}
{"src_title": "Hugh Welch Diamond", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Diamond was educated at Norwich School and later studied medicine at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1824. He set up in private medical practice in Soho, London, and then decided to specialise in psychiatry, being appointed to Springfield asylum, the first Surrey County Asylum. Diamond later moved to Brookwood Hospital, also in Surrey. Diamond was one of the founders of the Photographic Society, was later its Secretary and also became the editor of the Photographic Journal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Diamond was fascinated by the possible use of photography in the treatment of mental disorders; some of his many calotypes depicting the expressions of people suffering from mental disorders are particularly moving. These were used not only for record purposes, but also, he claimed in the treatment of patients - although there was little evidence of success.  Perhaps it is for his attempts to popularize photography and to lessen its mystique that Diamond is best remembered. He wrote many articles and was a popular lecturer, and he also sought to encourage younger photographers. Among the latter was Henry Peach Robinson, who was later to refer to Diamond as a \"father figure\" of photography.  Recognition for his encouragement and for his willingness to share his knowledge came in 1855, in the form of a testimonial amounting to £300 for services to photography; among those who subscribed were such people as Delamotte, Fenton and George Shadbolt. In 1867, the Photographic Society awarded its Medal in recognition of \"his long and successful labours as one of the principal pioneers of the photographic art and of his continuing endeavours for its advancement.\" The following year, at his own initiative, he relinquished any further salary as Secretary of the Society, and became its Hon. Secretary.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hugh Welch Diamond (1809 – June 21, 1886) was an early British psychiatrist and photographer who made a major contribution to the craft of psychiatric photography.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977268}
{"src_title": "Denis O'Hare", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "O'Hare was born in Kansas City, Missouri, the son of Margaret Karene (née Kennedy; January 25, 1931 – October 8, 2008) and John M. O'Hare. He has three sisters, Pam, Patricia and Kathleen, and one brother, Michael. O'Hare grew up in the suburbs of Detroit, living in Southfield until he was 15, when his family moved to Wing Lake in Bloomfield Hills. His mother was a musician and he grew up playing the church organ. O'Hare is of Irish descent and holds an Irish passport.  As a teenager, O'Hare was in his school's choir and in 1974 he went to his first audition, gaining a chorus part in a community theatre production of \"Show Boat\". In 1980, O'Hare left Detroit for Chicago to study theatre at Northwestern University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "O'Hare won a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Play for his performance in Richard Greenberg's \"Take Me Out\", where his character's lengthy monologues in which he slowly falls in love with the game of baseball were considered the main reason for his award. He won the 2005 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical for his role as Oscar Lindquist in the Broadway revival of \"Sweet Charity\".  In 2003 O'Hare played a doctor in \"21 Grams\". In 2004, he played Charles J. Guiteau in the Broadway production of Stephen Sondheim's \"Assassins\", for which he was nominated for the Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical Tony Award. He lost to co-star Michael Cerveris who played John Wilkes Booth. Before appearing in those shows, he appeared on Broadway in the 1998 revival of \"Cabaret\", in which he played Ernst Ludwig onstage and the clarinet in the show's orchestra, the Kit Kat Band. O'Hare was featured in the Hallmark Hall of Fame presentation of \"Saint Maybe\". He has appeared as a guest star on several episodes of \"Law & Order\" and its spin-offs, \"\" and \"\".  In 2008, he appeared as a guest star on several episodes of \"Brothers & Sisters\". His feature film credits include \"The Anniversary Party\", \"21 Grams\", \"Garden State\", \"Derailed\", \"Michael Clayton\", \"A Mighty Heart\", \"Half Nelson\", \"Milk\", \"Edge of Darkness\", \"Charlie Wilson's War\" and \"Changeling\". In 2009, O'Hare portrayed Phillip Steele (an amalgam character based on Quentin Crisp's friends Phillip Ward and Tom Steele) in a television biopic on Crisp entitled \"An Englishman in New York\". The same year he played therapist Dr. David Worth in the series \"Bored to Death\" (episode 1.3). In 2010, O'Hare joined the cast of HBO's \"True Blood\" in its third season as Russell Edgington, the vampire king of Mississippi who is 2,800 years old. In 2011, he appeared in the film \"The Eagle\" as a Roman officer named Lutorius. Recently he has appeared in a recurring role as Judge Charles Abernathy on the television drama series \"The Good Wife\". O'Hare also co-starred as Larry Harvey in FX's first season of \"American Horror Story\", \"\".  In 2012, O'Hare starred alongside Amy Adams and Donna Murphy as the Baker in Stephen Sondheim's \"Into the Woods\" at The Public Theater. The production played at the Delacorte Theatre in Central Park, NYC, from July 23 to September 1, 2012. In 2013, O'Hare returned to \"American Horror Story\" for its third season, \"\", where he portrayed Spalding, the house butler. O'Hare portrayed con artist, Stanley on the fourth season of the series, \"\". In 2015, O'Hare played a hotel worker, Liz Taylor on the fifth season of the series, \"\", and in 2016 he was Dr. Elias Cunningham on the sixth season, \"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "O'Hare is gay and has been married to designer Hugo Redwood since July 28, 2011. The couple have an adopted son, Declan. He identifies as an atheist.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Denis Patrick Seamus O'Hare (born January 17, 1962) is an American actor, singer, and author noted for his award-winning performances in the plays \"Take Me Out\" and \"Sweet Charity\", as well as portraying vampire king Russell Edgington on HBO's fantasy series \"True Blood\". He is also known for his supporting roles in such films as \"Charlie Wilson's War\", \"Milk\", \"Changeling\", and \"Dallas Buyers Club\". In 2011, he starred as Larry Harvey in the of the FX anthology series \"American Horror Story\", for which he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie in 2012. He returned to the show in 2013, playing Spalding in \"\" and once more as Stanley in \"\", the latter for which he earned a second Primetime Emmy Award nomination. For his performance in \"\" as Liz Taylor, O'Hare received critical acclaim.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977269}
{"src_title": "Douma, Syria", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "21st century.", "content": "During the Syrian Civil War, Douma has been a major flashpoint and witnessed numerous demonstrations against the Syrian government and armed clashes against the Syrian Army and Security forces during the early stages of the conflict.  On 30 January 2012, the Syrian Army gained control of the city after the Battle of Douma, a major operation against the opposition armed groups in Rif Dimashq Governorate.  On 29 June 2012, the Syrian Army was accused of committing a massacre in Douma, where more than 50 people were killed.  As of 18 October 2012, the Free Syrian Army was in control of most of the suburb. Fighting and bombardments continued in the town.  Douma is the main city of the Siege of Eastern Ghouta, begun in April 2013, isolating 400,000 people in a 100 square kilometre area. UN and Red Cross aid convoys were able to reach Douma with food and supplies once in 2018.  In the 2015 Douma market massacre, the city was attacked by Syrian Army ground-to-ground missiles, leaving at least 50 dead and several more missing.  In early 2018, the main rebel faction based in the city was Saudi Arabian-backed Jaysh al-Islam (Army of Islam), with an estimated 10-15,000 fighters in the region.  On 7 April 2018, a chemical attack was carried out in the city. Douma had been the target of four reported chemical attacks over four months in 2018, as pro-government forces intensified their aerial bombardment before launching a ground offensive. The last - and deadliest, according to medics and rescue workers occurred when a yellow industrial gas cylinder was reportedly dropped onto the balcony of a block of flats. The opposition's surrender came a day later. In September 2018 the UN Commission of Enquiry on Syria reported: \"Throughout 7 April, numerous aerial attacks were carried out in Douma, striking various residential areas. A vast body of evidence collected by the Commission suggests that, at approximately 7.30 p.m., a gas cylinder containing a chlorine payload delivered by helicopter struck a multi-storey residential apartment building located approximately 100 metres south-west of Shohada square. The Commission received information on the death of at least 49 individuals, and the wounding of up to 650 others... the Commission cannot make yet any conclusions concerning the exact causes of death, in particular on whether another agent was used in addition to chlorine that may have caused or contributed to deaths and injuries\" Local rebels and civilians were sent into northern Syria in forced exile. Similar forced displacement deals have taken place all over Syria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "Douma has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification \"BSk\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Douma () is a city in Syria. Its centre is about northeast of the centre of Damascus. Being the centre of Rif Dimashq governorate (which completely surrounds the Damascus Governorate), the town is also the administrative centre of Douma District. Douma is a major city of the region known as Ghouta, for the peri-urban settlements to the east and south of Damascus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977270}
{"src_title": "Cristian Tello", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years / Espanyol.", "content": "Born in Sabadell, Barcelona, Catalonia, Tello started playing at the age of eight with CFU Can Rull, moving to FC Barcelona shortly after and being loaned to another club in the region, CF Damm, for one year.  In 2008, his contract expired and RCD Espanyol signed him. He made his senior debut in the 2009–10 season, playing four games with the B-team and being relegated from the third division.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Barcelona.", "content": "In June 2010, Tello moved back to FC Barcelona B, who competed in the second level. On 9 November 2011 he made his debut for \"Barça\"'s main squad, playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–0 away win against CE L'Hospitalet in that season's Copa del Rey; he scored a brace in the second leg, a 9–0 demolition.  Tello made his first La Liga appearance on 28 January 2012, coming on as a substitute for Adriano in the 75th minute of a 0–0 away draw at Villarreal CF. The following weekend, in his first league start, he opened the score in the eighth minute of a 2–1 home victory over Real Sociedad after a through ball by Lionel Messi, and played the entire match. On 7 March 2012, Tello replaced Andrés Iniesta early into the second half of a match against Bayer 04 Leverkusen at the Camp Nou, taking his bow in the UEFA Champions League: he scored his first goal within two minutes, after Cesc Fàbregas played him through over the top and he ran from the halfway line to net from just inside the penalty area for the 4–0; six minutes later, from a similar position, he made it 6–0 for the hosts in an eventual 7–1 win (10–2 on aggregate).  Even though his future initially seemed uncertain, Tello managed to convince new manager Tito Vilanova and stayed in roster for 2012–13, inclusively going on to start in several games. On 19 September 2012 he scored the opener and assisted Messi in the second goal, in an eventual 3–2 home defeat of FC Spartak Moscow in the campaign's Champions League group stage, where he was also chosen as \"Player of the match\".  On 13 December 2012, Tello signed a new contract with Barcelona, keeping him with the \"Blaugrana\" until June 2016. Nine days later he scored after only 30 seconds on the pitch, in the last play of a 3–1 away win against Real Valladolid.  Tello fell further down the offensive pecking order in the 2013–14 season, following the arrival of Neymar. He scored his first goal of the campaign on 11 December in a 6–1 home rout of Celtic in the Champions League group stage, and six days later he also found the net, in a 3–0 victory against FC Cartagena in the domestic cup (7–1 on aggregate). In the quarter-finals of the latter competition, away to Levante UD, he profited from three Messi assists to score his first hat-trick as a professional as his team won 4–1.  On 16 July 2014, Tello was loaned to FC Porto of the Primeira Liga in a two-year deal. He scored his first goal for the club on 25 November, entering as a substitute for Ricardo Quaresma and concluding a 3–0 victory at FC BATE Borisov for the Champions League group stage. Five days later, he netted his first league goal, the opener in a 5–0 home win over Rio Ave FC.  Tello scored all of his team's goals as they beat Sporting CP 3–0 on 1 March 2015.  On 22 January 2016, Barcelona and ACF Fiorentina reached an agreement for the loan of Tello until 30 June 2016. He made his Serie A debut on 3 February, starting a 2–1 win over Carpi F.C. 1909 at the Stadio Artemio Franchi, and scored his first goal 18 days later in a 3–2 success at Atalanta BC.  On 16 August 2016, the loan was renewed for the upcoming season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Betis.", "content": "On 30 June 2017, Tello joined Real Betis for €4 million (potentially €5 million).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Tello was a member of the Spanish squad that participated in the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, playing all three games in an eventual group stage exit. He made his debut with the full side on 14 August 2013, starting in a 2–0 friendly win in Ecuador.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Barcelona", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Spain U21", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Cristian Tello Herrera (; born 11 August 1991) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a forward or winger for Real Betis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977271}
{"src_title": "Chidori-class torpedo boat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Per the terms of the 1930 London Naval Treaty, the Imperial Japanese Navy was constricted on the total tonnage of destroyers it was allowed to construct. In response, Japanese naval planners designed a 600-ton class vessel (which was small enough not to be limited by the treaty), but planned to arm it with half the armament of a destroyer. The new vessels were designated \"torpedo boats\" to further ensure that they would not be considered as \"destroyers\". Four vessels were ordered as part of the 1931 Maru 1 Programme, out of a planned twenty.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "As initially completed the \"Chidori\"-class torpedo vessels displaced at standard load, but displaced at full load. They were long overall, had a beam and an average draft of. Two Kampon geared turbines drove two shafts. They were powered by two Kampon water-tube boilers and produced a total of. They were rated at and had a range of at or at using the of fuel carried.  The \"Chidori\"-class were exceedingly heavily armed for their size. The main battery consisted of three Type 3 guns mounted in a single-gun power-driven gun turret placed on the forecastle, ahead of the bridge, and a power-driven twin-gun turret aft. Sources are contradictory on her anti-aircraft armament, Whitley says that they had a single license-built Vickers 40 mm (2 pounder pom pom) and others credit them with a single machine gun. Two sets of twin torpedo launchers were mounted abaft the single funnel. In total these weapons represented 22.7% of the displacement. One Type 94 depth charge launcher was also carried.  After the lead vessel \"Chidori\" was completed, it was discovered during trials that her center of gravity was too high and that she was overweight. To compensate, bulges fitted to the rest of the class. However, this proved to be insufficient. The \"Tomozuru\" Incident of March 12, 1934, resulted in an extensive redesign in which the Type 3 guns were replaced by smaller single 12 cm/45 3rd Year Type naval guns and one of the twin torpedo launchers was removed. An additional 100 tons of ballast also helped lower the center-of-gravity, but also meant the top speed was reduced to 28 knots.  In 1944, the rear gun was removed and replaced with a twin-mount \"Type 96\" 25mm AA gun. Another twin-mount was located in front of the bridge and six single-mounts were added in various locations. The number of depth charges carried was also increased over the course of the war to 48.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The \"Tomozuru\" Incident.", "content": "On 12 March 1934, shortly after completion, sailed in company with her sister and the light cruiser for night torpedo training. The weather worsened during the exercise and it was called off at 0325; the ships returning to port. \"Tomozuru\" never arrived and a search was launched. She was spotted at 1405 that same day, capsized and inverted, but still afloat. Thirteen of her 113-man crew were rescued. She was towed to Sasebo and docked, where she was rebuilt and returned to service.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences.", "content": "This disaster forced the Imperial Japanese Navy to review the stability of every ship recently completed, under construction or still being designed. The \"Chidori\"'-class was forced to reduce its armament load and the bridge structure was cut down by one level. The bulges were removed, but displacement increased to with the addition of ballast. Their speed dropped to and range decreased to at. The remaining 16 vessels planned for the class were cancelled, and replaced by the torpedo boats, which were redesigned to reduce the top-heaviness that caused \"Tomozuru\" to capsize.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Service.", "content": "In 1937, the four sisters were organized into \"Torpedo Flotilla 21\" and made a sortie for the Battle of Shanghai. All four saw action in the Battle of the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies campaign. \"Chidori\" and \"Manazuru\" returned to home waters after \"Torpedo Flotilla 21\" was disbanded in the spring of 1942 and were on escort duties for the rest of the war. \"Hatsukari\" and \"Tomozuru\" remained in that area for most of the rest of the war on escort operations. \"Tomozuru\" returned to Japan late in the war, but \"Hatsukari\" entered Hong Kong on 21 May 1945 and was engaged in anti-aircraft battles until the end of war. Following Japan's surrender, the \"Hatsukari\" was seized by the Royal Navy, and later scrapped.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The was an Imperial Japanese Navy class of torpedo boats that were built before and served during the Second World War. The design initially proved to have too much armament for its small displacement, and the capsizing of shortly after completion in heavy weather resulted in a scandal which called into question the basic design of many Japanese warships of the time. After extensive modification, the class became satisfactory sea-boats and saw service in the Battle of the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies campaign as escorts and continued in that role for the rest of the war. Three were sunk during the war and the fourth was seized by the British at Hong Kong after the end of the war, where it was scrapped later.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977272}
{"src_title": "Shiratsuyu-class destroyer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The initial six \"Shiratsuyu\"-class destroyers were modified versions of the, and had been originally planned as the final six vessels of that class under the ”Circle-One” Naval Expansion Plan.  However, design issues with the \"Hatsuharu\"-class ships, notably their “top-heavy” design relative to their small displacement, resulted in extensive modifications, to the point where the final six vessels on order were named as a separate class. The redesign caused the new class to exceed the limitations imposed by the 1930 London Naval Treaty. An additional four vessels were ordered under the ”Circle-Two Naval Expansion Plan of fiscal 1934, and all vessels were completed by 1937. While the process of only giving numbers rather than names has ceased in 1928, these ships also bore the numbers \"Dai-65\" to \"Dai-74\".  As with the \"Hatsuharu\" class, the \"Shiratsuyu\"-class destroyers were designed to accompany the Japanese main striking force and to conduct both day and night torpedo attacks against the United States Navy as it advanced across the Pacific Ocean, according to Japanese naval strategic projections. Despite being one of the most powerful classes of destroyers in the world at the time of their completion, none survived the Pacific War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "In general layout, the \"Shiratsuyu\"-class vessels closely resembled the \"Ariake\" sub-class, or final version of the \"Hatsuharu\" class, differing only in the lower and more compact bridge design and the shape and inclination of the funnels. The hull retained the general configuration of the \"Hatsuharu\" class with a long forecastle with a pronounced flare to improve sea-keeping at high speeds by adding buoyancy and reducing the spray and water coming over the deck, but with a shorter forecastle and longer stern. The same engines were used as on the \"Hatsuharu\" class, and due to their greater displacement and draft, the \"Shiratsuyu\"-class could only attain 34 knots.  The \"Shiratsuyu\" class were the first Japanese warships to be completed with quadruple torpedo mounts and telephone communications to the torpedo station. As with the \"Hatsuharu\" class. the torpedo launchers were given a protective shield to allow for use in heavy weather and to protect against splinter damage. The last four vessels (those ordered in 1934) differed slightly from their predecessors and resembled more the succeeding \"Asashio\" Class.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Propulsion.", "content": "The \"Shiratsuyu\" class, as with the previous \"Hatsuharu\" class, carried two sets of Kampon geared turbines, one for each shaft. Each set consisted one low-pressure and one high-pressure turbine, plus a cruise turbine connected to the high-pressure turbine. The LP and HP turbines were connected to the propeller shaft by a two-pinion reduction gear. Each propeller had a diameter of and a pitch of. The total horsepower of the \"Shiratsuyu\" class was only compared to the of their \"Fubuki\"-class predecessors, but the machinery was significantly lighter and more powerful on a unit basis. The \"Shiratsuyu\"s machinery weighed only compared to the of the \"Fubuki\" class, or 396 shaft horsepower per tonne versus 347 shaft horsepower per tonne for the older ships.  Similarly the three Kampon Type Ro-Gō boilers used in the \"Shiratsuyu\"-class ships weighed in comparison to the boilers used in the \"Fubuki\" class, but produced each while the older boilers produced. This gave a ratio of 3.6 kg per shaft horsepower for the \"Shiratsuyu\" class compared to the 4.1 kg per shaft horsepower of their predecessors. The newer design of boilers initially used steam pressurized to, just like the older models, but used superheating to improve efficiency while the older boilers simply used saturated steam.  A single 100 kW turbo-generator was fitted behind the reduction gears in a separate compartment and two 40 kW diesel generators were located between the propeller shafts. As initially completed the \"Shiratsuyu\" class had a range of at a speed of with of fuel.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "The \"Shiratsuyu\"-class destroyers used the same 50 caliber 12.7 cm/50 Type 3 naval gun as the \"Fubuki\" class, but all turrets could elevate to 75° to give the main guns a minimal ability to engage aircraft. During the war the single turret in \"X\" position was removed on all surviving ships and replaced with from two triple Type 96 anti-aircraft guns, while other guns were added so that between 13 to 21 (depending on the individual vessel) of this calibre were eventually carried in double and triple mounts. Although these powered mounts were unsatisfactory because their traverse and elevation speeds were too slow to engage high-speed aircraft more single mounts were fitted to ships in the last year of the war. Four 13 mm guns were also added.  For example, of the related \"Hatsuharu\" class mounted ten single 25 guns when she was lost in July 1945. Four license-built Type 93 machine guns were also fitted to \"Hatsushimo\", but these were also of limited utility against modern aircraft.  The 61 cm Type 90 torpedo was mounted in quadruple tube \"Type 92\" launchers, derived from the twin tube \"Type 89\" launcher used in the heavy cruisers. Shields were fitted to both the torpedo mounts and lockers to protect them from the weather and from strafing aircraft. Initially the shields were made from Duralumin to save weight, but these quickly corroded and had to be replaced. \"NiCrMo\" steel, taken from the air chambers of obsolete torpedoes, in thickness, was chosen for the new shields to save weight. It was traversed by an electro-hydraulic system and could traverse 360° in twenty-five seconds. If the backup manual system was used the time required increased to two minutes. Eight reloads were carried, and each tube could be reloaded in twenty-three seconds using the endless wire and winch provided. Because of the weight of the extra guns added, one set of reloads for the torpedo tubes was removed, together with the minelaying and minesweeping gear.  Only eighteen depth charges were initially carried in a rack at the stern, but this increased to thirty-six after the autumn of 1942, with four depth charge throwers. Apparently no sonar or hydrophones were fitted until after the outbreak of the war when the \"Type 93\" sonar and \"Type 93\" hydrophones were mounted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Radar.", "content": "Radar was not installed on the surviving ships of this class until late in the war, possibly as late as 1944. Surviving ships were given a \"Type 22\" radar on the foremast, a \"Type 13\" on the mainmast and a \"Type E-27\" radar countermeasures device was carried high on the foremast.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "None of the \"Shiratsuyu\"-class ships survived the Pacific War. The lead ship of the class, was sunk northeast of Mindanao in a collision with the oiler \"Seiyo Maru\". Most of the class were lost to US submarines, with \"Kawakaze\", \"Yudachi\", and \"Murasame\" being lost in surface actions. Only \"Harusame\" fell victim to aircraft.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The were a class of ten 1st Class destroyers of the Imperial Japanese Navy in service before and during World War II, during which all ten were sunk.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977273}
{"src_title": "August Landmesser", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "August Landmesser was the only child of August Franz Landmesser and Wilhelmine Magdalene (née Schmidtpott). In 1931, hoping it would help him get a job, he joined the Nazi Party. In 1935, when he became engaged to Irma Eckler (a Jewish woman), he was expelled from the party. They registered to be married in Hamburg, but the Nuremberg Laws enacted a month later prevented it. On 29 October 1935, Landmesser and Eckler's first daughter, Ingrid, was born.  In 1937, Landmesser and Eckler tried to flee to Denmark but were apprehended. She was again pregnant, and he was charged and found guilty in July 1937 of \"dishonoring the race\" under Nazi racial laws. He argued that neither he nor Eckler knew that she was fully Jewish, and was acquitted on 27 May 1938 for lack of evidence, with the warning that a repeat offense would result in a multi-year prison sentence. The couple publicly continued their relationship, and on 15 July 1938 he was arrested again and sentenced to two and a half years in the Börgermoor concentration camp.  Eckler was detained by the Gestapo and held at the prison Fuhlsbüttel, where she gave birth to a second daughter, Irene. From there she was sent to the Oranienburg concentration camp, the Lichtenburg concentration camp for women, and then the women's concentration camp at Ravensbrück. A few letters came from Irma Eckler until January 1942. It is believed that she was taken to the Bernburg Euthanasia Centre in February 1942, where she was among the 14,000 killed; in the course of post-war documentation, in 1949 she was pronounced legally dead, with a date of 28 April 1942.  Meanwhile, Landmesser was discharged from prison on 19 January 1941. He worked as a foreman for the haulage company Püst. The company had a branch at the Heinkel-Werke (factory) in Warnemünde. In February 1944 he was drafted into a penal battalion, the 999th Fort Infantry Battalion. He was declared killed in action, after fighting in Croatia on 17 October 1944. Like Eckler, he was legally declared dead in 1949.  Their children were initially taken to the city orphanage. Ingrid was later allowed to live with her maternal grandmother while Irene went to the home of foster parents in 1941. Ingrid was also placed with foster parents after her grandmother's death in 1953.  The marriage of August Landmesser and Irma Eckler was recognized retroactively by the Senate of Hamburg in the summer of 1951, and in the autumn of that year Ingrid assumed the surname \"Landmesser\". Irene continued to use the surname \"Eckler\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition.", "content": "A figure identified by Irene Eckler as August Landmesser is visible in a photograph taken on 13 June 1936, which was published on 22 March 1991 in \"Die Zeit\". It shows a large gathering of workers at the Blohm+Voss shipyard in Hamburg, for the launching of the navy training ship \"Horst Wessel\". Almost everyone in the image has raised his arm in the Nazi salute, with the most obvious exception of a man toward the back of the crowd, who grimly stands with his arms crossed over his chest.  In 1996, Irene Eckler published \"Die Vormundschaftsakte 1935–1958: Verfolgung einer Familie wegen \"Rassenschande\"\" (\"The Guardianship Documents 1935–1958: Persecution of a Family for \"Racial Disgrace\"\"). The book tells the story of her family, and includes a large number of original documents from the time in question, including letters from her mother and documents from state institutions.  The identity of the man in the photograph is not known with certainty. Another family claims it is Gustav Wegert (1890-1959), a metalworker at Blohm+Voss who habitually refused to salute on religious grounds. They have presented documentation of Wegert's employment at Blohm+Voss at that time, and family photos which resemble the man in the famous photo, as evidence of their claim.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "August Landmesser (born 24 May 1910; KIA 17 October 1944; confirmed in 1949) was a worker at the Blohm+Voss shipyard in Hamburg, Germany. He is known as the possible identity of a man appearing in a 1936 photograph, conspicuously refusing to perform the Nazi salute with the other workers. Landmesser had run afoul of the Nazi Party over his unlawful relationship with Irma Eckler, a Jewish woman. He was later imprisoned and eventually drafted into penal military service, where he was killed in action; Eckler was sent to a concentration camp where she was presumably killed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977274}
{"src_title": "Tomáš Sedláček (economist)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography and career.", "content": "Sedláček was born in Roudnice nad Labem. As a child, he lived in Finland for five years and in Denmark for another four, where he attended an English-language international school(s). His father worked there as director of the ČSA, the ČSSR airtravel state company, representative offices.  In 2001, during his studies at the Charles University in Prague, he became an economic advisor to President Václav Havel. He was 24. He later commented in the \"Hospodářské noviny\" newspaper: \"\"[The Dean of our faculty] phoned me that Mr. Fischer's office needs an economic analyst. I thought that Mr. Fischer is the owner of the same-name travel agency, and I almost refused. I wanted to devote myself to science. But the Dean then patiently explained to me that the president should not be refused. At that moment I realized that the person who contacted him was Pavel Fischer, Chief of the Political Department of the Office of the President.\"\" From November 2001 to February 2003, Sedláček worked for the Czech President.  In January, 2004, he was engaged as an advisor to the former Minister of Finance Bohuslav Sobotka. However, he left the position in 2006, according to his own words \"\"due to excessive politicization of the work at the Ministry\"\".  In 2006, during his scholarship at Yale University, Sedláček was listed as one of the \"Young Guns: 5 Hot Minds in Economics\" in the Yale Economic Review. Following his return from the United States, he was engaged as Chief Macroeconomic Strategist at the \"Československá obchodní banka\" (ČSOB). As of 2011, he still holds the position at the bank. Additionally, he is a columnist and media commentator. He also lectures at the Charles University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Economics of Good and Evil.", "content": "The book \"Ekonomie dobra a zla: po stopách lidského tázání od Gilgameše po finanční krizi\" (published in English under the title \"Economics of Good and Evil: The Quest for Economic Meaning from Gilgamesh to Wall Street\") is a modified version of Sedláček's thesis submitted – but rejected due to \"questionable scientific value\" – at the Faculty of Social Sciences of the Charles University in Prague. The book became a bestseller in the Czech Republic.  In his book, Sedláček refuses the one-sided view of economics as a value-free mathematical inquiry. He describes economics as a cultural phenomenon and a product of our civilization closely tied with philosophy, myth, religion, anthropology, and the arts. According to Sedláček, economics should not concern only abstract mathematical modelling, but also societies' values.  The broad concept of the book covers the history of economics through the millennia, \"from the epic of Gilgamesh and the Old Testament to the emergence of Christianity, from Descartes and Adam Smith to Fight Club and The Matrix.\"  Additionally, the book explores some of the fundamental and provocative questions of the present time: \"Is growth the only answer? Are we addicted to desire? Does it pay to be good?\"  In 2009, the book received the \"Wald Press Award\". In 2012, the book won the \"Deutscher Wirtschaftsbuchpreis\" (2012 Frankfurt Book Fair Award) for the best economic title in Germany. The work was praised by the economics professor Deirdre McCloskey.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tomáš Sedláček (born 23 January 1977) is a Czech economist and university lecturer. He is the Chief Macroeconomic Strategist at ČSOB, a former member of the National Economic Council of the Czech Republic and an economic advisor to former President Václav Havel. In 2006, the \"Yale Economic Review\" mentioned him in an article titled \"Young Guns: 5 Hot Minds in Economics\". His book \"Economics of Good and Evil\", a bestseller in the Czech Republic, was translated into English and published by the Oxford University Press in June, 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977275}
{"src_title": "Eiko Ishioka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Ishioka was born in Tokyo to a commercial graphic designer father and a housewife mother. Although her father encouraged her interest in art as a child, he discouraged her desire to follow him into the business. She graduated from the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music. As director of costume design for opening ceremony of 2008 Beijing Olympics, Ishioka found inspiration from art pieces, such as Greek Statues and African helmets. As a result, a large number of costumes that are able to visualize fabric texture, actions, and aura were designed under her hands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Advertising career.", "content": "Eiko began her career with the advertising division of the cosmetics company Shiseido in 1961 and won Japan's most prestigious advertising award four years later. Eiko was discovered by Tsuji Masuda who created Parco Ikebukuro from the ailing Marubutsu Department Store. When Parco did well and expanded to a Shibuya location in 1973, Eiko designed Parco Shibuya's first 15-second commercial for the grand opening with \"a tall, thin black woman, dressed in a black bikini, dancing with a very small man in a Santa Claus outfit\". She became deeply involved in Parco's image. Her last Parco campaign involved Faye Dunaway as \"face of Parco\" wearing black, on a black chair against a black wall, and peeling and eating an egg in one minute as \"a film for Parco.\" She became its chief art director in 1971 and her work there is noted for several campaigns featuring Faye Dunaway and for its open and surreal eroticism. In 1983 she ended her association with Parco and opened her own design firm.  In 2003, she designed the logo for the Houston Rockets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film career.", "content": "In 1985 director Paul Schrader chose her to be the production designer for his 1985 film \"\". Her work went on to win her a special award for artistic contribution at the Cannes Film Festival that year. Eiko's work with Francis Ford Coppola on the poster for the Japanese release of \"Apocalypse Now\" led to their later collaboration in Coppola's \"Dracula\", which earned Eiko an Academy Award. She has also worked on four of Tarsem Singh's films beginning with the Jennifer Lopez starrer \"The Cell\" in 2000 and including \"The Fall\", \"Immortals\", and \"Mirror Mirror\".  She has also done costume design for theater and circus. In 1999 she designed costumes for Richard Wagner's \"Der Ring des Nibelungen\" at the Dutch Opera. She designed costumes for Cirque du Soleil: \"Varekai\", which premiered in 2002 as well as for Julie Taymor's Broadway musical \"\", which premiered in 2011. She also directed the music video for Björk's \"Cocoon\" in 2002 and designed costumes for the \"Hurricane\" tour of singer Grace Jones in 2009.  Ishioka's work is included in the permanent collection of museums throughout the world, including the Museum of Modern Art in New York.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "Eiko won a Grammy Award for her artwork for Miles Davis's album \"Tutu\" in 1987 and an Academy Award for Best Costume Design for \"Bram Stoker's Dracula\" in 1992. She also received two Tony Award nominations in 1988 for the stage and costume design of the Broadway play \"M. Butterfly\". In 2012, she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Costume Design for \"Mirror Mirror\" and won the Costume Designers Guild Award for Excellence In Fantasy Film. In 1992 she was selected to be a member of the New York Art Directors Club Hall of Fame. On July 12, 2017, she was honored with a Google Doodle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Books.", "content": "The 1990 book \"Eiko by Eiko\" collects her work in art direction and graphic design. A second book, \"Eiko on Stage\", followed in 2000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Ishioka died of pancreatic cancer in Tokyo, Japan on January 21, 2012. She married her companion Nicholas Soultanakis in a hospital a few months before her death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Her archive has been given to UCLA Library Special Collections.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Noted for her advertising campaigns for the Japanese boutique chain Parco, her collaboration with sportswear company Descente in designing uniforms and outerwear for members of the Swiss, Canadian, Japanese, and Spanish teams at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City and was the director of costume design for the opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. She won the Academy Award for Best Costume Design for her work in Francis Ford Coppola's 1992 film \"Bram Stoker's Dracula\" and was posthumously nominated for an Academy Award in the same category for her work in Tarsem Singh's 2012 film \"Mirror Mirror\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977276}
{"src_title": "Eydie Gormé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Gormé was born in the Bronx to Sephardic Jewish parents. Her father was born in Sicily, her mother in Turkey to a family of Lebanese Jewish descent. They spoke several languages at home, including Ladino, which is rooted in Spanish. After graduating from William Howard Taft High School, which she attended with Stanley Kubrick, Gormé found a job as a translator. At night she studied at City College. On weekends she sang in a band led by Ken Greengrass.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "She appeared on the radio program \"Cita Con Eydie\" (\"A Date with Eydie\"), changing her name from \"Edith\" to \"Edie\" and then \"Eydie\" because people mispronounced \"Edie\". She considered changing her last name, but her mother told her, \"It's bad enough that you're in show business. How will the neighbors know if you're ever a success?\"  Gormé sang with the Tommy Tucker band for two months in 1950, followed by a year with Tex Beneke's band. She signed as a solo act with Coral Records in 1952 and released her first single, \"That Night of Heaven\". She was hired by \"The Tonight Show\" in its early days with Steve Allen and formed a duo with another one of its staff singers, Steve Lawrence. As \"The Tonight Show\" was beginning to broadcast across the country in 1954, the duo released their first single, \"Make Yourself Comfortable/I've Gotta Crow\".  Gormé had her first chart hit, \"Too Close for Comfort\", in 1956 after moving from Coral to ABC-Paramount Records. Two more hits followed. \"Mama, Teach Me to Dance\" and \"Love Me Forever\" reached the Top 40 singles chart while her albums \"Eydie Gorme\" and \"Eydie Swings the Blues\" reached the Top 20 albums chart. In 1957 Gormé and Lawrence were married, and several months later they hosted \"Steve Allen Presents the Steve Lawrence-Eydie Gormé Show\" after Allen retired from \"The Tonight Show\". Three more singles by Gormé and two more albums became chart hits. In 1960 they sang in clubs and released \"We Got Us\", their first album as a duo. They received a Grammy Award for Best Performance by a Vocal Group for the title track from the album. Gormé recorded \"Yes My Darling Daughter\" for Columbia Records, and it reached the Top Ten in the UK. In 1963, she reached the Top Ten in the U.S. with \"Blame It on the Bossa Nova\". The song earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female Vocal Performance and was certified gold after selling one million copies. The album \"Blame It on the Bossa Nova\" entered the Top 40 with four more hit singles during the same year. Two were recorded as the duo Steve & Eydie. She recorded the Spanish albums \"Amor\" and \"More Amor\" with the Trio Los Panchos. Then she turned to show tunes. \"If He Walked Into My Life\" was an Easy Listening hit in 1966 and earned her a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance.  Steve and Eydie moved on to Broadway, starring in the musical \"Golden Rainbow\" based on the play \"A Hole in the Head\". \"How Could I Be So Wrong\" by Gormé, which was performed in the musical, was a hit on the Easy Listening chart. The musical had a successful one-year run. Steve and Eydie signed to RCA Victor and released a pair of albums while Gormé had another hit with the title track and album \"Tonight I'll Say a Prayer\" in 1970. Their last hit on the pop chart was the song \"We Can Make It Together\" with the Osmonds in 1973.  Gormé was successful in the Latin music market and internationally through albums she recorded in Spanish with the Trio Los Panchos. Her first recording with Los Panchos came about after the popular group with members from Mexico and Puerto Rico, composed of Alfredo Gil, Chucho Navarro, and Johnny Albino, saw her perform at Manhattan's Club Copacabana late in 1963. Gormé had achieved international fame from the song \"Blame it on Bossa Nova\", which sold 250,000 copies in Spanish in addition to sales in English. Los Panchos were the top bolero singers in Latin America, so when they suggested a recording Columbia agreed.  In 1964, Columbia released the album \"Amor\", which spent 22 weeks on the charts. The song \"Sabor a Mí\" became one of Gormé's signature tunes. In 1965, a sequel appeared called \"More Amor\", later reissued as \"Cuatro Vidas\". Her last album with Los Panchos was \"Navidad Means Christmas\" (1966), later reissued as \"Blanca Navidad\". She recorded other Spanish albums in her career, including the Grammy-nominated \"La Gormé\" (1976). \"Muy Amigos/Close Friends\" (1977), a duet collection with Puerto Rican singer Danny Rivera, also received a Grammy nomination.  Steve and Eydie performed a tribute to George Gershwin on a their television special \"Our Love Is Here to Stay\", which won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Music or Comedy Special. Two years later they sang on \"Steve and Eydie Celebrate Irving Berlin\" and again won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Music or Comedy Special. In 1989 they started the record label GL Music. They sang with Frank Sinatra on his seventieth-birthday tour and on his album \"Duets II\" (1994). They recorded a cover version of the song \"Black Hole Sun\" by the rock band Soundgarden for the album \"Lounge-A-Palooza\" (1997).  As the twenty-first century arrived, the couple announced plans to reduce their touring, starting a One More for the Road Tour in 2002. In 2006, Gormé became a blogger. In November 2009, after his wife retired, Lawrence embarked on a solo music tour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Children.", "content": "Gormé and Lawrence had two sons. David Nessim Lawrence (b. 1960) is an ASCAP Award-winning composer who composed the score for \"High School Musical\". Michael Robert Lawrence (1962-1986) died at the age of 23 of ventricular fibrillation from an undiagnosed heart condition.  Gormé and Lawrence were in Atlanta, Georgia, at the time of Michael Lawrence's death, having performed at the Fox Theater the night before. Frank Sinatra, a family friend, sent his private plane to fly the couple to New York to meet David Lawrence, who was attending school. After their son's death, Gormé and Lawrence suspended touring for a year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Gormé died on August 10, 2013, six days before her 85th birthday, at Sunrise Hospital & Medical Center in Las Vegas after a brief, undisclosed illness. She was interred at Hillside Memorial Park in Los Angeles, California.  Lawrence issued a statement: \"Eydie has been my partner on stage and in my life for more than 55 years. I fell in love with her the moment I saw her and even more the first time I heard her sing. While my personal loss is unimaginable, the world has lost one of the greatest pop vocalists of all time.\"  On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Eydie Gormé among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Albums.", "content": "Solo  With Steve Lawrence With Trio Los Panchos", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Eydie Gormé (born Edith Gormezano; August 16, 1928 – August 10, 2013) was an American singer who had hits on the pop and Latin pop charts. She sang solo and with her husband, Steve Lawrence, on albums, television, Broadway, and in Las Vegas. Gormé was a first cousin to renowned singer-songwriter-pianist Neil Sedaka.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977277}
{"src_title": "S-80 Plus-class submarine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Capabilities.", "content": "S-80 Plus-class submarines are designed to improve threat scenario missions. Their operational mobility will allow them to operate in remote areas, traveling discreetly at high speeds. Their air independent propulsion (AIP) system, of new technological design, will ensure their ability to remain in an area for a very long period of time without being detected and their ability to operate in possible conflict zones.  Capabilities include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Propulsion.", "content": "The S-80's air-independent propulsion (AIP) system is based on a bioethanol-processor consisting of a reaction chamber and several intermediate Coprox reactors. Provided by Hynergreen from Abengoa, the system transforms the bioethanol (BioEtOH) into high purity hydrogen. The output feeds a series of fuel cells from UTC Power company.  The Reformator is fed with bioethanol as fuel and oxygen (stored as a liquid in a high pressure cryogenic tank), generating hydrogen and carbon dioxide as subproducts. The produced hydrogen and more oxygen is fed to the fuel cells.  The bioethanol-processor also produces a stream of highly concentrated carbon dioxide and other trace gases that are not burned completely during combustion. This gas flow is mixed with sea water in one or more ejector venturi scrubbers and then through a new system, SECO (or CO Removal System), developed by Bionet, and whose purpose is to dissolve the \"bubbles\" of CO in water to undetectable levels.  The oxygen and fuel flow rates are directly determined by the demand for power. The AIP power in the S-80 submarine is at least. A permanent-magnet electric motor moves a fixed propeller of a special design, that doesn't create cavitations at high speed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "In the 1980s France began studies for the replacement of their S-60 \"Daphné\"-class diesel submarines. The French shipyard DCNI came up with an all-new design called S-80, with a teardrop hull and new weapons and sensors, which their government decided not to fund. DCNI then proposed a cheaper option called the S-90B, an S-70 \"Agosta\"-class submarine with limited improvements which was again rejected by the French but which was exported to Pakistan. Meanwhile, Spain faced the same problem in replacing their \"Daphné\"s, known as the \"Delfín\" class in Spanish service, as part of Plan ALTAMAR. Bazán (later Izar, and then Navantia) started on a new design but when it started to look like the S-80, it was agreed to collaborate in a joint venture based on the French S-80. This joint design was shown at Le Bourget Navale in October 1990.  The end of the Cold War meant that funding dried up and the joint venture had to wait until 1997 for their first sale - to Chile - of the new design, which was designated the in export markets. The same year Spain started to look again at its requirements, and in 1998 they indicated that they would buy four Scorpènes, optionally with an air-independent propulsion (AIP) system for greater endurance when submerged. A staff requirement for the S-80 Scorpène variant was completed in October 2001. This was soon overtaken by events, as the Armada (navy) became more interested in using submarines for power projection than in a more static, defensive role. This shift was codified in guidance of January 2002 from the Chief of Naval Operations and in the strategic defence review of February 2003. The new requirement called for a larger submarine with better endurance and land-attack missiles, which became known as the S-80A design. This was an AIP submarine with a hull diameter of compared to for the Scorpène family, a submerged displacement of around 2,400 tonnes versus 1,740 tonnes, larger rudder surfaces and a different fin position.  The Spanish government approved the purchase of four S-80A submarines in September 2003 and signed a contract with Izar on 24 March 2004. The original deal was €1,756m to design and build four submarines, about €439m per boat, but by 2010 this had increased to €2,212m (€553m/boat). The plan envisaged the first boat to be delivered in 2011 but government dithering over who should supply the combat system pushed it back to 2013. In 2011 Spain's budget crisis further delayed the first delivery until 2015, with the remaining boats being delivered at one year intervals until 2018. Construction of S-81 began on 13 December 2007. In January 2012 the names were announced, honouring three engineers who made submarines and the first commander of Spain's submarine force respectively - Isaac Peral (S-81), Narciso Monturiol (S-82), Cosme García (S-83) and Mateo García de los Reyes (S-84).  In May 2013, Navantia announced that a serious weight imbalance design flaw had been identified which will delay the delivery of the first submarine to the Spanish Navy until possibly 2017. Lengthening the submarine created additional buoyancy. Navantia signed on the US company General Dynamics Electric Boat to help solve the excess weight. In September 2014, the detected overweight was reported to have been resolved and the construction work to be ready to resume in late October 2014. In November 2014, Navantia again reported having completed the redesign work to address the problem of overweight. In all, the hull will be lengthened by seven metres, and the displacement increased by 75 tons., the intended delivery date of the first submarine is September 2022. In January 2017, it was reported that the AIP system would not be ready in time for the delivery of the first submarine. In November 2018 the companies Abengoa and Tecnicas Reunidas, said they had completed in an excellent way, their tests for the revolutionary AIP engine of the submarine. The Indian Navy considered the S-80 for its next generation of submarines under Project 75I.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "\"This article incorporates material from Spanish Wikipedia\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The S-80 Plus class (or \"Isaac Peral\" class) is a Spanish class of four submarines in production by the Spanish company Navantia in its Cartagena shipyard for the Spanish Navy. In common with other contemporary submarines, they feature air-independent propulsion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977278}
{"src_title": "Jake Muzzin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Junior.", "content": "Muzzin played his early minor hockey in the Woodstock Minor Hockey Association before moving on to play AAA in Brantford, Ontario. He had previously played both soccer and hockey but at the age of 13 he committed to hockey.  Muzzin was the first pick, 11th overall, by Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) in the 2005 OHL Priority Selection Draft from the Brantford 99'ers Minor Midgets. He did not play with the Greyhounds until late in 2006 after he required herniated disc surgery at age 16. Despite having played only 37 regular season games and 13 playoff games, he was drafted 141st overall in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft by the Pittsburgh Penguins. Although he was drafted, he went unsigned by the Penguins and re-entered the 2009 NHL Entry Draft but was not picked and returned for an overage year with the Greyhounds. In his final season in the OHL, Muzzin was named team captain and selected for the 2010 OHL All-Star Classic. Muzzin also won the Max Kaminsky Trophy for top defenceman in the league.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Los Angeles Kings.", "content": "Muzzin signed as a free agent to a three-year, entry-level contract with the Los Angeles Kings on January 4, 2010.  Following the Kings' training camp and pre-season games, Muzzin made the Kings' opening night roster for the 2010–11 season. However, on November 3, 2010, he was assigned to the Kings' American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Manchester Monarchs. Just six days later, on November 9, the Kings recalled Muzzin for a brief stint before again reassigning him to the Monarchs on November 23.  In 2012, Muzzin was recalled during the 2012 Stanley Cup playoffs and was on the roster as a healthy scratch when they won the Stanley Cup over the New Jersey Devils. He did not appear in any games that season. Although he did not qualify to have his name engraved on the Stanley Cup, he was nonetheless included in the team's celebratory picture.  Muzzin scored his first NHL goal in his third game following the 2012–13 NHL lockout on January 26, 2013, against Jason LaBarbera of the Phoenix Coyotes. He went on to become a regular in the Kings' lineup and scored 7 goals and 9 assists in 45 regular season games, while adding 3 assists in 17 playoff games. He was also named NHL Rookie of the Month for March 2013.  On July 12, 2013, Muzzin and the Kings agreed to a two-year contract extension.  At the beginning of the 2013–14 season, Muzzin began as a third line pairing and was a healthy scratch for a series of games. However, he quickly continued to develop and, after being paired with defensive star Drew Doughty, he continued to earn more playing time on the top defensive pairing. Muzzin continued to earn minutes for the Kings and finished the regular season averaging 19:01 minutes per game, in addition to registering 5 goals and 19 assists in 76 regular season games. In the 2014 playoffs, he scored 6 goals and 6 assists in 26 games, averaging 23:23 minutes of ice time per game, including 37:18 in Game 5 of the 2014 Stanley Cup Finals against the New York Rangers.  On October 15, 2014, Muzzin signed a five-year contract extension with the Kings. He went on to have a career-high 41 points in 76 games that season.  On January 6, 2018, Muzzin was placed on injured reserve by the Kings. He was activated from injured reserve on January 18 after missing three games. During the 2018 playoffs, due to an upper-body injury, Muzzin played in only two games in a 4–0 series loss to the Vegas Golden Knights.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Toronto Maple Leafs.", "content": "On January 28, 2019, with the Kings one point from last place in the league standings, Muzzin was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for forward Carl Grundström, the playing rights to Sean Durzi, and Toronto's first-round pick in the 2019 NHL Entry Draft. He finished the season with 37 points, split between the Kings and Leafs.  On February 24, 2020, Muzzin agreed to a four-year, $22.5 million contract extension with the Maple Leafs.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Muzzin has represented Canada at the 2015 IIHF World Championship and 2016 World Cup of Hockey, winning gold in both.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Muzzin became engaged to Courtney Fischer in December 2015, and they married on August 5, 2016, in London, Ontario. They have one child together, a daughter born in April 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacob Muzzin (born February 21, 1989) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing for the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League (NHL). Originally drafted by the Pittsburgh Penguins in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft, Muzzin went unsigned and returned to the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) as an overage player. There he served as team captain and won the Max Kaminsky Trophy as the top defenceman in the OHL. As a free agent, Muzzin signed with the Los Angeles Kings in 2010, winning a Stanley Cup with the team in 2014.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977279}
{"src_title": "Saint-Nicolas-du-Chardonnet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History until 1977.", "content": "A chapel was first built in the 13th century, in a field planted with chardons (thistles), hence the name. It was later replaced with a church. The clocktower is part of an earlier structure, built sometime prior to 1600. The church was reconstructed between 1656 and 1763. In 1612, Adrien Bourdoise founded a seminary at Saint-Nicolas.  In the late 17th century noted harpsichordist Jean-Nicolas Geoffroy (1633–1694) served as titular organist of the church.  In the 19th century the adjacent Mutualité site was occupied by a seminary. There, Ernest Renan studied under the direction of the Abbé Dupanloup, who attained celebrity in 1838 when he reconciled the notoriously amoral diplomat Talleyrand, who had received the minor orders at Saint-Nicholas, to the church on his death-bed. (Dupanloup subsequently became Bishop of Orléans and a member of the \"Académie française\").  The painting, \"Le Baptême du Christ\", is by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, who also decorated the ceiling.  Since 1905, the city of Paris, following the law on the separation of Church and State, claims ownership of the church but grants the Roman Catholic Church a free usage right.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1977 occupation and consequences.", "content": "On 27 February 1977, traditionalist priest Monsignor François Ducaud-Bourget, who opposed the post-Vatican II Mass, organised a meeting of his followers at the nearby Maubert Mutalité Lecture Hall. He led the attendees to Saint-Nicolas church, where a service was just concluding. Ducaud-Bourget entered in procession, went to the altar and said Mass in Latin. The parish priest was ejected. The occupation was intended to be just for the length of the mass, but then it continued indefinitely. The parish priest went to court and obtained an order for the expulsion of the occupiers, but the application order was delayed pending mediation, with writer Jean Guitton appointed as mediator. After three months of mediation between the occupants and the Archbishop of Paris, François Marty, Guitton admitted his failure to resolve the issue; the police made no attempt to enforce the expulsion order. The occupiers aligned themselves with the Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX), and received help from its leader, Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre.  In 1978, the Court of Cassation confirmed that the occupation was illegal but the order of eviction was never implemented. On 20 February 1987, the \"Conseil d'État\" ruled that the disturbance to public order resulting from an expulsion would be higher than that resulting from the illegal occupation.  Ducaud-Bourget died in 1984, and was replaced by Philippe Laguérie. In 1993, the SSPX members, led by Laguérie, unsuccessfully attempted to occupy another church in Paris, St-Germain l'Auxerrois.  On 22 June 2002, the municipal council of Paris passed a resolution that the SSPX should be expelled from the church, against the wishes of the socialist Mayor Bertrand Delanoë.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current situation.", "content": "It is now the SSPX first church in the city of Paris itself, the second being Notre-Dame-de-Consolation Chapel (others exist in the Île de France) and although it is not their official French headquarters it is seen as their de facto national centre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Covid-19 pandemic.", "content": "In April 2020, during the Covid-19 pandemic, the congregation of Saint-Nicolas defied the social distancing regulations then in force by holding an Easter Vigil. A livestream on YouTube showed the priest and deacons in close contact, without wearing masks, and Holy Communion was given with bare hands. About 40 people were in attendance. The priest was warned and booked, and given a €135 fine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Saint-Nicolas du Chardonnet () is a Roman Catholic church in the centre of Paris, France, located in the 5th arrondissement. Since 1977, after expelling the parish priest and his assistants, the church has been used by traditionalist Society of St. Pius X and remains in the Society's hands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977280}
{"src_title": "LTE Advanced", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Proposals.", "content": "The target of 3GPP LTE Advanced is to reach and surpass the ITU requirements. LTE Advanced should be compatible with first release LTE equipment, and should share frequency bands with first release LTE. In the feasibility study for LTE Advanced, 3GPP determined that LTE Advanced would meet the ITU-R requirements for 4G. The results of the study are published in 3GPP Technical Report (TR) 36.912.  One of the important LTE Advanced benefits is the ability to take advantage of advanced topology networks; optimized heterogeneous networks with a mix of macrocells with low power nodes such as picocells, femtocells and new relay nodes. The next significant performance leap in wireless networks will come from making the most of topology, and brings the network closer to the user by adding many of these low power nodes — LTE Advanced further improves the capacity and coverage, and ensures user fairness. LTE Advanced also introduces multicarrier to be able to use ultra wide bandwidth, up to 100 MHz of spectrum supporting very high data rates.  In the research phase many proposals have been studied as candidates for LTE Advanced (LTE-A) technologies. The proposals could roughly be categorized into:  Within the range of system development, LTE-Advanced and WiMAX 2 can use up to 8x8 MIMO and 128-QAM in downlink direction. Example performance: 100 MHz aggregated bandwidth, LTE-Advanced provides almost 3.3 Gbit peak download rates per sector of the base station under ideal conditions. Advanced network architectures combined with distributed and collaborative smart antenna technologies provide several years road map of commercial enhancements.  The 3GPP standards Release 12 added support for 256-QAM.  A summary of a study carried out in 3GPP can be found in TR36.912.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timeframe and introduction of additional features.", "content": "Original standardization work for LTE-Advanced was done as part of 3GPP Release 10, which was frozen in April 2011. Trials were based on pre-release equipment. Major vendors support software upgrades to later versions and ongoing improvements.  In order to improve the quality of service for users in hotspots and on cell edges, heterogenous networks (HetNet) are formed of a mixture of macro-, pico- and femto base stations serving corresponding-size areas. Frozen in December 2012, 3GPP Release 11 concentrates on better support of HetNet. Coordinated Multi-Point operation (CoMP) is a key feature of Release 11 in order to support such network structures. Whereas users located at a cell edge in homogenous networks suffer from decreasing signal strength compounded by neighbor cell interference, CoMP is designed to enable use of a neighboring cell to also transmit the same signal as the serving cell, enhancing quality of service on the perimeter of a serving cell. In-device Co-existence (IDC) is another topic addressed in Release 11. IDC features are designed to ameliorate disturbances within the user equipment caused between LTE/LTE-A and the various other radio subsystems such as WiFi, Bluetooth, and the GPS receiver. Further enhancements for MIMO such as 4x4 configuration for the uplink were standardized.  The higher number of cells in HetNet results in user equipment changing the serving cell more frequently when in motion. The ongoing work on LTE-Advanced in Release 12, amongst other areas, concentrates on addressing issues that come about when users move through HetNet, such as frequent hand-overs between cells. It also included use of 256-QAM.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First technology demonstrations and field trials.", "content": "This list covers technology demonstrations and field trials up to the year 2014, paving the way for a wider commercial deployment of the VoLTE technology worldwide. From 2014 onwards various further operators trialled and demonstrated the technology for future deployment on their respective networks. These are not covered here. Instead a coverage of commercial deployments can be found in the section below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deployment.", "content": "The deployment of LTE-Advanced in progress in various LTE networks.  In August 2019, the Global mobile Suppliers Association (GSA) reported that there were 304 commercially launched LTE-Advanced networks in 134 countries. Overall, 335 operators are investing in LTE-Advanced (in the form of tests, trials, deployments or commercial service provision) in 141 countries.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "LTE Advanced is a mobile communication standard and a major enhancement of the Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard. It was formally submitted as a candidate 4G to ITU-T in late 2009 as meeting the requirements of the IMT-Advanced standard, and was standardized by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) in March 2011 as 3GPP Release 10.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977281}
{"src_title": "Sverdlovsk anthrax leak", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The closed city of Sverdlovsk had been a major production center of the Soviet military-industrial complex since World War II. It produced tanks, ballistic missiles, rockets and other armaments. A major nuclear accident happened in this region in 1957, when a nuclear waste facility exploded (known as the Kyshtym disaster), resulting in the spread of radioactive dust over a thousand square kilometers. The biological weapons facility in Sverdlovsk was built after World War II, using documentation captured in Manchuria from the Japanese germ warfare program.  The strain of anthrax produced in the on the southern edge of Sverdlovsk was the most powerful in the Soviet arsenal (\"Anthrax 836\"). It had been isolated as a result of another anthrax leak accident that happened in 1953 in the city of Kirov. A leak from a bacteriological facility contaminated the city sewer system. In 1956, biologist Vladimir Sizov found a more virulent strain in rodents captured in this area. This strain was planned to be used to arm warheads for the SS-18 ICBM, which would target American cities, among other targets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accident.", "content": "The produced anthrax culture had to be dried to produce a fine powder for use as an aerosol. Large filters over the exhaust pipes were the only barriers between the anthrax dust and the outside environment. On Friday, 30 March 1979 a technician removed a clogged filter while drying machines were temporarily turned off. He left a written notice, but his supervisor did not write this down in the logbook as he was supposed to do. The supervisor of the next shift did not find anything unusual in the logbook and turned the machines on. In a few hours, someone found that the filter was missing and reinstalled it. The incident was reported to military command, but local and city officials were not immediately informed. Boris Yeltsin, a local Communist Party official at this time, helped cover up the accident.  All workers of a ceramic plant across the street fell ill during the next few days. Almost all of them died within a week. The death toll is claimed to be at least 105, but the exact number is unknown, as all hospital records and other evidence were destroyed by the KGB, according to former Biopreparat deputy director Ken Alibek.  In 1986, Professor Matthew Meselson of Harvard University was granted approval by Soviet authorities for a four-day trip to Moscow where he interviewed several senior Soviet health officials about the outbreak. He later issued a report which agreed with the Soviet assessment that the outbreak was caused by a contaminated meat processing plant concluding the Soviets' official explanation was completely \"plausible and consistent with what is known from medical literature and recorded human experiences with anthrax\".  Following an admission by President Boris Yeltsin that \"our military development was the cause,\" Sverdlovsk's Communist Party chief in 1979, of the true nature of the anthrax outbreak, \"Wall Street Journal\" reporter Peter Gumbel traveled to Sverdlovsk where he interviewed families affected by the outbreak, hospital workers, and various officials, confirming Yeltsin's comments. Based on these reports a team of Western inspectors led by Meselson gained access to the region in 1992. Before they arrived they had been provided by the authorities with a list of 68 known incident victims in Sverdlovsk. By visiting and questioning in their homes surviving relatives of those who had died, the investigating researchers ascertained both where the victims had been living and where they had been during daylight hours at the time during which hospital admission records indicated a possible release into the atmosphere of anthrax dust. When the locations were plotted on maps, there was no very clear pattern defined by where the victims lived. However, there was a very precise indication from their reported locations during working hours, that all of the victims had been directly downwind at the time of the release of the spores via aerosol. Livestock in the area were also affected. It was revealed around this time that the accident was caused by the non-replacement of a filter on an exhaust at the facility, and though the problem was quickly rectified, it was too late to prevent a release. Had the winds been blowing in the direction of the city at that time, it could have resulted in the pathogen being spread to hundreds of thousands of people. The military facility remains closed for inspection. Meselson's original contention for many years had been that the outbreak was a natural one and that the Soviet authorities were not lying when they disclaimed having an active offensive bio-warfare program, but the information uncovered in the investigation left no room for doubt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Russian Prime Minister Yegor Gaidar issued a decree to begin demilitarization of Compound 19 in 1992. However, the facility continued its work. Not a single journalist has been allowed onto the premises since 1992. About 200 soldiers with Rottweiler dogs still patrol the complex. Classified activities were moved underground, and several new laboratories have been constructed and equipped to work with highly dangerous pathogens. One of their current subjects is reportedly \"Bacillus anthracis\" strain H-4. Its virulence and antibiotic resistance have been dramatically increased using genetic engineering.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "On 2 April 1979, spores of anthrax were accidentally released from a Soviet military research facility near the city of Sverdlovsk, Russia (now Yekaterinburg). The ensuing outbreak of the disease resulted in approximately 100 deaths, although the exact number of victims remains unknown. The cause of the outbreak was denied for years by the Soviet authorities, which blamed the deaths on consumption of tainted meat from the area, and subcutaneous exposure due to butchers handling the tainted meat. All medical records of the victims were removed to hide serious violations of the Biological Weapons Convention that had come in effect in 1975. The accident is sometimes referred to as \"biological Chernobyl\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977282}
{"src_title": "Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Birth.", "content": "Princess Catharina-Amalia Beatrix Carmen Victoria was born at 17:01 CET on 7 December 2003 in the HMC Bronovo in The Hague, the first child of the then Prince Willem-Alexander and Princess Máxima. Upon the public announcement of her birth, 101 salute shots were fired at four places in the Kingdom of the Netherlands: Den Helder and The Hague in the Netherlands, Willemstad in the Netherlands Antilles, and Oranjestad in Aruba.  On 12 June 2004, Catharina-Amalia was baptised by the Rev. Carel ter Linden in the Great Church in The Hague. Her godparents are her uncle Prince Constantijn, Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden, the (then) vice-president of the Council of State of the Netherlands Herman Tjeenk Willink, friend of her mother Samantha Deane, her uncle Martín Zorreguieta, and friend of her father Marc ter Haar.  Catharina-Amalia's maternal grandparents, Jorge Zorreguieta and María del Carmen Cerruti Carricart, were prohibited from attending her parents' wedding in 2002 due to Zorreguieta's involvement in the regime of General Jorge Rafael Videla, but were present at her baptism, which was a private rather than a state affair.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life and education.", "content": "Princess Catharina-Amalia has two younger sisters: Princess Alexia (born in 2005) and Princess Ariane (born in 2007). She lives with her parents and sisters in Huis ten Bosch palace in The Hague.  Starting in December 2007, Catharina-Amalia attended the public primary school \"Bloemcampschool\" in Wassenaar. She now attends the Christelijk Gymnasium Sorghvliet in The Hague, where her aunt Princess Laurentien attended.  Her birthdays are traditionally celebrated with a concert at the Kloosterkerk in The Hague, which is attended by ambassadors and members of the royal household and the Council of State of the Netherlands. She speaks Dutch, English, and some Spanish.  On her seventh birthday, a Douglas C-47 Skytrain once owned by her great-grandfather, Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld, was named after Catharina-Amalia by Peter Hartman. The princess herself was prevented from attending the naming ceremony by school obligations.  Catharina-Amalia's paternal grandmother, Queen Beatrix, abdicated on 30April 2013 and her father ascended the throne. Catharina-Amalia, as the new heir apparent, assumed the title of Princess of Orange, becoming the first to do so in her own right. Princess Catharina-Amalia will assume a seat in the Advisory Division of the Council of State of the Netherlands upon reaching the age of majority at 18.  During a rare interview on King's Day in 2019, Catharina-Amalia, then 15 years old, said that it was sometimes unreal for her to realise that this really is her life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles, honours and arms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles.", "content": "Like her sisters, Catharina-Amalia was born a Princess of the Netherlands and a Princess of Orange-Nassau. As heir apparent she is also the Princess of Orange. This title is substantive and used without her name.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ancestry.", "content": "Through her paternal grandfather, a member of the House of Amsberg, Catharina-Amalia is descended from families of the lower German nobility, and through her paternal grandmother, from several royal German/Dutch families such as the House of Lippe, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the House of Orange-Nassau, Waldeck and Pyrmont, and the House of Hohenzollern. She is descended from the first King of the Netherlands, William I of the Netherlands, who was also a ruler in Luxembourg and several German states, and all subsequent Dutch monarchs.  On her mother's side, Catharina-Amalia is descended from wealthy Spanish Argentines and Italian Argentines, with some Basque ancestry.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange (; \"Catharina-Amalia Beatrix Carmen Victoria\"; born 7 December 2003) is the heir apparent to the throne of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, consisting of the countries of the Netherlands, Curaçao, Aruba, and Sint Maarten.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977283}
{"src_title": "Pont de la Concorde (Paris)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Situation.", "content": "The bridge is located on the border between the 7th and 8th arrondissement of Paris. The Pont Alexandre III is the next bridge downstream; the Passerelle Léopold-Sédar-Senghor is the next bridge upstream.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The architect Jean-Rodolphe Perronet was commissioned in 1787 with this new bridge. It had been planned since 1755, when construction of \"place Louis XV\" (now \"place de la Concorde\") began, to replace the ferry that crossed the river at that point. Construction continued in the midst of the turmoil of the French Revolution, using the dimension stones taken from the demolished Bastille (taken by force on 14 July 1789) for its masonry. It was completed in 1791.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "19th century.", "content": "In 1810, Napoleon placed along the sides of the bridge the statues of eight French generals killed in battle during the campaigns of the First French Empire. On the Bourbon Restoration these were replaced with twelve monumental marble statues, including four of the \"grands ministres\" (Suger, Sully, Richelieu, Colbert), four royal generals (Du Guesclin, Bayard, Condé, Turenne) and four sailors (Duguay-Trouin, Duquesne, Suffren, Tourville). However, this collection of statues proved too heavy for the bridge, and Louis-Philippe I had them removed and transferred to Versailles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "20th–21st centuries.", "content": "Traffic across the bridge became very congested and the bridge had to be widened on both sides between 1930 and 1932, doubling the width of the original bridge. The engineers Deval and Malet nevertheless took care to preserve the neoclassical architecture of the original. It was renovated one last time in 1983. Today, this bridge bears the brunt of Paris's road traffic (except for those of the Boulevard Périphérique).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Pont de la Concorde is an arch bridge across the Seine in Paris connecting the Quai des Tuileries at the Place de la Concorde (on the Rive Droite) and the Quai d'Orsay (on the Rive Gauche). It has formerly been known as the \"Pont Louis XVI\", \"Pont de la Révolution\", \"Pont de la Concorde\", \"Pont Louis XVI\" again during the Bourbon Restoration (1814); in 1830, its name was changed again to Pont de la Concorde, the name it has retained to this day. It is served by the Metro stations Assemblée nationale and Concorde.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977284}
{"src_title": "Jelgava Palace", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Construction of the palace started in 1738 on an island between the Lielupe river and its branches. The site had borne the residence of the former Courland dukes of the Kettler dynasty and, before that, a medieval castle belonging to the Livonian Order.  Following Ernst Johann von Biron's fall from grace in 1740, all construction work was stopped, even though the roof of the palace had not yet been completed. Most of the building materials and interior elements were moved to St. Petersburg where Rastrelli used them in building of other palaces. Work resumed after Biron's return from exile in 1762. However due to financial difficulties duke moved into palace only in 1772 although interior decorations still was in progress in many rooms. Besides Rastrelli (who, with the death of his patroness, the Empress Elizabeth, lost business in Saint Petersburg), Danish architect Severin Jensen participated in the project, giving the palace a touch of classicism.  After construction was completed in 1772, the duke lived in the palace for six months. In 1779, his successor, Peter von Biron, hosted the famous adventurer Alessandro Cagliostro in the palace. In 1788 part of the palace was damaged by fire.  After Courland was absorbed by the Russian Empire in 1795, the palace served as a refuge for French royalty fleeing the French revolution. Louis XVIII of France and his family lived in the palace between 1798 and 1800. It was here that Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte of France married Louis-Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, in 1799. Later, Louis lived incognito at the palace from 1804 until 1807. French royalty attempted to recreate the court life of Versailles at Jelgava, where many old courtiers still lived, re-establishing all the court ceremonies, including the lever and coucher (ceremonies that accompanied waking and bedding, respectively)  In the beginning of 19th. century, the palace became residence of the Governor-General of Courland Governorate. For a short time in 1812, after Napoleon's invasion of Russia, the palace housed a government of the restored Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, led by Count von Medem. After the Napoleonic Wars, the palace again was occupied by the administration of the Governorate of Courland, which was situated there until 1915. In 1815, the northern part of the palace was again damaged by fire.  The interior decorations of the palace were destroyed in 1919 when the palace was looted and burned by the retreating West Russian Volunteer Army under the command of Pavel Bermondt-Avalov. Later, the palace became property of the Latvian Republic, and major reconstruction and restoration started. The new Jelgava Academy of Agriculture was established in the palace, opening in autumn 1939.  From 1941 until summer of 1944, the palace was a residence of \"Gebietskommissar von Mitau\". The palace suffered heavy damage in World War II, during battles for Jelgava in the summer of 1944. Like many other historical buildings in Jelgava, the palace was almost completely destroyed during heavy shelling and street fighting. The exterior of the palace was restored between 1956 and 1964, but not the interior. After restoration, the Latvia Academy of Agriculture (now the Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies) was again located in the palace; today it houses university administration and three faculties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Jelgava Palace is not considered one of Rastrelli's better works. Critics note the dull facade design lacking rhythmic diversity and plastic richness which characterized Rastrelli's works in Empress Elizabeth's period. Also, atypically for Rastrelli, the palace did not feature a garden; nor was the parade yard originally closed, instead facing the urban panorama of Jelgava.  Originally, the palace consisted of two wings connected to the main building forming a U-shape. In 1937 a fourth building was added by Eižens Laube effectively closing the perimeter.  Features of special historical significance include the burial vault of the Dukes of Courland in the south-east basement. All Dukes of Courland from the Houses of Kettler and Biron were buried there between 1569 and 1791. The rooms contain 21 sarcophagi and nine wooden coffins. The crypt was relocated to the palace in 1819.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jelgava Palace () or historically Mitau Palace (, ) is the largest Baroque-style palace in the Baltic states. It was built in the 18th century based on the design of Bartolomeo Rastrelli as a residence for the Dukes of Courland in their capital of Mitau (today's Jelgava, Latvia). The Dukes of Courland also had a summer palace by Rastrelli, about 40 kilometers to the southeast, called Rundāle Palace.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977285}
{"src_title": "Katawa Shoujo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Creation.", "content": "The concept originated in a sketch created in December 2000 by Japanese doujinshi artist Raita Honjou (credited in Thanks as RAITA). From January 2007, the sketch was discussed extensively on the 4chan image board, and a development group was assembled from users of 4chan and other internet communities, who are of various nationalities; not necessarily Japanese. The group took the name Four Leaf Studios (based on 4chan's four-leaf clover logo).  Most of the art, sound, and animation assets used in the game are original and were created for the game by a dedicated team of artists on the development forums. Background images used in the game were collected through an open call for background photos, from public-domain image collections, and by a dedicated photographer on the development team. These images were later filtered to match the art style of the rest of the game's drawings. Because real pictures were used, many of the locations in the game are based on real places, with Yamaku High School being constructed from images of Brown University (in at least one of the endings, characters attend a university called \"Kasshoku\" (褐色), which is Japanese for \"Brown\"). The city that the novel is set in, although unnamed, is based on Sendai and the school was written to be where Aoba Castle stands.  Following the release of the full game, Four Leaf Studios announced that it had no plans for its members to collaborate on any new projects. However, in their celebratory 1st anniversary blog post, Aura had stated that there might be future projects for 4LS announced in 2013, though no major projects were announced.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release and distribution.", "content": "On April 29, 2009, the team released an \"Act One\" preview. Act 1 has since been updated for several additional languages; as of Act 1's fifth version, English, French, Italian, Japanese, Russian, German, Hungarian, and both Traditional and Simplified Chinese are included. The complete English-language novel was released on January 4, 2012.  It was announced that the French-language translation would be released July 4, 2013 as both a download and a limited-edition physical edition. The French-language version was made available for download on July 8, 2013. A separate, full-patch adding a completed Russian translation was released independently by its translation group on December 9, 2013. On July 27, 2014, the International Spanish version was released and made available for download that same day. On April 1, 2015, in lieu of their traditional April Fools' Day prank, Four Leaf Studios released the Japanese translation. Additionally, they announced that a second physical release would be sold by the Japanese translation team at Comitia 112 and Comiket 88 (May 5 and August 16, 2015, respectively, at Tokyo Big Sight). The full visual novel has been released officially in English, French, Spanish and Japanese.  On June 6, 2015, Four Leaf Studios announced the end of support and development for the visual novel and official translation projects, concluding with a final bug/typo patch. They released the English script files in full and instructions on how to patch in and distribute any future fan translations into languages not included in the final official version.  Downloads for the complete novel and Act 1 alone are available for Windows, Mac OSX, and x86 Linux, available both as direct downloads from the official Katawa Shoujo website and over Bittorrent. The soundtrack is also available as a direct download.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot.", "content": "In Act 1, as the story progresses, the reader may choose their reaction to prompts that pop up at certain scenes. These choices eventually lock the reader into a \"path\" that focuses on one of the five girls that the reader may take a romantic interest in. Acts 2-4 follow that girl's story where choices are prompted throughout the narrative until the reader reaches an ending. The endings vary from \"Bad\" to \"Neutral\" to \"Good\". The bad ending ends the relationship on depressing terms or rather at a point where it would be impossible to salvage the relationship. The neutral ending is arguably the most bittersweet of the three as, while Hisao does not part on bad terms with his partner, their partings are more ambiguous and heart-breaking. The good endings all end with Hisao coming to a better understanding of his relationship to the girl in which the reader had been locked into and an optimistic outlook on the future. All endings end the story in each respective girl's in Act 4, with the exceptions being both Emi's and Rin's \"Bad Ending\" that finishes their stories during Act 3. Depending on the choices made in Act 1, the reader can also be locked into an early \"Bad Ending\", in which Hisao spends the act-ending school festival on the school roof, drinking whiskey with Kenji. The scene ends with Hisao falling off the roof and dying. Kenji's direct involvement in the fall is never made clear.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "\"Katawa Shoujo\" received generally favorable critical reception. Upon release, it was praised by some reviewers and fans, who most notably praised the game's sincere and respectful treatment of the setting. The game's sensitive handling of its eroge elements, instances of soft core erotic imagery on the relevant forks which were integral to its narratives, was also praised (it was also noted that as \"adult content\" is removed the game can be played with these scenes replaced, without the cost of losing much characterization and plot development). Other critics were less warm, with Dave Riley of Otaku USA Magazine claiming the game had \"bad prose and bad characters.\"  Following \"Katawa Shoujo\"s release, Raita, the artist who created the original image that the game was based upon, wrote a post in English on his Japanese-language blog, thanking the developers for creating the game. Raita mentioned that he had been \"closely watch[ing] over\" the production of the game and that he was \"deeply affected\" by the thought of the challenges that the development team had to overcome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "The game's soundtrack, entitled \"Katawa Shoujo Enigmatic Box of Sound\", was released for download on January 20, 2012. It was written primarily by musicians Sebastien \"NicolArmarfi\" Skaf and Andy \"Blue123\" Andi. An updated version of \"Red Velvet\" was released alongside the French language update on July 8, 2013, featuring saxophone player Japes. Two previously unreleased bonus tracks, \"When It's Hard to Smile\" and \"Carefree Days\", were released separately on February 10, 2010 and December 24, 2014, respectively.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The majority of the story takes place at the fictional Yamaku High School for disabled students, located in an unnamed city somewhere in modern, northern Japan. The player takes the role of Hisao Nakai, an ordinary boy whose life changes dramatically after a heart attack caused by his long-dormant cardiac arrhythmia. After a lengthy hospitalization, he is forced to transfer to a school specialized in providing education and healthcare for students with disabilities. Over the course of the narrative, Hisao has the opportunity to come to grips with his condition and adjust to his new life.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977286}
{"src_title": "Syzygium jambos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Botanical names.", "content": "The tree has variously been allocated to the genus \"Jambosa\", \"Eugenia\" and \"Syzygium\", where it now seems to have been permanently accepted. There have been a few species ascribed to it, but currently several varieties with various fruit colours all are recognised as \"Syzygium jambos\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Common names.", "content": "\"Syzygium jambos\" has several common names, reflecting the large number of regions in which it occurs as a garden or fruit tree or as an invader. The names include ಪನ್ನೇರಳೆ, Guljamun,madhura nelli, Malabar Plum, Panineer Champakka, Mountain Apple (champoo), chom pu or chom-phu. Terms like \"plum rose\", \"water apple\", \"pera de agua\", \"Cloud apple\", \"Wax apple\", \"Malay apple\", \"jambrosade\", \"PauTêe\"(Penang Hokkien spelled with Taiwanese Romanisation System), \"pomarrosa\", or the English equivalent, \"rose apple\". Several of these names also are applied to other species of \"Syzygium\", while \"jambu\" can also mean a guava. The name Jambu for this fruit is in all likelihood limited to one or two of the twenty-odd major Indian languages, while most other languages use similar words (Jaamun, Jaambhool, etc.) for another fruit, smaller than the rose apple, and dark purple in colour like the fruit of the eggplant. In Bangla, the fruit is called \"golap-jaam\" (), which literally translates to \"rose jaamun\", in reference to its distinct aroma. In Karnataka the English common name is \"rose apple\", and the vernacular name is Pannerale(Paneer hannu), while the name for the other one is Nerale. Such a confusion of common names in horticulture is nothing unusual.  In the Philippines, it is locally called as yambo, dambo or. Always confused with \"macopa\", a closely related fruit (Syzygium samarangense), \"Syzygium jambos\" is not widely cultivated and can only be encountered in rural areas. It is the namesake of Lake Yambo, one of the Seven Lakes of San Pablo City, Laguna.  It is also known as পানী জামুক Pani Jamuk in Assamese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Syzygium jambos\" is a large shrub or small-to-medium-sized tree, typically three to 15 metres high, with a tendency to low branching. Its leaves and twigs are glabrous and the bark, though dark brown, is fairly smooth too, with little relief or texture. The leaves are lanceolate, 2 cm to 4 cm broad, 10 cm to 20 cm long, pointed, base cuneate with hardly any petiole, lively red when growing, but dark, glossy green on attaining full size. The flowers are in small terminal clusters, white or greenish white, the long, numerous stamens giving them a diameter of 5 – 8 cm. In temperate regions the tree is summer-flowering.  The edible fruit of \"Syzygium jambos\" is shaped like some kinds of guava; in fact, the fruit is so like the guava in appearance that people unfamiliar with it may mistake it for a guava on sight. However, the fragrance, flavour and texture are different, and instead of containing dozens of small, hard seeds set in a jelly-like tissue, as a guava does, the fruit of \"Syzygium jambos\" usually contains one or two large, unarmoured seeds about a cm in diameter, lying loose in a slightly fluffy cavity when ripe. Shaking a fruit to feel whether the seeds rattle, gives some indication whether it is ripe. The skin is thin and waxy. The flowers are described by some as fragrant, though this appears to be a variable attribute. The ripe fruit, however, has a strong, pleasant floral bouquet, hence such common names as \"Rose apple\" and \"pomarrosa\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "There are many varieties of \"Syzygium jambos\" worldwide, including nondescript feral trees. In Thailand the commonest cultivated variety bears a pale green fruit. Malaysian varieties generally have red skins. In many regions the fruit is a shade of pale yellow, often with a slight blush. The skin is thin and waxy, and the hollow core contains a small amount of insignificant fluff. The flesh is crisp and watery, and the taste is characteristic, which leads to some fanciful descriptions such as: \"like a cross between nashi and bell pepper, with a very mild rose scent and a slightly bitter aftertaste.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "It has also been introduced widely on every continent except Antarctica, and it has become established and invasive in several regions. Concern has been expressed concerning the threat to several ecosystems, including those on several Hawaiian islands, Réunion, the Galápagos Islands, parts of Australia and the warmer regions of the Americas. However, in Hawaii, it has been almost wiped out by the introduced rust \"Puccinia psidii\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Rich in vitamin C, the fruit can be eaten raw or used in various regional recipes. In South-East Asian countries, rose apple fruit is frequently served with spiced sugar.  The wood is dense and accordingly is used as a source of charcoal.  The tree is variously rich in tannins that are of some antimicrobial interest. Some parts of the tree are used in regional traditional medicine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Syzygium jambos is a tree originating in Southeast Asia and occurring widely elsewhere, having been introduced as an ornamental and fruit tree.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977287}
{"src_title": "Ross Lynch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Lynch was born and raised in Littleton, Colorado. He is the second youngest of five siblings (sister Rydel and brothers Riker, Rocky, and Ryland). He was educated at home starting in the fourth grade when he learned to sing and play the guitar and piano. Lynch is a second cousin of entertainers Derek Hough and Julianne Hough, their maternal grandmothers being sisters. Lynch and his family moved to Los Angeles in 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film and theater.", "content": "Lynch made a cameo appearance in the 2014 film \"Muppets Most Wanted\". In 2016, he voiced the role of Piers in the English dub of the animated French adventure film \"Snowtime!\" The film centers around a group of children who plan and stage a giant snowball fight during the Christmas holiday.  Lynch starred as Mark Anthony in the Hollywood Bowl's production of \"A Chorus Line\", which ran for three performances over the weekend of July 29, 2016. The musical, about dancers auditioning for a Broadway musical, was directed and choreographed by Baayork Lee, who starred in the original Broadway production.  In May 2016, it was announced that Lynch would be starring in his feature film debut, \"Status Update\", a comedy that began filming in Vancouver in June and wrapped in July 2016. Lynch stars as a teenager who stumbles upon a magical app that causes his social media status updates to come true. In July, he was cast as a teenage Jeffrey Dahmer in \"My Friend Dahmer\", a film based on the 2012 graphic novel of the same name by Derf.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Television.", "content": "Lynch has appeared on the television shows \"So You Think You Can Dance\" and \"Moises Rules!\", and in the 2010 short film \"Grapple\". He was in Kidz Bop, appearing in a 2009 Kidz Bop video. He was also in Cymphonique's music video for \"Lil' Miss Swagger\".  In early 2011, Lynch was cast in the pilot for the Disney Channel sitcom \"Austin & Ally\", playing the lead male role of Austin Moon, a teenage singer who becomes an overnight sensation after a music video featuring him performing is uploaded to the Internet. He later forms a partnership with Ally, played by Laura Marano. The pilot was later picked up for a full season's production; the show debuted in December 2011, and was renewed for a second season in March 2012. After four seasons, the series ended on January 10, 2016. Lynch guest starred with the \"Austin & Ally\" cast in a crossover episode with \"Jessie\", and also he guest starred with his co-star Laura Marano on \"Girl Meets World\", where he reprised his role as Austin Moon.  In early 2012, Lynch began working on the Disney Channel Original Movie \"Teen Beach Movie\", playing the male lead role, Brady. The film was directed by Jeffrey Hornaday and premiered July 19, 2013, earning around 8.4 million viewers. Lynch also starred in the sequel, \"Teen Beach 2\", which premiered on the Disney Channel on June 26, 2015, earning 7.5million total viewers.  In 2018, Lynch was cast as Sabrina Spellman's boyfriend Harvey Kinkle on Netflix's television series \"Chilling Adventures of Sabrina\", based on the comic book series of the same name.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music career.", "content": "Lynch plays piano, drums, and bass; he specializes in guitar. He has danced for the Rage Boyz Crew, a group founded by a dance company in Southern California.  His debut single, \"A Billion Hits\", was released on April 2, 2012. On July 13, 2012, Lynch released his second soundtrack single, \"Heard It on the Radio\", which reached number 196 on UK Singles Chart. Lynch has recorded a multitude of songs for \"Austin & Ally\". He sang all 14 songs for the TV show's soundtrack, which was released on September 12, 2012. These songs include \"Can't Do It Without You\" (the theme song for the series), \"A Billion Hits\", \"Heard It On the Radio\", and two songs with his band R5. The album peaked at #27 on the \"Billboard\" 200, one on the \"Billboard's\" Top Soundtracks and one on the \"Billboard's\" Kid Albums.  Lynch also sang most of the songs from \"\", the show's second soundtrack. He recorded songs for his film \"Teen Beach Movie\", which was the fourth best-selling soundtrack of 2013 in the United States with 407,000 copies sold for the year. He also sang two songs on the \"\" EP. In 2015, Lynch recorded songs for his film \"Teen Beach 2\", which debuted at number 10 on the \"Billboard\" Top 200.  In 2016, Lynch contributed vocals to Tritonal's song \"I Feel the Love\" from their forthcoming album \"Painting With Dreams\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "With R5.", "content": "In March 2010, R5 self-released an EP, \"Ready Set Rock\" and in April 2012, they signed with Hollywood Records. Their second EP, \"Loud\", was released on February 19, 2013, which featured the lead single and title track \"Loud\". The band's first full-length album, \"Louder\", was released on September 24, 2013, and the album includes the four songs from \"Loud\" as well as seven new songs. The second single from the album, \"Pass Me By\", premiered on Radio Disney on August 16, 2013. The music video premiered on August 29 on Disney Channel and is available for public viewing on the band's Vevo channel. The third single, \"(I Can't) Forget About You\", was released on December 25, 2013, and reached number 47 on \"Billboard\" Digital Pop Songs, and the fourth single \"One Last Dance\" on May 29, 2014. The third extended play, \"Heart Made Up on You\", was released on July 22, 2014, and the self-titled single was released on August 1, 2014.  On November 16, 2014, the band released the first single from second album, \"Smile\". \"Let's Not Be Alone Tonight\", the second single, was released on February 13, 2015. \"All Night\" was released as the third single on June 2, 2015, along with the album's iTunes pre-order. The band released their second full-length album on July 10, 2015, titled \"Sometime Last Night\" and debuted at number 6 on \"Billboard\" 200, number 1 on \"Billboard\" Top Pop Albums, number 3 on \"Billboard\" Top Digital Albums, and number 4 on the \"Billboard\" Top Album Sales.  On May 12, 2017, R5 released their fifth EP \"New Addictions\".  On February 1, 2018, R5 posted on their YouTube a video called The Last Show. On March 1, R5's Instagram and Twitter handles were changed to \"the Driver Era\" and all of R5's previous posts were deleted. On March 2, it was reported that the Driver Era would be a band consisting only of Ross and Rocky.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ross Shor Lynch (born December 29, 1995) is an American singer, songwriter, musician and actor. He was the lead vocalist of the pop rock band R5 and is one half of the band the Driver Era, with his brother, Rocky Lynch. As an actor, he is known for his debut role as Austin Moon on the Disney Channel original series \"Austin & Ally\", and for his role as Brady in the \"Teen Beach Movie\" series.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977288}
{"src_title": "Garbiñe Muguruza", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Garbiñe Muguruza was born in Caracas, Venezuela, on 8 October 1993 to Venezuelan mother, Scarlet Blanco and Basque father José Antonio Muguruza. She has two elder brothers named Asier and Igor,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing style and coaching.", "content": "Muguruza is known for her flat, powerful groundstrokes from both wings. They allow her to take time away from her opponents and dictate baseline rallies, despite the fact that Muguruza may often refrain from going for the lines, or outright winners. She also possesses a powerful serve that is capable of reaching speeds of up to. Fellow tennis player Agnieszka Radwańska describes Muguruza's playing style as being \"very explosive, especially from every shot. So forehand, backhand, serve, return, everything is coming to you so fast.\"  Her ability to move and slide effectively on clay", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2012–2013: Early professional years.", "content": "After she turned pro on 2 March 2012, Muguruza was given a wildcard at the Miami Open for her first WTA main draw appearance. There, she upset former world No. 2, Vera Zvonareva, and former world No. 10, Flavia Pennetta, before falling in the round of 16 to the eventual champion Agnieszka Radwańska in straight sets.  At the 2012 US Open, Muguruza qualified into the Grand Slam main draw for the first time after a number of players withdrew, she lost in three sets to 10th seed Sara Errani in the first round.  At the 2013 Australian Open, Muguruza", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014: First WTA title, steady results & rise in doubles.", "content": "Muguruza began the 2014 season with a quarterfinal appearance at the Auckland Open, where she lost to former world No. 1 and eventual runner-up, Venus Williams. The following week, Muguruza qualified and eventually won her first WTA singles title at the Hobart International by defeating Klára Zakopalová in the final in straight sets.  At the Australian Open, Muguruza recovered from a set down to defeat 10th seed Caroline Wozniacki in three sets to reach the fourth round for the first time where she lost in straight sets to the fifth seed, Agnieszka Radwańska. She and Arantxa Parra Santonja also reached the second round of the doubles event where they lost in straight sets to the 8th seeds, Raquel Kops-Jones and Abigail Spears.  After a three-set defeat to Kimiko Date-Krumm in the first round of the Thailand Open, Muguruza reached her second singles final of the year at the Brasil Tennis Cup, where she lost in three sets to Klára Zakopalová despite having led by a set and 5–2. Muguruza then lost in the second", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2015: First Grand Slam final & singles/doubles top-10 debut.", "content": "Muguruza's first event of the year was to be the Brisbane International but she was forced to withdraw from the event due to an ankle injury. The following week, Muguruza chose not to defend her title at the Hobart International and competed at the Sydney International instead, where she reached the quarterfinals, defeating Agnieszka Radwańska for the first time in her career en route. At the Australian Open, she progressed to the fourth round for the second consecutive year with wins over Marina Erakovic, Daniela Hantuchová and Timea Bacsinszky before falling to the eventual champion, Serena Williams, in three sets.  Muguruza won both of her singles rubbers in the 2015 Fed Cup World Group II, defeating Irina-Camelia Begu and world No. 3, Simona Halep but Spain, lost the tie 2–3 after Muguruza and her compatriot, Anabel Medina Garrigues, lost the deciding doubles rubber. At the", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016: French Open champion and world No. 2.", "content": "Muguruza started her year at Brisbane International, when she already had to retire in her first match of the tournament due to plantar fasciitis. Her next tournament was the Australian Open, where she ensured a spot in the third round with straight set wins over Anett Kontaveit and Kirsten Flipkens, but fell to Barbora Strýcová. At the Fed Cup, Muguruza helped in Spain's tie against Serbia with wins over Ivana Jorović and Jelena Janković.  At the Dubai Tennis Championships, Muguruza suffered another early loss as she fell to eventual semi-finalist Elina Svitolina. Her next tournament was the Qatar Open, where she reached first quarterfinal of the year, defeating Nao Hibino and Tímea Babos, but lost then to Andrea Petkovic in three sets. Next she played", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017: Wimbledon crown and world No. 1.", "content": "Muguruza started the season at the Brisbane International, being the No. 4 seed. She made a run to the semifinals after three-set wins over Sam Stosur and Daria Kasatkina, and a straight sets win over Svetlana Kuznetsova. She then retired in the first set of her semifinal match against Alizé Cornet due to injury. At the Australian Open, Muguruza beat Marina Erakovic, Samantha Crawford, Anastasija Sevastova and Sorana Cîrstea en route to her first quarterfinal at the tournament. She then lost to CoCo Vandeweghe in straight sets.  Muguruza then played the Fed Cup quarterfinals, where she beat Barbora Strycova in three sets before losing to Karolina Pliskova. Spain ended up losing the tie 2-3. During the Gulf Swing, she beat Çağla Büyükakçay in Doha, before succumbing to Zhang Shuai in three sets. She then retired in her first match at Dubai against Kateryna Bondarenko, due to injury. At Indian Wells, Muguruza advanced to the quarterfinals, beating", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018: Mixed results, out of top 10.", "content": "Muguruza started the season at the Brisbane International, where she was the top seed. After receiving a bye into the second round, she faced Aleksandra Krunić, but was forced to retire due to cramping in the third set. Muguruza had served for the match in the second set, and the retirement marked the third straight year she had succumbed to injuries at Brisbane. Muguruza then took a wild card into the Sydney International, where she was once again the top seed. After beating Kiki Bertens in the second round, Muguruza withdrew from the tournament due to continued physical problems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2019: Continued struggles.", "content": "On 15 August 2018, Hopman Cup organizers announced that Muguruza will represent Spain at the 2019 edition alongside David Ferrer. At her first appearance at the tournament, she lost to Angelique Kerber of Germany in three sets.  At the French Open, Muguruza upset Elina Svitolina, the No. 9 seed, to reach her sixth", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2020: Return to form, first Australian Open final.", "content": "Muguruza began the 2020 season with a semifinal appearance in Shenzhen, losing to eventual champion Ekaterina Alexandrova. After pulling out of her quarterfinal match in Hobart due to illness, she bounced back", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Outside tennis.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Endorsements.", "content": "Muguruza was named the ambassador for Mazda Spain in June 2014 and for BBVA bank in December", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philanthropy.", "content": "In June 2017, shortly before winning her first Wimbledon women's singles crown, Muguruza announced that she had become an Ambassador for the", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grand Slam tournament performance timelines.", "content": "\"This table is", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Garbiñe Muguruza Blanco (; born 8 October 1993) is a Spanish-Venezuelan tennis player and former world No. 1. Since turning professional in 2012, she has won seven singles titles, including two majors, the 2016 French Open and the 2017 Wimbledon Championships.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977289}
{"src_title": "Patrick Brontë", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Patrick Brontë was born at Drumballyroney, near Rathfriland, County Down, the eldest of the ten children of \"farmhand, fence-fixer and road-builder\" Hugh Brunty and Elinor Alice (née McClory). The family was \"large and very poor\", owning four books (including two copies of the Bible) and subsisting on \"porridge, potatoes, buttermilk and bread\" which \"gave Patrick a lifetime of indigestion\".  In adult life, Patrick Brunty formally changed the spelling of his name to Brontë (see the article on the Brontë family for theories for the change).  He had several apprenticeships (to a blacksmith, a linen draper, and a weaver) until he became a teacher in 1798. He moved to England in 1802 to study theology at St John's College, Cambridge, and received his BA degree in 1806. He was then appointed curate at Wethersfield, near Braintree in Essex, where he was ordained a deacon of the Church of England in 1806, and into the priesthood in 1807.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Curate.", "content": "In 1809, he became assistant curate at Wellington, Shropshire, and in 1810 his first published poem, the 256 line \"Winter Evening Thoughts\", appeared in a local newspaper, followed in 1811 by a collection of moral verses, \"Cottage Poems\". He moved to the West Riding of Yorkshire in 1809 as a curate at All Saints, Dewsbury (now Dewsbury Minster) in December 1809. The area was undergoing an evangelical revival under the incumbent vicar John Buckworth. Brontë taught reading and writing at Dewsbury's Sunday School. Brontë was deputised by Buckworth to attend twice weekly meetings of the Church Mission Society on his behalf. A memorial plaque to Brontë on the South Aisle of Dewsbury Minster.  Buckworth appointed Brontë as an assistant curate to the Church of St Peter, Hartshead, a daughter church of Dewsbury in 1811. He served at Hartshead until 1815. In the meantime (1812) he was appointed a school examiner at a Wesleyan academy, Woodhouse Grove School, near Guiseley. In 1815 he moved again on becoming perpetual curate of Thornton.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "At Guiseley, Brontë met Maria Branwell (1783–1821), whom he married on 29 December 1812. They moved into a house on Halifax Road, Liversedge where their first two children, Maria (1813–1825) and Elizabeth (1814–1825) were born. Their remaining children Charlotte (1816–1855), Patrick Branwell (1817–1848), Emily (1818–1848) and Anne (1820–1849) were born after they moved to Thornton.  Brontë was offered the perpetual curacy of St Michael and All Angels' Church, Haworth in June 1819, and he took the family there in April 1820. His sister-in-law Elizabeth Branwell (1776–1842), who had lived with the family at Thornton in 1815, joined the household in 1821 to help to look after the children and to care for Maria Brontë, who was suffering the final stages of uterine cancer. Elizabeth decided to move permanently to Haworth to act as housekeeper.  After several attempts to seek a new spouse, Patrick came to terms with widowhood at the age of 47, and spent his time visiting the sick and the poor, giving sermons, communion, and extreme unction, leaving the three sisters Emily, Charlotte, Anne, and their brother Branwell alone with their aunt and a maid, Tabitha Aykroyd (Tabby), who tirelessly recounted local legends in her Yorkshire dialect while preparing the meals.  Brontë was responsible for the building of a Sunday school in Haworth, which he opened in 1832. He remained active in local causes into his old age, and between 1849 and 1850 organised action to procure a clean water supply for the village, which was eventually achieved in 1856.  In August 1846, Brontë travelled to Manchester, accompanied by Charlotte, to undergo surgery on his eyes. On 28 August he was operated upon, without anaesthetic, to remove cataracts. Surgeons did not yet know how to use stitches to hold the incision in the eye together and as a consequence the patient was required to lie quietly in a darkened room, for weeks after the operation. Charlotte used her time in Manchester to begin writing \"Jane Eyre\", the book which was to make her famous.  After the death of his last surviving child, Charlotte, nine months after her marriage, he co-operated with Elizabeth Gaskell on the biography of his daughter. He was also responsible for the posthumous publication of Charlotte's first novel, \"The Professor\", in 1857. Charlotte's husband, Arthur Bell Nicholls (1819–1906), who had been Brontë's curate, stayed in the household until he returned to Ireland after Brontë's death, at the age of 84, in 1861. Brontë outlived not only his wife (by 40 years) but all six of his children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Screen portrayals.", "content": "Montagu Love portrayed Patrick Brontë in \"Devotion\" (1946)  Alfred Burke portrayed Patrick Brontë in \"The Brontës of Haworth\" (1973)  Patrick Magee portrayed Patrick Brontë in \"The Brontë Sisters\" (1979)  Jonathan Pryce portrayed Patrick Brontë in \"To Walk Invisible\" (2016)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Patrick Brontë (, ; 17 March 1777 – 7 June 1861) was an Irish Anglican priest and author who spent most of his adult life in England. He was the father of the writers Charlotte, Emily, and Anne Brontë, and of Branwell Brontë, his only son. Patrick outlived his wife, the former Maria Branwell, by forty years, by which time all of their children had died as well.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977290}
{"src_title": "Bobbio Abbey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foundation.", "content": "The background to the foundation of the abbey was the Lombard invasion of Italy in 568. The Lombard king Agilulf married the devout Roman Catholic Theodelinda in 590 and under her influence and that of the Irish missionary Columbanus, he was persuaded to accept conversion to Christianity. As a base for the conversion of the Lombard people Agilulf gave Columbanus a ruined church and wasted lands known as Ebovium, which, before the Lombards seized them, had formed part of the lands of the papacy. Columbanus particularly wanted this secluded place, for while enthusiastic in the instruction of the Lombards he preferred solitude for his monks and himself. Next to this little church, which was dedicated to Saint Peter, a monastery was soon built. The abbey at its foundation followed the Rule of St. Columbanus, based on the monastic practices of Celtic Christianity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "7th century.", "content": "Columbanus was buried on 23 November 615, but was followed by successors of high calibre in Attala (d. 627) and Bertulf (d. 640), who steered the new monastery through the threats from militant Arianism under King Rotharis (636–652).  In 628, when Bertulf made a pilgrimage to Rome, he persuaded Pope Honorius I to exempt Bobbio from episcopal jurisdiction, thus making the abbey immediately subject to the Holy See. Under the next abbot, Bobolen, the Rule of St. Benedict was introduced. At first its observance was optional, but in the course of time it superseded the harsher Rule of Columbanus, and Bobbio joined the Congregation of Monte Cassino. In 643, at the request of Rotharis and Queen Gundelberga, Pope Theodore I granted to the Abbot of Bobbio the use of the mitre and other pontificals.  During the turbulent 7th century Bobbio succeeded in remaining a centre of Christian belief and culture. Through the efforts of Columbanus's disciples, increasing numbers of Arian Lombards were received into the Catholic Form of Christianity. But during the first half of the 7th century, the large tract of country lying between Turin and Verona, Genoa and Milan, remained a relatively lawless state, with a mix of Arian and pagan religious practice. It was not until the reign of Grimoald I (663–673), himself a convert, that the bulk of the Lombards accepted Catholic Christianity. And after this point Arianism rapidly disappeared in the West.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "8th century onwards.", "content": "Theodelinda's nephew Aripert I (653–663) restored all the lands of Bobbio that belonged by right to the pope. Aripert II confirmed this restitution to Pope John VII in 707. The Lombards soon dispossessed the popes again, but in 756 Aistulf was compelled by Pepin the Younger to give up the lands. In 774 Charlemagne made liberal grants to the abbey. In 1153 Frederick Barbarossa confirmed by two charters various rights and possessions.  The fame of Bobbio reached the shores of Ireland, and Columbanus' reputation attracted many more Irish religious. Bobolen's successor may have been a certain 'Comgall'. Bishop Cummian, who had resigned his see in Ireland to become a monk of Bobbio, died in the abbey in about 736, as his poetic inscription there attests.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "See of Bobbio.", "content": "In 1014, the Emperor Henry II, on the occasion of his own coronation in Rome, obtained from Pope Benedict VIII the erection of Bobbio as an episcopal see. Peter Aldus, its first bishop, had been abbot of Bobbio since 999, and his episcopal successors for a long time lived in the abbey, where many of them had been monks. From either 1133 or 1161 Bobbio was a suffragan see of the archdiocese of Genoa. From time to time disputes arose between the bishop and the monks, and in 1199 Pope Innocent III issued two bulls, restoring the abbey in spirituals and temporals, and empowering the bishop to depose an abbot if within a certain time he did not obey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dissolution.", "content": "Saint Columbanus' abbey and church were taken from the Benedictines by the French occupying forces in 1803, when the abbey was suppressed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Basilica.", "content": "The current Basilica of San Colombano was built during 1456–1530 in a Renaissance style. The Basilica has a Latin cross layout with a nave and two aisles, a transept and a rectangular apse. It includes a 9th-century baptismal font. The nave fresco decoration was completed in the 16th century by Bernardino Lanzani. The 15th-century crypt houses the sarcophagus of St. Columbanus, by Giovanni dei Patriarchi (1480), and those of the first two abbots, St. Attala and St. Bertulf. Also in the crypt is a 12th-century pavement mosaic with the histories of the Maccabeans and the Cycle of the Months. No structures of the earliest monastery buildings are visible.  The bell-tower (late 9th century) and the smaller apse are from the original Romanesque edifice. The \"Torre del Comune\" (Communal Tower) was built in 1456–85.  The Museum of the Abbey includes findings and remains from Roman (tombs, altars, sculptures) and Lombard ages (capitals, tombstones). It houses also a polyptych by Bernardino Luini and the Bobbio collection, the second largest in the world, of Monza ampullae, pilgrimage flasks from the 6th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Library.", "content": "The nucleus of the abbey's library may have been formed by the manuscripts which Columbanus had brought from Ireland (though these must have been exceedingly few) and the treatises which he wrote himself. The learned Saint Dungal (d. after 827) bequeathed to the abbey his valuable library, consisting of some 27 volumes.  A late 9th-century catalogue, published by Lodovico Antonio Muratori (but now superseded by the edition of M. Tosi), shows that at that period every branch of knowledge, divine and human, was represented in this library. The catalogue lists more than 600 volumes. Many of the books have been lost, the rest have long since been dispersed and are still reckoned among the chief treasures of the later collections which possess them.  In 1616 Cardinal Federico Borromeo took for the Ambrosian Library of Milan eighty-six volumes, including the famous \"Bobbio Orosius\", the \"Antiphonary of Bangor\", and the Bobbio Jerome, a palimpsest of Ulfilas' Gothic version of the Bible. Twenty-six volumes were given, in 1618, to Pope Paul V for the Vatican Library. Many others were sent to Turin, where, besides those in the Royal Archives, there were seventy-one in the University Library until the disastrous fire of 26 January 1904.  Gerbert of Aurillac (afterwards Pope Sylvester II) became abbot of Bobbio in 982, and with the aid of the numerous ancient treatises he found there composed his celebrated work on geometry.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bobbio Abbey (Italian: \"Abbazia di San Colombano\") is a monastery founded by Irish Saint Columbanus in 614, around which later grew up the town of Bobbio, in the province of Piacenza, Emilia-Romagna, Italy. It is dedicated to Saint Columbanus. It was famous as a centre of resistance to Arianism and as one of the greatest libraries in the Middle Ages, and was the original on which the monastery in Umberto Eco's novel \"The Name of the Rose\" was based, together with Sacra di San Michele. The abbey was dissolved under the French administration in 1803, although many of the buildings remain in other uses.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977291}
{"src_title": "1950 Swiss Grand Prix", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Report.", "content": "The fourth round of the Championship took place just three weeks after the series began at Silverstone (with Monaco and Indianapolis having taken place on consecutive weekends). Once again the event proved to be a battle between the Alfa Romeo factory 158s of Giuseppe Farina, Juan Manuel Fangio and Luigi Fagioli and the Scuderia Ferraris of Alberto Ascari, Luigi Villoresi (who had the latest model with de Dion rear suspension, twin overhead camshaft engine and 4-speed gearbox), Raymond Sommer and Peter Whitehead. There were a number of uncompetitive Talbot-Lagos and Maseratis as usual. José Froilán González was out of action as a result of burns he had received after the first lap accident at Monaco Grand Prix. Also out of action as a result of the crash was Maserati factory driver Franco Rol. This was the last race to be entered by pre-war racer Eugène Martin. It was also the first and only World Championship Grand Prix for Nello Pagani, better known for his exploits in Grand Prix motorcycle racing.  In qualifying Fangio and Farina were well clear of Fagioli with Villoresi and Ascari sharing the second row of the 3-2-3 grid. Peter Whitehead, Franco Rol, Reg Parnell and Rudi Fischer failed to qualify. In the race, on the first lap Ascari managed to get among the Alfa Romeos but he quickly slipped back and it was left to the Alfas to battle. Fangio led early on but then Farina went ahead through a faster refuelling stop. Fagioli was unable to keep up and after both Villoresi and Ascari retired it was left to Prince Bira to run fourth. He had to refuel and so Philippe Étancelin in a Talbot-Lago was able to move into fourth place. Shortly afterwards, factory Talbot-Lago driver Eugène Martin crashed heavily and was seriously hurt when he was thrown from the car. Étancelin later went out with gearbox trouble and so Talbot-Lago factory driver Louis Rosier moved into fourth. He was promoted to third when Fangio retired on lap 33 with an electrical problem. Farina became the first driver to win multiples Grands Prix, after winning the inaugural World Championship Grand Prix.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1950 Swiss Grand Prix, formally titled the Großer Preis der Schweiz für Automobile, was a Formula One motor race held on 4 June 1950 at Bremgarten. It was race four of seven in the 1950 World Championship of Drivers. The 42-lap race was won by Alfa Romeo driver Nino Farina after he started from second position. His teammate Luigi Fagioli finished second and Talbot-Lago driver Louis Rosier came in third.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977292}
{"src_title": "1950 Belgian Grand Prix", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Report.", "content": "By the time of the Belgian Grand Prix, the pace of the season was beginning to tell, with only 14 cars arriving at the Spa circuit. These included the dominant Alfa Romeos of Nino Farina, Juan Manuel Fangio and Luigi Fagioli. Scuderia Ferrari was down to two 125s for Luigi Villoresi and Alberto Ascari, although Ascari had a new V12 engine to try out. The factory Talbot-Lago team had three cars for Louis Rosier, Yves Giraud-Cabantous and Philippe Étancelin (standing in for the injured Eugène Martin). The rest of the field was made up of Talbot-Lagos (notably one for Raymond Sommer), a single Alta and one Maserati for Toni Branca. This race was the final entry for Geoffrey Crossley, the sport's high costs forcing him, like many privateers, to retire after just a handful of races.  Farina and Fangio were fastest as usual in qualifying with Fagioli unable to match them. Sommer split the Ferraris in his old Talbot-Lago. The race would be a similar story. The Alfas went off on their own and Sommer battled with the two Ferraris. When the Alfa stopped for fuel, Sommer found himself in the unlikely position of being race leader. Unfortunately his engine blew up. Ascari took the lead but he had to stop for fuel and that meant that the Alfas went ahead again with Fangio leading Farina and Fagioli. Farina suffered transmission trouble in the closing laps and dropped to fourth behind the best of the surviving Talbot-Lagos being driven by Rosier. Ascari finished fifth.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1950 Belgian Grand Prix, formally titled the Grand Prix Automobile de Belgique, was a Formula One motor race held on 18 June 1950 at Spa-Francorchamps. It was race five of seven in the 1950 World Championship of Drivers. The 35-lap race was won by Alfa Romeo driver Juan Manuel Fangio after he started from second position. His teammate Luigi Fagioli finished second and Talbot-Lago driver Louis Rosier came in third.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977293}
{"src_title": "1950 Italian Grand Prix", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "After Juan Manuel Fangio's win at the, Fangio had obtained 26 points, two ahead of teammate Luigi Fagioli and four ahead of another teammate, Giuseppe Farina. Having already finished four times in the points (all second places), Fagioli would only be able to drop six points or not gain at all, while Fangio and Farina had only finished three times. All three of Fangio's finishes were wins.  To win the championship,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Race report.", "content": "Ferrari pulled out all the stops to impress at their home circuit, producing a new unsupercharged 41⁄2 litre engine to try to end the Alfa Romeo monopoly. Alberto Ascari used it to achieve second place on the grid to Juan Manuel Fangio's Alfa Romeo 158 and then in the race behind the fast starting Nino Farina (Alfa Romeo 158) before briefly leading. Sadly, the pace was too punishing for the new car and a porous block broke on lap 20 and the battle returned as usual to the Alfas. Fangio retired twice; once in his own Alfa Romeo 158 and a second time after taking over Piero Taruffi's. Farina led to the finish from Ascari who was now in teammate Dorino Serafini's Ferrari 375 with Luigi Fagioli finishing third in his Alfa Romeo 158. Louis Rosier finish fourth in his Talbot-Lago T26C with Philippe Étancelin fifth in his Lago-Talbot. Étancelin would become the oldest driver to ever score a world championship point with that finish. Only seven cars finished out of the 26 starters and with Farina's win and Fangio's failure to score and Fagioli's third place points removed as his worst scoring finish, Farina became the first recipient of the World Driver's Championship crown.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1950 Italian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 3 September 1950 at Autodromo Nazionale di Monza. It was race 7 of 7 in the 1950 World Championship of Drivers. In this race, Nino Farina became the first World Drivers' Champion, and the only driver to win the title in his home country.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977294}
{"src_title": "2013–14 UEFA Champions League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 76 teams from 52 of the 54 UEFA member associations participated in the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League (the exceptions being Liechtenstein, which do not organise a domestic league, and Gibraltar, which started participating in the 2014–15 season after being admitted as a UEFA member in May 2013). The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients was used to determine the number of participating teams for each association: The winners of the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League were given an additional entry as title holders if they would not qualify for the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League through their domestic league (because of the restriction that no association can have more than four teams playing in the Champions League, if the title holders are from the top three associations and finish outside the top four in their domestic league, the title holders' entry comes at the expense of the fourth-placed team of their association). However, this additional entry was not necessary for this season since the title holders qualified for the tournament through their domestic league.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association ranking.", "content": "For the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League, the associations were allocated places according to their 2012 UEFA country coefficients, which took into account their performance in European competitions from 2007–08 to 2011–12.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Since the title holders (Bayern Munich) qualified for the Champions League group stage through their domestic league, the group stage spot reserved for the title holders is vacated, and the following changes to the default allocation system are made:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "League positions of the previous season shown in parentheses (TH: Title holders).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "The schedule of the competition was as follows (all draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland, unless stated otherwise).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying rounds.", "content": "In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2013 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The draws for the first and second qualifying rounds were held on 24 June 2013. The first legs were played on 2 July, and the second legs were played on 9 July 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 16 and 17 July, and the second legs were played on 23 and 24 July 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: one for champions and one for non-champions. The losing teams in both sections entered the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League play-off round.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The play-off round was split into two separate sections: one for champions and one for non-champions. The losing teams in both sections entered the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League group stage.  The draw for the play-off round was held on 9 August 2013. The first legs were played on 20 and 21 August, and the second legs were played on 27 and 28 August 2013.  On 14 August 2013, Metalist Kharkiv were disqualified from the 2013–14 UEFA club competitions because of previous match-fixing. UEFA decided to replace Metalist Kharkiv in the Champions League play-off round with PAOK, who were eliminated by Metalist Kharkiv in the third qualifying round.  Red Bull Salzburg lodged a protest after being defeated by Fenerbahçe in the third qualifying round, but it was rejected by UEFA and the Court of Arbitration for Sport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The draw for the group stage was held in Monaco on 29 August 2013. The 32 teams were allocated into four pots based on their 2013 UEFA club coefficients, with the title holders, Bayern Munich, being placed in Pot 1 automatically. They were drawn into eight groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.  In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The matchdays were 17–18 September, 1–2 October, 22–23 October, 5–6 November, 26–27 November, and 10–11 December 2013. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 16, while the third-placed teams entered the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League round of 32.  A total of 18 national associations were represented in the group stage. Austria Wien made their debut appearance in the group stage.  Teams that qualify for the group stage also participate in the newly formed 2013–14 UEFA Youth League, a competition available to players aged 19 or under.  \"See the detailed group stage page for tiebreakers if two or more teams are equal on points.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams played against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final. The mechanism of the draws for each round was as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "The draw for the round of 16 was held on 16 December 2013. The first legs were played on 18, 19, 25 and 26 February, and the second legs were played on 11, 12, 18 and 19 March 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 21 March 2014. The first legs were played on 1 and 2 April, and the second legs were played on 8 and 9 April 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The draw for the semi-finals and final (to determine the \"home\" team for administrative purposes) was held on 11 April 2014. The first legs were played on 22 and 23 April, and the second legs were played on 29 and 30 April 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Squad of the Season.", "content": "The UEFA technical study group selected the following 18 players as the squad of the tournament:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2013–14 UEFA Champions League was the 59th season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 22nd season since it was renamed from the European Champion Clubs' Cup to the UEFA Champions League.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977295}
{"src_title": "2013–14 UEFA Europa League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 194 teams from 53 of the 54 UEFA member associations participated in the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League (the exception being Gibraltar, which should start participating in the 2014–15 season after being admitted as a UEFA member in May 2013). The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients is used to determine the number of participating teams for each association: The winners of the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League are given an additional entry as title holders if they do not qualify for the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League or Europa League through their domestic performance. However this additional entry is not necessary for this season, because the title holders qualified for European competitions through their domestic performance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association ranking.", "content": "For the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League, the associations were allocated places according to their 2012 UEFA country coefficients, which took into account their performance in European competitions from 2007–08 to 2011–12.  Apart from the allocation based on the country coefficients, associations may have additional teams participating in the Europa League, as noted below:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Since the title holders (Chelsea) qualified for the Champions League through their domestic performance, the group stage spot reserved for the title holders is vacated, and the following changes to the default allocation system are made:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Redistribution rules.", "content": "A Europa League place is vacated when a team qualifies for both the Champions League and the Europa League, or qualifies for the Europa League by more than one method. When a place is vacated, it is redistributed within the national association by the following rules:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "The labels in the parentheses show how each team qualified for the place of its starting round:  Notably six teams that did not play in their national top-division took part in the competition. They are: Hapoel Ramat Gan (2nd tier), Hødd (2nd), Pasching (3rd), Teteks (2nd), Vaduz (2nd) and Wigan Athletic (2nd).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "The schedule of the competition was as follows (all draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland, unless stated otherwise).  Matches in the qualifying, play-off, and knockout rounds may also be played on Tuesdays or Wednesdays instead of the regular Thursdays due to scheduling conflicts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying rounds.", "content": "In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2013 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The draws for the first and second qualifying rounds were held on 24 June 2013. The first legs were played on 2, 3 and 4 July, and the second legs were played on 9, 10 and 11 July 2013.  Inter Turku lodged a protest after losing the second leg to Víkingur Gøta, and two match officials were later banned for life by UEFA for attempted match-fixing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 16 and 18 July, and the second legs were played on 25 July 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The draw for the third qualifying round was held on 19 July 2013. The first legs were played on 1 August, and the second legs were played on 8 August 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The draw for the play-off round was held on 9 August 2013. The first legs were played on 22 August, and the second legs were played on 29 August 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The draw for the group stage was held in Monaco on 30 August 2013. Prior to the draw, the Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld UEFA's ban on Fenerbahce (which lost in the Champions League play-off round) and Beşiktaş, meaning the two clubs were banned from the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League. UEFA decided to replace Beşiktaş in the Europa League group stage with Tromsø, who were eliminated by Beşiktaş in the play-off round, while a draw was held to select a team to replace Fenerbahçe among the teams eliminated in the play-off round, and was won by APOEL.  The 48 teams were allocated into four pots based on their 2013 UEFA club coefficients. They were drawn into twelve groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.  In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The matchdays were 19 September, 3 October, 24 October, 7 November, 28 November, and 12 December 2013. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 32, where they were joined by the 8 third-placed teams from the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League group stage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams played against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final. The mechanism of the draws for each round was as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bracket.", "content": "<section begin=bracket />", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 32.", "content": "The draw for the round of 32 and round of 16 was held on 16 December 2013. The first legs were played on 20 February, and the second legs were played on 27 February 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "The first legs were played on 13 March, and the second legs were played on 20 March 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 21 March 2014. The first legs were played on 3 April, and the second legs were played on 10 April 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The draw for the semi-finals and final (to determine the \"home\" team for administrative purposes) was held on 11 April 2014. The first legs were played on 24 April, and the second legs were played on 1 May 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Squad of the Season.", "content": "The UEFA technical study group selected the following 18 players as the squad of the tournament:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2013–14 UEFA Europa League was the 43rd season of Europe's secondary club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the fifth season under its current title.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977296}
{"src_title": "Neerja Bhanot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Bhanot was born in Chandigarh, India, and brought up in Bombay (present-day Mumbai) in a Punjabi family. She was the daughter of Harish Bhanot, a Bombay-based journalist, and Rama Bhanot. She had two brothers, Akhil and Aneesh Bhanot. She received her early schooling at Sacred Heart Senior Secondary School in Chandigarh. When the family moved to Bombay, she continued her studies at Bombay Scottish School and then graduated from St. Xavier's College, Bombay. It was in Bombay where she was first spotted for a modelling assignment which began her modelling career. She was a huge fan of actor Rajesh Khanna and used to refer to quotes from his films throughout her life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Bhanot applied for a flight attendant job with Pan Am, when in 1985 it decided to have an all Indian cabin crew for its Frankfurt to India routes. Upon selection, she went to Miami, Florida for training as a flight attendant, but returned as a purser. She also had a successful modelling career simultaneously during her work at Pan Am.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hijacking.", "content": "Bhanot was the Senior Flight Purser on Pan Am Flight 73 flying from Bombay to the United States, which was hijacked by four armed men on 5 September 1986 at Karachi airport in Pakistan. The aircraft was carrying 380 passengers and 13 crew members. The terrorists wanted to fly to Cyprus with the goal of freeing Palestinian prisoners in Cyprus. Bhanot was able to alert the cockpit crew as soon as the hijackers boarded the plane, and as the plane was on the apron, the three-member cockpit crew of pilot, co-pilot and the flight engineer fled from the aircraft through an overhead hatch in the cockpit. As the senior-most cabin crew member, Bhanot took charge of the situation inside the plane.  The hijackers were part of the Abu Nidal Organization, a Palestinian terrorist organization backed by Libya; they were targeting Americans and American assets. In the early minutes of the hijacking, they identified an Indian-American citizen, dragged him to the exit, shot him dead and threw his body from the plane. The terrorists then instructed Bhanot to collect the passports of all the passengers so that they could identify the other Americans on board. She and the other attendants under her charge hid the passports of the remaining 43 Americans on board, some under a seat and the rest down a rubbish chute so that the hijackers could not differentiate between American and non-American passengers.  After 17 hours, the hijackers opened fire and set off explosives. Bhanot opened one of the airplane doors, and started helping the other passengers escape. According to a surviving passenger, \"She was guiding the passengers to the emergency exit. That is when the terrorists were firing constantly fearing a commando attack. They saw Neerja relentlessly trying to help the passengers out and that is when they caught her by her ponytail and shot her point blank.\" Out of a total of 44 American passengers, two were killed during the hijacking. A child on board, then aged seven, is now a captain for a major airline and has stated that Bhanot has been his inspiration, and that he owes every day of his life to her. She was recognized internationally as \"the heroine of the hijacking\" and became the youngest recipient of the Ashok Chakra Award, India's most prestigious gallantry award for bravery during peacetime.  In addition to saving the lives of many hostages, Bhanot had also helped prevent the plane from getting off the ground. She posthumously received multiple awards for her courage from the United States government, and the Tamgha-e-Pakistan from Pakistan, an award given for showing great human kindness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "For her bravery, the Government of India posthumously awarded Bhanot the Ashoka Chakra Award, India's highest gallantry award for bravery in the face of the enemy during peacetime. She is the youngest recipient and the first woman recipient of this award. In 2004 the Indian Postal Service released a stamp commemorating her.  After her death, her family set up the Neerja Bhanot Pan Am Trust with insurance money and an equal contribution from Pan Am. The trust presents two awards every year, one for a flight crew member, worldwide, who acts beyond the call of duty and another, the Neerja Bhanot Award, to an Indian woman who when faced with social injustice, bravely faced the situation and helped other women in similar social distress. The award includes a sum of INR 150,000 (approximately US$2,000) a trophy and a citation.  Bhanot's brother Aneesh went to Washington, D.C., in 2005 to receive the \"Justice for Crimes Award\" awarded posthumously to her as part of the Annual Crime Rights Week at a ceremony held at the United States Attorney's office for the District of Columbia. In 2006, she and the other Pan Am Flight 73 flight attendants and Pan Am's flight director for Pakistan were awarded the Special Courage award by the United States Department of Justice.  Bhanot House of Austrey School was named in her honour.  The Civil Aviation Ministry of India conferred an honor on Bhanot posthumously on 18 February 2010 in New Delhi on the occasion of the launch of the celebrations of the centenary of Indian aviation.  On 2 July 2016, the Bharat Gaurav Award was conferred on her at a ceremony held at the House of Commons, UK Parliament in London, England.  On 30 May 2018, Punjab University inaugurated the Neerja Bhanot Hostel (Dorm) in the University Campus in Chandigarh. The Hostel (Dorm) can accommodate over 350 girl students.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life and family.", "content": "Neerja Bhanot also had two brothers, Akhil and Aneesh. She had an arranged marriage and moved in with her husband but the marriage began to deteriorate and she returned back to her home two months later. Her father, Harish Bhanot, worked as a journalist with \"The Hindustan Times\" for more than 30 years and died on New Year's Day in 2008 in Chandigarh at the age of 86. Her mother died on 5 December 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Neerja Bhanot, Ashoka Chakra (7 September 1963 – 5 September 1986) was an Indian head purser who died while saving passengers on Pan Am Flight 73 which had been hijacked by terrorists during a stopover in Karachi, Pakistan, on 5 September 1986. Posthumously, she became the youngest recipient of India's highest peacetime gallantry, the Ashok Chakra Award, as well as several other accolades from the government of Pakistan and the United States. She was shot while helping passengers escape through the emergency exits.She helped to escape all the passengers. Her life and heroism inspired the biopic \"Neerja\", which was released in 2016 and was directed by Ram Madhvani starring Sonam Kapoor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977297}
{"src_title": "Bearded fireworm", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Bearded fireworms are usually 15 centimetres in average length, but can reach up to 30 centimetres.  At first glance, this fire worm looks like a centipede with its elongated and flattened appearance, multiple segments, white silks, and parapodia and gills located on the side of its body. Its colors are varied and range from greenish, to yellowish, to reddish, grayish through white with a pearly glow. The body consists of 60 to 150 identical segments separated from each other by a thin white line and protected by cuticles. Each segment has a pair of parapodia, a structure for locomotion, clusters of stinging white bristles, and red or orange gills all in bilateral position. The anterior part of the worm can be recognized by small growths, called caruncle, which have the same color of the gills on the first four segments. The mouth is ventral and is located on the second segment. The head is shown on the first segment and includes the eyes and other sensory organs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The bearded fireworm lives throughout the tropical coastal waters of the Atlantic Ocean. On the eastern side they are found from Algeria to Liberia, and on the western side from the southeast coast of the United States of America to Guyana, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. They are also found in the Mediterranean Sea especially around the Italian coasts.  This fireworm is found in many marine living environments such as corals, rocks, mud, sand, posidonia, and on drifting wood as well as port infrastructure in shallow water from the surface to 40 meters deep.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "The bearded fireworm is a voracious predator that supplements its diet with plant material.  The bearded fireworm is a slow creature, and is not considered a threat to humans unless touched by a careless swimmer. The bristles, when flared, can penetrate human skin, injecting a powerful neurotoxin and producing intense irritation and a painful burning sensation around the area of contact. The sting can also lead to nausea and dizziness. This sensation lasts up to a few hours, but a painful tingling can continue to be felt around the area of contact. In a case of accidental contact, application and removal of adhesive tape will help remove the spines; applying isopropanol to the area may help alleviate the pain.  The transcriptome of the bearded fireworm was sequenced and annotated in 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The bearded fireworm (\"Hermodice carunculata\") is a type of marine bristleworm belonging to the Amphinomidae family, native to the tropical Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977298}
{"src_title": "Diamond League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Editions.", "content": "In March 2019 the president of the IAAF Sebastian Coe announced changes in the Diamond League's format for the 2020 series. The number of Diamond Race events was reduced from 32 to 24 and a second Chinese meet was added to the calendar. The dual final format was replaced by a single final", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scoring system.", "content": "The original Diamond League scoring system, used from 2010 to 2015, awarded points to the top three athletes at each meeting (4 points for first place; 2 points for second place; 1 point for third place). Each of the thirty-two disciplines (sixteen each for male and female athletes) was staged a total of seven times during the season; points scored in the final meeting for that discipline (either Zürich or Brussels) were doubled. The athletes who finished the season with the highest number of points in their discipline won the \"Diamond Race\"; in case of a tie on points, the number of victories was used as the first tie-breaker, followed by the results of the final. Only athletes who competed in their discipline's final meeting were eligible to win the Diamond Race. In 2016 scoring was expanded to the top six (10–6–4–3–2–1); double points (20–12–8–6–4–2) were still awarded in the event finals.  A completely new system was introduced in 2017; the top eight athletes at each meeting are now awarded points (8–7–6–5–4–3–2–1), but these points only determine which athletes qualify for the discipline finals in Zürich and Brussels. The athletes who win at the finals are declared IAAF Diamond League Champions, and the allocation of the overall prize money is likewise determined solely by the results of the final. This system, with the winner of the final automatically winning the overall championship, is similar to the former IAAF Grand Prix circuit with its Grand Prix Final. As part of the scoring changes, the term 'Diamond Race' is no longer used. Instead, athletes compete in 'Diamond Disciplines' to become the Diamond League champion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Meetings.", "content": "All meetings since the event's inauguration have been held in the Northern Hemisphere in spring and summer months, in line with the traditional international track and field season.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Diamond League is an annual series of elite track and field athletic competitions comprising 15 of the best invitational athletics meetings. The series sits in the top tier of the World Athletics (formerly known as the IAAF) one-day meeting competitions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977299}
{"src_title": "1951 British Grand Prix", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Report.", "content": "José Froilán González was one second quicker than Juan Manuel Fangio in qualifying, achieving the first pole position of his career. It was also the first pole position for the Ferrari team, and the first in the World Championship (excluding the Indy 500 races) not scored by an Alfa Romeo. Nino Farina and Alberto Ascari qualified in third and fourth positions, completing the front row.  González and Fangio shot away almost parallel from the front row of the grid, closely followed by the other Alfa Romeos and Ferraris. Alfa Romeo driver Felice Bonetto, who started in seventh position, was the first man at the first corner, with the Ferrari of González in second position. González took the lead from Bonetto on the second lap with Fangio chasing. The BRM cars of Reg Parnell and Peter Walker were in hot pursuit of the leaders. The team had arrived at the last minute, and had not practiced or even qualified for their debut race, and had started in 19th and 20th positions. Bonetto's Alfa Romeo teammates of Fangio and reigning World Champion, Nino Farina, managed to overtake him to move into second and third places. On lap 6, Fangio began to close in on González; he passed him on the straight on lap 10, and slowly began to draw away. Consalvo Sanesi then pulled into the pits for fuel and new tyres.  The Maserati of John James became the first retirement of the race on lap 23 with a radiator problem, but was soon joined on the sidelines by Louis Chiron, both his Maserati teammates, the Ferrari of Alberto Ascari and Farina. Farina pulled up at Abbey curve after 75 laps with a slipping clutch and his engine on fire. He had set the lap record on lap 38, with a time of 1 minute 44 seconds, an average speed of 99.99 mph, ensuring he still left the weekend with one point. González retook the lead on lap 39 with an overtake at Becketts corner. He kept his lead for the remainder of the race (excluding one lap when he pitted just before Fangio did) extending it to 1 minute and 5 seconds with 5 laps to go, before easing off at the end of the race. The BRM drivers of Parnell and Walker were still battling on, despite the fact they were suffering from hand and feet burns, and would eventually finish fifth and seventh respectively.  The Alfa Romeos of Fangio and Farina pitted twice for fuel, owing to the awful fuel consumption of their cars. They were doing 1 1/2 miles to the gallon, and needed to take on 70 gallons for every stop. Both drivers needed to stop twice, and, owing to the lengthy, minutes-long pit stops of Formula One in 1951, the more fuel efficient Ferrari of González (who only needed to make one stop) was able to overtake the Alfa Romeos and pull out a considerable lead.  González eventually took his own and Ferrari's first victory in a World Championship race by 51 seconds. It was the first World Championship race (excluding the Indy 500) that was not won by an Alfa Romeo. An Alfa Romeo was still in second place though, in the form of the year's eventual champion Fangio. Luigi Villoresi became the second Ferrari on the podium after he finished in third place, two laps behind. Bonetto and Parnell were the other two point scorers at the race, finishing in fourth and fifth positions respectively.  As it turned out, González had actually raced with an older chassis and engine than his teammates, Villoresi and Ascari.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1951 British Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 14 July 1951 at the Silverstone Circuit in Northamptonshire, England. It was race 5 of 8 in the 1951 World Championship of Drivers and was contested over 90 laps. The race was the first victory for José Froilán González, and was also the first of many for the Scuderia Ferrari team. Both the team and driver also achieved their first ever pole position during the weekend.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977300}
{"src_title": "1951 Italian Grand Prix", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Report.", "content": "Toulo de Graffenried returned to Alfa Romeo's four-car line up, in place of Paul Pietsch, having raced for Enrico Platé in France and Germany. He raced alongside the regular Alfa drivers, Fangio, Farina and Bonetto. The works Ferrari team retained the same four drivers from the race at the Nürburgring — Ascari, Villoresi, González and Taruffi — while Brazilian Chico Landi made his World Championship debut in a privately run Ferrari. The field was completed by works teams from BRM, Simca-Gordini and OSCA, as well as the usual Talbot-Lago entries.  The front row positions on the grid were shared equally between Alfa Romeo and Ferrari, with Fangio, Farina, Ascari and González posting the four fastest qualifying times. The second row consisted of the remaining works Ferraris of Villoresi and Taruffi, alongside Felice Bonetto. Reg Parnell, in a BRM, was also supposed to be on the second row, but was unable to start due to lubrication problems.  Fangio was the initial race leader, having started from pole position, but he soon had to cede the position to Ascari. He retook the lead on lap eight before pitting for a tyre change, which dropped him to fifth. Early retirements for Farina and de Graffenried left José Froilán González in second, behind his teammate Ascari. Fangio attempted to bridge the gap to the Ferraris, but engine problems eliminated his chances. The sole remaining Alfa driver, Nino Farina, who had taken over Bonetto's car on lap 30, inherited third place as a result of Fangio's retirement. He was fast, but fuel leakages meant that he needed to make two further pitstops; he therefore had to settle for third. Alberto Ascari took his second, and Ferrari's third, consecutive Championship race victory, ahead of British Grand Prix winner González. The other works Ferraris of Villoresi and Taruffi completed the points positions in what was another successful race for the Scuderia.  Ascari's victory took him to within two points of Championship leader Fangio, while González was a further four points behind in third.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1951 Italian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 16 September 1951 at Monza. It was race 7 of 8 in the 1951 World Championship of Drivers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977301}
{"src_title": "Cinema of the Czech Republic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first Czech film director and cinematographer was Jan Kříženecký, who since the second half of 1898 filmed short documentaries in Prague. The first permanent cinema house was founded by Viktor Ponrepo in 1907 in Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "After World War I.", "content": "Among the most prominent directors were Karel Lamač, Karl Anton, Svatopluk Innemann, Přemysl Pražský, Martin Frič and Gustav Machatý. The first Czech movie with synchronized sound was \"Tonka of the Gallows\" in 1930. Barrandov Studios were launched by Miloš Havel in 1933. It is the largest film studio in the country and one of the largest in Europe. During the war Czech film industry was taken over by the Germans, who made their own movies at Barrandov. Czech movies could only be made in a smaller film studio in Hostivař.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After World War II.", "content": "Many prominent people of Czech cinema left the country before the World War II including directors Karel Lamač and Gustav Machatý, cinematographer Otto Heller, actors Hugo Haas and Jiří Voskovec and producer Josef Auerbach. Director Vladislav Vančura was murdered by Nazis as were a popular actor and signer Karel Hašler, actress Anna Letenská and writer Karel Poláček. Studio owner Miloš Havel and actresses Lída Baarová and Adina Mandlová went to exile in Germany or Austria after they were accused of collaborating with Nazis during the war. In 1943 Czech Film Archive (NFA) was established in Prague.  In 1945 Czechoslovak film industry was nationalized. After a communist coup in 1948 only social realist movies were made. Most of the movies of 1950s were ideological, including historical movies, comedies and fairy tales.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New Wave.", "content": "In the early 1960s a new generation of filmmakers like Miloš Forman, Věra Chytilová, Jiří Menzel or Jan Němec started to make movies in opposition to social realist movies of the 1950s. After achieving success in international film festivals these filmmakers were called Czechoslovak New Wave by foreign film journalists. Even the directors who were not part of New Wave (e.g., Karel Kachyňa, Vojtěch Jasný, František Vláčil or Otakar Vávra) made their best movies in 1960s. Encompassing a broad range of works the Czechoslovak New Wave cannot be pinned down to any one style or approach to filmmaking. Examples range from highly stylised, even avant-garde, literary adaptions using historical themes (e.g. Jan Němec's \"Diamonds of the Night\") to semi-improvised comedies with contemporary subjects and amateur actors (e.g., Miloš Forman's \"The Firemen's Ball\"). However, a frequent feature of films from this period were their absurd, black humour and an interest in the concerns of ordinary people, particularly when faced with larger historical or political changes. Cinematic influences included Italian neorealism and the French New Wave can be seen in some of the Czech New Wave movies. After Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia New Wave slowly faded away. Many directors were fired from the state owned film studios (Jan Němec, Pavel Juráček, Evald Schorm). Others chose emigration (Miloš Forman, Ivan Passer, Vojtěch Jasný). Some of the movies that were critical to communist regime were banned. (e.g. \"The Ear\", \"All My Compatriots\", \"Larks on a String\")", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1970s to 1989.", "content": "During the period of normalization only the movies that communist authorities considered harmless were made. Therefore the most successful movies from this era are comedies, sci-fi and family movies. A fairy-tale film from 1973, the \"Three Nuts for Cinderella\" has become a holiday classic in Czehchoslovakia and several European countries, for example in Germany, Switzerland, Spain, Sweden and Norway.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1990s and beyond.", "content": "Among the most successful Czech films made after the Velvet Revolution are: \"Kolya\", \"Divided We Fall\", \"Cosy Dens\" and \"Walking Too Fast\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Czech cinema is the name for cinematography of Czech Republic, as well as the Czech cinematography while it was a part of other countries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977302}
{"src_title": "Joseph Hertz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hertz was born in Rebrín/Rebrény, Kingdom of Hungary (presently part of the village of Zemplínska Široká, Slovak Republic), in 1872 and emigrated to New York City in 1884. He was educated at New York City College (BA), Columbia University (PhD) and the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (Rabbi, 1894, the Seminary's first graduate). His first ministerial post was at Syracuse, New York.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "South Africa.", "content": "In 1898, he moved to Transvaal, South Africa, to the Witwatersrand Old Hebrew Congregation in Johannesburg. He stayed there until 1911, despite attempts by President Paul Kruger in 1899 to expel him for his pro-British sympathies and for advocating the removal of religious disabilities of Jews and Catholics in South Africa. He was Professor of Philosophy at Transvaal University College (later known as the University of the Witwatersrand), 1906-8.  In 1911, he returned to New York to the Orach Chayim Congregation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chief Rabbi.", "content": "In 1913, Hertz was elected Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the British Empire; he received 298 votes against 39 for Dayan Moses Hyamson. His rival candidates had also included Lewis Daly, and Bernard Drachman. (Ironically, Hyamson took the rabbi's post of Orach Chayim in New York, which Hertz had vacated for the British Chief Rabbi appointment.)  Hertz held the post until his death. His tenure was affected by arguments with a wide variety of people, mainly within the Jewish community; the \"Dictionary of National Biography\" describes him as a \"combative Conservative\". It was said that he was in favour of resolving disagreements by calm discussion – when all other methods had failed.  Despite his title, he was not universally recognised as the final rabbinical authority, even in Britain. While he was Chief Rabbi of the group of synagogues known as the United Hebrew Congregations of the British Empire, led by the United Synagogue, a minority of new immigrants who had arrived since the 1880s regarded it as insufficiently orthodox. Hertz tried both persuasion and such force as he could muster to influence them; he added to his credibility among these immigrants by persuading Rabbi Yehezkel Abramsky to become head of the London \"Beth Din\".  Hertz antagonised others by his strong support for Zionism in the 1920s and 1930s, when many Jews were against it, fearing that it would lead to accusations against the Jewish community of divided loyalty. Hertz was strongly opposed to Reform and Liberal Judaism, though he did not allow this to create personal animosities, and had no objection in principle to attending the funerals of Reform Jews.  However, despite all this, his eloquent oratory, lucid writing, erudition and sincerity earned him the respect of the majority of British Jews and many outside the Jewish community. His commentary on the Torah is still to be found in most Orthodox synagogues and Jewish homes in Great Britain. Despite there being some Ultra-Orthodox Jews who do not look up to Hertz, prominent Ultra-Orthodox Rabbi Nosson Scherman maintained that Hertz \"was a great man,\" a courageous Rabbi, and that although he was affiliated with the Jewish Theological Seminary Hertz \"was Orthodox, without any question.\"  Although Hertz vigorously denounced the horror of the Holocaust (at one point relating an eyewitness claim that \"German soldiers in football attire entered [a] stadium [near Kiev]. They snatched the infants from their mothers' arms and used them as footballs, bouncing and kicking them around the arena.\"), Hertz was opposed to the \"Kindertransport\" if it meant Jewish refugee children would be raised in the homes of gentiles. Hertz saw the British war effort in the noblest of terms, wishing Prime Minister Winston Churchill a happy 70th birthday in late 1944 with the message, \"But for your wisdom and courage there would have been a Vichy England lying prostrate before an all-powerful Satanism that spelled slavery to the western peoples, death to Israel, and night to the sacred heritage of man.\"  He was \"ex officio\" President of Jews' College, and Acting Principal, 1939–45. He was President of the Jewish Historical Society of England, 1922-3, and of the Conference of Anglo-Jewish Preachers. He was on the Board of Governors of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Chairman of the Governing Body of its Institute of Jewish Studies. He was Vice-President of a wide variety of Jewish and non-Jewish bodies, including the Anglo-Jewish Association, the London Hospital, the League of Nations Union, the National Council of Public Morals and King George's Fund for Sailors. In 1942, with the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Temple, Hertz founded the Council of Christians and Jews to combat anti-Jewish bigotry.  His daughter Judith married Rabbi Solomon Schonfeld. His great granddaughter is the economist Noreena Hertz.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calendar reform.", "content": "In the 1920s, Hertz successfully organised international opposition to a proposed calendar reform. The League of Nations was considering a calendar amendment, The World Calendar, such that a given date would fall on the same day of the week every year. This requires that one day every year (two in leap years) is not any day of the week but a \"world day\". Thus, once or twice a year there would be eight days rather than seven between consecutive Saturdays. Thus the Jewish Sabbath, which must occur every seventh day, would be on a different weekday each year. The same applies to the Christian Sabbath. Hertz realised that this would cause problems for Jews and Christians alike in observing their Sabbaths, and mobilised worldwide religious opposition to defeat the proposal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "He was made a Companion of Honour in 1943. He was also Commander of the Order of Léopold II of Belgium and had a Columbia University medal.  A memorial plaque on his former London home at 103 Hamilton Terrace, Maida Vale was unveiled on 12 March 1996.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "Hertz edited a Hebrew-English edition of the Jewish Prayer Book or Siddur (1946), and contributed to the \"Jewish Encyclopedia\" and the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\". He also edited a significant commentary on the Torah (1929–36, one volume edition 1937). Popularly known as the Hertz Chumash, this classic Hebrew-English edition of the Five Books of Moses, with corresponding Haftorahs, is used in many synagogues and classrooms throughout the English-speaking world.  It is also referred to as the \"Hertz Pentateuch\", and it includes the following features:  It also includes views of the most important medieval Jewish commentators, such as Abraham ibn Ezra, Rashi, Ramban, Radak, Sforno and Ralbag (Gersonides).  The actual writing, which produced five volumes, was done by four other people, but \"Hertz recast their material into his own style.\"  When the five volumes were combined into a single volume (and published by Soncino Press), the Revised Version translation, but not the non-Jewish commentaries, were replaced with the 1917 Jewish Publication Society translation. Both translations were lightly edited by Hertz (e.g., at Lev. 27:29 RV and Num. 10:33 JPS).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Joseph Herman Hertz (25 September 1872 – 14 January 1946) was a British Rabbi and biblical scholar. He held the position of Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom from 1913 until his death in 1946, in a period encompassing both world wars and the Holocaust.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977303}
{"src_title": "Battle of Dakar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "At the beginning of World War II, the French fleet in the Mediterranean was to have countered the Italian Navy, thereby leaving the British Royal Navy free to concentrate on the German warships in the North Sea and Atlantic.  After the defeat of France and the conclusion of the armistice between France and Nazi Germany in June 1940, there was considerable confusion as to the allegiance of the various French colonies. Some, like Cameroon and French Equatorial Africa, joined the Free French, but others, including the North African colonies, French West Africa, Syria and Indochina, remained under Vichy control. The possibility that the French fleet might come under German control led the British to attack the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir on 3 July 1940. While the British had eliminated a potential threat, the attack discouraged other units from joining the Free French and Allies. De Gaulle believed that he could persuade the French forces in Dakar to join the Allied cause. Much would be gained by this. Another Vichy French colony changing sides would have great political impact. Also the gold reserves of the Banque de France and the Polish government in exile were stored in Dakar; and the port of Dakar was far superior as a naval base to Freetown, British Sierra Leone, which was the only Allied port in the area. Thus the Allies decided to send a task force to Dakar: an aircraft carrier (), two battleships ( and ), five cruisers, ten destroyers, and several transports carrying 8,000 troops (the 10st Brigade of the Royal Marines and the 13th demi-brigade of the French Foreign Legion). Their orders were to negotiate with the French governor for a peaceful occupation, but if this was unsuccessful, to take the city by force.  The Vichy forces present at Dakar included the unfinished battleship, one of the most advanced warships in the French fleet, then about 95% complete. She had left Brest, France on 18 June, just before the Germans reached the port. Before the establishment of the Vichy government,, a British aircraft carrier, had been operating with the French forces in Dakar. Once the Vichy regime was in power, however, \"Hermes\" left port but remained on watch, and was joined by the Australian heavy cruiser. Aircraft from \"Hermes\" attacked \"Richelieu\" and had struck her once with a torpedo. The French ship was immobilized but was still able to function as a floating gun battery.  A force of three cruisers, comprising,, and, and three destroyers had left Toulon in southern France for Dakar just a few days earlier. \"Gloire\" was slowed by mechanical troubles and was intercepted by \"Australia\" which ordered the French cruiser to sail for Casablanca. The other two cruisers and the destroyers outran the pursuing Allied cruisers and reached Dakar safely. Three Vichy submarines and several lighter ships were also at Dakar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "On 23 September, the Fleet Air Arm dropped propaganda leaflets on the city of Dakar. Then Free French aircraft flew off \"Ark Royal\" and landed at the airport, but their crews were immediately taken prisoner. A boat with representatives of de Gaulle entered the port but was fired upon. At 10:00, Vichy ships trying to leave the port were given warning shots from \"Australia\". As these ships returned to port, Vichy-controlled coastal batteries opened fire on \"Australia\". Their guns, which had a range of, were 240mm/50 Modèle 1902 gun that had come from the \"Vergniaud\", a French semi-dreadnought battleship that had been scrapped in the 1920s. An engagement between the Allied fleet and the batteries continued for several hours. In the afternoon \"Australia\" intercepted and fired on the Vichy destroyer, setting her on fire and causing her to be beached.  Also in the afternoon, an attempt was made to set Free French troops ashore on a beach at Rufisque, to the south-east of Dakar. The attack failed due to fog and heavy fire from strongpoints defending the beach. General de Gaulle declared he did not want to \"shed the blood of Frenchmen for Frenchmen\" and called off the assault.  During the next two days, the Allied fleet continued to attack the coastal defences and the Vichy forces continued to defend them. \"Richelieu\" was hit by two 15-inch shells from \"Barham\". On the second day of action, guns 7 and 8 (in turret number 2) of \"Richelieu\" failed on the first round. The following day, the crews were switched and main turret number 1 was used. Propellant charges reconditioned from charges left by the battleship \"Strasbourg\" in Dakar, during winter 1939, were used but these gave a significant reduction in range and caused problems of fire control. Over the two days \"Richelieu\" fired a total of 24 rounds. No hits were recorded by \"Richelieu\".  During these engagements, two Vichy submarines (\"Persée\" and \"Ajax\") were sunk, and the destroyer \"L'Audacieux\" damaged.  The Allied fleet also suffered damage: \"Resolution\" was torpedoed by the submarine, and \"Barham\" was hit by two shells from the coastal defence batteries which had been manned by crew from the No 1 main turret of \"Richelieu\". The cruisers \"Australia\" and \"Cumberland\" were also damaged.  Overall, the Battle of Dakar did not go well for the Allies. The Vichy forces did not back down. \"Resolution\" was so heavily damaged she had to be towed to Cape Town. During most of this conflict, bombers of the Vichy French Air Force (\"Armée de l'Air de Vichy\"), based in North Africa, bombed the British base at Gibraltar. On 24 September about 50 aircraft dropped 150 bombs while on 25 September about 100 aircraft dropped 300 bombs on the harbour and dockyards. Most of the bombs missed. Some damage was caused, but few casualties were suffered. Only the British armed trawler was sunk by direct hits. Finally, the Allies withdrew, leaving Dakar and French West Africa in Vichy hands.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The effects of the Allied failure were mostly political. De Gaulle had believed that he would be able to persuade the Vichy French at Dakar to change sides, but this turned out not to be the case, a result that damaged his standing among the Allies. Even his success in the Battle of Gabon two months later did not wholly repair this damage. He would have to content himself with the much less important and economically developed French Equatorial Africa as the main Free French territory for the time being.  English novelist Evelyn Waugh participated in the expedition as an officer in the Royal Marines. The battle has a role in his semi-autobiographical novel \"Men at Arms\", which forms the first part of his Sword of Honour trilogy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Dakar, also known as Operation Menace, was an unsuccessful attempt in September 1940 by the Allies to capture the strategic port of Dakar in French West Africa (modern-day Senegal). It was hoped that the success of the operation could overthrow the pro-German Vichy French administration in the colony, and be replaced by a pro-British Free French one under General Charles de Gaulle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977304}
{"src_title": "Miss A", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Originally, the group consisted of five trainees who were formed by JYP Entertainment in 2010. They first appeared in Chinese variety shows performing dance routines and songs as the \"Chinese Wonder Girls,\" with Woo Hyerim as a member, who was placed in Wonder Girls soon before Miss A's debut in order to replace Sunmi. In March 2010, fifteen-year-old trainee Bae Suzy joined the group which, then a trio became known as 'Miss A'. The group signed with the Samsung Electronics group in China and released a song used for the commercial called \"Love Again\" for the Samsung Beat Festival. Lee Min Young, a solo artist and a long-time trainee in America, also made a cameo appearance in the music video, and joined the group for their South Korean debut in April 2010.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2010–2011: Debut, \"A Class\", and Chinese debut.", "content": "Miss A made their official debut in South Korea as a four-member group on July 1 with their single \"Bad Girl Good Girl.\" The song was taken from their debut single album \"Bad but Good\". Miss A received first place in the on KBS \"Music Bank\", becoming the fastest girl group to take the #1 spot on a music show.  The group also consequently got first place program \"Inkigayo\" from the SBS. On August 1, 2010, Miss A received their first \"Mutizen\" award on M.net's \"M! Countdown\". The song stayed as the number 1 song for four straight weeks, breaking the previous record set by Girls' Generation.  The group later on made their comeback with their second single album called \"Step Up\" on September 26. The group promoted \"Breathe\" as the lead single for the single album and showed an \"exotic and [...] doll-like transformation\" that was completely different from their debut EP. The first performance was on \"M! Countdown\" on October 7. The group received first place on \"M! Countdown\" in the last week of October.  In May 2011, Miss A released \"Love Alone\", a single from their unreleased album \"A Class\". \"Love Alone\" was used as a promotional song for Yuna Kim's ice show, and Miss A performed the song at the opening of \"All That Skate Spring 2011\".  Miss A announced their comeback with their first full album called \"A Class\", which was released digitally on July 18, 2011. \"A Class\" consists of a mix of previously released hits and four new tracks, including the single \"Good Bye Baby\". The album has 13 songs. They started promoting \"Good Bye Baby\" on July 21, 2011, on M.net's \"M! Countdown\", followed by KBS's \"Music Bank\", MBC's \"Show! Music Core\", and SBS's \"Inkigayo\". On the following week of promotions, they won all awards from the shows.  On September 30 of the same year, Miss A debuted in China with the release of a special edition of their first full album, containing a DVD with music videos, as well as Chinese versions of \"Bad Girl Good Girl\", \"Breathe\", \"Good Bye Baby\" and \"Love Again\". After the Chinese album release, it ranked #3 on Taiwan's G-Music Chart.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012: \"Touch\" and \"Independent Women Part III\".", "content": "Miss A announced their comeback in Korea with an EP called \"Touch\", released on February 20, 2012. On February 19, 2012, the music video was uploaded to YouTube through Miss A's official channel and gained over one million views in one day.  \"Touch\", both the song and the album, peaked at #2 on Gaon Chart Digital Singles and Physical Albums rankings for the 4th week of February.  Miss A started their promotions for \"Touch\" on February 23 on M.net's \"M! Countdown\" and on other music shows respectively. On February 29, Miss A won the Champion Song on MBC MUSIC's \"Show Champion\" with the song \"Touch\". On March 1, \"Touch\" also went to #1 on M.net \"M! Countdown\". On March 4, they won Mutizen on SBS's \"Inkigayo\" with \"Touch\". On March 7 Miss A won on jTBC \"Music On Top\".  On March 22, popular Chinese video sharing site YinYueTai revealed Miss A's Chinese music video for \"Touch\". On March 23, Miss A released a Chinese version of the \"Touch\" album in Hong Kong and Taiwan. This album contains the Korean and Chinese version of \"Touch\" and also the music videos under the DVD version. After the release, \"Touch\" immediately topped Chinese online charts.  The group wrapped up their promotions for the album by performing \"Over U\", another song from the album, on each music program during their last week.  On October 8, 2012, Miss A announced their comeback with their fifth project album entitled \"Independent Women Part III\". The five-track mini-album was released on October 15. On October 16, Miss A were involved in a minor car accident. They were taken to a hospital, and continued their schedules with only a few hours delay. They began their promotions for its lead single, \"I Don't Need a Man\", on October 18. \"I Don't Need a Man\" was also included on Miss A's next album, \"Hush\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013–2017: \"Hush\", \"Colors\", hiatus and disbandment.", "content": "On October 29, 2013, Miss A released their second studio album, \"Hush\".  Miss A released their extended play \"Colors\" on March 30, 2015. This was accompanied by an online reality series, \"Real Miss A\". The music video for the lead single, \"Only You\", gained more than 2 million views on YouTube within 24 hours.  Following the end of \"Colors\" promotions, Miss A became inactive indefinitely. In May 2016, Jia left the group; according to management, the other members were focusing on solo activities at the time. In November 2017, it was reported that Min had also departed from the group as her contract with JYP Entertainment had come to an end.  On December 27, 2017, JYP confirmed that the group had disbanded.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Miss A (Hangul: ) was a South Korean girl group formed by JYP Entertainment. The group debuted in July 2010 with the single \"Bad Girl Good Girl\" as a quartet consisting of Fei, Jia, Min, and Suzy. Their debut song reached number one on the Gaon Digital Chart, which made them the first act ever to have their debut song reach the top of the chart, the song also became the best-performing single of 2010 on the chart.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977305}
{"src_title": "Nada (singer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Nada's début occurred at the age of fifteen at the 1969 Sanremo Music Festival with the song \"Ma che freddo fa\", which gave her a sudden success, also with the Spanish language version \"Hace frío ya\". The following year she participated in the festival again, singing \"Pa' diglielo a ma\"' together with Ron. She also took part in Canzonissima, a popular TV programme, with \"Che male fa la gelosia\".  In 1971 she won the Sanremo Music Festival with \"Il cuore è uno zingaro\", together with Nicola Di Bari, obtaining notable international success. In Sanremo again in 1972 she was third with \"Il re di denari\". Later she returned to Sanremo in 1987 (\"Bolero\"), in 1999 (\"Guardami negli occhi\") and in 2007 (\"Luna in piena\").  In 1983 she was voted \"singer of the year\" with her summer hit \"Amore disperato\". In 1998 the Italian band Super B gained a notable success with a cover of Nada's song \"Amore Disperato\".  Her 2004 album \"Tutto l'amore che mi manca\" (produced by John Parish, former producer of PJ Harvey) was awarded as best independent album of the year in Italy. The album also contains a duet with Howe Gelb. Also the following studio album \"Luna in piena\" won the award for best independent album in 2007.  On June 21, 2009 Nada participated in the \"Amiche per l'Abruzzo\" concert at San Siro in Milan, a line-up of all female Italian stars organised by Laura Pausini to raise money to help the city of L'Aquila, devastated by the earthquake earlier on that year. Nada joined a special project band consisting of Marina Rei, Paola Turci and Carmen Consoli on stage for the final song of the first part, singing a rousing rendition of her classic \"Ma che freddo fa\".  2011 sees the release of her new studio album \"Vamp\".  In 2016, her single \"Senza Un Perché\" was featured on the HBO Series \"The Young Pope\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nada (born Nada Malanima November 17, 1953 in Gabbro (), Rosignano Marittimo, Province of Livorno) is an Italian singer. She was nicknamed \"Il pulcino del Gabbro\" (\"the little chick of Gabbro\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977306}
{"src_title": "L'Arroseur Arrosé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Shot in Lyon in the spring of 1895, the film portrays a simple practical joke in which a gardener is tormented by a boy who steps on the hose that the gardener is using to water his plants, cutting off the water flow. When the gardener tilts the nozzle up to inspect it, the boy releases the hose, causing the water to spray him. The gardener is stunned and his hat is knocked off, but he soon catches on. A chase ensues, both on and off-screen (the camera never moves from its original position) until the gardener catches the boy and administers a spanking. The entire film lasts only 45 seconds, but this simple bit of slapstick may be the forerunner of all subsequent film comedy. The 1896 film version replaces the boy with a teenager and the spanking action is substituted with a kick in the rump.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "In the earliest years of the history of film, the cinema was used by pioneers such as Thomas Edison and the Lumières to entertain by the sheer novelty of the invention, and most films were short recordings of mundane events, such as a sneeze, or the arrival of a train. Ever seeking to innovate, the Lumières took some of the first steps toward narrative film with \"L'Arroseur arrosé\". Given the documentary nature of existing films up until this point, a scripted, comedic film shown among these was unexpected by an audience, enhancing its comedic surprise value.  It was filmed by means of the Cinématographe, an all-in-one camera, which also serves as a film projector and developer. As with all early Lumière movies, this film was made in a 35 mm format with an aspect ratio of 1.33:1.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cast.", "content": "Louis Lumière used his own gardener, François Clerc, to portray the gardener. For the mischievous boy, Lumière used a young apprentice carpenter from the Lumière factory who is variously credited as Daniel Duval and Benoît Duval (born 1881). But Léon Trotobas seems to have been the first boy to play the role in La Ciotat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poster.", "content": "The poster for \"L'Arroseur arrosé\" has the distinction of being the first poster designed to promote an individual film. Although posters had been used to advertise cinematic projection shows since 1890, early posters were typically devoted to describing the quality of the recordings and touting the technological novelty of these shows. The poster for \"L'Arroseur\", illustrated by Marcellin Auzolle, depicts an audience (in the foreground) laughing as the film (in the background) is projected against a screen. It depicts the moment the gardener is splashed in the face, and is thus also the first film poster to depict an actual scene from a film.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Copies and imitations.", "content": "As copyright law was neither enforced nor yet well-defined for the emerging art of cinema, it was common both for competing filmmakers to reshoot a popular film short and for distributors to duplicate a film print to show as their own. Through these practices, \"L'Arroseur Arrosé\" was copied several times and released under a number of different titles in both France and the United States, including at least one remake by the Lumières themselves. Little is known about most of these copies, although one known remake was filmed by Georges Méliès, titled \"L'Arroseur\", in 1896. French New Wave director François Truffaut later included an homage to the gag in his 1958 film, \"Les Mistons\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current status.", "content": "Given its age, this short film is available to freely download from the Internet. It has also featured in a number of film collections including \"Landmarks of Early Film Volume 1\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "L'Arroseur Arrosé (; also known as The Waterer Watered and The Sprinkler Sprinkled) is an 1895 French short black-and-white silent comedy film directed and produced by Louis Lumière and starring François Clerc and Benoît Duval. It was first screened on June 10, 1895.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977307}
{"src_title": "2014–15 UEFA Champions League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 77 teams from 53 of the 54 UEFA member associations participated in the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League (the exception being Liechtenstein, which do not organise a domestic league). The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients was used to determine the number of participating teams for each association: The winners of the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League were given an additional entry as title holders if they would not qualify for the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League through their domestic league (because of the restriction that no association can have more than four teams playing in the Champions League, if the title holders are from the top three associations and finish outside the top four in their domestic league, the title holders' entry comes at the expense of the fourth-placed team of their association). However, this additional entry was not necessary for this season since the title holders qualified for the tournament through their domestic league.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association ranking.", "content": "For the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League, the associations are allocated places according to their 2013 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2008–09 to 2012–13.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Since the title holders Real Madrid qualified for the Champions League group stage through their domestic league (as the third-placed team of the 2013–14 La Liga), the group stage spot reserved for the title holders is vacated, and the following changes to the default allocation system are made:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "League positions of the previous season shown in parentheses (TH: Title holders).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "The schedule of the competition is as follows (all draws held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland, unless stated otherwise).  The final date of 6 June could cause problems for South American international players called up to play in the 2015 Copa América, which begins on 11 June. FIFA international rules require clubs to release players 14 days prior to the start of an international tournament, which means the players would have to miss the Champions League final if the rules were enforced. If the players were allowed to play in the Champions League final, that would leave them as few as five days to travel and train prior to playing in the Copa América.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying rounds.", "content": "In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2014 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The draw for the first and second qualifying rounds was held on 23 June 2014. The first legs were played on 1 and 2 July, and the second legs were played on 8 July 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 15 and 16 July, and the second legs were played on 22 and 23 July 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: one for champions (Champions Route) and one for non-champions (League Route). The losing teams in both sections entered the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League play-off round.  The draw for the third qualifying round was held on 18 July 2014. The first legs were played on 29 and 30 July, and the second legs were played on 5 and 6 August 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The play-off round was split into two separate sections: one for champions (Champions Route) and one for non-champions (League Route). The losing teams in both sections entered the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League group stage.  The draw for the play-off round was held on 8 August 2014. The first legs were played on 19 and 20 August, and the second legs were played on 26 and 27 August 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The draw for the group stage was held in Monaco on 28 August 2014. The 32 teams were allocated into four pots based on their 2014 UEFA club coefficients, with the title holders being placed in Pot 1 automatically. They were drawn into eight groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.  In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The matchdays were 16–17 September, 30 September–1 October, 21–22 October, 4–5 November, 25–26 November, and 9–10 December 2014.  A total of 18 national associations were represented in the group stage. Ludogorets Razgrad and Malmö FF made their debut appearances in the group stage.  Teams that qualified for the group stage also participated in the 2014–15 UEFA Youth League, a competition available to players aged 19 or under.  The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 16, while the third-placed teams entered the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League round of 32. See 2014–15 UEFA Champions League group stage#Tiebreakers for tiebreakers if two or more teams are equal on points.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams played against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final. The mechanism of the draws for each round was as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "The draw for the round of 16 was held on 15 December 2014. The first legs were played on 17, 18, 24 and 25 February, and the second legs were played on 10, 11, 17 and 18 March 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 20 March 2015. The first legs were played on 14 and 15 April, and the second legs were played on 21 and 22 April 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The draw for the semi-finals and final (to determine the \"home\" team for administrative purposes) was held on 24 April 2015. The first legs were played on 5 and 6 May, and the second legs were played on 12 and 13 May 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Squad of the season.", "content": "The UEFA technical study group selected the following 18 players as the squad of the tournament:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2014–15 UEFA Champions League was the 60th season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 23rd season since it was renamed from the European Champion Clubs' Cup to the UEFA Champions League.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977308}
{"src_title": "Alice Masaryková", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Alice Masaryk was born in Vienna, Austria as the first child to the future founder and first president of Czechoslovakia, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (Thomas Masaryk) and his US American wife Charlotte Garrigue. Her siblings were Herbert Masaryk, Olga Masaryková, Eleanor Masaryková and Jan Masaryk. In her memoirs Masaryk recalls a \"happy and fulfilled childhood...[and] dedicated herself mainly to the study of languages, religion and especially reading.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "The family moved to Prague when she was 3 years old, where Masaryk started school in 1886. Her education lasted until 1898 and included advanced secondary education at the first girls' grammar school in Prague, \"Minerva\". This was followed up by university studies at the renowned Charles University in Prague to fulfill her dream of becoming a doctor. Masaryk reports that she took the opportunity very seriously not least because she was one of few women admitted for medical sciences. However she left the department after a year for several reasons. She continued her studies in diverse subjects such as History, Sociology and Philosophy at the Charles University and moved to London, Berlin (1901-1902) and Leipzig to \"deepen her academic education by studying abroad.\" She received a Doctorate on 23 June 1903, with a dissertation on \"The Magna Charta of Freedom of King John Lackland, 1215\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "After she finished her studies, Masaryk was invited to stay at the University of Chicago Social Settlement (\"UCSS\") where she met Julia Lathrop, Mary McDowell and Jane Addams. This encounter and the time spent in the USA \"influenced her future professional development...[by] learn[ing] the progressive American methods of social work\".  After returning to Czechoslovakia she worked as a teacher in České Budějovice from 1907 to 1910, where she taught Geography and History at a secondary educational level. In 1910 she returned to Prague to teach at a new school.  Masaryk was one of the founders of the sociological department at the Charles University in Prague in 1911, which focused on social pathologies including topics like: \"reality of poverty, the working and living conditions of the industrial workers of Prague, neglected children and the family, alcoholism, venereal disease, nutrition, and social hygiene.\" Masaryk's colleague, Anna Berkovcova reports Masaryk's credo: After being detained in 1915, Alice Masaryk was arrested and was not then allowed to return to her job as a teacher and with the closure of the sociological departement she began teaching sociology from her home only until in 1918 she established of the first Czechoslovak Higher School of Social Work in collaboration with her friend Anna Berkovcova. Anna Berkovcova describes the reasoning for the founding of the school as follows: The school was established with the authority of the Bohemian Commission for Child Care and was at the time \"the only Bohemian welfare organization recognized by the Austro-Hungarian government.\" Masaryk and Berkovcova are both recognised as the founders of social education in Czechoslovakia. The objective of the school was shaped by the \"sociology developed by Jane Addams and George Herbert Mead at the University of Chicago...and the UCSS.\"  After the establishment of the Czechoslovak Republic Masaryk was appointed as the head of the Czechoslovak Red Cross organisation on 6 February 1919, and she presided this organisation gratuitously until the German invasion in 1938. This position enabled her to change the Austrian welfare system, for example by establishing policlinics and food kitchens for the poor. Following the German invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1938, Masaryk took up on an invitation to stay at the UCSS. A lecture tour on the social condition of Czechoslovakia, where she replaced her brother, was cancelled after 5 months. Several traumatic incidents led to her hospitalisation from 1940 to 1945. She returned to Czechoslovakia after the end of World War II only to have to emigrate again when the Soviet Union seized power. She permanently stayed in the US and continued to be politically active for the Czechoslovak cause.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "Alice Masaryk's involvement in Czechoslovak politics was overshadowed by her father's role in the creation of an independent Czechoslovak state. In 1915 Masaryk was accused of hiding her father's political writings and detained for eight months in a prison in Vienna. Consideration of her execution was only quieted after the USA put pressure on the Austrian government. The interfering was based on a public uproar in the U.S., in which Masaryk was openly supported by prominent personalities like Julia Lathrop, Jane Addams and Mary McDowell. In 1919 Alice Masaryk was one of the first women elected as members of parliament of the Czechoslovak Republic founded on 28 October 1918, and headed by her father Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk as the first president. When her mother died in 1923, Masaryk replaced her as the official representative alongside her father and was essentially the First Lady of the new Republic. In 1928 Masaryk was the president of the \"First International Conference of Social Work\" and at a consequent meeting in 1939 clearly outlined her political attitude when Masaryk was an active supporter of the academic women network and it is also recorded that Thomas Masaryk contributed to a monetary fund for the First International Fellowship of the International Federation of University Women (\"IFUW\").  The German occupation forced Masaryk into exile. She continued to be politically active during her stay in the U.S. by dedicating herself to charitable activities. With the German attack on Poland on 1 September 1939 Masaryk \"openly joined the campaign for the liberation of Czechoslovakia.\"  With the end of World War II, Masaryk returned from the USA only to witness the take over of the Soviet Union in 1948. When her brother, then the Foreign Minister of Czechoslovakia was found dead in March 1948, Alice Masaryk was forced to emigrate and she found a permanent refuge in the USA. She carried on her political work and from 1950 to 1954 \"frequently spoke on the Radio Free Europe, encouraging those remaining in Czechoslovakia to remain steadfast in their struggle for democracy.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alice Masaryková or Alice Garrigue Masaryk (3 May 1879 – 29 November 1966) was a Czech teacher, sociologist and politician. She is a prominent figure within the field of applied sociology and known to many as the daughter of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and the First Lady of Czechoslovakia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977309}
{"src_title": "Jean Clouet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The authentic presence of this artist at the French court is first mentioned in 1516, the second year of the reign of Francis I. By a deed of gift made by the king to the artist's son of his father's estate, which had escheated to the crown, we learn that he was not actually a Frenchman, and never naturalized. He is supposed to have been a native of the Low Countries, and probably his real name was Cloet. He lived several years in Tours, and there it was he met his wife, who was the daughter of a jeweller.  He is recorded as living in Tours in 1522, and there is a reference to his wife's residence in the same town in 1523. In that year Clouet was awarded the position of Groom of the Chamber by the King, with a stipend at first of 180 livres and later of 240. He and his wife were certainly living in Paris in 1529, probably in the neighborhood of the parish of Ste Innocente, in the cemetery of which they were buried. He stood godfather at a christening on 8 July 1540, but was no longer living in December 1541.  His brother, known as Clouet de Navarre, was in the service of Marguerite d'Angoulême, sister of Francis I, and is referred to in a letter written by Marguerite about 1529. Jean Clouet had two children, François and Catherine, who married Abel Foulon, and left one son, who continued the profession of François Clouet after his decease. Jean Clouet was undoubtedly a very skillful portrait painter, although no work in existence has been proved to be his. He painted a portrait of the mathematician Oronce Finé in 1530, when Fine was thirty-six years old, but the portrait is now known only by a print. Janet is generally believed, however, to have been responsible for a very large number of the wonderful portrait drawings now preserved at Chantilly, and at the Bibliothèque Nationale, and to him is attributed the portrait of an unknown man at Hampton Court, that of the dauphin Francis, son of Francis I at Antwerp, and one other portrait, that of Francis I in the Louvre.  Seven miniature portraits in the \"Manuscript of the Gallic War\" in the Bibliothèque Nationale (13,429) are attributed to Janet with very strong probability, and to these may be added an eighth in the collection of J. Pierpont Morgan, and representing Charles I de Cossé, Maréchal de Brissac, identical in its characteristics with the seven already known. There are other miniatures in the collection of Mr Morgan, which may be attributed to Jean Clouet with some strong degree of probability, inasmuch as they closely resemble the portrait drawings at Chantilly and in Paris which are taken to be his work.  The collection of drawings preserved in France, and attributed to this artist and his school, comprises portraits of all the important persons of the time of Francis I. In one album of drawings the portraits are annotated by the king himself, and his merry reflections, stinging taunts or biting satires, add very largely to a proper understanding of the life of his time and court. Definite evidence, however, is still lacking to establish the attribution of the best of these drawings and of certain oil paintings to Jean Clouet.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean (or Janet) Clouet (1480–1541) was a miniaturist and painter who worked in France during the High Renaissance. He was the father of François Clouet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977310}
{"src_title": "Christiane Taubira", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Christiane Taubira was born on 2 February 1952 in Cayenne, French Guiana, France. She studied economics at Panthéon-Assas University. Taubira is the sister of French politician Jean-Marie Taubira, who is Secretary General of the Guianese Progressive Party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Having served as President of the Walwari Party, Mme Taubira from 1993 served as a Deputy to the French National Assembly, being re-elected in 1997. Non-affiliated in 1993, she then voted in favour of the conservative Edouard Balladur to form a Cabinet of ministers in 1993. In 1994, she secured election as a Member of the European Parliament (MEP), being the fourth on the \"Énergie Radicale\" list led by Bernard Tapie. In June 1997, she then joined the Socialist Party (PS), and then-Prime Minister Lionel Jospin (PS) appointed her to head a government commission into Gold mining in Guiana.  In 2002, Mme Taubira was a Left Radical Party (PRG) candidate for the Presidency, although she did not belong to the Party; she won 2.32% of the votes. After 2002, she became Vice-President of the Left Radical Party. She was elected as its Deputy on 16 June 2002, and chose to join the Socialist group in the Assembly.  Having been nominated Minister of Justice by Jean-Marc Ayrault, following the victory of François Hollande in the 2012 Presidential Elections, she was supposed to work with Junior Minister Delphine Batho. However, their relationship quickly broke down being unable to share responsibilities. After the June 2012 Legislative elections, Delphine Batho was moved to become Minister of Ecology replacing Nicole Bricq, leaving Mme Christiane Taubira in charge of the Ministry of Justice. She resigned her position as Minister of Justice on 27 January 2016 after a disagreement with President Hollande over policies related to the treatment of French Nationals convicted of terrorism.  Taubira was the driving force behind a 21 May 2001 law that recognises the Atlantic slave trade and slavery as a crime against humanity. In 2013, she voiced her support for land reforms in France's Caribbean territories as compensation for slavery.  As Minister of Justice, Taubira formally introduced the electoral promise of François Hollande. It became Law 2013-404, which legalised same-sex marriage in France.  Taubira resigned in January 2016 after openly disagreeing with the French president's proposal to strip French nationality from dual-citizens who are convicted of terrorism, a measure championed by Hollande in the wake of the terrorist attacks that shook Paris on 13 November. One week later, she published \"Murmures à la jeunesse\", a book about this proposal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Taubira was married twice. She has four children with her second husband, Roland Delannon. They are divorced. Delannon is a separatist politician who founded the Decolonization and Social Emancipation Movement; he was jailed for 18 months for planning to blow up an oil and gas facility in the 1980s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Victim of racist attacks.", "content": "Like other, Christiane Taubira faces many racist and sexist insults.  She allowed the Guyanese political party Walwari to make a direct citation in the Cayenne criminal court against Anne-Sophie Leclère, a candidate for the Front National who relayed on her Facebook page in October 2013 a racist cartoon comparing Christine Taubira to a monkey. She was sentenced to nine months in prison and five years of ineligibility by the court before the judgement was quashed on appeal as Walwari's action was deemed invalid. In September 2016, the Paris criminal court, which had opened an investigation when the facts were revealed, found Anne-Sophie Leclère guilty of the crime of public insult and sentenced her to a suspended fine of 3,000 euros. In November 2013, the Office of condemned the comments, which it considered as racist attacks against Christine Taubira, in particular on the cover of the extreme right-wing weekly, which featured her photo with the caption: \"\"Clever as a monkey, Taubira finds the banana\"\". The weekly rejects the accusation of racism, arguing that it merely used two French expressions, \"\"the second of which - the part about the banana - is familiarly used to describe a person in good shape\"\". The minister denounced comments of \"\"extreme violence\"\" denying her \"\"belonging to the human race\"\". The weekly's editor was sentenced to a fine of 10,000 euros for its front page on 30 October 2014. The public prosecutor's office has appealed against the fine as it was too lenient.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christiane Marie Taubira (; born 2 February 1952, in Cayenne, French Guiana) is a French politician who on 15 May 2012, was appointed Minister of Justice of France in the Ayrault Government under President François Hollande. She resigned from office on 27 January 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977311}
{"src_title": "F-Droid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "F-Droid was founded by Ciaran Gultnieks in 2010. The client was forked from Aptoide's source code. The project is now run by the English nonprofit F-Droid Limited.  Replicant, a fully free software Android operating system, uses F-Droid as its default and recommended app store. The Guardian Project, a suite of free and secure Android applications, started running their own F-Droid repository in early 2012. In 2012, Free Software Foundation Europe featured F-Droid in their \"Free Your Android!\" campaign to raise awareness of the privacy and security risks of proprietary software. F-Droid was chosen as part of the GNU Project's \"GNU a Day\" initiative during their 30th anniversary to encourage more use of free software.  In March 2016 F-Droid partnered with The Guardian Project and CopperheadOS with the goal of creating \"a solution that can be verifiably trusted from the operating system, through the network and network services, all the way up to the app stores and apps themselves\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scope of project.", "content": "The F-Droid repository contains a growing number of nearly 3,000 apps, compared to over 1.43 million on the Google Play Store. The project incorporates several software sub-projects:  F-Droid builds apps from publicly available and freely licensed source code. The project is run entirely by volunteers and has no formal app review process. New apps are contributed by user submissions or the developers themselves. The only requirement is that they be free of proprietary software.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Client application.", "content": "To install the F-Droid client, the user has to allow installation from \"Unknown sources\" in Android settings and retrieve the APK (installable file) from the official site. Installation is not available through the Google Play store due to the non-compete clause of the Google Play Developer Distribution Agreement.  The client was designed to be resilient against surveillance, censorship, and unreliable Internet connections. To promote anonymity, it supports HTTP proxies and repositories hosted on Tor onion services. Client devices can function as impromptu \"app stores\", distributing downloaded apps to other devices over local Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Android Beam. The F-Droid client app will automatically offer updates for installed F-Droid apps. When the F-Droid Privileged Extension is installed, updates can also be conducted by the app itself in the background. The extension can be installed via rooting, or by flashing a zip file on the device.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Key management.", "content": "The Android operating system checks that updates are signed with the same key, preventing others from distributing updates that are signed by a different key. Originally, the Google Play store required applications to be signed by the developer of the application, while F-Droid only allowed its own signing keys. So apps previously installed from another source have to be reinstalled to receive updates.  As of 2017, Google Play encourages developers to let Google Play manage the signing keys, offering a similar service to what F-Droid has offered since 2011, and F-Droid now lets developers use their own keys via the reproducible build process.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "F-Droid is a community-maintained software repository for Android, similar to the Google Play store. The main repository, hosted by the project, contains only free/libre apps. Applications can be browsed, downloaded and installed from the F-Droid website or client app without the need to register for an account. \"Anti-Features\" such as advertising, user tracking, or dependence on nonfree software are flagged in app descriptions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977312}
{"src_title": "Cladophora", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cladophora balls.", "content": "\"Cladophora\" balls are formed from the filaments of the alga which are photosynthetic. Large numbers of these balls were thrown ashore in Devon, England. They had an average diameter of 2.5 cm and several million balls were found forming a layer.  This is not to be confused with marimo, though formerly part of \"Cladophora\", is now called \"Aegagropila linnaei\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Laotian Mekong weed.", "content": "In Laos, \"Cladophora\" spp. (ໄຄ \"river weed\" or more precisely ໄຄຫີນ \"rock river weed\") are commonly eaten as a delicacy and usually known in English under the name \"Mekong weed\". The algae grow on underwater rocks and thrive in clear spots of water in the Mekong river basin. They are harvested 1 to 5 months a year and most often eaten in dry sheets (ໄຄແຜ່ນ kaipen -kháy sheets-), similar to Crispy Chinese Seaweed or Japanese nori, though much cruder in their format. Luang Prabang's speciality is dry khai with sesame (kaipen), while Vang Vieng is famous for its roasted kháy sheets. They can be eaten in strips as an appetizer, with a meal or as a snack with Beer Lao. Luang Prabang kháy sheets kaipen are the most readily available form of Mekong weed and are famous throughout the country and in the neighbouring Isaan, though difficult to find beyond Vientiane. Mekong weed can also be eaten raw, in soups, or cooked as in a Lao \"amok\" preparation called ຫມົກໄຄ.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Cladophora\" as an asset and a nuisance.", "content": "The genus \"Cladophora\" is cosmopolitan and accordingly infestations cannot often be regarded logically as being invasive. Where they occur they may at various times be seen as beneficial, as a nuisance, or an outright pest.  Modest growth of \"Cladophora\" is generally harmless; the growth is an important food for many fish and other aquatic animals, as a buffer for the sequestration of nutrients in the water body and for protection of some aquatic organisms from solar ultraviolet radiation.  Where \"Cladophora\" becomes a pest is generally where special circumstances cause such drastic overgrowth that algal blooms develop and form floating mats. Typical examples include where hypertrophication or high mortality of rival organisms produce high concentrations of dissolved phosphorus. Extensive floating mats prevent circulation that is necessary for the aeration of deeper water and, by blocking the light, they kill photosynthesising organisms growing beneath. The mats interfere with the fishing industry by clogging nets and preventing the use of lines. Where they wash ashore the masses of rotting material reduce shoreline property values along water bodies such as the Great Lakes in the United States.  Quagga mussel populations have increased tremendously during the same time frame as the blooming of \"Cladophora\", though their ecological relationships are not yet clear and may be complex.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diversity.", "content": "Species include:  \"Aegagropila linnaei\" (marimo) was formerly placed here as \"Cladophora aegagropila\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cladophora is a genus of reticulated filamentous Ulvophyceae (green algae). The genus \"Cladophora\" contains many species that are very hard to tell apart and classify, mainly because of the great variation in their appearances, which is affected by habitat, age and environmental conditions. Unlike \"Spirogyra\" the filaments of \"Cladophora\" branch and do not undergo conjugation. There are two multicellular stages in its life cycle - a haploid gametophyte and a diploid sporophyte - which look highly similar. The only way to tell the two stages apart is to either count their chromosomes, or examine their offspring. The haploid gametophyte produces haploid gametes by mitosis and the diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis. The only visible difference between the gametes and spores of \"Cladophora\" is that the gametes have two flagella and the spores have four. The \"Cladophora\" species can be a major nuisance causing major alteration to benthic conditions linked particularly with increased phosphorus loading.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977313}
{"src_title": "Juha Sipilä", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and military service.", "content": "Sipilä graduated from Puolanka lukio (Finland's university-preparatory high school), completing the matriculation examination with high marks in 1980. In 1986 Sipilä earned his Master's degree in science (technology) from the University of Oulu.  Sipilä has the rank of Captain in the reserves of the Finnish Defence Forces.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business.", "content": "Sipilä's career started at Lauri Kuokkanen Ltd., first as a thesis worker and later as a product development manager. Changing jobs, he became a partner and later CEO at Solitra Oy. In 1998, Sipilä started his own business, Fortel Invest Oy. In 2002–2005 he worked as the CEO of Elektrobit Oyj, then returned to his own business.  Sipilä was managing director of Solitra in 1992 and became the main owner in 1994. Sipilä sold Solitra to American ADC Telecommunications in 1996, becoming a multimillionaire from the proceeds. Business ADC Mersum Oy was resold to Remec in 2001.  In 1996, Sipilä's income was the highest in Finland. According to \"Ilta-Sanomat\" he has been on the Board of Directors of 120 companies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chempolis Involvement.", "content": "Juha Sipilä was part-owner in the start-up company Chempolis. According to MOT Program (YLE) in 2012, Chempolis had received 10 million euros in public funds over 15 years along with extra funds from the Finnish Innovation Fund SITRA and Finnish state-owned financing company Finnvera. According to YLE TV News in 2017, the majority state-owned energy company Fortum saved Chempolis from bankruptcy by investing 6 million euros into the company in October 2016. Thereafter, children of Sipilä owned 5% of the company and Fortum 34%. Sipilä had been in control of the state owned companies including Fortum since the end of 2015. The Prime Ministers of Finland have not had the control of state companies previously.  Prime Minister Juha Sipilä lobbied for Chempolis in India in 2016. Chempolis issued a press release on its joint venture with India's Numaligarh Refinery to build a biorefinery in North East India (Assam) for the production of bioethanol following meetings between Prime Minister Narendra Modi, India's Finance Minister Arun Jaitley and Finland's Prime Minister Juha Sipilä on 12–14 February 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "As a student, Sipilä worked for a short time in the Finnish Centre Youth, but otherwise he did not have experience in party politics before being elected to the Finnish Parliament in 2011 with 5,543 personal votes.  In April 2012, Sipilä announced his candidacy for the chairman's position in the party congress of the summer. On June 9, 2012, the party congress elected him chairman. He beat Tuomo Puumala in the second round by 1251 to 872 delegate votes. Sipilä led his party to victory in the 2015 election, where the Centre Party gained 14 seats compared to the previous election. With 30,758 personal votes he was the most popular candidate in the election. Following the election, he was tasked with forming a government coalition; and as the leader of the Centre Party, he began formal negotiations with the Finns Party and the National Coalition Party and formed a three-party majority coalition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sipilä's Government.", "content": "Sipilä's government struggled with Finland's poor economic performance, caused according to Paul Krugman and others by the constraints of its eurozone membership and aftershocks from the European debt crisis, but also by the decline of the paper industry, the fall of Nokia and a diminution in exports to Russia. Its attempts to address the problems through policies of spending cuts and reducing labour costs were controversial, particularly cuts to education spending that were seen as threatening Finland's successful public education system. These austerity measures were partly been implemented due to European Commission pressure, which urged Finland to improve its adherence to the Stability and Growth Pact and reform its labour market to improve competitiveness. On 22 July 2015, Sipilä announced his government's commitment to reducing Finnish wage costs by 5% by 2019, an internal devaluation caused by Finland's loss of the ability to devalue its currency to boost competitiveness.  There were protests against the government's austerity measures.  In summer 2017, Finns Party split into two parties, namely Blue Reform and the current Finns Party. The Blue Reform members of the former Finns Party, including all ministers, remained in the government after the split.  Following the term of Sipilä Cabinet, the Centre Party was the biggest loser of the 2019 parliamentary election, losing 18 seats and falling from largest party to fourth place. The party's support was lower than in any parliamentary election since 1917. Due to the devastating defeat, Sipilä consequently announced that he would continue as the chairman only until Centre Party's next convention in September 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Talvivaara and Yleisradio scandal.", "content": "In 2016, Sipiläs close relatives were revealed to be part-owners of the bankrupt Talvivaara Mining Company, later renamed and re-organised into the company Terrafame, which had received considerable funds from the Finnish government. A Parliamentary Ombudsman later decided that Sipilä didn't face a conflict of interest over mine deal.  However, it was later revealed that Sipilä had contacted Yleisradio in order to instruct them on how to report on the Talvivaara and Terrafame incidents, leading to suspicion that YLE had been politically pressured.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Sipilä grew up in the small town of Puolanka, northern Finland, north of Kajaani, the firstborn of four children to mother Pirkko and father Pentti Sipilä, an elementary school teacher.  In 1981, Sipilä married Minna-Maaria Juntunen at Oulu Cathedral. They have five children. Their youngest son, Tuomo (born in 1993), died on 18 February 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wood Gas Venture.", "content": "Sipilä is known for his interest in wood gas electricity generation, which began as a hobby. The cost to bring power to his summer cottage seemed too high, and he became interested in wood gas. First, he produced the electricity with wind power and with a diesel generator, but then he started building wood gas plants. He converted an old Chevrolet El Camino into \"El Kamina\" (\"Kamiina\" means \"stove\" in Finnish.) powered by wood gas, with electronic control systems. This hobby was spun off into a company, Volter Oy, which produces wood gas power plants. A 10-house ecovillage in Kempele is powered by one such power plant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religious affiliation.", "content": "The Sipiläs are members of Rauhan Sana (transl. \"Word of Peace\", affiliated in North America with ALCA), a small Laestadian revivalist denomination within the state Lutheran church of Finland. The Sipiläs first met at a Laestadian summer camp as teenagers. Sipilä has stated he does not consider himself a legalistic Laestadian, and in interviews he has carefully distinguished his own Laestadian denomination from his home region's other, predominant, exclusive Laestadian group (Conservative Laestadianism). The chairman of board in Juha Sipilä's religious community was his wife's brother in 2015. According to Juha Sipilä, in 2012 he participated in the International Christian Chamber of Commerce ICCC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Air travel.", "content": "Juha Sipilä owned airplane Mooney Ovation 2 in 2018. Earlier he had a third share of a helicopter and other plane. In 2018 he promised to compensate all climate change gas emissions from his air travel by cultivating trees with his own hands.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Juha Petri Sipilä (; born 25 April 1961) is a Finnish politician who served as Prime Minister of Finland from 2015 to 2019. A relative newcomer to politics, he has a successful background in business. He was the leader of the Centre Party from 9 June 2012 to 7 September 2019. After leading the Centre party to victory in the 2015 general election, Sipilä formed a centre-right coalition and was appointed Prime Minister by the Finnish Parliament on 29 May 2015. On 8 March 2019, Sipilä stated his intention to resign as Prime Minister, citing difficulties in reforming Finland's health care system. President Sauli Niinistö asked him to continue with a caretaker government until a new government coalition was appointed on 6 June 2019 and was ultimately succeeded by Antti Rinne.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977314}
{"src_title": "Ezra Miller", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Miller was born and raised in Wyckoff, New Jersey. Miller has two older sisters, Saiya and Caitlin. Miller's mother, Marta Miller (née Koch), is a modern dancer. Miller's father, Robert S. Miller, was senior vice president and managing director of Hyperion Books, and later became a publisher at Workman Publishing. Miller's father is Jewish and Miller's mother, who has German and Dutch ancestry, is from a Christian background. Miller self-identifies as Jewish and \"spiritual\".  At the age of six, Miller started to train as an opera singer, in order to overcome a speech impediment. Miller has sung with the Metropolitan Opera, and performed in the American premiere of Philip Glass's opera \"White Raven\". Miller attended Rockland Country Day School and The Hudson School, dropping out at age 16 after the release of the film \"Afterschool\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Miller's start in film began in 2008 with Antonio Campos' \"Afterschool\", in the role of a teenager at a boarding school who accidentally films the drug-related deaths of two classmates, and is then asked to put together a memorial video. Miller appeared in \"City Island\" (2009), with Andy García, Julianna Margulies, and Steven Strait, and co-starred in \"Beware the Gonzo\" and \"Every Day\", both of which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival. Miller next appeared in the BBC Films film \"We Need to Talk About Kevin\" (2011), alongside Tilda Swinton and John C. Reilly, which was adapted and directed by Lynne Ramsay from American author Lionel Shriver's 2003 novel of the same name. Miller played Damien on the Showtime hit comedy series \"Californication\". Miller appeared on \"Royal Pains\" as Tucker Bryant for two seasons. In the 2012 film adaptation of the novel \"The Perks of Being a Wallflower\", Miller played Patrick, alongside Logan Lerman and Emma Watson.  Miller has been credited with singing, drumming and percussion on musical recordings by the band Sons of an Illustrious Father, as early as 2011. The band is a trio that features Lilah Larson (vocals, guitar, bass and drums), Josh Aubin (bass, keyboards, guitar, vocals) and Miller. In 2019, the band released a cover of \"Don't Cha\" by the Pussycat Dolls and Miller appeared in its music video.  Miller played Credence Barebone in the 2016 film \"Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them\", a spin-off of the \"Harry Potter\" film series. Miller reprised the role in the film's sequel, \"\", which was released in November 2018.  Miller portrays Barry Allen / The Flash in Warner Bros.' DC Comics adaptations, first appearing in cameos in \"\" and \"Suicide Squad\", and continuing the role as one of the leads in \"Justice League\". Miller is set to play the character in the standalone film \"The Flash\". Miller attended Middle East Film and Comic Con in 2018 representing their character in the DC Comics franchise film \"Justice League\". In 2020, Miller reprised the role of The Flash for a cameo appearance in the Arrowverse crossover event, \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Miller came out as queer in 2012. Having expressed an interest in \"kissing boys\" at a young age, Miller stated, \"The way I would choose to identify myself wouldn't be gay. I've been attracted mostly to'shes' but I've been with many people and I'm open to love whatever it can be.\" Miller also commented on having \"a lot of really wonderful friends who are of very different sexes and genders. I am very much in love with no one in particular.\"  Miller uses they/them pronouns, which \"GQ Britain\" stated is done \"in a pointed refusal to be gendered\". Miller stated that, for them, \"queer\" means \"I don't identify as a man. I don't identify as a woman. I barely identify as a human.\" Having used all pronouns interchangeably, Miller has also stated that they are \"comfortable with all the pronouns\" and that they \"let he/his/him ride, and that's fine.\" Although Miller has been credited as a queer icon, \"GQ Britain\" stated that they also eschew the term \"queer\", \"as even \"queer\" is a label to them\". Miller revealed having had a personal #MeToo experience with a Hollywood producer and a director, both unnamed. Miller said, \"They gave me wine and I was underaged. They were like, 'Hey, want to be in our movie about gay revolution?' And I was like, 'No, you guys are monsters.'\" Miller then went on to show support for the #MeToo movement.  In 2010, Miller dated Zoë Kravitz while they were filming \"Beware the Gonzo\".  On June 28, 2011, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, while shooting \"The Perks of Being a Wallflower\", Miller was a passenger in a vehicle that was pulled over for a broken brake light, and police discovered 20 grams of marijuana in their possession. Initially, Miller was charged with drug possession, but the charge was later dropped by a judge. Instead, Miller faced a penalty of $600 for two citations of disorderly conduct. Miller later commented: \"I don't feel like there's any need to hide the fact that I smoke pot. It's a harmless herbal substance that increases sensory appreciation.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ezra Matthew Miller (born September 30, 1992) is an American actor. Miller's feature film debut was in \"Afterschool\" (2008). Miller starred as Kevin in the drama \"We Need to Talk About Kevin\" (2011) and co-starred in the film adaptation of \"The Perks of Being a Wallflower\" (2012). In 2015, Miller co-starred in the drama \"The Stanford Prison Experiment\" and the comedy \"Trainwreck\". Miller played Credence Barebone in the \"Fantastic Beasts\" films \"Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them\" (2016) and \"\" (2018).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977315}
{"src_title": "Luca Turilli's Rhapsody", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "On August 16, 2011, Rhapsody of Fire announced the friendly departure of long-time guitarist, songwriter, and founding member Luca Turilli and bassist Patrice Guers. Following his departure, Turilli founded his new Rhapsody band, Luca Turilli's Rhapsody, with Guers, his friend and former Rhapsody of Fire session and live guitarist Dominique Leurquin, an unspecified new lead singer and Rhapsody of Fire drummer Alex Holzwarth who became a member of both bands. On January 30, 2012, the band announced their first album, \"Ascending to Infinity\".  On March 30, 2012, the band finally revealed their new singer, Alessandro Conti. In 2012, Holzwarth left the band due to the impossibility to be fully in both bands. Following his departure, the band announced his new drummer, former Annihilator, Axxis and Stratovarius member Alex Landenburg.  On May 22, 2012, the first single from the upcoming album \"Ascending to Infinity\", titled \"Dark Fate of Atlantis\" was released with a music video. On June 22, 2012, the new album was released. The band then started its \"Cinematic World Tour\".  On October 8, 2012, the band revealed that Leurquin seriously injured his left hand with a circular saw, almost losing it: \"After the complicated surgery and everyone around thinking it will be difficult for Dominique to play his beloved instrument once again, the doctors spent some more optimistic words to describe the situation, speaking about a long period of rehabilitation and some major problems eventually related to the thumb only. Therefore it seems there will be again the possibility for Dominique to play a guitar, and maybe sooner than what can be expected.\" The injury made it impossible for Leurquin to be a part of the band for almost two years; instead of replacing him with another guitarist for the upcoming Ascending to Infinity Tour, Turilli arranged all the songs to add Leurquin's parts on the backing tracks at lower volume. His return was eventually announced on August 9, 2014, with the band's concert at the Made of Metal Festival on August 15 being his first show with the band.  On 23 March 2015, Nuclear Blast announced \"Prometheus: Symphonia Ignis Divinus\" for release on June 19 in the EU, June 22 in the UK and June 30 in the US. The following year after release, they went on their first world tour in starting in Europe in early 2016. They co-headlined with Primal Fear in North America and South America in support of the album.  On September 30, the band announced on the website and Facebook that they would release their new album remixed in Dolby Atmos and on Blu-Ray with two live CDs from performances they had played on their Ascending to Infinity Tour and Prometheus Cinematic World Tour. It was released on December 9, 2016.  On June 20, 2018, Turilli had announced on the band's official Facebook page that the band would be going on an indefinite hiatus, due to the other members' commitments to other musical projects, such as vocalist Alessandro Conti who was announced as the new vocalist for Swedish symphonic power metal band Twilight Force earlier that month and drummer Alex Landenburg who was later confirmed as the new drummer for the American power metal band Kamelot on April 10, 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Luca Turilli's Rhapsody (often simply referred by itself as Rhapsody, LT's Rhapsody or Turilli's Rhapsody) was an Italian symphonic power metal band created and led by Luca Turilli after his split from Rhapsody of Fire, also including German, French and Finnish members. The band members referred their style as \"Cinematic metal\" to underline Luca Turilli's passion for the world of cinema and the soundtracks, yet the main influence of his new artistic proposal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977316}
{"src_title": "Order of the Nation (political party)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "On 22 April 2012, the governing coalition of the Civic Democratic Party (ODS) and TOP 09 dissolved their coalition with VV due to corruption accusations against the party leadership (especially Vít Bárta), raising the possibility that early elections would be held in June 2012. However, shortly afterwards VV Deputy Karolína Peake led a breakaway faction of herself and seven other VV deputies who replaced VV in the coalition with ODS and TOP 09. The revised coalition controlled 100 seats, and won a subsequent vote of confidence on 27 April 2012 by 105 to 93 votes, with additional support from some independent MPs. The new party was launched as LIDEM on 3 May 2012.  In September 2012, the party applied for membership of the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party (ELDR), and was accepted on 9 November 2012.  In December 2012, the Czech Prime Minister Petr Nečas sacked Karolína Peake as Defence Minister after only eight days in the post. He stated that he had lost confidence in her after she had begun her ministerial appointment by sacking one of the most senior officials in the Defence Ministry. This situation created a coalition crisis, as Peake announced that all LIDEM ministers consequently would withdraw on 10 January 2013, unless a solution could be found. On 8 January, LIDEM's republican council guaranteed no ministers would withdraw and the party would still support the government, as long as they could renegotiate a new improved coalition agreement with TOP 09 and ODS.  On 7 August 2013, party leader Peake left the Chamber of Deputies building during a vote of confidence for the Jiří Rusnok government. The remainder of the LIDEM deputies remained in the building and voted against government. The next day, 8 August 2013, Karolína Peake announced her resignation as LIDEM leader.  LIDEM was renamed to VIZE2014 in March 2014. The party changed its name once again in June 2015 to Order of the Nation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Elected representatives.", "content": "As per May 2012, the LIDEM parliamentary group included eight members of the 200-member Chamber of Deputies. Of these eight members, Martin Vacek and Radim Vysloužil were never members of the LIDEM party itself, but independents working with the party to form a stronger coalition group. The six MPs who were both members of the LIDEM parliamentary group and LIDEM party included:  At the end of April 2013, Jana Suchá did not renew her membership fees for the following year, but the party announced on 4 August 2013 that despite this, she would stay in the party's parliamentary group in the Chamber of Deputies until the next election. On 4 August 2013, it was also reported that the LIDEM parliamentary group still counted all original eight members, as the three independents (non-party members) committed themselves to vote along with the LIDEM party group in the Chamber of Deputies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Order of the Nation, previously known as LIDEM, is a political party in the Czech Republic, formed in 2012 as a breakaway party from Public Affairs (VV). The party supports greater individual freedom in economic and social spheres.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977317}
{"src_title": "Cathar castles", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "True \"Cathar castles\".", "content": "Cathar strong points were generally surrounded by a walled settlement - ranging from a small village to a sizable city - known as a \"castrum\". In relatively flat areas such as the Lauragais Plain, castles and \"castra\" were often located on nearby hills, for example Laurac, Fanjeaux, Mas-Saintes-Puelles and Carcassonne. In more rugged areas castles and \"castra\" were typically located on mountain tops as at Lastours-Cabaret, Montségur, Termes and Puilaurens.  When they were taken by the Catholic Crusaders they were generally offered to senior Crusade commanders who would replace the local lord as master of the castle and the surrounding area. The old lords, sometimes Cathar sympathisers, were dispossessed and often became refugees or guerrilla resistance fighters known as \"faidits\". The new French lords generally built themselves a new state-of-the-art castle, sometimes on the site of the old \"Cathar castle\", sometimes next to it, as at Puivert. In some places, notably Carcassonne and Foix, substantial parts of the existing castles dates from the Cathar period.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royal citadels.", "content": "Following the failure of the attempt to recapture Carcassonne by its Viscount, Raymond II Trencaval, in 1240, the Cité de Carcassonne was reinforced by the French king, new master of the viscountcy. Carcassonne was heavily garrisoned not only against Cathar sympathizer insurgents, but also the Catalans and Aragonese, since the Trencavels had been vassals of the King of Aragon who was the direct descendant of Sunifred and Bello of Carcassonne.  Cathar castles near the border between the historic Trencavel territories and the Roussillon which still belonged to the King of Aragon were taken by the King of France as frontier fortresses. Five of these became Royal citadels, garrisoned by a small troop of French royal troops. These five Cathar Castles are known as the \"cinq fils de Carcassonne\", the Five Sons of Carcassonne:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abandonment of the Five Sons of Carcassonne.", "content": "In 1659, Louis XIV and the Philip IV of Spain signed the Treaty of the Pyrenees, sealing the marriage of the Infanta Marie Therese to the French King. The treaty modified the frontiers, giving Roussillon to France as part of the dowry, and moving the international frontier south to the crest of the Pyrenees, the present Franco-Spanish border. The Five Sons of Carcassonne thus lost their importance. Some maintained a garrison for a while, a few until the French Revolution, but they fell into decay, often becoming shelters for shepherds or bandits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further reading.", "content": "Bibliography", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cathar castles (in French \"Châteaux cathares\") is a modern term used by the tourism industry (following the example of \"Pays Cathare\" – Cathar Country) to denote a number of medieval castles of the Languedoc region. Some had a Cathar connection, in that they offered refuge to dispossessed Cathars in the thirteenth century. Many of these sites were replaced by new castles built by the victorious French Crusaders and the term is also applied to these fortifications despite having no connection with Cathars. The fate of many Cathar castles, at least for the early part of the Crusade, is outlined in the contemporary Occitan \"\"Chanson de la Croisade\"\", translated into English as the \"Song of the Cathar Wars\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977318}
{"src_title": "Sergey Shubenkov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Sergey is the son of Natalya Shubenkova, a former Soviet heptathlete who ranks among the best of all time in the event. Shubenkov decided at the age 16 to make sports his profession and began to train intensively. Alongside his athletic pursuits, he is also studying to obtain a degree in law.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biography.", "content": "Shubenkov made a breakthrough by finishing 2nd to Britain's Lawrence Clarke at the 2009 European Athletics Junior Championships in Novi Sad, Serbia. Shubenkov went on to win the European under-23 title in 2011. His first Worlds competition was at the 2011 IAAF World Championships in Athletics in Daegu, South Korea where he finished 25th in the heats and did not advance into the semi-finals.  Shubenkov won his first major European title at the 2012 European Championships in 110 m hurdles. As a rising athlete to watch out, Shubenkov debuted in the Olympics at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. He did not, however, reach the finals in men's 110 m hurdles.  In 2013, Shubenkov took the bronze in 110 hurdles at the 2013 Summer Universiade in Kazan and won the gold medal in 60 m hurdles at the 2013 European Indoor Championships in Gothenburg. He repeated his success and won his first Worlds medal by winning a bronze at the 2013 World Championships in Moscow.  In the 2014 season, Shubenkov competed in the Diamond League series. In 18 May, at the Shanghai Golden Grand Prix, he finished in 4th place – 13.30. In 31 May, taking 5th in the Prefontaine Classic – 13.29. 11 June, took 3rd place in the ExxonMobil Bislett Games – 13.37 and in 3 July, took 2nd place at the Athletissima – 13.13. He repeated as European champion winning gold at the 2014 European Athletics Championships in Zurich. In 2015 season, Shubenkov won the gold medal at the 2015 World Championships with a Personal Best of 12.98, he edged out Jamaica's Olympic reigning bronze medalist Hansle Parchment and American Olympic defending champion Aries Merritt who won the silver and bronze medals respectively. His personal best in the event is 12.98 seconds, which is the current Russian record and the first European descent to run sub-13s in the men's 110m hurdles. Commenting about his success and winning the competition, the 24-year-old quoted: \"I can't describe what I'm feeling, I don't remember anything about the race. I heard the starting gun and then I opened my eyes and it was finished\". Shubenkov finished 3rd in the overall ranking in the men's 110 m hurdles of Diamond League series for the 2015 season and won the last leg of the series in Zurich, beating David Oliver and Orlando Ortega.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sergey Vladimirovich Shubenkov (; born 4 October 1990) is a Russian athlete who competes in the 110 metres hurdles. He is the 2015 World Champion, two-time European Champion (2014, 2012) and 2013 World bronze medalist in men's 110 m hurdles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977319}
{"src_title": "Andy Biersack", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Biersack was born in Cincinnati, Ohio.  For his early education, Biersack attended a Catholic elementary school, which he has spoken of in many interviews. His preschool teacher was Jamie Peters, who had a big influence on his creativity. Because of the way Andy dressed and the music he listened to (i.e. Kiss, The Misfits, Avenged Sevenfold, The Damned, The Dropkick Murphys, etc.), he was the target of bullying at school. This bullying is reenacted in the \"Knives and Pens\" music video, performed by his band, Black Veil Brides.  For high school, Biersack attended Cincinnati's School for Creative and Performing Arts, and majored in drama and vocal music. Two days after he turned 18, he left school before graduating to move to Los Angeles in hopes of furthering his potential career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Black Veil Brides.", "content": "At age 14, Andy Biersack and a few of his friends formed their first band, called \"Biersack\" (although they only played one show). This project eventually grew into what would later be known as Black Veil Brides.  In September 2009 Black Veil Brides signed with the independent label StandBy Records. The writing process for a tour and a record began immediately. In 2009 they released their first music video for \"Knives and Pens\", which to date has garnered over 200 million views. The band embarked on their first US tour, titled \"On Leather Wings\". Their debut album, \"We Stitch These Wounds\", was released July 20, 2010 and sold over 13,000 copies in its first week, ranking at No. 36 on the Billboard Top 200 chart and No. 1 on the Billboard Independent chart. The band's second studio album, \"Set the World on Fire\", was released on June 14, 2011 through Lava Music/Universal Republic Records. The band's third album, \"\", was released on January 8, 2013. Their fourth self-titled album was released on October 27, 2014. Their fifth album \"Vale\" was released January 12, 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Andy Black.", "content": "On May 2014, Biersack revealed to Kerrang! magazine that he had been working on new music outside Black Veil Brides under the moniker 'Andy Black'. He explained that his solo project will have a radically different sound compared to the band, and that he felt he couldn't create that sound within the band, thus deciding to take it on as a solo artist. Andy's inspiration for this project was his love for '80s synth and goth music. He will be working with former Black Veil Brides producer John Feldmann. Despite this project, he reassured his fans that this does not mean this is his primary focus, but rather more of a hobby or a side-project. On May 19, 2014 he premiered his first song, titled \"They Don't Need to Understand\", online with a music video via Hot Topic.  On March 17, 2016, Biersack announced the title of his first Andy Black album \"The Shadow Side\", scheduled to be released on May 6, 2016. The lead single from the project, \"We Don't Have to Dance\" was released on March 18, 2016, with a music video for the song being released on March 21.  On February 15, 2019, Biersack announced his second album, \"The Ghost of Ohio\", which was released on April 12, 2019. The album's lead single \"Westwood Road\" was released the same day.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other media.", "content": "After his move to Los Angeles, he took up acting for a short time. He had a small part in the AT&T commercial \"Confetti\", as well as a 30-second spot in the Montana Meth commercial \"Jumped\". Biersack guest stars in the Funny or Die web series \"Average Joe\" on YouTube. He also starred in the Black Veil Brides full-length feature film, \"Legion of the Black\", which was released on January 6, 2013, to support the band's third album.  In February 2016, Biersack was cast to play the role of Johnny Faust in the independent supernatural thriller film \"American Satan\" alongside Asking Alexandria member Ben Bruce. The film, directed by Sumerian Records founder Ash Avildsen, was released on October 13, 2017.  Biersack authored the supernatural, historical fiction graphic novel \"Ghost of Ohio\", in collaboration with Z2 Comics. The graphic novel was released on April 19, 2012 as a tie-in to the album \"Ghost of Ohio\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Biersack's stage name was \"Andy Six\" up until around 2011 when he decided that he preferred to be called by his birth name, Andy Biersack. In an interview with \"Loudwire\" in 2012, Biersack said, \"I'm not a religious person but I grew up in a religious family. I went to the funeral for my grandfather, a person that I love very much, and everyone is speaking about how he went to Heaven and how he's in Heaven. I always fight with that, because I would love nothing more to believe that my grandfather is in the clouds playing or whatever awesome stuff they have up in Heaven, but I can't.\"  Biersack is a fan of comic books, he's listed comics such as, V For Vendetta,, and Kingdom Come as favorites.  On October 30, 2016, Biersack was involved in a physical altercation with his wife, Juliet Simms, on a flight back to Los Angeles. According to the video testimony given by adult film actress Mary Carey, a witness to the incident, Simms forcibly struck Biersack in the face twice. Carey also stated Simms struck herself in the face with the airline handcuffs until her nose began to bleed, alleging that she was defending herself against Biersack. In a video recorded by another passenger, Simms accused Biersack of breaking her ribs. Witnesses on the plane states Biersack did not lay a hand to Simms. Following the incident, both released statements about the effects of alcohol and confirming that they did not separate after the incident.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stage injuries.", "content": "Biersack has suffered multiple injuries while performing with Black Veil Brides, most notably his fall from a pillar on June 18, 2011, in Hollywood. In an attempt to jump back onto the stage, he fell forward and hit his ribcage, knees and skull on the edge, which resulted in 3 ribs shattered (3 lower left), and one displaced. That particular injury caused Black Veil Brides to have to miss the first week of the Vans Warped Tour in 2011. On October 26, 2011, while on another tour in the UK, Biersack broke his nose on the drum riser while performing a gig in Luxembourg, resulting in more missed tour dates. However, two days later, he performed with Black Veil Brides in London.  In an interview with Revolver Magazine in 2011, Biersack stated:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As Andy Black.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Andrew Dennis Biersack (born December 26, 1990), formerly known as Andy Six, is an American singer, pianist and actor. He is the founder and lead vocalist for the American rock band Black Veil Brides, and is its only remaining original member. In May 2014, he started a solo music project under the moniker Andy Black and released his debut album, \"The Shadow Side\", in 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977320}
{"src_title": "Dani Carvajal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Real Madrid B.", "content": "Carvajal was born in Leganés, a suburb of Madrid. He joined Real Madrid's youth system as a 10-year-old, and continued climbing through the ranks until reaching Real Madrid Castilla in 2010.  In his first season as a senior Carvajal was immediately cast in the reserve team's starting XI, also being the team's captain. In the following campaign, he fared even better (38 games and two goals, playoffs included), as the B's returned to Segunda División after a five-year absence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bayer Leverkusen.", "content": "On 11 July 2012, after failing to make a single appearance for Real's first team, Carvajal signed a five-year contract with Germany's Bayer 04 Leverkusen for a transfer fee of €5 million. The Spaniards added on a buy-back clause in the region of €6.5 million if they wanted to re-sign the player after one season, €7 million after two and approximately €8.5 million after three.  Carvajal made his Bundesliga debut on 1 September 2012 in a 2–0 home win against SC Freiburg, being subsequently named to the Team of the Week. He scored his first goal for his new club on 25 November, netting the second in an eventual 2–1 success at TSG 1899 Hoffenheim.  Carvajal was selected as one of the three best right backs at the end of his first and only season, behind FC Bayern Munich's Phillip Lahm and FC Schalke 04's Atsuto Uchida. He received 16% of the total vote from the fans.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Real Madrid.", "content": "On 3 June 2013, Real Madrid exercised its buy-back option on Carvajal, who became the team's first signing for 2013–14 for a fee believed to be in the region of €6.5 million. This was confirmed by Bayer's director of football Rudi Völler, who stated: \"Real Madrid noticed the outstanding performances by Dani this season, and it was only a matter of time before they exercised their buy-back option.\" Shortly after the move, he spoke of his happiness to return, thanking the president, the fans and the club at a press conference.  Carvajal made his La Liga debut on 18 August 2013, in a 2–1 home win against Real Betis. One month later he played his first match in the UEFA Champions League, again featuring the full 90 minutes in a 6–1 away defeat of Galatasaray SK in the group stage.  Carvajal appeared in 45 matches in his first season and scored twice, in the league against Rayo Vallecano and CA Osasuna. He added 120 minutes in the Champions League final, a 4–1 triumph over Atlético Madrid.  Carvajal started in Real Madrid's triumphs in the 2014 UEFA Super Cup over compatriots Sevilla FC, and in that year's FIFA Club World Cup final against Argentina's San Lorenzo de Almagro. In the first leg of the Champions League's semi-finals, on 5 May 2015, he conceded a penalty by fouling Carlos Tevez, with the Juventus F.C. forward converting the spot-kick to defeat the Spaniards 2–1.  On 8 July 2015, Carvajal signed a new deal with the \"Merengues\" until 2020. He contributed with eight appearances and one goal in the campaign's Champions League, as the tournament ended in win; in the final against Atlético Madrid, he was subbed off injured early into the second half of a 1–1 draw (penalty shootout triumph). On 9 August 2016, Carvajal started in the UEFA Super Cup clash against Sevilla in Trondheim, and scored the final 3–2 in the 119th minute after an individual effort. During the league season, in spite of several physical ailments, he still contributed with 23 games to help the team be crowned champions. On 3 December 2016, after Sergio Ramos had equalised in the last minute against FC Barcelona at the Nou Camp, he celebrated the goal by giving opposing fans the middle finger, but later apologised; after nearly one month on the sidelines, he returned to action just in time to start at the Champions League final on 3 June, which they won for the third time in four years.  On 17 September 2017, Carvajal's contract was extended until 2022. Early in the following month, he was sidelined with a heart condition; he made eight appearances during that year's Champions League, and Madrid won their third consecutive and 13th overall title in the competition. In the decisive match against Liverpool he was forced to leave the pitch due to an injury, in an eventual 3–1 win in Kiev.  Carvajal scored Real Madrid’s first league goal of the new season on 19 August 2018, in a 2–0 home victory over Getafe CF.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Carvajal acted as backup to FC Barcelona's Martín Montoya at the 2013 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, playing in the 3–0 group stage win against the Netherlands as Spain went on to win the tournament. He was selected by full side manager Vicente del Bosque for his 30-man provisional squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, being excused alongside all other Real Madrid and Atlético Madrid players from the warm-up game against Bolivia on 30 May due to the Champions League final, and being omitted from the final list the following day.  On 29 August 2014, Carvajal was called up to the squad for the first time, for matches against France and Macedonia. He made his debut on 4 September, in a 0–1 friendly defeat to the former in which he played the full 90 minutes; he was also selected for the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament, being dropped after an injury contracted whilst with his club.  Carvajal was named in Spain’s final squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. After sitting out the first game against Portugal as he was not fully fit, he made his first appearance in the competition on 20 June and played the entire 1–0 win over Iran.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Real Madrid Castilla  Real Madrid", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Spain U21  Spain U19", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Daniel Carvajal Ramos (; born 11 January 1992) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a right back for Real Madrid and the Spanish national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977321}
{"src_title": "Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mission.", "content": "The museum in Prague collects and preserves for future generations examples of historical and contemporary crafts as well as applied arts and design—in both national and international contexts. The staff and directors believe in the harmony between function, quality and beauty; its claimed ambition is to inspire, educate and entertain in a unique way.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of the Museum.", "content": "In 1885, the foundation of the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague reflected the dramatic development of Czech society at the time. Following the establishment of a similar institution in Brno in 1873, the Prague museum soon became an important cultural and educational center in the Crown Lands of Bohemia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The unfavorable impact of the Industrial Revolution on the aesthetic appearance and, consequently, the quality of products had for a long time been the subject of justified criticisms from artists, theorists and the public. The idea of establishing a permanent exhibition of decorative and applied arts in Prague was realised through an exhibition arranged by the Arkadia Association in 1861 at the Old Town Hall in Prague. Another source of inspiration was the founding of a similar institution—the South Kensington Museum (now Victoria and Albert Museum), which opened in London in 1852 and originally contained a collection of objects of applied and decorative arts. More important for the Czech public, however, was the Österreichisches Museum für Kunst und Industrie, which opened in Vienna in 1864.  In 1868, in cooperation with the Vienna museum, the Prague Chamber of Trade and Commerce held an exhibition on Žofín Island of objects obtained from the Exposition Universelle d'Art et d'Industrie de 1867—International Exposition (1867)—supplemented by historical arts and crafts mostly from the collection of Vojtěch Lanna, who became the Museum's most important donor and sponsor. In a period when funds and suitable buildings were hard to find, the promise of the exhibition area in the Rudolfinum (the House of the Artists) also contributed greatly to the birth of the museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Permanent Exhibition.", "content": "New permanent exhibition is going to be open at the end of 2020", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other Exhibitions.", "content": "\"In Prague\"  A small gallery that holds photographic displays of works by the world-reputed photographer Josef Sudek and others.  Apart from its fine arts collection, the National Gallery's Museum of Czech Cubism also contains Cubist furniture, glass and ceramics from UPM's holdings.  \"In Chateaux and Elsewhere\"  Displays of wrought-iron objects, children's toys, the study collection of 19th- and 20th-century furniture from the museum's holdings. The “Museum of the Senses”—an installation of the Municipal Museum in Kamenice, and short-term exhibitions.  An exhibition of Bohemian porcelain, with examples of Chinese and Japanese wares and porcelain produced in Europe.  The exhibition examines the art of furniture-making throughout the ages: from the Baroque to the Art Nouveau.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Library.", "content": "The largest Czech library specializing in the arts and related fields is an integral part of the museum. It holds 172,000 volumes, including authoritative art encyclopedias, dictionaries of artists, comprehensive works on iconography, topography and heraldry. Apart from art books and other scholarly publications, the library contains numerous reference manuals and periodicals. It provides on-premises use of resources, database access and research in the Art and Architecture (ART) subject gateway.  The exhibition halls of the museum and the library are fully accessible to wheelchair users.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Founded in 1885, the Prague Museum of Decorative Arts () is housed in a Neo-Renaissance edifice built from 1897 to 1899 after the designs of architect Josef Schulz. It opened in 1900 with exhibitions on the first floor. The Museum's rich collections include decorative and applied arts and design work ranging from Late Antiquity to the present day with focus on European objects, particularly arts and crafts created in the Bohemian lands. The impressive interior of the permanent exhibition, “Stories of Materials,” offers visitors an excursion into the history and development of decorative arts in the disciplines of glass, ceramics, graphic art, design, metal, wood and other materials, as well as objects such as jewellery, clocks and watches, textiles, fashion, toys and furniture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977322}
{"src_title": "David Lewis (Jesuit priest)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Lewis, the youngest of nine children of Anglican Reverend Morgan Lewis, the headmaster of a grammar school, and Margaret Pritchard, a Catholic, was born at Abergavenny, Monmouthshire, Wales, in 1616.  At 16 years of age, while visiting Paris, he converted to Catholicism from Anglicanism and subsequently went to study at the English College, Rome, where he assumed the alias \"Charles Baker\", a common practice among Catholic priests to avoid spies and informers in the employ of the Crown. He was ordained a Catholic priest on 20 July 1642. Three years later, he joined the Society of Jesus. He came back to his native place and worked for a year and then he was appointed \"the Spiritual Director to the seminarians at the English College\" in Rome. After his mission in Rome had been completed he came back to Wales and was working for 30 years in the apostolate paying much attention to the poor people and people in need.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arrest and execution.", "content": "He was arrested on 17 November 1678 at St Michael's Church, Llantarnam, then in Monmouthshire, and condemned at the Assizes in Monmouth in March 1679 as a Catholic priest and for saying Catholic Masses. He was being accused of attempting to kill Charles II and trying to restore Catholic faith in the land of Wales. He was betrayed by an apostate couple who had been promised an award of 50 pounds for the Jesuit's capture, and another sum of 200 pounds was promised by a Welsh magistrate to those who could help in his exposure. Like John Wall and John Kemble, he was then sent to London to be examined by Titus Oates (the originator of the Popish Plot) and other informers.  He was brought for trial at the Lenten Assizes in Monmouth on 16 March 1679. He was brought to the bar on a charge of high treason – for having become a Catholic priest and then remaining in England, contrary to the Jesuits, etc. Act 1584.  He pleaded not guilty to the charge of being an accessory to the Popish Plot, but five or six witnesses claimed they had seen him say Mass and perform other priestly duties. For this Lewis was found guilty and sentenced to death by Sir Robert Atkyns. The condemned priest was brought to Newgate Prison in London with John Kemble (Herefordshire) and questioned about the \"plot\". Oates and his fellow informers William Bedloe, Stephen Dugdale and Miles Prance were unable to prove anything against him. Lord Shaftesbury advised him that if he gave evidence about the \"plot\" or renounced his Catholic faith, that his life would be spared and he would be greatly rewarded. Lewis said in his dying speech, \"discover the plot I could not, as I knew of none; and conform I would not, for it was against my conscience\". His last words before execution were: He was brought back to Usk in Monmouthshire for his execution by John Arnold of Monmouthshire, prayed at the Gunter Mansion and was hanged on 27 August 1679 and then posthumously disembowelled. It was a tribute to the esteem in which he was held that the crowd, who were mainly Protestants, insisted that he be allowed to hang until he was dead, and that he receive a proper burial. The Sheriff, who knew and liked Lewis, refused to attend the execution, which he had postponed for as long as he could.  After the Titus Oates affair (1679–80), the remaining Welsh-speaking Catholic clergy were either executed or exiled. Lewis was the last Welshman to become a Jesuit until 2001, more than 300 years later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition.", "content": "Together with John Wall, John Kemble and 37 other martyrs, David Lewis was canonized by Pope Paul VI in 1970 – the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales. In November 2007, a plaque was erected on the spot where Lewis was arrested near Llantarnam Abbey.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "David Lewis (1616 – 27 August 1679) was a Jesuit Catholic priest and martyr who was also known as Charles Baker. Lewis was canonized by Pope Paul VI in 1970 as one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales and is venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977323}
{"src_title": "Dylan O'Brien", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "O'Brien was born in New York City, the son of Lisa (née Rhodes), a former actress who also ran an acting school, and Patrick O'Brien, a camera operator. He grew up in Springfield Township, New Jersey, until the age of twelve, when he and his family moved to Hermosa Beach, California. His father is of Irish descent, and his mother is of Italian, English and Spanish ancestry. After graduating from Mira Costa High School in 2009, he considered pursuing sports broadcasting and possibly working for the New York Mets. At 14, O'Brien began posting original videos onto his YouTube channel. With the videos developing, a local producer and director approached him about doing work for a web series while in his senior year of high school. While working on the webseries, O'Brien met an actor who connected him with a manager. He had planned to attend Syracuse University as a sports broadcasting major, but decided to pursue an acting career instead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Before beginning his career in acting, O'Brien produced, directed and starred in a number of comedic short films which he released through his personal YouTube channel. He was also the drummer for the independent rock band Slow Kids at Play.  He went through several auditions before getting one of the main roles in MTV's \"Teen Wolf\", a series loosely based on the 1985 film of the same name. He had been intended to play Scott, but after reading the script, O'Brien wanted to audition for the part of Stiles instead. After four auditions, he was cast. In 2010, he began playing Stiles in the series.  In 2011, O'Brien was introduced to audiences in the entirely improvised independent comedy film \"High Road\". The following year, he starred opposite Britt Robertson in the romantic comedy \"The First Time\".  In 2013, O'Brien co-starred in the comedy film \"The Internship\". That same year, O'Brien filmed \"The Maze Runner\" which began filming in summer 2013, while he was on hiatus from \"Teen Wolf\". He played Thomas, the lead role. Yahoo! Movies named O'Brien as one of the 15 Breakout Stars to Watch for in 2014. He reprised the role of Thomas in \"\", released in September 18, 2015.  In March 2016, O'Brien was seriously injured on set while filming a stunt for \"\". O'Brien was in a harness on top of a moving vehicle when he was pulled off the vehicle unexpectedly and hit by another vehicle. His injuries included facial fractures, a concussion, and brain trauma. O'Brien later stated that the accident \"'broke most of the right side'\" of his face; he underwent reconstructive facial surgery. After months of recovery, O'Brien eventually began filming other projects, and his March 2017 return to \"The Death Cure\" set marked his complete return to health. The film premiered on January 26, 2018.  In 2016, he appeared in the disaster thriller-drama \"Deepwater Horizon\", based on the 2010 Deepwater Horizon explosion. He starred in 2017's \"American Assassin\", an action-thriller in which he played the titular character Mitch Rapp, and voiced the CGI title character in the \"Transformers\" spin-off film \"Bumblebee\" in 2018.  In 2019, O'Brien guest-starred in the comedic sci-fi anthology series \"Weird City\". Upcoming releases include the titular role in the mystery thriller \"The Education of Fredrick Fitzell\", filmed in 2018, and the post-apocalyptic road trip film \"Monster Problems\", in which he will star alongside Michael Rooker and Ariana Greenblatt.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dylan O'Brien (born August 26, 1991) is an American actor. He is known for his lead role as Thomas in the \"Maze Runner\" dystopian science fiction trilogy and for his role as Stiles Stilinski in the MTV television series \"Teen Wolf\". O'Brien's other work includes starring roles in films such as \"The First Time\" and \"American Assassin\" and supporting roles in \"The Internship\" and \"Deepwater Horizon\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977324}
{"src_title": "Lili Elbe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "It is generally believed that Elbe was born in 1882, in Vejle, Denmark. Her year of birth is sometimes stated as 1886, which appears to be from a book about her which has some facts changed to protect the identities of the persons involved. Facts about the life of Elbe's wife Gerda Gottlieb suggest that the 1882 date is correct because they married while at college in 1904, when she would have been just eighteen if the 1886 date were correct.  It is speculated that Elbe was intersex, although that has been disputed. Some reports indicate that she already had rudimentary ovaries in her abdomen and she may have had Klinefelter syndrome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and modeling.", "content": "Elbe met Gerda Gottlieb while they were students at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen, and they married in 1904 when Gottlieb was 19 and Elbe was 22.  They worked as illustrators, with Elbe specialising in landscape paintings while Gottlieb illustrated books and fashion magazines.  They traveled through Italy and France before settling in 1912 in Paris, where Elbe could live more openly as a woman by posing as Gottlieb's sister. Elbe received the Neuhausens prize in 1907 and exhibited at Kunstnernes Efterårsudstilling (the Artists' Fall Exhibition), at the Vejle Art Museum in Denmark, where she remains represented, and in the Saloon and Salon d'Automne in Paris.  Elbe started dressing in women's clothes after filling in for Gottlieb's model, friend and actress Anna Larssen, who was late. Elbe was asked to substitute as Larssen's legs, wearing stockings and heels. Elbe felt surprisingly comfortable in the clothing. After walking in on the modeling session and witnessing Elbe embrace her new persona, Anna Larssen suggested she take the name \"Lili\". It was soon adopted, and Elbe began appearing in public as \"Lili\", ultimately identifying as a woman in every respect.  By the 1920s, Elbe regularly presented as a woman named Lili, attending various festivities and entertaining guests in her house. She liked to disappear into the throngs of revelers during the Carnival in Paris, arrayed in fashions she had garnered modeling for her wife Gerda. Over time, Gottlieb became famous for her paintings of beautiful women with haunting, almond-shaped eyes, dressed in chic apparel. The model who inspired Gottlieb's depictions of \"petites femmes fatales\" was in fact Elbe.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Surgeries and dissolution of marriage.", "content": "In 1930, Elbe went to Germany for sex reassignment surgery, which was highly experimental at the time. A series of four operations were carried out over a period of two years. The first surgery, removal of the testicles, was performed by Dr. Ludwig Levy-Lenz, under the supervision of sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld in Berlin. The rest of Elbe's surgeries were carried out by Kurt Warnekros, a doctor at the Dresden Municipal Women's Clinic. The second operation was to implant an ovary onto her abdominal musculature, the third to remove the penis and the scrotum, and the fourth to transplant a uterus and construct a vaginal canal.  At the time of Elbe's last surgery, her case was already a sensation in Danish and German newspapers. A Danish court invalidated the couple's marriage in October 1930, and Elbe managed to have her sex and name legally changed, including receiving a passport as Lili Ilse Elvenes. She stopped painting after her transition. After the annulment of the marriage, Elbe returned to Dresden for her fourth surgery.  In 1931, Elbe became the second transgender woman to undergo a vaginoplasty surgery, a few weeks after Dr. Erwin Gohrbandt performed the experimental procedure on Dora Richter. Elbe's castration and penectomy had been performed by Dr. Ludwig Levy-Lenz (1889–1966) the previous year. These preliminary surgeries have sometimes caused confusion over the date of her reassignment surgery. The Gohrbandt technique deliberately left remnants of the scrotum intact, with a view to modifying these into labia at a later date, but for reasons that are unclear, Levy-Lenz did not perform this further procedure himself. Instead, Elvenes' case was taken over by Dr. Kurt Warnekros (1882–1949), at the Dresden Women's Clinic.  The May 1933 book-burning at the Institute for Sexual Research by Nazi students, the February 1945 obliteration of the Dresden Women's Clinic and its records in Allied bombing raids, and the myth-making process itself have left gaps and inconsistencies in the Lili Elbe narrative that may never be resolved.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Elbe began a relationship with French art dealer Claude Lejeune, whom she wanted to marry and with whom she wanted to have children. She was looking forward to her final surgery involving a uterus transplant and construction of a vagina.  These two procedures performed in June 1931 were new and experimental at that time. Her immune system rejected the transplanted uterus, and the operation and a subsequent surgical revision caused infection, which, in that pre-antibiotic age, led to Elbe's death from cardiac arrest on 13 September 1931, three months after the surgery.  Elbe was buried in (Trinity Cemetery) in Dresden. The grave was levelled in the 1960s. In April 2016, a new tombstone was inaugurated, financed by Focus Features, the production company of \"The Danish Girl\". The tombstone does not record the date of Elbe's birth, just her name and places of birth and death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The LGBT film festival MIX Copenhagen gives four \"Lili\" awards named after Elbe.  In 2000, David Ebershoff wrote \"The Danish Girl\", a fictionalised account of Elbe's life. It was an international bestseller and was translated into a dozen languages. In 2015, it was made into a film, also called \"The Danish Girl\", produced by Gail Mutrux and Neil LaBute and starring Eddie Redmayne as Elbe. The film was well received at the Venice Film Festival in September 2015, although it has been criticised for its casting of an English cisgender man to play a Danish transgender woman. Both the novel and the film omitted topics including Gottlieb's sexuality, which is evidenced by the subjects in her erotic drawings, and the disintegration of Gottlieb and Elbe's relationship after their annulment.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lili Ilse Elvenes (28 December 1882 – 13 September 1931), better known as Lili Elbe, was a Danish transgender woman and among the early recipients of sex reassignment surgery.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977325}
{"src_title": "Breitling Jet Team", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and origins.", "content": "The Breitling Jet Team was established in early 2003 with four L-39s. With the addition of two aircraft in 2004 and three in 2008, the team now has a total of nine jets. The Team's roots go back to 1980.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Patrouille Martini.", "content": "Jacques Bothelin, the team leader, began performing in airshows in 1980 with a French-designed Mudry CAP 10 aircraft. In 1982, he began to fly as part of a team of three SIAI-Marchetti SF260s sponsored by Martini. The team was called \"Patrouille Martini\", (\"patrouille\" is French for 'patrol' or 'team'). Also at that time, Jacques Bothelin established Apache Aviation at the team's Darois home base to handle the operational aspects of running a full-time aerobatic team. The Martini Team flew for five years in the SF260s, until the team took delivery of Swiss-manufactured Pilatus PC-7s, in 1988.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Patrouille Ecco.", "content": "In 1990, new regulations in France banning the advertising of alcohol forced Martini to withdraw its sponsorship. Ecco, a temporary employment agency, replaced Martini and the team was renamed \"Patrouille Ecco\" for the 1991 season. The team's colors changed from Martini's white to Ecco's green and white, and a fourth PC-7 was added. During the 1990s, Patrouille Ecco performed at airshows around Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Patrouille Adecco.", "content": "In 1997, Ecco merged with a Swiss firm, Adia, forming Adecco. The team's name changed to \"Patrouille Adecco\", and its colours shifted to Adecco's red and white. In 1998, the team suffered a setback when Adecco pulled out of its sponsorship. Jacques Bothelin and Philippe Laloix flew during 1999–2001 in two PC-7s as \"Les Apaches\"; the name was derived from the Apache Aviation firm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Khalifa Jet Team.", "content": "In late 2001, a group of Algerian companies founded by Rafik Khalifa offered to sponsor Apache Aviation. The PC-7s were sold, and L-39 jets arrived as their replacement. The new team was known as the \"Khalifa Jet Team\", launching in March 2002, and making its airshow debut in May 2002. Over the summer of 2002, the team worked up from a two-ship formation to a four-aircraft team. Over the course of 2002, the team appeared at 43 events in six European countries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Breitling.", "content": "In early 2003, Khalifa pulled out of the sponsorship. Breitling SA stepped into the breach and invested in the team. This allowed the outfit to expand from four planes to the seven-ship formation it flies today. In 2015, the team embarked on a two-year tour of North America with performances at notable events like the Sun 'n Fun Fly-In, the Vectren Dayton Air Show, Jones Beach, NY, Rhode Island, AirVenture at Oshkosh and the Abbotsford International Airshow as well as the Canadian International Air Show in Canada. Their final North American performance concluded on October 23, 2016 at the Huntington Beach Airshow in Huntington Beach, California.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Incidents.", "content": "On 15 September 2012, the Breitling Jet Team #2 crew had to eject, and the L-39 jet crashed on a field near Kleine Brogel Air Base. Nobody was injured.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Breitling Jet Team is the largest civilian aerobatic display team in Europe. Based in Dijon, France, it flies seven Aero L-39 Albatros jets.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977326}
{"src_title": "Ryan Higa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ryan Higa was born in Hilo, Hawaii on June 6, 1990. He is of Okinawan descent, and has an older brother named Kyle. In his youth, Higa competed in judo and holds a black belt rank. He wrestled at Waiakea High School, where he graduated in 2008.  Higa studied nuclear medicine at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas but later dropped out to create online videos.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "YouTube career.", "content": "Higa and Sean Fujiyoshi began posting YouTube videos of themselves lip syncing to songs in mid-2006 while attending Waiakea High School. They quickly expanded beyond songs, with a variety of other comedic pieces. Occasional guest appearances were made by Tim Enos, Ryan Villaruel, Kyle Chun, and Tarynn Nago.  On Christmas Eve of 2008, Higa and Fujiyoshi's two most popular videos, \"How To Be Gangster\" and \"How To Be Emo\", were removed due to copyright violations. On January 21, 2009, the nigahiga account was temporarily suspended and was required to remove more copyrighted videos. Because of this, nigahiga's lip syncing videos were all removed (with the exception of \"You're Beautiful\", which was audio swapped), along with most of his other videos that included copyrighted music. Since then, Higa started composing the music himself. \"How to be Gangster\" and \"How to be Emo\" were put back on nigahiga's channel in late August 2009, only to be removed a few days later, along with \"How to be Ninja\" and \"How to be Nerd\". In Spring 2010, \"How to be Ninja\", \"How to be Gangster\" and \"How to be Emo\" were made public once more.  \"Ninja Melk\", a 26-minute short film about ninjas, was released in August 2009. The plot revolves around a ninja master named Master Ching Ching sending his student Lapchung (played by Bryson Murata) to find a replacement, finding Higa and Fujiyoshi to catch the evil Bokchoy (Tim Enos) and his henchwoman, Gina (Tarynn Nago).  An independent 35-minute film he created with Wong Fu Productions called \"Agents of Secret Stuff\" was uploaded on the nigahiga channel on November 24, 2010. It features some other popular YouTube users as well as actors such as Aki Aleong. The film follows a teenage A.S.S. (Agent of Secret Stuff) (Higa) who goes undercover as a high school student to protect Taylor (Arden Cho) from the S.I.N.S. (Society Involving Not-So-Good Stuff). It included guest appearances from Ian and Anthony of Smosh, D-Trix, KassemG and Hiimrawn.  When Higa moved to Las Vegas to attend college, most of the nigahiga videos were solo efforts, usually featuring collaborations with other YouTube users. Since 2012, Higa has put together a production company, Ryan Higa Production Company (RHPC), which included Sean Fujiyoshi, that works together to make content for the nigahiga channel. In 2015, Higa's production company was based in a studio in Henderson, Nevada.  In 2016, Higa and other YouTubers and friends created the parody K-pop group Boys Generally Asian. In mid-2018, Fujiyoshi left the group as he was moving out of the area, specifically to Sacramento, California to live with his current girlfriend and to pursue his degree in Engineering.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Channels.", "content": "The nigahiga YouTube channel was created on July 20, 2006, by Higa, Fujiyoshi, Enos, and Nago (known collectively as \"The Yabo Crew\"). By December 21, 2010, it had reached 3 million subscribers, the first channel to do so. According to Higa, his channel name is a combination of \"Niga\" (にが) which means \"rant\" in Japanese, and his Okinawan last name, \"Higa\".  In 2011, he created a second channel, under the name HigaTV, where he posts video blogs and behind the scenes videos.  In 2012, Higa helped form the YOMYOMF Network, which hosts the online video-making talent competition, \"Internet Icon\", of which he served alongside Christine Lakin and Timothy DeLaGhetto as main judges.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "BgA.", "content": "In 2016, Ryan Higa created a K-pop band with David Choi, Phillip Wang, Jun Sung Ahn and Justin Chon. It was called BgA, standing for Boys Generally Asian, deliberately inspired by the all-female band Girls Generation. Their first song was called \"Dong Saya Dae\", which currently has over 16 million views on YouTube. The song was conceived as a general parody of all K-pop songs and featured joke lyrics, but despite this, the song unexpectedly peaked at no. 2 on the official K-pop charts for iTunes. In 2017, BgA released their second song \"Who's It Gonna Be\", a more serious song than the first, though with the same basis of being a parody. This song went one better than the previous one, reaching no. 1 on the K-pop charts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film and television.", "content": "In 2008, Los Angeles producer Richard Van Vleet offered to help them create their first feature-length film. The resulting film, \"Ryan and Sean's Not So Excellent Adventure\", was directed by Richard Van Vleet and released on November 14, 2008. It was shown in sold out theaters in Hawaii and California. The DVD was released on July 14, 2009, in the United States. The film is about a down on his luck movie producer, played by Michael Buckley, who is seeking out famous celebrities in order to make a hit movie in 30 days or risk being fired. He chooses Higa and Fujiyoshi after discovering the popularity of their YouTube videos. He invites them to Hollywood to make a movie. They accept the offer, and run into some amusing situations on the way.  Higa has also guest-starred on an episode of \"Supah Ninjas\", playing DJ Elephant Head, a master plotter who uses his hypnotizing electronic music to make people fall asleep to commit robberies.  He appeared in the 2016 horror film \"Tell Me How I Die\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business ventures.", "content": "Victorious Inc. released the \"TeeHee\" app in April 2015. It was a community hub for fans of Ryan Higa and was monetized through \"pre-roll ads, branded content, e-commerce, and in-app purchases.\" The service was shut down in April 2017.  Higa published his memoir, \"Ryan Higa's How to Write Good\", in 2017.  Higa co-founded Ninja Melk, LLC in 2016 with Kathleen Hahn and Kyle Schroeder. Their titular energy drink launched in May 2019. The drink took three years to develop and is named after Higa's short film of the same name. Higa uploaded a stop motion short film onto the nigahiga YouTube channel on October 19, 2019 to promote the drink.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Higa endorsed Andrew Yang for the 2020 Democratic nomination for president. He identifies as an agnostic. He is diagnosed with ADHD.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ryan Higa (born June 6, 1990), also known as nigahiga (), is an American comedian, YouTuber, musician, and actor. He is known for his comedy videos on YouTube. His YouTube channel, nigahiga, was the most subscribed channel on YouTube for 677 consecutive days from 2009–2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977327}
{"src_title": "Zach Gilford", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Gilford was born in Evanston, Illinois, the son of Anne and Steve Gilford. He is of half Swedish and half Russian Jewish descent. He graduated from Northwestern University and Evanston Township High School. He served as a Trip Leader for Adventures Cross-Country and has led wilderness and adventure trips for teenagers to Alaska, British Columbia, California, Hawaii, and the South Pacific. Gilford also worked as a staff member for YMCA Camp Echo in Fremont, Michigan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "In 2005, he appeared in an episode of \"\". In 2006, Gilford landed a regular role in \"Friday Night Lights\", in which he played the role of Matt Saracen in the main cast, from Season 1 to Season 3. In 2009, Gilford was switched to the recurring cast in Seasons 4 and 5. That year, he also made his feature film debut, co-starring in \"The Last Winter\" (2006). He had a cameo in the film \"\" and guest starred in an episode of \"Grey's Anatomy\".  In 2009, he co-starred as Adam Davies in the romantic comedy \"Post Grad\" opposite Alexis Bledel. He also starred as Johnny Drake in the romantic drama \"Dare\" opposite Emmy Rossum. In 2010, he starred as Gus in the indie drama film \"The River Why\" alongside Amber Heard. He had a cameo in the movie \"Super\".  In 2010, he joined the cast of ABC's medical drama \"Off The Map\" which premiered in January 2011 but was cancelled after 13 episodes. In 2011, he appeared in Taylor Swift's music video for \"Ours\", in which he played her love interest. He played the role of Evan in the drama film \"Answers to Nothing\". In 2012, he starred as Seth in the indie drama film \"In Our Nature\" alongside Jena Malone.  In 2012, he was cast in another medical drama, \"The Mob Doctor\", on Fox, opposite Jordana Spiro; however this was also cancelled after 13 episodes. In January 2013, he appeared with Arnold Schwarzenegger in \"The Last Stand\". He played the role of Matthew Iris in the film \"Crazy Kind of Love\".  He co-starred alongside Allison Miller in the horror film \"Devil's Due\" (2014), set in New Orleans and the Dominican Republic, and released on January 17, 2014. He also co-starred in the film sequel \"\", released on July 18, 2014. He guest starred in shows such as \"Drunk History\", \"Tim and Eric's Bedtime Stories\" and \"Kingdom\". In 2016, he starred as Danny Warren in the ABC drama series \"The Family\". In 2017, Gilford starred as Conner Hooks in the YouTube Red futuristic web series \"Lifeline\".  Since 2018, Gilford has had a recurring role as Gregg in the NBC series \"Good Girls\". In 2019, Gilford was cast as Ben Walker in the \"Bad Boys\" spinoff drama \"L.A.'s Finest.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In the spring of 2010, Gilford began dating actress Kiele Sanchez, whom he met on the set of the television pilot for \"The Matadors\". The couple became engaged in November 2011, and married on December 29, 2012. The couple also co-starred in \"\". In August 2015, Sanchez announced that she and Gilford were expecting a son in November. In October 2015, the couple announced that Sanchez had suffered a late-term miscarriage. The couple have a daughter, born in 2017.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zachary Michael \"Zach\" Gilford (born January 14, 1982) is an American actor best known for his role as Matt Saracen on the NBC sports drama \"Friday Night Lights\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977328}
{"src_title": "Olga Hepnarová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Olga Hepnarová was born on 30 June 1951, in Prague, to Czech parents. Her father was a bank clerk and her mother was a dentist. Hepnarová was an average child, but later developed psychiatric problems, which manifested in an inability to communicate with people and have been suggested were symptoms of Asperger's syndrome. In 1964 she attempted suicide by overdosing on her medication. She spent a year in a psychiatric ward at a hospital in Opařany, and later worked at various jobs but was usually fired shortly after being hired, including when she was trained as a bookbinder in Prague and then worked in Cheb for a year before returning to Prague. She ended up working as a truck driver. Gradually she lost contact with her family, especially her father and older sister. She bought a cabin that she had brought to the village of Oleško, from where she commuted to work. She later sold the cabin and bought a Trabant car with the money she had received. During her teenage years she struggled with her vague sexuality. From the age of 17 she had sexual relations with both men and women. She described herself as a \"sexual cripple\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arson attack.", "content": "Hepnarová’s father inherited a farm in the village of Zábrodí, which the family used for recreation. On the morning of 7 August 1970, using a bottle of gasoline, Hepnarová set fire to the door in the living area of the building. She hoped that the fire would reach the hayloft via a dormer and destroy the homestead. Her sister and two tenants - a married couple over the age of 75 - were asleep in the house at the time. They woke up and managed to extinguish the fire in time. The final damage was only 50 Kcs. Hepnarová was not suspected of the crime. She had approached the farm on foot at night after taking a taxi from Náchod. She confessed to the act during a psychiatric examination in 1973. As a motive, she stated that the property had become the cause of money disputes between her parents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Truck attack.", "content": "Hepnarova began planning the truck attack about 6 months in advance. She believed all people were trying to hurt her. She said that she had been beaten up on the street for no reason, and no one helped her. She refused to become an unknown suicide, and wanted to be remembered. Her original plans included derailment of an express train or detonation of an explosive in a room full of people, but she decided that these were too technically demanding and instead decided on a mass shooting: she planned to obtain an automatic weapon and open fire on the people on Wenceslas Square. She enrolled in the shooting ring at the then Svazarm. But she changed her mind about this option also: she was afraid that she might be immediately killed, and finding such a weapon also seemed difficult. Eventually she decided to use a vehicle as her weapon.  From 11 January to 10 July, Hepnarová lived in room 502 in what is now, which served as a hostel for the Prague Communications business. On 9 July 1973, she left for a last look at her cottage, and then abandoned her Trabant car, to which she was strongly attached. The next day, on 10 July, she successfully completed a test drive to demonstrate that she was able to control the specific type of truck she wanted to rent.  At 1:30 pm, Hepnarová drove her Praga RN truck from the Defender of Peace (today ) to the Strossmayer Square (Strossmayerovo náměstí) in the Prague 7 district, where she drove her truck onto the sidewalk and into a group of about 25 people who were waiting for a tram. After the vehicle spontaneously stopped, witnesses tried to help her because they thought she had lost control of the vehicle due to a technical defect. However, Hepnarová immediately admitted that she had intentionally rammed into the crowd. Three people died immediately, three more died later the same day, two within a few days (all aged from 60 to 79), and twelve people were injured but survived.  Before the attack, Hepnarová had sent a letter to two newspapers, \"Svobodné slovo\" and \"Mladý svět\", explaining her actions as revenge for the hatred she felt was directed against her by her family and the world. The letter was received two days after the murder.  I am a loner. A destroyed woman. A woman destroyed by people... I have a choice – to kill myself or to kill others. I choose TO PAY BACK MY HATERS. It would be too easy to leave this world as an unknown suicide victim. Society is too indifferent, rightly so. My verdict is: I, Olga Hepnarová, the victim of your bestiality, sentence you to death.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arrest and conviction.", "content": "During the investigation, Hepnarová confirmed her intention was to kill as many people as possible. Psychology experts found her fully aware of her actions, and she expressed no regret. She planned her actions, as she took into account that the ground sloped down to the tram stop, which allowed her to gain speed for the maximum death toll. The attack was her second attempt, as she felt there were not enough people on her first run. On 6 April 1974, Hepnarová was sentenced to death for murder by the City Court. The sentence was affirmed by higher instance courts and the Supreme Court re-qualified the sentence to public endangerment with the same penalty to be upheld. After several psychiatric examinations Hepnarová was deemed criminally responsible for her actions, and the Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia, Lubomír Štrougal, refused to grant her a pardon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Execution.", "content": "Hepnarová was executed by short-drop hanging on 12 March 1975 at Pankrác Prison in Prague. She was the last woman executed in Czechoslovakia, and one of the last by the use of short-drop hanging.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Literature.", "content": "In 1991, Bohumil Hrabal published \"Ponorné říčky\", in which he describes a fictional confession of an executioner from Pankrác, for whom the execution of a beautiful lady called Olga was a life-changing moment that made him completely disgusted by his job and an opponent of the death sentence.  \"Oprátka za osm mrtvých\" by Roman Cílek (2001) is about Hepnarová, and contains a collection of contemporary documents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "\"I, Olga Hepnarová\" () is a 2016 Czech-Polish drama film directed by Tomáš Weinreb and Petr Kazda. It was shown in the Panorama section at the 66th Berlin International Film Festival.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Olga Hepnarová (30 June 1951 – 12 March 1975) was a Czechoslovak rampage killer, who on 10 July 1973, killed eight people with a truck in Prague. Hepnarová was convicted and sentenced to death, and was executed in 1975, the last woman executed in Czechoslovakia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977329}
{"src_title": "Hernani (drama)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Set in a fictitious version of the Spanish court of 1519, it is based on courtly romance and intrigues. Three men — two noblemen and a mysterious bandit — are in love with the same woman. What follows in the ensuing chaos of action prompted the biographer of Hugo, J.P. Houston, to write \"... and a résumé [plot synopsis] will necessarily fail, as in the case of Notre-Dame de Paris, to suggest anything like the involution of its details\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act I.", "content": "In the first scenes Hugo introduces Don Carlos, King of Spain (the future Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor) sneaking into the bedchamber of Doña Sol. He forces her maid to help conceal him within the room. Shortly thereafter, Doña Sol enters to welcome her lover Hernani. Hernani and Sol discuss their situation − Doña Sol is about to be forced to marry her elderly uncle, and Hernani is a bandit whose father was executed by the previous King. Hernani and Doña Sol plot to run away together, but Don Carlos emerges from the cabinet where he was hiding, disrupting them. The two men clash swords, but are interrupted by Sol's uncle and fiancé Don Ruy Gomez de Silva. He demands to know why both men are in Sol's private chambers. Don Carlos reveals his identity, and asserts that he had come hoping to meet Ruy Gomez to discuss the recent death of Emperor Maximilian, and claims that Hernani is a member of his entourage, thereby allowing everyone to leave peacefully.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act II.", "content": "Don Carlos had overheard Sol and Hernani's plans to run away together, and accompanied with some aristocratic friends he appears at the rendezvous point, hoping to seduce Sol in Hernani's place. Doña Sol recognizes him and rejects him. Infuriated, Don Carlos attempts to abduct her. As Don Carlos and Doña Sol struggle over a dagger, Hernani arrives with his own sixty men having overtaken the king's three friends. He explains his hatred for the king over the death of his own father, and challenges Don Carlos to a duel. This time, the King is aware of Hernani's identity as a bandit, and he refuses a duel (as only noblemen could duel), but challenges Hernani to murder him. Hernani's sense of honor prevents him from attacking a man who won't fight back. The King escapes, and sends his men to arrest Hernani and his band of thieves. Hernani escapes after a farewell to Doña Sol.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act III.", "content": "Doña Sol and Ruy Gomez prepare for their wedding, and hear news that Hernani's men have all been murdered. Hernani arrives at the house in disguise, and Ruy Gomez takes him in as a guest. Hernani − apparently suicidal − reveals his identity and tries to provoke the servants to arrest him, but Ruy Gomez still insists on protecting him. Hernani admonishes Doña Sol for agreeing to the marriage, but when she reveals that she plans to kill herself on the wedding night, he has a change of heart and encourages her to accept the match. Ruy Gomez is appalled to learn of Sol and Hernani's relationship, considering it a betrayal of his hospitality, but he still continues his protection. The King arrives to arrest Hernani, but Ruy Gomez refuses to surrender him, citing laws of hospitality, which, he asserts, protect his guests even from the King. The King threatens Ruy Gomez, and Doña Sol intercedes for him. The King forgives Ruy Gomez but abducts Doña Sol. Alone, Ruy Gomez releases Hernani, initially intending to fight him to the death; but when Hernani learns of Doña Sol's abduction he insists on trying to rescue her and promises to surrender himself to Ruy Gomez after Sol is safe. Hernani secures his promise by giving Ruy Gomez a horn to blow to announce the moment when Hernani should die.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act IV.", "content": "Two months later, in June 1519, in Aachen (capital of the Holy Roman Empire), Don Carlos is awaiting the results of the imperial election while thwarting a conspiracy; among the conspirators are Don Ruy Gomez and Hernani. The latter, appointed to assassinate the king, refuses to give way to Don Ruy Gomez, who nevertheless asks him to break the pact. Don Carlos is elected emperor. He pardons the conspirators and announces the marriage of Doña Sol to Hernani. Hernani reveals his true identity: he is John of Aragon, noble but born in exile; and he abandons his idea of revenge.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act V.", "content": "Sol and Hernani are married, but, as they enjoy their wedding feast, Hernani hears the call of the horn blown by Ruy Gomez. As Hernani is about to drink poison, Doña Sol enters the room and tries to convince him that he is hers and he does not have to listen to her uncle. She is unable to persuade him otherwise. Doña Sol, shocked by Hernani's decision to kill himself, drinks half of the poison. Hernani drinks the other half and they die in each other's arms. Ruy Gomez de Silva kills himself.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Characters.", "content": "Don Carlos is a fictionalized version of the real King Carlos I, later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Don Ruy Gomez de Silva, Duke of Pastrana, gets his name from an actual duke by that name, though the fictional version is an old man in 1519 whereas the real de Silva would have been a toddler at this date. Hernani's name comes from a Basque town where Hugo once stayed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hernani (Full title: Hernani, ou l'Honneur Castillan) is a drama by the French romantic author Victor Hugo. The title originates from Hernani, a Spanish town in the Southern Basque Country, where Hugo’s mother and her three children stopped on their way to General Hugo’s place of residence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977330}
{"src_title": "Patrick J. Adams", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Adams was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. His mother is Rowan Marsh. His father is journalist Claude Adams. He attended Northern Secondary School.  Following his parents' divorce, Adams moved from Toronto to Los Angeles at age 19, where he attended the University of Southern California, earning a B.F.A. After earning the Jack Nicholson Award in 2004, which provided scholarships directly funded by the eponymous actor to outstanding performers at the school and earning his BFA, he immediately began working on a production of Edward Albee's \"The Goat, or Who is Sylvia?\" at the Mark Taper Forum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Television.", "content": "Adams appeared in episodes of \"Cold Case\", \"Pretty Little Liars\", \"Jack & Bobby\", and has since had roles in \"Lost\", \"Friday Night Lights\", \"Without a Trace\", \"Commander in Chief\", \"Heartland\", \"Ghost Whisperer\", \"NCIS\", \"Cupid\", \"Luck\", \"Raising the Bar\", \"Legends of Tomorrow\", \"Lie to Me\" and \"Suits\". He starred as twin brothers in the 2008 ABC pilot \"Good Behavior\", executive produced by Rob Thomas. In 2009, he signed for the male lead in the one-hour drama \"The Dealership\", starring opposite Tricia Helfer and William Devane. His television appearances grew over the next few years, from guest appearances on \"Numb3rs\" to a recurring role as a love interest for Adrianne Palicki on \"Friday Night Lights\" and leads in TV features like the romantic comedy \"Christmas in Boston\".  In 2007, he moved up to guest appearances on top-rated shows like \"Lost\", where he played a young man who sought out John Locke (played by Terry O'Quinn), while maintaining his presence in the Los Angeles theater scene, most notably with an award-winning production of \"Marat/Sade,\" which he produced and directed for the Blue House Theatre Company. In 2010, Adams guest starred in \"Pretty Little Liars\", in the 5th episode; \"Reality Bites Me\" as Ezra Fitz's college friend, Hardy.  In summer 2011, he began starring in the co-lead role of Mike Ross in \"Suits\" on the basic-cable USA Network, after being fired from the pilot of NBC's \"Friends With Benefits\". He garnered much acclaim for his role in the series which has continued into its seventh season in 2017–18. Since Season 3, Adams has been listed as a co-producer of \"Suits\" (with co-star Gabriel Macht) and has directed some episodes. On January 30, 2018, it was announced Adams was departing from the show following the completion of its seventh season. He appeared in HBO's 2012 TV series \"Luck\" as recurring character Nathan Israel.  In 2016, Adams was cast as Hourman in the TV series \"Legends of Tomorrow\". Playing the Rex Tyler iteration, he appeared at the end of the season 1 finale before being killed off in the season 2 premiere.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "Adams' work in film includes supporting roles in \"Old School\" and \"Two: Thirteen\", and lead roles in \"Weather Girl\" (a 2009 Slamdance entry) and the 2009 Berlin International Film Festival competitor \"Rage\", directed by Sally Potter. In the beginning of 2018 he released his first own shortfilm, \"We Are Here.\" He wrote, directed and acted the short film together with his wife Troian Bellisario.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Adams has been married to \"Pretty Little Liars\" star Troian Bellisario since December 2016. The two met in 2009 when they were cast opposite each other in the play \"Equivocation\". Prior to his appearance on \"Pretty Little Liars\", Adams and Bellisario had broken up; but they got back together after Adams' guest appearance on \"Pretty Little Liars\" in 2010. Adams and Bellisario married on December 10, 2016 in Santa Barbara, California. In October 2018, Adams announced the birth of the couple's daughter, Aurora.  Adams was one of the guests at his \"Suits\" co-star Meghan Markle’s wedding to Prince Harry at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle on May 19, 2018.  Adams was awarded Honorary Life Membership of University College Dublin Law Society in September 2013. Adams plays the guitar and is an avid photographer who owns over 25 cameras.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Patrick Johannes Adams (born August 27, 1981) is a Canadian actor and director. He is best known for playing Mike Ross, a brilliant college dropout turned unlicensed lawyer in USA Network's TV series \"Suits\". He is also an avid photographer, with many of his photos getting more recognition after Suits' Behind the Lens and #PJAGallery events.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977331}
{"src_title": "Carrying capacity", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "In terms of population dynamics, the concept of carrying capacity was not explicitly used in 1838 by the Belgian mathematician Pierre François Verhulst when he first published his equations based on research on modelling population growth, but was popularised in the 1920 by the American biostatisticians Raymond Pearl and Lowell Reed.  The origins of the English term \"carrying capacity\" are uncertain, with researchers variously stating that it was used \"in the context of international shipping\" or that it was first used during 19th-century laboratory experiments with micro-organisms. A recent review finds the first use of the term in an 1845 report by the US Secretary of State to the US Senate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Factors.", "content": "In the standard ecological algebra as illustrated in the simplified of population dynamics, carrying capacity is represented by the constant K:  where \"N\" is the population, \"r\" is the maximum growth rate, \"K\" is the carrying capacity of the local environment, and \"dN/dt\", the derivative of \"N\" with respect to time \"t\", is the rate of change in population with time. Thus, the equation relates the growth rate of the population \"N\" to the current population size, incorporating the effect of the two constant parameters \"r\" and \"K\". (Note that decrease is negative growth.) The choice of the letter \"K\" came from the German \"Kapazitätsgrenze\" (capacity limit).  This equation is a modification of the original Verhulst model:  In this equation, the carrying capacity \"K\", formula_3, is  When the Verhulst model is plotted into a graph, the population change over time takes the form of a sigmoid curve, reaching its highest level at K. This is the logistic growth curve, and it is calculated with:  where  The logistic growth curve depicts how population growth rate and the carrying capacity are inter-connected. As illustrated in the logistic growth curve model, when the population size is small, the population increases exponentially. However, as population size nears the carrying capacity, the growth decreases and reaches zero at K.  What determines a specific system's carrying capacity involves a limiting factor which may be something such as available supplies of food, water, nesting areas, space or amount of waste that can be absorbed. Where resources are finite, such as for a population of \"Osedax\" on a whale fall or bacteria in a petridish, the population will curve back down to zero after the resources have been exhausted, with the curve reaching its apogee at K. In systems in which resources are constantly replenished, the population will reach its equilibrium at K.  Software is available to help calculate the carrying capacity of a given natural environment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Humans.", "content": "Several estimates of the carrying capacity of the earth for humans have been made with a wide range of population numbers. A 2001 UN report said that two-thirds of the estimates fall in the range of 4 billion to 16 billion with unspecified standard errors, with a median of about 10 billion. Some of these issues have been studied by computer simulation models such as World3.  The application of the concept of carrying capacity for the human population, which exists in a non-equilibrium, has been criticized for not successfully being able to model the processes between humans and the environment.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The carrying capacity of an environment is the maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained in that specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available. In population ecology, carrying capacity is defined as the environment's maximal load, which is different from the concept of population equilibrium, which may be far below an environment's carrying capacity. The effect of carrying capacity on population dynamics may be modelled with a logistic function.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977332}
{"src_title": "Denis Cheryshev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born in Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Soviet Union, Cheryshev started his career at Sporting de Gijón, where his father Dmitri was playing at the time. He soon followed him to his next club, Burgos, entering locals CD Burgos Promesas 2000 at the age of 9.  During his spell, Cheryshev was selected to play for the youth levels of the Castile and León regional team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Real Madrid.", "content": "Cheryshev joined Real Madrid in 2002, and completed his formative years in their academy. Still a junior, he appeared in nine Segunda División games with Real Madrid Castilla during the 2008–09 season; it was also during this time he formed a long-lasting friendship with future Spanish national team player Nacho.  Over the next two years, Cheryshev played 61 matches and scored 11 goals for the reserve side. He was an important attacking unit as the latter campaign ended in promotion to Segunda División, after a five-year absence.  Cheryshev made his debut in division two on 17 August 2012, playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–2 away loss against Villarreal. On 27 November, he made his official debut for the first team in a 3–0 home win (7–1 on aggregate) over Alcoyano in the season's Copa del Rey.  In September 2013, Cheryshev was loaned to fellow league club Sevilla for the remainder of the campaign with the possibility of a permanent deal. As a result of persistent injury concerns, he made only four league appearances and the Andalusians opted not to exercise the option, with the player joining Villarreal on loan for 2014–15 instead.  Cheryshev scored on his debut for Villarreal on 24 August 2014, netting the second goal in a 2–0 win at Levante. Having recovered from the injuries which plighted his time at his previous team, he thrived at El Madrigal and netted seven times in 40 appearances across all competitions.  Returned to the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Cheryshev made top flight debut for Real Madrid on 19 September 2015, playing 13 minutes in a 1–0 defeat of Granada. He scored his first competitive goal for them on 2 December, featuring 45 minutes in a 3–1 away victory over Cádiz in the Spanish Cup's round of 32. However, his appearance in the match drew controversy as he was ineligible for selection after having collected three yellow cards in the previous edition of the tournament, and resulted in Real Madrid being expelled from the tournament. President Florentino Pérez claimed that the Royal Spanish Football Federation had not informed the club that the player was suspended and challenged the action taken against the team, though he was unsuccessful.  On 1 February 2016, Cheryshev was loaned to Valencia until June. He made his debut two days later, coming on as a second-half substitute in 7–0 away loss against Barcelona in the semi-finals of the domestic cup. He scored his first and only goal on 13 February, when he headed home in a 2–1 win over Espanyol at the Mestalla Stadium.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Villarreal.", "content": "On 15 June 2016, Cheryshev returned to Villarreal on a permanent deal where he signed a contract until 2021. On 14 August 2018 he returned to Valencia on loan, scoring twice during the season to help to a fourth-place finish.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Valencia.", "content": "On 29 June 2019, Cheryshev joined Valencia permanently for a fee of €6 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Prior to making his international debut with Russia, Cheryshev was also eligible to represent Spain as he held dual nationality. In a 2011 interview with \"Marca\" he indicated that he felt more Spanish than Russian, but accepted a call up to the Russian team in November 2012. He made his debut eight days later in a 2–2 friendly draw with the United States, the same opposition his father Dmitri had played against 20 years earlier.  Cheryshev played his first competitive game on 14 August 2013, when he came on as a half-time substitute in a 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Northern Ireland in Belfast. However, after just five minutes on the pitch, he had to be replaced due to injury, in an eventual 0–1 loss; he was called up to a provisional 25-man squad for the finals on 16 May 2014, being the only player present not playing his club football in Russia. He was, however, left out of Fabio Capello's final list and also later missed the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament due to injury.  After an absence of more than two years, Cheryshev appeared for the national team again on 27 March 2018 in a friendly with France. On 11 May, he was included in an extended squad for that year's World Cup, also being named as one of the final 23 players. He made his debut in the competition on 14 June, replacing the injured Alan Dzagoev midway through the first half of the group stage opener against Saudi Arabia in Moscow and scoring twice in a 5–0 win. He scored his third goal in the tournament against Egypt in a 3–1 victory, adding another in the quarter-finals when he curled a strike past Croatia's Danijel Subašić from just outside the 18-yard area to open the scoring, but in an eventual 3–4 penalty shoot-out loss.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International goals.", "content": "(Russia score listed first, score column indicates score after each Cheryshev goal)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Real Madrid Castilla  Real Madrid  Sevilla  Valencia  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Denis Dmitriyevich Cheryshev (; born 26 December 1990) is a Russian professional footballer who plays as a left winger for Spanish club Valencia CF and the Russian national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977333}
{"src_title": "Chemically peculiar star", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "Chemically peculiar stars are common among hot main sequence (hydrogen-burning) stars. These hot peculiar stars have been divided into 4 main classes on the basis of their spectra, although two classification systems are sometimes used:  The class names provide a good idea of the peculiarities that set them apart from other stars on or near the main sequence. The Am stars (CP1 stars) show weak lines of singly ionized Ca and/or Sc, but show enhanced abundances of heavy metals. They also tend to be slow rotators and have an effective temperature between 7000 K and 10 000 K. The Ap stars (CP2 stars) are characterized by strong magnetic fields, enhanced abundances of elements such as Si, Cr, Sr and Eu, and are also generally slow rotators. The effective temperature of these stars is stated to be between 8000 K and 15 000 K, but the issue of calculating effective temperatures in such peculiar stars is complicated by atmospheric structure. The HgMn stars (CP3 stars) are also classically placed within the Ap category, but they do not show the strong magnetic fields associated with classical Ap stars. As the name implies, these stars show increased abundances of singly ionized Hg and Mn. These stars are also very slow rotators, even by the standards of CP stars. The effective temperature range for these stars is quoted at between 10 000 K and 15 000 K. The He-weak stars (CP4 stars) show weaker He lines than would be expected classically from their observed Johnson \"UBV\" colours. A rare class of He-weak stars are, paradoxically, the helium-rich stars, with temperatures of 18,000 - 23,000 K.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause of the peculiarities.", "content": "It is generally thought that the peculiar surface compositions observed in these hot main-sequence stars have been caused by processes that happened after the star formed, such as diffusion or magnetic effects in the outer layers of the stars. These processes cause some elements, particularly He, N and O, to \"settle\" out in the atmosphere into the layers below, while other elements such as Mn, Sr, Y and Zr are \"levitated\" out of the interior to the surface, resulting in the observed spectral peculiarities. It is assumed that the centers of the stars, and the bulk compositions of the entire star, have more normal chemical abundance mixtures which reflect the compositions of the gas clouds from which they formed. In order for such diffusion and levitation to occur and the resulting layers to remain intact, the atmosphere of such a star must be stable enough to convection that convective mixing does not occur. The proposed mechanism causing this stability is the unusually large magnetic field that is generally observed in stars of this type.  Approximately 5-10% of hot main sequence stars show chemical peculiarities. Of these, the vast majority are Ap (or Bp) stars with strong magnetic fields. Non-magnetic, or only weakly magnetic, chemically peculiar stars mostly fall into the Am or HgMn categories. A much smaller percentage show stronger peculiarities, such as the dramatic under-abundance of iron peak elements in λ Boötis stars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"sn\" stars.", "content": "Another group of stars sometimes considered to be chemically peculiar are the'sn' stars. These hot stars, usually of spectral classes B2 to B9, show Balmer lines with sharp (\"s\") cores, sharp metallic absorption lines, and contrasting broad (nebulous, \"n\") neutral helium absorption lines. These may be combined with the other chemical peculiarities more commonly seen in B-type stars.  It was originally proposed that the unusual helium lines were created in a weak shell of material around the star, but are now thought to be caused by the Stark effect.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other stars.", "content": "There are also classes of chemically peculiar cool stars (that is, stars with spectral type G or later), but these stars are typically not main-sequence stars. These are usually identified by the name of their class or some further specific label. The phrase \"chemically peculiar star\" without further specification usually means a member of one of the hot main sequence types described above. Many of the cooler chemically peculiar stars are the result of the mixing of nuclear fusion products from the interior of the star to its surface; these include most of the carbon stars and S-type stars. Others are the result of mass transfer in a binary star system; examples of these include the barium stars and some S stars.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In astrophysics, chemically peculiar stars (CP stars) are stars with distinctly unusual metal abundances, at least in their surface layers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977334}
{"src_title": "Beth Behrs", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Behrs was born on December 26, 1985 in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, the elder daughter of David Behrs, a college administrator, and Maureen Behrs, a first grade teacher. She has a sister who is six years younger. In 1989 her family moved to Springfield, Virginia and later to Lynchburg, Virginia, where she was raised. She began performing in theater at age four and played soccer while growing up. She was a student at E.C. Glass High School.  At age 15, Behrs relocated with her family to Marin County, California. She began attending Tamalpais High School in 2001, and was accepted into the school's highly regarded drama program. She graduated from that high school in 2004. Behrs studied at the American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco, and went on to perform in the musical \"Dangling Conversations: The Music of Simon and Garfunkel\", and the plays \"Korczak's Children\" and \"A Bright Room Called Day\". She was classically trained as a singer.  Behrs moved to Los Angeles, California, in 2004, to study acting at the UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television. In 2005, she played Sandy Dumbrowski in a production of \"Grease\" at San Francisco's Ray of Light Theatre, and was named Miss Marin County in 2006. She began auditioning for roles in her senior year and graduated in 2008 with a bachelor's degree in critical studies. Behrs was awarded a Young Musician's Foundation Vocal Scholarship after graduating from the college.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Behrs landed her first film role in the teen comedy \"\", which she filmed in Vancouver for seven weeks beginning in March 2009. The seventh in the \"American Pie\" series, the film was released direct-to-video on December 22, 2009. She next starred in \"Adventures of Serial Buddies\", an independent comedy about an inept group of serial killers produced by TV personality Maria Menounos. The film also starred Christopher Lloyd, Kathie Lee Gifford, and Artie Lange. In late 2010, Behrs shot the independent feature, \"Route 30, Too!\", in Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, playing an alien girl.  Behrs began working in television with guest appearances on \"\" and ABC's \"Castle\". In 2011, she was working as a nanny and at the Geffen Playhouse in Westwood, when she auditioned for the CBS sitcom \"2 Broke Girls\". She landed the lead role after seven auditions. Behrs stars as Caroline Channing, an heiress from Manhattan's Upper East Side, who is forced to become a waitress at a diner in Williamsburg, Brooklyn after her father is arrested for financial wrongdoing. Her character is a graduate of the Wharton School who teams up with a waitress named Max (Kat Dennings) in a business venture. The series is produced by comedian Whitney Cummings and \"Sex and the City\"-producer Michael Patrick King. In March 2016, CBS renewed the series for a sixth season. On May 12, 2017, the series was canceled after six seasons.  In 2013, Behrs appeared on \"It's a Brad, Brad World\", a Bravo reality television series featuring fashion stylist Brad Goreski. Behrs was also a presenter at the 2013 Academy of Country Music Awards. She voiced sorority girl Carrie Williams that year in the Disney/Pixar animated film \"Monsters University\", a prequel to 2001's \"Monsters, Inc.\". She starred alongside Sally Field and Max Greenfield in the independent comedy, \"Hello, My Name Is Doris\", directed by Michael Showalter. Behrs made her Manhattan stage debut in June 2016 at the Lucille Lortel Theatre in Halley Feiffer's comedic play, \"A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Gynecologic Oncology Unit at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center of New York City\".  Behrs is also an author. Since 2016, she co-creates the young-adult webcomic \"Dents\" with childhood friend Matt Doyle. Inspired by \"X-Men\" comics, the webcomic explores themes such as sexuality, feminism and environmental issues. Behrs released the book \"The Total Me-Tox: How to Ditch Your Diet, Move Your Body & Love Your Life\" in May 2017, in which she shares her personal journey towards health and happiness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Behrs and actor Michael Gladis were engaged on July 10, 2016, after a six-year relationship. They appeared in a short film together, \"The Argument\", in 2012, for the comedy website Funny or Die. On July 21, 2018, she married Gladis at scenic Moose Creek Ranch in Victor, Idaho, just outside Jackson Hole.  Behrs began equine therapy in 2011 to help manage panic attacks and anxiety that she had experienced since she was a teenager.  Behrs founded SheHerdPower Foundation, which pairs women with horses, to provide therapy to victims of sexual assault.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elizabeth Ann Behrs (born December 26, 1985) is an American actress and writer best known for her starring role as Caroline Channing in the CBS comedy series \"2 Broke Girls\". The show ran for six seasons and earned Behrs praise and nominations for the Teen and the People's Choice Awards. Having made her screen debut in the 2009 comedy film \"\", she later ventured into television roles. After \"2 Broke Girls\", Behrs returned to feature films with the 2015 productions \"Chasing Eagle Rock\" and \"Hello, My Name Is Doris\". She voiced Carrie Williams in the animated film \"Monsters University\" (2013) and Moochie in the television series \"\". In 2018, she was cast as Gemma Johnson in the CBS sitcom \"The Neighborhood\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977335}
{"src_title": "Maurice Sarrail", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Sarrail was born at Carcassonne, and attended St Cyr, graduating in third place on 1 October 1877. He was posted as a sub-lieutenant to the infantry. His regimental service and promotion followed the normal course. He was promoted to lieutenant in October 1882, captain in 1887, and chef-de-bataillon (major) in 1897. In 1901 he was appointed Commandant of the École Militaire d'Infanterie (St. Maixent), where rankers were turned into loyal republican officers.  In 1902 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel. From 1904 to", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First World War: western front 1914–15.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Battle of the Ardennes.", "content": "At Virton in the Ardennes in August 1914 he commanded VI Corps, part of Ruffey’s Third Army. VI Corps was strengthened with an extra (third) infantry division, and faced German VI Reserve Corps. Sarrail's was the only corps of Ruffey’s Third Army to withstand the strong German", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Fighting around Verdun.", "content": "In early September Sarrail, along with Franchet d’Esperey (Fifth Army) and Foch (Ninth Army), was ordered (\"Instruction Generale No 5\") to stop retreating and be ready to counterattack. However, during the Battle of the Marne, unlike those other French generals, Sarrail was ordered simply to pin down German Crown Prince Wilhelm’s Fifth Army opposite him, in the vicinity of Verdun.  The Revigny Gap had opened up between the right of de Langle's Fourth Army and the left of Third Army. A similar, larger, gap, 20km wide, had opened up between Fourth Army’s left and the right of Foch’s Ninth Army. Whilst Joffre was bringing up XV and XXI Corps from Lorraine to plug the gaps, the Germans attacked, although", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Winter 1914–15.", "content": "The railway into Verdun from Paris and Chalons, which passed through Aubreville, 20 km west of Verdun, was under shelling from the German occupied Heights of Aubreville, 7 km to the north. After attacks by French artillery, directed by aircraft,", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Argonne and dismissal: 1915.", "content": "Early in 1915 Sarrail's political allies touted him as a replacement for Joffre as commander-in-chief.  The Germans attacked in the Argonne on 20 and 30 June and 12 and 13 July 1915. Joffre complained that Third Army had performed poorly and had \"yielded the initiative to the adversary\". Joffre transferred Third Army from Dubail’s Eastern Army Group to de Castelnau's Central Army Group, and on 16 July Dubail wrote to de Castelnau expressing his concerns about Sarrail’s leadership, and noting that the Germans opposite had kept up an \"aggressive attitude\" without undue casualties, whereas Sarrail had attempted to maintain \"moral ascendancy\" with many small attacks, and", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Salonika.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1915.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "1916.", "content": "", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "1917.", "content": "On 3 January 1917 Sarrail and Milne arrived at the Rome Conference, independently of one another. Hankey thought Sarrail \"a man of quite exceptional charm\". Lloyd George, now British Prime Minister and keen to avoid a repetition of the Battle of the Somme, thought him \"a remarkable, fascinating character, handsome, impulsive, full of fire\", although fearful about the effect on US opinion he rejected Sarrail's suggestion that he be given a fortnight to crush the royalists in Athens. Sarrail was confirmed as \"Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Army of the Orient\" with the", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Dismissal.", "content": "With France narrowly surviving political and military crisis in 1917, Sarrail's association with the socialist politicians Caillaux and Malvy, now suspected of treasonable contacts with the Germans, sealed his fate.  On becoming Prime Minister Clemenceau moved quickly to sack Sarrail. He made Salonika the main topic of discussion at the first meeting of the War Committee (6 December), saying \"Sarrail cannot remain there\". Clemenceau and Philippe Petain (Commander-in-Chief of French forces on the Western Front) preferred Franchet d’Esperey as Sarrail's successor, but Foch (Chief of Staff) argued for Guillaumat to be given the job, and first Petain and then the Prime Minister were persuaded. Clemenceau informed Sarrail of his dismissal on 10 December.  A press release on 11 December announced that Sarrail \"has had to contend with great difficulties and has rendered great services\". There were no political consequences from his dismissal, and he took no further part in the war.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "Sarrail went into retirement at his country home at Montauban to write his memoirs. This account of the Salonika operations was published soon after the end of World War I under the title \"Mon Commandement en Orient\".  When his political allies returned to power in 1924 he was despatched to Syria as high commissioner. He was recalled on 30 October 1925, after he ordered the shelling of", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Maurice Paul Emmanuel Sarrail (6 April 1856 – 23 March 1929) was a French general of the First World War. Sarrail's openly socialist political connections made him a rarity amongst the Catholics, conservatives and monarchists who dominated the French Army officer corps under the Third Republic before the war, and were the main reason why he was appointed to command at Salonika.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977336}
{"src_title": "Stronghold: Crusader", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Campaigns.", "content": "\"Stronghold Crusader\" features several real-time strategy campaign strings. These document the First, Second and Third Crusade, as well as conflicts within the individual Crusader states. Each campaign comprises several battles, such as Nicaea, Heraclea, siege of Antioch, Krak des Chevaliers and the Siege of Jerusalem. The game also features the Crusader Trail, a series of 50 linked missions against various opponents. \"Stronghold Warchest\" adds one more Crusader Trail, consisting of 30 linked missions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "The gameplay is similar to the original \"Stronghold\", the major difference being that the game is set in the Middle East. As a consequence, farms can only be built on oasis grass, which leads to rivalry among players for limited farmland and resources. The game adds new AI opponents (the number depending on the version of the game) and several new Arabian units purchasable from a mercenary post. The colour of the player's units have also been changed from blue to red in order to match the colours of the Knights Templar. Other than farms there are other resources such as iron ore, quarry (for stone), and marshes (for oil). These resources are deposited on the stockpile and the player can choose to either sell or use them for defense purposes. There are two ways to build an army; either make the weapons and then spend a little gold to turn peasants into soldiers, or turn them directly into soldiers using more gold via the mercenary post.  There are historical chapters (mostly fictionalized) which are to be completed using the resources given to the player at the start of the missions. Along with that there are 50 levels designed with increasing difficulty. Each level has one or more Kings who the player has to defeat and defend his/her kingdom from. There is an option of 3 chickens at the start of the game which the player can use to skip a particular level.  There are 30 additional levels added by the developers in the form of an additional Crusade Trail. The design of these mirrors the original 50 levels with the difficulty raising as the player progresses through the levels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characters.", "content": "The game contains several different characters that all appear as AI-controlled lords in the Skirmish mode, available to be selected as allies or enemies. One unique aspect of the game is that the characters have individual binks (small short videos) by which they communicate with the player, asking for goods or help if allied with them or, if they are the players' enemy, taunting them when attacking or expressing worry when under siege. These videos were absent for \"Stronghold 2\" but returned in a new form for \"Stronghold Crusader II\".  In the base game, eight AI lords are available, including the opponents from the original game (The Rat, The Snake, The Pig, and The Wolf), as well as new Arabian and Crusader lords (Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, The Caliph, and The Sultan). With the Warchest edition, eight additional lords were added. Three of these (Emperor Frederick, King Philip, and The Sheriff) were made available by Firefly as a free download, but the five others - The Wazir, The Emir, Nizar (based on the real-life Hassan-i Sabbah), The Marshal (a repurposed Sir Longarm from the original Stronghold), and The Abbot - had to be obtained via buying the Warchest package. These additional lords were, however, properly included within the game's later release on Steam at no extra charge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The game received \"generally favorable reviews\" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.  According to \"Edge\", \"Stronghold: Crusader\" sold at least 100,000 copies in the United States, but was beaten by the first \"Stronghold\"s 220,000 sales in the region. Total US sales of \"Stronghold\" games released during the 2000s reached 590,000 copies by August 2006.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Stronghold: Crusader Extreme\".", "content": "On January 28, 2008, Firefly Studios announced an expanded version of the game: \"Stronghold: Crusader Extreme\". It boasts \"new AI opponents and maps\", a \"new crusader extreme trail\", \"battles featuring over 10,000 units\" and Windows Vista compatibility. It was released in June 2008.  It also contains an updated version of the original \"Stronghold: Crusader\", which includes everything except for outposts, the god powers and the Extreme Crusader Trail. However, if the official HD patch is installed, outposts can be built on maps on the original Stronghold Crusader part of Stronghold Crusader Extreme.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The \"Extreme\" version received \"generally unfavorable reviews\" according to Metacritic. It was criticized for its extreme difficulty, lack of new audio, and not having graphical quality up to par for a game released in 2008.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sequel.", "content": "On August 30, 2012, Firefly Studios announced \"Stronghold Crusader II\", a sequel to the original \"Crusader\" game. The company said that the game would be self-published, with additional funding to be sourced via crowd-funding site Gambitious. The game was released on September 23, 2014.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stronghold: Crusader is the successor to Firefly Studios's 2001 real-time strategy video game \"Stronghold\". \"Crusader\" has much in common with the original \"Stronghold\", but differs from its predecessor in the fact that the game is no longer set in England, instead being set in the Middle East during the Crusades. The game features a multitude of new Arabian units that can be purchased in a new building, the mercenary post. Though the Arabian troops do not require any weapons to produce, they are rather expensive. The game was also released as \"Stronghold Warchest\". This version was a compendium of \"Stronghold\" and an enhanced version of \"Stronghold: Crusader\", containing additional characters and an additional Crusader Trail.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977337}
{"src_title": "VAZ-2101", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The lightweight Italian Fiat 124, which had won the 1967 European Car of the Year, was adapted in order to survive treacherous Russian driving conditions. Among many changes, aluminium brake drums were added to the rear, and the original Fiat engine was dropped in favour of a newer design made by NAMI. This new engine had a modern overhead camshaft design but was never used in Fiat cars. The suspension was raised to clear rough Russian roads and the bodyshell was made from thicker, heavier steel with reinforcement in key chassis areas after cracking was discovered during durability testing. The first Lada models were equipped with a starting handle in case the battery went flat in Siberian conditions, though this was later dropped. Another feature specifically intended to help out in cold conditions was a manual auxiliary fuel pump.  Engines fitted to the original Ladas start with the 1.2 L carburetted in the original and go up to the 1.7 L export model set up with a General Motors single point fuel injection system. Diesel engines were later fitted for the domestic market only. The drivetrain is a simple rear-wheel drive setup with a live rear axle. The engine is an inline four with two valves per cylinder and a single overhead camshaft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The 2101 is a re-engineered version of the Fiat 124 produced under licence from Fiat and tailored for the nations of the Eastern Bloc, but was widely exported to the West as an economy car. Although the facelifted and modernised VAZ-2105, 2104 & 2107 versions largely replaced it in the West in the early 1980s, it was still produced for the domestic market as late as 1988. Known as the \"Zhiguli\" (for the hills found near the plant) within the Soviet Union, the main differences between the VAZ-2101 and the Fiat 124 are the use of thicker gauge steel for the bodyshell, drum brakes on the rear wheels in place of disc brakes, and a bespoke engine. Early versions of the car featured a starting handle for cranking the engine manually should the battery go flat in Siberian winter conditions, and an auxiliary fuel pump.  Under the licensing agreement with Fiat, VAZ were forbidden from selling the car in Italy in order to protect Fiat's lucrative home market, nor was it permitted to sell it in any export market in competition with the 124; however, exports to Western Europe began in 1974 when the 124 was discontinued in favour of Fiat's newer 131 Mirafiori. The 2101 was sold in export markets as the Lada 1200, Lada 1300, Lada 1200S and Lada 2101 until 1989; it was sold in the United Kingdom from May 1974, until the arrival of the Riva in 1983. It was the first Lada to be sold in the United Kingdom.  The first year, 22,000 were produced, and capacity reached 660,000 by 1973. Sales reached one million on 21 December 1973, and one and a half million in 1974. In May 1974, it went on sale in Britain, priced at £979.  The 2101 was built, virtually unaltered, from 1970 until 1982.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Models.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "VAZ-2102.", "content": "The estate version of the VAZ-2101 (based on the Fiat 124 Familiare) was known as the 2102 and was available from 1971. It was replaced by the 2104 (Lada Riva in some markets) in 1985. Over 660,000 were built by end of production in 1986. In May 1974, it went on sale in Britain, priced at £979.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "VAZ-2103.", "content": "The 2103 (known in export markets as the Lada 1500) was very similar to the 2101, and had many common features with the Fiat 124 Special that was developed at the same time as the 2103, but with an external trim closer to the larger and more upmarket Fiat 125. It can be identified by four headlights, a squarer appearance to the front grille, and a different interior. Some markets also received the VAZ-2106, or Lada 1600.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The VAZ-2101 \"\"Zhiguli\"\", commonly nicknamed \"\"Kopeyka\"\" (for the smallest coin, 1/100 of the \"Ruble\"), is a compact sedan car (\"small class, passenger car, model 1\" in Soviet classification) produced by the Soviet manufacturer AvtoVAZ and introduced in 1970, the company's first product.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977338}
{"src_title": "Actinidia kolomikta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The plant is a very long-lived, deciduous woody scrambling vine and creeper, which ultimately grows to. It is the hardiest species in the genus \"Actinidia\", at least down to about in winter, albeit somewhat susceptible to late spring frosts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Actinidia kolomikta\" is an ornamental plant for gardens and a houseplant. The plant was collected by Charles Maries in Sapporo, on the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido, in 1878, and sent to his patrons, Veitch Nurseries, who introduced it into Western horticulture.  \"Actinidia kolomikta\" is cultivated in cold temperate regions as an ornamental plant, largely for the striking random variegation in pink and white of some its leaves but also because of the relatively small (2-5 g or 0.07- 0.18 ounces) kiwifruit-like berries it produces. There are a number of named cultivars bred for the latter purpose in Russia and Poland, though it takes years for a plant to start yielding, and because \"A. kolomikta\" is dioecious a male pollenizer plant is required for the wild vines and most of the cultivars.  This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pests.", "content": "The plant is attractive to cats, which find it more attractive than catnip or valerian and can severely damage the vine. An early propagator in Boston found all his pots of the newly introduced plant bitten to stubs in his greenhouse, before his cat was discovered to be the culprit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "\"Actinidia\" is derived from Greek and means ‘rayed’, which is a reference to the rayed styles of the flowers.  \"Kolomikta\" is a vernacular name from Amur in eastern Russia, and is probably in reference to the multifarious color of the leaves.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Actinidia kolomikta, the kolomikta or variegated-leaf hardy kiwi, is a species of flowering plant in the family Actinidiaceae, native to temperate mixed forests of the Russian Far East, Korea, Japan and China (Eastern Asiatic Region).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977339}
{"src_title": "RWD 13", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The RWD 13 was a touring plane, developed from a line of sports planes RWD 6 (a winner of Challenge 1932 international touring aircraft contest) and RWD 9 (a winner of Challenge 1934). It was designed by Stanisław Rogalski and Jerzy Drzewiecki of the RWD team, in the DWL workshops (\"Doświadczalne Warsztaty Lotnicze\") in Warsaw, for and order of the LOPP paramilitary organization. The prototype was constructed using parts of a broken up RWD 6 (initially it was even supposed to be designated RWD 6bis), but its construction was more similar to newer RWD 9. It first flew on 15 January 1935 (registration SP-AOA). Since the RWD 13 was not supposed to be a competition aircrft, the main differences from the RWD 9 were: an inline engine with lower power output, instead of a radial engine, and simpler wing mechanization. It still had advantages, like short take-off and landing and ease of flying, with good stability. By 1939, some 85 were produced.  In 1937 an air ambulance variant RWD 13S was built (prototype markings SP-BFN), with a starboard hatch for stretchers in the fuselage. There was also developed a similar universal variant RWD 13TS (or ST, or S/T), that could be converted from a touring plane to an ambulance by removing the right-hand seat. By 1939, 15 RWD 13S were made, including a few RWD 13TS. A development of the RWD 13 was the five-seater RWD 15.  A licence was sold to Yugoslavia in 1938 and made four RWD 13, and two RWD 13s were produced 1939 there by Rogožarski. All four RWD 13s were converted in 1939 into ambulance RWD 13S aircraft.  A flying replica of the RWD 13 is under construction in Poland (as of 2008).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "Three-seater sports and touring strutted high-wing monoplane of a mixed construction. A fuselage of a metal frame, covered with canvas, in engine section with aluminium sheets. Two-spar rectangular wing of wooden construction, covered with canvas and plywood in front. Wings folded rearwards, and were equipped with automatic slats. Cantilever empennage, covered with plywood (stabilizers) and canvas (rudder and elevators). Closed cabin with three seats: two front seats fitted with dual controls, behind them a third seat and a space for a luggage. The cabin had a pair of doors. In RWD 13S there were two seats on the left side, and stretchers on the right. The single engine in front was a 4-cylinder air-cooled inverted straight engine 130 hp Walter Major 4, PZInż. Major (licensed Walter Major), or a de Havilland Gipsy Major. The propeller was a two-blade wooden Szomański of a fixed pitch. The landing gear was conventional, with a rear skid. The fuel tanks were in the wings with a capacity of 140 L. Fuel consumption of the aircraft was 28 litres/hour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poland.", "content": "Most RWD 13s were used by the Polish civilian aviation, initially, the Polish Aero Club (they were funded by the Ministry of Communication or the LOPP paramilitary organization - Air and Anti-gas Defence League). Three were used by the Ministry of Communication as utility aircraft, two were used by the LOT Polish Airlines, and several were in hands of private owners and companies.  The Polish Aero Club aircraft were also used for sport flying, taking part in numerous international contests and rallies, taking high places. Among others, they took the 1st, 4th, 6th and 7th places in a touring aircraft competition during the 4th International Air Meeting in Zurich in 1937. The RWD 13S won a prize of Esch town for the best air ambulance of an International Ambulance Aircraft Contest in Esch, Luxembourg in July 1938 (the contest itself was won by another Polish plane, the LWS-2). Most air ambulances RWD 13S belonged to the Polish Red Cross, five to the Polish Air Force, but they carried civilian markings as well. Several (at least five) RWD 13, not counting air ambulances, were mobilized after the start of World War II and used as liaison aircraft during the Polish September Campaign. Some aircraft were evacuated to neighbouring countries, some were destroyed or seized by the Germans.  Most Polish RWD 13 were painted red, with a silver lightning painted on a fuselage and silver wings. RWD 13S were painted in ivory, with Red Cross markings, while RWD 13TS were painted in ivory, with a red lightning on the fuselage.  Only four RWD 13 were used in Poland after the war, that were returned by Romania in 1947 (in 1948 the Polish communist government lost interest in all Polish pre-war equipment remaining abroad). They were used until 1953-1955, with registrations: SP-MSZ (owned by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, MSZ in short), SP-ARG, SP-ARH, SP-ARL. SP-ARL is currently preserved in the Polish Aviation Museum in Kraków, with its pre-war registration SP-BNU (formerly used by LOT Polish Airlines).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spain.", "content": "Around 20 RWD 13s were exported before World War II. Four were sold to Spain by SEPEWE and were used as liaison aircraft by Franco's Aviación Nacional during the Spanish Civil War, under the name \"Polaca\" (numbers: 30-1 - 30-4). After the civil war, the remaining ones were used in aero clubs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Brasil.", "content": "In 1937-1938, eight RWD 13 were sold to Brazil and used there until the 1960s. One of them still remains in airworthy condition (PT-LFY).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Palestine/Israel.", "content": "Two or three RWD 13 were sold to Jewish owners in Palestine. With the formation of the Sherut Avir, the air arm of the Haganah, in November 1947 two were included in its inventory. On 17 December 1947, one of them undertook the first air attack, with hand grenades and handguns, during the Israeli-Arab skirmishes (earlier, on 15 June 1936, an RWD 13 was the first aircraft to land in Tel Aviv). The two RWD 13s were among the first aircraft of the newly created Israeli Air Force, and were used for liaison and transport during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Romania.", "content": "After the outbreak of World War II, 28 Polish RWD 13 were evacuated to Romania (23 RWD 13 and 5 RWD 13S). After the fall of Poland, they were taken over by Romanian civil and military aviation. After Romania joined the war on the Axis side and took part in the attack on the USSR, RWD 13 were used as liaison aircraft by the Air Force. Especially famous were air ambulances, used by the \"Escadrila Albă\" (White Squadron), flown by women. Twenty-one survived the war and the remaining ones were used in Romania until the 1950s.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other countries.", "content": "A single aircraft was used in Estonia. Two RWD 13, sent to the World's Fair, were sold after the outbreak of war in 1939 and used in the United States (N20651 and N20652), where their structure was modified by Lt. Joseph Malejki. Three (or one) aircraft were sold to Yemen. Several RWD 13 were evacuated to Latvia and they were probably later seized by the Soviets.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The RWD 13 was a Polish touring plane of 1935, three-seater high-wing monoplane, designed by the RWD team. It was the biggest commercial success of the RWD.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977340}
{"src_title": "Characteristic equation (calculus)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Derivation.", "content": "Starting with a linear homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients, it can be seen that if, each term would be a constant multiple of. This results from the fact that the derivative of the exponential function is a multiple of itself. Therefore,,, and are all multiples. This suggests that certain values of will allow multiples of to sum to zero, thus solving the homogeneous differential equation. In order to solve for, one can substitute and its derivatives into the differential equation to get Since can never equal zero, it can be divided out, giving the characteristic equation By solving for the roots,, in this characteristic equation, one can find the general solution to the differential equation. For example, if has roots equal to {3, 11, 40}, then the general solution will be formula_8, where formula_9, and formula_10 are arbitrary constants which need to be determined by the boundary and/or initial conditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation of the general solution.", "content": "Solving the characteristic equation for its roots,, allows one to find the general solution of the differential equation. The roots may be real or complex, as well as distinct or repeated. If a characteristic equation has parts with distinct real roots, repeated roots, or complex roots corresponding to general solutions of,, and, respectively, then the general solution to the differential equation is", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "The linear homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients has the characteristic equation By factoring the characteristic equation into one can see that the solutions for are the distinct single root and the double complex roots. This corresponds to the real-valued general solution with constants.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distinct real roots.", "content": "The \"superposition principle for linear homogeneous differential equations with constant coefficients\" says that if are linearly independent solutions to a particular differential equation, then is also a solution for all values. Therefore, if the characteristic equation has distinct real roots, then a general solution will be of the form", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Repeated real roots.", "content": "If the characteristic equation has a root that is repeated times, then it is clear that is at least one solution. However, this solution lacks linearly independent solutions from the other roots. Since has multiplicity, the differential equation can be factored into The fact that is one solution allows one to presume that the general solution may be of the form, where is a function to be determined. Substituting gives when. By applying this fact times, it follows that By dividing out, it can be seen that Therefore, the general case for is a polynomial of degree, so that. Since, the part of the general solution corresponding to is", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complex roots.", "content": "If a second-order differential equation has a characteristic equation with complex conjugate roots of the form and, then the general solution is accordingly. By Euler's formula, which states that, this solution can be rewritten as follows: where and are constants that can be non-real and which depend on the initial conditions. (Indeed, since is real, must be imaginary or zero and must be real, in order for both terms after the last equality sign to be real.)  For example, if, then the particular solution is formed. Similarly, if and, then the independent solution formed is. Thus by the \"superposition principle for linear homogeneous differential equations with constant coefficients\", a second-order differential equation having complex roots will result in the following general solution:  This analysis also applies to the parts of the solutions of a higher-order differential equation whose characteristic equation involves non-real complex conjugate roots.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In mathematics, the characteristic equation (or auxiliary equation) is an algebraic equation of degree upon which depends the solution of a given th-order differential equation or difference equation. The characteristic equation can only be formed when the differential or difference equation is linear and homogeneous, and has constant coefficients. Such a differential equation, with as the dependent variable, superscript denoting \"n\"-derivative, and as constants, will have a characteristic equation of the form whose solutions are the roots from which the general solution can be formed. Analogously, a linear difference equation of the form", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977341}
{"src_title": "Slovene literature", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early literature.", "content": "There are accounts that cite the existence of an oral literary tradition that preceded the Slovene written literature. This was mostly composed of folk songs and also prose, which included tales of myths, fairy tales, and narrations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First written text.", "content": "The earliest documents written in the Old Slovene are the Freising manuscripts (\"Brižinski spomeniki\"), dated between 972 and 1022, found in 1803 in Freising, Germany. This book was written for the purpose of spreading Christianity to the Alpine Slavs and contained terms concerned with the institutions of authority such as \"oblast\" (authority), \"gospod\" (lord), and \"rota\" (oath).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First books.", "content": "The first books in Slovene were \"Catechismus\" and \"Abecedarium\", written by the Protestant reformer Primož Trubar in 1550 and printed in Schwäbisch Hall. Based on the work by Trubar, who from 1555 until 1577 translated into Slovene and published the entire New Testament, Jurij Dalmatin translated the entire Bible into Slovene from c. 1569 until 1578 and published it in 1583. In the second half of the 16th century, Slovene became known to other European languages with the multilingual dictionary, compiled by Hieronymus Megiser. Since then each new generation of Slovene writers has contributed to the growing corpus of texts in Slovene. Particularly, Adam Bohorič's \"Arcticae horulae\", the first Slovene grammar, and Sebastjan Krelj's \"Postilla Slovenska\", became the bases of the development of Slovene literature.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical periods.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fin-de-siecle.", "content": "This period encompasses 1899–1918.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1945–1990.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Intimism.", "content": "Intimism () was a poetic movement, the main themes of which were love, disappointment and suffering and the projection of poet's inner feelings onto nature. Its beginner is Ivan Minatti, who was followed by Lojze Krakar. The climax of Intimism was achieved in 1953 with a collection of poetry titled \"Poems of the Four\" (), written by Janez Menart, Ciril Zlobec, Kajetan Kovič and Tone Pavček. An often neglected female counterpart to the four was Ada Škerl, whose subjective and pessimistic poetic sentiment was contrary to the post-war revolutionary demands in the People's Republic of Slovenia.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Slovene literature is the literature written in the Slovene language. It spans across all literary genres with historically the Slovene historical fiction as the most widespread Slovene fiction genre. The Romantic 19th-century epic poetry written by the leading name of the Slovene literary canon, France Prešeren, inspired virtually all subsequent Slovene literature.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977342}
{"src_title": "Munzee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A common misconception is that the idea for Munzee was inspired by geocaching, a game in which participants search for a hidden cache using GPS technology. However, Munzee co-founder Aaron Benzick (having never been a geocacher) came up with the idea of using QR codes for a game in 2008, but smartphone technology and capability were not available at the time. Benzick, and co-founders, Scott Foster, Chris Pick, and Josh Terkelsen launched the game on July 1, 2011. The term Munzee was derived from the German word for coin, Münze. Since the domain name munze.com was no longer available, an 'e' was added, which also resulted in what the company felt was a catchy name. The original idea was to use poker chips or rounded coins with QR codes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Munzees.", "content": "Munzees can consist of any material; they must have at minimum a QR-code and physically meet the conditions of the location (waterproof, weatherproof, etc.). Munzees either can be self-generated and printed or be purchased via the web store or through authorised distributors. Virtual Munzees can be purchased from the web store.  To generate or to order Munzees one has to be logged in on the central platform with a unique username. When generating a Munzee, the platform creates a web link, over which the generated Munzee can be managed. This web link is represented as a QR code on the Munzee. A descriptive name and an arbitrarily long comment can be assigned to the Munzee as properties. Both are stored on the central platform (not in the QR code) and can be changed later.  After a Munzee is physically created, it can be assigned coordinates anywhere outdoors or indoor and then deployed via the app. Once the Munzee has been deployed it goes live on the map and is ready to be found or \"captured\" by other players. If a Munzee is damaged or taken down, players can report the malfunction and after two reports the Munzee is taken off the map. Additionally, dedicated players in the QRew or ZeeQRew programs are now able to replace damaged munzees with generic stickers.  The coordinates of all globally mounted Munzees are managed on the game platform at munzee.com.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dissemination.", "content": "As of August 2019, there are more than 9 million munzees worldwide in 240 countries, and more than 323 million Munzee captures have been recorded. There are also over 400,000 registered users.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Munzee is a freemium scavenger hunt game where QR codes have to be found at different places in the real world. The game is similar to geocaching but uses QR code technology, in addition to device GPS location, to prove the find instead of a logbook. Launched in Texas in 2011, the game caught on first in Germany, along with California and Michigan. It is now played in more than 188 countries around the world, and there is at least one physical Munzee deployed on every continent, including Antarctica.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977343}
{"src_title": "HTTP Strict Transport Security", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Specification history.", "content": "The HSTS specification was published as RFC 6797 on 19 November 2012 after being approved on 2 October 2012 by the IESG for publication as a Proposed Standard RFC. The authors originally submitted it as an Internet-Draft on 17 June 2010. With the conversion to an Internet-Draft, the specification name was altered from \"Strict Transport Security\" (STS) to \"HTTP Strict Transport Security\", because the specification applies only to HTTP. The HTTP response header field defined in the HSTS specification however remains named \"Strict-Transport-Security\".  The last so-called \"community version\" of the then-named \"STS\" specification was published on 18 December 2009, with revisions based on community feedback.  The original draft specification by Jeff Hodges from PayPal, Collin Jackson, and Adam Barth was published on 18 September 2009.  The HSTS specification is based on original work by Jackson and Barth as described in their paper \"ForceHTTPS: Protecting High-Security Web Sites from Network Attacks\".  Additionally, HSTS is the realization of one facet of an overall vision for improving web security, put forward by Jeff Hodges and Andy Steingruebl in their 2010 paper \"The Need for Coherent Web Security Policy Framework(s)\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "HSTS mechanism overview.", "content": "A server implements an HSTS policy by supplying a header over an HTTPS connection (HSTS headers over HTTP are ignored). For example, a server could send a header such that future requests to the domain for the next year (max-age is specified in seconds; 31,536,000 is equal to one non-leap year) use only HTTPS: codice_1.  When a web application issues HSTS Policy to user agents, conformant user agents behave as follows (<nowiki>RFC 6797</nowiki>):  The HSTS Policy helps protect web application users against some passive (eavesdropping) and active network attacks. A man-in-the-middle attacker has a greatly reduced ability to intercept requests and responses between a user and a web application server while the user's browser has HSTS Policy in effect for that web application.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applicability.", "content": "The most important security vulnerability that HSTS can fix is SSL-stripping man-in-the-middle attacks, first publicly introduced by Moxie Marlinspike in his 2009 BlackHat Federal talk \"New Tricks For Defeating SSL In Practice\". The SSL (and TLS) stripping attack works by transparently converting a secure HTTPS connection into a plain HTTP connection. The user can see that the connection is insecure, but crucially there is no way of knowing whether the connection \"should\" be secure. At the time of Marlinspike's talk, many websites did not use TLS/SSL, therefore there was no way of knowing (without prior knowledge) whether the use of plain HTTP was due to an attack, or simply because the website hadn't implemented TLS/SSL. Additionally, no warnings are presented to the user during the downgrade process, making the attack fairly subtle to all but the most vigilant. Marlinspike's sslstrip tool fully automates the attack.  HSTS addresses this problem by informing the browser that connections to the site should always use TLS/SSL. The HSTS header can be stripped by the attacker if this is the user's first visit. Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer and Microsoft Edge attempt to limit this problem by including a \"pre-loaded\" list of HSTS sites. Unfortunately this solution cannot scale to include all websites on the internet. See limitations, below.  HSTS can also help to prevent having one's cookie-based website login credentials stolen by widely available tools such as Firesheep.  Because HSTS is time limited, it is sensitive to attacks involving shifting the victim's computer time e.g. using false NTP packets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Limitations.", "content": "The initial request remains unprotected from active attacks if it uses an insecure protocol such as plain HTTP or if the URI for the initial request was obtained over an insecure channel. The same applies to the first request after the activity period specified in the advertised HSTS Policy <nowiki>max-age</nowiki> (sites should set a period of several days or months depending on user activity and behavior). Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox and Internet Explorer/Microsoft Edge address this limitation by implementing a \"HSTS preloaded list\", which is a list that contains known sites supporting HSTS. This list is distributed with the browser so that it uses HTTPS for the initial request to the listed sites as well. As previously mentioned, these pre-loaded lists cannot scale to cover the entire Web. A potential solution might be achieved by using DNS records to declare HSTS Policy, and accessing them securely via DNSSEC, optionally with certificate fingerprints to ensure validity (which requires running a validating resolver to avoid last mile issues).  Junade Ali has noted that HSTS is ineffective against the use of phony domains; by using DNS-based attacks, it is possible for a Man-in-the-Middle interceptor to serve traffic from an artificial domain which is not on the HSTS Preload list, this can be made possible by DNS Spoofing Attacks, or simply a domain name that misleadingly resembles the real domain name such as \"www.example.org\" instead of \"www.example.com\".  Even with an \"HSTS preloaded list\", HSTS can't prevent advanced attacks against TLS itself, such as the BEAST or CRIME attacks introduced by Juliano Rizzo and Thai Duong. Attacks against TLS itself are orthogonal to HSTS policy enforcement. Neither can it protect against attacks on the server - if someone compromises it, it will happily serve any content over TLS.  See for a discussion of overall HSTS security considerations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Privacy issues.", "content": "HSTS can be used to near-indelibly tag visiting browsers with recoverable identifying data (supercookies) which can persist in and out of browser \"incognito\" privacy modes. By creating a web page that makes multiple HTTP requests to selected domains, for example, if twenty browser requests to twenty different domains are used, theoretically over one million visitors can be distinguished (2) due to the resulting requests arriving via HTTP vs. HTTPS; the latter being the previously recorded binary \"bits\" established earlier via HSTS headers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Deployment best practices.", "content": "Depending on the actual deployment there are certain threats (e.g. cookie injection attacks) that can be avoided by following best practices.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS) is a web security policy mechanism that helps to protect websites against man-in-the-middle attacks such as protocol downgrade attacks and cookie hijacking. It allows web servers to declare that web browsers (or other complying user agents) should automatically interact with it using only HTTPS connections, which provide Transport Layer Security (TLS/SSL), unlike the insecure HTTP used alone. HSTS is an IETF standards track protocol and is specified in RFC 6797.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977344}
{"src_title": "Xavier Bettel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Bettel was born on 3 March 1973 in Luxembourg City. His father, Claude Bettel, was a wine merchant and his mother, Aniela, is of French-Russian descent and a grandniece of the composer Sergei Rachmaninoff. After completing his secondary school studies at the \"Lycée Hélène Boucher\" in Thionville, Bettel obtained a master's degree in Public and European Law and a DEA in Political Science and Public Law from Nancy 2 University in Nancy, France. He also studied maritime law as well as canon law at Aristotle University in Thessaloniki, Greece, where he was studying thanks to the Erasmus Programme. For four years in the early 2000s he hosted \"Sonndes em 8\", a weekly talkshow, on the now-defunct private T.TV television network. In 2017, he also received an Honorary doctorate from Sacred Heart University Luxembourg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Municipal politics.", "content": "In the 1999 communal elections, Bettel was elected to Luxembourg City's communal council, finishing sixth on the DP's list. Two years after his election to the local Council, on 12 July 2001, he was certified as a lawyer. By the time of the 2004 legislative election, Bettel had significantly consolidated his position, and finished fourth (of the five DP members elected), assuring him a seat in the Chamber of Deputies. On 28 November 2005, after the communal elections in which he was placed fourth on the DP list, Bettel was appointed \"échevin\" in the Council of Luxembourg City.  Following municipal elections on 9 October 2011, at the young age of 38, Bettel was sworn in as Mayor of Luxembourg on 24 November 2011.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "National politics.", "content": "Bettel ran for the Chamber of Deputies in the 1999 legislative election, and finished 10th amongst DP candidates in the Centre constituency, with the top seven being elected. However, the DP overtook the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSAP) as the second-largest party, and its members formed the majority of the new government as the Christian Social People's Party's (CSV) coalition partners. Thus, with Lydie Polfer and Anne Brasseur vacating their seats to take roles in the government, and Colette Flesch not taking her seat so as to focus on her role as Member of the European Parliament, Bettel was appointed to the Chamber, starting 12 August 1999.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First term.", "content": "In 2013, Bettel was elected leader of the Democratic Party, and in the 2013 election, led the party to a third-ranked position in parliamentary seats. On 25 October, Bettel was designated by Grand Duke Henri as the formateur for the next government. He assumed his post as Luxembourg's Prime Minister on 4 December 2013. In the government's coalition of the Democratic Party, Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party and The Greens, he leads the cabinet with Co-Deputy Prime Ministers Étienne Schneider and Félix Braz. In his first term, he also holds the functions of Minister of State, Minister for Communications and the Media, Minister for Culture and Minister for Religious Affairs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second term.", "content": "Following the 2018 Luxembourg general election, he became the first openly gay prime minister in the world to be re-elected for a second term. He began his second term when his government was formed on 5 December 2018., which he currently leads with Co-Deputy Prime Ministers François Bausch and Dan Kersch. The government is a continuation between the Democratic Party (DP), the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSAP), and The Greens from the Bettel I government, with minor changes.  On 16 September 2019, following a short bilateral meeting on the status of Brexit negotiations, Bettel continued a press conference without British Prime Minister Boris Johnson, after Johnson abruptly pulled out due to an anti-Brexit protest held by British citizens living in Luxembourg. Bettel gestured towards Johnson's empty podium and confirmed that the UK government had not tabled any concrete proposals for amendments to the UK's Withdrawal Agreement, particularly the \"Irish backstop\" that Johnson wishes to replace. This being despite the public pronouncements of Prime Minister Johnson and the UK's departure date from the EU fast approaching. Pro-Brexit UK media reported the matter as an ambush, whilst other UK and international media outlets largely saw the incident, and the reaction of pro-Brexit UK media outlets to it, as confirming the empty bravado and rhetoric of Johnson's premiership, the reduced status of the UK post-Brexit, and the increasing hypersensitivity and aversion of pro-Brexit pundits and politicians to criticism.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Bettel is gay, and has stated that increasingly in Luxembourg \"people do not consider the fact of whether someone is gay or not\". Bettel is Luxembourg's first openly gay Prime Minister and, worldwide, the third openly gay head of government following Iceland's Prime Minister Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir (2009–2013) and Belgium's Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo (2011–2014). As of 2017, he is one of three openly gay world leaders in office, the others being Leo Varadkar, the Taoiseach of Ireland; and Ana Brnabić, the Prime Minister of Serbia.  Bettel has been married to Gauthier Destenay since 2015, the same year that same-sex marriage was introduced to Luxembourg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "[[Corine Cahen]  [[Category:1973 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:21st-century Luxembourgian politicians]] [[Category:Councillors in Luxembourg City]] [[Category:Democratic Party (Luxembourg) politicians]] [[Category:Gay politicians]] [[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Oak Crown]] [[Category:LGBT heads of government]] [[Category:LGBT mayors]] [[Category:LGBT politicians from Luxembourg]] [[Category:Luxembourgian lawyers]] [[Category:Luxembourgian people of French descent]] [[Category:Luxembourgian people of Russian descent]] [[Category:Mayors of Luxembourg City]] [[Category:Members of the Chamber of Deputies of Luxembourg from Centre]] [[Category:Ministers for Communications of Luxembourg]] [[Category:Prime Ministers of Luxembourg]] [[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)]] [[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 1st Class]] [[Category:LGBT legislators]]", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Xavier Bettel (; born 3 March 1973) is a Luxembourg politician who has been Prime Minister of Luxembourg since 2013. He has previously served as Mayor of Luxembourg City, and was also a Member of the Chamber of Deputies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977345}
{"src_title": "New Slains Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Clan Hay were a powerful family in the area for generations, having possessed the lands of Slains since the 14th century. In 1453 Sir William Hay, the clan chief, was made Earl of Erroll by King James II. At this time the local seat of power was Old Slains Castle, near Collieston some to the south-west. Francis Hay, 9th Earl of Erroll, succeeded in 1585, and converted to Roman Catholicism. He conspired with other Catholic nobles, including the Earl of Huntly, with whom he joined in a brief rebellion in 1589. Erroll was also a signatory of the \"Spanish Blanks\", documents signed by members of the Catholic nobility of Scotland, and otherwise left to be filled in with the terms of Spanish aid. Erroll was declared a traitor in 1594, and Old Slains Castle was destroyed in October on the orders of King James VI.  After a period abroad Erroll returned to Scotland, and abjured Roman Catholicism in 1597, subsequently returning to royal favour. He abandoned Old Slains and built a courtyard and square tower on the present site. Originally named Bowness, it later became known as New Slains. The wings around the courtyard were extended in 1664 by addition of a gallery or corridor, and in 1707 the entrance front was renewed.  In 1820 William Hay, 18th Earl of Erroll, married Lady Elizabeth FitzClarence, the illegitimate daughter of King William IV and Dorothea Jordan. In the 1830s the 18th Earl commissioned the Aberdeen architect John Smith to remodel the castle. This resulted in a virtual rebuilding of Slains in a Scots Baronial style, including granite facings, in 1836–1837. Gardens were laid out in the late 1890s by the landscape architect T. H. Mawson. Slains Castle is associated with the author Bram Stoker, who was a regular visitor to nearby Cruden Bay between 1893 and 1910. The castle is mentioned in his locally-set novels, \"The Watter's Mou'\" and \"The Mystery of the Sea\". It also provided the inspiration for Kyllion Castle in \"The Jewel of Seven Stars\". Slains Castle is commonly linked with \"Dracula\". It is likely that the castle provided a visual palette for Bram Stoker when he started writing the book in Cruden Bay. A distinctive room in Slains Castle, the octagonal hall, may be the source for the octagonal room in Dracula.  In 1913 the 20th Earl of Erroll sold New Slains, ending more than 300 years of occupation by the family. It was purchased by Sir John Ellerman, the wealthy but secretive owner of the Ellerman Lines shipping company, who leased it out. In 1925 the roof was removed to avoid taxes, and the building has deteriorated since. It is now a roofless shell, with most of the outer and inner walls standing to full height. In 2004 it was reported that the Slains Partnership was preparing plans for restoration of the building and conversion into 35 holiday apartments. In August 2007 the scheme was granted outline planning permission by Aberdeenshire Council, but the plans were put on hold in 2009 due to the economic downturn.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "New Slains castle is a Historic Environment Scotland Category B listed building. At first inspection the ruin appears to be a blend of several different architectural styles and periods, due to diverse masonry including older mortared granite, mortared medieval red brick, mortared sandstone and newer well faced granite. In fact most of the architecture seems to derive from a rather cohesive interval 1597 to 1664, which construction is the most expansive and includes the mortared rough granite and medieval brick. The 1836 work adds smoother granite facing that contrasts with the older construction style.  The defensive works of the castle include use of the North Sea cliffs; an abyss to the west that functions as a deep impassable moat; and a ruined rampart that would have been the main entrance on the south. The ruins include reasonably well preserved elements of three- and four-storey structural elements and a basement course over some of the range, especially at the eastern side. There are well-preserved basement kitchen works with numerous firepits and masonry indented storage spaces. The internal doorways are primarily of well-preserved wooden lintel construction, with numerous examples of mortared sandstone and medieval brickwork archways. The interior of the ground level is a maze of passageways and smaller rooms, reflecting a high state of occupancy in 17th-century times.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Slains Castle, also known as New Slains Castle to distinguish it from nearby Old Slains Castle, is a ruined castle in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. It overlooks the North Sea from its cliff-top site east of Cruden Bay. The core of the castle is a 16th-century tower house, built by the 9th Earl of Erroll. Significant reconstruction of the castle has been carried out a number of times, lastly in 1837 when it was rebuilt as a Scots Baronial mansion. At one time it had three extensive gardens, but is now a roofless ruin. Plans to restore the castle have been on hold since 2009. It is a Historic Environment Scotland Category B listed building. Apparently Bram Stoker took inspiration for the great room in Dracula's Transylvanian Castle directly from Slain castle's octagonal great room. He transposed the Slain room directly to Castle Dracula where Jonathan Harker described it in the novel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977346}
{"src_title": "Generation Kill (miniseries)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production.", "content": "The cable channel HBO gave the go-ahead to a seven-part miniseries, based on Evan Wright's book about his experiences as an embedded reporter with the U.S. Marine Corps' 1st Reconnaissance Battalion during the Iraq War's first phase. The series is set during the invasion of Iraq, from late March to early April 2003. The miniseries was shot over a six-month shoot from mid-to-late 2007 in South Africa, Mozambique, and Namibia. The primary production value aspired to was authenticity. The miniseries was produced on a budget of $56 million.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crew.", "content": "David Simon and Ed Burns co-wrote and executive produced the miniseries alongside Company Pictures' George Faber and Charles Pattinson, and HBO's Anne Thomopoulos. Andrea Calderwood was the producer; Nina Noble served as co-executive producer; author Evan Wright was credited as a consulting producer; Susanna White and Simon Cellan Jones directed the episodes; and two former U.S. Marines, Eric Kocher and Rudy Reyes, served as the production's military advisors as well as starred in the series.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cast and characters.", "content": "There are 28 starring cast members with a large supporting cast. The majority of the characters were drawn from the Second Platoon of the First Reconnaissance Battalion's Bravo Company. Lee Tergesen played embedded reporter Evan Wright. Wright was assigned to the lead vehicle of Bravo Company, which he shared with Staff Sergeant Brad \"Iceman\" Colbert, played by Alexander Skarsgård, Corporal Josh Ray Person, played by James Ransone and Lance Corporal Harold James Trombley, played by Billy Lush. To prepare for their roles as Recon Marines, the cast attended a six-day boot camp led by Eric Kocher and Rudy Reyes.  Other starring characters, from 2nd platoon include: Additional characters;", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "Although the series has no score, it features a large collection of music, much of it songs that were popular among the American populace in late 2002 and early 2003. The newer music (in the show's context) serves to illustrate pop culture during the time of the invasion. All of the songs are sung \"a cappella\" by cast members, with the exception of Johnny Cash's \"The Man Comes Around\" and Josh Ray Person's \"Re-Up Time\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "\"Generation Kill\" was nominated for 11 Primetime Emmy Awards and won three in 2009, in the miniseries categories. Nominations included Outstanding Miniseries, Outstanding Directing (Susanna White for \"Bomb in the Garden\"), and Outstanding Writing (David Simon and Ed Burns for \"Bomb in the Garden\"). It won for Outstanding Special Visual Effects, Outstanding Sound Editing, and Outstanding Sound Mixing. It was nominated for two awards by the Visual Effects Society in the categories of Outstanding Visual Effects in a Broadcast Miniseries, Movie or Special and Outstanding Matte Paintings in a Broadcast Program or Commercial.  The miniseries received very positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic, it received a score of 80 out of 100 based on 27 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". \"Entertainment Weekly\" gave the series an \"A-\" rating, and critic Ken Tucker remarked favorably on its avoidance of cliché, self-consciousness, and agenda-driven storytelling, and praised its execution, nuance, and verisimilitude. Robert Bianco of \"USA Today\" wrote: \"the seven-part \"Generation Kill\" is what you'd hope for from the people behind \"The Wire\": an honest, barely adorned, sometimes painfully vivid representation of life as we live it now. It's journalism converted to art, with both benefiting\". Austin Smith of the \"New York Post\", however, was not as impressed; he described the series \"as dull and throbbing as a severe headache\".  A red carpet screening of \"Generation Kill\" was held for U.S. Marines at Camp Pendleton in California, where the series was favorably received. On Rotten Tomatoes, the miniseries has an approval rating of 86% based on 42 reviews, with an average rating of 9.1/10. The critical consensus reads, \"\"Generation Kill\" plunges the viewer into war with a visceral force that's still somehow reined in by masterful storytelling and a strong command of period details.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Generation Kill is an American seven-part television miniseries produced for HBO that aired from July 13 to August 24, 2008. It is based on Evan Wright's 2004 book about his experience as an embedded reporter with the Marine Corps' 1st Reconnaissance Battalion during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, adapted for television by David Simon, Ed Burns, and Wright. The miniseries was directed by Susanna White and Simon Cellan Jones and produced by Andrea Calderwood. The ensemble cast includes Alexander Skarsgård as Sergeant Brad 'Iceman' Colbert, James Ransone as Corporal Josh Ray Person, and Lee Tergesen as Wright.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977347}
{"src_title": "Magnus Manske", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Manske was born in Cologne, Germany. He studied biochemistry at the University of Cologne and graduated in 2006 with a PhD; his dissertation was an open source tool for molecular biology called GENtle.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "As a student, Manske was one of the first contributors to the Internet encyclopedia Nupedia, the precursor to Wikipedia, and later wrote one of the first versions of the MediaWiki software that Wikipedia runs on. Manske has worked in Cambridge with the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute since April 2007,<ref name=\"doi10.1038/nature11174|noedit\"></ref> but remains active in the development of tools for Wikipedia and its sister projects Wikidata and Wikimedia Commons.  In 2012, Manske was co-author of a paper published in \"Nature\" that demonstrated new ways to identify areas where malaria parasites are evolving, and described techniques for mapping malarial drug resistance. The researchers developed a technique to extract the malaria parasite DNA directly from the blood, which minimizes errors in sequencing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development of MediaWiki.", "content": "As a student, Manske was one of the most active contributors to the Nupedia project, submitting content on biology topics and developing tools and extensions for Nupedia. Later, unhappy with the existing software's limitations, Manske developed one of the first versions of what later became MediaWiki. His new version of the software was installed in 2002.  The wiki software that was initially used for Wikipedia was called UseModWiki and was written in Perl. With issues of scale starting to present themselves as Wikipedia grew, in the summer of 2001, Manske started work on a replacement for UseModWiki that would be database-backed and would contain \"wikipedia-specific features.\" On 25 January 2002, Manske released the first version of a MySQL-based PHP wiki engine, called \"Phase II\". One innovation implemented by Manske in Phase II was the use of namespaces in order to separate different types of pages, such as the \"Talk\" or \"User\" namespace, which distinguished it from older wiki software which didn't have different namespaces. Phase II also introduced a number of other features which are still present, including file upload, watchlists, automatic signatures, and user contributions list. Manske's re-write also made it easier to integrate photographs in Wikipedia articles, and created a new user group: administrators, empowered to delete pages and block vandals.  Manske was an adherent of open source and specifically, the GPL license, and his work on the early versions of MediaWiki was released under the GPL license.  Manske's Phase II software encountered load issues as Wikipedia continued to grow, so Lee Daniel Crocker did another re-write, which led to phase III, which was used from June 2002 and from 2003 onwards was called \"MediaWiki\". The resultant MediaWiki software is now used as the core platform for both Wikipedia and many Wikimedia sister projects, as well as in many organizations and institutions.  Manske continued to develop extensions for MediaWiki and tools used to build Wikipedia and its sister projects, including tools to map category membership, compute category intersections, and import images from Flickr to Commons. Manske also developed the Cite extension which brought an XML-like syntax to citation management.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recognition.", "content": "Manske is recognized as the creator of the first article in the German Wikipedia, which was on the polymerase chain reaction, first written by him in 2001.  Jimmy Wales in 2002 named 25 January as in honor of his contributions to Wikipedia, proclaiming that \"Tonight at dinner, every Wikipedian should say a toast to Magnus and his many inventions.\" Larry Sanger, in his memoir on the early history of Wikipedia, highlighted the contributions of Manske to the project and attributes the eventual success of Wikipedia to a core group of actors, with Manske playing an important role:  Manske, along with others, was recognized as a major contributor to MediaWiki by the USENIX Advanced Computing Technical Association in 2010 when MediaWiki and the Wikimedia Foundation were honoured with a STUG award (Software Tools User Group).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heinrich Magnus Manske (born 24 May 1974) is a senior staff scientist at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute in Cambridge, UK and a software developer of one of the first versions of the MediaWiki software, which powers Wikipedia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977348}
{"src_title": "Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Stafford was a son of John Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Gower (1694–1754) and his wife Lady Evelyn Pierrepont. His maternal grandparents were Evelyn Pierrepont, 1st Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull and his first wife Lady Mary Feilding. Mary was a daughter of William Feilding, 3rd Earl of Denbigh and his wife Mary King. His father was a prominent Tory politician who became the first major Tory to enter government since the succession of George I of Great Britain, joining the administration of John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville in 1742. Gower was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political and industrial investment career.", "content": "Stafford was elected to parliament in 1744. With the death of his elder brother in 1746, he became known by the courtesy title of Viscount Trentham until he succeeded his father as Earl Gower in 1754. He built the earlier Lilleshall Hall, converting a 17th-century house located in the village of Lilleshall into a country residence around the late 1750s.  Stafford was associated with the faction of the John Russell, Duke of Bedford, who was his brother-in-law, and as a member of that faction, called the \"Bloomsbury Gang\", was given many governmental positions. Following Bedford's death in 1771, Gower became leader of the group, and as Lord President in the administration of Frederick North, Lord North, he was a key supporter of a hard-line policy towards the American colonists. Between 1775–1778, Stafford proceeded to make substantial alterations to his home at Trentham Hall based on the designs by Henry Holland.  By 1779, Gower resigned from the cabinet being frustrated by what he saw as the North administration's inept handling of the American Revolutionary War. And when North resigned in March 1782, Gower was approached to form a ministry, but he refused, and he refused subsequent overtures from both Lord Shelburne and the Fox-North coalition to enter the government. Instead, he became a key figure in bringing about the fall of the Fox-North coalition, and was rewarded with the position of Lord President once again in the new administration of William Pitt the Younger. Although he soon exchanged this office for that of Lord Privy Seal, and gradually began to withdraw from public affairs, he remained a cabinet minister until his retirement later in 1794. He was elected F.S.A. on 28 April 1784. In 1786, he was created Marquess of Stafford as a reward for his services.  In 1799 he (or his immediate family benefit trust) was estimated the fifth-wealthiest small family unit in Britain, owning £2.1M (), having assets in land, mining and arterial canal-toll rights having speculatively invested in the latter projects, much of which in Staffordshire's Black Country.  He died at Trentham Hall, Staffordshire, on 26 October 1803. He was the last surviving member of the Bloomsbury Gang.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and children.", "content": "Stafford married three times. He married firstly Elizabeth Fazakerley, daughter of Nicholas Fazakerley, in 1744. Elizabeth died of smallpox two years later. They had no children. Stafford married secondly Lady Louisa Egerton, daughter of the Scroop Egerton, 1st Duke of Bridgewater, in 1748. She died in 1761. They were parents to four children:  Stafford married thirdly Lady Susanna Stewart, daughter of Alexander Stewart, 6th Earl of Galloway, 23 May 1768. They were parents to four children: When Lord Stafford died at the age of 82, he was succeeded in his titles by his eldest son George from his second marriage who was created Duke of Sutherland in 1833. The Marchioness of Stafford died in August 1805.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford, PC (4 August 172126 October 1803), known as Viscount Trentham from 1746 to 1754 and as The Earl Gower from 1754 to 1786, was a British politician from the Leveson-Gower family.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977349}
{"src_title": "Grand Paris Express", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Line 11 extension.", "content": "In order to ensure better commuter service to the inner Northeastern suburbs, a six-station, eastbound extension of Line 11 is under construction from to Rosny-sous-Bois. The scheme was initially lobbied for by the local authorities of these suburbs, and was adopted during the 2007 review of the Île-de-France Transportation Plan. Work on the extension to \"Rosny – Bois-Perrier\" started in 2015 and it is expected to open by 2021. It will provide new connections with the RER E and the extended Île-de-France tramway Line 1, which it will better link to downtown Paris and the commuter hub of Châtelet–Les Halles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Revisions in the Grand Paris Express Plan and possible automation.", "content": "A revised plan for the proposed Grand Paris Express subway system was unveiled on March 6, 2013, and calls for a second extension of Line 11 to be built towards. The target opening date is 2030, but might be pushed back. Should the second extension be built, Line 11 will eventually be fully automated. Automatic train operation is not currently planned for the Rosny extension, although the RATP and STIF had considered the possibility of adding it later on.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "As of March 2013, it was expected that additional MP 14 stock will be used for line 11.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Line 14 extension.", "content": "The automated Line 14 is being extended north from, with the primary aim of reducing overcrowding on line 13. The adopted solution connects both branches of line 13 to line 14, with stations at on the Asnières – Gennevilliers branch and on the Saint-Denis branch. An additional station will connect with the RER C station, and another with the Transilien Paris – Saint-Lazare lines at Pont-Cardinet, and the final one with the RER D at. Construction on the extension began in 2014, with an aim of completion by 2019. Completion was later delayed to mid-2020 after the tunnel works were stopped for a year by flooding from the water table.  There are also plans to extend line 14 south towards Orly Airport. The extension would travel southeastward from to, with a possible connection to Line 7's Villejuif branch.  When both extensions are complete, it is expected that Line 14 will eventually be merged into the proposed Grand Paris Express system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "In February 2012 the STIF announced that with the two extensions planned, the brand new MP 14 class of rolling stock will replace the current MP 89CA (and upcoming MP 05) stock on Line 14 in about 2020. This new stock would be in eight-car train formations, something not yet employed on the Métro but allowed by the length of all Line 14 stations, and the MP 89CA and MP 05 stock would be reassigned to other lines.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Line 15.", "content": "Line 15 will be a high-capacity underground rail line, providing a new ring line around Paris in the departments of Hauts-de-Seine, Val-de-Marne and Seine-Saint-Denis. It will enable direct transportation between the suburbs, bypassing Paris and thus avoiding transloading. The configuration of the line is very similar to that of the Arc Express, proposed by the RATP in 2006. It was later included in the red line project of the Grand Paris public transportation network, introduced by French President Nicolas Sarkozy in 2009. In March 2013, the \"New Grand Paris\" project was announced by the Prime Minister at the time, Jean-Marc Ayrault. At this time, the line acquired its current line 15 naming.  Line 15 is planned to open in phases from 2020 through 2030. It will create a loop connecting Noisy–Champs to Champigny, passing through Champigny-sur-Marne, Créteil, Villejuif, La Défense, Saint-Denis and Rosny-sous-Bois.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proposed timeline.", "content": "In 2013, the government led by Ayrault proposed this timeline for the line 15 project:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "The proposed rolling stock for line 15 is a new automated design, using conventional steel wheel on steel rail technology and overhead electrification, with a width of.  The specifications of the trains travelling line 15 and their operation are as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lines 16 and 17.", "content": "Line 16 is planned to open in 2023.  Line 17 is planned to open in phases between 2025 and 2030.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "The proposed rolling stock for lines 16 and 17 is a new automated design with a width of, using conventional steel wheel on steel rail technology and overhead electrification.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Line 18.", "content": "Line 18 is planned to open in phases between 2023 and 2030.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rolling stock.", "content": "The proposed rolling stock for line 18 is a new automated design with a width of, using conventional steel wheel on steel rail technology and third rail electrification.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Grand Paris Express is a group of new rapid transit lines being built in the Île-de-France region of France. The project comprises four new lines, plus extensions of existing Lines 11 and 14. A total of of new track and 68 new stations are to be added, serving a projected 2 million passengers a day.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977350}
{"src_title": "Yokel Chords", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Marge oversleeps, and not having made the children's lunch for the day, Homer makes the lunches instead. However, he does not do a very good job - Lisa gets a drawing of a sandwich, Bart gets Grandpa's medication, and even these are mixed up. Bart decides to scare an alternative lunch out of his friends by making up a story about a cannibal cafeteria worker named Dark Stanley, who killed all the students in the cafeteria and put them in his kids' head soup after repeatedly being taunted for not graduating from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and was eventually hanged for his crimes. According to Bart, Dark Stanley's ghost haunts the site to repeat his act of murder on the current kids. At lunchtime, Bart pretends to be killed by Dark Stanley, leading all of the students to run screaming into the woods while he takes their lunches. Groundskeeper Willie is sent to fetch them all back, but he brings seven extra kids who are Cletus's children. Their names are Whitney, Jitney, Dubya, Incest, Crystal Meth, International Harvester, and Birthday. Principal Skinner tells Superintendent Chalmers that the kids have been refused education in fear that they will lower test averages and cost the school federal funding (after SES has already lost state, county, and local funding), which Lisa overhears. To appease Lisa, Skinner and Chalmers appoint her tutor of the children.  Lisa's initial tutoring efforts are unsuccessful and so she decides to take the children to downtown Springfield to introduce them to culture in the outside world. However, Lisa's plans are diverted when Krusty spots the kids singing, decides to use them as a musical act for his show, and offers them a contract, which Cletus signs with an \"X\" (in sharp contrast to his elegant signature in the episode \"Sweets and Sour Marge\"). Lisa is worried about the way that Krusty and Cletus are exploiting the children with their plans for a national bus \"No-Collar Comedy Tour\", so she sends an e-mail to Brandine, who is currently a soldier in Iraq, and trying to'stop 9/11' as said by Cletus. She arrives by helicopter to tell Krusty that the contract Cletus signed is null and void, as he is the father of only two of the seven children — the one who cannot sing and the one who cannot ad-lib. The story ends with Cletus telling Brandine that they owe Krusty $12,000, but Brandine tells him that they can live on that, and Cletus is happy to have things back to normal.  Meanwhile, Skinner punishes Bart by having him spend five sessions with a qualified psychiatrist named Dr. Stacey Swanson (Meg Ryan) (Skinner was going to use the school psychiatrist, but after she freaked out about Dark Stanley, Superintendent Chalmers decided Bart should see someone who was better qualified). Bart is initially unwilling, but Homer insists Bart goes through with it, mainly because there is a Chinese restaurant next door to the psychiatrist where he can get drunk. Initially dismissive, Bart develops a close bond with Swanson, who uses a Mad Libs-like game and violent video games to get Bart to open up about Homer's alcoholism and other matters. When his sessions end, Bart starts to miss the time he spent with her and enters into a state of depression in which he talks about his problems to an empty chair while lying in bed. He also peeks into her window and sees her counseling Milhouse, and hangs his head while biking in the rain when he looks through a window and sees her dancing with the owner of the Chinese restaurant.  Marge, worried, uses the funds she had been saving up for Homer's breast reduction surgery to get her son one more session with Swanson. Bart then reveals that Homer and Marge were young and not ready for parenting when he was born, and that he acts out largely so they will focus on him instead of fighting with each other (the theme of which would be revisited in \"Postcards from the Wedge\"); he also adds he got the name \"Dark Stanley\" in part because Homer used to hit him with a Stanley-brand hammer. Happy that he got everything off his chest, Bart leaves therapy feeling good, and upon seeing that Swanson is visibly saddened when he leaves, assures her they will see each other again. Swanson goes to see her own psychiatrist (Peter Bogdanovich) where she says she cannot stop thinking about Bart. It is revealed during this discussion that \"Dark Stanley\" is in fact real, and had killed her own son: the therapist believes Swanson is projecting onto Bart, though Swanson claims she is not ready to go into that.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Robert Canning of IGN gave the episode a 6.2/10, stating, “This episode of The Simpsons seemed to have a lot going for it. It had many of the ingredients -- lots of guest stars, a storyline loosely based on an existing musical -- that would normally make for a memorable outing, but when it was all over, the whole thing fell short of producing a stellar half-hour. Still, as is often the case with The Simpsons, there were plenty of great laughs, even if the episode as a whole was a bit choppy.”", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Yokel Chords\" is the fourteenth episode of the eighteenth season of \"The Simpsons\". It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 4, 2007. It was written by Michael Price, and directed by Susie Dietter. Guest starring Meg Ryan as Dr. Swanson, Peter Bogdanovich as a psychiatrist and Andy Dick, James Patterson and Stephen Sondheim as themselves. This also marked the return of director Susie Dietter who had taken a hiatus to work on \"Futurama\" and the film \"Open Season\". This was her first episode in nearly nine years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977351}
{"src_title": "Beth Chatto", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Chatto was born at Good Easter, Essex, England, the daughter of Bessie (née Styles) and William Little, both enthusiastic gardeners. Named Betty Diana, she used the name Beth from her 20s onwards. She attended Colchester Girls High School and trained to be a teacher at Hockerill College, Bishop's Stortford from 1940 to 1943.  In the early 1940s, she met fruit farmer, Andrew Chatto. Their shared love of plants brought them together and they married in 1943. The couple lived in Braiswick, Colchester, where their two daughters, Diana and Mary, were born in 1946 and 1948. Andrew died in 1999.  The couple met Sir Cedric Morris, whose art school at Benton End in Hadleigh, Suffolk attracted artists, such as Francis Bacon and Lucian Freud, who would later become famous. Beth Chatto learned about plants from Morris, but was dismayed when he advised her that, in order to create a great garden, she would have to move house. From the late 1950s onwards Chatto had become involved in the Flower Club movement, lecturing, opening new clubs and demonstrating flower arranging. Members became an enthusiastic audience for unusual plants and a mail order business began from a small hand-typed sheet. From 1960, the Chattos worked on developing the Chatto Gardens and in 1967 the nursery was opened. In 1978 Chatto's first book \"The Dry Garden\" was published by J. M. Dent.  Chatto died peacefully, with her family by her side, at her home in Elmstead Market, near Colchester, on the evening of 13 May 2018. She was 94.  In her later years, Beth Chatto commissioned author Catherine Horwood, to write about her life and her work. Beth Chatto A Life with Plants was published in 2019 by Pimpernel Press.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Beth Chatto Gardens.", "content": "Construction of the Beth Chatto Gardens, at Elmstead Market near Colchester, began in 1960 as a garden attached to the Chatto family home on land that had previously belonged to the Chatto family fruit farm. It had not been farmed as the soil was considered too dry in places, too wet in others and the whole area had been allowed to grow wild with blackthorn, willow and brambles. The only plants that survive from the earliest days are the ancient boundary oaks surrounding the Garden. The Beth Chatto Gardens comprise a varied range of planting sites totalling, including dry, sun baked gravel, water and marginal planting, woodland, shady, heavy clay and alpine planting, and now include the Gravel Garden, Woodland Garden, Water Garden, Long Shady Walk, Reservoir Garden (redesigned by Head Gardener Asa Gregers-Warg and Garden and Nursery Director David Ward, with Beth's input) and Scree Garden. It was the development of these sites that prompted Beth Chatto to write books on gardening with what could be considered as \"problem areas\" using plants that nature has developed to survive in differing conditions..  Beth Chatto lived in the white house in the midst of the gardens. She worked with her team on developing the Gardens and continued to inspect and approve their work until the day before she died. She contributed to articles for international and national press and appeared in international media.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibitions.", "content": "In January 1975 Chatto created a small winter garden at one of the Royal Horticultural Society Halls, London SW1. More exhibits followed and eventually the Beth Chatto Gardens \"Unusual Plants\" exhibition arrived at the Chelsea Flower Show. Exhibits by \"Unusual Plants\" were awarded ten consecutive Gold Medals at the Chelsea Flower Show from 1977 to 1987 (she did not exhibit in 1983). Exhibits by The Beth Chatto Gardens can still be seen at the Tendring Hundred Show in Essex.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "List of publications.", "content": "Beth Chatto was the author of many gardening books, including an exchange of letters with her friend and fellow gardener and writer Christopher Lloyd:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "The Beth Chatto Education Trust was set up to engage all age groups with plants, gardens and an ecological approach to them. This trust also sponsors the Beth Chatto Environmental Award under the auspices of the Garden Media Guild.  The Society of Garden Designers has created the Beth Chatto Eco Garden Award from 2020 onwards, with focus on the ecological impact of garden designs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Beth Chatto (27 June 1923 – 13 May 2018) was a British plantswoman, garden designer and author best known for creating and describing the Beth Chatto Gardens near Elmstead Market in the English county of Essex. She was also known for writing several books on gardening for specific conditions. She lectured throughout the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, the Netherlands and Germany. Her gardening and writing use the principle of putting the right plant in the right place, which she developed from her husband Andrew Chatto's lifelong research into the origins of garden plants.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977352}
{"src_title": "Pinus resinosa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Red pine is a coniferous evergreen tree characterized by tall, straight growth in a variety of habitats. It usually ranges from in height and in trunk diameter, exceptionally reaching tall. The crown is conical, becoming a narrow rounded dome with age. The bark is thick and gray-brown at the base of the tree, but thin, flaky and bright orange-red in the upper crown; the tree's name derives from this distinctive character. Some red color may be seen in the fissures of the bark. The species is self pruning; there tend not to be dead branches on the trees, and older trees may have very long lengths of branchless trunk below the canopy.  The leaves are needle-like, dark yellow-green, in fascicles of two, long, and brittle. The leaves snap cleanly when bent; this character, stated as diagnostic for red pine in some texts, is however shared by several other pine species. The cones are symmetrical ovoid, long by broad, and purple before maturity, ripening to nut-blue and opening to broad, the scales without a prickle and almost stalkless.  Red pine is notable for its very constant morphology and low genetic variation throughout its range, suggesting it has been through a near extinction in its recent evolutionary history. A genetic study of nuclear microsatellite polymorphisms among populations distributed throughout its natural range found that red pine populations from Newfoundland are genetically distinct from most mainland populations, consistent with dispersal from different glacial refugia in this highly self-pollinating species.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "It is intolerant of shade, but does well in windy sites; it grows best in well-drained soil. It is a long-lived tree, reaching a maximum age of about 500 years. The wood is commercially valuable in forestry for timber and paper pulp, and the tree is also used for landscaping.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Pinus resinosa, known as red pine or Norway pine, is a pine native to North America. It occurs from Newfoundland west to Manitoba, and south to Pennsylvania, with several smaller, disjunct populations occurring in the Appalachian Mountains in Virginia and West Virginia, as well as a few small pockets in extreme northern New Jersey and northern Illinois.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977353}
{"src_title": "Insult", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Jocular exchange.", "content": "Lacan considered insults a primary form of social interaction, central to the imaginary order – \"a situation that is symbolised in the 'Yah-boo, so are you' of the transitivist quarrel, the original form of aggressive communication\".  Erving Goffman points out that every \"crack or remark set up the possibility of a counter-riposte, topper, or squelch, that is, a comeback\". He cites the example of possible interchanges at a dance in a school gym:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Backhanded compliments.", "content": "Backhanding is referred to as slapping someone using the back of the hand instead of the palm—that is generally a symbolic, less forceful blow. Correspondingly, a backhanded (or left-handed) compliment, or asteism, is an insult that is disguised as, or accompanied by, a compliment, especially in situations where the belittling or condescension is intentional.  Examples of backhanded compliments include, but not limited to:  A bittersweet comment is a kind of misinterpretation, mixing positive lines with negative connotation, which may be hinting that he or she is clumsy, informal or awkward hospitality, has trust issues, is attention-seeking, insensitive or inattentive, and using negative connotation for comical effect, and mixing bold lines with positive word play.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sexuality.", "content": "Verbal insults often take a phallic or pudendal form; this includes offensive profanity, and may also include insults to one's sexuality. There are also insults pertaining to the extent of one's sexual activity. For example, according to James Bloodworth, \"incel\" has become a \"ubiquitous online insult\", sometimes being used against the less romantically successful by men who are trying to imply they themselves enjoy sexual abundance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formal.", "content": "The flyting was a formalized sequence of literary insults: invective or flyting, the literary equivalent of the spell-binding curse, uses similar incantatory devices for opposite reasons, as in Dunbar's \"Flyting with Kennedy\".  \"A little-known survival of the ancient 'flytings', or contests-in-insults of the Anglo-Scottish bards, is the type of xenophobic humor once known as 'water wit' in which passengers in small boats crossing the Thames... would insult each other grossly, in all the untouchable safety of being able to get away fast.\"  Samuel Johnson once triumphed in such an exchange: \"a fellow having attacked him with some coarse raillery, Johnson answered him thus, 'Sir, your wife, \"under pretence of keeping a bawdy-house\", is a receiver of stolen goods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anatomies.", "content": "Various typologies of insults have been proposed over the years. Ethologist Desmond Morris, noting that \"almost any action can operate as an Insult Signal if it is performed out of its appropriate context – at the wrong time or in the wrong place\", classes such signals in ten 'basic categories\":  Elizabethans took great interest in such analyses, distinguishing out, for example, the \"fleering frump... when we give a mock with a scornful countenance as in some smiling sort looking aside or by drawing the lip awry, or shrinking up the nose\". Shakespeare humorously set up an insult-hierarchy of seven-fold \"degrees. The first, the Retort Courteous; the second, the Quip Modest; the third, the Reply Churlish; the fourth, the Reproof Valiant; the fifth, the Countercheck Quarrelsome; the sixth, the Lie with Circumstance; the seventh, the Lie Direct\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Perceptions.", "content": "What qualifies as an insult is also determined both by the individual social situation and by changing social mores. Thus on one hand the insulting \"obscene invitations of a man to a strange girl can be the spicy endearments of a husband to his wife\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "An insult is an expression or statement (or sometimes behavior) which is disrespectful or scornful. Insults may be intentional or accidental. An insult may be factual, but at the same time pejorative, such as the word \"inbred\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977354}
{"src_title": "Chicago Fire (TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The show explores the lives, both professional and personal, of the firefighters and paramedics of the Chicago Fire Department at the quarters of Engine Company 51; Truck Company 81; Rescue Squad Company 3; Battalion 25 and Ambulance 61. Following the death of veteran Firefighter Andrew Darden, loyalties fracture and divide as Captain (previously Lieutenant) Matthew Casey, officer-in-charge of Truck Company 81, and Lieutenant Kelly Severide, officer-in-charge of Squad Company 3, blame each other for the death of their long-time friend and colleague. Severide is consumed with even more guilt when he learns Darden's wife also blames him for the tragedy. Despite their differences, the firehouse comes together after the near death of Truck Company 81 Firefighter Christopher Hermann.  New to the station is Firefighter Candidate Peter Mills, the candidate assigned to Truck Company 81, who is following in the footsteps of his late father and trying to find his place over the objections of his mother. He leaves Chicago in the third-season episode \"You Know Where To Find Me\". he is not seen again afterwards.  Alongside the firefighters are paramedics Gabriela Dawson and Leslie Shay. Shay dies in the third-season premiere \"Always\". Dawson leaves Chicago after the sixth-season finale \"The Grand Gesture\", but briefly returns in the seventh-season premiere \"A Closer Eye\". She is seen again in the eighth-season episode \"Best Friend Magic\". Some new faces appear in the firehouse as the series progresses. Under the leadership of 25th Battalion Chief Wallace Boden, the firehouse family faces life or death decisions every day, but they treat each other like family, looking out for each other no matter what happens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "The series pilot, co-written by creators Michael Brandt and Derek Haas, was filmed in Chicago and, according to an NBC representative, the series will continue to be filmed there. Producer John L. Roman was involved from the beginning having worked with the Chicago Fire Department and Deputy District Chief Steve \"Chik\" Chikerotis on \"Backdraft\". Mayor of Chicago Rahm Emanuel made an appearance in the series' pilot episode. Emanuel stated: \"It's easier being mayor than playing mayor. I told them I'd do it under one condition: the TV show is making an investment to the Firefighters' Widows and Orphans Fund.\"  The title \"Chicago Fire\" has sparked some confusion in the show's first season in regards to it being shared with a local major professional soccer team; the Chicago Fire Soccer Club. Actor Taylor Kinney has said \"If you (say) 'We're working on \"Chicago Fire,\"' they ask you if you're a soccer player\". However show producer Dick Wolf doesn't mind and has seen that fans of the team might watch. The Chicago Fire team themselves have accepted the shared name with the show and have shown the series premiere on October 2, 2012 at Toyota Park after a game with the Philadelphia Union.  The network placed an order for the series in May 2012. After receiving an additional script order in October, \"Chicago Fire\" was picked up for a full season on November 8, 2012. On January 29, 2013, \"Chicago Fire\" had its episode total increased from 22 to 23. One week later, on February 6, 2013, \"Chicago Fire\" received one more episode, giving it a total of 24 episodes for season one. The pilot episode had an early release at NBC.com, before the series' premiere on television.  On November 9, 2015, NBC renewed the series for a fifth season. The season premiered on October 11, 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Filming.", "content": "The building used in the show for the firehouse exteriors is a working Chicago Fire Department firehouse, and is the headquarters of Engine 18, located at 1360 South Blue Island Avenue at Maxwell Street, between 13th & Racine. Housed here is ALS Engine 18, 2–2–1 (Deputy District Chief – 1st District), 2–1–21 (1st District Chief), 6–4–16 (High-Rise Response Unit), and ALS Ambulance 65. The interiors of Firehouse 51 are filmed at Cinespace Chicago Film Studios. The station house used for exteriors in \"Chicago PD\" is just a few blocks away at 949 West Maxwell Street at Morgan Street (interiors likewise filmed at Cinespace).  Chicago artist and retired firefighter Lee J. Kowalski's oil paintings of fire scenes can be spotted in several episodes.  Molly's, a small bar owned by Herrmann, Dawson and Mouch, was filmed at Lotties in Bucktown. Filming no longer takes place on location to avoid disrupting business. Instead, the interior and exterior surroundings were recreated at Cinespace.  In November 2012, WGN-TV reported a plane crash at 29th and Martin Luther King Drive on their morning newscast and showed live footage for a few minutes before realizing it was merely a set piece pre-staged for \"Chicago Fire\" and not an actual emergency situation.  On March 13, 2020, Universal Television shut down production on the series due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The first season holds a score of 49 out of 100 on Metacritic, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spin-offs.", "content": "On March 27, 2013, NBC announced plans for a proposed spin-off of \"Chicago Fire\", the police procedural drama \"Chicago P.D.\" that would involve the Chicago Police Department, the spin-off series being created and produced by Dick Wolf, with Derek Haas, Michael Brandt, and Matt Olmstead serving as executive producers. It premiered on January 8, 2014.  The show follows an Intelligence Unit of the police and is filmed entirely in Chicago. The main cast includes Jason Beghe, Jon Seda, Sophia Bush, Jesse Lee Soffer, Patrick Flueger, Elias Koteas, Marina Squerciati, LaRoyce Hawkins and Archie Kao.  In February 2015, NBC announced plans to make another spin-off, the medical drama \"Chicago Med\". A special backdoor pilot episode of the show aired during \"Chicago Fire\"s third season. On May 1, 2015, \"Chicago Med\" was officially ordered to a series, starring Oliver Platt, S. Epatha Merkerson, Nick Gehlfuss, Yaya DaCosta, Torrey DeVitto, Rachel DiPillo, Marlyne Barrett, Colin Donnell and Brian Tee. It premiered on November 17, 2015.  \"Chicago Fire\" was the first show of what would become the \"Chicago\" franchise. Additionally, \"Chicago P.D.\" aired a backdoor pilot of the short-lived legal drama series \"Chicago Justice\" which ran from March 1, to May 14, 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcast and streaming.", "content": "\"Chicago Fire\" is broadcast by NBC in the United States. The latest five episodes of \"Chicago Fire\" are available on Hulu with a subscription. Season 4 is available on NBC.com and the NBC app with a cable subscription. All episodes are available from electronic sell-through platforms such as iTunes, Amazon Instant Video, and Vudu. The series will be available for streaming on Peacock along with \"Chicago P.D.\", \"Chicago Med\", \"Law & Order\", \"\" and \"\".  In Canada, the series aired on Global for seven seasons, then moved to CityTV.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Chicago Fire is an American action-drama television series created by Michael Brandt and Derek Haas with Dick Wolf as an executive producer. It is the first installment of Dick Wolf's \"Chicago\" franchise. The series premiered on NBC on October 10, 2012. The show follows the firefighters and paramedics working at Firehouse 51 of the Chicago Fire Department, home of Truck Company 81, Engine Company 51, Squad Company 3, Ambulance 61, and Battalion 25 as they risk their lives to save and protect the civilians of Chicago.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977355}
{"src_title": "Cyril Genik", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Cyril Ivanovich Genik was born in 1857 in Bereziv Nyzhnii, Galicia, to father Ivan Genyk, a village mayor, and Ann Pertsovych. Genik began his studies at Kolomyja, before moving to what is now Ivano-Frankivsk to complete his teaching education. He completed his baccalaureate in Lviv before being appointed as a teacher in 1879 in Nadvirna county. In 1882, Genik returned to his home village and established a school there. During the 1880s, Genik established a milling business as well as a producers' cooperative that he named the Carpathian Store. In 1890, he was elected to the town council in the town of his initial studies, Kolomyja. At some point, Genik met Joseph Oleskiw, a man who had been encouraging immigration by Ukrainians to Canada. Oleskiw asked Genik if he could accompany and lead his second contingent of Ukrainians on their voyage to Canada and help them get settled. Genik and his family of his wife and four children joined a group of 64 Ukrainians in landing at Quebec City on June 22, 1896. Genik led his contingent firstly to Winnipeg and then to what was founded as Stuartburn, Manitoba, which is now considered to be the first Ukrainian Canadian community in Western Canada. In August, Genik applied for a homestead in Stuartburn, but quickly changed his mind and relocated to Winnipeg. That same month, Oleskiw recommended Genik to the Canadian Department of the Interior as an immigration agent. In September, Genik became an as-needed Department worker for the government's interpreting and translation needs. Father Nestor Dmytriw worked with him briefly in 1897–98 at the Immigration Hall in Winnipeg. In his job as an immigration agent, Genik met new Ukrainian Canadian immigrants at Quebec City, encouraged the use of English and the abandonment of traditional customs and served as a counsellor wherever necessary. His workload increased dramatically with the sharp rise in Ukrainian immigration to Canada – so much, in fact, that by 1898 Genik had become a full-time salaried employee of the Canadian government. In doing so, he had become the first Ukrainian full-time Canadian government public servant.  In 1899, Genik established the Taras Shevchenko Reading Hall in his house, and the first Ukrainian language newspaper in Canada, \"Kanadyiskyi farmer\" (\"Canadian farmer\") in 1903. Despite not being religious himself, Genik believed that a Christian denomination should exist independent of Greek Orthodox and Russian Orthodox norms, and founded the 'Independent Greek Church' in cooperation with Winnipeg Presbyterian Church ministers in 1903–1904. In 1911, following the general election of that year in which Genik's favoured Liberal Party had lost office, Genik lost his job, and he finished his life in the public sphere. He lived for a while in the United States but returned to Winnipeg in his later life, where he died on February 12, 1925.  By the time of his death, Genik had become so well known in the Ukrainian Canadian community that he had come to be known as the \"Czar of Canada\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cyril Ivanovich Genik (, 1857 – February 12, 1925) was a Ukrainian-Canadian immigration agent. He is a Person of National Historic Significance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977356}
{"src_title": "Karakoram", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Name.", "content": "Karakoram is a Turkic term meaning \"black gravel\". The Central Asian traders originally applied the name to the Karakoram Pass. Early European travellers, including William Moorcroft and George Hayward, started using the term for the range of mountains west of the pass, although they also used the term Muztagh (meaning, \"Ice Mountain\") for the range now known as Karakoram. Later terminology was influenced by the Survey of India, whose surveyor Thomas Montgomerie in the 1850s gave the labels K1 to K6 (K for Karakoram) to six high mountains visible from his station at Mount Haramukh in Kashmir.  In ancient Sanskrit texts (Puranas), the name Krishnagiri (black mountains) was used to describe the range.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exploration.", "content": "Due to its altitude and ruggedness, the Karakoram is much less inhabited than parts of the Himalayas further east. European explorers first visited early in the 19th century, followed by British surveyors starting in 1856.  The Muztagh Pass was crossed in 1887 by the expedition of Colonel Francis Younghusband and the valleys above the Hunza River were explored by General Sir George K. Cockerill in 1892. Explorations in the 1910s and 1920s established most of the geography of the region.  The name Karakoram was used in the early 20th century, for example by Kenneth Mason, for the range now known as the Baltoro Muztagh. The term is now used to refer to the entire range from the Batura Muztagh above Hunza in the west to the Saser Muztagh in the bend of the Shyok River in the east. Floral surveys were carried out in the Shyok River catchment and from Panamik to Turtuk village by Chandra Prakash Kala during 1999 and 2000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geology and glaciers.", "content": "The Karakoram is in one of the world's most geologically active areas, at the plate boundary between the Indo-Australian plate and the Eurasian plate. A significant part, somewhere between 28 and 50 percent, of the Karakoram Range is glaciated covering an area of more than, compared to between 8 and 12 percent of the Himalaya and 2.2 percent of the Alps. Mountain glaciers may serve as an indicator of climate change, advancing and receding with long-term changes in temperature and precipitation. The Karakoram glaciers are slightly retreating, unlike the Himalayas where glaciers are losing mass at significantly higher rate, many Karakoram glaciers are covered in a layer of rubble which insulates the ice from the warmth of the sun. Where there is no such insulation, the rate of retreat is high.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Karakoram during the Ice Age.", "content": "In the last ice age, a connected series of glaciers stretched from western Tibet to Nanga Parbat, and from the Tarim basin to the Gilgit District. To the south, the Indus glacier was the main valley glacier, which flowed down from Nanga Parbat massif to elevation. In the north, the Karakoram glaciers joined those from the Kunlun Mountains and flowed down to in the Tarim basin.  While the current valley glaciers in the Karakoram reach a maximum length of, several of the ice-age valley glacier branches and main valley glaciers, had lengths up to. During the Ice Age, the glacier snowline was about lower than today.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Highest peaks.", "content": "The highest peaks of the Karakoram are:  The majority of the highest peaks are in the Gilgit–Baltistan region of Pakistan. Baltistan has more than 100 mountain peaks exceeding height from sea level.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subranges.", "content": "The naming and division of the various subranges of the Karakoram is not universally agreed upon. However, the following is a list of the most important subranges, following Jerzy Wala. The ranges are listed roughly west to east.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passes.", "content": "From west to east  The Khunjerab Pass is the only motorable pass across the range. The Shimshal Pass (which does not cross an international border) is the only other pass still in regular use.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural references.", "content": "The Karakoram mountain range has been referred to in a number of novels and movies. Rudyard Kipling refers to the Karakoram mountain range in his novel \"Kim\", which was first published in 1900. Marcel Ichac made a film titled \"Karakoram\", chronicling a French expedition to the range in 1936. The film won the Silver Lion at the Venice Film Festival of 1937. Greg Mortenson details the Karakoram, and specifically K2 and the Balti, extensively in his book \"Three Cups of Tea\", about his quest to build schools for children in the region. In the \"Gatchaman\" TV series, the Karakoram range houses Galactor's headquarters. \"K2 Kahani\" (The K2 Story) by Mustansar Hussain Tarar describes his experiences at K2 base camp.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Karakoram is a mountain range spanning the borders of India, Pakistan and China with the northwest extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It begins in the Wakhan Corridor (Afghanistan) in the west and encompasses the majority of Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan) and extends into Ladakh (India) and the disputed Aksai Chin region controlled by China. It is the second highest mountain range in the world and part of the complex of ranges including the Pamir Mountains, the Hindu Kush and the Himalayan Mountains. The Karakoram has eight summits over height, with four of them exceeding : K2, the second highest peak in the world at, Gasherbrum I, Broad Peak and Gasherbrum II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977357}
{"src_title": "La Compagnie des glaces", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Novels.", "content": "All novels were published by \"Fleuve noir\". The first volume received the 1988 \"Prix Apollo\". It is the only one to have been translated into English, in 2010, as \"The Ice Company\" ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"La Compagnie des glaces\".", "content": "The main series concluded in 1992 with the sixty-second volume.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Chroniques glaciaires\".", "content": "The \"Chroniques glaciaires\" (\"Glacier Chronicles\") cover the period of Earth's glacification.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"La nouvelle Compagnie des Glaces\".", "content": "The \"La nouvelle Compagnie des Glaces\" (The New Ice Company) novels published in 2001 and later continue the original plot fifteen years later.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Games.", "content": "\"Jeux Actuels\" published a pen-and-paper roleplaying game based on the series in 1986.  The video game \"Transarctica\" (1992) by Silmarils was inspired by the setting and plot of the novels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Comics.", "content": "Dargaud published a \"bande dessinée\" adaptation of the series, written by Philippe Bonifay. Originally projected to run for 100 volumes, the series ended after 15 volumes (covering roughly the first ten novels) because of its limited commercial success.  The setting of \"La compagnie des glaces\" also bears close similarity to that of the 1982 French comics series \"Le Transperceneige\", adapted as the film \"Snowpiercer\" in 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "TV series.", "content": "\"La Compagnie des glaces\" was adapted as a youth television series in 2006 in a low-budget French-Canadian co-production, titled \"Grand Star\" in English. The main character, Cal Ragg, was played by Tyler Johnston. The plot of the 26 episodes that were produced is substantially different from that of the novels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anime.", "content": "\"La Compagnie des glaces\" also inspired the 26-episode anime series \"Overman King Gainer\" (2002) by Yoshiyuki Tomino, the creator of \"Gundam\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "La Compagnie des glaces (\"The Ice Company\") is a series of 97 post-apocalyptic science fiction novels by the French writer Georges-Jean Arnaud, published between 1980 and 2005.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977358}
{"src_title": "Dorothy Maud Wrinch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Dorothy Wrinch was born in Rosario, Argentina, the daughter of Hugh Edward Hart Wrinch, an engineer, and Ada Souter. The family returned to England and Dorothy grew up in Surbiton, near London. She attended Surbiton High School and in 1913 entered Girton College, Cambridge to read mathematics. Wrinch often attended meetings of the Heretics Club run by CK Ogden, and it was through a 1914 lecture organised by Ogden that she first heard Bertrand Russell speak. She graduated in 1916 as a wrangler.  For the academic year 1916–1917, Wrinch took the Cambridge Moral Sciences tripos and studied mathematical logic with Russell in London. In December she was invited to Garsington Manor, the home of Russell's then mistress Ottoline Morell, and there encountered Clive Bell and other Bloomsbury Group members, and in 1917 she introduced Russell to Dora Black who would later become his second wife. From 1917 Wrinch was funded by Girton College as a research student, officially supervised by G.H. Hardy in Cambridge but in practice by Russell in London. When, in May 1918, Russell was imprisoned for his anti-war activities, Wrinch assisted with his writing projects by bringing him books and articles. Wrinch also secured the first publication of Ludwig Wittgenstein's (not yet so named) \"Tractatus\" in a German philosophical journal in 1921.  In London Wrinch attended the Aristotelian Society, including a debate between D'Arcy Thompson and John Scott Haldane on the nature of physics, biology and psychology, and she became a friend of Thompson. Wrinch spoke to the Society herself on the'summation of pleasures, and through the Society she encountered Harold Jeffreys and Raphael Demos. In the autumn of 1918 Wrinch registered for graduate study on asymptotic expansions with the applied mathematician John Nicholson at King's College London, started to teach at University College, and continued to work with Jeffreys on the philosophy of scientific method. She moved into a flat in Mecklenburgh Square owned by Russell's then mistress Colette O'Neil. In 1920 Girton awarded Wrinch a four-year Yarrow Research Fellowship with the freedom to work on any area of her choice. In 1920 she was awarded an MSc and in 1921 a DSc by the University of London. Wrinch moved to Oxford in 1922 upon her marriage, where she had a succession of temporary jobs for the next 16 years. She was Lady Carlisle Research Fellow at Somerville College, Oxford and first female Lecturer in Mathematics at the University. in 1929 she was the first woman to receive an Oxford DSc.  Wrinch's first paper was a 1917 defence of Russell's philosophy, and between 1918 and 1932 she published 20 papers on pure and applied mathematics and 16 on scientific methodology and on the philosophy of science. At the 1928 International Congress of Mathematics in Bologna she delivered the paper \"On a method for constructing harmonics for surfaces of revolution.\" She also presented on \"Harmonics Associated with Certain Inverted Spheroids\" at the 1932 ICM in Zürich.\" The papers she wrote with Harold Jeffreys on scientific method formed the basis of his 1931 book \"Scientific Inference\". In the \"Nature\" obituary Jeffreys wrote, \"I should like to put on record my appreciation of the substantial contribution she made to [our joint] work, which is the basis of all my later work on scientific inference.\"  From about 1932 Wrinch shifted towards theoretical biology. She was one of founders of the Biotheoretical Gathering (aka the 'Theoretical Biology Club'), an inter-disciplinary group that sought to explain life by discovering how proteins work. Also involved were Joseph Henry Woodger, Joseph and Dorothy Needham, C. H. Waddington, J. D. Bernal, Karl Popper and Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin. From then on Wrinch could be described as a theoretical biologist. She developed a model of protein structure, which she called the \"cyclol\" structure. The model generated considerable controversy and was attacked by the chemist Linus Pauling. In these debates Wrinch's lack of training in chemistry was a great weakness. By 1939, evidence had accumulated that the model was wrong but Wrinch continued working on it. However, experimental work by Irving Langmuir done in collaboration with Wrinch to validate her ideas catalysed the principle of the Hydrophobic effect being the driving force for protein folding.  In 1939 Wrinch moved to the United States. She had a variety of teaching positions at three small Massachusetts colleges, Amherst College, Smith College, and Mount Holyoke College. From 1942 until she retired in 1971 Wrinch held research positions at Smith.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Prior to 1918 Wrinch's Cambridge tutor GN Watson had proposed to her but the feeling was not mutual and she had to ask her father to explain this to Watson; nevertheless Watson later recommended Wrinch as his replacement lecturer at University College London. Around the postwar time of her intellectual closeness to Russell, Wrinch may have had a romantic connection with his brother Frank and probably did have an unhappy attachment with another of his disciples, Raphael Demos. Sources differ on whether Wrinch wanted a romantic relationship with Russell. She was for some years a close intellectual companion of Harold Jeffreys, and some contemporary observers thought them engaged. It may have been the breaking of their engagement that encouraged Jeffreys to enter psychoanalysis, which was at the time fashionable in Cambridge.  In 1922 Wrinch married her graduate supervisor at King's College London, the mathematical physicist John William Nicholson. The examination for her DSc in 1921 had, unusually, an additional referee, which may have been because of perceptions of a relationship between the two of them. Nicholson was a graduate of Owens College Manchester and also a Cambridge Wrangler. In 1921 he was elected into a Fellowship at Balliol College, Oxford. The couple had one child, Pamela, born in 1927. Wrinch's book on parenthood, dedicated to Russell, was a venture into sociology rather than a manual of child-care. Nicholson's mental health deteriorated in the late 1920s, and in 1930 he was certified as mentally ill and confined in the Warneford Hospital until his death in 1955. In 1937 Wrinch was granted a divorce on grounds of her husband's insanity. From 1930 Wrinch was close emotionally and intellectually to the mathematician Eric Neville in a friendship which lasted until 1961.  In 1939 Wrinch and her daughter moved to the United States, partly because the chancellor of Oxford University and Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax advised her she would be most useful to the war effort by research and lecturing there. In 1941 she married Otto Charles Glaser, chairman of the biology department and vice-president of Amherst College, and it was in part through him that she was able to obtain teaching positions. In 1944 Glaser was forced to resign as chairman because he had allowed his research assistant to spend time working for Wrinch. Glaser retired in 1948 and died in 1951.  Dorothy Wrinch died in Falmouth, Massachusetts on 11 February 1976.  Crowfoot Hodgkin wrote in Wrinch's obituary that she was \"a brilliant and controversial figure who played a part in the beginnings of much of present research in molecular biology.\" On a more personal level, Crowfoot Hodgkin wrote, \"I like to think of her as she was when I first knew her, gay, enthusiastic and adventurous, courageous in face of much misfortune and very kind.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dorothy Maud Wrinch (12 September 1894 – 11 February 1976; married names Nicholson, Glaser) was a mathematician and biochemical theorist best known for her attempt to deduce protein structure using mathematical principles. She was a champion of the controversial 'cyclol' hypothesis for the structure of proteins.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977359}
{"src_title": "Artemis 1", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Artemis 1 will use the Block 1 variant of the Space Launch System. The Block 1 will use 5-segment solid rocket boosters producing of thrust at liftoff. The core stage will use the 4 RS-25D engines of the Space Shuttle. The upper stage ICPS will be based on the Delta Cryogenic Second Stage, consisting of 1 RL10 engine.  Once in orbit, the ICPS will perform a trans-lunar injection burn, which will transfer the Orion spacecraft and 13 CubeSats on the way to the Moon. If the maneuver is successful, the Orion will separate from the ICPS and coast to the Moon. The ICPS will deploy 13 CubeSats that will do scientific research and perform technology demonstrations.  Originally, the mission was planned to follow a circumlunar trajectory without entering orbit around the Moon. Current plans are expected to have the Orion spacecraft spend approximately 3 weeks in space, including 6 days in a distant retrograde orbit around the Moon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The flight now named Artemis 1, was originally named by NASA Exploration Mission 1 (EM-1) in 2012, when it was set to launch in 2017 as the first planned flight of the Space Launch System and the second uncrewed test flight of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle where Orion was to perform a circumlunar trajectory during a seven-day mission. Before then, this initial flight had been referred to as Space Launch System 1 or SLS-1.  On 16 January 2013, NASA announced that the European Space Agency will build the European Service Module based on its Automated Transfer Vehicle, so the flight could also be regarded as a test of ESA hardware as well as American, and of how the ESA components interact with the American Orion components.  The Exploration Flight Test 1 (EFT-1) flight article was consciously constructed in a way that if all the missing components (seats, life support systems) were added, it would not meet the mass target.  In January 2015, NASA and Lockheed announced that the primary structure in the Orion spacecraft would be up to 25% lighter compared to the previous one. This would be achieved by reducing the number of cone panels from six (EFT-1) to three (EM-1), reducing the total number of welds from 19 to 7, saving the additional mass of the weld material. Other savings would be due to revisiting its various components and wiring. For Artemis 1, the Orion spacecraft will PDbe outfitted with a complete life support system and crew seats, but will be left uncrewed. On the seats, two mannequins will be strapped and used as radiation imaging phantoms.  Prior to April 2017, the planned initial launch date had slipped to November 2018, and in April 2017, NASA delayed the planned date to \"sometime in 2019.\" In the event, the 2019 planned launch date did not hold, and the maiden launch of SLS was subsequently further delayed; as of May 2020, it is currently planned for 2021.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crewed Exploration Mission-1 study.", "content": "This flight will be uncrewed, however, NASA did a study in 2017, at the request of President Trump, to investigate a crewed version of the initial SLS flight. A crewed version of Exploration Mission-1 would have been composed of a crew of two astronauts, and the flight time would be much shorter than the uncrewed version due to safety reasons. The study investigated a crewed mission even with the possibility of further delays to the launch. On 12 May 2017, NASA revealed that it will not be sending astronauts to space for Orion's EM-1 mission following a months-long feasibility study. The study helped NASA make some decisions relating the flight test such as adding a full Orion hatch onto the spacecraft rather than a makeshift metal covering.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alternative launcher study.", "content": "On 13 March 2019, NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine testified in front of a Senate hearing that NASA was considering moving the Orion spacecraft that was to fly on the first Space Launch System mission to commercial rockets to keep that mission on schedule for mid-2020. Bridenstine stated that the \"SLS is struggling to meet its schedule\", and that \"We're now understanding better how difficult this project is and that it is going to take some additional time\". Bridenstine testified that NASA was considering launching the Orion spacecraft being built for Exploration Mission-1 on commercial vehicles such as Falcon Heavy or Delta IV Heavy. The mission would require two launches: one to place the Orion spacecraft into orbit around the Earth, and a second carrying an upper stage. The two would then dock while in Earth orbit and the upper stage would ignite to send Orion to the Moon. One challenge with this option would be carrying out that docking, as NASA does not have an ability to dock the Orion crew capsule with anything in orbit until Artemis 3. Since mid-2019, the idea was put on hold, due to another study's conclusion that it would delay the mission further.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Orion payloads.", "content": "NASA has partnered with the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and the Israel Space Agency (ISA) in conjunction with StemRad and Lockheed Martin to perform the Matroshka AstroRad Radiation Experiment (MARE), which will measure tissue radiation dose deposition and test the effectiveness of the AstroRad radiation vest in the radiation environment beyond low Earth orbit. While radiation shielding strategies of the past have relied on storm shelters in which astronauts can seek refuge when solar storms erupt, the AstroRad's ergonomic design provides a mobile protection system with a similar shielding factor as storm shelters without hindering the astronauts' ability to perform their tasks.  The crew compartment of the uncrewed Artemis 1 Orion spacecraft will include two female mannequins imaging phantoms which will be exposed to the radiation environment along the lunar orbit, including solar storms and galactic cosmic rays. One phantom will be shielded with the AstroRad vest and the other will be left unprotected. The phantoms provide the opportunity to precisely measure radiation exposure not only at the surface of the body but also at the exact location of sensitive organs and tissues inside the human body. Radiation exposure will be measured with the implementation of both passive and active dosimeters intentionally distributed throughout the inside of the anthropomorphic phantoms at precise locations of sensitive tissues and high stem cell concentrations. The results of MARE should enable Orion as a platform for other scientific experiments, provide accurate radiation risk projections of deep space exploration, and validate the protective properties of the AstroRad vest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Secondary payloads.", "content": "Thirteen low-cost CubeSat missions were competitively selected as secondary payloads on Exploration Mission-1, later Artemis 1. All of them have the 6-unit configuration, and will reside within the second stage on the launch vehicle from which they will be deployed. Two CubeSats have been selected through NASA's Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnership, three through the Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate, two through the Science Mission Directorate, and three were chosen from submissions by NASA's international partners. The CubeSat spacecraft selected are:  The remaining three slots were selected through a competition pitting CubeSat teams from the United States against each other in a series of ground tournaments called 'NASA's Cube Quest Challenge', and were announced by NASA Ames on 8 June 2017. The competition was to contribute to opening deep-space exploration to non-government spacecraft. These slots were awarded to:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Artemis 1 (also known as Artemis I) is a planned uncrewed test flight for NASA's Artemis program that is the first integrated flight of the agency's Orion MPCV and Space Launch System heavy-lift rocket. As of June 2020, it is expected to launch in November 2021.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977360}
{"src_title": "Paul Haviland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Haviland was born to Charles Edward and Madeleine Burty Haviland in Paris. His father owned Haviland & Co., a well-known china manufacturer in Limoges, and his mother was the daughter of art critic Philippe Burty. His family was very wealthy for the time, and Haviland grew up surrounded by art, music and theater. He received an undergraduate degree from the University of Paris, and from 1899 to 1902 went to graduate school at Harvard University. After graduating he worked from 1901 to 1917 in New York as a representative of his father's china firm. He did so to please his father, but in reality he spent as little time as possible in his office.  In early 1908 he and his brother Frank, who was a photographer, went to see the exhibition of Rodin drawings at the Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession, where he met Stieglitz. Both he and his brother bought works from the exhibit, and soon he and Stieglitz were engaged in long discussions about art and culture. Haviland considered the gallery \"a unique oasis of cultivation\" and soon spent most of his time there. A few months later, Stieglitz told him the gallery was going to close because of a substantial increase in the rent, and without telling Stieglitz Haviland went to the landlord and signed a three-year lease for an even larger space directly across the hall. Stieglitz was so appreciative of Haviland's generosity that for the next decade the two were nearly inseparable friends and colleagues.  Beginning in 1909, Haviland began writing regular columns for Stieglitz's journal Camera Work, and later that year one of his photographs was published in the magazine (\"Portrait – Miss G.G.\", No 28, October). A year later he was named associate editor. He also functioned as secretary of the gallery and helped organize many of the shows of French artists.  In 1912 Haviland won first prize in annual John Wanamaker Exhibition of Photographs in Philadelphia (judged by Stieglitz). A few months later six more of his photographs were published in \"Camera Work\" (No 39, 1912).  In 1913 Haviland co-authored, with Marius de Zayas, one of the first extended essays on modern art, \"A Study of the Modern Evolution of Plastic Expression (New York, 1913).\" In 1914 his brother Frank Burty had one-man show at Stieglitz's gallery, which by then was known as \"291\". Later that year two more of Haviland's photos were published in \"Camera Work\" (No 46).  In 1915 Haviland teamed up with two other people who had become regulars at \"291\", Agnes Ernest Meyer and de Zayas. They were frustrated with Stieglitz handling of artists at the time and felt the galley had become stuck in a rut. They proposed a new publication to help re-energize both Stieglitz and the gallery. Haviland soon became one of the driving forces and editors of a new and then radical magazine, also called \"291\" after the gallery. For the next year Haviland put much of his energy into editing and publishing the magazine with his co-workers.  In 1916 his father summoned him back to France to deal with the family business in Limoges. Due to his father's poor health he remained in France, and the next year he married Suzanne Lalique, daughter of famous art nouveau glass designer René Lalique.  While in France Haviland corresponded frequently with Stieglitz, but because of his new bride and his increasing involvement in the family's business he never returned to New York.  His father died in 1922 and for several years Haviland was completely absorbed by legal entanglements concerning the ownership of the business. The estate was finally settled in 1925, and afterward he used his share of the estate to purchase a 17th-century priory in Yzeures-sur-Creuse. He turned the grounds into a vineyard and spent the rest of his life making wine and living as a gentleman farmer.  He is a Righteous Among the Nations.  Havilland died in Paris and was buried in Yzeures-sur-Creuse in 1950.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paul Burty Haviland (17 June 1880 – 21 December 1950) was a French-American 20th-century photographer, writer and arts critic who was closely associated with Alfred Stieglitz and the Photo-Secession.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977361}
{"src_title": "Laura Dahlmeier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "At the 2013 Biathlon Junior World Championships in Obertilliach, Austria, Dahlmeier took three gold medals in the individual, sprint and relay, as well as a silver in the pursuit. Following this, she was selected for the German team in the women's relay at the 2013 Biathlon World Championships: racing in the third leg, she shot clean and overcame a 38 second deficit to hand over with Germany in the lead. Dahlmeier completed her first full World Cup campaign the following season: she enjoyed further success in World Cup relays, however she was unable to secure a solo podium finish, and did not make an impact at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia.  Dahlmeier's start to her 2014–15 season was delayed due to injury, and she made her World Cup season debut at Pokljuka in December 2014. Two months later she took her first World Cup win in Nové Město na Moravě, following which she took another six podiums, including a second win, and her first two senior World Championship medals, a silver in the pursuit and a gold in the women's relay. In 2015–16 she took five World Cup wins, and at the World Championships in Oslo she took her first solo gold medal in the pursuit along with a silver in the mass start and bronzes in the sprint, individual and women's relay.  Dahlmeier enjoyed her best season in 2016–17, winning the overall World Cup and winning five golds and a silver at the World Championships in Hochfilzen, Austria, missing out on a sixth gold by four seconds in the sprint to Gabriela Koukalová. The following season Dahlmeier's focus was on the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang: at the Games she became the second German woman to take the Olympic gold in the sprint, shooting clean as one of only three competitors to hit all targets in windy conditions, before doubling up with a second title in the pursuit and additionally taking a bronze in the individual.  Dahlmeier's 2018–19 season was disrupted by illness, however she took a World Cup race win at Antholz in January 2019 before going on to take two bronzes at the 2019 World Championships in Östersund in the sprint and the pursuit. After the end of the season, in May 2019 she announced her retirement from competition, stating that she no longer feels the 100% passion necessary for professional biathlon.  On 18 October 2019, she released the children's book \"Die Klima Gang: Laura Dahlmeier und Freunde im Einsatz für die Natur\", which she co-authored.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biathlon results.", "content": "All results are sourced from the International Biathlon Union. On 17 May 2019, she announced her retirement from biathlon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Olympic Games.", "content": "\"3 medals (2 gold, 1 bronze)\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World Championships.", "content": "\"14 medals (7 gold, 3 silver, 5 bronze)\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Laura Dahlmeier (born 22 August 1993) is a retired German biathlete. Dahlmeier started in her first world cup races in the 2012/13 season. In 2014, she participated in the Winter Olympics in Sochi. She won a record of five gold medals at the World Championships of 2017. In 2018 she became the first woman to win the biathlon sprint and pursuit in the same Olympics. During her career she has won a total of two golds and one bronze at the Olympics, seven gold medals, three silver medals and five bronze medals at World Championships, one overall World Cup and two discipline World Cup titles. Dahlmeier announced her retirement from competition in May 2019, at the age of 25. In October 2019, she released a children's book.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977362}
{"src_title": "Jonathan Drouin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "As a youth, Drouin played in the 2008 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Northern Selects minor ice hockey team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Halifax Mooseheads.", "content": "Drouin was drafted second overall by the Halifax Mooseheads in the 2011 QMJHL Entry Draft. After starting the 2011–12 season at the Midget AAA level with the Lac St. Louis Lions, it was announced on December 9, 2011, that Drouin would join the Mooseheads. In his first QMJHL game, against the Acadie-Bathurst Titan, Drouin recorded two assists, including a set-up of the game-winning goal. Drouin was also a key member of Halifax's 2012 playoff success, most notably scoring the overtime winning goal in Game 7 against the Quebec Remparts.  On November 7, 2012, Drouin represented Team QMJHL in Game 2 of the Subway Super Series against Russian junior players; he scored a goal and added three assists. Drouin missed the first game of the series due to a foot injury. At the conclusion of the 2012–13 season, Drouin was named the CHL Player of the Year. He would continue to be an integral player for the Mooseheads during the 2013 playoffs, helping the team win the President's Cup and the 2013 Memorial Cup.  On June 30, 2013, after his highly-successful season, Drouin was drafted by the Tampa Bay Lightning in the first round, third overall in the NHL entry draft. Days later, on July 5, he was signed to a three-year contract by the Lightning. However, Drouin was cut from the Lightning roster at the beginning of the 2013–14 season, returning to the Mooseheads for the QMJHL season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tampa Bay Lightning.", "content": "During the Lightning's 2014–15 training camp, Drouin sustained an injury. Days later, on September 9, 2014, the Lightning announced Drouin would miss three-to-four weeks with a slight fracture in his thumb. On October 16, Drouin was assigned to Tampa Bay's American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Syracuse Crunch, on a conditioning stint. The rehabilitation assignment was initially slated for a maximum of two weeks, though it was stated he could be recalled prior to that timeline. However, just three days later on October 19, the Lightning recalled Drouin from his conditioning assignment with the Crunch; he registered one goal, two assists and a +4 plus-minus rating during his AHL stint. On October 20, 2014, Drouin made his NHL debut against the Edmonton Oilers. The following day, on October 21, he recorded his first NHL assist on a Valtteri Filppula goal in Tampa Bay's 2–1 overtime victory over the Calgary Flames. He then scored his first NHL goal on October 24 against goaltender Ondřej Pavelec of the Winnipeg Jets.  On January 2, 2016, Drouin was reassigned to the Syracuse Crunch. Due to injury, he had been limited to only 19 games in the 2015–16 season, and had only played in five games since mid-November. Lightning general manager Steve Yzerman stated at the time there was no set date for his return to the NHL. Yzerman also stated, \"[H]e's been dealing with a minor nagging injury that is finally healed. With everyone coming back at the same time, it's a good opportunity to get a young player a lot of ice time, get his game right back on top and bring him back at the appropriate time.\" On January 3, 2016, Drouin's agent, Allan Walsh, issued a statement on his behalf, revealing that Drouin had made a trade request in November 2015, but had kept the matter private. Walsh referred to it as an \"untenable situation\" and that it was in everyone's best interest that Drouin be allowed to move on and play hockey.  On January 20, 2016, the Lightning announced Drouin had been suspended indefinitely without pay for a failure to report to the Crunch's game against the Toronto Marlies that day. Drouin's agent Allan Walsh again issued another statement after the suspension was announced by the Lightning. According to Walsh, a few days prior, the Lightning had informed Drouin a trade was close to being completed. Walsh proposed to the team that Drouin not play due to the impending trade; however, the Lightning decided against this. Walsh further stated Drouin was not willing to risk being injured, and that due to the situation \"it is clearly in the best interests that the Tampa Bay Lightning trade Jonathan as there is no reason for Jonathan to continue with the Tampa Bay Lightning organization in any capacity\". Lightning GM Steve Yzerman held a press conference the following day, denying Walsh's claim there was a trade nearing. Yzerman stated, \"We've never said there was a pending deal or a deal close.\" Yzerman further stated the Lightning were still \"actively and aggressively trying to find a deal that works\" to trade Drouin. According to Yzerman, there was still \"significant\" interest from teams, but the way things have played out would make a trade more difficult to make. Yzerman also reiterated his point that he is working for the best interest of the team, and that Drouin's actions put no pressure on him to make a trade.  On March 8, 2016, Drouin reported to the Crunch for the first time since he was suspended by the Lightning on January 20. Drouin told the media he believed the relationship between him and the team was fine, and that they would fix the situation over the summer. Drouin also said he planned on putting in the work to try to gain a call-up. On April 4, the Lightning recalled Drouin from Syracuse after a nine-game stint. He had recorded nine goals and one assist during his recent stint with the Crunch. The same day, Drouin recorded the game-winning goal in his return. Drouin helped the Lightning defeat the New Jersey Devils, which resulted in the Lightning clinching home ice for the opening round of the 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs. On April 15, Drouin recorded his first career NHL playoff point in a 5–2 Lightning victory over the Detroit Red Wings. On April 30, Drouin recorded his first NHL playoff goal in a 4–1 Lightning win over the New York Islanders. Drouin became the fourth Lightning player whose first NHL playoff goal was a game-winning goal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Montreal Canadiens.", "content": "On June 15, 2017, Drouin was traded by the Lightning (along with a conditional sixth-round draft pick in 2018) to the Montreal Canadiens in exchange for defensive prospect Mikhail Sergachev and a conditional 2018 second-round pick. As a restricted free agent, he was then promptly signed to a six-year, $33 million contract with the Canadiens. He took the number 92 jersey. In his second season with the Canadiens, Drouin matched his career-high points total despite only scoring two points in his final eighteen games. On May 1, 2019, Drouin underwent surgery for a nose fracture, which forced him to withdraw from the 2019 IIHF World Championship.  Drouin scored his first goal of the 2019-20 season in a 6-5 shootout victory against the Toronto Maple Leafs. Drouin injured his wrist in a game against the Washington Capitals on November 15, 2019. He did not return from the injury until February 8, 2020, missing 37 games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Drouin won a gold medal at the 2012 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament as a member of Canada's under-18 team. He later represented Canada's junior team, along with Mooseheads teammate Nathan MacKinnon, at the 2013 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Ufa, Russia, where Canada finished fourth.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jonathan Drouin (born March 28, 1995) is a Canadian professional ice hockey forward for the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League (NHL). After a stellar 2012–13 season with the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL)'s Halifax Mooseheads, in which he was named CHL Player of the Year and won the Memorial Cup, Drouin was selected by the Tampa Bay Lightning in the first round, third overall, of the 2013 NHL Entry Draft. On June 15, 2017, Drouin was traded to the Montreal Canadiens.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977363}
{"src_title": "Raphaël Guerreiro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Caen.", "content": "Born in Le Blanc-Mesnil, Seine-Saint-Denis to a Portuguese father and a French mother, Guerreiro played youth football for three clubs, finishing his formation at Stade Malherbe Caen after signing in 2008 at the age of 14. After starting as a senior with the reserve team he made his professional debut in the 2012–13 season, appearing in all the games and failing to start only once in an eventual fourth-place finish in Ligue 2; he was also elected to the Team of the Year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lorient.", "content": "On 27 June 2013, Guerreiro moved to Ligue 1 after signing a four-year contract with FC Lorient. His maiden appearance in the competition took place on 10 August, as he featured the full 90 minutes in a 0–1 away loss against Lille OSC.  On 1 November 2014, Guerreiro scored his first goal for Lorient, opening the scoring at title-holders Paris Saint-Germain F.C. but in an eventual 1–2 defeat. He finished the campaign with seven goals to help his team stave off relegation, including the equaliser as they came from behind to defeat his former employers 2–1 at the \"Stade du Moustoir\".  Guerreiro opened the scoring in a Derby Breton on 24 October 2015, assisted by Majeed Waris in a 1–1 home draw against Stade Rennais FC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Borussia Dortmund.", "content": "On 16 June 2016, Borussia Dortmund signed Guerreiro to a four-year contract for a reported fee of €12 million (£9.5 million). Under coach Thomas Tuchel, he was primarily deployed as a midfielder.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Guerreiro accepted the call to represent the Portugal under-21 team after being spotted by Rui Jorge's coaching staff, making his debut on 21 March 2013 in a 0–1 home defeat against Sweden. On 7 November 2014, even though he hardly spoke the language, he was called up by Fernando Santos to the full side for a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifier against Armenia and a friendly with Argentina. He made his debut on 14 November against the former opponent, playing the entire 1–0 win in Faro; four days later, against the latter, he scored in the last minute for the only goal at Old Trafford.  Guerreiro returned to the under-21s for the 2015 UEFA European Championship in the Czech Republic, helping them finish in second place. He was one of five Portuguese included in the Team of the Tournament.  Guerreiro was selected by the main squad for their Euro 2016 campaign, playing the full 90 minutes in the first game, a 1–1 draw to Iceland in Saint-Étienne. Portugal went on to win the competition, defeating hosts France 1–0 in the final in extra time; following his performances throughout the competition, he was nominated for the Young Player of the Tournament Award, which ultimately went to his teammate Renato Sanches.  In spite of an injury-riddled season, Guerreiro was picked for the 2018 FIFA World Cup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2014, Guerreiro said that he supported S.L. Benfica, dreamed of playing for Real Madrid and his favourite player was Cristiano Ronaldo. His Portugal under-21 manager, Rui Jorge, remembered him as a very introverted character, in part due to his language difficulties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International goals.", "content": "(Portugal score listed first, score column indicates score after each Guerreiro goal)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Borussia Dortmund", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Portugal", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Raphaël Adelino José Guerreiro (; born 22 December 1993) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays for German club Borussia Dortmund and the Portuguese national team mainly as a left back but also as a left midfielder.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977364}
{"src_title": "Baker River (Washington)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Course.", "content": "The Baker River rises in the Cascade Range near Whatcom Peak, in the northern section of North Cascades National Park. It flows south, starting in the Baker River Valley north-east of Mount Shuksan. The river flows generally southwest through a steep glacial valley, receiving several short glacial-fed tributaries from surrounding mountains. Many of these tributaries harbor tall, but never officially measured waterfalls. Most of the southern half of the river is impounded in artificial lakes, both part of the. The first reservoir is -long Baker Lake, impounded by Upper Baker Dam. (The lake was formerly a natural lake, until its level was raised by the -high dam.) Lake Shannon, impounded by Lower Baker Dam, begins immediately below Baker Lake and stretches about downstream. Below Lower Baker Dam the Baker River flows unimpeded (except for a small weir at a fish passage station) for about a mile before emptying into the Skagit River.  Most of Baker Lake is in the Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest. Upper Baker Dam is located in Whatcom County and Lower Baker Dam is located in Skagit County above the town of Concrete. Both dams are owned by Puget Sound Energy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Natural history.", "content": "Baker River sockeye are the only known sustaining population of Sockeye salmon in the Skagit River drainage basin. The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) has determined the Baker River sockeye to be genetically distinct from other sockeye salmon. As of 1992 the condition of the population was listed as \"critical\". In 1985 only 92 adults were found to return to the river. Since the 1990s, however, the population has recovered somewhat, in part due to improvements in the smolt trapping and transportation system. 20,235 fish were counted in 2003 and since 2010, the numbers have been between 10,000 & 30,000 fish counted per year. The WDFW and others' models predicted a run size for Baker sockeye of 46,268 in 2015.  Before Lower Baker Dam was built in 1925 the fish had free access to the river and natural (pre-dammed) Baker Lake. The annual sockeye run at that time was estimated to be approximately 20,000 fish. Artificial enhancement began in 1896 when the State of Washington constructed a hatchery on Baker Lake. This was the first establishment for the hatching of sockeye salmon. The hatchery closed in 1933. The construction of Upper Baker Dam in 1959 inundated the natural Baker Lake and surrounding valley, including the spawning grounds of the Baker River sockeye. Artificial spawning beds were constructed at the upper end of the new Baker Lake. An additional spawning beach was built on Sulfur Creek in 1990. All returning sockeye are trapped below Lower Baker Dam and transported to the artificial spawning beaches.  The Baker River also supports other anadromous salmonids such as coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch), chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), and chum (Oncorhynchus keta) salmon, winter– and summer–run steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and sea-run cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tributaries.", "content": "Tributaries of the Baker are listed proceeding upstream. L and R denote left and right bank, respectively:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Baker River is an approximately, southward-flowing tributary of the Skagit River in northwestern Washington in the United States. It drains an area of the high North Cascades in the watershed of Puget Sound north of Seattle, and east of Mount Baker. With a watershed of approximately in a complex of deep valleys partially inside North Cascades National Park, it is the last major tributary of the Skagit before the larger river reaches its mouth on Skagit Bay. The river flows through Concrete, Washington, near its mouth and has two hydroelectric dams owned by Puget Sound Energy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977365}
{"src_title": "Iwan Rheon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Iwan Rheon was born on 13 May 1985 in Carmarthen, Carmarthenshire. He is the son of Einir and Rheon Tomos. He speaks Welsh as his first language. When he was five years old, his family moved to Cardiff. He attended Ysgol Gyfun Gymraeg Glantaf, where he began acting in school drama productions at age 17. He was later spotted at a National Eisteddfod of Wales, before studying at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Acting.", "content": "At age 17, Rheon joined Welsh language soap \"Pobol Y Cwm\", in which he originated the role of Macsen White, but later left to train at LAMDA. His first notable stage part came in \"Eight Miles High\", which was staged in 2008 at the Royal Court Theatre in Liverpool.  Also in 2008, he was cast as the haunted Moritz Stiefel in the London production of the Tony Award-winning rock-musical, \"Spring Awakening\". He played this role from January 2009 at the Lyric Hammersmith and continued when the show was transferred to the Novello Theatre, until it closed in May 2009, five months earlier than planned. He earned a What's on Stage Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor in a Musical, which was eventually won by Oliver Thornton (\"Priscilla Queen of the Desert\"). For his performance he won the award for Best Supporting Actor in a Musical at the 2010 Olivier Awards.  Immediately after \"Spring Awakening\", Rheon was cast in the E4 channel's \"Misfits\", a BAFTA winning programme that was described by 247 Magazine as \"a mix of \"Skins\" and \"Heroes\"\". He plays nervous, shy Simon Bellamy, who gains the superpower of invisibility and precognition in season 3. On 20 December 2011, Rheon announced via Twitter that he had left the show, along with fellow cast member Antonia Thomas.  In 2011, he also appeared in the final episode of \"Secret Diary of a Call Girl\". In 2011, he was nominated for a Golden Nymph in the \"Outstanding Actor – Drama Series\" category for his role in \"Misfits\". Rheon also made two guest appearances as the character Ben Theodore in Simon Amstell's comedy \"Grandma's House\".  In early 2012, Rheon filmed the crime heist drama \"The Rise\". In spring 2012, he began shooting \"Libertador\" in Venezuela and Spain. He plays Daniel O'Leary. In May 2012, it was announced that he had signed on to the gritty drama \"Driven\".  In 2013, Rheon was cast as the villainous psychopath Ramsay Bolton in the HBO series \"Game of Thrones\". In the DVD commentary for the series' third season, producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss mentioned that Rheon previously auditioned for the role of Jon Snow in the first season, but lost to Kit Harington, with whom Rheon maintains a close friendship. He portrayed Ash Weston in the ITV sitcom \"Vicious\" from 2013 until 2016.  In 2013, Rheon played a lead role in the philosophical radio play, \"Darkside\", based on the themes of Pink Floyd's \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" album.  In September 2014, Rheon joined the cast of BBC One's \"Our Girl\" as Dylan \"Smurf\" Smith. In 2017, it was announced that Rheon had been cast in ABC's \"Inhumans\" series.  Rheon played Mötley Crüe guitarist Mick Mars in the 2019 film \"The Dirt\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Songwriting and singing since the age of 16, Rheon was lead singer in The Convictions until leaving the band to pursue his acting career. In 2010, he recorded his first solo work, \"Tongue Tied EP\", at RAK Studios in London, produced by Jonathan Quarmby and Kevin Bacon. The EP, a four track release with acoustic guitar and voice, was released digitally in June 2010.  He returned to RAK Studios, in April 2011, to record his second EP \"Changing Times\", again produced by Quarmby and Bacon, with the addition of three backing musicians. \"Changing Times\" was released on 10 October 2011.  On 7 April 2013, Rheon released his third EP \"Bang! Bang!\" and on 9 April 2013, released the music video for the title track.  Rheon recorded his first album, \"Dinard\", at RAK Studios in London and Tŷ Cerdd Studios in Wales. The album was released in April 2015 and produced by James Clarke and Jim Unwin. A \"self-funded collection of emotive folk-pop songs recorded over several years\", the album's title refers to Dinard, a town in Brittany, France, where Rheon met his girlfriend Zoë Grisedale. Music journalist Neil McCormick described the album as \"an absorbing collection of moody, introspective songs, all written by Rheon, who plays acoustic guitar with a deft touch and sings in an expressive, gritty voice\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Rheon is fluent in Welsh and English, with the former being his first language. His older brother, Aled, is a musician; the two performed together on the 2015 single \"Rhodd\". Rheon lives in London with Zoë Grisedale, and the couple have one child born August 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "EPs  Studio albums", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Iwan Rheon (, ; born 13 May 1985) is a Welsh actor, singer, and musician. He is known for his portrayals of Simon Bellamy in E4's \"Misfits\" and Ramsay Bolton in HBO's \"Game of Thrones\", as well as playing Mick Mars in the 2019 movie\" The Dirt\" based on Mötley Crüe. He has also appeared in \"Vicious\", \"Riviera\" and \"Inhumans\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977366}
{"src_title": "MathJax", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "MathJax is downloaded as part of a web page, scans the page for mathematical markup, and typesets the mathematical information accordingly. Thus, MathJax requires no installation of software or extra fonts on the reader's system. This allows MathJax to run in any browser with JavaScript support, including mobile devices.  MathJax can display math by using a combination of HTML and CSS or by using the browser's native MathML support, when available. The exact method MathJax uses to typeset math is determined by the capabilities of the user's browser, fonts available on the user's system, and configuration settings. MathJax v2.0-beta introduced SVG rendering.  In the case of HTML and CSS typesetting, MathJax maximizes math display quality by using math fonts if available and by resorting to images for older browsers. For newer browsers that support web fonts, MathJax provides a comprehensive set of web fonts, which MathJax downloads as needed. If the browser does not support web fonts, MathJax checks whether valid fonts are available on the user's system. If this does not work, MathJax provides images of any symbols needed. MathJax can be configured to enable or disable web fonts, local fonts, and image fonts.  MathJax uses the STIX fonts for including mathematics in web pages. Installing the fonts on the local computer improves MathJax’s typesetting speed.  MathJax can display mathematical notation written in LaTeX or MathML markup. Because MathJax is meant only for math display, whereas LaTeX is a document layout language, MathJax only supports the subset of LaTeX used to describe mathematical notation.  MathJax also supports math accessibility by exposing MathML through its API to assistive technology software, as well as the basic WAI-ARIA \"role\" and older \"altext\" attributes.  The MathJax architecture is designed to support the addition of input languages and display methods in the future via dynamically loaded modules. MathJax also includes a JavaScript API for enumerating and interacting with math instances in a page.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Browser compatibility.", "content": "MathJax renders math in most popular browsers, including Internet Explorer 6+, Firefox 3+, Google Chrome 0.3+, Safari 2.0+, Opera 9.5+, iPhone/iPad Safari, and the Android browser. Some older versions of browsers do not support web fonts (with the @font-face CSS construct), so they have to use MathJax image font mode. The browser compatibility list is available at the official site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plugin support.", "content": "MathJax can be easily added to many popular web platforms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Node.js.", "content": "MathJax can be used in NodeJS since version 3 ; for version 2, the MathJax-node library provides NodeJS compatibility.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equation editor compatibility.", "content": "Any MathJax equation displayed in a supported browser can be copied out in MathML or LaTeX format via \"Show Math as\" sub-menu if right-button clicked or control-clicked on it. Then it can be pasted in any equation editor that supports MathML or LaTeX, such as Mathematica, MathType, MathMagic, Firemath for re-using.  Equations generated in MathML or LaTeX format by any 3rd party equation editor can be used in MathJax enabled web pages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "TeX support.", "content": "MathJax replicates the math environment commands of LaTeX. AMS-LaTeX math commands are supported via extensions. MathJax also supports TeX macros and miscellaneous formatting like codice_1 and codice_2.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "MathML support.", "content": "MathJax added partial support for MathML 2.0 and some MathML 3.0 constructs in its beta 2 release. MathJax supports presentation MathML and, as of version 2.2, provides experimental support for content MathML.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "CDN Servers.", "content": "The MathJax site has been providing a content delivery network (CDN) where the JavaScript needed for MathJax to work can be loaded by the browser at run time from the CDN. This simplifies the installation and ensures the latest version of the library is always used. Over time usage of the server has grown from 1.3TB per month traffic in 2011 to 70TB per month in 2017. Due to increasing cost of hosting the server, the main CDN server shut down at the end of April 2017. Alternative third party CDN servers are available.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "MathJax is a cross-browser JavaScript library that displays mathematical notation in web browsers, using MathML, LaTeX and ASCIIMathML markup. MathJax is released as open-source software under the Apache License.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977367}
{"src_title": "Jamie Oleksiak", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Junior.", "content": "Oleksiak attended Northeastern University for one year and had 13 points on 4 goals and 9 assists and team-best +13 plus/minus. After his freshman season with the Northeastern Huskies, Oleksiak decided to return to the Canadian Hockey League for further development, and on July 25, 2011 the Saginaw Spirit announced that they had signed Oleksiak to an Ontario Hockey League contract, and on October 6, 2011, it was announced that Oleksiak had signed a three-year entry level contract with the National Hockey League's Dallas Stars. With the Spirit out of contention during the 2011–12 season, Oleksiak was traded to the title contending Niagara IceDogs on January 10, 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "On January 30, 2013, the Dallas Stars called up Oleksiak from the Texas Stars of the American Hockey League. Oleksiak assisted Brenden Morrow for his first NHL point on February 13 vs. Calgary Flames.  On October 28, 2014, Oleksiak scored his first career NHL goal against the St. Louis Blues in a 4–3 loss. He'd finish the season with 8 points in 36 games.  Oleksiak's first full season in the NHL with Dallas was the 2016–17 season. While waiver eligible, healthy scratches and a hand injury limited Oleksiak to just 41 games. On August 4, 2017, the Stars re-signed Oleksiak to a one-year, $964,688 contract.  In the 2017–18 season, his sixth season within the Stars organization and having been unable to solidify a role on the blueline, Oleksiak appeared in 21 games recording just 3 points before he was traded to the Pittsburgh Penguins in exchange for a conditional fourth-round pick in 2019 NHL Entry Draft on December 19, 2017. Oleksiak immediately established his role with the Penguins and in his 47 regular-season games with the Penguins following the trade, he scored 4 goals, 10 assists for 14 points with increased ice-time. He made his post-season debut with the Penguins, adding 1 goal in 12 games.  On July 12, 2018, Oleksiak as a restricted free agent, agreed to a three-year, $6.4 million contract extension with the Penguins.  In the 2018–19 season, on December 19, 2018, Oleksiak fought Washington Capitals forward Tom Wilson in the first period and was briefly knocked unconscious. He left the game and did not return. After evaluation, the team announced that Oleksiak had suffered a concussion as a result of the fight and would be sidelined from game action indefinitely. He was eventually cleared to play on December 29. On January 28, 2019 he was traded back to the Dallas Stars by the Pittsburgh Penguins for the same fourth-round draft pick in 2019 that he was originally traded to Pittsburgh for.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "Oleksiak, who holds dual Canadian/United States citizenship, represented the United States in the 2009 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament which finished in fourth place, but later decided he would represent Canada internationally.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Oleksiak attended school with both Dougie and Freddie Hamilton at Crestwood Preparatory College in Toronto, Ontario, before moving to the United States to pursue his career in hockey.  Oleksiak's sister, Penny Oleksiak, is a Canadian competitive swimmer, who won a gold, a silver and two bronze medals in the 2016 Summer Olympics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jamieson Oleksiak (born December 21, 1992) is a Canadian ice hockey defenceman currently playing for the Dallas Stars of the National Hockey League (NHL). Oleksiak was selected 14th overall in the first round of the 2011 NHL Entry Draft by the Stars, the highest draft choice in Northeastern University's history.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977368}
{"src_title": "Roméo et Juliette", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "Gounod's opera \"Faust\" had become popular at the Théâtre Lyrique since its premiere in 1859 (it was performed over 300 times between 1859 and 1868) and this led to a further commission from the director Carvalho. Behind the scenes there were difficulties in casting the lead tenor, and Gounod was said to have composed the last act twice, but after the public general rehearsal and first night it was hailed as a major success for the composer. Its success was aided by the presence of dignitaries in Paris for the Exhibition, several of whom attended performances. A parody soon appeared at the Théâtre Déjazet, entitled \"Rhum et eau en juillet\" (\"Rum and Water in July\"). The opera entered the repertoire of the Opéra-Comique on 20 January 1873 (with Deloffre and Carvalho returning to their roles from the premiere), where it received 391 performances in 14 years. On 28 November 1888 \"Roméo et Juliette\" transferred to the Paris Opéra, with Adelina Patti and Jean de Reszke in the leading roles. The opera was first seen in London (with Patti and Mario) on 11 July 1867 and in New York (with Minnie Hauk) at the Academy of Music on 15 November of that year.  In 1912, the opera was recorded complete for the first time with Agustarello Affre as Roméo, Yvonne Gall as Juliette, Henri Albers as Capulet and Marcel Journet as Laurent.  The opera is frequently staged by the world's opera houses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "Sutherland Edwards, music critic of the \"St. James's Gazette\", wrote the following about the opera following its first London performance in 1867:  Gounod's \"Roméo et Juliette\", in which the composer is always pleasing, though seldom impressive, might be described as the powerful drama of \"Romeo and Juliet\" reduced to the proportions of an eclogue for Juliet and Romeo. One remembers the work as a series of very pretty duets, varied by a sparkling waltz air for Juliet, in which Madame Patti displays that tragic genius, which belongs to her equally, with the highest capacity for comedy. [Vaccai's] \"Romeo e Giulietta\" is an admirable opera for Giulietta; in which Romeo is not forgotten.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "The libretto follows the story of Shakespeare's play.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act 1.", "content": "\"Overture prologue\":  A short chorus sets the scene of the rival families in Verona.  \"A masked ball in the Capulets’ palace\"  Tybalt talks to Pâris about Juliette, who appears with her father. Roméo, Mercutio, Benvolio and their friends enter, disguised, and Mercutio sings a ballad about Queen Mab, after which Juliette sings a joyful waltz song. The first meeting between Roméo and Juliette takes place, and they fall in love. But Tybalt re-appears and suspects that the hastily re-masked Roméo is his rival. While Tybalt wants immediate revenge, Capulet orders that the ball continue.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 2.", "content": "\"The Capulets' garden\"  After Roméo's page Stephano has helped his master gain access, he reveals the two young lovers exchanging their vows of love.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 3.", "content": "\"Scene 1: Laurent's cell\"  Roméo and Juliette, accompanied by Gertrude, go to the cell, and the wedding takes place. Laurent hopes that reconciliation between the houses of the Montagus and the Capulets may thus take place.  \"Scene 2: a street near Capulet's palace\"  Stephano sings to attract the occupants into the street. Gregoire and Stephano skirmish as men from each family appear. The duel is first between Tybalt and Mercutio, who falls dead, and then between Roméo, determined to avenge his comrade, and Tybalt. Tybalt is killed by Roméo, who is banished by the Duke.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 4.", "content": "\"Juliet's room at dawn\"  Roméo and Juliette are together and, after a long duet, Roméo departs for exile. Juliette's father comes to remind her of Tybalt's dying wish for Juliette to marry Count Pâris. The friar gives Juliette a draught which will cause her to sleep, so as to appear as if dead and, after being laid in the family tomb, it is planned that Roméo will awaken her and take her away. [A ballet scene in the grand hall of the palace was inserted at this point.]", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 5.", "content": "\"Juliet's tomb\"  Roméo breaks into the tomb after having taken poison because he believes that Juliette is dead. When she awakes from the friar's potion, the lovers' last duet is heard before the poison takes effect on Roméo. As her bridegroom weakens Juliette stabs herself, to be united with her lover in death.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Roméo et Juliette (\"Romeo and Juliet\") is an opera in five acts by Charles Gounod to a French libretto by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré, based on \"Romeo and Juliet\" by William Shakespeare. It was first performed at the Théâtre Lyrique (Théâtre-Lyrique Impérial du Châtelet), Paris on 27 April 1867. This opera is notable for the series of four duets for the main characters and the waltz song \"\"Je veux vivre\"\" for the soprano.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977369}
{"src_title": "The Nightingale (opera)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "For the opera's premiere, the singers were in the pit and their roles were mimed and danced on stage. The \"mise-en-scène\" was by Alexandre Benois (who also designed the sets and costumes) and Alexandre Sanine, and the choreography by Boris Romanov. Stravinsky later prepared a symphonic poem, \"Le chant du rossignol (The Song of the Nightingale)\", using music from the opera, in 1917, as a separate concert work.  After its founding in 1956, The Santa Fe Opera in Santa Fe, New Mexico presented many operas by Stravinsky during its first decade, including—during its opening season in 1957—\"The Rake's Progress\". Additionally, several performances of \"The Nightingale\", with Stravinsky himself conducting in 1962 were part of his 80th birthday celebrations; other stagings took place in 1963, 1969, 1970, and 1973.  In 2014, the opera was paired with Mozart's \"The Impresario\" (\"Der Schauspieldirektor\") for a new production given by the Santa Fe company in which the action took place in Paris in the 1920s. The cast included Anthony Michaels-Moore, Brenda Rae, Meredith Arwady, and Erin Morley.  In 2017/2018, the Canadian Opera Company performed the opera in Toronto along with other short works by Stravinsky as \"The Nightingale and Other Short Fables,\" reviving a 2011 production by Robert Lepage that premiered in Toronto before touring to New York.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "The Fisherman acts as commentator on the story's events.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act 1.", "content": "At the seashore just before sunrise, a Fisherman hears the song of the Nightingale, which causes him to forget his troubles. The Cook has brought officials from the court of the Emperor to hear the Nightingale, telling of the beauty of its singing. However, the Nightingale is nowhere to be heard. The Court Chamberlain promises the Cook a position as private cook to the Emperor, if she can find the Nightingale, who finally appears, and receives an invitation from the Cook and the Chamberlain to sing for the Emperor. The Nightingale accepts the invitation, but says that its sweetest song is in the forest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 2.", "content": "Courtiers festoon the palace with lanterns in advance of the singing of the Nightingale. The Cook describes the Nightingale to the courtiers noting that it is small, gray and virtually invisible, but its song causes its listeners to cry. A procession denotes the Emperor's arrival. He commands the Nightingale to sing, and its singing touches him so deeply that he offers the bird a reward of a golden slipper to wear about its neck. Later, three Japanese emissaries offer the Emperor a mechanical nightingale, which begins to sing. The Emperor is delighted by this novelty. Taking insult at this, the genuine bird flies away, and the angered emperor orders it banished from his realm. He names the mechanical bird \"first singer\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 3.", "content": "The Emperor is ill and near death; the figure of Death appears in the Emperor's chamber. The ghosts of the Emperor's past deeds visit him while he calls for his court musicians, but the genuine Nightingale has reappeared, in defiance of the imperial edict, and has begun to sing. Death hears the Nightingale's song and is greatly moved, and asks it to continue, which it does on condition that Death returns to the emperor his crown, sword and standard. Death assents and gradually removes himself from the scene as the Nightingale continues to sing. The Emperor slowly regains his strength, and on seeing the Nightingale, offers it the \"first singer\" post at court. The Nightingale says that it is satisfied with the Emperor's tears as reward, and promises to sing for him each night from dusk until dawn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nightingale (Russian: Соловей – \"Solovyei\"; French: \"Le Rossignol\") is a Russian \"conte lyrique\" in three acts by Igor Stravinsky. The libretto, based on the 1843 tale \"The Nightingale\" by Hans Christian Andersen, was written by the composer and Stepan Mitusov. It was first performed on 26 May 1914 by the Ballets Russes at the Palais Garnier in Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977370}
{"src_title": "European Union Timber Regulation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Scope.", "content": "The EUTR covers a range of timber products such as solid wood products, flooring, plywood, pulp and paper that are listed the EUTR’s Annex. The EUTR does not cover recycled products, as well as printed papers such as books, magazines and newspapers. The product scope can however be amended. The EUTR applies to both imported and domestically produced timber and timber products. Timber and timber products covered by valid FLEGT or CITES licences automatically meet the requirements of the EUTR.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Obligations.", "content": "The EUTR prohibits the placing onto the EU market of illegally harvested timber and timber products derived from such timber. It requires operators who place timber or timber products on the market for the first time to exercise due diligence to make sure that timber and timber products are legal. To facilitate the traceability of timber and timber products, the EUTR also requires traders who buy or sell timber products on the EU market to keep records of their suppliers and customers. The due diligence system shall contain the following three elements: Operators can set up due diligence systems on an individual basis or with the assistance of monitoring organisations (Article 8). Monitoring organisations are legal entities recognised by the European Commission, as fulfilling the EUTR requirements, competent to assist operators in meeting the EUTR due diligence obligations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementation.", "content": "The Regulation is legally binding on all 28 EU Member States. The EUTR requires all EU member states to implement the Regulation by designating a ‘competent authority’ responsible for its application (Article 7), lay down “effective, proportionate and dissuasive” penalties applicable to infringements of the EUTR and take all measures necessary to guarantee that penalties are enforced (Article 19).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Review.", "content": "In 2015, the European Commission undertook a review of the EUTR, in compliance with a legal obligation laid down in Article 20(3) of the Regulation. The purpose of the review is to assess the functioning and effectiveness of the EUTR, including in preventing illegally harvested timber or timber products derived from such timber being placed on the market. More than 240 stakeholders, NGOs and the private sector contributed to a public consultation as part of the review process.  The Commission published the review on 18 February 2016. It concluded that \"the EU is on track to achieve its objectives to combat illegal logging and associated trade in illegal timber, but challenges remain\".  According to the Commission: \"Some positive trends are visible, namely that EU operators are gradually taking steps to ensure the legality of their suppliers and that there is more awareness of the problem of illegal logging amongst EU consumers. The Regulation has also encouraged producer countries to develop systems assessing compliance with the requirements of the legislation. However, more effort is needed from both the Member States and the private sector to ensure its effective and efficient application\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The European Union Timber Regulation (EUTR) aims to counter illegal logging and associated trade in timber and timber products in the member states of the European Union, and ultimately contribute to sustainable management of forests and reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation beyond EU borders. The EUTR establishes obligations on 'operators' who place timber and timber products on the market and on 'traders' who buy or sell timber or timber products already on the internal market.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977371}
{"src_title": "Peter Bryan Wells", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Wells was born the first of five children in Tulsa, Oklahoma He completed his studies in philosophy at St. Meinrad Seminary College in Indiana. He completed his studies in theology at the Pontifical North American College in Rome. He was ordained a priest on July 12, 1991 for the Diocese of Tulsa.  In 1990, he obtained a baccalaureate in theology from the Pontifical Gregorian University and a licentiate in theology at the Pontifical John Paul II Institute for Studies on Marriage and Family in 1992.  He received a licentiate and a doctorate in canon law from the Pontifical Gregorian University in 1998 and 1999. At the same time he was a student at the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy.  After his ordination, Wells worked as a curate at Holy Family Cathedral in Tulsa, special secretary to the Bishop of Tulsa, and vicar for religious education in the diocese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomatic service.", "content": "Wells entered the diplomatic service of the Holy See on July 1, 1999, working in the apostolic nunciature in Nigeria and, beginning in 2002, in the Section for General Affairs of the Secretariat of State. He was appointed to head the English-language desk in 2006. Besides his native English, he speaks Italian, French, German and Spanish.  He was named assessor on July 16, 2009. Speaking about his work as assessor of general affairs, Wells said that the role of papal diplomacy was to allow Pope Francis and his representatives to \"have the ability to act freely in the world\" and not be \"impeded in their ministry,\" especially in reaching out to the most marginalized.  Pope Francis named Wells secretary of the five-member Pontifical Commission responsible for investigating the Institute for the Works of Religion in 2013. Wells also served as president of the Holy See's Financial Security Committee.  On February 9, 2016 Wells was appointed Apostolic Nuncio to South Africa and Botswana and titular Archbishop of Marcianopolis. On February 13, he was also named apostolic nuncio to Lesotho and Namibia. He was consecrated a bishop on March 19, 2016 by Pope Francis. On June 13, 2016 he was also appointed apostolic nuncio to Swaziland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Peter Bryan Wells (born May 12, 1963) is an American prelate of the Catholic Church who has spent his career in the diplomatic service of the Holy See. He has worked in Rome in the administration of the Secretariat of State and in foreign postings. He has been an archbishop and a nuncio since 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977372}
{"src_title": "McDonnell XF-88 Voodoo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The XF-88 originated from a 1946 United States Army Air Forces requirement for a long-range \"penetration fighter\" to escort bombers to their targets. It was to be essentially a jet-powered replacement for the wartime North American P-51 Mustang that had escorted Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers over Germany. It was to have a combat radius of 900 mi (1,450 km) and high performance. McDonnell began work on the aircraft, dubbed Model 36, on 1 April 1946. On 20 June the company was given a contract for two prototypes designated XP-88. Dave Lewis was Chief of Aerodynamics on this project.  The initial design was intended to have straight wings and a V-shaped tail, but wind tunnel tests indicated aerodynamic problems that led to a conventional tailplane being substituted and the wings being swept. The USAAF confirmed the order for the two prototypes on 14 February 1947, while a change in designation schemes led to the unflown prototypes being re-designated XF-88 on 1 July 1948, with the type gaining the nickname \"Voodoo\".  The Voodoo had a low/mid-mounted wing, swept to 35°. The two engines, specified as Westinghouse J34 turbojets were in the lower fuselage, fed by air intakes in the wing roots and jetpipes beneath the rear fuselage. This made room in the long fuselage for the fuel tanks required for the required long range. The Voodoo's short nose had no radar, being intended to house an armament of six 20 mm (.79 in) M39 cannon, while the fighter's single pilot sat in a pressurized cockpit and was provided with an ejection seat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first XF-88 made its maiden flight from Muroc Field on 20 October 1948, piloted by McDonnell Chief Test Pilot Robert Edholm. It was unarmed and powered by non-afterburning J34-13 engines that gave 3,000 lbf (13.37 kN) thrust. While testing demonstrated adequate handling and the required endurance, the XF-88 proved to be underpowered. This resulted in inadequate performance, with its maximum speed of 641 mph being less than the F-86A then in production. In order to improve performance, it was decided to fit the second prototype's engines with McDonnell-designed afterburners. Thus modified, the engines became J34-22s, giving 3,600 lbf (16.05 kN) thrust. The second prototype, XF-88A, made its maiden flight on 26 April 1949, with the first prototype later modified to the same standard.  The afterburners improved the Voodoo's performance, with the XF-88A reaching 700 mph (1,126 km/h) but at the expense of decreased range owing to increased fuel consumption. Despite this, the XF-88 was chosen against the Lockheed XF-90 and North American YF-93 for the USAF's Penetration Fighter requirement, with planned production versions to use more powerful Westinghouse J46 engines. (A 1948 order for 118 F-93s had been cancelled in 1949.) Changes in Air Force priorities, together with a shortage of money, led the penetration fighter to be cancelled in August 1950.  The first prototype was modified to XF-88B standard as a propeller-research vehicle. The model propeller was driven by a nose-mounted Allison T38 turboprop which was used to assist in the climb as well as to reach the test conditions. The aircraft was used to test three propellers through 1956, to speeds slightly exceeding Mach 1.0, the first propeller-equipped aircraft to do so. The propeller was tested in level flight to about M 0.9 with the help of the turbojet afterburners, and to just over M 1.0 in a dive.  McDonnell also proposed a naval version of the XF-88, a two-seat operational trainer, and a reconnaissance variant but none were built. Both prototypes were scrapped by 1958.  Experience of the Korean War led the USAF to reconsider its plans for penetration fighters and led to a new specification for a long-range fighter, General Operational Requirement (GOR) 101 being issued in February 1951. A considerably enlarged version of the design was chosen to meet this requirement later that year, the revised design becoming the F-101 Voodoo, the first production version of which flew on 29 September 1954.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The McDonnell XF-88 Voodoo was a long-range, twin-engine jet fighter aircraft with swept wings designed for the United States Air Force. Although it never entered production, its design was adapted for the subsequent supersonic F-101 Voodoo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977373}
{"src_title": "Flixbus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Flixbus was founded in 2011 in Munich by Daniel Krauss, Jochen Engert and André Schwämmlein and launched its first 3 routes in February 2013 in Bavaria, Germany. It was founded to take advantage of Germany opening up its bus market to competition in 2013.  In January 2015, the company merged with MeinFernbus.  In November 2015, Flixbus acquired Liinita, a start-up company developing a carpooling service to retail stores, shopping centers and restaurants which had been funded by the Business Incubation Center (BIC) of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Government of Upper Bavaria. Flixbus used technology developed by Liinita to start its charter business.  In May 2015, it entered the liberalized French market with \"FlixBus France\", and in August it launched an Italian subsidiary in Milan.  In November 2015, Flixbus announced the establishment of a new subsidiary called FlixBus B.V. in the Netherlands, creating the very first national Dutch intercity bus network. At that time, it also had routes to Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Sweden and Denmark.  In 2015, Flixbus controlled 71% of the German market (measured in kilometres driven by the company).  In January 2016, Flixbus announced it was entering Central and Eastern Europe with a new subsidiary FlixBus CEE, covering Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Poland, Slovenia and Croatia.  In March 2016, the company launched its first routes to the United Kingdom and Spain.  By March 2016, the network included approximately 120,000 daily connections to 1,700+ destinations in 28 countries.  Effective 1 July 2016, Flixbus acquired Megabus Europe from Stagecoach Group, with Stagecoach remaining as contractor to operate the services.  On 3 August 2016, Flixbus announced the acquisition of Postbus, a German competitor, from Deutsche Post for an undisclosed sum.  In September 2016, Flixbus announced plans to expand to Scandinavia. Together with Danish small and medium-sized enterprises, Flixbus announced plans for a network in Denmark. On 28 February 2017, Flixbus announced that Danish bus company Abildskou, based in Aarhus, would become its first bus partner in Denmark.  In May 2017, Flixbus announced it would take over the \"Hellö\" coach network from Austrian Federal Railways (ÖBB) in August 2017.  Starting on 24 August 2017, Flixbus cooperated with Czech train company LEO Express to take over the operation of the Locomore rail service between Stuttgart and Berlin (via Hanover and Frankfurt) in Germany.  On 24 March 2018, FlixMobility acquired the open-access operator Hamburg-Köln-Express, which operated a route between Hamburg and Cologne, and integrated the HKX route into the Flixtrain network alongside the above-mentioned Locomore service.  On 15 May 2018, Flixbus announced its expansion into the United States market, operating from a main hub in Los Angeles. In March 2019, the company launched service in Houston, San Antonio, New Orleans, Baton Rouge, and Biloxi, Mississippi.  In April 2019, Flixbus acquired Eurolines and its Isilines brand from Transdev.  In May 2019, Eastern Bus, which operates along the Interstate 95 corridor between New York City and Richmond, Virginia, reached a deal with Flixbus to operate the East Coast network for Flixbus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operating companies.", "content": "Flixbus claims not to own any buses, contracting all services to small-to-medium or \"mittelstand\" bus companies, which it calls \"bus partners\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passengers.", "content": "Per statistics published by the company in February 2018, 60% of the company's customers are female and 33% are between the ages of 18 and 25.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Working conditions.", "content": "Flixbus has been accused of forcing its partners to have its drivers work excessive hours at low wages; however, official inspections have found that resting, driving and working hours in the market were much better than some media reports had suggested.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use of infrastructure without toll payments.", "content": "In 2015, Cologne closed its city center long-distance bus station because of the congestion associated with buses, forcing Flixbus to move its Cologne stop.  Unlike competing train services and trucks, buses do not pay any road toll in Germany, which has been called a hidden subsidy by SPD and Alliance '90/The Greens politicians, as well as by Rüdiger Grube, chairman of Deutsche Bahn, one of Flixbus's main competitors. \"bdo\" (an association of German bus companies) responded by saying that buses already pay for infrastructure they use in the form of various taxes (ex. mineral oil tax), while billions of subsidies are paid to national rail provider Deutsche Bahn.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dominant market share.", "content": "Following the acquisition of Postbus in 2016, FlixBus gained control of roughly 80% of the German long-distance bus market, which was criticised by various media outlets as a \"de facto\" monopoly and harmful to competition. It was also suggested that Flixbus' control of the market could lead to higher prices and less service to smaller destinations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Passenger name records.", "content": "On 25 June 2018, the Belgian Government announced that it was running a pilot project with Flixbus and Eurostar for which it is collecting all passenger data for Flixbuses and Eurostars crossing the Belgian border. The move was criticised as decreasing the attractiveness of public transport.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Flixbus (; styled FLiXBUS) is a German brand that offers intercity bus service in Europe and the United States. It is owned by FlixMobility GmbH, which also operates FlixTrain and FlixCar.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977374}
{"src_title": "James Alberione", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Alberione was born on 4 April 1884, in San Lorenzo di Fossano (Cuneo), then in the Kingdom of Italy. The Alberione family, made up of Michael Alberione, Teresa Allocco and their six children, were farmers. He was the fourth son of a peasant family and had a more delicate physical constitution than his brothers. At the age of sixteen, James entered the seminary of Alba, financially aided by his Uncle James, who was his godfather (where his name is derived). He and his father traveled to the seminary riding in an ox-driven cart. At the seminary of Alba, his spiritual director was Canon Francesco Chiesa, who is now a \"Venerable\".  On the night of 31 December 1900, the night that divided the 19th and 20th centuries, he prayed for five hours before the Blessed Sacrament and contemplating the future, felt that he was called to do something for the people of the new century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Founder.", "content": "Alberione was ordained on 29 June 1907 (Feast of Sts. Peter and Paul), and became a parish priest in Narzole. He received his doctorate in theology, in 1908. Alberione founded a total of ten religious congregations, aggregated institutes, and lay cooperators. These congregations use modern media technology and published materials to spread the word of God and help in personal devotions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Society of St. Paul.", "content": "On August 20, 1914, he put two teenagers, Desiderio Costa and Tito Armani, to work in a small pressroom under the guidance of a printer friend of his. Thus began the \"Little Printing School of Typography\" now known today as The Society of St. Paul whose purpose is to \"Live and to Give Jesus Master the Way, the Truth, and the Life\" through the most modern means of communications, press, cinema, television, radio and other modern media.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other congregations.", "content": "After founding the \"Little Printing School\" (now Society of St. Paul) he gathered a group of women in 1915; together with Venerable Mother Tecla Merlo, he founded the female counterpart of the Society of St. Paul, the Daughters of St. Paul.  More congregations and institutes followed after. Thus he founded:  Alberione served during the Second Vatican Council as a \"peritus\" (theological expert), participating in the private sessions during which the decrees of the Council were formed and shaped, for the approval of the Council Fathers in full session.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and veneration.", "content": "Alberione died of natural causes on 26 November 1971 in the Generalate House of the Society in Rome. He had received a personal visit by Pope Paul VI an hour before he died. He was buried in the sub-crypt of the Basilica of Mary Queen of the Apostles in Rome.  Alberione was declared venerable on 25 June 1996, and was beatified on 27 April 2003 by Pope John Paul II.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "James Alberione used modern means of mass communication to spread his message.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "James Alberione () (4 April 1884 – 26 November 1971), was an Italian Catholic priest, and the founder of the Society of St. Paul, the Daughters of St. Paul, The Pious Disciples of the Divine Master, The Sister of Jesus the Good Shepherd, The Sisters of Mary Queen of the Apostles, and other religious institutes, which form the Pauline Family. The first two groups are best known for promoting the Catholic faith through various forms of modern media.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977375}
{"src_title": "La Fortune des Rougon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "After a stirring opening on the eve of the coup d'état, involving an idealistic young village couple joining up with the republican militia in the middle of the night, Zola then spends the next few chapters going back in time to pre-Revolutionary Provence, and proceeds to lay the foundations for the entire Rougon-Macquart cycle, committing himself to what would become the next twenty-two years of his life's work. The fictional town of Plassans (loosely based on the real city of Aix-en-Provence, where Zola grew up) is established as the setting for the novel and described in intimate detail, and then we are introduced to the eccentric heroine Adelaide Fouque, later known as \"Tante Dide\", who becomes the common ancestor for both the Rougon and Macquart families. Her legitimate son from her short marriage to her late husband, a labourer named Rougon who worked on Dide's land, is forced to grow up alongside two illegitimate children — a boy and a girl — from Dide's later romance with the smuggler, poacher and alcoholic Macquart, while the ageing Dide slides further and further into a state of mental illness and borderline senile dementia. From this premise, the next nineteen novels all get their central protagonists and to a certain extent their themes.  The narrative continues along double lines, following both \"branches\" of the family. We see Pierre Rougon (the legitimate son) in his attempts to disinherit his Macquart half-siblings, his marriage to Felicité Puech, the voraciously ambitious daughter of a local merchant, and their continued failure to establish the fortune, fame and renown they seek, despite their greed and relatively comfortable lifestyles. Approaching old age, the Rougon couple finally admit defeat and settle, crushed, into their lower middle class destinies, until by a remarkable stroke of luck their eldest son Eugène reports from Paris that he has some news that they might find interesting. Eugène has become one of the closest allies of the future Emperor Napoleon III and informs his parents that a coup is imminent. Having been effectively given insider information about which side to back in the coming revolution, the Rougons then make a series of seemingly bold moves to show their loyal and steadfast support for Napoleon III, winning the admiration of the most influential people in the town, mostly royalists who are themselves afraid of showing too much commitment for fear of backing the \"wrong horse\" and losing their standing and fortune.  The narrative then switches over to the Macquart side of the family, whose grim working-class struggles to survive are juxtaposed keenly with the Rougons' seemingly trivial quest for greater wealth and influence in genteel drawing-room society. Descended from a drunken ne'er-do-well and a madwoman, Zola effectively predestines the Macquarts to lives of toil and misery. Zola's theories of heredity, laid out in the original preface to this novel, were a cornerstone of his entire philosophy and a major reason for his embarking on the mammoth Rougon-Macquart project in the first place in order to illustrate them. Largely discredited nowadays, the theories are largely \"present but unseen\" in most of the novels in the Rougon-Macquart cycle, allowing those books to be enjoyed without the overshadowing effect of Zola's somewhat suspect scientific ideas. Due to the original story nature of \"La Fortune des Rougon\", the theories are placed much more to the fore, and can appear somewhat heavy-handed as a result.  A third branch of the family, the Mourets, descended from Macquart and Dide's daughter, are then introduced before the novel's focus is brought back to the \"present\", the night of the coup, via a quite brilliantly told love story. The idealistic but naïve Silvère Mouret falls madly in love with the innocent Miette Chantegreil, and after a long courtship they decide to join up with the republicans to fight the coup. The rest of the novel then picks up from where the opening chapter left off, and from then on is basically a dual narrative telling the story of the old Rougon couple and their increasingly Machiavellian machinations to get themselves into a position of fortune and respect in Plassans, juxtaposed with Silvère and Miette's continuing love story and the doomed republican militia's disastrous attempt to take the town back. Eventually, the Rougons exploit their half-brother Antoine Macquart into inadvertently helping crush the republican threat, and they achieve their life's ambition, fortune and favour. For Silvère and Miette, who committed themselves so completely to a doomed cause, there can be no such happy ending and Zola wisely leaves their half of the story at a bleak dead end.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Translations.", "content": "The first English translation by Henry Vizetelly was published in 1886 and extensively revised (to meet Victorian standards of propriety and avoid prosecution for issuing an indecent publication) by Ernest Vizetelly in 1898, issued under the title \"The Fortune of the Rougons\" by Chatto & Windus. It is of reasonably poor quality, not helped by Vizetelly's boast that he had changed one in every three sentences in the course of his editing. No other translation was available until 2012, when Brian Nelson published one under the Oxford World's Classics imprint.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The novel was adapted into a 1980 French TV miniseries, \"La fortune des Rougon\", directed by Yves-André Hubert and starring Madeleine Robinson as Adelaide and Christian Barbier as the adult Pierre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "(English)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "La Fortune des Rougon \"(The Fortune of the Rougons)\", originally published in 1871, is the first novel in Émile Zola's monumental twenty-volume series \"Les Rougon-Macquart\". The novel is partly an origin story, with a huge cast of characters swarming around - many of whom become the central figures of later novels in the series - and partly an account of the December 1851 coup d'état that created the French Second Empire under Napoleon III as experienced in a large provincial town in southern France. The title refers not only to the \"fortune\" chased by protagonists Pierre and Felicité Rougon, but also to the fortunes of the various disparate family members Zola introduces, whose lives are of central importance to later books in the series.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977376}
{"src_title": "Jürgen Kurths", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Kurths studied mathematics at the University of Rostock and was awarded his PhD in 1983 at the GDR Academy of Sciences, followed by his installation in 1991 in theoretical physics at the University of Rostock. In 1991, in a special program of the Max-Planck-Society, he was selected as one of a few scientists from East Germany to become a director of a new working group and he has formed an internationally well-known group on nonlinear dynamics. In 1994 he got a full-chair on theoretical physics/nonlinear dynamics at the University of Potsdam. There he was also Dean of the Science Faculty (1996–1999), and established as the founding director the Interdisciplinary Centre for Dynamics of Complex Systems (1994–2008). He was the founding director of the Leibniz-Kolleg Potsdam. In 2008, he was called to re-create the research domain Transdisciplinary Concepts at PIK and to bring complex systems perspectives into Earth system research and has become a Professor of Nonlinear Dynamics at the Institute of Physics at the Humboldt University, Berlin, and in 2009 a 6th-century chair for Complex Systems Biology at the Institute for Complex Systems and Mathematical Biology at Kings College, Aberdeen University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research impact.", "content": "From time series analysis and its application to solar and stellar activity phenomena, his interest was drawn in the 1980s to complex systems and nonlinearity or chaos theory. Kurths has been noted especially for his seminal contributions to new synchronization phenomena, recurrence, coherence resonance, measures of complexity and causality as well as dynamics and stability of complex networks. This is what later led him to do research on the basics of complex systems theory as well as applications to the Earth system, the human brain, the cardio-respiratory system and other systems which are characterised by a high degree of complexity and nonlinearity.  Kurths maintains a large network of scientific collaborators and he has had more than 60 PhD students from about 20 countries, 30 of whom now have tenured positions in various countries.  He published more 1000 articles (as of December 2019) and eight books. He is currently on the editorial board of more than 10 scientific journals, among them \"Chaos\", \"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A\", \"PLOS One\", \"European Journal of Physics\", \"J. Nonlinear Science\" and \"Nonlinear Processes in Geophysics\" and of the Springer Series \"Complexity\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International scientific activities.", "content": "Kurths has been a leader in many international scientific activities, including the presidency of the EGU Nonlinear Processes in Geosciences Division (2000–2005). His efforts to promote international collaboration led him to organise several large projects in the EU and DFG and to become the speaker of an International Research Training Group on complex networks (DFG and Brazil) since 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prizes and awards.", "content": "Jürgen Kurths is an elected fellow of the American Physical Society (1999). He received an Alexander von Humboldt research award from Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) (India) in 2005. He has become a member of the Academia Europaea in 2010 and of the Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts in 2012 and was bestowed with a Dr. honoris causa from the Lobachevsky University in Nizhny Novgorod in 2008 and one from the Chernishevsky University, Saratov. He is honorary professor at the University of Potsdam and guest professor at the Southeast University in Nanjing. He was awarded the Lewis Fry Richardson Medal of the European Geosciences Union in 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jürgen Kurths (born 11 March 1953 in Arendsee/Altmark) is a German physicist and mathematician. He is a chair of the research department Complexity Sciences of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, a Professor of Nonlinear Dynamics at the Institute of Physics at the Humboldt University, Berlin, and a 6th-century chair for Complex Systems Biology at the Institute for Complex Systems and Mathematical Biology at Kings College, Aberdeen University (UK). His research is mainly concerned with nonlinear physics and complex systems sciences and their applications to challenging problems in Earth system, physiology, systems biology and engineering.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977377}
{"src_title": "The Piano Guys", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The group originated as a social media strategy for Anderson's piano store, The Piano Guys, in St. George, Utah. Schmidt knew Nelson from years of performing and recording together. Anderson was acquainted with Schmidt, a locally notable pianist who often came in to practice on the pianos when he was in town. In 2009 Anderson saw a music video that Schmidt had uploaded to YouTube, \"Love Story Meets Viva la Vida\" – a musical blend of the Taylor Swift country pop tune and Coldplay's pop song \"Viva la Vida\", which Schmidt performed with Nelson on cello. That video logged more than one million hits. Anderson asked the musicians to do more videos that he would professionally film and upload to his store's Facebook and YouTube pages to promote his store. Nelson brought his neighbor, van der Beek, a songwriter and music arranger, onto the team. Shaye Scott and Tel Stewart assisted with video production.  \"Michael Meets Mozart\" (2011) gained a respectable showing after Schmidt invited the people on his fan mailing list \"to watch it and share it\". In June 2011 the group won the \"Most Up-and-Coming Channel\" award in the YouTube \"On the Rise\" contest, which brought 25,000 new subscribers to their channel. In 2011 and 2012 the group uploaded a new music video every week to two weeks, attracting thousands of new viewers each time. Meanwhile, their focus of selling pianos shifted to solely making music videos and they decided to close the piano store, which closed in March 2012.  By September 2012, The Piano Guys had uploaded more than 30 music videos which had garnered 134 million views, and had 757,000 subscribers on their YouTube channel. That month, facilitated by David Simoné and DSW Management, they signed with Sony Masterworks. After signing, they released their first album, \"The Piano Guys\", which sold gold, followed by \"The Piano Guys 2\" and \"A Family Christmas\" in 2013, and \"Wonders\" in 2014, which debuted at #12 on the Billboard 200 chart. A fifth album, \"Uncharted\", was released in 2016, followed by a second Christmas album, \"Christmas Together\", the following year. Their seventh major-label album, \"Limitless\", was released in November 2018 on Portrait/Sony Music Masterworks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical style.", "content": "The Piano Guys draw on a variety of classical, pop, film score and original music in their compositions for piano and cello. They are especially well known for their mashups of classical and contemporary songs, such as blending Mozart and Adele, Liszt and Coldplay, Tchaikovsky and Shawn Mendes, Bach and Michael Jackson, or Vivaldi's \"Winter\" and Disney's \"Let It Go\".  Schmidt, Nelson and van der Beek serve as songwriters for the group. van der Beek engineers, mixes and masters their studio sessions in addition to occasionally adding his own vocals; Anderson oversees the group's video production, while Nelson and Anderson manage the content and business together.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Videography.", "content": "The group's YouTube videos show the musicians performing in a variety of settings. These include locations in the Utah desert, at the edge of a 1,000-foot cliff, atop a speeding train, in an ice cave, and at Iguazu Falls, among others. Anderson's goal was \"to put pianos and cellos in places nobody would ever expect to see them\", thereby generating marketing buzz for his store. In the videos, Schmidt is seen playing a variety of Yamaha grand and baby grand pianos, while Nelson plays custom acoustic and electric cello. They plan to film music videos at each of the New Seven Wonders of the World. As of November 2018, they had performed in front of or on top of four. Videos at the Great Wall of China (\"Kung Fu Piano: Cello Ascends\"), the \"Christ the Redeemer\" statue in Rio de Janeiro (\"The Mission/How Great Thou Art\"), Chichen Itza (\"The Jungle Book/Sarabande\"), and Petra (\"Indiana Jones and the Arabian Nights\") have been completed.  Some songs are composed of several audio tracks mixed together. Occasionally, tracks are superimposed to imitate many instruments played simultaneously. For \"Michael Meets Mozart\", Nelson prerecorded 100 cello tracks, including percussion effects he made by drumming on the cello itself.  As of March 2019, The Piano Guys have uploaded 85 videos onto their channel and amassed over 1.7 billion views, and 6 million subscribers. Their cover of Christina Perri's \"A Thousand Years\" is their most-watched video, having logged more than 138 million views as of September 2018. YouTube gave them a plaque at their Greek Theatre Los Angeles concert, commemorating their billionth YouTube view, a feat only achieved by under two hundred YouTube users as of 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Live performances.", "content": "The Piano Guys tour worldwide. They have appeared in sold-out concerts in the US, Canada, England, Germany, Hungary, Japan, Korea, Australia, and Russia, among others. Since they began touring they have determined to spread out their time on the road as best they can in order to avoid spending too much time away from family. They have also played at major classical and pop venues, including Carnegie Hall, Greek Theatre and the Royal Albert Hall.  Their decision to perform at the inauguration of Donald Trump in January 2017 elicited controversy. While many other musical groups declined invitations to perform, the group denied that their performance was \"an endorsement or a political statement.\" They explained on their blog: \"We don't feel right limiting our positive message only to people that believe or act the same way we do.\" In an interview with \"Forbes\", Nelson stated that they were \"honored\" by the opportunity to play in front of the Lincoln Memorial, and that he supports the \"Office of the President.\"  At the Inauguration's Liberty Ball, The Piano Guys played their own rendition of Rachel Platten's \"Fight Song\" together with \"Amazing Grace\". This had been one of the songs used by Hillary Clinton during her presidential campaign. The Piano Guys later released a statement noting that their unscheduled rendition of the song was not meant to be political. On December 12, 2017, they hosted a live stream on their YouTube channel, called '#LightTheWorld Christmas Concert with The Piano Guys and Friends', accompanied by various singers including Peter Hollens and David Archuleta.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal lives.", "content": "Members of The Piano Guys are all middle-aged family men who had other careers before the group gained popularity. Schmidt had a solo musical career with eight albums and seven piano books to his credit; he did solo gigs for two decades. Nelson worked in venture capital and real estate, Anderson owned a piano store, and van der Beek operated a recording studio in his home. After signing with Sony in 2012, all four quit their jobs to pursue their joint musical career. In 2016, Schmidt lost his daughter Annie in a hiking accident. Michelle, his wife, wrote a book about the experience in 2017, titled \"Carried: How One Mother’s Trust in God Helped Her through the Unthinkable\". The group dedicated a song to Annie in 2017: \"The Sweetest Gift\".  All four are devout members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Each of them served full-time proselyting missions: Anderson in Washington state, Schmidt in Norway, and Nelson and van der Beek in separate missions in Korea. They have 16 children between them. The group prays together before each recording session, video shoot, concert, and songwriting session, and take inspiration from artists such as Minerva Teichert.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Studio albums.", "content": "Notes", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "YouTube Music Awards", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Piano Guys is an American musical group consisting of pianist Jon Schmidt, cellist Steven Sharp Nelson, videographer Paul Anderson, and music producer Al van der Beek. Originating in Utah, they gained popularity through YouTube, where in 2011 they began posting piano and cello compositions combining classical, pop, film score and original music, showcased through elaborate or cinematic videos. As of March 2020 the group had surpassed 2 billion views on their YouTube channel and had 6.7 million subscribers. Their first six major-label studio albums, \"The Piano Guys\", \"The Piano Guys 2\", \"A Family Christmas\", \"Wonders\", \"Uncharted\", and \"Christmas Together\" each reached number one on \"Billboard\" Classical Albums or New Age Albums charts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977378}
{"src_title": "Frauke Petry", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Petry was born on 1 June 1975 to a chemist and an engineer in Dresden. She lived in Schwarzheide, Brandenburg, near Saxony until the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989, after which her family moved to Bergkamen in Westphalia. Petry took her first degree in chemistry at the University of Reading, UK, in 1998, before attending the University of Göttingen, from where she gained a doctorate in 2004.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political orientation.", "content": "Petry was described as a representative of the national conservative wing of her party. To the contrary, political scientist Cas Mudde described her as a representative of the far-right wing of her party. Petry describes herself as national-conservative and supporting policies of \"national self-determinism\". \"Der Spiegel\" reports that her electoral success on 4 July 2015, which gave her the reins of leadership in the AfD in preference to Bernd Lucke (the party's founder) was made possible by the national-conservative wing of the party. Lucke's wing did not have the majority.  On the subject of the political spectrum, Petry has said, \"Right and left are terms that haven't fit for a long time\". Petry believes sharia is incompatible with the \"democratic and liberal order of state\" and has said that the majority within her AfD favors a liberal-conservative policy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Border control.", "content": "In January 2016, when a reporter from the regional newspaper \"Mannheimer Morgen\" asked her about European and German border policies, Petry answered that the German Border police must do their jobs by \"hindering illegal entry of refugees\". Petry suggested that the border police could \"use firearms if necessary\" to \"prevent illegal border crossings\", a statement which contradicts the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. The reporter followed up on her response, using the term \"Schiessbefehl\" which means \"order to shoot\". Petry stated that she did not use that term, going on to state that no policeman \"wants to fire on a refugee and I don't want that either\" but that border police must follow the law to maintain the integrity of European borders. Afterwards, Petry made several attempts to justify these statements.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Male circumcision.", "content": "In a rough draft of its manifesto, the AfD had considered adopting a stance stating that male circumcision should be outlawed, but Petry said in her interview with Tim Sebastian on 21 March 2016 that this language would not be in the final draft. The Central Council of Jews in Germany is also in an uproar over the question of religious circumcision, stating that to give precedence to a child's self-determination over his parents' right of freedom of religion is \"an unprecedented and dramatic intrusion on the right to self-determination of religious communities\". This national dialogue is happening in the wake of a 2012 decision of a Higher Regional Court in Cologne, which called the circumcision of a 4-year-old boy \"bodily harm\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Women in society.", "content": "Unlike the CDU and SPD, Petry does not believe mandatory quotas are the right way to give opportunities to women, nor does she believe they improve the chances of women having more leadership positions. She believes quotas make women unsure of whether a promotion would be made on the basis of qualifications.  Regarding the issue of burqas, Petry believes it should not be compulsory for women to dress in such a manner. She has said that in schools \"this sort of religious costume should not be worn\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Migration.", "content": "On the issue of international migration, Petry is of the view that, \"We [Germany and the rest of Europe] have to decide what sort of migration we want to accept\". She has said, \"Deciding about who's migrating and who's not, who's going to be part of a new country is, in the end, a question of borders, whether you see them, or whether you don't. When I go to France, I don't see the border, but I know it's there and I accept it, be it in terms of speed limits, or be it in terms of laws and legislation\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resignation from AfD.", "content": "In April 2017, Petry stepped down as AfD's candidate for chancellor due to reports that she wanted to change the party's policies to appeal to more moderate voters. This came after she had frequently criticised Björn Höcke, a party representative who had called the Holocaust Memorial in Berlin a \"monument of shame\", and backed attempts to expel him, but could not prevail in a power struggle with her party rivals Jörg Meuthen and Alexander Gauland, who accused her of splitting party ranks. Despite the internal strife, her party voted to allow her to run for a seat in the German parliament in the September 2017 elections.  One day after election night in which Petry was elected to the Bundestag by direct mandate, she left an AfD press conference saying that she won't join the party's parliamentary group in the Bundestag because the party became too \"anarchical\" and \"could not offer a credible platform\". Alice Weidel, the AfD's frontrunner, demanded her resignation from the party. Petry will join the Bundestag as an independent politician. She resigned from the party and all offices on 29 September 2017. She was subsequently charged with perjury for allegedly lying under oath about her former party's finances.  On 12 October 2017, Petry announced that she would form a new party, called the Blue Party, which would provide a \"reasonable conservative\" agenda and seek to replicate the success of the Bavarian Christian Social Union. In late 2019, that party was dissolved.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2007, Petry founded her own business, \"PURinvent\", a Leipzig-based manufacturer of polyurethane tire fill products. She received the Medal of the Order of Merit in 2012. She speaks English fluently. Petry separated from her husband, Sven Petry, a Lutheran pastor, in October 2015. Her domestic partner is Marcus Pretzell. She has four children and lives in Tautenhain, Saxony. Petry published a statement in early October 2015 in which she announced that she would separate from her husband, while also noting that \"much more than just friendly feelings\" had developed between her and Pretzell, a fellow AfD party member. In December 2016, she married Pretzell. Sven has since joined the CDU.  Petry is a member of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Saxony, a member church of the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD). She criticizes many stances of the EKD, which historically holds a largely liberal Protestant stance, claiming it follows \"only its own interests\" regarding immigration. She advocates its cooperation with AfD in order to defend the European Christian values of the West.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Frauke Petry (; ; born 1 June 1975) is a German politician who chaired the Alternative for Germany (AfD) party from 4 July 2015 to 29 September 2017. A chemist by training and with a professional background as a businesswoman, some political scientists described Petry as a representative of the national conservative wing of that party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977379}
{"src_title": "Paeonia lactiflora", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "It is tall and broad, with 9-lobed leaves long.  The flower buds appear in late spring (May in the Northern Hemisphere). They are large and round, opening into fragrant, cup- or bowl-shaped flowers in diameter, with 5–10 white, pink, or crimson petals and yellow stamens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "\"Paeonia lactiflora\" was known as the white peony (\"P. albiflora\") when first introduced into Europe. It was brought to England in the mid-18th century, and is the parent of most modern varieties.  The Latin specific epithet \"lactiflora\" means “with milk white flowers”.  In China, \"P. lactiflora\" is likened to \"the Minister of Flowers\" (花相), while \"Paeonia\" × \"suffruticosa\" is known as \"the King of Flowers\" (花王).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivars.", "content": "There are several hundred selected cultivars in a range of colours, sizes and forms; many have double flowers, with the stamens modified into additional petals. There are many colors now available, from pure milk white, to pink, rose, and near red, along with single to fully double forms. They are prolific bloomers, and have become the main source of peonies for the cut flower business.  The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The leaves of many cultivars are high in oleanolic and ursolic acid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Phenolic compounds.", "content": "Cis-epsilon-viniferin, trans-resveratrol, trans-resveratrol-4'-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, trans-epsilon-viniferin, gnetin H, and suffruticosol A, B and paeoniflorin esters can be found in \"P. lactiflora\".  Petals color is dependent on a expressing anthocyanins such as peonidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside, pelargonidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside, cyanidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside, peonidin-3-O-glucoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, peonidin-3-O-glucoside-5-O-arabinoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside-5-O-galactoside and pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside-5-O-galactoside.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In art and culture.", "content": "\"Paeonia lactiflora\" became a popular still life subject for Impressionist artists in the late 19th century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paeonia lactiflora (Chinese peony or common garden peony) is a species of herbaceous perennial flowering plant in the family Paeoniaceae, native to central and eastern Asia from eastern Tibet across northern China to eastern Siberia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977380}
{"src_title": "Clementina Maude, Viscountess Hawarden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Clementina was one of five children of Admiral Charles Elphinstone Fleeming (1774–1840), and Catalina Paulina Alessandro (1800–1880). In 1845, she married Cornwallis Maude, 4th Viscount Hawarden; the couple had eight children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photography.", "content": "She turned to photography in late 1856 or, probably, in early 1857, whilst living on the family estate in Dundrum, Co. Tipperary, Ireland. A move to London in 1859 allowed her to set up a studio in her elegant home in South Kensington. There she took many of the characteristic portraits for which she is principally remembered. Many include her adolescent daughters Isabella Grace, Clementina and Florence Elizabeth. The furniture and characteristic decor of an upper-class London home was removed in order to create mise-en-scene images and theatrical poses within the first floor of her home. Hawarden produced albumen prints from wet-plate collodion negatives, a method commonly used at the time.  The Viscountess Hawarden first exhibited in the annual exhibition of the Photographic Society of London in January 1863 and was elected a member of the Society the following March. Her work was widely acclaimed for its artistic excellence, winning her the medal for composition at the exhibition.  At a Grand Fête and Bazaar held to raise funds for a new building for the Royal Female School of Art she set up a booth where she photographed guests, the only known occasion on which she took photographs in public. Lewis Carroll, an admirer of her work, brought two children to be photographed at this booth, and purchased the resulting prints.  Her work is often likened to fellow aristocratic photographer Julia Margaret Cameron, although their aesthetics differ widely.  Her photographic years were brief but prolific. Hawarden produced over eight hundred photographs between 1857 and her sudden death in 1864. Lady Hawarden's photographic focus remained on her children. There is only one photograph believed to feature the Viscountess herself, yet it could also be a portrait of her sister Anne Bontine.  A collection of 775 portraits were donated to the Victoria and Albert Museum, London in 1939 by Hawarden's granddaughter, Clementina Tottenham. The photographs were torn, or cut, from family albums. This accounts for the torn or trimmed corners which are now considered a hallmark of Hawarden's work.  Carol Mavor writes extensively about the place of Hawarden's work in the history of Victorian photography. She states, \"Hawarden's pictures raise significant issues of gender, motherhood, and sexuality as they relate to photography's inherent attachments to loss, duplication and replication, illusion, fetish.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clementina Maude, Viscountess Hawarden, née Clementina Elphinstone Fleeming (1 June 1822 – 19 January 1865), commonly known as Lady Clementina Hawarden, was a noted British amateur portrait photographer of the Victorian Era. She produced over 800 photographs mostly of her adolescent daughters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977381}
{"src_title": "Pierre-sur-Haute military radio station", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1913, a semaphore telegraph (French: \"\") was built where the military radio station is now. At the time, it was a small stone building, with the semaphore on top.  In 1961, during the Cold War, NATO asked the French Army to build the station as part of the 82-node transmission network in Europe known as the ACE High system. In this network, the Pierre-sur-Haute station, or FLYZ, was a relay between the Lachens (FNIZ) station to the south and the Mont-Août (FADZ) station to the north. The NATO radio station was using American-made tropospheric scatter equipment to relay voice and telegraph signals on a network stretching from Turkey to the Arctic Polar Circle in Norway. The French Air Force took control of the station in 1974. In the late 1980s, the system was gradually replaced by a combination of national defense systems and some NATO-owned subsystems. The large parabolic antennas, known locally as \"Mickey's ears\", were replaced with the current two-antenna setup in 1991.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role.", "content": "The Pierre-sur-Haute station is controlled by the French Air Force and is a subsidiary of the Lyon – Mont Verdun Air Base, from the station. It is one of the four radio stations along France's north-south axis, in constant communication with the three others: Lacaune, Henrichemont and the Rochefort air base. The station is mainly used for transmissions relating to the command of operational units. If French nuclear weapons (\"force de dissuasion\") were used, the fire order might pass through this relay.  The station has been part of the'(Air Command of Surveillance, Information and Communication Systems) since its creation on 1 June 1994; from 1 January 2006, it has been run by the'(Joint Directorate of Infrastructure Networks and Information Systems).  The station is under the command of a major. About 20 personnel are on-site, including electricians, mechanics, and cooks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Infrastructure.", "content": "The station is situated on a 30-hectare site between the communes of Sauvain and Job, straddling the border between the two departments of Loire and. The perimeter is surrounded by a high barrier of wood and metal. Military staff and employees arrive via road or tracked vehicles. This road is closed to the public. Though access is difficult, the facility is not isolated: the Chalmazel ski slopes are adjacent to the site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Buildings.", "content": "There are three towers at the site. The tallest one is a 55-metre-high civilian telecommunication tower, owned by Télédiffusion de France. The telecommunication tower is topped by a radome and contains a mode S air traffic control radar beacon system owned by the Directorate General for Civil Aviation. The radar has been in operation since 18 August 2009 but has experienced malfunctions due to heavy snowfall in the area.  The two remaining concrete towers are owned by the military. The 30-metre-high structures have been used since 1991 for radio transmission and reception. These are built to withstand the blast of a nuclear explosion.  Some buildings are used as garages and living quarters, complete with kitchen, dining room and bedrooms. They are linked together by tunnels, 400 metres in total length, so as to avoid walking through thick snow in winter when moving from one building to the other.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Underground facilities.", "content": "The most important part of the site is the underground part, used for transmissions dispatch: at a speed of 2 Mb/s, communications from the towers are analysed, then redirected to be transmitted.  This part of the facility is supplied with chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defences. It defends against electromagnetic pulses using a Faraday cage. Positively pressured rooms help prevent contaminants from entering the facility. The facility has independent water and power supplies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy over Wikipedia article.", "content": "In April 2013, the French-language Wikipedia article \"\" attracted attention from the French interior intelligence agency DCRI. The agency attempted to have the article about the facility removed from the French-language Wikipedia. After a request for deletion in March 2013, the Wikimedia Foundation had asked the DCRI which parts of the article were causing a problem, noting that the article closely reflected information in a 2004 documentary made by \"Télévision Loire 7\", a French local television station, which is freely available online and had been made with the cooperation of the French Air Force. The DCRI refused to give these details, and repeated its demand for deletion of the article.  The DCRI then forced Rémi Mathis, a volunteer administrator of the French-language Wikipedia, and president of Wikimedia France, under threat of detention and arrest, into deleting the article. The article was promptly restored by another Wikipedia contributor living in Switzerland.  As a result of the controversy, the article temporarily became the most read page on the French Wikipedia, with more than 120,000 page views during the weekend of 6/7 April 2013, and is now translated to many languages. For his role in the controversy, Mathis was named Wikipedian of the Year by Jimmy Wales at Wikimania 2013.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pierre-sur-Haute military radio station is a site used for French military communications. It has been used in the service of France since 1913. It is in the Sauvain and Job communes, with the boundary between the Rhône-Alpes and Auvergne regions passing through the site. There are three towers at the site. The tallest one is a 55-metre-high civilian telecommunication tower owned by. The facility its at the summit of Pierre-sur-Haute at an elevation of, about from the village of Chalmazel. There is a small ski resort near the radio station, with the top of the quad lift sitting less than from the station fence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977382}
{"src_title": "Lime sulfur", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synthesis reaction.", "content": "The exact chemical reaction leading to the synthesis of lime sulfur is poorly known and is generally written as:  as reported in a document of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA).  This vague reaction is puzzling because it involves the reduction of elemental sulfur and no reductant appears in the above mentioned equation while sulfur oxidation products are also mentioned. The initial pH of the solution imposed by poorly soluble hydrated lime is alkaline (pH = 12.5) while the final pH is in range 11–12, typical for sulfides which are also strong bases.  However, elemental sulfur can undergo a disproportionation reaction, also called dismutation. The here above reaction resembles a disproportionation reaction. The inverse comproportionation reaction is the reaction occurring in the Claus process used for desulfurisation of oil and gas crude products in the refining industry.  Claus process:  By rewriting the last reaction in the inverse direction one obtains a reaction consistent with what is observed in the lime sulfur global reaction:  In alkaline conditions, it gives:  and after simplification, or more exactly recycling, of water molecules in the above reaction:  adding back 6 Ca cations from hydrated lime for the sake of electroneutrality, one obtains the global reaction.  Lime sulfur reaction:  This last reaction is consistent with the global lime sulfur reaction mentioned in the USDA document. However, it does not account of all the details, a.o., the production of thiosulfate and sulfate amongst the end-products of the reaction. Meanwhile, it is a good first order approximation and it usefully highlights the overall lime sulfur reaction scheme because the chemistry of reduced or partially oxidized forms of sulfur is particularly complex and all the intermediate steps or involved mechanisms are hard to unravel. Moreover, once exposed to atmospheric oxygen and microbial activity, the lime sulfur system will undergo a fast oxidation and its different products will continue to evolve and finally enter the natural sulfur cycle.  The presence of thiosulfate in the lime sulfur reaction can be accounted by the reaction between sulfite and elemental sulfur (or with sulfide and polysulfides) and that of sulfate by the complete oxidation of sulfite or thiosulfate following a more complex reaction scheme. More information on calcium thiosulfate production has been described in a patent registered by Hajjatie \"et al.\" (2006).  Hajjatie \"et al.\" (2006) wrote the lime sulfur reaction in various ways depending on the degree of polymerisation of calcium polysulfides, but the following reaction is probably the simplest of their series:  They also managed to successfully control this reaction to achieve the conversion of elemental sulfur in a quasi pure solution of calcium thiosulfate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation of lime sulfur.", "content": "A New York State Agricultural Experiment Station recipe for the concentrate is 80 lb. of sulfur, 36 lb. of quicklime, and 50 gal. Transferring this formula to the metric system and using a total volume as 100 L of purified water to this we will add 19.172 kg of sulphur and 8.627 kg of calcium hydroxide. About 2.2:1 is the ratio (by weight) for compounding sulfur and quicklime; this makes the highest proportion of calcium pentasulfide. If calcium hydroxide (builders or hydrated lime) is used, an increase by 1/3 or more (to 115 g/L or more) might be used with the 192 g/L of sulfur. If the quicklime is 85 %, 90 %, or 95 % pure, use 101 g/L, 96 g/L, or 91 g/L; if impure hydrated lime is used, similarly increase its quantity. Avoid using lime that is less than 90 % pure. Boil for an hour, stirring and adding small amounts of hot water to compensate for evaporation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "Lime sulfur is sold as a spray for deciduous trees to control fungi, bacteria and insects living or dormant on the surface of the bark. Lime sulfur burns leaves and so cannot be sprayed on evergreen plants or on plants still bearing green leaves in the high seasons.  Bonsai enthusiasts use undiluted lime sulfur to bleach, sterilise, and preserve deadwood on bonsai trees while giving an aged look. Rather than spraying the entire tree, as with the pesticidal usage, lime sulfur is painted directly onto the exposed deadwood, and is often colored with a small amount of dark paint to make it look more natural. Without paint pigments, the lime-sulfur solution bleaches wood to a bone-white color that takes time to weather and become natural-looking. In the very specific case of the bonzai culture, if the lime sulfur is carefully and very patiently applied by hand with a small brush and does not enter into direct contact with the leaves or needles, this technique can be used on evergreen bonzai trees as well as other types of green trees. However, this does not apply for a normal use on common trees with green leaves.  Diluted solutions of lime sulfur (between 1:16 and 1:32) are also used as a dip for pets to help control ringworm (fungus), mange and other dermatoses and parasites. Undiluted lime sulfur is corrosive to skin and eyes and can cause serious injury like blindness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Safety.", "content": "Lime sulfur reacts with strong acids (including stomach acid) to produce highly toxic hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg gas) and indeed usually has a distinct \"rotten egg\" odor to it. Lime sulfur is not extremely flammable but combustion produces highly irritating sulfur dioxide gas.  Safety goggles and impervious gloves must be worn while handling lime sulfur. Lime sulfur solutions are strongly alkaline (typical commercial concentrates have a pH over 11.5 because of the presence of dissolved sulfides and hydroxide anions), and are harmful for living organisms and can cause blindness if splashed in the eyes.  The corrosive nature of lime sulfur is due to the reduced species of sulfur it contains, in particular the sulfides responsible for stress corrosion cracking and the thiosulphates causing pitting corrosion. Localised corrosion by the reduced species of sulfur can be dramatic, even the mere presence of elemental sulfur in contact with metals is enough to corrode them considerably, including so-called stainless steels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Lime sulfur is believed to be the earliest synthetic chemical used as a pesticide, being used in the 1840s in France to control grape vine powdery mildew \"Uncinula necator\", which had been introduced from the USA in 1845 and reduced wine production by 80%. In 1886 it was first used in California to control San Jose scale. Commencing around 1904, commercial suppliers began to manufacturer lime sulfur; prior to that time, gardeners were expected to manufacture their own. By the 1920s essentially all commercial orchards in western countries were protected by regular spraying with lime sulfur. However by the 1940s, lime sulfur began to be replaced by synthetic organic fungicides which risked less damage to the crop's foliage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bibliography.", "content": "\"Chemical Investigation of Best Conditions for Making the Lime-Sulfur Wash.\" L.L. Van Slyke, A.W. Bosworth, & C.C. Hedges, New York Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 329, December 1910, Geneva, New York", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "In horticulture, lime sulfur (British spelling lime sulphur) is mainly a mixture of calcium polysulfides and thiosulfate (plus other reaction by-products as sulfite and sulfate) formed by reacting calcium hydroxide with elemental sulfur, used in pest control. It can be prepared by boiling in water a suspension of poorly soluble calcium hydroxide (lime) and solid sulfur together with a small amount of surfactant to facilitate the dispersion of these solids in water. After elimination of any residual solids (flocculation, decantation and filtration), it is normally used as an aqueous solution, which is reddish-yellow in colour and has a distinctive offensive odour of hydrogen sulfide (HS, rotten eggs).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977383}
{"src_title": "Mizrachi (political party)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Mizrachi movement was founded in 1902 in Vilnius as a religious Zionist organisation. It also had a trade union, Hapoel HaMizrachi, started in 1921. In the British Mandate of Palestine, the movement developed into a political party, \"HaMizrachi\".  For the elections for the first Knesset, it ran as part of a joint list called the United Religious Front, alongside the Hapoel HaMizrachi, Agudat Yisrael, and Poalei Agudat Yisrael. The group won 16 seats, of which the Mizrachi Party took four, making it the third-largest party in the Knesset, after Mapai and Mapam. It was invited to join the coalition government by David Ben-Gurion.  The United Religious Front played a major part in bringing down the first government, due to it disagreement with Mapai over issues pertaining to education in the new immigrant camps and the religious education system, as well as its demands that the Supply and Rationing Ministry be closed and a businessman appointed as Minister for Trade and Industry. Ben-Gurion resigned on 16 October 1950. When the problems had been solved two weeks later, he formed the second government, with the same coalition partners and ministers as previously.  In the 1951 elections, the party ran for the Knesset alone. However, they won only two seats. They joined the coalition that made up the third government, and both its MKs were made ministers – David-Zvi Pinkas became Minister of Transportation, and Mordechai Nurock became Minister of Postal Services. However, when the third government collapsed, both Pinkas and Nurock lost their ministerial positions, although the party remained in the coalitions of the fourth, fifth, and sixth governments.  For the 1955 elections, the party joined forces with its ideological twin, Hapoel HaMizrachi, to form the National Religious Front. The new party won 11 seats (though only two were held by Mizrachi members), making it the fourth-largest, and were again coalition partners in both governments of the third Knesset. In 1956, the union of the two parties was made permanent, and the name changed to the National Religious Party.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mizrachi (, \"HaMizrahi\", an acronym for \"Merkaz Ruhani\" (), lit., \"Religious Centre\") was a political party in Israel, and is one of the ancestors of the modern-day Jewish Home Party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977384}
{"src_title": "William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born circa 1405, he was the third son of Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, and his second wife, Joan Beaufort.  His mother was the legitimised daughter of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster and Katherine Swynford. John of Gaunt was the third surviving son of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault. William was therefore a great-grandson of Edward III. However, the terms of the legitimisation of the Beaufort family specifically excluded them and their descendants from succession to the throne.  William was one of a number of the Neville sons to make a good match, marrying the Fauconberg heiress, Joan de Fauconberg, 6th Baroness Fauconberg \"suo jure\", daughter of Thomas de Fauconberg, 5th Baron Fauconberg by his second wife, Joan Brounflete (died 1409), and taking the title Lord Fauconberg; just as his nephew, Richard Neville, married the Warwick heiress and became Earl of Warwick. William's marriage took place at some point before 1422. His wife was four years older than he was and was described as an idiot from birth. The Fauconberg estates were in North Yorkshire, a centre of power for other members of the Neville family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Loyalty to the Crown.", "content": "He seemingly had a conventional military career during the earlier part of Henry VI's reign. Knighted in May 1426, he was serving on the Scottish Borders in 1435. In 1436, he was serving with Richard, Duke of York, in France — his first contact with a man who was later to receive his allegiance. By 1439, he was a field commander in France, with Lords Talbot and Scales. At the siege of Harfleur in 1440, he was made a Knight of the Garter for his part in the campaigns of 1438-39, in particular the capture and garrisoning of Meaux.  The town where Henry V had died was a crucial marches town for English Normandy. They had re-supplied the town, also retaking Montargis and Gerberoy. Fauconberg fought with the relief at Meaux when Richemont seized the stronghold by storm on 12 August 1439. The English lords forced a confrontation, but the French fled, leaving twenty barges laden with supplies.  As one of the three field commanders, Neville had been put on the royal council since 30 April, on Warwick's death, before a new regent could emerge. In October, Fauconberg helped recapture Harfleur, expelling the French garrison; only Dieppe remained intransigent. The field commander's pre-eminence was supplanted in March 1442 by the appointment of William, Lord Bourgchier, as governor-general of Normandy.  On 7 March 1443, while back in England, he took custody of Roxburgh Castle. He was granted £1,000 per annum (around £1,000,000 at 2005 prices) during peacetime, twice this if at war with Scotland, and until 1448, satisfactory payment was made. However, in 1449, he returned to France as part of a diplomatic mission, and in May 1449 he spent the night that the French chose to capture Pont de l'Arche in Normandy. One hundred and twenty men were taken in all.  Neville was reluctant to surrender to a lowly archer, who almost killed him. While in captivity in France, he spent two years of his own income supporting the upkeep of the castle. In spite of a grant from Parliament in 1449, by 1451 he was owed £4,109. He was forced to settle for less. The loss of such an experienced captain was a blow to English administration. The English had already lost the Bretons for taking their salt fleet, and then in July 1449, Somerset refused Fauconberg's return in a deal for Fougeres.  In 1453, he was ransomed (for 8,000 French ecus) and freed from captivity. He still had the custody of Roxburgh Castle, but was impoverished by maintaining this and by his captivity in France. By now, he was owed £1,000 by the government. He settled this by accepting a grant of 1,000 marks from the customs at Newcastle. Not only was this only worth about two-thirds of the original amount, there was no guarantee that he would ever get the money. As Griffths says, \"What is so remarkable about his tale is that the Lancastrian crown could command [his] loyalty\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alliance with York.", "content": "Until this point, he can be seen as a loyal supporter of the House of Lancaster. However, at some time during the next two years, his allegiance began to shift. He was a member of the council of Richard, Duke of York, during Henry VI's second period of madness. Although he was with the Lancastrian nobility at the First Battle of St Albans (1455), he was appointed by York to be joint Constable of Windsor Castle after the battle. His alignment with York, who was his brother-in-law, was natural, as his brother, the Earl of Salisbury and his nephew the Earl of Warwick (the \"Kingmaker\") were Richard's principal allies.  In 1457, he joined Warwick (appointed Captain of Calais) as his deputy. Warwick used Calais as a base for what was essentially piracy, and Fauconberg seems to have been happy to assist. He was in England in 1458, and in May he was briefly imprisoned in London — but he was bailed by Warwick and returned to Calais.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and appointments.", "content": "The rewards of victory followed. He was made a member of the King's Council and appointed Lieutenant of the North. On 1 November, he was created Earl of Kent and appointed Steward of the Royal Household. In July 1462, he was appointed Lord Admiral, and in August that year he was granted 46 manors in the West Country.  Edward IV relied on him for both land and naval warfare. Following the victory at Towton, he took part in the gradual establishment of royal control in Northumberland, heading a garrison of 120 men at Newcastle in the summer of 1461, and taking part in the siege of Alnwick in November 1462. Between these dates, he was back in Calais, raiding the Breton coast in August 1462, then burning Le Conquet near Brest, and raiding the Ile de Re.  He died on 9 January 1463, and was buried at Gisborough Priory in the heart of his Fauconberg lands. As he had no surviving legitimate sons, the earldom became extinct. He was survived by his wife, who died in 1490 at the age of 84 (thus living through the reigns of all the English kings of the fifteenth century). He had three daughters and one son from his marriage, and one acknowledged illegitimate son, Thomas Neville. Known as the Bastard of Fauconberg, he was to align himself with Warwick and lead a revolt later in Edward IV's reign.  William Neville is an underrated figure in the rise to power of the Yorkist regime. More successful as a military leader than the more famous Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, his reputation is summed up in Goodman's words: \"No other veteran of the Anglo-French Wars won such distinction in the Wars of the Roses\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent KG (c. 14059 January 1463) and \"jure uxoris\" 6th Baron Fauconberg, was an English nobleman and soldier. He fought during the latter part of the Hundred Years War, and during the English dynastic Wars of the Roses.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977385}
{"src_title": "Backwards to Britain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Jacques Lavaret, a young Parisian man, is eager to visit Scotland. He is delighted when his friend, the composer Jonathan Savournon, announces that he can get a free trip to Britain, with room for a friend, on a steamer trading between Saint-Nazaire and Liverpool. Jacques, filled with enthusiasm and Anglophilia, sets off for the steamer in late July 1859, but when he gets to Nantes to meet up with Jonathan, he is faced with bad news. The steamer has been delayed some days, and will dock not in Saint-Nazaire but in Bordeaux, 500 kilometers south of Paris. The two friends spend the delay sightseeing in Nantes and traveling by another boat from there to Bordeaux. Jacques and Jonathan weather the adventures and mishaps of the voyage, amused at the irony of traveling \"backwards\", away from Britain, in order to get there.  After visiting Jonathan's friend Edmond R—, who shows them around the city, Jacques and Jonathan embark at last on the steamer for Liverpool. Jacques, who speaks no English, has difficulty communicating with the ship's commander, the Scottish Captain Speedy, but he is not alone; neither of Speedy's two pilots, picked up in Bordeaux, can speak the language either. The bilingual Jonathan does a little interpreting, and helps Jacques through some pronunciation errors when he tries to pepper his conversation with English phrases. Twenty-four days after leaving Nantes, the two friends arrive in Liverpool, where they marvel at unfamiliar English customs and are astounded at the depths of poverty and squalor in the streets. After meeting with a tradesman, Mr. Joe Kennedy, and his guest Sir John Sinclair, they travel by rail to Edinburgh.  Jacques and Jonathan explore the city, redolent with memories of Sir Walter Scott, whose novels Jacques adores. They visit many landmarks, including the Scott Monument, the Palace of Holyrood, Arthur's Seat (Jacques's first experience of a mountaintop view), and the beach at Portobello. They dine with the family of Mr. B—, Jonathan's brother's wife's uncle; Jacques is taken with Mr. B—'s daughter, Miss Amelia, who promises to draw up an itinerary for their sightseeing to come. Jacques and Jonathan see Calton Hill and Edinburgh Castle the next day, and dine with the B— family again. Following Miss Amelia's instructions, they travel by steamer up the Firth of Forth, dine with a Catholic priest in Oakley, Fife, and proceed by rail to Glasgow, which they discover to be as dingy as Liverpool. Then their rail route continues to Balloch and Loch Lomond, which they cross by boat, admiring the views of Luss and Ben Lomond. They drive by coach from Loch Lomond to Loch Katrine, reminded more than ever of Scott's novels. Crossing Loch Katrine with other passengers, including a bagpiper in traditional Highland dress, they reach the northernmost point of their travels. They dine in Callander and take a train to Stirling, where they admire Highland dress uniforms and pibrochs before heading back to Edinburgh. Sad to be leaving Scotland, they order tickets for London.  Arriving in London, they cross London Bridge and climb to the top of St Paul's Cathedral, marveling at its whispering gallery; then they see the Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, Whitehall, and Trafalgar Square, and make their way through the West End. At the Princess's Theatre in Oxford Street, they see a production of Shakespeare's \"Macbeth\". By the next morning, Jacques is tired of London, complaining that they are now sightseeing only from a sense of duty. They travel down the Thames and see Greenwich, the Tower of London, and Madame Tussaud's. Having spent a week in England and Scotland, they take a steamer back to France. Their tour was rushed, but colorful and memorable; they are now ready to take a different and much more leisurely kind of trip as they \"travel backwards through their memories\" to relive their experience of Britain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary sources.", "content": "Verne's experience of Scotland, and his writings about it, come from a reader's point of view: they reflect that he had discovered the country in books before setting foot there himself. In particular, his view of Scotland is heavily influenced by the works of the novelist Sir Walter Scott and the poet James Macpherson. (Indeed, Verne's novels often describe Scotland simply as the land of Scott, or as that of his hero Rob Roy.)  Another source for Verne's Scottish themes came from the French writer Charles Nodier, who used his 1821 travels in Scotland as the impetus for two works he wrote that year: \"Promenades de Dieppe aux montagnes d’Écosse\" and \"Trilby ou le lutin d'Argail\". Verne cites both Nodier and Scott in the first chapter of \"Backwards to Britain\", as well as several other writers who influenced his conception of Britain: Charles Dickens in his novels \"The Pickwick Papers\" and \"Nicholas Nickleby\"; Louis Énault, author of \"Angleterre, Écosse, Irlande, voyage pittoresque\" (1859); and Francis Wey, author of \"Les Anglais chez eux : esquisses de mœurs et de voyage\" (1850–1). Other writers mentioned in the book include François-René de Chateaubriand, a distant relative of Verne himself; Victor Hugo, whose poem \"Le 7 août 1829\" from \"Les Rayons et les Ombres\" is quoted; and James Fenimore Cooper, an author often cited in Verne's novels.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Imagery.", "content": "As numerous images in \"Backwards to Britain\" imply, such as the juxtaposition of Scott with James Watt or the description of modern gas taps in ancient castles, Verne was especially interested in emphasizing Scotland's evocative combination of an legendary past and an intriguingly modern, scientifically innovative present. In Verne's novels, Scotland is depicted a land of utopian possibilities, as is suggested by his fictional New Aberfoyle in \"The Black Indies\" or the dreams of an ideal Scottish island settlement imagined in \"The Children of Captain Grant\".  The idea of moving backwards, as reflected in both the French and the English published titles, is a central motif in the novel. Verne continued to explore it throughout the novels published during his lifetime, collectively known as the \"Voyages Extraordinaires\". In these novels, progress is often characterized not merely as going forward into the future but also as revisiting and gaining a better understanding of the past and present.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Publication.", "content": "In 1862, Verne submitted \"Backwards to Britain\" to the publisher Pierre-Jules Hetzel. Hetzel rejected it, but he accepted another Verne manuscript involving the more timely themes of ballooning and African explorations; it was published in 1863 as \"Five Weeks in a Balloon\". The rejected manuscript of \"Backwards to Britain\" was eventually acquired by the Bibliothèque de la Ville de Nantes.  \"Backwards to Britain\" was first published in an edition edited by Christian Robin, \"Voyage à reculons en Angleterre et en Ecosse\" (Paris: Le Cherche Midi, 1989), including the text, facsimiles of two pages of the manuscript, a map, and 84 images from contemporary sources. An English translation by Janice Valls-Russell was published by W & R Chambers Ltd in 1992.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Backwards to Britain () is a semi-autobiographical novel by the French writer Jules Verne, written in the fall and winter of 1859–1860 and not published until 1989.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977386}
{"src_title": "Operation Starvation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Galaxyland was originally known as Fantasyland from 1983 to 1995. However, the name Fantasyland was already used for one of the lands of the themes existing in Disneyland and other theme parks, like the Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World, Hong Kong Disneyland, Disneyland Park in Paris, Tokyo Disneyland, and Shanghai Disneyland Park, owned by the Walt Disney Company. A lawsuit eventually forced the mall's owners to change the park's name, though they were allowed to continue using the name \"Fantasyland Hotel\" for a hotel in the mall. Fantasyland became Galaxyland officially on July 1, 1995. This was celebrated with a new \"space-age\" theme and the arrival of the park's new mascot \"Cosmo\".  On December 18, 2019, it was announced that Galaxyland will undergo a renovation to be completed by late-2020, featuring new attractions licensed from Hasbro franchises. Balloon Race, Cosmic Bounce, Ropes Quest, and Zero Gravity are currently the only rides confirmed to be affected by the redesign. The redesign construction begins in December 2019 with its grand opening as \"Galaxyland powered by Hasbro\" in winter of 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1986 Mindbender accident.", "content": "On June 14, 1986, a wheel sheared off the last car on the train of the Mindbender and the train crashed at high speed into a concrete pillar killing three of the ride's occupants. Since then the ride has had several safety improvements including more routine maintenance checks and three emergency brake sections added to the track.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rides.", "content": "There are a total of 24 different rides operating in Galaxyland.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A flame test is an analytical procedure used in chemistry to detect the presence of certain elements, primarily metal ions, based on each element's characteristic emission spectrum. The color of flames in general also depends on temperature; see flame color.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977387}
{"src_title": "I Killed My Mother", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The film begins with Hubert Minel giving a black-and-white monologue explaining how he loves his mother but cannot stand being her son; he also reveals that when he was younger, things were better between them.  Hubert is a 16-year-old Québécois living in suburban Montreal with his single mother, Chantale, who divorced Hubert's father, Richard, when Hubert was much younger. Hubert barely sees his father, and this adds to the animosity between mother and son. One morning, as his mother drives him to school, Hubert starts an argument with her about her applying makeup while driving. The argument ends when Chantale stops the car and tells him to walk to school. At school Hubert claims to his teacher, Ms Cloutier, that his mother is dead. After the teacher finds out that it is a lie, she expresses this lie as \"you killed your mother.\" This inspires Hubert to write an essay for school titled \"I killed my mother.\"  Later in the film, Hubert's friend Antonin is revealed to be his boyfriend, but Hubert has not told his mother, and she finds out from Antonin's mother, who assumed that Chantale already knew. Chantale, to some extent, accepts her son's homosexuality; however, she appears hurt that he did not tell her. Hubert wants to live in his own apartment and is happy that his mother says it is a good idea, but the next day she has changed her mind and does not allow it, claiming that she thinks he is too young.  Their relationship continues to deteriorate, and Hubert goes to live with his teacher, pretending to be staying with his boyfriend. Hubert's father invites him over for a visit; however, once there, Richard and Chantale tell Hubert they've decided to send him to a boarding school in Coaticook. Hubert is deeply angered that his father makes the decision, since Hubert only sees his father at Christmas and Easter.  At the Catholic boarding school, Hubert meets Eric, with whom he has an affair. Eric invites Hubert to go to a nightclub with the other students, where they kiss and Hubert takes speed. He takes the Metro home, wakes his mother, and has an emotional conversation with her. The next morning, she takes Hubert to Antonin's mother's workplace to help drip the walls in paint. He and Antonin finish, and he lays down. Antonin proceeds to lay on top of him and kiss him, and they end up having sex. Hubert, later at home, trashes his mother's bedroom, but he calms down and cleans it up. The two fight and, in the morning, she sends Hubert back to the boarding school.  Back at school, Hubert is beaten by two fellow students. Hubert runs away with the help of Antonin, who has borrowed his mother's car. On the journey, Antonin tells Hubert that he is selfish and only cares about himself, but adds that he loves him. The school's principal calls Chantale to inform her of the developments, revealing the note Hubert left, saying he will be \"In his kingdom\". The principal also begins to lecture Chantale, which causes her to have an angry outburst at him, saying how he thinks he's better than her and how he has no right to judge a single mother. Chantale knows exactly where Hubert's \"kingdom\" is; the house he lived in as a child with both his parents.  Indeed, she finds Hubert and Antonin there. Chantale sits next to Hubert overlooking the beach. The film ends with a home movie clip of Hubert as a child playing with his mother.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Xavier Dolan wrote the script when he was 16 years old. He said in an interview with Canadian newspaper \"Le Soleil\" that the film was partly autobiographical.  The film was at first financed by Dolan, but when need for more money arose, he asked both Téléfilm and the SODEC for subsidies. Both turned him down for different reasons. SODEC, who had loved the project but refused to finance it because it was submitted to a too commercial department, encouraged Dolan to submit it again in more appropriate \"indie\" department, which he did.  In December 2008, SODEC gave him a $400,000 subsidy. In all, the film cost around $800,000 CAD. Dolan said that the system to acquire funding is \"[...] an obsolete financing mechanism that holds the creative assets of Quebec hostage.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "The film received generally positive reviews from critics; review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 83%, with an average rating of 7.03/10 based on 23 reviews. Peter Howell from the Toronto Star said that \"What makes it extraordinary is its depth of feeling, which Dolan's age makes all the more impressive: he was just 19 when he made this.\"  Peter Brunette from \"The Hollywood Reporter\" called it \"Uneven but funny and audacious adolescent comedy from a talented beginner.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Accolades.", "content": "On 22 September 2009, Telefilm announced the film had been selected as Canada's submission for Best Foreign Language film at the 82nd Academy Awards. Despite this, it received no nominations at the 30th Genie Awards and received only the Claude Jutra Award for best directorial debut. Kevin Tierney, vice-chairman of cinema for the Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television, criticized the overlook, comparing it to \"being sent to the kiddie table\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "I Killed My Mother () is a 2009 Canadian drama film written, directed, produced by and starring Xavier Dolan, in his directorial debut. Loosely autobiographical, it follows the complicated relationship between a young man (Dolan) and his mother (Anne Dorval). The film attracted international press attention when it won three awards from the Director's Fortnight program at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival. After being shown, the film received a standing ovation. It was shown in 12 cinemas in Quebec and 60 in France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977388}
{"src_title": "Zivia Lubetkin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pre-World War II.", "content": "Zivia Lubetkin was born in Poland in Byteń near Słonim (now in Belarus). She joined the Labor Zionist Movement at an early age. During her school years, Lubetkin was educated in Hebrew by private tutors. In her late teens she joined the Zionist youth movement Dror, and in 1938 became a member of its Executive Council. After Nazi Germany and later the Soviet Union invaded Poland in September 1939 she made a perilous journey from the Soviet occupied part of the country to Warsaw to join the underground there. Also in 1939, she attended the twenty first Zionist Congress as a delegate of the Erez Israel Labor bloc.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "In 1942, Lubetkin helped found the left-wing Zionist Anti-Fascist Bloc. This would be the first resistance organization in the Warsaw Ghetto to confront the German forces in combat. She also, as one of the founders of the ŻOB, served on the Warsaw Jewish community's political council, the Jewish National Committee (Żydowska Komitet Narodowy; ŻKN), and also served on the Coordinating Committee, an umbrella organization comprising the ŻKN and the non-Zionist General Jewish Labour Bund (Bund), that sponsored the ŻOB. During her years of underground activities, the name \"\"Cywia\"\" became the code word for Poland in letters sent by various resistance groups both within and outside of the Warsaw Ghetto. She was one of the leaders of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and one of only 34 fighters to survive the war. After leading her group of surviving fighters through the sewers of Warsaw with the aid of Simcha\" \"Kazik\"\" Rotem in the final days of the ghetto uprising (on May 10, 1943), she continued her resistance activities in the rest of Warsaw outside the ghetto. She took part in the Polish Warsaw Uprising in 1944, fought in the units of the Armia Ludowa. Though the Jewish forces would be devastated by the Germans, Lubetkin and several other survivors would survive by taking refuge in a hospital that was willing to hide them. On March 1, 1945, She attempted to immigrate to Palestine with partisan leader Abba Kovner. This move would be unsuccessful as the only available route was blocked, causing Lubetkin to return to Warsaw.  Lubetkin was issued a Paraguayan passport issued by Ładoś Group.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Postwar life.", "content": "Following the Second World War, Lubetkin was active in the Holocaust survivors community in Europe, and helped organize the \"Bricha\", an organization staffed by operatives who helped Eastern and Central European Jews cross borders en route to Mandate Palestine by illegal immigration channels. She herself immigrated to Mandate Palestine in 1946. She married Yitzhak Zuckerman, the ŻOB commander, and they, along with other surviving ghetto fighters and partisans founded Kibbutz Lohamei HaGeta'ot and the Ghetto Fighters' House museum located on its grounds. In 1961, she testified at the trial of captured Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann.  Her two children, Shimon (b. 1947) and Yael (b. 1949), were born in Kibbutz Lohamei HaGetta’ot, where she lived for the remainder of her life and died on 11 July 1978. Her granddaughter, Roni Zuckerman, became the Israeli Air Force's first female fighter pilot in 2001.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Zivia Lubetkin (,,, nom de guerre: Celina; 1914–1978) was one of the leaders of the Jewish underground in Nazi-occupied Warsaw and the only woman on the High Command of the resistance group Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa (ŻOB). She survived the Holocaust in German-occupied Poland and immigrated to Mandate Palestine in 1946, at the age of 32.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977389}
{"src_title": "Charles Townshend", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born at his family's seat of Raynham Hall in Norfolk, England, the second son of Charles Townshend, 3rd Viscount Townshend, and Audrey (died 1788), daughter and heiress of Edward Harrison of Ball's Park, near Hertford. He was a sickly child, suffered from epilepsy, and had a strained relationship with his parents. Townshend was a brash young man, whose \"wonderful endowments [were] dashed with follies and indiscretions.\" Charles graduated from the Dutch Leiden University on 27 October 1745; while there he had associated with a small group of other English youth, who later became well known in various circles, including Dowdeswell, Wilkes, and Alexander Carlyle. The latter would chronicle their exploits in his \"Autobiography\".  Following his return in 1746, he represented Great Yarmouth in Parliament until 1756, when he found a seat for the admiralty borough of Saltash, subsequently transferring in 1761 to Harwich, another borough where the seat was in the government's gift. Public attention was first drawn to his abilities in 1753, when he delivered a lively attack against Lord Hardwicke's marriage bill, although this measure passed into law.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "From 1749- April 1759, Townshend was a member of the Board of Trade. It was during this time that he first showed an interest in increasing British powers of taxation and control over the American colonies. In 1754 and 1755, he served as Lord of the Admiralty, but at the close of 1755, his passionate attack against the policy of the ministry caused his resignation. In the administration which was formed in November 1756, and which was ruled by William Pitt the Elder, the lucrative office of treasurer of the chamber was given to Townshend, but he retired the following Spring and George Grenville took over. The higher post of First Lord of the Admiralty then fell to Townshend's lot and his refusal to accept the nomination led to his exclusion from the new administration.  In the dying days of Grenville's cabinet, to retain the administration of Lord Rockingham, Townshend accepted the position of Paymaster of The Forces, though he questioned the stability of the administration, calling it a \"mere Lute-string administration\" and stating that it was \"pretty'summer wear', but it will never stand the winter.\"  Under the ministry of William Pitt the Elder, Townshend accepted the role of Chancellor of the Exchequer in August 1766. A few weeks later his urgent appeals to the great minister for increased power were favorably answered, and he was admitted to the inner circle of the cabinet. The new chancellor proposed the continuance of the land tax at four shillings in the pound, while he held out hopes that it might be reduced next year to three shillings, whereupon his predecessor, William Dowdeswell, by the aid of the landed gentlemen, carried a motion that the reduction should take effect at once. Townshend pledged to find revenue in America with which to meet the deficiency caused by the reduction.  Early in 1767, shortly after The Stamp Act was repealed owing to violent protests, Townshend proposed that the Parliament could procure revenue from the Americans without causing them offense via \"external\" import taxes instead of internal taxes. These were known as the Townshend Acts. The Acts passed resolutions for taxing several exports to America, such as glass, paint, paper and tea. The Townshend Acts established a Board of Commissioners in Boston to enforce them, which was seen as a threat to the American colonial tradition of self-government. He estimated these export taxes would produce a sum of ₤40,000 for the English treasury. He had the support of his cousin Thomas Townshend who was also a minister in the government. The Townshend Acts would be Townshend's last official act before his death.  Soon after that he died somewhat suddenly of a fever on September 4, 1767.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private life.", "content": "In August 1755 he had married Caroline Campbell (d. 1794), the eldest daughter of John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll and the widow of Francis Scott, Earl of Dalkeith, the eldest son of Francis Scott, 2nd Duke of Buccleuch.  Townshend's wife was created (August 1767) baroness Greenwich, and his elder brother George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend, was made Lord-lieutenant of Ireland.  Townshend conceived a great and dangerous passion for his step-daughter Frances Douglas, Lady Douglas, and her memorialist, Lady Louisa Stuart, wrote after his death of his character: This was careless, gay, inconsiderate, volatile, seemingly foreign to every serious reflection or feeling. He had one of those happy tempers which nothing can ruffle, without a grain of pride, sternness or resentment in his nature. Ready to laugh with every body and at every thing, he poured out wit in torrents; and it was so much the worse for truth if ever truth stood in wit's way.  The American towns of Townsend, Massachusetts and Townshend, Vermont were founded and named after Charles Townshend in 1732 and 1753, respectively. Raynham, Massachusetts was also named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Townshend (28 August 1725 – 4 September 1767) was a British politician who held various titles in the Parliament of Great Britain. His establishment of the controversial Townshend Acts is considered one of the key causes of the American Revolution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977390}
{"src_title": "The Originals (TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Series overview.", "content": "\"The Originals,\" a spin-off from \"The Vampire Diaries,\" centers on three of the Mikaelson siblings: Klaus (Joseph Morgan), Elijah (Daniel Gillies), and Rebekah (Claire Holt). The Mikaelson family are also commonly known as \"the Originals\" due to the fact that they are the first vampires in history. Niklaus \"Klaus\" Mikaelson is a descendant of a witch and a werewolf, and his quest to unleash his hybrid nature was detailed in \"The Vampire Diaries\". The backdoor pilot, which aired on April 25, 2013, also revealed that the werewolf Hayley (Phoebe Tonkin) is pregnant with Klaus's child.  The series begins with the Original siblings returning to the city of New Orleans for the first time since 1919, where a pregnant Hayley has also settled. Having originally built the French Quarter, they had been forced to abandon it when fleeing from their vengeful father, Mikael (Sebastian Roché). In their absence, Klaus's protégé, Marcel (Charles Michael Davis), took charge of the French Quarter. Klaus resolves that they must take down Marcel and get back the city that once belonged to them. While doing that, they must also protect their city from a war brewing between vampires, werewolves, and witches.  Over time, new and old friendships are formed, love is in the air, death surrounds them, and the Originals learn more about their own family past. The first season describes how Klaus's mystical child is going to be born and speaks of the threats that the Originals together must keep her safe from.  The second season deals with the return of Klaus and his siblings' parents, and the arrival of an aunt who threatens the baby's life.  The third season shows the Mikaelsons facing both a prophecy that speaks of their downfall and the first generation of non-Original vampires which they sired, who have wanted revenge against the Mikaelsons for nearly a millennium.  The fourth season jumps ahead five years, with the Mikaelsons returning to New Orleans and having to face a reawakened ancient mystical menace set on destroying anything in its path.  The fifth and final season of the series takes place seven years after the fourth season, with Hope now being a teenager at a school for supernatural children, the Salvatore Boarding School for the Young and Gifted and the Mikaelsons still having to face the ancient menace from the previous season while trying to re-unite their family once again.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "On January 11, 2013, it was announced that a backdoor pilot focused on the Originals, starring Joseph Morgan as Klaus and titled \"The Originals\" would air sometime in April for a potential series pick-up for the 2013–2014 season. On April 26, 2013, \"The Originals\" was confirmed for a full series. This second spin-off attempt will be overseen by Julie Plec, with no involvement by Kevin Williamson. \"The Originals\" was officially picked up by The CW on April 26, 2013, for the 2013–14 season. Season one of \"The Originals\" was set to premiere on Tuesday, October 15. However, on July 29, 2013, The CW announced that the series premiere would instead air on October 3, 2013, following the fifth-season premiere of \"The Vampire Diaries\" in order to attract fans of the series. On October 10, 2013, the CW ordered three additional scripts for the series. On November 11, 2013, the CW decided to order a full season for \"The Originals\".  Following her March 11 episode Claire Holt left the main cast. Holt confirmed that she would be returning to the show, but that she needed to spend time with her family first.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Originals: The Awakening\".", "content": "In November 2014, a web series titled \"The Originals: The Awakening\" was released as the third show in the franchise. The series explores the character Kol Mikaelson and his relationships with his siblings. Flashing back to 1914, Kol is on a quest to form an alliance with the witches of the French Quarter. Awakening gives answers to some questions about Kol's past, including the origins of his rivalry with his family and the unique backstory he has with the New Orleans witches. Each webisode is approximately two minutes long. The series concluded on December 8, 2014. To date, \"The Originals: The Awakening\" is the only web series in \"The Vampire Diaries\" franchise.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Novels.", "content": "On January 27, 2015, the first book in a series of novels based on the show was released. \"The Rise\", \"The Loss\", and \"The Resurrection\" make up the three novels in The Originals series written by Julie Plec.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spin-off.", "content": "In August 2017, it was announced that a spin-off focusing on Hope Mikaelson, the daughter of Klaus and Hayley, was in development. Julie Plec, co-creator of \"The Vampire Diaries\" and creator of \"The Originals\", wrote the script and is credited with creating the series. In January 2018, it was revealed that filming for the pilot would go into production in the second quarter of 2018. It was announced in March 2018 that the spin-off was in fact ordered to pilot, but instead of a traditional pilot, Plec would be delivering a fifteen-minute pilot presentation of the series to The CW. It was also announced that \"The Vampire Diaries\" veteran Matt Davis would star in the project along with Aria Shahghasemi, Quincy Fouse, Jenny Boyd, and Kaylee Bryant. Shahghasemi debuted in the fifth season of \"The Originals\" as Hope's friend Landon.  On May 11, 2018, it was announced that the spin-off, titled \"Legacies\", was ordered to series for the 2018–19 season. The show centers around \"a 17-year-old Hope, along with Alaric's twin daughters, and other young witches, vampires, and werewolves\" as they come of age at the Salvatore Boarding School for the Young and Gifted.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Originals is an American fantasy supernatural drama television series that began airing on The CW on October 3, 2013. It is a spin-off from \"The Vampire Diaries\", existing in the same fictional universe known as The Vampire Diaries Universe. The series follows vampire-werewolf hybrid Klaus Mikaelson as he and his family become embroiled in the supernatural politics of the French Quarter of New Orleans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977391}
{"src_title": "StarKid Productions", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "StarKid Productions is composed of actors, writers, directors, composers, choreographers, and designers, most of them originating from the University of Michigan's School of Music, Theater and Dance. The members met while collaborating on plays through Basement Arts, the university's student-run theater organization.  In April 2009, the students staged a musical parody of the \"Harry Potter\" series entitled \"A Very Potter Musical\". The video of the play went viral on the Internet, garnering StarKid a worldwide fanbase. Inspired by the viral nature of the video, StarKid Productions was formed, named after a quote from \"A Very Potter Musical\". Later, two sequels followed on YouTube, \"A Very Potter Sequel\" and \"A Very Potter Senior Year\".  The Team StarKid YouTube channel was established on June 19, 2009. The channel currently has over 650,000 subscribers and over 274,000,000 combined views. Aside from the viral \"Harry Potter\" adaptions, Team StarKid have produced a number of other musical theatre parody shows, creating both original stories and pop culture-based parodies of Disney, \"Star Wars\", \"The Oregon Trail\", and science-fiction franchises such as \"Starship Troopers\", \"Alien\" and \"Metal Gear Solid\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical theatre productions.", "content": "Team StarKid produced a sequel to their 2011 musical \"Starship\" called \"Starship: Requiem\" that was performed on August 2, 2014 at LeakyCon in Orlando, FL. However, it was a one-time \"theatrical reading\" and, as such, Team StarKid does not include it in their musical canon. The story followed the adventures of the android Mega-Girl and her half-witted Starship Ranger husband, Tootsie Noodles, as the newlyweds go to visit Mega-Girl's human-hating family.  An audio recording of \"Starship: Requiem\" was created as a perk for those who helped fund the musical \"Firebringer\", featuring music by the band Jim and the Povolos, which included numerous members of Team Starkid. A production of \"A Very Potter Christmas\" was also included, which served a sneak peek into the lives of the cast after graduation while also flashing back to the era of Lily and James Potter. Although both recordings were intended to arrive on Christmas of 2016, \"Starship: Requiem\" would not see a release until sometime in February 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Web series.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Little White Lie\".", "content": "In 2007, members including Matt Lang, Nick Lang, Eric Kahn Gale, Brian Holden, Darren Criss, Lauren Lopez, Elona Finlay, Chris Allen, Meredith Stepien, and Jim Povolo produced an online video series called \"Little White Lie\". It was released in 2009 on StarKid's YouTube channel. Despite the series ending in a cliffhanger, StarKid members have confirmed at various events that there will be no season 2, as it was an expensive production and the actors who took part in it are scattered all over the country. However, Eric Kahn Gale, one of the writers for the show, stated that he would write and publish a synopsis of season 2, which was released on September 3, 2013 on his Tumblr page.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Movies, Musicals, and Me\".", "content": "In October 2017, StarKid debuted its second web series on YouTube, \"Movies, Musicals, and Me\". The series takes place in an alternate world where every popular movie ever has been adapted into a Broadway musical. The best of these musicals all star the same man, Halpert Evans, a vain and pompous, though brilliant, actor. The series is structured as a mocumentary of Evans, chronicling the most significant musical roles of his career, along with commentary from various colleagues in Halpert's line of work. The series introduces StarKid newcomers Al Fallick as Halpert Evans and Mary Kate Wiles as Judy Davendale. Joey Richter, Nick Lang, Brian Holden, Dylan Saunders, Lauren Lopez, Jaime Lyn Beatty, Corey Dorris, and Clark Baxtresser also star.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "StarKid Productions, also known as Team StarKid, is an American musical theatre company founded in 2009 at the University of Michigan by Darren Criss, Brian Holden, Matt Lang, and Nick Lang. Widely known for the musical \"A Very Potter Musical\", a parody of the \"Harry Potter\" series, the troupe produces musical comedies inspired by pop culture, with original scripts, songs and music. StarKid utilizes social media, mainly YouTube, to distribute their content.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977392}
{"src_title": "Vilhelms Purvītis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Vilhems Purvītis was born in Livonian Governorate, Zaube parish in a family of a miller. He studied in a local parish school until his family moved to Vitebsk Governorate. Until 1888 Purvītis studied in a municipal school in Drissa (Today: Belarus). It was here where his drawing skills were noticed for the first time. When his family returned to Vidzeme Purvītis worked in his fathers mill in Smiltene parish for a two years. In 1890 Purvītis started studies at the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg, Russia from 1890 to 1897, primarily under Arkhip Kuindzhi, graduating with the Grand Gold Medal. While in academy he studied paintings of old Dutch masters and became close friend with two other Latvian painters- Janis Rozentāls and Johan Valter. In 1898 he together with Janis Rozentāls and Johan Valter took a study trip across Europe and his paintings were exhibited in Berlin, Munich, Paris, and Lyon to great acclaim. In 1899 he returned to Riga and started to give private lessons in painting. In 1902 he traveled to Spitzbergen in Norway to study the painting of snow. After the Revolution of 1905 Purvītis traveled to Tallinn where he worked as a drawing teacher in a local Realschule. In 1909 Purvītis returned to Riga and became director of a Riga city art school.  After the First World War started in 1915, Riga city art school was evacuated to St. Petersburg where it was closed in 1916. After the Russian revolutions of 1917 Purvītis went to Norway to improve his health and held his first solo exhibition in Oslo. In 1918 Purvītis returned to German occupied Riga. In 1919 he became director of a Riga city art museum (Today: Latvian National Museum of Art) and also was one of the founders of the Art Academy of Latvia and was elected as its first rector. As the leader of the landscape painting workshop at the Latvian Academy of Art from 1921 to 1944, of visual arts in the architecture department at the University of Latvia from 1919 to 1940, and director of the Riga City Art School from 1909 to 1915, Purvītis had a host of followers and was the acknowledged leader of a whole school of Latvian painting.  During the period of the Republic of Latvia Purvītis also organized many exhibitions of Latvian art in Europe. After Latvian occupation by the Soviet Union in 1940 Purvītis was dismissed from the post of museum director but continued to work in the Art Academy. In 1942 his last exhibition in Riga was held. In 1944 Purvītis lost all of his belongings and many of his works when his house and workshop was destroyed during the Battle of Jelgava in the summer of 1944. Purvītis was forced to evacuate to Liepāja and from there to Danzig. Wilhelms Purvītis died on January 14, 1945 in Bad Nauheim, Hessen. Purvītis' remains were reinterred at the Riga Forest Cemetery in 1994, after Latvia regained its independence. He was awarded with the Order of three stars (III and II class) and many more decorations.  Constantly experimenting and becoming a master of snow scenes, Purvītis began as a realist, turned to impressionism, and was later influenced by Cézanne and Munch. His painting \"Winter\" (1910) also suggests the influence of Art Nouveau. He is considered one of a greatest Latvian painters during first half of 20th century. His landscapes are full of local motives and Latvian nature is portrayed in the neo romantic atmosphere. During his lifetime he produced more than thousand paintings and drawings and many of them were never exhibited because he preferred to collect them in his apartment.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vilhelms Purvītis (3 March 1872 in Zaube, Latvia – 14 January 1945 in Bad Nauheim, Germany) was a landscape painter and educator who founded the Latvian Academy of Art and was its rector from 1919 to 1934.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977393}
{"src_title": "Santalum album", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The height of the evergreen tree is between 4 and 9 metres. They may live to one hundred years of age. The tree is variable in habit, usually upright to sprawling, and may intertwine with other species. The plant parasitises the roots of other tree species, with a haustorium adaptation on its own roots, but without major detriment to its hosts. An individual will form a non-obligate relationship with a number of other plants. Up to 300 species (including its own) can host the tree's development - supplying macronutrients phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium, and shade - especially during early phases of development. It may propagate itself through wood suckering during its early development, establishing small stands. The reddish or brown bark can be almost black and is smooth in young trees, becoming cracked with a red reveal. The heartwood is pale green to white as the common name indicates. The leaves are thin, opposite and ovate to lanceolate in shape. Glabrous surface is shiny and bright green, with a glaucous pale reverse. Fruit is produced after three years, viable seeds after five. These seeds are distributed by birds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nomenclature.", "content": "The nomenclature for other \"sandalwoods\" and the taxonomy of the genus are derived from this species' historical and widespread use. \"Santalum album\" is included in the family Santalaceae, and is commonly known as white or East Indian sandalwood. The name, \"Santalum ovatum\", used by Robert Brown in \"Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae\" (1810) was described as a synonym of this species by Alex George in 1984. The epithet \"album\" refers to the 'white' of the heartwood.  The species was the first to be known as sandalwood. Other species in the genus \"Santalum\", such as the Australian \"S. spicatum\", are also referred to as true sandalwoods, to distinguish them from trees with similar-smelling wood or oil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "Santalum album L. is indigenous to the tropical belt of the peninsular India, eastern Indonesia and northern Australia. The main distribution is in the drier tropical regions of India and the Indonesian islands of Timor and Sumba. There is still debate as to whether S. album is endemic to Australia and India or was introduced by fishermen, traders or birds from southeast Asia centuries ago.  Sandalwood is now cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Northern Australia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat and Growth.", "content": "\"S. album\" occurs from coastal dry forests up to 700 m elevation. It normally grows in sandy or well drained stony red soils, but a wide range of soil types are inhabited. This habitat has a temperature range from 0 to 38 °C and annual rainfall between 500 and 3000 mm. \"S. album\" can grow up to 30 feet vertically. It should be planted in good sunlight and does not require a lot of water. The tree starts to flower after 7 years. When the tree is still young the flowers are white and with age they turn red or orange. The trunk of the tree starts to develop its fragrance after about 10 years of growth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "\"S. album\" is recognized as a \"vulnerable\" species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It is threatened by over-exploitation and degradation to habitat through altered land use, fire (to which this species is extremely sensitive), Spike disease, agriculture, and land-clearing are the factors of most concern. To preserve this vulnerable resource from over-exploitation, legislation protects the species, and cultivation is researched and developed.  Until 2002, individuals in India were not allowed to grow sandalwood. Due to its scarcity, sandalwood is not allowed to be cut or harvested by individuals. The State grants specific permission to officials who then can cut down the tree and sell its wood. The Indian government has placed a ban on the export of the timber.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "\"S. album\" has been the primary source of sandalwood and the derived oil. These often hold an important place within the societies of its naturalised distribution range. The central part of the tree, the heartwood, is the only part of the tree that is used for its fragrance. It is yellow-brown in color, hard with an oily texture and due to its durability, is the perfect material for carving. The outer part of the tree, the sapwood, is unscented. The sapwood is white or yellow in color and is used to make turnery items. The high value of sandalwood has led to attempts at cultivation, this has increased the distribution range of the plant. The ISO Standard for the accepted characteristics of this essential oil is ISO 3518:2002. HPTLC and GC, GC-MS based methods are used for qualitative and quantitative analyses of the volatile essential oil constituents. The long maturation period and difficulty in cultivation have been restrictive to extensive planting within the range. Harvest of the tree involves several curing and processing stages, also adding to the commercial value. These wood and oil have high demand and are an important trade item in the regions of:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ethnopharmacological Uses.", "content": "Sandalwood oil has been widely used in folk medicine for treatment of common colds, bronchitis, skin disorders, heart ailments, general weakness, fever, infection of the urinary tract, inflammation of the mouth and pharynx, liver and gallbladder complaints and other maladies. Recently, the \"in vivo\" anti-hyperglycemic and antioxidant potentials of α-santalol and sandalwood oil were demonstrated in Swiss Albino mice. Additionally, different \"in vitro\" and \"in vivo\" parts of the plant have been shown to possess antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, possibly attributed to sesquiterpenoids, shikimic acid, etc.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Santalum album, or Indian sandalwood, is a small tropical tree, and is the most commonly known source of sandalwood. It is native to southern India and Southeast Asia. Certain cultures place great significance on its fragrant and medicinal qualities. It is also considered sacred in some religions and is used in different religious traditions. The high value of the species has caused its past exploitation, to the point where the wild population is vulnerable to extinction. Indian sandalwood still commands high prices for its essential oil, but due to lack of sizable trees it is no longer used for fine woodworking as before. The plant is widely cultivated and long lived, although harvest is only viable after many years. Etymologically it is derived from Sanskrit चन्दनं \"chandanam\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977394}
{"src_title": "Japanese Paleolithic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Archaeology of the Paleolithic period.", "content": "The study of the Paleolithic period in Japan did not begin until quite recently: the first Paleolithic site was not discovered until 1946, right after the end of World War II. Due to the previous assumption that humans did not live in Japan before the Jōmon period, excavations usually stopped at the beginning of the Jōmon stratum (14,000 BC), and were not carried on further. However, since that first Paleolithic find by Tadahiro Aizawa, around 5,000 Paleolithic sites have been discovered, some of them at existing Jōmon archaeological sites, and some dating to the Pleistocene era. Sites have been discovered from southern Kyushu to northern Hokkaido, but most are small and only stone tools have been preserved due to the high acidity of the Japanese soil. As the Palaeolithic peoples probably occupied the wide coastal shelves exposed by lower sea levels during the Pleistocene, the majority of sites are most likely inundated.  The study of the Japanese Paleolithic period is characterized by a high level of stratigraphic information due to the volcanic nature of the archipelago: large eruptions tend to cover the islands with levels of Volcanic ash, which are easily datable and can be found throughout the country as a reference. A very important such layer is the AT (Aira-Tanzawa) pumice, which covered all Japan around 21,000–22,000 years ago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paleolithic Hoax.", "content": "In 2000 the reputation of Japanese archaeology of the Paleolithic was heavily damaged by a scandal, which has become known as the Japanese Paleolithic hoax. The Mainichi Shimbun reported the photos in which Shinichi Fujimura, an archaeologist in Miyagi Prefecture, had been planting artifacts at the \"Kamitakamori site\", where he \"found\" the artifacts the next day. He admitted the fabrication in an interview with the newspaper. The Japanese Archaeological Association disaffiliated Fujimura from its members. A special investigation team of the Association revealed that almost all the artifacts which he had found were his fabrication.  Since the discovery of the hoax, only a few sites can tentatively date human activity in Japan to 40,000–50,000 BC, and the first widely accepted date of human presence on the archipelago can be reliably dated circa 35,000 BC.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ground stone and polished tools.", "content": "The Japanese Paleolithic is unique in that it incorporates one of the earliest known sets of ground stone and polished stone tools in the world, although older ground stone tools have been discovered in Australia. The tools, which have been dated to around 30,000 BC, are a technology associated in the rest of the world with the beginning of the Neolithic around 10,000 BC. It is not known why such tools were created so early in Japan.  Because of this originality, the Japanese Paleolithic period in Japan does not exactly match the traditional definition of Paleolithic based on stone technology (chipped stone tools). Japanese Paleolithic tool implements thus display Mesolithic and Neolithic traits as early as 30,000 BC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Paleoanthropology.", "content": "The Paleolithic populations of Japan, as well as the later Jōmon populations, appear to relate to an ancient Paleo-Asian group which occupied large parts of Asia before the expansion of the populations characteristic of today's people of China, Korea, and Japan.  During much of this period, Japan was connected to the Asian continent by land bridges due to lower sea levels. Skeletal characteristics point to many similarities with other aboriginal people of the Asian continent. Dental structures are distinct but generally closer to the Sundadont than to the Sinodont group, which points to an origin among groups in Southeast Asia or the islands south of the mainland. Skull features tend to be stronger, with comparatively recessed eyes. According to “\"Jōmon culture and the peopling of the Japanese archipelago\"” by Schmidt and Seguchi, the prehistoric Jōmon people descended from a paleolithic populations of Siberia (in the area of the Altai Mountains). Other cited scholars point out similarities between the Jōmon and various paleolithic and Bronze Age Siberians. There were likely multiple migrations into ancient Japan.  According to the Jōmon people were an admixture of two distinct ethnic groups: A more ancient group (carriers of Y chromosome D1a) that were present in Japan since more than 30,000 years ago and a more recent group (carriers of Y chromosome C1a) that migrated to Japan about 13,000 years ago.  Genetic analysis on today's populations is not clear-cut and tends to indicate a fair amount of genetic intermixing between the earliest populations of Japan and later arrivals (Cavalli-Sforza). It is estimated that 20 to 30% of the genetic capital of the Japanese population (Yamato people) today derives from the aboriginal Paleolithic-Jōmon ancestry, with the remainder coming from later migrations from the continent, especially during the Yayoi period. More recent estimates suggests about 10% Jōmon ancestry in modern Japanese (Yamato).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The is the period of human inhabitation in Japan predating the development of pottery, generally before 10,000 BC. The starting dates commonly given to this period are from around 40,000 BC; although any date of human presence before 35,000 BC is controversial, with artifacts supporting a pre-35,000 BC human presence on the archipelago being of questionable authenticity. The period extended to the beginning of the Mesolithic Jōmon period, or around 14,000 BC.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977395}
{"src_title": "Home automation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Early home automation began with labor-saving machines. Self-contained electric or gas powered home appliances became viable in the 1900s with the introduction of electric power distribution and led to the introduction of washing machines (1904), water heaters (1889), refrigerators, sewing machines, dishwashers, and clothes dryers.  In 1975, the first general purpose home automation network technology, X10, was developed. It is a communication protocol for electronic devices. It primarily uses electric power transmission wiring for signalling and control, where the signals involve brief radio frequency bursts of digital data, and remains the most widely available. By 1978, X10 products included a 16 channel command console, a lamp module, and an appliance module. Soon after came the wall switch module and the first X10 timer.  By 2012, in the United States, according to ABI Research, 1.5 million home automation systems were installed. Per research firm Statista more than 45 million smart home devices will be installed in U.S. homes by the end of the year 2018.  The word \"\"domotics\"\" (and \"\"domotica\"\" when used as a verb) is a contraction of the Latin word for a home (\"domus\") and the word \"robotics\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Implementations.", "content": "In a review of home automation devices, \"Consumer Reports\" found two main concerns for consumers:  In 2011, Microsoft Research found that home automation could involve high cost of ownership, inflexibility of interconnected devices, and poor manageability.  Historically, systems have been sold as complete systems where the consumer relies on one vendor for the entire system including the hardware, the communications protocol, the central hub, and the user interface. However, there are now open hardware and open source software systems which can be used instead of or with proprietary hardware.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism and controversies.", "content": "Home automation suffers from platform fragmentation and lack of technical standards a situation where the variety of home automation devices, in terms of both hardware variations and differences in the software running on them, makes the task of developing applications that work consistently between different inconsistent technology ecosystems hard. Customers may hesitate to bet their IoT future on proprietary software or hardware devices that use proprietary protocols that may fade or become difficult to customize and interconnect.  The nature of home automation devices can also be a problem for security, since patches to bugs found in the core operating system often do not reach users of older and lower-price devices. One set of researchers say that the failure of vendors to support older devices with patches and updates leaves more than 87% of active devices vulnerable.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Home automation or domotics is building automation for a home, called a smart home or smart house. A home automation system will control lighting, climate, entertainment systems, and appliances. It may also include home security such as access control and alarm systems. When connected with the Internet, home devices are an important constituent of the Internet of Things (\"IoT\").", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977396}
{"src_title": "Niklas Süle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Süle started his career with Rot-Weiß Walldorf. In July 2006, he signed for the youth team of Eintracht Frankfurt, where he played until the end of the 2008–09 season. In July 2009, he signed for the youth team of SV Darmstadt 98, and only half a year later he left for the youth team at 1899 Hoffenheim.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1899 Hoffenheim.", "content": "On 11 May 2013, Süle made his debut for Hoffenheim in a Bundesliga game against Hamburger SV. He started the match but was substituted for Andreas Ludwig in the 81st minute. Hoffenheim lost the game 4–1. The 2012–13 season, Süle made two Bundesliga appearances and two Relegation Playoff appearances as Hoffenheim defeated 1. FC Kaiserslautern to stay in the Bundesliga.  During the 2013–14 season Süle established himself as an important first team player for Hoffenheim. Süle played in 25 Bundesliga matches and scored four goals as he helped Hoffenheim finish 9th in the league.  Süle started the 2014–15 season strong and played every minute during the first 14 Bundesliga matches. On 12 December 2014, Süle suffered a torn anterior cruciate ligament during matchday 15 against Frankfurt. Süle was sidelined for the rest of the season due to the injury. Hoffenheim finished 8th in the league.  Süle returned for the 2015–16 season after the ACL tear. He played every minute in 33 Bundesliga matches as Hoffenheim finished a disappointed 15th in the league.  Süle had a very impressive 2016–17 season for Hoffenheim as he played in 33 Bundesliga matches. Hoffenheim finished in an impressive 4th in the Bundesliga. Süle's performance drew interest from clubs like Bayern Munich and Chelsea.  On 15 January 2017, Bayern Munich had announced that they had signed Süle along with Sebastian Rudy from Hoffenheim as a double swoop. Both Süle and Rudy joined Bayern Munich on 1 July 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bayern Munich.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017–18 season.", "content": "Süle earned his first appearance for Bayern Munich, having been named a starter for their season opener against Bayer 04 Leverkusen on 18 August 2017 where he scored the first goal of the 2017–18 Bundesliga season, having headed in a free kick from fellow Bayern newcomer and Hoffenheim-product, Sebastian Rudy. On 12 September 2017, Süle made his Champions League debut against Anderlecht. Süle played in 27 Bundesliga matches and scored two goals. Süle made nine appearances in the Champions League during the season.  Süle won his first Bundesliga title after Bayern Munich finished 21 points ahead of the second place Schalke 04. Süle also reached his first DFB-Pokal final as Bayern Munich were beaten 3–1 by Süle's former youth club, Eintracht Frankfurt.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2018–19 season.", "content": "Süle started the 2018–19 season by playing in the 2018 German Super Cup, which Bayern won 5–0. On 20 April 2019, Süle scored the winning goal in a 1-0 win over Werder Bremen. The win kept Bayern at the top of the Bundesliga table.  On 18 May 2019, Süle won his second Bundesliga title as Bayern finished two points above Dortmund with 78 points. A week later, Süle won his first DFB-Pokal as Bayern defeated RB Leipzig 3-0 in the 2019 DFB-Pokal Final.  Süle played in 31 Bundesliga matches and scored two goals. During the Bundesliga season, Süle had an impressive 95% pass completion while having the fourth most touches of any Bundesliga player. Süle appeared in 42 matches in all competitions and scored two goals.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2019–20 season.", "content": "Süle tore his anterior cruciate ligament in the twelfth minute of the team's eight league match of the season and is expected to be out of the line-up for eight to ten months, essentially ending his season, and precluding any involvement with Germany for UEFA Euro 2020.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "With the German U17 he participated at the 2012 UEFA European Under-17 Football Championship.  He was part of the squad for the 2016 Summer Olympics, where Germany won the silver medal.  Süle was called up in August 2016 when the Germany national football team played Finland and Norway. He was brought off in the 59th minute against Finland.  Süle was named in Germany's final 23-man squad by Joachim Löw for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. On 27 June, Süle made his first World Cup appearance in the last match of the group stage in a 2–0 defeat to South Korea as his side got knocked out from the World Cup for the first time since 1938.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Süle's family name is of Hungarian origin, but the manager of the Turkish Football Federation under-16 national team contacted Süle during his teenage years about the possibility of playing for them as Süle's surname seemed Turkish to him. He was also eligible for the Hungarian National Team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Bayern Munich", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Germany", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Niklas Süle (; born 3 September 1995) is a German professional footballer who plays as a centre back for Bayern Munich and the Germany national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977397}
{"src_title": "Princess Caroline of Denmark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Caroline was born at Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen on 28 October 1751. Her parents were Crown Prince Frederick (the future King Frederick VI of Denmark) and his spouse and first cousin, Princess Marie of Hesse-Kassel. Her paternal grandfather King Christian VII being mentally unstable, her father had acted as regent since 1784. Her birth was much welcomed by the public, as her siblings had died soon after their birth. Four months after her birth, on 26 February 1794, Christiansborg Palace was destroyed by fire. Subsequently Princess Caroline moved with her parents to Amalienborg Palace where she grew up, spending the summers at Frederiksberg Palace. At the death of her grandfather Christian VII of Denmark in 1808, her father ascended as king.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "She had a very close relationship with her father. She was given a broad, but not very thorough or deep, education. Caroline was not described as either talented or beautiful. She met Hans Christian Andersen in 1822 and was very interested in his writing and adventure. Her father had no surviving sons and Caroline and her sister Vilhelmine Marie (1808-1891), were excluded from succession to the throne as a result of Salic Law. Despite of this fact, however, she was still commonly called and referred to as Crown Princess prior to her marriage, as the eldest child of her father, though she did not have the formal title.  Several possible marriages were planned for her but without result. After her father's accession, Napoleon suggested, in 1810, a marriage with the heir to the Swedish throne, Prince Christian August of Augustenborg; her father disapproved but began negotiations, which were interrupted by the death of Christian August shortly afterward. Among the grooms suggested was also the British Prince William, Duke of Clarence. In 1812, she was engaged to her uncle Prince Christian of Hesse, but he died in 1814. Finally, on 1 August 1829 at Frederiksberg Palace she married her father's first cousin, Prince Ferdinand of Denmark (1792-1863) who was third in line to the throne. The marriage was arranged for political reasons and was childless. After her marriage, she was no longer called crown princess until her spouse became hereditary prince.  In 1830, Caroline suffered terrible burn injuries in a fire, which disfigured her face; her hair ornament caught fire while she was reading in her bed, and she was severely burnt in the face and hair. The damage upon her looks was permanent, and she was later to remark, when she caught a glimpse of herself in a mirror, that she was sincerely grateful that she managed to acquire any friends who could stand to look at her face. She suffered a similar burn injury in 1858 when she burned her arm and shoulder so badly, that she had great pains for the rest of her life.  Between 1831 and 1839, she presided regularly at the supervision of the Aarhus troops. When her spouse was appointed General Commandant for Nørrejylland in 1839, she followed him on his inspection tour through the county's villages, and was celebrated by the public; she was a skillful rider, and when she followed her spouse on his inspections of the troops in Sjælland, she paraded herself on horse before the troops. She founded an asylum in Aarhus (1836) and became the protector of Vallø Stift in 1852.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hereditary Princess.", "content": "After the death of her brother-in-law King Christian VIII in 1848, her husband became heir presumptive to the throne of Denmark and received the title of Hereditary Prince. Caroline now became hereditary princess again, but in contrast to the case before her marriage, she now received the title formally. She never became queen however, as Hereditary Prince Ferdinand died in 1863, shortly before his nephew King Frederick VII, and the throne passed to King Christian IX.  The spouses lived in Bernstorff Palace (\"Det Bernstorffske Palæ\") in Bredgade which had been renovated for them by King Frederick VI, but did not play any active role at the royal court. Caroline eventually came to live quite harmoniously with her spouse. She tolerated his adultery and money problems. After her father's death in 1839, she became distanced from court. Her spouse was given the task of escorting royal mistress Countess Danner (1815–1874) while she was estranged from the royal couple. She was described as loyal, content and punctual She was especially loyal toward Copenhagen. She and her husband were the only members of the royal family during the cholera epidemic of 1853 out of loyalty to the city.  As a widow, she lived an isolated life, occupying herself by paying her husband's debts. During her final years, she became deaf. Hereditary Princess Caroline died in her residence in Copenhagen on 31 March 1881.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Caroline of Denmark (; 28 October 1793, Copenhagen – 31 March 1881, Copenhagen), was the eldest surviving daughter of King Frederick VI. She was unofficially known as \"Kronprinsesse Caroline\" (English: Crown Princess Caroline) prior to her marriage, and later as \"Arveprinsesse Caroline\" (English: Hereditary Princess Caroline).She married her father’s first cousin, Hereditary Prince Ferdinand, who was heir presumptive to the throne from 1848 to 1863.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977398}
{"src_title": "Teatro Malibran", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "As the Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo.", "content": "Built upon the place where the well-known traveller Marco Polo's residence once stood, it was designed by Thomas Bezzi for the Grimani family. It became the biggest, most luxurious and extravagant stage in Venice, known for its sumptuous productions and high quality singers such as Margherita Durastanti, \"prima donna\" between 1709 and 1712. During its golden age, composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti whose \"opera seria\", \"Mitridate Eupatore\", was given its premiere performance on 5 January 1707 and Georg Friedrich Händel whose \"Agrippina\" premiered on 26 December 1709 were active at the theatre. Another composer's work which was presented was Carlo Francesco Pollarolo, as has been noted.  During the 1730s, the San Giovanni Grisostomo began a slow and inexorable decline, although managing to keep its position at the head of Venetian theatres until the middle of the eighteenth century. In 1737, when Carlo Goldoni was placed in charge of the Venetian stage, prose works began to be performed (many of these his own comedies). Subsequently, because of its considerable size, the Grimani family decided to open a smaller theater in 1755, the San Benedetto. The opening of this new stage led to the end of the dominance of the San Giovanni, which saw a slow decrease in performance.  Following the fall of the Republic of Venice and the French occupation, the theatre was among the few not to be closed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As the Teatro Malibran.", "content": "In 1819 it was sold to Gallo, who restored it in 1834; in 1837 he changed the name to \"Teatro Malibran\", in honor of the famous singer Spanish mezzo-soprano Maria Malibran. In 1849 the return of the Austrians to Venice provoked the closure of all the major theatres of Venice as protest, but the Malibran was the exception.  Gallo's son took over in 1852; it was auctioned in 1886 then radically redecorated in the Egyptian style; it was closed for six years after a single operatic season in 1913 due to security problems, but it re-opened to present Verdi's \"Otello\" in December 1919 plus much of the popular Italian repertory after that. The Malibran was active in the presentation of operas, operettas, and even showed films for the first half of the 20th century.  In 1992 the municipality of Venice purchased the theatre, and the action which they took—especially that following the destruction of the Teatro La Fenice in January 1996—is recounted on the Commune de Venezia's website:  The Malibran became the temporary home to the Fenice orchestra and, after a decade of work, the 900-seat Malibran was re-opened on 23 May 2001 by President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, with a gala concert which included excerpts of operas by Verdi (the centennial of his death), by Bellini (the centennial of his birth) and also work by Wagner. It continues to function as an alternative venue for productions from La Fenice as well as staging many of its own:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Notes Sources", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Teatro Malibran, known over its lifetime by a variety of names, beginning with the Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo (or Crisostomo) after the nearby church, is an opera house in Venice which was inaugurated in 1678 with a production of the premiere of Carlo Pallavicino's opera \"Vespasiano\". By 1683, it had quickly become known as \"the biggest, most beautiful and richest theatre in the city\" and its operatic importance throughout the 17th and 18th centuries led to an even grander description by 1730:", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977399}
{"src_title": "Johann Kollowrat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Prague on 21 December 1748, Kollowrat's military career began in 1766 when he joined the Austrian army. Two years later he became a captain. In 1778–79, he fought against the Prussians in the War of the Bavarian Succession during which he received promotion to Major. In 1786 he became an Oberst-Leutnant. The Austro-Turkish War (1787–91) saw him elevated in rank to Oberst (colonel) in command of the \"Alvinczi\" Infantry Regiment # 19. After performing notable service and being wounded at Belgrade, he earned promotion to General-Major on 9 October 1789.  He succeeded in 1791 count George Olivier Wallis as supreme military commander of the Habsburg forces in Serbia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "French Revolutionary Wars.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War of the First Coalition.", "content": "In 1792, Kollowrat transferred to the artillery and fought in the War of the First Coalition. After proving himself a crack gunner and a careful student of logistics, he received command of the 2nd Artillery Regiment. He served as chief of artillery under the Count of Clerfayt during the 1795 campaign. In recognition of his abilities, Emperor Francis II named him Feldmarschal-Leutnant on 4 March 1796. He distinguished himself while directing the batteries at the Siege of Kehl in 1796–97 and received the Commander's Cross Military Order of Maria Theresa for his efforts. On 28 October 1800, he received the rank of Feldzeugmeister.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War of the Second Coalition.", "content": "At the Battle of Hohenlinden, the army commander Archduke John of Austria rode with Kollowrat's 22,000-strong Austro-Bavarian column. Before Kollowrat's column left the heavy woods, the French ambushed its leading elements. Because his column rapidly followed the main highway and the columns on either side fell behind schedule due to snow squalls and poor roads, a French flanking attack enveloped Kollowrat's column. After severe fighting, the French hemmed in the allies on three sides and their formations disintegrated. Kollowrat's men suffered very heavy losses in captured men and cannons.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Austerlitz.", "content": "He became proprietor of the \"Kollowrat\" Infantry Regiment # 36 in 1801. In the same year, he became a member of the Aulic Council. He led the 25,400 Austrians of the 4th column at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805. Advancing across the Pratzen plateau, his force found itself in the path of Napoleon's main attack. After severe fighting, Marshal Nicolas Soult's corps broke Kollowrat's Austrians and drove them off the field.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Danube campaign.", "content": "In 1809, Kollowrat led the II Corps during the Battle of Eckmühl where it was unengaged because it operated north of the Danube. Transferring to command of the III Corps, his troops missed the Battle of Aspern-Essling. Instead, he operated against Emperor Napoleon's lines of communication with little effect.  On the second day of the Battle of Wagram, Archduke Charles launched the corps of Kollowrat and Johann von Klenau in a dangerous assault against the French left flank. Napoleon stopped the slow-moving III Corps by hurling a cavalry division at it. The French horsemen suffered crippling losses but they bought time for the Grand Army's artillerists to assemble a 112-gun grand battery. When these cannons opened fire, they stopped the III Corps cold. Next, Napoleon sent Étienne Macdonald's corps against the junction between Kollowrat's III Corps and Johann Liechtenstein's I Reserve Corps. Despite this heavy attack, the Austrians succeeded in halting Macdonald. But by this time, the French had overwhelmed the Austrian army on the rest of the battlefield. Archduke Charles issued orders to retreat and Kollowrat was forced to pull back his command.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "After 1809, Kollowrat held no further major field commands. He was promoted to Feldmarschall on 12 September 1809. In 1813 he fell ill and did not participate in the fighting. Instead, he organized relief efforts for the many Allied and French wounded soldiers. He died in Prague on 5 June 1816.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Feldmarschall Johann Karl, Graf von Kolowrat-Krakowsky (21 December 1748 – 5 June 1816) joined the Austrian army, fought against the Kingdom of Prussia and Ottoman Turkey before being promoted to general officer rank. During combat against the French in the French Revolutionary Wars, he first became known as an artillery specialist. In the Napoleonic Wars, he commanded corps in the 1805 and 1809 campaigns. He became the Proprietor (Inhaber) of an Austrian infantry regiment in 1801 and held that position until his death.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977400}
{"src_title": "Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Project.", "content": "The bridge is part of the projected Northern Marmara Motorway (), which will bypass urban areas of Istanbul in the north connecting Kınalı, Silivri in the west and Paşaköy, Hendek in the east. The bridge is in length with a main span of. The main span is the ninth longest suspension bridge in the world.  Designed by the Swiss engineer Jean-François Klein (project leader) and by the French structural engineer Michel Virlogeux from T-ingénierie (a Geneva-based company), the bridge is a combined road-rail bridge. It carries four motorway lanes and one railway line in each direction. The construction was carried out by a consortium of the Turkish company İçtaş and the Italian company Astaldi which won the bid to construct the structure on 30 May 2012. The budgeted cost of the bridge's construction was 4.5 billion TRY (approximately US$2.5 billion as of March 2013). The construction was originally expected to be completed in 36 months with the opening date scheduled for the end of 2015. On 29 May 2013 then Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan directed the construction management team to finish the construction within 24 months, and projected an opening date for 29 May 2015.  The bridge toll is set to be 9.90 between the motorway exits Odayeri and Paşaköy. It is expected that at least 135,000 vehicles will use the bridge daily in each direction. Minister of Transport and Communication Binali Yıldırım stated that of the total area to be nationalised for the bridge project, 9.57% was private property, 75.24% was forested land, and the remaining 15.19% was already state-owned land.  In June 2018, in the course of the Turkish currency and debt crisis, Bloomberg reported that Astaldi, an Italian multinational construction company, was poised to sell its stake in the flagship Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge project for $467 million. The project had failed to meet projections, requiring Ankara to boost operators' revenue from treasury coffers, and since early 2018 the partners in the joint venture sought restructuring of $2.3 billion of debt from creditors. On July 30, 2018, China's ICBC is authorized as the lead regulator to refinance the $2.7 billion current loan for the bridge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction history.", "content": "Plans for a third Bosphorus bridge were approved by the Ministry of Transportation in 2012. The construction of the project was awarded to the İçtaş-Astaldi consortium on 29 May 2012.  The construction of the bridge began officially with the foundation stone-laying in a ceremony held on 29 May 2013, the anniversary day of the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. The ceremony was attended by the then State President Abdullah Gül, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and numerous high-ranking officials. Erdoğan directed the construction management team to complete construction within 24 months, and set the opening date for 29 May 2015.  Work was temporarily halted in July 2013, after it became evident that the site was mislocated, but only after the removal of thousands of trees. The action, announced in paperwork filed for a plan change written by State Highways Directorate Director-General Mehmet Cahit Turhan on 11 June 2013, reads \"it is appropriate to cancel the current construction plan due to the necessity of making a revision, which resulted from changes of the route project\". Both the ministry and the construction company have denied any change to the construction site location.  Land prices in the northern, less urbanized areas on both sides of the Bosphorus are already soaring in expectation of an urbanization boom thanks to the new cross-water connection, according to \"Ekumenopolis\", a documentary film of 2010 about the area. The efficacy of the proclaimed goal of easing traffic congestion has been challenged, claiming that \"the project is little more than a contrivance to open for development lands that had been long protected by law\". The green areas and wetlands in question, producing most of the drinking water for the city, are considered by many to be \"essential for Istanbul's ecological and economic sustainability, and a possible pollution of the groundwater would provoke the collapse of the city\". In 1995, Erdoğan, then mayor of Istanbul, declared that a third bridge would mean \"the murder of the city\".  On 5 April 2014, at about 21:00 local time, a fatal accident occurred during construction work at the link road to the bridge on the Asian side of the Bosphorus near Çavuşbaşı, Beykoz. Three workers were killed and another was injured by falling from a collapsed scaffolding while concrete was poured at a viaduct.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naming.", "content": "The name of the bridge was announced by President Abdullah Gül at the ground-breaking ceremony as the \"Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge\", in honor of Ottoman Sultan Selim I (c. 1470–1520), who expanded the Ottoman Empire into the Middle East and North Africa in 1514–1517 and obtained the title of Caliph of Islam for the Ottoman dynasty after his conquest of Egypt in 1517. He was nicknamed \"Yavuz\", traditionally translated in English as \"Grim\", but closer to \"Stern\" or \"Implacable\" in meaning. In 1520 he was succeeded by his son Suleiman the Magnificent.  The choice of name for the bridge has led to protests by Alevis in Turkey because of the alleged role of Sultan Selim I in the Ottoman persecution of Alevis. After the Şahkulu Rebellion (1511) in Anatolia, and the Battle of Chaldiran (1514) in northwestern Iran, during which the \"Qizilbash\" warriors of the Alevis in eastern Anatolia (who adhere to the Shia sect of Islam) sided with Shah Ismail I of Safavid Persia, the victorious Selim I ordered the massacre of the \"Qizilbash\", whom he considered traitors and heretics (see also Ottoman–Safavid relations and Ottoman–Persian Wars).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opening ceremony.", "content": "The opening ceremony on 26 August 2016 was attended by Bulgarian Prime Minister Boyko Borisov, Bosniak president of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bakir Izetbegović, Macedonian President Gjorge Ivanov, the King of Bahrain Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa and President of the self-declared state of Northern Cyprus Mustafa Akıncı. Also, Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan) Shahbaz Sharif, Sandžak Bosniak Deputy Prime Minister of Serbia Rasim Ljajić, First Vice Prime Minister of Georgia Dimitri Kumsishvili and high-ranking officials from Azerbaijan also attended the opening ceremony. Speeches were delivered by Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Prime Minister Binali Yıldırım.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge () is a bridge for rail and motor vehicle transit over the Bosphorus strait, to the north of two existing suspension bridges in Istanbul, Turkey. It was initially named the Third Bosphorus Bridge (with Bosphorus Bridge being the First Bosphorus Bridge and Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge the Second Bosphorus Bridge). The bridge is located near the Black Sea entrance of the Bosphorus strait, between Garipçe in Sarıyer on the European side and Poyrazköy in Beykoz on the Asian side.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977401}
{"src_title": "Brandon Saad", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "As a youth, Saad played in the 2005 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Pittsburgh Hornets minor ice hockey team.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amateur.", "content": "In 2008-09 season Brandon played for the Mahoning Valley Phantoms to start his amateur ice hockey career. In the 2009–10 season, Saad played within the USA Hockey National Team Development Program in the United States Hockey League (USHL), finishing the season with the most goals (12) and points (26) on the team. He would then transfer to the Canadian Hockey League (CHL) for the 2010–11 season to play at the major junior level with the Saginaw Spirit of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL). At the end of the season, Saad was selected by the Chicago Blackhawks in the second round, 43rd overall, at the 2011 NHL Entry Draft.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chicago Blackhawks.", "content": "On October 4, 2011, the Chicago Blackhawks signed Saad to a three-year, entry-level contract. It was announced that he would start the season with the Blackhawks, making him the lowest-selected Chicago draft pick, at 43rd overall, to start with the Blackhawks in their draft year since defenceman Lasse Kukkonen (drafted 151st overall) in the 2003–04 season. Saad later made his NHL debut with the Blackhawks on October 7, 2011, against the Dallas Stars, though he was quickly reassigned to Saginaw five days later, on October 12.  After his return to the Spirit, Saad was named CHL Player of the Week for October 17 to October 23. Following the trade of Saginaw team captain Ryan O'Connor to the Barrie Colts, Saad was named his replacement as captain for the remainder of the 2011–12 season, finishing the year with an OHL-best 1.73 points-per-game average.  Following the conclusion of the OHL season, Saad was recalled to the Blackhawks on April 16, 2012, making his Stanley Cup playoff debut on April 19, 2012. He scored his first NHL point two nights later on April 21 with an assist on a goal by defenceman Nick Leddy against the Phoenix Coyotes, an eventual 2–1 win for Chicago. On September 15, 2012, Chicago assigned Saad to the Rockford IceHogs of the American Hockey League (AHL) in anticipation of the 2012–13 NHL lockout. He was named CCM/AHL Player of the Week for the period of January 7–13, 2013, after scoring six points in just three games, including two game-winning goals. On January 17, 2013, after the lockout was resolved, the Blackhawks included Saad on the team's starting roster for the shortened, 48-game 2012–13 season. Saad scored his first career NHL goal on February 5 against Antti Niemi of the San Jose Sharks. On February 22, Saad then scored a game-winning, short-handed goal against the Sharks to secure an NHL-record 17th straight game with at least one point to start a season for the 2012–13 Blackhawks, breaking the previous record of 16-straight games held by the 2006–07 Anaheim Ducks. On May 6, Saad was named as a finalist for the 2013 Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL's top rookie of the year, an award which ultimately went to the Florida Panthers' Jonathan Huberdeau. On June 24, during the 2013 playoffs, Saad and the Blackhawks won the Stanley Cup after defeating the Eastern Conference-winning Boston Bruins in six games in the Finals. Saad would tally six points throughout the Blackhawks' playoff run-a goal and five assists.  During the 2014–15 season, Saad tallied a career-high 23 goals and 29 assists for 52 points. He added eight more goals in the 2015 playoffs, including two game-winners and one short-handed goal, while also recording three assists. On June 15, 2015, Saad won his second Stanley Cup championship with Chicago as the Blackhawks defeated the Tampa Bay Lightning in six games in the Finals. During the 2015 playoffs, Saad scored eight goals and had three assists. He scored the game-winning goal in Game 4 of the Final, assisted by Patrick Kane.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Columbus Blue Jackets.", "content": "On June 30, 2015, Chicago traded Saad's negotiation rights as a pending restricted free agent, along with prospects Alex Broadhurst and Michael Paliotta, to the Columbus Blue Jackets in exchange for Jeremy Morin, Marko Daňo, Artem Anisimov, Corey Tropp and a fourth-round draft pick in 2016. On July 3, Saad signed a six-year contract extension with the Blue Jackets worth $36 million.  During the 2015–16 season, on January 6, 2016, Saad was selected to his first All-Star Game. On April 2, 2016, Saad scored his first NHL hat trick in a 5-1 win against the Carolina Hurricanes.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Return to Chicago.", "content": "On June 23, 2017, Saad returned to the Chicago Blackhawks along with Anton Forsberg and a fifth-round draft pick in 2018 via a trade from the Blue Jackets in exchange for Artemi Panarin, Tyler Motte and a sixth-round draft pick in 2017. Saad began the 2017-18 season with a hat trick against the Pittsburgh Penguins en route to a 10–1 victory.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Saad is the son of a Christian-Syrian father, George Sr., and an American mother, Sandy. His father migrated to America at the age of 18 and also aims to bring his relatives still living in Syria over to America, to avoid the threats of the Syrian Civil War.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Brandon Saad (born October 27, 1992) is an American professional ice hockey player for the Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL). Saad was raised in Pittsburgh, and attended Pine-Richland High School. He is an American of Syrian descent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977402}
{"src_title": "Vasyl Stefanyk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Vasyl Stefanyk was born on May 14, 1871 in the village of Rusiv in the family of a well-to-do peasant. He was born in the historical region of Pokuttya, then part of Austro-Hungary. Today it is part of the Sniatyn Raion, Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast. He died on December 7, 1936 in the same village, Rusiv, at that time the part of Poland.  His primary education Stefanyk was at the Sniatyn City school. He later studied at Polish gymnasia in Kolomea and Drohobytsch. He was excpelled from the Kolomea gymnasium for participation in a revolutionary group. He eventually graduated from the Drohobytsch gymnasium, and enrolled in the University Kraków in 1892. During his student years Stefanyk became acquainted with Oles Martovych and Lev Bachynsky, both of whom had an influence on his life: Les turned him to writing, and Lev steered him toward community-political involvement. Later, while he was a student of medicine at Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum in Kraków, Stefanyk was befriended by the Polish Doctor Wacław Moraczewski and his wife, Doctor Sofia Okunevska, who acquainted him with contemporary European culture and literature and with the members of the then-fashionable Polish avant-garde group Młoda Polska, particularly with Stanisław Przybyszewski, Władysław Orkan and Stanisław Wyspianski. The hectic and interesting Bohemian life is reflected in Stefanyk's letters, in which references to the works of modernist authors, such as Charles Baudelaire, Gottfried Keller, Paul Verlaine, Maurice Maeterlinck, and Paul Bourget, abound. Stefanyk's letters, full of poetic prose, lyricism, and introspection, also provide glimpses of the future master of the short story in the various narrative vignettes. Attempts to publish some of the introspective poetic prose in newspapers were unsuccessful, but in 1897 the terse narratives of scenes observed by Stefanyk appeared in Pratsia (engl- Work) (-NL-->Chernivtsi); they were followed by several novellas in Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk (The Literally-scientific informer, 1898) and finally by Stefanyk's first collection of novellas, Synia knyzhechka (The Blue Book, 1899). With its appearance came the immediate literary acclaim, and other collections followed: Kaminnyi khrest (The Stone Cross, 1900), Doroha (The Road, 1901), and Moye slovo (My Word, 1905). Eventually he quit his schooling in 1900.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1901 Stefanyk was at the height of his literary career, but for the next 15 years he wrote nothing. Upon the arrival to Poltava on the opening of the monument to Ivan Kotliarevsky in 1903 he was met by the members of Ukrainian intelligentsia as the accomplished national writer. From 1908 until the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, Stefanyk was a member of the Austrian parliament, elected as a substitute for Volodmyr Okhrymovych in 1907 from the Ukrainian Radical party in Galicia. The horror of the First World War jolted him back into writing in 1916, and he produced one more collection, \"Zemlia\" (\"Earth\", 1926). During the period of the West Ukrainian National Republic, as a former member of parliament, Stefanyk became the \"vice-president\" of the Ukrainian National Rada, and in 1919 he went to Kiev for the signing of the agreement with the Ukrainian National Republic on the unification of Ukraine. In 1922 he became the district head of the Ukrainian Radical party. Recognizing him as the greatest living writer in western Ukraine, the government of Soviet Ukraine decreed a life pension for Stefanyk, which he turned down in protest against the repressions in Ukraine. In addition to his five collections of novellas, Stefanyk published stories, in several editions of collected works: an edition in 1927 in Soviet Ukraine; a jubilee edition (Lviv 1933); an émigré edition edited by his son, Yurii Stefanyk (Regensburg 1948); and the three-volume \"academic\" edition, published in Ukrainian SSR (1949–54). The 1964 edition of Stefanyk's selected works, edited by Vasyl Lesyn and Fedir Pohrebennyk, complemented and corrected some of the lacunae and faults of the academic edition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "Stefanyk's \"Blue Book\" was republished in Ukraine in 1966 under the title \"The Maple Leaves\" in an edition lavishly illustrated by Mykhaylo Turovsky.  Three stories from the \"Blue Book\" were the basis of the classic Ukrainian 1968 film \"The Stone Cross\" by Leonid Osyka.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary signature.", "content": "Stefanyk's whole literary output consisted of 59 published novellas, most of them no longer than a couple of pages. In them he showed himself a master of a species of the short story genre, the Stefanyk novella, which is characterized by a succinct and highly dramatic form used to capture single crucial moments in the life of a hero. The dramatic quality of the novellas ensured their being successfully staged as plays by Volodymyr Blavatsky and adapted for film (Kaminnyi khrest, screenplay by Ivan Drach). The heroes of Stefanyk's stories are for the most part peasants from his native Pokuttia. Against the general background of poverty or war (in the later stories) Stefanyk showed his heroes in a universal dilemma, confronting the pain at the heart of existence. Stefanyk concentrated on capturing the \"turbulence of the soul\", the inner agony, which revealed the psychological complexity of the hero. His characterizations were achieved through the speech of the characters. Words spoken became important not only for their meaning, but also for the elements of a story, which throws direct light on the character's emotional state, personality, social position, and degree of literacy. The special blend of the literary Ukrainian and the Pokuttian dialect created a flavor not easily duplicated or translated. Nevertheless, there have been several attempts to translate Stefanyk into Polish, German, and Russian. The French translation La croix de pierre et autres nouvelles appeared in 1975, and the following English translations have appeared: The Stone Cross (1971), Maple Leaves and Other Stories (1988), and some individual stories in anthologies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abroad.", "content": "Stefanyk was deeply concerned with the destiny of Ukrainian immigrants to Canada and often mentioned them in his many writings. One of his stories, \"The Stone Cross\" (Kaminnyi Khrest), (later made into a movie) is a stirring account of an immigrant's departure from Stefanyk's native village, Rusiv. The man upon whom it is based died in 1911, in Hilliard, Alberta.  The monument that was erected to commemorate Vasyl' Stefanyk is located at the Ukrainian Cultural Heritage Village, east of Edmonton, Alberta. That is a statue that was a gift from Ukraine to the Association of United Ukrainian Canadians. The statue was sculpted by W. Skolozdra in 1971 to mark the 100th anniversary of Vasyl Stefanyk.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vasyl Semenovych Stefanyk (; May 14, 1871 – December 7, 1936) was an influential Ukrainian modernist writer and political activist. He was a member of the Austrian parliament from 1908 to 1918.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977403}
{"src_title": "The Purge (2013 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 2014, the New Founding Fathers of America, a totalitarian political party, are voted into office following an economic collapse. They pass a law that sanctions an annual \"Purge\": for 12 hours each year all crime, including murder, arson, theft and rape, is legal during the period, except against government officials, and all emergency services are unavailable until 7 am.  By 2022, the United States has become virtually crime-free and the unemployment rate has dropped to 1%, ostensibly because of the Purge.  James Sandin returns to his home in an affluent Los Angeles gated community to wait out the night with his wife Mary and their children, Zoey and Charlie. The family is assured that the security system manufactured by James' company will keep them safe. While the family awaits the start of the purge, Zoey meets her boyfriend Henry, an older boy whom James dislikes as he is eighteen, deeming him too old for his daughter. James enables the security system, and as the purge begins, the family disperses in their home to go about their normal routines.  Zoey returns to her room to unexpectedly find Henry, who had snuck back in before the security system was engaged, and says that he plans to confront her father about their relationship. Meanwhile, Charlie watches the security monitors, and sees a wounded man calling for help. He temporarily disables the system to allow the man into the house. James races to re-engage the system and holds the man at gunpoint. Henry comes downstairs and pulls a gun on James, but James fires back, mortally wounding Henry. During the chaos, the wounded man disappears and hides.  Through the surveillance cameras, the family witness a gang of masked, heavily armed people arriving at the front lawn. The leader warns them that failure to surrender the wounded man will result in invasion. Mary asks James if the security system will protect them, but James admits the system will not actually resist a determined assault. They decide to find the man and give him to the purge gang outside, but after capturing him they realize they are no better than the gang. They decide to spare the man, and defend themselves against the gang.  With their deadline having passed, the gang uses chains attached to a truck to rip the metal plating off the front door and enter the house. James fights back with a shotgun and kills several gang members before he is stabbed by the leader. Charlie views the surveillance cameras, and notices their neighbors leaving their homes. The neighbors overpower and kill the remaining gang members. Mary is captured and humiliated by two purgers. Before they can finish her off, they are killed by the neighbors. The gang leader reappears, brandishing a shotgun to kill the family, but is fatally shot by Zoey, who is wielding Henry's handgun. James succumbs to his wound and dies in front of Mary, Zoey, and Charlie, leaving them in tears.  Mary thanks their neighbors for their support, but one of them, Grace Ferrin, reveals their hatred for the Sandins due to the wealth acquired at their expense. They tie Mary, Charlie, and Zoey up with duct tape, pulling them out into the hallway to kill them, but as the neighbors make a ritualistic preparation for the murder, the man whom Charlie let in earlier re-emerges. He shoots Mr. Cali, one of the neighbors, dead and holds Grace hostage, forcing the neighbors to free the Sandins. Mary prevents the stranger from killing the other neighbors, deciding that they will all wait out the remainder of the Purge without any violence.  The next morning, in the last few minutes of the Purge, Mary, Grace, the stranger, and the neighbors wait in the living room. Mary asks a neighbor, Mr. Halverson, if he enjoyed Grace's \"Purge party\" (the meeting of the neighbors to discuss the plans for the murders), to which Halverson affirms. As Charlie and Zoey mourn James' death, Grace attempts to seize a shotgun from Mary; Mary regains control of the shotgun, rams the stock of the gun into Grace's nose and throws her head down onto a glass table, furiously ordering for an end to the violence. Mary orders Grace and the neighbors out of the house as the siren sounds, signaling the conclusion of the Purge. After the neighbors depart, Mary thanks the stranger for his help and he bids the Sandins good luck as he leaves the gun behind that he was using.  During the credits, news reports are heard, which state that this year’s purge was the most successful to date. Other stations broadcast that the stock market is booming due to the massive sales of weapons and security systems. A man’s voice speaks of the loss of his patriotism after the death of his sons the night before.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "The film premiered at the Stanley Film Festival on May 2, 2013, and released in cinemas on June 7, 2013, in the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "\"The Purge\" was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on October 8, 2013. A 4K UHD Blu-Ray release occurred on June 12, 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 40% based on 151 reviews, with a weighted average of 5.14/10. The site's critics consensus reads, \"Half social allegory, half home-invasion thriller, \"The Purge\" attempts to make an intelligent point, but ultimately devolves into numbing violence and tired clichés.\" The film holds a score of 41 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 33 critics, signifying \"mixed or average reviews\".  On io9, Charlie Jane Anders described it as \"a clunky and implausible political screed in movie form\". \"Entertainment Weekly\" gave \"The Purge\" a B−, saying that it \"clearly has a lot on its mind, but it never really manages to express it\".  On \"Tri-City Herald\", Gary Wolcott described the movie as \"[A]lmost the dumbest movie in history. My recommendation is purge \"The Purge\" from your weekend movie plans.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "In its opening weekend, \"The Purge\" topped the box office with $16.8 million on opening day and $34.1 million through the entire weekend. The film earned $64.5 million domestically and $24.9 million outside the United States, for a total of $89.3 million worldwide, with a production budget of $3 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sequels and prequel.", "content": "Due to the success of the first film, a sequel, \"\", was developed by Universal and Blumhouse. It was released worldwide on July 18, 2014 and is set in 2023, a year after the first film. Edwin Hodge (The Stranger) was the only cast member to reprise a role.  A third film, \"\", was released on July 1, 2016.  A fourth film, \"The First Purge,\" which is set as a prequel in the franchise was released on July 4, 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Purge is a 2013 American dystopian horror film written and directed by James DeMonaco. The film stars Ethan Hawke, Lena Headey, Adelaide Kane, and Max Burkholder as members of a family who find themselves endangered by a gang of murderers during the annual Purge, a night during which all crime, including murder, is temporarily legal.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977404}
{"src_title": "Manfred Curbach", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Manfred Curbach completed his A Levels in June 1976 at the Albert-Einstein-Gymnasium in Dortmund. From 1977 to 1982 he studied Civil Engineering at the Technische Universität Dortmund, specialising in structural engineering. In 1980 he was admitted to the Studienstiftung des Deutschen Volkes (German Academic Scholarship Foundation of the Federal Republic of Germany). After his graduation, he took up the scholarship to work for David. P. Billington at the University of Princeton (USA) doing research on \"Bridge construction in the USA\" and \"Robert Maillart\".  Josef Eibl at the Technische Universität Dortmund and later on at the Universität Karlsruhe, where he received his doctorate in 1987. In 1988 he started working as project manager at the \"Ingenieurbüro Köhler + Seitz \"where he was also a partner from 1994 to 2004.  Since August 1994 Manfred Curbach holds the professorship for the Institut für Massivbau (Institute of Concrete Structures) at the Technische Universität Dresden, which is still his main field of activity today. Since 1997 he is registered as test engineer for structural analysis, specialising in concrete structures. In 2005 he started a new engineering company \"Curbach Bösche Ingenieurpartner, Dresden\". In December 2014 the company CarboCon GmbH was founded which specialises in design, construction, calculation and building with carbon reinforced concrete. Curbach is one of the three founding partners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Textile and carbon reinforced concrete.", "content": "Manfred Curbach concentrates on basic research and application-oriented research for the development of textile and carbon reinforced concrete with the aim to establish it in the building industry. From 1999 to 2011 Curbach was the spokesman for the Collaborative Research Centre 528 \"Textile reinforcements for structural reinforcement and repair\". As part of this research programme, the new composite material, made of high-strength fine concrete and high-performance fibres (made of different materials such as alkali-resistant glass, later mainly carbon fibres), was developed and researched, as well as transferred into practice by pilot projects in cooperation with construction companies.  Curbach is the head of a consortium of one of ten Zwanzig20-projects, funded by the German Ministry of Education and Research with up to 45 million euro. The consortium C3 - Carbon Concrete Composite pursues the goal to introduce a completely new design with carbon reinforced concrete (CarbonBeton).  Further fields of research are the material behaviour of concrete under multiaxial load or at high loading rates.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Impact.", "content": "Manfred Curbach also works on the subject of high-speed dynamics/ impact for concrete and concrete structures and has established a worldwide recognised centre of competence on this topic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Multiaxial.", "content": "Curbach produced significant results on the multiaxial loading of concrete, especially ultra-high-strength concrete, and built up a research group for this experimentally and theoretically very challenging topic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bridges.", "content": "With the organisation of the annual \"Dresdner Brückenbausymposium\" Curbach succeeded in establishing a national and international centre and meeting place for bridge construction engineers. This symposium as well as the design, calculation and construction of large bridges, has had a lasting influence on bridge construction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History of concrete construction.", "content": "Due to the research of the national and international history of concrete construction the civil engineering community worldwide experiences an increasing awareness for their own history.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Memberships.", "content": "Since 1999 Manfred Curbach has been a member of the scientific advisory board of the magazine Beton- und Stahlbetonbau. Since 2010 he is head of the German delegation of the International Concrete Association fib and since February 2012 he is on the review board of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) (German Research Foundation). He is a member of the executive board and the research advisory board of the Deutscher Ausschuss für Stahlbeton (DAfStb) (German Committee for Reinforced Concrete), where he was chairman of the executive board from 2004 to 2012. From 2002 to 2008 he was a member of the senate of the DFG and from 2003 to 2008 chairman of the executive board of the VDI-Gesellschaft, Bautechnik (Association of German Engineers – Division Construction Engineering). Curbach has been a member of the scientific advisory board of the Bundesanstalt für Wasserbau (BAW) (Federal Waterways Engineering and Research Institute) since 2011 and has been its chairman since 2015.  Curbach is also head of the task group for textile reinforced concrete and the task group for the history of concrete construction for the fib (fédération internationale du béton).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "On 15 November 2011, Manfred Curbach received an honorary doctorate from the Universität Kaiserslautern for his outstanding scientific achievements in structural engineering, his services in the consistent implementation of research results into practice and his exemplary personality.  Since June 2013, Curbach has been a member of the \"Nationale Akademie der Wissenschaften\" Leopoldina (National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina). In 2017, the honour was bestowed on him to hold the renowned Christmas lecture of the \"Leopoldina\". In September 2014, the \"VDI-Gesellschaft – Bauen und Gebäudetechnik\" (VDI-Association – Division Civil Engineering and Building) awarded Manfred Curbach at its annual convention the Wolfgang-Zerna-Medal of Honour for \"outstanding achievements in the field of construction technology\".  In February 2016 Manfred Curbach is awarded the George Sarton Medal of the History of Science Society, University of Ghent.  In 2016 Curbach was elected to the \"Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften\" (Saxon Academy of Sciences).  In 2016 Manfred Curbach received the Deutscher Zukunftspreis together with Chokri Cherif and Peter Offermann, which is awarded by the German Federal President.  At the Saxon Chamber of Engineers Day he was awarded the Wackerbarth Medal for his recognized scientific work and his commitment to the internationally recognized Dresden Bridge Building Symposium in November 2018.  At the German Construction Technology Day 2019 in Stuttgart, Manfred Curbach received the Emil Mörsch commemorative coin, donated by the German Society for Concrete and Construction Technology (Deutscher Beton- und Bautechnik-Verein E.V.).  On 10 May 2019 he was awarded the Carl Friedrich Gauss Medal, donated by the Braunschweig Scientific Society (BWG).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Further publications.", "content": "A detailed list of publications is available on the website of the Institut für Massivbau.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Manfred Curbach (born 28 September 1956 in Dortmund) is a German civil engineer and university professor. He is a leading researcher in the development of textile-reinforced concrete and carbon reinforced concrete respectively.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977405}
{"src_title": "Yitzhak Arad", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and war experiences.", "content": "Arad was born Icchak Rudnicki on November 11, 1926, in what was then Święciany in the Second Polish Republic (now Švenčionys, Lithuania). In his youth, he belonged to the Zionist youth movement \"Ha-No'ar ha-Tsiyyoni\". During the war – according to Arad's 1993 interview with Harry J. Cargas – he was active in the ghetto underground movement from 1942 to 1944. In February 1943, he joined the Soviet partisans of the Markov Brigade, a primarily non-Jewish unit in which he had to contend with antisemitism. Apart from a foray infiltrating the Vilna Ghetto in April 1943 to meet with underground leader Abba Kovner, he stayed with the Soviet partisans until the end of the war, fighting the Germans, taking part in mining trains and in ambushes around the Naroch Forest of Belarus. \"The official attitude of the Soviet partisan movement was that there was no place for Jewish units\" acting independently, said Arad.  In autobiographical book, The Partisan, published in 1979, Arad describes among others his participation in punitive rally on the civilians of the village of Girdan (on page 158): \"The last operation I participated in that winter was a punitive action against Girdan, a large Lithuanian village on the road between Hoduciszki and Swienciany.” and against Lithuanian partisants (on page 182): \"I participated in this mopping-up operation. We thoroughly combed the forests of the region. The deep snow made walking difficult, but it also revealed the footsteps of the Lithuanian bands. After a few days of searching we discovered their encampment. Their forest camp was fenced in and had underground bunkers. We fought with them for a whole day, but by evening none of them remained alive. The next day we counted over 250 Lithuanian dead. Some were in a field near a lake to which they had tried to escape.\"  In December 1945, Yitzhak Arad immigrated without authorization to Mandate Palestine, on the \"Ha'apala\" boat named after Hannah Szenes. In Arad's military career in the IDF, he reached the rank of brigadier general and was appointed to the post of Chief Education Officer. He retired from the military in 1972.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Academic career.", "content": "In his academic career as a lecturer on Jewish history at Tel Aviv University, he has researched World War II and the Holocaust, and has published extensively as author and editor, primarily in Hebrew. His current research deals with the Holocaust in the USSR. Dr. Yitzhak Arad served as the director (Chairman of the Directorate) of Yad Vashem, Israel's Holocaust Remembrance Authority, for 21 years (1972–1993). He remains associated with Yad Vashem in an advisor's capacity. Arad was awarded Doctor \"honoris causa\" degree by Poland's Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń on 7 June 1993.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dismissed investigation in Lithuania.", "content": "In 2006, following a story in the Lithuanian Respublika newspaper that called Arad a \"war criminal\" for his alleged role in the Koniuchy massacre perpetrated by anti-Nazi Soviet partisans, the Lithuanian state prosecutor initiated an investigation of Arad. Following an international outcry, the investigation was dropped in the fall of 2008.  Arad said he had nothing to apologize for, and that he was \"proud\" that he \"fought the Nazi Germans and their Lithuanian collaborators... the murderers of my family, the murderers of my people.\" Arad has said he believes the investigation was motivated by revenge for expert evidence he gave in a United States trial of a Lithuanian Nazi collaborator.  British historian Martin Gilbert said he was \"deeply shocked\" by the \"perverse\" investigation. Efraim Zuroff pointed out that the Lithuanian government had never prosecuted a single war criminal, despite the evidence that Simon Wiesenthal Center had collected and shared. According to Zuroff, \"What is common to all these cases is that they're all Jews. Instead of punishing Lithuanian criminals who collaborated with the Nazis and murdered Jews, they're harassing the partisans, Jewish heroes.\" Some 200,000 Jews were murdered in Lithuania during the Holocaust, mainly by Lithuanian collaborators.  Lithuania's record of prosecuting war criminals has been spotty, leading The Economist to write that the investigation against Jews was selective and even vindictive. According to Dovid Katz, this is \"Holocaust obfuscation\" that \"involves a series of false moral equivalences: Jews were disloyal citizens of pre-war Lithuania, helped the Soviet occupiers in 1940, and were therefore partly to blame for their fate. And the genocide that really matters was the one that Lithuanian people suffered at Soviet hands after 1944\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Names.", "content": "He was born Icchak Rudnicki, later adopting the Hebrew surname Arad (). During World War II, he was known as Tolya (Russian diminutive for Anatoly) in the underground and among the partisans.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yitzhak Arad () (né Icchak Rudnicki) (born November 11, 1926), is an Israeli historian, author, retired IDF brigadier general and a former Soviet partisan, director of Yad Vashem from 1972 to 1993. He specialised in the history of the Holocaust.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977406}
{"src_title": "Jiří Rusnok", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Rusnok was born in Ostrava-Vítkovice. He studied at the University of Economics in Prague, graduating in 1984.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Rusnok worked for \"Státní plánovací komise\" (State Planning Commission) and \"Federální ministerstvo pro strategické plánování\" (Federal Ministry for Strategic Planning). Before the so-called Velvet Revolution, he was a candidate for membership in the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia.  In the 1990s, Rusnok worked as director of a department of the Czech-Moravian Confederation of Trade Unions (19921998). He joined politics in 1998 as a member of the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD). Prime Minister Miloš Zeman appointed Rusnok to his cabinet as Finance Minister in June 2001. He continued as Minister of Industry and Trade in the cabinet of Vladimír Špidla; however, he resigned his post and parliamentary mandate and left politics in March 2003, after disagreements with Špidla. After that, he worked in the private sector.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime Minister.", "content": "President Miloš Zeman appointed Rusnok as Prime Minister of a caretaker government in June 2013 in a move that was criticized by political parties in the Czech Republic. It was called irresponsible by the parties of the former coalition government (ODS and TOP 09), while the opposition (ČSSD) called for early elections.  On 7 August 2013, Chamber of Deputies denied support to the caretaker government of Rusnok. His cabinet got support of 93 legislators, compared to 100 against, while seven legislators abstained. A majority of voting legislators was required. Following the vote, TOP 09 stated that due to a lack of support for a potential renewed ODS-TOP 09-LIDEM government, they would instead support an early election. The ČSSD and KSČM also supported an early election. In reaction, Rusnok signaled his intention to resign the next day: \"I think this result is positive, as far as further political development in our country is concerned. It will lead to the dissolution of the parliament.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Governor of the Czech National Bank.", "content": "In 2014, Zeman appointed Rusnok to the seven-member board of the Czech National Bank, replacing Eva Zamrazilova. In 2016, he succeeded Miroslav Singer as the bank’s governor, again following an appointment by Zeman.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political position.", "content": "Rusnok supports moving the Czech Republic closer to adopting the euro. In 2014, he also backed the central bank’s policy of weakening the Czech koruna to fight deflation risks and help an economy recovering from a record-long recession.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jiří Rusnok (born 16 October 1960) is a Czech politician and economist who served as Prime Minister of the Czech Republic between July 2013 and January 2014. Since 1 July 2016 he has been serving as Governor of the Czech National Bank.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977407}
{"src_title": "HJIM van Gasteren", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Henriëtte is the youngest in a family of four. Her father was a clog maker and mailman. Since her childhood she has been writing, drawing and cooking. She attended the Schoevers Academy in Nijmegen and worked as an executive secretary from 1983 till 2000.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writer to photographer.", "content": "In 2005 Henriëtte resumed writing. Her culinary erotic story \"Kalfsbraadstuk op tagliatelle met een zachte saus van witte port en kaas\" (\"Veal roast on tagliatelle with a smooth sauce of white port and cheese\") was published in: \"Raadselige Roos 2005\", a collection of stories that had entered the competition for prose and poetry of the Literary Cafe for the Venray-region. To illustrate the blogs that she posted online, she started to make self-portraits to go with the stories. At first she used a webcam, then she switched to a simple compact camera. In 2006 the self-portraits almost completely replaced the stories and from that moment on she tells her life story with photos, using a single-lens reflex camera, tripod and remote control.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "Henriëtte's work has caused controversy on several occasions. She has also been censored during an exhibition in the Euregio-Haus in Mönchengladbach, Germany and during an exhibition in the convention center (and former seminary) Rolduc in Kerkrade, The Netherlands. Her self-portrait \"Forgive me, Father, for...\" from the religious series \"I could’ve had religion\" made the front page of the Dutch newspaper Sp!ts because of it.  In 2012 she was one of the ten leading artists from Limburg who were exhibited at the Pulchri Studio in Den Haag, together with Ted Noten, Charles Eyck and Lei Molin. In the same year her work was also shown in the USA for the first time. During Photoville in Brooklyn Bridge Park, New York City her work could be seen at two exhibitions: The Wonder of Woman and FotoFestival Naarden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photo documentary.", "content": "In 2012 she started her project \"A house is not a home\", in which the houses of complete strangers are the setting for her self-portraits. That same year she also started the photo documentary \"Risja, a story by Lilith - This is bugging me\", about Risja Steeghs a girl who lives in her village and who suffers from a severe form of Lyme disease. The 'Huis voor de Kunsten Limburg' in Roermond, The Netherlands, financially supported the travelling exhibition and the publication of a photo book with the same name. The proceeds from the book sales go to TeekOnMe, a foundation that supports the research of Lyme disease.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private.", "content": "Partner.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "HJIM van Gasteren is the pseudonym of Henriëtte Johanna Ignatia Maria van Gasteren (Sevenum, September 9, 1964), a Dutch photographer and artist, known for her, sometimes controversial, self-portraits. She was formerly known as Lilith Love but she changed her artist name in 2020. Recurring themes in her work are: identity, femininity, female archetypes, gender bending, freedom and equality.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977408}
{"src_title": "Valeri Nichushkin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "After one season in the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL), Nichushkin transferred from Traktor Chelyabinsk to Dynamo Moscow on May 1, 2013. He then signed a two-year contract with Dynamo. However, the deal was terminated conditionally, allowing Nichushkin to play in the NHL, or be returned to Dynamo if he failed to make the NHL team.  Nichushkin played his first regular season NHL game on October 3, 2013, against the Florida Panthers. He scored his first career NHL goal on November 3, 2013, against Craig Anderson of the Ottawa Senators.  After having a solid rookie season (14 goals and 20 assists), Nichushkin suffered from hip and groin soreness in the beginning of his sophomore campaign, 2014–15. Five games into the season, Nichushkin opted for hip surgery, which was performed on November 18, 2014. He rehabbed in New Jersey and re-joined the team in March 2015, practicing in a red no-contact jersey.  As a restricted free agent following the conclusion of his entry-level deal in the 2015–16 season, Nichushkin and the Stars failed to agree to common grounds in contract negotiations. Unhappy with his current role within the Stars line-up, his KHL rights were traded from Dynamo Moscow to CSKA Moscow on September 20, 2016. He subsequently signed a two-year contract to return to the KHL with CSKA, with his NHL rights to be kept by the Stars.  After two seasons with CSKA, Nichushkin returned to the Stars organization, in agreeing to a two-year, $5.9 million contract on July 1, 2018. In his return to the Stars in the 2018–19 season, Nichushkin recorded 10 assists in 54 regular-season games, averaging 11:55 time on ice per game. Nichushkin skated in one game during the playoffs with the Stars and failed to record a point.  After a disappointing campaign in failing to score a goal through 57 games, Nichuskin was placed on unconditional waivers and subsequently bought out from the remaining year of his contract with the Stars on 30 June 2019.  Nichushkin signed a one year, $850k contact with the Colorado Avalanche on August 19, 2019. Nichuskin scored his first goal in 2 years on November 23, 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Valeri Ivanovich Nichushkin (; born March 4, 1995) is a Russian professional ice hockey right winger who currently plays for the Colorado Avalanche of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was selected by the Stars in the first round, 10th overall, of the 2013 NHL Entry Draft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977409}
{"src_title": "Prince George of Cambridge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Birth and baptism.", "content": "The Duke of Cambridge is the elder son of the Prince of Wales, who is the eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II, meaning that his first child would be third in the line of succession to the British throne. Speculation ensued during the pregnancy of the Duchess of Cambridge that the birth would boost the British national economy and provide a focus for national pride. Commemorative coins were issued by the Royal Mint, Royal Canadian Mint, and Royal Australian Mint; the first time a royal birth had been marked that way.  Prince George was born in Lindo Wing of St Mary's Hospital, London, at 16:24 BST (15:24 UTC) on 22 July 2013. The customary formal bulletin announcing the royal birth was displayed on an easel outside Buckingham Palace, although in a break with tradition the news was first conveyed in a press release from palace officials. The newborn was widely hailed as a future king. 21-gun salutes signalled the birth in the capitals of Bermuda, the UK, New Zealand, and Canada; the bells of Westminster Abbey and many other churches were rung; and iconic landmarks in the Commonwealth realms were illuminated in various colours, mostly blue to signify the birth of a boy. On 24 July, his name was announced as George Alexander Louis.  Prince George was baptised by Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury, in the Chapel Royal at St James's Palace on 23 October 2013, with Oliver Baker, Emilia Jardine-Paterson, Earl Grosvenor, Jamie Lowther-Pinkerton, the Hon. Julia Samuel, William van Cutsem and Zara Tindall serving as godparents. The font used at the ceremony was made for Queen Victoria's first child and the water was taken from the River Jordan. The Royal Mint issued a set of commemorative coins to celebrate the christening, the first coins to mark a royal christening in Britain. Prince George's birth marked the second time that three generations in direct line of succession to the throne have been alive at the same time, a situation that last occurred between 1894 and 1901, in the last seven years of the reign of Queen Victoria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Official appearances.", "content": "Prince George embarked on his first royal tour with his parents in April 2014, during which the Cambridges spent three weeks in New Zealand and Australia. Although he only appeared twice, the BBC described the \"nine-month-old future king\" as \"the star of the show\". Prime Minister of Australia Tony Abbott predicted in Parliament House, Canberra, that George would one day be welcomed there as King of Australia. In June 2015, Prince George made his first public appearance on the balcony of Buckingham Palace following the Trooping the Colour parade marking the Queen's Official Birthday.  George's parents are adamant that he should grow up as privately as possible. He is consequently rarely seen in public, including royal tours. In August 2015, Kensington Palace stated that they wanted all global media to stop taking unauthorised photographs of George, as they believed \"a line has been crossed\" in paparazzi methods of locating and photographing him.  On 22 April 2016, Prince George met Barack Obama, President of the United States. He was photographed with a rocking horse that Obama had given him when he was born. The encounter later prompted Obama to joke that \"Prince George showed up to our meeting in his bathrobe... a clear breach of protocol.\" Prince George and Princess Charlotte accompanied their parents on a tour of Canada in September 2016, and on a diplomatic visit to Poland and Germany in July 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "In January 2016, George started his education at the Westacre Montessori School Nursery, near his family home at Anmer Hall in Norfolk. He attended his first day of primary school on 7 September 2017 at the private Thomas's School in Battersea. At school he is known as George Cambridge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Royal baby effect.", "content": "The \"Prince George effect\", also known as the \"royal baby effect\", is that clothing and products identified as used by George tend to sell better than before. The effect was noted during his April 2014 tour of New Zealand and Australia and many businesses have attempted to use this effect to their advantage. He was ranked No. 49 on \"GQ\"s \"50 Best Dressed Men in Britain\" list in 2015. In 2016, the dressing gown he wore while meeting President Obama sold out after he was seen wearing it. In September 2017 the news that the Prince's school had served a Le Puy green lentil dish resulted in a spike in the legume's sales. In 2018, George became the youngest person to appear on \"Tatler\"s best-dressed list.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Title and style.", "content": "Prince George's official title and style is \"His Royal Highness Prince George of Cambridge\". While his name was announced two days after his birth, he was, from birth, a British prince entitled to the style of Royal Highness under letters patent issued in 1898 and 1917, which granted the style to the eldest son of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales. As with other princes and princesses who are born to royal dukes, George's territorial designation is taken from his father's title, in this case \"Cambridge\", from the Dukedom of Cambridge.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Prince George of Cambridge (George Alexander Louis; born 22 July 2013) is a member of the British royal family. He is the eldest child of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, and third in the line of succession to the British throne behind his grandfather Prince Charles and his father. As he is expected to become king one day, his birth was widely celebrated across the Commonwealth realms. George occasionally accompanies his parents on royal tours, and has affected business and popular culture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977410}
{"src_title": "CL (rapper)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1991–2008: Early life and career beginnings.", "content": "Lee Chae-rin was born in Seoul, South Korea, but spent most of her childhood living in Paris, Tsukuba, and Tokyo. When she was 13, she moved to Paris alone where she studied for two years. Lee got an audition with YG Entertainment when she was 15. Her first feature on a song recording was Big Bang's \"Intro (Hot Issue)\" in 2007. Later that year, Lee performed for the first time on stage at Seoul Broadcasting System's Gayo Daejeon alongside her label mates. Her first credited appearance in a song was in 2008, with Uhm Jung-hwa's \"DJ,\" in which she rapped.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2009–2013: Debut with 2NE1 and solo career beginnings.", "content": "Lee took on the stage name 'CL' and was placed as the leader and main rapper of 2NE1, alongside Bom, Sandara Park and Minzy. The group then collaborated with label-mates Big Bang for the song \"Lollipop\" before officially debuting on SBS's \"The Music Trend\" on May 17, 2009 where they performed \"Fire\". 2NE1 achieved significant success with the number-one single \"I Don't Care\" from their first extended play, \"2NE1\", which won them the \"Song of the Year\" award at the 2009 Mnet Asian Music Awards, making them the first rookie group to win a daesang in the same year of debut.  In August 2009, she collaborated with label-mates G-Dragon and Teddy Park of 1TYM for the single \"The Leaders\", featured on G-Dragon's first solo album, \"Heartbreaker\". The same month, after the group finished with \"I Don't Care\" promotions, CL collaborated with fellow member Minzy for \"Please Don't Go,\" which charted at number six on the Gaon Chart by the end of November. Her first solo single, \"The Baddest Female\", was released on 28 May 2013. For 2NE1's second album \"Crush\", CL wrote the lyrics and co-composed the music for the tracks \"Crush\", \"If I Were You\", and \"Baby I Miss You\". She also wrote the lyrics for her solo track \"MTBD\", as well as the track \"Scream\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014–2019: Stand-alone singles and featured appearances.", "content": "In October 2014, it was announced that CL was planning to debut as a solo artist the following year in the United States, teaming up with Scooter Braun as her manager. In May 2015, she featured in Diplo's single \"Doctor Pepper\", alongside Riff Raff and OG Maco. In November 2015, CL released her first single \"Hello Bitches\", as a teaser for her upcoming EP \"Lifted\". The lead single, \"Lifted\" was released on August 19, 2016. The song appeared in the Top 30 of iTunes’ Hip-Hop/Rap chart within three hours of being released, peaking at 21. \"Time\" noted her as the \"future of Kpop in America\". On October 29, 2016, CL kicked off her first North American tour, the Hello Bitches Tour, in New York City's Hammerstein Ballroom, and concluded in Toronto on November 14.  Alongside Shaiana, she featured on Lil Yachty's song \"Surrender\", an exclusive track off of the Target deluxe edition of his album \"Teenage Emotions\", released on May 26, 2017. CL also recorded an original single titled \"No Better Feelin'\" for the \"\", released on September 22, 2017. On January 4, 2018, she was reported to make her Hollywood debut as an actress in Peter Berg's film \"Mile 22\" that stars Mark Wahlberg. On February 25, 2018, CL performed at the 2018 Winter Olympics closing ceremony at Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium, performing parts from \"The Baddest Female\" and the 2NE1 global hit \"I Am the Best\". At the closing ceremony, she met with South Korean President Moon Jae-in, First Lady Kim Jung-sook, Exo, and U.S. First Daughter Ivanka Trump.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2019–present: Departure from YG Entertainment and \"In the Name of Love\".", "content": "On November 8, 2019, YG Entertainment announced that CL did not renew her contract with the company. On December 4, right after leaving YG Entertainment, she began releasing previously unreleased tracks as her solo EP project \"In the Name of Love\" for three consecutive weeks.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Musical style and influences.", "content": "CL cites 1TYM leader Teddy Park, who produced much of 2NE1's music, as an influence and inspiration, as well as Madonna, Queen, and Lauryn Hill.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lee Chae-rin (born on February 26, 1991), better known by her stage name CL, is a South Korean singer-songwriter, rapper and record producer. Born in Seoul, South Korea, she spent much of her early life in Japan and France. CL trained at JYP Entertainment before joining YG Entertainment at the age of fifteen and debuted as a member of the girl group 2NE1 in 2009. Following her group taking a break, CL embarked her solo career in the United States in 2015. In 2016, 2NE1 officially disbanded and she remained a solo act under YG until her contract expired in November 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977411}
{"src_title": "Ratz (political party)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Movement for Civil Rights and Peace was formed in 1973 by Shulamit Aloni, a former MK for the Alignment, 48 hours after she had left the party. As a member of the Israeli peace camp it opposed the occupation of the West Bank and Gaza strip and called for a peace settlement with the Palestine Liberation Organization from its birth. The party advocated secularism, the separation of religion and state, and civil rights, most notably women's rights, a topic that was very close to Aloni. It was also a notable fighter against corruption and for a written constitution, and Aloni was the initiator of the Knesset sub-committee for basic laws (Israel's equivalent of a constitution). For a while it also supported electoral reform.  In its first test, the 1973 elections, the party won 2.2% of the vote and three seats in the Knesset, which were taken by Aloni, new American immigrant Marcia Freedman, and Boaz Moav. The party soon gained the popular name Ratz, as it used the letters Resh-Tzadik on the election ballot paper. Following Golda Meir's resignation, the party joined Yitzhak Rabin's government and Aloni served as a minister without portfolio. This was one of the few periods in Israel's political history when no religious parties were part of the coalition. The arrangement lasted for a few months only and when the National Religious Party joined the coalition, Ratz left it.  In 1975 the party merged with Aryeh Eliav, an independent MK who had broken away from the Alignment, to form a new party, Ya'ad – Civil Rights Movement. However, it broke up the following year, and Aloni and Moaz reformed Ratz. Freedman did not return, instead forming the Social-Democratic Faction (later renamed the Independent Socialist Faction) with Eliav, and then breaking away again to form the Women's Party prior to the 1977 elections. Also prior to the 1977 elections, the Independent Socialist Faction merged with several other small left-wing parties (Moked, Meri and the Black Panthers) to form the Left Camp of Israel.  Ratz performed poorly in the '77 elections, winning only one seat, which Aloni took. The 1981 elections were a repeat, with only Aloni representing the party in the Knesset. During the Knesset session she merged the party into the Alignment, but then broke away again before the term ended.  Before the 1984 elections the Left Camp of Israel merged into Ratz in a one-to-three ratio, bringing with them Ran Cohen among others. The elections were an improvement on the previous two, and saw the party win three seats. During the Knesset session, the party gained another two seats when Yossi Sarid and Mordechai Virshubski joined the party, defecting from the Alignment and Shinui respectively. The party retained its five-seat strength in the 1988 elections.  Prior to the 1992 elections, the party formed an alliance with Mapam and Shinui named Meretz, whilst keeping their independent status within the union. The new party was a success, winning 12 seats, two more than the parties had held in the previous Knesset. Prior to the 1996 elections Aloni finally lost the leadership of the party, defeated by Sarid in internal elections. She retired from politics immediately. In 1997 the merger was made official (though several Shinui members led by Avraham Poraz broke away to reform as an independent party, whilst David Zucker became an independent MK), and Ratz ceased to exist.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ratz (), officially the Movement for Civil Rights and Peace (Hebrew:, \"HaTnua'a LeZkhuyot HaEzrah VeLaShalom\") was a left-wing political party in Israel that focused on human rights, civil rights, and women's rights. It was active from 1973 until its formal merger into Meretz in 1997.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977412}
{"src_title": "Thomas Lemar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Caen.", "content": "Lemar made his Ligue 2 debut in the opening game of the 2013–14 season on 2 August 2013, replacing Jérôme Rothen after 78 minutes in Caen's 3–1 home win over Dijon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Monaco.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2015–16 season.", "content": "On 1 July 2015, Lemar officially joined Monaco for an undisclosed fee. He scored his first goal for the club on 22 August 2015, scoring in a 1–1 draw with Toulouse. On 20 September, he scored in the club's 2–3 home loss to Lorient. Four days later, Lemar scored in Monaco's 3–2 win over Montpellier at the Stade de la Mosson. On 17 January 2016, Lemar scored in Monaco's 2–0 away win over Lorient. On 4 March, Lemar scored the opening goal in Monaco's 2–2 draw with his former club Caen.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2016–17 season.", "content": "On 14 September 2016, Lemar scored his first goal of the season in Monaco's 2–1 away win over English club Tottenham Hotspur. Three days later, he scored twice in Monaco's 3–0 win over Rennes. On 1 October 2016, he scored the opening goal in Monaco's 7–0 away win over Metz. On 21 October, he scored the fifth of six goals in Monaco's 6–2 win over Montpellier, and on 18 November, he scored in Monaco's 3–0 win over Lorient. On 22 November 2016, Lemar scored the winning goal in Monaco's 2–1 win over Tottenham Hotspur, scoring in the 53rd minute with his goal coming one minute after Tottenham had equalized through Harry Kane in the 52nd minute. On 3 December, he scored in Monaco's 5–0 win over Bastia.  On 15 January 2017, Lemar scored in Monaco's 4–1 win over Olympique de Marseille, which moved Monaco to the top of the table. On 1 February 2017, Lemar scored in Monaco's 5–4 win over Championnat National club Chambly. On 1 March 2017, Lemar scored the winning goal in a 4–3 extra-time away win over Marseille in a 2016–17 Coupe de France round of 16 match just two minutes after Rémy Cabella had leveled the score to 3–3 in the 111th minute. On 1 April, Lemar scored in the Coupe de la Ligue Final against Paris Saint-Germain, scoring the equalizer in the 27th minute, but Monaco eventually would lose the final by a scoreline of 4–1. On 29 April, Lemar scored in Monaco's 3–1 win over Toulouse, and a week later, on 6 May, he scored in their 3–0 away win over Nancy.  Lemar finished the season with 14 goals in all competitions.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2017–18 season.", "content": "In the 2017 summer transfer window, Lemar was heavily linked to Premier League clubs Liverpool and Arsenal, though a successful agreement between Monaco and one of the two clubs was never reached. On 29 June, Monaco reportedly rejected a £31m bid from Arsenal, and in late August, Liverpool reportedly had a bid of £65m rejected, having earlier had a bid of €55m rejected. Arsenal made a final offer of €100m which was later rejected by the player.  On 28 October 2017, Lemar scored his first goal of the season in Monaco's 2–0 win over Bordeaux. On 15 December, Lemar scored the second goal in Monaco's 4–0 win over AS Saint-Étienne. On 9 January 2018, Lemar scored in Monaco's 2–1 away win over Nice in the 2017–18 Coupe de la Ligue quarter-finals.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Atlético Madrid.", "content": "On 18 June 2018, La Liga club Atlético Madrid confirmed that a preliminary agreement had been reached with Monaco for the transfer of Lemar. On 27 July 2018, Lemar successfully passed his medical, officially joining Atlético Madrid for a reported fee of €70 million.  On 22 September 2018, Lemar scored his first league goal for Atletico Madrid against Getafe CF in a 2–0 away win, where he also hit the shot that resulted in an own goal for Getafe keeper David Soria.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Lemar was called up to the senior France squad to face Sweden and Ivory Coast in November 2016 after Kingsley Coman withdrew through injury. He made his debut on 15 November against the latter, replacing Adrien Rabiot for the final 12 minutes of a home friendly match that ended in 0–0 draw. His first international goals for the senior team came in a 2018 World Cup qualifying match against the Netherlands, scoring twice as France won 4–0.  On 17 May 2018, he was called up by manager Didier Deschamps to the 23-man French squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. He made his only appearance of the tournament in France's final group match against Denmark on 26 June, which ended in a 0–0 draw. On 15 July, France won the World Cup for the second time in their history after defeating Croatia 4–2 in the final of the tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Lemar is a versatile midfielder able to play on both wings as well as through the centre and in a free role. He is predominantly left footed, but is also competent with his right foot. He is noted for his excellent dribbling skills, strong passing ability and free kicks. He has said he prefers to link-up with teammates, rather than taking on defenders: \"I am trying to avoid duels and concentrate on passing as much as possible.\" He will often attempt to score from long range and scored 14 goals in 55 appearances in the 2016–17 season and had 17 assists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Monaco  Atlético Madrid  France  Individual  Orders", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas Benoît Lemar (born 12 November 1995) is a French professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Spanish club Atlético Madrid and the France national team. He is known for his versatility, being able to play on both wings and through the centre. Features of his game include dribbling and passing ability.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977413}
{"src_title": "Mako: Island of Secrets", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Zac is a teenage boy who decides to camp on Mako Island, unaware that three mermaids, Sirena, Nixie, and Lyla, who are guardians of the island, are watching him. That night, when the full moon rises, the boy comes into contact with the magic water of the Moon Pool. The following morning, Zac discovers that he has the ability to control and manipulate water. Later, after accidentally falling into the water, he finds that he has also become a merman with a fish-like tail. His new-found merman abilities will cause problems for the mermaids. After their pod casts them out for allowing Zac to visit the island, the three mermaids, curious about living on land and motivated to remove Zac's powers, venture onto the land and learn to live among humans.  In series 2, the mermaids continue to discover Mako's secrets and learn more about the merman chamber. While Nixie and Lyla go in search of a new home, Sirena is left with Ondina and Mimmi, Mako mermaids who continue the effort to remove Zac's powers and reclaim the island for their pod. Evie, Zac's girlfriend, faces her own battles when she becomes a mermaid herself, and the others try to help her cope with the change.  In series 3, with Sirena away with Aquata, Zac, Ondina and Mimmi, are joined by Weilan, an Eastern mermaid who has fled to Mako for sanctuary from a magical water dragon. The mermaids must devise a way to defeat the dragon before it destroys all the pod has worked to save.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development and production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Series one.", "content": "The show, announced in July 2011, consists of 26 episodes of 26 minutes each, plus an option for one 90-minute episode. Filming was to begin in April 2012, but it was postponed to the beginning of May. On 8 May 2012, Shiff Productions announced the principal cast and the start of the shoot. Filming ran through 12 October 2012. \"Mako\" was scheduled to broadcast in the second half of 2013, with a second series confirmed before the first had screened. Production of the first series totalled.  The show was first announced as \"Mako: Island of Secrets\", then as \"Secret of Mako Island\", and finally as \"Mako Mermaids\" for its international release. It debuted domestically on Network Ten as \"Mako: Island of Secrets\" on 26 July 2013.  In partnership with Shiff Productions, Netflix is the exclusive internet television provider for the series. The first thirteen episodes were released on 26 July 2013, with the second half of the season airing on 15 September 2013. On 8 November 2013, broadcasts of the show were switched from Network Ten to the free-to-air digital channel Eleven, first airing on Friday mornings at 8:00 a.m. and later changed to Sunday mornings at 11:00 a.m.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Series two.", "content": "A second series was confirmed in February 2013, with production beginning in the second half of 2013 contingent on funding from Screen Australia. The first half of series two premiered on Netflix on 13 February 2015 in North and Latin America, United Kingdom, and other territories. In Australia, the second series screened on Eleven Sunday mornings at 10:00 a.m. from 15 February 2015. The second half of the series was released on Netflix on 29 May 2015. Netflix labelled the first half as series two, while the second half was called series three.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Series three.", "content": "A third series of 16 episodes was announced in 2014, began screening on Eleven on 15 May 2016 and was released on Netflix on 27 May 2016. The series introduced Chinese mermaid Weilan (Linda Ngo), and featured the special guest appearance of Cariba Heine as Rikki Chadwick in the final two episodes.  A movie was planned to be produced after the series ended. However, the plan has been put on hold indefinitely. Series 3 is listed under Season 4 on Netflix, as Netflix released Series 2 in two separate parts in 2015.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mako: Island of Secrets is an Australian television programme for children and teenagers. Internationally released as Mako Mermaids, the show is a spin-off of \"\" and is produced by Jonathan M. Shiff in association with Network Ten and Nickelodeon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977414}
{"src_title": "Limor Livnat", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Born in Haifa, Livnat studied at Tel Aviv University. She joined Likud in the 1970s, becoming head of its youth organisation in 1977. She first entered the Knesset on 14 April 1992, shortly before the 1992 elections, as a replacement for Haim Corfu. She retained her seat in the elections, and in her first full term, served as chairwoman of the Committee for the Advancement of the Status of Women, the Subcommittee on Laws of Personal Status and the Parliamentary Committee for Investigating Murder of Women by their Spouses.  She retained her seat in the 1996 elections, and was appointed Minister of Communications in Binyamin Netanyahu's government. During her term, she attempted to increase competition in the Israeli communications sector by weakening and privatizing Bezeq, which had previously held a monopoly over the country's landline phone sector.  Tensions between Livnat and Netanyahu climaxed in the former's resignation from government in 1997 and subsequent attempt to end Netanyahu's leadership of the Likud. Following Netanyahu's resignation from the Likud leadership after the party's defeat in the 1999 elections, Livnat supported Ariel Sharon's successful attempt to serve as the next chairperson of the party. After Sharon's victory over Ehud Barak in the special election for Prime Minister in 2001, Livnat was appointed Minister of Education in both governments he formed.  She was re-elected in 2003, and continued to serve as Minister of Education until Likud left the coalition (now headed by the newly formed Kadima) in 2006. She retained her seat in the 2006 and 2009 elections, after which she was appointed to the new post of Minister of Culture and Sport. Prior to the 2013 elections she lost her place as the top-ranking woman in Likud, finishing below Tzipi Hotovely and Miri Regev in the party primaries. However, she was re-elected and continued in the ministerial role.  In December 2014 Livnat announced that she was leaving politics, and would not run in the March 2015 elections.  Livnat has also served as Vice Chairwoman and Acting Chairwoman of the World Likud Movement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal views and life.", "content": "Although overtly secular, Livnat is generally identified as a right wing conservative, both morally and politically. A supporter of Revisionist Zionism, she ideologically opposed the Oslo Accords as well as the notion of relinquishing control over the West Bank. In this light she has voiced concerns over US President George W. Bush's Road Map for Peace. She also regularly attends events in honor of the pre-independence militant organizations, such as the Irgun and Lehi. However, she did not actively oppose Ariel Sharon's disengagement plan.  In April, 2011, Livnat's nephew, Ben-Joseph Livnat, 25, was shot dead by a Palestinian Authority policeman when trying to break through a Palestinian road block after an unauthorized visit to the Joseph's Tomb in Palestinian-administered area of Nablus. Livnat described the shooting death of her nephew as an act of terrorism. An IDF report released a month later concluded that the event was not a premeditated terror attack, but that the policeman had acted \"maliciously\" and with the intent to harm.  In an interview with Army Radio on December 25, 2011, Livnat, who was then leading the Interministerial Committee on the Status of Women, opined that in entirely ultra-orthodox areas of the country, segregation on public transport should be permitted. \"I don't think we should tell them how to live,\" said Livnat, \"We should live and let live...When we are speaking about a mixed city, however, or a city where there are haredim or religious people who oppose segregation, we must fight the phenomenon of public segregation between sexes,\" she added.  A resident of Tel Aviv, Livnat is married and has two children.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Limor Livnat (; born 22 September 1950) is an Israeli politician. She served as a member of the Knesset for Likud between 1992 and 2015, and was Minister of Communications, Minister of Education, and Minister of Culture & Sport.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977415}
{"src_title": "Shlomo Benizri", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Shlomo Benizri was born in Nesher. He was one of eight children born to Maimon and Aliza Benizri. Growing up, he studied at elementary school in Nesher, a religious youth village in Kfar Hasidim, and the Nesher Comprehensive High School. He did military service in the Israel Defense Forces and participated in the 1982 Lebanon War. He then studied for ten years at Yeshivat Or HaChaim, a yeshiva in Jerusalem, and was ordained as a rabbi. He went on to teach at the yeshiva and serve as its spiritual director.  Benizri lives in Jerusalem and is married with eight children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Benizri was first elected to the Knesset in 1992 on Shas' list, and served as the party's parliamentary group chairman during his first term. He was re-elected in 1996, and was appointed Deputy Minister of Health in Binyamin Netanyahu's government. He was re-elected again in 1999 after being placed fifth on the Shas list, and was appointed Minister of Health in Ehud Barak's government, serving in the cabinet until Shas left the government on 11 July 2000.  He returned to the cabinet after Ariel Sharon formed a new government in 2001 as Labor and Social Welfare Minister, serving until the 2003 elections (aside from a period of two weeks in May–June 2002 when Shas withdrew from the coalition).  For the 2003 elections, Benizri was placed second on the Shas list, and was re-elected. For the 2006 elections, he was dropped to sixth place.  Although he retained his seat, on 29 March 2006, the day following the elections, he was charged by the State Prosecutor's Office with accepting bribes and breaching the public trust. The decision to indict Benizri after the elections was a conscious decision on the part of the Israeli attorney general Menachem Mazuz. On 1 April 2008, Benizri was convicted of accepting bribes, breach of faith, obstructing justice, and conspiracy to commit a crime for accepting favors worth millions of shekels from his friend, contractor Moshe Sela, in exchange for inside information regarding foreign workers scheduled to arrive in Israel. On 27 April 2008, a district court sentenced him to 18 months in jail and decided that his actions qualified as moral turpitude.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conviction and prison term.", "content": "Benizi resigned from the Knesset the same day and was replaced by Mazor Bahaina. Both Benizri and the state appealed. On 24 June 2009, the Supreme Court upheld the decision and prolonged Benizri's jail time to 4 years. Shas MK Nissim Ze'ev declared after the sentencing: “He is a victim of the system that allows his fate to be decided by elitist judges, who care about his sector and his race and not the good deeds he performs. I have no doubt that an American jury would have treated him better. That's why we need a jury of our peers”. Benizri's brother, Rabbi David Benizri claimed that “a conspiracy of top-ranking homosexuals was behind the Supreme Court's decision to aggravate the sentence”. Benizri began serving his sentence on September 1, 2009, in the religious division of Maasiyahu prison in Ramle. His cellmate from December 7, 2011, to his release was former president Moshe Katsav.  In January 2012, a parole board reduced his sentence by 16 months due to good behavior. On March 1, 2012, Benizri was released early; he was one of 600 other prisoners whose sentences were commuted to ease overcrowding in Israeli prisons. As soon as he was released, he resumed delivering his \"shiurim\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Views and opinions.", "content": "In 1998, Benizri called for Dana International to be disqualified from the Eurovision Song Contest, which she went on to win. He stated, \"The Eurovision Song Contest interests me about as much as the weather in Antarctica, but as a son of the Jewish people, it [Dana International's transsexuality] offends me\", and \"Undergoing a sex change is worse than an act of sodomy... choosing her is sending a message of darkness to the world.\"  In 2001, he was accused of racism after he said, \"I just don't understand why a restaurant needs a slant-eye to serve me my meal.\"  In 2004, during \"The Passion of the Christ\" controversy, when several Shas members wanted to have the film banned in Israel for anti-Semitism, Benizri disagreed, and said that, \"the Jews did kill Jesus\", reportedly elaborating that Jesus was put to death according to Sanhedrin tradition: \"They [the Jews] took him [Jesus] up to a high roof, and threw him crashing to the ground. Afterwards, they hung his body on wooden beams in the shape of a 'T', but not, as the Christian legends say, that he was crucified. That's nonsense.\" Benizri also claims that Jesus' death was an internal Jewish affair. \"What is there to deny? We're talking about a yeshiva student who left Judaism, and the Sanhedrin put him to death.\"  In 2008, Benizri blamed several earthquakes in the region on Israel's tolerance of homosexuality.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Shlomo Benizri (; born 7 February 1961) is an Israeli politician and member of the Shas party. He represented Shas in the Knesset between 1992 and 2008, serving as Deputy Health Minister, Minister of Health, and Labor and Social Welfare Minister during the late 1990s and early 2000s. He was later convicted for accepting bribes, breach of trust, conspiring to commit a crime, and obstruction of justice, and served a prison sentence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977416}
{"src_title": "Ashtamangala", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In Buddhism.", "content": "Tibetan Buddhists make use of a particular set of eight auspicious symbols, \"ashtamangala\", in household and public art. Some common interpretations are given along with each symbol although different teachers may give different interpretations:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conch.", "content": "The right-turning white conch shell (Sanskrit: ; ) represents the beautiful, deep, melodious, interpenetrating and pervasive sound of the dharma, which awakens disciples from the deep slumber of ignorance and urges them to accomplish their own welfare for the welfare of others.  In Hinduism, the conch is an attribute of Vishnu along with the Sudarshana Chakra. Vaishnavism holds that Gautama Buddha is an avatar of Vishnu.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Endless knot.", "content": "The endless knot (Sanskrit: \"śrīvatsa\"; ) denotes \"the auspicious mark represented by a curled noose emblematic of love\". It is a symbol of the ultimate unity of everything. Moreover, it represents the intertwining of wisdom and compassion, the mutual dependence of religious doctrine and secular affairs, the union of wisdom and method, the inseparability of śūnyatā \"emptiness\" and pratītyasamutpāda \"interdependent origination\", and the union of wisdom and compassion in enlightenment (see namkha). This knot, net or web metaphor also conveys the Buddhist teaching of interpenetration.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pair of Golden Fish.", "content": "The two golden fish (Sanskrit: gaurmatsya; ) symbolise the auspiciousness of all sentient beings in a state of fearlessness without danger of drowning in saṃsāra. The two golden fishes are linked with the Ganges and Yamuna nadi, prana and carp: In Islam the (alive) fish has a significant role in the meeting between Moses and Khidr.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Lotus.", "content": "The lotus flower (Sanskrit: \"padma\"; ), represent the primordial purity of body, speech, and mind, floating above the muddy waters of attachment and desire. The lotus symbolizes purity and renunciation. Although the lotus has its roots in the mud at the bottom of a pond, its flower lies immaculate above the water. The Buddhist lotus bloom has 4, 8, 16, 24, 32, 64, 100, or 1,000 petals. The same figures can refer to the body's 'internal lotuses', that is to say, its energy centres (chakra).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Parasol.", "content": "The jewelled parasol (Sanskrit: \"chatraratna\"; ), which is similar in ritual function to the baldachin or canopy: represents the protection of beings from harmful forces and illness. It represents the canopy or firmament of the sky and therefore the expansiveness and unfolding of space and the element æther. It represents the expansiveness, unfolding and protective quality of the sahasrara: all take refuge in the dharma under the auspiciousness of the parasol.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vase.", "content": "The treasure vase () represents health, longevity, wealth, prosperity, wisdom and the phenomenon of space. The treasure vase, or pot, symbolizes the Buddha's infinite quality of teaching the dharma: no matter how many teachings he shared, the treasure never lessened.  The iconography representation of the treasure vase is often very similar to the kumbha, one of the few possessions permitted a bhikkhu or bhikkhuni in Theravada Buddhism. The wisdom urn or treasure vase is used in many empowerment (Vajrayana) and initiations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dharmachakra.", "content": "The Dharmachakra or \"Wheel of the Law\" (Sanskrit; ) represents Gautama Buddha and the Dharma teaching. This symbol is commonly used by Tibetan Buddhists, where it sometimes also includes an inner wheel of the Gankyil (Tibetan). Nepalese Buddhists don't use the Wheel of Law in the eight auspicious symbols.  Instead of the Dharmachakra, a fly-whisk may be used as one of the Ashtamangala to symbolize Tantric manifestations. It is made of a yak's tail attached to a silver staff, and used in ritual recitation and during fanning the deities in pujas. Prayer wheels take the form of a Dharmachakra guise. The Sudarshana Chakra is a Hindu wheel-symbol.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Victory Banner.", "content": "The dhvaja (Sanskrit; ) \"banner, flag\" was a military standard of ancient Indian warfare. The symbol represents the Buddha's victory over the four māras, or hindrances in the path of enlightenment. These hindrances are pride, desire, disturbing emotions, and the fear of death. Within the Tibetan tradition, a list of eleven different forms of the victory banner is given to represent eleven specific methods for overcoming defilement. Many variations of the dhvaja's design can be seen on the roofs of Tibetan monasteries to symbolise the Buddha's victory over four māras. Banners are placed at the four corners of monastery and temple roofs. The cylindrical banners placed on monastery roofs are often made of beaten copper.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sequences of symbols.", "content": "Different traditions order the eight symbols differently.  Here is the sequential order of the Eight Auspicious Symbols of Nepali Buddhism:  The sequential order for Chinese Buddhism was defined in the Qing dynasty as:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hindu symbols.", "content": "In Indian and Hindu tradition, the Ashtamangala may be used during certain occasions including: pujas, weddings (of Hindus), and coronations. The ashtamangala finds wide mention in the texts associated with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. They have been depicted in decorative motifs and cultural artifacts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jain symbols.", "content": "In Jainism, the Ashtamangala are a set of eight auspicious symbols. There is some variation among different traditions concerning the eight symbols.  In the Digambara tradition, the eight symbols are:  In the Śvētāmbara tradition, the eight symbols are:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Ashtamangala is a sacred suite of \"Eight Auspicious Signs\" endemic to a number of religions such as Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. The symbols or \"symbolic attributes\" () are yidam and teaching tools. Not only do these attributes (or energetic signatures) point to qualities of enlightened mindstream, but they are the investiture that ornaments these enlightened \"qualities\" (Sanskrit: \"guṇa\"; ). Many cultural enumerations and variations of the Ashtamangala are extant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977417}
{"src_title": "Sidney Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Lea", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was the younger son of George Herbert, 11th Earl of Pembroke, his mother being the Russian noblewoman Countess Catherine Woronzow (or Vorontsov), daughter of the Russian ambassador to St James's, Semyon Romanovich Vorontsov. The Woronzow Road in St John's Wood, London, is named after the family. Educated at Harrow and Oriel College, Oxford, he made a reputation at the Oxford Union as a speaker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Herbert entered the House of Commons as Conservative member of Parliament for a division of Wiltshire in 1832. Under Robert Peel he held minor offices, and in 1845 was included in the cabinet as Secretary at War, and again held this office from 1852 to 1854, being responsible for the War Office during the Crimean War. He was yet again appointed Secretary at War in 1859, by which time the post had been combined with the office of Secretary of State for War.  Herbert was a member of the Canterbury Association from 20 March 1848.  He ran the Pembroke family estates, centered at Wilton House, Wiltshire, for most of his adult life. His elder half-brother, Robert Herbert, 12th Earl of Pembroke (1791–1862), had chosen to live in exile in Paris after a disastrous marriage in 1814 (annulled 1818) to a Sicilian princess, Ottavia Spinelli (1779–1857), widow of Prince Ercole Branciforte di Butera, and daughter of the Duke of Laurino, and a subsequent liaison with Alexina Gallot, which resulted in four illegitimate children.  Sidney Herbert asked his friend Florence Nightingale to lead a team of nurses out to Scutari during the Crimean War, and together he and Nightingale led the movement after the war for Army Health and reform of the War Office. The hard work entailed caused a breakdown in his health, so that in July 1861, having been created a baron in the peerage of the United Kingdom, he had to resign government office. He died from Bright's disease on 2 August 1861. His statue by Foley was placed in front of the War Office in Pall Mall, London, and subsequently, following that building's demolition, placed next to A. G. Walker's statue of Florence Nightingale in Waterloo Place, adjacent to the Crimean Monument.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In the early 1840s, Herbert is thought to have had an affair with the noted society beauty and author Caroline Norton, who was unable to get a divorce from an abusive husband, so that the relationship ended in 1846.  In 1846 Herbert married Elizabeth (1822–1911), only daughter of Lt.-Gen. Charles Ashe à Court-Repington and niece of William à Court, 1st Baron Heytesbury. She was a philanthropist, author and translator, and a friend of Benjamin Disraeli, Cardinal Manning and Cardinal Vaughan. After her husband's death, Lady Herbert became an \"ardent ultramontane\" Roman Catholic, along with their eldest daughter, Mary.  Sidney and Elizabeth Herbert lived at 49 Belgrave Square, London, and had seven children:  Sidney Herbert is buried in the churchyard at Wilton, rebuilt by his father in neo-Romanesque style, with inside the church a marble monumental effigy of him beside Elizabeth, his wife (who, however, was buried at St Joseph's Missionary College, Mill Hill, where she was a notable patron).  Herbert Sound in the Antarctic and Pembroke, Ontario in Canada are named after Sidney Herbert. Mount Herbert, the highest peak on Banks Peninsula, was named by the chief surveyor of the Canterbury Association, Joseph Thomas, in 1849.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sidney Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Lea, PC (16 September 1810 – 2 August 1861) was a British statesman and a close ally and confidant of Florence Nightingale.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977418}
{"src_title": "2013 Czech legislative election", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The previous election in May 2010 resulted in the formation of a three-party centre-right coalition government consisting of the Civic Democratic Party (ODS), TOP 09 and Public Affairs (VV), with 118 seats, led by Prime Minister Petr Nečas.  On 22 April 2012, after a split in VV related to corruption accusations against the party leadership (especially Vít Bárta), ODS and TOP 09 dissolved their coalition with VV, raising the possibility that early elections would be held in June 2012. However, shortly afterwards a breakaway faction of VV, led by Karolína Peake, formed a new party, LIDEM, who replaced VV in the coalition with ODS and TOP 09. The revised coalition controlled 100 seats, and won a subsequent vote of confidence on 27 April 2012 by 105 to 93 votes, with additional support from some independent MPs.  On 17 June 2013, Prime Minister Petr Nečas resigned after a spying and corruption scandal. The Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD), the largest opposition party, called for the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies and a snap election, while the ODSTOP09LIDEM coalition argued they could still command a majority under Miroslava Němcová (ODS) as the new prime minister, as they proposed to the Czech President. From 25 June 2013, the previous government coalition only held 98 seats, and was therefore dependent upon support from independent MPs. To demonstrate its majority, the ODS-led coalition submitted 101 MP signatures of support to the president, including two extra independents as part of the LIDEM parliamentary group and the independent Michal Doktor, a former ODS member. In an unprecedented move, President Miloš Zeman decided not to accept the coalition's requests, but instead appointed a caretaker government with Jiří Rusnok as new prime minister. Zeman described the new government as a \"government of experts\", while his critics described it as a \"government of Zeman's friends\". Former Prime Minister Jan Fischer was named as finance minister. Zeman stated that if the caretaker government could not win majority support in the vote of confidence required by the constitution to take place after 30 days in office, then he would give the ODS-led coalition a second attempt to form a government, provided it could still submit at least 101 signatures of support from MPs.  On 7 August 2013, Jiří Rusnok's caretaker government lost the confidence vote in parliament by 93 to 100 votes, with 7 abstentions. A simple majority was required to unseat the government, which was supported by all MPs from ODS, TOP09 and LIDEM (except two ODS MPs and Karolína Peake of LIDEM, who broke the party line by abstaining). The two dissenting ODS MPs, who were both expelled from the party a few hours after the vote, explained their decision by stating that ODS needed a period of self-reflection in opposition in order to win the municipal elections in 2014.  Karolína Peake resigned as leader of LIDEM after the vote, and TOP 09 stated that due to a lack of support for a reformed ODSTOP09LIDEM government, as indicated by the results of the confidence vote, they would withdraw their support for this coalition, in favour of early elections. ČSSD and the Communist Party (KSČM) also supported early elections.  Though the constitution of the Czech Republic allows the president two attempts to appoint someone to form a new government, there is no time limit. As such, in theory the caretaker government could be allowed by the president to continue in its interim capacity until new elections took place, despite having lost the confidence vote. The end of the legislative term was scheduled to be May 2014, unless the parliament was dissolved before that date. Nevertheless, the caretaker government decided voluntarily to resign on 13 August 2013, with immediate effect, and the parliament convened on 20 August to decide whether to dissolve the parliament and call for new elections within 60 days, or to request that the president again appoint someone to form a new government.  A vote on dissolution of the parliament was scheduled to take place at 14:00 on 20 August. The four parties who had stated their support for the motion (TOP 09, ČSSD, KSČM and VV) together held more than the 60% majority (120 seats) required to pass the motion of dissolution, according to article 35(2) of the constitution. On 20 August, the parliament approved the motion of dissolution by 140 to 7. The president gave his assent for the dissolution of the parliament on 28 August, and scheduled the elections for 2526 October 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Incumbent parliament.", "content": "The distribution of seats in the Chamber of Deputies on 20 August 2013, immediately before the parliament was dissolved, was as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overseas voters.", "content": "Following a random draw carried out by the State Election Committee, Czechs voting abroad who did not have permanent residency in the country would be included as voters in the Central Bohemian Region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "ČSSD internal conflict.", "content": "Following the election, ČSSD said they were open to talks with all parties about the formation of a government. ANO leader Babis said he could imagine supporting a ČSSD-led government, whether in a coalition or supporting a ČSSD minority government from opposition, but that it was not his preferred option, as he opposed ČSSD proposals for tax increases. He also indicated that he would seek to become Minister of Finance in any coalition cabinet.  Immediately after the elections, two factions emerged in the ČSSD, one supporting chairman Bohuslav Sobotka and the other led by Michal Hašek, ČSSD's leader in Moravia. Hašek, with support from President Miloš Zeman, issued a statement calling for Bohuslav Sobotka to resign as party chairman. ČSSD leaders had already appointed Hašek as the lead negotiator in coalition talks due to take place with other parties. A few days previously, Michal Hašek had declared his loyalty to Sobotka, and endorsed him as leader of ČSSD. ČSSD members organized meetings and rallies against Hašek, and Sobotka compared Hašek to Zdeněk Fierlinger, ČSSD's pro-Communist leader from 1948 who forced the party to merge with the Communist regime. Sobotka was supported by Jiří Dienstbier Jr., the party's most recent presidential candidate, while Hašek was supported by party figures including Jeroným Tejc and Lubomír Zaorálek. According to opinion polls, the situation was perceived by the public as an attempted leadership coup. Subsequently, Hašek and his allies, in the face of popular and party support for Bohuslav Sobotka, resigned their positions within the party and lost influence. A new negotiation team was formed, led by Bohuslav Sobotka, to negotiate with ANO and KDU-ČSL.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Government formation.", "content": "On 11 November, ČSSD began coalition talks with ANO and KDU-ČSL. All parties agreed on progressive taxation, abolition of the previous government's social reforms and a law about property origin. However, disagreement remained between ČSSD and KDU-ČSL regarding church restitution.  In late December 2013, leaders of ČSSD, ANO and KDU-ČSL announced that they had reached an agreement on a coalition government. The coalition agreement was signed on 6 January 2014. The parties also agreed on a cabinet, in which ČSSD took eight ministries, ANO seven ministries and KDU-ČSL three ministries. Sobotka became prime minister, with Babiš deputy prime minister and minister of finance, and KDU-ČSL leader Pavel Bělobrádek second deputy Prime Minister. Bohuslav Sobotka's Cabinet was sworn in on 29 January 2014.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Early legislative elections were held in the Czech Republic on 25 and 26 October 2013, seven months before the constitutional expiry of the elected parliament's four-year legislative term.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977419}
{"src_title": "Amina Tyler", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Nude photo \"My body is mine\".", "content": "On 11 March 2013, Tyler was the first Tunisian woman to post a photograph of herself nude from the waist up on Facebook, with the phrase \"My body is mine and not the source of anybody's honour\" in Arabic. The photo was seen as scandalous and evoked strong controversies within Tunisian society comparable to the nude self-portraits of the Egyptian Aliaa Magda Elmahdy two years earlier. On 16 March, the popular talk host Naoufel Ouertani invited her to his show on Ettounsiya where she appeared disguised by pixellation. She explained that it was not for sexual reasons that she appeared topless but to call out their demands for the women's liberation in a patriarchal society.  Imam Adel Almi issued a fatwa for her to be punished with 100 lashes and stoned to death.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Imprisonment.", "content": "On 19 May 2013 she painted the name \"FEMEN\" on a cemetery wall in Kairouan, to protest against the annual congress of Salafi party Ansar al-Sharia. She was arrested and brought to Messaadine jail in Sousse. She faced up to 1 year in prison  Tyler's father, the medical doctor Mounir Sbouï, told the French newspaper \"Libération\" in an interview that his daughter made a mistake but didn't commit a crime. The long time militant and campaigner of the socialist Democratic Forum for Labour and Liberties, who had left the party only after it joined the Troika government, said he was even proud of his daughter who \"defended her ideas\" and who also brought him to reconcile with his own values making him understand that one needs to be active. International protests followed for her release from detention. On 29 May 2013, three FEMEN members held topless protest in front of the Tunis court to demand her release while shouting \"Free Amina!\" and \"A women's spring is coming!\" (a reference to the Arab Spring). On 12 June 2013 a Tunisian judge convicted the two French and one German FEMEN members to fourth months and one day imprisonment for public indecency while protesting for the release of Tyler. The protestors, Pauline Hillier, Marguerite Stern, and Josephine Markmann, were released on 26 June 2013 after a Tunisian court lifted their prison sentence.  Amina Tyler was acquitted for contempt and defamation on 29 July 2013, but she remained jailed pending trial on a separate charge of desecrating a cemetery.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later activism.", "content": "FEMEN had staged protests in front of the Tunisian embassy in Paris where they chanted 'Amina akbar! FEMEN akbar!' (referencing the Takbir) and in front of the Grand Mosque of Paris burning a Tawhid flag. Upon release in August 2013, Tyler declared that she was leaving the group in protest, adding that she thought FEMEN's actions in Paris were disrespectful to 'the religion of others' and because she saw a lack of financial transparency in the organisation. Inna Shevchenko reacted surprised: \"It’s thanks to this campaign that Amina is out of prison.\"  In 2013, Tyler moved to Paris, where she completed high school and co-authored an autobiography, published in February 2014 under the title \"My Body Belongs to Me\" (). During International Women's Day on 8 March 2014, Tyler and seven other Arab and Iranian women, including Maryam Namazie and Aliaa Elmahdy, protested naked for women's rights at the Louvre Pyramid, chanting slogans in French in favour of freedom, equality and secularism (\"liberté, égalité et laïcité).  In 2015, she was listed as one of BBC's 100 Women.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Amina Tyler (; born 7 December 1994 as Amina Sboui ()) is a Tunisian student, women's rights activist, and was a member of Femen.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977420}
{"src_title": "Disputation of the Holy Sacrament", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "In the painting, Raphael has created a scene spanning both heaven and earth. Above, Christ is surrounded by an aureole, flanked by the Blessed Virgin Mary and John the Baptist to his right and left (an arrangement known as the Deësis). Other various biblical figures such as Peter (far left, holding keys), Adam (far left, bared chest), Paul (far right, holding book and sword) and Moses (right, with horns of light and holding tablets of the Ten Commandments) are to the sides. God the Father sits above them all in the golden light of heaven and adored by angels. Below Christ's feet is the Holy Spirit, to whose sides are books of the four Gospels held open by putti.  Below, on an altar sits the monstrance. The altar is flanked by theologians who are depicted debating Transubstantiation. Christ's Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity is the Holy Eucharist, which is discussed by representatives of the Church; among them are the original four Doctors of the Church (identified by their names inscribed into their halos), with Pope Gregory I and Jerome seated to the left of the altar and Augustine and Ambrose to the right, along with Pope Julius II, Pope Sixtus IV, Savonarola and Dante Alighieri. Pope Sixtus IV is the gold-dressed pope in the bottom of the painting. Directly behind Sixtus is Dante, wearing red and sporting a laurel wreath (symbolizing his greatness as a poet). The bald figure reading a book and leaning over a railing in the left hand corner could be Raphael's mentor and Renaissance architect Bramante.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Disputation of the Sacrament (), or Disputa, is a painting by the Italian Renaissance artist Raphael. It was painted between 1509 and 1510 as the first part of Raphael's commission to decorate with frescoes the rooms that are now known as the Stanze di Raffaello, in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. At the time, this room was known as the Stanza della Segnatura, and was the private papal library where the supreme papal tribunal met.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977421}
{"src_title": "Pamphili family", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Pamphili surname originated in Gubbio and went to Rome under the pontificate of Pope Innocent VIII (1484–1492).  The peak of Pamphili power came with the election of Giovanni Battista Pamphili as Pope Innocent X, who reigned from 1644–1655. Like the reign of his predecessor Pope Urban VIII (of the equally papal Barberini family), Innocent X's rule was littered with examples of nepotism. Members of the Pamphili family did exceptionally well from the Innocent X papacy.  The following family members were created cardinals:  Like other Italian noble families, the Pamphili bought property (\"palazzi\" or \"palaces\" and other estates) and created self-styled principalities. Family members regularly had princely titles bestowed upon them by family patriarchs or matriarchs. Olimpia Maidalchini received the honorific title of \"Princess of San Martino\", effectively turning the small enclave of San Martino into a principality in its own right. After he left the cardinalate to marry, Camillo Pamphili was given the titles of \"Prince of San Martino\" and \"Prince of Valmontone\" (he bought the Valmontone \"comune\" in 1634 from the Barberini family).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family tree.", "content": "Pamphili family tree from 1574 to 1760:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wars of Castro.", "content": "Between 1639 and 1649, the Pamphili fought the Wars of Castro alongside the Barberini against the Farnese dukes of Parma who controlled Castro and its surrounding territories. The conflict raged first under Barberini Pope Urban VIII and later under Pamphili Pope Innocent X.  Pope Urban VIII died in 1644 only two months after a peace accord was signed between the papal families and the dukes. Pope Innocent X was elected to replace him. Innocent set about investigating some of the finances related to the conflict which had been administered by the Barberini. A number of Barberini family members were forced into exile but were later reconciled with the papacy and the Pamphili through the marriage of Maffeo Barberini (son of exiled Taddeo Barberini) and Olimpia Giustiniani, a niece of Pope Innocent X.  On the orders of Innocent X, Castro was razed on 2 September 1649 by troops of the Papal Army and never rebuilt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family property.", "content": "Palazzo Pamphilj, by the architects Girolamo Rainaldi and Francesco Borromini, is located in the heart of Rione Parione, south of the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone in Piazza Navona, the Pamphili neighborhood of Rome, named for this reason \"Isola de' Pamphili\". From 1652, on Saturdays and Sundays in August, the piazza was turned into a lake to celebrate the Pamphili family, a festival that was suppressed in 1866. Today, the palace functions as the Brazilian Embassy in Rome. The tomb of Innocent X is located in Sant'Agnese.  In 1634 the Pamphilj bought the baronial palace in Valmontone, a town near Palestrina, outside (Rome): Camillo Pamphili was determined to create a sort of new “ideal city”, so the palace and the main church were rebuilt and decorated by important baroque artists, like the architect Mattia de Rossi (who rose to prominence under the mentorship of Bernini), and the painters Pier Francesco Mola, Gaspard Dughet, Guglielmo Cortese, Francesco Cozza and Mattia Preti.  Another building in central Rome is the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj, which houses the gallery of the same name.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pamphili family (often with the final \"long i\" orthography, Pamphilj) was one of the papal families deeply entrenched in Catholic Church, Roman and Italian politics of the 16th and 17th centuries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977422}
{"src_title": "Blackburn Shark", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "The Blackburn T.9 Shark was designed and built, initially as a private venture, to Air Ministry Specification S.15/33 for a torpedo-spotter-reconnaissance aircraft to be operated by the Fleet Air Arm. It had a crew of three, with the observer/wireless operator and gunner sharing the second cockpit (open on Mks I and II, enclosed on Mk III). Armament consisted of one fixed, forward-firing.303 in (7.7 mm) Vickers machine gun, plus a.303 in (7.7 mm) Vickers K machine gun or Lewis Gun mounted on a Scarff ring in the rear cockpit, with provision for a torpedo or equivalent bombload carried externally. The Blackburn \"B-6\" prototype with a Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IV was flown at Brough on 24 August 1933. The aircraft subsequently began Naval aviation tests at the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE), RAF Martlesham Heath on 26 November 1933.  The following year, deck landing trials on proved successful with Blackburn winning an order from the Fleet Air Arm in August 1934, to contract No 334315/34 and the new Specification 13/35. I, and further contract No 510994/35 to Specification 19/36 issued in January 1937.  The prototype was subsequently fitted with twin floats and was test-flown at Brough in April 1935 with successful sea trials taking place at the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment Felixstowe. More contracts followed, and during the three years of production, 238 Sharks were delivered to the Fleet Air Arm, comprising 16 Mk I (Tiger IV), 126 Mk II (760 hp/567 kW Tiger VI) and 95 Mk III (760 hp/570 kW Tiger VI).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The Shark entered service with 820 Naval Air Squadron in May 1935, replacing Fairey Seals, equipping a further two squadrons (810 and 821) in 1936. Frontline service was short-lived, the type being replaced by the Fairey Swordfish in 1937.  At least 22 Mk IIs and IIIs (all brought up to Mk III standard) were converted in 1937/38 as target tugs and operated in this role and for training and communications until 1942. Sharks based in RAF Seletar as target tugs were used for patrol missions and bombing raids against Japanese invaders over Malaya in January 1942.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Canadian Sharks.", "content": "The RCAF purchased seven Blackburn Shark II (760 hp/570 kW Tiger VI) in 1936 for service with No 6 (TB) Squadron, later operating as No 6 (BR) Sqn on shipping patrols off the Canadian west coast. Two Blackburn Shark IIIs (800 hp/600 kW Pegasus III) were supplied to RCAF by Blackburn in 1939 as forerunners of 17 similar aircraft built by Boeing Aircraft of Canada at Vancouver, with Pegasus IX and used by Nos 6 and 4 (BR) Squadrons. RCAF Blackburn Sharks, some of which operated as floatplanes, were withdrawn from service in August 1944 and five were then transferred to the RN Air Observers' School in Trinidad.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Blackburn Shark was a British carrier-borne torpedo bomber built by the Blackburn Aircraft company in England. It first flew on 24 August 1933 and went into service with the Fleet Air Arm, Royal Canadian Air Force, Portuguese Navy, and the British Air Observers' School, but was already obsolescent by 1937 and in the following year, replacement by the Fairey Swordfish began.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977423}
{"src_title": "ANO 2011", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The idea of founding a new political party came after leader and founder Andrej Babiš started talking about systemic corruption. ANO 2011 started as association in November 2011, and on 11 May 2012 ANO became an official political party in the Czech Republic.  In the legislative election held on 25–26 October 2013, ANO gained 18.7% of the vote and 47 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, attaining second place behind the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD).  On 29 January 2014, the Cabinet of Social Democrat Prime Minister Bohuslav Sobotka was sworn in, with ANO and the Populars (KDU–ČSL) participating as junior coalition partners to the ČSSD.  On 24–25 May 2014, ANO came first nationally in the 2014 European election gaining 16.13% of votes and 4 seats, joining the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) group in European Parliament. On 10 September 2014, ANO member Věra Jourová was designated European Commissioner of Justice, Consumers and Gender Equality in the Juncker Commission.  In the 2014 senate and municipal elections held on 10–11 October 2014, ANO won 4 seats in the Senate. ANO was also the largest party in 8 of the 10 biggest cities in the Czech Republic including its capital, Prague. It took mayoral offices in three largest cities in the Czech republic (Prague, Brno and Ostrava). Adriana Krnáčová was the first female mayor of Prague. This success was later undermined when a large number of municipal coalitions broke up because of the party's disunity.  On 21 November 2014, ANO was given full membership of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) at the ALDE congress in Lisbon.  In 2016, two parties split from ANO 2011 – Change for People and PRO 2016 (FOR 2016). The latter was joined by numerous local councilors and Mayors from ANO 2011. The new parties explained the split by citing a lack of democracy and discussion in ANO 2011. Andrej Babiš said that members of both parties left ANO 2011 because they weren't on candidate list for regional elections in 2016 but admitted that some members or organizations of ANO 2011 may have wanted to privatize their position in the party. Radka Paulová, leader of PRO 2016, defended herself that if she had really wanted a better position on Candidate list, she would have done better to have stayed in ANO 2011. Another member of PRO 2016 admitted that conflict about Candidature for Regional Councils also played a role. She said that the main criterion for Candidates to regional councils was not professionality but loyalty. ANO 2011 also lost one MP in July 2016 when Kristýna Zelienková left the party.  ANO won 2016 regional elections and the 1st round of the 2016 senate election. The party came first in 9 regions and second in the remaining 4 regions; its victory in South Bohemia was especially surprising. ANO ended up with 5 governors, one of whom, the Karlovy Vary Governor Jana Vildumetzová, became Chairman of Regional Association. The second round of the senate election was a disappointment to the party, as 3 candidates were elected.  On 11 October 2017, MEP Pavel Telička announced his departure from the party. Petr Ježek left ANO 2011 on 23 January 2018.  On 20–21 October 2017, the ANO party won the 2017 legislative election with 29.6% of the vote. ANO formed the short-lived first Babiš government with independent ministers on 13 December 2017, failing a vote of confidence on 16 January 2018. On 12 July 2018 the second Babiš government was formed, with the ČSSD joining as the junior coalition partner to ANO. The cabinet received external support from Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia.  In May 2019, ANO came first place in the 2019 European election, with 21.2% of the vote, returning 6 MEPs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Babiš's Cafe.", "content": "Andrej Babiš started a project, Babiš's Cafe, in June 2016. It is the party's television program that consists of interviews with party leader Andrej Babiš. He is questioned by moderator Pavla Charvátová and also answers questions that are sent by viewers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideology and political positions.", "content": "Founded in 2011 and led by the multi-millionaire entrepreneur Andrej Babiš, ANO identifies itself as a political movement, rather than a party and does not want to be labeled on the left–right political axis. It aims to rid the country of corruption, abolish immunity for politicians, fight unemployment and improve transportation infrastructure. Ideologically, the party is often placed in the centre and, in this respect, it has political similarities with the Populars (KDU–ČSL).  Andrej Babiš stated in a post-election interview that he opposes the Czech Republic's adoption of the euro, and that ANO opposes further European integration and \"Brussels bureaucracy\". However, Andrej Babiš stated later that he was open to adopting the euro once the Czech Republic had a balanced budget. He also pleaded for closer ties with Germany and said the Czech Republic was already ready to sign the Fiscal Compact treaty at the time of the interview. In some spheres, such as tax policy, Babiš reintroduced center-left elements to the movement's politics, including the abolition of partial tax exemption for self-employed persons and restoration of the partial tax exemption for employed pensioners. He also introduced a proposal to increase school teacher wages by 2.5%, as opposed to his ministry's original proposal for a 1% increase. In the area of healthcare, Babiš has criticized public health insurance companies for their enormous spending.  ANO's political position is debated among politicians and political scientists. Right-wing politicians and pundits place ANO 2011 on the left, while political scientists place it mostly in the centre. Andrej Babiš stated in an interview that ANO 2011 is \"a right-wing party with social empathy\".  ANO 2011 adopted Eurosceptic stances prior to the 2017 legislative election such as opposition to the Euro, deeper European integration and immigration quotas. The party took a more pro-EU stance after the campaign. Daniel Kaiser of Echo24 called the party's stance towards the EU \"Euro-opportunism\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Structure.", "content": "ANO 2011 has a highly centralised organisational structure. The strongest position is that of the Chairman who acts independently when representing the party. The highest body of ANO 2011 is its National Assembly that meets at least once in every two years. Other national offices include membership of the Party Committee and the Bureau. The Bureau is led by the Chairman. Regional assemblies can elect their own Chairmen; however, they must be approved by the Bureau before they can take office. The Bureau also approves all candidates for elections.  The \"Institute for Politics and Society\" is a think-tank affiliated with ANO 2011. Its task is to raise new politicians for the party. Its founders also say that activity of the Institute should lead to nationwide discussion about national interests and also create space for politicians from a new generation.  \"Young ANO\" is the youth wing of ANO 2011. It was established in May 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "ANO 2011 is a populist political party in the Czech Republic. The party was founded by Andrej Babiš, the second-richest person in the Czech Republic, owner of the Agrofert conglomerate, and Mafra media group, and the current Prime Minister of the Czech Republic. It is based on the former movement Action of Dissatisfied Citizens (, ANO). \"Ano\" means \"yes\" in Czech.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977424}
{"src_title": "Hishikawa Moronobu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and training.", "content": "Moronobu was the son of a well-respected dyer and a gold and silver-thread brocade artisan in the village of Hodamura, Awa Province, near Edo Bay in present-day Kyonan, Chiba Prefecture. After moving to Edo, Moronobu, who had learned his father's craft, studied both Tosa and Kanō-style painting. He thus had a solid grounding in both decorative crafts and academic painting, which served him well when he then turned to ukiyo-e, which he studied with his mentor, the Kanbun Master.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "His first known signed and dated works were book illustrations from 1672, although earlier works may yet surface. By the mid-1670s Moronobu had already become the most important ukiyo-e printmaker, a position he maintained until his death. He produced more than 100 illustrated books, perhaps as many as 150, though it is difficult to attribute to him many unsigned examples (for example, the scholar Kiyoshi Shibui established, in 1926, a basis for crediting some of the designs previously given to Moronobu as the work of Sugumura Jihei). Very few of Moronobu's single-sheet prints have survived, and most, if not all, are unsigned. Among these single sheets are erotic album prints.  Moronobu was not the \"founder\" of ukiyo-e, as some early scholars surmised. Instead, he made an assimilation of inchoate ukiyo-e designs by previous artists, a consolidation of genre and early ukiyo-e painting and prints. It was Moronobu who created the first truly mature form of ukiyo-e, in a style of great strength and presence that would set the standards for generations of artists who followed. Moronobu's mastery of line has often been cited in assessments of his oeuvre, as well as the interactive arrangement of figures, which seem always to serve a dramatic function not usually seen in the work of his predecessors.  Some of Moronobu's prints are found with hand coloring, but this specimen is a \"sumizuri-e\" () (print with black pigment only) in its original, uncolored state. There is something almost elemental in Moronobu's line work and figure placements in black and white, which most often was diminished into more decorative effects when colors were applied by hand. The black and gray lines and solid areas contrast boldly with the white paper to produce a range of tonal values, with emphasis on the shape and movement of the lines and the \"positive\" values of the white spaces. As in many other designs by Moronobu, the artist was inventive in his use of curvilinear forms juxtaposed against straight diagonals.  Groupings of 12 images had been common for centuries in court and genre paintings. Among the more famous surviving early specimens were the painted single sheets by the master Tosa Mitsunobu (1434–1525). Thus Moronobu's adoption of a grouping of 12 was conventional enough, particularly as such an arrangement afforded a context in which to alter the furnishings, clothing, and design patterns, matched more or less to the months of the year. However, it cannot be said that much \"shunga\" (erotic art) strictly adhered to seasonal progressions or 12-step narratives. Moronobu's print qualifies as an \"abuna-e\" (\"risqué print\"), a non-explicit erotic design of a type often found as the frontispiece to \"shunga\" sets or occasionally interspersed among the explicit sheets. Moronobu's formalism is evident here, with curves and straight lines balanced in near perfect proportion. As for the amorous couple, the seduction has just begun with the loosening of the \"obi\" (the woman's sash). Erotic signifiers enhance the scene. For example, the young beauty raises her right sleeve toward her mouth in a gesture of suppressed emotion. Water imagery evokes the woman's sexuality, with feminine or \"yin\" erotic symbols in the garden stream behind the lovers and in the waves on the robe of the young gallant, while the flowering ume on the standing screen serves as a metaphor for male or \"yang\" sexuality.  Despite his popularity with ukiyo-e prints, his illustrations found in collaborations with other artists and in printed books are kicked off his career. In some cases Moronobu would take the images and subjects from other prints and illustrations made in Kyoto but would replace the images with his own illustrations to make it his own. A common subject Moronobu worked with was the depiction of women in their daily lives. He did this right up until the end of the 19th century, or in other words, the end of the Edo period. An example would be his contribution of illustrations for Hyankunin isshu zōsanshō (One Hundred Poets with Portraits and Commentaries). This publication produced an argument on whether is was designed for women or not. Moronobu's illustrations can also be found in The Pictorial Survey, drafted by Ochikochi Dōin. The images depicted include long military processions and travelers of all ages and stations. As he continued to do prints the subjects, scenes, colors, composition, and even his line work changed with adaptation of techniques and the audience that was interested in the current activities displayed. Moronobu's work is held in numerous museum collections around the world, and in the Library of Congress.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "More examples of Moronobu's work can be found at Ukiyo-e Search.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hishikawa Moronobu (; 1618 – 25 July 1694) was a Japanese artist known for popularizing the ukiyo-e genre of woodblock prints and paintings in the late 17th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977425}
{"src_title": "Ylvis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and debut.", "content": "Vegard Urheim (born 19 May 1979 in Trondheim) and Bård Urheim Ylvisåker (born 21 March 1982 in Bergen) were born to parents (Hans Terje Ylvisåker and Helga Urheim) from the Sogn district of Western Norway, the older two of three brothers. The younger brother is Bjarte Urheim. Their early childhood years were spent in Angola and Mozambique, where their father was an engineer during the civil wars there. After a few years in Africa, the family moved back to Bergen, where the brothers received a musical upbringing and were trained in classical instruments. Vegard played the viola and Bård the violin. However, both quit during their youth, Vegard instead focusing on guitar, voice, piano, double bass and comedy, and Bård on guitar, voice, comedy and acrobatics such as aerial silk.  While attending high school at Fana gymnas, they were heavily involved in school and variety shows as well as the school choir. During a performance, they were spotted by impresario Peter Brandt, who orchestrated their debut as professional variety artists at Ole Bull Teater in Bergen in 2000. Their debut show was called \"\" (\"Ylvis: A Cabaret\") and was followed in 2003 by \"\" (\"Ylvis: A Concert\").", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2006–09.", "content": "In 2006, the brothers signed a management contract with the live production company Stageway. They also debuted as hosts on national broadcasting with the radio show \"O-fag\" (, \"theoretical subject\", named after a subject previously taught in Norwegian primary schools, a combination of science and social studies) on NRK Radio.  In January 2007, they appeared onstage at Ole Bull Theater with a new variety show, \"Ylvis III\". They toured with the show for almost three years, the last show being played in Odda in western Norway in December 2009. The show was also recorded and published on DVD. Also in 2007, they debuted as hosts on national television with the show (\"Norway's Most Wonderful\"), a version of the Swedish show (\"100 Highs\"). This was released on DVD as well as broadcast on Swedish TV.  In 2008 they released a second series of the radio show \"O-fag\" and also a new TV show based on their stage show on TVNorge, a game show concept inspired by the \"Brain Wall\", a feature in the Japanese game show on Fuji TV.  This was followed up by another game show, (\"Who can beat Ylvis?\") in 2009, based on the German show (\"Beat Raab\"). Members of the public were invited to try to beat the brothers at various tasks, with a reward of up to one million Norwegian kroner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2009–present.", "content": "In 2010, they hosted (\"The Nordic’s Most Wonderful\"), a pan-Nordic version of the show. In 2011 they reprised their variety stage show with \"Ylvis 4\", premiering at the Ole Bull Theater with the entire run sold out before opening night. That year, the brothers also launched a comedy talkshow (\"Tonight with Ylvis\") on TVNorge, with Calle Hellevang-Larsen from comedy trio as a sidekick.  Upon being renewed for a second season, the brothers created a production company, Concorde TV, in order to retain rights and creative control of their work. The second series was broadcast in 2012, with David Batra replacing Hellevang-Larsen in the role of sidekick. In the Fall of 2013, Hellevang-Larsen returned for the third series of. Despite technical difficulties during the broadcast, the first episode took the top ratings spot.  A number of comedy and parody music videos, either originally featured on or used to promote the show, have been released onto YouTube and other streaming media. \"The Fox\" and \"Stonehenge\" have also been released as singles. \"The Fox\", produced by StarGate and M4SONIC, which was released on 3 September 2013 to promote the upcoming third series of, went viral on YouTube and received 31 million views in its first two weeks. It was the most watched video on YouTube worldwide in 2013, and, the video had over 923million views.  Ylvis received offers for interviews, concerts, and major label record contracts from several countries following the release of \"The Fox\". Their first performance abroad was on \"The Ellen DeGeneres Show\" in the United States, where they appeared on 20 September 2013. They also made an appearance at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in Las Vegas the next day. On 9 October 2013, Jimmy Fallon brought them to his late night show to perform live. On 11 October 2013, they performed on \"The Today Show\" outside the studios. On 15 November 2013 they performed on \"BBC Children in Need\" where they were joined on stage by Jedward, The Cheeky Girls and Bucks Fizz. On 22 November 2013 Ylvis attended Mnet Asian Music Awards for the first time, and received the International Favorite Artist award.  On 12 December 2013, they appeared on \"Live! with Kelly and Michael\" to promote their new children's book titled \"What Does the Fox Say?\" and later to perform. The book \"What Does the Fox Say?\" debuted as no. 1 on \"The New York Times\" Best Seller list.  On 15 October 2014 Ylvis released on iTunes a single titled \"I Will Never Be A Star\", which was recorded by their younger brother, Bjarte Ylvisåker. On 19 November 2015 Ylvis released their first album \"\" on iTunes, which is a collection of some of their popular YouTube hits. On 5 January 2016, Ylvis revealed the music video and song \"a capella\" on \"I kveld med YLVIS\" on TVNorge. \"a capella\" parodies a cappella groups like Pentatonix.  On 1 November 2017, it was revealed that the brothers would start a new television show entitled \"Stories from Norway\". The show, which blends the mockumentary genre with musical numbers, premiered on 19 February 2018 on TVNorge.  In 2019, both members appeared on the first season of \"Kongen Befaler\" (Norway's version of \"Taskmaster\").", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ylvis () is a Norwegian comedy duo consisting of brothers Vegard and Bård Ylvisåker. They debuted as professional variety artists in 2000 and have since appeared in several countries in variety shows, comedy concerts, television shows, radio shows and music videos. They are currently the hosts of the Norwegian talk show (\"Tonight with Ylvis\"). Their song and music video \"The Fox (What Does the Fox Say?)\", written and filmed for the talk show, went viral on YouTube in September 2013. The video currently has over 923million views. They released an album called \"\", a compilation of ten older singles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977426}
{"src_title": "Irena Bernášková", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Childhood and youth.", "content": "Bernášková was born in Prague as the second of three daughters of painter Vojtěch Preissig. During World War I, the family resided in Boston, United States. Their villa in Boston became an important center of meetings of politicians and statesmen fighting for Czechoslovak independence. Personalities such as Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Edvard Beneš and Milan Rastislav Štefánik visited their house. Irena returned to Czechoslovakia along with her sisters in 1921. In 1925, in Prague, she married her cousin, František Bernášek. Her parents did not approve of the marriage and her father even cut off all contact with her for four years. The couple settled in a villa in the Spořilov area of Prague. During the Munich crisis mobilization, Bernášková volunteered as a Red Cross nurse and helped refugees from the occupied Czechoslovak border area.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Resistance and death.", "content": "During the occupation of Czechoslovakia by German troops she started to distribute leaflets and began collaborating with her father on publishing the illegal magazine \"V boj\" (\"Into Combat\") in 1939. She also helped to organize illegal transfers across the border with Slovakia. Although the Gestapo searched for her, she managed to avoid arrest and continued to publish the magazine.  She was arrested on 21 September 1940 in Prague, Poříčí Street, with false documents. During the interrogation, she tried to accept all the blame herself and saved a number of other resistance members. Still, members of her family were arrested - her husband died in the Buchenwald concentration camp, her father in the concentration camp in Dachau. Bernášková was the first Czech woman convicted and sentenced to death by the Nazis. She was sentenced on 5 March 1942, and then guillotined at the end of August 1942 in Plötzensee Prison, Berlin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "In 1946, she was awarded the Czechoslovak War Cross, \"in memoriam\". In 1998 she was posthumously awarded the Medal for Heroism by President Václav Havel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Irena \"Inka\" Bernášková (7 February 1904 – 26 August 1942) was a Czechoslovak journalist and resistance member who was active in the fight against the German occupation during World War II. She was the first Czech woman sentenced to death and executed by Nazis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977427}
{"src_title": "Nadezhda Tolokonnikova", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Tolokonnikova was born on November 7, 1989 in the industrial city of Norilsk, Russia. In her late school years, she was active in amateur modern literature and art projects, organized by the \"\".  In 2007, at age 17, Tolokonnikova moved to Moscow and enrolled in the philosophy department of the Moscow State University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Tolokonnikova and Verzilov joined the Voina art collective in 2007 and participated in several of their provocative art performances. In February 2008, they were involved in the \"Fuck for the heir Puppy Bear!\" performance in which couples were filmed engaging in sexual acts in the Timiryazev State Biology Museum in Moscow. The performance was said to be intended as a kind of satire of then President Dmitry Medvedev's call for increased reproduction. She was in the late stages of pregnancy at the time. On March 3rd 2008 she was detained by police at a dissenters march in Moscow. Tolokonnikova was among the Voina members who disrupted a trial for the director of the Andrei Sakharov Center in 2009. But later, according to the \"Rossiyskaya Gazeta\", together with Pyotr Verzilov were expelled from Voina \"for provocation and surrender of activists of the group to the police\".  She also took part in a series of actions, (, roughly translated as \"Kiss a pig\") from January through March 2011. This project comprised female members' kissing policewomen in Moscow metro stations and on the streets.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arrest and indictment.", "content": "Following the \"Punk Prayer\" incident in February 21, 2012, a criminal case was opened on February 26 against the band members who had participated. On March 3, Tolokonnikova and two other alleged members of Pussy Riot were arrested by the Russian authorities and accused of hooliganism. All women at first denied being members of the group and started a hunger strike in protest against being held in jail away from their young children. They were held without bail and were formally charged on June 4 with the indictment running to 2,800 pages.  There was speculation that Canadian authorities might attempt to intervene because Tolokonnikova is a Canadian permanent resident; however this did not occur.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Court case and imprisonment.", "content": "Tolokonnikova was serving the remainder of her two-year sentence in the \"IK-14\" women's penal colony near the settlement of Partsa (), Republic of Mordovia. On September 23, 2013 she went on hunger strike over prison conditions and alleged threats against her life made by prison staff. Her letter on the conditions of the women in the penal colony asserts that the women have no rights, that the prisoners must work 16–17 hours and sleep 3–4 hours a day, and that they have a day off every 8th week. Further, she claims that if they complain, they are punished, and that if they complain over the treatment of other prisoners, they are punished even harder. Claiming that collective punishment is frequent, she also stated that the prisoners may be beaten with a particular focus on hitting the kidneys. Another punishment would consist of keeping a prisoner outdoors in the cold without sufficient clothing. Most of what she reports is affirmed by other sources.  While imprisoned, she exchanged letters with filmmaker, philosopher, and cultural critic Slavoj Žižek discussing democracy and her activism. Their correspondence was arranged by the French philosopher, and their 11 letters were compiled into a short book, \"Comradely Greetings: The Prison Letters of Nadya and Slavoj\", published by Verso Books in 2014.  In late September 2013, Tolokonnikova was hospitalised after going without food for a week. She was treated in the prison's medical ward; authorities did not release more specific details.  On October 21, 2013, she was transferred to another prison; her whereabouts remained unknown for several weeks. On November 5, 2013, it was reported that Tolokonnikova had been transferred to IK-50, a prison located near Nizhny Ingash, approximately 300 kilometres from Krasnoyarsk, Siberia. On November 15 she was again able to communicate with her husband through a video call from the prison hospital.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "On the afternoon of December 23, 2013, Tolokonnikova was released from a prison hospital in Krasnoyarsk, where she was being treated for an unspecified illness. According to Yelena Pimonenko, senior prosecutor assistant of the Krasnoyarsk Krai, Tolokonnikova was released because the article \"hooliganism\" of the Russian Criminal Code falls under the newly introduced amnesty bill. Putin's amnesty was seen by the freed prisoners and numerous critics as a propaganda stunt as Russia prepared to host the 2014 Winter Olympics in February. Tolokonnikova said, \"Releasing people just a few months before their term expires is a cosmetic measure... that includes the case of Khodorkovsky, who didn't have much time left on his prison term. This is ridiculous. While Putin refuses to release those people who really needed it. It is a disgusting and cynical act\" and urged countries to boycott the 2014 Winter Olympics. She and Alyokhina said they would form a human rights movement for prison reforms. On March 6, 2014, Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina were assaulted and injured at a fast food outlet by local youths in Nizhny Novgorod.  After release, Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina founded a penal and judicial-themed media outlet MediaZona.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Sochi detention.", "content": "In February 2014, Tolokonnikova and Maria Alyokhina, were detained in Sochi by the Adler Police in connection with an alleged hotel theft. They were released without charge. On February 19 footage surfaced showing Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina being attacked with nagaikas by Cossacks, who were helping patrol Sochi during the Winter Olympics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "In 2016, she published the autobiographical book \"How to Start a Revolution\".  In 2018–19, Tolokonnikova wrote music for and toured with the musical production \"Riot Days\", based on the book of the same name by Maria Alyokhina.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Tolokonnikova was previously married to Pyotr Verzilov. They have a daughter, Gera, born in 2008.  She is pansexual.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "She is co-winner of the Hannah Arendt Prize for Political Thought (2014).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "A documentary following the Pussy Riot court case, \"\", debuted at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival.  In 2015, Tolokonnikova and her Pussy Riot bandmate Maria Alyokhina appeared as themselves in Chapter 29 of \"House of Cards\", a popular American television drama series that airs on Netflix. In the show, Tolokonnikova and Alyokhina heavily criticized a fictionalized version of Vladimir Putin for corruption, while dining in the White House.  An interview between Jessica Williams, Phoebe Robinson, and Tolokonnikova was featured in a November 2016 episode of the podcast 2 Dope Queens.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nadezhda Andreyevna Tolokonnikova (; born November 7, 1989), nicknamed \"Nadya Tolokno\" (), is a Russian conceptual artist and political activist. She was a member of the anarchist feminist group Pussy Riot, and has a history of political activism with the controversial street art group Voina. On August 17, 2012, she was convicted of \"hooliganism motivated by religious hatred\" after a performance in Moscow Cathedral of Christ the Saviour and sentenced to two years' imprisonment. On December 23, 2013, she was released early with another Pussy Riot member Maria Alyokhina under a newly passed amnesty bill dedicated to the 20th anniversary of the Russian constitution.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977428}
{"src_title": "Stereum sanguinolentum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The species was first described scientifically by Albertini and Schweinitz in 1805 as \"Thelephora sanguinolenta\". Other genera to which it has been transferred throughout its taxonomical history include \"Phlebomorpha\", \"Auricularia\", \"Merulius\", and \"Haematostereum\". The fungus is commonly known as the \"bleeding Stereum\" or the \"bleeding conifer parchment\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The fruit body of \"Stereum sanguinolentum\" manifests itself as a thin (typically less than 1 mm thick) leathery crust on the surface of the host wood. Often, the upper edge is curled to form a narrow shelf (usually less than 10 mm thick). When present, these shelves are can be fused to or overlap neighboring shelves. The surface of the fruit body consists of a layer of fine felt-like hairs, sometimes pressed flat against the surface. The color ranges from beige to buff to dark brown in mature specimens; the margin are lighter-colored. Fresh fruit bodies that are injured exude a red juice, or will bruise a red color if touched. The fruit bodies dry to a greyish-brown color. The spores are ellipsoid to cylindrical, amyloid, and typically measure 7–10 by 3–4.5 μm.  \"Stereum sanguinolentum\" can be parasitized by the jelly fungus \"Tremella encephala\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symptoms.", "content": "\"Stereum sanguinolentum\" is a basidiomycete that causes both brown rot and white rot on conifers. The primary symptom is the red streaking discoloration. White rot basidomycete causes an extensive decay resulting from wounds, logging extractions; bark peeking, or branch pruning. \"Stereum sanguinolentum\" forms territorial clones while spreading by vegetative growths between spatially separated resource units; Armillaria spp, Heterobasidion annosum, Phellinus weirii, Inonotus tomentosus, and Phellinus noxius all work with Stereum sanguinolentum to attack the host. The combinations of these pathogens work together to form territorial clones that can cover up to several hectares and survive for hundreds of years while infecting trees.  White rot causes a gradual decrease in cellulose as the decay continues to affect the tree. The white rot fungi consume the segments of cellulose that are released during the decay as quickly as they are produced. White rot is also known as “wound rot of spruce” and is when the spores create open wounds on the host.  In Brown Rot, the cellulose is degraded. The rapid decrease in cellulose chain length implies that the catalyst that facilitates the depolymerization readily gains access to cellulose chains.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life cycle.", "content": "\"Stereum sanguinolentum\" is an amphithallic basidiomycete. Monospore intrabasidiome pairings are always compatible when reproducing making it easy for the fungus to spread. The monobasidiospore and trama isolates are plurinucleate and bear clamp connections and are often dikaryotic. Basidiospores are heterokikaryotic indicating that they are amphithallic. The mycelia that spreads the fungi grow from the heterodikaryotic spores that originate from the basidiospores. Either mating between homokaryons originating from the monokaryotic basidiospores or by the parasexual process results in recombination.  \"Stereum snaguinolentum\" is an extremely fast colonizer of newly dead or wounded conifer sapwood. Being amphithallic allows this cycle to have selective advantages upon such organisms by enhancing survival and dispersal.  Dispersal occurs by basidiospores only and the most common way they are dispersed in this cycle is wind blown dispersal. The wind blown basidiospores are produced parthenogenically which is reproduction from an ovum with out fertilization. In white rot, the infection occurs from spores landing near the wounds or the transmission of mycelial fragments by wood sap. The rot extension spreads extremely fast in the first years after infection but spreads even quicker if the injuries are at the root collar are infected rather than the stem.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat, distribution, and ecology.", "content": "The fungus causes a brown heart rot, resulting in wood that is a light brown to red-brown color, and dry, with a stringy texture. A cross-section of infected wood reveals a circular infection around the center of the log. It enter opens wounds of plants caused by mechanical damage or by grazing wildlife. Fragments of mycelia can be spread by wood wasps (genus \"Sirex\"). The rot spreads up to per year. It has also been recorded on balsam fir, Douglas fir, and western hemlock. The fungus is widespread in distribution, and has been recorded from North America, Europe, east Africa, New Zealand, and Australia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management.", "content": "Prevention of the halos caused by \"Stereum sanguinolentum\" can be accomplished by carefully harvesting trees assuring no injuries occur. If injuries occur, treat the wounds with wound dressing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stereum sanguinolentum is a species of fungus in the Stereaceae family. A plant pathogen, it causes red heart rot, a red discoloration on conifers, particularly spruces or Douglas-firs. Fruit bodies are produced on dead wood, or sometimes on dead branches of living trees. They are a thin leathery crust of the wood surface. Fresh fruit bodies will bleed a red-colored juice if injured, reflected in the common names bleeding Stereum or the bleeding conifer parchment. It can be the host of the parasitic jelly fungus \"Tremella encephala\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977429}
{"src_title": "Microsoft TechNet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Websites.", "content": "TechNet's primary web presence is a collection of sites for IT professionals that provide information, documentation, and discussion which are authored both by Microsoft and by the community at large. Recent emphasis on and incorporation of applications such as forums, blogs, library annotations, and social bookmarking is changing the nature of the TechNet site from a one-way information service to an open dialog between Microsoft and the IT professional community. The main website, and most of its constituent applications below are available in 12 languages, generate traffic from 11.5 million per month and host approx. 11 Million documents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Library.", "content": "Similar to the MSDN Library which contains technical information for software developers, the TechNet Library is a source of technical information for IT professionals and advanced users. The technical content is freely available on the web and on CDs and DVDs. The discs are published monthly and contain the complete Microsoft Knowledge Base, service packs, security updates, resource kits, technical training, operations and deployment guides, white papers, and case studies.  In January 2014, Microsoft announced that \"Microsoft Security Bulletins and Advisories\" would be merged into the TechNet Library.  In 2016, Microsoft introduced the new technical documentation platform, Microsoft Docs, intended as a replacement of TechNet and MSDN libraries. For the next two years Microsoft was migrating their materials into Microsoft Docs. Now most of the TechNet Library pages redirect to the corresponding Microsoft Docs pages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Forums.", "content": "TechNet Forums are the web-based forums used by the community to discuss a wide variety of IT professional topics. TechNet Forums were migrated to an all-new platform during 2008 that provided new features designed to improve efficiency such as inline preview of threads, AJAX filtering, and a slide-up post editor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Blogs.", "content": "TechNet has their own blogging platform, which hosts the blogs of Microsoft employees. The MSDN and TechNet blogs were closed and the content was archived at Microsoft Docs system: https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/archive/blogs/  Most teams from the old TechNet blogs, opened new active blogs in other systems.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wiki.", "content": "The TechNet Wiki is a technical resource inspired by Wikipedia. Wiki is a community site and does not offer official documentation from Microsoft. Anyone who joins the community can contribute new topics, edit and enhance existing topics, provide comments and friend other registered users. The goals of the wiki include providing broader and more in-depth solutions content (how-to, procedural, troubleshooting, deployment) from a wider variety of authors with less publishing friction than traditional mechanisms.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "TechNet has individual sections covering specific topics:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Social bookmarking.", "content": "Social bookmarking on TechNet Social was first launched in 2008, built on a new web platform that has user-tagging and feeds at its core. The goal of the social bookmarking application is to provide a method whereby members of the IT professional community can: The initial release of the application provides standard features for the genre, including a bookmarklet and import capabilities. The TechNet web site is also starting to incorporate feeds of social bookmarks from experts and the community, displayed alongside feeds from relevant bloggers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subscriptions and downloads.", "content": "TechNet also did provide access to Microsoft software for evaluation purposes through the \"TechNet subscription\". The subscription provided access to Microsoft's software; product keys, however, expired after the duration of the subscriptions and required renewal for continued usage. The subscription was sold on an annual basis. The Standard subscription provided access to most of the software except specific enterprise-oriented software, including one collection of Microsoft E-learning. The Professional subscription was more expensive and provided access to all software, including two free professional support calls and two collections of Microsoft E-learning.  On July 1, 2013, Microsoft announced the retirement of the TechNet Subscriptions service to focus on growing its free offerings, including evaluation resources through the TechNet Evaluation Center, expert-led learning through the Microsoft Virtual Academy, and community-moderated technical support through the TechNet Forums to better meet the needs of the growing IT professional community. The last day to purchase a TechNet Subscription was August 31, 2013. Subscribers could activate purchased subscriptions through September 30, 2013.  Microsoft announced an extended 90-days plan to help existing subscribers of the time get used to new situation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"TechNet Magazine\".", "content": "Founded in 2005, \"TechNet Magazine\" is a discontinued monthly print magazine that provides IT professionals working with Microsoft technologies information about planning, operating, and optimizing their systems. \"TechNet Magazine\" had a print circulation of 100,000 readers in the US.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Microsoft TechNet was a Microsoft web portal and web service for IT professionals. It includes a library containing documentation and technical resources for Microsoft products, a learning center which provides online training, discussion forums, an evaluation center for downloading trialware, blogs for Microsoft employees and a wiki.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977430}
{"src_title": "Ivan Bohun", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Bohun was born in Ukrainian-Ruthenian nobility family. He took part in the Khmelnytsky Uprising against Polish rule in Ukraine. In June 1651 he was elected colonel of troops of Bracław and took part in the Battle of Berestechko against Polish troops led by King John II Casimir, which the Cossacks lost. Surviving the defeat he regathered his forces and in June 1652 took part in the battle of Batih. In this instance the Cossacks were successful; the Polish commander Marcin Kalinowski was killed and the future hetman Stefan Czarniecki barely escaped with his life. The Polish defeat was complete and allowed the Cossack forces to start a successful offensive and effectively gain control over large parts of Ukraine. Until 1657 Ivan Bohun also led his forces in minor skirmishes against Polish forces, notably at Bratslav and Uman. He also fought against the Crimean Tatars who had switched sides in the effect of the Treaty of Zboriv of 1649 (they were initially allied with the Cossacks but supported the Commonwealth in later year). Initially Bohun opposed the Treaty of Pereyaslav of 1654. After the Battle of Konotop, Ivan Bohun led an armed pro-Russian uprising against his former ally Ivan Vyhovsky near Konotop and defeated his army in the autumn of 1659.  After being captured by the Poles in 1663, Bohun was offered freedom in exchange for taking part in a new military campaign against the Tsardom of Russia. During the retreat after the disastrous Siege of Hlukhiv Bohun was executed by a firing squad for handing over important military information to the besieged Russian garrison.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Ivan Bohun became a popular Ukrainian folk hero, immortalized by Henryk Sienkiewicz in a novel \"With Fire and Sword\" where character Jurko Bohun was loosely based on him. In the film based on the novel, directed by Jerzy Hoffman, Bohun was played by Aleksandr Domogarov.  Ivan Bohun is also well described in \"Bohun\", a modern, historical novel about Polish-Cossack wars, written by Jacek Komuda.  His death is still commemorated annually in Lviv.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ivan Bohun () (died 1664) was a Ukrainian Cossack colonel. Close associate and friend of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, he opposed both the pacts with Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Treaty of Hadziacz of 1658) and with Tsardom of Russia (Treaty of Pereyaslav of 1654).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977431}
{"src_title": "Bethlehem of Galilee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "To distinguish the city from the city of Bethlehem near Jerusalem, it was originally known as \"Bethlehem of Zebulun\", whilst the town near Jerusalem was called \"Bethlehem of Judea\". In the Jerusalem Talmud it is referred to as \"Beth Lehem Zoria\", as it was part of the kingdom of Tyre at the time. According to the Book of Judges, one of the so-called \"Minor Judges\" of early settlement Israel, Ibzan, came from Bethlehem and was buried there. The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges suggests that the Bethlehem referred to in this passage is Bethlehem of Galilee \"rather than the more famous Bethlehem in the Tribe of Judah\".  Until the late 19th century, ruins of a church and a synagogue could be seen there, and archaeological findings \"from the early Roman Period\" show, it was a prosperous city. So the biblical Bethlehem of Zebulon is \"identified\" by archaeologists with today's Bethlehem of Galilee.  Due to its proximity to Nazareth, some historians believe that it is the Bethlehem where Jesus was born. Aviram Oshri, a senior archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority, supports this claim, although others at this institution reject it.  Major building remains and pottery from the fourth–fifth century Byzantine era have been found here, together with major remains from Umayyad, Abbasid (eighth century CE) and Mamluk eras (fourteenth–fifteenth centuries CE).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ottoman era.", "content": "In 1517, the village was included in the Ottoman empire, and in the 1596 tax-records it appeared as \"Bayt Lahm\", located in the \"Nahiya\" of Tabariyya of the \"Liwa\" of Safad. The population was 27 households and two bachelors, all Muslim. They paid a tax rate of 25% on agricultural products, which included wheat, barley, cotton, vegetable and fruit gardens, occasional revenues, goats and beehives; a total of 1200 Akçe.  In 1859, the British consul Rogers stated that the population was 110, and the tillage at sixteen feddans.  In 1875 Victor Guérin visited and noted that Bethlehem was a small village, which had succeeded a town of the same name. He further noted the ruins of two buildings; one, completely destroyed, had been constructed of good cut stones; the entrance was at the south façade. He thought, from its orientation north and south, that it was a synagogue. The other building, which lay east and west, may have been a Christian church. On its site were seen a few shafts, four of which were still in situ and half covered up.  In 1882, the Palestine Exploration Fund's \"Survey of Western Palestine\" described it as \"The ancient Bethlehem of Zebulon. A village principally built of adobe on high ground in the border of the wooded country. The nearest water is in \"Wady el Melek\", on the north (Ras el 'Ain), and at the springs near Muwarah on the south.\"  A population list from about 1887 showed that Kh. Beit Lahm had about 55 inhabitants; all Muslims.  In 1906 Templers from the German Colony in Haifa established a colony in Galilee, naming it for the ancient city.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "British mandate era.", "content": "In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British authorities, Bait Lam had a population of 224; 111 Christians and 113 Muslims. Of the Christians, 95 were Protestant and 16 were Greek Catholics (Melkites). This had increased slightly by the 1931 census to a population of 235; 135 Muslim, 99 Christians and 1 Jew, in a total of 51 inhabited houses. In 1932 the Nazi Party gained its first two members in Palestine; Karl Ruff and Walter Aberle from the Templer colony in Haifa. In the course of the 1930s, Bethlehemites also joined the party, indicating the fading affinity to the Templers' original ideals. By August 1939, 17% of all German Christians in Palestine were members of the Nazi Party. After the Nazi takeover in Germany, all international schools of German language subsidized or fully financed by government funds were obliged to employ teachers aligned to the Nazi Party. In 1933, Templer functionaries appealed to Paul von Hindenburg and the Foreign Office not to use swastika symbols for German institutions in Palestine and voiced opposition to the boycott of German Jewish shops. Later, this opposition subsided. On 20 August 1939 the German government called on German Christians in Palestine to join the Wehrmacht and 350 men enlisted.  After the start of World War II, all Germans in Palestine were declared enemy aliens. The British authorities sent them to Sarona, Bethlehem (Galilee), Waldheim (today's Allonei Abba) and Wilhelma. In summer 1941, 665 German internees, mostly young families with children, were deported to Australia, leaving those who were too old or sick. In December 1941 and in the course of 1942 another 400 German internees, mostly wives and children of men who had enlisted in the Wehrmacht, were released - via Turkey - to Germany for the purpose of family reunification.  In the 1945 statistics the population of \"Beit Lam\" consisted of 370 people; 210 Muslims and 160 Christians, and the total land area was 7,526 dunams according to an official land and population survey. 6 dunams of land were designated for citrus and bananas, 278 dunams for plantations and irrigable land, 4,796 for cereals, while 51 dunams were built-up areas.  In 1945 the Italian and Hungarian internees were released but the Britons refused to repatriate the remaining German internees to the British zone in Germany. In 1947, they were allowed to emigrate to Australia. By 14 May 1948, when Israel declared independence, only 50 Templers remained in the country.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Israel.", "content": "On 17 April 1948 the Haganah captured the village and it was resettled by Jewish farmers, becoming a moshav. Much of the original Templer architecture survives, and is similar in style to the homes built by the Templers in other parts of the country, such as Sarona in Tel Aviv, Wilhelma (today Bnei Atarot) and the German colonies of Haifa and Jerusalem.  In recent years, tourism has replaced agriculture as the main economic branch. A dairy, an herb farm, restaurants and country-style accommodation are among the tourist-oriented businesses in the village today.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Bethlehem of Galilee (, \"Beit Lehem HaGlilit\"; lit. \"the Galilean Bethlehem\") is a moshav in northern Israel. Located in the Galilee near Kiryat Tivon, around 10 kilometres north-west of Nazareth and 30 kilometres east of Haifa, it falls under the jurisdiction of the Jezreel Valley Regional Council. In it had a population of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977432}
{"src_title": "Wisdom (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The band originally consisted of bass player Mate Molnar and guitarist Gabor Kovacs. Molnar was a fan of Kovacs' existing band Legendary, and the two agreed to form a new group together. They were later joined by Istvan Nachladal (Nahi) (vocals), Balazs Hornyak (drums) and Zsolt Galambos (guitar), who had also been a member of Legendary. The band was named after the 1986 film \"Wisdom\".  Wisdom played their first concert in Miskolc in 2002. In they were featured as a support act in the 2003 Iron Maiden tour Give Me Ed... 'Til I'm Dead Tour. They subsequently featured in the motorcycle magazine \"Born To Be Wild\", which led to increased public exposure. Wisdom performed as a warm-up act for Saxon and were the support act for the UDO-Doro tour.  Whilst on this tour the band was noticed by Ronny Milianowicz of Swedish/German band Dionysus, who arranged a record company offer which would release the first Wisdom record, a four-track single titled \"Wisdom EP\" released in July 2004. It was circulated as a free CD with the Hungarian music magazine \"Metal Hammer\". During the process of recording, Hornyak left the group and was replaced by Csaba Czebely. After the release of the EP, Wisdom supported Europe and in early 2005 toured with the band Ossian.  Molnar wanted to build up a narrative world around the name Wisdom, based on Iron Maiden's Eddie or Megadeth's Vic. During the course of recording their first album, graphic designer Gyula Havancsak (Hjules) created the figure of Wiseman, who became the band's mascot. Each subsequent record released by Wisdom contained references to the character's biography. The band's first independent concert was held on 19 November 2005 in Budapest, and was called \"Keep Wiseman Alive\". Originally a one-off gig, \"Keep Wiseman Alive\" ultimately evolved into an annual event. In 2006 Wisdom played as a warm up act for Helloween.  In 2006 the band's first LP, \"Words of Wisdom\", was released under Hammer Records. Peter Kern had by this point replaced Csaba Czebely as the band's drummer. The album was mastered at Finnvox studios. Wisdom then signed to Soundholic Records for the album's Asian release.  Wisdom was nominated as a contender for Hungary's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2007, although they were not selected. In the spring of 2007, Wisdom embarked on a tour for the promotion of their own record, and also opened for Heaven and Hell at the Sziget Festival. During the tour, Nachladal left the band; Zoltan Kiss replaced him on vocals for their remaining concerts. After the release of the single \"At The Gate\"', the band took a hiatus from performing. Kern left the band due to health issues and was replaced on drums by Balazs Agota.  After two years, Wisdom returned to performing, playing as the opening act for Judas Priest. The band recruited new vocalist Gabor Nagy in 2010 and released a new studio album, \"Judas\", in April 2011. In order to promote the new album, Wisdom went on to tour in the fall of 2010; Nagy wore a mask for all the gig appearances as a promotional stunt. The album featured Mats Levén (Therion and Malmsteen as guest vocalists. Japan's Spinning Records and United States' CD InZane LLC subsequently released \"Judas\".  In autumn the band shot a new video for a track called \"Heaven and Hell\". The shooting took place Festetics family's castle of Dég. At this time the band celebrated its 10th anniversary with a tour they named \"Wise Years\", which concluded with their annual \"Keep Wiseman Alive\" concert in Budapest.  In 2012 the band were signed by booking agency Rock the Nation and record company Noise Art Records. Galambos was replaced on guitar by Mate Bodor. In August the album \"Judas\" was released worldwide, and to promote it the band joined Sabaton on their Swedish Empire Tour.  On 27 September 2013, the band's third album was released titled \"Marching For Liberty\". It was distributed internationally through NoiseArt records. The album entered the official Hungarian Album Charts (Mahasz) at number 1. Fabio Lione (Rhapsody, Vision Divine, Kamelot Angra) sang several parts in the title song. Immediately after the new release, the band started touring in Western Europe alongside Powerwolf. At the 7th annual \"Keep Wiseman Alive\" show, Powerwolf performed as the guest act.  On 1 April 2018 the band announced that they were splitting up. Nevertheless, they still planned to record and release a fifth studio album.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Wisdom was a Hungarian power metal band from Budapest. Formed in autumn 2001, the group is known for its practice of basing each song on a well-known quotation. Many of the band's lyrics and all of the album covers center on the story of an old man, a cult figure called Wiseman.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977433}
{"src_title": "UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Qualified teams.", "content": "<onlyinclude> </onlyinclude>", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "All UEFA member associations are eligible to compete in the qualifying competition, with the host team France qualifying directly to the finals tournament. The other 53 teams are drawn into eight groups of six teams (Groups A–H) and one group of five teams (Group I). The group winners, runners-up, and the best third-placed team (with the results against the sixth-placed team discarded) directly qualify to the finals. The eight remaining third-placed teams contest two-legged play-offs to determine the last four qualifiers for the finals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding system.", "content": "Sides were seeded according to the UEFA national team coefficient rankings, which were announced along with the draw procedure and final tournament match schedule after the 23–24 January Executive Committee meeting in Nyon. For the qualifying group stage, the teams were seeded into six pots (Pots 1–5 with 9 teams and Pot 6 with 8 teams) for the qualifying group stage draw according to the UEFA national team coefficient rankings, with the title holders (Spain) automatically seeded into Pot 1. Each nation's coefficient is generated by calculating:  UEFA stated that nations with the largest markets in terms of contribution to the European Qualifiers revenue would be drawn into one of the groups containing six teams. They include England, Spain, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. UEFA has also stated in their regulations that \"the teams drawn into the group of five teams will have France added to their group for the purpose of playing centralised friendlies\".  For the play-offs the four ties are determined by draw, including the order of the two legs of each tie. The teams are seeded for the play-off draw according to the UEFA national team coefficient rankings updated after the completion of the group stage. Each nation's coefficient is generated by calculating:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tiebreakers.", "content": "If two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following tie-breaking criteria are applied:  To determine the best third-placed team, the results against the teams in sixth place are discarded. The following criteria are applied:  For each play-off tie, the team that scores more goals on aggregate over the two legs qualifies for the final tournament. If the aggregate score is level, the away goals rule is applied, i.e., the team that scores more goals away from home over the two legs advances. If away goals are also equal, then thirty minutes of extra time is played, divided into two fifteen-minutes halves. The away goals rule is again applied after extra time, i.e., if there are goals scored during extra time and the aggregate score is still level, the visiting team advances by virtue of more away goals scored. If no goals are scored during extra time, the tie is decided by penalty shoot-out.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Schedule.", "content": "This is the first qualifying tournament after UEFA announced centralised rights deals for both UEFA Euro and FIFA World Cup qualifying. UEFA has proposed the \"Week of Football\" concept for the scheduling of qualifying matches:  There are ten matchdays for the qualifying group stage, and two matchdays for the play-offs:  Unlike previous qualifying campaigns where group fixtures were determined by negotiation between the national federations, UEFA themselves decided each group's fixture list, released the same day as the draw.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Draw.", "content": "The draw took place at the Palais des Congrès Acropolis, Nice, on 23 February 2014, 12:00 CET. Groups A–H each contain one team from each of Pots 1–6, while Group I contains one team from each of Pots 1–5.For television rights reasons, England, Germany, Italy, Spain and the Netherlands were drawn into groups of 6 teams. Before the draw UEFA confirmed that, for political reasons, Armenia would not be drawn against Azerbaijan (due to the dispute concerning territory of Nagorno-Karabakh) and Gibraltar would not be drawn against Spain (due to the disputed status of Gibraltar). France (Coeff: 30,992; Rank: 11) are partnered with the five-team Group I, which enables the 2016 tournament hosts to play friendlies against these countries on their'spare' dates. These friendlies do not count in the qualifying group standings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "The seeding pots were announced on 24 January 2014. Teams in bold qualified for the finals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Groups.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ranking of third-placed teams.", "content": "The highest ranked third-placed team from the groups directly qualified for the tournament, while the remainder entered the play-offs. As Group I contained five teams and the rest contained six, matches against any sixth-placed team in each group were not included in this ranking. As a result, a total of eight matches played by each team count toward the purpose of the third-placed ranking table.  Turkey became the best third-placed team, after winning against Iceland in its last match, while at the same time Kazakhstan beat Latvia to finish fifth in Group A.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-offs.", "content": "The eight remaining third-placed teams contested two-legged play-offs to determine the last four qualifiers for the finals. The teams were seeded for the play-off draw according to the UEFA national team coefficient rankings updated after the completion of the qualifying group stage. The draw for the play-offs was held on 18 October 2015, 11:20 CEST, at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Matches.", "content": "The first legs were played on 12–14 November, and the second legs were played on 15–17 November 2015. The four play-off winners (Ukraine, Sweden, Republic of Ireland and Hungary) qualified for the final tournament.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Branding.", "content": "UEFA unveiled the branding for the qualifiers on 15 April 2013. It shows a national jersey inside a heart, and represents Europe, honour and ambition. The same branding was also used for the European qualifiers for the 2018 World Cup.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying tournament was a football competition that was played from September 2014 to November 2015 to determine the 23 UEFA member men's national teams joining the automatically qualified host team France in the UEFA Euro 2016 final tournament.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977434}
{"src_title": "Lina Heydrich", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Nazi Party membership.", "content": "Lina's brother Jurgen had joined the Nazi Party and was a member of the \"Sturmabteilung\" (SA). He spoke highly of the movement to Lina and she attended a Party rally in 1929 where Adolf Hitler spoke. Shortly thereafter, Lina von Osten joined the Nazi Party with party membership number 1,201,380.  On 6 December 1930, aged 19, she attended a rowing-club ball in Kiel and met then Naval Lieutenant Heydrich there. They became romantically involved and soon announced their engagement on 18 December 1930.  In 1931, he was charged with \"conduct unbecoming to an officer and gentleman\" for breaking an engagement promise to a woman he had known for six months before the engagement to Lina. Admiral Erich Raeder dismissed Heydrich from the navy that April. The dismissal devastated Heydrich, who found himself without career prospects.  Lina persuaded Heydrich to look into the recently formed \"Schutzstaffel\" (SS) as a career option. During 1931 SS Leader Heinrich Himmler began setting up a counterintelligence division of the SS. Acting on the advice of his associate Karl von Eberstein, a friend of the Heydrich family, Himmler agreed to interview Heydrich, but cancelled their appointment at the last minute. Lina ignored this message, packed Reinhard's suitcase, and sent him to Munich.  Eberstein met Heydrich at the train station and took him to see Himmler. Himmler asked Heydrich to convey his ideas for developing an SS intelligence service. Himmler was so impressed that he hired Heydrich immediately as the chief of the new SS 'Ic Service' or Intelligence Service (which would later become known as the \"Sicherheitsdienst\" (SD)). He returned to Hamburg with the good news. Heydrich entered into the Hamburg SS on 14 July. In August, he was transferred to Munich where he lived alone in a boarding house which rented rooms to unmarried SS men. Lina later stated that Reinhard Heydrich never read Hitler's book, \"Mein Kampf\". He and Lina wed at a small church in Grossenbrode on 26 December 1931.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lina Heydrich gave birth to two sons, Klaus (born 17 June 1933) and Heider (born 23 December 1934). By the late 1930s, the duties of Reinhard Heydrich led him to work long hours and often be away from home. This left Lina at home with the children and having to run the household alone. This placed a serious strain on their marriage that nearly resulted in divorce. However, the reconciled Heydrich couple had another child, a daughter named Silke (born 9 April 1939). Reinhard proudly showed off his baby daughter and they had a close relationship.  Their fourth child, a daughter named Marte (born 23 July 1942) was born shortly after Reinhard Heydrich's death. Klaus died as a result of a traffic accident on 24 October 1943. On that day, Klaus was cycling with his brother Heider Heydrich in the courtyard of the Castle Panenské Břežany (Jungfern-Breschan). Seeing that the gate to the street was open, Klaus rode out onto the street where he was struck by a small truck coming down the road. Klaus died from his injuries later that afternoon.  In recognition of her husband's service to the Nazi cause, Hitler gave to Lina the country estate of Jungfern-Breschan in rural Bohemia. Lina sold the other family properties, including the home in Berlin and the hunting lodge near Nauen. The family lived there until April 1945 when they, along with many other Germans left the area to flee the advancing Soviet Red Army. The family made it to Bavaria and then moved back to the island of Fehmarn where they were allowed to live in their house after the British Army moved out that same year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war.", "content": "Lina Heydrich was cleared during the de-Nazification proceedings after the war's end. She further won the right to receive a pension as the result of a series of court cases against the West German government in 1956 and 1959. She was entitled to a substantial pension because her husband was a German general killed in action. The government had previously declined to pay because of Heydrich's role in the Holocaust.  In 1965, she met Finnish theatre director Mauno Manninen while she was on a holiday trip to Finland. Eventually they married for the purpose of changing her last name. She ran Reinhard Heydrich's former summer house on Fehmarn as a restaurant and inn until it burned down in February 1969.  In 1976, she published a memoir, \"Leben mit einem Kriegsverbrecher\" (\"Life with a War Criminal\"). She spoke with several authors, sent in letters of correction to many newspapers, and defended the reputation of her first husband until her own death at age 74 on 14 August 1985 in Fehmarn.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lina Mathilde Heydrich (née von Osten, later Manninen; 14 June 1911 – 14 August 1985) was the wife of \"SS-Obergruppenführer\" Reinhard Heydrich, a central figure in Nazi Germany.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977435}
{"src_title": "The Hundred-Year-Old Man Who Climbed Out the Window and Disappeared", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Allan Karlsson is about to celebrate his hundredth birthday, and his retirement home in Malmköping is planning to throw a party. Allan is not interested. Instead, he climbs out the window and disappears. He walks to the bus station, intending to travel as far as his available cash will allow. There he meets a young man with a suitcase too large to take into the toilet with him. The man goes in, rudely demanding that Allan look after the case. But Allan's bus arrives and he decides to board, taking the case with him. It turns out to be full of illegal drug money, and Allan is chased by the drug gang as well as by the police who are treating him as a missing person. He gets caught up in various criminal activities, eventually escaping when the man from the bus station is accidentally trapped in a freezer, his body ending up in a container destined for Djibouti. An elephant crushes another member of the gang, his remains being inadvertently sent to Latvia in the boot of a Ford Mustang.  In parallel with Allan's adventures as a centenarian, the novel includes flashbacks to increasingly fantastic episodes from his younger days.  As a young man, Allan had worked in a dynamite factory, his expertise taking him to Spain during the civil war, where he accidentally saves General Franco. Moving to the United States he becomes good friends with Harry S. Truman, and helps to make the atom bomb.  After the war, Allan is sent to China to help the Kuomintang fight against the communists, but he loses interest and leaves for Sweden by foot, falling in with a group of communists; they cross the Himalayas to Iran, where Allan is taken into custody. As a ruse, Allan offers to help the Chief of Police in an assassination attempt against Winston Churchill.  On returning to Sweden, Allan finds that the authorities doubt his bomb-making expertise, but the Russians do take him seriously and he is befriended by Yury Popov who takes him to the Soviet Union to meet Stalin. However, Stalin is offended by his saving of Franco's life, and Allen finds himself sentenced to hard labour in a gulag in Vladivostok. There he meets Albert Einstein's fictional brother, Herbert.  Herbert and Allan escape from the gulag, setting fire to the whole of Vladivostok in the process. Travelling to North Korea during the Korean War, the pair pose as Soviet marshal Kirill Afanesievich Meretskov and his aide, and meet Kim Il-sung and Mao Tse-tung. Although they are quickly exposed as frauds, disaster is averted when Mao Tse-tung learns that Allan had saved his wife, Jiang Qing, during the Chinese Civil War. Allan and Herbert are given cash and sent to Bali for a long holiday.  In Bali, Herbert meets an Indonesian waitress, Ni Wayan Laksmi, whom he marries and renames Amanda. She corruptly makes use of the cash for her own political ends, and arranges to get herself appointed as Indonesia's ambassador to France.  In 1968, Amanda, Herbert and Allan travel to France. At the Élysée Palace Amanda and Allan have lunch with Charles de Gaulle and Lyndon B. Johnson who is in Paris for talks on the Vietnam War. Allan identifies the French Interior Minister Christian Fouchet's special advisor as a Soviet spy. This humiliates de Gaulle, but pleases Johnson who later makes Allan a CIA spy. Thanks to Allan's tip-off, the protests in Paris end. Allan is to be awarded a medal, but has already left for Moscow.  In Moscow, Allan is given cover in the American embassy, and is reunited with Popov. The pair decide to write intelligence reports which will please both sides. Their reports result in Richard Nixon visiting Leonid Brezhnev, but also causes both sides to increase spending on their nuclear deterrents. As the Soviet Union starts to collapse, Allan decides to return to Sweden.  Allan settles down to a peaceful life and adopts a cat that he names Molotov. Unfortunately, after Molotov is killed by a fox, Allan is unable to resist setting a trap with dynamite, resulting in a huge explosion. Eventually, the authorities decide to send Allan to the Malmköping retirement home. He rails at its strict rules, and decides to escape.  The book concludes with the 100-year-old Allan and his comrades flying to Indonesia, where they spend time at a luxury hotel managed by Amanda and her sons. When he is approached by a representative of the Indonesian government, who is interested in Allan's atomic bomb expertise, he agrees to help, telling himself that at least the Indonesian president, Yudhoyono, is sane - unlike the other leaders he has met in his lifetime.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release and reception.", "content": "\"The Hundred-Year-Old Man Who Climbed Out the Window and Disappeared\" was released as a hardback and audiobook in 2009, and as a paperback in 2010. It became the best selling book in Sweden in 2010, and by July 2012 had sold three million copies worldwide. The audiobook, read by the actor Björn Granath, won the \"Iris Ljudbokspris\" award in 2010. The book was published in the United Kingdom by Hesperus Press on 12 July 2012 and in the United States by Hyperion Books on 11 September 2012.  In 2013, it was adapted into a film of the same name.  On August 23, 2017, it was announced that CBS Films will collaborate with Gary Sanchez Productions in order to produce an American adaptation of the book. Will Ferrell will star in the film, and it will be produced by Ferrell along with Adam McKay and Jessica Elbaum. The screenplay will be written by Jason George.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hundred-Year-Old Man Who Climbed Out the Window and Disappeared (), also known as The 100-Year-Old Man Who Climbed Out the Window and Disappeared in the US, is a 2009 comic novel by the Swedish author Jonas Jonasson. The Swedish version was first published on 9 September 2009, and the English version on 12 July 2012.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977436}
{"src_title": "Isabella, Countess of Bedford", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Isabella was the royal couple's second child, and eldest daughter. Named after her paternal grandmother, Isabella of France, Isabella is believed to have been her father's favourite daughter, but less close to her mother.  Born at Woodstock Palace, in Oxfordshire, on 16 June 1332, she was a baby who was much pampered by her doting parents. She slept in a gilded cradle lined with taffeta and covered with a fur blanket. Her gowns were of imported Italian silk, embroidered with jewels and fur-lined. Isabella had, along with her siblings, a household of servants which included a personal chaplain, musicians, a noble governor and governess, and three ladies-in-waiting as well as a staff of grooms, esquires, clerks, butlers, cooks, and other attendants. As a child, Isabella was sent to the household of William and Elizabeth St Omer, which also included Isabella's older brother Edward and younger sister Joan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Betrothals.", "content": "When she was just 3 years old, her father attempted to arrange a marriage between Isabella and Pedro of Castile, the Castilian King's heir; however, her younger sister Joan later became Pedro's betrothed, dying before they could actually marry.  Described as being over-indulged, wilful and wildly extravagant, Isabella – unusually for the times – remained unmarried until the age of 33. She had previously been the subject of various betrothal proposals; however, these had all failed to come to fruition. On 15 November 1351, when she was 19 years old, five ships were instructed to take her to Gascony where she was to marry Bernard d'Albret as had been previously arranged. He was the second eldest son of Bernard Ezi IV, Lord of Albret. At the last moment before departure, however, Isabella changed her mind, and the marriage was called off. Her father does not appear to have been angry at Isabella for her capricious behaviour as he granted her custody of Burtsall Priory in Yorkshire in 1355. He also settled the sum of 1,000 marks \"per annum\" on her.  Eventually, she was permitted to marry Enguerrand VII, Lord of Coucy, a wealthy French lord with whom she had fallen in love. Seven years her junior, he was the son and heir of Enguerrand VI, Lord of Coucy and Catherine of Austria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Isabella's husband had been brought to England in 1360 as a hostage exchanged for the freedom of King John II of France, an English prisoner. They married on 27 July 1365, at Windsor Castle, by which time Isabella was in her thirties. Her father, Edward III, gave her a dowry of £4,000 and a large lifetime annual income, together with expensive amounts of jewellery and lands; de Coucy was restored to his family's lands in Yorkshire, Lancaster, Westmorland and Cumberland, and was released as a hostage without any need for ransom.  In November 1365, Isabella and her husband were permitted to enter France; their first daughter, Marie, was born at the family lands at Coucy in April 1366. They later returned for a visit to England; on this occasion, Enguerrand was made Earl of Bedford on 11 May 1366, which made Isabella Countess of Bedford as well as Lady of Coucy. After the birth of Isabella's second daughter, Philippa, in 1367, Enguerrand and Isabella were also made Count and Countess of Soissons by Edward. Because her husband also served the King of France as a military leader, he was frequently away from home; consequently, Isabella, though living principally with Enguerrand at Coucy, made frequent visits to her family in England. She was made a Lady of the Garter in 1376.  Isabella bore two children by her marriage to Enguerrand de Coucy:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Isabella was at her father's side when he died on 21 June 1377 having been urgently summoned home from France by couriers the previous April.  After the accession of Richard II, Isabella's nephew, in August 1377, Enguerrand resigned all of his English ties and possessions. Isabella then died in England under mysterious circumstances, separated from her husband and eldest daughter, Marie.  Her death was either in April 1379, or between 17 June and 5 October 1382. She was buried in Greyfriars Church, Newgate, London. Seven years after her death, her husband took as his second wife, Isabelle, the daughter of John I, Duke of Lorraine and Sophie of Württemberg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In fiction.", "content": "Molly Costain Haycraft's fictionalized account of Isabella's life and courtship with her husband, \"The Lady Royal\", recounts several incidents in the lives of the princess and other members of Edward III's family, but contains a number of historical errors. Chief among these is the explanation of the book's title; according to the story, Isabella (or Isabel, as she is identified in the story) was titled Princess Royal and later promoted to \"Lady Royal\" by her parents. This is impossible, given that the title of Princess Royal was not created until the reign of Charles I of England.  One reviewer commented that \"Edward III's proclamation of the intended marriage... conveys more of the cadence of Plantagenet Britain than do pages of Mrs Haycraft's dreary efforts.\" Others praise the author's attention to historical detail.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Isabella of England (16 June 1332 – ) was the eldest daughter of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault, and the wife of Enguerrand de Coucy, Earl of Bedford, by whom she had two daughters. She was made a Lady of the Garter in 1376.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977437}
{"src_title": "The Fiery Angel (opera)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Bryusov’s novel.", "content": "Prokofiev's \"The Fiery Angel\" was based on a novel of the same name by Valery Bryusov. Prokofiev was more intrigued by the “orgies” (here, indulgence of passion) presented in the novel rather than the story ideas. The novel was inspired by Bryusov’s own experiences with one Nina Petrovskaya, and was considered one of the beginnings of the Russian Symbolist movement known as Vesy, or “The Scales.” Nina was the mistress of Andrey Bely. In their time together, Nina also came to know Bryusov in 1904, and this started to cause obvious concerns for Bely. There was an anticipated brawl on a remote road in Moscow, but a mutual friend of Bryusov and Bely prevented the fight. Nina, Andrey, and Bryusov inspired Prokofiev’s characters in his opera, making the novel the prime source of inspiration for the work. The novel was also the basis for the libretto of Prokofiev’s opera, which Prokofiev himself wrote with the help of Demchinsky.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "Originally the opera was in three acts and eleven scenes, but was eventually reorganized into five acts and seven scenes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act 1.", "content": "Renata, a young woman searching for a missing love, resides at an inn. Ruprecht, a knight errant, meets Renata at the inn. She tells him that, since her childhood, she has been in love with an angel. This angel, Madiel, encouraged her to do good deeds, and at the age of seventeen she finally asked for his physical love. The angel, in response, glowed in fury, but agreed to return in human form. After Madiel’s promise, Renata had met Count Heinrich von Otterheim. Convinced that this was her angel returned to Earth, Renata immediately gave herself to him. One year later, Otterheim left. In denial, Renata begs Ruprecht to help her search for Otterheim.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 2.", "content": "As the two search for Otterheim, Ruprecht soon falls in love with Renata, although she does not share the feeling. They decide to resort to sorcery to find Otterheim, and a spell is cast. Three knocks are then heard at the door. Renata assumes the spell has worked and nearly goes insane at the thought of Otterheim returning. But nobody is there. Ruprecht and Renata seek out the powerful sorcerer Agrippa von Nettesheim. Once in his lair, they are met with his refusal to help; his concerns lie with the power of the Inquisition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 3.", "content": "Ruprecht learns that Renata has finally found Count Heinrich von Otterheim, who has rejected her. She begs to be avenged, learning that he was never her angel. Ruprecht attempts to exact revenge for Renata by dueling with Otterheim. The duel is one-sided, as Otterheim easily overcomes Ruprecht and injures him.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 4.", "content": "Ruprecht and Renata have moved in together, but Renata now insists on joining a convent to better herself and for her soul’s sake. There is a comic relief, involving Faust and Mephistopheles at a tavern. (This tavern scene, used to break up the dark sarcastic nature of the opera, is sometimes left out.)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act 5.", "content": "Renata is in the convent, where the leaders accuse her of demonic possession. As an attempt to heal Renata ensues, all Hell essentially breaks loose (both on stage and in the orchestra) as the other nuns are also possessed. She is condemned by the Inquisitor to be burned at the stake.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Progress.", "content": "With no previous commissions or any actual production being present, Prokofiev set out to write \"The Fiery Angel\" at one of the only times of his life in which religion was considered for his works. The thematic style is more like Prokofiev’s pre-Revolution operas (such as The Gambler), even with the ambiguity. The only theme that strays from the ambiguous is the theme involved with the evil forces.  The opera as a whole is a contrast to some of Prokofiev’s earlier operas (such as his opera \"The Love for Three Oranges\") just by being a tragedy, and the story was considered very appropriate for Prokofiev’s dark and sarcastic style.  The production of the opera was one of the biggest hurdles, for different reasons, Prokofiev faced. There was a large amount of extra material in the work, there were what was considered violations of theater, negotiations with different theaters both in Europe and America continued to fail. In the midst of it all, Prokofiev felt like he was unappreciated and unwanted, but his pride kept him striving for recognition.  In 1926, Bruno Walter made Prokofiev an offer to have \"The Fiery Angel\" produced at a Berlin theater, which prompted Prokofiev to work on the orchestration. The orchestration was finished in 1927. The production was still unsuccessful. The opera and inspiration came and went, but it was the promises of production that kept Prokofiev writing.  Prokofiev, who had been working on the opera for years, was reluctant to let the music languish unperformed, and after hearing a concert performance of its second act given by Serge Koussevitzky in June 1928, he adapted parts of the opera to make his Symphony No. 3 in C minor, Op. 44, later that year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"The Fiery Angel\" was met with mixed reviews for different reasons. Largely, \"The Fiery Angel\" was, despite lack of productions, reviewed as Prokofiev’s “... strongest and most dramatically intense scores.” In a review of the Bolshoi performance of \"The Fiery Angel\", it is said that Prokofiev’s “...score is crazy, but shouldn’t sound chaotic.” Prokofiev may have only been interested in the overarching story rather than the smaller details. It was also criticized that maybe the language would have been better in French rather than Russian. Some even called the opera a “16th-century Carmen with supernatural trimmings” amongst other mixed reviews. Another criticism is that \"The Fiery Angel\" is nothing but confusion and noise with the “modern” title. Using staging should not be there to make up for the music, but to mix with it and make a grand production. Prokofiev was able to write the music how he saw fit, which appealed to many more than the staging has, according to different reviews.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "Source: Recordings of \"The Fiery Angel\" on operadis-opera-discography.org.uk", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sergei Prokofiev's opera, The Fiery Angel (), Op. 37, could be considered one of the composer’s largest challenges. Writing, production, and location were all factors in the piece’s progress. The journey to completion was not truly over until after Prokofiev’s time, when the piece was first presented in a full performance at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées on 25 November 1954, and was first premiered at the Venice Festival in 1955.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977438}
{"src_title": "Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Gauguin had been a student at the Petit Séminaire de La Chapelle-Saint-Mesmin, just outside Orléans, from the age of eleven to the age of sixteen. His subjects there included a class in Catholic liturgy; the teacher for this class was the Bishop of Orléans, Félix-Antoine-Philibert Dupanloup. Dupanloup had devised his own catechism to be lodged in the minds of the young schoolboys, and to lead them towards proper spiritual reflections on the nature of life. The three fundamental questions in this catechism were: \"Where does humanity come from?\" \"Where is it going to?\", \"How does humanity proceed?\". Although in later life Gauguin was vociferously anticlerical, these questions from Dupanloup's catechism obviously had lodged in his mind, and \"where?\" became the key question that Gauguin asked in his art.  Looking for a society more simple and elemental than that of his native France, Gauguin left for Tahiti in 1891. In addition to several other paintings that express his highly individualistic mythology, he completed this painting in 1897 or 1898. Gauguin considered it a masterpiece and the grand culmination of his thought. He was in despair when he undertook the painting, mourning the tragic death of his favourite daughter earlier in the year and oppressed by debts, and had planned to kill himself on finishing it. He subsequently made an unsuccessful attempt with an overdose of arsenic. Thomson thinks it quite possible that he only painted in the inscription while recovering from the attempt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style and analysis.", "content": "Gauguin indicated that the painting should be read from right to left, with the three major figure groups illustrating the questions posed in the title. The three women with a child represent the beginning of life; the middle group symbolizes the daily existence of young adulthood; and in the final group, according to the artist, \"an old woman approaching death appears reconciled and resigned to her thoughts\"; at her feet, \"a strange white bird...represents the futility of words\" or \"the uselessness of vain words\". The blue idol in the background apparently represents what Gauguin described as \"the Beyond.\" Of its entirety he said, \"I believe that this canvas not only surpasses all my preceding ones, but that I shall never do anything better—or even like it.\"  The painting is an accentuation of Gauguin's trailblazing post-impressionistic style; his art stressed the vivid use of colors and thick brushstrokes, tenets of the impressionists (though the Impressionists focused on quick brushstrokes), while it aimed to convey an emotional or expressionistic strength. It emerged in conjunction with other avant-garde movements of the twentieth century, including cubism and fauvism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception and provenance.", "content": "In 1898, Gauguin sent the painting to Georges-Daniel de Monfreid in Paris. Monfreid passed it to Ambroise Vollard along with eight other thematically related pictures shipped earlier. They went on view at Vollard's gallery from November to December 1898. The exhibition was a success, although \"D'où Venons Nous?\" received mixed reviews. The critic Andre Fontainas of the \"Mercure de France\" acknowledged a grudging respect for the work but thought the allegory impenetrable were it not for the inscription, and compared the painting unfavourably to the murals of Pierre Puvis de Chavannes who had died recently. Vollard had already purchased the other works as a job lot from Monfreid for 1,000 francs (Gauguin was furious when he found out), but refrained from purchasing the larger monumental work and had difficulty selling it on.  Subsequently, Frizeau sold the painting around 1913 to Galerie Barbazanges, which sold it before 1920 to the Norwegian ship owner and art collector. He sold the painting via in 1935, and it was bought by the Marie Harriman Gallery in New York City in 1936. The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, acquired it from the Marie Harriman Gallery on 16 April 1936.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? is a painting by French artist Paul Gauguin. Gauguin inscribed the original French title in the upper left corner: D'où Venons Nous / Que Sommes Nous / Où Allons Nous. The inscription the artist wrote on his canvas has no question mark, no dash, and all words are capitalized. In the upper right corner he signed and dated the painting: \"P. Gauguin / 1897\". The painting was created in Tahiti, and is in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Massachusetts, US.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977439}
{"src_title": "Panthera blytheae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "Currently, only a fossil of a \"Panthera blytheae\" cranium has been found. However, current evidence shows that the species has a number of features common in other \"Panthera\" species, including a \"frontoparietal suture located at the postorbital constriction\", and an \"absence of an anterior bulge overhanging the infraorbital canal\". Its size is thought to be on par with that of the clouded leopard. It is about 10% smaller than the snow leopard. However, this is purely based on the relative sizes of the cranium, so this may be slightly inaccurate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relation to other \"Panthera\" species.", "content": "The closest extant relative of \"Panthera blytheae\" is the snow leopard. The evidence for this is that it is more similar in cranial structure to the snow leopard than to other pantherines, as well as two species having similar ranges spanning the Tibetan Plateau. Based on the age of the fossil, \"P. blytheae\" is believed to have been very similar in diet to the snow leopard, as many species that constitute a large part of the snow leopard's diet existed before the extinction of \"P. blytheae\".  \"P. blytheae\" is not believed to be as closely related to the other extant species of the genus \"Panthera\", and is therefore not believed to be the common ancestor of all pantherines. This implies that the divergence of \"Panthera\" from the rest of Felidae was much earlier, with current estimates being approximately 16.4 million years ago. Analysis of the location of \"P. blytheae\" in relation to other \"Panthera\" species indicates that \"Panthera\" arose in Central/Northern Asia or the Holarctic region of Asia, with other pantherines migrating to Europe, Africa and the Americas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Panthera blytheae is an extinct species of the genus \"Panthera\" that is thought to have existed during the late Messinian to early Zanclean ages approximately 5.95–4.1 million years ago. It is currently the oldest known \"Panthera\" species. The first fossils were excavated in 2010 in the Zanda Basin located in the Ngari Prefecture on the Tibetan Plateau.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977440}
{"src_title": "Marian Kotleba", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Born in Banská Bystrica in what was then Czechoslovakia, Kotleba attended the local Jozef Murgas High School before enrolling at the Sports Grammar School () specialising in sports. After finishing the Grammar School he enrolled at the Matej Bel University receiving a Master's Degree in Pedagogics, later he once again enrolled at the Economics faculty at the same university and graduated with a master's degree in Economics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political views.", "content": "Kotleba supports of Jozef Tiso and the First Slovak Republic, and he is openly against Roma people, Slovak National Uprising, NATO, the United States and the European Union. According to \"Hospodárske noviny\", his position on the Holocaust is unclear. The BBC and \"The Economist\" have described him as a neo-Nazi. Kotleba has promoted the Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy theory and described Jews as \"devils in human skin\".  Kotleba has been charged with demonstrating sympathy for a movement directed at suppression of fundamental rights and freedoms by donating the amount of 1,488 € to charity, which is alleged to carry a white supremacist and Neo-Nazi message.  Kotleba has received a negative reception from the Slovak and foreign media due to his political views. Outlets such as \"Pravda\", \"Denník SME\", and \"Aktuality\" have characterized him as \"extremist\", \"fascist\", and \"neo-Nazi\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 2003, Kotleba founded the far-right political party Slovak Togetherness (). In 2007 the Slovak interior ministry banned the party from running and campaigning in elections, however it still functioned as a civic organisation. In 2009 he ran for the post of Governor of the Banská Bystrica region and received 10% of the votes. In the 2013 local elections he ran again and this time received approximately 20% of the votes, thereby securing a run-off against favourite Vladimír Maňka. Kotleba won the run-off by receiving 55% of the votes.  Kotleba's win was described as a \"shock\" by political analysts, who attributed it to deep anti-Romani sentiments in the region. Observers originally had said that they saw almost no chance for Kotleba to succeed in the second round against Maňka, but nonetheless found his strong showing \"disturbing\".  Prior to the 2016 elections to the National Council, he renamed his party Ľudová strana Naše Slovensko (English: People's Party Our Slovakia) to Kotleba – Ľudová strana Naše Slovensko. Despite the polls suggesting the 1.5–3.5% gain of votes, the party rocketed to the parliament with a gain of over 8% of the vote. Despite elements of Neo-Nazism, the post-electoral polls suggest that his success was a result of dissatisfaction with the running of Slovakia and was seen as a protest vote against the ruling Smer – Sociálna demokracia and the fractured right. It was also linked to the fall of the Christian Democratic Movement, the Christian conservative party, and the European migrant crisis.  He was defeated in the Slovak regional elections of 2017 by an independent candidate, Ján Lunter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International Views.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Russia and Syria.", "content": "Kotleba is known for his sympathy towards Russian Federation and Syrian Arab Republic, having slogans during presidential campaign in 2019 such as \"For Slavic unity, against war with Russia\" or declaring on national television that \"Bashar Al-Assad is a hero of the Middle-East\". Kotleba also made trips to Syria, having met with Syrian House Speaker and Foreign Minister of Syria. It was revealed upon his departure from Banská Bystrica governorship from the documents found there, that he wanted to send a letter to Russian ambassador, in which he asked for assistance and profoundly wrote about his intention to buy a Russian car. He also spoke critically of American intervention in Iraq, Afghanistan, Yugoslavia, Libya, and Syria, once reading all of United States involvement in regime change in the Slovak Parliament.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Marian Kotleba (; born 7 April 1977) is a Slovak politician and leader of the far-right, neo-Nazi political party Kotlebists – People's Party Our Slovakia ().", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977441}
{"src_title": "Terry Pratchett's Going Postal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "After years of undertaking confidence tricks, Moist von Lipwig is caught by the Ankh-Morpork City Watch, and is sentenced to death under his current alias, Albert Spangler. After a brief spell in prison he is hanged by the neck, but not killed. He is brought before Patrician Havelock Vetinari who likens himself to an angel, offering Moist a change of life. He gives Moist the choice to either become the new Postmaster or be executed by falling down a deep pit.  Moist immediately attempts to escape but is caught by his parole officer Mr Pump, a golem, and brought to the rundown post office where he meets his two staff: the elderly Junior Postman Tolliver Groat and his assistant, the pin-obsessed Stanley Howler. Moist learns that the post office has been superseded by semaphore towers known as \"Clacks\" which send messages using light signals which are faster than sending letters by post and owned by the unscrupulous Reacher Gilt.  Initially Moist attempts to escape his duty, but realises that he cannot get away without overcoming Mr Pump, so he goes to the Golem Trust to help understand how golems are created and controlled. There he meets Adora Belle Dearheart for whom he begins to develop feelings. His skills prove to be useful in making the post office popular again, both when he invents the postage stamp in an attempt to raise money (which proves to be highly successful), and when he starts an express post service to neighbouring cities.  While staying in the post office Moist begins to experience visions which show him that some of his confidence tricks led to tragedies for those he conned, which result in him having feelings of remorse for the first time. These feelings are heightened when he discovers that Adora Belle's father, Robert Dearheart, was indirectly a victim of one of his cons, and as a result lost ownership of his invention, the Clacks. Moist confesses his past misdeeds to Adora Belle just as the post office is set afire. Moist sets his own safety aside and runs into the burning building to rescue Stanley Howler. Before finding Stanley, he encounters Mr Gryle, a banshee assassin, who confesses that he killed the previous four Postmasters on behalf of Gilt. Just as Gryle is about to strike, Moist calls on the haunted letters in the post office to stop Gryle, which they do.  The burning of the post office means that the people of Ankh-Morpork are turning back to the \"Clacks\" for sending their messages, so Moist comes up with a plan to draw people back to the post office by pretending that he has experienced a vision telling him where the gods have buried money to help repair the post office (in reality the money was a hidden stash from his past cons). This succeeds, so Moist announces a new long distance delivery service.  Meanwhile, Adora Belle Dearheart is working on a way to jam up the Clacks with the help of a group of hackers (clacks-crackers) called \"The Smoking Gnu\" which they succeed in doing temporarily. The Clacks' chief engineer, Mr Pony, finds a way of preventing the jamming process, but Pony begins to see that working for Gilt is wrong and presents Adora with evidence to prove that Gilt had the past four postmasters, as well as Adora's brother, killed.  When an attempt to jam the Clacks fails Moist challenges Gilt to a race to the city of Uberwald, Clacks versus post office. The message to be sent is a biography of Havelock Vetinari. Moist and Adora employ a disused Clack tower to intercept and successfully change the message from a biography to the content of Gilt's ledgers, providing evidence of the hired murders, which is witnessed in Ankh-Morpork. Gilt flees before he can be arrested and Adora is made manager of the Clacks and begins a relationship with Moist. At the end of the story Gilt, having been tracked down by a Golem the same way Moist was, is awoken in Vetinari's office who asks Gilt if he knows anything about angels. When a postman (played by Terry Pratchett) later arrives at Vetinari's palace to deliver a letter to Gilt, Vetinari implies that Gilt killed himself by falling down the deep pit.  In a post-credits sequence, Groat and Stanley are sore and exhausted after making the round-trip to Überwald with a mail coach, but excited because they bet on Moist to win the race at odds of 50-1. Then Groat remembers that he left the betting slip in Überwald, so they immediately set off again in the desperate hope of finding it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "US Release.", "content": "Both episodes of the Mini Series were released on one DVD in the United States on 11 September 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Terry Pratchett's Going Postal is a two-part television film adaptation of \"Going Postal\" by Terry Pratchett, adapted by Richard Kurti and Bev Doyle and produced by The Mob, which was first broadcast on Sky1, and in high definition on Sky1 HD, at the end of May 2010.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977442}
{"src_title": "Mom (TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "\"Mom\" follows Christy Plunkett (Anna Faris), a single mother who, after dealing with her battle with alcoholism and drug abuse, decides to restart her life in Napa, California, working as a waitress and attending Alcoholics Anonymous meetings. Her mother, Bonnie Plunkett, (Allison Janney) is also a recovering addict. Christy's daughter, Violet (Sadie Calvano), who was born when Christy was 17, has also become a teen mother by her boyfriend, Luke (Spencer Daniels). Christy also has a young son, Roscoe (Blake Garrett Rosenthal) by her ex-husband, Baxter (Matt Jones), a deadbeat but likable pothead.  Christy has gone back to school and is pursuing her dream of becoming a lawyer, while Bonnie attempts to have a healthy romantic relationship with her new husband, Adam (William Fichtner). Through it all, Christy and Bonnie rely on their support system from AA, including the wise Marjorie (Mimi Kennedy), the wealthy and sometimes misguided Jill (Jaime Pressly), the overly-emotional Wendy (Beth Hall), and the loudmouthed but sweet Tammy (Kristen Johnston). Collectively, they help each other stay sober in the face of whatever life throws at them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "\"Mom\" was one of the many projects that became a priority for CBS and Warner Bros when it was pitched in December 2012, in part due to Lorre's new four-year deal with Warner the previous September. It was green-lit by CBS for a series order pickup on May 9, 2013. This pickup also gives Lorre the distinction of having four sitcoms airing on one network starting in the 2013–14 season. The following week, the network announced that it would place the sitcom in the Monday night 9:30 pm (ET/PT) time slot following \"2 Broke Girls\". However, after the cancelation of \"We Are Men\", \"2 Broke Girls\" was moved into the show's 8:30 pm slot, with repeats of \"The Big Bang Theory\" occupying the 9 pm lead-in time slot to \"Mom\" until the season debut of \"Mike & Molly\" on November 4, 2013. The show received a full first season order for 22 episodes on October 18, 2013.  On March 13, 2014, CBS announced the second season renewal of \"Mom\". The series moved from Mondays at 9:30 PM to Thursdays at 8:30 PM for the first fourteen episodes until the series moved to Thursdays at 9:30 PM following \"The Odd Couple\" series premiere and the series finale of \"Two and a Half Men\".  By season three, the focus became more about Christy and Bonnie and their group from AA, while the restaurant set, the kids, and Baxter roles were reduced significantly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Casting.", "content": "The series gives Faris, who had guest-starred in various television programs between her film projects and been sought after for other television projects (including a failed pilot called \"Blue Skies\" that was being produced for NBC), her first full-time television role, as she landed the part of the lead character, Christy, in January 2013. On January 28, 2013, Janney was next to come aboard the project, playing Christy's mother. Matt Jones and Spencer Daniels were added to the cast in February 2013, with Jones playing Christy's ex-husband, Baxter, and Daniels taking the role of Luke, the boyfriend of Christy's daughter, Violet.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Broadcast.", "content": "In Australia, \"Mom\" debuted on Nine Network on April 9, 2014. In Canada, Citytv airs the series simultaneously. In Greece, Star Channel debut the series on October 25, 2014. In India, Comedy Central (India) has been broadcasting the series through 2015. In Israel, the show is broadcast on HOT Comedy Central. In the United Kingdom, ITV2 debuted the show on January 20, 2014, they have since dropped the show which has not been available to UK viewers since the end of Season 4.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Syndication.", "content": "\"Mom\" went into syndication during the fall of 2017. The series airs on local affiliates, as well as on FXX, Paramount Network, Nick at Nite, and CMT. It previously aired on TV Land, until July 2, 2018, when it switched networks with \"Two and a Half Men\" for Nick at Nite. Aside from FXX, the stations are owned by ViacomCBS, which often shares its programming.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "\"Mom\" has been met with widespread critical acclaim, with much praise going towards its writing and performances of its cast, especially that of Allison Janney. The series received a Metacritic score of 65 out of 100 for its first season, based on 25 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds an approval rating of 70%, based on 40 reviews, and an average rating of 5.71/10. The site's critical consensus reads: \"Anna Faris and Allison Janney share an undeniable comedic chemistry, and if the jokes are sometimes too crass, \"Mom\" represents a sincere (and often witty) attempt to address addiction issues.\" \"Boston Herald\" critic Mark A. Perigard gave a positive review, writing: \"This is dark material, yet Faris balances it with a genuine winsomeness, able to wring laughs out of the most innocuous lines.\" \"New York Magazine\" critic Matt Zoller Seitz praised the cast and called it \"just about perfect\".  The second season was met with even more critical acclaim. The season received a Metacritic score of 81 out of 100, indicating \"universal acclaim\". On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an approval rating of 88%, based on 8 reviews, and an average rating of 8.5/10.  The third season was also met with critical acclaim. The season received a Metacritic score of 82 out of 100, indicating \"universal acclaim\". On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an approval rating of 100%, based on 11 reviews, and an average rating of 8.33/11. The site's critical consensus reads: \"\"Mom\" continues to nurture the multi-cam sitcom genre with mature storytelling and wonderful performances by Anna Faris and Allison Janney, who both handle reflective drama with the same deft touch as they do comedic timing\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Mom is an American television sitcom that premiered on CBS on September 23, 2013. The series was created by Chuck Lorre, Eddie Gorodetsky and Gemma Baker, while the former two also serve as executive producers on the series along with Nick Bakay. On February 5, 2019, it was renewed for its seventh and eighth seasons, The seventh season premiered on September 26, 2019. With the eighth season set to premiere sometime during the 2020–21 television season.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977443}
{"src_title": "Lil Bub", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Lil Bub was the runt of her litter born to a feral mother. She was born with several genetic mutations, had to be bottle-fed, and had difficulty being adopted. Lil Bub had an extreme form of feline dwarfism that caused her limbs and lower jaw to be quite small in comparison to the rest of her body. The shortened lower jaw meant that, among other things, she could not retain her tongue within her mouth. Her owner, Mike Bridavsky, adopted her when his friends asked him to give her a home. When Bridavsky first picked her up, he said \"Hey, Bub!\"  Lil Bub suffered from osteopetrosis for which she received medication. In late 2012, during the filming of \"Lil Bub & Friendz\", she had a serious health episode and was diagnosed with osteopetrosis by a specialist in Indianapolis. Lil Bub's short legs and osteopetrosis restricted her movement but she was termed \"a fantastic waddler.\" Vibrations from travel also break down the osteoclasts.  A group of individuals launched a campaign on the website Experiment.com to sequence Lil Bub's genome. The purpose of this project was to better understand Lil Bub's unique appearance (for example, her extra digits). The campaign reached its funding goal on May 25, 2015. The scientists found Lil Bub had a mutation in gene RANK/TNFRSF11A which has also been found in one mouse and fifteen humans. Their research on Lil Bub is published at bioRxiv.  Bridavsky sold a variety of merchandise under the LIL BUB moniker and donated much of the profits to animal rescue groups. Some of the money also helped Bridavsky pay off six months of back rent on his recording studio. Bridavsky has a policy to not \"approach anybody for anything\" and chose to not sign with talent agent Ben Lashes, whose clients have included Grumpy Cat. \"Lil Bub’s Lil Book: The Extraordinary Life of the Most Amazing Cat on the Planet\" was released September 3, 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Meet and greets.", "content": "Bridavsky arranged \"meet and greets\" for both he and Lil Bub at animal shelters around the US. The shelters received donations and a cut of merchandise sales.  Lil Bub posed for a PETA campaign that encourages people to spay and neuter their pets.  Lil Bub met Grumpy Cat at the second annual Internet Cat Video Film Festival. Lil Bub had a book signing for her new book at Strand Books on September 5.  A screening of \"Lil Bub & Friendz\" at Metro Chicago raised $1,800 for Tree House Humane Society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media appearances.", "content": "Lil Bub appeared on \"Good Morning America\" in August 2012. She did a photoshoot with \"Bullett Magazine\" in October 2012. She was also featured in \"Bloom Magazine\" in the December 2012/January 2013 edition.  She appeared on \"Today\" and \"The View\" in April 2013. Lil Bub appeared in the YouTube Big Live Comedy Show with Jack McBrayer and the cast of \"Workaholics\". She appeared on an episode of \"Meme'd\" on The Pet Collective.  In September 2014, Lil Bub was interviewed by David Yow of The Jesus Lizard for \"The A.V. Club\".  Lil Bub makes an appearance in the film \"Nine Lives\" (2016) as the cat form of the film's main antagonist Ian Cox (Mark Consuelos) after he is hit by a car and his soul goes inside the cat's body.  Her final media appearance was in the 2018 movie \"I'll Be Next Door for Christmas\".. She appeared as Parsley the Cat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Appearance on Japanese TV.", "content": "Lil Bub's life story was featured for 30 minutes during the three hour \"Animal Special\" episode of the Japanese TV show \"Experience a Miracle – Unbelievable\". In this dramatization the role of Mike Bridavsky was played by New Zealand actor Gregory Snelgar.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Lil Bub & Friendz\".", "content": "Lil Bub stars in \"Lil Bub & Friendz\", a documentary directed by Andy Capper and Juliette Eisner and premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 18, 2013. The film also stars Keyboard Cat, Nyan Cat and Grumpy Cat. Capper and Eisner decided to make a full-length film after meeting Lil Bub and seeing the turnout of 10,000 people at the 2012 Internet Cat Video Film Festival in Minneapolis. \"Lil Bub & Friendz\" won the Tribeca Online Festival Best Feature Film.  Lil Bub, Bridavsky, Capper and Eisner attended the Tribeca Drive-In outdoor screening at the World Financial Center Plaza on April 20. Lil Bub did a petting and photo session. Festival co-head Robert De Niro met Lil Bub at the Director's Brunch on April 23 after co-head Jane Rosenthal quipped to \"The Hollywood Reporter\" \"I keep saying Little Bub needs to meet Big Bob.\"  On Lil Bub's second birthday, June 21, 2013, it was announced that she would star in \"Lil BUB's Big SHOW\" web series with Revision3. Bridavsky selected Rev3 for its connections to Discovery Communications and Animal Planet. Bridavsky had full writing and creative control. The talk show format was made possible by having a subtitled Lil Bub edited with footage of her guests recorded separately. Her first guest was Whoopi Goldberg who met her on \"The View\" in April 2013. The episode ended with Lil Bub introducing the audience to Tabby's Place, a cat sanctuary for disadvantaged felines. The episode aired September 3, 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Lil Bub died in her sleep on December 1, 2019. According to her owner, Lil Bub had been fighting an aggressive bone infection at the time of her death.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lil Bub, officially Lil BUB (June 21, 2011 – December 1, 2019), was an American celebrity cat known for her unique physical appearance. Her photos were first posted to Tumblr in November 2011, before being taken off after being featured on the social news website Reddit. \"Lil Bub\" on Facebook has over three million likes. Lil Bub starred in \"Lil Bub & Friendz\", a documentary that premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 18, 2013, and won the Tribeca Online Festival Best Feature Film.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977444}
{"src_title": "Ben Smith (ice hockey, born 1988)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "As a youth, Smith played in the 2001 and 2002 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournaments with the New York Rangers minor ice hockey team.  Smith graduated from Westminster School in 2006 and played four seasons at Boston College. While playing for Boston College, Smith was drafted by the Chicago Blackhawks 169th overall in the sixth round of the 2008 NHL Entry Draft. On October 29, 2010 the Blackhawks recalled Smith from the AHL's Rockford IceHogs to make his NHL debut in a home game against the Edmonton Oilers. He scored his first NHL goal on April 8, 2011 against Jimmy Howard of the Detroit Red Wings. On April 15, 2011, Smith scored 2 goals against the Vancouver Canucks in a 4–3 loss in only his second NHL playoff game.  On Sunday, April 24, 2011, during Game 6 of the Western Conference quarterfinals, Smith scored the overtime goal on a rebound against the Vancouver Canucks' goaltender, Roberto Luongo, to force a Game 7 in Vancouver after the Canucks had previously been leading the series 3–0. The Blackhawks ended up losing Game 7 in overtime.  On June 17, 2013, Smith was called up to play his first Stanley Cup Finals game, a 2–0 loss to the Boston Bruins, to fill in over the injured Marián Hossa. The Blackhawks won the Cup on June 24, 2013, when they defeated the Bruins in Game 6. On June 27, 2014, the Blackhawks signed him to a two-year contract extension. In the following season, Smith scored four goals in 19 playoff games to help the Blackhawks advance to the Western Conference finals.  On March 2, 2015, Smith was traded by the Blackhawks to the San Jose Sharks in exchange for Andrew Desjardins. He scored his first goal with the Sharks the same day in their shutout game against the Montreal Canadiens, but remained for most of the season with the Sharks' AHL affiliate San Jose Barracuda.  On February 27, 2016, Smith, Alex Stalock and a conditional 4th round pick in 2018 were traded by the Sharks to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for James Reimer and Jeremy Morin.  Despite putting up acceptable numbers with the Maple Leafs, Smith was placed on waivers by the team on March 30, 2016. Smith cleared the following day and was assigned to the Toronto Marlies of the AHL. Despite being considered to be favourites to win the Calder Cup, the Marlies were eliminated in the third round of the playoffs, with Smith contributing nine points in their fifteen-game run.  On August 16, 2016, he signed a one-year, two-way deal with the Colorado Avalanche, worth $675,000 at the NHL level and $150,000 at the AHL level. Having made the Avalanche opening night roster, Smith made his debut with Colorado to start the 2016–17 season in a 6–5 victory over the Dallas Stars on October 15, 2016. Smith would play in four scoreless games for the Avalanche before being placed on waivers and being claimed by the Toronto Maple Leafs on October 24, 2016. Smith was claimed due to the depth he provided the team on the penalty kill, a position coach Mike Babcock praised him for during his stint the previous season in Toronto. On May 2, 2017, Smith agreed to a one-year extension to remain with the Maple Leafs. In the 2017–18 season, he won the Calder Cup with the Toronto Marlies, serving as team captain. On June 15, 2018, he signed with Adler Mannheim of the German DEL.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Smith was born in Winston-Salem, North Carolina and raised in Avon, Connecticut. Smith is the first player born in the state of North Carolina to have his name engraved on the Stanley Cup.  Smith's younger brother played Division I soccer for William & Mary.  His uncle is Canadian conductor Peter Oundjian.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Benjamin Alexander Smith (born July 11, 1988) is an American professional ice hockey player currently playing for Adler Mannheim in the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL). He previously played in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Chicago Blackhawks, San Jose Sharks, Toronto Maple Leafs and the Colorado Avalanche.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977445}
{"src_title": "François Asselineau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education.", "content": "Asselineau enrolled in HEC Paris where he graduated in 1980 with the MSc in Management. He enrolled at the École nationale d'administration (promotion \"Léonard de Vinci\", 1985).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Asselineau started his career in Japan in the department of economic expansion for National Service Overseas (CSNE). Served in 1985 as inspector General in the \"inspection générale des Finances\".  From 1989 to 1990, he was chief of mission for the National Credit. He was also president of the direction of the \"Society for Economical and Financial Analysis and Diagnostic\" (SADEF). In 1991, he became chief of mission of the Asia-Oceania office at the \"Direction of Foreign Economical Relation\" (DREE) in the Ministry of Economy and Finance under the Pierre Bérégovoy government.  From 1994 to 1995, he served as counsellor for international affairs in the Ministry of Industry under the Edouard Balladur government.  In June 1995, he was named director of the office of the Ministry of Tourism. In 1996, he moved to the ministry of Foreign Affairs, where he was in charge of economic matters for Asia, Oceania and Latin America until the dissolution of parliament by Jacques Chirac in 1997.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1999, François Asselineau got involved in politics by becoming a member of the Rally for France (RPF), a party created by Charles Pasqua and Philippe de Villiers. He became a member of the national bureau, director of studies and spokesman of the party until autumn 2005. On July 27, 2000, he became vice-director of the general council of the Hauts-de-Seine. He was in charge of economic and international affairs. On May 23, 2001, Charles Pasqua nominated François Asselineau as the director of his office of the presidency of the general council of Hauts-de-Seine where he worked until March 30, 2004 when Nicolas Sarkozy took over the position of Charles Pasqua.  On October 20, 2004, Nicolas Sarkozy appointed Asselineau as the director of the general delegation for economic intelligence within the Minister of Economy and Finance.  In November 2006, Asselineau joined the steering committee of \"Rally for an Independent and Sovereign France\" (RIF), a party created by Paul-Marie Coûteaux,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Municipal councillor.", "content": "On March 19, 2001, he was elected as a member of the council of Paris in the 19e arrondissement de Paris. His list, a right-wing dissident list made with an agreement between Jean Tiberi and Charles Pasqua, was third with 15,78% in a triangular against a Rally for the Republic (RPR) list and unified left list composed with Socialist Party (PS). His campaign was marked by a radical rhetoric on security, with posters denouncing \"six years of socialist laxity\", supposed drug trafficking, alleged prostitution and an asserted lack of police forces.  On December 31, 2004, Asselineau decided to join the group Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) at the Council of Paris. On November 3, 2006, he decided to quit the group and seat with the \"non-inscrits\" just after Françoise de Panafieu, for whom he worked, was elected president of the council of Paris for the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP).  In September 2007, Asselineau participated in a dissident political group named \"Paris Libre\" with several other ex-UMP members. The group ran several lists against the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP), and Asselineau ran a list in the 17e arrondissement de Paris against Françoise de Panafieu. However, he then backtracked, denouncing consequent pressure on the members of his list.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Creation of the UPR.", "content": "On March 25, 2007, for the 50th anniversary of the Rome Treaty signature, he created the Popular Republican Union (UPR).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Election results.", "content": "In January 2011, François Asselineau announced his intention to run for the 2012 French presidential election, and confirmed this intention in December 2011. However, he was only able to garner 17 of the required 500 endorsements from elected politicians necessary to be on the ballot. As a result, Asselineau called for a boycott of the presidential election.  Following the Cahuzac affair and the resignation of Jérôme Cahuzac for whom Asselineau had worked as a civil servant in the Ministry of Finance, Asselineau ran for the legislative by-election in Lot-et-Garonne's 3rd constituency with Régis Chamagne. They failed to reach the second round with a score of 189 votes (0.58%).  Asselineau ran for the 2014 European Parliament election as the head of the list for the Île-de-France constituency. He hoped that the UPR's agenda could rally voters disappointed by the current political system. Asselineau complained to the CSA for not having had access to mainstream media; he also claimed that the principle of equity for all candidates was actually undermined by the media, that tended to give voice to parties that were already well-known. He scored 0.56% of votes cast in his constituency.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political views.", "content": "François Asselineau's'souverainiste' platform has two main targets, the European Union and the United States. He insists that France should leave the Eurozone, the European Union, and NATO. According to Asselineau, the EU and NATO \"as seen from Washington...are the political and military side of the same coin, that of the enthrallment of the European continent to their 'buffer zone' so as to surround and contain the Russian continental power\". He says the process leading to European unification was launched solely upon orders from the American government.  Asselineau denies he is a \"eurosceptic\", preferring to call himself a \"euro-atheist\". He said on the French TV program \"On n'est pas couché\" that he opposes military intervention in Syria and Iraq.  Asselineau claims the 1944 Conseil national de la Résistance as the source of inspiration for his presidential program in 2012, including \"re-nationalisations\" and \"quality public services\". Asselineau does not say what should be done about \"the major national issues such as nuclear power in France, the French debt crisis or the decisions to be made about immigration, [which] should be addressed through referendums\", \"once France has left the European Union\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conspiracy theories.", "content": "The regional daily newspaper \"Sud-Ouest\" notes that Rudy Reichstadt, the coordinator of \"\", summed up François Asselineau's ideas as being \"utter \"souverainisme\" interlaced with anti-US conspiracy theories (\"\"un souverainisme intégral mâtiné de théorie du complot anti-américaine\"\") and views his strategy as aiming at launching a kind of \"take-over bid\" on this part of the public enticed by the conspiracist approach of such websites as \"Réseau Voltaire\" or Alain Soral's \"Égalité et Réconciliation\".  The journalist Laure Daussy observed on the \"Arrêt sur images\" website that Asselineau's videoconferences on YouTube include claims that \"Marine Le Pen is entrusted with ruining [his] discourse\" and that her party, the National Front \"was an invention of François Mitterrand and Jacques Attali\" and had been financed by \"Pierre Ceyrac and the financial arm of the Moonies, CAUSA International, and behind them by the CIA and the Bush family\", whose \"fortune manager, the Carlyle group (...), is represented in France by Yves de Chaisemartin, the owner of 25% of the magazine \"Marianne\" which promotes Marine Le Pen in order to have Dominique Strauss-Kahn elected\". Asselineau also told the regional newspaper \"Nord Éclair\" that the National Front's intention of leaving the European Union is part of the \"smokescreen\" of the French political theatre and that they do not want to do so at all.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "François Asselineau (, born 14 September 1957) is a French politician and an Inspector General for finances. Asselineau was a member of the Rally for France (RPF) and UMP before creating his own political party the Popular Republican Union (Union Populaire Républicaine or UPR). His movement promotes France's unilateral withdrawal from the European Union, the Eurozone and NATO.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977446}
{"src_title": "Dogecoin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview and history.", "content": "Dogecoin was created by programmer Billy Markus from Portland, Oregon, who hoped to create a fun cryptocurrency that could reach a broader demographic than Bitcoin. In addition, he wanted to distance it from the controversial history of other coins. At the same time, Jackson Palmer, a member of Adobe Systems' marketing department in Sydney, was encouraged on Twitter by a student at Front Range Community College to make the idea a reality.  After receiving several mentions on Twitter, Palmer purchased the domain <nowiki>dogecoin.com</nowiki> and added a splash screen, which featured the coin's logo and scattered Comic Sans text. Markus saw the site linked in an IRC chat room, and started efforts to create the currency after reaching out to Palmer. Markus based Dogecoin on an existing cryptocurrency, Luckycoin, which features a randomized reward that is received for mining a block, although this behavior was later changed to a static block reward in March 2014. In turn, Luckycoin is based on Litecoin, which also uses scrypt technology in its proof-of-work algorithm. The use of scrypt means that miners cannot use SHA-256 bitcoin mining equipment, and that dedicated FPGA and ASIC devices used for mining are complicated to create. Dogecoin was officially launched on December 6, 2013. The Dogecoin network produces infinite Dogecoins.  On December 19, 2013, Dogecoin jumped nearly 300 percent in value in 72 hours, rising from US$0.00026 to $0.00095, with a volume of billions of Dogecoins per day. This growth occurred during a time when Bitcoin and many other cryptocurrencies were reeling from China's decision to forbid Chinese banks from investing into the Bitcoin economy. Three days later, Dogecoin experienced its first major crash by dropping by 80% due to this event and due to large mining pools seizing opportunity in exploiting the very little computing power required at the time to mine Dogecoin.  On December 25, 2013, the first major theft of Dogecoin occurred when millions of coins were stolen during a hack on the online cryptocurrency wallet platform Dogewallet. The hacker gained access to the platform's filesystem and modified its send/receive page to send any and all coins to a static address. This hacking incident spiked tweets about Dogecoin, making it the most mentioned altcoin on Twitter at the time, although it was in reference to a negative event. To help those who lost funds on Dogewallet after its breach, the Dogecoin community started an initiative named \"SaveDogemas\" to help donate coins to those who had them stolen. Approximately one month later, enough money was donated to cover all of the coins that were stolen. On January 2014, the trading volume of Dogecoin briefly surpassed that of Bitcoin and all other crypto-currencies combined, however, its market capitalization remained substantially behind that of Bitcoin., Dogecoin had a market capitalization of USD 13.5 million. In April 2015, Jackson Palmer announced he is taking an \"extended leave of absence\" from the cryptocurrency community.  At the peak of the 2017 to early 2018 Cryptocurrency bubble, Dogecoin briefly reached a peak of $0.017/coin on January 8, 2018, with a total market capitalization of USD 2 billion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fundraising.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2014 Winter Olympics.", "content": "The Dogecoin community and foundation have encouraged fundraising for charities and other notable causes. On January 19, 2014, a fundraiser was established by the Dogecoin community to raise $50,000 for the Jamaican Bobsled Team, which had qualified for, but could not afford to go to, the Sochi Winter Olympics. By the second day, $36,000 worth of Dogecoin was donated and the Dogecoin to bitcoin exchange rate rose by 50%. The Dogecoin community also raised funds for a second Sochi athlete Shiva Keshavan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Doge4Water.", "content": "Inspired by the Winter Olympics fundraiser and smaller charity fundraising successes, the Dogecoin Foundation, led by Eric Nakagawa, began collecting donations to build a well in the Tana river basin in Kenya in cooperation with. They set out to raise a total of 40,000,000 ($30,000 at the time) Dogecoin before World Water Day (March 22). The campaign succeeded, collecting donations from more than 4,000 donors, including one anonymous benefactor who donated 14,000,000 Dogecoin (approx. $11,000).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "NASCAR.", "content": "On March 25, 2014, the Dogecoin community successfully raised 67.8 million Dogecoins (around $55,000 at the time) in an effort to sponsor NASCAR driver Josh Wise. Wise ran with a Dogecoin/Reddit-sponsored paint scheme at the Aaron's 499 at Talladega Superspeedway. On May 4, 2014, Wise and his car were featured for nearly a minute, during which the race commentators discussed Dogecoin and the crowdfunding effort, while finishing twentieth and narrowly avoiding multiple wrecks. On May 16, 2014, Wise won a spot at the Sprint All-Star Race through an online fan vote beating household name Danica Patrick, largely due to the efforts of the Dogecoin Reddit community. He finished the race in fifteenth, the last car running. The following race in the Coca-Cola 600, Wise debuted a Dogecoin/Reddit.com helmet. Wise later announced he would run the car again at the Toyota/Save Mart 350 as a thank-you gift to the community and the GEICO 500. He finished twenty-eighth in the race due in part to a refueling issue; he was in twelfth place after a gas-and-go pit stop, but the gas can did not engage long enough, resulting in a second pit stop that took him towards the back of the pack. Eutechnyx, developer of the \"NASCAR '14\" video game, added the Dogecoin car as a drivable car in a DLC pack.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Use and exchanges.", "content": "Several online exchanges offer DOGE/BTC and DOGE/LTC trading.  Trading physical, tangible items in exchange for DOGE takes place on online communities such as Reddit and Twitter, where users frequently share currency-related information.  Dogecoin has also been used to try to sell a house, and has been used in the pornography and poker industries.  Dogetipbot was a cryptocurrency transaction service used on popular sites like Reddit and Twitch. It allowed users to send Dogecoins to other users through commands via Reddit comments. In May 2017 Dogetipbot was discontinued and taken offline after its creator declared bankruptcy; this left many Dogetipbot users losing their coins stored in the Dogetipbot system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mining parameters.", "content": "Dogecoin's implementation differs from Litecoin by several parameters. Dogecoin's block time is 1 minute as opposed to Litecoin's 2.5 minutes.  Several cases of using employer or university computers to mine Dogecoin have been discovered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Currency supply.", "content": "Unlike deflationary cryptocurrencies which have a limit on the number of coins that can be produced, there is no limit to how many Dogecoins can be produced, which makes it an inflationary coin. Dogecoin was initially to have a limit of 100 billion coins, which would already have been far more coins than the top digital currencies were allowing. In February 2014, Dogecoin founder Jackson Palmer announced that that limit would be removed and there would be no cap, which should have the result of constant reduction of its inflation rate over a long time.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dogecoin (, code: DOGE, symbol: Ð) is a cryptocurrency featuring a likeness of the Shiba Inu dog from the \"Doge\" Internet meme as its logo. Introduced as a \"joke currency\" on 6 December 2013, Dogecoin quickly developed its own online community and reached a capitalization of US$60 million in January 2014.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977447}
{"src_title": "Third Czechoslovak Republic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1945.", "content": "The Third Republic came into being in April 1945. Its government, installed at Košice on 4 April and moved to Prague after its liberation on 10 May, was a National Front coalition in which three socialist parties—KSČ, Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party, and Czechoslovak National Social Party—predominated. The Slovak Popular Party was banned as collaborationist with the Nazis. Other conservative yet democratic parties, such as the Republican Party of Farmers and Peasants, were prevented from resuming activities in the postwar period. Certain acceptable nonsocialist parties were included in the coalition; among them were the Catholic People's Party (in Moravia) and the Slovak Democratic Party. Employing 61.2 percent of the industrial labour force—were nationalised.  14 October 1945 saw a new provisional national assembly voted in.  Beneš had compromised with the KSČ to avoid a postwar coup; he naïvely hoped that the democratic process would restore a more equitable distribution of power. Beneš had negotiated the Soviet alliance, but at the same time he hoped to establish Czechoslovakia as a \"bridge\" between East and West, capable of maintaining contacts with both sides. The KSČ leader Klement Gottwald, however, professed commitment to a \"gradualist\" approach, that is, to a KSČ assumption of power by democratic means.  The popular enthusiasm evoked by the Soviet armies of liberation benefited the KSČ. Czechoslovaks, bitterly disappointed by the West at the Munich Agreement, responded favourably to both the KSČ and the Soviet alliance. Communists secured strong representation in the popularly elected national committees, the new organs of local administration. The KSČ organised and centralised the trades union movement; of 120 representatives to the Central Council of Trades Unions, 94 were communists. The party worked to acquire a mass membership, including peasants and the petite bourgeoisie, as well as the proletariat. Between May 1945 and May 1946, KSČ membership grew from 27,000 to over 1.1 million.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1946.", "content": "In the May 1946 election, the KSČ won in the Czech part of the country (40.17%), while the anti-Communist Democratic Party won in Slovakia (62%). In sum, however, the KSČ won a plurality of 38 percent of the vote at the Czechoslovak level. Beneš continued as president of the republic, and Jan Masaryk, son of the revered founding father, continued as foreign minister. Gottwald became prime minister. Most important, although the communists held only a minority of portfolios, they were able to gain control over such key ministries as information, internal trade, finance and interior (including the police apparatus). Through these ministries, the communists were able to suppress noncommunist opposition, place party members in positions of power, and create a solid basis for a takeover attempt.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1947.", "content": "The year that followed was uneventful. The KSČ continued to proclaim its \"national\" and \"democratic\" orientation. The turning point came in the summer of 1947. In July, the Czechoslovak government, with KSČ approval, accepted an Anglo-French invitation to attend preliminary discussions of the Marshall Plan. The Soviet Union responded immediately to the Czechoslovak move to continue the Western alliance: Stalin summoned Gottwald to Moscow.  Upon his return to Prague, the KSČ reversed its decision. In subsequent months, the party demonstrated a significant radicalisation of its tactics. The KSČ argued that a reactionary coup was imminent, and that immediate action was necessary to prevent it. Through media and police means, they intensified their activity. Originally announced by Gottwald at the KSČ Central Committee meeting in November 1947, news of the \"reactionary plot\" was disseminated throughout the country by the communist press.  From June of that year, and especially after the outbreak of the 1947-1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine in November, Czechoslovakia began to sell arms to the Palestinian Jewish Haganah defense force. It was the only foreign state to do so. This policy, continued after the declaration of the State of Israel the following year, would play an important role in the victory of the Jewish state in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1948.", "content": "In January 1948, the communist-controlled Ministry of Interior proceeded to purge the Czechoslovak security forces, substituting noncommunists with communists. Simultaneously, the KSČ began agitating for increased nationalisation and for a new land reform limiting landholdings to fifty hectares.  A cabinet crisis precipitated the February coup. Backed by all non-communist parties, the National Social ministers said that the communists were using the Ministry of Interior's police and security forces to suppress non-communists, and demanded a halt to this. Prime Minister Gottwald, however, repeatedly forestalled discussion of the police issue. On 21 February, National Socialists resigned from the cabinet in protest. The Catholic People's Party and the Slovak Democratic Party followed suit.  The twelve noncommunist ministers resigned, in part, to induce Beneš to call for early elections. Communist losses were anticipated owing to popular disapproval of recent KSČ tactics. A January poll indicated a 10-percent decline in Communist electoral support. Yet the Czechoslovak National Socialists made their move without adequate coordination with Beneš. The democratic parties, in addition, made no effort to rally popular support.  The non-Communists believed that Beneš would refuse to accept their resignations and keep them in a caretaker government, which would presumably force Gottwald to either back down or resign. Beneš initially refused to accept the resignations and declared that no government could be formed without non-Communist ministers. However, in the days that followed, he shunned the non-Communist ministers to avoid accusation of collusion. The Czechoslovak Army remained neutral.  In the meantime, the KSČ garnered its forces. The communist-controlled Ministry of Interior deployed police regiments to sensitive areas and equipped a workers' militia. The communist-controlled Ministry of Information refused broadcasting time to noncommunist officials. Ministries held by noncommunist parties were secured by communist \"action committees.\" The action committees also purged all governmental and political party organs of unreliable elements. Gottwald threatened to call a general strike unless Beneš appointed a new, Communist-dominated government.  On 26 February, Beneš, perhaps fearing civil war and/or Soviet intervention, capitulated. He accepted the resignations of the dissident ministers and appointed a new cabinet from a list submitted by Gottwald. The new cabinet was dominated by Communists and pro-Soviet Social Democrats. Members of the People's, National Socialist and Czech Democratic parties were also included, so the government was still nominally a coalition. However, the ministers using those labels were fellow travellers working hand in glove with the Communists. This act marked the onset of out-and-out Communist rule in Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "During World War II, Czechoslovakia disappeared from the map of Europe. The Third Czechoslovak Republic (, ) which emerged as a sovereign state was not only the result of the policies of the victorious Western allies, the French Fourth Republic, the United Kingdom and the United States, but also an indication of the strength of the Czechoslovak ideal embodied in the First Czechoslovak Republic. However, at the conclusion of World War II, Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere of influence, and this circumstance dominated any plans or strategies for postwar reconstruction. Consequently, the political and economic organisation of Czechoslovakia became largely a matter of negotiations between Edvard Beneš and Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ) exiles living in Moscow.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977448}
{"src_title": "Monmouth Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early Norman border castle.", "content": "Immediately after the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror installed three of his most trusted confidants, Hugh d'Avranches, Roger de Montgomerie, and William FitzOsbern, as the Earls of Chester, Shrewsbury and Hereford respectively. The earldoms served to guard the frontier and provided bases for the Norman invasion of Wales. Over the next four centuries, Norman lords established mostly small Marcher Lordships between the Dee and Severn, and further west. Military adventurers came to Wales from Normandy and elsewhere, raided an area of Wales, and then fortified it and granted land to some of their supporters.  William FitzOsbern established Monmouth Castle between 1066 and 1069 as a counterpart to his other major castle at Chepstow. It occupied relatively high ground, overlooking the confluence of the Monnow with the River Wye. It was originally an earth and timber ringwork fortress, which was listed in the Domesday Book. Initially, Monmouth was a fairly typical border castle in the Welsh Marches, presided over by a Marcher Lord and similar in style and status to its near neighbours Grosmont Castle, Skenfrith Castle, White Castle and Abergavenny Castle. The wooden castle had stonework added before 1150. Its tower shares some similarities with that of Chepstow Castle, another stronghold built for FitzOsbern further south, at the lower end of the River Wye.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansion and later use.", "content": "After briefly being held by Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, Monmouth Castle passed into the hands of Edmund Crouchback, Earl of Lancaster and son of Henry III in 1267. He redeveloped the castle, building the Hall and took it as his main residence in the area. It was also improved by Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster. During this period large decorated windows were installed in the upper part of the Great Tower which also had a new roof. As a town developed around the castle, the castle's defences were augmented by a town wall and fortified bridge, built at the end of the 13th century.  Edward II briefly was held prisoner in the castle before he was transferred to Berkeley Castle where he died. The castle was a favourite residence of Henry Bolingbroke, later King as Henry IV. It was here that in 1387 the future King Henry V of England was born, to Bolingbroke's first wife Mary de Bohun.  The turmoil and conflict in Wales during the ten years of the Owain Glyndŵr rebellion did not directly affect Monmouth Castle as it was a stronghold of the region and lesser targets presented themselves more readily to essentially a guerilla army. However other local towns, settlements and castles were directly attacked with Grosmont and Abergavenny being razed and Crickhowell Castle and Newport Castle successfully attacked.  Over the centuries, as its defensive function diminished, the outer bailey of the castle became increasingly used as a market place, later (and now) known as Agincourt Square. During the sixteenth century, when Monmouth became the county town of the newly formed shire of Monmouth, the county's Courts of Assize began to be held in the castle's Great Hall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Civil War.", "content": "In the tumult of the English Civil War, Monmouth Castle changed hands three times, finally falling to the Parliamentarians in 1645. When Oliver Cromwell visited in 1646 he ordered it to be slighted to prevent its military re-use. The round tower was attacked on 30 March 1647 and subsequently fell down.  Great Castle House was built in 1673, on the site of the old round tower, by Henry Somerset, 1st Duke of Beaufort. It is a Grade I listed building, and has been described as \"a house of splendid swagger outside and in\". It later became used for the Assize Courts, until they relocated to the new Shire Hall in 1725.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modern history.", "content": "Only fragments of the castle, including the Great Tower and Hall and parts of the walls, remain above ground, and on the site Castle House and Great House have been built. In 1875, the Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers Militia, the senior Territorial Army regiment today, made it their Headquarters building and so it remains. It is one of the few British castles in continuous military occupancy.  The Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers museum is located in the stable block attached to Great Castle House. It includes exhibits relating to the history of the regiment from 1539 to the present day.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Monmouth Castle () is a castle in the town of Monmouth, county town of Monmouthshire, south east Wales. It is a Grade I listed building and scheduled monument.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977449}
{"src_title": "Battle of Sandepu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "After the Battle of Shaho, the Russian and Japanese forces faced each other south of Mukden until the frozen Manchurian winter began. The Russians were entrenched in the city of Mukden, while the Japanese occupied a 160-kilometer front with the Japanese 1st Army, 2nd Army, 4th Army and the Akiyama Independent Cavalry Regiment. The Japanese field commanders thought no major battle was possible and assumed that the Russians had the same view regarding the difficulty of winter combat.  The Russian commander, General Aleksey Kuropatkin was receiving reinforcements via the Trans-Siberian Railway but was concerned about the impending arrival of the battle-hardened Japanese Third Army under General Nogi Maresuke to the front after the fall of Port Arthur on 2 January 1905.  General Nikolai Linevich had joined Kuropatkin’s staff at Mukden from Vladivostok to command the 1st Manchurian Army and Kuropatkin’s left flank. The center was held by General Alexander Kaulbars’s 3rd Manchurian Army. The right flank was commanded by General Oskar Gripenberg, the inexperienced newly arrived commanding general of the 2nd Manchurian Army. The 2nd Manchurian Army consisted of the 8th European Army Corps, a division of the 10th, the 61st Reserve Division, the 5th Rifle Brigade, and the 1st Siberian Army Corps under General Baron Georgii Stackelberg, besides a large body of cavalry, or approximately, 285,000 men and 350 guns.  Gripenberg was initially pessimistic towards Kuropatkin's plans for an offensive against the Japanese left wing, which was in an exposed northern position close to Russian territory near the small village of Heikoutai. He agreed to the plan on the condition that all three Russian armies coordinate their attack. Details of the plan were leaked by St Petersburg to a war correspondent from \"L'Écho de Paris,\" who credited the plan to Gripenberg. This news article, as well as Gripenberg’s major redeployments of his forces in 14 and 16 January, signaled the Russian intentions to the Japanese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Mishchenko Raid.", "content": "Kuropatkin’s first move was to send General Pavel Mishchenko south with 6000 cavalry and six batteries of light artillery with the aim of destroying Newchang Station on the South Manchurian Railroad. The station was known to have a large stockpile of food and supplies. Mishchenko was also instructed to destroy railway bridges and sections of the train track along the way. Departing on 8 January, Mishchenko made unexpectedly slow progress due to inclement weather and the lack of forage and supplies along the way. By the time he reached the station on 12 January, it had been heavily reinforced by the Japanese. After failing to take the station in three attempts, he was forced to withdraw, returning to Mukden on 18 January. The damage made by his dragoons to the rail tracks was quickly repaired by the Japanese.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Battle of Sandepu.", "content": "On 19 January, Kuropatkin issued orders for the Second Manchurian Army to attack in a maneuver to outflank General Oku's Japanese Second Army and to drive it back across the Taitzu River before Nogi's Third Army could arrive. However, Gripenberg was not allowed to commit all of his forces – Kuropatkin limited him to three divisions plus the 1st East Siberian Army Corps and cavalry. The Japanese were aware of these plans, causing Ōyama to reinforce his left flank. Kuropatkin afterwards blamed premature moves by Gripenberg for alerting the Japanese.  On 25 January 1905, the battle began with an attack by the 1st Siberian Rifle Corps on the fortified village of Heikoutai, which the Russians took with severe losses. The Russian 14th Division, which was intended to attack the fortified village of Sandepu (三界坝村), failed to coordinate its attack with the 1st Siberian, and attacked on the following day, 26 January, instead. Hampered by a lack of maps, reconnaissance and poor weather conditions, with occasional blizzards the Russians also attacked the wrong village, occupying the neighboring hamlet of Paotaitzu, which came under a strong artillery barrage and counterattack from Sandepu, which was occupied in strength by the Japanese 5th Division. Rather than come to their rescue, Gripenberg sent a false report to Kuropatkin that Sandepu had been taken, and ordered his men to rest on 27 January. However, the rest area assigned to Stackelberg's troops was in Japanese hands, and despite standing orders to the contrary, Stackelberg ordered his men to attack. After losing 6000 men, Stackelberg was forced to fall back.  By the morning of 28 January, Gripenberg found that he was separated from Kaulbars by the village of Sandepu, which prevented any attempt to link forces. However, as he still outnumbered the Japanese defenders by seven divisions to five divisions, he insisted on continuing the offensive. His decision was not supported by Kuropatkin, who acted with his usual caution and hesitation, and ordered Gripenberg's forces back. Stackelberg, again ignoring orders, continued to attack, and with the help of Mishchenko's cavalry, took part of Sandepu village. Simultaneously, the Russian 10th Army Corps under General Konstantin Tserpitsky, with Gripenberg's consent, succeeded in securing positions to the rear of Sandepu. Despite the advantageous situation, Kuropatkin then relieved Stackelberg of his command for insubordination, and again demanded that Gripenberg withdraw. Advancing Russian soldiers, their morale high as they were on what appeared to be a successful offense for the first time since the beginning of the war, could not understand the reason.  Ōyama then launched a massive counteroffensive on 29 January 1905, and succeeded in retaking Heikoutai by mid-morning.  Immediately after the battle, Gripenberg resigned his commission, claiming illness and was replaced by Kaulbars. On his return to St Petersburg, he stopped at Harbin where he bitterly blamed Kuropatkin for the debacle in the newspapers, declaring that he was a traitor and that Kuropatkin withheld crucial support due to jealousy at his success. He continued a harsh publicity campaign against Kuropatkin in the newspapers after his return to Russia. Stackelberg was also relieved of his command by Kuropatkin, and charged with insubordination.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "Total Russian casualties at the Battle of Sandepu were 1,781 killed, 9,395 wounded and 1,065 MIA per modern Soviet sources, although other sources put the toll at over 20,000 men. Japanese casualties totaled around 9,000 with only 2,000 killed.  As the battle ended in a tactical stalemate, neither side claimed victory. In Russia, the Marxists used the newspaper controversy created by Gripenberg, and by Kuropatkin’s incompetence in previous battles, to drum up more support in their campaign against the government.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Sandepu (also known as the Battle of Heikoutai) ( (\"Kokkōdai no kaisen\"), ) was a major land battle of the Russo-Japanese War. It was fought within a group of villages about southwest of Mukden, Manchuria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977450}
{"src_title": "Aja Naomi King", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "King was born in Los Angeles and grew up in Walnut, California. She received a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Acting from the University of California, Santa Barbara, and a Master of Fine Arts from Yale University's School of Drama in 2010. At Yale University, King performed in a number of productions, including \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", \"Little Shop of Horrors\", and \"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2010–2013.", "content": "King appeared in several short films in the early period of her career. She made her television debut in 2010, as a guest star in the CBS police procedural \"Blue Bloods\", and later appeared on \"Person of Interest\", \"The Blacklist\", and \"Deadbeat\". She made her feature film debut in the 2011 independent film \"Damsels in Distress\", as a minor character. Her big break came in 2012, when she was cast as new surgical intern Cassandra Kopelson and the series' primary antagonist, on the CW medical comedy-drama series \"Emily Owens, M.D.\" The series was canceled after a single season in 2013. She later starred in the Amazon Studios comedy pilot \"The Onion Presents: The News\".  In 2013, King co-starred in two independent films. She played Abigayle, the daughter of Wendell Pierce's character, in the independent drama \"Four\", released on September 13, 2013. Along with her castmates, she won a Los Angeles Film Festival Award for Best Performance by Cast for her role in this movie. She also appeared alongside Laverne Cox and Britne Oldford in the film \"36 Saints\". In 2014, she had supporting role in the romantic comedy \"The Rewrite\", starring Hugh Grant and Marisa Tomei. The film was shot in 2013 but was released theatrically in the United States in 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014–present: Breakthrough.", "content": "In early 2014, King had a recurring role as Ali Henslee in the ABC medical drama series \"Black Box\", starring Kelly Reilly. The series was cancelled after a single season. In February 2014, she was cast as one of the lead characters in the ABC legal thriller \"How to Get Away with Murder\", produced by Shonda Rhimes. The series stars Viola Davis as a law professor Annalise Keating. King plays the role of Michaela Pratt, one of the five lead students, alongside Jack Falahee, Alfred Enoch, Matt McGorry, and Karla Souza. The series premiered on September 25, 2014 with generally positive reviews from critics, and 14 million viewers. King received her first NAACP Image Award nomination for her performance in series.  In 2015, King had her first the leading role in the science-fiction thriller \"Reversion\". The film had limited theatrical release on October 9, 2015. Also in 2015, she was cast as the female lead in the historical drama film \"The Birth of a Nation\", based on the story of the 1831 slave rebellion led by Nat Turner. The film also stars Nate Parker, Aunjanue Ellis, Gabrielle Union, and Armie Hammer. She played Nat Turner's wife, Cherry. The film premiered in competition at the 2016 Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 2016, and received positive reviews from critics. King's performance was also well received. \"Variety\" placed her in their list of one of the \"Biggest Breakthrough Performances\" at Sundance, writing that \"King transforms herself from contemporary glamour girl to 19th-century slave in Nate Parker's festival smash. A harrowing scene late in the film opposite Parker as Nat Turner reveals a depth and range King has never been asked to deliver in her small screen work, and a potential new star is born.\" King has also been shortlisted as a possible contender for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress but did not receive a nomination. She received a NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture nomination for her role. She received the \"Rising Star Award\" at the 10th annual Essence Black Women In Hollywood event in February 2017.  In 2017, King appeared opposite Kevin Hart, Bryan Cranston, and Nicole Kidman in \"The Upside\", a remake of the 2011 French film \"The Intouchables\". Later that year, she was cast in the leading role of Somali activist Ifrah Ahmed in the biopic \"A Girl from Mogadishu\". In 2020, she appeared in the drama film \"Sylvie\", opposite Tessa Thompson and Nnamdi Asomugha. King later played a female leading role in the historical drama film \"The 24th\" about Houston riot of 1917 directed by Kevin Willmott.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other ventures.", "content": "King was the face of skincare line Olay's fall 2015 advertising campaign. She became a spokesperson for L'Oreal Paris in 2017. King has graced the covers of numerous magazines, including \"Vanity Fair\", \"Elle\", \"Marie Claire\", \"Nylon\", \"Glamour, Essence,\" \"Entertainment Weekly\" and \"Shape\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Aja Naomi King (born January 11, 1985) is an American actress. She began her career in guest-starring roles on television, and starred as Cassandra Kopelson in The CW medical comedy-drama \"Emily Owens, M.D.\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977451}
{"src_title": "Once Upon a Time in Wonderland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "After the apparent death of her true love Cyrus, Alice returns home to Victorian England where she is placed in an asylum, and her doctors aim to cure her with a treatment that will make her forget everything about her tales in Wonderland. However, she is rescued by the Knave of Hearts and the White Rabbit and brought back to Wonderland to save Cyrus, who is spotted alive. Now back in Wonderland, Alice must evade the plots of Jafar and the Red Queen, all while dealing with the whimsical dangers of Wonderland, including the infamous Jabberwocky, and in a crazy and dangerous way to find her true love.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production and casting.", "content": "In February 2013, Kitsis and Horowitz, along with producers Zack Estrin and Jane Espenson, developed a spin-off focusing on Lewis Carroll's Wonderland. It was initially reported that the show would recast Sebastian Stan's Mad Hatter due to his commitment to the Marvel Cinematic Universe, but Edward Kitsis later revealed the next month that due to fan backlash and respect for Stan's performance, the character would not be recast and the series would proceed without the character.  The show includes new characters, such as \"Amahl, described as exotic, soulful and optimistic; and The Knave, a sardonic adventurer, a man of action, a loner and a heart-breaker.\" On March 28, 2013, it was announced that Sophie Lowe would portray the lead role of Alice. It was also announced that Peter Gadiot would play her love interest, Cyrus, who has \"a background\". Michael Socha will portray the Knave of Hearts. Barbara Hershey, who has appeared as Cora, the Queen of Hearts, in the main series, may also appear in this spin-off reprising the same role in back stories. Also, during the month of April, Paul Reubens was cast as the voice of the White Rabbit and Emma Rigby was cast as the Red Queen.  On May 10, 2013, ABC announced that it had greenlit the spin-off, as well as also announcing that John Lithgow would replace Reubens as the voice of the White Rabbit. On May 14, 2013, ABC announced that the spin-off will air in the Thursday night timeslot instead of making it a fill-in for the parent series. \"We really want to tell the story without having to worry about how to stretch it for five years,\" said Edward Kitsis. \"This is not meant to be a 22-episode season. Whatever it ends up being, we'll have told a complete story...\" It was revealed in August at the TCA Summer Press Tour that, contrary to previous reports that more than 13 episodes were ordered straight out the gate, only the usual amount of 13 episodes had been ordered. Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz commented \"However many we wind up doing this season, what we're planning to do is tell a kind of complete tale with a beginning, middle and end\" and added \"If it does well [and] people like it, hopefully we'll come back and tell another adventure with this cast.\"  At Comic-Con 2013, it was announced that former \"Lost\" star, Naveen Andrews, would be joining the cast as the villain Jafar. It was announced in September that Keith David and Iggy Pop would also be included on the cast, as the Cheshire Cat and Caterpillar respectively. Iggy Pop will be a replacement for Roger Daltrey, who voiced the character originally as a guest star on \"Once Upon a Time\". Barbara Hershey reprised her role as the Queen of Hearts in one episode.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Episodes.", "content": "<onlyinclude> </onlyinclude>", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Rotten Tomatoes gave the series an approval rating of 59% based on 27 reviews, with an average rating of 6.03/10. The site's critical consensus reads \"\"Once Upon a Time in Wonderland\" is attractive to the eye and pleasantly narrated, but it loses some luster due to a jumbled story and Wonderland's unlikable inhabitants.\"  The series has a score of 59/100 on Metacritic based on 23 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Mary McNamara of the \"Los Angeles Times\" gave the show a positive review writing: \"There is plenty of that—the good, the beautiful and the etc. Some of it is conjured by CG magic (the Red Queen's palace is splendid, and the White Rabbit's ears a masterwork), and some by just good storytelling and performer chemistry, which Lowe and Socha have in abundance. Add to that a smattering of witty dialogue, clever character twists and, of course, the Victo-goth steampunk look, and ABC has another shot at redefining the family hour.\" David Wiegand of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" wrote that while the plot was \"a little overstuffed\", \"the special effects, crisp direction and high-octane performances keep us interested enough to follow Alice down the rabbit hole.\" Brian Lowry of \"Variety\" gave the show a mixed review: \"Wonderland is equally handsome [as \"Once Upon a Time\"], but behind those virtual sets lurk many potential flaws. An appealing Alice certainly helps matters, but past performance reduces the likelihood of a fairy-tale ending.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcast.", "content": "In Canada, the City network simulcasted the ABC broadcast as it debuted in October.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home video.", "content": "As of now, there has been no release of this series on home video. However, episodes are available for purchase through iTunes, Vudu and Amazon Prime.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Once Upon a Time in Wonderland is an American fantasy-drama series that aired on ABC from October 10, 2013 to April 3, 2014. It was created by Edward Kitsis, Adam Horowitz, Zack Estrin, and Jane Espenson for ABC Studios. The program is a spin-off of the prior ABC series \"Once Upon a Time\" and aired on ABC at 8:00 pm Eastern/7:00 pm Central on Thursday nights in the 2013–14 television season beginning October 10, 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977452}
{"src_title": "Nicolas Perrot", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Nicolas Perrot was born in France between 1641 and 1644, perhaps at Darcey in Burgundy, where his father was lieutenant of justice.  Perrot traveled to New France around 1660 with the Jesuit missionaries. He journeyed with several to the Western Great Lakes, where they intended to preach to the Native Americans, reaching present-day Wisconsin in 1665. He earned the friendship of the natives by swapping furs for guns, allowing the group to defend themselves on an equal footing against their enemies. He was nicknamed the \"trafficker of iron\", or \"iron legs\".  In 1667 he formed a fur trading company with three settlers in Montreal. On August 12, 1667, he returned to the Green Bay region. In 1670, he was enlisted as a translator for Simon-François Daumont de Saint-Lusson, a military officer and deputy of Jean Talon, who had been sent \"to lay claim to the land of the Ottawa, Amikwa, Illinois, and of other nations discovered or to be discovered in North America contiguous and adjacent to Lake Superior(), the great inland sea, including all its length and breadth, and including the resources therein, for Louis XIV\" at what was called \"The Pageant of the Sault\".  Afterward, he married Madeleine Raclot. He was given a land grant on the river Saint-Michel in present-day Quebec. By the 1681 census he and Madeleine had six children. They had a total of eleven altogether.  Perrot's relationship with and influence over the tribes of the west was drawn on again during the 1680s. In 1684, he participated in the peacekeeping mission of the Governor Lefebvre de La Barre and succeeded in bringing the warriors of several nations together to sign a peace treaty. In the spring of 1685 he was appointed Commandant-in-Chief of Bais Des Puants (present-day Green Bay, Wisconsin) and the neighboring regions when war broke out between the Fox tribe and the Sioux and Chippewa tribes. He worked hard to bring about peace, and was successful, at least for a time. After this, Perrot traveled to the northern waters of the Mississippi River, in the territory of the Sioux, where he built Fort Saint Antoine, now in Minnesota. In the spring of 1687 he was in the region of Detroit taking part in an expedition. A fire broke out at the Jesuit mission at Bais De Puants, and 40,000 livres worth of his furs were destroyed. Perrot was financially ruined. He returned to Montreal, where in the spring of 1688 he served as an interpreter for the treaty between Governor and Onondaga chief Otreouti, who promised the neutrality of the Onondaga, Cayuga, and Oneida of the Five Nations of the \"Haudenosaunee\" or Iroquois League in confrontations with the French. In 1689 he built Fort Saint-Pierre at the mouth of the Wisconsin River, and established peace among area tribes.  In 1690, he and Louis de la Porte de Louvigny led a vital supply convoy from Montreal to Michilimackinac. Their success in breaking the Iroquois blockade of the Ottawa River and in resupplying the western Indians loyal to the French may have saved New France from the Five Nations. In subsequent years he was involved in the discovery of lead mines brought to his attention by Miami chiefs.  In 1695 Perrot brought the Miami, Sauk, Menominee, Potawatomi and Fox chiefs to Montreal at the governor’s request, regarding war with the Iroquois. Perrot returned west where his concern was to maintain unity and peace among them in their efforts against the Iroquois. However, there was danger, and on two occasions he was almost sent to be burned at the stake by the Mascouten and the Miami tribe. Perrot settled on his land grant at Bécancour. The Indian chiefs whom he had known saw him for the last time in 1701 at the Great Peace of Montreal. He still served as interpreter, but this period of his life was marked by financial difficulties and harassment from creditors. He asked the authorities for a compensation he said was due to him, and a pension in consideration of services long provided, but was not satisfied. He was involved in court cases involving lawsuits filed by and against him. He also wrote his memoirs, which became valuable to later historians.  Nicolas Perrot died on the 13th of August 1717 at about the age of 74. He was buried the next day in the church at Bécancour. Nine of his eleven children outlived him. His wife died in 1724.  Perrot State Park, near the confluence of the Trempealeau and Mississippi Rivers in Wisconsin, is named after him.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nicolas Perrot (c.1644–1717), a French explorer, fur trader, and diplomat, was one of the first European men to travel in the Upper Mississippi Valley, in what is now Wisconsin and Minnesota.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977453}
{"src_title": "Czech and Slovak Federative Republic", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Adoption of the name.", "content": "Since 1960, Czechoslovakia's official name had been the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (\"Československá socialistická republika\", ČSSR). In the aftermath of the Velvet Revolution, newly elected President Václav Havel announced that \"Socialist\" would be dropped from the country's official name.  Conventional wisdom suggested that the country would resume the name used from 1919 to 1938 and from 1945 to 1960, Czechoslovak Republic (\"Československá republika\"). However, Slovak politicians objected that the traditional name subsumed Slovakia's equal status in the federal state too much. The first compromise was Constitutional Law 81/1990, which changed the country's name to Czechoslovak Federative Republic (, ; \"ČSFR\"), explicitly acknowledging the federal nature of the state. It was passed on 29 March 1990 (coming into force on the same day) only after an informal agreement on the Slovak form which would be explicitly codified by a future law on state symbols. This was met with general disapproval and another round of haggling, dubbed \"the hyphen war\" (\"pomlčková válka/vojna\") after Slovaks' wish to insert a hyphen into the name (\"Česko-Slovensko\"). However, aggrieved Czechs vehemently opposed it as too reminiscent of such practice during the \"Second Republic\" (when the official name was \"Czecho-Slovak Republic\"—which had also been used from 1938 to 1939)—when the country had been mutilated by the Munich Agreement and was slipping toward its final dismemberment at the hands of Nazi Germany a year later. The resultant compromise, after much behind-the-scenes negotiation, was Constitutional Law 101/1990, passed on 20 April and in force since its declaration on 23 April. The law changed the country's name to \"Czech and Slovak Federative Republic\"; unlike the previous one, it also explicitly listed both versions and stated they were equal.  The name breaks the rules of Czech and Slovak orthography, which do not use capitalization for proper names' second and further words (see above), nor adjectives derived from them. Thus the correct form would be \"Česká a slovenská federat... republika.\" However, \"Česká a Slovenská F. R.\" was adopted in hopes of eliminating any debate about the prestige of Slovakia. While few people were happy with the name, it came into use quickly. Czech and Slovak tensions, of which this was an early sign, soon became manifest in matters of greater immediate importance which made the country's name a comparatively minor issue and at the same time even more impossible to change, so the name remained.  The 1960 Constitution remained in force on an interim basis. However, it was heavily amended to prune out its Communist character. Work on a permanent constitution was still underway at the time of the dissolution of Czechoslovakia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "After the Velvet Revolution in late-1989, Czechoslovakia adopted the official name Czech and Slovak Federative Republic (, ; ČSFR) during the period from 23 April 1990 until 31 December 1992, when the country was dissolved into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977454}
{"src_title": "Quercus nigra", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Quercus nigra\" is a medium-sized deciduous tree, growing to 30 m (100 ft) tall with a trunk up to 1 m (3 ft) in diameter. Young trees have a smooth, brown bark that becomes gray-black with rough scaly ridges as the tree matures. The leaves are alternate, simple and tardily deciduous, remaining on the tree until mid-winter; they are 3–12 cm (1–5 in) long and 2–6 cm (1/2–2 in) broad, variable in shape, most commonly shaped like a spatula being broad and rounded at the top and narrow and wedged at the base. The margins vary, usually being smooth to shallowly lobed, with a bristle at the apex and lobe tips. The tree is easy to identify by the leaves, which have a lobe that looks as if a drop of water is hanging from the end of the leaf. The top of each leaf is a dull green to bluish green and the bottom is a paler bluish-green. On the bottom portion of the leaves, rusty colored hairs run along the veins. The acorns are arranged singly or in pairs, 10–14 mm (1/3–1/2 in) long and broad, with a shallow cupule; they mature about 18 months after pollination in fall of second year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Water oak serves the same ecological role as weeping willow and other wetland trees. It is adapted to wet, swampy areas, such as along ponds and stream banks, but can also tolerate well-drained sites and even heavy, compacted soils. It grows in sandy soils, red clays, and old fields to the borders of swamps, streams, to bottomlands. Due to its ability to grow and reproduce quickly, the water oak is often the most abundant species in a stand of trees. The tree is relatively short-lived compared to other oaks and may live only 60 to 80 years. It does not compete well and does not tolerate even light shade. Water oak is frequently used to restore bottomland hardwood forests on land that was previously cleared for agriculture or pine plantations. Minimum age for flowering and fruiting is 20 years and the tree produces heavy crops of acorns nearly every year. Water oak is not recommended as an ornamental due to being short-lived, disease-prone, and extremely messy.  Hybrids of water oak are known with southern red oak (\"Quercus falcata\"), bluejack oak (\"Quercus incana\"), turkey oak (\"Quercus laevis\"), blackjack oak (\"Quercus marilandica\"), willow oak (\"Quercus phellos\"), Shumard oak (\"Quercus shumardii\"), and black oak (\"Quercus velutina\").  Water oak acorns are an important food for white-tailed deer, eastern gray squirrel, raccoon, wild turkey, mallard, wood duck, and bobwhite quail. In winter, deer will browse the buds and young twigs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses and history.", "content": "Water oak has been used for timber and for fuel by people in the southern states since the 17th century. The wood is generally sold as \"red oak\", mixed with the wood from other red oaks.  Other names include spotted oak, duck oak, punk oak, orange oak or possum oak.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Quercus nigra, the water oak, is an oak in the red oak group (\"Quercus\" sect. \"Lobatae\"), native to the eastern and south-central United States, found in all the coastal states from New Jersey to Texas, and inland as far as Oklahoma, Kentucky, and southern Missouri. It occurs in lowlands and up to 450 m (1500 ft) altitude.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977455}
{"src_title": "Kingdom of Aragon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Independent kingdom.", "content": "Aragon was originally a Carolingian feudal county around the city of Jaca, which in the first half of the 9th century became a vassal state of the kingdom of Pamplona (later Navarre), its own dynasty of counts ending without male heir in 922. The name \"Aragón\" is the same as that of the river Aragón, which flows by Jaca. It might derive from the Basque \"Aragona/Haragona\" meaning \"good upper valley\" (\"haran+goi+ona\", where \"haran\" = \"valley\", \"goi\" = \"upper, high\", and \"ona\" = \"good\"). Alternatively, the name may be derived from the earlier Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis.  On the death of Sancho III of Navarre in 1035, the Kingdom of Navarre was divided into three parts: (1) Pamplona and its hinterland along with western and coastal Basque districts, (2) Castile, and (3) Sobrarbe, Ribagorza and Aragon. Sancho's son Gonzalo inherited Sobrarbe and Ribargorza, whereas his illegitimate son Ramiro received Aragon, but Gonzalo was killed soon after and all the land he owned went to his brother Ramiro, thus becoming the first de facto king of Aragon, although he never used that title.  By defeating his brother, García Sánchez III of Navarre, Ramiro achieved independence for Aragon. His son Sancho Ramírez, who also inherited the kingdom of Navarre, was the first to call himself \"King of the Aragonese and Pamplonese\". As the Aragonese domains expanded to the south, conquering land from Al Andalus, the capital city moved from Jaca to Huesca (1096), and later to Zaragoza (1118). After Alfonso the Battler died childless in 1135, different rulers were chosen for Navarre and Aragon, and the two kingdoms ceased to have the same ruler. By 1285 the southernmost areas of what is nowadays Aragon had been taken from the Moors.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dynastic union with the County of Barcelona.", "content": "The Kingdom of Aragon gave the name to the Crown of Aragon, created in 1150 with the dynastic union resulting from the marriage of the Princess of Aragon, Petronilla, and the Count of Barcelona, Ramon Berenguer IV. Their son Alfonso II inherited all of the territories within the House of Aragon and within the House of Barcelona. The King of Aragon also held the title of Count of Barcelona and ruled territories that consisted of not only the present administrative region of Aragon, but also Catalonia, and later the kingdoms of Majorca, Valencia, Sicily, Naples and Sardinia. The King of Aragón was the direct ruler of the Aragonese region, and held the titles of Count of Provence, Count of Barcelona, Lord of Montpellier, and Duke of Athens and Neopatria. Each of these titles gave him sovereignty over a certain region, and these titles changed as he won and lost territories. In the 14th century, his power was greatly restricted by the Union of Aragon.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Union of the Crowns of Aragon and Castile and afterwards.", "content": "The Crown of Aragon became a part of the Spanish monarchy after the dynastic union with Castile, which supposed the \"de facto\" unification of both kingdoms under a common monarch. The house of Barcelona held the Crown until 1410, when it went extinct. Subsequently, in 1412 the Aragonese secured the election of a Castilian prince, Ferdinand of Antequera, to the vacant Aragonese throne, over strong Catalan opposition. One of Ferdinand's successors, John II of Aragon (1458–1479), countered residual Catalan resistance by arranging for his heir, Ferdinand, to marry Isabella, the heir apparent of Henry IV of Castile. In 1479, upon John II's death, the crowns of Aragon and Castile were united to form the nucleus of modern Spain. However, Aragonese territories retained their autonomous parliamentary and administrative institutions, such as the Corts, until the Nueva Planta decrees, which were promulgated between 1707 and 1715 by Philip V of Spain in the aftermath of the War of the Spanish Succession. The decrees \"de jure\" ended the kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia and Mallorca, and the Principality of Catalonia, and merged them with Castile to officially form the Spanish kingdom. A new Nueva Planta decree in 1711 restored some rights in Aragon, such as the Aragonese Civil Rights, but preserved the end of the political independence of the kingdom.  The previous Kingdom of Aragon remained as an administrative unit until 1833, when it was divided into the three existing provinces. In the aftermath of Francisco Franco's death, Aragon became one of the autonomous communities of Spain in 1982.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Kingdom of Aragon (,,, ) was a medieval and early modern kingdom on the Iberian Peninsula, corresponding to the modern-day autonomous community of Aragon, in Spain. It should not be confused with the larger Crown of Aragon, that also included other territories — the Principality of Catalonia (which included the former Catalan Counties), the Kingdom of Valencia, the Kingdom of Majorca, and other possessions that are now part of France, Italy, and Greece — that were also under the rule of the King of Aragon, but were administered separately from the Kingdom of Aragon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977456}
{"src_title": "The Raw Youth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Themes.", "content": "The novel chronicles the life of 19-year-old intellectual, Arkady Dolgoruky, illegitimate child of the controversial and womanizing landowner Versilov. A focus of the novel is the recurring conflict between father and son, particularly in ideology, which represents the battles between the conventional \"old\" way of thinking in the 1840s and the new nihilistic point of view of the youth of 1860s Russia. The young of Arkady's time embraced a very negative opinion of Russian culture in contrast to Western or European culture.  Another main theme is Arkady's development and utilization of his \"idea\" in his life, mainly a form of rebellion against society (and his father) through the rejection of attending a university, and the making of money and living independently, onto the eventual aim of becoming excessively wealthy and powerful.  The question of emancipation or what to do with the newly freed serfs in the face of the corrupting influence of the West looms over the novel. Arkady's mother is a former serf and Versilov is a landowner and understanding their relationship is ultimately at the center of Arkady's quest to find out who Versilov is and what he did to his mother. Answering the question of emancipation, in Dostoevsky's novel, has to do with how to educate the serfs and address the damage of Petrine reforms in order to construct a new Russian identity.  The novel was written and serially published while Leo Tolstoy was publishing Anna Karenina. Dostoevsky's novel about the \"accidental family\" stands in contrast to Tolstoy's novel about the aristocratic Russian family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English translations.", "content": "This is a list of the unabridged English translations of the novel:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical opinions.", "content": "Ronald Hingley, author of \"Russians and Society\" and a specialist in Dostoevsky's works, thought this novel a bad one, whereas Richard Pevear (in the introduction to his and Larissa Volokhonsky's 2003 translation of the novel), stridently defended its worth.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Raw Youth (, \"Podrostok\"), also published as The Adolescent or An Accidental Family, is a novel by Russian writer Fyodor Dostoevsky, first published in monthly installments in 1875 in the Russian literary magazine \"Notes of the Fatherland\". Originally, Dostoevsky had created the work under the title \"Discord\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977457}
{"src_title": "Leonaert Bramer", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bramer was born in Delft. In 1614, at the age of 18, he left on a long trip eventually reaching Rome in 1616, via Atrecht, Amiens, Paris, Aix (February 1616), Marseille, Genoa, and Livorno. In Rome he was one of the founders of the Bentvueghels group of Northern artists, and was nicknamed \"Nestelghat\" (Fidget). He lived with Wouter Crabeth and got into a fight with Claude Lorraine. He dedicated a poem to Wybrand de Geest. Bramer lived in Rome intermittently until October 1627, visiting Mantua and Venice, often for deliveries and to meet Domenico Fetti. In Italy Bramer acquired the sobriquet 'Leonardo della Notte' or 'Leonardo delle Notti' ('Leonardo of the night' or 'nights').  By 1628 he was back in Delft, where he joined the Guild of Saint Luke in 1629 and the schutterij. Among his many patrons were members of the House of Orange, but local burgomasters and schepen also bought his paintings in great numbers. He was a many sided artist, designing for tapestry firms in Delft, painting murals and ceilings, some of which are illusionistic in style. He painted real frescos in the Civic Guard house, the nearby stadholder's palaces in Honselersdijk, Rijswijk, the Communal Land Housde and the Prinsenhof in Delft. Due to the Dutch climate they no longer survive. In 1648 Bramer traveled to Rome for a second time. He evidently knew the greatest of his Delft contemporaries, Johannes Vermeer, as he came to the latter's defence when his future mother-in-law was trying to prevent him from marrying her daughter.  It is possible that Vermeer received his artistic training from Bramer, although there is no documentation for this, and Bramer's dark and exotic style is unlike Vermeer's.  A lifelong bachelor, Bramer remained very productive until his death, which occurred in his home town of Delft in 1674.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Work.", "content": "Bramer showed in his choice of subjects a preference for Italian rather than Dutch artistic practice. His subjects are usually mythological, allegorical, historical or biblical scenes (such as the \"Denial of St Peter\", Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam). He stayed away from typical Dutch themes such as landscapes, still lifes, portraits and genre pieces and he rarely painted Italianate pastoral scenes popular with the Utrecht Caravaggisti. His style is nervous, but his technique, painting the reflection of light, is very good. His famous \"Album Bramer\" (drawn between 1642 and 1654, now in Leiden) contains many sketches after paintings in Delft collections. He was influenced by Adam Elsheimer and the fresco painter Agostino Tassi. Upon his death, his works were offered for sale in 1674 in an advertisement in the Haarlems Dagblad, probably necessary because of the (depressed) Dutch economy: Among his drawings, probably the most puzzling set are those he titled \"Straatwerken,\" meaning \"street works.\" From his inventory it is clear that the Flemish merchant and art collector Gaspar Roomer who resided in Naples owned 1500 drawings by Bramer.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Leonaert Bramer, also Leendert or Leonard (24 December 1596 – 10 February 1674 (buried)), was a Dutch painter known primarily for genre, religious, and history paintings. Very prolific as a painter and draftsman, he is noted especially for nocturnal scenes which show a penchant for exotic details of costume and setting. He also painted frescos—a rarity north of the Alps—which have not survived, as well as murals on canvas, few of which are extant. Bramer is one of the most intriguing personalities in seventeenth-century Dutch art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977458}
{"src_title": "Julia Reda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Political career.", "content": "Reda became a member of the centre-left Social Democratic Party of Germany when she was 16 years old. She studied politics and publicity sciences at the University of Mainz. In 2009, Reda started to become active for the national Pirate Party and from 2010 to 2012 she was chairperson of the Young Pirates (\"\"). In 2013, she was one of the co-founders of the Young Pirates of Europe. In January 2014, she was chosen to top the list of the candidates for the European Elections for the Pirate Party Germany, who subsequently won one seat.  In the European Parliament, Reda joined the Greens/EFA group. She is a member of the Legal Affairs committee as well as a substitute member of the Internal Market and Consumer Protection and Petitions committees. She is on the Steering Committee of the Digital Agenda intergroup, a forum of MEPs interested in digital issues.  On 27 March 2019, she announced in an online video that she had left the Pirate Party, protesting the fact that Gilles Bordelais had been admitted as a candidate in the European elections while being under investigation for sexual harassment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Copyright reform.", "content": "She has declared that copyright reform will be her focus for the legislative term.  In November 2014, Reda was named rapporteur of the Parliament's review of 2001's Copyright Directive. Her draft report recommended the EU-wide harmonisation of copyright exceptions, a reduction in term length, broad exceptions for educational purposes and a strengthening of authors' negotiating position in relation to publishers, among other measures.  Stakeholder reaction varied as the German artist coalition generally welcomed the draft while the French collecting society said it was \"unacceptable\"; author and copyright activist Cory Doctorow called the proposals \"amazingly sensible\", while former Swedish Pirate MEP Amelia Andersdotter criticised them as too conservative.  In 2015, Reda's report was passed by the legal affairs committee, but with an amendment that recommended restricting freedom of panorama in Europe. Reda strongly opposed this amendment and campaigned against it. The amendment was later voted down by the plenary of the European Parliament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Julia Reda (born 30 November 1986) is a German researcher and politician and was Member of the European Parliament (MEP) from Germany. She was a member of the Pirate Party Germany until 27 March 2019, part of The Greens–European Free Alliance. She has been Vice-President of the Greens/EFA group since 2014. She was also previously the president of Young Pirates of Europe. After the 2019 European Parliament election Reda was succeeded by Dr. Patrick Breyer (Pirate Party Germany) and three pirate MEPs from the Czech Pirate Party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977459}
{"src_title": "Iolanta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Composition history.", "content": "Composed after the completion of \"The Queen of Spades\", Tchaikovsky worried that he had lost his creative inspiration after such a large project. He started \"Iolanta\" with the final duet in June 1891, and despite his worries, finished composition in September and orchestration in November. The public reception was quite favorable, though Tchaikovsky was disappointed and felt he was repeating himself, especially when compared to his earlier work, \"The Enchantress\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Performance history.", "content": "The world premiere took place on 18 December (6 December O.S.) 1892 at the Mariinsky Theatre in Saint Petersburg. It was conducted by Eduard Nápravník and sets were designed by Mikhail Bocharov. The premiere of the opera shared a double bill with the composer's last ballet, \"The Nutcracker\". A 1997 two-act version of \"Iolanta\" is performed regularly at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, and in Belarus.  Its first performance outside Russia was in Hamburg on 3 January 1893, with Gustav Mahler conducting. Mahler also conducted the Vienna premiere on 22 March 1900. In New York City it has been produced in 1997 and 2011 by Dicapo Opera. In 2015, \"Iolanta\" was performed for the first time at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City, with Anna Netrebko in the title role.  There are only a few recordings of the opera, although Robert's aria has been recorded and performed in concerts frequently. A 1963 performance was filmed in Riga and released overseas in 1974.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Instrumentation.", "content": "The instrumentation requires the following forces:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "\"Time\": 15th century  \"Place\": Mountains of southern France", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scene 1.", "content": "Princess Iolanta has been blind from birth. No one has ever told her (nor does she know) that she is a princess. She lives in a beautiful enclosed garden on the king's estate, secluded from the world, in the care of Bertrand and Martha. Her attendants bring flowers and sing to her. She declares her sadness, and her vague sense that she is missing something important that other people can experience. Her father, King René insists that she not discover she is blind, or that her betrothed, Duke Robert, find out about this.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scene 2.", "content": "After announcing the king's arrival, Alméric is warned by Bertrand not to speak of light with Iolanta or to reveal that Iolanta's father is the king. The king arrives with Ibn-Hakia, a famed Moorish physician who states that Iolanta can be cured, but the physical cure will only work if she is psychologically prepared by being made aware of her own blindness. Ibn-Hakia sings the monologue \"Two worlds\", explaining the interdependence of the mind and the body within the divinely ordained universe, which merges spirit and matter. The king refuses the treatment, fearing for Iolanta's happiness if the cure should fail after she has learned what she is missing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scene 3.", "content": "Robert arrives at the court with his friend Count Vaudémont. Robert tells Vaudémont that he wishes to avoid the marriage as he has fallen in love with Countess Matilde. He sings of his love in his aria \"Who can compare with my Mathilde\" (Кто может сравниться с Матильдой моей). Vaudémont finds the entrance to Iolanta's secret garden, ignoring the sign which threatens death to anyone who enters. He sees the sleeping Iolanta, without realising who she is and instantly falls in love. Robert, astounded by his friend's behavior, is convinced she is a sorceress who has bewitched Vaudémont. He tells him to leave, but Vaudémont is too entranced. Robert departs to bring troops to rescue him. Iolanta awakes and Vaudémont, who asks her to give him a red rose as a keepsake, realizes she is blind when she twice offers him a white one. She has no concept of light, vision or blindness. They fall in love, after he explains light and color to her.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scene 4.", "content": "The couple is discovered by the king. Vaudémont pledges his love, whether Iolanta is blind or not. Ibn-Hakia tells the king that as Iolanta is now aware of her blindness, the treatment might be a success. Iolanta who has no will to see, is unsure therefore whether she should agree to treatment or not. Ibn-Hakia points out that the lack of will proves that, without inner desire, change cannot take place.  After Vaudémont admits seeing the warning sign at the garden entrance, the furious king threatens to execute him for revealing the truth to Iolanta. He tells Iolanta Vaudémont will die if the physician fails to restore her sight, in the hope that this will restore her will. Iolanta is horrified, and agrees to the treatment. After Ibn-Hakia leaves with Iolanta, the king explains to Vaudémont that he was feigning in order to motivate Iolanta. Robert returns with his troops. He admits to the king he has fallen in love with another, but is still willing to go ahead with the agreed marriage. The king cancels the wedding contract, and gives Iolanta to Vaudémont. Ibn-Hakia and Iolanta return. The treatment has worked and Iolanta can see. At first uncertain of her new gift, she eventually sings of the magical new world now visible to her. The court rejoices.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "Audio  Video", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Iolanta, Op. 69, () is a lyric opera in one act by Pyotr Tchaikovsky. It was the last opera he composed. The libretto was written by the composer's brother Modest Tchaikovsky, and is based on the Danish play \"\" (\"King René's Daughter\") by Henrik Hertz, a romanticised account of the life of Yolande de Bar. In the original Danish play, the spelling of the princess's name was \"Iolanthe\", later adopted for the otherwise unrelated Gilbert and Sullivan operetta of that name. The play was translated by Fyodor Miller and adapted by Vladimir Zotov. The opera received its premiere on 18 December 1892 in Saint Petersburg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977460}
{"src_title": "The Neighbourhood", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation and \"I Love You.\" (2011–2013).", "content": "The band members chose the British spelling of \"neighbourhood\" on the advice of their manager, in order to distinguish themselves from a band already using the American spelling.  In early 2012, The Neighbourhood released \"Female Robbery\" and \"Sweater Weather\". In May 2012, the band unveiled their debut self-released extended play titled \"I'm Sorry...\" for free download, produced by Justyn Pilbrow. In December 2012, The Neighbourhood released their second EP, \"Thank You,\".  The band performed at Coachella in 2013, anticipating their debut album \"I Love You.\", which was premiered on April 16, 2013, via Rolling Stone and officially released on April 23, 2013, via Columbia Records. It debuted at number 39 on the US Billboard 200 albums chart, selling 9,000 units in its first week. It was preceded by the lead single \"Sweater Weather\", which music video was released on March 5, 2013. They made their first televised performance of the song on June 27, 2013, at \"Jimmy Kimmel Live\". \"Sweater Weather\" topped the charts in early June 2013, reaching number one on \"Billboard\" Alternative Songs chart and breaking the top ten on \"Billboard\" Heatseekers Songs chart.  The band went on tour opening for Imagine Dragons in July and September 2013. The Neighbourhood also made two appearances in Eastern Canada during the summer of 2013. They played as one of the headliners of Toronto's Edgefest on July 31, 2013, and then a few days later played at Canada's largest music festival, Osheaga, in Montreal on August 4. The Neighbourhood performed at Atlanta's Music Midtown on September 21, 2013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"#000000 & #FFFFFF\" and \"Wiped Out!\" (2014–2015).", "content": "On January 16, 2014, the band revealed via social media that drummer Bryan Sammis was leaving the band.  In April 2013, The Neighbourhood announced their summer 2013 tour called The Love Collection Tour along with Lovelife, the 1975, and JMSN. as well as that they were planning the release of a mixtape. On December 10, 2013, they released a new EP called \"The Love Collection\". On November 28, 2014, the band finally released the project, titled \"#000000 & #FFFFFF\" (the HEX color codes for black and white, respectively) for free. It was hosted by DJ Drama and features guest appearances by YG, Dej Loaf, French Montana, Danny Brown, G-Eazy and others. The mixtape was officially released for streaming and download on November 22, 2017.  In August 2015, the band announced the upcoming October 30 release of their second album \"Wiped Out!\". It was preceded by the lead single \"R.I.P. 2 My Youth\" and reached the number 13 position on the US Billboard 200. The band embarked on a European tour in November 2015 and on an American tour in May and June 2016 to support the album.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Hard\", \"To Imagine\" and self-titled album (2017– to present).", "content": "On September 21, 2017, The Neighbourhood released the EP \"Hard\" which reached the number 183 position on the US Billboard 200 chart. Another EP called \"To Imagine\" was released on January 12, 2018. The band later announced their self-titled third studio album \"The Neighbourhood,\" released March 9, 2018, which included tracks from the previous extended plays, including the lead single \"Scary Love\". After the release, the tracks from the extended plays that weren't included on the final tracklisting were collected in another EP called \"Hard to Imagine\". The band then released the complete edition of the album, titled \"Hard To Imagine The Neighbourhood Ever Changing\" which featured all songs released from \"Hard\", \"To Imagine\", \"The Neighbourhood\", and \"Ever Changing\", except the two tracks \"Revenge\" and \"Too Serious\".  On August 16, 2019 they premiered a music video along with their single, \"Middle of Somewhere\". On October 10, 2019, The Neighbourhood's single, \"Yellow Box\" was released and featured on an action game, Death Stranding. They released a lyric video for \"Yellow Box\" on November 7th, 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Members.", "content": "Current  Former", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Neighbourhood (sometimes rendered as \"THE NBHD\") is an American alternative rock band formed in Newbury Park, California, in 2011. The band is composed of vocalist Jesse Rutherford, guitarists Jeremy Freedman and Zach Abels, bassist Mikey Margott, and drummer Brandon Alexander Fried. After releasing two EPs, \"I'm Sorry...\" and \"Thank You\", The Neighbourhood released its first full-length album \"I Love You.\" on April 23, 2013, via Columbia Records. The same year, the EP \"The Love Collection\" was released; and in November 2014, a mixtape titled \"#000000 & #FFFFFF\". A second album, \"Wiped Out!\" was released on October 30, 2015. On March 9, 2018, a self-titled third studio album came out, preceded by the release of two EPs: \"Hard\" on September 22, 2017, which briefly charted on the Billboard 200, and \"To Imagine\" on January 12, 2018. After the release of the album, the tracks from the extended plays not included on the final tracklisting were collected in another EP, \"Hard to Imagine\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977461}
{"src_title": "Princess Helena Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Helena was born 1 June 1888 at Grünholz Manor (Thumby) in Schleswig-Holstein, Prussia, the third eldest daughter of Frederick Ferdinand, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and his wife Princess Karoline Mathilde of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg. Her father was the eldest son of Friedrich, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and a nephew of Christian IX of Denmark. Three years before the birth of Princess Helena, he had succeeded to the headship of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and the title of duke upon the death of his father in 1885.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "Princess Helena was engaged in 1908, and married Prince Harald of Denmark, fourth child and third son of Frederick VIII of Denmark and his wife Princess Louise of Sweden and Norway on 28 April 1909 at Glücksburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.  After their marriage, Prince Harald and Princess Helena lived at the Jægersborghus country house north of Copenhagen which Prince Harald had purchased in 1907. Here their five children were born between 1910 and 1923.  The only activity deemed acceptable for a female member of the royal house except representation was charity, and in 1913, Princess Helena started a campaign to found an orphanage in Gentofte. The orphanage, \"Spædbørnshjemmet Danmark\", was finally founded in 1923. After this, she acted as the protector of the orphanage and its funds, which was taken over by princess Caroline-Mathilde after her- the money was in 1977 to create the \"Danmarksfonden\", a fund for social and cultural matters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Princess Helena became very unpopular during World War II because of her sympathy for the German occupation and the Nazi party after the German occupation of Denmark in 1940. The Danish resistance movement stated that Princess Helena was the only member of the Danish royal house to have betrayed Denmark: she received and entertained Germans in her home, attended parties hosted by the Germans at Gesandtskab and had been introduced to Danish collaborationists by the Danish noblewoman Ebba Lerche. Her actions were so unpopular that, on some occasions, enraged Danes had even broken the windows of her limousine. Because of her professed support for the Germans, she was reportedly not on speaking terms with her sons, who were embarrassed by her behaviour. Even her husband had taken to avoiding the dining room when she was hosting him. One of her own servants, Paul Dall, responsible for setting her table, was a contact of the German Abwehr in Copenhagen, and was after the war judged guilty as a spy.  On 18 January 1942 she participated in the memorial service for an SS officer, C.E. von Schalburg, who had died on the Russian front, a service which the monarch refused to attend. In 1942, Helena made efforts to convince Prince Knud of Denmark to persuade the monarch to allow Nazi members in to the Danish government.  Princess Helena is not considered to have been a regular German agent, but rather an informer and a contact on informal basis. After the war, owing to Princess Helena being a member of the Royal house, she was not brought to trial, as any punishment was at the discretion of the King. He instead exiled her from Denmark on 30 May 1945 and placed under house arrest at the Glücksburg Castle in Germany.  She was allowed to return to Denmark in 1947, when Prince Harald fell gravely ill. She stayed with her spouse until his death two years later. Prince Harald died on 30 March 1949 in Copenhagen. Princess Helena survived her husband by 13 years and died on 30 June 1962 in Hellerup, Denmark. She was buried at Roskilde Cathedral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "Helena and Harald had five children:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Helena Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (; 1 June 1888 - 30 June 1962) was the third eldest daughter of Friedrich Ferdinand, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and his wife Princess Karoline Mathilde of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg. She was a princess of Denmark through her marriage within the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg to Prince Harald of Denmark. Princess Helena was a Nazi sympathiser during World War II and was after the war exiled from Denmark, but eventually allowed to return, where she died.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977462}
{"src_title": "Zevulun Orlev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Born in Rehovot during the Mandate era, Orlev studied humanities and social sciences at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, before training to be a teacher at Moreshet Yaakov College. He later worked as Director General of the Ministry of Religious Affairs, and Director General of the Ministry of Education and Culture. Orlev lives in Jerusalem's Givat Mordechai neighborhood with his wife, Nira. They have four children.  During his national service in the Israel Defense Forces, he reached the rank of Sergeant. Orlev fought in the Six-Day War, participating in the capture of East Jerusalem. He sustained a knee injury and underwent rehabilitation for two years. During the Yom Kippur War, Orlev served in a stronghold on the Bar-Lev Line. During the Egyptian attack on the first day of the war, Orlev took charge of the soldiers in his outpost after the commander was wounded. Under his command, his unit repelled Egyptian attempts to capture the position, and he organized the evacuation from the stronghold. For this, he was awarded a Medal of Distinguished Service. He later served as a reservist during the 1982 Lebanon War.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "He was first elected to the Knesset in the 1999 elections on the National Religious Party list. After being re-elected in the 2003 elections, Orlev was appointed Minister of Welfare and Social Services in Ariel Sharon's government. During the crisis in the party over the Gaza disengagement plan, Orlev led the camp which believed staying in the government, rather than leaving the coalition, was the best option. In response, NRP leader Effi Eitam called Orlev a \"Meimadnik\". When Eitam and Yitzhak Levy quit the government in 2004, Orlev and many NRP members refused to leave the coalition. Orlev then succeeded in taking control of the party, resulting in Eitam and Levy leaving to form the Renewed Religious National Zionist Party (later renamed Ahi), which would later join the National Union.  Orlev was re-elected in the 2006 elections. Prior to the 2009 elections the NRP was dissolved and its members joined the Jewish Home. Orlev won second place on the new party's list, and retained his seat in the subsequent elections.  Orlev became known for several controversial statements and legislative proposal. In 2009 the Knesset debated a Private Members Bill proposed by Orlev, providing for imprisonment of anyone who denied that Israel was a Jewish and democratic state. The bill passed its preliminary reading. Orlev was criticized for proposing a bill that would mandate divorced fathers to pay child support until their children reached age 22, though he later retracted and stated he would not pursue the bill. In 2012, he called for the Third Temple to be built in Jerusalem, as well as legislation to protect the project from prosecution and the \"hostile, secular, left-wing media\". He also proposed a Private Members Bill to override an Israeli Supreme Court ruling ordering the demolition five buildings in an Israeli settlement.  Orlev did not run in the 2013 elections.  He is a co-president of the international Mizrachi movement, which the National Religious Party and its successor Jewish Home represents in the political arena.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zevulun Orlev (, born 9 November 1945) is an Israeli politician and a former Knesset member, Minister of Welfare & Social Services and leader of the National Religious Party. Orlev is a decorated war hero who received the Medal of Distinguished Service in the Yom Kippur War.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977463}
{"src_title": "Soviet–Polish Non-Aggression Pact", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "After the Polish–Soviet War, the Polish authorities pursued a policy of \"equal distance\" between Germany and the Soviet Union. Most Polish politicians, both on the left and on the right, believed that Poland should rely mostly on the crucial Franco-Polish Military Alliance, which dated back to World War I, and not support either Germany or the Soviet Union.  To normalise bilateral contacts with the Soviet Union, talks were started in January 1926 to prepare a non-aggression pact to fortify the Polish gains of the Peace of Riga that was to be balanced by a similar pact signed with Germany. However, the talks with Germany were not started, and the Polish–Soviet talks were interrupted in June 1927, when Britain broke off diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and Soviet plenipotentiary Pyotr Voykov was killed in Warsaw. Instead, Poland applied to the Briand-Kellogg Pact of 1928.  Polish-Soviet negotiations were resumed in Moscow.in 1931. The pact was finally signed on July 25, 1932, effective for three years. Ratifications were exchanged in Warsaw on December 23, 1932, and the pact went into effect on the same day. It was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on January 9, 1933.  On May 5, 1934, it was extended to December 31, 1945 without amendment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terms.", "content": "Both sides agreed to renounce violence in bilateral relations, to resolve their problems through negotiations and to forgo any armed conflict or alliances aimed at the other side.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "On September 23, 1938, the Soviet Union sent a note to the Polish government to inform it that the pact would be considered null and void if Poland participated in the occupation of Czechoslovakia. However, the threat was not carried out since the Soviet government stated on October 31, after Poland had occupied Zaolzie area, that the pact remained in force, and the pact was reaffirmed by the two powers on November 26, 1938 (see ). It was finally broken by the Soviets on September 17, 1939, when the Soviet and German jointly invaded Poland, in accordance with the secret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.  The pact was considered at the time as a major success of Polish diplomacy, which had been greatly weakened by the toll war with Germany, the renouncement of parts of the Treaty of Versailles and the loosened ties to France. The pact also reinforced the Polish negotiating position with Germany, which finally resulted in the signing of the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact 18 months later.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Soviet–Polish Non-Aggression Pact (,, translitterated in \"Dogovor o nenapadenii mezhdu SSSR i Pol'shey\") was an non-aggression pact signed in 1932 by representatives of Poland and the Soviet Union. The pact was unilaterally broken by the Soviet Union on September 17, 1939, during the Soviet invasion of Poland.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977464}
{"src_title": "2014–15 Formula E season", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The car.", "content": "For the first season, all teams were supplied an electric racing car built by Spark Racing Technology, called the Spark-Renault SRT 01E. The chassis was designed by Dallara, with an electric motor developed by McLaren (the same as that used in its P1 supercar), a battery system created by Williams Grand Prix Engineering and a Hewland five-speed gearbox. Michelin were the official tyre supplier. 42 electric cars were ordered by the FIA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teams and drivers.", "content": "For the 2014–15 season, 10 teams contested the series. Each team fielded two drivers; each driver had two cars. That meant that 40 cars were required by the teams. All teams were ostensibly based at the sport's technical headquarters at the Donington Park race circuit, in the United Kingdom, although some teams had a greater presence there than others. Formula E organiser FEH itself has offices there for administration and operations staff.  All ten teams were confirmed to race in April 2014. However, in June 2014, Drayson Racing pulled out of the championship, with its entry taken by Trulli, a new team formed by former Formula One driver Jarno Trulli. Drayson entered the team in a supply and sponsorship arrangement, to be its principal technology partner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Calendar.", "content": "The season included 11 races, held between September 2014 and June 2015. The initial calendar had ten races and was approved by the FIA World Motor Sport Council in December 2013. However, in April 2014, changes were made to the calendar including dropping Rio de Janeiro, which had previously replaced Hong Kong, and moving the Los Angeles round to 4 April. On 22 May 2014, Los Angeles County officials announced that their race would take place away on a modified version of the Long Beach street circuit. On 3 February 2015, it was revealed that a race would be held in Moscow on 6 June, to restore the calendar to its original schedule of ten races. On 19 February 2015, it was announced that the final round in London would be a double-header, expanding the calendar to eleven races.  Championship points were awarded as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Championship standings.", "content": "Each driver's lowest-scoring round was dropped from their total; however, rounds where the driver was excluded from the race could not be dropped.  † – Drivers did not finish the race, but were classified as they completed more than 90% of the race distance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teams' Championship.", "content": "The points system was the same as the Drivers' Championship, except that all rounds counted towards the total.  † – Drivers did not finish the race, but were classified as they completed more than 90% of the race distance.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2014–15 FIA Formula E season was the inaugural season of a new FIA championship for electrically powered cars. It began on 13 September 2014 at Beijing in China and finished on 28 June 2015 in London after eleven races. Nelson Piquet Jr. came first in the overall standings, and so became the first ever Formula E champion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977465}
{"src_title": "Poalei Agudat Yisrael", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Poalei Agudas Izrael was founded in 1922 in Lodz, Poland as a workers affiliate of Agudas Izrael of Poland. As well as being a trade union, they fielded candidates in the Polish elections in the interwar period.  With the establishment of the State of Israel, Poalei Agudat Yisrael became an ultra-orthodox workers' political party associated with Agudat Yisrael. They were also part of the Histadrut.  In the elections for the first Knesset, the party ran on a joint list with the other religious parties of the time, Agudat Yisrael, Mizrachi and Hapoel HaMizrachi. The group was called the United Religious Front and won 16 seats. They joined David Ben-Gurion's coalition government alongside Mapai, the Progressive Party, the Sephardim and Oriental Communities and the Democratic List of Nazareth.  However, the grouping created problems in the governing coalition due to its differing attitude to education in the new immigrant camps and the religious education system. They also demanded that Ben-Gurion close the Supply and Rationing Ministry and appoint a businessman as Minister for Trade and Industry. As a result, Ben-Gurion resigned on 15 October 1950. After the differences were resolved, Ben-Gurion formed the second government on 1 November 1950, with the United Religious Front retaining their place in the coalition.  In the 1951 elections, the United Religious Front disbanded into its separate parties, and Poalei Agudat Yisrael fought the election alone. They won two seats and were included in Ben-Gurion's coalition. However, they helped bring down the third government after disagreeing with Ben-Gurion on religious education issues. They were not included in the fourth, fifth or sixth governments.  For the 1955 elections, the party joined with Agudat Yisrael to form the Religious Torah Front, which won six seats. They did not participate in the coalitions of the sixth or seventh governments.  In the 1959 elections they once again ran under the Religious Torah Front banner, which won six seats. Again, they did not join the governing coalition. On 9 August 1960 the alliance split, with Poalei Agudat Yisrael taking two of the six seats. After the split, Poalei Agudat Yisrael joined the coalition and Binyamin Mintz was made Minister of Postal Services.  In the 1961 election the party retained its two seats, and were coalition partners in the ninth, tenth and eleventh governments. In the 1965 election they again won two seats and joined the twelfth government, which collapsed when Levi Eshkol died. Poalei Agudat Yisrael left the coalition when Golda Meir took over as leader of the thirteenth government. In the 1969 elections the party retained its two seats, but did not join the governing coalition.  For the 1973 elections the party joined with Agudat Yisrael again to recreate the Religious Torah Front, which won five seats. However, the faction split on 15 March 1977, with Poalei Agudat Yisrael taking two of the five seats. In the 1977 elections the party won only one seat. In the next elections in 1981 it failed to cross the electoral threshold by 2,284 votes.  The party's name was briefly resuscitated during the eleventh Knesset when Morasha, part of the governing coalition, split and former Poalei Agudat Yisrael member Avraham Verdiger renamed his faction Morasha – Poalei Agudat Yisrael. He merged the party into Agudat Yisrael before the 1988 elections.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poalei Agudat Yisrael Kibutzim.", "content": "Not to be confused with the Religious Kibbutz Movement, Poalei Agudat Yisrael had two affiliate kibbutzim, Hafetz Haim and Sha'alvim.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Poalei Agudat Yisrael (, lit. \"Agudat Yisrael Workers\") was a trade union and Jewish political party in Poland, and was a minor political party in Israel. It was also known as PAI or PAGI, its Hebrew acronym (Hebrew: or ).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977466}
{"src_title": "Hery Rajaonarimampianina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hery Rajaonarimampianina was born to a modest family. He lived in Sabotsy Namehana, neighborhood of Antananarivo, Madagascar. In 1982, Rajaonarimampianina obtained an MBA at the \"Etablissement d’Enseignement Supérieur de Droit, d’Economie, de Gestion et de Sciences Sociales (EESDEGS) – Université d’Ankatso Antananarivo. Then, he moved to Canada to complete his training in finance and accounting at Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, receiving a postgraduate diploma (DEA) in accounting science in 1986. Rajaonarimampianina obtained the Canadian Diploma of Accounting from the Certified General Accountant’s Association (C.G.A) in 1991.  In 1991, Rajaonarimampianina went back to Madagascar and worked as an accountant. He also became the studies director of the National Institute for Business Administration and Accounting Science (INSCAE) in Antananarivo (Madagascar) and teacher assistant at the Antananarivo University (Madagascar) and at the Institut of Business Administration (IAE) of the Metz University (France).  In 1995, Rajaonarimampianina created the accountant firm Auditeurs Associes – C.G.A, in Antananarivo. With 50 associates, the firm operates throughout Madagascar for private commercial companies both domestic and international. It also assists entities in their projects supported by international fundraisers.  In 2003 he was elected President of the \"Ordre des Experts Comptables et Commissaires aux Comptes de Madagascar\" (Professional Order of Chartered Accountants and Statutory Auditors of Madagascar) and appointed Vice-Président of the \"Conseil Supérieur de la Comptabilité\" (Superior Accounting Council) and counsel of the \"Comité pour la Sauvegarde de l’Intégrité\" (Committee for the Safeguarding of the Integrity).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 2009, Rajaonarimampianina became Minister of Finance and Budget, at a time marked by the withdrawal of the main international funders of Madagascar since 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2013 presidential election.", "content": "Rajaonarimampianina set up the political organisation \"Hery Vaovao hoan'i Madagasikara\" in 2013 (\"New Forces for Madagascar\") and ran for Presidency with 32 other competitors. His major opponents were Andry Nirina Rajoelina from the ruling political party Tanora Gasy Vonona (TGV), the proxy of the former président Marc Ravalomanana, Jean-Louis Robinson from Antoko ny Vahoaka Aloha No Andrianina (AVANA) party and two former Prime Ministers of the High Transitional Authority Albert Camille Vital and Roindefo Zafitsimivalo Monja.  After the first round Rajaonarimampianina received 15.62%, second to Robinson. The sum of all opponents of former President Ravalomanana's party received 55% of the vote.  Before the second round, he gathered his party members and supporters in many rallies, including Roland Ratsiraka, nephew of former President Didier Ratsiraka and Pierrot Rajaonarivelo. He also gained support from Andry Rajoelina, the sitting President of the High Transitional Authority, after it was determined that Rajoelina was ineligible to run because he had not submitted his candidacy documents in time.  In the second round, Hery Rajaonarimampianina quickly led the first preliminary results of the election established by the Independent National Electoral Commission of the Transition (CENIT) in elections that international observers deemed \"free, transparent, reliable and credible\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Impeachment attempt.", "content": "On 26 May 2015, the Parliament of Madagascar voted to remove the president from office, due to \"alleged constitutional violations and general incompetence\". The constitutional court disallowed the motion under the grounds the accusations were unfounded and then inadmissible.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Religion and politics.", "content": "Rajaonarimampianina has been accused by critics of threatening Madagascar's secular constitution by sponsoring church events and often appearing at churches at rallies. This is not entirely new in Madagascar's history as Rajaonarimapianina's predecessor Marc Ravalomanana was a senior member of the FJKM and Andry Rajoelina was a devout Catholic, both using events of their respective denominations to boost support. Rajaonarimampianina has only appeared and sponsored the events of denominations in Madagascar that have a large number of adherents, namely the Catholic Church, the Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, the Malagasy Lutheran Church, and the Anglican Church, while ignoring other smaller religious denominations such as the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the country's Muslim minority which have fewer followers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018 presidential election.", "content": "On 8 September 2018 Rajaonarimampianina officially resigned from the presidential office and declared his candidacy for the 2018 election. According to the Malagasy constitution incumbent candidates must resign at least 60 days before in order to be eligible for reelection. On his last official day of his term Rajaonarimampianina named new army generals and appointed new ambassadors to China and Russia.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Hery Martial Rajaonarimampianina Rakotoarimanana (; ; born November 6, 1958) is a Malagasy politician who was President of Madagascar from January 2014 to September 2018, resigning to run for re-election. Previously he served as Minister of Finance under President Andry Rajoelina, and he was the Rajoelina political movement's candidate in the 2013 presidential election. He won the vote in a second round, defeating Jean-Louis Robinson, the candidate of Marc Ravalomanana's party. Once he was elected, Rajaonarimampianina held the world record of the head of state with the longest name (44 characters) as well as family name (19 characters).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977467}
{"src_title": "Mesdames de la Halle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "Bouffes on tour staged \"Mesdames de la Halle\" in Vienna with Lucille Tostée as Croûte-au-pot, then in Budapest, where a Hungarian version soon followed.  It was performed in in 1858, Brussels in 1860, and Monte Carlo in 1908. It was also produced at the Théâtre des Arts on 3 April 1913, conducted by Gabriel Grovlez, with a cast including Lucy Vauthrin, Marcelle Devries and Maurice Lamy. It was mounted at the Paris Opéra-Comique on 4 May 1940 with René Hérent, Lillie Grandval and Roger Bourdin, conducted by Gustave Cloëz. \"Mesdames de la Halle\" was performed as part of a triple bill entitled ‘Vive Offenbach’ with \"Pomme d'api\" and \"M. Choufleuri restera chez lui le...\" at the Opéra-Comique in December 1979, revived the following year and in 1983. \"Mesdames de la Halle\" was performed as part of a double bill with \"Bagatelle\" by the non-profit opera troupe New Moon Opera Company in December 2017 in Chicago, Illinois.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "At the Paris fruit and vegetable market vendors of all kinds are plying for custom. The drum major, Raflafla, enters with some troops and sings a flattering song to the market women. Madou and Beurrefondu are not interested; they are after the young kitchen boy Croûte-au-pot, for whom Mesdames Poiretapée, Madou and Beurrefondue have all fallen. Croûte-au-pot enters, but singing of his love for the fruit seller Ciboulette. Madou and Beurrefondu press their wares on him, but when he upturns his basket, Raflafla re-enters and takes Croûte-au-pot off in a barrow. Madou and Beurrefondu fight with Poiretapée, which attracts the attention of the commissaire, the customers and Ciboulette; when the quarreling women have been led away, Ciboulette introduces herself, in song. When Raflafla tries to sweet-talk her she repulses him, despite the fact that her heart always misses a beat when she meets him. Poiretapée has bribed the commissaire with a drink and comes back to the market where Raflafla tries it on with her, by singing a ballad to the moon. Croûte-au-pot comes in, having jumped out of a window at the jail, and he and Ciboulette sing a happy duet.  Beurrefondu re-enters, disapproving of Ciboulette's liaison with the kitchen-boy. Ciboulette says that as an orphan the consent of her parents will be difficult to obtain. She tells Beurrefondu that her father was a sergeant of guards, and she is eighteen, female and from Vaugirard. Beurrefondu faints into the fountain, and when dragged out claims Ciboulette as her daughter. When Beurrefondu recounts this to Madou she too faints in the fountain leading to a septet over the dilemma. Ciboulette next produces a sealed letter she has kept next to her heart since she was three months old; when Croûte-au-pot reads it out Raflafla and Poiretapée both faint, thus solving the mystery of her parents, who consent to her marriage. The curtain falls with all acclaiming the 'unequalled beauties – the ladies of la Halle'.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mesdames de la Halle is an opérette bouffe in one act by Jacques Offenbach, with a libretto by Armand Lapointe. It was first performed at the Théâtre des Bouffes Parisiens, Paris on 3 March 1858. and was the first work of Offenbach's at the Bouffes with a chorus and a large cast. Gänzl describes the piece as \"a delicious piece of Parisian bouffonerie\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977468}
{"src_title": "Ultrafine particle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Sources and applications.", "content": "UFPs are both manufactured and naturally occurring. Hot volcanic lava, ocean spray, and smoke are common natural UFPs sources. UFPs can be intentionally fabricated as are fine particles to serve a vast range of applications in both medicine and technology. Other UFPs are byproducts, like emissions, from specific processes, combustion reactions, or equipment such as printer toner and automobile exhaust. In 2014, an air quality study found harmful ultrafine particles from the takeoffs and landings at Los Angeles International Airport to be of much greater magnitude than previously thought. There are a multitude of indoor sources that include but are not limited to laser printers, fax machines, photocopiers, the peeling of citrus fruits, cooking, tobacco smoke, penetration of contaminated outdoor air, chimney cracks and vacuum cleaners.  UFPs have a variety of applications in the medical and technology fields. They are used in diagnostic imagining, and novel drug delivery systems that include targeting the circulatory system, and or passage of the blood brain barrier to name just a few. Certain UFPs like silver based nanostructures have antimicrobial properties that are exploited in wound healing and internal instrumental coatings among other uses, in order to prevent infections. In the area of technology, carbon based UFPs have a plethora of applications in computers. This includes the use of graphene and carbon nanotubes in electronic as well as other computer and circuitry components. Some UFPs have characteristics similar to gas or liquid and are useful in powders or lubricants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exposure, risk, and health effects.", "content": "The main exposure to UFPs is through inhalation. Owing to their size, UFPs are considered to be respirable particles. Contrary to the behaviour of inhaled PM and PM, ultrafine particles are deposited in the lungs, where they have the ability to penetrate tissue and undergo interstitialization, or to be absorbed directly into the bloodstream — and therefore are not easily removed from the body and may have immediate effect. Exposure to UFPs, even if components are not very toxic, may cause oxidative stress, inflammatory mediator release, and could induce heart disease, lung disease, and other systemic effects.  A robust association has been observed between fine particulate levels and lung cancer, and cardiopulmonary disease. The exact mechanism through which UFP exposure leads to health effects remains to be elucidated, but effects on Blood pressure may play a role. It has recently been reported that UFP is associated with an increase in blood pressure in schoolchildren with the smallest particles inducing the largest effect.  There is a range of potential human exposures that include occupational, due to the direct manufacturing process or a byproduct from an industrial or office environment, as well as incidental, from contaminated outdoor air and other byproduct emissions. In order to quantify exposure and risk, both \"in vivo\" and \"in vitro\" studies of various UFP species are currently being done using a variety of animal models including mouse, rat, and fish. These studies aim to establish toxicological profiles necessary for risk assessment, risk management, and potential regulation and legislation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Regulation and legislation.", "content": "As the nanotechnology industry has grown, nanoparticles have brought UFPs more public and regulatory attention. UFP risk assessment research is still in the very early stages. There are continuing debates about whether to regulate UFPs and how to research and manage the health risks they may pose. As of March 19, 2008, the EPA does not yet regulate or research ultrafine particles, but has drafted a Nanomaterial Research Strategy, open for independent, external peer review beginning February 7, 2008 (Panel review on April 11, 2008). There is also debate about how the European Union (EU) should regulate UFPs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political disputes.", "content": "There is political dispute between China and South Korea on Ultrafine dust. South Korea claims that about 80% of ultrafine dust comes from China, and China and South Korea should cooperate to reduce the level of fine dust. China, however, argues that Chinese government have already implemented its policy regarding ecological environment. According to China’s government, it’s quality of air has been improved more than 40% since 2013. However, the air pollution in South Korea got worse. Therefore, the dispute between China and South Korea has become political. In March 2019, Seoul Research Institute of Public Health and Environment said that 50% to 70% of the fine dust is from China, therefore China is responsible for the air pollution in South Korea. This dispute provokes dispute among citizens as well. In July 2014, China's paramount leader Xi Jinping and the South Korean government agreed to enforce Korea-China Cooperative Project, regarding Sharing of observation data on air pollutions, joint research on an air pollution forecast model and air pollution source identification, and human resources exchanges, etc. Followed by this agreement, in 2018, China and South Korea signed China-Korea Environmental Cooperation Plan to resolute environmental issues. China Research Academy of Environmental Studies (CRAES) in Beijing is developing a building for China-Korea Environmental Cooperation Center including office building and laboratory building. Based on this cooperation, South Korea already sent 10 experts on environments to China for research, and China will also send more experts for long-term research. By this bilateral relations, China and Republic of Korea are seeking resolution on air pollution in North East Asia region, and seeks international security.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ultrafine particles (UFPs) are particulate matter of nanoscale size (less than 0.1 μm or 100 nm in diameter). Regulations do not exist for this size class of ambient air pollution particles, which are far smaller than the regulated PM and PM particle classes and are believed to have several more aggressive health implications than those classes of larger particulates. In the EU UFP's in ambient air are empirically defined by a technical specification. The important detail is the definition of size, stated: \"The lower and upper sizes considered within this document are 7 nm and a few micrometres, respectively\". Although the most common referral to UFP is \"less than 0.1μm\", this is incorrect for ambient air in the EU.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977469}
{"src_title": "Chicago P.D. (TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "A spin-off of Chicago Fire, Chicago P.D. focuses on the fictional 21st District, which houses patrol officers and the department's elite Intelligence Unit, led by Detective Sergeant Hank Voight (Jason Beghe). The first three seasons and the first half of season four focuses on both the patrol and Intelligence officers, and shifts to focus on the Intelligence Unit from the second half of season four on.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Episodes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Spin-off.", "content": "At the 2016 Television Critics Association winter press tour, NBC Entertainment president Jennifer Salke revealed that the network had discussions with Dick Wolf about a fourth series in the \"Chicago\" franchise centered on the legal system. The working title was \"Chicago Law\". Salke has since confirmed that the series was officially in development. The series was a spin-off of \"Chicago P.D.\" by introducing Assistant State's Attorney (ASA) characters in the 21st episode of \"P.D.\"s third season. Philip Winchester was the first to be cast. Nazneen Contractor joined the series in March 2016 and the title was changed to \"Chicago Justice\". \"Rocky\" alum Carl Weathers played Cook County State's Attorney Mark Jefferies, while Joelle Carter also starred. Lorraine Toussaint reprised her role as defense attorney Shambala Green, who appeared in seven episodes of \"Law & Order\". On May 12, 2016, NBC gave \"Chicago Justice\" a series order. On September 28, it was reported that Jon Seda would join the cast and that his character Antonio would become an investigator for the DA's office. The series ran from March 1, to May 14, 2017. In July 2017, it was announced that Seda would rejoin \"Chicago P.D.\" full-time.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "On March 27, 2013, it was reported that NBC was considering plans for a spin-off of \"Chicago Fire\". Deadline Hollywood revealed that the proposed spin-off would involve the Chicago Police Department, and would be created and executive produced by Dick Wolf, Derek Haas, Michael Brandt, and Matt Olmstead. On May 10, 2013, NBC picked up the show for the 2013–14 United States network television schedule. On May 12, 2013, the show was announced as an unscheduled midseason replacement. The show premiered on January 8, 2014.  It came to light in November 2017 that Bush had left the show because of Beghe's behavior behind the scenes. Bush's claims led NBC to open an investigation into Beghe's behavior. On November 21, 2017, Deadline reported that Beghe was investigated for behavior that was considered overly aggressive and may have been sexual harassment. Beghe released a statement in which he admitted to engaging in aggressive behavior and apologized for it.  The seventh season premiered on September 25, 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filming.", "content": "The series is filmed entirely in Chicago. The exterior of the station house is the Old Maxwell Street Police Station (943 West Maxwell Street) and is the same location that was used in the series \"Hill Street Blues\". It is located about half a mile from the firehouse location of \"Chicago Fire\" at 1360 S. Blue Island Ave.  On March 13, 2020, Universal Television production of the seventh season was shut down due to the impact of corona-virus pandemic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Casting.", "content": "Cast members include Jason Beghe as the Intelligence team Sergeant Hank Voight and Jon Seda as Detective Antonio Dawson. Actors Tania Raymonde, Kelly Blatz, Scott Eastwood, and Melissa Sagemiller were initially cast as well.  However, as the show went into pre-production, the cast began to change. On June 13, 2013, it was announced that Melissa Sagemiller would no longer be a part of the show and Jesse Lee Soffer officially joined the cast as a series regular. On August 23, 2013, Patrick Flueger and \"One Tree Hill\" star Sophia Bush joined the cast as Officer Adam Ruzek and Detective Erin Lindsay, respectively. Marina Squerciati joined the cast on August 28, 2013. On August 30, Elias Koteas became a regular. Archie Kao was announced as a regular on September 27, 2013. On October 21, 2013, Stella Maeve was cast in a recurring role as Nadia, a pretty 18-year-old escort who is addicted to heroin and goes through a very difficult withdrawal. Sydney Tamiia Poitier was announced as a guest star in December 2013. On December 20, 2013, it was announced that both Eastwood and Raymonde had departed the series over creative differences.  In September 2016, it was reported that Seda would move to the legal drama spin-off \"Chicago Justice\" as a regular. In May 2017, it was announced that Bush would depart the series after four seasons. After \"Chicago Justice\"s cancellation, in July 2017 it was announced that Seda would move back to \"Chicago P.D.\" as a series regular for season five. In July 2017, Tracy Spiridakos was promoted to series regular as Det. Hailey Upton after a two-episode guest stint in season four. On April 19, 2019, NBC announced that Seda would leave the series again at the end of the sixth season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reviews.", "content": "\"Chicago P.D.\" has received mixed reviews from critics. Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the drama a 50% rating based on 21 reviews, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Rotten Tomatoes gives season 1 a rating of 57% based on reviews from 28 critics.  Ray Rahman of \"Entertainment Weekly\" gave the drama a favorable review: \"It's hard to imagine the series capturing the compelling, can't-watch-just-one magic that makes the \"Law & Order\" franchise so marathonable, but it moves just fast enough to keep you from changing the channel in search of an SVU re-run.\" Alessandra Stanley of \"The New York Times\" also gave the series a positive review when it premiered on January 8: \"\"Chicago P.D.\" is, in many ways, a throwback to an earlier, male-dominated era of crime shows, yet it carves out room for strong female characters who are good at their jobs and taken seriously by their colleagues.\" Robert Bianco of \"USA Today\" expressed disappointment: \"When did Wolf's work, which used to show some grace and wit, become this ugly, plodding and crass?\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Chicago P.D. is an American police procedural drama television series created by Dick Wolf and Matt Olmstead as a part of Wolf's \"Chicago\" franchise. The series premiered on NBC as a mid-season replacement on January 8, 2014. The show follows the uniformed patrol officers and the Intelligence Unit of the 21st District of the Chicago Police Department as they pursue the perpetrators of the city's major street offenses. The seventh season premiered on September 25, 2019. On February 27, 2020, NBC renewed the series for an eighth, ninth and tenth season.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977470}
{"src_title": "Heroes of Might and Magic: A Strategic Quest", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Story.", "content": "Heroes of Might and Magic tells the story of Lord Morglin Ironfist, who is forced to flee his homeland through a magical portal, because his cousin, Ragnar, had usurped the throne after his uncle, Ragnar's father, killed Ironfist's father, the legitimate owner of the throne.  He finds himself along with his few followers in a strange and uncharted land, called Enroth. The land is unruled but contested by Ironfist and three other warlords: the barbarian Lord Slayer, the sorceress Queen Lamanda, and the warlock Lord Alamar.  In the canonical storyline, Lord Ironfist defeats his three opponents and founds a new kingdom in Enroth. It is possible for the player to lead the other factions to victory, however this is not reflected in the following games of the Heroes of Might and Magic series.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Heroes of Might and Magic\" takes place in a medieval fantasy world filled with creatures frequently associated with myth and legend. These creatures compose the military forces (troops) with which the player attempts to conquer opponents. The player leads generals through the game world at the head of armies of troops. These generals, called \"heroes,\" provide a means to explore, attack, defeat, and acquire, the four basic principles in the game. The ultimate goal of the game is usually to capture all enemy castles and defeat all enemy heroes. However, the game comes with many different play scenarios, and some of these scenarios have unique victory conditions, such as accumulating a certain amount of gold, or finding a particular artifact.  There are four different classes of heroes and castles, each with their own units and strengths/weaknesses. The two \"might\" classes, Knight and Barbarian, earn skill points in attack or defense more often than in spell power or knowledge. The two \"magic\" classes, Sorceress and Warlock, earn skill points in spell power or knowledge more often than in attack or defense. There is also a neutral, \"wandering\" class of troops, including Rogues, Nomads, Ghosts (the only one that cannot be hired) and Genies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "\"Heroes of Might and Magic\" was first released near the end of September 1995.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "In mid-November 1995, New World Computing reported that \"Heroes of Might and Magic\" had shipped 100,000 copies to retailers and that sell-through was strong. The company announced that the game was \"set to top the 100,000 mark in unit sales\". By October 1997, the combined sales of \"Heroes of Might and Magic\", \"Heroes II\" and the \"Price of Loyalty\" expansion had surpassed 500,000 copies. The series as a whole sold 1.5 million copies by December 1999.  Andy Butcher reviewed \"Heroes of Might and Magic\" for \"Arcane\" magazine, rating it a 7 out of 10 overall. Butcher comments that \"Its very simplicity, although ultimately limiting, is appealing, and the computer opponents are far from easy to beat. In terms of depth and long-term interest it's not a real challenger to MicroProse's \"Master of Magic\", which it resembles, but it is a whole lot simpler to get into.\"  A reviewer for \"Next Generation\" assessed that \"\"Heroes of Might and Magic\" is part wargame, part adventure, and part sim. It seamlessly captures the best of all three genres, and presents the whole package with bright, colorful visuals.\" He further applauded the game for being \"easy to learn, but difficult to master\" and having great longevity. He scored it four out of five stars. \"GameSpot\" rated the game's production values as somewhat below par, and regarded the story as being thin. Nonetheless, the game was complimented for its gameplay, and received a 7.5 out of 10 overall. It received a Golden Triad Award from \"Computer Game Review\".  \"Heroes of Might and Magic\" was named 1995's best turn-based strategy game by \"Computer Games Strategy Plus\"—tied with \"Jagged Alliance\"—and best overall strategy title by \"Computer Game Review\" and \"Computer Gaming World\", tied variously with \"Command & Conquer\", \"Gazillionaire\" and \"Blood Bowl\". Similarly, \"PC Gamer US\" nominated \"Heroes\" for its 1995 \"Best Strategy Game\" award, although this prize went instead to \"Command & Conquer\". The editors of \"Computer Gaming World\" wrote, \"\"Heroes\" will challenge you to think and plan, and it will reward you with hours of sheer pleasure. It is one of the most addictive games to come along in years.\"  In 1996, \"Computer Gaming World\" declared \"Heroes of Might and Magic\" the 133th-best computer game ever released. The editors called it \"a brilliantly balanced game of fantasy combat\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heroes of Might and Magic: A Strategic Quest is a turn-based strategy game developed and published by New World Computing in 1995 for DOS. A spin-off of New World Computing's \"Might and Magic\" series of role-playing video games, the success of \"Heroes of Might and Magic\" led to a number of sequels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977471}
{"src_title": "Andrej Kiska", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early and personal life.", "content": "Kiska was born in Poprad. He studied electrical engineering. His father was an active member of the ruling Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. He also applied for Communist party membership, but was rejected.  Kiska was married to, an educator and politician from 1985 until 2001. They had two children, Andrej Kiska (1986) and Natália Kisková (1990). The couple divorced in 2001 after 18 years of marriage.  Kiska married his second wife, Martina Kisková, in 2003. The couple have three children- - Veronika (born 2005), Viktor (born 2009), and Martin (born July 2017 during his presidency).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1990, after the Velvet Revolution, he moved to the United States. Later he founded \"Triangel\" and \"Quatro\", two Slovakia-based hire-purchase companies that give the buyer the possibility to pay for goods in several installments over a number of months instead of paying the full price at once.  Tax authorities accused his co-owned company KTAG (with his brother Jaroslav) of tax non-compliance and under-payments, regarding expenses for his presidential campaign. The company eventually agreed to pay the taxes and a penalty.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tax non-compliance and legal problems.", "content": "Andrej Kiska's companies were involved in a number of tax-non compliance issues. Improperly reported income from various business activities resulted in a smaller VAT and Income tax payments.  In his personal tax filing he did not disclose personal propagation before elections performed by his company as a non-cash income, but claimed that he paid for it. Eventually tax office confirmed he did not pay, did not report non-cash income, and his company did not report income from propagation activities but fully deducted all VAT. Remaining costs additionally decreased tax base.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philanthropy.", "content": "In 2006, Kiska co-founded a non-profit charitable organization called Dobrý anjel (translated as \"Good Angel\"), in which donors help families that have found themselves in a difficult financial situation as a result of a family member contracting a serious disease (such as cancer). By 2016, more than 170,000 people have donated to this organization in Slovakia. In 2014 Good Angel expanded their activities also to Czech Republic, where 60.000 are paying their monthly contributions in 2016. In addition to that, Kiska donates his monthly presidential salary to people in need.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "In the first round of the 2014 Slovak presidential election, Kiska placed second with 24% of the vote, behind Prime Minister Robert Fico (28%). As none of candidates got more than 50% of votes, Kiska and Fico progressed to a presidential runoff vote on 29 March 2014. With the support of right-wing parties and other defeated candidates, Kiska won decisively in the second round, receiving nearly 60% of the vote. He took office on 15 June 2014.  Kiska announced on 15 May 2018 that he will not participate in 2019 presidential election, arguing that his departure might end \"the era of political confrontation\" his country faced and citing a desire to spend more time with his family. At the time Kiska made the announcement, polls indicated that he was Slovakia's most trusted politician and that he would have likely been the frontrunner in the election had he chosen to present himself as a candidate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foreign policy.", "content": "Kiska supports Kosovo independence and is in favour of Slovakia diplomatically recognising Kosovo as an independent sovereign state.  Kiska has also come out against Russia over the Ukraine conflict and supports sanctions.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Andrej Kiska (; born 2 February 1963) is a Slovak politician, entrepreneur, writer and philanthropist who was President of Slovakia from 2014 to 2019. He ran as an independent candidate in the 2014 presidential election and was elected as President in the second round of voting. He has written two books about happiness, success and his life.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977472}
{"src_title": "UEFA Nations League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Adoption.", "content": "In October 2013, Norwegian Football Association President Yngve Hallén confirmed that talks had been held to create a third full national-team international tournament for UEFA members in addition to the FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Championship.  The concept of the UEFA Nations League would see all 55 of UEFA's member associations' national teams divided into a series of groups based upon a ranking formulated using their recent results, where they would be promoted and relegated to other groups according to their results within the group. The proposed tournament would take place on dates on the FIFA International Match Calendar that were previously allocated for international friendlies and would not affect the FIFA World Cup or UEFA European Championship.  In March 2014, UEFA general secretary Gianni Infantino stated that one of the benefits of the proposal would be to help less glamorous national associations arrange games.  Royal Belgian Football Association's general secretary Steven Martens said that lower ranked nations would still benefit financially from the competition, as the television contract with UEFA would be centralised. The UEFA Nations League was unanimously adopted by the 54 UEFA member associations (Kosovo was not a member at this time) at the XXXVIII Ordinary UEFA Congress in Astana on 27 March 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Original format.", "content": "According to the approved format (prior to Kosovo becoming a UEFA member), the now 55 UEFA national teams (including Kosovo) are divided into four divisions (called \"Leagues\"): 12 teams in League A, 12 teams in League B, 15 teams in League C, and 16 teams in League D. In each league, four groups are formed (three or four teams in each group) and teams play each other both home and away.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adjustment starting from 2020–21.", "content": "After the completion of the first season, UEFA decided to adjust the format of the Nations League starting from the 2020–21 season. The new league structure comprises 16 teams in Leagues A, B and C and seven teams in League D.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Nations League Finals, promotion and relegation.", "content": "In the top league, League A, the winners of the four groups go on to play in the Nations League Finals, with two semi finals, one third and fourth place decider, and one final to decide which team becomes the UEFA Nations League champion.  Teams can also be promoted and relegated to a higher or lower league. Starting in 2020–21, each group winner (there are four groups in Leagues A, B, and C, and two groups in League D) except for League A, who will go on to play in the Nations League Finals, is automatically promoted to the next higher league for the next tournament. Each team placing last in its group in the Leagues A and B is automatically relegated to the next lower league; as League C has four groups while League D has only two, the two League C teams that are to be relegated are determined by play-outs beginning in March 2022. Based on the Nations League overall ranking of the fourth-placed teams, the first-ranked team will face the fourth-ranked team, and the second-ranked team will face the third-ranked team. Two ties are played over two legs, with each team playing one leg at home (the higher-ranked team will host the second leg). The two teams that score more goals on aggregate over the two legs will remain in League C, while the losing teams will be relegated to League D.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "UEFA European Championship link.", "content": "The UEFA Nations League is linked with the UEFA European Championship qualifying, providing teams another chance to qualify for the UEFA European Championship.  There will be play-offs for each of Leagues A, B, C and D in March 2020. Each group winner earns a spot in the semi-finals. If the group winner is already one of the 20 qualified teams, rankings will be used to give the play-off spot to another team of that league. If fewer than four teams in the entire league remain unqualified, play-off spots for that league are given to teams of the next lower league. This determines the four remaining qualifying spots for the European Championship (out of 24 total).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "FIFA World Cup link.", "content": "The Nations League will be partially linked with European qualification for the FIFA World Cup. The qualifying structure will depend on results from the Nations League, although to a lesser degree than is done for the UEFA European Championship qualifying play-offs. The ten group winners after the first round (group stage) will qualify directly for the World Cup. Then, the second round (play-offs) will be contested by the ten group runners-up, along with the best two Nations League group winners, based on the Nations League overall ranking, that finished outside the top two of their qualifying group. The play-offs will be split into three play-off paths, played in two single-match knockout rounds (semi-finals and finals, with the home teams to be drawn), from which an additional three teams will also qualify.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Support and criticism.", "content": "UEFA devised the tournament as a means to eliminate international friendlies – an aim that has been shared by many football clubs and supporters with the regular football season being interrupted with non-competitive international matches as part of the FIFA International Match Calendar.  In February 2012, it was agreed between UEFA and the European Club Association (ECA) that the international friendly schedule would be reduced from 12 to 9 matches a year with the August round of international friendlies in the UEFA confederation abolished from 2015. The aspiration to eliminate friendlies in favour of a more competitive tournament has been welcomed by many football commentators.  The format has been criticised as allowing weaker teams to qualify through the Nations League to compete in the European Championship finals, instead of qualifying through the standard qualification process. However, only four places out of 24 are available through these playoffs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trophy.", "content": "The UEFA Nations League trophy was unveiled during the phase draw in Lausanne, Switzerland. The trophy represents all 55 UEFA National associations and is made of sterling silver. The trophy weighs 7.5 kg and is 71 cm tall.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anthem.", "content": "The official anthem of the UEFA Nations League was recorded with the Netherlands Radio Philharmonic Orchestra and Choir, singing in Latin. It is a mix of classical and electronic music, and is played when the players are entering the field of play, in television sequences and for ceremonial purposes. The composers are Giorgio Tuinfort and Franck van der Heijden.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seasons.", "content": "Each season of the UEFA Nations League will typically be played from September to November of an even-numbered year (league phase), and June of the following odd-numbered year (Nations League Finals of League A), meaning a UEFA Nations League champion will be crowned every two years. An exception will be made in the 2022–23 season when the league phase will be played in June and September 2022, due to the 2022 FIFA World Cup played in Qatar at the end of the year.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The UEFA Nations League is a biennial international football competition contested by the senior men's national teams of the member associations of UEFA, the sport's European governing body.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977473}
{"src_title": "One Israel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "One Israel was formed by Labor leader Ehud Barak in the run-up to the 1999 elections with the aim of making Labor appear more centrist and to reduce its secularist and elitist reputation amongst Mizrahi voters (Gesher was led by prominent Mizrahi politician and former Likud MK David Levy whilst Meimad is a religious party) modelled on Tony Blair's transformation of the British Labour Party into New Labour. The coalition agreement gave Gesher the number three spot on the list (behind Barak and Shimon Peres), two other safe positions and a promise that Levy would get a ministerial position. Meimad were promised one safe spot on the list and a ministerial position for a member who did not make it into the Knesset.  In the run-up to the election, surveys predicted the party would win 33 seats. However, although One Israel did emerge as the largest faction in the Knesset, its 26 seats was the lowest ever by a winning party (Labor's 34 in the 1996 elections whilst running alone had been the previous low). Of the 26 seats, Labor took 22, Gesher three and Meimad one. As per the pre-election agreement, Levy was appointed Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Meimad's Michael Melchior was made Minister of Social and Diaspora Affairs.  Barak, who had beaten Binyamin Netanyahu in the election for Prime Minister, had to form an unstable coalition government with six other parties: Shas, Meretz, Yisrael BaAliyah, the Centre Party, the National Religious Party and United Torah Judaism.  Barak's participation in the Camp David Summit with Yasser Arafat in summer 2000 led to Gesher pulling out of the alliance on 7 March 2001. On 7 May the alliance was joined by the single member New Way faction, but on 15 May 2001 it ceased to exist, as the parliamentary group was renamed Labor-Meimad.  After the party's collapse, Barak was investigated following allegations that the One Israel had broken the party funding law by allowing money from abroad to be directed into campaign funds through non-profit groups in order to get around spending limits. State Comptroller Eliezer Goldberg had already fined the party 13 million shekels for breaking fund-raising laws. It later became known as the \"Barak Organisation Affair\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "One Israel (, \"Yisrael Ahat\") was an alliance of the Labor Party, Meimad and Gesher created to run for the 1999 Knesset elections.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977474}
{"src_title": "Blues Pills", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation and EPs.", "content": "In 2011, Sibling step-brothers Zack Anderson (bass) and Cory Berry (drums), formerly of Radio Moscow, were in Iowa and met singer Elin Larsson, who was staying in California. Together they recorded two demo tracks and published them on YouTube, after which label \"Crusher Records\" offered them a deal. The band toured to Spain and France, where they met 16-year-old guitarist Dorian Sorriaux, whom they invited to Örebro and made a member of the band. The name of the band came from their friend, Jens Heide, who had a music blog called BluesPillz with obscure 60s and 70s underground music.  In May 2012 they released an EP called \"\"Bliss\"\", followed by the \"\"Black Smoke\"\" single in July. The band toured extensively during 2013 with appearances in Berlin's \"Desertfest\" in April, in Bad Kötzting's \"Void Fest\" and Geel's \"Yellowstock Festival\" in August, in Bonn's \"Crossroads Festival\" in October and Melbourne's \"Cherry Rock Festival\" in November 2013.  In July 2013, Blues Pills signed a contract with the \"Nuclear Blast\" label and released their \"\"Devil Man\"\" EP in October. Their appearance at the \"Crossroads Festival\" was recorded and released in the form of the \"\"Live at Rockpalast\"\" EP in March 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014–present: debut album and \"Lady in Gold\".", "content": "In July 2014 they released their first album, \"Blues Pills\", the special edition of which included a DVD of their appearance in the \"Hammer of Doom\" festival from the year before. Shortly after the release of the first album, Cory Berry was replaced with new drummer André Kvarnström.  In mid-2014 they appeared in the \"Sweden Rock Festival\", in Gelsenkirchen's \"Rock Hard Festival\" in June and in the famous Montreux Jazz Festival in July 2014.  The album became successful in Europe, climbing to No. 4 in Germany and No. 10 in Switzerland, while it also reached British charts at No. 68.  During the end of 2015 and the start of 2016, the band started writing and recording their second album. On 22 April, 2016, Blues Pills announced that \"Lady in Gold\" will be released on August 5, 2016 through Nuclear Blast Records with a ten track set-list.  In 2016, Blues Pills toured with Kadavar, play festivals in the summer in North America and Europe followed by a UK tour in November.  A live album Lady in Gold Live in Paris was announced with a release date of November 3rd 2017.  In November 2018 the band announced the peaceful departure of guitarist Dorian Sorriaux via a post on their Facebook page. Work on a third album will continue, with Zack Anderson moving to guitar. In October 2019, it was announced that Kristoffer Schander would be joining on the bass guitar, in the same post, they have also announced that they were working on their 3rd studio album, set to be released in 2020.  In March 6th 2020, the band released the first single of their third album, \"Proud Woman\", in the same video, they announced their upcoming third studio album is entitled \"Holy Moly!\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "References.", "content": "BLUES PILLS on Rock Overdose: “It’s all about the feeling and soul in the music for us”", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Blues Pills are a Swedish rock band, formed in Örebro in 2011. The four piece released EPs and singles before signing up with German record label Nuclear Blast and releasing a successful self-titled debut album \"Blues Pills\". The band released their second album \"Lady in Gold\" in August 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977475}
{"src_title": "2015–16 UEFA Champions League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Format changes.", "content": "The UEFA Executive Committee held in May 2013 approved the following changes to the UEFA Champions League starting from the 2015–16 season (for the three-year cycle until the 2017–18 season):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 78 teams from 53 of the 54 UEFA member associations participated in the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League (the exception being Liechtenstein, which does not organise a domestic league). The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients was used to determine the number of participating teams for each association:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association ranking.", "content": "For the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League, the associations are allocated places according to their 2014 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2009–10 to 2013–14.  Apart from the allocation based on the country coefficients, associations may have additional teams participating in the Champions League, as noted below:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "In the default access list, the Champions League title holders enter the group stage. However, since Barcelona already qualified for the group stage (as the champions of the 2014–15 La Liga), the Champions League title holders berth in the group stage is given to the Europa League title holders, Sevilla.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "League positions of the previous season shown in parentheses, except Sevilla which qualified as Europa League title holders. (TH: Champions League title holders; EL: Europa League title holders).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "The schedule of the competition is as follows (all draws are held at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland, unless stated otherwise).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying rounds.", "content": "In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2015 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The draw for the first and second qualifying rounds was held on 22 June 2015. The first legs were played on 30 June and 1 July, and the second legs were played on 7 July 2015. Lincoln Red Imps became the first Gibraltar team to win a tie in a UEFA competition, two years after Gibraltar's teams were first admitted entry.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The first legs were played on 14 and 15 July, and the second legs were played on 21 and 22 July 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: Champions Route (for league champions) and League Route (for league non-champions). The losing teams in both sections entered the 2015–16 UEFA Europa League play-off round.  The draw for the third qualifying round was held on 17 July 2015. The first legs were played on 28 and 29 July, and the second legs were played on 4 and 5 August 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The play-off round was split into two separate sections: Champions Route (for league champions) and League Route (for league non-champions). The losing teams in both sections entered the 2015–16 UEFA Europa League group stage.  The draw for the play-off round was held on 7 August 2015. The first legs were played on 18 and 19 August, and the second legs were played on 25 and 26 August 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The draw for the group stage was held in Monaco on 27 August 2015. The 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other. For the draw, the teams were seeded into four pots based on the following principles (introduced starting this season):  In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 16, while the third-placed teams entered the 2015–16 UEFA Europa League round of 32. The matchdays were 15–16 September, 29–30 September, 20–21 October, 3–4 November, 24–25 November, and 8–9 December 2015.  The youth teams of the clubs that qualified for the group stage also played in the 2015–16 UEFA Youth League on the same matchdays, where they competed in the UEFA Champions League Path (with the UEFA Youth League expanded to 64 teams, the youth domestic champions of the top 32 associations compete in a separate Domestic Champions Path until the play-offs).  A total of 17 national associations were represented in the group stage. Astana, Borussia Mönchengladbach and KAA Gent made their debut appearances in the group stage. Astana were the first team from Kazakhstan to play in the Champions League group stage. With the maximum teams from the same association in the group stage increased from four to five, Spain became the first association to have five teams in the Champions League group stage. Since all three qualifying teams from the highest ranked leagues won their ties in the league route playoff round, the three countries of Spain, England and Germany had 13 of the 32 clubs in the group stage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams played against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final. The mechanism of the draws for each round was as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "The draw for the round of 16 was held on 14 December 2015. The first legs were played on 16, 17, 23 and 24 February, and the second legs were played on 8, 9, 15 and 16 March 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 18 March 2016. The first legs were played on 5 and 6 April, and the second legs were played on 12 and 13 April 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The draw for the semi-finals was held on 15 April 2016. The first legs were played on 26 and 27 April, and the second legs were played on 3 and 4 May 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final was played on 28 May 2016 at the San Siro in Milan, Italy. The \"home\" team (for administrative purposes) was determined by an additional draw held after the semi-final draw.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Squad of the Season.", "content": "The UEFA technical study group selected the following 18 players as the squad of the tournament.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2015–16 UEFA Champions League was the 61st season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 24th season since it was renamed from the European Champion Clubs' Cup to the UEFA Champions League. Barcelona were the title holders, but were eliminated by Atlético Madrid in the quarter-finals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977476}
{"src_title": "Tox (protocol)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The initial commit to GitHub was pushed on June 23, 2013, by a user named irungentoo. Pre-alpha testing binaries were made available for users from February 3, 2014, onwards, and nightly builds of Tox are published by the Jenkins Automatron. On July 12, 2014, Tox entered an alpha stage in development and a redesigned download page was created for the occasion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Encryption of traffic.", "content": "Users are assigned a public and private key, and they connect to each other directly in a fully distributed, peer-to-peer network. Users have the ability to message friends, join chat rooms with friends or strangers, voice/video chat, and send each other files. All traffic over Tox is end-to-end encrypted using the NaCl library, which provides authenticated encryption and perfect forward secrecy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Revealing of IP address to friends.", "content": "Tox makes no attempt to cloak your IP address when communicating with friends, as the whole point of a peer-to-peer network is to connect you directly to your friends. A workaround does exist in the form of tunneling your Tox connections through Tor. However, a non-friend user cannot easily discover your IP address using only a Tox ID; you reveal your IP address to someone only when you add them to your contacts list.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Additional messaging features.", "content": "Tox clients aim to provide support for various secure and anonymised communication features; while every client supports messaging, additional features like group messaging, voice and video calling, voice and video conferencing, typing indicators, message read-receipts, file sharing, profile encryption, and desktop streaming are supported to various degrees by mobile and desktop clients. Additional features can be implemented by any client as long as they are supported by the core protocol. Features that are not related to the core networking system are left up to the client. Client developers are strongly encouraged to adhere to the Tox Client Standard in order to maintain cross-client compatibility and uphold best security practices.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Usability as an instant messenger.", "content": "Though several apps that use the Tox protocol seem similar in function to regular instant messaging apps, the lack of central servers currently has the consequence that both parties of the chat need to be online for the message to be sent and received. The Tox enabled messengers deal with this in separate ways, some prevent the user from sending the message if the other party has disconnected while others show the message as being sent when in reality it is stored in the sender's phone waiting to be delivered when the receiving party reconnects to the network.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Core.", "content": "The Tox core is a library establishing the protocol and API. User front-ends, or clients, are built on the top of the core. Anyone can create a client utilizing the core. Technical documents describing the design of the Core, written by the core developer irungentoo, are available publicly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Protocol.", "content": "The core of Tox is an implementation of the Tox protocol, an example of the application layer of the OSI model and arguably the presentation layer. Implementations of the Tox protocol not done by the project exist.  Tox uses the Opus audio format for audio streaming and the VP8 video compression format for video streaming.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Encryption.", "content": "Tox uses the cryptographic primitives present in the NaCl crypto library, via libsodium. Specifically, Tox employs Curve25519 for its key exchanges, xsalsa20 for symmetric encryption, and Poly1305 for MACs. Because the tox protocol can be used by many different applications, and because the tox network broadcasts the used client, it is also possible for clients to use additional encryption when sending to clients which support the same features.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Clients.", "content": "A client is a program that uses the Tox core library to communicate with other users of the Tox protocol. Various clients are available for a wide range of systems; the following list is incomplete.  There are also Tox protocol plugins for Pidgin (no longer maintained, but working as of 2018-03-30) and Miranda NG.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Disassociation with Tox Foundation.", "content": "At July 11, 2015, Tox developers officially announced their disassociation with Tox Foundation, due to \"a dispute over the misuse of donated funds\" by Tox Foundation head and CEO, according to LWN.net. Due to domains being in control of the Tox Foundation, main development of the project was transferred to a new infrastructure, servers, and new domain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Tox received some significant publicity in its early conceptual stage, catching the attention of global online tech news sites. On August 15, 2013, Tox was number five on GitHub's top trending list. Concerns about metadata leaks were raised, and developers responded by implementing Onion routing for the friend-finding process. Tox was accepted into the Google Summer of Code as a Mentoring Organization in 2014 and 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tox is a peer-to-peer instant-messaging and video-calling protocol that offers end-to-end encryption. The stated goal of the project is to provide secure yet easily accessible communication for everyone. A reference implementation of the protocol is published as free and open-source software under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL) version 3 or later.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977477}
{"src_title": "President of Slovakia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History of the office.", "content": "The office was established by the constitution of Slovakia on 1 January 1993 when Slovakia permanently split from Czechoslovakia and became independent. The office was vacant until 2 March 1993, when the first president Michal Kováč was elected by the National Council of Slovak Republic. However, in 1998, the National Council was unable to elect a successor to Kováč. As a result, for half a year after Kováč's term ended in March 1998, the position was vacant. The duties and powers of the office devolved upon the then prime minister and speaker of the National Council. To resolve the issue, the constitution was changed to provide for popular election of the president. Presidential elections have been held in 1999, 2004, 2009, 2014 and 2019.  The current president is Zuzana Čaputová, who took office on 15 June 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role and powers.", "content": "The president of Slovakia has a limited role in policy-making, as the office is largely ceremonial within the framework of a parliamentary republic. According to the constitution, the president is the supreme representative of the state both in Slovakia and abroad.  The president represents the Slovak Republic externally and concludes and ratifies international treaties. He or she may delegate to the Government or, with the Government's consent, to individual members of the Slovak Republic, the conclusion of international treaties. Historically all Slovak presidents delegated this power to the Government. Technically it is officially done by Decision of President No. 250/2001 Coll. (which superseded Decision of President No. 205/1993 Coll.), which is still in effect.  Among the president's constitutional powers are nominating and appointing the prime minister. The president's choice is not limited, but by constitution the president through his decisions ensures due performance of constitutional bodies. Because the government of whoever is appointed prime minister must receive a vote of confidence in parliament, the president usually appoints the leader of the winning party or coalition in parliamentary elections.  The president has sole discretion to appoint three members of the judicial council, one member of the Budget Council, and two members of the council of the Nation's Memory Institute; to award distinctions, to appoint the president and vice-president of the Constitutional Court of the Slovak Republic (from among the Constitutional Court judges), and to grant pardon or parole.  The president can also veto any bill or proposal by the National Council, except for constitutional amendments. This veto can be overridden if the National Council passes the same bill again with a majority of all members of the Council, so this power is considered quite weak.  The president is formally the commander-in-chief of the Slovak armed forces, but this role is ceremonial, because by the constitution when the president acts as the commander-in-chief his or her decision is valid only after it is signed by the prime minister or a minister authorized by the prime minister, and in such cases the Government is responsible for the president's decision. The same applies to grants of amnesty and appointments of chiefs of diplomatic missions.  Among their other constitutional duties are signing bills into law, appointing ministers on the recommendation of the prime minister, and appointing various other state officials: generals, professors, judges, rectors, procurators and the like.  The president has discretionary power (he or she can refuse appointment) over the appointments of some officials. For example, there have been cases when the president has refused to appoint vice-governors of the National Bank of Slovakia recommended by government. These actions of the president were confirmed by the Constitutional Court.  In many cases the appointment of state officials is regulated by other laws. For example, the president's power to appoint constitutional judges is limited to selection from nominees voted by the National Council, from which the president has to appoint half. The appointment or recall of judges is determined by decisions of the Judicial Council, which submits its proposals to the president.  Presidential powers are substantially increased in the special circumstance when the National Council passes a vote of no confidence in the government. In such a case, many executive powers of government (e.g. appointment of officials, foreign trips, signing treates) are subject to the approval of the president.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Succession.", "content": "In the case when the president is unable to perform his/her duties or if the presidency becomes vacant for any reason, the speaker of the National Council and the Government led by the prime minister jointly perform the duties of the president.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Living former presidents.", "content": "There are three living former Slovak presidents:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The president of the Slovak Republic () is the head of state of Slovakia and the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. The president is directly elected by the people for five years, and can be elected for a maximum of two consecutive terms. The presidency is largely a ceremonial office, but the president does exercise certain limited powers with absolute discretion. The president's official residence is the Grassalkovich Palace in Bratislava.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977478}
{"src_title": "Crush syndrome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Pathophysiology.", "content": "Seigo Minami, a Japanese physician, first reported the crush syndrome in 1923. He studied the pathology of three soldiers who died in World War I due to kidney failure. The renal changes were due to the buildup of excess methemoglobin, resulting from the destruction of muscles from lack of oxygen. These changes can also be seen in persons who are buried alive. The progressive acute kidney failure is because of acute tubular necrosis.  The syndrome was later described by British physician Eric Bywaters in patients during the 1941 London Blitz. It is a reperfusion injury that appears after the release of the crushing pressure. The mechanism is believed to be the release into the bloodstream of muscle breakdown products—notably myoglobin, potassium and phosphorus—that are the products of rhabdomyolysis (the breakdown of skeletal muscle damaged by ischemic conditions).  The specific action on the kidneys is not understood completely, but may be due partly to nephrotoxic metabolites of myoglobin.  The most devastating systemic effects can occur when the crushing pressure is suddenly released, without proper preparation of the patient, causing reperfusion syndrome. In addition to tissue directly suffering the crush mechanism, tissue is then subjected to sudden reoxygenation in the limbs and extremities. Without proper preparation, the patient, with pain control, may be cheerful before recovery, but die shortly thereafter. This sudden failure is called the \"smiling death\".  These systemic effects are caused by a traumatic rhabdomyolysis. As muscle cells die, they absorb sodium, water and calcium; the rhabdomyolysis releases potassium, myoglobin, phosphate, thromboplastin, creatine and creatine kinase.  Crush syndrome can directly come from compartment syndrome, if the injury is left untreated.. Monitor for the classic 5 Ps: pain, pallor, parasthesias(pins and needles), paralysis, and pulselessness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "There is no distinct treatment option that can undo the effects and damage from Rhabdomyolysis because it is necrosis. However, the rate of the pathology that can lead to more complications can be decreased by acting early and consistently. Overall treatment depends on preventing kidney failure (renal failure) which is done by rehydrating the patient. It also depends on making urine have a more basic pH (alkalinization of urine).  Immediate untreated crush syndrome death is caused by severe head injury, torso injury with damaged abdominal organs, and asphyxia (excessive loss of oxygen). Early untreated crush syndrome death is caused by Hyperkalemia and by Hypovolemic shock. Late untreated crush syndrome death is caused by renal failure, coagulopathy and hemorrhage, and sepsis.  Due to the risk of crush syndrome, current recommendation to nonprofessional first-aiders (in the UK) is to not release victims of crush injury who have been trapped for more than 15 minutes. Treatment consists of not releasing the tourniquet, overloading the patient with fluid using Dextran 4000 iu, and slow release of pressure. If pressure is released during first aid, then fluid is restricted and an input-output chart for the patient is maintained, and proteins are decreased in the diet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Field management.", "content": "As mentioned, permissive hypotension (restrictive fluid therapy) is unwise. Careful fluid overload and administration of intravenous sodium bicarbonate is wise, especially if the crushing weight is on the patient for more than 4 hours, but often if it persists more than one hour. The San Francisco emergency services protocol calls for a basic adult dose of a 2 L bolus of normal saline followed by 500 ml/h, limited for \"pediatric patients and patients with history of cardiac or renal dysfunction.\"  Use of a tourniquet can stall the life-threatening consequences of a crush related injury and can be a second option if the person cannot immediately have the fluids that were lost be medically replaced back into the body. Tourniquet measures should be taken if the person has been entrapped for more than 2 hours.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Initial hospital management.", "content": "The clinician must protect the patient against hypotension, kidney failure, acidosis, hyperkalemia and hypocalcemia. Admission to an intensive care unit, preferably one experienced in trauma medicine, may be appropriate; even well-seeming patients need observation. Treat open wounds as surgically appropriate, with debridement, antibiotics and tetanus toxoid; apply ice to injured areas. Breathing and circulation must be checked out and the patient should be given oxygen if eligible. Oral or intravenous fluids must be given depending on the measured amounts of electrolytes, arterial blood gases, and muscle enzymes.  Intravenous hydration of up to 1.5 L/hour should continue to prevent hypotension. A urinary output of at least 300 ml/hour should be maintained with IV fluids and mannitol, and hemodialysis considered if an increase in urine is not achieved. Use intravenous sodium bicarbonate to keep the urine pH at 6.5 or greater, to prevent myoglobin and uric acid deposition in kidneys.  To prevent hyperkalemia/hypocalcemia, consider the following adult doses:  Even so, abnormal heart rhythms may develop; electrocardiographic monitoring is advised, and specific treatment begun promptly.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Crush syndrome (also traumatic rhabdomyolysis or Bywaters' syndrome) is a medical condition characterized by major shock and kidney failure after a crushing injury to skeletal muscle. Crush \"injury\" is compression of the arms, legs, or other parts of the body that causes muscle swelling and/or neurological disturbances in the affected areas of the body, while crush \"syndrome\" is localized crush injury with systemic manifestations. Cases occur commonly in catastrophes such as earthquakes, to victims that have been trapped under fallen or moving masonry.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977479}
{"src_title": "Heroes of Might and Magic IV", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Heroes of Might and Magic IV\" introduced a number of major changes to the series.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heroes.", "content": "Unlike previous games, where they had little active role in combat, heroes became present on the battlefield with their troops. They can attack, and be attacked. If a hero is killed in combat he/she must be brought to a friendly town to be revived. It is possible to have armies with more than one hero, or with no heroes at all, although armies without a hero are incapable of performing certain tasks, such as capturing enemy towns or structures.  The skill system also underwent a significant overhaul, and all Heroes of a given class start out with the same skills. The player has significantly more control over the development of the Hero than in previous games in the series, and Heroes \"evolve\" into over 40 different specialized classes. A Hero can select up to five of the nine available primary skills, and each primary skill makes available three secondary skills. Each of these 36 skills have five levels of progression as opposed to the three levels in the previous games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Combat.", "content": "Both the adventure and combat maps were converted to a fixed-view isometric 3D display. The traditional hexagon-based battle grid was converted into a much higher-resolution square-based grid, making it easier to feature units of different sizes. Non-hero spellcasting units were given proper spell selections. Retaliation was allowed simultaneously with the attack, and ranged units were given the capability to retaliate against ranged attacks. Projectile attacks and spells now required direct line of sight to the target.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "World map.", "content": "Each individual troop unit was given its own movement allowance on the adventure map, with units possessing the ability to split off independently of the main army; however, the troops can no longer be \"shuttled\" from hero to hero to move an army large distances in a single turn. Logistics were restricted by eliminating or weakening travel spells. This, in turn, was partially compensated for by the elimination of the need to revisit resource-producing structures each week, and the introduction of caravans, which can quickly and safely transport heroes and remotely recruit troops from external dwellings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Units.", "content": "A small number of these skills are shared with earlier games, and some of the new skills can dramatically affect strategy (e.g., a Hero with Grandmaster Stealth is invisible to all non-allied units). Troop units may no longer be upgraded, and there are four recruitable ranks of units, down from seven. Each rank has two dwellings that can be built, but beyond the first rank, building one dwelling precludes the other. The creature dwellings themselves accumulate new creatures every day, as opposed to the start of each new week.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Story.", "content": "Following the events of \"Heroes Chronicles: The Sword of Frost\", Gelu, the leader of AvLee's Forest Guard and wielder of Armageddon's Blade, attacks Kilgor, the Barbarian King of Krewlod, in an attempt to claim and destroy the Sword of Frost. As foretold by a prophecy, when Armageddon's Blade and the Sword of Frost clash in battle, the result is a massive explosion (known as the Reckoning), which destroys the world of Enroth. Many of the inhabitants of the planet, however, escape through mysterious portals that appear during the Reckoning that lead them to another world, called Axeoth – also the setting for \"Might and Magic IX\". Included among the refugees are many of the heroes of previous installments of the series, and many return to their old ways shortly after arriving on their new home.  The story of \"Heroes of Might and Magic IV\" unfolds primarily through the game's six campaigns, each of which establishes how the major kingdoms of one of Axeoth's continents were forged in the wake of the Reckoning, and the arrival of the Enrothian refugees on Axeoth. Each of the campaigns centers on a faction leader, and tells the story of how that leader came to prominence. Unlike \"Heroes of Might and Magic III\", all of the six campaigns are accessible from the beginning, and each unfolds as a stand-alone tale.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansion packs.", "content": "Two expansion packs were released for \"Heroes IV\": Heroes of Might and Magic IV: The Gathering Storm (2002) and Heroes of Might and Magic IV: Winds of War (2003), both for Microsoft Windows only.  \"The Gathering Storm\" offers six campaigns, more than 20 maps, 16 additional artifacts, four new creatures, and a multiplayer update. Each of the first five campaigns features a new specialty hero. \"The Gathering Storm\" also features an upgraded editor, which allows full access to new heroes, adventure objects, artifacts and creatures. A new soundtrack is also included.  \"Winds of War\" introduces three new creatures and six new campaigns, which collectively tell the story of the invasion of the kingdom of Channon by the leaders of its five neighboring kingdoms. \"Winds of War\" was the last installment of the entire \"Heroes of Might and Magic\" series to be developed by New World Computing. Afterwards, the bankruptcy of the 3DO Company led to the sale of the \"Might and Magic\" franchise to Ubisoft for $1.3 million.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sales.", "content": "In the German market, \"Heroes of Might and Magic IV\" debuted at #5 on Media Control's computer game sales chart for April 2002. It climbed to fourth in its second month, before dropping to 12th and 19th in June and July, respectively.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical reviews.", "content": "The critic aggregator Metacritic determined that reviewers found the game to be generally favorable, with a weighted score of 84 out of 100. GameSpot wrote that \"Heroes IV is clearly a worthy successor to the series and has very clearly been worth the wait\", praising New World Computing for being \"able to incorporate so many new and interesting features into this sequel while still making sure it kept all the core elements that made all the previous games so great\". PC Gameworld was slightly less favorable, saying, \"The spark might be there, but it doesn’t burn as bright as it has in the past.\"  The expansions were less well received by professional reviewers, with metascores of 64 out of 100 for \"The Gathering Storm\" and 58 out of 100 for \"Winds of War.\"  \"Heroes of Might and Magic IV\" was a nominee for \"The Electric Playground\"s 2002 \"Best Strategy Game for PC\" award, but lost to \"\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Heroes of Might and Magic IV is a turn-based strategy game developed by Gus Smedstad through New World Computing and published by the 3DO Company for Microsoft Windows-based personal computers in 2002. A Macintosh port was subsequently developed by Contraband Entertainment and released by the 3DO Company. The fourth installment of the popular \"Heroes of Might and Magic\" franchise, it is the sequel to \"Heroes of Might and Magic III\", and was the last to be developed by New World Computing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977480}
{"src_title": "Heroes of Might and Magic V", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "A hero can learn a new skill, upgrade an existing one, gain a new ability or create combos of multiple abilities upon gaining a new level or visiting special buildings on the adventure map. There are two sets of skills available to heroes: racial skills and regular skills. A hero can have up to five regular skills and always has the proper racial skill. Skills are divided into four levels: Basic, Advanced, Expert, and Ultimate. Each skill is associated with three to five abilities, depending on the race of the hero. Each level of skill gives the hero a chance to learn one ability under the skill. That is, a hero with Basic level of a skill can learn one ability, Advanced level two, and Expert level three. An ability is not immediately learned when the hero increases the corresponding skill level.  The racial skill that a hero learns is dependent on their native faction. All heroes from a faction learn the same racial skill and racial abilities. Each racial skill culminates in an 'ultimate ability' that can only be gained by learning a very specific set of regular skills and abilities. In addition to the three levels of skills that apply to regular skills, the racial skill can reach an ultimate level when a certain artifact is worn by the hero.  There are six factions in the game: \"Haven\", \"Inferno\", \"Necropolis\", \"Dungeon\", \"Sylvan\" and \"Academy\". Additionally, the game's expansion packs added the \"\" and \"\" alignments.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "In August 2003, Ubisoft acquired the rights to the \"Might and Magic\" franchise for USD$1.3 million after 3DO filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Ubisoft announced their plan to develop the fifth game in the series under the direction of producer Fabrice Cambounet. This news caused controversy as New World Computing under 3DO had already started making the fifth Heroes game. Although Ubisoft gained access to NWC's progress on \"Heroes V\" (which envisioned it as an isometric 2D game in the \"Heroes IV\" engine), it was decided to start over and create a completely new 3D game.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansions.", "content": "The first \"Heroes V\" expansion pack, called \"Hammers of Fate\", was released on November 17, 2006 in Europe and November 24, 2006 in North America. It includes a new race, the Dwarves, who have exclusive access to a new kind of magic, known as Rune Magic. Other features include the much-awaited random map generator and the return of the \"Heroes IV\" caravans. This expansion pack requires the full version of \"Heroes of Might and Magic V\" to play.  The stand-alone second expansion pack is called \"HOMMV: The Tribes of the East\" and was released on October 12, 2007 in Europe and on October 19, 2007 in North America. \"Tribes of the East\" includes the new Stronghold faction, alternate upgrades for all units currently in the game (bringing the total number of creatures to 177), as well as new artifacts and spells.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The critical reaction to the retail version of \"Heroes V\" has been generally favourable, with an average review score of roughly 77/100 on Metacritic.  \"Heroes of Might and Magic V\" was a commercial success. Its sales surpassed 350,000 copies by the end of June 2006, and it reached #1 on sales charts in Germany, France and the United Kingdom.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Successors.", "content": "On August 17, 2010, a trailer for \"Might & Magic Heroes VI\" was released on GameTrailers. The release date was announced as September 8, 2011, but was changed to October 13, 2011.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Heroes of Might and Magic V is the fifth installment of the \"Heroes of Might and Magic\" fantasy turn-based strategy video game series. The game was released by Ubisoft in Europe on May 16, and then in the United States and Canada on May 24, 2006, with the publisher guiding Russian studio Nival Interactive in its development. Following the closure of The 3DO Company, Ubisoft bought the rights to the \"Might and Magic\" franchise, and used \"Heroes V\" as a means to reboot the series with a brand-new setting, called Ashan, and no continuity to previous titles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977481}
{"src_title": "David Ramsey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "Ramsey was born November 17, 1971, in Detroit, Michigan. He graduated from Wayne State University. From 1997 to 1998, he starred in the UPN sitcom \"Good News\", as pastor David Randolph. In 2000, he starred as Muhammad Ali in the Fox television movie \"\". That year, he appeared in \"Pay It Forward\" and started a recurring role in \"For Your Love\". In 2001, he starred as Vince Lee in the South African comedy film \"Mr Bones\". He has also starred in recurring roles in \"All of Us\", \"The West Wing\", \"\", \"Ghost Whisperer\", \"Wildfire\", and \"Hollywood Residential\". From 2008 to 2009, he appeared in 17 episodes of \"Dexter\" as Anton Briggs, a pot-smoking confidential informant who has an affair with Debra Morgan in Season 3 and at the start of Season 4. In 2010, he appeared in an episode of \"Grey's Anatomy\" and in the short-lived NBC courtroom drama series \"Outlaw\". From 2012 to 2020, he had been pulling double duty, appearing in the main cast of CW's superhero show \"Arrow\", as John Diggle, a military veteran who is Oliver's partner, confidant, bodyguard, and later gained an alter ego, Spartan, since the 4th season. The season 7 episode \"Past Sins\" was Ramsey's directorial debut. He had also appeared in Arrow's spin off shows such as Supergirl, Legends of Tomorrow, and The Flash. Ramsey also starred in the TV series \"Blue Bloods\" as Mayor Carter Poole.  Ramsey is an accomplished martial artist, with a black belt in Jeet Kune Do. He has also studied boxing, tae kwon do and Wing Chun, and trained in kickboxing under Benny \"Jet\" Urquidez.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "David Paul Ramsey (born November 17, 1971) is an American actor, director, and martial artist, best known for his roles in the CW series \"Arrow\" as John Diggle/Spartan, Anton Briggs on the Showtime TV series \"Dexter\", and the film \"Mother and Child\" (2009) as Joseph.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977482}
{"src_title": "Věra Jourová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Jourová grew up in Třebíč, a small town in which her parents, a kindergarten teacher and caterer, ran a folk troupe. She studied cultural anthropology in Prague, while raising two children. Upon graduation, she returned to work in Třebíč’s local council.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career in the public sector.", "content": "Jourová served as secretary and spokesperson of the Municipal Office of Třebíč, Vysočina Region, Czech Republic, from 1995 until 2000 and as Head of the Department of Regional Development for the Vysočina Region from 2001 to 2003. She entered national politics when she was tapped to work as Deputy Head of the Ministry of Regional Development, where she led the European Integration Section until March 2006. Her responsibilities included leading the Czech team that negotiated EU funds with the European Commission and European Investment Bank as well as managing EU funds in the Czech Republic.  In October 2006, Jourová was accused of accepting a 2 million Kč bribe from Ladislav Péťa, mayor of Budišov, South Moravia, for securing EU subsidies to the reconstruction of the Budišov Chateau. Although she was fully exonerated, she spent more than a month in pre-trial detention, which \"brought divorce and anguish to her family\". Her prosecution was halted in mid-2008, when the police came forward and said that the bribery had never happened.  Between 2006 and 2013, Jourová was an independent consultant providing advice on EU matters to the Czech Republic, Romania, Germany, Belarus, Latvia, Estonia, Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro, and Moldova.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career in national politics.", "content": "Jourová has been a member of the ANO political party since 2012, and since 2013, she has been the movement's deputy chairwoman. She was elected as a Member of the Chamber of Deputies of the Parliament in October 2013, and became Minister for Regional Development in January 2014 in the government of Bohuslav Sobotka. Her popularity ratings remained consistently high, helping to drive the party to second place in the 2013 national elections and to victory in the 2014 European elections.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Member of the European Commission, 2014–present.", "content": "In July 2014, the three parties in the Czech government agreed that the country’s next European commissioner should be Jourová. At the time, there was speculation she would vie for the important posts of European Commissioner for Regional Policy or the European Commissioner for Internal Market and Services.  After an EU Parliament hearing she was confirmed as the European Union's Commissioner for Justice, Consumers and Gender Equality as a part of the Juncker Commission. The Corporate Europe Observatory \"expressed serious doubts\" about her possible conflicts of interest due to her ties with ANO Chairman Andrej Babiš, who is also the Czech Finance Minister and a billionaire businessman. Her party, ANO, belongs to the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe in the European Parliament.  Her responsibilities include gender equality, judicial cooperation within the EU, and privacy concerns, including concluding negotiations on a comprehensive EU-U.S. Safe Harbor Agreement and working with the Vice-President for the Digital Single Market Andrus Ansip to pass \"EU data protection reform and by modernis[e] and simplify[] consumer rules for online and digital purchases\". In addition, her portfolio includes \"overseeing remuneration rules across the City of London, enforcing EU pay curbs and bonus caps\", something that was explicitly carved out of Jonathan Hill's portfolio as Commissioner for Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Markets Union \"amid concerns that members of the European Parliament will try to veto his appointment\". In 2018, Jourová was put in charge of drafting rules to assess the independence and functioning of a country’s judicial system as a condition for receiving funds from the budget of the European Union.  Jourová said that Germany acted \"according to the rules\" regarding Spain's extradition request for Catalan president Carles Puigdemont.  Following the 2019 European elections, Babiš nominated Jourová for a second term in the European Commission.  Jourová has voiced concerns regarding the rule of law in Poland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "In early 2019, Romanian authorities launched a criminal probe into Jourová and Frans Timmermans over alleged false claims made in a European Commission report on the rule of law in Romania. At the time, the Commission responded that authorities in Romania had “no jurisdiction whatsoever” over EU officials carrying out official functions.  Some MEPs have expressed concern over Jourova's affiliation to controversial billionaire-turned politician Andrej Babiš and his political movement ANO.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Věra Jourová (; born 18 August 1964) is a Czech politician and lawyer who has been the Vice President of the European Commission for Values and Transparency since 1 December 2019 and previously served as the European Commissioner for Justice, Consumers and Gender Equality from 2014 to 2019. She has also served as the Czech Minister for Regional Development and Member of the Chamber of Deputies (MP) between 2013 and 2014.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977483}
{"src_title": "Vought XF5U", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "A developed version of the original V-173 prototype, the XF5U-1 was a larger aircraft. Of all-metal construction, it was almost five times heavier, with two 1,600 hp (1,193 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-2000 radial engines. The configuration was designed to create a low aspect ratio aircraft with low takeoff and landing speeds but high top speed.  Normally, a wing with such a low aspect ratio will suffer from very poor performance due to the degree of induced drag created at the wingtips, as the higher pressure air below spills around the wingtip to the lower-pressure region above. In a conventional aircraft, these wingtip vortices carry a lot of energy with them and hence create drag. The usual approach to reducing these vortices is to build a wing with a high aspect ratio, i.e. one that is long and narrow. However, such wings compromise the maneuverability and roll rate of the aircraft, or present a structural challenge in building them stiff enough. The XF5U attempted to overcome the tip vortex problem using the propellers to actively cancel the drag-causing tip vortices. The propellers are arranged to rotate in the opposite direction to the tip vortices, with the aim of retaining the higher-pressure air below the wing. With this source of drag eliminated, the aircraft would fly with a much smaller wing area, and the small wing would yield high maneuverability with greater structural strength.  The propellers envisioned for the completed fighter — unlike the torque-reducing counter-rotating propellers of the V-173 design — were to have a built-in cyclic movement like a helicopter's main rotor, with a very limited ability to shift their center of lift up and down to aid the aircraft in maneuvering. An ejection seat was fitted to allow the pilot to clear the massive propellers in the event of an in-flight emergency. Although the prototype was unarmed, a combination of machine guns and cannons would have been installed under the nose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Testing and evaluation.", "content": "The XF5U design was promising: specifications given at the time promised great maneuverability and speeds up to 550 mph (885 km/h). However, it came at the time when the United States Navy was switching from propeller driven to jet propelled aircraft. By 1946, the XF5U-1 project was already long over its expected development time, and well over budget. With jet aircraft coming into service, the Navy finally canceled the project on 17 March 1947, and the prototype aircraft (V-173) was transferred to the Smithsonian Museum for display. Although two aircraft were constructed, a lone XF5U-1 underwent ground runs but never overcame vibration problems. Taxi trials at Vought's Connecticut factory culminated in short \"hops\" that were not true flights. The only completed XF5U-1 proved to be so structurally solid that it had to be destroyed with a wrecking ball.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vought XF5U \"Flying Flapjack\" was an experimental U.S. Navy fighter aircraft designed by Charles H. Zimmerman for Vought during World War II. This unorthodox design consisted of a flat, somewhat disc-shaped body (hence its name) serving as the lifting surface. Two piston engines buried in the body drove propellers located on the leading edge at the wingtips.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977484}
{"src_title": "Zheng Xiaoxu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and diplomatic career.", "content": "Although Zheng traced his ancestral roots to Minhou, a small town near Fuzhou, he was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu. In 1882, he obtained the intermediate degree in the imperial examinations, and three years later he joined the secretariat of the prominent statesman Li Hongzhang. In 1891, he was appointed secretary to the Chinese legation in Tokyo, and in the following years he performed consular duties at the Chinese consulates in Tsukiji, Osaka and Kobe respectively. During his tenure in Kobe, he worked closely with the Chinese community and played an instrumental part in establishing the Chinese guild (\"Zhōnghuá huìguǎn\" 中華會館) there. In Japan, Zheng also interacted with a number of influential politicians and scholars, such as Itō Hirobumi, Mutsu Munemitsu and Naitō Torajirō.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government service.", "content": "Following the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese war in 1894, Zheng was forced to leave Japan. Having returned to China, Zheng joined the secretariat of the reformist statesman Zhang Zhidong in Nanjing and followed him to Beijing, where Zheng obtained a position in the Qing foreign office, the Zongli Yamen. Following the abortive Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, Zheng left his post in Beijing and took up a number of important government positions in central and southern China. After the collapse of the imperial system in 1911, Zheng remained loyal to the Qing dynasty and refused to serve under China's Republican government. Instead he withdrew from public life entirely and retired comfortably in Shanghai, where he devoted his time to calligraphy, poetry and art, while also writing extensive articles critical of the Kuomintang leadership, whom he characterized as “thieves”.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qing loyalist and Collaboration with the Japanese.", "content": "In 1923, the former Qing emperor Puyi summoned Zheng to Beijing in order to reorganize the imperial household. Zheng became a close adviser of Puyi and helped arrange for his flight to the foreign concession at Tianjin after his expulsion from the Forbidden City. Zheng remained loyal to the throne and secretly met with Japanese officials and groups such as the Black Dragon Society to discuss a restoration of the Qing dynasty in Manchuria. Following the Mukden Incident and the invasion of Manchuria by the Imperial Japanese Army in 1931, Zheng played an important role in the establishment of Manchukuo, becoming its first prime minister the following year. Zheng also composed the lyrics of the National Anthem of Manchukuo. Zheng had hoped that Manchukuo would become a springboard for the restoration of Qing rule in the whole of China, but he soon found out that the real rulers of Manchukuo, the Japanese Kwantung Army, did not share his ambitions.  As Prime Minister of Manchukuo, Zheng frequently disagreed with the Japanese Army leadership. In May 1935, he was pressured to resign from his office. Three years later, he died suddenly under unclear circumstances, which led to speculation that he may have been poisoned by the Japanese. He was accorded a state funeral in April 1938.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Although Zheng Xiaoxu is mostly remembered today for his collaboration with the Japanese, he is still recognized as an accomplished poet and calligrapher. Zheng was one of the most respected and influential calligraphers of the 20th century. His calligraphy brought high prices during his lifetime and he supported himself in later life with the proceeds from its sale. His calligraphy continues to be influential in China and his style has been incorporated into the logos of current Chinese corporations.  Zheng kept an extensive diary, which is still valued by historians as important source material.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zheng Xiaoxu (Cheng Hsiao-hsu; ; Hepburn: \"Tei Kōsho\") (2 April 1860 – 28 March 1938) was a Chinese statesman, diplomat and calligrapher. He served as the first Prime Minister of Manchukuo.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977485}
{"src_title": "Aswan Low Dam", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The earliest recorded attempt to build a dam near Aswan was in the 11th century, when the Arab polymath and engineer Ibn al-Haytham (known as \"Alhazen\" in the West) was summoned to Egypt by the Fatimid Caliph, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, to regulate the flooding of the Nile. After his field work convinced him of the impracticality of this scheme, and fearing the Caliph's anger, he feigned madness. He was kept under house arrest from 1011 until al-Hakim's death in 1021, during which time he wrote his influential \"Book of Optics\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Following their 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction of the first dam across the Nile in 1898. Construction lasted until 1902, and it was opened on 10 December 1902, by the Duke of Connaught and Strathearn. The project was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was the main contractor. Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel.  The Old Aswan Dam was designed as a gravity-buttress dam; the buttress sections accommodate numerous gates, which were opened yearly to pass the flood and its nutrient-rich sediments, but without retaining any yearly storage. The dam was constructed of rubble masonry and faced with red ashlar granite. When constructed, the Old Aswan Dam was the largest masonry dam in the world. The design also included a navigation lock of similar construction on the western bank, which allowed shipping to pass upstream as far as the second cataract, whereas a portage overland was previously required. At the time of its construction, nothing of such scale had ever been attempted.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Heightening.", "content": "Initial limitations were imposed on the dam's height, due to concern for the Philae Temple. The initial construction was found to be inadequate for development needs, and the height of the dam was raised in two phases, between 1907–1912 and between 1929–1933. Generation of electricity was added. The first phase was supervised by Sir Benjamin Baker, but much of the detailed work was undertaken by Murdoch MacDonald.  With its final raising (designed and supervised by MacDonald's firm, Sir M MacDonald & Partners), the dam is in length, with a crest level above the original riverbed; the dam provides the main route for traffic between the city and the airport. With the construction of the High Dam upstream, the Old Dam's ability to pass the flood's sediments was lost, as was the serviceability provided by the locks. The previous Old Dam reservoir level was also lowered and now provides control of tailwater for the High Dam.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Power plants.", "content": "The Aswan Low Dam supports two hydroelectric power plants, Aswan I (1960) and Aswan II (1985–1986). Aswan I contains 7 X generators with Kaplan turbines for a combined capacity of and is located west of the dam. Aswan II contains 4 x generators for an installed capacity of and is located at the toe of the dam.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Aswan Low Dam or Old Aswan Dam is a gravity masonry buttress dam on the Nile River in Aswan, Egypt. The dam was built at the former first cataract of the Nile, and is located about 1000 km up-river and 690 km (direct distance) south-southeast of Cairo. When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever been attempted; on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world. The dam was designed to provide storage of annual floodwater and augment dry season flows to support greater irrigation development and population growth in the lower Nile. The dam, originally limited in height by conservation concerns, worked as designed, but provided inadequate storage capacity for planned development and was raised twice, between 1907 and 1912 and again in 1929–1933. These heightenings still did not meet irrigation demands and in 1946 it was nearly over-topped in an effort to maximize pool elevation. This led to the investigation and construction of the Aswan High Dam upstream.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977486}
{"src_title": "Fritz Freitag", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Fritz Freitag was born in Allenstein, East Prussia, the son of a railroad official. After passing his high school examinations he joined the 1st (East Prussian) Grenadier Regiment of the Prussian Army. During World War I, Freitag served on both the Eastern Front and the Western Front. In 1919, Freitag joined the Freikorps and in 1920, the Schutzpolizei. By the time of World War II, Freitag had been promoted to Police Colonel. During the invasion of Poland, he was the Chief of Operations of the 3rd Police Regiment and the Chief of Staff to the senior police commander in the 14th Army, Udo von Woyrsch.  In September 1940, Freitag joined the SS and was posted onto the staff of Heinrich Himmler. He was then posted to the 1 SS Infantry Brigade as chief of staff. During the invasion of the Soviet Union, he organized rear-security operations in Belarus and assisted the Einsatzgruppen in rounding up the Jewish population in the occupied territories.  Freitag was appointed commander of 2nd SS Polizei Infantry Regiment still serving on the Eastern Front. He was promoted to Standartenführer for his performance in command of a kampfgruppe during the fighting in the Volkhov pocket. In January 1943, he was given temporary command of the SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer being replaced when becoming ill. From April to August 1943 he commanded the 2 SS Infantry Brigade, and from 18 August 1943 till 20 October 1943 the 4th SS Polizei Division. He was then given command of the SS Division Galicia. He was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross in September 1944. Freitag shot himself in the village of St. Andrä on 10 May 1945.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fritz Freitag (28 April 1894 – 10 May 1945) was a German SS commander during the Nazi era. During World War II, he commanded the 2nd SS Infantry Brigade, the SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer, and the SS Division Galicia. Freitag committed suicide in May 1945.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977487}
{"src_title": "The Last Temptation (Alice Cooper album)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Comic.", "content": "The full story was given in a three-part comic book written by Neil Gaiman, the first part of which accompanied the recording. In the comic, the showman (referred to only ever as such) was depicted as Cooper himself. Pages from the comic are seen in the \"Lost in America\" music video, while it is being read by Steven.  It was originally published by Marvel Comics and later reprinted by Dark Horse Comics, collected as trade paperback.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Video.", "content": "Music videos were made for \"Lost in America\" and \"It's Me\". Both music videos are available for download from Sony/BMG.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Barry Weber of allmusic.com wrote, \"By the time \"The Last Temptation\" was released in 1994, the hair band fad that had fueled Cooper's return was dead, and Cooper was obviously aware of its downfall – the album sounds almost nothing like its two predecessors (1989's \"Trash\" and 1991's \"Hey Stoopid\"). Far surpassing anything Cooper recorded in almost 20 years, \"The Last Temptation\" is unquestionably some of his best work.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Live performances.", "content": "Although Epic did not finance a tour and Cooper consequently did not tour \"The Last Temptation\", four of the album’s songs – “It’s Me”, “Lost in America”, “Cleansed by Fire” and “Sideshow” – were incorporated into Cooper’s setlist from the time of his first appearance on the \"Monsters of Rock\" circuit in September 1995. Although “It’s Me” was dropped after four performances, the other three songs remained a regular part of setlists until the end of the \"Life and Crimes of Alice Cooper\" tour in 1999, and were joined by “Nothing’s Free” on the “School’s Out for Summer ‘97” tour. However, with the exception of “Lost in America”, which has remained a frequent part of setlists excluding the first three quarters of the 2012 to 2015 “Raise the Dead” tour, nothing from \"The Last Temptation\" has been performed live from 2000 onwards.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Last Temptation is the thirteenth solo studio album by rock singer Alice Cooper, released in July 1994 via Epic Records. It centers on a boy named Steven (also the name of the protagonist in Cooper's earlier work, \"Welcome to My Nightmare\"), and a mysterious showman. The showman, with apparent supernatural abilities, attempted with the use of twisted versions of morality plays to persuade Steven to join his traveling show, \"The Theater of the Real - The Grand-est Guignol!\", where he would \"never grow up\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977488}
{"src_title": "Hitachi Maru Incident", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "At the start of the Russo-Japanese War, the bulk of the Russian Pacific Fleet was blockaded within the confines of Port Arthur by the Imperial Japanese Navy. However, the Russian subsidiary naval base at Vladivostok, although shelled by a Japanese squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Dewa Shigetō in March 1904, remained largely undamaged and unblockaded. Located at Vladivostok was a garrison force consisting of the protected cruiser and auxiliary cruiser and a stronger Vladivostok Independent Cruiser Squadron consisting of the armored cruisers Russian cruiser Rossia,, and, under the command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen.  This small squadron put to sea in the early months of the conflict for commerce raiding operations, and it was the concern of the Imperial Japanese Navy that it might be used either to attack targets on the Japanese mainland, or to coordinate an attack to lift the blockade on Port Arthur. The Japanese were forced to assign the IJN 2nd Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō with considerable resources in an attempt to locate and destroy it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attack on Tsushima Strait.", "content": "Russian Vice Admiral Petr Bezobrazov departed Vladivostok on 12 June 1904 with \"Rossia\", \"Rurik\", and \"Gromoboi\" under orders to proceed through the eastern Tsushima Channel in the Korean Strait, cruise for two days on known transport routes, and to then double back through the western channel, after which he was to attempt to join his forces to the fleet still blockaded at Port Arthur. On 15 June, he sighted two military transports, \"Hitachi Maru\" and \"Sado Maru\" en route to Dalny.  \"Hitachi Maru\" was transporting 1,238 people, including 727 men of the 1st Reserve Regiment of the Imperial Guard of Japan and 359 men from the IJA 10th Division. \"Sado Maru\" was transporting 1,258 people, including 867 members of a railway engineering battalion. Both vessels were transporting a large amount of stores, most critically needed were eighteen Armstrong 11-inch (280 mm) siege howitzers, requested by the IJA 3rd Army to attack the Russian fortifications at Port Arthur.  Passing in the opposite direction was the smaller \"Izumi Maru,\" which was being used as an unarmed, but unmarked hospital ship transporting sick and wounded men from the front back to Japan.  The only provision the Imperial Japanese Navy had made for protection of its transports was the protected cruiser, which at this time (0715) was stationed approximately mid-channel. \"Tsushima\" sighted the Russian squadron in the heavy early morning fog, but was unable to raise a warning due to the short range of its wireless, and poor atmospheric conditions, and attempted to close the distance to Tsushima Island where conditions were better. She was sighted by the Russian squadron, but they did not pursue. \"Tsushima\" managed to transmit her warning at 0815 hours, and then headed back towards the Russian squadron. Admiral Kamimura, based at Takeshiki Guard District on Tsushima sent a warning to Shimonoseki to stop all sailing, then ordered his ships to pursue \"Tsushima\".  However, at 0900, the Russian squadron sighted \"Izumi Maru\", and Bezobrazov sent \"Gromoboi\" to chase her. \"Gromoboi\" opened fire, killing or wounding over 30 men, before the Japanese transport stopped and surrendered. About 100 sick and wounded were taken off her, and then she was sunk west of Okinoshima, with those who refused to surrender still aboard. Around 1000, the Russian squadron sighted \"Sado Maru\", and came into sight of the Japanese fleet at about the same time. Despite having just given the Japanese transport 40 minutes to surrender and abandon ship, \"Rurik\" fired two torpedoes into \"Sado Maru\", which exploded, killing 239 passengers and crew, but which did not sink the ship. \"Sado Maru\" eventually drifted for the next 30 hours until she grounded on Okinoshima.  Next, \"Gromoboi\" approached \"Hitachi Maru\", which exhibited no sign of intending to surrender. \"Gromoboi\" opened fire with all guns, killing many of the men on deck, including her Scottish captain and senior crewmen, and sinking the ship. Due to deteriorating visibility, the Japanese fleet could not close with the Russian squadron, and at 1330 reached the 152 survivors from \"Hitachi Maru\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The Russian squadron continued its operations against shipping on 16 June, when they seized the British steamer \"Allanton\" off Maizuru. The cruisers also sank two sailing boats the following day.  The attack was a severe blow to Japanese public morale. Memorials were erected in Chidorigafuchi Park in Tokyo, and a mass grave commemorating the Imperial Guards was erected in Aoyama Cemetery. A monument to \"Sado Maru\" was built in Shiba Park (and was moved to Yasukuni Shrine in 1964). Kamimura received numerous death threats and came under extreme pressure to track down the Russian squadron, which he did at the Battle off Ulsan on 14 August 1904.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The was a maritime incident which occurred during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, in which three Japanese transports were sunk in a Russian commerce raiding sortie by a Vladivostok-based armored cruiser squadron of the Imperial Russian Navy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977489}
{"src_title": "Daisy Ridley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Daisy Ridley was born on 10 April 1992 in Westminster, London, and grew up in Maida Vale. She is the youngest of three daughters born to Louise Fawkner-Corbett, a banker, and Christopher Ridley, a photographer. She has two older sisters, Kika Rose and Poppy Sophia. Her mother's family, the Fawkner-Corbetts, were landed gentry with a military and medical background. Her great-uncle was \"Dad's Army\" actor and playwright Arnold Ridley; his brother, Daisy's grandfather, John Harry Dunn Ridley, O.B.E., was head of the Engineering Secretariat at the B.B.C. from 1950 to 1965. While growing up, her favourite film was \"Matilda\" (1996), an adaptation of Roald Dahl's children's story, with the title character (played by Mara Wilson in the film) a role model to her. Ridley won a scholarship to Tring Park School for the Performing Arts in Hertfordshire, which she attended between the ages of 9 and 18. She then began reading classical civilisation at Birkbeck, University of London, before dropping out to concentrate on her acting career. Prior to being cast in \"The Force Awakens\", Ridley worked as a barmaid in two different pubs in London for nearly two years. In 2016 Ridley began studying for a Bachelor of Arts in social science through online courses with the Open University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2013–2015: Early roles and \"Star Wars\" breakthrough.", "content": "Ridley began her career with minor roles in the television programmes \"Youngers\", \"Toast of London\", \"Silent Witness\", \"Mr Selfridge\", and \"Casualty\". She appeared in the short film \"Blue Season\", which was entered into the Sci-Fi-London 48-Hour Film Challenge. Ridley played the lead in film three of \"Lifesaver\", an interactive film which was nominated for a BAFTA Award. She also appeared in the music video for Wiley's song \"Lights On\", playing the character of Kim. Ridley made her film debut in the 2015 British independent horror film \"Scrawl\", after her scenes from the British comedy film \"The Inbetweeners 2\" were removed in the final cut.  In April 2014, Ridley's casting as Rey, one of the lead characters in \"\", was announced. She was chosen for the film in February 2014. At the time of her casting she was, according to \"Rolling Stone\", a \"total unknown.\" Her choice by director J. J. Abrams was seen as a repeat of George Lucas's move of casting relatively unknown actors for the lead roles in the first \"Star Wars\" film in 1977.  Ridley began filming her scenes in May 2014 at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire, and prior to the film's release in December 2015, she appeared at the launch of a set of \"Star Wars\" postage stamps issued by the UK postal service Royal Mail, with her character Rey featuring on a stamp along with the droid BB-8. With international revenues of over $2 billion, \"The Force Awakens\" was a major box-office hit and the highest-grossing film of 2015. After an early screening of the film, Brian Viner of the \"Daily Mail\" called Ridley the \"real star of the show\", adding that her performance as Rey should \"send her career into orbit.\" Her performance received critical acclaim, with Richard Roeper describing her portrayal as \"a breakout performance\" and adding \"Ford has a terrific father figure chemistry [shared] with Ridley and [John] Boyega\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016–present: After \"The Force Awakens\".", "content": "Ridley became executive producer of the documentary \"The Eagle Huntress\" in January 2016, which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on 24 January 2016; she also recorded narration for the film's wide release. Ridley was one of several actors featured on Barbra Streisand's 2016 album \"\". Along with Anne Hathaway, Ridley and Streisand perform the song \"At the Ballet\" from \"A Chorus Line\", with Ridley performing the role of Bebe, one of a trio of dancers hoping to be cast in an upcoming show. In 2017, Ridley portrayed Mary Debenham in \"Murder on the Orient Express\", an adaptation of Agatha Christie's detective novel of the same name. Directed by and starring Kenneth Branagh, production began in London in November 2016. She also reprised her role as Rey, opposite Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker, in \"\", which was released in December 2017.  In January 2018, Ridley starred in the titular role in \"Ophelia\", a reimagining of the Hamlet tale, alongside Naomi Watts and Clive Owen. The project was filmed from April to July 2017 and debuted at the 2018 Sundance Film Festival. In February 2018, Ridley voiced the role of Cottontail in \"Peter Rabbit\", an adaptation of the children's stories of the same name by Beatrix Potter.  In December 2019, Ridley appeared as Rey in \"\", the last film in the sequel trilogy. She is not expected to reprise her role again after this film, and is quoted as saying, \"I don't think anything could top [\"The Rise of Skywalker\"] for this character.\" However, she reflected her co-star John Boyega's opinion that if more films were made without her involvement, she would feel left out.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Upcoming roles.", "content": "Ridley will co-star in the \"Chaos Walking\", an adaptation of the young-adult novel by Patrick Ness, as Viola Eade opposite Tom Holland as Todd Hewitt. The project was filmed from August to November 2017.  Also in 2018, Ridley acted in the upcoming \"Daddio\", which follows a woman who is picked up by a cab at JFK airport and driven to her apartment in Manhattan. On the way there, the woman and cabdriver begin discussing their past and current relationships and the effects they have had on their lives. Additionally, Ridley will reteam with director J. J. Abrams for \"Kolma\", which Abrams will also produce, a supernatural drama that finds a young woman who has suffered from a car crash that killed her boyfriend. When she dies decades later, she is given the choice of returning to the day of the accident to live her life again or being reunited with her love. Ridley will star in \"The Lost Wife\" as Lanka, a Polish art student who has a love affair with her best friend's older brother that is torn apart by the German invasion during the onset of World War II. Ridley has also signed on to star in \"A Woman of No Importance\", another Abrams-produced biographical political-thriller film based on Sonia Purnell's book of the same name. Ridley will portray American heiress and super-spy Virginia Hall, who attempted to break into the ranks of the American Foreign Service in the years before World War II. Ridley will reteam with actor Josh Gad in the superhero-comedy \"Super-Normal\", to be released by Netflix. Ridley will also star in \"Piece of Mind\".", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Daisy Jazz Isobel Ridley (born 10 April 1992) is an English actress who rose to international prominence through playing the lead role of Rey in the \"Star Wars\" sequel trilogy: \"The Force Awakens\" (2015), \"The Last Jedi\" (2017), and \"The Rise of Skywalker\" (2019).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977490}
{"src_title": "Robert Jay Mathews", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and activities.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Robert Mathews was born in Marfa, Texas on January 16, 1953, the youngest of three boys born to Johnny and Una Mathews. His father, of Scottish descent, was mayor of the town, and the President of the Chamber of Commerce, as well as a businessman and leader for the local Methodist church. His mother was the town's Cub Scout den mother.  The family moved to Phoenix, Arizona. Though he was an average student in grade school, history and politics interested him. At age 11, he joined the John Birch Society, a radical right-wing advocacy group supporting anti-communism and limited government. Mathews was baptized into The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 1969.  Mathews formed the \"Sons of Liberty,\" an anti-communist militia mostly made up of Mormon survivalists. At its peak, it had approximately 30 members. After filling out his employer's W-4 Form claiming ten dependents, reportedly as an act of tax resistance, he was arrested for tax fraud, tried, and placed on probation for six months. After a falling out between the Mormon and non-Mormon members of the Sons of Liberty, the organization stagnated and Mathews withdrew from it.  After his probation ended in 1974, he moved to Metaline Falls, Washington, where Mathews and his father purchased sixty wooded acres for their new home.  Mathews and Debbie McGarity were married in 1976. He raised Scottish Galloway cattle. He and Debbie McGarity adopted a son in 1981. Mathews later had a biological daughter with his mistress, Zillah Craig.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The Order.", "content": "Mathews became a believer in white supremacism and in 1982 he made an effort to recruit white families to the Pacific Northwest, or the \"White American Bastion.\"  In 1983, Mathews made a speech at a National Alliance convention, which was a report on his efforts to recruit on behalf of the organization, especially among \"the yeoman farmers and independent truckers,\" to his \"White American Bastion\" group. Mathews was a fan of the far-right extremist 1978 novel \"The Turner Diaries\" written by National Alliance founder William Luther Pierce.  In late September 1983, at a barracks he constructed on his property in Metaline, Mathews and eight other men founded the terrorist organization \"The Order.\" They included his friend and neighbor, Ken Loff, and others from the Aryan Nations: Dan Bauer, Randy Duey, Denver Parmenter, and Bruce Pierce. David Lane, and the National Alliance: Richie Kemp and Bill Soderquist.  The group's first task, according to Mathews' plan, was to obtain money to support white separatism. Their activities began to parallel events in the novel \"The Turner Diaries\". They robbed an adult bookstore in Spokane, Washington, which netted $369.10. They agreed that was too risky, and turned to robbing armored cars and counterfeiting. They printed some counterfeit $50 bills, and 28-year-old Pierce was arrested after passing a few.  To raise Pierce's bail, Mathews, acting alone, robbed a bank just north of Seattle, Washington, stealing around $26,000. Some of The Order's members, along with a new recruit, Gary Yarborough, carried out more robberies and burglaries, which netted them over $43,000. A subsequent robbery yielded several hundred thousand dollars. Another recruit, Tom Martinez, was caught and charged for passing more counterfeit currency. Then in July, 1984, they deployed approximately a dozen men in a successful effort to rob a Brink's truck of $3,600,000.  The group distributed some of the stolen money to the North Carolina-based White Patriot Party and other white nationalist organizations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final days.", "content": "Prior to his death, Mathews wrote a long letter declaring war on the federal government of the United States and justifying his group's actions. In it, he describes threats allegedly made to members of his family by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents, including to his young son while he was away from his house, as well as a number of attempts on his life by other government agents. He explained the reasons for his decision to \"quit being the hunted and become the hunter,\" and closed by writing, \"I am not going into hiding, rather I will press the FBI and let them know what it is like to become the hunted. Doing so it is only logical to assume that my days on this planet are rapidly drawing to a close. Even so, I have no fear. For the reality of my life is death, and the worst the enemy can do to me is shorten my tour of duty in this world. I will leave knowing that I have made the ultimate sacrifice to ensure the future of my children.\"  Mathews and the other members of The Order were eventually betrayed by Martinez, who was under pressure after the counterfeiting arrest. After he revealed information regarding Mathews' activities to the FBI, agents moved to capture Mathews and his associates, leading to one of the largest manhunts in FBI history. By the time they could set up the operation, all of Mathews' accomplices and friends had decided to move to safe houses. The government's agents surrounded Mathews in a house near Freeland, Washington on Whidbey Island on December 7, 1984. Mathews refused to come out and negotiations continued until December 8, when Mathews refused to talk anymore. The FBI then fired dozens of smoke grenades and a stun grenade into the house in an attempt to force Mathews out, but were thwarted by his use of a gas mask. Mathews opened fire on several agents who attempted to enter the house, and a long standoff began. When a helicopter appeared at nightfall, Mathews opened fire on it from an upstairs window – the helicopter's crew was unhurt – and then once again exchanged gunfire with federal agents. An FBI agent then fired three M79 Starburst flares inside the house from the helicopter, setting off a box of hand grenades and a stockpile of ammunition. Mathews continued to fire an assault rifle at agents as the house burned, but then suddenly stopped. After the wreckage had cooled enough to be searched, agents found the burned remains of 31-year-old Mathews' body, with a pistol still in his hand. An autopsy concluded that Mathews had died from a combination of burns and smoke inhalation. Mathews had fired over 1000 rounds at law enforcement, but no agents were injured.  Mathews' remains were cremated and the ashes scattered by his family on his property in Metaline, Washington.  Eventually over 75 people were convicted of crimes connected to The Order in eight trials, on charges that included racketeering, conspiracy, counterfeiting, transporting stolen money, armored car robbery, and violation of civil rights. Later, ten people connected to the case, including Butler, Lane, and Pierce, were tried for sedition, but were acquitted by a jury.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Robert Jay Mathews (January 16, 1953 – December 8, 1984) was an American neo-Nazi activist and the leader of The Order, an American white supremacist militant group. He was killed during a shootout with approximately seventy-five federal law enforcement agents who surrounded his house on Whidbey Island, near Freeland, Washington.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977491}
{"src_title": "Ground-level power supply", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Technology.", "content": "Ground-level power supply is used, primarily for aesthetic reasons, as an alternative to overhead lines. It is different from the conduit current collection system (which was one of the first ways of supplying power to a tram system) as it involves burying a third and fourth rail in an underground conduit (‘vault’) between the running rails. Conduit current collection was used in historic tram systems in Washington, Manhattan, Paris, Berlin, Marseilles, Vienna, Budapest and London. It fell into disuse because overhead wires proved much less expensive and troublesome for street railways and because in Manhattan, Paris, Washington and West Berlin, all trams were replaced by buses for reasons unrelated to the power supply issue. In Prague on the Charles Bridge (Karlův most), a system invented by František Křižík was used, similar to today's APS.  Unlike the track-side third rail used by most metro trains and some main-line railways, APS does not pose a danger to people or animals and so can be used in pedestrian areas and city streets.  APS uses a third rail placed between the running rails, divided electrically into ten-metre rail segments with three-metre neutral sections between. Each tram has two power collection shoes, next to which are antennas that send radio signals to energise the power rail segments as the tram passes over them. At any one time, two consecutive segments under the tram will be live.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in Bordeaux.", "content": "Modern ground-level current collection was pioneered by the Bordeaux tramway in France. The public had assumed that the new system would use a traditional conduit system, like that of the Bordeaux trams which ran prior to 1958 and objected when they learned that it was not considered safe and that overhead wires were to be used instead. Facing complaints both from the public and the French Ministry of Culture, planners developed APS as a modern way of replicating the conduit system.  APS was developed by Innorail, a subsidiary of Spie Enertrans but was sold to Alstom when Spie was acquired by Amec.  There are 12 km of APS tramway in the three-line network of 43.3 km as of 2008. Bordeaux Citadis trams use pantographs and electric overhead lines in outlying areas.  Before use in Bordeaux, APS was tested and proved viable on a short section of reserved-track in the French city of Marseille. Nevertheless, Bordeaux has experienced problems, with APS being so temperamental that, at one stage, the Mayor issued an ultimatum that if reliability could not be guaranteed, it would have to be replaced with overhead wires.  Problems have included water-logging, when the water does not drain quickly enough after heavy rain.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In other cities.", "content": "In July 2006, it was announced that two new French tram systems would be using APS over part of their networks. These are located in Angers and Reims, with both systems opening in 2011. A couple of months later, it was announced that Orléans would use APS on a section of its second tram line, which opened in 2012, and that Tours would use APS on sections of its new network which began service in 2013.  APS is also in use in three other tram systems outside France. The first of these, the Dubai Tram opened in 2014, is fully equipped with APS over its entire passenger route length, and thus trams do not use their pantographs unless travelling within the depot area. In June 2016, the first phase of the VLT Carioca network opened in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This system mainly uses APS, however where this was deemed impractical, the trams employ SRS, Alstom's proprietary supercapacitor-based energy storage system (SRS). The CBD and South East Light Rail in Sydney, Australia, opened in 2019, uses APS within the Sydney CBD and conventional overhead wires elsewhere  Alstom is also currently installing APS in the Tranvía Cuatro Ríos de Cuenca in Cuenca, Ecuador, which also use APS in certain regions only and conventional overhead wires elsewhere.  In 2017, another ground-level power supply technology, \"TramWave\", developed by Italian company Ansaldo, successfully entered commercial application via the opening of Zhuhai tram Line 1 first phase in China, and it is said to be the first 100% low-floor tram system adopting ground level power supply technology. Later in the year, Western Suburb Line in Beijing will also be opened with the same technology from Ansaldo. The technology have been licensed to CRRC Dalian and all the technologies were transferred to China.  Other cities that have previously, or are in the process of proposing the use of APS and similar systems (e.g.Ansaldo TramWave) include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Similar systems.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stud contact.", "content": "The predecessors of APS (known as stud contact systems) were developed around 1900, and used by several tramway companies in Paris and in England. Associated with these systems were the inventors Dolter and Diatto.  There were two main differences from APS:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prague.", "content": "In Prague, a ground-level power supply was applied at the experimental, recreational and promotional tram line operated by the Czech inventor and entrepreneur František Křižík at Letná hill. It was the first electrically-powered tram line in the Prague agglomeration. The track was operated between 1891–1900; however the ground-level power supply was tested there only in early 1896 on one part of the track. Power was supplied through a third rail but a system of contact relays ensured that voltage was there only when a car was directly above. A commission recommended the system be extended to the whole track but it was never realized.  In 1905, a similar system by František Křižík was used on the Charles Bridge. This section was the last one with horse-drawn trams, due to disapproval of overhead lines there. Ground-level supply made it possible to electrify this track. However, the weight of the trams caused damage to the bridge due to vibrations, which is why they were replaced by rail buses in 1908. These were stopped in 1909. In 1932–1939, classic buses on tyres were operated there. Since 1965, Charles Bridge has been a pedestrian-only zone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Budapest.", "content": "Another system of ground-level power supply was used by Budapest trams from 1887. Overhead lines were considered an eyesore, so builder Siemens developed the following system: on the inner side of one rail, a powered third rail was hidden underground in a half-covered ditch, with a narrow slit opening upwards, through which a trolley pole reached downward from the trams. The Budapest system was generally safe and water-protected. However, there was no defence against snow and ice, dirt filled up the ditches and trolley poles suffered intense wear. Overhead wire replaced the \"Budapest system\" everywhere by the 1920s.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conduit.", "content": "Conduit current collection has the power supply carried in a channel under the roadway between the running rails, much in the same fashion as the cable for cable cars.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stream system.", "content": "is an acronym that stood for \"Sistema di TRasporto Elettrico ad Attrazione Magnetica\" (\"System of Electric Transport by Magnetic Attraction\"). The channel made of composite material was thus insulating the vehicle equipped with a special shoe on the passing magnetic channel raised the band allowing contact with the copper strip and then the electrical connection.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ground-level power supply, also known as surface current collection and Alimentation Par le Sol (APS, which literally means \"feeding via the ground\"), is a modern method of third-rail electrical pick-up for street trams instead of more common overhead lines, thus it is one of the methods that could allow construction of catenary-free light rail system. It was invented for the Bordeaux tramway (\"Tramway de Bordeaux\"), which was constructed from 2000 and opened in 2003. From 2011, the technology has been used as part of other systems around the world, with Reims Tramway, Rio de Janeiro VLT, Angers tramway and Dubai Tram all having adopted the technology.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977492}
{"src_title": "Abubakar Shekau", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Shekau was born in Shekau town, in Tarmuwa local government, Yobe state; his exact date of birth is unknown but is said to be between 1965 and 1975. Shekau is an ethnic Kanuri, and also speaks Hausa, Fulani, Arabic, and English. In 1990 he moved to the Mafoni area in Maiduguri and studied under a traditional cleric before entering the Borno College of Legal and Islamic Studies (now called Mohammed Goni College of Legal and Islamic Studies). Shekau left the college for ideological reasons and without earning a degree. He later met Mohammed Yusuf, the founder of Jamaat Ahlus Sunnah li Dawah wal Jihad, and became one of his deputies. Shekau was appointed the leader of the group in July 2009, after the death of Yusuf in the 2009 Boko Haram uprising. Shekau survived being shot in the leg during the 2009 attempt on his life by Nigerian security forces. He is married to one of Muhammad Yusuf's four widows. His nickname is “Darul Tawheed”, which translates as \"specialist in tawheed\", the Islamic concept of oneness of Allah.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leader of 'Boko Haram'.", "content": "Shekau's leadership has not gone unchallenged. He received a letter from al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb giving him advice but he did not heed it. As a result of his erratic leadership, in 2012 a faction of the group broke off to form Jamaat Ansar al-Muslimin fi Bilād as-Sudan (Ansaru). This faction included his military commander Abu Muhammad al-Bauchawi, and religious advisor Sheikh Abu Osama al-Ansari Muhammad Awal al-Gombawi. Despite this, many soldiers and commanders stayed with Shekau, including military commanders Abu Sa'ad al-Bamawi and Muhammad Salafi. With his group mostly intact, Shekau engaged in conflict with Ansaru, killing their leader Abu Osama al-Ansari. As a result of this, and other arrests of Ansaru leaders by the Nigerian government, Ansaru did not pose a further threat to Shekau's leadership of the jihadi movement in Nigeria, and the group became defunct by 2015.  Shekau's fellow jihadist fighters were undisciplined and abused the populations they encountered, resulting in the establishment of civilian militias such as the Civilian Joint Task Force to fight them. Shekau is also thought to have killed his own religious advisors, including Sheikh Abd al-Malek al-Ansari al-Kadunawi and Abu al-Abbas al-Bankiwani.  In June 2012, the United States Department of State designated Shekau as a terrorist and effectively froze his assets in the United States. Since June 2013, the Department has had a standing reward of US$7 million for information leading to Shekau's capture through its Rewards for Justice program. In addition, the Nigerian army has offered a ₦50 million reward (approximately US$300,000) for Shekau.  In videos Shekau posted online, he boasted often about his invincibility; mocked various armies; and stated that he \"cannot be stopped\" and \"cannot die except by the will of Allah\". He has also boasted of being in possession of armoured tanks and other combat vehicles. His online videos frequently depict anti-American rhetoric, and he has made multiple threats to attack the U.S.  In one prominent incident, he took credit for the kidnapping of over 200 school girls in April 2014. Shekau also announced that the kidnapped girls have been converted to Islam. He has claimed to be waging a jihad against Christianity.  With the rise of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria during 2014 and 2015, Shekau faced pressure from his commanders and soldiers to pledge his allegiance to IS leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. A history of the group says that Shekau \"was compelled to give allegiance, and that was through a coming together of the military commanders, and after he became convinced that the matter was about to go out of his hand, and that his throne would be shaken and emptied of him if he did not give allegiance\". In August 2016, ISIL appointed Abu Musab al-Barnawi as the leader of the group in place of Shekau. Shekau refused to recognise Barnawi's authority and split off part of the group under its original name of Jamaat Ahlus Sunnah li Dawah wal Jihad, while Barnawi lead the Islamic State's West African province. While Shekau continues to lead his group, he has only 1,500 soldiers, whereas Barnawi has 3,500. Shekau has been widely denounced as following the ideology of the Khawarij by the Islamic State and West Africa province in Nigeria.  Following the split, many clashes occurred between Shekau and Barnawi's soldiers throughout the month of August and the following months. On 12 September 2016, 30 of Shekau's soldiers were killed and 40 captured by IS-West Africa. In October 2016, Shekau's soldiers attacked the Karino area south of Lake Chad with 350 men seizing the village of Tunubuma. Then Barnawi's soldiers counter-attacked, killing more than 75, including the leader Muhammad Bakr.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reports of death.", "content": "Shekau was reported killed in 2009 but reappeared as the group leader less than a year later. The Nigerian army in mid-August 2013 stated that he was fatally wounded when soldiers raided a base of Boko Haram in Sambisa forest and had died between 25 July and 3 August. However, a video in September 2013 was released in which a man purported to be Shekau claimed he had not been killed. The Nigerian army also stated to have killed him during the 2014 Battle of Kodunga that lasted from September 12 to 14th. The Cameroonian military posted a photo and also claimed that their forces killed Shekau in September 2014. In response to these reports, security analyst Ryan Cummings commented, \"Is this his fourth or fifth death? He dies more often than an iPhone battery.\" In early October 2014, a video was obtained by AFP news agency that showed Shekau alive, in which he mocked the Nigerian military's allegations that he had been killed.  Chadian President, Idriss Déby claimed in mid-August 2015 that Shekau had been replaced by Mahamat Daoud without exactly specifying his fate. An audio message attributed to Shekau was released a few days later, in which he purportedly stated that he had neither been killed nor ousted as chief of the group.  Shekau was reported to have been \"fatally wounded\" during an airstrike in Taye village on 19 August 2016 by Nigerian Air Force which also killed some senior leaders of Boko Haram. On 25 September, a video of a man purported to be Shekau was released on YouTube, in which he claimed that he was alive and in good health.  On 27 June 2017, Shekau released a video in which he claimed responsibility for the abduction of Nigerian policewomen and criticized the Nigerian government for claiming that Boko Haram had been defeated. This video would seem to be further evidence of Shekau's continued survival. In February 2020, Shekau released a video threatening the minister of information and digital economy, Isa Ali Pantami, and making reference to what was done to islamic scholar Ja'afar Mahmud Adam in Maiduguri when he preached against Boko Haram.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abu Mohammed Abubakar bin Mohammad al-Sheikawi (also known by the alias \"Darul Akeem wa Zamunda Tawheed\", or \"Darul Tawheed\"; \"the abode of monotheism\"; born 1965, 1969 or 1975) is a Kanuri man known as the leader of Boko Haram, a Nigerian militant group that has declared loyalty to the Islamist militant group, Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS). He served as deputy leader to the group's founder, Mohammed Yusuf, until Yusuf was executed in 2009.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977493}
{"src_title": "EU Open Data Portal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Legal basis and launch of the portal.", "content": "Launched in December 2012, the portal was formally established by Commission Decision of 12 December 2011 (2011/833/EU) on the reuse of Commission documents to promote accessibility and reuse.  Based on this decision, all the EU institutions are invited to publish information such as open data and to make it accessible to the public whenever possible.  The operational management of the portal is the task of the Publications Office of the European Union. Implementation of EU open data policy is, however, the responsibility of the Directorate General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology (DG CONNECT) of the European Commission.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "The portal enables users to search, explore, link, download and easily re-use data for commercial or non-commercial purposes, through a common metadata catalogue. From the portal, users can access data published on the websites of the various institutions, agencies and other bodies of the EU.  Semantic technologies offer new functionalities. The metadata catalogue can be searched via an interactive search engine (Data tab) and through SPARQL queries (Linked data tab).  Users can suggest data they think is missing on the portal and give feedback on the quality of data obtainable.  The interface is in 24 EU official languages, but most metadata are currently available in a limited number of languages (English, French and German). Some of the metadata (e.g. names of the data providers and geographical coverage) are in 24 languages.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Terms of use.", "content": "Most of the data accessible via the EU Open Data Portal are covered by the legal notice of the Europa website. Generally, data can be used for free for commercial and non-commercial purposes, provided the source is acknowledged. Specific conditions for reuse, relating mostly to the protection of data privacy and intellectual property, apply to a small amount of data. A link to these conditions can be found for each dataset.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Available data.", "content": "The portal contains a very wide variety of high-value open data across EU policy domains, including the economy, employment, science, environment and education. The importance of these was confirmed by the G8 Open Data Charter.  So far, around 70 EU institutions, bodies or departments (e.g. Eurostat, the European Environment Agency, the Joint Research Centre and other European Commission Directorates General and EU Agencies) have made datasets available, making a total of over 13,000.  The portal also contains a gallery of applications and a visualisations catalogue (launched in March 2018).  n the apps gallery users can find applications using EU data and developed by the EU institutions, agencies or other bodies or by third parties. The applications are displayed as much for their information value as for giving examples of what applications can be made using the data.  The visualisations catalogue offers a collection of visualisation tools, training and re-usable visualisations for all levels of data visualisation expertise, from beginner to expert.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture of the portal.", "content": "The portal is built using open source solutions such as the Drupal content management system and CKAN, the data catalogue software developed by the Open Knowledge Foundation. It uses Virtuoso as an RDF database and has a SPARQL endpoint.  Its metadata catalogue applies international standards such as: Dublin Core, the data catalogue vocabulary DCAT-AP and the Asset Description Metadata Schema (ADMS).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The EU Open Data Portal is the point of access to public data published by the EU institutions, agencies and other bodies. Information can be used and reused for commercial or non-commercial purposes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977494}
{"src_title": "SBB RABe 501", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "Stadler's name for the train, 'SMILE', is short for \"Schneller Mehrsystemfähiger Innovativer Leichter Expresszug\" (English: “speedy, multi-system, innovative, lightweight express train”). The SBB have named the train \"Giruno\" (Romansh: \"Buzzard\"). Until 2017, Stadler referred to the train as 'EC250'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "During October 2014, Stadler received a SFr 980m ($US 1.1bn) contract from the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB) that called for the development, construction and delivery of 29 high-speed EC250 electrical multiple units (EMUs), which included an option for the procurement of an additional 92 trains. The losing bidders for the contract included French conglomerate Alstom and Spanish rolling stock manufacturer Talgo. In September 2016, the first EC250 high-speed train was publicly launched at InnoTrans in Berlin, Germany; this launch was presented by Peter Spuhler, Stadler's owner and chief executive officer, and Andreas Meyer, the chief executive officer of SBB. The new trains are approved for operation in Switzerland, Germany, Austria and Italy.  Based on the design of the Stadler FLIRT EMUs, the EC250 has been designed to cater to long distance rail journeys. It has been developed with a particular emphasis on providing a high level of both comfort and convenience for passengers, including families, senior citizens and disabled passengers. A low-floor entrance area has been adopted to ease the boarding process, the carriages provide step-free access from platforms at heights between 550mm and 760mm. The train-sets feature a pressure-tight design, which is intended to provide favourable thermal and sound insulation characteristics. The EC250 is designed to comply with the TSI-High-speed regulations as well as to meet the EN 15227 crashworthiness standards.  The EC250 has been developed with a flexible interior. This interior allows for carriages to be extensively refitted and modified in accordance with the requirements of various operators; this reduces the difficulty of maintaining equipment. Carriages offer relatively spacious and well-lit interiors.  The EC250 is equipped with a number of passenger comfort features, including 4G/3G signal boosters for mobile phone, power sockets at all seats, and large overhead luggage racks. The onboard storage areas are designed to be multi-functional, including space for bicycle storage. A number of gender-separated toilets are also scattered amongst the carriages. For accessibility purposes, a number of wheelchair spaces and wheelchair-accessible toilet facilities are present in both the first class and second class carriages.  In a standard configuration, each train is to accommodate seating for up to 405 passengers, composing 117 of these being seated in first class conditions and the remaining 288 in second class. It had a length of 202 meters and possess an empty weight of 380 tonnes. Each carriage has a width of 2.9 meters and a height of 4.25 meters; the wheelbase of the unpowered bogies is 2.7 meters, while those of the motorised bogies are 2.75 meters. A pair of trains can be coupled together; in such a configuration, they can seat in excess of 800 passengers.  The propulsion system consists of four motorised bogies, which are supplied with power from four roof-mounted electric current collectors. A key element of the arrangement is the advanced traction technology provided by ABB, which ensures a smooth start, relatively quick acceleration and efficient energy regeneration while the train is braking. The electrification systems fitted to the trains are compatible with the Swiss and German 15 kV 16.7 Hz alternating current (AC) overhead power supply, as well as Italian 3 kV direct current (DC) and 25 kV 50 Hz electrification systems. The motorised bogies are reportedly capable of generating a maximum power output of 6,000 kW, as well as the train's maximum operational speed of 250 km/h.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "The SBB intend to use their high-speed fleet on the line connecting Basel and Zürich with the Italian city of Milan through the Gotthard Base Tunnel; the SBB has stated that it has forecast passenger numbers on the Gotthard route to rise from around 9000 per day to 15,000 per day by 2020 and to exceed 18,000 passengers per day by 2025. During May 2017, the first train-set was scheduled to be handed over to the SBB, while commercial operations are intended to be launched by the end of 2019. Long-term plans are to run the type upon several international routes.  On 2 July 2017, a Stadler EC250 Giruno trainset travelled through the Gotthard Base Tunnel for the first time; the run was conducted for testing purposes and had reportedly been successful. At the time, further test runs were intended to be undertaken in the Czech Republic, along with Switzerland, Germany, Italy and Austria - the four countries where the trainsets are intended to be operated in.  In April 2018, a SBB Giruno reached 275km/h in the Gotthard Base Tunnel.  On April the 4th of 2019, the Federal Office of Transport authorised the EC250 for travel at 200 km/h.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The RABe 501, nicknamed Giruno, is a high-speed electric multiple unit train under development by Stadler Rail of Switzerland for the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB). According to Stadler Rail it is to be the world's first single-decker low-floor high-speed train.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977495}
{"src_title": "Katie Stevens", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Stevens grew up in Middlebury, Connecticut, the daughter of Mark and Clara (née Francisco) Stevens. She graduated from Pomperaug High School in Southbury in June 2010. She was named the 2009 Westbury Outstanding Teen at the Greater Watertown Scholarship Pageant.  Stevens is of Portuguese descent on her mother's side and speaks Portuguese. She was instrumental in the creation of the Evan Gagnon Memorial Scholarship Fund, which gives college scholarships to the seniors of Pomperaug High School (Evan Gagnon, who died in January 2009 at the age of two, was the son of Stevens' Spanish teacher.) She was a member of Pomperaug High School's varsity swim team for four years. Stevens first performed for an audience at the age of five years, when she sang the national anthem at a party for a politician in her hometown.  When she was seven years old, she sang \"From This Moment On\" at an aunt's wedding. She has long been active in her local theater community. She played Dorothy in both BSS Children's Theater and Main Street Theater's production of \"The Wizard of Oz\". At Main Street Theater Stevens also played the role of Sharpay in \"High School Musical\" and \"The Cat\" in \"Honk\". She played Nellie Forbush in Pomperaug High School's \"South Pacific\" alongside Gary Dwyer as Emile DeBeque. She performed at Carnegie Hall at the age of 13.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2009–2010: \"American Idol\".", "content": "On August 13, 2009, she auditioned for \"American Idol\" in Boston, Massachusetts and sang \"At Last\", where all four judges (including guest judge Victoria Beckham) advanced her to Hollywood. At the Boston audition, judge Kara DioGuardi called her one of the most talented 16-year-olds she had ever seen. In Hollywood, DioGuardi made the prediction, \"You could be the potential winner.\" On March 24, 2010, Stevens landed in the bottom 3 during elimination night, along with Paige Miles and Tim Urban. She was proclaimed safe, giving her a spot on the \"American Idol\" summer tour.  Most of the critiques the judges gave her had been with regard to her pitch, age, and song choice. In her performance of \"Chain of Fools\", DioGuardi told her she had found where she belonged: R&B-pop, but she needed to work on being younger. She landed in the bottom three the following night but was declared safe, putting her into the Top 9.  In her Top 9 performance of \"Let It Be\", all of the judges thought it was a huge improvement. Ellen stated that she wouldn't be in the bottom 3 after that performance. Simon said that she had done what she was told by being Country, while Kara and Randy disagreed, opining that she has more of an R&B sensibility. Nonetheless, her performance secured her a position in the Top 8. However, the Top 9 remained intact for another week due to the judges' save of Michael Lynche. She was eliminated from \"American Idol\" the following week on April 14, along with Andrew Garcia. Her elimination came second on the double elimination night. From July 1 to August 31, 2010 Stevens toured with the American Idols LIVE! Tour 2010. On tour, she sang \"Here We Go Again\" and \"Fighter\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010–present: \"Faking It\" and \"The Bold Type\".", "content": "After her elimination, Stevens made several appearances on talk shows. On April 16, 2010, she appeared on \"The Ellen DeGeneres Show\" where she performed \"Over the Rainbow\". Stevens also appeared on the \"Late Show with David Letterman\" along with Andrew Garcia, where they sang \"Superhuman\" by Chris Brown and Keri Hilson. She and Garcia appeared on the \"Wendy Williams Show\" where she performed \"Big Girls Don't Cry\".  As of early November 2010, she has written 9 songs. Stevens was a guest performer on \"Ídolos Portugal\" on December 12, 2010, where she sang \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\" by Mariah Carey. In June 2012, Stevens played the title role in Todrick Hall's YouTube sensation \"Beauty and the Beat\".  Stevens was cast to portray Nadia McConnell in \"\" in the 2013 Los Angeles revival.  She won the role of Karma Ashcroft in \"Faking It\", which premiered on April 22, 2014. In 2015, Stevens was cast as Lindsey Willows in the CSI finale movie \"Immortality\".  In 2016, Stevens was cast as Jane Sloan in \"The Bold Type\" which premiered on June 20, 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In January 2018, Stevens became engaged to her longtime boyfriend, Paul DiGiovanni. On October 12, 2019, Stevens and DiGiovanni got married in Nashville, Tennessee.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Katherine Mari Stevens (born December 8, 1992) is an American actress and singer, known for finishing in eighth place on the ninth season of \"American Idol\" and starring as Karma Ashcroft in \"Faking It\" and Jane Sloan in \"The Bold Type\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977496}
{"src_title": "The Rev", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Sullivan was born in Tustin, California, on February 9, 1981, of Irish descent. He received his first pair of drumsticks at the age of five and his own drum set at the age of twelve. In high school, he started playing in bands. Before leaving to join Avenged Sevenfold as one of the band's founding members, Sullivan was the drummer for the third wave ska band Suburban Legends. At the age of twenty he recorded his first album with Avenged Sevenfold titled \"Sounding the Seventh Trumpet\". His early influences included Frank Zappa and King Crimson. The Rev said in a \"Modern Drummer Magazine\" interview that \"I was raised on that stuff as much as rock and metal.\"  Later in life he was influenced by drummers Vinnie Paul, Mike Portnoy (who would later be his fill-in with Avenged Sevenfold), Dave Lombardo, Lars Ulrich and Terry Bozzio. \"It's funny,\" says the drummer, \"of all my influences, Tommy Lee is a visual influence. I never thought I'd have one of those.\" Sullivan had a signature ability called \"the double-ride thing\" or \"The Double Octopus,\" as the Rev called it, \"just for lack of a better definition.\" \"The double-ride thing\" is a technique that can be heard on tracks such as \"Almost Easy,\" \"Critical Acclaim,\" \"Crossroads,\" and \"Dancing Dead\" in which Sullivan doubles up at a fast tempo between the double bass and ride cymbals. While playing, Sullivan often twirled his stick and tossed it between hands to show off for the crowd.  The Rev was a drummer, composer, songwriter, vocalist and pianist for Avenged Sevenfold. His vocals are featured in several Avenged Sevenfold songs, including \"Strength of the World,\" \"Afterlife,\" \"A Little Piece of Heaven,\" \"Almost Easy,\" \"Scream,\" \"Critical Acclaim,\" \"Lost,\" \"Brompton Cocktail,\" \"Crossroads,\" \"Flash of the Blade (Iron Maiden cover),\" \"Art Of Subconscious Illusion,\" \"Save Me\" and \"Fiction.\" His music composing and songwriting are done in several songs for Avenged Sevenfold like \"A Little Piece of Heaven,\" \"Afterlife,\" \"Almost Easy,\" \"Unbound (The Wild Ride),\" \"Buried Alive,\" \"Fiction,\" \"Brompton Cocktail,\" \"Save Me\" and more. Avenged Sevenfold released a demo version of \"Nightmare,\" featuring The Rev on an electronic drumset and some vocals.  At the second annual Revolver Golden God Awards, The Rev won the award for Best Drummer. His family members, and Avenged Sevenfold, received the posthumous honor on his behalf.  In an Ultimate Guitar online readers' poll of the \"Top Ten Greatest Drummers of All Time,\" The Rev appeared at #8, placing higher than Bill Ward of Black Sabbath, and lower than Keith Moon of The Who. In 2017, he once again appeared in Ultimate Guitar's list of Top 25 Greatest Singing Drummers, at #5.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pinkly Smooth.", "content": "Pinkly Smooth was an American heavy metal/avant-garde metal band. The band was formed in the summer of 2001 in Huntington Beach, California, as a side project for Avenged Sevenfold's drummer/composer/songwriter Jimmy \"The Rev\" Sullivan, and originally featured The Rev (under the name \"Rathead\") on vocals, along with fellow Avenged Sevenfold member Synyster Gates on guitar and former Ballistico band members Buck Silverspur (under the name \"El Diablo\") on bass and Derek Eglit (under the name \"Super Loop\") on drums. They released only one album–\"Unfortunate Snort\"—which featured former Avenged Sevenfold bassist Justin Meacham (under his stage name \"Justin Sane\") as a keyboard player.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On December 28, 2009, The Rev was found unresponsive in his Huntington Beach home, and was later pronounced dead upon arrival to the hospital. Police ruled out foul play and noted that his death appeared to be from natural causes. An autopsy performed on December 30, 2009, was inconclusive, but toxicology results revealed to the public in June that he died from an overdose of oxycodone (Percocet), oxymorphone (a metabolite of oxycodone), diazepam (Valium), nordiazepam (a metabolite of diazepam), and alcohol. The coroner noted an enlarged heart as a \"significant condition\" that may have played a role in Sullivan's death.  On January 6, 2010, a private funeral was held for Sullivan, who was then buried in The Good Shepherd Cemetery, in Huntington Beach, California. Shortly after his death, Avenged Sevenfold dedicated their fifth studio album \"Nightmare\" (released that same year) to him, as well as several songs, including \"So Far Away\", which had been written by bandmate (and childhood friend) Synyster Gates; and \"Fiction\", which The Rev had written three days before his death. M. Shadows and Synyster Gates stated in an interview to \"Hard Drive Radio\":", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "His triple bass drum kit from the 2008 Taste of Chaos tour was donated for display at a Hard Rock Cafe in Las Vegas, Nevada.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "James Owen Sullivan (February 9, 1981 – December 28, 2009), professionally known by his stage name The Rev (shortened version of The Reverend Tholomew Plague), was an American musician, best known as the drummer, songwriter, backing vocalist and founding member of the American heavy metal band Avenged Sevenfold. The Rev was widely regarded and critically acclaimed for his work on Avenged Sevenfold albums, and contributed entire songs composed by himself, such as \"Afterlife\", \"A Little Piece of Heaven\", and \"Almost Easy\". He was also the lead vocalist/pianist in Pinkly Smooth, a side project where he was known by the name Rathead, with fellow Avenged Sevenfold member, guitarist Synyster Gates (Brian Elwin Haner Jr.), and he was the drummer for Suburban Legends from 1998 to 1999.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977497}
{"src_title": "Bolghar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The city is supposed to have been the capital of Volga Bulgaria from as early as the 8th century. Regular Russian incursions along the Volga, and internecine fights forced the Volga Bulgarian kings to intermittently move their capital to Bilyar. After a destruction of Bilyar during the Mongol invasion, the older capital became a centre of a separate province (or duchy) within the Golden Horde. During the period of Mongol domination Bolgar acquired immense wealth, many imposing buildings, and grew tenfold in size.  The Tokhtamysh–Timur war saw a marked decline in its fortunes. It was sacked by Bulaq-Temir in 1361, endangered by Timur, looted by Russian pirates (ushkuiniki), and destroyed in 1431 by Vasily the Blind of Muscovy. As a Muslim religious center Bolgar persevered until the mid-16th century when the Khanate of Kazan was conquered by the Russian Czar Ivan IV and incorporated into the Russian state.  During the Tsarist rule the site of the ancient town was settled by Russian commoners. Czar Peter the Great issued a special ukase to preserve the surviving ruins, which was probably a first Russian law aimed at preserving historical heritage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Little pilgrimage.", "content": "During the Soviet period, Bolgar was a center of a local Islamic movement known as \"The Little Hajj\": Muslims from Tatarstan and other parts of the Soviet Union could not participate in the hajj to Mecca, so they travelled instead to Bolgar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Importance.", "content": "The Tatars refer to the medieval capital of Volga Bolgaria as \"Shahri Bolghar\" (), that is, \"the City of Bolghar\". The town is part of their cultural heritage, because Volga Bulgaria is the predecessor state of the Khanate of Kazan, which in turn is in a way the predecessor of today's Russian republic of Tatarstan.  Today, the capital of Tatarstan is Kazan, but many Tatars consider Bolghar to be their ancient and religious capital and to allow a glimpse of Muslim Bulgar life before the Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bolghar (, ) was intermittently capital of Volga Bulgaria from the 8th to the 15th centuries, along with Bilyar and Nur-Suvar. It was situated on the bank of the Volga River, about 30 km downstream from its confluence with the Kama River and some 130 km from modern Kazan in what is now Spassky District. West of it lies a small modern town, since 1991 known as Bolgar. The UNESCO World Heritage Committee inscribed Bolgar Historical and Archaeological Complex (ancient Bolghar hill fort) to the World Heritage List in 2014.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977498}
{"src_title": "Laurent Ciman", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Ciman began his career in the youth system of Charleroi and made his first team debut in 2004. His play with Charleroi attracted the interest of the top Belgian clubs. Ciman was transferred from Charleroi to Club Brugge in June 2008 and signed a three-year contract for the Belgian team, he was loaned to Kortrijk for the 2009–10 season. On 16 June 2010, he joined Standard Liège on a four-year contract. Upon joining Standard, Ciman established him as a starter and helped the club capture the 2010–11 Belgian Cup. He made 194 appearances for the club, scoring eight goals, before leaving the club in the winter of 2015.  Ciman signed a three-year deal with Major League Soccer club Montreal Impact on 22 January 2015. In his first season with the team, he was named MLS Defender of the Year. In July 2016, he was included in the roster for the 2016 MLS All-Star Game.  On 12 December 2017, Ciman was traded to MLS expansion side Los Angeles FC in exchange for Raheem Edwards and Jukka Raitala.  On 28 August 2018, Ciman joined Ligue 1 club Dijon FCO on a two-year contract. The transfer fee paid to LAFC was reported as $500,000. Just 4 months later, Ciman had his contract at Dijon terminated by mutual consent. On 27 December 2018, he returned to MLS, signing with Toronto FC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Ciman was a member of the Belgian squad which came fourth at the 2008 Olympics.  Ciman also played for the National U21 side and was called up by national coach Georges Leekens for the friendly match against Bulgaria on 19 May 2010, during which he made his debut.  On 13 May 2014, Ciman was named in Belgium's squad for the 2014 World Cup. He was unused in the tournament, in which Belgium reached the quarter-finals. In the next major tournament, UEFA Euro 2016 he was also part of the squad. This time, he played in the opening game of the competition, a 2–0 defeat to Italy.  In May 2018, he was named as an alternate for Belgium’s squad for the 2018 World Cup in Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Club Brugge  Standard Liège  Montreal Impact  Toronto FC", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Laurent Franco Ciman (born 5 August 1985) is a Belgian professional footballer who plays as a defender for Major League Soccer club Toronto FC and the Belgium national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977499}
{"src_title": "Cycas revoluta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "Cycads' only relation to the true palms (Arecaceae) is that both are seed plants. The Latin specific epithet \"revoluta\" means \"curled back\", in reference to the leaves. This is also called kungi (comb) palm in Urdu speaking areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "This very symmetrical plant supports a crown of shiny, dark green leaves on a thick shaggy trunk that is typically about in diameter, sometimes wider. The trunk is very low to subterranean in young plants, but lengthens above ground with age. It can grow into very old specimens with 6–7 m (over 20 feet) of trunk; however, the plant is very slow-growing and requires about 50–100 years to achieve this height. Trunks can branch several times, thus producing multiple heads of leaves. The leaves are a deep semiglossy green and about long when the plants are of a reproductive age. They grow out into a feather-like rosette to in diameter. The crowded, stiff, narrow leaflets are long and have strongly recurved or revolute edges. The basal leaflets become more like spines. The petiole or stems of the sago cycad are long and have small protective barbs.  Roots are called \"coralloid\" with an \"Anabaena\" symbiosis allowing nitrogen fixation. Tannins-rich cells are found on either side of the algal layer to resist the algal invasion.  As with other cycads, it is dioecious, with the males bearing pollen cones (strobilus) and the females bearing groups of megasporophylls. Pollination can be done naturally by insects or artificially.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation and uses.", "content": "Propagation of \"Cycas revoluta\" is either by seed or clonally by removal of basal offsets. It is one of the most widely cultivated cycads, grown outdoors in warm temperate and subtropical regions, or under glass in colder areas. It grows best in sandy, well-drained soil, preferably with some organic matter. It needs good drainage or it will rot. It is fairly drought-tolerant and grows well in full sun or outdoor shade, but needs bright light when grown indoors. The leaves can bleach somewhat if moved from indoors to full sun outdoors. Of all the cycads, \"C. revoluta\" is the most popular in cultivation. It is seen in almost all botanical gardens, in both temperate and tropical locations. In many areas of the world, it is heavily promoted commercially as a landscape plant. It is also quite popular as a bonsai plant. First described in the late 18th century, it is tolerant of mild to somewhat cold temperatures, provided the ground is dry. Frost damage can occur at temperatures below −10 °C (14 °F). Healthy specimens have been grown with little protection as far north as St. Louis, Missouri, and New York, New York, both in USDA zone 7b. \"C. revoluta\" usually defoliates in winter in this temperate climate, but will usually flush (grow) several new leaves by spring.  This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sago.", "content": "The pith contains edible starch, and is used for making sago. Before use, the starch must be carefully washed to leach out toxins contained in the pith. Extracting edible starch from the sago cycad requires special care due to the poisonous nature of cycads. Cycad sago is used for many of the same purposes as palm sago. Sago is extracted from the sago cycad by cutting the pith from the stem, root and seeds of the cycads, grinding the pith to a coarse flour and then washing it carefully and repeatedly to leach out the natural toxins. The starchy residue is then dried and cooked, producing a starch similar to palm sago/sabudana. The cycad seed contains cycasin toxin and should not be eaten as it is possible for cycasin toxin to survive the most vigorous of repeated washings. Cycasin toxin can cause ALS, Parkinson's, prostate cancer and fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma.  \"Aulacaspis yasumatsui\" is a scale insect feeding on \"C. revoluta\", and unchecked is able to destroy the plant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chemistry.", "content": "The hydro-alcoholic extract of leaves of \"C. revoluta\" shows the presence of alkaloids, steroids and tannins while the chloroform extract shows the presence of saponins, tannins and sugars. Leaflets also contain biflavonoids. Estragole is the primary volatile compound emitted from the male and female cones of \"C. revoluta\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Cycad sago is extremely poisonous to animals (including humans) if ingested. Pets are at particular risk, since they seem to find the plant very palatable. Clinical symptoms of ingestion will develop within 12 hours, and may include vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, seizures, and liver failure or hepatotoxicity characterized by icterus, cirrhosis, and ascites. The pet may appear bruised, have nose bleeds (epistaxis), melena (blood in the stool), hematochezia (bloody straining), and hemarthrosis (blood in the joints). The ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center estimates a fatality rate of 50 to 75% when ingestion of the sago palm is involved. If any quantity of the plant is ingested, a poison control center or doctor should be contacted immediately. Effects of ingestion can include permanent internal damage and death.  All parts of the plant are toxic; however, the seeds contain the highest level of the toxin cycasin. Cycasin causes gastrointestinal irritation, and in high enough doses, leads to liver failure. Other toxins include Beta-methylamino L-alanine, a neurotoxic amino acid, and an unidentified toxin which has been observed to cause hindlimb paralysis in cattle.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cycas revoluta (Sotetsu [Japanese ソテツ], sago palm, king sago, sago cycad, Japanese sago palm), is a species of gymnosperm in the family Cycadaceae, native to southern Japan including the Ryukyu Islands. It is one of several species used for the production of sago, as well as an ornamental plant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977500}
{"src_title": "Hill cipher", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Encryption.", "content": "Each letter is represented by a number modulo 26. Though this is not an essential feature of the cipher, this simple scheme is often used:  To encrypt a message, each block of \"n\" letters (considered as an \"n\"-component vector) is multiplied by an invertible \"n\" × \"n\" matrix, against modulus 26. To decrypt the message, each block is multiplied by the inverse of the matrix used for encryption.  The matrix used for encryption is the cipher key, and it should be chosen randomly from the set of invertible \"n\" × \"n\" matrices (modulo 26). The cipher can, of course, be adapted to an alphabet with any number of letters; all arithmetic just needs to be done modulo the number of letters instead of modulo 26.  Consider the message 'ACT', and the key below (or GYBNQKURP in letters): Since 'A' is 0, 'C' is 2 and 'T' is 19, the message is the vector: Thus the enciphered vector is given by: which corresponds to a ciphertext of 'POH'. Now, suppose that our message is instead 'CAT', or: This time, the enciphered vector is given by: which corresponds to a ciphertext of 'FIN'. Every letter has changed. The Hill cipher has achieved Shannon's diffusion, and an n-dimensional Hill cipher can diffuse fully across n symbols at once.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decryption.", "content": "In order to decrypt, we turn the ciphertext back into a vector, then simply multiply by the inverse matrix of the key matrix (IFKVIVVMI in letters). (See matrix inversion for methods to calculate the inverse matrix.) We find that, modulo 26, the inverse of the matrix used in the previous example is: Taking the previous example ciphertext of 'POH', we get: which gets us back to 'ACT', as expected.  Two complications exist in picking the encrypting matrix:  Thus, if we work modulo 26 as above, the determinant must be nonzero, and must not be divisible by 2 or 13. If the determinant is 0, or has common factors with the modular base, then the matrix cannot be used in the Hill cipher, and another matrix must be chosen (otherwise it will not be possible to decrypt). Fortunately, matrices which satisfy the conditions to be used in the Hill cipher are fairly common.  For our example key matrix: So, modulo 26, the determinant is 25. Since this has no common factors with 26, this matrix can be used for the Hill cipher.  The risk of the determinant having common factors with the modulus can be eliminated by making the modulus prime. Consequently, a useful variant of the Hill cipher adds 3 extra symbols (such as a space, a period and a question mark) to increase the modulus to 29.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Example.", "content": "Let  formula_9  be the key and suppose the plaintext message is HELP. Then this plaintext is represented by two pairs  formula_10  Then we compute  formula_11 and  formula_12  and continue encryption as follows:  formula_13  The matrix K is invertible, hence formula_14 exists such that formula_15. The inverse of K can be computed by using the formula formula_16  This formula still holds after a modular reduction if a modular multiplicative inverse is used to compute formula_17. Hence in this case, we compute  formula_18  formula_19  Then we compute  formula_20 and  formula_21  Therefore,  formula_22.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Security.", "content": "The basic Hill cipher is vulnerable to a known-plaintext attack because it is completely linear. An opponent who intercepts formula_23 plaintext/ciphertext character pairs can set up a linear system which can (usually) be easily solved; if it happens that this system is indeterminate, it is only necessary to add a few more plaintext/ciphertext pairs. Calculating this solution by standard linear algebra algorithms then takes very little time.  While matrix multiplication alone does not result in a secure cipher it is still a useful step when combined with other non-linear operations, because matrix multiplication can provide diffusion. For example, an appropriately chosen matrix can guarantee that small differences before the matrix multiplication will result in large differences after the matrix multiplication. Indeed, some modern ciphers use a matrix multiplication step to provide diffusion. For example, the MixColumns step in AES is a matrix multiplication. The function \"g\" in Twofish is a combination of non-linear S-boxes with a carefully chosen matrix multiplication (MDS).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Key space size.", "content": "The key space is the set of all possible keys. The key space size is the number of possible keys. The effective key size, in number of bits, is the binary logarithm of the key space size.  There are formula_24 matrices of dimension n × n. Thus formula_25 or about formula_26 is an upper bound on the key size of the Hill cipher using n × n matrices. This is only an upper bound because not every matrix is invertible and thus usable as a key. The number of invertible matrices can be computed via the Chinese Remainder Theorem. I.e., a matrix is invertible modulo 26 if and only if it is invertible both modulo 2 and modulo 13. The number of invertible n × n matrices modulo 2 is equal to the order of the general linear group GL(n,Z). It is Equally, the number of invertible matrices modulo 13 (i.e. the order of GL(n,Z)) is The number of invertible matrices modulo 26 is the product of those two numbers. Hence it is Additionally it seems to be prudent to avoid too many zeroes in the key matrix, since they reduce diffusion. The net effect is that the effective keyspace of a basic Hill cipher is about formula_30. For a 5 × 5 Hill cipher, that is about 114 bits. Of course, key search is not the most efficient known attack.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mechanical implementation.", "content": "When operating on 2 symbols at once, a Hill cipher offers no particular advantage over Playfair or the bifid cipher, and in fact is weaker than either, and slightly more laborious to operate by pencil-and-paper. As the dimension increases, the cipher rapidly becomes infeasible for a human to operate by hand.  A Hill cipher of dimension 6 was implemented mechanically. Hill and a partner were awarded a patent () for this device, which performed a 6 × 6 matrix multiplication modulo 26 using a system of gears and chains.  Unfortunately the gearing arrangements (and thus the key) were fixed for any given machine, so triple encryption was recommended for security: a secret nonlinear step, followed by the wide diffusive step from the machine, followed by a third secret nonlinear step. (The much later Even-Mansour cipher also uses an unkeyed diffusive middle step). Such a combination was actually very powerful for 1929, and indicates that Hill apparently understood the concepts of a meet-in-the-middle attack as well as confusion and diffusion. Unfortunately, his machine did not sell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "See also.", "content": "Other practical \"pencil-and-paper\" polygraphic ciphers include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In classical cryptography, the Hill cipher is a polygraphic substitution cipher based on linear algebra. Invented by Lester S. Hill in 1929, it was the first polygraphic cipher in which it was practical (though barely) to operate on more than three symbols at once.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977501}
{"src_title": "Lance Stroll", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Stroll is the son of billionaire Canadian businessman Lawrence Stroll and Belgian fashion designer Claire-Anne Callens. Stroll has an older sister named Chloe. Stroll races under the Canadian flag and holds both Canadian and Belgian citizenship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Like many race drivers, the Geneva-based Canadian began his motorsport career in karting at the age of 10. He recorded numerous race and championship wins in his native Canada and North America and in 2008, his first year of karting, he won the Federation de Sport Automobile du Quebec rookie of the year award and driver of the year in 2009. In 2010, Stroll became a member of the Ferrari Driver Academy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formula 4.", "content": "Stroll's car racing debut came in the 2014 Florida Winter Series, a non-championship series organised by the Ferrari Driver Academy. He raced against future Formula One competitors Nicholas Latifi and Max Verstappen, and took two podium finishes as well as pole position at Homestead–Miami Speedway.  Stroll made his competitive car racing debut in the 2014 Italian F4 Championship, driving for Prema Powerteam. Despite missing the final round due to injury, Stroll emerged as series champion, taking seven race wins, thirteen podium finishes and five pole positions.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Formula 3.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2015.", "content": "At the beginning of 2015, Stroll won the New Zealand-based Toyota Racing series, recording 10 podiums – including four wins – from 16 race starts. In the same year, he also contested the FIA Formula 3 European Championship with Prema Powerteam, partially owned by his father Lawrence Stroll. He competed against future Formula One competitors Antonio Giovinazzi, Charles Leclerc, George Russell and Alexander Albon, winning one race at the Hockenheimring and achieving six total podium finishes in the 33-race series. He ended the season 5th in the championship. 2015 also marked Stroll's first and only appearance at the non-championship Formula Three Macau Grand Prix, which he finished in 8th place.  On 11 November 2015, it was announced that Stroll would leave the Ferrari Driver Academy to serve as a test driver for Williams.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2016.", "content": "Stroll began 2016 by finishing 5th at the 2016 24 Hours of Daytona, driving for Ford Chip Ganassi Racing in a Ford EcoBoost Prototype. He remained with Prema Powerteam for a third consecutive year to compete in his second season of the Formula 3 European Championship. He won the first race at Circuit Paul Ricard before taking thirteen more race victories over the season, including five consecutive victories in the final five races. He claimed the title with four races to go and ended the season 187 points clear of nearest competitor Maximilian Günther.  Stroll drove for the Williams team for the 2017 Formula One Season. He became the first Canadian Formula One driver since the World Drivers' Champion Jacques Villeneuve. After three retirements, Stroll's first race finish came at the fourth round in Russia, where he finished in eleventh despite spinning on the first lap. In the Spanish Grand Prix, Stroll finished sixteenth and last of all the drivers to finish the race. Two weeks later, Stroll retired after brake failure in Monaco, but was still classified 15th. Stroll scored his first points in his home Grand Prix in Montreal, finishing in 9th place.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Formula One.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Williams (2017–2018).", "content": "Stroll got his first podium by finishing third in the Azerbaijan Grand Prix, becoming the youngest rookie and the second youngest driver after Max Verstappen to finish on the podium in Formula One, at the age of 18 years and 239 days. Further, Stroll gained more positions on the opening lap than any of his rivals in the season.  Stroll registered the 4th fastest time during a wet qualifying session for the Italian Grand Prix. Due to both Red Bull drivers Daniel Ricciardo and Max Verstappen (respectively 3rd and 2nd) taking grid penalties, Stroll was promoted to the 2nd place on the starting grid, making him the youngest Formula One driver to start on the front row of a race at the age of 18 years and 310 days. Stroll finished 7th in the race.  At the third to last race of the 2017 season, the Mexican Grand Prix, Stroll worked his way up to 6th in the race from 11th on the grid, promoted from 12th after Daniel Ricciardo (originally 7th) was demoted due to penalties, and finished in that position, placing him ahead of teammate Felipe Massa on points scored for the first time this season.  got off to a rough start, with multiple incidents and mistakes within the first few races. Despite an 8th place in Azerbaijan, Stroll scored his next point at Monza, having failed to score at his home race in Canada when he crashed with Brendon Hartley. Although the FW41 was well off the pace all season, it was reliable as Stroll only retired from 2 races during the season.  Stroll was signed by Racing Point for the season alongside Sergio Pérez where he replaced Esteban Ocon. Stroll scored his first points for the team at the opening race in Australia, finishing 9th. At the Chinese Grand Prix, Stroll criticized team strategy after finishing outside of the point-scoring positions for the second consecutive race. In Spain he was involved in a collision with Lando Norris that ended both drivers' races. A third points finish came at his home race in Canada, where he finished 9th after starting in 17th.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Racing Point (2019–2020).", "content": "In qualifying at the German Grand Prix, Stroll progressed to Q2 and qualified 15th, ending a streak of fourteen Grands Prix in which he had been eliminated in Q1. During the race, he narrowly missed out on a podium, running with slick tyres on a drying track late in the race. He would cross the line in 4th place. Stroll's next points finish came in Belgium, where he started 16th and finished 10th. He scored his final points of the season after finishing 9th in Japan. His second and third retirements of the season came during the final two races, after he suffered a suspension failure in Brazil and brake issues in Abu Dhabi.  Stroll finished his first season at Racing Point in 15th place in the championship with 21 points, considerably below teammate Pérez's 52 points, having been out-qualified by Pérez 18-3 over the season's 21 races.  Stroll and Pérez were re-signed by Racing Point for.\"\" Stroll will race under an American license in 2020 after Canada’s national sporting authority resigned its mandate from the FIA, but will still be shown as Canadian on every official recognition during race weekends.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Aston Martin (2021).", "content": "Stroll is due to drive for the rebranded Racing Point team in as they become Aston Martin.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Racing record.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Complete Formula One results.", "content": "Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.<br> <nowiki>*</nowiki> Season still in progress.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lance Stroll (born 29 October 1998) is a Belgian-Canadian racing driver currently driving in Formula One with Racing Point, having previously driven for Williams in 2017 and 2018. He was Italian F4 champion in 2014, Toyota Racing Series champion in 2015, and 2016 FIA European Formula 3 champion. He was part of the Ferrari Driver Academy from 2010 to 2015. He achieved his first podium finish, a 3rd place, at the 2017 Azerbaijan Grand Prix, becoming the second-youngest driver to finish an F1 race on the podium and the youngest to do so during his rookie season. Stroll also competed in endurance racing, taking part in the 24 Hours of Daytona in 2016 and 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977502}
{"src_title": "Boreout", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Symptoms and consequences.", "content": "Symptoms of the bore-out syndrome are described by the Frankfurt psychotherapist Wolfgang Merkle as similar to the burnout syndrome. These include depression, drive and insomnia, but also tinnitus, susceptibility to infection, stomach upset, headache and dizziness.  The consequences of boreout for employees are numerous both psychologically and physically and more or less serious. On the psychological level, boredom, dissatisfaction, and permanent frustration gradually lead the victim of a boreout into a vicious circle. They gradually lose the will to act at the professional level and at the personal level. To the loss of self-esteem is added the constant anxiety of being discovered. The boreout victim lives with the constant fear that their supervisor, colleagues, or friends will discover their inactivity and duplicity. The confrontation with and enduring the unsatisfactory situation leads to further stress that paralyzes and strains. Being constantly confronted with the emptiness of their professional life and their uselessness in society, the employee is in great pain. The suffering all the more accentuated because it cannot be shared and if it is, is not understood. This is also the reason that this syndrome is relatively unknown: – Interview: Wolfgang Merkle Frankfurter Allgemeinen Zeitung, 2010  This can lead to serious mental disorders such as personality destruction or even depression or suicide. Boreout is also a trigger for physical diseases such as certain types of epilepsy caused by stress or exhaustion, severe sleep disorders, hand and voice tremors, shingles, and ulcers.  On the physical side, according to the British \"Bored to death\" study, employees who are bored at work are two to three times more likely to be victims of cardiovascular events than those whose employment is stimulating. The permanent anxiety in which the employee lives exhausts him physically. Fatigue is constant despite physical inactivity. Boreout can lead to eating disorders such as untimely nibbling or loss of appetite. Some people may use alcohol or drugs to overcome their discomfort and thus develop a harmful addiction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Elements.", "content": "According to Peter Werder and Philippe Rothlin, the absence of meaningful tasks, rather than the presence of stress, is many workers' chief problem. Boreout consists of three elements: boredom, lack of challenge, and lack of interest. These authors disagree with the common perceptions that a demotivated employee is lazy; instead, they claim that the employee has lost interest in work tasks. Those suffering from boreout are \"dissatisfied with their professional situation\" in that they are frustrated at being prevented, by institutional mechanisms or obstacles as opposed to by their own lack of aptitude, from fulfilling their potential (as by using their skills, knowledge, and abilities to contribute to their company's development) and/or from receiving official recognition for their efforts.  The authors suggest that the reason for researchers' and employers' overlooking the magnitude of boreout-related problems is that they are underreported because revealing them exposes a worker to the risk of social stigma and adverse economic effects. (By the same token, many managers and co-workers consider an employee's level of workplace stress to be indicative of that employee's status in the workplace.)  There are several reasons boreout might occur. The authors note that boreout is unlikely to occur in many non-office jobs where the employee must focus on finishing a specific task (e.g., a surgeon) or helping people in need (e.g., a childcare worker or nanny). In terms of group processes, it may well be that the boss or certain forceful or ambitious individuals with the team take all the interesting work leaving only a little of the most boring tasks for the others. Alternatively, the structure of the organization may simply promote this inefficiency. Of course, few if any employees (even among those who would prefer to leave) want to be fired or laid off, so the vast majority are unwilling and unlikely to call attention to the dispensable nature of their role.  As such, even if an employee has very little work to do or would only expect to be given qualitative inadequate work, s/he gives the appearance of \"looking busy\" (e.g., ensuring that a work-related document is open on one's computer, covering one's desk with file folders, and carrying briefcases (whether empty or loaded) from work to one's home and vice versa).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coping strategies.", "content": "The symptoms of boreout lead employees to adopt coping or work-avoidance strategies that create the appearance that they are already under stress, suggesting to management both that they are heavily \"in demand\" as workers and that they should not be given additional work: \"The boreout sufferer's aim is to look busy, to not be given any new work by the boss and, certainly, not to lose the job.\"  Boreout strategies include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences for Employee.", "content": "Consequences of boreout for employees include dissatisfaction, fatigue as well as ennui and low self-esteem. The paradox of boreout is that despite hating the situation, employees feel unable to ask for more challenging tasks, to raise the situation with superiors or even look for a new job. The authors do however propose a solution: first, one must analyse one's personal job situation, then look for a solution within the company and finally if that does not help, look for a new job. If all else fails, turning to friends, family, or other co-workers for support can be extremely beneficial until any of the previously listed options become viable.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Consequences for Business.", "content": "According to Prammer, boreout can also have a variety of effects on businesses:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Boredom boreout syndrome is a psychological disorder that causes physical illness, mainly caused by mental underload at the workplace due to lack of either adequate quantitative or qualitative workload. One reason for bore-out could be that the initial job description does not match the actual work.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977503}
{"src_title": "Oldřich Lajsek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Lajsek was born on February 8, 1925 in Křesetice, a village near Kutná Hora in the central Bohemia (Czechoslovakia) in a merchant family. In 1944, he graduated from a machinery industrial high school in Kutná Hora. During World War II, he took part in a rebellious organization \"The Fist\", where he fought against the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia. After World War II, he moved to Prague, Czechoslovakia, where he worked in the Czechoslovak Union of Industry. Beginning in 1946, he studied at the Charles University in Prague. During this time, Lajsek discovered his artistic talent, and he graduated in 1950. In 1966 he also graduated with degree in economy. Then he worked as a teacher. He was also a professor at the School of Applied Arts in Prague beginning in 1955.  Lajsek achieved success in his artistic career quite early. In 1955, he was accepted into the Štursa society, and later to the VI Center. He took part in a competition for renovation of premises of the National Theatre (Prague). Since 1954, he had been a member of the Union of Czechoslovak Creative Artists. In 1960, he established an artistic society named The Group of Eight Artists, in which he acted as the head. The aims of this society were mainly to set up educational, artistic events in the countryside and to look for new places where various exhibitions might be held. In 1985, he was awarded by the president of republic with the national honor For Excellent Work. He died on October 2, 2001 in Prague, Czech Republic, at the age of 76.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Painting.", "content": "His artistic production was very versatile in genres. He was dedicated to abstract painting, realism, surrealism, etc. But his best known production was landscape-painting. In this respect, he was one of the best-known painters of his period in Czechoslovakia. He inspired himself in his home Central-Bohemian region or in streets of Prague, as well as during his abroad journeys to Greece or Yugoslavia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Oldřich Lajsek (Czech pronunciation: lai•sek) (February 8, 1925 - October 2, 2001) was a Czech painter, designer, graphic artist and teacher of arts. He became a member of the Union of Czechoslovak Creative Artists in 1954. He was the head of an artistic society named The Group of Eight Artists. In 1985, he was awarded the national honor For Excellent Work. During his life, he created over 3000 productions of which more than 1800 went to private collections.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977504}
{"src_title": "Ivor Guest, 1st Viscount Wimborne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "He was the eldest son of Ivor Guest, 1st Baron Wimborne, and Lady Cornelia Henrietta Maria Spencer-Churchill, daughter of John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough. He was the elder brother of Frederick Guest, Oscar Guest and Henry Guest, and a first cousin of Winston Churchill. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge.  He was commissioned a lieutenant in the Dorset Yeomanry on 9 May 1896. Following the outbreak of the Second Boer War in late 1899, he volunteered for service and was appointed a lieutenant in the Imperial Yeomanry on 24 February 1900, leaving England for South Africa on the \"SS Manchester Merchant\" in early March. He was awarded the Queen's South Africa Medal with two clasps. After returning to the United Kingdom, he was promoted to captain on 18 January 1902.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career, 1900–1915.", "content": "He was elected to Parliament for Plymouth in a by-election in February 1900 (a seat he had unsuccessfully contested in 1898), as a Conservative, and retained his seat in the general election of 1900. In 1904, during the controversy within the Conservative Party over adopting protectionism, he and other members of his family followed Churchill into the Liberal Party in support of free trade.  He sat as an MP until 1910, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron Ashby St Ledgers, of Ashby St Ledgers in the County of Northampton, and became Paymaster General in the government of H. H. Asquith. He served as Paymaster General until 1912, and later served as a Lord in Waiting on King George V.  In 1914, he succeeded his father as Baron Wimborne. At the start of World War I, he was appointed to the staff of the newly formed 10th (Irish) Division under Lieutenant-General Sir Bryan Mahon at the Curragh Camp.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, 1915–1918.", "content": "In February 1915, Wimborne was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in succession to Lord Aberdeen. At this time, the Lord Lieutenant was largely a ceremonial position; real power was in the hands of the Chief Secretary and the Under-Secretary. Determined to be more involved in decision-making, he was appointed Director of Recruiting in October 1915, heading up the new Department of Recruiting for Ireland. He insisted on being kept up to date on the state of the country, and had the Under-Secretary, Sir Matthew Nathan, send him police reports, details of prosecutions and recruitment figures.  On the weekend preceding the Easter Rising, following the capture of the German arms ship \"Aud\" and the arrest of Sir Roger Casement, Wimborne urged Nathan to order the arrest of a large number of rebel leaders. Nathan was unwilling to do so without the authorisation of the Chief Secretary, Augustine Birrell, who was in London. Before the authorisation was received, the Rising began on 24 April 1916. Wimborne proclaimed martial law in Dublin. Thereafter, the military took control. A new Commander-in Chief, General Sir John Maxwell, arrived in Ireland on 28 April and the rebels surrendered on 29 April. Wimborne initially refused to offer his resignation after the Rising. He resigned under pressure from the government but was re-appointed.  The Royal Commission on the 1916 Rebellion (the Hardinge commission) exonerated Wimborne of any blame for the Rising, saying that his position as Lord Lieutenant was \"anomalous in quiet times and almost unworkable in times of crisis\". He continued as Lord Lieutenant for another two years. On his retirement in 1918, he was created Viscount Wimborne, of Canford Magna in the County of Dorset.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and issue.", "content": "On 10 February 1902, he married at St Peter's Church, Eaton Square, London, the Honourable Alice Grosvenor (1880–1948), daughter of Robert Grosvenor, 2nd Baron Ebury. They had one son, Ivor Guest, 2nd Viscount Wimborne, and two daughters, Rosemary and Cynthia.  By the 1930s, they were living separate lives, though remaining on the friendliest terms. From 1934 until her death, Alice was linked with the composer William Walton. Wimborne died in June 1939, aged 66, at Wimborne House in Arlington Street, London, the house in which he was born. He was succeeded by his only son, Ivor. Lady Wimborne died in April 1948, aged 67.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ivor Churchill Guest, 1st Viscount Wimborne, KP, PC (16 January 1873 – 14 June 1939), known as Lord Ashby St Ledgers from 1910 to 1914 and as Lord Wimborne from 1914, was a British politician and one of the last Lords Lieutenant of Ireland, serving in that position at the time of the Easter Rising.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977505}
{"src_title": "Abby and Brittany Hensel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The twins were born in Carver County, Minnesota, to Patty, a registered nurse, and Mike Hensel, a carpenter and landscaper. They have a younger brother and sister. They were raised in New Germany, Minnesota, attended Mayer Lutheran High School in Mayer, and graduated from Bethel University in St. Paul in 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physiology.", "content": "The twins have a single body with separate heads and necks, a chest that is wider than normal, two arms, and two legs. At birth, they had a rudimentary arm between the bases of their necks attached to a shoulder blade at the back, being combined parts of Abby's left arm and Brittany's right arm. It was removed, leaving the shoulder blade.  Abby's head tilts laterally outward about 5 degrees to the right, while Brittany's tilts laterally at about 15 degrees to the left, causing her to appear shorter even when seated. Brittany's leg is in fact nearly two inches shorter than Abby's and Brittany tends to stand and walk on tip-toe which has made her calf muscle significantly larger than Abby's. The continued growth of Abby's spine was surgically halted after Brittany prematurely stopped growing. At age 12, they underwent surgery at Gillette Children's Specialty Healthcare to correct scoliosis and to expand their chest cavity to prevent future difficulties with breathing.  Each twin manages one side of their conjoined body. The sense of touch of each is restricted to her body half; this shades off at the midsagittal plane such that there is a small amount of overlap at the midline. Stomach aches, however, are felt by only the twin on the opposite side.  They cooperatively use their limbs when both hands or both legs are required. By coordinating their efforts, they are able to walk, run, swim, and ride a bicycle normally. Together, they can type on a computer keyboard and drive a car. However, Abby, at, is taller and longer of leg than Brittany, at and their disparate heights led to difficulty in balancing a Segway, as shown in their 2012 reality series.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organ distribution.", "content": "The twins have individual organs in the upper part of their body, while most located at or below the level of the navel are shared, the exception being the spinal cord.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Separation.", "content": "Upon their birth, the twins' parents decided not to attempt surgical separation after hearing from doctors that it was not likely that both would survive the operation. As the twins grew and learned to walk and develop other skills, their parents confirmed their decision against separation, arguing that the quality of life for the surviving twin or twins living separately would be less than their quality of life as conjoined people.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Adulthood.", "content": "The twins both passed their driver's license exams, both the written and practical tests. Although driving is a coordinated activity, they had to take the test twice, once for each twin. Abby controls the devices on the right of the driver's seat; Brittany, those on the left. Together they control the steering wheel.  They both graduated from high school in 2008. They began college at Bethel University in Arden Hills, Minnesota, majoring in education. They had considered pursuing different concentrations within that major, but the volume of extra coursework was prohibitive. They graduated with Bachelor of Arts degrees in 2012.  Some of the twins' clothes are altered by a seamstress so that they have two separate necklines, in order to emphasize their individuality. They usually have separate meals, but sometimes share a single meal for the sake of convenience. For tasks such as responding to email, they type and respond as one, anticipating each other's feelings with little verbal communication between them. In such cases as the latter, their choice of grammatical person is to use \"I\" when they agree, but use their names when their responses do differ.  They intensely dislike being stared at or photographed by strangers while going about their private lives. In interviews for the Discovery Channel in 2006, they, then 16, said that they hoped to date, get married, and have children. They also stated that they hoped that by providing some information about themselves, they would be able to lead otherwise fairly typical social lives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media appearances.", "content": "The twins appeared on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" on April 8 and April 29, 1996. During the same month, they were featured on the cover of \"Life\" under the caption \"One Body, Two Souls\", and their daily lifestyle was described in the article, \"The Hensels' Summer\". \"Life\" followed up with another story in September 1998. In 2002, they appeared in \"Joined for Life\", a TV documentary by Advanced Medical Productions, distributed on the Discovery Health Channel and a 2003 follow-up, \"Joined at Birth\".  In 2003, an updated story of them at age 11 (filmed in 2001) was published in \"Time\" and again in \"Life\". ABC TV also did a documentary called \"Joined For Life\".  A UK television special in 2005 as part of the series \"Extraordinary People\". In 2006, Advanced Medical made another documentary, \"Joined for Life: Abby & Brittany turn 16\", that discusses their adolescence, school, social life, and activities such as getting their driver's licenses.  The twins starred in the reality TV show \"Abby & Brittany\" that started in August 2012. \"Abby and Brittany: Joined for Life\" was shown by the BBC in the UK in May 2013, and covers the period from their finishing college to starting a part-time teaching job.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "Documentaries and other television appearances include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abigail Loraine Hensel and Brittany Lee Hensel (born March 7, 1990) are American conjoined twins. They are dicephalic parapagus twins, and are highly symmetric for conjoined twins, giving the appearance of having a single body without marked variation from normal proportions. Each has a separate heart, stomach, spine, pair of lungs, and spinal cord.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977506}
{"src_title": "Subway Surfers", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Subway Surfers\" is an endless runner video game. The game starts by tapping the touchscreen, while Jake (the game's starter character) or any other character sprays graffiti on a train, and then gets caught in the act by the inspector and his dog, who starts chasing the character. While running, the player can swipe up, down, left, or right to avoid crashing into oncoming obstacles especially moving trains, poles, tunnel walls and barriers. By swiping rapidly as speed increases, more points can be acquired. A crash results in a game over, but the player can continue running by using keys. The player can collect various items such as coins, keys, score multipliers, super sneakers, jetpacks, magnets, mystery boxes and power jumpers. A power jumper provides combustion by launching up the character, while a jetpack has an ability to fly, a coin magnet that attracts all coins on the track, super sneakers that gives the ability to jump higher and a score multiplier that multiplies the score. Items, such as a hoverboard, allows the character to avoid collisions lasting about 30 seconds.  Daily Challenges and Weekly Hunts give rewards for unique movements throughout gameplay. Missions have various tasks measured by player accuracy. Up to 18 characters are unlocked using via coins, keys, in-game purchases, collecting specific items, or connecting to a Facebook account. Most characters have up to 2 different outfits. Meanwhile, up to 17 hoverboards can be unlocked with the same methods; each have different abilities that can assist the player. When the game updates to a new location, a new character and hoverboard will be available temporarily until the next update.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Subway Surfers\" received decent reviews. Critics praised the game's visual style and entertaining gameplay, but criticized it for its monotonous world and unresponsive controls. Review aggregator website Metacritic gave the game 71 out of 100 based on 8 reviews.  Dan Griliopoulos of \"Pocket Gamer\" gave the game a score of 5 out of 10, praising the game's fun gameplay and free access, but criticizing the game's controls and parsimonious game design.  Gamezebo's Dant Rambo scored the game 3.5 out of 5, writing \"It makes little attempt to stand out from other endless runners, but it's hard not to appreciate the polish of \"Subway Surfers\". The controls are responsive, the gameplay is addictive, and it doesn't try and force you into spending cash on in-game items.\"  Other reviewers were not as critical. \"148Apps\" and \"TouchArcade\" gave the game 4/5.  The game was nominated for \"Action Game\" and \"Family & Kids Game\" at the 2019 Webby Awards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Subway Surfers: The Animated Series\".", "content": "On 1 June 2018, a series of animated shorts debuted on SYBO Games' YouTube channel. The 10 x 4 minute episodic series is scripted by Brent Friedman and Francesca Marie Smith and produced by Sander Schwartz. Chris Bartleman is supervising director and Michael Hegner is director. Denmark's WilFilm provides post-production services. The series currently has 11 episodes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Subway Surfers is an endless runner mobile game co-developed by Kiloo and SYBO Games, private companies based in Denmark. It is available on Android, iOS, Kindle, and Windows Phone platforms and uses the Unity game engine. In the game, players take the role of young graffiti artists who, upon being caught in the act of applying graffiti to (\"tagging\") a metro railway site, run through the railroad tracks to escape from the inspector and his dog. As they run, they grab gold coins, power-ups and other items along the way while simultaneously dodging collisions with trains and other objects, and can also jump on top of the trains and surf with hoverboards to evade the capture until the character crashes on an obstacle, getting caught by the inspector or getting hit by a train. Special events, such as the Weekly Hunt, can result in in-game rewards and characters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977507}
{"src_title": "Extant (TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Premise.", "content": "Molly Woods, an astronaut with ISEA (International Space Exploration Agency) is assigned a 13-month solo mission aboard space station \"Seraphim\". She returns home to her husband John, a robotics engineer who created their son Ethan, a prototype android called a \"humanich\". When Molly discovers that she has mysteriously become pregnant despite years of infertility, she begins a search for answers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "\"Extant\" has received generally favorable reviews. On Metacritic, the first season holds a score of 68 out of 100, based on 31 critics, and season 2 has a score of 63 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating \"generally favorable\" reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds a \"certified fresh\" rating of 83% based on 40 reviews, with the consensus reading: \"While many of its ideas are clearly borrowed from other sources, \"Extant\" benefits from a unique approach to some familiar stories and a strong lead in Halle Berry.\" The second season holds a \"fresh\" rating of 73% based on 11 reviews, with the consensus reading: \"Extant amps up the action in Season Two, adding much-needed stamina to shore up Halle Berry's compelling performance.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ratings.", "content": "Including Live + 3 day (DVR) viewing, the series premiere was watched by 11.88 million viewers and attained an 18-49 rating of 2.2.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Accolades.", "content": "In 2014, \"Extant\" was chosen, along with six others, for the Critics' Choice Television Award for Most Exciting New Series.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media releases.", "content": "On December 16, 2014, CBS Home Entertainment released the first season on DVD and Blu-ray in Region 1. The second season was released on DVD and Blu-ray on December 15, 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcast.", "content": "The series is available for streaming on Amazon Video devices four days after broadcast on CBS. In Canada, the series premiered on July 9, 2014, on Global Television Network. In Australia, the series premiered on July 13, 2014, on Network Ten. The series premiered in the United Kingdom on July 10, 2014, on Amazon Video. It made its television premiere on January 20, 2015 on Syfy. In New Zealand, it debuted on July 23, 2014 on Prime.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Extant is an American science fiction drama television series created by Mickey Fisher and, as executive producer, Steven Spielberg. The story revolves around astronaut Molly Woods (Halle Berry) who returns home to her family inexplicably pregnant after 13 months in outer space on a solo mission.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977508}
{"src_title": "2014 Moscow Metro derailment", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Moscow Metro, being one of the busiest in the world and serving up to nine million passengers on a daily basis, covered of route and included 194 stations at the time of the derailment. Despite having a reputation for reliability, the system has been increasingly suffering from mismanagement, cost-cutting practices, poor maintenance and outages in recent years.  According to several media reports, a Facebook user announced that two weeks prior to the disaster, he filed an official request to the head of the underground system reporting \"problems with the tracks.\" The user quoted from the reply received in his e-mail: \"The tracks are maintained in conformity with the technical standards and tolerances. Problems with mechanical switches in the joints have not been detected, being that the size of the gaps correspond to the technical regulations.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derailment.", "content": "The derailment occurred away from the Park Pobedy station outbound towards the Slavyansky Bulvar station, near the railroad switch to a then-unused track for the western section of the Kalininskaya Line. The switch was installed a few weeks prior to the accident, as part of a construction project initiated in 2013 that was working to extend the Kalininskaya Line to the western part of Solntsevo District. Surviving passengers who were unable to cross the debris were evacuated through several construction drifts leading to the surface shaft.  The derailment also caused a massive power outage on the line; another train, which was located in the tunnel at the time of accident some from Slavyansky Bulvar, was also stuck, and passengers had to be evacuated. There were no medical injuries reported from that train.  Early reports cited a power surge as the cause of the accident, but this has not been confirmed and remains under investigation. Passengers on the train described cars striking one another, with most of the impact occurring at the front of the train. The first car, where all of the deaths reportedly occurred, had jackknifed in on itself, and the cars behind it piled up on each other. The final two cars remained on the tracks and were only slightly damaged.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Victims.", "content": "There were 24 killed in the accident (22 initially, 2 in hospitals), and about 118 were hospitalized. Seventeen of the victims were Russian citizens, and the remaining victims included 2 citizens of Tajikistan, 2 citizens of China, and one person each from Ukraine, Moldova and Kyrgyzstan. About 42 people remained in \"serious condition\". Another 200 people were evacuated from the Metro; those with injuries were attended outside the station. Initial reports stated that an additional 20 passengers remained underground, trapped in one of the cars. The train operator, a 29-year-old man, survived the crash, but was badly injured and had to undergo cranial surgery.  An accident witness reported to a news agency: A spokesperson for the transport commission indicated that all passengers were \"evacuated from the affected stations by midday\". Terrorist threat was suspected, but quickly dismissed in this case. In the early morning of 17 July, personnel finished clearing away the debris and reported another casualty. In total, 17 corpses were removed from the debris, with the remainder of the victims succumbing to critical injuries within 24 hours of rescue. The tunnel was reportedly ready for repairs and night time maintenance as of 1:00 am local time on 18 July and restored to full functionality around 6:00 am.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Investigation.", "content": "On 15 July 2014, the Investigative Committee of Russia opened a criminal investigation of the accident, according to part 3 of Article 263.1 of the Criminal Code (violation of the requirements of transport safety). Supervising examination of the accident site, investigators interviewed witnesses and employees., the Committee's official representative, said that several causes for the accident were being considered, but that all were technical, there being no connection with terrorist attacks. He stated that certain people would be investigated and suspects would be identified.  On 16 July 2014, a senior track master and his assistant, who had worked on the installation of the new switch, were detained on a charge of negligence. According to investigators, they installed it incorrectly two months previously using a wire instead of special equipment to forcibly lock the switch, as it led to a yet incomplete tunnel. This wire could have failed and gotten the switch stuck in an intermediate position, derailing the train. Unprofessional operation of the train was said to have been another contributing factor, as the previous train that had passed over the switch 3 to 4 minutes before the accident had been traveling at a lower speed, and thus had not derailed.  On 22 July 2014, Ivan Besedin, chief executive of the Moscow Metro, was removed from office by Mayor Sergey Sobyanin. Besedin was replaced by former chief executive of the high speed railway branch of Russian Railways, Dmitry Pegov, in order to restore Muscovites' faith in the metro safety.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Verdicts.", "content": "The first trial on the matter ended and the verdicts were announced on 9 November 2015. Track master assistant Yuri Gordov was sentenced to 6 years of imprisonment, track repair deputy director Aleksei Trofimov, senior track master Valeri Bashkatov and deputy director of the subcontractor company \"Spetstekhrekonstruktsiya\" Anatoli Kruglov each were sentenced to 5.5 years of imprisonment. There is a separate investigation involving six additional defendants that was still ongoing at the time of conclusion of the first trial.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "On 15 July 2014, at around 8:40 am MSK (), an outbound Moscow Metro train derailed between Park Pobedy and Slavyansky Bulvar stations of the Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya Line. Casualties reported include 24 dead and 160 injured. Early reports suggested a power surge or a terrorist attack to be the cause of the derailment, but both were soon dismissed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977509}
{"src_title": "Juncker Commission", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Election.", "content": "In the 2014 parliamentary election, Juncker campaigned as the candidate of the European People's Party (EPP) for the presidency of the European Commission. The EPP won a plurality in parliament, and on 27 June, the European Council nominated him for the post. Later on 15 July 2014, the European Parliament elected Juncker as the new Commission president. On 22 October, the European Parliament approved the Juncker Commission in its entirety and during the 23–24 October 2014 meeting of the European Council the Council formally appointed the new Commission. On 1 November 2014, the new Commission officially assumed office. Juncker has outlined a ten-point agenda for his Presidency focusing on jobs and growth.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commissioners.", "content": "The following college of commissioners serves under Juncker's presidency:  (14)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "President's cabinet.", "content": "The President's cabinet supports the President of the commission, and thus has a very central role in coordinating the work of the European Commission as a whole. The president's cabinet is led by Clara Martinez Alberola. Formerly, it was led by Martin Selmayr, who has been described as \"the most powerful EU chief of staff ever.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Project teams.", "content": "Juncker has for the first time proposed a commission that clusters certain members together under designated policy areas. These clusters are known as \"Project Teams\" and will each be headed by one of the vice presidents. Each team is composed of a core membership in addition to members who may fall under its respective umbrella as needed. Timmermans and Georgieva both oversee all commissioners while the remaining five project teams are as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "A European Agenda on Migration.", "content": "In 2015, when European migrant crisis unfolded, new project team was formed.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Juncker Commission was the European Commission in office since 1 November 2014 to 30 November 2019. Its president was Jean-Claude Juncker, who presided over 27 other commissioners (one from each of the states composing the European Union, except Luxembourg, which is Juncker's state). In July 2014, Juncker was officially elected to succeed José Manuel Barroso, who completed his second five-year term in that year.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977510}
{"src_title": "2015 Polish parliamentary election", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Electoral system.", "content": "The process of election for the Sejm is through open party-list proportional representation via the D'hondt method in multi-seat constituencies, with a 5% national threshold for single parties and 8% threshold for coalitions (requirements waived for ethnic minorities). The senate is elected using first-past-the-post voting in single-member districts. To be included on a ballot, a senate candidate must present 2,000 signatures of support from their constituents. For Sejm elections, the threshold is 5,000 signatures per constituency, though that requirement is waived for parties that have already registered lists in at least half of all constituencies (21 out of 41 as of this election).  Overall, the Sejm includes 460 MPs. Should a party have 231 or more deputies in Parliament, it has an absolute majority and can thus govern autonomously, without the need for support from other parties. The constitution can be amended with a supermajority of two-thirds, or 307 deputies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Election date.", "content": "The date of the election, 25 October, was set by the previous President of Poland, Bronisław Komorowski. The latest possible date for the election to be held was in November 2015, four years after the previous election. Prior to the announcement of the election date, the most likely dates were thought to be in October or November.  In the previous parliamentary elections in 2011 the Civic Platform–Polish People's Party coalition government, in power since 2007, won a second term. All 460 seats in the Sejm and 100 seats in the Senate were up for election.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "The opposition party, Law and Justice won the election with 37.58% of the vote against the governing Civic Platform, which gained a 24.09% share. Beata Szydło became the new Prime Minister, succeeding Ewa Kopacz. Law and Justice became the first party in Poland to win majority government in a free election, since 1991. The other parties considered winners were two newcomer parties, Kukiz's Movement (third place) and Ryszard Petru's Modern party (4th place).  Two of the biggest losers were Civic Platform and the Polish People's Party. PO suffered its worst result in a parliamentary election in ten years, ending eight years of political dominance. The PSL, the junior partner in the outgoing government, had its worst result in 25 years (5.13%), just crossing the 5% threshold by a few thousand votes. Another perceived loser was the Democratic Left Alliance, Poland's largest left-wing party, which failed to win a seat for the first time since the change of system. The SLD ran as the largest partner of the United Left, which was 0.5% short of the 8% threshold for electoral alliances to win seats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Political analysts noted that the election marked the first time in the post-communist era that a political party received enough votes to form a majority government. BBC News suggested that Law and Justice's strategy of putting forward Szydło as its candidate for prime minister was a \"winning formula\" in the election. Szydło was widely perceived as being more moderate than PiS' outspoken leader, Jarosław Kaczyński. However, it also noted that Kaczyński could step into the role of prime minister after the election.  According to the Associated Press, the new Sejm was the most right-wing parliament in Europe due to the absence of centre-left MPs in the chamber. All five parties in the Sejm tilted rightward on social issues. Between them, left-leaning alliances only gained 11 percent of the vote.  Kopacz swiftly conceded defeat after exit polls from TVP showed PiS on its way to a majority, while Kaczyński declared victory and hailed his party's historic majority. Kaczyński also paid tribute to his late brother, President Lech Kaczyński, who died in the 2010 plane crash.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Parliamentary elections to both the Sejm and Senate were held in Poland on 25 October 2015. The election was won by the largest opposition party, the right-wing Law and Justice (PiS), with 37.6% of the vote against the governing Civic Platform (PO), which achieved 24.1%. Official results, announced on 27 October, gave Law and Justice 235 of 460 seats (51 percent), a majority of four. PiS vice chairwoman Beata Szydło succeeded PO leader Ewa Kopacz as Prime Minister of Poland, heading a one-party cabinet.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977511}
{"src_title": "Agnes of Montepulciano", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Agnes was born in 1268 into the noble Segni family in Gracciano, a frazione of Montepulciano, then part of the Papal States. At the age of nine, she convinced her parents to allow her to enter a Franciscan monastery of women in the city known as the \"Sisters of the Sack\", after the rough religious habit they wore. They lived a simple, contemplative life. She received the permission of the pope to be accepted into this life at such a young age, which was normally against Church law.  In 1281, the lord of the castle of Proceno, a fief of Orvieto, invited the nuns of Montepulciano to send some of their sisters to Proceno to found a new monastery. Agnes was among the nuns sent to found this new community. At the age of fourteen she was appointed bursar.  In 1288 Agnes, despite her youth at only 20 years of age, was noted for her devotion to the Blessed Sacrament and deep life of prayer, and was elected as the abbess of the community. There she gained a reputation for performing miracles; people suffering from mental and physical ailments seemed cured by her presence. She was reported to have \"multiplied loaves\", creating many from a few on numerous occasions, recalling the Gospel miracle of the loaves and fishes. She herself, however, suffered severe bouts of illness which lasted long periods of time.  In 1306, Agnes was recalled to head the monastery in Montepulciano. Agnes reached a high degree of contemplative prayer and is said to have been favored with many visions. After her return, she proceeded to build a church, Santa Maria Novella in Florence, to honor the Blessed Mother, as she felt she had been commanded to do in a mystical vision several years earlier. She also had a vision of St. Dominic Guzman, under the inspiration of which she led the nuns of her monastery to embrace the Rule of St. Augustine as members of the Dominican Order. She was frequently called upon to bring peace to the warring families of the city.  By 1316, Agnes' health had declined so greatly that her doctor suggested taking the cure at the thermal springs in the neighboring town of Chianciano Terme. The nuns of the community prevailed upon her to take his recommendation. While many of the other bathers reported being cured of their illnesses, Agnes herself received no benefit from the springs. Her health failed to such a degree that she had to be carried back to the monastery on a stretcher.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Veneration.", "content": "Agnes died the following 20 April, at the age of 49. The Dominican friars attempted to obtain balsam (or myrrh) to embalm her body. It was found, however, to be producing a sweet odor on its own, and her limbs remained supple.  When her body was moved years after her death to the monastery church, it was found to be incorrupt. Her tomb became the site of pilgrimages.  Some fifty years later, a Dominican friar, the Blessed Raymond of Capua, who served as confessor to St. Catherine of Siena, wrote an account of Agnes' life. He described her body as still appearing as if she were alive. Catherine herself referred to her as \"Our mother, the glorious Agnes\". Catherine made a pilgrimage to Montepulciano while visiting her niece, Eugenie, who was a nun there.  Agnes was canonized by Pope Benedict XIII in 1726. Her feast day is celebrated within the Dominican Order on 20 April.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agnes of Montepulciano, O.P. (1268 – 1317), was a Dominican prioress in medieval Tuscany, who was known as a miracle worker during her lifetime. She is honored as a saint by the Catholic Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977512}
{"src_title": "Polandball", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Polandball has its roots in an August 2009 \"cyberwar\" between Polish Internet users and the rest of the world on drawball.com. The website, which offers a virtual canvas, allows Internet users to draw whatever they want, and to draw over others' drawings. On the Polish internet, an idea was raised to draw the Polish flag on the ball, and thousands of Poles together managed to take over the drawball with a painting of white on top of red, with the word \"POLSKA\" written in the middle. After co-ordination from 4chan, this was then covered over by a giant swastika, an interaction which was repeated several times over the ensuing weeks.  Krautchan.net was a German-language imageboard whose /int/ board was frequented by English-speaking netizens. The beginning of the Polandball meme is credited to \"Falco\", a British user on /int/, who created the meme in September 2009 using Microsoft Paint in an apolitical way to troll \"Wojak\", a Pole on the same board who contributed in broken English, after which Polandball cartoons were enthusiastically drawn by Russians.  Polandball comics have no defined authors, and anyone is able to make one. This has become an internet meme, presented e.g., on Reddit and Facebook.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Themes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poland.", "content": "The premise of Polandball is that it represents Poland and its history, relations with other countries and stereotypes, focusing on Polish megalomania and national complexes. With the exception of English-speaking ones, interactions between countryballs tend to be written in broken English and Internet slang, reminiscent of the lolcat meme, and by the end of the cartoon Poland, which is purposely represented as red on top of white (the reverse of the Polish flag), is typically seen weeping.  Polandball depiction of Poland portrays a number of stereotypes. These include bad English use by Poles, blaming others for its failures in particular given the backdrop of repeated invasions by Russians and Germans (such as the 18th century partitions and World War II), Polish propensity for telling tales of the glorious past, and the perception of Poles as \"dull-witted\" and \"psycho-Catholic\".  Some Polandball comics arise from the premise that Russia can fly into space, whilst Poland cannot. One of the earliest Polandball comics begins with the premise that Earth is going to be struck by a giant meteor, leading to all countries with space technology leaving Earth and going into orbit around the planet. At the end of the cartoon, Poland, still on earth, is crying, and in broken English pronounces the canonical Polandball catchphrase \"Poland cannot into space\". In this humorous way, Russians put a halt to all discussion with Poles on which country is superior.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other countries.", "content": "Polandball can also include comics on other countries, but by convention these comics are usually still referred to as Polandball comics, although they are sometimes also referred to as countryballs. States, provinces, and other such divisions can also be used; multi-national organizations such as the European Union and United Nations are also common, but their lack of power compared to their constituent states means that they are portrayed as weak or puppets. Countries are also represented as balls.  There are various other established conventions. The 'r's and 'l's in East Asian nations' speech switch places in a stereotypes of East Asians. The United States sports a pair of shades and often has its stars replaced by the text \"x50\", and regularly uses profanity. It regularly mistakes countryballs without a direct historical and/or political connection to it either for their neighbors or with those with similar flags. Japan sometimes wears cat ears, the United Kingdom wears a monocle and a top hat (as does Hong Kong, since it was once a territory of the United Kingdom) and Canada is often seen wearing a coonskin cap.  The simplicity of Polandball, added with its recognition of world history and a focus on current affairs, makes the meme suited to commenting on international events. Amongst events which have been covered by Polandball and have been noted in the media, are the Senkaku Islands dispute, the 2013 papal conclave which saw Jorge Mario Bergoglio being elected as the new Pope, the 2014 Ukrainian crisis, the 2014 Crimean crisis and issues relating to Filipino workers in Taiwan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Assessment.", "content": "A report on the Russian radio station Vesti FM noted a post on Livejournal which asked readers to list five images that come to mind when thinking of Poland or Poles. The five pages of responses, illustrating the deep historical ties between Russia and Poland, recalled subjects including False Dmitriy I, \"Tomek in the Land of the Kangaroos\" by Polish author Alfred Szklarski, \"Czterej pancerni i pies\" (\"Four tank-men and a dog\"), Russophobia and Polandball.  Wojciech Oleksiak, writing on culture.pl, a project of the Polish government-funded Adam Mickiewicz Institute which has the aim of promoting Polish language and culture abroad, noted that due to anyone being able to create a Polandball comic, the existence of the meme has created new opportunities for people to express their personal views on race, religion and history. In describing Polandball as the Internet \"par excellence\", he further stated that comic plots can be \"rude, impolite, racist, abusive, or just plain dumb\", whilst also noting that the politically incorrect nature of the comics add to the attractiveness of the meme.  At the same time, Oleksiak notes that Polandball comics often employ exaggerated Polish stereotypes, such as Poles not being as proficient in English as other nationalities, and Poland itself being a country full of dull-witted hyper-Catholics. On the other hand, some stereotypes employed in Polandball comics, such as Poles telling stories about the nation's glorious history and dwelling on a deep rooted martyrdom, are mostly true; whilst the stereotype that Poles hold many national complexes and blame external forces for their own failures, is true, but somewhat justified.  Oleksiak further notes that from Polandball, Poles can learn to have \"a sense of humour about our long-time grudges\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "A Nintendo Switch game called \"Polandball can into Space\" was released on 18 June 2020.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Polandball, also known as countryballs, refers to user-generated visual art, typically manifesting as online comics, where countries are personified as (typically) spherical personas decorated with their country's flag, interacting in often broken English (with the exception of countryballs that speak English natively), usually with regional and/or national variations (e.g. France's Engrish is interspersed with French words). The characters poke fun at national stereotypes and international relations, as well as historical conflicts. Countryballs have also been used in videos and comics involving alternate and speculative history. It is an Internet meme which originated on the /int/ board of German imageboard Krautchan.net in the latter half of 2009.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977513}
{"src_title": "John Dominici", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Giovanni Dominici was born in Florence in 1355 to the poor but devout Domenico Dominici (a silk merchant) and Paola Zorzi. His father died while his mother was pregnant with Giovanni.  In his childhood he spent hours in the Dominican-run Santa Maria Novella church. If someone needed to see him his mother directed them to the church and said: \"There he spends all his houses\". It therefore stood to reason that in 1370 he sought admission into the order. But he suffered from a severe speech impediment which - combined with a lack of formal education - made the friars doubt his vocation to their order. They refused him admission a number of times until 1372 and even insisted that he should remain home to care for his mother. But his mother insisted that Dominici should follow his calling for it was not for her to stand against his religious calling.  He was then accepted and began his novitiate with the friars there and he began his studies in Pisa and Florence. The friars were surprised to see that he had a sharp mind with a good grasp of the complexities of theological and philosophical subject so much so that he was sent to the college in Paris to further his studies. On his return from Paris when he completed his theological studies his speech impediment became the problem which the authorities of the order had feared from the beginning. Preaching was an expected part of each friar's life which would prove to be problematic for Dominici. He sought the intercession of the Dominican secular Saint Catherine of Siena and he was cured of this impediment. Dominici was ordained to the priesthood in 1380. He was then appointed as a professor and preacher and held that post for over a decade in Venice. Dominici became the prior for the order's house at Santa Maria Novella in 1381 and retained the position until serving as the prior from 1386 to 1387. He was teaching at San Zanipolo in Venice from 1388 until 1389 when he left.  In 1392 he was appointed as the Vicar Provincial for the Roman province of the order in 1392. It was a time of disorder for the Dominicans for the order had suffered major losses in membership through a great plague. The convent in Venice had lost 77 friars in a matter of months as an example. The Master General Raymond of Capua authorized Dominici to establish priories of strict observance in Venice (1394) and Fiesole (1406). It was in the latter that the talented artists and brothers Giovanni and Benedetto entered the order around 1407. Giovanni would later be known as Fra Angelico. Dominici also founded the Corpus Domini convent in Venice for the Dominican nuns of the strict observance; an account of his life was found in the chronicle and necrology of that place after Bartolomea Riccoboni discovered it. He also corresponded with Chiara Gambacorti and advised her on how to restore discipline to Dominican nuns.  Dominici received into the order on 4 August 1405 four men which included the future Archbishop of Florence Antoninus after the latter heard him preach once. The two worked together in Fiesole. Vincent Ferrer was once preaching in Genoa when an invitation was extended for him to preach in Florence. But Ferrer said he would not since a saint (Dominici) was among their number and was preaching.  Dominici was sent as the Venetian representative to the papal conclave of 1406 in which Pope Gregory XII was elected. He soon became the counsellor and confessor for the pope who on 26 March 1408 appointed him as the Archbishop of Ragusa. In mid-1408 the pope named him as a cardinal and sent him as ambassador to the Hungarian kingdom to secure the adhesion of Sigismund to the pope. On 26 March 1408 he was sent with Giacopo del Torso to negotiate with Antipope Benedict XIII in an attempt to secure the latter's abdication though this was unsuccessful.  Dominici was present at the Council of Constance (which he convinced the pope to convoke) on 4 July 1415 when he read the resignation letter that the pope had written. Dominici had advised the pope to abdicate as the surest means of ending the Great Schism which had arisen to divide the Church. It was also at that point that he tried to resign his cardinalate to make clear to all that he had no desire to advance through his accomplishment. But the Council rejected that resignation and he remained as a cardinal. It had been before this that he tried to convince Antipope John XXIII to abdicate though that proved useless. Pope Martin V (who sometimes sought his counsel) appointed him as the papal legate to Bohemia on 19 July 1418 but he accomplished little with the followers of John Hus owing to the timid King Wenceslaus IV. But he had been present when Hus was burnt at the stake back in 1415.  On 23 July 1409 he was named as the abbot \"commendatario\" for the Santi Andrea e Saba convent while named provost \"commendatario\" for the Santa Maria dell'Isola Tremici convent. On 1 January 1411 he was appointed as a legate to both Genoa and Milan. He later was named as the abbot \"commendatario\" for the Benedictine convent of Santi Vito e Salvo on 13 January 1411.  Dominici died at Buda on 10 June 1419 from a fever and he was buried in the Saint Paul the Hermit church there. His tomb became a site of miracles and his remains were venerated until the destruction of the church during a Turkish invasion. Antoninus of Florence later wrote a memoir on Dominici.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beatification.", "content": "Dominici's holiness had been renowned during his life and he was venerated soon after his death with miracles being reported at his tomb. Pope Gregory XVI beatified Dominici centuries later on 9 April 1832.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Published works.", "content": "Dominici was a prolific writer on spiritual subjects but he was also a graceful poet; his vernacular songs or \"Laudi\" show his tact as a poet. His \"Regola del governo di cura familiare\", written between 1400 and 1405 is a pedagogical work which treats (in four books) of the faculties of the soul as well as the powers and senses of people. He also touched on the uses of material goods and the education of children.  His \"Lucula Noctis\" (which he addressed to the Chancellor of the Florentine Republic Coluccio Salutati) is the most important treatise of that time on the studies of the pagan authors. Dominici did not condemn classical studies outright though did express strong criticism of some humanist tendencies such as the use of rhetoric in politics and the rise of the professional politician.  There is now an Open Access revised edition of Hunt's 1940 critical edition of the \"Lucula\" provided on The \"Manipulus/Lucula noctis\" Project website.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giovanni Dominici ( 1355 – 10 June 1419) was an Italian Roman Catholic prelate and professed member from the Order of Preachers who became a cardinal. His ideas had a profound influence on the art of Fra Angelico who entered the order through him. But he once encountered difficulties becoming a friar due to a speech impediment that his superiors believed would rule him ineligible for both profession and the priesthood. Dominici became a noted theologian and preacher and was tireless in establishing monasteries and convents in cities such as Fiesole and Lucca.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977514}
{"src_title": "All Saints' Church, Wittenberg", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A first chapel dedicated All Saints was erected at the new residence of the Ascanian duke Rudolf I of Saxe-Wittenberg from about 1340. Consecrated on 6 May 1346, Rudolf subordinated his foundation to the immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See. With further donations made by his successor Duke Rudolf II, it was determined the Wittenberg main church by Pope Boniface IX in 1400.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Foundation.", "content": "When in the late 15th century the Wettin prince Frederick III the Wise, elector of Saxony from 1486, had the former Ascanian fortress rebuilt, a new All Saints' Church was designed by the architect Conrad Pflüger (c. 1450 – 1506/07) and erected between 1490 and 1511 in the Late Gothic style. Consecrated on 17 January 1503, it became part of Frederick's electoral castle or \"Residenzschloss\", also called \"\". Extensive furnishings by Tilman Riemenschneider, Jacopo de' Barbari, and Albrecht Dürer contributed to the construction of the castle complex and then the church.  After in 1502 Elector Frederick III founded the University of Wittenberg (\"Leucorea\") and received confirmation by the papal legate Raymond Peraudi in 1507, All Saints' was incorporated to serve as a chapel to the university and it quickly evolved into an important academic and worship center. Students were awarded their doctorates there, and the reformator Philipp Melanchthon made his famous inaugural speech at the church. A tradition of burying academic dignitaries of the university at the church developed. Several notable epitaphs are preserved up to today.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Theses Doors.", "content": "The main portal was often used by the university staff to pin up messages and notices; it is generally believed that on 31 October 1517, the eve of All Saints' Day, Martin Luther posted his \"Ninety-five Theses\" on the doors of All Saints' Church. This act, meant to promote a disputation on the sale of indulgences, is commonly viewed to be a catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. Whether the event actually took place or not, however, cannot be conclusively established. Nevertheless, Luther sent his objections in a letter to Archbishop Albert of Mainz on the same day.  Frederick the Wise died in 1525 and was buried in the Castle Church. In the same year, the Lutheran rite was implemented. The church became the burial site of Martin Luther himself in 1546, and of Philipp Melanchthon in 1560.  When during the Seven Years' War the Wittenberg fortress was occupied by the Prussian Army and shelled by Imperial forces in 1760, the Castle Church was destroyed by a fire resulting from the bombardment. The blaze left only half of the foundation standing, and none of the wooden portals survived. All Saints' was soon rebuilt, albeit without many priceless works of art that were lost forever.  After Wittenberg was incorporated into the Prussian Province of Saxony, King Frederick William IV, in 1858, ordered commemorative bronze doors to be mounted onto the jambs where the original wooden ones had been located. On the doors the \"Theses\" are inscribed in their original Latin form. The doors themselves weigh. with ornaments modelled by Friedrich Drake. On 10 November 1858, 375 years after Martin Luther's birth, the new doors were commemorated at a formal ceremony. Above the doors is a tympanum crucifixion painting that portrays Luther on the left with his German Bible translation, and Philipp Melanchthon on the right, with the 1530 Augsburg Confession, the main confession of faith in the Lutheran Church which was formed by Luther and Melanchthon. These doors are among the most photographed in Europe.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Renovation.", "content": "On the occasion of the fourth centenary of Luther's birth in 1883, an extensive restoration of All Saints' in a Neo-Gothic style was begun under the supervision of the Prussian architect Friedrich Adler by his disciple Paul Ferdinand Groth (1859-1955). The interior redesign included the present rib vault ceiling and pilasters, as well as matronea and the apse. Also, the -tall steeple was rebuilt, from which one can obtain a good view of the city of Wittenberg and the surrounding countryside. A quote, \"Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott\" (\"A Mighty Fortress Is Our God\"), from one of Luther's hymns, encircles the tower.  On 31 October 1892, 375 years after Luther posted his 95 Theses on the doors of the church, All Saints' was re-inaugurated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "All Saints' today.", "content": "A Lutheran Castle Church parish was established in 1949. It later evolved to a centre of the East German peace movement (\"swords to ploughshares\"), when Friedrich Schorlemmer served here as a preacher from 1978 onwards. In 1983, 500 years after the birth of Luther, 12 new stained glass windows were installed in All Saints'. These honored the most important Reformation students of Luther, and were created by Renate Brömme in a \"timeless\" style at the order of the Lutheran World Federation. A new glazed brick roof was added in 1999-2000.  Today, All Saints' Church serves not only as a place of worship, but it also houses the town's historical archives, is home to the Riemer-Museum, and a youth hostel. In view of the five-hundredth anniversary of Luther's \"Theses\", the building has again undergone extensive renovation. The church was festively reopened on 2 October 2016 in the presence of President Joachim Gauck and Margrethe II of Denmark, who dedicated an altar frontal designed by herself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tombs and artwork.", "content": "The tombs of Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon are located in All Saints' Church. On Luther's tomb, located beneath the pulpit, is inscribed \"Here is buried the body of the Doctor of Sacred Theology, Martin Luther, who died in the year of Christ 1546, on February 18th, in his hometown Eisleben, after having lived for 63 years, 2 months, and 10 days.\" Melanchthon preached at Luther's burial. Luther's casket is buried near the pulpit, some 2.4 metres below the floor of the nave. Notable burials include Caspar Ziegler, a \"Rektor\" of the university.  The church holds life-sized statues made from alabaster of Frederick III and his brother Elector John of Saxony, and several bronze sculptures, also of Frederick III and of John which are done by Peter Vischer the Younger and Hans Vischer. The church has many paintings done by both Lucas Cranach the Younger and Lucas Cranach the Elder.  Full-sized statues which flank the nave include the many main figures of the Reformation: Nicolaus von Amsdorf, Caspar Cruciger, Johann Brenz, Urbanus Rhegius, Justus Jonas, Georg Spalatin, Johannes Bugenhagen, Philip Melanchthon and Martin Luther.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "All Saints' Church, commonly referred to as Schlosskirche (Castle Church) to distinguish it from the \"Stadtkirche\" (Town Church) of St. Mary's – and sometimes known as the Reformation Memorial Church – is a Lutheran church in Wittenberg, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is the site where, according to Philip Melanchthon, the \"Ninety-five Theses\" were posted by Martin Luther in 1517, the act that has been called the start of the Protestant Reformation. From 1883 onwards, the church was restored as a memorial site and re-inaugurated on 31 October 1892, 375 years after Luther's posting.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977515}
{"src_title": "Jacqueline de Longwy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family.", "content": "Jacqueline was born on an unknown date sometime before 1520, the youngest daughter of Jean IV de Longwy, Seigneur de Givry, Baron of Pagny and of Mirebeau (died 1520) and Jeanne of Angoulême, Countess of Bar-sur-Seine (c.1490- after 1531/1538), the illegitimate half-sister of King Francis I of France.  Jacqueline had two older sisters. The eldest, Françoise de Longwy, Dame de Pagny and de Mirebeau (c.1510- after 14 April 1561), married firstly in 1526, Philippe de Chabot, Seigneur De Brion, Count of Charny and Buzançois, Admiral of France, and secondly in 1545, Jacques de Perusse, Seigneur d'Escars, by whom she had a son, Cardinal Anne d'Escars de Givry. Her second eldest sister was Claude Louise de Longwy, Abbess of Jouarre.  Jacqueline's paternal uncle was Claude de Longwy de Givry, Bishop of Amiens. Her paternal grandparents were Philippe de Longwy, Seigneur of Pagny and Jeanne de Bauffremont, Dame de Mirebeau. Her maternal grandparents were Charles, Count of Angoulême and his mistress Antoinette de Polignac, Dame de Combronde, who was a lady-in-waiting to the Count of Angoulême's wife, Louise of Savoy. Antoinette (born c.1460) was the daughter of Foucaud de Polignac, Seigneur des Fontaines and Agnès de Chabanais.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "In 1538, Jacqueline married Louis III de Bourbon-Montpensier, who would become Duke of Montpensier on the death of his mother Louise de Bourbon, Duchess of Montpensier on 5 July 1561. On the occasion of the marriage, Jacqueline's uncle, King Francis restored the Montpensier estates and the counties of Forez, Beaujeu, and Dombes to Louis' mother. They had been confiscated by the French Crown following Charles III, Duke of Bourbon's treason in 1523 when he defected to the side of Emperor Charles V.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Court career.", "content": "Jacqueline de Longwy was introduced at court, which she attended from 1533 onward. She became a personal friend of Catherine de' Medici, who became queen in 1547. In 1560, Jacqueline de Longwy had been instrumental in the successful negotiations to convince Antoine de Bourbon to relinquish his claims to the regency of Charles in favor of Catherine de' Medici.  She was subsequently appointed \"Première dame d'honneur\" and head of the queen's ladies-in-waiting, when Catherine became regent and was able to appoint her own household, in succession to Françoise de Brézé.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Countess of Bar-sur-Seine.", "content": "Jacqueline succeeded to the title of \"suo jure\" Countess of Bar-sur-Seine upon her mother's death, which occurred on an unknown date sometime after 1531/1538. Her father's titles had passed to her eldest sister, Françoise upon his death in 1520.  In 1543, the dauphinate of Auvergne was restored to Louis, Jacqueline therefore became the Dauphine of Auvergne. That same year, she was present with other high-ranking members of the Valois court at the baptism of King Francis's grandson, Francis. In 1547, King Francis died and was succeeded by his son Henry. In 1556, Jacqueline, together with Diane de Poitiers and Madame de Montmorency, was appointed by Queen consort Catherine de Medici to judge the case of misconduct against Mademoiselle de Rohan, a member of the royal family, who was pregnant by the Duke of Nemours under promise of marriage. Three years later, in 1559, Jacqueline and her husband attended the magnificent coronation of King Francis II and Mary, Queen of Scots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "She died in Paris on 28 August 1561. She had been the Duchess of Montpensier for less than two months.  Through her daughter, Charlotte, Jacqueline was an ancestress of the House of Hanover, which reigned in Great Britain from 1714 to 1901, and from which descends the current British Royal Family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "The marriage of Jacqueline and Louis produced one son and five daughters:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In art.", "content": "Jacqueline de Longwy's portrait was drawn in 1550 by French painter François Clouet.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jacqueline de Longwy, Countess of Bar-sur-Seine (before 1520 – 28 August 1561), Duchess of Montpensier, Dauphine of Auvergne was a French noblewoman, and a half-niece of King Francis I of France. She was the first wife of Louis III de Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier, and the mother of his six children. She had the office of \"Première dame d'honneur\" to the queen dowager regent of France, Catherine de' Medici, from 1560 until 1561.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977516}
{"src_title": "Douglas (footballer, born 1990)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Goiás.", "content": "Born in Monte Alegre de Goiás, Douglas joined Goiás' youth setup in 2002, aged 12, and was promoted to the first-team in 2009, mainly as a backup to Vítor. He made his professional – and Série A – debut on 20 June 2009, coming on as a late substitute in a 2–2 away draw against Grêmio.  Douglas was handed his first start on 15 July, in a 0–2 home loss against Avaí. He finished the campaign with 14 appearances (seven starts, 741 minutes of action), as his side finished ninth.  In 2010, after Victor's departure to Palmeiras, Douglas became the club's first-choice, appearing in 24 matches but being relegated. He scored his first professional goal on 15 July 2011, netting the last of a 4–1 home routing over Vitória for the Série B championship.  Douglas finished the season with 26 appearances, scoring five goals as the \"Esmeraldino\" finished in the 11th place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "São Paulo.", "content": "On 11 February 2012, Douglas signed a three-year deal with São Paulo. However, he missed the whole Campeonato Paulista due to a pubalgia.  Douglas made his debut for \"Tricolor\" on 6 June 2012, starting in a 0–1 away loss against Internacional. He scored his first goal for the club on 14 October, netting the last of a 2–0 home success against Figueirense. He was also a regular in the club's Copa Sudamericana winning campaign.  Douglas featured regularly for the club in 2013, but faced fierce competition with new signing Paulo Miranda. The latter was later more used as a central defender, while the former also appeared as a central midfielder in some occasions.  In 2014 Douglas was again challenged by another new face, Luis Ricardo. He was mainly a backup to the latter during the year's Campeonato Paulista, but later retained his place in the starting XI.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Barcelona.", "content": "On 26 August 2014, Douglas agreed a five-year deal with La Liga club Barcelona for amount of €4 million fee plus €1.5 million in add-ons. He signed his contract with the Catalans three days later, being presented hours later.  After being an unused substitute in Barça's 1–0 home win against APOEL for the season's UEFA Champions League, Douglas made his debut on 24 September, starting and being booked in a 0–0 draw at Málaga. He was later criticized for his performance, and was demoted to third-choice right back behind Dani Alves and Martín Montoya, only being limited to appear in Copa del Rey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loan deals.", "content": "On 26 August 2016, Barcelona and Sporting de Gijón reached an agreement for the season-long loan of Douglas. He made his debut for the Asturians on 17 September in a 5–0 loss at Atlético Madrid, and scored his first goal in Spanish football on 4 December in a 3–1 win against Osasuna at El Molinón. He totalled 23 appearances and three goals over the season, but Sporting were relegated.  On 30 August 2017, Douglas joined Portuguese champions Benfica on a season-long loan deal.  On 24 July 2018, Douglas was loaned once again, this time to Turkish side Sivasspor. His first goal for Sivasspor was in a Süper Lig match with Trabzonspor.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Douglas was a member of the Brazil national under-20 team, appearing in the 2009 South American U-20 Championship and 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "São Paulo  Barcelona", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Douglas Pereira dos Santos (born 6 August 1990), simply known as Douglas (), is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a right-back for Beşiktaş.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977517}
{"src_title": "2014–15 Lega Pro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Teams.", "content": "A total of 60 teams will contest the league, divided into three groups of 20 teams. Originally, teams would include 4 sides relegated from the 2013–14 Serie B season, 29 sides playing the 2013–14 Prima Divisione season, 18 sides playing the 2013–14 Seconda Divisione season, and 9 sides promoted from the 2013–14 Serie D season. In the middle of last season Nocerina was expelled from Lega Pro (on 1 August was admitted to Eccellenza); on 15 July 2014 CoViSoc expelled Padova and Viareggio due to financial reasons; on 1 August 2014 FIGC admitted 3 teams that were relegated in the last season, thus the league included 3 sides from 2013–14 Serie B, 27 sides from 2013–14 Prima Divisione, 21 sides from 2013–14 Seconda Divisione and 9 sides from 2013–14 Serie D.  On 13 June 2014, 59 teams had mathematically achieved qualification for the 2014–15 season.  On 1 July 2014, all 59 teams had submitted the application for a license for 2014–15 season, with 8 teams did not submit the required bank guarantee, including Padova. Moreover, Viareggio submitted a guarantee that would not comply with the new regulation passed in May 2014. Correggese, the Serie D playoffs winner, did not submit an application.  On 15 July 2014, the deadline of submission, Padova failed to submit the bank guarantee and were declared bankrupt, while 7 teams had submitted in time. On 18 July 2014 the appeal of Viareggio to the exclusion had failed.  On 1 August 2014 the Federal Council admitted to Lega Pro Aversa Normanna, Martina Franca and Torres, the 3 teams relegated in 2013–14 Seconda Divisione. One more vacancy was created in August after the Italian National Olympic Committee Court of Appeal agreed upon an appeal from Novara, who requested the 2014–15 Serie B season should feature an even number of teams (22) instead of the originally scheduled 21 ones; after this appeal from Novara, Vicenza was admitted to 2014–15 Serie B and Arezzo replaced it in Lega Pro group A.  Group A, North and Sardinia  Group B, North and Central  Group C, South", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2014–15 Lega Pro was the first season of the unified Lega Pro division in place of the old Prima Divisione and Seconda Divisione. The league is composed of 60 teams divided into three different groups of 20 each.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977518}
{"src_title": "Héctor Bellerín", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Born in Barcelona, Catalonia, Bellerín started his club football career in Barcelona's youth team. He moved to Arsenal in the summer of 2011, and signed his first professional contract the following year. While a youth player at Arsenal, Bellerín also helped the club to reach fourth place of the NextGen Series of 2012–13. Bellerín made his competitive debut away to West Bromwich Albion in the third round of the League Cup on 25 September 2013, coming on in the 95th minute as a substitute for Mikel Arteta in a penalty shootout victory after a 1–1 draw. Two months later, Bellerín joined Championship club Watford on a two-month loan deal, and made his debut against Yeovil Town eight days after signing. The loan at Watford was extended until the end of the season, but he was recalled by Arsenal in February 2014.  Following injuries to Mathieu Debuchy, Calum Chambers and Nacho Monreal, Bellerín made his Champions League debut on 16 September 2014 in a 2–0 defeat away to Borussia Dortmund. He scored his first goal for Arsenal on 1 February 2015, in a 5–0 win against Aston Villa, and added a second on 4 April to open a 4–1 win over Liverpool despite also conceding a penalty kick through a foul on Raheem Sterling.  Bellerín was selected to start for Arsenal in the 2015 FA Cup Final on 30 May, helping the team keep a clean sheet in a 4–0 win over Aston Villa at Wembley Stadium. He signed a new long-term contract before the 2015–16 season and played the entirety of Arsenal's 1–0 win over rivals Chelsea in the 2015 FA Community Shield. He was the sole Arsenal player listed in the season's PFA Team of the Year, and came in third place in Arsenal's Player of the Season voting. On 21 November 2016, he signed a new long-term contract after agreeing to a deal that ties him to the club until 2022.  Bellerín featured in the following season throughout Arsenal's victorious FA Cup campaign. He played in the Cup final which Arsenal went on to win by a 2–1 margin against Chelsea. He was again triumphant in the Gunners lifting the 2017 Community Shield by beating Chelsea 4–1 on penalties. Bellerín scored his first goal of Arsenal's 2017–18 season in Arsenal's 3–1 victory over 1. FC Köln. On 3 January 2018, Bellerin earned a draw for Arsenal against Chelsea with what BBC Sport described as'stunning injury-time strike' in the 92nd minute, having earlier conceded a penalty for a foul on Eden Hazard. On 7 March 2018, Bellerín was ruled out of the Europa League first leg clash against Milan with an unknown return date.  Bellerín missed out the first five weeks of the 2018–19 season due to a calf problem. During a league game against Chelsea on 19 January he suffered a ruptured anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in his left knee and was stretchered off of the pitch in the 70th minute at the Emirates Stadium. He was later ruled out for nine months, consequently missing the remainder of the season and the start of the 2019–20 season. Arsenal coach Unai Emery perceives Bellerín as \"very mature\" and believes that \"he is already preparing to come back stronger than before\". On 24 September 2019, Bellerín made his return from injury as a substitute in Arsenal's 5-0 victory against Nottingham Forest in the Carabao Cup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Having reached the semi-finals of the 2013 European Championship with the under-19 team, Bellerín made his debut for Albert Celades's under-21 team on 30 March 2015, playing the full 90 minutes of a 4–0 friendly win over Belarus in León.  On 29 May 2016, after being named as a stand-by player for the year's European Championship, Bellerín made his debut for the full squad by starting in a 3–1 friendly win against Bosnia and Herzegovina at the AFG Arena in St. Gallen, Switzerland. Two days later, he was chosen for the final squad after Dani Carvajal withdrew through injury. He was unused as they reached the last 16.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Bellerín is known for his pace, which allows him to take on opposition defenders as well as provide defensive cover. At the beginning of the 2014–15 season, he broke Theo Walcott's Arsenal sprint record by 1/100th of a second. He is considered to be one of the fastest footballers in the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Bellerín became a vegan in 2017, which he credits for improving his health. In an interview in August 2019, he said that footballers have a responsibility to create awareness around environmental issues and that \"It's nice to show what we have—our cars, our watches—but good to send a more meaningful message than 'look how cool we are'.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Arsenal Spain U21  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Héctor Bellerín Moruno (, born 19 March 1995) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a right back or wing back for the Spain national team and club Arsenal, where he is currently serving as the team's vice-captain.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977519}
{"src_title": "Ruggero Pasquarelli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ruggero Pasquarelli was born in his house, Abruzzo, on 10 September 1993, to Bruno and Antonella Pasquarelli, and he grew up in Città Sant'Angelo, a town in the province of Pescara. As a child, he took guitar and acting lessons. In 2008, Pasquarelli started taking singing lessons, and since 2009 he also studied piano. He has a 14 years old brother called Leonardo Pasquarelli. In high school, Pasquarelli studied at the pedagogical \"liceo\", and specialized in Arts and Entertainment. While he was a high school student, he also became a singer of the local rock band 65013.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"X Factor\".", "content": "In 2010, during his last year at high school, Pasquarelli auditioned for the fourth series of the Italian talent show \"X Factor\". As a result, he was chosen by Mara Maionchi as a member of the \"Boys\" category. During the seventh live show, Pasquarelli finished in the bottom two for the first time, together with Cassandra Raffaele, but only Raffaele's judge, Elio, voted to eliminate Pasquarelli, and he was therefore saved. He finished once again in the bottom two during the tenth live show. Pasquarelli was not allowed to perform during the final showdown, since he was 17 years old, and Italian laws don't allow performances of people under the age of majority after midnight. A pre-recorded performance was broadcast instead. The judges vote resulted in a deadlock, and the public vote saved Nevruz, and Pasquarelli finished the competition in sixth place.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Violetta\".", "content": "In 2012, Pasquarelli landed the role of Federico in the Argentine telenovela \"violetta\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ruggero Pasquarelli (born 10 September 1993) is an Italian singer and actor. In 2010, he took part in the fourth series of the Italian talent show \"X Factor\". He is also known for his performance as Federico in the Argentine telenovela \"Violetta\" and as Matteo Balsano in \"Soy Luna\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977520}
{"src_title": "Get Scared", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years, \"Best Kind of Mess\" and \"Built for Blame, Laced With Shame\" (2008–2013).", "content": "Before forming the band, Nicholas Matthews, Johnny Braddock, Bradley Iverson and Warren Wilcock were all in separate bands. The four came together to form the band and self-released their first EP, \"Cheap Tricks and Theatrics\".  During summer 2010, the band went on Hot Topic's \"Sacred Ceremony\" tour with Black Veil Brides and Vampires Everywhere!, helping promote the band's music. The band then embarked on several tours, notably the first leg of \"The Dead Masquerade Tour\" (with Escape the Fate, Alesana, Drive A and Motionless in White) from January to March 2011 and an Aiden headliner including Eyes Set To Kill, Dr. Acula, Vampires Everywhere!, and Escape the Fate (only certain dates) in the spring of 2011. On July 12, 2011, they released their debut full-length album \"Best Kind of Mess\", their first release through Universal Motown Records featuring mastered remakes of the songs \"Setting Yourself Up for Sarcasm\" and \"If She Only Knew Voodoo Like I Do\" with the shortened names \"Sarcasm\" and \"Voodoo\". The band embarked on the \"Fuck You All Tour\" with Dr. Acula and Girl On Fire in support of the album.  On November 30, 2011, the band announced that Matthews was leaving the band. They stated that Matthews wanted to pursue more options in his musical career with Blacklisted Me and that it was a surprise to the entire band. The band postponed any touring dates until further notice due to the sudden departure and lack of a lead vocalist. In the same message, they also announced that they would be holding auditions for lead vocalist.  The band re-entered the studio with the new lead vocalist on December 28. Although it was not officially announced who the new vocalist was, at the time there was much speculation that former Dear Chandelier singer Joel Faviere replaced Matthews, due to the tweets sent by Faviere and some of the members of Get Scared on Twitter. It was later made official that Faviere was the new lead vocalist. The team also welcomed new guitarist Adam Virostko to the band that following September 2012 to play The Pizza Party Tour with Dead Rabbits. Virostko became a permanent member that fall being formally announced on November 21, 2012. Faviere was the singer of the band for a short time until the return of Matthews on November 19, 2012. Only one EP, \"Built for Blame, Laced With Shame\", was released during Faviere's tenure with the band.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Everyone's Out To Get Me\" (2013–2014).", "content": "On June 5, 2013, Get Scared announced their signing with Fearless Records and confirmed that their second studio album was coming later in the year. On June 21, they released a new song entitled, \"At My Worst\" on YouTube. Another song leaked on Twitter before any announcement had been made about a new album and was titled, \"For You\"; initially thought to be lost, it was revealed months later that it will appear on the new album.  On September 18, the band announced that their second studio album would be titled \"Everyone's Out To Get Me\", and it would be released on November 11 via Fearless. Along with the announcement, they revealed the track list and also released a short preview of a new song, \"Told Ya So\". The full song was released on September 24.  On January 1, 2014, Fearless Records released a video on their page on YouTube announcing bands that will be releasing albums in 2014; they announced in the video that Get Scared would appear on the compilation \"Punk Goes 90s Vol. 2\" with their cover of Lit's \"My Own Worst Enemy\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Demons\", \"The Dead Days\" and break-up (2015–2019).", "content": "The band announced their third studio album, \"Demons\" on September 3, 2015 along with the release of lead single \"Buried Alive\". A second single, titled \"Suffer\" was released on October 2. On October 22, a third single, \"R.I.P.\" was released on iTunes and the new Apple Music. The album was officially released on October 30, 2015. To promote the album the band embarked on New Years Day's \"The Other Side Tour\" and all but three dates of I See Stars' \"Light In The Cave Tour\" in October 2015 and February 2016, respectively. The band also had a short headlining tour in Mexico and performances at Scream Out Festival in Japan and the South By So What Festival in Texas to support the album.  The band entered the studio in November 2017 with producer Kris Crummett to record their fourth studio album. The album had a tentative release date of 2018, but it did not come to pass. On January 9, 2019, guitarist Johnny Braddock announced the band was on a hiatus as vocalist Nicholas Matthews recovers from a heroin addiction. Several days later, Matthews announced he had left the band.  On April 10, 2019, Johnny Braddock announced \"The Dead Days\" would be released on April 19, 2019. On September 15, 2019, Nicholas Matthews posted an explanation video; after someone asked in the comments if the band had broken up, Matthews stated \"unfortunately that is correct\". He then went on to state:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "On February 15, 2017, the band's former lead singer Joel Faviere was arrested on child pornography charges during an undercover sting. The band released a statement stating \"his time in the band was very short, [but] we feel he has tarnished the very name we worked so hard to build up for the past 9 years\" and apologizing \"to those of you who have been hurt or affected by this man’s actions.\" They also encouraged people to donate to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children.  On May 11, 2018, Faviere was sentenced to 12 years in prison for the child pornography charges. He is currently held at South Bay Correctional Facility.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Members.", "content": "Final line-up  Other members  Touring musicians Timeline", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography.", "content": "Studio albums  Singles  Music videos", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Get Scared was an American post-hardcore band from Layton, Utah, active from 2008 to 2019. After their formation they released their first EP \"Cheap Tricks and Theatrics\" in 2009. A self-titled EP followed several months later in 2010. The band's debut studio album, \"Best Kind of Mess\", was released on July 12, 2011. Following Nicholas Matthews' first departure to join Blacklisted Me, the band released \"Cheap Tricks and Theatrics B-Sides\" on December 19, 2011, without any previous announcements. Matthews was replaced by Joel Faviere near the end of 2011. The band's third EP and first with Faviere, \"Built for Blame, Laced With Shame\", was released in 2012; Faviere was kicked out a few months after the EP's release when Matthews rejoined the band. Following Matthews' comeback, the band signed with Fearless Records and released their second full-length album, \"Everyone's Out To Get Me\", on November 11, 2013. The band's third studio album, \"Demons\", was released on October 30, 2015, and marked a departure from the band's post-hardcore sound featured on \"Built for Blame\" and \"Everyone's Out to Get Me\" in favor of a more metalcore-like sound. Their fourth and final album, \"The Dead Days\", was released on April 19, 2019 amidst a hiatus; it was later stated by vocalist Nicholas Matthews that the band had broken up due to multiple issues between the band members.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977521}
{"src_title": "Minor planet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Populations.", "content": "Hundreds of thousands of minor planets have been discovered within the Solar System and thousands more are discovered each month. The Minor Planet Center has documented over 213 million observations and 794,832 minor planets, of which 541,128 have orbits known well enough to be assigned permanent official numbers. Of these, 21,922 have official names., the lowest-numbered unnamed minor planet is, and the highest-numbered named minor planet is 543315 Asmakhammari.  There are various broad minor-planet populations:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naming conventions.", "content": "All astronomical bodies in the Solar System need a distinct designation. The naming of minor planets runs through a three-step process. First, a provisional designation is given upon discovery—because the object still may turn out to be a false positive or become lost later on—called a \"provisionally designated minor planet\". After the observation arc is accurate enough to predict its future location, a minor planet is formally designated and receives a number. It is then a \"numbered minor planet\". Finally, in the third step, it may be named by its discoverers. However, only a small fraction of all minor planets have been named. The vast majority are either numbered or have still only a provisional designation. Example of the naming process:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Provisional designation.", "content": "A newly discovered minor planet is given a provisional designation. For example, the provisional designation consists of the year of discovery (2002) and an alphanumeric code indicating the half-month of discovery and the sequence within that half-month. Once an asteroid's orbit has been confirmed, it is given a number, and later may also be given a name (e.g. 433 Eros). The formal naming convention uses parentheses around the number, but dropping the parentheses is quite common. Informally, it is common to drop the number altogether, or to drop it after the first mention when a name is repeated in running text.  Minor planets that have been given a number but not a name keep their provisional designation, e.g. (29075) 1950 DA. Because modern discovery techniques are finding vast numbers of new asteroids, they are increasingly being left unnamed. The earliest discovered to be left unnamed was for a long time (3360) 1981 VA, now 3360 Syrinx; as of September 2008, this distinction is held by (3708). On rare occasions, a small object's provisional designation may become used as a name in itself: the then unnamed gave its \"name\" to a group of objects that became known as classical Kuiper belt objects (\"cubewanos\") before it was finally named 15760 Albion in January 2018.  A few objects are cross-listed as both comets and asteroids, such as 4015 Wilson–Harrington, which is also listed as 107P/Wilson–Harrington.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Numbering.", "content": "Minor planets are awarded an official number once their orbits are confirmed. With the increasing rapidity of discovery, these are now six-figure numbers. The switch from five figures to six figures arrived with the publication of the Minor Planet Circular (MPC) of October 19, 2005, which saw the highest numbered minor planet jump from 99947 to 118161.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Naming.", "content": "The first few asteroids were named after figures from Greek and Roman mythology but as such names started to dwindle the names of famous people, literary characters, discoverer's spouses, children, colleagues, and even television characters were used.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Physical properties of comets and minor planets.", "content": "Commission 15 of the International Astronomical Union is dedicated to the Physical Study of Comets & Minor Planets.  Archival data on the physical properties of comets and minor planets are found in the PDS Asteroid/Dust Archive.<ref name=\"PDS Asteroid/Dust Archive\"></ref> This includes standard asteroid physical characteristics such as the properties of binary systems, occultation timings and diameters, masses, densities, rotation periods, surface temperatures, albedoes, spin vectors, taxonomy, and absolute magnitudes and slopes. In addition, European Asteroid Research Node (E.A.R.N.), an association of asteroid research groups, maintains a Data Base of Physical and Dynamical Properties of Near Earth Asteroids.  Most detailed information is available from and.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A minor planet is an astronomical object in direct orbit around the Sun (or more broadly, any star with a planetary system) that is neither a planet nor exclusively classified as a comet. Before 2006 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially used the term \"minor planet\", but during that year's meeting it reclassified minor planets and comets into dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies (SSSBs).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977522}
{"src_title": "Gitanas Nausėda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "From 1982 to 1987 he studied in Vilnius University, Faculty of Industrial Economics and from 1987 to 1989 in the Faculty of Economics. From 1990 to 1992 he did a practice at the University of Mannheim in Germany under the DAAD scholarship. He defended his PhD thesis \"Income Policy Under Inflation and Stagflation\" in 1993. Since 2009 he is an associate professor at Vilnius University Business School.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional and political career.", "content": "Having completed his studies, from 1992 to 1993 he worked for the Research Institute for Economics and Privatization. From 1993 to 1994 he worked for the Lithuanian Competition Council as a head of the Financial Markets Department. From 1994 to 2000 he worked at the Bank of Lithuania, initially in the department regulating the commercial banks and later as a director of the Monetary Policy Department. From 2000 to 2008 he was a chief economist and adviser to the chairman of AB Vilniaus Bankas. From 2008 to 2018 he was the financial analyst as well as chief adviser and later the chief economist for the SEB bankas president.  In 2004, he supported the election campaign of the former Lithuanian president Valdas Adamkus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidency (2019–present).", "content": "On 17 September 2018, Nausėda announced his candidacy for the 2019 Lithuanian presidential election, which he won in the second round on 26 May 2019. He was officially inaugurated on 12 July. On 16 July 4 days after his inauguration, he visited Warsaw, Poland to meet with President Andrzej Duda in his first foreign visit as President. During the visit, there were calls for him to establish a more personal relationship with the country. He also rejected any attempt by European Union leaders to sanction Poland for its actions in relation to the Supreme Court of Poland and the rest of the country's judiciary. Nausėda presented acting Prime Minister Saulius Skvernelis's candidacy to continue his duties on 18 July. By the time he had spent a month in office, Nausėda was considered to be the most trusted politician in Lithuania according to polls conducted by the Lithuanian National Radio and Television (LRT). During a meeting in Berlin with German Chancellor Angela Merkel in August, Nausėda urged her to maintain sanctions against Russia. In an interview with LRT on 14 August, he reiterated past positions that a potential meeting with Russian President Vladimir Putin would be \"pointless\" due to the fact that Lithuania sees \"the true danger\" and \"risks\" of being on the border with Russia.  On 22 November, Nausėda and Duda, as well as the First Lady of Poland Agata Kornhauser-Duda participated in the state funeral of commanders and participants in the 1863–1864 uprising against Tsarist rule in Vilnius. During his visit to Vilnius, Duda highlighted the Central European nations' unity importance for their independence.  In January 2020, Nauseda joined Duda in pulling out of 5th World Holocaust Forum, who criticized the event for giving the speaking slot to Russian president Putin, who has himself criticized Poland's WWII history by engaging in a historical revisionist campaign.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International trips as President.", "content": "Nausėda has welcomed many foreign leaders and dignitaries to Lithuania since taking office, including Latvian President Egils Levits, Polish President Andrzej Duda, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky and Canadian Governor-General Julie Payette.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Nausėda's father, Antanas Nausėda (1929–), is a survivor of Stutthof concentration camp. In 1990, he married Diana Nausėdienė. They have two daughters. In addition to his native Lithuanian, Gitanas Nausėda speaks English, German and Russian.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gitanas Nausėda (born 19 May 1964) is a Lithuanian economist, politician and banker, having worked as the Director of Monetary Policy at the Bank of Lithuania from 1996 until 2000, and chief economist to the chairman of SEB bankas from 2008 until 2018. Nausėda is serving as the current President of Lithuania.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977523}
{"src_title": "The Hundred-Foot Journey (film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The Kadam family ran a restaurant in Mumbai. The second-oldest son, Hassan Haji (Manish Dayal), was being groomed to replace his mother (Juhi Chawla) as the restaurant's main cook. However, a mob attacks and firebombs the restaurant over an election dispute. Papa Kadam (Om Puri) and his family evacuate the guests, but Mama was killed. Seeking asylum in Europe, the family first settles in London, where their residence proves ill-suited for a restaurant. They depart for mainland Europe.  Shortly after entering France, the brakes on Papa's van fail near Saint-Antonin-Noble-Val in the Midi-Pyrénées. Marguerite (Charlotte Le Bon), a sous chef at an upscale French restaurant named \"Le Saule Pleureur\" (\"The Weeping Willow\"), passes by and offers to help the Kadams find an auto repair shop and a guest house. She brings the Kadams to her apartment and treats them to cold food. Papa is amazed at the quality of the food in the village and its availability and discovers that Marguerite made the food herself.  Papa learns of an abandoned restaurant building available for purchase. It is located directly across the street — only a hundred feet (30 m) — from Le Saule Pleureur. Madame Mallory (Helen Mirren), proprietor of Le Saule Pleureur and purporting to act as caretaker for the owners of the abandoned restaurant, asks the Kadams to leave because it is \"private property\". Papa buys the property, even though the rest of his family is against it, and names the restaurant \"Maison Mumbai\".  Mallory asks for their menu and by the time of their opening night has bought all the locally available ingredients they would need to serve. A cold war erupts between Papa and Mallory. The war peaks on Bastille Day when one of Mallory's chefs, Jean-Pierre, and two others vandalize the Kadams' restaurant by spray-painting words which translate to \"France for the French\" on the outer wall and firebombing the interior. Hassan catches the arsonists in the act and scares them off, but his hands and legs are burned. The following morning Mallory, who deduced who is responsible for the arson and vandalism, dismisses Jean-Pierre and personally cleans the graffiti from Maison Mumbai.  Hassan, having heard from Marguerite that Mallory hires potential chefs by taste-testing an omelette and deciding whether the person is indeed a great chef, asks if he may cook an omelette for her to his recipe. Due to his injured hands, Mallory helps under Hassan's supervision. After tasting the omelette, which had Indian influences to it, Mallory recognizes Hassan's potential and invites him to work for her as an apprentice, and confesses that she deliberately sabotaged his apology on behalf of his father, when he recreated a classic pigeon dish. Papa is initially against the move, but ultimately strikes a deal with her as to Hassan's pay.  Hassan's cooking, which gradually evolves into a fusion of Indian cuisine and French cuisine, results in Mallory's restaurant receiving its second Michelin star. The award draws national attention to Hassan's cooking, and he is offered and accepts a job in Paris. Papa and Mallory make amends and begin seeing each other, but Hassan's relationship with Marguerite has soured.  Hassan's cooking in Paris quickly receives critical acclaim, fueling speculation of a third Michelin Star for the Paris restaurant, but his work is increasingly bogged down by thoughts of his family and Marguerite (with whom he had an ongoing romance). Hassan returns home a year later and reunites with Marguerite. He invites Marguerite to join him in a business venture—buying a stake in Mallory's restaurant, along with operational control. Hassan believes this will help the restaurant earn its third star. That evening, Hassan and Marguerite prepare dinner at Mallory's restaurant and bring the dishes across the road to the courtyard of Maison Mumbai for all to enjoy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "On June 3, 2013, Helen Mirren was in negotiations to join the cast. On July 1, DreamWorks confirmed the casting of Mirren and Manish Dayal.  Principal photography began on September 23, 2013, in southern France, in Saint-Antonin-Noble-Val, lasted for nine weeks and proceeded in The Netherlands and in the Cité du Cinéma studio complex, located in Saint-Denis, north of Paris.\"The Hundred Foot Journey\" was extensively shot at scenic locales of Midi-Pyrénées. Prior to actual filming, actors Manish Dayal and Charlotte Le Bon spent a considerable amount of time going to restaurants and observing and learning in kitchens. To sign off on the food featured in the film, producer Juliet Blake consulted Indian-born chef Floyd Cardoz (1960-2020) who practised “fusing together two cultures through cooking.” Indian actress Juhi Chawla plays Om Puri's character's wife in the film. The makers felt the need for her to look 15 years older than her present age. That's why she was made to age digitally on screen with the help of post-production techniques such as visual refactoring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "A.R. Rahman composed the music for the film. Hollywood Records released the soundtrack on August 12, 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "The first trailer for the film was released on May 13, 2014. The film's New York premiere was held at the Ziegfeld Theatre on August 4, 2014. The film was released on August 8, 2014. Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures distributed \"The Hundred-Foot Journey\" globally through its Touchstone Pictures label, except for territories in Europe, Africa and the Middle East, where the film's rights were sold by Mister Smith Entertainment to independent distributors. Reliance Entertainment distributed the film solely in India. The film was released in France as \"Les Recettes du bonheur \"(translates to \"The Recipes for Happiness)\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "\"The Hundred-Foot Journey\" was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on Blu-ray Disc and DVD on December 2, 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "The film grossed $10,979,290 in its opening weekend in the US, finishing in 4th. As of December 6, 2014, the film has grossed $88,880,821.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 67%, based on 145 reviews with an average score of 6.21/10. The site's consensus reads: \"Director Lasse Hallström does lovely work and Helen Mirren is always worth watching, but \"The Hundred-Foot Journey\" travels predictable ground already covered by countless feel-good dramedies.\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 55 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".  \"The Wrap's\" Alonso Duralde called the film \"a surprisingly bland slumgullion of food porn and emotional manipulation, filtered through the middlebrow sensibilities of director Lasse Hallström.\" \"Variety\"'s Justin Chang called the film \"the most soothing brand of cinematic comfort food.\" Film critic Edwin Arnaudin of the \"Asheville Citizen-Times\" gave the film a \"B-plus\".  The \"NPR's\" film critic Kenneth Turan said the film was entertaining, while criticizing the predictability of the story and \"wish[ing] that the film had more of the messy juices of life flowing through its veins\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Accolades.", "content": "Helen Mirren was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in the category Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Comedy or Musical.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Hundred-Foot Journey is a 2014 American comedy-drama film directed by Lasse Hallström from a screenplay written by Steven Knight, adapted from Richard Morais' 2010 novel of the same name. The film stars Helen Mirren, Om Puri, Manish Dayal and Charlotte Le Bon and is about a battle of two restaurants in a village: one by an Indian family and the other, a lofty Michelin-starred restaurant.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977524}
{"src_title": "Liquidambar orientalis", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "Oriental sweet gum is a deciduous tree, in height with a trunk of in diameter. The unisexual flowers bloom from March to April. The fruits ripen in November to December and the seeds are wind dispersed. The tree is very attractive and especially valued for its colourful autumn leaves. Oriental sweet gum trees favour an elevation of between, a mean annual rainfall of and a mean annual temperature of. The tree's optimal growth is on rich, deep and moist soils such as bogs, river banks and coastal areas but it is also able to grow on slopes and dry soil.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biotope.", "content": "The forests of this Tertiary relict endemic taxon are found notably within a specially protected area between Dalyan and Köyceğiz in Muğla Province, where a zone is set aside as a nature reserve and arboretum for the preservation of the species. A large stand also surrounds Marmaris. These two areas are the better known oriental sweetgum forests due to their respective regions also being prominent centers of tourism, although a big population covering nearly is also found in an inland region within Aydın Province extending between Çine, Köşk and Umurlu districts. Yet another sweetgum forest area of under protection is situated in Burdur's depending district of Bucak alongside Karacaören dam reservoir on the road to Antalya. The trees are also found locally in Denizli's depending districts of Beyağaç and Tavas. The total area of pure sweetgum forests in Turkey covers, all in the southwestern regions of the country. The present-day extension corresponds to a marked decrease since the 1940s level of, although the protective measures and infrastructure in place since the 1980s helped stop loss of stands and led to slight improvements.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name in Turkish for the particular species is \"Günlük ağacı\", while the trees of the genus as a whole are called \"Sığala ağacı\", a name also used in sole reference to \"oriental sweeetgum\" itself. \"Günlük ağacı\" means \"a frankincense/myrrh tree [ağaç]\" in which the first element is of unknown origin, whereas \"sığala\" refers to \"a boggy place\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production and uses.", "content": "The extraction of its sap and the production of an oil based thereof (\"sığala yağı\"), as well as exports of these products, play an important role in the local economies of Greece and Turkey. The harvest of the sap and the preparation of the oil involve quite strenuous tasks lasting from May to November and consisting of several separate phases. The thick sap is obtained in the period June to September by gradually stripping 1⁄4 of the total trunk lengthwise. Wounding the trunk causes sap to emerge, which can be further stimulated by tapping the trunk. In the village of Kavakarası near Köyceğiz in the Turkish province of Muğla, locals scrape the sap from the wounded tree trunks using the sharp edge of plastic bottles. The stripped sap is put in boiling water to soften, then pressed. The styrax is then diluted with 1⁄4 water, keeping it soft and preserving its aroma. By steam distillation a light yellow oil is obtained. There is a danger for the present generation of master oil makers not being replaced in near future. In English, this oil is known under several names, shortly as Storax to include all sweetgum oils, or as Styrax Levant, Asiatic Storax, Balsam Storax, Liquid Storax, Oriental Sweetgum Oil, or Turkish Sweetgum Oil. Diluted with a suitable carrier oil, it is used externally in traditional medicine. It is a different product from the benzoin resin produced from tropical trees in the genus Styrax.  The hydrocarbon styrene is named for Levant styrax from \"Liquidambar orientalis\", from which it was first isolated, and not for the genus \"Styrax\" itself; industrially produced styrene is now used to produce polystyrene plastics, including Styrofoam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prospects.", "content": "The status of and developments regarding the protection of Turkish sweetgum continues to occupy local and national environmental agenda at a critical level in Turkey. Among the main causes for the loss of sweetgum forests was the cutting and felling of trees for opening new fields for agriculture, as well as the construction of three separate dams at localities which precisely corresponded to important habitats for the species. As such, \"Liquidambar orientalis\" holds an important position in Turkey's biodiversity and among endemic species, is one of its best-known symbols.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Liquidambar orientalis, commonly known as oriental sweetgum or Turkish sweetgum, is a deciduous tree in the genus \"Liquidambar\", native to the eastern Mediterranean region, that occurs as pure stands mainly in the floodplains of southwestern Turkey and on the Greek island of Rhodes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977525}
{"src_title": "2017 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Player eligibility.", "content": "A player was eligible to play in the 2017 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships if:  If a player who has never played in IIHF-organized competition wishes to switch national eligibility, he must have played in competitions for two consecutive years in the new country without playing in another country, as well as show his move to the new country's national association with an international transfer card. In case the player has previously played in IIHF-organized competition but wishes to switch national eligibility, he must have played in competitions for four consecutive years in the new country without playing in another country, he must show his move to the new country's national association with an international transfer card, as well as be a citizen of the new country. A player may only switch national eligibility once.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Top Division.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Officials.", "content": "The International Ice Hockey Federation selected 12 referees and 10 linesmen to officiate during the tournament:  Referees  Linesmen", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "The four best ranked teams from each group of the preliminary round advanced to the quarterfinals, while the last-placed team from both groups played a relegation round in a best-of-three format to determine the relegated team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relegation.", "content": "Note: was relegated for the 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tournament awards.", "content": "Most Valuable Player  All-star team  IIHF best player awards", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "The tournament was held in Bremerhaven, Germany from 11–17 December 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "The tournament was held in Budapest, Hungary from 11–17 December 2016. The hosts, entering as the bottom seed, won promotion for the second year in a row.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "The tournament was held in Tallinn, Estonia from 11–17 December 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "The tournament was held in Logroño, Spain from 7–13 January 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "The tournament was held in Dunedin, New Zealand from 16–22 January 2017. Turkey defeated China in the Gold medal game to achieve promotion to Division II. Chinese Taipei returned to play for the first time since 2011, losing all but their final game.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2017 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships was the 41st edition of the Ice Hockey World Junior Championship (WJC or WM20). The main tournament was co-hosted by the Bell Centre in Montreal, Quebec and the Air Canada Centre in Toronto, Ontario. This was the twelfth championship that Canada had hosted. Montreal and Toronto also jointly hosted the 2015 edition. The tournament consisted of 30 games between 10 nations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977526}
{"src_title": "2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Top Division.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Host selection.", "content": "On July 28, 2015, USA Hockey named the five initial finalists for hosting the event:  Chicago and Tampa were eliminated on September 15. Buffalo was chosen as the host site on December 3, with a formal announcement on December 4.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Officials.", "content": "The following officials were assigned by the International Ice Hockey Federation to officiate the 2018 World Junior Championships.  Referees  Linesmen", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "The preliminary round was a two group of five teams each internal round-robin format, followed by a three-round playoff. In the round-robin, two points were allotted for a win, and one additional point for a regulation win. One point was allotted for an overtime or game winning shots loss.  The four highest-ranked teams from each group of the preliminary round advanced to quarterfinals while the last-placed team from each group played a best-of-three series, the loser relegated to Division IA for 2019. All other teams will retain their Top Division status.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Relegation.", "content": "Note: was relegated for the 2019 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tournament awards.", "content": "Most Valuable Player  All-star team  IIHF best player awards", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "The Division IA tournament was held in Courchevel and Meribel, France from December 10-16, 2017. The Division IB tournament was held in Bled, Slovenia from December 9-15, 2017. As a result of the Division IA tournament, Kazakhstan was promoted to the Top Division, and Hungary was relegated to Division IB. As a result of the Division IB tournament, Norway was promoted to Division IA, and Lithuania was relegated to Division IIA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "The Division IIA tournament was held in Dumfries, Great Britain from December 10-16, 2017. The Division IIB tournament was held in Belgrade, Serbia from January 10-16, 2018. As a result of the Division IIA tournament, Japan was promoted to Division IB, and Netherlands was relegated to Division IIB.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "The Division III tournament was held in Sofia, Bulgaria from January 22–28, 2018. The Division III qualification tournament was held in Cape Town, South Africa from February 5–7, 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships was the 42nd edition of the Ice Hockey World Junior Championship, and was hosted by the city of Buffalo, New York at the KeyBank Center and HarborCenter. It opened on December 26, 2017 and closed with the gold medal game on January 5, 2018. It was the sixth time that the United States has hosted the IHWJC, and the second time that Buffalo has done so, previously hosting in 2011.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977527}
{"src_title": "2019 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Top Division.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Officials.", "content": "The following officials were assigned by the International Ice Hockey Federation to officiate the 2019 World Junior Championships.  Referees  Linesmen", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "The preliminary round is a two group of five teams each internal round-robin format, followed by a three-round playoff. In the round-robin, three points are allotted for a regulation win, and two points for an overtime or shootout win. One point is allotted for an overtime or shootout loss.  The four highest-ranked teams from each group of the preliminary round advance to the quarterfinals while the last-place team from each group will play a best-of-three series, the loser relegated to Division IA for 2020, being replaced by the winner of Division IA. All other teams will retain their Top Division status for the 2020 edition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Preliminary round.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Division I.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "The Group A tournament was held in Füssen, Germany from 9 to 15 December 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "The Group B tournament was held in Tychy, Poland from 8 to 14 December 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division II.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group A.", "content": "The Group A tournament was held in Tallinn, Estonia from 13 to 19 January 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group B.", "content": "The Group B tournament was held in Zagreb, Croatia from 15 to 21 January 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Division III.", "content": "The tournament was held in Reykjavík, Iceland from 14 to 20 January 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2019 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships (\"2019 WJC\") was the 43rd edition of the Ice Hockey World Junior Championship. It began on December 26, 2018, and ended with the gold medal game being played on January 5, 2019. This marked the 13th time that Canada hosted the WJC.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977528}
{"src_title": "Anthony Duclair", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Duclair was born in Laval, Quebec, and grew up in Pointe-Claire, Quebec. He is of Haitian descent. As a youth, he played in the 2008 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Montreal Canadiens minor ice hockey team. His uncle Farell Duclair played in the Canadian Football League.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Junior.", "content": "Duclair spent three seasons with the Quebec Remparts of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL). He scored an impressive 50 goals in 59 games during the 2013–14 season. Duclair was rewarded for his outstanding play being named to the QMJHL First All-Star Team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New York Rangers.", "content": "On January 2, 2014, Duclair signed a three-year, entry-level contract with the New York Rangers. Duclair impressed the Rangers with his performance in the 2014–15 pre-season, leading the team with five points in five games. On October 6, 2014, defenceman Steven Kampfer and centre Andrew Yogan were traded to the Florida Panthers in exchange for forward Joey Crabb, securing an opening-night roster position for Duclair.  Duclair scored his first NHL goal on October 27, 2014, against Darcy Kuemper of the Minnesota Wild. On January 6, 2015, Duclair was assigned to the Quebec Remparts for the remainder of the 2014–15 season.  On March 1, 2015, while playing with the Remparts, Duclair was traded to the Arizona Coyotes (along with John Moore and two draft picks) in exchange for Keith Yandle and Chris Summers.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Arizona Coyotes.", "content": "Arizona Coyotes general manager Don Maloney confirmed fan speculation by stating that he acquired Duclair from the New York Rangers in the hopes that he would develop line chemistry with a rookie Arizona already possessed, Max Domi. This was due to the fact that during the 2015 World Junior Ice Hockey Championship, Duclair and Domi both showed visible chemistry and were key components in leading Canada to gold.  On October 14, 2015, Duclair scored his first career NHL hat-trick in a 4–0 shut-out win against the Anaheim Ducks. Fellow rookie Max Domi pitched in a goal of his own and an assist on one of Duclair's goals. In Duclair's first full season in the NHL, he developed instant line chemistry with Domi, earning the duo the nickname \"The Killer D's\".  On January 19, 2017, Duclair was demoted to the team's American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Tucson Roadrunners, due to a lack of production. On March 3, 2017, he returned to the Coyotes.  On January 4, 2018, it was reported that Duclair had requested to be traded from the Coyotes.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Chicago Blackhawks.", "content": "On January 10, 2018, Duclair was traded (alongside defenceman Adam Clendening) to the Chicago Blackhawks in exchange for forwards Richard Pánik and Laurent Dauphin. His inconsistency carried over to the Blackhawks, after making an initial impact he finished the season scoreless in his last 14 games and finished the season appearing in 23 games for 8 points for Chicago.  On June 25, 2018, as a restricted free agent, Duclair was not tendered a qualifying offer by the Blackhawks and was released to explore free agency.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Columbus Blue Jackets.", "content": "On July 5, 2018, Duclair signed a one-year, one-way contract worth $650,000 with the Columbus Blue Jackets. In 53 games for the team, Duclair recorded 11 goals and 19 points.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Ottawa Senators.", "content": "On February 23, 2019, Duclair was traded to the Ottawa Senators (along with second-round picks in 2020 and 2021) in exchange for Ryan Dzingel and a seventh-round pick in 2019. Only a few days before the trade, Blue Jackets head coach John Tortorella publicly criticized Duclair, saying that Duclair \"doesn't know how to play\".  On June 17, 2019, Duclair signed a one-year contract with the Senators for the 2019–20 season worth $1.65 million. He immediately became one of Ottawa's top offensive players, recording 21 goals and 30 points in his first 38 games, leading the team in both categories. He was subsequently named as the Senators' representative for the 2020 National Hockey League All-Star Game held on January 25, 2020, in St. Louis.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Anthony Duclair (born August 26, 1995) is a Canadian professional ice hockey forward for the Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League (NHL). Duclair was selected by the New York Rangers in the third round, 80th overall, of the 2013 NHL Entry Draft, the organization with which he began his NHL career. Duclair has also played in the NHL for the Arizona Coyotes, Chicago Blackhawks and Columbus Blue Jackets.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977529}
{"src_title": "Pont du Carrousel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Begun in 1831 in the prolongation of the \"rue des Saints-Pères\" on the Left Bank, the original bridge was known under that name until its inauguration, in 1834, when king Louis-Philippe named it \"Pont du Carrousel\", because it opened on the Right Bank river frontage of the Palais du Louvre near the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in front of the Tuileries.  The bridge's architect, Antoine-Rémy Polonceau, succeeded in a design that was innovative in several aspects. For one thing, the new structure was an arch bridge, during a period when most bridge construction had turned to suspension bridges; the necessary towers and cables would have been considered unacceptable additions to the Parisian scenery. The structure combined the relatively new material of cast iron with timber. Its graduated cast-iron circular supports were quickly dubbed \"napkin rings\" (\"ronds de serviette\"). At each corner of the bridge were erected classic style stone allegorical sculptures by Louis Petitot, which remain \"in situ\". They represent \"Industry\", \"Abundance\", \"The City of Paris\" and \"The Seine\".  In 1906, after seven decades of use, serious restoration was required; the former wooden elements were replaced with beaten iron. Nevertheless, the bridge was too narrow for twentieth-century traffic, and shifted alarmingly. In 1930, its height above the river was judged insufficient for river transportation, and it was decided to scrap it for an entirely new structure to be built a few tens of metres downstream from the former one, and with greater headroom on the river. The architects Malet and Lang attempted to respect the former aspect, which now had become familiar to Parisians. The new bridge of reinforced concrete still crosses the river in three arches reaching the right bank in front of the Louvre, in direct line with the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel. For its lighting at night, the iron craftsman Raymond Subes conceived an ingenious telescoping system that raised the streetlights from a height of 13 metres in the daytime to 20 metres at nightfall when they were lit; however, the system was too fragile to be of any use and did not function until it was repaired in 1999.  The nearest Métro station is Palais Royal - Musée du Louvre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brahim Bouarram Affair.", "content": "On 1 May 1995, the Moroccan immigrant Brahim Bouarram drowned after being pushed into the Seine river near the bridge by members of a Front National procession. In 2003, in the name of all the citizens of Paris, the mayor of the city, Bertrand Delanoë, honored the memory of Bouarram and all the victims of racism with a commemorative plaque on the bridge.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Pont du Carrousel () is a bridge in Paris, which spans the River Seine between the Quai des Tuileries and the Quai Voltaire.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977530}
{"src_title": "Louis Vuitton Foundation", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 2001, Bernard Arnault, the Chairman of LVMH, met Frank Gehry, and told him of plans for a new building for the Louis Vuitton Foundation for Creation on the edge of the Bois de Boulogne. The building project was first presented in 2006, with costs estimated at around €100 million ($127 million) and plans to open in late 2009 or early 2010. Suzanne Pagé, then director of the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, was named the foundation’s artistic director in charge of developing the museum's program.  The city of Paris which owns the park granted a building permit in 2007. In 2011, an association for the safeguard of the Bois de Boulogne won a court battle, as the judge ruled the centre had been built too close to a tiny asphalt road deemed a public right of way. Opponents to the site had also complained that a new building would disrupt the verdant peace of the historic park. The city appealed the court decision. Renowned French architect Jean Nouvel backed Gehry and said of the objectors: \"With their little tight-fitting suits, they want to put Paris in formalin. It's quite pathetic.\" Eventually a special law was passed by the Assemblée Nationale that the Fondation was in the national interest and \"a major work of art for the whole world,\" which allowed it to proceed.  The museum opened to the public in October, at a reported cost of $143 million. However, in May 2017, \"Marianne\", a French news magazine, revealed that the final cost of the building had been €780 million (close to $900 million).  Before the official opening, it provided the venue for Louis Vuitton’s women’s spring/summer 2015 fashion show.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "Upon Arnault's invitation, Frank Gehry visited the garden, and imagined an architecture inspired by the glass Grand Palais, and also by the structures of glass, such as the Palmarium, which was built for the Jardin d'Acclimatation in 1893. The building site is designed after the founding principles of 19th century landscaped gardens. It connects the building with the Jardin d'Acclimatation at north, and the Bois de Boulogne to the south.  The two-story structure has 11 galleries of different sizes (in total 41,441 square feet), a voluminous 350-seat auditorium on the lower-ground floor and multilevel roof terraces for events and art installations. Gehry had to build within the square footage and two-story volume of a bowling alley that previously stood on the site; anything higher had to be glass. The resulting glass building takes the form of a sailboat's sails inflated by the wind. These glass sails envelop the \"iceberg\", a series of shapes with white, flowery terraces.  The galleries on the upper floors are lit by recessed or partially hidden skylights.  The side of the building facing Avenue Mahatma Gandhi, right above the ticket booth, holds a large stainless-steel \"LV\" logo designed by Gehry.  According to Gehry's office, more than 400 people contributed design plans, engineering rules, and construction constraints to a shared Web-hosted 3D digital model. The 3,600 glass panels and 19,000 concrete panels that form the façade were simulated and then molded by industrial robots working off the common model. STUDIOS architecture was the local architect for the project spearheading the transition from Gehry's schematic design through the construction process in Paris to building space. The consultants for the auditorium were Nagata Acoustics and AVEL Acoustics for the acoustics and dUCKS Scéno as scenographer.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "Construction began in March 2008. The realization of the 126,000-square-foot project required innovative technological developments, from the design phase with the use of 3D design software, Digital Project, specially adapted for the aviation industry. All teams in project management worked simultaneously on the same digital model so that professionals could exchange information in real time.  Opposing this building project, an organization that protects the park, Coordination for the Safeguarding of the Bois de Boulogne, appealed to the Administrative Justice and successfully challenged both the land authorization, issued by a decision of the Council of Paris, and the building permit, leading to the latter being canceled on January 20, 2011. To save the museum project, the city of Paris changed its planning regulations concerning land usage. In April 2011, concerning the building permit, the city and the Louis Vuitton Foundation received approval to continue the work. The association then appealed to the Constitutional Council by filing a priority issue of constitutionality (QPC) targeting the permit but on 24 February 2012 the challenge was rejected by the Constitutional Council.  In 2012, construction of the building reached a milestone with the installation of glass sails. These sails are made of 3,584 laminated glass panels, each unique and specifically curved to fit the shapes drawn by the architect. The gallery sections are covered in a white fiber-reinforced concrete called Ductal. The teams participating in the construction of the building have been awarded several architectural awards in France and the U.S.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Collection.", "content": "The museum's collection, believed to be a combination of works owned by LVMH and Bernard Arnault, include works by Jean-Michel Basquiat, Gilbert & George and Jeff Koons. For site-specific installations, the foundation commissioned works by Ellsworth Kelly, Olafur Eliasson, Janet Cardiff and George Bures Miller (starring Scott Tixier and Tony Tixier), Sarah Morris, Taryn Simon, Cerith Wyn Evans and Adrián Villar Rojas.  Kelly made a curtain, \"Spectrum VIII\" (2014), consisting of 12 coloured strips, for the building’s auditorium. Eliasson created \"Inside the Horizon\" (2014), made up of 43 prism-shaped yellow columns that are illuminated from the inside and placed along a walkway. Villar Rojas created a water tank containing found objects, discarded sneakers and plants, installed under one of the 12 glass \"sails\" that provide the Fondation’s signature, swerving shape.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Management.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Funding.", "content": "The museum was funded by LVMH and bears the name (and logo) of its flagship brand, Louis Vuitton. The building will pass into the hands of the city’s government after 55 years.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The building of the Louis Vuitton Foundation (previously Louis Vuitton Foundation for Creation, in French \"Fondation Louis-Vuitton pour la création\"), started in 2006, is an art museum and cultural center sponsored by the group LVMH and its subsidiaries. It is run as a legally separate, nonprofit entity as part of LVMH's promotion of art and culture.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977531}
{"src_title": "Matilda Mother", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Lyrics and music.", "content": "The lyrics quote fragments of fairy tales as read from a book to the singer by his mother (\"read(ing) the scribbly black\", referring to writing in a book as a child sees it), and in the chorus he implores her to \"tell me more\". \"Matilda Mother\" represents a common theme in Barrett's work: his nostalgia for childhood and awareness that it could not be regained.  The song begins with an unusual bass and organ interlude. Roger Waters repeatedly plays the B on the 16th fret of the G-string by varying the lower note from D to F# on the D string. Unlike many older beat and pop songs, the guitar rarely plays chords, and most unusually for Western music, Wright provides an organ solo in the F# Phrygian dominant scale with a natural sixth instead of its typical flatted counterpart. The song ends with a simple E \"mixolydian\"-based waltz with wordless vocal harmonies of Wright and Barrett.  Barrett originally wrote the song around verses from Hilaire Belloc's \"Cautionary Tales\", in which a series of naughty children, including Matilda, receive their (often gruesome) comeuppance. He was forced to rewrite and re-record the track when Belloc's estate unexpectedly denied permission to use these lyrics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later release.", "content": "On the \"Masters of Rock\" compilation album, the song was misspelled \"Mathilda Mother\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternative versions.", "content": "A previously unreleased alternative version was released in a 40th anniversary reissue of \"The Piper at the Gates of Dawn\"; parts of this version's lyrics are also from Belloc's \"Cautionary Tales\", i.e. and, whereas the chorus is the same as in the standard version.  A different, stereo remix of the same alternative version was also released on the Barrett compilation, \"An Introduction to Syd Barrett\" in 2010. An extended version of this 2010 mix appeared in the Pink Floyd compilation box set The Early Years 1965–1972.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Matilda Mother\" is a song by British band Pink Floyd, featured on their 1967 debut album, \"The Piper at the Gates of Dawn\". Written by Syd Barrett, it is sung mostly by Richard Wright with Barrett joining in on choruses and singing the whole last verse. It was the first song recorded for the album.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977532}
{"src_title": "Loïc Nottet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life and career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2013–15: The Voice Belgique and Eurovision Song Contest.", "content": "Loïc Nottet auditioned for \"The Voice Belgique\" and reached second place in the final of the third season, behind the winner Pagna. He was in the team of B.J. Scott. He cites Imagine Dragons, Lana Del Rey, Sia and Dua Lipa as his inspirations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List of songs performed on \"The Voice Belgique\".", "content": "On 3 November 2014, Belgium's French language state broadcaster, Radio Télévision Belge Francophone (RTBF), announced Nottet as the Belgian representative for the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 to be held in Vienna, Austria. On 10 March 2015, \"Rhythm Inside\", his entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2015, was presented (co-written by his Voice mentor). The song went to number one on both the Flanders and Wallonia Ultratop charts. Performing in the first semi final of the competition, Nottet was successful in progressing to the final, coming second in his semi final with 149 points. During the Jury Final (following Australia), he could be barely seen on stage due to heavy use of smoke machines and pyrotechnics from the Australian Act. His delegation was rumoured to have lodged a complaint about this, saying that it would affect part of their final score. While they requested to perform again, this was apparently denied, instead telling juries to disregard the smoke. In the Grand Final, the Belgian entry scored a total of 217 points leaving \"Rhythm Inside\" in fourth position overall, giving Belgium its first top five placement since 2003. It received the maximum 12 points from three countries; Netherlands, France and Hungary. The song was certified Platinum for selling 30,000 copies in Belgium. Nottet has released three different music videos for Rhythm Inside (including one called the \"Alice in Nightmareland\" version). After the contest, \"Rhythm Inside\" reached the top ten in the Austrian, Lithuanian and Russian Music Charts, achieving top 20 in Finland, Iceland and Sweden and also charting in Australia, UK, France, Switzerland and many more European countries.  Loic has sung at NJR park Uitmarkt Symphonica. On 24 October 2015, he took part in and won the sixth series of the French TV show \"Danse avec les stars\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2016–2017: \"Selfocracy\".", "content": "Nottet's single \"Million Eyes\", part of his first album, was released on 27 October 2016. The video was filmed on 5 October 2016. Nottet announced the album would feature a concept, different characters and several music videos. The song charted at number two on the Wallonia Ultratop chart and number two in France. The song was certified gold in Belgium and France. On the evening of 1 March 2017, Nottet announced his debut album via social media. \"Selfocracy\". was released on March 31 and managed to top the chart in Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia). It also charted at number three in Ultratop Flanders, number eight in France and number twenty in Switzerland.  On 22 and 23 April 2017, Nottet presented his first concerts after the release of his album. He has performed two concerts, which both sold out quickly, in the Ancienne Belgique (l'AB) in Brussels.  Nottet won the Best Belgian Act category at the \"2017 MTV Europe Music Awards\" which aired on 12 November 2017.  Throughout 2017 Nottet toured on the Selfocracy tour in Belgium which also reached the UK, France, Germany and more. The tour finished in early August 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018–present: \"Sillygomania\" and \"Candy\".", "content": "In October 2019, Nottet announced \"Candy\", an Halloween themed extended-play released on 31 October, alongside a musical short film titled \"CANDY\", which contains all five songs from the record, which premiered the same day on Youtube.  Nottet's second studio album, \"Sillygomania\", was released on 29 May 2020.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Loïc Nottet (, born 10 April 1996) is a Belgian singer, songwriter and dancer. He began his career as a singer in the third season of \"The Voice Belgique\" in 2014 and represented Belgium in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 which was held in Vienna, Austria, where he placed fourth with his original song \"Rhythm Inside\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977533}
{"src_title": "List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Launch statistics.", "content": "Rockets from the Falcon 9 family have been launched times over, resulting in full mission successes (), one partial success (CRS-1 delivered its cargo to the ISS, but a secondary payload was stranded in a lower-than-planned orbit), and one failure (the CRS-7 spacecraft was lost in flight). Additionally, one rocket and its payload Amos-6 were destroyed before launch in preparation for an on-pad static fire test.  The first rocket version Falcon 9 v1.0 was launched five times from June 2010 to March 2013, its successor Falcon 9 v1.1 15 times from September 2013 to January 2016, and the latest upgrade Falcon 9 Full Thrust times from December 2015 to present, 26 of which using a re-flown first stage booster. Falcon Heavy was launched once in February 2018, incorporating two refurbished first stages as side boosters, and then again in April and June 2019, the June flight reusing the side booster from the previous flight. The final \"Block 4\" booster to be produced was flown in April 2018, and the first Block 5 version in May 2018. While Block 4 boosters were only flown twice and required several months of refurbishment, Block 5 versions are designed to sustain 10 flights with just inspections, possibly on a 24-hour turnover.  The rocket's first-stage boosters have been recovered in of landing attempts (), with out of for the latest version, Block 5.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Past launches.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2014.", "content": "With six launches, SpaceX became the second most prolific American company in terms of 2014 launches, behind Atlas V rockets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2015.", "content": "With 7 launches in 2015, Falcon 9 was the second most launched American rocket behind Atlas V.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016.", "content": "With 8 successful launches for 2016, SpaceX equalled Atlas V for most American rocket launches for the year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017.", "content": "With 18 launches throughout 2017, SpaceX had the most prolific yearly launch manifest of all rocket families.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018.", "content": "In November 2017, Gwynne Shotwell expected to increase launch cadence in 2018 by about 50% compared to 2017, leveling out at a rate of about 30 to 40 per year, not including launches for the planned SpaceX satellite constellation Starlink. The actual launch rate increased by 17% from 18 in 2017 to 21 in 2018, giving SpaceX the second most launches for the year for a rocket family, behind China's Long March.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2019.", "content": "Shotwell declared in May 2019 that SpaceX might conduct up to 21 launches in 2019, not counting Starlink missions. but by September she declared that there will be at most 18 total launches. SpaceX ended up launching only 13 rockets throughout 2019, significantly fewer than in 2017 and 2018, and third most launches of vehicle class behind China's Long March and Russia's R-7 rockets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Future launches.", "content": "Future launches are listed chronologically when firm plans are in place. The order of the later launches is much less certain, as the official SpaceX manifest does not include a schedule. Tentative launch dates are cited from various sources for each launch. Launches are expected to take place \"no earlier than\" (NET) the listed date.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2020.", "content": "In late 2019, Gwynne Shotwell stated that SpaceX hopes for as many as 24 launches for Starlink satellites in 2020, in addition to 14 or 15 non-Starlink launches. She noted that second stages may need to be built slightly faster in order to allow SpaceX to aim for a total of 35 to 38 flights for the year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2021.", "content": "SpaceX aims to have up to 54 launches for Falcon 9 and another 10 for Falcon Heavy for 2021 from Florida according to its environmental assessment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2022.", "content": "SpaceX aims to have over 60 launches every year from Florida alone according to an environmental assessment.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2023 and beyond.", "content": "! scope=\"col\" | Date and time (UTC)! scope=\"col\" | Version, Booster! scope=\"col\" | Launch site! scope=\"col\" | Payload! scope=\"col\" | Orbit! scope=\"col\" | Customer", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Since June 2010, rockets from the Falcon 9 family have been launched times, with full mission successes, one partial failure and one total loss of spacecraft (numbers current as of ). In addition, one rocket and its payload were destroyed on the launch pad in the fueling process before a static fire test.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977534}
{"src_title": "Future Systems", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Practice.", "content": "Future Systems proposals adapted construction methods from other professions, including (most commonly) the curved monocoque shell structures found in aircraft design, car design and boat building.  In the 1990s the company moved from theoretical projects to fee-paying work with projects such as the \"spacecraft-like\" Media Centre at Lord's Cricket Ground in London (completed 1999), and the Selfridges Building (completed 2003). For Lord's, Kaplicky received the Stirling Prize. The Selfridges department store is a prime example of the early 21st century movement referred to as \"blobitecture\", and has been compared to Peter Cook's Kunsthaus in Graz, Austria.  After Future Systems won the Stirling Prize, the firm received larger commissions including the Enzo Ferrari Museum in Modena, Italy (2009) and the unbuilt new Czech National Library. In 2008 Kaplický and Levete split the firm. Kaplický took the firm name and some staff to the Czech republic, and Levete would take a proposed new headquarters for News Corporation in east London and a commission for a hotel and retail complex in Bangkok, Thailand, along with most of the staff – between 35 and 45 people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "1979 Founded by Jan Kaplicky and David Nixon while working at Foster Associates.  1989 Joined by Amanda Levete who arrives from Richard Rogers & Partners to become a partner.  1994 Completed the well received Hauer-King house in Islington.  1999 Won the Stirling Prize for Lord's Cricket Ground media centre.  2003 Completed the Selfridges building at the regenerated Bull Ring shopping centre in Birmingham.  2007 Won the commission for the controversial Czech National Library.  2008 Split into two practices after Kaplicky and Levete officially separate as business partners.  2008 Submits design of London Routemaster bus.  2008 Czech National Library project cancelled by Prague authorities.  2009 Jan Kaplický dies on 14 January 2009 in Prague, Czech Republic. A month later the final few staff working for Kaplický/Future Systems in Levete's offices were let go.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Future Systems was a London-based architectural and design practice, formerly headed by Directors Jan Kaplický and Amanda Levete. Future Systems was founded by Kaplický and David Nixon after working with Denys Lasdun, Norman Foster, Renzo Piano, and Richard Rogers in 1979. The work of Future Systems can be classified within the British high-tech architects as either bionic architecture or amorphous, organic shapes sometimes referred to as \"blobitecture\". \"Compared to his peers, Kaplicky was the avant-garde incarnate, relentlessly pursuing the new new thing, refusing to settle into some predictable, and comfortable, architectural niche.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977535}
{"src_title": "Ester Ledecká", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ester Ledecká was born in Prague, to mother Zuzana, a figure skater and father Janek Ledecký, a well-known musician in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. She comes from a sporting family: her grandfather is former ice hockey player Jan Klapáč, who was a seven-time World Championship and two-time Olympic medallist. In 2014, she was still at high school, attending a distance-learning programme in Prague.  Ice hockey was the first sport she took up as a child, before taking up skiing at the age of four and later adding snowboarding. Her hobbies include playing the guitar and singing. She also enjoys participating in summer sports such as beach volleyball and windsurfing.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Ledecká competed in her first World Cup tournament in the 2012–13 competition, finishing in 13th place in the parallel giant slalom event. In March 2013, at the age of 17, she won gold in the parallel slalom event at the Junior World Championships, her second gold of the competition. She was named \"Junior Sportsperson of the year\" at the Czech Republic's 2013 Sportsperson of the Year awards.  During the 2013–14 FIS Snowboard World Cup, Ledecká placed second behind Patrizia Kummer in the first parallel slalom event in Bad Gastein and third in the second event. She subsequently won gold at Rogla in the parallel giant slalom event at the same competition, becoming the first Czech to do so. In doing so, she also became just the third Czech to win any World Cup snowboarding event.  Ahead of the 2014 Winter Olympics, \"The Daily Telegraph\"'s Andrew Lawton mentioned Ledecká as the \"one to watch\" in the women's snowboarding competition. She was among the Czech athletes most expected to win a medal at the games, along with Martina Sáblíková, Gabriela Soukalová and fellow snowboarder Eva Samková. After she had finished ninth in qualifying for the alpine skiing event at the Winter Olympics, the Czech Ski Association attempted to register her as a competitor, however the FIS rejected the proposal, reiterating that only eight Czechs could compete.  Ledecká made her Olympic debut at the 2014 Winter Olympics on 19 February 2014 in the parallel giant slalom snowboarding event. She reached the quarter final stage before being eliminated by Patrizia Kummer, who went on to win the gold medal in the event. Ledecká was classified as seventh overall.  Ledecká has combined her snowboarding career with competing in alpine skiing: she made her debut on the FIS Alpine Ski World Cup in February 2016, finishing 24th in her first race, the Kandahar downhill in Garmisch. She went on to score points in four of her first five World Cup races, competing in the downhill and Super-G disciplines. In 2017 she became the first sportsperson to compete in World Championships in both skiing and snowboarding, taking a gold in the parallel giant slalom and a silver in the parallel slalom at the Freestyle Ski and Snowboarding World Championships in Sierra Nevada, Spain, and scoring top 30 finishes in the downhill, super-G and alpine combined at the Alpine Skiing World Championships in St. Moritz, Switzerland.  Ledecká made her Olympic debut in alpine skiing at the 2018 Winter Olympics, while also being qualified for alpine snowboarding. She won the gold medal in super-G in alpine skiing at the 2018 Winter Olympics in a historic upset. She was visibly shocked after finishing 0.01 seconds ahead of the 2014 Olympics defending gold medalist Anna Veith, who had already been proclaimed the winner by many media outlets. Ledecká was ranked 49th in the event prior to the Olympics and had never medalled in any World Cup level international skiing event. To make the feat even more surprising to reporters, she was rumored to be allegedly racing on skis borrowed from Mikaela Shiffrin (both racers are sponsored by Atomic). She refused to remove her goggles for the post-victory press conference, insisting that this is her trademark (which is true), and when pressed by reporters she cleverly stated that she had skipped wearing makeup as she had not expected to win the event. Her snowboard coach, American Justin Reiter, arrived at the start of the Ladies PGS event with his reversible Czech team jacket confidently already turned gold side out. After victory in the parallel giant slalom she became the first ever female athlete to win an Olympic gold medal in two different disciplines during the same Winter Olympics (Anfisa Reztsova had previously won gold in different disciplines but not at the same Olympics: cross country skiing in 1988 and biathlon in 1992 and 1994). Ledecká was chosen as the flag bearer for the Czech Republic at the closing ceremony.  In the 2018-19 Alpine Ski World Cup, Ledecká finished 24th in the downhill standings and 28th in super-G. In December 2019, Ledecká scored her first win on the Alpine Ski World Cup in a downhill at Lake Louise, eclipsing her previous personal best World Cup downhill result of seventh at the same venue two years previously.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World Cup results.", "content": "All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ester Ledecká (, born 23 March 1995) is a Czech snowboarder and alpine skier. At the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, Ledecká won gold medals in the super-G in alpine skiing, and in the parallel giant slalom in snowboarding, becoming the first person to win two gold medals at the same Winter Olympics using two different types of equipment (skis and snowboard). She was the second woman to win Olympic gold in two separate disciplines but the first to do so at the same Winter Olympics. She was the first Czech to win the parallel giant slalom in snowboarding at the FIS Snowboard World Cup.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977536}
{"src_title": "Europa Report", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Dr. Unger (Embeth Davidtz), CEO of Europa Ventures, narrates the story of the Europa One mission. Six astronauts embark on a privately funded mission to Jupiter's moon Europa to find potential sources of life. The crew members are commander William Xu (Daniel Wu), pilot Rosa Dasque (Anamaria Marinca), chief science officer Daniel Luxembourg (Christian Camargo), marine biology science officer Katya Petrovna (Karolina Wydra), junior engineer James Corrigan (Sharlto Copley) and chief engineer Andrei Blok (Michael Nyqvist).  After six months of mission time, a solar storm hits the ship, knocking out communication with mission control. Blok and Corrigan perform an extra-vehicular activity (EVA) to repair the system from outside but an accident rips Blok's suit. While he is being guided back into the airlock, Blok notices that Corrigan's suit has been coated with hydrazine and he cannot enter the airlock or else he would contaminate the rest of the ship. Blok attempts to save Corrigan by taking him out of his suit, but he blacks out from a lack of oxygen. Knowing there is no hope for himself, Corrigan pushes Blok into the airlock, thus propelling himself away from the ship as it continues its journey to Europa. Stranded, he dies in space; the crew continue with the mission, demoralized by Corrigan's death.  After twenty months, the ship goes into orbit around Europa and its lunar lander lands safely on Europa but misses its target zone. The crew drills through the ice and releases a probe into the underlying sea. Blok, who is sleep-deprived and eliciting concern in the rest of the crew, sees a light outside the ship but he is unable to record it or otherwise convince the crew of its occurrence. The probe is struck by an unknown lighted object and contact with it is lost.  Petrovna insists on collecting samples on Europa's surface; the crew votes and she is allowed to go. Analyzing the samples, Luxembourg discovers traces of a single-celled organism. Petrovna sees a blue light in the distance and decides to investigate it. As she approaches the light the ice below her breaks and she falls through. Her head-mounted camera continues to broadcast, displaying her terrified face as the blue bioluminescence is reflected in her eyes, before cutting out.  The crew agrees to leave to report their discovery to Earth but the engines malfunction. As the lander hurtles back to Europa's surface, Xu unbuckles from his seat to dump water shielding to reduce the impact speed. Remarkably, the ship crashes at the originally-targeted landing site. On impact, Xu is killed and the lander is damaged, leaking oxygen and losing heat. It begins to sink into the ice.  Blok and Luxembourg suit up to make repairs outside the ship. Luxembourg tries to descend but falls through the ice. Blok knows that there is no chance that he alone will be able to repair the lander before it sinks. Instead, he manages to fix the communication link to the orbiting mother ship, at the expense of turning off the life support systems, just before the same blue light Petrovna saw approaches and he appears to fall through the ice as well.  Dasque re-establishes communication with Earth; all the collected images and data that have been saved since the solar storm are relayed to Earth via the mother ship, just as the ice cracks and the lander begins to sink. Alone and anticipating her death, Dasque opens the airlock to flood the lander in hopes of revealing the source of the light. As the water rises to the cockpit, she sees a tentacled, bioluminescent creature rising toward her, before the camera cuts out.  In the epilogue, Unger confirms that the crew of Europa had discovered life and exceeded every expectation, as the footage plays from an earlier scene of the crew posing in front of the camera.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Filming took place in Brooklyn, New York. The first image from the film was revealed on February 11, 2012. A viral website to promote the film was launched shortly afterward.  The screenplay was written by Philip Gelatt and the production design was done by Eugenio Caballero. It was scored by Bear McCreary. The movie is a found footage film and follows a nonlinear progression.  The crew used as inspiration real footage from the International Space Station and space walks from the space shuttle. The space ship was designed through computer graphics, giving high detail to the camera angles to be used in the film. Weightlessness was simulated with balance balls, suspension from wires was used for interior shots. The flooding ship was filmed on a one-third scale model.  The aspect of the moon Europa was based for accuracy on data from NASA and Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) maps of the moon's surface. The creature's design included bio-luminescence from the initial concepts. The visual effects supervisor stated that the creature was based on a cross of an octopus and a squid, with early sketches resembling a jellyfish and a manta ray.  An online trailer was released on May 20, 2012. The film was released on Video on Demand, iTunes, and Google Play Movies & TV on June 27, 2013, and was released theatrically on August 2, 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "\"Europa Report\" has received generally positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an 81% \"Certified Fresh\" rating based on 79 reviews, its summary reading, \"Claustrophobic and stylish, \"Europa Report\" is a slow-burning thriller that puts the science back into science fiction.\" Review aggregation website Metacritic gives a rating of 68 out of 100 based on reviews from 25 critics, which indicates \"generally favorable\" reviews.  Justin Chang, of \"Variety\" magazine, called the film \"A reasonably plausible and impressively controlled achievement.\" while space.com said the film was \"One of the most thrilling and realistic depictions of space exploration since \"Moon\" or \"\".\" Fearnet said the film was \"One of the most sincere, suspenseful and fascinating science fiction films of the past few years.\"  The film was nominated for the Bradbury Award by the members of SFWA.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Europa Report is a 2013 science fiction film directed by Sebastián Cordero, starring Christian Camargo, Anamaria Marinca, Michael Nyqvist, Daniel Wu, Karolina Wydra and Sharlto Copley. A found footage film, it recounts the fictional story of the first crewed mission to Europa, one of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter. Despite a disastrous technical failure that causes the loss of all communications with Earth mission control and a series of crises, the crew continues its mission to Europa and finds mounting evidence of life on the moon.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977537}
{"src_title": "Peter Perez Burdett", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Burdett was born 1734 or 1735 in Eastwood in Essex, the son of William and Elizabeth Burdett. He inherited a small estate and the name \"Perez\" from his maternal grandfather who was the clergyman in Eastwood. Little is known about his early life until Burdett met Joseph Wright of Derby early in the 1760s and he was able to borrow money from him to fund his map making. Burdett was a model for several of Wright's paintings and he was able to benefit from his friendship and finance whilst Burdett explained the finer points of perspective to Wright.  In about 1766 Wright painted \"A Philosopher Giving that Lecture on the Orrery, in which a Lamp is put in place of the Sun\" (sometimes called simply \"The Orrery\"). The painting depicts a public lecture about the solar system, with a lamp—in place of the sun—illuminating the faces of the orrery and the faces of the audience. Consistent with the astronomical theme, the partially illuminated faces may represent the phases of the moon. The figure to the left of the philosopher has been clearly identified as Burdett whilst the man to the right is thought to be Washington Shirley, the Earl of Ferrers who Burdett stayed with at Staunton Harold which is just within Leicestershire. The Earl was, like Burdett, interested in science and he did briefly own this painting.  By 1767 he had produced a map of Derby at a scale of one inch to one mile. With this map Burdett was the second successful claimant of a 1759 challenge made by the Society of Art for those who created county maps at this scale. He produced the aquatint \"Two Boys Blowing a Bladder by Candle-light\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Liverpool.", "content": "In 1768, Burdett moved from Derby to Liverpool to create a map for Lancashire as he had successfully done for Derbyshire. He obtained new patrons and assisted George Perry on his map and history of Liverpool. Burdett created drawings and wrote descriptions of major buildings for Perry's history of 1773.  Burdett was so successful at identifying and exploiting his new contacts that he invited his friend, Wright, to join him in Liverpool. This was a successful move for Wright too and he quickly received commissions from the local gentry and merchants, however it was Burdett who founded a Society of Artists in 1769 in Liverpool and became its first president. \"Academy by Lamplight\", a 1768–69 painting by Joseph Wright of Derby is thought to be of Burdett's academy.  The first British aquatint artist is thought to be Burdett, who exhibited these first aquatints in 1772. Burdett brushed acid direct on to an aquatint ground, only using varnish to stop-off large areas of a single tone. His technique appears to have been novel and was different from early methods developed in France. Burdett published a first aquatint based on an image by John Hamilton Mortimer, but he eventually sold the process to another cartographer, Paul Sandby. Burdett also developed a process for transferring aquatint to pottery; it was not a success.  Burdett learnt his aquatint technique from J.B. Le Prince of Paris. He showed two plates at the Society of Arts Exhibition of 1772, \"An Etching in imitation of a Wash Drawing\" and \"An Etching from a design of Mr. Mortimer\". In 1773 he exhibited a plate entitled \"The effect of a stained drawing attempted by printing from a plate wrought chemically, without the use of any instrument of sculpture\". There are extant three known images by Burdett, \"Banditti Terrifying Fishermen\" of 1771 and \"Skeleton on a Rocky Shore\", both after the painter J.H. Mortimer, and \"Two Boys Blowing a Bladder by Candle-light\" after Wright of Derby. A copy of the latter in Liverpool Public Library bears on its back the inscription “First Speciman of aquatinta invented in Liverpool by P.P. Burdett, 1774, assisted by Mr. S. Chubbard.”  The artist Paul Sandby learnt the basic techniques of aquatint from the Hon. Charles Greville, who himself had purchased the knowledge either from Burdett or from Le Prince. It appears that Greville had received incomplete information, and Sandby found it difficult to produce a plate by Le Prince's method of sifting the rosin over the surface. He discovered that by dissolving the rosin and floating it on the copper a better effect was obtained. Benjamin Franklin wrote to Burdett on 21 August 1773 “I should be glad to be inform’d where I can see some example of the new Art you mention of printing in Imitation of Paintings. It must be a most valuable Discovery: but more likely to meet with adequate Encouragement on this side the water than on ours.”  In 1771 he produced 'A Chart for the Harbour of Liverpool’. and in 1772 Survey of the County Palatine of Chester.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Karlsruhe.", "content": "In 1774 he left Liverpool, to escape debt, and entered the service of Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden. Intriguingly he took with him the painting of himself and his wife, but left his wife to face his debtors. The painting of Burdett and his wife is now in the National Gallery in Prague. It recently returned for an exhibition in Liverpool. This was the second time the work has been seen in the United Kingdom since it left with Burdett on his departure from Liverpool in the eighteenth century.  He did not leave his friends entirely and Joseph Wright visited him in 1774 in south Germany. He married again to Friederike Kotkowski in Germany on 11 July 1787 and he had a daughter Anna, who went on to marry a Count. In the same year he was drawing up plans for Karlsruhe marketplace whose outline can still be seen in the layout of today's buildings.  Burdett died in Karlsruhe on 9 September 1793.  He was a correspondent of Benjamin Franklin who was a founder member of the Lunar society of Birmingham which included such figures as Erasmus Darwin, John Whitehurst, Matthew Boulton, Joseph Priestley, Josiah Wedgwood and James Watt. Burdett has been described as \"if not in the centre at least in the penumbra of the Lunar Society of Birmingham\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Peter Perez Burdett (c. 1734 – 9 September 1793) was an 18th-century cartographer, surveyor, artist, and draughtsman originally from Eastwood in Essex where he inherited a small estate and the name \"Perez\" from his maternal grandfather who was the clergyman there. He would have been notable just for his many appearances in Joseph Wright's pictures but he was also involved with numerous projects including surveying the route for one of the major projects of the industrial revolution, the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, in 1769. He has been described as \"if not in the centre at least in the penumbra of the Lunar Society of Birmingham\". He spent the last years of his life in Karlsruhe, avoiding debtors, but still active in German society. His German daughter married a Count.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977538}
{"src_title": "The Naked Sun", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The story arises from the murder of Rikaine Delmarre, a prominent \"fetologist\" (fetal scientist), responsible for the operation of the planetary birthing center of Solaria, a planet politically hostile to Earth, whose death Elijah Baley is called to investigate, at the request of the Solarian government. He is again partnered with the humanoid robot R. Daneel Olivaw, and asked by Earth's government to assess the Solarian society for weaknesses.  The book focuses on the unusual traditions, customs, and culture of Solarian society. The planet has a rigidly controlled population of 20,000, and all work is done by robots, which outnumber humans ten thousand to one. People are taught from birth to avoid personal contact, and live on huge estates, either alone or with their spouse only. Face-to-face interaction (referred to in the book as \"seeing\"), and especially impregnating a woman, when replacement of a descendent is necessary, was seen as a dirty chore. (Other science fiction novels examine the extra-uterine care of fetuses, but this is not Asimov's concern here.) Communication takes place through technology unknown off of their world: holography, 3-D television. At the time, 2-D (ordinary) color television was a novelty, with very limited programming and not many of the expensive receivers. Asimov was a scientist with a wide range of interests, and was familiar with the principles of electron microscopes then being developed, and from which holography descends.  The Solarians have no modesty when communicating with each other in this fashion. In the book it is referred to as \"viewing\", in contrast to \"seeing\", which is face-to-face and dangerous, because a disease could be transmitted. Nudity was frequent.  Baley, however, insists on face-to-face conversations, traveling in a closed vehicle because of his own agoraphobia, resulting from his life in the enclosed cities of Earth.  Normally the prime suspect in a murder would have been Delmarre's wife Gladia, who was present in the house when he was killed by being beaten over the head. She claims to have no memory of what happened, nor is there any sign of the object used to beat Rikaine Delmarre to death. The only witness is a malfunctioning house robot that has suffered damage to its positronic brain because it allowed harm to be done to a human, in violation of the First Law.  Baley's first encounter with Gladia is through viewing, at which point he discovers that Solarians have no taboo about nudity when viewing, though Baley is shocked. Thereafter he develops a relationship with Gladia in face-to-face contact. She reveals to Baley that she does not like all Solarian customs, and was on bad terms with Rikaine, partly from sexual frustration.  The situation becomes more complex when Hannis Gruer, the Head of Security on Solaria, is poisoned while viewing with Baley. Baley, unable to intervene physically, has to call on Gruer's robots to save him. Baley is able to prevent the house robots from cleaning up the scene and destroying evidence, which happened after Delmarre's death.  Ultimately, it is revealed that Delmarre's neighbor, roboticist Jothan Leebig, was working on putting positronic brains in spaceships. This would negate the First Law, as such ships would not recognize humans, and would be able to attack and destroy other ships without regard for their crews. Delmarre was one of his opponents, as were other Solarians who were horrified by the prospect of robots that could actually harm them. Leebig poisoned Gruer by tricking his robots, using his knowledge of positronic brains, into putting poison into Gruer's drink. Daneel goes to arrest Leebig, who kills himself in Solarian fear of human contact, not knowing that Daneel is a robot. It is assumed that he also engineered the murder of Rikaine Delmarre. Baley conceals Gladia's role on the grounds that her emotional breakdown was under the pressure of the Solarian way of life. Leebig had instructed the Delmarre house robots to detach an arm and give it to Gladia in the heat of an argument. She then hit her husband with it, killing him, before going into a fugue state, after which she remembered nothing. She decides to emigrate to the Spacer planet of Aurora.  Baley returns to Earth to acclaim from his boss. Asked by his boss to reveal any weaknesses he found, Baley says that the features once regarded as Spacer strengths; their robots and long lives, will ultimately prove to be weaknesses. They discourage an active, exploratory attitude that Earth-born humans will eventually rediscover once they are able to leave Earth.  The story of the aftereffects can be found in the sequel \"The Robots of Dawn\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Galaxy\" reviewer Floyd C. Gale praised the novel as \"an interesting exercise in scientific detection... Asimov appears to be laying the groundwork for a new category of science fiction, the S-F detective story\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Social distancing.", "content": "Asimov portrays in \"The Naked Sun\" a world focused on avoiding contact with other people. The Solarians use social distancing, and interact with each other largely through technology. They live far from each other, spread out across a sparsely populated planet. Communication is frequent, but it is \"viewing\" of a transmitted image. To make a baby, which is infrequent, requires that a male and female do it the traditional way, but old-fashioned, in-person sex is a nasty chore. A character remarks that to be in the same room with another person is \"most unpleasant... I feel strongly as though something slimy were about to touch me.\" A doctor has to \"get hardened\" to it.  The dangers of in-person contact are so feared that a character commits suicide to avoid it. In contrast, when there is no in-person contact, there is no modesty about the body; nudity is frequent.  Asimov suggests that to live in this way is unwise; it leads to the violence which is the novel's point of departure.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "The novel was adapted for television as an episode of the British anthology series \"Out of the Unknown\", with Baley being portrayed by Paul Maxwell and Daneel by David Collings. Broadcast on BBC2 on 18 February 1969, the story was dramatised by Robert Muller and directed by Rudolph Cartier and the music and sound effects were created by Delia Derbyshire of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop.  Cast of BBC2 Adaptation:  \"The Naked Sun\" was one of six Asimov stories dramatised for the \"Out of the Unknown\" series. The others were \"The Dead Past\", \"Sucker Bait\", \"Satisfaction Guaranteed\", \"Reason\" (as \"The Prophet\") and \"Liar!\"  Although the episode was wiped by the BBC and no copy is known to exist, three of Delia Derbyshire's sound sequences were published on a BBC record of sound effects Out of This World, renamed as \"Heat Haze\", \"Frozen Waste\" and Icy Peak\".  In 1978, the novel was adapted in the Soviet Union under the name \"The Last Alternative\" ()", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Naked Sun is a science fiction novel by American writer Isaac Asimov, the second in his \"Robot\" series. Like its predecessor, \"The Caves of Steel\", this is a whodunit story. The book was first published in 1957 after being serialized in \"Astounding Science Fiction\" between October and December 1956.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977539}
{"src_title": "Marco Polo (TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cast and characters.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recurring.", "content": "+ Luthi portrays Ling Ling in season 1, Chew in season 2.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The series was originally developed at Starz, which had picked up the series in January 2012. After attempts to film in China failed, the project was released back to The Weinstein Company. Netflix then picked up the series for a 10-episode season, for approximately $90 million, making it one of the most expensive TV shows in the world, second to \"Game of Thrones\". The project was officially announced at Netflix in January 2014. Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg serve as executive producers and directed the pilot and second episodes, \"The Wayfarer\" and \"The Wolf and the Deer\", respectively. The series was filmed in Kazakhstan, Italy, and at Pinewood Studios in Malaysia, not to mention at outdoor locations in Malaysia, particularly tropical wilderness, as well as Slovakia and Hungary. Kazakhstan doubled as the steppes of Mongolia, Malaysia was the base of operations as well as serving as a location, Hungary provided a setting for Renaissance Rome, and Slovakia provided some mountain settings for Season 2.  Stuntman Ju Kun was working on the show alongside fight choreographer Brett Chan, but went missing with the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370 during pre-production.  To prepare for her role as Chabi, Joan Chen read the book \"The Secret History of the Mongol Queens\" by Jack Weatherford, as she wanted her performance to reflect the culture of the time period.  During his extensive research, show creator John Fusco traveled the Silk Road by horseback and also crossed the Ming Sha Dunes of Western China on camel. In Venice, Italy he sought out and studied the \"Last Will and Testament of Marco Polo\". While some Mongolian viewers and experts view it as \"riddled with historical errors\", many have praised the series. Orgil Narangerel, who played Genghis Khan in a BBC documentary, said it was more accurate than any previous foreign portrayal of Mongolian culture. \"As a Mongol and an artist, \"Marco Polo\" makes me feel like our dreams are coming true,\" he told AFP. \"I watched all 10 episodes in just one day.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "The series featured music by Mongolian bands Altan Urag and Batzorig Vaanchig of \"Asia's Got Talent\", who cameoed as a singer. Daniele Luppi composed the main theme, whilst Peter Nashel and Eric V. Hachikian are composers of the original score.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The first season of \"Marco Polo\" was met with negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds a rating of 34%, based on 44 reviews, with a rating average of 4.79/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"An all-around disappointment, \"Marco Polo\" is less entertaining than a round of the game that shares its name.\" On Metacritic, the show's first season has a score of 48 out of 100 based on 21 reviews by critics, indicating \"mixed reviews\".  In his review for \"Entertainment Weekly\", Jeff Jensen gave the first season a \"B−\" rating, calling the premise \"stale\", but added \"Somewhere in the middle of episode 2, though, \"Marco Polo\" becomes surprisingly watchable. The filmmaking becomes bolder.\" Writing for \"People\", Tom Gliatto praised the series, calling it \"...a fun, body-flinging, old-fashioned epic\". \"USA Today\" reviewer Robert Bianco gave the series 1 stars out of 4, saying, \"Clearly what Netflix hopes you'll see a [sic] big-bucks, prestige entertainment along the lines of that HBO fantasy epic, but in truth, \"Marco\" is far closer to one of those cheesy international syndicated adventures.\" The second season was met with more positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a rating of 100%, based on 6 reviews, with a rating average of 7.2/10.  In 2015, the President of Mongolia Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj presented John Fusco and the \"Marco Polo\" creative team with an award, honoring their positive portrayal and global presentation of Mongolian subject matter. Fusco himself has described the series as historical fiction based on the accounts of the Italian traveler Marco Polo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Marco Polo is an American drama web television series inspired by Marco Polo's early years in the court of Kublai Khan, the Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the founder of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). The show premiered on Netflix on December 12, 2014. The series was written and created by John Fusco and stars Lorenzo Richelmy in the title role with Benedict Wong as Kublai Khan. The series was produced by The Weinstein Company. On January 7, 2015, \"Marco Polo\" was renewed by Netflix for a 10-episode second season, which premiered on July 1, 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977540}
{"src_title": "Favipiravir", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medical use.", "content": "Favipiravir has been approved to treat influenza in Japan. It is, however, only indicated for novel influenza (strains that cause more severe disease) rather than seasonal influenza. As of 2020, the probability of resistance developing appears low.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Side effects.", "content": "There is evidence that use during pregnancy may result in harm to the baby.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanism of action.", "content": "The mechanism of its actions is thought to be related to the selective inhibition of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Other research suggests that favipiravir induces lethal RNA transversion mutations, producing a nonviable viral phenotype. Favipiravir is a prodrug that is metabolized to its active form, favipiravir-ribofuranosyl-5'-triphosphate (favipiravir-RTP), available in both oral and intravenous formulations. Human hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT) is believed to play a key role in this activation process. Favipiravir does not inhibit RNA or DNA synthesis in mammalian cells and is not toxic to them. In 2014, favipiravir was approved in Japan for stockpiling against influenza pandemics. However, favipiravir has not been shown to be effective in primary human airway cells, casting doubt on its efficacy in influenza treatment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Approval status.", "content": "The US Department of Defense developed favipiravir in partnership with MediVector, Inc. as a broad-spectrum antiviral and sponsored it through FDA Phase II and Phase III clinical trials, where it demonstrated safety in humans and efficacy against the influenza virus. Despite demonstrating safety in more than 2,000 patients and showing accelerated clearance of influenza virus by 6 to 14 hours in the Phase III trials, favipiravir remains unapproved in the UK and the USA. In 2014, Japan approved favipiravir for treating influenza strains unresponsive to current antivirals. Toyama Chemical initially hoped that favipiravir would become a new influenza medication that could replace oseltamivir (brand name Tamiflu). However, animal experiments show the potential for teratogenic effects, and the approval of production by The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare was greatly delayed and the production condition is limited only in an emergency in Japan.  On 15 March 2020, the drug was approved in China for the treatment of Covid-19.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "COVID-19.", "content": "In February 2020, favipiravir was being studied in China for experimental treatment of the emergent COVID-19. Trials are also being planned in Japan.  A study on 80 people in comparison to lopinavir/ritonavir found that it reduced viral clearance time, and that 91% of people had improved CT scans with few side effects. The limitation of this study was that it was not randomized double-blinded and placebo-controlled.  The drug has been approved for use in clinical trials of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. In March 2020, Italy approved the drug for experimental use against COVID-19 and has begun conducting trials in three regions most affected by the disease. The Italian Pharmaceutical Agency, however, has reminded the public that the existing evidence in support of this drug is scant and preliminary. There are plans to study it in three hospitals in Massachusetts, USA as of April 20, 2020. As of early May 2020, a trial is starting in London, UK.  The drug was approved for the treatment of COVID-19 in the hospital settings in Russia on May 29, 2020, after an ongoing open-label randomized clinical trial had recruited 60 subjects on favipiravir. According to the government clinical trial registry, this study COVID-FPR-01 is expected to recruit 390 subjects overall and finish by December 31, 2020. On May 30, 2020, the Russian Health Ministry approved a generic version of favipiravir named Avifavir. RDIF backed the development of Avifavir and found it highly effective in the first phase of clinical trials.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ebola.", "content": "Research in 2014 suggested that favipiravir may have efficacy against Ebola based on studies in mouse models; efficacy in humans was unaddressed.  During the 2014 West Africa Ebola virus outbreak, a French nurse who contracted Ebola while volunteering for MSF in Liberia reportedly recovered after receiving a course of favipiravir. A clinical trial investigating the use of favipiravir against Ebola virus disease began in Guéckédou, Guinea, in December 2014. Preliminary results presented in 2016 at the Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI), later published, showed a decrease in mortality in patients with low-to-moderate levels of virus in blood, but no effect on patients with high levels (the group at a higher risk of death).[1] The trial design was concomitantly criticised for using only historical controls.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other.", "content": "In experiments in animals favipiravir has shown activity against West Nile virus, yellow fever virus, foot-and-mouth disease virus as well as other flaviviruses, arenaviruses, bunyaviruses and alphaviruses. Activity against enteroviruses and Rift Valley fever virus has also been demonstrated. Favipiravir has showed limited efficacy against Zika virus in animal studies, but was less effective than other antivirals such as MK-608. The agent has also shown some efficacy against rabies, and has been used experimentally in some humans infected with the virus.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Favipiravir, sold under the brand name Avigan or Abigan, is an antiviral medication used to treat influenza in Japan. It is also being studied to treat a number of other viral infections. Like the experimental antiviral drugs (T-1105 and T-1106), it is a pyrazinecarboxamide derivative.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977541}
{"src_title": "Andy Weir", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Weir was born and raised in California, the only child of an accelerator physicist father and an electrical-engineer mother who divorced when he was eight. Weir grew up reading classic science fiction such as the works of Arthur C. Clarke and Isaac Asimov. At the age of 15, he began working as a computer programmer for Sandia National Laboratories. He studied computer science at UC San Diego, although he did not graduate. He worked as a programmer for several software companies, including AOL, Palm, MobileIron and Blizzard, where he worked on the video game.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writing.", "content": "Weir began writing science fiction in his twenties and published work on his website for years. He also authored a humour web comic called \"Casey and Andy\" featuring fictionalized \"mad scientist\" versions of himself and his friends (such as writer Jennifer Brozek) from 2001 to 2008; he also briefly worked on another comic called \"Cheshire Crossing\" bridging \"Alice in Wonderland\", \"Peter Pan\", \"The Wizard of Oz\" and \"Mary Poppins\". The attention these gained him has been attributed as later helping launch his writing career, following the failure to publish his first novel attempt called \"Theft of Pride\". His first work to gain significant attention was \"The Egg\", a short story that has been adapted into a number of YouTube videos, a one-act play, and is the overarching concept of \"Everybody\", the third album by American rapper Logic.  Weir is best known for his first published novel, \"The Martian\". He wrote the book to be as scientifically accurate as possible, and his writing included extensive research into orbital mechanics, conditions on the planet Mars, the history of manned spaceflight, and botany. Originally published as a free serial on his website, some readers requested he make it available on Amazon Kindle. First sold for 99 cents, the novel made it to the Kindle bestsellers list. Weir was then approached by a literary agent and sold the rights of the book to Crown Publishing Group. The print version (slightly edited from the original) of the novel debuted at #12 on \"The New York Times\" bestseller list. \"The Wall Street Journal\" called the novel, \"the best pure sci-fi novel in years\". It was made into a film starring Matt Damon and Jessica Chastain, which was released October 2, 2015.  In 2015 Weir announced he was working on his second novel, provisionally titled \"Zhek\", which he described as \"a more traditional sci-fi novel with aliens, telepathy, faster-than-light travel, etc.\" A fan-fiction story written by Weir, \"Lacero\", was published in the 2016 edition of \"Ready Player One\", making it canonical to the book's fictional universe. The work functions as a prequel to the main novel. Also in 2016, Weir released \"The Principles of Uncertainty\" collection of short stories on the TAPAS app platform for short fiction.  After announcing that the \"Zhek\" project had been \"back-burnered\", Weir moved on to another hard sci-fi novel titled \"Artemis\", with a female protagonist, based on the Moon and set in the 2080s-2090s. The near-future thriller, published in 2017, follows \"Jazz\", a twenty-six-year-old woman constrained by her small town (which is also the only city on the Moon). With debts to pay and a salary that barely covers the rent, she can’t say no when a life-changing opportunity drops in her lap. But she finds herself in the middle of a conspiracy for control of the city itself. On September 26, 2017, it was announced that Phil Lord and Christopher Miller had been hired to develop and direct a science fiction film, also called \"Artemis\", based on the novel.  In 2017 CBS picked up a pilot written by Weir titled \"Mission Control\", following a group of young NASA astronauts and scientists. In May of the same year, Weir collaborated with webcomic artist Sarah Andersen to remake \"Cheshire Crossing\" for the website Tapas, before deciding upon publishing it as a stand-alone graphic novel in July 2019; due to restrictions regarding copyright from the estate of P. L. Travers, the character of Mary Poppins from Weir's original version was replaced by a Miss Gwendolyn Poole. On November 16, 2019, a film adaptation was announced to be in development from Amblin Partners and Walt Disney Pictures, to be produced by Michael De Luca and written by Erin Cressida Wilson.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2015, Weir lived in Mountain View, California, in a rented two-bedroom apartment. Since he has a fear of flying, he never visited the set of the film adaptation of \"The Martian\" in Budapest, where most of the scenes set on Mars were shot at Korda Studios. In 2015, with the help of therapy and medication, he was able to fly to Houston to visit the Johnson Space Center, and to San Diego to attend Comic-Con.  Weir has stated that he is agnostic. He has described his political views as fiscally conservative and socially liberal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Works.", "content": "Weir's original website lists his works, with free versions of many of his short stories.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andrew Taylor \"Andy\" Weir (born June 16, 1972) is an American novelist whose debut novel in 2011, \"The Martian\", was later adapted into a film of the same name directed by Ridley Scott in 2015. He received the John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer in 2016. He also worked as a computer programmer for much of his life.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977542}
{"src_title": "Ajdar Ismailov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Ajdar Ismailov finished Azerbaijan State University, the faculty of philology in 1961. He was a teacher, school director, worker of \"Sherg gapisi\" newspaper of Ministry of Internal Affairs, in 1961-1977 and a teacher of literature in Nakhchivan State University, senior teacher as assistant professor and professor, in 1977-1994.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific activity.", "content": "He was the candidate of Literature Institute at Azerbaijan SSR Academy of Sciences named Nizami in 1969. He defended his candidacy dissertation \"The historical dramas of Huseyn Javid\" (\"The Prophet\", \"Topal Teymur\", \"Seyavush\", \"Khayyam\") under the leadership of academician Mammad Arif Dadashzade, the vice president of Academy, in 1974.  He started to research for a doctoral thesis the topic of \"Huseyn Javid's creative work and demonism tradition in world literature\" confirmed at The Scientific Council of Literature Institute named after Nizami, in 1982. In here, the Huseyn Javid romanticism source is told to be started from Zarvan (Avesta) philosophy, contrary to the thoughts that the formation of Azerbaijan romanticism is related to the affairs of 1905-1917. The poet's devotion to the creative ways of prominent figures was researched in the demonism context, especially the Turkish \"Tenzimat literature\" from the point of view of philosophy / aesthetics. The development issues and sequel of demonism traditions at world romanticism in H. Javid legacy were researched in the book. Ajdar Ismailov indicated the philosophical idea, mythological fiction roots of H.Javid creativity and he researched national and universal motives in poet's world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activity.", "content": "He had been playing an active role in political life of Azerbaijan, since the end of 1980. He was against the invasion policy of Kreml, he supported H. Aliyev to back again to active politics and played a great role in establishment of the New Azerbaijan Party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected articles and interviews.", "content": "<poem> 1. In front of the 250th birth anniversary of Molla Panah Vagif – Singer of beauty and love – “Sherg Gapisi”, September 5, 1968. 4th page. 2. Some specialties of Javid theatre – Gobustan 1972 #4. Pages: 16-20 3. Some features of H. Javid’s historical dramas – The 10th scientific meeting of council of Scientific Academy – thesis. Baki, 1973. Pages: 25-28 4. The people and hero problems – Ulduz magazine 1973, #5. Pages: 62-64 5. The free woman problem in H. Javid creativity – Azerbaijan magazine 1973, #7 6. H. Javid and Shakespeare (Iblis - Othello) – Science and Life magazine, 1976, #9. Pages: 22-24 7. H. Javid and Byron – Science and Life magazine 8. H. Javid and Goethe – Science and Life magazine, 1980, #1. Pages: 35-38 9. H. Javid and Shakespeare – Gobustan, 1981, #1. Pages: 15-17 10. Javid, Jabbarli and Azerbaijan Soviet Theatre – Newspaper of “Azerbaijani teacher”, #65 (3159), 15.08.1979 11. Tracking a myth. Soviet Nakhchivan paper. 27.01.1980 12. Belief in sun in Azerbaijan – Soviet Nakhchivan paper #176 (12999) 26.07.1981 13. Spring holiday of our great ancestor – Soviet Nakhchivan paper #69, (14410) 18.03.1986 14....It’s the holy path we go on! – Sherur front – January 26, 1990, #4-5. P: 2 15. Where is our way – Sherg Gapisi #142 (15.682) – June 30, 1990. P: 3 16. Islamic fundamentalism: fictions, realities – Sherg Gapisi paper, #215 (15.755) – September 22, 1990. Pages: 2-3 17. Russian Empire troops at Sherur borders – Sherur fights frontal bulletin – Sherur print house, December 1990 #1 18. Today of old Sederek global situation – Azerbaijan magazine, 1991, #11 19. Open letter to secretary-in-chief of Azerbaijan National Centre in Turkey, Ahmad Garaja from Nakhchivan (1st part) – Ses (Voice) paper, #41 (70) 01.10.1992 20. Open letter to secretary-in-chief of Azerbaijan National Centre in Turkey, Ahmad Garaja from Nakhchivan (2nd part) – Ses (Voice) paper, #39 (68) 17.10.1992 21. The leader of our party is the people – Ses (Voice) paper 09.12.1992 22. The leader of our party is the people – Nakhchivan paper, #83 (267) 29.11.1997 23. The New Azerbaijan Party is the party of future – Yeni Azerbaycan Paper, #92 (267) 29.11.1997 24. I beg from almighty God – “For the victory” paper, #3-4 (3-4) 10.05.1999 25. XXI century must be the century of Azerbaijan language and Azerbaijan ideology in our national history – “Iki sahil” paper. 24.06.2001. (the interview was taken by Yegane Aliyeva) 26. The relation between “old Armenian statehood” illusion or “ishkil” (Outcast dog) ethnicity and “hay and armyan” meaning. “Iki sahil” paper. 31.10.2001 27. The relation between “old Armenian statehood” illusion or “ishkil” (Outcast dog) ethnicity and “hay and armyan” meaning. “Iki sahil” paper. 02.11.2001 28. The relation between “old Armenian statehood” illusion or “ishkil” (Outcast dog) ethnicity and “hay and armyan” meaning. “Iki sahil” paper. 03.11.2001 29. The relation between “old Armenian statehood” illusion or “ishkil” (Outcast dog) ethnicity and “hay and armyan” meaning. “Iki sahil” paper. 06.11.2001 30. The relation between “old Armenian statehood” illusion or “ishkil” (Outcast dog) ethnicity and “hay and armyan” meaning. “Iki sahil” paper. 07.11.2001 31. The closest friend and companion – “Free Azerbaijan”, #62 (820) 27.04.2005 (The interview was taken by Haji Tofig Seyidov) 32. We need solidarity – national solidarity! 30.09.2006 (national solidarity interview) 33. The problems of 15-year-old NAP (YAP) – National Solidarity #9 (29). 21.09.2007. (The Ruhiyya Nasimigizi interview) 34. The historical realities about “The 26 Baku Commissars” or who are the 3 commissars without grave? – “Khalg” (People) paper-April 19, 2009. P: 4[9] 35. There are no notions of honor, dignity and pride in Armenian. National Solidarity #04 (47). 30.04.2009. (The Ruhiyya Nasimigizi interview). 36. Is it true to translate from Turkish to Turkish? (The National Solidarity paper interview) 31.01.2009 </poem", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ajdar Ismailov (full name: \"Ajdar Tagi Ismailov\"; b. April 23, 1938, Chomakhtur, Sherur raion, Nakhchivan ASSR, Azerbaijan SSR, USSR), Professor Doctor of philological sciences, one of the 91st, one of the most active founders of New Azerbaijan Party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977543}
{"src_title": "Luka Jović", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jović was born in the small village of Batar near Bijeljina, to Milan and Svetlana Jović. At the age of five, he started playing football in Loznica, where he was spotted in 2004 and offered to play in Mini Maxi, a development league for kids aged between 4 and 12 in Belgrade. After just one game where Jović scored three goals his father was offered €50 for each game he played and 2,000 dinars for travelling costs from Batar to Belgrade. At one of those games he was scouted by Toma Milićević, Red Star's scout who invited him to trial with Red Star Belgrade. His playing style attracted comparisons to Darko Pančev and Radamel Falcao, who is also his idol.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Red Star Belgrade.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Youth.", "content": "Jović was offered the chance to play for Red Star Belgrade in 2005. Before he committed, his father took him to train with Partizan, who had been trying to sign Jović for some time. They offered his father €200 per month for Jović to play with them, but he insisted on staying with Red Star.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2013–14 season.", "content": "On 28 May 2014, at the age of 16 years, five months and five days, Jović made his professional debut against FK Vojvodina in Novi Sad, where he broke Dejan Stanković's record as the youngest goalscorer in a competitive match in the club's history. He scored the goal only two minutes after he was brought on as substitute, and the final score of 3–3 was enough to give Red Star the 2013–14 Serbian SuperLiga title.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2014–15 season.", "content": "On 18 October 2014, Jović became the youngest player ever to play in Eternal derby at the age of 16 years, 9 months and 25 days, breaking the previous record of Dejan Milovanović who was 17 years and 6 months old at the time. Jović missed some crucial chances, but in spring half of the season scored six goals. His first goal of the season came against Vojvodina, in a match where Red Star celebrated its 70th birthday. He then scored against Spartak, a double against Borac and a decisive goal against Voždovac, ahead of the Eternal derby clash. He missed the end of the season and the 2015 FIFA U-20 World Cup in New Zealand due to injury. On 17 May 2015, he signed a three-year contract with Red Star to last until 2018.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2015–16 season.", "content": "From the beginning of the 2015–16 season, Jović started as a first choice in Red Star attack along with Hugo Vieira and scored 3 goals in first 5 games. He scored again against Voždovac a winning goal and brought another win to Red Star at Stadion na Vračaru. He scored another game winner in Subotica, against Spartak. In November 2015, a racketeer from Loznica threatened him and his family that if they did not pay money to him, that he would \"break Jović's legs\". A suspect was apprehended immediately afterwards.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Benfica.", "content": "In February 2016, Jović signed with Portuguese champions Benfica until 2021. On 9 March, he debuted for the club's reserve team in a 2–2 home draw against Sporting da Covilhã in the Segunda Liga. He debuted for the first-team on 20 March, as a substitute, in a 1–0 away victory against Boavista in the Primeira Liga.  On 30 January 2017, Jović made his only appearance for the first team when he came on as a substitute in the 81st minute against Vitória de Setúbal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loan to Eintracht Frankfurt.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017–18 season.", "content": "In June 2017, Jović joined Eintracht Frankfurt on a two-season loan while his new club secured an option to sign him on a permanent basis. He made five appearances as they won the 2017–18 DFB-Pokal, and scored the only goal of the win at Schalke 04 in the semi-finals on 18 April 2018, but was an unused substitute in the 3–1 final win over Bayern Munich.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2018–19 season.", "content": "20-year-old Jović became the youngest player to score five goals in a Bundesliga game when he did so in a 7–1 home win over Fortuna Düsseldorf on 19 October 2018. On 14 March 2019, he scored the only goal, his seventh for the campaign, in a 1–0 win over Inter Milan to secure the club's progression to the quarter finals of the Europa League. In doing so, he helped Eintracht become the first German club ever to record eight wins in a single season in the competition.  On 17 April 2019, Eintracht Frankfurt exercised a clause in Jović's contract to make his loan move permanent until 30 June 2023.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Real Madrid.", "content": "On 4 June 2019, Jović signed for Real Madrid for a reported €60 million, on a six-year contract. He made his debut on 17 August 2019, coming in as a substitute in a 3–1 win over Celta Vigo. On 30 October 2019, he scored his first goal for the club in a 5–0 victory over CD Leganés.  Jović started both semi-final and final match of 2019–20 Supercopa de España against Valencia and Atlético Madrid, respectively. Real won the final 4–1 on penalties on 12 January 2020, earning Jović his first trophy as a Real Madrid player.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "On 11 December 2013, Jović scored a hat-trick for Serbia U-17 in a 4–1 win against Croatia U-17. In July 2014, he was called up by youth coach Veljko Paunović to Serbia's U-19 squad for the 2014 UEFA European Under-19 Championship.  In May 2018, Jović was named in Serbia's preliminary squad for the FIFA World Cup in Russia. On 4 June, he made his international debut in a friendly match against Chile, coming on as a substitute for Aleksandar Mitrović in the 84th minute. Later in June, Jović was included in the final 23-man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, where he appeared as a late substitute against Brazil.  On 20 March 2019, Jović scored his debut goal for the national team in a friendly against Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "When Jović was 10 years old, his older sister survived leukemia. He stated that period had \"left a mark on their lives\" and had motivated him to become a \"fighter like her\".  On 25 February 2019, Jović became a father of a baby boy, David, following a fling with his former girlfriend Anđela Manitašević, whom he split up with in 2016. As of summer 2019, he is in a relationship with Serbian model Sofija Milošević. On 20 March 2020, Milošević announced that she and Jović are expecting their first child.  On 18 March 2020, amid the 2020 coronavirus pandemic in Europe, Jović broke Serbia's self-isolation protocol by flying from Madrid to Belgrade to attend Milošević's birthday party, drawing criticism from the Prime Minister of Serbia Ana Brnabić herself and facing possible charges.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Red Star  Eintracht Frankfurt  Real Madrid  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Luka Jović (, ; born 23 December 1997) is a Serbian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Spanish club Real Madrid and the Serbia national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977544}
{"src_title": "Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years, family and education.", "content": "He was born in Oxfordshire, the eldest son of Colonel Charles Jenkinson (1693–1750) and Amarantha (daughter of Wolfran Cornewall). The earl was the grandson of Sir Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Baronet, of Walcot, Oxfordshire. The Jenkinson family was descended from Anthony Jenkinson (died 1611), who was a sea-captain, merchant, and traveller and the first known Englishman to penetrate into Central Asia. Liverpool was educated at Charterhouse School and University College, Oxford, where he graduated Master of Arts in 1752.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1761, Liverpool entered parliament as member for Cockermouth and was made Under-Secretary of State by Lord Bute. He won the favour of George III, and when Bute retired Jenkinson became the leader of the \"King's Friends\" in the House of Commons. In 1763, George Grenville appointed him joint Secretary to the Treasury.  In 1766,after a short retirement, he became a Lord of the Admiralty and then a Lord of the Treasury in the Grafton administration. In 1772, Jenkinson became a Privy Councillor and Vice Treasurer of Ireland, and in 1775 he purchased the lucrative sinecure of Clerk of the Pells in Ireland and became Master of the Mint of Ireland.  From 1778 until the close of Lord North's ministry in 1782 he was Secretary at War. From 1786 to 1804, he was President of the Board of Trade and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and he was popularly regarded as enjoying the confidence of the king to a special degree. In 1786 he was created Baron Hawkesbury, of Hawkesbury in the County of Gloucester, and ten years later, Earl of Liverpool. He also succeeded his cousin in 1790 as the 7th Baronet of Walcot and to the family estates. He lived at Addiscombe Place, Surrey and in Hawkesbury, Gloucestershire. He died in London on 17 December 1808.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Liverpool was twice married. In 1769 he married firstly Amelia, daughter of William Watts, governor of Fort William, Bengal, and of his wife, better known as Begum Johnson. Amelia died in July 1770, a month after the birth of her only child, Robert.  Liverpool married secondly Catherine, daughter of Sir Cecil Bishopp, 6th Baronet, and widow of Sir Charles Cope, 2nd Baronet, on 22 June 1782 at her house in Hertford Street, London. They had one son, Charles, who became 3rd Earl of Liverpool, and one daughter, Charlotte, who married James Grimston, 1st Earl of Verulam.  On Lord Liverpool's death, he was succeeded by his son from his first marriage, Robert, who became a prominent politician and eventually Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The Countess of Liverpool died in October 1827, aged 82.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Liverpool wrote several political works, but other than for his \"Treatise on the Coins of the Realm\" (1805) these are, according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, \"without striking merits\".  The Hawkesbury River in New South Wales, Australia and Hawkesbury, Ontario, Canada were named after Jenkinson shortly after he was created Baron Hawkesbury.  At least two ships were named after Jenkinson under his title of Lord Hawkesbury: one launched in America in 1781—presumably under another name—but entered in \"Lloyd's Register\" from 1787 as the \"Lord Hawkesbury\", sailing as a whaler; and the East Indiaman \"Lord Hawkesbury\", launched in 1787.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool, PC (26 April 172917 December 1808), known as Lord Hawkesbury between 1786 and 1796, was a British statesman. He was the father of Prime Minister Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977545}
{"src_title": "R. A. Cross, 1st Viscount Cross", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Cross was born in Red Scar, near Preston, Lancashire, the son of William Cross (1771–1827) and his wife Ellen, daughter of Edward Chaffers. He was educated at Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was the President of the Cambridge Union in 1845. He was called to the Bar by the Inner Temple, in 1849, attaching himself to the Northern Circuit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Cross entered Parliament as one of two representatives for Preston in 1857, a seat he held until 1862. He was out of Parliament for the next year. While out of Parliament, Cross was a partner at Parr's Bank, of which he became chairman in 1870. In 1868 he was elected for South West Lancashire, topping the poll and defeating Gladstone, and continued to represent this constituency until his elevation to the peerage in 1886.  Cross first came to prominence as Home Secretary in Disraeli's second government (1874–1880), to which post he had been appointed without first holding junior office. He remained Home Secretary in Lord Salisbury's first government (1885–1886). The latter year he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Cross, of Broughton-in-Furness in the County Palatine of Lancaster, and was moved over to the India Office (1886–1892), where he oversaw the passage of the Indian Councils Act 1892. Lord Cross was very briefly Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in Salisbury's third government (1895–1902) before being elevated to the sinecure post Lord Privy Seal. In 1898 he chaired the Joint Select Committee on Electrical Energy (Generating Stations and Supply), which recommended granting compulsory purchase powers for the building of power stations. He retired in 1900.  In 1884, Cross was elected to the Board of the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway, and he remained a Director of that company, and of its successor the Great Central Railway (GCR), until his death. During Board meetings, he would occasionally murmur \"Where is the money to come from?\" In June 1909, when he was senior Director of the GCR, that railway named one of its class 8D express passenger locomotives \"The Rt. Hon. Viscount Cross G.C.B., G.C.S.I.\" in his honour.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Cross married Georgiana, daughter of Thomas Lyon, in 1852. His eldest son, the Hon. William Cross, represented Liverpool West Derby in Parliament. Lady Cross died in January 1907.  Lord Cross survived her by seven years and died in January 1914, aged 90. He was succeeded in the viscountcy by his grandson, Richard Assheton Cross, the only son of the Honourable William Cross.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Assheton Cross, 1st Viscount Cross, (30 May 1823 – 8 January 1914), known before his elevation to the peerage as R. A. Cross, was a British statesman and Conservative politician. He notably served as Home Secretary between 1874 and 1880 and 1885 and 1886.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977546}
{"src_title": "St John Brodrick, 1st Earl of Midleton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "He came of a mainly south-west Surrey family who in the early 17th century, in Sirs St John and Thomas Brodrick, were granted land in the south of Ireland, mainly in County Cork. The former settled at Midleton, between Cork and Youghal in 1641; and his son Alan Brodrick (1660–1728), Speaker of the Irish House of Commons and Lord Chancellor of Ireland, was created Baron Brodrick in 1715 and Viscount Midleton in 1717 in the Irish peerage.  In 1796 the title of Baron Brodrick in the Peerage of Great Britain was created. The English family seat at Peper Harrow, near Godalming, Surrey, was designed by Sir William Chambers. The 8th Viscount Midleton was a conservative in politics, holding seats West Surrey and Guildford in the House of Commons (November 1885 - January 1906), and who was responsible in the House of Lords for carrying the Infant Life (Preservation) Act 1929 which filled the lacuna in the law to protect new borns such as those who have not yet breathed and provide duplicatory protection for late abortions. He was educated at Windlesham, Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, where he served as president of the Oxford Union. He was awarded a Doctorate of Laws (LLD) by Trinity College, Dublin. He owned, in submissions from his landowning heyday, about.  He maintained three homes: Peper Harow (House); 34 Portland Place, London (telephone number on the Langham exchange); Midleton (House), Ireland. His family-settled land was probated before his widow's death in 1943 at and £55,624 in other assets in 1942.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Brodrick entered Parliament as Conservative member for West Surrey in 1880.  In 1883 he was appointed to a Royal Commission examining the condition of Irish prisons. He was Financial Secretary to the War Office 1886–92; Under-Secretary of State for War, 1895–1898; Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1898–1900; Secretary of State for War, 1900–1903; and Secretary of State for India, 1903–05.  He was Secretary of State for War during most of the Second Boer War (1899-1902). He thus had the responsibility of defending the British use of concentration camps in parliament. The conflict itself showed that the British army was not prepared for the guerrilla war of the Boers. He therefore initiated (though successors played a bigger part) a period of reform of the British army, which was focused on lessening the emphasis placed on mounted units in combat. In September 1902, Brodrick and Lord Roberts, the Commander-in-Chief of the army, visited Germany as guests to attend the German army maneuvers.  In 1904, during a crisis in British relations with Russia, he became the first member of a Cabinet since 1714 to attend a meeting of the Privy Council without being summoned to it by the monarch. At the general election of January 1906, the outcome of which was a Liberal win (the biggest landside except for that of the 1931 National Government's Conservatives), he lost his Parliamentary seat, at Guildford, which he had held since 1885. From March 1907 to 1913 he was an alderman of London County Council.  From 1910 he was regarded as the nominal leader of the Irish Unionist Alliance (IUA) in Southern Ireland, while Sir Edward Carson led the party in Ulster (the Ulster Unionist Council). Many Irish followers and sympathisers saw him has remote or condescending, reliant on a few intimates and suspected he was more interested in promotion in British politics. In 1916 Midleton's lobbying helped to defeat an attempt to implement immediate Home Rule with Ulster exclusion; this was supported by the Ulster leader Edward Carson and the Home Ruler John Redmond, but Midleton believed it would be disastrous for the Southern Unionist minority.  In 1918, during the second, final year of his service on the Irish Convention, he tried to reach a compromise with Redmond which would allow Home Rule without partition subject to certain financial restrictions. This was rejected both by Redmond's followers (who saw it as too restrictive) and the hardline IUA rank-and-file, who deposed Midleton. He and his followers then formed the Unionist Anti-Partition League, an elite body mainly concerned with lobbying. It had some influence on the 1920 Government of Ireland Act, but none of the safeguards for Southern Unionist interests which it sought were included in the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty. Successful lobbying by Midleton and associated Southern Unionists was instrumental in ensuring their representation in the Seanad of the Irish Free State.  His speeches and/or questions in Parliament were in each year from 1880 to 1941 except 1906 when he held no seat, and numbered 7584, the last of which was a tribute to the passing of Lord Baden Powell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours and awards.", "content": "He was sworn into the Privy Counsel as of 1897. During his 1902 visit to Germany, he received the Grand Cross of the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle.  He received the Honorary Freedom and was appointed a Liveryman of the Worshipful Company of Broderers in 1902, his family having been associated with the company since the early 17th century.  He was appointed a Knight of the Order of St Patrick (KP) on 18 April 1916.  In the 1920 New Year Honours he was elevated in the British peerage system to Earl of Midleton, which became extinct with the death of his son in 1979. From 1930 he was High Steward of the Borough of Kingston upon Thames.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "He married, first in 1880, Lady Hilda (died 1901), daughter of The 10th Earl of Wemyss, by whom he had five children; and secondly in 1903, Madeleine Stanley, daughter of The Baroness St Helier by her first husband. His children by the first wife were:  His grandson Sir Julian St. John Loyd (by Lady Moyra) became land agent to Queen Elizabeth II at Sandringham. His daughter, Alexandra (Mrs Duncan Byatt), was a Lady-in-Waiting to Diana, Princess of Wales.  His sister, Marian Cecilia married Sir James Whitehead, son of the inventor Robert Whitehead. Sir James Whitehead was to become the British Ambassador to Austria, and his niece Agathe was the first wife of Georg Johannes von Trapp; the story of their children and his second wife, Maria von Trapp, was the basis of the musical \"The Sound of Music\".  Another, Albinia, became an early supporter of Sinn Féin and became well known in Ireland under the name Gobnait Ní Bhruadair.  Another, Edith later Mrs. Lyttleton Gell was a published author of at least 24 works such as \"The Cloud of Witness: A daily sequence of great thoughts from many minds\" and autobiography, \"Under Three Reigns: 1860-1944\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William St John Fremantle Brodrick, 1st Earl of Midleton, KP, PC, DL (14 December 1856 – 13 February 1942), styled as St John Brodrick until 1907 and as Viscount Midleton between 1907 and 1920, was a British Conservative and Irish Unionist Alliance politician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977547}
{"src_title": "Russian All-Military Union", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Shortly after its establishment in Serbia in September 1924 by General Wrangel, on 16 November the supreme command of the ROVS, along with all White Army formations in exile, was assumed by Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, who had until August 1915 been the Supreme Commander of the Russian armed forces during WWI and since 1922 resided in France.  Aside from anti-communism, the ROVS did not have an official political orientation, somewhat adhering to the old Russian military dictum: \"The army is outside politics\" (in Russian \"Армия вне политики\"), believing that the political orientation of Russia cannot be predetermined by émigrés living outside of its borders (the philosophy of \"non-predetermination\" or in Russian \"непредрешенчество\"). Many (but not all) of its members had monarchist sympathies but were divided on whether the House of Romanov should return and whether the government should be autocratic or democratic.  The ROVS, along with other similar Russian émigré organizations, became a prime target for the Soviet secret intelligence service, the GPU/OGPU. The OGPU even set up a fictitious anti-communist monarchist organization, the Monarchist Union of Central Russia, which was used to undermine the ROVS′ activities in the USSR. The ROVS′ secret counter-intelligence branch, the \"Inner Line\" (in Russian \"Внутренная Линия\") set up by General Alexander Kutepov in the mid-1920s, was also severely compromised, among other things by suspected recruitment by OGPU of Gen Nikolai Skoblin, who was a senior operative in the Inner Line. Two of the ROVS's successive chairmen, Gen Alexander Kutepov and General Yevgeny Miller, were kidnapped by Soviet agents, in 1930 and 1937 respectively, Miller being brought to the USSR to be interrogated and executed. General, who succeeded Miller as the ROVS chairman, had to quit the post shortly after and was expelled from Bulgaria where he had resided due to the fact that his son was exposed as a Soviet agent. The OGPU/NKVD′s successful operations against the ROVS as well as infighting, intrigues, and antagonisms in the wider Russian émigré community demoralised and rendered impotent an organisation, which by the time World War II began in 1939 had also become largely irrelevant due to the geopolitical realignment. After the outbreak of the war, the ROVS was virtually paralysed, as the war split the ROVS′ leadership and membership into two opposing camps: those who advocated war against, or for, Germany. Gen, who assumed the ROVS presidency in March 1938, was personally of pro-Germany political orientation, a stance opposed by such renowned émigré figures, among others, as General Anton Denikin.  During the war, the ROVS maintained a cautious position, not siding officially with Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union but waiting for the emergence of an independent Russian Liberation Army. However, some, acting as interpreters, joined the ranks of the Wehrmacht at the early stage of war on the German-Soviet Front. The reason for that was ROVS quasi-ideology, in no small way encapsulated in the idea of 'irreconcilability', which meant fighting against the Soviet power in any way possible.  According to a 1988 oral history interview with Nikita Ivanovich Yovich, \"Years passed, gradually people began dying off. In 1986, the most senior man still alive turned out to be Captain Ivanov who lived in Detroit. Captain Ivanov received a communication from Paris saying that as the most senior man he was now obliged to assume the presidency of the R.A.S.U. He was ninety-one. He needed a deputy and I was recommended to him. I received a letter from this Captain Ivanov whom I had never met, an official letter -- 'Dear Nikita Ivanovich, As of such and such a date, I have become the President of the Russian Armed Services Union. I am alone and am requesting your help.' And so I answered the letter, -- 'Dear Captain Ivanov: I was brought up to be a soldier -- that means, never volunteer for duty, but never shirk it.' A week later, I received orders from him, stating that as of such and such a date Lieutenant Nikita Ivanovich Yovich would be serving as his deputy. He gave me various orders, xeroxing lists and so forth, which I carried out. After a few years I began having problems with my health and I wrote to Captain Ivanov requesting to be relieved of my duties. I received no reply. I wrote again. All of a sudden I receive a letter saying that Captain Ivanov has had a stroke and is paralyzed. I phoned him, but there was no answer. And then I received orders from him, which he had somehow been able to sign -- I had been appointed president of the Russian Armed Services Union.\"  The ROVS continued to be active into the 1990s, having evolved into an organization that was principally concerned with the historical preservation of the pre-communist and anti-communist Russian military tradition. In the ROVS's possession were a significant number of Russian imperial and White Army battle flags and standards, which were meant to be returned to Russia when \"a national Russian army\" was once again in existence.  Although its significance and influence in the Russian émigré community had ceased several decades before, in 1992, ROVS became active in Russia itself. In the mid-1990s, however, since the communist regime had fallen and the Soviet Union was no more, a split emerged within ROVS on whether to continue the organization's existence.  In 2000, Vladimir Vishnevsky, a US resident and the ROVS chairman at that time, requested a vote on this issue. The vast majority of members voted against the dissolution of ROVS. Vishnevsky died of cancer in that same year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organizational structure and membership.", "content": "Before WWII ROVS was divided into departments (), based on regions or/and countries:  According to the data contained in the declassified UDBA documents of 1955, in 1934 ROVS′s global membership totaled 400,000 people, which included 206,000 people in Europe, 175,000 in the Far East, and 25,000 in America.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Russian All-Military Union (, abbreviated РОВС, \"ROVS\") is an organization that was founded by White Army General Pyotr Wrangel in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes on 1 September 1924, initially headquartered in the town of Sremski Karlovci. The organization′s ostensible purpose was provision of aid to the veterans of the Russian White movement (usually of the Imperial Russian Army as well), soldiers and officers alike, who now lived outside the USSR; the undeclared aim was to maintain a Russian military organisation with a view to fighting the Bolsheviks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977548}
{"src_title": "Acacia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The genus was first validly named in 1754 by Philip Miller. In 1913 Nathaniel Lord Britton and Addison Brown selected \"Mimosa scorpioides\" (≡ \"Acacia scorpioides\" () = \"Acacia nilotica\" () ), a species from Africa, as the lectotype of the name. The genus as recognized in 1986 contained 1352 species. That year however, Les Pedley published a paper in which he questioned the monophyletic nature of the genus, and proposed a split into three genera: \"Acacia\" sensu stricto (161 species), \"Senegalia\" (231 species) and \"Racosperma\" (960 species), the last name first proposed in 1829 by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius as the name of a section in \"Acacia\", but raised to generic rank in 1835. In 2003, Pedley published a paper with 834 new combinations in \"Racosperma\" for species, most of which were formerly placed in \"Acacia\". All but 10 of these species are native to Australia, where it constitutes the largest plant genus.  In 2003, Anthony Orchard and Bruce Maslin filed a proposal to conserve the name \"Acacia\" with a different type in order to retain the Australasian group of species in the genus \"Acacia\". Following a controversial decision to choose a new type for \"Acacia\" in 2005, the Australian component of \"Acacia s.l.\" now retains the name \"Acacia\". At the 2011 International Botanical Congress held in Melbourne, the decision to use the name \"Acacia\", rather than the proposed \"Racosperma\" for this genus, was upheld. Other \"Acacia s.l.\" taxa continue to be called \"Acacia\" by those who choose to consider the entire group as one genus.  Australian species of the genus \"Paraserianthes\" \"s.l.\" are deemed its closest relatives, particularly \"P. lophantha\". The nearest relatives of \"Acacia\" and \"Paraserianthes s.l.\" in turn include the Australian and South East Asian genera \"Archidendron\", \"Archidendropsis\", \"Pararchidendron\" and \"Wallaceodendron\", all of the tribe Ingeae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The origin of \"wattle\" may be an Old Teutonic word meaning \"to weave\". From around 700 A.D. \"watul\" was used in Old English to refer to the interwoven branches and sticks which formed fences, walls and roofs. Since about 1810 it refers to the Australian legumes that provide these branches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Species.", "content": "One species of \"Acacia\" (\"sensu stricto\") is native to Madagascar, one to Reunion island, 12 to Asia, and the remaining species (over 900) are native to Australasia and the Pacific Islands. These species were all given combinations by Pedley when he erected the genus \"Racosperma\", hence \"Acacia pulchella\", for example, became \"Racosperma pulchellum\". However these were not upheld with the retypification of \"Acacia\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Evolution.", "content": "Acacias in Australia probably evolved their fire resistance about 20 million years ago when fossilised charcoal deposits show a large increase, indicating that fire was a factor even then. With no major mountain ranges or rivers to prevent their spread, the wattles began to spread all over the continent as it dried and fires became more common. They began to form dry, open forests with species of the genera \"Allocasuarina\", \"Eucalyptus\" and \"Callitris\" (cypress-pines).  The southernmost species in the genus are \"Acacia dealbata\" (silver wattle), \"Acacia longifolia\" (coast wattle or Sydney golden wattle), \"Acacia mearnsii\" (black wattle), and \"Acacia melanoxylon\" (blackwood), reaching 43°30' S in Tasmania, Australia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fossil record.", "content": "An \"Acacia\"-like 14 cm long fossil seed pod has been described from the Eocene of the Paris Basin. \"Acacia\" like fossil pods under the name \"Leguminocarpon\" are known from late Oligocene deposits at different sites in Hungary. Seed pod fossils of †\"Acacia parschlugiana\" and †\"Acacia cyclosperma\" are known from Tertiary deposits in Switzerland. †\"Acacia colchica\" has been described from the Miocene of West Georgia. Pliocene fossil pollen of an \"Acacia\" sp. has been described from West Georgia and Abkhazia. Oldest records of fossil \"Acacia\" pollen in Australia are from the late Oligocene epoch, 25 million years ago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "They are present in all terrestrial habitats, including alpine settings, rainforests, woodlands, grasslands, coastal dunes and deserts. In drier woodlands or forest they are an important component of the understory. Elsewhere they may be dominant, as in the Brigalow Belt, Myall woodlands and the eremaean Mulga woodlands.  In Australia, \"Acacia\" forest is the second most common forest type after \"Eucalypt\" forest, covering or 8% of total forest area. \"Acacia\" is also the nation’s largest genus of flowering plants with almost 1,000 species found.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Several of its species bear vertically oriented phyllodes, which are green, broadened leaf petioles that function like leaf blades, an adaptation to hot climates and droughts. Some phyllodinous species have a colourful aril on the seed. A few species have cladodes rather than leaves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "Aboriginal Australians have traditionally harvested the seeds of some species, to be ground into flour and eaten as a paste or baked into a cake. The seeds contain as much as 25% more protein than common cereals, and they store well for long periods due to the hard seed coats. In addition to utilizing the edible seed and gum, the people employed the timber for implements, weapons, fuel and musical instruments. A number of species, most notably \"A. mangium\" (hickory wattle), \"A. mearnsii\" (black wattle) and \"A. saligna\" (coojong), are economically important and are widely planted globally for wood products, tannin, firewood and fodder. \"A. melanoxylon\" (blackwood) and \"A. aneura\" (mulga) supply some of the most attractive timbers in the genus. Black wattle bark supported the tanning industries of several countries, and may supply tannins for production of waterproof adhesives.  Acacia is a common food source and host plant for butterflies of the genus \"Jalmenus.\" The imperial hairstreak, \"Jalmenus evagoras,\" feeds on at least 25 acacia species.  Wattle bark collected in Australia in the 19th century was exported to Europe where it was used in the tanning process. One ton of wattle or mimosa bark contained about 150 lbs of pure tannin.  In ancient Egypt, an ointment made from the ground leaves of an Acacia (senso latu) was used to treat hemorrhoids. Acacia (senso latu) is repeatedly mentioned in the Book of Exodus, perhaps referring to \"Vachellia tortilis\" (previously known as \"Acacia raddiana\"), in regards to the construction of the Tabernacle.  The hardened sap of various species of the acacia tree (senso latu) are known as acacia gum. Acacia gum is used as an emulsifier in food, a binder for watercolour painting, an additive to ceramic glazes, a binding in gum bichromate photography, a protective layer in the lithographic processes and as a binder to bind together fireworks.  Acacia honey is not collected from plants in the acacia family, but rather from \"Robinia pseudoacacia\", known as black locust in North America. Honey collected from \"Caragana arborescens\" is sometimes also called (yellow) acacia honey. See also Monofloral honey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "Some species of acacia - notably \"A. baileyana\", \"A. dealbata\" and \"A. pravissima\" - are cultivated as ornamental garden plants. The 1889 publication 'Useful native plants of Australia' describes various uses for eating.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "Some species of acacia contain psychoactive alkaloids, and some contain potassium fluoroacetate, a rodent poison.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Acacia, commonly known as the wattles or acacias, is a large genus of shrubs and trees in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae. Initially, it comprised a group of plant species native to Africa and Australia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977549}
{"src_title": "Diet Coke and Mentos eruption", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In the 1980s, Wint-O-Green Life Savers were used to create soda geysers. The tubes of candies were threaded onto a pipe cleaner and dropped into the soft drink to create a geyser. At the end of the 1990s, the manufacturer of Wintergreen Lifesavers increased the size of the mints and they no longer fit in the mouth of soda bottles. Science teachers found that Mint Mentos candies had the same effect when dropped into a bottle of any carbonated soft drink.  Lee Marek and \"Marek's Kid Scientists\" performed the Diet Coke and Mentos experiment on the \"Late Show with David Letterman\" in 1999. In March 2002, Steve Spangler, a science educator, did the demonstration on KUSA-TV, an NBC affiliate, in Denver, Colorado. The Diet Coke and Mentos geyser experiment became an internet sensation in September 2005. The experiment became a subject of the television show \"MythBusters\" in 2006. Spangler signed a licensing agreement with Perfetti Van Melle, the maker of Mentos, after inventing an apparatus aimed to make it easier to drop the Mentos into the bottle and produce a large soda geyser. Amazing Toys, Spangler's toy company, released the Geyser Tube toys in February 2007. In October 2010, a Guinness World Record of 2,865 simultaneous geysers was set at an event organized by Perfetti Van Melle at the SM Mall of Asia Complex, in Manila, Philippines. This record was afterwards beaten in November 2014 by another event organized by Perfetti Van Melle and Chupa Chups in León, Guanajuato, Mexico, where 4,334 Mentos and soda fountains were set off simultaneously.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cause.", "content": "The eruption is caused by a physical reaction, rather than any chemical reaction. The addition of the Mentos leads to the rapid nucleation of carbon dioxide gas bubbles precipitating out of solution:  The conversion of dissolved carbon dioxide to gaseous carbon dioxide forms rapidly expanding gas bubbles in the soda, which pushes the beverage contents out of the container. Gases, in general, are more soluble in liquids at elevated pressures. Carbonated sodas contain elevated levels of carbon dioxide under pressure. The solution becomes supersaturated with carbon dioxide when the bottle is opened, and the pressure is released. Under these conditions, carbon dioxide begins to precipitate from solution, forming gas bubbles.  The activation energy for bubble nucleation (formation of bubbles) depends on where the bubble forms. It is very high for bubbles that form in the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation), and much lower if bubble growth occurs within tiny bubbles trapped in some other surface (heterogeneous nucleation). Bubble nucleation and growth in carbonated beverages almost always occurs by heterogeneous nucleation: diffusion of carbon dioxide into pre-existing bubbles within the beverage. When dissolved gas diffuses into bubbles that already exist in a liquid, it is called Type IV bubble nucleation. When the pressure is released from a soda bottle upon opening it, dissolved carbon dioxide can escape into any tiny bubble located within the beverage. These ready-made bubbles (which are nucleation sites) exist in things such as tiny fibers or non-wettable crevices on the sides of the bottle. Because there usually are very few of such pre-existing bubbles, the degassing process is slow. Mentos candies contain millions of cavities that remain unwetted when added to a soda. Because of this, addition of Mentos candies to a carbonated beverage provides enormous numbers of pre-existing bubbles into which dissolved carbon dioxide can escape. Thus, adding Mentos candies to a carbonated beverage introduces millions of nucleation sites into the drink, which allows for degassing that is rapid enough to support a jet of foam out of a bottle.  Pre-existing bubbles provide a way for the reaction to occur without requiring bubbles to form within the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation). Because Type IV nucleation sites (such as found on Mentos) allow the reaction to proceed with a substantially lower activation energy, Mentos candies can appropriately be considered a catalyst of the process. As another example, dropping grains of salt or sand into the solution provides Type IV nucleation sites, lowers the activation energy compared to that of homogeneous nucleation, and increases the rate of carbon dioxide precipitation.  The physical reaction that drives the eruption also causes a chemical reaction that slightly increases the pH of the soda. This is because when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water, carbonic acid is formed:  <chem> H2O(l) + CO2(aq) <=> H2CO3(aq) </chem>  Loss of carbon dioxide shifts the above equilibrium to the left, removing carbonic acid and increasing pH. It must be stressed that it is the physical reaction (carbon dioxide leaving solution) and not the loss of carbonic acid that causes the eruption.  The physical characteristics of Mentos (surface roughness) have the effect of drastically reducing the activation energy for carbon dioxide bubble formation, so that the nucleation rate becomes exceedingly high. The activation energy for the release of carbon dioxide from Diet Coke by addition of Mentos has been found to be 25 kJ mol. The foaming is aided by the presence of food additives such as potassium benzoate, aspartame, sugars, and flavorings in Diet Coke, all which influence the degree to which water can foam. It has been claimed that gelatin and gum arabic in the Mentos candy enhance the fountain, but experiments have shown that these candy additives have no effect on the fountain.  The nucleation reaction can start with any heterogeneous surface, such as rock salt, but Mentos have been found to work better than most. Tonya Coffey, a physicist at Appalachian State University, suggested that the aspartame in diet drinks lowers the surface tension in the water and causes a bigger reaction, but that caffeine does not accelerate the process. It has also been shown that a wide variety of beverage additives such as sugars, citric acid, and natural flavors can also enhance fountain heights. In some cases, dissolved solids that increase the surface tension of water (such as sugars) also increase fountain heights. These results suggest that additives serve to enhance geyser heights not by decreasing surface tension, but rather by decreasing bubble coalescence. Decreased bubble coalescence leads to smaller bubble sizes and greater foaming ability in water. Thus, the geyser reaction will still work even using sugared drinks, but diet is commonly used both for the sake of a larger geyser as well as to avoid having to clean up the stickier residue left by a sugared soda.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A Diet Coke and Mentos eruption (also known as a soda geyser) is a reaction between the carbonated beverage Diet Coke and Mentos mints that causes the beverage to spray out of its container. The candies catalyze the release of gas from the beverage, which creates an eruption that pushes most of the liquid up and out of the bottle. Lee Marek and \"Marek's Kid Scientists\" were the first to publicly demonstrate the experiment on the \"Late Show with David Letterman\" in 1999. Steve Spangler's televised demonstration of the eruption in 2005 became popular on YouTube, launching a chain of several other Diet Coke and Mentos experiment viral videos.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977550}
{"src_title": "Dani Ceballos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Real Betis.", "content": "Ceballos was born in Utrera, Province of Seville. He joined Sevilla's youth system in 2004 at the age of eight, but was released in 2009 due to a chronic bronchitis problem. He subsequently played for hometown club Utrera, and completed his development in Real Betis after signing in 2011; he signed a professional contract with the latter club on 22 February 2014, while still a junior.  On 26 April 2014, without even appearing for the B-team, Ceballos played his first official game with the Andalusians' main squad, coming on as a late substitute in a 0–1 La Liga home loss against Real Sociedad. He scored his first professional goal on 21 December, netting the first of a 2–0 home win over Racing Santander for the Segunda División championship; he featured in 33 matches and netted five times for the \"Verdiblancos\" during the campaign, as they returned to the top level at the first attempt.  On 15 October 2015, after lengthy negotiations, Ceballos renewed his contract until 2020. He scored his first goal in the Spanish top flight on 16 April 2017, netting the last in a 2–0 home win against Eibar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Real Madrid.", "content": "On 14 July 2017, Ceballos signed for Real Madrid on a six-year contract, for a transfer fee of around €18 million. He made his competitive debut on 16 August, replacing Toni Kroos on the 80th minute of the second leg of the Supercopa de España, a 2–0 home victory over Barcelona. On 23 September, in his first start, he scored a brace in a 2–1 away win over Deportivo Alavés.  Ceballos made four appearances during the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League, as Madrid won their third consecutive and 13th overall title in the tournament. On 13 January 2019, after only 15 minutes on the pitch and having been constantly booed by his former club's supporters, he scored from a free kick in the last minute of a 2–1 defeat of Betis at the Estadio Benito Villamarín.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arsenal (loan).", "content": "On 25 July 2019, Ceballos joined English Premier League club Arsenal on a season-long loan. He made his first start for Arsenal on 17 August in a 2–1 victory over Burnley, providing two assists in a man-of-the-match performance. On 3 October, Ceballos scored his first goal for Arsenal in a 4–0 home victory against Standard Liège in the group stage of the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "On 5 November 2014, Ceballos was called up to the Spain under-19 side, appearing against Germany, France and Greece in a tournament played in the latter nation. He made his debut for the under-21s on 26 March 2015, replacing Samu Castillejo at half-time of a 2–0 friendly win over Norway in Cartagena, Murcia; four days later, in León, he made his first start, in a 4–0 defeat of Belarus.  Despite beginning the competition in Poland on the bench, Ceballos' performances at the 2017 UEFA European Under-21 Championship led Spain to the second place. Subsequently, he was named the player of the tournament.  With the U21 side he also took part in the victorious 2019 UEFA European Under-21 Championship Spain team. He was named in the UEFA ‘Team of the Tournament’ for the second successive European U-21 Championship.  Ceballos won his first cap for the full team on 11 September 2018, playing the entire 6–0 home rout of Croatia for the UEFA Nations League. He scored his first goal for his country on 15 November, but in a 2–3 loss in Zagreb against the same opponent and for the same competition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Real Betis  Real Madrid  Spain U19  Spain U21  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Daniel Ceballos Fernández (; born 7 August 1996) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a central or attacking midfielder for Premier League club Arsenal, on loan from Real Madrid of La Liga, and the Spain national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977551}
{"src_title": "Princess Alexandrine of Prussia (1842–1906)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Family and early life.", "content": "Alexandrine ('Addy') was the youngest child born to Prince Albert of Prussia and his wife Princess Marianne of the Netherlands. She was named after her aunt (and later mother-in-law) the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. She had two elder surviving siblings, Princess Charlotte (later Hereditary Princess of Saxe-Meiningen), and Prince Albert. Her parents' marriage was dissolved on 28 March 1849. Her father later remarried in 1853 to one of the court maids-of-honor, Rosalie von Rauch, who was created Countess of Hohenau. The couple had two sons. Their mother also remarried morganatically to a former coachman, producing issue with Johannes van Rossum.  Due to the troubled marriage of her parents, Alexandrine was to all intents and purposes the adopted daughter of her otherwise childless uncle and aunt, King Frederick William IV of Prussia and Queen Elisabeth Ludovika, and became their ward. They took Alexandrine to live with them, bringing her up as their own offspring.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage prospects.", "content": "As a young woman, Alexandrine was considered as a potential bride for the one-year older Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom), but was not considered \"clever or pretty\" enough by his sister Crown Princess Victoria ('Vicky') of Prussia. The prince married Alexandra of Denmark instead. Despite her comment, Vicky had a fondness for Alexandrine, writing to her mother that she was \"such an excellent girl and much admired here\". There were also financial advantages to a marriage to Alexandrine; she already had one million dollars through her mother, and would have even more wealth when she married. Consequently, Vicky tried again to marry her off to another British relative, Prince George, Duke of Cambridge. Nothing came of this either, however.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wedding.", "content": "On 9 December 1865, Alexandrine married her much-older cousin Duke William of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1827–1879). He was a younger son of Paul Frederick, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg and Alexandrine's aunt and namesake Princess Alexandrine of Prussia. Though the marriage was meant to give her financial security in the future, it was certainly not a love match; Alexandrine cried during the entire wedding ceremony. Vicky described the wedding to her mother, \"The wedding was celebrated with the greatest pomp, but had something of the solemnity of a funeral about it – nothing gay, festive or bridal. The only thing that made a pleasing impression on me was dear Addy herself, who although she cried the whole time, had such a dignified and touching appearance that I never saw her look so well. She went through it all with the most perfect tenue – though I never saw her smile once. She did not look a bit like a bride but I must say very elegant and distinguee... The bridegroom's tenance looked as evil as possible the whole time. I looked in vain for a trace of softness of feeling\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage and later life.", "content": "William's older brother Frederick Francis already had many children from his two marriages, so there was no chance of William and Alexandrine succeeding to the throne of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. During their marriage, the couple lived at Bellevue Palace in Berlin; Alexandrine saw little of Mecklenburg, her husband's native country. The marriage was unhappy, and she tried to escape several times, only to be forced back by pressure from her powerful Aunt Alexandrine. William managed with difficulty to secure an unimportant command in the Prussian army during the Franco-Prussian War. He was badly injured from an explosion during the war, but continued to live on until 1879. The couple had one surviving daughter:  After her husband's death, Alexandrine dedicated her life to her daughter, and played very little part in public life. Alexandrine died on 26 March 1906 at Schloss Marley, near Potsdam, Brandenburg, Germany. Bellevue Palace was next occupied by Prince Eitel Friedrich of Prussia and his new bride Duchess Sophia Charlotte of Oldenburg.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Princess Frederica Wilhelmina Louise Elisabeth \"Alexandrine\" of Prussia (1 February 1842 – 26 March 1906) was a member of the House of Hohenzollern as the daughter of Prince Albert of Prussia and his wife Princess Marianne of the Netherlands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977552}
{"src_title": "Andrzej Duda", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Duda was born in Kraków, to Janina Milewska and Jan Tadeusz Duda, professors at the AGH University of Science and Technology. His grandfather fought in the Polish–Soviet War and later was a member of the Home Army during the Second World War.  Duda attended Jan III Sobieski High School, Kraków. He subsequently studied law at the Jagiellonian University. In October 2001 he was appointed as an assistant (holding M.A.) in the Administrative Law Department of Jagiellonian University. In January 2005, Duda also obtained a PhD degree in law at the Jagiellonian University. Due to his political career, he has been mostly on unpaid leave (from the university) since September 2006, except for a 13-month interval beginning in September 2010, when he returned to the university.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Duda began his political career with the now-defunct Freedom Union Party in the early 2000s. After the parliamentary elections in 2005, he began his collaboration with the Law and Justice Party (PiS). From 2006 to 2007, Andrzej Duda was an undersecretary of state in the Ministry of Justice. Then, from 2007 to 2008, Duda was a member of the Polish State Tribunal.  From 2008 to 2010, during the presidency of Lech Kaczyński, Duda was an undersecretary of state in the Chancellery of the President of the Republic of Poland. In 2010, he was an unsuccessful candidate to become the Mayor of Kraków as a PiS candidate, but was more successful in the 2011 parliamentary election, where he received 79,981 votes for the Kraków area, and thus became member of the Sejm.  In September 2013, the news magazine \"Polityka\" commended Duda for being one of the most active members of parliament, at the time, describing him as being open to opposition arguments and as refraining from personal attacks, as part of his role at the Commission for Constitutional Responsibility. Duda remained a member of the Sejm until he was elected to the European Parliament in 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2015 Presidential Campaign.", "content": "As Bronisław Komorowski's first presidential term was expiring, Komorowski was able to seek re-election in a scheduled presidential election. Duda was Komorowski's Law and Justice rival in the election.  In the first round of the 2015 presidential election, Duda came first, receiving 5,179,092 votes and thus 34.76% of valid votes.  In the second round Duda took 51.55% of the vote against the 48.45% share of his rival, then-incumbent president Bronisław Komorowski. On 26 May 2015, he officially resigned from party membership.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "The five-year term of Andrzej Duda began on 6 August 2015 with taking an oath of office during a National Assembly session.  Duda rejected the European Union's proposal of migrant quotas to redistribute asylum seekers, saying: \"I won’t agree to a dictate of the strong. I won’t back a Europe where the economic advantage of the size of a population will be a reason to force solutions on other countries regardless of their national interests\".  In September 2015 Prime Minister Ewa Kopacz declared that Poland, as an expression of “European solidarity”, would take in 2,000 people over the next two years, mainly from Syria and Eritrea (out of 3,700 originally requested).  Duda and Croatian President Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović were the originators of the Three Seas Initiative.  Duda repeatedly met with general secretary of the Communist Party of China and China's leader, Xi Jinping, stating that \"Polish companies will benefit hugely\" from China's Belt and Road Initiative. Duda and Xi signed a declaration on strategic partnership in which they reiterated that Poland and China viewed each other as long-term strategic partners. Duda said that he hope Poland will become a gateway to Europe for China.  In September 2017, his approval rating stood at 71% and in February 2018, at 72%, a record surpassed only by Aleksander Kwaśniewski, whose approval ratings surpassed 75% from 1995 to 2005.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pardon of Mariusz Kamiński.", "content": "In November 2015, basing on Art. 139 of the Constitution of Poland, Duda pardoned former Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) head Mariusz Kamiński and three CBA officers convicted by a court of 1st instance in the so-called \"\", marking the first pardon granted by a president before reaching a final verdict. According to some lawyers (including professors Jan Zimmermann – Andrzej Duda's doctorate promoter, Leszek Kubicki – former Minister of Justice and Andrzej Zoll – former president of the Constitutional Tribunal) Duda breached the Constitution of Poland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Constitutional crisis.", "content": "Andrzej Duda has refused to swear in any of the five Constitutional Tribunal judge candidates selected by the Sejm of the VII term. Three of those were selected since 7 November 2015 whose election was declared constitutional. On 3 and 9 December 2015 Duda swore in five other candidates for the same office selected by the Sejm of the VIII term. On 28 December 2015, Duda signed the Constitutional Tribunal bill (passed on 22 December 2015 by the Sejm), which unequivocally breaches the Constitution of Poland according to the National Council of the Judiciary of Poland, the Public Prosecutor General and the Polish Ombudsman.  In June 2016, Duda rejected appointing 10 judges selected by the National Council of the Judiciary of Poland.  In July 2017, Duda informed the public he had decided to veto two controversial judicial bills backed by the government and passed by both houses of the Polish parliament. The President's spokesman subsequently said that the third act – the common courts bill – would be signed. The veto was just one example of Duda opposing the policies of PiS.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics of memory.", "content": "In February 2018, Duda said that he would sign into law Amendment to the Act on the Institute of National Remembrance, making it illegal to accuse 'the Polish nation' of complicity in the Holocaust and other Nazi German atrocities, a measure that has roiled relations with Israel with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu going as far as accusing the Polish government of \"Holocaust denial\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stance on the LGBT rights.", "content": "In June 2020, Duda said that he would not allow gay couples to marry or adopt children, while describing the LGBT movement as \"a foreign ideology\" and comparing it to indoctrination in the Soviet Union. In response to Duda's comments, former Prime Minister of Belgium Elio Di Rupo publicly asked European Commission for official reaction. Soon after his comments, Duda invited Robert Biedroń (who requested meeting the President) and an LGBT activist, Bartosz Staszewski to the Presidential Palace, though Robert Biedroń eventually did not take the invitation. According to Staszewski, during their meeting Duda cited freedom of speech to defend his words about \"LGBT ideology\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Duda is married to Agata Kornhauser-Duda, a teacher of German language at Jan III Sobieski High School in Kraków. They had met at a party while still attending rival schools and have been married since 21 December 1994. Together they have one daughter, Kinga, born in 1995, who also graduated in law in 2019. His father-in-law is Julian Kornhauser, a well-known writer, translator and literary critic.  He is a keen skier and while studying participated in the Polish Academic Championships in the Alpine skiing category.  Duda is a Catholic. He took part in religious ceremonies on many occasions, including Midnight Mass, the blessing of food on Holy Saturday, or the Corpus Christi procession in Kraków.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Andrzej Sebastian Duda (born 16 May 1972) is a Polish lawyer and politician who has served as president of Poland since 6 August 2015. Before becoming president, Andrzej Duda was a member of Polish Lower House (Sejm) from 2011 to 2014 and the European Parliament from 2014 to 2015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977553}
{"src_title": "Tucuxi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The tucuxi is frequently described (see references below) as looking similar to the bottlenose dolphin, but it is typically smaller at around 1.5 m (4.9 ft). The dolphin is colored light to bluish grey on its back and sides. The ventral region is much lighter, often pinkish. It is theorized that this pinkish color may be caused or intensified by increased blood flow. The dorsal fluke is typically slightly hooked. The beak is well-defined and of moderate length. There are 26 to 36 pairs of teeth in the upper and lower jaws.. The tucuxi has one of the largest known encephalization quotients among mammals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The tucuxi (\"Sotalia fluviatilis\") was described by Gervais and Deville in 1853, and the costero (\"Sotalia guianensis\") by Pierre-Joseph van Bénéden in 1864. These two species were subsequently synonymized, with the two species being treated as subspecies of marine and freshwater varieties. The first to reassert differences between these two species was a three-dimensional morphometric study of Monteiro-Filho and colleagues. Subsequently, a molecular analysis by Cunha and colleagues unambiguously demonstrated that \"Sotalia guianensis\" was genetically differentiated from \"Sotalia fluviatilis\". This finding was reiterated by Caballero and colleagues with a larger number of genes. The existence of two species has been generally accepted by the scientific community.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The tucuxi exists along much of the length of the Amazon River and many of its tributaries, and is found in Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, southeastern Colombia. Numerous individuals have been seen in the Orinoco River further north, though it is not clear whether these are tucuxi or costero.This species occurs in freshwater habitats only.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Food and foraging.", "content": "Tucuxis forage in tight groups, often chasing fish in rapid dashes just below the water surface, with fish jumping out of their way. Thirty species of fish are known to be prey, some living in protected lakes and channels, while others occur in fast-flowing rivers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour.", "content": "The tucuxi exists in small groups of about 10-15 individuals, and swim in tight-knit groups, suggesting a highly developed social structure. Tucuxis are quite active and may jump clear of the water (a behavior known as breaching), somersault, spy-hop or tail-splash. They are unlikely, however, to approach boats.  Tucuxis have been observed to feed with other river dolphins. They feed on a wide variety of fish. Studies of growth layers suggest the species can live up to 35 years. The oldest known animal was 36 years of age.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The tucuxi is endemic to the regions described above; although no precise estimates of population are available, it is common. A significant human problem is fishing nets. Deliberate hunting in the Amazon basin for food has also been reported. Pollution, in particular, mercury poisoning of water due to gold mining, is a particular concern for this species. The IUCN also cites habitat fragmentation by dam construction as a threat, though more detailed study is necessary.  Tucuxis are observed not to maintain good health and attitude in captive environments. A few tucuxis remained in captivity in European aquaria, but the last one (\"Paco\") died in 2009 in the Zoo of Münster, Germany.  The tucuxi is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). It is listed on Appendix II as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The tucuxi (\"Sotalia fluviatilis\"), alternatively known in Peru bufeo gris or bufeo negro, is a species of freshwater dolphin found in the rivers of the Amazon basin. The word \"tucuxi\" is derived from the Tupi language word \"tuchuchi-ana\", and has now been adopted as the species' common name. Despite being found in geographic locations similar to those of 'true' river dolphins such as the boto, the tucuxi is not closely related to them genetically. Instead, it is classed in the oceanic dolphin family (Delphinidae).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977554}
{"src_title": "Alex Van Halen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Alexander Arthur Van Halen was born in Amsterdam. His Dutch father, Jan van Halen (1920–1986), was an accomplished jazz saxophonist and clarinet player. His mother, Eugenia van Beers (1914–2005), was an Indo (Eurasian) from Rangkasbitung, Indonesia. Alex spent his early years in Nijmegen in the east of the Netherlands. The family moved to Pasadena, California in 1962. Both Alex and his younger brother, Eddie, are naturalized U.S. citizens.  Both Alex and Eddie Van Halen were trained as classical pianists in their childhood. Although Alex is known as a professional drummer, he began his musical aspirations as a guitarist, with his brother Eddie taking up drums. While Eddie was delivering newspapers to pay for his drum kit, Alex would practice playing on them. After spending time playing Eddie's drum kit, Alex became more skilled at the drums than Eddie was. When Eddie heard Alex's mastery of The Surfaris drum solo in the song \"Wipe Out\", he decided to learn to play the electric guitar. Alex was influenced by Budgie drummer Ray Phillips.  Alex, Eddie and three other boys formed their first band when they were in the fourth grade, calling themselves \"The Broken Combs\"; they performed at lunchtime at Hamilton Elementary School in Pasadena.  In 1971, Van Halen graduated from Pasadena High School in California. He then took classes in music theory, scoring, composition and arranging at Pasadena City College for a short while. While attending Pasadena City College, Alex met Michael Anthony and David Lee Roth. They formed the band Mammoth, and Alex, along with the others, left Pasadena City College.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical career.", "content": "Alex Van Halen had several early bands with Eddie before the formation of Van Halen. Names of these previous bands include The Broken Combs, The Space Brothers, The Trojan Rubber Company, and Mammoth.  In 1972, Alex and Eddie Van Halen formed Mammoth with Mark Stone on bass and Eddie on lead vocals. The band rented David Lee Roth's PA system for their shows. Soon after, Edward became tired of singing lead vocals, and asked Roth to join the band. Later, in 1974, since the name Mammoth was already taken by another band, the name was changed to Van Halen, and Stone was replaced by Michael Anthony. Roth has claimed that it was his idea to rename the band Van Halen, and that he actually named it after Alex. In addition to his musical duties at this time, Alex handled managerial duties, such as booking gigs, etc. for the band. Their 1978 self-titled debut album \"Van Halen\" was released to much fanfare, influencing many musicians in hard rock.  Although the term \"brown sound\" is generally associated with Eddie's guitar, it was actually coined by Alex to refer to the sound of his snare drum.  The only recording Alex has made outside of Van Halen is the instrumental \"Respect the Wind\" (for which the Van Halen brothers were nominated for a Grammy Award in 1997 for Best Rock Instrumental Performance), featuring Alex on keyboards with Eddie on guitar. The song was written for the 1996 film \"Twister\" and plays during the end credits of the movie.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equipment.", "content": "Van Halen endorses Ludwig drums, pedals and hardware, Paiste cymbals, Remo drumheads and Regaltip drumsticks. A Paiste endorser since March 1983, Van Halen, in co-operation with Paiste developed a signature ride cymbal—a 2002 24\" Big ride—which Paiste introduced at the 2010 Winter NAMM Show. He also had two Ludwig signature snares. Alex has used Rototoms and octobans in the past as well as electronic drums and is renowned for using extravagantly sized drum kits that feature four bass drums, having originally used only two.  Regaltip created the Alex Van Halen signature drumsticks when he became an endorser.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Van Halen's main influences include Billy Cobham, Ginger Baker, Keith Moon and John Bonham, and he has cited jazz drummer Buddy Rich's work as having an early and lifelong impact.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Alex married Valeri Kendall in June 1983, after a two-year engagement. The marriage ended in divorce two months later. Van Halen's first of two sons, Aric Van Halen, was born October 6, 1989; Aric's mother was Van Halen's ex-wife, Kelly Carter, whom he divorced in August 1996 after 13 years of marriage. Van Halen married his current wife, Stine Schyberg, in 2000. She is the mother of his son Malcolm Van Halen. Van Halen is the uncle of Wolfgang Van Halen.  After the death of his father Jan in December 1986, Van Halen embraced sobriety in April 1987.  Van Halen has become an ordained minister and presided at the wedding of his brother Eddie in 2009.  His son Aric is a passionate runner and competed in the Olympic trials for the steeplechase in 2016.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Alexander Arthur van Halen (; born May 8, 1953 in Amsterdam) is an Dutch-American musician who is the drummer and co-founder of the hard rock band Van Halen. The band was formed in 1974 by Alex Van Halen; his younger brother, Eddie Van Halen; David Lee Roth; and Michael Anthony. Warner Brothers signed the band in 1977, and its debut album was released in 1978. Alex and Eddie Van Halen are the only members of Van Halen who have been in the band throughout its existence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977555}
{"src_title": "Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The army of the Fourth Crusade conquered Constantinople on 12 April 1204. One of the main leaders of the crusade, Boniface of Montferrat, having lost the opportunity to become the new Latin emperor of Constantinople, went on to found the Kingdom of Thessalonica. That autumn, Boniface campaigned south into Greece, where he defeated the local magnate Leo Sgouros and drove him back to his strongholds of Nauplia and Acrocorinth in the northeastern Morea (Peloponnese), which were besieged by the Crusaders. During the siege of Nauplia, Boniface was met by Geoffrey I of Villehardouin, who persuaded him to launch the conquest of the rest of the Morea.  Eager to share in the spoils of the Fourth Crusade, Villehardouin had left the Holy Land and sailed for Constantinople. His ship was blown off course, and he landed at Modon (Methoni) on the southwestern tip of the Morea peninsula. There Villehardouin had entered the service of a local Greek magnate against his rivals, and had gained the impression that the country was easy to take. When the magnate died, his son broke off the alliance with him, but Villehardouin, learning that the Crusaders under Boniface were besieging Nauplia, set out to seek his aid. Boniface sought to retain him in his own service, but Villehardouin teamed up with his fellow Champenois, William of Champlitte, whom he enticed with tales of the richness of the land and with a pledge to recognize him as his lord. Boniface finally sanctioned their undertaking, and in charge of around a hundred knights and several soldiers, Champlitte and Villehardouin set out together to conquer the Morea.  The towns of Patras and Andravida in the northwest fell without struggle, and at the latter Champlitte received the homage of the local magnates and people of the Skorta and Mesarea in the central Morea. From there the Franks moved south along the western coast, accompanied by a fleet, easily taking the fortress of Pontikon, which they repaired and garrisoned. They bypassed the strong fortress of Arkadia (Kyparissia), and passing through Navarino, arrived at Modon. They repaired the fortress walls, long ago torn down by the Venetians to stop its use as a pirate base, and assaulted the nearby fort of Coron, which fell after a single day, and the town of Kalamata, which surrendered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "At this point, the Greeks of Laconia and Arcadia, under the leadership of a certain Michael, tried to stop the Franks at the olive grove of Kountouras in northeastern Messenia. Modern scholars have traditionally identified this Michael with Michael I Komnenos Doukas, founder of the Despotate of Epirus, but this identification has been questioned more recently by Raymond-Joseph Loenertz, as the fragile nature of his control over Epirus would have made a departure to aid the Moreote Greeks a major and unlikely gamble.  The events of the conquest are narrated by two sources, the various versions of the \"Chronicle of the Morea\", and \"On the Conquest of Constantinople\", by the Crusader Geoffrey of Villehardouin (uncle of Geoffrey I). According to the \"Chronicle\", the Franks had 700 men on horse and on foot, while the Greeks had 4,000, both mounted and on foot. The Greeks are described as \"the Romans in Nikli, those of Veligosti, and those of Lakedaemonia\", and it is remarked that most of the infantry was provided by the Melingoi, the Slavic tribe living in Mount Taygetos. The elder Villehardouin states that the army of Michael (who is not mentioned by the \"Chronicle\") numbered over 5,000 men, and that of the Franks little above 500 mounted troops. The two sources also differ in the exact chronology of events, with the \"Chronicle\" placing the battle after the Frankish capture of Kalamata, and the elder Villehardouin after the seizure of Modon. In any case, despite being outnumbered, the Franks, after a march of a single day, confronted the Greeks and won the battle, no details for which are given; the \"Chronicle\" simply states that \"The Franks won the battle at that time; they killed them all, few escaped them\".  The exact location of the olive grove of Kountouras in Messenia is unknown. The Greek version of the \"Chronicle\" records, apart from the owner's name (Kountouras or the variant form Koundouron), a location named Kepeskianous (Κηπησκιάνους), while a variant form is recorded as Kapsikia (Καψικία). Efforts have been made to identify the locality, with some linking it with the modern village of Kapsia west of Mantinea in Arcadia, but this is too far from the reported area of the battle based on the sources, and furthermore olive trees do not grow in the region.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras was decisive for the conquest of the Morea by the Franks, as it represented the last general effort of the local Greeks to resist. The eminent historian of Frankish Greece, William Miller, likened the battle to a \"Hastings of the Morea\", writing that the \"fate of the Morea, like that of Saxon England, was decided by a single pitched battle\".  After their victory, the Crusaders rested for a while in the rich plain of Messenia. Champlitte called a council of war to determine their future strategy, and sent the fleet, which until then had accompanied them, home. In late 1205 or 1206, the Crusaders went on to capture Arkadia, whose siege lasted for some time, as well as the fortress of Araklovon, whose resistance was led by the celebrated warrior Doxapatres Voutsaras. By this time, the entire northern and western parts of the peninsula was under the rule of Champlitte. The northeast belonged to the Duchy of Athens under the suzerainty of Boniface of Montferrat, although Leo Sgouros and his men still held out in their two fortresses; and Laconia and the mountainous areas of the Taygetos and of Tsakonia remained still unsubdued. Nevertheless, the first stage of the Frankish conquest was complete, and in a letter to Pope Innocent III on 19 November 1205, Champlitte claimed for himself the title \"princeps totius Achaiae provincie\", establishing a new Crusader state, the Principality of Achaea.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras took place in the summer of 1205, in Messenia in the Morea peninsula, between the Frankish Crusaders and the local Byzantine Greeks, resulting in a victory of the Franks and the collapse of the local resistance.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977556}
{"src_title": "Vortioxetine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Medical uses.", "content": "Vortioxetine is used as a treatment for major depressive disorder. Effectiveness appear to be similar to other antidepressants. It may be used when other treatments have failed.  Vortioxetine is also used off label for anxiety. A 2016 review found it was not useful in generalized anxiety disorder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adverse effects.", "content": "The most common side effects reported with vortioxetine are nausea, diarrhea, dry mouth, constipation, vomiting, flatulence, dizziness, and sexual dysfunction. However, with the singular exception of nausea, these side effects occurred in less than 10% of study participants given the active drug, with up to 8% of placebo-treated participants reporting the same side effects.  If vortioxetine is prescribed alongside traditional selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), or other serotonergic drugs, this can induce the potentially life-threatening serotonin syndrome.  Incidence of sexual dysfunction is only slightly higher in patients taking vortioxetine than in people taking placebos and occurs in less than 10% of vortioxetine-treated patients. As such, vortioxetine may be appropriate for people who have suffered sexual side effects from other antidepressant medications.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pharmacodynamics.", "content": "It increases serotonin concentrations in the brain by inhibiting its reuptake in the synapse, and by modulating (activating certain receptors while blocking, or antagonizing, others) certain serotonin receptors. This puts it in the class of atypical antidepressants known as serotonin modulators and stimulators.  Vortioxetine is a serotonin modulator and stimulator like vilazodone. It has been shown to possess the following pharmacological actions: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Human isoforms", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pharmacokinetics.", "content": "Vortioxetine reaches peak plasma concentration (C) within 7 to 11 hours post-administration (T), and its mean terminal half-life (T) is ≈ 66 hours.  Steady-state mean Cmax values were 9, 18, and 33 ng/mL following doses of 5, 10, and 20 mg/day. Steady-state plasma concentrations are typically reached within two weeks.  Vortioxetine's pKa values are determined to be 9.1 (± 0.1) and 3.0 (± 0.2) according to Australian Public Assessment Report for vortioxetine hydrobromide.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Vortioxetine was discovered by scientists at Lundbeck who reported the rationale and synthesis for the drug (then called Lu AA21004) in a 2011 paper.  In 2007, the compound was in Phase II clinical trials, and Lundbeck and Takeda entered into a partnership in which Takeda paid Lundbeck $40 million upfront, with promises of up to $345 million in milestone payments, and Takeda agreed to pay most of the remaining cost of developing the drug. The companies agreed to co-promote the drug in the US and Japan, and that Lundbeck would receive a royalty on all such sales. The deal included another drug candidate, tedatioxetine (Lu AA24530), and could be expanded to include two other Lundbeck compounds.  Vortioxetine was approved by the U.S. FDA for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) in adults in September 2013, and it was approved in Europe later that year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Society and culture.", "content": "It is made by the pharmaceutical companies Lundbeck and Takeda.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Names.", "content": "Vortioxetine was previously trademarked as \"Brintellix\" in the United States, but on May 2, 2016, the US FDA approved a name change to \"Trintellix\" in order to avoid confusion with the blood-thinning medication Brilinta (ticagrelor).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Vortioxetine, sold under the trade names Trintellix among others, is a medication used to treat major depressive disorder. Effectiveness is viewed as similar to that of other antidepressants. In Britain, it is only recommended in people who have not improved sufficiently on two other antidepressants. It is taken by mouth. Common side effects include constipation and nausea. Serious side effects may include suicide in those under the age of 25, serotonin syndrome, bleeding, mania, and SIADH. A withdrawal syndrome may occur if the dose is rapidly decreased. Use during pregnancy and breastfeeding is not generally recommended. It is classified as a serotonin modulator. How it works is not entirely clear but is believed to be related to increasing serotonin levels. It was approved for medical use in the United States in 2013. In 2017, it was the 312th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than one million prescriptions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977557}
{"src_title": "2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Format.", "content": "The qualification structure was as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Entrants.", "content": "The 46 FIFA-affiliated nations from the AFC entered qualification. In order to determine which nations would compete in the first round and which nations would receive a bye through to the second round, the FIFA World Rankings of January 2015 were used (shown in parentheses), as those were the latest published rankings prior to the first round draw. The FIFA Rankings of January 2015 were also used for seeding of the first round draw; however, for seeding in the second round and third round draws, the most recent FIFA Rankings prior to those draws were used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Schedule.", "content": "The schedule of the competition was as follows.  The inter-confederation play-offs were scheduled to be played between 6–14 November 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First round.", "content": "The draw for the first round was held on 10 February 2015, 15:30 MST (), at the AFC House in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second round.", "content": "The draw for the second round was held on 14 April 2015, at 17:00 MST (), at the JW Marriott Hotel in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ranking of runner-up teams.", "content": "To determine the four best runner-up teams, the following criteria were used:  As a result of Indonesia being disqualified due to FIFA suspension, Group F contained only four teams compared to five teams in all other groups. Therefore, the results against the fifth-placed team were not counted when determining the ranking of the runner-up teams.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third round.", "content": "The third round consisted of two groups of six teams. The first two teams in each group qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The two third-placed teams proceeded to the fourth round.  The draw for the third round was held on 12 April 2016, at 16:30 MST (), at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fourth round.", "content": "The two third-placed teams in each group from the third round played against each other home-and-away over two legs to determine which team advanced to the inter-confederation play-offs.  The order of legs was announced during the draw for the third round. Syria played their home match, as with all their home matches in the third round, in Malaysia due to the war time condition in Syria.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inter-confederation play-offs.", "content": "The draw for the inter-confederation play-offs was held as part of the 2018 FIFA World Cup Preliminary Draw on 25 July 2015, starting 18:00 MSK (), at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg. The fifth-placed team from AFC was drawn against the fourth-placed team from CONCACAF, with the AFC team hosting the second leg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualified teams.", "content": "The following five teams from AFC qualified for the final tournament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Asian section of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification acted as qualifiers for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, held in Russia, for national teams which are members of the Asian Football Confederation (AFC). 4.5 slots (4 direct slots and 1 inter-confederation play-off slot) in the final tournament were available for AFC teams.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977558}
{"src_title": "Swiss Leaks", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Investigation.", "content": "Investigators allege that 180.6 billion euros passed through HSBC accounts held in Geneva by over 100,000 clients and 20,000 offshore companies between November 2006 and March 2007. The data for this period comes from files removed from HSBC Private Bank by a former staffer, software engineer Hervé Falciani, who fled to Lebanon with the attempt to sell it. Later he handed it to French authorities in late 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Investigation in France.", "content": "The case was referred to French prosecutors in January 2009, and they have since concentrated their investigations on a small part of the “Falciani lists” – the around 3'000 French citizens suspected of having concealed their money at HSBC Private Bank (Suisse) with the bank's collusion. The bank has de facto been placed under formal investigation as a legal entity for “illicit selling of banking and financial services” and “money laundering of the proceeds of tax evasion”.  HSBC PB is said to have concealed over €5.7 billion in tax havens for its French clients alone. The French Finance Ministry took 72 individuals to court (including Nina Ricci’s heir, Arlette Ricci), as most of the French taxpayers whose identity was revealed in the Falciani lists have since regularised their tax affairs.  Le Monde has been investigating the HSBC affair since the outset, and in early 2014 came into possession of international banking data including all the files the French tax authorities had extracted from the Falciani lists in the strictest secrecy since 2009, sometimes ignoring government reservations. The bank's account managers illegally contacted many of these people in France. They were all encouraged by HSBC Private Bank (Suisse)'s executive committee to hide their money behind offshore screen structures, generally based in Panama or the British Virgin Islands, in order to avoid certain European taxes, chiefly the EU Savings DirectiveI", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Investigation in Morocco.", "content": "According to the International Consortium of Investigation Journalists (ICIJ), which treated the data of the Swiss Leaks, Morocco is concerned by $1.6 billion of tax evasion and stands at thirty-seventh place of the affected countries. Morocco stands at twenty-third place for the number of clients (1068). The maximal amount of tax evasion for one client was $74.1 million and the average was $1.5 million. As stated in the Moroccan law, it is strictly forbidden to have a foreign bank account. But the documents revealed that the royal family were part of the HSBC clients. Prince Moulay Rachid was touched by this scandal, the princess Lalla Meryem and the current king Mohammed VI with an amount $9.1 millions hidden in the HSBC bank.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International Investigation.", "content": "Given the scale of the investigation, Le Monde called upon 154 journalists affiliated with 47 different media outlets including: The Guardian, CBS, Süddeutsche Zeitung, and The Indian Express, among others, to help analyze the data. The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ) has been coordinating this international collaborative effort.  In February 2015, the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ) website released information about bank accounts in Switzerland under the title \"Swiss Leaks: Murky Cash Sheltered by Bank Secrecy,\" which involves the \"Swiss Leaks Project\", a website containing almost 60,000 leaked files that provide details on over 100,000 HSBC clients and their bank accounts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Involvement.", "content": "The \"Swiss Leaks Project's\" investigations revealed that HSBC's Geneva branch, ignoring these rules, helped people accused of drug-running, corruption, money-laundering or arms-dealing conceal billions of dollars in Switzerland.  Among the names revealed by the Swiss Leaks investigation are:  Under the top 10 Countries with the largest dollar amounts in leaked Swiss files are", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "HSBC Trial.", "content": "In March 2015, the French financial state prosecutor has requested that HSBC's Swiss private bank be sent to criminal trial over the suspected tax-dodging scheme for wealthy customers. The recommendation follows a lengthy investigation by local magistrates into alleged tax fraud involving 3,000 French taxpayers and is a procedural step that brings the Swiss banking arm one step closer to a possible trial in France.  In November 2017, HSBC has agreed to pay 300 million euros ($352 million) to avoid going to trial in France for enabling tax fraud. The deal struck between the financial crime prosecutor's office and the bank is a first in France under a new procedure that allows companies under suspicion of corruption or dissimulation of tax fraud to negotiate a fine to stop a case from going to trial.  French prosecutors have now dropped the case against HSBC Holdings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Media coverage.", "content": "BBC reported that HSBC had put pressure on media not to report about the controversy, with British Newspaper The Guardian claiming HSBC advertising had been put \"on pause\" after The Guardian's coverage of the matter. Peter Oborne, chief political commentator at Daily Telegraph resigned from the paper; in an open letter he claimed the Daily Telegraph suppressed negative stories and dropped investigations into HSBC because of the bank's advertising. CBS published a story about the leaks in the news segment 60 Minutes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Swiss Leaks (or SwissLeaks) is the name of a journalistic investigation, released in February 2015, of a giant tax evasion scheme allegedly operated with the knowledge and encouragement of the British multinational bank HSBC via its Swiss subsidiary, HSBC Private Bank (Suisse). Triggered by leaked information from French computer analyst Hervé Falciani on accounts held by over 100,000 clients and 20,000 offshore companies with HSBC in Geneva, the disclosed information has been called \"the biggest leak in Swiss banking history\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977559}
{"src_title": "GSLV Mark III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "ISRO initially planned two launcher families, the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle for low Earth orbit and polar launches and the larger Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle for payloads to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The vehicle was reconceptualized as a more powerful launcher as the ISRO mandate changed. This increase in size allowed the launch of heavier communication and multipurpose satellites, future interplanetary exploration and will be human rated to launch crewed missions. Development of the GSLV Mk III began in the early 2000s, with the first launch planned for 2009–2010. The unsuccessful launch of GSLV D3, due to a failure in the cryogenic upper stage, delayed the GSLV Mk III development program. The GSLV Mk III, while sharing a name with the GSLV, it features different systems and components.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "S200 static fire tests.", "content": "The first static fire test of the S-200 solid rocket booster, ST-01, was conducted on 24 January 2010. The booster fired for 130 seconds and had nominal performance. It generated a peak thrust of about. A second static fire test, ST-02, was conducted on 4 September 2011. The booster fired for 140 seconds and had nominal performance. A third test, ST-03, was conducted on 14 June 2015 to validate the changes from the sub-orbital test flight data.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "L110 static fire tests.", "content": "ISRO conducted the first static test of the L110 core stage at its Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) test facility at Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu on 5 March 2010. The test was planned to last 200 seconds, but was terminated at 150 seconds after a leakage in a control system was detected. A second static fire test for the full duration was conducted on 8 September 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "C25 stage tests.", "content": "The first static fire test of the C25 cryogenic stage was conducted on 25 January 2017 at the ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC) facility at Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu. The stage was tested for a duration of 50 seconds and had nominal performance.  A second static fire test for the full in-flight duration of 640 seconds was completed on 17 February 2017. This test demonstrated the repeatability of the engine performance along with its sub-systems, including the thrust chamber, gas generator, turbopumps and control components for the full duration. All of the engine parameters had nominal performance.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Redesigns.", "content": "After the suborbital test flight of GSLV Mk III, modifications were made to the vehicle to improve performance. The propellant grain geometry of head end segment was changed to a 13-lobed star configuration from a 10-lobed slotted configuration and propellant load was reduced to to improve performance during transsonic flights. The payload fairing was modified to an ogive shape, and the S200 booster nosecones were slanted to improve aerodynamic performance. The inter-tank structure of the C25 cryogenic stage was redesigned for density.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Vehicle design.", "content": "The first stage consists of two S200 solid motors, also known as Large Solid Boosters (LSB) attached to the core stage. Each booster is wide, long, and carries of propellant. The S200 booster uses an HTPB based propellant. It is the largest solid-fuel booster after the Space Shuttle SRBs and Ariane 5 SRBs. The flex nozzles can be vectored using electro-hydraulic actuators and are used for vehicle control during the initial ascent phase. These boosters burn for 130 seconds and produce an average thrust of and a peak thrust of each.  The second stage, designated L110, is a liquid-fueled stage that is tall and wide, and contains of unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and nitrogen tetroxide (). It is powered by two Vikas 2 engines, each generating thrust, giving a total thrust of. The L110 is the first Indian clustered liquid-fueled engine. The Vikas engines uses regenerative cooling, providing improved weight and specific impulse compared to earlier Indian rockets. Each Vikas engine can be individually gimbaled to control vehicle pitch, yaw and roll control. The L110 core stage ignites 114 seconds after liftoff and burns for 203 seconds. The cryogenic upper stage, designated C25, is in diameter and long, and contains of propellant LOX and LH2. It is powered by the CE-20 engine, producing of thrust. CE-20 is the first cryogenic engine developed by India which uses a gas generator, as compared to the staged combustion engines used in GSLV.  The payload fairing has a diameter of and a payload volume of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Upgrades.", "content": "The L110 core stage in GSLV Mk III is planned to be replaced by a kerolox stage powered by SCE-200 to increase its payload capacity to to GTO. SCE-200 uses kerosene instead of UDMH as fuel and can exert a thrust of around 200 tonnes. Four of such engines can be clustered in a rocket without strap on boosters to deliver up to to GTO.  Propellant load on hydrolox upper stage is planned to be increased to from. The first flight of the upgraded GSLV Mk III is expected in December 2020, but the SCE-200 powered version will not be used for the crewed mission of the \"Gaganyaan\" spacecraft.  In September 2019, a report quoted S. Somanath, director of VSSC who said that semi-cryogenic engine was ready for testing to begin. SCE-200 is reported to be based on Ukrainian RD-810.  As per a frame agreement for cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space between India and Ukraine signed in 2005, Ukraine was expected to test components of the Indian version of the engine. and will fly only after successful completion of the Gaganyaan program. So, an upgraded version of the GSLV Mk III will not arrive before 2022.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Notable missions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "X (Suborbital flight test).", "content": "The maiden flight of the GSLV Mk III occurred on 18 December 2014. The flight lifted off from the Second Launch Pad, at 04:00 UTC. The test had functional boosters, a core stage and a non-functional dummy upper stage. It carried the Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment (CARE) that was tested on re-entry.  Just over five minutes into the flight, the rocket ejected CARE module at an altitude of, which then descended, controlled by its onboard motors. During the test CARE's heat shield experienced a maximum temperature of around. ISRO downloaded launch telemetry during the ballistic coasting phase before the radio black-out to avoid data loss in the event of a splash-down failure. At an altitude of around, the module's apex cover separated and the parachutes were deployed. CARE splashed down in the Bay of Bengal near the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and was recovered successfully.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "D1 (GSAT-19).", "content": "The first orbital flight of the GSLV Mk III occurred on 5 June 2017, lifting off from the Second Launch Pad at 11:58 UTC. The vehicle carried the GSAT-19 communication satellite, making it the heaviest Indian rocket and payload ever launched. The satellite was successfully placed into a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) at. The flight also tested upgrades to the design from data acquired during the suborbital test flight (See section on redesigns).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "M1 (Chandrayaan-2).", "content": "The first operational flight occurred on 22 July 2019, lifting off from the Second Launch pad at 9:13 UTC. The rocket carried Chandrayaan-2, India's second mission to the Moon, consisting of an orbiter, lander and a rover. The Chandrayaan-2 stack is the heaviest spacecraft launched by ISRO.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mk III), also referred to as the Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (LVM3), is a three-stage medium-lift launch vehicle developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Primarily designed to launch communication satellites into geostationary orbit, it is also identified as launch vehicle for crewed missions under the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme and dedicated science missions like Chandrayaan-2. The GSLV Mk III has a higher payload capacity than the similarly named GSLV Mk II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977560}
{"src_title": "2016 Baden-Württemberg state election", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Campaign and issues.", "content": "The Greens campaigned to keep Minister-President Winfried Kretschmann in office. Their central issues were energy, economics, and education. The CDU aimed to put an end to the green-red state government and usher in its own leading candidate Guido Wolf to head the state government. Themes in focus for the CDU were education policy, internal security, and the issue of infrastructure, including high-speed internet. The SPD, led by Nils Schmid, wanted to win more votes to continue the existing government coalition with The Greens. The SPD's campaign mainly focused on \"good jobs\", educational equality, and more time for the family. The electoral goal of the FDP, led by Hans-Ulrich Rülke, was to repeat its entry into the state parliament and possibly be involved in a governing coalition. They promised better education, the strengthening of the local business, and improvement of mobility. The AfD party campaigned to be elected into the state parliament for the first time. Its leading candidate Jörg Meuthen saw migration policy as an important election issue, alongside education, security, and energy transition.  The election campaign was overshadowed by the European migrant crisis. In the crisis, Kretschmann supported the policies of Chancellor Angela Merkel. Kretschmann said he saw no other person who could keep Europe together as Angela Merkel did. \"Therefore, I pray every day that the Chancellor remains healthy.\" CDU candidate Wolf also emphasized support for Merkel's \"European solution\" in the crisis, but in February 2016 tried to win more conservative voters by a joint proposal along with Rhineland-Palatinate CDU candidate Julia Klöckner for daily refugee quotas and border centers for migrants, which put additional pressure on Merkel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parties.", "content": "The table below lists parties represented in the previous Landtag of Baden-Württemberg.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "< 2011 Next >! colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align:left; background:#e9e9e9; width:400px;\"|Party! style=\"background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;\" colspan=\"3\"|Popular vote! style=\"background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;\" colspan=\"3\"|Seats! style=\"text-align:right; background:#e9e9e9; width:60px;\"|Votes! style=\"text-align:right; background:#e9e9e9; width:40px;\"|%! style=\"text-align:right; background:#e9e9e9; width:50px;\"|+/–! style=\"text-align:right; background:#e9e9e9; width:30px;\"|Seats! style=\"text-align:right; background:#e9e9e9; width:30px;\"|+/–", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "In the prior election of 2011, the Green/SPD coalition obtained a majority (73 of 138) of votes in the Landtag, including two opposition votes; however after the 2016 vote, the coalition fell short of a majority, with a combined total of 66 seats (72 needed for a majority). Kretschmann's popularity propelled the Green Party to a gain of 11 seats, making history as the first time the Green party has been the largest party in State-level election results. However, the Greens' coalition partner, the SPD, lost 16 seats, thus depriving the Greens' of a clear majority of leftists.  There were several possible and probable working majorities among the five parties in the Landtag. Expanding the existing coalition into a three-party \"traffic light\" coalition (green-red-yellow) by including the FDP would have given the administration a working majority of 6. Coalitions with AfD appeared unlikely: a CDU-AfD coalition would be 7 short of a majority in the Landtag, so would have also needed to include the FDP to make a majority and remove Kretschmann as minister-president. Removal of Kretschmann was unlikely; CDU leader Guido Wolf briefly sought to get the Social Democrats into a right-of-centre coalition with the FDP (with Wolf as state minister-president), but his SPD counterpart Nils Schmid pointed out that such a coalition would frustrate voters due to the personal popularity of Kretschmann. If it were possible to elect the minister-president directly, Kretschmann would have won an outright majority according to polls; he was even favored by 45% of CDU supporters.  In May 2016, the Landtag confirmed Kretschmann's leadership in a secret ballot. He won 82 votes leading a \"green-black\" coalition with a nominal majority of 89 Landestag members (Green 47, CDU 42). A similar \"black-green\" coalition headed by the CDU has governed in Hesse since the similarly indecisive 2013 elections, but this is the first time the Green Party is the lead coalition partner in a coalition with the CDU (previously, they led a coalition with the SPD). Kretschmann formed the Cabinet Kretschmann II as the state government.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2016 Baden-Württemberg state election was held on 13 March 2016 to elect the members of the 15th Landtag of Baden-Württemberg. The incumbent government of The Greens and the Social Democratic Party (SPD) led by Minister-President Winfried Kretschmann lost its majority.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977561}
{"src_title": "The Last Olympian", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "While Percy Jackson is on a drive with Rachel Dare, he is approached by Charles Beckendorf, and the two head off to attack Luke's ship, \"The Princess Andromeda\". Kronos, hosted in the mortal body of Luke, is not caught off guard because of a spy at Camp Half-Blood, and Beckendorf is killed. Percy awakens later in his father Poseidon's underwater palace, which is under siege by the Titan Oceanus. Percy wants to help fight, but Poseidon sends Percy back to Camp Half-Blood to hear the \"Great Prophecy.\" Once there, Percy informs the camp of the spy and learns that the Olympians are fighting Typhon. That night, Percy leaves with Nico di Angelo, son of Hades, following a lead on how to defeat Kronos. After visiting Luke's mother in Westport, Connecticut, and talking with Hestia, Percy procures a blessing from his mother. He then descends into the underworld to bathe in the River Styx and take on the curse of Achilles. Despite being betrayed by Nico in exchange for information on the boy's mother, Percy is successful and uses his new invulnerability to defeat a small army of Hades's minions.  Percy emerges from the Underworld in New York City, leaving Nico behind to convince his father to join the fight against Kronos. Percy calls the campers to help defend Olympus, as the gods refuse to end their struggle with Typhon. Just before the battle begins, New York City is affected by a powerful sleeping spell from Morpheus, Hecate, and Kronos himself. Despite being joined by Thalia's Hunters of Artemis, the Party Ponies, and a few other allies, the Olympian army struggles to hold back repeated assaults by the Titan army. Camp Half-Blood suffers approximately 16 casualties, out of an original 40 campers. Annabeth herself is badly injured when she saves Percy from an attack by Ethan Nakamura that would have hit Percy in his Achilles point. Even after these setbacks, Percy refuses a chance to surrender offered by Prometheus, and entrusts the titan's gift of Pandora's \"pithos\" to Hestia. The campers successfully defeat Hyperion, further enraging Kronos. Rachel Dare, who has been experiencing inexplicable moments of prophecy, arrives to warn Percy of a drakon that can only be killed by a child of Ares. The campers do poorly against the drakon until Silena Beauregard arrives disguised as Ares's head counselor Clarisse and breaks the cabin's boycott of the war, getting badly injured in the process. The real Clarisse arrives in a fury and kills the drakon by herself. As Silena lies dying, the campers learn that she was the camp's spy, but chose to right her wrongs after her boyfriend Beckendorf's death.  Percy contacts his father and asks Poseidon to join the fight against Typhon; he reluctantly agrees. Driven back to the blocks surrounding the Empire State building, Percy and his friends make their last stand to protect Mount Olympus. Even when Hades arrives with Nico and an army, Kronos still manages to enter Olympus. Percy attacks Kronos, without either side gaining a significant advantage. In an Iris message-vision, the combatants are able to see Typhon approaching New York, only to be defeated with the aid of Poseidon and his cyclopes. Ethan Nakamura also rebels against Kronos's expectations but is killed. When Kronos attacks Annabeth, Luke is able to regain control of his body and, with Percy's help, he injures himself at his mortal point and successfully banishes Kronos to the void. As he dies, Luke tells Percy that Ethan had the right idea; the war was caused by the resentment of unrecognized gods and unclaimed children. He dies peacefully, and the Fates themselves carry his body away.  The gods grant rewards to several heroes who were instrumental in defeating the Titans, including Thalia, Grover, Annabeth, Tyson, Clarisse, and Nico. Finally, Percy is called forward. Zeus offers him the greatest gift of all time: immortal godhood. Much to the Olympians' shock, Percy instead asks the gods to swear on the River Styx that they will claim all demigods by the time they turn thirteen, have cabins and thrones built for all minor gods and Hades, and give amnesty to innocent Titans and their former allies. Percy also relieves Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades of their oath to not have demigod children. After the meeting, Percy discovers Rachel plans to become the new Oracle, and he rushes to camp with Annabeth and Nico. With Apollo's supervision, Rachel safely becomes the new Oracle and speaks the next Great Prophecy. The novel ends shortly after Annabeth celebrates Percy's birthday and the two begin dating. The gods are keeping to their new promises, and Camp Half-Blood is slowly returning to normal. The many fallen demigods are honored with the end-of-summer's bead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"The New York Times\" called the novel \"both exciting and entertaining.\" While the review notes that the pace sometimes bordered on \"frantic,\" distracting from weaker plot points, the book as a whole remains \"clever\" and \"enjoyably hair-raising.\" The non-profit Common Sense Media warned parents that this final book in the series contains more violence than the previous entries, but praised the book overall, giving it five out of five stars. \"Kirkus Reviews\" reviewed the book positively, observing that \"Riordan masterfully orchestrates the huge cast of characters and manages a coherent, powerful tale at once exciting, philosophical and tear-jerking.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequel.", "content": "Another Camp Half-Blood series has been released, titled \"The Heroes of Olympus\". \"The Lost Hero\" is the first book in this series by Riordan, and was released on October 12, 2010. Though it is not directly related to Percy and friends, there are many references and appearances of these characters and it still serves as a sequel. Its sequel, \"The Son of Neptune\", portrays Percy as one of the main protagonists. \"The Son of Neptune\" is followed by \"The Mark of Athena\", \"The House of Hades\", and \"The Blood of Olympus\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Last Olympian is a fantasy-adventure novel based on Greek mythology by Rick Riordan, published on May 5, 2009. It is the fifth and final novel of the \"Percy Jackson & the Olympians\" series and serves as the direct sequel to \"The Battle of the Labyrinth\". \"The Last Olympian\" revolves around the demigod Percy Jackson as he leads his friends in a last stand to protect Mount Olympus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977562}
{"src_title": "Louane (singer)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Anne Peichert grew up in Hénin-Beaumont, in the French department of Pas-de-Calais, with her four sisters and her only brother. Louane's father, Jean-Pierre Peichert, was French, son of a Polish mother and German father. Her mother, Isabel Pinto dos Santos, was Portuguese, the daughter of a Portuguese father and a Brazilian mother.  In 2008, Louane Emera took part in \"L'École des stars\", a French music competition broadcast on channel Direct 8.  Louane is an orphan - her rendition of \"Imagine\" was dedicated to her father who had died just three months prior to her appearance in \"The Voice\" and her mother died in 2014 after a lengthy illness. Louane Emera said that her parents often had to punish her due to her hyperactivity, but that she has learned a lot about discipline from them and that they always treated her with love. She regularly gives them credit for her success.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Voice: la plus belle voix\".", "content": "In 2013, her first real breakthrough came with her taking part in \"The Voice: la plus belle voix\"'s. She auditioned with \"Un homme heureux\" by William Sheller with all four coaches Florent Pagny, Jenifer, Louis Bertignac and Garou turning their chairs. She opted to be part of Team Louis Bertignac. Her \"blind audition\" episode was broadcast on 16 February 2013.  23 March 2013, during the Musical Battles round, she was picked by Bertignac against her rival Diana Espir, after both interpreted \"Torn\" by Natalie Imbruglia. During the live rounds, she sang \"Les moulins de mon cœur\" by Michel Legrand and was saved by public vote. On 27 April 2013 she performed \"Call Me Maybe\" by Carly Rae Jepsen and was saved by her mentor coach to go through. With Lennon's \"Imagine\" dedicated to her deceased father, she was saved yet again by public vote. But her luck ended in the semi-finals after her rendition of \"Quelqu'un m'a dit\" by Carla Bruni. She had a cumulative score of 74 while the other Team Bertignac semi-finalist Loïs had a composite score of 76. Accordingly, Louane was eliminated finishing 5th to 8th.  All semi-finalists and finalists, including Louane, took part in an after-season tour throughout France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After \"The Voice\".", "content": "After her appearance in \"The Voice\", Éric Lartigau noticed her and cast her for his movie \"La Famille Bélier\" in which she played the role of Paula, a 16-year-old who is the only hearing person in a family of deaf people. The character sings a number of Michel Sardou songs, most notably \"Je vole\". As a result, she won the \"Most Promising Actresses\" at the 40th ceremony of the Césars.  On 5 February 2015, she served as an opening act for Jessie J's showcase in Paris.  Her debut studio album, \"Chambre 12\", was released on 2 March 2015, to great success. Her single \"Avenir\" also topped the French charts.  In 2017, she provided vocals for the track, \"It Won't Kill Ya,\" from The Chainsmokers' debut album, \"Memories...Do Not Open\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Anne Peichert (; born 26 November 1996), known by her stage name Louane Emera () or simply Louane, is a French singer and actress.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977563}
{"src_title": "Codnor Castle", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "William Peverel.", "content": "The castle is a stone keep and bailey fortress and was established by William Peverel. The present fragmentary remains represent a three-storey keep and a strong curtain wall and ditch, flanked by round towers. The outer bailey is on a lower level and was constructed at a later period. The castle overlooks the Erewash valley and the counties of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire. It originally had a deep moat and on its eastern side there was once a considerable abundance of trees, which have now been cut down. On the west side there was a courtyard that was strongly fortified by huge round towers, which had battlements. In other parts of the ruins there is evidence that the outer walls had arrow-loops included to allow bowmen to use them if necessary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Henry de Grey.", "content": "By 1211 it was owned by Henry de Grey, a descendant of the Norman knight Anchetil de Greye. Henry's descendants include the long line of Lords Grey of Codnor, the Lords Grey of Ruthyn, Wilton and Rotherfield, Lady Jane Grey and the Earls of Stamford, and the extinct families of the Dukes of Suffolk and Kent. His son Richard settled in Codnor and was a loyal Baron to Henry III. Along with his brother John they served the King in the Holy Land. John Grey distinguished himself in the Scottish wars and found himself in great favour with Edward III. Together with William D'Eincourt, the Lord Grey commanded all the knights of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire in case of an invasion. Henry, the last of the family, died during the reign of Henry VII without a legitimate heir. He left part of his lands to his illegitimate sons, Henry and Richard, and part to his widow, Katherine Stourton.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zouche family.", "content": "The remainder went to his aunt Elizabeth Grey, who in 1429 married Sir John Zouche, the youngest son of the fourth Baron Zouche of Harringworth. Sir John Zouche of Codnor was three times High Sheriff of Derbyshire. The castle remained in the hands of the Zouche family for two hundred years until they sold up and emigrated to Virginia in 1634.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Streynsham Master.", "content": "Sir Streynsham Master, High Sheriff of Derbyshire, who bought the Codnor Castle estate in 1692, is reported as the last resident of the castle. He lived there until his death in 1724.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Preservation.", "content": "Today the remnants of Codnor Castle are a fragile ruin; its few remaining high walls are well visited. The site is now privately owned. Public access is managed by The Codnor Castle Heritage Trust; access can be arranged by contacting the Trust.  There are public footpaths to the Castle from Codnor Market Place, where there is an information board in partnership with Derbyshire County Council, as well as public footpaths from the east in the Erewash valley.  In June 2007, Channel 4's \"Time Team\" programme carried out an archaeological dig around the castle. A perfectly preserved gold noble of Henry V was found in the moat and is now displayed at Derby Museum and Art Gallery.  \"Most Haunted Live!\" visited the castle as part of a paranormal investigation 'As Live' special in 2017. The programme was broadcast in March 2018.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Codnor Castle is a ruined 13th-century castle in Derbyshire, England. The land around Codnor came under the jurisdiction of William Peverel after the Norman conquest. Although registered as a Scheduled Ancient Monument and Grade II Listed Building the site is officially, as at 2016, a Building at Risk.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977564}
{"src_title": "Data science", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Foundations.", "content": "Data science is an interdisciplinary field focused on extracting knowledge from data sets, which are typically large (see big data). The field encompasses analysis, preparing data for analysis, and presenting findings to inform high-level decisions in an organization. As such, it incorporates skills from computer science, mathematics, statistics, information visualization, graphic design, and business. Statistician Nathan Yau, drawing on Ben Fry, also links data science to human-computer interaction: users should be able to intuitively control and explore data. In 2015, the American Statistical Association identified database management, statistics and machine learning, and distributed and parallel systems as the three emerging foundational professional communities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to statistics.", "content": "Many statisticians, including Nate Silver, have argued that data science is not a new field, but rather another name for statistics. Others argue that data science is distinct from statistics because it focuses on problems and techniques unique to digital data. Vasant Dhar writes that statistics emphasizes quantitative data and description. In contrast, data science deals with quantitative and qualitative data (e.g. images) and emphasizes prediction and action. Andrew Gelman of Columbia University and data scientist Vincent Granville have described statistics as a nonessential part of data science. Stanford professor David Donoho writes that data science is not distinguished from statistics by the size of datasets or use of computing, and that many graduate programs misleadingly advertise their analytics and statistics training as the essence of a data science program. He describes data science as an applied field growing out of traditional statistics. In summary, data science can be therefore described as an applied branch of statistics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early usage.", "content": "In 1962, John Tukey described a field he called “data analysis,” which resembles modern data science. Later, attendees at a 1992 statistics symposium at the University of Montpellier II acknowledged the emergence of a new discipline focused on data of various origins and forms, combining established concepts and principles of statistics and data analysis with computing.  The term “data science” has been traced back to 1974, when Peter Naur proposed it as an alternative name for computer science. In 1996, the International Federation of Classification Societies became the first conference to specifically feature data science as a topic. However, the definition was still in flux. In 1997, C.F. Jeff Wu suggested that statistics should be renamed data science. He reasoned that a new name would help statistics shed inaccurate stereotypes, such as being synonymous with accounting, or limited to describing data. In 1998, Chikio Hayashi argued for data science as a new, interdisciplinary concept, with three aspects: data design, collection, and analysis.  During the 1990s, popular terms for the process of finding patterns in datasets (which were increasingly large) included “knowledge discovery” and “data mining.”", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Modern usage.", "content": "The modern conception of data science as an independent discipline is sometimes attributed to William S. Cleveland. In a 2001 paper, he advocated an expansion of statistics beyond theory into technical areas; because this would significantly change the field, it warranted a new name. \"Data science\" became more widely used in the next few years: in 2002, the Committee on Data for Science and Technology launched \"Data Science Journal.\" In 2003, Columbia University launched \"The Journal of Data Science\". In 2014, the American Statistical Association's Section on Statistical Learning and Data Mining changed its name to the Section on Statistical Learning and Data Science, reflecting the ascendant popularity of data science.  The professional title of “data scientist” has been attributed to DJ Patil and Jeff Hammerbacher in 2008. Though it was used by the National Science Board in their 2005 report, \"Long-Lived Digital Data Collections: Enabling Research and Education in the 21st Century,\" it referred broadly to any key role in managing a digital data collection.  There is still no consensus on the definition of data science and it is considered by some to be a buzzword.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Careers in data science.", "content": "Data science is a growing field. A career as a data scientist is ranked at the third best job in America for 2020 by Glassdoor, and was ranked the number one best job from 2016-2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Educational path.", "content": "In order to become a data scientist, there is a significant amount of education and experience required. The first step in becoming a data scientist is to earn a bachelor's degree, typically in a field related to computing or mathematics. Coding bootcamps are also available and can be used as an alternate pre-qualification to supplement a bachelor's degree in another field. Most data scientists also complete a master’s degree or a PhD in data science. Once these qualifications are met, the next step to becoming a data scientist is to apply for an entry-level job in the field. Some data scientists may later choose to specialize in a sub-field of data science.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Impacts of data science.", "content": "Big data is very quickly becoming a vital tool for businesses and companies of all sizes. The availability and interpretation of big data has altered the business models of old industries and enabled the creation of new ones. Data-driven businesses are worth $1.2 trillion collectively in 2020, an increase from $333 billion in the year 2015. Data scientists are responsible for breaking down big data into usable information and creating software and algorithms that help companies and organizations determine optimal operations. As big data continues to have a major impact on the world, data science does as well due to the close relationship between the two.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technologies and techniques.", "content": "There are a variety of different technologies and techniques that are used for data science which depend on the application.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Data science is an inter-disciplinary field that uses scientific methods, processes, algorithms and systems to extract knowledge and insights from many structural and unstructured data. Data science is related to data mining, deep learning and big data.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977565}
{"src_title": "Erik Haula", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Amateur.", "content": "Haula played the 2008–09 hockey season with Shattuck-Saint Mary's in Faribault, Minnesota. There he tallied 24 goals and 55 assists for 79 points in 49 games played. In March 2009, Haula committed to the University of Minnesota. He would be only the second player born outside of North America to play for the Gophers, following future Wild teammate Thomas Vanek of Austria. Three months later, on 27 June 2009, Haula was drafted by the Minnesota Wild in the seventh round, 182nd overall, at the 2009 NHL Entry Draft.  Before attending the University of Minnesota, however, Haula first played at the junior level in the United States Hockey League (USHL) with the Omaha Lancers for the 2009–10 season while he attended Daniel J. Gross Catholic High School. His 28 goals and 44 assists with a plus-minus rating of +36 helped lead the Lancers to the Western Division finals. In his sole USHL season, he was named to the All-Star and All-Rookie teams. After leaving the USHL, Haula totaled 42 goals, 82 assists and 124 points in 114 games during three seasons of college ice hockey with the Gophers. He then decided to forgo his senior year and final season of eligibility to sign professionally with the Wild.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Professional.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minnesota Wild.", "content": "On 7 April 2013, the Minnesota Wild signed Haula to an entry-level contract. During the 2013–14 season on 29 November 2013, the Wild recalled Haula from the Iowa Wild of the American Hockey League (AHL) to make his NHL debut, where he scored first NHL point, an assist, and he was named the game's third star in a 3–1 loss to the Colorado Avalanche. On 9 December, Haula was reassigned to Iowa. In his return to Minnesota, on 18 January 2014, Haula scored his first career NHL goal against the Dallas Stars in the first period. During 2014 Stanley Cup playoffs, he scored four goals and three assists in 13 playoff games.  Following the 2014–15 NHL season Haula became a restricted free agent under the NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement. The Minnesota Wild made him a qualifying offer to retain his NHL rights and, on 5 July 2015, Haula filed for Salary Arbitration.  The 2015–16 season saw a breakout year for Haula, as he set NHL personal bests in goals, assists, and points, more than doubling his previous highs in all three categories. He centered Minnesota's third line with Nino Niederreiter and Jason Pominville, quickly becoming Minnesota's most effective line offensively as well as acting as a shutdown line against the league's best.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Vegas Golden Knights.", "content": "At the completion of his fourth season with the Wild in 2016–17, as a restricted free agent Haula was left exposed for the 2017 NHL Expansion Draft. After agreeing to a three-year, $8.25 million deal with the Vegas Golden Knights, Haula was Minnesota's required selection for the draft on 21 June 2017. In exchange for selecting Haula, the Knights received prospect Alex Tuch and sent a conditional third-round pick in 2018 to the Wild.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Carolina Hurricanes.", "content": "On 26 June 2019, due to salary cap implications, Haula was traded by the Golden Knights to the Carolina Hurricanes in exchange for prospect Nicolas Roy and a conditional fifth-round draft pick. In the 2019–20 season, despite suffering injury, Haula contributed to the Hurricanes offensive depth, collecting 12 goals and 22 points in 41 games.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Florida Panthers.", "content": "As an impending free agent, Haula was dealt at the NHL trade deadline by the Hurricanes along with Lucas Wallmark, Eetu Luostarinen and Chase Priskie to the Florida Panthers in exchange for Vincent Trocheck on 24 February, 2020.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Erik Haula (born 23 March 1991) is a Finnish professional ice hockey center currently playing for the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has previously played for the Minnesota Wild, Vegas Golden Knights and Carolina Hurricanes. Haula was selected by the Wild in the seventh round, 182nd overall, of the 2009 NHL Entry Draft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977566}
{"src_title": "Samira Bellil", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Bellil was born to Algerian parents in Algiers, but her family migrated to France and settled in the Parisian suburb of Val-d'Oise. Her father was jailed almost immediately and she was fostered by a family in Belgium for five years, before being called back to her parents.  As a teenager Bellil rebelled against the traditional constraints of her community and wanted to live freely as a young French woman.  Samira was first gang-raped when she was 14, by a gang led by someone she knew. They beat her viciously and raped her all night. A month later, one of the most violent attackers in the gang followed her and dragged her off a train by her hair, while other passengers looked the other way. She was then brutally raped by him again.  She did not report her rapes until two friends told her that the same gang had sexually assaulted them too. Samira decided to appeal to the French legal system to prosecute her attackers. In the end, the ring leader of the gang was sentenced to eight years in prison.  Bellil's parents, who believed they were shamed by her presence, expelled her from her house. \"People outside the community don't know,\" Bellil has written. \"And everyone in the community knows, but they won't say anything.\"  Eventually, she found a psychologist who helped her. She had years of therapy, and describes how she decided to write her book to show other young women gang-rape victims that there was a way out. \"It's long and it's difficult, but it's possible,\" she wrote in the dedication - to \"my sisters in trouble\". She used her real name and put her photo on the cover. She dedicated the book to her \"girlfriends, so that they realize that one can overcome the traumatic\" and to Boris Cyrulnik, her therapist.  She later became a youth worker. She died on 4 September 2004 of stomach cancer. She was 31.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Ni Putes Ni Soumises\".", "content": "Bellil helped found a young women's activist group called Ni Putes Ni Soumises (\"Neither whores nor submissives\") which has publicly addressed the issue of violence against young women in France. The group drew the attention of the French and European press as they organized marches and press conferences to bring attention to the tragic events happening to young women in the banlieue of France. She denounced the gang-rapes (known as, or \"pass-arounds\") and described how she overcame both her traumatic experiences and the need for revenge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Official recognitions.", "content": "She was chosen as one of the new Mariannes, the new faces of France. Her portrait has hung outside the French National Assembly.  In 2005 a French school in l’Île-Saint-Denis was named in her honor: Ecole Samira Bellil.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Samira Bellil (24 November 1972 – 4 September 2004) was a French feminist activist and a campaigner for the rights of girls and women.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977567}
{"src_title": "Asterix: The Mansions of the Gods", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Frustrated with the ongoing rebellion of the Gauls, Julius Caesar devises a new scheme to conquer them: the construction of a city of luxury apartments dubbed “The Mansions Of The Gods” in the forest near the Gauls' village as a means to absorb them into Roman civilization.  During a boar hunt, Asterix and Obelix discover the Mansions’ construction site. Project leader and architect Squaronthehypotenus and the Roman legion commanded by Centurion Somniferus order slaves to deforest the surrounding area. Asterix and Obelix attempt to counteract the Romans’ efforts using magic acorns from Getafix the druid, which instantly sprout into full trees upon planting.  Upon hearing the frustrated Squaronthehypotunus threatening to work the slaves to death, Asterix and Obelix invade the Roman camp to free the slaves and provide them with the Gauls' magic potion as a means to escape. This backfires however when the slaves instead use it to rapidly advance construction, as well as barter for the same pay as the legionaries, along with their freedom and apartments for each of them upon completion. The legionaries also go on strike for similar reasons upon hearing about it.  The Gauls prepares to attack and demolish the Mansions, but discover it to already be populated by Roman civilians. Realizing that they cannot harm the civilians, they return to the village to plan how to make them leave. Meanwhile Anonymus, Dulcia and Mischiefus, a family from Rome, are denied their apartments given to them in a lottery due to lacking documents. Upon encountering and befriending Obelix and Dogmatix in the forest, the Gauls reluctantly agree to temporarily accommodate the Roman family  Asterix, Obelix and Getafix try numerous methods to make the civilians leave, from causing heavy rain and noise pollution, to trying to create a noxious stench, only for these to backfire by the civilians embracing these as a natural part of life in Brittany. The Roman civilians also begin shopping in the village, causing an escalating price war over fish and 'antique' weaponry. Asterix, appalled with what the village has become, leaves with Obelix, Getafix, Dogmatix and Cacofonix to get their own apartment at the Mansions. While Squaronthehypotenus is reluctant to allow their stay, Senator Prospectus allows them to stay as part of Caesar's plan.  Caesar then enacts the next phase of the plan by offering free apartments to the Gauls. In another attempt to make the Roman civilians leave, Asterix has Cacofonix to sing deafeningly loud outside the mansions. This almost works until the rest of the Gauls shows up to silence Cacofonix and move into their new apartments.  Caesar begins the final part of his plan, razing the village. The legion, however refuses to cooperate with Getafix and Obelix still at large. Getafix, Mischiefus and Dogmatix are captured and held in the Mansions' reception, while Obelix faints from hunger next to the Roman legion while searching for the three, and is thrown into a chamber beneath the Mansions.  Asterix awakens the next day to find the village being besieged, and the Gauls are brought along to watch the village’s destruction. The Gauls keep the Romans at bay by pretending to still possess the magic potion, while Asterix makes his way to the Mansions. Meeting with Anonymus and Dulcia, they are able to free Getafix, Dogmatix, and Mischiefus and escaping into the apartments, Getafix brews the magic potion from ingredients in each of the rooms. The Gauls chase the Romans back to the Mansions, only to be captured once the Romans realise their deception. Asterix attempts to rescue them, but ends up in a poor condition from consuming an incomplete magic potion.  Caesar and Prospectus arrive to declare victory over the Gauls, until Obelix rises from underground, revived after consuming food from an arrival banquet disposed into his chamber. The Gauls get their magic potion and defeat the Romans in battle, and demand Caeser take the civilians to head back to Rome, finally leading to the demolition of the Mansions of the Gods. In tradition, the Gauls celebrate their victory with a banquet atop the ruins of the mansions. Back in Rome, Anonymus and Mischiefus get revenge on Caesar by throwing one of Getafix's acorns into his podium at the coliseum, leaving him dangling from a tree branch.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cast.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English.", "content": "The English dub was released in the United Kingdom on 19 August 2016 titled \"Asterix: The Mansions of the Gods\".  An international dub featuring a full Canadian cast was released on March 12, 2015 (in Singapore) with the following alterations:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical response and box office.", "content": "The film was released on 26 November 2014 in France across 696 theatres and earned $7.64 million on its opening week from nearly 780,000 admissions placing at No. 1 at the box office ahead of Hollywood blockbuster films \"\" and \"Interstellar\" which were in their second and fourth weeks respectively. The film's opening weekend is also the third highest of 2014 in France. Its opening weekend outperformed other animated movies' openings of \"Frozen\", \"Tangled\", \"Monsters, Inc.\", \"Cars\" and \"The Lego Movie\". Jordan Mintzer of \"The Hollywood Reporter\" said, \"Astier and Clichy manage to make the material at once enjoyable and meaningful, while also providing a series of slick, streamlined visuals that never overstuff the screens.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media release.", "content": "\"Asterix: The Mansions of the Gods\" was released on DVD, VOD and Blu-ray on 9 June 2015 by M6 Vidéo.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Asterix: The Mansions of the Gods (), also titled Asterix and Obelix: Mansion of the Gods, is a 2014 French-Belgian 3D computer-animated adventure family comedy film written and directed by Alexandre Astier. It is based on the Asterix comic book \"The Mansions of the Gods\", which was the seventeenth book in the comic book series \"Asterix\" by Goscinny and Uderzo. The film features the voices of Roger Carel, Guillaume Briat, Lionnel Astier, Serge Papagalli, and Florence Foresti. The film sticks to the book's plot very closely while also expanding on it. It was the first Asterix film animated in 3D.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977568}
{"src_title": "Bruno Fernandes (footballer, born 1994)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Novara.", "content": "Born in Maia, Metropolitan Area of Porto, Fernandes played most of his youth football with local club Boavista FC. On 27 August 2012, he joined Novara Calcio in Italy.  After only a few weeks with the youth sides, Fernandes was promoted to the first team in Serie B, and went on to appear in slightly more than half of the league games during the 2012–13 season, helping his team to fifth place and the promotion play-offs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Udinese.", "content": "In summer 2013, Fernandes signed for Udinese Calcio in a co-ownership deal. He made his debut in Serie A on 3 November, coming on as a second-half substitute in a 0–3 home loss against Inter Milan.  Fernandes scored his first league goal on 7 December 2013, in a 3–3 draw at S.S.C. Napoli. He scored again in the second match between the sides (a 1–1 draw).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sampdoria.", "content": "On 16 August 2016, Fernandes moved to U.C. Sampdoria on loan with an obligation to be signed permanently. He made his league debut twelve days later, playing six minutes in a 2–1 home win over Atalanta BC.  Fernandes scored his first goal for his new team on 26 September 2016, in a 1–2 away loss to Cagliari Calcio. He scored 5 goals in 33 Serie A appearances during the campaign, helping them to finish in tenth position.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sporting CP.", "content": "On 27 June 2017, after returning from the UEFA European Under-21 Championship, Fernandes joined Sporting CP for five years, for a reported fee of €8.5 million plus bonuses and a buyout clause of €100 million. He scored four goals in his first five Primeira Liga games, including a brace in a 5–0 away win against Vitória de Guimarães.  Fernandes' first appearance in the UEFA Champions League group stage was on 12 September 2017, where he put the visitors 3–0 ahead in the 43rd minute of an eventual 3–2 win at Olympiacos FC. He finished his first season with 16 goals across all competitions, second only to Bas Dost.  On 15 May 2018, Fernandes and several of his teammates, including coaches, were injured following an attack by around 50 Sporting supporters at the club's training ground after the team finished third in the league and missed out on Champions League qualification. Despite the events, the team agreed to play in the final of the Taça de Portugal scheduled for the following weekend, eventually losing to C.D. Aves.  Fernandes was named the Primeira Liga Player of the Year on 6 July 2018. Four days later he signed a new five-year contract with a €100 million release clause, having turned back on his original decision to leave the Estádio José Alvalade following the departure of club president Bruno de Carvalho, and being given an improved salary in the process.  Fernandes scored his 23rd competitive goal of the 2018–19 campaign during a 3–1 home win against Portimonense S.C. on 3 March 2019, through a late penalty, surpassing António Oliveira's club record for goals by a midfielder in a season, set in 1981–82. On 5 May, he scored a hat-trick in an 8–1 away rout of Belenenses SAD, in the process becoming the highest-scoring Portuguese midfielder in a single season of all time, with 31 goals to his name. He scored his 33rd and final goal of the season on 25 May 2019, during Sporting's victory against FC Porto in the Taça de Portugal final. He was named Primeira Liga Player of the Year for the second successive year for his performances in the 2018–19 season.  He scored seven goals in his first 10 appearances of the 2019–20 season, including a run of scoring in six consecutive appearances. This made him the third Sporting player in the 21st century to score in six or more consecutive appearances for the club, after Mário Jardel and Bas Dost. On 28 November 2019, he scored twice and assisted the other two goals in a 4–0 victory over PSV Eindhoven, which guaranteed Sporting qualification to the knockout stages of the UEFA Europa League.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Manchester United.", "content": "On 29 January 2020, English club Manchester United confirmed they had reached an agreement with Sporting for the transfer of Fernandes for a fee reportedly worth up to €80 million (£67.6 million), subject to the player passing a medical and agreeing personal terms. The transfer was officially completed the following day, for an initial fee of around €55 million (£47 million), plus up to €25 million (£21 million) in add-ons and 10% of the profits should United ever sell Fernandes. Fernandes signed a five-and-a-half-year contract.  He made his debut on 1 February, playing the full 90 minutes of a goalless draw at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers. In Manchester United's 2–0 away win over Chelsea on 17 February, he provided an assist for the second goal, a header from Harry Maguire. Fernandes came on as a late substitute for Manchester United against Club Brugge in a 1–1 draw on his European debut for the club. He scored his first goal for Manchester United against Watford on 23 February, converting from the penalty spot in an eventual 3–0 victory at Old Trafford, a match in which he also provided an assist for the third goal scored by Mason Greenwood. His first European goal for the club came in the second leg of their UEFA Europa League round of 32 tie against Club Brugge at Old Trafford, in which he scored a penalty, helping them to a 5–0 victory. At the end of the month, Fernandes was voted as Manchester United's player of the month. On 16 March 2020, Fernandes was voted as the Premier League Player of the Month for February.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Fernandes has represented Portugal at five levels. Prior to his international debut, he was named captain of the under-21 team by coach Rui Jorge.  Overlooked for selection by Portugal during his spell in Italy, Fernandes was first chosen on 28 August 2017, replacing the injured Pizzi for World Cup qualifiers against the Faroe Islands and Hungary to be played the next month, although he did not play in either match.  Fernandes represented Portugal in the 2016 Summer Olympics. He started every game, as the team reached the quarter-finals.  Fernandes won his first full cap on 10 November 2017, replacing Manuel Fernandes for the last 34 minutes of the 3–0 friendly win over Saudi Arabia in Viseu. He was then selected by Fernando Santos for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. He scored his first goal on 7 June with a header in the last warm-up match before the tournament, a 3–0 defeat of Algeria at the Estádio da Luz.  Fernandes' first World Cup game took place on 15 June 2018, when he played 66 minutes in the 3–3 group stage draw against Spain, being booked in the process.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Sporting CP  Portugal  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bruno Miguel Borges Fernandes (; born 8 September 1994) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Manchester United and the Portugal national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977569}
{"src_title": "Seraph of the End", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "In 2012, the world allegedly comes to an end at the hands of a \"human-made\" virus, ravaging the global populace and leaving only children under the age of thirteen untouched. It is at this time that vampires emerge from the recesses of the earth, likely followed by age-old horrors of the dark thought only to be myth. The vampires sweep the earth and claim it in a single violent stroke, subjugating the remnants of humanity and leading them beneath the surface to safety. This \"protection\" comes at the price of \"donating\" blood to their captors, not knowing that they are vampires. At the age of twelve, Yūichirō and his friend and fellow orphan Mikaela plotted to escape along with the children in Hyakuya Orphanage. However, this resulted in their deaths and Mikaela sacrifices himself in order for Yūichirō to escape and be saved by members of the Moon Demon Company, an extermination unit of the Japanese Imperial Demon Army. Four years later, Yūichirō dedicates his life to destroy vampires and seek revenge against them for murdering his \"family.\" At the same time, it is revealed that Mikaela is still alive and wants to find his friend, Yūichirō.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manga.", "content": "\"Seraph of the End\" has been serialized by Shueisha in its Japanese monthly \"shōnen\" manga magazine \"Jump SQ\" since September 3, 2012. On October 7, 2013, Viz Media announced that it has licensed for a North American release and added the series to its manga to its lineup of the company's \"Weekly Shonen Jump\" digital magazine.  A voice comic (vomic) was also produced and published by Shueisha and its first episode was featured by \"Sakiyomi Jum-Bang!\" on February 1, 2013.  A spin-off gag manga to commemorate the anime adaptation titled has been serialized by Shueisha in \"Jump SQ\" from April 2015 to January 2016 after being serialized in the 17th and 18th volumes of \"Jump SQ.19\". It also has been published on the \"Seraph of the End\" official website.  A manga adapting the Guren Ichinose light novel series started in Kodansha's \"Monthly Shōnen Magazine\" on June 6, 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Light novels.", "content": "is a prequel focusing on Guren Ichinose as the main protagonist, detailing the series of events that occurred eight years before the start of the manga. Written by Takaya Kagami and illustrated by Yamato Yamamoto, it consists of seven volumes and was published by Kodansha from January 2013 to December 2016. On February 15, 2015, Vertical announced that it has licensed the light novels for a North American release and will be releasing it in an omnibus with two volumes per omnibus in January 2016. The novels have also been translated into other languages, such as German and French by Kazé. A drama CD was released on October 30, 2015, bundled with volume 6 of the light novel and is written by Takaya Kagami.  A new light novel series about Mikaela's story and the origin of vampires titled began publication by Shueisha on December 4, 2015. The story is written by Takaya Kagami and illustrated by Yamato Yamamoto.  On October 20, 2017, it was announced on Kodansha's light novel blog that a second spin-off series about Guren, titled would be released in December. It is written by Takaya Kagami and illustrated by Yo Asami. On March 11, 2019, Vertical announced that it has licensed the novels for a northern American release, saluted for December 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anime.", "content": "An anime adaptation was announced on August 28, 2014, and premiered on April 4, 2015, which consists of a total of 24 episodes. It is produced by Wit Studio, directed by Daisuke Tokudo, and screenplayed solely by Hiroshi Seko. Additionally, the original manga's writer, Takaya Kagami, personally drafted the original story for episodes with material not yet serialized in the manga and supervised the scripts until the anime's final episode. On December 12, 2014, it was announced the series would be \"split\" into two parts (quarters of the year). The first half (12 episodes) aired in 2015 from April to June and the second half (12 episodes) from October to December. The series premiered on Tokyo MX, MBS, TV Aichi, and BS11 at their respective time slots. NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan released the first 12 episodes on Blu-ray and DVD formats in Japan starting on June 24, 2015 across four volumes. A six-minute omake anime special adapted from the omake featured in the original manga, was included in each Blu-ray/DVD volume titled.  On March 31, 2015, it was announced that Funimation has licensed the series for streaming and its home video release in North America. Hulu also streamed the series. On May 13, 2015, Funimation announced that the English broadcast dub will stream every Wednesday at 8:30 p.m. EDT on its \"Dubble Talk\" streaming block. In the United Kingdom, the English dub was broadcast on Viceland, beginning February 15, 2018.  An OAD bundled with volume 11 of the original manga titled was released on May 2, 2016. It was first screened at the Jump Special Anime Festa 2015 event on November 2015.  Hiroyuki Sawano produced and co-composed the music, as well as the opening and ending themes, \"X.U.\" and \"scaPEGoat\", respectively, with Takafumi Wada, Asami Tachibana, and Megumi Shiraishi. As part of Sawano's vocal song project \"SawanoHiroyuki[nZk]\", for the first 12 episodes, the opening song is performed by SawanoHiroyuki[nZk]:Gemie, while the ending song is performed by SawanoHiroyuki[nZk]:Yosh. Both themes were released in Japan on a CD on May 20, 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Video games.", "content": "A PlayStation Vita strategy game, titled, was released by Bandai Namco Entertainment and Activision on December 17, 2015.  BNEI also released a smartphone game titled on September 28, 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The manga was nominated for the 40th Kodansha Manga Award for \"shōnen\" category in 2016.  Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network gave volume 1 an overall grade of B+.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sales.", "content": "Volume 1 reached the 24th place on the Japanese weekly manga chart, and, as of 13 January 2013, has sold 62,434 copies. It also reached the 3rd place on the \"New York Times\" manga bestseller chart. Volume 2 reached the 15th place on the weekly manga chart, and, as of 12 May 2013, has sold 91,095 copies. Volume 3 reached the 9th place and, as of 15 September 2013, has sold 121,235 copies. Volume 4 also reached the 9th place on the chart, and, as of 19 January 2014, has sold 160,444 copies. Volume 5 also reached the 9th place, and has sold, as of 11 May 2014, 155,139 copies. In 2015, the series sold 2.8 million copies. As of May 2017, the manga had 7 million copies in print, and as of April 4, 2018, the manga had 8.5 million copies in print. In March 2019, the series had 9 million copies in print. As of August 15, 2019, the manga has sold 10 million copies.  The \"Guren Ichinose: Catastrophe at Sixteen\" light novels reached 21st place as one of the Top-Selling light novels in Japan, with 128,690 copies sold in May 2015, and it additionally reached 29th place in 2016, with 100,077 more copies sold. \"The Story of Vampire Mikaela\" novels also reached 21st place, having sold 127,373 copies in May 2016. Its manga adaptation second volume reached 25th place on the Japanese's weekly manga chart, with 30,147 copies in print.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The series is set in a world that allegedly comes to an end at the hands of a \"human-made\" virus, ravaging the global populace and leaving only children under the age of thirteen untouched. It is at this time that vampires emerge from the recesses of the earth, likely followed by age-old horrors of the dark thought only to be myth. A young man named Yūichirō Hyakuya joins a vampire extermination unit to avenge the deaths of his orphaned family and reclaim his best friend Mikaela Hyakuya from the vampires.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977570}
{"src_title": "French Far East Expeditionary Corps", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Composition.", "content": "The CEFEO was largely made up of voluntarily-enlisted indigenous tirailleurs from the French Union colonial or protectorate territories in the Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, and South-East Asia. An exception was the French Foreign Legion which consisted mainly of European volunteers.  In 1954, CEFEO included 177,000 men, including 59,000 indigenous people. Colonial soldiers made up the bulk of the ground forces. Between 1947 and 1954, 122,900 North Africans and 60,340 Black Africans landed in Indochina, or 183,240 Africans in total. On February 1, 1954, they represented 43.5% of the 127,785 men of the ground forces (excluding indigenous Vietnamese). Most of the professional airborne units (BPC) and the entire Chief of Staff were metropolitan French, as were some artillery and specialist units.  From September 1945 to the cease-fire in July 1954, a total of 488,560 men and women served in Indochina:  In early November 1953, the French U.N. volunteers returning from the ended Korean War joined the French Union CEFEO and sailed from Incheon to Vietnam. They would be later involved in the battle of Mang Yang Pass of June and July 1954.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pacific War (1945).", "content": "The CEFEO was created in early 1945 as a replacement for the older Far East French Expeditionary Forces (\"Forces Expéditionnaires Françaises d'Extrême-Orient\", FEFEO). Its purpose was to support Saigon-based General Gabriel Sabattier, divisional commander of colonial \"Indochina French Forces\" (\"Forces Françaises d'Indochine\") and Free French Forces resistance small groups C.L.I. then fighting with the Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army Group during the March coup. After the 1944 Liberation of France and the fall of Nazi Germany in Europe the following year, the French authorities wanted to \"free\" the last Axis powers occupied territories in Southeast Asia, these included the newly established Empire of Vietnam, which was a Japanese colony. On June 7, 1945, Leclerc was nominated commander of the CEFEO. On June 22, Leclerc transferred command of the 2nd Armored Division (\"2ème D.B.\") -the famous unit which had liberated Paris in August 1944- to Colonel Dio. Leclerc received command of the Far East French Forces (\"Forces Françaises en Extrême-Orient\") on August 15.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First Indochina War (1946–1954).", "content": "In 1946, nationalist, then communist popular rebellion movement rose up against established colonial rule in the French Indochina federation then including Laos, Cambodia, Tonkin (North Vietnam), the Annam (Middle Vietnam) and Cochinchina (South Vietnam), all states being protectorates excluding the latter which was a colony with Saigon as its capital. In 1946, they would become associated states within the French Union and by 1949 Tonkin, Annam and the Republic of Cochin China would merge as the State of Vietnam. The communist Viet Minh led by Ho Chi Minh overwhelmed its rival nationalist movements and organized itself as a guerilla army using guerrilla warfare, then in the 1950s support—using conventional warfare. The First Indochina War officially lasted from November 20, 1946 until July 20, 1954 and was settled by the Geneva Agreements.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dissolution (1956).", "content": "After withdrawal of the last CEFEO troops from the independent Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia in 1956, the corps was disbanded by General Pierre Jacquot.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Far East Forces.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "South Vietnam Ground Forces (\"Forces Terrestres du Sud Vietnam\", FTSV).", "content": "Among the French ground forces in the Far East was the 6th Engineers Regiment (6 RG).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Far East Air Forces (\"Forces Aériennes en Extrême-Orient\", FAEO).", "content": "Among the aircraft supplied to the French in Indochina in 1950-51 were B-26 Marauders that went to Bomber Group 1/25 \"Tunisie\", B-26 Invaders, P-63 Kingcobras, C-47 Dakotas that went to Transport Group 1/64, 2/64, 2/63 which had both C-47s and C-119 Packets (but these were only operated by US civilian pilots of Civil Air Transport), former U.S. Navy F6F Hellcats that went to 11th Carrier Assault Flotilla (on \"Arromanches\" until April 30, 1954), SB-2C Helldivers that went to 3rd Carrier Assault Flotilla (on \"Arromanches\" until April 30, 1954), F8F-1B Bearcats that went to Groupe de Chasse (Fighter Group) 1/22 \"Saintonge\" and Group de Chasse 2/22 \"Languedoc\", PB4Y2 Privateers that went to the 28th Bomber Flotilla, and F4U Corsairs that went to 14th Carrier Fighter Flotilla (on \"Belleau Wood\" on May 1, 1954).  At the beginning of April 1954, Lt. General Earle E. (\"Pat\") Partridge, Commander of the U. S. Far East Air Force (FEAF), had arrived in Saigon and begun talks with his French counterpart, Gen. Lauzin, as well as with Gen. Navarre. He had brought with him Brigadier General Joseph D. Caldara, then the chief of the FEAF Bomber Command—the man who would fly and command the \"Vulture\" missions (bombing the area around Dien Bien Phu with 98 B-29 Superfortresses). The Americans had arrived at Saigon's Tan Son Nhut Airport in a discreet B-17, so as not to alert hostile eyes to the unfamiliar configuration of the B-29 Superfortress. From the beginning, the Americans were appalled at the total lack of French preparedness for anything like the control of a major saturation bombardment operation. French Col. Brohon later said that this project involved the use of \"several A-bombs\" in the Dien Bien Phu area.  Caldara decided to judge the situation for himself. On April 4, 1954, in the dead of the night, he flew his B-17 with an American crew over the valley of Dien Bien Phu, repeated the mission later with a French C-47 Dakota; and then once more with the B-17. The overall plan was simple enough; the two wings of B-29s from Okinawa and the one from Clark Air Base would rendezvous east of the Laotian capital of Vientiane, head for their target; and exit from Indochina via the Gulf of Tonkin. The French at the highest levels seemed to have no idea of the awful destructive power of the 98 Superfortresses. This bombing mission died a slow death as Winston Churchill was against it, but LBJ was Called Scuttler of this 1954 Bombing. Late that month on 29 April 1954 C-124 Globemasters from the 322nd Air Division were in the process of air-lifting into Indochina the brand-new 7th BPC (Bataillon de Parachutistes Coloniaux), en route from Europe to Vietnam via Colombo, Ceylon. Thus U. S. Air Force aircraft and personnel were actively involved in Vietnam in 1954.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The French Far East Expeditionary Corps (, CEFEO) was a colonial expeditionary force of the French Union Army that was initially formed in French Indochina during 1945 during the Pacific War. The CEFEO later fought and lost in the First Indochina War against the Viet Minh rebels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977571}
{"src_title": "Czesława Kwoka", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Personal background.", "content": "Czesława Kwoka was born in Wólka Złojecka, a small village in Poland, to a Catholic mother, Katarzyna Kwoka. Along with her mother (prisoner number 26946), Czesława Kwoka (prisoner number 26947) was deported and transported from Zamość, General Government, to Auschwitz, on 13 December 1942. On 12 March 1943, less than a month after her mother died (18 February 1943), Czesława Kwoka died at the age of 14; the circumstances of her death were not recorded.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "General historical contexts of child victims of Auschwitz.", "content": "Czesława Kwoka was one of the \"approximately 230,000 children and young people aged less than eighteen\" among the 1,300,000 people who were deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau from 1940 to 1945.  The Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum's Centre for Education About the Holocaust and Auschwitz documents the wartime circumstances that brought young adults and children like Kwoka to the concentration camps in its 2004 publication of an album of photographs compiled by its historian Helena Kubica; these photographs were first published in the Polish/German version of Kubica's book in 2002. According to the Museum, of the approximately 230,000 children and young people deported to Auschwitz, more than 216,000 children, the majority, were of Jewish descent; more than 11,000 children came from Romani families; the other children had Polish, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Russian, or other ethnic backgrounds.  Most of these children \"arrived in the camp along with their families as part of the various operations that the Nazis carried out against whole ethnic or social groups\"; these operations targeted \"the Jews as part of the drive for the total extermination of the Jewish people, the Gypsies as part of the effort to isolate and destroy the Gypsy population, the Poles in connection with the expulsion and deportation to the camp of whole families from the Zamość region and from Warsaw during the Uprising there in August 1944\", as well as Belarusians and other citizens of the Soviet Union \"in reprisal for partisan resistance\" in places occupied by Germany.  Of all these children and young people, \"Only slightly more than 20,000... including 11,000 Gypsies, were entered in the camp records. No more than 650 of them survived until liberation [in 1945].\"  Czesława Kwoka was one of those thousands of children who did not survive Auschwitz and among those whose \"identity photographs\", along with captions constructed from the so-called Death Books, are featured in a memorial display on a wall in Block no. 6: Exhibition: Life of the Prisoners.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Particular historical contexts of photographs of Czesława Kwoka.", "content": "After her arrival at Auschwitz, Czesława Kwoka was photographed for the Reich's concentration camp records, and she has been identified as one of the approximately 40,000 to 50,000 subjects of such \"identity pictures\" taken under duress at Auschwitz-Birkenau by Wilhelm Brasse, a young Polish inmate in his twenties (known as Auschwitz prisoner number 3444). Trained as a portrait photographer at his aunt's studio prior to the 1939 German invasion of Poland beginning World War II, Brasse and others had been ordered to photograph inmates by their Nazi captors, under dreadful camp conditions and likely imminent death if the photographers refused to comply.  These photographs that he and others were ordered to take capture each inmate \"in three poses: from the front and from each side.\" Though ordered to destroy all photographs and their negatives, Brasse became famous after the war for having helped to rescue some of them from oblivion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Auschwitz \"Identification photographs\" in memorial exhibits and photo archives.", "content": "While most of these photographs of Auschwitz inmates (both victims and survivors) are not extant, some photographs do populate memorial displays at the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, where the photographs of Kwoka reside, and at Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, Israel's official memorial to the Jewish victims of the Shoah.  Captions attached to the photographs in the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum photo archives and memorial indoor exhibits have been constructed by the Museum Exhibition Department from camp registries and other records confiscated when the camps were liberated in 1945 and archived subsequently. These Museum photo archive captions attached to photographs assembled and/or developed from photographs and negatives rescued by Brasse and fellow inmate darkroom worker Bronislaw Jureczek during 1940 to 1945 identify the inmate by name, concentration-camp prisoner number, date and place of birth, date of death and age at death (if applicable), national or ethnic identity, religious affiliation, and date of arrival in the camp. Some photographs credited to Brasse, including the \"identity picture\" with 3 poses of Kwoka, are in the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum's memorial to prisoners, part of a permanent indoor exhibit called Block no. 6: Exhibition: The Life of the Prisoners, first mounted in 1955. Kwoka's likeness is also featured by the museum's Exhibition Department on its official Website, in some of the Museum's published albums and catalogues, and in the 2005 Polish television documentary film about Brasse, \"The Portraitist\", shown on TVP1 and in numerous film festivals.  The photo mural including Kwoka's \"identity pictures\" (\"identification photographs\" or \"mug shots\") displayed on a wall in the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum's permanent indoor exhibition The Life of the Prisoners in Block no. 6 is captured in Ryszard Domasik's photograph cropped (without the photographs of Kwoka) featured on its official Website.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Brasse's memories of photographing Kwoka.", "content": "Brasse recalls his experience photographing Kwoka specifically in \"The Portraitist\", an account corroborated by BBC correspondent Fergal Keane who interviewed Brasse about his memories of taking them, in a \"Live Mag\" feature article \"Returning to Auschwitz: Photographs from Hell\", occasioned by the film's London premiere (22 April 2007), published in the \"Mail Online\" on 7 April, which does not include illustrations of these photographs of Kwoka.  As a visitor to the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum memorial exhibit in Block no. 6, Keane also describes his own impressions of the photographs of Kwoka in some detail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Art.", "content": "\"Bring[ing] Czeslawa's image and voice into our lives\", Theresa Edwards (verse) and Lori Schreiner (art) created \"Painting Czesława Kwoka\", a collaborative work of mixed media inspired by Wilhelm Brasse's photographs, as a commemoration of child victims of the Holocaust.  On the 75th Anniversary of her death, a colorized version of the photographs was published.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Czesława Kwoka (15 August 1928 – 12 March 1943) was a Polish Catholic girl who was murdered at the age of 14 in Auschwitz. One of thousands of child victims of German World War II crimes against Poles in German-occupied Poland, she is among those memorialized in an Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum exhibit, \"Block no. 6: Exhibition: The Life of the Prisoners\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977572}
{"src_title": "William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Selborne was the son of Lord Chancellor Roundell Palmer, 1st Earl of Selborne, and Lady Laura, daughter of Vice-Admiral William Waldegrave, 8th Earl Waldegrave. He was educated at Temple Grove School, Winchester and University College, Oxford, where he took a first class degree in history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1882–1910.", "content": "Selborne was assistant private secretary to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Hugh Childers, from 1882 to 1885, when he was elected Liberal Member of Parliament for East Hampshire. Like his father, he became a Liberal Unionist in 1886 when William Ewart Gladstone proposed Irish Home Rule. He retained his seat till 1892, when he was elected for Edinburgh West. In 1895 he was appointed Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies by his father-in-law Lord Salisbury, where he became junior to the Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain. During the difficult period before the outbreak of the Second Boer War he progressed rapidly.  In November 1900 Selborne was sworn of the Privy Council and made First Lord of the Admiralty under Salisbury, with a seat in the cabinet, an office he retained when Arthur Balfour became Prime Minister in 1902. In 1905 he succeeded Lord Milner as High Commissioner for Southern Africa and governor of the Transvaal and Orange River colonies. He assumed office at Pretoria in May of that year. He had gone out with the intention of guiding the destinies of South Africa during a period when the ex-Boer republics would be in a transitional state between crown colony government and self-government, and letters patent were issued granting the Transvaal representative institutions.  But the Liberal Party came into office in Britain the following December, before the new constitution had been established, and, the decision was now taken to give both the Transvaal and Orange River colonies self-government without delay. Lord Selborne accepted the changed situation, and the experiment proved successful. He ceased to be governor of the Orange River Colony on its assumption of self-government in June 1907, but retained his other posts until May 1910, retiring on the eve of the establishment of the Union of South Africa.  The despatch, dated 7 January 1907 and known as the Selborne Memorandum, in which he reviewed the situation in its economic and political aspects, was a comprehensive statement of the dangers inherent in the existing system and of the advantages likely to attend union. The document had in fact been compiled by Lionel Curtis and other members of Milner's Kindergarten. The force of its appeal had a marked influence on the course of events, while the loyalty with which Lord Selborne co-operated with the Botha administration was an additional factor in reconciling the Dutch and British communities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1910–1942.", "content": "He returned to England with his reputation, according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, \"as a statesman enhanced by the respect of all parties, and with a practical experience, second only to that of Lord Milner, of British imperialism in successful operation.\" His experience made him a valuable ally in the movement among the Unionist party at home for Tariff Reform and Colonial Preference, to which he could now give his full support.  In 1915 Selborne returned to government during the First World War when he became President of the Board of Agriculture in the war time coalition of Liberal prime minister H. H. Asquith. He resigned from Cabinet in June 1916 because of Lloyd George's handling of the botched Home Rule negotiations (May–July) and the Prime Minister's failure to bring Lloyd George to task while the negotiations were still in progress. Selborne did not hold high political office again. The Selborne Committee on Church and State from 1914 to 1916 was chaired by Lord Selborne.  Apart from his political career Selborne served as Master of the Worshipful Company of Mercers in 1910 and 1933, as his father had done before him, in 1875. In 1916 he was elected a member of the Society for Psychical Research. He was also Warden of Winchester College between 1920 and 1925 and High Steward of Winchester between 1929 and 1942. He was made a Knight of the Garter in 1909.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Selborne married Lady Maud Cecil, elder daughter of future Prime Minister Robert Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, in 1883. A Suiderberg, Pretoria district, Lady Selborne, is named after her.  They had three sons and one daughter.  His second son, the Hon. Robert Palmer, was a Captain in the Hampshire Regiment and was killed on active service in Mesopotamia in 1916. His daughter was Lady Mabel Laura Georgiana Palmer, who became Countess Grey as the wife of Charles Grey, 5th Earl Grey. His letters home were privately published as \"Letters from Mesopotamia\". Lord Selborne died in February 1942, aged 82, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Roundell, Viscount Wolmer, who had already the previous year been summoned to the House of Lords by writ of acceleration in his father's junior title of Baron Selborne. The Countess of Selborne died in April 1950.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "William Waldegrave Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne, (17 October 1859 – 26 February 1942), styled Viscount Wolmer between 1882 and 1895, was a British politician and colonial administrator, who served as High Commissioner for Southern Africa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977573}
{"src_title": "Shadowhunters", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Clary Fray has just enrolled at Brooklyn Academy of Arts. On her eighteenth birthday, she learns that she is a Shadowhunter, a human born with angelic blood who protects humans from demons and rogue downworlders. That night, Clary's mother, Jocelyn, is abducted by a group of rogue Shadowhunters called the Circle. Their leader is Jocelyn's ex-husband, Valentine Morgenstern, who is also Clary's father.  With her mother missing, Clary turns to Luke, a person she trusted, only to be betrayed. Clary joins up with a group of Shadowhunters to save her mother and discovers powers she never knew she possessed. Clary is thrown into the world of demon hunting with the mysterious, narcissistic, and attractive Shadowhunters Jace, Isabelle and Alec along with her loyal and geeky friend Simon. Now living amongst the fair folk, warlocks, vampires, and werewolves, Clary begins a journey of self-discovery as she learns more about her past and what her future may hold.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "In 2010, Screen Gems announced that they were going into production on the of \"City of Bones\", the first book in \"The Mortal Instruments\" series, with hopes of starting a successful film franchise. Production on a film adaptation of the second book, \"City of Ashes\", was due to start in September 2013, but was delayed to 2014, and eventually cancelled, after the first film failed to recoup its budget.  On October 12, 2014, at Mipcom, Constantin confirmed that \"The Mortal Instruments\" will return as a television series with Ed Decter as showrunner. Constantin Film and TV head Martin Moszkowicz told \"The Hollywood Reporter\" that, \"It actually makes sense to do [the novels] as a TV series. There was so much from the book that we had to leave out of the \"Mortal Instruments\" film. In the series we'll be able to go deeper and explore this world in greater detail and depth.\" The producers hope to adapt the entire book series if the TV adaptation proves successful. In February 2015, book series author Cassandra Clare announced via Twitter that the television series would be called \"Shadowhunters\" rather than \"The Mortal Instruments\". In March 2015, ABC Family picked up \"Shadowhunters\" straight-to-series. The series was renewed for a second season in March 2016, consisting of 20 episodes, which premiered on January 2, 2017. In April 2017, it was announced that the series was renewed for a third season of 20 episodes. The first half of ten episodes premiered on March 20, 2018. On June 4, 2018, Freeform canceled the series after three seasons, but ordered two extra episodes to properly conclude the series' story; the second half of the third season premiered on February 25, 2019.  In August 2016, soon before filming on the second season was to begin, showrunner Ed Decter exited the series over \"creative differences\". Todd Slavkin and Darren Swimmer, who were former showrunners on \"Smallville\", were announced as Decter's replacements in August 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Casting.", "content": "On Twitter, Cassandra Clare announced that she would not be part of casting decisions, and would not be expecting any of the original film cast to return. On April 20, 2015, ABC revealed Dominic Sherwood as the first member of the \"Shadowhunters\" cast. On May 1, 2015, it was announced that Emeraude Toubia would be taking the role of Isabelle Lightwood and Alberto Rosende would be joining the cast as Simon Lewis. On May 6, it was reported that Katherine McNamara landed the lead role of Clary Fray. Two days later, on May 8, Matthew Daddario and Isaiah Mustafa were cast as Alec Lightwood and Luke Garroway, respectively. Harry Shum, Jr. and Alan van Sprang later joined the cast on May 15, as Magnus Bane and Valentine Morgenstern. On May 18, it was announced that Maxim Roy would be playing Jocelyn Fray.  On May 28, Jon Cor was announced to play Hodge Starkweather, a Shadowhunter and former member of the Circle. David Castro was reported to be portraying vampire Raphael Santiago on June 4. Shortly after, on June 9, Lisa Marcos announced she would be joining the cast as Captain Vargas, a new character created for the series by Ed Decter. On June 12, producer McG's official Twitter account stated that Kaitlyn Leeb had been cast to play the vampire, Camille Belcourt. On June 16, Jade Hassouné was reported to be portraying the faerie, Meliorn. On August 8, Stephanie Bennett was cast as the new character Lydia Branwell, a rule-following Shadowhunter. On September 2, 2016, Alisha Wainwright was announced to play Maia Roberts in the second season, and soon promoted to series regular beginning on season 3.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Filming.", "content": "The series began filming in Mississauga, Canada on May 25, 2015. The fictional New York Police Department's 89 Precinct was filmed in the Science Wing at the University of Toronto Scarborough.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soundtrack.", "content": "\"Shadowhunters (Original Television Series Soundtrack)\" was released on platforms including iTunes, Spotify and Apple Music on July 21, 2017, featuring six original songs from the show. Ben Decter composed the instrumental music score for the first season. Trevor Morris and Jack Wall composed the instrumental music score for the second and third seasons. Their music was released as a soundtrack album in 2018. The opening theme song is \"This Is The Hunt\" performed by Ruelle, which was written for \"Shadowhunters\" by Maggie Eckford (Ruelle's real name) and Jeff Bowman. Other Ruelle songs have featured in the series.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Broadcast.", "content": "The series premiered on January 12, 2016, in the U.S. on Freeform. The second episode, \"The Descent into Hell Is Easy\", was released online that same day, following the premiere of the first episode. In December 2015, Netflix acquired global rights to \"Shadowhunters\", excluding the U.S., making the series available as an original series a day after the U.S. premiere, with the first episode having launched globally on January 13, 2016, and subsequent episodes having been released on a weekly basis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "The debut season of \"Shadowhunters\" received mixed responses from critics. Metacritic gave it a 45 out of 100 rating, based on 9 reviews, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Rotten Tomatoes gave the series a 44% rating, based on 25 reviews, with an average rating of 5.81/10. The site's consensus states, \"\"Shadowhunters\" boasts visual thrills and a potential-rich premise, but they're not enough to overcome the show's self-serious silliness and dull, convoluted plots.\"  According to James Poniewozik of \"The New York Times\", the series \"has its assets, especially its popular source material. But it might become more fun if it learns to enjoy being the empowerment fantasy it really is.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Shadowhunters, also known as Shadowhunters: The Mortal Instruments, is an American supernatural drama television series developed by Ed Decter, based on the popular book series \"The Mortal Instruments\" written by Cassandra Clare. It premiered in North America on Freeform on January 12, 2016. Primarily filmed in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, the series follows Clary Fray (Katherine McNamara), who finds out on her eighteenth birthday that she is not who she thinks she is, but rather comes from a long line of Shadowhunters, human-angel hybrids who hunt down demons.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977574}
{"src_title": "Arsen Pavlov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "A Russian citizen, Pavlov was born in Ukhta, Komi ASSR. It is unknown if he was an ethnic Komi. He lived in Rostov-on-Don and spent some time in the Russian army. According to a newspaper report by \"Georgian Journal\" he had serious problems with Rostov's police while working there at a car wash, since he allegedly went on a drunken joyride in a car stolen from there. In an interview, Pavlov states that he had left behind a wife and 5-year-old son in Russia before going to Ukraine, where he then remarried to 21-year-old Olena Kolenkina in Slovyansk.  According to Pavlov, he got his nickname \"Motorola\" after working with Motorola-manufactured equipment while serving for four years as a wireman in the army or due to his role as the chief radioman for the commanding officer in the marine infantry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities in Ukraine.", "content": "On 16 March 2014, he participated in protests in Kharkiv, Ukraine that called for Russia's intervention. He was caught on camera in video footage of the events by the city's internet news publisher. Calling himself 'Motorola', he became the leader of the Sparta Battalion, a pro-Russian armed group fighting in the war in Donbass against the Ukrainian government. He declared the region to be \"Russian land\".  Pavlov led his battalion in both the Battle of Ilovaisk and the Second Battle of Donetsk Airport. The government of Ukraine placed him on its wanted list for the creation of illegal paramilitary and military formations (Article 260, part 5). In February 2015, the European Union added him to its list of sanctioned individuals.  On 2 October 2014 Pavlov threatened to go to Poland after the plane of Russian defense minister was not allowed to fly over Polish airspace on 29 August 2014.  On 24 June 2016, an assassination attempt was made on him in Donetsk after he left a traumatological center when a car bomb exploded. A few cars were damaged in the area but no casualties or wounds were reported. Head of the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic (DPR) Alexander Zakharchenko condemned this attack, adding that \"to do this in the territory of a hospital where women and children walk, this crime is beyond all measures.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "War crimes.", "content": "In April 2015, the \"Kyiv Post\" released a recording in which Pavlov discussed killing fifteen Ukrainian prisoners of war. Motorola and his battalion are also accused of torturing captured Ukrainian soldiers. After Ukrainian soldier Ihor Branovytsky had been captured near Donetsk and was in custody of Pavlov's group, Pavlov is alleged to have deliberately killed the prisoner on 21 January 2015 with two headshots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "He publicly married Olena Kolenkina on 11 July 2014, in a wedding amid the war. The wedding was attended by Igor Girkin and Pavel Gubarev. In a June 2014 interview to Russian newspaper \"Zavtra\", Pavlov stated that he was already married and had a five-year-old son. He and his bride were featured in a caricature by Donetsk artist Serhiy Zakharov, who was subsequently held prisoner and tortured for several months by pro-Russian separatists.He rented an apartment in Donetsk for 2,500 hryvnias per month and owned a Lada Niva given as a gift by Russian politician Vladimir Zhirinovsky.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Arsen Pavlov was killed on 16 October 2016 by an IED explosion in his apartment's elevator in Donetsk. Pavlov's bodyguard was also killed in the blast. Donetsk People's Republic officials claimed the IED explosion was activated from a distance by a Ukrainian neo-nazi group, the self-styled \"Misanthropic Division\". The leader of the group, however, denied any involvement in the assassination. Ukrainian officials also denied the allegations, stating that Arsen Pavlov was \"lucky\" to be killed so he would not have to face justice for his crimes, further suggesting the rebel leader was likely assassinated by Russia's special forces as part of a wider purge against the early leaders of the rebel movement, pointing to the fact that about half dozen rebel commanders have been assassinated. DPR head Alexander Zakharchenko declared the killing a violation of the ceasefire and a \"declaration of war\" by Ukraine. DPR authorities declared a three-day mourning commemorating \"DPR hero, Colonel Arseny Pavlov\".  Following his death, the Ukrainian hacking group Cyber Junta disclosed information from Pavlov's phone, including personal photos and videos, legal documents, and correspondence. In the weeks leading up to his assassination, Pavlov expressed worry over a conflict with Russian officers, and believed he had become expendable. On 15 October, Pavlov instructed his wife to not trust Russian FSB agents. Shaun Walker, the Moscow correspondent of \"The Guardian\" reported that Pavlov was extremely paranoid about his security, and that it is likely that such an attack would require aid from someone within his inner circle.  The assassination of Arsen Pavlov followed a string of high-profile deaths within the ranks of Ukraine's separatists, starting with the assassination of Alexander Bednov, the leader of the \"Batman Battalion\" and Aleksey Mozgovoy, the leader of the \"Prizrak Brigade\" in May 2015. The death of Arsen Pavlov came within a month of the death of Yevgeny Zhilin, the founder of \"Oplot Battalion\", which would later form into the \"Oplot Brigade\".  Ukrainian officials have stated that Arsen Pavlov was assassinated by Russia's special forces as part of a drive to purge early separatist leaders that took part in the original insurgency of 2014, who may be charismatic but are often unpredictable. Moreover, most of the separatist leaders assassinated headed their own units, which would often engage in infighting over territory or control of the black market, suspecting that the assassinations are part of a drive to form a more uniform chain of command. Another theory behind the assassination has been that there is a drive to get rid of the first generation of rebels who were implicated in war crimes, therefore giving the separatist forces a more acceptable public face. Indeed, Amnesty International has called for an investigation into Arsen Pavlov executing 15 unarmed Ukrainian prisoners. Moreover, Arsen Pavlov's alleged war crimes have been one of the sticking points of the implementations of the Minsk II agreement, with Ukrainian authorities stating that he would not be granted amnesty. Furthermore, Arsen Pavlov was not a Ukrainian citizen, being born and raised in Russia, and serving in the Russian military during the Chechen conflict. Thus, his involvement as the leader of a Ukrainian separatist movement was pointed to as an example of Russian interference in the conflict, Ukrainian member of Parliament, Maksym Burbak claimed that the assassination may have been a ploy to replace Russian born separatist leaders with Ukrainian born ones, making the War in Donbass look more like an internal affair. Ukrainian military spokesman Andriy Lysenko suggested the assassination could be used as cover for Russian separatists to carry out terrorist attacks within Ukraine.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arsen (Arseny) Sergeyevich Pavlov (; 2 February 1983 – 16 October 2016), known by his \"nom de guerre\" Motorola (Моторо́ла), was a Russian citizen who led the Sparta Battalion, an armed group fighting the Ukrainian army, in the ongoing War in Donbass.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977575}
{"src_title": "Spirit", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The modern English word \"spirit\" comes from the Latin, but also \"spirit, soul, courage, vigor\", ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European. It is distinguished from Latin, \"soul\" (which nonetheless also derives from an Indo-European root meaning \"to breathe\", earliest form ). In Greek, this distinction exists between (), \"breath, motile air, spirit,\" and (), \"soul\" (even though the latter term, =, is also from an Indo-European root meaning \"to breathe\":, zero grade devoicing in proto-Greek to \"*phs-\", resulting in historical-period Greek in, \"to breathe\", whence, \"spirit\", \"soul\").  The word \"spirit\" came into Middle English via Old French. The distinction between soul and spirit also developed in the Abrahamic religions: Arabic () opposite (); Hebrew \"neshama\" ( ) or \"nephesh\" ( ) (in Hebrew comes from the root or \"breath\") opposite ( ). (Note, however, that in Semitic just as in Indo-European, this dichotomy has not \"always\" been as neat historically as it has come to be taken over a long period of development: Both (root ) and (root ), as well as cognate words in various Semitic languages, including Arabic, also preserve meanings involving miscellaneous air phenomena: \"breath\", \"wind\", and even \"odour\".)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "\"Spirit\" has acquired a number of meanings:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Related concepts.", "content": "Similar concepts in other languages include Greek \"pneuma\", Chinese \"Ling\" and \"hun\" (靈魂) and Sanskrit \"akasha / atman\" (see also \"prana\"). Some languages use a word for spirit often closely related (if not synonymous) to \"mind\". Examples include the German \"Geist\" (related to the English word \"ghost\") or the French \"l'esprit\". English versions of the Bible most commonly translate the Hebrew word \"ruach\" (רוח; \"wind\") as \"the spirit\", whose essence is divine.  Alternatively, Hebrew texts commonly use the word \"nephesh\". Kabbalists regard \"nephesh\" as one of the five parts of the Jewish soul, where \"nephesh\" (animal) refers to the physical being and its animal instincts. Similarly, Scandinavian, Baltic, and Slavic languages, as well as Chinese (气 \"qi\"), use the words for \"breath\" to express concepts similar to \"the spirit\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In folk belief, spirit is the vital principle or animating force within all living things. As far back as 1628 and 1633 respectively, both William Harvey and René Descartes speculated that somewhere within the body, in a special locality, there was a ‘vital spirit’ or 'vital force', which animated the whole bodily frame, such as the engine in a factory moves the machinery in it. Spirit has frequently been conceived of as a supernatural being, or non-physical entity; for example, a demon, ghost, fairy, or angel. In ancient Islamic terminology however, a \"spirit\" (\"rūḥ\"), applies only to pure spirits, but not to other invisible creatures, such as jinn, demons and angels.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977576}
{"src_title": "2024 Summer Olympics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Bidding process.", "content": "Paris, Hamburg, Budapest, Rome, and Los Angeles were the five candidate cities. However, the process was hit by withdrawals, with political uncertainty and cost cited as deterring bidding cities. Hamburg withdrew its bid on 29 November 2015 after holding a referendum. Rome withdrew on 21 September 2016 citing fiscal difficulties. On 22 February 2017, Budapest withdrew after a petition against the bid collected more signatures than necessary for a referendum.  Following these withdrawals, the IOC Executive Board met in Lausanne, Switzerland to discuss the 2024 and 2028 bid processes on 9 June 2017. The International Olympic Committee formally proposed electing the 2024 and 2028 Olympic host cities at the same time in 2017, a proposal which was approved by an Extraordinary IOC Session on 11 July 2017 in Lausanne. The IOC set up a process whereby the LA 2024 and Paris 2024 bid committees met with the IOC to discuss who would host the Games in 2024 and 2028, and whether it was possible to select the host cities for both at the same time.  Following the decision to award the two Games simultaneously, Paris was understood to be the preferred host for 2024. On 31 July 2017, the IOC announced Los Angeles as the sole candidate for 2028, enabling Paris to be confirmed as host for 2024. Both decisions were ratified at the 131st IOC Session on 13 September 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Host city election.", "content": "Paris was elected as the host city on 13 September 2017 at the 131st IOC Session in Lima, Peru. The two French IOC members, Guy Drut and Tony Estanguet were ineligible to vote under the rules of the Olympic Charter.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sports.", "content": "In 2007, the IOC established the concept of Olympics including 28 sports: 25 permanent 'core' sports with three additional sports selected for each individual Games. On 8 September 2013, IOC added wrestling to the Olympic programme for the 2020 and 2024 Games, representing one of these additional sports. FILA (now known as United World Wrestling) changed freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling weight classes for men and decreased to six categories in order to add more weights for women. However, in August 2016, the IOC added five sports to the 2020 Olympics, with plans separately to evaluate the existing 28 sports. During the 131st IOC Session in September 2017, the IOC approved the 28 sports of the Rio 2016 program for Paris 2024, while also inviting the Paris Organising Committee to submit up to five additional sports for consideration.  In August 2017, the organising committee announced that it would hold talks with the IOC and professional esports organisations about the possibility of introducing competitive video gaming in 2024. However, in July 2018, the IOC confirmed that it would not consider esports for the 2024 Olympics.  On 21 February 2019, the Paris Organising Committee announced they would propose breakdancing as a new sport, along with surfing, sport climbing, and skateboarding, which will debut at the 2020 Summer Olympics. In June, breakdancing was approved. At the 134th IOC Session in Lausanne, Switzerland, IOC members approved all four sports for inclusion for 2024, subject to final approval by the IOC Executive Board in December 2020.  The 2024 Summer Olympic programme is scheduled to feature 28 sports encompassing 319 events, though this is likely to change depending on IOC approval of additional sports in the programme. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Venues.", "content": "Most of the Olympic events will be held in and around Paris, including the suburbs of Saint-Denis, Le Bourget, Nanterre, Versailles, and Vaires-sur-Marne which is just outside the city environs. The sailing and surfing events will be held in the remote coastal resorts of Marseille and Teahupo'o respectively. Football will be hosted in various cities around France.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Participating National Olympic Committees.", "content": "On 9 December 2019, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) banned Russia from all international sport for four years, after it found that the Russian government had tampered with lab data that it provided to WADA in January 2019 as a condition of its reinstatement of the Russian Anti-Doping Agency. As at the 2018 Winter Olympics, WADA will allow individual cleared Russian athletes to compete neutrally under a title to be determined. WADA Compliance Review Committee head Jonathan Taylor stated that the IOC would not be able to use \"Olympic Athletes from Russia\" (OAR) as it did in 2018, specifically emphasizing that neutral athletes are to not to be portrayed as representing Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Concerns and controversies.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Call for hijab ban.", "content": "In February 2019, a French feminist group called on the organisers of the 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games in Paris to ban the hijab and other items of Islamic clothing during the Games, to ensure female Muslim athletes can compete free from religious restrictions. Annie Sugier, a prominent member of the group, highlighted that the Olympic Charter states no kind of \"religious propaganda\" is permitted in any Olympic sites, venues or other areas. In 2010, the French government passed a law banning full face veils such as the niqab in public, imposing fines to everyone who break the law. The law caused significant controversy and was challenged at the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), which upheld the ban in 2014. Despite the ECHR ruling, in October 2018, the United Nations Human Rights Council declared the law a violation of human rights that risked confining Muslim women to their homes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2020 COVID-19 Pandemic effect.", "content": "After the COVID-19 pandemic led to the postponement of the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo in March 2020, the head of the organising committee for the Paris Games said they would go ahead as planned in \"summer 2024\". However the devastating effects of the coronavirus in many IOC countries including France have caused speculation towards the idea of delaying the 2024 Olympics to 2025.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Broadcasting rights.", "content": "In France, domestic rights to the 2024 Summer Olympics are owned by Discovery Inc. via Eurosport, with free-to-air coverage sub-licensed to the country's public broadcaster France Télévisions.  These will be the final Olympics to be broadcast by SBS in North and South Korea, with JTBC assuming broadcast rights beginning with the 2026 Winter Olympics.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2024 Summer Olympics (), officially known as the Games of the XXXIII Olympiad (), and commonly known as Paris 2024, is a forthcoming international multi-sport event that is scheduled to take place from 26 July to 11 August 2024 in Paris, France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977577}
{"src_title": "Bigelow Expandable Activity Module", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "NASA originally considered the idea of inflatable habitats in the 1960s, and developed the TransHab inflatable module concept in the late 1990s. The TransHab project was canceled by Congress in 2000, and Bigelow Aerospace purchased the rights to the patents developed by NASA to pursue private space station designs. In 2006 and 2007, Bigelow launched two demonstration modules to Earth orbit, Genesis I and Genesis II.  NASA re-initiated analysis of expandable module technology for a variety of potential missions beginning in early 2010. Various options were considered, including procurement from commercial provider Bigelow Aerospace, for providing what in 2010 was proposed to be a torus-shaped storage module for the International Space Station. One application of the toroidal BEAM design was as a centrifuge demo preceding further developments of the NASA Nautilus-X multi-mission exploration concept vehicle. In January 2011, Bigelow projected that the BEAM module could be built and made flight-ready 24 months after a build contract was secured.  On December 20, 2012, NASA awarded Bigelow Aerospace a contract to construct the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module under NASA's Advanced Exploration Systems (AES) Program. Sierra Nevada Corporation built the $2 million Common Berthing Mechanism under a 16-month firm-fixed-price contract awarded in May 2013. NASA plans made public in mid-2013 called for a 2015 delivery of the module to the ISS. During a press event on March 12, 2015, at the Bigelow Aerospace facility in North Las Vegas, the completed ISS flight unit, compacted and with two Canadarm2 grapple fixtures attached, was displayed for the media.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deployment and status.", "content": "In early 2015, BEAM was scheduled for deployment on the next available ISS transport vehicle, SpaceX CRS-8, which was scheduled for launch in September 2015. Due to a rocket failure during the SpaceX CRS-7 launch in June 2015, the delivery of BEAM was delayed. The successful launch of SpaceX CRS-8 took place on April 8, 2016, and the Dragon cargo vehicle was berthed to the nadir port of \"Harmony\" node on April 10. On April 16, British astronaut Tim Peake extracted BEAM from Dragon's trunk using Canadarm2, and installed it on the aft port of \"Tranquility\" node.  The first attempt at module inflation took place on May 26, 2016, and was suspended after higher-than-expected air pressure inside BEAM was detected with minimal expansion of the module. The attempt was called off after two hours. The failure to expand and unfold is thought to have been the result of the unanticipated 10-month delay in module inflation, which may have caused the fabric layers to stick together. The module was expanded on May 28 over the course of seven hours, with air being injected 25 times for a total of 2 minutes 27 seconds. Its length was extended from its stowed configuration, less than expected. After expansion was complete, air tanks aboard BEAM were opened to equalize air pressure in the module with that of the ISS. The module will be monitored for two years.  On June 6, 2016, astronaut Jeff Williams and cosmonaut Oleg Skripochka opened the hatch to BEAM and entered to collect an air sample, download expansion data from sensors, and install monitoring equipment. The hatch to BEAM was re-sealed on June 8 after three days of tests. A second round of tests took place on September 29 of that same year when astronaut Kathleen Rubins entered the module to install temporary monitoring equipment.  NASA noted in May 2017 that, after spending one year in space, the BEAM instrumentation had recorded \"a few probable micrometeoroid debris impacts\" but that the module's protective layers had resisted any penetration. Early results from monitors inside the module have shown that galactic cosmic radiation levels are comparable to those in the rest of the space station. Further testing will try to characterize whether the inflatable structure is any more resilient to radiation than traditional metal modules.  In October 2017, it was announced that the module would stay attached to the ISS until 2020, with options for two further one-year extensions. The module will be used to store up to 130 cargo transfer bags in an effort to free up additional space aboard the station. The ISS crew began work in November 2017 to prepare BEAM for use as storage space.  In July 2019, an engineering assessment certified BEAM's ability to remain attached to the station until 2028, as it has exceeded performance expectations and become a core cargo storage module on the volume-constrained station. A contract extension will still be required to allow BEAM to serve out its extended operational lifetime.  At the end of BEAM's mission, it will be removed from the ISS and burn up during reentry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Objectives.", "content": "The BEAM is an experimental program in an effort to test and validate expandable habitat technology. If BEAM performs favorably, it could lead to development of expandable habitation structures for future crews traveling in deep space. The two-year demonstration period will:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Characteristics.", "content": "BEAM is composed of two metal bulkheads, an aluminum structure, and multiple layers of soft fabric with spacing between layers, protecting an internal restraint and bladder system; it has neither windows nor internal power. The module was expanded about a month after being attached by its Common Berthing Mechanism to the space station. It was inflated from its packed dimensions of long and in diameter to its pressurized dimensions of long and in diameter. The module has a mass of, and its interior pressure is, the same as inside of the ISS.  BEAM's internal dimensions provide of volume where a crew member will enter the module three to four times per year to collect sensor data, perform microbial surface sampling, conduct periodic change-out of the radiation area monitors, and inspect the general condition of the module. The hatch to the module will otherwise remain closed. Its interior is described as being \"a large closet with padded white walls\", with various equipment and sensors attached to two central supports.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Radiation shielding.", "content": "The flexible Kevlar-like materials of construction are proprietary. The multiple layers of flexible fabric and closed-cell vinyl polymer foam in the BEAM structural shell are expected to provide impact protection (see Whipple shield) as well as radiation protection, but model calculations need to be validated by actual measurements.  In a 2002 NASA study, it was suggested that materials that have high hydrogen contents, such as polyethylene, can reduce primary and secondary radiation to a greater extent than metals, such as aluminum. Vinyl polymer may also be used in laboratories and other applications for radiation shield garments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "BCSS airlock.", "content": "In 2013, Bigelow mentioned a concept to build a second BEAM module for use as an airlock on its planned Bigelow Commercial Space Station. The module's inflatable nature would provide room for up to three crew or tourists to spacewalk simultaneously, compared with a maximum of two that can operate outside the ISS.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is an experimental expandable space station module developed by Bigelow Aerospace, under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the International Space Station (ISS) from 2016 to at least 2020. It arrived at the ISS on April 10, 2016, was berthed to the station on April 16, and was expanded and pressurized on May 28, 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977578}
{"src_title": "Thomas Maclear", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "He was born in Newtownstewart, County Tyrone, Ireland, the eldest son of Rev James Maclear and Mary Magrath. In 1808 he was sent to England to be educated in the medical profession. After passing his examinations, in 1815 he was accepted into the \"Royal College of Surgeons\" of England. He then worked as house-surgeon in the Bedford Infirmary.  In 1823 he went into partnership with his uncle at Biggleswade, Bedfordshire. Two years later in 1825 he was married to Mary Pearse, the daughter of Theed Pearse, Clerk of the Peace for the county of Bedford.  Maclear had a keen interest in amateur astronomy, and would begin a long association with the Royal Astronomical Society, to which he would be named a Fellow. In 1833, when the post became vacant, he was named as Her Majesty's Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived there aboard the \"Tam O'Shanter\" with his wife and five daughters, to take up his new duties in 1834. He worked with John Herschel until 1838, performing a survey of the southern sky, and continued to perform important astronomical observations over several more decades. The Maclears and Herschels formed a close friendship, the wives drawn together by the unusual occupations of their husbands and the raising of their large families. Mary Maclear, like Margaret Herschel, was a noted beauty and intelligent, though suffering from extreme deafness. In 1750, Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille had measured a triangulation meridian arc northwards from Cape Town, to determine the figure of the earth, and found that the curvature of the earth was less in southern latitudes than at corresponding northern ones. Sir George Everest visited the Cape in 1820 and visited the site of La Caille's measurements. From his experience in the Himalayas he believed that the presence of considerable mountain masses in the Cape could have caused false measurements to be made by La Caille. Between 1841 and 1848, Maclear would be occupied in performing a geodetic survey for the purpose of recalculating the figure of the Earth (its dimensions and shape). He caused a beacon to be erected on top of Table Mountain which was used as a triangulation station for the checking of de Lacaille's calculations.  He became close friends with David Livingstone, and they shared a common interest in the exploration of Africa. He performed many other useful scientific activities, including collecting meteorological, magnetic and tide data.  In 1861 his wife died. Two years later he was granted a pension, but did not retire from the observatory until 1870. He lived thereafter at Grey Villa, Mowbray. By 1876, he had lost his sight, and he died three years later in Cape Town, South Africa. He is buried next to his wife in the grounds of the Royal Observatory.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sir Thomas Maclear (17 March 1794 – 14 July 1879) was an Irish-born South African astronomer who became Her Majesty's astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977579}
{"src_title": "Victor Bulwer-Lytton, 2nd Earl of Lytton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born in Simla in British India on 9 August 1876, during the time when his father was Viceroy of India. Lytton was the fourth, but eldest surviving, son of Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton and Edith Villiers, daughter of Edward Ernest Villiers and granddaughter of George Villiers. His six siblings were Edward Rowland John Bulwer-Lytton (who died young), Lady Elizabeth Edith \"Betty\" Bulwer-Lytton (wife of Gerald Balfour, 2nd Earl of Balfour, the brother of the future Prime Minister Arthur Balfour), Lady Constance Bulwer-Lytton (a prominent suffragette), Henry Meredith Edward Bulwer-Lytton (who died young), Lady Emily Bulwer-Lytton (who married architect Edwin Lutyens), and Neville Bulwer-Lytton, 3rd Earl of Lytton.  He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was secretary of the University Pitt Club. In 1905 he was President of the Edinburgh Sir Walter Scott Club and gave the Toast to Sir Walter at the club's annual dinner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Lytton started off his official career by filling up various posts in the Admiralty between 1916 and 1920, before being appointed Under-Secretary of State for India, a post which he held between 1920 and 1922. He was also made a Privy Counsellor in 1919. On 16 February 1922 he was posted as Governor of Bengal, remaining there until 3 March 1927.  For a short while, when there was a vacancy caused by change in incumbents in 1926, he also functioned as Viceroy, his father's old post. After this he filled miscellaneous positions in various capacities, when matters concerning India came up. He wrote two books, the first being a life of his grandfather Lord Lytton, while the other book dealt with his experiences in India and was called \"Pundits and Elephants\", published in 1942. He was made a Knight of the Garter in 1933.  Lytton is best known for his chairmanship of the Lytton Commission, which was sent by the League of Nations on a fact-finding mission to determine who was to blame in the 1931 war between Japan and China. The commission's Lytton Report, officially issued on 1 October 1932, blames Japanese aggression. In response Japan withdrew from the League of Nations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "On 3 April 1902, Lord Lytton was married to Pamela Chichele-Plowden (1874–1971) at St Margaret's, Westminster. Pamela was a daughter of Sir Trevor Chichele Plowden and Millicent Frances Foster (eldest daughter of Gen. Sir Charles John Foster KCB). Her elder brother was Alfred Chichele Plowden. She had been an early flame of Winston Churchill, but that relationship was amicably broken off when she decided to marry Lytton instead. Together, the couple were the parents of two sons, both of whom predeceased Lytton, and two daughters:  Lord Lytton died in October 1947, aged 71. As neither of his sons had left a son, Lytton's titles were inherited upon his death by his younger brother Neville Bulwer-Lytton. Knebworth House passed to his daughter Lady Hermione Cobbold.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Victor Alexander George Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 2nd Earl of Lytton, (9 August 1876 – 25 October 1947), styled Viscount Knebworth from 1880 to 1891, was a British politician and colonial administrator. He served as Governor of Bengal between 1922 and 1927 and was briefly Acting Viceroy of India in 1926. He headed the Lytton Commission for the League of Nations, in 1931-32, producing the Lytton Report which condemned Japanese aggression against China in Manchuria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977580}
{"src_title": "Linux-libre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Linux kernel started to include binary blobs in 1996. The work to clear out the binary blobs began in 2006 with gNewSense's find-firmware and gen-kernel. This work was taken further by the BLAG Linux distribution in 2007 when deblob and Linux-libre was born.  Linux-libre was first released by the Free Software Foundation Latin America (FSFLA), then endorsed by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) as a valuable component for the totally free Linux distributions. It became a GNU package on March 2012. Alexandre Oliva is the project maintainer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Proprietary firmware removal.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Methods.", "content": "The removal process is achieved by using a script called \"deblob-main\". This script is inspired by the one used for gNewSense. Jeff Moe made subsequent modifications to meet certain requirements for its use with the BLAG Linux and GNU distribution. There is another script called \"deblob-check\", which is used to check if a kernel source file, a patch or a compressed sources file still contains software which is suspected of being proprietary.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Benefits.", "content": "Aside from the primary intended effect of running a system with only free software, the practical consequences of removing device firmware that a user is not allowed to study or modify has both positive and negative effects.  Removal of device firmware can be considered an advantage for security and stability, when the firmware cannot be audited for bugs, for security problems, and for malicious operations such as backdoors), or when the firmware cannot be fixed by the Linux kernel maintainers themselves, even if they know of problems. It is possible for the entire system to be compromised by a malicious firmware, and without the ability to perform a security audit on manufacturer-provided firmware, even an innocent bug could undermine the safety of the running system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Side effects.", "content": "The downside of removing proprietary firmware from the kernel is that it will cause loss of functionality of certain hardware that does not have a free software replacement available. This affects certain sound, video, TV tuner, and network (especially wireless) cards, as well as some other devices. When possible, free software replacement firmware is provided as a substitute, such as the openfwwf for b43, carl9170 and ath9k_htc wireless card drivers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Availability.", "content": "The source code and precompiled packages of the deblobbed Linux kernel are available directly from the distributions which use the Linux-libre scripts. Freed-ora is a subproject which prepares and maintains RPM packages based on Fedora. There are also precompiled packages for Debian and derived distributions such as Ubuntu.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distributions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distributions in which Linux-libre is the default kernel.", "content": "Historical", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distributions that compile a free Linux kernel.", "content": "These distros don't use the packaged Linux-libre but instead completely deblob the proprietary Linux kernel with some of the tools to make Linux-libre. The source is then compiled and the resulting free Linux kernel is used by default in these systems:  Historical", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Linux-libre as an alternative kernel.", "content": "Distributions in which Linux is the default kernel used and which propose Linux-libre as an alternative kernel:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Linux-libre () is an operating system kernel and a GNU package. The GNU Project attempts to keep Linux-libre in synchronization with upstream development of the Linux kernel while removing any software that does not include its source code, has its source code obfuscated, or is released under a proprietary license.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977581}
{"src_title": "HLA-G", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Function.", "content": "HLA-G may play a role in immune tolerance in pregnancy, being expressed in the placenta by extravillous trophoblast cells (EVT), while the classical MHC class I genes (HLA-A and HLA-B) are not. As HLA-G was first identified in placenta samples, many studies have evaluated its role in pregnancy disorders, such as preeclampsia and recurrent pregnancy loss. Its downregulation is related to HLA-A and -B downregulation results in protection from cytotoxic T cell responses, but would in theory result in a \"missing self\" response by natural killer cells. HLA-G is a ligand for NK cell inhibitory receptor KIR2DL4, and therefore expression of this HLA by the trophoblast defends it against NK cell-mediated death.  However, a large family with several members bearing only \"null\" HLA-G alleles has been found. None of these homozygous subjects have pregnancy or birth difficulties; nor do they present immunodeficiencies, autoimmune diseases, or tumors. It is striking that this \"null\" allele (HLA-G*01:05N), while it is quite frequent in some populations, like in Iranians, it is almost absent in some Amerindian populations. Also, some higher primates do not show all MHC-G isoforms. In addition, Cercopithecinae middle-sized Old World monkeys do not bear full MHC-G molecules since all of these monkeys present stop codons at MHC-G DNA. All of these anomalies must be studied.  The presence of soluble HLA-G (sHLA-G) in embryos is associated with better pregnancy rates. In order to optimize pregnancy rates, there is significant evidence that a morphological scoring system is the best strategy for the selection of embryos. However, presence of soluble HLA-G might be considered as a second parameter if a choice has to be made between embryos of morphologically equal quality.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interactions.", "content": "HLA-G has been shown to interact with CD8A.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "HLA-G histocompatibility antigen, class I, G, also known as human leukocyte antigen G (HLA-G), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the \"HLA-G\" gene.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977582}
{"src_title": "Elasticsearch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Shay Banon created the precursor to Elasticsearch, called Compass, in 2004. While thinking about the third version of Compass he realized that it would be necessary to rewrite big parts of Compass to \"create a scalable search solution\". So he created \"a solution built from the ground up to be distributed\" and used a common interface, JSON over HTTP, suitable for programming languages other than Java as well. Shay Banon released the first version of Elasticsearch in February 2010.  Elastic NV was founded in 2012 to provide commercial services and products around Elasticsearch and related software. In June 2014, the company announced raising $70 million in a Series C funding round, just 18 months after forming the company. The round was led by New Enterprise Associates (NEA). Additional funders include Benchmark Capital and Index Ventures. This round brought total funding to $104M.  In March 2015, the company \"Elasticsearch\" changed their name to \"Elastic\".  In June 2018, Elastic filed for an initial public offering with an estimated valuation of between 1.5 and 3 billion dollars. On 5 October 2018, Elastic was listed on the New York Stock Exchange.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "Elasticsearch can be used to search all kinds of documents. It provides scalable search, has near real-time search, and supports multitenancy. \"Elasticsearch is distributed, which means that indices can be divided into shards and each shard can have zero or more replicas. Each node hosts one or more shards, and acts as a coordinator to delegate operations to the correct shard(s). Rebalancing and routing are done automatically\". Related data is often stored in the same index, which consists of one or more primary shards, and zero or more replica shards. Once an index has been created, the number of primary shards cannot be changed.  Elasticsearch is developed alongside a data collection and log-parsing engine called Logstash, an analytics and visualisation platform called Kibana, and Beats, a collection of lightweight data shippers. The four products are designed for use as an integrated solution, referred to as the \"Elastic Stack\" (formerly the \"ELK stack\").  Elasticsearch uses Lucene and tries to make all its features available through the JSON and Java API. It supports facetting and percolating, which can be useful for notifying if new documents match for registered queries. Another feature is called \"gateway\" and handles the long-term persistence of the index; for example, an index can be recovered from the gateway in the event of a server crash. Elasticsearch supports real-time GET requests, which makes it suitable as a NoSQL datastore, but it lacks distributed transactions.  On 20 May 2019, Elastic made the core security features of the Elastic Stack available free of charge, including TLS for encrypted communications, file and native realm for creating and managing users, and role-based access control for controlling user access to cluster APIs and indexes. The corresponding source code is available under the “Elastic License”, a source-available license. In addition, Elasticsearch now offers SIEM and Machine Learning as part of its offered services.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Managed services.", "content": "Developed from the Found acquisition by Elastic in 2015, Elastic Cloud is a family of Elasticsearch-powered SaaS offerings which include the Elasticsearch Service, as well as Elastic App Search Service, and Elastic Site Search Service which were developed from Elastic’s acquisition of Swiftype. In late 2017, Elastic formed partnerships with Google to offer Elastic Cloud in GCP, and Alibaba to offer Elasticsearch and Kibana in Alibaba Cloud.  Elasticsearch Service on Elastic Cloud is the official hosted and managed Elasticsearch and Kibana offering from the creators of the project since August 2018 Elasticsearch Service users can create secure deployments with partners, Google Cloud Platform (GCP) and Alibaba Cloud.  AWS offers Elasticsearch as a managed service since 2015. Such managed services provide hosting, deployment, backup and other support. Most managed services also include support for Kibana.  Elasticsearch is the basis of Pangeanic's contribution to the EU's Marie Curie research project \"EXPERT\" called ActivaTM. Pangeanic built a bilingual database compatible with Computer-Assisted Translation tools, which could offer real-time access via API from a variety of tools. The project received further funding from the EU as the National and European Central Translation Memory project under the Connecting Europe Facility (CEF) programme. NEC TM aims to centralise national translation assets in all the EU's Member States so countries can re-use bilingual translation data produced as a result of public procurement contracts.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elasticsearch is a search engine based on the Lucene library. It provides a distributed, multitenant-capable full-text search engine with an HTTP web interface and schema-free JSON documents. Elasticsearch is developed in Java. Following an open-core business model, parts of the software are licensed under various open-source licenses (mostly the Apache License), while other parts fall under the proprietary (\"source-available\") \"Elastic License\". Official clients are available in Java,.NET (C#), PHP, Python, Apache Groovy, Ruby and many other languages. According to the DB-Engines ranking, Elasticsearch is the most popular enterprise search engine followed by Apache Solr, also based on Lucene.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977583}
{"src_title": "Reptilian conspiracy theory", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Michael Barkun, professor of political science at Syracuse University, posits that the idea of a reptilian conspiracy originated in the fiction of Conan the Barbarian creator Robert E. Howard. The first appearance of \"serpent men\" in literature was in Howard's story \"The Shadow Kingdom\", published in \"Weird Tales\" in August 1929. This story drew on theosophical ideas of the \"lost worlds\" of Atlantis and Lemuria, particularly Helena Blavatsky's \"The Secret Doctrine\" written in 1888, with its reference to dragon-men' who once had a mighty civilization on a Lemurian continent\".  Howard's \"serpent men\" were described as humanoids (with human bodies and snake heads) who were able to imitate humans at will, and who lived in underground passages and used their shapechanging and mind-control abilities to infiltrate humanity. Clark Ashton Smith used Howard's \"serpent men\" in his stories, as well as themes from H. P. Lovecraft, and he, Howard and Lovecraft together laid the basis for the Cthulhu Mythos.  In the 1940s, Maurice Doreal (also known as Claude Doggins) wrote a pamphlet entitled \"Mysteries of the Gobi\" that described a \"serpent race\" with \"bodies like man but...heads...like a great snake\" and an ability to take human form. These creatures also appeared in Doreal's poem \"The Emerald Tablets\", in which he referred to Emerald Tablets written by \"Thoth, an Atlantean Priest king\". Barkun asserts that \"in all likelihood\", Doreal's ideas came from \"The Shadow Kingdom\", and that in turn, \"The Emerald Tablets\" formed the basis for David Icke's book, \"Children of the Matrix\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alien abduction.", "content": "Alien abduction narratives sometimes allege contact with reptilian creatures. One of the earliest reports was that of Ashland, Nebraska police officer Herbert Schirmer (born 1945), who under hypnosis recalled being taken aboard a UFO in 1967 by humanoid beings with a slightly reptilian appearance, who wore a \"winged serpent\" emblem on the left side of their chests. Skeptics consider his claims to be a hoax.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "David Icke.", "content": "According to British conspiracy theorist David Icke, who first published on this theme in his 1999 work \"The Biggest Secret\", tall, blood-drinking, shape-shifting reptilian humanoids from the Alpha Draconis star system, now hiding in underground bases, are the force behind a worldwide conspiracy against humanity. He contends that most of the world's ancient and modern leaders are related to these reptilians, including the Merovingian dynasty, the Rothschilds, the Bush family and the British Royal family. Icke's conspiracy theories now have supporters in up to 47 countries and he has given lectures to crowds of up to 6,000. American writer Vicki Santillano included it in her list of the 10 most popular conspiracy theories, describing it as the \"wackiest theory\" she had encountered.  A poll of Americans in 2013 by Public Policy Polling indicated that 4% of registered voters (±2.8%) believed in David Icke's ideas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "In the closely fought 2008 U.S. Senate election in Minnesota between comedian and commentator Al Franken and incumbent Senator Norm Coleman, one of the ballots challenged by Coleman included a vote for Franken with \"Lizard People\" written in the space provided for write-in candidates. Lucas Davenport, who later claimed to have written the gag ballot, said, \"I don't know if you've heard the conspiracy theory about the Lizard Men; a friend of mine, we didn't like the candidates, so we were at first going to write in'revolution', because we thought that was good and to the point. And then, we thought 'the Lizard People' would be even funnier.\"  \"Evil reptilian kitten-eater from another planet\" was a pejorative used to refer to then Ontario Liberal Party opposition leader Dalton McGuinty in a press release disseminated by the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario on September 12, 2003, during the provincial election campaign in Ontario, Canada.  In February 2011, on the \"Opie and Anthony\" radio show, the comedian Louis C.K. jokingly asked former U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld a number of times if he and Dick Cheney were lizard people who enjoyed the taste of human flesh. Amused by Rumsfeld's refusal to directly answer the question, C.K. suggested it as a possible admission of guilt. He went on to further muse that perhaps those who are lizard people cannot lie about it; when asked if they are lizards, they either have to avoid answering the question or say yes.  On March 4, 2013, a video depicting a security agent with unusual features guarding a speech by U.S. President Barack Obama was spotlighted in a \"Wired\" report about shapeshifting reptilian humanoids, leading to a tongue-in-cheek response from chief National Security Council spokeswoman Caitlin Hayden that \"any alleged program to guard the president with aliens or robots would likely have to be scaled back or eliminated in the sequester\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Reptilians (also called reptoids, lizard people, reptiloids, saurians, draconians) are purported reptilian humanoids that play a prominent role in fantasy, science fiction, ufology, and conspiracy theories. The idea of reptilians was popularised by David Icke, a conspiracy theorist who claims shape-shifting reptilian aliens control Earth by taking on human form and gaining political power to manipulate human societies. Icke has stated on multiple occasions that many world leaders are, or are possessed by, so-called reptilians.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977584}
{"src_title": "2016 FIFA Club World Cup", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Host bids.", "content": "The application process for the 2015–16 as well as the 2017–18 editions, i.e. two hosts, each hosting two years, began in February 2014. Member associations interested in hosting had to submit a declaration of interest by 30 March 2014, and provide the complete set of bidding documents by 25 August 2014. The FIFA Executive Committee was to select the hosts at their meeting in Morocco in December 2014. However, no such decision regarding the 2015–2016 host was made until 2015.  The following countries expressed an interest in bidding to host the tournament: Japan was officially confirmed as hosts of the 2015 and 2016 tournaments on 23 April 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Venues.", "content": "On 9 June 2016, Suita City Football Stadium in Osaka and International Stadium Yokohama in Yokohama were named as the two venues of the tournament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Match officials.", "content": "The appointed match officials were:  Video assistant referees were tested during the tournament. The system was used for the first time when a penalty was awarded by referee Viktor Kassai in the first half of the semi-final between Atlético Nacional and Kashima Antlers after a review of video replay.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Squads.", "content": "Each team had to name a 23-man squad (three of whom must be goalkeepers). Injury replacements were allowed until 24 hours before the team's first match. The official squads (excluding the host team, who was yet to be determined) were announced on 1 December 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Matches.", "content": "The schedule of the tournament was announced on 15 July 2016.  A draw was held on 21 September 2016, 11:00 CEST (), at the FIFA headquarters in Zürich, Switzerland, to determine the positions in the bracket for the three teams which enter the quarter-finals.  If a match was tied after normal playing time:  On 18 March 2016, the FIFA Executive Committee agreed that the competition would be part of the International Football Association Board's trial to allow a fourth substitute to be made during extra time.  All times are local, JST ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2016 FIFA Club World Cup (officially known as the FIFA Club World Cup Japan 2016 presented by Alibaba YunOS Auto for sponsorship reasons) was the 13th edition of the FIFA Club World Cup, a FIFA-organised international club football tournament between the winners of the six continental confederations, as well as the host nation's league champions. The tournament was hosted by Japan. Real Madrid won their second Club World Cup, defeating hosts Kashima Antlers in the final.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977585}
{"src_title": "Aleix Vidal", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born in Valls, Tarragona, Catalonia, and raised in neighbouring Puigpelat, Vidal started his career as a forward. He signed for Espanyol in 2007 to further his development after having already made his senior debut with Reus, but never appeared for the former's first team, finishing his only senior season with the club on loan to Panthrakikos from Greece.  On 31 August 2009, Vidal moved to Segunda División side Gimnàstic de Tarragona, but spent the vast majority of the season with Pobla de Mafumet, the farm team. He joined Mallorca in the middle of 2010, being assigned to the reserves in Segunda División B.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Almería.", "content": "In mid-June 2011, after suffering relegation, Vidal joined another reserve team also in that tier, Almería B. He made his debut for the Andalusians' main squad on 27 August 2011, against Córdoba. Shortly after, he was promoted to the first team and received the No. 8 jersey following the departure of Albert Crusat to Wigan Athletic.  In his second season, Vidal scored four goals in 37 games – 30 starts, nearly 2,600 minutes of action – helping to a return to La Liga after two years. On 6 August 2013, he renewed his link with Almería until 2017, making his top flight debut on 19 August by starting in a 2–3 home loss to Villarreal, and scored his first goal roughly a month later, in a 2–4 defeat at Atlético Madrid.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sevilla.", "content": "On 16 June 2014, Vidal signed with Sevilla for a €3 million fee, penning a four-year contract. He made his competitive debut on 12 August in the 2014 UEFA Super Cup at the Cardiff City Stadium, playing 66 minutes before being substituted for fellow debutant Iago Aspas in a 0–2 defeat to Real Madrid; he found the net on his league debut 11 days later, opening the scoring in a 1–1 home draw against Valencia.  On 7 May 2015, in a game in which he featured as right back until Coke entered the field in the 58th minute – he was often used by manager Unai Emery in that position during the campaign– Vidal scored twice and also provided an assist to Kevin Gameiro, in a 3–0 home win over Fiorentina for the semi-finals of the UEFA Europa League. He started in the final 20 days later, a 3–2 victory over Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk in Warsaw.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Barcelona.", "content": "On 7 June 2015, Vidal signed a five-year contract with Barcelona, for an €18 million fee plus four in add-ons. He underwent a medical on the following day, being also officially presented. Due to an embargo placed on the club by FIFA for breaking rules on signing under-age foreign players, he was not permitted to appear in competitive games until January 2016.  Vidal made his official debut for the \"Blaugrana\" on 6 January 2016, replacing Dani Alves midway through the second half of a 4–1 home win over former club Espanyol for the season's Copa del Rey. Subsequently, he was completely ostracized by manager Luis Enrique.  On 14 January 2017, profiting from the absence of habitual starting right-back Sergi Roberto, Vidal opened his league account for Barcelona, contributing to a 5–0 success over Las Palmas at the Camp Nou. On 11 February, in the last minutes of a 6–0 away win against Alavés, he dislocated his ankle following a challenge by Theo Hernandez, being ruled out for the rest of the campaign.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Sevilla.", "content": "On 4 August 2018, Vidal returned to Sevilla for a fee of €8.5 million plus 2 million in variables. However, he struggled to settle in the first team, being also deemed surplus to requirements by new manager Julen Lopetegui in July 2019.  On 28 July 2019, Vidal was loaned out to fellow top tier club Alavés in a season-long deal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Vidal made his debut for Catalonia on 30 December 2013, playing the second half of a 4–1 win over Cape Verde at the Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys. On 26 May 2015, he and Sevilla teammate Sergio Rico were the two players called up to the Spanish national team for the first time, ahead of a friendly against Costa Rica and a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying match against Belarus. He made his debut in the 2–1 victory against the former at the \"Estadio Reino de León\", playing the entire first half before being substituted for his former Sevilla partner Vitolo.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Sevilla  Barcelona", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Aleix Vidal Parreu (born 21 August 1989) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays for Alavés on loan from Sevilla. Mainly a right-back and a player of great speed, he can also operate as a right winger.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977586}
{"src_title": "Godot (game engine)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Godot aims to offer a fully integrated game development environment. It allows developers to create a game from scratch, needing no other tools beyond those used for content creation (art assets, music, etc). The engine's architecture is built around the concept of a tree of nested \"scenes\". All game resources, including scripts and graphical assets, are saved as part of the computer's file system (rather than in a database). This storage solution is intended to facilitate collaboration between game development teams using software version control systems.  The engine supports deployment to multiple platforms and allows specification of texture compression and resolution settings for each platform. Currently, supported platforms include Linux, macOS, Windows, BSD, Android, iOS, BlackBerry 10, HTML5, and WebAssembly. There is also Windows Runtime (WinRT) and Universal Windows Platform (UWP) support.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scripting.", "content": "Games using Godot can be created with a variety of programming languages including C++, C#, and any other language with GDNative bindings such as Rust, Nim, and D.  Godot also has its own built-in scripting language, GDScript, a high-level, dynamically typed programming language very similar to Python. Unlike Python, GDScript features strict typing of variables and is optimized for Godot's scene-based architecture. Godot's developers have stated that many alternative third-party scripting languages such as Lua, Python, and Squirrel were tested before deciding that using a custom language allowed for superior optimization and editor integration. The engine also supports visual coding via its own built-in visual programming language VisualScript.  Godot includes a script editor with auto indentation, syntax highlighting and code completion. It also features a debugger with the ability to set breakpoints and program stepping.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rendering.", "content": "Godot's graphics engine uses OpenGL ES 3.0 for all supported platforms; otherwise, OpenGL ES 2.0 is used. Future support for Vulkan is being developed. The engine supports normal mapping, specularity, dynamic shadows using shadow maps, and full-screen post-processing effects like bloom, DOF, HDR, and gamma correction. A simplified shader language, similar to GLSL, is also incorporated. Shaders can be used for materials and post-processing. Alternatively, they can be created by manipulating nodes in a visual editor.  Godot also includes a separate 2D graphics engine that can operate independently of the 3D engine. The 2D engine supports features such as lights, shadows, shaders, tile sets, parallax scrolling, polygons, animations, physics and particles. It is also possible to mix 2D and 3D using a 'viewport node'.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other features.", "content": "Godot contains an animation system with a GUI for skeletal animation, blending, animation trees, morphing, and real-time cutscenes. Almost any variable defined or created-on-a-game entity can be animated. The engine uses Bullet for 3D physics simulation.  Additional features include:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Godot's development was started by Juan'reduz' Linietsky and Ariel 'punto' Manzur in 2007. Linietsky stated in a presentation that the name \"Godot\" was chosen due to its relation to Samuel Beckett's play \"Waiting for Godot\", as it represents the never-ending wish of adding new features in the engine, which would get it closer to an exhaustive product, but never will. In February 2014, the source code for Godot was released to the public on GitHub under the MIT License.  On 15 December 2014, Godot reached version 1.0, marking the first stable release and the addition of lightmapping, navmesh support, and more shaders. Version 1.1 was released on 21 May 2015, adding improved auto-completion in the code editor, a visual shader editor, a new API to the operating system for managing screens and windows, a rewritten 2D engine, new 2D navigation polygon support, a much improved Blender Collada exporter, and a new dark theme. The then-new 2D engine included shaders, materials, independent Z ordering per node, lights, shadows with polygonal occluders, normal mapping, and distance-field font support. Godot joined the Software Freedom Conservancy on 4 November 2015.  Godot 2.0 was released on 23 February 2016. New features included better scene instancing and inheritance, a new file system browser, multiple scene editing, and an enhanced debugger. This was followed by version 2.1 in August 2016, which introduced an asset database, profiler, and plugin API.  On 22 June 2016, Godot received a $20,000 Mozilla Open Source Support (MOSS) “Mission Partners” award to be used to add WebSockets, WebAssembly and WebGL 2.0 support. Later, with Miguel de Icaza's support, Godot received a $24,000 donation from Microsoft to implement C# as a scripting language in Godot.  Version 3.0 was released on 29 January 2018, adding a brand new PBR renderer implemented inOpenGL ES 3.0, virtual reality compatibility, and C# support (via Mono). Version 3.0 also replaced the engine's built-in 3D physics back end with the Bullet physics engine and was the first version of Godot to be included in Debian.  On 3 February 2020, Godot received a $250,000 Epic Games award to improve graphics rendering and the engine's built-in game development language, GDScript.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage.", "content": "Many games by OKAM Studio have been made using Godot, including \"Dog Mendonça & Pizza Boy\", which uses the Escoria adventure game extension. Additionally, it has been used in West Virginia's high school curriculum, due to its ease-of-use for non-programmers and what is described as a \"wealth of learning materials that already exist for the software\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Godot is a 2D and 3D, cross-platform, free and open-source game engine released under the MIT license. It was initially developed for several companies in Latin America prior to its public release. The development environment runs on multiple operating systems including Linux, macOS, and Windows. Godot can create games targeting PC, mobile, and web platforms.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977587}
{"src_title": "Propositional attitude", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Issues.", "content": "In logic, the formal properties of verbs like \"assert\", \"believe\", \"command\", \"consider\", \"deny\", \"doubt\", \"imagine\", \"judge\", \"know\", \"want\", \"wish\", and a host of others that involve attitudes or intentions toward propositions are notorious for their recalcitrance to analysis. (Quine 1956).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Indiscernibility of identicals.", "content": "One of the fundamental principles governing identity is that of \"substitutivity\", also known as fungibility — or, as it might well be called, that of \"indiscernibility of identicals\". It provides that, \"given a true statement of identity, one of its two terms may be substituted for the other in any true statement and the result will be true\". It is easy to find cases contrary to this principle. For example, the statements:  are true; however, replacement of the name 'Giorgione' by the name 'Barbarelli' turns (2) into the falsehood: Quine's example here refers to Giorgio Barbarelli's sobriquet \"Giorgione\", an Italian name roughly glossed as \"Big George.\" The basis of the paradox here is that while the two names signify the same individual (the meaning of the first statement), the names are not themselves identical; the second statement refers to an attribute (origin) that they do not share.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "What sort of name shall we give to verbs like 'believe' and 'wish' and so forth? I should be inclined to call them 'propositional verbs'. This is merely a suggested name for convenience, because they are verbs which have the \"form\" of relating an object to a proposition. As I have been explaining, that is not what they really do, but it is convenient to call them propositional verbs. Of course you might call them 'attitudes', but I should not like that because it is a psychological term, and although all the instances in our experience are psychological, there is no reason to suppose that all the verbs I am talking of are psychological. There is never any reason to suppose that sort of thing. (Russell 1918, 227). What a proposition is, is one thing. How we feel about it, or how we regard it, is another. We can accept it, assert it, believe it, command it, contest it, declare it, deny it, doubt it, enjoin it, exclaim it, expect it. Different attitudes toward propositions are called \"propositional attitudes\", and they are also discussed under the headings of \"intentionality\" and \"linguistic modality\".  Many problematic situations in real life arise from the circumstance that many different propositions in many different modalities are in the air at once. In order to compare propositions of different colours and flavours, as it were, we have no basis for comparison but to examine the underlying propositions themselves. Thus we are brought back to matters of language and logic. Despite the name, propositional attitudes are not regarded as psychological attitudes proper, since the formal disciplines of linguistics and logic are concerned with nothing more concrete than what can be said in general about their formal properties and their patterns of interaction.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A propositional attitude is a mental state held by an agent toward a proposition. Linguistically, propositional attitudes are denoted by a verb (e.g. \"believed\") governing an embedded \"that\" clause, for example, 'Sally believed that she had won'.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977588}
{"src_title": "Główny Szlak Sudecki", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Towns and landmarks on the trail.", "content": "The trail starts in Świeradów Zdrój in the Jizera Mountains. In Szklarska Poręba it enters Karkonosze, the highest mountain range on its way. For the next 20 km it merges with the Polish - Czech Friendship Trail at Szrenica and runs on the main ridge along Polish and Czech border, to reach its culminating point, the highest peak in the Sudetes - Śnieżka. The path then descends to Karpacz and leads through another mountain range - Rudawy Janowickie. Having passed Krzeszów, the Stone Mountains and Owl Mountains the trail enters the area of the Kłodzko Valley and runs along the ridge of the Table Mountains with its reserves, spas such as Polanica-Zdrój, Duszniki-Zdrój and Kudowa-Zdrój and the Table Mountains National Park, one of the youngest national parks in Poland. Then it inclines to the north to run through the Śnieżnik Mountains, the second highest point on the route, then along the Golden Mountains. The trail finishes in Paczków, although for several years there has been a detached part in Prudnik (Opawskie Mountains).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tourism and hiking.", "content": "The trail is accessible the whole year, although parts of it may be closed in winter due to the possibility of avalanches (Karkonosze) as well as dangerous marshes (Table Mountains). It does not involve any kind of advanced climbing, neither the mountain ranges are steep; nevertheless the long-distance hiking requires advance preparations. In the most difficult parts climbing aids are provided. The trail has numerous junctions with other trails and public paths In Karkonosze it is accessible through chairlifts from both the Polish and Czech sides.  There are many mountain huts and small hotels, especially in the western and middle parts, although some of them offer only common sleeping rooms and refreshments. Polish mountain huts are obliged to overnight each person who is not able to find any other place before sunset or in an emergency. Booking in advance is recommended. Most of the huts are run by the PTTK (Polish National Tourist Society). Refreshments and organised forms of catering are available on each part of the trail, although it is recommended to bring one's own food.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Główny Szlak Sudecki (full name Główny Szlak Sudecki im. Mieczysława Orłowicza, which means \"Mieczysław Orłowicz Main Sudetes Trail\" in Polish) is a public hiking trail in Poland running along the Sudetes. The total length of this route is 350 km and the approximate time to cover it varies between 87 and 90 hours. The trail was constructed in 1947 and throughout its history has been several times modified. It is blazed red.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977589}
{"src_title": "Jussie Smollett", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jussie Smollett was born in Santa Rosa, California, the third of six children of Janet ( Harris) and Joel Smollett (1956–2014). He has three brothers and two sisters: Jake, Jocqui, Jojo, Jurnee, and Jazz, several of whom are also actors. Smollett is biracial; his mother is African-American and his father was a Jewish man whose family emigrated from Russia and Poland. He has said that his father would \"kill you if you called him white\". His father was absent from his life for a significant portion of his childhood. He graduated from Paramus Catholic High School in Paramus, New Jersey. Smollett told his parents he was gay when he was 19.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Smollett began his acting career as a child, appearing in the films \"The Mighty Ducks\" (1992) and Rob Reiner's \"North\" (1994). On television, he starred alongside his five real-life siblings in the short-lived ABC sitcom \"On Our Own\" in 1994–1995. In 2012, Smollett returned to acting with the leading role in Patrik-Ian Polk's LGBT-themed comedy-drama \"The Skinny\". Also that year, he released an EP titled \"The Poisoned Hearts Club\". He later guest-starred in \"The Mindy Project\" (2012) and \"Revenge\" (2014).  In 2014, Smollett was cast as Jamal Lyon—a gay musician struggling to gain the approval of his father Lucious—opposite Taraji P. Henson and Terrence Howard in the Fox drama series \"Empire\". His role was hailed as \"groundbreaking\" for its positive depiction of a black gay man on television. Smollett reprised his role in subsequent seasons, and directed an episode of the fourth season in 2017. Smollett’s character was removed from the final two episodes of season five because of the assault controversy.  In February 2015, Smollett confirmed that he had signed a recording contract with Columbia Records and would be releasing an album in the future. Smollett co-wrote the songs \"I Wanna Love You\" and \"You're So Beautiful\" on the \"\" album, which was released in March 2015.  In June 2015, it was announced that Smollett would guest-star alongside his younger sister Jurnee in \"Underground\", which aired in 2016. Smollett released his debut album, \"Sum of My Music\", in March 2018. \"Sum of My Music\" is an R&B album that features elements of electronic music and hip hop. Smollett self-released it through his own label, Music of Sound.  On April 30, 2019, it was announced that although Fox Entertainment had extended Smollett's contract for the sixth season of \"Empire\", there were no plans for the character to appear during the season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Smollett came out as gay during a televised interview with Ellen DeGeneres in March 2015.  In a 2016 interview with \"Out\", he clarified his sexual orientation by stating, \"If I had to label myself, I would label myself as a gay man.\" However, he stated his belief that openness to love is more important than gender, revealing that \"If I fall in love down the road with a woman, I'm going to love that woman.\" When Smollett's gay character from \"Empire\" engaged in a tryst with a female character, Smollett defended the plot development by stating that he and \"Empire\" creator Lee Daniels were trying to create a conversation about sexual fluidity in the gay community. Daniels has stated that while he and Smollett are gay, they both occasionally want to have sex with women. Daniels stated that \"We're showing life on \"Empire\"\", in that both he and Smollett were incorporating their own sexual fluidity as gay men into the show.  Smollett lives in Chicago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2007 Misdemeanor.", "content": "According to the Los Angeles City Attorney's Office, Smollett pleaded no contest to providing false information to law enforcement in a 2007 misdemeanor case resulting from a DUI stop in which Smollett gave police a false name and signed his brother's name on the summons promising to appear in court. Smollett also pleaded no contest to driving with a blood alcohol level over the legal limit and driving without a valid driver's license, and was sentenced to a fine and two years of probation.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2019 Hate crime hoax and indictment.", "content": "On January 29, 2019, Smollett told police that he was attacked outside his apartment building by two men in ski masks who called him racial and homophobic slurs, and said \"This is MAGA country\", referencing President Donald Trump's slogan \"Make America Great Again\" and used their hands, feet, and teeth as weapons in the assault. According to a statement released by the Chicago Police Department, the two suspects then \"poured an unknown liquid\" on Smollett and put a noose around his neck. Smollett said that he fought them off. Smollett was treated at Northwestern Memorial Hospital; not seriously injured, he was released \"in good condition\" later that morning. The police were called after 2:30 am; when they arrived around 2:40 am, Smollett had a white rope around his neck. Smollett said that the attack may have been motivated by his criticism of the Trump administration and that he believed that the alleged assault was linked to the threatening letter that was sent to him earlier that month.  On February 20, 2019, Smollett was charged by a grand jury with a class 4 felony for filing a false police report. The next day, Smollett surrendered himself at the Chicago Police Department's Central Booking station. Shortly thereafter, CPD spokesman Anthony Guglielmi stated that Smollett \"is under arrest and in the custody of detectives\". On March 26, 2019, all charges filed against Smollett were dropped, with Judge Steven Watkins ordering the public court file sealed. First Assistant State's Attorney Joseph Magats said the office reached a deal with Smollett's defense team in which prosecutors dropped the charges upon Smollett performing 16 hours of community service and forfeiting his $10,000 bond.  On April 12, 2019, the city of Chicago filed a lawsuit in the Circuit Court of Cook County against Smollett for the cost of overtime authorities expended investigating the alleged attack, totalling $130,105.15. In November 2019 Smollett filed a counter-suit against the city of Chicago alleging he was the victim of \"mass public ridicule and harm\" and arguing he should not be made to reimburse the city for the cost of the investigation. On February 11, 2020, after further investigation by a special prosecutor was completed, Smollett was indicted again by a Cook County grand jury on six counts pertaining to making four false police reports.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jussie Smollett (, born June 21, 1982) is an American actor and singer. He began his career as a child actor in 1987 acting in films including \"The Mighty Ducks\" (1992) and Rob Reiner's \"North\" (1994). In 2015, Smollett portrayed musician Jamal Lyon in the Fox drama series \"Empire\", a role that was hailed as groundbreaking for its positive depiction of a black gay man on television. Smollett has also appeared in Ridley Scott's science fiction film \"\" (2017) as Ricks and in \"Marshall\" (2017) as Langston Hughes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977590}
{"src_title": "Beata Szydło", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years and education.", "content": "Szydło was born in Oświęcim and raised near Brzeszcze, where her father was a miner. She graduated from Jagiellonian University in Kraków in 1989 where she completed studies at the Department of Ethnography. In the years 1989 – 1995, she was a PhD student at the Philosophy and History Faculty of that university. In 1997, she completed post-graduate studies for managers of culture at Warsaw School of Economics, whereas in 2001 at Kraków University of Economics - management of local government in the European Union.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early political career.", "content": "Szydło was elected Mayor of Gmina Brzeszcze at the age of 35, holding this position for seven years. During her campaign, along with locals she helped renovate the school in a small town of Pcim, which lost its roof in a storm. In 2004, she participated in International Visitor Leadership Program. In September 2005, she was elected to the Sejm, the lower house of the Parliament of the Republic of Poland receiving 14,499 votes in 12 Chrzanów district, as a candidate of the conservative Law and Justice party. She was elected member of the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th Parliament of the Republic of Poland. She was appointed vice-chairman of the Law and Justice Party On 24 July 2010, and later in September 2014, she succeeded Stanisław Kostrzewski as the treasurer of the Law and Justice party.  Following her successful leadership of Andrzej Duda's presidential campaign, at the Law and Justice party convention on 20 June 2015 Szydło was named as Law and Justice's candidate for Prime Minister in the Polish parliamentary election. She was widely seen as being more moderate than Law and Justice chairman Jarosław Kaczyński.  At the October 2015 election, Law and Justice won a decisive victory, becoming the first Polish party to win an outright majority since the end of Communism. Szydło was sworn in as prime minister on 16 November 2015.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime Minister of Poland, 2015–2017.", "content": "On 18 October 2015 she made her keynote address (), further receiving 236 votes in favour of her government. One of her first decisions was to remove the European Union flag from press conferences at the Chancellery of the Prime Minister and to replace the clock in the meeting hall of the Council of Ministers with a Cross. In meetings with voters, she promised to reduce the retirement age and raise the minimum wage. She declared introducing the 500+ programme will be her priority as Prime Minister. The programme was introduced on 1 April 2016, supplying families with 500PLN for every child, starting from the second child. It is intended to serve as a demographic stimulus, and enhance population growth.  One of the biggest controversies during her administration, the Polish Constitutional Court crisis, 2015 was officially criticized by the European Parliament, which, on 13 April 2016, passed a resolution declaring that the Parliament \"is seriously concerned that the effective paralysis of the Constitutional Tribunal in Poland endangers democracy, human rights and the rule of law\".  Beata Szydło's government was strongly opposed to the UK's effort to stop EU immigrants claiming in-work benefits for four years if they moved to Britain. Increasing the support for Brexit, Beata Szydło did offer support in return for a permanent base of NATO troops on Polish territory.  In December 2017, Jarosław Kaczyński, the Chairman of the Law and Justice party, declared Szydło's position untenable. This had followed a deterioration in relations between Poland and the rest of the European Union. In a state, Law and Justice stated that: “This shows us how we are perceived outside of our borders, the state of our relations with our partners, why we are supported, why we get attacked, and how the actions of our government and of our organisations are perceived by the other Member States. All of this had an impact on the government’s decision (to replace Szydło).”  On 7 December, she resigned from office, along with all members of her cabinet. The next day her resignation was accepted by the President Andrzej Duda, who at the same time designated Finance Minister and Deputy Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki as the new Prime Minister.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "Szydło was appointed Deputy Prime Minister of Poland by her former deputy, Mateusz Morawiecki, several days after her resignation as Prime Minister.  Szydło later stood for the European Parliament at the 2019 European Parliament elections, and was elected to represent the constituency of Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie. In that election, she received the highest number of individual votes of any European Parliamentary candidate in Poland's history. She resigned as Deputy Prime Minister on 4 June in order to take her seat in the European Parliament.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Szydło is married to Edward Szydło. The couple has two sons: Tymoteusz (born 1992), a Catholic priest, and Błażej (1994). She is a devout Catholic and declares her adherence to conservative Christian values.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Security incident.", "content": "On 21 November 2016, Szydło's vehicle was involved in a 5 vehicle crash in Israel which included a police car and ambulance. She was in Israel for government to government talks and to meet with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Just a few months later, on 10 February 2017, Szydło and 2 security officials were injured in a car crash in her hometown, Oświęcim. Her Audi limousine swerved and hit a tree to avoid a small Fiat whose driver was later charged with involuntary violation of traffic safety. She suffered bruises and was hospitalised in Warsaw.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Beata Maria Szydło (; ; born 15 April 1963) is a Polish politician who has been a Member of the European Parliament since 2019, and who previously served as Prime Minister of Poland from 2015 to 2017, as a member of the Law and Justice party. She was the third woman to hold the office, after Hanna Suchocka and her immediate predecessor Ewa Kopacz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977591}
{"src_title": "LGBT rights in Kosovo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Law regarding same-sex sexual activity.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ottoman Empire.", "content": "In 1858, the Ottoman Empire, then in control of Kosovo, legalized same-sex intercourse.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Yugoslavia.", "content": "The Yugoslav Criminal Code of 1929 banned \"lewdness against the order of nature\" (anal intercourse). The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia also restricted the offense to same-sex anal intercourse with a maximum sentence reduced from 1 to 2 years imprisonment in 1959.  In 1994, male same-sex sexual intercourse became legal in the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija when it was a part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "UNMIK period.", "content": "In 2004, during the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) period, the legal age of consent was established as 14 regardless of the individual's gender or sexual orientation, and all sexual offenses were made gender-neutral.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Independent era.", "content": "Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008. Same-sex sexual intercourse has remained legal. This period has also seen an increasing visibility for the LGBT community, and discussing surrounding such issues have become more mainstream. In 2008, the Constitution of Kosovo was promulgated, containing provisions outlawing discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, amongst others.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Recognition of same-sex relationships.", "content": "In 2014, the President of the Constitutional Court said that Kosovo \"de jure\" allows same-sex marriage. Article 144(3) of the Constitution of Kosovo requires the Constitutional Court to approve any amendments to the Constitution so as to ensure they do not infringe upon the civil rights previously guaranteed. Article 14 of the \"Law on Family\" (; Serbian: \"Zakon o porodici\") defines marriage as a \"legally registered community of two persons of different sexes,\" though Kosovo gay rights activists have argued this contradicts the wording of the Constitution and have called on same-sex couples to challenge the law in court.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discrimination protections.", "content": "Article 24 of the Constitution of Kosovo bans discrimination on a number of grounds, including sexual orientation. Kosovo is thus one of the few states in Europe with a constitutional ban on discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. The wording states:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anti Discrimination Law.", "content": "The \"Anti-Discrimination Law of 2004\" (; Serbian: \"Zakon protiv diskriminacije\") passed by the Kosovo Assembly, bans discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in a variety of fields, including employment, membership of organizations, education, the provision of goods and services, social security and access to housing. The definition of discrimination in this law explicitly includes direct and indirect discrimination, as well as harassment, victimization and segregation.  On 26 May 2015, the Parliament Assembly approved amendments adding gender identity to Kosovo's anti-discrimination law. The amendments took effect in July 2015.  Despite these legal protections, LGBT people tend to avoid reporting discrimination or abuse cases to the police.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gender identity and expression.", "content": "Transgender people are not allowed to legally change their gender in Kosovo, even if they have undergone sex reassignment surgery.  In 2017, a Kosovar citizen, Blert Morina, submitted a court case, seeking to change his name and gender on official identification documents. His request was rejected by Kosovo's Civil Registration Agency. His lawyer, Rina Kika, said he had requested a constitutional review of the agency's decision in July 2018. In December 2019, the Basic Court of Pristina ruled in Morina's favour, affirming his right to change both his name and sex marker on his identification documents. Kika said that \"for the first time the court has decided to recognize the right to gender identity without offering evidence for surgical intervention or any medical change\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military service.", "content": "Lesbian, gay, and bisexual people are allowed to serve openly in the military. However, they may face discrimination by peers when serving openly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Blood donation.", "content": "According to a 2018 guideline for \"Blood Donation Week\", those who have \"intimate relationships with the same sex\" cannot donate blood.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Living conditions.", "content": "An LGBT rights group, the Center for Social Emancipation, describes gay life in Kosovo as being \"underground\" and mostly secretive. There are no known gay clubs or bars in Kosovo, though one briefly opened in Pristina in 2011.  According to a 2015 survey conducted by the National Democratic Institute, 81% of LGBT Kosovars said they had been subject to psychological abuse, and 29% reported being victim of physical violence.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "LGBT rights movement in Kosovo.", "content": "There are currently several local LGBT rights organisations in Kosovo. Among the most notable are the Center for Equality and Liberty (CEL; ), the Center for Social Group Development (CSGD; ), and the Center for Social Emancipation (QESh; ).", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) rights in Kosovo have improved in recent years, most notably with the adoption of the new Constitution, banning discrimination based on sexual orientation. However, homosexuality is still viewed by Kosovar society as a taboo topic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977592}
{"src_title": "War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "War.", "content": "The situation in the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of Abkhazia had been tense since the end of the 1980s when the anti-Soviet, Georgian opposition began demanding independence from the Soviet Union. In March 1989, Abkhaz nationalists demanded in the Lykhny Declaration the official establishment of a separate Soviet Socialist Republic (based on the precedent of the existence of a separate Abkhazian SSR from 1925–1931, which was associated with the Georgian SSR by a confederative \"Union Treaty\"). The Declaration was signed by the rector of the Sukhumi University. Ethnic Georgian students of the university announced protests, but these were forbidden by the Georgian government. Nevertheless, the students rallied and were attacked by ethnic Abkhazians. The Georgian anti-Soviet movement was outraged by the event and included the claims of the students against Abkhazian secession into its list of slogans by several thousand Georgian demonstrators in Tbilisi. In response to the protests Soviet troops were dispatched to Tbilisi, resulting in the April 9 tragedy.  In the aftermath, the first armed clashes between the representatives of the Abkhazian and Georgian populations took place on 16–17 July 1989 in Sukhumi. The conflict was sparked by the decision of the Georgian government to convert the Georgian sector of Sukhumi State University into a branch of Tbilisi State University. Abkhazians vehemently opposed to the new university, saw it as an instrument to extend Georgian dominance. Although the USSR Supreme Soviet concluded that the Georgian government had no legal right to authorize the new university, an entrance exam was scheduled for 15 July. The resulting civil unrest quickly turned into militarized clashes that, according to official accounts, resulted in 18 deaths and at least 448 wounded, 302 of whom were Georgian. In response, Interior Ministry troops were deployed to quell the unrest.  By July 1990, since neither side had felt strong enough to force the issue militarily, Georgian-Abkhaz antagonisms became largely relegated to the legislatures, demarcating Abkhazia as a legal contest, a \"war of laws\", until armed hostilities broke out in August 1992. During that time, the government of the Soviet Union had very few options to prevent inter-ethnic conflicts, being itself on the verge of collapse.  Ethnic allocations, or quotas, were introduced prior to the 1991 elections to the Supreme Soviet of Abkhazia, resulting in a composition that did not accurately reflect the ethnicity of the constituent population. Thus, of 65 seats, the Abkhazians (17% of the population) gained 28; Georgians (45%), 26; with the remaining 11 being divided amongst other groupings (Armenians, Russians; the latter comprising 33% of the population).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conflict mediation.", "content": "During the war the peace mediation was done first by Russia and second by the UN. From 1993 onwards, the pressure for a peace settlement mounted from UN, Russia and the then Group of Friends of Georgia (Russia, U.S., France, Germany and UK). In December 1993, an official ceasefire was signed by Georgian and Abkhaz leaders under the aegis of the UN and with Russia as intermediary. The venues shifted from Geneva to New York and finally to Moscow. On 4 April 1994 the \"declaration on measures for a political settlement of the Georgian-Abkhazian conflict\" was signed in Moscow. Instead of the deployment of a traditional UN peacekeeping force, the deployment of a CIS, mainly Russian peacekeeping forces, was agreed in Moscow on 14 May 1994. In June 1994, CIS peacekeeping forces comprising only the Russian soldiers were deployed along the administrative border between Abkhazia and the remaining Georgia. The UN mission (UNOMIG) also arrived. However, these could not prevent further atrocities against the Georgians in the following years (around 1,500 deaths have been reported by the Georgian government in the post-war period). On 14 September 1994, Abkhaz leaders appeared on local TV to demand that all ethnic Georgians depart from the region by 27 September (the anniversary of the capture of Sukhumi). On 30 November 1994, Abkhazia promulgated a new constitution declaring independence of the breakaway region. However, none of the foreign governments recognised this. On 15 December 1994, the US State Department condemned Abkhazia's declaration of independence. On 21 March 1995, The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees accused Abkhaz militias of torturing and murdering dozens of returning ethnic Georgian refugees in Gali District. Despite an official economic blockade imposed on Abkhazia by Russia and CIS in 1995 (virtually ended by the Russian government in 1997), the breakaway region has been enjoying both military and economic support by Russia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "UN involvement.", "content": "The United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) was established in 1993 to monitor the ceasefire and later expanded to observe the operation of the CIS peacekeeping forces. The Organization for Security in Europe", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Weapons.", "content": "Both sides during conflict were mainly equipped with Soviet made weaponry, though Georgian forces had much more heavy weapons at the start of war, Abkhaz forces acquired many advanced weapons from Russia and at the end of war had decisive edge in weaponry, employing many SAM and MANPAT Systems, meanwhile Georgian forces had problems with supplying needed weapons and equipment to forces in Abkhazia, mainly because there was no foreign support and difficulties acquiring weapons from abroad.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The War in Abkhazia from 1992 to 1993 was fought between Georgian government forces for the most part and Abkhaz separatist forces, Russian government armed forces and North Caucasian militants. Ethnic Georgians who lived in Abkhazia fought largely on the side of Georgian government forces. Ethnic Armenians and Russians within Abkhazia's population largely supported the Abkhazians and many fought on their side. The separatists received support from thousands of North Caucasus and Cossack militants and from the Russian Federation forces stationed in and near Abkhazia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977593}
{"src_title": "The Captain's Daughter", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Pyotr Andreyich Grinyov (the narrative is conducted on his behalf) is the only surviving child of a retired army officer. When Pyotr turns 17, his father sends him into military service in Orenburg. En route Pyotr gets lost in a blizzard, but is rescued by a mysterious man. As a token of his gratitude, Pyotr gives the guide his hareskin coat.  Arriving in Orenburg, Pyotr reports to his commanding officer and is assigned to serve at Fort Belogorsky under captain Ivan Mironov. The fort is little more than a fence around a village, and the captain's wife Vasilisa is really in charge. Pyotr befriends his fellow officer Shvabrin, who has been banished here after a duel resulted in the death of his opponent. When Pyotr dines with the Mironov family, he meets their daughter Masha and falls in love with her. This causes a rift between Pyotr and Shvabrin, who has been turned down by Masha. When Shvabrin insults Masha's honor, Pyotr and Shvabrin duel and Pyotr is injured. Pyotr asks her father's consent to marry Masha, but is refused.  Not much later, the fortress is besieged by the insurgent Yemelyan Pugachev, who claims to be the emperor Peter III. The cossacks stationed at the fortress defect to the forces of Pugachev, and he takes the fortress easily. He demands that Captain Mironov swear an oath of allegiance to him, and when refused, hangs the Captain and kills his wife. When it is Pyotr's turn, Shvabrin suddenly appears to have defected as well, and upon his advice Pugachev orders Pyotr to be hanged. However, his life is suddenly spared as Pugachev turns out to be the guide who rescued Pyotr from the blizzard, and he recognizes Pyotr whom he remembers with affection.  The next evening, Pyotr and Pugachev talk in private. Pyotr impresses Pugachev with the sincerity of his insistence that he cannot serve him. Pugachev decides to let Pyotr go to Orenburg. He is to relay a message to the Governor that Pugachev will be marching on his city. The fort is to be left under the command of Shvabrin, who takes advantage of the situation to try to compel Masha to marry him. Pyotr rushes off to prevent this marriage, but is captured by Pugachev's troops. After explaining the situation to Pugachev, they both ride off to the fortress.  After Masha has been freed, she and Pyotr take off to his father's estate, but they are intercepted by the army. Pyotr decides to stay with the army and sends Masha to his father. The war with Pugachev goes on and Pyotr rejoins the army. But at the moment of Pugachev's defeat, Pyotr is arrested for having friendly relations with Pugachev. During his interrogation, Shvabrin testifies that Pyotr is a traitor. Not willing to drag Masha into court, Pyotr is unable to repudiate this accusation and receives the death penalty. Although Empress Catherine the Great spares his life, Pyotr remains a prisoner.  Masha understands why Pyotr wasn't able to defend himself and decides to go to St. Petersburg, to present a petition to the empress. In Tsarskoye Selo, she meets a lady of the court and details her plan to see the Empress on Pyotr's behalf. The lady refuses at first, saying that Pyotr is a traitor, but Masha is able to explain all the circumstances. Soon, Masha receives an invitation to see the Empress, and is shocked to recognize her as the lady she had talked to earlier. The Empress has become convinced of Pyotr's innocence and has ordered his release. Pyotr witnesses the beheading of Pugachev. He and Masha are married.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adaptations.", "content": "Composer César Cui adapted the novel to a libretto for his opera of the same name. Several films have been made as well:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Captain's Daughter () is a historical novel by the Russian writer Alexander Pushkin. It was first published in 1836 in the fourth issue of the literary journal \"Sovremennik\". The novel is a romanticized account of Pugachev's Rebellion in 1773–1774.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977594}
{"src_title": "François-Vincent Raspail", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Raspail was born in Carpentras, Vaucluse. A member of the republican Carbonari society, Raspail was imprisoned during Louis Philippe's reign (1830–1848) and was a candidate for presidency of the Second Republic in December 1848. However, he was then involved in the attempted revolt of 15 May 1848 and in March 1849 was again imprisoned as a result. After Louis Napoleon's 2 December 1851 coup, his sentence was commuted to exile, from which he returned to France only in 1862. In 1869, during the liberal phase of the Second Empire (1851–1870), he was elected deputy from Lyons. He remained a popular republican during the French Third Republic after the short-term Paris Commune in 1871.  Raspail died in Arcueil.  His sons, Benjamin Raspail (1823), (1827), (1831), and (1840) were also all notable figures in the Third Republic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scientific achievements.", "content": "Raspail was one of the founders of the cell theory in biology. He coined the phrase \"omnis cellula e cellula\" (\"every cell is derived from a [preexisting] cell\") later attributed to Rudolf Karl Virchow. He was an early proponent of the use of the microscope in the study of plants. He was also an early advocate of the use of antiseptic(s) and better sanitation and diet. His \"Manuel annuaire de la santé 1834\" is portrayed in the painting \"Nature morte avec oignons/Still life with a plate of onions\" by Vincent van Gogh (1889 Kroller-Muller).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Entry into politics.", "content": "After the revolution of 1830, Raspail became involved in politics. He was President of the Human Rights Society, and was imprisoned for that role. While in prison, he tended sick inmates and studied their diseases. He became convinced of the value of camphor, which he believed worked by killing extremely small parasites – a version of the germ theory of disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later career.", "content": "Raspail was a candidate for the Presidency of the French Second Republic in December 1848, but came in fourth, losing to Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (later Napoleon III). He had been involved in the attempted revolt of 15 May 1848, and in March 1849 was again imprisoned as a result. In 1853, Napoleon III commuted his sentence of imprisonment to one of exile. He returned to France from exile in 1862. In 1869 he was elected deputy from Lyons and in 1875 from Marseilles. He remained popular and respected during the French Third Republic. The longest boulevard in Paris, in the 7th, 6th and 14th arrondissements, was named Boulevard Raspail in his honor, after which the Raspail Métro station takes its name.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "François-Vincent Raspail, L.L.D., M.D. (25 January 1794 – 7 January 1878) was a French chemist, naturalist, physician, physiologist, attorney, and socialist politician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977595}
{"src_title": "Tennis at the 2016 Summer Olympics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Summary.", "content": "Serena Williams was the defending champion in the women's singles, but she lost to Elina Svitolina in the third round. Unseeded Puerto Rican Monica Puig won the gold medal, defeating Germany's world number two Angelique Kerber in the final, 6–4, 4–6, This marked Puerto Rico's first ever Olympic gold medal and made Puig her country's first ever female medalist.  In the men's singles, British flagbearer Andy Murray was the defending champion from the London tournament at Wimbledon, while Novak Djokovic was the number one seed and aiming to complete the Career Golden Slam. However, he was defeated in the first round by Argentina's Juan Martín del Potro. Murray defended his title, defeating del Potro in the final, 7–5, 4–6, 6–2, 7–5. With the victory, Murray became the first player, male or female, to win singles gold at two consecutive Olympics and the first player to defend an Olympic title since Serena and Venus Willams won the women's doubles title in Beijing and London. This, combined with a second Wimbledon title, becoming the first-ever three-time BBC Sports Personality of the Year and ending the year as the #1-ranked player by the ATP after having led Great Britain to their first Davis Cup since 1936 in 2015, contributed to his being knighted in the New Year's Honours List.  Serena and Venus Williams were the two-time defending champions and number one seeds in the women's doubles, but they lost in the first round to Czech pairing Lucie Šafářová and Barbora Strýcová. The defeat ended the sisters' 15 match winning streak in women's doubles at the Olympics, and also marked their first loss together in Olympic competition. Russian duo Ekaterina Makarova and Elena Vesnina won the gold medal, defeating Timea Bacsinszky and Martina Hingis in the final, 6–4, 6–4. Martina Hingis had been attempting to become just the fifth woman to complete the Career Golden Slam in doubles.  In the men's doubles, Bob and Mike Bryan were the defending champions, but they withdrew before the competition as a result of health concerns. French duo Pierre-Hugues Herbert and Nicolas Mahut were the number one seeds, but lost in the first round to Juan Sebastian Cabal and Robert Farah from Colombia. Spaniards Marc López and Rafael Nadal won the gold medal, defeating Romanian duo Florin Mergea and Horia Tecău in the final, 6–2, 3–6, 6–4.  Victoria Azarenka and Max Mirnyi were the defending champions in the mixed doubles tournament, but they were not able to defend their title as a result of Azarenka's withdrawal due to pregnancy. American pair Bethanie Mattek-Sands and Jack Sock won the gold medal, defeating their compatriots Venus Williams and Rajeev Ram in the final, 6–7, 6–1, [10–7].", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification.", "content": "For the singles competitions, the top 56 players in the world rankings on 6 June 2016 of the WTA and ATP tours are qualified for the Olympics. However, entry has been limited to four players from a country. This means that players who are ranked in the top 56 but represent the NOCs with four higher-ranked players already participating do not qualify, allowing players who are ranked outside of the top 56 but from countries with fewer than four players already qualified to compete. A player could only participate if he or she has made him- or herself available to be drafted to represent the player's country in Davis Cup or Fed Cup for two of the following years: 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016, with one of the years being either 2015 or 2016. Of the remaining eight slots, six of them will be determined by the ITF's Olympic Committee, taking into account ranking and spread of nations represented, while the final two slots are awarded by the IOC to players from small nations.  In the doubles competitions, 24 teams are automatically qualified for the Games based on the rankings to be published on 6 June 2016, subject to a maximum of two teams per NOC. Players in the top ten of the doubles rankings could reserve a place, provided they had a partner to compete with. Meanwhile, the remaining eight teams were decided by the ITF Olympic Committee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competition format.", "content": "The tennis competition at the Olympic Games consisted of a single elimination tournament. The size of the singles draw, 64, meant that there were six rounds of competition in total, with five in the doubles owing to its smaller draw size of 32, and 4 for mixed with its draw size only being 16. Players reaching the semifinal were assured of an opportunity to compete for a medal, with the two losing semifinalists contesting a bronze medal match.  All matches were the best of three sets, except for the men's singles final which was the best of five sets. The tie break operated in every set, including the final one (a first for the Olympics). In the mixed doubles the third set was played as a match tie-break (10 points).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Singles seeds.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Men's singles.", "content": "The following players received an ITF invitation:  The following players received a Tripartite Commission invitation:  The following players were originally in the entry list and supposed to be seeded but withdrew prior to the event:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Women's singles.", "content": "The following players received an ITF invitation:  The following players received a Tripartite Commission invitation:  The following players were originally in the entry list and supposed to be seeded but withdrew prior to the event:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Doubles seeds.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Men's doubles.", "content": "The following players received an ITF invitation:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Women's doubles.", "content": "The following players received an ITF invitation:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The tennis tournament at the 2016 Summer Olympics was held at the Olympic Tennis Centre, from 6 to 14 August. The competition was played on a fast hardcourt surface used in numerous North American tournaments that aims to minimize disruption for players.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977596}
{"src_title": "Lucas Vázquez", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Real Madrid.", "content": "Born in Curtis, Galicia, Vázquez arrived at Real Madrid's youth system in 2007, aged 16. He made his senior debuts in the 2010–11 season with the C-team and, the following campaign, scored four goals in 23 games to help the reserves return to the second division after a five-year absence; his first came on 25 February 2012 in a 2–2 home draw against La Roda CF.  Vázquez made his first appearance in the second level on 17 August 2012, playing six minutes in a 1–2 away loss against Villarreal CF. He scored his first professional goal on 15 October, netting the winner in a 3–2 home success over UD Las Palmas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Espanyol.", "content": "On 19 August 2014, Vázquez was loaned to La Liga's RCD Espanyol, in a season-long deal. He made his debut in the competition on 30 August, coming on as a second-half substitute for Salva Sevilla in a 1–2 home loss against Sevilla FC.  Vázquez scored his first goal in the Spanish top flight on 5 October 2014, netting the first in a 2–0 home success over Real Sociedad. On 3 June of the following year, he signed a four-year permanent deal with the \"Pericos\", for a €2 million fee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Real Madrid.", "content": "On 30 June 2015, Real Madrid exercised their buyback clause and Vázquez returned to the club. He made his debut on 12 September in a 6–0 away win over his former team Espanyol, and his first start came a week later, in a 1–0 home defeat of Granada CF.  Vázquez scored his first competitive goal on 30 December 2015, replacing Karim Benzema for the final 15 minutes of the league fixture against Real Sociedad and netting in a 3–1 success at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. He contributed with seven appearances in the season's UEFA Champions League, as the tournament ended in a win; in the final against Atlético Madrid, he again came on for the Frenchman late into the second half of a 1–1 draw, and converted his attempt in the penalty shootout triumph.  Vázquez started the 2016 UEFA Super Cup against fellow Spaniards Sevilla FC, providing an assist to Sergio Ramos in injury time to take the game to extra time, where Real Madrid eventually won 3–2. He signed a new contract on 26 October 2016, running until 2021.  Vázquez appeared 33 times during 2016–17 and scored twice, helping Real Madrid to its first league in five years. He added ten matches in the campaign's Champions League, scoring once in the group stage as his team also conquered the latter tournament.  Vázquez made ten appearances during the 2017–18 Champions League and added one goal, when Madrid won their third consecutive and 13th overall title in the competition.  In November 2019 he broke his toe after dropping a weight on it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Vázquez did not represent Spain at any youth level. On 17 May 2016 he, Saúl Ñíguez and Sergio Rico were the three uncapped players named in Vicente del Bosque's provisional squad for UEFA Euro 2016 in France, and he also made it to the final list of 23. He made his debut on 7 June, starting and playing 61 minutes in a 0–1 friendly loss to Georgia at the Coliseum Alfonso Pérez.  Vázquez appeared once in the tournament, replacing Álvaro Morata in the 70th minute of a 0–2 round-of-16 defeat against Italy at the Stade de France. He was then included in the final squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. making his debut in the competition on 15 June when he replaced David Silva for the final four minutes of the 3–3 group stage draw to Portugal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Real Madrid Castilla  Real Madrid", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lucas Vázquez Iglesias (; born 1 July 1991) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays for Real Madrid and the Spain national team as a right winger.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977597}
{"src_title": "Herbert Gladstone, 1st Viscount Gladstone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Gladstone was the youngest son of Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone and his wife Catherine, daughter of Sir Stephen Glynne, 8th Baronet, and was born in Downing Street where his father was living at the time as Chancellor of the Exchequer. William Henry Gladstone and Lord Gladstone of Hawarden were his elder brothers. He was educated at Eton and University College, Oxford, and lectured in history at Keble College, Oxford, for three years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1880 Gladstone became private secretary to his father. That same year, having unsuccessfully contested the Middlesex constituency, he was elected Liberal Member of Parliament for Leeds.  The Hawarden Kite was a famous newspaper scoop of December 1885, an instance of flying a kite, made by Gladstone, who often served as his father's secretary. At the time William Ewart Gladstone was Leader of the Liberal Opposition. Herbert gave the report to Edmund Rogers of the National Press Agency in London. The key statement was that his father now supported home rule for Ireland. The statement is accurate but it is unknown whether the father knew and approved of releasing it to the press. The bombshell announcement resulted in the fall of Lord Salisbury's Conservative government. Irish Nationalists, led by Charles Parnell's Irish Parliamentary Party, held the balance of power in Parliament. Gladstone's conversion to Home Rule convinced them to switch away from the Conservatives and support the Liberals using the 86 seats in Parliament they controlled.  In the 1885 General Election Gladstone was returned to Parliament for Leeds West. Having been a junior Lord of the Treasury from 1881 to 1885, Gladstone became Deputy Commissioner of the Office of Works in 1885. The following year served for a brief period as Financial Secretary to the War Office in his father's third administration. In 1892, on his father's return to power, he was made Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, and two years later he became First Commissioner of Works in Lord Rosebery's government, at which time he was also sworn of the Privy Council. The Liberals fell from power in 1895. He became the Liberals' Chief Whip in 1899 and in 1903 he negotiated on behalf of the Liberals an electoral pact with the Labour Representation Committee. He was president of the Darlington Liberal and Radical Association from early 1900.  Gladstone returned to office in 1905 when Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman appointed him Home Secretary. According to historian Professor Ian Machin, Gladstone was not among “the foremost New Liberals such as Lloyd George and Churchill,” but he nevertheless played a large part in carrying a number of the Liberal welfare reforms during his time in office, including the Workmen's Compensation Act of 1906, the Children Act of 1908, and the Trade Boards Act of 1909.  As Prince of Wales, King Edward VII had come to enjoy warm and mutually respectful relations with W. E. Gladstone, whom Queen Victoria detested. These feelings did not extend to his son. In September 1908 he permitted Roman Catholic priests in vestments, led by Cardinal Vanutelli, to carry the Host in a procession through the streets of London. There were a flood of protests, and the King asked Gladstone to ban the procession to avert a breach of the peace. The Home Secretary was on holiday in Scotland at the time, and did not reply, giving rise to false rumours that the King – who was known to take an interest in Roman Catholic rituals when abroad – favoured the procession. In the end the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith had to ask Lord Ripon, the only Catholic Cabinet Minister, to ask for the Host and vestments to be cancelled.  The following year the King rebuked Gladstone for appointing two women, Lady Frances Balfour and May Tennant, to serve on a Royal Commission on reforming Divorce Law – the King thought divorce could not be discussed with \"delicacy or even decency\" before ladies. Philip Magnus suggests that Gladstone may have become a whipping-boy for the King's general irritation with the Liberal Government.  Gladstone was sacked in the reshuffle in 1910 and the King agreed, with some reluctance, to appoint him the first Governor-General of the Union of South Africa as well as the High Commissioner there. He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George and raised to the peerage as Viscount Gladstone, of the County of Lanark, the same year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "After his return from South Africa in 1914, Lord Gladstone was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB), and spent much of the First World War being involved with various charities and charitable organisations, including the War Refugees Committee, the South African Hospital Fund, and the South African Ambulance in France. He was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE) in 1917.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1901 Lord Gladstone married Dorothy Mary, daughter of Sir Richard Paget, 1st Baronet, who was over twenty years his junior. He died in March 1930, aged 76, at his Ware home, and was buried in the town's Little Munden Church. There were no children from the marriage, and therefore his title became extinct at his death. Viscountess Gladstone died in June 1953.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Herbert John Gladstone, 1st Viscount Gladstone, (7 January 1854 – 6 March 1930) was a British Liberal statesman. The youngest son of William Ewart Gladstone, he was Home Secretary from 1905 to 1910 and Governor-General of the Union of South Africa from 1910 to 1914.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977598}
{"src_title": "Charles Ritchie, 1st Baron Ritchie of Dundee", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Ritchie was born at Dundee, Scotland, the third son of William Ritchie, of Rockhill near Broughty Ferry in Forfarshire, head of the firm of William Ritchie & Sons, of London and Dundee, East India merchants, jute spinners and manufacturers. The Ritchie family had long been connected with the town of Dundee. His elder brother James Thomson Ritchie was Lord Mayor of London from 1903 to 1904 and was created a Baronet in 1903 (a title which became extinct on his death. Ritchie was educated at the City of London School, after which he went into the family business.  He married Margaret Ower, daughter of Thomas Ower of Perth, on 7 December 1858.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1874 was returned to parliament as Conservative member for the Tower Hamlets. In 1885 he was made secretary to the Admiralty, and from 1886 to 1892 was President of the Local Government Board in Lord Salisbury's second administration, sitting as member for St George in the East. He was responsible for the Local Government Act 1888, instituting county councils; and a large section of the Conservative party always owed him a grudge for having originated the London County Council.  In Lord Salisbury's later ministries, as member for Croydon (1895–1906), he was President of the Board of Trade (1895–1900) and Home Secretary (1900–1902); and when Sir Michael Hicks-Beach retired in August 1902, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer in Balfour's cabinet. In his earlier years he had been a fair-trader and he was strongly opposed to Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain's movement for a preferential tariff, leading to his sacking by Balfour in September 1903. Ritchie's son in law, the Scottish architect Mervyn McCartney, built a country house for Ritchie, Welders House, in the Buckinghamshire village of Jordans.  On 22 December 1905, he was created a peer as Baron Ritchie of Dundee, of Welders in the Parish of Chalfont St Giles in the County of Buckingham. However, he was in ill-health, and died at Biarritz in January 1906. He is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery, London. He was succeeded in the title by his second but only surviving son, Charles.  Ritchie was elected as Rector of the University of Aberdeen in late October 1902, taking up the position the following month, serving for three years until November 1905.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Charles Thomson Ritchie, 1st Baron Ritchie of Dundee (19 November 1838 – 9 January 1906) was a British businessman and Conservative politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1874 until 1905 when he was raised to the peerage. He served as Home Secretary from 1900 to 1902 and as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1902 to 1903.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977599}
{"src_title": "Samira Wiley", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Wiley was raised in Washington, D.C. Her parents, Christine and Dennis W. Wiley, are the co-pastors of Covenant Baptist United Church of Christ. Wiley's parents have been referred to as \"pillars of the LGBT religious community,\" as the Covenant Baptist Church was the only Baptist church in D.C. performing same-sex unions in 2007. She has two siblings: Aiyana Ma'at and Joshua Wiley.  Wiley attended the Duke Ellington School of the Arts in Washington, D.C., and the Juilliard School in New York City, graduating in 2010. At Juilliard, she trained in theater performance and worked mainly in theater in her early career.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Wiley's first major acting role was in the comedy film \"The Sitter\" (2011). In 2011, Wiley played Maria in a theater production of \"Love's Labour's Lost\" by The Public Theater.  When the Netflix television series \"Orange Is the New Black\" —based on Piper Kerman's — came into development, Wiley was told about the auditions by a friend from Juilliard, Marco Ramirez, who was a writer for the show. After discovering that another Juilliard friend, Danielle Brooks, had won a role in the show, Wiley asked Brooks to rehearse lines with her to prepare for her audition for the role of Poussey Washington, the on-screen best friend of Brooks' character. Wiley's audition was ultimately successful; she appeared in all twelve episodes of the series' first season and was featured prominently throughout the second season. The darker and more violent plot of the second season allowed for the growth of Wiley's character, whose evolved story lines led to Wiley's prolonged screen exposure and ultimate development as a \"fan-favorite.\" She was promoted to series regular for the third season. The fourth season revolves heavily around her character, leading up to the reactions within the prison upon Poussey's death at the hands of a prison officer. Wiley's wife, Lauren Morelli, is a writer on the show.  In between seasons of \"Orange Is the New Black\", Wiley filmed \"Rob the Mob\" (2014), an independent crime film directed by Raymond De Felitta. She appeared in an advertisement for the digital monetary service PayPal in 2014. In 2015, Wiley featured in the 21st episode of the 16th season of \"\", \"Perverted Justice\", portraying a young adult wishing to recant her rape accusation of her father when she was 6 years old, and set him free. In December 2015, it was announced Wiley had been cast to voice the titular character in the video game \"The Walking Dead: Michonne\". The game was released by Telltale Games in February 2016. In 2017, she narrated one of two versions of Max Brooks' book, \"Minecraft: The Island: A Novel\". Wiley also starred in a film called \"37\" (2016), a true story of thirty-seven people who witness a murder and none call the police or intervene. In 2016, she starred in a new play by Quiara Alegría Hudes called \"Daphne's Dive\".  She competed against \"New Black\" co-star Laverne Cox in an episode of Spike's \"Lip Sync Battle\". With performances of \"Un-Break My Heart\" by Toni Braxton and \"O.P.P.\" by Naughty by Nature, Wiley emerged victorious.  Wiley was featured in \"Maniac Magazine\", appearing on the cover and in an editorial of the 2014 September/October issue displaying \"a series of bold, chic, high fashion looks.\" She was also featured on the cover of 2014 edition of \"Out\" magazine, along with Sam Smith, Ellen Page, and Zachary Quinto.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "In 2014, Wiley was named \"Out\" magazine's Ingenue of the Year. In February 2015, she was awarded the Human Rights Campaign's Visibility Award. According to the Human Rights Campaign's website, Wiley was always accepted and embraced by her parents, regardless of her sexuality, and to this she attributes her success.  In 2017, Wiley received a Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her role in the Hulu series \"The Handmaid's Tale\", going on to win Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series the following year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "On October 4, 2016, Wiley announced her engagement to \"Orange Is the New Black\" writer Lauren Morelli. They married on March 25, 2017. In November 2017, Wiley was nominated to \"Out\" magazine's \"OUT100\" for 2017 in recognition of her work and her visibility.  She is the aunt of actor Asante Blackk, one of the stars of Netflix's acclaimed limited series \"When They See Us\" and NBC's \"This Is Us\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Samira Denise Wiley (born April 15, 1987) is an American actress. She is best known for her starring role as Poussey Washington in the Netflix comedy-drama series \"Orange Is the New Black\" (2013–2019) and as Moira in the Hulu dystopian drama series \"The Handmaid's Tale\" (2017–present), for which she won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977600}
{"src_title": "Sir George Grey, 2nd Baronet", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Grey was the only son of Sir George Grey, 1st Baronet, third son of Charles Grey, 1st Earl Grey, and younger brother of Prime Minister Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey. His mother was Mary Whitbread, daughter of Samuel Whitbread. Grey was educated privately and at Oriel College, Oxford. Originally intending to become a priest, he instead chose law as his profession, and was called to the bar in 1826. He began a successful legal practice, but soon turned to politics.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career, 1832–1853.", "content": "Grey was elected to parliament as a Whig for Devonport in 1832, and quickly made his mark in the House of Commons. He did not hold office in the Whig administration of his uncle Lord Grey, but when Lord Melbourne became Prime Minister in 1834, he was appointed Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. The government fell in December of that year, but returned to power in May 1835, when Grey resumed the post of Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies (succeeding William Ewart Gladstone). He retained this office until 1839, when he was made Judge Advocate General. The same year Grey was also admitted to the Privy Council. He was then briefly Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in 1841, with a seat in the cabinet for the first time. However, the Whigs were defeated in the general election of that year.  The Whigs returned to power in July 1846 under Lord John Russell, who appointed Grey Home Secretary, the first of his three spells in this position. In 1846, Grey, \"himself a zealous advocate of hydropathy\" succeeded in getting passed The Baths and Washhouses Act, which promoted the voluntary establishment of public baths and washhouses in England and Wales. A series of statutes followed, which became known collectively as \"The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896\". This was an important milestone in the improvement of sanitary conditions and public health in those times. He decided to leave his seat at Devonport, partly owing to the baths scandal, returning instead for his native Northumberland North in an 1847 by-election, from the family seat at Fallodon, which he had recently inherited from his uncle, Henry Grey.  The new baronet sat throughout the parliament in active support of Lord John Russell, until the collapse of the ministry after the scandal of the Durham Letter, and controversial Ecclesiastical Titles bull. Traditional Whigs were Protestant, among them Grey, but the liberality of authorising a catholic hierarchy changed the nature of party politics. Grey's first tenure at the Home Office notably saw him deal with relief efforts to the victims of the Irish Potato Famine and trying to subdue the Irish rebellion of 1848. The latter year also saw the peak of the Chartist movement, which staged a massive rally in London in April. In 1847, Grey had left his old constituency in Devonport. He remained Home Secretary until the 1852 general election, when, despite enjoying widespread popularity, he lost his seat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career, 1853–1874.", "content": "Grey remained out of parliament until January 1853, when he was returned for Morpeth. He at first refused to join the coalition government of Lord Aberdeen, but in June 1854 he accepted the post of Colonial Secretary. The coalition fell in February 1855, and the Whigs returned to office under Lord Palmerston. Grey was appointed to his old office of Home Secretary, which he retained until the government resigned in February 1858. The Conservative administration under the Earl of Derby which took office only lasted until June the following year, when Palmerston again became Prime Minister. Grey was now appointed Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, but in 1861 he became Home Secretary for the third time. The government fell in 1866, and Grey was not to hold office again. Before the 1874 general election, he was overlooked as the Liberal candidate for Morpeth in favour of miners' leader Thomas Burt. This marked the end of Grey's public life and he spent the remainder of his life in retirement at his Fallodon estate in Northumberland. In 1873 Grey took his grandson, Edward on a tour of Scotland. The train they were travellers in, pulled in at the tiny village halt of Kingussie in the Highlands, where they were met on the platform by none other than William Gladstone.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Grey married Anna Sophia Ryder, eldest daughter of Henry Ryder, Bishop of Lichfield, a son of the Earl of Harrowby. They had one son, George Henry Grey (1835–1874). As his only son had predeceased him, he was succeeded in the baronetcy by his grandson, Edward. He was also to become a prominent Liberal politician, and served as Foreign Secretary from 1905 to 1916, when he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Grey of Fallodon.  George Grey was an affectionate family man, a good sense of humour and quickness of mind. He was widely welcomed by a wide variety of friends. A devoted grandfather of seven, he often accompanied out riding, even until eighty years old. Ever an enthusiastic sportsman he encouraged his family to play tennis. He was a keen reader of the classics, with a great knowledge of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew; Shakespeare's plays, Walter Scott's poetry were part of their education. To the end he was conscientious of his children's welfare. He died with them around him, aged eighty-three. His eldest grandson, Edward inherited the estate at Fallodon, near Alnwick. His son and heir was:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notes.", "content": "\"a. Online searches for reference to the relevant acts have so far yielded listings from the London Gazette. See also the Parliamentary Archives website.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sir George Grey, 2nd Baronet, PC (11 May 1799 – 9 September 1882) was a British Whig politician. He held office under four Prime Ministers, Lord Melbourne, Lord John Russell, Lord Aberdeen, and Lord Palmerston, and notably served three times as Home Secretary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977601}
{"src_title": "Constantine Phipps, 1st Marquess of Normanby", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Normanby was the son of Henry Phipps, 1st Earl of Mulgrave and Martha Sophia, daughter of Christopher Thompson Maling. His great-grandfather William Phipps had married Lady Catherine Annesley, who was the daughter and heiress of James Annesley, 3rd Earl of Anglesey and his wife Lady Catherine Darnley (an illegitimate daughter of King James II by his mistress Catherine Sedley, Countess of Dorchester). Lady Catherine Darnley had later married John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, and hence Constantine Phipps, 2nd Earl of Mulgrave and later 1st Marquess of Normanby was the step-great-great-grandson of the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby. He was educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was the second President of the Cambridge Union Society.  Lt.-Gen. Sir Henry Warre was his first cousin, born to his mother's youngest sister, who married Sir William Warre.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "After attaining his majority, he was returned on his father's interest for Scarborough in 1818. However, in the summer of 1819, he began to break with his family's Tory politics, and signalised his conversion to the Whigs by joining Brooks' Club on 3 December. When Parliament was dissolved in 1820, Normanby was in Florence, Italy, to which he was a regular visitor. His brother Charles kept up the family interest with the Scarborough corporation, and Normanby was returned in absentia in March, despite being politically at odds with his father. This state of affairs was not to last long: in May, Normanby was compelled to take the Chiltern Hundreds by Lord Mulgrave, to vacate the seat for Mulgrave's brother Edmund.  His standing as a former Tory minister's son made Normanby valuable to the Whigs, and they hoped to return him to Parliament in another seat. An attempt was made to have him put in at St Ives at a by-election in 1821, but support proved to be lacking, and Normanby withdrew without contesting the seat. The illness and death of William Plumer in the beginning of 1822 allowed him to take his seat in February for Higham Ferrers, a pocket borough of the Whig grandee Earl Fitzwilliam. He made a considerable reputation by political pamphlets and by his speeches in the house. He was returned for Malton at the general election of 1826, another one of Fitzwilliam's boroughs. He was already known as a writer of romantic tales, \"The English in Italy\" (1825); in the same year he made his appearance as a novelist with \"Matilda\", and in 1828 he produced another novel, \"Yes and No\". He declined to be nominated again for Malton in 1830, anticipating the imminent death of his father, and was thus out of Parliament when Lord Grey formed a government in November 1830. Normanby hoped for employment by the foreign office, but none was forthcoming. Through Lord Durham, Normanby solicited a writ in acceleration from Grey in early 1831, which would have brought him up to the House of Lords before his father's death; but Normanby succeeded to the Earldom of Mulgrave on his father's death in April, rendering it moot.  In 1832, Mulgrave was sent out as Governor of Jamaica and was afterwards appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (1835–1839). On his visit to Wexford in 1836 he heard a Congratulatory Address in the ancient Forth and Bargy dialect, then already on the point of becoming extinct. He was created Marquess of Normanby on 25 June 1838, and held successively the offices of colonial secretary and home secretary in the last years of Lord Melbourne's ministry. While Colonial Secretary, he wrote a letter of instructions to William Hobson, in which the government's policy for the sovereignty of New Zealand was set out.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diplomatic career.", "content": "From 1846 to 1852 he was ambassador at Paris, and from 1854 to 1858 minister at Florence. The publication in 1857 of a journal kept in Paris during the stormy times of 1848 (\"A Year of Revolution\"), brought him into violent controversy with Louis Blanc, and he came into conflict with Lord Palmerston and William Ewart Gladstone, after his retirement from the public service, on questions of French and Italian policy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Normanby married Maria Liddell (1798–1882), daughter of Thomas Liddell, 1st Baron Ravensworth, in 1818. He died in London on 28 July 1863, aged 66, and was succeeded in his titles by his son George. The Marchioness of Normanby died in October 1882, aged 84.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Constantine Henry Phipps, 1st Marquess of Normanby (15 May 1797 – 28 July 1863), styled Viscount Normanby between 1812 and 1831 and known as The Earl of Mulgrave between 1831 and 1838, was a British Whig politician and author. He notably served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland from 1835 to 1839 and as Home Secretary from 1839 to 1841 and was British Ambassador to France between 1846 and 1852.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977602}
{"src_title": "Henry Goulburn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Born in London, Goulburn was the eldest son of Munbee Goulburn, of London, by his wife Susannah, eldest daughter of William Chetwynd, 4th Viscount Chetwynd. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge.  Goulburn lived in Betchworth, Dorking in Betchworth House for much of his life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sugar plantation owner.", "content": "Goulburn's inheritance included a number of sugar estates in Jamaica, Amity Hall in the parish of Vere, now Clarendon Parish being the most important. Slave labour was still being used to work the sugar plantations when he inherited the estates.  Goulburn never visited Jamaica himself, due his health and political work; he relied on attorneys to manage his estates on his behalf. One attorney in particular, Thomas Samson, held the top job at the estate from 1802–1818 and earned a reputation for cruelty towards Goulburn's slaves.  By 1818 the income from his Jamaican estates halved to less than £3,000 'although he did console himself that the condition of his slaves had probably improved'.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 1808, Goulburn became Member of Parliament for Horsham. In 1810, he was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Home Affairs, and two and a half years later, he was made Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. It was in this capacity that James Meehan named Goulburn, New South Wales after him, a naming that was ratified by Governor Lachlan Macquarie. Still retaining office in the Tory government, he became a Privy Counsellor in 1821, and shortly afterwards was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, a position which he held until April 1827. Here, although he was frequently denounced as he was considered an Orangeman, he had a successful period of office on the whole, and in 1823 he managed to pass the Composition for Tithes (Ireland) Act 1823. In January 1828, he was made Chancellor of the Exchequer under the Duke of Wellington; like his leader, he disliked Roman Catholic emancipation, which he voted against in 1828.  In the domain of finance, Goulburn's chief achievements were to reduce the rate of interest on part of the national debt, and to allow anyone to sell beer upon payment of a small annual fee, a complete change of policy with regard to the drink traffic. Leaving office with Wellington in November 1830, Goulburn was Home Secretary under Sir Robert Peel for four months in 1835, and when this statesman returned to office in September 1841 he became Chancellor of the Exchequer for the second time. Although Peel himself did some of the chancellor's work, Goulburn was responsible for a further reduction in the rate of interest on the national debt, and he aided his chief in the struggle which ended in the repeal of the Corn Laws. With his colleagues, he left office in June 1846. After representing Horsham in the House of Commons for over four years, Goulburn was successively member for St Germans, for West Looe, and for the city of Armagh. In May 1831, he was elected for Cambridge University, and he retained this seat until his death.  According to the \"Legacies of British Slave-Ownership\" at the University College London, Goulburn was awarded a payment as a slave trader in the aftermath of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 with the Slave Compensation Act 1837. The British Government took out a £15 million loan (worth £ in ) with interest from Nathan Mayer Rothschild and Moses Montefiore which was subsequently paid off by the British taxpayers (ending in 2015). Goulburn was associated with two different claims, he owned 277 slaves in Jamaica and received a £5,601 payment at the time (worth £ in ).  Goulburn was a member of the Canterbury Association from 27 March 1848.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Frederick Goulburn (1788–1837), the first Colonial Secretary of New South Wales, was his younger brother. Henry Goulburn married the Hon. Jane, third daughter of Matthew Montagu, 4th Baron Rokeby, in 1811. They had four children. He died on 12 January 1856, aged 71. His wife died the following year.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry Goulburn PC FRS (19 March 1784 – 12 January 1856) was a British Conservative statesman and a member of the Peelite faction after 1846.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977603}
{"src_title": "Legends of Tomorrow", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Premise.", "content": "Rip Hunter, a member of the Time Masters, an organization tasked with protecting the timeline, goes rogue after Vandal Savage murders his family. Intending to stop him, Hunter recruits a team of \"Legends\" consisting of Ray Palmer / Atom, Sara Lance / White Canary, Martin Stein and Jefferson \"Jax\" Jackson / Firestorm, Kendra Saunders / Hawkgirl, Carter Hall / Hawkman, Leonard Snart / Captain Cold, and Mick Rory / Heat Wave. Season one sees the team confronting Savage as well as the Time Masters. The team destroys the organization, though they lose Snart and Rip in the process.  In season two, with the Time Masters defeated, the team guard the timeline themselves, all while coping with Rip's disappearance. However, they learn that another time-travelling team called the Legion of Doom, consisting of Eobard Thawne / Reverse Flash, Damien Darhk, Malcolm Merlyn, and a past version of Snart, are after the Biblical Spear of Destiny so they can alter their fates. Along the way, the Legends are joined by Justice Society of America member Amaya Jiwe / Vixen and modern-day historian Nate Heywood / Steel, who later acquires the power to become solid metal.  In season three, the team discovers that they created anachronisms throughout time after beating the Legion, though Rip has formed the Time Bureau to help fix them. He also informs them that Nora Darhk has resurrected her father, Damien, as well as recruited Amaya's villainous granddaughter, Kuasa, and enemy of the Flash, Gorilla Grodd, so that they can release the demon Mallus. Though the team loses Firestorm, they are joined by Zari Tomaz, a hacktivist from 2042 who wields an air-controlling amulet, and Wally West / Kid Flash, a speedster who trained under the Flash. Time Bureau agent and later director Ava Sharpe also starts working closely with the team, entering a relationship with Sara. Upon defeating Mallus, Amaya returns home to Zambesi while Wally departs to find his own way.  In season four, occult detective John Constantine joins the team to help them hunt down magical fugitives that have been scattered throughout the timeline following the team's battle with Mallus. In the process, they eventually discover that events surrounding the creatures have been orchestrated by the demon Neron, who Constantine has faced before. The Legends are joined by the shapeshifter Charlie, who becomes stuck in Amaya's physical form after losing her powers, Mona Wu, who has the ability to turn into a Kaupe, and a reformed Nora, who becomes a fairy godmother.  In season five, Astra Logue resurrects several evil historical figures called Encores to get revenge on Constantine for sending her to Hell. Amidst the Legends' efforts to stop her, Charlie is revealed to be Clotho of the Fates, and her sisters, Atropos and Lachesis, seek revenge on her for destroying the Loom of Fate. Due to time distortions from their final battle with Neron, Zari was replaced by her brother, Behrad Tarazi, before he and Nate helped her rejoin them. While Mona, Ray, and Nora leave the Legends to live out their lives, Ava and former Time Bureau agent Gary Green join the team after the Bureau gets shut down.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "DC's Legends of Tomorrow, or simply Legends of Tomorrow, is an American superhero television series developed by Greg Berlanti, Marc Guggenheim, Andrew Kreisberg, and Phil Klemmer, who are also executive producers along with Sarah Schechter and Chris Fedak; Klemmer and Fedak serve as showrunners. The series, based on the characters of DC Comics, airs on The CW and is a spin-off featuring characters introduced in \"Arrow\" and \"The Flash\" along with new characters, set in the Arrowverse, the same fictional universe. It is the fourth series in the Arrowverse, after \"Arrow\", \"The Flash\", and \"Supergirl\". The series premiered in January 2016. \"Legends of Tomorrow\" has been renewed for a fifth season, which premiered in January 2020. In January 2020, The CW renewed the series for a sixth season, which is set to premiere in midseason 2021.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977604}
{"src_title": "Portrait of Juan de Pareja", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1649, as court painter to Philip IV of Spain, Diego Velázquez was sent to Rome to purchase works of art for the Alcázar in Madrid. Velázquez brought with him Juan de Pareja, an enslaved man, who served as an assistant in the artist's workshop. During his stay in Rome, Velázquez executed an oil painting of Juan de Pareja, which was displayed as part of a larger exhibition of paintings at the Pantheon on 19 March 1650. According to Antonio Palomino's biography of Velázquez, the painting \"was generally applauded by all the painters from different countries, who said that the other pictures in the show were art but this one alone was 'truth'.\"  Velázquez painted the portrait of Juan de Pareja, who was a Morisco from the city of Antequera in southern Spain, in his workshop, as an exercise in preparation for his official portrait of Pope Innocent X. The Pope, a ruddy-faced man who would be depicted in the bright pink and crimson robes of his office, presented a tricky study in both color and composition. Additionally, since he would be executing a portrait from life, Velázquez would be forced to work quickly while still capturing the essence of Innocent X's character. The \"Portrait of Juan de Pareja\" reflects Velázquez's exploration of the difficulties he would encounter in the Pope's portrait. To compensate for a restricted palette of colors, Velázquez adopted a loose, almost impressionistic style of brushwork to bring an intense vitality to his subject.  Juan de Pareja (circa 1610 – 1670) became an artist in his own right, and in 1654 he was freed by Velázquez.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Provenance and copies.", "content": "The painting's ownership between its first exhibition at the Pantheon in Rome in 1650 and the end of the eighteenth century is unknown. There is no record of the painting in Spain. The earliest record of the ownership of the painting was in essay written in 1765 by Francisco Preciado, Director of the Royal Spanish Academy in Rome. He stated that the painting owned by Cardinal Trajano D'Acquaviva (1694–1747) who lived in Rome.  The painting then reappears in the record as part of the dukes of Baranello's collection in Naples sometime in the 1700s. It was recorded as part of the collection of Sir William Hamilton, the British Ambassador to the Kingdom of Naples from 1764 to 1798. The inventory of his residence in Naples, Palazzo Sessa, lists \"a portrait of a Moresco slave by Velazquez.\" Hamilton sent the portrait and his other works of art to London for safekeeping, on board the ship HMS Fondroyant the flagship of Lord Nelson, when he left Naples. Hamilton returned to England heavily in debt and the portrait was auctioned at Christie's in 1801. The auction catalogue listed the painting as Velazquez's \"Portrait of a Moorish Slave, that was in his service, and became a great Painter\". It sold for 39 guineas and disappeared from the record again.  It later surfaces in the collection of Jacob Pleydell-Bouverie, 2nd Earl of Radnor at Longford Castle, Salisbury. In a catalogue of the Radnor family's collection, published in 1909, stated that the portrait was part of the collection by 1814 and may have been acquired in 1811. It remained in the ownership of the Radnor family for over 150 years until it was sold at Christie's in London for the record sum of £2,310,000 (or 2,200,000 guineas or $5,544,000) on 27 November 1970. It was the first painting to sell for more than a £1,000,000, setting a new record for the price of paintings sold at auction.  Alec Wildenstein of Wildenstein & Company bid for the painting acting on behalf of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The painting was acquired by the Museum in 1971, principally with through from the Fletcher Fund, with an understanding the two million dollars would be paid back over time with income generated from the Rogers Fund, Fletcher Fund and other funds \"restricted to buying funds\". The painting is considered one of the \"most important acquisitions in the Museum's history\". Theodore Rousseau, when Curator-in-Chief of the Museum, stated that the painting was \"one of the finest works of art to come on the market in our time.\"  The finest and best-known copy belongs to the Hispanic Society of America, New York. The Hispanic Society's copy is believed to have been painted from the original while it was in the collection of the earl of Radnor at Longford Castle. Some believe Hispanic Society copy was painted by the sitter himself, Juan de Pareja.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy and influence.", "content": "The portrait inspired the famous 1965 novel \"I, Juan de Pareja\" by Elizabeth Borton de Treviño. The novel was awarded the children's literary prize the Newbery Medal in 1966.  Velazquez's painting reinterpreted by surrealist painter Salvador Dalí in his 1960 work \"Portrait of Juan de Pareja, the Assistant to Velázquez\" which is in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art\".\" French-Senegalese artist Iba N'Diaye restaged the Velazquez portrait in his 1985–86 painting \"Juan de Pareja agresse par les chiens (Juan de Pareja menaced by dogs)\".  A central theme of the 2012 play \"Disgraced\" by Ayad Akhtar is a painting of the protagonist, a South Asian Muslim man, as painted by his white wife in the style of the \"Portrait of Juan de Pareja\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Portrait of Juan de Pareja is a painting by Spanish artist Diego Velázquez of his assistant Juan de Pareja, a notable painter in his own right, who was enslaved and owned by Velázquez at the time the painting was completed. Velázquez painted the portrait in Rome, while traveling in Italy, in 1650. It is the earliest known portrait of a Spanish man of African descent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977605}
{"src_title": "G-Eazy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "When Gillum was in the first grade, his mother left his father, an associate professor of art at CSU Fresno. Gillum moved in with his grandparents in Berkeley, California. They later moved to North Oakland, although Gillum continued to attend school in Berkeley. Gillum attended Loyola University New Orleans and graduated in 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2008–14: Career beginnings.", "content": "Starting out as a record producer, G-Eazy began working on singles while he was still a student at the Loyola University at New Orleans with his producer Christoph Andersson who also was a student there. He gained some recognition for being a part of the new hip hop scene back in the East Bay Area, joining with such artists as Lil B, Crohn and The Cataracs. He became a member of a local hip hop group called \"The Bay Boyz\", who had released several songs on their Myspace page. In 2010, G-Eazy was given an opportunity to open for some well-known artists, most notably Lil Wayne and Snoop Dogg.  G-Eazy's mixtapes at this period of time met with limited success. In August 2011, he released \"The Endless Summer\", with an updated version of the 1961 hit song \"Runaround Sue\", which garnered over four million views via YouTube. The music video was directed by Tyler Yee. The mixtape features guest appearances from Greg Banks, Erika Flowers and Devon Baldwin. In November 2011, Gillum embarked on a nationwide tour with Shwayze. \"My Life Is a Party\" was featured in the game \"\" on an in-game radio station.  On June 16, 2012, G-Eazy performed all United States dates on the annual Vans Warped Tour. On July 25, 2012, the Excellent Adventure Tour was announced, which featured Hoodie Allen and G-Eazy. The two performed in cities across the U.S., including Pittsburgh, St. Louis, Columbus, Des Moines, New Orleans, Atlanta, Austin, and Philadelphia. On September 26, 2012, G-Eazy released his first full-length album, \"Must Be Nice\". The album, which was completely independent of a label, landed at number 3 on the iTunes Hip-Hop Chart. On July 9, 2013, G-Eazy, alongside 2 Chainz, opened for Lil Wayne's \"America's Most Wanted Tour\". On December 15, 2013, G-Eazy and Master Chen B performed \"Lotta That\" from \"These Things Happen\" in New York City. On January 15, 2014, G-Eazy announced his \"These Things Happen Tour\" with Rockie Fresh, KYLE, and Tory Lanez accompanying him. The tour ran for 40 stops throughout the United States and Canada from February until April 2014.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014–16: \"These Things Happen\" and \"When It's Dark Out\".", "content": "On June 23, 2014, G-Eazy released his major-label debut album, \"These Things Happen\". The album topped the US \"Billboard\" Hip-Hop/R&B and Top Rap Albums charts, also earning him the number 3 spot on the US \"Billboard\" 200 and the Top Digital Albums Chart. The album has sold nearly 265,000 copies to date. On October 21, 2014, Gillum embarked on his sold-out \"From the Bay to the Universe\" tour. The tour traveled across the globe to countries like Australia and New Zealand. This was his first headlining tour overseas.  During the summer of 2015, G-Eazy played some of the main stages at a series of notable music festivals, including Lollapalooza, Electric Forest, Bonnaroo, Outside Lands, Made in America, and Austin City Limits. With the rise of his music career, Gillum has also taken up in interest in fashion by releasing a collaboration with Rare Panther in the fall of 2015 and being named GQ Magazine’s top 10 most stylish at New York Fashion Week. Gillum's second album, \"When It's Dark Out\", was released on December 4, 2015. On January 6, 2016, G-Eazy launched his second world tour. The tour saw G-Eazy tour the United States, Europe, and Australia. His single \"Me, Myself & I\", in collaboration with Bebe Rexha, peaked at number 7 on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100.  He co-headlined the Endless Summer tour with fellow rapper Logic, along with supporting acts YG and Yo Gotti, from June to August. Before the tour, he announced his new mixtape, Endless Summer II. He cancelled the tape due to problems with sample clearance. In May 2016, G-Eazy confirmed that he would be featured on Britney Spears' single \"Make Me...\". The single was released on July 15, 2016, and serves as the lead single from Spears' ninth studio album.  G-Eazy performed \"Make Me...\" and \"Me, Myself & I\" with Spears at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards and the 2016 iHeartRadio Music Festival.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017–18: \"Step Brothers\" and \"The Beautiful & Damned\".", "content": "Gillum released an EP with Guatemalan DJ Carnage called \"Step Brothers\" on March 27, 2017. He is currently working on his third label album. G-Eazy released his new single, a collaboration with singer Kehlani called \"Good Life\", which is a part of the eighth installment of the film franchise \"Fast & Furious\", titled \"The Fate of the Furious\". He is also featured in the new Dillon Francis single entitled \"Say Less\".  On June 14, 2017, G-Eazy announced through Instagram and Twitter that his next studio album, \"The Beautiful & Damned\", would be released in the fall of 2017. On November 8, 2017, the official release day was announced as December 15, as well as an accompanying short film.  On December 5, 2017, G-Eazy released his second single from \"The Beautiful & Damned\" titled \"Him & I\" with Halsey, with whom he was in a relationship. They performed the song together on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve of 2017. On February 27, 2019 G-Eazy released the single, \"West Coast\", featuring Blueface and released the video on March 28, 2019, adding ALLBLACK and YG.  On May 2, 2018, Gillum was arrested in Stockholm, Sweden on suspicion of assault, possession of narcotics and use of narcotics, after he allegedly punched a security guard and was found to have cocaine in his pocket. Gillum pleaded guilty to violent resistance, narcotics possession, and assault against an official in court on May 4. He was sentenced to probation, and ordered to pay a fine of $10,000 and a $900 compensation fee to the security guard he assaulted.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2019: \"B-Sides\", \"Scary Nights\" & \"These Things Happen Too\".", "content": "G-Eazy released an EP \"B-Sides\" on June 25, 2019, which contained the songs that wouldn't make it onto his upcoming album. This EP spawned the song \"Bang\" with American rapper Tyga. He later updated the EP on August 22 and September 19.  Gillum released the single \"I Wanna Rock\", featuring American rapper Gunna, as the lead single of his EP \"Scary Nights\", on October 16. The EP was released on October 18.  G-Eazy's upcoming fifth studio album, \"These Things Happen Too\", is expected to be released in 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Philanthropy and impact.", "content": "In 2018, G-Eazy headlined a concert for Bay Area fire relief that raised $15M, pulled out of H&M sponsorship deal after blowback about a, what some considered to be, racist sweatshirt advertisement, performed at an Everytown fundraiser on the eve of March For Our Lives, and used his platform to speak out about anti-gun violence. Also that year, G-Eazy launched the Endless Summer Fund, which is a non-profit dedicated to helping young people reach their full potential and strengthening the Bay Area community.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gerald Earl Gillum (born May 24, 1989), known professionally as G-Eazy, is an American rapper. His first major-label album, \"These Things Happen\", was released on June 23, 2014, and peaked at number 3 on the US \"Billboard\" 200. His second studio album, \"When It's Dark Out\", was released on December 4, 2015. It featured the single \"Me, Myself & I\", which reached the top 10 of the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100. His third album, \"The Beautiful & Damned\", was released on December 15, 2017, featuring \"No Limit\" which reached number 4 of the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100. His EP \"B-Sides,\" released on June 27, 2019 (updated on August 22 and September 19, 2019), included all the songs that didn't make it to his upcoming album \"These Things Happen Too,\" expected to be released in 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977606}
{"src_title": "Algernon Percy, 6th Duke of Northumberland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Northumberland was the eldest son of George Percy, Lord Lovaine, eldest son of Algernon Percy, 1st Earl of Beverley, a younger son of Hugh Percy, 1st Duke of Northumberland. From his father's succession as second Earl of Beverley in 1830, Percy was styled Lord Lovaine. In 1865, Lord Beverley inherited the dukedom of Northumberland from his first cousin, Algernon Percy, 4th Duke of Northumberland, and thenceforth Lovaine was styled Earl Percy. His mother was Louisa, daughter of the Hon. James Stuart-Wortley-Mackenzie, second son of Prime Minister John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute.  Lord Josceline Percy and Lieutenant-General Lord Henry Percy were his younger brothers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Northumberland sat in the House of Commons as Member of Parliament for Bere Alston between 1831 and 1832 and for Northumberland North between 1852 and 1865. He served Civil Lord of the Admiralty between 1858 and 1859 and as Paymaster-General and Vice-President of the Board of Trade in 1859 in Lord Derby's second government. The latter year he was also sworn of the Privy Council.  In 1867 he succeeded in the dukedom on the death of his father and entered the House of Lords. He joined the Earl of Beaconsfield's second government as Lord Privy Seal in 1878, with a seat in the cabinet, a post he held until the fall of the government in 1880.  Northumberland was also Lord Lieutenant of Northumberland between 1877 and 1899. He was made a Knight of the Garter in 1886.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Northumberland married Louisa, daughter of Henry Drummond, in 1845. She died in December 1890. Northumberland survived her by nine years and died in January 1899, aged 88. The Duke and his wife were buried in the Percy family vault in Westminster Abbey. He was succeeded in the dukedom by his eldest son, Henry, Earl Percy. Northumberland's second son Lord Algernon Percy was also a politician.  At the Percy seat Alnwick Castle, Northumberland, he enlisted Anthony Salvin to do considerable interior works in the neo-Gothic style, and purchased the collection of paintings amassed by the Roman painter Vincenzo Camuccini, to add to the pictures at Alnwick, swelled by the collection formerly at Northumberland House, The Strand, London, which was demolished in 1874.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Algernon George Percy, 6th Duke of Northumberland, (20 May 1810 – 2 January 1899), styled Lord Lovaine between 1830 and 1865 and Earl Percy between 1865 and 1867, was a British Conservative politician. He held office under the Earl of Derby as Paymaster-General and Vice-President of the Board of Trade in 1859 and under Benjamin Disraeli as Lord Privy Seal between 1878 and 1880.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977607}
{"src_title": "Civil War (band)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formation and \"The Killer Angels\" (2012-2014).", "content": "In April 2012, guitarists Rikard Sundén and Oskar Montelius, drummer Daniel Mullback, and keyboardist Daniel Mÿhr left the band Sabaton, of which they had been the founding members. They soon teamed up with Astral Doors vocalist Nils Patrik Johansson and soon bassist Stefan 'Pizza' Eriksson was recruited to form the band's lineup.  Initially signed to Despotz Records, the band released a self-titled EP in October 2012, and then immediately began working on their full length debut album. \"The Killer Angels\" was released in June 2013, and reached Gold status in Sweden only two months later. At the same time, the band began playing live shows at various festivals in Sweden, and went on their first tour of Europe in February 2014. Guitarist Petrus Granar was added to the lineup as a seventh full-time member.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Gods and Generals\" (2015).", "content": "The band then signed a deal with Napalm Records and began working on their second studio album, titled \"Gods and Generals\", which was released on May 2015. Shortly before the release of the first single from the album, \"Bay of Pigs\", the band announced that Oskar Montelius and Stefan Eriksson had both left Civil War. Rather than search for replacements, the band decided to continue as a five-piece.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"The Last Full Measure\" and new vocalist (2016-2018).", "content": "The band later released their third album, titled \"The Last Full Measure\" which was released on November 2016. Vocalist Nils Patrik Johansson departed the band a month later. The rest of the band members held open auditions for a new vocalist, finally settling on Kelly Sundown Carpenter, who was announced as the band's new vocalist on February 9, 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Upcoming fourth studio album (2019-present).", "content": "On August 2, 2019, the band released the first song with Carpenter on vocals, \"Dead Man's Glory\". They later announced on their website that they will soon start recording their fourth album.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Civil War is a power metal band from Falun, Sweden formed in 2012 by several former members of Sabaton. The band adopted the same lyrical themes of war and historical battles that were characteristic of Sabaton. However, unlike Sabaton, many of Civil War's songs focus on American history and conflicts, whereas Sabaton's songs are primarily about European history and conflicts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977608}
{"src_title": "James Gascoyne-Cecil, 4th Marquess of Salisbury", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Kensington, Beevor was educated at two independent schools; Abberley Hall School in Worcestershire, followed by Winchester College in Hampshire. He then went to the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, where he studied under the military historian John Keegan, before receiving a commission in the 11th Hussars on 28 July 1967. Beevor served in England and Germany and was promoted to lieutenant on 28 January 1969 before resigning his commission on 5 August 1970.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Beevor has been a visiting professor at the School of History, Classics and Archaeology at Birkbeck, University of London and at the University of Kent.  His best-known works, the best-selling \"Stalingrad\" and \"\", recount the World War II battles between the Soviet Union and Germany. They have been praised for their vivid, compelling style, their treatment of the ordinary lives of combatants and civilians and the use of newly disclosed documents from Soviet archives.  His \"The Spanish Civil War\" (1982) was later re-written as \"The Battle for Spain\" (2006), keeping the structure and some content from the earlier work, but using the updated narrative style of his \"Stalingrad\" book and also adding characters and new archival research from German and Russian sources.  Beevor's book \"The Second World War\" (2012) is notable for its focus on the conditions and grief faced by women and civilians and for its coverage of the war in East Asia, which has been called \"masterful\". Beevor's expertise has been the subject of some commentary; his publications have been praised as revitalizing interest in World War II topics and have allowed readers to reevaluate events such as D-Day from a new perspective. He has also appeared as an expert in television documentaries related to World War II.  Overall, his works have been translated into over 30 languages with over 6 million copies sold.  In August 2015, Russia's Yekaterinburg region considered the banning of Beevor's books, accusing him of Nazi sympathies, citing his lack of Russian sources when writing about Russia, and claiming he had promoted false stereotypes introduced by Nazi Germany during World War II. Beevor responded by calling the banning \"a government trying to impose its own version of history\", comparing it to other \"attempts to dictate a truth\", such as denial of the Holocaust and the Armenian Genocide.  In January 2018, Beevor's book about the Battle of Stalingrad was banned in Ukraine. Beevor told RFE/RL: \"I must say, this sounds absolutely astonishing. There's certainly nothing inherently anti-Ukrainian in the book at all.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Beevor is descended from a long line of writers, being a son of Kinta Beevor (born Janet Carinthia Waterfield, 22 December 1911 – 29 August 1995), who was the daughter of Lina Waterfield, an author and foreign correspondent for \"The Observer\" and a descendant of Lucie Duff-Gordon (author of a travelogue on Egypt). Kinta Beevor wrote \"A Tuscan Childhood\". Antony Beevor is married to biographer Artemis Cooper; they have two children, Nella and Adam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Beevor was appointed a Knight Bachelor in the 2017 New Year Honours for \"services in support of Armed Forces Professional Development\".  He is a \"Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres\", a member of Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana and a commander of the Order of the Crown.  Beevor was elected an honorary Fellow of King's College London in July 2016. He was also awarded an Honorary D.Litt. from the University of Bath in 2010, and an honorary doctorate from the University of Kent, awarded in 2004.  His book \"\" won the Runciman Prize, administered by the Anglo-Hellenic League for stimulating interest in Greek history and culture.  Beevor has been recognized with the 2014 Pritzker Military Museum & Library's Literature Award for Lifetime Achievement in Military Writing. Tim O'Brien, the 2013 recipient, made the announcement on behalf of the selection committee. The award carried a purse of $US 100,000.  In July 2016, he was awarded the Medlicott Medal for services to history by the UK based Historical Association.  Beevor also sits on the Council of the Society of Authors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Published works.", "content": "He has written thirteen books, novels and non-fiction. Antony Beevor has edited books, including:  He has also contributed to several other books, including:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "James Edward Hubert Gascoyne-Cecil, 4th Marquess of Salisbury, (23 October 1861 – 4 April 1947), known as Viscount Cranborne from 1868 to 1903, was a British statesman.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977609}
{"src_title": "Kingdom of Finland (1918)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Finland had declared independence from what was the Russian Empire, at that time embroiled in the Russian Civil War, on 6 December 1917. At the time of the declaration of independence, monarchists were a minority in the Finnish Parliament, and Finland was declared a republic. A civil war followed, and afterwards, while the pro-republican Social Democratic Party was excluded from the Parliament and before a new constitution was adopted, Frederick was elected to the throne of Finland on 9 October 1918.  Lithuania had already taken a similar step in July 1918, electing Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach and Count of Württemberg, as King Mindaugas II of Lithuania. In Latvia and Estonia, a \"General Provincial Assembly\" consisting of Baltic-German aristocrats had called upon the German Emperor, Wilhelm II, to recognize the Baltic provinces as a joint monarchy and a German protectorate. Adolf Friedrich, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, was nominated Duke of \"the United Baltic Duchy\" by the Germans.  At independence, Finland had, like the Baltic provinces, close ties with the German Empire. Germany was the only international power that had supported the preparations for independence, not least by training volunteers as Finnish Jäger troops. Germany had also intervened in the Finnish Civil War, despite its own precarious situation. Finland's position \"vis-a-vis\" Germany was already evolving towards that of a protectorate by spring 1918, and the election of Prince Frederick, brother-in-law of Wilhelm II, was viewed as a confirmation of the close relations between the two nations. The strongly pro-German prime minister, Juho Kusti Paasikivi, and his government offered the crown to Prince Frederick in October 1918.  The adoption of a new monarchist constitution had been delayed because it did not get the required qualified majority. The legitimacy of the royal election was based upon the Instrument of Government of 1772, adopted under King Gustav III of Sweden, when Finland had been a part of the Kingdom of Sweden. The same constitutional document had also served as the basis for the rule of the Russian Emperors, as Grand Dukes of Finland, during the 19th century.  Member of parliament Gustaf Arokallio suggested the monarchical designation \"Charles I, King of Finland and Karelia, Duke of Åland, Grand Duke of Lapland, Lord of Kaleva and the North\" (; ).  By 9 November 1918 the German emperor William II had abdicated and Germany was declared a republic. Two days later, on 11 November 1918, the armistice between the belligerents of World War I was signed. Little is known of the Allied powers' view regarding the possibility of a German-born prince as the King of Finland. However, warnings received from the West convinced the Finnish government of Prime Minister Lauri Ingmana monarchist himselfto ask Prince Frederick to give up the crown, which he had not yet come to wear in Finland.  The king-elect Frederick renounced the throne on 14 December 1918. Mannerheim, the leader of the Whites during the Finnish Civil War, was appointed as Regent. Republican parties won three-quarters of the parliament's seats in the election of 1919 and Finland adopted a republican constitution. In July 1919, Finland's first president Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg replaced Mannerheim as the first President of the Republic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other similar states.", "content": "During World War I, the German Empire participated in the creation of various client states in territories that had belonged to Russia. These states were nevertheless nominally fully independent and sovereign:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "There was an attempt to establish a monarchy in Finland in 1918 (; ). In the aftermath of the Finnish Declaration of Independence from Russia in December 1917 and the Finnish Civil War from January–May 1918, the victorious Whites in the Parliament of Finland considered making the newly independent Finland a kingdom and creating a monarchy. The attempt came to naught; the king-elect never reigned nor came to Finland, and republican victories in the next election ensured the proposal was abandoned.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977610}
{"src_title": "Piasecki VZ-8 Airgeep", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "To meet the US Army's requirement, Piasecki's design featured two tandem, three-blade ducted rotors, with the crew of two seated between the two rotors. Power was by two Lycoming O-360-A2A piston engines, driving the rotors by a central gearbox. The first of two aircraft ordered by the Army, initially designated the Model 59K Skycar (and later renamed Airgeep) by Piasecki and designated VZ-8P by the Army, flew on 22 September 1958. It was re-engined with a single Turbomeca Artouste IIB turboshaft replacing the two piston engines, flying in this form in June 1959. After being loaned to the U.S. Navy for evaluation as the Model 59N where it was fitted with floats, it was returned to the Army and its engine replaced by a lighter and more powerful Garrett AiResearch TPE331-6 engine.  The second prototype was completed to a modified design, designated Model 59H AirGeep II by Piasecki and VZ-8P (B) by the Army. It was powered by two Artouste engines, with ejection seats for the pilot and co-pilot/gunner and a further three seats for passengers. It was also fitted with a powered tricycle undercarriage to increase mobility on land.  The AirGeep IIs first flight occurred on 15 February 1962, piloted by \"Tommy\" Atkins.  While the Airgeep would normally operate close to the ground, it was capable of flying to several thousand feet, proving to be stable in flight. Flying low allowed it to evade detection by radar. Despite these qualities, and its superiority over the other two types evaluated by the US Army to meet the same requirement (the Chrysler VZ-6 and the Curtiss-Wright VZ-7), the Army decided that the \"Flying Jeep concept [was] unsuitable for the modern battlefield\", and concentrated on the development of conventional helicopters instead.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Piasecki VZ-8 Airgeep (company designation PA-59) was a prototype vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft developed by Piasecki Aircraft. The Airgeep was developed to fulfill a U.S. Army Transportation Research Command contract for a flying jeep in 1957. The flying jeep was envisioned to be smaller and easier to fly than a helicopter.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977611}
{"src_title": "Ant-Man", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Fictional character biography.", "content": "Over the years a number of different characters have assumed the title of Ant-Man, most of whom have been connected with the Avengers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hank Pym.", "content": "The original Ant-Man was Biophysicist and Security Operations Center expert Dr. Henry 'Hank' Pym; who decided to become a superhero after the death of his first wife Maria Trovaya, who had been a political dissident in Hungary. Falling in love with him and believing that his American citizenship would protect her, Hank and Maria traveled to Hungary shortly after their marriage to start their new life together. Unfortunately they were confronted by corrupt agents of the secret police. Hank was knocked unconscious and Maria was murdered. Pym was greatly distraught by his wife's death, and decided to do whatever he could in the future to battle injustice. After discovering a chemical substance, which he called Pym Particles, that would allow the user to alter his size, he armed himself with a helmet that could control ants. After that, Pym would shrink down to the size of an insect to become the mystery-solving Ant-Man, solving crimes and stopping criminals. He soon shared his discovery with his new girlfriend Janet van Dyne, who became his crime-fighting partner The Wasp, when he helped her avenge the death of her scientist father Vernon van Dyne who was killed by an alien unleashed by one of Vernon's own experiments. The duo would become founding members of the Avengers, fighting recurring enemies such as the mad scientist Egghead, the mutant Whirlwind, and Pym's own robotic creation Ultron. While Pym is the original Ant-Man, he has adopted other aliases over the years including Giant-Man, Goliath, Yellowjacket, and Wasp after Janet's presumed death in \"Secret Invasion\". Leaving his original persona vacant, his successors have taken up the Ant-Man role while Pym explored these other identities.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scott Lang.", "content": "Scott Lang was a thief who became Ant-Man after stealing the Ant-Man suit to save his daughter Cassandra \"Cassie\" Lang from a heart condition. Reforming from his life of crime, Lang soon took on a full-time career as Ant-Man with the encouragement of Hank Pym. He became an affiliate of the Fantastic Four, and later became a full-time member of the Avengers. For a period of time he dated Jessica Jones. He was killed by the Scarlet Witch along with the Vision and Hawkeye in \"Avengers Disassembled\", and his daughter took up his heroic mantle as Stature in the book \"Young Avengers\". He returned to life in 2011 in the mini series, \"The Children's Crusade\", but lost his daughter when she heroically sacrificed herself to stop a super charged Doctor Doom, who would later revive her during the AXIS.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eric O'Grady.", "content": "Eric O'Grady is the third character to take up the Ant-Man title. O'Grady is a low-level agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. who stumbles upon the Ant-Man suit in S.H.I.E.L.D.'s headquarters. A man of few morals and willing to lie, cheat, steal and manipulate in order to get ahead in life, Eric stole the armor for his own selfish plans, which included using his status as a \"super-hero\" to seduce women and humiliate and torment others. He had his own short-lived title before being part of other teams such as joining \"Avengers: The Initiative\" as his first team and then joining \"The Thunderbolts\" but more recently \"Secret Avengers\", where the character perished heroically while defending a child against the villain known as Father.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ant-Man is the name of several superheroes appearing in books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Stan Lee, Larry Lieber and Jack Kirby, Ant-Man's first appearance was in \"Tales to Astonish\" #35 (September 1962). The persona was originally the brilliant scientist Hank Pym's superhero alias after inventing a substance that can change size, but reformed thieves Scott Lang and Eric O'Grady also took on the mantle after the original changed his superhero identity to various other aliases, such as Giant-Man, Goliath, and Yellowjacket. Ant-Man has appeared in several films based on the Marvel character, such as \"Ant-Man\" (2015), \"\" (2016), \"Ant-Man and the Wasp\" (2018), and \"\" (2019).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977612}
{"src_title": "Jean-Marie Dorsenne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early career and involvement in the Revolutionary Wars.", "content": "Dorsenne's military career began in 1791, when he joined the army as a volunteer. He quickly rose through the ranks of the \"Armée du Nord\" and became captain, subsequently joining the \"Armée du Rhin\" and then the \"Armée d’Italie\". With the Army of Italy at the crossing of the Tagliamento (16 March 1797), Dorsenne's heroic conduct was noticed by commander-in-chief, general Napoleon Bonaparte, who promoted him to the rank of \"chef de bataillon\" (battalion commander). Bonaparte then enlisted Dorsenne's services for the Egyptian campaign, where the latter would display his usual bravery and would receive several battle wounds.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Napoleonic Wars.", "content": "In 1805, after Emperor Napoleon created the Imperial Guard, Dorsenne was admitted in this elite unit as a major and displayed remarkable bravery at the Battle of Austerlitz, which would gain him the rank of colonel, on 18 December 1805. Only a week later, he was once again promoted, to the rank of brigadier general. By the end of 1806, Dorsenne had taken command of the prestigious Foot Grenadiers of the Imperial Guard, which he soon had to lead in combat at the bloody Battle of Eylau. An impeccable officer, Dorsenne was created Count Lepaige in 1808. His elegance and robust physique brought him the nickname \"le beau Dorsenne\" (the handsome Dorsenne). After serving briefly in Spain, when the War of the Fifth Coalition broke out, Napoleon called him back to the newly created \"Grande Armée d'Allemagne\" and was given command of the Old Guard Infantry Division. After fighting at the battle of Ratisbon, Dorsenne had two horses killed under him at the battle of Aspern-Essling, subsequently receiving a serious head wound from a cannonball as he and his men were valiantly covering the retreat. He was promoted general of division soon after the battle and, after being present at the great battle of Wagram, was once again sent to Spain. There he was named governor of Burgos and then of the Old Castile.  On 25 July 1811, Napoleon recalled Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bessières as commander of the Army of the North because of his negative reports of the situation. Dorsenne was Bessières' replacement. Paul Thiébault later wrote that Dorsenne was a \"conceited imbecile\", but in the opinion of Charles Oman his record does not match with the accusations of his jealous subordinate. In particular, Dorsenne had the good sense to cooperate with other French commanders more than was normally seen in Spain.  However, by the beginning of 1812 Dorsenne began to suffer from violent headaches, an effect of the severe wound he had received at Essling. He was forced to come back to France, where he had to undergo a trepanation. General Dorsenne, comte Lepaige died soon after the operation. His name is inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe in Paris.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jean-Marie-Pierre-François Doursenne, called Dorsenne, count Lepaige (b. 30 April 1773 in Ardres; † 24 July 1812 in Paris) was a French military commander of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. He eventually became one of the senior commanders in the Imperial Guard.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977613}
{"src_title": "Agar.io", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "The objective of \"Agar.io\" is to grow a cell on a Petri dish by swallowing both randomly generated pellets (agar), which slightly increases a cell's mass, and smaller cells, without being swallowed by even larger cells. The browser version currently holds five game modes: FFA (Free-For-All), Battle Royale, Teams, Experimental and Party. The mobile version of the game includes FFA (Free-For-All), Rush Mode and Battle Royale. The goal of the game is to obtain the largest cell; players must restart from a small cell when all their cells are eaten by larger players or fountain viruses. Players can change their cell's appearance with predefined words, phrases, symbols or skins. The more mass a cell has, the slower it will move. Cells will gradually lose a small amount of mass over time.  Viruses are green, spiky circles that split cells that consume it. Viruses are normally randomly generated, but can also be generated when receiving enough mass, to the point of splitting into two, hence creating a new virus.  Players can split their cell into two, and one of the two evenly divided cells(if the mass of the original cell is odd, one cell will be slightly bigger than the other) will be shot in the direction of the cursor when the space bar was pressed. This can be used as a ranged attack to shoot a cell in order to swallow other smaller cells or to escape an attack and move quickly around the map. Split cells merge back into one cell if a bigger cell of the same player’s consumes it. Aside from feeding viruses, players can release a small fraction of their mass to feed other cells, an action commonly recognized as an intention to team with another player.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "\"Agar.io\" was announced on 4chan on 28 April 2015 by Matheus Valadares, a 19-year-old Brazilian developer. Written in JavaScript and C++, the game was developed in a few days. The game originally did not have a name, and users had to connect to Valadares' IP address in order to play. The name \"Agar.io\" was suggested by an anonymous user on 4chan, as other domain names such as cell.io were already taken. Valadares continued updating and adding new features to the game, such as an experience system and an \"experimental\" game mode for testing experimental features. One week later, \"Agar.io\" entered Steam Greenlight with Valadares announcing a future free-to-play version of the game for download. He planned to include features in the Steam version not available in the browser version, including additional gamemodes, custom styling, and an account system. It was approved for listing on Steam due to community interest. However, the Greenlight program was shut down in 2017, and the announced game has yet to be released.  On 24 July 2015, Miniclip published a mobile version of \"Agar.io\" for iOS and Android. Sergio Varanda, head of mobile at Miniclip, explained that the main goal of the mobile version was to \"recreate the gaming experience\" on mobile, citing the challenges with recreating the game on touchscreen controls.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Agar.io\" was released to a positive critical reception. Particular praise was given to the simplicity, competition, and mechanics of the game. \"Engadget\" described the game as \"a good abstraction of the fierce survival-of-the-fittest competition that you sometimes see on the microscopic level.\" \"Toucharcade\" praised its simplicity, strategic element, and \"personality.\"  Criticism was mainly targeted towards its repetitiveness and the controls of the mobile version. Tom Christiansen of \"Gamezebo\" was mixed on the game, saying that there was \"nothing to hold my attention\" and that it was \"highly repetitive, overall.\" \"Pocket Gamer\", reviewing the mobile version, described its controls as \"floaty.\"  Because it was frequently propagated through social media and broadcast on Twitch and YouTube, \"Agar.io\" was a quick success. The agar.io website (for the browser version) was ranked by Alexa as one of the 1,000 most visited websites and the mobile versions were downloaded more than ten million times during their first week. During 2015, \"Agar.io\" was Google's most searched video game. It was Google's second-most searched game in the United States in 2016. A 2015 press release by \"Miniclip\" stated that \"Agar.io\" was listed as the fifth top game on YouTube's list of top games.  \"Agar.io\" has inspired similar web games called \".io games\", including games with a similar objective but different characters, and games that incorporate elements of other genres like shooter games.  During the campaigns of the June 2015 Turkish elections, \"Agar.io\" was used in Turkey as a medium of political advocacy; many players were naming their cells after Turkish political parties and references, with alliances formed between players with similar political views, battling against other players with opposing views. Some political parties have used \"Agar.io\" in campaign posters as a symbol of support.  \"Agar.io\" was featured (including some details of its gameplay as well as a shot of an actual game) in \"Chapter 48\" of Netflix TV-series \"House of Cards\". Its gameplay was compared to the presidential campaigning.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Agar.io is a massively multiplayer online action game created by Brazilian developer Matheus Valadares. Players control one or more cells in a map representing a Petri dish. The goal is to gain as much mass as possible by eating agar and cells smaller than the player's cell while avoiding larger ones which can eat the player's cells. Each player starts with one cell, but players can split a cell into two once it reaches a sufficient mass, allowing them to control multiple cells. The name comes from the substance agar, used to culture bacteria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977614}
{"src_title": "George Cadogan, 5th Earl Cadogan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Cadogan was the eldest son of Henry Cadogan, 4th Earl Cadogan, by his wife Mary, daughter of Reverend Gerald Wellesley, younger brother of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. He was born in the city of Durham and baptised at St James's, Westminster, London. He was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military Service.", "content": "As Viscount Chelsea, Cadogan served as a Major in the 5th (Militia) Battalion of the Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment) from 1865 to 1872; he was later Honorary Colonel of the battalion from 1886, and of the 2nd (South) Middlesex Rifle Volunteers from 1892 to 1902.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In the 1868 general election, he stood unsuccessfully as parliamentary candidate for Bury, Lancashire but was successfully returned as Member of Parliament for Bath in a by-election in May 1873, just before he was ennobled on the death of his father on 8 June and had to move to the House of Lords. He was made Under-Secretary for War in 1875 and Under-Secretary to the Colonies in 1878 by Disraeli.  He served under Lord Salisbury as Lord Privy Seal from 1886 to 1892 (after 1887 in the Cabinet), and again in the cabinet as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland from 1895 to 1902. In the latter office, he supported the Land Act of 1896 which enabled Irish tenants to buy their homes from their landlords' estates and pressed the Treasury for more liberal terms than initially intended, appointed commissions to investigate intermediate education (1899) and university education (1901), and sponsored the Act of 1899 that created a department of agriculture, industries and technical education for Ireland.  He was first Mayor of Chelsea in 1900 and a Justice of the Peace for the counties of Middlesex, Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, Suffolk and London.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philanthropy.", "content": "By 1888, at the initiative of the Fifth Earl, building work was well under way at the south-eastern end of London's Sloane Street to rebuild Holy Trinity Church to the design of the leading Arts and Crafts architect John Dando Sedding. Cadogan funded the entire initial operation, including the commissioning of numerous fittings for the new building by leading sculptors and designers including Henry Wilson (who assumed overall artistic control when Sedding died prematurely), Onslow Ford, Edward Burne-Jones, William Morris, Nelson Dawson and Henry Hugh Armstead. Money was found for the installation of a great organ by James John Walker, which quickly became famous for its cathedral-like effect in the opulent acoustic of the building. The church (and its fittings, including the organ) remain a testament to a very particularly focussed example of aristocratic patronage.  As Lord of the Manor of Chelsea he held large estates there, much of which he dedicated to houses for the working class.  During his lifetime Lord Cadogan commissioned a mausoleum for family interments at Brookwood Cemetery but in 1910 he decided he no longer wanted to be interred in the mausoleum. This building, the largest mausoleum in the cemetery, was bought by the cemetery owners, the London Necropolis Company, fitted with shelves and niches to hold urns, and used as a dedicated columbarium from then on.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "On 16 May 1865, he married Lady Beatrix Craven, fourth daughter of William Craven, 2nd Earl of Craven. They had nine children:  He bought Culford Park, Culford, Suffolk, in 1889 as a family home. It is now a private school.  Lord Cadogan's wife died in 1907 and on 12 January 1911, he married his first cousin once removed, Adele, daughter of Lippo Neri, Count Palagi del Palagio and Olivia Georgiana Cadogan. Lord Cadogan died in Chelsea, London, on 6 March 1915, aged 74. The Countess Cadogan died in February 1960.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "George Henry Cadogan, 5th Earl Cadogan, (12 May 1840 – 6 March 1915), styled Viscount Chelsea from 1864 to 1873, was a British Conservative politician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977615}
{"src_title": "Charles Yorke, 4th Earl of Hardwicke", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Born at Sydney Lodge, in Hamble le Rice, Hardwicke was the eldest son of Admiral Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke, second son of Charles Yorke, Lord Chancellor, by his second wife, Agneta Johnson. He was a nephew of Philip Yorke, 3rd Earl of Hardwicke. He was educated at Harrow and at the Royal Naval College, where he was awarded the second medal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naval career.", "content": "Hardwicke entered the Royal Navy in May 1815 as midshipman on, the flagship at Spithead. Later, he served in the Mediterranean, on (18) and (74) then subsequently (100), the flagship of Lord Exmouth, by whom he was entrusted with the command of a gunboat at the bombardment of Algiers. He later joined (60) under the flag of Sir David Milne, on the North American station, where he was given the command of the \"Jane\", a small vessel carrying dispatches between Halifax and Bermuda. He was then appointed acting lieutenant of (18) and after a few months commissioned in the rank of lieutenant in August 1819. The next October, he joined the frigate on the Halifax station, until appointed to the command of in 1823 on the Mediterranean station, in this post he was employed, before and after he obtained the rank of captain in 1825, in watching the movements of the Turko-Egyptian forces and in the suppression of piracy.  Between 1828 and 1831, he took command of (28), on the same station and took an active part in the naval operation in connection with the struggle between Greece and Turkey. Lastly, between 1844 and 1845, for short periods, he assumed command of the steam yacht HMS \"Black Eagle\" and (120), in which he carried the Emperor of Russia, Nicholas I, to England. He attained flag rank in 1838. In 1849, while commanding, he acted as a mediator between the Mazzinian rebel and the Kingdom of Sardinia during the rebellion in Genoa following the defeat during the First War of Independence. For this actions, he was decorated by the Sardinian King Victor Emmanuel II with a Gold Medal of Military Valour, which he was authorized to accept by Queen Victoria only in 1855. In 1858, he retired from the active list with the rank of rear-admiral, becoming vice-admiral in the same year, and admiral in 1863. He retired from the Royal Navy in 1870.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Hardwicke represented Reigate in the House of Commons between 1831 and 1832 and Cambridgeshire between 1832 and 1834. In 1834, on the death of his uncle, he became the fourth Earl of Hardwicke, and inherited the substantial Wimpole estate in Cambridgeshire. He was a member of Lord Derby's cabinet in 1852 as Postmaster General and as Lord Privy Seal between 1858 and 1859. In 1852 he was sworn of the Privy Council.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Hardwicke married the Honourable Susan Liddell, sixth daughter of Thomas Liddell, 1st Baron Ravensworth, in August 1833. They had five sons and three daughters, including Charles Philip and Lady Mary Catherine, whose daughter Isabel Sophie married Charles Gordon-Lennox, 7th Duke of Richmond.  Hardwicke died in September 1873, aged 74, and was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son, Charles. The Countess of Hardwicke died in November 1886.  He also supposedly fathered an illegitimate child by one Charlotte Pratt, a serving girl at his Wimpole Hall home. Charlotte got married in 1849, and the following was noted in the marriage register:  \"The year before this marriage, 18-year-old servant girl Charlotte gave birth to a son, James Pratt, who was baptised on 2 April 1848. The father was understood to have been her employer, the 4th Earl of Hardwicke. \"Charlotte... was a Pratt; and she was a picture. The handsomest woman that I ever remember to have seen. In harvest time to see her swinging along the road with a bundle of corn balanced on her head, both arms akimbo, was a study in colour, figure and poise\". - A.C.Yorke\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Admiral Charles Philip Yorke, 4th Earl of Hardwicke, PC (2 April 1799 – 17 September 1873) was a British naval commander and Conservative politician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977616}
{"src_title": "Community resilience", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Community resilience planning.", "content": "A community resilience plan is an action plan that allows for a community to rebuild after disaster. The plan should entail specific guidelines that will aid the community to rebuild both the economy and the ecosystem that the community thrives on. This typically means there are measures in place that a community will follow, such as the distribution of volunteers, and the access to knowledge and resources necessary to rebuild. Adaptability is a key attribute which means prevention can occur in response or before disaster strikes. The National Institute of Standards and Technology has a Community Resilience department tasked with solving this problem. This agency has created a Community Resilience Planning Guide, and its aim is to assist communities with anticipating challenges through a practical application that takes into account the social needs of the community as well as dependencies on the \"built environment\" - buildings and infrastructure systems. The outline of the six step process is shown below:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Classification of hazards.", "content": "The scope of community resilience extends beyond natural disasters and include manmade events. Below are an example of disasters communities face on a daily basis:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dependencies and cascading failures.", "content": "Infrastructure systems such as buildings, water, electric power, transportation, and communication are all interconnected and interdependent networks or systems. This means that a failure in one network can have catastrophic impact on another system. When Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans, LA on August 23, 2005, it caused network outages in transportation and power networks which led to system failure and impedance in others such communication and emergency services.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Community resilience is the sustained ability of a community to use available resources (energy, communication, transportation, food, etc.) to respond to, withstand, and recover from adverse situations (e.g. economic collapse to global catastrophic risks). This allows for the adaptation and growth of a community after disaster strikes. Communities that are resilient are able to minimize any disaster, making the return to normal life as effortless as possible. By implementing a community resilience plan, a community can come together and overcome any disaster, while rebuilding physically and economically.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977617}
{"src_title": "Khaled al-Asaad", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life, education and family.", "content": "Al-Asaad was born in Palmyra in 1932, and lived there most of his life. He held a diploma in history and was educated at the University of Damascus. Al-Asaad was the father of eleven children: six sons and five daughters, one of whom was named Zenobia after the well-known Palmyrene queen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Archaeologist.", "content": "During his career, he engaged in the excavations and restoration of Palmyra. He had become the principal custodian of the Palmyra site for 40 years since 1963. His own expeditions focused on the late third-century ramparts of Palmyra. He worked with American, Polish, German, French and Swiss archaeological missions. His achievement is the elevation of Palmyra to a UNESCO World Heritage Site. He was also fluent in Aramaic and regularly translated texts until 2011.  From 1974 onward, Al-Asaad organised exhibitions of Palmyran antiques.  When he retired in 2003, his son Walid took over his work at Palmyra. They both were reportedly detained by ISIS in August 2015; the fate of his son is not yet known.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "It is believed that he joined the Syrian Ba'ath Party around 1954. However, it is not clear whether he was an active supporter of the Syrian government of Bashar al-Assad. According to \"The Economist\", some have said he was a \"staunch supporter\" of Assad.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "In May 2015, Tadmur (the modern city of Palmyra) and the adjacent ancient city of Palmyra came under the control of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS).  Al-Asaad helped evacuate the city museum prior to ISIS's takeover, but he himself was captured by ISIS during that time. He was then tortured in an attempt to get him to reveal the location of the ancient artefacts that he had helped to hide. He was murdered in Tadmur on 18 August 2015 at the age of 83.  \"The New York Times\" reported:After detaining him for weeks, the jihadists dragged him on Tuesday to a public square where a masked swordsman cut off his head in front of a crowd, Mr. Asaad's relatives said. His blood-soaked body was then suspended with red twine by its wrists from a traffic light, his head resting on the ground between his feet, his glasses still on, according to a photo distributed on social media by Islamic State supporters.  A placard hanging from the waist of his dead body listed al-Asaad's alleged crimes: being an \"apostate\", representing Syria at \"infidel conferences\", serving as \"the director of idolatry\" in Palmyra, visiting \"Heretic Iran\" and communicating with a brother in the Syrian security services.  His body was reportedly displayed in the new section of Palmyra (Tadmur) and then in the ancient section, whose treasures ISIS had already demolished.  In addition to al-Asaad, Qassem Abdullah Yehya, the Deputy Director of the DGAM Laboratories, also protected the Palmyra site. He also was killed by ISIL while on duty on 12 August 2015. He was 37 years old.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Khaled al-Asaad (,, January 1932 – 18 August 2015) was a Syrian archaeologist and the head of antiquities at the ancient city of Palmyra, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. He held this position for over 40 years. Al-Asaad was publicly beheaded by the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) on 18 August 2015, at the age of eighty three.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977618}
{"src_title": "Clickbait", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Definition.", "content": "A defining characteristic of clickbait is misrepresentation in the enticement presented to the user to manipulate them to click onto a link. While there is no universally agreed-upon definition of clickbait, Merriam-Webster defines clickbait as \"something designed to make readers want to click on a hyperlink, especially when the link leads to content of dubious value or interest.\" Dictionary.com is states that clickbait is \"a sensationalized headline or piece of text on the Internet designed to entice people to follow a link to an article on another web page.\"  BuzzFeed editor Ben Smith states that his publication doesn't do clickbait, using a strict definition of clickbait as a headline that is dishonest about the content of the article. Smith notes that Buzzfeed headlines such as \"A 5-Year-Old Girl Raised Enough Money To Take Her Father Who Has Terminal Cancer To Disney World\" deliver exactly what the headline promises. The fact that the headline is written to be eye-catching is irrelevant in Smith's view since the headline accurately describes the article.  Facebook, while trying to reduce the amount of clickbait shown to users, defined the term as a headline that encourages users to click, but doesn't tell them what they will see. However, this definition excludes a lot of content that is generally regarded as clickbait.  A more commonly used definition is a headline that intentionally over-promises and under-delivers. The articles associated with such headlines often are unoriginal, and either merely restate the headline, or copies content from a more genuine news source.  The term clickbait is sometimes used for any article that is unflattering to a person. In such cases, the article is not actually clickbait by any legitimate definition of the term.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background.", "content": "From a historical perspective, the techniques employed by clickbait authors can be considered derivative of yellow journalism, which presented little or no legitimate well-researched news and instead used eye-catching headlines that included exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering, or sensationalism. One cause of such sensational stories is the controversial practice called checkbook journalism, where news reporters pay sources for their information without verifying its truth. In the U.S. it is generally considered an unethical practice, as it often turns celebrities and politicians into lucrative targets of unproven allegations. According to \"Washington Post\" writer Howard Kurtz, \"this thriving tabloid culture has erased the old definitions of news by including tawdry and sensational stories about celebrities for the sake of profit.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use.", "content": "For sites that thrive on thousands of click-throughs to content, many authors see the use of clickbait as a means to tap into human psyche by crafting these eye-catching headlines. There are also those who use this method for phishing attacks for the purpose of spreading malicious files or stealing user information. The attack occurs once the user opens the link provided to learn more. Clickbait has also been used for political ends and has been blamed for the rise of post-truth politics. Katherine Viner, editor-in-chief at \"The Guardian\" wrote that \"chasing down cheap clicks at the expense of accuracy and veracity\" undermined the value of journalism and truth. Emotional subjects with stark headlines are widely shared and clicked, which resulted in what \"Slate\" described as an \"aggregation of outrage\" and a proliferation of websites across the political spectrum – including \"Breitbart News\", \"Huffington Post\", \"Salon\", \"Townhall\" and the Gawker Media blogs – which profited by producing shareable short-form pieces offering simple moral judgements on political and cultural issues.  There are various clickbait strategies, including the composition of headlines of news and online articles that build suspense and sensation, luring and teasing users to click. Some of the popular approaches in achieving these include the presentation of link and images that are interesting to the user, exploiting curiosity related to greed or prurient interest. It is not uncommon, for instance, for these contents to include lewd image or a \"make money quick\" scheme.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Backlash.", "content": "By 2014, the ubiquity of clickbait on the web had begun to lead to a backlash against its use. Satirical newspaper \"The Onion\" launched a new website, ClickHole, that parodied clickbait websites such as Upworthy and BuzzFeed, and in August 2014, Facebook announced that it was taking technical measures to reduce the impact of clickbait on its social network, using, among other cues, the time spent by the user on visiting the linked page as a way of distinguishing clickbait from other types of content. Ad blockers and a general fall in advertising clicks also affected the clickbait model, as websites moved toward sponsored advertising and native advertising where the content of the article was more important than the click-rate.  As problem attracted interest, tools have been developed to address the clickbait problem. Clickbait detection, for instance, has been integrated in browser applications while digital platforms where contents are shared such as Twitter have updated their respective algorithms to filter clickbait contents. Social media groups, such as Stop Clickbait, combat clickbait by giving a short summary of the clickbait article, closing the \"curiosity gap\". Clickbait reporting browser plug-ins have been also developed by the research community in order to report clickbait links for further advances in the field based on supervised learning algorithms. Security software providers offer advice on how to avoid harmful clickbait.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clickbait, a form of false advertisement, uses hyperlink text or a thumbnail link that is designed to attract attention and to entice users to follow that link and read, view, or listen to the linked piece of online content, with a defining characteristic of being deceptive, typically sensationalized or misleading. A \"teaser\" aims to exploit the \"curiosity gap\", providing just enough information to make readers of news websites curious, but not enough to satisfy their curiosity without clicking through to the linked content. Click-bait headlines add an element of dishonesty, using enticements that do not accurately reflect the content being delivered. The \"-bait\" part of the term makes an analogy with fishing, where a hook is disguised by an enticement (bait), presenting the impression to the fish that it is a desirable thing to swallow.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977619}
{"src_title": "Hungarian border barrier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Serbian border.", "content": "The border between Hungary and Serbia is long. In June 2015, the Hungarian cabinet approved construction of a high barrier. Construction of the barrier began in early July., Hungary was on track to complete the fence by the end of the year. The fence, which features concertina wire, is being built by contractors and a deployment of 900 soldiers at a cost of 30 billion forints ($106 million) for the 4-meter (13-foot) fence and the construction of two camps to house asylum applicants. By mid-August the barrier was taking shape as a double security fence. There is a hastily constructed outer fence made up of three rows of razor wire, scheduled to be completed by the end of August 2015. Inside that, there is a sturdier barrier 3.5 meters (11.5 feet) tall. The slow pace of the fence's construction led to the resignation of Csaba Hende, the Hungarian defence minister, on 7 September 2015. The first stage of construction was started on 13 July and it was completed and the border sealed by Monday, 14 September.  The immediate impact of the fence was to block entry to Hungary to migrants unwilling to apply for refugee status in Hungary, deflecting the flow to Croatia. As Croatia led the migrants to its border with Hungary, Hungary then started the construction of a second fence along its border with Croatia on 18 September 2015.  On 16 September 2015, migrants prevented by the new fence by crossing the border near Horgoš, Serbia, and Röszke, Hungary, reacted by surging forward and pushing or tearing away a section of the new fence. Hungarian riot police responded with tear gas, causing the migrants to fall back, then regroup and surge forward again, only to be met by another round of tear gas canisters and with water cannon. At this point, some of the migrants began tearing apart a decayed structure, to obtain chunks of concrete which, along with rocks were hurled at police as other rioters built debris fires, filling the air with smoke. The riot subsided as word spread the Hungarian police had opened a nearby gate, but as 200 or 300 migrants walked through the newly opened gate, Hungarian police \"surged forward\", swinging batons and firing tear gas into the crowd of migrants.  Hungary was widely criticized for its use of tear gas and water cannon against migrants attempting to enter the country. Hungary commented the border security: \"the official and legal ways to come to Hungary and therefore to the European Union remain open. That's all we ask from all migrants - that they should comply with international and European law\".  In April 2016, Hungarian government announced construction of reinforcements of the barrier, which it described as \"temporary\". In July 2016, nearly 1,300 migrants were \"stuck\" on the Serbian side of the border. In August 2016, Orbán announced that Hungary would build another larger barrier on its southern border. On 28 April 2017, the Hungarian government announced it had completed a second fence, long, on the Serbian border.  Funding of the construction of the Hungary-Serbia border fence and border hunters project has increased tension between Hungary and the other EU member states. In 2015, Hungary and Slovakia asked the Court of Justice of the European Union to annul the EU decision to relocate migrants. Although the opinions of the Court's Advocate Generals are not binding on the European Court of Justice, on 26 July 2017, the assigned Advocate General expressed the view that the Hungary and Slovakia claims should be dismissed. About a month after the Advocate General released his opinion, Hungary asked the European Commission to pay up. On 31 August 2017, the Hungarian government requested that the European Union refund half of the border barrier costs (€400 million). This request was denied by the President of the European Commission on 5 September 2017. The Court of Justice of the European Union dismissed Hungary and Slovakia's claims in a judgment dated 6 September 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Croatian border.", "content": "On 16 October 2015, Hungary, dissatisfied with EU efforts to coordinate border control, announced that it had completed the fence along the border with Croatia and would close the border at midnight. Since 17 October onwards, thousands of migrants daily were diverted to Slovenia instead.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Slovene border.", "content": "On 14 September 2015, Hungary began building a fence on its border with Slovenia, specifically in the area around the Tornyiszentmiklós-Pince border crossing. The razor wire obstacle were removed two days later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romanian border.", "content": "In mid-September 2015, Hungary was considering a barrier on part of the Romanian border in case of a shift in the migrant flow through this area. , everything is in place if Hungary decides to build a border barrier on the Hungarian-Romanian border—the military is \"only waiting for the command from the government\".  In October 2017, Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán offered to \"help Romania to protect its eastern borders\" and added that if illegal migration over Romanian territory continues to grow, Hungary will be forced to build a fence on the common border.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impact on the number of illegal migrants entering Hungary.", "content": "Attempted border entries fell following the barrier's construction. During the month of September 2015 there was a total number of 138,396 migrant entries, and within the first two weeks of November the average daily number of intercepted migrants decreased to only 15, which is a daily reduction of more than 4,500.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Environmental impact.", "content": "According to a correspondence published in \"Nature\" journal, the border barrier can entangle animals in razor wire and endangers wildlife by blocking animal migration, jeopardizing connectivity of species populations by habitat fragmentation (such as the lesser mole-rat).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In 2015, Hungary built a border barrier on its border with Serbia and Croatia. The fence was constructed during the European migrant crisis (see timeline), with the aim to ensure border security by preventing illegal immigrants from entering, and enabling the option to enter through official checkpoints and claim asylum in Hungary in accordance with international and European law. The number of illegal entries to Hungary declined greatly after the barrier was finished as it effectively abolished the access to asylum in Hungary.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977620}
{"src_title": "Vivaldi (web browser)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Vivaldi began as a virtual community website that replaced My Opera, which was shut down by Opera Software in March 2014. Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner was angered by this decision because he believed that this community helped make the Opera web browser what it was. Tetzchner then launched the Vivaldi Community—a virtual community focused on providing registered users with a discussion forum, blogging service, and numerous other practical web services—to make up for My Opera's closure. Later, on January 27, 2015, Vivaldi Technologies launched the first technical preview of the Vivaldi web browser. Its name comes from the Italian composer Antonio Vivaldi, which, according to one of its creators, is an easy name to be remembered and understood worldwide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "User interface.", "content": "Vivaldi has a minimalistic user interface with basic icons and fonts, and a color scheme that changes based on the background and design of the web page being visited. The browser also allows users to customize the appearance of UI elements such as background color, overall theme, address bar and tab positioning, and start pages. According to CEO Jon von Tetzchner, Vivaldi's vast, unique customizability is a huge part of how the browser caters to experienced users. Vivaldi features the ability to \"stack\" and \"tile\" tabs, annotate web pages, and add notes to bookmarks. Furthermore, users can place digital bookmarks on a \"speed dial\" page for quick access and harness \"quick commands\" to search bookmarks, browsing history, open tabs, and settings. Vivaldi is built around and based on web technologies such as HTML5, Node.js, React.js, and numerous NPM modules. As of Technical Preview 4, Vivaldi also supports numerous mouse gestures for actions like tab switching and keyboard activation. Vivaldi can also be set to a \"Chromeless UI\", which gives users more screen real-estate and the ability to focus on a single page without distractions. To accommodate users who prefer to use a large number of tabs at the same time, Vivaldi supports hibernation for both individual tabs and for tab stacks, freeing resources while the user does not actively use those tabs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Extensions.", "content": "As a Chromium-based browser, Vivaldi can use many browser extensions developed for Google Chrome, and users can install them directly from the Chrome Web Store. Most of these should work properly in Vivaldi, with the exception of user interface customizations, because Vivaldi's interface is quite different from Chrome's.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Future additions.", "content": "The company hopes to integrate an email client into a future version of the browser, and also plans to release their own extension platform.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Market share.", "content": "StatCounter estimates that Vivaldi had a 0.02% market share for desktop browsers in May 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Ars Technica\" reviewer Scott Gilbertson wrote about version 1.0 in April 2016. He praised its innovative features, such as its tab handling, while noting that it will most likely remain a niche browser and not see widespread uptake. In October 2018, Gilbertson gave version 2.0 a very positive review and stated that Vivaldi is now his usual browser and that he would be hard put to go back to a browser without its unique features.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vivaldi is a freeware, cross-platform web browser developed by Vivaldi Technologies, a company founded by Opera Software co-founder and former CEO Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner and Tatsuki Tomita. It was officially launched on April 6, 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977621}
{"src_title": "Metal injection molding", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Process.", "content": "In the monograph P.O. Gribovsky, published in 1956, describes in detail the technology of hot casting (hot molding) ceramic products under pressure (now, Low Pressure Powder Injection Molding) and, in particular, notes that \"hot casting technology provides the ability to manufacture products from any solid materials, ranging from natural minerals, pure oxides, carbides, metals, etc., and ending with multicomponent composite synthetic materials and their combinations\". This indication of the possibility of MIM-casting, which was implemented by Dr. Raymond E. Wiech Jr. in the 1970s, who refined MIM technology as co-founder of a California company named Parmatech, the name being condensed from the phrase \"particle materials technology\". Wiech later patented his process, and it was widely adopted for manufacturing use in the 1980s.  MIM gained recognition throughout the 1990s as improvements to subsequent conditioning processes resulted in an end product that performs similarly to or better than those made through competing processes. MIM technology improved cost efficiency through high volume production to \"net-shape\", negating costly, additional operations such as machining although MIM is weak in terms of tight dimensional specifications.  The process steps involve combining metal powders with polymers such as wax and polypropylene binders to produce the \"feedstock\" mix that is injected as a liquid into a mold using plastic injection molding machines. The molded or \"green part\" is cooled and ejected from the mold. Next, a portion of the binder material is removed using solvent, thermal furnaces, catalytic process, or a combination of methods. The resulting, fragile and porous (40 volume percent \"air\") part, is in a condition called the \"brown\" stage. To improve handling often the debinding and sintering are combined into a single process. Sintering heats the powder to temperatures near the melting point in a protective atmosphere furnace to densify the particles using capillary forces in a process called sintering. MIM parts are often sintered at temperatures nearly high enough to induce partial melting in a process termed liquid phase sintering. For example, a stainless steel might be heated to 1350 to 1400 degrees Celsius). Diffusion rates are high leading to high shrinkage and densification. If performed in vacuum, it is common to reach 96–99% solid density. The end-product metal has comparable mechanical and physical properties with annealed parts made using classic metalworking methods. Post sintering heat treatments for MIM are the same as with other fabrication routes, and with high density the MIM component is compatible with the metal conditioning treatments such as plating, passivating, annealing, carburizing, nitriding, and precipitation hardening.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Applications.", "content": "The window of economic advantage in metal injection molded parts lies in complexity and volume for small-size parts. MIM materials are comparable to metal formed by competing methods, and final products are used in a broad range of industrial, commercial, medical, dental, firearms, aerospace, and automotive applications. Dimensional tolerances of ±0.3% are common and machining is required for closer tolerances. MIM can produce parts where it is difficult, or even impossible, to efficiently manufacture an item through other means of fabrication. Ideally, at least 75 dimensional specifications in a component of just 25 mm maximum size and 10 g mass is best – as for example required for watch cases, cellular telephone plugs, and laptop computer hinges. Increased costs for traditional manufacturing methods inherent to part complexity, such as internal/external threads, miniaturization, or identity marking, typically do not increase the cost in a MIM operation due to the flexibility of injection molding.  Other design capabilities that can be implemented into the MIM operation include product codes, part numbers, or date stamps; parts manufactured to their net weight reducing material waste and cost; Density controlled to within 95–98%; Amalgamation of parts and Complex 3D Geometries.  The ability to combine several operations into one process ensures MIM is successful in saving lead times as well as costs, providing significant benefits to manufacturers. The metal injection molding process might be a green technology due to the significant reduction in wastage compared to \"traditional\" manufacturing methods such as 5 axis CNC machining. However, some of the older operations generate toxic emissions such as formaldehyde, dispose of chlorinated solvents, and must burn off wax or other polymers, leading to greenhouse gas emissions.  There is a broad range of materials available when utilizing the MIM process. Traditional metalworking processes often involve a significant amount of material waste, which makes MIM a highly efficient option for the fabrication of complex components consisting of expensive/special alloys (cobalt-chrome, 17-4 PH stainless steel, titanium alloys and tungsten carbides). MIM is a viable option when extremely thin walls specifications (i.e., 100 micrometers) are required. Additionally, electromagnetic interference shielding requirements have presented unique challenges, which are being successfully attained through the utilization of specialty alloys (ASTM A753 Type 4).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Metal injection molding (MIM) is a metalworking process in which finely-powdered metal is mixed with binder material to create a \"feedstock\" that is then shaped and solidified using injection molding. The molding process allows high volume, complex parts to be shaped in a single step. After molding, the part undergoes conditioning operations to remove the binder (debinding) and densify the powders. Finished products are small components used in many industries and applications.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977622}
{"src_title": "Sophie Wilmès", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Wilmès was born on 15 January 1975 in the Ixelles municipality of the Brussels Capital Region. Her father Philippe Wilmès (d. 2010) was a banker and professor of business who served as chief of staff to Jean Gol of the Liberal Reformist Party. Her paternal grandparents were killed in the bombing of Limal during World War II. Her mother is Jewish. She grew up in the town of Grez-Doiceau in Wallonia and studied at university in Brussels, moving to the Flemish suburb Sint-Genesius-Rode as an adult. She has a degree in applied communication and a degree in financial management (Saint-Louis University, Brussels). She worked as an economic and financial adviser in a law firm.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 2000, she became a councillor in Uccle. From 2007 to 2014 Wilmès was First Alderman in charge of Finance, Budget, Francophone Education, Communication and Local Businesses for the town of Sint-Genesius-Rode. From 2014 to 2015 she was a provincial councillor for the province of Flemish Brabant. In October 2014 she was elected to the Chamber of Representatives.  In September 2015, Hervé Jamar announced that he would resign on 1 October 2015 because he was selected as the governor of the province of Liège. Sophie Wilmès was selected to succeed him as minister of the budget in the Michel I Government. In December 2018 she became Minister of Budget, Civil Service, National Lottery and Scientific Policy in the Michel II Government. On 27 October 2019 she became the first female Prime Minister of Belgium, succeeding Charles Michel. She led a caretaker government while negotiations proceeded to form a new coalition government. On 16 March 2020, in response to the Covid-19 outbreak, she was nominated by the King to form a permanent minority government by default. The day after that she was sworn in.  In May 2020, when visiting a hospital, the staff turned their backs to her in protest, after Belgium experienced the highest coronavirus mortality rate in the world and Wilmès claimed the statistics were overestimated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In May 2009 Wilmès married Australian Chris Stone and they have three daughters Victoria, Charlotte, and Elizabeth. Stone has a son, Jonathan, from a previous relationship.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sophie Wilmès (; born 15 January 1975) is a Belgian politician who is currently the Prime Minister of Belgium. She is the first female head of government of Belgium and previously held office as the head of a caretaker government until forming a permanent government in March 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977623}
{"src_title": "Museum Jorge Rando", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The Museum.", "content": "The mission of the museum is centered first of all on the study and the diffusion of the Jorge Rando work, as well as on the investigation about poetics of Expressionism, a movement which started at the end of the 19th century and is still pretty active in our times, and thanks to it some of the most fecund contributions to the contemporary western culture, in the wider sense, originated. The study and the representation of the different artistic facets, such as painting, sculpture, architecture, philosophy, literature, cinema, and music, are included among its priorities.  It is a museum which is meant to be the reflection of Jorge Rando's work, originating a cultural philosophy homologated to his thinking. Moved by the motto \"Doors are always open... so that people can go inside and the museum goes outside\", it has become a museum which looks at the Arts under a spiritual and humanistic perspective.  Entrance and guided tours assistance are all free.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibitions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jorge Rando Work.", "content": "The rooms host Jorge Rando's artistic production, with an expositive discourse on the move, characterized by the interchange of the artist’s different themed cycles, in order to accompany the artwork of the invited artists.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temporary Exhibitions.", "content": "The temporary exhibitions embrace national and international artists bound to expressionism or neo-expressionism. During its first year it held an exhibition of the drawings of the artist Käthe Kollwitz and on the 14th of the following December there will be inaugurated the first magna exhibition in Spain of the sculptor Ernst Barlach.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "La Sala de Estar del Arte.", "content": "The museum is meant to be the Living Room of Art (La Sala de Estar del Arte). All throughoutthe year it embraces representations of different artistic disciplines. El color del sonido (The color of the sound) is the cycle dedicated to music; Luces y sombras (Lights and Shadows) is the film screening and discussion cycle, with introduction and a debate at the end; El Gabinet is the cycle dedicated to literature, theatre, and narrative; Arte (Art) is the cycle dedicated to art discussions and Reports, and artistic meetings, while Lo que está pasando (What is going on) is the cycle dedicated to the debate about different themes and issues, coordinated by the UNESCO chair of Communication of Málaga University.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visits and education.", "content": "The museum offers Guided tours, that need neither to be booked nor a minimum number of participants. They are discussions offered by Art Historians, in which prefixed guidelines do not exist: they are meant to be an exchange of impressions related to the visitant requests and the necessities, so that every visit turns into a discovery and a mutual enrichment.  Also personalized tours can be arranged, for groups that have special necessities. There is a program aimed to let expressionism, neo-expressionism, and the contemporary art in general become closer to students, thanks to guided tours, artistic workshops, and debate meetings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Building.", "content": "The Museum Jorge Rando is an integral part of the Las Mercedarias monastery, in via Cruz del Molinillo, Málaga. It was built on the drawings of the architect D. Manuel Rivera Valentín (1878) and it is considered an emblematic building, mainly of artistic interest. A magnificent specimen of mandarin orange tree stands out in the posterior inner yard of the monastery: more than 140 years ago it was planted by the founder of the monastery.  The adjustment works made to a part of the monastery, in order to turn it into the museum, were started in 2011 by the City Council of Málaga and they finished during the Spring 2014, under the direction of the architect D. José Antonio González Vargas. The strength of expressionist art could not have found a better place than one that preserves such a spiritual implication.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Installations.", "content": "The Museum Jorge Rando has combined in its construction the old side of the courtyard with the new installation in béton brut (raw concrete) and Weathering steel. A synergy that combines the spirituality and quietness of the monastery with the strength of the Expressionist art.  It has four exposition rooms illuminated by natural light: this is one of the most relevant points of the construction. Moreover, in the museum there are other spaces like the library, the inner yard and the workshop, which is the space dedicated to the creation of Paintings. A group of artists usually make regular use of it, making it a meeting point where the dialogue between artists, Historians, and visitors is always open, allowing the continuous exchange of opinions and the debate about Art and culture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Administration.", "content": "The direction, administration and all the activities of the museum, such as the exhibition, the cycles of debate related to art and the aesthetics of expressionism, the workshops, and seminars, etc., will be under the direction of the Jorge Rando Foundation.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Museum Jorge Rando is the first expressionist museum in Málaga, Andalusia, Spain. Dedicated to the painter Jorge Rando, it collects his works and it temporally hosts the works of other national and international artists belonging to this movement. It was officially inaugurated on May 28, 2015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977624}
{"src_title": "Tibet Institute Rikon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1961 Switzerland was one of the first countries in the West that allowed Tibetan refugees to settle in large numbers. Henri and Jacques Kuhn (owner of \"Metallwarenfabrik AG Heinrich Kuhn\", now \"Kuhn Rikon AG\") offered work and accommodations to a group of refugees. They helped found a monastic Tibet Institute for spiritual and cultural care of Tibetan people in Switzerland, which would also preserve and maintain the Tibetan culture for future generations. Jacques Kuhn supported the monastic community until his death in January 2017.  The Tibet-Institut Rikon is the only monastery outside Asia that was founded on behalf of the Dalai Lama. It was inaugurated on 9 November 1968 under the name „Kloster zum Rad der Lehre„ (literally: Monastery for the Wheel of Teaching) - but as a “Monastic Tibet Institute,” as the founding of a monastery was not permitted under the then Swiss federal constitution. The Dalai Lama was also not present at the inauguration: the Federal Council banned him from entering the country. He visited the monastery for the first time in 1973.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Institute's building.", "content": "The Institute building was designed in a functional western style which incorporates traditional Tibetan elements. The overall design was not based on traditional Tibetan sacred architecture, because this would have reflected the altered role of a Tibetan monastery in the West in a misleading manner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural and religious life.", "content": "Today the Buddhist monastery and its monastic community is a vital part of the cultural and religious life of Tibetan people in Switzerland. The large variety of cultural activities of the Tibet Institute also provide an important forum for the constantly growing number of Western people interested in Buddhism and Tibet. The institute promotes the understanding of Tibetan culture for both the general public and for specialists. It organizes public events, maintains its own library, issues its own publications, provides support to students and researchers, engages in public relations and outreach, and maintains contacts with related institutions. Its project «Science meets Dharma» provides Tibetan monks and nuns access to western scientific culture.  The Tibet Institute Rikon provides for the spiritual and cultural needs of Tibetans in Switzerland, striving to preserve Tibetan culture and religion for the benefit of future generations of Tibetans. It makes Tibetan culture accessible to interested western and other non-Tibetan people. The monastic community supports scientific research in the field of Tibetology and is promoting dialogue between Buddhist philosophy and western science.  The institute also has a publicly accessible special library. With around 11,000 titles of Tibetan-specific documents, it is one of the world's largest Tibetan specialist libraries. The monastery is supported by a foundation that finances about one third of the annual operating expenses. Two thirds come from patrons and sponsors.  Today there are about 8,000 people with Tibetan roots living in Switzerland. In the 1960s, Switzerland took in over a thousand Tibetan refugees. This was after a popular uprising by the Tibetans against Chinese foreign rule failed in 1959 and the Dalai Lama and thousands of his compatriots fled abroad. Switzerland was the first European country to receive Tibetan refugees. In September 2018 the monastery celebrated its 50th anniversary. Once again the Dalai Lama visited the monastic community, and also a special moment for the Tibetan community in Switzerland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monastic community.", "content": "In 2018 the monastic community in Rikon comprises seven Buddhist monks and the abbot who has been in office since 2011. They represent the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Together with the staff of the institute, they organize events on topics related to Tibetan culture and religion. Also, 20 to 30 school classes visit the monastery every year.. In 2009 the monastic community comprised 9 Tibetan monks. Geshe Phuntsok Tashi, the fourth abbot, was appointed by the 14th Dalai Lama in 1996. Since 2007 the monastery has had representatives of all four great traditions of Tibetan Buddhism: Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya and Gelug.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tibet Institute Rikon is a Tibetan monastery located in Zell-Rikon im Tösstal in the Töss Valley in Switzerland. It is an established as a non-profit foundation because Swiss laws resulting from the 19th century secularization movement did until 1973 not allow for the establishment of new monasteries.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977625}
{"src_title": "NIO 333 FE Team", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "China Racing was the second team (behind the Drayson Racing project which then transformed into Trulli GP) to announce its involvement in Formula E, back in March 2013.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2014–15 season.", "content": "China Racing announced Nelson Piquet Jr. and Ho-Pin Tung as their drivers for the inaugural season. Over the course of the season, the team has used multiple drivers in the car no. 88, with Tung taking part in three rounds, Antonio García in two rounds, Charles Pic in four rounds, before ultimately picking Oliver Turvey for the final double-header weekend in London. Piquet, on the other hand, completed the full season and managed to win the championship in the final race of the season.  In 2015, the China Racing name and branding had phased out. For the Long Beach ePrix, the team introduced radical changes to their livery, removing the red and yellow which has been previously associated with the team and replacing it with NEXTEV branding. The move was finalised in the following round in Monaco, which the team entered as NEXTEV TCR instead of China Racing.  Despite Piquet winning the championship, NEXTEV TCR only finished fourth in Teams' Championship, as his teammates only added 8 points, the team scoring 152 points in total.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2015–16 season.", "content": "NEXTEV TCR chose to develop their own powertrain for the second season and began testing it in the summer of 2015. The team also confirmed Piquet, who was signed on a multi-year deal. Turvey was later confirmed as Piquet's teammate for the season. In 2016, NEXTEV acquired the whole team, which at the time was still partially owned by Team China Racing (hence the 'TCR' part in its name).  The 2015–16 season was a disappointment for the team. Piquet and Turvey only scored 19 points in total, falling down to ninth place in Teams' Championship, only ahead of Trulli, who withdrew from the championship in its early stages. Turvey scored the team's best season result with a sixth place at the first round in Beijing.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016–17 season.", "content": "Piquet and Turvey were retained for the 2016–17 season. The team, previously operated by Campos Racing, was set to form its own operational and engineering team, led by Gerry Hughes. A new branding, NEXTEV NIO, was introduced for the season.  While the team's performance was an improvement over the previous season, it was still unable to compete for either of the Drivers' and Teams' Championships, despite setting pole positions in Hong Kong (with Piquet) and Mexico City (with Turvey). NEXTEV NIO would finish sixth with 59 points.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017–18 season.", "content": "Piquet left the team after a performance clause allowed him to exit the team for Jaguar. Luca Filippi was announced as his replacement, while Turvey stayed with the team. Ma Qinghua joined the team as a reserve driver. During the season, he subbed for Filippi in Paris and Turvey in New York, who was forced to withdraw from the double-header after a hand injury. The NextEV brand was slowly phasing out as the team now competed under the name NIO Formula E Team. The NextEV brand stayed in the name of the powertrain.  NIO cemented their position at the back of the grid and only finished eighth in Teams' Championship with 47 points. Turvey, however, managed a podium finish with a second place in Mexico City.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018–19 season.", "content": "Tom Dillmann and Oliver Turvey were announced as the driver pairing for the 2018–19 season, meaning Turvey would compete for the team for a fourth straight full season. The NextEV brand remained on the car, but the powertrain only featured NIO in its name.  The season would prove to be the biggest disappointment to date as the team only accumulated 7 points over the course of the season, all of them with Turvey, placing them last (eleventh) in Teams' Championship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2019–20 season.", "content": "The team is set to undergo another rebrand, this time due to it being sold to Lisheng Racing. On 10 September 2019, the definitive entry list was revealed, in which the team was listed under the name NIO 333 FE Team. The team will not be using its own powertrains and it instead acquired last year's powertrain from GEOX Dragon. NIO, however, keep their manufacturer status due to their new powertrain being homologated as such by the FIA in late August. Ma Qinghua made his return alongside the mainstay Turvey.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The NIO 333 FE Team is a motor racing team currently competing in the FIA Formula E Championship, an electric racing series. The team is currently owned by Lisheng Racing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977626}
{"src_title": "Halcyon-class minesweeper", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "There were 21 ships in the \"Halcyon\" class, built in two groups; the first using reciprocating steam engines, with steam turbines in the latter. They were generally smaller versions of the escort sloops. \"Niger\" and \"Salamander\" of the reciprocating group used vertical triple expansion engines, instead of the vertical compound engines of their sisters. As a result of the increased installed power they had a half knot speed advantage, even though they used slightly shorter hulls. The turbine ships used the same shorter hulls as \"Niger\" and \"Salamander\", but with lower installed power, speed dropped back to.  \"Gleaner\", \"Franklin\", \"Jason\" and \"Scott\" were completed as unarmed survey vessels, \"Sharpshooter\" and \"Seagull\" being converted to follow suit. They were all re-armed and deployed in their original role on the outbreak of war. \"Seagull\" had the first all-welded hull built for the Royal Navy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Service history.", "content": "\"Halcyon\"s served in Home waters, at Dunkirk, on Arctic convoy duty, and in the Mediterranean Sea.  On 3 February 1940 (Cdr. J. R. N. Taylor, RN) was sweeping an area north of Kinnaird Head when attacked by enemy aircraft. A bomb pierced the fo'c'sle deck and exploding destroying the fore part of the ship. She remained afloat and was taken in tow by \"Halcyon\" but steadily flooded and capsized and sank. The wreck was later washed ashore north of Lybster and was sold for scrap. The Commanding Officer and forty of the men were killed in the explosion.  \"Halcyon\"s were pressed into service as anti-submarine escorts; this task slowly decreasing as the ships specifically designed for this task, such as s, came off the slips. \"Halcyon\"s accompanied most of the Arctic convoys, serving both as minesweepers and anti-submarine escorts. Several spent extended periods working out of Soviet naval bases in Northern Russia, such as Murmansk. Four \"Halcyon\"s were lost during this period.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Friendly fire losses.", "content": "As the Allied armies advanced following the invasion of Normandy,,, and were assigned to the 1st Minesweeping Flotilla (1MF) clearing Axis minefields north of Normandy to open additional ports to supply the advance. On the afternoon of 27 August 1944, they were sweeping off Cap d'Antifer in preparation for the battleship and monitors and to engage Le Havre coastal artillery delaying the advance of Canadian troops.  The headquarters officer assigning the minesweeping project to 1MF neglected to inform the Flag Officer British Assault Area (Rear‐Admiral Rivett‐Carnac), who was responsible for defending the invasion beaches from E-boats operating out of Le Havre. 1MF was observed on a southwesterly leg of the minesweeping operation and assumed to be German ships proceeding to attack Allied shipping off the invasion beaches. The Admiral's staff requested No. 263 Squadron RAF and No. 266 Squadron RAF to attack the presumed enemy ships. The squadrons responded with 16 Typhoons armed with 20 mm cannon and High Explosive \"60 lb\" RP-3 unguided rockets. RAF pilots identified 1MF as probably friendly shipping, but upon questioning their orders were told the Royal Navy had no ships in the area.  In a well-executed attack out of the sun at 13:30, the Typhoons sank \"Britomart\" (Lt. Cdr. Nash, MBE, RNR) and \"Hussar\" (Lt.Cdr. A. J. Galvin, DSC, RNR); and \"Salamander\" was damaged so far beyond economical repair she was written off as a constructive total loss. Eighty-six British sailors were killed and 124 more were injured. 1MF identified the Typhoons as friendly, and poor visibility into the sun prevented early recognition of the impending \"friendly fire\". \"Jason\" established radio contact to terminate the attack.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The \"Halcyon\" class was a class of 21 oil-fired minesweepers (officially, \"fleet minesweeping sloops\") built for the British Royal Navy between 1933 and 1939. They were given traditional small ship names used historically by the Royal Navy and served during World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977627}
{"src_title": "Johnny Jebsen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Jebsen was born in Hamburg in 1917, heir to the shipping firm Jebsen & Jebsen. His parents, who both died while Jebsen was still a child, were of Danish origin but held German citizenship after they had moved the company to the country. Early in his life, Jebsen considered his citizenship a convenience, with deep roots remaining in his Danish ancestry. During childhood, he visited England and became enamoured with the country, adopting the mannerisms and the language.  Jebsen attended the University of Freiburg during the 1930s, where he became close friends with Duško Popov. During this time, both showed distaste for the Nazi regime that was emerging in Germany. After graduation, Jebsen moved to England, intending to study at Oxford University, although it appears he never did this. Over the next few years he moved amongst the London social set, befriending P. G. Wodehouse amongst others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second World War.", "content": "At the outset of the Second World War, Jebsen joined the German military intelligence agency, the, largely to avoid compulsory service in the army. He was given a vague brief as an independent \"researcher\" and assigned the rank of private. In reality, it meant he could continue his normal activities as an international businessman, so long as he was available to help the when it required.  In 1940, Jebsen arranged an introduction between a senior officer in Belgrade and Duško Popov, whom the Germans hoped to recruit as an agent. The meeting led to Popov's recruitment, upon which he instantly offered his services to the Allies as a double agent. It is likely that Jebsen knew this early on and often passed information to Popov, who believed it was intended for Allied hands.  During the war, Jebsen travelled freely on business although it was not clear what he did. He married Eleonore Bothilde Peterson, an actress from Frankfurt, but had a string of mistresses across Europe. Jebsen's anti-Nazi stance led to clashes with the SS and its intelligence office, the.  Through 1943, Jebsen, Popov and his brother Ivo (also an agent, codenamed Dreadnought) ran an operation to recruit double agents from Yugoslavia. Ivo Popov identified potential candidates who were told they would be working for the British. First, they were sent to Berlin, under the care of Jebsen, for training in the spy school, before ultimately ending up in Britain (via Spain and Portugal) to work for MI5.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kidnapping and torture.", "content": "On, Jebsen was abducted from Lisbon, Portugal, and driven overnight to France. Aloys Schreiber, the head of German counter-intelligence in Lisbon, had invited Jebsen to his office on the pretext of discussing his pending War Merit Medal. After a brief struggle, Jebsen and his friend (Heinz Moldenhauer) were overpowered and bundled into a car.  Jebsen's disappearance was a serious concern for the Allies. He had been privy to a great deal of information, including knowledge of Popov's double agent role and that Agent Garbo's network of subagents was a fiction. He also, most importantly, had familiarity with many details of Operation Fortitude. If he talked, the entire cover plan for the Normandy landings was at risk. After much analysis, the intelligence services decided that Jebsen had been snatched because the believed he was planning to defect, rather than that he had already turned. It is possible that Jebsen was abducted to protect Popov, whom the Germans considered one of their most important agents. As a precaution, the Allies suspended Popov's network of fictional subagents and his transmissions to his German handlers.  Jebsen was first taken to the Gestapo headquarters in Berlin where his torture and interrogation began. After a few weeks, the Allies were encouraged, intercepts of German communications showed the Germans were interested in Jebsen's finances (he had been defrauding a number of SS officers), and there was no mention of his activities as an agent. As time progressed, it appeared that agent Artist had not cracked under pressure and the \"Fortitude\" deception was safe.  In July 1944, Jebsen was moved to Sachsenhausen concentration camp. When he arrived he had broken ribs and was malnourished, but still harboured thoughts of escape. He told Allied soldiers, also held in the camp that he had been accused of helping the British and when he had refused to talk, his financial fraud had been investigated. Eventually, he got a message to London via British Commando Jack Churchill, but the War Office had no record of Jebsen's name and so the plea for help was ignored. In February 1945, Gestapo agents removed Jebsen from Sachsenhausen, the last sighting of him, and he is presumed to have been murdered soon after. Several attempts to find him after the war were unsuccessful and he was legally declared dead on.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johann-Nielsen Jebsen, nicknamed \"Johnny\", was an anti-Nazi German intelligence officer and British double agent (code name Artist) during the Second World War. Jebsen recruited Dušan Popov (who became the British agent Tricycle) to the and through him later joined the Allied cause. Kidnapped from Lisbon by the Germans shortly before the Normandy landings, Jebsen was tortured in prison, spent time in a concentration camp before disappearing and was presumed killed at the end of the war.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977628}
{"src_title": "Black Clover", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The series focuses on Asta, a young orphan who was raised from birth after being abandoned at an orphanage along with his fellow orphan, Yuno. While everyone is born with the ability to utilize Mana in the form of, Asta is the only exception. He tries to gain magical power through physical training. Conversely, Yuno was born as a prodigy with immense magical power and the talent to control wind magic. Motivated by a desire to become the next Wizard King, an authority figure second to the king of Clover Kingdom, the two youths developed a friendly rivalry. Yuno obtains a legendary four-leaf grimoire held by the kingdom's first Wizard King. Asta, despite his lack of magic, obtained the mysterious five-leaf grimoire (which cannot be clearly identified by others since it is worn out), which contains mysterious elf swords and rare anti-magic. Afterward, he and Yuno each join a Magic Knight squad as the first step to fulfill their ambitions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manga.", "content": "Written and illustrated by Yūki Tabata, \"Black Clover\" has been serialized in Shueisha's manga anthology \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\" since February 16, 2015. The manga is Tabata's second series in \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\": his first series,, was launched in the magazine on November 12, 2012, where it ran for 24 chapters before being cancelled in 2013. The chapters have been collected into \"tankōbon\" volumes by Shueisha since June 4, 2015. In total, there are 247 chapters and 24 \"tankōbon\" volumes.  On February 9, 2015, Viz Media announced that they would publish the first three chapters of the series in their \"Weekly Shonen Jump\" digital magazine as part of their \"Jump Start\" program in North America. On March 30, 2015, they announced that the series would join their weekly lineup, beginning with chapter 4 on April 6, and publishing at an accelerated rate until the chapters were current with Japan. Plans to release the series in print were announced during their panel at New York Comic Con on October 9, 2015. Shueisha began to simulpublish the series in English on the app and website Manga plus in February 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Spin-offs.", "content": "On February 2, 2018, a gag manga spin-off illustrated by Setta Kobayashi titled launched in Shueisha's \"Saikyō Jump\". The manga has been collected in one \"tankōbon\" volume.  On September 30, 2018, a manga based on the video game \"Black Clover: Quartet Knights\" launched on October 7, 2018. The manga finished on April 12, 2020. As of October 3, 2020, it has been collected in twenty-four \"tankōbon\" volumes.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Anime.", "content": "An original video animation produced by Xebec Zwei that is based on the series was shown at the 2016 Jump Festa between November 27 and December 18, 2016. It was bundled with the 11th volume of the manga, which was released on May 2, 2017. A second original video animation was shown at the 2018 Jump Festa.  At the \"Black Clover\" Jump Festa event on December 18, 2016, an anime television series adaptation by Pierrot was announced. It is directed by Tatsuya Yoshihara, with Kazuyuki Fudeyasu writing scripts, Itsuko Takeda doing character designs, and Minako Seki composing the music. The series premiered on October 3, 2017, with the first two seasons each consisted of 51 episodes. Season 3 premiered on October 1, 2019.  Crunchyroll is simulcasting the series, while Funimation is producing an English dub as part of its Simuldub program as it airs. Adult Swim's Toonami programming block premiered the English dub on December 2, 2017. Sony Pictures UK and Funimation released the first part of the series on home video in the United Kingdom and Ireland, with subsequent parts released by Manga Entertainment. Universal Sony classified the first part of the series for release in Australia and New Zealand, on behalf of Funimation, with Madman Entertainment releasing subsequent parts.  The anime has been broadcast without any major interruption until late April 2020, when it was announced that future episodes would be postponed based on studio production delays caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The broadcasting and distribution of episode 133 onward was delayed and in its place, the first episode of the series was rebroadcast on May 5, 2020. The series will resume on July 7, 2020.  A short original net animation titled, produced by DLE and directed by Tsukasa Nishiyama, began airing on dTV on July 1, 2019. The opening theme song for the short is \"POSSIBLE\" by Gakuto Kajiwara and Nobunaga Shimazaki, under the name \"Clover×Clover\". Crunchyroll made the short available internationally on December 31, 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Video games.", "content": "At Jump Festa 2017, a video game, titled \"Black Clover: Quartet Knights\", was announced for a 2018 release on PlayStation 4 and PC.. It was developed by Ilinx and published by Bandai Namco. It was released in Japan on September 13, 2018, while the western release was on September 14, 2018. A mobile game called has been announced. It was released in Japan on November 14, 2018. On December 6, 2019, Bandai Namco Entertainment announced that the game would be released on January 16, 2020.  Asta is featured as a playable character in the \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\" crossover game \"Jump Force\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manga.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sales.", "content": "Volume 1 reached 23rd place on the weekly Oricon manga charts, with 38,128 copies sold; volume 2 reached 17th place, with 61,918 copies; volume 3 also reached 17th place, with 80,462 copies; volume 4 reached 13th place, with 93,866 copies; volume 5 reached 15th place, with 108,503 copies; and volume 6 reached 11th place, with 118,783 copies. As of January 2019, the manga has 7 million copies in print, and 9 million copies as of October 2019. As of April 2020 Black Clover has 10 million copies in print", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "Reviewing the series for \"ComicsAlliance\", Tom Speelman described the premise as \"what if Harry Potter was a knight and also kinda dumb?\" He recommended it for fans of \"Naruto\" and \"Fairy Tail\", noting its similarities to the former series as well as to \"Bleach\". He praised the author's ability to invigorate stock characters. Henry Ma of \"Ka Leo O Hawaii\" praised the series' humor and art, noting that the latter was \"very nice\" and was similar to \"Fairy Tail\". However, not all critics were positive, with a board of comic book writers at San Diego Comic-Con listing the manga as one of the worst from 2016.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Anime.", "content": "In November 2019, Crunchyroll listed \"Black Clover\" in their \"Top 100 best anime of the 2010s\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The manga has been adapted into an original video animation produced by Xebec Zwei, which was released in 2017, as well an anime television series produced by Pierrot, which also premiered in Japan in 2017.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977629}
{"src_title": "Sergei Polunin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sergei Polunin was born in Kherson, Ukrainian SSR. From the age of four to eight, he trained at a gymnastics academy, and then spent another four years at the Kiev State Choreographic Institute. His mother, Galina, moved with him to Kiev, while his father, Vladimir Polunin, worked in Portugal to support them.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dancing career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2003–2013: Early years.", "content": "After Polunin graduated from the Kyiv Choreographic Academy (КДХУ), he joined the British Royal Ballet School at the age of 13 in 2003, sponsored by the Rudolf Nureyev Foundation. Polunin has received numerous awards, including the Prix de Lausanne and Youth America Grand Prix in 2006, and in 2007 was named the Young British Dancer of the Year. He became a first soloist at the Royal Ballet in 2009. In June 2010, at the age of 20, Polunin became the Royal Ballet's youngest ever principal. The \"New York Times\" described Polunin as \"a fabulous dancer, with a steely technique and beautiful line\" in its review of \"Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland\" (2011) when he danced as the Knave, who doubled as Alice's romantic interest.  After two successful years with the Royal Ballet, on 24 January 2012, Polunin announced his resignation from the company with immediate effect. He said he had become so unhappy that, \"the artist in [him] was dying.\" Several months later, in summer 2012, Polunin was invited to Russia by the artistic director of ballet of the two Russian theatres, Igor Zelensky, and became a principal dancer with the Stanislavsky Music Theatre and Novosibirsk State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre. In early April 2013, it was reported that Polunin had walked out on the Schaufuss Ballet's performance of \"Midnight Express\" just days before its opening night.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014–present: International recognition.", "content": "He was first shown in the international spotlight in the role of Slavemaster/Sheppard in the 25th Anniversary \"The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall\". Polunin was shortlisted as the best male dancer for the 2014 National Dance awards in the U.K. In 2014, Polunin started his collaboration with the famed American photographer and music director David LaChapelle and took part in his new projects, including a dance video to the song \"Take Me to Church\" by Hozier in February 2015. The video went viral and exposed Polunin to a wider audience. Polunin was the subject of the 2016 documentary film \"Dancer\", directed by Steven Cantor, analyzing his childhood, training, and rise to international fame.  In 2017, he set up Project Polunin, which aims to create new dance and ballet works for both stage and film. Project Polunin aims to bring together dancers, contemporary artists, musicians and choreographers from various creative backgrounds to work together. In June 2018, a promotional video starring Polunin was featured in a grand ceremony of the reopening of the National Museum of Serbia after 15 years of renovation and in July of the same year, Polunin performed on the Main Stage of the Serbian EXIT festival for the grand opening ceremony of 18th festival edition. His performance was inspired by the festival's theme, dubbed EXIT Freedom. The company was reincorporated as Polunin Ink in 2018.  In January 2019, Polunin was invited to perform in the Paris Opéra Ballet's performance of \"Swan Lake\". The Ballet revoked the invitation 48 hours later after being notified of Polunin's recent homophobic and sexist Instagram posts that sparked international outrage, including from dancers within the Ballet. In response to those critical of his comments, he said, \"a lot of people agree with me, but... they have to go and publicly say otherwise\". Polunin and his company, Polunin Ink introduced three new productions of ballet in 2019. The first was \"Rasputin\", choreographed by Yuka Oishi and premiered in London Palladium in June; the show received generally negative reviews from London critics but was later successfully shown in cities such as Zurich and Tashkent. The second was on 26 August 2019, Polunin danced the role of Romeo in \"Romeo and Juliet\" choreographed by Johan Kobborg and with Alina Cojocaru as Juliet, in the Arena of Verona to over 10,000 members in the audience and to critical acclaim. As the year closed, the third production of Polunin Ink, \"Little Red and the Wolf\", choreographed by Ross Freddie Ray, music composed by Kirill Richter, and performed by Sergei Polunin, Laura Fernandez-Gromova, Johan Kobborg and premiered in Zaryadye Concert Hall, Moscow on 29 and 30 December 2019. In 2019, he also performed in Dubai, Israel, Munich, and Shanghai. Noteworthy was the performance on 7 September 2019 when he was invited to dance at the ancient Buddhist temple Ninna-ji in Kyoto, Japan. Branded as the \"Encounter of the East and the West\", efforts were put into illustrating the theme with artists from Europe and Asia performing on the stage. Polunin's outfit was a carefully crafted kimono specially designed and made by artist Kamida Kazumak and with the calligraphy of the \"Heart Sutra\", which teaches the illusion of the phenomenal world, written on the outfit by calligrapher, Tomoko Kawao. The performance was later broadcast nationwide in Japan.  Polunin was recognized as the Personality of the Year by Danza & Danza Awards 2019 (Premio D&D-Mario Bedendo), for which the jury wrote: \"A multi-faceted artist... he and his Polunin Ink company scored not one but two goals in 2019\", namely, \"a'modern' take on the twentieth-century classic \"Romeo & Juliet\"where Polunin gave a powerful, passionate performance opposite Alina Cojocaru\", and “\"Rasputin\" a memorable dance-drama in which Sergei outdid himself\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "Polunin made his feature film debut in the 2017 adaptation of \"Murder on the Orient Express\", followed by a performance in the 2018 film \"Red Sparrow\". Also in 2018, he appeared as Yuri Soloviev in the Rudolf Nureyev biopic \"The White Crow\", directed by Ralph Fiennes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "As of 2020, Polunin is engaged to Russian ice dancer Elena Ilinykh. On 16 January 2020, their son, Mir, was born in Miami, Florida, U.S. Along with a number of other celebrities, Polunin was granted Serbian citizenship in 2017, for his work in promoting the country and its culture.  In November 2018, Polunin posted on his Instagram account voicing support for Russian President Vladimir Putin. In December 2018, Polunin expressed admiration and support for U.S. President Donald Trump in another Instagram post.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sergei Vladimirovich Polunin (, \"Serhiy Volodymyrovych Polunin\";, \"Sergey Vladimirovich Polunin\"; born 20 November 1989) is a Ukrainian-born ballet dancer, actor and model. He has Ukrainian, Russian, and Serbian citizenship, but has \"always regarded himself as Russian\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977630}
{"src_title": "2018 Hessian state election", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The incumbent Hesse government coalition consisted of CDU and the Greens.  The regional election for Hesse, along with the Bavarian state election held just two weeks before, was widely seen as a test for the ruling CDU/CSU and SPD coalition of Angela Merkel's fourth federal cabinet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Parties.", "content": "The table below lists parties represented in the previous Landtag of Hesse.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "Summary of the 28 October 2018 final election results for the Hessian Landtag! colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" | Party! colspan=\"5\" |Constituency! colspan=\"5\" |Party list! colspan=\"3\" | Total seats!Votes!+/−!Seats!Votes!+/−!Seats!Seats!%! colspan=2| Total! 2,873,070! 100.0%! 55! 2,881,261! 100.0%! 82! 137! 100%", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "State government formation.", "content": "Despite heavy losses inflicted on the party, the CDU returned to government after negotiating a coalition agreement with the Greens, the second consecutive such arrangement between the two parties. The two parties formed the narrowest possible majority in the Landtag, occupying 69 seats. As part of the agreement, the Greens increased their representation in the Cabinet, holding four of the eleven portfolios. The returned coalition only became possible after a recount of votes took place several weeks after the election, due to computer glitches which affected some election night results. Following the recount, the state election commissioner announced that compared to the provisional figures, there were no significant shifts in the percentages, and the distribution of seats in the state parliament had not changed.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2018 Hessian state election was held on 28 October 2018 to elect the members of the Landtag of Hesse. The incumbent coalition government of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and The Greens led by Minister-President Volker Bouffier retained its majority by a slim margin of one seat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977631}
{"src_title": "Presnel Kimpembe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Kimpembe was born in Beaumont-sur-Oise, France, to a Congolese father and a Haitian mother. He was named after his maternal grandfather.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club career.", "content": "Kimpembe made his professional debut for Paris Saint-Germain on 17 October 2014 in the Ligue 1 against RC Lens, replacing Thiago Motta after 76 minutes in a 1–3 away win. He made his Champions League debut on 14 February 2017, keeping a clean sheet in a 4–0 win against Barcelona.  Kimpembe scored his first Champions League goal for PSG on February 12, 2019 against Manchester United in an away match at Old Trafford after turning home at a far post from an Angel Di Maria corner in the 53rd minute. PSG won the match 2–0. However, in the return leg in Paris, he jumped to block a shot in injury time that was given as a penalty for handball after the referee consulted VAR. PSG went on to lose the match 3–1, and were subsequently knocked out due to the away goals rule.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Kimpembe got his first call up to the senior France side after Eliaquim Mangala withdrew through injury for 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Bulgaria and Netherlands in October 2016. In January 2018, William Gallas, former Arsenal and Chelsea player said that Kimpembe is the future of the French team. Kimpembe finally made his first team debut on 27 March 2018, a year and a half after his first call-up, in a friendly against Russia. He came on for Ousmane Dembélé in the 72nd minute of a 3–1 away victory.  On 17 May 2018, he was called up to the 23 man French squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. Kimpembe won the World Cup with France in 2018, a tournament in which he played a total of 90 minutes, against Denmark in the group stage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Paris Saint-Germain  France  Orders", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Presnel Kimpembe (, ; born 13 August 1995) is a French professional footballer who plays as a defender for Paris Saint-Germain and the French national team. He was part of the France squad that won the 2018 FIFA World Cup.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977632}
{"src_title": "2016 World Cup of Hockey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Teams.", "content": "The teams were officially announced on September 10, 2015 by the International Ice Hockey Federation. The teams are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "National anthems.", "content": "The national anthem for each team playing was played before the start of each game. However, there were two exceptions: no anthem was played for Team Europe because of the team's multiple national representatives, while both \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" and \"O Canada\" were played before games Team North America played.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Rosters.", "content": "Each team's roster was limited to twenty skaters (forwards and defencemen) and three goaltenders. All eight participating teams submitted their initial roster of sixteen players on March 2, 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jerseys.", "content": "Each one of the national teams' players wore a customized jersey manufactured by Adidas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Venue.", "content": "In contrast to previous World Cups, all contests in the 2016 World Cup were held at the same site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pre-tournament venues.", "content": "The following venues were used across North America and Europe in the pre-tournament schedule", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pre-tournament games.", "content": "All games are Eastern Daylight Time ().  Start date: September 8, 2016. Source: National Hockey League", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "All games are Eastern Daylight Time ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout stage.", "content": "All times are local, Eastern Daylight Time ().", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final was played in a best-of-three format.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ranking and statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scoring leaders.", "content": "List depicts skaters sorted by points, then goals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leading goaltenders.", "content": "Only goaltenders who played greater than or equal to one-third of the team's minutes are included.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Broadcasting.", "content": "In Canada, Rogers Communications held broadcast rights to the tournament; the tournament was aired by Sportsnet in English and TVA Sports in French. Similarly to its sub-licensing agreement for \"Hockey Night in Canada\", the semi-finals and finals were simulcast by CBC Television. Although it was initially reported that Rogers was allowed to match competing bids for the rights (such as by Bell Media and ESPN's TSN) per its holding of exclusive national media rights to the NHL in Canada, NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman denied that there was such a rule, and that the bidding process was \"competitive\".  In the United States, the tournament was broadcast by ESPN and ESPN Deportes in English and Spanish, respectively; NBC Sports, the national rightsholder of the NHL in the United States, passed on the tournament due to scheduling conflicts with various events being broadcast by its networks in that period of time.  ESPN also broadcast the tournament for the Spanish-speaking Latin American countries, the Commonwealth Caribbean, the Pacific Rim and Brazil. In Russia, the tournament was broadcast by Channel One and Match TV. In Finland, the tournament was broadcast by Viasat Sport and Nelonen. In Sweden, Denmark and Norway, the tournament was broadcast by Viasat Sport. In the Czech Republic, the tournament and exhibition games were broadcast by public channel ČT Sport and in Slovakia by Markíza. In Germany, the tournament was broadcast by Sport 1. In Poland, the tournament was broadcast by public channel TVP Sport.  The broadcasts incorporated the use of technology by British firm Supponor to allow for the digital replacement of advertising on the rink boards on selected camera shots. These allowed a single advertiser at a time to brand the entire board, localization of advertising in different media markets, and other customized graphics to be substituted onto the boards. Advertisements are replaced when cameras shots are switched to minimize distractions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Officials.", "content": "The NHL selected seven of their referees and seven linesmen to officiate the tournament.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2016 World Cup of Hockey (abbreviated WCH2016) was an international ice hockey tournament. It was the third installment of the National Hockey League (NHL)-sanctioned competition, 12 years after the second World Cup of Hockey in 2004. It was held from September 17 to September 29 at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto, Ontario. Canada won the championship, defeating Team Europe in the best-of-three final.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977633}
{"src_title": "Inoue Kaoru", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Born Yakichi (勇吉) to a lower-ranked \"samurai\" family in Yuda, Chōshū domain (present day Yamaguchi, Yamaguchi Prefecture), Inoue attended the \"Meirinkan\" domain school with his brother Ikutarō (幾太郎). He was a close boyhood friend of Itō Hirobumi who later became Japan's first prime minister, and he played an active part in the \"sonnō jōi\" movement. In 1858, he studied \"rangaku\", artillery and swordsmanship in Edo.  In the Bakumatsu period, Inoue emerged as a leader of the anti-foreigner movement in his native Chōshū. Desiring to rid Japan of foreigners, he and Takasugi Shinsaku set fire to the British legation in Edo in January 1863.  Recognizing Japan's need to learn from the Western powers, Inoue joined the Chōshū Five and was smuggled out of Japan to study at University College, London in England in 1863. When he returned with Itō Hirobumi, he unsuccessfully tried to prevent war (the Battle of Shimonoseki) between Chōshū and the Western naval powers over the closing of the Straits of Shimonoseki to foreign shipping. Later, he fought against the forces of the Tokugawa shogunate in the 1864 First Chōshū Expedition, during which he was severely wounded by the attack of the assassins, received a near-fatal injury, appealing to Inoue's elder brother for beheading because of the unbearable pain and finally Ikutaro Tokoro () who was then in hiding from the pursuit of Tokugawa shogunate with Prince Sanjō Sanetomi and rushed to Inoue pulled him through this by putting about 50 stiches of tatami needle in the wounds on the whole body without anesthesia because of emergency during the domestic war time (The story that Inoue's mother holding bloody Inoue then dissuaded her elder son from beheading was introduced in the National Japanese text book of the 5th period as the power of mother). He later played a key role in the formation of the Satchō Alliance against the Tokugawa shogunate.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statesman in the Meiji government.", "content": "After the Meiji Restoration, Inoue served in several important positions in the new Meiji government. He was appointed Vice Minister of Finance in 1871 and was influential in reorganizing government finances on modern lines, especially in the reform of the land tax system, termination of government stipends to the ex-\"samurai\" and former aristocracy and for promoting industrialization. Closely linked to business circles, including the emerging Mitsui \"zaibatsu\", he was also involved in the railway business.These measures created many political enemies, and Inoue was forced to resign in May 1873. Inoue took part in the Osaka Conference of 1875 to support the creation of a representative national assembly.  In 1876, Inoue was asked to assist in the field of foreign affairs, and was involved in the conclusion of the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1876 as vice-ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary. He returned to government as Minister of Public Works in 1878 and Lord of Foreign Affairs in 1879 under the early Meiji \"Dajō-kan\" Cabinet. In 1884, he was elevated to the rank of count (\"hakushaku\") under the new \"kazoku\" peerage system.  In December 1885, Inoue officially became Japan’s first Minister of Foreign Affairs bearing that title in the first Itō Hirobumi cabinet. However, Inoue came under public criticism for his failure to negotiate a revision of the unequal treaties, his building of the Rokumeikan, and support of its Westernizing influences, which forced him to resign in August 1887.  Later he served as Minister of Agriculture and Commerce in the Kuroda administration, as Home Minister in the second Itō administration and again as Finance Minister in the 3rd Itō administration.  From 1901 onwards, Inoue served as most senior of the \"genrō\", and considered himself the government's foremost advisor on financial affairs. He was advanced to the title of marquis (\"kōshaku\") in 1907, and died in 1915 at his summer home at Okitsu-juku, Shizuoka prefecture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "\"From the article in the Japanese Wikipedia\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": ", GCMG was a Japanese politician and a prominent member of the Meiji oligarchy during the Meiji period of the Empire of Japan. As one of the senior statesmen in Japan during that period, he had a tremendous influence on the selection of the nation's leaders and formation of its policies.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977634}
{"src_title": "Banna (Birdoswald)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Layout.", "content": "The fort was occupied by Roman auxiliaries from approximately AD 112 to AD 400. In this western part of Hadrian's Wall, the wall itself was originally built from turf, later replaced with stone (Hogan, 2007). The stone fort was built some time after the wall, in the usual playing card shape, with gates to the east, west and south. Inside were built the usual stone buildings, a central headquarters building (\"principia\"), granaries (\"horrea\"), and barracks. Unusually for an auxiliary fort, it also included an exercise building (\"basilica exercitatoria\"), perhaps reflecting the difficulties of training soldiers in the exposed site in the north of England.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History of excavations.", "content": "The fort has been extensively excavated for over a century, with twentieth century excavations starting in 1911 by F.G. Simpson and continuing with Ian Richmond from 1927 to 1933. The gateways and walls were then re-excavated under the supervision of Brenda Swinbank and J P Gillam from 1949-1950. Excavations between 1987 and 1992 showed an unbroken sequence of occupation on the site of the fort granaries, running from the late Roman period until possibly 500AD. The granaries were replaced by two successive large timber halls, reminiscent of others found in many parts of Britain dating to the 5th and 6th centuries. Tony Wilmott (director of the excavations) has suggested that, after the end of Roman rule in Britain, the fort served as the power-base for a local warband descended from the late Roman garrison and possibly deriving legitimacy from their ancestors for several generations.  Extensive geophysical surveys, both magnetometry and earth resistance survey, were conducted by TimeScape Surveys (Alan Biggins & David Taylor, 1999 & 2004) between 1997 -2001. These surveys established that the sub-surface remains in the fort were well preserved. The later surveys detected two vici (civilian settlements) of different characters on the eastern and western sides of the fort. The surveys by TimeScape also determined the location of a bathhouse in the valley of the River Irthing.  An area between the fort and the escarpment was excavated by Channel 4's archaeological television programme \"Time Team\" in January 2000. The excavation detected signs of an extramural settlement (\"vicus\"), but the area is liable to erosion and the majority of the vicus could have fallen over the cliffs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Defensive location.", "content": "The two mile sector of Hadrian's Wall either side of Birdoswald is also of major interest. It is currently the only known sector of Hadrian's Wall in which the original turf wall was later replaced by a stone wall on a different line. When the rebuilding took place (probably in the 130s) the line of the wall was moved approximately 50 metres further north, to line up with the fort's north wall, rather than its east and west gates. The reasons for this change are unclear, although David Woolliscroft (Woolliscroft, 2001) has plausibly suggested that it was the result of changing signalling requirements. At any rate, this remains the only area in which both the walls can be directly compared.  Approximately 600 metres east of Birdoswald, at the foot of an escarpment, lies the remains of Willowford bridge. This carried Hadrian's Wall across the River Irthing. The westward movement of the river course over the centuries has left the east abutment of the bridge high and dry, while the west abutment has probably been destroyed by erosion. Nevertheless, the much-modified visible remains are highly impressive. Until 1996, these remains were not directly accessible from the fort, but they can now be reached by a footbridge that was lowered into position by an RAF Chinook helicopter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Maiden Way.", "content": "The fort at Birdoswald was linked by a Roman road, sometimes referred to as the Maiden Way, to the outpost fort of Bewcastle, seven miles to the north. Signals could be relayed between the two forts by means of two signalling towers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Birdoswald Roman Fort today.", "content": "Today the fort's site is operated by English Heritage as Birdoswald Roman Fort. The visitor centre features displays and reconstructions of the fort, exhibits about life in Roman Britain, the site's history through the ages, and archaeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries. Visitors can walk outside along the excavated remains of the fort.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Banna, now known as Birdoswald Roman Fort, was a fort, towards the western end of Hadrian's Wall, in the Roman province of Britannia. Today the site is occupied by a former farm called Birdoswald., it is the only site on Hadrian's Wall at which significant occupation in the post-Roman period has been proven, and it is subject to a long-term archaeological programme under the directorship of Tony Wilmott.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977635}
{"src_title": "Duffield Castle, Derbyshire", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The Norman castle.", "content": "What is known, however, is that in or around 1066 Henry de Ferrers (sometimes spelt Ferrars), having rendered great service to King William, was granted estates in Derbyshire, which became known as Duffield Frith. This extended between Heage and Shottle on the North, and Tutbury on the South. He built Tutbury Castle, and made it his chief seat; but he needed an outpost to protect his lands further north, so built another castle, probably of wood, at Duffield.  His third son, Robert, distinguished himself in the Battle of the Standard against the Scots in 1138 and was made the Earl of Derby. His great grandson, William, who succeeded to the position in 1162 joined the King's sons in a rebellion against their father, Henry II, and in 1173 both castles were destroyed.  Following him was his second, William, a favourite of King John who restored his earldom along with the manors of Wirksworth, Ashbourne and, later, Horston Castle (Horsley). At some time, the castles at Tutbury and Duffield were rebuilt, this time of stone. The next William also enjoyed many Royal favours.  The next Earl, Robert, the seventh generation, rebelled against Henry III and Tutbury Castle was destroyed. Although pardoned, Robert rebelled again and being defeated in battle at Chesterfield was dispossessed in 1269 and Duffield Castle was destroyed. His lands were given to Prince Edmund, who was shortly afterwards created Earl of Lancaster.  The castle was literally razed to the ground, much of the stone being scavenged for other buildings, and gradually became overgrown. Memories of a castle persisted, preserved in the name of \"Castle Orchard\", which extended from the present cottages of that name at the base of the castle mound, to the Hazlewood Road. The site was rediscovered in 1885.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Architecture.", "content": "Duffield Castle originally occupied over an estimated 5 acres of land and had a massive keep. The keep spanned 31 metres in length and width (approximately 0.24 acres) and was constructed from stone.  In 1924, a H. Walton stated that there was a series of stairways and entrances on the west side that lead to the first floor; due to a lack of either windows or entrances on the ground floor level. The first floor was believed to contain a guardroom or stateroom and some private inner rooms. Furthermore, H. Walton also believed that the second floor contained domestic and small apartments, kitchens, private retirement rooms and possibly a chapel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Excavations.", "content": "When the site was excavated, the foundations of a traditional Norman motte and bailey castle were discovered, with a stone keep built upon it. What was remarkable was the size of the latter, about 98 feet in length and 95 feet in breadth, only slightly smaller than the White Tower in London. The grounds were preserved, with the foundations marked out, and donated to the National Trust, in 1899, one of its earliest archaeological monuments. For many years, upkeep was carried out by the Parish Council, but has recently been taken back by the Trust.  Although further investigations were carried out in the 1930s and in 1957, few medieval remains were found, but the idea that the site had been occupied before the arrival of the Normans was confirmed by a number of Romano‐British finds.  A geophysical investigation of the site was carried out by the University of Bradford in 2001 and this revealed traces of other structures to the south and the southeast which would appear to date from the same period. The Trust is currently considering raising the necessary funds to carry out further investigations.  As a postscript, the de Ferrers family in Normandy presided over an important centre for iron manufacture. It has been suggested that this is the origin of nailmaking in Belper.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Duffield Castle was a Norman Castle in Duffield, Derbyshire. The site is a Scheduled Ancient Monument. It was on a rocky promontory facing the river, easily defended, though it is debatable whether it was inhabited in prehistoric times. It is also controversial whether the Romans maintained a military presence to protect the ford, nearby, across which the convoys of lead from Lutudarum (possibly Wirksworth) joined Rykneld Street at Derventio (now part of Derby), en route for the North Sea ports.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977636}
{"src_title": "The Brand New Testament", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "God lives in an apartment in Brussels which he shares with his meek wife and his 10-year-old daughter Ea, to whom he is emotionally and physically abusive. God is a grumpy sadist who created humankind specifically to have something to torment. He manipulates reality via a personal computer which he forbids his family from accessing. One day, Ea sneaks into his office and discovers how He has been mistreating humans. This enrages God who then whips Ea with his belt. Ea decides to rebel against her father. She steals the key to His office and accesses the scheduled dates of death of every human in the world and releases the information to them via their portable telephones. Everyone with a cell phone receives a text message informing them exactly when they will die. Ea then locks God's computer and escapes from the apartment through a washing machine which provides a tunnel to the outside world. Wandering the streets of Brussels, Ea decides to follow in the footsteps of her brother Jesus and write a Brand New Testament as her contribution to the human race. She selects six apostles to narrate their life stories. She first enlists a homeless man, Victor, to be her scribe, since she cannot write well.  The first apostle is a reclusive woman who lost her left arm in an accident and feels nobody will love her. The second is a man who hates his work and his life, who has decided to never move from a bench in the park now that he knows the date of his death. Ea translates to allow him to converse with a bird. This induces him to follow a flock of birds to the North Pole. The third apostle is a sexually frustrated man who is awkward with women and remains lovesick for a German girl he met once as a boy. With Ea's encouragement, he becomes a voice actor for porn movies, where he encounters and establishes a relationship with his lifelong fixation. The fourth apostle is a man who is fascinated with death and killing. He purchases a rifle and shoots people knowing that, since all death dates are already predetermined, they can not be his responsibility. Ea prods him to shoot a woman, the first apostle. He hits her in her prosthetic arm. Believing this to be a divine signal, he courts the woman and they establish a relationship, and he learns to embrace life instead of death. The fifth apostle is an elderly woman trapped in a loveless marriage, especially now that her husband knows he will outlive her by many years. Ea persuades her to cheat on her husband. She has sex with a young male prostitute, and then forms a love relationship with a gorilla. The gorilla scares her husband away, to her delight. The sixth apostle is a sickly boy who, when he discovered he had only days left to live, decided to live them as a girl. Ea encourages him to live each day as the equivalent of one month.  God is horrified when he discovers what Ea has done and that he can no longer torment humans. Locked out of his computer, He is powerless. He leaves the apartment using the chute in the laundry room, and in the real world He suffers all the mistreatment and frustrations He created for mankind. He is assaulted by everyone He meets. He discovers to his horror that the tunnel to his apartment has disappeared and He is trapped on Earth powerless and alone. He takes shelter in a church, where his outrageous criticism of his son Jesus Christ provokes a charitable priest into beating him senseless and eventually deporting him to Uzbekistan with a group of illegal immigrants.  Ea and her apostles go to the seaside where hundreds of people have gathered to spend the last hours of their lives. An airplane, which happens to be carrying God under police escort, falls out of the sky and threatens to crash onto the beach and kill everyone. At the last moment, however, God's wife realizes that the number of apostles has grown to 18, her favorite number, explores her husband's work space, unwittingly restarts his computer, and begins to configure a new life for mankind. She deletes the messages that notified people of their death date. The airplane regains altitude and a new creation is born under a flower-filled sky. Victor publishes the Brand New Testament which becomes a bestseller and catapults him out of hopeless poverty into a whole new life of fame and fortune. God reaches Uzbekistan where he works on an assembly line manufacturing washing machines. He keeps on searching without success for the washing machine with the escape hatch that will take him back to his apartment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"The Brand New Testament\" received generally favorable reviews from film critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 82%, based on 74 reviews with an average rating of 7/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"\"The Brand New Testament\" takes a surreal, subversive, and funny look at Biblical themes through a modern — and refreshingly original — lens.\" At Metacritic, the film received an average score of 70 out of 100, based on 17 reviews from mainstream critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Brand New Testament () is a 2015 fantasy dark comedy film written, produced, and directed by Jaco Van Dormael. It is a co-production among Belgium, France, and Luxembourg. The film was screened at the Directors' Fortnight section at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival. It was selected as the Belgian entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 88th Academy Awards, making the December shortlist of nine films, but was not nominated. \"The Brand New Testament\" received ten nominations at the 6th Magritte Awards, winning four awards, including Best Film and Best Director for Van Dormael. The film has become a cult film.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977637}
{"src_title": "Spanish galleon San José", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "\"San José\" was designed by Francisco Antonio Garrote and built by Pedro de Aróstegui at the shipyard at Mapil, Usurbil, Spain. Construction started in 1697 and ended in 1698. They built twin ships simultaneously and named them \"San José\" and \"San Joaquín\".  \"San José\" and \"San Joaquín\" were part of the Spanish treasure fleet during the War of the Spanish Succession, under General José Fernández de Santillán, the Count of Casa Alegre. On its final voyage, \"San José\" sailed as the flagship of a treasure fleet composed of three Spanish warships and 14 merchant vessels sailing from Portobelo, Panama, to Cartagena, Colombia. On 8 June 1708, the fleet encountered a British squadron near Barú, leading to a battle known as Wager's Action. During the battle, the powder magazines of \"San José\" detonated, destroying the ship with most of her crew and the gold, silver, emeralds and jewellery collected in the South American colonies to finance the Spanish king's war effort. Of the 600 people aboard, only eleven survived.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Search and discovery.", "content": "\"San José\", is estimated to be worth about $1 billion (£662m) as of 2012, based on the speculation that it had up to 11 million 4-doubloons (11 million \"8 escudos\" gold coins; 11 million coins of 27g of 92% gold totaling 8.8 million troy ounces AGW or $11.5 billion) and many silver coins on board at the time of its sinking, similar to its surviving sister ship, \"San Joaquín\". The silver and gold are from the mines of Potosí, Bolivia. \"San José\" is called the \"Holy Grail of Shipwrecks\".  A group of investors from the United States called Glocca Mora Co. operating under the name 'Sea Search Armada' (SSA) claim to have found the ship off the coast of Colombia in 1981, but Colombia refused to sign a 65%/35% share offer and refused SSA permission to conduct full salvage operations at the shipwreck site. The Colombian parliament then passed a law giving the state the right to all of the treasure, leaving SSA with a 5% finder's fee, which was to be taxed at 45%. SSA sued Colombia in its own courts in 1989. In July 2007 the Supreme Court of Colombia concluded that any treasure recovered would be split equally between the Colombian government and the explorers. Sea Search Armada subsequently sued in United States courts, but the case was dismissed twice, in 2011 and 2015 on technical grounds, and the galleon declared the property of the Colombian state. The Colombian government declined to verify that the galleon was at the coordinates stated in the case.  On 27 November 2015, the galleon \"San José\" was found by the Colombian Navy though the discovery was not announced by the President of Colombia, Juan Manuel Santos, until 5 December. The discovery was made using a REMUS 6000 autonomous underwater vehicle. From the dive photographs, Colombian marine archaeologists have identified \"San José\" by her bronze guns engraved with dolphins. Colombia has claimed the galleon as part of its submerged patrimony, thus it is constitutionally obliged to protect and preserve the ship and all its sunken contents. The Government of Colombia has classified the information regarding the location of the galleon as a state secret.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The Colombian Institute of Anthropology and History, a government agency ascribed to the Ministry of Culture, is in charge of overseeing all archeological sites in Colombia. The director of the ICANH, Ernesto Montenegro, has stated that soil, and sea depth studies are being carried out in order to examine the methods of extraction of the ship's contents. Then Colombian President, Juan Manuel Santos, has also stated that a museum will be constructed in Cartagena to host some of the contents of the galleon.  On 16 December 2015, the Office of the Inspector General of Colombia requested that the State, and the rest of the parties involved, be responsible for keeping thorough archives regarding the exploration and intervention of the galleon, requesting that the archives be turned in to the Ministry of Culture which is the governmental entity responsible of the underwater cultural heritage. The Inspector General also requested that a representative sum of the coins, ingots, and gemstones, which are not considered to be cultural patrimony under the concept of repetition, must be given to the central bank, Banco de la República, for preservation.  The Minister of Culture, Mariana Garcés Córdoba, stated that 2016 will be \"a year of exploration, not extraction\". According to the Minister, Colombia sees the discovery as a project of investigation that implies the creation of laboratories that will include the entailment of specialists from different work areas, in order to properly study the shipwreck and its contents.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "San José was a 64-gun, 3-masted galleon of the Spanish Navy. It was launched in 1698, and sank in battle off the coast of Cartagena, Colombia, in 1708 while laden with gold, silver and emeralds worth about US$17 billion as of 2018. The sunken ship was located by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) in November 2015.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977638}
{"src_title": "Natural childbirth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Historically, most women gave birth at home without emergency medical care available. The \"natural\" rate of maternal mortality—meaning without surgical or pharmaceutical intervention—has been estimated at 1,500 per 100,000 births. In the United States circa 1900, before the introduction and improvement of modern medical technologies, there were about 700 maternal deaths per 100,000 births (.7%).  At the onset of the Industrial Revolution, giving birth at home became more difficult due to congested living spaces and dirty living conditions. This drove urban and lower class women to newly available hospitals, while wealthy and middle-class women continued to labor at home. In the early 1900s there was an increasing availability of hospitals, and more women began going into the hospital for labor and delivery. In the United States, the middle classes were especially receptive to the medicalization of childbirth, which promised a safer and less painful labor. The ability to birth without pain was part of the early feminist movement. The use of childbirth drugs began in 1847 when Scottish obstetrician James Young Simpson introduced chloroform as an anesthetic during labor, but only the most rich and powerful women (such as Queen Victoria) had access. In the late 1800s, feminists in the United States and United Kingdom began to demand drugs for pain relief during childbirth. However, well into the first decades of the 20th century, unmedicated birth assisted by midwives was still commonplace in rural areas and some urban centers as well.  The term \"natural childbirth\" was coined by obstetrician Grantly Dick-Read upon publication of his book \"Natural Childbirth\" in 1933. In the book, Dick-Read defined the term as the absence of any intervention that would otherwise disturb the sequence of labor. The book argued that because of \"civilized\" British women fear birth the birthrate was dropping, and if women were not to fear birth, birthing would be easier since fear creates tension which, in turn, causes pain. In 1942, Dick-Read published \"Revelation of Childbirth\" (which was later retitled \"Childbirth without Fear\"), advocating natural childbirth, which became an international bestseller. In the late 1940s, he brought his ideas to America, but saw similar ideas with differing names – “pain-free birth” and “prepared childbirth” – were already gaining traction. The appeal of natural childbirth rested in the idea that merging physiological, psychological, social, and spiritual aspects of reproduction would create the best comprehensive care.  The Lamaze method gained popularity in the United States after Marjorie Karmel wrote about her experiences in her 1959 book \"Thank You, Dr. Lamaze\", and with the formation of the American Society for Psychoprophylaxis in Obstetrics (currently Lamaze International) by Karmel and Elisabeth Bing. The Bradley method of natural childbirth (also known as \"husband-coached childbirth\"), a method of natural childbirth developed in 1947 by Robert A. Bradley, M.D., was popularized by his book \"Husband-Coached Childbirth\", first published in 1965.  In the 1970s, natural childbirth became a movement associated with feminism and consumerism, stressing obstetrics' lack of concern for the whole person and technology a method for controlling women's bodies. Michel Odent and midwives such as Ina May Gaskin promoted birthing centers, water birth, and homebirth as alternatives to the hospital model. Frédérick Leboyer is often mistakenly believed to have advocated for water births, but he actually rejected the alternative as he felt it was not beneficial to the health of the baby. In 1976, Gaskin wrote the book \"Spiritual Midwifery\", which described the beauty and power of unmedicated home births.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Psychological aspects.", "content": "Many women consider natural birth empowering and gives women more control in the birth process, pushing against the paternalistic medical establishment. Studies show that skin-to-skin contact between a mother and her newborn immediately after birth is beneficial for both mother and baby. A review done by the World Health Organization found that skin-to-skin contact between mothers and babies after birth reduces crying, improves mother-infant interaction, and helps mothers to breastfeed successfully. They recommend that neonates be allowed to bond with the mother during their first two hours after birth, the period that they tend to be more alert than in the following hours of early life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alternatives to intervention.", "content": "Instead of medical interventions, a variety of non-invasive methods are employed during natural childbirth to ease the mother's pain. Many of these techniques stress the importance of \"a mind-body connection,\" which the techno-medical model of birth does not. These techniques include hydrotherapy, massage, relaxation therapy, hypnosis, breathing exercises, acupressure for labor, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), vocalization, visualization, mindfulness and water birth. Other approaches include movement, walking, and different positions (for example, using a birthing ball), hot and cold therapy (for example, using hot compresses and/or cold packs), and receiving one-on-one labor support like that provided by a midwife or doula. However, natural childbirth proponents maintain that pain is a natural and necessary part of the labor process, and should not automatically be regarded as entirely negative. In contrast to the pain of injury and disease, they believe that the pain of childbirth is a sign that the female body is functioning as it is meant to.  Birth positions favored in natural childbirth—including squatting, hands and knees, or suspension in water—contrast with the lithotomy position (woman in hospital bed on her back with legs in stirrups), which has consistently been shown to slow and complicate labor.  Methods to reduce tearing during natural childbirth (instead of an episiotomy) include managing the perineum with counter-pressure, hot compresses, and pushing the baby out slowly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparation.", "content": "Some women take birth education classes such as Lamaze or the Bradley Method to prepare for a natural childbirth. Several books are also available with information to help women prepare. A midwife or doula may include preparation for a natural birth as part of the prenatal care services. However, a study published in 2009 suggests that preparation alone is not enough to ensure an intervention-free outcome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prevalence of medical intervention in the U.S..", "content": "In the U.S in 2007: 93% of mothers used electronic fetal monitoring; 63% used epidurals; 55% had their membranes ruptured; 53% received oxytocin to stimulate labor progress; and 52% received episiotomies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticisms.", "content": "Some studies argue that the push towards 'natural childbirth' in Western countries is exaggerated, and can harm women. Some women also express shame when not able to have a “natural birth,” feeling that their bodies may be defective or lessen the experiences of individuals using assisted reproductive technologies, or who are adoptive parents and parents who use surrogates.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Natural childbirth is childbirth without routine medical interventions, particularly anesthesia. Natural childbirth arose in opposition to the techno-medical model of childbirth that has recently gained popularity in industrialized societies. Natural childbirth attempts to minimize medical intervention, particularly the use of anesthetic medications and surgical interventions such as episiotomies, forceps and ventouse deliveries and caesarean sections. Natural childbirth may occur during a physician or midwife attended hospital birth, a midwife attended homebirth, or an unassisted birth. The term \"natural childbirth\" was coined by obstetrician Grantly Dick-Read upon publication of his book \"Natural Childbirth\" in the 1930s, which was followed by the 1942 \"Childbirth Without Fear\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977639}
{"src_title": "Committee for the Defence of Democracy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "KOD was formed after Law and Justice won parliament election. In opposition to several actions taken by the governing party, Law and Justice (, PiS), which in October 2015 became the first party in post-communist Polish history to control an absolute majority of the seats in the Polish Parliament, with a PiS-backed candidate, Andrzej Duda, winning the presidential elections just a few months earlier. The primary impetus for the formation of KOD was the Parliament’s enactment of a law on 26 November 2015 purporting to invalidate the prior Government’s appointment of five judges to the Polish Constitutional Court and the nomination of new PiS-affiliated judges to replace them. Since then the organisation has opposed and reacted to any actions taken by the government or President Andrzej Duda which were deemed unlawful, undermining democracy, limiting civil liberties or going against European principles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activity.", "content": "On November 26, 2015, the members of KOD wrote an open letter entitled “A Letter of the Citizens of the Constitutional State to Andrzej Duda, the President of Poland” asking him to swear in three of the five judges to the Constitutional Court. KOD argued that those three, although not the other two, were duly elected by the previous parliament.  As the disagreements between the governing party and the Constitutional Court continued, KOD called for protests against what it perceives as a breach of the Constitution in violation of democratic norms and the constitutional separation of powers between the legislature, executive branch, and judiciary.  The former leader, Mateusz Kijowski, left the organisation in 2017 after being accused of appropriating 121 thousand złoty..  Most of the protests in Poland are accompanied by smaller protests by KOD cells in most European capitals and around the world, notably in Brussels, London, Paris, Berlin and the USA.  In December 2019, the Helsinki Foundation for Human Rights and the Committee for the Defence of Democracy organized protests throughout Poland against the Polish judicial disciplinary panel law.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Committee for the Defence of Democracy, CDD(, \"KOD\") is a Polish-born civic organization and NGO promoting European values, especially democracy, rule of law and human rights, founded in November 2015 by a group of citizens including Mateusz Kijowski, as a result of, and triggered by, the Polish constitutional crisis, 2015. The organization is independent of any political parties and has declared that it has no intention to transform into one, but according to the World Socialist Web Site, its events and actions are supported by the liberal opposition including the Modern (.N) and Civic Platform (PO) parties. It is opposed to the actions of the government led by the Law and Justice (PiS) party.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977640}
{"src_title": "Shayne Gostisbehere", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "A product of the Florida Junior Panthers program, Gostisbehere grew up in Florida, attending Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School for two years before transferring to South Kent School in South Kent, Connecticut, where he played two seasons as a junior in 2009–10 and as a senior in 2010–11. His father, Regis, is a native of French Basque Country who moved to Florida to pursue a career as a professional jai alai player. Gostisbehere holds dual French-American citizenship, though he does not speak French. He was influenced to pursue hockey by his French-Canadian maternal grandfather Denis Brodeur (no relation to Martin).  Gostisbehere played college hockey with the Union Dutchmen in the NCAA Men's Division I ECAC Hockey conference. In his junior year, Gostisbehere's outstanding play was rewarded with a selection to the 2013–14 ECAC Hockey All-Conference First Team. The Dutchmen won the national title in 2014 and Gostisbehere earned great praise for his three points and plus-7 performance in a 7–4 win over the Minnesota Golden Gophers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Gostisbehere was selected by the Philadelphia Flyers in the third round (78th overall) of the 2012 NHL Entry Draft.  On April 15, 2014, Gostisbehere was signed by the Flyers to an entry-level contract. However, Gostisbehere suffered a torn ACL in November that kept him out of the lineup for the rest of the 2014–15 season in which he was slated to play for the Lehigh Valley Phantoms.  Gostisbehere impressed in training camp preceding the 2015–16 season, but was ultimately sent down to the Phantoms. A month into the season, on November 14, 2015, Gostisbehere was called up by the Flyers, and recorded his first career NHL point in his opening appearance with the Flyers on a game-tying assist against the Carolina Hurricanes. Three days later he scored his first NHL goal against Jonathan Quick of the Los Angeles Kings and followed it up with two overtime winners which were described as \"absolutely identical\", making him the first Flyers rookie to score multiple overtime winners in a season. Gostisbehere later added a third overtime goal against the Carolina Hurricanes, marking the second time that he'd scored the overtime winner against Carolina.  On February 13, 2016, he broke Barry Beck's point streak record for a rookie defenseman with a goal against the New Jersey Devils, extending his streak to 11 games. On February 20, 2016, he extended his point streak to 15 games with an overtime goal against Toronto. Gostisbehere became the first rookie in NHL history to record 4 OT goals in a season. On February 23, 2016, his point streak ended at 15 games in a loss against the Carolina Hurricanes.  Gostisbehere finished his rookie season having been voted onto the 2015–16 NHL All Rookie Team and finished second place in voting for the Calder Memorial Trophy.  On June 9, 2017, Gostisbehere signed a six-year, $27 million deal with the Flyers, worth $4.5 million a season.  Following a 4-1 defeat to the Florida Panthers on March 4, 2018, Gostisbehere invited the hockey team of Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School to a meet and greet. This was weeks after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "His older sister Felicia was a figure skater who suffered a career-ending hip injury as a teenager. Gostisbehere's cousin Ugo Gostisbehere is a professional soccer player in France. He currently lives with his three French bulldogs, Cooper, Pippa, and Louie.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Shayne Gostisbehere (born April 20, 1993) is an American professional ice hockey defenseman currently playing for the Philadelphia Flyers of the National Hockey League (NHL). He is known by his nickname, \"Ghost\" or \"Ghost Bear.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977641}
{"src_title": "Osman Gazi Bridge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Project.", "content": "Construction and operation of the bridge was awarded to a joint venture (NOMAYG JV) formed by five Turkish companies (Nurol, Özaltın, Makyol, Yüksel and Gocay) and one Italian construction company Astaldi following the international Build–operate–transfer tender that took place in April 2009. In 2010, a contract was signed for the project that was estimated to cost ₺11 billion for the entire highway from Gebze to Bursa.  On 30 March 2013 Prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan laid the ground stone for the bridge.  After the completion of the bridge, the distance between Istanbul and İzmir shortened by about, bypassing the long-stretched Gulf of İzmit. The highway and bridge reduced the travel time between the two major cities from six-and-half hours to three-and-half hours. The bridge and the connecting highway provide three lanes of traffic in each direction. The construction was completed on 30 June 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "EPC Bridge Contractor.", "content": "The US$1 billion privately financed bridge was awarded to the Japanese firm IHI Infrastructure System Co. on 16 July 2011 as EPC basis with FIDIC Silverbook contract. IHI, which was one of the contractors of second Bosphorus bridge, also completed the seismic reinforcement projects for Halic and Mecidiyekoy viaducts. IHI subcontracted the design works to Danish engineering design firm COWI A/S, which collaborated for the aesthetic design with Dissing+Weitling. Notice to proceed was given by NOMAYG JV to IHI on 1 January 2013 and the expected total project duration was 37 months.  The dimensions are:  The 34,000 tons of steel used to build the bridge was brought from ArcelorMittal Galaţi, Romania.  The bridge is fourth longest suspension bridge in the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accident at construction site.", "content": "On 21 March 2015 a catwalk broke away from its bolted joint cable on the south tower during the construction at the bridge and fell into the water. Added in February 2015, the catwalk was needed to allow workers access to the other side of the bay. No one was harmed by the accident as work was interrupted at this section due to windy weather. Marine traffic to and from İzmit Bay was suspended following the accident for security reasons and resumed after recovering the cable in the morning of 23 March.  Kishi Ryoichi, the 51-year-old Japanese engineer of the IHI-Itochu Consortium, who was in charge of the construction at site, committed suicide after the accident. He was found dead at the entrance of a cemetery near his lodging in Altınova. He left a note saying that \"...this failure ends my private and professional life. This project was mine and my country's pride. No one else is responsible for this failure.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tolls.", "content": "As of 1 January 2019 the bridge tolls are:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The five-time Supersport World champion Kenan Sofuoğlu from Turkey made a show of motorcycle speed trial in the early hours of 30 June 2016, right before the official opening of the bridge. He traversed the distance in 26 seconds reaching a top speed of on his Kawasaki Ninja H2R track-only motorcycle.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Osmangazi Bridge () is a suspension bridge spanning the Gulf of İzmit at its narrowest point,. The bridge links the Turkish city of Gebze to the Yalova Province and carries the O-5 motorway across the gulf. The bridge was opened on 1 July 2016 and surpassed the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge to become the longest bridge in Turkey and the sixth-longest suspension bridge in the world by the length of its central span.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977642}
{"src_title": "Tihomir Orešković", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Orešković was born in Zagreb on 1 January 1966 to Đurđa and Dane Orešković. While he was still an infant, he moved with his parents to Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. In 1989, he graduated with a degree in chemistry from McMaster University in Canada. In 1991, he graduated with an MBA in finance and information systems from the same university. Orešković is married to Sanja Orešković (née Dujmović), also from Zagreb, with whom he has two daughters and two sons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional career.", "content": "His professional career began in 1992 in the production of American pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly where he held various functions in the field of finance and international business. His last position in the company was the position of Director for relations with the state administration and economic affairs.  After leaving Eli Lilly in August 2005, he continued his career in the Canadian pharmaceutical company Novopharm (now: Teva Canada), as VP of Business Development, Specialty Products and CFO. Orešković started working for Pliva in 2009 as chief financial officer for Eastern Europe, and in 2010 was appointed to the position of Chief Financial Officer for Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean, Israel and Africa. Orešković holds dual Croatian and Canadian citizenship.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Orešković was contacted by the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) several months before the 2015 parliamentary elections over a possible minister position in the new government. Following the parliamentary elections held on 8 November and the ensuring 76 days of negotiations during which a new Prime Minister could not be named, finally on 23 December 2015 it was announced that HDZ and Bridge of Independent Lists (Most) would name him as their compromise candidate for Prime Minister. On the same day President Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović handed him the mandate to try and form a government in the next 30 days. Orešković, a self-described fiscal conservative and a centrist, started forming his cabinet with the two parties in January. He named his cabinet on 21 January 2016 and the Orešković Cabinet was approved through a vote of confidence from Parliament on 22 January, constitutionally the last possible date of Orešković's 30-day mandate during which he was to name a government.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prime Minister (2016).", "content": "The 13th Government of Croatia was approved by 83 MPs, 61 voted against and 5 abstained during the confirmation vote. Orešković's government included two Deputy Prime Ministers: Tomislav Karamarko, president of HDZ, who is the first deputy, and Božo Petrov, president of Most. Orešković's main tasks were to cut the public debt and bring investors to Croatia that had just emerged from a six-year recession. Orešković said that his government will achieve a GDP growth of above 3%, reduce the public debt below 80%, cut the unemployment rate to 14% and raise the country's credit rating. His plan included the privatization of non-strategic assets, more investments in tourism, energy and infrastructure, taxation of unused property and increased use of EU funds.  His government faced its first political challenge with the resignation of the Minister of Veterans Affairs Mijo Crnoja, only 6 days into his term, on 28 January 2016. His replacement, Tomo Medved was appointed as minister on 21 March 2016.  On 13 March, the Parliament adopted the 2016 state budget. The budget projected a deficit below 3% in 2016, GDP growth of 2% and the reduction of public debt from 86.9% to 86.8% of GDP. In mid April, the IMF increased the Croatian GDP growth forecast for 2016 from 1% to 1.9%. In the first quarter of 2016, revenues to the budget increased for 3.7%, and expenditures decreased by 6.5%. GDP growth was 2.7%.  On 22 April, representatives of the Jewish and Serb minorities and an anti-fascist group boycotted the official commemoration for the victims of the Jasenovac concentration camp, in protest to what they said was an inadequate reaction by the authorities to events that \"downplayed and revitalized\" the crimes of the Ustashe regime.  In June, Orešković and Economy Minister Tomislav Panenić signed contracts for onshore hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation with oil companies including INA and Vermilion Energy, worth €88 million. In case gas and oil is found in the exploration fields, located in Slavonia, it is estimated that revenues to the state budget would be between around €600 million (3,4 billion HRK) and €900 million (6,8 billion HRK) yearly. Orešković announced the first stage implementation of the Adria LNG terminal on Krk, the Križevci-Dugo Selo railway project worth €200 million, and the Pelješac Bridge worth €430 million. A new public procurement bill was adopted by the government, that replaced the lowest price criterion with the economically most favourable offer.  At the end of June, public debt was 3.9 billion HRK lower than at the end of 2015. June was also the fourth consecutive month of an annual decline of public debt. Budget deficit fell by 5.1 billion HRK in the first six months of 2016, making up 0.7% of GDP. GDP growth reached 2.8% in the second quarter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Government crisis.", "content": "Orešković's cabinet had been plagued by tensions between the two governing parties, HDZ and Most, particularly over the INA, Croatia's national oil company, and the Ministry of the Interior., which culminated in the conflict of interest affair labeled \"The Consultant Affair\", when it was revealed that Tomislav Karamarko's wife had business contacts with a consultant of the Hungarian oil company MOL which was a party in an arbitration processes with Croatia over INA. As a result, a vote of no confidence against Karamarko was initiated by the Parliamentary opposition, asking for Karamarko to step down, which he refused to do.  On 3 June 2016, in an attempt to find a compromise solution for the growing crisis, Orešković called on both Karamarko and Petrov to resign their positions for the sake of stability of the country. Petrov was ready to do so, while Karamarko was not. Afterwards, HDZ initiated a vote of no confidence against the Prime Minister and started forming a new majority in the Parliament. Most continued to support Orešković and asked for Karamarko's resignation.  On 15 June 2016, the \"Commission for Conflict of Interest\" determined that Karamarko had been in a conflict of interest in \"The Consultant Affair\", so Karamarko offered his resignation as Deputy Prime Minister while vowing to challenge the ruling at the Constitutional court. On the following day, the confidence vote in Parliament took place and resulted in the fall of Orešković's government by a vote of 125 MPs in favor, 15 against and 2 abstentions. Both the HDZ and most of the opposition voted in favor, while Most voted against. The fall of Orešković's government led to the Parliament's self-dissolution on 15 July 2016, and early elections in the second half of 2016.  Orešković was Croatia's first prime minister not to be a member of a political party while in office and is also the wealthiest person to have held the position, with a reported net worth of around 22,2 million kuna (3,2 million US dollars) in late February 2016. Having held office for a little under eight months, he was the shortest-serving Prime Minister of Croatia since Hrvoje Šarinić in 1993 and his term was also the briefest since the replacement of a semi-presidential system with an incomplete parliamentary system in 2000. Orešković was the first, and to date only, Prime Minister to have been forced out of office by a parliamentary motion of no confidence.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Tihomir \"Tim\" Orešković (; born 1 January 1966) is a Croatian Canadian businessman who was Prime Minister of Croatia from January to October 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977643}
{"src_title": "Battle of Kiev (1943)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Strategy.", "content": "The structure of the strategic operations from the Soviet planning point of view was:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Soviet preparations.", "content": "In October 1943, several of Vatutin's armies were having serious trouble trying to break out of the rugged terrain of the Bukrin bend, the southern bridgehead. The 24th Panzer Corps of Walther Nehring, in an effective defensive position, had the opposing Soviet forces squeezed in. As a result, Vatutin decided to concentrate his strength at the northern bridgehead at Lyutezh.  The 3rd Guards Tank Army, commanded by Pavel Rybalko, moved northwards toward the Lyutezh bridgehead under cover of darkness and diversionary attacks out of the Bukrin bend. The Soviet preparations were considerable, including the installation of 26 bridges and 87 ferries. Many of the Soviet bridges were built underwater, making them difficult to detect. Feint attacks and the construction of fake bridges may have fooled the Germans for a short while. Fire support was provided by 7,000 guns and mortars and 700 combat aircraft. The 27th and 40th Armies launched the Soviet diversionary attack at Bukrin on 1 November, two days ahead of schedule, but advanced only 1.5 kilometers before being driven back.  Soviet historians claimed complete success for the Red Army deception measures but the Germans correctly identified the Soviet assault sector and sent armored reinforcements to the area. The 4th Panzer Army war diary referred to the main Soviet push north of Kiev on 3 November as \"the offensive we have been expecting\". The Germans were uncertain whether the anticipated Soviet assault had far-reaching objectives from the outset or was merely for the capture of an initial bridgehead to be exploited later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Initial stage.", "content": "Early on the morning of 3 November 1943, the 4th Panzer Army was subjected to a massive Soviet bombardment. The Soviet 38th and 60th Armies attacked in the first wave but failed to break through the positions of the German VII Army Corps. On 4 November, the 3rd Guards Armored Army and I Guard Cavalry Corps were added to the assault, compelling VII Army Corps to retreat and evacuate Kiev. The Soviets captured Kiev on 6 November. The second phase of the Soviet offensive now began, with the 1st Ukrainian Front's objective consisting of the capture of the towns of Zhitomir, Korosten, Berdichev and Fastov and the cutting of the rail link to Army Group Center; the ultimate objective being the encirclement of Army Group South. By 7 November, the Soviet spearheads had already reached the important railway node at Fastov 50 kilometers south-west of Kiev.  The plan went well at first for Vatutin; Manstein, however, became worried. As Rybalko's tanks moved through the streets of Kiev on 6 November, Manstein pleaded with Adolf Hitler to release the 48th and 40th Panzer Corps in order to have sufficient forces to retake Kiev. The 48th Panzer Corps was committed to Manstein. Hitler refused to divert the 40th Panzer Corps, and replaced Hoth with Erhard Raus, who was ordered to blunt the Soviet attack and secure the Army Group South's northern flank and communications with Army Group Centre. A number of sources give 6 November as the date for the fall of Kiev. The 1st Czechoslovak Independent Brigade seems to have started the assault earlier, at 12.30 on 5 November, reaching the Dniepr at 02:00 on the 6th, after sweeping through the western suburbs of the city and were the first unit in the city center, with Kiev finally being captured at 06:50 on the 6th.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Raus counterattacks.", "content": "Raus had some difficulty with his units suffering heavy casualties in the initial stages of Vatutin's offensive. The 4th Panzer Army was reinforced, especially with artillery and rockets. The German divisions were bolstered on 7 November by the arrival of the newly formed 25th Panzer Division commanded by \"General der Panzertruppen\" Georg Jauer. Its drive on Fastov was halted by the 7th Guards Tank Corps. The half-formed 25th Panzer Division had only emergency individual training, lacked entire equipment categories and was committed against the protests of Heinz Guderian, the Inspector of Panzer Troops. It became the first committed Panzer Division that failed to achieve at least initial offensive success on the Eastern Front. The failed German offensive stopped the advance of the Soviet 3rd Guards Armored Army.  The rest of the Soviet forces continued their attacks. Rybalko was soon just from Berdichev. Zhitomir was taken by the 38th Army on 12 November but the Soviet advance came to a halt as the I Guards Cavalry Corps troopers looted the German 4th Army's alcohol stocks. The 60th Army took Korosten on 17 November and the 40th Army was moving south from Kiev. The only respite for the Germans came when the 27th Army exhausted itself and went over to the defensive in the Bukrin bend. In 10 days the Soviets had advanced 150 kilometers and opened up a 100 kilometer-wide gap between Army Group Center and Army Group South.  The 4th Panzer Army was in deep trouble. However, the situation changed with the arrival of Hermann Balck's XLVIII Panzer Corps, comprising the SS Division Leibstandarte, 1st Panzer Division and 7th Panzer Division. Balck drove his forces north to Brusyliv and then west to retake Zhitomir. Rybalko sent the 7th Guards Tank Corps to counter the German assault. A huge tank battle ensued, which continued until the latter part of November, when the autumn mud halted all operations.  With the recapture of Zhitomir and Korosten, the 4th Panzer had gained some breathing room. With Vatutin halted, Stavka released substantial reserves to his First Ukrainian Front to regain momentum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final stage.", "content": "By 5 December, the mud had frozen. 48th Panzer Corps conducted a wide sweeping attack north of Zhitomir. Catching the Red Army by surprise, the German forces sought to encircle the Soviet 60th Army and the 13th Corps. Reinforced with the 2nd Parachute Division, the Germans drove eastward, putting the Soviets on the defensive. With Fastov also being threatened, the 60th Army withdrew from Korosten.  Vatutin was forced to ask Stavka for more reserves, and was allocated the 1st Tank Army and the 18th Army. These new units, along with additional Corps from other sectors, were hastily rushed westward. Thus, the Red Army stopped the German advance, went back on the offensive, and retook Brusilov. Both sides were exhausted by late December and the battle for Kiev was over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Although the Soviets had failed to break the rail link with Army Group Center or envelop Army Group South, they had broken the Dnieper line, taken Kiev, the third biggest city in the Soviet Union, and inflicted significant casualties on the 4th Panzer Army. The Germans, for their part, had bloodied several sizable Soviet formations and kept the vital rail link open, but failed in its attempt to encircle and destroy the Soviet spearheads. A few days after XLVIII Panzer Corps was pulled out to rest and refit, the Soviets launched Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive on Christmas Eve. The renamed Voronezh Front Offensive pushed the Germans back to the 1939 Polish border by 3 January 1944.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Second Battle of Kiev was a part of a much wider Soviet offensive in Ukraine known as the Battle of the Dnieper involving three strategic operations by the Soviet Red Army and one operational counterattack by the Wehrmacht, which took place between 3 November and 22 December 1943.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977644}
{"src_title": "Charles Middleton, 1st Baron Barham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "He was born at Leith, Midlothian to Robert Middleton, a customs collector of Bo'ness, Linlithgowshire, and Helen, daughter of Captain Charles Dundas RN and granddaughter of Sir James Dundas of Arniston. He was a nephew of Brigadier-General John Middleton (1678–1739), a grandson of George Middleton DD, and a great-grandson of Alexander Middleton (younger brother of John Middleton, 1st Earl of Middleton), the last two having served as Principal of King's College, Aberdeen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Naval career.", "content": "Middleton entered the Royal Navy in 1741 as captain's servant aboard and HMS \"Duke\", and later served aboard HMS \"Flamborough\" as midshipman and master's mate. He became lieutenant in 1745, serving aboard the frigate HMS \"Chesterfield\", after 1748 on the west Africa station.  During the Seven Years' War, from 1754, Middleton was stationed aboard during her apprehension and capture of two French ships at Louisbourg, after which he was stationed in the Leeward Islands. In January 1757, an incident over rum rations, during which Middleton lost his temper and physically attacked a sailor ended with the sailor being court martialled and Middleton being transferred and promoted to command of the sloop HMS \"Speaker\".  Promoted to post-captain on 22 May 1758, Middleton was given command of the frigate HMS \"Arundel\". In 1761, while in command of, he distinguished himself in the West Indies, taking sixteen French ships and several privateers, and received the gratitude of the merchants in the British colony of Barbados. From March 1762 Middleton took command of the frigate \"Adventure\", patrolling the coast of Normandy.  In December 1761 Middleton married Margaret Gambier, niece of Captain Mead, who he had encountered aboard HMS \"Sandwich\" some twenty years earlier. Margaret moved to Teston in Kent, to be close to her friend Elizabeth Bouverie. In 1763, after service aboard the \"Adventure\", he moved to join Margaret at Teston, and for the next twelve years he farmed the land belonging to Mrs Bouverie, taking on the role of a country gentleman.  In 1775, at the outbreak of the American War of Independence, Middleton was given a guardship at the Nore, a Royal Navy anchorage in the Thames Estuary, and was subsequently appointed Comptroller of the Navy in 1778, a post he held for twelve years. In 1781 was created a baronet, with a special remainder, failing any male issue, to his son in law, Gerard Noel. In 1784, Sir Charles Middleton was elected Tory Member of Parliament (MP) for Rochester, a seat he held for six years, and on 24 September 1787 he was promoted rear admiral. By 1786 he had become disillusioned with his role as Comptroller of the Navy, seeing it as beset by internal politics between the Admiralty and the Navy Board. In 1786 he prepared a letter to the First Lord of the Admiralty indicating he would \"contend no more for the public,\" and urging the appointment of a successor who could \"have more weight than I have had, and influence ministers to correct these evils.\" The letter was never sent, but Middleton resigned his position in 1790 and effectively retired from naval affairs.  Promotions based on seniority continued to be received, despite Middleton's retirement from active service. On 1 February 1793 he was promoted to vice admiral, and in May 1794 he was appointed to the Board of Admiralty. He became First Naval Lord in March 1795 and was promoted to full admiral on 1 June 1795. He was finally, in May 1805 (at the age of 80), appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. He was also created Baron Barham, of Barham Court and Teston in the County of Kent, with a special remainder, failing male issue, to his only child, his daughter, Diana Noel, 2nd Baroness Barham, and her male heirs. He resigned office in 1806 and died seven years later, aged 86, at his home of Barham Court.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Abolitionist.", "content": "In addition to his service in the Royal Navy, Middleton played a crucial role in the abolition of the slave trade in the British Empire. He had been influenced by a pamphlet written by Rev. James Ramsay, who served as a surgeon under Middleton aboard HMS \"Arundel\" in the West Indies, but later took holy orders and served on the Caribbean island of St Christopher (now St Kitts), where he observed first-hand the treatment of slaves. On his return in 1777, exhausted by the continuing conflict with influential planters and businessmen, Ramsay returned to Britain and briefly lived with Sir Charles and Lady Middleton at Teston. He later became vicar of Teston and rector of Nettlestead, Kent, the livings being in the gift of Middleton.  Ramsay's pamphlet \"Essay on the Treatment and Conversion of African Slaves in the British Sugar Colonies\", published in 1784, especially affected Lady Middleton. Feeling inadequate to take up the issue of the slave trade in Parliament himself, and knowing that it would be a long, hard battle, Sir Charles Middleton suggested the young Member of Parliament William Wilberforce as the one who might be persuaded to take up the cause. (Whether this was the first time that the issue had been suggested to Wilberforce is debatable). In 1787 Wilberforce was introduced to James Ramsay and Thomas Clarkson at Teston, as well as meeting the growing group of supporters of abolition, which also included Edward Eliot, Hannah More, the evangelical writer and philanthropist, and Beilby Porteus, Bishop of London.  Clarkson had first made public his desire to spend his life fighting for emancipation at Middleton's home, Barham Court, overlooking the River Medway at Teston, Kent. In order to make a case for abolishing the slave trade, Clarkson did much research over many years, gathering evidence by interviewing thousands of sailors who had been involved in the slave trade.  Barham Court was effectively used for planning the campaign by Lord and Lady Barham, with numerous meetings and strategy sessions attended by Wilberforce, Clarkson, Eliot and Porteus before presenting legislation to Parliament. While Middleton never played a direct role in the effort to abolish the slave trade (finally accomplished in 1807) and slavery itself (in 1833) he played a very important part as a behind the scenes facilitator. His efforts were motivated by his evangelical faith.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Three warships of the Royal Navy have been named \"Barham\" in honour of Middleton including the battleship \"Barham\" launched in 1914.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fictional portrayals.", "content": "Barham is a character in \"Treason's Tide\" by Robert Wilton, set during the summer of 1805. He is also portrayed by the simple moniker of Admiral Barham in Naomi Novik's alternative history fiction series, Temeraire, in the second novel, \"Throne of Jade\", (published with Del Rey in 2006) in which he is depicted as arbitrating a dispute between the Chinese delegation and the British government over the possible return of Captain William Laurence's dragon Temeraire to China. His political relationship with William Wilberforce and the Abolitionist movement in Britain is also referenced in the work.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Admiral Charles Middleton, 1st Baron Barham PC (14 October 172617 June 1813) was a Royal Navy officer and politician. As a junior officer he saw action during the Seven Years' War. Middleton was given command of a guardship at the Nore, a Royal Navy anchorage in the Thames Estuary, at the start of the American War of Independence, and was subsequently appointed Comptroller of the Navy. He went on to be First Naval Lord and then First Lord of the Admiralty. Middleton also played a crucial role in the abolition of the slave trade.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977645}
{"src_title": "West Air Sweden Flight 294", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Aircraft and crew.", "content": "The aircraft was built in 1993 and was operated by Lufthansa CityLine as D‐ACLE until the end of 2006. It had a manufacturer's serial number (MSN) of 7010 and had two General Electric CF34-3B1 engines. The aircraft then underwent a cargo conversion re‐designating it as a CRJ200-PF (Package Freighter). The aircraft had been operated by West Air Sweden since 2007 as SE‐DUX. At the time of the crash, it had accumulated more than 38,600 flight‐hours in more than 31,000 cycles.  The 42‐year‐old Spanish captain had around 3,200 flying‐hours, of which 2,016 were on this aircraft type; the 33‐year‐old French first officer had 3,050 flying‐hours, of which 900 were on this aircraft type.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flight.", "content": "The aircraft departed Oslo-Gardermoen Airport at 23:11 hours local time for a flight to Tromsø Airport. The aircraft carried 4.5 tonnes (; ) of mail. While in cruise at Flight Level 330 and at approximately 23:31, the aircraft transmitted a Mayday call before communication and radar tracking were lost by air traffic control.  Aircraft tracking service Flightradar24 reported that the aircraft lost 6,485 metres (21,275 ft) in altitude over a period of 60seconds (; ) at 00:18, based upon data transmitted by the aircraft's transponder.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Search.", "content": "Both Norwegian and Swedish authorities searched for the aircraft, discovering the wreckage at 03:10 in the morning. The crash site was located at an elevation of in a remote area near Lake Akkajaure, approximately from the Norwegian border. The aircraft remains were spread in a circle approximately in diameter, which was said to suggest a high‐energy impact.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Investigation.", "content": "The Swedish Accident Investigation Authority (, or \"SHK\") opened an investigation into the crash. On 9 January 2016, the flight data recorder (FDR) was found severely damaged as well as parts of the Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR). The unit was, however, not intact, and the part containing the memory functions was missing. The following day, the missing parts of the CVR were found, alongside human remains. On 12 January, SHK reported that the distress call from the pilots contained the word \"Mayday\" repeated, with no further information. On 26 January, Statens Haverikommission reported that they had managed to read both CVR and FDR, and were analysing and validating the recordings.  On 19 March, in their interim report, SHK revealed:  After 17 seconds from the start of the event, the maximum speed (VMO) of 315 knots was exceeded. The overspeed warning was activated and the vertical acceleration turned to positive values.  Another 16 seconds later, the first officer transmitted a \"MAYDAY\" message that was confirmed by air traffic control. The indicated airspeed then exceeded 400 knots and the stabilizer trim was reactivated and reduced to 0.3 degrees nose down. The Pilot in Command called \"Mach trim\" after which engine power was reduced to idle.  During the further event, the last valid FDR value shows that the speed continued to increase up to 508 knots while the vertical acceleration values were positive, with maximum values of approximately +3G. FDR data shows that the aircraft's ailerons and spoilerons mainly were deflected to the left during the event. The final report was published by SHK on 12 December 2016. The inquiry reached the following conclusion: The accident was caused by insufficient operational prerequisites for the management of a failure in a redundant system. Contributing factors were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The accident is featured in the second episode of Season 20 of \"Mayday,\" also known as \"Air Crash Investigation.\" The episode is titled \"Impossible Pitch\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "West Air Sweden Flight 294 was a cargo flight of a Canadair CRJ200 from Oslo to Tromsø, Norway that crashed on 8 January 2016. A malfunction in one of the inertial reference units had produced erroneous attitude indications on one of the instrument displays. The crew's subsequent response resulted in spatial disorientation, leading to the loss of control of the aircraft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977646}
{"src_title": "Do not buy Russian goods!", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Causes.", "content": "According to activists, the campaign began as a response to a series of economic wars launched by Russia against Ukraine, including the \"Meat War\", the \"Cheese War\", and the \"Chocolate War.\" On August 14, 2013, the Federal Customs Service of Russia listed all Ukrainian exporters as companies \"at risk\", resulting in a blockade of Ukrainian products imported to Russia. A backup developed at customs involving hundreds of truckloads and railcars of Ukrainian goods.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Boycotts.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In Ukraine.", "content": "On August 22, 2013, activists held a protest near the Presidential Administration of Ukraine. The campaign continued with a mass distribution of leaflets, posters and stickers in more than 45 cities and towns in Ukraine. Caricatures of Russian Matryoshka dolls have been used in the campaign. The campaign began to decline with the beginning of Euromaidan.  On March 2, 2014, activists used social networks to announce the renewal of the boycott on any goods and services that benefit Russian companies. The intention was to keep Ukrainian money from going to Russia where it may be used to support the Russian military. The boycott was launched in response to the Crimean crisis and the Russian military intervention in Ukraine.  In March 2014, activists began organizing flash mobs in supermarkets to urge customers not to buy Russian goods and to boycott Russian gas stations, banks, and concerts. In April 2014, some movie theaters in Kiev, Lviv, and Odessa began shunning Russian films.  In summer of 2014, activists in Kiev began organizing flash mobs and actions in Russian restaurants and coffeehouses.  In the end of August 2014 activists have started a campaign \"Boycott Russian Films\" against Russian movies and serials on Ukrainian media space.  By April 2014, some Russian manufacturers changed their barcodes from Russian to Ukrainian. Titled \"Boycott Invaders\", an Android app was developed to identify products from Russia, including those disguising their origin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International spread.", "content": "Beginning in March 2014, the boycott spread to Poland and Lithuania.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "Sales of Russian goods in Ukraine decreased by 35-50% in the spring of 2014. In May 2014, Ukrainian supermarkets began to abandon the procurement of Russian goods. Delivery of goods from Russia fell by a third.  In April 2014 it was reported that producers from Russian Federation are changing Russian barcodes with barcodes of other countries. Moreover, there are revealed facts of illegal masking of Russian products in some Ukrainian supermarkets.  From January to May 2014, according to Standard & Poor's ratings, banks with Russian capital in Ukraine lost more than 50% of deposits.  According to comparison test of Russian TV series watching ratings in Ukraine for 2013 (sample by GfK) and for 2014 (sample by Nielsen), total ratings dropped by a third.  As of mid of May 2014 it is known that Ukrainian supermarkets have started to massively abandon purchases of Russian goods. Supply amounts from Russian Federation decreased by a third.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Public opinion.", "content": "According to \"Taylor Nelson Sofres\" (TNS) Internet research in Ukraine, in March–April 2014 — 52% of Ukrainians are positive or \"rather positive\" about the boycott of Russian products. According to the survey, 39% of Ukrainians are involved into the boycott. Further survey campaign revealed that from July to August 2014, support of Russian products boycott increased from 52% to 57%. The number of people who are personally taking part in boycott of Russian products increased from 40% to 46%. According to data reported by TSN, in September 2014, 50% of Ukrainians joined Russian products boycott.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "The idea of a boycott was supported by Fozzy Group, a Ukrainian group of companies that owns and manages retail stores, but was not supported by Ukrainian representative offices of \"Auchan Ukraine\" and \"Metro Cash and Carry\" retail groups. The reason was explained as a part of their apolitical vision.  Andriy Dlihach, \"Advanter Group\" CEO, urged not to ban Russian products and to concentrate on buying Ukrainian ones instead.  Ukrainian and Russian-speaking blogger Danylo Vakhovskyi said that he is consciously using Russian internet services and will continue to do so, because it is a way to support \"the creation of a favorable environment for entrepreneurship\" in Russia. Although it is \"not patriotic, but to support entrepreneurs \"with ruble\", it is to give opportunity for the development of new projects, that is changing world for the better\". The blogger also presented some examples of such projects, including these websites: QIWI, Ostrovok.ru and Kaspersky Anti-Virus.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Do not buy Russian goods!\" ( [ne kupuy ros'iys'ke]) or \"Boycott Russian goods!\" ( [boykotuy ros'iys'ke]) is a nonviolent resistance campaign to boycott Russian commerce in Ukraine. The protest started on August 14, 2013 as a reaction to a Russian Federation trade embargo against Ukraine. It was organized by Vidsich on social media. The campaign expanded to mass distribution of leaflets, posters, and stickers in over 45 cities and towns. Having faded by the beginning of the Euromaidan demonstrations in November 2013, it was renewed on March 2, 2014, during the Crimean crisis and the Russian military intervention in Ukraine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977647}
{"src_title": "Vince Staples", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Staples was born in Compton, but grew up in North Long Beach, after his mother decided she wanted to move away from Compton due to the high crime rates. Staples is the youngest of five siblings, two brothers and three sisters. Staples grew up in poverty.  Staples attended Optimal Christian Academy from 4th to 8th grade, which he said was an influential and positive experience. During high school, Staples' mom sent him to Atlanta to stay with one of his sisters. He attended high school there for six months. After returning to Southern California, Staples attended other high schools: Jordan High School in Long Beach, Mayfair High School in Lakewood, Opportunity High School home schooling, Esperanza High School in Anaheim, and Kennedy High School, among others.  Staples has been upfront regarding his involvement with gangs during his childhood, and is involved with speaking to the youth in his community about the dangers of the gang lifestyle.  Growing up, Staples participated in sports when given the opportunity. Most notably, he played in well-known rapper Snoop Dogg's, Snoop Youth Football League (SYFL). When interviewed by Sean Evans on the YouTube show “Hot Ones”, Staples' participation in the SYFL was the first topic spoken of. Staples recalls playing against the “Carson Colts” and “Mission Viejo Cowboys” who he claimed had “grown ass men on the field.” Staples then went on to state, “Snoop really did it big, we got our names on our jerseys, we had the best cleats, the best helmets, you know Snoop Dogg really loved football.”  The introduction to Netflix's Original Series, “Coach Snoop,\" appears to show a young Vince Staples, however it has not been confirmed whether it is Staples.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2009–2013: Beginnings and \"Stolen Youth\".", "content": "Staples was discovered by Dijon \"LaVish\" Samo, and Chuck Wun, alongside his cousin Campbell Emerson. LaVish took Staples on a trip to Los Angeles, where he befriended the Odd Future collective's members Syd tha Kyd, Mike G, and Earl Sweatshirt. Although he had not intended to be a rapper, he made some guest appearances on their songs, most notably \"epaR\" that was taken from Earl Sweatshirt's debut mixtape \"Earl\". After featuring on some other tracks, he decided to pursue a career in rap. He released his official debut mixtape, called \"Shyne Coldchain Vol. 1\" on December 30, 2011, via applebird.com. In October 2012, he released a mixtape, titled \"Winter In Prague\", which was produced entirely by Michael Uzowuru.  In 2012, Vince reconnected with Earl Sweatshirt, when he returned from Samoa and was introduced by him to a fellow American rapper Mac Miller, who later produced his mixtape \"Stolen Youth\" (2013) under the alias Larry Fisherman. The mixtape features guest appearances from Mac Miller, Ab-Soul, Schoolboy Q, Da$H, Hardo, and Staples' Cutthroat Boyz co-member, Joey Fatts. Following \"Stolen Youth\"s release, he toured as a supporting act on Mac Miller's The Space Migration Tour. After making three appearances on Earl Sweatshirt's debut studio album \"Doris\", including the single \"Hive\", the liner notes revealed Staples had recently signed to the hip hop record label Def Jam Recordings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2014–2015: \"Shyne Coldchain Vol. 2\", \"Hell Can Wait\", and \"Summertime '06\".", "content": "On March 13, 2014, he released his fourth mixtape, called \"Shyne Coldchain Vol. 2\". The mixtape features the production from Earl Sweatshirt, Michael Uzowuru, Childish Major, No ID, Evidence, DJ Babu, and Scoop DeVille; as well as guest appearances from singer-songwriters Jhené Aiko and James Fauntleroy. On March 2, 2014, Staples began touring in the United States with a fellow American rappers Schoolboy Q and Isaiah Rashad on the \"Oxymoron World Tour\", to support the release of Schoolboy Q's album \"Oxymoron\".  On August 15, 2014, Staples released a music video for \"Blue Suede\". The track was also made available on iTunes. On September 9, 2014, Vince released another new song titled \"Hands Up\" via iTunes. He released the EP \"Hell Can Wait\" on October 7, 2014. Prior to the EP's release Staples' revealed during an interview with XXL Magazine that it would include guest appearances from A$ton Matthews and Teyana Taylor, along with productions from No I.D., Infamous, and Hagler.  On May 4, 2015, Staples released as the first single from his debut album, called \"Señorita\". He later announced it that his debut album would be titled \"Summertime '06\", which was released on June 30, 2015. On June 15, Staples released the second single from his debut album, \"Get Paid\" featuring Desi Mo. On June 22, he released the album's third and final single, \"Norf Norf\". The track reached viral prominence after a video referencing a mom tearfully complaining about the song became popular on social media", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016–present: \"Prima Donna\" and \"Big Fish Theory\".", "content": "On February 23, 2016, Staples was announced as part of the line up for the 2016 Osheaga Music Festival. On August 25, 2016, Staples released the seven-track EP \"Prima Donna\", featuring guest appearances from A$AP Rocky and Kilo Kish; as well as it accompanied by a short film. On January 31, 2017, he announced a single, \"BagBak\", would be released on February 3, 2017. \"BagBak\" was later featured in the trailer for the Marvel Studios film \"Black Panther\". On March 23, 2017, he was featured on the Gorillaz track, called \"Ascension\" from their album, \"Humanz\". In an interview on Zane Lowe's show Beats 1, he announced his upcoming album would be called \"Big Fish Theory\" and released an accompanying single, \"Big Fish\", which was followed by a third single, \"Rain Come Down\" on June 8, 2017, which featured vocals from Ty Dolla Sign. The album was released on June 23, 2017 and received with widespread critical acclaim. He and rapper Tyler, The Creator announced on November 15, 2017, that they would be doing a tour around North America from January 26 to March 4. Staples then collaborated with film composer Hans Zimmer on a remix of the UEFA Champions League Anthem for the \"FIFA 19\" reveal trailer.  In 2017, Staples was featured on the remix of Billie Eilish's song watch, entitled &burn.  In 2018, Staples set up a GoFundMe page seeking $2 million as a response to people criticizing his work; they could pay to have him retire early. However, it taken down given the low response. Simultaneously, the GoFundMe's title was also the same title of his upcoming single.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Corporate sponsorship.", "content": "Since 2015, Staples has appeared in advertising campaigns for Sprite and promoted the brand through his Twitter feed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philanthropy.", "content": "On June 14, 2016, Staples announced his assistance in a YMCA program that will benefit young people in North Long Beach. The Youth Institute would teach graphic design, 3D printing, product design, music production and film making to 20 eighth and ninth graders at Hamilton Middle School. Staples donated an undisclosed amount to the program.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Staples has stated that he has never drank alcohol or used illicit drugs, and that he follows a straight edge lifestyle. He lives in Southern California.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vincent Jamal Staples (born July 2, 1993) is an American rapper, singer, songwriter and actor. He is a member of the hip hop trio Cutthroat Boyz alongside fellow Californian rappers Aston Matthews and Joey Fatts. Staples was once a close associate of Odd Future, in particular Mike G and Earl Sweatshirt. He is currently signed to Motown Records and Blacksmith Records.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977648}
{"src_title": "2016–17 Champions Hockey League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Team allocation.", "content": "A total of 48 teams from different European first-tier leagues participated in the 2016–17 Champions Hockey League.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Team license.", "content": "The teams were selected based on different licenses for the founding teams, leagues and wildcards.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "Notes:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The format remained the same as in the previous season. The group stage began on 16 August and finished on 11 September 2016. The 48 teams were divided into 16 groups of three teams each. Each team played a double round-robin in their group, facing each team at home and on the road, giving 4 games per team. The 16 group winners and the 16 runners-up qualified for the playoffs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage draw.", "content": "The 16 groups were determined by a draw taking place on 3 May 2016 in Zurich, Switzerland. The 48 teams had been ranked and placed into three pots of 16 teams each. Following the draw, each group consisted of one team from each pot. The seedings were as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tiebreakers.", "content": "The teams were ranked according to points (3 points for a win in regular time, 2 points for an overtime win or shootout win, 1 point for an overtime loss or shootout loss, 0 points for a loss in regular time). If two or more teams were equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following criteria were applied in the order given to determine the rankings:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Playoffs.", "content": "In the playoffs, the teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis with the team with the better standing after the group stage having the second game at home, except for the one-match final played at the venue of the team with the best competition track record leading up to the final.  The mechanism of the draw for playoffs was as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bracket.", "content": "Note:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 32.", "content": "The draw for the entire playoff (round of 32, round of 16, quarter-finals, semi-finals and final) was held on 12 September 2016. The first legs were played on 4 October, and the second legs on 11 October 2016. The seeded teams (group winners) played the last match at home.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round of 16.", "content": "The first legs were played on 1 November, and the second legs were played on 8 and 9 November 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Quarter-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 6 December, and the second legs were played on 13 December 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finals.", "content": "The first legs were played on 10 January, and the second legs were played on 17 January 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final.", "content": "The final was played on 7 February 2017.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2016–17 Champions Hockey League is the third season of the Champions Hockey League, a European ice hockey tournament launched by 26 founding clubs, six leagues and the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). The season started on 16 August 2016 with the group stage and ended with the final game on 7 February 2017 with Frölunda defeating HC Sparta Praha, 4–3 in overtime.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977649}
{"src_title": "Ælfgifu of Northampton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family background.", "content": "Ælfgifu was born into an important noble family based in the Midlands (Mercia). She was a daughter of Ælfhelm, ealdorman of southern Northumbria, and his wife Wulfrune. Ælfhelm was killed in 1006, probably at the command of King Æthelred the Unready, and Ælfgifu's brothers, Ufegeat and Wulfheah, were blinded. Wulfric Spot, a wealthy nobleman and patron of Burton Abbey, was the brother of Ælfhelm or Wulfrune. The family again came under suspicion during the invasion of England by Swein Forkbeard, King of Denmark, in 1013–14, and further members were charged with treachery and killed.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marriage to Cnut.", "content": "When Swein invaded, northern peoples, many of them of Scandinavian descent, immediately submitted to him. He then married his young son Cnut to Ælfgifu to seal their loyalty. Swein went on to conquer the whole of England and was accepted as King, but he died in February 1014 after a reign of only five weeks. Æthelred then sent an army which forced Cnut to flee back to Denmark, and in the opinion of historian Ian Howard, he left his wife and their baby son, Svein, the future King of Norway, behind with her family. They were anxious to make their peace with Æthelred, but unwilling to hand Ælfgifu and her son over to Æthelred to be killed, so they sent the mother and child with King Swein's body to Denmark. There she became pregnant again and in 1015 or 1016 she gave birth to Harold Harefoot.  In the period immediately following, she may have been given authority over some region of Denmark, perhaps that of a Danish controlled area of the Baltic coastline.  Her two sons were to figure prominently in the empire which their father built in northern Europe, though not without opposition. After his conquest of England in 1016, Cnut married Emma of Normandy, the widow of King Æthelred. It was then regarded as acceptable to put aside one wife and take another if the first wife was acquired through the non-Christian pagan ceremony of \"handfasting\" and nearly always for reasons of political advantage, a practice which might be described as \"serial monogamy\"; this was the case with the marriage of Ælfgifu to Cnut. The status of Cnut's two'marriages' and their social context in England and Scandinavia has been discussed recently by Timothy Bolton. Emma's sons, Edward and Ælfred by Æthelred and Harthacnut by Cnut, were also claimants to the throne of her husband. Exactly how the second marriage affected Ælfgifu's status as Cnut's first consort is unknown, but there is no evidence to suggest that she was repudiated.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Regent in Norway (1030–35).", "content": "After the defeat and death of Olaf II of Norway by forces loyal to Cnut, Cnut sent Ælfgifu with their eldest son Svein to rule Norway, in 1030. Their rule was, however, so harsh that the Norwegians rebelled against them. They were driven out, in 1034 or 1035, while Svein died of wounds in Denmark shortly after, probably in 1036. In Norway, where she was known as \"Álfífa\" in Old Norse, this period entered history as 'Álfífa's time'(\"Álfífuǫld\"), remembered for her severe rule and heavy taxation. In the Norwegian \"Ágrip\", for instance, the following verse is attributed to her contemporary, the skald Sigvatr:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Succession crisis after the death of Cnut (1035).", "content": "Cnut died at Shaftesbury in 1035. Symeon of Durham and Adam of Bremen suggest that Cnut had reserved the English throne for Harold, while the \"Encomium Emmae Reginae\", written to defend Harthacnut's mother, Emma, claims that he had done so for Harthacnut. Ælfgifu was determined that her second son Harold should be the next English king. She had returned to England (at least) by 1036, while Emma's son Harthacnut was away in Denmark, at war with the Norwegian king Magnus I, and the Swedes under their king Anund Jacob. Emma's other sons, Ælfred and Edward, stayed in Normandy. With help from her supporters, Ælfgifu was able to secure the throne for her son. In the view of Frank Stenton, she was probably the real ruler of England for part, if not the whole, of his reign.  The \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\" (versions C, D and E) describes how Harold and his men forcefully laid claim on the treasury housed in Winchester, where Cnut was buried and Emma (whom the Anglo-Saxons also referred to as \"Ælfgifu\" the queen) had taken up residence:  Manuscript E, which is known for its Godwinist sympathies, adds a number of details, including the assembly at Oxford in 1037 at which Harold was elected king of England and the mustering of support north of the Thames, where the power base of Ælfgifu's family was concentrated.  During 1036 opinion in England moved towards Harold. By August a report had reached Emma's daughter, Gunnhild, at the German court that her \"unhappy and unjust step-mother\" (i.e. Ælfgifu) was working to deprive Gunnhild's brother, Harthacnut, of the kingdom by holding great feasts, and trying by argument and gifts to persuade the leading nobles to give their fealty to Harold. Emma's encomiast attributes to her even more seriously dishonest methods. She makes Ælfgifu an accomplice in the murder of Emma's youngest son, Alfred, by suggesting that she was responsible for sending a forged letter to Normandy inviting Alfred to England. The \"Encomium Emmae Reginae\" also claimed that Ælfgifu's son Harold was a servant's son.  Ælfgifu is not recorded after 1036, apart from a possible reference to her as the \"lady\", and it is not known when she died.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Ælfgifu of Northampton ( 990 – after 1036) was the first wife of Cnut the Great, King of England and Denmark, and mother of Harold Harefoot, King of England. She was regent of Norway from 1030 to 1035.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977650}
{"src_title": "Soy Luna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Series overview.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Season 1 (2016).", "content": "Luna Valente lives with her family in Cancún, Mexico. She goes to school, has her own group of friends, has a job, and loves to skate. However, her life changes when her parents are given a job offer that moves them to Buenos Aires, Argentina. There she finds a skating rink named \"Jam & Roller\" where she learns free styling. She makes new friends and falls in love with Matteo Balsano. Also she sees interesting dreams about her childhood. She wants to learn her past.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Season 2 (2017).", "content": "The holidays are over and everyone returns home. Luna walks to a revealing truth, with illusion, in her reunion with Matteo. No one knows the secret that Matteo hides, but Luna is willing to fight with the wind and the air to find out. Over time, Luna helps Matteo to discover his true passion and he must cope with the pressure of his demanding father. In the Benson mansion is a tense atmosphere after the arrival of Alfredo, father of Mrs. Sharon, changes the routine and brings back memories of the past. Luna feels a strong sympathy for this funny man who looks so much alike. Their relationship, with the help of Nina, marks a new personal path for Luna and helps investigate the mysteries of her past. Holiday conflicts affect the group of others. Amber, Jasmine, Delfi, Gastón, Ramiro and Matteo who are finishing their studies, must decide which way to go.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Season 3 (2018).", "content": "Luna/Sol, has returned with her adoptive parents and her grandfather to the Benson mansion in Argentina. The mansion is now theirs. Amber has changed her clothing style to gothic. A new boy named Erik has fallen in love with Nina and becomes a couple. Sharon wants to take revenge on her father and the Valentes and decides to go back to Buenos Aires in disguise. Later in the season, Amber regained her normal clothing style and became a couple with Simon. During the big season finals, the Roller team started performing with the song \"Todo Puede Cambiar\" and Luna and Matteo are back together again. Amber, Delfi and Jazmin have made up for it and are friends again. At the end Luna celebrates her 18th birthday, concluding the series.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ratings.", "content": "Note: The ratings for the first season are only from Argentina. Those of the second season are from all countries from Latin America.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcast.", "content": "The first season originally aired from March 14, 2016 to August 26, 2016 in Latin America. The series premiered on Disney Channel in Scandinavia on October 10, 2016. In the United States, the Spanish-language UniMás channel was set to air the series from April 17, 2017. However, the show was quietly taken off schedule. Eventually, the first season aired on February 20, 2018 on UniMás, and then later on Galavisión. After having a dormant entry for the series at launch, the first season was made available on Disney+ in the United States with English subtitles in December 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Soy Luna (English: \"I am Luna\") is an Argentine telenovela produced by Disney Channel Latin America. The first episode of Soy Luna premiered with over 2.3 million views in Argentina alone. Developed by Disney Channel Latin America and produced by Disney Channel Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA), the series stars Karol Sevilla along with Ruggero Pasquarelli. It premiered on March 14, 2016, and concluded on 17 August 2018.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977651}
{"src_title": "Planet of Exile", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "The story is set on Werel, the third planet of the Gamma Draconis system. The planet has an orbital period of 60 Earth years, and is approaching its correspondingly long winter. The main characters belong to one of two major groups: Wold and his daughter Rolery are members of the Tevarans, a tribe of humanoid extraterrestrial indigenous to the planet. Jakob Agat is a young man from a dwindling colony of Earth humans that have been effectively marooned on the planet. Although both populations share a common genetic heritage in the Hainish people, the difference is significant enough to prevent interbreeding.  The relationship between the two groups has long been tense and characterized by limited interaction. However, with the approaching dangers of winter and marauders, the visit of curious young Rolery to the colony becomes a sign of coming changes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in the Hainish Cycle.", "content": "The peoples of the various worlds in Le Guin's space fiction are descendants of an ancient settlement from Hain. For example, the Gethenians of \"The Left Hand of Darkness\" are believed to have been genetically engineered, as are several other peoples in the League of All Worlds. No such mention of genetic engineering of the Alterrans’ Hainish-derived predecessors is made in the story.  In \"City of Illusions\" the descendants of the mixed Terrans and Tevarians described in this story rescue Earth (Terra) from alien conquerors who have the unexpected ability to mind-lie – which they used to telepathically conquer planets in the League of All Worlds, so this story is the backstory to \"City of Illusions\". The reunification of the League as the Ecumen is mentioned in \"The Left Hand of Darkness\", but no story so-far published has given any details of the climax of the conflict.  A different planet, also called \"Werel\" in \"Four Ways to Forgiveness\", is a completely different world from the planet of the Alterrans described in this story. The common word for \"world\" in the languages of both planets is \"werel\", hence their common names just mean \"The World\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary significance and criticism.", "content": "One science fiction scholar points out that \"Planet of Exile,\" along with \"Rocannon's World\" and \"City of Illusions\" exhibits Le Guin's struggle as an emerging writer to arrive at a plausible, uniquely memorable and straightforward locale for her stories.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication history.", "content": "\"Planet of Exile\" was initially published with no introduction, but Le Guin wrote an introduction for Harper & Row's 1978 hardcover edition. \"Planet of Exile\" was also reissued in 1978 along with \"Rocannon's World\" and \"City of Illusions\" in a volume called \"Three Hainish Novels\" and in 1996 with the same novels in a volume called \"Worlds of Exile and Illusion.\"  <br", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Planet of Exile is a 1966 science fiction novel by American writer Ursula K. Le Guin, part of her Hainish Cycle. It was first published as an Ace Double following the tête-bêche format, bundled with \"Mankind Under the Leash\" by Thomas M. Disch. In 2017, the rights for a movie were acquired by Los Angeles Media Fund.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977652}
{"src_title": "February 2016 Ankara bombing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In October 2015, a bombing at a peace rally in Ankara against a crackdown on Kurds in the country amidst the renewed PKK rebellion following a breakdown of the ceasefire killed over 100 people. On 13 February, Turkish shelling of Kurdish positions in response to \"incoming Kurdish fire\" and against the backdrop of YPG territorial gains in northern Syria led, at the request of Russia, to a UN briefing in which the president of the United Nations Security Council Rafael Carreno said that all members during the closed-door meeting expressed their concern at Turkey's actions and called on the country to \"comply with international law\".  Following the UNSC vote and just hours before the bombing, Turkey's President, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, referred to PYD as a \"terrorist organisation\" akin to the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), DHKP-C and Al-Nusra Front and stressed that the attacks against PYD's armed wing, YPG, will continue until it stops alleged threats against Turkey's national security.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bombings.", "content": "A car bomb detonated at 18:31 local time, while army buses carrying military personnel were waiting at traffic lights. The attack site was next to a residential block for high-ranking military personnel. Some Turkish news channels showed images of a raging fire that engulfed military vehicles after the explosion, heard several kilometres away.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casualties.", "content": "At least 30 people, including the perpetrator, died and 60 were injured as a result of the blast. The initial dead included the perpetrator, 12 soldiers, 16 civilian employees of the military and a journalist. Another civilian died from his wounds in hospital on 23 February 2016. A list of the first dead was published on 18 February.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Assailant.", "content": "Initially, Turkish government declared the name of assailant as Salih Necar, a Syrian Kurd who was trained by YPG, PKK and Syrian government. Kurdistan Freedom Hawks (TAK) claimed responsibility and named the suicide bomber as Abdülbaki Sönmez and released a photo of him, which was later claimed to be an edited image of a Turkish blogger.  Later, DNA reports confirmed that perpetrator was Turkish-born Abdulbaki Sönmez, not Syrian-born Salih Necar who was shown as perpetrator to the world by Turkish prime minister Ahmet Davutoglu. Also, Syrian Kurdish authorities announced that a person named Salih Necar from Hasakah doesn't exist.  After DNA reports Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey Numan Kurtulmuş said that \"the name of the perpetrator may be different but it does not change the reality of this matter. This person has entered Turkey from the PYD region and there is record of him assuming the given identity.\". Turkish government is claiming that YPG, taking orders from PKK, is responsible from the massacre, and TAK is used as a way to \"exonerate\" the YPG. Turkish government is also worried about NATO allies of support of YPG, prime minister Davutoğlu said “We cannot excuse any NATO ally, including the US, of having links with a terrorist organisation [YPG] that strikes us in the heart of Turkey”.  Turkish authorities claimed that the perpetrator was trained as a suicide bomber in Syrian Rojava by YPG and entered Turkey as a refugee. Turkey claims that the attack was planned by the YPG, PKK, PYD and the Syrian government.  The suicide bomber was eventually confirmed as Abdülbaki Sönmez, a citizen of Turkey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Domestic.", "content": "President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan issued a statement. Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu cancelled planned trips to Belgium and Azerbaijan following the attack. Spokesman for the ruling Justice and Development Party Ömer Çelik said he condemned the attacks. Erdogan vowed retaliation against the perpetrators of the attack while Deputy Prime Minister Numan Kurtulmuş called it an attack on the \"nation as a whole\".  Oppositional Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP) co-leader Selahattin Demirtaş condemned the bombing as a \"merciless attack\" and wished \"God’s mercy upon those who lost their lives\". The Turkish Parliament failed to make a unanimous declaration. The pro-Kurdish and pro-minority HDP party condemned the bombing, with parliamentary chair İdris Baluken referring to it as a \"loathsome attack\"; the party disagreed with the unilaterally drafted text. The declaration was finally released by the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP), and opposition CHP and MHP parties.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "An EU summit in Brussels that was to focus on the issues of migrants was cancelled following the bombing. World leaders, including those from Germany, the United Kingdom and United States condemned the attack. In a joint statement, the EU's High Representative for Foreign Affairs Federica Mogherini and European Enlargement Commissioner Johannes Hahn, termed the bombing \"a terrible attack\". NATO Secretary-General Jens Stoltenberg condemned the attack.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "On 17 February 2016, in Ankara, the capital of Turkey, at least 30 people died and 60 were injured in a bombing. According to Turkish authorities, the attack targeted a convoy of shuttles carrying both civilian and military personnel working at the military headquarters during the evening rush hour as the vehicles were stopped at traffic lights at an intersection with İsmet İnönü Boulevard close to Kızılay neighborhood. Several ministries, the headquarters of the army and the Turkish Parliament are located in the neighbourhood where the attack occurred. The Kurdistan Freedom Hawks (TAK) took responsibility for the attack and said they targeted security forces. Censorship monitoring organization Turkey Blocks reported nationwide internet restrictions beginning approximately one hour after the blast pursuant to an administrative order.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977653}
{"src_title": "Anne of Cyprus", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "On 9 August 1431 was signed the marriage contract between Anne and Amadeus, Prince of Piamonte and titular Prince of Achaea, eldest surviving son and heir of Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy (who later became Antipope Felix V); however, the Prince died only twenty days later, on 29 August.  Five months later, on 1 January 1432, was signed a second marriage contract for Anne, this time with Louis of Savoy, Amadeus' younger brother and new heir of the Duchy of Savoy. The wedding took place two years later, on 12 February 1434. in Chambéry. A few months later, on 7 November, Duke Amadeus VIII resigned the government in the hands of his son Louis, although he officially abdicated in his favor only when he was elected as Antipope, in 1440.  Anne's husband, who was more interested in poetry than his duchy, but very much in love with his wife, gradually left her to manage affairs of state. She, due to nostalgia for her own country, organized many receptions on behalf of the most powerful Cypriot lords. To impress the visitors, she decorated the castles, organized festivals, and offered gifts to the guests, the expense of which caused much protest from the peasants and nobles of the county of Vaud.  To relieve some of her debts, Anne organized a match for one of her daughters, which was an advantageous alliance for the house of Savoy. In 1451, at the age of ten years, her daughter Charlotte married the dauphin of France, the future King Louis XI. He later would claim default of the promised dowry, new strongholds, and seized several castles in Bresse and several chief towns of Vaud.  In 1452, Anne bought the Shroud of Turin from Jeanne de Charny in exchange for the castle of Varambon. Years later Pope Paul II authorised Yolande of France to deposit the relic of the Holy Shroud in the vault of the castle of Chambéry from which she raised a tower above the sacristy, as a religious symbol.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Anne died on 11 November 1462 in Geneva, Switzerland at the age of 44.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anne of Cyprus (or Anne de Lusignan) (24 September 1418 – 11 November 1462) was a Duchess of Savoy by marriage to Louis, Duke of Savoy. She was the daughter of King Janus of Cyprus and Charlotte of Bourbon; and a member of the Poitiers-Lusignan crusader dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977654}
{"src_title": "Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Organization.", "content": "The museum has three sections, all located in the town's central square. It was officially dedicated to Stalin in 1957. With the downfall of the Soviet Union and independence movement of Georgia, the museum was closed in 1989, but has since been reopened, and is a popular tourist attraction.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Stalin's house.", "content": "Enshrined within a Greco-Italianate pavilion is a small wooden hut, in which Stalin was born in 1878 and spent his first four years. The small hut has two rooms on the ground floor. Stalin's father Vissarion Jughashvili, a local shoemaker, rented the one room on the left hand side of the building and maintained a workshop in the basement. The landlord lived in the other room. The hut originally formed part of a line of similar dwellings, but the others have been demolished.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stalin Museum.", "content": "The main corpus of the complex is a large palazzo in Stalinist Gothic style, begun in 1951 ostensibly as a museum of the history of socialism, but clearly intended to become a memorial to Stalin, who died in 1953. The exhibits are divided into six halls in roughly chronological order, and contain many items actually or allegedly owned by Stalin, including some of his office furniture, his personal effects and gifts made to him over the years. There is also much illustration by way of documentation, photographs, paintings and newspaper articles. The display concludes with one of twelve copies of the death mask of Stalin taken shortly after his death.  The overall impression is that of a shrine to a secular saint.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stalin's railway carriage.", "content": "To one side of the museum is Stalin's personal railway carriage. The green Pullman carriage, which is armour plated and weighs 83 tons, was used by Stalin from 1941 onwards, including his attendances at the Yalta Conference and the Tehran Conference. It was sent to the museum on being recovered from the railway yards at Rostov-on-Don in 1985.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Planned reorganization.", "content": "In the aftermath of the 2008 South Ossetia war, on 24 September 2008, Georgia’s Minister of Culture Nikoloz Vacheishvili announced the Stalin museum would be reorganized into the Museum of Russian Aggression in the nearest future. In recent years a banner was placed at the entrance stating: \"This museum is a falsification of history. It is a typical example of Soviet propaganda and it attempts to legitimise the bloodiest regime in history.\" However, as of 2017 the banner has been removed. On 20 December 2012, the municipal assembly of Gori voted to put an end to plans to change the museum's content.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Joseph Stalin Museum is a museum in Gori, Georgia dedicated to the life of Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, who was born in Gori. The Museum retains its Soviet-era characteristics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977655}
{"src_title": "Rihard Jakopič", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Rihard Jakopič was born in Krakovo, a suburb of Ljubljana, the capital of Carniola in the Austria–Hungary, now Slovenia. His father, Franc Jakopič, was a well-situated tradesman with agricultural goods. His mother was Neža, née Dolžan. Rihard was the youngest of eight children.  Jakopič studied at the intermediate secondary school from 1879–1887. After passing an entry exam, he attended the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, for a short time returned home due to an illness, and then resumed his studies in 1888. In 1889, he entered the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich and in 1890, the Ažbe Art School in Munich. Then he lived in Ljubljana, where he participated in the establishment of the Slovene Art Society, and after 1902 in Škofja Loka. In 1903, he continued his studies at the Academy of Fine Arts in Prague. Jakopič returned to Ljubljana in 1906. He was one of the early members of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, founded in 1938.  Jakopič died at his home in Ljubljana at 1:45 pm on 21 April 1943 after a long and difficult illness. A wake was held at his residence at New Square () no. 2, and he was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery (now Žale Cemetery) on 23 April 1943 after a ceremony at 3:30 pm at Saint Joseph's Chapel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Over 1200 paintings and 650 drawings by Jakopič have been preserved.  In Ljubljana, Jakopič established the Slovene School of Impressionist Drawing and Painting, the predecessor of the Academy of Fine Arts at the University of Ljubljana. He was an initiator for the foundation of the National Gallery of Slovenia. In 1908, he built a pavilion in Tivoli Park, based on plans by the architect Max Fabiani. The Jakopič Pavilion became the central venue for art exhibitions in the Slovene Lands at the time. In 1962, due to the relocation of a railway line, it was demolished.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemoration.", "content": "In 1965 a primary school in Šiška was named after him. Since 1969, the Jakopič Award, the highest Slovenian award in fine arts, is presented annually. In 1970–72, a statue of Jakopič by Bojan Kunaver was erected on the original site of the pavilion. In 1979, a new Jakopič Gallery () opened at Slovene Street () in Ljubljana. After Slovenia declared independence from Yugoslavia, Jakopič was portrayed by Rudi Španzel on the 100 Slovenian tolar banknote, in circulation from October 1991 until the introduction of euro in January 2007.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rihard Jakopič (12 April 1869 – 21 April 1943) was a Slovene painter. He was the leading Slovene Impressionist painter, patron of arts and theoretician. Together with Matej Sternen, Matija Jama and Ivan Grohar, he is considered the pioneer of Slovene Impressionist painting.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977656}
{"src_title": "Jamala", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Susana Jamaladinova was born in Osh, Kirghiz SSR, to a Crimean Tatar father and an Armenian mother. Her Crimean Tatar ancestors were forcibly resettled from Crimea to the central Asian republic under Joseph Stalin during World War II, although her own relatives fought on the Soviet side. In 1989 her family returned to Crimea. Her maternal ancestors are Armenians from Nagorno-Karabakh. They were well-to-do peasants until her great-grandfather's land was confiscated and he was exiled to Osh where he changed his Armenian name to make it sound more Russian.  Jamala speaks Russian as her mother tongue, and she is also fluent in Ukrainian and English which she learned as an adolescent. Though she wrote some songs in Crimean Tatar, she is not fluent in the language.  Her parents divorced for about four years so that her mother could purchase a house in Crimea for the family under her maiden name. During this period, Soviet authorities did not allow ethnic Crimean Tatars, like her father, to purchase property in Crimea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2010–15: Early work.", "content": "Jamala has been fond of music since her early childhood. She made her first professional recording at the age of nine, singing 12 folk and children's Crimean Tatar songs. She entered the Simferopol Music College and later graduated from Tchaikovsky National Music Academy of Ukraine as an opera singer, but preferred a career in pop music. On 14 February 2010, she released her first single \"You Are Made of Love\" from her debut studio album \"For Every Heart\". She released \"It's Me, Jamala\" as the second single on 18 October 2010. On 23 November 2010, she released \"Smile\" as the third single from the album. Early in 2011, she participated on the national selection show in an attempt to represent at the Eurovision Song Contest with the song \"Smile\". The song was a crowd favorite and Jamala herself managed to land a spot in the finals of the competition. However, she later decided to withdraw from the competition. On 12 April 2011, she released her debut studio album \"For Every Heart\" through Moon Records Ukraine. On 8 November 2012, she released \"Ya Lyublyu Tebya\" (, ) as the lead single from her second studio album \"All or Nothing\".  She released \"Hurt\" as the second single, and \"Kaktus\" (, ) was released on 6 March 2013, as the third and final single from the album. She released \"All or Nothing\" on 19 March 2013, through Moon Records Ukraine. On 25 September 2014, she released \"Zaplutalas\" (, ) as the lead single from her debut EP \"Thank You\". The EP was released on 1 October 2014, through Enjoy Records. On 26 March 2015, \"Ochyma\" was released as the lead single from her third studio album. \"Shlyakh dodomu\" (, ) was released as the second single on 18 May 2015. On 15 June 2015, \"Podykh\" (, ) was released as the third single. She released her album \"Podykh\" on 12 October 2015, through Enjoy Records.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016: Breakthrough.", "content": "Jamala successfully represented in the Eurovision Song Contest 2016 with the song \"1944\". The song is about the deportation of the Crimean Tatars in 1944 and particularly about her great-grandmother, who lost her daughter while being deported to Central Asia. Jamala wrote the song's lyrics in 2014. In the second semi-final of the contest, Jamala performed 14th and was one of ten participants who qualified for the grand final. It was announced later that she placed second, scoring 287 points, and won the televoting with 152 points On 14 May 2016, Jamala won the competition with 534 points. Jamala's song was considered by Russian media and lawmakers to be critical of the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014 and the \"ongoing war between Russia and Ukraine\" in Donbass. For this reason it has been announced that no other flags than the official country-participant are allowed in the arena for the Eurovision Song Contest. This included a ban for flags like Crimean Tatars' flags to be in audience, and only the Ukrainian flags was allowed for her Crimean Tatars' supporters.  After her win in the Eurovision Song Contest, she was awarded the title People's Artist of Ukraine by Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko.  After winning Eurovision 2016, she has gone on to publish many songs, including \"I Believe in U\", which she performed at Eurovision 2017 as an interval act, along with \"Zamanyly\".  On 17 May 2016, Poroshenko announced that the Ukrainian Foreign Ministry would be nominating Jamala as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador.  On 12 October 2018, Jamala released her fifth studio album, \"Kryla\". The title track was released as the first single on 21 March 2018. She had previously performed the track as the interval act for the 2018 Ukrainian National Selection for the Eurovision Song Contest, Vidbir.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "On 26 April 2017, Jamala married Bekir Suleimanov. Their relationship became known in September 2016, when she appeared with him at the Manhattan Short Film Festival. The couple married in the Islamic Cultural Center of Kyiv using the traditional wedding ceremony Nikah. Suleimanov had recently graduated from the Physics and Mathematics Department of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv and is an activist of the Muslim Crimean Tatar community.  In November 2017, Jamala announced that she and Suleimanov were expecting their first child together. On 27 March 2018 their son Emir-Rahman Seit-Bekir ogly Suleimanov was born.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Susana Alimivna Jamaladinova (born 27 August 1983), better known by her stage name Jamala, is a Ukrainian singer, actress and songwriter. She represented and won the Eurovision Song Contest 2016 in Stockholm, Sweden with her song \"1944\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977657}
{"src_title": "RWD 8", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Development.", "content": "The RWD 8 was designed in response to a Polish Air Force requirement in 1931 for a basic trainer aircraft. It was designed by the RWD team of Stanisław Rogalski, Stanisław Wigura and Jerzy Drzewiecki. The first prototype (registration SP-AKL), was flown in early 1933. It won the contest for the new Polish military trainer, against the PZL-5bis and Bartel BM-4h biplanes. It was considered a very stable and well-handling aircraft.  Since the DWL (\"Doświadczalne Warsztaty Lotnicze\") workshops – a manufacturer of RWD designs – had limited production capability, the Polish military decided to produce the aircraft in a nationalized factory PWS (\"Podlaska Wytwórnia Samolotów\"). DWL gave away the licence free of charge, only for covering design costs. PWS produced aircraft for both military and civilian aviation, while DWL produced aircraft for civilian use only. The first PWS-built RWD 8 was flown in September 1934. These aircraft, designated RWD 8 PWS (or RWD 8 pws), differed from the original RWD 8 DWL (or RWD 8 dwl) in minor details, mainly having thinner landing gear shock absorbers and being slightly heavier and therefore slower.  Apart from the standard variant, 50 RWD 8a PWS were built with an additional 95 l (25 U.S. gal) fuel tank in thicker central wing section, giving increased range. A small series was built with a rear cab covered with blinds, for blind flying training. A frame with a hook for glider towing could be attached to the aircraft. A further development of the RWD 8 was the aerobatics and training aircraft, the RWD-17.  In total, over 550 RWD 8s were built (about 80 by DWL and about 470 by PWS). Production ceased in early 1939. The RWD 8 was the most numerous aircraft manufactured in Poland up to that time. Small series of license-built produced 1935 by Rogožarski Belgrade (three aircraft).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Technical description.", "content": "The RW-8 was conventional in layout, and had mixed construction (steel and wood frame with canvas and plywood covering). The crew of two, sitting in tandem, were in an open cockpit, with individual windshields. Twin controls were fitted. Power came from a 4-cylinder air-cooled 90 kW (120 hp) straight engine PZInż, Junior (licence built Walter Junior) (82 kW /110 hp nominal power). 120 hp Walter Major or de Havilland Gipsy Major. A two-blade wooden propeller was fitted. The aircraft had a conventional landing gear, with a rear skid. The fuel tank in fuselage had 75 l (18 U.S. gal) (RWD 8 PWS) or 85 l (21 U.S. gal) (RWD 8 DWL). The wings folded rearwards.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "RWD 8s were used in the Polish military trainer aviation from 1934, becoming a standard type of primary trainer. In November 1938, there were 349 RWD 8s in the Air Force. RWD 8s were also used in Polish civilian aviation – particularly in regional aeroclubs. More than 80 aircraft were bought for public collection funds, in order to train aviators. They were also used in the Polish aviation sport.  A small number were exported: three were sold to Palestine, one to Spain, Morocco and Brazil. Licences for building the RWD 8 was sold to Estonia (one aircraft was produced, with markings ES-RWD) and Rogozarski of Yugoslavia (a small series with radial engines was built). At least one RWD 8 was sold to Spain via Portugal during the Spanish Civil War. It was used as a reconnaissance aircraft and a trainer for the Nationalist forces.  In the invasion of Poland 1939, the RWD 8s were used in 13 liaison flights, three aircraft in each, assigned to Armies. Many other aircraft were mobilized during the campaign and used in improvised liaison units. An advantage of the RWD 8 was its capability for short take off and landing on unprepared fields, but the missions of their crews were dangerous. RWD 8s of the Polesie Operational Group were the last Polish aircraft in the sky during the campaign. They were flying reconnaissance missions during the Battle of Kock, and even threw hand grenades.  A great number of RWD 8s were bombed by the Germans in air bases (unlike Polish combat aircraft) or burned by withdrawing Poles. A total of 57 aircraft were withdrawn to Romania, about 40 to Latvia and 2 to Hungary. Only some dozen aircraft were captured by the Germans in airworthy condition. In Romania and Hungary they were used until the late 1940s. None returned to Poland after the war, and today, none have survived.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The RWD 8 was a Polish parasol wing monoplane trainer aircraft produced by RWD. It was used from 1934 to 1939 by the Polish Air Force and civilian aviation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977658}
{"src_title": "The Simpsons: Tapped Out", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Story.", "content": "Too busy playing an elf-related game on his myPad (parody of iPad) at work, Homer neglects his workstation and accidentally causes a meltdown at the nuclear power plant, leading to a complete destruction of Springfield. Left stranded, he is solely responsible for rebuilding Springfield and bringing back its town members. Homer is desperate to find other characters so that he can get them to rebuild and he can get back to his elf game. With the help of Lisa, Homer rebuilds Springfield and brings back key sought-out characters.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "The game may be considered a city-building game. It offers a variety of buildings (houses, shops, public buildings from the animation series) that the player buys with \"Money ($)\" in-game currency. Premium items are bought with donuts which can also be purchased with real-world cash. This references Homer Simpson's passion for donuts within the series. The player uses building and character quest-lines to make in-game progress. By completing quests and levels, the player collects more characters and buildings unlocking further quests and levels. Each building regularly generates in-game money to collect, under names such as \"Income tax\" from houses and the \"Collection plate\" from the First Church of Springfield. Players can place rivers, roads, pavement and decorations on the land. In 2013, developers added the \"Krustyland\" transporter, to get players from Springfield to the infamous Krustyland, where they can expand and build like the main Springfield game.  The game is supported by EA's Origin, which acts as a social bridge to where players log into their Origin accounts and visit friends' towns to collect cash once every 24 hours; and occasionally other tasks during an event.  There is a hidden easter egg where, in order to obtain the statue of Jebediah Springfield decoration, the player must tap Homer 10 times in a row whilst he is performing any task. This action also gives the player 10 free donuts, but can only work once.  Since the May 18, 2016 update, the maximum number of levels is counted to 939, because this is the Simpsons' area code in Springfield.  Frequent content updates have been released for the game, with new game content or time-limited events related to episode promotions or holidays. Major events include a temporary currency, which can be used to buy – or win – limited edition prizes. For some events every user's winnings contributed to a community fund, which includes prizes for certain levels of the event currency.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "According to game runner and longtime \"Simpsons\" writer J. Stewart Burns, the game originally started as a \"labor of love\" and he didn't expect much to happen after the game's release. Although they do not get credited, there are about ten writers who currently work on the game, including \"Simpsons\" writers Burns, Matt Selman, Brian Kelley, Jeff Westbrook, Jon Kern, Carolyn Omine and Diana Wright.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In-game problems.", "content": "Shortly after the iOS launch, the game was pulled from the iOS App Store due to EA's servers being unable to cope with the demand and a plethora of serious glitches reported by users. After a month had passed, EA set up a forum whereby users could report bug issues, but failed to offer solutions to issues or temporary updates. Some users who had made in-app purchases discovered that their purchases had vanished. After contacting EA, users were able to collect refunds directly from Apple. Several months later on August 16, 2012, the app returned to the App Store. Since 2016 there has been a bug that removes most functionality from the game interface. Players are calling this the \"rollback bug\" since the only way to fix your game is to have EA support roll your game back to a previous date before you acquired the bug. As of April 2018 there is still no fix for this bug and it continues to grow, affecting almost 20% of all players. Since the end of 2019 the bug has a fix.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "Due to criticism of the larger trend of freemium games' revenue structure, the game was satirized in the \"South Park\" episode \"Freemium Isn't Free\" as exploitative and lacking in gameplay. The game itself earlier lampooned this point during an in-game conversation between two characters. In \"The Simpsons\" season 25 episode \"Labor Pains\" Homer opens the game on his phone and is automatically charged $300.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Accolades.", "content": "The game won the People's Voice Award for \"Strategy/Simulation\" at the 2018 Webby Awards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Simpsons: Tapped Out is a freemium mobile game for iOS and Android, based on the American animated series \"The Simpsons\". It allows users to create and maintain their own version of Springfield using familiar characters and buildings. The game is regularly updated with new content, often season and holiday themed, for example during holidays like Thanksgiving, and \"Treehouse of Horror\" episodes-related content for Halloween. The game is available in several languages such as English, French, Turkish, Italian, German, Simplified Chinese, Peninsular Spanish and both European Portuguese and Brazilian Portuguese. The game was developed and published by EA Mobile and launched in Europe on February 29, 2012 and in North America on March 1, 2012 for iOS and February 6, 2013 for Android. The game was released for Kindle Fire devices in several markets on June 24, 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977659}
{"src_title": "St. Nicholas Church (Malá Strana)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The original Gothic Parish church of Saint Nicholas stood on the site of the present church which dated from the 13th century. In the second half of the 17th century the Jesuits decided to build a new church designed by Giovanni Domenico Orsi. A partial impression of the original planned appearance of the church at the time the Jesuits chose the initial plans by Giovanni Domenico Orsi in 1673 and laid the foundation stone is provided by the Chapel of St Barbara, which was built first so that mass could be celebrated. The church was built in two stages during the 18th century. From 1703 till 1711 the west façade, the choir, the Chapels of St Barbara and St Anne were built.  Count Wenceslaus Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky (1634 - 6 October 1659) from the prominent Czech House of Kolowrat was the largest patron of The church of St. Nicholas. He donated his entire estate, worth 178,500 gold, for the construction of the church and the adjacent buildings in Prague in Malá Strana.  The new plans involved an intricate geometrical system of interconnected cylinders with a central dome above the transept. The massive nave with side chapels and an undulating vault based on a system of intersecting ellipsoids was apparently built by Christoph Dientzenhofer. The pillars between the wide spans of the arcade supporting the triforium were meant to maximize the dynamic effect of the church. The chancel and its characteristic copper cupola were built in 1737-1752, this time using plans by Christoph's son, Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer.  In 1752, after the death Dientzehofer in 1751, the construction of the church tower was completed. During the years the church continued to expand its interior beauty. Following the abolition of the Jesuit Order by Pope Clement XIV, St Nicholas became the main parish church of the Lesser Town in 1775.  During the communist era the church tower was used as an observatory for State Security since from the tower it was possible to keep watch on the American and Yugoslav embassies respectively and the access route to the West German embassy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decoration.", "content": "It has been described as \"the most impressive example of Prague Baroque\" and \"without doubt the greatest Baroque church in Prague and the Dientzenhofers' supreme achievement\". On the shield is a sign of the alleged patron of the building Frantisek Karel Count of Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky. The mark of the actual patron Václav Count of Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky on the facade of the temple is not found. He was so humble that he did not want his name to be associated with the building, and after the completion of the building he was used on the front of the coat of arms of his uncle.  The church excels not only in the architecture, but also in the decoration, mainly with the frescos by Jan Lukas Kracker and a fresco inside the 70 m high dome by František Xaver Palko. The interior is further decorated with sculptures by František Ignác Platzer. The Baroque organ has over 4,000 pipes up to six metres in length and was played by Mozart in 1787. Mozart's spectacular masterpiece, Mass in C, was first performed in the Church of Saint Nicholas shortly after his visit.  The 79 m tall belfry is directly connected with the church’s massive dome. The belfry with great panoramic view, was unlike the church completed in Rococo forms in 1751-1756 by Anselmo Lurago.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Services.", "content": "The parish church celebrates a weekly mass every Sunday at 8.30pm.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Church of Saint Nicholas () is a Baroque church in the Lesser Town of Prague. It was built between 1704-1755 on the site where formerly a Gothic church from the 13th century stood, which was also dedicated to Saint Nicholas. It has been described as the greatest example of Prague Baroque.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977660}
{"src_title": "Design A-150 battleship", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and design.", "content": "In the 1930s, the Japanese government began a shift towards ultranationalist militancy. Planners envisioned an empire stretching from Japan to the resource-rich European colonies in Southeast Asia, and defensible islands in the Pacific Ocean (the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere). The extensive distances involved, and the likelihood of this expansion leading to a confrontation with the United States, led the Japanese to build and maintain a large fleet that could seize and hold onto these territories. The U.S. posed a particular problem for Japan, as it possessed significantly greater industrial power, and several leading members of the United States Congress had pledged \"to outbuild Japan three to one in a naval race\".  The Imperial Japanese Navy had recognized since at least 1896 that the country could not outproduce its potential opponents, and therefore insisted that its ships had to be more powerful than foreign equivalents. It established this qualitative lead at various times over the next 40 years, with the s just before World War I, the s at the end of that war, and the s in the 1930s. The A-150s were designed according to that doctrine to continue their qualitative superiority in battleships over their most likely opponents, the United States and Great Britain.  Early conceptions for what would become the A-150 battleships called for eight or nine 51-centimeter guns in double or triple turrets, as the successful construction of a gun in 1920–1921 made the Japanese confident that such a large weapon could be built. The designers hoped to give the ships a top speed of, which would give them a comfortable margin over the American s. However, these grand specifications were curtailed when tests culminated in a ship that had a displacement of some ; it was felt that ships of this size would be \"too large and too expensive\".  Formal design studies began in 1938–1939. They initially focused on a ship closer to the displacement of the preceding, on which plans had just been completed, albeit one mounting six 51-centimeter guns. As the Japanese expected that the Americans would ascertain the true characteristics of the \"Yamato\" class—especially its primary armament of guns, which would become the largest naval weapons in use in the world—they hoped that the 51-centimeter guns would outperform any American response to the \"Yamato\"s' smaller guns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Specifications.", "content": "Plans for the A-150s were finished in early 1941, for most intents and purposes. However, these were destroyed at the end of the war, along with most of the other documentation relating to the class. The general destruction of records and Japan's extensive efforts (before and during the war) to keep any information about the ships out of the hands of foreign nations severely limited the amount of information on the ships available to historians. This is, for example, why the A-150's exact specifications are up to some debate. The displacement was to be similar to the \"Yamato\" class, which was around, and the belt armor was probably going to be thick. This was so large that steel mills in Japan were incapable of manufacturing it. Instead, two layers of armor plates would have been used, despite its reduced effectiveness as compared to a single plate of the same total thickness.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "The design of the A-150s called for a main battery of six 45-caliber 51-centimeter guns in three twin turrets. These would have been the largest ever fitted to a capital ship, dwarfing the 46-centimeter guns mounted on the \"Yamato\" class, and were a key factor in historians William H. Garzke and Robert O. Dulin's argument that the A-150s would have been the \"most powerful battleships in history\". By 1941, one—possibly two—of the 51-centimeter guns were being constructed at the Kure Naval Arsenal and detailed designs of their turrets were drawn up. The turrets would have weighed and each gun would have massed. They would have had a total length of and the bore length was to have been around. The armor-piercing shells would have weighed.  The composition of the A-150's secondary armament is not fully known. Historians Eric Lacroix and Linton Wells have written that Japanese designers were considering mounting a large number of 65-caliber Type 98 dual-purpose guns, though this was not final. These guns had a maximum elevation of +90°, which gave them an effective ceiling of and a horizontal range of. They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of, although resulting wear on the barrels reduced their designed lifespan to only about 350 rounds. They were able to fire 15–19 rounds per minute.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "As war with the United States became increasingly likely over the Second Sino-Japanese War, and particularly after the Japanese seizure of French Indochina in mid-1940, all design work on battleships was diverted in early 1941—even though the A-150's design was nearly complete—in order to focus on higher-priority warships like aircraft carriers and cruisers. Two A-150s, provisionally designated as Warships Number 798 and 799, were projected in a 1942 building program. Under this plan, 798 would have been built in the same dock as, while 799 would be built in Kure in the same dock as after a fourth \"Yamato\"-class ship was launched. The ships would have then have been finished in 1946–1947, but the war's turn against the Japanese after the Battle of Midway meant that the need for ships other than battleships never abated.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Design A-150, popularly known as the \"Super Yamato\" class, was a planned class of battleships for the Imperial Japanese Navy. In keeping with the Navy's long tradition, they were designed to be qualitatively superior to battleships that might be faced in battle, such as those from the United States or Great Britain. As part of this, the class would have been armed with six guns, the largest weapons carried aboard any warship in the world. Design work on the A-150s began after the preceding in 1938–1939 and was mostly finished by early 1941, when the Japanese began focusing on aircraft carriers and other smaller warships in preparation for the coming conflict. No A-150 would ever be laid down, and many details of the class' design were destroyed near the end of the war.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977661}
{"src_title": "Airat Ichmouratov", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Ichmouratov was born and raised in Kazan, the capital and largest city of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, he is second child of Razima Icmouratova (Gatina) and Rafail Ichmouratov. He studied Clarinet at the Kazan Music School N3, Kazan Music College and Kazan Conservatory, graduating in 1996. In 1993, when he was appointed as Associate clarinetist of the Tatarstan's Opera and Ballet Theatre, and of the Kazan State Symphony Orchestra, he began to extensively tour in Europe. In 1997, Ichmouratov comes to Canada to participate as student at Orford Art's Centre Festival, where he met Yuli Turovsky, Soviet-born Canadian cellist and conductor, who later became his close mentor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 1998, Ichmouratov permanently moved to Montreal, Quebec, Canada, where he obtained a Master degree at the University of Montreal, where he studied with Andre Moisan. He then founded the Muczynski Trio with Luo Di -Cello and Evgenia Kirjner on piano, which won 1st prize and the Grand Award at the National Music Festival (Canada, 2002) and 1st Prize at the 8th International Chamber Music Competition in Kraków (Poland, 2004).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conductor.", "content": "Ichmouratov's first conducting job, after obtaining his Doctorat degree in Orchestra Conducting at University of Montreal (2005) was with chamber orchestra Les Violons du Roy in Quebec City, where he was assistant conductor of renown specialist in Baroque and Classical repertoire, Canadian conductor Bernard Labadie. Les Violons du Roy's Concert on 5.12.2008 \"Russian Impressions\" under Ichmouratov's direction, also presented the world premiere of his own Cello Concerto, won the Opus Prize in the category – Best concert of the Year. Airat was appointed to the position of Resident Conductor of the Quebec Symphony Orchestra from 2009 until 2011, where he was assisting Israeli conductor and composer Yoav Talmi. In 2011, replacing on short notice Yuli Turovsky – Mr Ichmouratov conducted I Musici de Montréal Chamber Orchestra on tour in USA, Brazil and Peru. In October 2011 he made his debut with Tatarstan Academic State Opera and Ballet Theatre (Russia) and was immediately re invited to conduct Puccini's Turandot and Verdi's Rigoletto during the 2012–13 season and on the following European Tour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Kleztory.", "content": "In 2000, Mr. Ichmouratov joined the klezmer group Kleztory, in which he presently plays the clarinet, composes and arranges. In 2004, Kleztory recorded for the Chandos Records (Great Britain) CD with I Musici de Montréal Chamber Orchestra and Yuli Turovsky. In 2007 Kleztory's album \"Nomade\" won the Opus Prize. Most recent (2014) Album \"Arrival\" was nominated as Best album of the year in Traditional music category by ADISQ. In 2012 Kleztory won klezmer Furth Prize at International Klezmer festival and Competition in Amsterdam and as result appeared at Furth Klezmer Festival during the following spring. With Kleztory, Mr. Ichmouratov has appeared as soloist with several orchestras including the Montreal Symphony Orchestra, the Quebec Symphony Orchestra, I Musici de Montréal Chamber Orchestra, Les Violons du Roy and Brussels Chamber Orchestra and toured intensively in Canada, USA, Brazil, Mexico, Costa Rica, Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, Romania and China.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Composer.", "content": "The music of Airat Ichmouratov has been performed by a wide range of ensembles and musicians in countries around the world, including Maxim Vengerov, Jonathan Crow, Andrew Wan, Eric Paetkau, Alexis Hauser, Jean Francois Rivest, Alexandre Da Costa, Alain Trudel, Stephane Laforest, Andre Moisan, Mark Simons, Yegor Dyachkov, Max Pollak, Stephane Tetreault, Sasha Mirkovic & ensemble Metamorphosis (Serbia), Quebec Symphony Orchestra, Orchestre Métropolitain, Taipei Symphony Orchestra, Amadeus Chamber Orchestra of Polish Radio, Les Violons du Roy, Orchestra London, Longueuil Symphony Orchestra, New Orford String Quartet, Yuli Turovsky & I Musici de Montreal, 13 Strings (Ottawa), Tatarstan State Symphony Orchestra (Russia), La Primavera Chamber Orchestra, Alcan Quartet, Molinari Quartet, Orford Camerata Ensemble, Sinfonia Toronto, Nouvelle Generation Chamber orchestra just to name a few.  Ichmouratov was named as Resident Composer 2012 at Concerts aux îles du Bic (Canada), in 2013 Composer of Summer at Orford Arts Centre (Canada) and in 2015 Summer Composer at 17e édition of Festival Classique des Hautes-Laurentides (Canada). Since 2010 Ichmouratov is Associate Composer with Canadian Music Centre.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "List of compositions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "movie.", "content": "Music for movie Master of Silence Op.14 (2006)", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Ichmouratov is married to violist and violinist Elvira Misbakhova, and they have two daughters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Airat Rafailovich Ichmouratov (, Tatar Cyrillic: Айрат Рафаил улы Ишмурат,) born June 28, 1973) is a Volga Tatar born Russian / Canadian composer, conductor and klezmer clarinetist. He is conductor and composer in residence of Longueuil Symphony Orchestra, clarinetist of Montreal-based Klezmer group Kleztory and invited professor at Laval University in Quebec, Canada.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977662}
{"src_title": "George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born the son of William Douglas, 1st Earl of Selkirk and Anne, 3rd Duchess of Hamilton, Hamilton was commissioned into the His Majesty's Royal Regiment of Foot, a regiment for which his uncle, Lord Dumbarton, held the colonelcy, on 9 May 1684.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ireland and the Low Countries.", "content": "Hamilton became a lieutenant colonel of Lloyd's Regiment of Enniskillen Foot in June 1689 and, having been promoted to brevet colonel, commanded the regiment at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690, at the Siege of Athlone in June 1691 and at the Battle of Aughrim, where he was wounded, in July 1691 during the Williamite War in Ireland. He also commanded the regiment at the Siege of Limerick in October 1691 and then became colonel of the Royal Fusiliers in January 1692 before fighting with that regiment at the Battle of Steenkerque in August 1692 in the Low Countries during the Nine Years' War. Rewarded with the colonelcy of the 1st Regiment of Foot in late 1692, he participated in further battles in Ireland before returning to the continent to fight at the Battle of Landen in July 1693 and at the Siege of Namur, where he was wounded, in July 1695 during the latter stages of the Nine Years' War.  On 25 November 1695 Hamilton married Elizabeth Villiers, a favourite and perhaps former mistress of William III, and on 3 January 1696 he was created Earl of Orkney, Viscount Kirkwall, and Baron Dechmont in the Peerage of Scotland. Shortly thereafter he acquired the estates of Taplow Court and Cliveden. He became Governor of Virginia in 1698, but appears never to have visited the colony.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "War of the Spanish Succession.", "content": "Promoted to major general on 9 March 1702, Hamilton fought under John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough at the Siege of Stevensweert in October 1702 during the War of the Spanish Succession. Promoted to lieutenant general on 1 January 1704, he was appointed a Knight of the Order of the Thistle later that year. He led the final assault at the Battle of Blenheim attacking the village churchyard with eight battalions of men and then receiving the surrender of its French defenders in August 1704. After marching his column from the Moselle, he relieved the besieged city of Liège in June 1705.  Hamilton led a diversion at the Battle of Ramillies but turned the manoeuvre into a highly successful assault, from which he had to withdraw before leading the relentless pursuit of the defeated French troops in May 1706. He also took part in the Siege of Menin in July 1706 and then played a major role at the Battle of Oudenarde in July 1708. He also saw action at the passage of the Scheldt in November 1708, fought at the Siege of Tournai in June 1709 and led the charge of fifteen infantry battalions in an extremely bloody assault on the French entrenchments at the Battle of Malplaquet in September 1709. Promoted to general of foot in 1710, Hamilton was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Lanarkshire in 1711. He returned to the continent in 1712 and continued to serve in the Army commanded by the Duke of Ormonde besieging Douai and then Bouchain until 1713.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Hamilton became a Lord of the Bedchamber to George I and was installed as Governor of Edinburgh Castle in 1714. He also sat in the House of Lords as a Scottish representative peer. Promoted to field marshal (the first-ever promotion to this rank) on 31 January 1735, he commissioned the building of a temple at his Buckinghamshire home, Cliveden, by the architect Giacomo Leoni later that year.  Hamilton died at his home at Albemarle Street in London on 29 January 1737 and was buried at Taplow Court. In 1733 Michael Rysbrack, a sculptor from Antwerp, carved a marble bust of Hamilton in the form of a Roman centurion. As a boy, Rysbrack would have witnessed Hamilton's unopposed entry into Antwerp shortly after his victory at Ramillies. The bust is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In 1695 Hamilton married Elizabeth Villiers, a former mistress of William III; they had three daughters:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Field Marshal George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney, KT (9 February 1666 – 29 January 1737), styled Lord George Hamilton from 1666 to 1696, was a British soldier and Scottish nobleman and the first British Army officer to be promoted to the rank of field marshal. After commanding a regiment for the cause of William of Orange during the Williamite War in Ireland, he commanded a regiment in the Low Countries during the Nine Years' War. He then led the final assault at the Battle of Blenheim attacking the village churchyard with eight battalions of men and then receiving the surrender of its French defenders during the War of the Spanish Succession. He also led the charge of fifteen infantry battalions in an extremely bloody assault on the French entrenchments at the Battle of Malplaquet. In later life he became a Lord of the Bedchamber to George I and was installed as Governor of Edinburgh Castle.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977663}
{"src_title": "RETScreen", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first version of RETScreen was released on April 30, 1998. RETScreen Version 4 was launched on December 11, 2007 at Bali, Indonesia by Canada's Minister of the Environment. RETScreen Plus was released in 2011. RETScreen Suite (integrating RETScreen 4 and RETScreen Plus with numerous additional upgrades), was released in 2012. RETScreen Expert was released to the public on September 19, 2016. RETScreen Expert Version 8 was launched on June 2, 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Program requirements.", "content": "This program requires Microsoft® Windows 7 SP1, Windows 8.1 or Windows 10; and Microsoft®.NET Framework 4.7.2 or higher. It is possible for the program to work on Apple Macintosh computers using Parallels or VirtualBox for Mac.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Partners.", "content": "RETScreen is managed under the leadership and ongoing financial support of the CanmetENERGY Varennes Research Centre of Natural Resources Canada, a department of the Government of Canada. The core team leverages collaboration with a number of other government and multilateral organisations, with technical support from a large network of experts from industry, government and academia. Principal external partners include NASA's Langley Research Center, Ontario's Independent Electricity System Operator (IESO), the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP), UNEP's Energy Unit of the Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the World Bank's Prototype Carbon Fund, and York University's Sustainable Energy Initiative.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Examples of use.", "content": "As of June 2020, the RETScreen software had more than 675,000 users in every country and territory of the world.  An independent impact study estimated that by 2013, the use of the RETScreen software had been responsible, worldwide, for over $8 billion in user transaction cost savings, 20 MT per year of greenhouse gas emissions reductions, and has enabled at least 24 GW of installed clean energy capacity.  RETScreen is widely used to facilitate and implement clean energy projects. For example, RETScreen has been used:  An extensive collection of posts and articles detailing how RETScreen has been used in different contexts is available on RETScreen's LinkedIn page and archived website.  RETScreen is also used as a teaching and research tool by well-over 1,200 universities and colleges worldwide, and is frequently cited in academic literature. Examples of RETScreen's use in academia can be found under the “Publications and Reports” and \"University and College Courses\" sections of the RETScreen newsletter, accessible through the User manual in the downloaded software.  The use of RETScreen is mandated or recommended by clean energy incentive programs at all levels of government worldwide, including the UNFCCC and the EU; Canada, New Zealand and the UK; numerous American states and Canadian provinces; cities and municipalities; and utilities. National and regional RETScreen training workshops have been conducted upon the official request of the Governments of Chile, Saudi Arabia, 15 countries in West and Central Africa, and the Latin American Energy Organization (OLADE).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "In 2010, RETScreen International was awarded the Public Service Award of Excellence, the highest award given by the Canadian government to its civil servants.  RETScreen and the RETScreen team have been nominated for and received numerous other prestigious awards including the Ernst & Young/Euromoney Global Renewable Energy Award, Energy Globe (National Award for Canada), and the GTEC Distinction Award Medal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reviews.", "content": "An International Energy Agency review of the beta release of the hydropower part of the software described it as \"very impressive\". The European Environment Agency asserts that RETScreen an \"extremely useful tool.\" RETScreen has also been called \"one of the few software tools, and by far the best, available for evaluating the economics of renewable energy installations\" and \"a tool to enhance... market coherence\" in clean energy worldwide.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The RETScreen Clean Energy Management Software (usually shortened to RETScreen Expert) is a software package developed by the Government of Canada. RETScreen Expert was highlighted at the 2016 Clean Energy Ministerial held in San Francisco. The Government of Canada's Treasury Board Secretariat uses RETScreen Expert as its greenhouse gas reporting tool for all federal departments and agencies required to report emissions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977664}
{"src_title": "Equestrian at the 2016 Summer Olympics", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Events.", "content": "Medals were awarded in the following competitions:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualification.", "content": "Each event had its own qualification rules, but generally rely on FEI rankings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dressage.", "content": "For the team competition, ten quota spots were available. Three team spots were awarded at the 2014 FEI World Equestrian Games. In addition, six more were awarded at regional competitions (Europe: 3, America: 1, Africa/Asia: 2). In addition, should a country had qualified 3 or 4 athletes in the individual competition, they also qualified as a team and were allowed to compete in the team competition.  For the individual competition, 60 spots were allocated as follows: 40 to the athletes who qualified from the teams above. In addition, the two highest ranked riders from each of seven geographic regions were qualified. The top six riders based on FEI ranking who did not qualify otherwise were given spots as well.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Jumping.", "content": "A country might have sent up to four riders if it had qualified for the team competition. Similar to dressage, teams of four riders were qualified at either the World Equestrian Games (WEG) or through a regional competition. The WEG awarded five spots, the regions nine (Americas: two, Europe: four, Asia: two, Africa and the Middle East: one), and the hosts (Brazil). For the individual competition, a total of 75 spots was allocated as follows: 60 from the above teams the rest regional or through rankings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eventing.", "content": "A country might have sent up to four riders if it had qualified for the team competition. Similar to dressage, teams of four riders were qualified at either the WEG, a regional competition, or through a composite spot. The WEG awarded six spots, the regions seven (America: one, Europe: two, Asia, Africa and Oceania: one), the hosts (Brazil). For the individual competition, a total of 65 spots was allocated as follows: 44 from the above teams, 7 through regional competitions and 14 through the world rankings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Participating.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Participating nations.", "content": "43 nations qualified. Chinese Taipei, Dominican Republic, Palestine, Qatar and Zimbabwe made their Olympic debuts in equestrian events.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Officials.", "content": "Appointment of officials is as follows:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Competition format.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Show jumping.", "content": "Five rounds are ridden to determine individual medals. Riders placing first through 60th (including ties for 60th place) advance to the second round. The top 45 riders of round 2, including ties for 45th, advance to the third round. The top 35 riders of the third round progress to the 4th round, but only up to three riders per team (so if a country has four riders in the top 35, one of those is not allowed to compete for individual medals).  In the fourth round (individual final round A), the slate is wiped clean and all riders begin with zero faults. The top 20 riders in round 4 advance to round 5 (individual final round B), and ride another course. The faults for individual final round A and B and added together to determine individual medals.  The team competition completes three rounds to determine medals. It runs concurrently with the individual competition (riders running over the same course) so team riders are also competing for individual medals. The first round for team competition is the round 2 course for individual medals. The top eight teams from the first team round advance to the second team round (which is the same course as the individual round 3). The scores for these eight countries over team rounds 1 and 2 are combined, and medals are awarded based on those scores.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Dressage.", "content": "Teams are made of up to four riders, all of whom are also competing concurrently for individual medals. Additionally, countries who can not make a full team may send riders to compete for individual medals.  All riders compete in the Grand Prix, which serves as the first round of both the individual and team medals. The top six teams (included those tied for 6th) advance to the Grand Prix Special, which is a slightly more rigorous test. The combined scores of the top three riders of those teams in both the Grand Prix and the Special determine the team medals, with the team with the highest score winning gold.  Riders completing the Grand Prix test (first qualifying round of the individual competition) may move on to the Grand Prix Special (second qualifying round for the individual competition) if their team is in the top six (24 riders total). Additionally, the top 8 riders who do not qualify with a team may also advance to the Special to ride for individual medals. The top 18 riders from the Special move on to the third individual round, the freestyle. However, no more than three members on a team may advance. Each rider designs their own test for the freestyle, which must be set to music and has several compulsory movements. Riders can tailor a test to their horses' strengths, as well as incorporate movements that are more difficult than those required in the Grand Prix or the Special (such as a pirouette in piaffe) in order to increase their scores. As the slate is wiped clean after the first two rounds, individual medals are assigned based on scores in the freestyle.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Eventing.", "content": "Competitions for team and individual medals ran concurrently. Riders performed a dressage test, a cross-country round, and a jumping round. Team medals were then awarded by adding together the best three scores from a country's team, out of a maximum of five team members, from all three phases, the team with the lowest number of penalty points winning the gold. The top 25 individual scores after the first show jumping round performed a second, final, show jumping round to determine individual medals, with up to 3 riders in the individual running per team. Therefore, those competing for individual spots completed one dressage test and cross-country round, and two jumping rounds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Medal summary.", "content": "The 2016 event was marked by returning champions in the individual events, and new nations winning the team events. 2012 Individual eventing champion Michael Jung retained his title, as did 2012 Individual dressage gold medallist, Great Britain's Charlotte Dujardin on Valegro. In jumping, veteran Nick Skelton, part of the gold medal winning Great Britain jumping team from 2012, returned to take the individual title on Big Star, his 2012 gold winning horse.  In the team events, Germany displaced Great Britain from the top step of the Team Dressage podium, with the 2012 winners in silver, and the United States taking an unexpected bronze ahead of traditional powerhouse, the Netherlands. In Eventing and Jumping, France won the team gold medals.  As a result, Germany, Great Britain and France dominated the medal table with two golds each, Germany leading by dint of four minor medals to the one silver each for France and Great Britain.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The equestrian events at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro were held between 6 and 19 August at National Equestrian Center in Deodoro. Medals were awarded in three disciplines for both individual and team competitions.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977665}
{"src_title": "Yurii Khmelnytsky", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Hetman of Ukraine.", "content": "Yuri Khmelnytsky was born in 1641 in Subotiv near Chyhyryn in central Ukraine. In 1659 the Cossack Rada elected the 17-year-old Yurii as their hetman in Bila Tserkva, replacing the deposed Ivan Vyhovsky. The young hetman faced problems: the uneasy alliance with the Tsardom of Russia and the ongoing wars against Poland-Lithuania and against the Crimean Khanate.  In 1659 the parliament (sejm walny) of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth granted him nobility. On 24 March 1661 he became starost of Hadiach.  During the latter conflict, Yuri Khmelnytsky's Cossacks were defeated near the town of Korsun, he was captured by the Poles and later pledged loyalty to king Jan II Kazimierz of Poland-Lithuania (reigned 1648-1668). This provoked a civil war within Ukraine in 1661, when the new ataman Yakym Somko led the pro-Moscow Cossacks against Yuri and his new Polish allies. At the battle near the town of Pereiaslav in the summer of 1662 Somko's Cossacks and the Russians under Grigory Romodanovsky defeated Yuri Khmelnytsky.  After the defeat, Khmelnytsky entered an alliance with the Crimean Khanate, but this resulted in little beyond massive looting and raiding of Ukrainian towns and villages by the Tatars. Thereupon Yuri gave up his hetman title and became a monk at the Mharsky Monastery in the autumn of 1662. Between 1664 and 1667 the hetman Pavlo Teteria imprisoned him in Lviv.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Hetman of Right-bank Ukraine.", "content": "After his release, in 1672 he participated in a campaign against the Tatars and was captured near Uman and brought to Constantinople, where he was allowed to live in a Greek Orthodox monastery. In 1676 — after the Sultan's ally, Petro Doroshenko, surrendered to the Russians — the Porte decided to use Khmelnytsky's famous name to reinforce their claim to the Right-bank Ukraine starting the Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681).  In 1678 the Turkish army captured Chyhyryn and declared Yuri Khmelnytsky as a new hetman of Ukraine, although in reality he was only a puppet for the Ottoman Sultan. Ottoman Turkish army with Yuri in tow captured and burned down Kaniv and other Ukrainian towns. He then retired to his Sultan dictated capital at Nemyriv in Turkish occupied parts of Ukraine, as a vassal of sultan Mehmed IV until 1681, when the Turks removed him from power due to his unstable mental health and unprecedented cruelty. Two years later, he was briefly re-instated by the Poles. Finally in 1685 the Turks captured Yuri and executed him (strangled) in Kamianets-Podilskyi.  Unlike his father, Yuri was unable to master the very complex situation he faced and was often manipulated by foreign powers.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Yuri Khmelnytsky (,, ) (1641–1685), younger son of the famous Ukrainian Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky and brother of Tymofiy Khmelnytsky, was a Zaporozhian Cossack political and military leader. Although he spent half of his adult life as a monk, he also was Hetman of Ukraine on several occasions — in 1659-1660 and 1678–1681 and starost of Hadiach. For background see The Ruin (Ukrainian history).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977666}
{"src_title": "Open Broadcaster Software", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "OBS Studio is a free and open-source software suite for recording and live streaming. Written in C, C++ and Qt, OBS provides real-time source and device capture, scene composition, encoding, recording, and broadcasting. Transmission of data is primarily done via the Real Time Messaging Protocol (RTMP) and can be sent to any RTMP supporting destination, including many presets for streaming websites such as YouTube, Twitch, Instagram and Facebook.  For video encoding, OBS Studio is capable of using the x264 free software library, Intel Quick Sync Video, Nvidia NVENC and the AMD Video Coding Engine to encode video streams into the H.264/MPEG-4 AVC format and the H.265/HEVC format. Multiple tracks of audio can be encoded using the AAC codec. Advanced users can choose to use any codecs and containers available in libavcodec / libavformat as well as output the stream to a custom ffmpeg URL.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "User interface.", "content": "The main user interface is organized into five sections: scenes, sources, audio mixer, transitions, and controls. Scenes are groups of sources like live and recorded video, text and audio. The mixer panel lets the user mute the audio, and adjust the volume through virtual faders, and apply effects by pressing the cogwheel next to the mute button. The control panel has options for starting/stopping a stream or recording, a button to transform OBS to a more professional Studio Mode (see below), a button for opening the settings menu and a button to exit the program. The upper section has a live video preview, used to monitor and edit the current scene. The user interface can be switched to a variety of themes, including both dark and light themes, depending on what the user prefers.  When in Studio Mode, there are two canvas preview windows, the left one for modifying and preview of non-active scenes, while the right window is for preview of the live scene (\"Preview\" and \"Program\" respectively). In the middle there is a secondary transition button, allowing for transitioning to the non-active scene in the left window using user-defined \"quick transitions\".  There are some simple tutorials on the Internet that show how to use Open Broadcaster Software, including more in-depth tutorials designed to cover every aspect of the application.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Open Broadcaster Software started out as a small project created by Hugh \"Jim\" Bailey, but quickly grew with the help of many online collaborators working both to improve OBS and spread the knowledge about the program. In 2014, development started on a rewritten version known as OBS Multiplatform (later renamed OBS Studio) for multi-platform support, a more thorough feature set, and a more powerful API. In 2016, OBS \"Classic\" was no longer supported with OBS Studio becoming the primary version.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plug-ins.", "content": "Open Broadcaster Software supports a variety of plug-ins to extend its functionality. Plug-ins are loaded as native dynamic libraries, although a wrapper plug-in is available that allows hosting of plug-ins written in the.NET Framework.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Open Broadcaster Software (OBS) is a free and open-source cross-platform streaming and recording program built with Qt and maintained by the OBS Project. As of 2016, the software is now referred to as OBS Studio. There are versions of OBS Studio available for Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux distributions. OBS is funded on Open Collective.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977667}
{"src_title": "Canvas", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "For painting.", "content": "Canvas has become the most common support medium for oil painting, replacing wooden panels. It was used from the 14th century in Italy, but only rarely. One of the earliest surviving oils on canvas is a French \"Madonna with angels\" from around 1410 in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. Its use in \"Saint George and the Dragon\" by Paolo Uccello in about 1470, and Sandro Botticelli's \"Birth of Venus\" in the 1480s was still unusual for the period. Large paintings for country houses were apparently more likely to be on canvas, and are perhaps less likely to have survived. It was a good deal cheaper than a panel painting, and may sometime indicate a painting regarded as less important. In the Uccello, the armour does not use silver leaf, as other of his paintings do (and the colour therefore remains undegraded). Another common category of paintings on lighter cloth such as linen was in distemper or glue, often used for banners to be carried in procession. This is a less durable medium, and surviving examples such as Dirk Bouts' \"Entombment\", in distemper on linen (1450s, National Gallery) are rare, and often rather faded in appearance.  Panel painting remained more common until the 16th century in Italy and the 17th century in Northern Europe. Mantegna and Venetian artists were among those leading the change; Venetian sail canvas was readily available and regarded as the best quality.  Canvas is usually stretched across a wooden frame called a stretcher and maybe coated with gesso prior it is to be used; this is to prevent oil paint from coming into direct contact with the canvas fibres, which will eventually cause the canvas to decay. A traditional and flexible chalk gesso is composed of lead carbonate and linseed oil, applied over a rabbit skin glue ground; a variation using titanium white pigment and calcium carbonate is rather brittle and susceptible to cracking. As lead-based paint is poisonous, care has to be taken in using it. Various alternative and more flexible canvas primers are commercially available, the most popular being a synthetic latex paint composed of titanium dioxide and calcium carbonate, bound with a thermo-plastic emulsion. Many artists have painted onto unprimed canvas, such as Jackson Pollock, Kenneth Noland, Francis Bacon, Helen Frankenthaler, Dan Christensen, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Color Field painters, Lyrical Abstractionists and others. Staining acrylic paint into the fabric of cotton duck canvas was more benign and less damaging to the fabric of the canvas than the use of oil paint. In 1970 artist Helen Frankenthaler commented about her use of staining: When I first started doing the stain paintings, I left large areas of canvas unpainted, I think, because the canvas itself acted as forcefully and as positively as paint or line or color. In other words, the very ground was part of the medium, so that instead of thinking of it as background or negative space or an empty spot, that area did not need paint because it had paint next to it. The thing was to decide where to leave it and where to fill it and where to say this doesn't need another line or another pail of colors. It's saying it in space. Early canvas was made of linen, a sturdy brownish fabric of considerable strength. Linen is particularly suitable for the use of oil paint. In the early 20th century, cotton canvas, often referred to as \"cotton duck\", came into use. Linen is composed of higher quality material, and remains popular with many professional artists, especially those who work with oil paint. Cotton duck, which stretches more fully and has an even, mechanical weave, offers a more economical alternative. The advent of acrylic paint has greatly increased the popularity and use of cotton duck canvas. Linen and cotton derive from two entirely different plants, the flax plant and the cotton plant, respectively.  Gessoed canvases on stretchers are also available. They are available in a variety of weights: light-weight is about or ; medium-weight is about or ; heavy-weight is about or. They are prepared with two or three coats of gesso and are ready for use straight away. Artists desiring greater control of their painting surface may add a coat or two of their preferred gesso. Professional artists who wish to work on canvas may prepare their own canvas in the traditional manner.  One of the most outstanding differences between modern painting techniques and those of the Flemish and Dutch Masters is in the preparation of the canvas. \"Modern\" techniques take advantage of both the canvas texture as well as those of the paint itself. Renaissance masters took extreme measures to ensure that none of the texture of the canvas came through. This required a painstaking, months-long process of layering the raw canvas with (usually) lead-white paint, then polishing the surface, and then repeating. The final product had little resemblance to fabric, but instead had a glossy, enamel-like finish.  With a properly prepared canvas, the painter will find that each subsequent layer of color glides on in a \"buttery\" manner, and that with the proper consistency of application (fat over lean technique), a painting entirely devoid of brushstrokes can be achieved. A warm iron is applied over a piece of wet cotton to flatten the wrinkles.  Canvas can also be printed on using offset or specialist digital printers to create canvas prints. This process of digital inkjet printing is popularly referred to as Giclée. After printing, the canvas can be wrapped around a stretcher and displayed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "For embroidery.", "content": "Canvas is a popular base fabric for embroidery such as cross-stitch and Berlin wool work. Some specific types of embroidery canvases are Aida cloth (also called Java canvas), Penelope canvas, Chess canvas, and Binca canvas. Plastic canvas is a stiffer form of Binca canvas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "As a compound agent.", "content": "From the 13th century onward, canvas was used as a covering layer on Pavise shields. The canvas was applied to the wooden surface of the Pavise, covered with multiple layers of gesso and often richly painted in tempera technique. Finally, the surface was sealed with a transparent varnish. While the gessoed canvas was a perfect painting surface, the primary purpose of the canvas application may have been the strengthening of the wooden shield corpus in a manner similar to modern glass-reinforced plastic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Splined canvas, stretched canvas and canvas boards.", "content": "\"Splined canvases\" differ from traditional side-stapled canvas in that canvas is attached with a spline at the rear of the frame. This allows the artist to incorporate painted edges into the artwork itself without staples at the sides, and the artwork can be displayed without a frame. Splined canvas can be restretched by adjusting the spline.  \"Stapled canvases\" stay stretched tighter over a longer period of time, but are more difficult to re-stretch when the need arises.  \"Canvas boards\" are made of canvas stretched over and glued to a cardboard backing, and sealed on the backside. The canvas is typically linen primed for a certain type of paint. They are primarily used by artists for quick studies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Canvas is an extremely durable plain-woven fabric used for making sails, tents, marquees, backpacks, shelters, and other items for which sturdiness is required, as well as in such fashion objects as handbags, electronic device cases, and shoes. It is also popularly used by artists as a painting surface, typically stretched across a wooden frame.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977668}
{"src_title": "Max Adler (actor)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Adler was born to a Jewish family in Queens, New York, the eldest son of Lisa (nėe Kobrin) and Doug Adler. A year after Adler was born, his family relocated to Fountain Hills, Arizona, then to Scottsdale, Arizona. Adler attended Horizon High School, where he was a First Chair All-State show choir member. After graduating, he moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in acting. Adler has a younger brother named Jake, born in 1992.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "After various roles in a number of productions, Adler was cast in a minor recurring role in the Fox television series \"Glee\" as school jock and bully Dave Karofsky. \"Glee\" creator Ryan Murphy was impressed with his acting and wanted to write more with him. In the November 2010 episode \"Never Been Kissed\", written to tackle the issue of LGBT youth bullying, Karofsky is revealed to be a closeted gay teen. Adler had previously questioned his character's motivations, but was surprised by the scene in which Karofsky kisses the object of his bullying, openly gay student Kurt Hummel (Chris Colfer). He received a positive response via the social networking websites Twitter, Tumblr and Facebook, and commented that he was \"glad to represent such a large group of people\". He expanded on this, saying, \"I've gotten so many messages from people all around the world these last couple of days thanking me because either they are Karofsky, they were Karofsky or they know a Karofsky.\" The character eventually gives up his bullying and makes his peace with Kurt, but he remains closeted. Adler has been praised for his performance in episode 3x14, \"On My Way\", during which, after his character is outed, he attempts suicide.  Adler is a resident artist with The Porters of Hellsgate theatre company in Los Angeles, appearing in three Shakespearean productions with them since 2008.  From 2014 to 2017, Adler had a recurring role as Tank, Bay's college friend on \"Switched at Birth\".  In 2014, Adler played the role of Baker in the religious satire \"Believe Me\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activism.", "content": "Following the \"Glee\" episode \"Never Been Kissed\", Adler was contacted by the It Gets Better Project, an internet based project founded by Dan Savage and his husband, Terry Miller, which aims to prevent suicide among LGBT youth. Adler recorded a heartfelt video for the project, offering words of hope and encouragement for kids and teens facing bullying due to their sexual orientation. Through playing one of the most well-known bullies on television, Adler offers viewers insight and advice, telling viewers, “most bullies are extremely insecure, and want to knock you down a peg to feel better about themselves. So, being who you are is what's awesome. It's what makes you special, interesting, fun to talk to, [and] desirable.\"  On November 15, 2010, Adler spoke at the Anti-Defamation League Concert Against Hate at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C..  Adler has also worked with the FSHD Society and MDA to help raise awareness for facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) and other hereditary muscle diseases. Adler's mother and grandmother suffered from relatively severe forms of FSHD. Because of the support that his mother gave him in becoming an actor, he feels that devoting time to raising money for MDA is a way for him to return the favor to her.  Adler, under \"Team Max\" is the host of the Celebrity Charity Walk 'n' Roll for FSHD to help raise funds directly for research of FSHD, one of the most prevalent muscular dystrophies. The walk is for the benefit of the FSHD Society, which is the largest grassroots organization of its kind solely dedicated to finding a treatment or cure for FSHD.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 2012, Adler became engaged to his longtime girlfriend Jennifer Bronstein; he proposed while they were visiting Rome. They were married on December 19, 2015. In January 2020, he announced that they were expecting their first child together. On March 27th, 2020, the couple welcomed their first child, Dylan Remington.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Max Adler (born January 17, 1986) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as Dave Karofsky on the television series \"Glee\" (2009–2015).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977669}
{"src_title": "Rudbeckia hirta", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Rudbeckia hirta\" is an upright annual (sometimes biennial or perennial) growing tall by wide. It has alternate, mostly basal leaves 10–18 cm long, covered by coarse hair, with stout branching stems and daisy-like, composite flower heads appearing in late summer and early autumn. In the species, the flowers are up to in diameter, with yellow ray florets circling conspicuous brown or black, dome-shaped cone of many small disc florets. However, extensive breeding has produced a range of sizes and colours, including oranges, reds and browns.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The specific epithet \"hirta\" is Latin for “hairy”, and refers to the trichomes (hairs) occurring on leaves and stems.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Varieties.", "content": "There are four varieties", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Rudbeckia hirta\" is widely cultivated in parks and gardens, for summer bedding schemes, borders, containers, wildflower gardens, prairie-style plantings and cut flowers. Numerous cultivars have been developed, of which 'Indian Summer' and 'Toto' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Other popular cultivars include 'Double Gold' and 'Marmalade'.  Gloriosa daisies are tetraploid cultivars having much larger flower heads than the wild species, often doubled or with contrasting markings on the ray florets. They were first bred by Alfred Blakeslee of Smith College by applying colchicine to \"R. hirta\" seeds; Blakeslee's stock was further developed by W. Atlee Burpee and introduced to commerce at the 1957 Philadelphia Flower Show. Gloriosa daisies are generally treated as annuals or short-lived perennials and are typically grown from seed, though there are some named cultivars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Symbolism and uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "University of Southern Mississippi.", "content": "In 1912, the black-eyed Susan became the inspiration for the University of Southern Mississippi school colors (black and gold), suggested by Florence Burrow Pope, a member of the university's first graduating class. According to Pope: “On a trip home, I saw great masses of Black-Eyed Susans in the pine forests. I decided to encourage my senior class to gather Black-Eyed Susans to spell out the name of the class on sheets to be displayed during exercises on Class Day. I then suggested black and gold as class colors, and my suggestion was adopted.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Butterfly attractant for enhancing gardens.", "content": "It is a larval host to the bordered patch, gorgone checkerspot, and silvery checkerspot species.  Juice from the roots has been used as drops for earaches.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Rudbeckia hirta, commonly called black-eyed Susan, is a North American flowering plant in the sunflower family, native to Eastern and Central North America and naturalized in the Western part of the continent as well as in China. It has now been found in all 10 Canadian Provinces and all 48 of the states in the contiguous United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977670}
{"src_title": "The Lobster", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "David is escorted to a hotel after his wife has left him for another man. The hotel manager reveals that single people have 45 days to find a partner, or they will be transformed into an animal of their choice; the dog accompanying David is his brother. David chooses to become a lobster. David makes acquaintances with Robert, a man with a lisp, and John, a man with a limp, who become his quasi-friends.  The hotel has many rules and rituals: masturbation is banned, but sexual stimulation by the hotel maid is mandatory, and guests attend dances and watch propaganda extolling the advantages of partnership. Residents can extend their deadline by hunting and tranquilizing the single people who live in the forest; each captured \"loner\" earns them a day. On one hunt, a woman with a fondness for biscuits offers David sexual favours, which he declines. She tells him that if she fails to find a mate, she will kill herself by jumping from a hotel window.  John wins the affections of a woman with constant nosebleeds by purposely smashing his nose in secret. They move to the couples' section to begin a month-long trial partnership. David later decides to court a notoriously cruel woman who has tranquilized more loners than anyone else. Their initial conversation is accompanied by the screams of the biscuit-loving woman, who has injured herself by jumping from a first floor window. David pretends to enjoy the woman's suffering to gain the heartless woman's interest. He later joins her in a jacuzzi where she feigns choking to test him. Noticing that he makes no attempt to help her, she decides that they are a match, and the two are shifted to the couples' suite. David wakes up one morning and finds that she has kicked his brother to death. As David cries in response to losing his canine sibling, she concludes that their relationship is a lie and attempts to drag him to the hotel manager to have him punished. However, he escapes and, with the help of a sympathetic maid (who is later revealed to be a mole working for the loners), tranquilizes his partner and transforms her into an unspecified animal.  David escapes the hotel and joins the loners in the woods. In contrast to the hotel, they forbid any kind of romance, which is punishable by mutilation. David, who is short-sighted, begins a secret relationship with a woman who is also short-sighted. They develop a gestural language they use to communicate. They are taken on covert missions to the nearby city, where their cover requires them to appear as lovers, which they secretly enjoy.  The loners launch a raid to sabotage the work of the hotel. David tells the woman with nosebleeds that John has been faking his. Other loners hold the hotel manager and her husband at gunpoint, tricking him into shooting his wife to save himself, but the gun is not loaded. They leave the couple to face each other.  The leader of the loners obtains the short-sighted woman's journal and discovers her plan to escape with David. The leader takes the woman to the city, ostensibly to have an operation to cure her short-sightedness, but instead has her blinded. David and the woman try to find something else that they have in common, to no avail. One morning, David overpowers the leader, leaving her tied up in an open grave to be eaten by wild dogs. He and the blind woman escape to the city and stop at a restaurant. David goes to the restroom and hesitantly prepares to blind himself with a steak knife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Principal photography began on 24 March 2014, and concluded on 9 May 2014. Filming took place in Dublin, Ireland, which represents \"The City\" in the film, and also at locations in and around County Kerry, including Sneem, Dromore Woods and Kenmare.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marketing and distribution.", "content": "In May 2014, it was announced that Sony Pictures Releasing acquired the distribution rights for Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Scandinavia, Russia, Eastern Europe, and Latin America. A film still featuring Farrell, Whishaw, and Reilly was released around the same time. The film's posters were designed by Vasilis Marmatakis, with the Colin Farrell one sheet version considered by professional poster designer Adrian Curry to be the 2nd best poster of the 2010s.  In May 2015, Alchemy acquired United States distribution rights; however, due to the company's financial struggles at the time, A24 acquired the US rights instead. Originally scheduled for an 11 March 2016 release, it was rescheduled to 13 May 2016.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88% based on reviews from 254 critics, with an average rating of 7.55/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"As strange as it is thrillingly ambitious, \"The Lobster\" is definitely an acquired taste — but for viewers with the fortitude to crack through Yorgos Lanthimos' offbeat sensibilities, it should prove a savory cinematic treat.\" On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received an average score of 82, based on 44 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\".  Oliver Lyttelton of \"The Playlist\" awarded the film an \"A\" grade and described it as \"an atypically rich and substantial comedy\" with \"an uproarious yet deadpan satire concerning societal constructs, dating mores and power structures that also manages to be a surprisingly moving, gloriously weird love story.\" He concluded that the film was Lanthimos' \"most accessible and purely enjoyable film yet\". Chris Nashawaty of \"Entertainment Weekly\" gave a positive review and commended the film for being \"visually stunning, narratively bold, and totally singular\", adding that \"it opens [one's] eyes to a new way of storytelling.\"  Guy Lodge, writing for \"Variety\", called the film \"a wickedly funny, unexpectedly moving satire of couple-fixated society\", elaborating that Lanthimos' \"confounding setup emerges as a brilliant allegory for the increasingly superficial systems of contemporary courtship, including the like-for-like algorithms of online dating sites and the hot-or-not snap judgments of Tinder.\"  Peter Bradshaw of \"The Guardian\" rated the film three stars out of five, and wrote that \"The Lobster\" is \"elegant and eccentric in Lanthimos' familiar style\", but \"appears to run out of ideas at its mid-way point\". Similarly, reviews in the \"Cleveland Plain Dealer\" and the \"Vancouver Sun\" judged the film unable to sustain itself across its full runtime. \"IGN\" awarded it a score of 8.5 out of 10, saying \"Colin Farrell heads up this surreal, hilarious and ultimately quite disturbing tale.\"  Wai Chee Dimock, writing in the \"Los Angeles Review of Books\", called \"The Lobster\" a \"fable of purgatory\" and compared the film to the work of Samuel Beckett, saying that, for this all-Greek team, \"absurdist theater is second nature, as it was second nature to the Irish Beckett a century ago.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Lobster is a 2015 absurdist dystopian black comedy film directed, co-written, and co-produced by Yorgos Lanthimos, co-produced by Ceci Dempsy, Ed Guiney, and Lee Magiday, and co-written by Efthimis Filippou. In the film's setting, single people are given 45 days to find a romantic partner or otherwise be turned into animals. It stars Colin Farrell as a newly single man trying to find someone so he can remain human, and Rachel Weisz as a woman who is also looking for a relationship, so they attempt to form one together. The film is a co-production by Ireland, the United Kingdom, Greece, France, and the Netherlands.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977671}
{"src_title": "Štefan Osuský", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Osuský was born in March 1889 in Brezová pod Bradlom, in the Nyitra County of the Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Slovakia). In 1902 he began his studies at the Lutheran Lyceum in present-day Bratislava. However, in 1905 he was expelled from school because of his Slovak patriotic feelings and banned from all schools in the territory of the Dual Monarchy Austria-Hungary on a direct order of count Apponyi, Minister of Religion and Education of Hungary. Count Apponyi asked Osuský if he was going to be a \"good Hungarian\"; Osuský's silence on the question was taken by Apponyi as an offence. Osuský recalls the incident in his biography:  Therefore, in 1906, he left for the United States. In Springfield and Chicago Osuský pursued his studies of theology, natural sciences and law, receiving a JD degree in 1916.  Immediately after his arrival in the United States he began working actively in expatriate organizations, at first in the Czech National Association, later in the Slovak League in the US. In 1915 he established the newspapers \"Slovenské slovo\" (\"Slovak Word\") and \"Slovenský týždenník\" (\"Slovak Weekly\"). In 1916 Osuský became the vice-president of the Slovak League, which in turn sent him to Europe to negotiate cooperation with Czecho-Slovak foreign resistance. His task was to ensure the acceptance of the Cleveland Agreement principles.  In Paris he started to cooperate with the Czechoslovak National Council, whose objective was the dissolution of Austria-Hungary and the creation of a new state for Czechs and Slovaks. Between 1917 and 1918 Osuský worked as the director of a Czecho-Slovak press agency in Geneva. Between 8–10 April 1918 in Rome he was a representative, together with Milan Rastislav Štefánik, of Slovaks at the Congress of Oppressed Nations. In 1918 he helped organize the Czechoslovak Legions in Italy, established in spite of international treaties prohibiting the creation of military units out of captured enemies.  After the creation of Czechoslovakia he began working in the diplomatic services of the new republic. From October 1918 he held the post of the country's diplomatic representative in the United Kingdom. As secretary general of a Czechoslovak delegation in 1919-1920 he participated in the Paris Peace Conference. On 4 June 1920 in Grand Trianon as the extraordinary and plenipotentiary envoy of Czechoslovakia he signed the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary. He later recalled: \"I will never forget about one thing. When I was signing my name underneath the treaty carrying the name Trianon, at quarter to five in June 1920, I was fully aware, that I was signing for the final account of the Slovak nation to Kingdom of Hungary, accounting for the costs signed top down by blood, suffering and poverty of my nation. And this statement of account is eternal.\"  He significantly contributed to the functioning of the newly formed League of Nations; between 1921 and 1932 he worked with the Reparations Commission, representing not only Czechoslovakia but also Poland, Yugoslavia, Romania and Greece. From 1922 he was the chairman of the Supervisory Commission - a function he held for fourteen years. He was also active in the Delimitation Commission, tasked with setting new borders in Europe.  From 1921 Osuský worked as the Czechoslovak ambassador in France, contributing significantly to the development of Czechoslovak-French relations, a cornerstone of ČSR's international security. He remained at this post until the Second World War. After the breakup of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, he refused to relinquish the embassy and kept the office functioning. He began to organize Czechoslovak foreign resistance. 2 October 1939 Osuský signed an Agreement on the Reestablishment of the Czechoslovak Army in France with French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier. His activity, however, met with resistance, especially with Eduard Beneš. Although in November 1939 he became a member of the Czechoslovak National Committee founded by Beneš, and in July 1940 Osuský was designated a minister of the Czechoslovak government in exile in London, his relations with Beneš were deteriorating. The differences with Beneš lay especially in the areas of foreign policy, the organization of Czechoslovak foreign resistance, the post-war restructuring of the republic and the solution of the Slovak issue. In March 1942 Beneš removed him from all functions and Osuský retired from the active scene.  He began lecturing on the history of diplomacy and international relations at Oxford. In the spring of 1945 Osuský left for the United States, becoming a professor at the Colgate University in Hamilton, New York. After the Communist takeover in February 1948 he was active in the Council of Free Czechoslovakia. He also worked as a journalist-political scientist. In his work he especially paid attention to the history and presence of Czechoslovak politics in international relations. He died in Herndon, Virginia, on 27 September 1973.  He is buried at Oak Hill Cemetery, Georgetown, Washington, D.C. The epitaph on his grave reads: \"And he shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water, that bringeth forth his fruit in his season; his leaf also shall not wither.\"  In 1992 the post-Communist Czechoslovak government posthumously awarded him the Order of T. G. Masaryk I-class. In 2001 Osuský received the Order of the White Double Cross II-class in memoriam.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Štefan Osuský, Ph.D., J.D. (31 March 1889 – 27 September 1973) was an Austro-Hungarian born Slovak lawyer, diplomat, politician and university professor.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977672}
{"src_title": "James McCartney", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "James Louis McCartney was born in Avenue Clinic at London on 12 September 1977. He is the only son of songwriter and former Beatle Paul McCartney and his first wife Linda McCartney. He was named after both his paternal grandfather Jim McCartney and his father, whose full name is James Paul McCartney, as well as Linda's late mother, Louise Sara (Lindner) Eastman. His mother was Jewish.  He spent the first two and a half years of his life on the road while his parents toured with their band Wings. After the band broke up in 1980, the McCartneys settled in Rye, East Sussex. He attended the local state secondary school, the Thomas Peacocke Community College. He has said his earliest inspiration to learn guitar was Michael J. Fox in \"Back to the Future\". He began playing music when his father gave him a Fender Stratocaster at age nine. The guitar had previously been owned by Carl Perkins.  In 1989, McCartney and his sisters Mary McCartney and Stella McCartney again joined Paul and Linda on a world tour. He continued his education with a tutor while on the road. In 1993, at age 16, while surfing with friends, he was swept out to sea. The coast guard was called, his family rushed to the site, and he emerged safe on his own 40 minutes later. In 1995, James introduced his sister Mary to television producer Alistair Donald, whom she later married.  On 17 April 1998, in Tucson, Arizona, James, along with his father and sisters, was at his mother's side when she died from breast cancer, which had been diagnosed in 1995. Later that year, he graduated from Bexhill College, near his home in East Sussex, where he pursued studies in A-level Art and Sculpture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1997–2007: Early years.", "content": "James has played guitar and drums on some of his father's solo albums, including \"Flaming Pie\" (1997) and \"Driving Rain\" (2001), as well as co-writing a few songs. On \"Flaming Pie\" he has an electric guitar solo on the track \"Heaven on a Sunday\". On \"Driving Rain\", he co-wrote the songs \"Spinning On An Axis\" and \"Back In The Sunshine Again\" with his father, and played percussion on the former track and guitar on the latter.  He also plays lead guitar on his mother's posthumously released solo album, \"Wide Prairie\" (1998), which included tracks recorded privately over the previous twenty years.  In 2004 he again left the McCartney family home and began living in a flat in Brighton, where he waited tables while he attended college and worked on his music. In 2005, he accompanied Paul during his 'US' Tour.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2008–2011: \"Available Light\" and \"Close At Hand\".", "content": "Around 2008, he began working with David Kahne, his father, and a number of other musicians on recording his own music. He made his US performing debut with his own original solo material on 14 November 2009 at the Fairfield Arts & Convention Center, during the Fourth Annual David Lynch Weekend for World Peace and Meditation in Fairfield, Iowa. He performed under the pseudonym Light.  \"Available Light\" was McCartney's first official release as both a performer and songwriter. The EP included four original songs composed by James as well as a cover of Neil Young's classic \"Old Man\". In addition to composing the songs and singing, he plays electric and acoustic guitar, mandolin, piano and bass on the recordings. Produced by David Kahne and Paul McCartney, the EP was recorded between Sussex, London and New York over the previous year, including Abbey Road Studios.  He stated, \"The music was inspired by The Beatles, Nirvana, The Cure, PJ Harvey, Radiohead—and all good music. It is basically rock n' roll, clean sounding and vocal. The words on the album refer to spirituality, love, family, trying to sort out one's life, and many other things.\"  He previewed tracks from \"Available Light\" when he toured the UK for the first time in February and March 2010, though he at first performed under a pseudonym. The album was released electronically September 2010 on Blake Morgan's Engine Company Records, (now ECR Music Group) to positive reviews. \"Close At Hand\", his second EP, was released in 2011.  McCartney's \"The Complete EP Collection\" was released on 22 November 2011. The album combines the previous two EPs along with five new original tracks and two new covers. It is his first physical release, the two individual EPs being digital only. Like the EPs, it was produced by Paul McCartney and David Kahne, and is being released by Engine Company Records (now ECR Music Group). \"Rolling Stone\" called the opening track, \"Angel,\" a \"light and cheerful pop track.\" \"AntiMusic\" dubbed the release \"whimsical and reflective, sharp-witted and affectionate. Full of smart, engaging pop songwriting.\" In a \"Rolling Stone\" song exclusive about the track \"New York Times\", James notes he composed the main riff on a family trip when his father \"... was just inches away from me.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2012–present.", "content": "In April 2012, McCartney told a BBC interviewer that he had mooted the idea \"a little bit\" of forming a \"next generation\" version of the Beatles with Sean Lennon, Zak Starkey and Dhani Harrison.  McCartney released his first album on 21 May 2013, titled \"Me\". The album was supported by a tour of the US, starting on 6 April 2013.  McCartney played at San Francisco's Outside Lands Music Festival in August 2013. He recorded The Beatles' \"Hello, Goodbye\" with The Cure for the album \"The Art of McCartney\", a collection of The Beatles and Paul McCartney solo covers.  McCartney's newest studio album, \"The Blackberry Train\", was released on 6 May 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Like his elder half-sister Heather McCartney, James lives a relatively private life; his sisters Stella, a fashion designer, and Mary, a photographer, do not. James has a much younger half-sister, Beatrice Milly McCartney, born in 2003 to Paul and his second wife, Heather Mills.  He has a vegetarian diet leaning towards veganism, and is an animal rights activist.  In November 2012, James performed at a London benefit for the David Lynch Foundation, which his father also supports.  McCartney practises Transcendental Meditation: \"Transcendental Meditation plays a big role in my life as it has done for my father and the other Beatles. I meditate regularly—twice a day.... I find that just 30 minutes of Transcendental Meditation refreshes me as if I had slept a few hours!\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "James Louis McCartney (born 12 September 1977) is a British musician and songwriter. He is the only son of songwriter and former Beatle Paul McCartney. He has contributed to a number of solo albums by his parents, including \"Flaming Pie\" (1997) and \"Driving Rain\" (2001) by Paul McCartney and \"Wide Prairie\" (1998) by Linda McCartney. He has released two EPs and two albums. His most recent, \"The Blackberry Train\", was released on 6 May 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977673}
{"src_title": "Ampère's force law", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Equation.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Special case: Two straight parallel wires.", "content": "The best-known and simplest example of Ampère's force law, which underlied (before 20-May-2019) the definition of the ampere, the SI unit of current, states that the force per unit length between two straight parallel conductors is  where \"k\" is the magnetic force constant from the Biot–Savart law, \"F/L\" is the total force on either wire per unit length of the shorter (the longer is approximated as infinitely long relative to the shorter), \"r\" is the distance between the two wires, and \"I\", \"I\" are the direct currents carried by the wires.  This is a good approximation if one wire is sufficiently longer than the other, so that it can be approximated as infinitely long, and if the distance between the wires is small compared to their lengths (so that the one infinite-wire approximation holds), but large compared to their diameters (so that they may also be approximated as infinitely thin lines). The value of \"k\" depends upon the system of units chosen, and the value of \"k\" decides how large the unit of current will be. In the SI system,  with μ the magnetic constant, \"defined\" in SI units as  Thus, in vacuum,", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "General case.", "content": "The general formulation of the magnetic force for arbitrary geometries is based on iterated line integrals and combines the Biot–Savart law and Lorentz force in one equation as shown below.  where  To determine the force between wires in a material medium, the magnetic constant is replaced by the actual permeability of the medium.  For the case of two separate closed wires, the law can be rewritten in the following equivalent way by expanding the vector triple product and applying Stokes' theorem:  In this form, it is immediately obvious that the force on wire 1 due to wire 2 is equal and opposite the force on wire 2 due to wire 1, in accordance with Newton's 3rd law.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Historical background.", "content": "The form of Ampere's force law commonly given was derived by Maxwell and is one of several expressions consistent with the original experiments of Ampère and Gauss. The x-component of the force between two linear currents I and I’, as depicted in the adjacent diagram, was given by Ampère in 1825 and Gauss in 1833 as follows:  Following Ampère, a number of scientists, including Wilhelm Weber, Rudolf Clausius, James Clerk Maxwell, Bernhard Riemann, Hermann Grassmann, and Walther Ritz, developed this expression to find a fundamental expression of the force. Through differentiation, it can be shown that:  and also the identity:  With these expressions, Ampère's force law can be expressed as:  Using the identities:  and  Ampère's results can be expressed in the form:  As Maxwell noted, terms can be added to this expression, which are derivatives of a function Q(r) and, when integrated, cancel each other out. Thus, Maxwell gave \"the most general form consistent with the experimental facts\" for the force on ds arising from the action of ds':  Q is a function of r, according to Maxwell, which \"cannot be determined, without assumptions of some kind, from experiments in which the active current forms a closed circuit.\" Taking the function Q(r) to be of the form:  We obtain the general expression for the force exerted on ds by ds:  Integrating around s' eliminates k and the original expression given by Ampère and Gauss is obtained. Thus, as far as the original Ampère experiments are concerned, the value of k has no significance. Ampère took k=-1; Gauss took k=+1, as did Grassmann and Clausius, although Clausius omitted the S component. In the non-ethereal electron theories, Weber took k=-1 and Riemann took k=+1. Ritz left k undetermined in his theory. If we take k = -1, we obtain the Ampère expression:  If we take k=+1, we obtain  Using the vector identity for the triple cross product, we may express this result as  When integrated around ds' the second term is zero, and thus we find the form of Ampère's force law given by Maxwell:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Derivation of parallel straight wire case from general formula.", "content": "Start from the general formula: Assume wire 2 is along the x-axis, and wire 1 is at y=D, z=0, parallel to the x-axis. Let formula_28 be the x-coordinate of the differential element of wire 1 and wire 2, respectively. In other words, the differential element of wire 1 is at formula_29 and the differential element of wire 2 is at formula_30. By properties of line integrals, formula_31 and formula_32. Also, and Therefore, the integral is Evaluating the cross-product: Next, we integrate formula_37 from formula_38 to formula_39: If wire 1 is also infinite, the integral diverges, because the \"total\" attractive force between two infinite parallel wires is infinity. In fact, what we really want to know is the attractive force \"per unit length\" of wire 1. Therefore, assume wire 1 has a large but finite length formula_41. Then the force vector felt by wire 1 is: As expected, the force that the wire feels is proportional to its length. The force per unit length is: The direction of the force is along the y-axis, representing wire 1 getting pulled towards wire 2 if the currents are parallel, as expected. The magnitude of the force per unit length agrees with the expression for formula_44 shown above.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable derivations of Ampère's force law.", "content": "Chronologically ordered:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In magnetostatics, the force of attraction or repulsion between two current-carrying wires (see first figure below) is often called Ampère's force law. The physical origin of this force is that each wire generates a magnetic field, following the Biot–Savart law, and the other wire experiences a magnetic force as a consequence, following the Lorentz force law.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977674}
{"src_title": "Western hoolock gibbon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "Mootnick and Groves stated that hoolock gibbons do not belong in the genus \"Bunopithecus\", and placed them in a new genus, \"Hoolock\". This genus was argued to contain two and later three distinct species which were previously thought to be subspecies: \"Hoolock hoolock\", \"Hoolock leuconedys\" and \"Hoolock tianxing\". It was later found that there is a larger evolutionary distance between these three species and the white-handed gibbons than there is between bonobos and chimpanzees.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vocalisation.", "content": "Like other gibbons, hoolock gibbon pairs produce a loud, elaborate song, usually sung as a duet from the forest canopy, in which younger individuals of the family group may join in. The song includes an introductory sequence, an organising sequence, and a great call sequence, with the male also contributing to the latter (unlike in some other gibbon species).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitat.", "content": "In India and Bangladesh it is found where there is contiguous canopy, broad-leaved, wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests dipterocarpus forest often mountainous. The species is an important seed disperser; its diet includes mostly ripe fruits, with some flowers, leaves and shoots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "There are numerous threats to western hoolock gibbons in the wild, and are now entirely dependent on human action for their survival. Threats include habitat encroachment by humans, forest clearance for tea cultivation, the practice of \"jhuming\" (slash-and-burn cultivation), hunting for food and “medicine”, capture for trade, and forest degradation.  Over the last 30–40 years, western hoolock gibbon numbers are estimated to have dropped from more than 100,000 (Assam alone was estimated to have around 80,000 in the early 1970s) to less than 5,000 individuals (a decline of more than 90%). In 2009 it was considered to be one of the 25 most endangered primates, though it has been dropped from the later editions of the list.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Hoolock gibbons feed mostly on various fruits, with some leaves, flowers and insects.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The western hoolock gibbon (\"Hoolock hoolock\") is a primate from the gibbon family, Hylobatidae. The species is found in Assam, Mizoram, Bangladesh and in Myanmar west of the Chindwin River.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977675}
{"src_title": "Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The faculty was founded as the Faculty of Liberal Arts of Charles University by Emperor Charles IV on April 7, 1348, part of the emperor's attempt to establish the Kingdom of Bohemia as the permanent centre of the Holy Roman Empire and to place greater emphasis on the development of learning and culture in Prague. At that time, students attended the Faculty of Liberal Arts to receive education primarily in rhetorics and philosophy, later going on to pursue other subjects. The Faculty of Liberal Arts soon became the largest part of the university. In 1366, Emperor Charles IV endowed it with the first Prague college, the Collegium Carolinum; as part of the college, the first library of the artistic faculty was established, of manuscripts donated by the king. Following the Hussite wars, the Faculty of Liberal Arts became the nucleus of the university for two centuries. From the 17th century, the faculty was known as the Faculty of Arts and, until the middle of the 19th century, its programme served as a compulsory preparatory higher education for future students of all the other faculties.  From the 18th century, as well as philosophy, the faculty offered programmes in aesthetic theory, pedagogy, mathematics, astronomy, natural sciences, engineering sciences, economy, and history. These were complemented in the 19th century by oriental studies, archaeology, religious studies, and philology. Study of languages such as Czech, Italian, French, and Hebrew, and their respective literature and culture, also began to develop. Following the liberalization of the academic environment in the second half of the 19th century, the faculty started to accept women students in 1897.  The faculty was divided into Czech and German parts in 1882, and the Faculty of Natural Sciences became a separate institution between 1920-1939. In 1939, the school was closed by the occupying forces of Nazi Germany, and brutal persecution of teachers and students followed. Following the end of the occupation in 1945, the Faculty of Arts flourished again for a few years; this was forcibly terminated in 1948 by the Communist coup in 1948. The prestige of the faculty rapidly decreased as a result of the forced departure of numerous respected teachers and the introduction of Marxist–Leninist studies. In the 1960s, the faculty slowly began to open to prominent thinkers of the time, but this trend was reversed by the Soviet occupation in 1968, which Jan Palach, a student of the faculty, protested against by setting himself on fire. After the end of the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia in 1989, and the departure of its representatives in the faculty, it was re-established as one of the country's most highly regarded university institutions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Organization of study.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Degree programmes.", "content": "All study programmes comply with the Bologna system and are structured into the BA, MA and doctoral (Ph.D.) stages. Study programmes may be in single-subject or double-subject form, some are available in either single-subject or double-subject form. The standard length of study is 3–4 years in the BA programme and 2–3 years in the follow-up MA programme. After finishing their MA studies, graduates may apply for a doctoral study programme. The doctoral study programme which offers the award of Ph.D. requires completion of a doctoral programme, Ph.D. finals and dissertation defence.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other programmes.", "content": "Beside the degree programmes, the Faculty offers a number of short-term courses or summer schools and long-lasting education to its students, visiting students or the general public. For example, the East and Central European Studies Programme (ECES) is a semester-long programme with instruction in English, designed for international students of the Faculty of Arts. The Faculty also organises the Summer School of Slavonic Studies.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Faculty activities.", "content": ", the total number of students is over 8,000; 7,040 studying for Master or bachelor's degrees, and 1,701 for a doctoral degree. The faculty is composed of 46 basic working units and six specialized working units, as well as two scholarly research institutes (the Czech Institute of Egyptology and the Institute of the Czech National Corpus). Each year authors of the faculty publish an average of 35 book titles.  The faculty participates in a number of international exchange programmes, including LLP Erasmus, the Central European Exchange Program for University Studies (CEEPUS), AKTION, exchange programmes under the auspices of the Visegrad Fund, and governmental scholarships. The number of visiting students within the LLP Erasmus programme was 280 in 2008.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philology.", "content": "Courses at the faculty are offered in more than 50 languages, as well as the literature, history and cultural background associated with them. These include:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Faculty of Arts, Charles University, is one of the original four faculties of Charles University in Prague. When founded, it was named the Faculty of the Liberal Arts or the Artistic Faculty. The faculty provides lectures in the widest range of fields of the humanities in the Czech Republic, and is the only university faculty in Europe which provides studies in all the official languages of the European Union. The faculty has around 1,000 members of staff, over 9,000 students, and a flexible system of more than 700 possible double-subject degree combinations.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977676}
{"src_title": "Kashif (musician)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Kashif was born Michael Jones on December 26, 1956, in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City. (Some media outlets have listed his year of birth as 1959.) His only connection to his birth family is his birth certificate, which indicates that his biological mother was incarcerated when he was four months old. He was immediately put in foster care. He was constantly abused physically and mentally by his foster parents, and at the age of six, he moved into a more stable foster home. His introduction to music came in the form of a $3.00 song flute when he was in elementary school. He was instantly hooked and insisted on playing his flute all throughout the school day. His teacher encouraged him and delivered on her promise that she would help to enroll him at a junior high school that had a great music program. That is where he first learned to play trumpet, piano, flute, saxophone, and tuba. By age 12, with the mentoring of his junior high school music teacher (Robert Wedlaw) he had mastered several musical instruments and began performing in some of New York's finest night clubs (Copacabana (nightclub) and Lloyd Price's Turntable).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musician.", "content": "In 1974, at the age of 17, Kashif was recruited as a keyboard player and vocalist to join the funk band B. T. Express, whose credits included the hits \"Express\" and \"Do It ('Til You're Satisfied)\", among others. Seeking a more challenging musical assignment in 1978, Kashif exited B. T. Express and landed a job as a keyboardist for R&B musician Stephanie Mills.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1983–1989: Solo career and nominations.", "content": "In 1983, Kashif signed with Arista Records as a solo artist and continued with hits like \"I Just Gotta Have You (Lover Turn Me On)\", \"Stone Love\", \"Help Yourself to My Love\", and the Grammy-nominated instrumental \"The Mood\". In 1984, his second album, \"Send Me Your Love\" resulted in two Grammy nominations, \"Edgartown Groove\", featuring Al Jarreau, and the instrumental \"Call Me Tonight\" along with the hits \"Baby Don't Break Your Baby's Heart\" and \"Are You the Woman\". Introduced to Arista by Milton Allen, its artist development director in 1983, his self-titled debut album \"Kashif\" (1983) spawned the hits \"I Just Gotta Have You (Lover Turn Me On)\", \"Stone Love\", \"Help Yourself to My Love\", and \"Say Something Love\". With this release, Kashif was well received as an innovator in music, as R&B artists were only beginning to experiment with synthesizers and other electronic instruments. He is said to have been Arista Records' attempt to respond to Warner Bros. Records' Prince.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Record producer and activist.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "1981: I'm in Love.", "content": "In 1981 Kashif wrote and produced the hit \"I'm in Love\" for Evelyn \"Champagne\" King, which was a shift in sound from King's \"Shame\" to a minimalist becoming Kashif's signature sound. The song revitalized King's career and branded Kashif as one of the most sought-after producers of the day. Over the next ten years, he created hits including \"So Fine\" for Howard Johnson, \"Love Come Down\", \"Betcha She Don't Love You\", and \"Back to Love\", among many others.  His other albums include \"Send Me Your Love\" and \"Condition of the Heart\". On the album \"Love Changes\", Exposé provided background vocals. 1989's \"Kashif\" included the cover of the Four Tops' hit \"Ain't No Woman (Like the One I've Got)\", \"Baby Don't Break Your Baby's Heart\", and \"Are You the Woman\".", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "1983–1987.", "content": "Kashif can be heard on releases by Kenny G, George Benson, Evelyn \"Champagne\" King, Johnny Kemp, Melba Moore, Dionne Warwick, Giorge Pettus, Stacy Lattisaw, Meli'sa Morgan, Exposé, The Wootens, Freda Payne, Whitney Houston, and others. His Grammy nominations are for the instrumentals \"The Mood\", \"Call Me Tonight\", \"Edgartown Groove\" featuring Al Jarreau.  In 1985, he received another Grammy nomination for another instrumental entitled \"The Movie Song\". He also wrote and produced \"Inside Love\" for his musical idol, George Benson. It was during this time that he met and launched the career of then unknown Kenny G with \"Hi How Ya Doin\" and \"Nighttime in Tribeca\".  In 1985, Kashif teamed up with then newcomer, Whitney Houston. The result was the hit \"You Give Good Love\". Kashif also produced and was her duet partner on \"Thinking About You\", a single track from Houston's 17-million selling (30 million until current day) debut album. The album became the bestselling debut album by a female artist. Kashif also produced \"Where You Are\" on Houston's second project, the result, a 15-million selling (25 million until current day) album entitled \"Whitney\".  In 1987, he produced \"Love Changes\", a chart topper in which Me'lisa Morgan was his duet partner and that name was taken from his bestselling album, which had the same name. The track also appears on Meli'sa Morgan's album \"Good Love\". Also contained on that album was another duet that yielded yet another international hit, the song \"Reservations For Two\" with Dionne Warwick. Between 1987 and 1989, Kashif continued to churn out the hits for Jermaine Jackson, The Stylistics, Melba Moore, George Benson, Stacy Lattisaw, and many others.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "1996–2016.", "content": "In 1996, with an invitation from the UCLA Extension program, Kashif created \"Contemporary Record Production With Kashif\". He also wrote and self-published the book \"Everything You'd Better Know About The Record Industry\"; it has sold over 375,000 copies worldwide.  In 2000, Kashif produced the theme song for the Para-Olympics, and wrote and produced \"Brooklyn Breezes\" for R&B great Will Downing. He also co-produced along with George Duke the Duke Ellington Tribute CD for The Duke Ellington Foundation. On November 14, 2004, Kashif was inducted into the R&B Hall of Fame as a \"Living Legend\". That year Janet Jackson's hit \"R&B Junkie\" used a sample of \"I'm in Love\" written and produced by Kashif.  Growing up in the foster care system inspired Kashif to lend his time and energy to help find ways to improve the lives of the more than 518,000 young people who are in foster care every day in America. In 2006, he created and founded Team iCare Foundation and produced the very first Walk/Run for Foster Care at the Rose Bowl Stadium in Pasadena, California. The result was 247 individuals signed up to become foster parents. He also created the Mentorship Dinner Cruise for youth in foster care, an event where 200 youth went on a cruise in Marina Del Rey, California and were paired with 250 professionals in various industries for the purpose of creating mentoring relationships.  Kashif received community awards from the California State Senate, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, Los Angeles Mayor, Antonio Villariagosa, all five Los Angeles County members of the Board of Supervisors, the Los Angeles County Children & Family Services and others. In 2006, Kashif founded Kashif University, which was located on the campus of Morningside High School in Inglewood California. It is an integrated education and arts training program for at-risk-youth ages 8–18.  Kashif also wrote, directed, and produced commercials and corporate films for Hyundai Motors America, Casey Family Programs, UPS, St. Joseph Health System, Patten Academy, and many others. He produced and directed a ten-part documentary series entitled \"The History of R&B Music and Its Influence on World Culture\" for worldwide distribution. He died of a massive heart attack on September 25, 2016.", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Kashif Saleem (born Michael Jones; December 26, 1956 – September 25, 2016) was an American multi-instrumentalist, singer, songwriter, record producer, artist, composer, author, director and educator from New York City. Kashif first taught himself to play a $3 song flute at age seven and later the piano in the basement of his church. At age 15, Kashif joined B. T. Express and performed on stages around the world. He studied Islam and changed his name from Michael Jones to Kashif, which means discoverer and inventor. He crafted his own distinctive sound and later signed with Arista Records enjoying success as a solo artist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977677}
{"src_title": "Housesteads Roman Fort", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Hadrian's Wall was begun in AD 122. A fort was built in stone at the Housesteads Roman Fort site around AD 124 overlying the original Broad Wall foundation and Turret 36B. The fort was repaired and rebuilt several times, its northern defences being particularly prone to collapse. A substantial civil settlement (vicus) existed to the south, outside the fort, and some of the stone foundations can still be seen, including the so-called \"Murder House\", where two skeletons were found beneath an apparently newly-laid floor when excavated.  In the 2nd century AD, the garrison consisted of an unknown double-sized auxiliary infantry cohort and a detachment of legionaries from \"Legio II Augusta\". In the 3rd century, it comprised \"Cohors I Tungrorum\", augmented by the \"numerus Hnaudifridi\" and the \"Cuneus Frisiorum\", a Frisian cavalry unit, \"cuneus\" referring to a wedge formation. The Tungrians were still there in the 4th century, according to the \"Notitia Dignitatum\". By 409 AD the Romans had withdrawn.  Most other early forts straddle the Wall and therefore protrude into barbarian territory. It is also unusual for Britain in that it has no running water supply and is dependent upon rainwater collection (for which purpose there is a series of large stone-lined tanks around the periphery of the defences). It also has one of the best-preserved stone latrines in Roman Britain.  The name of the fort has been given as Borcovicus, Borcovicium, and Velurtion. An inscription found at Housesteads with the letters VER, is believed to be short for Ver(covicianorum) – the letters ver being interchangeable with bor in later Latin. The name of the 18th-century farmhouse of Housesteads provides the modern name.  The site is now owned by the National Trust and is currently in the care of English Heritage. Finds from Vercovicium can be seen in the site museum, in the museum at Chesters, and in the in Newcastle upon Tyne.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Housesteads farm.", "content": "Housesteads is a former farm whose lands include the ruins of the fort. In 1604 Hugh Nixon, \"Stealer of cattle and receiver of stolen goods\", became the tenant of Housesteads farm. From 1663, Housesteads was the home of the Armstrongs, a notorious family of Border Reivers. Nicholas Armstrong bought the farm in 1692, only to have to sell it again in 1694 to Thomas Gibson of Hexham for the sum of £485. They remained as tenants. They were a well-known band of horse thieves and cattle rustlers who used the old fort as a place to hold the stolen horses and cattle. They traded as far afield as Aberdeen and the south of England. At one time every male member of the family was said to have been a 'broken man', formally outlawed by English or Scottish authorities. Nicholas was hanged in 1704, and his brothers fled to America. The Armstrongs lived in a typical 16th-century defensive bastle house of two storeys: the ground floor for livestock and the upper level for living quarters. Its ruins remain built up against the south gate of the Roman fort, with external stone steps and narrow loop windows. A corn-drying kiln was inserted into the gate's guard chamber in the 17th century.  In 1698, the farm had been sold to Thomas Gibson who turned the land around the fort to agriculture and thus ploughed up numerous Roman artefacts. The 17th-century bastle house was replaced by a farmhouse located over the Roman hospital, which was sketched by William Stukeley in 1725. Throughout the 18th century Housesteads was farmed by a single tenant farming family. Since Hodgson recorded the presence of William Magnay as the tenant during that period this fixes the tenure. In particular, the well (thought to be Roman) was documented as having actually been built by William, and used by the family as a bath. Interest in the fort increased in the 19th century, particularly after the farm was purchased by the amateur historian John Clayton in 1838, to add to his collection of Roman Wall farms. The Roman site was cleared of later buildings by Clayton, and the present farmhouse built about 1860. John Maurice Clayton attempted to auction the fort in 1929. It did not reach its reserve and was donated to the National Trust in 1930. The farm was later owned by the Trevelyans who gave the land for the site museum.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Housesteads Roman Fort is the remains of an auxiliary fort on Hadrian's Wall. Its ruins are at Housesteads in the civil parish of Bardon Mill in Northumberland, England, south of Broomlee Lough. The fort was built in stone around AD 124, soon after the construction of the wall began in AD 122 when the area was part of the Roman province of Britannia. Its name has been variously given as Vercovicium, Borcovicus, Borcovicium, and Velurtion. The name of the 18th-century farmhouse of Housesteads gives the modern name. The site is owned by the National Trust and is in the care of English Heritage. Finds can be seen in the site museum, in the museum at Chesters, and in the in Newcastle upon Tyne.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977678}
{"src_title": "Café Society (2016 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Bobby Dorfman (Jesse Eisenberg) is the youngest son of a Jewish family in New York City in the 1930s; his elder sister Evelyn is a married school teacher, while his elder brother Ben is a gangster. Discontented with working for his father, a jeweler, Bobby decides to move to Hollywood, where he takes a job running menial errands for his uncle Phil (Steve Carell), a powerhouse talent agent.  Phil introduces Bobby to his secretary Veronica, nicknamed Vonnie (Kristen Stewart), who is tasked with helping Bobby settle into Hollywood. Bobby is drawn to her unpretentiousness as opposed to most young women living in Hollywood, and falls deeply in love with her. She rebuffs his advances, telling him she has a journalist boyfriend named Doug. In reality, \"Doug\" is Phil, with whom Vonnie is carrying on an illicit romance; he promises to divorce his wife and marry her.  On the first-year \"paper anniversary\" of their affair, Vonnie gives Phil a letter written and signed by Rudolph Valentino as a gift. However, Phil proceeds to tell her that he is incapable of divorcing his wife, so he ends the affair. Vonnie subsequently surrenders to Bobby's love for her and their friendship turns into a romance.  A forlorn Phil confides in Bobby about his affair—without naming his mistress—before telling him he has determined to divorce his wife. Bobby passingly mentions his relationship with Vonnie and his intention to marry her and return to New York. Phil begins petitioning Vonnie privately to leave Bobby and marry him instead.  While having a conversation with Phil in his office, Bobby notices the Valentino letter. Recognizing it from Vonnie's account about her breakup with \"Doug\", he confronts her and asks her to choose between himself and Phil. Vonnie chooses Phil.  A heartbroken Bobby returns to New York City where he begins to run a high-end nightclub with his gangster brother, Ben (Corey Stoll). It soon becomes a famous hangout for the rich and powerful, from politicians to gangsters. Bobby meets divorcée Veronica Hayes (Blake Lively) at the nightclub, and they begin dating, soon getting married and starting a family together.  On an extended visit to New York, a happily married Phil and Vonnie stop at the nightclub and insist on seeing Bobby. Vonnie has become a pretentious name-dropper and Bobby is at first repulsed by her. However, he agrees to show her around New York—as she had once done for him in Hollywood. They spend an evening without Phil, visiting Bobby's favorite haunts and, as dawn breaks over Central Park, share a kiss; but it's clear that it can go no further.  Bobby's sister Evelyn (Sari Lennick) asks their brother, Ben, to \"talk to\" her disagreeable neighbor; Ben promptly kills him. He is arrested and convicted for murder and racketeering. Shortly before he goes to the electric chair, he converts to Christianity, mortifying his parents. His late brother's notoriety propels the nightclub to new heights, and Bobby travels to Los Angeles to contemplate opening a Hollywood version. He ultimately decides against it, but, before he leaves, he and Vonnie have lunch together, where she mentions that she and Phil will be returning to New York for a short visit. However, they both decide that it is better if they don't see each other.  Months later, on New Year's Eve, Bobby and Vonnie are apart—Bobby in New York City hosting festivities in his nightclub, and Vonnie with her husband at a Hollywood house party. As the new year is rung in, they both seem distant to their spouses, and both have a faraway look in their eyes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "By March 9, 2015, Jesse Eisenberg, Bruce Willis and Kristen Stewart were added to the cast of the Woody Allen film, which was produced by Letty Aronson, Stephen Tenenbaum and Edward Walson. On May 6, 2015, Blake Lively was cast, followed by Parker Posey in mid-July. By August 4, 2015, more cast was added, including Jeannie Berlin, Corey Stoll and Ken Stott, along with Anna Camp, Stephen Kunken, Sari Lennick and Paul Schneider. In August, Tony Sirico was cast and Max Adler had also joined the cast. Vittorio Storaro is the cinematographer.  On August 24, 2015, it was reported that Willis had exited the film due to his scheduling conflicts with the Broadway stage adaptation of the Stephen King novel \"Misery\". On August 28, 2015, Steve Carell was cast to replace Willis. In March 2016, the title was confirmed as \"Café Society\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filming.", "content": "Principal photography on the film began on August 17, 2015, in and around Los Angeles. On September 8, 2015, filming moved to New York City, where it was shot in Brooklyn. Allen moved to digital for the first time, using a Sony CineAlta F65 camera for this, his 47th film.  The film began with a budget of $18 million, however went over and by the end of production reached $30 million, making it one of the most expensive films of Allen's career.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "In February 2016, Amazon Studios acquired distribution rights to the film. In March 2016, the film was selected to open the 2016 Cannes Film Festival. The film also opened the Seattle International Film Festival, on May 19, 2016, and served as the closing night film of the Karlovy Vary Film Festival. It was announced that Lionsgate would team up with Amazon to release the film on August 12, 2016. It was then moved up to July 15, 2016, in a limited release, before expanding to July 22 and opening wide on August 5.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Box office.", "content": "\"Café Society\" grossed $11.1 million in the United States and Canada and $32.7 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $43.8 million.  The film was released in five theaters on July 15, 2016, and grossed $359,289 in its opening weekend, an average per-theater gross of $71,858, the biggest average of 2016 to that point (its record was broken the following week by \"Don't Think Twice\"s $92,835 average). The film had its wide release on July 29 and grossed $2.3 million, finishing 12th at the box office.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 251 reviews, with an average rating of 6.13/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"\"Café Society\"s lovely visuals and charming performances round out a lightweight late-period Allen comedy whose genuine pleasures offset its amiable predictability.\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 64 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".  Writing for \"New York\", David Edelstein gave the film a positive review, stating: \"\"Cafe Society\" is a surprisingly graceful work. It's a young man's tale of woe rendered with an old man's aversion to dawdling over what can't be helped, over questions of human nature that have long been settled to everyone's dissatisfaction. The worldview is weary, and Allen narrates in a voice that, for the first time, suggests his 80 years of age. But his touch lightens with each film, and the melancholy bubbles up from below and catches you off guard.\" Owen Gleiberman of \"Variety\" gave the film a mixed review, writing, \"\"Café Society\" leaves you dreaming of the movie it might have been had Woody Allen made it by doing what he's done in his best work: nudging himself out of his comfort zone.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Café Society is a 2016 American romantic comedy-drama film written and directed by Woody Allen. It stars Jeannie Berlin, Steve Carell, Jesse Eisenberg, Blake Lively, Parker Posey, Kristen Stewart, Corey Stoll, and Ken Stott. The plot follows a young man who moves to 1930s Hollywood, where he falls in love with the assistant to his uncle, a powerful talent agent.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977679}
{"src_title": "Maurice Pellé", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "He was born on 18 April 1863 to Charles Henri Joseph Pellé, French artillery officer and later general, and his wife Céline Virginie Aimée Augustine Pellé (née Bruneau). He studied at Douai lycée, from October 1882 to July 1884 at École Polytechnique and to July 1885 at École d'application de l'artillerie. In 1888–1889 he studied at École d'application de Cavallerie.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "In September 1885 he was assigned to 12th Artillery Regiment as a platoon commander. In December 1888 he became an instructor at École d'application de l'artillerie. In November 1891 he was appointed to 11th Artillery Regiment as a first officer and in April 1892 to 16th Artillery Regiment as a deputy commander.  Between 1900 and 1903, he was chief of staff of Colonel Joffre in Madagascar. As a Colonel, Pellé was the French military attaché in Berlin, in the service of Ambassador Jules Cambon between 1909 and 1912. In this period he met many German personalities and became an expert on the German Empire. In 1913, he was transferred to Morocco, as chief of staff to General Hubert Lyautey.  At the outbreak of World War I, he commanded the 2nd Moroccan Brigade, but was right away called by Joffre to serve in the Bureau for External Theatres of War of the Grand Quartier Général.<br> In December 1916 he was placed at the head of the 153rd Infantry Division with which he distinguished himself at the Second Battle of the Aisne. Promoted to \"Général de division\" on 2 May 1917, he took command of the 5th Army Corps (France) until January 1919. With this corps he participated in the Spring Offensive and Hundred Days Offensive (Noyon, Marne and Argonne).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Czechoslovakia and Constantinople.", "content": "After the war he was leader of the French Military Mission to Czechoslovakia and one of the fathers and first Chief of staff of the new Czechoslovak Army.  In 1921, he becomes French High Commissioner for the Orient and Ambassador in Constantinople. He signed the Armistice of Mudanya for France and was leader of the French delegation at the Conference of Lausanne, which led to the Treaty of Lausanne signed on 24 July 1923, which defined the borders of the modern Turkish Republic.  He died the next year, only 60 years old.<br> He is buried in the Batignolles Cemetery in Paris.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Decorations.", "content": "Awarded by Belgium:  Awarded by Czechoslovakia:  Awarded by France:  Awarded by Italy:  Awarded by Japan:  Awarded by Marocco:  Awarded by Persia:  Awarded by Romania:  Awarded by Russia:  Awarded by Serbia:  Awarded by Spain:  Awarded by Tunisia:  Awarded by United Kingdom:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maurice César Joseph Pellé (18 April 1863 – 16 March 1924) was a French général de division, leader of the French Military Mission to Czechoslovakia and first Chief of staff of Czechoslovak Army from February 1919 to January 1921.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977680}
{"src_title": "Millie Bobby Brown", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Brown was born in Marbella, Málaga, Andalusia, Spain, the third of four children of British parents, Kelly and Robert Brown. The family moved to Bournemouth, Dorset when she was around four years old, then to Windermere, Florida four years later. She was born with partial hearing in one ear, gradually losing all hearing in that ear over several years.  Brown resides between London, United Kingdom and Atlanta, Georgia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "In 2013, Brown made her acting debut as a guest star in the ABC fantasy drama series \"Once Upon a Time in Wonderland\", a spin-off of \"Once Upon a Time\", portraying the role of Young Alice. In 2014, she had a starring role in the BBC America paranormal drama-thriller series \"Intruders\" as Madison O'Donnell. She then made guest appearances in the CBS police procedural drama \"NCIS\", the ABC sitcom \"Modern Family\", and the ABC medical drama series \"Grey's Anatomy\".  In 2016, Brown played Eleven ('El') in the Netflix science fiction horror series \"Stranger Things\". Her portrayal received critical acclaim and she was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. She won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series with her co-stars and won the 43rd Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor in a Television Series. For her role as Eleven in the second season of \"Stranger Things\", she received her second Emmy nomination in 2018.  In November 2016, Brown starred in the music video for Sigma and Birdy's single \"Find Me\". Since November 2016, she has appeared in commercial advertisements for Citigroup. In January 2017, she made her modelling debut in Calvin Klein's By Appointment campaign. The following month, she was signed to the agency IMG Models. She appeared in the campaign of the Italian brand \"Moncler\" in the summer of 2018.  In January 2018, Brown was cast to star in and produce the film adaptation of \"Enola Holmes Mysteries\". On 20 April 2018, she was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by \"Time\" magazine, becoming the youngest person ever to be included in the list. and on 20 November 2018, it was announced that she had become the youngest person ever to be appointed a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador.  In November 2018, EA Games announced that Brown collaborated with \"The Sims 4\" programmers to feature in the Sims 4 Positivity Challenge. She was named by \"Time\" magazine as one of the most influential teens of 2017 and of 2018. In 2018, \"The Hollywood Reporter\" named Brown among Hollywood's top thirty stars under age eighteen.  Brown made her feature film debut in 2019, in the sequel to \"Godzilla\", titled \"\". She will reprise her role in \"Godzilla vs. Kong\". In March the same year, it was announced Brown will be starring in the film adaptation of \"The Thing About Jellyfish\" by Ali Benjamin as Suzy. Also in March 2019, she became the ambassador of UEFA's Together #WePlayStrong campaign.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Millie Bobby Brown (born 19 February 2004) is a British actress. She rose to prominence for her role as Eleven in the Netflix science fiction horror series \"Stranger Things\" (2016–present), for which she received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. At age 13, she became one of the youngest nominees in Emmy history. Her film debut came in 2019 with the monster film \"\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977681}
{"src_title": "Jacques Hamel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hamel was born on 30 November 1930 in Darnétal, France. At the age of six he became a choirboy in and at 14 he entered the minor seminary. He served in the military for 18 months in Algeria. He did not wish to be an officer as he did not want to issue orders to other men to kill.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ministry.", "content": "Hamel was ordained as a priest on 30 June 1958. He served as a vicar at the St. Antoine church in Le Petit-Quevilly from 1958, a vicar at the Notre-Dame de Lourdes church in Sotteville-lès-Rouen from 1967, a parish priest in Saint-Pierre-lès-Elbeuf from 1975, and a parish priest in Cléon from 1988. He joined the church in Saint-Étienne-du-Rouvray in 2000. He officially retired at the age of 75, but was allowed to keep serving in the parish. As a result, he assumed his role as the parish's assistant priest from 2005 to his death.  With local imam Mohammed Karabila, the president of Normandy's regional council of Muslims, Hamel worked since early 2015 on an interfaith committee. After Hamel's death, Karabila described him as his friend with whom he had discussed religion and as also someone who gave his life for others.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and legacy.", "content": "Hamel died when his throat was slit by two Muslim men, Adel Kermiche and Abdel Malik Petitjean, who both pledged allegiance to the Islamic State. The attack occurred while Hamel was saying Mass in his parish in Saint-Étienne-du-Rouvray on 26 July 2016. During the attack, Hamel said \"Satan, go!\" when confronted by his killers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commemorations and funeral.", "content": "A Mass was held in his memory at Notre Dame de Paris on 27 July 2016. It was celebrated by the archbishop of Paris, André Vingt-Trois, and attended by president François Hollande, prime minister Manuel Valls and ministers Jean-Marc Ayrault, Bernard Cazeneuve, Emmanuel Macron and Najat Vallaud-Belkacem, as well as former presidents Nicolas Sarkozy and Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, the archbishop of Rouen, Dominique Lebrun, and the apostolic nuncio to France, Luigi Ventura. The Funeral Mass was held at Rouen Cathedral on 2 August 2016, drawing a crowd of thousands and a large number of luminaries including senior clerics, the French interior minister Bernard Cazeneuve and former prime minister Laurent Fabius. Pope Francis instructed Lebrun to place images of Hamel in all the local churches.  In August 2016, the Italian arm of Aid to the Church in Need announced it would cover the cost of training 1,000 new priests in countries like Nigeria, Cuba, Zambia, the Democratic Republic of Congo and India in response to Hamel's murder. Likewise, in August 2016, in memory of Father Hamel, Br. Alexis Bugnolo founded the Ordo Militaris Catholicus, \"international defense and security initiative of Catholics for Catholics who are suffering persecution for their faith, where their defense and liberation requires military intervention or security actions, and this is allowed by local and/or international law..\"  His legacy was also celebrated by French singer-songwriter Vianney Bureau in his song 'L' homme et l'âme'which was dedicated to Père Hamel as well as victims of terror attacks throughout France.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Canonization cause.", "content": "On the same day of the murder, public figures like the president of Lombardy, Roberto Maroni, called on Pope Francis to \"immediately proclaim him St Jacques\". The hashtag #santosubito (\"saint now\") trended on Twitter.  Hamel was called a martyr by some international press shortly after his death. On 13 August, \"La Croix\" reported that archbishop Dominique Lebrun of Rouen said he thought Hamel was a martyr, but the decision to declare him so was the pope's. He added that \"formally, it is the bishop of the person's place of death to initiate the procedure.\" Anthony Fisher, the archbishop of Sydney, suggested he died \"in odium fidei\" (\"in hatred of the faith\"), adding, \"This is a term Catholics use to describe the characteristic death of a martyr, as one who dies for his or her faith, and because of that faith.\" On 14 September 2016, Pope Francis referred to Hamel as \"blessed\", a title used prior to canonisation. \"This man accepted his martyrdom next to the martyrdom of Christ, on the altar,\" Pope Francis said on 14 September during a homily at a Mass held for Hamel's soul at the Vatican. \"He is a martyr and martyrs are beatified,\" the pope continued.. Two weeks later Archbishop Lebrun announced in a homily that the Pope had formally waived the five-year waiting period needed before the start of a canonization process, and that he had decided to prepare it without delay.  During Chrism Mass (on Holy Thursday, 13 April 2017), Archbishop Lebrun publicly announced the opening of the Canonization cause, with all of Rouen's clergy gathered. Archbishop Lebrun also said the Pope himself allowed a photo of Fr. Jacques to be put in a church, and called him blessed. Fr Paul Vigouroux, vice-chancellor of the diocese of Rouen, has been appointed postulator of the Cause, in charge of the local investigation. The Archdiocese of Rouen distributed a prayer to request Father Jacques's intercession. The prayer makes reference to the circumstances of his murder, including his unmasking of \"Satan, the divisor\" and his death \"in the habits of prayer\".  Archbishop Lebrun announced on 1 February 2019 that the diocesan inquiry for the beatification process would be solemnly closed on 9 March 2019.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jacques Hamel (30 November 1930 – 26 July 2016) was a French Catholic priest who served in Saint-Étienne-du-Rouvray. On 26 July 2016, Hamel was murdered during the 2016 Normandy church attack by two Muslim men pledging allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant while he celebrated Mass in his church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977682}
{"src_title": "Desmond Doss", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Desmond Doss was born in Lynchburg, Virginia, to William Thomas Doss (1893–1989), a carpenter, and Bertha Edward Doss (née Oliver) (1899–1983), a homemaker and shoe factory worker. His mother raised him as a devout Seventh-day Adventist and instilled Sabbath-keeping, nonviolence, and a vegetarian lifestyle in his upbringing. He grew up in the Fairview Heights area of Lynchburg, Virginia, alongside his older sister Audrey and younger brother Harold.  Doss attended the Park Avenue Seventh-day Adventist Church school until the eighth grade, and subsequently found a job at the Lynchburg Lumber Company to support his family during the Great Depression.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II service.", "content": "Before the outbreak of World War II, Doss was employed as a joiner at a shipyard in Newport News, Virginia. He chose military service, despite being offered a deferment because of his shipyard work, on April 1, 1942, at Camp Lee, Virginia. He was sent to Fort Jackson in South Carolina for training with the reactivated 77th Infantry Division. Meanwhile, his brother Harold served aboard the.  Doss refused to kill an enemy soldier or carry a weapon into combat because of his personal beliefs as a Seventh-day Adventist. He consequently became a medic assigned to the 2nd Platoon, Company B, 1st Battalion, 307th Infantry, 77th Infantry Division.  While serving with his platoon in 1944 on Guam and the Philippines, he was awarded two Bronze Star Medals with a \"V\" device, for exceptional valor in aiding wounded soldiers under fire. During the Battle of Okinawa, he saved the lives of 50–100 wounded infantrymen atop the area known by the 96th Division as the Maeda Escarpment or Hacksaw Ridge. Doss was wounded four times in Okinawa, and was evacuated on May 21, 1945, aboard the. Doss suffered a left arm fracture from a sniper's bullet and at one point had seventeen pieces of shrapnel embedded in his body. He was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in Okinawa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war life.", "content": "After the war, Doss initially planned to continue his career in carpentry, but extensive damage to his left arm made him unable to do so. In 1946, Doss was diagnosed with tuberculosis, which he had contracted on Leyte. He underwent treatment for five and a half years – which cost him a lung and five ribs – before being discharged from the hospital in August 1951 with 90% disability.  Doss continued to receive treatment from the military, but after an overdose of antibiotics rendered him completely deaf in 1976, he was given 100% disability; he was able to regain his hearing after receiving a cochlear implant in 1988. Despite the severity of his injuries, Doss managed to raise a family on a small farm in Rising Fawn, Georgia.  Doss married Dorothy Pauline Schutte on August 17, 1942, and they had one child, Desmond \"Tommy\" Doss Jr., born in 1946. Dorothy died on November 17, 1991 in a car accident (Desmond was driving and lost control of the vehicle). Doss remarried on July 1, 1993, to Frances May Duman.  After being hospitalized for difficulty breathing, Doss died on March 23, 2006, at his home in Piedmont, Alabama. He was buried on April 3, 2006, in the National Cemetery in Chattanooga, Tennessee. Frances died three years later on February 3, 2009, at the Piedmont Health Care Center in Piedmont, Alabama.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and decorations.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other awards and decorations.", "content": "Including the Medal of Honor, Doss' awards are:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "In media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Television and cinema.", "content": "On February 18, 1959, Doss appeared on the Ralph Edwards NBC TV show \"This Is Your Life\".  Doss is the subject of \"The Conscientious Objector\", an award-winning 2004 documentary by Terry Benedict.  The feature film \"Hacksaw Ridge\", based on his life, was produced by Terry Benedict and directed by Mel Gibson. The film was released nationwide in the U.S. on November 4, 2016, to positive reviews. Doss is portrayed by Andrew Garfield, who was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance, and won Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor in an Action Movie, and Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture. Desmond's wife, Dorothy, is played by Teresa Palmer.  Doss was profiled in a three-part TV series by \"It Is Written\" in November 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Print.", "content": "Doss is the subject of four biographical books:  Doss was featured in the \"Medal of Honor Special\" comic written by Doug Murray and published by Dark Horse Comics. The comic was a special edition of the series \"Medal of Honor\", published April 1, 1994. The title was sanctioned by the United States Congressional Medal of Honor Society. The issue features Corporal Desmond Doss along with another Medal of Honor recipient, Lieutenant Charles Q. Williams.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Desmond Thomas Doss (February 7, 1919 – March 23, 2006) was a United States Army corporal who served as a combat medic with an infantry company in World War II. He was twice awarded the Bronze Star Medal for actions in Guam and the Philippines. Doss further distinguished himself in the Battle of Okinawa by saving 75 men, becoming the only conscientious objector to receive the Medal of Honor for his actions during the war. His life has been the subject of books, the documentary \"The Conscientious Objector\", and the 2016 film \"Hacksaw Ridge\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977683}
{"src_title": "Kai Havertz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth career.", "content": "Born in Aachen, Germany, Havertz received his first experience in football at the age of four when he joined amateur side Alemannia Mariadorf, where his grandfather, Richard, was chairman of the club. In 2009, he was signed by second division side Alemannia Aachen where he spent only a year in the club's academy before joining Bayer Leverkusen at the age of 11. In the years that followed, he had to overcome the challenges associated with growth spurts and in 2016, after scoring 18 goals for the club's U-17 side, he was awarded the silver U-17 Fritz Walter Medal before breaking into Leverkusen's senior side the following year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bayer Leverkusen.", "content": "Havertz made his debut for Bayer Leverkusen on 15 October 2016, coming on as a second-half substitute for Charles Aránguiz in a 2–1 Bundesliga loss to Werder Bremen. Upon entering the field of play, he became the club's youngest ever Bundesliga debutant at the age of 17 years and 126 days, although his record was broken by 111 days by Florian Wirtz in 2020. On 17 February 2017, he assisted teammate Karim Bellarabi to score the 50 000th Bundesliga goal. Four days later, following the suspension of teammate Hakan Çalhanoğlu, he was handed his first Champions League start in the first leg of a round of 16 loss to Atlético Madrid. He was ruled out of the return leg of the fixture in March, however, as the match clashed with the examinations period at his school. He scored his first goal for the club on 2 April, netting a later equalizer in a 3–3 draw with VfL Wolfsburg. Upon doing so, Havertz broke another club record to become Leverkusen's youngest-ever goalscorer in the Bundesliga at the age of 17. He ultimately made 28 appearances across all competitions and scored four goals, including a brace against Hertha BSC on the final day of the season, as Leverkusen ended the campaign in 12th position.  On 14 April 2018, Havertz became the youngest player in the history of the Bundesliga to reach 50 appearances at 18 years and 307 days old, breaking the record previously held by Timo Werner. He went on to end his second full campaign with the club with 30 league appearances and three goals to his name as Leverkusen ended the season in fifth place.  Havertz continued to impress during the following season, despite Leverkusen initially struggling in the league, and by the mid-way point of the campaign was the only player to have started every match for the club, scoring six goals along the way. On 26 January 2019, he became Leverkusen's youngest-ever penalty scorer when he scored from the spot in a 3–0 league win over Wolfsburg, aged 19 years, seven months and 16 days. The following month, he became the second youngest-ever player to achieve 75 Bundesliga appearances, behind Julian Draxler, when he started and scored in a 2–0 win over Fortuna Düsseldorf. On 13 April, he scored on his 100th appearance for Leverkusen to help the club to a 1–0 league win over Stuttgart. The goal, his 13th for the campaign, also saw him become the youngest player since Stuttgart's own Horst Köppel in 1967–68 to score 13 goals in a single league season. On 5 May, he scored his 15th goal of the campaign during a 6–1 win over Eintracht Frankfurt; a match which for the first time ever saw seven goals scored in the first half of a Bundesliga match. On the final day of the season, he became the highest scoring teenager in a single Bundesliga campaign when he scored his 17th goal during a 5–1 win over Hertha BSC. At the end of the season, he was named runner-up to Marco Reus for the German Footballer of the Year award, losing out by just 37 votes.  On the opening day of the 2019–20 campaign, Havertz scored in Leverkusen's 3–2 win over Paderborn, becoming the second-youngest player of all time behind Köppel to score 25 Bundesliga goals. In December, at the age of 20 years, six months and four days, he broke another of Werner's records to become the youngest-ever player to reach 100 Bundesliga appearances when he started in his side's 2–0 defeat to Köln.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth.", "content": "Havertz made his debut for the Germany national under-16 team on 11 November 2014, starting in the friendly match against the Czech Republic before being substituted out in the 57th minute for Tom Baack. The match finished as a 3–1 win for Germany.  Havertz was included in Germany's squad for the 2016 UEFA European Under-17 Championship in Azerbaijan. He appeared in all five of Germany's matches, scoring once before Germany were eliminated by Spain in the semi-finals.  Following a 15-month absence from youth internationals, Havertz made his debut for Germany's under-19 team, debuting on 31 August 2017 in the 0–0 friendly draw against Switzerland, coming on in the 72nd minute for Palkó Dárdai. On 4 October 2017, in his third appearance for the under-19 team, Havertz scored four goals in a 5–1 win against Belarus in the first round of European Under-19 Championship qualifying. He was later named captain of the under-19 side.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Senior.", "content": "On 29 August 2018, Havertz was called up to Germany's senior team for the first time by head coach Joachim Löw. He was included in the squad for Germany's UEFA Nations League match against France and friendly against Peru. Havertz made his international debut on 9 September 2018, coming on as a substitute in the 88th minute for Timo Werner against Peru, with the match finishing as a 2–1 home win for Germany. Upon making his debut, he became the first player born in 1999 to represent the national team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Havertz has been described as technically-gifted, two-footed midfielder who is comfortable with the ball on either foot and adept with his head. During his formative years, his style of play drew early comparisons to compatriot Mesut Özil, with Havertz himself admitting the Arsenal midfielder was a player he looked up to. By the age of 19, and following numerous impressive performances in the Bundesliga, further comparisons had been drawn between Havertz and former Leverkusen players such as Michael Ballack, Toni Kroos and Arturo Vidal, and German media began describing him as a combination of the lot and an \"Alleskönner\" – a player who can do everything.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "Notes", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Individual.", "content": "Medals  Other", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Kai Havertz (born 11 June 1999) is a German professional footballer who plays as an attacking midfielder or right winger for Bayer Leverkusen and the German national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977684}
{"src_title": "Osu!", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "There are four official game modes: \"osu!standard\" (often just called \"osu!\"), \"osu!taiko\", \"osu!catch\" (formerly \"osu!ctb\"), and \"osu!mania\". These are played with beatmaps. For standard, beatmaps consist of three main items – hit circles, sliders, and spinners. These objects are arranged in different positions on the screen and in different points of time. Catch beatmaps have fruits and spinners, which are arranged in a horizontal manner. Mania beatmaps consist of circles (depicted as one small bar in the default skin) and holds. The beatmap is then played with accompanying music, simulating a sense of rhythm as the player interacts with the objects to the beat of the music. Each beatmap is accompanied by a background. The game can be played using various peripherals, but the most common is a graphics tablet or computer mouse, paired with a keyboard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "osu!standard.", "content": "osu!standard, sometimes referred to as osu!std or just osu!, is the most played game mode and consists of playing beatmaps by clicking circles, holding sliders, and rotating spinners. Other gameplay modifiers (or often called mods) add additional gameplay features or change the difficulty by raising it (Double Time/Nightcore, Hidden, Flashlight, Hard Rock, Sudden Death/Perfect), or lowering it (Easy, Half Time, No Fail, Spun Out). Inspiration for this mode was taken from \"Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan\" and \"Elite Beat Agents\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "osu!taiko.", "content": "osu!taiko is a game mode which consists of clicking notes to the beat on a drum-like interface, inspired by the \"Taiko no Tatsujin\" series.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "osu!catch.", "content": "osu!catch, formerly known as osu!ctb (catch the beat), is a game mode which consists of catching fruit to the beat by controlling a mini-character holding a plate.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "osu!mania.", "content": "osu!mania is a game mode which consists of a piano-like style of clicking notes to the beat, similar to the \"Beatmania IIDX\" series. The number of keys ranges from 1 to 9, with 4 keys and 7 keys being more popular among players.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Beatmaps.", "content": "\"osu!\" has five different beatmap categories:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Subscription service (osu!supporter).", "content": "The game offers a subscription-based service, osu!supporter, that allows players to download beatmaps directly from inside the game, without the lengthy process of using browsers, through a service called osu!direct, a heart icon beside the username on the official o\"su!\" website, additional pending beatmap slots, faster download speeds, access to multiplayer on cutting edge build, friend and country-specific leaderboards, one free username change, more in-game customization, a yellow username in the in-game chat, and more customization on one's user page (the \"me\" tab). osu!supporter does not affect ranking whatsoever and all funds are directed to the maintenance of \"osu!\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "osu!lazer.", "content": "\"osu!lazer\" is an upcoming free and open-source remake of the original game client that features a graphics framework built from the ground up with rhythm games in mind. This results in improved visuals, performance and more flexibility for future changes. Users are able to create their own game modes using this framework which can then be played in the osu!lazer client. The osu!standard game mode features various gameplay changes such as a new scoring system focused more on rhythm and the addition of more gameplay modifiers. The development of osu!lazer started in 2016 and development versions of osu!lazer are currently available for testing on Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS.  Since osu!lazer is written entirely in.NET Core, it is theoretically compatible with any operating environment that can run.NET Core programs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Music from o\"su!\"s \"featured artists\" are selected by the community as being suitable for play, and for having a compatible copyright status. Currently there are over 50 featured artists. Some featured artists have created tracks specifically for use in o\"su!\", and some artists are also known for making music for other rhythm games, such as Camellia (Masaya Oya) and Cranky (Hiroshi Watanabe) who are known for their works in Konami's \"Sound Voltex\" and \"Beatmania IIDX\" series of games.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Jeuxvideo.com reviewed o\"su!\" favorably with 18/20 points in 2015. In 2010, MMOGames.com reviewer Daniel Ball said that while the game was very similar to \"Elite Beat Agents\", it was differentiated by its community's large library of high-quality community made content and customization.  \"osu!\" has been used and recommended by e-sport players such as Ninja and EFFECT, as a way to warm-up and practice their aim.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Community and competitive play.", "content": "o\"su!\" has 17,400,851 players worldwide.  \"osu!\" contains three main facets of competition between players. In multiplayer lobbies, up to 16 users play a map simultaneously. On individual maps, players compete for high scores on various leaderboards. Players also compete with their ranks, which are calculated by accumulating \"performance points\" (pp). pp is based on a map's difficulty and the player's accuracy. According to \"PC Gamer\", most competitive osu! players score between 100 and 400 pp on a map, with few ever exceeding 500. In July 2019, a player, Vaxei, exceeded 1,000 pp for the first time, followed by another player, idke, less than twenty-four hours later.  Since 2014, there have been five annual \"o\"su!\" World Cups\" (usually abbreviated and referred to as \"o!wc\" or \"owc\"), one for each game mode (osu!mania having two for 4 key and 7 key). Teams for World Cups are country-based, with up to eight players per team. There are also many different community-hosted tournaments, differing in rank range, types of maps played, and how the teams are composed. Winners of tournaments typically receive prizes such as cash, merchandise, profile badges and/or osu!supporter subscriptions.  \"osu!\" also features different events, such as fanart and beatmapping contests. Unofficial events and conventions are also being held. The biggest unofficial event held in the community is \"\"cavoe's osu! event\"\" (usually referred to as \"osu! event\" or \"COE\"), held at The Brabanthallen in's Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands. The event has been arranged three times since 2017 yearly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mobile clients.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "iOS.", "content": "\"osu!stream\" is an adaptation of o\"su!\" for iOS devices running iOS 6 and later, also developed by Dean Herbert. The main difference between o\"su!\" and \"osu!stream\" is that \"osu!stream\" beatmaps are not user-created and are instead made by the developers of \"osu!stream\". The version also includes some new gameplay elements. On 26 February 2020, Herbert announced that he released the source code and plans to halt development of the game, releasing one final update that made all the levels free to download.  It is possible to play the beta of osu!lazer on iOS via TestFlight.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Android.", "content": "\"osu!droid\" is a fan client of o\"su!\" for Android devices. The official \"osu!droid\" was released through the Play Store, though many players complained of problems. Since then, an unofficial release, titled \"osu!evolution\", has been used as a substitute for \"osu!droid\".  \"opsu!\" is a client available on Android devices and contains a port to be played on a PC, but is no longer being serviced as of 2019. However, the servers for this service are still online, so this game is still available to play. Its main feature was an osu!direct-like system for downloading beatmaps from within the game.  It is possible to play the beta of osu!lazer on Android devices using an APK.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "osu! is a rhythm game primarily developed, published and created by Dean \"peppy\" Herbert. Originally released for Microsoft Windows on September 16, 2007, the game has also been ported to macOS, Linux, Android and IOS. Its gameplay is based on titles including \"Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan\", \"Taiko no Tatsujin\", \"Beatmania IIDX\", \"Elite Beat Agents\", \"O2Jam\", StepMania, and \"DJMax\". The game has an active esports community, and is also sometimes recommended by professional players of other games to practice or warm up.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977685}
{"src_title": "Josepha Duschek", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "She was born Josepha Hambacher in Prague, then a provincial capital of the Austrian Empire, on 6 March 1754, and lived in Prague all of her life. Her father was a prosperous apothecary, Anton Adalbert Hambacher (also \"Hampacher\") and her mother was Maria Domenica Colomba, who came from Salzburg. Her father’s pharmacy was in the house called \"Zum weissen Einhorn\" (\"The White Unicorn\"). Built in the Baroque style, it was situated in the Old Town Square where the pharmaceutical business flourished until the 20th century.  In her youth Josepha studied music with František Xaver Dušek, whom she married on 21 October 1776. Josefa’s husband already had an international reputation as a music teacher. He was a welcome guest in the music salons and he and his wife became well-known hosts at their home, Villa Bertramka. It is not known whether the couple performed together as musicians, but they hosted frequent musical gatherings at which many famous people were present.  Josepha had earlier been the lover of the art patron Count Christian Philipp Clam-Gallas, and it was said that she continued to profit long afterwards from the relationship as the Count provided her with an annuity of 900 Gulden and even contributed to the purchase of the Villa Bertramka.  Her career as a singer was long and successful; she gave concerts in many different cities, including Prague, Vienna, Salzburg, Dresden, Weimar, Leipzig, Warsaw and Berlin.  The singer and her husband were also close with the composer Ludwig van Beethoven. While Beethoven was in Prague in 1796, he wrote his concert aria \"\", Op. 65, for this talented singer. She was not able to sing the piece at its debut because of a conflicting engagement, but she did perform the piece in both Prague and later in Leipzig. The debut was performed by the Countess Josephine Clary, to whom Beethoven later dedicated the piece. This concert aria was also featured on Beethoven's mammoth \"Akademie\" concert at the Theater an der Wien in 1808, sung by a 17-year-old Josephine Killitschgy, who was unable to meet the vocal demands of the piece.  Duschek never accepted a permanent engagement, but always remained a freelance singer.  After her husband’s death in 1799 she retired from public life. She sold Bertramka, and lived in increasingly smaller apartments in Prague. By the time of her death in 1824 she had become impoverished.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Duschek and Mozart.", "content": "Duschek met Mozart in 1777 when she visited Salzburg, where her mother was from and she had relatives. At that time Mozart composed for her the recitative and aria \"Ah, lo previdi,\" K. 272.  Mozart accompanied her at a private concert before the Viennese court in 1786, shortly after the success of his opera \"The Marriage of Figaro\".  While Duschek was on friendly terms with the Mozart family at this time, Leopold was critical of her singing, writing to his daughter on 21 April 1786: 'How did Madame Duschek sing? I have to say it! She shrieked an aria by Naumann, quite astonishingly, with exaggerated expression as before but even more annoyingly.'  In 1787, \"The Marriage of Figaro\" was mounted in a Prague production. A number of Prague music lovers invited Mozart to come to Prague and hear the production; the \"Grove Dictionary\" suggested that Duschek and her husband František were among them.  Later that year Mozart returned to Prague in order to complete and then produce his next opera, \"Don Giovanni\". At this time, he stayed with the Duscheks in their summer house, called the Villa Bertramka, at Smíchov near Prague. Mozart may also have stayed there while completing his opera \"La clemenza di Tito\" in September 1791.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The composition of \"Bella mia fiamma, addio\".", "content": "During the 1787 visit, Mozart wrote the concert aria \"Bella mia fiamma, addio,\" K. 528 (it is dated 3 November 1787). The composition of this aria was somewhat unusual; the following tale is attributed to Mozart's son Karl Thomas:  Bernard Wilson, commenting on the story, adds: \"There seems to be some corroboration of this account in the aria itself. The words \"Quest' affano, questo passo è terribile per me\" (mm. 27–34) are set to an awesome tangle of chromatic sequences artfully calculated to test the singer's sense of intonation and powers of interpretation. Apparently Mme. Duschek survived the \"passo terribile\", since the autograph bears her name in Mozart's hand.  In 1789 Duschek sang the work along with other arias at concerts given by Mozart in Dresden and Leipzig, during his German tour of that year.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Were Mozart and Duschek lovers?", "content": "Maynard Solomon has suggested that Mozart and Duschek were lovers. The available information does not permit such assertions to be made with certainty. For discussion, see Mozart's Berlin journey.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Assessment.", "content": "Duschek's voice was praised for its range and flexibility. Her admirers used to call her \"a Bohemian Gabrielli\" after the famous Italian coloratura singer Caterina Gabrielli. The \"Grove Dictionary\" assesses her singing thus: \"She was appreciated for the sonority, range and flexibility of her voice, for her musicianship, and superb execution of both bravura arias and recitatives.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josepha Duschek (1754–1824) was an outstanding soprano of the Classical era. She was a friend of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who wrote a few works for her to sing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977686}
{"src_title": "The Billiard Ball", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "An example of what Asimov called his \"late style,\" the story is a journalist's recollection of the events surrounding the discovery of an anti-gravity device in the mid-21st century. Heavy with physics theory, the story describes the relationship between the creator of the device, the billionaire inventor Edward Bloom, and his former classmate James Priss, a Nobel Prize-winning theoretical physicist who had discovered most of the theory that made the device possible. The men are expert billiards players and bitter rivals. Challenged to execute a shot on a table which is equipped with the device, Priss sends a ball on a complicated trajectory, which finishes when it enters the device's field. At that point the ball vanishes and Bloom collapses, dead. There is a mysterious hole drilled completely through his chest.  Central to the story is the concept of a pure anti-gravity machine that turns out to be a perpetual motion machine of the first order. Energy can be freely created in a volume of space time which is pulled \"flat,\" as defined within the Theory of Relativity as determined by Albert Einstein. However, this field possesses remarkable properties, which are the centerpiece of the story: any object which enters the field is reduced to zero mass, and hence must assume the speed of light. There is also the unprovable speculation as to whether Priss knew, from his own theory and the nature of the blue glow produced by the field (possibly due to Cherenkov radiation), what would happen, and if he then directed the ball in such a way as to kill Bloom.  Asimov himself had some reservations about the name of the story, and noted that his friend Frederik Pohl's suggested title of \"Dirty Pool\" was far better than his own. The story retains its title despite the feeling of its author, as he preferred to remain consistent.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"The Billiard Ball\" is a science fiction short story by American author Isaac Asimov, written in September 1966 and first published in the March 1967 issue of \"If\". It appeared in Asimov's 1968 collection \"Asimov's Mysteries\", in his 1973 collection \"The Best of Isaac Asimov\", in his 1986 collection \"Robot Dreams\" and in \"The Complete Stories, Vol. 2\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977687}
{"src_title": "Bastille Day (2016 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "On the eve of Bastille Day in Paris, American drifter and pickpocket Michael Mason steals a woman's handbag, not knowing that it contains explosives. After he drops the bag off, it detonates and kills four people. Upon being captured by CIA agent Sean Briar, who is being reprimanded for irresponsible conduct on the job, Mason protests that he is not a terrorist, and tells Briar that the bag contained a cell-phone owned by a woman named Zoe. The bomb was set up by a group of corrupt policemen led by Rafi Bertrand, all of them members in the French special force RAPID who intend to pull a robbery at the French National Bank. Zoe was told to plant the bomb at the office of the French Nationalist Party (as part of a diversion for the heist), but after seeing the night cleaning crew arrive, she was unwilling to kill innocents and so abandoned the plan. Zoe's boyfriend Jean, one of the conspirators, allows her to escape, realizing that his compatriots will kill her.  The group tracks Zoe's phone to Briar's and Mason's location. Briar engages the conspirators, who subdue him, while Mason escapes. Bertrand's team proceeds to plant fake evidence at a mosque and stir up a nationwide uproar among its Islamic population, using agitating hashtags on the Internet. Chased by the French authorities and Bertrand's forces, Mason is picked up by Briar, who has come to believe his story and intends to clear the case with his help, even against the orders of his superiors. They track Zoe to the hideout of her friend Paul and his motorcycle gang, but the gang firebombs their car to cover their escape. Appropriating another car, they track Paul down to the bar where he works, and Mason instigates a brawl, during which he steals Paul's ID card.  Mason and Briar use the card to find out Paul's address, where Zoe is hiding, and manage to gain her cooperation. Zoe leads them to Jean's apartment, where they find his body and an ID and badge identifying him as a police officer. Briar informs his colleague, Karen Dacre, who confers with her French contact, DGSI Director Victor Gamieux, about taking Mason and Zoe into protective custody. However, Gamieux, actually the mastermind of the heist conspiracy, kills Dacre after obtaining the information he needs and sends a pickup team consisting of his henchmen. Briar, Mason and Zoe manage to pick up clues about the men's true allegiance and fight their way out of the deathtrap. Now realizing Gamieux's hand in the game, the three head toward the French National Bank.  When a crowd of protestors masses at the front of the bank—as the conspirators have intended—Gamieux assigns Bertrand's RAPID team to the building to provide interior security, thus facilitating the digital robbery of its entire monetary reserves (half a billion euros). Upon arriving at the bank, Briar disguises himself as a RAPID officer and manages to gain access to the building before he is found out. Hearing of his predicament over their stolen police van's radio, Zoe and Mason start a riot among the protestors, who storm the bank and overpower the RAPID troopers closing in on Briar. Briar subsequently infiltrates the vault and engages Bertrand and his remaining henchman. Bertrand escapes with the USB flash drive on which the money has been downloaded, but Briar contacts Mason, who steals the flash drive from Bertrand. Upon noticing the theft, Bertrand takes Zoe hostage. Gamieux, trying to salvage his plan, commands a squad of policemen to shoot and kill Bertrand, and Mason escapes with the flash drive.  Some time later, Mason, working with Briar and French law enforcement, meets with Gamieux on the pretense of trading the flash drive for a passport and a ride out of the country, leading to the latter's arrest. The charges against Mason are dropped, and he is offered a job with the CIA.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "On 11 November 2013, Idris Elba joined the cast of the film. On 2 October 2014, Richard Madden joined the cast. On 18 May 2014, Focus Features acquired the rights to distribute the film in North America. Principal photography began on 13 October 2014 in Paris, and ended on 17 December 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "The film was scheduled to be released on 19 February 2016 in the United Kingdom. However, following the terrorist attacks in Paris in November 2015, the film was delayed. \"Bastille Day\" was released simultaneously in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Sweden on 22 April 2016. In France, the film was released on 13 July 2016 to coincide with the dates in the story. Following the 2016 Nice truck attack, Studiocanal pulled the film from theatres on 17 July 2016, citing it as a \"sign of respect for the victims and their families.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Bastille Day\" received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 48%, based on 80 reviews, with a rating of 5.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"\"Bastille Day\" proves Idris Elba is an action hero in waiting – specifically, waiting for a script that deserves his talents\". On Metacritic, the film has a score of 49 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bastille Day (released as The Take in North America and on international home release) is a 2016 action thriller film directed and co-written by James Watkins. It is a Luxembourgian, French and American venture produced by Anonymous Content, Vendôme Pictures, TF1 Films Production and StudioCanal. The film stars Idris Elba, Richard Madden, Charlotte Le Bon, Eriq Ebouaney and José Garcia. The film was released in the United Kingdom on 22 April 2016 and 13 July 2016 in France, and on 18 November 2016 in the United States.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977688}
{"src_title": "Sydir Kovpak", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Kovpak was born to a poor peasant family in Kotelva village in Kharkov Governorate, Russian Empire (in present-day Ukraine). For his military service in World War I, he was awarded two Crosses of St. George personally by the Emperor Nicholas II of Russia (an award for exceptional military heroism). After the Russian Revolution he joined the \"All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)\" and fought for the Red Army partisan units against the German forces, as well as against Denikin's White Army in a Vasily Chapayev's cavalry division. In the interwar period he was a head of the local government in the town of Putyvl, Sumy Oblast (province).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "At the time of the German invasion of Soviet Ukraine partisan units led by Sydir Kovpak waged guerrilla warfare against Axis forces originally in partisan strongholds in Sumy and Bryansk regions but later its operation spread deep into German occupied territory including Kiev, Zhytomyr, Rivne, Homyel, Volyn and other regions. These partisan units also fought against the nationalist Ukrainian Insurgent Army. In 1944 partisans under Kovpak's leadership raided enemy forces throughout western Ukraine and Belarus and even reached Romanian border regions during the Carpathian raid inflicting heavy casualties on the Germans.  Kovpak mastered guerrilla tactics and was awarded Hero of the Soviet Union title twice. In the summer of 1943 Germans managed to hunt down and kill Kovpak's second in command Semyon Rudnev who was replaced by a new right-hand man Petro Vershigora who would later become a writer and dedicate his books to Kovpak's underground resistance.  Sydir Kovpak was promoted to the rank of Major General in 1943. According to the memoirs of his lieutenant Vershigora, his promotion and General's stars were airdropped to his partisan unit's position deep behind the front lines. After the end of the Second World War Sydir Kovpak held key positions in the leadership of Soviet Ukraine, including Vice Chairman of the Supreme Court of Ukraine in 1947 and Supreme Council of Ukraine in 1967. He also was a member of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union for the 2nd through 7th convocations.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Movies.", "content": "Kovpak was portrayed (by Konstantin Stepankov) in Soviet film trilogy \"Duma o Kovpake\" (\"Дума о Ковпаке\", \"Poem of Kovpak\"):  A TV documentary \"Его звали ДЕД\" (\"He was called GRANDPA\") (Ukrainian language, produced by TRK Era, director Oleksiy Barbaruk-Trypilsky, 36 min, screened in 2011) documents Kovpak's life during the war.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sydir Artemovych Kovpak (;, ), (June 7, 1887December 11, 1967) was one of the partisan leaders of the Soviet partisans in Ukraine during the World War II.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977689}
{"src_title": "Benjamin Pavard", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Maubeuge, Nord, near the Belgian border, Pavard first played with his hometown club in Jeumont, where former France international striker Jean-Pierre Papin also began his career.  Pavard joined Lille's academy at the age of nine. He made his Ligue 1 debut on 31 January 2015 against FC Nantes, playing the full game in a 1–1 away draw. Pavard made 21 league appearances across two seasons for Lille, before leaving the club in 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "VfB Stuttgart.", "content": "On 30 August 2016, Pavard moved to VfB Stuttgart, signing a four-year contract. He made his debut in the 2. Bundesliga on 3 October, scoring in a 4–0 home win over SpVgg Greuther Fürth. He played 21 games and his team ended the season as league champions.  Pavard made his Bundesliga debut on 19 August in a 2–0 loss at Hertha BSC. He scored his first goal in the Bundesliga with a delightful back header on 29 October in a 3–0 win over SC Freiburg at the Mercedes-Benz Arena. He extended his contract with Stuttgart on 20 December 2017 until 30 June 2021.  He was one of only four players to feature in every single second of the 2017–18 Bundesliga season. He played in several positions, namely right-back, centre-back, defensive midfielder and right wing, but after the appointment of Tayfun Korkut as manager in January 2018 he was exclusively a centre back; the team conceded 10 goals in their last 14 games as they went from near the relegation places to finish 7th, only just missing out on a UEFA Europa League place.  In 2018–19, Pavard was again a regular as Stuttgart fought relegation all season, which was confirmed with defeat to 1. FC Union Berlin in a playoff.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bayern Munich.", "content": "On 9 January 2019, Bayern Munich confirmed Pavard would join the club for the 2019–20 season, signing a five-year contract lasting until 30 June 2024.  He made his competitive debut on 3 August in a 2–0 defeat in the 2019 DFL-Supercup against Borussia Dortmund, as an 80th-minute substitute for Thiago Alcântara. On 31 August he scored for the first time to equalise in a 6–1 home win over 1. FSV Mainz 05.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "On 6 November 2017, Pavard was selected by France's head coach Didier Deschamps for the friendly matches against Wales and Germany. He made his debut against the Welsh on 10 November in a 2–0 win at the Stade de France, replacing Christophe Jallet at half time.  On 17 May 2018, he was called up to the 23-man French squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. On 16 June, Pavard made his World Cup debut in a 2–1 victory over Australia. On 30 June, Pavard scored his first international goal, a long range shot from outside the penalty area, in a 4–3 victory over Argentina in the World Cup's round of 16. The goal was later voted as goal of the tournament and nominated for goal of the year. He also became the first French defender to score a goal in the World Cup since Lilian Thuram scored against Croatia in the 1998 semi-final. Pavard won the World Cup, after starting all of France's games except for their last group match against Denmark.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "VfB Stuttgart  Bayern Munich  France  Individual  Orders", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Benjamin Jacques Marcel Pavard (; born 28 March 1996) is a French professional footballer who plays as a defender for Bayern Munich and the France national team. Although usually deployed as a centre-back, he is also capable of playing as a right-back.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977690}
{"src_title": "N26 (bank)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The company was founded as FinTech-Start-up in 2013 by Valentin Stalf and Maximilian Tayenthal. The name is derived from the 26-sided Rubik’s Cube. In April 2015, N26 received €10 million in a series A round by Valar Ventures. Valar Ventures was co-founded by Peter Thiel, PayPal's co-founder.  Initially Number 26 started operations without holding a banking license; instead it was merely an interface while the back end was provided by Wirecard. In July 2016 it re-branded as N26 Bank, having received its own banking license from BaFin.  In July 2016 N26 also announced its Fair Use Policy for customers residing in Germany. This created a backlash on social media by unhappy customers.  In November 2016 customers were asked to transfer their accounts to N26 Bank's infrastructure. As a result, they would have to get a new account IBAN number, while the previous accounts held by Wirecard would be terminated.  In December 2016 N26 announced that its basic current account would become available to 17 Eurozone countries.  In March 2018, N26 raised $160 million in a series C round by Chinese internet giant Tencent Holdings and Allianz X (Allianz). On the same date, N26 claimed a customer base of 850,000, with the goal of having 5,000,000 customers by 2020.  In January 2019, N26 raised an additional $300 million in a series D round led by Insight Venture Partners with Singapore's sovereign wealth fund GIC and a few existing investors also participating at a valuation of $2.7 billion. With its new valuation of $2.7 billion, N26 overtook Revolut as the most valuable mobile bank in Europe.  On 11 July 2019, N26 soft launched in the United States, initially allowing customers to sign up for a waiting list. Due to differences in the U.S. market (particularly in regards to regulatory schemes for financial providers), N26 partnered with Axos Bank to serve as the provider of its services, insured under FDIC. Unlike in Europe, where they are provided by MasterCard, N26 uses Visa cards for U.S. customers. The following week, the company extended its series D round with an additional $170 million investment, valuing the company at $3.5 billion. In May 2020, the company announced the extension of its recent Series D round with an additional $100M raised at the same valuation.  On 11 February 2020, N26 announced that it will cease doing business in the United Kingdom and close all accounts effective 15 April, due to the UK withdrawal from the European Union. The company cited that European financial institutions can no longer operate in the region without applying for a banking license in the UK (rather than being allowed to operate under its EU license), as well as \"the timings and framework outlined in the EU Withdrawal Agreement\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Product overview.", "content": "N26 provides a free basic current account and a Debit MasterCard card to all its customers, as well as a Maestro card for their customers in certain markets. Additionally, customers can request overdraft and investment products. N26 also offers premium accounts (\"N26 You\" and \"N26 Metal\") which offer additional features for a monthly fee.  The account opening process can be completed via a video chat with N26's identity verification partner, IDnow. Only holders of certain passports and ID cards can verify their identity online; others will have to visit a German post office if it is supported by Postident.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Availability.", "content": "N26 offers its services in 23 European countries, plus the United States. In Austria, Germany and the Netherlands customers can additionally request a Maestro card.  Some parts of the website and customer service are provided in English, German, French, Italian and Spanish regardless of the customer's residency.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mobile payments.", "content": "N26 customers in several of its markets can use their smartphone for in-store purchases. N26 supports Google Pay in the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Slovakia, and Spain, while it supports Apple Pay in Austria, Germany, Greece, Finland, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Slovenia and Spain. Additional countries are added as both Google Pay and Apple Pay gradually expand throughout N26's markets.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Fees.", "content": "N26 has a basic account with no monthly fee and charges no fees for basic banking transactions or credit card payments in foreign currencies. In the Eurozone (except Austria and Italy) ATM withdrawals are limited to five per month for primary account holders and three per month for others. N26 charges a €2 fee for any additional withdrawal. In the UK, free ATM withdrawals are unlimited.  ATM withdrawals in foreign currencies are also subject to a 1.70% fee for basic account and are free for N26 You and Metal account holders.  German customers can also withdraw and deposit money at retail locations. While there is no fee for withdrawals up to €999, free deposits are limited to €100 and additional amounts are subject to a 1.5% fee.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Security.", "content": "Customers can lock and unlock their MasterCard through the mobile app without having to contact N26 support. They can also enable and disable it for usage abroad or online usage and modify the daily limits for cash withdrawals and card payments.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mobile transfers.", "content": "The N26 app can scan the users' contacts in their smartphone and identify other N26 account holders. Using a service called Moneybeam a N26 customer can send funds to these contacts without having to fill in their IBAN. Moneybeam transfers are executed instantaneously.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "In June 2016 N26 notified several customers that their accounts were going to be terminated. The company cited as main reasons that some customers were making too many ATM withdrawals, while others were suspected of money laundering. The introduction of the Fair Use Policy in July 2016 came as an aftermath of these terminations.  During the transfer of its customer base to its own banking infrastructure, N26 customers took to social media to report various problems.  In December 2016 Vincent Haupert, a research fellow in computer science from the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, demonstrated how he could take advantage of security vulnerabilities in order to get access to N26 users' accounts. Haupert had already notified N26 of the vulnerabilities back in September 2016. N26 acknowledged the issues and claimed that they had been fixed before they became public, adding that no user account had actually been compromised.  In March 2019, German media reported that customers who had their account credentials stolen found it difficult to contact the bank and resolve the situation. Customer advocates reported that there was a growing number of complaints from phishing victims who were unable to access their accounts and found it difficult to contact the bank. In a widely reported case N26 took more than two weeks to restore access for a customer who had €80,000 stolen from their account. The reports raised the question if the rapid growth of the bank had left it ill-equipped to deal with the increasing number of support cases.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "N26 (known as \"Number 26\" until July 2016) is a German neobank, headquartered in Berlin, Germany. N26 currently offers its services throughout various member states of the Single Euro Payments Area (SEPA) and in the US. The UK operations have been suspended in April 2020 due to the Brexit process uncertainties.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977691}
{"src_title": "Škoda Kodiaq", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Earlier, it was assumed that the new SUV would be called \"Snowman\" or \"Polar\", but this was rejected by the former head of Škoda (Vahland) as a media speculation. On 23 December 2015, Škoda registered the name \"Kodiaq\". The name refers to the largest brown bear, the Kodiak bear, living on the island of the same name off the south coast of Alaska.  In February 2016, images of the \"Vision S\" concept were released, and the concept model appeared in March 2016 at the Geneva Motor Show. The final SUV was introduced at the Paris Motor Show on 29 September 2016. The first cars were officially delivered to customers in February 2017.  As part of its marketing campaign, the Kodiak town on the Alaskan island was renamed Kodiaq for one day.  The Kodiaq is the first vehicle in the Škoda lineup to have Area View, Tow Assist, Manoeuvre Assist and Predictive Pedestrian Protection. It is also the first vehicle in the VAG MQB platform lineup to feature capacitive shortcut buttons instead of physical buttons for the 8\" infotainment systems.  The trim levels available are: Active (entrance equipment, bluetooth, LED rear lights, seven airbags), Ambition (good balance of price and equipment), Style (advanced technology in attractive package), Laurin & Klement (exclusive design), Sportline (dynamic driving), Scout (adventurous driving) and RS (most powerful).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selected acknowledgements.", "content": "In November 2016, the Škoda Kodiaq was named the \"Best Family Car in the World\" by \"Top Gear Magazine\". Kodiaq won the title of the \"Car of the Year\" 2017 in the Czech Republic, Poland and Bulgaria, the SUV of the Year in China and France, and the all wheel drive car in Germany.  The Kodiaq also won in German magazine competition \"Auto Test\" for 2017, and is the winner of competitions in British magazines \"Auto Express\" and \"What Car?\" for 2017. The Kodiaq also received the Red Dot Design Award for 2017.  In 2020, Skoda Kodiaq won carsales award for the Best Family SUV award for 2020", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scout, Sportline, RS and GT.", "content": "The new Kodiaq Scout and Kodiaq Sportline were introduced at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2017. Kodiaq Scout ground clearance has gone up from 187mm to 194mm, and there have some design changes. These changes include front and rear underbody protection with bumper trim, silver mirror caps, and badging on the front wing and the glove compartment. The Scout comes in 4x4 with one turbo petrol TSi engines and two turbo diesel TDi engines. Kodiaq Sportline brings new styling tweaks, some parts are made in black, sports seats, steering wheel in leather, big alloy wheels and pedals made from aluminium.  The Kodiaq RS (vRS in the United Kingdom) was introduced at the Paris Motor Show in October 2018. It is at the top of the range, the fastest Kodiaq and the most expensive Škoda available. Price with all extras could rise up to 1.5 million CZK (about 51 thousand GBP). It includes the Škoda's most powerful diesel engine, the 4x4 2.0 litre biturbo diesel engine, which produces a maximum output of and a maximum torque of. The Kodiaq RS has got a more aggressive design, from leather and carbon leather are made the sports upholstered seats, steering wheel, the door threshold and the entrance rails of the doors. It comes with Virtual Cockpit, a gloss black grille, 20\" alloy wheels Xtreme, 17 inch red painted brake calipers, different front and rear bumper designs, heated front sports seats and full LED headlights. It holds the track record at the Nürburgring for any seven seat SUV. Since 2019, the British Police use Škoda Kodiaq vRS as police cars.  The Kodiaq GT is the first Škoda coupé since the 1980s. It was introduced at the Guangzhou Motor Show on 16 November 2018. It is sold only in China, and is available with two 2.0 L petrol engines (137 kW and 162 kW).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engines.", "content": "The Škoda Kodiaq is available with a range of turbocharged petrol and diesel engines, ranging from 1.5 to 2.0 litres, and a choice of front or all wheel drive.  Petrol engines Diesel engines", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Škoda Kodiaq is a mid-size crossover SUV (J-segment) manufactured by the Czech automaker Škoda Auto. The car is larger than Škoda Kamiq and Škoda Karoq. The vehicle is based on VW Group's modular MQB platform, shared with a new generation of Volkswagen Tiguan Allspace and the SEAT Tarraco, however the Kodiaq is longer than Tiguan, and comes in a seven seat version. The Škoda Kodiaq RS is the brand's flagship model.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977692}
{"src_title": "Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Born at Stowe, Buckinghamshire, the Duke of Buckingham and Chandos was the son of the Richard Nugent-Temple-Grenville, Earl Temple (later created the Duke of Buckingham and Chandos) and Lady Anne Brydges, the only surviving child of the 3rd Duke of Chandos. In addition to being the Duchess of Buckingham and Chandos, Lady Anne was \"suo jure\" Lady Kinloss. In 1799, Richard Temple-Nugent-Grenville changed the already triple-barrelled family name to Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville by royal license to reflect his wife's family.  The second Duke was a paternal grandson of the 1st Marquess of Buckingham and a great-grandson of Prime Minister George Grenville. He was educated at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Buckingham sat as Member of Parliament for Buckinghamshire between 1818 and 1839, when he succeeded his father in the dukedom and entered the House of Lords. Two years later, in September 1841, he was sworn of the Privy Council and appointed Lord Privy Seal by Sir Robert Peel, a post he held only until February 1842. He was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Hanoverian Order in 1835, elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1840 and made a Knight of the Garter in 1842.  According to the \"Legacies of British Slave-Ownership\" at the University College London, Buckingham was a recipient of payment as a slave trader in the aftermath of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 with the Slave Compensation Act 1837. The British Government took out a £15 million loan (worth £1.8 billion in 2020) with interest from Nathan Mayer Rothschild and Moses Montefiore which was subsequently paid off by the British taxpayers (ending in 2015). Buckingham was associated with \"T71/865 St Andrew claim no. 114 (Hope Estate)\", he owned 379 slaves in Jamaica and received a £6,630 payment at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "In 1819, Buckingham married Lady Mary Campbell, daughter of Lieut-Gen The 4th Earl of Breadalbane (later created Marquess of Breadalbane). They had one son, Richard, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, and one daughter, Lady Anna, but were divorced in 1850 after Buckingham had lost his inheritance. Anna went to campaign for women's rights. At that time, divorce required an Act of Parliament.  In 1847, eight years after succeeding his father as Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, Richard was declared bankrupt with debts over a million pounds (£ as of ). This occasioned the sale of his Keynsham estate in Somerset in 1841, Avington Park in 1847 and ultimately the auction sale of the contents of the main family seat at Stowe House in August–September 1848, one of the handful of most prominent English country house contents auctions of the 19th century.  Buckingham died at the Great Western Hotel, Paddington, London, in July 1861, aged 64, and was succeeded in the dukedom by his only son. His former wife died less than a year later in June 1862, aged 66.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Richard Plantagenet Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, (11 February 1797 – 29 July 1861), styled Viscount Cobham from birth until 1813, Earl Temple between 1813 and 1822 and Marquess of Chandos between 1822 and 1839, was a British Tory politician. He served as Lord Privy Seal between 1841 and 1842.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977693}
{"src_title": "Rag'n'Bone Man", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Rory Charles Graham was born on 29 January 1985 in Uckfield, East Sussex. He attended King's Academy Ringmer in Ringmer, from which he was expelled, and then enrolled at Uckfield College in his hometown. At the age of 15, he began MCing with a drum and bass crew using the handle Rag 'N' Bonez, inspired by watching repeats of the British sitcom \"Steptoe and Son\". While at school, he was part of a group of youths supported by The Prince's Trust who developed a community project which involved painting and gardening in Crowborough.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "When he moved to Brighton, his friend Gi3mo formed the rap group Rum Committee and invited him to join them. He started performing at Slip-jam B, where he met people who helped him start his career. Over the next few years, they supported hip hop artists Pharoahe Monch and KRS-One at Brighton's Concorde 2, and released their own album titled \"Boozetown\" (2012) through Bandcamp and other digital stores. Just weeks before the Rum Committee album release, Rory Graham was asked to support Joan Armatrading at Brighton Dome. With no solo releases to his name to distribute on the night, he worked with Rum Committee producers Gi3mo and Sherlock Bones to create his first official release, the eight-track \"Bluestown EP\" (2012), which included one feature from the rap artist Ceezlin.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Wolves\" and \"Disfigured\" EPs (2011–2015).", "content": "In 2011, Graham started working with UK hip hop label High Focus Records, releasing a number of recordings with them such as a collaboration with MC/producer Leaf Dog titled \"Dog 'n Bone EP\" (2013) and a project with MC/producer Dirty Dike titled \"Put That Soul on Me\" (2014). Shortly afterwards, he began to collaborate with record producer Mark Crew, who at the time was working on Bastille's debut album \"Bad Blood\". Graham signed a publishing deal with Warner Chappell in 2013.  In 2014, in collaboration with Mark Crew, Graham released the EP \"Wolves\" through Best Laid Plans Records, containing nine tracks with guests including rapper Vince Staples, Stig of the Dump, and Kate Tempest. Graham, along with Skunk Anansie, also featured on Bastille's third mixtape, \"VS.\", on the song \"Remains\". His follow-up in 2015, the \"Disfigured\" EP, was also released through Best Laid Plans Records. The lead track \"Bitter End\" was playlisted on BBC Radio 1 Xtra, and made it onto BBC Radio 1's \"In New Music We Trust\" playlist.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Human\" (2016–present).", "content": "Graham's first hit single, \"Human\", was released on Columbia Records in July 2016. It peaked at number one in the official singles charts in Austria, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. It was certified Gold in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland. \"Human\" was used as the theme music to the Amazon Prime series \"Oasis\", in the official launch trailer for the video game \"\", in the trailer for the 2017 film \"Thank You for Your Service\", in the television series \"Inhumans\", and in the season 2 intro for the TV show \"Into the Badlands\". The song was also used in the outro for \"Ash vs. Evil Dead\" Season 3 Episode 9, as well as the \"Tom Clancy's Jack Ryan\" television series.  Graham's debut album, also titled \"Human\", was released on 10 February 2017. The album opens with the song \"Human\", features the single \"Skin\", and has tracks produced by Mark Crew, Two Inch Punch, and Jonny Coffer. The album won the BBC Music Award for British Album of the Year in 2017 and he was nominated for Artist of the Year. Later in 2017, Graham collaborated with British virtual band Gorillaz, appearing on the song \"The Apprentice\" from the deluxe edition of their fifth studio album \"Humanz\".  Graham also sang and co-wrote one of the songs, \"Broken People\", from Will Smith’s 2017 Netflix film \"Bright\".  In January 2019, Graham collaborated with Scottish DJ and record producer Calvin Harris to record the song \"Giant\". It peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart. He also collaborated with the Italian singer Zucchero Fornaciari to write the song \"Freedom\", for the album \"D.O.C.\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Graham and his wife, Beth Rouy, have a son named Reuben (born September 2017). They married in May 2019 at Lewes Registry Office. They have since separated.  Graham endorsed Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn in the 2017 UK general election. During an interview with Channel 4, he said he saw Corbyn as a \"man that speaks with passion\" and added that he could \"relate to what [Corbyn] says and have never felt like that before\".  Graham is a patron of the Brighton-based young people's music charity AudioActive. In an official statement for the charity, he said, \"AudioActive are doing something to ensure that regardless of wealth or background, young people get a chance to be creative. I can't support that enough.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rory Charles Graham (born 29 January 1985), better known as Rag'n'Bone Man, is an English singer and songwriter. He is known for his deep baritone voice. His first hit single, \"Human\", was released in 2016, and his debut album of the same name was released in 2017. At the 2017 Brit Awards, he was named British Breakthrough Act and received the Critics' Choice Award.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977694}
{"src_title": "Lucas Pérez", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Atlético / Rayo.", "content": "Pérez was born in A Coruña, Galicia. After appearing for three clubs as a youth he moved to Madrid and joined Atlético Madrid's C-team, playing two seasons in Tercera División. In summer 2009 he signed with Rayo Vallecano, helping the reserves promote from the same level in his first year.  In the 2010–11 season, Pérez contributed with five games and one goal (in a 3–0 home win against Real Valladolid on 6 November 2010) as Rayo returned to La Liga after eight years. He continued to be mainly registered with the B side, however.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Karpaty Lviv.", "content": "On 17 January 2011, free agent Pérez joined FC Karpaty Lviv on a three-year deal. He scored his first goal for the team on 17 July, against FC Chornomorets Odesa in a 1–1 Ukrainian Premier League draw.  Pérez netted a hat-trick on 4 November 2012 in a 4–0 home win over FC Kryvbas Kryvyi Rih, including a long-distance volley from a corner kick delivery. In January 2013 he joined fellow league club FC Dynamo Kyiv on loan for the remainder of the campaign, and later labelled his experience as \"a nightmare\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "PAOK / Deportivo.", "content": "On 5 July 2013, Pérez signed on a fee of €700,000 a three-year contract with Superleague Greece team PAOK FC. He scored his first competitive goal on 17 August, contributing to a 3–0 home success over Skoda Xanthi FC, and on 24 November he equalised in a 3–1 win over Aris Thessaloniki F.C. in the Derby of Northern Greece; he also helped to a runner-up run in the national cup, losing the decisive match to Panathinaikos FC.  On 18 July 2014, Pérez returned to Spain and joined his newly promoted hometown side Deportivo de La Coruña in a one-year loan deal, with a buyout clause. He scored in his first official appearance, having started in a 3–0 home win against Valencia CF on 19 October which also marked his La Liga debut; the following matchday he was replaced in the 15th minute of a 0–0 away draw against RCD Espanyol, due to a knee injury.  Pérez only returned to action in January of the following year, appearing 12 minutes in a 0–4 home loss against FC Barcelona. On 23 May, against the same opponent at the Camp Nou, he helped \"Dépor\" come from behind by scoring in the 67th minute of a 2–2 draw in the last round that prevented relegation.  On 23 July 2015, in his first competitive match upon his return to PAOK, against NK Lokomotiva for the second preliminary round of the UEFA Europa League, Pérez scored the opener after Róbert Mak's shot was saved, in an eventual 6–0 home success. One week later, against FC Spartak Trnava for the same competition, he netted the game's only goal in the first leg.  On 12 August 2015, Pérez signed a permanent four-year deal with Deportivo. On 12 December, he took his season tally to 11 goals in only 15 games, helping to a 2–2 draw at Barcelona.  Pérez totalled a career-best 17 goals at the end of the campaign, eventually helping his team escape relegation again.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arsenal.", "content": "On 27 August 2016, Arsène Wenger said that Pérez had completed a medical examination in order to join Arsenal after the paperwork was done. Three days later the transfer was confirmed by the club, for a reported fee of £17.1 million. He made his competitive debut in the 2–1 Premier League home win over Southampton on 10 September, which coincided with both his birthday and that of teammate Laurent Koscielny, whom he assisted for his team's equaliser.  On 20 September 2016, during an EFL Cup away match against Nottingham Forest, Pérez scored his first goals for the Gunners, grabbing a brace in an eventual 4–0 triumph for the third round. On 6 December, he contributed with three goals in 39 minutes to a 4–1 away win over FC Basel in the UEFA Champions League's group stage, helping Arsenal win the group.  On 3 January 2017, Pérez netted for the first time in the domestic league, helping his team come back from 3–0 down to draw 3–3 at AFC Bournemouth. Towards the end of the month, he provided an assist to Danny Welbeck's first-ever brace for Arsenal, in a 5–0 away win against Southampton in the FA Cup.  On 31 August 2017, Pérez rejoined Deportivo on a season-long loan deal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "West Ham United.", "content": "On 9 August 2018, Pérez signed a three-year contract with West Ham United for a reported fee of £4 million. He made his league debut for his new club nine days later, coming on as a 77th-minute substitute for Mark Noble in a 1–2 home loss to Bournemouth. He scored his first goal for them on 26 September, in their 8–0 defeat of Macclesfield Town in the EFL Cup.  On 4 December 2018, Pérez scored his first league goals for 700 days: coming on for Marko Arnautović, he scored twice in a 3–1 home win against Cardiff City, becoming the first West Ham player to achieve the feat as a substitute since Paulo Wanchope in 2000.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Alavés.", "content": "In May 2019, West Ham accepted an offer from Deportivo Alavés for Peréz for a fee of €2.5m subject to a medical. He officially signed for the club on 3 June, making his league debut on 18 August by playing the last minutes of the 1–0 home victory over Levante UD. He scored his first goal on 29 September, the first in a 2–0 win against RCD Mallorca also at Mendizorrotza Stadium.  On 29 October 2019, Pérez equalised in a 1–1 home draw to Atlético Madrid, becoming the first Alavés player to score in five consecutive La Liga games since 1955. He repeated the feat the following match (at CA Osasuna, 4–2 loss), and in the process became their first player to achieve that in six consecutive fixtures. He found the net for the seventh time on 9 November against Real Valladolid, becoming the first player in the history of the competition to score in seven consecutive matches with two different teams, as he had done it before with Deportivo.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Pérez earned his first cap for the Galicia autonomous team on 20 May 2016, appearing in the 2–2 friendly with Venezuela.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "PAOK  Arsenal", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Lucas Pérez Martínez (, born 10 September 1988) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a forward for Deportivo Alavés.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977695}
{"src_title": "Action of 22 September 1914", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The cruisers were part of the Southern Force (Rear-Admiral Arthur Christian) composed of the flagship, the light cruiser and the 7th Cruiser Squadron (7th CS, also known as Cruiser Squadron C, Rear-Admiral H. H. Campbell, nicknamed the \"live-bait squadron\"), comprising the armoured cruisers,,, and \"Euryalus\", the 1st and 3rd Destroyer flotillas, ten submarines of the 8th \"Oversea\" Flotilla and the attached scout cruiser,. The force patrolled the North Sea, supporting destroyers and submarines of the Harwich Force to guard against incursions by the (Imperial German Navy) into the English Channel.  Concerns had been expressed about the vulnerability of the ships against modern German cruisers but the War Orders of 28 July 1914, reflecting pre-war assumptions about attacks by destroyers rather than submarines, remained in force. The ships were to patrol the area \"south of the 54th parallel clear of enemy torpedo craft and destroyers\" supported by Cruiser Force C during the day. The Harwich Patrol guarded the Dogger Bank and the Broad Fourteens further south; usually cruisers were to the north closer to the Dogger Bank and sailed south at night. The cruisers moved to the Broad Fourteens to reinforce the fourth cruiser during troop movements from Britain to France. Heading south put the ships closer to German bases, more vulnerable to submarine attack.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prelude.", "content": "On 16 September, Christian had been allowed to keep two cruisers to the north and one at the Broad Fourteens but had kept them together in a central position, able to support operations in both areas. The next day, the destroyer escorts had been forced to depart by heavy weather, which remained so bad that neither patrol could be reformed. The Admiralty ordered that the ships were to cancel the Dogger Patrol and cover the Broad Fourteens until the weather abated. On 20 September, \"Euryalus\" returned to port to re-coal and by 22 September, \"Aboukir\", \"Hogue\" and \"Cressy\" were on patrol under the command of Captain J. E. Drummond of \"Aboukir\". The U-boat was treated lightly by the Imperial German Navy; in the first six weeks of the war, the U-boat arm had sent out ten boats, sunk no ships and lost two boats for their efforts. On the morning of 22 September, (\"Kapitänleutnant\" Otto Weddigen) passed through the Broad Fourteens on her way back to base and spotted \"Aboukir\", \"Hogue\" and \"Cressy\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Action.", "content": "At 06:00 on 22 September, the weather had calmed and the ships were patrolling at, line abreast, apart. Lookouts were posted for submarine periscopes or ships and one gun on each side of each ship was manned. \"U-9\" had been ordered to attack British transports at Ostend but had been forced to dive and shelter from the storm. On surfacing, she spotted the British ships and moved to attack. At 06:20, \"U-9\" fired a torpedo at the middle ship from a range of and struck \"Aboukir\" on the starboard side, flooding the engine room and causing the ship to stop immediately. No submarines had been sighted, so Drummond assumed that the ship had hit a mine and ordered the other two cruisers to close in to help. After 25 minutes, \"Aboukir\" capsized and then sank five minutes later. Only one lifeboat could be launched, because of damage from the explosion and the failure of steam-powered winches needed to launch them. \"U-9\" rose to periscope depth from her dive after firing the torpedo, to observe two British cruisers engaged in the rescue of men from the sinking ship. Weddigen fired two more torpedoes at \"Hogue\", from. As the torpedoes left the submarine, her bows rose out of the water and she was spotted by \"Hogue\", whose gunners opened fire before the submarine dived. The two torpedoes struck \"Hogue\" and within five minutes Captain Wilmot Nicholson gave the order to abandon ship; after ten minutes she capsized before sinking at 07:15. Watchers on \"Cressy\" had seen the submarine, opened fire and made a failed attempt to ram, then turned to pick up survivors. At 07:20, \"U-9\" fired two torpedoes toward \"Cressy\" from her stern torpedo tubes at a range of. One torpedo missed and the submarine turned and fired her remaining bow torpedo at. The first torpedo struck the starboard side at around 07:25, the second the port beam at 07:30. The ship capsized to starboard and floated upside down until 07:55.  Two Dutch sailing trawlers in the vicinity declined to close with \"Cressy\" for fear of mines. Distress calls had been received by Commodore Tyrwhitt, who, with the destroyer squadron, was already at sea returning to the cruisers, now that the weather had improved. At 08:30, the Dutch steamship \"Flora\" approached the scene (having seen the sinkings) and rescued 286 men. A second steamer—\"Titan\"—picked up another 147. More were rescued by two Lowestoft sailing trawlers, \"Coriander\" and \"J.G.C.\", before the destroyers arrived at 10:45, 837 men were rescued while 1,397 men and 62 officers—mostly part-timers from the Royal Naval Reserve, including Robert Johnson, the Captain of \"Cressy\" had been killed. The destroyers began a search for the submarine, which had little electrical power remaining to travel underwater and could only make on the surface. The submarine submerged for the night before returning home the next day.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The disaster shook public confidence in Britain and the world in the Royal Navy. Other cruisers were withdrawn from patrol duties; Christian was reprimanded and Drummond was criticized by the inquiry for failing to take the anti-submarine precautions recommended by the Admiralty and praised for his conduct during the attack. The 28 officers and 258 men rescued by \"Flora\" were landed at IJmuiden and were repatriated on 26 September.  Wenman \"Kit\" Wykeham-Musgrave (1899–1989) survived being torpedoed on all three ships. His daughter recalled  Wykeham-Musgrave survived the war and rejoined the Royal Navy in 1939, reaching the rank of commander.  Weddigen and his crew returned to a heroes' welcome; Weddigen was awarded the Iron Cross, 1st Class and his crew each received the Iron Cross, 2nd Class. The sinking of the three ships caused the danger of U-boat attack to be taken more seriously by the Admiralty. Commander Dudley Pound, serving in the Grand Fleet as a commander aboard the battleship (who became First Sea Lord) wrote in his diary on 24 September,  In 1954, the British government sold the salvage rights to the ships and work began in 2011.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Books Journals  Websites", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Action of 22 September 1914 was an attack by the German U-boat that took place during the First World War. Three obsolete Royal Navy cruisers of the 7th Cruiser Squadron, manned mainly by reservists and sometimes referred to as the Live Bait Squadron, were sunk by \"U-9\" while patrolling the southern North Sea.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977696}
{"src_title": "Albert d'Orville", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "The young Albert, son of noblemen spent much of his youth at the court of the duke of Neuburg. He joined the Society of Jesus in 1646, and while studying theology at the Catholic University of Leuven he attended the 'Chinese lectures' given by Martino Martini an Italian Jesuit missionary, then visiting the University of Leuven. This evoked in him a strong desire to volunteer for the China mission. Permission was granted by his Provincial and soon after being ordained priest (in 1654) Dorville rejoined Martino Martini in Rome before accompanying him on his return journey to China.  Leaving Lisbon in April 1657, Martini, Dorville and 17 other Jesuits (among whom Ferdinand Verbiest) arrived in Macau on 17 July 1658, after a long and arduous journey during which several lost their life. As was the practice for all newly arrived men Dorville spent some time in Macau to learn the Chinese language. He was then sent as missionary in the province of Shanxi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exploratory overland journey.", "content": "Soon he was called to Peking and appointed to accompany Johann Grueber on a journey back to Europe. Grueber was sent to Rome in order to defend Jesuit astronomer Adam Schall against the accusation of 'fostering superstitious practices' (motivated by his working on the Chinese calendar). As traveling over the seas was increasingly difficult and unsafe - the Portuguese were losing their trade monopoly at the hands of the Dutch - they decided to attempt an exploratory overland journey that, if successful could bring China closer to Europe too. The first stretch would lead them to Goa. Leaving Peking on 13 April 1661 Grueber and Dorville entered Tibet 13 July and spent two months (October and November) in its capital Lhasa. All along the way Dorville did some geographical investigations, determining exactly the longitude and latitude of the places they were passing through. The travelers crossed the Himalayas, entered Nepal and stayed a month in Kathmandu (January 1662). From there they descended into the basin of the Ganges river, entered India (8 February) and visited Patna, and Benares before arriving finally in Agra (31 March), the former capital of the Mughal empire. Dorville was however seriously sick and exhausted by the harrowing journey: he died 8 April 1662, a week after reaching Agra.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Evaluation.", "content": "For the rest of the journey back from Goa to Europe, Grueber was accompanied by Heinrich Roth, a Jesuit Sanskrit scholar. On arrival in Rome in 1664 Grueber gave an account of their odyssey. Numerous and interesting observations - geographical, cultural, socio-religious - were made on the countries traveled across and people encountered. With regard to finding a shorter route to China the exploratory journey was a failure: travelers continued, and for many years, to go by ship form Goa to Macau and China... The overland journey was too long, hazardous and thoroughly exhausting...", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Albert Dorville, (also known as \"Albert Le Comte d’Orville\") (12 August 1621 in Brussels, Belgium – 8 April 1662 in Agra, India) was a Belgian Jesuit priest, missionary in China and cartographer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977697}
{"src_title": "Kersti Kaljulaid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education.", "content": "In 1987, Kaljulaid graduated from Tallinn Secondary School no. 44. During her studies there, she was a member of the Students' Scientific Association, specializing in ornithology. In 1992, she graduated from University of Tartu \"cum laude\" as a biologist. She is a member of Estonian female student corporation, Filiae Patriae. In 2001, she graduated from the University of Tartu with an MBA in business management. Her thesis was titled as \"Riigi poolt asutatud sihtasutuste juhtimissüsteemi täiustamine\" or \"The improvement of the management system of state-founded foundations\" in English.  Besides Estonian, Kaljulaid is fluent in English, Finnish, French and to a certain extent, Russian.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Business career.", "content": "From 1996 to 1997 Kaljulaid was a sales manager in state-owned telecom Eesti Telefon and from 1997 to 1998 a project manager in Hoiupanga Investeeringute AS. From 1998 to 1999 she was employed in Hansabank's investment banking division Hansabank Markets. From 1999 to 2002, Kaljulaid worked as the economic advisor of Estonian Prime Minister Mart Laar. From 2002 to 2004, she was the director of Iru Power Plant, a subsidiary of the state-owned energy company Eesti Energia. She was the first woman to lead a power plant in Estonia.  In 2004, when Estonia joined the European Union, Kaljulaid was appointed the country's representative at the European Court of Auditors. Since 2011, Kaljulaid has been the chairperson of the board of the University of Tartu.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Kaljulaid has defined herself as a liberal conservative. She has spoken in support of strong civil society with less state interference, whilst placing high importance on helping those in need. She holds liberal views on social issues such as LGBT rights and immigration. She has often published opinion pieces in Estonian media, considering the position of Estonia in the European Union and on social and economical matters. Additionally, she has been a regular participant in political analysis programmes of Radio Kuku, e.g. \"Keskpäevatund\".  From 2001 to 2004, she was a member of the political party Pro Patria Union, a predecessor of the current Pro Patria and Res Publica Union, yet did not run in the elections.  As Kaljulaid's term as a member of the European Court of Auditors was due to end on 7 May 2016, she was confirmed as the next head of PRAXIS Center for Policy Studies in November 2015. Although the Estonian government should have proposed her replacement in the court by 7 February 2016, it still had not managed to do so by the end of her term, so she remained in the position.  On 19 September 2016, the freshly founded Development Monitoring Advisory Board at the Chancellary of Estonian Parliament voted Kaljulaid to be its chair.  After several failed rounds in the Estonian presidential elections in August through September 2016, a so-called \"council of elders\" of the Riigikogu, which included the representatives of all parliamentary parties, the speaker and vice-speakers, asked for Kaljulaid's consent and then proposed her as the only potential presidential candidate to be put before the members of the Riigikogu on 3 October 2016. Her candidacy was officially registered on 30 September. Riigikogu Speaker Eiki Nestor said that Kaljulaid undoubtedly had the required 68 votes from the 101-member Riigikogu, but the exact number remained to be seen. Ultimately her candidacy was supported by 90 Riigikogu MPs. She won the elections by 81 votes with 17 abstainers and no votes against her, while the only parliamentary party that had publicly declared not to support her was EKRE which had only 7 votes.  The main objection raised repeatedly during her candidacy by media as well as politicians and street polls was her being relatively unknown, compared to the candidates that had participated in the campaign. She confronted the objection in her public letter and during several interviews by promising to become visible across the country, visiting different areas and talking to the people directly. In mid-October 2016, the first conducted survey showed Kaljulaid's approval rating at 73%.  In 2017, she became the first Estonian to be featured in the \"Forbes\" magazine's list of The World's 100 Most Powerful Women, placed at 78th, and came twenty second among the most influential female political leaders.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Kaljulaid has a daughter and a son from her first marriage. She is also a grandmother. Kaljulaid's second husband is Georgi-Rene Maksimovski; they have two sons.  Kaljulaid's half-brother, Estonian Social Democratic Party politician Raimond Kaljulaid, served as the Elder of Põhja-Tallinn district from 2016–2019, and was later elected to the Riigikogu in 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kersti Kaljulaid (; born 30 December 1969) is an Estonian politician who is the fifth and current President of Estonia, in office since 10 October 2016. She is the first female head of state of Estonia since the country declared independence in 1918, as well as the youngest ever President, age 46 at the time of her election.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977698}
{"src_title": "The Night Of", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Production.", "content": "On September 19, 2012, it was announced that HBO had ordered a pilot based on the British television series \"Criminal Justice\". James Gandolfini was set to star, Richard Price would write the project, and Steven Zaillian would direct. On February 19, 2013, HBO passed on the project. However, on May 13, 2013, HBO reversed course, picking up \"Criminal Justice\" as a seven-part limited series. After Gandolfini's death on June 19, 2013, it was reported that the miniseries would move forward in his honor, and that Robert De Niro was set to replace Gandolfini. On April 21, 2014, John Turturro replaced De Niro because of scheduling conflicts. On March 11, 2016, it was announced that the project would premiere in the middle of 2016 under the title \"The Night Of\". Gandolfini retains a posthumous executive producer credit.  In July 2016, Steven Zaillian commented about the possibility of a second season: \"We're thinking about it and if we come up with something we all feel is worthy of doing, we'll do it. This was designed as a stand-alone piece. That being said, there are ways of certainly kind of taking what it feels like and what it's about and doing another season on another subject.\" In April 2017, Zaillian again commented on the possibility of a second season, saying: \"Listen, we would love to do it, and when I say 'we,' I mean [co-creator] Richard Price and myself. If we can come up with something that we fall in love with, we'll do it. If we don't, we won't.\" In August 2017, John Turturro talked about the possibility of returning for season two: \"We've been talking. So we'll see. I would be very interested because I felt that character offered something really rich. I'm hoping that that will come to fruition.\"  In January 2020, John Turturro stated that new episodes of \"The Night Of\" are still a possibility: \"We have a couple of ideas but we have to sit down and discuss them, so we're at that stage so that's good.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "\"The Night Of\" received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it currently has a score of 90, indicating \"universal acclaim\" based on 40 reviews. It currently has a score of 95% on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 8.6/10 based on 62 reviews; its consensus reads, \"\"The Night Of\" is a richly crafted, exquisitely performed mystery that will keep viewers enthralled and leave them devastated.\"  IGN reviewer Jesse Schedeen gave the entire miniseries an 8.9 out of 10 'Great' score, writing \"With only a couple of exceptions, this summer hasn't been the greatest when it comes to new TV series, which makes The Night Of's brief run all the more special. This limited series did little to shake up the formula when it (comes to) crime dramas, but it was distinguished by its amazing cast and the pervasive tension that drove the series from start to finish.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ratings.", "content": "In the United States, the miniseries experienced a TV ratings growth over its eight-episode run, with daily ratings tripling from its premiere to its finale. The premiere episode drew 2.1million viewers, before increasing to an average gross audience of 8.2million viewers on HBO.  In the United Kingdom, where it aired in September 2016, the first episode drew 468,000 viewers on Sky Atlantic. The show eventually drew an audience of 2.5million viewers across Sky's On Demand platforms.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Night Of is a 2016 American eight-part crime drama television miniseries based on the first season of \"Criminal Justice\", a 2008 British series. The miniseries was written by Richard Price and Steven Zaillian (based on the original \"Criminal Justice\" plot by Peter Moffat), and directed by Zaillian and James Marsh. Broadcast on HBO, \"The Night Of\" premiered on July 10, 2016 to critical acclaim. The first episode premiered on June 24, 2016, via HBO's on-demand services.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977699}
{"src_title": "Google Pixel", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Phones.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pixel.", "content": "Google announced the first generation Pixel smartphones, the Pixel and the Pixel XL, on October 4, 2016 during the #MadeByGoogle event. Google emphasized the camera on the two phones, which ranked as the best smartphone camera on DxOMarkMobile with 90 points until HTC released the U11, which also scored 90 points. This is largely due to software optimizations such as HDR+. The Pixel phones also include unlimited cloud storage for pictures on Google Photos and, for devices purchased directly from Google, an unlockable bootloader.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pixel 2.", "content": "Google announced the Pixel 2 series, consisting of the Pixel 2 and Pixel 2 XL, on October 4, 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pixel 3.", "content": "Google announced the Pixel 3 and Pixel 3 XL at an event on October 9, 2018, alongside several other products.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pixel 3a.", "content": "On May 7, at I/O 2019, Google announced the Pixel 3a and Pixel 3a XL, budget alternatives to the original two Pixel 3 devices.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pixel 4.", "content": "Google announced the Pixel 4 and Pixel 4 XL at an event on October 15, 2019, alongside several other products.  In 2019, Google offered a bug bounty of up to $1.5 million for the Pixel 4.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tablets.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pixel C.", "content": "The Pixel C was announced by Google at an event on September 29, 2015, alongside the Nexus 5X and Nexus 6P phones (among other products). The Pixel C includes a USB-C port and a 3.5 mm headphone jack. The device shipped with Android 6.0.1 Marshmallow, and later received Android 7.x Nougat and Android 8.x Oreo. Google stopped selling the Pixel C in December 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pixel Slate.", "content": "The Pixel Slate, a 2-in-1 tablet and laptop, was announced by Google in New York City on October 9, 2018, alongside the Pixel 3 and 3 XL. The Pixel Slate includes two USB-C ports but omits the headphone jack. The device runs Chrome OS on Intel Kaby Lake processors, with options ranging from a Celeron on the low end to an i7 on the high end. In June 2019, Google announced it will not further develop the product line, and cancelled two models that were under development.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Laptops.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chromebook Pixel (2013).", "content": "Google announced the first generation Chromebook Pixel in a blog post on February 21, 2013. The laptop includes an SD/multi-card reader, Mini DisplayPort, combination headphone/microphone jack, and two USB 2.0 ports. Some of the device's other features include a backlit keyboard, a \"fully clickable etched glass trackpad,\" integrated stereo speakers, and two built-in microphones.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chromebook Pixel (2015).", "content": "On March 11, 2015, Google announced the second generation of the Chromebook Pixel in a blog post. The laptop includes two USB-C ports, two USB 3.0 ports, an SD card slot, and a combination headphone/microphone jack. The device also has a backlit keyboard, a \"multi-touch, clickable glass trackpad,\" built-in stereo speakers, and two built-in microphones, among other features.  Google discontinued the 2015 Chromebook Pixel on August 29, 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pixelbook.", "content": "On October 4, 2017, Google launched the first generation of the Pixelbook, named the Google Pixelbook, at its Made by Google 2017 event.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pixelbook Go.", "content": "On October 15, 2019, Google announced the second generation of the Pixelbook, named the Pixelbook Go, at its Made by Google 2019 event.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Accessories.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pixel Buds.", "content": "At Google's October 2017 hardware event, a set of wireless earbuds were unveiled alongside the Pixel 2 smartphones. The earbuds are designed for phones running Android Marshmallow or higher, and work with Google Assistant. In addition to audio playback and answering calls, the earbuds support translation in 40 languages through Google Translate. The earbuds are able to auto pair with the Pixel 2 with the help of the Google Assistant and \"Nearby\". The Pixel Buds are available in the colors Just Black, Clearly White and Kinda Blue. The earbuds have a battery capacity of 120 mAh while the charging case that comes with the Pixel Buds have a battery capacity of 620 mAh. The earbuds are priced at $159.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pixelbook Pen.", "content": "Alongside the launch of the Pixelbook in October 2017, Google announced the Pixelbook Pen, a stylus to be used with the Pixelbook. It has pressure sensitivity as well as support for Google Assistant. The Pen is powered by a replaceable AAAA battery and is priced at US$99.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pixel Stand.", "content": "In October 2018, Google announced the Pixel Stand alongside the Pixel 3 smartphones. In addition to standard 5 watt Qi wireless charging, the Pixel Stand has wireless 10 watt charging using a proprietary technology from Google. It also enables a software mode on the Pixel 3 that allows it to act as a smart display similar to the Google Home Hub.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Google Pixel is a brand of consumer electronic devices developed by Google that run either Chrome OS or the Android operating system. The Pixel brand was introduced in February 2013 with the first-generation Chromebook Pixel. The Pixel line includes laptops, tablets, and smartphones, as well as several accessories.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977700}
{"src_title": "Economic Forum in Krynica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Guests.", "content": "The Forum engages political, business and third sector leaders, i.a.: presidents, prime ministers, ministers, EU commissioners, parliamentarians, presidents of large companies, experts, as well as representatives of cultural institutions and media. The 26th edition of the Economic Forum in 2016 was attended by over 3,000 visitors from 60 countries in Europe, Asia and the Americas. The following speakers have attended the Forum over the years, among others:  Valdas Adamkus, José María Aznar, Gordon Bajnai, José Manuel Barroso, Marek Belka, Elmar Brok, Jerzy Buzek, Emil Constantinescu, Massimo D'Alema, Norman Davis, Valdis Dombrovskis, Roland Dumas, Andrzej Duda, Mikuláš Dzurinda, Robert Fico, Vladimir Filat, Jan Fisher, Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović, Alfred Gusenbauer, Dalia Grybauskaitė, Rebecca Harms, Václav Havel, Danuta Hübner, Toomas Hendrik Ilves, Ǵorge Iwanow, Arseniy Yatsenyuk, Viktor Yanukovych, Sergey Yastrzhembsky, Viktor Yushchenko, Jarosław Kaczyński, Ewa Kopacz, Aleksander Kwaśniewski, Bronisław Komorowski, Gediminas Kirkilas, Horst Kohler, Milan Kučan, Vytautas Landsbergis, Thomas de Maizière, Stjepan Mesić, Mario Monti, Leszek Miller, Viktor Orbán, Andris Piebalgs, Petro Poroshenko, Viviane Reding, Mikheil Saakashvili, Jorge Sampaio, Karel Schwarzenberg, Bohuslav Sobotka, László Sólyom, Beata Szydło, Boris Tadić, Mirek Topolánek, Donald Tusk, Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, Lech Wałęsa, José Luis Zapatero, Amanda Zuffi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Debates.", "content": "Over 180 debates and discussion panels are held annually during the Forum. They are grouped in the following theme paths:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "The Forum is regularly covered by journalists from major international media outlets. The debates and discussion panels have been covered by Bloomberg, AFP, Reuters or TASS, and by leading daily newspapers such as: \"Die Welt\", \"Le Figaro\", Euronews, \"Kommersant\", \"Financial Times\" and \"The Wall Street Journal\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Krynica Economic Forum is an annual international meeting of economic and political elites held in the first half of September at the ski and spa resort of Krynica-Zdrój in southern Poland. The Forum was founded by Zygmunt Berdychowski in 1992 and it is organised by the Foundation Institute for Eastern Studies in Warsaw. Within 25 years of its history the Krynica Economic Forum has evolved from a small conference, with about 100 participants, to one of the biggest and most recognisable meetings of the political and business leaders of Central and Eastern Europe, and is therefore sometimes referred to as the \"Eastern Davos\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977701}
{"src_title": "Statenvertaling", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Guidelines.", "content": "The Statenvertaling was written with specific guidelines for translation established by the Synod during its 8th session on November 20, 1618. The four main instructions to the translators were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Apocryphal books.", "content": "Regarding the Biblical apocrypha, the synod decided to translate these books but not to make them part of the canon. They were placed after the books of the New Testament and preceded with a \"warning for the reader\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Translation of God's name.", "content": "In the Hebrew Bible, God's name is written with the four consonants JHWH (as seen on the very top of the title page in Hebrew characters), and would not be pronounced by the Jews. During the 12th session, the synod decided to translate God's name with \"\"HEERE\"\" (\"LORD\"). In the margin where God's name first appears, the following note is given:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The translators.", "content": "The translators and overseers were appointed during the 13th session on 26 November 1618. Translators were Johannes Bogerman, Willem Baudartius, and Gerson Bucerus for the Old Testament, and Jakobus Rolandus, Herman Faukelius, and Petrus Cornelisz for the New Testament and Apocrypha. Jacobus Revius was secretary to the committee of translators and revisers.  Herman Faukelius and Petrus Cornelisz died before they could start on the translation, and were therefore replaced by Festus Hommius and Antonius Walaeus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "Besides its influence in religious matters, the Statenvertaling also had a large effect on the Dutch language and politics. The language and the choice of words and expressions used formed the basis of the accepted form of standardized Dutch, which formulated in the 17th century. It acted as a cultural unification of the Netherlands.  Because of its influence, the Statenbijbel has been included in the Canon of Dutch History, a list of 50 required subjects that should not be omitted from history classes in the Netherlands.  Lithuanian calvinist Samuelis Boguslavas Chilinskis used the Statenbijbel as a main source for his translation of the Bible into the Lithuanian language.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Statenvertaling (, \"States Translation\") or Statenbijbel (\"States Bible\") was the first translation of the Bible from the original Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek languages into Dutch, ordered by the Synod of Dordrecht 1618 and financed by government of the Protestant Dutch Republic and first published in 1637.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977702}
{"src_title": "Patrik Schick", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sparta Prague.", "content": "He made his league debut for Sparta Prague on 3 May 2014 in a 3–1 away loss at Teplice. He went on loan to Bohemians 1905 in 2015.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sampdoria.", "content": "Schick signed for Sampdoria in June 2016 for a reported fee of €4 million. In his first season in Italy, he appeared in 32 league matches and scored 11 goals for Sampdoria. He refused to extend his contract in May 2017, expecting a transfer to another club. In June 2017, Juventus triggered the release clause of a reported €30 million on Schick's contract. However, Schick failed two separate medicals and Juventus backed out of the deal on 18 July.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roma.", "content": "On 29 August 2017 Schick joined Roma on a temporary deal for a loan fee of €5 million. The club had a conditional obligation to buy the player once certain sporting objectives had been achieved, for an initial fee of €9m, plus bonuses of €8m. Moreover, if Schick was sold by Roma before 1 February 2020, Sampdoria would receive €20m or a 50% transfer fee, depending on which figure were greater. Nevertheless, Sampdoria will receive €20m in February 2020 if Schick will not be sold by the time the January transfer window would closed. Including all possible bonuses, the €42 million price tag would surpass the previous club record transfer fee of €36m (Gabriel Batistuta).  On 2 September 2019, RB Leipzig announced the signing of Schick on a season-long loan deal with an option to buy him permanently.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Regarded as a promising young player in the media, Schick is a tall and physically strong yet elegant left-footed forward, with an eye for goal. Although he usually plays in a central role as a main striker, he is also capable of playing as a second striker, or as a right winger. A quick, powerful, hard-working, and agile player, he is known for his ability to utilise his physique to hold up the ball with his back to goal, but also possess excellent technique and dribbling skills, as well as good link-up play, which enables him to play the ball first time, participate in the build-up of attacking plays, and provide assists for teammates. He is also good in the air, and is capable of scoring goals with his head.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Sparta Prague National  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Patrik Schick (born 24 January 1996) is a Czech professional footballer who plays as a forward for German club RB Leipzig, on loan from Italian club Roma, and the Czech Republic national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977703}
{"src_title": "Jared Kushner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "Chase played a tough, physical game that earned him a reputation as an enforcer as well as many penalty minutes, a statistic in which he led the WHL in 1987–88 while playing with the Saskatoon Blades. Before that he played with the Humboldt Broncos of the Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League.  In spite of putting up decent numbers in his last year of Major Junior Hockey with 55 points in 70 games with the Saskatoon Blades in 1987-88, all NHL teams took a pass on Chase in the 1988 Entry Draft. His significant penalty minutes (343) may have contributed to many teams' reticence on drafting a player who would take numerous penalties. However, in 1988, Chase was signed as an undrafted free agent by the St. Louis Blues, and spent the majority of the three following seasons with the Peoria Rivermen of the IHL. Chase subsequently became a regular on the Blues' bench, with his play on the ice and quick wit off the ice earning him a spot in the hearts of Blues fans.  In 1994, Chase, along with Anthony Sansone Jr., founded and coached the Gateway Locomotives special hockey team. On March 30, 2017, the team was re-named as St. Louis Blues Special Hockey.  In January 1995, the Hartford Whalers selected Chase in the NHL Waiver Draft. Chase would spend most of the next three seasons with the Whalers before being traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs in 1997. Prior to the 1997–98 season, Chase was reacquired by the Blues for future considerations. It was at the end of that season that Chase was awarded the King Clancy Memorial Trophy for his charity work with the Gateway Special Hockey Program, a program started by Chase in the early 1990s to help those with developmental disabilities participate in organized hockey.  Chase retired from professional hockey on July 28, 2000 and is currently the color commentator for St. Louis Blues radio broadcasts on KMOX. On December 15, 2008, Chase was presented with the 2008 Jack Buck Award, for his enthusiasm and dedication to sports in the city of St. Louis, Mo. Chase also participated on the Canadian Broadcasting's (CBC) \"Battle of the Blades\" which is figure skating version of \"Dancing With The Stars\" in 2010.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jared Corey Kushner (born January 10, 1981) is an American investor, real-estate developer, and newspaper publisher who is currently senior advisor to his father-in-law, Donald Trump, the president of the United States. Kushner is the elder son of the former real-estate developer Charles Kushner, the son of Jewish immigrants from the USSR, and is married to Ivanka Trump, President Trump's daughter and fellow advisor. As a result of his father's conviction and incarceration for fraud, he took over management of his father's real estate company Kushner Companies, which launched his business career. He later also bought Observer Media, publisher of the \"New York Observer\". He is the co-founder and part owner of Cadre, an online real-estate investment platform.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977704}
{"src_title": "Kayla Harrison", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in Middletown, Ohio, Harrison took up judo at the age of six, having been introduced to the sport by her mother, who was a black belt. She graduated from Middletown High School (Ohio).  She began training under coach Daniel Doyle, and won two national championships by the age of 15. However, during that period Doyle was abusing Harrison, who reported it to another judoka, who in turn told Harrison's mother. She subsequently reported this to the police. Doyle was convicted and sentenced to a ten-year prison term. A month after the abuse was revealed, she moved away from her home in Ohio to move to Boston to train with Jimmy Pedro and his father.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Judo.", "content": "She changed weight classes in 2008, from the −63 kg division to the 78 kg division. However, she couldn't compete in the 2008 Summer Olympics as the United States had not qualified in that division. She won the Junior World Championship that year, and the following year placed second, becoming the first American to compete in two Junior World Championships finals.  She won the gold medal in the −78 kg category at the World Judo Championships in 2010, the first American to do so since 1999 (when her coach, Jimmy Pedro, did so in Birmingham, United Kingdom). At the 2011 World Judo Championship in Paris, she placed third taking the bronze medal. Harrison had lost to the eventual winner, Audrey Tcheuméo of France, in her semi-final.  Prior to the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, she was injured during training, having torn a medial collateral ligament. On August 2, 2012, she won the Olympic title in the −78 kg category, defeating Gemma Gibbons of Britain by two yukos, to become the first American to win an Olympic gold medal in judo. She earned a second Olympic gold medal in the same weight class in 2016 in Rio, defeating Audrey Tcheuméo of France.  On August 31, 2016 the United States Judo Association (USJA) made a batsugun promotion of Kayla to rokudan (6th Degree Black Belt) making her the youngest person in the US to ever be awarded this rank.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mixed martial arts.", "content": "Harrison, a former training partner of fellow judoka Ronda Rousey, announced in October 2016 that she had signed with World Series of Fighting. While she will initially work as a commentator she also indicated she is contracted to fight, probably in the women's division.  Harrison made her MMA debut at PFL 2 on June 21, 2018 against Brittney Elkin in the Women's Lightweight division. She won via submission due to an armbar in the first round.  For her second professional fight, Harrison faced Jozette Cotton at PFL 6 on August 16, 2018. She won the fight via TKO in the third round.  Kayla Harrison was on the main card for PFL 11 in 2018 and defeated Moriel Charneski; after her victory, it appeared that she was not completely content with her own performance.  Harrison was expected to headline the first event of PFL's second season against Svetlana Khautova on May 9, 2019. However Khautova withdrew from the bout and was replaced by Larissa Pacheco. Harrison won the fight by unanimous decision.  Harrison faced Morgan Frier in the co-main event of PFL 4 on July 11, 2019. She won the fight by key lock submission in the first round. Subsequently, Harrison signed a new long-term contract extension with the PFL.  After becoming second in the preliminary round standing, Harrison secured a spot at the playoffs, she was originally scheduled to face number 3 ranked Genah Fabian at PFL 7 on October 11, 2019, but was forced to pull out of the bout. Genah Fabian was replaced by number 5 Bobbi Jo Dalziel. Kayla would win the fight by an armbar in the first round.  Harrison faced Larissa Pacheco in rematch for the Women's Lightweight final at PFL 10 on December 31, 2019. After dominating every round with her superior grappling, Harrison won the fight by unanimous decision to win the 2019 Women's Lightweight Championship.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Television.", "content": "Kayla Harrison has been a guest in episode 24 of season 6, and in episode 4 of season 7, of the television show \"\"Impractical Jokers\".\"  She also appeared on an episode of “‘’Flea Market Flip’’” with her grandmother.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Judo record.", "content": "! Result! style=\"text-align:center;\"| Rec.! Opponent! Score! Event! Division! Date! Location", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kayla Harrison (born July 2, 1990) is an American former judoka who competed in the 78 kg weight category, and is currently a mixed martial artist who competes in the lightweight division. She won the 2010 World Championships, gold medals at the 2012 and 2016 Olympics, and gold at the 2011 and 2015 Pan American Games.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977705}
{"src_title": "World of Warships", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"World of Warships\" is a tactical, slow-paced shooter with two basic types of armament: ship guns and torpedoes. The gameplay is team-based, and allows players to work as a team. Within a team divisions can be established to allow a group of up to three players to join and fight battles together. The player's team can fight against other players (PvP) or against the AI (PvE) in three battle modes: Standard, Domination, and Epicenter. Each mode is scored on a points system.  The warships presented in the game cover periods from the early 20th century, at the dawn of dreadnought battleships, up to warships from the 1950s, including ships that were planned but never put into production. The game has four different types of ships: destroyers, cruisers, battleships, and aircraft carriers. Submarines are currently planned to be added into the game.  The game features navies of major naval power nations including the United States Navy, the Imperial Japanese Navy, the Royal Navy, the Imperial German Navy (later Kriegsmarine), the Italian Regia Marina and the Imperial Russian Navy (later Red Fleet). Commonwealth and other smaller European navies are also represented, along with a Pan-Asian tree featuring ships from various East and Southeast Asian navies.  Players can progress through the game through research of each ship from each tier. Each specific ship has a number of modules that can be accessed through experience. This experience is used to unlock modules and, once a ship's modules are completely researched, the player can continue to the next ship. The previous ship, if fully upgraded, gains \"Elite\" status. Warship elements such as commanders with skill trees and unique perks can be further customized, as well as modification kits and mounting consumables like signals and ship camouflage.  The game features combat missions, challenges, campaigns and collections for the sake of creating extra goals, rewards and a meaningful progression for players during their time with the game. These systems also give an opportunity of creating a storytelling inside or outside of the military or historical genres. Some special Halloween, April Fools, or other holiday battle modes appear in the game. The secondary goal of the \"holiday modes\" is to test new game mechanics.  Battles take place on a limited number of specific maps, each depicting a certain location with different geographical layouts mostly based on locations of historical naval battles. Most part of maps have a static or dynamic weather system to make battles more diverse. Moreover, some maps are unique for a certain game mode, e.g. PvE scenario battles based on historical events such as the Dunkirk evacuation.  Scenarios is a PvE game mode where players cooperate and complete tasks. They include a number of operations, each with separate stories, objectives, secondary objectives and rewards. To finish the scenario, players need to team up and complete the primary objective. On completion of the secondary objectives, they receive an additional star.  In addition to Ranked Battles, Clan battles were introduced as another competitive mode that is played in the season format. Players can only participate in Clan Battles as a team, as opposed to Ranked battles where individual players compete against each other.  \"World of Warships: Legends\" was rebuilt to support console gameplay, sharing the same core gameplay loop of the computer version. However, it was designed to have faster paced battles, faster progression, and had several systems revamped to fit console players.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "On August 16, 2011, the company website of Wargaming, developer and publisher of \"World of Tanks\" and \"World of Warplanes\", announced \"World of Battleships\", a free-to-play naval action MMO, intended to complete the \"World of\" war trilogy developed by the company. On August 2, 2012, the game was renamed \"World of Warships\". After a petition opened by South Korean players was signed 40,000 times, Wargaming removed the Rising Sun Flag from Imperial Japanese warships in July 2013. After that, more than 12,000 signatures were gathered requesting reimplementation of the Rising Sun Flag, but the decision was not overturned. On November 14, 2013, the game entered closed alpha testing.  Closed beta testing for \"World of Warships\" started on March 12, 2015, shortly after closed alpha ended, with the non-disclosure agreement covering the alpha being lifted at the same time. On April 9, 2015, pre-order packages consisting of premium warships and access to the closed beta test became available for purchase by players. Open beta testing for \"World of Warships\" started on July 2, 2015, as the final step prior to the game's formal launch. As of the open beta test, approximately 85% of the core game development have been completed and there were future plans to introduce weather effects and night battle after the game's official release.  On September 3, 2015, Wargaming announced that the game had exited open beta. The game was officially launched on September 17, 2015, and later released through Steam and Microsoft Store on November 15, 2017.  An iOS and Android version titled \"World of Warships Blitz\" was released by Wargaming Mobile on January 18, 2018., A console version of the computer game, \"World of Warships: Legends\", was announced on June 20, 2018, and was released in Early Access and Game Preview for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on April 16, 2019. \"World of Warships: Legends\" fully released on August 12, 2019.  According to Malik Khatazhaev, the general manager of Lesta Studio, in May 2019, World of Warships MAU exceeded 1,000,000 worldwide actively playing audiences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"World of Warships\" has a score of 81/100 on Metacritic. IGN awarded it a score of 8.3 out of 10, stating that the combat feels good and that the game's teamwork is satisfying. GameSpot awarded it a score of 8.0 out of 10, saying \"The thrills that await, along with the promise of unlocking advanced ships down the road, make \"World of Warships\" an enticing expedition into the sometimes turbulent waters of free-to-play games.\" The Escapist awarded it four out of five, saying \"With its tense naval battles and huge array of historical vessels, \"World of Warships\" is the free-to-play MMO that can make a wargamer out of anyone.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "World of Warships is a free-to-play naval warfare-themed massively multiplayer online game produced and published by Wargaming, following the earlier games \"World of Tanks\" and \"World of Warplanes\". Players can battle others at random or play cooperative battle types against bots or an advanced player versus environment (PvE) battle mode. For the most skilled players, two seasonal competitive modes are available.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977706}
{"src_title": "Mongolian wolf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "\"Canis chanco\" was the scientific name proposed by John Edward Gray in 1863 who described a skin of a wolf that was shot in Chinese Tartary. This specimen was classified as a wolf subspecies \"Canis lupus chanco\" by St. George Jackson Mivart in 1880. In 1923, Japanese zoologist Yoshio Abe proposed separating the wolves of the Korean Peninsula from \"C. chanco\" as a separate species, \"C. coreanus\", because of their comparatively narrower muzzle. This distinction was contested by Reginald Pocock, who dismissed it as a local variant of \"C. chanco\". In the third edition of \"Mammal Species of the World\" published in 2005, the mammalogist W. Christopher Wozencraft listed under the wolf \"Canis lupus\" the taxonomic synonyms for the subspecies \"Canis lupus chanco\". Wozencraft classified \"C. coreanus\" (Abe, 1923) as one of its synonyms.  There remains taxonomic confusion over the Mongolian wolf. In 1941, Pocock had referred to the Tibetan wolf as \"C. l. laniger\" and classified it as a synonym under \"C. l. chanco\". However, Wozencraft included \"C. l. laniger\" as a synonym for \"C. l. filchneri\" Matschie (1907). There are some researchers who still refer to Pocock's classification of the Tibetan wolf as \"C. l. chanco\", which has caused taxonomic confusion. The NCBI/Genbank lists \"C. l. chanco\" as the Mongolian wolf but \"C. l. laniger\" as the Tibetan wolf, and there are academic works that refer to \"C. l. chanco\" as the Mongolian wolf.  To add further confusion, in 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group noted that the Himalayan wolf's distribution included the Himalayan range and the Tibetan Plateau. The group recommends that this wolf lineage be known as the \"Himalayan wolf\" and classified as \"Canis lupus chanco\" until a genetic analysis of the holotypes is available. The Himalayan wolf currently lacks a proper morphological analysis.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical description.", "content": "Gray described the type specimen from Chinese Tartary as follows:  The fur fulvous, on the back longer, rigid, with intermixed black and grey hairs; the throat, chest, belly, and inside of the legs pure white; head pale gray-brown; forehead grizzled with short black and grey hairs. \"Hab.\" Chinese Tartary. Called \"Chanco\". The skull is very similar to, and has the same teeth as, the European wolf (\"C. lupus\"). The animal is very like the Common Wolf, but rather shorter on the legs; and the ears, the sides of the body, and outside of the limbs are covered with short, pale fulvous hairs. The length of its head and body are ; tail.  The prominent Russian zoologist, Vladimir Georgievich Heptner, described Mongolian wolves from the Ussuri region of Russia as follows: Dimensions are not large – like \"C. l. desertorum\", or somewhat larger, but markedly smaller than the Siberian forest wolves. Coloration is dirty gray, frosted with a weak admixture of ocherous color and without pale-yellow or chestnut tones. The fur is coarse and stiff. Total body length of males – ; tail length – ; hind foot length – ; ear height – ; shoulder height – ; and weight –. Total body length of females – ; tail length – ; hind foot length – ; ear height – ; shoulder height – ; and weight –.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Range.", "content": "The range of \"C. l. chanco\" includes Mongolia, northern and central China, Korea, and the Ussuri region of Russia, which they have expanded into from northern China recently due to human settlement and its removal of their competitor the tiger. Their range is bounded in the east by the Altai mountains/Tien shan mountains with \"C. l. lupus\", in the south by the Tibetan Plateau with \"C. l. filchneri\", and in southern China by a yet to be named wolf. The taxonomic synonym authors have described their specimens in the following locations: \"chanco\" Gray (1863) Chinese Tartary; \"coreanus\" Abe (1923) Korea; \"karanorensis\" Matschie (1907) Kara-nor in the Gobi desert; \"niger\" Sclater (1874) Hanle in the Indian union territory of Ladakh; and \"tschillensis\" Matschie (1907) the coast of Chihli.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship with humans.", "content": "In Mongolia, the wolf is seen as a spirit animal whereas the dog is seen as a family member. Mongolians do not fear the wolf and understand that it is afraid of humans. It is sometimes called \"the sheep's assassin\". In legend, the Mongolian herders' first father was a wolf from which they had descended, and yet they are required to kill wolves to protect their flocks of sheep. There is sustainable utilization of the wolf's fur in Mongolia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mongolian wolf (\"Canis lupus chanco\") is a subspecies of the grey wolf which is native to Mongolia, northern and central China, Korea, and the Ussuri region of Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977707}
{"src_title": "Catherine Doherty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Doherty was born Ekaterina Fyodorovna Kolyschkine (Екатерина Фёдоровна Колышкина) in Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Empire. Her parents, Fyodor and Emma Thomson Kolyschkine, belonged to the minor nobility and were devout members of the Russian Orthodox Church who had their child baptized in St. Petersburg on September 15, 1896. She was not baptized on the same day that she was born because her mother was worried she might get a disease as she had been born on a train. Schooled abroad due to her father's job, she had an exposure to the Catholic Church in the form of her schooling in Alexandria (Egypt) where her father, an aristocrat, had been posted by the government. Her family returned to St. Petersburg in 1910, where she was enrolled in the prestigious Princess Obolensky Academy. In 1912, aged 15, she married her first cousin, Boris de Hueck (1889–1947).  At the outbreak of World War I, Catherine de Hueck became a Red Cross nurse at the front, experiencing the horrors of battle firsthand. On her return to St. Petersburg, she and Boris barely escaped the turmoil of the Russian Revolution with their lives, nearly starving to death as refugees in Finland. Together they made their way to England, where de Hueck was received into the Catholic Church on November 27, 1919.  Emigrating to Canada with Boris, de Hueck gave birth to their only child, George, in Toronto in 1921. To make ends meet, she took various jobs, eventually traveling across the United States, giving talks on the Chautauqua lecture circuit.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Friendship House.", "content": "Prosperous now, but deeply dissatisfied with a life of material comfort, her marriage in ruins, de Hueck began to feel the promptings of a deeper call through a passage that leaped to her eyes every time she opened the Bible: \"Arise — go... sell all you possess... take up your cross and follow Me.\" Consulting with various priests and the bishop of the diocese, she began her lay apostolate among the poor.  In 1932, she gave up all her possessions, lived among the multitude of poor people in downtown Toronto and established Friendship House with its soup kitchen. She gave food to them when she had none for herself – and offered Catholic education and fellowship, too. She was tagged as a communist sympathizer and, beleaguered by her own organization, Friendship House was forced to close in 1936. Catherine then went to Europe and spent a year investigating Catholic Action. On her return, she established the Friendship House at 34 West 135th Street in Harlem in 1937. The interracial charity center, in addition to distributing goods to the poor, conducted lectures and discussions to promote racial understanding.  In 1943, having received an annulment of her first marriage, as she had married her cousin, which is forbidden in the Roman Catholic Church, she married Eddie Doherty, an American journalist, whom she had met when he was writing a story about her.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Madonna House.", "content": "Serious disagreements arose between the staff of Friendship House and its foundress, particularly surrounding her marriage. When these could not be resolved, Doherty and Eddie moved to Combermere, Ontario, on May 17, 1947 to retire. As she recovered, she started to serve the needs of the community. What eventually blossomed was a new rural apostolate called Madonna House that now numbers approximately 200 staff workers with 17 missionary field-houses throughout the world.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Catherine de Hueck Doherty died in Combermere, on December 14, 1985, at the age of 89. Since then, the cause for her canonization as a saint has been officially opened in the Catholic Church.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Her spirituality.", "content": "\"I considered Nazareth to be the center of my vocation. Only by being hidden would I be a light to my neighbor’s feet in the slums,\" Doherty wrote. She believed that activism should be rooted in prayer and that faith should be brought to every aspect of daily life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The Little Mandate\".", "content": "The core of Doherty's spirituality is summarized in a \"distillation\" of the Gospel which she called \"The Little Mandate\" — words which she believed she received from Jesus Christ and which guided her life. It reads:  The spirituality expressed in The Little Mandate is also known as \"the Madonna House way of life\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Duty of the moment.", "content": "A central theme in Doherty's spirituality is \"the duty of the moment\". As she herself put it:  The duty of the moment is what you should be doing at any given time, in whatever place God has put you. You may not have Christ in a homeless person at your door, but you may have a little child. If you have a child, your duty of the moment may be to change a dirty diaper. So you do it. But you don't just change that diaper, you change it to the best of your ability, with great love for both God and that child... There are all kinds of good Catholic things you can do, but whatever they are, you have to realize that there is always the duty of the moment to be done. And it must be done, because the duty of the moment is the duty of God.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Poustinia.", "content": "Doherty is perhaps best known for having introduced the concept of poustinia to Roman Catholicism through her best-selling book \"Poustinia\", first published in 1975. A poustinia is a small sparsely furnished cabin or room where a person goes to pray and fast alone in the presence of God for 24 hours.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cause for canonization.", "content": "Doherty's cause for canonization as a saint was opened by Pope John Paul II in 2000, and she has been given the official title Servant of God — the first step on the way to being declared Venerable, then Blessed, and finally Saint. At the current stage in the process, a diocesan tribunal, as well as a historical commission, are examining Doherty's life and writings under the supervision of the bishop of the Diocese of Pembroke.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ekaterina Fyodorovna Kolyschkine de Hueck Doherty (August 15, 1896 – December 14, 1985), was a Russian-Canadian Catholic social worker and founder of the Madonna House Apostolate. A pioneer of social justice and a renowned national speaker, Doherty was also a prolific writer of hundreds of articles, best-selling author of dozens of books, and a dedicated wife and mother. Her cause for canonization as a saint is under consideration by the Catholic Church.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977708}
{"src_title": "Mir (software)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Software architecture.", "content": "Mir is built on EGL and uses some of the infrastructure originally developed for Wayland such as Mesa's EGL implementation and Jolla's libhybris. The compatibility layer for X, XMir, is based on XWayland.  Other parts of the infrastructure used by Mir originate from Android. These parts include Google's Protocol Buffers, and previously included Android's input stack, which has since been replaced by Wayland's libinput, prior to the end of 2015. An implementation detail in memory management shared with Android is the use of server-allocated buffers which Canonical employee Christopher Halse Rogers claims to be a requirement for \"the ARM world and Android graphics stack\".  According to Ryan Paul of Ars Technica,", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Adoption.", "content": ", the only announced desktop environment with native support for Mir was Canonical's \"Unity 8.\" No other Linux distribution announced plans to adopt Mir as default display server.  On, Compiz developer Sam Spilsbury had announced a proof-of-concept port of XBMC to Mir, based on the previous proof-of-concept port of XBMC to Wayland. On the same day Canonical developer Oliver Ries had confirmed that \"this is the first native Mir client out in the wild\".  Among Ubuntu derivatives using a non-Unity environment, Xubuntu developers had announced in early August 2013 that they would evaluate running Xfce via XMir, but three weeks later decided to refrain from adopting it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ubuntu.", "content": "In June 2013, Canonical's publicly announced milestones for Mir development were to ship Unity 7 with XMir by default and a pure X11 fallback mode with Ubuntu 13.10, remove the X11 fallback with Ubuntu 14.04 LTS, and Unity 8 running natively on Mir by Ubuntu 14.10. Later, on, Canonical announced a postponement of their Mir plans for desktop use and not use XMir as default in Ubuntu 13.10. Ubuntu Touch, however is targeted to ship with Mir and a smartphone version of Unity 8.  In May 2016, during his traditional video interview with the community held during the Ubuntu Online Summit, Mark Shuttleworth confirmed that \"You will be able to get 16.10 with Unity 8, just like you can get 16.04 with MATE,or KDE, or GNOME. It'll be there, it'll be an option, and the team that's working on that is committed to making that a first-class option.\"  On 5 April 2017, Canonical announced that with the release of Ubuntu 18.04 LTS, the Unity 8 interface would be abandoned in favor of GNOME. When asked if the decision would also mean the end of Mir development, Canonical's Michael Hall said that given the divergent development paths taken by Mir and its competitor, Wayland, \"Using Mir simply isn't an option we have.\"  However, Mark Shuttleworth clarified on 8 April 2017 that development would continue for Mir's use in Internet of Things (IoT) applications, stating: \"we have lots of IoT projects using Mir as a compositor so that code continues to receive investment.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Controversy.", "content": "In March 2013, Canonical Ltd. announced Mir as the replacement display server for the X.Org Server in Ubuntu. Previously, in 2010, it had announced that it would use Wayland. Canonical stated that it could not meet Ubuntu's needs with Wayland. There were several posts made in objection or clarification, by people leading other similar or affected projects.  When originally announcing Mir, Canonical made various claims about Wayland's input system, which the Wayland developers quickly rebutted. Official Canonical documentation in 2014 states, \"our evaluation of the protocol definition revealed that the Wayland protocol does not meet our requirements. First, we are aiming for a more extensible input event handling that takes future developments like 3D input devices (e.g. Leap Motion) into account... With respect to mobile use-cases, we think that the handling of input methods should be reflected in the display server protocol, too. As another example, we consider the shell integration parts of the protocol as privileged and we'd rather avoid having any sort of shell behavior defined in the client facing protocol.\" In late 2015 Mir switched from a custom Android-derived input stack to Wayland's libinput.  Long-time Linux kernel developer Matthew Garrett criticized the choice of licensing for Canonical's software projects, particularly Mir. Unlike X.Org Server and Wayland, both under the MIT License, Mir is licensed under GPLv3 – \"an odd [choice]\" for \"GPLv3-hostile markets\" – but contributors are required to sign an agreement that \"grants Canonical the right to relicense your contribution under their choice of license. This means that, despite not being the sole copyright holder, Canonical are free to relicense your code under a proprietary license.\" He concludes that this creates asymmetry where \"you end up with a situation that looks awfully like Canonical wanting to squash competition by making it impossible for anyone else to sell modified versions of Canonical's software in the same market.\" Garrett's concerns were echoed by Bradley M. Kuhn, Executive Director of the Software Freedom Conservancy. Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation has stated on the similar case of MySQL that he supports dual-licensing of GPL software, as long as there are no proprietary extensions or proprietary versions of the free program, which was not the case for MySQL.  In June 2013, Jonathan Riddell of Kubuntu announced that Kubuntu did not plan to switch to Mir. He stated \"A few months ago Canonical announced their new graphics system for Ubuntu, Mir. It's a shame the Linux desktop market hasn't taken off as we all hoped at the turn of the millennium and they feel the need to follow a more Apple or Android style of approach making an OS which works in isolation rather than as part of a community development method. Here at Kubuntu we still want to work as part of the community development, taking the fine software from KDE and other upstream projects and putting it on computers worldwide. So when Ubuntu desktop gets switched to Mir we won't be following. We'll be staying with X on the images for our 13.10 release now in development and the 14.04 LTS release next year. After that we hope to switch to Wayland which is what KDE and every other Linux distro hopes to do.\"  In September 2013, an Intel developer removed XMir support from their video driver and wrote \"We do not condone or support Canonical in the course of action they have chosen, and will not carry XMir patches upstream.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mir is a computer display server and, recently, a Wayland compositor for the Linux operating system that is under development by Canonical Ltd. It was planned to replace the currently used X Window System for Ubuntu,; however, the plan changed and Mutter was adopted as part of GNOME Shell.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977709}
{"src_title": "Armide (Lully)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Performance history.", "content": "\"Armide\" was first performed on 15 February 1686 by the Paris Opera at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal, with scenery by Bérain, in the presence of the Grand Dauphin. The subject for the opera was chosen for Lully by King Louis XIV of France. However, the king would not attend the première or any of the following performances, possibly because Lully was involved in a homosexual scandal. The opera was well received by the Parisians and was revived by the Paris Opera in 1703, 1713–14, 1724, 1746–47, 1761, and 1764. Between 1686 and 1751 \"Armide\" was mounted in Marseilles, Brussels, Lyon, Lunéville and perhaps Metz, and was also produced abroad in The Hague, Berlin (with revisions by Carl Heinrich Graun) and apparently, in two concert performances, in Rome.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "During the First Crusade, Armide ensnares her enemy the Christian knight Renaud with her magic spells. At the moment she raises her dagger to kill him, she finds herself falling in love with him. She casts a spell to make him love her in return. Upon returning to her castle, she cannot bear that Renaud's love is only the work of enchantment. She calls on the Goddess of Hate to restore her hatred for Renaud, but fails to escape from her feelings of love for him. The Goddess condemns Armide to eternal love. Before Armide can return to Renaud, two of his fellow soldiers reach Renaud and break Armide's spell. Renaud manages to escape from Armide, who is left enraged, despairing, and hopeless.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History and analysis.", "content": "Roughly eight decades following Monteverdi's \"L'Orfeo\", Jean-Baptiste Lully produced \"Armide\" with his longtime collaborator, playwright Jean-Philippe Quinault. Together they had developed the \"tragédie en musique,\" or \"tragédie lyrique,\" which served as a new form of opera that combined elements of classical French drama with ballet, the French song tradition, and a new form of recitative. \"Armide\" was one of Lully's last operas and is therefore extremely developed in style.  The opera's instrumental overture is divided into two parts, all with the same highly professional sound, as if to accompany the entrance of a highly revered authority. It is in fact, according to the \"Norton Anthology of Western Music,\" a \"majesty suitable to the king of France, whose entrance into the theater the overture usually accompanied when he was in attendance\". At points it is playful and bouncy, while always remaining ceremonious. The first section of the overture is in duple meter and comparatively sounds slower than the second section, when the meter changes into compound. These two different styles switch off until the conclusion of the piece (in duple meter).  The most famous moment in the opera is Act II, scene 5, a monologue by the enchantress Armide, considered \"one of the most impressive recitatives in all of Lully's operas\". Armide, accompanied by only continuo, alternates between glorying in her own power and succumbing to piercing angst. Clutching a dagger, she expresses her unyielding desire to kill the knight Renaud, who has foiled her plan to keep the knights of the Crusades in captivity. Though not elaborate in terms of orchestration, the techniques of dramatic interpretation of rhythm, impressive use of stressing on downbeats, and exaggerated use of rests beautifully complicate this piece.  Renaud had taken on the heroic and courageous duty of freeing these knights, much to the vexation of Armide, who now plans to murder him as quickly and swiftly as she can, while he is fast asleep under her magical spell. A stark sense of hesitation washes over her, and her voice grows softer and more full of doubt as she finds herself unexpectedly falling in love with her sworn enemy. Her passion for revenge, to which she was originally so committed, gives way to her new-found love: \"Let us get on with it... I tremble! Let us avenge... I sigh! / My rage is extinguished when I approach him / He seems to be made for love.\" The exaggerated use of rests is exemplified perfectly here, in measures 38-42, amidst her rage and vengefulness. Armide is struck by her contradictory and confusing feelings of love, and the use of ellipses conveys this dramatic hesitation and inner turmoil.  She reaches a decision far more humane than murdering Renaud, by casting a further spell to make him fall in love with her. The bass amplifies and is much more emphatic in this part, while the supporting dynamic harmony permits a more melodic style. The idea is elaborated with accompanying music that evokes love and idealism, similar to the structure of a minuet. Repetition is also prevalent with the orchestra first introducing the entire melody, and Armide echoing its sentiment. A variation begins with Armide's changing emotions, resulting in a dance-like feel that contains orchestral preludes and a pair of recitative styles.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "A segment in the 1987 anthology film \"Aria\" is based loosely on the plot of \"Armide\". Directed by Jean-Luc Godard, it is set in a gym and uses a selection of music from Philippe Herreweghe's first recording of the opera with Rachel Yakar in the title role. (\"Ah! Si la liberté...\", \"Enfin, il est en ma puissance\", \"Venez, venez, Haine implacable\").  A recording of William Christie's staging of \"Armide\" at the Théâtre des Champs-Elysées has been released on DVD.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "Apart from Herreweghe's two recordings, mentioned above, there are two other recordings: a budget version on Naxos and Christophe Rousset's account, released on the Aparté label in 2017.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Armide is an opera by Jean-Baptiste Lully. The libretto by Philippe Quinault is based on Torquato Tasso's poem \"La Gerusalemme liberata\" (\"Jerusalem Delivered\"). The work is in the form of a tragédie en musique, a genre invented by Lully and Quinault.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977710}
{"src_title": "Taymyr Nature Reserve", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Topography.", "content": "The Taymyr Reserve protects territory in the North Siberian Lowlands and the Byrranga Mountains. The terrain is river valley tundra and bogs, and coastal arctic desert. Aside from Byrranga mountains dominant features are Lake Taymyr and the Khatanga River. There are four separate sectors of the reserve:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate and ecoregion.", "content": "Taymyr is located in the \"Taimyr-Central Siberian tundra\" ecoregion. This ecoregion covers the shore of the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean, including the inlets and islands. The low wetlands are important breeding grounds for waterfowl.  The climate of Taymyr is \"Subarctic climate, without dry season\" (Köppen climate classification Subartic climate (Dfc)). This climate is characterized by mild summers (only 1-3 months above ) and cold, snowy winters (coldest month below ). In Taimyrsky, the temperature drops rapidly with latitude: the average July temperature is in the south, to in the center at Lake Taymyr, and in the north. Average precipitation is 200–300 mm/year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Flora and fauna.", "content": "The entire reserve is in the zone of continual permafrost, with extensive thermokarst landscapes. The plant life of the reserve is mostly forbes and lichen. In the river valleys and along the lake shores there are thickets of willow and dwarf birch. Although research is ongoing, scientists in a modern inventory have recorded 475 species of vascular plants, 302 species of mosses, and 269 species of lichens.  The animal life of the reserve is sparse: of the 25 species of mammals encountered, half are seasonal or migratory visitors. The most common are Siberian and Collard lemmings. They are the primary food of the predators, mainly fox. Hoofed animals are represented by Musk ox and reindeer. As of 2014, the herd of reindeer in the Taimayr region was estimated at 550,000 - 600,000 individuals. The musk ox, introduced in the 1970s, have prospered, numbering over 9,000 by 2014. The most common marine mammal is the ringed seal. The coastal sector has a large walrus rookery, and significant polar bear breeding sites. The reserve attracts large number of waterfowl, from 21 species, most of which nest on the site. Geese populations in the tens of thousands collect on Lake Taymyr, and the reserve supports the vulnerable Red-breasted goose. A common site is the Wheatear. Most of the migratory birds are only on the reserve site for four months, from May to September.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecoeducation and access.", "content": "As a strict nature reserve, the Taymyr Reserve is mostly closed to the general public, although scientists and those with 'environmental education' purposes can make arrangements with park management for visits. There are a number of 'ecotourist' routes in the reserve, however, that are open to the public, the main ones being in the Byrranga mountains and on the northern coast. Permits must be obtained in advance, and foreign tourists must go through additional security procedures at the main office in the city of Norilsk.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Taymyr Nature Reserve () (also Taimyrsky) is a Russian 'zapovednik' (strict nature reserve) located in the northern lowlands of Siberia, on the Taimyr Peninsula, and on the coast of the Laptev Sea of the Arctic Ocean. The reserve includes the most northern forest of Dahurian larch in the world, and also the most northern mainland mountain range in the world. The protected area was established to protect the breeding grounds of the Red-breasted goose (Branta ruficollis) as well as the summer residences of wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and the biodiversity of the Lake Taymyr. The reserve is situated about 120 km east of the town of Norilsk, and 3,000 km northeast of Moscow, in the Taymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District of Krasnoyarsk Krai. In 1995, the site was designated a UNESCO MAB (Man and Biosphere) Reserve. The reserve was formally established in 1979, and covers an area of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977711}
{"src_title": "Tupper's self-referential formula", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The formula was defined by Jeff Tupper and appears as an example in Tupper's 2001 SIGGRAPH paper on reliable two-dimensional computer graphing algorithms.  Although the formula is called \"self-referential\", Tupper did not name it as such.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Formula.", "content": "The formula is an inequality defined as:  or, as plaintext,  where ⌊ ⌋ denotes the floor function, and mod is the modulo operation.  Let \"k\" equal the following 543-digit integer:  If one graphs the set of points (\"x\", \"y\") in 0 ≤ \"x\" < 106 and \"k\" ≤ \"y\" < \"k\" + 17 satisfying the inequality given above, the resulting graph looks like this (the axes in this plot have been reversed, otherwise the picture would be upside-down and mirrored):  The formula is a general-purpose method of decoding a bitmap stored in the constant \"k\", and it could actually be used to draw any other image. When applied to the unbounded positive range 0 ≤ \"y\", the formula tiles a vertical swath of the plane with a pattern that contains all possible 17-pixel-tall bitmaps. One horizontal slice of that infinite bitmap depicts the drawing formula itself, but this is not remarkable, since other slices depict all other possible formulae that might fit in a 17-pixel-tall bitmap. Tupper has created extended versions of his original formula that rule out all but one slice.  The constant \"k\" is a simple monochrome bitmap image of the formula treated as a binary number and multiplied by 17. If \"k\" is divided by 17, the least significant bit encodes the upper-right corner (\"k\", 0); the 17 least significant bits encode the rightmost column of pixels; the next 17 least significant bits encode the 2nd-rightmost column, and so on.  It fundamentally describes a way to plot points on a two dimensional surface. The value of k is the binary number that forms the plot in base 10. The following plot demonstrates the addition of different values of k. In the fourth subplot the k value of \"AFGP\" and \"Aesthetic Function Graph\" are added to get the resultant graph, where both the texts can be seen. It is because the binary addition. The information regarding the shape of the plot is stored within k.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tupper's self-referential formula is a formula that visually represents itself when graphed at a specific location in the (\"x\", \"y\") plane.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977712}
{"src_title": "Michael Czerny", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Michael Czerny was born in Brno, Czechoslovakia, on 18 July 1946, and his family immigrated to Canada by ship in 1948. Following his 1963 graduation from Loyola High School in Montreal, Czerny joined the Jesuits on 14 August 1964. On 9 June 1973 he was ordained a priest for the then Upper Canadian Province (now Jesuit Province of Canada) in Willowdale, Ontario. He obtained his doctorate in interdisciplinary studies from the University of Chicago in 1978.  Czerny co-founded the Jesuit Centre for Social Faith and Justice in Toronto in 1979, and he was the first director until 1989. In 1990–1991, following the murder of six Jesuits and others at the University of Central America in San Salvador, he assumed the director's role of the University's Institute for Human Rights (IDHUCA), a position that had been held by one of the murdered priests. He was also Vice-Rector for Social Outreach (\"Vicerrector de Proyección Social\", in Spanish).  From 1992 to 2002, Czerny worked in the Social Justice Secretariat at the Jesuit General Curia in Rome. In 2002 he founded the African Jesuit AIDS Network and directed it until 2010. During these nine years, he initiated and coordinated efforts by Jesuits and others in nearly 30 countries of Sub-Saharan Africa to provide pastoral care, education, health services, social and spiritual support, and to fight stigma for victims of HIV/AIDS, and channelled resources from foreign sources. During that time, he also taught at Hekima University College in Nairobi. In 2009, he argued that condoms were ineffective in preventing the spread of HIV in Africa's general population, despite their success \"outside Africa and amongst identifiable sub-groups (e.g. prostitutes, gay men)\".  Czerny worked in Rome at the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace as the personal assistant to Cardinal Peter Turkson from 2010 to 2016.  On 14 December 2016, Pope Francis appointed him under-secretary of the Migrants and Refugees Section of the Dicastery for Promoting Integral Human Development, effective 1 January 2017, along with Scalabrinian Father Fabio Baggio. Discussing his new responsibility, he called migration \"one of the most important and urgent human phenomena of our times\", adding: \"There’s hardly a place in the planet which is not touched by this phenomenon. Indeed, though many are not aware of it, there are more people moving in Russia and China today than in any other part of the world.”  In 2016 he commissioned Timothy Schmalz to create the \"Angels Unawares\" sculpture that depicts a boat carrying migrants and refugees wearing clothes that identify them with a variety of cultures and time periods. It was inaugurated in St. Peter's Square in the Vatican in 2019.  Francis named him a voting member of the October 2018 Synod of Bishops on Young People, Faith, and Vocational Discernment.  In October 2018, he said the rhetoric used to describe migration and refugee movements was misleading. He said: \"It's not a crisis. It's a series of mismanagements and poor policies and self-interested manipulations. The numbers that we're talking about, even on the total scale, are not at all that great.\" On 4 May 2019, Francis named him one of two Special Secretaries for the October 2019 Synod of Bishops for the Pan-Amazon region. At the press conference introducing the Synod's concluding document, he said the Church needs to learn to respect cultural differences: \"Not to assume that the way I am or the way we are is definitive, is the norm, is the way it has to be... differences have to be embraced\". Asked to define what the synod's participants meant by \"synodality\", he said: \"Everyone had a sense of what it meant because we were doing it. Could we explain that in words... does it matter?\". A few years before, in 2015, he wrote that there were \"limitations and fragmentations\" among the organizations of the Amazon before REPAM but the organization coordinated the work of the Catholic Church in the Amazon region and has worked to defend indigenous peoples and the environment.  On 1 September 2019, Pope Francis announced he would make him a cardinal on 4 October 2019. Czerny was surprised by the announcement, which he heard in Guararema, Brazil, meeting with representatives of the popular movements to prepare for the synod. In accordance with the norm that all cardinals should be bishops, Francis consecrated Czerny a bishop on 4 October, making him titular archbishop of Benevento. The co-consecrators were Cardinals Pietro Parolin and Peter Turkson.  On 5 October 2019, Pope Francis made him a cardinal. His coat of arms is composed of a green field evocative of Pope Francis' encyclical \"Laudato si'\", a gold boat carrying a family of four refugees, the seal of the Society of Jesus, and the word \"suscipe\", the word that opens the prayer in the Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius Loyola: (“Take, Lord, all my liberty\") and also evokes the Gospel command to \"receive\" the stranger. Czerny’s pectoral cross, made by the Italian artist Domenico Pellegrino, is fashioned from the remains of a boat used by migrants to cross the Mediterranean Sea and reach the Italian island of Lampedusa.  Czerny was appointed a member of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples on 21 February 2020.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Michael F. Czerny (born 18 July 1946) is a Czechoslovakian-born Canadian Catholic Cardinal, a member of the Jesuits, whose work in Canada, Latin America, Africa, and Rome has promoted social justice. He has been under-secretary of the Migrants and Refugees Section of the Dicastery for Promoting Integral Human Development since 1 January 2017. Pope Francis created him cardinal on 5 October 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977713}
{"src_title": "Ettore Perrone di San Martino", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "French military service.", "content": "He enlisted as a volunteer soldier, in the infantry in 1806, in the \"Legion du Midi\". He graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1806, and left the following year as second lieutenant of infantry, participating in the campaigns of 1807 and 1809. He was wounded at Battle of Wagram, earning the Legion of Honour. From 1810 to 1811, he was in Spain as a lieutenant in the Young Guard. On 24 June 1811 he joined the Grenadiers of the Old Guard. Although injured, he left for the Russian campaign using crutches. Promoted to Captain of Infantry, he fought at Lützen and Bautzen in May 1813 and was wounded with the bayonet, three times at the Battle of Montmirail. On 15 March 1814, Napoleon appointed him commander of the 24th Infantry Battalion of the line. During the Hundred Days, he was appointed Adjutant to General Gérard.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Italian unification.", "content": "He was arrested on 3 March 1821 at the border, returning from Paris. He was involved in the Piedmont insurrection of 1821, was condemned to death but fled to France, where he joined the army and reached the rank of General. On 2 February 1833, during his exile in France, he married Jenny de Fay de La Tour-Maubourg, the granddaughter of the Marquis de La Fayette. Henry Clay attended the wedding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Italian military service.", "content": "In 1848 he was invited by the provisional government of Milan to join the Army of Lombardy. He became prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 11 October to 16 December 1848. He declined to send representatives to Giuseppe Montanelli's proposed Italian assembly.  He was mortally wounded at the Battle of Novara in the Piedmont, Italy, on 22 March 1849, where, as a Lieutenant-Général, he commanded the left division.  The barracks \"Perrone\", constructed between the 1850-1852, was dedicated to him. Currently the entire complex is used for the orientation center, of the University of the Piemonte.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "His sister Caroline married Just Pons Florimond marquis de La Tour-Maubourg, in 1837.  Hector Perrone di San-Martino married Jenny de Fay de La Tour Maubourg, daughter of Juste-Charles de Fay de La Tour-Maubourg, and Anastasie de Lafayette  Jenny and comte Hector Perrone di San-Martino had two sons, Paolo Luigi, comte Perrone di San Martino (1834–1897), and Roberto Perrone di San Martino (1836–1900), and a daughter, Louise Perrone Di San Martino (1 October 1838 - 14 November 1880), who married the comte Félix Rignon (1829–1914). Louise and Félix Rignon had two children, Édouard Rignon (1861–1932), and Maria Rignon (1858–1950).  His great-great-granddaughter is Paola Ruffo di Calabria, Queen of the Belgians.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ettore Perrone, Conte di San Martino (12 January 1789 in Turin – 29 March 1849) was an Italian politician and military leader.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977714}
{"src_title": "Armida (Dvořák)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "In the Royal gardens of Damascus the call to prayer is heard. Ismen enters with news of the approaching Franks, but tries to dissuade the King from a confrontation: let him instead send his daughter (whose hand Ismen has been seeking) to sow dissention. She balks, but changes her mind when Ismen uses his magic to show her the enemy camp, recognizing Rinald as the knight she has just dreamed of.  Armida arrives in the crusader's camp and meets Rinald, who brings her into the council where she tells a story of a usurping uncle having blinded the king and chased her into the desert. Rinald cannot wait for the commander of an expedition to restore her kingdom to be chosen by lot and is caught leaving camp with her by the hermit Peter, but the lovers are aided in their escape by Ismen, driving a chariot pulled by dragons.  Rinald and Armida are entertained in her garden by sirens and fairies. Ismen is disguised as an old man and tries to destroy the palace, but finding his powers no match for Armida's sorcery, he goes to Rinald's companions and claims to be a convert. Glad of his help, they accept from him the Archangel Michael's diamond shield, which they use to bring Rinald out of the palace, which collapses as soon as Armida gives way to grief.  Rinald asks forgiveness for abandoning his comrades and his mission. As the crusaders advance on Damascus the battle passes through the camp and Rinald kills Ismen and faces a black knight, who drops his sword when he curses Armida's name. Only after stabbing her does he recognize her and baptise her as she dies in his arms.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Armida is an opera by Antonín Dvořák in four acts, set to a libretto by Jaroslav Vrchlický that was originally based on Torquato Tasso's epic \"La Gerusalemme liberata\". Dvořák's opera was first performed at Prague's National Theatre on 25 March 1904; the score was published as opus 115 in 1941.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977715}
{"src_title": "William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "William Brooke was the son of George Brooke, 9th Baron Cobham (d. 29 September 1558), and Anne Braye (d. 1 November 1558)..  Before 1544, Brooke attended The King's School, Canterbury and Queens' College, Cambridge. He spent much of his younger life in Europe. In the early 1540s, he visited Padua. By 1545, William Brooke married Dorothy Neville, daughter of George Neville, 5th Baron Bergavenny, but the marriage was unhappy, and they later separated after 1553. At the end of the decade, he served in northern France, where his father was in charge of Calais, and in 1549, he accompanied William Paget's embassy to Brussels.  Like his father, Brooke sympathized with the anti-Marian nobles; he sided with the rebels during Wyatt's rebellion, and the intervention of his brother-in-law, Henry Nevill, 6th Baron Bergavenny, was needed to keep him from prison. In 1555, he served as MP for Rochester.  In the late 1550s, Brooke's opportunities expanded in a number of areas. His father died in 1558, when he was just over thirty, and he succeeded him as Baron Cobham. Soon after, his wife Dorothy died, and in 1560 at Whitehall, he was free to marry Frances Newton, the daughter of Sir John Newton of Barr's Court, Gloucestershire. Brook became Warden of the Cinque Ports, a position in which he wielded great power over a large number of seats in Parliament. Most important, the accession of Queen Elizabeth I, and his close friendship with William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, made him a powerful noble. When Queen Mary I of England had died, it was Queen Elizabeth who had deputed him to inform Queen Mary's husband, Philip II of Spain, of her death. This embassy was only the first in a long series of missions and intrigues. Along with William Cecil, he numbered among his friends some nobles, such as the Duke of Norfolk and the Earl of Arundel, whose loyalty to Queen Elizabeth was far from certain. Brooke suffered some months' house imprisonment as a result of a very tangential role in the Ridolfi plot. In 1578, he joined Francis Walsingham's failed mission to the Low Countries; on this mission, he presumably served as Cecil's agent. In the late 1580s, he helped John Whitgift search for the author of the Martin Marprelate tracts.  Brooke was made a Knight of the Garter on 14 April 1585, and appointed to the Privy Council by 12 February 1586. He was involved in a minor capacity in the events that ended with the death of Mary, Queen of Scots. During the Armada crisis, he was on a diplomatic mission to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma. In 1589, his eldest daughter Elizabeth married William Cecil's youngest son, Robert Cecil, who would later be made the Earl of Salisbury. By the early 1590s, Brooke had assumed a less active role in government. In 1592, Brooke's second wife Frances died. He succeeded Baron Hunsdon, as Lord Chamberlain in August 1596, and held the office until his death on 6 March 1597.  During his time, William Brooke built Cobham Hall, a Tudor style mansion that remained in his family till the mid-17th century.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and issue.", "content": "William Brooke married firstly Dorothy Nevill (d. 22 September 1559), daughter of George Nevill, 5th Baron Bergavenny, by his third wife, Lady Mary Stafford, daughter of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham. Through her father, Dorothy was the second-cousin of his father, George Brooke. By his first wife Dorothy, he had a daughter, Frances Brooke (b.1549), who married firstly Thomas Coppinger (1546–1580), and secondly Edward Becher (born c.1545).  He married secondly Frances Newton, daughter of Sir John Newton and Margaret Poyntz. By his second wife Frances, he had four sons and three daughters:  The husband of Margaret Brooke, Sir Thomas Sondes, became convinced that her daughter Frances was not his child, and levied a fine of his lands, thus effectively depriving Margaret of her jointure, and died a few months later. His brother and heir, Sir Michael Sondes, honoured Margaret's jointure, but the Sondes family never acknowledged her daughter Frances; and Margaret and Frances returned to Cobham Hall. Before he died in 1597, William Brooke made his second son Henry promise to care for his daughter Margaret, and she and her daughter remained at Cobham Hall on their own after his death. At an unknown date, Margaret went mad, and on 4 November 1602, it was reported that Doctor John Dee had been called in and 'hath delivered the Lady Sondes of a devil or of some other strange possession'. Nothing further is known of her circumstances, apart from the fact that 'the mad Lady Sondes' died in 1621, aged fifty-seven. Her daughter Frances had two daughters by Sir John Leveson, Christian and Frances. After Sir John Leveson's death, Frances married, as his first wife, Thomas Savile, who later became Earl of Sussex. There was no issue from the marriage.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sir William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham, KG (1 November 1527 – 6 March 1597), lord of the Manor of Cobham, Kent, was Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, and a Member of Parliament for Hythe. Although he was viewed by some as a religious radical during the Somerset Protectorate, he entertained Queen Elizabeth I of England at Cobham Hall in 1559, signalling his acceptance of the moderate regime.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977716}
{"src_title": "2016 Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 crash", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Aircraft.", "content": "The aircraft involved was a Tupolev 154B-2, tail number RA-85572, msn 83A-572, which had been in operation since 1983, and had flown for about 7,000 hours before the crash.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Crash.", "content": "The Tupolev had taken off at 05:27 () from the Black Sea resort city of Sochi, Russia, where it had landed to refuel, bound for Syria. Two minutes after takeoff, the aircraft crashed into the Black Sea, from the coast. Wreckage was found at a depth of. All 92 people on board were killed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Passengers and crew.", "content": "Of the 92 passengers and crew on board, 64 were members of the Alexandrov Ensemble choir, the official choir of the Russian Armed Forces, including its director Valery Khalilov. The members of the Ensemble were travelling from Moscow to the Russian military base at Khmeimim near Latakia, Syria, to take part in New Year celebrations.  Among the passengers was Russian humanitarian worker Elizaveta Glinka, the Director of the Department of Culture for the Russian Ministry of Defence Anton Gubankov, seven soldiers (besides Khalilov), nine journalists (three each from Channel One Russia, NTV, and Zvezda), and two civilian officials.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Investigation.", "content": "Immediately after the crash, the Investigative Committee of Russia launched a criminal case to probe the cause.  By 27 December, the cockpit voice and flight data recorders had been located, and both were later recovered and sent to Moscow for analysis. By 28 December, the bodies of 18 people had been recovered from the sea. On 29 December, a third recorder, which backs up data from the CVR and FDR, was found, which, despite being damaged, revealed more information.  One Russian official downplayed the possibility of a terrorist attack as the cause of the crash, focusing more on the possibility of mechanical or human error. After the crash, all Tupolev Tu-154 aircraft in Russia were grounded.  A bright flash was purportedly caught on surveillance cameras along the Sochi coastline before the crash. Witnesses told reporters the plane appeared to experience trouble in gaining altitude, turned 180 degrees, started descending and crashed into the sea.  On 27 December it was reported that an investigative source had told the Interfax news agency that Russian investigators believed a fault with the aircraft flaps had caused the crash. The Life.ru news portal was reported to have obtained a recording of the last words of one of the pilots: \"Commander, we are going down.\" There was no official confirmation.  On 29 December it was announced by the Flight Safety Service of the Russian Ministry that a preliminary analysis of data from the cockpit voice recorder showed that no explosion had occurred on board.  On 16 January the Interstate Aviation Committee, the civil authority in aviation accident investigation, announced that its representative would participate in the investigation.  On 19 January Interfax reported that, during the underwater search, remains had also been found of a Soviet Douglas A-20 Havoc/DB-7 Boston bomber, supplied from the U.S. through the Lend-Lease agreement, which crashed on 15 November 1942.  On 31 May 2017, Russia's \"Kommersant\" said all the evidence pointed to the pilot, Maj Roman Volkov having suffered from somatogravic illusion. Analysis of the flight data suggested that the pilot had \"lost his bearings and ignored his instruments, believing that the jet was climbing too sharply.\" Tiredness was thought to be a factor. Experts said that he was already feeling unwell on the ground and had trouble getting the plane on to the correct runway.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Russia observed a national day of mourning on 26 December, at the declaration of President Vladimir Putin. Lieutenant Colonel Igor Shevernyov, director of the Military Band Service of the Moscow Military District and inspector general of the band service commented to \"RT\" on Khalilov's by noting that it was \"an irreparable loss.\" It will be very difficult for us, ”said Shevernyov. The victims were buried in the Federal Military Memorial Cemetery in Mytishchinsky District in Moscow Oblast. Russian Defence Minister Sergey Shoigu ordered that the Moscow Military Music College be given the honorific \"Valery Khalilov\".  On 28 December, French satirical weekly magazine \"Charlie Hebdo\" published several cartoons mocking the tragedy. In response, a Russian Defense Ministry spokesman said: \"If such, I dare say, 'artistry' is the real manifestation of 'Western values', then those who hold and support them are doomed\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "On 25 December 2016, a Tupolev Tu-154 jetliner of the Russian Defence Ministry crashed into the Black Sea shortly after taking off from Sochi International Airport, Russia, while en route to Khmeimim Air Base, Syria. All 92 passengers and crew on board, including 64 members of the Alexandrov Ensemble choir of the Russian Armed Forces, were killed. The aircraft had flown from Chkalovsky Airport and had landed at Sochi to refuel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977717}
{"src_title": "Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Military career.", "content": "Born the son of Sir Richard Temple, 3rd Baronet, and his wife Mary Temple (née Knapp, daughter of Thomas Knapp), Temple was educated at Eton College and Christ's College, Cambridge, and was commissioned as an ensign in Prince George of Denmark's Regiment on 30 June 1685. After becoming a captain in Babington's Regiment in 1689, he fought under William III during the Williamite War in Ireland against the Jacobite Irish Army of James II. He was present at the Siege of Namur in July 1695 during the Nine Years' War. Temple succeeded his father as 4th Baronet in May 1697 and as Whig Member of Parliament for Buckingham later that year: he continued to represent either Buckingham or Buckinghamshire for the next 16 years. Promoted to lieutenant colonel on 10 February 1702, he was given his own regiment to command. He fought under John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough at the Battle of Venlo in September 1702 and at the Battle of Roermond in October 1702 during the War of the Spanish Succession. He also took part in the Battle of Oudenarde in July 1708 and the Siege of Lille in Autumn 1708. For his good conduct at Lille he was sent home to present the despatches to Queen Anne. In Parliament he supported the Whigs and voted for the Foreign Protestants Naturalization Act 1708 which allowed Protestants fleeing from the continent to enter Great Britain. Promoted to major-general on 1 January 1709, he fought again at the Battle of Malplaquet in September 1709 and was promoted to lieutenant general on 1 January 1710. In Parliament, in accordance with Whig party policy, he voted for the impeachment of Henry Sacheverell, a clergyman who had criticised the party, in March 1710.  In recognition of his service in the field, Temple was appointed colonel of the Princess Anne of Denmark's Regiment of Dragoons in April 1710. From 1711, he made dramatic changes to his family estate at Stowe; the work was carried out under the guidance of John Vanbrugh, a skilled architect, and the future royal gardener, Charles Bridgeman.  In 1713 the Harley Ministry stripped Temple of his colonelcy for voting against the Treaty of Utrecht. However, after George I ascended the throne, Temple became ambassador to Vienna and was created Baron Cobham in October 1714. He also became colonel of The Royal Regiment of Dragoons in 1715 and Constable of Windsor Castle in 1716. He was made a Privy Councillor in July 1716 and created Viscount Cobham in April 1718.  Temple was a mentor and Patron to a number of young Whigs, the most notable being William Pitt. Collectively they became known as Cobham's Cubs. Two of them, Pitt and Temple's nephew George Grenville went on to be Prime Minister. In September 1719 during the War of the Quadruple Alliance Temple led a force of 4,000 troops on a raid on the Spanish coastline which captured Vigo and occupied it for ten days before withdrawing.  Temple generally supported the government of Sir Robert Walpole once it came to power in April 1721 and was rewarded with the colonelcy of the King's Own Regiment of Horse later that year. He became Governor of Jersey in May 1723 and Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire in March 1728.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Temple fell out with Prime Minister Robert Walpole in 1733 and formed a faction in the Whig Party to oppose the Excise Bill which resulted in his being stripped of his colonelcy again. He was promoted to full general on 27 October 1735.  Temple provided patronage to the rising star of the Whig Party, William Pitt, securing him a cornet's commission in his regiment. The group of Temple's young supporters were known as Cobham's Cubs and included Richard Grenville, George Grenville and George Lyttelton, as well as Pitt. After Walpole's fall as Prime Minister in 1742, they turned their attacks on his replacement – a government led by Lord Wilmington and Lord Carteret. Promoted to field marshal on 10 July 1742, Temple became colonel of the 1st Troop of Horse Grenadier Guards that same day, colonel of Viscount Cobham's Regiment of Horse in 1744 and colonel of Viscount Cobham's Regiment of Dragoons in June 1745. He died at Stowe on 13 September 1749 and was buried there.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "In September 1715 Temple married Anne Halsey, daughter of Edmund Halsey who had owned the Anchor Brewery: her inheritance allowed Temple to maintain the Stowe estate; they had no children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Temple was admired by Alexander Pope, and Temple's gardens were praised by Pope in his \"Epistle to Burlington\" as a wonder. Pope wrote a \"moral epistle\" to Temple in 1733 and published it in the same year as \"An Epistle to the Right Honourable Richard Lord Visct. Cobham\". Pope praises Temple as a practical man of the world whose \"ruling passion\" was service to his country, whatever the cost. Basil Williams said Temple \"had all the coarse, roystering bluffness of the hardened old campaigners of that time\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Field Marshal Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham (24 October 1675 – 14 September 1749) was a British soldier and Whig politician. After serving as a junior officer under William III during the Williamite War in Ireland and during the Nine Years' War, he fought under John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, during the War of the Spanish Succession. During the War of the Quadruple Alliance Temple led a force of 4,000 troops on a raid on the Spanish coastline which captured Vigo and occupied it for ten days before withdrawing. In Parliament he generally supported the Whigs but fell out with Sir Robert Walpole in 1733. He was known for his ownership of and modifications to the estate at Stowe and for serving as a political mentor to the young William Pitt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977718}
{"src_title": "Radio Free Albemuth", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "In this alternate history, the corrupt United States president Ferris F. Fremont (FFF for 666, ‘F’ being the 6th letter in the alphabet) becomes Chief Executive in the late 1960s following Lyndon Johnson's administration. The character is best described as an amalgam of Joseph McCarthy and Richard Nixon, who abrogates civil liberties and human rights through positing a conspiracy theory centered on a (presumably) fictitious subversive organization known as \"Aramchek\". In addition to this, he is associated with a right-wing populist movement called \"Friends of the American People\" (FAPers).  The President's paranoia and opportunism lead to the establishment of a real resistance movement that is organized through narrow-beam radio transmissions from a mysterious alien near-Earth satellite by a superintelligent, extraterrestrial, but less than omnipotent being (or network) named VALIS.  Like its successor \"VALIS\", this novel is autobiographical. Dick himself is a major character, though fictitious protagonist Nicholas Brady serves as a vehicle for Dick's alleged gnostic theophany on February 11, 1974. In addition, Silvia Sadassa is a character who claims that Ferris Fremont is actually a communist covert agent recruited by Sadassa's mother when Fremont was still a teenager.  As with \"VALIS\", \"Radio Free Albemuth\" deals with Dick's highly personal style of Christianity (or Gnosticism). It further examines the moral and ethical repercussions of informing on trusted friends for the authorities. Also prominent is Dick's dislike of the Republican Party, satirizing Nixon's America as a Stalinist or neo-fascist police state. Fremont eventually captures and imprisons Dick and Brady after the latter attempts to produce and distribute a record that contains subliminal messages of revolt against the current dictatorship. Brady and Silvia are executed, and Dick narrates the concluding passage about his life in a concentration camp, where his supposedly latest work is actually penned by a ghost writer and regime-approved hack. Suddenly, however, he hears music blaring from a transistor radio which contains the same subliminal message. He and his friends, it turns out, were just a decoy set up by VALIS to detour the government from stopping a much more popular A-List band from releasing a similar record with a better-established recording company. As Dick realizes this and hears youngsters repeating the lyrics, he realizes that salvation may lie within the hearts and minds of the next generation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Gerald Jonas of \"The New York Times\" thought that the novel \"may have been merely a first draft (and an abandoned first draft at that), but this book is not Dick at his best. \"  J. Michael Caparula reviewed \"Radio Free Albemuth\" in \"Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer\" No. 80. Caparula commented that \"The final result presents a satisfying (albeit enigmatic) conclusion to his trilogy of Valis novels (\"Valis\" and \"The Divine Invasion\" being the other two).\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to \"VALIS\".", "content": "When he rewrote \"Radio Free Albemuth\" as \"VALIS\", Dick incorporated the plotline of \"Radio Free Albemuth\" as a backdrop film (also titled \"VALIS\") that recapitulated the central theological and existential concerns of his novel as a mise en abyme - that is, a miniature copy of his central preoccupations at this stage of his literary career, common to both works. The word \"albemuth\" was derived by Dick from the Arabic word Al Behemoth, \"the whale\", itself an oblique reference to Fomalhaut, the star Dick at one time believed VALIS came from in real life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film adaptation.", "content": "John Alan Simon wrote, produced and directed a film adaptation of \"Radio Free Albemuth\". Canadian singer-songwriter Alanis Morissette stars as Sylvia. Filming took place in October 2007 at Los Angeles' Lacy Street Studios and multiple other locations. The film premiered in February 2010 at the Sedona Film Festival as a work in-progress. It was released as a limited release (and VOD) on June 27, 2014.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Radio Free Albemuth is a dystopian novel by Philip K. Dick, written in 1976 and published posthumously in 1985. Originally titled \"VALISystem A\", it was his first attempt to deal in fiction with his experiences of early 1974. When his publishers at Bantam requested extensive rewrites he canned the project and reworked it into the \"VALIS\" trilogy. Arbor House acquired the rights to \"Radio Free Albemuth\" in 1985. They then published an edition under the current title (the original was too close to \"VALIS\"), prepared from the corrected typescript given by Dick to his friend Tim Powers.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977719}
{"src_title": "Brit HaBirionim", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The 1929 Arab riots and the Haganah's inability to successfully prevent the 1929 Hebron massacre and the Safed massacre led to the creation of the first militant organization characterized by its complete disassociation from the existing Zionist establishment dominated by the Labor Zionist movement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ideology.", "content": "The organization's official ideology was Revisionist Maximalism, which was modelled upon Italian Fascism. It sought to create a fascist corporatist state. It is also influenced by the Canaanite ideology of Yonatan Ratosh and the theories of Oswald Spengler in \"The Decline of the West\" (1918). It called for the Zionist Revisionist Movement (ZRM) to adopt the fascist principles of the regime of Benito Mussolini in Italy to create an integralist \"pure nationalism\" amongst Jews. Revisionist Maximalism rejects communism, humanism, internationalism, liberalism, pacifism and socialism; condemned liberal Zionists for only working for middle-class Jews rather than the Jewish nation as a whole. Revisionist Maximalism's minimal goals were presented in 1932 where Ahimeir officially called for the leadership of the Zionist Revisionist Movement to be redesigned into the form of a dictatorship, called for the creation of an independent Zionist federation, called for a \"war on funds\" to end corruption in the Zionist movement, and called for a war on anti-Semitism. The movement's psychology was emphasized in its motto of \"conquer or die\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "Members of \"Brit HaBirionim\" carried out several operations, including demonstrations against visiting British dignitaries, rallies against the British arrest and deportation to Europe of Jewish refugees who overstayed their tourist visas, attempts to interrupt a census conducted by the British, and other illegal activities intended as public provocations such as blowing the Shofar at the Western Wall (forbidden to Jews at that time), and removing the Nazi flags from two German consulates.  In 1933, the British Mandatory Authority arrested several members, including Ahimeir, and charged them with the murder of Chaim Arlosoroff. Though acquitted of the charges in 1934, the trial tarnished the group's reputation and led to its isolation by former political supporters among the Jewish populace, and eventually to its demise.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Brit HaBirionim (Hebrew: ברית הבריונים, \"The Strongmen Alliance\" (Alliance of Thugs)) was a clandestine, self-declared fascist faction of the Revisionist Zionist Movement (ZRM) in Mandatory Palestine, active between 1930 and 1933. It was founded by the trio of Abba Ahimeir, Uri Zvi Greenberg and Yehoshua Yeivin.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977720}
{"src_title": "In the Light of Truth: The Grail Message", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "\"The following Word does not bring a new religion, but is intended as the torch to help all serious listeners or readers find the right path, which leads them to the longed-for height.The Message will strike only those who openly carry within them a spark of Truth, and the yearning to be true human beings. To all such It will become the shining light and staff. It will lead them unswervingly out of all the chaos of the present-day confusion.\" It answers ALL of life's questions, and gives a much deeper understanding of God's Laws...The Ten Commandments and The Golden Rule. \" Abd-ru-shin's Grail Message addresses various topics, ranging from God and the universe to the \"Laws in Creation\", free will and responsibility, intuition and the intellect, the ethereal world and the beyond, justice and love. The Grail Message addresses eternal questions such as what does it mean to be human, what is the purpose of life on earth, and what happens after death. The Grail Message also addresses the causes and significance of crises facing humanity and humanity's responsibilities to the future.  The publishers write \"This book... answers with clarity all the unsolved questions of human existence. The recognitions mediated with this book are so immense that they force the unprejudiced reader to ponder, investigate and go forward. The Grail Message will appeal to any human being who is seeking to understand life, his or her place in Creation, and the source of one’s being.\"  \"In the Light of Truth: The Grail Message\" was written to address and provide spiritual support for the problems and questions in life: Where do we come from? Where do we go when we die? What about fate and karma, Divine justice, free will, the Mission of Jesus, the Son of God, the Laws of Nature and Creation, and many others. \"In the Light of Truth\" also gives information about the Holy Grail. While ancient sagas and legends, and modern art, depict the Grail as an earthly myth, without being able to provide a conclusive explanation of its significance, Abd-ru-shin describes the Grail as a spiritual reality of the highest order, the connecting point between the Creator and His Creation.  According to the explanations of Creation given in \"The Grail Message\", human beings are actually only guests on this earth. They came from a spiritual realm, which is far above the world of earthly matter, in order to begin a course of development leading down to this earth. This path continues for each person through repeated earth lives (reincarnation). Through experiences each person's inner, spiritual consciousness develops, grows, and matures. This is the prerequisite for the way back to the spiritual realm, which is the goal of our path of development: people can and should return to the immortality of the spiritual realm as a conscious spiritual entity, and thus enter \"Paradise.\"  \"In the Light of Truth: The Grail Message\" posits that \"The Laws of Creation\" provide each human spirit with support on their pathway though their existence. Unchangeably interwoven from the beginning, they bear within, like the Ten Commandments, the Love, Grace, and Justice of the Creator. To truly know and understand the way these laws work is essential for successfully navigating one's way through life. Therefore, the explanation of these Laws runs like a thread through the lectures of \"The Grail Message\".  The book also describes the relationship between the sexes: \"male\" and \"female\", each representing a specific, separate \"principle\", each of equal value for the total Creation. \"In the Light of Truth\" describes that there is a polarity between man and woman, which having been misunderstood in the past has often resulted in confusion over the intrinsic nature of their respective activities and the purpose of the sexes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Publication.", "content": "\"The Grail Message: In the Light of Truth\" in three volumes, containing 168 lectures (including lectures published in separate books and in individual form after 1931), was first published in 1950, and is currently available from the Grail Foundation. and from booksellers around the world. 1931 original version books are available at lulu.com", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "In the Light of Truth: The Grail Message was written by Oskar Ernst Bernhardt (1875–1941), and first published in 1926 under the pen name Abd-ru-shin. An expanded, complete edition was published by the author under the name of Abdruschin in 1931, entitled \"Im Lichte der Wahrheit\" (In the Light of the Truth). It was a collection of 91 lectures, written to build upon each other, presenting a complete picture of Creation. Between 1931 and 1934, a further total of 59 additional lectures were released.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977721}
{"src_title": "2017 NHL Entry Draft", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Eligibility.", "content": "Ice hockey players born between January 1, 1997, and September 15, 1999, were eligible for selection in the 2017 NHL Entry Draft. Additionally, undrafted, non-North American players born in 1996 were eligible for the draft; and those players who were drafted in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft, but not signed by an NHL team and who were born after June 30, 1997, were also eligible to re-enter the draft.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Draft lottery.", "content": "Since the 2012–13 NHL season all teams not qualifying for the Stanley Cup playoffs have a \"weighted\" chance at winning the first overall selection. Beginning with the 2014–15 NHL season the NHL changed the weighting system that was used in previous years. Under the new system the odds of winning the draft lottery for the four lowest finishing teams in the league decreased, while the odds for the other non-playoff teams increased. The first three picks overall in this draft were awarded by lottery. The odds of winning the second and third draws increased on a proportional basis depending on which team won the previous draw. In the 2017 draft lottery, the expansion Vegas Golden Knights had the same odds of winning the lottery as the team that finished with the third fewest points in the 2016–17 NHL season (this ended up being the Arizona Coyotes). Vegas earned the lowest possible pick that they could receive, and selected sixth overall in the first-round and third in each subsequent round of this draft. The New Jersey Devils, Philadelphia Flyers and Dallas Stars won the draft lotteries that took place on April 29, 2017, giving them the first, second and third picks overall. New Jersey moved up four spots to earn the first selection, while Philadelphia and Dallas moved up from the thirteenth and eighth spots, respectively. In the process, the Colorado Avalanche, Vancouver Canucks, Vegas Golden Knights and Arizona Coyotes were each knocked down three places from first, second, third and fourth overall, respectively, while the Buffalo Sabres and Detroit Red Wings dropped two spots and the Florida Panthers, Los Angeles Kings, Carolina Hurricanes and Winnipeg Jets each dropped one place.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Selections by round.", "content": "The order of the 2017 Entry Draft is listed below.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2017 NHL Entry Draft was the 55th NHL Entry Draft. The draft was held on June 23–24, 2017, at the United Center in Chicago, Illinois. The first three selections were Nico Hischier going to the New Jersey Devils, Nolan Patrick going to the Philadelphia Flyers, and Miro Heiskanen going to the Dallas Stars.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977722}
{"src_title": "Orthographia bohemica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Provenance.", "content": "Literacy in native languages became also one of the chief projects for the Czech Reformation including the first Hussites but especially for their later Unity of the Brethren branch with their bishop Comenius. While the author's identity and the precise date of authorship are unknown, it is widely held that the author is Jan Hus and the year of creation somewhere between 1406 and 1412, based on historical and philological studies.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contents.", "content": "The primary purpose of \"De orthographia bohemica\" was to simplify and unify Czech orthography in order to promote literacy by making the language \"clearer and easier\" to read and write. Instead of representing sounds using digraphs and trigraphs, it proposed a \"diacritic orthography\", where one letter indicates only one sound, and different but related sounds (such as those now represented by \"r\" and \"ř\") are distinguished by diacritics. Briefly, one can summarize the spelling changes in Orthographia Bohemica as follows:  To illustrate the simple and revolutionary nature of this spelling, take as an example the various ways of representing ř, compared with that seen in the grammar of Jan Gebauer. In manuscripts written before Hus, all of the following representations were in use: \"rz\", \"rrz\", \"rs\", \"rzs\", \"rzss\", \"zr\", \"sr\", \"rzs\" and \"rzz\". Long vowels were written either with no indication of the length, or written double (sometimes with the second letter written in superscript), or with any of a wide and unstandardized range of diacritical marks. One could not even assume that the same scribe would consistently use their own conventions, and their use often varied even within a single manuscript.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Significance and impact.", "content": "\"Orthographia bohemica\" was the first known document in which such spelling reforms were suggested for a Slavic language. It is not yet fully clear where Jan Hus drew inspiration for this work. Considered in the context of the contemporaneous study of letters of St. Jerome by Danish scholars of Hebrew working at the Sorbonne, there was a good knowledge of such orthographic practices at the time (particularly the designation of long vowels). According to a study by F. V. Mareš, a stimulus for the project was the author's knowledge of Glagolitic, used by Croatian monks in the Emmaus Monastery (\"Na Slovanech\") in Prague.  The significance of the document lies in the longevity and wide application of its logical system of diacritics. Its impact is apparent in the \"Náměšťská mluvnice\" (\"Grammar of Náměšť\"), the first grammar of the Czech language, published in 1533, but the adoption of the new rules was relatively slow and far from uniform. Throughout the 16th century, some printers and typesetters ignored the prescriptions of \"Orthographia bohemica\" and continued to maintain some digraphs (e.g. \"ss\" for instead of \"š\"), although their use became considerably more uniform. In addition, scribes adopted the new rules much more slowly than book printers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discovery and publication.", "content": "The manuscript for \"Orthographia bohemica\" was found by František Palacký on 13 August 1826, in Třeboň in the south of Bohemia. The public was made aware of the existence of the work a year later, with the first issue of the newly founded journal \"Časopis společnosti vlastenského Museum v Čechách\" (\"Journal of the Society of the National Museum in Bohemia\"), but its publication had to wait a further thirty years. The Latin text with translation appeared in 1857 in \"Slavische Bibliothek\" in Vienna thanks to A. V. Šembera, who worked at the time at the university as Professor of Czech Language and Literature. A year later in Prague, the fifth volume of \"Mistra Jana Husi sebrané spisy\" (\"Collected Works of Master Jan Hus\") appeared with a Czech translation and a short introduction by Václav Flajšhans, to date the latest Czech translation of this manuscript. The Latin text was published twice more: first in the unaltered Šembera edition by \"Slavische Bibliothek\" (Amsterdam, 1965) and second with a German translation and commentary by J. Schröpfer in Wiesbaden, Germany in 1968.  Šembera's Latin text was probably taken directly from Palacký's copy of the manuscript; Schröpfer produced a new revised (though not flawless) edition of the manuscript. A critical evaluation comparing the preserved Třeboň manuscript with the extant excerpts has yet to appear.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preserved manuscripts.", "content": "A manuscript of \"Orthographia bohemica\" in Jan Hus' hand has still not been found; the only complete copy of the manuscript which is available for study was written by a monk Oldřich Kříž of Třeboň (i.e. the copy found by Palacký). Its age can not be accurately determined as the copy is not dated. The end of the manuscript contains the inscription \"In die Leonardi\", i.e. on January 6; however, this may indicate either the date of completion of the original manuscript or Oldřich Kříž's copy. In the same volume as \"Orthographia bohemica\", however, are some more works: three of them bear the year 1459 and one 1457. The writings are not arranged chronologically, however, and so they serve only as an approximate guide for determining the age of the manuscript.  In addition to the Kříž manuscript there are various excerpts deposited in the archives of Prague Castle. Anežka Vidmanová's comparative study with the manuscript of Oldřich Kříž shows that the Třeboň manuscript is unreliable in many places.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "De orthographia bohemica () is a Latin work published between 1406 and 1412. It is attributed to Charles University rector and reformer Jan Hus. The book codified the Czech language's modern spelling and orthography and had decisive impact on the orthography of a number of other European languages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977723}
{"src_title": "Michele Ruggieri", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "Pompilio Ruggieri was born in Spinazzola, Apulia, then part of the Kingdom of Naples, in 1543. He obtained a doctorate in civil and canon law () at the University of Naples and was employed in the administration of Philip II. He entered the Society of Jesus in Rome on 27 October 1572 taking the name \"Michele\". After completing the Jesuit usual spiritual and intellectual formation, Ruggieri volunteered for the Asian missions and left for Lisbon, where he was ordained in March 1578 while waiting for a ship to take him to Goa.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Missionary work.", "content": "Ruggieri left Europe with a group of missionaries which included Rudolph Acquaviva and Matteo Ricci. Arriving in India (September 1578), he promptly started to study the language used on the Malabar coast and in 6 months reached such proficiency that he could hear confession. It is probably this gift for language that made him an ideal choice for the beginning of the Chinese mission.  Ruggieri was assigned to Macau to study the Chinese language and customs, arriving 20 July 1579. He landed at the Portuguese trade centre and started at once to learn to read and write Chinese. In the process, and aware that several will be following him, he set up Shengma'erding Jingyuan (\"St Martin House\"), the first school for teaching Chinese to foreigners.  Ruggieri's and Ricci's intent was to settle somewhere in \"real\" China - not just Macao, and to that end Ruggieri made a number of trips to Canton (Guangzhou) and Zhaoqing (the residence of the Governor General of Guangdong and Guangxi), making useful contacts with the local authorities. As such he is one of the very first Christian missionaries to have entered Ming Dynasty Mainland China. After a number of failed attempts to obtain permission to establish a permanent mission within China, such a permission was finally obtained in 1582, and in 1583 Ricci and Ruggieri finally settled in Zhaoqing, the first stage on the Jesuits' \"long ascent\" to Beijing.  In 1584 Ruggieri published the first Chinese catechism. Visiting villages in the region he baptized several families that formed the nucleus of further Christian communities in mainland China.  During 1583-88, Michele Ruggieri, with Matteo Ricci as co-author, created a Portuguese-Chinese dictionary - the first ever European-Chinese dictionary, for which they developed a consistent system for transcribing Chinese words in Latin alphabet. The dictionary's Romanisation was Ruggieri's. A Chinese Jesuit Lay Brother Sebastiano Fernandez, who had grown up and been trained in Macau, assisted in this work. Unfortunately, the manuscript was misplaced in the Jesuit Archives in Rome, and re-discovered only in 1934, by Pasquale d'Elia. This dictionary was finally published in 2001. To Ruggieri is attributed one of the first collections of handwritten maps of China, translated into Latin from Chinese sources (atlases and maps), dating back to 1606, or nearly fifty years before the manuscript maps of the Polish Jesuit Michael Boym and the Novus Atlas Sinensis of the Trentino Jesuit Martino Martini (printed by the publisher Johan Blaeu in Amsterdam in 1655 and immediately translated into several languages). The manuscript is now preserved in the State Archives of Rome, ms. 493.  Ruggieri was accused by Cai Yilong (Ts‘ai I-lung) of adultery with the wife of Lo Hung in October 1587. After trial, the judge ordered Cai to be severely punished, to the point he died of his wounds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Europe.", "content": "In November 1588, Ruggieri left China for Rome in order to get the pope to send an embassy to the Wanli Emperor. This plan had been proposed as a means to allow Jesuits to reach Beijing and to be received by the emperor. But nothing came out of it: the Popes kept dying on him, his own health deteriorated, and eventually the weary Jesuit retired to Salerno, where he died in 1607 without ever going to China again.  In Salerno, the retired Jesuit carried on intellectual work that would make China better known in Europe. He completed the Latin translation of the \"Four Books\" (the classic Chinese introduction to Confucius’ philosophy), wrote poetry in Chinese, and circulated copies of Chinese maps he had brought along with him from Zhaoqing. Ruggieri was also a much sought after spiritual guide and confessor in the school of Salerno. He died on 11 May 1607.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Michele or Michael Ruggieri (1543– 11 May 1607), born Pompilio Ruggieri and known in China as Luo Mingjian, was an Italian Jesuit priest and missionary. A founding father of the Jesuit China missions, co-author of the first European–Chinese dictionary, and first European translator of the Four Books of Confucianism, he has been described as the first European sinologist.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977724}
{"src_title": "San Lorenzo, Turin", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Duke Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy was one of the leaders of the Habsburg armies of his cousin Philip II of Spain; they decisively defeated the French armies in the Battle of Saint-Quentin in Northern France on 10 August 1557, the Feast of St. Lawrence (San Lorenzo), which affected the outcome of the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis; in which, the Savoy, including Turin, was returned to the rule of the mercenary duke. That the Battle occurred on the Saint's feast instigated Phillip's denomination and design of the palace of El Escorial. Emmanuel Philibert, on his return to Turin in 1562, renovated the old ducal chapel of Santa Maria ad Presepae, which is still present near the entrance, and erected this church dedicated to St. Lawrence. Construction of the contemporary church began in 1634. The architect Guarino Guarini was a great innovator in Baroque principles first developed by the great Roman Baroque architect Francesco Borromini, in particular the play with optical effects and organic \"deconstruction\" of the classical orders and principles of column and entablature. However, in San Lorenzo Guarini took these further. The ground plan is a kind of square which becomes an octagon at the level of the entablatures above the columns only to change again to become a Greek cross at the level of the pendentives of the vaults. Again, the base of the dome is circular in plan yet the lantern above it octagonal. The dome itself is supported by eight ribs forming a lattice similar to those found in mosques and Romanesque churches in Spain. To this superposition of - by the standards of convention - contradictory central plans is added an elliptical choir. The high altar, separated from the nave by a convex and concave archway receives natural light from a hidden dome, devices drawn from the other key Roman Baroque architect Gian Lorenzo Bernini.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Royal Church of Saint Lawrence () is a Baroque-style church in Turin, adjacent to the Royal Palace of Turin. The present church was designed and built by Guarino Guarini during 1668–1687.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977725}
{"src_title": "Jardin d'Acclimatation railway", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The French narrow gauge railway pioneer Paul Decauville wanted to experiment with passenger transport using his portable railways, already successfully introduced in the industry and agriculture. For the 1878 Exposition Universelle he proposed to use his concept for the exhibition by a line Trocadéro - Military Academy passing the Champ-de-Mars, but permission was denied. He then offered the same facility at the Zoological Gardens, which was accepted. Two kilometers of railway line at the track gauge of was constructed for the transportation of the exhibit visitors over a circular track, having a maximum speed of 15 km/h. The line carried up to 3000 passengers on some Sundays and received a very positive response from the visitors. But for some unknown reason, the network was quickly removed.  In 1880, a new modified line connected the garden to the Porte Maillot. It was constructed by another company and operated as a streetcar line with American vehicles hauled by ponies. These gave way to tractors in 1910. By 1930, the line was shortened at each end. Since then, it continues to link Porte Maillot to the garden, without being altered significantly since then.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The line.", "content": "The line originally featured a terminus loop at Porte Maillot, crossing the road at the Porte de Sablons, and follows a route through the woods to the garden, which is traversed for its entire length. It was constructed in double track with each track following a slightly different alignment, with a total track length of five kilometers. Curves had a minimum radius of eight to fifteen meters.  In the early 1930s, the line was shortened at both ends. The section within the zoological garden was removed, and the road section to Porte Maillot, where an underground construction was created, required relocating of the terminal along the road at Porte des Sablons.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operations.", "content": "Originally, two ponies towed the small vehicles alone or in groups of two. Each car had eight seats, with passengers sitting back to back on longitudinal seats. In 1910, animal traction gives way to steam outlined gasoline locomotives, equipped with a driver's cab at the rear of the engine. They hauled three to four cars equipped with crossbenches facing the direction of travel. The appearance of the locomotives has evolved over the years with one resembling Renault taxis, while another retained a more classic look.  In 1945, the shortage of gasoline caused the replacement of the gasoline locomotives with battery tractors, which probably came from the Universal Exhibition of 1937, with their wheels with tires running outside the rails. However, the gasoline locomotives were quickly returned to service. In 1960, Renault built seven tractors with two bogies. Their bodywork was steam outlined and brightly decorated. These machines measure 3.05 meters long and 1.20 meters wide, weigh five tons and reach 19 km / h with their engines of fifty-five horse-power. The trailers are those of the 1910s, the only modification being the addition of a small roof in the year 1951. In 2010 new locomotives with electric traction came into service on the now 130-year-old railway.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Jardin d'Acclimatation railway is a minimum gauge park railway, located in the Bois de Boulogne in Paris. It was opened in 1878 and connects Porte Maillot and the Jardin d'Acclimatation (zoological gardens), 800 meters apart. It was the first passenger-carrying narrow gauge railway of France.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977726}
{"src_title": "Salvador Sobral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sobral was born in Lisbon and has lived there most of his life. He was born into a formerly noble family, the son of Salvador Luís Cabral Braamcamp Sobral and Luísa Maria Cabral Posser Vilar. His paternal grandparents are Salvador José de Almeida Braamcamp Sobral and Maria Elisa Perestrelo de Matos de Figueiredo Cabral; and his maternal grandparents are João Luís Posser de Andrade Vilar and Luísa Maria de Melo Breyner Freire Cabral. The politician Hermano José Braamcamp de Almeida Castelo Branco is his great-great-great-great-grandfather.  At the age of ten, he participated in the TV programme \"Bravo Bravíssimo\", and at 20 he was one of the ten finalists of \"Ídolos\", the Portuguese version of the \"Idols\" franchise. As a finalist, he sang music by Stevie Wonder, Leonard Cohen and Rui Veloso.  He studied Psychology at the, in Lisbon, which he abandoned to pursue a degree in music. He spent time in Mallorca as an Erasmus student, where he sang in bars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2009–2010: \"Ídolos\".", "content": "In 2009, he competed on season three of \"Ídolos\", Portugal's version of the \"Idols\" franchise. He finished seventh in the competition. His sister, Luísa Sobral, is also a singer who previously placed third on season one of \"Ídolos\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2011–2014: Barcelona and first concerts.", "content": "After he left the Psychology program, he applied to the \"Taller de Músics\", a music school in Barcelona, where he finished his studies in 2014. In 2015, he participated in the Vodafone Mexefest and EDP Cool Jazz festivals. During this time, Sobral traveled through several cities in Spain and among them, Tenerife, where he performed at a private party of a wealthy couple.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2016–present: \"Excuse Me\", Eurovision Song Contest and health issues.", "content": "On 2 August 2016, Sobral released his debut single \"Excuse Me\" as the lead single from his debut studio album. On the same day he released his debut studio album \"Excuse Me\". The album peaked at number 10 on the Portuguese Album Chart. \"Nem Eu\" was released as the second single from the album on 27 October 2016. In 2017, Sobral was confirmed to be taking part in \"Festival da Canção 2017\", with the song \"Amar pelos dois\". He went on to win the competition on 5 March 2017, and represented Portugal in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017.  Sobral could not perform in the first rehearsals because of a heart condition and an operation that forced him to rest ahead of the performance in the semi. His sister took over the role of singer during the first rehearsals. He won the final with 758 points, which under the current voting system represents the highest scoring winner in the history of the contest.  In July 2017, he participated in the Super Bock Super Rock festival in Lisbon, fronting rock group Alexander Search, a project he shares with pianist Júlio Resende and other musicians - the band plays music inspired by the work by Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa.  In 23 April 2018 he received - along with his sister, Luísa Sobral - the Portuguese Order of Merit, both receiving the medals of Commanders (ComM). This honorific award was given by the Portuguese president himself, Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa.  In May 2018 Sobral performed in the Grand Final of the 2018 Eurovision Song alongside Brazilian musician Caetano Veloso.  On 29 March 2019 his second studio album \"Paris, Lisboa\" (Paris, Lisbon) was released in 13 countries, he sings in 4 languages on it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Salvador Sobral is a fan of Chet Baker and Música popular brasileira singers including Caetano Veloso and Chico Buarque. He speaks six languages: Portuguese, Spanish, English, Catalan, French and some Italian. In 2019, he started to learn Swedish, as he is a fan of film-maker Ingmar Bergman.  Sobral married Belgian actress Jenna Thiam in a small ceremony in Lisbon on 29 December 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Health.", "content": "On 5 September 2017, Sobral announced via Facebook that he would interrupt his career temporarily due to health concerns, following a last concert on 8 September, in the gardens of Casino Estoril, in Cascais. \"It is not a secret that I have a fragile health; I have a problem. It is, unfortunately, time to hand over my body to science and to abandon my life of concerts and music; time to leave for a while from this civilian world and go to another where, certainly, my problem will be fixed. Unfortunately, I do not know how long this will take.\" On 8 December 2017, Sobral underwent a successful heart transplant. He left hospital in January 2018, with doctors telling him to \"take life quietly\" and \"keep away from crowds\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Activism.", "content": "Sobral drew attention to the European migrant crisis by attending the first semi-final winners' press conference in an 'S.O.S. Refugees' shirt. \"If I'm here and I have European exposure, the least thing I can do is a humanitarian message,\" he said. \"People come to Europe in plastic boats and are being asked to show their birth certificates in order to enter a country. These people are not immigrants, they're refugees running from death. Make no mistake. There is so much bureaucratic stuff happening in the refugee camps in Greece, Turkey and Italy and we should help create legal and safe pathways from these countries to their destiny countries,\" he added, earning a round of applause.  The EBU banned him from wearing the shirt for the remainder of the contest. The EBU argued that Sobral's shirt was being used as a \"political message\", violating the rules of the contest. Sobral argued at his winners' press conference, however, that it held a humanitarian message, not political one.  During a concert in Ourém, Sobral announced on 19 June 2017 that he would donate all the profits from the sales of his CDs sold, to the people of Pedrógão Grande and the relief efforts in the town after it was severely damaged by wildfires the previous day.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salvador Vilar Braamcamp Sobral (, born 28 December 1989) is a Portuguese singer, who won the Eurovision Song Contest 2017 for with the song \"Amar pelos dois\", written and composed by his sister Luísa Sobral. In doing so, he gave its first ever win in the contest since its debut in, ending the longest winless run by a country in Eurovision history (53 years). Sobral and his entry hold the Eurovision record for the highest-scoring winner, having earned a total of 758 points under the current voting system, after winning both the jury vote and televote.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977727}
{"src_title": "Jiří Drahoš", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and career.", "content": "Jiří Drahoš was born on 20 February 1949 in Český Těšín to a Czech father originally from Skuteč in Vysočina, and a Polish mother from Jablunkov. He spent most of his childhood in Jablunkov, where his mother Anna lived and worked as a nurse. His father, also named Jiří, was a teacher in a local Czech school.  Drahoš studied at the University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague and qualified as a scientist in 1972. He joined the Institute of Chemical Process Fundamentals at the Czech Academy of Sciences, and was later head of the institute from 1996 to 2003. On 13 March 2009, Drahoš was elected President of the Czech Academy of Sciences, defeating Eva Syková. During his tenure, he successfully opposed 50% budget cuts to the Academy proposed by the governments of Prime Ministers Mirek Topolánek and Jan Fischer as a consequence of the 2008 financial crisis. Drahoš later called it an \"attempt to destroy my motherly institution\". In 2012, President Václav Klaus awarded him the Medal of Merit in the field of science. His second term as head of the academy ended on 24 March 2017. He is co-author of 14 patents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2018 presidential campaign.", "content": "On 28 March 2017, Drahoš announced his intention to stand in the 2018 presidential election. On 24 April 2017, he started gathering the signatures required to be registered as a candidate. In July 2017, after meeting with Drahoš, the leaders of Populars and Mayors, Pavel Bělobrádek and Petr Gazdík, announced that they would ask their respective parties' members to nominate and endorse Drahoš's candidacy. Mayors and Independents endorsed Drahoš on 25 July 2017 while the Christian and Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party (KDU–ČSL) endorsed him on 14 November 2017. Young Social Democrats also endorsed Drahoš on 9 December 2017. Polls in late 2017 showed Drahoš as the second strongest candidate behind Zeman.  Drahoš received campaign donations from several influential businessmen, including Dalibor Dědek, Jiří Grygar and Luděk Sekyra. Drahoš started gathering signatures for his nomination in May 2017. On 19 August 2017, Drahoš announced he had gathered 78,000 signatures. He submitted his nomination on 3 November 2017 with 142,000 signatures.  On 4 November 2017 on Facebook, Drahoš criticized Mirek Topolánek, who had announced his candidacy that day, describing Topolánek as similar to Miloš Zeman and calling his candidacy a bad joke. The two candidates met during a presidential debate at Charles University; Drahoš reflected that the status he posted was \"Topolánek-like\", to which Topolánek replied that it was written either by \"a woman or PR mage\".  Drahoš received media attention when he expressed his fear that the election could be influenced by Russia. He met outgoing Prime Minister Bohuslav Sobotka to discuss the matter and stated he would also meet the new Prime Minister Andrej Babiš. The incumbent president Miloš Zeman criticized Drahoš and compared his actions to Hillary Clinton's when she lost to Donald Trump.  Drahoš received criticism when he published a status on social media about Václav Klaus' amnesty, when it was revealed that he had copied a similar status by his fellow presidential candidate Michal Horáček. Drahoš apologised and attributed the mistake to an external member of staff.  The first round was held on 12 and 13 January 2018. Drahoš received 1,369,601 (26.6%) votes, and advanced to the second round against the incumbent president Miloš Zeman. In the second round, held on 26–27 January 2018, Drahoš received 48.63% of the vote and thus lost to Zeman. Drahoš conceded defeat to Zeman, telling a crowd of his supporters that \"I would like to congratulate election winner Miloš Zeman\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Senate.", "content": "Following the 2018 presidential election, Drahoš vowed to remain in public life, and in March 2018 announced his bid for the Prague 4 Senate seat in the 2018 election, nominated by Mayors and Independents and supported by TOP 09, KDU–ČSL and the Green Party. He won the election outright in the first round, with 52.65% of the vote.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Political views.", "content": "Drahoš considers himself a centrist politician. As a candidate, Jiří Drahoš has presented himself as someone who can unite society, and as a respectable person who would act according to the constitution. Drahoš emphasises the importance of Czech science and education and has called for solidarity with those \"who cannot take care of themselves\". He has called for a \"responsible approach\" to the landscape and environment and has described human reason, creativity and ingeniousness as the only \"renewable resource\" of the wealth of the Czech Republic.  Drahoš wants the Czech Republic to play an active role in discussions over the future of the European Union, and wants the country to be a part of the Western world. He supports European integration but has said that he believes that the European Union should not impose unnecessary regulations on member states. He also said that he would not rush into Czech adoption of the Euro. Drahoš opposes a referendum about Czech membership of the European Union, and said that important geopolitical questions should not be decided by referendum. He supports the Czech Republic's membership of NATO.  In August 2015, Drahoš signed a petition named \"scientists against fear and apathy\" in opposition to both anti-Islamic radicalism and anti-immigrant populism.  Drahoš suggested that the Catalan independence referendum was \"not legal\", supporting the position of the Spanish government.  Drahoš says he supports the anti-Russian sanctions imposed by the United States and the EU. However he also said that having good relations with Russia is in the interest of the Czech Republic and European Union. Drahoš supports trade and economic relations with China, arguing that \"China is a superpower\" and \"many countries are doing business with China.\"  In 2017, Drahoš rejected the European Union's proposal of compulsory migrant quotas, saying, \"there is no successful model of Muslim integration in Europe\". Drahoš also said that \"Europe can't feed 100 million Africans, it is necessary to help them at home.\"  Drahoš described the pre-war German minority in Czechoslovakia as \"Adolf Hitler's fifth column\", and said that he agreed with the post-war expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia.  Drahoš has described himself as a sympathizer with Israel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jiří Drahoš (born 20 February 1949; ) is a Czech physical chemist and politician who has been the Senator from Prague 4 since October 2018. Previously, Drahoš served as President of the Czech Academy of Sciences from 2009 to 2017, and was a candidate in the 2018 Czech presidential election.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977728}
{"src_title": "Josef Martínez", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Caracas.", "content": "Martínez made his debut for Caracas FC on 21 August 2010 against Estudiantes de Mérida, entering as a substitute in the 70th minute, won 1–0. He scored his first goal in a 2–2 draw against Deportivo Petare on 21 November 2010.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Young Boys.", "content": "On 3 January 2012, Caracas announced Martínez had been sold to BSC Young Boys of the Swiss Super League for a period of four years along with fellow right-back Alexander Gonzalez. He debuted on 5 February 2012 against Servette FC, which the Young Boys won 3–1. After a string of good performances, Martínez was called up to the Venezuela national team, as well as awarded his first start for Young Boys on 21 October 2012, in which he scored his first goal for the Swiss club with a volley in the 50th minute against Grasshopper Club Zürich.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Loan to FC Thun.", "content": "After one season in the Swiss capital city, he was sent on loan to Thun. After scoring 8 goals in 18 games with the team from Bernese Oberland, he was momentarily the top scorer in the Swiss Super League and recalled by Young Boys.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Torino.", "content": "On 7 June 2014, Martínez was sold to Italian Serie A club Torino for a reported fee of €3 million. He made his debut in a 0–3 away win against Sweden's Brommapojkarna in the third round of the 2014–15 Europa League. He scored his first goal for the \"Granata\" in the return leg, won 4–0 in Turin (7–0 on agg.).  He made his league debut on 14 September in a 2–0 loss away to Sampdoria. On 7 December, he scored his first goal in Serie A during a 2–2 draw with Palermo. Four days later, he scored his first brace in the Europa League against Copenhagen, which ended 1–5 in favour of Torino.  On 30 April 2016, he scored his first brace in Serie A, as Torino won 1–5 away to Udinese.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Atlanta United.", "content": "On 2 February 2017, Martínez was loaned with a buying option to Major League Soccer expansion team Atlanta United. He made his league debut on 5 March in a 1–2 home defeat against New York Red Bulls. He scored his first career hat-trick, and the first hat-trick in the history of the club, in a 6–1 win at Minnesota United the following week.  On 21 March, Atlanta announced they had activated the buyout clause for an undisclosed transfer fee. He was named the MLS Player of the Month for March after scoring five goals in his first three games in the league.  On 23 March, while playing for the Venezuelan national team against Peru, Martínez injured his left quadricep. After more than two months of recuperation, he returned to action only to be injured again over the summer. Upon his return from the second injury, he scored hat tricks in two consecutive games against the New England Revolution and Orlando City, and was named the MLS Player of the Month for September 2017. Atlanta United finished in a tie for third in the Eastern Conference, but were eliminated in the first round of the MLS Cup Playoffs by Columbus Crew. Despite only making 20 appearances (all competitions) due to injury, Martínez finished his first year in Atlanta fourth in the league in scoring, with 20 goals in all competitions, and was named to the MLS Best XI for the 2017 season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018 season.", "content": "On 2 June 2018, Martínez converted a late penalty kick against Philadelphia Union to notch his fifth MLS hat-trick, tying the league record for hat-tricks and doing so faster than any other player in league history. He broke the record for hat-tricks on 21 July 2018 against DC United, after only 44 games.  He was voted the MLS Player of the Month for July after scoring nine goals and adding one assist to lead the Five Stripes to a 3–1–1 record.  He scored the only goal for the MLS All-Stars in the 2018 MLS All-Star Game against Juventus, a 1–1 draw, and was named MVP.  On 24 August 2018, he scored his 28th goal of the season, a game winner in Orlando City, to break the league single-season record of 27, held by Roy Lassiter, Chris Wondolowski, and Bradley Wright-Phillips. After failing to capitalize on numerous opportunities, Martínez utilized his quick footwork to cut back against the defender and then chip Joe Bendik to set the record in just his 26th match. He was named MLS Player of the Month for August 2018.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2019 season.", "content": "On 6 August 2019, Martínez was awarded the MLS Player of the Month for July. He earned the award having scored in nine straight matches, tying his own MLS record set the previous season, which was also shared with Diego Valeri.  On 23 August, he set a new MLS record by scoring a goal in 12 consecutive games. The goal helped his side to a 1–0 win over rivals Orlando and was his 15th strike during the streak. On 18 September, Martínez extended his goal-scoring record to 15 consecutive games, which is the third longest streak in world football after Lionel Messi (33 goals in 21 games) and Tor Henning Hamre (21 goals in 15 games).", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "2020 season.", "content": "On February 29, 2020, in Atlanta United’s first game of the 2020 season, Martínez suffered a torn ACL against MLS debutant Nashville SC. Martínez is set to miss the entirety of the 2020 season.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Martínez made his international debut on 7 August 2011 against El Salvador as a substitute in the 76th minute.  On 10 November 2016 (matchday 11 of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification), Martínez scored a hat-trick against Bolivia in a 5–0 win in Maturín.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Primarily a forward, Martínez is a diminutive yet aggressive and powerful player, who usually plays in a central role as a main striker, but who is also capable of playing as a winger. His pace, dribbling ability, eye for goal, and his accurate finishing ability with either foot, as well as his head, combined with his ability to make attacking runs off the ball from behind and get into good positions, make him a dangerous attacking threat in the penalty area.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Josef Alexander Martínez Mencia (born 19 May 1993) is a Venezuelan professional footballer who plays as a striker for American club Atlanta United FC, and the Venezuela national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977729}
{"src_title": "Roland (Lully)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Roles.", "content": "There is also a chorus of Fairies, Islanders, Shepherds and Shepherdesses, Heroes and followers of Glory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Synopsis.", "content": "The opera opens with an allegorical prologue in which Démogorgon, King of the Fairies, sings the praises of Louis XIV and asks to see the story of the famous paladin Roland. Roland, the nephew of Charlemagne loves Angélique, the daughter of the King of Cathay, but, unbeknown to him, she is in love with Médor, a soldier in the army of Africa. In Act One, Roland gives Angélique a magic bracelet as a token of his love. In Act Two, Angélique approaches the Fountain of Love in a forest. When she catches sight of Roland, she uses a magic ring to make herself invisible and Roland wanders off in despair. Médor then arrives and in a soliloquy reveals he too is desperately in love with Angélique, so much so he is planning to kill himself. At that moment Angélique reveals herself and confesses her love for him. But she worries that Roland will be provoked to fury if he finds out. In Act Three, Angélique and Médor plan to flee from the clutches of Roland after a hasty wedding. The following act finds Roland in despair when Angélique is nowhere to be found. He comes across the names of Angélique and Médor carved on the walls of a cave. He hears the sound of a village wedding nearby. The villagers tell him of Médor and Angélique's escape and show him Roland's bracelet which the couple gave them in gratitude for letting them stay in the village. Roland plunges into madness. In the final act, under the influence of the fairy Logistille the sleeping Roland is visited by dreams of ancient heroes who urge him to give up his futile love for Angélique and return to the Christian army. Roland awakes, having recovered his reason and his desire for glory and rides off to battle amid a general triumph.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Background and performance history.", "content": "Unlike the majority of Lully's \"tragédies\", \"Roland\" is not based on Classical mythology but on tales of medieval chivalry. This is also the case for the operas which preceded and followed it: \"Amadis\" (1684) and \"Armide\" (1686). Lully and Quinault's operas generally reflected the thinking of their patron, Louis XIV. The king had recently come under the influence of the pious Madame de Maintenon and had reaffirmed his religious faith and his desire to impose Catholic orthodoxy on France. He was even referred to as the \"new Charlemagne\" in a sermon preached by Bossuet in the same month as the opera's premiere. Thus the Christian knight Roland's rediscovery of his sacred mission was an ideal subject for the times. There was a patriotic motive too: although the story was derived from an Italian poem, Roland had been born in France and was the hero of the epic \"La Chanson de Roland\", one of the earliest works of French literature.  The opera premiered in the stables at Versailles, which had been specially adapted for the occasion. In March of the same year, it was given at the theatre of the Palais Royal, Paris, and enjoyed great success. Revivals would continue well into the 18th century. In 1778, Marmontel adapted the libretto for a new setting by Piccinni (Gluck and Rameau had also considered producing a new version). The theme of the \"madness of Roland\" proved attractive to later composers too. Notable examples include \"Orlando finto pazzo\" (1714) and \"Orlando furioso\" (1727) by Vivaldi, \"Orlando\" (1732) by Handel, and \"Orlando paladino\" (1782) by Haydn.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roland is an opera with music by Jean-Baptiste Lully and a libretto by Philippe Quinault. It was first performed on January 8, 1685, at the Palace of Versailles by the Académie Royale de Musique (Paris Opera) and later, beginning on March 8, 1685, at the company's public theatre in Paris, the Théâtre du Palais-Royal. The story is derived from Ariosto's epic poem \"Orlando Furioso\". The opera takes the form of a tragédie en musique with an allegorical prologue and five acts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977730}
{"src_title": "The Music Lesson", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Provenance.", "content": "The picture was sold in May 1696 in Delft, part of the collection of Jacob Dissous, which included many Vermeers. It was later acquired by Venetian artist Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini in 1718, with Pellegrini's collection later being bought by Joseph Smith. \"The Music Lesson\" has been part of the Royal Collection of Great Britain since 1762, when King George III bought Smith's collection of paintings. When the painting was acquired it was believed to be a work by Frans van Mieris the elder because of a misinterpretation of the signature. It was not correctly attributed to Vermeer until 1866 by Théophile Thoré, though some scholars were skeptical whether it was Vermeer or not. It has at various times been kept at both Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, and is depicted in Charles Wild's \"Windsor Castle: the King's Closet, 1816\", a watercolour prepared for William Pyne's \"History of the Royal Residences\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Painting materials.", "content": "The painting was investigated by Hermann Kühn in 1968 and there is also material on the pigment analysis on the website of the National Gallery in London where the painting was included in the exhibition \"Vermeer and Music: The Art of Love and Leisure\" in 2013. \"The Music Lesson\" is a mature work of Vermeer and his handling of color and his choice of painting materials is but one of the aspects proving his mastery. The painting is dominated by dark areas such as the bluish-black floor painted in bone black with the addition of natural ultramarine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "The 2013 documentary film \"Tim's Vermeer\" documents inventor and entrepreneur Tim Jenison's attempt to recreate \"The Music Lesson\" to test his theory that Vermeer painted with the help of optical devices. Jenison is given the opportunity for a brief private viewing of the painting at Buckingham Palace. The film's claim that Vermeer used something similar to Jenison's technique has been derided by art critics Jonathan Jones and Bendor Grosvenor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Music Lesson, Woman Seated at a Virginal or A Lady at the Virginals with a Gentleman by Johannes Vermeer is a painting of a young female pupil receiving a music lesson from a man. The man's mouth is slightly agape giving the impression that he is singing along with the music that the young girl is playing. This suggests that there is a relationship between the two figures and the idea of love and music being bridged together. This was a common theme among Netherlandish art in this time period. Vermeer uses linear perspective and his invention of the camera pictura to create the illusion of space and depth within the setting of the painted room. Vermeer consistently used the same objects within his paintings such as the draped rug, the white water jug, various instruments, tiled floor and windows that convey light and shadows. This is one of few paintings produced by Vermeer which were kept in his home until his death in 1675 when his family was forced to sell them. It became a part of the Royal Collection, and it is currently on display in the Picture Gallery at Buckingham Palace in London.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977731}
{"src_title": "Patterns of Force (Star Trek: The Original Series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The starship \"Enterprise\" arrives at the planet Ekos to investigate the disappearance of a Federation cultural observer named John Gill, who was one of Captain Kirk's history professors at Starfleet Academy. The \"Enterprise\" enters orbit around Ekos and is attacked by a rocket armed with a thermonuclear warhead, technology that is too advanced to be from either Ekos or their neighboring planet, Zeon.  Kirk suspects Gill may be responsible for the introduction of advanced technology, which would mean that he has contaminated Ekosian culture and violated the Prime Directive. Kirk and First Officer Spock decide to beam down to the planet to investigate. Before they transport to the surface, Chief Medical Officer Dr. McCoy inserts subcutaneous emergency transponders, a type of homing device, into the forearms of each in the event they cannot use their communicators.  Upon their arrival, Kirk and Spock watch in horror as a Zeon is arrested by Ekosian soldiers dressed as brown-shirted Nazi Stormtroopers. An outdoor video newsreel shows an Ekosian rally featuring huge crowds shouting Nazi-style slogans and waving swastika-emblazoned flags. A female Nazi officer, Daras, is shown receiving a medal of honor; the Iron Cross, Second Class. The \"Final Solution\" is mentioned, meaning apparently the extinction of all Zeons on Ekos, as a prelude to the entire destruction of Zeon. The broadcast ends with the reporter making a Nazi salute to a picture of the Führer — whom the shocked Kirk recognizes as John Gill.  Startled and determined to contact Gill, Kirk and Spock steal uniforms and attempt to infiltrate the main headquarters, but are caught when Spock's ears are exposed. He and Kirk are tortured until Party Chairman Eneg orders them thrown in a cell for further interrogation. There they meet Isak, the Zeon prisoner they had seen arrested earlier.  The trio quickly engineer an escape using the rubindium crystals from Kirk and Spock's transponders as cutting-torch lasers and retrieve their communicators. Isak takes them to meet the underground resistance led by his brother Abrom. Suddenly, their hideout is raided, led by Daras, in what is quickly revealed as a ruse to test the strangers' loyalty. Daras is actually a resistance member who has infiltrated the government. Abrom explains that Deputy Führer Melakon is actually the \"de facto\" leader of Ekos; in turn, Kirk and Spock explain the situation from their perspective, and ask for help in locating Gill. They learn that the \"Führer\" is to make a speech that evening that will officially launch the \"Final Solution\".  To gain entrance to the broadcast center, the whole group pretends to be a film crew. They find Gill in a broadcasting booth surrounded by guards, seemingly dazed but beginning his speech. Kirk has Dr. McCoy beam down; he arrives in a cloakroom, where the party is discovered by a security team led by Chairman Eneg—who surprisingly does not seem to recognize them. After he leaves, Isak explains that Eneg is also a resistance member.  Sneaking into the broadcast booth, McCoy confirms Gill is heavily drugged. He administers a counteractive stimulant while Spock uses a Vulcan mind meld on Gill, which confirms that Melakon was responsible for Gill's condition. Barely coherent, Gill explains that he initially imposed a form of Nazism/Fascism upon the lawless Ekosians because he believed it to be the most efficient system of government ever devised. The system worked on Ekos until Melakon gained control and twisted it into a tool to wipe out Zeon.  Kirk makes Gill aware of the extent to which Ekos has progressed toward resembling Nazi Germany. Gill, now lucid enough to speak his own mind, renounces the \"Final Solution\", cancels the invasion of Zeon, and declares Melakon a traitor. Melakon grabs a submachine gun and opens fire on the broadcast booth, fatally wounding Gill. In retaliation, Isak shoots Melakon twice, killing him. Eneg and Daras, still officially respected party leaders, agree to \"stop the bloodshed,\" and plan to announce the end of the Nazi regime. Eneg thanks Kirk for Starfleet's help, but asks them to leave, saying it is up to the two planets to rebuild themselves.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The V-2 rocket films were actual films and the clips of Hitler in a car were from the movie \"Triumph of the Will\" (1935).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Critic Darren Mooney criticised the episode's premise that Nazi Germany was the most efficient state Earth ever knew, citing historians' criticism of that common misconception.  In the 1960s, West Germany restricted the broadcast of this episode. (more information below)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "German broadcast history.", "content": "Because the episode contains Nazi uniforms and insignia, and features a character who makes the statement that Nazi Germany was the \"most efficient society\" ever created, it was considered unfit for entertainment in Germany. Consequently, this episode is the only one which was not aired during either of the two original runs in Germany (on the public ZDF network in the mid-1970s and on the private Sat.1 network in the late 1980s/early 1990s). It was only dubbed into German in 1995, and was presented in the original English with subtitles in all earlier German releases. It was finally shown on German pay TV in 1996 and included on all DVD/Blu-ray season sets. On November 4, 2011 it was finally shown on the public network channel ZDFneo as well.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "\"Patterns of Force\" is the twenty-first episode of the of the American science-fiction television series \"\". Written by John Meredyth Lucas and directed by Vincent McEveety, it was first broadcast on February 16, 1968.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977732}
{"src_title": "2017 Saint Petersburg Metro bombing", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In 2016, ISIL had plotted to target St. Petersburg due to Russia's military involvement in Syria, resulting in arrests. No public transport system in Russia had been bombed since the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings.  ISIL propaganda was being circulated prior to this incident. It encouraged supporters to launch strikes on Moscow. ISIL propaganda showed bullet holes through Putin's head and a poster circulated before the attack of a falling Kremlin and included the message \"We Will Burn Russia.\" However, as some researchers have said, Russia faces a \"sophisticated and complex\" threat from domestic terrorism, linked to many different groups.  Vladimir Putin was visiting Saint Petersburg, where he was born, on the day of the attack.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attack.", "content": "On 3 April 2017, a device containing of explosives detonated on a train travelling through a tunnel between the Sennaya Ploshchad and Tekhnologichesky Institut stations of the Saint Petersburg Metro. According to a statement from the Ministry of Emergency Situations, the bomb was detonated on the third carriage of the train. Eyewitnesses said the blast occurred near the door. Immediately after the explosion, smoke filled the platform. Video from social media showed multiple victims on the platform and a metal door twisted by the force of the blast. Following reports of the explosion, all metro stations in Saint Petersburg were quickly closed. In the late evening, metro services were resumed on Lines 3, 4, and 5.  A second bomb was discovered and disarmed at Ploshchad Vosstaniya station. The device had ball bearings, screws, and shrapnel and was hidden within a fire extinguisher containing an equivalent of about of TNT. Jalilov's DNA was found on a bag which contained the extinguisher, suggesting that he intentionally left this bag inside a carriage as witnessed by some passengers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Security was heightened after the attack. Metal detectors, installed countrywide following another metro attack seven years before, were all implemented after not having been in use for several years. The Moscow Metro security department said they were ready to assist the Saint Petersburg Metro in case of any help being needed. Local media reported that authorities had found suspicious packages in three Moscow metro stations, Nagatinskaja, Savelovskaya and Ugrezhskaya (CIP). Authorities later cordoned off the area. The security of Pulkovo International Airport was also heightened in response to the blast. A possible suspect was sighted on Metro surveillance cameras, according to unconfirmed reports. The Investigative Committee of Russia said the train operator's decision to drive it to the next station helped to avoid an even higher number of casualties.  Two weeks later, FSB released a statement says that Russian security operatives have detained Abror Azimov (born 1990), the alleged mastermind of the bombing, in Moscow in which he trained the suicide attacker.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casualties.", "content": "As reported by the Russian Ministry of Health, approximately 50 people were injured, of whom 15 died (seven during the attack, eight later from their injuries). 39 people were hospitalised, of whom six had critical injuries. Children were among those injured.  The fifteen people killed were identified as thirteen Russian citizens, a Kazakh man and an Azerbaijani woman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Perpetrator.", "content": "The suspected perpetrator behind the attacks was identified by Kyrgyzstan and Russian intelligence services as Akbarzhon Jalilov (sometimes spelled Akbarjon Djalilov), an ethnic Uzbek 22-year-old Kyrgyz-born Russian citizen. He was one of the 15 people who died during the attack.  Jalilov was born in 1995 in Osh, Kyrgyzstan, and arrived in Moscow around 2011. According to Russian newspaper \"Moskovskij Komsomolets\", Gazeta.ru reported he had worked as a cook at a sushi bar in 2015, while other sources claimed Jalilov had worked in a garage before disappearing weeks prior to the attack. Interfax said authorities believe he had ties to radical Islamic groups. Russian media has reported that he traveled to Syria in 2014 and trained with Islamic State militants. On 26 April, a group called the Imam Shamil Battalion has claimed responsibility the attack, and said that the bomber was acting on orders from al-Qaeda. The statement, posted by SITE Intelligence Group, said the bomber, Akbarzhon Jalilov, had acted on instructions from al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri. In considering the incident, researchers had already illustrated that ‘analysis should not focus exclusively on recent developments and Daesh’, but rather look at the ‘broader context’ including the ‘range of groups with which Central Asian radicals are involved.’", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Initial reports.", "content": "On 3 April 2017, investigators said they believed the attack was a suicide bombing and identified a Central Asian as the suspected perpetrator. Some reports initially misidentified the suspect as a 22-year-old from Kazakhstan who was an IT student at St. Petersburg State University of Economics. He had been reported missing. This individual was later correctly identified as a victim of the attack. The suspect was later identified as a 23-year-old native of Kyrgyzstan with Russian citizenship and with links to international militant groups. The man with a beard wearing a skullcap contacted police to clear his name. Interfax later said only one person was involved. The man with the beard turned out to be a former paratrooper from Bashkortostan.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Domestic.", "content": "President Vladimir Putin was in the city when the attack happened and pledged a thorough investigation. During an unrelated meeting with President of Belarus Alexander Lukashenko, Putin said they are \"considering all possible causes, including terrorism.\" He later visited the area of the attack, which was prohibited by the Federal Protective Service due to security concerns. This information was later denied by RIA Novosti. His statement was followed by Lukashenko expressing his sadness over the bombing. Mayor of Moscow Sergey Sobyanin expressed his condolences to the victims of the attack and ordered the strengthening of security measures around the capital's transport infrastructure, according to the Mayor's and city government's Press Secretary Gulnara Penkova. Head of the Ministry of Health Veronika Skvortsova instructed federal doctors to help doctors in St. Petersburg to assist the victims.  The Head of the Chechen Republic Ramzan Kadyrov called for the identification and punishment of the perpetrators.  The All-Russian Union of Insurers said relatives of the victims will be able to receive 2.025 million rubles.  A makeshift memorial was made to honour the victims of the bombing. Saint Petersburg declared three days of mourning in response to the attack. Mayor Georgi Poltavchenko, Governor of Leningrad Alexander Drozdenko, and President Vladimir Putin visited the site and laid flowers to pay respect.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Condolences and sympathies for those affected were offered by several international figures, including representatives of Algeria, China, the Czech Republic, Norway, Denmark, Finland, France, Georgia, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Singapore, Thailand, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United States, Vietnam, NATO, and the European Union.  Ukraine tightened security around its metro stations in fear of an attack.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other reactions.", "content": "Tel Aviv city hall building was lit with the colours of the Russian flag. In Brussels, where a similar attack took place a year earlier, the ING Marnix building near the Throne metro station was also decorated with a moving Russian flag animation. At midnight (01:00 of April 5 in Moscow time), the lights of the Eiffel Tower were switched off to honor the victims.  \"The Independent\" reported that some supporters of ISIL on unnamed internet forums linked the attack to Russia's support of Bashar al-Assad, and shared photos and video of people injured and killed by the blast.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "On 3 April 2017, a terrorist attack using an explosive device took place on the Saint Petersburg Metro between Sennaya Ploshchad and Tekhnologichesky Institut stations. Seven people (including the perpetrator) were initially reported to have died, and eight more died later from their injuries, bringing the total to 15.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977733}
{"src_title": "Dobble", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "The game uses a deck of 55 cards, each printed with eight different symbols. Any two cards always share one, and only one, matching symbol. The object of the game is to be the first to announce the drawing in common between two given cards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "In 1976, inspired by Kirkman's schoolgirl problem, French mathematics enthusiast Jacques Cottereau devised a game consisting of a set of 31 cards each with six images of insects, with exactly one image shared between each pair of them. In 2008, journalist and game designer Denis Blanchot found a few of the cards from the \"game of insects\" and developed the idea to create \"Dobble\".  \"Dobble\" was released in France in 2009, and in the UK and North America in 2011 under Blue Orange Games. In 2015, the French board game company Asmodee acquired the rights to \"Dobble\" and \"Spot It!\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mathematics.", "content": "The special way that symbols are arranged on \"Dobble\" cards can be understood using geometry. If we represent each card by a line, and each symbol by a point where two lines intersect, then the properties of \"Dobble\" are that:  This geometric structure is an example of a finite projective plane.  If there are 3 points in each line this creates a structure known as the Fano Plane. This represents a simpler version of \"Dobble\" with 3 symbols on each card, 7 cards and 7 symbols.  In general, a finite projective plane with n+1 points on each line has n+n+1 points and lines.  To represent the real game of \"Dobble\", each line must join 8 points. This results in a structure with 57 lines and 57 points (7+7+1=57).  A pack of \"Dobble\" cards has 57 symbols but only 55 cards, so 2 possible cards are missing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dobble is a game in which players have to find symbols in common between two cards. It was the UK’s best-selling game in 2018 and 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977734}
{"src_title": "Fidget spinner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "Fidget spinners are toys not unlike yo-yo or other skill toys, designed to spin with little effort. A basic fidget spinner usually consists of a two- or three-pronged design with a bearing in its center circular pad. However, the number of prongs may vary - some may have six or more. A person holds the center pad while the toy spins. They are made from various materials including brass, stainless steel, titanium, copper, aluminium, and plastic. The bearings are generally ceramic, metal (stainless steel or chrome), and some are hybridssuch as ceramic balls with stainless races and cages. Each fidget spinner also has two or more weights on the outside that make it spin faster and stay balanced. Bearings can vary to adjust for the design's spin time, vibration, and noise, causing unique sensory feedback.  Being a kind of a flywheel of a gyroscope in principle, fidget spinners come with similar effects enabling a player to pull various tricks and stunts while forces of a gyroscope take hold. A fidget spinner can be balanced on top of fingers, thrown and caught, and so on.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Origin.", "content": "As of 2017, the patent status of the various fidget spinners on the market was unclear.  Catherine Hettinger, a chemical engineer by training, was initially credited by some news stories as having been the inventor of the fidget spinner, including by media outlets such as \"The Guardian\", \"The New York Times\", and the \"New York Post\". Hettinger filed a patent application for a \"spinning toy\" in 1993 and a patent was issued, but Hettinger allowed the patent to lapse in 2005 after she could not find a commercial partner. A May 2017 Bloomberg News article showed that Hettinger was not the inventor of the fidget spinner, and Hettinger agreed.  In an interview appearing on 4 May 2017 on NPR, Scott McCoskery described how he invented a metal spinning device in 2014 to cope with his own fidgeting in IT meetings and conference calls. In response to requests from an online community, he began selling the device he called the Torqbar online.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popularity and adolescent usage.", "content": "With the rapid increase in the popularity of fidget spinners in 2017, many children and teenagers began using them in school, and some schools also reported that students were trading and selling the spinner toys.  As a result of their frequent use by school children, many school districts banned the toy. Some teachers argued that the spinners distracted students from their schoolwork. According to a survey conducted by Alexi Roy and published in May 2017, 32% of the largest 200 American public and private high schools had banned spinners on campus.  When fidget spinners rose in popularity in 2017, many publications in the popular press discussed the marketing claims made about them for people with ADHD, autism, or anxiety. However, there is no scientific evidence that fidget spinners are effective as a treatment for children with ADHD.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A fidget spinner is a toy that consists of a ball bearing in the center of a multi-lobed (typically two or three) flat structure made from metal or plastic designed to spin along its axis with very little effort. Fidget spinners became trending toys in 2017, although similar devices had been invented as early as 1993.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977735}
{"src_title": "Battle of the Strait of Otranto (1917)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Disposition of forces.", "content": "Under the command of Horthy, three Austro-Hungarian cruisers (\"Novara\", \"Saida\", and \"Helgoland\", modified to resemble large British destroyers) were ordered to attack the drifters on the night of 14 May and attempt to destroy as many as possible before daybreak. The destroyers \"Csepel\" and \"Balaton\" were to mount a diversionary raid off the Albanian coast in order to confuse any Allied counter-attack. Two Austro-Hungarian U-boats— and, along with the German U-boat —were to participate in the operation as well. A supporting force composed of the armored cruiser, two destroyers, and four 250t-class torpedo boats was on standby if the raiders ran into trouble. The old pre-dreadnought battleship and three more 250t-class torpedo boats were also available if necessary.  An Allied destroyer patrol was in the area on the night of 14 May, to the north of the Barrage. The Italian flotilla leader \"Mirabello\" was accompanied by the French destroyers, and. The Italian destroyer \"Borea\" was also in the area, escorting a small convoy to Valona. A support force was based in the port of Brindisi, consisting of the British cruisers \"Dartmouth\" and \"Bristol\" and several French and Italian destroyers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Raid on the drifters.", "content": "The Italian convoy escorted by \"Borea\" was attacked by the Austro-Hungarian destroyers \"Csepel\" and \"Balaton\" at approximately 03:24. The Austro-Hungarians sank \"Borea\" and a munitions ship, and a second was set on fire and abandoned.  The three cruisers were able to pass through the line of drifters, and at 03:30 began attacking the small barrage ships. The Austro-Hungarians frequently gave the drifter crews warning to abandon ship before opening fire. In some instances, the drifter crews chose to fight: \"Gowan Lee\" returned fire on the Austro-Hungarian ships. The ship was heavily damaged, but remained afloat; her captain—Joseph Watt—was later awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions during the battle.  There were 47 drifters in Barrage on the night of 14 May; the Austro-Hungarians managed to sink 14 drifters and damage four more. The lack of sufficient Allied escorts forced the withdrawal of the remaining blockading ships, although only for a short time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Battle.", "content": "By this time, the Allied naval forces in the area were aware of the raid, and were in a position to block the Austro-Hungarian retreat. Rear Admiral Alfredo Acton—the commanding officer of the Italian Scouting Division—ordered \"Mirabello\"s group southward at 04:35, while he embarked on the British light cruiser. By 06:45, the cruisers \"Dartmouth\" and —along with the Italian destroyers \"Mosto\", \"Pilo\", \"Schiaffino\", \"Acerbi\", and \"Aquila\"—were sailing north in an attempt to cut off the Austro-Hungarian cruisers. The Italian light cruiser, the flotilla leader \"Racchia\", and the destroyers \"Insidioso\", \"Indomito\", and \"Impavido\" were readying to sail in support as well.  The \"Mirabello\" group engaged the Austro-Hungarian cruisers at 07:00, but were heavily outgunned, and instead attempted to shadow the fleeing cruisers. At 07:45, Rear Admiral Acton's ships encountered the destroyers \"Csepel\" and \"Balaton\". After 20 minutes, the Italian destroyers were able to close the distance to the Austro-Hungarian ships; the two groups engaged in a short artillery duel before a shot from \"Csepel\" struck \"Aquila\" and disabled the ship's boilers. By this time, the Austro-Hungarian destroyers were under the cover of the coastal batteries at Durazzo, and were able to make good their escape.  At 09:00, \"Bristol\"s lookouts spotted the smoke from the Austro-Hungarian cruisers to the south of her position. The Allied ships turned to engage the Austro-Hungarian ships; the British ships had a superiority both in numbers and in firepower; \"Dartmouth\" was armed with eight guns and \"Bristol\" had two 6 inch and ten, compared to the nine guns on each of the Austro-Hungarian ships. Unfortunately for the Allies, their numerical superiority was quickly lost, as their destroyers were either occupied with mechanical problems, or protecting those destroyers suffering from breakdowns. The support forces of both sides—the \"Sankt Georg\" group for the Austro-Hungarians, and the \"Marsala\" group for the Allies—were quickly dispatched to the battle.  Italian FBA seaplanes from the seaplane carrier \"Europa\" shadowed the Austro-Hungarian cruisers and eventually dropped bombs on \"Helgoland\", only scoring a near-miss that dislodged some rivets in her rudder. \"Dartmouth\"—faster than \"Bristol\"—closed to effective engagement range with the Austro-Hungarian ships, and opened fire. A shell from \"Dartmouth\" struck \"Novara\", at which point the Austro-Hungarian ships laid a smoke screen in order to close the distance. \"Dartmouth\" was struck several times, and by 11:00, Acton ordered the ship to reduce speed to allow \"Bristol\" to catch up. \"Novara\" was hit several more times, and her main feed pumps and starboard auxiliary steam pipe had been damaged, which caused the ship to begin losing speed. At 11:05, Acton turned away in an attempt to separate \"Saida\" from \"Novara\" and \"Helgoland\". At this point, \"Sankt Georg\" was approaching the scene, which prompted Acton to temporarily withdraw to consolidate his forces. This break in the action was enough time for the Austro-Hungarians to save the crippled \"Novara\"; \"Saida\" took the ship under tow while \"Helgoland\" covered them.  Unaware that \"Novara\" had been disabled, and fearing that his ships would be drawn too close to the Austrian naval base at Cattaro, Acton broke off the pursuit. The destroyer \"Acerbi\" misread the signal, and attempted to launch a torpedo attack, but was driven off by the combined fire of \"Novara\", \"Saida\", and \"Helgoland\". At 12:05, Acton realized the dire situation \"Novara\" was in, but by this time, the \"Sankt Georg\" group was too close. The \"Sankt Georg\" group rendezvoused with \"Novara\", \"Saida\", and \"Helgoland\", and \"Csepel\" and \"Balaton\" reached the scene as well. The entire group returned to Cattaro together.  At 13:30, the submarine \"UC-25\" torpedoed \"Dartmouth\", causing serious damage. The escorting destroyers forced \"UC-25\" from the area, but \"Dartmouth\" had to be abandoned for a period of time, before it could be towed back to port. The French destroyer attempted to pursue the German submarine, but struck a mine laid by \"UC-25\" that morning and sank rapidly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "As a result of the raid, it was decided by the British naval command that unless sufficient destroyers were available to protect the barrage, the drifters would have to be withdrawn at night. The drifters would only be operating for less than twelve hours a day, and would have to leave their positions by 15:00 every day. Despite the damage received by the Austro-Hungarian cruisers during the pursuit by \"Dartmouth\" and \"Bristol\", the Austro-Hungarian forces inflicted more serious casualties on the Allied blockade. In addition to the sunk and damaged drifters, the cruiser \"Dartmouth\" was nearly sunk by the German submarine \"UC-25\", the French destroyer \"Boutefeu\" was mined and sunk, and a munitions convoy to Valona was interdicted.  However, in a strategic sense, the battle had little effect on the war. The barrage was never particularly effective at preventing the U-boat operations of Germany and Austria-Hungary in the first place. The drifters could cover approximately apiece; of the -wide Strait, only slightly more than half was covered. The raid risked some of the most advanced units of the Austro-Hungarian fleet on an operation that offered minimal strategic returns.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 1917 Battle of the Strait of Otranto was the result of an Austro-Hungarian raid on the Otranto Barrage, an Allied naval blockade of the Strait of Otranto. The battle took place on 14–15 May 1917, and was the largest surface action in the Adriatic Sea during World War I. The Otranto Barrage was a fixed barrier, composed of lightly armed drifters with anti-submarine nets coupled with minefields and supported by Allied naval patrols.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977736}
{"src_title": "Édouard Philippe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Édouard Philippe, the son of French teachers, was born in Rouen in 1970 and grew up in a left-wing household. He has one sibling, a sister. He comes from a family of dockworkers, a profession in which members of his family are still employed. He grew up in a suburban neighbourhood in Rouen. He was at first a pupil at the Michelet School in Rouen before moving to Grand-Quevilly where he attended Jean-Texier College and later attending Lycée les Bruyères in Sotteville-lès-Rouen.  He obtained his baccalauréat at the École de Gaulle-Adenauer in Bonn, and after a year in hypokhâgne, he studied at Sciences Po for three years and graduated in 1992, and later studied at the École nationale d'administration from 1995 to 1997 (the \"Marc Bloch cohort\").  Philippe served as an artillery officer during his national service in 1994. He continued to serve in the operational reserve for several years afterwards.  In his years at Sciences Po, he supported Michel Rocard and was influenced by him, identifying with the Rocardian and social democratic wings of the Socialist Party. His brief flirtation with the Socialists ended after Rocard was toppled from the leadership of the Socialist Party. After leaving the ÉNA in 1997, he went on to work at the Council of State, specializing in public procurement law.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "In 2001, Philippe joined Antoine Rufenacht as Deputy Mayor of Le Havre charged with legal affairs; Rufenacht served as mayor of Le Havre from 1995 to 2010 and campaign director for Jacques Chirac in the 2002 presidential election. Recognising the ideological proximity between Michel Rocard and Alain Juppé, Philippe supported the latter at the time of the creation of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) in 2002, marking the end of his left-wing activism; the same year, he failed to win his constituency in the legislative elections. He served under Juppé as director general of services of the UMP until 2004, when the mayor of Bordeaux was convicted as a result of the fictitious jobs case implicating the Rally for the Republic (RPR). He then took a job in the private sector, working with the American law firm Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, and was elected to the regional council of Upper Normandy the same year.  In the wake of Nicolas Sarkozy's victory in the 2007 presidential election, Philippe briefly returned to political life working for Alain Juppé, when Juppé served briefly as Minister of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy, before being appointed Director of Public Affairs at Areva, where he worked from 2007 to 2010. He was also substitute to Jean-Yves Besselat, who served as the member of the National Assembly for Seine-Maritime's 7th constituency from 2007 to 2012. In 2008, he was elected to the general council of Seine-Maritime in the canton of Le Havre-5, and in 2010 was elected mayor of Le Havre after the resignation of Rufenacht, his mentor, and also became President of the Agglomeration community of Le Havre the same year. After Besselat's death in 2012 following a long illness, Philippe took his seat, successfully holding it in the subsequent legislative elections. He was reelected as Mayor of Le Havre in the 2014 municipal elections in the first round, with an absolute majority of 52.04% of expressed votes. Following his resignation on 20 May 2017 as Le Havre Mayor, he retains a seat in the municipal council.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2017 presidential election.", "content": "He worked for the campaign of Alain Juppé in the primary of the right and centre in 2016, serving as a spokesperson alongside Benoist Apparu. Though Philippe and Apparu, as well as Christophe Béchu, later joined the campaign of François Fillon for the 2017 presidential election after his victory in the primary, the three parliamentarians – close to Juppé – quit on 2 March 2017 after the candidate was summoned to appear before judges amidst the Fillon affair. He said he would not seek to retain his seat in the legislative elections in June to avoid breaching the law limiting the accumulation of mandates. Following the victory of Emmanuel Macron in the presidential election, there was speculation that Philippe was a potential choice for Prime Minister, representing three essential aspects: political renewal (at the age of only 46), affiliation with the moderate right, and familiarity with the political terrain.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prime Minister.", "content": "On 15 May 2017, Philippe was appointed as Prime Minister by Emmanuel Macron after speculation he was a contender for the office alongside former Ecology Minister Jean-Louis Borloo, MoDem Leader François Bayrou and IMF Managing Director Christine Lagarde. In the June 2017 legislative elections, Macron's party, renamed \"La République En Marche!\", together with its ally the Democratic Movement (MoDem), secured a comfortable majority, winning 350 seats out of 577, with his party alone winning an outright majority of 308 seats. Philippe is a member of The Republicans though he campaigned for La République En Marche! due to the party supporting his role as Prime Minister. He formed the Second Philippe government on 21 May 2017 following a series of resignations after scandal embroiled Ministers François Bayrou, Sylvie Goulard, Marielle de Sarnez and Richard Ferrand. This diminished Democratic Movement's representation in the government significantly.  Philippe secured a vote of confidence and was allowed to govern with a majority government on 4 July 2017. Philippe was confirmed with a vote of 370 against 67. Following the vote, Philippe addressed the parliament, talking about plans to tackle France's debt by raising cigarette tax and cutting spending. Philippe also talked about plans to reduce corporate tax from 33.3% to 25% by 2022. Philippe announced the government's labour reform plan which will give companies more power when it comes to negotiating conditions directly with their employees. Labour reform was one of Macron's biggest election promises and has been seen as the government's biggest economic reform.  On 12 July 2017, Philippe announced a new immigration plan. The plan attempts to speed up asylum claims from fourteen months to six, provide housing for 7,500 refugees by the end of 2019, improve living conditions for minors and deport economic migrants The draft of the law will be introduced in September.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Philippe is married to Édith Chabre, the executive director of the School of Law at Sciences Po. They have three children.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Physical appearance.", "content": "Since the middle of the 2010s, Philippe sports a short beard. He is the first Prime Minister with facial hair since Henri Queuille (Prime Minister in 1951) and the first one with a full beard since Alexandre Ribot (Prime Minister for four days in 1914).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Published works.", "content": "Philippe has co-authored two works of fiction:  In 2015, he prefaced \"Promenades avec Oscar Niemeyer\" by Danielle Knapp, published by Petit à Petit.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Édouard Charles Philippe (; born 28 November 1970) is a French politician serving as Prime Minister of France since 15 May 2017 under President Emmanuel Macron.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977737}
{"src_title": "The Fatal Eggs", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "By 1924, Bulgakov was relatively well known as a writer. He had published several short stories, including \"Dyavoliada\", in some ways a precursor to \"Master and Margarita\", and started publishing his first novel, \"The White Guard\". \"The Fatal Eggs\" was finished in early October 1924 and published in the \"Nedra\" journal in February 1925; a shortened edition was also published in May–June 1925 in the \"Krasnaya Panorama\" journal, under the title \"The Ray of Life\" (Russian: \"Луч жизни\"). Bulgakov also read the novel on several occasions to various social gatherings, where it met with favorable reception.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "\"The Fatal Eggs\" can be described as a satirical science fiction novel. Its main protagonist is an aging zoologist, Vladimir Ipatyevich Persikov, a specialist in amphibians. The narration begins in Moscow of 1928, which seems to have overcome the destructive effects of the Russian Civil War and is quite prosperous. After a long period of degradation, research at the Zoological Institute has revived. After leaving his microscope for several hours, Persikov suddenly noticed that the out-of-focus microscope produced a ray of red light; amoeba left under that light showed an impossibly increased rate of binary fission, reproducing at enormous speeds and demonstrating unusual aggression. Later experiments with large cameras — to produce a larger ray — confirmed that the same increased speed of reproduction applied to other organisms, such as frogs, which evolved and produced a next generation within two days. Persikov's invention quickly becomes known to journalists, and eventually to foreign spies and to the GPU, the Soviet secret service. At the same time, the country is affected by an unknown disease in domesticated poultry, which results in a complete extinction of all chickens in the Soviet Russia, with the plague stopping at the nation's borders. A sovkhoz manager Aleksandr Semenovich Rokk (whose name is also a pun on the novel's title, \"Rok\" meaning \"fate\") receives an official permission to confiscate Persikov's equipment, and use the invention to attempt to restore the chicken populace to the pre-plague level. However, the chicken eggs which are imported from outside the country are, by a mistake, sent to Persikov's laboratory while the reptile eggs destined for the professor end up in the hands of the farmers. As a result, Rokk breeds an enormous quantity of large and overly aggressive snakes, ostriches, and crocodiles which start attacking people. In the panic that follows, Persikov is killed by a mob — which blames him for the appearance of the snakes — and his cameras are smashed. The Red Army attempts to hold the snakes back, but only the coming of sub-zero weather in August—described as a deus ex machina—puts a stop to the snake invasion. In an earlier draft the novel ends with the scene of Moscow's complete destruction by the snakes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Analysis and critical reception.", "content": "A number of influences on the novel can be detected. One of the sources behind \"The Fatal Eggs\" was H. G. Wells's 1904 novel \"The Food of the Gods and How It Came to Earth\", where two scientists discover a way to accelerate growth — which at first results in a plague of gigantic chickens, and eventually in an all-out war between people affected by growth and those who are not. The novel is in fact referenced in the text of the novel in a conversation between Persikov and his assistant. It has also been noted that the death of the snakes from cold weather though they successfully resisted the military force is reminiscent of the death of aliens from a pathogen bacteria in \"The War of the Worlds\". Other influences may include rumours of \"a giant reptile [in the Crimea], to capture which a regiment of Red Guards was deployed\".  The events of \"The Fatal Eggs\" were usually seen as a critique of Soviet Russia. Indeed, there was a case to be made for Professor Persikov's identification with Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (note the similarity in names), as both of them can be said to have unleashed destruction on Russia, and there seem to be similarities between them both in appearance and character. Chicken plague and the sanitary cordons that foreign countries established against it were seen as a parody of the ideas of internationalism and the policy of the Entente against it. Although Bulgakov was not repressed, from 1925 he was questioned by the GPU several times and was never allowed to leave the Soviet Union, possibly as a result of his negative image which was at least partly due to the publication of \"The Fatal Eggs\". Although there were positive responses, upon the whole the novel was viewed as dangerous and anti-Soviet.  Bulgakov was aware that the story might be displeasing to the authorities – after presenting the story at a literary evening in late 1924, he wrote in his diary: 'Is it a satire? Or a provocative gesture?... I'm afraid that I might be hauled off... for all these heroic feats.'", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "English translations.", "content": "There are a number of English translations of \"The Fatal Eggs\", including but not limited to the following:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film, TV or theatrical adaptations.", "content": "A film adaptation directed by Sergei Lomkin was released in 1996. Cast included Oleg Yankovsky.  On April 17, 1981 the CBC Radio program Nightfall broadcast an adaptation.  A two-part Italian TV adaptation was broadcast by RAI in 1977.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Fatal Eggs (, ) is a satirical science-fiction novella by Mikhail Bulgakov, a Soviet novelist and playwright whose most famous work is \"The Master and Margarita\". It was written in 1924 and first published in 1925. The novel became quite popular, but was much criticised by most Soviet critics as a mockery of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the leadership of Soviet Russia.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977738}
{"src_title": "SYSTRAN", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "With its origin in the Georgetown machine translation effort, SYSTRAN was one of the few machine translation systems to survive the major decrease of funding after the ALPAC Report of the mid-1960s. The company was established in La Jolla in California to work on translation of Russian to English text for the United States Air Force during the Cold War. Large numbers of Russian scientific and technical documents were translated using SYSTRAN under the auspices of the USAF Foreign Technology Division (later the National Air and Space Intelligence Center) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. The quality of the translations, although only approximate, was usually adequate for understanding content.  The company was sold in 1986 to the Gachot family, based in Paris, and is now traded publicly on the French stock exchange. Its company headquarters is in Paris, while its U.S. headquarters is still in La Jolla.  During the dot-com boom, the international language industry started a new era, and SYSTRAN entered into agreements with a number of translation integrators, the most successful of these being WorldLingo.  In 2014, the company was acquired by CSLi (Korea).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Business situation.", "content": "Most of SYSTRAN's revenue comes from a few customers. 57.1% comes from the 10 main customers and the three largest customers account for 10.9%, 8.9%, and 8.9% of its revenues, respectively. Revenues had been declining in the early 2000s: 10.2 million euros in 2004, 10.1 million euros in 2005, 9.3 million euros in 2006, 8.8 million euros in 2007, and 7.6 million euros in 2008, before seeing a rebound in 2009 with 8.6 million euros.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Languages.", "content": "The following is a list of the source and target languages with which SYSTRAN works. Many of the pairs are to or from English or French.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "SYSTRAN, founded by Dr. Peter Toma in 1968, is one of the oldest machine translation companies. SYSTRAN has done extensive work for the United States Department of Defense and the European Commission.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977739}
{"src_title": "Grand Egyptian Museum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "The design of the building was decided by means of an architectural competition. The competition was announced on 7 January 2002. The organisers received 1557 entries from 82 countries, making it the second largest architectural competition in history. In the second stage of the competition, 20 entries were asked to submit additional information. Judging was complete by 2 June 2003. The competition was won by the company Heneghan Peng from Dublin, Ireland, winning 250,000 dollars. Second place was awarded to Coop Himmelblau. Héctor Vigliecca and Luciene Quel (Brazil), Ruben Verdi (Italy), Michael Zimmermann, Engel und Zimmermann (Germany), Fernando Pardo Calvo y Bernardo Garcia Tapia, Nuno Filipe Morais Monteiro (Portugal) and Martin Roubik (Czech Republic) received Honorable Mention. The building is designed by Heneghan Peng Architects, Buro Happold and Arup. The exhibition masterplan, exhibition design and museology is by Atelier Brückner.  The building is shaped like a chamfered triangle in plan. It sits on a site two kilometers west of the pyramids, near a motorway interchange. The building's north and south walls line up directly with the Great Pyramid of Khufu and the Pyramid of Menkaure. In front of the building is a large plaza, filled with date plants. One of the main features of the museum is the translucent stone wall, made of alabaster, that makes up the front facade of the building. Inside the main entrance is a large atrium, where large statues will be exhibited.  On 2 February 2010, Hill International announced that Egypt's Ministry of Culture had signed a contract with a joint venture of Hill and EHAF Consulting Engineers to provide project management services during the design and construction of the Grand Egyptian Museum.  The total estimated project cost is US$550m, US$300m of which will be financed from Japanese loans, the remaining will be financed by the Supreme Council of Antiquities, other donations and international funds.  The new museum is designed to include the latest technology, including virtual reality. The museum will also be an international center of communication between museums, to promote direct contact with other local and international museums. The Grand Egyptian Museum will include a children's museum, conference center, training center, and workshops similar to the old Pharaonic places.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Progress.", "content": "On 5 January 2002, then-Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak laid the foundation stone of the Grand Egyptian Museum. On 25 August 2006 the Statue of Ramesses II was moved from Ramses Square in Cairo to the Giza Plateau, in anticipation of construction of the museum. The Statue of Ramesses II, estimated to be approximately 3,200 years old and was moved to the entrance of the museum in January 2018.  In 2007, GEM secured a $300 million loan from the Japan Bank for International Cooperation. The Egyptian Government will fund $147 million while the remaining $150 million will be funded through donations and international organisations.  In late August 2008, the design team submitted over 5,000 drawings to the Egyptian Ministry of Culture. Following this, the construction tender was announced in October 2008. Earthmoving has begun to excavate the site for the building.  Tendering was due in September 2009, with an estimated completion date of 2013.  On 11 January 2012, a joint venture between Egypt's Orascom Construction Industries (OCI) and the Belgian BESIX Group was awarded the contract for phase three of the Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM), a deal valued at $810 million.  The Minister of Antiquities Mamdouh al-Damaty announced in May 2015 that the museum will be partially opened in May 2018.  On 29 April 2018, a fire broke out near the entrance of the GEM but artifacts were not damaged and the cause of the fire was unknown.  In May 2018, the last of King Tutankhamun's chariots was moved to GEM. In November 2018, the estimate for a full opening was pushed back to last quarter of 2020, according to Tarek Tawfik, GEM's director.  In April 2020, the planned opening of the museum was pushed to 2021 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.  The GEM is available for private tours in advance of its official opening.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Exhibits.", "content": "The exhibition will cover about one third of the total museum grounds displaying 50,000 artifacts. The main attraction will be the first exhibition of the full tomb collection of King Tutankhamun. The collection includes about 5000 items in total and will be relocated from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Other objects will be relocated from storages and museums in Luxor, Minya, Sohag, Assiut, Beni Suef, Fayoum, the Delta, and Alexandria.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM), also known as the Giza Museum, is a planned museum of artefacts of ancient Egypt. Described as the largest archaeological museum in the world, construction on the museum was set to be complete in the first quarter of 2020. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the museum is now scheduled to open in 2021. The museum plans to exhibit the full Tutankhamun collection with many pieces to be displayed for the first time. The museum is sited on of land approximately two kilometers from the Giza pyramids and is part of a new master plan for the plateau.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977740}
{"src_title": "Alpine A110 (2017)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Specifications.", "content": "Based on an all-aluminium construction, the A110 is powered by a 1.8-litre turbocharged gasoline direct injection 4 valves per cylinder inline-four engine mated to 7-speed dual clutch automatic transmission manufactured by Getrag. Developed by Renault–Nissan and reworked by Alpine engineers, the engine has an output of at 6,000 rpm and of torque at 2,000–5,000 rpm. According to Alpine, the A110 can accelerate from in 4.5 seconds, and has an electronically limited top speed of.  The A110 is available in three trims: Pure, Première and Legende. The Pure cars, the base trim, have 17-inch alloy wheels. The Première trim cars are technically the launch edition models which were limited to 1,955 units and were equipped with amenities such as forged alloy wheels, quilted leather Sabelt bucket sports seats, a reversing camera and metallic blue exterior colour as standard. The Legende trim cars come with six way adjustable sports seats, black or brown leather interior upholstery and an upgraded hi fi sound system along with specially designed wheels exclusive to this trim. All of the three trims share the same powertrain and transmission.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "A110S.", "content": "Introduced in June 2019, the A110S is a high performance and lightweight variant of the A110. The A110S benefits from increased power output (from ) from its 1.8-litre turbocharged four cylinder engine as well as stiffer springs, new anti-rollbars, dampers and carbon ceramic brakes as sassed equipment. The ride-height is lowered by and the car is fitted with special Michelin Pilot Sport 4 tyres having a stickier compound contributing to more grip on the tarmac.  The engine was retuned by installing a larger turbocharger. The peak power is achieved at 400 rpm higher than the standard engine. The 7-speed dual-clutch transmission remains unchanged. The new springs and anti-rollbars are 50 and 100 percent stiffer than the standard car. The ESC system has also been retuned to improve handling and comes with a full-defeat mode.  Aesthetic changes include flag motifs, orange brake calipers and optional matte grey paintwork and lighter Fuchs alloy wheels. An optional carbon fibre roof with a gloss finish reduces from the total weight of the car which is.  The A110S can accelerate to in 4.4 seconds (0.1 seconds faster than standard car) and has an electronically limited top speed of.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Motorsport.", "content": "The Alpine A110 Cup was revealed in October 2017. This track-only version of the A110 utilizes the same chassis as the road car but has been modified to include a roll cage, adjustable suspension and racing brakes. The 1.8 L turbocharged engine is also similar to the street car but power has been upped to 270 hp that is transferred to the track through a bespoke racing sequential gearbox and Michelin racing tires. The car is designed for use in the new Alpine Elf Europa Cup series that will visit 6 tracks in Europe for its inaugural season. Only 20 cars will be built in its debut season and they are priced around €100,000 each.  At the 2018 Geneva Motor Show, Alpine revealed a new GT4 version of the Alpine A110 Cup. This upgraded version of the A110 Cup comes with more power as well as revised aerodynamics highlighted by an extremely aggressive front splitter and a large rear wing. Customers of the original A110 Cup car are able to upgrade their cars to GT4 spec for a fee. The A110 GT4 began racing in the second half of 2018 so teams could test their new car in preparation for a championship hunt in the 2019 season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other media.", "content": "The car attracted some attention in February 2018, when a company-provided car caught fire while being filmed for an episode of the British television programme, \"Top Gear\". The responding fire personnel were not able to control the fire, and the car was burnt to destruction. This was due to a fuel failure when driver Chris Harris said “There’s a red light on the dashboard, smoke, smoke, smoke!”  James May remarked on the Alpine A110, pronounced (‘Alpeen’), \"It has 248bhp, weighs the square root of diddly, and is the greatest thing to come out of France since the Mouli cheese grater.\" May eventually bought an Alpine in mid 2018 referring to it as his car of the year.  The A110 Premiere Edition appeared in \"Gran Turismo Sport\" via a February update alongside the original model.  The 2017 A110 was introduced as a playable car to \"Forza Horizon 4\" with the Season 17 Update which arrived on December 12, 2019.  The A110 was runner up for the 2019 European Car of the Year award. It received the same number of points as the eventual winner (the Jaguar I-Pace) but with fewer first-place votes.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Alpine A110 is a rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive sports car introduced by French car manufacturer Alpine at the 87th Geneva International Motor Show in March 2017.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977741}
{"src_title": "Martin Dzúr", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Dzúr was born in Plostin, Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovakia, on 12 July 1919. His parents were peasants. From 1937 to 1939 he studied woodworking. In the late 1940s he graduated from a military school, a higher academic course and the General Staff Academy, Kliment Voroshilov, in Moscow.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career and activities.", "content": "Dzúr joined the Slovak army for military draft service in 1941. However, he left the Slovak army and defected to the Soviet Union in January 1943. He joined both Soviet forces and the then-illegal Czechoslovak Communist Party in 1943. Then he began to serve in the 119th brigade of the Red Army. Following World War II he became a captain in the Soviet-assisted Czechoslovak independent brigade in 1946.  In 1959, he was made deputy defense minister. He was appointed defense minister under President Ludvík Svoboda in April 1968, replacing Bohumír Lomský in the post. Four months after Dzúr's appointment the Soviet Union invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968.  In the immediate aftermath of the invasion, Dzúr was arrested in his office by two Soviet military officers. Ivan Yershov, Soviet chief of staff during the invasion, stated in 1989 that Dzúr initially refused to take orders from the Soviets, arguing that only Alexander Dubček, leader of the Czechoslovak communist party, could give orders to him. However, Andrei Grechko, the former commander of the Warsaw Pact, told Dzúr on telephone that \"if a single Czechoslovak soldier fired so much as one shot, he would personally hang Dzur from the first tree.\" Dzúr was allowed only to call Dubček to inform the invasion. On 28 September 1968 Dzúr increased the number of Czech military areas accessible to Soviet troops.  Dzúr was elected to the communist party's central committee in 1971. His term as defense minister ended on 11 January 1985 when he retired from office due to ill health. Milán Václavík replaced him in the post.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Views.", "content": "Dzúr was close to Alexander Dubček. The 1970 CIA report describes Dzúr as a moderate like Dubček.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours and awards.", "content": "Dzúr was awarded the highest Soviet prize, the Order of Lenin, in 1983.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Only four days after his removal from office Dzúr died of \"a long and serious illness\" in Prague on 15 January 1985.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Martin Dzúr (12 July 1919 – 15 January 1985) was a Slovak military officer and a communist politician, who served as defense minister from 1968 to 1985.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977742}
{"src_title": "Grand Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The idea of Greater Paris was originally proposed by former French President Nicolas Sarkozy as \"a new global plan for the Paris metropolitan region\" It first led to a new transportation master plan for the Paris region and to plans to develop several areas around Paris. The \"Métropole du Grand Paris\" was defined by the law of 27 January 2014 on the modernization of public territorial action and affirmation of cities as part of Act III of decentralization. The plans were considerably modified in December 2015, and the passage into action in two competences, economic development and protection of the environment, was delayed from 2016 to 2017.  The plan was first announced on 17 September 2007 during the inauguration of \"La Cité de l'architecture et du patrimoine\", when Sarkozy declared his intent to create a \"new comprehensive development project for Greater Paris\". The project was organized by the French state, with the Minister of Culture and Communication charged with coordinating the consultation process.  In 2008 an international urban and architectural competition for the future development of metropolitan Paris was launched. Ten teams gathering architects, urban planners, geographers, landscape architects will offer their vision for building a Paris metropolis of the 21st century in the post-Kyoto era and make a prospective diagnosis for Paris and its suburbs that will define future developments in Greater Paris for the next 40 years.  The architects leading the ten multi-disciplinary teams were: Jean Nouvel, Christian de Portzamparc, Antoine Grumbach, Roland Castro, Yves Lion, Djamel Klouche, Richard Rogers, Bernardo Secchi, Paola Vigano, Finn Geipel, Giulia Andi, and Winy Maas.  Early versions of the plan proposed reforms to the local government structure of the Paris region by creating an integrated urban community encompassing the City of Paris and the surrounding Petite Couronne, However, these were largely abandoned due to strong opposition from the socialist Mayor of Paris, Bertrand Delanoë, and the socialist head of the Île de France region, Jean-Paul Huchon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Objectives.", "content": "The original plan for the Métropole declared these objectives; \"The Métropole of Grand Paris is established in order to define and implement metropolitan action to improve the quality of life of its residents, reduce inequalities between regions within it, to develop an urban, social and economic sustainability model, tools to improve attractiveness and competitiveness for the benefit of the entire national territory. The Métropole of Grand Paris is developing a metropolitan project. The residents are associated with its development according to the guidelines determined by the metropolitan council as laid down by the development council. This metropolitan project defines the general guidelines of the policy pursued by the Métropole of Grand Paris. It forms part of the implementation of the overall scheme of the Ile-de-France region. It includes a general, social, economic and environmental analysis of the metropolitan area, the strategic guidelines for the development of the metropolis as well as priority areas for intervention. The Metro project can be developed with the support of the Land and Technical Agency of the Paris Region, the International Workshop on Greater Paris, the Urban Planning Agencies and any other useful body. \"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Transportation.", "content": "Independently to the process described above, a position of Minister for Le Grand Paris was created and Christian Blanc was appointed to occupy it. Blanc and his team prepared a transportation plan, announced on April 29, 2009. The Île-de-France region had already published its own transportation plan. Later, the architects of the consultation joined together to present a third transportation plan. After much negotiation, a compromise between the national government the Île-de-France regional government was announced in January 2011 and the final plan subsequently approved.  The transport plan will be carried out in ten years, at a cost of 35 billion euros funded by the state, local governments and new debt. An important part of the project is a driverless subway linking important business and residential poles such as Versailles and the Charles de Gaulle airport but also banlieues like Montfermeil and Clichy-sous-Bois through a figure-eight track 140 km long and operating 24-hour, which will alone cost 21 billion euros. Another 14 billion euros will be spent in the extension and re-equipment of existing metro, regional and suburban lines.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Criticism.", "content": "The way Le Grand Paris has been handled was criticized by the architects themselves, especially by Jean Nouvel who wrote several virulent editorials against the Minister in charge of Le Grand Paris until June 2010, Christian Blanc.  Politically, the President of the Île-de-France region, Jean-Paul Huchon and the Mayor of Paris, Bertrand Delanoë, both members of the French Socialist Party opposed the initiatives taken by the national government, which they said were in contradiction with the devolution of urban planning matters to local governments. In October 2011, Delanoë stated that the President \"is trying to claim for himself an urban dynamic begun long ago by the local governments\". Although Huchon had reached an agreement with the national government earlier in the year on the transportation network, he also declared that Grand Paris \"is not a generic term to cover everything that is going on on the territory of the Île-de-France region (...) and even less a national certificate created to relabel local policies that were already in existence.\" Political opposition was also strong from the Green Party (Europe Écologie), led in the Île-de-France region by Cécile Duflot.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Communes.", "content": "The Métropole du Grand Paris consists of the following 131 communes:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Métropole du Grand Paris (, meaning roughly \"Metropolis of Greater Paris\") is an administrative structure for cooperation covering the City of Paris and its nearest surrounding suburbs. The métropole came into existence on January 1, 2016 and comprises 131 communes, including the City of Paris, all 123 communes in the surrounding inner-suburban departments of the \"Petite Couronne\" (Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne), plus seven communes in two of the outer-suburban departments, including the communes of Argenteuil in Val-d'Oise, and Paray-Vieille-Poste in Essonne, the latter of which covers part of Orly Airport. Part of the métropole comprised the Seine department, which existed from 1929 to 1968. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometers and has a population of 7 million.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977743}
{"src_title": "Maria Theresia Ahlefeldt", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Maria Theresia was the eldest child and daughter of Alexander Ferdinand, 3rd Prince of Thurn and Taxis (1704–73) and Princess Maria Henriette Josepha of Fürstenberg-Stühlingen (1732–72). She was a younger half-sister of Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis and niece of Maria Augusta of Thurn and Taxis.  She grew in a cultural environment at the princely court in Regensburg, which was a center of French, German and Italian opera, theater, ballet, pantomimes and concerts. She was instructed in clavercin playing with her sisters and displayed an early talent of music composition.  Maria Theresia was engaged to Prince Joseph of Fürstenberg from 1772 until her affair with Prince Philip of Hohenlohe in 1776. Her family, however, refused permission for her to marry Philip. In 1780 in Prague, she married the Danish noble Ferdinand, Count of Ahlefeldt-Langeland (1747–1815) against the will of her family. Having conducted a marriage against the will of her family was a criminal act, for which she was forced to flee to avoid arrest.  From 1780, Maria Theresia's spouse was marshal at the court of Ansbach, where she was active in the amateur theatre of Elizabeth Craven. During this time, she composed a libretto. In 1792–94, her spouse was marshal of the Danish royal court and director of the Royal Danish Theatre. Maria Theresia composed music for several ballets, operas, and plays of the royal theatre. She was given good critic as a composer and described as a “virkelig Tonekunstnerinde” ('a True Artist of Music').  She moved to Dresden with her spouse in 1798, and lived from 1800 until her death in Prague.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Maria Theresia Ahlefeldt (16 January 1755 in Regensburg, Free Imperial City of Regensburg, Holy Roman Empire – died 20 December 1810 in Prague, Kingdom of Bohemia, Austrian Empire), was a Danish (originally German) composer. She is known as the first female composer in Denmark.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977744}
{"src_title": "Museum of Contemporary Art, Belgrade", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The museum building is located near the confluence of the rivers Sava and Danube, in Ušće park in the Novi Beograd municipality. It was designed by Ivan Antić and Ivanka Raspopović in 1960, with construction beginning that year and continuing until 1965. The architects received the October Prize from the City of Belgrade on 20 October 1965, the same day the museum was opened to the public.  Due to its shape, architecture and location, it has been described as the \"crystal at the confluence\" or an \"(architectural) jewel\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2007–17 renovation.", "content": "When renovation talks first began in the early 2000s, both original architects were still alive. However, Antić died in 2005 and Raspopović in 2015. Reconstruction began in 2007, but dragged on for a decade, due to numerous reasons. After 10 years of renovation work, the museum was finally re-opened to the public on 20 October 2017, on the anniversary of the first museum opening 52 years earlier. The entire building was renovated and upgraded to meet current museum standards. The park surrounding the museum building was also reconstructed. The first exhibition to be held in the newly renovated museum was \"Sequences\" by Dejan Sretenović.  Raspopović contributed to the reconstruction project by suggesting that the glass, belonging to the building’s domes, be replaced with a darker shade. The newly added blue panels change their tone, depending on the weather and time of day. The domes have therefore become interactive and dynamic, complementing the surrounding park and the nearby modernistic glass-and-steel Ušće Tower. The main criticism, regarding the renovations, revolves around the use of too much concrete in the access paths leading to the museum. Despite new lighting, as well as the addition of pebbles and tartan, critics believe that the concrete makes the area appear less \"humane\" and could hamper the future growth of avenue-like trees along the paths.  The parceling and concrete work done in the surrounding park area was also criticized, as was the apparent haste in the latter stages to finish the reconstruction quickly. The first company chosen to do the construction work was \"Montera\". It was paid fully for the job, but went bankrupt leaving the renovation unfinished for years. During the next public bidding in 2014, aimed specifically at redoing the roof, the company \"Jedinstvo\" from Užice was chosen. The following bidding, which covered the remaining work, failed. \"Jedinstvo\" applied again and was selected by the museum, even though it had the highest offer. The Ministry of Culture, headed by Ivan Tasovac at the time, insisted that the lowest bidder should be picked instead, which was \"Modulor\", a company from Zemun. As a result, the museum director, Jovan Despotović, was let go and the \"Termoinženjering\" company was chosen at the next bidding. They finished the entire reconstruction, renovating the roof a second time. Yet, already in July 2018 the reconstructed roof began to leak when it rained.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Departments.", "content": "The collection began to form in 1958. As of 2018, 8,000 paintings and sculptures are exhibited.  The museum has several departments and collections:  Departments:  The museum also operates the Salon of the MoCAB (opened in 1961), located in old town Belgrade.  According to the curators, the most popular exhibits after the 2017 reopening include painting \"On the black field\" by, big balls sculpture \"L-50\" by Ivan Kožarić, sculpture \"Light shapes\" by Vojin Bakić and installation \"Comrade Tito, (our) white violet\" by Dušan Otašević.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Museum of Contemporary Art () is an art museum located in Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. It was founded in 1958 as the Modern Gallery. It was moved into the current building in the Ušće neighborhood of New Belgrade in 1965. The building is a masterpiece of architects Ivan Antić and Ivanka Raspopović, a short-lived but highly successful partnership, which also produced the 21 October Museum in Šumarice Memorial Park in Kragujevac. The collection contains more than 35,000 works of art.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977745}
{"src_title": "Vought XF8U-3 Crusader III", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design and development.", "content": "In parallel with the F8U-1s and -2s, the Crusader design team was also working on a larger aircraft with even greater performance, internally designated as the V-401. Although externally similar to the Crusader and sharing with it such design elements as the variable incidence wing, the new fighter was larger and was powered by the Pratt & Whitney J75-P-5A engine generating 29,500 lbf (131 kN) of afterburning thrust. To deal with Mach 2+ flight conditions it was fitted with large vertical ventral fins under the tail which rotated to the horizontal position for landing. To ensure sufficient performance, Vought made provisions for a Rocketdyne XLF-40 liquid-fueled rocket motor with 8,000 lbf (35.6 kN) of thrust in addition to the turbojet. Avionics included the AN/AWG-7 fire control computer, AN/APG-74 radar, and AN/ASQ-19 datalink. The system was expected to simultaneously track six and engage two targets.  Due to extensive changes as compared to the F8U-1, the F8U-2 was labeled by some as the \"Crusader II\", and as a result, the XF8U-3 was officially labeled \"Crusader III.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The XF8U-3 first flew on 2 June 1958. Despite claims by many books and articles that, during testing, the aircraft reached Mach 2.6 at 35,000 ft (10,670 m), in fact, the maximum speed reached (only once) was Mach 2.39, while normal operating speed was no more than Mach 2.32. The first time that the aircraft exceeded Mach 2.0 in level flight was on August 14, during its 38th test flight, well before the rival F4H-1 did so. Some sources state that Vought projected a top speed of Mach 2.9 with the tail rocket installed, though the windscreen and most aluminum airframes were not designed to withstand the heat of speeds more than Mach 2.35. Demonstrated zoom ceiling was well over 76,000 ft (23,170 m). In December 1955, the US Navy declared a competition for a Mach 2+ fleet defense interceptor. Fly-offs against the Crusader III's main competitor, the future McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, demonstrated that the Vought design had a definite advantage in maneuverability. John Konrad, Vought's chief test pilot, later stated that the Crusader III could fly circles around the Phantom II. Combat thrust-to-weight ratio (T/W ratio) was almost unity (0.97), while early F4H had only 0.87. However, the solitary pilot in the XF8U-3 was easily overwhelmed with the workload required to fly the intercept and fire Sparrows which required constant radar illumination from the firing aircraft, while the Phantom II had a dedicated radar intercept officer on board.  In addition, with the perception that the age of the guns was over, the Phantom's considerably larger payload and the ability to perform air-to-ground as well as air-to-air missions, trumped Vought's fast but single-purposed fighter. For similar reasons, the Phantom would replace the Navy's F-8 Crusader as the primary daylight air superiority fighter in the Vietnam War, although it was originally introduced as a missile-armed interceptor to complement day fighters like the Crusader.  The F8U-3 program was canceled with five aircraft built. Three aircraft flew during the test program, and, along with two other airframes, were transferred to NASA for atmospheric testing, as the Crusader III was capable of flying above 95% of the Earth's atmosphere. NASA pilots flying at NAS Patuxent River routinely intercepted and defeated U.S. Navy Phantom IIs in mock dogfights, until complaints from the Navy put an end to the harassment.  All of the Crusader IIIs were later scrapped.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Vought XF8U-3 Crusader III was an aircraft developed by Chance Vought as a successor to the successful Vought F-8 Crusader program and as a competitor to the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. Though based in spirit on the F8U-1 and F8U-2, and sharing the older aircraft's designation in the old Navy system, the two aircraft shared few parts.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977746}
{"src_title": "Trịnh Xuân Thanh", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Trịnh Xuân Thanh was born 13 February 1966 in Hanoi, Vietnam. He graduated from Hanoi Architectural University in 1990.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Trịnh Xuân Thanh is a former member of the Communist Party of Vietnam.  Thanh began his career in Germany from 1990 to 1995. He later worked for the state-owned company in Vietnam. In 2007, he joined Petrovietnam Construction Joint Stock Corporation (PVC). He served as its Chairman from 2009 to 2013. He was subsequently accused of causing $150m in losses at PVC.  Thanh worked for the Ministry of Industry and Trade in Da Nang in 2013. He later served as the Deputy-Chairman of the Hậu Giang Provincial People's Committee.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Kidnapping.", "content": "The Ministry of Public Security issued a statement on 31 July 2017 saying that Thanh had turned himself to the police following accusations against him of causing massive losses at his previous employer. The Ministry of Public Security issued an international arrest warrant for him in September 2016. It was not known where Trịnh Xuân Thanh has been hiding since he left Vietnam. It is also not clear exactly how or when Thanh returned to Vietnam.  On hearing of Thanh's reappearance in Vietnam, the editor of the Vietnamese online newspaper, Thoibao.de in Germany, Mr Lê Trung Khoa, contacted Thanh's lawyer, the police and the state prosecutor in Berlin. He then announced in a video conference with the BBC News on the same day that Thanh was abducted at about 10:40 on 23 July in Tiergarten park in Berlin with a female employee of Vietnam’s foreign trade office, allegedly by armed men from Vietnam's secret service and bundled into the back of a car.  The next day, the first of August, the German newspaper TAZ gave further details: Thanh had previously sought political asylum at the beginning of 1990s but had returned voluntarily to Vietnam in 1995, and, despite the fact that there was an international arrest warrant for him issued in September 2016 by the Ministry of Public Security of Vietnam, he was not pursued because the claim \"violating Vietnamese law\" was not considered concrete enough.  A day later, the German foreign ministry confirmed the kidnapping, blaming the Vietnamese intelligence service and the Vietnamese Embassy in Germany, for what it called \"an unprecedented and glaring breach of German and international law\". In response, they ordered a Vietnamese intelligence officer from the Vietnamese Embassy in Berlin to leave Germany within 48 hours and demanded that Thanh be allowed to return immediately to allow the Vietnamese authorities to apply for his extradition and to allow his application for asylum to be examined. Germany also said it was considering other measures against Vietnam.  On 3 August 2017, Thanh appeared on Vietnamese television on and said he had returned to Vietnam voluntarily; however, his asylum lawyer suggested he may have said this under duress. Vietnam's Foreign Ministry in a press conference expressed regret over a statement from Germany accusing Vietnam of kidnapping him.  Foreign Minister Sigmar Gabriel said on 4 August, and repeated in an interview with Bärbel Krauss, \"I want to say this quite clearly: under no circumstances will we tolerate this kind of thing. Nor will we let it go...But we reserve the right to take further measures if necessary...But obviously we cannot simply go back to business as usual, as if nothing had happened.\"  Trịnh Xuân Thanh was sentenced in Hanoi on 22 January 2018 to life imprisonment for embezzlement and economic mismanagement.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Trịnh Xuân Thanh (born 13 February 1966 in Hanoi) is a former Vietnamese politician and businessman. He is the former head of the state-owned Petrovietnam Construction Joint Stock Corporation (a subsidiary of Petrovietnam), and the former Deputy-Chairman of the Provincial People's Committee of Hậu Giang. In 2016, he was accused of causing massive losses at the state-owned company and fled the country. While in Berlin, as an asylum-seeker, he was allegedly kidnapped and repatriated to Vietnam on 23 July 2017. This led to diplomatic scandal resulting in Germany to expel a Vietnamese diplomat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977747}
{"src_title": "Roundell Palmer, 3rd Earl of Selborne", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Born in the City of Westminster, Wolmer was the eldest son of William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne and his wife, the former Lady Maud Cecil, daughter of Robert Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury. He was educated at Winchester College and graduated from University College, Oxford in 1909. He was the cousin of Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "A few months later, at the December 1910 general election Lord Wolmer entered Parliament as Member of Parliament (MP) for the Newton division of Lancashire. He was Parliamentary Private Secretary to his uncle, the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Lord Robert Cecil in 1916 and Assistant Director of the War Trade Department from 1916 to 1918. At the 1918 general election, he did not stand in Newton (which was won by the Labour Party politician, Robert Young), but was elected to the newly formed constituency of Aldershot that year. From 1922 to 1924, he was Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade and Assistant Postmaster-General from 1924 to 1929.  In November 1940, Lord Wolmer resigned his seat in the Commons, and was called up to the House of Lords in his father's barony of Selborne in January 1941. He was Director of Cement at the Ministry of Works from 1940 to 1942. In 1942, he inherited his father's earldom and his last political post was as Minister of Economic Warfare from 1942 to 1945. This put him in charge of the Special Operations Executive, which ran undercover operations of sabotage in Occupied Europe. As head of SOE it was his policy to back the Chetniks in Jugoslavia despite the numerous items of intelligence which suggested that they were in league with the Germans. He was responsible for a delay of 12 months in support being given to Tito's Partisans and when Fitzroy McLean was ordered to go to Cairo with a view to establishing contact with Tito he did everything he could to frustrate the mission. He was made a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour after the war and in 1948 was Master of the Worshipful Company of Mercers, then chairman of the National Provincial Bank from 1951 to 1953 and deputy chairman of Boots from 1951 to 1964.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "On 9 June 1910, he married the Honourable Grace Ridley, third daughter of Matthew White Ridley, 1st Viscount Ridley. They had six surviving children:  Lord Selborne's wife died in 1959 and on 3 March 1966, he married Valerie Bevan \"née\" de Thomkahaza, a daughter of a Hungarian politician. His eldest son had also died on active service in 1942 and upon his own death in 1971 in Alton, Hampshire aged 84, was succeeded in his titles by his grandson, John.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Roundell Cecil Palmer, 3rd Earl of Selborne, CH, PC (15 April 1887 – 3 September 1971), known as \"Top Wolmer\" and styled Viscount Wolmer from 1895 to 1941, was a British administrator, intelligence officer and Conservative politician.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977748}
{"src_title": "João Lourenço", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Born in 1954, Lourenço grew up in a politically engaged family of ten children. His father, Sequeira João Lourenço (1923–1999), a native of Malanje, was a nurse and nationalist, who served three years of imprisonment in Portuguese Angola for illegal political activity. His mother, Josefa Gonçalves Cipriano Lourenço (1928–1998), a seamstress, was a native of Namibe. He received both a primary and secondary Portuguese-language education in Bié Province and Luanda.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education and military career.", "content": "Lourenço studied at the Industrial Institute of Luanda and later participated in the liberation struggle in Ponta Negra, in August 1974, where he was part of the first group of MPLA soldiers to enter Angolan territory via Miconge, towards the city of Cabinda after the fall of the Portuguese colonial regime.  He began his military career fighting against the Portuguese in the Angolan War of Independence and fought as a member of the MPLA in the Angolan Civil War. Lourenço conducted his training in artillery and then became a political officer in the MPLA. In 1978, Lourenço traveled to the Soviet Union and studied at the Lenin Higher Academy, where he furthered his military training and completed a master's degree in Historical Sciences. He later returned to Angola in 1982. Now an artillery general, Lourenço turned towards politics and in 1984 was appointed as Governor of Moxico Province.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Lourenço's early politics were mainly confined within the MPLA as an officer responsible for keeping guerrilla soldiers' morale high. Following his appointment as Governor of Moxico Province in 1984, he continued to rise through the ranks of the ruling party. He also served as the provincial commissioner of Moxico Province for the MPLA, president of the Regional Military Council of the 3rd Military Political Region, First Secretary of MPLA and Provincial Commissioner of Benguela Province. He was the MPLA's Secretary for Information from 1992 to 1997 and President of the MPLA Parliamentary Group in the National Assembly from 1993 to 1998.  At a party congress, he was elected as Secretary-General of the MPLA on 12 December 1998. His election was said to be linked to the favour of President Jose Eduardo dos Santos and it was thought that Lourenço could potentially succeed the long-ruling dos Santos at some point. However, after dos Santos said in 2001 that he would not seek re-election as president, Lourenço openly expressed an interest in becoming the MPLA's presidential candidate and thereby damaged his standing with dos Santos, who apparently had no real intention of leaving office, but had sought to expose political rivals. Juilão Mateus Paulo succeeded him as MPLA Secretary-General at a December 2003 party congress.  Lourenço was First Vice-President of the National Assembly from 2003 to 2014. He was appointed as Minister of Defense in April 2014, and he was designated as Vice-President of the MPLA in August 2016. In September 2018 he became the Chairman of the MPLA, replacing José Eduardo dos Santos.  In December 2016 the MPLA designated Lourenço as the party's top candidate in the 2017 legislative election. He was elected President of Angola on 23 August 2017 and took office on 26 September becoming the third President in the country's history.  On 8 September 2018, he was elected President of the MPLA, Angola's ruling party since 1975, becoming its 5th party leader.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He is married to Ana Afonso Dias Lourenço, a Member of Parliament of the MPLA and former Minister of Planning, who held a position at the World Bank in Washington D.C. until October 2016. They have six children, all of which are currently active in the MPLA. Apart from his Indigenous Umbundu language and Portuguese, he speaks Russian, Spanish, and English.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "João Manuel Gonçalves Lourenço, (born 5 March 1954) is an Angolan politician who has served as the President of Angola since 26 September 2017. Previously, he was Minister of Defence from 2014 to 2017. In September 2018 he became the Chairman of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the ruling party. He was the party's Secretary-General from 1998 to 2003.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977749}
{"src_title": "2015 Slovenian same-sex marriage referendum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "On 3 March 2015 the National Assembly passed a bill defining marriage as a “union of two” instead of a “union of a man and a woman.” Conservative opponents of the law, including a group called Children Are At Stake, gathered enough signatures to force a referendum on the issue, hoping to block same-sex marriage. On 26 March, the National Assembly voted to block the referendum on the ground that it would violate the constitutional provision which prohibits popular votes on laws eliminating an unconstitutionality in the field of human rights and fundamental freedoms. The proponents of a referendum appealed to the Constitutional Court, which on 22 October declared that the National Assembly does not have the ability to declare a referendum unconstitutional. The National Assembly thus on 4 November scheduled a referendum to be held on 20 December 2015.  Per article 90 of the Constitution a law is rejected if \"a majority of voters who have cast valid votes vote against the law, provided at least one fifth of all qualified voters have voted against the law\". A minimum of 343,104 voters (which makes up 20% of about 1.7 million registered voters) are required to cast a valid \"no\" vote for the result of the referendum to be valid.  In a 2012 referendum, 54.55% of voters rejected a law that would have expanded rights for same-sex registered partnerships.  Slovenian Catholic groups, and Pope Francis urged a \"no\" vote. A number of EU politicians, including Violeta Bulc called for a \"yes\" vote. All parties in Parliament except SDS and NSi supported a 'Yes' vote.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opinion polls.", "content": "A poll conducted by Delo Stik in February 2015 showed that 51% of Slovenians supported the bill, which was debated in the National Assembly at the time, while 42% were against.  Another poll conducted by Ninamedia in March 2015 showed that 42% of respondents supported the new law, while 54% opposed. Support was highest among those younger than 30, and in the Slovene Littoral region.  A poll from November 2015 showed that 46% of respondents supported and 54% opposed the bill. The poll suggested a strong division between different groups. While most women, atheists and residents of urban areas supported the bill, a significant majority of men, Catholics and rural population opposed it. The poll also suggested a low turnout and the possibility that the result would be non-binding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "Early voting began on Tuesday 15 December 2015 and continued for the two following days. Results were released on Sunday 20 December 2015 after all polls closed. The bill was rejected by a majority of those who voted and a sufficient number of \"no\" votes were cast (more than 20% of all registered voters) thus fulfilling both constitutional requirements for a binding result.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The parliament is obliged by the result for one year and cannot propose similar legislation in that period. Initiators of the referendum suggested that they will not oppose legislation which would expand social rights for same-sex unions as long as it does not include adoption rights and redefinition of marriage. Supporters of the defeated bill expressed their disappointment over the result and suggested that a number of 'yes' voters clearly decided to boycott the referendum.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Inaccessible polling places dispute.", "content": "Before the referendum, two voters with disabilities requested that the authorities make their polling places accessible. Their requests were denied, and the courts rejected their lawsuits and appeals. In 2019, together with the Slovenian Disability Rights Association (Drupis), they submitted applications to the European Court of Human Rights. In January 2020, the Court communicated the cases with the government of Slovenia. As of January 2020, the cases, called Toplak v. Slovenia and Mrak v. Slovenia, are ongoing.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A referendum on a bill legalizing same-sex marriage was held in Slovenia on 20 December 2015. The bill was rejected, as a majority of voters voted against and the votes against were more than 20% of registered voters.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977750}
{"src_title": "Coinbase", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Coinbase was founded in June 2012 by Brian Armstrong and Fred Ehrsam. Blockchain.info co-founder Ben Reeves was part of the original founding team but later parted ways with Armstrong due to a difference in how the Coinbase wallet should operate. The remaining founding team enrolled in the Summer 2012 Y Combinator startup incubator program. In October 2012, the company launched the services to buy and sell bitcoin through bank transfers. In May 2013, the company received a US$5 million Series A investment led by Fred Wilson from the venture capital firm Union Square Ventures. In December 2013, the company received a US$25 million investment, from the venture capital firms Andreessen Horowitz, Union Square Ventures (USV), and Ribbit Capital.  In 2014, the company grew to one million users, acquired the blockchain explorer service Blockr and the web bookmarking company Kippt, secured insurance covering the value of bitcoin stored on their servers, and launched the vault system for secure bitcoin storage. Throughout 2014, the company also formed partnerships with Overstock, Dell, Expedia, Dish Network, and Time Inc. allowing those firms to accept bitcoin payments. The company also added bitcoin payment processing capabilities to the traditional payment companies Stripe, Braintree, and PayPal.  In January 2015, the company received a US$75 million investment, led by Draper Fisher Jurvetson, the New York Stock Exchange, USAA, and several banks. Later in January, the company launched a U.S.-based bitcoin exchange for professional traders called Coinbase Exchange. Coinbase began to offer services in Canada in 2015, but in July 2016, Coinbase announced it would halt services in August after the closure of their Canadian online payments service provider Vogogo.  In May 2016, the company rebranded the Coinbase Exchange, changing the name to Global Digital Asset Exchange (GDAX). In July 2016, they added retail support for Ether.  In January and then March 2017, Coinbase obtained the BitLicense and licensed to trade in Ethereum and Litecoin from the New York State Department of Financial Services (DFS). In November 2017, Coinbase was ordered by the US Internal Revenue Service to report any users who had at least $20,000 in transactions in a year.  Coinbase listed Bitcoin Cash on December 19, 2017 and the coinbase platform experienced price abnormalities that led to an insider trading investigation.  On February 23, 2018, Coinbase told approximately 13,000 affected customers that the company would be providing their taxpayer ID, name, birth date, address, and historical transaction records from 2013 to 2015 to the IRS within 21 days.  On April 5, 2018, Coinbase announced that it has formed an early-stage venture fund, Coinbase Ventures, focused on investment into blockchain- and cryptocurrency-related companies.  On May 16, 2018, Coinbase Ventures announced its first investment in Compound Labs, a start-up building Ethereum smart contracts similar to money markets.  In August 2018, Amazon cloud executive Tim Wagner joined Coinbase as vice president of engineering.  In January 2019 Coinbase stopped all trading on Ethereum Classic due to suspicion regarding an attack on the network.  In February 2019, Coinbase announced that it had acquired \"blockchain intelligence platform\" Neutrino, an Italy-based startup, for an undisclosed price. The acquisition raised concern among some Coinbase users based on Neutrino founders' connection to the Hacking Team, which has been accused of providing internet surveillance technology to governments with poor human rights records. On March 4, 2019, Coinbase CEO Brian Armstrong said his company \"did not properly evaluate\" the deal from a due diligence perspective and thus any Neutrino staff who previously worked at Hacking Team \"will transition out of Coinbase.\"  In April 2019, a UK corporate filing stated that Coinbase's non-U.S. revenue grew 20% to €153 million (U.S.$173 million) in 2018 resulting in a net profit of €6.6 million. Coinbase UK CEO Zeeshan Feroz said the company's non-U.S. operations accounted for nearly one-third of the company's overall revenue and Reuters estimated that the company's global revenue totaled \"around $520 million\" in 2018.  In August 2019, Coinbase announced that it was targeted by a sophisticated hacking attack attempt in mid-June. This reported attack used spear-phishing and social engineering tactics (including sending fake e-mails from compromised email accounts and created a landing page at the University of Cambridge) and two Firefox browser zero-day vulnerabilities. One of the Firefox vulnerabilities could allow an attacker to escalate privileges from JavaScript on a browser page () and the second one could allow the attacker to escape the browser sandbox and execute code on the host computer (). Coinbase's security team detected and blocked the attack, the network was not compromised, and no cryptocurrency was stolen.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "Coinbase has two core products: a Global Digital Asset Exchange (GDAX) for trading a variety of digital assets on its professional asset trading platform, and a user-facing retail broker of Bitcoin, Bitcoin Cash, Ether, Ethereum Classic, and Litecoin for fiat currency. It also offers an API for developers and merchants to build applications and accept payments in both digital currencies., the company offered buy/sell trading functionality in 32 countries, while the cryptocurrency wallet was available in 190 countries worldwide. On March 26, 2018, Coinbase announced their intention to add support for ERC-20 tokens.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Complaints.", "content": "Coinbase CEO Bryan Armstrong was criticized on Twitter in January 2018 for creating excessive transaction demand on the Bitcoin network, in what some users referred to as \"spamming the network.\"  On February 16, 2018, Coinbase admitted that some customers were overcharged in error for credit and debit purchases of cryptocurrencies. The problem was initiated when banks and card issuers changed the merchant category code (MCC) for cryptocurrency purchases earlier this month. This meant that cryptocurrency payments would now be processed as \"cash advances\", meaning that banks and credit card issuers could begin charging customers cash-advance fees for cryptocurrency purchases. Any customers who purchased cryptocurrency on their exchange between January 22 and February 11, 2018 could have been affected. At first, Visa blamed Coinbase, telling the \"Financial Times\" on February 16 that it had \"not made any systems changes that would result in the duplicate transactions cardholders are reporting.\" However, the latest statement from Visa and Worldpay on the Coinbase blog clarifies: \"This issue was not caused by Coinbase.\"  In March 2018, \"Quartz\" reported that the number of monthly customer complaints against Coinbase jumped more than 100% in January of that year, to 889, citing official Consumer Financial Protection Bureau data, with more than 400 of those categorized as \"money was not available when promised\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Coinbase is a digital currency exchange headquartered in San Francisco, California. They broker exchanges of Bitcoin, Bitcoin Cash, Ethereum, Ethereum Classic, Litecoin, Tezos, and many others, with fiat currencies in approximately 32 countries, and bitcoin transactions and storage in 190 countries worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977751}
{"src_title": "Jadon Sancho", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sancho was born in Camberwell, Greater London to parents from Trinidad and Tobago. He was raised in Kennington. He became friends with fellow aspiring footballer Reiss Nelson, who lived nearby, after they played together in youth tournaments. Growing up, he was an ardent supporter of Chelsea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Sancho joined Watford at the age of seven. Due to issues with commuting across London to the club's academy, he moved into accommodation provided by Watford and began attending their partner school Harefield Academy as a boarder, aged 11. At the age of 14 he told his Watford under-15s coach about his intention to play for England.  At the age of 14, he moved to Manchester City in March 2015 for an initial fee of £66,000 under the EPPP, potentially rising to £500,000 with add ons. Sancho continued to impress in the Manchester City academy and was one of a trio of players that the Manchester City chairman, Khaldoon Al Mubarak, said would be fast tracked into the senior set up in May 2017. In July 2017, Sancho was omitted from Manchester City's pre-season tour squad due to a dispute over assurances of playing time in a new contract. It was subsequently reported that Sancho was attempting to force a move away from the club.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Borussia Dortmund.", "content": "Sancho signed for German Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund on 31 August 2017 for a fee reported to be in the region of £8 million and was immediately included in the first-team squad. He later stated that he felt confident in making the move abroad due to his previous experiences in relocating with Watford and Manchester City. Sancho made his debut for the club against Eintracht Frankfurt on 21 October, coming on as a substitute with six minutes left of the match, becoming the first Englishman to play a Bundesliga match for Dortmund. Sancho made his first league start for Dortmund on 14 January 2018, hitting the woodwork in a goalless draw with VfL Wolfsburg. He scored his first professional goal on 21 April 2018. It was the first goal in a 4–0 victory against Bayer Leverkusen in the Bundesliga and he also assisted two other goals in the same match.  Having signed a new contract keeping him at the club until 2022, Sancho enjoyed a successful October 2018 by being named Bundesliga Player of the Month, registering three goals and an assist in just three league games. Included among his goals for the month was a brace in a draw against Hertha BSC which saw him become the first player born in the 2000s to score twice in a single Bundesliga match and the youngest ever by a Dortmund player. On 24 October, he also became the first player born in the 2000s to score in the UEFA Champions League for Dortmund against Atlético Madrid.  During a 3–3 draw with Hoffenheim on 9 February 2019, he became the youngest-ever player to score eight goals in a single Bundesliga season, breaking the record previously held by Christian Wück. Later that month, upon scoring in a 3–2 win over Bayer Leverkusen, he broke Lukas Podolski's record to become the youngest player to score nine Bundesliga goals, aged 18 years and 336 days. On 13 April, Sancho scored a brace in a 2–1 win over Mainz and in doing so became the youngest-ever Dortmund player to score at least 10 goals in a single Bundesliga campaign. Following an impressive league campaign in which he scored 12 goals and provided 14 assists, Sancho was named in the 2018–19 Bundesliga Team of the Season.  Success continued ahead of the 2019–20 season, with Sancho providing an assist and scoring in a 2–0 DFL-Supercup victory over Bayern Munich on 3 August 2019. Later that month Sancho agreed a new contract with Dortmund. Sancho's goal in Dortmund's 3–3 draw with RB Leipzig on 17 December meant he had scored in seven consecutive games for the club (including in Champions League matches against Barcelona and Slavia Prague), bringing his talley up to 15 goals and 16 assists in the calendar year of 2019. Sancho's three goals and three assists in five league matches during February 2020 saw him named Bundesliga Player of the Month for the second time in his career.  On 31 May 2020, Sancho scored his first career hat-trick in a 6–1 away win over SC Paderborn. After scoring his first goal, he removed his shirt to reveal a shirt with the message \"Justice for George Floyd\", a black Minneapolis man who had died the previous week after a police officer kept his knee on a pinned-down Floyd until he became unresponsive.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth career.", "content": "Sancho has been capped by England youth teams, at under-16, under-17 and under-19 levels.  In May 2017, Sancho was part of the England under-17 team that reached the final of the UEFA European Under-17 Championship, and was named player of the tournament for his performances. In September 2017, Sancho was named in England's squad for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup but the player's new German club resisted the call up. The two parties eventually reached an agreement where he would be available for the group stages of the competition, but his participation was not guaranteed if England progressed to the knock out rounds. On 8 October 2017, he scored twice in England U17's first match, against Chile. On 16 October, during England's round of 16 tie against Japan, he was withdrawn from the competition by Borussia Dortmund.  On 2 November 2017, Sancho was called up to the England U19 squad for the first time, joining them for 2018 UEFA European Under-19 Championship qualification matches against the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Group 8's host-nation team Bulgaria. He made his first start at U19 level in the 6–0 victory against the Faroes, lasting seventy minutes before being substituted for Ben Brereton; He replaced Brereton in the 66th minute in the win over Iceland, which secured progression to the elite round. He scored the only goal of the match against Bulgaria to help England top their group. Coming on as a substitute for Brereton, Sancho scored the last of the goals in England's 4–1 win over Hungary in the first match of the elite round on 21 March 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Senior career.", "content": "Following an impressive start to the 2018–19 season, Sancho was called up to the England senior squad for the first time on 4 October 2018 in preparation for UEFA Nations League fixtures against Croatia and Spain. He made his debut as a 78th-minute substitute against the former on 12 October, in a 0–0 away draw. On 22 March 2019, Sancho started his first competitive match for England in their 5–0 win over the Czech Republic at Wembley Stadium for a UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying match. During the September internationals, Sancho scored his debut goals for the senior team, a brace, in a 5–3 home victory over Kosovo in a Euro 2020 qualifier on 10 September.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Borussia Dortmund  England U17  England  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jadon Malik Sancho (born 25 March 2000) is an English professional footballer who plays as a winger for German Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund and the England national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977752}
{"src_title": "African brush-tailed porcupine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The brush-tailed porcupine reaches 40 to 50 cm in length, not counting the tail. The adult weighs about 3 kg. It has an elongated, rat-like face and body and short legs, tipped with clawed and webbed feet. Unlike most other porcupines, the brush-tailed porcupine has lighter and smaller quills. On the tail, these quills are thinner and brush-like. These can make noise when rattled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The brush-tailed porcupine occurs in Benin, Cameroon, Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Togo and Uganda, in tropical rainforest at altitudes up to.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Brush-tailed porcupines live in small family groups of about eight members. Different family groups can share resources. When attacked by a predator, the porcupine raises its quills so it looks twice its size, rattles its tail quills, and stomps its feet. As with all porcupines, the brush-tailed porcupine backs into the attacker and inflicts damage with its quills.  Brush-tailed porcupines live in forests, usually at high elevations, and are nocturnal, sleeping in caves and burrows during the day. They are herbivorous, feeding on leaves, flowers and fruits which have fallen to the forest floor. They also eat roots and palm nuts, and occasionally carrion, and invade crops of maize, cassava and bananas when these are grown adjacent to the forest.  Male and female form a pair bond during breeding season. The female has a long pregnancy compared to other rodents: 110 days at the longest. The young are born well-developed or precocial. They are mature at about 2 years of age. The meat of the brush-tailed porcupine is popular and is consumed in large quantities.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The African brush-tailed porcupine (\"Atherurus africanus\") is a species of rat-like Old World porcupine, indigenous to a broad belt of Africa ranging from Guinea on the west coast to Kenya on the east. This is a common species with a very wide range, and despite being used extensively for bushmeat, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being of \"least concern\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977753}
{"src_title": "Giorgi Saakadze", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Giorgi Saakagze was born in 1570 in Noste village (Peli village by other sources), near the town on Kaspi. Saakadze's family came of the untitled nobility (\"samepo aznauri\"). His father, Siaush, rose in prominence through a loyal service to King Simon I of Kartli, whom Giorgi joined in military service in his early career. Under the young king Luarsab II, he was appointed a mourav of Tbilisi, Tskhinvali, and Dvaleti in 1608. Saakadze's influence and prestige especially grew after he destroyed an Ottoman invasion force at the battle of Tashiskari in June 1609, thereby saving Luarsab from being dislodged. In 1611, the king married Saakadze's sister, Macrine, annoying the great nobles, who grew increasingly suspicious of the ambitious and aspiring officer who had had risen from the ranks of the petty nobility to become the most powerful man in Kartli. The animosity between the two nobles parties centered on the princes P’arsadan Tsitsishvili and Shadiman Baratashvili on one hand, and Saakadze on the other. The nobles convinced Luarsab that Saakadze was an Iranian traitor, prompting him to divorce Macrine and authorize a plot to kill him in May 1612. Saakadze escaped the trap and defected to Iran. Having converted to Islam and displayed his military ability in Iran's war with the Ottomans, he quickly won the confidence of Shah Abbas I of Iran and was regularly consulted on the Georgian affairs.  In 1614, Saakadze avenged Luarsab and his nobles by aiding Shah Abbas in the invasion of Georgia which brought Luarsab's reign to an end, but dissuaded the Iranians from committing atrocities in Kartli after the nation surrendered. In 1619, the shah appointed him a vekil (regent) to Bagrat Khan, the Iranian nominee to the throne of Kartli. Saakadze turned into a de facto ruler of Kartli. Once the hostilities with the Ottomans resumed, Saakadze served as one of the leading commanders in the shah's ranks from 1621 to 1623. His military exploits led Abbas to appoint him to the staff of Qarachaqay Khan who led a 35,000-strong army to crush the rebellion in Georgia. Saakadze then discovered that the Shah planned to massacre all armed Kartlians, including himself. He conspired with the rebel leaders – his brother-in-law Zurab of Aragvi and king Teimuraz I of Kakheti – and ambushed the Iranian army at Martqopi on March 25, 1625, inflicting a decisive defeat on it. Saakadze went on to annihilate the Turkic nomads transplanted by the Iranian government to replace the exiled Georgian population, dislodged the shah's governor Paykar Khan from Kakheti and raided the Iranian garrisons as far as Ganja and Karabakh. In an act of revenge, Shah Abbas put Saakadze's younger son, Paata, to death, and sent his severed head to the Georgians. The punitive Iranian expedition followed soon thereafter, and won a costly victory over the Georgians at the Battle of Marabda. Saakadze withdrew into the mountains, and organized a powerful guerrilla resistance which forced Abbas I to recognize Teimuraz's royal status.  The unity of Georgian nobles quickly collapsed, however. Saakadze's opposition to Teimuraz's control of Kartli led to a bitter conflict which culminated in the fratricidal battle of Bazaleti in the fall of 1626. The royal army won a victory, driving Saakadze into exile to Istanbul where he entered the service of Sultan Ibrahim I. He briefly served as a governor of the Konya Vilayet and fought against the Iranians at Erzurum (1627-1628), and in Meskheti (1628). However, Grand Vizier Ekrem Hüsrev Pasha soon accused Saakadze of treason and had him, along with his son Avtandil, Kaikhosro, Prince of Mukhrani, and other Georgians, put to death at Constantinople on October 3, 1629.  Saakadze's last surviving son, Ioram, later attained to the princely rank in Georgia, and founded the Tarkhan-Mouravi noble family.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In culture.", "content": "Saakadze's controversial career has always been a source of conflicting perceptions of his role in Georgia's history. The traditional historiography of Georgia, heavily influenced by Prince Vakhushti and Marie Brosset, continued to view him as a feudal adventurer and ambitious warlord involved in the turbulent whirl of intrigues and disturbances which fill the history of seventeenth-century Georgia.  The first attempt at the rehabilitation of Saakadze was made by his relative Metropolitan Joseph of Tbilisi in his poem The Grand Mouravi (დიდმოურავიანი, \"didmouraviani\"; 1681–87). Beginning from the early 20th century, some Georgian authors have also tried to emphasize the positive aspects of Saakadze's biography, particularly his contribution to the 1625 rebellion which frustrated Shah Abbas's plan to convert eastern Georgian lands into the Qizilbash khanates.  In the 1940s, Joseph Stalin’s wartime propaganda established Saakadze as a major symbol of Georgian patriotism. In October 1940, Stalin commented on Saakadze, proclaiming that the Grand Mouravi’s hopes for Georgia’s \"unification into one state through the establishment of royal absolutism and of the liquidation of the power of the princes\" had been progressive. In an apparent move to encourage Georgian nationalism in order to gain the loyalty of the population during the war with Germany, Stalin himself was involved in modifying the script for an epic movie, \"Giorgi Saakadze\", commissioned from the Georgian film director Mikheil Chiaureli in 1942-1943. Stalin dismissed a script by the Georgian writer Giorgi Leonidze and approved the one by Anna Antonovskaya and Boris Chenry, adopted from Antonovskaya's 1942 Stalin Prize-winning six-volume novel, \"The Great Mouravi\" ().  The film emphasized that Saakadze, initially an obscure squire, was a victim of machinations at the hands of the wealthy feudal lords who would sacrifice everything, including their motherland, for their own benefit. It intentionally avoided any mention of Saakadze's own adventures and illustrated him as a popular leader against the external aggressors. In the atmosphere of suspicion and spy mania in the Soviet Union during these years, the movie also served to current propaganda by emphasizing that the treason threatening to the popular leader, and hence to the country, was to be punished cruelly. Ironically, Giorgi Saakadze was also the name of the Wehrmacht's 797th Battalion, one of Georgian battalions formed by the Germans to fight the Soviet Union.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Giorgi Saakadze the Grand Mouravi () (c. 1570 – October 3, 1629) was a Georgian politician and military commander who played an important but contradictory role in the politics of the early 17th-century Georgia. He was also known as Grand Mouravi (დიდი მოურავი, \"didi mouravi\") in Georgia, Mūrāv-Beg in Persia and Māūrāv-Hūn or Māġrāv-Bek in the Ottoman Empire for having served as a mouravi (appointed royal official which can be rendered by seneschal or bailiff) of Tbilisi.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977754}
{"src_title": "Standardwing bird-of-paradise", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "George Robert Gray of the British Museum named this species in honour of Alfred Russel Wallace, British naturalist and author of \"The Malay Archipelago\", who in 1858 was the first European to describe the bird. The generic name \"Semioptera\" is composed of \"semeion\" for a flag or military standard and \"ptera\" for wings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Subspecies and taxonomy.", "content": "The standardwing bird-of-paradises' closest relatives are the superb birds-of-paradise (\"Lophorina\" species), and actually evolved after the \"Drepanornis\" sicklebills, making them one of their other closest relatives. It has two subspecies:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "A common species in its limited habitat range, the standardwing bird-of-paradise is evaluated as being of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species due to its increasingly fragmented habitat. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The standardwing bird-of-paradise is medium-sized, approximately 28 cm long, and olive brown. The male has a gloss violet-and-lilac coloured crown and emerald-green breast shield. Its most striking features are two pairs of long white plumes coming out from the bend of the wing that can be raised or lowered at the bird's will. The unadorned olive-brown female is smaller but has a longer tail than the male.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behaviour and ecology.", "content": "The males are polygamous. They gather and perform a spectacular aerial display, \"parachuting\" with wings and its vivid green breast shield spread, and the wing \"standards\" fluttering above its back.  Its diet consists mainly of insects, arthropods and fruits.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The standardwing is endemic to Northern Maluku in eastern Indonesia and is the westernmost species of the true birds-of-paradise. It can be found on the islands of Halmahera and Bacan in lowland tropical rainforests and hills, and occasionally in woodland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The first introduction of a bird-of-paradise to Europe was a result of Ferdinand Magellan's first circumnavigation of the earth. When the voyagers were at Tidore in December 1521, they were offered a gift of beautiful dead birds by the ruler of Bacan to give to the King of Spain. Based on the circumstances and description of the birds in Antonio Pigafetta's account of the voyage, they were likely standardwings. An alternate account by Maximilianus Transylvanus introduced the term \"manucodiata\" (a corruption of the Malay \"manute-dewata\"; \"bird of the gods\"), used for birds-of-paradise up to the 19th century.  Following its original discovery in 1858, the standardwing bird-of-paradise was not seen again for nearly 60 years, and then only a handful of times until 1953. No further sightings were reported until the British ornithologist David Bishop rediscovered the species in 1983 and began making the first detailed observations of its behaviour.  The standardwing bird-of-paradise was filmed for the first time in 1986 for the BBC nature documentary \"Birds for All Seasons\", when a cameraman Michael W. Richards stationed in the canopy captured footage of a male bird displaying. Ten years later, David Attenborough observed a mass display of dozens of males for the BBC \"Natural World\" film \"Attenborough in Paradise\", leading him to speculate that the reason for their extravagant behaviour is to establish the hierarchy for breeding rights, rather than to directly impress the females.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The standardwing bird-of-paradise (\"Semioptera wallacii\") also known as Wallace's standardwing or as the standardwing is a species of bird-of-paradise. It is the only member in monotypic genus \"Semioptera\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977755}
{"src_title": "Humanist minuscule", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Petrarchan reform.", "content": "In Petrarch's compact book hand, the wider leading and reduced compression and round curves are early manifestations of the reaction against the crabbed Gothic secretarial minuscule we know today as \"blackletter\". Petrarch was one of the few medieval authors to have written at any length on the handwriting of his time; in his essay on the subject, \"La scrittura\", he criticized the current scholastic hand, with its laboured strokes (\"artificiosis litterarum tractibus\") and exuberant (\"luxurians\") letter-forms amusing the eye from a distance, but fatiguing on closer exposure, as if written for another purpose than to be read. For Petrarch the gothic hand violated three principles: writing, he said, should be simple (\"castigata\"), clear (\"clara\"), and orthographically correct. Boccaccio was a great admirer of Petrarch; from Boccaccio's immediate circle this post-Petrarchan \"semi-gothic\" revised hand spread to \"literati\" in Florence, Lombardy, and the Veneto.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Poggio Bracciolini.", "content": "A more thorough reform of handwriting than the Petrarchan compromise was in the offing. The generator of the new style (\"illustration\") was Poggio Bracciolini, a tireless pursuer of ancient manuscripts, who developed the new humanist script in the first decade of the 15th century. The Florentine bookseller Vespasiano da Bisticci recalled later in the century that Poggio had been a very fine calligrapher of \"lettera antica\" and had transcribed texts to support himself— presumably, as Martin Davies points out— before he went to Rome in 1403 to begin his career in the papal curia. Berthold Ullman identifies the watershed moment in the development of the new humanistic hand as the youthful Poggio's transcription of Cicero's \"Epistles to Atticus\". By the time the Medici library was catalogued in 1418, almost half the manuscripts were noted as in the \"lettera antica\". The new script was embraced and developed by the Florentine humanists and educators Niccolò de' Niccoli and Coluccio Salutati.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Niccoli's cursive and roman typeface.", "content": "The neat, sloping, humanist cursive invented by the Florentine humanist Niccolò de' Niccoli in the 1420s and disseminated through his numerous scholars is usually characterized as essentially a rapid version of the same script. Rhiannon Daniels writes, however, that \"[t]his was not humanistic bookhand written cursively, but a running script written with a very fine pen; a modification of contemporary gothic chancery script influenced by humanistic bookhand; hence it is sometimes known as \"cancelleresca all'antica\"\". In the late fifteenth century this \"chancery script in the Antique manner\" was further developed by humanists in Rome. Calligraphic forms of this \"chancery italic\" were popularized by the famous Roman writing master Ludovico Arrighi in the early sixteenth century.  In the history of Western typography humanist minuscule gained prominence as a model for the typesetter's roman typeface, as it was standardized by Aldus Manutius, who introduced his revolutionary italic typeface based on the chancery hand in Venice, 1501, and was practised by designer-printers Nicolas Jenson and Francesco Griffo; roman type has helped establish the remarkable resistance to change of the modern Latin alphabet.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Humanist minuscule is a handwriting or style of script that was invented in secular circles in Italy, at the beginning of the fifteenth century. \"Few periods in Western history have produced writing of such great beauty\", observes the art historian Millard Meiss. The new hand was based on Carolingian minuscule, which Renaissance humanists, obsessed with the revival of antiquity and their role as its inheritors, took to be ancient Roman:[W]hen they handled manuscript books copied by eleventh- and twelfth-century scribes, Quattrocento literati thought they were looking at texts that came right out of the bookshops of ancient Rome\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977756}
{"src_title": "Bewcastle Roman Fort", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The fort was unusual for a Roman fort, being an irregular hexagon rather than oblong, and occupied the whole of the small plateau on which it stood. It occupied an area of almost. The fort was connected to Banna by a Roman road known as the Maiden Way. Two stone signalling towers have been discovered between the two forts (at Barron’s Pike and Robin Hood’s Butts), and it is believed that these were used to pass on signals from Bewcastle to Birdoswald.  It is believed that the fort was built at about the same time as the forts on Hadrian's Wall, and that it was originally built with turf defences and timber buildings, but with gates and headquarters of stone. During the Antonine period, the turf ramparts were faced with stone. It was later completely rebuilt in stone. There were gateways to the north, south, east and west, the west gateway being the main one. The commandant’s house (praetorium) was in the approximate centre of the hexagon, with the headquarters (principia) to the immediate north of it. A Hadrianic-style bathhouse was situated in the south-east section of the fort.  Building inscriptions found at the site indicate that detachments from at least three legions were involved in the building of the fort, the Second Legion (stationed at Caerleon in Wales), the Sixth Legion (based in York) and the Twentieth Legion (based in Chester).  The fort was largely destroyed in A.D. 343, when Hadrian’s Wall was overrun. It was subsequently rebuilt but was finally destroyed after the barbarian invasion of A.D. 367 and was abandoned.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Garrison.", "content": "The second-century garrison was the First Cohort of Dacians, a thousand-strong infantry unit. The third-century garrison is believed to be the first Cohors I Nerviorum (part-mounted).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Excavations.", "content": "Limited excavations were carried out in 1937, 1954 and 1957. These established the positions of the internal buildings and uncovered several altars.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Current site.", "content": "The embankments and ditches of the fort can still be seen. A church and churchyard occupy the southern part of the site, and the churchyard contains the famous Bewcastle Cross.  To the north-east of the site are the remains of Bewcastle Castle, a Norman castle built in about 1092, using stones from the Roman fort. The castle was reputedly destroyed by Oliver Cromwell in 1641.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bewcastle Roman Fort was a Roman fort, built to the north of Hadrian's Wall as an outpost fort and intended for scouting and intelligence. The Roman name for the fort was Fanum Cocidi (as recorded in the Ravenna Cosmography), and means 'The Shrine of Cocidius', a deity worshipped in northern Britain. The remains of the fort are situated at the village of Bewcastle, Cumbria, to the north of the Roman fort at Birdoswald, on Hadrian's Wall.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977757}
{"src_title": "Jeanine Mason", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Mason was born in Miami, Florida, and grew up in a dance-oriented family in Pinecrest. Both of her parents are of Cuban descent. Mason began her dance training at the age of three in ballet and flamenco, and went on to study jazz, acrobatics, hip-hop, modern, and contemporary dance. Mason began her study of theatre at age 11 with community and middle school productions. Upon moving to Los Angeles, California, Mason continues to study theater while also keeping a focus on film and television at the Michael Woolson Studio. Mason earned a Bachelor of Arts in World Arts and Cultures, graduating \"cum laude,\" from the University of California, Los Angeles in the spring of 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"So You Think You Can Dance\".", "content": "At the age of 18, Mason competed on the fifth season of the show \"So You Think You Can Dance\", becoming the youngest winner in the history of the competition over fellow contestants Brandon Bryant, Kayla Radomski, and Evan Kasprzak. For the first five weeks of the competition (Top 20 to Top 12), Mason was partnered with Phillip Chbeeb. During the show's sixth week (Top 10), Mason danced a contemporary number choreographed by Travis Wall and was partnered with Jason Glover. Later, Mason was also partnered with Brandon Bryant, Ade Obayomi, Evan Kasprzak, and Kayla Radomski. Mason was consistently praised for her strong and versatile performances.  During the fall of 2009, Mason toured the United States with the top twelve dancers of the \"So You Think You Can Dance\" competition.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Acting career.", "content": "Shortly after completing \"So You Think You Can Dance\", Mason turned her full attention to channeling her performing skills into her other lifelong love, the craft of acting. Her on-screen career began when Mason starred in the Halloween episode of Nickelodeon's hit show, \"Big Time Rush\". From there, she appeared in \"The Bling Ring\", \"\", \"The Fresh Beat Band\", and \"Hollywood Heights\" before landing the recurring role of Cozzette on ABC Family’s \"Bunheads\" and leading roles in \"Hot Mess\", and \"Delirium\". She has also booked roles on \"Major Crimes\" and \"Secret Life of the American Teenager\" as well as several smaller, independent projects. Mason had a recurring role on ABC's hit medical drama \"Grey's Anatomy\" as Dr. Sam Bello.  In February 2018, it was announced that she joined the pilot of \"Roswell, New Mexico\" as Liz Ortecho. The CW ordered the show to series on May 11, 2018.  Mason performed on November 29, 2009 at the Dizzy Feet Gala in Los Angeles, California at the Kodak Theater. She and Jason Glover performed their popular contemporary piece, \"If It Kills Me\", choreographed by Travis Wall, and originally performed Top 10 week on SYTYCD. Glover has described Mason as \"Unique. You just don’t find dancers like her. She has beautiful lines, is funky and charismatic, and has so much life onstage. Not only does it show in her movement but also on her face. Jeanine is a brilliant performer and one of my favorite people to watch — not just in our group, but out of any dancer I've seen, from Gregory Hines to Gene Kelly.\"  On November 9, 2010, Mason performed a contemporary-ballroom dance with Mark Ballas to John Legend's \"Ordinary People\" on the television show, \"Dancing With the Stars\".  Her sister, Alexis, also auditioned for the eighth season of \"So You Think You Can Dance\", and made it to the final solo performances before Top 20 in Vegas.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Jeanine Marie Mason (born January 14, 1991) is an American actress and dancer. Her acting career began after winning the fifth season of the Fox television show \"So You Think You Can Dance\". She is best known for her role as Liz Ortecho in the CW's drama series \"Roswell, New Mexico (TV series)\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977758}
{"src_title": "Marjan Šarec", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Education and early career in comedy.", "content": "Marjan Šarec commenced his education by joining Marija Vera primary school in Duplica next to Kamnik. Subsequently, he enrolled in a vocational course at the High School for Woodcraft in Ljubljana. After graduating from high school in 1996 and following the advice of director Marjan Bevk, Šarec graduated as an actor from the Academy of Theatre, Radio, Film and Television (part of the University of Ljubljana) in 2001. In the following years, he was actively involved with the Slovenian National television, appearing in Sašo Hribar's radio show Radio Ga-Ga and TV show Hri-bar. Šarec was mostly working as a comedian and political satirist. During this time, his famous stage persona was \"Ivan Serpentinšek\", a grouchy rural character from Upper Carniola. He also imitated several famous people, including former president of Slovenia Janez Drnovšek, Karel Erjavec, Osama bin Laden, Fidel Castro, Anton Rop, Jelko Kacin, Janez Janša, Andrej Bajuk, and others. He was also working as a journalist and editor.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Local politics.", "content": "In the 2010 local election, Šarec ran for office of mayor of Kamnik, a town in north-central Slovenia. In a rare case among Slovenian media personalities who attempted to enter national or local politics, Šarec was successful. After finishing second in the first round, he narrowly won the runoff. After being a member of Zoran Janković's Positive Slovenia party, Šarec entered the 2014 local election with his own political list and was reelected in the first round with almost two thirds of the vote. After becoming an elected official, Šarec retired his stage personas and became fully committed to the work of the mayor.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Presidential campaign.", "content": "In May 2017, Šarec announced he would run in the upcoming presidential election, to take place on October 22. Despite the media reminding him of his acting career, Šarec stated he was completely serious about the candidacy, as \"the function of the president should be treated as a serious one\". Criticizing the incumbent president Borut Pahor for treating the presidential function as a celebrity, Šarec was viewed as a potentially strong candidate, one who could attract the younger generation of voters and voters leaning towards the left side of political spectrum. In the first round of the election, Šarec won 25% of the vote, resulting in a run-off against Pahor on 12 November, in which he narrowly lost.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Prime Minister of Slovenia.", "content": "In June 2018, Šarec participated in the parliamentary election with the List of Marjan Šarec. The party won 12.6% of the vote, resulting in 13 MPs. LMŠ became the second biggest party in the National Assembly. On 17 August 2018, he was elected as the new head of government, leading the 13th Government of Slovenia.  On 27 January 2020, Šarec resigned from the post, following the resignation of the Minister of Finance, who resigned because of the proposed changes to the health-related legislation.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Marjan Šarec (born 2 December 1977) is a Slovenian politician, actor, and comedian. Šarec served as the 9th Prime Minister of Slovenia from 2018 to 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977759}
{"src_title": "Elizabeth of Rhuddlan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "First marriage.", "content": "In April 1285 there were negotiations with Floris V for Elizabeth's betrothal to his son John I, Count of Holland. The offer was accepted and John was sent to England to be educated. On 8 January 1297 Elizabeth was married to John at Ipswich. In attendance at the marriage were Elizabeth's sister Margaret, her father, Edward I of England, her brother Edward, and Humphrey de Bohun. After the wedding Elizabeth was expected to go to Holland with her husband, but did not wish to go, leaving her husband to go alone. It is recorded that while in Ipswich the King, in some outburst, threw his daughter's coronet into the fire: a great ruby and a great emerald were supplied by Adam the Goldsmith for stones lost as a result.  After some time travelling England, it was decided Elizabeth should follow her husband. Her father accompanied her, travelling through the Southern Netherlands between Antwerp, Mechelen, Leuven and Brussels, before ending up in Ghent. There they remained for a few months, spending Christmas with her two sisters Eleanor and Margaret. On 10 November 1299, John died of dysentery, though there were rumours of his murder. No children had been born from the marriage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second marriage.", "content": "On her return trip to England, Elizabeth went through Brabant to see her sister Margaret. When she arrived in England, she met her stepmother Margaret, whom Edward had married while she was in Holland. On 14 November 1302 Elizabeth was married to Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, 3rd of Essex, also Constable of England, at Westminster Abbey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Issue.", "content": "The children of Elizabeth and Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford were:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "During Christmas 1315, Elizabeth, who was pregnant with her eleventh child, was visited by her sister-in-law, Queen Isabella of France. On 5 May 1316 she went into labour, giving birth to her daughter Isabella. Both Elizabeth and her daughter Isabella died shortly after the birth. Elizabeth was interred at Walden Abbey, Essex, together with her infant daughter & other members of the de Bohun family.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Elizabeth of Rhuddlan (7 August 1282 – 5 May 1316) was the eighth and youngest daughter of King Edward I and Queen Eleanor of Castile. Of all of her siblings, she was closest to her younger brother King Edward II, as they were only two years apart in age.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977760}
{"src_title": "Battle of Prague (1648)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "General Hans Christoff von Königsmarck, commanding Sweden's flying column, entered the city, which was defended by the Governor Feldmarschall Rudolf von Colloredo, a veteran of the siege of Mantua and of the battle of Lutzen, where he served under Albrecht von Wallenstein. The Swedes captured Prague Castle, a sprawling palace complex, on the western bank of the Vltava river and attempted to enter the Old Town on the eastern bank of the river, but were repulsed on the Charles Bridge by Colloredo's men. When a third Swedish army commanded by Prince Carl Gustaf came close to Prague, all three Swedish armies launched a number of attacks against the city. These attacks were resisted, largely thanks to the skill of the Feldmarschall and the energy of his troops. When in November Gustaf received a report about the signed peace, he ordered his troops to leave.  Unable to enter the city, the Swedes settled for looting the castle; some have argued that this was the main purpose of the raid. Many of the treasures collected by Emperor Rudolf II (such as the Codex Gigas and Codex Argenteus) were taken to Sweden, where some can be found in Drottningholm Palace, for example several statues by Adrien de Vries. The cream of the artworks were taken into exile by Christina, Queen of Sweden (r. 1632–1654), and dispersed in groups after her death in 1689, the paintings forming the core of the Orleans Collection, which was sold in London after the French Revolution, so that many of Rudolf's paintings are now in the United Kingdom. A Swedish inventory of 1652 lists 472 paintings as having come from Prague.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Monuments.", "content": "On the Old Town Square a Marian column was erected to remember the salvation of Prague.  A monument erected during the 19th century on Colloredo's tomb in the Church of the Maltese Order in Prague recalls his victory over the Swedes. Its German inscription reads thus:  HIER RUHT RUDOLF GRAF COLLOREDO K.K. FELDMARSCHALL UND MALTHESERORDER GROSSPRIOR Vertheidiger der Alt und Neusstad Prags gegen die Schweden Geb. am 2 Nov. 1585 Gest. am 27 Jan. 1657.  (\"Here lies Rudolf, count Colloredo, Imperial and Royal Feldmarshall and Grand Prior of the Order of Malta, defender of the Old and New Town of Prague against the Swedes. Born 2. Nov. 1585 Dead 27 Jan. 1657\")  On Charles Bridge a 17th-century Latin inscription says:  SISTE VIATOR, SED LUBENS, AC VOLENS UBI SISTERE DEBUIT, SED COACTUS GOTHORUM, AC VANDALORUM FUROR  \"Rest here, walker, and be happy: you can stop here willing, but unwilling were stopped the Goths (Swedes) and their Vandalic ferocity\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Prague, which occurred between 25 July and 1 November 1648 was the last action of the Thirty Years' War. While the negotiations for the Peace of Westphalia were proceeding, the Swedes took the opportunity to mount one last campaign into Bohemia. The main result, and probably the main aim, was to loot the fabulous art collection assembled in Prague Castle by Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor (1552–1612), the pick of which was taken down the Elbe in barges and shipped to Sweden.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977761}
{"src_title": "Frank Capone", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Capone was born in 1895 in Brooklyn, and he was the third son of the Italian immigrants Gabriele Capone (1865–1920) and Teresa Raiola (1867-1952). He was the brother of Vincenzo, Ralph, Al, Ermina, John, Albert, Matthew and Mafalda Capone. Frank and his brothers Al and Ralph became mobsters. Growing up in New York, both Frank and Al became involved in the Five Points Gang with mobster John Torrio. By 1918, Torrio had moved to Chicago to help a relative defend his rackets, and Torrio soon asked Al and later Frank to join him there.  By 1920, Torrio had taken charge of the South Side Gang and the Prohibition era had started. As the gang increased in power and wealth, so did Al and Frank.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Takeover of Cicero.", "content": "In 1923, Chicago voters elected a new mayor, William Dever, who proceeded to crack down on Torrio, the Capone brothers, and their South Side Gang. In response, Torrio tasked Al with creating speakeasies, brothels, and illegal gambling dens in Cicero, a Chicago suburb. Within a year, Capone had placed the Cicero city manager Joseph Z. Klenha and the town committeemen on the gang payroll. Frank Capone's job was to represent the gang in its dealings with the Cicero town council. Frank was mild-mannered compared to his brother Al, projecting the image of a respectable businessman, and always dressed in a neat suit.  In the April 1, 1924 Cicero municipal election, Democratic Party politicians mounted a serious election challenge to Republican Klenha and his associates. To protect the gang's political control of Cicero, Frank unleashed a wave of terror on the city. He sent South Side gang members to the polling booths with submachine guns and sawed-off shotguns to make sure that local residents \"voted right\". Uncooperative voters were assaulted and blocked from voting. Frank led an attack on an opponent's campaign headquarters, ransacking his office and assaulting several campaign workers. One campaign worker was shot in both legs and detained with eight other campaign workers, to be released when Election Day was over.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and police reinforcements.", "content": "As the election day turmoil progressed, outraged Cicero citizens petitioned Cook County Judge Edmund J. Jareki for help. The Chicago Police Department (CPD) sent 70 plainclothes officers to Cicero to maintain order at the polls and Jareki swore them in as deputy sheriffs. The CPD officers did not arrive on the streets of Cicero until late afternoon, at which point they had little effect on the election-related violence.  Around dusk, a detective squad led by Sergeant William Cusack pulled up to the polling station at Cicero Avenue and Twenty-second Street after spotting Frank Capone, Charlie Fischetti, and a short, heavyset man they didn't recognize. The detectives exited their car and began walking over when gunfire inexplicably erupted. Several witnesses later claimed that the gangsters never opened fire. At the later inquest, the police claimed that Frank Capone shot first; they produced a pistol with three missing rounds that they swore he used. Frank allegedly thought these officers in civilian clothing were rival gangsters. In either event, Capone was fatally shot many times by Sergeant Phillip J. McGlynn in the ensuing melee. Fischetti sprinted across a nearby vacant lot, only to toss down his weapon and surrender once the police caught up with him. The third gangster ran south, firing a gun in each hand, and managed to escape. An urban myth later grew that this man was none other than Al Capone. In fact, the third gunman was later positively identified as one David Hedlin; the police had wounded him, as well.  At the end of the day, the Capone candidate Klenha had won.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mob funeral.", "content": "After Frank's death, the Chicago newspapers were full of articles either praising or condemning the CPD. A coroner's inquest later determined that Frank's killing was a justifiable shooting since Frank had been resisting arrest.  On April 4, 1924, Frank Capone received an extravagant funeral, with $20,000 worth of flowers placed around the silver-plated casket and over 150 cars in the motorcade. Al purchased the flowers from a shop belonging to his North Side Gang rival, Dean O'Banion. Frank was interred at Mount Carmel Cemetery outside Chicago. The \"Chicago Tribune\" reported that the event was appropriate for \"a fitting gentleman\". Out of respect for his dead brother, Al Capone closed the gambling dens and speakeasies of Cicero for two hours during the funeral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "Morgan Spector portrayed Frank Capone in the fourth season of the HBO television show \"Boardwalk Empire\". In the show, Frank is portrayed as charismatic and level-headed, often attempting to cool Al's temper.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Salvatore \"Frank\" Capone (; ; July 16, 1895 – April 1, 1924) was an Italian-American Chicago mobster who participated in the attempted takeover of Cicero, Illinois by the Chicago Outfit. He worked in the businesses with his brothers Al Capone and Ralph Capone.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977762}
{"src_title": "Thomas Butler, 6th Earl of Ossory", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Birth and origins.", "content": "Thomas was born on 8 July 1634, at Kilkenny Castle. He was the eldest son of James Butler and his wife Elizabeth Preston. His father was then the 12th Earl of Ormond but would be raised to marquess and duke. The Butlers were an Old English family. Thomas's mother was a second cousin once removed of his father as she was a granddaughter of Black Tom, the 10th Earl of Ormond. Her father, however, was Scottish, Richard Preston, 1st Earl of Desmond, a favourite of James I. Both parents were Protestants. They married on Christmas Day 1629. They had 10 children, eight sons and two daughters, but five of the sons died in childhood.  Thomas heads the list of siblings below as the eldest of the children that grew up to adulthood:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early life.", "content": "As the eldest living son he was the heir apparent and wore the corresponding courtesy title, which at first was Viscount Thurles, but changed to Earl of Ossory when his father was elevated to the marquessate in 1642. His early years were spent in Ireland until 1647 when he accompanied his father to England and then in February 1648 to France.  Ossory was an accomplished athlete and a good scholar. Having come to London in 1652 he was rightly suspected of sympathising with the exiled royalists, and in 1655 was jailed by Oliver Cromwell. After his release about a year later he went into exile to the Netherlands where Charles II had his exile court at the time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage and children.", "content": "On 17 November 1659, while in exile, he married Aemilia van Nassau, the second daughter of Louis of Nassau, Lord of De lek and Beverweerd.  They had eleven children, including:  He accompanied Charles II back to England in 1660. In 1661 Ossory became a member of both the English and the Irish Houses of Commons, representing Bristol in the former and Dublin University in the latter.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Writ of Acceleration.", "content": "In 1662 he was called to the Irish House of Lords under a writ of acceleration as Earl of Ossory. His father held the title \"5th Earl of Ossory\" as one of his subsidiary titles. The acceleration made Thomas Butler the 6th Earl of Ossory. This was the only substantive title he ever held, as he would predecease his father and therefore never inherit his father's titles. His eldest son would later be the 2nd Duke of Ormond and the 7th Earl of Ossory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "Lord Ossory held several military appointments;  In 1665 a fortunate accident allowed Ossory to take part in the Battle of Lowestoft against the Dutch, and in May 1672, being now in command of a ship, he fought against the same enemies in the Battle of Solebay, serving with great distinction on both occasions. The earl was partly responsible for this latter struggle, as on 12 March 1672, before war was declared, he had attacked the Dutch Smyrna fleet, an action which he is said to have greatly regretted later in life. Whilst visiting France in 1672 he rejected the liberal offers made by Louis XIV to induce him to enter the service of France, and returning to England he added to his high reputation by his conduct during the Battle of Texel in August 1673. From 1677 until 1679, he served alongside his father as a Lord of the Admiralty.  Ossory was intimate with William, Prince of Orange, and in 1677 he joined the allied army in the Netherlands, commanding the British contingent and winning great fame at the siege of Mons in 1678. He acted as deputy for his father, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and in parliament he defended Ormond's Irish administration with great vigour. In 1680 he was appointed governor of English Tangier, but his death prevented him from taking up his new duties.  One of his most intimate friends was John Evelyn, who eulogised him in his \"Diary\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and succession.", "content": "Ossory died on 30 July 1680. He was buried provisionally in Westminster Abbey on 31 July 1680. The ceremony of burial was performed belatedly on 13 November 1680. Some say Ossory's body was later taken to Ireland and reburied in the family vault in St Canice's Cathedral, Kilkenny. James, his eldest son, succeeded him as the 7th Earl of Ossory and would in 1688 become the 2nd Duke of Ormond.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Vice-Admiral Thomas Butler, 6th Earl of Ossory, KG, PC, PC (Ire) (1634–1680) was an Irish politician. He was born at Kilkenny Castle, the eldest son of James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormond, and his wife Elizabeth Preston.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977763}
{"src_title": "Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Mount Baker National Forest was established as the Washington Forest Reserve on February 22, 1897 with. It became a national forest on March 4, 1907 and was renamed Mount Baker National Forest on January 21, 1924. Snoqualmie National Forest was established from land in Washington NF on 1 July 1908 with 961,120 acres (3,889.52 km2). A part of Rainier National Forest was added on October 19, 1933. The two were administratively combined in 1974.  The 1935 version of \"The Call of the Wild\" with Clark Gable, Loretta Young and Jack Oakie was filmed on location in Mount Baker National Forest because Twentieth Century Pictures felt it was remote enough to guarantee lack of interruption from skiers and other forest visitors. Paramount Pictures later also filmed \"The Barrier\" at Mount Baker Lodge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Visitation.", "content": "The Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest covers (in descending order of forestland area) portions of Snohomish, Whatcom, Skagit, King, Pierce, and Kittitas counties. It has a total area of. The forest consists of four ranger districts. The following are listed geographically from north to south: the Mount Baker District has two ranger stations located in Glacier and Sedro-Woolley; the Darrington Ranger District has two ranger stations located in Darrington and Verlot; the Skykomish Ranger District has one ranger station located in Skykomish; and the Snoqualmie Ranger District has two ranger stations located in North Bend and Enumclaw.  Together with the other central Puget Sound counties, 62% (3.63 million people) of the state's population lives within a drive of the forest. Another 1.5 million in the Vancouver metropolitan area are also within easy reach of the northern part of the forest. The large population factor, coupled with easy road access, makes the Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest the most visited national forest in the country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Geography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mountains.", "content": "The Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest contains many scenic and historical points of interest. Mountain tops gradually rise from on the south end of the forest to in the north. Two tall volcanoes, Mount Baker and Glacier Peak, tower thousands of feet above the adjacent ridges.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Glaciers.", "content": "The forest is home to more glaciers and snow fields than any other national forest outside Alaska., the largest glaciers—with surface areas greater than —are: The number of glaciers in the forest has decreased from 295 in 1971 to fewer than 287 in 1998. This is a part of the global phenomenon of glacier retreat. Forest glaciers have lost between 20 and 40% of their volume between 1984 and 2006. This is due to continued warm conditions and negative mass balance. White Chuck Glacier (Glacier Peak) is no longer on the list of large glaciers, above. It shrank from from 1958 to 2002. With the shrinking of the glaciers, summer glacial runoff has been reduced by 65 to 80%. This reduces streamflow and sediment and increases water temperature. Salmon and many other species are adversely affected by such changes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conservation.", "content": "The north and east portions of the forest are exceptionally rugged and scenic. In 1968, part of the forest was transferred to the National Park Service to be within North Cascades National Park. A 1993 Forest Service study estimated that the extent of old growth in the forest was. In addition, Congressional action since 1964 has established the following wilderness areas, which comprise —almost half of the forest's area: These pristine areas provide clean water, solitude, and permanent protection to old-growth forests across 42% of the Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest.  Congress also established the Skagit Wild and Scenic River System in 1978. Its of rivers on the Skagit, Cascade, Sauk, and Suiattle rivers provide important wildlife habitat and recreation. The Skagit River System is home to one of the largest winter populations of bald eagles in the United States.  The Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest encompasses much of the North Cascades ecoregion, a Level III North American Ecoregion. It includes the following level IV ecoregions:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest in Washington is a National Forest extending more than along the western slopes of the Cascade Range from the Canada–US border to the northern boundary of Mount Rainier National Park. Administered by the United States Forest Service, the forest is headquartered in Everett. There are local ranger district offices in North Bend and Skykomish.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977764}
{"src_title": "Walter Susskind", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Süsskind was born in Prague. His father was a Viennese music critic and his Czech mother was a piano teacher. At the State Conservatorium he studied under the composer Josef Suk, the son-in-law of Dvořák. He later studied conducting under George Szell, and became Szell's assistant at the German Opera, Prague, making his conducting debut there with \"La traviata\"; early in his career, he was often known as H. W. Süsskind (H for Hans or Hanuš).  Susskind fled Prague on 13 March 1939, two days before the German invasion. With the help of a British journalist and consular officials, he arrived in Britain as a refugee. He formed the Czech Trio, a chamber ensemble in which he was the pianist. Encouraged by Jan Masaryk, the Czech ambassador in London, the trio obtained many engagements.  In 1942 Susskind joined the Carl Rosa Opera Company as a conductor, working with singers such as Heddle Nash and Joan Hammond. The following year he married the British cellist Eleanor Catherine Warren. In 1944 he made his first recording for Walter Legge of EMI, conducting Liu's arias from \"Turandot\" with Hammond.  After the war, Susskind became a naturalised British citizen, and though he spent much of his subsequent career outside Britain, he said he would never dream of giving up his British citizenship.  Susskind's first appointment as musical director was to the Scottish Orchestra, where he served from 1946 to 1952. He and his wife divorced in 1953. From 1953 to 1955 he was the conductor of the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra (then known as the Victorian Symphony Orchestra). After free-lancing in Israel and South America he was appointed to head the Toronto Symphony Orchestra (TSO) from 1956 to 1965.  In 1960 he founded the National Youth Orchestra of Canada. While with the TSO he taught conducting at The Royal Conservatory of Music where among his pupils were Milton Barnes and Rudy Toth.  From 1968 to 1975 he was conductor of the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra with which he made more than 200 recordings. During his seven-year tenure with St. Louis, he taught across the Mississippi River at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. He was also closely involved with the Mississippi River Festival, an annually recurring outdoors crossover concert series organised by the local university.  Susskind served as artistic advisor of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra from 1978 until his death in 1980.  On May 3, 1971, Susskind returned to the New York City Opera to conduct Leoš Janáček's \"Makropulos Case\".  Susskind died in Berkeley, California, at the age of 66.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Discography (selection).", "content": "Recordings include:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jan Walter Susskind (1 May 1913 – 25 March 1980) was a Czech-born British conductor, teacher and pianist. He began his career in his native Prague, and fled to Britain when Germany invaded the city in 1939. He worked for substantial periods in Australia and the United States, as a conductor and teacher.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977765}
{"src_title": "Tesla Semi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The Semi was first mentioned in the Tesla 2016 Master Plan. Tesla said at the time that they have a working prototype that uses 'a bunch' of Tesla Model 3 electric motors., Jerome Guillen had been leading the Tesla Semi program. Guillen was once in charge of Freightliner's Cascadia Diesel-engine Class 8 semi, before joining Tesla to configure the Model S production line, but left the Semi program a year later to lead one of the Model 3 general assembly lines and subsequently became Tesla president of automotive in September 2018. The new lead for the Semi program has not been publicly announced as of late 2019.  The Semi was unveiled at a press conference on November 16, 2017, where Musk provided additional specifics. He claimed that the electric Semi would cost less to operate than a diesel truck if charged at a Megacharger, where Tesla would guarantee a price of 7 ¢/kWh (in the United States). If the Semi is not charged at a Megacharger, the savings would depend on the cost of electricity; the high cost in California, for example, may eliminate the operating cost benefit.  In November 2017, Tesla projected that the expected price of regular production versions for the versions would be and respectively. The company stated they would offer a Founder's Series Semi at.  In March 2018, Tesla announced that the Semi was being tested with real cargo, hauling battery packs from Nevada to California. In August 2018, a Tesla Semi prototype traveled by itself—without escort or accompanying vehicles—for a week to arrive at the J. B. Hunt headquarters in Arkansas.  In June 2019, Tesla projected that production would begin by the end of 2020. A few months later, in the October Q3 investor call, they maintained the 2020 production target, albeit in limited numbers. In mid-January 2020, Tesla announced to its reservation holders a winter testing program to validate the Semi in cold weather and low-traction conditions. A few weeks later, in the 2019 Q4 earnings call, Elon Musk commented on the lack of battery production capability as one limiting factor for the conservative Semi production timeline, choosing to use battery supply for passenger cars instead.  A toy version of the Semi was released in January 2020 as part of the Matchbox Convoy line.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Orders.", "content": "The first pre-orders came in the day of the press conference and by mid-January 2018 approximately 450 Semis had been pre-ordered. The original deposit required with an order was $5,000, which was increased to $20,000 after the event in November. In the Q1 2018 Tesla earnings call, Musk said that there were about 2,000 total pre-orders of the Semi.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "November 2017 prototype and plans.", "content": "In November 2017, Musk said that the Semi would be powered by four electric motors of the type used in the Tesla Model 3. Two battery configurations of and range (fully loaded) were planned with the battery packs located under the floor of the cab, between the back and front wheels. Running empty, the long-range Tesla Semi would have a range of. Tesla said the Semi would have time of 5 seconds unloaded and in 20 seconds fully loaded. The Semi would be able to maintain a speed of on a 5% grade. The company touted a warranty for a million miles (1.6 million km) and said maintenance would be simpler than a diesel truck. A month after the reveal, Tesla reduced the uphill speed spec (by 5 mph) to 60 mph.  In the prototype shown in November the driver's seat was located in the center of the cab. There was a removable jump seat for an extra passenger and there was no sleeping area. There were touchscreen displays on either side of the steering wheel, and no other instrument panels. Musk said that the windshield would be explosion-proof.  Tesla said that the Semi would be equipped with enhanced autopilot as standard equipment, offering semi-autonomous capability. Using more radar devices and cameras than Tesla cars, the system would enable the truck to stay in its own lane and a safe distance from other vehicles on a highway, would have emergency braking, and would warn the driver of any potential hazards near the vehicle. Tesla also said that new technology with active safety controls would detect and prevent jackknifing. Musk said that the system would eventually allow several units to operate in an autopilot-based convoy, led by a truck with a driver, that would be a cheaper alternative to rail transport. At the time, platooning was legal in only eight states and all required a human driver in each truck so changes in legislation would be necessary to achieve Musk's vision. Media reports noted the lack of specification for vehicle weight, as payload is restricted by government rules for the weight of the combined tractor-trailer.  In November 2017, Tesla said it planned to use the Semi to transport cargo between Gigafactory 1 and the Fremont plant.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tesla Megacharger.", "content": "At the November 2017 press conference Musk also said that the company would be involved in installing a global network of \"Megachargers\" that would be solar-powered and would be able to recharge a truck's batteries in 30 minutes to a capacity to travel. To accomplish this, it will likely have an output level over one megawatt.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Third party analysis.", "content": "An analyst with Jefferies Group expressed skepticism over some of Tesla's claims because the company had not determined battery longevity; specifics about that aspect, and the replacement cost of the battery, are essential in order to calculate the long-term cost of ownership.  Some industry experts view heavy-duty freight as impractical for battery trucks due to cost and weight. A senior VP at Daseke Inc., a large trucking company, said that the limited range affected their likelihood of operating the Semi until the necessary infrastructure was in place.  A Bloomberg L.P. report showed that given the battery technology available in November 2017, Tesla's estimates for charging times, range per charge, and costs were not realistic, some suggesting that Tesla may be betting on increased battery density advances in the next couple of years to meet its stated goals.  A 2017 theoretical analysis of electric semi trucks was completed by researchers from the Carnegie Mellon College of Engineering in mid-2017, ostensibly in response to Musk's description of Tesla's work on a \"a heavy duty, long-range semi truck\" at a talk in April 2017. The analysis estimated loads and ranges for an electric truck, given battery technologies known at that time, and published their work in June 2017. The analysis indicated that an electric semi might be feasible for short- or medium-range hauling, but would not be for long-range hauling, as the weight of the batteries required would take up too much of the weight allowed by law. One estimate for the battery weight, at 11,800 kg, was estimated to account for one third of the payload, and would increase the capital cost of the truck to about double that of an equivalent diesel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Competition.", "content": "Other companies developing class 8 electric trucks include: BYD Company, Daimler AG, Kenworth, Nikola Motor, Peterbilt, Toyota, Volvo, and Xos (Thor). Other companies developing electric trucks, which are not class 8, include: Cummins, DAF Trucks, Einride, Uber, and Volkswagen.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Tesla Semi is an all-electric battery-powered Class 8 semi-truck in development by Tesla, Inc. Two concept vehicles were unveiled in November 2017, and production in 2021 is planned.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977766}
{"src_title": "2018 United Nations Climate Change Conference", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Context.", "content": "After the United States left the Paris Agreement, China took a leading role by hosting many of the preparatory meetings in the weeks beforehand.  In November 2018, the World Meteorological Organization released a report stating that 2017 atmospheric carbon dioxide levels reached 405 parts per million (ppm), a level not seen in three to five million years. In October 2018, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) published its Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Speeches.", "content": "On 3 December 2018, the noted British naturalist Sir David Attenborough told delegates at the conference that: On 4 December 2018, 15 year-old climate change activist Greta Thunberg addressed the summit and explained the severity of the problem this way: The same day, the 14th Dalai Lama wrote to the participants of the conference: \"Climate change is not a concern of just one or two nations. It is an issue that affects all humanity, and every living being on this earth. This beautiful place is our only home. We have to take serious action now to protect our environment and find constructive solutions to global warming.\"  Al Gore told delegates they faced “the single most important moral choice in history of humanity”.  António Guterres the Secretary-General of the United Nations told “We’re running out of time. To waste this opportunity would compromise our last best chance to stop runaway climate change. It would not only be immoral, it would be suicidal.” The IPCC special report is a stark acknowledgment of what the consequences of global warming beyond 1.5 degrees will mean for billions of people around the world, especially those who call small island states home. This is not good news, but we cannot afford to ignore it.”  A US energy official, Preston Wells Griffith, senior director for energy and environment, said on 10 December 2018: \"We strongly believe that no country should have to sacrifice economic prosperity or energy security in pursuit of environmental sustainability.\" He added also: \"We can achieve all of these goals and they are complementary.\" During his speech, he reinforced that impression: \"Alarmism should not silence realism.\"  A youth conference with children representing over 30 countries was also held during the conference.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Events.", "content": "Side events at the conference allow for admitted observers which have limited speaking opportunities, to host side events that are categorized under three categories as part of the Paris Agreement.  The categories include: Enhancing Ambition, Promoting Implementation, and Providing Support to Developing Countries. There are also outside events that are hosted by the UNFCCC secretariat, Parties and observer organizations.  There were 5 thematic days at the conference:  The UNFCCC has created a YouTube account called the \"Climate Action Studio\" recording side events at the conference.  All side events of COP24 are all archived by the UNFCCC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Result.", "content": "The conference agreed on rules to implement the Paris Agreement, which will come into force in 2020, that is to say the rulebook on how governments will measure, and report on their emissions-cutting efforts.  Due to difficulty to reach agreement between parties, some difficult questions such as ways to scale up existing commitments on cutting emissions, ways to provide financial help for poor countries, wording that does not allow double counting and whether countries are doing enough to cut their emissions (in the light of the IPCC report) were postponed to the next conference.  David Waskow, of the World Resources Institute, said the deal was \"a good foundation for countries to go about implementing the Paris agreement\" and added that \"It sets the direction of travel and will spur countries to take action. Now countries need to go home and do their homework, by increasing their commitments [on emissions]\".  Some achievements have been made:  Many say, that there is a “lack of urgency” in the COP decisions, but some good decisions have been made.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2018 United Nations Climate Change Conference was the 24th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP24), also known as the Katowice Climate Change Conference. It was held between 2 and 15 December 2018 in Katowice, Poland. The conference was held in the International Congress Centre. The president of COP24 was Michał Kurtyka. The conference also incorporated the fourteenth meeting of the parties for the Kyoto Protocol (CMP14), and the third session of the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement (CMA1-3 or CMA1.3) which agreed on rules to implement the Agreement. The conference's objective was to have a full implementation of the Paris agreement.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977767}
{"src_title": "Masquerade (play)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "The hero of the drama, Arbenin, is a wealthy middle-aged man endowed with a rebellious spirit and a strong will. Born into high society, he strives in vain to gain independence and freedom. He lives by the laws of his society, and, in trying to defend his honor while blinded by jealousy and pride, ends up murdering his wife.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Act I.", "content": "Act I opens with Arbenin playing cards with Prince Zvezdich, and losing. Arbenin recoups his losses and gives the money back to Prince Zvezdich. From there the pair go to a masquerade party also being attended by Arbenin's wife, Nina. Zvezdich flirts with a dissolute lady, a baroness who is a friend of Nina. But because of the masks Zvezdich does not know who she is. The mystery lady gives Zvezdich her bracelet as a memento - a bracelet that had once belonged to Nina. Arbenin later notices the bracelet missing from his wife's wrist, recalls it in Zvezdich's possession, and concludes that his wife has been cheating on him with Zvezdich.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act II.", "content": "In Act II, Nina meets with the baroness. Prince Zvezdich confronts Nina with a hint about her bracelet. The Baroness, who in love with Prince Zvezdich, decides to spread the rumors that Nina and Prince Zvezdich are in love. Arbenin reads a letter from Zvezdich addressed to Nina, which leads him to further to believe that the woman behind the mask was his wife Nina. He becomes enraged, and is convinced that all St. Petersburg knows of his wife's disloyalty. Arbenin first resolves to stab Zvezdich, but considering this a too mild punishment that would not restore his honor, he considers exacting a more thorough revenge on Zvezdich and Nina.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act III.", "content": "In Act III, Arbenin mixes poison (which he had obtained years earlier after a financial setback, but never taken) into his wife's ice cream at a ball. The scene moves to the couple's bedroom, where Arbenin explains what he has done, and why. He loves her madly but, blinded by jealousy, is unable to hear the cries and protestations of innocence of his fatally poisoned wife.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Act IV.", "content": "In Act IV, Nina is dead. Zvezdich and a character called The Unknown come to Arbenin, both wanting revenge. They bring him a letter from the baroness proving Nina's innocence. Arbenin, realizing that he has murdered his beloved wife without cause, goes insane.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Conclusions.", "content": "The audience is, however, led to the conclusion is that Arbenin is not the only guilty party in Nina's death. The baroness and other players, with motives of their own, did not always tell the truth, allowing Arbenin's delusion to continue or indeed abetting it. Thus the meaning of the play's title, \"Masquerade\", may be taken in more than one way.  The play contains several monologues which serve as standalone speeches.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "History of the play.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First version.", "content": "The play was written in 1835. The original version is a three-act play that ends with the death of Nina. Lermontov, hoping to see the play produced, presented it to the office of the literary censor, which at that time was under the chief of Section Three (the secret police), Alexander von Benckendorff. The censor did not approve the play, telling Lermontov that the passions displayed were too severe and that the play implied criticism of the masked balls held by the house of Engelhardt, an aristocratic family. The drama was returned to Lermontov for correction.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second version.", "content": "Wishing to avoid radical changes in the text, Lermontov added a fourth act and introduced a new character, The Unknown. This allowed Lermontov to show Arbenin being punished for his deeds.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third version.", "content": "Still the censor did not approve the play. Lermontov then undertook a major redaction of the play, including a title change from \"Masquerade\" to \"Arbenin\". But even in this crippled form, the play did not satisfy the censor, and the play was not produced in Lermontov's lifetime.  The only version of the play that has survived is the second four-act one. \"Masquerade\" was finally staged in 1852 at the Aleksandrinsky Theater as a benefit for the actress Maria Valberhova, whom Lermontov had envisioned as Nina, although only certain scenes could be staged. Censorship of the play was lifted completely in 1862.  Perhaps the real reason that the play was not allowed to be staged is that it is based on a real incident. This is evidenced by the fact that Nina is called by the more formal name Nastasia Pavlovna - only once in the entire play, but through all versions and alterations. This was presumably a hint to the audience.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Masquerade () is a verse play written in 1835 by the Russian Romantic writer Mikhail Lermontov. The four-act play, set in 1830s St. Petersburg aristocratic society, highlights the rebellious spirit and noble mind of the protagonist, Yevgeny Arbenin. It is often compared with Shakespeare's \"Othello\" in its essential story line.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977768}
{"src_title": "Geography of Mongolia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Mountain regions.", "content": "Mongolia has four major mountain ranges. The highest is the Altai Mountains, which stretch across the western and the southwestern regions of the country on a northwest-to-southeast axis. The range contains the country's highest peak, the high Khüiten Peak.  The Khangai Mountains, mountains also trending northwest to southeast, occupy much of central and north-central Mongolia. These are older, lower, and more eroded mountains, with many forests and alpine pastures.  The Khentii Mountains, trending from northeast to southwest for about, occupy central Mongolia's north eastern part. The northern parts are covered in taiga, while the southern parts are filled with dry steppe. The range forms the watershed between the Arctic Ocean (via Lake Baikal) and the Pacific Ocean basins. Rivers originating in the range include the Onon, Kherlen, Menza and Tuul. These mountains also house the capital of Ulaanbaatar.  The Khövsgöl Mountains occupy the north of the country. It trends from north to south and generally has a lot of steep peaks. Young mountain range with Alpine characteristics, high gradient, with narrow cliffs.  Much of eastern Mongolia is occupied by a plain, and the lowest area is a southwest-to-northeast trending depression that reaches from the Gobi Desert region in the south to the eastern frontier.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rivers and lakes.", "content": "Some of Mongolia's waterways drain to the oceans, but many finish at Endorheic basins in the deserts and the depressions of Inner Asia. Rivers are most extensively developed in the north, and the country's major river system is that of the Selenge, which drains via Lake Baikal to the Arctic Ocean. Some minor tributaries of Siberia's Yenisei River, which also flows to the Arctic Ocean, rise in the mountains of northwestern Mongolia. In northeastern Mongolia the Onon River drains into the Pacific Ocean through the Shilka River in Russia and the Amur (Heilong Jiang) rivers, forming the tenth longest river system in the world. Many rivers of western Mongolia end at lakes in the Central Asian Internal Drainage Basin, most often in the Great Lakes Depression, or at Hulun Lake, Ulaan Lake or Ulungur Lake. The few streams of southern Mongolia do not reach the sea but run into lakes or deserts.  Mongolia's largest lake by area, Uvs Lake is in the Great Lakes Depression. Mongolia's largest lake by volume of water, Lake Khövsgöl, drains via the Selenge river to the Arctic Ocean. One of the most easterly lakes of Mongolia, Hoh Nuur, at an elevation of 557 metres, is the lowest point in the country. In total, the lakes and rivers of Mongolia cover 10,560 square kilometres, or 0.67% of the country.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Climate.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overview.", "content": "Mongolia has a high elevation, with a cold and dry climate. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north, which averages per year, and lowest in the south, which receives. The extreme south is the Gobi Desert, some regions of which receive no precipitation at all in most years. The name Gobi is a Mongol word meaning desert, depression, salt marsh, or steppe, but which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi rangelands are fragile and are easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can survive.  Average temperatures over most of the country are below freezing from November through March and are above freezing in April and October. Winter nights can drop to in most years. Summer extremes reach as high as in the southern Gobi region and in Ulaanbaatar. Most of Mongolia is covered by discontinuous permafrost (grading to continuous at high altitudes), which makes construction, road building, and mining difficult. All rivers and freshwater lakes freeze over in the winter, and smaller streams commonly freeze to the bottom. Ulaanbaatar lies at above sea level in the valley of the Tuul River. Located in the relatively well-watered north, it receives an annual average of of precipitation, almost all of which falls in July and in August. Ulaanbaatar has an average annual temperature of and a frost-free period extending on the average from mid-may to late August.  Mongolia's weather is characterized by extreme variability and short-term unpredictability in the summer, and the multiyear averages conceal wide variations in precipitation, dates of frosts, and occurrences of blizzards and spring dust storms. Such weather poses severe challenges to human and livestock survival. Official statistics list less than 1% of the country as arable, 8 to 10% as forest, and the rest as pasture or desert. Grain, mostly wheat, is grown in the valleys of the Selenge river system in the north, but yields fluctuate widely and unpredictably as a result of the amount and the timing of rain and the dates of killing frosts.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Zud.", "content": "Although winters are generally cold and clear, and livestock can survive, under various weather conditions livestock are unable to graze and die in large numbers. A winter in which this occurs is known as a \"zud;\" causes include blizzards, drought, extreme cold, and freezing rain. Such losses of livestock, which are an inevitable and, in a sense, normal consequence of the climate, have made it difficult for planned increases in livestock numbers to be achieved.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Seasonal blizzards.", "content": "Severe blizzards can occur in the region. The winters of 1970–1971, 2000–2001, 2008–2009 and 2009–2010 were particularly harsh, featuring extremely severe zuds.  The blizzards of December 2011 blocked many roads, and killed 16,000 livestock and 10 people. The Mongolian State Emergency Commission said it was the coldest winter in thirty years and, like the preceding harsh summer drought, could have been the result of global warming. The United Nations provided major aid due to the high level of damage caused.  In the snowstorms between the 8 and 28 May 2008, 21 people were killed and 100 others went missing in seven provinces in eastern Mongolia. The toll finally reached at least 52 people and 200,000 livestock by the end of June. Most of the victims were herders who froze to death along with their livestock. It was the worst cold snap since the founding of the modern state in 1922.  Snowstorms in December 2009 – February 2010 also killed 8,000,000 livestock and 60 people.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Resources and land use.", "content": "Land use: <br>\"arable land:\" 9.10% <br>\"permanent crops:\" 0% <br>\"other:\" 99.61% (2011)  Irrigated land: 843 km2 (2011)  Total renewable water resources: 34.8 km (2011)", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mongolia is a landlocked country in Central Asia and East Asia, located between China and Russia. The terrain is one of mountains and rolling plateaus, with a high degree of relief. The total land area of Mongolia is 1,564,116 square kilometres. Overall, the land slopes from the high Altai Mountains of the west and the north to plains and depressions in the east and the south. The Khüiten Peak in extreme western Mongolia on the Chinese border is the highest point (). The lowest point is at, is the Hoh Nuur or lake Huh. The country has an average elevation of.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977769}
{"src_title": "Sanxing (deities)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The three gods, their stars and their attributes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fuxing.", "content": "The star of Fu (福), \"Fuxing\" 福星, refers to the planet Jupiter. In traditional astrology, the planet Jupiter was believed to be auspicious. Alternatively, according to a Taoist myth of the Ming dynasty, the Fu star is associated with Yang Cheng (楊成), a governor of Daozhou in Tang Dynasty. Yang Cheng risked his life by writing a memorial to the emperor to save the people from presenting dwarf slaves as the special tribute to the imperial court. After his death, the people built a temple to commemorate him, and over time he came to be considered the personification of good fortune.  He is generally depicted in scholar's dress, holding a scroll, on which is sometimes written the character \"Fu\". He may also be seen holding a child, or surrounded by children. He is sometimes conflated with Caishen, the \"Wealth God\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Luxing.", "content": "The star of Lu (祿), \"Luxing\" 祿星, is Mizar (ζ Ursa Majoris), or, in traditional Chinese astronomy, the sixth star in the Wenchang cluster, and like the Fu star came to be personified. The Lu star is believed to be Zhang Xian who lived during the Later Shu dynasty. The word \"lu\" specifically refers to the salary of a government official. As such, the Lu star is the star of prosperity, rank, and influence.  The Lu star was also worshipped separately from the other two as the deity dictating one's success in the imperial examinations, and therefore success in the imperial bureaucracy. The Lu star is usually depicted in the dress of a mandarin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Shouxing.", "content": "The star of Shou (壽), \"Shouxing\" 壽星, is α Carinae (Canopus), the star of the south pole in Chinese astronomy, and is believed to control the life spans of mortals. According to legend, he was carried in his mother's womb for ten years before being born, and was already an old man when delivered. He is recognized by his high, domed forehead and the peach which he carries as a symbol of immortality. The longevity god is usually shown smiling and friendly, and he may sometimes be carrying a gourd filled with the elixir of life. He is sometimes conflated with Laozi and corresponding gods of Taoist theology.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Sanxing (三星 \"Three Stars\") are the gods of the three stars or constellations considered essential in Chinese astrology and mythology: Jupiter, Ursa Major, and Canopus. Fu, Lu, and Shou (), or Cai, Zi and Shou (財子壽) are also the embodiments of Fortune (Fu), presiding over plant Jupiter, Prosperity (Lu), presiding over Ursa Major, and Longevity (Shou), presiding over Canopus. They have emerged from Chinese folk religion. Their iconic representation as three, old, bearded, wise men dates back to the Ming dynasty, when the gods of the three stars were represented in human form for the first time. They are sometimes identified with other deities of the Chinese religion or of Taoism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977770}
{"src_title": "Latinxua Sin Wenz", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and development.", "content": "The work towards constructing the Beifangxua Latinxua Sin Wenz (北方話拉丁化新文字) system began in Moscow as early as 1928 when the Soviet Scientific Research Institute on China sought to create a means through which the large Chinese population living in the far eastern region of the USSR could be made literate, facilitating their further education.  This was significantly different from all other romanization schemes in that, from the very outset, it was intended that the Latinxua Sin Wenz system, once established, would supersede the Chinese characters. They decided to use the Latin alphabet because they thought that it would serve their purpose better than Cyrillic. Unlike Gwoyeu Romatzyh, with its complex method of indicating tones, Latinxua Sin Wenz system does not indicate tones at all.  The eminent Moscow-based Chinese scholar Qu Qiubai (1899–1935) and the Russian linguist V. S. Kolokolov (1896–1979) devised a prototype romanization system in 1929.  In 1931 a coordinated effort between the Soviet sinologists V. M. Alekseev, A. A. Dragunov and A. G. Shrprintsin, and the Moscow-based Chinese scholars Qu Qiubai, Wu Yuzhang, Lin Boqu, Xiao San, Wang Xiangbao, and Xu Teli established the Latinxua Sin Wenz system. The system was supported by a number of Chinese intellectuals such as Guo Moruo and Lu Xun, and trials were conducted amongst 100,000 Chinese immigrant workers for about four years and later, in 1940–1942, in the communist-controlled Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region of China. In November 1949, the railways in China's north-east adopted the Latinxua Sin Wenz system for all their telecommunications.  For a time, the system was very important in spreading literacy in Northern China; and more than 300 publications totaling half a million issues appeared in Latinxua Sin Wenz. However:  In 1944 the latinization movement was officially curtailed in the communist-controlled areas [of China] on the pretext that there were insufficient trained cadres capable of teaching the system. It is more likely that, as the communists prepared to take power in a much wider territory, they had second thoughts about the rhetoric that surrounded the latinization movement; in order to obtain the maximum popular support, they withdrew support from a movement that deeply offended many supporters of the traditional writing system.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Sin Wenz was designed so that every dialect had its own form of the alphabet. The letters below represent only one of the thirteen possible schemes present, the below form being Beifangxua Latinxua Sin Wenz: that for Northern Mandarin.  Much of Sin Wenz is similar to Pinyin in its orthography. However, palatal affricates are written with the same letters as velar stops, so Beijing is written as'in Sin Wenz. Other differences include the usage of \"x\" for both the sounds and, so the characters () and () are written as'and \"\".  It is based upon the pronunciation outlined by the Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation, rather than upon the Beijing pronunciation (as with Hanyu Pinyin), hence the distinction between sounds such as \"gi\" and \"zi\", or spellings such as \"yo\" and \"ung\" instead of \"ye\" or \"eng\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Initials.", "content": "Sin Wenz exhibits some interchangeability symbol for alveolo-palatal (\"j\", \"q\", \"x\" in pinyin) between \"g\", \"k\", \"x\" with \"z\", \"c\", \"s\". For example, () can be written as'or'in Sin Wenz. This is because Sin Wenz generally distinguishes sequences from, which distinction is lost in Standard Mandarin and not made by Pinyin.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Finals.", "content": "\"e\" and \"ye\" is written as \"o\" and \"yo\" after initials \"g\", \"k\" and \"x\". For example:'(),'()<br> Standalone \"ui\", \"un\" and \"ung\" are written as \"wei\", \"wen\" and \"weng\" respectively.<br> What is written as \"i\" (IPA ) after \"zh\", \"ch\", \"sh\", \"r\", \"z\", \"c\" and \"s\" in pinyin is not written in Sin Wenz.  As in pinyin, spacing in Sin Wenz is based on whole words, not single syllables. Except for \"u\", others syllables starting with \"u\" is always written with a \"w\" replacing the \"u\". The syllable \"u\" is only preceded by a \"w\" when it occurs in the middle of a word. For syllables starting with \"i\", the \"i\" is replaced by a \"j\" (in case of the syllables \"i\", \"in\" and \"ing\", preceded by a \"j\") only in the middle of a word. Syllables starting with \"y\" is preceded by a \"j\" only when preceded by a consonant in the middle of a word. These are unlike pinyin, which always uses \"w\" and \"y\" regardless of the positions of the syllables. As in pinyin, the apostrophe (') is used before \"a\", \"o\", and \"e\" to separate syllables in a word where ambiguity could arise.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Irregular spellings.", "content": "Because Sin Wenz is written without indicating tones, ambiguity could arise with certain words with the same sound but different tones. In order to circumvent this problem, Sin Wenz defined a list of exceptions. For example, () and () are of the same sound but different tones. The former is written as'and the latter is written as'in Sin Wenz. The word () is also special; it is written as ', as opposed to ', which may be ().  In addition, Sin Wenz also calls for the use of the postal romanization when writing place names in China, as well as preservation of foreign spellings (hence \"Latinxua\" rather than \"*Ladingxua\").", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Latinxua Sin Wenz (; also known as Sin Wenz \"New Script\", Zhungguo Latinxua Sin Wenz \"China Latinized New Script\", Latinxua \"Latinization\") is a historical set of romanizations for Chinese languages, although references to Sin Wenz usually refer to Beifangxua Latinxua Sin Wenz, which was designed for Mandarin Chinese. Distinctively, Sin Wenz does not indicate tones, under the premise that the proper tones could be understood from context.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977771}
{"src_title": "Doxa", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "In Philosophy.", "content": "In Plato's dialogue \"Gorgias,\" Plato presents the sophists as wordsmiths who ensnared and used the malleable doxa of the multitude to their advantage without shame. In this and other writings, Plato relegated doxa as being a belief, unrelated to reason, that resided in the unreasoning, lower-parts of the soul. This viewpoint extended into the concept of doxasta in Plato's Theory of Forms, which states that physical objects are manifestations of doxa and are thus not in their true form. Plato's framing of \"doxa\" as the opponent of knowledge led to the classical opposition of error to truth, which has since become a major concern in Western philosophy. (However, in the \"Theaetetus\" and in the \"Meno\", Plato has Socrates suggest that knowledge is \"orthos doxa\" for which one can provide a \"logos\", thus initiating the traditional definition of knowledge as \"justified true belief\".) Thus, error is considered in as pure negative, which can take various forms, among them the form of illusion.  Plato's student Aristotle objected to Plato's theory of doxa. Aristotle perceived that doxa's value was in practicality and common usage, in contrast with Plato's philosophical purity relegating doxa to deception. Further, Aristotle held doxa as the first step in finding knowledge (episteme), as doxa had found applications in the physical world and those who held it had a great number of tests done to prove it and thus reason to believe it. Aristotle clarifies this by categorizing the accepted truths of the physical world that are passed down from generation to generation as \"endoxa\". \"Endoxa\" is a more stable belief than \"doxa\", because it has been \"tested\" in argumentative struggles in the \"Polis\" by prior interlocutors. The term \"endoxa\" is used in Aristotle's \"Organon\", \"Topics\" and \"Rhetoric\".  In Pyrrhonism \"doxa\" and \"dogma\" regarding non-evident matters form the target of Pyrrhonist practice. About such matters practitioners suspend judgment (epoche) to induce ataraxia (unperturbedness).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Use in sociology and anthropology.", "content": "Pierre Bourdieu, in his \"Outline of a Theory of Practice\", used the term \"doxa\" to denote what is taken for granted in any particular society. The \"doxa\", in his view, is the experience by which \"the natural and social world appears as self-evident\". It encompasses what falls within the limits of the thinkable and the sayable (\"the universe of possible discourse\"), that which \"goes without saying because it comes without saying\". The humanist instances of Bourdieu's application of notion of \"doxa\" are to be traced in \"Distinction\" where \"doxa\" sets limits on social mobility within the social space through limits imposed on the characteristic consumption of each social individual: certain cultural artifacts are recognized by \"doxa\" as being inappropriate to actual social position, hence \"doxa\" helps to petrify social limits, the \"sense of one's place\", and one's sense of belonging, which is closely connected with the idea that \"this is not for us\" (\"ce n'est pas pour nous\"). Thus individuals become voluntary subjects of those incorporated mental structures that deprive them of more deliberate consumption.  Doxa and opinion denote, respectively, a society's taken-for-granted, unquestioned truths, and the sphere of that which may be openly contested and discussed.  Bourdieu explains the term \"doxa\" in his interview with theorist Terry Eagleton. To explain the term, he uses an example about the common beliefs in school. He asked students what qualifies as achievement in school. In response, the students on the lower end of the academic spectrum viewed themselves as being inferior or not as smart as the students who excelled. The responses are where doxa comes into play, because that was the common belief and attitude that the students had based on what society pushed them to believe. Bourdieu believes that doxa derived from socialization, because socialization also deals with beliefs deriving from society, and as we grow up in the environment, we tend to believe what society tells us is correct.  For example, Bourdieu contends that it is a socially accepted misconception that if you do not score as high as someone else then you are obviously not as smart as they are. Scores do not prove that one is smarter, because there are many different factors that play into what you score on a test. People may excel within a certain topic and fail at another. However, even though it is a misconception, people tend to partake in common practices to make themselves feel better. For example, the students who feel inferior due to popular belief that they are not as smart as the students who score higher than they, may experiment with drugs to ease the insecurities they face. Bourdieu believes that doxa is more than common belief. He believes that it also has the potential to give rise to common action.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Role in democracy.", "content": "While doxa is used as a tool for the formation of argument, it is also formed by argument. The former can be understood as told by James A. Herrick in \"The History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction\": \"The Sophists in Gorgias hold that rhetoric creates truth that is useful for the moment out of doxa, or the opinions of the people, through the process of argument and counterargument. Socrates will have no part of this sort of 'truth' which, nevertheless, is essential to a democracy.\" Importantly noted, democracy, which by definition is the manifestation of public opinion, is dependent upon, and therefore also constrained by, the same limits imposed upon the individuals responsible for its establishment. Due to compromised opinions within a society, as well as opinions not counted for due to inaccessibility and apathy, doxa is not homogeneous, nor is it created agreeably. Rather, it is pliable and imperfect—the outcome of an ongoing power struggle between clashing \"truths\". To expand upon the quote from his \"Outline of a Theory of Practice\" in the above section, \"Use in sociology and anthropology\", Bourdieu writes, \"When there is a quasi-perfect correspondence between the objective order and the subjective principles of organization (as in ancient societies) the natural and social world appears as self-evident. This experience we shall call doxa\". Adam Smith of the University of Chicago observes in his article \"The limitations of doxa: agency and subjectivity from an archaeological point of view\": \"Bourdieu consigns the practices of the denizens of ancient societies to the realm of doxa, their lives cast as routines predicated upon the mis-recognition of social orders as natural ways of life, rather than political products.\" This calls to attention that the notion of social order as naturally occurring is misperceived, disregarding its creation by political argumentation. Doxa, then, can be understood as created by argument as well as used in the formation of argument, essential for the establishment of democratic policies.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Doxa (ancient Greek δόξα; from verb δοκεῖν \"dokein\", \"to appear\", \"to seem\", \"to think\" and \"to accept\") is a Greek word meaning common belief or popular opinion. In classical rhetoric, \"doxa\" is contrasted with \"episteme\" (knowledge).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977772}
{"src_title": "Kitty O'Brien Joyner", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Kitty Wingfield O'Brien was born in Charlottesville, Virginia, on July 11, 1916. Her father was an engineer, inspiring her to pursue the same career. After high school, she wanted to attend the University of Virginia (UVA). Virginia state law had allowed for women to attend public universities since 1920, but UVA implemented several hurdles for women who wished to apply, requiring that they attend school somewhere else for two years first and be at least 20 years old. These requirements were still in place in 1935, when O'Brien would have applied, so she attended Sweet Briar College for two years between 1935 and 1937, then successfully petitioned UVA to gain admission.  Not initially seeing an opportunity for women in the field, she told a \"Miami News\" reporter that \"she had always wished she were a boy so she could follow his profession.\" The reporter wrote about her while she was in Florida attending an engineering conference at which her paper, \"Fluorescence, the Light of the Future,\" won second place among student work. Although the reporter remarked that \"electrical engineering is scarcely considered a feminine profession,\" O'Brien used the opportunity to talk about how engineering presents a great opportunity for women and girls.  In her time at UVA she was secretary of the Virginia branch of the American Institute of Electrical Engineering and member of the university's Trigon engineering society. She was also president of her sorority, Chi Omega, and president of the Woman's Student association. In 1939, she became the first woman to graduate from UVA with a Bachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering. She was selected to receive the Algernon Sydney Sullivan Award, which the university gives to two graduating students each year \"for excellence of character and service to humanity.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "The NACA Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory (later the Langley Research Center) hired Joyner as a junior civil engineering aide in September 1939, making her their first woman engineer. At the time, the organization was expanding its aeronautics research and development in the time before World War II. Her career developed quickly, as she shifted her focus from civil to electrical engineering. Among her responsibilities was the management of the electrical systems for several wind tunnels, including supersonic wind tunnels, large, expensive facilities important to testing aircraft. She continued working at Langley for more than three decades, continuing at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) when it replaced NACA in 1958. By the 1960s, she achieved the title Branch Head of the Facilities Cost Estimating Branch, Office of Engineering and Technical Services.  Over the course of her career at NACA/NASA, Joyner made contributions to research on aeronautics, supersonic flight, and the design of airfoils. Her work had implications for military as well as commercial flight applications, and she was influential in the production of aircraft design standards that continued to be relevant many years later. She retired from NASA in May 1971.  Joyner was active in engineering organizations and societies. She was a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and Honorary Life Member of the Engineers Club of the Virginia Peninsula.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "O'Brien married Upshur T. Joyner, a physicist who also worked at NACA/NASA, best known for his contributions at the NASA Langley Landing Loads Dynamics Facility. Together they had two children, a son named Upshur O'Brien Joyner, who died of leukemia at the age of 47 in 1990, and a daughter, Kate Bailey. In 1971, both Kitty and Upshur retired. They lived in Poquoson, Virginia.  In addition to her professional and personal engineering activities, she was a member of the P.E.O. Sisterhood, Daughters of the American Colonists, and United Daughters of the Confederacy, which in 1992 presented her with the Winnie Davis Award, recognizing exceptional dedication or contributions to the organization. She also served as first regent and organizer for the Charles Parish Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution, which named an annual scholarship after her.  Joyner died on August 16, 1993, at the age of 77. Her husband died a few months later, in November 1993, at the age of 85.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kitty O'Brien Joyner (July 11, 1916 – August 16, 1993) was an American electrical engineer with the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), and then with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) upon its replacement of NACA in 1958. She was the first woman to graduate from the University of Virginia's engineering program in 1939, receiving the Algernon Sydney Sullivan Award upon graduation. When she was hired by NACA the same year, she became the first woman engineer at the organization, eventually rising to the title Branch Head and managing several of its wind tunnels. Her work contributed to research on aeronautics, supersonic flight, airfoils, and aircraft design standards.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977773}
{"src_title": "John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Military career.", "content": "The son of Louis de Ligonier, a member of a Huguenot family of Castres in the south of France that had emigrated to England in 1697, and Louise Ligonier (née du Poncet), John Ligonier was educated in France and Switzerland. He joined a Regiment in Flanders commanded by Lord Cutts in 1702.  He fought, with distinction, in the War of the Spanish Succession and was one of the first to mount the breach at the siege of Liège in October 1702. After becoming a captain in the 10th Foot on 10 February 1703, he commanded a company at the battles of Schellenberg in July 1704 and Blenheim in August 1704, and was present at Menen where he led the storming of the covered way as well as Ramillies in May 1706, Oudenarde in July 1708 and Malplaquet in September 1709 where he received twenty-three bullets through his clothing yet remained unhurt. In 1712, he became governor of Fort St. Philip, Menorca. During the War of the Quadruple Alliance in 1719 he was adjutant-general of the troops employed in the Vigo expedition, where he led the stormers of Pontevedra.  Two years later he became colonel of the Black Horse. He was made a brigadier general in 1735, major general in 1739, and accompanied Lord Stair in the Rhine Campaign of 1742 to 1743. He was promoted to lieutenant general on 26 February 1742 and George II made him a Knight of the Bath on the field of Dettingen in June 1743. At Fontenoy in May 1745, Ligonier commanded the British, Hanoverian, and Hessian infantry.  During the Jacobite rising of 1745 he was called home to command the British army in the Midlands. In November 1745 he led a column of troops sent to Lancashire to oppose the rebels. Having been promoted to the rank of general of horse on 3 January 1746, he was placed at the head of the British and British-paid contingents of the Allied army in the Low Countries in June 1746.  He was present at Rocoux in October 1746 and, having been made Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance on 19 March 1747, he fought at Lauffeld in July 1747, where he led the charge of the British cavalry. He did this with such vigour that he overthrew the whole line of French cavalry. In this encounter his horse was killed and he was taken prisoner by Louis XV, but was exchanged within a few days. The official despatch reported:  He became Member of Parliament for Bath in March 1748 and colonel of the 2nd Dragoon Guards in 1749. From 1748 to 1770 he was governor of the French Hospital.  On 6 April 1750 he was appointed Governor of Guernsey and on 3 February 1753 he became colonel of the Royal Horse Guards.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seven Years' War.", "content": "In September 1757, following the disgrace of the Duke of Cumberland who had signed the Convention of Klosterzeven, Ligonier was made Commander-in-Chief of the Forces. He worked closely with the Pitt–Newcastle ministry who sought his strategic advice in connection with the Seven Years' War which was underway at this time. Ligonier was also made a field marshal on 3 December 1757, Colonel of the 1st Foot Guards on the same date and a peer of Ireland on 10 December 1757 under the title of Viscount Ligonier of Enniskillen. He was notionally given command of British forces in the event of a planned French invasion in 1759 though it never ultimately occurred. He stood down as commander-in-chief in 1759 and became Master-General of the Ordnance. He was given a further Irish peerage on 1 May 1762 as Viscount Ligonier of Clonmell (with remainder to his nephew) and on 19 April 1763 he became a Baron, and on 6 September 1766 an Earl, in the British peerage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "He spent his later years at Cobham Park in Cobham, Surrey, which he bought around 1750. He died, still unmarried, on 28 April 1770 and was buried in Cobham Church. There is a monument to him, sculpted by John Francis Moore in Westminster Abbey.  The earldom became extinct but the Irish viscountcy and Cobham Park passed to his nephew Edward, who would also be created Earl Ligonier (but in the Irish peerage) six years later. Ligonier's younger brother, Francis, was also a distinguished soldier.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Field Marshal John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier, (7 November 168028 April 1770), was a French Huguenot exile, born Jean Louis de Ligonier in Castres, Southern France. He had a long and distinguished career in the British army and was appointed Commander-in-chief in 1758.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977774}
{"src_title": "Kristek House", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origin.", "content": "The surrealist Lubo Kristek was born in Brno and lived on Tišnovská Street during his childhood. In 1968, he emigrated to West Germany and made study trips to many other countries. In 2015, after his lifelong journey, he returned to \"his\" street. Kristek's return led him to conceive the idea of filming the story of Sisyphus. In 2015–2017, he consequently transformed his own house into a monumental assemblage showing the cycle \"Sisyphiade or Boulder in Time\" and into a film set to be able to show various perspectives of this assemblage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "Kristek was inspired by Albert Camus and his Myth of Sisyphus, but even more by the ideas of George Voskovec recorded on the LP \"Relativně Vzato\". Kristek met Voskovec in the 1970s during his exhibition tour in the USA.  Voskovec concentrates on the thoughts going through Sisyphus's mind during his descent from the top of the hill to its foot to find the boulder again. He is absolutely free in these moments, he has no \"boulder\". Lubo Kristek developed this concept and added the flow of time. Sisyphus circulates on the clock attached to the minute hand. The clockwork was designed and constructed especially for this purpose by the Elekon company (Vyškov), a specialist in public clocks. The system provides exact time and incorporates a changeover to winter time.  Another nook of Kristek House is dedicated to a train from Kristek's childhood, the former Brno-Tišnov railway line (in Czech: Tišnovka). In his mind it never stopped existing, so he felt a need to visualise it with the help of art. The railway line is painted on the façade and incorporated into one of the artist's important symbols – the heavenly highway. This symbol can be found already in his painting \"The Heavenly Highway of Aunt Fränzi\" (1974) that is today part of the collection of Neues Stadtmuseum in Landsberg am Lech. Two free birds that have just hatched (reminder of ab ovo – from the beginning, the egg) fly above the highway.  Two golden hands rise from the corner of the house and reach for the heavens. The hands also protect the living tree and together represent the central symbol of the monumental assemblage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Context.", "content": "In Kristek's assemblages from the 1960s, for example in \"Expecting\" (1969), the existential nature is apparent as well as the concerns about survival of humanity. His works from the 1970s, for example the assemblage \"Soundproof Aesthetic of Luxuriety\" (1976), point out to the hidden traps in modern society. In 1980s, Kristek created his assemblages in landscape from found material, often cast out by the sea, as in \"Barbed Wire of Christ\" (1983) and \"Sea Horse\" (1986). He incorporates waste to his later works, as in assemblage \"On the Landfill of Ages\" (1994) and some of his assemblages, as \"Requiem for Mobile Telephones\" (2007), originated in happening, in which he ritually destroyed the achievement of modern era – mobile telephone – as a protest against the addiction on modern technologies. In the monumental assemblage \"Kristek House\", he incorporates the motifs of house, home and privacy into the work of art and relates to nature. The artist treats the house as a living being that is constantly changing.  \"Kristek House\" became the venue of the films \"Ab ovo\" and \"Sisyphiade\". It belongs to Lubo Kristek's considerable feats in public space together with his contribution to the sacral buildings with his wall altar \"Transcendental Composition between Suffering and Hope\" (1977) in the chapel in Penzing; with his metal sculpture \"Monument to the Five Senses\" (1991) standing in front of Neues Stadtmuseum in Landsberg am Lech, large-scale architectural sculpture \"Tree of Knowledge\" (1981) in Ignaz-Kögler-Gymnasium in Landsberg am Lech, bronze fountain \"Drinking\" (1988) in Theresienbad Greifenberg and his sculpture pilgrims' way \"Kristek Thaya Glyptotheque\" (2005–2006). He also became internationally well-known thanks to his tens of happenings that he organized in Germany, the USA, Canada, Italy, Spain, Czech Republic, Austria, Turkey, Poland or Slovakia.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kristek House () is a building on the corner of Tišnovská and Trávníky Streets in Brno, Czech Republic that was transformed into a monumental assemblage by the Czech sculptor, painter and action artist Lubo Kristek. The house-assemblage is dedicated to the myth of Sisyphus.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977775}
{"src_title": "Yerry Mina", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deportivo Pasto.", "content": "Born in Guachené, Mina was a Deportivo Pasto youth graduate, joining the side only at the age of 18. Promoted to the main squad during the 2013 season, he made his senior debut on 20 March of that year by starting in a 0–1 away loss against Dépor in the year's Copa Colombia.  Mina made his Categoría Primera A debut on 15 September 2013, starting in a 0–0 draw at Deportivo Cali. His first professional goal occurred on 18 October, as he scored his team's first in a 2–2 home draw against Atlético Huila.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Independiente Santa Fe.", "content": "On 14 December 2013, Mina moved to fellow top tier club Independiente Santa Fe, initially on a one-year loan deal. He made his debut for the club the following 25 January, playing the full 90 minutes in a 3–0 home win against Rionegro.  Mina immediately became a regular starter for the side, winning the 2015 Superliga Colombiana by netting the first goal in the 2–0 win against Atlético Nacional in the second leg of the Finals.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Palmeiras.", "content": "On 1 May 2016, Mina was confirmed as the new player of Palmeiras, but only joined the club in the following month. He signed a five-year contract with the club eleven days later.  Mina made his debut for the club on 4 July 2016, playing a full game in a 3–1 away defeat of Sport Recife. His first goal for the \"Verdão\" arrived in the following fixture, a 1–1 draw against Santos. He was, however, rotated off just before the end of the first half due to an apparent injury. He was carried off the field on a stretcher, in tears. On 13 July it was confirmed that Mina would not recover in time for the 2016 Summer Olympics, with the recuperation from his injury expected to take 6 to 8 weeks.  By late August 2016, Mina had fully recovered from his injury, and was an undisputed starter during the latter stages of the season. In September, he scored goals against rivals São Paulo and Corinthians, and finished the year with four league goals as his team was awarded the trophy for the first time in 22 years.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Barcelona.", "content": "On 11 January 2018, FC Barcelona and Palmeiras reached an agreement regarding the transfer of Yerry Mina for the remainder of the current season and five more seasons, until 30 June 2023. This made him the first-ever Colombian to play for the club. The cost of the transfer was €11.8 million, and his release clause was set at €100 million. Mina made his debut replacing Gerard Piqué in the 83rd minute of the Copa del Rey semi-final against Valencia. Barcelona would go on to win the match 2–0 and advance to the final. He would make his home and league debut against Getafe, starting and playing the full game to a 0–0 draw. He made his first official contribution at the club as he assisted Ousmane Dembélé in a 5–1 defeat of Villarreal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Everton.", "content": "On 8 August 2018, Mina signed with Premier League team Everton in a deal worth €30 million.  His first appearance came during a 3–1 home victory against Brighton & Hove Albion, as a last-minute substitute for Gylfi Sigurdsson.  He scored his first goal for Everton in a 5–1 away win against Burnley, a header during the opening two minutes of the match following a cross from Bernard.  He scored his first brace for Everton on 1st February 2020 against Watford at Vicarage Road, scoring them both in stoppage time at the end of the first half in a game that Everton came from 2–0 down to win 2–3.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "In 2016, Mina was named to Colombia's Copa América Centenario squad, starting one game against Costa Rica. He played in five of Colombia's 2018 World Cup Qualifying matches from October 2016 to March 2017, and in May 2018 he was named to Colombia's final 23-man squad for the 2018 World Cup in Russia.  At the 2018 World Cup, Mina scored three goals for Colombia, all headers. Mina did not play in Colombia's opening 2–1 loss with Japan, but started at centre back in each of Colombia's remaining matches. In the group stage, he scored the opening goal in a 3–0 win over Poland, then scored the lone goal in a 1–0 win over Senegal which propelled Colombia to the top of their group and into the knockout stage. Against England in the round of sixteen, Mina tied the scoring 1–1 in the 93rd minute to send the game into extra time. Colombia went on to lose the game on penalty kicks, ending their tournament. With his three goals, he tied the record number of goals scored by a defender in a single World Cup tournament, sharing the record with Germans Paul Breitner in 1974 and Andreas Brehme in 1990.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Yerry Mina's father and uncle were both professional football goalkeepers. His father advised him to play another position, and his uncle took him to Deportivo Pasto's trial.  His uncle, Jair Mina, is also his agent.  Mina is a devout Christian and is a member of the neo-Pentecostal Church of God Ministry of Jesus Christ International. Mina has spoken publicly at many events sponsored by the church to talk about his life and faith.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Santa Fe  Palmeiras  Barcelona  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Yerry Fernando Mina González (; born 23 September 1994) is a Colombian professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for English club Everton and the Colombia national team. He shares the record for most goals in a single World Cup by a defender, with three goals at the 2018 FIFA World Cup.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977776}
{"src_title": "2018–19 Champions Hockey League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Team allocation.", "content": "A total of 32 teams from different European first-tier leagues participated in the 2018–19 Champions Hockey League. Besides the Continental Cup champions, 24 teams from the six founding leagues, as well as the national champions from Slovakia, Norway, Denmark, France, Belarus, Great Britain and Poland qualified.  The qualification for these places was set out in the rules as follows:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "For the group stage, the teams were drawn into 8 groups of 4 teams. Each team played home and away against every other team for a total of 6 games. The best 2 teams qualified to the round of 16.  As the reigning CHL champions, JYP were the top seeded team. In the top pot were also the reigning champions of the six founding leagues and the regular season winner of SHL. The 16 remaining teams from founding leagues were placed to pots 2 and 3. The fourth pot included playoff champions of seven challenge leagues and Yunost Minsk, the champion of 2017–18 IIHF Continental Cup.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage tie-breaking criteria.", "content": "If two teams were tied in points after the group stage was finished, the teams precedence was decided by head-to-head games. If teams were tied after that, then the team which was ranked higher prior to the tournament will take precedence. When comparing head-to-head results, the following criteria was applied:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Playoffs.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "In each round except the final, the teams played two games and the aggregate score decided the team which advanced. As a rule, the first leg was hosted by the team who had the inferior record in the tournament to that point and the second leg was played on the home ice of the other team. If aggregate score was tied, a sudden death overtime followed. If the overtime is scoreless, the team who wins the game winning shot competition advanced.  The final was played on the home ice of the team who had the better record in the tournament on 5 February 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bracket.", "content": "The 8 group winners and the 8 second-placed teams advanced to the Round of 16. The teams were divided into two seeding groups and group winners were randomly drawn against runners-up. Teams who had faced each other in the group stage couldn't be drawn against each other in the round of 16. The draw took place in Helsinki, Finland on 19 October 2018.  Note:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Scoring leaders.", "content": "The following players led the league in points.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Leading goaltenders.", "content": "The following goaltenders led the league in save percentage, provided that they have played at least 40% of their team's minutes.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2018–19 Champions Hockey League was the fifth season of the Champions Hockey League, a European ice hockey tournament. The tournament was competed by 32 teams, and qualification was on sporting merits only. The six founding leagues were represented by between three and five teams (based on a four-year league ranking), while seven \"challenge leagues\" were represented by one team each. One place was awarded to the Continental Cup champion. Unlike in the first three editions, founding teams did not automatically qualify. The group stages began on 30 August 2018, and ended on 17 October 2018. The season had an average attendance of 3,401 per game, one percent increase from the previous season.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977777}
{"src_title": "Gongfu tea ceremony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Attention to tea-making quality has been a classic Chinese tradition. All teas, loose tea, coarse tea, and powdered tea have long coexisted with the \"imperially appointed compressed form\". By the end of the 14th century, the more naturalistic \"loose leaf\" form had become a popular household product and by the Ming era, loose tea was put to imperial use. In Japan, tea production began in the 12th century following Chinese models, and eventually evolved into the Japanese tea ceremony, meant to be exclusive to political and military elites. The related teaware that is the tea pot and later the \"gaiwan\" lidded cup were evolved. It is believed that the gongfu tea preparation approach began only in around the 18th century. Some scholars think that it began in Wuyi in Fujian, where the production of oolong tea for export began; others believe that it was the people in Chaozhou in the Chaoshan area in Guangdong started this particular part of the tea culture. \"Senchadō\" in Japan started in the early Edo period influenced from China.  Oral history from the 1940s still referred to Gongfu Cha as \"Chaoshan Gongfu Cha\". It is likely that regardless of the earliest incidence of the approach, the place that first successfully integrated it into daily life was Chaoshan area. Chaozhou is recognized by some as the \"Capital\" of gongfu tea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Chemistry and physics.", "content": "In essence, what is desired in Gongfu Cha is a brew that tastes good and is satisfying to the soul. Tea masters in China and other Asian tea cultures study for years to perfect this method. However, method alone will not determine whether a great cup of tea will be produced. Essentially, two things have to be taken into consideration: chemistry and temperature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Water chemistry.", "content": "Water should be given careful consideration when conducting Gongfu Cha. Water which tastes or smells bad will adversely affect the brewed tea. However, distilled or extremely soft water should never be used as this form of water lacks minerals, which will negatively affect the flavor of the tea and so can result in a \"flat\" brew. For these reasons, most tea masters will use a good clean local source of spring water. If this natural spring water is not available, bottled spring water will suffice. Yet high content mineral water also needs to be avoided. Hard water needs to be filtered.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Temperature.", "content": "During the process of Gongfucha, the tea master will first determine what is the appropriate temperature for the tea being used, in order to extract the aroma of the tea. An optimal temperature must be reached and maintained. The water temperature depends on the type of tea used. Guidelines are as follows:  The temperature of the water can be determined by timing, as well as the size and the sizzling sound made by the air bubbles in the kettle.  At high altitudes water boils at lower temperatures, so the above rules cannot be applied.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Tools and equipment.", "content": "Below is a list of the main items used in a gongfu tea ceremony in Taiwan, known there as 老人茶 (Pinyin: Lăorénchá).  A tea pet, usually made from the same clay as a Yixing teapot, is fun to have. One kind of \"tea pet\" is a \"tea boy.\" Prior to the tea ceremony, he is soaked in cold water. Hot water poured over him during the tea ceremony will make him \"pee.\" Traditionally these 'pets' are classical Chinese figurines, such as a Dragon, Lion Turtle, or Toad, and are used as a receptacle over which the wasted tea is poured, usually to develop a patina.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The gongfu tea ceremony or kung fu tea ceremony ( or ), is a kind of Chinese tea ceremony, involving the ritual preparation and presentation of tea. It is probably based on the tea preparation approaches originated in Fujian and the Chaoshan area of eastern Guangdong. The term literally means \"making tea with skill\". Today, the approach is used popularly by teashops carrying tea of Chinese origins, and by tea connoisseurs as a way to maximize the taste of a tea selection, especially a finer one.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977778}
{"src_title": "Lautaro Martínez", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Bahía Blanca, Martínez followed in his father's footsteps to become a professional footballer, joining local side Liniers, with whom he excelled at U17 level. In 2013, he scored 13 goals in the U17 league and netted in the final of the National Cup, though Liniers ultimately lost on penalties to Rosario.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Racing Club.", "content": "Martínez's form at youth level caught the attention of Racing Club interim coach Fabio Radaelli who subsequently signed him in January 2014. Soon after joining the club, Martínez began suffering from homesickness and wanted to return to his hometown. He was ultimately convinced by teammate Braian Mansilla to stay and went on to score 53 goals in 64 appearances for the club's reserve side. In 2015, a deal was concluded between Racing Club and Spanish side Real Madrid for Martínez's signature but he chose to remain in Argentina. Martínez's father, Mario later revealed that he chose to stay with Racing at the time as he was not ready to leave the club. His league debut followed on 1 November 2015 when he came on as a second-half substitute for Diego Milito in a 3–0 win over Crucero del Norte. On 17 April 2016, he was sent off for the first time in his career after picking up two bookings in the space of five minutes in a 2–2 draw with Argentinos. He scored his first goal later that year, netting the opener in a 1–1 draw with Huracán in November.  Following an injury to regular starting striker Lisandro López, Martínez assumed a more senior role for the 2016–17 season, scoring 9 goals in 23 league appearances for the campaign. He continued to lead the line for Racing during the first half of the following season and in December 2017 underwent a medical with La Liga side Atlético Madrid. Reports followed that Martínez had signed for Atlético Madrid side but Racing later announced that he had signed a renewed contract which included an increased release clause. They also criticised their Spanish contemporaries for submitting him to a medical without their permission. He ended the year with a man of the match performance, scoring once and assisting another in a 3–1 win over Gimnasia. On 27 February, he scored his second hat-trick of the season when he scored three times on his Copa Libertadores debut against Brazilian side Cruzeiro. Racing won the match 4–2.  That same month, Martínez was linked with a transfer to Italian side Inter Milan and on 5 May Racing Club President Victor Blanco confirmed that the sale had gone through. Blanco indicated that Martínez was set to join Inter ahead of the 2018–19 Serie A campaign but that he would attempt to keep him on loan until December 2018 in order for the striker to continue to participate in the Argentine side's Copa Libertadores campaign.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Inter Milan.", "content": "Martínez officially joined Inter on 4 July 2018 for a reported fee of €22.7 million and he signed a five-year contract with the club. He made his unofficial debut ten days later and scored in a 3–0 friendly win over Swiss club, Lugano. His full debut followed on 19 August when he started in a 1–0 Serie A loss to Sassuolo in the opening week. He scored his first league goal against Cagliari, the opener of a 2–0 win at San Siro on 29 September.  Martínez scored his first European goal on 14 February 2019, netting a penalty to help Inter win against Rapid Wien, in the first leg of 2018–19 UEFA Europa League round of 32. Following this match, he begun to start in every match, profiting from Mauro Icardi's abstence due to personal reasons. In his first Derby della Madonnina match against city rivals Milan, Martínez first assisted Matías Vecino's header before scoring himself a penalty in the second half, helping Inter to win 3–2; Inter retook the third place in Serie A, and also achieved the first league double over them since 2011–12 season.  On 2 October 2019, Martínez scored his first goal in UEFA Champions League in a 2–1 away defeat to Barcelona in group stage; he become the first player since Roberto Boninsegna in 1970 to score at Camp Nou for Inter. Later in the competition, by scoring a brace in a 3–1 away win against Slavia Prague, Martínez reached two milestones: he become only the fourth Inter player (after Hernán Crespo in 2002, Christian Vieri in 2003 and Samuel Eto'o in 2010) and the fifth Argentinian player (after Hernan Crespo in 2002, Lionel Messi in six occasions, Sergio Agüero in 2019 and Ezequiel Lavezzi in 2013) to score in four consecutive Champions League games.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Youth team.", "content": "In 2017, Martínez represented Argentina at the 2017 South American Youth Football Championship where he ended as the tournament's joint-top scorer with five goals, in the process helping Argentina qualify for the 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup.  He was subsequently named in the squad for the World Cup which kicked off in May that year. In the build-up to the tournament, he suffered damage to his nasal cartilage after being struck by a knee in a warm-up match against Vietnam. As a result of the injury, he started Argentina's opening match at the tournament against England from the bench and was later sent off after video technology indicated that he had lashed out at Fikayo Tomori. Upon doing so, he became the first ever player to be dismissed after a video referral, and Argentina ultimately lost the match 3–0. On his return, he scored a brace in a 5–0 win over Guinea, though his goals were not enough to prevent Argentina from being eliminated from the group-stages.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Senior team.", "content": "On 12 March 2018, Martínez received his first call-up for the senior team for two friendly matches against Italy and Spain. He made his debut against the latter on 27 March, coming on as a substitute for Gonzalo Higuaín in a 6–1 defeat. In May 2018 he was named in Argentina’s preliminary squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia but was omitted from the final selection. Later that year, he made his full debut in a 4–0 friendly win over Iraq during which he also scored his first senior international goal.  In May 2019, Martínez was included in Lionel Scaloni's final 23-man Argentina squad for the 2019 Copa América. In Argentina's final group match against Qatar on 23 June, he scored the opening goal in a 2–0 win, which enabled them to advanced to the knock-out stages of the competition. On 28 June, in the quarter-finals of the tournament, Martínez scored the opening goal in an eventual 2–0 win over Venezuela with a back-heel in the opening ten minutes of the match; he was later named \"Man of the match\", and the victory enabled Argentina to advance to the semi-finals of the competition.  On 10 September 2019, Martínez scored his first international hat-trick in a friendly against Mexico, which Argentina won 4–0.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Career statistics.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Club.", "content": "<br> <br", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Lautaro Javier Martínez (; born 22 August 1997) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a striker for Italian club Inter Milan and the Argentina national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977779}
{"src_title": "Korean Unification Flag", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The background is white. In the center there is a blue silhouette of the Korean Peninsula, including Jeju Island to the southwest, and Ulleungdo and the Liancourt Rocks to the east, added in 2003.  In the 2018 Winter Olympics, Ulleungdo and the Liancourt Rocks were not included in the flag.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Usage history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sport.", "content": "There was a plan for North and South Korea to compete as one team at the 1990 Asian Games although such efforts could not be realized. Ahead of the 1990 continental meet, the Korean Unification flag was conceived which features a silhouette of the Korean Peninsula including Jeju Island on a plain white field.  The flag was first used in 1991 when the two countries competed as a single team in the 41st World Table Tennis Championships in Chiba, Japan and the 8th World Youth Football Championship in Lisbon, Portugal.  The two countries' teams marched together under the flag in the opening ceremonies of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia; the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, South Korea; the 2003 Summer Universiade in Daegu, South Korea; the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece; the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy; the 2006 Asian Games in Doha, Qatar; and the 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang, South Korea. However, the two countries competed separately in sporting events.  The flag was not used in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China. Not only was a unified team shelved, but the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games (BOCOG)'s plan to make the two Korean teams enter consecutively during the opening ceremony was rejected due to opposition by the North Korean delegation at the last moment.  At the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang County, South Korea, the two countries agreed to march together during the opening ceremony, and also competed together in women's hockey. The countries attempted to negotiate a similar arrangement for the Paralympics, but negotiations were stalled by North Korean officials requesting that the Liancourt Rocks be included on the flag.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other contexts.", "content": "Other occasions on which the flag were used include the following:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Symbolism.", "content": "According to scholar and Korea expert Brian Reynolds Myers, South and North Koreans view the flag in different contexts. South Koreans see the flag as representing a peaceful relationship and coexistence with North Korea, whereas North Koreans view its usage by South Koreans as representing a desire to have their country annexed into North Korea. In this sense, Myers says, South Korean usage of the flag is more detrimental to their country's status vis-a-vis North Korea than North Koreans' usage of it in regards to South Korea.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Korean Unification Flag is a flag designed to represent all of Korea when North and South Korea participate as one team in sporting events.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977780}
{"src_title": "Shiva Keshavan", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Keshavan skied as a child and won the Junior National Ski Championship in 1995 at the age of 14. At the age of 15, he attended a luge camp at his school conducted by world champion Günther Lemmerer. Keshavan was selected as a promising young athlete and went on to become the youngest person to ever officially qualify for the Olympic Games in luge, attending the 1998 Nagano games at the age of 16.  In 2014, Keshavan walked as an Independent Olympic Participant at the Winter Olympics opening ceremony in Sochi due to the suspension of the Indian Olympic Association. However, later on during the Sochi Winter Olympics, Indian Olympic Association made a comeback as a recognized country by the International Olympic Committee resulting in Keshavan competing under the Indian flag.  Beginning in November 2014, Keshavan collaborated with Duncan Kennedy to train for 2018 PyeongChang Winter Olympics. Duncan will act as Keshavan’s personal coach while leveraging his technical expertise to improve Keshavan’s sled.  Keshavan qualified for his sixth and final Olympics in 2018, where he finished 34th out of 40 athletes in the men's singles event.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Training.", "content": "In 2002, the Italian luge team offered Keshavan full use of their coaches and training facilities if he competed under the Italian flag, but he did not take the offer, insisting he wanted to continue representing India. \"For me the dream was to get the Olympics to my hometown, and that was the only reason I was doing it. To show that we are also here.\"  Keshavan often speaks in interviews about his struggles to finance his career. He claims \"in 20 years, the Indian Olympic Association hasn’t given me a dime.\" Early in his career he would borrow sleds for his races. After landing in Montreal for the 2002 games, he hitchhiked to Salt Lake City. In 2006, he did not compete for two seasons due to running out of funds. Keshavan gets most of his money from crowdfunding on the Internet and in the 2014 Sochi games, his uniform bore the names of 50,000 donors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Keshavan is the son of an Indian father from Kerala and an Italian mother, who met while backpacking in the Himalayas in the 1970s. His parents run an Italian restaurant in Himachal Pradesh. He was born and brought up in Manali, Himachal Pradesh and attended Lawrence School, Sanawar. He married Namita Agarwal, a former classmate at school, who is also his sports manager. He studied humanities and political science at the University of Florence and received a Master's degree in International relations from the University of Florence. In the training off-seasons, he works at his parents' restaurant named Rose Garden.  Keshavan spends time promoting the cause of winter sports in India; a grassroots level luge camp was held in India by Keshavan in 2009 for young athletes interested in trying the sport. Ten were selected to form the Junior National Luge team to train in Japan. Since then, around 200 Indian children have attended his training camps, and after retiring from competition Keshavan plans to focus on recruiting new Indian winter athletes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Popular culture.", "content": "Keshavan gained some fame after a training session during which he fell off his sled and yet managed to climb back on and complete the run; the video of the training run was shared widely on the Internet.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Shiva Keshavan (born 25 August 1981) is a six time Olympian and the first Indian representative to compete in luge at the Winter Olympic Games. He set a new Asian speed record at after beating the previous record of and won gold medal in the 2011 Asian Luge Cup at Nagano in Japan. In 2012, he set a new Asian track record at 49.590 seconds. He is the reigning Asian Champion.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977781}
{"src_title": "Moskvitch 412", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "The Moskvitch 412 derived from the Moskvitch 408, differing in more powerful 1.5 engine. The earliest engines for the 412 were built in 1964. The Moskvitch 412 had a slanted (to a tilt of 20 degrees) inline-four engine with a block, head, and inlet manifold cast in aluminium alloy to keep the engine weight down, and a hemispherical combustion chamber. Steel cylinder liners were replaceable to enable easy repair of the engine instead of having to replace it entirely. Since it was of an OHC design, it was taller than the OHV MZMA-408 engine it replaced, which is why it was mounted at a slant. The UZAM-412 had a capacity of c.c. and developed 75 horsepowers. Its more powerful version, the Moskvitch-412-2V, had 100 h.p. and was installed on sports cars. The UZAM-412 engine, with a light alloy block, was designed by Igor I. Okunev. According to some observers, it bore some similarities to the contemporary BMW M 115 motor used in the BMW 1500 model, although in other ways they are different from each other. The similarity between the two engines is purely superficial and limited only to the tilt angle of the cylinder block and between the valves and the gear of the overhead camshaft. The gearbox inherited from the M-408 was improved, with the gearbox ratios being revised to make better use of the increased power output. Until early 1969, M412 had the gear lever on the steering column, just like M-408, and did not have bucket seats, but a front bench. From early 1969 on, because another gearbox was installed in order to make a better use of the power and torque and to improve performances, M-412 had the gear lever mounted on the floor. The M-408 had the gear lever mounted on the floor since late 1973. Initially, the 412 was designed as a replacement for the 408, but they ended up being built together at the same plant. The decision to keep 408 in production was that it was more suited to harsh conditions than the 412; it could tolerate 75 octane fuel and could work with lower grade oils.  In 1969, both the 412 and the related 408 had their bodies redesigned. These were notable for being the first Moskvitch models to feature rectangular headlights and horizontal rear lights, which passed on to the 2138/2140 in 1976, replacing round headlights (two on ordinary models, four mainly on export models) and vertical rear lights. Only rear triangular turn signals remained on vestigial tailfins. Until then, the M-412 profited from heightened tailfins and tanned headlight lamps on export models. The first series Moskvich 412 (1967-1969) is quite rare today as they were more expensive and thus built în lower numbers than the 408. Another notable (but not unique, as it was used in other Russian cars at the time) feature were the so-called side signals, mounted on the C-pillars on some vehicles and similar to the American \"opera lights\". The designers \"had paid real attention to passive safety,\" the car was crash-tested, met the standards of safety adopted by the UNECE, and received an international safety certificate as a result of almost five months of tests in France. It was upgraded with dual-circuit braking system with power assistance (servo), disc brakes on the front wheels since 1970 (models with front drum brakes continued to be built, but were generally not exported), reinforced car-body structure, and passive safety features such as soft grip steering wheel cover, soft interior parts, seat belts, and padded dashboard. It was the first Moskvitch to pass safety-features tests in France, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden in 1970–71, and in Western Germany in 1972. The modernized model, both for export and domestic market, received a factory code M-412IE (IE for \"export rendition\"), to mark, that it fulfils new safety requirements.  While AZLK continued to manufacture the 408 version, Izh stopped production of the 408 in order to concentrate exclusively on the 412. Most 412s delivered in the Soviet Union were made by Izh, rather than AZLK. Although designed mainly for the Soviet domestic market, it was also exported in the eastern bloc countries in order to keep up with 412 demand. Moskvitch 412s made by Izh were considered to have a better quality than AZLK by many owners, regarding the assembly, quality of the interior, receiving better insulation, altogether at a lower price. AZLK made 412s were mostly for western export.  SATRA Motors entered M-412s in the Group One Production Saloon Car Championship in 1972 and 1973, where it easily beat \"\"sharp-handling but underpowered\"\" Hillman Imps and Austin Minis. It also placed 1-2-3 in the 1973 Avon Round Britain Rally and scored a class win in the South Africa Safari Rally the same year.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relationship to the M-408.", "content": "The original M-412 of 1967–69 had a chassis identical to that of the Moskvitch-408, which had been launched three years earlier in 1964. The only differences between the two models were the engines and the interior.  The main differences between the Moskvitch-412 and the Moskvitch-408 were:  The differences between the 412/408 chassis:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Prototype variants.", "content": "In 1970, Moskvitch built a prototype of the M-353, a restyled hatchback version of the M-412 that was larger but recognizably related. The M-355 of 1972 was larger still, with greater length, more wheelbase, and more width. This made both the interior and the boot noticeably larger. The M-355 was further developed into the M-356 between 1973–1975, with \"much bolder front end styling\", new suspension, and an enlarged version of the Moskvitch-DM with twin Zenith carburetors, giving, with a Borg-Warner transmission planned. None were built.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sales in the UK.", "content": "The M-412 was launched in the United Kingdom in 1969, when the first 20 dealerships were set up and some 300 cars were sold. Sales increased annually and peaked in 1973, when 3462 cars were sold through a 268-dealer network, but collapsed to 344 in 1975. The publication of a Consumers Association report in 1973 declaring the car to be \"dangerously unsafe\" did not help the Moskvich in the marketplace, but the 1973 introduction of the significantly more modern Lada 1200 was likely the principal cause of the sales drop. Importer Satra's 1974 rebranding of the M-412 to the Moskvitch-1500 had no effect, forcing the company to withdraw from the UK market in 1976.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "Citations Bibliography", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Moskvitch 412 (Moskvich 412, Москвич-412, M-412) is a small family car produced by Soviet/Russian manufacturer MZMA/AZLK in Moscow from 1967 to 1975, and by IZh in Izhevsk from 1967 to 1982 (also known as IZh-412). It was a more powerful and prestigious version of the M-408 model, offering more features for a higher price.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977782}
{"src_title": "Princess Augusta of Cambridge", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Augusta was born on 19 July 1822 at the Palace of Montbrillant, Hanover. Her father was Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, the seventh son of George III and Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Her mother was Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel. As a male line granddaughter of the British monarch, she was titled a British princess with the style of \"Royal Highness\". The young princess was baptized at the same palace on 16 August 1822, by Rev Edward Curtis Kemp (Chaplain to the British Ambassador to the Court of Berlin, The Rt. Hon. Sir George Rose). Three of her godparents were present at the baptism: The rest were not present, possibly being represented by proxies:  The Princess spent her earlier years in Hanover, where her father was the viceroy on behalf of his brother, George IV.  Princess Augusta had one brother, Prince George, later 2nd Duke of Cambridge; and one sister, Princess Mary Adelaide, later Duchess of Teck. As such, Princess Augusta was an aunt to Mary of Teck, later consort of George V. Additionally, Princess Augusta was a first cousin through her father to Queen Victoria and through her mother to Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel, the wife of King Christian IX.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriage.", "content": "On 28 June 1843, Princess Augusta married her first cousin, Frederick William of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, at Buckingham Palace, London. (The two were also second cousins on their fathers' side.) Upon marriage, Augusta became the Hereditary Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and, on 6 September 1860, the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz following the death of her father-in-law.  The marriage of the Grand Duke and Grand Duchess produced two children:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "Although she spent most of her adult life in Germany, the Grand Duchess Augusta retained close personal ties to the British Royal Family. She frequently visited her mother, the Duchess of Cambridge, at her Kensington Palace apartments.  After her mother's death in 1889, the Grand Duchess acquired a house in London's Buckingham Gate area, where she spent a portion of the year until advanced old age made it impossible for her to travel abroad.  In making preparations for the coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra in 1901, the Duke of Norfolk consulted her on matters of etiquette and attire. This was due to her presence at the coronation of King William IV and Queen Adelaide seventy-one years earlier. She was nine years old at the time and kissed the Queen's hand. She was also able to provide details of the coronation of Queen Victoria.  The Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was particularly close to her niece, the future Queen Mary. However, old age prevented her from attending the coronation of King George V and Queen Mary on 22 June 1911.  Following the outbreak of World War I, the British Government suspended the annuity she had been receiving as a member of the British Royal Family under the Annuity, Duchess of Mecklenburgh Strelitz Act 1843. During the war, the Swedish Embassy passed letters from the Queen to her aunt, who still lived in Germany.  As an elderly lady, she was known for being cantankerous. She was also known as being quite shrewd and intelligent. In his book, \"Queen Mary\" (London, 1959), the Queen's official biography, James Pope-Hennessy reports that the Queen's Aunt Augusta was not fond of the new science of photography, fearing it would intrude deeply into the private lives of Royal personages; at pp. 101–105 he offers a masterly sketch of this formidable lady.  The Dowager Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz died on 5 December 1916 in Neustrelitz and was buried in Mirow. As the longest-lived grandchild of George III, she was the last link to the British branch of the House of Hanover.  At the time of her death, she was 94 years, 4 months and 16 days old, making her the longest-lived British princess by blood, until Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, a male-line granddaughter of Queen Victoria, surpassed her in 1977.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Augusta of Cambridge (19 July 1822 – 5 December 1916) was a member of the British Royal Family, a granddaughter of George III. She married into the Grand Ducal House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and became the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977783}
{"src_title": "Voice over LTE", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In August 2012, MetroPCS launched the world's first commercial VoLTE services in Dallas, Texas, in the United States, alongside the first VoLTE phone, the LG Connect 4G.  In May 2014, Singtel introduced the world's first commercial \"full-featured\" VoLTE service in Singapore, only in combination with Galaxy Note 3, it was subsequently expanded.  In June 2014, KT showcased the world's first cross-border roaming services based on Voice over LTE. The South Korean operator partnered with China Mobile to develop VoLTE roaming services.  In October 2014, operators based on IMS local breakout architecture with home routing systems.  In November 2014, Verizon and AT&T announced the companies are enabling VoLTE-to-VoLTE connections between their respective customers. VoLTE interoperability between Verizon and AT&T customers began in 2015. Testing and design were performed between both companies using third party networks such as Alcatel-Lucent. This was stated to have been completed in November 2017.<ref name=\"Verizon/ATT interoperbility\"></ref>  On 11 July 2015, SEATEL Cambodia announced the world's first commercial 100% VoLTE service without 2G/3G in Cambodia.  On 14 September 2015, Orange Romania launched the VoLTE service for Samsung users in Romania. On 16 September 2015, Telstra announced that it had started enabling VoLTE across its network, including calling to National Broadband Network and business and enterprise services with HD handsets.  On 30 November 2015, Telenor Denmark launched VoLTE for all Samsung Galaxy S6 phones, which has since been followed by additional Samsung and Apple models.  In 2016, Vodafone Netherlands launched VoLTE support, along with Wi-Fi Calling.  On 30 June 2016, YTL's YES launches 4G LTE service to become Malaysia's FIRST VoLTE service provider.  In June 2016 Movistar Peru launched commercial VoLTE service in Peru, starting in Lima and Callao for Samsung Galaxy S6, S6 Edge and LG G4 phones. Service will be enabled progressively in other departments and handsets. Movistar Peru is the first operator in the country offering this service.  In July 2016, became the first operator to launch VoLTE in UAE.  In July 2016, PT Smartfren Telecom launches VoLTE services working in partnership with Mitel, and become Indonesia's first VoLTE service provider.  On 1 September 2016, Dialog Axiata launched commercial VoLTE service in Sri Lanka.  On 5 September 2016, India's first 4G-only network Jio launched their commercial VoLTE service without 2G/3G based services.  In October 2016, Orange Polska launched commercial VoLTE service in Poland, followed by T-Mobile Polska the following month.  On 7 December 2016, Telenor Denmark launched VoLTE for all phones with VoLTE support.  On 8 March 2017, Cosmote is the first operator that launched VoLTE (and VoWiFi) service in Greece.  On 24 April 2017, TIM launched VoLTE for all phones with VoLTE support in Italy.  In June 2017, Pakistan's Largest telecom operator Jazz has tested VoLTE over its network. Jazz plans to commercially launch it in July 2017.  In June 2017, Bahrain's Largest telecom operator Batelco has semi-launched the service to iOS users.  In July 2017, Digi.Mobil (RCS & RDS) will be the second carrier that launches commercial VoLTE services in Romania.  In July 2017, TIM Brasil was the first carrier to sell VoLTE on Brazil.  In August 2017, Proximus was the first to activate VoLTE in Belgium. Customers were notified by SMS that the service was available.  In September 2017, Swazi Mobile was the first to activate VoLTE in Swaziland.  After this Bharti Airtel also launched the commercial VoLTE service in India.  In October 2017, Nova was the first to activate VoLTE in Iceland.  In November 2017, Telia Company was the first to activate VoLTE in Lithuania.  In November 2017 enabled VoLTE service in Peru, starting in Lima and Callao for Apple iPhone SE, Apple iPhone 6, Apple iPhone 6 Plus, Apple iPhone 6S, Apple iPhone 6S Plus, Apple iPhone 7, Apple iPhone 7 Plus, Apple iPhone 8, Apple iPhone 8 Plus, Apple iPhone X, Huawei Mate 9, Huawei Mate 10 Lite, Huawei P9, LG G4, Motorola MOTO C 4G, Motorola MOTO E4 Plus, Motorola MOTO G5S Plus, Samsung Galaxy J7, Samsung Galaxy S8, Samsung Galaxy S8+, Sony XPERIA L1 and Sony XPERIA XA1 Ultra phones.  In December 2017, Jamii Telecom Limited (JTL), offering broadband data services under the 'Faiba' brand, Jamii Telecommunication Ltd - Home was the first to activate VoLTE in Kenya.  In February 2018, Vodafone India's VoLTE, went live in the Delhi NCR circle, Gujarat and Mumbai  In March 2018, SS7ware, the company behind Yate, launched VoLTE Lab, intended for use as a VoLTE test bed and learning environment.  In May 2018, Play launched commercial VoLTE service in Poland for supported iOS devices.  In June 2018, Orange and Telenet announced that VoLTE will be launched in Belgium.  In January 2019, Mobitel (Sri Lanka) launched VoLTE.  In February 2019, WOM announced that VoLTE along with WiFi Calling will be launched in Chile. Currently working on select android devices (Samsung s8 and above, in addition to other Huawei models)  In August 2019, SMART Communications has launched the VoLTE service in Metro Manila, Philippines to provide high-definition voice call quality. With Samsung devices to support this feature  In August 2019, Tigo Colombia enabled VoLTE in the country, available for users with the following devices: Huawei Mate 20 Pro, P20, P20 PRO, P30, P30 PRO, P30 Lite, Samsung S9 - S9+ and iPhone from SE and forward. And also Sony Xperia 1.  U.S.-based Tracfone plans to require VoLTE devices by summer of 2020.  As of 2020, almost all new phones for sale support VoLTE.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Deployment.", "content": "As of February 2019 there were 253 operators investing in VoLTE in 113 countries globally, including 184 operators with commercially launched VoLTE-HD voice service in 87 countries, up from 137 operators in 65 countries 12 months previously, according to data from the Global Mobile Suppliers Association. By August 2019, these numbers had risen to 262 operators investing in VoLTE in 120 countries and 194 operators with launched VoLTE-HD voice services in 91 countries.  A list of commercial VoLTE deployments around the world can be found in the main article above.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Devices.", "content": "This is an incomplete list.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Voice quality.", "content": "To ensure compatibility, 3GPP demand at least AMR-NB codec (narrow band), but the recommended speech codec for VoLTE is Adaptive Multi-Rate Wideband (AMR-WB), also known as HD Voice. This codec is mandated in 3GPP networks that support 16 kHz sampling. Volte Fraunhofer IIS has proposed and demonstrated \"Full-HD Voice\", an implementation of the AAC-ELD (Advanced Audio CodingEnhanced Low Delay) codec for LTE handsets. Where previous cell phone voice codecs only supported frequencies up to 3.5 kHz and upcoming wideband audio services branded as \"HD Voice\" up to 7 kHz, Full-HD Voice supports the entire bandwidth range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. For end-to-end Full-HD Voice calls to succeed however, both the caller and recipient's handsets as well as networks have to support the feature.  The GSMA has nominated the EVS codec for superwideband via VoLTE.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Voice over Long-Term Evolution (VoLTE) is a standard high-speed wireless communication for mobile phones and data terminals, including Internet of things (IoT) devices and wearables. It is based on the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) network, with specific profiles for control and media planes of voice service on the LTE wireless broadband service defined by GSMA in PRD IR.92. This approach results in the voice service (control and media planes) being delivered as data flows within the LTE data bearer, with no dependency on (or ultimately, requirement for) the circuit-switched voice network to be in the call path. VoLTE has up to three times more voice and data capacity than older 3G UMTS and up to six times more than 2G GSM. It uses less bandwidth because VoLTE's packet headers are smaller than those of unoptimized VoIP/LTE.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977784}
{"src_title": "Sudan (rhinoceros)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Capture in Africa.", "content": "A group of six northern white rhinoceros including the two-year-old Sudan was captured in Shambe, Sudan by animal trappers employed by Chipperfield's Circus in February 1975 working under agreement with Josef Vágner, the then-director of the Dvůr Králové Zoo in Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic). The captured group comprised two males (Sudan and Saut) and four females (Nola, Nuri, Nadi and Nesari).  The number of northern white rhinos was already considered to be only around 700 animals in the wild. For many environmentalists, leaving the animals in nature was the only acceptable way of preserving the already rare subspecies. The Dvůr Králové Zoo and their Chipperfield partners were then criticized for the capture. The zoo was specialising in African fauna and already had their largest collection out of Africa.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Life in the Czech Republic.", "content": "In 1975 the group including Sudan was shipped to the Dvůr Králové Zoo for their northern white rhinoceros display. The zoo was the only one in the world where northern white rhinos have successfully given birth, with the last calf being born in 2000.  Two years later they were joined by Nasima, who originated from Uganda but came from Knowsley Safari Park near Prescot, and Saut was later lent to San Diego Zoo in the United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Breeding.", "content": "After 1980, the northern white rhinos were wiped out in Uganda and Sudan, and 13 were left in Garamba National Park in Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo). The Conservation Breeding Specialist Group of the IUCN met in 1986 in Dvůr Králové Zoo to discuss the ways to preserve the dwindling number of northern white rhinos. The efforts to save the subspecies included the import of Ben (an older male from London) in 1986 and the return of Saut (a calf from the original 1975 group) from San Diego Zoo in 1998 to Dvůr Králové Zoo. Attempts to join the group with several southern rhinos met only with mixed success. Several surgeries were performed on the females and their eggs; genetic material, including Sudan's semen, was preserved.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Offspring.", "content": "Sudan fathered three calves in the Czech Republic and became the grandfather of one. Sudan fathered Nabire (dam: Nasima, studbook number 0351), who was born 15 November 1983, and died at Dvůr Králové Zoo July 2015. He was also the father of Najin, who was transported to Ol Pejeta Conservancy along with him in 2009. Najin was born in 1989, again with the dam being Nasima. Sudan has also sired one other offspring besides Nabire and Najin. The third calf was born prematurely and died. Sudan was the grandfather of Fatu through his daughter Najin. For breeding, Sudan's studbook number was 0372.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Breeding crisis.", "content": "The Dvůr Králové rhinos were getting older and after 2000 no more calves were being born around the world.  The second-to-last male northern white rhinoceros in the world was Angalifu, who lived at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park with Nola until his death on 14 December 2014. Angalifu was beyond breeding age, leaving Sudan as the only fertile male in the world even when Angalifu was alive.  In June 2008 specialists met in the Dvůr Králové Zoo to decide further steps to save the subspecies. The meeting of the Czech Zoo with IUCN African Rhino Specialist Group (AfRSG), World Zoo and Aquarium Association WAZA, Berlin institute IZW as well as experts from Vienna Veterinary institute and the European Zoo and Aquarium Association EAZA recommended to move Sudan and his group from the Czech Republic to Africa. Substantial debate succeeded and strong objections were raised against this proposal, especially given the fact that expert and scientific organisations were available in Europe and insemination efforts could have continued in the Czech Republic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Return to Africa.", "content": "In December 2009 the rhinos were moved to the Ol Pejeta Conservancy for a \"Last Chance To Survive\" breeding program, along with three other northern white rhinoceroses. It was hoped that Ol Pejeta would provide a more natural habitat and better hormonal balance for the animals to induce breeding. However, breeding attempts with Sudan at Ol Pejeta Conservancy were unsuccessful.  One of the other three rhinos transported in the Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Suni, died in 2014. Sudan then lived the final years of his life with his daughter Najin and granddaughter Fatu.  Northern white rhinoceroses are guarded 24 hours a day at the conservancy to protect them from poaching, which is a major problem for rhinoceroses. The protection includes horn-embedded transmitters, watchtowers, fences, drones, guard dogs, and trained armed guards around the clock.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "At the end of 2017, Sudan suffered from an infection in his right hind leg. Although his condition improved in subsequent months, the infection returned, and, in March 2018, his state seriously deteriorated, despite intensive care. Sudan was euthanised on 19 March 2018, after suffering from \"age-related complications\".  In the weeks before Sudan's death, Richard Vigne, CEO of the Ol Pejeta Conservancy, stated that \"Sudan has been technically infertile for many years, so him dying is not going to affect the possibilities of recovery for the northern white rhino as a species.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Scientific efforts to resurrect the subspecies.", "content": "After the death of Sudan, Dvůr Králové Zoo spokesman Jan Stejskal declared that \"We must take advantage of the unique situation in which cellular technologies are utilised for conservation of critically endangered species. It may sound unbelievable, but thanks to the newly developed techniques even Sudan could still have an offspring.\"  There are now ongoing attempts at in vitro fertilization of eggs from Najin and Fatu with semen from Sudan and to implant the resulting blastocysts in suitable female southern white rhinos. In total, eggs from two females and semen from five males are now available for the subspecies' possible future resurrection.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Support.", "content": "In February 2015, Ol Pejeta Conservancy launched a GoFundMe campaign to raise funds for the rangers guarding the rhinos. In May 2015, after contacting Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Dubai-based Pakistani entrepreneurs Hamid Hussain and Muhammad Yaqoob started a global campaign to create awareness and bring people to Ol Pejeta Conservancy to help in generating revenues for the IVF treatments and other forms of assisted reproduction by inviting celebrities to visit the conservancy. Among the celebrities who visited Sudan were actors Nargis Fakhri and Khaled Abol Naga.  In 2017, Ol Pejeta Conservancy teamed up with Tinder and Ogilvy Africa to launch a fundraising campaign in order to recover the species. They created a Tinder account for Sudan, the last standing male of northern white rhinos, and the app's users could swipe right to make their donations for the development of breeding methods.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sudan (1973 – 19 March 2018) was a captive northern white rhinoceros (\"Ceratotherium simum cottoni\") that lived at the Dvůr Králové Zoo in the Czech Republic from 1975 to 2009, and the rest of his life at the Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Laikipia, Kenya. At the time of his death, he was one of only three living northern white rhinoceroses in the world, and the last known male of his subspecies. Sudan was euthanised on 19 March 2018, after suffering from \"age-related complications\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977785}
{"src_title": "Carcassonne and Trèbes attack", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Events.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Carcassonne attacks.", "content": "Shortly before 10 a.m. (9 a.m. UTC) on Friday 23 March 2018, Redouane Lakdim, armed with a handgun, stopped a car on the outskirts of Carcassonne that was occupied by Renato Silva, of Portugal, and Jean Mazières. Lakdim shot both occupants, killing Mazières and critically injuring Silva, then stole the car and drove off. He appeared to wait outside a military barracks for soldiers, but then drove to a police barracks and attacked four police officers as they were jogging back to their barracks by shooting at and trying to run them over. One of the officers was shot, but the bullet narrowly missed his heart and instead broke a few ribs and punctured a lung. Lakdim then sped off and drove to Trèbes.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Trèbes hostage crisis.", "content": "At around 11 a.m. Lakdim entered the Super U supermarket in Trèbes armed with a handgun, a hunting knife and three homemade bombs. There were about fifty people inside. He shouted \"\"Allahu akbar\"\", and declared he was a soldier of Islamic State and that he was willing to \"die for Syria\". He shot dead two people—a supermarket worker and a customer—and took others hostage, ordering everyone to lie on the ground. Most of those in the supermarket managed to flee and some hid in a cold store. Hundreds of police and gendarmerie quickly arrived, cordoned off the area and helped to evacuate people. They found Lakdim holding several hostages, including a woman whom he used as a human shield. A GIGN unit assembled near the supermarket and Interior Minister Gérard Collomb arrived. Lakdim demanded the release of Salah Abdeslam, a primary suspect in the November 2015 Paris attacks. During the standoff, he briefly came out of the supermarket, threatening to \"blow everything up\". Police brought Lakdim's mother and two sisters to negotiate, unsuccessfully.  Police negotiated with Lakdim to release the hostages, and Arnaud Beltrame, a 44-year-old lieutenant colonel in the National Gendarmerie, offered to take the place of the final, female hostage, and Lakdim agreed. Beltrame set his mobile phone on a table inside with the phone line open, so the police outside could listen in. After a three-hour stand-off, Beltrame tried to disarm Lakdim and shouted \"Assault! Assault!\" loud enough to be heard through the phone. As a result, Beltrame was shot three or four times and fatally stabbed, while GIGN operatives immediately stormed the supermarket at 2:40 p.m. and exchanged gunfire with the assailant, killing him two minutes later. Two of the operatives were wounded. Shortly after, police dogs went into the building, and an ambulance and helicopter arrived in the car park. Beltrame was praised by Interior Minister Collomb and others for his heroism, but later died in hospital of his injuries. Autopsies found that Beltrame died from stab wounds to the throat.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Suspect.", "content": "The suspect was identified as Redouane Lakdim, a 25-year-old French-Moroccan man who was born in Morocco. He lived in Carcassonne with his parents and sisters, and regularly attended the Carcassonne mosque. He had been convicted twice for petty crimes, and had served one month in prison in 2016. Lakdim was very active on Salafist social networks and had been on a watchlist of suspected Islamist extremists since 2014. He was a small time drug dealer. He had been under surveillance for his \"radicalism and proximity to Salafist movements\" but had showed no signs he was going to carry out an attack. After his death in Trèbes, police raided his home as well as those of his friends and relatives and interviewed neighbours, one of whom described him as a \"pleasant young man\". Interior Minister Gérard Collomb believes he acted alone. A search of his home found notes referring to Islamic State, in what appeared to be a will. His girlfriend was known to French security services.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Renato Silva survived being shot in the head by Lakdim before having his car stolen, and was taken to Perpignan where he went into a coma. On 4 April, he came out of the coma but could not walk unassisted and suffered partial paralysis in the face and deafness in one ear. Portuguese President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa visited Silva in hospital. He was released on 23 March and returned to his home in Villemoustaussou, Aude.  On 19 October 2018, three persons were indicted by French authorities in connection to Lakdim's actions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "French Minister of the Interior Gérard Collomb, who was briefed on the situation in Trèbes from Saint-Cyr-au-Mont-d'Or, said he was \"on his way to Trèbes\" and arrived shortly after. President Emmanuel Macron said the hostage taking \"appeared to be a terrorist act\" and that he would return to Paris within hours to coordinate an official response.  President Macron later said Arnaud Beltrame \"fell as a hero\" and showed \"exceptional courage\", in what he described as an act of \"Islamist terrorism\".  Beltrame's name was the top trending hashtag on the French edition of Twitter on the morning he died due to tributes from France and elsewhere around the world. Gendarmerie stations across France flew flags at half-mast in his honour, and the Élysée Presidential Palace announced that a national tribute would be paid to him.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "On 23 March 2018, there was a series of Islamist terrorist attacks in the towns of Carcassonne and Trèbes in southern France. Redouane Lakdim, a 25-year-old French-Moroccan (born 11 April 1992 in Taza, Morocco), shot the two occupants of a car in Carcassonne, killing the passenger and hijacking it. He then opened fire on four police officers, seriously wounding one. Lakdim drove to nearby Trèbes, where he stormed a Super U supermarket, killing two civilians, wounding others, and taking at least one hostage. He swore allegiance to the Islamic State and demanded the release of Salah Abdeslam, the only surviving suspect of the November 2015 Paris attacks.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977786}
{"src_title": "2018 Kemerovo fire", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "The Winter Cherry complex.", "content": "The Winter Cherry shopping and entertainment complex ( \"Zimnyaya vishnya, torgovo-razvlekatel'nyy kompleks\") is a mall in Kemerovo, Russia.  The mall, which was converted from a former communist-era confectionery factory, opened in 2013 with 23,000 square meters of space, which included a petting zoo, children's center and bowling alley. The building was described as a labyrinth with few windows and points of entrance to the upper levels, with one main staircase, one lift shaft and one escalator.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Fire.", "content": "Survivors reported that the fire started on the fourth floor play area, with the heat of the flames rising to 700 °C, the heat so high it caused the bouncy castles to burst into flame. Many of the victims were in the mall's three cinemas, where two of the cinema roofs collapsed from the fourth floor into the third.  Several of the victims in the cinemas were children watching \"Sherlock Gnomes\" to start off the first day of a week-long school break. A survivor from the cinema claimed that those in the cinema heard no alarm, and had to break through one door and jump to safety. Once on the ground, survivors could only see dense black pungent smoke that had filled the children's playground and the other cinema hall. The fire alarm system at Kemerovo shopping mall was switched off by a security guard.  Many children who were trapped in the fire called loved ones and friends to exchange last conversations and information. One deceased child's aunt recounted their conversation during the fire in which the victim stated; \"everything burns and the doors are locked in the cinema.\"  A spokesperson for the Investigative Committee of Russia also stated that the fire exits in the building were blocked during the fire. Tajik shopkeepers saved around 50 people through an alternate exit. Staff and guards of the center were criticized by survivors for not arranging an organized evacuation effort, while some were praised for their efforts.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Victims.", "content": "At least 64 people were killed in the fire, 41 of them children. Also among the fatalities are some 200 animals from the petting zoo. Thirteen people had been hospitalized after the incident with the Russian Health Minister Veronika Skvortsova claiming the most gravely injured was an 11-year-old boy who jumped from a fourth floor window.  Due to the fire, identification of most bodies had to have DNA identification used to confirm identifies. As of March 27, 60 individuals were treated in hospitals, of those 15 were hospitalized and 40 received outpatient care, and 25 victims, including 13 children had been identified.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First responders.", "content": "Over 600 first responders, spent over 17 hours fighting the flames well into the next day after the fire started. The fire spread to cover more than 1,500 square meters of the 23,000 square meter building, and kept firefighters from entering the building for 12 hours due to the heat and smoke.  A father of three deceased victims was critical of rescuers, claiming he led rescuers up the stairs, but they turned away after being ordered to go elsewhere and refused to give him a respiratory mask citing regulations. In an interview he angrily stated \"My daughters were left to burn because of their bloody rules.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Investigation.", "content": "The Investigative Committee of Russia (IVR), opened an investigation into the cause of the fire, with the head of the IVR responding critically to the staff. In a statement he claims \"Most of the staff ran away and left parents and their children to their fate.\"  Four people have been detained in relation to the fire, including the head of the shopping complex's managing company. Investigators reported that the fire alarm system had not been working the week leading up to the fire, rising into conflict with a previous report that a security guard turned it off. The mall security guards were cited for failing to promptly turn the voice alert system on and that there is no reasonable explanation to why it occurred.  Kemerovo Oblast deputy governor Vladimir Chernov said that the preliminary suspicion is that a child had a cigarette lighter which ignited foam rubber in a children's trampoline room and erupted in the fashion of gunpowder. There is also speculation that the contracted builders and owners of the mall cut safety corners in the electrical wiring. Several arrests of these people have already been made.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Politicians across the globe sent their condolences. 28 March 2018 was declared the national day of mourning in Russia.  A rally was held in Kemerovo demanding the resignation of Kemerovo Mayor Ilya Seredyuk and the longtime regional governor, Aman Tuleyev. On April 1, 2018, Aman Tuleyev resigned as the governor of Kemerovo Oblast, citing \"a heavy burden\" of the Kemerovo fire, and President Putin accepted Tuleyev's resignation.  A spokeswoman for the Foreign Ministry criticized the announcement of expulsions of Russian diplomats by the United States and a number European countries in connection to the poisoning of a former Russian spy and his daughter, which happened a day after the tragedy, as showing disrespect to the deceased victims.  Local media named the owner of the mall, as millionaire Denis Shtengelov. Shtengelov countered in an interview that his stake in the mall at the time of the fire was only a minority stake with other investors, however, he promised to pay compensation of 3-million rubles (about $52,500) to the family of each victim. This would be in addition to the regional government's reported compensation to the families of victims, which is equivalent to $17,500 each.  As of July 2018, the building is being demolished.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Memorials and tributes.", "content": "Across Russia, central squares were turned into memorials for those killed with flowers and candles. A local memorial was erected in a plaza outside of the shopping center, and there was an influx of individuals donating blood for those injured.  International memorials to the victims were erected in other locations, such as New York City.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criminal charges.", "content": "The Investigative Committee of Russia brought charges under part 3 of Article 293 of the Russian Criminal Code; neglect of duty which has entailed by negligence the death of two or more persons, against the head of a firefighting unit No.2. According to investigation reports lead firefighter did not listen to an eyewitness, who reported that people were locked up on the fourth floor, but sent the unit to a farther location losing time.  Several other criminal cases were initiated with seven individuals being arrested.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "On 25 March 2018 at 16:00 local time (9:00 UTC), a fire that engulfed the Winter Cherry shopping mall and entertainment complex in Kemerovo, Russia. It killed at least 60 people (more than half of which children) according to official statements. The blaze started somewhere on the top floor of the four-story complex, and people were seen jumping from windows to escape it. 100 people were evacuated, and another 20 were rescued. Others claim the number of people killed in fire is being covered up, and that the real figure runs into the hundreds. According to the Russian authorities the source of these rumors was a Ukrainian prankster who called the morgue posing as an emergency services officer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977787}
{"src_title": "Arnaud Beltrame", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Beltrame was born on 18 April 1973 in Étampes, France.  Beltrame was a double \"Major de promotion\" who graduated at the top of his class in 2001 from the French Army EMIA military academy (École militaire interarmes) and in 2002 from French Gendarmerie nationale Officers School (École des officiers de la gendarmerie nationale).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Military career.", "content": "After following a reserve officer cursus during his military service, Beltrame became a serving reserve artillery officer, assigned first to the 35th Airborne artillery regiment in Tarbes and then the 8th artillery regiment in Commercy. He then transferred to the Gendarmerie and was briefly assigned to the Mobile Gendarmerie armored unit in Satory, near Versailles, before being selected in 2003 for the elite gendarmerie parachute squadron (EPIGN), also based at Satory. He deployed to Iraq in 2005 and received military honors for his service there. He then joined the Republican Guard, part of the national gendarmerie that provides guards of honor and security for the State. He was stationed at the Élysée Palace between 2006 and 2010 and then took command of a Departmental Gendarmerie company in Avranches from 2010 to 2014. After staff service with the Ministry of Ecology and post-graduate training in Business administration and Economy, he joined the Carcassonne Departmental gendarmerie unit in southwestern France in August 2017 as deputy commander.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Trèbes terrorist attack.", "content": "At about 11 a.m. on 24 March 2018, a terrorist claiming allegiance to Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) stormed a supermarket in Trèbes armed with a handgun, a hunting knife, and three homemade bombs. He shot two people dead and took others hostage. Police negotiated for release of the hostages, and Beltrame offered to take the place of the final one, a female cashier. Beltrame set his mobile phone on a table with its line open so that police outside could monitor activity inside. After a three-hour stand-off, the terrorist stabbed and shot Beltrame. In response, GIGN operatives stormed the supermarket at 2:40 PM and killed the assailant. An autopsy revealed that Beltrame had sustained four bullet wounds but died from stab wounds to the throat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Beltrame was reared in a nonreligious family but, at age 33, he converted to Catholic Christianity, receiving the sacraments of First Communion and Confirmation in 2008 after spending two years as a catechumen. In 2015, he made a pilgrimage to Basilica of Sainte-Anne d'Auray, \"where he asked the Virgin Mary to help him to meet the woman of his life\" and shortly afterwards, \"he became friends with Marielle, whose faith is deep and discreet.\" He had married his partner in a civil ceremony in August 2016, but they had planned a church wedding in June 2018 at the Basilica of Saints Nazarius and Celsus. Prior to the terrorist attack at Trèbes, Beltrame made a pilgrimage to Compostela. Beltrame was also a Freemason and received public honors from his Grand Lodge. He had an interest in the history of France and its Christian roots. A week before his death, Beltrame buried his father, who had drowned in the Mediterranean in August 2017 and whose body had been recently recovered in the nets of a fishing boat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Homages.", "content": "Minister of the Interior Gérard Collomb, and then French President Emmanuel Macron, spoke of Beltrame's bravery and heroism.  A national tribute was paid to Beltrame at Les Invalides on 27 March 2018 with Macron presiding. French flags and the banners of the Gendarmerie and the National Assembly were lowered to half-staff and many cities announced that streets, squares or buildings would be named in the colonel's honour.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Arnaud Jean-Georges Beltrame (; 18 April 1973 – 24 March 2018) was a lieutenant colonel in the French Gendarmerie nationale and deputy commander of the Departmental Gendarmerie's Aude unit, who was killed by a terrorist at Trèbes after having exchanged himself for a hostage. French President Emmanuel Macron said that Beltrame deserved \"the respect and admiration of the whole nation.\" For his bravery and adherence to duty he was posthumously promoted to colonel and made a Commander of the Legion of Honour.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977788}
{"src_title": "Snoqualmie Pass", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Climate.", "content": "Snoqualmie Pass as it climbs into the Cascades passes through a microclimate characterized by considerable precipitation, and at times hazardous conditions for travelers. The average annual precipitation is over 100 inches; snowfall averages over 400 inches. The average annual number of days with measurable precipitation is over 170.  The rapidly changing conditions require special cautions, relayed to motorists via variable message displays along I-90. Depending on traction they may call for tire chains to be installed, usually on large trucks but occasionally on smaller vehicles as well. Chain-up areas are provided along the side of the Interstate to facilitate the placement of chains. The pass has been subjected to closures when weather conditions become extreme.  A snow shed, constructed in 1950 when the road was known as US 10, formerly covered the westbound lanes, but it has been replaced by avalanche bridges that stand away from the slope to allow slides to pass under the road, as of April 2014. The use of sheds (very rare on Interstates) is an admission that plowing cannot keep up with snowfall and avalanches.  WSDOT maintains cameras at selected locations along the pass to monitor weather conditions. Some of these cameras can be viewed via the internet.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recreation.", "content": "The area around Snoqualmie Pass consists of mountain chalets that are mainly seasonally occupied by residents of the Seattle metropolitan area, with approximately 150 year-round residents. Winter sports are the main draw, but outdoor recreation is available year-round.  The Pacific Crest Trail crosses through Snoqualmie Pass and a variety of other trails are also available for hiking and climbing in the summer, cross-country skiing and snowshoeing during the winter months.  Snoqualmie Pass is also the site of the Summit at Snoqualmie, a group of alpine ski areas managed by Boyne USA Resorts. The Summit consists of four ski areas: Alpental, Summit West (formerly named Snoqualmie Summit), Summit Central (formerly Ski Acres), and Summit East (formerly Hyak). The Summit at Snoqualmie is the closest ski area to Seattle.  Snowmobiling just east of the pass is also popular during the winter months. Also in the summer and fall, paragliders and hang gliders may be seen flying above the valley, along the ridge and landing at Lake Keechelus.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Snoqualmie Pass was well known to the Native Americans of the region. Hudson's Bay Company trappers and traders were active in the Snoqualmie and Yakima valleys during the early 19th century. They knew about Snoqualmie Pass but information about their use of it is vague. A possible early use of the pass was that of A.C. Anderson, who drove cattle across the Cascades in 1841, via a pass he called \"Sinahomish Pass\".  Captain George B. McClellan and his lieutenant Abiel W. Tinkham explored the Snoqualmie Pass region in 1853 and 1854. Their goal was to find a pass better suited for a railroad than Naches Pass, where the Naches Trail crossed the Cascade Mountains. They explored from the east side of the mountains, reaching the vicinity of Yakima Pass (). Tinkham continued down the west side via the Cedar River. McClellan decided not to examine Snoqualmie Pass itself because of unfavorable reports from Natives.  In 1856, Major J.H.H. Van Bokkelen, then of the Washington Territory Volunteers (militia), crossed Snoqualmie Pass on a scouting mission. In 1858 several large pack trains bound for mines east of the Cascades crossed the pass. In 1865 a number of Seattle citizens, including Arthur A. Denny, explored the Cedar River, Snoqualmie Pass, and Naches Pass. They reported that Snoqualmie Pass route was a better choice for a road than the old Indian trail over Yakima Pass. By 1867 a toll road had been built over Snoqualmie Pass. Intended to be suitable for wagons, for years the road was only usable by pack trains and for cattle  The Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad (the \"Milwaukee Road\") completed a line through Snoqualmie Pass in 1909, part of its Pacific Extension. This grade was soon replaced in 1914 by the 21⁄4-mile (3.6 km) Snoqualmie Tunnel, from Hyak due west to Rockdale, at an approximate elevation of, more than below the pass. The rail line was abandoned in 1980, and the tunnel is presently a multi-use trail for bicyclists and hikers, part of Iron Horse State Park. During tunnel construction, an improved wagon road was built over the pass. Near the original rail line, the Sunset Highway was opened through the pass in 1915.  In 1927, the road over the pass became U.S. Route 10; it began to be plowed and kept open during winter in 1931. By 1933, the first alpine ski hill was cleared at Snoqualmie Pass, and U.S. 10 was finally paved in 1934.  In 1946, tunnel engineer Ole Singstad proposed the construction a tunnel under Snoqualmie Pass to avoid the most treacherous section of the route.  In 1969, construction of U.S. 10's replacement, Interstate 90, began across the pass.  Since 1991, the Mountains to Sound Greenway Trust has acted to protect the scenic value of the I-90 corridor over Snoqualmie Pass.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Snoqualmie Pass is a mountain pass that carries Interstate 90 (I-90) through the Cascade Range in the U.S. state of Washington. The pass summit is at an elevation of, on the county line between Kittitas County and King County.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977789}
{"src_title": "Station 19", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Premise.", "content": "The series follows a group of heroic firefighters of the Seattle Fire Department at Station 19 from the captain down the ranks to the newest recruit in their personal and professional lives.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Episodes.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Backdoor pilot (2018).", "content": "\"For the backdoor pilot, \"No. overall\" and \"No. in season\" refer to the episode's place in the order of episodes of the parent series\" Grey's Anatomy.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "On May 16, 2017, ABC chief Channing Dungey announced at ABC's upfront presentation that the network had given a straight-to-series order for a second \"Grey's Anatomy\" spin-off. Stacy McKee, a long-term \"Grey's\" writer and executive producer, will serve as showrunner and executive producer, with Shonda Rhimes and Betsy Beers also serving as executive producers. The series, which would be set in a Seattle firehouse, would follow the lives of a group of firefighters. The order consisted of 10 episodes. When announcing the series, Dungey said, \"No one can interweave the jeopardy firefighters face in the line of duty with the drama in their personal lives quite like Shonda, and \"Grey's\" signature Seattle setting is the perfect backdrop for this exciting spinoff.\" Patrick Moran, president at ABC Studios, added that \"We talked [with Shonda] about the elements of \"Grey's Anatomy\" that seem to resonate with the audience—emotional storytelling, deep human connection, a high-stakes environment and strong and empowered women—and those elements will carry over to the spinoff.\" In July 2017, Paris Barclay signed on to the series as producing director and executive producer. In January 2018, it was announced that Ellen Pompeo had renewed her contract to portray Meredith Grey through season 16 of \"Grey's\", in addition to becoming a producer on the show and a co-executive producer on the spin-off. Later that month, ABC announced that the series would be titled \"Station 19\".  An episode of \"Grey's Anatomy\", originally planned to air in fall 2017 but instead set to air in March 2018, will serve as a backdoor pilot for the series. The backdoor pilot episode will feature the introduction of the lead character of the spin-off, Andy Herrera, \"as a story within the episode\" and \"showcase a really lovely story for Ben, where we get to just juxtapose his two worlds and see his reaction as he transitions from one world to the next\".  On May 11, 2018, ABC renewed the series for a second season. The second season premiered on October 4, 2018. On October 19, 2018, it was announced that ABC had ordered a full season for the second season. On May 10, 2019, the series was renewed for a third season which premiered on January 23, 2020. On March 11, 2020, the series was renewed for a fourth season to air during the 2020–21 television season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Casting.", "content": "On July 26, 2017, Jaina Lee Ortiz was cast as the female lead, Andrea \"Andy\" Herrera. In September 2017, it was announced that Jason George, who has played Dr. Ben Warren since season 6 of \"Grey's Anatomy\", would be leaving the series to join the spin-off as a series regular. On October 6, 2017, Grey Damon was cast as Lieutenant Jack Gibson, Jay Hayden as Travis Montgomery, Okieriete Onaodowan as Dean Miller, Danielle Savre as Maya Bishop, and Barrett Doss as Victoria \"Vic\" Hughes. They were shortly followed by Miguel Sandoval as Captain Pruitt Herrera, and Alberto Frezza as police officer, Ryan Tanner.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Filming.", "content": "Filming for the first season began on October 18, 2017, and concluded on April 2, 2018. Filming for the series takes place primarily in Los Angeles; additional filming for the series takes place in Seattle. The station in Station 19 is based on Seattle's Station 20, located in its Queen Anne neighborhood.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcast.", "content": "\"Station 19\" began airing on March 22, 2018, on ABC in the United States. CTV acquired the broadcast rights for Canada. Sky Living acquired the rights to air the series in the UK and Ireland.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Marketing.", "content": "In early December 2017, \"Entertainment Weekly\" released first look images of the series.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 65% approval rating with an average rating of 6.0/10 based on 17 reviews. Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 55 out of 100 based on 10 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Station 19 is an American action-drama television series created by Stacy McKee for ABC that premiered on March 22, 2018. It is the second spin-off of \"Grey's Anatomy\" (after \"Private Practice\"). Set in Seattle, the series focuses on the lives of the men and women at Seattle Fire Station 19. It stars Jaina Lee Ortiz, Jason George, Grey Damon, Barrett Doss, Alberto Frezza, Jay Hayden, Okieriete Onaodowan, Danielle Savre, and Miguel Sandoval.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977790}
{"src_title": "Girona Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A primitive Christian church existed here before the Islamic conquest of Iberia, after which it was converted into a mosque, in 717. The Franks reconquered the city in 785 under Charlemagne and the church was reconsecrated in 908.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romanesque cathedral.", "content": "In 1015, the church was in poor condition. Bishop Peter Roger, son of Count Roger I of Carcassonne, restored it with the money obtained by selling the church of the St. Daniel to his brother-in-law, Count Ramon Borrell of Barcelona. The church and its cloister were built until 1064, in Romanesque style. The bell tower was completed in 1117.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Gothic cathedral.", "content": "The complex was redesigned by Pere Sacoma in 1312. After some years of indecisiveness, Guillem Bofill and Antoni Canet started the project in 1416. The new design consisted of a large Gothic nave, the widest Gothic nave in the world—22.98 m—and the second-widest nave of all styles after St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The elevation is.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The church has a Baroque main façade (begun in 1606, with the upper part finished in 1961), preceded by a large staircase completed in 1607. The sculptures decorating the three orders of the façade were executed by local sculptors in the 1960s. Other exterior features include the Gothic portal of St. Michael, on the northern façade, and the southern portico of the Apostles, from the 14th century. The latter originally featured sculptures of the Twelve Apostles, executed by Antoni Claperós in the 1460s, which have mostly been lost, aside from two depicting St. Peter and St. Paul, now in the church's chapter house.  The church has two bell towers. The oldest one, named after Charlemagne, is the surviving one of the two originally flanking the first Romanesque church (the other ceased to exist in the 14th century). Begun in the early 11th century, it has a square plan with six levels separated by friezes with Lombard bands and double mullioned windows. The new bell tower, begun in 1590 and completed (with a modified design) in the 18th century, has an octagonal plan. It houses six bells, the oldest one dating to 1574.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The interior's single nave is surmounted by cross vaults, supported by Gothic buttresses. The side walls feature a triforium with pointed-arch stained glass windows. The apse is separated from the nave by a wall reaching to the vaulted ceiling and perforated with openings, namely one enormous ogive or pointed arch in the center framing the high altar, flanked by two smaller pointed arches as entrances to the ambulatory at the apse. The upper reaches of the wall bear a large central rose window (1705, dedicated to the Archangel St. Michael) flanked by two smaller ones. The polygonal apse is in turn flanked by two short galleries, with ogive or pointed arches as entrances, which correspond to the original aisles of the Romanesque building and are located at the starting point of the ambulatory. The latter is divided by piers aligned with the rays of the apse's trapezoidal vaults, forming ten radial chapels.  The high altar, in white marble, dates to the 11th century. Other artworks include the Gothic sarcophagus of Berenguer d'Anglesola (died 1418), by Pere Oller, in the chapel of Isabella of Portugal, the Chapel of All Saints (1376)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Romanesque cloister.", "content": "The Romanesque cloister is notable, featuring a series of columns with sculpted capitals: they depict fantastic figures and animals, and vegetable motifs. The frieze has instead scenes from the New Testament. Among the sculptors who worked at the cloister is Arnau Cadell, also author of the cloister of the Monastery of Sant Cugat. Also in the cloister is the Chapel of Our Lady of Gràcia i de Bell-Ull, which was originally a gate to the cloister, renovated in the Gothic period; its tympanum has an image of the Virgin by Master Bartomeu (13th century). The cloister's galleries are home to numerous tombs of rich members of the monastery, dating to the 14th to 18th centuries, one also by Master Bartomeu (1273).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The Cathedral Treasury and Museum.", "content": "The museum's main attraction is the Tapestry of Creation, an 11th- or early-12th-century piece considered amongst the master works of Romanesque tapestry.  Other artworks include:  There are also other paintings and items, ranging from Medieval to Baroque, and including processional crosses, reliquaries, monstrances, etc.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Girona Cathedral, also known as the Cathedral of Saint Mary of Girona (in Catalan: \"Catedral de Santa Maria de Girona\" or simply \"Catedral de Girona\"), is a Roman Catholic church located in Girona, Catalonia, Spain. It is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Girona. The cathedral's interior includes the widest Gothic nave in the world, with a width of, and the second-widest of any church after that of St. Peter's Basilica (for comparison, the width of the nave of Reims Cathedral is 14.65 m, Saint-Étienne de Sens, 15.25 m and 12 m, in Notre Dame de Paris). Its construction was begun in the 11th century in the Romanesque architectural style, and continued in the 13th century in the Gothic style. Of the original Romanesque edifice only the 12th-century cloister and a bell tower remain. The second bell tower was completed in the 18th century.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977791}
{"src_title": "Abdelmadjid Tebboune", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Tebboune was born on 17 November 1945 in Mécheria, Algeria. He graduated from the in 1965.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Tebboune was Minister-Delegate for Local Government from 1991 to 1992, during the last months of Chadli Benjedid's presidency. Later, under President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, he served in the government as Minister of Communication and Culture from 1999 to 2000 and then as Minister-Delegate for Local Government from 2000 to 2001. He was the Minister of Housing and Urban Planning from 2001 to 2002. Ten years later, in 2012, he returned to the post of Minister of Housing in the government of Prime Minister Abdelmalek Sellal.He was also found in the Panama Papers.  Following the May 2017 parliamentary election, President Bouteflika appointed Tebboune to succeed Sellal as Prime Minister on 24 May 2017. The appointment of Tebboune was considered surprising by Algerian political elites, who had expected Sellal to be reappointed. The new government headed by Tebboune was appointed on 25 May.  Tebboune served as Prime Minister for less than three months. Bouteflika dismissed him and appointed Ahmed Ouyahia to succeed him on 15 August 2017; Ouyahia took office the next day.  On 12 December 2019, Tebboune was elected president following the 2019 Algerian presidential election, after taking 58% of the votes, against candidates from both main parties (the National Liberation Front and the Democratic National Rally). On 19 December, he assumed office and received the National Order of Merit from the acting President Abdelkader Bensalah.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "References.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Abdelmadjid Tebboune (; born 17 November 1945) is an Algerian politician currently serving as the President of Algeria since December 2019. He took over the power from former President Abdelaziz Bouteflika and former Acting Head of State Abdelkader Bensalah. Previously, he was Prime Minister of Algeria from May 2017 to August 2017. In addition, he was also Minister of Housing from 2001 to 2002 for a year and again from 2012 to 2017 for 5 years.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977792}
{"src_title": "Matrix (protocol)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The initial project was created inside Amdocs, while building a chat tool called \"Amdocs Unified Communications\", by Matthew Hodgson and Amandine Le Pape. Amdocs then funded most of the development work from 2014 to October 2017. Matrix was the winner of the Innovation award at WebRTC 2014 Conference & Expo, and of the \"Best in Show\" award at WebRTC World in 2015. The protocol received praise mixed with some cautionary notes after it launched in 2014. Reviewers noted that other attempts at defining an open instant messaging or multimedia signalling protocol of this type had difficulties becoming widely adopted—e.g. XMPP and IRCv3—and have highlighted the challenges involved, both technological and political. Some were unclear if there was enough demand among users for services which interoperate among providers. In 2015, a subsidiary of Amdocs was created, named \"Vector Creations Limited\", and the Matrix Staff was moved there.  In July 2017, the funding by Amdocs was announced to be cut and in the following weeks the core team created their own UK-based company, \"New Vector\", which was mainly built to support Matrix and Riot development. During this time period, there were multiple calls for support to the community and companies that build on Matrix, to help pay for the wages of at least part of the core team. Patreon and Liberapay crowdfunding accounts were created, and the core team started a video podcast, called Matrix \"Live\" to keep the contributors up to speed with ongoing developments. This was expanded by a weekly blog format, called \"This Week in Matrix\", where interested community members could read, or submit their own, Matrix-related news. The company was created with the goal of offering consultancy services for Matrix and paid hosting of Matrix servers (as a platform called modular.im) to generate income.  In the early weeks after its creation, the Matrix team and the company Purism published plans to collaborate in the creation of the Librem 5 phone. The Librem 5 was intended to be a Matrix native phone, where the default pre-installed messaging and caller app should use Matrix for audio and video calls and instant messaging.  In 2017, KDE announced it was working on including support for the protocol in its IRC client Konversation. In late January 2018, the company received an investment of USD $5 million from Status, an Ethereum based startup.  In April 2018, the French Government announced plans to create their own instant messaging tool. Work on the application based on Riot and Matrix protocol—called Tchap after French scientists Claude Chappe—has started in early 2018 and the program was open-sourced and released on iOS and Android in April 2019.  In October 2018, a Community Interest Company called \"The Matrix.org Foundation C.I.C.\" was incorporated, to serve as a neutral legal entity for further development of the standard.  In February 2019, the KDE community announced to adopt Matrix for its internal communications needs, as a decentralized alternative to other instant messaging servers like Telegram, Slack, and Discord, and operate its own server instance.  In April 2019, Matrix.org suffered a security breach in which the production servers were compromised. This breach was not an issue with the Matrix protocol and did not directly affect homeservers other than matrix.org.  In June 2019, the Matrix protocol is out of beta with the version 1.0 across all APIs (and Synapse, at the time the reference homeserver), and the Matrix foundation is officially launched.  In October 2019, New Vector raised an additional USD $8.5 million to develop Matrix.  In December 2019 German Ministry of Defense announced a pilot project called BwMessenger for secure instant messaging tool based on Matrix protocol, Synapse server and Riot application. This is modelled after French Tchap project. The long-term goal of the Federal Government is the secure use of messenger services that covers all ministries and subordinate authorities.  In December 2019 Mozilla announced that it would begin to use Matrix as a replacement for IRC. In the announcement, they said that they would be completing the move in late January 2020. The Mozilla IRC server, irc.mozilla.org, is said to be removed \"no later than March of next year [2020]\".  In May 2020 Matrix introduced end-to-end encryption by default for private conversations.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Protocol.", "content": "Matrix targets use cases like voice over IP, Internet of Things and instant messaging, including group communication, along with a longer-term goal to be a generic messaging and data synchronization system for the web. The protocol supports security and replication, maintaining full conversation history, with no single points of control or failure. Existing communication services can integrate with the Matrix ecosystem.  Client software is available for open-federated Instant Messaging (IM), voice over IP (VoIP) and Internet of Things (IoT) communication.  The Matrix standard specifies RESTful HTTP APIs for securely transmitting and replicating JSON data between Matrix-capable clients, servers and services. Clients send data by PUTing it to a ‘room’ on their server, which then replicates the data over all the Matrix servers participating in this ‘room’. This data is signed using a git-style signature to mitigate tampering, and the federated traffic is encrypted with HTTPS and signed with each server’s private key to avoid spoofing. Replication follows eventual consistency semantics, allowing servers to function even if offline or after data-loss by re-synchronizing missing history from other participating servers.  The Olm library provides for optional end-to-end encryption on a room-by-room basis via a Double Ratchet Algorithm implementation. It can ensure that conversation data at rest is only readable by the room participants. With it configured, data transmitted over Matrix is only visible as ciphertext to the Matrix servers, and can be decrypted only by authorized participants in the room. The Olm and Megolm (an expansion of Olm to better suit the need for bigger rooms) libraries have been subject of a cryptographic review by NCC Group, whose findings are publicly available, and have been addressed by the Matrix team. The review was sponsored by the Open Technology Fund.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Bridges.", "content": "Matrix supports bridging messages from different chat applications into Matrix rooms. These bridges are programs that run on the server and communicate with the non-Matrix servers. Bridges can either be acting as puppets or relays, where in the former the individual users account is visibly posting the messages, and in the latter a bot posts the messages for non puppeteered user accounts.  Currently there are official bridges for:  Bridges for the following notable applications are maintained by the community:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clients.", "content": "Riot is the reference implementation of a client. Many other clients, bots, bridges, servers and other implementations of the Matrix protocol also exist.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Servers.", "content": "Synapse is the reference implementation of a Matrix homeserver. There is a \"second generation Matrix homeserver\" called Dendrite being developed by the Matrix core team.  Following notable community maintained server implementations also exist:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Matrix (stylized as [matrix]) is an open standard and lightweight protocol for real-time communication. It is designed to allow users with accounts at one communications service provider to communicate with users of a different service provider via online chat, voice over IP, and videotelephony. That is, it aims to make real-time communication work seamlessly between different service providers, just like standard Simple Mail Transfer Protocol email does now for store-and-forward email service.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977793}
{"src_title": "Clyde Cessna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early years.", "content": "Cessna was born on December 5, 1879, in Hawthorne, in Montgomery County, Iowa, the son of Mary Vandora (Skates) and James William Cessna. Cessna's family was of French and German ancestry. When he was two years old, his family moved to rural Rago in Kingman County, Kansas, along the Chikaskia River. During his boyhood he used his self-taught innovation and mechanical skills to improve farm machinery and to develop new farming methods. He later became a successful car dealer in Enid, Oklahoma.  Cessna's interest in aviation began in 1910 after witnessing an aerial exhibition in his home state of Kansas. It was this exhibition that led him in future years to pursue his career in aviation. After realizing his interest in aviation, Cessna left Oklahoma and moved to New York State where he worked for a short period at the Queen Aeroplane Company where he first learned about the construction of aircraft.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "First flight.", "content": "In 1911, he set out to build his first airplane, an airplane he named \"Silverwing\". His first design was a monoplane, constructed of spruce and linen and which took the form of an American version of the Bleriot XI. The engine was a modified Elbridge motorboat motor, dubbed the \"aero special\", which was a 2-stroke, 4-cylinder engine with a maximum of and 1,050 rpm. Upon completion, he sought to test the aircraft at the Great Salt Plains (adjacent to the Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge) in Alfalfa County, Oklahoma. His first attempt at flight ended in a ground loop, which required $100 to repair. After repairs, Cessna attempted flight 13 more times, each time ending in some sort of failure. Finally on his 13th attempt, Cessna got a glimpse of hope as his aircraft bounced up into the air for a short time before crashing into the trees as he attempted to turn it. After his crash, Cessna exclaimed in frustration, \"I'm going to fly this thing, then I'm going to set it afire and never have another thing to do with aeroplanes!\". Finally, in June 1911 Cessna had his first successful flight. The crowds that had scoffed at his failures changed their tone and began calling him a \"daring hero\" and nicknamed him the \"Birdman of Enid\". Cessna continued to teach himself how to fly over the next several months until December 1911, when he made a successful flight and a successful landing at the point of departure. He was the first person to build and fly an airplane in the Heartland of the United States—between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The middle years.", "content": "After the success of the Silverwing, Cessna permanently quit his work with the automobile industry to pursue his interests in aviation. Between 1912 and 1915, Cessna developed several new monoplanes, all powered by an Anzani 6-cylinder with 40–60 hp. During this time, Clyde often flew his aircraft at holiday events and county fairs, an endeavour that at the time proved to be lucrative. It was in 1916 that Clyde acquired a vacant building to begin building a new aircraft for the 1917 aviation exhibition season. His factory served a dual purpose, as he also opened a flight school in which he enrolled five student pilots. However, in April 1917 when the United States declared war, the exhibition flying market ground to a halt. With his primary source of income grounded, Clyde returned to his old home near Rago, Kansas, where he resumed his duties on the family farm.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Travel Air Manufacturing Company.", "content": "In the years following World War I public interest in private flying increased, leading Cessna in 1925, along with Walter Beech and Lloyd Stearman, to found the Travel Air Manufacturing Company in Wichita, Kansas. While Cessna was president, the company soon became one of the leading US aircraft manufacturers. This success can be attributed to Cessna's advanced design concepts, creating aircraft that attained international recognition, while establishing numerous speed and distance records. After two years, Cessna left the company with plans to start his own firm, due to disputes with his partners over the monoplane design or the biplane design.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cessna Aircraft Corporation.", "content": "On September 7, 1927, Cessna and aviation entrepreneur Victor Roos paired to form Cessna-Roos Aircraft. Roos resigned just one month into the partnership, selling back his interest to Cessna, and the company changed its name to Cessna Aircraft Corporation in December. In the later part of 1927, Cessna struggled to design and build an efficient monoplane. The AW was completed near the end of 1927.  Cessna followed the AW with the CW-6, which flew in 1928, and the DC-6, which flew in 1929. He then collaborated with his son, Eldon, in designing and flying the CR-series racing aircraft.  Despite the success of new models, the Great Depression led to a catastrophic decline in aircraft sales, a bankruptcy filing for the corporation, and the complete closure of the company in 1931. In 1934, Cessna reopened his Wichita plant, which he soon sold to his nephews—aeronautical engineer Dwane Wallace and his brother, attorney Dwight Wallace—in 1936.  After turning over the Cessna Aircraft Corporation to his nephews, Dwane and Dwight Wallace, Cessna returned to a life of farming. Clyde operated an early diesel three-track tractor building ponds for local farmers. Upon Dwane's request, he agreed to participate in the company but served mostly in a ceremonial capacity and stayed out of the company's day-to-day business.  He died on November 20, 1954, at the age of 74 in Wichita, Kansas.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Cessna was posthumously inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1978 and the International Air & Space Hall of Fame in 1983. He was ranked number 27 on \"Flying\" magazine's list of the 51 Heroes of Aviation in 2013. The Kingman Airport – Clyde Cessna Field in Kingman, Kansas is named in his honor.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Clyde Vernon Cessna (; December 5, 1879 – November 20, 1954) was an American aircraft designer, aviator, and early aviation entrepreneur. He is best known as the principal founder of the Cessna Aircraft Corporation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977794}
{"src_title": "Phil Foden", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "Born in Stockport, Greater Manchester and a boyhood supporter of Manchester City, he joined at the age of eight and signed his Academy scholarship in July 2016. He was privately educated at St Bede's College, with his tuition fees being paid for by Manchester City. On 6 December 2016, City head coach Pep Guardiola included Foden in the matchday squad for the Champions League group stage match with Celtic; he was an unused substitute in the 1–1 home draw.  In July 2017, Foden was included in Manchester City's squad for the club's pre-season tour of the United States, where he performed impressively in a 0–2 loss to Manchester United and also started in a 4–1 win over Real Madrid. Guardiola stated after the Manchester United match: \"It's a long time since I saw something like this. His performance was another level. He's 17 years old, he's a City player, he grew up in the academy, he loves the club, he's a City fan and for us he's a gift.\"  After making several appearances on the bench at the start of the 2017–18 season, Foden made his Manchester City debut on 21 November 2017 in a Champions League game against Feyenoord, coming on in the 75th minute for Yaya Touré. He became the fourth-youngest English player to make an appearance in the Champions League (17 years 177 days). On 6 December 2017, Foden broke the record previously held by Josh McEachran to become the youngest English player, at the age of 17 years and 192 days, to start in a UEFA Champions League match, doing so in a 2–1 defeat to Shakhtar Donetsk. He also became the first player born in the year 2000 to start a match in the competition. He made his Premier League debut as a substitute in a 4–1 win against Tottenham Hotspur on 16 December 2017, appearing at the 83rd minute for İlkay Gündoğan.  Foden featured as a late substitute for Sergio Agüero in the EFL Cup Final on 25 February 2018, helping City secure a 3–0 victory against Arsenal at Wembley Stadium. The following month, he broke Kieran Richardson's record to become the youngest English player to start in a knockout-match in the Champions League, doing so at the age of 17 years and 283 days in a 4–0 win over Basel. On 13 May, he became the youngest ever player to receive a Premier League winners' medal. Guinness World Records recognised him for this feat in the 2020 edition of their book.  Foden was part of the City's starting line-up for the FA Community Shield on 5 August 2018, playing a total of 75 minutes as well as assisting Agüero's first goal of the game in a 2–0 victory over Chelsea at Wembley Stadium, marking Foden's third winners' medal of the calendar year. On 25 September 2018, he provided an assist to Riyad Mahrez and later scored his first senior goal in injury time to secure City a 3–0 away win against Oxford United in the third round of the EFL Cup.  Foden scored his first home goal at the Etihad Stadium, netting the second for City during their 7–0 victory against Rotherham United in the third round of the FA Cup on 6 January 2019. Three days later, Foden was again on the scoresheet as he helped City defeat Burton Albion 9–0 in the first leg of the EFL Cup semi-finals. On 12 March 2019, Foden scored his first Champions League goal during the second leg of the last-16 tie against Schalke, as City won 7–0 (10–2 on aggregate). In doing so, he helped the club equal the record for the largest winning margin in the knockout phase of the competition. His goal also saw him become Man City's youngest-ever goalscorer in the Champions League and the youngest English goalscorer to score in the knock-out stages of the competition, aged 18 years and 288 days. At the start of the following month, he made his first league start for the club in a 2–0 win over Cardiff City, becoming the youngest English player to do so since Daniel Sturridge in 2008. After the match, City manager Pep Guardiola told media that he expected Foden to be an important Manchester City player \"for the next decade\".  Foden scored his first Premier League goal on 20 April 2019, with the only goal in a 1–0 victory over Tottenham Hotspur. Upon doing so, he became the third-youngest player to score for the club in the Premier League, after Micah Richards and Sturridge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "Foden is an England youth international, who plays for the U21 team. In May 2017, he scored in the final of the 2017 UEFA European Under-17 Championship as the England under-17s suffered a penalty defeat at the hands of Spain.  In October of the same year, Foden gained widespread press attention after scoring twice in the final of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup, also against Spain, as England won the competition. He was named as the best player of the tournament.  He won the FIFA U-17 World Cup Golden Ball award in 2017 where he also gained some widespread press attention and significant media coverage.  On 27 May 2019, Foden was included in England's 23-man squad for the 2019 UEFA European Under-21 Championship and scored an impressive goal — his first for the U21s — in the opening 2–1 defeat to France in Cesena.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Foden is left-footed, and can play as a wing-back, or a winger on the right, though Pep Guardiola has described him as \"more of a midfielder\". In 2017, Guardiola described him as \"a special player\", saying: \"It's dangerous to say good things about young players because they are still young, and they have to grow and they have to learn many, many things... But we have a lot of confidence to help him, because we believe he is a guy who has potential, even if he's not strong, he's not tall.\" In 2017, Louise Taylor of \"The Guardian\" described Foden as \"boasting tight, adhesive control and blessed with the knack of drifting past opponents\". In 2018, veteran football writer Brian Glanville described him as a \"gifted and precocious teenager\", adding: \"Young players of his skill and inventive quality are pitifully thin on the ground.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "Manchester City  England U17  Individual", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Philip Walter Foden (born 28 May 2000) is an English professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Manchester City and the England under-21 team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977795}
{"src_title": "Minimally invasive strabismus surgery", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Indications.", "content": "MISS is a technique that can be employed for all major types of strabismus surgery like rectus muscle recessions, resections, plications, reoperations, transpositions, oblique muscle recessions, or plications, and adjustable sutures, even in the presence of restricted motility. The smaller openings and the less traumatic procedure are in general associated with faster postoperative rehabilitation and less swelling and dyscomfort for the patient immediately after the procedure. It is supposed that the technique can be performed as an outpatient intervention in many patients (mainly adults) who would otherwise be hospitalized. A study published in 2017 documented fewer conjunctival and eyelid swelling complications in the immediate postoperative period after MISS than after conventional strabismus surgery with long-term results being similar between both groups. Another advantage is that MISS technique may decrease the risk of anterior segment ischaemia in some patients, particularly those suffering from Graves' ophthalmopathy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Principle.", "content": "In MISS the operating microscope rather than magnifying glasses should be used by the surgeon. Instead of one large opening of the conjunctiva as is done in conventional strabismus surgery, several small cuts are placed where the main surgical steps, usually suturing, have to be performed. Openings are placed as far away from the corneal limbus as possible to minimize postoperative discomfort. Between two of these incisions, called keyhole openings, there is a \"tunnel\" used by the surgeon to insert the instrument for the treatment of the eye muscles. At the end of the operation, the keyhole openings are closed with resorbable sutures. These mini-incisions are postoperatively covered by the eyelid. MISS openings markedly reduce the frequency and severity of corneal complications like, for example, dry eye syndrome and dellen formation, and will allow wearing contact lenses earlier. Long-term benefits are avoidance of an increase of redness of the visible conjunctiva and a decreased scarring of the perimuscular tissue, which will facilitate reoperations - if those should become necessary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Clinical results.", "content": "The results after MISS regarding postoperative ocular alignment are widely described in the so far still limited literature on the technique to be about the same as in classical strabismus surgery. This was documented, for instance, in comparing 40 children; the group that had undergone the minimally invasive procedure, however, did show less swelling of the conjunctiva and the eyelids after surgery. Lesser rates of complications and faster reconvalescence have been widely established as the main advantages of MISS. The technique's efficacy has been shown for surgery of the rectus muscles as well as for the surgery of the oblique muscles. A group from India reported on the successful performance of MISS in patients with Graves' orbitopathy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Disadvantages and potential complications.", "content": "MISS is more time-consuming than conventional surgery. Operating on the muscles through the tunnel is more demanding on the surgeon. The keyhole cuts may tear in older patients. If the tear involves Tenon's capsule, a visible scar may result. An excessive bleeding that cannot be stopped makes an enlargement of the cuts necessary to cauterize the vessel. Usually, a conversion to a limbal opening as in classical strabismus surgery can be avoided. There are few reports, though, on complications that are unique to MISS.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Minimally invasive strabismus surgery (MISS) is a technique in strabismus surgery that uses smaller incisions than the classical surgical approach to correct the condition, thus minimizing tissue disruption. The technique was introduced by Swiss ophthalmologist Daniel Mojon around 2007, after the Belgian ophthalmologist Marc Gobin described the idea in 1994 in a French-language textbook.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977796}
{"src_title": "The Promised Neverland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Set in the year 2045, Emma is an 11-year-old orphan living in Grace Field House, a self-contained orphanage housing her and 37 other orphans. Life has never been better: with gourmet food; plush beds; clean clothes; games; and the love from their \"Mama\", the caretaker, Isabella. The bright and cheerful Emma always aces the regular exams with her two best friends, Ray and Norman. The orphans are allowed complete freedom, except to venture beyond the grounds or the gate, which connects the house to the outside world.  One night, an orphan named Conny is sent away to be adopted, but Emma and Norman followed her after noticing that she left her stuffed toy, Little Bunny, back at the house. At the gate, they find Conny dead, and they realize the truth of their existence in this idyllic orphanage—to be \"humanely\" raised, eventually butchered, and sold as meat to a \"higher\" species which were identified as \"demons\" throughout the series. Determined to break out of Grace Field House, Norman and Emma join with Ray to find a way to escape along with their other siblings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manga.", "content": "Kaiu Shirai and Posuka Demizu launched \"The Promised Neverland\" in the 34th issue of Shueisha's \"shōnen\" manga magazine \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\" on August 1, 2016. It is Shirai and Demizu's second collaboration; their first series was \"Popy no Negai\". It originated from a draft, titled \"Neverland\" (later expanded to \"The Promised Neverland\" due to copyright issues), that Shirai brought to the Jump editorial department in 2014, which covered the series' entire first story arc in over 300 pages. In August 2019, it was announced that the series has entered the \"climax\" of its final arc. The manga finished in the 28th issue of \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\" on June 15, 2020. Shueisha has compiled its chapters into individual \"tankōbon\" volumes. The first volume was published on December 2, 2016. The twentieth and final volume will be published in October 2020.  On July 25, 2016, Viz Media announced that they would digitally publish the first three chapters of the series on \"Weekly Shonen Jump\" magazine. Thereafter, published the manga's new chapters simultaneously with the Japanese release. The first printed volume in North America was released on December 5, 2017. Shueisha began to simulpublish the series in English on the website and app \"Manga Plus\" in January 2019.  A comedic spin-off titled \"Oyakusoku no Neverland\" was published in the \"Shonen Jump+\" application from January 11 to March 28, 2019 and its compiled \"tankōbon\" volume was released on June 4, 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Light novels.", "content": "A light novel titled, written by Nanao, was released on June 3, 2018. A second light novel titled, written by Nanao, was released on January 4, 2019. A third light novel has been announced.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anime.", "content": "An anime television series adaptation was announced in the 26th issue of \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\" on May 28, 2018. The series aired from January 11 to March 29, 2019 on Fuji TV's late-night Noitamina anime programming block. The series is animated by CloverWorks and directed by Mamoru Kanbe, with Toshiya Ono handling series composition, Kazuaki Shimada handling character designs, and Takahiro Obata composing the series' music. The series ran for 12 episodes, which covered the series' first story arc, equivalent to manga chapters 1 through 37. It simulcasted on Amazon Video, but only in Japan, contrary to the contract giving Amazon exclusive streaming rights to shows that have aired on Noitamina since Spring 2016, as Wakanim has exclusive streaming rights in France. UVERworld performs the series' opening theme song \"Touch Off,\" while Cö shu Nie performs the series' ending theme songs \"Zettai Zetsumei\" and \"Lamp\".  Aniplex of America streamed the series on Crunchyroll, Hulu, Funimation, and Hidive, starting on January 9, 2019. Madman Entertainment simulcasted the series on AnimeLab in Australia and New Zealand. On March 28, 2019, Adult Swim announced that the anime's first season will be aired on the Toonami block starting April 13, 2019. Funimation added the series to its streaming service and it will began on July 1, 2020.  A second season was announced in March 2019, and originally announced to premiere in October 2020, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was postponed to January 2021.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Live-action film.", "content": "A live-action film is planned to be released on December 18, 2020. Directed by Yūichirō Hirakawa with Noriko Gotou handling the film's script, it will star Minami Hamabe as Emma, Jyo Kairi as Ray, Rihito Itagaki as Norman, Keiko Kitagawa as Isabella and Naomi Watanabe as Krone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Live-action series.", "content": "In June 2020, it was revealed that Amazon Studios is developing an English-language live-action series adaptation of the manga. Rodney Rothman is directing the series and Meghan Malloy is writing the pilot. Rothman, Masi Oka, Roy Lee and Miri Yoon are the executive producers of the series. Fox 21 Television Studios and Amazon Studios are producing the series.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other media.", "content": "In June 2020, it was announced that an artbook and a fanbook will be published, and an art exhibition will start in Tokyo on December 11, 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manga.", "content": "As of August 2017, the manga had 1.5 million in print. By October 2017, the number had increased to 2.1 million. As of January 2019, the first 12 volumes had 8.8 million copies in print worldwide. As of September 2019, the manga had over 16 million copies in print. As of June 2020, the manga had over 21 million copies in circulation. \"The Promised Neverland\" was the 8th best selling manga in 2018, with over 4.2 million copies sold. It was the 4th best selling manga in 2019, with over 7.4 million copies sold.  The manga was nominated for the 10th Manga Taishō awards in January 2017, receiving 43 points from the Manga Taisho awards' \"Executive Committee.\" The manga was also nominated for the 11th edition of the Manga Taishō awards in 2018, receiving 26 points in total. In January 2018, the manga won the 63rd Shogakukan Manga Award in the \"shōnen\" category. The series ranked 1st on a list of the top manga of 2018 for male readers put together by \"Kono Manga ga Sugoi!\". In 2019, \"The Promised Neverland\" ranked 35th on the 19th \"Book of the Year\" list by \"Da Vinci\" magazine.  Anime News Network's Rebecca Silverman enjoyed the first manga volume and gave it a A−, saying, \"Tense pacing, interesting literary connections, art and story work well together, strong plot and foreshadowing.\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anime.", "content": "In February 2020, the anime series was awarded \"Best Fantasy\" at Crunchyroll Anime Awards, and the Grace Field House caretaker Isabella won the \"Best Antagonist\" category.  In November 2019, \"Polygon\" named the series as one of the best anime of the 2010s, and Crunchyroll listed it in their \"Top 100 best anime of the 2010s\". IGN also listed \"The Promised Neverland\" among the best anime series of the 2010s.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "An anime television series adaptation by CloverWorks premiered from January to March 2019 in the Noitamina programming block. A second season has been announced to premiere in January 2021. A live-action film adaptation is set to release in December 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977797}
{"src_title": "Verona Cathedral", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The façade is divided into three parts, with a pediment and a two storied projecting porch or protiro embellished with sculpture, which is the work of the twelfth-century sculptor Nicholaus, who also executed and signed the entranceway at the abbey church of San Zeno, also in Verona, and Ferrara Cathedral. The portico is supported on the backs of two griffins, similar to those from the dismantled Porta dei Mesi at Ferrara. The lunette depicts the \"Virgin holding the Christ child\" in high relief, centered between two low relief scenes, the \"Annunciation to the Shepherds\" (left) and the \"Adoration of the Magi\" (right). On the lintel in medallions are the three theological virtues, \"Faith\", \"Charity\" and \"Hope\". Ten figures of prophets are set in the doorposts and jambs; the four symbols of the Evangelists and the Hand of God are set above in the barrel vault of the first story of the porch. Set into the walls on either side of the portal are figures of Roland and Oliver, who as holy warriors, remind one of the constant need to provide protection to the church.  The Gothic windows in the facade provide evidence of the renovation that took place in the 14th century. The Baroque addition at the upper part of the facade is part of 17th-century additions. On the south side of the church is a second portal executed in the so-called Lombard or Como style. The main apse has retained its integrity and as such is an example of mid-12th-century architecture. The bell tower, begun in the 16th century by Michele Sanmicheli and left unfinished, has two orders of columns with highly decorated capitals, bas-reliefs and traces of 14th-century frescoes. It contains nine bells in the scale of A. The tenor weight is 4566 kg. The bells are rung with the tradition of Veronese bellringing art.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The current appearance of the interior dates from the 15th-century renovations. It has a nave and two aisles divided by tall pilasters in red Verona marble, which support Gothic arcades. The first three chapels on each side are in the same style, and house mostly Renaissance artworks by Veronese artists. The nave ends with the main Chapel (\"Cappella Maggiore\"), also by Sanmicheli.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Library.", "content": "The Chapter Library of Verona Cathedral (\"Biblioteca Capitolare della Cattedrale di Verona\") is one of the world's oldest libraries in continuous function. Such is its importance that it has been dubbed the “Queen of ecclesiastical collections”. Many ancient works of the Classical tradition have survived only because of the Chapter Library, including:  It holds also important early Christian writings, such as:  The following signature in a life of Saint Martin of Tours by a scribe is usually considered to mark the conventional dating of the founding of the Library: “my name is Ursicinus, Lector of the Church of Verona”, confirming that he finished the work in the consulship of Agapitus (517).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Verona Cathedral () is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Verona, northern Italy, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary under the designation \"Santa Maria Matricolare\". It is the episcopal seat of the Diocese of Verona.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977798}
{"src_title": "2019–20 UEFA Champions League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 79 teams from 54 of the 55 UEFA member associations participate in the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League (the exception being Liechtenstein, which does not organise a domestic league). The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients is used to determine the number of participating teams for each association:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association ranking.", "content": "For the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League, the associations are allocated places according to their 2018 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2013–14 to 2017–18.  Apart from the allocation based on the country coefficients, associations may have additional teams participating in the Champions League, as noted below:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The following is the access list for this season.  Changes are made to the default access list, if the Champions League and/or Europa League title holders qualify for the tournament via their domestic leagues. In any case where a spot in the Champions League is vacated, teams of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds of the appropriate path are promoted accordingly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "League positions of the previous season shown in parentheses (TH: Champions League title holders; EL: Europa League title holders).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "The schedule of the competition is as follows (all draws are held at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland, unless stated otherwise).  The competition was suspended on 17 March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe. A working group was set up by UEFA to decide the calendar of the remainder of the season. On 17 June 2020, UEFA announced the revised schedule for the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final of the competition, to be played in single-leg matches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary round.", "content": "In the preliminary round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2019 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into one-legged semi-final and final ties. The losers of both semi-final and final rounds entered the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League second qualifying round.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying rounds.", "content": "In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2019 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First qualifying round.", "content": "The losers entered the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League second qualifying round, except one team who was drawn to receive a bye to the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League third qualifying round.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The second qualifying round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for league non-champions). The losers from both Champions Path and League Path entered the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League third qualifying round.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for league non-champions). The losers from the Champions Path entered the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League play-off round, while the losers from the League Path entered the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League group stage.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The play-off round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for league non-champions). The losers from both Champions Path and League Path entered the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League group stage. From this stage, the video assistant referee will be used.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The draw for the group stage was held on 29 August 2019, 18:00 CEST, at the Grimaldi Forum in Monaco. The 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association cannot be drawn against each other. For the draw, the teams were seeded into four pots based on the following principles:  In each group, teams play against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The group winners and runners-up advance to the round of 16, while the third-placed teams enter the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League round of 32. The matchdays are 17–18 September, 1–2 October, 22–23 October, 5–6 November, 26–27 November, and 10–11 December 2019.  The youth teams of the clubs that qualify for the group stage also participate in the 2019–20 UEFA Youth League on the same matchdays, where they compete in the UEFA Champions League Path (the youth domestic champions of the top 32 associations compete in a separate Domestic Champions Path until the play-offs).  A total of 16 national associations are represented in the group stage. Atalanta made their debut appearance in the group stage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.  There have been 344 goals scored in 108 matches, for an average of goals per match.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Top goalscorers.", "content": "Notes", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Top assists.", "content": "Notes", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2019–20 UEFA Champions League is the 65th season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 28th season since it was renamed from the European Champion Clubs' Cup to the UEFA Champions League.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977799}
{"src_title": "2019–20 UEFA Europa League", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Association team allocation.", "content": "A total of 213 teams from all 55 UEFA member associations participate in the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League. The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients is used to determine the number of participating teams for each association:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Association ranking.", "content": "For the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League, the associations are allocated places according to their 2018 UEFA country coefficients, which takes into account their performance in European competitions from 2013–14 to 2017–18.  Apart from the allocation based on the country coefficients, associations may have additional teams participating in the Champions League, as noted below:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "The following is the access list for this season.  Changes are made to the default access list, if any of the teams that qualify for the Europa League via their domestic competitions also qualify for the Champions League as the Champions League or Europa League title holders, or if there are fewer teams transferred from the Champions League due to changes in the Champions League access list. In any case where a spot in the Europa League is vacated, cup winners of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are promoted accordingly.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Redistribution rules.", "content": "A Europa League place is vacated when a team qualifies for both the Champions League and the Europa League, or qualifies for the Europa League by more than one method. When a place is vacated, it is redistributed within the national association by the following rules:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "The labels in the parentheses show how each team qualified for the place of its starting round: One team not playing a national top division took part in the competition; Vaduz (representing Liechtenstein) played in 2018–19 Swiss Challenge League, which is Switzerland's 2nd tier.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Round and draw dates.", "content": "The schedule of the competition is as follows (all draws are held at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland, unless stated otherwise). Matches may also be played on Tuesdays or Wednesdays instead of the regular Thursdays due to scheduling conflicts.  The competition was suspended on 17 March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe. A working group was set up by UEFA to decide the calendar of the remainder of the season. On 17 June 2020, UEFA announced the revised schedule for the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final of the competition, to be played in single-leg matches.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preliminary round.", "content": "In the preliminary round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2019 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying rounds.", "content": "In the qualifying rounds and the play-off round, teams are divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2019 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties. Teams from the same association cannot be drawn against each other.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Second qualifying round.", "content": "The second qualifying round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for cup winners and league non-champions).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Third qualifying round.", "content": "The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for cup winners and league non-champions).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Play-off round.", "content": "The play-off round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for cup winners and league non-champions).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group stage.", "content": "The draw for the group stage was held on 30 August 2019, 13:00 CEST, at the Grimaldi Forum in Monaco. The 48 teams were drawn into twelve groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other. For the draw, the teams were seeded into four pots based on their 2019 UEFA club coefficients.  In each group, teams play against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The group winners and runners-up advance to the round of 32, where they are joined by the eight third-placed teams of the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League group stage. The matchdays are 19 September, 3 October, 24 October, 7 November, 28 November, and 12 December 2019.  A total of 26 national associations are represented in the group stage. Espanyol, Ferencváros, LASK, Oleksandriya, Wolfsberg and Wolverhampton Wanderers made their debut appearances in the group stage (although Espanyol and Ferencváros had appeared in the UEFA Cup group stage).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Knockout phase.", "content": "In the knockout phase, teams play against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "Statistics exclude qualifying rounds and play-off round.  There have been 509 goals scored in 182 matches, for an average of goals per match.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Top goalscorers.", "content": "Notes", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The 2019–20 UEFA Europa League is the 49th season of Europe's secondary club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 11th season since it was renamed from the UEFA Cup to the UEFA Europa League.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977800}
{"src_title": "Solastalgia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Solastalgia in different contexts.", "content": "A paper published by Albrecht et al. in 2005 focused on two contexts: the experiences of persistent drought in rural New South Wales and the impact of large-scale open-cut coal mining on individuals in the Upper Hunter Valley of NSW. In both cases, people exposed to environmental change had negative reactions brought about by a sense of powerlessness over the unfolding environmental changes. A community's loss of certainty in a once predictable environment is common among groups that express solastalgia. Societies whose livelihoods are not closely tied to their environment are not as likely to express solastalgia and, in turn, societies that are closely tied to their environments are more susceptible. Groups that depend heavily upon agroecosystems are considered particularly vulnerable. There are many examples of this across Africa, where agrarian communities have lost vital resources due to environmental changes. This has resulted in an increase in the number of environmental refugees throughout Africa in recent years. Solastalgia tends to affect wealthier populations less. A study conducted in the western United States showed that higher-income families experienced the effects of solastalgia significantly less than their lower-income neighbors following a destructive wildfire. This is due to the flexibility wealth can provide. In this case, wealthy families were able to move from or rebuild their homes, reducing the uncertainty caused by the wildfire. Other studies have supported the existence of solastalgia in Appalachian communities affected by mountain-top removal coal mining practices. Communities located in close proximity to coal mining sites experienced significantly higher depression rates than those located farther from the sites.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Solastalgia () is a neologism that describes a form of emotional or existential distress caused by environmental change. It is best described as the lived experience of negatively perceived environmental change. Albrecht describes it as \"the homesickness you have when you are still at home\" and your home environment is changing in ways you find distressing. In many cases this is in reference to global climate change, but more localized events such as volcanic eruptions, drought or destructive mining techniques can cause solastalgia as well. Coined by philosopher Glenn Albrecht in 2005, it was formed by the combination of the Latin words \"sōlācium\" (comfort) and the Greek root \"-algia\" (pain). Differing from homesickness, solastalgia refers to the distress specifically caused by environmental change. In 2015, the medical journal \"The Lancet\" included solastalgia as a contributing concept to the impact of Climate Change on Human Health and Wellbeing.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977801}
{"src_title": "Bothrops atrox", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The common lancehead was one of the many reptile and amphibian species described by Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his \"Systema Naturae\", where it was given the binomial name of \"Coluber atrox\".  Common names include lancehead, \"fer-de-lance\", \"barba amarilla\", and \"mapepire balsain\", among others.  The Spanish common name \"barba amarilla\" (yellow beard), an allusion to the pale yellow chin color, is also used in English. In Colombia, it is known as \"mapaná \" (Llanos of Vichada) and \"talla equis\". In Guyana and Suriname, it is called \"labaria\" or \"labarria\". In Peru, it is called \"aroani\" (Yagua), \"cascabel\" (juveniles), \"ihdóni\" (Bora), \"jergón\", \"jergona\", \"jergón de la selva\", \"macánchi\" (Alto Marañón), \"machacú\", \"marashar\" and \"nashipkit\" (Aguaruna names).  In Venezuela, it is called \"mapanare\". The \"jergón\" name is an allusion to the x-like markings of the color pattern. In Ecuador and Panama, these x-like markings have led to the snake simply being referred to as \"equis\" (the Spanish name of the letter 'x'). In Trinidad it is known as \"mapepire balsain\". In Bolivia it is called \"Yoperojobobo\". In Brazil the common names are \"Jararaca\" or \"Jararaca-do-norte\".  The taxonomy of this species is controversial; it may include \"B. leucurus\" and \"B. moojeni\", and some of its populations are sometimes said to be separate species. \"B. asper\" was formerly included in this species, but most authorities now consider it distinct.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "A terrestrial species, adults usually grow to a total length 75–125 cm (about 30-50 inches) and are moderately heavy-bodied. Reports of the maximum size are not clear, as this species is often confused with \"B. asper\". Soini (1974) mentioned of a series of 80 specimens collected in northeastern Peru, the largest was a female of. The largest specimen measured by Campbell and Lamar (2004) was a female with a total length of.  The scalation includes 23-29 (usually 23-25) rows of dorsal scales at midbody, 169-214 and 177-214 ventral scales in males and females, respectively, 52-86 (usually 75 or fewer) subcaudal scales in males, which are usually divided, and 47-72 subcaudals in females. On the head, the rostral scale is about as high, or slightly higher, than it is wide. There are three to 11 (usually five to 9) keeled intersupraocular scales, seven to 13 (usually eight to 11) sublabial scales and six to 9 (usually seven) supralabial scales, the second of which is fused with the prelacunal to form a lacunolabial. The color pattern is highly variable, including a ground color that may be olive, brown, tan, gray, yellow, or (rarely) rusty. The body markings are highly variable, as is the degree of contrast: in some specimens the pattern is very well defined, while in others it may be virtually absent. In general, however, the body pattern consists of a series of dorsolateral blotches, rectangular or trapezoidal in shape, which extend from the first scale row to the middle of the back. These blotches may oppose or alternate across the midline, often fusing to form bands. They also have pale borders, which in some cases may be prominent, and may be invaded from below by tan or gray pigment, occasionally dividing them into pairs of ventrolateral spots. The belly may be white, cream or yellowish gray, with an increasing amount of gray to black mottling posteriorly that may fade again under the tail. The head usually does not have any markings other than a moderately wide postocular stripe that runs from behind the eye back to the angle of the mouth. The iris is gold or bronze, with varying amounts of black reticulation, while the tongue is black.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "This species is found in the tropical lowlands of South America east of the Andes, including southeastern Colombia, southern and eastern Venezuela, the island of Trinidad (although there is some confusion regarding the systematics of this population), Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, Panama, northern Bolivia and the northern half of Brazil. The type locality is listed as \"Asia\", which is obviously a mistake. Schmidt and Walker (1943:295) proposed this be corrected to \"Surinam\".  Despite the vast destruction of rain forests, it is among the most numerous and common of pit vipers and is not endangered. In Trinidad, it prefers wet forests from sea level to 940 m.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Behavior.", "content": "Although generally terrestrial, it is also an excellent swimmer and even climbs trees when necessary to reach prey. Generally nocturnal, it may forage at any time of the day, though, if necessary. These snakes are also easily agitated.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Feeding.", "content": "The main diet includes mostly small mammals and birds, but also frogs, lizards and tarantulas. Larger prey is struck and released, after which it is tracked down via its scent trail.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "\"Bothrops atrox\" can give live birth to up to 80 offspring at once. Adults breed year-round. After mating, females with developing embryos travel in and out of sunlight to keep themselves and the embryos at a constant temperature. In equatorial regions, the gestation period is about three to four months, with an average of 60 young per litter. At birth, the young are about in total length, more brightly colored than adults, and have yellow or beige tails.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Venom.", "content": "These snakes are known to search for rodents in coffee and banana plantations. Workers there are often bitten by the snakes, which can lie camouflaged for hours, nearly undetectable, and strike with high speed.  Their venom consists mostly of hemotoxin, a toxic protein that affects the circulatory and nervous system; it destroys red blood cells, and sometimes loss of memory occurs. They are much feared because their venom is particularly lethal and fast acting. Presently, treatment is usually possible if the victim receives medical attention soon enough. Commonly, bites from this snake cause symptoms including nausea, blackouts, and paralysis. In almost all cases, temporary and sometimes permanent loss of local or'short term' memory were reported. Extended hospital stays, as well as weight loss of up to 15 pounds, have also been reported.  Venom yield averages, although it may be as much as. The enzyme reptilase (batroxobin), derived from this snake's venom, is used in modern medical laboratories to measure fibrinogen levels and blood coagulation capability. The test is considered to be a replacement for thrombin time, and is used when heparin is present in the sample. The enzyme is unaffected by heparin.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bothrops atrox — also known as the common lancehead, fer-de-lance, barba amarilla and mapepire balsain — is a highly venomous pit viper species found in the tropical lowlands of northern South America east of the Andes. No subspecies are currently recognized.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977802}
{"src_title": "Paladins (video game)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "\"Paladins: Champions of the Realm\" takes place in a sci-fi fantasy world. There are elements of both fantasy and science fiction, including medieval-looking soldiers who use ranged weapons such as shotguns and assault rifles instead of swords.  In the world of \"Paladins\", there is a conflict between two factions; the Magistrate and the Paladins. Champions were recruited in order to minimize casualties of regular foot soldiers. The champions would be considered \"special forces\" as they are more efficient at combat than a regular soldier. Not all champions are committed, however. There were a few who did not pick sides during the war, rather they would contract with both, rendering them mercenaries. The rest of these special forces were committed to a faction, either the Magistrate or the Paladins/Resistance. There are also minor factions in the game as well, the \"Abyss\", the \"Thousand Hands\" and the \"Pyre\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Paladins\" provides various characters, called Champions, for the players to choose during their gaming sessions. Each of these Champions falls into one of the following categories: Front Line, Damage, Support, and Flank. Being a team-based shooter, players must rely on strategy, character knowledge, coordination, and teamwork in order to attain victory. Players may use VGS, along with text and voice chat to communicate. A good team will have a balanced choice of classes that will support each other during the game.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Game modes.", "content": "There are different gameplay modes for \"Paladins\":", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Paladins Strike.", "content": "Paladins Strike is the mobile version of the game, launched in May 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "In response to accusations that the game is an \"Overwatch\" clone, Hi-Rez COO Todd Harris said that \"\"Overwatch\" was not the inspiration for \"Paladins\"\", and \"the game that deserves the most credit is \"Team Fortress 2\"\".  The game was nominated for \"Best Competitive Game\" at the 2018 Golden Joystick Awards.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Paladins: Champions of the Realm is a free-to-play online Hero shooter video game by Hi-Rez. The game was developed by Evil Mojo, an internal studio of Hi-Rez, and was released in 2018 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977803}
{"src_title": "Harold en Italie", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Creation.", "content": "Niccolò Paganini (1782–1840) encouraged Berlioz (1803–1869) to write \"Harold en Italie\". The two first met after a concert of Berlioz's works conducted by Narcisse Girard on 22 December 1833, three years after the premiere of Berlioz's \"Symphonie fantastique\". According to Berlioz' \"Memoires\", Paganini had acquired a \"superb viola\", a Stradivarius (the so-called \"Paganini-Mendelssohn\" ) — \"But I have no suitable music. Would you like to write a solo for viola? You are the only one I can trust for this task.\" (\"J'ai un alto merveilleux, me dit-il, un instrument admirable de Stradivarius, et je voudrais en jouer en public. Mais je n'ai pas de musique ad hoc. Voulez-vous écrire un solo d'alto? je n'ai confiance qu'en vous pour ce travail.\")  Berlioz began \"by writing a solo for viola, but one which involved the orchestra in such a way as not to reduce the effectiveness of the orchestral contribution.\" When Paganini saw the sketch of the allegro movement, with all the rests in the viola part, he told Berlioz it would not do, and that he expected to be playing continuously. They then parted, with Paganini disappointed.  Lord Byron's poem \"Childe Harold's Pilgrimage\" inspired the mood of \"Harold\". Berlioz wrote, My intention was to write a series of orchestral scenes, in which the solo viola would be involved as a more or less active participant while retaining its own character. By placing it among the poetic memories formed from my wanderings in the Abruzzi, I wanted to make the viola a kind of melancholy dreamer in the manner of Byron's Childe-Harold. (\"je voulus faire de l'alto, en le plaçant au milieu des poétiques souvenirs que m'avaient laissés mes pérégrinations dans les Abruzzes, une sorte de rêveur mélancolique dans le genre du Child-Harold de Byron.\") That he had recycled some of the material from his discarded concert overture, \"Rob Roy\", went unmentioned. Despite Berlioz' mention of Byron, music critics, such as Donald Tovey have taken pains to point out that \"Harold in Italy\" owes nearly nothing to the poem: \"no definite elements of Byron's poem have penetrated the impregnable fortress of Berlioz's encyclopaedic inattention...there is no trace in Berlioz's music of any of the famous passages of \"Childe Harold\".\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Form.", "content": "From a formal point of view, the work can be regarded as a symphony. For example, it has four movements, the third of which is a Beethovenesque scherzo. The solo parts never have a virtuoso style comparable to other solo concertos. The viola has its most important role in the first movement, where it introduces the \"Harold\" theme as well as the two secondary themes.  In addition to the solo viola, the work calls for 2 flutes (2nd doubling piccolo), 2 oboes (1st doubling cor anglais in movement III), 2 clarinets in C (movements I, III, and IV) and A (movement II), 4 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 cornets, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, cymbals, triangle, 2 tambourines, harp and strings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Musical description.", "content": "The first movement (\"Harold aux montagnes\") refers to the scenes that Harold, the melancholic character, encounters in mountains. In the second movement (\"Marche des pèlerins\"), Harold accompanies a group of pilgrims.  The third movement (\"Sérénade\") involves a love scene; someone plays a serenade for his mistress. In the fourth movement, (\"Orgie de brigands\"), spiritually tired and depressed, Harold seeks comfort among wild and dangerous company, perhaps in a tavern. Jacques Barzun reminds us that \"The brigand of Berlioz's time is the avenger of social injustice, the rebel against the City, who resorts to nature for healing the wounds of social man.\"  Throughout the symphony, the viola represents Harold's character. The manner in which the viola theme hesitantly repeats its opening phrase—gaining confidence, like an idea forming, before the long melody spills out in its entirety—was satirized in a musical paper after the premiere. It began \"Ha! ha! ha! – haro! haro! Harold!\"—a cheeky touch that Berlioz recalled years later in his \"Memoirs.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "\"Harold in Italy\" was premiered on 23 November 1834 with the Orchestre de la Société des Concerts du Conservatoire, Chrétien Urhan playing the viola part, Narcisse Girard conducting. Even though the second movement \"March of the Pilgrims\" received an encore, this performance contributed to Berlioz's decision to conduct his own music in the future.  Paganini did not hear the work he had commissioned until 16 December 1838; then he was so overwhelmed by it that, following the performance, he dragged Berlioz onto the stage and there knelt and kissed his hand before a wildly cheering audience and applauding musicians. A few days later he sent Berlioz a letter of congratulations, enclosing a bank draft for 20,000 francs.  Franz Liszt prepared a piano transcription (with viola accompaniment) of the work in 1836 (S.472).  The first studio recording was made by RCA in 1944 with William Primrose and the Boston Symphony Orchestra conducted by Serge Koussevitzky.  The piece was used in Terrence Malick's 2013 film \"To The Wonder,\" starring Ben Affleck and Olga Kurylenko. The film has several visual references to the composition's content and history.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Recordings.", "content": "\"Harold en Italie\" has been frequently recorded.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Harold en Italie, Symphonie en quatre parties avec un alto principal (English: Harold in Italy, Symphony in Four Parts with Viola Obbligato), Op. 16, H. 68, a symphony with solo viola by Hector Berlioz, written in 1834.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977804}
{"src_title": "Cornelis de Bruijn", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "De Bruijn was born in The Hague.  During his first tour, he visited Rome, where he became a member of the Bentvueghels with the nickname \"Adonis\", which is how he signed the \"bentbrief\" of Abraham Genoels II. He travelled in Egypt and climbed to the top of a pyramid where he left his signature. De Bruijn made secret drawings of Jerusalem, then part of the Ottoman Empire. His drawings of Palmyra are copies. De Bruijn reached Cyprus and stayed among the Dutch merchants in Smyrna and Constantinople. From 1684 he worked in Venice with the painter Johann Carl Loth, returning in 1693 to The Hague, where he sold his souvenirs. In 1698 he published his book with drawings, which was a success and was translated in several languages. Two examples have colored illustrations, the first color prints in history. Among his drawings were the first pictures of the interior of the Great Pyramid and Jerusalem that became known in Europe.  In 1701 he headed for Archangelsk. During his second tour he visited the Samoyeds in northern Russia. In Moscow he became acquainted with emperor Peter the Great: de Bruijn painted his nieces, and the paintings were sent to possible candidates for marriage.  In late April 1703, De Bruijn left Moscow along with the party of an Armenian merchants from Isfahan whose name he recorded as Jacob Daviedof. De Bruijn and the Armenians sailed down the Moscow River, the Oka and the Volga, eventually reaching Astrakhan. Thanks to de Bruijn's short stopover in Nizhny Novgorod during the Easter holidays, we now have his description of that major center of the Russian Volga trade as it existed in 1703, with its Kremlin, stone churches, and a lively bar (\"kabak\") scene.  Leaving the borders of the Russian state, de Bruijn arrived to Persia, where he made drawings of towns like Isfahan and Persepolis (1704–1705). He continued to Java and returned to Persia, Russia, and ultimately the Netherlands.  His drawings of Persepolis, a city destroyed by Alexander the Great, caused a sensation. The mayor of Amsterdam Nicolaes Witsen and a member of the Royal Society probably asked him to draw the city famous for its 40 columns. For a century, they were the best prints available to western scholars. De Bruijn was accused of plagiarism and his second book, \"Reizen over Moskovie\" was not such a success. From Amsterdam he fled to Vianen.  De Bruijn died in Utrecht. It is not known when and where he was buried.  De Bruijn, who had read every Greek and Latin source he had been able to obtain, displays a convincing knowledge of subjects, at times going into the humorous. In Persia, he obtained a copy of Firdausi's \"Shahnamê\", which he summarized and made accessible to the west.  Other English translations appeared in 1737, 1759, and 1873.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Cornelis de Bruijn (also spelled \"Cornelius de Bruyn\", ; 16521726/7) was a Dutch artist and traveler. He made two large tours and published illustrated books with his observations of people, buildings, plants and animals.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977805}
{"src_title": "Teresio Olivelli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Teresio Olivelli was born in 1916 in Como to Domenico Olivelli and Clelia Invernizzi. His maternal uncle was the priest Rocco Invernizzi – parish priest of Tremezzo – who served as Olivelli's spiritual and moral point of reference. He moved with his parents in 1926 to Pavia and was good at Latin when he studied there.  He studied at Mortara and at Vigevano before transferring his studies to Pavia in 1934 where he graduated in law with honors in 1938 from the Ghislieri College. Each week he went to confession and to receive the Eucharist in the parish of San Lorenzo. It was around this time that he was a member of Catholic Action as well as the F.U.C.I. and a Fascist student group. In 1939 he became the assistant of administrative law at the University of Turin and won a competition in Trieste for oratorical skills, with a thesis on human dignities for all irrespective of race. He also penned articles on the social and legal issues of the times in the college paper \"Book and Musket\" and in the journal \"Fascist Civilization\". While in Turin he aided the poor and orphaned. He also learned to speak fluent German.  In 1936 he volunteered to fight in the Spanish Civil War and then moved for educational reasons to Berlin from 1939 to 1941. In 1941 he volunteered to go to Russia to fight in World War II where he contracted frostbite due to the severe cold weather. Olivelli did not want to swear allegiance to the new Italian Social Republic in 1943 and was thus deported to Innsbruck in Austria on 9 September 1943 until he managed to flee and settle in Milan in the evening of 20–21 October. He started to become critical of the Italian regime and believed he could improve it through a more Christian message though later broke from it after seeing the situation with deporting Jewish people as per racial laws and the French invasion. Olivelli became part of the Italian resistance movement in Milan as part of the triangular resistance including Brescia and Cremona branches. He remained in touch with resistance members such as Peppino Pelosi and Fr. Carlo Manziana while he was in Brescia. Olivelli worked hard to create the newspaper \"Il ribelle\" and the first issue published on 5 March 1944 was dedicated to Astolfo Lunardi and Ermanno Margheriti who were both executed not long before. His paper was the underground newspaper for the Green Flames Brigades partisan group. Carlo Bianchi and Claudio Sartori helped him establish the paper in February 1944. Olivelli's codename at this time was \"Agostino Gracchi\".  The partisan was apprehended in Milan on 27 April 1944 and was at once taken to the prison of San Vitore where he was tortured and beaten before being moved to Fossoli on 8 June. On 11 July his name was added to a list of 70 inmates to be shot but fled and hid in a field until he was recaptured. He was then transferred to Bolzano (August 1944) before being sent to Flossenbürg (September 1944) and then to Hersbruck. He shared food rations with inmates and treated their injuries and even spent time with Blessed Odoardo Focherini to comfort him before the latter died. Olivelli died from injuries he sustained in 1945 not long after defending a Ukrainian inmate from being attacked. He was kicked in the stomach and intestines plus being struck 25 times. His remains were cremated at the camp's crematorium.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beatification process.", "content": "The beatification process opened in the Diocese of Vigevano in a diocesan process that Bishop Mario Rossi inaugurated on 29 March 1987 and that Bishop Giovanni Locatelli closed in a solemn Mass on 16 September 1989. The formal introduction to the cause came under Pope John Paul II on 19 January 1988 after the Congregation for the Causes of Saints issued the official \"nihil obstat\" and titled him as a Servant of God. The C.C.S. later validated the process on 27 March 1992 and received the Positio dossier in 2011. Historians – in a unanimous decision – voted in favor of the cause on 24 May 2011 while the theologians issued their approval – a majority verdict – on 2 December 2014 (after an inconclusive 17 December 2013 session) before the C.C.S. met to approve the cause (unanimous) on 1 December 2015. The confirmation of his life of heroic virtue allowed for Pope Francis to name Olivelli as Venerable.  But officials of the cause remained adamant that Olivelli was killed in hatred of his faith and therefore sought to establish another Positio that would lead to beatification without the required miracle needed for cases of heroic virtue. The Positio was submitted to the C.C.S. in 2016 at which stage theologians made a unanimous decision based on those new findings on 7 March 2017. The C.C.S. later met on 6 June 2017 and approved this and the cause shall now be passed to the pope for his approval. It has been reported that the beatification will take place in Vigevano on 13 January 2018 once the pope approves the cause. The pope approved his beatification on 16 June 2017 and he shall be beatified on 3 February 2018 after a new date for the beatification was coordinated. Cardinal Angelo Amato presided over the celebration on the pope's behalf; there were several bishops in attendance including the Archbishop of Milan Mario Enrico Delpini.  The first postulator for the cause was Fr. Innocenzo Venchi (1986–2004) and then Fr. Abdul Rahman (2004–2011). The current postulator is Sr. Tiziana Adriana Conterbia (2011–present). The first relator for the cause was Fr. Cristoforo Bove from 3 April 1992 until his death on 4 October 2010 at which point Fr. Vincenzo Criscuolo was made the relator a month later on 12 November 2010.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Blessed Teresio Olivelli (7 January 1916 – 12 January 1945) was an Italian Roman Catholic soldier during World War II and part of the Italian Resistance movement to Fascism and the Nazi regime. Olivelli graduated in law in Pavia in 1938 and went on to comment in papers on the legal and social issues of the time before he became a volunteer fighter in the Spanish Civil War and in World War II with a notable campaign fought in Russia. The war soured his views towards the Italian fascist regime of Benito Mussolini and his time in the resistance was marked with articles in a newspaper he founded dedicated to promoting the Christian message and attempting to improve upon aspects of fascism with a more Christian message.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977806}
{"src_title": "Long-snouted seahorse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The long-snouted seahorse is a small-sized fish that can reach a maximum length of 21.5 cm but the average size is more or less 12 cm. The body is slender, the snout is long and the tail is prehensile. Its head and dorsal ridge have often some more or less long and numerous dermal filaments which can be simple or bifid. Its color ranges from dark green to different variants of brown to yellow, the body is often speckled with small white dots.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The long-snouted seahorse is widespread throughout the temperate waters of the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the south coast of the United Kingdom to the Netherlands and south to Morocco, including the Canary Islands, the Azores and Madeira and the Mediterranean Sea.  This seahorse likes shallow coastal waters from 1 to 20 m deep. It occurs close by Posidonia and eelgrass meadows or in mixed habitat with sandy bottom and rocks with algae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "The long-snouted seahorse has a carnivorous diet and feeds on small crustaceans, larvae, fish eggs and other planktonic organisms. It is ovoviviparous and it is the male who broods the eggs in its ventral brood pouch. The latter includes villi rich in capillaries that surround each fertilized egg creating a sort of placenta supplying the embryos. When fully grown, pups will be expelled from the pocket and evolve in complete autonomy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conservation status.", "content": "The long-snouted seahorse is relatively rare and limited data exist on its population and about the volume and the impact of trade for the traditional Chinese medicine and for the aquarium, thus the species is considered as \"Data Deficient\" on the IUCN Red List. Internationally, it is also listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) this means that it is on the list of species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hippocampus guttulatus, commonly known as the long-snouted seahorse and in Great Britain as the spiny seahorse, is a marine fish belonging to the family Syngnathidae, native from the northeast Atlantic, including the Mediterranean.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977807}
{"src_title": "Racing Point F1 Team", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "Racing Point's origins lie in the Jordan Grand Prix team, which first raced in. Jordan saw moderate success in the late 1990s and early 2000s, particularly in when the team achieved two race victories and finished 3rd in the World Constructors' Championship. A decline in performance followed, culminating in the team being sold to the Midland Group in 2005 and being renamed Midland F1 Racing for the season. The team remained unsuccessful, failing to score any points. Midland F1 was sold to Dutch sports car marque Spyker Cars late in the season, before becoming Spyker F1 in. After another season with little improvement, albeit with the team scoring its first point in over two years at the 2007 Japanese Grand Prix, the team was sold to Indian businessman Vijay Mallya.  The Silverstone-based team was renamed Force India for the season, its fourth identity in as many years. Force India saw moderate success across its 10 and a half years in Formula One, achieving a pole position at the 2009 Belgian Grand Prix, six podium places and finishing 4th in the World Constructors' Championship in both and. During the season, the team was put into administration as a result of financial and legal troubles encountered by team owner Mallya. Force India's assets were purchased by Racing Point UK, a consortium led by Canadian businessman Lawrence Stroll. However, the team's official Formula One entry was not transferable, marking the official end of the entry originating in 1991. The team was renamed Racing Point Force India for the remainder of the 2018 season before becoming Racing Point for the 2019 season.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Racing history.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2019 season.", "content": "Racing Point confirmed in November 2018 that Lance Stroll and Sergio Pérez would be the two drivers for the 2019 season. The 2019 season also saw the team branded as \"SportPesa Racing Point F1 Team\", acknowledging lead sponsor SportPesa, a sports betting company from Kenya. The team's car for the 2019 season, the Racing Point RP19, was announced in Toronto, Canada. The team scored points at each of the first four races of the season, including a double points finish in Azerbaijan as Pérez and Stroll finished 6th and 9th respectively. Despite this early success, Racing Point went on to struggle during the middle part of the season, with Stroll's 9th place in Canada being the team's only points finish in the following six races. Their best result of the season came at the German Grand Prix, where Stroll briefly led the race as a result of tyre strategy in the wet weather before eventually finishing 4th.  Racing Point's fortunes improved in the second half of the season after the team brought significant upgrades ahead of the Belgian Grand Prix. Over the next nine races, Pérez scored points in all but one—retiring from the Singapore Grand Prix with an oil leak. This points streak brought Racing Point ahead of Alfa Romeo in the standings, finishing the season in 7th place with 73 points.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2020 season.", "content": "At the 2019 Belgian Grand Prix, it was confirmed that Stroll had been re-signed for 2020 and Pérez had been signed until the end of. Pérez is now set spend at least nine consecutive seasons with the team in total since joining in, albeit across four different names. SportPesa ended their title sponsorship arrangement with Racing Point, with Austrian water technology company BWT becoming the team's new title sponsor.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Racing Point F1 Team, competing as BWT Racing Point F1 Team, and commonly known as Racing Point, is an English motor racing team and Constructor that Racing Point UK has entered into the Formula One World Championship. The team is based in Silverstone, United Kingdom and competes under a British licence.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977808}
{"src_title": "The Seated Scribe", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "This painted limestone sculpture represents a man in a seated position, presumably a scribe. The figure is dressed in a white kilt stretched to its knees. It is holding a half rolled papyrus. Perhaps the most striking part aspect of the figure is its face. Its realistic features stand in contrast to perhaps more rigid and somewhat less detailed body. Hands, fingers, and fingernails of the sculpture are delicately modeled. The hands are in writing position. It seems that the right hand was holding a brush, now missing. The body is sturdy with a broad chest. The nipples are marked with two wooden stubs. Special attention was devoted to the eyes of the sculpture. They are modeled in rich detail out of pieces of red-veined white magnesite which were elaborately inlaid with pieces of polished truncated rock crystal. The back side of the crystal was covered with a layer of organic material which at the same time gives the colour to the iris and serves as an adhesive. Two copper clips hold each eye in place. The eyebrows are marked with fine lines of dark organic paint.  The scribe has a soft and slightly overweight body, suggesting he is well off and does not need to do any sort of physical labor. He sits in a cross-legged position that would have been his normal posture at work. His facial expression is alert and attentive, gazing out to the viewer as though he is waiting for them to start speaking. He has a ready-made papyrus scroll laid out on his lap but the reed-brush used to write is missing. Both his hands are positioned on his lap. His right hand is pointing towards the paper as if he has already started to write while watching others speak. He stares calmly at the viewer with his black outlined eyes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The sculpture of the seated scribe was discovered in Saqqara on 19 November 1850, to the north of the Serapeum's line of sphinxes by French archeologist Auguste Mariette. The precise location remains unknown, as the document describing these excavations was published posthumously and the original excavation journal has been lost. The identity of the person represented remains unknown. The semicircular base of the sculpture suggests that it originally fitted in a larger piece of rock which presumably carried its name and title. This somewhat unusual pose was, it seems, reserved for members of the immediate royal family, although not for the king himself. The statue was dated to the period of the 4th Dynasty, 2620–2500 BC, and is usually associated to the person of Pehernefer. Certain stylistic characteristics, unusual thin lips, broad chest and the posture of the torso might support this theory. The dating itself remains uncertain; the period of the 6th dynasty has also been suggested. One additional fact in favor of the earlier date is that the statue is represented in \"writing\" position while it seems that scribes from the period after the 5th dynasty have been portrayed mainly in \"reading\" position.  The Seated Scribe was made around 2450–2325 BCE; it was discovered near a tomb made for an official named Kai and is sculpted from limestone. Many pharaohs and high-ranking officials would have their servants depicted in some form of image or sculpture so that when they went to the afterlife they would able to utilize their skills to help them in their second life. The scribes were some of the very few who knew how to read and write, and were highly regarded and well-paid. Most people were peasant farmers who had no need for literacy, and \"although some members of the royal family and high status individuals, as well as officials, priests, and army officers were literate, scribes were needed for operations of the state at all levels.\" Scribes were used for multitude of things involving everyday Egyptian life, they would be used as tax collectors and were in charge of organizing personnel for activities such as mining, trade and war. Scribes were also used to work on projects like pyramid building and helped communicate between the rulers and the Egyptian people.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The sculpture of the Seated Scribe or Squatting Scribe is a famous work of ancient Egyptian art. It represents a figure of a seated scribe at work. The sculpture was discovered at Saqqara, north of the alley of sphinxes leading to the Serapeum of Saqqara, in 1850 and dated to the period of the Old Kingdom, from either the 5th Dynasty, 2450–2325 BCE or the 4th Dynasty, 2620–2500 BCE. It is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977809}
{"src_title": "IPEX syndrome", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Symptoms and signs.", "content": "Some of the symptoms and signs of IPEX syndrome are the following:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genetics.", "content": "IPEX syndrome is inherited in males via an x-linked recessive manner, as the FOXP3 gene, whose cytogenetic location is Xp11.23, is involved in the mechanism of this condition.  Mutation of FOXP3 leading to expression of malfunctioning protein is often localised in DNA-binding domain called the forkhead domain. The truncated protein can not bind to its binding-spot on the DNA and thus its function concerning T regulatory lymphocytes development and functioning is impaired. The absence or dysfunction of regulatory T cells is the cause of autoimmune symptoms.  Data from 2018 describes over 70 mutations in FOXP3 gene leading to IPEX syndrome. Nonetheless, this number is still changing with new cases and discoveries coming. For example in 2010 there were only 20 mutations of FOXP3 known in the literature.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mechanism.", "content": "This autoimmunity called IPEX is an attack from the body's own immune system against the body's own tissues and organs. Early age onset of this disease in males causes severe enlargement of the secondary lymphoid organs, and insulin dependent diabetes  This condition indicates the loss of CD4+ CD25+ T regulatory cells, and express the transcription factor Foxp3. Foxp3 decrease is a consequence of unchecked T cell activation, which is secondary to loss of \"regulatory T cells\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diagnosis.", "content": "The diagnosis of immunodysregulation polyendocrinopathy enteropathy X-linked syndrome is consistent with the following criteria:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Treatment.", "content": "In terms of treatment the following are done to manage the IPEX syndrome in those affected individuals (corticosteroids are the first treatment that is used):", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research.", "content": "There is as well a special mouse model simulating the development and progression of the IPEX syndrome. The model mice are called \"scurfy mice\" and they have had 2 base pairs inserted within the Foxp3 gene. Consequently, this leads to a frameshift and the expressed protein is truncated, causing the same effects as FOXP3 mutation in humans. The mice suffer from enlarged spleen and lymph nodes, redness in eyes, and skin abnormalities. The mice as well suffer from immunity problems and after approximately 3 weeks they die.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Immunodysregulation polyendocrinopathy enteropathy X-linked (or IPEX) syndrome is a rare disease linked to the dysfunction of the transcription factor FOXP3, widely considered to be the master regulator of the regulatory T cell lineage. It leads to the dysfunction of regulatory T-cells and the subsequent autoimmunity. The disorder is one of the autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes and manifests with autoimmune enteropathy, psoriasiform or eczematous dermatitis, nail dystrophy, autoimmune endocrinopathies, and autoimmune skin conditions such as alopecia universalis and bullous pemphigoid. Management for IPEX has seen limited success in treating the syndrome by bone marrow transplantation.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977810}
{"src_title": "Magnum P.I. (2018 TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Premise.", "content": "As in the original series, the reboot follows Thomas Magnum, a former Navy SEAL turned private investigator who occupies the guest house on Robin's Nest, the Hawaiian estate owned by famous author Robin Masters. He lives with Juliet Higgins, a former MI6 agent assigned by Masters to protect the estate, and native Hawaiian Kumu Tuileta, who is the estate's cultural curator. (Juliet Higgins replaces the male character Jonathan Higgins from the original series.) Juliet often assists Thomas with his cases, and becomes a full partner in the agency during season 2. Magnum is also frequently assisted by two former U.S. Marines, Orville \"Rick\" Wright and Theodore \"TC\" Calvin. Rick is now a bar owner, while TC is a pilot whose main business is running helicopter tours of the islands. Magnum tends to butt heads with HPD Detective Gordon Katsumoto, but the two also help each other when needed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "On October 20, 2017, CBS announced a pilot commitment for a remake of the original series to be written by Peter M. Lenkov and Eric Guggenheim. The pilot would be co-produced by CBS Studios and Universal Television, the latter of which holds the rights to the original series. In February 2018, CBS announced that pilot production had been greenlit. Justin Lin was set to direct.  On May 11, 2018, the network picked up the series. Co-developer and executive producer Peter M. Lenkov will serve as the showrunner. On May 16, 2018, CBS released a first video trailer for new series. The pilot episode was aired as a special preview prior to the series San Diego Comic-Con panel.  On July 19, 2018, Lenkov announced that multiple crossovers have been planned with the ninth season of \"Hawaii Five-0\". Lenkov confirmed that Kimee Balmilero and Taylor Wily will make guest appearances as their \"Hawaii Five-0\" characters, medical examiner Noelani Cunha and entrepreneur Kamekona Tupuola respectively. Balmilero is set to appear in episode one while Wily is set to appear in episode two. Meanwhile, Alex O'Loughlin's character, Steve McGarrett, is set to cross paths with Hernandez's character later in the season.  On Wednesday, August 22, 2018, with the anticipated landfall of Hurricane Lane, a Category 4 hurricane, in Hawaii CBS reported that they \"were closely monitoring the situation\" but that production would continue as planned. The following day CBS temporarily shut down production of both \"Magnum P.I.\" and \"Hawaii Five-0\" until further notice.  On November 19, 2019, CBS announced that the second season of \"Magnum P.I.\" would go on hiatus after \"MacGyver\" returned to Friday nights on February 7, 2020. The network further announced that \"Magnum P.I.\" would return on April 10, after \"Hawaii Five-0\" ended its run.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Casting.", "content": "On February 20, 2018, Jay Hernandez was announced as the new Magnum. It was announced on March 2, 2018 that Perdita Weeks will play Juliet Higgins. According to a May 16, 2018 announcement, Magnum's best friend from U.S. Marines, Rick Wright, will be portrayed by Zachary Knighton. Three days later, it was announced that another one of Magnum's friends, Theodore \"T.C.\" Calvin, will be played by Stephen Hill. On July 20, 2018, it was announced that Tim Kang would join the cast as Honolulu PD detective Gordon Katsumoto, who will develop a friendly rivalry with Magnum as they work cases. Finally, it was announced on July 25, 2018 that Amy Hill had been cast in a recurring role. Hill and Kang both debuted in the series' third episode.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Filming.", "content": "Following production of the pilot earlier in the year, filming for the first season began on July 23, 2018, with a traditional Hawaiian blessing.  A central theme of the original series was Magnum's constant, if not always approved, use of Mr. Masters' vehicles. Then Magnum almost exclusively favored his Ferrari 308 GTS. The 308GTS has become a cultural icon, inextricably linked to the series, such that it was briefly shown in the pilot episode. In 2018 the production team updated his favored vehicle to a Ferrari 488 Spider. Both cars are a mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive, 2-seat, roadster variant of the current V8 Ferrari.  Filming on the second season also began with a traditional Hawaiian blessing on July 8, 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "\"Magnum P.I.\" has been met with mixed reviews. On review aggregation Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 57% with an average rating of 6.35/10, based on 21 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, \"The rebooted \"Magnum P.I.\" may not be quite distinctive enough to hold up to comparisons with its source material, but a charismatic star, slickly staged action, and a handful of modern twists hint at greater potential.\" Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the series a score of 47 out of 100 based on 16 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Magnum P.I. is an American crime action drama television series developed by Peter M. Lenkov and Eric Guggenheim that premiered in 2018. It stars Jay Hernandez as Thomas Magnum, a private investigator and former Navy SEAL who solves crimes in Hawaii. It is a reboot of the series of the same name created by Donald P. Bellisario and Glen A. Larson, which aired from 1980 to 1988. The series co-stars Perdita Weeks, Zachary Knighton, Stephen Hill, Amy Hill, and Tim Kang.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977811}
{"src_title": "Jack Hughes (ice hockey, born 2001)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Playing career.", "content": "While playing with the Mississauga Rebels of the Greater Toronto Hockey League (GTHL), Hughes applied for exceptional status to be able to enter the Canadian Hockey League a year early. After his application was denied, he played his final year with the Toronto Marlboros, putting up 159 points.  After completing his minor career with the Marlboros, Hughes was drafted eighth overall by the Mississauga Steelheads in the Ontario Hockey League, despite his commitment to the U.S. National Team Development Program (USNTDP). Hughes kept his commitment and played with the USNTDP for the 2017–18 season. Splitting his time between the U17 and U18 team, he put up 116 points, nearly beating Auston Matthews's record. At the conclusion of the 2017–18 season, Hughes was awarded the Dave Tyler Junior Player of the Year Award as the best American-born player in junior hockey.  During the 2018–19 season, Hughes broke the NTDP all-time points record that was previously held by Clayton Keller. In a 12–4 win over the Green Bay Gamblers on March 15, 2019, he recorded five points to give him 190 overall. In the same game, teammate Cole Caufield broke the NTDP record for most goals.  On June 21, 2019, at the 2019 NHL Entry Draft, Hughes was selected first overall by the New Jersey Devils. On July 12, Hughes signed a three-year entry level contract with the Devils. Hughes recorded his first career NHL point on October 17, in a game against the New York Rangers. In doing so, he became the third-youngest player in franchise history to record a point. Two days later, he recorded his first career NHL goal in a 1–0 win over the Vancouver Canucks.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International play.", "content": "In the 2018 IIHF World U18 Championships Hughes was selected as the tournament MVP, named to the All-star team, and was chosen as the best forward of the tournament. He was also the best scorer of the tournament with 12 points in 7 games.  On December 23, 2018, Hughes was selected to compete at the 2019 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships alongside his brother Quinn. Hughes missed three games of the tournament with an undisclosed injury but returned to the lineup in time to help Team USA beat the Czech Republic. He recorded an assist on Noah Cates's goal in his return. Hughes ended the tournament with four assists as Team USA lost to Team Finland in the gold medal match. He later competed at the 2019 IIHF World U18 Championships where he broke Alexander Ovechkin's goals scored record as Team USA won a bronze medal.  On May 1, 2019, Hughes was named to the senior United States roster to compete at the 2019 IIHF World Championship alongside his brother. At the age of 17, Hughes became the youngest player to represent Team USA at an IIHF World Championship. On December 6, 2019, Hughes' NHL team, the New Jersey Devils, announced they would not release him to play for Team USA at the 2020 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Hughes was born in Orlando, Florida, but grew up in Mississauga, Ontario. He cited his favorite player as Patrick Kane due to their similar small stature. Hughes played a variety of sports growing up, including hockey and baseball. His father is Catholic and his mother is Jewish, and studied at Catholic High School in Ontario.  Hughes comes from a family of ice hockey athletes. His older brother, Quinn, was drafted seventh overall in the 2018 NHL Entry Draft by the Vancouver Canucks. His younger brother Luke plays for the U.S. National Development U17 Team. Like Quinn, Luke is a defenseman who is committed to the University of Michigan. Their father, Jim Hughes, is a former hockey player and team captain for Providence College, an assistant coach for the Boston Bruins, and the director of player development for the Toronto Maple Leafs. His mother, Ellen Weinberg-Hughes, played ice hockey, lacrosse, and soccer at the University of New Hampshire and, in 2012, was inducted into the University of New Hampshire Athletics Hall of Fame. She also played for the United States women's national ice hockey team, and won a silver medal at the 1992 World Championship. His uncle Marty, and his cousin, Teddy Doherty, were also both involved in ice hockey. Marty last played in the British National League for the Dundee Stars, and Teddy last played for the Manchester Monarchs of the ECHL.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jack Hughes (born May 14, 2001) is an American professional ice hockey forward for the New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League (NHL). A product of the U.S. National Development Team, Hughes was drafted first overall by the Devils in the 2019 NHL Entry Draft, a draft in which he was widely regarded as the top prospect.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977812}
{"src_title": "The Subjection of Women", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Arguments.", "content": "Mill attacks the argument that women are naturally worse at some things than men and should, therefore, be discouraged or forbidden from doing them. He says that we simply don't know what women are capable of, because we have never let them try – one cannot make an authoritative statement without evidence. We can't stop women from trying things because they might not be able to do them. An argument based on speculative physiology is just that, speculation.  In this, men are basically contradicting themselves because they say women cannot do an activity and want to stop them from doing it. Here Mill suggests that men are basically admitting that women are capable of doing the activity, but that men do not want them to do so.  Whether women can do them or not must be found out in practice. In reality, we don't know what women's nature is, because it is so wrapped up in how they have been raised. Mill suggests we should test out what women can and can't do – experiment.  Women are brought up to act as if they were weak, emotional, docile – a traditional prejudice. If we tried equality, we would see that there were benefits for individual women. They would be free of the unhappiness of being told what to do by men. And there would be benefits for society at large – it would double the mass of mental faculties available for the higher service of humanity. The ideas and potential of half the population would be liberated, producing a great effect on human development.  Mill's essay is clearly utilitarian in nature on three counts: The immediate greater good, the enrichment of society, and individual development.  If society really wanted to discover what is truly natural in gender relations, Mill argued, it should establish a free market for all of the services women perform, ensuring a fair economic return for their contributions to the general welfare. Only then would their practical choices be likely to reflect their genuine interests and abilities.  Mill felt that the emancipation and education of women would have positive benefits for men also. The stimulus of female competition and companionship of equally educated persons would result in the greater intellectual development of all. He stressed the insidious effects of the constant companionship of an uneducated wife or husband. Mill felt that men and women married to follow customs and that the relation between them was a purely domestic one. By emancipating women, Mill believed, they would be better able to connect on an intellectual level with their husbands, thereby improving relationships.  Mill attacks marriage laws, which he likens to the slavery of women, \"there remain no legal slaves, save the mistress of every house.\" He alludes to the subjection of women becoming redundant as slavery did before it. He also argues for the need for reforms of marriage legislation whereby it is reduced to a business agreement, placing no restrictions on either party. Among these proposals are the changing of inheritance laws to allow women to keep their own property, and allowing women to work outside the home, gaining independent financial stability.  Again the issue of women's suffrage is raised. Women make up half of the population, thus they also have a right to a vote since political policies affect women too. He theorises that most men will vote for those MPs who will subordinate women, therefore women must be allowed to vote to protect their own interests.  Mill felt that even in societies as unequal as England and Europe that one could already find evidence that when given a chance women could excel. He pointed to such English queens as Elizabeth I, or Victoria, or the French patriot, Joan of Arc. If given the chance women would excel in other arenas and they should be given the opportunity to try.  Mill was not just a theorist; he actively campaigned for women's rights as an MP and was the president of the National Society for Women's Suffrage.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conclusions.", "content": "The way Mill interpreted subjects over time changed. For many years Mill was seen as an inconsistent philosopher, writing on a number of separate issues. Consistency in his approach is based on utilitarianism, and the good of society.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Utilitarianism.", "content": "Nothing should be ruled out because it is just \"wrong\" or because no one has done it in the past. When we are considering our policies, we should seek the greatest happiness of the greatest number. This leads to attacks on conventional views. If you wish to make something illegal, you need to prove what harm is being done. Individuals know their own interests best.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Progress of society.", "content": "The greatest good is understood in a very broad sense to be the moral and intellectual developments of society. Different societies are at different stages of development or civilisation. Different solutions may be required for them. What matters is how we encourage them to advance further. We can say the same for individuals. Mill has a quite specific idea of individual progress: (1) employing higher faculties; (2) moral development, with people placing narrow self-interest behind them.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Individual self-reliance.", "content": "We are independent, capable of change and of being rational. Individual liberty provides the best route to moral development. As we develop, we are able to govern ourselves, make our own decisions, and not to be dependent on what anyone else tells us to do. Democracy is a form of self-dependence. This means:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Subjection of Women is an essay by English philosopher, political economist and civil servant John Stuart Mill published in 1869, with ideas he developed jointly with his wife Harriet Taylor Mill. Mill submitted the finished manuscript of their collaborative work \"On Liberty\" (1859) soon after her untimely death in late 1858, and then continued work on \"The Subjection of Women\" until its completion in 1861. At the time of its publication, the essay's argument for equality between the sexes was an affront to European conventional norms regarding the status of men and women.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977813}
{"src_title": "2018 Romanian constitutional referendum", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "The Government announced plans to hold a referendum in late 2017, following a successful citizens' initiative by a group opposed to same-sex marriage, Coaliția pentru Familie, which collected around three million signatures in support of banning same-sex marriage. The Chamber of Deputies approved the initiative on 9 May 2017, in a 232–22 vote, but no referendum took place that year.  In late March 2018, the Government announced that the referendum would be held sometime in May 2018, though it later moved the date to 10 June 2018. However, this date also passed without a referendum being held. Some Socialist lawmakers subsequently suggested that the referendum could be held in late September or early October 2018. Liviu Dragnea, President of the Chamber of Deputies, announced that the referendum could be organized on 30 September or the first Sunday in October. In early September, Dragnea announced that the referendum would take place on 7 October 2018. The initiative was approved by the Senate on 11 September 2018. On 14 September, Amnesty International, the European Commission on Sexual Orientation Law and ILGA-Europe filed a challenge with the Constitutional Court against the amendment. On 17 September 2018, the Court decided to allow the referendum to take place.  Previous referendums in Romania failed due to a requirement for a 50% turnout in order for the results to be valid. This rule was changed in 2014 and the turnout threshold was lowered, to require only 30% of registered voters to participate in the referendum and 25% of voters to cast a valid (yes/no) vote for the result to be validated.  The amendment was supported by many politicians and religious groups, but opposed by President Klaus Iohannis and the opposition Save Romania Union. The final turnout was 21.1%, below the 30% threshold necessary to make it valid. Many human rights activists called for a boycott, so as to maximise the chance of the referendum not meeting the minimum 30% turnout rate required in order for the vote to be valid. A poll conducted the week before the referendum indicated a 34% participation rate, with 90% of those participating intending to vote yes. The only question posed to appear on the ballot was whether the voter agreed with the constitutional amendment as approved by the Parliament, without the text of the amendment appearing on the ballot paper itself.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Support and opposition.", "content": "The amendment was supported by many religious groups, including neo-Protestant groups, and the Romanian Greek Catholic Church. The Romanian Orthodox Church endorsed the initiative in mid-January 2016.  Few politicians openly support civil partnerships or same-sex marriage in Romania. Exceptions include centrist-liberal President Klaus Iohannis, an ethnic German (Transylvanian Saxon), who has said that as a member of an ethnic and religious minority, he supports tolerance and openness towards others who are different while rejecting religious fanaticism and ultimatums. The opposition Save Romania Union (USR) also held an internal vote on the issue and decided to oppose the referendum. The Romania Together Movement, led by former Prime Minister Dacian Cioloș, advised its supporters not to participate in the referendum, arguing it would limit rights and freedoms.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "In the morning, the turnout was low at 5.72%. Following the end of the voting period, the results of the referendum were determined on 6 October by 21:45 EEST, with Romanian election officials declaring that the referendum had failed due to a lower than required voter turnout rate of 21.1%. The lower turnout came as a surprise, with polls predicting that turnout would fall somewhere around 34%. Of those who did participate in the referendum, an overwhelming majority of more than 90% approved of the amendment.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Many commentators hailed the results of the referendum as being a victory for opponents of PSD leader Liviu Dragnea. Leaders of the Save Romania Union—a group which spearheaded the boycott movement—claimed that the referendum result constituted evidence that Romanians were in favour of further integration within the European Union, stating that Romania has shown it \"is a tolerant and modern nation that refused in these last two days to take steps back\".  Supporters of the referendum from within the governing coalition lamented that the referendum's failure represented a failure of Romanian society as a whole to partake in civic engagement. Critics within the National Liberal Party—a party whose leadership had come out in support of the referendum—further accused party President Ludovic Orban of \"pushing the party into a political failure\" by pursuing policies which were outdated and out of touch with contemporary social circumstances.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular media.", "content": "In November 2018, Romanian singer Delia Matache released the single \"Acadele\" (\"Lollipops\"), which references the controversy around the LGBT community in Romania by repeating \"Boicot, boicot\" (\"boycott, boycott\"). She further alludes to the referendum in the line: \"În dulcele stil clasic şi deloc tradiţional/Noi n-o ardem în plastic, noi facem totul natural\" (\"In the sweet classic style and not at all traditional/We don't live in plastic, we do everything naturally\").", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "A referendum took place in Romania on 6 and 7 October 2018 regarding the definition of the family in the Romanian Constitution. The referendum asked voters whether or not they approve a change to the family's definition as provided by Article 48 of the Constitution, to prohibit same-sex marriage.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977814}
{"src_title": "Nicolò Zaniolo", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Club career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "Born in Massa, Tuscany, Zaniolo grew up in the Fiorentina youth system. On the final day of the 2016 mid year transfer window, he was released by Fiorentina, and subsequently joined Virtus Entella. After several months playing for the Entella \"Primavera\" side, Zaniolo was given his professional debut in Serie B on 11 March 2017, aged 17, in a 3–2 win against Benevento. In total, he collected seven appearances for the \"Biancocelesti\" in the 2016–17 season.  On 5 July 2017, Internazionale announced they had signed Zaniolo, for a reported fee of €1.8 million, plus €1.7 million in bonuses. He played for the \"Primavera\" side in the 2017–18 season, finishing top-scorer of the team with 13 goals and winning the Campionato Nazionale Primavera. Zaniolo made his Inter debut in a pre-season friendly on 9 July 2017. However, he did not play any competitive game for Inter's first team.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Roma.", "content": "In June 2018, it was reported that Zaniolo and Davide Santon had joined Roma as a part of the deal moving Radja Nainggolan to Inter. Zaniolo completed his medical on 25 June, and signed a five-year contract with the club, for a fee of €4.5 million plus 15% resell revenue. He made his first appearance for Roma and UEFA Champions League debut on 19 September, in a 3–0 defeat to Real Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu. He made his Serie A debut on 26 September 2018, aged 19, in the home match won 4–0 against Frosinone. On 26 December, he scored his first goal in Serie A in a 3–1 win against Sassuolo. The following year, during a UEFA Champions League match against FC Porto, Zaniolo became the youngest Italian player to score twice in a single match in the competition when he scored both of Roma's goals in a 2–1 win. On 12 January 2020, Zaniolo suffered an anterior cruciate ligament injury injury during a 2–1 home loss to Juventus. After surgery, his approximate recovery period was estimated between five and six months, thus leaving small window of opportunity to be in the national team's squad for Euro 2020. In addition, he received letters of support from both the Italian and global footballing community, including Roberto Mancini, Roberto Baggio, and Francesco Totti, who had been operated by the same surgeon after similar situation occurred in early 2006.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "International career.", "content": "With the Italy under-19 side, Zaniolo took part in the 2018 UEFA European Under-19 Championship, reaching the final of the tournament, which Italy lost 4–3 after extra time against Portugal.  On 1 September 2018, he was given his first senior international call-up for Italy by manager Roberto Mancini – without having received a cap in Serie A – for Italy's opening UEFA Nations League matches against Poland and Portugal later that month.  He made his debut with the Italy U21 team on 11 October 2018, under manager Luigi Di Biagio, in a 1–0 friendly defeat to Belgium.  He made his debut with the senior team team on 23 March 2019, entering as a substitute for Verratti in a 2–0 home win over Finland in Italy's opening UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying match. He made his first start for Italy on 15 October, in a 5–0 away win against Liechtenstein, in a Euro 2020 qualifier. His first international goals came on 18 November, a brace in a 9–1 home win over Armenia, in Italy's final Euro 2020 qualifier; he also set up Ciro Immobile's second goal during the match.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Style of play.", "content": "Standing at 1.90m (6'3\"), Zaniolo is a tall, strong, and fast player, who is also a good dribbler. A versatile player, due to his creativity, technique, work-rate, energy, and physicality, he can operate in several midfield positions, and has been used as an attacking midfielder or \"trequartista,\" as an offensive-minded central midfielder or \"mezzala,\" as a box-to-box midfielder, and even as a deep-lying playmaker; he can even play out on the flanks, due to his goalscoring abilities, ability to create chances for teammates, the breadth he provides, and the attacking threat he poses. A talented player, he is considered one of Italy's most promising young prospects.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "He is the son of Igor Zaniolo, a former professional footballer who played as a forward in Serie B and Serie C.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Honours.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "International.", "content": "Italy U19", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nicolò Zaniolo (; born 2 July 1999) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Serie A club Roma and the Italy national team.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977815}
{"src_title": "Japan National Stadium (2019)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "After Tokyo submitted their bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics, there was talk of possibly renovating or reconstructing the National Olympic Stadium. The stadium would host the opening and closing ceremonies as well as track and field events.  It was confirmed in February 2012 that the stadium would be demolished and reconstructed, and receive a £1 billion upgrade. In November 2012, renderings of the new national stadium were revealed, based on a design by architect Zaha Hadid. The stadium was demolished in 2015 and the new one was originally scheduled to be completed in March 2019. The new stadium will be the venue for athletics, rugby, some football games, and the opening and closing ceremonies of the Olympics and Paralympics. Due to budget constraints, the Japanese government announced several changes to Hadid's design in May 2015, including cancelling plans to build a retractable roof and converting some permanent seating to temporary seating. The site area was also reduced from to. Several prominent Japanese architects, including Toyo Ito and Fumihiko Maki, criticized Hadid's design, with Ito comparing it to a turtle and Maki calling it a white elephant; others criticized the stadium's encroachment on the outer gardens of the Meiji Shrine. Arata Isozaki, on the other hand, commented that he was “shocked to see that the dynamism present in the original had gone” in the redesign of Hadid's original plan.  The roof of the new stadium has been particularly problematic from an engineering perspective, as it requires the construction of two steel arches long. Even after design changes, the stadium was estimated to cost over 300 billion yen, more than three times the cost of the Olympic stadium in London and more than five times the cost of the Olympic stadium in Beijing.  The Japanese government reached an agreement in June 2015 with Taisei Corporation and Takenaka Corporation to complete the stadium for a total cost of around 250 billion yen. The new plan maintained the steel arch design while reducing the permanent capacity of the stadium to 65,000 in track mode with an additional 15,000 simple temporary seats available, allowing for an 80,000 capacity for football and the 2019 Rugby World Cup.  However, on 17 July 2015, Prime Minister of Japan Shinzō Abe announced that plans to build the new National Stadium would be scrapped and rebid upon amid public discontent over the stadium's building costs. As a result, Abe said that a replacement venue would have to be selected for the Rugby World Cup, as the new stadium would not be ready until the 2020 Olympics.  As of 28 August 2015, the Japanese Government released new standards for the National Stadium's reconstruction. The fixed capacity would be 68,000 and be expandable to 80,000 through the use of temporary seats over the athletics track. The government also abandoned the retractable roof; instead a permanent roof will be constructed over the spectator seating only.  Additionally, a sports museum and sky walkway that were part of the scrapped design were eliminated, while VIP lounges and seats were reduced, along with reduced underground parking facilities. These reductions result in a site of 198,500 square meters, 13% less than originally planned. Air conditioning for the stadium was also abandoned upon request of Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe, and when asked about the abandonment Minister for the Olympics Toshiaki Endo stated that, \"Air conditioners are installed in only two stadiums around the world, and they can only cool temperatures by 2 or 3°C\".  Concern over indoor temperatures has also been raised, since, for cost reduction, Tokyo's New National Stadium was built without an air conditioner, and the roof was constructed over the spectator seating only.  The government slated a decision on contractors and a design by December 2015, with construction to begin at its latest in December 2016. Designers partnered with contractors to submit a design alongside construction cost and timing estimates. It has been revealed that the athletics track will be a permanent feature not to be demolished for the additional 12,000 seats for any future World Cup bid. As of 18 September 2015, two contractors submitted bids for the process: the Taisei Corporation working with architect Kengo Kuma, and a consortium of several major Japanese contractors including the Takenaka, Shimizu, and Obayashi corporations working with architect Toyo Ito. Former winning architect Zaha Hadid was unable to find a contractor willing to work with her design, and was therefore forced to abandon efforts to resubmit her revised design in the new competition.  On 21 December 2015, the Japan Sport Council announced that Kuma and the Taisei Corporation had been selected to design and construct the National Olympic Stadium. The stadium began construction in December 2016, and was set to conclude on 30 November 2019 when the stadium would be handed over to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) for necessary games and ceremony preparations, including test events. The new design would hold 68,089 in athletics mode with the ability to construct temporary seating over the permanent track to create an increased capacity of 80,016. Capacity during the Olympic Games will be 60,102 taking into account press and executive seating areas. This capacity is further lessened for the Paralympics to 57,750 to add more handicap accessible seating.  The stadium’s inaugural sporting event, the 2019 Emperor's Cup final, took place on 1 January 2020. Vissel Kobe won their first ever trophy.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The, formerly known as New National Stadium, is a multi-purpose stadium used mostly for association football in Kasumigaoka, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan. The stadium will serve as the main stadium for the opening and closing ceremonies, as well as the venue for track and field athletics events at the 2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in 2021.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977816}
{"src_title": "Harry Hole", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Character.", "content": "Harry Hole is a police officer with the Oslo Crime Squad. He was born in 1965 and has a younger sister with Down syndrome to whom he is deeply attached. He lost his mother, a descendant of the Sami people, to cancer while he was in his twenties and has never had a close relationship with his father Olav, a former teacher. Hole is unmarried but has had relationships with a number of women throughout the series of 11 novels. Otherwise, he has few close friends. Hole frequently makes enemies among his colleagues who, nevertheless, grudgingly respect him.  He is a chain-smoker and heavy drinker, although, at times, his alcoholism is under control. The effects of his problem sometimes bring him into repeated conflict with his superiors and some colleagues, but Bjarne Møller, head of Hole's department and one of his closest friends, manages to prevent him from being sacked as a result, primarily because he recognises that Harry Hole is a brilliant detective. Hole is one of few in the force to have undergone special training in interrogation techniques and firearms at the FBI.  Hole has few friends within the Oslo Police Department, exceptions being some staff at the forensics division of the Norwegian police, including Katrine Bratt, a detective from Bergen, Beate Lønn, whom he often uses to secure crucial information in critical situations where specialist knowledge is required, and Bjørn Holm, another skilled forensics officer. Harry is also friendly with Gunnar Hagen, his former senior officer prior to the case chronicled in \"Phantom\".  In many ways, the author's home city of Oslo has the starring role in the Harry Hole novels. Much of the background detail of the stories involves real locations, and the city is shown \"warts and all\", ranging from Hole's favourite eating and drinking places that he frequents to the traffic of the so-called \"Traffic Machine\" road system, the real-life headquarters of the Police Department, the swimming pool at Frogner Park, to the haunts of neo-Nazis, drug addicts, and prostitutes, all of this described vividly in the various novels at different times of the year—in the snow and freezing weather of winter to the high temperatures of a particularly warm summer. Harry Hole's friends and acquaintances include city residents from every social background, including immigrants from other parts of the world to old school friends, such as taxi driver Øystein Eikeland—possibly the person to whom Hole is closest.  Harry Hole's home address is in Sofies Gate in Bislett, Oslo. As of the events in \"Phantom\", he no longer lives here, as he has been in Hong Kong for three years. Near his place of residence is his favourite \"watering hole\", Restaurant Schrøder (Schrøder's, for short) in St. Hanshaugen, which features in most of the novels. He has had a serious relationship with Rakel Fauke, whose son, Oleg, looks up to Harry as a father figure and sometimes calls him \"dad\". After the case chronicled in \"The Snowman\", their relationship is put under severe pressure, but at the end of \"Phantom\" they resume their romance and finally get married at the end of \"Police\".  \"Hole\", Harry's family name, is the name of an historic Norwegian town (Hole, Norway), with a heritage that goes back to Norway's origins in the Viking Age. The name is derived from Old Norse \"Hólar\", the plural form of \"hóll\", meaning \"round and isolated hill\". The word is pronounced as two syllables, with stress on the first (hoo-leh), as is implied in \"The Bat\", where the Australian police call him \"Harry Holy\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In other media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Film.", "content": "The seventh novel in the series \"The Snowman\" was adapted as a film in 2017 starring Michael Fassbender as Harry Hole, with Rebecca Ferguson, Charlotte Gainsbourg, Ronan Vibert, Val Kilmer and J.K. Simmons.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Harry Hole is the main character in a series of crime novels written by Norwegian author Jo Nesbø. Hole is a brilliant and driven detective with unorthodox methods, a classic loose cannon in the police force. Critics link the personality of Harry Hole to those of the famous literary detectives: Sherlock Holmes, Hercule Poirot, Jules Maigret, and Nero Wolfe, but in the word of Jo Nesbo himself it is to Michael Connelly's Harry Bosch, that he refers as a tribute more than a simple inspiration.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977817}
{"src_title": "Nepalese royal massacre", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Events.", "content": "\"According to eyewitness reports and an official investigation carried by a two-man committee made up of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Keshav Prasad Upadhaya and the Speaker of the House of Representatives, Taranath Ranabhat\":  On 1st June 2001, Crown Prince Dipendra opened fire at a house on the grounds of the Narayanhity Royal Palace, the residence of the Nepalese monarchy, where a party was being held. He shot and killed his father, King Birendra, his mother, Queen Aishwarya, and seven other members of the royal family — including his younger brother and sister— before shooting himself in the head. Due to his wiping out of most of the line of succession, he became king while in a comatose state from the head wound.  His motive for the murders is unknown, but there are various theories. Dipendra desired to marry Devyani Rana, whom he had met in the United Kingdom. Some allege that, due to her mother's family being lower-class royals of India and her father's political alliances, Dipendra's parents objected. In fact, Devyani Rana's Gwalior family is one of the wealthiest former royal families of India, and allegedly far wealthier than the Shahs of Nepal. The prospective bride's mother, a Nepali by birth, warned her daughter that marrying the Nepali crown prince might mean a drop in her standard of living. Dipendra's prospective bride descended, through her mother, from a competing sub-branch of the Nepali Rana clan (the Juddha Shamsher line) to that of Queen Aishwarya.  Another theory states that there was a higher possibility of Indian influence if he would be married to her, to which the palace objected. Other theories allege that Dipendra was unhappy with the country's shift from an absolute to a constitutional monarchy, and that too much power had been given away following the 1990 People's Movement. This is, in fact, unlikely. The crown prince responded to the 1990 uprising, and return to an elected government, with enthusiasm while a student at Eton College, where he was finishing his studies. He later became frustrated by his father's refusal to intervene while the Nepali politicians bickered and competed among themselves while failing to make an effective response to the rising Maoist threat.  Much controversy surrounds the circumstances of the massacre, and even today, with the monarchy abolished, many questions remain within Nepal about its cause. Sources of the yet unanswered questions include details such as the apparent lack of security at the event; the absence from the party of Prince Gyanendra, Dipendra's uncle who succeeded him; the fact that, despite being right-handed, Dipendra's self-inflicted head-wound was located at his left temple, and that two bullets were found to be lodged in the temple instead of one; and finally that the subsequent investigation lasted for only two weeks and did not involve any major forensic analysis. This investigation was done after Scotland Yard had actually offered to carry out a forensic investigation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "Dipendra was proclaimed king while in a coma, but he died on 4 June 2001, after a three-day reign. Gyanendra was appointed regent for the three days, then ascended the throne himself after Dipendra died. While Dipendra lived, Gyanendra maintained that the deaths were the result of an \"accidental discharge of an automatic weapon\" within the royal palace. However, he later said that he made this claim due to \"legal and constitutional hurdles,\" since under the constitution, and by tradition, Dipendra could not have been charged with murder had he survived. A full investigation took place, and Dipendra was found to be responsible for the killing. A two-man committee comprising Keshav Prasad Upadhaya, the Supreme Court Chief Justice, and Taranath Ranabhat, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, carried out the week-long investigation into the massacre. The investigation concluded, after interviewing more than a hundred people including eyewitnesses and palace officials, guards and staff, that Dipendra had carried out the massacre. A large number of critics and Nepalese, both inside Nepal and abroad, disputed the official report because many facts and evidence reported by the investigation team seemed contradictory in many aspects. A close aide of Dipendra when he was prince said of Dipendra, \"He can give up the throne for the sake of his love, but he can never do this kind of thing.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Rumoured cause.", "content": "The widely circulated rumour is that Prince Dipendra was angry over a marriage dispute. Dipendra's choice of bride was Devyani Rana, daughter of Pashupati Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana, a member of the Rana clan, against which the Shah dynasty have a historic animosity. The Rana clan had served as the hereditary prime ministers of Nepal, with the title Maharaja, until 1951, and the two clans have a long history of inter-marriages. It is also speculated that the reason for the marriage dispute over Dipendra's choice of wife was that the royal family had a position that the crown prince should not marry someone having relatives in India, as Devyani did. Also, that Devyani Rana's mother, Usharaje Scindia was of Gwalior royal lineage, wasn't considered impressive by the Nepal royal family. Prince Dipendra also courted Supriya Shah, who was the granddaughter of Queen Mother Ratna's own sister. Queen Aishwarya, though initially opposed the relationship due to family ties and the view that Supriya would be incompetent as a queen, as to which expressions by the Queen were heard by an aide, nevertheless favored Supriya over Devyani Rana, since if Supriya became queen, the Shah dynasty would not have to share its power with the Ranas, entailing formation of an unwanted political alliance.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ceremonial response.", "content": "On 12 June 2001, a Hindu katto ceremony was held to exorcise or banish the spirit of the dead king from Nepal. A brahmin Durga Prasad Sapkota, dressed as Birendra to symbolise the late king, rode an elephant out of Kathmandu and into symbolic exile, taking many of the monarch's belongings with him. Dipendra's residence was also eventually razed to the ground.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conspiracy theories.", "content": "King Birendra and his son Dipendra were very popular and well respected by the Nepalese population. Subsequently, Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda), the chairman of the Nepalese Maoist Party, in a public gathering claimed that the massacre was planned by the Indian intelligence agency Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) or the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Promoters of these ideas allege Gyanendra had a hand in the massacre so that he could assume the throne himself. His ascent to the throne would have been possible only if both of his nephews Dipendra and Nirajan were eliminated. Moreover, Gyanendra and especially his son Prince Paras were very unpopular with the public. On the day of the massacre, he was in Pokhara whilst other royals were attending a dinner function. His wife Komal, Paras and daughter Prerana were in the room at the royal palace during the massacre. While the entire families of Birendra and Dipendra were killed, nobody in Gyanendra's family died: his son escaped with slight injuries, and his wife sustained a life-threatening bullet wound but survived.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Nepalese royal massacre occurred on 1st June 2001, at a house on the grounds of the Narayanhity Royal Palace, the residence of the Nepalese monarchy. Nine members of the royal family were killed in a mass shooting during a party or monthly reunion dinner of the royal family in the house. The dead included King Birendra of Nepal and Queen Aishwarya. A government-appointed inquiry team named Crown Prince Dipendra as perpetrator of the massacre. Dipendra slipped into a coma after shooting himself.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977818}
{"src_title": "Gergely Karácsony", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Career.", "content": "Karácsony worked for the \"Medián\" market and public opinion research company as a research manager. He became Director of Research in 2007. In addition he has been a lecturer at the Corvinus University of Budapest since 2004. He became a member of the newly formed Politics Can Be Different (LMP) party in 2009. During the 2010 parliamentary election he served as campaign manager of the party. He became a Member of Parliament from the Budapest regional list (3rd place). In May 2010 he was elected deputy leader of the LMP parliamentary fraction. As a result he left the \"Medián\" firm.  He was the party's candidate at the Budapest District II by-election in November 2011. He came third with 6.45 percent after Zsolt Láng (Fidesz) and Katalin Lévai (MSZP). Both MSZP and LMP agreed that the candidate who received fewer votes would withdraw in favour of the stronger one, however Karácsony also participated in the run-off.  In January 2013, the LMP's congress rejected electoral cooperation with other opposition forces, including Together 2014. As a result members of LMP's \"Dialogue for Hungary\" platform, including Karácsony, announced their decision to leave the opposition party and form a new organisation. Benedek Jávor, leader of the \"Dialogue for Hungary\" platform, said the eight MPs leaving LMP would keep their parliamentary mandates. The leaving MPs established Dialogue for Hungary as a full-fledged party.  In June 2014, Karácsony was elected co-chair of Dialogue for Hungary alongside Tímea Szabó, when his predecessor Jávor became a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) in the 2014 European Parliament election. Karácsony won the mayoral election in Zugló during the 2014 local elections as a joint candidate of the Hungarian Socialist Party, Democratic Coalition, and the Together 2014–Dialogue for Hungary alliance. According to the new rules, he also became a member of the General Assembly of Budapest.  In April 2017, Karácsony was re-elected co-leader of the Dialogue for Hungary and was also appointed as his party's candidate for the position of prime minister in the 2018 parliamentary election. The Hungarian Socialist Party also elected Karácsony as their candidate for the position of prime minister in December 2017. The two parties also decided to jointly contest the 2018 national election. Consequently, the Together has terminated their cooperation agreement with the Dialogue for Hungary. Under the leadership of Karácsony, the MSZP–PM joint list received 11.91% and came only third after Fidesz and Jobbik.  In June 2019, in the opposition's first primary election, he was elected as the opposition's (MSZP-P-DK-Momentum-LMP-MLP While Jobbik did not endorse Karácsony outright, the party opted not to run a candidate against him. This left Karácsony as the sole opposition candidate for the position of Lord Mayor of Budapest in the 2019 local elections, against incumbent Lord Mayor István Tarlós, who was supported by the ruling coalition, Fidesz–KDNP. He then went on to win the election on 13 October 2019 with 50.86% of the votes being cast in his favor with Tarlós receiving 44.10%.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Gergely Szilveszter Karácsony (born 11 June 1975) is a Hungarian political scientist, politician, member of the National Assembly (MP) from 2010 to 2014 and current Mayor of Budapest. He was elected Mayor of Zugló in 2014. His research areas are electoral systems and electoral behaviors.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977819}
{"src_title": "Together (Hungary)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Members.", "content": "During its foundation, the coalition consisted of three civil society organizations:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "Gordon Bajnai announced his return to politics on 23 October 2012, during the anti-government demonstration of the One Million for Press Freedom (Milla). On the protest, he called for an anti-Orbán coalition so as to form a supermajority in Parliament with the help of which the changes done by Orbán's ruling party, Fidesz could be undone.  In his speech, Bajnai repeatedly used a variant of the term (\"We may fail on our own, but together, we shall prove victorious!\"), when he proclaimed his support for such a \"cooperation between hopeful left-wingers, disappointed rightwingers, politically abandoned free-thinkers and committed Greens\" that his organization along with two other civilian body named Together 2014 as a reference to the date of the next general elections in Hungary. In December 2012, Bajnai announced that he intends to be a parliamentarian candidate in the 2014 general election.  According to plans, Together 2014 would have been an umbrella organization of centre-left parties, similar to the Olive Tree in Italy which established against Silvio Berlusconi's right-wing coalition in 1995. However Politics Can Be Different (LMP) had rejected the cooperation in November 2012 and January 2013, and the Hungarian Socialist Party led by Attila Mesterházy gradually took over the initiative.  The Together movement transformed itself into party on 8 March 2013, as only parties could take part in the election according to the rules. Three co-presidents were elected: Viktor Szigetvári (Patriotism and Progress Association), Péter Kónya (Solidarity) and Péter Juhász (Milla). The party was registered as \"Together – Party for a New Era\" because several other organizations overtaken the name \"Together 2014\" at the National Election Office.  On 14 January 2014, five opposition parties, including Together, entered into a coalition and formed Unity alliance. Contrary to his earlier plans, Bajnai could not reach to become joint Prime Minister candidate of the left-wing opposition since Attila Mesterházy (MSZP) was appointed to that position. The Unity suffered a heavy defeat and Together won only three mandates within the alliance and was unable to form a parliamentary group. The Together–Dialogue for Hungary alliance received 7.25% of the votes in the 2014 European Parliament election and gained one seat (Benedek Jávor, co-leader of the Dialogue for Hungary).  Following the retirement of Gordon Bajnai in September 2014, Viktor Szigetvári became the only key leader of the party. He was elected sole president in February 2015, against Levente Pápa.  On 24 September 2016, the delegate assembly decided to participate in the next parliamentary election with a separate national list. Together also announced its intention of selection of joint opposition individual candidates through primaries in each constituencies.  On 4 February 2017, Péter Juhász was elected as the party's new leader. On the same day, Balázs Berkecz and Nóra Hajdú were elected as vice-presidents, and Viktor Szigetvári as the leader of the party's National Political Council (the board of the party). Since March, Juhász urged the election cooperation of those \"democratic opposition parties\", which refuse both the Orbán regime and the former governing left-wing parties, who represent the \"world before 2010\". Juhász called his concept as \"New Pole\" (\"Új Pólus\"), with the possible participation of the Politics Can Be Different (LMP), the Dialogue for Hungary (PM), the Hungarian Two-tailed Dog Party (MKKP) and the Momentum Movement, in addition to his party. With that statement, Juhász refused the cooperation with the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP), the Democratic Coalition (DK) and the Hungarian Liberal Party (MLP). According to a Medián opinion poll published in July 2017, this hypothetical alliance would receive 16 percent of the vote in the next election. While the Together and the PM renewed their alliance in accordance with Juhász's \"New Pole\" concept on 4 October 2017, both LMP and Momentum Movement had rejected the election cooperation with other parties.  On 23 June 2017, MP Zsuzsanna Szelényi announced that she resigned from her position in the party leadership and quit Together, after losing the election for the party leadership in February against Péter Juhász. She also disagreed with the new direction and method of politics, installed by Juhász and criticized the new president's guerrilla campaign methods and media PR campaigns and \"ostentatious performances\". She also said that she would retain her parliamentary mandate.  In January 2018, leaders of the party announced that Together will participate in the 2018 national election separately. Former president Viktor Szigetvári was nominated the party's candidate for the position of prime minister. The party failed to reach 5% electoral threshold, receiving 0.66 percent of the vote, albeit an individual candidate Szabolcs Szabó obtained a mandate, becoming his party's only MP. Subsequently, Szabó joined the LMP parliamentary group. According to the laws, Together had to repay the state aid of HUF 150 million to the state budget, as a result Juhász organized a fundraising campaign. The Together ceased to exist on 2 June 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Alliance.", "content": "On 8 March 2013, the Dialogue for Hungary (PM) has established an electoral coalition with the Together, which was formed as a political party. Benedek Jávor and Tímea Szabó, co-chairs of the green party also became members of the Together's board. The two parties registered a joint national list for the 2014 European Parliament election too. Dialogue for Hungary broke off the permanent nature of alliance between the two parties on 9 November 2014. The two parties renewed their election cooperation for the 2018 national election on 4 October 2017. However after PM politician Gergely Karácsony became the Socialist Party's prime minister-candidate too, the Together has terminated the cooperation agreement on 8 December 2017.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Party's ideology.", "content": "The party's ideology was the Social democracy, Social liberalism, Liberalism and the Pro-Europeanism.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Election results.", "content": "For the Hungarian Parliament:  For the European Parliament:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Together (), officially Together – Party for a New Era (), formerly also known as Together 2014 (), was a social-liberal political party in Hungary formed on 26 October 2012 for the 2014 Hungarian parliamentary election by Gordon Bajnai, the former Prime Minister of Hungary, to contrast Viktor Orbán's government. Together was founded as a coalition of left-wing and liberal political movements and civil organizations that transformed itself into a party in March 2013.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977820}
{"src_title": "Ally Brooke", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Allyson Brooke Hernandez was born on July 7, 1993 in San Antonio, Texas, where she was raised by parents Jerry Hernandez and Patricia Castillo. She has an older brother. Brooke was a premature baby, weighing in at one pound and fourteen ounces when she was born. She is of Mexican descent. Brooke did not grow up speaking Spanish, stating that her parents made the decision to prevent her from being discriminated against in school. Brooke said she currently has a Spanish tutor. Brooke attended Cornerstone Christian Elementary School in San Antonio, and completed her high school education through home-schooling. She identifies as Christian.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"The X Factor\" and Fifth Harmony.", "content": "Brooke auditioned for The X Factor in Austin, Texas, not far from her hometown in San Antonio, singing \"On My Knees\" from contemporary Christian and Latin pop singer Jaci Velasquez. For her bootcamp round she sang against Jullia Bullock singing \"Knockin' on Heaven's Door\". She was eliminated during the bootcamp round of competition, but was brought back along with Dinah Jane, Normani, Lauren Jauregui, and Camila Cabello to form the group now known as Fifth Harmony. The group advanced to the live shows and managed to finish in third place. Her grandfather died during week 4 performance of \"Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)\" by Kelly Clarkson.  After the finale of \"The X Factor\", Fifth Harmony was signed to Syco Music and Epic Records. The group released their first \"Extended Play (\"EP), \"Better Together\" in 2013, along with the albums \"Reflection\" in 2015 and \"7/27\" in 2016. They released their self-titled third studio album \"Fifth Harmony\" on August 25, 2017. On March 19, 2018, the group announced an indefinite hiatus to focus on solo projects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2017–present: Upcoming debut album and \"Dancing with the Stars\".", "content": "Aside from her work with Fifth Harmony, Brooke was also featured on American DJ-duo Lost Kings song \"Look at Us Now\" along with American rapper ASAP Ferg. The song was released on June 9, 2017. In July 2017, she was set to perform a solo show in São Paulo, but the show was canceled. Brooke joined Plácido Domingo to sing two songs on January 24, 2018 at the Convention Center's Lila Cockrell Theatre in San Antonio, Texas. Brooke collaborated with German DJ Topic for the song \"Perfect\", released on January 26, 2018 along with its music video. She performed the song during an episode of \"Wild 'n Out\" in March 2018. In early 2018, Brooke joined the other members of Fifth Harmony in an episode of \"Lip Sync Battle\", performing a medley of songs by Selena and Jennifer Lopez. In March 2018, she sang a medley of songs from Oscar-winning films such as \"Beauty and the Beast\" and \"My Heart Will Go On\" during the \"E! News\" broadcast of the red carpet pre-show of the 90th Academy Awards. On March 12, 2018, Brooke signed with Maverick Entertainment as a solo artist. She appeared in an episode of season 2 of \"Famous in Love\" as herself.  In April 2018, Brooke confirmed she is working on her debut solo studio album, with producers 1500 or Nothin'. In August 2018, it was announced that Brooke signed a record deal with Latium Entertainment and Atlantic Records. The company also announced that Brooke would release her debut solo single later in the fall. She debuted a new, Spanish-language song called \"Vámonos\" at the Fusion Festival in Liverpool, England on September 2, 2018. The song was released on November 23, 2018, as a collaboration with Kris Kross Amsterdam and Messiah; she also performed the song prior to its official release at the 2018 ALMA Awards. Brooke released a cover of \"Last Christmas\" by Wham! on November 16, 2018, and performed it at the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. She then announced her memoir, \"Finding Your Harmony\", which was set to hit bookshelves on April 2, 2019. It has not yet been released. On December 21, 2018, Brooke released a song called \"The Truth Is In There\", written by Diane Warren, as part of Weight Watchers International's Wellness That Works campaign. \"Low Key\", Brooke's official debut solo single from her upcoming album, was released on January 31, 2019. Her debut album is expected to be released in spring 2020. In May 2019, Brooke released the single \"Lips Don't Lie\" featuring rapper A Boogie wit da Hoodie.  In September 2019, Brooke performed the opening theme song to Nickelodeon's \"The Casagrandes\", a spin-off of \"The Loud House\". From September to November 2019, Brooke competed on the 28th season of \"Dancing with the Stars\", finishing in third place. She released the song and music video for \"Higher\" with Matoma in September 2019. Brooke danced to her own song \"Higher\" a few months later while on \"Dancing with the Stars,\" where she received her first perfect score from the judges. In November, Brooke released the single \"No Good\". On December 8, 2019, she opened the Miss Universe beauty pageant, performing a medley of her singles and a Selena tribute with \"I Could Fall in Love\" and \"Dreaming of You\".  In January 2020, she announced her Time To Shine Tour on social media with shows in North America, which kicked off on March 6, 2020 in Chicago, IL at the House of Blues. However, due to concerns over the COVID-19 pandemic, the tour was cancelled until further notice.  In May 2020, Brooke revealed the cover of her upcoming memoir, \"Finding Your Harmony\", which was previously scheduled to release in April 2019. The new expected release date for the singer's book is October 2020. The memoir is set to cover aspects of her life, including her childhood and her rise as a solo artist.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Influences.", "content": "Growing up, Brooke listened to artists such as Selena, Gloria Estefan, and Jennifer Lopez. She has also cited Justin Timberlake and Bruno Mars as influences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Philanthropy.", "content": "With Fifth Harmony, Brooke was involved with charities DoSomething.org and the Ryan Seacrest Foundation. She has also participated in activities by the ASPCA. Brooke is the Celebrity Ambassador for March of Dimes, a nonprofit organization working to prevent premature birth, birth defects and infant mortality. In December 2016, she had a toy drive in her hometown, San Antonio, benefiting children at local hospitals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tours.", "content": "Headlining", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Allyson Brooke Hernandez (born July 7, 1993) is an American singer. She rose to prominence as part of the girl group Fifth Harmony. Brooke began to establish herself in 2017 as a solo artist, featuring on Lost Kings' \"Look at Us Now\" with rapper ASAP Ferg in 2017, and collaborating with DJ Topic on the single \"Perfect\" in 2018. She sang a medley of songs from Oscar-winning films at the \"E! News\" red carpet pre-show of the 90th Academy Awards. Following the indefinite hiatus of Fifth Harmony in May 2018, Brooke signed a record deal with Atlantic. She released \"Vámonos\", a collaboration with Kris Kross Amsterdam and Messiah, in November 2018. In January 2019, Brooke released \"Low Key\" featuring Tyga, her first single from her upcoming debut solo album, expected to be released in spring 2020. She competed in season 28 of \"Dancing with the Stars\" and placed 3rd alongside her partner Sasha Farber.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977821}
{"src_title": "Narcos: Mexico", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Premise.", "content": "\"Narcos: Mexico\" explores the origin of the modern war on drugs, beginning at the time when Mexican traffickers were a loose and disorganized confederation of small-time independent cannabis growers and dealers. The series dramatizes the rise of the Guadalajara Cartel in the 1980s as Félix Gallardo (Diego Luna) unifies the traffickers in order to build an empire. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agent Kiki Camarena (Michael Peña) moves his wife and young son from California to Guadalajara to take on a new post, and he quickly learns that his assignment will be more challenging than he ever could have imagined.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "Netflix renewed \"Narcos\" for two more seasons on September 6, 2016, a few days after the release of the second season. Production on the fourth season began in Mexico in late 2017, following the release of the third season. On July 18, 2018, Netflix announced that the fourth season would instead \"reset\" with almost an entirely new cast as a new Netflix original series titled \"Narcos: Mexico\".  The first season was released on November 16, 2018, and Netflix renewed it for a second season on December 5, 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cast and crew.", "content": "In December 2017, Michael Peña and Diego Luna were announced to star in the upcoming series. A few days later, Matt Letscher joined the cast in a regular role. Other key cast members revealed by showrunner Eric Newman include Tenoch Huerta, Joaquín Cosío, Teresa Ruiz, Alyssa Diaz, and José María Yazpik (reprising his role from the third season of \"Narcos\").  Amat Escalante and Alonso Ruizpalacios directed episodes for the upcoming series, while Colombian Andi Baiz, director of several episodes for the first three seasons of \"Narcos\", also directed for \"Narcos: Mexico\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Murder of location scout.", "content": "Carlos Muñoz Portal, one of the show's location scouts, was found murdered with multiple gunshot wounds on September 15, 2017 in central Mexico near the town of Temascalapa. A spokesman for the attorney general in Mexico said that there were no witnesses due to the remote location, but the authorities would continue to investigate. Authorities are considering the possibility of narco gang involvement, but the murder has not been solved.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Factual differences.", "content": "Although many of the events and characters are based on true history, some liberties were taken to streamline the story of the Mexican drug war into a cohesive narrative. The murders of John Clay Walker and Albert Radelat were real; however, they were reportedly tortured beforehand. The character of Sofia Conesa, portrayed as the love interest of Rafael Caro Quintero, was named Sara Cosio in real life.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "The first season of \"Narcos: Mexico\" has a score of 89% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 35 reviews with an average rating of 7.43/10, with the critics consensus stating \"Dangerous, thrilling, and highly addictive, \"Narcos: Mexico\"'s first season expertly expands the franchise by exploring new territory in the drug war's grim history and showcasing electric performances from Diego Luna and Michael Peña.\" On Metacritic, season one holds a weighted average score of 80 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Narcos: Mexico is an American crime drama web television series created and produced by Chris Brancato, Carlo Bernard, and Doug Miro that premiered on Netflix on November 16, 2018. It was originally intended to be the fourth season of the Netflix series \"Narcos\", but it was ultimately developed as a companion series. It focuses on the illegal drug trade in Mexico, whereas the parent series centered on the illegal drug trade in Colombia. On December 5, 2018, Netflix renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on February 13, 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977822}
{"src_title": "Czech Republic in the Eurovision Song Contest 2019", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Prior to the 2019 Contest, Czech Republic had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest seven times since its first entry in. The nation competed in the contest on three consecutive occasions between 2007 and 2009 without qualifying to the final: in 2007 Kabát performing \"Malá dáma\" placed 28th (last) in the semi-final achieving only one point, in 2008 Tereza Kerndlová performing \"Have Some Fun\" placed 18th (second to last) in her semi-final scoring nine points, in 2009 Gipsy.cz performing the song \"Aven Romale\" placed 18th (last) in their semi-final failing to score any points. The Czech broadcaster withdrew from the contest between 2010 and 2014 citing reasons such as low viewing figures and poor results for their absence. In 2015, Czech Republic returned to the contest and once again failed to qualify to the final with the song \"Hope Never Dies\" performed by Marta Jandová and Václav Noid Bárta, placing 13th in their semi-final with 33 points. In 2016, Czech Republic was represented by Gabriela Gunčíková and the song \"I Stand\". The country qualified for the final and placed 25th out of 26 entries. This marked the first qualification to the final for the Czech Republic since they debuted in the contest in 2007. In 2018, Czech Republic was represented by Mikolas Josef with the song \"Lie to Me\". The song finished in sixth place with 281 points, achieving their highest finish in the contest and their first appearance in the top ten.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Before Eurovision.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Eurovision Song CZ\".", "content": "\"Eurovision Song CZ\" was the national selection process organised by Česká televize to select Czech Republic's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2019. The winner was revealed in January 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "The winner was determined, from among eight competing entries, by the combination of votes from a public vote and a ten-member international jury panel. For the public vote, users were able to vote for the winner from 7 January 2019 to 21 January 2019 via the official Eurovision Song Contest app. For first time, both international and Czech users were able to vote. International votes have the same weight like international juror. The international jury panel consisted of ten former Eurovision entrants:", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Competing entries.", "content": "Česká televize received three hundred song submissions for the Eurovision Song Contest, of which 60 were by Czech musicians. The eight selected finalists were announced on 7 January 2019 and the entries were made available to the public.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Promotion.", "content": "Lake Malawi made several appearances across Europe to specifically promote \"Friend of a Friend\" as the Czech Eurovision entry. On 6 April, the group performed at the \"Eurovision in Concert\" event in Amsterdam to over 4500 spectators. On 14 April, Lake Malawi performed during the \"London Eurovision Party\" at the Café de Paris venue in London, hosted by Nicki French and Paddy O'Connell. They will also perform \"Friend of a Friend\" at the \"Eurovision Pre-Party Madrid\" on 20 April, and at the \"Moscow Eurovision Party\" on 26 April. They also performed during the Ukrainian Eurovision national final.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "At Eurovision.", "content": "According to Eurovision rules, all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the \"Big 5\" (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final; the top ten countries from each semi-final progress to the final. The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) split up the competing countries into six different pots based on voting patterns from previous contests, with countries with favourable voting histories put into the same pot. On 28 January 2019, a special allocation draw was held which placed each country into one of the two semi-finals, as well as which half of the show they would perform in. Czech Republic was placed into the first semi-final, to be held on 14 May 2019, and was scheduled to perform in the first half of the show.  Once all the competing songs for the 2019 contest had been released, the running order for the semi-finals was decided by the shows' producers rather than through another draw, so that similar songs were not placed next to each other. Czech Republic was set to perform in position 6, following the entry from Slovenia and preceding the entry from Hungary.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Semi-final.", "content": "The Czech Republic performed sixth in the first semi-final, following the entry from Slovenia and preceding the entry from Hungary. At the end of the show, they were announced as one of the ten countries to qualify for the grand final, making it the country's third qualification overall and second in a row. Subsequently, at the semi-final winners' press conference, the qualifying contestants all drew to see which half of the final they would compete in. The Czech Republic was drawn to compete in the first half. It was later revealed that Czech Republic placed second in the semi-final, receiving a total of 242 points: 86 points from the televoting and 157 points from the juries.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Voting.", "content": "Voting during the three shows involved each country awarding two sets of points from 1-8, 10 and 12: one from their professional jury and the other from televoting. Each nation's jury consisted of five music industry professionals who are citizens of the country they represent, with their names published before the contest to ensure transparency. This jury judged each entry based on: vocal capacity; the stage performance; the song's composition and originality; and the overall impression by the act. In addition, no member of a national jury was permitted to be related in any way to any of the competing acts in such a way that they cannot vote impartially and independently. The individual rankings of each jury member as well as the nation's televoting results will be released shortly after the grand final.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Split voting results.", "content": "The following five members comprised the Czech jury:", "section_level": 3}], "src_summary": "Czech Republic participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2019. The Czech broadcaster Česká televize (ČT) organised a national final in order to select the Czech entry for the 2019 contest in Tel Aviv, Israel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977823}
{"src_title": "2019 Ukrainian presidential election", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "According to Ukrainian law, the election of the President of Ukraine must take place on the last Sunday of March of the fifth year of the term of the incumbent president. Thus the 2019 Ukrainian presidential election should take place on 31 March 2019. The Ukrainian parliament had to approve the date of the presidential election no later than 100 days before the election day. On 26 November 2018 the parliament set the presidential vote for 31 March 2019.  34,544,993 people were eligible to vote in the elections. However, the March 2014 annexation of Crimea by Russia and the occupation of parts of Donetsk Oblast and Luhansk Oblast by separatists (since April 2014) made roughly 12% of eligible voters unable to participate in the elections. The Ukrainian Central Election Commission closed all five foreign polling stations in Russia ahead of the vote.  Analysis of candidates by the Ukrainian NGO \"Chesno\" found that Petro Poroshenko had the largest election fund (415 million Ukrainian hryvnia (UAH), about $15.4 million), followed by Yulia Tymoshenko with UAH 320 million and Volodymyr Zelensky with UAH 102.8 million and Serhiy Taruta with UAH 98.4 million. By comparison, in the 2010 Ukrainian presidential election, then winner Viktor Yanukovych spent over $40 million and runner-up Yulia Tymoshenko spent $36 million.  A total of 2,369 international observers from 17 countries and 19 organizations were officially registered to monitor the elections. A record number of 139 non-governmental Ukrainian organizations are registered as observers.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Candidates.", "content": "According to Ukrainian law, a presidential candidate must be a citizen of Ukraine who is at least 35 years old, can speak the (state) Ukrainian language and has lived in Ukraine for the last ten years prior to election day. Candidates were nominated by a political party, or by self-nomination. Candidates also had to submit a declaration of income for the year preceding the election year. This document was then scrutinized by the National Agency for Prevention of Corruption, which subsequently published the results of the audit. Nominations could be submitted from 31 December 2018 to 4 February 2019. The end of the registration period was 9 February 2019. After a potential candidate provided the required documentation to the Central Election Commission (CEC), this body had five days to register the candidate or to refuse to do so.  Candidates were required to pay a nomination deposit of 2.5 million hryvnias (approx. 90,000 US dollars); only the two candidates that progress to the second round of voting will get this deposit returned (the other deposits will be transferred to the state budget).  By the end of the registration period on 9 February 2019, the Central Election Commission (CEC) had registered 44 candidates for the elections. This meant that the largest number of candidates participated in the elections. In total, 92 people submitted documents to the CEC to participate in the elections. Five candidates withdrew. The CEC refused to register 47 people, most for their failure to pay the deposit.  Candidates could withdraw their candidacy, but not later than 23 days before the election. On 8 March, the CEC approved the final list of candidates. There were a total of 39 candidates for the first round of the election.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Registration denied.", "content": "The CEC rejected 47 applications (mostly for failure to pay the deposit of 2.5 mln hryvnias (approx. 90,000 US dollars)) of potential candidates, including:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ukrainian television coverage.", "content": "During the 2019 Ukrainian presidential election, various Ukrainian television channels supported a candidate for President of Ukraine.  Five groups supported Poroshenko:  Petro Poroshenko's Channel 5 and Pryamiy supported Poroshenko and were very critical of Volodymyr Zelensky and Yulia Tymoshenko.  Dmytro Firtash's very powerful Inter supported Yuriy Boyko and Poroshenko.  Rinat Akhmetov's TRK Ukraina, which is owned by Akhmetov's System Capital Management Holdings, supported Poroshenko, Oleh Lyashko, and Oleksandr Vilkul. Akhmetov's Opposition Bloc nominated Vilkul.  Pro-Russia Viktor Medvedchuk's Channel 112 and Yevheniy Murayev's supported Poroshenko, Lyashko, and Boyko. Medvedchuk's Opposition Platform — For Life nominated Boyko. The godfather of Medvedchuk's daughter is Vladimir Putin.  Petro Dyminskyi's supported Poroshenko's allies allowing them to explain their story while they were under investigation.  Three TV groups were very critical of Poroshenko:  Ihor Kolomoisky's 1+1 media group supported Volodymyr Zelensky. Zelenesky worked for Kolomoisky's channel.  Andriy Sadovyi's, supported Anatoliy Hrytsenko and opposed Poroshenko.  Pro-Russia Yevheniy Murayev's supported pro-Russia Vilkul and was against Poroshenko but neutral to Tymoshenko and Lyashko.  Under the state-owned, was critical of Poroshenko.  Victor Pinchuk's ICTV, Novyi Kanal and STB were neutral.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "With a voter turnout of 62.8%, about 18.9 million people voted in the first round of elections on 31 March. Volodymyr Zelensky of the Servant of the People and the incumbent President Petro Poroshenko both advanced to the second round of elections on 21 April. In the first round, Zelensky earned 30% of the votes compared to Poroshenko's 16%. Exit polls during the second round of voting predicted that Zelensky would win with more than 70% of the votes. With only 3% of the votes counted, the CEC confirmed similar preliminary results. Poroshenko conceded the results of the election in a speech soon after the polls closed and exit-poll data was released. He wrote on Twitter: \"We succeeded to ensure free, fair, democratic and competitive elections... I will accept the will of Ukrainian people.\"  According to the CEC, preliminary results with about 99.27% of the votes counted indicates that Zelensky received about 73.19% of the votes to the incumbent president's 24.48%.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "Poroshenko is reported to have tweeted that \"a new inexperienced Ukrainian president... could be quickly returned to Russia's orbit of influence.\" Some of Zelensky's critics have expressed concerns over his close ties with billionaire oligarch Ihor Kolomoyskyi, doubting whether Zelensky will be able to stand up against the country's influential oligarchs and the Russian President Vladimir Putin. Several European Union nations offered their congratulations and hopes of continued partnerships in the future. British Foreign Secretary Jeremy Hunt said that Zelensky \"will now truly be the Servant of the People.\" Similar sentiments were expressed by Andrzej Duda, President of Poland, Donald Tusk, the President of the European Council, and NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg. Russia's deputy foreign minister, Grigory Karasin, stated that \"The new leadership now must understand and realise the hopes of its electors\" in both domestic and foreign policy.  Canada's Prime Minister Justin Trudeau congratulated Zelensky and thanked the Canadians among the observers overseeing the elections. The President of the United States, Donald Trump, called the president-elect to congratulate him and \"the Ukrainian people for a peaceful [and] democratic election.\"  Jonah Fisher of BBC News described the preliminary result as a \"massive protest vote\" and \"a humiliation\" for the incumbent president, but commented that it would be difficult for Zelensky to put his \"vague policies\" into action.  A joint letter of congratulations was issued by both Tusk and Jean Claude Juncker, the President of the European Commission. The European Union (EU) leaders stated that they hoped Zelensky's victory would speed up the implementation of the remaining parts of the EU-Ukraine Association Agreement, including the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2019 Ukrainian presidential election was held on 31 March and 21 April in a two-round system. There were a total of 39 candidates for the election on the ballot. The 2014 annexation of Crimea by Russia and the occupation of parts of Donetsk Oblast and Luhansk Oblast prevented around 12% of eligible voters from participating in the election. As no candidate received an absolute majority of the vote, a second round was held between the top two candidates, Volodymyr Zelensky, who played the role of Ukraine's president in a popular television comedy and the incumbent president, Petro Poroshenko, on 21 April 2019. According the Central Election Commission, Zelensky won the second round with 73.22% of the votes.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977824}
{"src_title": "UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Qualified teams.", "content": "<onlyinclude> </onlyinclude>", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "There was no automatic qualifying berth, and all 55 UEFA national teams, including the 12 national teams whose countries would stage matches, had to compete in the qualifiers for the 24 places at the finals tournament. As the host cities were appointed by UEFA in September 2014, before qualifying, it was possible for the national teams from the host cities to fail to qualify for the finals tournament.  With the creation of the UEFA Nations League starting in 2018, the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League was linked with UEFA Euro qualifying, providing teams another chance to qualify for the tournament. The qualifying process guaranteed that at least one team from each division of the previous Nations League season would qualify for the final tournament (either directly or through the play-offs).  The main qualifying process began with the qualifying group stage in March 2019, instead of late 2018 immediately following the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and ended in November 2019. The qualifiers were played on double matchdays in March, June, September, October and November 2019. As with the 2016 qualifying tournament, the group stage decided 20 of the 24 teams that advanced to the final tournament. Following the admission of Kosovo to UEFA in May 2016, it was announced that the 55 teams will be drawn into 10 groups after the completion of the League phase of the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League, and the draw seeding will be based on the overall rankings of the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League. There were five groups of five teams, and five groups of six teams, with the four UEFA Nations League Finals participants guaranteed to be drawn into groups of five teams (so they can compete in the Nations League Finals in June 2019). The top two teams in each of the 10 groups qualified for the final tournament.  Following the qualifying group stage, the qualifying play-offs will take place to determine the remaining 4 teams for the finals tournament. Unlike previous editions, the participants of the play-offs will not be decided based on results from the qualifying group stage. Instead, 16 teams will be selected based on their performance in the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League. These teams will be divided into four paths, each containing four teams, with one team from each path qualifying for the final tournament. Each league will have its own play-off path if at least four teams have not already qualified in the conventional qualifying group stage. The Nations League group winners will automatically qualify for the play-off path of their league. If a group winner has already qualified through the qualifying group stage, they will be replaced by the next best-ranked team in the same league. However, if there are not enough non-qualified teams in the same league, then the spot will go to the next best team in the overall ranking. However, group winners cannot face teams from a higher league.  Each play-off path will feature two single-leg semi-finals, and one single-leg final. The best-ranked team will host the fourth-ranked team, and the second-ranked team will host the third-ranked team. The host of the final will be decided by a draw, with semi-final winner 1 or 2 hosting the final. The four play-off path winners will join the 20 teams that have already qualified for the final tournament. The UEFA Executive Committee approved the use of the video assistant referee system for the play-offs during their meeting in Nyon, Switzerland on 4 December 2019, the first time the technology will be used in the qualifying competition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Tiebreakers for group ranking.", "content": "If two or more teams are equal on points on completion of the group matches, the following tie-breaking criteria are applied:  Notes", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Criteria for overall ranking.", "content": "To determine the overall rankings of the European Qualifiers, results against teams in sixth place are discarded and the following criteria are applied:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Schedule.", "content": "Below is the schedule of the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying campaign.  Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe, the qualifying play-offs, originally scheduled for 26 and 31 March 2020, were postponed by UEFA on 17 March 2020. Afterwards, UEFA tentatively scheduled for the matches to take place on 4 and 9 June 2020. However, the play-offs were later postponed indefinitely by UEFA on 1 April 2020. The scheduling of the play-offs was reviewed by the UEFA Executive Committee during their meeting on 17 June 2020. At the meeting, UEFA decided to stage the play-off semi-finals on 8 October 2020, and the finals on 12 November 2020. To facilitate this, an additional matchday was added to both international windows, allowing for triple-headers to be played in order to complete the league phase of the 2020–21 UEFA Nations League as scheduled.  The fixture list was confirmed by UEFA on 2 December 2018 following the draw.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Draw.", "content": "The qualifying group stage draw was held on 2 December 2018, 12:00 CET (11:00 local time), at the Convention Centre Dublin in Dublin, Republic of Ireland. The 55 teams were drawn into 10 groups: five groups of five teams (Groups A–E) and five groups of six teams (Groups F–J).  The teams were seeded based on the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League overall ranking. The four participants of the 2019 UEFA Nations League Finals in June 2019 were placed in a separate pot and drawn into Groups A–D which only have five teams so that they only have to play eight qualifying matches, leaving two free matchdays to play in Nations League Finals. The following restrictions were also applied with computer assistance:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Seeding.", "content": "The teams were seeded based on the November 2018 UEFA Nations League overall rankings. Teams in \"italics\" are final tournament hosts. Teams in bold qualified for the final tournament.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Groups.", "content": "Matches took place from 21 March to 19 November 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Play-offs.", "content": "Teams that failed in the qualifying group stage may still qualify for the final tournament through the play-offs. Each league in the UEFA Nations League will be allocated one of the four remaining final tournament spots. Four teams from each league that have not already qualified for the European Championship finals will compete in the play-offs of their league. The play-off berths were first allocated to each Nations League group winner, and if any of the group winners had already qualified for the European Championship finals, then to the next best ranked team of the league, etc.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Overall ranking.", "content": "The overall rankings were used for seeding in the final tournament draw. Results against sixth-placed teams were not considered in the ranking.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Team of the European Qualifiers.", "content": "Following the completion of the qualifying group stage, UEFA released a \"Team of the European Qualifiers\" on 29 November 2019. The team featured 11 players based on accumulated scores from the FedEx Performance Zone player rankings, which was based on form from qualifying. Additional weighting was given for teams that played only eight matches.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying tournament is a football competition that is being played from March 2019 to November 2020 to determine the 24 UEFA member men's national teams that will advance to the UEFA Euro 2020 final tournament, to be staged across Europe in June and July 2021. The competition is linked with the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League, giving countries a secondary route to qualify for the final tournament. For the first time since 1976, no team will automatically qualify for the UEFA European Championship as the host country.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977825}
{"src_title": "2019 United Nations Climate Change Conference", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Prelude.", "content": "The conference was planned to be held in Brazil in November 2019, but a year before the planned start, newly-elected President Jair Bolsonaro withdrew the offer to host the event, citing economic reasons. Then Chile stepped up and became the new host, but social unrest in the lead-up to the meeting forced it late October 2019 to withdraw from hosting. Then by mutual agreement between the UN, Chile, and Spain, the latter became the new host.  Various climate activists had set out from Europe to South America by sailboat, before the decision had been taken to relocate COP25 to Madrid. In mid-November, some of these activists joined an alternative conference, the \"Forest COP\", near the centre of the Amazon jungle, in Terra do Meio. The event was attended by indigenous leaders, scientists and academics such as Eduardo Góes Neves, and activists such as Nadezhda Tolokonnikova. After the Forest COP, a follow-on event, \"\"Amazônia Centro do Mundo\"\" (Amazon: The Centre of the World) took place on 17 November in nearby Altamira.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Event planning.", "content": "In November, Teresa Ribera, the Spanish Minister for the Ecological Transition, announced the conference would be held at the IFEMA facilities in Madrid. The Spanish government divided the COP25 into two zones, one blue and one green. The blue zone hosted sessions for negotiation between the parties of the COP. This included the 15th session of the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol and the 2nd session of the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement. The blue zone also hosted events and activities run by NGO actors and side events organized by states other than Spain. The green zone was dedicated to civil society initiatives aiming to promote social participation. This area was divided into three thematic sub-zones: one involving youth events, the second designated to indigenous peoples, and the third focused on science and innovation. The green zone was intended to be an open-dialogue pavilion for all types of civil actors, ranging from NGOs to businesses, academia and sponsors.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Participants.", "content": "Harjeet Singh, of environmental group ActionAid International, said that moving the summit from Chile to Spain with only four weeks' notice presented \"real barriers to participation\" for delegates from the southern hemisphere.  In August 2019, youth climate change activist Greta Thunberg and her father Svante sailed from Plymouth, England across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas in sailboat \"Malizia II\" to participate in the UN Climate Action Summit in New York City in September. At that time it was not clear how she was going to return to Europe, but she was planning to go on to Chile for the conference. With the move of the conference to Madrid, the need to return to Europe became more urgent. Teresa Ribera, as Spain's environment minister, offered her help in finding a way to travel to the conference. Riley Whitelum and his wife, Elayna Caraus, two Australians who had been sailing around the world aboard their catamaran, \"La Vagabonde\", took Thunberg back across the Atlantic. On 13 November 2019, Thunberg set sail from Hampton, Virginia for Lisbon, Portugal. Her departing message was the same as it has been since she began her activism: \"My message to the Americans is the same as to everyone – that is to unite behind the science and to act on the science.\"  Speaker of the US House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi led a 15-member Congressional delegation to the talks to demonstrate continued U.S. support for the negotiations, despite the Trump administration's decision to pull the U.S. out of the Paris Agreement.  Ecuadorian environmental activist Helena Gualinga participated. She spoke about her concern on the Ecuadorian government authorizing oil extraction in indigenous land. She said: \"Our country's government is still granting our territories to the corporations responsible of climate change. This is criminal.\" She criticized the Ecuadorian government for claiming interest in protecting the Amazon during the conference instead of attending indigenous Amazon women's demands brought to the government during the 2019 Ecuadorian protests. She also expressed her disappointment towards world leaders' lack of interest to discuss topics brought by indigenous peoples to the conference.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Negotiations.", "content": "The last part of the Paris regime that remains to be resolved is \"Article 6\", which describes rules for a carbon market and other forms of international cooperation. In the COP24 conference no agreement could be reached on this topic. Several politically difficult decisions have to be made for this article. Negative emissions could be traded under the Kyoto Protocol to offset emissions by developed countries, but many of these negative emission projects would have happened anyway without the extra incentive from the Kyoto Protocol, so that this mechanism was described as 'hot air'. International trading of carbon can make overall emission cuts cheaper. If negotiations about this fail, it will come up again in 2020's COP26 (postponed to 2021).  According to scientists, talks focused on some of the rules for implementing the 2015 Paris agreement, but the overriding issue of how fast the world needs to cut greenhouse gas emissions has received little official attention. Urgent UN talks on tackling the climate emergency are still not addressing the true scale of the crisis, one of the world’s leading climate scientists has warned.  Negotiations concluded on 15 December 2019, two days after the stated deadline.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "News.", "content": "News during the conference included:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Results.", "content": "The results of the conference were disappointing at a time when climate action and concrete measures are considered urgent. Alden Meyer, director of strategy and policy for the Union of Concerned Scientists who has attended climate negotiations since 1991, stated that he had never seen before the almost total disconnect between what the science requires and what the climate negotiations are delivering in terms of meaningful action. Greenpeace executive director Jennifer Morgan summarized the prevalent opinion: “Climate blockers like Brazil and Saudi Arabia, enabled by an irresponsibly weak Chilean leadership, peddled carbon deals and steamrolled scientists and civil society”. The decisions about the carbon market and emissions cuts were delayed to the next climate conference in Glasgow. The United States, Russia, India, China, Brazil and Saudi Arabia were the main opponents of these measures.  On the other side, the European Union reached an agreement about \"The European Green New Deal\" that should lower its emissions to zero by 2050. Also, many commitments were made by countries, cities, businesses and international coalitions. For example, the Climate Ambitious Coalition contains now \"73 countries committed to net zero emissions by 2050, as well as a further actors (regions, cities, businesses, investors) who have pledged the same goal\". All the information about the pledges (governmental and non-governmental) is streamed to the Global Climate Action portal.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2019 United Nations Climate Change Conference, also known as COP25, is the 25th United Nations Climate Change conference. It was held in Madrid, Spain, from 2 to 13 December 2019 under the presidency of the Chilean government. The conference incorporated the 25th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the 15th meeting of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP15), and the second meeting of the parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA2).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977826}
{"src_title": "Legacies (TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Premise.", "content": "\"Legacies\" follows Hope Mikaelson, the daughter of Klaus Mikaelson and Hayley Marshall, who is descended from some of the most powerful vampire, werewolf, and witch bloodlines. Two years after the events of \"The Originals\", 17-year-old Hope attends the Salvatore School for the Young and Gifted. The school provides a haven where supernatural beings can learn to control their abilities and impulses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "In August 2017, it was announced that early discussions on the development of a spinoff of \"The Originals\" focusing on Hope Mikaelson, the daughter of Klaus Mikaelson and Hayley Marshall, were taking place with Julie Plec, creator of \"The Originals\" and co-creator of \"The Vampire Diaries\". In January 2018, it was revealed that a pilot for the spinoff had been ordered; Plec penned the pilot script and is credited with creating the series. It was announced in March 2018 that the spinoff had been ordered to pilot, but instead of a traditional pilot, a fifteen-minute pilot presentation of the series would be presented to The CW.  On May 11, 2018, it was announced that the spinoff, titled \"Legacies\", had been ordered to series for the 2018–19 U.S. television season. In June 2018, it was announced that the series would premiere on October 25, 2018. On October 8, 2018, The CW announced that they had ordered three additional scripts for the series, bringing the first season total script order to sixteen episodes.  On January 31, 2019, The CW renewed the series for a second season. The second season premiered on October 10, 2019. On January 7, 2020, the series was renewed for a third season, set to air in January 2021.  In March 2020, production was shut down following the COVID-19 pandemic. On March 26, 2020, it was announced that the sixteenth episode that aired that same night would serve as a spring finale as the production team had run out of episodes to air following the production shut down.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Casting.", "content": "It was announced in March 2018 that \"The Vampire Diaries\" veteran Matt Davis would reprise the role of Alaric Saltzman and that Danielle Rose Russell would star as Hope Mikaelson. Quincy Fouse, Jenny Boyd, Kaylee Bryant, and Aria Shahghasemi were also set to star. Shahghasemi would debut in the twelfth episode of the fifth season of \"The Originals\" as Hope's friend Landon. It was revealed at San Diego Comic-Con in July 2018 that Paul Wesley would direct an episode and that Zach Roerig would appear in the series. Steven R. McQueen was revealed to be reprising his role as Jeremy Gilbert in the series' third episode.  In July 2019, it was announced that Thomas Doherty would appear in the second season, and that Alexis Denisof would recur in the second season as Professor Vardemus. In August 2019, Bianca Santos, Bianca Kajlich, and Leo Howard were cast in recurring roles for the second season. In September 2019, it was reported that Riley Voelkel will be reprising her role as Freya Mikaelson for the sixth episode of the second season. In November 2019, it was announced that Chris Wood is set to reprise his role of Kai Parker in the twelfth episode of the second season. The same month, it was reported that Chris Lee has been promoted as a series regular during production on the second season and that Olivia Liang was cast in a recurring role for the second season. On January 20, 2020, Charles Jazz Terrier was cast in a recurring capacity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "A manufacture-on-demand DVD for the first season was released by the Warner Archive Collection on October 22, 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical response.", "content": "On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 82% based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 8.0 out of 10. The website's critic consensus states: \"A fun and fast-paced addition to The CW's stable of supernatural high school series, \"Legacies\" emerges from the shadows of its sister shows an unexpected delight.\" Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 59 out of 100 based on 5 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Legacies is an American fantasy drama television series, created by Julie Plec, that premiered on The CW on October 25, 2018. It is a spin-off of \"The Originals\" and features characters from both that series and its predecessor, \"The Vampire Diaries\". Danielle Rose Russell stars as the 17-year-old Hope Mikaelson, continuing the role she originated in the fifth and final season of \"The Originals\". Matt Davis also features prominently in the series, reprising his role as Alaric Saltzman from \"The Vampire Diaries\". In January 2019, The CW renewed the series for a second season which premiered on October 10, 2019. In January 2020, The CW renewed the series for a third season, set to premiere in January 2021.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977827}
{"src_title": "Edenred", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "Inspired by the original Luncheon Voucher, a concept launched in the United Kingdom in 1954, Jacques Borel created Ticket Restaurant on the French market in 1962. A French government decree, passed in 1967, officially recognized the meal voucher as an employee benefit. The concept was launched outside France starting in 1976.  Employee benefits continued to grow worldwide, first in Europe and then in Latin America, thanks to two programs: Ticket Restaurant and Ticket Alimentación. The Ticket Restaurant® entity, which had been a subsidiary of the Accor Group since 1983, set itself a new course in 1998, when it became Accor Services.  From the 2000s, the pace of growth increased, giving rise to \"incentive and rewards\" solutions, in Europe and Asia, in addition to Expense management, solutions, with the development of Ticket Car in Latin America.  Following the split of Accor's hotel and prepaid services businesses, Accor Services became Edenred in June 2010. The new group became independent, defined its corporate mission project and was listed on NYSE Euronext Paris on July 2, 2010. Jacques Stern was appointed chairman and chief executive officer.  The group sped up its transformation by making digital technology a pillar of its strategy and launched the Ticket Restaurant® card in France in April 2014. As of 2015, 78% of the group's business volume around the world was generated from digital solutions.  Edenred also launched new solutions including Ticket Plus Card in Germany (staple goods: food, fuel, meals) and Ticket Cultura® in Brazil (cultural goods and services).  Moreover, Edenred consolidated its development strategy for its Expense management activity, by finalizing the acquisition of a 34% stake in UTA in Germany and by establishing a major partnership in Brazil with Daimler in 2015.  Bertrand Dumazy became Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Edenred on October 26, 2015.  On May 31, 2016, Edenred finalized its acquisition of Embratec's operations in Brazil, creating a leading player in this fast-growing segment.  In January 2017, Edenred takes over UTA majority, one of the leading providers of fuel and service cards in Europe.  On June 14, 2017, Edenred unveiled its new global identity. The group will market all of its solutions in 42 countries under the Edenred brand.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ownership.", "content": "According to the company website: 94.6% institutional investors, 4.8% individual shareholders, 0.6% own shares.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Expansion.", "content": "Edenred currently operates in 45 countries and over 8,000 employees. Has been operating in Venezuela for 26 years. The group has moved into new countries since 2010: Finland in 2011, Japan in 2012, Russia, the United Arab Emirates in 2014 and Moldova in 2018.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governance.", "content": "Chairman and CEO  2010-2015: Jacques Stern  Since October 26, 2015: Bertrand Dumazy", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Edenred is a French company specialised in prepaid corporate services. The Group is independent since June 2010 following the split with Accor. Formerly known as Accor Services, Edenred is the inventor of Ticket Restaurant, created in 1962, and a leading distributor of meal vouchers. Today, Edenred offers solutions for employee benefits, fleet and mobility and corporate payment. 44 million employees use Edenred services worldwide.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977828}
{"src_title": "Microsoft Teams", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "On March 4, 2016, news broke that Microsoft had considered bidding $8 billion for Slack, but that Bill Gates was against the purchase, stating that the firm should instead focus on improving Skype for Business. Qi Lu, EVP of Applications and Services, was leading the push to purchase Slack. After the departure of Lu later that year, Microsoft announced Teams to the public as a direct competitor to Slack on November 2, 2016.  Slack ran a full-page advertisement in the \"New York Times\" acknowledging the competing service. Though Slack is used by 28 companies in the Fortune 100, \"The Verge\" wrote executives will question paying for the service if Teams provides a similar function in their company's existing Office 365 subscription at no added cost. ZDNet reported that the companies were not competing for the same audience, as Teams, at the time, did not let members outside the subscription join the platform, and small businesses and freelancers would have been unlikely to switch. Microsoft has since added this functionality. In response to Teams' announcement, Slack deepened in-product integration with Google services.  On May 3, 2017 Microsoft announced Microsoft Teams would replace Microsoft Classroom in Office 365 Education (formerly known as Office 365 for Education). On September 7, 2017, users began noticing a message that stated \"Skype for Business is now Microsoft Teams\". This was confirmed on September 25, 2017, at Microsoft's annual Ignite conference.  On July 12, 2018, Microsoft announced a free version of Microsoft Teams, offering most of the platform's communication options for no charge but limiting the number of users and team file storage capacity.  In January 2019, Microsoft released an update targeting \"Firstline Workers\" in order to improve interoperability of Microsoft Teams between different computers for retail workers.  On November 19, 2019, Microsoft announced Microsoft Teams reached 20 million active users. This is an increase from 13 million in July. It announced a \"Walkie Talkie\" feature in early 2020 that uses push-to-talk on smartphones and tablets over Wi-Fi or cellular data. The feature was designed for employees who speak with customers or run day-to-day operations.  On March 19, 2020, Microsoft announced Microsoft Teams had hit 44 million daily users, in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Microsoft reported that by April 2020, Microsoft Teams had hit 75 million daily users. On a single day in April, it logged 4.1 billion meeting minutes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Teams.", "content": "Teams allows communities, groups, or teams to join through a specific URL or invitation sent by a team administrator or owner. Teams for Education allows admins and teachers to set up specific teams for classes, professional learning communities (PLCs), staff members, and everyone.<ref", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Microsoft Teams, also referred to as simply Teams, is a unified communication and collaboration platform that combines persistent workplace chat, video meetings, file storage (including collaboration on files), and application integration. The service integrates with the Office 365 subscription office productivity suite and features extensions that can integrate with non-Microsoft products. Microsoft Teams is a competitor to services such as Slack and is the evolution and upgrade path from Microsoft Skype for Business.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977829}
{"src_title": "Christina Koch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Christina was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and raised in Jacksonville, North Carolina, by parents Barbara Johnsen of Frederick, Maryland, and Ronald Hammock of Jacksonville. Koch's childhood dream was to become an astronaut.  Koch graduated from the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics in Durham in 1997, and then enrolled at North Carolina State University in Raleigh, from which she earned two Bachelor of Science degrees, in electrical engineering and physics (2001), and a Master of Science degree in electrical engineering (2002). In 2001, she became a graduate of the NASA Academy program at GSFC.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Research and training.", "content": "Koch has worked in the space science instrument development and remote scientific field engineering fields. During her time working as an electrical engineer at NASA GSFC's Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics, she contributed to scientific instruments on several NASA missions that studied astrophysics and cosmology. During this time, she also served as Adjunct Faculty at Montgomery College in Maryland and led a Physics Laboratory course.  Koch worked as a Research Associate in the United States Antarctic Program from 2004 to 2007, spending three-and-a-half years traveling the Arctic and Antarctic regions. She completed a winter-over season at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station where she experienced minus-111 degree Fahrenheit (-79.4 C) temperatures. She completed an additional season at Palmer Station. While in Antarctica, Koch served as a member of the Firefighting Teams and Ocean/Glacier Search and Rescue Teams. She has described her time in the South Pole as challenging mentally and physically: \"[This] means going months without seeing the sun, with the same crew, and without shipments of mail or fresh food. The isolation, absence of family and friends, and lack of new sensory inputs are all conditions that you must find a strategy to thrive within.\"  From 2007 to 2009, Koch worked as an Electrical Engineer in the Space Department of the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University focusing on space science instrument development. She contributed to instruments studying radiation particles for NASA missions, including the Juno and Van Allen Probes. The following year, Koch completed tours of Palmer Station in Antarctica and multiple winter seasons at Summit Station in Greenland. In 2012, she worked at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in two capacities: first as a Field Engineer at NOAA's Global Monitoring Division Baseline Observatory in Barrow Alaska, and then as Station Chief of the American Samoa Observatory.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Astronaut career.", "content": "Koch graduated from the NASA Academy program at GSFC in 2001. She worked as an Electrical Engineer in the Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics at GSFC from 2002 to 2004.  In June 2013, Koch was selected by NASA as part of Astronaut Group 21. She completed training in July 2015, making her available for future missions. Her Astronaut Candidate Training included scientific and technical briefings, intensive instruction in International Space Station systems, spacewalks, robotics, physiological training, T‐38 flight training, and water and wilderness survival training. On March 14, 2019, Koch launched to the International Space Station on Soyuz MS-12, alongside Aleksey Ovchinin and Nick Hague, to join the Expedition 59/60/61 crew.  Koch was scheduled to perform her first EVA on March 29; this would have been the first all-female spacewalk alongside Anne McClain, but spacesuit sizing issues resulted in it being reassigned from McClain to Hague. Koch performed the first all-female spacewalk with Jessica Meir on October 18, as part of a lengthy series of upgrades to the ISS’ power systems and physics observatories. Koch and Meir followed the historic walk with two more female team walks in January 2020.  On April 17, 2019, due to reassignment schedules with the Commercial Crew Development program, her mission was extended to February 2020, returned to Earth on Thursday, Feb. 6 after 328 days – which is the longest single continuous stay in space for a woman, exceeding Peggy Whitson's 289 days. In addition, for a first-time astronaut, this NASA mission change has never happened before. Koch's extended mission is being used to study the physical, biological, and mental effects of long-term space travel on women.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Koch resides in Texas with her husband, Robert Koch. She enjoys backpacking, rock climbing, paddling, sailing, running, yoga, community service, photography, surfing and travel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and honors.", "content": "Koch has won a number of awards during her tenure at NASA and Johns Hopkins, including the NASA Group Achievement Award, NASA Juno Mission Jupiter Energetic Particle Detector Instrument, 2012; Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Invention of the Year nominee, 2009; United States Congress Antarctic Service Medal with Winter‐Over distinction, 2005; NASA Group Achievement Award, NASA Suzaku Mission X‐ray Spectrometer Instrument, 2005; Astronaut Scholar, Astronaut Scholarship Foundation, 2000 to 2001.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Christina Hammock Koch (; born January 29, 1979) is an American engineer and NASA astronaut of the class of 2013. She received Bachelor of Science degrees in Electrical Engineering and Physics, and a Master of Science in Electrical Engineering from North Carolina State University. She also did advanced study while working for the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). Just before becoming an astronaut, she served with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, as Station Chief for American Samoa.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977830}
{"src_title": "2018 Strasbourg attack", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "is the Alsatian dialect name of the Christmas market in Strasbourg, held annually on the square in front of the Strasbourg Cathedral since 1570. In 2000, a bombing plot was foiled by the French and German police when Al-Qaeda-linked operatives had planned to detonate pressure cookers rigged as bombs in the crowd at the. Since then, the market has been under reinforced security. In 2016, several people were arrested in Marseille and Strasbourg for planning a terrorist attack; officials considered cancelling the Christmas market, but it was ultimately held as scheduled.  On the morning of 11 December 2018, the police raided the home of Chérif Chekatt in with the intention of arresting him on suspicion of attempted murder. He was not at home, but they found a stun grenade, a loaded.22 calibre rifle, four knives, and ammunition.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attack.", "content": "The attack started at approximately 19:50 (18:50 UTC) near, where the \"\" was being held. entered the area through, then went through, opening fire and stabbing people in three different locations, first at, then. The attack lasted ten minutes and took place in multiple streets, during which time was heard shouting \"\" as he attacked members of the crowd. He then exchanged fire with soldiers of, and then with the National Police; a soldier was hit in the hand, and was shot in the arm. A 45-year-old Thai tourist was hit in the head in front of a restaurant and died, despite a passersby attempting to resuscitate him; ambulances took over 45 minutes to arrive.  Initially, 350 men of the security forces hunted for Chekatt, supported by air units. Five hundred more men joined the next day, with a further 1,300 planned to join as reinforcements. The incident led to the closure of locations around the city, including the European Parliament building. Police used Twitter to relay information to the public. The French government raised their security threat level to the highest possible as the search continued, though Justice Minister Nicole Belloubet stated on that a state of emergency would not be declared for the incident. Five thousand people were stranded in a sports facility used as temporary shelter, and the European Parliament was put on lockdown. President Antonio Tajani tweeted that the European Parliament \"will not be intimidated by terrorist or criminal attacks\" and will \"continue to work and react, strengthened by freedom and democracy against terrorist violence\". The incident was declared an act of terrorism by French authorities.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Victims.", "content": "Five people were killed; two died at the scene and three others in hospital, while 11 others were injured, four critically. The first of the dead to be identified was a 45-year-old male tourist from Thailand who was shot multiple times and died at the scene. He was on holiday with his wife, who was also shot, but survived. The others were a French 61-year-old former bank employee; a 45-year-old local male mechanic and Muslim originally from Afghanistan who died two days later, Antonio Megalizzi, a 29-year-old journalist from Italy covering the European Parliament plenary session, who died on 14 December; and a 36-year-old French-Polish national who died on 16 December.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Attacker.", "content": "The perpetrator was (), a 29-year-old Strasbourg-born man of Algerian ancestry and French citizenship, characterised as a \"hardened criminal\" who \"converted to rigorous Islam\".  According to French authorities, Chekatt had been known to police since the age of 10 and he had his first criminal conviction by age 13. He was known to security services for a total of 27 convictions in France, Germany, and Switzerland, arising from 67 recorded crimes in France alone. His criminal activities started with petty crime, robbery and drug dealing.  French police considered him a \"gangster-jihadist\", a term referring to people convicted of various crimes and \"radicalised\" in prison. Chekatt was released from prison in France in 2015, then received a prison sentence for theft in Singen, Germany and was expelled to France after his release in 2017.  Chekatt was tagged with a (\"State Security\" file), a type of extra-judiciary document that French State Security uses to keep track of suspect individuals while not necessarily keeping surveillance on them. He was listed for his recent \"religious radicalisation\" and for \"Islamic extremism\". Neighbours said that he seemed quite ordinary, comparing him to his more traditional brother. His German lawyer told media that \"he was just an ordinary criminal. It was no special case. We didn't notice any radicalisation.\" Secretary of State Laurent Nuñez stated that Chekatt had become a \"terrorism apologist\" in prison, but had not been expected to perform an attack. On the morning of the attack, local police had attempted to arrest him in relation to an attempted murder, but they could not locate him, because Chekatt's father had warned him by SMS that the gendarmes were about to arrest him.  Investigators subsequently concluded that Chekatt had made extensive preparations for the attack. He told fellow inmates in 2015 that he would \"commit a robbery before departing for Syria or die a martyr\", and became \"very interested in seeking weapons, according to a friend of the jihadist, Audrey Mondjehi.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manhunt and Chekatt's death.", "content": "An investigation was initiated for \"murder and acts of terrorism in relation to a criminal enterprise\". Four people close to Chekatt were detained for questioning after the shooting, namely his father, who is tagged with a as well because of his religious fundamentalism, his mother, and two of his brothers, both known for their local Salafist affiliation, and a fifth person was taken into custody on 13 December. A search warrant was issued in Algeria for a \"very radicalised\" third brother, who has his own record because of radicalisation and \"contacts with Islamist circles in Strasbourg\".  On the evening of 13 December, police found in Strasbourg between and the Stade de la Meinau. He fired on officers when they tried to question him and they returned fire, killing him.  Soon after his death, the Islamic State claimed him as one of their \"soldiers\" through their propaganda outlet, Amaq. Christophe Castaner, France's interior minister, dismissed the claim as \"completely opportunistic\". In an interview for France 2 Chekatt's father said his son had been an Islamic State supporter. Nine days after Chekatt's death, a USB key containing a video of him pledging allegiance to the Islamic State was found among his belongings judicial sources said.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "The leader of the (RN) party, Marine Le Pen, described the attack as an \"Islamist massacre\". Laurent Wauquiez, leader of the conservative party, called for a strengthening of the laws.  Border controls were increased due to Strasbourg's proximity to Germany. The Christmas market was closed on the day after the attack.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Conspiracy theories.", "content": "Conspiracy theorists and some members of the yellow vests movement, which was ongoing at the time of the attack, commented on social media that the shooting was a false flag conspiracy by the French president, to distract attention from the movement's protests. This prompted angry denials from cabinet ministers, who called the claims \"disgusting\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "On the evening of 11 December 2018, a terrorist attack occurred in Strasbourg, France, when a man attacked civilians in the city's busy (Christmas market) with a revolver and a knife, killing five and wounding 11 before fleeing in a taxi. Authorities called the shooting an act of terrorism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977831}
{"src_title": "Manuel González Prada", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and literary contributions.", "content": "He was born on January 5, 1844 in Lima to a wealthy, conservative, Spanish family. His education began at the English school in Valparaiso, continued in a seminary, and once his father refused to let him travel to Europe, he enrolled at the University of San Marcos in Lima, studying law. He was an original partner in the Lima Literary Club and he participated in the foundation of the Peruvian Literary Circle, a vehicle to propose a Literature based on science and the future. His most famous book, \"Free Pages\", caused a public outcry that brought González Prada dangerously close to excommunication from the Catholic Church. His mother, a devout Catholic, died in 1888 and his criticism became more vitriolic afterwards. He said the Church \"preached the sermon on the mount and practiced the morals of Judas.\" In fact González Prada was part of a group of social reformers that included Ricardo Palma, Juana Manuela Gorriti, Clorinda Matto de Turner and Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera. These important authors were concerned with the enduring influence of Spanish colonialism in Peru. González Prada was perhaps the most radical of them all. The most radical work he published during his lifetime was \"Hours of Battle\", translated as \"Hard Times\".  Besides being a philosopher and a significant political agitator, González Prada is important as the first Latin American author to write in a style known as modernismo (modernista in Spanish, different from Anglo-American modernism) poet in Peru, anticipating some of the literary innovations that Rubén Darío would shortly bring to the entire Hispanic world. He also introduced new devices such as the triolet, rondel and Malayan pantun which revitalized Spanish verse. Besides his poetry, he cultivated the essay, and most recently Isabelle Tauzin Castellanos has published some of his hitherto unknown fiction. His intellectual and stylistic footprint can be found in the writing of Clorinda Matto de Turner, Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera, José Santos Chocano, Aurora Cáceres, César Vallejo, José Carlos Mariátegui and Mario Vargas Llosa.  One of the most interesting literary personalities of Peru, and a bitter critic of the society in which he lived. An atheist, a follower of Darwin, Spencer, and Comte, Manuel González Prada was a powerful polemicist whose targets were the Catholic Church, the Spanish tradition, and, generally, any form of conservatism. His books \"Minúsculas\" (1901) and \"Exóticas\" (1911) are often considered as \"modernista\" although his work transcends the scope of that movement. Some critics have suggested that his poetry is \"pre-proletarian\". \"Baladas peruanas\" (1935), perhaps his best book, is a vindication of the Indian. His metrical and rhythmical innovations and experiments are remarkable in Spanish-American poetry. \"Horas de lucha\" (1908) is a good example of his prose.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Politics.", "content": "After Peru's defeat in the War of the Pacific, he stayed in house for three years, refusing to look at the foreign invaders. He had been a member of the Civilista Party but left to found with his friends, a radical party known as the National Union, a party of \"propaganda and attack.\" This party named him as a presidential candidate, but he fled to Europe following persecution. He stood as his party's Presidential Candidate in the Presidential election of 1899 and came third with 0.95% of the vote. After his failure in the Presidential election he was asked to work for the newly formed government. He took up the post of director of the National Library of Peru, on Abancay Avenue and helped to improve and reorganise the library to one of international stature. He died of a cardiac arrest on July 22, 1918.  Although he didn't consider himself a Communist, Gonzalez Prada was close to Marx in economic theory. He opposed the Russian Revolution in 1917 and rejected the rigidity of the Communist party. More precisely he was close to Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and also to Bakunin and their brand of anarchism. He criticized the aristocratic class (of which he was a member) for its crimes and its wasting opportunity. Gonzalez Prada called on workers, students and Andean people to take over and reform Peru.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Quotes by Gonzalez Prada.", "content": "On Peru:\"We have never initiated a reform, never announced a scientific truth, nor produced an immortal book. We do not have men but mere echoes of men, we do not express ideas but repetitions of decrepit and moth-eaten phrases.\"  On Revolution: \"Revolutions come from above but are carried out from below. Their way lighted by the gleam on the surface, those who are oppressed in the depths see justice clearly and thrust forward to conquer it, without hesitating as to the means nor feeling fear as to the consequences. While the moderates and theoreticians imagine geometric evolutions or get all tangled up in the details of form, the multitude simplifies matters, taking them down from the nebulous heights and confining them to earthly practice. They follow the example of Alexander; they do not untie but cut the knot which binds them.\"  On Liberty: believed \"that all liberty was born bathed in blood...Rights and freedom are never granted; they must be taken. Those who command give only what they must, and nations which sleep trusting their rulers to arouse them with the gift of liberty are like fools who build a city in the midst of a desert hoping that a river will suddenly flow through its barren streets.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "\"Anarquía\".", "content": "\"[[:es:Anarquía (libro)|Anarquía\" (posthumous 1936)", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "External links.", "content": "[[Category:1844 births]] [[Category:1918 deaths]] [[Category:People from Lima]] [[Category:Peruvian people of Spanish descent]] [[Category:Modernismo]] [[Category:Peruvian essayists]] [[Category:Peruvian male poets]] [[Category:Peruvian anarchists]] [[Category:National Union (Peru) politicians]] [[Category:Candidates for President of Peru|*]] [[Category:Social critics]] [[Category:Male essayists]]", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Jose Manuel de los Reyes González de Prada y Ulloa (Lima, January 5, 1844 – Lima, July 22, 1918) was a Peruvian politician and anarchist, literary critic and director of the National Library of Peru. He is well remembered as a social critic who helped develop Peruvian intellectual thought in the early twentieth century, as well as the academic style known as modernismo. He was close in spirit to Clorinda Matto de Turner whose first novel, \"Torn from the Nest\" approached political indigenismo, and to Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera, who like González Prada, practiced a positivism sui generis.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977832}
{"src_title": "Humberto Vidal explosion", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Explosion.", "content": "The explosion occurred at about 8:35 a.m. on Thursday, November 21, 1996 in the middle of a bustling commercial sector of Río Piedras. The six-story building that housed the Humberto Vidal shoe store, a jewelry store, a music shop store and the head offices of Humberto Vidal was virtually destroyed; it was later demolished.  The immediate theory was that the explosion was caused by a bomb planted by clandestine paramilitaries or even arson because of previous deliberate acts. However, there was no trace of explosives, nor were there flammable materials an arsonist could have used.  United States President Bill Clinton declared Puerto Rico a disaster area, which ensured the receipt of federal aid to help the victims, including the assistance of the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), which launched an investigation. San Juan Gas Company, owned by Enron Corporation, denied any responsibility, claiming that the building had no gas service at the time of the explosion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Casualties.", "content": "The explosion killed 33 victims and wounded 69 others. Most of the victims were inside the building at the moment of the explosion, but others were in the streets surrounding the building. After the explosion, bodies of victims were placed on the pavement in front of the nearby La Milagrosa church, where Cardinal Luis Aponte Martínez administered last rites. \"There were just parts of bodies lying in the street, torsos, bones, cars blasted against the building,\" Police Chief Pedro Toledo said. The owners of the shoe store claimed that they had reported a gas leak to the San Juan Gas Company several days before the explosion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Investigation.", "content": "The NTSB's investigation revealed that several persons had reported a gas leak in the building in the days leading up to the explosion, complaining about a bad smell in the store's basement. The store had no gas supply, so another nearby gas line appeared to be the culprit. It was discovered that a gas pipe carrying the heavier-than-air propane gas was broken. A few years earlier, a water main was installed below, which bent the pipe in the process. When the pipe had been installed, it was tightly bent, adding to its stress levels. The addition of the water main caused it to break.  The explosive gas reached the shop basement by migrating around and over pipes, causing the foul odor. However, gas company technicians were unable to detect the gas before the blast. Investigators discovered that holes used to detect gas below ground were only deep when the gas was about down; therefore, there was no way that the gas could be detected in this manner. Perhaps the most crucial error in detection occurred when a technician turned on his equipment while in the building rather than in fresh air as required, causing a failure to detect gas. The ignition source was found to be an air-conditioning switch with heated wiring.  The San Juan Gas Company vehemently denied responsibility and suggested that the blast could have been caused by sewer gas. However, the lighter-than-air sewer gas collects in the ceiling, while propane collects on the floor. The investigation showed that stored shoes were tossed up by the explosion, meaning that the fuel had to be at ground level. An upward-bent beam was also crucial to determining that the blast had come from below.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Aftermath.", "content": "The San Juan Gas Company was sued by the victims' families and owners of the businesses affected. There were a total of 1,500 lawsuits presented. Through the process, the company admitted no wrongdoing. Of all the lawsuits, 725 were settled out of court, while 101 were ruled against the company. The remaining lawsuits were settled in 2002 for $28 million. There was also criticism of the company's training practices, which management promised to rectify.  According to a city resolution, all underground gas lines in Río Piedras were removed to avoid further tragedies. The area of the explosion now has a mural in remembrance of those who died.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dramatization.", "content": "The disaster was examined in the \"Puerto Rico Gas Explosion\" episode of the documentary series \"Seconds From Disaster\" on the National Geographic Channel.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Humberto Vidal explosion (sometimes also referred to as the Río Piedras explosion) was a gas explosion that occurred on November 21, 1996 at the Humberto Vidal shoe store in Río Piedras, Puerto Rico. The explosion killed 33 and wounded 69 others when the building collapsed. It is one of the deadliest disasters to have occurred on the island.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977833}
{"src_title": "Blackmagic Design", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The company was founded in 2001 by Grant Petty and produced their first product in 2002, a capture card for macOS called DeckLink that was the first to offer uncompressed 10-bit video. The company later released new versions of the card and added color correction capabilities, support for Microsoft Windows, and full support for Adobe Premiere Pro and Microsoft DirectShow.  In 2005 the company released several products, including the Multibridge family of PCIe bi-directional converters and the FrameLink family of DPX-based software. In 2006 the company released Blackmagic On-Air television production software.  At the 2012 NAB Show Blackmagic announced their first Cinema Camera. In 2018, Blackmagic Design also partnered with Apple to create the Blackmagic eGPU which was sold exclusively through the Apple Store for its first 6 months upon release. This was followed by the Blackmagic eGPU Pro which was also solely sold through the Apple Store.  In 2018, Blackmagic also became a participant in Netflix's all four categories for its Post Technology Alliance which includes both URSA cinema cameras and Davinci Resolve.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Products.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcast Hardware.", "content": "Blackmagic's first and main products have been broadcast video hardware, including live production switchers, real-time compositing processors, Cintel scanners, signal converters, and video monitors. The company then began producing similar products for the filmmaking industry, including cinema cameras and video monitors with integrated recording options.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Cameras.", "content": "Blackmagic Design offer two lines of cameras: Digital Film and Live Production.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Editing software.", "content": "DaVinci Resolve was merged with Fusion from version 15.  Blackmagic RAW is a free and modern codec that combines the quality and benefits of RAW with the ease of use, speed and file sizes of traditional video formats. The advanced technology also won Blackmagic Design Cinema5D's IBC 2018 Technological Innovation Award. The company has a Blackmagic RAW video player application for macOS and the file format is compatible with Davinci Resolve, Adobe Premiere Pro, Media Composer, Assimilate Scratch, Edius, Lightworks and Colorfront Transkoder. Blackmagic RAW is currently available internally on the Blackmagic Pocket Cinema Camera 4k, Blackmagic Pocket Cinema Camera 6k, URSA Broadcast cameras, URSA Mini Pro G1 and G2. Blackmagic RAW is also compatible with the Panasonic EVA1 and Canon C300 MkII cameras via external recording through a Blackmagic Video Assist 12G HDR monitor. The format is intended to be supported by a broader number of cameras utilising the Blackmagic Video Assist 12G HDR monitors for recording.  Blackmagic also offers a free mobile camera control application as well as widely used Blackmagic Disk Speed Test and Blackmagic RAW Speed Test applications.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Blackmagic Design is an Australian digital cinema company and manufacturer based in Port Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It designs and manufactures broadcast and cinema hardware, most notably digital movie cameras, and also develops video editing software, such as the DaVinci Resolve application.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977834}
{"src_title": "Sarah Anne Bright", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Bright lived in Bristol, England, one of nine children born to Richard Bright (1754–1840) and Sarah Heywood Bright. Her father was a wealthy merchant and banker, and he is known to had a strong interest in science. In 1823 he was one of the founders of the Bristol Institution for the Advancement of Science, Literature and the Arts. As of summer 2015, little else is known about Sarah Anne Bright's life.  Her role as an early photographer was discovered after a group of photographs known as the Quillan Collection was offered for sale at Sotheby's auction house in New York in 2008. The collection was assembled during 1988–1990 by private photography dealer Jill Quasha.  Initially one of the photographs in the collection, a photogram now known as ‘’The Quillan Leaf’’, was thought to have been produced by William Henry Fox Talbot, but when Fox Talbot expert Larry Schaaf examined it he declared that it definitely was not by Fox Talbot. Due to some speculation about who might have created the image, Sotheby's listed it in the sale catalog under \"Photographer Unknown\". The catalogue entry included three pages of documentation and notes by Schaaf.  At the time of the auction the image had a clear provenance as coming from an album that originally belonged to Henry Bright of Ham Green, Bristol, England. The original album included seven photograms and several watercolors and drawings, but only the photograms had survived at the time of the auction.  The print had a clearly marked \"W” on the recto, along with other writing that appeared to be the initials \"H.B.\". After carefully studying the print, Schaaf speculated that the \"W” might be the initial of Thomas Wedgwood and that the print possibly could have been produced as early as 1805. Based upon the uncertainty surrounding its authorship and age, Sotheby's withdrew the print from the sale pending further research.  Schaaf began to explore the possible connections with Henry Bright and known photographers in the Bristol area. He determined that the \"W” on the print was a mark of William West, a man who was known to have made early photographic papers in Bristol. Further research led him to discover that what has appeared to be the initials \"H.B.\" on the leaf print were actually the letters \"S.A.B.\", and that the handwriting matched initials on watercolors that were known to be by Sarah Anne Bright. Schaaf concluded that Bright had made the image and announced his findings at a lecture at the University of Lincoln in June 2015.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sarah Anne Bright (1793–1866) was a 19th-century English artist and photographer who produced the earliest surviving photographic images taken by a woman. Images she had produced were not attributed to her until 2015 when her initials were discovered on a photogram that was previously consigned to an auction at Sotheby's in New York.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977835}
{"src_title": "Aachen Treaty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The proposal for a renewal of the Élysée Treaty was first made by Emmanuel Macron on 26 September 2017 in his. At the 55th anniversary of the Élysée Treaty, both Macron and Angela Merkel again spoke out in favour of deepening the cooperation in business, society, politics and technology.  The coronation hall of the historic Aachen City Hall was chosen for the signing of the new treaty by President Macron and Chancellor Merkel on the (22 January 2019), the 56th anniversary of the Élysée Treaty, because Aachen, as the main residence of Charlemagne (Charles the Great), represents a common history.  Besides Macron and Merkel the ceremony was also attended by other high-ranking politicians, f.e. Klaus Johannis (President of Romania, chairing the Council of the European Union in the first half of 2019), Jean-Claude Juncker (European Commission President), Donald Tusk (President of the European Council) and Armin Laschet (Minister President of North Rhine-Westphalia).", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Contents.", "content": "The Aachen Treaty consists of a total of 28 articles. The six main chapters of the treaty are labeled:  Among other topics the aim of the contract is to strengthen the cultural diversity (§9) as well as to align security interests of both countries. The Goethe-Institut and the Institut Français plan to jointly open cultural institutions in Erbil, Bishkek, Rio de Janeiro and Palermo on the basis of the Aachen Treaty.  In addition, the contract aims to intensify the cooperation of the defense politics of both countries, including the mutual assistance in potential crisis situations.  The treaty was a factor in the formation of the Franco-German Parliamentary Assembly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critique.", "content": "Several criticisms have been heard since the creation of the Treaty:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Context.", "content": "Other multilateral cooperations of certain EU states include the Benelux states (1958), the Visegrád Group (1991), the Eurozone (1999), the Central European Defence Cooperation (2010) and the EU Med Group (2016).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The so-called Aachen Treaty, formally Treaty on Franco-German Cooperation and Integration, and also known as the Treaty of Aachen (,, ) is a bilateral agreement between the Federal Republic of Germany and the French Republic, which has not entered into force. It was signed by Federal Chancellor Angela Merkel and President Emmanuel Macron in the coronation hall of the Aachen City Hall on 22 January 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977836}
{"src_title": "Dinah Jane", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Dinah Jane grew up in Santa Ana, California and is the daughter of Gorden Hansen and Milika Amasio. She is the eldest of 7 children and grew up in a 4-bedroom-house along with 23 other people. Jane also has an older sister who is an adopted cousin. Jane is predominantly of Tongan descent with Samoan, Fijian and Danish admixture. Jane is Mormon.  Raised in a musical family, Jane performed in public for the first time while singing the national anthem at the age of seven. She attended Orange County School of the Arts and graduated in 2015. She has cited artists Patti LaBelle, Beyoncé, Leona Lewis, Mariah Carey and Etta James among her musical influences.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2012–2018: \"The X Factor\" and Fifth Harmony.", "content": "In 2011, she recorded her first single \"Dancing Like a White Girl\". Jane auditioned for \"The X Factor\" in 2012 singing \"If I Were a Boy\" by Beyoncé. For her bootcamp solo performance she sang \"Hero\" by Mariah Carey and is the only member from Fifth Harmony to have it aired. She sang against Diamond White for her bootcamp round singing \"Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)\" during which she forgot some of the lyrics. She was eliminated during the bootcamp round of competition, but was brought back along with Ally Brooke, Normani, Lauren Jauregui, and Camila Cabello to form the group now known as Fifth Harmony. The group made it all the way to the finals and landed in third place.  Fifth Harmony released their debut EP, \"Better Together\" in 2013, their first album \"Reflection\" in January 2015, and their second album \"7/27\" in May 2016. Their first two albums generated the singles \"Worth It\" and \"Work from Home\", respectively, which reached the top 10 in several international charts. The group also contributed music to the soundtrack of the animated film \"Hotel Transylvania 2\" with their song \"I'm in Love with a Monster\". They released their third self-titled third studio album, and first as a four member group on August 25, 2017. On March 19, 2018, the group announced an indefinite hiatus to focus on solo projects.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2015–present: Solo work and \"Dinah Jane 1\".", "content": "In 2015, Jane auditioned for the role of the main character in the then-upcoming animated film \"Moana;\" the role eventually went to Auliʻi Cravalho. Fuse's website included Jane on an article of the faces of future Asian and then the Pacific history, naming the most promising entertainers of the region in 2017. She was featured in RedOne's song \"Boom Boom\" along with Daddy Yankee and French Montana. The single was released in October 2017. The following month, Jane sang the Tongan national anthem \"Ko e fasi 'o e tu'i 'o e 'Otu Tonga\" at the 2017 Rugby League World Cup semi-final game. Jane released a Christmas medley with singer Leona Lewis in December 2017.  In August 2018, it was announced that Jane had signed a solo record deal with Hitco Entertainment, founded by L.A. Reid and Charles Goldstuck. She released her debut solo single \"Bottled Up\" featuring Ty Dolla Sign and Marc E. Bassy, along with its lyric video, on September 21, 2018. She performed the single on \"The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon\" in October 2018. Jane performed two new songs \"Retrograde\" and \"I Don't Mind\" at the Jingle Bash on December 3, 2018. On March 26, 2019, Jane released the music video to her then-unreleased song \"Retrograde\". On March 28, she announced a music project that will be released on April 19, 2019, later revealed to be her debut solo extended play, \"Dinah Jane 1\". Jane released a song titled \"Heard It All Before\", followed by its music video, as the EP's lead single on April 19, 2019. In May, Jane officially released \"Retrograde\" for digital download and streaming, followed by \"SZNS\" featuring A Boogie wit da Hoodie in July. On January 2020, she announced her second solo tour following her first few headline shows during 2019. Titled the Dinah Jane World Tour, it was supposed to begin in Arizona in April 2020 and have Jane travel across the United States before performing in selected cities in Europe. Indonesia singer, songwriter Angez Mo was to be her opening act. Coinciding with her tour announcement, Jane announced a new single to be released on Valentine's Day titled \"Missed a Spot\". However, the single was pushed and released April 2, with an animated visualizer released the following day. The tour was also postponed due to the ongoing 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Artistry.", "content": "Jane has described her music as \"urban R&B... meets '90s to 2000s\". Her musical influences are Beyoncé, Leona Lewis, Mariah Carey and Etta James.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dinah Jane Milika Ilaisaane Hansen (; born June 22, 1997) is an American singer, songwriter, and a former member of multi-platinum girl group Fifth Harmony. In October 2017, she featured in RedOne's single \"Boom Boom\" with Daddy Yankee and French Montana. After the group's hiatus announcement in 2018, Jane signed as a solo artist with L.A. Reid's HitCo Entertainment. Her debut solo single \"Bottled Up\" featuring Ty Dolla Sign and Marc E. Bassy was released on September 21, 2018, followed by her debut extended play, \"Dinah Jane 1\", in early 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977837}
{"src_title": "Summertime (2015 film)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Set in 1971, Delphine is the only child of French farmers and enjoys working the land. Though her father wants her to marry, Delphine is secretly pursuing a relationship with a local girl. When she goes for a rendezvous with her, her girlfriend tells her that she plans to marry, dismissing the relationship between her and Delphine as \"not serious\": Delphine responds by running away to Paris.  Walking down a street, Delphine encounters a group of women running by and pinching men's buttocks. When one of the men attacks one of the woman, Delphine helps protect her and learns that her name is Carole. The women belong to a feminist group. which they encourage Delphine to join and participate in their protests. When one of the group members learns that her best friend, a gay man, has been committed to a mental institution by his family and is being given electroshock therapy, the rest of the group refuses at first to help rescue him. Delphine convinces them otherwise, and she, Carole and some of the other women free him. The following night, Delphine kisses Carole, who is surprised and rejects her. The next day Carole tells Delphine that she is not a lesbian, but the two wind up in a passionate embrace. Carole initially believes that it is a one night stand, but quickly develops feelings for Delphine. She tells her boyfriend and the two struggle to work out their relationship even as Carole continues to see Delphine.  Delphine receives a call from her mother that her father has had a stroke. Delphine visits and realizes that she must stay to help run the farm. Taking some of the lessons she learned in the feminist collective, she represents her parents' interest to other farmers. Carole visits and decides that she cannot live without her. Leaving her boyfriend, she returns to the countryside but is surprised to learn that she and Delphine must remain discreet and closeted, as Delphine's mother who does not know she is a lesbian.  Carole initially enjoys country life and works the land with Delphine and her mother. However she finds the people confining, as they mock her politics and it is frustrating that she is unable to openly be with Delphine. She also begins to have doubts about Delphine's intentions after Antoine, a local boy in love with Delphine, tells her that Delphine will never leave the farm and Delphine's mother tells Carole that Antoine intends to marry Delphine. Carole begins fighting with Delphine, which results in several people learning Delphine's secret, including a local farmer who sees them kissing, and her mother who overhears them arguing.  The following morning, Delphine's mother walks in on Carole and Delphine in bed. Though she acts like everything is normal to Delphine, she tells Carole to leave her home, accusing her of having perverted her daughter before attacking her. Carole tells Delphine she is leaving and Delphine decides to run away to be with Carole. Though they leave on the train together, Delphine finds herself unable to leave. She misses their connecting train to Paris and returns home.  Five years later, Carole is working at a women's health clinic and in a lesbian relationship. She receives a letter from Delphine who says that she has finally left her parents' farm and has her own in Southern France. She tells Carole that she regrets not leaving with her five years earlier, but understands that it is impossible to turn back time.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Principal photography took place in Limousin and in Paris from 22 July to 16 September 2014.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 91% based on 57 reviews, and an average rating of 6.71/10. The site consensus reads, \"\"Summertime (La Belle Saison)\" presents a well-acted, beautifully framed period romance that offers a refreshing perspective on its era in the bargain\". On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".  Muriel Del Don of \"Cineuropa\" writes \"upbeat and majestic with tragic undertones\", the film is a \"real emotional odyssey in which passion seems to conquer all, even the most tenacious of prejudices\". In a review for \"Variety\", Peter Debruge called it a \"luminous, golden-hued period piece\" and a \"beautifully realized tearjerker\".  Reviewing it for \"The Hollywood Reporter\", Boyd van Hoeij said that \"Though the narrative somewhat awkwardly morphs from a period drama about the French women's liberation movement in early 1970s to a more rural melodrama about being closeted and choosing between duty and family and personal happiness, the story is anchored by strong performances from Cécile de France and Izïa Higelin, who have a natural chemistry that’s not only credible but actually infectious.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Summertime (original title: La Belle Saison) is a 2015 French-Belgian romantic drama film directed by Catherine Corsini, co-written with Laurette Polmanss. The film stars Cécile de France, Izïa Higelin and Noémie Lvovsky. It premiered at the Locarno International Film Festival, where it won the Variety Piazza Grande Award.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977838}
{"src_title": "Boeing Orbital Flight Test", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Payload.", "content": "Instead of carrying astronauts, the flight carried an Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD) wearing Boeing's custom flight suit. The ATD is named Rosie (aka \"Rosie the Rocketeer\"), as a homage to all the women who helped contribute to the Starliner Program. The capsule was weighted similarly to missions with astronauts onboard and carried approximately of supplies and equipment including a plush toy of Snoopy and holiday presents for the Expedition 61 crew members. Due to the inability to dock with the ISS, this cargo was never delivered.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Mission.", "content": "The first Atlas V N22, designated AV-080, launched the CST-100 Starliner spacecraft on an uncrewed test flight to the International Space Station. The capsule was intended to dock with the space station, then return to Earth to land in the Western United States after an orbital shakedown cruise ahead of Boeing Crewed Flight Test.  OFT is the first flight of an Atlas V without a payload fairing and its first flight with a dual-engine Centaur upper stage. The dual-engine Centaur utilizes two RL10s and is required for Starliner flights in order to provide a launch trajectory that allows for a safe abort at any point in the mission.  The mission launched successfully on 20 December 2019 at 6:36:43am EST, but thirty-one minutes after launch the mission elapsed timer (MET) clock made an error and forced an abort to the ISS. During a later press conference, it was revealed that MET was offset by 11 hours. When it became obvious that the maneuver did not happen, NASA and Boeing tried sending commands to get Starliner back on track, but the position of the spacecraft switching communications between two TDRS satellites made the maneuver misfire inevitable. This resulted in an abort in ISS rendezvous. The decision was made by NASA and Boeing since the spacecraft burned too much fuel to reach the ISS even after Mission Control fixed the MET clock issue. NASA and Boeing officials placed the spacecraft in a different orbit and the entire flight plan had to be redone and the mission was reduced from eight days to three flight days.  By 7:40am EST, the Starliner was in a \"stable orbit\", though orbital insertion was not nominal. It was later confirmed that Starliner had placed itself into a 187 x 222 km orbit.  By 8:55am EST, mission control had realized that docking with the ISS was precluded. Despite not being able to dock and the MET anomaly, Bridenstine stated numerous times during the press conference that \"A lot of things went right. And this is in fact why we test.\"  On 22 December, Starliner was cleared to reenter the Earth's atmosphere. After deorbiting, Starliner reentered the Earth's atmosphere, before successfully deploying all sets of parachutes. Starliner deployed airbags and successfully touched-down at White Sands Space Harbor at 7:58 AM ET. Though the ISS rendezvous that was planned for the OFT did not happen, Jim Chilton, vice president for Boeing’s space and launch division, estimated that Starliner has achieved over 60% of the flight objectives, and this could reach over 85% once all the data from the spacecraft is retrieved and analyzed.  The spacecraft will later be reused on mission USCV-2. Its commander, Sunita Williams, informally dubbed the spacecraft “Calypso” after the famed oceanographic research ship and its eponymous John Denver song.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anomalies.", "content": "An issue with the spacecraft's mission elapsed time (MET) clock occurred 31 minutes into flight. This anomaly caused the spacecraft's Orbital Maneuvering Thrusters (OMTs) to burn into an incorrect orbit, preventing a rendezvous with the ISS. The mission was reduced to just two days, with the spacecraft successfully landing at White Sands Missile Range on 22 December. After the mission it was revealed that another critical software bug was found in flight, which could have resulted in the service module bumping back into Starliner after separation. If this had occurred, it may have damaged Starliner and prevented a safe landing. Additionally it was determined that had the first anomaly not occurred, the second would not have been detected. While the mission completed some test objectives, NASA and Boeing are investigating the two anomalies to determine if another uncrewed test flight is needed before Starliner can launch passengers. On 7 February 2020, NASA shared their preliminary findings about the Boeing OFT mission and discovered software problems with the Mission Elapsed Timer (MET), which incorrectly polled time from the Atlas V booster nearly 11 hours prior to launch. Another software issue occurred within the Service Module (SM) Disposal Sequence, which incorrectly translated the SM disposal sequence into the SM Integrated Propulsion Controller (IPC). This could have made the service module crash into the capsule after separation, potentially leading to a catastrophic failure of the capsule. In addition an Intermittent Space-to-Ground (S/G) forward link issue, which impeded the Flight Control team's ability to command and control the vehicle, was found. The current investigation was expected to last until end of February 2020, in addition a full-scale safety review is planned that will likely take months.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Boeing Orbital Flight Test (also known as Boe-OFT) was the first orbital mission of the CST-100 Starliner spacecraft, conducted by Boeing as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Program. The mission was planned to be an eight-day test flight of the spacecraft, involving a rendezvous and docking with the International Space Station (ISS), and a landing in the western United States. The mission was successfully launched on 20 December 2019 at 11:36 UTC or 6:36 AM EST, however an issue with the spacecraft's mission elapsed time (MET) clock occurred 31 minutes into flight. This anomaly caused the spacecraft to burn into an incorrect orbit, preventing a rendezvous with the ISS. The mission was reduced to just two days, with the spacecraft successfully landing at White Sands Space Harbor on 22 December.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977839}
{"src_title": "Soyuz MS-14", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Unlike the traditional Soyuz-FG launcher which is turned on its launchpad to set azimuth of its flight, Soyuz-2 performs a roll maneuver during its flight to change direction. The maneuver would trigger the analog launch abort system designed for Soyuz-FG. Soyuz MS-14 tested a solution for this issue. The 14th flight of Soyuz MS is the 143rd flight of a Soyuz spacecraft. If all goes well, future crewed missions will use the new configuration starting with Soyuz MS-16 in early 2020.  Besides testing the integration of the new launcher and the abort system Soyuz MS-14 is also testing an upgraded navigation and propulsion control system. The results of the testing will be used in the design of Soyuz GVK, an uncrewed cargo delivery and return spacecraft, tentatively scheduled to be launched for the first time in 2022.  Unlike preceding and future Soyuz MS spacecraft, Soyuz MS-14 lacks various crew support systems.  The spacecraft carried cargo to the International Space Station, among other things a humanoid robot Fedor that travelled in the crew compartment of the Soyuz (which was available to use as the mission had no crew). The Fedor robot returned to Earth on 6 September 2019 in the landing crew capsule of Soyuz MS-14 (which was again uncrewed). According to NASA, of cargo were delivered to ISS.  The spacecraft delivered the Mini-EUSO telescope to the ISS.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Docking.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "First attempt.", "content": "Following a flawless two-day-long free flight and rendezvous with the ISS, MS-14 was scheduled to dock with the station's \"Poisk\" module at 05:30 UTC on 24 August 2019. During the final phases of the spacecraft's approach to the ISS, its Kurs rendezvous system failed to lock onto the station and the spacecraft was not able to dock. Expedition 60 commander Aleksey Ovchinin commanded MS-14 to abort its docking, after which the spacecraft backed away to a safe distance from the ISS. Whereas most unmanned Russian spacecraft flying to ISS also feature a TORU backup system enabling cosmonauts to take manual control of the spacecraft from the ISS, this system was not fitted to MS-14. The fault was located on the Kurs signal amplifier on ISS's \"Poisk\" docking module, and initial plans called for the cosmonauts to replace this amplifier ahead of a new docking attempt. It was subsequently decided that, on 26 August, the crew of Soyuz MS-13 would relocate their spacecraft from the aft port on the \"Zvezda\" module to perform a manual docking at the faulty \"Poisk\" port, freeing up a port for MS-14 to dock using Kurs on 27 August 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Second attempt.", "content": "The MS-14 successfully docked at 03:08 UTC on 27 August 2019.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Soyuz MS-14 was a Soyuz spaceflight to the International Space Station. It carried no crew members, as it was intended to test a modification of the launch abort system for integration with the Soyuz-2.1a launch vehicle. It launched successfully on 22 August 2019 at 03:38 UTC. It was the first mission of the Soyuz crew vehicle without a crew in 33 years, and the first ever unpiloted mission of Soyuz to the ISS.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977840}
{"src_title": "Zuzana Čaputová", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Zuzana Strapáková was born into a working-class family in Bratislava. She grew up in the nearby town of Pezinok, in what was Czechoslovakia for the first two decades of her life. She has described her upbringing as having occurred within \"an open-minded house\".  She studied at the Comenius University Faculty of Law in Bratislava, graduating in 1996. Between 1998 and 1999 she completed the training cycle \"General Management – Management of Change\" and in 1999 the ARK – Mediation course, accredited by the Ministry of Education of Slovakia.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career.", "content": "After concluding her education, Čaputová worked in the local government of Pezinok, first as an assistant in the legal department, and later as a deputy to the town mayor.  She later moved into the non-profit sector at the Open Society Foundations, where she handled public administration and the issue of abused and exploited children. Subsequently, she worked as a project manager at the civic association EQ Klub on local community development.  Between 2001 and 2017, Čaputová worked with \"Via Iuris\", a civic organization, as a lawyer (since 2010), and with Greenpeace on campaign planning. In Pezinok, for more than ten years, she was at the forefront of a public campaign against the authorization of another landfill that would aggravate pollution of the soil, air, and water in the city and its surrounding areas. The fight against the landfill culminated in 2013, when the ruled that the new landfill was illegal and violated environmental norms.  Čaputová has run her own law firm and authored and co-authored several publications. She is a fellow of the Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide (ELAW), a network of environmental lawyers and jurists.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political activities.", "content": "In December 2017, 'Čaputová announced her entry into the emerging political party Progressive Slovakia, and in January 2018, she was elected as a Vice-Chairwoman at the party's first congress, aiding's efforts to assure the representation of a credible socially-liberal alternative to the conservative status quo in Slovakia.  As a co-founding member of Progressive Slovakia, a non-parliamentary socially liberal and progressive party, she served as its Deputy Chair until March 2019, when she resigned due to her presidential candidacy. Čaputová was the party's candidate in the 2019 Slovak presidential election and proceeded to be elected president in the second round, after receiving over 58% of the vote and beating her opponent Vice President of the European Commission Maroš Šefčovič, an independent who was supported by the long-dominant Smer–SD party.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Presidency.", "content": "In a press conference held on 29 March 2018, Čaputová announced her bid for the Slovak presidency in the 2019 presidential race, having been endorsed by Progressive Slovakia along with SaS and SPOLU, after her main opponent, Robert Mistrík, withdrew from the race and endorsed her on 26 February 2019. She said she had felt compelled to run for the Presidency after the murder of the investigative journalist Ján Kuciak.  Čaputová won the first round of the election on 16 March 2019, with 40.57% of the vote. She then defeated her second-place opponent, Maroš Šefčovič, by around 58% to 42% in the second run-off round on 30 March 2019. The second-round turnout of just 41.79% was the lowest for any round of voting in that type of election in Slovakia. The number of votes with which Čaputová was elected to office was also the lowest for any directly elected Slovakian president to date. Her presidential inauguration took place on 15 June 2019 during a special session of the National Council in Bratislava.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political positions.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Equality.", "content": "On her campaign website, Čaputová says that \"justice in Slovakia does not always apply equally to everyone\". In keeping with her statements during the campaign, she plans to introduce changes to Slovakia's police and judicial system. She campaigned for the police force to be an independent institution without political influence, headed by an impartial professional with proven service. She further claims that it is necessary to transform the prosecutor's office into a publicly managed institution.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Environment.", "content": "Čaputová is an environmental campaigner who has been compared to American activist Erin Brockovich. Climate change mitigation is one of her highest priorities, and for that reason she is ending subsidies for coal and other fossil fuels. Čaputová has promised to phase out coal mining and power generation by 2023, and brought her nation into the Powering Past Coal Alliance.  Čaputová holds that environmental protection should include stopping illegal deforestation and that 5% of the most environmentally valuable territory should remain as a strictly protected zone.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "LGBT rights.", "content": "Čaputová has stated that she supports registered partnerships for same-sex couples, and educating the general public on these relationships. In a discussion organized by \"SME Journal\", she lectured on the possibility of adoption by gay couples: \"I prefer the child to have a biological mother and a biological father. If he were to grow up in institutional care, I think he'd be better off with two loving beings, even if they were of the same sex\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Abortion and reproductive rights.", "content": "Čaputová supports maintaining the status quo regarding abortion and reproductive rights: \"If there is an extreme situation and the dilemma is between deciding whether to adopt a legal norm that will intrude upon the personal lives of citizens or leave it to women's responsibility and their personal choice, I choose the responsibility of a woman\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Čaputová is divorced and has two daughters. She practices Zen yoga. She still lives in Pezinok.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards.", "content": "For her strong and resolute leadership regarding the Pezinok landfill affair, Čaputová was awarded the Goldman Environmental Prize in 2016. Laureates of this prize are selected by an international jury and experts from around the world who have distinguished themselves for having a lasting and significant impact on environmental protection. The Goldman award was delivered to Čaputová in San Francisco. Her long and eventually triumphant struggle has been compared to that of the American Erin Brockovich. The text of the prize states that she was awarded for her \"relentless campaigning against the opening of a landfill in the town of Pezinok, which, if opened, would further aggravate potential health hazards and would contribute to urban pollution\"\".\" In recognition of her efforts for the European democracy, Čaputová was awarded the European Prize for Political Culture in August 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Zuzana Čaputová (; Strapáková; born 21 June 1973) is a Slovak politician, lawyer, and environmental activist who has been President of Slovakia since 15 June 2019. Čaputová is the first woman to hold the presidency, as well as the youngest president in the history of Slovakia, elected at the age of 45.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977841}
{"src_title": "I Will Follow Him", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Instrumental versions.", "content": "The song was first recorded by Franck Pourcel as an instrumental, and was released in 1961 on the European LP \"Amour, Danse, Et Violons. No.17\" and on an EP on the La Voix de son Maître label. Pourcel co-wrote the song with his friend and fellow French bandleader Paul Mauriat. Mauriat later recorded an instrumental version, which he released on his album \"Paul Mauriat Plays the Hits of 1976\".  In 1963, Percy Faith released an instrumental version, re-titled \"I Will Follow You\", as the lead song on side 1 of his album titled \"Themes for Young Lovers\". The album spent 28 weeks on \"Billboard\"s chart of Top LPs, reaching No. 32, and earned Percy Faith a gold record.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Petula Clark versions.", "content": "In 1962, Petula Clark released a French language version of the song, titled \"Chariot\" (lyrics by Jacques Plante), which reached No. 1 in Wallonia, No. 2 in France, and No. 8 in Flanders, and earned Clark a gold record. Her English version reached No. 4 in Denmark, where it was released by Vogue, but failed to chart in the UK and the US, where it was released by Pye and Laurie respectively. Clark also recorded Italian and German versions of the song, with her Italian version, \"Sul mio carro\", reaching No. 4 in Italy, and her German version, \"Cheerio\", reaching No. 6 in West Germany.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Little Peggy March version.", "content": "On January 22, 1963, Little Peggy March's version of \"I Will Follow Him\", backed with \"Wind Up Doll\", was released by RCA Victor. March's version spent 14 weeks on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, reaching No. 1 on April 27, 1963 and spending three weeks in this position, making 15-year-old March the youngest female artist to have a U.S. chart-topping single. Her version also reached No. 1 in Australia, Hong Kong, Israel, South Africa, Uruguay, Canada's CHUM Hit Parade, New Zealand's \"Lever Hit Parade\", and \"Billboard\"s Hot R&B Singles chart.  The song also reached No. 1 on the \"Cash Box\" Top 100, in a tandem ranking of Little Peggy March, Franck Pourcel, Petula Clark, Rosemary Clooney, Betty Curtis, Jackie Kannon, Joe Sentieri, and Georgia Gibbs' versions, with March's version marked as a bestseller. It was one of the nominees for the 1964 Grammy Award for Best Rock and Roll Recording.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Other versions.", "content": "In Italy three versions of the song were in the charts in 1963 (translated/adapted by Vito Pallavicini and Bruno Pallesi): One recorded by Betty Curtis (highest position: No. 3), another version by Petula Clark (\"Sul mio carro\"; No. 4) and the Franck Pourcel version (No. 5). The song reached No. 1 in Italy's \"Musica e dischi\", in a tandem ranking of these three versions. Curtis's version was also a top 10 hit in Uruguay.  In 1963, Italian singer Ennio Sangiusto released a version of the song titled \"Chariot (La Tierra)\", which reached No. 1 in Spain. Also in 1963, Italian singer Joe Sentieri released a version of the song titled \"La Tierra\", which reached No. 3 in Argentina.  In 1963, Argentine singer Alberto Cortez released a version of the song titled \"La Tierra (Chariot)\", which reached No. 2 in Spain. Also in 1963, Argentine singer Violeta Rivas released a version titled \"La Tierra\", which reached No. 1 in Uruguay.  Dee Dee Sharp released a version of the song on her 1963 album \"Do the Bird\". Sharp's version reached No. 1 in Hong Kong.  In 1982, Dutch singer José Hoebee (former member of the girl band Luv') released a hit cover of the song, which reached No. 1 in Flanders, No. 1 on the Dutch Top 40, and No. 2 on the Dutch Nationale Hitparade. A new version, recorded in 2005, reached No. 90 on the Dutch Single Top 100.  The Norwegian comedian Lars Mjøen wrote comedic Norwegian lyrics, «Torsken kommer!» (translates to «The cod is coming»). The song was published by the comedy troupe KLM as Brødrene Dal as the B-side of \"Gaus, Roms Og Brumund\" (PolyGram 2052 206) and on the LP record \"Spektralplate\" (Polydor 2382 135) in 1982. A music video remake was released by Norges Bank in 2017 to mark the introduction of the new 200 krone banknote that features a cod on the obverse side.  The song is featured at the end of the 1992 film \"Sister Act,\" where it was performed by the nuns' chorus for the Pope with Whoopi Goldberg's character as the lead singer.  The song is also used by Malaysian mobile service provider Digi for its extensive promotional campaign in late 2006, albeit with slightly different lyrics (as \"I Will Follow You\"). The first five notes of the song has since been made into the main jingle for future Digi advertisements.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"I Will Follow Him\" is a popular song that was first recorded in 1961 by Franck Pourcel, as an instrumental titled \"Chariot\". The song achieved its widest success when it was recorded by American singer Little Peggy March with English lyrics in 1963. The music was written by Franck Pourcel (using the pseudonym J.W. Stole) and Paul Mauriat (using the pseudonym Del Roma). It was adapted by Arthur Altman. The completely new English lyrics were written by Norman Gimbel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977842}
{"src_title": "Anthony Gonzalez", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Gonzalez's Cuban-American father immigrated to the U.S. from Cuba after Fidel Castro took power. His father is now president of Ferragon Corporation, a steel company. His mother is the daughter of a World War II veteran.  Gonzalez attended St. Joseph grade school in Avon Lake, Ohio, and then attended Saint Ignatius High School in Cleveland, Ohio, where he was a two sport standout in both football and track. In football, he was a two-way player. As a senior, he was a first team All-State honoree as well as the Associated Press and \"The Plain Dealer\" Co-Defensive Player of the Year, catching 71 passes for 1,873 yards and 21 touchdowns. His 26.4 yards per catch set a school record. In track, he lettered for four years and qualified for the state finals as a junior and senior. Gonzalez also played basketball as a freshman.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "College career.", "content": "Gonzalez was a 3-year letterman at Ohio State University, playing with fellow future NFL wide receivers Santonio Holmes, Ted Ginn Jr and Roy Hall as well as Heisman Trophy winner, quarterback Troy Smith. As a junior, Gonzalez was an All-Big Ten choice by league coaches. Gonzalez was also an Academic All-American, majoring in philosophy.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Professional career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Indianapolis Colts.", "content": "Gonzalez was selected by the Indianapolis Colts with the 32nd selection in the 2007 NFL Draft, and was taken to become the Colts slot receiver. He was one of three Ohio State receivers selected in that draft.  In Gonzalez's first year, he caught 37 passes for 576 yards and 3 touchdowns.  The following season Gonzalez caught 57 passes for 664 yards and 4 touchdowns.  In 2009, Gonzalez earned the starting wide receiver position along with Reggie Wayne after Marvin Harrison was released from the team in the off-season. He injured his right knee during the season opener against Jacksonville Jaguars and was expected to miss up to eight weeks, although he failed to return that season and was placed on injured reserve on December 24.  In 2010, Gonzalez lost the starting wide receiver position due to missing the 2009 season being on injured reserve. He played in a total of two games as a slot receiver with only 5 catches for 67 yards and no touchdowns. He injured his PCL in his left leg in week 8 against the Houston Texans and was placed on Injured Reserve for the rest of the year.  Gonzalez's role in the Colts offense diminished even further during the 2011 regular season. He played in only eight games and did not catch a pass. He became an unrestricted free agent the following off-season.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "New England Patriots.", "content": "On March 17, 2012, Gonzalez signed with the New England Patriots. He was released by the Patriots on May 29, 2012. Gonzalez decided to retire and subsequently enrolled in the Stanford Graduate School of Business in September 2012.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Retirement.", "content": "After retiring from football, Gonzalez earned his Master of Business Administration from Stanford Graduate School of Business.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "U.S. House of Representatives.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Elections.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018 general election.", "content": "Gonzalez filed to run for the United States House of Representatives in Ohio's 16th congressional district in 2018 as a Republican. His predecessor, Republican Jim Renacci, retired from the seat to mount an unsuccessful Senate campaign against incumbent Sherrod Brown. Gonzalez won the election on November 6, 2018, with 57 percent of the vote, becoming the first Latino to represent Ohio in Congress. Gonzalez raised over $525,000 in less than a month after announcing his run, including donations from former NFL teammate Peyton Manning, Cleveland Browns' owner Jimmy Haslam, and several other former NFL and college football players. Along with Texas Democrat Colin Allred, he was one of two former NFL players to be elected to Congress in 2018.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Committee assignments.", "content": "In the 116th Congress he is serving on the following committees:", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Gonzalez, with his wife, Elizabeth, and their son live in Rocky River, Ohio.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Anthony E. Gonzalez (born September 18, 1984) is an American politician and former professional football player. A member of the Republican Party, he has been serving as the U.S. Representative for since 2019. He played college football at Ohio State and was drafted by the Indianapolis Colts in the first round of the 2007 NFL Draft.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977843}
{"src_title": "2019 Chinese Grand Prix", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Championship standings before the race.", "content": "Heading into the race, Valtteri Bottas was leading the Drivers' Championship by one point from Lewis Hamilton. Bottas's team Mercedes was leading the Constructors' Championship by 39 points from Ferrari.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Entrants.", "content": "The drivers and teams were the same as the season entry list with no additional stand in drivers for either the race or practice.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Free practice.", "content": "Sebastian Vettel was fastest in the first practice session with Valtteri Bottas fastest in the second practice. Bottas was again fastest in FP3 on Saturday, however the session was brought to a premature end when Alexander Albon lost control and hit the wall on the exit of the final corner, smashing into the wall rear-first with an impact of 49g.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Qualifying.", "content": "Alexander Albon was unable to compete in Qualifying after a crash in Free Practice 3 earlier in the day.  The first qualifying session finished with no incidents with Valtteri Bottas setting the fastest lap of the session ahead of Charles Leclerc and teammate Lewis Hamilton. Qualifying ended with the elimination of Lance Stroll, George Russell, Robert Kubica, Antonio Giovinazzi and Albon, the last two of whom failed to set a time in the session.  The second qualifying session ended without incident with Hamilton setting the fastest lap on the medium tyre compound. Bottas, Sebastian Vettel, Leclerc and Max Verstappen also set their laps on the medium compound tyre. Daniil Kvyat, Sergio Pérez, Kimi Räikkönen, Carlos Sainz Jr. and Lando Norris were eliminated from qualifying.  The third qualifying session ended without incident with most drivers having two chances to set a fastest lap. After the first runs, Bottas was quickest with Hamilton and Vettel rounding off the top 3. When setting up their second runs, Verstappen was overtaken at turn 14 by Vettel and both Renault cars, this prevented him crossing the line before the end of the session. Pierre Gasly and both Haas cars were also unable to start a lap before the session ended as a result. At the end of the session, Bottas was on pole position 0.023 seconds ahead of Hamilton in second. Vettel qualified third. The rest of the top ten consisted of, in qualifying order, Leclerc, Verstappen, Gasly, Daniel Ricciardo, Nico Hülkenberg, Kevin Magnussen and Romain Grosjean.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Race.", "content": "Lewis Hamilton won the race ahead of his teammate Valtteri Bottas and Ferrari's Sebastian Vettel.  At the start of the race Bottas got a bad start allowing Hamilton to lead into the first corner. At the fourth corner Daniil Kvyat, Carlos Sainz Jr. and Lando Norris collided which would cause Norris and Kvyat to retire later in the race. On lap 11 Charles Leclerc was ordered by Ferrari to let his teammate Vettel past. Nico Hülkenberg retired on lap 17 with an MGU-K problem. Daniel Ricciardo managed to score his first points of the season and his first points for Renault. Pierre Gasly got the first fastest lap of his career. It was also Mercedes' third 1–2 finish of the season and the first time that a team has managed a 1-2 in the first three races of a season since Nigel Mansell and Riccardo Patrese did so for Williams in.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The 2019 Chinese Grand Prix (formally known as the Formula 1 Heineken Chinese Grand Prix 2019) was a Formula One motor race that took place on 14 April 2019 at the Shanghai International Circuit in Shanghai, China. The race was the 3rd round of the 2019 Formula One World Championship, and marked the 16th time that the Chinese Grand Prix had been run as a round of the Formula One World Championship. The race also marked the 1000th World Championship race since the first World Championship race was held at the Silverstone Circuit in.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977844}
{"src_title": "Spire of Notre-Dame de Paris", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "The original spire.", "content": "The original spire was built from 1220 to 1230. It was supported by an \"ingenious\" and \"well designed\" system of frames, according to an examination of its remains after it was taken down. All of the spire's weight rested on the four pillars of the transept. This spire also functioned as a bell tower. It was from the floor of the Church to the point of the Spire.  In March 1606, the large cross at the top of the spire and the relics that were inside it fell due to wind and decay. The rest of the spire began to collapse due to the ravages of time in the middle of the 18th century, and it was taken down from 1786 to 1792.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "The second spire.", "content": "The cathedral remained without a spire for several decades until a restoration effort was begun by Jean-Baptiste Antoine Lassus. After Lassus's death in 1857, the project was taken over by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. The new spire's design was inspired by that of the Orléans Cathedral (which was in turn modeled on the spire of the Amiens Cathedral). The wooden base of the structure was made by the carpenter Auguste Bellu (Who had also worked on the Orléans Cathedral), and the lead covering was made by the Ateliers Monduit.  The spire was unveiled 18 August 1859. Its lead covering weighed some 250 tons. Its wooden structure was carved from oak from Champagne. The new spire reached a height of, which was more than the original. Statues of the Twelve Apostles, made in the style of the 13th century, surrounded the spire at its base. Each of the four sections of the roof had a row of three Apostles, standing one behind the other and staggered by height. In front of each group was another statue of a sign of the Tetramorph symbolizing the Four Evangelists: the bull for St. Luke, the lion for St. Mark, the eagle for St. John and the angel for St. Matthew. Each grouping faced one of the four cardinal directions. All of the statues look out over Paris except for St. Thomas, the patron saint of architects. He was looking towards the spire as if contemplating it. Viollet-le-Duc was the model for the statue of St. Thomas. At the base of the central support beam of the spire, an iron plaque dedicated to the achievement of the workers was inscribed with the image of a compass and a try square. These were the symbols of the mason's guild and a subtle reference to God's role as Great Architect of the Universe in Catholic tradition. Because both Viollet-le-Duc and Bellu are both mentioned by name on the plaque, it has been theorized that they were Freemasons. The rooster at the top of the spire weighed around. It contained three relics: a small piece of the crown of thorns, a relic of St. Denis, and a relic of St. Geneviève. The piece of the crown of thorns was put into the rooster by Viollet-le-Duc himself in 1860.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Destruction by fire.", "content": "An operation to restore the spire began on 11 April 2019, as part of a larger restoration of the cathedral which would last ten years and cost an estimated 60 million euros. The sixteen statues were removed with an tall crane and transported in pairs to a workshop to be restored. While one pair was being worked on the other fourteen statues would still be on display within the cathedral. On 15 April 2019, around 6:50 pm, a fire began in the eaves of the cathedral. Rapidly the fire spread to the rest of the roof. The heat, estimated to be more than made the lead coating melt into the wood of the spire, which did not prevent it from burning. The fire emitted toxic fumes so neighboring areas were evacuated.  The upper part of the spire collapsed around 7:45 pm. Its fall caused the destruction of part of the vaults of the nave. The collapse of the tower caused the destruction of the crossing of the transept.  The sixteen statues around the spire had been taken down four days earlier and sent off to be restored. They were not affected by the fire. The rooster at the top of the spire became detached during the fall. Thought to be lost, It was found damaged in the debris the following day. It was sent off to join the statues at Socra, a French art conservation society.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Future spire.", "content": "On 17 April 2019 the French Prime Minister Édouard Philippe announced the launch of an international architecture competition to design a new spire. It is in part a competition to define the nature of the reconstruction effort and answer the question: Should the new spire be identical to the old, or a new design entirely?  In the following days, several architecture firms released new proposals for the Spire. Foster and Partners of London proposed a new roof and spire made of stainless steel and crystal, while the French architecture firm Godart + Roussel Architectes of Dijon proposed a structure made of glass panels and copper tiles.  The architect Jean Nouvel called for the faithful reconstruction of the original spire, saying that \"\"it was an integral part of the Cathedral\"\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The spire of Notre-Dame de Paris was located above the cross-section of the cathedral's transept. Notre-Dame de Paris has had two timber spires, known as flèches. The first was built between 1220 and 1230. It eventually became so damaged that it was removed in the late 18th century. The second was put into place by the French Architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc in 1859, and destroyed in a violent fire on 15 April 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977845}
{"src_title": "Your Lie in April", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot.", "content": "Piano prodigy Kōsei Arima dominates various music competitions and becomes famous among child musicians, but also controversial. When his mother Saki dies suddenly, he has a mental breakdown while performing at a piano recital; this results in him no longer being able to hear the sound of his piano even though his hearing is otherwise perfectly fine.  Two years later, Kōsei has not touched the piano and views the world in monochrome, without any flair or color. He resigns himself to living out his life with his good friends, Tsubaki Sawabe and Watari Ryōta, until, one day, a girl changes everything. Kaori Miyazono, an audacious, free-spirited, fourteen-year-old violinist whose playing style reflects her manic personality, helps Kōsei return to the music world and shows him that it should be free and mold-breaking unlike the structured and rigid style Kōsei was used to. As she continues to uplift him, he quickly realizes that he loves her, although she already likes Watari.  Later, while performing together (Kōsei having been dragged into it by Kaori), Kaori suddenly collapses after a moving performance and is hospitalised. At first Kaori says that she is anaemic and just needs some routine testing, but this is revealed to be a lie when flashes of her past reveal her collapsing and bleeding many times before.  Finally Kaori is discharged and back to her happy, crazy self, inviting Kōsei to play at a Gala with her. However, Kaori fails to show up on the day of the Gala, and as her health deteriorates, she begins to give up on life. This time, Kōsei is the one who inspires her after playing a duet with Nagi Aiza, the pianist sister of a fellow rival of his named Takeshi Aiza. After shedding tears and listening to it, Kaori opts for a risky surgery that may kill her if it fails, just so that she can play with him one more time.  While playing in the finals of the Eastern Japan Piano Competition, Kosei sees Kaori's spirit accompanying him and eventually realizes that she has died during the surgery.  After Kaori's death, her parents give her letter to Kōsei at her funeral. The letter reveals that she was aware that she was about to die, so she became more free-spirited, both as a person and in her music, in order to not take her regrets to Heaven. She also revealed that she had been in love with Kōsei since she was five, and was inspired to play the violin so that she could one day play with him. Her supposed feelings towards Watari was the lie the series was named after, fabricated in order to get closer to Kōsei without emotionally injuring Tsubaki, who also has limerent feelings towards Kōsei. After finding this out, Tsubaki confronts Kōsei and tells him that she will be by his side for the rest of her life. Kaori also left behind a picture of her as a child coming back from the concert that inspired her, with Kōsei in the background walking back home. Kōsei later frames this picture.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Media.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Manga.", "content": "The \"Your Lie in April\" manga series is written and illustrated by Naoshi Arakawa, and began serialization on April 6, 2011, in Kodansha's \"Monthly Shōnen Magazine\". The first \"tankōbon\" was published by Kodansha on September 16, 2011, and the final volume was released in two editions, a regular edition and a limited edition, with the limited edition bundled with an OVA, and was released on May 15, 2015. The series is licensed in English in North America by Kodansha Comics, and the first volume was published on April 21, 2015.  A spin-off manga titled \"Shigatsu wa Kimi no Uso: Coda\" was bundled with the release of the Blu-ray release of the anime series. It was later published in \"tankōbon\" format on August 17, 2016.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Anime.", "content": "A-1 Pictures has aired the anime production of \"Your Lie in April\". It premiered on October 10, 2014, in Japan and ended on March 20, 2015. The first opening theme song is by Goose house and the first ending theme song is by wacci. The second opening song is by Coalamode and the second ending theme is by 7!! (Seven Oops). The original soundtracks are composed by Masaru Yokoyama.  In North America, Aniplex of America licensed the series within the region, who simulcasted the series on Crunchyroll, Aniplex Channel, Hulu and Viewster. In Australia and New Zealand, the series is licensed by Madman Entertainment, who streamed the series on AnimeLab. The series is licensed in the United Kingdom and Ireland by Anime Limited. The series was later made available on Netflix with the English dub, as well as English subtitles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Live-action film.", "content": "On August 24, 2015, the domain 'kimiuso-movie.jp' was registered under Toho, a Japanese film production and distribution company, which made fans believe that a movie adaptation was in the works. Speculations were confirmed in September 2015 when the main cast was announced for the live-action adaptation of the series: Kento Yamazaki as Kōsei Arima, Suzu Hirose as Kaori Miyazono, E-girls' Anna Ishii as Tsubaki Sawabe, and Taishi Nakagawa as Ryōta Watari. While the original story depicts the characters in their junior high year, it is announced that they will be in their second-year of high school in the film. The adaptation, slated to be released in Japan in September 2016, will be written by Strawberry Night's live-action scriptwriter Yukari Tatsui, and directed by Paradise Kiss's live-action director Takehiko Shinjō.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stage play.", "content": "In the May issue of \"Monthly Shōnen Magazine\", it was announced that a stage play adaptation of the manga was green-lit, and set to run on August the same year. The stage play was announced to be held at the AiiA 2.5 Theater Tokyo from August 24, 2017, to September 3, 2017, and at the Umeda Arts Theater in Osaka from September 7, 2017, to September 10, 2017. The stage play is directed by Naohiro Ise, and written by Kaori Miura. It was also revealed that the play would have live musical performances, with Yuta Matsumura performing the piano, and Shuko Kobayashi performing the violin. The main cast was announced, and stars: Shintarō Anzai as Kōsei Arima, Arisa Matsunaga as Kaori Miyazono, Misato Kawauchi as Tsubaki Sawabe, Masanari Wada as Ryōta Watari, Haruka Yamashita as Emi Igawa, and Shōjirō Yokoi as Takeshi Aiza. Additional cast was later announced, with: Takako Nakamura as Yuriko Ochiai, Shun Mikami as Akira Takayanagi, Haruka Igarashi as Nao Kashiwagi, Kuniko Kodama as Hiroko Seto, and Ryōko Tanaka as Saki Arima.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The manga won the award for Best Shōnen Manga at the 37th Kodansha Manga Awards. It was nominated for the 5th Manga Taishō.  The anime adaptation was the winner of the Yomiuri Shimbun newspaper's \"2016 Sugoi Japan Awards\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Your Lie in April, known in Japan as or Kimiuso for short, is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Naoshi Arakawa. The series was serialized in Kodansha's \"Monthly Shōnen Magazine\" from April 2011 to May 2015. An anime television series adaptation by A-1 Pictures aired from October 2014 to March 2015 on Fuji TV's Noitamina block. A live-action film adaptation of the same name was released in September 2016.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977846}
{"src_title": "Cyclone Fani", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Meteorological history.", "content": "The IMD began tracking a depression located to the west of Sumatra on 26 April, classifying it as BOB 02. Later that day, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the system. Afterward, the storm slowly coalesced while moving northward, and was upgraded to a deep depression at 00:00 UTC on 27 April. At the same time, the JTWC began warning on the system, designating it 01B. Six hours later, the IMD upgraded the system to a cyclonic storm and gave it the name \"Fani\".  The system continued to intensify until 18:00 UTC on 27 April, after which it stagnated for over a day, as convection around the storm's center waxed and waned. Fani resumed strengthening around 12:00 UTC, with the IMD upgrading it to a severe cyclonic storm. At that time, Fani began a period of rapid intensification as it was located within a very favorable environment with sea surface temperatures of and low vertical wind shear. As a result, the JTWC upgraded Fani to a Category 1-equivalent cyclone late on 29 April. Around 00:00 UTC on 30 April, Fani was upgraded to a very severe cyclonic storm by the IMD. The organization of the system continued to improve, with tight spiral banding wrapping into a formative eye feature, resulting in Fani being upgraded to an extremely severe cyclonic storm by the IMD around 12:00 UTC while the JTWC upgraded the storm to a Category 3-equivalent cyclone hours later. Development proceeded more slowly over the following days, with little improvement evident in the system's satellite presentation. On 2 May, however, the central dense overcast became more symmetrical and the eye more distinct, and Fani was upgraded to a Category 4-equivalent cyclone by the JTWC at 06:00 UTC. Shortly after, Fani started another period of rapid intensification, attaining 1-minute sustained winds of 250 km/h (155 mph) just below Category 5-equivalent tropical cyclone intensity, according to the JTWC. At 8:00 a.m. IST (02:30 UTC) 3 May, Fani made landfall near Puri, Odisha as an extremely severe cyclonic storm, with 3-minute sustained winds of 185 km/h (115 mph). This made Fani the most intense storm to make landfall in India's Odisha state since the 1999 Odisha cyclone. Land interaction quickly degraded Fani's convective structure; and it weakened to a Category 1-equivalent tropical cyclone soon after landfall. Fani continued to weaken after landfall, weakening to a cyclonic storm later that day, before passing just north of Kolkata. On 4 May, Fani weakened to a deep depression and moved into Bangladesh, before degenerating into a well-marked low later on the same day. On 5 May, Fani's remnant low dissipated over Bhutan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparations.", "content": "The India Meteorological Department tracked the storm and issued numerous yellow warnings for much of the south-eastern portion of India when the cyclone started to intensify. In preparation for the storm's impact, the state government of Odisha and its agency OSDMA evacuated over 1.2 million residents from vulnerable coastal areas and moved them to higher ground and into cyclone shelters built a few kilometres inland. The authorities deployed around a thousand emergency workers and 43,000 volunteers in these efforts. It sent out 2.6 million text messages to warn of the storm in addition to using television, sirens and public-address systems to communicate the message. About 7,000 kitchens were operated to feed evacuees in 9,000 storm shelters.  The Indian Navy readied naval ships and aircraft at Arakkonam and Visakhapatnam air-bases to prepare for the storm's aftermath and aid in reconnaissance, rescue and relief operations. The Odisha government staged \"300 power boats, two helicopters and many chain saws, to cut downed trees\" for the purpose. Authorities in Bangladesh were ordered to open shelter areas as well in 19 coastal districts. Bangladesh Navy deployed 32 naval ships to provide emergency relief and medical assistance to the coastal areas in case of any emergencies. More than 1.2 million people were evacuated in Bangladesh and moved to the cyclone shelters in coastal areas.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Impact and aftermath.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Odisha.", "content": "Approximately 72 people have been killed by Fani in India; 64 in Odisha, In Odisha, a teenager was killed after being hit by a falling tree. One woman died when she was hit by flying debris, and another died of a heart attack while in a cyclone shelter. The cyclone adversely affected electricity supply and telecommunication in several coastal areas of Odisha, and to a lesser extent, of West Bengal. Puri and Khordha district in Odisha were the worst hit. The Jagannath Temple in Puri suffered minor damage, the repairing cost were estimated to be ₹51 million (US$738,000). The KIIT University also suffered a damage of about ₹300 million (US$4.3 million). Total damage in Odisha were estimated at ₹120 billion (US$1.74 billion), mostly in property damage and the relief. After the cyclone, Odisha required ₹170 billion (US$2.46 billion) for rebuilding the infrastructure. Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that the government had released over ₹10 billion (US$145 million) for the states affected by Fani. There were massive environmental devastation, as well.  Although no fatalities occurred in Andhra Pradesh, Srikakulam and Vizianagaram districts reported an economic loss of ₹586.2 million (US$8.5 million). The South Central Railway also suffered a damage of about ₹29.8 million (US$432,000).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Bangladesh.", "content": "Fani killed 17 people in ten districts of Bangladesh. In Bagerhat District, a woman died after being hit by a falling tree, and 7 of them were killed by lightning in two districts of Bangladesh. The cyclone also destroyed about of farmland in 35 districts of the country, the agricultural loss were at ৳385 million (US$4.6 million). Total damage in Bangladesh were up to ৳5.37 billion (US$63.6 million).  The Bangladeshi government distributed rice, dried food, and ৳19.7 million (US$234,000) to those affected by the cyclone.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm Fani () was the strongest tropical cyclone to strike the Indian state of Odisha since the 1999 Odisha cyclone. The second named storm and the first severe cyclonic storm of the 2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season, Fani originated from a tropical depression that formed west of Sumatra in the Indian Ocean on 26 April. Vertical wind shear at first hindered the storm's development, but conditions became more favorable for Fani on 30 April. Fani rapidly intensified into an extremely severe cyclonic storm and reached its peak intensity on 2 May with 1-minute sustained winds equivalent to a high-end Category 4 major hurricane. Fani weakened before making its landfall, and its convective structure rapidly degraded thereafter, degenerating into a remnant low on 4 May, and dissipating on the next day.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977847}
{"src_title": "The Battle of Anghiari (Leonardo)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 1504 Leonardo da Vinci was given the commission by gonfaloniere Piero Soderini, a contract signed by Niccolò Machiavelli, to decorate the Hall of Five Hundred. At the same time his rival Michelangelo, who had just finished his \"David\", was designated the opposite wall. This was the only time that Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo worked together on the same project. The painting of Michelangelo depicted an episode from the Battle of Cascina, when a group of bathing soldiers was surprised by the enemy. However Michelangelo did not stay in Florence long enough to complete the project. He was able to finish his cartoon, but only began the painting. He was invited back to Rome in 1505 by the newly appointed Pope Julius II and was commissioned to build the Pope's tomb.  Leonardo da Vinci drew his large cartoon in the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, on the east wall, depicting a scene from the life of Niccolò Piccinino, a condottiere in the service of duke Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan. He drew a scene of a violent clash of horses and a furious battle of men fighting for the flag in the Battle of Anghiari. Giorgio Vasari in his book \"Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects\" praised the magisterial way in which Leonardo had put this scene on paper:  Leonardo built an ingenious scaffold in the Hall of Five Hundred that could be raised or folded in the manner of an accordion. This painting was to be his largest and most substantial work. Since he had a bad experience with fresco painting (\"The Last Supper\"; refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan), he wanted to apply oil colours on the wall. He began also to experiment with such a thick undercoat (possibly mingled with wax), that after he applied the colours, the paint began to drip. Trying to dry the painting in a hurry and save whatever he could, he hung large charcoal braziers close to the painting. Only the lower part could be saved in an intact state; the upper part couldn't dry fast enough and the colours intermingled. Leonardo then abandoned the project.  Michelangelo's and Leonardo's unfinished paintings adorned the same room together for almost a decade (1505–1512). The cartoon of Michelangelo's painting was cut in pieces by Bartolommeo Bandinelli out of jealousy in 1512. The centerpiece of \"The Battle of Anghiari\" was greatly admired and numerous copies were made for decades.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reconstruction of room.", "content": "During the mid-16th century (1555–1572), the hall was enlarged and restructured by Vasari and his helpers on the instructions of Cosimo I, in order that the Duke could hold court in this important chamber of the palace. In the course of the renovations, the remnants of famous (but unfinished) artworks from the previous plan of decoration for the hall, were lost; including \"The Battle of Cascina\" by Michelangelo and \"The Battle of Anghiari\" by Leonardo da Vinci.  Vasari himself painted new frescoes on the now-extended walls. On the walls are large and expansive frescoes that depict battles and military victories by Florence over Pisa and Siena :", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Possible rediscovery.", "content": "Maurizio Seracini, an Italian expert in high-technology art analysis, believes that Leonardo's \"Anghiari\" is hidden behind Vasari's \"Battle of Marciano in Val di Chiana\" (1572). In the upper part of Vasari's fresco, 12 meters above the ground, a Florentine soldier waves a green flag with the words \"Cerca trova\" ('He who seeks, finds'). These enigmatic words are suggested to be a hint from Vasari, who had praised \"The Battle of Anghiari\" highly in his writings, incomplete and damaged as it was. Seracini believes it unlikely that Vasari would have willingly destroyed Leonardo's work. Vasari's concealment and preservation of another painting, Masaccio's \"Holy Trinity\", during a subsequent renovation project also assigned to him by Cosimo I, is cited as precedent. Using non-invasive techniques, such as a high-frequency, surface-penetrating radar and a thermographic camera, Seracini made a survey of the hall. Among other findings, he discovered that Vasari had built a curtain wall in front of the original east wall, and painted his fresco on the new wall. Seracini believes the original fresco of Leonardo da Vinci to be located on the older wall, beneath it. Sensors found a gap of 1 to 3 centimeters between the two walls, large enough for the older fresco to be preserved.  In early 2007, the city council of Florence and the Italian Minister of Culture gave the green light for further investigation. After unsuccessful attempts to fund the development of a more advanced non-invasive scanning system, in December 2011 Seracini and his associates drilled small holes through areas of the Vasari fresco believed to have been previously damaged and restored, hence no longer comprising \"original paint\" from Vasari's work. An endoscopic probe with a camera was extended into the cavity behind the curtain wall, and the team discovered fragments of pigment and indications of fresco surfacing on the plaster of the inner wall; samples were taken at the time, with the results being announced publicly on 12 March 2012. Seracini believes that this is conclusive evidence for the continued existence of Leonardo's fresco. Seracini's research is highly controversial with strong criticism being levelled against him for drilling the holes. In March 2012 researchers said \"the material found behind the Vasari wall shows a chemical composition similar to black pigment found in brown glazes on Leonardo's \"Mona Lisa\" and \"St. John the Baptist\", identified in a recently published scientific paper by the Louvre, which analyzed all the da Vinci paintings in its collection.\" In mid-2012, efforts to investigate the cavity behind Vasari's fresco were discontinued, due to the conflicting views of interested parties, as to whether and how to proceed.  Alfonso Musci and Alessandro Savorelli published an article in the journal of the Italian Institute of Renaissance Studies at Palazzo Strozzi in December 2012, disputing Seracini's interpretation of the motto on the green flag in Vasari's mural. In the article they attempted to investigate the writing “CERCA TROVA” in the context of the real events that occurred during the Battle of Scannagallo (1554) and made known through the works of, Antonio,. These works contain detailed descriptions of anti-Medicean heraldic insignia present in Marciano della Chiana, including eight green flags embroidered with the verse of Dante: \", ch'è sì cara come sa chi per lei vita rifiuta\" () and the ancient coat of arms \"Libertas\" in golden. These banners had been delivered by Henry II of France to the troops of the Florentine exiles, armed by the Republican banker Bindo Altoviti and led by Piero Strozzi and Giambattista Altoviti. After the defeat of the Republicans and of the French troops, these green flags would have become spoils of the winners, and handed over to Grand Duke Cosimo I. They would have been publicly displayed in the central nave of the Basilica of San Lorenzo. Following the theme of luck and damnation of the oldest Florentine'stemma' (Libertas) in the cycle of paintings conceived by Cosimo I and Vincenzo Borghini in the Salone dei Cinquecento, Musci and Savorelli suggest that the motto \"CERCA TROVA\" was an allusion to the verse of Dante and to the fate of the Republicans (\"searching freedom and finding death\"), and thereby dispute Seracini's interpretation of the green flag as a hint left by Vasari.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Battle of Anghiari (1505) is a lost painting by Leonardo da Vinci, at times referred to as \"The Lost Leonardo\", which some commentators believe to be still hidden beneath one of the later frescoes in the Salone dei Cinquecento (Hall of the Five Hundred) in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. Its central scene depicted four men riding raging war horses engaged in a battle for possession of a standard, at the Battle of Anghiari in 1440.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977848}
{"src_title": "Henry Paget, 2nd Marquess of Anglesey", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Anglesey was the eldest son of Field Marshal Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey and his first wife, Lady Caroline Elizabeth Villiers, third daughter of George Villiers, 4th Earl of Jersey. He was the half-brother of Lord Clarence Paget, Lord Alfred Paget and Lord George Paget.  Described as a keen sportsman, who devoted his time to shooting, coursing, racing and cricket, Anglesey helped found Worthing Cricket Club in Sussex in 1855.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Anglesey entered the House of Commons for Anglesey in 1820, a seat he held until 1832. He was State Steward to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland between 1828 and 1829. In 1832 he was summoned to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration in his father's junior title Baron Paget. He served under Lord Melbourne as a Lord-in-waiting from 1837 to 1839 and as Lord Chamberlain of the Household from 1839 to 1841 and was sworn of the Privy Council in 1839. In 1854 he inherited the marquessate on the death of his father and also succeeded his father as Lord Lieutenant of Anglesey, an office he held until his death in 1869.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Anglesey married, firstly, on 5 August 1819, Eleanora Campbell, second daughter of Colonel John Campbell and the writer Lady Charlotte and granddaughter of John Campbell, 5th Duke of Argyll. They had three children:  After his first wife's death in July 1828 he married, secondly, Henrietta Bagot, fourth daughter of Charles Bagot, on 27 August 1833. They had four children:  After his second wife's early death in March 1844, aged 28, Lord Anglesey married thirdly, Ellen Burnand, daughter of George Burnand and former wife of J. W. Bell, on 8 March 1860. There were no children from this marriage. He died in Lambeth, London, aged 71, and was succeeded in the marquessate by his only son from his first marriage, Henry. The Marchioness of Anglesey died Worthing, Sussex, in June 1874.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Henry Paget, 2nd Marquess of Anglesey, (6 July 1797 – 7 February 1869), styled Lord Paget 1812 and 1815 and Earl of Uxbridge from 1815 to 1854, was a British peer and Whig politician. He served as Lord Chamberlain of the Household between 1839 and 1841.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977849}
{"src_title": "Ice hockey at the 2022 Winter Olympics – Men's qualification", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Qualification seeding.", "content": "To qualify directly, a nation had to be ranked in the top eight following the 2019 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships. Using the IIHF World Ranking points system, the current year received full value, and each preceding year was worth 25% less. The following is a ranking based on points that were accumulated toward Olympic qualification of all countries participating in 2019.  Points were earned based on overall finish in 2019:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Pre-qualification Round 1.", "content": "Eight teams began the qualification process in two tournaments. The winners of each tournament advanced to round 2 as qualifiers ten and eleven, where qualifier ten was the winner with the higher qualification seeding.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group N.", "content": "Games were played in Kockelscheuer, Luxembourg from 8 to 10 November 2019.  \"All times are local (UTC+1).\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group O.", "content": "Due to unrest in Hong Kong this tournament was moved to Sanya, China, and was played from 7 to 10 November 2019.  \"All times are local (UTC+8).\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pre-qualification Round 2.", "content": "Twelve countries will play in three tournaments to determine qualifiers for the next round. Each tournament winner will be ranked by their qualification seeding and will enter the next round as qualifier seven, eight, or nine.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group K.", "content": "\"All times are local (UTC+2).\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group L.", "content": "\"All times are local (UTC+1).\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group M.", "content": "\"All times are local (UTC+1).\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Pre-qualification Round 3.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group G.", "content": "\"All times are local (UTC+1).\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group H.", "content": "\"All times are local (UTC+6).\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group J.", "content": "\"All times are local (UTC±0).\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Final qualification.", "content": "The tournaments were scheduled to take place from 27 to 30 August 2020, but were moved to 26 to 29 August 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Group D.", "content": "The tournament will be held at the Ondrej Nepela Arena in Bratislava.  \"All times are local (UTC+2).\"", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Group E.", "content": "The tournament will be played at the Arēna Rīga in Riga.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Qualification for the men's tournament at the 2022 Winter Olympics was determined by the IIHF World Ranking following the 2019 Men's Ice Hockey World Championships. The host along with the top eight teams in the world ranking received automatic berths into the Olympics, while all other teams have an opportunity to qualify for the remaining three spots in the Olympics.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977850}
{"src_title": "X-COM: Terror from the Deep", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"X-COM: Terror from the Deep\" takes place mostly underwater, with base-building and combat all being submerged beneath the waves. This is also used as a plot device; all of the alien technology from the first game is unusable in salt water, forcing the player to capture and develop new technology.  Just like \"\" (\"X-COM: UFO Defense\"), the game consists of two parts. The first is the real time-based GeoScape, a global view of Earth where the player views alien and X-COM craft and bases, can hire and dismiss staff, buy and sell vehicles, weaponry, ammunition and items, and build and expand bases. The second part, the BattleScape, is used for combat between squads of aliens and humans, and takes the form of a turn-based battle from an isometric view.  Underwater battles use the same physics as the ground ones but certain weapons cannot be used on surface/land missions. The game features some mission types composing of multiple parts, such as alien shipping route terror attacks in which the first part is a battle of the upper floors of the ship while the second part takes places in the lower decks of the ship (all parts must be completed for these missions to be successful, and soldiers lost in previous parts do not appear in later parts). Aside from lengthy multi-part missions, map layouts are more complicated, there are several types of terror missions, and weapons carry fewer rounds in their magazines.  Difficulty levels were markedly increased compared to \"Enemy Unknown\". A part of the reason for the enhanced difficulty is that players complained of the first game being too easy, however MicroProse were unaware that this was due to a bug that resulted in it reverting to Beginner mode in the released version. A new feature added in \"TFTD\" was melee weapons, thanks to feedback from the players who suggested the idea.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Plot.", "content": "\"Terror from the Deep\" is set in 2040, four decades after the events of \"Enemy Unknown\". Following the destruction of the alien Brain on Cydonia, a transmitter remained active there which awakened a group of aliens under the Earth's seas who had lain dormant for millions of years. After awakening, the aliens proceed to terrorize seagoing vessels and port cities, kidnapping humans to perform bizarre genetic experiments on them. X-COM, which had been disbanded after the first alien war, is revived by the Earth's governments to fight this new menace as the aliens' ultimate goal is to reawaken their supreme leader, a being that cannot be stopped once revived.  Eventually, it is revealed the aquatic aliens, cousins of the Sectoids from \"Enemy Unknown\", came to Earth on a massive spacecraft, known as T'Leth, that crashed into what is now the Gulf of Mexico 65 million years ago, causing the extinction of the dinosaurs. Destruction of T'Leth by the player results in victory but also accidentally results in another worldwide environmental cataclysm, destroying the ecosystem of Earth and setting the stage for the third game in the series, \"\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development and release.", "content": "MicroProse wanted the developer Mythos Games to make a sequel to \"Enemy Unknown\" in six months. Julian Gollop felt that the only way to do so was to change the graphics and make minor changes to the gameplay. Eventually, MicroProse licensed Mythos' code and their internal UK studio created \"Terror from the Deep\" within a year, while Mythos Games began developing the next sequel, \"Apocalypse\".  MicroProse artist Terry Greer recalled: \"A decision was made to use the original engine, reskin the graphics and create a whole new story. By keeping changes to the absolute minimum a sequel could be created in just a few months. Also, by not inventing any new game features or game technology it would make the scheduling one largely led purely by asset creation – which makes it whole lot easier when it comes to estimating task durations and scheduling.\" Simultaneously with making the console port of \"Terror\", MicroProse UK also began work on their \"\" project.  \"X-COM: Terror from the Deep\" was originally released on 1 June 1995 for the PC DOS. It was ported to the PlayStation in 1996. In 1998, a Windows 95 port was released with \"Enemy Unknown\" as part of the \"X-COM Collector's Edition\". On 4 May 2007, the game was distributed on Steam by 2K Games, who has inherited the franchise (first only for the Windows XP, but a later update which enabled Windows Vista support).  The game has been re-released as part of the compilations \"X-COM Collector's Edition\" by MicroProse in 1998, \"X-COM Collection\" by Hasbro Interactive in 1999, \"X-COM: Complete Pack\" by 2K Games in 2008 and \"2K Huge Games Pack\" in 2009. The fan-created \"OpenXCom\" project, originally an improved, modernized remake of the first game, also added \"TFTD\" support which fixed a number of bugs and programming oversights in the original game, including better enemy AI.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Together with its predecessor, \"\", \"Terror from the Deep\"s sales had passed 1 million copies by March 1997. The game was received mostly very well by critics. \"PC Gamer UK\" called it to be \"not only a great sequel to \"UFO\" but a superb game in its own right.\" On the other hand, GameSpot stated that \"apart from new art and a handful of new combat options, this is exactly the same game as \"UFO Defense\", only much more difficult.\" \"Next Generation\" felt the same: \"In the end, \"X-COM 2\" is still a phenomenal game, and has been scored as such, but it seems so much more could have been accomplished to make this game more than just a carbon copy of an old game.\"  Julian Gollop criticised MicroProse for \"some classic mistakes in turn-based games, which is to make the difficulty too tough and the levels too big, long and tedious to get through.\" According to Jake Solomon, the lead designer of 2012's \"\", MicroProse did few new things with the sequel \"except made it brutally harder and made the cruise ships four times longer than any human could realistically make,\" yet still the game \"was awesome.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "X-COM: Terror from the Deep is a strategy video game developed and published by MicroProse for the PC in 1995 and for the PlayStation in 1996. It is a sequel to \"\" (\"X-COM: UFO Defense\") and the second game of the \"X-COM\" series, this time taking the war against a renewed alien invasion into the Earth's oceans.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977851}
{"src_title": "Mantispa styriaca", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "The adult Styrian praying lacewing is a yellow-brown color with transparent wings that have a wingspan of. The species can be found in southern and central Europe. Its forelegs are similar to those of the praying mantis, with the ability to seize living prey.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Biology.", "content": "Its larva emerges from reddish eggs after 21 days and then hibernates through the winter. In the spring, the larva searches for a female wolf or fishing spider, of the genera \"Lycosa\" and \"Dolomedes\", in order to bore its way into the cocoon that the spider carries on its abdomen, by biting a slit open. It is carnivorous in its first stage, as shown by dead spiders being found around it. Before the larva molts, it resembles a dipluran of genus \"Campodea\". After the larva's first molt, the species has short legs that it cannot use, a small head, has jaws that extend straight out, and has pointed antennae that extend beyond the jaws. Once the larva starts metamorphosis, it pupates by spinning a cocoon inside the spider's egg sac, in which it stays up to 14 days before its final molting. Pupation happens in the middle of June. It is a nymph after emerging from the cocoon, not yet in its adult form. Once it enters the adult stage, the species hunt for prey by using fast strikes of their forelegs that can take less than 60 ms. Its hunting style is similar to that of the praying mantis.  Friedrich Moritz Brauer, an Austrian entomologist, discovered the first instar on vegetation in 1852. It was not until 17 years later that he discovered the other instars within spider egg sacs.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mantispa styriaca, the Styrian praying lacewing, is a species of predatory mantidfly native to Europe. It is a yellow-brown insect as an adult and has multiple larval stages.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977852}
{"src_title": "IPadOS", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The first iPad was released in 2010 and ran iPhone OS 3.2, which added support for the larger device to the operating system, previously only used on the iPhone and iPod Touch. This shared operating system was rebranded as \"iOS\" with the release of iOS 4.  The operating system initially had rough feature parity running on the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad, with variations in user interface depending on screen size, and minor differences in the selection of apps included. However, over time, the variant of iOS for the iPad incorporated a growing set of differentiating features, such as picture-in-picture, the ability to display multiple running apps simultaneously (both introduced with iOS 9 in 2015), drag and drop, and a dock that more closely resembled the one in macOS than the one on the iPhone (added in 2017 with iOS 11). Standard iPad apps were increasingly designed to support the optional use of a keyboard.  To emphasize the different feature set available on the iPad, and to signal their intention to develop the platforms in divergent directions, at WWDC 2019 Apple announced that the variant of iOS that runs on the iPad would be rebranded as \"iPadOS\". The new naming strategy began with iPadOS 13.1, in 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Updates.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "iPadOS 13.", "content": "The releases of iPadOS began with 13.1; there was no 13.0 release, because iOS 13.0 was intended for the iPhone lineup only, and there was no iPadOS counterpart to go along with it.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Features.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home Screen.", "content": "Unlike previous versions of iOS, the icon grid displays up to five rows and six columns of apps, regardless of whether the device is in portrait or landscape orientation. The first page of the home screen can be configured to show a column of widgets from applications for easy access. Spotlight Search is no longer part of the widgets but can still be accessed by swiping down from the center of the home screen or pressing Command + Space on a connected keyboard.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Multitasking.", "content": "iPadOS features a multitasking system developed with more capabilities compared to iOS, with features like Slide Over and Split View that make it possible to use multiple different applications simultaneously. Double-clicking the Home Button or swiping up from the bottom of the screen and pausing will display all currently active spaces. Each space can feature a single app, or a Split View featuring two apps. The user can also swipe left or right on the Home Indicator to go between spaces at any time, or swipe left/right with four fingers.  While using an app, swiping up slightly from the bottom edge of the screen will summon the Dock, where apps stored within can be dragged to different areas of the current space to be opened in either Split View or Slide Over. Dragging an app to the left or right edge of the screen will create a Split View, which will allow both apps to be used side-by-side. The size of the two apps in Split View can be adjusted by dragging a pill-shaped icon in the center of the vertical divider and dragging the divider all the way to one side of the screen closes the respective app. If the user drags an app from the dock over the current app, it will create a floating window called Slide Over which can be dragged to either the left or right side of the screen. A Slide Over window can be hidden by swiping it off the right side of the screen, and swiping left from the right edge of the screen will restore it. Slide Over apps can also be cycled between by swiping left or right on the Home Indicator in the Slide Over window and pulling up on it will open an app switcher for Slide Over windows. A pill-shaped icon at the top of apps in Split View or Slide Over allows them to be switched in an out of Split View and Slide Over.  The user can now have several instances of a single app open at once. A new Exposé mode has been added which allows the user to see all of the instances of an app.  In many applications, a notable exception being YouTube, videos can be shrunk down into a picture-in-picture window so the user can continue watching it while using other apps. This window containing the video can be resized by pinching and spreading and can be docked to any of the four corners of the screen. It can also be hidden by swiping it off the side of the screen and is denoted by an arrow at the edge where the video is hidden and swiping it will bring it back onscreen.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Safari.", "content": "Safari now shows desktop versions of websites by default, includes a download manager, and has 30 new keyboard shortcuts if an external keyboard is connected.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Sidecar.", "content": "Sidecar allows for an iPad to function as a second monitor for macOS, named in reference to articulated motorcycles. When using Sidecar, the Apple Pencil can be used to emulate a graphics tablet for applications like Photoshop. This feature is only supported on iPads that support the Apple Pencil. However, earlier versions of iPadOS 13 allowed all iPads compatible with iPadOS 13 to work with Sidecar.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Storage.", "content": "iPadOS allows external storage, such as USB flash drives, portable hard drives, and solid state drives to be connected to an iPad via the Files app. The iPad Pro (3rd generation) connects over USB-C, but the Lightning camera connection kit also works to connect external drives with previous iPads.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Mouse and trackpad support.", "content": "Mouse and trackpad support was added in version 13.4.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Supported devices.", "content": "iPadOS 13 supports iPads with an Apple A8 / A8X chip or later. The software does not support devices with 1 GB of RAM including the first-generation iPad Air and the iPad Mini 2 and iPad Mini 3. Devices supported by iPadOS 13 include:  An upgrade to iPadOS is automatically offered to supported devices.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "iPadOS is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. for its iPad line of tablet computers. The successor of iOS 12 on iPad, it was announced at the company's 2019 Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC), as a derivation from iOS but with a greater emphasis on multitasking. It was released in September 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977853}
{"src_title": "Bixby (virtual assistant)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Features.", "content": "Bixby comes with four parts, known as \"Bixby Voice,\" \"Bixby Vision\", \"Bixby Home\" and \"Bixby Routines\"  \"Bixby Voice\" is the name for the method of activating Bixby by calling it or doing a long press of the Bixby Button, located below the volume rocker. A while before the phone's release, the Bixby Button was reprogrammable and could be set to open other applications or assistants, such as Google Assistant. However, near the phone's release this ability was removed with a firmware update, but can be remapped using third-party apps. \"Bixby Vision\" is an augmented reality camera that can identify objects in real-time and potentially offer the user to purchase them online, translate text, read QR codes, and recognize landmarks. \"Bixby Home\" is a vertically scrolling list of information that Bixby can interact with, for example weather, fitness activity and buttons for controlling their smart home gadgets.  At the beginning Bixby supported three languages: English, Korean and Chinese. It also supports contextual search and visual search.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Language and country availability.", "content": "Samsung reported that Bixby would not be operational on the US version of the Samsung Galaxy S8 and S8+ when the devices were first shipped to customers on 21 April 2017. Samsung stated that the key features of Bixby, including Vision, Home and Reminder, would be available with the global launch of the smartphones. Bixby Voice was intended to be made available in the US on the Galaxy S8 and S8+ later that spring. However, the release of the English version was postponed as Samsung had problems getting Bixby to fully understand the language.  As of April 2018, Bixby is available in over 195 countries, but only in Korean, English (US only), and Chinese (Mandarin). The Chinese version of Bixby is only available on devices officially sold in Mainland China. Bixby Korean was launched on May 1, 2017 (KST).  As of December 2018, Samsung has deployed Bixby's voice command function in French.  On 20 February 2019, Samsung announced the addition of further languages: English (British), German, Italian and Spanish (Spain). On 22 February 2020, Samsung announced the addition of Portuguese (Brazil), for Galaxy S10 & Note10, in Beta, and later for another models.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Bixby is a virtual assistant developed by Samsung Electronics. On 20 March 2017, Samsung announced the voice-powered digital assistant named \"Bixby\". Bixby was introduced alongside the Samsung Galaxy S8 and S8+, as well as the Samsung Galaxy Tab A during the Samsung Galaxy Unpacked 2017 event, which was held on 29 March 2017. Samsung officially unveiled Bixby a week before launch but it only made its first appearance during the event. Bixby can also be sideloaded on older Galaxy devices running Android Nougat.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977854}
{"src_title": "Nyssa sylvatica", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Names.", "content": "\"Nyssa sylvatica\" genus name, \"Nyssa\", refers to a Greek water nymph; the species epithet \"sylvatica\" refers to its woodland habitat.  The species' common name, tupelo, is of Native American origin, coming from the Creek words \"ito\" \"tree\" and \"opilwa\" \"swamp\"; it was in use by the mid-18th century.  While these trees are often known as simply \"tupelo\", the fuller name, black tupelo, helps distinguish it from the other species of the tupelo genus \"Nyssa\", some of which have overlapping ranges, such as water tupelo (\"N. aquatica\") and swamp tupelo (\"N. biflora\"). The name \"tupelo\" is used primarily in the American South; northward and in Appalachia, the tree is more commonly called the black gum or the sour gum, although no part of the plant is particularly gummy. Both of these names contrast it with a different tree species with a broadly overlapping range, the sweet gum (\"Liquidambar styraciflua\"), which does produce an aromatic resin. Another common name used occasionally in the Northeast is pepperidge.  On Martha's Vineyard, in Massachusetts, this species is called \"beetlebung\", perhaps for its use in making the mallet known as a beetle, used for hammering bungs (stoppers) into barrels.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Nyssa sylvatica\" grows to tall, rarely to, with a trunk diameter of, rarely up to. These trees typically have a straight trunk with the branches extending outward at right angles. The bark is dark gray and flaky when young, but it becomes furrowed with age, resembling alligator hide on very old stems. The twigs of this tree are reddish-brown, usually hidden by a greyish skin. The pith is chambered with greenish partitions.  The leaves of this species are variable in size and shape. They can be oval, elliptical, or obovate, and long. They have lustrous upper surfaces, with entire, often wavy margins. The foliage turns purple in autumn, eventually becoming an intense bright scarlet. Deer are extremely fond of the leaves on seedlings and saplings, to the point where large populations of them can make establishment of the tree almost impossible. For comparison, mature trees are largely left alone.  The flowers are very small, in greenish-white in clusters at the top of a long stalk and a rich source or nectar for bees. They are often dioecious so a male and female tree in proximity is required to set seed, however, many trees are also polygamo-dioecious, which means they have both male and female flowers on the same tree. The fruit is a black-blue, ovoid stone fruit, about 10 mm long with a thin, oily, bitter-to-sour tasting flesh and very popular with small bird species. There are from one to three fruits together on a long slender stalk. They are a valuable energy food for birds, especially the American robin.  \"Nyssa sylvatica\" forms a large deep taproot when young that makes transplanting difficult. Because of this, it is fairly uncommon in cultivation and the nursery trade.  Additional characteristics include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution.", "content": "\"Nyssa sylvatica\" grows in various uplands and in alluvial stream bottoms from southwestern Maine and New York, to extreme southern Ontario, central Michigan, Illinois, and central Missouri, south to southern Florida, eastern Texas, and eastern Oklahoma. It also occurs locally in central and southern Mexico. Optimum development is made on lower slopes and terraces in the Southeastern United States.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Nyssa sylvatica\" is found in a variety of upland and wetland habitats in its extensive range. Its flowers are an important source of honey and its fruits are important to many birds and mammals. Hollow trunks provide nesting or denning opportunities for bees and various mammals. It is the longest living non-clonal flowering plant in Eastern North America, capable of obtaining ages of over 650 years.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Habitats.", "content": "\"Nyssa sylvatica\" is found in a wide range of climates, due to its extensive distribution. It commonly grows in both the creek bottoms of the southern coastal plains, to altitudes of about in the Southern Appalachians. These trees grow best on well-drained, light-textured soils on the low ridges of second bottoms and on the high flats of silty alluvium. In the uplands it grows best on the loams and clay loams of lower slopes and coves.  The species occurs 35 different forest cover types. When found on drier upper slopes and ridges, it is seldom of log size or quality.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wildlife.", "content": "\"Nyssa sylvatica\" is an important food source for many migrating birds in the fall [autumn]. Its early color change (foliar fruit flagging) is thought to attract birds to the available fruit, which ripen before many other fall fruits and berries. The fruit is quite marked, dark blue, in clusters of two or three. The sour fruits are eagerly sought by many kinds of birds, including: American robin, Swainson's thrush, gray-cheeked thrush, hermit thrush, wood thrush, northern cardinal, northern mockingbird, blue jay, red-bellied woodpecker, yellow-bellied sapsucker, northern flicker, pileated woodpecker, eastern phoebe, brown thrasher, eastern bluebird, European starling, scarlet tanager, gray catbird, cedar waxwing, and American crow, all primarily eastern North American birds migrating or residing year-round within the tree's range.  The limbs of these trees often deteriorate early, and the decayed holes make excellent dens for squirrels, raccoons, Virginia opossums, as well as nesting sites for honeybees.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"Nyssa sylvatica\" is cultivated as an ornamental tree in parks and large gardens, where it is often used as a specimen or shade tree. The tree is best when grown in sheltered but not crowded positions, developing a pyramidal shape in youth, and spreading with age. The stem rises to the summit of the tree in one tapering unbroken shaft, the branches come out at right angles to the trunk and either extend horizontally or droop a little, making a long-narrow, cone-like head.  The leaves are short-petioled and so have little individual motion, but the branches sway as a whole. The spray is fine and abundant and lies horizontally so that the foliage arrangement is not unlike that of the beech \"(Fagus)\". Its often spectacular autumnal coloring, with intense reds to purples, is highly valued in landscape settings. It is the most fiery and brilliant of the 'brilliant group' that includes maple, dogwood, sassafras, and sweet gum, as well as various species of tupelo.  In the UK the cultivar 'Wisley Bonfire' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Honey production.", "content": "\"Nyssa sylvatica\" is a major source of wild honey in many areas within its range. Hollow sections of black gum trunks were formerly used as bee gums by beekeepers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wood.", "content": "The wood of \"Nyssa sylvatica\" is heavy, hard, cross-grained, and difficult to split, especially after drying. This resistance to splitting led to its use for making mauls, pulleys, wheel hubs, agricultural rollers, bowls, and paving blocks. The wood is also used for pallets, rough floors, pulpwood, and firewood. Since the wood is very tough, resistant to wear, it has been used for shuttles in weaving. Because it is resistant to wear and very readily accepts creosote-based preservatives it is considered to be a premier wood for making railroad ties. The wood's resistance to wear and some acids has led to its use as factory flooring.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Nyssa sylvatica, commonly known as tupelo, black tupelo, black gum or sour gum, is a medium-sized deciduous tree native to eastern North America from the coastal Northeastern United States and southern Ontario south to central Florida and eastern Texas, as well as Mexico.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977855}
{"src_title": "Maya Hawke", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Hawke was born on July 8, 1998, in New York City, the older of two children born to actors Ethan Hawke and Uma Thurman. Her parents met on the set of \"Gattaca\" (1997), married in May 1998, and divorced in 2005. Hawke's brother was born in 2002. She also has two half-sisters (born in 2008 and 2011) by her father's second wife, Ryan Shawhughes. She has another half-sister (born in 2012) from her mother's ex-fiancé, financier Arpad Busson.  On her father's side, Hawke is a great-great-grandniece of playwright Tennessee Williams. On her mother's side, she is a granddaughter of Buddhist scholar Robert A. F. Thurman and model Baroness Nena von Schlebrügge. Schlebrügge's mother, Birgit Holmquist, was also a model, having posed for Axel Ebbe's statue \"Famntaget\", currently in Smygehuk in Sweden.  Hawke has dyslexia, which resulted in her changing schools frequently during her primary education before she was finally enrolled at Saint Ann's School, a private school in Brooklyn, New York that emphasizes artistic creativity and does not grade work. The artistic environment eventually led her to acting. Hawke also took part in summer studies at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts in London and the renowned Stella Adler Studio of Acting in New York. She attended the performing arts school Juilliard for one year before being forced to drop out after accepting her role in \"Little Women\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Modeling.", "content": "Like both her mother and grandmother, Hawke modelled for \"Vogue\" at the beginning of her career. She was also chosen as the face of the British fashion retailer AllSaints's 2016/2017 collection. In 2017, she starred as one of several faces in a video campaign for Calvin Klein's underwear range, directed by Sofia Coppola.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Acting.", "content": "Hawke was Sofia Coppola's choice to play the title role of The Little Mermaid in Universal Pictures's planned live-action adaptation. However, the producers preferred the better-known Chloë Grace Moretz. This and other conflicts ultimately led to Coppola leaving the project. However, Moretz eventually dropped out as well.  In 2017, Hawke made her acting debut as Jo March in the BBC miniseries adaptation of \"Little Women\". Hawke's breakout role came through her co-starring performance as Robin Buckley in the third season of Netflix's \"Stranger Things\", which was released in 2019. Hawke, as Robin, spent most of her scenes with Joe Keery's character of Steve Harrington as co-workers at a local ice-cream parlor before stumbling onto a larger mystery, creating a popular and critically favored pair of characters for the season. Also that summer, Hawke played Linda Kasabian in Quentin Tarantino's film \"Once Upon a Time in Hollywood\".  In October 2018, it was announced that Hawke will star in Gia Coppola's sophomore film, \"Mainstream\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "In August 2019, Hawke released her first two singles, \"To Love a Boy\" and \"Stay Open\". The songs were written and recorded by Hawke and Grammy Award-winning singer-songwriter Jesse Harris. Hawke performed a series of headlining gigs around New York City in early 2020, her first ever solo live performances as a musician. In each of these shows. Hawke was supported by Benjamin Lazar Davis, Tōth, Will Graefe and Nick Cianci respectively. On March 18, 2020 Hawke released the first single \"By Myself\" and announced her debut album titled \"Blush\". The album's second single, \"Coverage\", was released on April 22, 2020, before its music video directed by Maya's father Ethan Hawke was released on the 28th. Initially set for release on June 19, 2020, \"Blush\" was delayed to August 21, 2020 amid the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests. Hawke wrote, \"I feel like this is not a time for self-promotion. It is a time for activation, education and self-examination.\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Maya Ray Thurman Hawke (born July 8, 1998) is an American actress and model. She is the daughter of actress Uma Thurman and actor Ethan Hawke. After beginning her career in modeling, Hawke made her screen debut as Jo March in the 2017 BBC adaptation of \"Little Women\" and starred as Robin in the third season of the Netflix series \"Stranger Things\" (2019).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977856}
{"src_title": "Sára Salkaházi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Salkaházi was born in Kassa (now Košice, Slovakia) on 11 May 1899 to Leopold and Klotild Schalkház, owners of the Hotel Schalkhaz in Kassa. The family was of German origin. Her father died when she was two years old. Her brother described her as \"a tomboy with a strong will and a mind of her own.\" She earned an elementary school teacher's degree, and later worked as a bookbinder's apprentice, and in a millinery shop. She became a journalist and edited the official paper of the National Christian Socialist Party of Czechoslovakia. At this time, she was far from devout, and at times, even flirted with atheism. Before becoming a religious sister, she was once engaged to be married, but she soon broke off the engagement.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Religious life.", "content": "The Sisters of Social Service, founded in by Margit Slachta in 1912 were at first reluctant to accept the chain-smoking woman journalist. She joined the congregation in 1929, and took her first vows on Pentecost 1930. Her first assignment was at the Catholic Charities Office in Kosice, where she supervised charity works, managed a religious bookstore, and published a periodical entitled \"Catholic Women\". At the request of the Catholic Bishop's Conference of Slovakia she organized all the various Catholic women's groups into a national Catholic Women's Association, and established the National Girls' Movement. As national director of the Catholic Working Girls' Movement, Salkaházi built the first Hungarian college for working women, near Lake Balaton. To protest the rising Nazi ideology Salkaházi changed her last name to the more Hungarian-sounding \"Salkaházi\". In Budapest, she opened Homes for working girls and organized training courses. She also wrote a play on the life of Margaret of Hungary, canonized on 19 November 1943.  Her boundless energy was misunderstood by the other sisters as an attempt to draw attention to herself. Her superiors doubted her vocation and refused to allow her to renew her temporary vows, or to wear the habit for a year. She considered leaving. Nevertheless, she continued to live the life of a Sister of Social Service without vows. The Hungarian Benedictines in Brazil were asking for Sisters to work there in mission, and Sara was eager to go, but World War II intervened.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "World War II.", "content": "Salkaházi opened the Working Girls' Homes to provide safe haven for Jews persecuted by the Hungarian Nazi Party. In 1943 she smuggled a Jewish refugee from Slovakia, disguised in the habit of the \"gray sisters, and the woman's son, out of the Sisters' house in Kassa, which was being searched by the Gestapo, and brought them temporarily to Budapest. During the final months of World War II, she helped shelter hundreds of Jews in a building belonging to the Sisters of Social Service in Hungary's capital, Budapest. About 100 were aided by Salkahazi herself, who was the national director of Hungarian Catholic Working Women's Movement. As the sister responsible for the house, she secretly made a formal pledge to God in presence of her superior to be prepared to sacrifice herself if only the other sisters were not harmed during the war. The fact and text of the pledge have been preserved in her journals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Martyrdom.", "content": "Betrayed to the authorities by a woman working in the house, the Jews she had sheltered were taken prisoner by members of the Hungarian pro-Nazi Arrow Cross Party. Salkaházi was not in the house when the arrests took place and could have fled, yet she chose to return. The prisoners were lined up on the bank of the Danube River on 27 December 1944 and shot, together with four Jewish women and a Christian co-worker who was not a member of her religious institute. Her body was never recovered. The killings came to light in 1967, during the trial of some Arrow Cross members.  In 1969, her deeds on behalf of Hungarian Jews were recognized by Yad Vashem after she was nominated by the daughter of one of the Jewish women she was hiding, who was killed alongside her.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Beatification.", "content": "On 17 September 2006 Salkaházi was beatified in a proclamation by Pope Benedict XVI, read by Cardinal Péter Erdő during a Mass outside St. Stephen's Basilica in Budapest, which said in part, \"She was willing to assume risks for the persecuted... in days of great fear. Her martyrdom is still topical... and presents the foundations of our humanity.\" This is the first beatification to take place in Hungary since that of King Stephen in 1083 along with his son Imre and the Italian Bishop Gerard Sagredo, who were instrumental in converting Hungary to Christianity. If Salkaházi is canonized, she will be the first non-royal Hungarian female saint.  Speaking at the Mass, Rabbi József Schweitzer said of Salkaházi, \"I know from personal experience... how dangerous and heroic it was in those times to help Jews and save them from death. Originating in her faith, she kept the commandment of love until death.\"  Abraham H. Foxman, national director of the Anti-Defamation League, said, \"The honor bestowed by Pope Benedict XVI on Sister Sara Salkahazi for risking and eventually giving her life to save Jews in peril is an important statement by the church. It is unfortunate that there were not more individuals like Sister Sara, but her example must be held up to demonstrate how lives can be saved when good people take action to confront evil.\" Foxman, a Holocaust survivor, had been saved by his Polish Catholic nanny.  Sára Salkaházi took as her motto, \"Here I am; send me!\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sára Salkaházi (, Kassa, 11 May 1899 – Budapest, 27 December 1944), born as \"Schalkház Sarolta Klotild\", was a Hungarian Catholic religious sister who saved the lives of approximately one hundred Jews during World War II. Denounced and summarily executed by the pro-Nazi Arrow Cross Party, Salkaházi was beatified in 2006.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977857}
{"src_title": "Kelly Craft", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Craft was born in 1962 in Lexington, Kentucky, the daughter of the late veterinarian Bobby Guilfoil and Sherry Dale Guilfoil. Her father was a Democratic Party activist who once served as chairman of the Barren County, Kentucky Democratic Party. She grew up in Glasgow, Kentucky, and graduated from Glasgow High School in 1980. She graduated with a B.A. from the University of Kentucky in 1984. Craft served on the board of trustees of her alma mater, the University of Kentucky, for a term beginning August 2016, but resigned to accept the Canadian ambassadorship a year later.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political involvement and donations.", "content": "In 2004, Craft was a prominent supporter of George W. Bush, who appointed her an alternate delegate to the United Nations in 2007. As part of the delegation, her responsibilities included advising the UN ambassador on US/Africa policy.  Craft has been described as a generous donor to Republican political candidates. In 2016, Craft and her husband donated millions of dollars to candidates for the 2016 Republican nomination for president. Prior to donating more than $2 million to Donald Trump's campaign, the couple supported Marco Rubio. Craft and her husband, Joe Craft, have strongly supported Senate majority leader Mitch McConnell. McConnell in turn urged Trump to nominate Craft as ambassador to Canada. The Crafts have \"gold\"-level membership at Trump hotels, which is for customers who have stayed more than 20 times at Trump hotels; according to the \"Washington Post\", such memberships are rare.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "U.S. ambassador to Canada.", "content": "On June 15, 2017, Craft was nominated by President Donald Trump to become the ambassador to Canada. She was confirmed by the United States Senate by voice vote on August 3 and assumed office on October 23.  In her first week as ambassador to Canada, Craft said in an interview with CBC News that when it comes to the scientific consensus on climate change she believes in \"both sides of the science.\"  According to a June 2019 report in \"Politico\", Craft was frequently absent from her Ottawa post during her tenure as ambassador. During a 15-month period, she took 128 flights between Ottawa and the United States, the equivalent of a round trip per week. 70 of the trips either had Lexington, Kentucky as the origin or destination of her trips, which raised questions as to whether the trips were for personal reasons. The Trump administration did not provide records of how many days Craft was present in Ottawa; per State Department rules, an ambassador may only spend 26 work days away from a post. She spent 300 days (more than half of her term) absent from her post. Craft does not make her schedules available.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "U.N. ambassador.", "content": "On February 22, 2019, Trump announced his intention to nominate Craft to replace Nikki Haley, who had resigned the previous year, to be the next U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, after his first replacement choice, Heather Nauert, withdrew her nomination. On May 2, 2019, Craft's nomination was formally sent to the United States Senate. On June 19, 2019, a hearing on her nomination was held before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. During the hearing Craft said that she would continue to fight anti-Israel bias in the United Nations. Although Craft had previously said during her tenure as ambassador to Canada that she believed there were \"good scientists on both sides” of the climate debate, during her confirmation hearing she reversed her position stating that she believed that fossil fuels and human behavior have contributed to climate change. Due to her family's connections to the coal industry she also agreed to recuse herself from any UN discussions involving climate change or coal. On July 25, 2019, her nomination was reported out of committee by a vote of 15–7. On July 30, 2019, the Senate voted 57–33 to invoke cloture on her nomination. On July 31, 2019, her nomination was confirmed by a vote of 56–34. She was formally sworn in by Vice President Mike Pence on September 10, 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Remarks at a UN Security Council Briefing on COVID-19.", "content": "Craft sparked debate between the United States and China over the Chinese source of the virus. “The most useful way to contain the epidemic is to collect accurate data based on scientific data, and analyze the origins and characteristics of the virus,” said the US ambassador Craft, in her speech released later by her office.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Craft married David S. Moross and then Judson Knight. She wed Joe Craft in April 2016. He is a billionaire coal-mining executive for Alliance Resource Partners, L.P., the third-largest coal producer in the eastern United States.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Kelly Dawn Craft (; born February 24, 1962) is an American diplomat who currently serves as the United States Ambassador to the United Nations. Craft previously served as the United States ambassador to Canada, being the first woman to hold the office. She was appointed by President George W. Bush as a U.S. alternate delegate to the United Nations in 2007, where her focus included U.S. engagement in Africa. She was a delegate to the 2016 Republican National Convention from Kentucky. She headed Kelly G. Knight LLC, a business advisory firm based in Lexington, Kentucky.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977858}
{"src_title": "Koenigsegg Jesko", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Specifications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Engine.", "content": "The engine is a development of the 5.0-litre twin-turbocharged V8 engine used in the Agera. It has four valves per cylinder each with a bore and stroke of and a compression ratio of 8.6:1. The engine has a power output of on normal gasoline and has a power output of and of torque at 5,100 rpm on E85 biofuel.  Changes from the Agera's engine include the use of a new 180-degree flat-plane crankshaft that saves and increases the redline from 8,250 rpm to 8,500 rpm. The Jesko also utilises active rubber mounts from the Regera that reduce engine vibrations in the cabin. The two large turbochargers are equipped with a 20-litre air tank made from carbon fibre, coupled with an electric compressor which feeds pressurised air to the turbochargers at a pressure of in order to reduce turbo lag. The engine has pressure sensors for each cylinder in order to achieve real time cylinder monitoring for the multipoint fuel injection system.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Transmission.", "content": "The engine is mated to an in-house developed 9-speed multi-clutch transmission called the \"Light Speed Transmission (LST)\" by the manufacturer. The new transmission has a weight of and it is at least 50% shorter in length than the previous 7-speed dual-clutch unit. It has 21 possible gear combinations (the gears are arranged in two sets of three gears) and seven clutches allowing the driver to jump to any gear without disturbing the ratio. The transmission has a shift time ranging from 20 to 30 milliseconds. It also has an overdrive mode called \"Ultimate Power on Demand\" that is designed to skip directly to the optimal gear depending on user input, rather than down or upshifting sequentially to that gear.  The transmission is controlled by an onboard computer which uses engine and road speed data to engage a gear. Gears are selected by the driver either using the shift paddles mounted on the steering column or the gear selector.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Chassis and suspension.", "content": "Unlike its predecessors, the high-downforce variant of the Jesko has Koenigsegg's 'Triplex' dampers at the front and the rear combined with traditional Öhlins dampers. A rear horizontal rear damper prevents the rear from pressing on the ground during hard acceleration. The front dampers stabilise the car at high speeds while an active rear steering ensures further stability at all performance levels.  The carbon tub used in the Jesko is longer and wider from that of its predecessor in order for more passenger room. The tub has been redesigned and incorporates an aluminium monocoque structure for increased rigidity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Wheels, brakes and tyres.", "content": "The car comes standard with forged aluminium center locking wheels, with diameters of 20 inches at the front and 21 inches at the rear. Lighter carbon fibre wheels are available as an option, weighing at the front and at the rear. The tyres are Michelin Pilot Sport Cup 2's with codes of 265/35 20 for the front and 345/30 21 for the rear. Michelin Pilot Sport Cup 2 R tyres dedicated for track driving are also available as an option. The braking system uses ventilated carbon-ceramic discs.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Interior.", "content": "The use of a redesigned monocoque improves leg and headroom in the interior of the Jesko when compared to previous Koenigsegg models. Though weight saving is a priority for interior features, the car is still equipped with amenities such as a climate control system, an infotainment system with a 9.0-inch screen, Apple CarPlay and USB phone charging. The car has unique screens mounted in the steering wheel spokes and a 5.0-inch screen mounted behind the steering wheel displaying vital information to the driver. The seats will be made from hollow carbon fibre but will be electrically adjustable.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Exterior.", "content": "The Jesko shares Koenigsegg's 'Autoskin' capabilities from the Regera, allowing for remote operation of doors and the hood. It is also possible to hydraulically lift the front and rear axles of the car to give additional ground clearance. The doors have been redesigned so that they open further outward and have more ground clearance while open. The roof has screws in order to ensure it remains in place during high speed driving.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Performance.", "content": "The Jesko is equipped with a large carbon fibre front splitter at the front and a boomerang shaped wing at the rear generating of downforce at, at and at its top speed which is yet to be revealed.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "Production of the Jesko will be limited to 125 units, with 40-50 units being produced each year. Unlike its predecessors, the Jesko will be homologated worldwide. It was later announced that the entire build slots of the Jesko were sold out.  The Jesko will be offered in either a high-downforce or low-drag Absolut configuration, with subtle differences between the two variants. The high-downforce variant, as shown at the 2019 Geneva Motor Show, comes equipped with the dual front and rear 'Triplex' damper system and added aerodynamic features for track use. Due to this dual suspension setup, it is not possible to store the Targa roof in the front of the car, although this is possible in the Absolut as it will not have a front 'Triplex' damper system or front hood air dam.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Variants.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Jesko Absolut.", "content": "Unveiled online alongside the Gemera on 3 March 2020, the Jesko Absolut is a high speed version of the Jesko. The rear wing on the track-oriented Jesko is replaced by two rear fins which enable a reduction in downforce from to and a drag coefficient of. The front splitter and side winglets are removed and the front louvers are smoother with the rear wheels featuring removable covers for high speed stability. The vehicle is also slightly elongated featuring a rear extension which adds of additional length. The engine and transmission remain the same as the standard Jesko. 3,000 hours were spent on the aerodynamic analysis while an additional 5,000 hours were spent design and engineering work of the Absolut. The Absolut will be priced higher than the Jesko due to the development work taken to lower the drag coefficient. The Jesko Absolut is claimed by the manufacturer to have a top speed in excess of in the right conditions.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Koenigsegg Jesko is a limited production mid-engine sports car produced by Swedish automobile manufacturer Koenigsegg. Introduced at the 2019 Geneva Motor Show, the car succeeds the Agera. The name \"Jesko\" is a tribute to the company founder's father, Jesko von Koenigsegg.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977859}
{"src_title": "Ywam Liberty", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1992 Northeast Passage.", "content": "The vessel has also traversed the Northeast passage. The European Space Agency reports a 1992 traverse \"was the first civilian expedition through the NSR since the Russian revolution.\" \"LAstrolabe\" was escorted on her transit by Russian icebreakers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2013 Antarctic Ocean rescue mission.", "content": "\"LAstrolabe\" attempted to reach \"Akademik Shokalskiy\", trapped by an outbreak of old glacial ice in the Antarctic Ocean. \"LAstrolabe\" didn't match Chinese research vessel \"Xuě Lóng\"s from the trapped Russian ship, but got closer than the Australian \"Aurora Australis'\". Withdrawing after encountering heavy ice, she subsequently supported further attempts by \"Xuě Lóng\" and \"Aurora Australis\" to reach \"Akademik Shokalskiy\" and rescue her passengers.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2018 Deployment to Bougainville PNG as a Medical Ship.", "content": "From July 2018 \"YWAM Liberty\" spent six months in Bougainville, Papua New Guinea providing primary health, dental, optometry and ophthalmic care. The ship is administered by \"YWAM Ships Kona,\" from Kailua-Kona in Hawaii.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Incidents.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "2005 man overboard incident.", "content": "On January 27, 2005, a crew member was found to have gone overboard. The missing crew member's body was found.  During the recovery of his body the second engineer's hand was seriously injured, and he was at risk of losing his thumb. A report by the Australian Transport Safety Board concluded his injury would have been avoided if the block he was using to recover the ship's boat had been equipped with hand holds. The report noted that the deceased crew member was found with a high blood alcohol level. He had been seen to be depressed, prior to his death, and the report concluded he had jumped or fallen overboard under the influence of alcohol.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2010 Antarctica helicopter crash.", "content": "On October 28, 2010, a Eurocopter AS350 helicopter which operated between the ship and the Dumont d'Urville Station crashed in bad weather en route to the station. All 4 on board were killed.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "YWAM Liberty is the former LAstrolabe, a French icebreaking research vessel which was used to supply the Dumont d'Urville research station in Antarctica.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977860}
{"src_title": "Nasib Yusifbeyli", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early years.", "content": "Nasib Yusifbeyli was born in 1881 in Elisavetpol (present-day Ganja, Azerbaijan). After graduating from a gymnasium (secondary school) in Ganja, he enrolled as a student at the Law Faculty of the Novorossiya University (now the Odessa University) in 1902. When the university was temporarily shut down by the Tsarist Russian authorities due to revolutionary student activities, N. Yusifbeyli moved to Bakhchisaray in Crimea, where he started editing \"Tercuman\" newspaper with the Crimean Turkic intellectual Ismail Gasprinski.  In 1908, Yusifbeyli moved to Istanbul, continuing on his work as a publicist and establishing the Turkic Society. In 1909, he returned to Elisavetpol to work at a its city council.  In 1917, Yusifbeyli established the National Party of Turkic Federalists in Ganja, with the main goal of federalism in Russian empire. In July 1917, the party joined the Musavat Muslim Democrat Party of Mammad Emin Rasulzade, and Yusifbeyli became Musavat's regional chair in Ganja.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Turkic Federalist Party.", "content": "After the merge, Yusifbeyli was nominated as a member of the Constituent Assembly of Russia, where he was elected from the Transcaucasian electoral district according to list No. 10 - the Muslim National Committee and Musavat.  The dispersal of the Constituent Assembly by the Bolsheviks put an end to doubts about the possibility of establishing a parliamentary system in Russia under the Bolshevik government. This forced deputies from the South Caucasus to declare the non-recognition of the power of the Bolsheviks and the creation of their own regional power - the Transcaucasian Seim. The seats in this regional parliament were distributed among national parties. The second largest faction in the Sejm was the Musavat Party faction. The head of the faction was M.E. Rasulzade and N. Yusifbeyli became one of his two deputies.  On May 27, 1918, at the meeting of former members of the Muslims of the Transcaucasian Seim, the National Council of Azerbaijan was established, which included Nasib Yusifbeyli. May 28, 1918, the first Azerbaijani government was created. Yusifbeyli appointed to the posts of Minister of Finance, Minister of Public Education and Religious Affairs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Relations.", "content": "When he was the head of government, relations with Georgia were established as a result of the conclusion of a military agreement. When Yusifbeyli was a prime minister, relations were established with many European states. In January 1920, the Supreme Council of the Entente recognized the independence of Azerbaijan de facto.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "When the short-lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic was established on 10 February 1918, N. Yusifbeyli became its Minister of Education. On 28 May 1918, when Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) was proclaimed, N. Yusifbeyli again held the cabinet post of Minister of Education in ADR government. From March 1919 till March 1920, he was the Prime Minister of Azerbaijan, in parallel, also holding the post of the Minister of Interior from March till December 1919.  After the Bolshevik invasion of Azerbaijan and fall of ADR in April 1920, N. Yusifbeyli escaped from Baku but was murdered on 31 May 1920.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nasib Yusif oglu Yusifbeyli () or Usubbeyov ( ; 5 July 1881, Ganja - 31 May 1920) - Azerbaijani publicist, statesman and major political figure in Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977861}
{"src_title": "Hevrin Khalaf", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Khalaf was born on 15 November 1984 in Al-Malikiyah. She is a descendant of the Hawar () family. Early in her life, Khalaf was exposed to political movements and thinkers. Four of her brothers and her sister Zozan were involved in the Kurdish liberation movement; they all died as martyrs. Khalaf's mother, Sûad, took part in assemblies with Abdullah Öcalan. Khalaf was influenced by her mother's experiences. Khalaf graduated from University of Aleppo in 2009 as a civil engineer.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Soon after graduating, Khalaf returned to her hometown in Al-Malikiyah. When the Rojava conflict began, Khalaf worked on creating institutions that would improve civil society. Khalaf began managing one of the Economic Councils. She rose to prominence in the self-governing Kurdish area of Rojava in northeast Syria. Khalaf was one of the founders of the Foundation for Science and Free Thought in 2012.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Future Syria Party.", "content": "Khalaf became co-chair of the energy authority in 2016. Her party, the Future Syria Party, was involved in the administration of northern Syria after the capture of Raqqa from the Islamic State group in 2017. Khalaf participated in negotiations with the United States, France, and other delegations. She was known for her skill in diplomacy. Khalaf worked towards increasing tolerance and unity among Christians, Arabs, and Kurds. Aden Al Hendi described Khalaf's work ethic in \"Foreign Policy\" as such: “She would wake up at 5 in the morning and would not stop working until midnight, whether that involved traveling to the Deir Ezzor region, which was recently liberated from the Islamic State, to tutor children and teenagers there in math, or meeting with Arab tribal leaders and helping resolve their many disputes in her role as the secretary-general of the Future Syria Party (FSP). She personified the way the FSP and the Syrian Democratic Council approached the many differences among the people of the region.”  “Eight years have passed. The popular uprising against the crisis and the struggle of the peoples of Syria have been carried out with great sacrifice, and have turned into a war. The lasting crisis in Syria, which has caused the expulsion and murder of the population, cannot be resolved without a political solution.”", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "On 13 October 2019, \"The Daily Telegraph\" reported that \"Kurdish officials said rebel fighters intercepted a car carrying Hevrin Khalaf\". Khalaf was one of a number of civilians who were killed during the first days of the Turkish-backed military operation, with the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reporting that \"nine civilians were executed at different moments south of the town of Tal Abyad\". The National Army, a rebel group fighting alongside Turkey, denied responsibility for the killing. Khalaf's death was one of many during Operation Peace Spring, which began on 9 October 2019.  According to an autopsy report, Khalaf was beaten over her head and left leg with a solid object. This led to multiple bone fractures in the leg. There was then use of sharp objects on the back of her legs. Furthermore, Khalaf was dragged by her hair which cause it to tear off along with bits of flesh. She was then shot in the head once and four more times in her chest.  Kurdish analyst Mutlu Civiroglu, told \"The Guardian\" that Khalaf's death was a \"great loss\", and described her as having \"a talent for diplomacy\". Future Syria Party released a statement saying, \"With utmost grievance and sadness, the Syria Future Party mourns the martyrdom of engineer Hevrin Khalaf, the General Secretary of Syria Future Party, while she was performing her patriotic and political duties\". Khalaf was 34 at the time of her death. A video which circulated on social media purportedly showed the bullet-ridden vehicle in which Khalaf had been travelling with translators and other Kurdish personnel surrounded by Turkish-backed Syrian rebels.  A Bellingcat video traces the cause of Khalaf's death to rebels backed by Turkey and further reports that the group Ahrar al-Sharqiya is associated with the murders. While al-Sharqiya has denied involvement with her death, there have been videos alleging otherwise. One such video shows a body, face down, that is suspected by most to be Khalaf with a Turkish backed soldier standing over her. In the video, the soldier taps the body with his feet and says \"this is the corpse of pigs.\"  According to \"The Washington Post\", the killing \"almost certainly constitute[d] a war crime, under international law\". While Turkish-backed groups deny any and all allegations, many videos of their involvement and complicity have been leaked, similar to the video that was potentially a depiction of Khalaf. Furthermore, many groups were instructed on an encrypted chat site called 'Telegram' to \"not to publish any video filmed during the battles because it distorts our reputation.\"  Her funeral was held in Al-Malikiyah on 14 October 2019.  In January 2020, the BBC's Arabic service published an investigation into the death of Hevrin Khalaf which found that a sub-group of the Turkey-backed Syrian National Army, Ahrar al-Sharqiya, had extrajudiciarily murdered Khalaf on the M4 Motorway, at the Tirwaziya checkpoint. Ahrar al-Sharqiya responded to the BBC's investigation, stating that \"The group that set up the checkpoint on the M4 that day did so without permission... Those who violated orders from leadership have been sent for trial.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hevrin Khalaf (, also Khelef; 15 November 1984 – 12 October 2019) was a Kurdish-Syrian politician and civil engineer. Khalaf served as the Secretary General of the Future Syria Party after working for many years in Rojava. She was killed by Turkish-backed Ahrar al-Sharqiya fighters near the M4 Motorway in Northern Syria during the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria against SDF forces in Rojava on 12 October 2019.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977862}
{"src_title": "Dylan Sprouse", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Sprouse was born in Arezzo, Italy, to American parents Matthew Sprouse and Melanie Wright, while they were teaching at an English language school in Tuscany. Dylan was born 15 minutes before his younger twin brother Cole Sprouse. Four months after their birth, the family moved back to their parents' native Long Beach, California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "Sprouse started his career in 1993 on television, alongside his twin brother Cole Sprouse, sharing the role of Patrick Kelly in \"Grace Under Fire\" until 1998. For the next several years, he continued to appear in several films and television series with his brother. In 2017, he was cast in the thriller film \"Dismissed\" as the lead role of Lucas Ward. In the same year, he booked a short film \"Carte Blanche\" and was cast in comedy film \"Banana Split\" as Nick. The following year he joined a short film \"Daddy\" as Paul and the Chinese film \"Turandot\" opposite actress Guan Xiaotong as the character Calaf.  In August 2019, it was announced that Sprouse had been cast as Trevor in \"After We Collided\", the sequel to the 2019 film \"After\".  In May 2020, it was announced that Heavy Metal and DiGa Studios will be releasing the first issue of Sprouse's comic titled Sun Eater.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Education and entrepreneurship.", "content": "Following the end of \"The Suite Life on Deck\" in 2011, Sprouse attended New York University's Gallatin School of Individualized Study and obtained a four-year degree in video game design. He has identified as a Heathen since age 15. In 2018, Sprouse opened All-Wise Meadery in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, the name of which is a reference to his Heathen religion.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Filmography.", "content": "With the exception of \"Piggy Banks\" and \"Snow Buddies\", all appearances prior to 2017 were either roles shared with Cole Sprouse—that is, in which the two portrayed one single character—or projects on which they both worked but portrayed separate characters.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Dylan Thomas Sprouse (born August 4, 1992) is an American actor and entrepreneur. He is the twin brother of Cole Sprouse and is known for his role as Zack Martin on the Disney Channel series \"The Suite Life of Zack & Cody\" and its spin-off, \"The Suite Life on Deck\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977863}
{"src_title": "Princess Caroline of Great Britain", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Princess Caroline was born at Herrenhausen Palace in Hanover, Germany, on 10 June 1713 (New Style Gregorian calendar). Her father was George Augustus, Hereditary Prince of Hanover, the eldest son of George Louis, Elector of Hanover. Her mother was Caroline of Ansbach, daughter of Johann Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. As a granddaughter of the Elector of Hanover, she was styled Princess Caroline of Hanover at birth. Under the Act of Settlement 1701, she was seventh in the line of succession to the British throne. She was baptised the day after her birth at Herrenhausen Palace.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Great Britain.", "content": "In 1714, Queen Anne died, and Caroline's grandfather became George I and her father Prince of Wales. At the age of one year, Caroline accompanied her mother and elder sisters, the Princesses Anne and Amelia, to Great Britain, and the family resided at St James's Palace, London. She was then styled as a Princess of Great Britain. A newly attributed list from January–February 1728 documents her personal expenses, including charitable contributions to several Protestant groups in London.  In 1722, at the direction of her mother, she was inoculated against smallpox by variolation, an early type of immunisation popularised by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and Charles Maitland.  Princess Caroline was her mother's favourite, and became known as \"the truth-telling Caroline Elizabeth\" (or \"the truth-loving\"). When any disagreement took place among the royal children, her parents would say, \"Send for Caroline, and then we shall know the truth!\" According to Dr. John Doran, \"The truth-loving Caroline Elizabeth was unreservedly beloved by her parents, was worthy of the affection, and repaid it by an ardent attachment. She was fair, good, accomplished, and unhappy.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later life.", "content": "According to popular belief, Caroline's unhappiness was due to her love for the married courtier Lord Hervey. Hervey, who was bisexual, may have had an affair with Caroline's elder brother, Prince Frederick, and was romantically linked with several ladies of the court as well. When Hervey died in 1743, Caroline retired to St. James's Palace for many years prior to her own death, accessible to only her family and closest friends. She gave generously to charity.  Princess Caroline died, unmarried and childless, on 28 December 1757, aged 44, at St James's Palace. She was buried at Westminster Abbey.  Horace Walpole, of the death of Princess Caroline, wrote: \"Though her state of health had been so dangerous for years, and her absolute confinement for many of them, her disorder was, in a manner, new and sudden, and her death unexpected by herself, though earnestly her wish. Her goodness was constant and uniform, her generosity immense, her charities most extensive; in short, I, no royalist, could be lavish in her praise.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "On 31 January 1719, as a grandchild of the sovereign, Caroline was granted use of the arms of the realm, differenced by a \"label argent of five points, each bearing three roses gules\". On 30 August 1727, as a child of the sovereign, Caroline's difference changed to a \"label argent of three points, each bearing three roses gules\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Caroline of Great Britain (Caroline Elizabeth; 10 June 1713 – 28 December 1757) was the fourth child and third daughter of King George II of Great Britain and his wife Caroline of Ansbach.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977864}
{"src_title": "Puskás Aréna", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "In 2011, when originally budgeted, the cost of the construction of the new stadium was put at 35 billion Hungarian forints.  On 26 June 2014, László Vigh said that the construction of the new stadium will cost 90-100 billion Hungarian forints.  On 1 August 2014, the Nemzeti Sport Központ (the National Sports Center) presented the final vision of Hungary’s new national stadium. The Hungarian architect György Skardelli, who was the designer of the nearby indoor arena, László Papp Budapest Sports Arena showed his original plans that did not include the demolition of the original stadium  On 19 September 2014, UEFA selected Budapest to host three group stage games and one round of 16 game at UEFA Euro 2020. On 19 September 2014, Sándor Csányi, the president of the Hungarian Football Federation, said that the fact that Budapest can host UEFA Euro 2020 is a big achievement of the Hungarian sport diplomacy.  On 23 February 2017, János Lázár, Minister of Prime Minister's Office of Hungary, said that the cost of the stadium will rise to 190 billion Hungarian forint from the previously estimated 100 billion. The current budget of 190 billion Hungarian forints (EUR 610 million) is well over 100% of the original cost estimates and is far more expensive than similarly-sized stadiums in Europe such as Allianz Arena in Munich or Arsenal's Emirates Stadium.  In 2014, the original designs of the new Puskás Ferenc stadium was voted the best design by Stadiumdb.com which complimented the imaginative design which included an elevated running track that overlooked the pitch and had city skyline views However, by the time of construction two attempts at cutting unnecessary elements from the project scaled back the design to being football-focused because of the huge inflation of the construction budget and the desire to build a new athletics stadium in Budapest by Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán for a future Summer Olympics bid.  On 29 June 2018, the Visitors' Centre of the Puskás Ferenc Stadium was opened. Balázs Fürjes, minister responsible for Budapest and its agglomeration, said at the opening of the centre that the new stadium would be more than a stadium. It would be a multi-purpose stadium that can hold concerts and conferences as well. He also said that preferably the stadium would host the 2021 UEFA Champions League Final.  On 14 December 2018, the Hungarian Association of Journalists (in Hungarian: Magyar Sportújságírók Szövetsége) and the members of the communication department of the Hungarian Football Federation visited the construction.  All of the seats were mounted by 2 October 2019.  Cashless catering system was installed in the new arena. In the arena only touch cards or NFC are accepted.  Only 500 parking lots were created around the new stadium. Therefore, it is advisable to arrive at the arena by using public transport.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Opening.", "content": "On 15 November 2019 the arena was opened by the match Hungary-Uruguay. The idea to invite the Uruguay national football team came from Károly Jankovics who is the leader of the Hungarian community in Montevideo.  All of the tickets were sold for the opening match against Uruguay. In the first three days only the members of the Supporters' Club of the Hungarian Football Federation could purchase the tickets.  Although the opening match was planned to be the last match of Zoltán Gera, he did not play at the opening match because of his condition. He said that his condition would not make it possible to play against one of the best teams in the world, Uruguay.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Important matches.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "UEFA Finals.", "content": "2020 UEFA Super Cup  2023 UEFA Europa League Final", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Puskás Aréna is a football stadium in the 14th district (Zugló) of Budapest, Hungary. The stadium's construction started in 2017 and was finished before the end of 2019. It is an all-seater with a capacity of 67,215. The Hungarian Football Federation will meet all UEFA and FIFA stadium requirements and expects to be awarded the 5-star rating. The stadium is built in the place of the former Ferenc Puskás Stadium whose demolition was completed in October 2016. Both stadiums were named in honour of the former national team captain Ferenc Puskás.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977865}
{"src_title": "AirPods Pro", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Overview.", "content": "Apple announced AirPods Pro on October 28, 2019, and released them two days later on October 30, 2019. They include features of standard AirPods, such as a microphone that filters out background noise, accelerometers and optical sensors that can detect presses on the stem and in-ear placement, and automatic pausing when they are taken out of the ears. Control by tapping is replaced by pressing a force sensor on the stems.  The AirPods Pro use the same H1 chip found in second generation AirPods that supports hands-free \"Hey Siri\". They have active noise cancellation, accomplished by microphones detecting outside sound and speakers producing precisely opposite \"anti-noise\". Active noise cancellation can be turned off or switched to \"transparency mode\" that helps users hear surroundings. Noise cancellation modes can also be switched in iOS or by pinching the stems of the AirPods using a new \"force sensor\". Battery life is equal to the 2nd generation AirPods, 5 hours, but when noise cancellation or transparency mode is on, the battery is slightly shorter at 4.5 hours due to the extra processing of either modes. They are rated IPX4 for water resistance.  They come with three sizes of silicone tips. In iOS there is a software test to \"[measure] the sound level in the ear and comparing it to what is coming from the speaker driver\" to ensure a correct fit, as well as a feature called \"Adaptive EQ\" which automatically adjusts the frequency contour, claimed to better match the wearer's ear shape.  The charging case advertises the same 24 hours of total listening time as the standard AirPods case. It features Qi standard wireless charging compatibility.  Like AirPods, AirPods Pro have received criticism for their battery life.  In the beginning of 2020 Apple started selling tip replacements for AirPods Pro on their website.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Firmware Issues.", "content": "Firmware for the AirPods Pro is automatically updated silently in the background. Users have complained that firmware version 2C54 (released December 2019) reduced the effectiveness of the active noise cancellation feature.  Apple stopped updating customer AirPods Pro to firmware version 2C54. In May 2020, firmware version 2D15 was released.  After the release of 2C54, users speculated that the launch firmware with the strong noise cancellation (that received great reviews from the media) may have degraded the lifespan of the product, and Apple had to weaken the noise cancelling feature in order to preserve the lifespan of the hardware.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Compatibility.", "content": "Support for AirPods Pro was added in iOS 13.2, watchOS 6.1, tvOS 13.2, and macOS Catalina 10.15.1. They are compatible with any device that supports Bluetooth, including Windows and Android devices, although certain features such as automatic switching between devices are only available on Apple devices using its iCloud service.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "AirPods Pro are wireless Bluetooth earbuds created by Apple, initially released on October 30, 2019. AirPods Pro use the same H1 chip found in second generation AirPods, but add active noise cancellation, automated frequency profile setting, IPX4 water resistance, a charging case with wireless charging, and interchangeable silicone tips.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977866}
{"src_title": "Stepan Sosnovy", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Born in 1896 in a farming family. Together with his younger brother Timofei (Timothy during his later life in the US) he was orphaned at the age of 9. Thanks to the guardians, he enrolled in and graduated from the Kharkov Institute of Agriculture and Forestry as an agronomist.  In the inter-war period, he published several statistical works, which mainly discussed issues of land plot lease in the Ukrainian SSR. At the beginning of 1932, he was accused of having \"anti-Marxist prejudices\" and \"stirring up pro-Kulak sentiments\", after which he was forced to quit his job.  In 1932-1936 he worked as an agronomist in Yakymivka District, Zaporizhia Oblast, where he witnessed the mass famine (later known as Holodomor) and later claimed that he had developed an anti-Soviet sentiments just at that time.  In September 1941, he was offered a job in Moscow, but he declined and stayed in Kharkov, which was occupied shortly thereafter by the German troops, together with his two sons, his mother-in-law and his sick wife. At the end of November 1941 he was unemployed. On November 24, 1941, he got a job in the Agricultural Administration, where he worked as head of the economic statistics department. In July 1943 he visited Germany as part of a delegation of agronomists from the Kharkov region. In early August 1943, during the Soviet offensive on Kharkov, his wife moved to Kiev with their sons Vladimir (1926) and Alexander (1927). From there they moved together to the Odessa region.  From September 13, 1942 to January 24, 1943, he published 5 articles in the weekly newspaper \"Novaya Ukraina\" (New Ukraine) in Kharkov. The articles discussed the events of the Collectivization and the 1932 - 1933 famine. Sosnovy analyzed the nationalization process in the agricultural sector of the Ukrainian SSR and criticized the Bolshevik agricultural policy. He noted that since authorities took most of their livestock from peasants in the years of collectivization, they lost their economic independence. In analyzing the role of MTS (Machinery and Tractor Stations), S. Sosnovy showed that the creation and enforcement of these stations in Ukraine actually led to the creation of a state agricultural monopoly. Comparing statistics with other years, including the lean years, he believed that Ukraine had enough grain from the 1932 harvest to feed the population and even livestock. He noted that the excessive corn procurement plan was a killer factor for the peasants because every last grain was confiscated in order to fulfill the plan. Thanks to the use of the 1926 census data of Soviet Ukraine and a series of open statistical and economic collections from the 1930s, Sosnovy was the first Ukrainian scientist who attempted to estimate the number of victims of the famine.  In 1943-1944, his article \"The Truth About the 1932-1933 Famine in Ukraine\" was reprinted in several other newspapers in the occupied territories.  His younger brother Timothy (died 1983), a member of OUN-M, emigrated (Germany, later USA), where he began to teach and contribute to the dissemination of his brother's research. On 2 and 5 February 1950 S. Sosnovy's work was reprinted by the emigration newspaper \"Ukrainski Visti\" (Ukrainian News), which appeared in the German city of Neu-Ulm for displaced persons of Ukrainian descent. In the same year, an article by S. Sosnovy on the 1932-1933 famine came out as a separate pamphlet, and in 1953 was published in English translation in the first volume of the document collection \"The Black Deeds of the Kremlin\", along with other evidence of the mass extermination of Ukrainian peasants in the late 1920s and early 1930s.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Postwar years.", "content": "After the war, he worked as an agronomist and economist, without caring to conceal his name. On February 21, 1950, he was arrested by the State Security Ministry because his former Kharkov employees testified against him. He was sentenced to 25 years imprisonment in forced labor camps, with 5 years loss of rights and complete confiscation of property. He served for six years in a labor camp near Sheksna Station in Vologda Oblast. After his release he suffered a disability and settled in the village of Pavlovka, Artsyz District in the Odessa Oblast. By that time his wife Maria Derbek had died. In 1956, at the age of 62, Stepan Sosnovy concluded his second marriage, with Euphrosyne Poremska. Soon, the couple moved with one of the sons of Stepan Sosnovy to Kiev. A decision of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR of 11 April 1958 abolished the loss of rights and cleared his criminal record. He died on March 26, 1961 at the age of 66.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Stepan Mykolayovych Sosnovy (March 23, 1896 in Rizdvyanka (now Syvaske), Russian Empire - March 26, 1961 in Kiev, Ukrainian SSR) was a Ukrainian-Soviet agronomist and economist and author of the first comprehensive study of the 1932-1933 Holodomor in Ukraine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977867}
{"src_title": "Alexander Wienerberger", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Life.", "content": "Alexander Wienerberger was born in 1891 (other sources mistakenly indicate 1898) in Vienna, in a family of mixed origin. Despite the fact that his father was Jewish and mother was Czech, Alexander himself, according to his daughter, considered himself an Austrian and an atheist.  From 1910 to 1914 he studied at the Faculty of Philosophy at the University of Vienna.  During the First World War he was mobilized into the Austro-Hungarian Army, participated in battles against the Russian army and was captured in 1915.  In 1917 he was allowed to move to Moscow, where he founded a chemical laboratory with friends. In the fall of 1919, he attempted to escape from Soviet Russia to Austria through Estonia using fake documents, but failed: in Pskov he was arrested by Cheka. Wienerberger was convicted of espionage. He spent a significant part of the 1920s in the Lubyanka prison in Moscow. During his stay in prison, his skills as a chemist were appreciated by the Soviet government, which employed foreign prisoners worked in production. Wienerberger was appointed an engineer for the production of varnishes and paints, and later he worked in factories for the production of explosives.  In 1927, his marriage with Josefine Rönimois, a native of the Baltic Germans, broke up. The ex-wife, together with daughter Annemarie and son Alexander, remained in Estonia (later Annemarie moved to Austria).  In 1928, for the first time after imprisonment, Wienerberger visited his relatives in Vienna and made a new marriage with Lilly Zimmermann, the daughter of a manufacturer from Schwechat. On his return to Moscow, restrictions were lifted from him, which allowed his wife to move to the Soviet Union. In 1931, his wife was allowed to briefly return to Vienna, where she gave birth to their daughter Margot.  In early 1930s, Wienerberger family lived in Moscow, where Alexander had a position at a chemical factory. In 1932 he was sent to Lyubuchany (Moscow Oblast) to the position of a technical director of a plastic factory, and in 1933 transferred to an equal position in Kharkiv.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Photographic evidence of the famine in 1932—1933.", "content": "Living in Kharkiv, the then capital of the Ukrainian SSR, Wienerberger witnessed a massive famine and photographed the scenes he saw on the streets of the city, despite the threat of arrest by the NKVD.  During his stay in Kharkov, Alexander Wienerberger secretly created about 100 photographs of the city during the Holodomor. His photographs depict queues of hungry people at grocery stores, starving children, bodies of people who died of starvation in the streets of Kharkov, and mass graves of victims of starvation. The engineer created his photographs using the German Leica camera, which was probably transferred to him by friends from abroad.  Leaving for Austria in 1934, Wienerberger sent negatives through diplomatic mail with the aid of the Austrian embassy. Austrian diplomats insisted on such a measure of caution, since there was a high probability of a search of personal belongings at the border, and eventual discovery of photographs could threaten his life. Upon his return to Vienna, Wienerberger handed over the pictures to Cardinal Theodor Innitzer, who, together with the Secretary General of the International Committee of National Minorities Ewald Ammende, presented them to the League of Nations.  In 1934, the Patriotic Front in Austria released Wienerberger's photos in a small brochure entitled “Rußland, wie es wirklich ist” (Russia, as it really is), but without attribution.  Wienerberger's photographs were first made available to the public in 1935 thanks to the publication in the book \"Should Russia starve?\" (Muss Russland Hungern) by Ewald Ammende; the photos were not credited because of concerns for the safety of their creator. In 1939, Alexander Wienerberger published in Austria his own book of memoirs about life in the Soviet Union, in which two chapters are devoted to the Holodomor. Photos were also included in his memoirs published in 1942.  In 1944, Wienerberger served as liaison officer of the Russian Liberation Army. After the war, he managed to avoid the transfer to Soviet troops - he ended up in the American zone of occupation in Salzburg, where he died in 1955.  Currently, Wienerberger's photos have been republished in many other works, and are exhibited, in particular, in the Canadian Museum for Human Rights in Winnipeg.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Alexander Wienerberger (December 8, 1891, Vienna — January 5, 1955, Salzburg) was an Austrian chemical engineer who worked for 19 years at chemical enterprises of the USSR. While he worked in Kharkiv, he created a series of photographs of the Holodomor of 1932-1933, which are photographic evidence of the mass starvation of the Ukrainian people at that time.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977868}
{"src_title": "TCG Anadolu", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design and specifications.", "content": "In December 2013, the Turkish LPD/LHD program was originally estimated to cost €375 million ($500 million). According to the original plan, the Turkish Navy wanted a slightly shorter flight deck without the ski-jump ramp in front, to be optimized for use with only helicopters.  However, the Turkish Navy later changed its plan and opted for a fully equipped flight deck with the ski-jump ramp in front, after deciding to purchase F-35B STOVL aircraft. Turkia was a Level 3 partner in the Joint Strike Fighter program and the Turkish Air Force was intending to get the F-35A CTOL version until the USA blocked the export of the advanced fighter jet to Turkey. The Turkish version of the LHD will be capable of operating up to 12 helicopters or 12 F-35Bs operated by NATO allies in \"light aircraft carrier\" configuration. The dimensions of the final design are 231 meters in length, 32 meters beam, 6.8 meters draught, and 58 meters in height. Its displacement will be 24,660 tons (in \"light aircraft carrier\" mission configuration) or 27,079 tons (in \"LHD\" mission configuration). Its maximum speed will be 21.5 knots (in \"light aircraft carrier\" configuration) or 29 knots (in \"LHD\" configuration); while its maximum range will be 9000 miles at economical speed. It will have a 5,440 m2 flight deck and a 990 m2 aviation hangar which can accommodate either 12 medium size helicopters or 8 CH-47F Chinook heavy-lift helicopters. (When the aviation hangar and the light cargo garage are unified, the ship can carry up to 25 medium size helicopters. Alternatively, the ship can carry up to 12 F-35B and 12 helicopters. Six more helicopters can be hosted on the flight deck of the ship.) Additionally, the ship will have a 1,880 m2 light cargo garage for TEU containers and 27 Amphibious Assault Vehicles (AAV); a 1,165 m2 dock which can host four Landing Craft Mechanized (LCM) or two Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC), or two Landing Craft Vehicle Personnel (LCVP); and a 1,410 m2 garage for heavy loads, which can host 29 Main Battle Tanks (MBT), Amphibious Assault Vehicles, and TEU containers. The ship will be protected by the ARAS-2023 diver detection sonar (DDS), and will have a crew consisting of 261 personnel: 30 officers, 49 NCOs, 59 leading seamen, and 123 ratings.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Construction.", "content": "The final contract for the construction of the ship was signed with the Navantia-Sedef consortium on 7 May 2015. The commissioning of the ship is scheduled for 2021, and the estimated cost of the ship according to the final specifications is $1 billion. The construction works began on 30 April 2016 at the shipyard of Sedef Shipbuilding Inc. in Istanbul.  The ship caught fire whilst in dry dock on the evening of 29 April 2019.  On 21 November 2019, Turkish Defense Industry Minister Prof. Dr. İsmail Demir announced that \"TCG Anadolu\" would enter service one year ahead of schedule at the end 2020, instead of 2021.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "TCG Trakya.", "content": "The construction of an identical sister ship, to be named TCG \"Trakya\", is currently being planned by the Turkish Navy. \"Trakya\" means Thrace in Turkish.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "TCG \"Anadolu\" (L-400) is an amphibious assault ship (LHD) of the Turkish Navy that can be configured as a light aircraft carrier. It is named after the peninsula of Anatolia (Turkish: \"Anadolu\") which forms the majority of the land mass of Turkey. The construction works began on 30 April 2016 at the shipyard of Sedef Shipbuilding Inc. in Istanbul, with the keel being laid 7 February 2018, and is expected to be completed in 2020. The vessel is intended to meet the various needs and requirements of the Turkish Armed Forces, such as sustaining long-endurance, long-distance military combat or humanitarian relief operations; while acting as a command center and flagship for the Turkish Navy.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977869}
{"src_title": "Fatimeh Pahlavi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life and education.", "content": "Fatimeh Pahlavi was born in Tehran on 30 October 1928. She was the tenth child of Reza Shah and his fourth and last wife, Esmat Dowlatshahi. Her mother was from the Qajar dynasty and married Reza Shah in 1923. Fatimeh was the full-sister of Abdul Reza Pahlavi, Mahmoud Reza Pahlavi and Hamid Reza Pahlavi.  She and her brothers lived at Marble palace in Tehran with their parents. She attended Anoushiravan Dadgar Girls' School in Tehran.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Activities.", "content": "During the reign of her half-brother, Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, Fatimeh Pahlavi owned a bowling club and dealt with business, having shares in the firms involved in construction, vegetable oil production and engineering. She also had a fortune of some $500 million during that time. Her fortune was a result of \"commissions\" extracted from military contractors by her second husband, Khatami. Pahlavi also involved in activities concerning higher education in Iran.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Personal life.", "content": "Fatimeh Pahlavi married twice. She married Vincent Lee Hillyer (1924 – 7 July 1999) in a civil ceremony in Civitavecchia, Italy, on 13 April 1950. Hillyer converted to Islam. On 10 May they wed in a religious ceremony at Iran's embassy in Paris. Hillyer was a friend of her brother Abdul Reza Pahlavi. Fatimeh and Hillyer met in Iran during the latter's visit to the country. The marriage was not fully endorsed by Shah Mohammad Reza, probably due to negative reactions in Iran. They had three children, two sons, Kayvan and Dariush, and one daughter, Rana, who died in an accidental fall in infancy in 1954. They divorced in September 1959.  After divorcing Hillyer, she married Mohammad Amir Khatami, the commanding general of Iran's air force, on 22 November 1959. The shah and his then fiancée Farah Diba attended the wedding ceremony.  They had two sons, Kambiz (born 1961) and Ramin (born 1967), and a daughter, Pari (born 1962). Pahlavi left Iran before the 1979 revolution. During her last years, she was living in London.  During the reign of the Shah, she wore the Sunburst Tiara and was the first and only known person to have worn it.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "Pahlavi died at the age of 58 in London on 2 June 1987. She was survived by her four sons.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Fatemeh Pahlavi (; 30 October 1928 – 2 June 1987) was Reza Shah Pahlavi's tenth child and half-sister of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. She was a member of the Pahlavi dynasty.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977870}
{"src_title": "Linux Security Modules", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design.", "content": "LSM was designed to provide the specific needs of everything needed to successfully implement a mandatory access control module, while imposing the fewest possible changes to the Linux kernel. LSM avoids the approach of system call interposition as used in Systrace because it does not scale to multiprocessor kernels and is subject to TOCTTOU (race) attacks. Instead, LSM inserts \"hooks\" (upcalls to the module) at every point in the kernel where a user-level system call is about to result in access to an important internal kernel object such as inodes and task control blocks.  The project is narrowly scoped to solve the problem of access control to avoid imposing a large and complex change patch on the mainstream kernel. It is not intended as a general \"\"hook\"\" or \"\"upcall\"\" mechanism, nor does it support Operating system-level virtualization.  LSM's access control goal is very closely related to the problem of system auditing, but is subtly different. Auditing requires that every attempt at access be recorded. LSM cannot deliver that, because it would require a great many more hooks, so as to detect cases where the kernel \"\"short circuits\"\" failing system calls and returns an error code before getting near significant objects.  The LSM design is described in the paper \"Linux Security Modules: General Security Support for the Linux Kernel\" presented at USENIX Security 2002. At the same conference was the paper \"Using CQUAL for Static Analysis of Authorization Hook Placement\" which studied automatic static analysis of the kernel code to verify that all of the necessary hooks have actually been inserted into the Linux kernel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "At the 2001 Linux Kernel Summit, the NSA proposed that SELinux be included in Linux 2.5. Linus Torvalds rejected SELinux at that time, because he observed that there are many different security projects in development, and since they all differ, the security community has not yet formed consensus on the ultimate security model. Instead, Linus charged the security community to \"make it a module\".  In response, Crispin Cowan proposed LSM: an interface for the Linux kernel that provides sufficient \"hooks\" (upcalls) from within the Linux kernel to a loadable module so as to allow the module to enforce mandatory access controls. Development of LSM over the next two years was conducted by the LSM community, including substantial contributions from the Immunix Corporation, the NSA, McAfee, IBM, Silicon Graphics, and many independent contributors. LSM was ultimately accepted into the Linux kernel mainstream and was included as a standard part of Linux 2.6 in December 2003.  In 2006, some kernel developers observed that SELinux was the only widely used LSM module included in the mainstream Linux kernel source tree. If there is to be only one widely used LSM module, it was reasoned, then the indirection of LSM is unnecessary, and LSM should be removed and replaced with SELinux itself. However, there are other LSM modules maintained outside of the mainstream kernel tree (AppArmor, Linux Intrusion Detection System, FireFlier, CIPSO, Multi ADM, etc.), so this argument led to two results: 1. that developers of these modules started putting effort into upstreaming their respective modules, and 2. at the 2006 Kernel Summit, Linus once again asserted that LSM would stay because he does not want to arbitrate which is the best security model.  LSM is likely to remain since additional security modules Smack (version 2.6.25), TOMOYO Linux (version 2.6.30, June 2009) and AppArmor (version 2.6.36) were accepted in the mainline kernel.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "Some Linux kernel developers dislike LSM for a variety of reasons. LSM strives to impose the least overhead possible, especially in the case where no module is loaded, but this cost is not zero, and some Linux developers object to that cost. LSM is designed to provide only for access control, but does not actually prevent people from using LSM for other reasons, and so some Linux kernel developers dislike that it can be \"abused\" by being used for other purposes, especially if the purpose is to bypass the Linux kernel's GPL license with a proprietary module to extend Linux kernel functionality.  Some security developers also dislike LSM. The author of grsecurity dislikes LSM because of its history, and that because LSM exports all of its symbols it facilitates the insertion of malicious modules (rootkits) as well as security modules. The author of RSBAC dislikes LSM because it is incomplete with respect to the needs of RSBAC. In particular, the author of RSBAC argues that: \"LSM is only about additional, restrictive access control. However, the RSBAC system provides a lot of additional functionality, e.g. symlink redirection, secure_delete, partial Linux DAC disabling. All this has to be patched into kernel functions in a separate patch.\". The Dazuko project argued that targeting the LSM API is a moving target, as it changes with each kernel release, leading to extra maintenance work. Other developers would like to have LSM modules stacked, e.g. the developer of the Yama LSM.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Linux Security Modules (LSM) is a framework that allows the Linux kernel to support a variety of computer security models while avoiding favoritism toward any single security implementation. The framework is licensed under the terms of the GNU General Public License and is a standard part of the Linux kernel since Linux 2.6. AppArmor, SELinux, Smack, and TOMOYO Linux are the currently accepted modules in the official kernel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977871}
{"src_title": "Harry Powlett, 6th Duke of Bolton", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Origins.", "content": "He was the second son of Harry Powlett, 4th Duke of Bolton by his wife Catherine Parry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "He was educated at Winchester College (1728–1729). He joined the Royal Navy, and on 4 March 1740 was promoted lieutenant aboard. He was promoted captain of on 15 July 1740, and was moved to in July 1741. While commanding \"Oxford\", in 1744 he took part in the Battle of Toulon, and later gave damaging evidence against Richard Lestock.  He was moved to in March 1745, and shortly thereafter to. On 11 April 1746 \"Ruby\", with and, was dispatched from Plymouth to join the fleet off Brest, France. Before finding the fleet under Admiral William Martin on 22 May, he was able to capture the French frigate \"Embuscade\". He was given command of in November 1746 and was sent to the East Indies to serve under Rear-Admiral Thomas Griffin and Admiral Edward Boscawen. He was employed by Boscawen at the Siege of Pondicherry in 1748 to take soundings off Pondicherry, in order to arrange the dispositions of the naval blockade of the town.  Upon returning to England in April 1750, Captain Powlett charged Rear-Admiral Griffin with misconduct for failing to engage eight French ships at Cuddalore, a decision which had been generally unpopular among Griffin's captains. Griffin was found guilty of negligence and was temporarily suspended from his rank. Griffin in response court-martialed Powlett on charges including cowardice, which Powlett attempted to escape by going on half-pay. Meanwhile, he entered the House of Commons in 1751 as Member of Parliament for Christchurch.  Despite Powlett's evasions, he was court-martialled on 1 September 1752, but was acquitted due to Griffin's charges having failed for lack of evidence. The incident was sensational, and concluded in 1756 with a duel between the two officers on Blackheath. He was appointed to command in January 1753.  Powlett's rapid rise to a captaincy and his willingness to commence court martial proceedings against his superiors were a result of his family connections. His father's support of Walpole had made him a Lord of the Admiralty in 1733, a post which he retained until 1742. Even after leaving the Admiralty, the Bolton political connections remained sufficiently strong to ensure his continued promotion. However, he had apparently already become a figure of satire and is believed to have inspired the character of \"Captain Whiffle\" in Smollett's 1748 novel \"The Adventures of Roderick Random\".  In 1754, following his father's succession to the Dukedom, he became known as Lord Harry Powlett, and replaced his elder brother Charles Powlett as MP for the family's pocket borough of Lymington. He was appointed to command on 4 February 1755 and petitioned the Duke of Newcastle, then prime minister, for promotion to flag rank, on the strength of his family's support of the government. However, a damaging accident to his reputation occurred soon after, while acting with Admiral Hawke's fleet off France. Sent on 22 August 1755 to chase a ship to the south-east, he became detached from the fleet. While waiting at the rendezvous on 25 August, the ship's carpenter reported \"Barfleur\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s sternpost to be dangerously loose, and Powlett returned to Spithead for repairs. In October 1755 he was court-martialled for having separated from the fleet and returned to port without justification. He was admonished on the first charge and acquitted on the second, and the carpenter was dismissed as incompetent. It was, however, widely believed that the carpenter had served as a scapegoat, and Powlett thereafter was given the sobriquet of \"Captain Stern-Post\".  Notwithstanding this incident, the Bolton influence proved irresistible, and he was promoted rear admiral on 4 June 1756 and Vice-Admiral of the White on 14 February 1758. Feeling ran strongly against him, despite his promotions, and he never again received a naval command, even at the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1754. In 1756 supposedly Boscawen requested Powlett's appointment as his second-in-command but was refused by King George II, who shared in the general low opinion of Powlett. In 1761 he again changed constituencies, and was returned as MP for Winchester.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Succeeds to dukedom.", "content": "As a lukewarm supporter of the government, he was intermittently at odds with George Grenville. However, upon succeeding to the dukedom in July 1765 by his brother's suicide, he threw off his political connections and became a supporter of the crown alone. Bolton was sworn of the Privy Council on 10 December 1766. In 1767 he was given the sinecure post of Vice-Admiral of Dorset and Vice-Admiral of Hampshire (held by several Dukes of Bolton), and promoted to Admiral of the Blue on 18 October 1770 and Admiral of the White on 31 March 1775.  In 1778 he went into opposition to the government over its handling of the American War of Independence, and joined Vice-Admiral Bristol in opposing the court-martial of Admiral Keppel. His political activity diminished after 1780, although in 1782 he was appointed Governor of the Isle of Wight and Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marriages and progeny.", "content": "He married twice:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death and succession.", "content": "He died on 25 December 1794 at Hackwood Park, Winslade, in Hampshire, whereupon due to his lack of male progeny his dukedom became extinct. His distant cousin and heir male George Paulet succeeded to the Marquessate of Winchester and other titles, while his estates of Bolton Hall, Bolton Castle, Hackwood Park and several others devolved upon his brother's natural daughter Jean Browne-Powlett, wife of Thomas Orde (later Thomas Orde-Powlett, 1st Baron Bolton), who adopted the additional surname of Powlett.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Admiral Harry Powlett, 6th Duke of Bolton PC (6 November 1720 – 25 December 1794) was a British nobleman and naval officer.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977872}
{"src_title": "Enterobacteriaceae", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Morphology.", "content": "Members of the Enterobacteriaceae are bacilli (rod-shaped), and are typically 1–5 μm in length. They typically appear as medium to large-sized grey colonies on blood agar, although some can express pigments.  Most have many flagella used to move about, but a few genera are nonmotile. Most members of Enterobacteriaceae have peritrichous, type I fimbriae involved in the adhesion of the bacterial cells to their hosts.  They are not spore-forming.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Metabolism.", "content": "Like other proteobacteria, enterobactericeae have Gram-negative stains, and they are facultative anaerobes, fermenting sugars to produce lactic acid and various other end products. Most also reduce nitrate to nitrite, although exceptions exist. Unlike most similar bacteria, enterobacteriaceae generally lack cytochrome c oxidase, although there are exceptions.  Catalase reactions vary among Enterobacteriaceae.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "Many members of this family are normal members of the gut microbiota in humans and other animals, while others are found in water or soil, or are parasites on a variety of different animals and plants.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Model organisms and medical relevance.", "content": "\"Escherichia coli\" is one of the most important model organisms, and its genetics and biochemistry have been closely studied.  Some enterobacteria are important pathogens, e.g. \"Salmonella\", or \"Shigella\" e.g. because they produce endotoxins. Endotoxins reside in the cell wall and are released when the cell dies and the cell wall disintegrates. Some members of the \"Enterobacteriaceae\" produce endotoxins that, when released into the bloodstream following cell lysis, cause a systemic inflammatory and vasodilatory response. The most severe form of this is known as endotoxic shock, which can be rapidly fatal.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Genera.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Validly published genera.", "content": "The following genera have been validly published, thus they have \"Standing in Nomenclature\". The year the genus was proposed is listed in parentheses after the genus name.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Proposed genera.", "content": "The following genera have been effectively, but not validly, published, thus they do not have \"Standing in Nomenclature\". The year the genus was proposed is listed in parentheses after the genus name.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Identification.", "content": "To identify different genera of Enterobacteriaceae, a microbiologist may run a series of tests in the lab. These include:  In a clinical setting, three species make up 80 to 95% of all isolates identified. These are \"Escherichia coli\", \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\", and \"Proteus mirabilis\". However, \"Proteus mirabilis\" is now considered a part of the Morganellaceae, a sister clade within the Enterobacterales.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Antibiotic resistance.", "content": "Several Enterobacteriaceae strains have been isolated which are resistant to antibiotics including carbapenems, which are often claimed as \"the last line of antibiotic defense\" against resistant organisms. For instance, some \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\" strains are carbapenem resistant.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Enterobacteriaceae is a large family of Gram-negative bacteria. It was first proposed by Rahn in 1936, and now includes over 30 genera and more than 100 species. Its classification above the level of family is still a subject of debate, but one classification places it in the order Enterobacterales of the class Gammaproteobacteria in the phylum Proteobacteria.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977873}
{"src_title": "Roddy Ricch", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Rodrick Wayne Moore Jr. was born on October 22, 1998 in Compton, California, where he was raised. Ricch attended Carson Senior High School and Westchester Enriched Sciences Magnet. He spent some time living in Atlanta, Georgia in his youth. Roddy Ricch started rapping and singing as young as 8, and he began making beats in earnest at age 16. In Compton, Ricch was a member of the street gang SouthSide Compton Crips, and has two \"C\"'s tattooed, symbolizing his previous affiliation with the gang. He also had a brief stint in county jail at the time when his mixtape, \"Feed Tha Streets II\" was released. He listened to Lil Wayne a lot as a kid.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "20172019: \"Feed Tha Streets\" mixtapes and collaborations.", "content": "In November 2017, he released his first mixtape, \"Feed Tha Streets\", which featured songs like \"Chase Tha Bag\", \"Hoodricch\", and \"Fucc It Up\". The tape earned him praise from established rappers like Meek Mill, Nipsey Hussle, DJ Mustard and 03 Greedo. In March 2018, he released an EP entitled \"Be 4 Tha Fame\". In May of that year, Nipsey Hussle brought Ricch out as his guest at a PowerHouse concert in Los Angeles.  In July 2018, he released the London on da Track-produced single, \"Die Young\", which he had written for a childhood friend, who was lost in a high speed chase and said in a Genius interview he had written it the night XXXTentacion died. The song—which was dedicated, in part, to the childhood friend and its music video would go on to accumulate over 80 million views on YouTube and 120 million streams on Spotify. In August 2018, he released the single \"Ricch Forever\", produced by DJ Bugsy. That month, Marshmello released a preview of a collaborative track with Ricch \"Project Dreams\" before Ricch was featured on a track with Nipsey Hussle, \"Racks in the Middle\", with a feature and production by Hit-Boy, released on February 15, 2019, later becoming both first top 40 hit on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, and earning him a Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance.  In October 2018, Meek Mill brought Ricch out as his guest at a PowerHouse concert in Philadelphia. Mill also gifted him a \"Dreamchasers\" chain, appearing on his fourth studio album \"Championships\" (2018), in which he was a feature alongside Future and Young Thug on the song \"Splash Warning\" from the album. On November 2, 2018, Ricch released his second mixtape, \"Feed Tha Streets II\". The album, which features the singles \"Die Young\" and \"Every Season\", peaked at number 67 on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart and at number 36 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. Later in the month, Marshmello previewed a new track with Ricch.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "2019present: \"Please Excuse Me for Being Antisocial\" and \"The Box\".", "content": "In June 2019, he collaborated with American DJ and record producer Mustard on the track, \"Ballin'\", off Mustard's third studio album, \"Perfect Ten\", which became Mustard's highest charting song on the Hot 100 as a lead artist, peaking at number 12. The song received a nomination for Best Rap/Sung Performance at the 2020 Grammy Awards. In December 2019, he released his debut studio album, \"Please Excuse Me for Being Antisocial\", debuting and peaking at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200, and featured Roddy's highest charting single, \"The Box\", which topped the Hot 100, as well as \"Start wit Me\" featuring Gunna, which peaked at number 56. Because of the strength of \"The Box\", a collaboration with Mustard, \"High Fashion\", which appeared on the album, reached the top 40 at number 35, the week he hit number one on the Hot 100. The song later peaked at number 20. In 2020, he appeared on a number of songs by other artists, including the Nipsey Hussle-ode, \"Letter to Nipsey\" by Meek Mill, \"Cooler Than A Bitch\" on Gunna's second studio album \"Wunna\", and \"Walk Em Down\" by NLE Choppa. In April 2020, Ricch was featured on DaBaby's \"Rockstar\", which reached number one on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, number one in the UK, and in several other countries, earning Ricch his second number-one on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, following \"The Box\". Along with \"The Box\", Ricch became the first artist in Hot 100 history to achieve his first two number one singles in the same year since Ed Sheeran did it in 2017.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Artistry.", "content": "Ricch has been recognized for his raspy voice \"that works wonders with vocal filters\". Paul Thompson of Vulture called Ricch \"an undeniably talented vocalist and occasionally a compelling songwriter\", opining how he \"frequently adopts the same syntax and vocal intonations as Young Thug\".  Cady Lang of \"Time\" magazine noted Ricch's \"remarkable musical style as a rapper combines his West Coast [hip hop] roots with the sound of trap music and Chicago drill rap, which gets an extra gravitas with his lyrics that range from pondering the tough realities of life to bouts of uninhibited bravado\".  Musicologist and Northeastern University professor of music Andrew Mall regarded the fact that Ricch retains writing credit on not only his breakout hit \"The Box\", but on several other tracks of his that have charted, including those where he is a featured artist, \"speaks to a strong business savvy on his part\". On the transcending themes of his music, Ricch draws inspiration from his life, stating: \"As I experience life, my music is gonna evolve. At the same time, I still do tell the stories from my world because there are unlimited stories and unlimited people from that place. I'll always represent them. As my life begins to change and I do different things, I still want to be able to tap in and relate to them\".  Ricch has cited American rapper Kendrick Lamar, who is also from his hometown of Compton, as a musical influence. He has stated that rapper Speaker Knockerz is his biggest influence, along with the \"basis\" of his music coming from him. Ricch also credits Young Thug, Future and Gucci Mane as influences.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Rodrick Wayne Moore Jr. (born October 22, 1998), known professionally as Roddy Ricch, is an American rapper, singer, and songwriter. He is signed to Atlantic Records through his imprint, Bird Vision Entertainment. He released his debut mixtape \"Feed Tha Streets\" in 2017 and his second \"Feed Tha Streets II\" in 2018, the latter peaking at number 67 on the US \"Billboard\" 200 and including his first \"Billboard\" Hot 100 charting single \"Die Young\". In February 2019, Ricch was featured on Nipsey Hussle's single \"Racks in the Middle\"; months later, he was featured on Mustard's single \"Ballin'\", which reached the top 20 of the \"Billboard\" Hot 100.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977874}
{"src_title": "Oribi", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Taxonomy.", "content": "The scientific name of the oribi is \"Ourebia ourebi\". The sole member of its genus, the oribi is placed under the family Bovidae. The species was first described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1782. The oribi was formerly included in the tribe Neotragini, that comprised a variety of other dwarf antelopes, including \"Dorcatragus\" (beira), \"Madoqua\" (dik dik), \"Neotragus\", \"Oreotragus\" (klipspringer) and \"Raphicerus\". In 1963, German mammalogist Theodor Haltenorth separated the oribi and \"Raphicerus\" into a new tribe, Raphicerini; later on, zoologist Jonathan Kingdon assigned the oribi to Ourebini, a tribe of its own. The common name \"oribi\" comes from the Afrikaans name for the animal, \"oorbietjie\".  In a revision of the phylogeny of the tribe Antilopini on the basis of nuclear and mitochondrial data in 2013, Eva Verena Bärmann (of the University of Cambridge) and colleagues showed that the oribi is the sister taxon to all other antilopines. The cladogram below is based on the 2013 study.  The following eight subspecies are identified:  Of these, zoologists Colin Groves and Peter Grubb identify \"O. o. hastata\", \"O. o. montana\", \"O. o. ourebi\" and \"O. o. quadriscopa\" as independent species in their 2011 publication \"Ungulate Taxonomy\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The oribi is a small, slender antelope; it reaches nearly at the shoulder and weighs. The head-and-body length is typically between. Sexually dimorphic, males are slightly smaller than females (except for \"O. o. ourebi\", in which females are smaller). This antelope features a slightly raised back, and long neck and limbs. The glossy, yellowish to rufous brown coat contrasts with the white chin, throat, underparts and rump. The bushy tail, brown to black on the outside, has white insides (except in \"O. o. hastata\", that has a completely black tail). The subspecies show some variation in colouration; \"O. o. ourebi\" is a rich rufous, while \"O. o. hastata\" is yellower.  Only males possess horns; the thin, straight horns, long, are smooth at the tips and ringed at the base. The maximum horn length,, was recorded in 1998 from Malawi. The oribi has at least six different, well-developed scent glands (such as the prominent preorbital glands near the eyes). The body has several modifications, such as the large fossae below the eyes, to accommodate such a large number of glands. Females have four teats.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology and behaviour.", "content": "The oribi is diurnal (active mainly during the day), though some activity may also be observed at night. The animal rests in cover during rain events. Unlike all other small antelopes, oribi can exhibit three types of mating systems, depending on the habitat – polyandry, polygyny and polygynandry; polygyny tends to prevail as the female-to-male ratio increases. A study suggested that polygyny is preferred in areas of high predator risk, as it leads to formation of groups as an anti-predator measure. Small herds of up to four members are also common.  Males defend their group's territory, large; female members may also show some aggression and drive away intruders. A study showed that the number of females that visit the male's territory depends on the appearance (particularly the symmetry) of the male's horns. Males mark vegetation and soil in their territories by preorbital gland secretions and excrement; the intensity of marking increases with the number of male neighbours. Dominant males tend to have greater access to females in and around the territory than other males. An important feature of the social behaviour of oribi is the \"dung ceremony\", in which all animals form temporary dung middens. Oribi at least three months old have been observed giving out one to three alarm whistles on sensing danger. These whistles are more common in adults than in juveniles, and males appear to whistle more. Common predators include carnivorans such as jackals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Diet.", "content": "Primarily a grazer, the oribi prefers fresh grasses and browses occasionally. Grasses can constitute up to 90% of the diet; preferred varieties include \"Andropogon\", \"Eulalia\", \"Hyparrhenia\", \"Loudetia\", \"Pennisetum\" and \"Themeda\" species. Mineral licks are also visited regularly. Oribi have been observed feeding on flowers and \"Boletus\" mushrooms. Groups of oribi congregate in the rainy season, when grasses are abundant.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reproduction.", "content": "Both sexes become sexually mature at 10 to 14 months. A seasonal breeder, the time when mating occurs varies geographically. Mating may peak in the rainy season (August to September). When a female enters oestrus (which lasts for four to six days), it seeks the company of males. During courtship, the male will pursue the female, test her urine to check if she is in oestrus and lick her rump and flanks. Gestation lasts for six to seven months, following which a single calf is born; births peak from November to December in southern Africa. The newborn is kept in concealment for nearly a month; the mother pays regular visits to her calf to suckle it for nearly half an hour. Males may guard their offspring from predators and keep away other males. Weaning takes place at four to five months. The oribi lives for 8 to 12 years in the wild, and for 12 to 14 years in captivity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "The oribi occurs in a variety of habitats – from savannahs, floodplains and tropical grasslands with tall grasses to montane grasslands at low altitudes, up to above the sea level. Recently burnt areas often attract groups of oribi. The choice of habitat depends on the availability of cover needed to escape the eyes of predators. Population densities typically vary between 2 and 10 individuals per km; however, densities as high as 45 individuals per km have been recorded in tropical grasslands that receive over of annual rainfall and open floodplains. The oribi's range overlaps with those of larger grazers such as the African buffalo, hippopotamus, hartebeest, Thomson's gazelle and topi. These separate species often occur in close proximity to each other, increasing predator vigilance.  This antelope is highly sporadic in distribution; it occurs mainly in eastern, southern and western Africa, ranging from Nigeria and Senegal in the west to Ethiopia and Eritrea in the east and southward to Angola and the Eastern Cape (South Africa). It is feared to be extinct in Burundi.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Threats and conservation.", "content": "The oribi has been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN. The total population (as of 2008) is estimated at 750,000. However, the subspecies \"O. o. haggardi\" is listed as Vulnerable because, as of 2008, the total population is estimated at less than 10,000 mature individuals, and is feared to be declining. Hunting is a relatively minor threat, since the oribi shows some tolerance to hunting. Nevertheless, the steep fall of 92% in oribi populations in Comoé National Park (Côte d'Ivoire) has been attributed to poaching. Numbers have also declined due to agricultural expansion and competition from livestock.  The oribi occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, such as: Gashaka Gumti National Park in Nigeria, the Pendjari and W National Parks (Benin); Aouk Hunting Zone (Chad); Benoue, Bouba Njida and Faro National Parks (Cameroon); Manovo-Gounda St. Floris National Park (Central African Republic); Garamba, Upemba and Kundelungu National Parks (Congo-Kinshasa); Omo National Park (Ethiopia); Masai Mara Game Reserve and Ruma National Park (Kenya); Golden Gate Highlands National Park (South Africa); Serengeti National Park (Tanzania); Kidepo Valley, Lake Mburo and Murchison Falls National Parks (Uganda); Kafue and Liuwa Plain National Parks and Bangweulu Swamp (Zambia).", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The oribi (; \"Ourebia ourebi\") is a small antelope found in eastern, southern and western Africa. The sole member of its genus, the oribi was first described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1782. Eight subspecies are identified. The oribi reaches nearly at the shoulder and weighs. This antelope features a slightly raised back, and long neck and limbs. The glossy, yellowish to rufous brown coat contrasts with the white chin, throat, underparts and rump. Only males possess horns; the thin, straight horns, long, are smooth at the tips and ringed at the base.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977875}
{"src_title": "Entwicklung series", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "E-10.", "content": "Said to have been designed by the Klockner-Humboldt-Deutz Magirus AG firm in Ulm, the E-10 (Development name - \"Hetzer\") project was developed as a replacement of the Jagdpanzer 38(t). The designs based on this new chassis would all be in the 10 to 25 tonnes weight class, and using only four Tiger II-style but larger all-steel road wheels per side in an overlapping layout for its main \"slack-track\" suspension with no return rollers and a rear drive sprocket. Much simplified was the suspension, which was intended to be based on the concept of using conical-spring Belleville washers for the E-series AFVs as a whole. These were simply bolted on to the chassis and could be easily removed for repair or replacement. This suspension system was later used on the Swiss Panzer 61. A most interesting aspect was the ability to lower the hull by placing the pivot points of the suspension units higher in respect to the hull bottom; by not having torsion-bars occupying the entire hull planform in the lowermost interior areas of the hull, but via cranks driven by hydraulic actuators on the sides of the hull. This reduced the height of the vehicles from 176 cm to 140 cm.  The intention was to create several new light tank destroyers as a replacement for the Jagdpanzer 38(t), as well as a new family of \"Waffenträger\" armed with heavy anti-tank guns. However, the design was soon abandoned in favour of a redesigned and enlarged Jagdpanzer 38(t), using German parts as opposed to the Czech parts for the Jagdpanzer 38(t). This new design was called Jagdpanzer 38D.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "E-25.", "content": "The E-25 designs, in the 25-50 tonnes weight class, were to be the replacements of all Panzer III and Panzer IV based designs, with Alkett, Argus and Adler, with involvement of the Porsche firm. This family would include medium reconnaissance vehicles, medium \"Jagdpanzer\" and heavy \"Waffenträger\", using five Tiger II style road wheels but larger per side in a similar overlapping layout to the lighter E-10 suspension, also with \"slack-track\" design and a rear drive sprocket. As main armament a 75mm Pak 42 L/70 was planned with a possible MG in a small turret, and is similar to the Hetzer tank destroyer. This tank would have been very maneuverable, and due to its low profile, hard to spot on the battlefield.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "E-50 \"Standardpanzer\".", "content": "The E-50 \"Standardpanzer\" was intended as a standard medium tank, replacing the Panther and Tiger I and the conversions based on these tanks. The E-50 hull was to be longer than the Panther, in fact it was practically identical to the Königstiger (Tiger II) in overall dimensions except for the upper and lower glacis plate layout. Compared to these earlier designs however, the amount of drilling and machining involved in producing these \"Standardpanzer\" was reduced drastically, which would have made them quicker, easier and cheaper to produce, as would the proposed conical spring system, replacing their predecessors' torsion bar system which required a special steel alloy.  A new turret was to be designed for the E-50 and E-75, but drawings were never made and the turret was never even conceptualised. Armament is also not confirmed in any sources.  As indicated by its name, the weight of the E-50 would fall between 50 and 75 tonnes. The engine was an improved Maybach HL234 which had 900 hp. Maximum speed was supposed to be 60 km/h.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "E-75 \"Standardpanzer\".", "content": "The E-75 \"Standardpanzer\" was intended to be the standard heavy tank to be used as a replacement of the Tiger II and Jagdtiger. The E-75 would have been built on the same production lines as the E-50 for ease of manufacture, and the two vehicles were to share many components, including the same Maybach HL 234 engine. As its name indicates, the resulting vehicle would have weighed in at over 75 tonnes, reducing its speed to around 40 km/h. To offset the increased weight, the bogies were spaced differently from on the E-50, with an extra pair added on each side, giving the E-75 a slightly improved track to ground contact length.  The E-50 and E-75 were to be equipped with the same turret and gun along with an optical rangefinder for increased long range accuracy. German scientists and engineers had successfully designed infra-red lighting and sights for use on the prototypes of the Panther Ausf. F as the war drew to a close.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "E-100.", "content": "The earliest ancestor of the E-100 was the Tiger-Maus. It was supposed to be a simplified Maus. The Tiger-Maus was never built, but it was to use components from the Tiger I Ausf. H and a slightly modified turret from the Maus.  The E-100 was to be a superheavy combat tank designed to be the replacement for the prototype-only, Porsche-designed \"Maus\". Development and building of a prototype E-100 started in 1944 but was largely abandoned after Adolf Hitler ordered an end to the development of the \"Maus\".  Only the chassis was finished. It was taken to the United Kingdom for evaluation purposes and eventually scrapped.  During early development the Maus turret was used on the E-100, but later a modified Maus II turret was proposed to have been used. It would have housed 128 mm KwK 44 L/55 (75 rounds) and a 7.5 cm KwK 37 L/24.  According to Panzer Tracts 6-3, there was a proposal for the 15 cm KwK 44 L/38 to be mounted on the E-100 as well. The US military magazine \"Armor\" reported in its January–February 1959 edition that a 150mm cannon was considered for the E-100 during the Second World War. This was also reported by Anthony Tucker-Jones. According to Kenneth Estes, a 150mm or even 170mm gun was proposed for the E-100 but Estes reports that Dr Karl Jenschke, the Adler works technical director and chief constructor, considered this only possible on an assault gun variant of such a vehicle, because the turret space could not support such weapons.  Estes reports the following specifications for the E-100:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Post-war development.", "content": "After the war, the French designed and built the AMX-50 series of armoured fighting vehicles, which used a 1000 hp Maybach engine with rear drive, as had been intended for the E-50 and E-75, whilst the idea of external Belleville washer suspension - which was also developed with the Entwicklung series in mind - resurfaced on the Swiss Panzer 61.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The \"Entwicklung\" series (from German \"Entwicklung\", \"development\"), more commonly known as the E-Series, was a late-World War II attempt by Nazi Germany to produce a standardised series of tank designs. There were to be standard designs in five different weight classes (E-10, E-25, E-50, E-75 and E-100) from which several specialised variants were to be developed. This intended to reverse the trend of extremely complex tank designs that had resulted in poor production rates and mechanical unreliability.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977876}
{"src_title": "Écriture féminine", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Cixous.", "content": "Hélène Cixous first coined \"écriture féminine\" in her essay \"The Laugh of the Medusa\" (1975), where she asserts \"woman must write her self: must write about women and bring women to writing, from which they have been driven away as violently as from their bodies\" because their sexual pleasure has been repressed and denied expression. Inspired by Cixous' essay, a recent book titled \"Laughing with Medusa\" (2006) analyzes the collective work of Julia Kristeva, Luce Irigaray, Bracha Ettinger and Hélène Cixous. These writers are as a whole referred to by Anglophones as \"the French feminists,\" though Mary Klages, Associate Professor in the English Department at the University of Colorado at Boulder, has pointed out that \"poststructuralist theoretical feminists\" would be a more accurate term. Madeleine Gagnon is a more recent proponent. And since the aforementioned 1975 when Cixous also founded women's studies at Vincennes, she has been as a spokeswoman for the group \"Psychanalyse et politique\" and a prolific writer of texts for their publishing house, \"des femmes\". And when asked of her own writing she says, \"\"Je suis là où ça parle\"\" (\"I am there where it/id/the female unconscious speaks.\")  American feminist critic and writer Elaine Showalter defines this movement as \"the inscription of the feminine body and female difference in language and text.\" \"Écriture féminine\" places experience before language, and privileges non-linear, cyclical writing that evades \"the discourse that regulates the phallocentric system.\" Because language is not a neutral medium, it can be said to function as an instrument of patriarchal expression. As Peter Barry writes, “the female writer is seen as suffering the handicap of having to use a medium (prose writing) which is essentially a male instrument fashioned for male purposes”. \"Ecriture féminine\" thus exists as an antithesis of masculine writing or as a means of escape for women.  In the words of Rosemarie Tong, “Cixous challenged women to write themselves out of the world men constructed for women. She urged women to put themselves-the unthinkable/unthought-into words.” Almost everything is yet to be written by women about femininity: about their sexuality, that is, its infinite and mobile complexity; about their eroticization, sudden turn-ons of a certain minuscule-immense area of their bodies; not about destiny, but about the adventure of such and such a drive, about trips, crossings, trudges, abrupt and gradual awakenings, discoveries of a zone at once timorous and soon to be forthright. With regard to phallogocentric writing, Tong argues that \"male sexuality, which centers on what Cixous called the \"big dick\", is ultimately boring in its pointedness and singularity. Like male sexuality, masculine writing, which Cixous usually termed phallogocentric writing, is also ultimately boring\" and furthermore, that \"stamped with the official seal of social approval, masculine writing is too weighted down to move or change\". Write, let no one hold you back, let nothing stop you: not man; not the imbecilic capitalist machinery, in which the publishing houses are the crafty, obsequious relayers of imperatives handed down by an economy that works against us and off our backs; not \"yourself\". Smug-faced readers, managing editors, and big bosses don't like the true texts of women- female-sexed texts. That kind scares them. For Cixous, \"écriture féminine\" is not only a possibility for female writers; rather, she believes it can be (and has been) employed by male authors such as James Joyce or Jean Genet. Some have found this idea difficult to reconcile with Cixous’ definition of \"écriture féminine\" (often termed ‘white ink’) because of the many references she makes to the female body (“There is always in her at least a little of that good mother’s milk. She writes in white ink”.) when characterizing the essence of écriture féminine and explaining its origin. This notion raises problems for some theorists: \"\"Ecriture féminine\", then, is by its nature transgressive, rule-transcending, intoxicated, but it is clear that the notion as put forward by Cixous raises many problems. The realm of the body, for instance, is seen as somehow immune to social and gender condition and able to issue forth a pure essence of the feminine. Such essentialism is difficult to square with feminism which emphasizes femininity as a social construction...\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Irigaray and Kristeva.", "content": "For Luce Irigaray, women's sexual pleasure \"jouissance\" cannot be expressed by the dominant, ordered, \"logical,\" masculine language because, according to Kristeva, feminine language is derived from the pre-oedipal period of fusion between mother and child which she termed the semiotic. Associated with the maternal, feminine language (which Irigaray called \"parler femme\", womanspeak) is not only a threat to culture, which is patriarchal, but also a medium through which women may be creative in new ways. Irigaray expressed this connection between women's sexuality and women's language through the following analogy: women's \"jouissance\" is more multiple than men's unitary, phallic pleasure because \"woman has sex organs just about everywhere...feminine language is more diffusive than its'masculine counterpart'. That is undoubtedly the reason...her language...goes off in all directions and...he is unable to discern the coherence.\" Irigaray and Cixous also go on to emphasize that women, historically limited to being sexual objects for men (virgins or prostitutes, wives or mothers), have been prevented from expressing their sexuality in itself or for themselves. If they can do this, and if they can speak about it in the new languages it calls for, they will establish a point of view (a site of difference) from which phallogocentric concepts and controls can be seen through and taken apart, not only in theory, but also in practice.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critiques.", "content": "The approach through language to feminist action has been criticised by some as over-theoretical: they would see the fact that the very first meeting of a handful of would-be feminist activists in 1970 only managed to launch an acrimonious theoretical debate as marking the situation as typically 'French' in its apparent insistence on the primacy of theory over politics. Nonetheless, in practice the French women's movement developed in much the same way as the feminist movements elsewhere in Europe or in the United States: French women participated in consciousness-raising groups; demonstrated in the streets on the 8 March; fought hard for women's right to choose whether to have children; raised the issue of violence against women; and struggled to change public opinion on issues concerning women and women's rights.  Further criticisms of écriture féminine include what some claim is an essentialist view of the body and the consequential reliance on a feminism of 'difference' which, according to Diana Holmes, for instance, tends to \"demonize masculinity as the repository of all that (at least from a post-'68, broadly Left perspective) is negative. It also, says Holmes in \"French Women's Writings, 1848-1994\" (1996), would exclude much of women's writing from the feminist canon.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary examples.", "content": "As a result of the difficulties inherent in the notion of \"écriture féminine\", very few books of literary criticism have run the risk of using it as a critical tool. A. S. Byatt offers: \"There is a marine and salty female wave-water to be...read as a symbol of female language, which is partly suppressed, partly self-communing, dumb before the intruding male and not able to speak out...thus mirroring those female secretions which are not inscribed in our daily use of language (\"langue\", tongue)\".", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Écriture féminine, or \"women's writing\", is a term coined by French feminist and literary theorist Hélène Cixous in her 1975 essay \"The Laugh of the Medusa\". Cixous aimed to establish a genre of literary writing that deviates from traditional masculine styles of writing, one which examines the relationship between the cultural and psychological inscription of the female body and female difference in language and text. This strand of feminist literary theory originated in France in the early 1970s through the works of Cixous and other theorists including Luce Irigaray, Chantal Chawaf, Catherine Clément, and Julia Kristeva and has subsequently been expanded upon by writers such as psychoanalytic theorist Bracha Ettinger. who emerged in this field in the early 1990s,", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977877}
{"src_title": "EBRC Jaguar", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "According to the French Army's 2020 Defense White Paper it plans to retire its AMX 10 RC and ERC 90 Sagaie vehicles beginning in 2020 and replace them with up to 250 pieces of a new armored reconnaissance vehicle. A consortium of Nexter, Thales, and Renault Trucks Defense was formed to develop and produce the new vehicle. The same consortium also builds the VBMR Griffon multi-role armored vehicle for the French Army, which shares 70% of its components with the EBRC Jaguar.  On 6 December 2014, French Defense Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian announced that deliveries will commence in 2020 and a first tranche of 20 Jaguars and 319 Griffons was ordered in April 2017. In total the French Army wants to buy 248 EBRC Jaguar.  On 22 June 2017, Belgium's cabinet approved a plan to purchase 60 Jaguar and 417 Griffon vehicles for €1.1 billion. The vehicles will replace the Belgian Army's Piranha IIIC armored personnel carriers, Pandur I reconnaissance vehicles and Dingo 2 infantry mobility vehicles. The deal includes spare parts and secure communications equipment and delivers are planned to commence in 2025.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The consortium building the \"Griffon\" and \"Jaguar\" is contractually obliged to keep the price per Jaguar under €1 million, therefore the vehicles are based on a 6×6 commercial all-terrain truck chassis and use standard commercial truck engines. The engines have been adapted to use a wider range of fuel. The Jaguar has an overpressure system to maintain constant overpressure in the armored troop compartment to protect it against chemical, biological and radiological threats. For service in hot climates the Jaguar is equipped with air conditioning.  The vehicle is built with STANAG 4569 Level 4 armor protection, giving it defense against 14.5×114mm armor-piercing rounds, 155mm artillery shell splinters, and mine blasts. Electronic defenses include the Thales Group Barage active jamming device to counter IEDs, two sets of Antares missile warning alert systems, a TDA Armements active blocking system, and a roof-mounted Metravib Pilar V gunfire locator.  The Jaguar's primary weapon, mounted in a two-man turret, is the CTA International CT40 cannon firing 40mm case telescoped ammunition with a rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute and a maximum range of 1,500 meters. Two MMP anti-tank guided missiles are fitted to the turret launcher with two reloads stored inside. It also carries a 7.62mm remote controlled machine gun mounted on top of the turret and eight smoke grenades. The Jaguar can lift its cannon 45° up, allowing it to fire on aerial targets.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The EBRC Jaguar (French: \"Engin Blindé de Reconnaissance et de Combat\"; English: \"Armored Reconnaissance and Combat Vehicle\") is a French armored reconnaissance and combat vehicle that will replace the French Army's VCAC (HOT missiles equipped VABs), AMX 10 RC and ERC 90 Sagaie reconnaissance and fire support vehicles.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977878}
{"src_title": "Wuhan Institute of Virology", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The WIV was founded in 1956 as the Wuhan Microbiology Laboratory under the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). In 1961, it became the South China Institute of Microbiology, and in 1962 was renamed Wuhan Microbiology Institute. In 1970, it became the Microbiology Institute of Hubei Province when the Hubei Commission of Science and Technology took over the administration. In June 1978, it was returned to the CAS and renamed Wuhan Institute of Virology.  In 2015, the WIV's National Bio-safety Laboratory was completed at a cost of 300 million yuan ($44 million) in collaboration with the French government's CIRI lab, and was the first biosafety level 4 (BSL–4) laboratory to be built in mainland China. The establishment of the laboratory was partially funded by the U.S. government and took over a decade to complete from its conception in 2003.  The Laboratory has strong ties to the Galveston National Laboratory in the University of Texas. It also had strong ties with Canada's National Microbiology Laboratory until WIV staff scientists Xiangguo Qiu and her husband Keding Cheng, who were also remunerated by the Canadian government, were escorted from the Canadian lab for undisclosed reasons in July 2019.  The WIV has been a topic of controversy since the start of reporting of the COVID-19 pandemic. Scientists such as U.S. molecular biologist Richard H. Ebright, who had expressed concern of previous escapes of the SARS virus at Chinese laboratories in Beijing and had been troubled by the pace and scale of China's plans for expansion into BSL–4 laboratories, called the Institute a \"world-class research institution that does world-class research in virology and immunology\" while he noted that the WIV is a world leader in the study of bat coronaviruses.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Coronavirus research.", "content": "In 2005, a group including researchers from the Wuhan Institute of Virology published research into the origin of the SARS coronavirus, finding that China's horseshoe bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Continuing this work over a period of years, researchers from the Institute sampled thousands of horseshoe bats in locations across China, isolating over 300 bat coronavirus sequences.  In 2015, an international team including two scientists from the Institute published successful research on whether a bat coronavirus could be made to infect HeLa. The team engineered a hybrid virus, combining a bat coronavirus with a SARS virus that had been adapted to grow in mice and mimic human disease. The hybrid virus was able to infect human cells.  In 2017, a team from the Institute announced that coronaviruses found in horseshoe bats at a cave in Yunnan contain all the genetic pieces of the SARS virus, and hypothesized that the direct progenitor of the human virus originated in this cave. The team, who spent five years sampling the bats in the cave, noted the presence of a village only a kilometer away, and warned of \"the risk of spillover into people and emergence of a disease similar to SARS\".  In 2018, another paper by a team from the Institute reported the results of a serological study of a sample of villagers residing near these bat caves (near Xiyang Township 夕阳乡 in Jinning District of Yunnan). According to this report, 6 out of the 218 local residents in the sample carried antibodies to the bat coronaviruses in their blood, indicating the possibility of transmission of the infections from bats to people.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "COVID-19 pandemic.", "content": "In December 2019, cases of pneumonia associated with an unknown coronavirus were reported to health authorities in Wuhan. The Institute checked its coronavirus collection and found the new virus had 96% genetic similarity to RaTG13, a virus its researchers had discovered in horseshoe bats in southwest China.  As the virus spread worldwide, the Institute continued its investigation. In February 2020, the \"New York Times\" reported that a team led by Shi Zhengli at the Institute were the first to identify, analyze and name the genetic sequence of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), and upload it to public databases for scientists around the world to understand, and publishing papers in \"Nature\". On 19 February, 2020, the lab released a letter on its website describing how they successfully obtained the whole virus genome: \"On the evening of December 30, 2019, after receiving the unexplained pneumonia samples sent by Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital, our institute organized the strength overnight and worked for 72 hours to solve the problem. On January 2, 2020, the whole genome sequence of the new coronavirus was determined\". In February 2020, the Institute applied for a patent in China for the use of remdesivir, an experimental drug owned by Gilead Sciences, which the Institute found inhibited the virus in vitro; in a move that raised concerns regarding intellectual property rights. The WIV said it would not exercise its new Chinese patent rights \"if relevant foreign companies intend to contribute to the prevention and control of China’s epidemic\".", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Concerns as source.", "content": "In January 2020, conspiracy theories circulated that the COVID-19 pandemic originated from viruses engineered by the WIV, which were refuted on the basis of scientific evidence that the virus has natural origins. In mid-January, U.S. intelligence agencies reported to U.S. officials that they had not detected any alarm within the Chinese government that would suggest the outbreak had emerged from a government laboratory. In an opinion column in the \"Washington Post\", Josh Rogin wrote that US State Department cables from 2018 raised safety concerns about WIV's research on bat coronaviruses. In April 2020, at the request of Trump administration officials, U.S. intelligence agencies began investigating whether the outbreak originated from the accidental exposure by WIV scientists studying natural coronaviruses in bats. The \"New York Times\" reported that senior officials in the Trump administration were pressuring intelligence agencies to find evidence for the unsubstantiated theory that the virus leaked from the laboratory, leading to concern among some intelligence analysts that intelligence assessments would be distorted to serve a political campaign to lay blame on China for the outbreak. US President Trump and Secretary of State Mike Pompeo have claimed to have evidence of the lab theory, but have offered no further details.  Leading virologists have disputed the idea that SARS-CoV-2 leaked from the institute. The virologist Peter Daszak, president of the EcoHealth Alliance, which studies emerging infectious diseases, has had a 15-year collaboration with Shi Zhengli, a leading WIV virologist, to study bat coronaviruses. Daszak noted estimates that millions of people who live or work in proximity to bats in Southeast Asia are infected each year with bat coronaviruses. In an interview with Vox, Daszak comments, \"There are probably half a dozen people that do work in those labs. So let's compare 1 million to 7 million people a year to half a dozen people; it's just not logical.\" Jonna Mazet, Professor of epidemiology at the University of California, Davis and director of the PREDICT project to monitor emerging viruses, has commented that staff at the Wuhan Institute of Virology were trained by U.S. scientists as part of the PREDICT program and follow high safety standards, and that \"All of the evidence points to this \"not\" being a laboratory accident.\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Research centers.", "content": "The Institute contains the following research centers:", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (WIV; ) is a research institute on virology administered by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). Located in Jiangxia District, Wuhan, Hubei, it opened mainland China's first biosafety level 4 (BSL–4) laboratory in 2015. The Institute has strong ties to the Galveston National Laboratory in the United States, the Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie in France and the National Microbiology Laboratory in Canada.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977879}
{"src_title": "VBMR Griffon", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "The French army has been preparing to replace the VAB since the early 2000s. According to the Army's 2020 Defense White Paper it plans to buy up to 2,122 VBMR vehicles between 2018 and 2025. A consortium of Nexter, Thales, and Renault Trucks Defense is building the vehicles. The same consortium also builds the EBRC Jaguar reconnaissance and combat vehicle for the French Army, which shares 70% of its components with the VBMR Griffon.  On 6 December 2014, French Defense Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian announced that deliveries will commence in 2018 and a first tranche of 319 Griffons and 20 Jaguars was ordered in April 2017. In total the French Army wants to buy 1,722 VBMR 6x6 Griffon and 400 VBMR 4x4 at a later date.  On 22 June 2017, Belgium's cabinet approved a plan to purchase 60 \"Jaguar\" and 417 “Griffon” vehicles for €1.1 billion. The vehicles will replace the Belgian Army's Piranha IIIC armored personnel carriers and Dingo 2 infantry mobility vehicles. The deal includes spare parts and secure communications equipment and deliveries are planned to commence in 2025.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The vehicle is based on a 6×6 commercial all-terrain truck chassis and will carry up to eight infantry soldiers. The consortium building the \"Griffon\" and \"Jaguar\" is contractually obliged to keep the price per Griffon under €1 million. Currently, six versions of the Griffon are planned, with four of these (Armored Personnel Carrier, Command Post, Ambulance, and Artillery Observer) ordered in the first tranche. After 2021 a much lighter 4 × 4 version might be ordered, which will be used as a reconnaissance vehicle.  The vehicles are designed for simple maintenance and logistics. For example, Griffon and Jaguar both use standard commercial truck engines, which have been adapted to use a wider range of fuel. The vehicle has an overpressure system to maintain constant protection to the troop compartment against chemical, biological and radiological threats. For service in hot climates, the Griffon is equipped with air conditioning.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Armament.", "content": "The Griffon is equipped with a remote weapons station that can be armed with either a 12.7mm or 7.62mm machine gun, or a 40mm automatic grenade launcher. The addition of two Missile Moyenne Portée (MMP) anti-tank guided missiles is optional. Eight launchers for smoke grenades are fitted to the remote weapon station, which also includes an acoustic sniper localisation system.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The VBMR Griffon () is a French multi-role armored vehicle that will replace the French Army's VAB armored personnel carrier.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977880}
{"src_title": "Ehud Manor", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Ehud Weiner (later Manor) was born in Binyamina. He had two brothers, Zvi and Yehuda. He graduated from the Hebrew Reali School in Haifa in 1959. He was married to actress Ofra Fuchs for 40 years; together, they had three children: Gali, Libby and Yehuda (Yadi), who was named after Manor's late brother., a fallen soldier in War of Attrition in 1968. Ehud's other brother, Ze'ev, committed suicide in 2003 as a result of financial trouble.  Ehud Manor, who had been a heavy smoker earlier in his life, was diagnosed with lung cancer in the early 2000s. Although he recovered, the cancer treatment weakened his heart, and he died suddenly on April 12, 2005, aged 63, of cardiac arrest.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music and songwriting career.", "content": "Ehud Manor began working for Israel radio in the 1960s as a musical editor. He changed his surname to Manor as it was customary at the time for radio announcers to adopt Hebrew names.  During his career, he wrote over 1,250 Hebrew songs, including \"Ein Li Eretz Acheret\" (I Have No Other Country), \"Brit Olam\" (Everlasting Covenant), \"Ba-Shanah ha-Ba'ah\" (Next Year) which became an international standard, \"Zo Yalduti HaShniya\" (This Is My Second Childhood), and \"Ahi HaTza'ir Yehuda\" (My Younger Brother Yehuda). The latter was written in memory of his brother, who was killed during his military service in 1968.  He wrote the lyrics to several Israeli Eurovision Song Contest entries, including the 1978 winner \"Abanibi\", the 1975 entry \"At Va'Ani (You and Me)\" with its singer Shlomo Artzi, the 1983 entry \"Khay\" (Alive) and the 1992 song \"Ze Rak Sport\" (It's Just Sports).  Several of his songs commemorate his fond memories of his childhood in Binyamina, the most famous of which is \"Yemey Binyamina\" (The Binyamina Days). Several streets and roundabouts in his native town are named after him and his songs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Literary career.", "content": "Also a successful translator, Manor translated more than 600 works into Hebrew, including such Broadway hits as \"Cabaret\" and \"Les Misérables\". In addition, he translated Barney songs into Hebrew for the Israeli coproduction \"Hachaverim Shel Barney\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Awards and recognition.", "content": "In 1998, Manor was awarded the Israel Prize for Hebrew song. The prize committee noted that \"For the past 30 years, he has expressed our mood through the hundreds of songs he has written together with the finest composers. The man who declared that he had no other country is the laureate of the Israel Prize.\"  Shortly before he died, Manor was chosen to receive an honorary doctorate from Bar-Ilan University in recognition of his prolific activity in the field of Hebrew music.  Manor's songs are the most played on Israeli radio.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Ehud Manor (Hebrew: אהוד מנור; born Ehud Weiner; July 13, 1941 – April 12, 2005) was an Israeli songwriter, translator, and radio and TV personality.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977881}
{"src_title": "Sexology", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early.", "content": "Sexual manuals have existed since antiquity, such as Ovid's \"Ars Amatoria\", the \"Kama Sutra\" of Vatsyayana, the \"Ananga Ranga\" and \"The Perfumed Garden for the Soul's Recreation\". (\"Prostitution in the City of Paris\"), an early 1830s study on 3,558 registered prostitutes in Paris, published by Alexander Jean Baptiste Parent-Duchatelet (and published in 1837, a year after he died), has been called the first work of modern sex research.  The scientific study of sexual behavior in human beings began in the 19th century. Shifts in Europe's national borders at that time brought into conflict laws that were sexually liberal and laws that criminalized behaviors such as homosexual activity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Victorian Era to WWII.", "content": "Despite the prevailing social attitude of sexual repression in the Victorian era, the movement towards sexual emancipation began towards the end of the nineteenth century in England and Germany. In 1886, Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing published \"Psychopathia Sexualis.\" That work is considered as having established sexology as a scientific discipline.  In England, the founding father of sexology was the doctor and sexologist Havelock Ellis who challenged the sexual taboos of his era regarding masturbation and homosexuality and revolutionized the conception of sex in his time. His seminal work was the 1897 \"Sexual Inversion\", which describes the sexual relations of homosexual males, including men with boys. Ellis wrote the first objective study of homosexuality (the term was coined by Karl-Maria Kertbeny), as he did not characterize it as a disease, immoral, or a crime. The work assumes that same-sex love transcended age taboos as well as gender taboos. Seven of his twenty-one case studies are of inter-generational relationships. He also developed other important psychological concepts, such as autoerotism and narcissism, both of which were later developed further by Sigmund Freud.  Ellis pioneered transgender phenomena alongside the German Magnus Hirschfeld. He established it as new category that was separate and distinct from homosexuality. Aware of Hirschfeld's studies of transvestism, but disagreeing with his terminology, in 1913 Ellis proposed the term \"sexo-aesthetic inversion\" to describe the phenomenon.  In 1908, the first scholarly journal of the field, \"Journal of Sexology\" (Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft), began publication and was published monthly for one year. Those issues contained articles by Freud, Alfred Adler, and Wilhelm Stekel. In 1913, the first academic association was founded: the \"Society for Sexology\".  Freud developed a theory of sexuality. These stages of development include: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency and Genital. These stages run from infancy to puberty and onwards. based on his studies of his clients, between the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Wilhelm Reich and Otto Gross, were disciples of Freud, but rejected by his theories because of their emphasis on the role of sexuality in the revolutionary struggle for the emancipation of mankind. Pre-Nazi Germany, under the sexually liberal Napoleonic code, organized and resisted the anti-sexual, Victorian cultural influences. The momentum from those groups led them to coordinate sex research across traditional academic disciplines, bringing Germany to the leadership of sexology. Physician Magnus Hirschfeld was an outspoken advocate for sexual minorities, founding the Scientific Humanitarian Committee, the first advocacy for homosexual and transgender rights.  Hirschfeld also set up the first Institut für Sexualwissenschaft (Institute for Sexology) in Berlin in 1919. Its library housed over 20,000 volumes, 35,000 photographs, a large collection of art and other objects. People from around Europe visited the Institute to gain a clearer understanding of their sexuality and to be treated for their sexual concerns and dysfunctions.  Hirschfeld developed a system which identified numerous actual or hypothetical types of sexual intermediary between heterosexual male and female to represent the potential diversity of human sexuality, and is credited with identifying a group of people that today are referred to as transsexual or transgender as separate from the categories of homosexuality, he referred to these people as 'transvestiten' (transvestites). Germany's dominance in sexual behavior research ended with the Nazi regime. The Institute and its library were destroyed by the Nazis less than three months after they took power, May 8, 1933. The institute was shut down and Hirschfeld's books were burned.  Other sexologists in the early gay rights movement included Ernst Burchard and Benedict Friedlaender. Ernst Gräfenberg, after whom the G-spot is named, published the initial research developing the intrauterine device (IUD).", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Post WWII.", "content": "After World War II, sexology experienced a renaissance, both in the United States and Europe. Large scale studies of sexual behavior, sexual function, and sexual dysfunction gave rise to the development of sex therapy. Post-WWII sexology in the U.S. was influenced by the influx of European refugees escaping the Nazi regime and the popularity of the Kinsey studies. Until that time, American sexology consisted primarily of groups working to end prostitution and to educate youth about sexually transmitted diseases. Alfred Kinsey founded the Institute for Sex Research at Indiana University at Bloomington in 1947. This is now called the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Reproduction. He wrote in his 1948 book that more was scientifically known about the sexual behavior of farm animals than of humans.  Psychologist and sexologist John Money developed theories on sexual identity and gender identity in the 1950s. His work, notably on the David Reimer case has since been regarded as controversial, even while the case was key to the development of treatment protocols for intersex infants and children.  Kurt Freund developed the penile plethysmograph in Czechoslovakia in the 1950s. The device was designed to provide an objective measurement of sexual arousal in males and is currently used in the assessment of pedophilia and hebephilia. This tool has since been used with sex offenders.  In 1966 and 1970, Masters and Johnson released their works \"Human Sexual Response\" and \"Human Sexual Inadequacy,\" respectively. Those volumes sold well, and they were founders of what became known as the Masters & Johnson Institute in 1978.  Vern Bullough was a historian of sexology during this era, as well as being a researcher in the field.  The emergence of HIV/AIDS in the 1980s caused a dramatic shift in sexological research efforts towards understanding and controlling the spread of the disease.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "21st century.", "content": "Technological advances have permitted sexological questions to be addressed with studies using behavioral genetics, neuroimaging, and large-scale Internet-based surveys.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Notable contributors.", "content": "This is a list of sexologists and notable contributors to the field of sexology, by year of birth:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Sexology is the scientific study of human sexuality, including human sexual interests, behaviors, and functions. The term \"sexology\" does not generally refer to the non-scientific study of sexuality, such as political science or social criticism.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977882}
{"src_title": "Hanau shootings", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Shootings.", "content": "The shootings took place at around 22:00 local time (UTC+1) on 19 February 2020, in two shisha bars—one at the Midnight Bar in Hanau's central square, and the other at the Arena Bar & Café in Kesselstadt. Reports showed that both bars are mostly frequented by Turkish citizens. The attacker first started aiming at three guests, followed by the waiter who had just served them. The police initiated a large-scale investigation. It was initially reported that the suspects were at large. The gunman, later identified as Tobias Rathjen, then drove home where he shot his mother while his father was able to escape. He then shot himself. He and his mother were discovered by police at 05:15 the next day when they gained entry.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Victims.", "content": "The nine people killed by the attacker during the two shootings were identified as four Germans (two of whom with Kurdish origins, another of Sinti origins, and another with Afghan nationality) two Turks, a Bosnian, a Bulgarian, a Romanian. The owner of one of the shisha bars was among the victims. Three immediately died in the first shooting, five immediately died in the second, and a ninth victim died in hospital the next day. The attacker shot and killed his German mother before committing suicide.  Two Turkish-Germans, an Afghan-German and a Cameroonian were among the five people injured.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Perpetrator.", "content": "The gunman was identified as 43-year-old Tobias Rathjen, a far-right extremist. He published a manifesto and videos on his personal website, showing his political beliefs and theories surrounding US President Donald Trump stealing his slogans, eugenics, and expressing frustration that he could never experience an intimate relationship with a woman due to psychological issues during his lifetime. He stated that he had been guided by voices inside his head since birth and that he was being followed by secret agents. Rathjen expressed a hatred for migrants, especially for people from the Middle East, Central Asia, Southeast Asia and North Africa. He also expressed a hatred for German citizens who allowed immigrants into their country, and considered them as \"impure\".  According to Germany's general prosecutor Peter Frank, Rathjen had contacted German authorities with his conspiracy theories three months before the attack: on 6 November 2019, Rathjen had written a letter to the Public Prosecutor General urging action against a \"secret service\" organisation, which he claimed was tapping into people's brains to control world events. He called on authorities to \"approach me and communicate with me\". No action was taken in response. Parts of this 19-page letter were virtually identical to his 24-page manifesto published on his website in February 2020, but it was unclear whether it included any threats against ethnic minorities.  Near the Arena Bar, text linked to the perpetrator's website was found written in graffiti on a wall before it was covered over by police.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Investigation.", "content": "Federal prosecutors are treating the attack as terrorism, with officials saying there is evidence the gunman was a far-right extremist, as well as signs of xenophobic motives for the killings. Peter Beuth, the Minister of the Interior in the state of Hesse, stated on 20 February that a homepage found by investigators indicated a right-wing political motive for the shootings. A letter and a video clip of a confession were reportedly discovered and are being analysed by the police.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reactions.", "content": "As a result of the shootings, German Chancellor Angela Merkel cancelled a planned trip to Halle and expressed her condolences to the victims' families. The president of the European Parliament, David Sassoli, also offered condolences. Some Turkish citizens were among the victims of the shooting; the Turkish government described it as a form of racism and urged a prompt investigation. German president Frank-Walter Steinmeier, his wife Elke Büdenbender, and the Hesse minister-president Volker Bouffier attended a vigil at one of the shooting sites. Pope Francis extended his sympathy to the families who lost their loved ones during the shooting incident in Hanau, through the Vatican Secretary of State, Cardinal Pietro Parolin.  On 23 February, 10,000 mourners marched through the streets of Hanau, in order to show unity and support for the victims. The mayor of Hanau gave a speech to the gathering.  On 24 February, in response to the shootings, the United Kingdom proscribed Sonnenkrieg Division, the British branch of the American neo-Nazi organisation Atomwaffen Division, as a terrorist group. Another UK-based far-right organisation, System Resistance Network, was also proscribed as an alias for National Action, which had been proscribed as a terrorist organisation since 2016.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hanau shootings occurred on 19 February 2020, when nine people were killed and five others wounded in a terrorist shooting spree by a far-right extremist targeting two shisha bars in Hanau, near the city of Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany. After the attacks, the gunman returned to his apartment, where he killed his mother and then committed suicide. The massacre was called an act of terrorism by the German Minister of Internal Affairs. The perpetrator has not been linked to a terrorist organisation or extremist group.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977883}
{"src_title": "Eurovision Song Contest 2021", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Location.", "content": "The 2021 contest will be held at Rotterdam Ahoy in Rotterdam, Netherlands, following the country's victory at the 2019 edition with the song \"Arcade\", performed by Duncan Laurence. The announcement was made during the broadcast of \"\", which aired on 16 May 2020.  It will be the fifth time that the Netherlands has hosted the contest, the last time having been the 1980 contest. Rotterdam Ahoy had previously hosted the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2007.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Preparations.", "content": "Prior to the announcement and following the cancellation of the Eurovision Song Contest 2020, the organising EBU (European Broadcasting Union) began talks with the Dutch public broadcasters AVROTROS, NOS and NPO, as well as the city of Rotterdam, which were to organise the 2020 contest, on the possibility of staging the 2021 contest in the city. On 23 April 2020, the municipal council of Rotterdam approved an increased budget after Dutch media reported that the city would require an additional €6.7 million to host the contest. The decision was imminent as it was required that the EBU be informed by late April if Rotterdam was willing to host contest. AVROTROS, NOS and NPO had until mid-May 2020 to find an alternative if Rotterdam declined to host the event. In May 2020, the Dutch authorities decided to tighten up local laws for holding mass events until the vaccine for COVID-19 was found, making the event's staging uncertain, however, AVROTROS had continued talks with the Dutch government.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Format.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Dates.", "content": "The 2021 contest is set to be held on 18, 20, and 22 May 2021.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Stage design.", "content": "During the announcement of the dates of the 2021 contest, Sietse Bakker, executive producer of the 2021 contest, stated that the planned 2020 stage design will also be used in the 2021 contest. The design is inspired by the slogan \"Open Up\" and the typical Dutch flat landscape. The Eurovision stage was designed by German stage designer Florian Wieder, who also designed the stages for the contests in 2011–12, 2015, and 2017–19. Unlike the 2019 contest, the green room was placed inside to the main performance venue.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Executive supervisor.", "content": "In January 2020, the EBU announced that Martin Österdahl would become the executive supervisor for the Eurovision Song Contest after the 2020 edition, succeeding Jon Ola Sand. Before his appointment, Österdahl had been an executive producer for the and editions, and had been a member of the Eurovision Song Contest reference group between 2012 and 2018.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Entries.", "content": "Following the cancellation of the 2020 contest, the EBU explored the option of allowing the songs selected for the 2020 contest to compete in the 2021 contest, which need to be discussed with the Eurovision Song Contest reference group and the national broadcasters. Victoria, the planned participant for Bulgaria in 2020, publicly expressed her support for such a move. However, on 20 March 2020, the reference group decided that, in accordance with the rules of the Eurovision Song Contest, the 2020 songs would not be eligible to compete in the 2021 contest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Backing vocals.", "content": "On 18 June 2020, the EBU announced that pre-recorded backing vocals will be allowed for one year. The use of recorded backing vocals will be entirely optional. Each delegation can choose to use backing singers, whether on or off stage. A combination of live and recorded backing vocals will be also allowed. All lead vocals performing the melody of the song, including an eventual use of a so-called lead dub, shall still be live on or off stage in the arena.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Opening and interval acts.", "content": "Lenny Kuhr, one of the winners of the 1969 contest, and Alexander Rybak, winner of the 2009 contest, who were both due to perform at the cancelled 2020 contest, have expressed willingness to perform at the 2021 event.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "The Eurovision Song Contest 2021 will be a co-production between three related Dutch television organisations — AVROTROS, Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS), and Nederlandse Publieke Omroep (NPO) — of which each assumed a different role. Sietse Bakker and Astrid Dutrénit will serve as executive producers, while Emilie Sickinghe and Jessica Stam will serve as deputy executive producers", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Provisional list of participating countries.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Returning artists.", "content": "After the cancellation of the 2020 contest, the following countries' participating broadcasters announced that, for the 2021 contest, they would internally select the same artists initially selected for 2020: Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Georgia, Greece, Israel, Latvia, Malta, the Netherlands, Romania, San Marino, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland and Ukraine.  So far, the contest is set to feature one representative who also previously performed as a lead vocalist for the same country, and three artists who participated in other Eurovision events or as backing vocalists for the same of for another country. Senhit represented at the semi-final in. Destiny Chukunyere won the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2015 for Malta and provided backing vocals for Michela Pace for Malta in. Stefania for Greece, represented the in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2016 as part of the group Kisses. Vincent Bueno provided backing vocals for Nathan Trent for in.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Semi-finalists.", "content": "The following countries have confirmed their intent to participate in the 2021 contest.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other countries.", "content": "Eligibility for potential participation in the Eurovision Song Contest requires a national broadcaster with active EBU membership that would be able to broadcast the contest via the Eurovision network. The EBU issues invitations to all active members. Associate member does not need an invitation for the 2021 contest, as it had previously been granted permission to participate at least until 2023.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Broadcasters and commentators.", "content": "All participating broadcasters may choose to have on-site or remote commentators providing an insight about the show to their local audience and, while they must broadcast at least the semi-final they are voting in and the final, most broadcasters air all three shows with different programming plans. Similarly, some non-participating broadcasters may still want to air the contest. These are the broadcasters that have confirmed their broadcasting plans and/or their commentators:", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Eurovision Song Contest 2021 is set to be the 65th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest. The contest is set to take place in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, after the country won the. The Netherlands was due to host the, before it had been cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcasters AVROTROS, Nederlandse Publieke Omroep (NPO) and Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS), the contest will be held at Rotterdam Ahoy and will consist of two semi-finals on 18 and 20 May, and the final on 22 May 2021.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977884}
{"src_title": "Nazli Sabri", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Nazli was born on 25 June 1894 into a family of Turkish and French origin. Her father was Abdur Rahim Sabri Pasha, minister of agriculture and governor of Cairo, and her mother was Tawfika Khanum Sharif. Nazli had a brother, Sherif Sabri Pasha, and a sister, Amina Sabri.  She was the maternal granddaughter of Major General Mohamed Sherif Pasha, prime minister and minister of foreign affairs, who was of Turkish origin. She was also a great-granddaughter of the French-born officer Suleiman Pasha.  Nazli first went to the Lycée de la Mère-de-Dieu in Cairo, and later to the Collège Notre-Dame de Sion in Alexandria. Following the death of her mother, she and her sister were sent to a boarding school in Paris for two years. After returning, Nazli was forced to marry her Turkish cousin, Khalil Sabri. However, the marriage ended in divorce after eleven months. After the separation, she stayed at the house of Safiya Zaghloul, where she met Zaghloul's nephew Saeed Zaghloul; the two were engaged until Saeed broke up with her during his exile with his uncle Saad Zaghloul following the 1919 revolution.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Queen.", "content": "The Sultan of Egypt, Fuad I first saw Nazli at an opera performance. On 12 May 1919, Fuad proposed to her, although he was 25 years her senior. On 24 May 1919 Nazli married Sultan Fuad I at Bustan Palace, Cairo. It was the second marriage for both Nazli and Fuad. She later moved to the \"haramlek\" in the Abbasiya Palace. She was under pressure from her husband to produce a son, and was warned that she would be confined to the haremlek if she did not do so.  After the birth of their only son, Farouk, she was allowed to move into Koubbeh Palace -the official royal residence- with her husband. When Fuad's title was altered to King, she was given the title of Queen. She then had four daughters: Fawzia, Faiza, Faika, and Fathia.  Restricted to the palace throughout most of Fuad's reign, she was permitted to attend opera performances, flower shows, and other ladies-only cultural events. As her upbringing had left her remarkably educated, cultured and emancipated for an Egyptian woman of the time, she found this prescribed existence backward and stifling. It was said that whenever the royal couple fought, she was slapped by the king and confined to her suite for weeks. It was also alleged that she tried to commit suicide by overdosing on aspirin.  Nazli accompanied the king during part of his four-month tour of Europe in 1927, and was much fêted in France because of her French ancestry. With the inauguration of Parliament in 1924, she was among the royal attendees at the opening ceremony, seated in a special section of the guest gallery.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Later years.", "content": "Following the death of King Fuad in 1936, her son Farouk became the new King of Egypt, and she became the Queen Mother. Her brother Sherif Sabri Pasha served on the three-member Regency Council that was formed during Farouk's minority. In 1946, Nazli left Egypt and went to the United States for treatment for a kidney ailment.  In August 1950, King Farouk deprived the Queen Mother, and her daughter Princess Fathia of their rights and titles. This was due to latter's marriage, which Nazli supported, but was against Farouk's wishes, to Riyad Ghali Effendi, a Coptic Christian. Nazli later converted to Christianity, changing her name to Mary-Elizabeth.  In 1955 Nazli purchased, for $63,000, a 28-room mansion in Beverley Hills, where she lived with Fathia, her son-in-law, and their two children, and led an active social life.  In 1965, Nazli attended the funeral of Farouk, in Rome.  Following Fathia's divorce, Nazli moved to a small apartment in Westwood, Los Angeles, where Fathia eventually joined her after temporarily moving to Hawaii.  To meet debt demands, in 1975 Nazli sent her principal jewellery to auction at Sothebys, including a magnificent art deco tiara (720 diamonds weighing 274 carats) and matching necklace commissioned in 1938 from Van Cleef & Arpels. They sold for $127,500 and $140,000 respectively. However, Nazli and Fathia still ended up in bankruptcy court. In 1978, Fathia's jewellery was also sold to meet debts.  In 1976, Nazli sent a request to the then President of Egypt, Anwar Sadat, that passports be provided to her and Princess Fathia to give them right of return to Egypt. Eventually she settled in the US, due to her painful illness. She died on 29 May 1978 in Los Angeles, California.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Legacy.", "content": "Queen Nazli's art deco necklace reappeared at a Sotheby's sale in December 2015. The Queen ordered the necklace with a matching tiara for her daughter's wedding. The necklace is formed by 600 round and baguette diamonds arranged in a sunburst motif.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "In popular culture.", "content": "In 2007, Queen Nazli was played by Egyptian actress Wafaa Amer in the Drama \"El-malek Farouk\".  In 2008, Rawia Rashed published a book about Queen Nazli, titled \"Nazli, Malika Fi El Manfa\" (\"Nazli, A Queen in Exile\"). Based on this book, an Egyptian TV series provided an account for the life of Queen Nazli, Queen in Exile, starring Egyptian actress Nadia Al Jundi in 2010.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Nazli Sabri (; ; 25 June 1894 – 29 May 1978) was the first queen consort in the Kingdom of Egypt from 1919 to 1936. She reigned as the second wife of Fuad, King of Egypt.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977885}
{"src_title": "COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "On 12 January, the World Health Organization (WHO) confirmed that a novel coronavirus was the cause of a respiratory illness in a cluster of people in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China, who had initially come to the attention of the WHO on 31 December 2019.  Unlike SARS of 2003, the case fatality ratio for COVID-19 has been much lower, but the transmission has been significantly greater, with a significant total death toll.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Timeline.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "February 2020.", "content": "On 25 February 2020, Switzerland confirmed the first case of COVID-19, a 70-year-old man in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino bordering Italy, who had previously visited Milan tested positive for SARS-CoV-2.  On 27 February, a 28-year-old IT worker from Geneva, who had recently returned from Milan, tested positive and was admitted to the Geneva University Hospital. A 55-year-old Italian who worked in an international company also tested positive in Geneva. Two Italian children, who were on vacation in Graubünden, tested positive and were hospitalised.  A 26-year-old man in Aargau, who had gone on a business trip the week before and stayed in Verona, tested positive and was hospitalised. A 30-year-old woman, who had visited Milan, was admitted to a hospital in Zurich. A 49-year-old man living in France and working in Vaud was confirmed positive in Vaud.  A young woman, who had travelled to Milan, tested positive in Basel-Stadt. She worked in a daycare centre in Riehen, and after her test had been confirmed, the children at the daycare were put into a two-week quarantine. On 28 February, her partner, a 23-year-old man, also tested positive in Basel-Landschaft.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "March 2020.", "content": "On 3 March, the University of Zurich announced six confirmed cases of coronavirus at the Institute of Mathematics. As of 5 March, there are 10 confirmed cases at the University of Zurich, at least 7 at the I-Math and 1 at the Center of Dental Medicine.  On 5 March, the Lausanne University Hospital announced that a 74-year-old female coronavirus case had died overnight. The patient had been hospitalised since 3 March, and had been suffering from chronic illness.  On 11 March, a 54-year-old male died from COVID-19 in the Bruderholz Hospital in Basel-Landschaft, marking the fourth fatal case in Switzerland. He had joined a religious event in Mulhouse, France previous to contracting the virus and suffering from pneumonia.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Government response.", "content": "On 27 February, following the confirmation of COVID-19 cases in the region, Graubünden cancelled the Engadine Skimarathon.  On 28 February, the Federal Council banned events involving more than 1,000 people in an effort to curb the spread of the infection. Multiple events such as carnivals and fairs were either postponed or cancelled. Geneva Motor Show, Baselworld, Bern Carnival and the Carnival of Basel were cancelled. University of Bern replaced all face-to-face lectures with more than 250 attendees with online lectures.  On 6 March 2020, the Federal Council announced a 'changed strategy' with a focus on the protection of the most vulnerable individuals, i.e., older persons and persons with pre-existing conditions.  On 13 March 2020, the Federal Council decided to cancel classes in all educational establishments until 4 April 2020, and has banned all events (public or private) involving more than 100 people. It has also decided to partially close its borders and enacted border controls. The canton of Vaud took more drastic measures, prohibiting all public and private gatherings with more than 50 people, and closing its educational establishments until 30 April.  On 16 March 2020, the Federal Council announced further measures, and a revised ordinance. Measures include the closure of bars, shops and other gathering places until 19 April, but leaves open certain essentials, such as grocery shops, pharmacies, (a reduced) public transport and the postal service.  The government announced a 42 billion CHF rescue package for the economy, which includes money to replace lost wages for employed and self-employed people, short-term loans to businesses, delay for payments to the government, and support for cultural and sport organisations.  On 20 March, the government announced that no lockdown would be implemented, but all events or meetings over 5 people were prohibited. Economic activities would continue including construction.  Those measures were prolonged until 26 April 2020.  On 16 April, Switzerland announced that the country will ease restrictions in a three-step, gradual way. The first step will begin on 27 April, for those who work in close contact with others, but not in large numbers. Surgeons, dentists, day care workers, hairdressers, massage and beauty salons can be opened with safety procedures applied. DIY stores, garden centres, florists and food shops that also sell other goods can also be opened. The second step will begin on 11 May, assuming the first step is implemented without problems, at which time other shops and schools can be opened. The third step begin on 8 June with the easing of restrictions on vocational schools, universities, museums, zoos and libraries.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Statistics.", "content": "As with most countries, the number of people actually infected with COVID-19 in Switzerland is likely to be much higher than the number of confirmed cases, especially as, since 6 March 2020, the Swiss government has had an official policy of not testing people with only mild symptoms.  Growth factor is defined as today's new cases / new cases on the previous day. It is an indicative of the evolution of the epidemic.  Status as of 12 May 2020", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The COVID-19 pandemic in Switzerland is part of the worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 () caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (). The virus was confirmed to have spread to Switzerland on 25 February 2020 when the first case of COVID-19 was confirmed following a COVID-19 outbreak in Italy. A 70-year-old man in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino which borders Italy, tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. The man had previously visited Milan. Afterwards, multiple cases related to the Italy clusters were discovered in multiple cantons, including Basel-City, Zürich, and Graubünden. Multiple isolated cases not related to the Italy clusters were also subsequently confirmed.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977886}
{"src_title": "Mitsubishi K3M", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Design & Development.", "content": "The Mitsubishi K3M was designed by British aeronautical engineer and aircraft designer Herbert Smith, from Sopwith working in Japan for Mitsubishi. The prototype, designated Mitsubishi 4MS1, made its maiden flight in 1930. The aircraft was strut-braced high-wing cabin monoplane, with fixed wide-track landing gear, and was powered by a single water-cooled radial piston engine. Pilot and gunner were located in separate open cockpits, with an instructor and two pupils in the enclosed cabin in the fuselage. Later passenger variants seated five passengers in the cabin.  Total production of all versions was around 625 aircraft, with production mostly undertaken by Kyushu Hikoki K.K. and Aichi Kokuki. Production continued until 1941, and examples pressed into service as liaison aircraft in the postwar period were found in a variety of national markings.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Operational history.", "content": "The first version of the K3M offered to the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service was prone to stability problems, and more importantly, problems with the water-cooled Mitsubishi-built Hispano-Suiza 8A eight-cylinder liquid-cooled engine.  The improved K3M2 used a Hitachi Amakaze 11 nine-cylinder air-cooled radial engine, rated at for take-off and at sea level. The first K3M2 production examples entered service in 1932 as the Navy Type 90 Crew Trainer. It was superseded in production with the K3M3, using a Nakajima Kotobuki air-cooled engine.  The Navy Type 90 Crew Trainer was primarily a land-based aircraft; however, a few were fitted with floats.  The Imperial Japanese Army Air Force had an interest in the aircraft as part of its modernization program, and as a potential supplement to the Nakajima Ki-6. Two examples were acquired and tested, and the airframe was given the designation of Ki-7. One prototype used a Mitsubishi Type 92 nine-cylinder air-cooled radial engine and the other a Nakajima Kotobuki nine-cylinder air-cooled radial engine. However, the IJAAF opted not to order either version into production.  The civil version was offered to commercial operators with a Nakajima-built Bristol Jupiter VI nine-cylinder air-cooled radial engine. The Mitsubishi K3M was used for both civil and military roles and some remained in operation until well after World War II.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The was a trainer built by Mitsubishi which was used by the Imperial Japanese Navy in an extremely wide variety of roles, including light transport, liaison aircraft, utility aircraft and occasionally light bomber. Its Allied reporting name was Pine.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977887}
{"src_title": "Öküz Mehmed Pasha", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "Before holding governmental positions, Mehmed Pasha had been a \"silahdar\", a high-ranking position in the sultan's guard.  He married princess Gevherhan Sultan, the daughter of sultan Ahmed I and Kösem Sultan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governor of Egypt.", "content": "Before his first term as grand vizier, Mehmed Pasha was appointed as governor of Egypt in 1607, a post he held until 1611. In 1604, three years before he assumed the office, the Governor of Ottoman Egypt Maktul Hacı Ibrahim Pasha was murdered by mutinying sipahi soldiers of his own troops. This event caused three years of instability in Egypt, with the subsequent two governors, Hadım Mehmed Pasha and Yemenli Hasan Pasha unable to completely quell the rebellion.  When Mehmed Pasha came into office, his strong-handed methods and personality allowed him to suppress the sipahis and abolish the illegal \"tulba\" protection tax they had been imposing on the Egyptian countryside. After first landing at Alexandria, he gathered public support by visiting the tombs of local saints and treating the Mamluks well, ordering repairs on Mamluk-built buildings and structures. He then proceeded to execute district governors who had allowed the sipahis to impose the \"tulba\" and warned others of the same fate.  Tensions came to a head in February 1609, when the rebels gathered in the city of Tanta and met at the tomb of Ahmad al-Badawi, Egypt's most popular saint, to swear that they would resist Mehmed Pasha's efforts; they then began to gather troops and pillage villages for supplies. Mehmed Pasha also gathered troops, although some of his officers suggested diplomacy, which Mehmed agreed to, sending a mufti named Altıparmak Mehmed Efendi and an officer to negotiate with the rebels. The mufti advised the rebels to give into \"those in authority,\" and upon refusal, Mehmed Pasha's forces began to mobilize.  Mehmed Pasha's forces met the rebels just north of Cairo. The rebels, discouraged, lost the battle, and the pasha's forces summarily executed over 250 of them, while others were later exiled to Yemen.  In the aftermath of this event, Mehmed Pasha became known as \"Kul Kıran\" (\"slavebreaker\" in Turkish) for subjugating the Mamluks and the soldiers to Ottoman rule. He went on to promote public works and attempted to reform the fiscal and military organization of the Egypt eyalet, reducing the number of local beys to 12, although this measure was later abandoned. In 1611, he was recalled to the capital Constantinople by the sultan.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Grand Vizierates.", "content": "Mehmed Pasha was grand vizier from 17 October 1614 to 17 November 1616, and again from 18 January 1619 to 23 December 1619. While in office, he was usually called Kara Mehmed Pasha, the nickname \"ox\" having been invented behind his back (although he almost certainly must have overheard it) by virtue of his heavy build and his father having been a blacksmith for cattle in the Karagümrük quarter of Constantinople. History retained this nickname rather than \"Kara\", which means \"black\" in Turkish and which may refer to one's complexion or hair or, in the figurative, to courage and daring.  One episode during his time as grand vizier involved an attack on Vienna accompanied with only 47 raiders, and without having informed the sultan or any other authority in the Ottoman capital; it ended in complete failure and nearly cost him his head. Some historians consider his foray as a third siege of Vienna by the Ottoman Turks, alongside the better known incidences, undertaken first by sultan Süleyman the Magnificent in 1529 and later by grand vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha in 1683.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Governor of Aidin.", "content": "In between his two terms as grand vizier, he held the office of governor of Aidin Vilayet (then a province covering a large part of western Anatolia), and his governorship is marked by the construction of a caravanserai in Kuşadası, named the Öküz Mehmed Pasha Caravanserai after him, aimed at attracting international trade through the port there (which shifted, in time, much more towards the port of İzmir upon the preference displayed by European merchants). The caravanserai in Kuşadası is used as a luxury hotel and shopping center today. He has had another solid caravanserai built in Ulukışla on the way to a campaign against the Safavids during the Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–18), which eventually ended with a decisive Ottoman defeat.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Death.", "content": "He was strangled to death in office in 1619 by a young Janissary whose favors he had sought.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Öküz\" Mehmed Pasha (\"Mehmed Pasha the Ox\"; died 23 December 1619), also known as Kara Mehmed Pasha (\"the Black\") or \"Kul Kıran\" Mehmed Pasha (\"the Slavebreaker\"), was an Ottoman statesman and military commander of the early 17th century who held the office of Grand Vizier twice, the first time from 17 October 1614 to 17 November 1616 (during the reign of Ahmed I) and the second time from 18 January 1619 to 23 December 1619 (during the reign of Osman II the Young). He was also governor of Egypt from 1607 to 1611. Okuz Mehmed's nickname \"Kul Kiran\" (slavebreaker) came from his success in crushing the mutiny in Egypt during the early 1600s (soldiers were often known as kul or slave).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977888}
{"src_title": "Baccharis halimifolia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Classification.", "content": "\"Baccharis halimifola\" was first described and named by Carl Linnaeus in his \"Species Plantarum\", published in 1753. No subspecies or varieties are recognized within the species.  This species is the northernmost member of the large Western Hemisphere genus Baccharis in the aster family (Asteraceae).  \"Senecio arborescens\", a Neotropical species, was confused with \"Baccharis halimifolia\" in the past.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Baccharis halimifolia\" is a fall-flowering shrub growing to about 12 ft (4 m) high and comparably wide, or occasionally a small tree. Its simple, alternate, thick, egg-shaped to rhombic leaves mostly have coarse teeth, with the uppermost leaves entire. These fall-flowering \"Baccharis\" plants are dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate individuals. Their flowers are borne in numerous small, compact heads in large leafy terminal inflorescences, with the snowy-white, cotton-like female flower-heads showy and conspicuous at a distance.  The species is sometimes confused with the marsh-elder (\"Iva frutescens\"), with which it often co-occurs, but the \"Baccharis\" has its leaves alternate, while those of the \"Iva\" are opposite.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "\"Baccharis halimifolia\", usually found in wetlands, is unusually salt-tolerant, and often found along salty or brackish shores of marshes and estuaries, and the inland shores of coastal barrier islands. In Florida, it is also found along ditches, in old fields, and in other disturbed areas. Other habitats in the northeastern United States include freshwater tidal marshes and open woods and thickets along the seacoast.  The flowers produce abundant nectar that attracts various butterflies, including the monarch (\"Danaus plexippus\"). These dense shrubs also provide wildlife food and cover.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Invasiveness.", "content": "In Australia, \"B. halimifolia\" is an invasive species along the coast of southern Queensland and New South Wales. As biological control the rust fungus \"Puccinia evadens\" is used. The species has also become naturalized in Europe and in New Zealand.  In the northeastern United States, the species has become common well inland of the shrub's natural range along various major highways where road salt is heavily used, sometimes forming conspicuous displays when flowering in the fall, as along I-95 in Howard County, Maryland.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Toxicity.", "content": "The seeds of \"Baccharis halimifolia\" are toxic to humans.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "\"Baccharis halimifolia\" is occasionally cultivated, useful as a hedge or border as well as a specimen plant. In southern Louisiana, it has been traditionally used as a medicine to treat inflamed kidneys and fever.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Baccharis halimifolia is a North American species of shrubs in the daisy family. It is native to Nova Scotia, the eastern and southern United States (from Massachusetts south to Florida and west to Texas and Oklahoma), eastern Mexico (Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Quintana Roo), the Bahamas, and Cuba.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977889}
{"src_title": "Valorant", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Gameplay.", "content": "\"Valorant\" is a team-based tactical shooter and first-person shooter set in the near-future. Players assume the control of agents, characters who come from a plethora of countries and cultures around the world. In the main game mode, players join either the attacking or defending team with each team having five players on it. Agents have unique abilities and use an economic system to purchase their abilities and weapons. The game has an assortment of weapons including sidearms, submachine guns, shotguns, machine guns, assault rifles and sniper rifles. Automatic weapons such as the \"Spectre\" and \"Odin\" have recoil patterns which have to be controlled by the player in order to be able to shoot accurately.  In the standard game mode, the match is played over 24 rounds, and the first team to win 13 rounds wins the match. The attacking team has a bomb-type device called the Spike, which they need to plant on a site. If the attacking team successfully protects the Spike and it detonates, they get a point. If the defending team successfully defuses the Spike, or the 100-second round timer expires, the defending team gets a point. If all the members of a team are eliminated, the opposing team earns a point. After twelve rounds, the attacking team switches to the defending team and vice versa. If a match ends with a 12-12 score, a sudden death round is added (with no side switching taking place).  In the Spike Rush mode, the match is played over 7 rounds, so the first team to win 4 rounds wins the match. To further reduce the gameplay's length, loadouts are random every round and every attacking player carries the spike that they can plant at any site.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "\"Valorant\" was developed and published by Riot Games, who have previously developed \"League of Legends\". Development started in 2014, within their research and development division. Joe Ziegler, \"Valorant\" game director, is credited with the initial idea of \"Valorant\" while formulating potential games with other Riot developers. David Nottingham is the creative director for \"Valorant\". Trevor Romleski, former \"League of Legends\" designer and Salvatore Garozzo, former professional player and map designer of \"\" are game designers for \"Valorant\". Moby Francke, former Valve developer, who has been art and character designer for \"Half-Life 2\" and \"Team Fortress 2\", is the art director.  \"Valorant\" was built using Unreal Engine 4, which allowed the development team to focus on gameplay and optimizations. In order to reach 30 frames per second on minimum hardware requirements, its engineering team, led by Marcus Reid, who previously worked on \"Gears of War 4\", had to make several modifications to the engine, such as editing the renderer using the engine's mobile rendering path as base. They also optimized server performance by disabling character animations in non-combat situations and removing unnecessary evaluations in the hit registration proccess.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "\"Valorant\" was first teased under a tentative title \"Project A\" in October 2019. It was officially announced on March 1, 2020, with a gameplay video on YouTube called \"The Round\". The closed beta of the game was launched on April 7, 2020. For a chance to obtain a beta access key, players were required to sign up for accounts with both Riot Games and the streaming platform Twitch. This beta ended on May 28, 2020, with the game being fully released on June 2, 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "\"Valorant\" has been compared to Valve's \"\", with both games having two teams of five attempting to plant a bomb, and Blizzard's class-based shooter \"Overwatch\".  Austen Goslin of \"Polygon\" praised the beta of \"Valorant\" describing it as refined and \"one of the most fun tactical shooters I've played\". On the first day of its beta launch, \"Valorant\" amassed the second most concurrent viewers for any game ever on Twitch, with 1.7 million viewers tuning in across dozens of streams. Only another game from Riot Games, \"League of Legends\", has seen more viewers - when 1.73 million watched the 2019 World Championship final.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Anti-cheat software controversy.", "content": "The game has been criticized for its anti-cheat software, Vanguard, as it was revealed to run on a kernel driver, which allows access to the computer system. OSNews expressed concern that Riot Games and its owner, Chinese technology conglomerate Tencent, could spy on players and that the kernel driver could be potentially exploited by third parties. However, Riot Games stated that the driver does not send any information back to them, and launched a bug bounty program to offer rewards for reports that demonstrate vulnerabilities with the software.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Valorant (stylized as VALORANT) is a free-to-play multiplayer tactical first-person shooter developed and published by Riot Games, for Microsoft Windows. Announced under the codename \"Project A\" in October 2019, the game began a closed beta with limited access on April 7, 2020, and was fully released on June 2, 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977890}
{"src_title": "Tell Me a Story (TV series)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Premise.", "content": "\"Tell Me a Story\" takes \"the world's most beloved fairy tales and reimagines them as a dark and twisted psychological thriller. Set in modern-day New York City, the first season of this serialized drama interweaves \"The Three Little Pigs\", \"Little Red Riding Hood\" and \"Hansel and Gretel\" into an epic and subversive tale of love, loss, greed, revenge, and murder.\"  The second season of the show, set in Nashville, Tennessee, reimagines the princess-themed tales \"Beauty and the Beast\", \"Sleeping Beauty\" and \"Cinderella\".  Had it been renewed, it was planned that the third season would have included adaptations of \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\", \"Jack and the Beanstalk\", and \"Rapunzel\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Music.", "content": "Musical performances were featured throughout the series' second season, all performed by Natalie Alyn Lind. On February 11, 2020, CBS All Access released the official soundtrack containing full versions of the second season's songs.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "On November 30, 2017, it was announced that CBS All Access had given \"Tell Me a Story\" a series order. The show is being developed for American audiences by Kevin Williamson and is based on the Spanish television series \"Érase una vez\" created by Marcos Osorio Vidal. Williamson is also set to write the series and executive produce it alongside Aaron Kaplan and Dana Honor. The series is being produced by Kaplan's production company Kapital Entertainment. On May 9, 2018, it was reported that Liz Friedlander would direct and executive produce the first two episodes. On December 17, 2018, it was announced that the series had been renewed for a second season. On May 11, 2020, the series was canceled after two seasons. However, it will be re-aired on The CW.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Casting.", "content": "In May 2018, it was announced that Billy Magnussen and Kim Cattrall had been cast in the series' lead roles. In June 2018, it was reported that Danielle Campbell, Paul Wesley, James Wolk, Dania Ramirez, and Sam Jaeger had joined the main cast. In July 2018, it was announced that Davi Santos, Zabryna Guevara, and Dorian Missick had been cast in series regular roles. In August 2018, it was reported that Michael Raymond-James, Kurt Yaeger, Rarmian Newton, and Paulina Singer had joined the cast in a recurring capacity.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Filming.", "content": "Principal photography for season one began on June 28, 2018, in New York City, New York. and ended in early November 2018. Filming for season two began on July 1, 2019, and wrapped on December 18, 2019.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Release.", "content": "On August 5, 2018, it was announced during the Television Critics Association's annual summer press tour that the series would premiere on October 31, 2018. The second season premiered on December 5, 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Marketing.", "content": "On July 19, 2018, the series held a panel at San Diego Comic-Con in San Diego, California moderated by \"Entertainment Weekly\"s Henry Goldblatt and featuring executive producer Kevin Williamson as well as series stars Paul Wesley and James Wolk. The panel included the premiere of an exclusive teaser trailer for the series. On August 5, 2018, a \"sneak peek\" trailer for the series was released. On October 5, 2018, the official trailer for the series was released, first premiering during the series' panel at the annual New York Comic Con.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Premiere.", "content": "On October 23, 2018, the series held its official premiere at the Metrograph theater in New York City, New York. Those in attendance included creator Kevin Williamson, executive producer Dana Honor, and cast members Becki Newton, Danielle Campbell, Dania Ramirez, and James Wolk.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "The series has been met with a mixed response from critics upon its premiere. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds a 54% approval rating with an average rating of 5.31 out of 10 based on 13 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, \"Despite an enticing cast and promising premise, \"Tell Me a Story\"s overly plotted, grim take on Grimm's Fairy Tales fails to enchant.\" Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the series a score of 43 out of 100 based on 6 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews.\"  In a positive review, \"Refinery29\"s Sesali Bowen commended the series saying, \"\"Tell Me A Story\" captures its viewers to put themselves in the shoes of some of their favorite fables with its realism. So far it's better for it. This new CBS All Access program has enough to stand on without it thanks to an array of characters who are interesting if not a little cliche.\" In a more mixed critique, \"Variety\"s offered the series qualified praise saying, \"For all its faults, the series is enthusiastically pulpy, moving with a propulsive energy that, to be frank, most streaming dramas lack. It's not nearly operating on the same prescient level as, say, \"The Good Fight\", nor quite the radical re-imagining of fairy tales as advertised. But if nothing else, \"Tell Me a Story's\" got a wicked bite that might serve it well when trying to grab curious viewers on a streaming platform that doesn't quite have anything else like it.\" In an outright negative assessment, \"RogerEbert.com\"s Brian Tallerico criticized the series saying, \"There are talented TV veterans in \"Tell Me a Story\", likely lured by Williamson's pedigree, but even they fail to give what could reasonably be called good performances. The pacing, the dialogue, the (complete lack of) visual language, the world building—it's impossible to point to a single element that works.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Home media.", "content": "The first season was released on DVD in Region 1 on October 1, 2019.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Tell Me a Story is an American psychological thriller web television anthology series created by Kevin Williamson for CBS All Access. Based on the Spanish television series \"Cuéntame un Cuento\", it depicts iconic fairy tales reimagined as modern-day thrillers. Each season features a mostly different cast ensemble, with Danielle Campbell and Paul Wesley appearing in both seasons of the series.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977891}
{"src_title": "Gabriel de Rochechouart de Mortemart", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Gabriel de Rochechouart de Mortemart was the son of Gaspard de Rochechouart de Mortemart, Marquis of Mortemart, and of Louise de Maure, \"suo jure\" Countess of Maure. His younger brother, Louis de Rochechouart de Mortemart, died without children in 1669.  He spent a great part of his childhood with the future king of France Louis XIII, until the assassination of the latter's father, Henry IV, in 1610. In 1630, he was named the First Gentleman of the Chamber to Louis XIII, which entitled him to a pension of 6000 livres. He also maintained the confidence of the powerful Cardinal Richelieu and was an intimate of the Spanish-born queen, Anne of Austria.  He and his some of his descendants cultivated what became known as the \"esprit Mortemart\", a particular type of wit which \"allowed impossible things to be said\".  He was popular at the royal court, although his brother Louis and his cousin François de Rochechouart had been banished for their involvement in the Day of the Dupes in November 1630, when the enemies of Cardinal Richelieu mistakenly believed that they had succeeded in persuading Louis XIII to dismiss Richelieu from power.  In 1632, he married Diane de Grandseigne (1615 – 11 February 1666), the daughter of Jean de Grandseigne, Marquis de Marsillac, and of Catherine de La Béraudière, \"dame de Villenon\".  A year after his marriage, he was created a Knight of the Orders of the King.  During his infancy, till he succeeded his father, he was known as the Marquis de Vivonne, a subsidiary title which was raised to a duchy in 1668.  When his father died in 1643, he took the title of \"Marquis de Mortemart\".  On 23 December 1663, Louis XIV raised the Marquisate of Mortemart, to a duchy. The same day, Anne de Noailles became Duke of Noailles; the two families were united in 1723 when Gabriel's grandson, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, Count of Toulouse, the son of \"Madame de Montespan\", married a granddaughter of Anne, Marie Victoire de Noailles.  In 1669, he was named Governor of Paris.  Gabriel de Rochechouart de Mortemart died in Paris on 26 December 1675.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles, styles, and arms.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Titles and styles.", "content": "Peer of France, Prince of Tonnay-Charente, Viscount of Rochechouart (the oldest title in France, 980), Marquis of Montpipeau (granted by Louis XIII), Count of Limoges (1661), Duke of Vivonne (1668). Lordships and parishes of Montrol, Nouic, Blond, Vaulry, Beuilaufa, Le Fraisse, Javerdat, Saint-Victurnien (Barony), Oradour-sur-Glane (Châtellenie) along with the Baronies of Châtellenies of Lussac, Verrières and Dienné.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Arms.", "content": "\"Parti de trois et coupé de un, qui font huit quartiers: 1, de gueules au croissant de vair (Maure); 2, d'azur à trois fleurs de lys d;or au bâton de gueules (Bourbon); 3, de gueules a neuf mâcles d'or (Rohan); 4, burelé d'argent et d'azur à trois chevrons de gueules (La Rochefoucauld); 5, d'argent à la guivre d'azure engoulant un enfant au naturel (Milan); 6, de gueules aux chaînes posées en croix, sautoir et orle d'or (Navarre); 7, de gueules au pal de vair (des Cars); 8, d'hermine plain (Bretagne); sur le tout, fascé-ondé-enté d'argent et de gueules (Rochechouart).\"", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "Gabriel de Rochechouart de Mortemart, Duke of Mortemart (1600 – 26 December 1675) was a French nobleman and father of the \"Marquise de Montespan\". He was a friend of the French King Louis XIII.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977892}
{"src_title": "Misery (Beatles song)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background.", "content": "In February 1963, Helen Shapiro was Britain's most successful female singer (having first achieved chart success two years earlier at the age of 14) and The Beatles were fifth on the bill as part of her nationwide tour of the United Kingdom. Her artist and repertoire manager, Norrie Paramor, was looking for new material for a country and western album she planned to record in Nashville, Tennessee and suggested that the Beatles compose a song especially for her. \"Misery\" was started backstage before The Beatles' performance at the King's Hall, Stoke-on-Trent, on 26 January 1963, and later completed at Paul McCartney's Forthlin Road home. At the time, McCartney commented: \"We've called it 'Misery', but it isn't as slow as it sounds, it moves along at quite a pace, and we think Helen will make a pretty good job of it.\" But Paramor considered it unsuitable, and so British singer and entertainer Kenny Lynch, who was on the same tour, recorded it instead (HMV Pop 1136), thus becoming the first artist to cover a Lennon–McCartney composition although he failed to enter the charts with it. In 1973, Lynch appeared in the cover photograph for McCartney's album, \"Band on the Run\".  When the Beatles needed original material for their \"Please Please Me\" LP they recorded it themselves, giving its treatment, according to writer Ian MacDonald, \"a droll portrait of adolescent self-pity\". It was credited to McCartney and Lennon in that order, as were all other Lennon & McCartney originals on the \"Please Please Me\" album. The songwriting credit was changed to what would become the more familiar \"Lennon–McCartney\" for their second album, \"With the Beatles\". McCartney: \"It was our first stab at a ballad and had a little spoken preface. It was co-written. I don't think either of us dominated on that one, it was just a job, you could have called us hacks, hacking out a song for someone.\" (Barry Miles. Paul McCartney: Many Years From Now).  The Beatles recorded \"Misery\" on 11 February 1963 (marathon session) in 11 takes. Norman Smith was the engineer.  Normal studio multi-track tape speed at the time was 15 ips (inches per second), but “Misery” was recorded at 30 ips, as George Martin intended to personally add piano at a later date, and preferred playing this at half-tempo an octave below.  Helen Shapiro had starred in her own film called \"It's Trad, Dad!\" (released UK 16 April 1962) which was directed by Richard Lester, who later directed The Beatles' films \"A Hard Day's Night\" and \"Help!.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "\"Misery\" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1963 debut album \"Please Please Me\". It was co-written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney. According to Lennon, \"It was kind of a John song more than a Paul song, but it was written together.\" McCartney was to say: \"I don't think either one of us dominated on that one, it was just a hacking job.\"", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977893}
{"src_title": "YouTuber", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Etymology.", "content": "The name \"YouTuber\" refers to individual(s) whose main or only platform are YouTube channel(s), personalized subpages of the YouTube video sharing platform.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "History.", "content": "The Internet domain name \"codice_1\" was activated on February 14, 2005 by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, when they worked for PayPal. The first YouTube channel \"Jawed\" was created on April 23, 2005 PDT (April 24, 2005 UTC) by the YouTube co-founder of the same name. He uploaded the first YouTube video, a short vlog clip titled \"Me at the zoo\", on the same day.  In October 2005, YouTube introduced the ability to subscribe to YouTube channels. \"The New York Times\" claims that most YouTube videos up until 2006 were focused on different forms of talent, citing back-flip stunts, lip-syncing, and other people's talents being uploaded via clips such as clips of Saturday Night Live. By June 2006, recognized Hollywood and music industry firms had begun to establish formal business ties with \"homegrown\" YouTube talent—the first believed to be comedian blogger Brooke \"Brookers\" Brodack (through Carson Daly), then singer Justin Bieber (through Usher), and physician-become-political satirist Bassem Youssef (through an Egyptian television network). In 2007 YouTube started its \"Partner Program\", an ad-revenue-sharing arrangement that allowed for YouTubers to make money off the videos they uploaded to YouTube.  By October 2015, there were more than 17,000 YouTube channels with more than 100,000 subscribers, and nearly 1,500 with more than a million. These numbers have grown to almost 44,000 channels with at least 250,000 subscribers in January 2019.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Influence.", "content": "According to multiple studies, YouTubers have become an important source of information and entertainment for the millennial-generation. Influential YouTubers are frequently described as microcelebrities. Since YouTube is widely conceived as a bottom-up social media video platform, microcelebrities do not appear to be involved with the established and commercial system of celebrity culture but rather appear self-governed and independent. This appearance, in turn, leads to YouTubers being seen as more relatable and authentic, also fostered by the direct connection between artist and viewer using the medium of YouTube.  These microcelebrities often communicate with their viewers which gives a more friendly outlook. The content- creators of YouTube (YouTubers) create content on a wide range of variety including vlogs,instructive, how to, informative videos and more.  In a 2014 survey conducted by the University of Southern California among 13-18 year-olds in the United States on whether 10 YouTube celebrities or 10 traditional celebrities were more influential, YouTube personalities took the first five spots of the ranking, with Smosh ranking as most influential. When repeated in 2015, the survey found six YouTubers on the first ranks, with KSI ranked as most influential.  Several prominent YouTubers and their influence were subjects for scientific studies, such as Zoella and PewDiePie. Because of this level of influence, Robert Hovden argued for the creation of a new index similar to the g-index and h-index to evaluate a person's output and impact on YouTube.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Commercial success.", "content": "The success of their YouTube videos has made YouTubers the target of corporate sponsors who pay to be included in the videos. In 2015, \"Forbes\" reported that Felix Kjellberg, known on YouTube as PewDiePie, had earned $12 million in 2014, more than some popular actors such as Cameron Diaz or Gwyneth Paltrow. In 2015, NME stated that \"vlogging has become big business\". In 2018, Walmart, Nordstrom, and others sought YouTube stars as influencers. Additionally, YouTube stars have crossed over to other media platforms including late-night television such as Canadian Youtuber Lilly Singh, who hosts A Little Late with Lilly Singh on NBC.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "A YouTuber, also known as a YouTube content creator, is a type of videographer or entertainer who produces videos for the video-sharing website YouTube, sometimes being supported by networks. Some YouTube personalities also have corporate sponsors who pay for product placement in their clips or production of online videos. These content-creators are often referred as \"influencers\".", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977894}
{"src_title": "IPhone SE (2nd generation)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History.", "content": "A successor to the first-generation iPhone SE had been a source of rumor since 2017, the year after the device was released. The name was also subject to speculation. Guesses included (most prevalently) iPhone SE 2, iPhone SE 2020, and iPhone 9 due to design similarities with the iPhone 8.  In March 2020, cases for the phone were reportedly being shipped to Best Buy, showing an iPhone with an iPhone 8-sized body and a single camera lens. Belkin screen protectors for the iPhone SE were also listed on the online Apple Store, cross-compatible with the base models of the iPhone 6, iPhone 6S, iPhone 7, and iPhone 8. However, references to the iPhone SE were quickly removed.  On April 15, 2020, the second-generation iPhone SE was announced in a press release note on Apple's website. It was marketed as \"A powerful new smartphone in a popular design\", and was released worldwide on April 24, 2020.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Specifications.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Design.", "content": "The iPhone SE features an aluminum frame, with glass front and back. It shares the same physical sizes and dimensions as the iPhone 8, except for a centered Apple logo and no iPhone branding. Therefore, phone cases designed to fit the iPhone 8 will also fit the iPhone SE. The second-generation iPhone SE also shares the same top and bottom bezels as the iPhone 8, including the Home button (integrated with the same second-generation Touch ID).  The iPhone SE is available in three colors: Black, White, and a Product Red edition. Though the offered colors line up with those of the iPhone 8 (Silver, Space Gray, and Product Red respectively, with no equivalent to the Gold model), the iPhone SE uses a noticeably deeper shade of black, a brighter shade of white, and a lighter shade of Product Red. Unlike the silver iPhone 8 (and all prior white and silver iPhones since the iPhone 4), the 2020 iPhone SE features black bezels around the display on all models, in line with the color schemes of the iPhone 11 and iPhone XR.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Size.", "content": "With a screen diagonal of, the second generation of the iPhone SE was among the smallest mainstream in-production smartphones at the time of its release. However, it is still thirty percent larger than the first generation variant, whose screen diagonal measures. Dan Seifert from The Verge declared the second-generation SE a \"nail in the coffin\" for small phones.  This was affirmed by CNET, who stated that \"Apple's decision to not build a brand-new 4-inch phone is telling. It signals that the company will probably never bring back the tiny iPhone, no matter how badly people crave it.\"", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Hardware.", "content": "The iPhone SE incorporates the Apple A13 Bionic system on a chip (SoC), with the integrated M13 motion coprocessor, and third-generation neural engine. It is available in three internal storage configurations: 64 GB, 128 GB, and 256 GB. The SE has the same IP67 rating for dust and water resistance as the iPhone 8. The phone lacks the ultra-wideband features enabled by the U1 chip found in the iPhone 11 and 11 Pro. Despite the phone's smaller size which may lead to increased thermal throttling, the SE's A13 SoC runs at the same peak CPU frequencies as the iPhone 11. Unlike the first-generation model, the second-generation iPhone SE doesn't feature a standard 3.5 mm stereo headphone jack.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Display.", "content": "The iPhone SE features the same Retina HD display found on the iPhone 8, using LCD technology with True Tone and wide color gamut (Display P3). The display has a resolution of 1334 x 750 pixels, like the previous 4.7\" iPhones. The pixel density is 326 PPI, the same as on all iPhones with LCD displays since the introduction of the Retina display on the iPhone 4, excluding the Plus models. The pressure-sensing 3D Touch feature found on the iPhone 8 has been replaced with Haptic Touch on the iPhone SE, which does not work for notifications. It can play HDR10 and Dolby Vision content despite not having an HDR-ready display, done by down-converting the HDR content to fit the display while still having some enhancements to dynamic range, contrast, and wide color gamut compared to standard content.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Camera.", "content": "The iPhone SE features a single 12 MP rear camera, similar to the single camera system of the iPhone 8, capable of recording 4K video (at 24, 30, or 60 fps), 1080p HD video (at 30, or 60 fps), or 720p HD video (at 30 fps). The camera has an aperture of f/1.8, autofocus, optical image stabilization, and a quad-LED True Tone flash. The phone can also take panoramas up to 63 MP, and shoot photos in burst mode. The front camera is 7 MP with an aperture of f/2.2 and autofocus, capable of shooting 1080p HD video at 30 fps. The camera interface adopts \"Quicktake\" from the 11 and 11 Pro, which allows the user to long-press the shutter button to take a video. The burst function can now be accessed by swiping the shutter button to the left.  The new image signal processor and neural engine of the SE support several camera functions not supported on the iPhone 8. Like the 11 and 11 Pro, the rear camera supports next-generation Smart HDR. The rear camera also supports extended dynamic range video up to 30 fps, stereo recording and cinematic video stabilization. Both the front and rear cameras of the iPhone SE support Portrait mode and Portrait Lighting. Like the 11 and 11 Pro, Portrait mode has depth control and an advanced bokeh effect (blurring effect of the out-of-focus background around the portrait). However, the usage of older sensor hardware results in some limitations—the iPhone SE does not support the Night Mode or Deep Fusion features of the iPhone 11 and 11 Pro. The SE's implementation of Portrait mode only natively supports images of humans, as the hardware does not produce depth maps through the use of focus pixels and instead relies on software-based machine learning.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Software.", "content": "The iPhone SE originally shipped with iOS 13.4 supporting Apple Pay and Apple Card. A special iPhone SE-exclusive build of iOS 13.4.1, an update fixing bugs related to Bluetooth and FaceTime, was released on April 23, 2020 (a day prior to the device's official release), making it a day-one software update.", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The second-generation iPhone SE (also known as the iPhone SE 2 or the 2020 iPhone SE) is a smartphone designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc. It is part of the 13th generation of the iPhone, alongside the iPhone 11 and 11 Pro/Pro Max models. Announced on April 15, 2020, the iPhone SE directly replaced the iPhone 8 series, while also being the successor to the smaller and lighter first-generation iPhone SE. Pre-orders began on April 17, 2020, and the phone was subsequently released on April 24, 2020. It was released with a starting price of, and positioned as a budget phone.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977895}
{"src_title": "Muntingia", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Description.", "content": "\"Muntingia calabura\" is a shrub or tree up to 12 m tall with spreading branches. The leaves are alternate, distichous, oblong or lanceolate, 4–15 cm long and 1–6 cm wide, with toothed margin and covered in short hairs. The flowers are small (up to 3 cm wide), solitary or in inflorescences of two or three flowers, with five lanceolate sepals, hairy, five obovate white petals, many stamens with yellow anthers, and a smooth ovoid ovary. Fruit, an edible berry, is red at maturity, about 1.5 cm wide.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Distribution and habitat.", "content": "\"M. calabura\" is native to southern Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, and western South America south to Bolivia and Argentina. It is present in tropical climate in disturbed lowland areas from sea level to 1000 m of elevation.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Ecology.", "content": "This species colonize disturbed habitats in tropical lowland areas, becoming part of the secondary vegetation, as well as gallery forests. It thrives in poor soil, able to tolerate acidic and alkaline conditions and drought, but doesn't grow on saline conditions.  The seeds are dispersed by birds and fruit bats.  Although native to tropical America, \"M. calabura\" has been introduced in Southeast Asia and naturalized there and in other tropical parts of the world.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Vernacular names.", "content": "Common names include:", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Uses.", "content": "\"M. calabura\" is planted as a source of timber and fuel. Its soft wood used for rural construction, while the bark is fibrous and used for making ropes.  The fruits are edible and in some cases sold in markets, as they can be eaten raw or processed as jam; leaves can be used for making tea. Also, traditional medicinal uses have been reported for the leaves (headaches, prostate problems, reduce gastric ulcers), bark (antiseptic), flowers (antiseptic, reduce swelling, antispasmodic), and fruits (respiratory problems; antidiarrheic).  It is planted as an ornamental species, and also because the flowers are a source of nectar and pollen for the beekeeping industry.  The tree is also planted along river banks in Brazil, as fallen fruits attract fish.  \"M. calabura\" has a potential as a useful species for restoration of disturbed areas and stopping soil erosion. It also offers shelter for wildlife, as it is a source of food for about 60 species of birds and mammals.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultivation.", "content": "\"M. calabura\" can be propagated from seed, seedlings, or cuttings. In Costa Rica, seeds set in the wet season, but require conditions of light and temperature found in forest gaps. In a test where seeds were placed in wet paper towel at 25 °C, a total of 44% of seeds germinated in white light, while none germinated in dark conditions.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Cultural References.", "content": "Sri Lankan author Carl Muller chose this tree as the title for his first novel, \"The Jam Fruit Tree.\" In the novel, the tree represents the Burgher community of Sri Lanka, \"a race of fun-loving, hardy people, much like the jam fruit tree which simply refuses to be contained or destroyed.\" The book won the Gratiaen Prize for the best published work in the English language in 1993.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Muntingia is a genus of plants in the family Muntingiaceae, comprising only one species, Muntingia calabura, and was named in honour of Abraham Munting. It is native to the neotropics, from Mexico south to Bolivia. In Kerala it is seen in the areas adjacent to the Western Ghat. Usually it serves as a shade plant. The edible fruit ripens during November to January and is said to help diabetic patients. A small reduction was recorded in patients' blood sugar levels after consumption. A popular belief is that this tree leads to prosperity. 'Kattilanthi' is the colloquial name which means 'wild cherry'. It is also known as \"Company Pazham\" in the Palakkad Walayar area. The tree is quite common in the dry land of Palakkad and planted for its shade along highways.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977896}
{"src_title": "Velveteen Dream", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Professional wrestling career.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Early career (2014–2015).", "content": "Clark trained as a professional wrestler at the Maryland Championship Wrestling training center under Patrick Brink. He made his debut for the promotion after four months of training on October 3, 2014 under the ring name \"Rick Powers\". Clark went on to wrestle for MCW, winning the MCW Tag Team Championship with Lio Rush in October 2015. He briefly used the ring name \"Slugger Clark\" before settling on \"Patrick Clark\" in February 2016. In addition to working for MCW, Clark appeared with various American independent promotions throughout 2015 including Combat Zone Wrestling and World Xtreme Wrestling.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "WWE.", "content": "", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "\"Tough Enough\" and training (2015–2017).", "content": "Clark was selected as a contestant for the sixth season of the WWE reality television program \"WWE Tough Enough\", which began airing in June 2015. Despite being tapped as one of the favorites to win the competition, he was eliminated in the fifth episode due to a perceived lack of humility, placing ninth overall in the series.  On October 17, 2015, it was reported that Clark had signed a developmental contract with WWE. He made his in-ring debut for the company at a NXT live event in Lakeland, Florida on February 5, 2016, losing to Riddick Moss. He made his television debut on the July 20 episode of \"NXT\", losing to Austin Aries. On the October 19 episode of \"NXT\", Clark confronted and challenged NXT Champion Shinsuke Nakamura but was attacked and beaten down by Nakamura. Clark returned and had his first televised victory on the March 1, 2017 episode of \"NXT\", defeating Sean Maluta.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "NXT (2017–present).", "content": "On the May 24, 2017 episode of \"NXT\", Clark debuted a new Prince-inspired character called \"Velveteen Dream\". In September, Dream began a feud with Aleister Black, where he constantly stalked and harassed Black in order for him to acknowledge Dream and say his name. This led to a match at, where Dream lost. After the match, Black sat next to a dazed Velveteen Dream, before ultimately saying his name. On the December 6 episode of \"NXT\", Dream was supposed to face Kassius Ohno in a qualifying match for a number one contender's fatal-four way match for the NXT Championship; however, an injury suffered at kept Dream out of competition, and he was replaced by Johnny Gargano, who defeated Ohno and later won the fatal-four way to become the number one contender. On the January 10, 2018 episode of \"NXT\", Dream interrupted Gargano's interview to mock him for taking 20 minutes to defeat Ohno, claiming that he could've beaten him in \"30 seconds tops.\" On the January 24 episode of \"NXT\", Dream challenged Gargano for his title opportunity, but lost the match. Following the match, Dream was confronted backstage by Kassius Ohno, who pushed him into a wall. Triple H confirmed that a match between Dream and Ohno would be signed for, where Dream defeated Ohno.  During the rest of 2018, Dream participated in several TakeOver events. At, Dream competed in the ladder match for the inaugural NXT North American Championship (which was won by Adam Cole) at was defeated by Ricochet, at he defeated EC3 and at was defeated by the NXT Champion Tommaso Ciampa.  On January 27, 2019 at Royal Rumble Axxess, Dream defeated Tyler Bate in the finals of the Worlds Collide tournament to earn a future singles championship match of his choice on the NXT or NXT UK brands. Dream chose to challenge for the NXT North American Championship held by the new champion, Johnny Gargano. WWE decided to tape two endings, one with Gargano retaining the title and the other with Dream winning. When the episode aired on February 20, 2019, Dream officially won the title. At, Dream defeated Matt Riddle to retain the championship, handing Riddle his first loss in NXT. He went on to successfully defend the title against challengers including Buddy Murphy, Tyler Breeze, Roderick Strong, and Pete Dunne. On the September 18 episode of \"NXT\", he lost the title to Strong after interference from The Undisputed Era, ending his reign at 231 days, the longest reign in the title's history. After taking time off due to a back injury, he returned on the February 5, 2020 episode of \"NXT\" to attack The Undisputed Era. At, Dream challenged Adam Cole for his NXT Championship in a Backlot Brawl but ended up unsuccessful. Due to a pre-match stipulation, Dream can no longer challenge for the title while Cole is still champion.", "section_level": 3}, {"title": "Professional wrestling persona.", "content": "After getting signed to a developmental contract, he initially debuted on NXT house shows with the gimmick of a Donald Trump supporter, wearing shirts with Donald Trump's image and the \"Make America Great Again\" slogan. In 2017, Clark adopted the persona of \"Velveteen Dream\", a character inspired by the musician Prince. The Velveteen Dream character was described by WWE as \"a mysterious yet intoxicating presence [...] sporting a frilled, jewelled look that would have fit right in onstage during Prince's \"Purple Rain\" Tour\". As Velveteen Dream, Clark's finishing move is the \"Purple Rainmaker\", a diving elbow drop named after a Prince album/single.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Other media.", "content": "Velveteen Dream appeared as a playable character in the video games \"WWE 2K19\" and \"WWE 2K20\".", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Controversies.", "content": "In April 2020, Clark was accused of sending indecent images to underage boys on Instagram, after a Reddit user posted screenshots of what appeared to be a naked Clarke on the subreddit r/SquaredCircle, though Clarke has denied these allegations.  In June 2020, Clarke again made national headlines after new allegations were made that he sent a sexually explicit photo to an underage girl as well as having inappropriate communications with underage boys as well as grooming them amidst the #SpeakingOut movement, Clarke has again issued a statement denying these allegations.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Patrick Clark Jr. (born August 19, 1995) is an American professional wrestler,. He is currently working for the professional wrestling promotion WWE, performing on the NXT brand under the ring name (The) Velveteen Dream.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977897}
{"src_title": "Hollywood (miniseries)", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Premise.", "content": "The series follows a group of aspiring actors and filmmakers in post-World War II Hollywood (1947–1948) as they try to make it in the film industry—no matter what the cost. Each character offers a unique glimpse behind the gilded curtain of Hollywood's Golden Age, noting entrenched power, challenges to that power, and biases of many kinds that continue to this day. The show is described as exposing and examining decades-old power dynamics, and what the entertainment landscape might look like if they had been dismantled.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Production.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Development.", "content": "On February 23, 2019, it was announced that Netflix had given the production a straight-to-series order. The series was created by Ian Brennan, and Ryan Murphy. Brennan and Murphy were also set to executive produce the series alongside Darren Criss and David Corenswet. The series was released on May 1, 2020.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Casting.", "content": "On September 3, 2019, it was reported that Patti LuPone, Holland Taylor, Darren Criss, Jeremy Pope, Dylan McDermott, Jim Parsons, Corenswet, and Joe Mantello had been cast in series regular roles.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Reception.", "content": "On Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 57% based on 118 reviews, with an average rating of 5.97/10. The site's critical consensus reads: \"With its heart on its sleeve and style to spare, \"Hollywood\" is anything but subtle – if only its good intentions were paired with a less convoluted story.\" On Metacritic, the series has a weighted average score of 55 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".  Writing for the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", Richard Roeper gave the series two-and-a-half stars out of four, saying: \"It's a fascinating blend of fact (or least stories based on factual characters) and fiction, and the performances from the cast of rising stars and reliable veterans are dazzling — but like many a motion picture, \"Hollywood\" can't overcome script problems that surface about midway through the story.\"  Conversely, Hugh Montgomery of the BBC described the series as \"spineless and inert\", giving it one out of five stars and saying \"A show about Tinseltown that chose to confront and prod at these continuing, dispiriting realities rather than concoct its own vapid, hubristic fantasies would be worth 10 times this one.\" Similarly, \"The Guardian\"s Lucy Mangan criticized its \"counterfactual history\", giving the series a two out of five-star review, writing: \"This should be the perfect set-up for a scabrous look at prejudice, corruption, the trading of sexual currency, coercion, the well-oiled machinations that underlie an industry and how it all shapes history — all through a #MeToo lens. But it becomes a mere wish-fulfilment fantasy that, whether it intends to or not, suggests that if a few people had just been that bit braver, then movies – and therefore the world! — would be a glorious, egalitarian Eden. It is a show that is smug and obtuse enough to believe la la land's self-regarding idea that celluloid art directly shapes our lives.\"", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Hollywood is an American drama web television miniseries starring an ensemble of David Corenswet, Darren Criss, Laura Harrier, Joe Mantello, Dylan McDermott, Jake Picking, Jeremy Pope, Holland Taylor, Samara Weaving, Jim Parsons, and Patti LuPone. Created by Ryan Murphy and Ian Brennan, it was released on Netflix on May 1, 2020.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977898}
{"src_title": "The House of Silk", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Plot summary.", "content": "\"The House of Silk\" begins with a brief, personal recounting of events by Watson, much like that in \"A Study in Scarlet\" by the original author, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. The reader is informed of the particulars regarding the first meeting of Watson and Holmes, including the circumstances of the Afghan War and a mention of the case that was \"too shocking to be revealed until now.\"  The client of \"The Flat Cap case\" is introduced as a man by the name of Edmund Carstairs, an art dealer whose paintings had been destroyed by a gang of Irish robbers. After the murder of Carstairs' client, and a failure on the part of a hired detective, he turns to Sherlock Holmes, who employs the aid of the Baker Street Irregulars, and upon locating the hotel wherein the supposed Keelan O'Donaghue (one of the leaders of the gang) is currently staying, one of the newest recruits of the Irregulars, a boy named Ross, is stationed to wait outside until Holmes, Watson, and Mr. Carstairs arrive. When the group finally arrives, Ross appears inexplicably horror-stricken and is later found brutally murdered by the thugs of the House of Silk. When Holmes makes inroads with the House of Silk case, he is framed for murder and sent to prison. Meanwhile, Watson meets with a mystery criminal, later revealed as Professor Moriarty, who provides him with a key to free Holmes from prison, before the detective can be assassinated. Professor Moriarty's motives are uncertain, except that he wishes Holmes to rid the world of the House of Silk, whose activities apparently appall even him. When Watson arrives at the prison, he discovers Holmes has escaped of his own accord, disguised as an aide to the prison doctor, whom he had once helped as a client. Various leads draw them to a travelling funfair, where they are ambushed, before being saved by Lestrade.  The party (Holmes, Watson, Lestrade) makes its way to the \"House of Silk\", a club operated by a pastor and his wife who also govern a boy's orphanage, and rent the boys to wealthy customers. The members are promptly rounded up by Scotland Yard. Despite their arrests, however, the case does not come to trial, due to a royal family member having been purportedly involved. It is eventually revealed that Mrs. Carstairs is the true person responsible for The Flat Cap case, being the second leader of the Irish gang.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Critical reception.", "content": "Critical reports were generally positive. On Anthony Horowitz's official site a review of \"The Guardian\" was posted, stating:  So, all of the elements are there: the data, the data, the data. Nothing of consequence overlooked. And yet can Horowitz, like Holmes, make from these drops of water the possibilities of an Atlantic or a Niagara? Can he astonish us? Can he thrill us? Are there \"the rapid deductions, as swift as intuitions, and yet always founded on a logical basis\" that we yearn for? Emphatically, yes.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Allusions to other literary works.", "content": "In chapter one there is some mention of C. Auguste Dupin, a character developed by author Edgar Allan Poe, and his ability to make astounding deductions based on visible emotions reflected through the physical medium. Holmes demonstrates this by uncovering Watson's anxiety and the source thereof. This mention of Dupin is in itself a reference to a reference made by Conan Doyle to the character in the first Holmes novel \"A Study in Scarlet\".  The supporting character Ephraim Hardcastle (the landlord of the Bag of Nails pub, whose name is revealed in chapter eight) is a reference to the newspaper column of the same name in \"The Daily Mail\" as written pseudonymously by Nigel Dempster and subsequently Peter McKay.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Sequel.", "content": "Horowitz announced a second installment entitled \"Moriarty\", but this time Holmes only appears at the end. Moreover, those detectives that Holmes had worked with in previous cases, such as Athelney Jones and Lestrade, were present.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The House of Silk is a Sherlock Holmes novel written by British author Anthony Horowitz, published in 2011. The book was promoted with the claim it was the first time the Conan Doyle Estate had authorised a new non-Doyle Sherlock Holmes pastiche.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977899}
{"src_title": "Johnny Rapid", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Early life.", "content": "Hylan Anthony Taylor was born on August 24, 1992 in Conyers, Georgia, near Atlanta.  As a teenager, he was quite a car enthusiast, and a boxer. He graduated from \"Rockdale District School\" in 2010.  When he lost his job in the middle of summer he thought that playing in porn films could be a good way to make money quickly.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Gay pornographic career.", "content": "Before building his career for Men.com, he also played several scenes for \"Boys First Time\" and \"Bukkake Boys\" Studios. For the first, he appeared in a scene called \"Rapid Fire\" released December 23, 2011.  In 2013, he played the role of Charlie David in the movie \"I'm a Porn Star\". He also became one of Andrew Christian's models. He posed for him for commercials: \"Waking Up with Johnny Rapid\" (April 2013) and \"Studburbia\" (July 2013).  In January 2015, Men.com publicly offered $2 million to Canadian singer Justin Bieber to shoot a pornographic scene with Johnny Rapid. The singer never answered.  In 2017, he was one of the most sought after actors on Pornhub website in the gay porn category.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Private life.", "content": "Discreet about his private life, Rapid previously defined himself as heterosexual and thus a gay for pay actor; however, he now identifies as bisexual.  In December 2014, he was arrested for alleged assault on his wife, who refused to organize a trio with another girl who was fourteen. He got out of jail after serving one day, paying a $2,500 bail.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Johnny Rapid (born Hylan Anthony Taylor; August 24, 1992) is an American gay pornographic film actor. Since 2010, he has appeared in over 200 pornographic scenes for Men.com studio. He now runs his own site.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977900}
{"src_title": "Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Facility and operations.", "content": "The market occupied over and had over 1,000 tenants. It is reported to have been the largest seafood wholesale market in Central China, with wild animals sold in its western zone. The market was located in the newer part of the city, near shops and apartment blocks and about 800 meters from Hankou railway station.  In late 2019, the market passed city official inspections according to \"The Wall Street Journal\". However, \"Time\" reported it to have \"unsanitary\" conditions. It had narrow lanes and stalls in close proximity, where livestock were kept alongside dead animals. According to \"Business Insider\", it was common to see animals openly slaughtered and carcasses skinned in the market. The \"New York Times\" reported that \"sanitation was dismal with poor ventilation and garbage piled on wet floors.\"", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Items sold.", "content": "With local demand present for the consumption of exotic animals, the market also offered exotic game (\"ye wei\" in Chinese) and other wild animals for sale, a feature uncommon in most Chinese wet markets. A price list posted by one vendor on the popular Chinese review site Dazhong Dianping listed 112 items including a number of wild animals. The \"South China Morning Post\" reported on 29 January 2020 that the market had a section selling around \"120 wildlife animals across 75 species.\"  It was incorrectly reported that koalas were sold at the market. The price list included \"树熊\" (). This term is used for koalas in Chinese communities in Singapore, Malaysia and Hong Kong, but in China they are called \"考拉\" (read as \"kaǒ lā\"). At the Huanan market, 'tree bear' referred to large rodents.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Link to COVID-19 pandemic.", "content": "In December 2019, an epidemic of a pneumonia cluster occurred in Wuhan. By 2 January 2020, a new strain of coronavirus, later determined to be SARS-CoV-2, was confirmed in an initial 41 people hospitalized with the pneumonia, two-thirds of whom had direct exposure to the market. As coronaviruses (like SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV) mainly circulate among animals and with a link between the pneumonia outbreak and the market being established, it was suspected that the virus may have been passed from an animal to humans (zoonosis).  Bats were initially suggested to be the source of the virus, although it remains unclear if bats were sold there. Later studies hypothesized that pangolins may be the intermediate host of the virus originating from bats, analogous to the relationship between SARS-CoV and civets. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that pangolins are a potential reservoir host rather than the intermediate host of SARS-CoV-2. While there is scientific consensus that bats are the ultimate source of coronaviruses, SARS-CoV-2 originated from a pangolin, jumped back to bats, and then jumped to humans, according to phylogenetic analysis. Therefore, a specific population of bats is more likely to be the intermediate host for SARS-CoV-2 than a pangolin, while an evolutionary ancestor to bats was the source for general coronaviruses.  Despite the role that the market played in the pandemic, it is yet unclear whether the novel coronavirus outbreak started in the market. The earliest date for first symptoms was reported on 1 December 2019 in a person who did not have any exposure to the market or to the remaining affected 40 people. A paper from a large group of Chinese researchers from several institutions, published in \"The Lancet\", offered details about the first 41 hospitalised patients who had confirmed infections with SARS-CoV-2. Their data showed 13 of the initial 41 people found with the novel coronavirus had no link with the market, a significant figure according to infectious diseases specialist Daniel Lucey. In a later publication, \"The Lancet\" reported that of the first 99 people confirmed with COVID-19 in Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital between 1 and 20 January 2020, 49 had a history of exposure to the market. The publication nevertheless did not opine on whether the market was the origin or just a key link in the epidemic.  In an attempt to discover the origin of SARS-CoV-2, samples from the market's animals were also taken between 1 and 12 January 2020. In late January 2020, the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention revealed that the virus was found in 33 out of 585 of environmental samples taken, 31 of which came from the area of the market where wildlife was particularly found. This was another indication of the role that the market played, but its identification as the origin of the epidemic has been disputed. A review published on 24 January 2020, noted that the market was not associated with any COVID-19 cases outside of China.  In May 2020, George Gao, the director of the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, said animal samples collected from the seafood market had tested negative for the virus, indicating that the market was the site of an early superspreading event, but it was not the site of the initial outbreak.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Responses.", "content": "", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Closure.", "content": "On 1 January 2020, in response to the initial outbreak of the pneumonia cluster, the health authorities closed the market to conduct investigations, clean and disinfect the location. At the time, state-run Xinhua News Agency reported that it was being closed for renovations.  However, it was reported on 14 April 2020 that despite seemingly being closed permanently the market had in fact reopened, as well as several other wet markets in China.  A \"wet market\" is a marketplace selling fresh meat, fish, produce, and other perishable goods as distinguished from \"dry markets\" that sell durable goods such as fabric and electronics.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Ban on wild animal trade.", "content": "Chinese environmentalists, researchers and state media have called for stricter regulation of exotic animal trade in wet markets. Several Chinese scientists have called for bans on wildlife trade since 2003.  On 22 January 2020, a ban on the sale of all wild animal products in Wuhan was announced. In May 2020 the city banned eating wild animals and limited hunting and breeding of wild animals.  On 24 February 2020, the Chinese government announced that the trade and consumption of wild animals would be banned throughout China, amidst mounting domestic criticism of the industry. The ban though does not cover the consumption of wild animal products in traditional Chinese medicine, according to the \"New York Times\".", "section_level": 2}], "src_summary": "The Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market (), also known as the Huanan Seafood Market (\"Huanan\" means 'South China'), was a live animal and seafood market in Jianghan District, Wuhan, Hubei, China. The market gained media attention after being identified as a possible point of origin of the COVID-19 pandemic. The World Health Organization was notified on 31 December 2019 about an outbreak of pneumonia in Wuhan. Of the initial 41 people hospitalized with pneumonia who were officially identified as having laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection by 2 January 2020, two-thirds were exposed to the market. The market was closed on 1 January 2020 for sanitary procedures and disinfection. Thirty-three out of 585 environmental samples obtained from the market indicated evidence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), according to the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977901}
{"src_title": "Mary White Ovington", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Mary White Ovington was born April 11, 1865 in Brooklyn, New York. Her grandmother attended the Connecticut congregation of Samuel Joseph May. Her parents, members of the Unitarian Church were supporters of women's rights and had been involved in the anti-slavery movement. Educated at Packer Collegiate Institute and Radcliffe College, Ovington became involved in the campaign for civil rights in 1890 after hearing Frederick Douglass speak in a Brooklyn New York City church and a 1903 speech by Booker T. Washington at the Social Reform Club.  In 1894, Ovington met Ida B. Wells, while taking Christmas presents to Ida's sisters children. Mary was so appalled by their living conditions that she started working with Ida to force the city to update the tenements. 1895 she helped found the Greenpoint Settlement in Brooklyn. Appointed head of the project the following year, Ovington remained until 1904 when she was appointed fellow of the Greenwich House Committee on Social Investigations. Over the next five years, she studied employment and housing problems in black Manhattan. During her investigations, she met W.E.B. Du Bois and was introduced to the founding members of the Niagara Movement.  Ovington joined the Socialist Party of America in 1905, influenced by the ideas of William Morris where she met A. Philip Randolph, Floyd Dell, Max Eastman and Jack London, who argued racial problems were as much a matter of class as of race. She wrote for journals and newspapers such as \"The Masses\", \"New York Evening Post\", and the \"New York Call\". She also worked with Ray Stannard Baker and influenced the content of his book, \"Following the Color Line,\" published in 1908.  On September 3, 1908 she read an article written by Socialist William English Walling, entitled \"Race War in the North\" in \"The Independent\". Walling described a massive race riot directed at black residents in the hometown of Abraham Lincoln, Springfield, Illinois that led to seven deaths, the destruction of 40 homes and 24 businesses, and 107 indictments against rioters. Walling ended the article by calling for a powerful body of citizens to come to the aid of blacks. Ovington responded to the article by writing Walling and meeting at his apartment in New York City along with social worker Dr. Henry Moskowitz. The group decided to launch a campaign by issuing a call for a national conference on the civil and political rights of African-Americans on the centennial of Lincoln's birthday, February 12, 1909.  The National Negro Committee held its first meeting in New York on May 31 and June 1, 1909. By May, 1910 the National Negro Committee and attendants, at its second conference, organized a permanent body known as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Ovington was appointed as its executive secretary. Early members included Josephine Ruffin, Mary Talbert, Mary Church Terrell, Inez Milholland, Jane Addams, George Henry White, W.E.B. Du Bois, Charles Edward Russell, John Dewey, Charles Darrow, Lincoln Steffens, Ray Stannard Baker, Fanny Garrison Villard, Oswald Garrison Villard, and Ida B. Wells-Barnett. The following year Ovington attended the Universal Races Congress in London. Richetta Randolph Wallace, who had worked with Ovington as a secretary for several years, was hired as the first office staff at NAACP headquarters in 1912.  Ovington remained active in the struggle for women's suffrage. In 1921, she wrote to Alice Paul asking that a black woman be invited to the National Women's Party celebration of the passing of the nineteenth amendment. Ovington was also a pacifist who opposed the United States's involvement in the First World War. During the war Ovington supported A. Philip Randolph and his magazine \"The Messenger\", which campaigned for black civil rights. After the war, Ovington served the NAACP as board member, executive secretary, and chairman. She inspired other women to join the NAACP, and in so doing, made a significant contribution to the multi-cultural composition of the organization. NAACP fought a long legal battle against segregation and racial discrimination in housing, education, employment, voting, and transportation. They appealed to the Supreme Court to rule that several laws passed by Southern states were unconstitutional and won three important judgments between 1915-1923 concerning voting rights and housing.  In June 1934, Mary White Ovington gave speeches to 14 different colleges. Her goal was to show the youth that the NAACP association was made up of blacks and whites, specifically to show black youth that there were whites who hated race oppression. During her speeches, Ovington would show the geography of all the NAACP location branches and how far the association has come. \"They should know the power the race has gained\" - Mary White Ovington  The NAACP was criticised by some members of the African American community. Members of the organization were physically attacked by white racists. John R. Shillady, executive secretary of the NAACP, was badly beaten up when he visited Austin, Texas in 1919.  Ovington wrote several books and articles, including a study of black Manhattan, \"Half a Man\" (1911); \"Status of the Negro in the United States\" (1913); \"Socialism and the Feminist Movement\" (1914); an anthology for black children, \"The Upward Path\" (1919); biographical sketches of prominent African Americans, \"Portraits in Color\" (1927); an autobiography, \"Reminiscences\" (1932); and a history of the NAACP, \"The Walls Came Tumbling Down\" (1947).  Ovington retired as a board member of the NAACP in 1947, ending 38 years of service with the organization. She died on July 15, 1951. Mary White Ovington I.S.30 Middle School in Brooklyn was named in her honor. She is one of the persons named on The Extra Mile—Points of Light Volunteer Pathway National Memorial in Washington, D.C. In 2009 she was depicted on a United States postage stamp with Mary Church Terrell.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Final years.", "content": "Mary White Ovington was forced to resign from the NAACP due to poor health. In her eighties, Ovington spent her final years with her sister in Massachusetts and in 1951 died in Newton Highlands, Massachusetts, at the age of 86. Ovington also wrote novels and children's books, including \"Hazel\", which told the story of a young Boston Black girl spending a winter in Alabama at the turn of the century.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Mary White Ovington (April 11, 1865 – July 15, 1951) was an American suffragist, journalist, and co-founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977902}
{"src_title": "Hassan Bek Mosque", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "History and Construction.", "content": "The mosque was built in 1916, by Jaffa's Ottoman governor of the same name. At the time, Jaffa and the recently founded Tel-Aviv were both competitively expanding. The mosque was part of Manshiyya, Jaffa's northernmost neighbourhood which spread northwards along the Mediterranean seashore.  The governor of Jaffa who had the mosque built is named as Hassan Bey or Bek, or Hassan Bey al-Basri aljabi, حسن بيك الجابي. Hassan Bey headed Jaffa between August 1914 and May 1916.  The mosque was built on a plot of land selected and bought by Hassan Bey from its Arab owner.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "1948 war.", "content": "The mosque's minaret was often used by Arab snipers to shoot at Jewish forces in Tel Aviv and Manshiya, in the months preceding the British withdrawal.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "After the demolition of Manshiya.", "content": "The place of the razed Arab housing was taken by high-rise office buildings and a park. The Hassan Bek Mosque - spared due to the state and municipal authorities hesitating to be seen as desecrating a Muslim house of worship - remained, together with the building now housing the Irgun Museum of Tel Aviv, the last two remnants of the area's pre-1948 Manshiya neighbourhood.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Real-estate scheme of 1979.", "content": "The Hassan Bek Mosque lay derelict and neglected for many years, its empty shell used on some occasions by vagabonds and drug addicts.  In 1979, it was announced that the Jaffa Islamic Properties' Trustees had sold the mosque and its compound to real-estate developer Gershon Peres (brother of Shimon Peres, then Israeli Labor Party leader and former President of Israel) and that it was to be transformed into a shopping mall.  The disclosure aroused a storm of protests by Israeli Arabs, supported by Israeli Jewish peace and human rights groups, who claimed that the Trustees had been appointed by the Government of Israel, that they did not represent the Muslim community of Jaffa, and that they had pilfered the money from the Peres deal into their own pockets.  The outcome was that the real estate deal was cancelled and the mosque returned to the hands of the Jaffa Muslim Community.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Minaret collapse and reconstruction.", "content": "The authorities gave permission for the Jaffa Arabs to restore the minaret, using volunteer work and funds provided by the governments of Jordan and Saudi Arabia. This is considered by Jaffa Arabs an important milestone in their recovered self-awareness and assertiveness in defence of their communal rights.  The reconstructed minaret is twice as tall as the original one.  Up to the present, Jaffa Arabs maintain an ongoing presence in the renovated mosque, and prayers are held in it regularly, though it is a considerable distance from the neighbourhood where the Muslim community of Jaffa is living.", "section_level": 2}, {"title": "Description.", "content": "The Ottoman-style mosque initially measured 21 by 28 metres, was well-proportioned and fit well into the Al-Manshiya neighbourhood. It had a courtyard partially paved and in part used as a garden; the prayer hall was entered by a staircase on its northern side. In 1923 the mosque was already the object of politically motivated renovations ordered by the Supreme Muslim Council, and its overall area was substantially expanded in the 1980s.  The mosque employs a white limestone instead of using the more common stone of the area, kurkar, a yellow-brown calcareous sandstone. The walls of the mosque are perforated with intricately decorated and colourfully glazed windows. The walls are also refined by narrow engaged piers that divide the wide façades into smaller sections.  The current minaret was rebuilt at twice its original height as part of the renovation in the 1980s; extremely tall and slender, it contrasts with the square prayer hall. A very low tower rises on the opposite side of the mosque. The concrete roof is flat and proportionally low, with a shallow dome over the central bay.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "The Hassan Bek Mosque (; ), also known as the Hasan Bey Mosque, is one of the most well-known mosques of Jaffa, Israel.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977903}
{"src_title": "Princess Maria Theresia of Liechtenstein", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Biography.", "content": "Her father was Prince Hans-Adam I of Liechtenstein – who had purchased the counties of Vaduz and Schellenberg, which is now the modern state of Liechtenstein (although the first Prince to visit Vaduz did so only in 1844). Her mother, Erdmuthe Maria Theresia of Dietrichstein was the great-granddaughter of Adam von Dietrichstein (1527–1590), Hofmeister to the court of Emperor Rudolf II and buried in St Vitus Cathedral, Prague Castle.  Maria Theresia’s father had died in 1712 – and both her brothers before that.  In Vienna on 24 October 1713 Maria Theresia married Thomas Emmanuel, Count of Soissons and Governor of Antwerp (born on 8 December 1687), second son of Louis Thomas of Savoy-Carignano and his wife Uranie de La Cropte de Beauvais. They had one son, Eugenio Giovanni.  By this marriage she also became a princess of Savoy, having married into a cadet branch of the reigning dukes of Savoy. Her husband was a descendant of the princes of Carignano, which been raised by Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, into a principality as an appanage for his third son, Thomas Francis. The house of Carignano developed two junior branches, those of Soissons and Villafranca.  In 1662 the town of Yvois in the Ardennes was raised by Louis XIV of France into a duchy in his favour, its name being changed at the same time to Carignano. The famous Prince Eugene of Savoy was the second son of the first Prince of Carignano.  Prince Eugene was Thomas Emmanuel’s uncle. Eugene served under Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor – and for his leadership at the Battle of Vienna (against the Turks) in 1683 he became known as \"The Atlas of the Austrian monarchy\". In 1697, as Field Marshal and chief of Austrian armies, he defeated the forces of the Ottoman sultan, Mustafa II, at the decisive Battle of Zenta (now Senta in Serbia) in Hungary.  After her husband died in Vienna on 28 December 1729, Maria Theresia made Škvorec Castle her seat.  On 20 February 1772 Maria Theresia died in Vienna. She was a descendant of Georg Hartmann who had become Lutheran c. 1540, while her great-grandfather, Karl, a stattholder of Bohemia had found it wise to become a Catholic in 1599.  Maria Theresa’s son, Eugene Jean Francois, Count of Soissons and Duke of Troppau (born 23 September 1714; died at Mannheim on 24 November 1734) had died at only 20 years old, thus her estate passed to Franz Joseph I, Prince of Liechtenstein – great-grandson of Prince Hartmann III of Liechtenstein (1613–1686). The title of Count of Soissons became extinct with the young son’s death and was returned to the French crown.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Princess Maria Theresia of Liechtenstein (Maria Theresia Anna Felicitas; 11 May 1694 – 20 February 1772) was the heiress to the Silesian Duchy of Troppau (now Opava in Czech Republic). Countess of Soissons by marriage, she was the last person to hold the title. She had one son who predeceased her in 1734. Her son was engaged to Maria Teresa Cybo-Malaspina, duchess of Massa and heiress to the Principality of Carrara.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977904}
{"src_title": "Thomas Pelham, 2nd Earl of Chichester", "tgt_title": null, "src_document": [{"title": "Background and education.", "content": "Chichester was the eldest son of Thomas Pelham, 1st Earl of Chichester, and his wife Anne, daughter of Frederick Meinhardt Frankland. The Right Reverend George Pelham was his younger brother. He was educated at Westminster and Clare College, Cambridge.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Political career.", "content": "Chichester was surveyor-general of ordnance in Lord Rockingham's 2nd ministry (1782), and Chief Secretary for Ireland in the coalition ministry of 1783 (when he was also appointed to the Privy Council of Ireland). He represented Carrick in the Irish House of Commons from 1783 to 1790 and Clogher from 1795 to 1797. In 1795 he was sworn of the Privy Council and became Irish chief secretary under Pitt's government, retiring in 1798.  In the latter year he sat briefly for Naas before transferring to Armagh Borough, a seat he held only until the next year. He was Home Secretary from July 1801 to August 1803 under Addington, who made him Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in 1803. Pelham went out of office in 1804, and in the next year succeeded to the earldom. He was joint-Postmaster-General from 1807 to 1823, and for the remaining three years of his life Postmaster-General.", "section_level": 1}, {"title": "Family.", "content": "Lord Chichester married Lady Mary Henrietta Juliana, daughter of Francis Osborne, 5th Duke of Leeds, in 1801. They had four sons and six daughters. Their second son, the Hon. Frederick Thomas Pelham, was a naval commander, while their third son, the Right Reverend John Thomas Pelham, was Bishop of Norwich. Lord Chichester died in July 1826, aged 70, and was succeeded in his titles by his eldest son, Henry. His daughter Lady Amelia Rose married Major General Sir Joshua Jebb, the Surveyor General of Prisons and designer of Pentonville Prison, the 'Model Prison', on 5 September 1854. The Countess of Chichester died in October 1862, aged 86. His daughter, Lady Lucy Anne Pelham, married Sir David Dundas.", "section_level": 1}], "src_summary": "Thomas Pelham, 2nd Earl of Chichester PC, PC (Ire), FRS (28 April 1756 – 4 July 1826), styled The Honourable Thomas Pelham from 1768 until 1783, The Right Honourable Thomas Pelham from 1783 to 1801, and then known as Lord Pelham until 1805, was a British Whig politician. He notably held office as Home Secretary under Henry Addington from 1801 to 1803.", "tgt_summary": null, "id": 4977905}